SSBHC tTMNOLOCICAL MAP OF MODERN EUROPE ! iiii'LMn'AN ii':<n>i.K.s BASOUCS '_2 AinAN I'KOIM.KS. CELTS VATJN BRANCH fRENCH ; J SPANIAROS PORTUGUESE | IIAIIANS RAETIAN ROUMA NSORVLACWS ALBANIANS j GERMANIC BRANCH ^ZZZ GERMANS ' SCANDINAVIANS I ANGLO-SAXONS I SLAVIC BRANCH jGREAT RUSSIANS ' I 'lITiLE RUSSIANS WHITfc rtuSCIANS (POLES- - ^C^ECHS SLOVAKSANO WENOST BULGARIANS — I.SERVIANS ETC SLOVENES URAL ALTAIC OR RMNO-TATAR B UMS MAGYARS - ~ FINNICPEOPLES TURKS 4HB TARTARS KALMUCKS HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE FROM THE BEST HISTORIANS, BIOGRAPHERS, AND SPECIALISTS THEIK OWN WORDS IN A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS, AND REPRESENTING FOR BOTH READERS AND STUDENTS THE BETTER AND NEWER LITERATURE OF HISTORY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE JiNrLARNED WITH NUMEROUS HISTORICAL MAPS FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY ALAN C. REILEY IN FIVE VOLUMES VOLUME I-A TO ELBA SPRINGFIELD, ILASS. . THE C. A. NICHOLS CO., PUBLISHERS MDCCCXCV JAN 24 1974 COPTKKIHT. 1803, BY J. N. LAKNED. The Kiveritie Pteu, Cambridgr, Mais., V. 8. A- I'riDled hy U. 0. Uougbton •& Compuiy. PEEFACB. n~^IIIS work has two aims : to represent and exhibit the better Literature of History in the English language, and to give it an organized body — a system — adapted to the greatest convenience in any use, whether for reference, or for reading, for teacher, student, or casual inquirer. The entire contents of the work, with slight exceptions readily distin- guished, have been carefully culled from some thousands of books, — embrac- ing the whole range (in the English language) of standard historical writing, both general and special : the biography, the institutional and constitutional studies, the social investigations, the archeological researches, tno ecclesi- astical and religious discussions, and all other important tributaries to the great and swelling main stream of historical knowledge. It has been culled as one might pick choice fruits, careful to choose the perfect and the ripe, where such are found, and careful to keep their Havor unimpaired. The flavor of the Literature of History, in its best examples, and the ripe quality of its latest and best thought, are faithfully preserved in what aims to be the garner of a fair selection from its fruits. History as written by those, on one hand, who have depicted its scenes most vividly, and by those, on the other hand, who have searched its facts, weighed its evidences, and pondered its meanings most critically and deeply, is given in their own words. If commoner narratives are sometimes quoted, their use enters but slightly into the consii Action of the work. The whole matter is presented under an arrangement which imparts distinctness to its topics, while showing them in their sequence and in all their large relations, both national and international. For every subject, a history more complete, I think, in the broad meaning of "History," is supplied by this mode than could possibly be produced on the plan of dry synopsis which is common to encyclopedic works. It holds the charm and interest of many styles of excellence in writing, and it is read in a tuear light which shines directly from the pens thai; Lave made History luminous by their interpretations. Behind the Literature of History, which can be called so in the liner sense, lies a great body of the Documents of History, which are unattractive to the casual reader, but which even he must sometimes have an urgent wish to consult. Full and carefully chosen texts of a large number of the most famous and important of such documents — charters, edicts, proclamations, petitions, covenants, legislative acts and ordinances, and the constitutions of many countries — have been accordingly introduced and are easily to be found. The arrangement of matter in the work is primarily alphabetical, and secondarily chronological. The whole is thoroughly indexed, and the index is incorporated with the body of th? text, in the same alphabetical and chninological order. Events which touch several countries or places are treated fully but once, in the connection which shows their antec ;dents and consequences best, and the reader is guided to that ampler discussion by references from each cap- tion under which it may be sought. Economies of this character bring into the comi)ass of live volumes a body of History that would need twice the number, at least, for equal fulness on the monographic plan of encyclopedic works. Of my own, the only original writing introduced is in a general sketch of the history oi Europe, and in what I have called the '^'^ Logical Outlines''^ of a number of national histories, which are printed in colors to distinguish the influences that have been dominant in them, But the extensive boiTowing which the work represent.s has not been done in an unlicensed way. I have felt warranted, by common custom, in using moderate extracts without per- mit. But for everything beyond these, in my selections from books now in print and on sale, whether under copyrigl.it or deprived of copyright, I have sought the consent of those, authors or publishers, or both, to w'lom the right of consent or denial appears to belong. In nearly all cases I have received the most generous and friendly responses to my request, and count among my valued possessions the great volume of kindly letters of l)ermission which have come to me from authors and publishers in Great Britain and America. A more specific acknowledgment of these favox-s will be appended to this preface. The authors of books have other rights beyond their rights of property, to which respect has been paid. No liberties have been taken with the text of their writingc, except to abridge by omissions, which are indicated by the customary signs. Occasional interpolations are marked by enclosure in brackets. Abridgnumt by paraphrasing has only been resorted to when unavoidable, and is shown by the interruption of quotation marks. In the matter of different spellings, it has been more difficult to preserve for each writer his own. As a rule this is done, in names, and in the divergences between English and American orthography ; but, since muck of the matter quoted has been taken from American editions of English books, and since both copyists and printers have worked under the habit of American spell- ings, the rule may not have governed with strict consistency throughout. J. N. L. The Buffalo Libraey, ..: „-_:-: -v~^..-^.~^,.: -— k Buffalo, N. T., December, 1893. , , . , . :. ; ..■: \ <: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. IN MY preface I have acknowledged in general terms the courtesy and liberality of authors and publishers, by whose permission I liuve used much of the matter quoted in this work. I tliink it now proper to male the acknowledgment more specific by naming those persons and publishing houses to whom I am in debt for such kind permissions. They are as follows : . AUTnons. Prof. Evelyn Abbott; President Charles Kendall Adams; Prof. Herbert B. Adams; Prof. Joseph II. Alien; Sir Wil- liam Anson, Lort.; Rev. Henry M. Baird; Jlr. Hubert Howo Bancroft; Hon. S. O. \V. Benjamin; 3Ir. Walter Besant; Prof. Albert S. Bolles; John 0. Boiirinot, F. S. S.; Mr. Henry Bradley; Kev. James Franclf Bright; Daniel Q. Brlnton, M. D.; Prof. William Hand Browne; Prof. Qeorgo Brycc; Kt. Hon. James Bryco, M. P.; J. B. Bury, M. A.; Jlr, Lueien Carr; Gen. Henry B. Cirrington; Mr. Jo'm I). 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Llppiucott Company; Oldach & Co. ; Porter & Coaics. Boston : Messrs. Estcs * Lauriat; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Uttle, Brown & Co. ; D. liOthrop Company; Roberta Brothers. DxAUn : Messrs. James Duffy & Co. ; Hodges, Figgis & Co. ; J. J, Lalor. Chicai/o : .>! jssrs. Calln^hnn & Oo. ; A. C. MuClurg * Co. Cincinniili : Messrs. It<il>ert Clarke & Co.; Jones Hrolhers Publishing Co. llarlfortl. Conn.: MessrR. < >. 1). Ciwe A: Co. ; 8. S. Si:ranton & Co. Albany; Messrs. Ji>e! MunselTs Sons. Cambridge, Eng.: The University l*re«8. Norwich, Conn.: The Henry 1)111 Publishing Co. Oxford : Tlie Clarendon Press. Providence. R. I.: Messrs. J. A. •& R. A. Reld. A list of books quoted from will bo given in the final volume. I am greatly Indebted to lue remarkable kindness of a number of eminent historical scholars, who have critically c.vamined the proof slieets of important articles and improved them by their suggestions. My debt to Miss Ellen M. Chandler, for assistance given me in many ways, is more than I can describe. In my publisliiug arrangements I have been most fortunate, and I owe the good fortune very largely to a number of friends, among whom it is just that I should name Mr. Henry A. Richmond, Mr. George E. Matthews, and Mr. John CI. Milburn. There is no feature of these arraugements so satisfactory to me as that which p.aces the publication of my book in the hands of the Company of which Mr. Charles A. Nichols, of Springfield, Massachusetts, is the head. I think myself fortunate, too, in the association of my work with that of Mr. Alan C. Reiley, from whose original studies and drawings the greater part of the historical maps in these volumes bnvo been produced. J. K. Larnbd. LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS. Ethnographic map of Moflern Europe Preceding the title-page. Map of American Discovery and Settlement, To follow ])age 48 Plftn of Athens, and Harbors of Athens On page 145 Plan of Athenian house On page 163 Four development maps of Austria To follow page 196 Ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary On page 107 Four development maps of Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula, To follow page 242 Map of the Balkan and Danubian States, showing changes during the present century, On page 244 Map of Burgundy under Charles the Bold To follow page 332 Development map showing the diffusion of Christianity, To follow page 432 LOGICAL OUTLINES, IN COLORS. Athenian and Greek history To follow page 144 Austrian history To follow page 198 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. The Seventeenth Century: First half ami second half To follow page 208 To the Peloponuesian War, and Fourth and Third Centuries, B. C To follow page 166 APPENDICES TO VOLUME l. A. Notes to Ethnographic map ; by Mr. A. C. Reiley. B. Notes to four maps of Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula ; by the same. C. Notes to map of the Balkan Peninsula in the pref t century; by the same. D. Notes to map showing the diffusion of Christia \ ; by the same. E. Notes on the American Aborigines; by Major J. W. Powell and Mr. J. Owen Dorsey, of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology. F. Bibliography of America (Discovery, Exploration, Settlement, Archseology, and Ethnology), and of Austria. HISTOEY FOE EEADY EEFEEENCE. A. C. Ante Christum ; used sometimes Instead of tlie more familiar abbreviation, B. C. —Before Clirist. A. D. Anno Domini ; Tlie Year of Our Lord. See Eba, Chbistian. A. E. I. O. U. — "The famous device of Aus- tria, A. E. I. O. U., was first used by Frederic III. [1440-1493], who adopted it on his plate, books, and buildings. These initials stand for ' Austriae Est Imperaro Orbl Univcrso ' ; or, in German, 'AUes Erdreich 1st Osterreich Unter- than ' : a bold assumption for a man who ■ vas not safe in an inch of his dominions." — H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, v. 2, p. 89, foot-note. A. H. Anno Hejirae. See Era, Mahome- tan. A. M. "Anno Mundi ;" the Year of the World, or the year from the beginning of the world, according to the formerly accepted chro- nological reckoning of Archbishop Usher and others. A. U. C, OR U. C. "Ab urbe condita," from the founding of the city; or "Anno urbis Conditae," the year from tne founding of the city; the Year of Rome. See Rome: B. C. 753. AACHEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle. AARAU, Peace of (17x2). See Switzerlakd : A. D. 1052-1789. KBJE, Oracle of. See Oracles of the ABBAS I. (called The Great). Shah of Per- sia; A. D. 1582-1027.... Abba's IL, A. D. 1641-1006. . . .Abbas III., A. D. 1732-1730. ABBASSIDES, The rise, decline and fall of the. See Mahomktan Conquest, &c. : A. D. 716-750; 763; and 815-945; also Bagdad: A. D. 1258. ABBEY.— ABBOT.— ABBESS. See Mon- astery. ABDALLEES, The. See Indla: A. D. 1747-1701. ABDALMELIK, Caliph, A. D. 084-705. ABD-EL-KADER, The War of the French in Algiers with. See Barbary States : A. D. 1830-1840. ABDICATIONS. Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria. See Bulgaria: A. D. 1878-1880. Amadeo of Spain. See Spain: A. D. 1806-1878 Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. of Spain. See Spain: A. D. 1807-1808 Charles V. EmoRror. S^i Germany: A. D. 1662-1501, and Netherlands: A. D. 1655 Charles X.King of France. See France: K. D. 1815-1830 Charles Albert, King of Saiainia. See Italy: A. D. 1848-1849 Christina, Regent of Spain. See Spain : A. D. 1833-1840 Christina, Queen of Sweden. See Scandinavian States (Swe-dkn): A. D. 1644-1007 Diocletian, Emperor. See Rome : A. D. 284-a05. . . .Ferdinand, Emperor of Aus- tria. See Austria: A. D. 1848-1840. Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland. See Nbtoer- landb: A. D. 1806-1810 Louis Philippe See Fbahce: A. D. 1841-1848 Milan, King of Serria. See Servia: A. D. 1882-1889 Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil, and King of Portugal. See Portugal: A. D. 1824-1889, and Brazil: A. D. 1825-1805 Ptolemy I. of Egypt. See Macedonu, &c. : B. C. 297-280. . . . .Victor Emanuel I. See Italy: A. D. 1820- 1821 William L, King of Holland. See Netherlands: A. D. 1830-1884. ABDUL-AZIZ, Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1801-1876. ABDUL-HAMID, Turkish Sultan, A D. 1774-1789. . . . Abdul-Hamid II., 1876-. ABDUL-MEDJID, Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1839-1861. ABEL, King of Denmark, A. D. 1250- 1252. ABENCERRAGES, The. See Spain : A. D. 1238-1273, and 1476-1492. ABENSBURG, Battle oi. See Germany: A. D. 1809 (January-June). ABERCROMBIE'S CAMPAIGN IN AMERICA. See Canada (New France): A. D. 1758. ABERDEEN MINISTRY, The. See England: A. D. 1851-1852, and 1855. ABIPONES, The. See American Aborigi- nes: Pampas Tribes. ABJURATION OF HENRY IV. See France: A. D. 1591-1593. ABNAKIS, The. See American Aborigi- nes: Aloonkin Family. ABO, Treaty of (1743). See Russia: A. D. 1740-1703. ABOLITIONISM IN AMERICA, The Rise of. See Slavery, Negro: A. D. 1828- 1883; and 1840-1847. ABORIGINES, AMERICAN. See Ameri- can Aborigines. ABOUKIR, Naval B.\ittle of (or Battle of the Nile). See France. A. D. 1798 (May- August) Land-battle of (1799). See France: A. D. 1708-1799 (August- August). ABRAHAM, The Plains of. That part of the high plateau of Quebec on wLJcL the mem- oraole victory of Wolfe was won, September 13, 1759. The plain was so called "from Abraham Martin, a pilot known as Maltre Abraham, who had owned a piece of land here in the early times of the colony." — P. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, «. 2, p. 289.— For an account of the battle which gave distinction to the Plains of Abraham, see Canada (New France): A. D. 1750, (Junk — September). ABSENTEEISM IN IRELAND.— In Ire- land, "the owners of about oue-lialf the land do not live on or near their estates, while the owners of about one fourth do not live in the country. . . . Absenteeism is an old evil, and in very early times received attention from the govem- Lient. . . . Some of the disadvantages to the community arising 'rom the absence of the more wealthy and intolligent classes are apparent to every one. Unless the landlord is utterly pov- erty-stricken or very unenterprising, 'there is ABSENTEEISM IN IRELAND. ABYSSINIA. a great dcitl more going on ' wlicii lie is in the country. ... I un> convinced t!mt absenteeism is a great di.sailvantage to tlie country and the people. ... It is too nuich to attribute to it all the evils that have been set down to its charge. It is, however, an important consideration that the people regard it as a grievance; and think the twenty-live or thirty millions of dollars paid every year to these landlords, who are rarely or never in Irelaud, is a tax grievous to be borne." — I). H. King, The Irinh Quentiiiii, pp. 5-11. ABSOROKOS, OR CROWS. The. See A.MKUKWN AnoitniiNi:s: Siotjan Family. ABU-BEKR, Caliph, A. I). 033-034. ABU KLE A, Battle of (1885). See Egypt: A. 1). 1H84-IHH5. ABUL ABBAS, Caliph, A. D. 750-754. ABUNA OF ABYSSINIA. — "Since the days of Frumentius [who introd\iced Christianity into Abyssinia in the 4th century] every ortho- dox Primate of Abyssinia has been consecrated by the Coptic Patriarch of the church of Alex- andria, and has borne the title of Abuna" — or Abuna Salama, "Father of Peace." — II. M. Ilozier, "J7ie Jlritish Krpcditioii to Abyssinia, ^'aBURY, or AVE3URY.— STONE- HENGE.— CARNAC— "Tl:o numerous cir- cles of stone or of earth in Uritain and Ireland, varying in diameter from 30 or 40 feet up to 1,200, are to be viewed as temples stiinding in the closest possible relation to tne btirial-places of the dead. Tlio most imposing group of re- mains of this kind in this country [England] is that of Avcbury [Aburv], near Devizes, in Wiltshire, referred by Sir John Lubbock to a late stage in the Neolithic or 10 the beginning of the bronze period. It consists of a large circle of unworkeil upright stoucs 1,200 feet in diame- ter, surround':d by a fosse, which in turn is also surrounded by a rampart of earth. Inside arc the remains of two concentric circles of stone, and from the two entrances in the rampart proceeded long avenues Hanked by stones, one leading to Beckliami)ton, and the other to West Kennett, where it formerly ended in another double circle. Between them rises Silbury Hill, the largest artilieial mound in Great Britain, no less than 130 feet in height. This group of remains was at one time seeoiid to none, 'but unfortunately for us [says Sir John Lubbock] the pretty little village of Avcbury [Abury], like some beautiful parasite, has grown up at the expense and in the midst of the ancient temple, and out of 050 great stones, not above twenty are still standing. In spite of this it is still to be classed among the finest ruins in Europe. The famous temple of Stonehenge on So'isbury Plain is probably of a later date th;in Avebury, since not only are some of the stones used in its construction worked, but the surrounding barrows arc more ?laborate than those in the neighbourhood of the latter. It con- sisted of a circle 100 feet in diameter, of large upright blocks of sarsen stone, 12 feet 7 inches high, bearing 'niposts dovetjiiled into each other, so as to form ,v continuous architrave. Nine feet within this was a circle of small foreign stones . . . and wifhin this five great trilithons ol sursen stone, for.-aing a horse-shoe; then a licise-shoe of foreign stones, eight feet high, an(l in the centre a slab of miceceous rndstone called the altar-stone. ... At a distauce of 100 feet from the outer line a small ramp, with a ditcli outside, formed the outer circle, 300 feet in diameter, which cus a low barrow and Includes another, nd therefore is evidentlj- of later date than some of the barrows of the district. "-=-W. B. Dawkins, Jiarli/Man in Britain, c/i. 10. — "Stone- henge . . . may, i think, be regarded as a monu- ment of the Bronze Age, though apparently it was not all erected at one time, the inner circle of small, unwrought, blue stones being probably older than the rest ; as regards Abury, since tlii! stones are all in their natural condition, while those of Stonehenge arc roughly hewn, it seems reasonable to conclude that Abury is the older of the two, and belongs either to the close of the Stone Age, or to the commencement of that of Bronze. Both Abury and Stonehenge were, I believe, used as temples. Many of the stone circles, however, have been proved to be burial places. In fact, a complete burial place may be described as a dolmen, covered by a tumulus„ and surrounded by a stone circle. Often, how- ever, we have only the tumulus, sometimes only the dolmen, and sometimes again only the stone circle. The celebrated monument of Carnac, in Brittany, consists of eleven rows of unhewn stones, which differ greatly both ;i size and height, the largest being 23 feet above ground, while some are quite small. It appears that the avenues originally extended for several miles, but at present they are very imperfect, the stones hav- ing been cleared away in places for agricultural improvements. At present, therefore, there are several detached portions, which, however, hav& the same general direction, and appear to have been connected together. . . . Most of the great tumuli in Brittany probably belong to the Stone Age, and I am therefore disposed to regard Car- nac as having been erected during Jie same period." — Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Timei, eh. 5. ABYDOS. — An ancient city on the Asiatic side of tlu' Hellespont, mentioned in the Iliad as one of the towns that were in alliance with the Trojans. Originally Thracian, as is supposed, it became a colony of Miletus, and passed at different times under Persian, Athenian, Lace- diBmonian and Macedonian rule. Its site was at the narrowest point of the Hellespont — the scene of the ancient romantic story of Hero and Leondcr — nearly opposite to the town of Sestus. It was in the near neighborhood of Abydos that Xerxes built his bridge of boats; at Abydos, Alcibiades and the Athenians won an important victory over the Peloponnesians. See Greece: B. C. 480, and 411-407. ABYDCS, Tablet of.— One of the most valu- able records of Egyptian history, found in the ruins of Abydos and now preserved in the British Museum. It gives a list of kings whom liamscs II. selected from among his ancestors to pay homage to. The tablet was much mutilated when found, but another copy more perfect has been unearthed by M. Marlette, which supplies nearly all the names lacking on the first. — F. Lenormaut, Manual of Ancient Hist, of the Ea»t, V. 1, bk. 8. ABYSSINIA : Embraced in ancienr. Ethio- pia. See Ethiopia. Fourth Century. — Conversion to Christi- anity. — "What'iver may have been the effect proifuccd in bis native country by the conver- sion of Queen Candace's treasurer, recorded in the Acts of the Apostles [ch, YIII.], it would ABYSSIXIA, FOURTH CENTURY. ABYSSINIA, 15Tn-10TH CENTURIES. ftppoar to linve been transitory ; andtheEtbio- piiiii or Abyssiniiin church owes its origin to an expedition made early in tlie fonrtli century by Meropius, a philosop'lier of Tyre, lor the pur- pose of scientilic inijuiry. On liis voyage liomc- ■wards. lie and liis companions were attaclied at a phice where tliey liad landed in search of water, and all were massacred except two youths, ./Edesius and Frumontius, the relatives and pui)ils of Meropius. These were carried to the king of the country, who advanced iEdesius to be liis cup-bearer, and Frumontius to be his cecretary and treasurer. On the death of the king, who left a boy as his heir, the two strangers, at the request of the widowed queen, acted as regents of the kingdom until the prince came of age. yEdesius then returned to Tyre, where he became a presJiyter. Frumentius, who, with the help of such Christian traders as visited the country, had already introduced the Christian doctrine and worship into Abyssinia, repaired to Alexandria, related his story to Atlianasius, and . . . Atlianasius . . . con- secrated him to the bishoprick of Axum [the capital of the Abyssinain kingdom]. The church thus foimded continues to this day subject to the see of Alexandria." — J. C. Robertson, flift. of the ClirUiiitii, Church, bk. 3, ch. 0. 6th to i6th Centuries. — Wars in Arabia. — Struggle with the Mahometans. — Isolation from the Christian world, — "The fate of the Christian cliurch among the Homerites in Arabia Felix afforded an opportunity for the Abyssin- ians, under the reigns of the Emperors Just'n and Justinian, to show their zeal in behalf of the cause of the Christians. Tlie prince of that Arabian population, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was a zealous adherent of Judaism; and, under pre- text of avenging the oppressions which his fellow-believers were obliged to suffer in the Roman empire, he caused the Christian mer- chants v.ho came from that quarter and visited Arabia lor the purposes of trade, or passed through the country to Abyssinia, to be mur- dered. Elesbaan, the Christian king of Abys- sinia, made this a cause for declaring war on the Arabian prince. Ho conquered Dsunovas, de- prived him of the government, and set up a Christiai;, by the name of Abraham, ns king in his stead. But at the death of the latter, which happened soon after, Dsunovas again made him- self master of the throne ; and it was a natural consequence of what he had suffered, that he now became a fiercer nnd more crufi persecutor than he was before. . . . Upon this, Elesbaan interfered once mort-, under the reign of the emperor Justinian, who stimulated him to the undertaking. He made a second expedition lo Arabia Felix, and was again victorious. Dsunovas lost his life in the war; the Abys- sinian prince put an end to the ancient, in- dependent empire of the Homerites, and estab- lished a new government favourable to the Christians."— A. Neander, General History of the Christian licligion and Church, second period, sect. 1. — "In the year 593, as nearly as can be C(dculated from the dates given by the native writers, the Persians, whose power seems to have kept pace with the decline of the Roman empire, sent a great force against the Abyssin- ians, possessed themselves onco more of Arabia, acquired a naval superiority in the gulf, and secured the principal ports on either side of it. It is uncertain how long these conquerors re- tained their acquisition; but, in all pre' ability their ascendancy gave way to Jie rising gre.it- ness of the Jlahometan power; winch soon afterwards overwhelmed all the nations ron- tigtious to Arabia, spread to the remotest parts of the East, and even penetrated the African deserts from Egypt to the Congo. Meanwhile Abyssinia, though within two hundred miles of the walls of Jfecca, remained unconqiiered and true to the Christian faith; presenting a mor- tifying and galling object to the more zealous followers of the Prophet. On this accoiuit, implacable and incessant wars ravaged her terri- tories. . . . She lost her commerce, saw her conse- quence annihilated, her capital threatened, and the richest of her provinces laid waste. . . . There is reoson to apprehend that she miist shortly have sunk under the pressure of repeated in- vasions, had not the Portuguese arrived [in the iOtb century] at a seasonable moment to aid her endeavours rgainst the Jloslem chiefs." — M. Russell, Nubia and ^-iiji/ssinin, ch. 3. — "When Nubia, which intervenes between Egypt and Abyssinia, ceased to be a Christiiui country, owing to the destruction of its church by the ^Mahometans, the Al)yssinian church was cut off from communication with the rest of Christen- dom. . . . They [tho Abyssinians] remain an almost unique specimen of a semi-barbarous Christian people. Their worship is strangely mixed with Jewish customs."— H. F. Tozer, The Church and the Eastern Empire, ch. 5. Fifteenth-Nineteenth Cer-turies. — European Attempts at Intercourse. — Intrusion of the Gallas. — Intestine conflicts. — "About the mid- dle of tlie 15th century, Abyssinia car.ie in con- tact with AVestern Europe. An Abyssinian con- vent WIS endowed at Rome, and legates were sent from the Abyssinian convent at Jerusalem to the council of Florence. These adhered to the Greek schism. But from tliat time the Church of Rome made an impress upon Ethiopia. . . . Prince Henry of Portugal . . . next opened up communication witli Europe. He hoped to open up a route from the West to the East coast of Africa [see Poktuoal; A. D. 1415-1460], by which the East Indies might be reached with- out touching MahometJin territory. During his efforts to discover sucli a passage to India, and to destroy the revenues derived by the Moors from the spice trade, be sent an ambassador named Covillan to the Court of Shoa. Covillan was not suffered to return by Alexander, the then Negoos [or Negus, or Nagash — tho title of the Abyssinian sovereign]. He married nobly, and acquired rich possessions in the country. He kept up correspondence with Portugal, and urged Prince Henry to diligently continue his efforts to discover the Southern passage to the East. In 1498 the Portuguese effected the circuit of Africa. The Turks shortly afterwards extended their con- quests towards India, where they were bauikcd by the Portuguese, but they established a post and a toll at Zcyla, on the African coast. From here they hampered and threatened to destroy the trade of Abyssinia," antl soon, in alliance with the Mahometan tribes of the coost, invaded the country. ' ' They were defeated by the Negoos David, and at tho same time tho Turkish town of Zeyla was stormed and burned by a Portuguese fleet." .Considerable intimacy of friendly rela- tions was maintained for some time between the ABYSSINIA, 15Tn-10TII CENTURIES. ABYSSINIA, 1854-1880. Abys.sinians and tlio Portugui.'sc, who (i.ssi.stcd in defending tlicin iigiiinst tlio Turks. "In the middle of the Hith ccntiirv ...» migration of Oallas camr fnnii the Souti. and swept up to and over tlie eimlines of Abyssinia. Men of ligliter ooiiiplexi(m and fairer sl<in tlian most Africans, they were Pagan in religion :;nd savages in cus- toms. Notwitlistanding frecjuent efforts to dis- lodge tliem, tliey diave (irmly established them- .selves. A large colony has planted itself on the baiiUs of the Upper Takkazie, tlie Jidda and the Hashilo. Since their establishment here they have for tlie most part embraced the creed of Mahomet. The province of Slioa is but an out- lier of Cliristian Aby.s.sinia, separated completely from co-religionist districts by these Galla bands. About the same time the Turks took a firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by the coast, -"vhich had hitherto been ruled by the Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islainism and heath- enism surrounded Abyssinia, where the lamp of Christianity faintly glimmered amidst dark superstition in the deep recesses of rugged val- leys." In 1)558 a Jesuit mission arrived in the country and estjiblished itself at Fremona. ' ' For nearly a century FrcmoLa existed, and its super- iors were the trusted advisors of the Ethiopian throne. . . . But the same fate which fell upon the company of Jesus in more civilized lands, pursued it m the wilds of Africa. The Jesuit missionaries were universally popular with the Negoos, but the prejudice of the people refused to recognise the benefits which llowed from Fre- L'.ona." Persecution befell the fathew, and two of them won the crown of martyrdom. The Negoos, Facilidas, "sent for a Coptic Abuna [ecclesiastical primate] from Alexandria, and con- cluded a treaty with the Turkish governors of Massowah and Souakin to prevent the passage of Europeans into his dominions. Some Capuchin preachers, who attempted to evade this treaty and enter Abyssinia, met witli cruel deaths. Facilidas thus completed the work of the Turks and the Gallaa, and shut Abyssinia out from European influence and civilization. . . . After the expulsion of the Jesuits, Abyssinia was torn by internal feuds and constantly harassed by the encrocchments of and wars with the Gallas. Anarchy and confusion ruled supreme. Towns and villages were burnt down, and the inhabi- tants sold into slavery. . . . Towards the middle of the 18th century the Gallas appear to have •ncreased considerably in power. In the intes- tine quarrels of Abyssinia their alliance was courted by each side, and in their couniiy politi- cal refugees obtained a secure asylum." During the early years of the present century, the cam- jjaigns m Egypt attracted English attention to the Red Sea. "In 1804 Lord Valeutia, the Viceroy of India, sent his Secretary, Mr. Salt, into Abyssinia;" but Mr. Salt was unable to penetrate beyond Tigre. In 1810 he attempted a second mission and again failed. It was not until 1848 that English attempts to open diplo- matic and commercial relations with Abyssinia became successful. Mr. Plowden was appointed consular agent, and negotiated a treaty of com- merce with Ras Ali, the ruling Galla chief." — H. M. Hozier, The British Expedition to Aby»- linia, Introd. A. D. 185^-1889.— Advent of KinrTheodore. — His English captives and the Expedition which released th^m. — "Consul Plowden had been residing six years at Massowah when he heard that the Prince to whom he had been ac- credited, Ras Ali, had been defeated and de- throned by an adventurer, whose name, a few years before, had been unknown outside the boundaries of his native province. This was Lij Kfisa, better known by his adopted name of Theodore. He was born of an old family, in the mountainous region of Kwara, where the land begins to slope downwards towards the Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where he learned to read, and acquired a considerable knowl- edge of the Scriptures. Kftsa's convent life was suddenly put an end to, when one of those ma- rauding Galla bands, whose ravages are the curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the monastery. From that time he himself took to the life of a freebooter. . . . Adventurers flocked to his standard ; his power continually increased ; and in 1854 he defeated Ras Ali in a pitched bat- tle, and made himself master of central Abys- sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tigr6. "He now resolved to assume a title coramen- surate with the wide extent of his dominion. In the church of Derczgye he had himself crowned by the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, taking the name of Theodore, because an ancient tradition declared that a great monarch would some day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowden now visited the new monarch, was impressed with admiration of his talents and character, and be- came his counsellor and friend. But in 1860 the English consul lost his life, while on a journey, and Theodore, embittered by several mis- fortunes, began to give rein to a savage temper. "The British Government, on hearing of the death of Plowden, immediately replaced him at Massowah by the appointment of Captain Cam- eron. " The new Consul was well received, and was entrusted by the Abyssinian King with a letter addressed to the Queen of England, solicit- ing her friendship. The letter, duly despatched to its destination, was pigeon-holed in the Foreign Offlce at London, and no reply to it was ever made. Insulted and enraged by this treatment, and by other evidences of the indifference of the British Government to nis overtures, King Theo- dore, in January, 1864, seized and imprisoned Consul Cameron with all his suite. About the same time he was still further offended by certain passages in a book on Abyssinia that had been published by a missionary named Stem. Stem and a fellow missionary, Rosenthal with the latter's ^ife, were lodged in prison, and sub- jected to flogging and torture. The first step taken by the British Government, when news of Consul Cameron's imprisonment reached Eng- land, was to send out a regular mission to Abys- sinia, bearing a letter signed by the Queen, de- manding the release of the Captives. The mission, headed by a Syrian named Rassam, made its way to the King's presence in January, 1866. Theo- dore seemed to be placated by the Queen's epistle and promised freedom to his prisoners. But soon his moody mind became flllcd with suspicions as to the genuineness of Rassam's credentials from the Queen, and as to the designs and intentions of all the foreigners who were in his power. He was drinking heavily at the time, and the result of his "drunken cogitations was a determination to detain the mission — at any rate until by their means he should have obtained a supply of skilled artisans and machinery from England." Mr. ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889. ACH.«AN CITIES. Rnssam and his companions were accordingly I put into conflnement, as Captain Cnmoron had been. But tliey were allowed to send a mes- senger to England, making tlieir situation Ijnown, and conveying the demand of King Theodore lliat a man be sent to hinl "wlio can maiie can- nons and muskets. " The demand was actually 'complied -with. Six skilled artisans and a civd engineer were sent out, together with a quantity of machinery and otlier presents, in the hope that they would procure the release of the unfortunate captives at Magdala. Almost a year was wasted in these futile proceedings, and it was not until Beptemlicr, 1867, that an expedition consisting of 4,000 British and 8,000 native troops, under Gen- eral Sir Robert Napier, was sent from India to bring the insensate barbarian to terms. It landed in Annesley Bay, and, overcoming cmormous difBcultics with regard to water, food-supplies and tiansportation, was ready, about the middle of January, 1868, to start upon its march to the fortress of Magdala, where Theodore's prisoners were confined. The distance was 400 miles, and several high ranges of mountains liad to bo passed to reach the interior table-land. The invading army mot with no resistance until it reached the Valley of the Beshilo, when it was attacked (April 10) on the plain of Aroge or Arogi, by the whole force which Tlieodore was able to muster, numbering a few thousands, only, of poorly armed men. The battle was simply a rapid slaughtering of the barbaric assailants, and when tUey fled, leaving 700 or800 dead and 1,500 wounded on the field, the Abyssinian King had no power of resistance left. He offered at once to make peace, surrendering all the captives in his hands; but Sir Robert Napier required an unconditional submission, with a view to displac- ing hira from the throne, in accordance with the wish and expectation which he had found to be general in the country. Theotlore refused these t<;rms, and when (April 13) Magdala was bombarded and stormed by the British troops — slight resistance being made — he shot himself at the moment of their entrance to the place. The sovereignty he had successfully concentrated in himself for a time was again divided. Between April and June the English army was entirely withdrawn, and " Abyssinia was Be.iled up again from intercourse with the outer world." — Qtii- lell'a Illunlratcd Ilht. of Eny., v. 9, ch. 28.— "The task of permanently uniting Abyssinia, in which Theodore failed, proved equally impracticable to John, who came to the front, in the first instance, as an ally of the British, and afterwards suc- ceeded to the sovereignty. By his fall (10th March, 1889) in the unhappy war against the Dervishes or Moslem zealots of the Soudan, the path was cleared for Jlenilek of Shoa, who en- joyed the support of Italy. The establishment of the Italians on the Red Sea littnrid . . . promises a new era for Abyssinia. "—T. NOldeke, ISketchcs from Eastern Hint., ch. 9. Also in II. A. Stern, The Captive Missionary. —II. M. Stanley, Coomassie and Magdala, pt. 2. - — ♦— — ACABA, the Pledges of. See Mahometan Conquest : A. D. 600-0:(2. ACADEMY, The Athenian.— " The Aca- demia, a public garden in the neighbourhood of Athens, was the favourite resort of Plato, and gave its name to the school \, ,iich Iw. founded. I'his garden was plant<'d with lofty plane-trees. and adorned with temples and statues ; a gentle stream rolled through it." — G. H. Lewes, Biog. Jlist. of Philosophy, Qth Ejweh. — The masters of the great schools of philosopy at Athens "chose for their lectures and discussions the public buildings which were called gymnasia, of which there were several in different quarters of the city. They could only use them by the sufferance of the State, which had built them chiefly for bodily exercises and athletic feats. . . . Before long several of the schools drew themselves apart in s])ccial buildings, and even took their most familiar names, such as the Lyceum and the Academy, from the gynmasia in which they made themselves at home. Gradually we find the traces of some material provisions, which helped to define and to perpetuate the different sects. Plato had a little garden, close by the sacred Eleusinian Way, in the shady groves of the Academy, which he bought, says Plutarch, for some 3,000 drachma;. There lived also his successors, Xenocratcs and Polemon. . . . Aris- totle, as we know, in later life had taught in the Lyceum, in the rich grounds near the Ilissus, and there lie probably possessed the house and garden which after his death came into the hands of his successor, Theophrastus. " — W. W. Capes, University life in Ancient Athens, pp. 81-33. — For a description of the Academy, the Lyceum, and other gymnasia of Athens, see Gysinasia GitEEK. — Concerning the suppression of the Academy, see Athens: A. D. 539. ACADIA. See Nova Scotia. ACADIANS, The, and the British Gov- ernment. — Their expulsion. See Nova Scotia : A. D. 1713-1730; 1749-1755, and 1755. ACARNANIANS. Bee Akarn.vnianb. ACAWOIOS, The. See Ameuican Abori- gines: Caribs and tiieiu Kindred. ACCAD.— ACCADIANS. See Babylonia, Primitive. ACCOLADE.— "The concluding sign of being dubbed or adopted into the order of knighthood was a slight blow given by the lord to the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the body, the neck, whereon it was struck. . . . Many writers have imagined that the accolade was the last blow which the sol- dier might receive with impunity : but this in- terpretation is not correct, for the squire was as jealous of his honour as the knight. The origin of the accolade it is irapos.sible to trace, but it was clearly considered symbolical of the religious and moral duties of knighthood, and was the only ceremony used when knights were made in places (the field of battle, for instance), where time and circumstances did not allow of many ceremonies." — C. Mills, Hist, of Chivalry, v. 1, ;). 53, and foot-iiote. ACHiEAN CITIES, LeaguR of the.— This, which is not to be confounded with the " Achaian League " of Pcloponiie.us, was an early League of the Greek settlements in southern Italy, or Magna Grari, It was " composed of the towns of Siris, Pandosia, Metabus or Metajiontum, Sybaris with its offsets Posidonia and Laus, Croton, Caulonia, Temesa, Tcrina and Pyxiis. . . . The language of Polybius regarding the Achtean symmachy in the Peloponnesus may be applied also to these Italian Achinins ; ' not only dill they live in federal and friendly communion, but they made use of tlie same laws, and the same weights, measures and coins, as well as of ACII^AN CITIES. ACHKIDA. the same mngistriitcs, counrillnrs mid judges.' " — T. Momiiiscn, Hint, of Itome, bk. 1, ch. 10. ACHiEAN LEAGUE. Sec Guekce: B. C. 280-146. ACHiEMENIDS, The.— TIic family or dy- nastic name (in its Ureel< form) of tlie kings of the Persian Enijjire founded by Cyrus, derived from an ancestor, Acliipmcnos, wlio was probably a cliief of tlie Persian tribe of tlic Pasargada>. "In tlie inscription of Rehistun, King Darius Bays: 'From old time wc were kings; eight of my family linve been kings, I nm the ninth; from very ancient times we liave been kings.' He enumerates liis ancestors: 'My father was Vista^pa, the father of Vista9pa was Arsama; the father of Arsama was Ariyaramna, the father of Ariyaramna was Khaispis, the father of Khais- pis was Ilakhamauis; lience we are called Ilak- hamanisiya(Acha>menids). ' In these words Darius gives the tree of his own family up to Khaispis; this was the younger branch of the Aclite- mcnids. Teispes, the son of Achaemenes, had two sons; the elder was Cambyses (Kambujiya) the younger Ariamnes; the son of Cambysea was Cyrus (Kurus), the son of Cyrus was Cambyses II. Hence Darius could indeed maintain that eight princes of his family had preceded him ; but it was not correct to maintain that they liad been kings before him and that ho was the ninth king. " — M. Duncker, Ilut. of Antiquity, v. 5, bk. 8, ell. 3. Also in O. Rawlinson, Family of th' Acfus- menidm, app. to bk. 7 of Herodotus. — See, also, PeUBIA, ANCffiNT. ACHAIA. — " Crossing the river Larissus, and pursuing the northern coast of Peloponnesus south of the Corinthian Gulf, the traveller would pass into Achaia — a name which designated the narrow strip of level land, and the projecting spurs and declivities between that gulf and the northernmost mountains of the peninsula. . . . Achaean cities — twelve in number at least. If not more — divided this long strip of land amongst them, from the mouth of the Larissus and the northwestern Capo Ara.xus on one side, to the western boundary of the Bikyon territory on the other. According to the accounts of the ancient legends and the belief of Herodotus, this terri- tory had been once occupied by Ionian Inhabit- ants, whom the Achaeans had e.xpcUed." — G. Grote, IlUt. of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 4 (c. 2).— After the Roman conquest and the suppression of the Achaian League, the name Acliaia was given to the Roman province then organized, wliich embraced all Greece south of Macedonia and Epirus.— See Guefxe: B. C. 280-140.— "In the Homeric poems, where . . . the 'Hellenes' only appear in one district of Soutliern Tliessaly, the name Achivans is employed by jircference as a general appelation for the whole race. But the Achieans we niav term, without hesitation, a Pclasgian people, in so far, that is, as wo use this name merely as the opposite of tho terra 'Hellenes,' wliich prevailed at a later t'nie, although it is true tliat the Hellenes thems.lves wore nothing more than a particular branch of the Pclasgian stock. . . . [The name of the] Achreans, after it had dropped its earlier and more universal application, was preserved as the special name of a population dwelling in the north dt the Peloponneso and the south of Tliessaly." — G. F. SchCmann, Antiq. of Greece: Tlie Stale, Int. — "The ancients regarded them [the Achtcansl as a branch of the .^olians, viith whom they afterwards reunited into one national bod V, i. e. , not as an originally distinct nationality or mdependent branch of tho Greek people. Accordingly, we hear npitlier of an Acha;an lan- guage nor of Achffian art. A manifest and decided influence of the maritime Greeks, wherever the Aclia>ans appear, is common to the latter with the yEolians. Achirans are everywhere settled on tho coast, and are always regarded as jiar- ticularly near relations of tho lonians. . . . 1 he Achoeans appear scattered about in localities on the coast of the iEgean so remote from one another, that it is impossible to consider all bear- ing this name as fragments of a people originally united in one social community; nor do they in fact anywhere appear, properly speaking, as a popular body, as the main stock of tho population, but rather as eminent families, from which spring heroes ; hence tho use of tho expres- sion ' Sons of tho Achreans ' to indicate noble de- scent." — E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, bk. 1, ch. 3. Also in M. Duncker, Hist, of Greece, bk. 1, ch. 2, and bk. 2, ch. 2. — See, also, Achaia, and Greece : The Miohatioss. A. D. 1205-1387. — Mediaeval Principality. — Among tho conquests of the French and Lombard Crusaders in Greece, after tho taking of Constantinople, was that of a major part of the Peloponnesus — then beginning to be called the Morea — by William do Champlitte, a French Itnight, assisted by GeflErey de Villehardouin, tho younger — nephew and namesake of the Marshal of Cliampagno, who was chronicler of the conquest of the Empire of the East. William de Champlitte was invested with this Principality of Achaia, or of tlie Morea, as it is variously stj'led. Qcflrcy Villehardouin represented him in the government, as his "bailly,"for a time, and finally succeeded in supplanting him. Half a century later the Greeks, who had recovered Constantinople, reduced the territory of the Principality of Achaia to about half the penin- sula, and a destructive war was waged between the two races. Subsequently the Principality, became a fief of the crown of Naples and Sicily, and underwent many changes of possession until the title was in confusion and dispute between the houses of Anjou, Aragon and Savoy. Before it was engulfed finally in the Empire of the Turks, it was ruined by their piracies and ravages. — O. Finlay, Hist, of Greece jFrom its Conquest by the Crusaders, ch. 8. ACHMET I., Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1003- 1017. . . . Achmet II., 1691-1005. . . . Achme* III., 1703-1730. ACHRADINA.— A part of tho nncLnt city of Syracuse, Sicily, known as the " outer city, occupying the peninsula north of Ortygia, the island, which was the " inner city." ACHRIDA, Kingdom of.— After the death of John Zimisces wlio had reunited Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians wore roused to a struggle for the recovery of their independ- ence, under the lead of four brothers of a noble familv all of whom soon perished save one, nan.od Samuel. Samuel proved to be so vigor- ous and able a soldier and had so much success that ho assumed presently the title of king. His authority was established over the greater part of Bulgaria, and extended into Macedonia, Epirus and Illyria. He established his capital ACHRIDA. ACT OF SETTLEMENT. at Achrida (modern Ochrida, in Albania), wliich gave its name to liis liingdom. Tlie suppression of tliis new Bulgarian monarchy occupied the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II., in wars from 981 until 1018, wlien its last strongholds, including the city of Achrida, were surrendered to him.— O. Finlay, Ilitt. of the Byzantine Empire from 716 to 1057, hk. 2, ch. 3, sect. 3. ACKERMAN, Convention of (1826). See Turks: A. D. 1826-1829. ACOLAHUS, The. See Mexico, Ancient: The Toi.tkc EMrmi;. ACOLYTH, The. Sec Varangian or War- Djo Guard. ACRABA, Battle of, A. D. 633.— After the death of Mahomet, his successor, Abu Bekr, had to deal witli several serious revolts, the most threatening of which was niised by one Mosei- lama, who had pretended, even in the life-time of the Prophet, to a rival mission of religion. The decisive battle between the followers of Mosei- lama and those of Mahomet was fought at Acraba, near Yemama. The pretender was slain and few ■of his army escaped. — Sir W. Muir, Annals of the Early Caliphate, ch. 7. ACRABATTENE, Battle of.— A sanguinary defeat of the Idiimcans or Edomites by the Jews under Judas Maccabajus, B. C. 164. — Josephus, Antig. of the Jews, bk. 13, ch. 8. ACRAGAS. See Aorioentum. ACRE (St. Jean d'Acre, or Ptolemais) : A. O. 1 104. — Conquest, Pillage and Massacre by the Crusaders and Genoese. See Crusades: A. D. 1104-1111. A. D. 1 187.— Taken from the Christians by Saladin. See .Jerusalem: A. D. 1149-1187. A. D. 1 1 89-119 1. — The great siege and recon- quest by the Crusaders. Sec Crusades: A. D. 1188-1103. r A. D. 1256-1257.— Quarrels and battles be- tween the Genoese and Venetians. See Venice: A. D. 1256-1357. A. D. 1291.— The Final triumph of the Moslems. See Jerubalesi: A. D. 1291. i8th Century.— Restored to Importance by Sheik Daher.— "Acre, or St. Jean d'Acre, celebrated under this name in the history of the Crusades, and in antiquity known by the •name of Ptolemais, had, by the middle of the 18th century, been almost entirely forsaken, when SUcik T^iher, the Arab rebel, restored its commerce and navigation. Tliis able prince, whoso sway comprehended the whole of ancient Galilee, was succeeded by tlic infamous tyrant, Djezzar-Pasha, who fortified Acre, and adorned it with a mosque, enriched with columns of antique marble, collected from all the neighbour- ing cities."— M. Malte-Brun, System of Univ. Oeog., bk. 28 {v. 1). A. D. 1790.— Unsuccessful Siege by Bona- parte. See France : A. D. 1798-1799 (August — August). A. D. 1831-1840.- Siege and Capture by Mehemed Ali.— Recovery for the Sultan by the Western Powers. Sec Turks: A. D. 1831-1840. ACROCERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See KoRKViiA. ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS, The.-" A road which, by running zigzag up the slope was rendered practicable for chariots, led from the lower city to the Acropolis, on the edge of the platform of which stood the Propylaea, erected by the architect Mne.sicles in five years, during the administration of Pericles. ... On entering through the gates of the Propylica a scene of unparalled grandeur and l)ciiiity burst upon the eye. No trace of human dwellings anywhere appeared, but on all sides temples of more or less elevation, of Pentclic marble, beautiful in design and exquisitely delicate in execution, sparkled lilce piles of alaba.ster in the .sun. On the left stood the Erectheion, or fane of Athena Polias; to the right, that matchless edilicc known as the Ilecatompcdon of old, but to later ages as the Parthenon. Other buildings, nllhoh to the eye of an Athenim, lay grouped around idesc ma.ster structures, and, in tlie open spaces lictwcen, in whatever direction the spectator mighi 'lok, ap- peared statues, some remarkable for tlic.i- dimen- sions, others for their beauty, and all for the legendary sanctity which si-.rrounded them. No city of the ancient or modern world ever rivalled Athens in the riches of art. Our best filled mu- seums, thougli teeming witli her spoils, are poor collections of fragments compared with that assemblage of gods and heroes which peopled the Ac-opolis, tlie genuine Olympos of the arts." — J. A. St. John, The Hellenes, bk. 1, ch. 4.— "Nothing in ancient Greece or Italy could be compared witli the Acropolis of Athens, in its combination of beauty and grandeur, surrounded as it was by temples and theatres among its rocks, and encircled by a city abounding with monuments, some of which rivalled those of the Acropolis. Its platform formed one great sanctuary, partitioned only bv the boundaries of the . . . sacred portions. We cannot, there- fore, admit the suggestion of Chandler, that, in addition to the temples and other monuments on the summit, there were houses divided into regu- lar streets. Tliis would not have been consonant either with the customs or the good taste of the Athenians. When the people of Attica crowded into Athens at the beginning of the Peloponne- sianwar, and religious prejudices gave way, in every po.ssible case, to the necessities of the occa- sion, even then the Acropolis remained unin- habited. . . . Tlie western end of the Acropolis, which furnished llie only access to the summit of the hill, w.as one hundred and sixty eight feet in breadth, an opening so narrow that it appeared practicable to the artists of Pericles to fill up the space with a single building which should serve tlie purpose of a gateway to the citadel, as well as of a suitable entrance to that glorious dis- play of architecture and sculpture which was witliin tlie inclosure. This work [the Propy- Ia;a], the greatest production of civil archi- tecture in Atliens, wliich rivalled the Parthenon in felicity of execution, surpassed it in bold- ness and originality of design. ... It may be defined as a wall pierced with five doors, be- fore which on both sides were Doric hexastyle porticoes." — W. M. Leake, Tojiography of Athens, sect. 8. — See, also, Attica. ACT OF ABJURATION, The. See Neth- erlands: A. D. 1577-1581. ACT OF MEDIATION, The. Sec Swit- zerland: A. D. 180i!-1848. ACT OF SECURITY. See Scotland: A. D. 1703-1704. ACT OF SETTLEMENT (English). See Enql.\nd: a. D. 1701. ACT OF SETTLEMENT (Irish). See Ireland: A. D. 1660-1665. ACT RESCISSORY. ADULLAM1TE8. ACT RESCISSORY. See Scotlajjd; A. I). ifl«n-l«00. ACTIUM : B. C. 4^4.— Naval Battle of the Greeks.— A defeat inllictcd upon the Corinthians by the C'orcyriuns, in the contest over Epidaninus wliich was the prelude to the Peloponnesian War.— E. Curtius, Hint, of O recce, bk. 4, ch. 1. B. C. 31.— The Victory of Octavius. See Homk: H. C. 31. ACTS OF SUPREMACY. See Sui-re- MACY, Acts of; and England: A. D. 1527- 1534 ; and 1559. ACTS OF UNIFORMITY. See England: A. U. 1559 and 1003-1065. ACULCO, Battle of (1810). See Mexico: A. 1). 1810-1810. ACZ, Battle of (1849), See Austria, A. D. 1848-1849. ADALOALDUS, King of the] Lombards, A. D. 616-620. ADAMS, John, in the American Revolu- tion. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1774 CMay— June); 1774 (September); 1775 (May- August); 1776 (January— June), 1776 (July). .... In diplomatic service. See United States ofAm. : A. D. 1783{.VriiiL); 1792 (September— November) Presidential election and ad- ministration. See United States op Am., A. D. 1790-1801. ADAMS, John Quincy. — Negotiation of the Treaty of Ghent. See United States of Am., A. D. 1814 (December). ,. .Presidential elec- tion and administration. Sec United States OF Am., a. D. 1824-1829. ADAMS, Samuel, in and after the American Revolution. See United States of A.m. : A.D. 1772-1773; 1774 (September) ; 1775 (May); 1787-1780. ADDA, Battle of the (A. D. 490). See Rome: A. D. 488-526. AD DECIMUS, Battle of (A. D. 533). See Vandals: A. D. 533-534. ADEL. — ADALING. — ATHEL. — "The homestead of the original settler, his house, farm-buildings and enclosure, ' the toft and croft, ' with the share of arable and appurtenant common rights, bore among the northern nations [early Teutonic] the name of Odal, or Edhel ; the primi- tive mother village was an Athclby, or Athel- ham; the owner was an Athelbonde: the same word Add or Athcl signified also nobility of descent, and an Adaling was a nobleman. Prim- itive nobility and primitive landownership thus bore the same name. " — W. Stubbs, Comt. Uist. of Eng., ch. 3, sect. 24. — See, also, Alod, and Ethel. ADELAIDE, The founding and naming of. See Australia: A. D. 1800-1840. ADELANTADOS.— ADELANTAMIEN- TOS. — " Adeluntumientos was an early term for gubernatorial districts [in Spanish Amer- ica, the governors bearing the title of Adelanta- dosl, generally of undefined limits, to be ex- tended by further conquests." — II. II. Bancroft, IIi.it. of the Pacific States, v. (.V&rtVo, v. 3), ;;. 520. ADEODATUS II., Pope, A. D. 672-670. ADIABENE. — A name which came to bo ap- plied anciently to the tract of country east of the middle Tigris, embracing what was originally the proper territory of Assyria, together with Arbelitis. Under the Parthian monarchy it formed a tributary kingdom, much disputed between Parthia and Armenia. It was seized several times by the Romans, but never perma- nently held. — O. Ituwlinson, tlixth Oreat Oriental Monarchy, p. 140. ADIRONDACKS, The. See American AuoRKiiNES: Adirondackb. AOIS, Battle of (B. C. 256). See Pumio War, The First. ADITES, The.— "The Cushites, the first In- habitants of Arabia, uro known in the national traditions by the name of Adites, from their progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham." — F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient Hist., bk. 7, ch. 3. — See Arabia: The ancient suc- cession and fusion of races. ADJUTAT0R« See England: A. D. 1647 (April — August). ADLIYAH, The. See Islam. ADOLPH (of Nassau), King of Germany, A. D. 1291-1298. ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, King of Sweden, A. D. 1751-1771. ADOPTIONISM. — A doctrine, condemned as heretical in the eighth century, which taught that "Christ, as to his human nature, was not truly the Son of God, but only His son by adop- tion. " The dogma is also known as the Felician heresy, from a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was prominent among its supporters. Charlemagne took active measures to suppress the heresy. — J. I. Mombert, Uist. of Charles the Oreat, bk. 2, eh. 18. ADRIA, Proposed Kingdom of. See Italy: A. D. 1343-1389, ADRIAN VI., Pope, A. D. 1622-1528. ADRI ANOPLE. — HADRIANOPLE. —A city in Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian and designated by his name. It was the scene of Constantine's victory over Licinius in A. D. 323 (se%RoME: A. D. 805-323), and of the de- feat and death of Valens in battle with the Goths (see Goths (Visigoths) ; A. D. 878). In 1361 it became for some years the capital of the Turks in Europe (see Turks: A. D. 1360-1389). It was occupied by the Russians in 1829, and again in 1878 (sec Turks: A. D. 1826-1820, and A. D. 1877-1878), and gave its name to the Treaty negotiated in 1829 between Russia and the Porte (see Greece: A. D. 1821-1829). ADRIATIC, The Wedding of the. See Venice: A. D. 1177, and 14th Century. ADRUMETUM. See Carthage, The Do- minion OF. ADUATUCI, The. See Belq^. ADULLAM, Cave of.— When David had been cast out by the Philistines, among whom he sought refuge from the enmity of Saul, "his first retreat was the Cave of AduUam, probably the large cavern not far from Be'.hlehem, now called Khureitun. From its vicinity to Bethle- hem, he was joined there by his whole family, now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's fury. . . . Besides these were outlaws from every part, including doubtless some of the original Canaanites — of whom the name of one at least has been preserved, Ahimclech the Hittite. In the vast columnar halls and arched chambers of this subterranean palace, all who had any grudge against the existing system gathered round the hero of the coming age." — Dean Stanley, Lect's on the Hist, of the Jemtih Church, lect. 23. ADULLAMITES, The. Sec Enol.and: A. D. 1865-1868. ,. - ^. . . AD WALTON MOOI{. ^OLIANS. ADWALTON MOOR, Battle of (A. D. 1643).— This was a battle fought near Bradforrl, June 29, 1643, in the great English Civil War. The Parliamentary forces, under Lord Fairfax, were routed by the Koyalists, under Newcastle. — C. R. Markhara, Life of the Oreat Lord Fair- fix, eh. 11. .£AKIDS (^adds).— The supposed de- scendants of the demi-god ^akus, whose grand- son was Achilles. (See Myumidons.) Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, and Pyrrhus, the warrior King of Epirus, were among those claiming to belong to the royal race of ^akids. iEDHILIWG. See Ethel. >EDILES, Roman. See Rome: B. C. 49-1-493. iEDUI.-ARVERNI.— ALLOBROGES.— "The two most powerful nations in Gallia were the ^dui [or Hsedui] and the Arverni. The .^dui occupied that part which lies between the upper valley of the Loire and the Saone, which river was part of the boundary between them and the Scquani. The Loire separated the iEdui from the Bituriges, whose chief town was Avaricum on the site of Bourges. At this time [B. C. 121] the Arverni, tlie rivals of the .^dui, were seek- ing the supremacy in Gallia. The Arverni occu- pied the mountamous country of Auvergne in the centre of France and the fertile valley of the Elavor (Allier) nearly as far as the junction of the Allier and the Loire. . . . They were on friendly terms with the Allobroge::, a powerful nation east of the Rhone, who occupied the country between the Rhone and the Isara (Isfire). ... In order to break the rorr.iidable combination of the Arverni and the Allobroges, the Romans made use of the ^dui, who were the enemies both of the Allo- broges and the Arverni. ... A treaty was made either at this time or somewhat earlier between the .^dui and the Roman senate, who conferred on their new Gallic friends the honourable ti*le of brothers and kinsmen. This fraternizing was a piece of political cant which the Romans prac- ticed when it was useful." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman liepublic, v. 1, eh. 21. — See, also, Gaiii.8. .£G.£. See Edessa (Macedonia). yEGATIAN ISLES, Naval Battle of the (B. C. 241). See Punic Wau, The Fiust. iEGEAN, The.— "The iEgean, or White Seo, ... as distinguished from the Euxinc." — E. a. Freeman, Ilistorical Oeog. of Europe, p. 413, and foot-note. iEGIALEA. — iEGIALEANS.— The orig- inal name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and its Inhabitants. See Greece : The Mioua- Ti:.»is. «GIKOREIS. SeePiiTL/E. .^GINA.— A small rocky island in the Sar- onic gulf, between Attica and Argolis. First colonized by Achaans it was afterwards occu- pied by Dorians (seo Greece: The Migrations) and was unfriendly to Athens. During the sixth century B. C. it rose to great power and commercial importance, and became for it time the most brilliant center of Greek art. At the period of the Persian war, ^gina was " tlie first maritime power in Greece." But the -lEginetans were at that time engaged in war with Athens, as the allies of Thebes, and rather than forego tlielr enmity, they offered submission to the Persian king. The Athenians thereupon appealed to Sparta, as the liead of Greece, to Interfere, and the ^ginetans were compelled to 8 five hostages to Athens for their fidelity to the lellenie cause. (See Guekce: B. C. 493-491.) They purged themselves to a great extent of their intended treason by the extraordinaiy valor with which they fought at Saloniis. But the sudden pre-eminence to wliich Athens rose cast a bligliting shadow upon ^Igina, and in 429 B. C. it lost its independence, the Athenians taking possession of tlicir discomfited rival. — C. Thirl- wall, Hist, of Greece, r. 1, ch. 14. Also in G. Orotc, lliat. of Greece, pt. 2, r. 4, ch. 38.— See, also, Athens: B. C. 489-480. B. C. 458-456.— Alliance with Corinth in war with Athens and Megara. — Defeat and subjugation. See Gukece: B. (!. 4.')H-156. B. C. 431.— Expulsion of the lEginetans from their island by the Athenians. — Their settlement at Thyrea. See Greece: B. C. 431-429. B. C. 210.— Desolation by the Romans. — The first appearance of the Uonians in Greece, when they entered the country as the ollies of the .iEtolians, was signalized by the barbarous destruction of .(Egina. The city having been taken, B. C. 210, its entire population was reduced to slavery by the Romans and the lund and buildings of the city were sold to Attains, king of Pergamus.— E. A. Freeman, Hist, of FederM Govt., ch. 8, sect. 2. ♦ iEGINETAN TALENT. See Talent. iEGITIUM, Battle of (B. C. 436).— A re- verse experienced by tlie Athenian General, Demosthenes, in his invasion of .^tolia, during the Peloponnesian War. — Thucydides, Historff, bk. 3, sect. 97. .£GOSPOTAMI (Aigospotamoi), Battle of. See Greece: B. C. 405. yGLFRED. See Alfred. .£LIA CAPITOLINA.— The new name fiven to Jerusalem by Hadrian. See Jews: .. D. 130-134. .fiLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS, The.— " The yElian and Fuflan laws (leges yElia and Fufla) the age of which unfortunately we can- not accurately determine . . . enacted that a popular assembly [at Rome] might bo dissolved, or, in other words, the acceptance of any pro- posed law prevented, if a magistrate announced to the president of tlie assembly that it was his intention to choose the same time for watching the heavens. Such an announcement (obnunti- atio) was held to bo a sufllcient cause for inter- rupting an assembly." — AV. Ihne, Ilist. of Rome, bk. 6, ch. 10. .(EMILIAN WAY, The.— "M. .Emilius licpidus, Consul for the year 180 B. C. . . . con- ! i-ucted the great road which bore his name, t he ^milian Way led from Ariminum through the new colony of Bononia to Placentia, being a continuation of the Flaminian Way, or great north road, made by C. Flaminius in 220 B, C. from Rome to Ariminum. At the same epoch, Flaminius the son, being the colleague of Lepi- dus, made a branch road from Bononia across the Appcnines to Arrctium." — IL G. Liddell, Hist, of Home, bk. 5, cti. 41. iEMILIANUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 253. iEOLIANS, The.— "The collective stock of Greek nationalities falls, according to the view of those ancient writers who laboured most to obtain an exact knowledge of ethnographic relationships, into three main divisions, ^olians. ^OLIANS. iETOLIAN LEAGUE. Dorians and Inniuns. . . . All thcotlier inliabit- iintrt of Greece (not Dorians unii lonians] and of till! iHluuds included in it, are comprised under thecommon niunc of /Kolians — a name unknown as yet to Houier, und wliich was iicontestnbly applied to u t^rvai diversity of peoples, amon); which it is certain that no such homogeneity of race is to be assumed as existed among the loni- ans and Dorians. Among the two former races, though even these were scarcely in any quarter completely unmixed, there was incontestably to be found a single original stock, to which others had merely been attached, and as it were engrafted, whereas, among the i)eoples assigned to the .Eolians, no such original stock is recog- nizable, but on the contrary, as great a diiTer- cuce is found between the several members of this race as bctw en Dorians and lonians, and of tlie so-called .Eolians, some stood nearer to the former, others to the latter. ... A thorough and careful investigation might well lead to the conclusion that the Greek people was divided not into three, Ijut into two main races, one of which wo may call Ionian, theotlier Dorian, while of the so-called vEolians some, and probably the greater number, belonged to *ie former, the rest to the latter."— G. F. SchO- man, Antii]. of Orcece : The State, pt. 1, eh. 2. — In Greek myth., .lEolus, the fancied progenitor of the yEolians, apijcrs as one of the three sons of Ilellen. "vEolus is represented as having reigned in Thessaly: liis seven sons were Kre- theus, Sisyphus, Atham&s, Salmoueus, Dcion, Magnes and Perieres : his live daughters, Canace, Alcyone, Peisidike, C'alyce and Perniede. The fables of this race seem to be distii'guisbed by a constant introduction of the God Poseidon, as well as by an unusual prevalence of liaughty and Ercsumptuous attributes tmong the Jiolid croes, leading them to affront the gods by pre- tences of equality, and sometimes even by defi- ance." — G. Grote, Hist, of Grace, pt. 1, ch. 6. — See, also, Tiie8s.\lv, Dorians and Ignians, and Asia JIinou: The Greek Colonies. .^QUIANS, The. ScoOscans; alsoLAi'iCM; and KcME ; B. C. 45b. iERARIANS. — Romu.n citiixns who had no political rights. Sec Cf.S8o:i8, Roman. iERARIUM, The. See 1<. -sous. iESOPUS INDIANS. See Amebic.vn Abo- BiQiNEs: Ai.(»)nqi;ian Family. .ffiSTII, or iESTYI, The.— " At tiiis point [beyond the SuionesJ the Suevlc Sea [the Baltic], on its eastern shore, washes the tribes of the .^stii, whose rites and fashions and styles of dress are tUose of the Suevi, while their language is more Ike the British. They worship the mother of the gods and wear as a religious sym- bol the de\ >ce of a wild boar. . . . They often use clubs, iron weapons but seldom. They are more patient in cultivating corn and other pro- duce than might be expected from the general indolence of the Germans. But they also search the deep and aro the only people who gather amber, which they call glcsura." — "The ^Estii occupied that part of Prussia which is to the north-east of the Vistula. . . . The name still survives in the form Estonia." — Tacitus, Ger- many, trans, by Church and Brodribb, with note. — See, also, Prussian Language, The OLD. .^SYMNETjE, An.— Among the Greeks, an expedient "which seems to have been tried not unfrcquently in early times, for preserving or restoring tranquility, was to invest an indi- vidual witli absolute jjower, imder a peculiar title, which soon became obsolete: that of a's^mneta;. At Cunia, indeed, and in other cities, | this was the title of an ordinary magistracy, prob- ably of that whicli succeeded the hereditary mon- archy; but when applied to an extraordinary odlce, it was equivalent to the title of jjrotector or dictator." — C. Thirlwall, Hut. of Greece, ch. 10. iETHEL.— iETHELIKG. 8co Rtuel, and Adel. iETHELBERT, iETHEi-^RITH, ETC. See Etiiki.iiekt, etc. iETOLIA.— iETOLIANS. — ".i:tolia, the country of Diomed, though famous in the early times, fell back during the migratory period almost into a savage condition, probably through the influx into it of an Illyrian population which became only partially Hellenizecl. The nation was divided into numerous tribes, among which the most iinportant were the Apodoti, the Ophi- oneis, the Eurytanes and the Agrirans. There were scarcely any cities, village life being pre- ferred universally. ... It waS not till the wars which arose among Alexander's successors that the ./Etolians formed a real political union, and became an important power in Greece." — Q. Rawlinson, Manual of Ancient Jlist., bk. 8. — See also, Akarnanians, and Greece: Tiik Miora- v TIONB. iETOLIAN LEAGUE, The.— "The Acha- ian and the iEtolian Leagues, had their constitu- tions been written down in the sluqie of a formal document, would have presented but few vori- cties of importance. The same general fonn of government prevailed in both ; each was federal, each was democratic; each had its popular as- sembly, its smaller Senate, its general with large powers at the head of all. The differences be- tween the two are merely those differences of detail which will always arise between any two political systems of which neither is slavishly copied from the other. ... If therefore federal states or democratic states, or aristocratic states, were nccessarilj' weak or strong, peaceful or aggressive, honest or dishonest, we shculd see Achaia and .lEtolia both exhibiting the same moral characteristics. But history tells another ' tale. The political conduct of the Achaian League, with some mistakes and some faults, is, j on the whole, highly Iionourable. The political ' conduct of the .lEtolian League is, throughout ^ the century in which we know it best [last half of third and first half of second century B. C.] almost ahyays simply infamous. . . . The coun- ',, scls of the .iEtolian League were throughout di- -■'. rccted to mere plunder, or, at most, to selfish political aggrandisement. " — E. A. Freeman, Jliat. of Federal Govt., ch. 0. — The plundering aggres- t liious of the iEtolians involved them in continual I '.var with their Greek kindred and neighbours, "^ and they did not scruple to seek foreign aid. It ; ^vas through their agcncj' that the Romans were ;' first brought into Greece, and it was by their -r instrumentality that Antiochus fought his battle >■ vi'ith Korae on the sacrcdest of all Hellenic soil. In the end, B. C. 189, the League was stripped I'y the Romans of even its nominal independence and sank into a contemptible servitude. — E. A. Freeman, The name, ch. 7-9. Also in C. Thirlwall. Hist, of Greece, ch. 63-66. 10 AFGHANISTAN, J. C. 880. AFGHANISTAN. 1803-1888. AFGHANISTAN: B. C. 330.— Conauest by Alexander the Great.— Founding of Herat and Candahar. Sec Mackdonta, J;c. : U. ('. 830-»2a; niid India: B. C. 827-312. B. C. 301-346.— In the Syrin Empire. Sec Sbleucid^-; nnd Mackdonia, Ac . 810-301 nml after. A. D. 990-1183.— The Ghaznevide Empire. Sco Turks: A. D. 000-1183; niul India: A. D. 077-1200. A. D. 13th Century.— Conquests of j n, .iS- Khan. Sec M(.soolh: A. I). lir)3-12-,'V ; nml India: A. D. 077-1200. A. D. 1380-1386.— Conquest by Timour. See Ti.MOUU. A. D. 1504.— Conquest by Babar. See In- dia: A. I). 1309-1005. A. D. 1723. — Mahmoud's conquest of Persia. ScoPkhsia: A. I>. 1409-1887. A. D. 1737-1738.— Conquest by Nadir Shah. See India: A. I). 1002-1748. A. D. 1747-1761.— The Empire of the Door- anie, Ahmed Abdallee. — His Conquests in India. Sec India. A. D. 1717-1701. A. D. 1803-1838.— Shah Soojah and Dost Mahomed.— English interference.-" Sliiih Soo- jiih-ool 3Ioolk, u grandson of the illustrious Ahmed Shuh, reigned in Afglmuistnn from 1803 till 1800. His youth had been full of trouble nnd vicissitude. He hud been a wnnderer, on the verge of starvation, a pedlar, nnd a bun- dit, who raised money by plundering caravans. His courage wns lightly reputed, nnd it was ns a mere creature of circumstance that lie reached the throne. His reign was perturbed, and in 1809 he was a fugitive and nn e.xile. Uunject Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjaub, defrauded liim of tlie famous Koli-i-noor, which is now tlie most precious of the crown jewels of England, and plundered and impri.soned the fallen man. Shall Sooiali at length escaped from Lahore. After further misfortunes he at length reached tlie British frontier station of Loodinnah, and in 1816 became a pensioner of the Ea.st India Company. After the downfall of Siiah Soojah, Afghanistan fnr many years wns a prey "to anarchv. At Icngtli in 1820, Dost Ma- iionied succeeded in making himself supreme at Cabul, nnd this mnsterful man thenceforward held swuy \intil his death in 1803, uninterrupt- edly save during the three years of the British occupation. Dost jVIahonied wns neither kith nor kin to the legitimate dynasty which he displaced. Ilis father Poyudnh Khun was an able statesman and gallant soldier. He left twenty-one sons, of whom Futteh Klian was the eldest, and Dost Mahomed one of the youngest. . . . Throughout his long reign Dost JIahomed was a strong and wise rider. His youth had been neglected and dissolute. His education was defective, and he had been addicted to wine. Once seated on the throne, the reformation of our Henry V. was not more thorough than was that of Dost Mahomed. He taught himself to read and write, studied the Koran, became scrupulously abstemious, assidu- ousin ■(fairs, no longer truculent, but courteous. . . . ThcTs was a tine rugged honesty in his nature, and a streak of genuine chivalry; not- withstanding the despite lie suffered at our liands, he had a real regard for the English, and his loyalty to us was broken only by his armed support of the Siklis in the second Punjaub war. The fallen Shah Soojah, from hisa.sylum in Loo<linnnli, wascontiniin'Iy intrigu- ing for his restoration. His schemes were long inoperative, and it was not until 1H32 that cer- tain arrangements w«'re entered into between him and the JMahuraja Uunject Singh. To nn application on Shuh Soojnh's part for counte- nance and pecuniary aid, the Anglo-Indian Oov- ernmcnt replied that to afford liim assistance would be Inconsistent with the policy of neutral- ity which the Government hiid imposed onilself; l)ut it unwisely contributed linancially toward his undertaking by granting him four months' pension in ailvance. Si.xtcen thousand rupees formed a scant war fund willi which to attempt the recovery of a Ihnme, but the Khali started on his errand in Fel)riiary, 1833. After a success- ful contest with the Aineersof Scinde, he mnrched on Candahar, and besieged that fortress. Cauda- liar was in e.vtremity when Dost >Iahomed, hurrying from Cabul, relieved it, nnd joining forces with its defenders, he defeated and routed Shah Soojnh, who lied precipitately, leaving be- hind him his artillery and camp equipage. Dur- ing the Dost's absence in tlie south, Runjeet Singh's troops crossed the Attock, occupied the Afghan province of Peshawui", and drove the Afghans into the Kiiyber Pass. No subsequent efforts on Dosi, Mahomed's jiart availed to expel the Sikhs from Peshawur, and suspicious of British connivance with Runjeet Singh's success- ful aggression, he took into consideration the policy of fortifying himself by a counter alliance with Persia. As for Shah Soojah, he had crept back to his refuge ntLoodianah. Lord Auckland succeeded Lord William Bentinck as Qovcriior- Genera' of India in March, 1830. In reply to Dost Jlaliomed's letter of congratulation, his lordship wrote: 'You are aware that it is not the practice of tlie Briti.sh Government to inter- fere with the affairs of other independent States;' nn abstention whicli Lord Auckland was soon to violate. He had brought from England the feel- ing of disquietude in regard to the designs of Persia and Russia which tlio communications of our envoy in Persia had fostered in the Home Government, but it would appear that he was wholly undecided what lino of action to pursue. 'Swayed,' says Duraiid, 'by tlie vague appre- hensions of a remote danger entertained by others ratlier than him.self,* he despatched to Afghanistan Ca])tain Burnes on a nominally commercial mission, wliicli, in fact, was one of political discovery, but without definite instruc- tions. Burnes, an able but rasli nnd ambitious man, reached Cabul in September, 1837; two months before th Persian army began tlie siege of Herat. . . . The Dost m.ide no concealment to Burnes of liis approaches to Persia and Rus- sia, in despair of British good olllccs, and being hungry for assistance from any source to meet tlie encroachments of the Siklip, ho professed himself ready to abandon his negotiations with tlie vestern powers if he were given reason to expect countenance and assistance at tlie hands of the Anglo-Indian Government. . . . Tlie situ- ation of Burm^s in relation to the Dost was pres- ently complicated by the arrival at Cabul of a Russian officer claiming to be nn envoy from the Czar, whose credentials, however, were regarded as dubious, and who, if tliat circumstance has tlie least weight, wns on his return to Russia ut- terly repudiated by Count Ncsselrode. The Dost took small account of this emissary, con- n AFOIIANIHTAN, 1808-1888. AFGHANISTAN, 18!W-1842. tinning to niutiin^ HiirncH Hint lie cared for no connection except nitli tlie Knjtllsli, and Hunics profeHHcd to liis (i.)vernnient his fullest con- lldence in tlie Hlncerily of tliow- declarations. Hill tlie tone of Lord A\ickliinds reply, ad<lreg8ed to the Dost, was so dletatoriul und supercilious us to indicate the writer's intention that it should give olTence. It had that efTect, and Humes' nii.sslon at once hecanie hopeless. . . . The Uus- sian envoy, who was profuse in his promises of everylhlni; whi<li the Dost was most anxious to obtain, was received into favour and treated with distiiicliou, and on his return journey he efTectcd a treaty with the Candahar chiefs which was presently ratified by the Hus.sian minister at the Persian "t'ourt. Ihirncs, fallen Into discredit at C;at>ul, (pntted that place in August 1838. He had not been discreet, Init it was not his indis- <'rction that l)rouKht about the failure of his mission. A nefarious transactimi, which Kayu denounces witli the passion of a just indignation, connects itself with Humes' negotiations with the Dost ; his oflleial correspondence was imscru- puloiisly mutilated and garbled in the published lllue Hook witii delil)erate purpose to deceive the British inibllc. Humes had failed beciuse, since he bad (juitted India for Cabul, Lord Auckland's jjolicy had gradually altered. Lord Auckland bad landed in India in tlic character of a man of jicace. Tlnit, so late aa .'ipril 1837, lie had no design of obstructing tlie existing situation in Afgliani.staii is proved by his writ- ten statement of that date, thai ' the liritish (lovernment had resolved decidedly to discourage the proseiMition by the ex-king iSliah Soojah-ool- Moolk, so long as he may renvdn under our pro- tection, of further schemes of liostility against the chiefs now in power in Cabul and Candahar.' Yet, in the following June, he concluded a treaty which sent Shah Soojah to Cabul, escorted liy Hritisli baj-onets. Of this inconsistency no ex- planation presents itself. It was a far cry from our frontier on the '.iutlcj to Herat in the con- fines of Central Asl't — a distance of more tlian 1,200 miles, over some of the most arduous marching ground in the known world. . . . Lord William B'.'iitinck, Lord Auckland's prede- cessor, denounjcd the project as an act of in- credible folly. Slaniuis Wellesley regarded ' this wild expedition into a distant region of rocks and dcerts, of sands and ice and snow,' as an act of inf itualiou. Tlie Duke of Wellington pronounced with prophetic sagacity, tliat the consequence of once crossing the Indus to settle a govenrment in Afghanistan would be a peren- niui march into tliat country."— A. Forbes, The Afghan Wars, ch. 1. Also in: J. P. Ferricr, Hut. of the Afghans, eh. 10-20.— Jlohan Lai, Life of Amir Dost Mo- hammed Khan, v. 1. A. D. 1838-1842. — English invasion, and restoration of Soojah Dowlah.— The revolt at Cabul. — Horrors of the British retreat.— Destruction of the entire army, save one man, only.— Sale's defence of Jellalabad.— "To ap- proach Afghanistan it was necessary to secure the friondshii) of the Sikhs, who were, indeed, ready enough to join against their old enemies; and a threefold treaty was contracted between Runiect Singh, the Lnglish, and Shah Soojah for the restoration of tlie banished house. 'The expedition — which according to tlie original intention was to have been carried out chiefly by means of troops in the pay r>f Slioh Soojali and tlie Hikhs — rapidly grew into an Knglish invasion of .Vfgnanist in. A considrralile force was gathered on the Sikh frontier from Bengal ; a second army, under OeniTal Keane, was to come up from Ivurrachee through HiiKili. Both of these armies, and the triHips of Shah Soojah, were to enter the high- lands of Afglianist:in by the liolan Pass. As the Sikhs would not willingly allow the free passage of our troops throiigli their country, an additional burden was laid upon the armies, — the independent Ameers of Sindh had to bo coerced. At lengtli, with much trouble from the diftlcuities of the country and the loss of the commissariat animals, the forces were all col- lected under the command of Kcane beyond the passes. The want of food permitted of no delay ; the army pushed on to C'andahar. Shah Hoojali was declared Monarch of the southern Princi- pality. Thence the troops moved rapidly on- wanls towards the more iniiKirtant and ditlicult conquest of Cabul. Ghuznee, a fortress of great strength, lay in the way. In their hasty movements the Knglish had left their battering train behind, but the gates of the fortress were blown in with gunpowder, and by a brilliant feat of arms the fortress was stomied. Nor did the English army encounter any important resistance subsc()uently. Dost Moliamcd found his followers deserting him, and withdrew north- wards into the mountains of the Hindoo Koosh. With all the splendour that could be collected. Shah Soojah was brought back to his throne in the Bala Hissar, the fortress Palace of Cabul. . . . For the moment the policy seemed thor- oughly successful. The English Ministry could feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its Hussian rival, and no one dreamt of tlic terrible retribution that was in store for the unjust vio- lence done to the feelings of a people. . . . Dost Moliamcd thought it prudent to surrender himself to the English envoy, Sir William Mac- naghten, and to withdraw with his family to the English provinces of Iliudostan [November, 1840]. He was tliere well received and treutJid with liberality; for, as both the Governor- General and his chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he had not in fact in any way ollended us, but had fallen a victim to our policy. It was in the full belief that their policy in India hod been crowned witii pemianent success that the Whig Ministers withdrew from oftice, leaving their successors to encounter tlic terrible results to wliicli it led. For while the Englisli offlcials were blindly con- gratulating themselves upon the happy comple- tion of their enterprise, to an observant eve signs of approaching difflculty were on all sicfes visible. . . . The removal of the 'itrong rule of the Barrukzyes opened a door for undeflaed hopes to many of the other families and tribes. The whole country was full of intrigues and of diplomatic bargaining, carried on by the Eng- lish political agents with the various chiefs and leaders. But they soon found that the hopes excited by these negotiations were illu- sory. The allowances for which they had bar- gained were reduced, for the English envoy began to be disquieted at the vast expenses of the Government. They did not find that they derived any advantages from the establishment of the new puppet King, Soojah Dowlah; and every Mahomedan, even the very king himself. 12 AFUIIAN18TAK, 1838-1842. AFOnANISTiV>, 1838-1843. felt (Usprnccd at the predominance of the Eng- lUli Inlhlils. Hut as no actual Insurrection brolti! out, Macnaglitcn, a niun ot sanguino temperament and anxious to ImjIIcvo wliat ho wislied, in spite of unini8tal<al)Ie warnings as to the real feeling of tlio people, clung witli almost angry veliemence to the persuasion that all was going well, and tliat the new King had a real hold upon the people's affection. So completely had he deceived hims<;lf on this point, tliat ho had decided to send back a portion of the Kng- llsh army, under General Sale, into Ilindostan. He even intended to accompany it himself to enjoy the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay, with whicli his successful policy had been rewarded, llis place was to bo taken by Sir Alexander Humes, whose view of the t -^ubled condition of tlic country underlying the com- parative calm of the surface was much truer than that of Macnaghten, but who, perhaps from that very fact, was far less popular among the ciiiefs. The army whicli was to remain at Candahar was under tlie command of General Nott, an oble and decided if somewhat irascible man. But General Elphinstone, tlio commander of the troops at Cabul, was of quite a different stamp. lie was much respected and liked for his honourpblo clmracter and ..jiol qualiticH, but was advanced in years, a confirmed invalid, and wliolly wanting in the vigour and decision which his critical position was likely to require. The fool's paradise with which the English Envoy had surrounded himself was rudely destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the frequently recurring disturbances, and especially the insurrection of the Qhilzyes between Cabul and Jcllfllabad, were mere local outbreaks. But In fact a great conspiracy was on foot in which the chiefs of nearly everv Important tribe in the country were implicated. On the evening of the 1st of November [1841] a meeting of the chiefs was held, and It was decided that an immediate attack should be made on the house of Sir Alexander Burnes. Tlie following morn- ing an angry crowd of assailants stormed the houses of Sir Alexander Humes and Captain Johnson, murdering the inmates, and rifling the treasure-chests belonging to Soojah Dowlali's army. Soon the whole city was in wild insur- rection. The evidence is nearly irresistible that a little deci' ' ^n and rapidity of action on the part of tb" .nil ary would have at once cru.^ lied the outb ' ak. "'ut although the attack on Burn'"' blouse wd • known, no troops were sent to ;: s assistance. Indeed, that unbroken course of folly,and mismanagement which marked the conduct of our military affairs throughout this crisis had already begun. Instead of occupying the fortress of the Bala Hissar, where the army would have been in comparative security, Elphinstone had placed his troops In canton- ments far too extensive to be properly defended, Furrounded by an entrenchment of the most insignificant character, commanded on almost all sides by higher ground. To complete the unfitness of the position, the commissariat supplies were not stored within the canton- ments, but were placed in an isolated fort at some little distance. An ill-sustained and futile assault was made upon the town on the 3d of Kovember, but from that time onwards the British troops lay with incomprehensible supine- ness awaiting their fate in their defenceless position. Tlio commis-sariat fort soon fell into till) hands of the enemy and rendered their situ- ation still more deplorable. Some flushes of liravery now and tlien lighted up the sombre scene of helpless misfortune, and Berved to show that destruction miglit oven yet have been averted I'v a little firmness. . . . Hut the com- mander had already begun to despair, and before many days had jias.sed he was thinking of mak- ing terms with the en<'my. iMaenughten had no course open to him under such circumstances but to adopt the suggestion of the general, and attempt as well us he could by bribes, cajolery, and intrigue, to divide the ''hiefs and secure a safe retreat for the English. Akbar Khan, tlio son of Dost Jlohamed, though not present at the beginning of the insurrection, had arrived from the northern mountains, an;', at once as.sertcd a predominant influence in the insurgent councils. With him and with the other insurgent cliic.'fs Macnaghten entered into an arrrangement by wliich ho promised to withdraw the English entirely from the country if a safe pas.sago were secured for the army through the passes. . . . While ostensibly treating with the Barrukzyo chiefs, he intrigued on all sides with the rival tribes. His double dealing was taken advantage of by Akbar Khan, ile sent ni'jssengers to Mac- naghten proposing that the English should make a separate treaty with himself and support him with their troops in an as.sault upon some of his rivals. The proposition was a mere trap, and the envoy fell into it. Ordering troops to be got ready, he hurried to a meeting with Akbar to complete the arrangement. There he found hiniself in the presence of the brother and rela- tives of the very men against whom he was plotting, and was seized and murdered by Akbur's own hand [December 23]. Still the General thought of nothing but surrender. The negotiations were entrusted to Major Pottingcr. The terms of the chiefs gradually rose, and at length with much confusion the wretched army marched out of the cantonmenis [January 6, 1843], leaving beliind nearly all tho cannon and superfluous military stores. An A'ghan escort to secure the safety of the troops or, ihoir peril- ous journey had been promised, but vhe promise was not kept. The horrors of the retreat form one of the darkest passages in English militarv' history. In bitter cold and snow, which took all life out of the wretched Sepoys, without proper clothing or shelter, and hampered by a disorderly mass of thousands of camp-followers, the army entered the terrible defiles which lie between Cabul and Jellalabad. Whether Akbar Khan could, had he wished it, have restrained his fanatical followers is uncertain. As a fict the retiring crowd — it can scarcely be called an army — was a mere unresisting prey to the assaults of the mountaineers. Constant com- munication was kept up with Akbar; on the third day all the ladies and children with the married men were placed in his hands, and finally even the two generals gave themselves up as hostages, always in the hope that the rem- nant of the army might be allowed to escape. " — J. P. Bright, Hist, of Sngland, v. 4, pp. 01-66.— "Then the march of the army, without a gen- eral, went on agf.in. Soon it became the story of a general without an army ; before very long there was neither general nor army. It is idle to lengthen a tale of mere horrors. The strag- 18 AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1849. AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869. gling rcm.:ant of an army enterfid the Jugdulluk Pass — a dark, steep, narrow, ascending patli between crags. The miserable toilers found that the fanatical, implacable tribes had barri- caded the pass. All was over. The army of Cabul was tinally extinguished In that barri- caded pass. It was a trap; the British were taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped from the scene of actual slaughter, and were on the rof.d to Jellalabad, where Sale and his little army were holding their own. When they were within sixteen miles of Jellalabad the number was reduced to six. Of these six five were killed by straggling marauders on the way. One man alone reached Jellalabad to tell the tale. Literally one man, Dr. Brydon, came to Jellalabad [Ja"nuary 13] out of a moving host which had numbered in all some 10,000 'when it set out on its march. The curious eye will search through history or fiction in vain for any picture more thrilling with the suggestions of an awful catastrophe than that of this solitary survivor, faint and reeling on his jaded horse, as he appeared under the walls of Jellalabad, to bear the tidings of our Thermopylae of pain and shame. This is the crisis of the story. With this at least the worst of the pain and shamo were destined to end. Dho rest is all, so far as we are concerned, reaction and recovery. Our successes are common enough ; we may tell their tale briefly in this instance. The garrison at Jellalabad had received before Dr. Brydon's ar- rival an intimation that they were to go out and march toward India in accordance with the terms of the treaty extorto'' ^rom Elphinstone at Cabul. They very properly declined to bo bound by a treaty which, as Qeueral Sale rightly conjec- tured, had been 'forced from our envoy and military commander with the knives at their throats. ' General Sale's determination was clefir and simple. ' I propose to hold this place on the part of Government until I receive its order to the contrarir.' This resolve of Sale's Tvas really the turning point of the history. Sale held Jellalabad ; Nolt was ut Candahar. Akbar Khan besieged Jellalabad. Nature seemed to have declared herself emphatically on his side, for a succession of earthquake shocks shattered the walls of the place, and produced more terrible destruction than the most formidable guns of modern warfare could have done. But the garrison held out fearlessly; they restored the parapets, re-established every battery, re- trenched the whole of the gates and built up all the breaches. They resisted everv attempt of Akbar Khan to advance upon their works, and at length, when it became certain that General Pollock was forcing the Khyber Pass to come to their relief, they determined to attack Akbar Khan's army; they issued boldly out of their forts, forced a battle on the Afghan chief, and completely defeat-xl him. Before Pollock, hav- ing gallantly fought his way through the Khyber Pass, had reached Jellalabad [April 16] the beleaguering army had been entirely defeated and t"",persed. . . . Jleanwhile the unfortunate Shah doojah, whom we had restored with so much pomp of announcement to the throne of his ancestors, was dead. He was assassinated in Cabul, siwn n^ter the departure of the British, . . . and hk bot'y, fltripped of its royal robes ond its many jewels, was flung into a ditch."— J. McCarthy, /fiat, ofourmen Timet, v. 1, cA. 1i. Also m J. W. Kayc, JSst. of the War in Afgfianislaii. — Q. R. Gleig, Sales Brigade in Afghanistan. — Lat y Sale, Jownal of the Disas- ters in Afghanistan. — Mohan Lai, Life of Dost Mohammed, ch. 15-18 {v. 2). A. D. 1842-1869.— The Btitish return to Cabul, — Restoration of Dost Mahomed. — It was not till September that General Pollock ' ' could obtain permission from the Governor-Gen- eral, Lord Ellenborough, to advance against Cabul, though both he and Nott were bummg to do so. When Pollock did advance, he found the enemy posted at Jugdulluck, the scene of the massacre. ' Here, ' says one writer, ' the skeletons lay so thick that they had to be cleared away to allow the guns to pass. The savage grandaur of the scene rendered it a fitting place uir the deed of blood which had been enacted under its horrid shade, never yet pierced in some places by sun- light. The road was strewn for two miles with mouldering skeletons like a charnel house.' Now the enemy found they had to deal with other men, under other leaders, for, putting their whole energy into the work, the British troops scaled the heights and steep ascents, and defeated the enemy in their strongholds on all s'des. After one more severe fight with Akbar K.mn, and all the force he could collect, the enemy were beaten, and driven from their mountains, and the force marched quietly into Cab .1. Nott, on his side, started from Candahar on the 7th of August, and, after fighting several small battles with the enemy, ho captured Ghuzni, where Palmer and his garrison had been de- ' stroyed. From Ghuzni General Nott brought away, by command of Lord Ellenborough, the gates of Somnauth [said to have been taken from the Hindu temple of Somnauth by Mah- moud of Ghazni, the first Mohammedan in- vader of India, in 10241, which formed the sub- ject of the celebrated 'Proclamation of the Gates,' as it was called. This proclamation, issued by Lord Ellenborough, brought upon him endless ridicule, and it was indeed at first con- sidered to be a satire of his enemies, in imitation of Napoleon's address from the Pyramids; the Duke of Wellington called it "The Song of Triumph.' . . . "This proclamation, put forth with so much flourishing of trumpets and ado, was really an insult to those whom it professed to praise, it was an insult to tht Mohammedans under our rule, for their power v as gone, it was also an insult to the Hindoos, for their temple of Somnauth was in ruins. Tliese celebrated gates, which are believed to bo imitations of the original gates, are now lying neglected and wojm-eaten, in the back part of a small museum at Agra. But to return. General Nott, having captured Ghuzni and defeated Sultan Jan, pushed on to Cabul, where he arrived on the 17th of Septem- ber, and met Pollock. The English prisoners (amongst whom were Brigadier Shelton and Lady Sale), who had been captured at the time of the massacre, were brought, or found their own wav, to General Pollock's camp. General Elphinst jne had died during his captivity. It was not now considered necessary to take any further steps; the bazaar in Cabul was de- stroyed, and on tnc 12th of October Pollock and Nott turned their faces southwards, and began their march into India by the Khyber route. The Afghans in captivity were sent hack, and the Governor-General received the troops at 14 AFGHANISTAN. 1842-1869. AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881. Fcrozcpoor. Thus ended the Afghan war of 1838-4a. . . . The war bcins over, we with- drew our forces into India, leaving tlio son of Shah Soojah, Fatlii Jung, wlio had escaped from Cabul wlien his father was murdered, as king of tlio country, a position tli.it he was unable to maintain long, being very shortly afterwards assassinated. In 1842 Dost Mahomed, the ruler whom we had deposed, and who had been living at our expense in India, returned to Cabul and losumed his former position as king of the coun- try, still bearing ill-will towards us, which he showed on several occasions, notabljr during the Sikh war, when he sent a body of his horsemen '0 Ught for the Sikhs, and ho himself marched an army through tlic Khyber to Peshawur to assist our enemies. However, the occupation of the Punjab forced upon Dost Mahomed the necessity of being on friendly terms with his novt-erful neighbour; he therefore concluded a friendly treaty with us in 1854, hoping thereby that our power would bo used to prevent the in- trigues of Persia against his kingdom. This hope was shortly after realized, for la 1856 we (leclared war against Persia, an event which was greatly to the advantage of Dost JIahomcd, as it prevented Persian encroachments upon his territory. This war lasted but a short time, for early in 1857 an agreement was signed between England and Persia, by which the latter re- nounced all claims over Herat and Afghanistan. Herat, however, still remained independent of Afghanistan, until 1803, when Dost Mnhoro~l attacked and took the town, thus uniting the whole kingdom, including Candahar and Afghan Turkestan, under his rule. This was almost the last act of the Ameer's life, for a few days after taking Herat he died. By his will ho dirc"t'!d that Shere All, one of his sons, sboald surccd him as Ameer of Afghanistan. The new J: i cer immediately wrote to the Goveruor-Oenciai of India, Lord Elgin, in a friendly tone, o •■)■ Ing that his succession might be ack.iowledged. Lord Elgin, however, as the comi7"-'acen; _ it of the Liberal policy of 'masterly inactfvity' neglected to answer the letter, c, neglect niiich cannot but be deeply regretted, c^ Shero All was at all events the do facto ruler of the country, and even had he been ber.ten by any other rival for the throne, it would have been time enough to acknowledge that rival rs soon as he was really ruler of the country. When six months later a cold acknowledgement of the letter was given by Sir 'WiUiani Donison, and when a re- quest that the Ameer made for 6,000 muskets had been refused by Lord Lawrence, the Ameer concluded that the disposition of England towards him was not that of a friend ; particu- larly as, when later on < wo of his brothers re- volted against him, o;u.u of them was told by the Government that he would bo acknowledged for that part of the country v/hich ho brought under his power. However, after various changes in fortune, in 186U Shere AH finally defeated his two brothers Afzool and Azim, together witli Afzool 's son, Abdurrahman."— P. F. Walker, Afgl<;nutan, pp. 4.^-51. Also in J. W. Kayo. Hist, of the War in ^\fghanutan.—Or. B. Malleson, Hist, of Afghan- istan, ch. 11. A. D. 1869-1881.— The second war with the English and its causes.— The period of disturbance in Afghanistan, during the struggle of Shere AH witli his brother.^, coincided with the vice royalty of Lord Lawrence in India. The policy of Lord Lawrence, " sometimes slightingly spoken of as masterly inactivity, consisted m holding entirely aloof from tlie dynas- tic quarrels of the Afglians . . . and in attempt- ing to cultivate the friendship of tlie Ameer bv gifts of money and arms, while^ carefully avoid- ing topics of offence. . . . Lord Lawrence was himself unable to meet the Ameer, but his suc- cessor, Lord Mayo, had an interview with him at Umballah in 1869. ; . . LOrd Mayo adhered to the policy of his prnlecessor. He refused to enter into any close alliance, he refused to pledge himself to support any dynr. ;y. But on the other hand he promised that he would not press for the admission of any English offlcors ns Residents in Afglianistan. The return expected by England for this attitude of friendly non-in- terference was that every other foreign state, and especially Russia, should bo forbidden to mix either directly or indirectly with the affairs of the country in which our interests were so closely involved. . . . But a different view was held by another school of Indian politicians, and was supported by men of such eminence as Sir Bartle Frere and Sir Henry Rawlinson. Their view was known as tlie Sindh Policy as con- trasted with that of the Punjab. It appeared to them desiriiblo that English agents should be established at C^uetta, Candahar, and Herat, if not at Cabul itself, to keep the Indian Govern- ment completely informed of the affairs of Afghanistan, and to maintain English influence- in the country. In 1874, upon tlie Recession of the Conservative ^Ministry, Sir Bartle Frere pro- duced a memorandum in >vhii;h this policy was ably maintained. ... A Viceroy whoso views were more in accordance with those of the Government, and who was likely to bo a more readv instrument in [its] hands, was found in Lord Lytton, who went to India intrusted with the duty of giving effect to the new policy He was instructed ... to continue payments of money, to recognise the permanence of the existing dynasty, and to give a pledge of material support in case of unniovoked foreign aggression, but to insist on the acceptance of an English Resident at certain places in Afghanistan in exchange for these advantages. . . . Lord Lawrence and those who thought with him in England prophesied from the first the disastrous results which v, ould arise from vho alieuation of the Afghana. . . . The suggestion of Lord Lytton that an English Commission should go to Cabul to discuss matters of common interest to the two Governments, was calculated . . . to excite feelings alreody somewhat unfriendly to England. He [Shere All] rejected the mission, and formulated his grievances. . . . Lord Lytton waived for a time the despatch of the mission, and consented to a meeting between the Minister of tlie Ameer and Sir Lewis Pelly at Peshawur. . . . The English Commissioner was instructed to declare that the one indispen- sable condition of the Treaty was the admission of an English reproscnfativo within the limits of Afghanistan. The almost piteous request on tl'.e part of the Afghans for the relaxation of this demand proved unavailing, and the sudden death of the .i^incer's envoy formed a good excuse for breaking off the negotiation. Lord Lytton treated the Ameer as incorrigible, gave 16 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881. AFGHANISTAN. 1869-1881. him to undcrstaud that the English -would pro- ceed to secure their frontier without further rcfcr- cnco to him, and wiDidrew his native agent from Cul)iil. While the relations between tlio two countries were in tliis uncomfortable con- dition, information reached India that a Russian inis.sion liad been received at Cabul. It was just at thi.s time that tlie action of the Home Govern- ment seemed to' be tending rapidly towards a war veith Russia. ... As the despatch of a mission from Russia was contrary to the engagements of that country, and its reception under existing circumstances" wore an unfriendly aspect, Lord Lytton saw his way with some plausible justification to demand the reception at Cabul of an English embassy. He notified his intention to the Ameer, but without waiting for an answer selected Sir Neville Chamberlain as his envQy, and sent him forward with an escort of more than 1,000 men, too large, as it was observed, for peace, too small for war. As a matter of course the mission was not admitted. . . . An outcry was raised l)oth in England and in India. . . . Troops were hastily collected upon the Indian frontier; and a curious light was thrown on what had been done by the assertion of the Premier at the Guildhall banquet that the object in view was tlie formation of a ' scien- tific frontier;' in other words, throwing aside all former pretences, he declared that the policy of England was to make use of the opportunity offered for direct territorial aggression. ... As had been foreseen by all parties from the first, the English armies were entirely successful in their first advance [November, 1878]. ... By the close of December Jellalabad was in the hands of Browne, the Shutargardan Pass had been surmounted by Roberts, and in January Stewart established himself in Candahar. When the resistance of his army proved ineffectual, Shere All had taken to flight, only to die. His refractory son Yakoob Khan was drawn from his prison and assumed the reins of government as regent. . . . Yakoob readily granted the English demands, consenting to place his foreign relations under British control, und to accept British agencies. With considerably more reluctance, he allowed what was required for the rectification of the frontier to pass into English hands. Ho received in exchange a promise of support by the British Government, and an annual subsidy of £00,000. On the conclusion of the treaty the troops in the Jellalabad Valley withdrew within the new frontier, and Yakoob Khan wac left to establish his authority as best ho could at Cabul, whither In July Cavagnari with an escort of twenty -six troopers and eighty infantry betook himsrlf. Then was enacted again the sad story which preluded the first Afghan war. All the parts and scenes in the drama repeated thomsclves with curious uniformity— the English Resident with his little garrison trusting blindly to his capacity for influencing the Afghan mind, the puppet king, without the power to make himself respected, irritated by the constant presence of the Resident, the chiefs mutually distrustful and at one in nothing save their hatred of English interference, the people seething with anger against the infidel foreigner, a wild outbrealc which the Ameer, even had he wished it, could not control, an attack upon the Residency and the complete destruction [Sept., 1870] after a gallant but futile resistance of the Resident and his entire esccr.'. Fortunately tlie extreme disaster of tlie previous war was avoided. The English troops which were withdrawn from the country were still witliin reach. . . . About the 24th of September, three weeks after the out- break, the Cabul field force under General Roberts was able to move. On the 5th of Octo- ber it forced its way into tlie Logar Valley at Charassiab, ond on the 12th General Roberts was able to make his formal entry into the city of Cabul. . . . The Ameer was deposed, martial law was established, the disarmament of the peo- ple required under pain of death, and the country scoured to bring in for punishment those chiefly implicated in the late outbreak. While thus engaged in carrying out his work of retribution, the wave of ' Insurrection closed behind the English general, communication throtigh tlie Kuram Valley was cut off, and he was left to pass the winter with an army of some 8,000 men connected with India only by the Kybur Pass. ... A new and formidable personage . . . now made liis appearance on the scene. This was Abduraliman, tlie nephew and rival of tlie late Shero All, wlio upon the defeat of his pretensions 1 sought refuge in Turkestan, and was supji d to be supported by the friendship of Russia. The expected attack did not take place, constant reinforce- ments had raised the Cabul army to 80,000, and rendered it too strong to be assai]ed. ... It was thought desirable to break up Afghanistan into a northern and southern province. . . . The policy thus declared was carried out. A cer- tain Shore Ali, a cousin of the late Ameer of the same name, was appointed Wall or Gover- nor of Candahar. In the north signs were visible that the only possible successor to the throne of Cabul would be Abdurahtnan. . . . The Bengal army under General Stewart was to march northwards, and, suppressing on the way the Ghuznee insurgents, was to join the Cabul army in a sort of triumphant return to Peshawur. The first part of the programme was carried out. . . . The second part of the plan was fated to be interrupted by a serious disaster which rendered it for a while uncertain whether the withdrawal of the troops from Afghanistan was possible. , . . Ayoob hod always expressed his disopproval of his brother's friendsliip for the English, and had constantly refused to accept tlioTr overtures. Though little was known about him, rumours were afloat that he intended to advance upon Ghuznee, and join the insur- fents there. At length about the middle of une [1880] his army started. . . . But before the end of June Farah had been reached and it seemed plain that Candahar would be assaulted. . . . General Burrows found it necessary to fall bock to a ridge some forty-five miles from Candahar called Kush-y-Nakhud. There is a pass called Maiwand to the north of the high- road to Candahar, by which on army avoiding the position on the ridge might advance upon the city. On the 27th of July the Afghan troops were seen moving in the direction of this pass. In his attempt to stop them with his small force, numbering about 2,500 men, Gen- eral Burrows was disastrously defeated. With difficulty and with the loss of seven guns, about half the English troops returned to Candahar. General Primrose, who was in command, had no M AFGHANISTAN, 1S69-18SI. AFRICA, 1834-1891. dioicc but to strengtlicn the place, submit to an investment, and wait till he should be rescued. . . The troops at Cabul were ou the point of ■witlulrawins when the news of tlie disaster reached them. It was at once decided that tins picli of tlie army under General IJoberts sliould push forward to the beleaguered city, while Gen- eral Stewart with the remainder should carry out the intended withdrawal. . . . With about 10,000 lijrliting men and 8,000 camp followers General Hoberts brought to a successful issue his remarlvable enterprise, . . . falling upon the army of tlie Ameer and entirely dispersing it a sliort distance outside the city All those at all inclined to the forward policy clamoured for the maintenance of a liritish force in ( Jandahar. 15ut the Government lirndy and decisively refused to consent to anything approuching to a permanent occupation. . . . The struggle between Abdurahiuan and Ayoob conlinu(!d for a while, and until it was over the Kngli.sh troops remained at Quotta. But when Abdurah- man had lH!en several times victorious over his rival aiiu in October [1881] occui)ied Herat, it was thought safe to complete the evacuation, leaving Abduiahman for the time at least gen- erally "accepted as Ameer. "--J. F. Bright, Hist, of Eng., period 4, P2>. 534-544. Also in A. Forbes, T/ie Afghan Wnn, pt. 2.— Duke of Argyll, I'/ie Afghan Question from 1841 to 1878.— G. B. Malleson, The liusso-Afghan Question. AFRICA: The name as anciently applied. See LuiYANs. The Roman Province. — "Territorial sov- ereignty over the whole of North Africa had <loubtless already been claimed o> the part of , the IJoman Hepublic, perhaps as a portion of the Carthaginian inheritance, perhaps because ' our sea ' early became one of the fundamental ideas of the Uoman commonwealth; and, in so ■ !:','■, all its coasts were regarded by the Homans even of the developed republic as their true pro- perty. Nor had this claim of Home ever been properly contested by the larger .states of North Africa after the destruction of Carthage. . . . The arrangements which the emperors made were carried out qinte after the same way in the territory of the dependent princes as in the immediate territory of Koine ; it was the Roman government that regulated the boimdaries in all North Africa, and constituted Roman com- munities at its discretion, in the kingdom of Mauretania no less than in tlie province of Numidia. We cannot therefore speak, in the strict sense, ot a Roman subjugation of North Africa. The Romans did not conquer it like the Pluenicians or the French ; but they ruled over Numidia as over Mauretania, first as suzerains, then as succes.sors of the native govin-nments. ... As for the previous rulers, so also doubtless for Roman civilization there was to b(i found a limit to the .south, but hardly so for the Roman territorial sujiremacy. There is never mention of any formal extension or taking back of the frontier in Africa. . . . The former territory of Curtilage and the larger part of the earlier king- dom of Numidia, united with it by the dictator Ciusar, or, as they also called it, the old and new Africa, formed until the end of the reign of Tiberius tlie province of that name [Africa], which extended from the boundary of Cyrano to tin: river Ampsagi , cmbra'ini' the modem state of Tripoli, as well as Tunif and the French prov- ince of Constantine. . . . Mauretania was not a heritage like Africa and Numidia. . . . Tlie Romans can .scarcely ha ^ <• taken over the Empire of llie Maurctanian kings in quite the same ex- tent as these pos.sessed it; but . . . probably the whole south as far as the great desert passed as imperial land."— T. Momnisen, Hist, of Uoiiu; W-. 8, (•/(. 13. — Sec, also, Cahtiiaqe, Nu.mi1)IA, and CviiKNK. The Medieval City. See Bakbahy States: A. I). 1513-1500, Moslem conquest and Moslem States in the North. SecJlAiloMfyrAN CoMjtl'.sT, Ac. : A. D. (UO-040; 647-709, and 908-1171; al.so Haimiauv Statics; EgyI'T: A. 1). 1~'50-1517, and after; and StDAN. Portuguese Exploration of the Atlantic Coast. — The rounding of the Cape. See Poii- Tt<iAi,: \. 1). 1415-1400, and 14113-1498. Dutch and English Colonization. See South Akuica. A. D. 1787-1807.- Settlement of Sierra Leone. See SiinutA f.Ko.Ni:. A. D. 1820-1822. — The founding of Liberia. See Slavkhv, Nkoiio: A. 1). 1810-1847. A. D. 1884-1891. — Partition of the interior between European Powers. — "The partition of Africa may be .said to date from the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 [.see Congo Fuek State]. Prior to that Conference the question of inland boundaries was scarcely considered. . . . The founding of the Congo Independent State was probably the most important result of the Con- ference. . . . Two months after the Conference had concluded its labours, Great Britain and Ger- many had a serious dispute in regard lo their re- spective spheres of influence on the Gulf of Guinea. . . . The co:npromise . . . arrived at placed the Mission Station of Victoria within the German sphere of influence." The fnmticr be- tween tlK vo spheres of iulhience ou the Bight of Biafrii was subsequently delined by a line drawn, in 1880, from the coast to Yola, ou the Benue. The Royal Niger Company, constituted by a royal charter, 'was given iiilndnistralive powers over territories covered by its treaties. The regions llicreby placed under British pro- tection . . . apart from the Oil Rivers District, which is directly administered by the Crown, embrace the coastal lands between Lagos and the northern frontier of Caiuarons, tlie Lower Niger (including territories of Sokoto, Gandu and Borgo), and the Benue from Tola to its con- fluence." By a Protocol signed December 24, 1885, Germany and France "defined their re- spective spheres of influence and action on the Bight of Biafra. and also ou the Slave (,'oast and in Senegambia." This " fixed the inland exten- rion of the Germairsphere of influence (Camarons) at 15° E. longitude, Greenwich. ... At present it allows the French Congo territories to expand along the western bank of the Jl'baugi . . . pro- vided no other tributary of the M'bangi-Congo is found to the west, in which case, according to the Berlin Treaty of 1884-85, the conventional basin of the Congo would gain an extension." On the 12tli of May, 1886, FriHice and Portugal signed a convention by which Franco "secured the exclusive control of both banks of the Casa- nianza (in Senegambia), and the Portuguese frontier in the south was advanced approximately 17 APHICA, 1884-1891. AFRICA, 1884-1891. to the southern limit of the bn.siii On the CoiiKo, Portugal rctnincd ili^ the Casini. Miissnbi dis- trict, to wliioli Fniiice luul liiid claim, but both banks of the Loaugo were left to France. " lu 18M4 three representatives of the Society for German Colonization — Dr. Peters, Dr. JUhlke, and ( 'ount Pfeil — (luietlv concluded treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Ukami, Nguru, and U.sa- gara, by which those territories were conveyed to the Society in ([uestion. "Dr. Peters . . . armed with his treaties, returned to Berlin in February, 1HH5. On the 27th February, the day following the signature of the General Actof the Berlin (,'onference, an Imperial Schutzbrief, or Cliarter of Protection, secured to the Society for German Coloni/.fition the territories . . . ac- ciuired for them tlirough Dr. Peters' treaties : in other words, a German Protectorate was ])ro- elalmed. When it became known that Germany had seized ujion the Zanzibar mainland, the in- dignation in colonial circles knew no bounds. . . . Prior to 1384, thi; continental lands facing Zanzil)ar were almost e.\clusivcly under British inlUienee. The principal traders were British subjects, and the Sultan's Government was ad- ministered imdcr the advice of the British Resi- dent. The entire region between the Coast and the Lakes was regarded as being under the nomi- nal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . Still, Great Britain had no territorial claims on the dominions of the Sultan." The S.iltan formally jirotested and Great Britain championcil his cause ; but to no elTect. In tlie end the Sultan of Zanzibar yielded the German Protectorate over t he four iidand prov- inces and over Vitu, and the British and German Governments arranged questions between them, provisionally, by the Anglo-German Convention of 1880, which was afterwards superseded by the more dctinite Convention of July 1890, which will be spoken of below. In April 1087, the rights of the .Society for German Colonization were transferred to the German East Africa As- sociation, with Dr. Peters at its heail. The Brit- ish East Africa Company took over' concessions that had been granted by the Sultan of Zanzibar to Sir William Maekinnon, and received a roj-al charter in September, 1888. In South-west Af- rica, "an enterprising Bremen merchant, Herr Hideritz. and subseciuently the German Consul- Oi|neral, Dr. Kachtigal, concluded a series of po- litical and conunereial treaties with native chiefs, whereby a claim was instituted over .lUigra Pecpiefla, and over vast districts in the Interior between the Orange River and Cape Frio. . . . It was useless for the Cape colonists to protest. On the 13th October 1884 Germany formally notified to the Powers her Protectorate over South- West Africa. . . . On !trd August 1885 the German Colonial Company for South- West Af- rica was founded, and . . . received the Im- perial sanction for its incorporation. But in August 1880 a new Association was formed — the German West-Africa Company — and the ad- ministration of its territories was placed under an Imperial Connnissioner. . . . TL^ intrusion of Germany into South-West Africa acted as a check upon, no less than a spur to, the extension of British inlluenee northwards to the Zambezi Another obstacle to this extension arose from the Boer insurrection." The Transvaal, with in- creased independence had adopted the title of South African Republic. "Zulu-land, having lost its independence, was partitioned : a third of its territories, over which a republic had been pro- claimed, was absorbed (October 1887) by the Transvaid ; the remainder was added (14th May 1887) to the British possessions. Amatonga-land was in 1888 also taken under British protection. By a convention witli the South African Repub- lic, Britain acquired in 1884 the Crown colony of Bechuana-land ; and in the early part of 1885 a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the remaining portion of Bechuana-land. " Further- more, "a British Protectorate was instituted [1885] over the country bounded by the Zambezi m the north, the Britisli pos,sessions in the south, ' the Portuguese province of Sofala' in the east, and the 2flth degree of east longitude in the west. It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil Rhodes came forward, and, having obtained certain con- cessions from Lobengula, founded the British South Africa C'omi)any. ... On the 29th Oc- tober 1889, the British South Africa Company was granted a royal charter. It was declared in this cliarter that ' the principal Held of the opera- tions of the Briti.sh South African Company shall be the region of South Africa lying immediatelj' to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west of the South African Repub- lic, and to the west of tlii' Portuguese domin- ' ions.'" No northern limit was given, and the other boundaries were vaguely delined. The position of Swazi-land was definitely settled in 1890 by an arrangement between Great Britain and the South African Republic, which provides for the continued independcnceof Swazi-land and a joint control over the white seitler.s. A British Protectorate was proclaimed over Nyassa-land and the Shire Highlands in 1889-90. To return now to the proceedings of other Powers in Africa: "Italy took formal possession, in July 1882, of the bay and territory of Assab. The Italian, coast-line on the Red Sea was extended from Ras ICasar (18" 2' N. Lat.) to the southern boundary of Raheita, towards Obok. During 1889, shortly after the death of King Johannes, Keren and* Asmara were occupied by Italian troops. Mene- lik of Shoa, who succeeded to the throne of Abyssinia after subjugating all the Abyssinian provinces, except Tigre, dispatched an embassy to King Humbert, the result of which was that the new Negus acknowledged (29th September, 1889) the Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, and its sovereignty over the territories of JMas-" sawa, Keren and Asmara." By the Protocols of 24th March and ISth April, 1891, Italy and Great Britain define their respective Spheres of Influence in East Africa. " But since tlien Italy has practically withdrawn from her position. Slie has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia. . . . Italy has also succeeded in establishing herself on the Soniiil Coast." By treaties concluded in 1889, ' ' the coastal lands between Capo Warslieikh (about 2° 30' N. lat.), and Cape Bedwin (8° it' N. lat. ) — a distance of 4/50 miles — were placed under Italian protection. Italy subsequently ex- tended (1890) her Protectorate over the Soma) Coast to the Jub river. . . . The British Pro- tectorate on tlie Sonial Coast facing Aden, now extends from the Italian frontier at Ras Hafiin to Ras Jibutc (43° 15' E. long.). . . . The activ- ity of France in litr Senegambian province, , . . during the last hundred years . . . has tinally resulted in a considerable expansion of her terri- tory. . . . The French have established a claim over the country interveuing between our Gold 18 AFRICA, 1884-1891. AGELA. Coast Colony and Libi'ria. A more precise ile- liniiliition oi' tlie frontier lietweeu Sierra Leoue ■and Liberia resulted from tlie treaties sipned at Monrovia on tlie lltli of November, 188". In 1888 Portujfal witbdrew all riglits over Deliome. . . . I{ecently, a French sphere of influence has been instituted over tlut whole of the Saharan rej;ions between Algeria and Senegambia. . . . Declara- tions were e.xchanged (■"Hh August 1800) between [France and Great Britain] with the following R'sults: Fninee became a consenting party to the Anglo-Germau Convention of 1st July 1890. (3.) Great Britain recognised a Frer.ch sphere of in- fluenec over Madagascar. . . . And (3) Great Brit- ain recognised the si)lierc of inlluenceof France to the south of her ^Mediterranean possessions, up to a line from Say on the Niger to liarrua on Lake Tsad, drawn in sucli a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the British Niger Corn- puny all tliat fairly belongs to the kingdom of Bokoto.'" The Anglo-German Convention of July, 1890, already referred to, established by its main provisions the following delinitions of ter- ritory: "The Anglo-German frontier in East Africa, which, by the Convention of 1880, endeil at a point on tlie eastern shore of the Victoria Nyaii/.u was continued on tlu; Siime latitude across the lake to the eonlines of the Congo Independent State; but, on the western side of the lake, this frontier '.\ as, if necessary, to be detlectcd to the south, ill order to include -Mount M'fumbiro within tile lirilisli sphere. . . . Treaties in that district were made oft behalf of the British East Africa Company bv Mr. Stanle\ . on liis return (May 1889) from the relief of 'Eniin Paslia. . . . (2") The southern boundary of the German sphere of Intluence in East Africa was recognised as that originally drawn to a point on the eastern shore- of Lake Nyassa, whence it was continued by the eastern, northern, and western shores of the lake to the northern bank of the mouth of the Kiver Songwe. From this iioint the Anglo-German frontier was continued to Lake Tanganika, in such a manner as to leave the Stevenson Itoail within the British sphere. (3.) The Northern frontier of British East Africa was defined by the Jiib River and the conterminous boundary of the Italian sphere of inlluenee in Galla-land and Abyssinia up to the confines of Egypt; in the west, by the Congo StatB and the Congo-Nile waterslu^d. (4.) Gennauy withdrew, in favor of Britain, her Protectorate over Vitu and her claims to all territories on the mainland to the north of the River Tana, as also over the islands of Patta and JIanda. (5.) In South- West Africa, the Anglo-German frontier, originally fixed up to 23 south latitude, was conflrmc'd; but from this point the boundary-line was drawn in such a man- ner eastward and northward as to give Germany free access to the Zambezi by the Cliobe River. (6.) The Auglo-Germmi frontier between Togo and Gold Coast Colony was fixed, and that be- tween the Camaroiis and the British Niger T(!r- ritorics was provisionally adjusted. (7.) The Free-trade zone, defined by the Act of Berlin (1885) was recognised as appUcable to the present arrangement between Britain and Germany. (8.) A British Protectm-atc was recognised over tlu! dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the British coastal zone and over the islands of Zau- zilvir and Pemba. Britain, however, underlooU to use her infiuence to secure (what have sinei been acquired) corresponding advantages for Germany within the German coastal zone and over the island of -Mafia. Finally (9), the i.ilaiid of Heligoland, in the North Se-, was ceded by Britain to Germany." By a treaty concluded in June, 1891, between Great Britain and Portugal, " Great Britain acquired a broad central sphere of infiuence for tlie exjiansion of her possessions in South Africa northward to and bt'yond the ZamViczi, along a path which provides for the iin- interriii)ted passage of British goods and British enterprise, up to the conflneA of the Congo In- dependent State and German East Africa. . . . Portugal, on tin," East Coast secured the Lower Zambezi fn m Zuinbo, and the Lower Shire from the Ruo Confiuencc, the entire Hinterland of Mosamliique up to Lake Nyassa and the Ilinter- laiid of Sofala to the confines of the South African Republic and the JIatabcle kingdom. On the West Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinter- land behind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up to the confines of the Congo Independent State, and the ujiper course of the Zambezi. ... On ilay 3.jtli 1891 a Convention was signed at Lis- bon, which has put an end to the dispute between Portugal and the Congo Independent State as to the possession of Lunda. Rouglily speaking, the country was eijually divided between the dispu- tants. . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations with Germany and Portugal, very wisely upheld the principle of frec-traile which was laid down by the Act of Berlin, 1885, in regard to the free transit of goods through territories in wl h two or more powers are indirectly interested. — A. S. ^Vliite, T/w Development of Afncu, Hccond EiL, lici\, 1893. Also in; J. S. Keltic, The Partitioii of Af- rim, eh. 13-23. — See, also, Soutu Africa, and Uo.VND.V. The inhabiting races. — The indigenous races of Africa are considered to be four in number, namely: the Negroes proper, who occupy a cen- tral zone, stretching from the Atlantic to the Egy])tian Sudan, and who comprise aa enormous number of diverse tribes ; the Fulahs (with whom the Nubians arc associated) settled mainly lie- tweeu Lake Chad and the Niger; the Bautus, wlio occupy the whole South, except its extrem- ity, and the Hottentots who are in that extreme southern region. Some anthropologists includQ with the Hottentots the Bosjesmans or Bushmen. The Kafirs and Becliuanas are Bantu tribes. The North and Northeast are occupied by Samitic and Ilamitic races, the latter including Abyssinians and Gulltis. — A. II. Keane, The African liaces (Utaiiford's ComjKiidium: Africa, app.). Also IN; R. Brown, The liaces of Manki ml, v. 3-3. — R. N. Chist, Sketcliofthe Modern Languages of Af rial. — See, also, South Afiuc.\. AGA MOHAMMED KHAN. Shah of Per- sia, A. I). 1795-1797. AGADE. See B.vuvloni.v: The E.^uly (C!i.\li)i;ax) Monauchy. AGAPETUS II., Pope, A. D. 948-956. AGAS. See Suulimi-; Poiitk. AGATHO, Pope, A. I). «78-(i83. AGATHOCLES, The tyranny of. See SvuACi:si;; B. C. 317-289. AGE OF STONE.— AGE OF BRONZE, &c. See Sto.ni-; Aoi:. AGELA.— AGELATAS.— The youths and young men of ancient Crete were publicly 19 AOELA.. AGRI DECUMATES. tmincdnnd disripliiied in divisions or cnmpnnics, (Midi of wliicli WHS (idled an Af,'(lii, and ils lender or director the AKelalas. — G. fSchOihaiin, Auli(/. of (Ira,;:: The Slat/:, pt. 3, eh. 2. AGEMA, The.— Tho royid tscort of Alex- ander the (Jreiil. AGEN, Origin of. See Nn'roiiuKir'.s. AGENDICUM OR AGEDINCUM. See Si;nom;s. AGER PUBLICUS.— "Rome was always making fresli aci/uisitions of territory in her ( arly liistory. . . . J^arge traets of country lie- caino lioinan laud, the [iroperty of the lioinaii state, or public domain (ager puhlieiis), as the Honuins calleil it. The condition of this land, th(! use to which it was aj)plii a, and the dis- putes which it eaiiBcd hct ween thi^ two orders at Komo, are auionj; the most curious and perplex- ing qtieslions in Uoman liistor_>. . . . That part of newly-ac(iuired territory which was neither sold nor given remained piililic property, and it was occupied, according to the Roman term, by private jirrsons, in wl.os(' hands it was a I'os- scssio. llygintis and SIculus Flaccus represent this occupation as being made without any order. Every Roman took what he, coidd, and more than lie could uso prolitably. . . . "W'c .shoidd be more inclined to believe that this public land was occupied imder some rcgida- tions, in order to prevent disputes; but if i:ucli regulations exist(,'d we know nothing abotit them. There was no stirvey made of the public land which was from time to time acipiired, but there were certainly gener.al boundaries fixed for the purpose of determining what had becom(^ public property. The lands which were sold and given W( ro of necessity surveyed and fixed by boundaries. . . . Tliere is no direct evidence that any payments tj the stale were originally made by the Possessors. It is certain, however, that at some early time such pnymeiits were made, or, at least, were due to tlie slate." — G. Long. Iki-Unc of the Jii>maii IkpuhUc, eh. 11. AGGER. See Castu.v. AGGRAVIADOS, The. See Spain: A. D. 1814-1827. AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of Persia, A. D. 17<J5-i;97. AGHLABITE DYNASTY. See I^Uuome- TAN C(iN(iUKST AND E.vi'iiu:: A. I). 715-75'J. AGHRIM, OR AUGHRIM, Battle of (A. D. itai\ Seelmci.ANi): A. 1). lOSO-KJPl. AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards. A. D. 59I)-61G. AGINCOURT, Battle of (1415). See FllANTi:; \. I), 141,V AGINNUM.— Modern Agen. See NiTio- BHKIKS. AGNADEL, Battle of (1509). See Venice : A. 1). 1508-ir)il!t. AGNATL— AGNATIC. See Gens, Roman. AGNIERS, The. See American Ahouioi- NEs: A (J- .US. ■AGC ,, The. — Tlio public discipline en- force ancient Sparta; the ordinances nttri bute ijycurgus, for the training of the youn; and ' . (he regulating of the lives of (atizens. — O. SchOmaim, Antiq. of Qretce ; The State, pt. 3, ch. 1. AGORA, The.— The market-place of an ancient Greek citv was, also, the centre of its political life. "Like the gymnasium, and even earlier tlun this, it grew into architectural splendour with the incr(!asing culture of the Greeks. In maritime cities it generally lay near tlic sea; in inland ;daces at the foot of the bill wliicli carried the old feudal castle. IJeing the oldest part of the city, it naturally became tlie focus not only of commercial, but also of religious and political life. Here even in Homer's time tlie citizens as.senil)le(l in consultation, for which purpose it was supplied with seats; here were the oldest sanctuaries; here were celebrated the first fes- tive games; here centred tin! roads on which tlio interconimunicatioii, both religious and commer- cial, with neigliliouring cities and states was car- ried on; from here 8tart(;d tlu! processions which continually jjassed lietween holy places of kin- dred origin, tho'igli locally separated. Although originallj' all public transactions were carried on in these market-places, special local arrange- ments for contracting public business soon became n(?ccs.sary in large citi(!S. At Athens, for instance, tlie gently rising ground of tlie Pliilo- pappos hill, calle(i Pnyx, touching the Agora, was used for jjolitical consultations, while most likely, aliout the time of the Pisistratide.s, the market of Iverameikos, the oldest seat of Attic industry (lying between tlie f(jot of tlie Akropo- lis, the Areopagos and the hill of Theseus), became the agom proper, 1. e., the centre of Athenian commerce. . . . TIic description by Vitruvius of an agora evidently refers to the splendid struetures of post-Alexandrine times. According to iiiin it was (juadraiigular in size [? shape] and surrounded by wide cToublc colon- ades. The numerous columns carried architraves of common stone or of marble, and on the roofs of the poi ticoes were galleries for walking jnirposes. Tills, of course, does not apply to all market- places, even of later date ; but, upon the whole, the remaining specimens agree w itli the deserip- tiou of Vitruvius." — E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Ihmans, tr. by Ilueffer, pt. 1, sect. 2(5. — In the Homeric time, the general assembly of freemen was called the Agora. — G. Grote, Ilist. of Greece, i)t. 1, ch. 20. AGR.^1, The. See AituiNANiANs. AGRARIAN LAW^S, Roman.—" Great mis- takes formerly prevailed on the nature of the Roman laws familiarly termed Agrarian. It was supposed that by tliese laws all land was declared common prifperty, and that at certain intervals of time the state resumed possession and made a fresh distribution to all citizens, ricli and poor. It is needless to make any remarks on the nature and conse(iucnces of such a law ; suiiieient it will be to say, what is now known to all, that at Rome such laws never existed, never were thought of. The lands wliicli were to be distributed by Agrarian laws were not private property, but the property of the state. They were, originally, those public lands which had been the domain of the kings, and which were increased wlienever any city or people was conquered by the Romans ; because it was an Italian practice to conliscate the lands of the conquered, in whole or in part." — II. G. Liddell, Jlt'st. of Home. bk. 3, ch. 8.— See RoiiE: B. C. 376, and'B. 0. 133-121. AGRI DECUMATES, The.— "Between the Rhine and the Upper Danube there intervenes a triangular tract of land, the apex of which touches the confines of Switzerland at Basel; thus separating, as with an enormous wedge, the provinces of Gaul and Vindelicia, and pre- JO AGRI UECUMATES. AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE. senling at its base uo uutural line of defence from one river to tlie other. Tliis tract was, however, oceupied, for the most part, by forests, and if it broke tlie lino of tlielJoman defences, it might at least lie considen^d imjienetrablc to an enemy. Abandoned by tlie warlike and preda- tory tribes of Germany, it was seized l)y wander- ing immigrants fromfjaul, many of tliem Roman adventurers, before whom tlie original inhabit- ants, tlie Marcomaiini, or men of the frontier, seem to have retreated eastward beyond the Ilercynian forest. The intruders claimed or solicited Roman i)rotection, and offered in return n tribute from tlic produce of the soil, wheiice the district itself came to bo known by the title of the Agri Decumates, or Tithed Laud. It was not, howevrr, ofllcially connected with any province of I lie Empire, nor was any attempt made to provide for its permanent security, till a period much later than that on which we are now engaged [the periol of Augustus]." — C. Merivale, Hist, of the linimna, ch. 3(1. — "Wur- teinburg, Badeu and IlohcnzoUern coincide with the Agri Decumates of the Roman writers." — R. G. Latham, Klhiuioim of Europe, ch. 8. — See, also, Ali:5i.\nm, and Sukvi. AGRICOLA'S CAMPAIGNS IN BRI- TAIN. See Bhit.un: A. D. 78-84. AGRIGENTUM. — Acragas, or Agrigentum, one of the youngest of the Greek colonies in Sicily, founded about B. C. 582 by the older col- ony of Qela, became one of the largest and most splendid cities of the age, in the fifth century B. C, as is testified by its ruins to this day. It was the scene of the notorious tyranny of Phalaris, as well as that of Theron. Agrigen- tum was destroyed by the Carthagenians, B. C. 405, and rebuilt by Tiiiioleon, but never recovered its former importance and grandeur. — E. Cur- tius. Hist, of Greece, hk. 4, ch. 3. —See, also, PnAL.Miis, BiiAZEN Bui.i, OP. — Agrigentum was destroyed by the Carthagenians in 400 B. C. See SrciLT : B. 0. 409-405.— Rebuilt by Timo- Icon^ it was the scene of a great defeat of the Carthagenians by the Romans, in 262 B. C. See Punic Wah, The Fikst. AGRIPPINA AND HER SON NERO. See H0.ME: A. D. 47-54, and 54-04. AHMED KHEL, Battle of (i88o). See Afoii.\m8t.\n : A. 1). 1800-1881. AIGINA. See .•Eoix.\. AIGOSPOTAMOI, Battle of. See GnuECE: B. C. 405. AIGUILLON, Siege of.— A notable siege in the "Hundred Years' War," A. D. 1346. An English garrison under the famous knight. Sir Walter JIanny, held the great fortress of Aiguil- lon, near the conlluonce of the Garonne and the Lot, against a formidable French army. —J. Froissart, Chronicka, ■». 1, bk. 1, ch. 120. AIX, Origin of. See S.vlyeb. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE : The Capital of Charlemagne.— The favorite residence and one of th(' two capitals of Charlemagne was tlie city which the Germans call Aachen and the French have named Aix-lu-Chapclle. ' ' He ravished the rums of the ancient world to restore the monu- mental arts. A new iioiiie arose in the depths u-} ioKRts of Austrasia — palaces, gates, bridges, baths, galleries, theatres, churches,— for the erection of which the mosaics and marbles of Italy were laid under tribute, and workmen sum- moned from all parts of Europe. It was there that an extensive library was gathered, thero that the school of the iiiilace was made perma- nent, there that foreign envoys were pompously welcomed, there that the monarch pcifeeled his ])lans for the introduction of Roinnn letters and the improvement of music." — P. Godwin, IIi.it. of Frruicc: A}irii nt Gaul. hk. 4,ch. 17. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of (A. D, 803). See Vi;m( !■;: A. D. 007-810. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of (A. D. 1668). See NETirERLANDS (IIOIXAND): A. 1). 1GG3. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, The Congress and Treaty which ended the War of the Austrian Succession (1748). — The AVnr of the Austrian Su(?eession, which raged in Europe, and on the ocean, and in India and America, from 1740 to 1748 (see Ai:sii:ia: A. D. 1718-1738, 1740- 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the latter year by a Congress of all the belligerents which met at Ai.x-ia-Chapelle, in April, and which concluded its labors on the 18tli of Octo- ber following. "The intlueace of England and Holland . . . forced the peace upon Austria and Sardinia, though both were bitterly aggrieved by its con^'itions. France agreed to restore every coiiquesb she had made during the war, to aban- don the cause of the Stuarts, nnd e.\[)el the Pre- tender from her soil ; to demolish, in accordance with earlier treaties, the fortilications of Dunkirk on the side of the sea, while retaining those on the side of the land, and to retire from the con- quest without acfiuiring any fresh territory or any pecuniary compensation. England in like manner restored the few coiupiests she had made, and submitted to the somewhat humiliating con- dition of sending ho.stagcs to Paris as a security for the restoration of Cape Breton. . . . The dis- puted boundary between Canada and Nova Scotia, which had been a source of constant diffl- culty witli France, was left altogether undeflned. The Assiento treaty for trade with the Spanish colonies was conlirmcd for the four years it had still to run; but no real comi)eusation was obtained for a war expenditure which is said to have exceeded sixty-four millions, and which had raised tlio funded and unfunded debt to more than seventy-eight millions. Of the other Powers, Holland, Genoa, and the little state of Jlodena retained their territory ns before the war, and Genoa remained mistress of the Duchy of Finale, which had been ceiled to the king of Sardinia by the Treaty of Worms, and which it had been a main object of his later policy to secure. Austria oblaincxl a recognition of the election of the Emperor, a general guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the restoration of everything she had lost in the Xether'ands, but she gained no additional territory. She was compelled to confirm the cession of Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, to abandon her Italian con- quests, and even to cede a considerable ])art of her former Italian dominions. To the bitter indignation of Slaria Theresa, the Duchies of Parma, Placentia and Guastella passed to Don Philip of Spain, to revert, however, to their former possessors if Don Philip mounted the Spanish throne, or died witliout male issue. The King of Sardinia al.so obtjiined from Austria the territorial cessions enumerated In the Treaty of Worms [see Italy: A. D. 1743], with the important exceptions of Placentia, which passed to Don Philip, and of Finale, which remained 21 AIX-LA-CIIAI'ELLK. ALABAMA. with tlio OriKK'se. For tlio Inss of tlicso ho oblaimd no coiiiiicnsulioii. Kri(i('ri(k [tlic Orciit, of I'russm] obtiiimd n Kciiural (^imraiitie for llio possession of his nciwly iicciuired territory, uiiil ti long list of old treaties was formally couiirnicd. Thus small were I he chaiiiics elleeted in Kuropo bv HO much bloodshed and treaehery, by nearly nuio years of wasteful nnil desolalinjj war. The desiftn of the disnicmberm<nt of Austria had failed, but no vexed questions liad been set at rest Of all the andjitious i)rojects that had been conceived durinir the war, tliatof Frederiek alone was substantiallv realized." — W. K. II. Leeky, Hist. i<f Ku^. Wt/i Cntun/, eh. 3.— "Thus ended the War of the Austrian succession. In its orijrin and its motives one of the most wicked of all the many conllicts which ambition and perfidy have iiruvoked in Eurojje, it excites u peculiarly mournfid interest by tlio pross in- equality in the rewards and i)enalties which for- tune assigned to the leading actors. Prussia, Spain an(l Sardinia were all endowed out of the estates of tlie house of llapsbnrg. But the electoral house of Bavaria, the most sincere and the nio.sl deserving of all the claimants to that vast inheritance, not only received no increase of territory, but even nearly lo.st its own patri- monial possessions. . . . The most trying prol)- lem is still that offered by the misfortunes of the Queen of Hungary [Maria Theresa]. . . . The verdict of history, as expressed by the public opiidon, and by the vast majority of writers, in every country except Prussia, upholds the justice of the queen's cause and condemns the coalition that w-.s formed against her." — II. Tuttle, Hint, ofi'nigsia, 1745-1756, ch. 2. Also in W. Kiissell, Ilist. nf Modern Europe, pt. 2, letter m.—\f. Coxe, llht. of the Uoim of AuKtria, eh. 108 (v. 3). — See, also. New Eso- I,.\nd: a. D. 1745-1718. See AIZNADIN, Battle of (A. D. 634). Maiiomktax C(in(}ui:st : A. 1). 632-03(5. AKARNANIAN LEAGUE, The.—" Of the Akariianian League, formed by one of the least important, but at the same time one of the most estimable peoples in Greece . . . our knowl- edge is only fragmentary. The boundaries of Akarnania fluctuated, biit wc always tind the people spoken of as a political whole. . . . Thucydidcs speaks, by implication at least, of the Akarnanian Lengue as an institution of old standing in his time. The Akarnanians had, in early times, occupied the liill of Olpai ns a place for judicial proc(?edings common to the whole nation. Tlius the supreme court of the Akar- nanian Union held its sittings, not in n town, but in a mountain fortress. But in Thucydidcs' own time Stratos had attained its i)ositi<m as the greatest city of Akarnania, and probably the federal assemblies were already held there. . . . Of the constitution of the League we know but little. Ambassadors were sent by the federal body, and probably, just as in the Aehaian League, it would have been held to be a breacli of tlio federal tie if any single city had entered on diplomatic intercourse witli other powers. As in Achaia, too, there stood at the head of the licague a General with high authority. . . . The existence of coins bearing the name of the whole Akanianian nation shows that there was unity enough to admit of a federal coinage, though coins of i)articular cities also occur." — E. A. Freeman, ninf. of FnUrnl Onr.t., ch. 4, «tW. 1. AKARNANIANS ( Acarnanians). — The Akarnanians form<d "a link of transition" . between the ancient Greeks and tlieir barbarous • or noii-llellenie neighbours in the Epirus and beyond. "They oecui)ied tlie territory between tliu river A(!hil(n'ls, the Ionian sea and the Amlirakian gulf: they wi'ie Greeks and admitted as such to contend at the Pan- Hellenic games, yet thej were also closely connected with tlio Amphiloehi and Agru;i, who were not Greek.s. lu manners, sentiments and intelli- gence, they wer(! half- Ilelleiiic and half-Epirotic, — like till! JOtoliaus and the Ozolian Lokrians. Even down to the time of Thucyditlcs, these nations were subdivided into numerous petty coinmunilies, lived in unfortified villages, were fieiiuently in the habit of plun.lering each other, and never permitted thein.selvea to be unarmed. . . . Notwithstanding this stato of disunion and insecurity, however, the Akarnanians main- tained a loose political league among themselves. . . . The Akarnanians appear to have produced many prophets. They traced up their mythical ancestry, as well as that of their neighbours the Am])hiiochians, to the most renowned prophetic family among the Grecian heroes, — Amphiaraus, with "his sons Alkina'on and Anipllochus: Akar- nan, the eponymous hero of the nation, and other eponymous heroes of the separate towns, were supposed to be the sons of Alkma'on. They are sjioken of, together with the .lEtolians, as mere rude shepherds, by the lyric poet Alkman, and so they seem to linve continued with little alteration until tho beginning of the Pelopon- ncsian war, when we hear of them, for the flrst^ lime, as allies of Athens and as bitter onemies' of the Corinthian colonies on their coast. The contact of those colonies, liowever, and the large spread of .\karnaniau accessible coast, could not fail to produce sonic effect in socializing and im- proving the iioople. And it is probable that this effect would liavo been more sensibly felt, had not tho Akarnanians been kept back by the fatal neighbourhood of tho ..Etolians, with whom they were in perpetual feud, — a people the most unprincipled and unimprovable of all who bore tho Hellenic name, and whose habitual faithless- ness stood in marked contra.st with the rectitude and steadfastness of the Akarnanian character." — G. Grotc, IIM. of Grcca-., pt. 2, ch. 24. AKBAR (called The Great), Moghul Emperor or Padischah of India, A. D. 1556- 1C05. AKHALZIKH, Siege and capture of (1828). SeeTiiiKS: A. 1). 182()-]8','!). AKKAD.— AKKADIANS. See Bauylonia. PitiMrnvK. AKKARON. See t iiilistines. AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. See KonKVKA. ALABA^TA : The Aboriginal Inhabitants. See Ameuic.vn Aboukiinks: Ai'alachkb; ]\h:sKiiooi:E Fa.milv ; CniiiioKioKs. A. D. 1539-1542. — Traversed by Hernando deSoto, hieeFLouiDA: A. D. 1528-1542. A. D. 1629.— Embraced in the Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath. See AwiiUlCA: A. 1). 1629. A. D. 1663.— Embraced in the Carolina ?rant to Monk, Shaftesbury, and others. See NoiiTU Cauolina : A. D. 1663-1070. 00 jU.AUxVAIA. ALABAMA CLAIMS. A. D. 1702-171 1. — French occupation and first settlement.— The founding of Mobile. 8(c l.oiisiAN.v; A. 1). KtiW-lTl-'. A. D. 1732. — Mostly embraced in the new province of Georgia. Sii(ii;(>ii(;iA: A. 1). 17;i','- 1T;!!I. A. D. 1763.— Cession and delivery to Great Britain.— Partly embraced in West Florida. Sec Skvkn Ykaus' Wau; unci I'i.okida: A. 1). 17(i:i; ami Xoiniiwr.sT Tkukitouy: A. D. ITIi:!. A. D. 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West Florida by the Spaniards. Sec Fi.ouipa: A. 1). 1771I-1781. A. D. 1783.— Mostly covered by the English ' cession to the United States. Sec U.nitki) | .SiATKs OF A.M. : A. 1). 1783 (Si.i'ri;Mi!i;K). \ A. D. 1783-1787.— Partly in dispute with Spain. Sci- Ki.okida: A. 1). 1783-1787. A. D. 1 798-1 804.— All but the West Florida District embraced in Mississippi Territory. SeoMississii'iM: A. 1). 1798-1804. A, D. 1803. — Portion acquired by the Louis- iana purchase. Si'('Loi:isiANA: A. 1). 1798-180:). A." D. 1813. — Possession of Mobile and West Florida taken from the Spaniards. Sec Flohipa: a. D. 1810-1813. A. D. 1813-1814.— The Creek War. Soe U.\iTi;i) Statks ok Am.: A. I). 1813-18U (Ai'(irsT--Aviiii.). A. D. 1817-1819. — Organized as a Territory. — Constituted a State, and admitted to the Union. — "15y nu act of Coiigre.s.s dated >Iarch 1, 1817, Mississippi Territory wasilividwl. Another act, bearing the date JIarcli 3, thereafter, organ- ized the western [? eastern] portion iiiLo a Terri- tory, to be known as Alabama, and with the boundaiics as tliey now e.xist. . . . 15y an act approved March 2, 1819, congress ar.tlicrlzed the inhabitants of the Territory of Alabaniii to form a slate constitution, 'and that said Territory, when formed into a State, .shall be admitted into the Union upon the .same footing as the original States.' . . . The joint resolution of congress admitting Alabama into the L^niou was approved by President ^Monroe, December 14, 1819."— W. lirewer, Ahthaiiui, ch. 5. A. D. 1861 (January). — Secession from the Union. See Unitkd Statks of Am. : A. I). 1801 (Januauv — Feuulauy). A. D. 1862.— General Mitchell's Expedition. See United Statics of Am. : A. I). 18Ca (Ai'hil —.May: Alaiiama). A. D. 1864 (August;.— The Battle of Mobile Bay.— Capture ofConfederate forts and fleet. See United States OF Am. : A. D. 18G4:(Auoust: Alabama). A. D. 1865 (March— April).- -The Fall of Mobile.— Wilson's Raid.— End of the Rebel- lion. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1805 (Ai'iiiL- May). A. D. 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 1805 (5Iay— July), to 1808-1870. ALABAMA CLAIMS, The: A. D. 186:- 1862.— In their Origin.— The Earlier Con- federate cruisers.— Precursors of the Ala- ba.na.— The commissiouiug of jirivateers, and of mmv. ofllcially commanded eruisei-s, in the American civil war, by the government t)f the Southern Confedcmcy, was begun etirly in the progress of the movement of rebellion, pur- suant to u proclamation issued by JelTei-sou Davis on the 17tli »f .Vpril, 1801, " Before the clo.se of .Jul}', 1801, more than 20 of those <lepre- dators were alloal, and had capttircd iiiilli(iii.s of property belonging to Anieri(:in citizens. The most f<iriiii(hil)le and notorious of tlie sea-going ships of this character, were the Nashvilli', Cap- tiiin U. IS. I'cgrani, a Virginian, wlio had ab.-m- (loned liis Hag, and the Sumlcr [a regularly commis.sioni'd war vessel]. Captain Itaph.iel Semmes. The former was a side-wleMl steamer, carried a crew of eighty men, and was armed with two long 12-poini<lcr rilled cannon. Her career was short, but (juile sneeessfiil, .She was linally destroyed by the .Moniaiik,' Captain Wor- (len, in the Ogeecliee HIver. The career of the Sumter, which had been a Xew Orleans aad Havana pac'ket steamer named Manpiis de Jla- bana, was also short, but much more active and destructive. She had 11 cnw of si.\ty-live men and twenty-live marines, and was heavily armed. She ran the blockade at the mouth of the Jllssis- sippi HIver on the 3lHh of .)une. and w:is pur- sued some distance by the Brooklyn. Slie ran among the'VVest India islands and on the Spanish Main, and soon made i)rizes of many vess<dH bearing the American tlag. She was every- where received in Briti.^h Colonial jxirls with great favor, and was nllorded every lacllity for her piratical oi)erallons. She became the terror of tlio American merdiant service, and every- where eluded Xatioiud vessels of war sent out in pursuit of her. At length she cro.ssed the ocean, and at the close of 1801 was conipelleil to seek sindter under British guns at Gibraltar, where sho was watelied by the Tuscarora. Early in the year 1802 .she was sold, and thus ended her piratical career. Encouraged by the practical friendship of the British evinced for these cor- sairs, aiul the substantial aid they were receiving from British subjects in various ways, especially through bloska(le-runncrs, the conspirators de- termined to i)rocure from tho.se friends some ))owerful ])iratical craft, and made arrangements for the i)urcliase and construction of vessels for tliat purpose. j\Ir. Laird, a sliip-buililcr at Liver- pool and member of the British I'arliamout, was the largest contra(!tor in the business, and, in de- fiance of every obstacle, succeeded in getting pirate ships to sea. The first of these ships that went to sea was th<i Oreto, ostensibly built for ti house in Palermo, Sicily. Mr. Adams, the American minister in London, was so well satis- fied from information received that she was de- signed for the Confederates, that ho called the attention of the British government to the matter so early as the 18th of February, 1802. But notlung eflfective was done, and slin was com- pleted and allowed to depart from British waters. She went first to >s :iu, and on the 4th of Sep- tember suddenly . leared ol? ^Mobile harbor, flying the British Hag and pennants. The block- ading squadron there was in charge of Com- mander ticorgo II. Preble, who had been .specially instructed liot to give offense to foreign nations while enforcing the bh)ckv.de. He believed th<! Orclo to be a British vessel, and while deliberat- ing a lew minutes as to what he should do, she passed out of range of his guns, anu eiiiered the harbor with a rich freight. For his s'jeniing remissness Commander Preble was suinniarily dismi.ssed from the service \ ithout a hear- ing — an act which subse(iuent events seemed to show was cruel injustice. Late in December 28 ALAHAMA CLAIMS. ALAUiUIA CLAIMS. tlin Oroto csciiiicd from Moliilf, fully amied for a pinilical criiLsc, iiiidcr the ((lUim.uMl of John Ncwland .Malllt, . . . Tlic niiiiicof lli(r Ort'to was (■lmiii,'(il to tliiit of Florida. "— B. .1. Lo8.siii>f, IHM li'Kik of the Ciril War, r. 3, cli. 21. — Flic falo of tlu: Florida is related below— A. I). 1802- 1805. — H. Seiiimes, .\f<iiiiiint of Sirricc Ajhat, eh. 0-20. Ai.HO IN J. Davis, A'lw^ miil Full <tf the Con- ftdfnite. Cliin riiiiKiil, c/i. ;l()-31 (r. 2). A. D. 1862-1864.— The Alabama, her career and her fate.— " The .Vialiiiina [tlic! seeoiid cruiser built in Kn},'hnid for th<^ Confedcratesl ... is thus described by Seiiiines, her com- mnnd(r: 'She was of about UdO tons burden, 2;«) feet in h UKth, ;i2 feet in breadth, 20 feet in dei)th, and drew, when provisioned and coaled for cruise, IT) feet of wjili'r. She was barkcn- tinc-ri^ired, with lonj; lower musts, which enabled her to carry lar{;e fon,' and aft Hails, as iibs and try -sails. . . . ller cnjxine was of ifOO liorse-power, and she had attached an apparatus for condensinj; from the vapor of sea-water nil the fresh water that her crew might require. . .. Ilerarnianientconsisted of eight guns.'. . . The Alabama was built and, from <he out.set, was 'intended for 11 Confederate vessel of war.' The contract for her construction was 'signed by Cai)tnin IJuUoek on the on(^ i)art and Messrs. Laird on the other.'. . . On the blth of May [1802] she was launched under the name of the 290. ller otliccrs were in Kugland awaiting her completion, and wera paid their .salaries 'monthly, about the first of theiiionlli, at Fraser, Trcnhohn & Co.'s oftiee in Liveri)ool.' The pur- pose for which this vessel was being constructed was notorious in Liverpool. Before she was launched she became an object of Kus])iciou with the Consul of I lie I'nited States at that port, and she was the s\il)ject of constant correspondence on his part with his Government und with Mr. Adams. . . . Karly in the history of this cruiser the jxjint was taken by the British authorities — a point maintained throughout the struggle — that they woidd originate notiiing themselves for the iiiainlenancu and performaive of their international duties, and that they ^WJuId listen to no representations from the olUcrials of the United States which did not furnish technical evidence for a criminal iiroseciition under the Foreign Enlistment Act, ... At last Mr. Dud- ley [tlic Consul of the United Stales at Liver- pool] succeeded in tlnding the desired proof. On the 31st day of July, he laid it in the form of affidavits before the Collector at Ijiverjiool in compliance with the intimations which Mr. Adams hail received from Karl Uussell. These affidavits were on the same day transmitted by the Collector to the Board of Customs at London, with a rccpie.st for instructions by telegrajili. as the ship ai)i)eared to be ready for sea and nught leave any hour. . . . It . . . apiiears that not- withstanding this official infornnition from the Collector, the ]iapers wore not considered by the law advisers tmtil the 28th, and that the case appeared to them to be so clear that they gave their advice upim it that evening. Under these circumstances, the delay of eight days after the 21st iu the order for the detention of the ves.^el was, in the opinion of the United States, gross negligence on the part of Her j^Iajesty's Govern- ment. On the 29tli the SecretJiry of the Com- mission of the Customs received a telegram from Liverpool saying that ' the vessel 200 came out of dock last night, and left the port this morn- ing.' . . . After leaving the dock she 'pro- ceeded slowly down tlie Alersey.' Both the Lairds were on board, und also Bullock. . . . The '290 slowly steamed on to Aloelfra Bay, on the coast of Anglesey, where sIk' ren>aine(l 'all that night, all Uu: next day, and the ne.\t night.' No clTort was made to sei/.e her. . . . When the Alabama left Moelfra Bay he ■ crew nund)ered abo\it 90 men. She ran part way down the Irish C'liannel. then round the north (H)ast of Ireland, only sto|)ping near the Giant's Causeway. She then made for Terceira, on(? of the Azores, which she reached on the 10th of Aiigu.st. Ou isth of A\igust, while she was at Terceira, a .sail was observed nndiihg for the anchorage. It juoved to be the 'Agrippina of London, Cap- tain McQueen, having on board si.\ guns, with ammimition, coals, stores, &c. , for the Alabama.' Preparation.s were immediately made to transfer this imjiortant cargo. On the afternoon of the 20tb, while em])Ioyed discharging the bark, the screw-steamer Bahama, Captain Te.ssier (the same that had taken the armament to the Florida, whoso insurgent ownei'ship and character were well known in Liverpool), arrived, ' having on board Commander Raphael Semmes and ollicers of the Confederate States steamer Sumter.' There were also taken from this steamer two 82- ]iounders and some stores, which occupied all the remainder of that day and a part of the next. The 22d and 2'M of August were taken up in transferring coal from the Agrippina to the Alabama. It was not until Sunday (the 24th) that the insurgents' Hag was hoisted. Bullock and tho.se who were not going in the 290 went back to the Bahama, and the Alabama, now fli-st known luidcr that name, went off with '20 offi- cers and 85 men.'" — I'/ic Case of the United Statcn III fore the Trilmnal of Arhitnition at Geneva (42rf Cong., 2d Sens., Senate Ki: Doe., No. 31, pp. 140-151). — The Alabama "arrived at Porto Praya on the 19th August. Shortly thereafter Capt. Baphaol Semmes assumed command. Hoisting the Confederate Hag, she cruised and captured seveiiil vessels in the vicinity of Flores. Cruising to the westward, and making several captures, she approached within 200 miles of New York ; thence going southward, arrived, on the 18th November, at Port Koyal, Mai'tinique. On the night of the 19th she escaped from the harbour and the Federal steamer San .Jacinto, and ou the 20th November was at Blancpnila. On the 7th December she captured the steamer Ariel in the passage between Cuba and St. Domingo. On January 11th, 1863, she sunk the Federal gimboat Ilatteras olT Galveston, and on Die 30th arrived at Jamaica. Cruising to the eastward, and making many captures, she arrived on the 10th April, at Fernando de Noronha, and ou the 11th May at Bahia, when!, on th'j 13th, she was joined by the Confederate steamer Georgia. Cruising near the lino, thence southward towards the Cape of Good Hope, numerous captures were made. On the 29tli Jtily she anchored iu Saldanha Bay, South Africa, and near there on the 5lh August, was joined by the Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Com- mander "Low. In September, 1803, she was at St. Simon's Bay, and in October was iu the Straits of Sunda, and up to January 20, 1804, cruised iu the Bay of Bengal and viciuity, visit- 24 ALABAMA CLAIMS. ALABAMA CLAIMS. Inc SiiiKiiiwirc. iiiul niakinff a iiumlior of very viilimlilo cupturcs, iiicliiditiK tli(' IIif,'liliinil<'r, Bimorn, I't^. From tiiis point h\h: rruisi'd on her hnmewiiril iMck via ('ai)o of (Jood llopo, ciip- tiiriiiR till' tiiirk Tycooiv iinil ship UocUingliiini, and arrived at C'liurbour),', Franco, in June, 1804, >vlicrc she rcpalri'd. A FciU-ral steamer, tlie Keursurgo, was lyinR "ft the harl)our. ('apt. Senimes ir.i;,'lit easily liavo evaded thi?) enemy; the biisiics.s of his vclsel was that of a privateer; and hiT vidue to the »,o;.''e(lenicy was out of all comparison with :>, sinjjle vessel of the enemy. . . . Hi^t Capt. Semnies had been twitted with tho name of 'pirat<^;' and h(3 was easily per- suaded to attempt an 'clat for f'O Southern Confederacy bv a naval tl;;ht ■within siKbt of the French eoa'st, "wineli contest, it was calculated, would prove the Alabama a legitimate war ves- sel, and ijive such an exhibition of Confederate belliseren<;y as nossibly to revive the question of ' recognition in Paris and London. These were the secret motives of the gnitnitous lijlht with which ('apt. Semmes obli,t,'ed tho enemy oil the port of Cherbourg. The Alabama car- ried one 7-inch Ulakely rifled gun, one 8-inch smooth-bore pivot gun, and six ;!2-pounders, smooth-bore, in broadside; the Kear^argo carried four broadside Sa-poimders, two 11-inch and one 28-pound rifle. The two vessels were thus about equal in match an<l armament; and their tonnage was about the same." — E. A. Pollard, Tlic Lost C/iiini', p. .549. — (Japtain Winslow, com- manding the United States Steamer Kearsargc, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy written on the afternoon of the day of his battle with the Alabama, Jimo 19, 1864, said: "I have the honor to inform the department that the day subsequent to the arrival of tho ICearsnrge ofT this port, on the 34th [14th] instant, I received a note from Captain Scmnies, begging that the Kearsarge would not depart, as lie intended to fight her, and wovild delay her but a d-'.y or two. According to this notice, die AlaLaina left the port of Cherbourg this morning at about half past nine o'clock. At tweiit)' minutes past ten A. M., wo discovered her steering towards us. Fearing the qtiestion of jurisdiction might arise, we steamed to sea until a distance of sis. or seven miles was attained from the Cherbourg break-water, when wo roimded to and com- menced steaming for the Alabama. As we approached her, within about 1,200 yards, she opened lire, we receiving two or three broad- sides before a shot was returned. The action continued, tho respective steamers making a cir- cle round and round at a disi nee of about 900 yards from each other. At the e.xpiraticm of an hour the Alabama struck, going down in about twenty minutes afterward, carrying many per- sons with iK'r." In a report two days later, Captain Winslow gave the following i)afticulars: "Toward tho close of the action between the Alabama and tliis vessel, all available sail was made on the former for tho purpose of again reach- ing Cherbourg. When the object was apparent, tho Kearsarge was steered across the bow of the Alabama for a raking fire; but before reaching this point the Alabama struck. Uncertain whether Captain Semmes was not using some ruse, the Kearsarge was stopped. It was seen, shortly afterward, that tho Alabama was lower- ing her boats, and an officer came alongside in one of them to say that they had surrendered, and were fnnt BinkinfC, and begging that lioat^i wouhl be despatched immediately for saving life. Tho two boats not disabU-d wem at once lowered, and i;s it was apparent the Alabama was settling, this ollleer was permitted to leave in his boat to airord assistance. An Fnglish yacht, tho Deerhoiind, hail ai>pr>)aclied near tho Kearsargo at this time, wiien I hailed and begged the! commander to run down to tho .Vlatinma, as she was fast sinking, anil wo had but two boats, and assist in picking up the men. He answered afllrmativel)', and steamed toward the Alabama, but tho latter .sank almost immediately. Tho Deerhound, however, .sent lier boats and was actively engaged, aided by several others which hail como from shore. These boats were busy in bringing the wounded and others to the Kearsarge; whom wo were trying to make as 'omfortablo as possible, when it was reported to mo that the Deerhound was moving olT. I could not believe tliat the com- mander of that vessel could bo guilty of so dis- graceful an act n" t.i' . ig our prisoners off, and therefore took no mans to prevent it, but con- tinued to keep our boats at v>'ork rescuing the men in the water. I am sorry to say that I was mistaken. Tho Deerhound maile olT with Captain Semmes and others*, and also tho very officer who had come on board to surrender." — In a still later report (Captain Winslow gave the following facts: "The lire of tho Ahibama, although it is stated she discharged 370 or more shell and shot, was not of .serious damage to tlie Kearsargo. Soino 13 or 14 of these had taken etrect in and about tho hull, and 10 or 17 about the masts and rigging. Tlie casualties were small, only three persons having been wounded. . . . The lire of tho Kearsargo, although only 173 projectiles had been discliarged, according to tlie prisoners' accounts, was terriUc. One shot alone had killed and wounded 18 men, rnd disfiblcd a gun. Another had entered tho coal- buakcrs, exploding, and completely blocking up the engine room; and Captain Semmes states that shot and f hell had taken effect ir the sides of his vessel, tearing largo holes by explosion, and his ni^n wero evcrywlierc knocked down." — licbcUioit, Itcmrd, v. 9, lip. 231-225. Ar.so IN J. U. Soley, The Blockade and the Cruisers {Tho Knny in the C'iril War, n. 1), ch. 7. —J. R. Soley, J, JIcI. Kell and J. M. Browne, The Coiifcderuto Cruisers (liatllcs and Leaders, V. 8). — U. Semmes, Memoirs of Service Afloat, ch. 29-55.— ,1. I). Bullock, Secret Serr:ce of the Confederate Slates in Europe, 1\ 1, ch. 5. A. D. 1862-1865. — Other Confederate cruis- ers. — "A score of other Confederate cruisers roamed tho seas, to prey upon United States commerce, but none of them became quite so famous as the Sumter and the Alabama. They in- cluded tho Shenandoah, which made 38 captures, the Florida, which made 30, tho Tallahassee, which made 27, the Tacouy, which mado 15, atul the Georgia, which made 10. The Florida was captured in the harbor of Baliia, Brazil, in October, 18C4, by a United States man-of-war [the Waehusett, commander Collin.s], in violation of the neutrality of tho port. For this the United States Government apologized to Brazil and ordered the restomtion of the Florida to the harbor where she was captured. But in Hamp- ton Hoads she met with an accident and sank. It was generally believed that tho api)aR'i:t aeci- 2& ALAUAMA CLAIMS ALABAMA CLAIMS. (k'lit WiiH CDiitrivcil witli the connivance, it not by direct itrdcr, of the (lovcrnnicnt. .Slost of these cruisers were built in Hrilisli Kliiiiyanls. " — H. .loliiison, Slinrt JliKt. (if till' W'lir of S'lVuxiiiii, eh. SI. — Tile liisl of tlie (lest rovers of Aniericiin coiiuneree,llieSlicnaiuloah,«iisa liritisli niereliaiit sliip — llie Sea King — built for the Hointiay lra(h', l)Ut pureha.si'il by the Confccleratc! ag- nt, Captain HullocU, armed willi .six K""». a»J <'"ni- missioned (October, IHIi.")) under her new nanie. In June, IHf!.", Ili(t Slienandonh, after a voyaire lo Australia, in tlie course of wliicli slio destroyed ado/en luercliant sldps, made lier appearance in the Northern Si.i, near lldiring Strait, wliere .slic tell in witli tlie New Hcdford wlialini; licet. "In th(^ course of one week, from tlie 'ilst to tlio '.IHtli. twenty-live winders were captured, of which lour were ransome<l, and the retuaiiniiir 21 were burned. The loss on these 31 whalers was estiiaated at tipwardsof ij:!, 000,000, and con- sidering that it oecurreil . . . two months after the Confederacy had virtually pas.scd out of ex- istence, it may be characterized ;is the most use- less net of hostility that o<curr(Ml during the whole "var." The captain of the Shenandoah had ne\v.H on the 2:td of thu fall of Uichmond; yet after that time ho dtstroyed 15 vessels. On his way southward he received iuformation, August 2d, of the linal collapse of the Con- federacy. He then sailed for Liverpool, and surrendered his vcwel to the liritish Government, which (li.'livcrcd her to the L'nited States. — ,1. U. Solcy, Tlifi (.'i>ifalin(tr Cndmrn {liiitth-K and I^otlm, V. 4). A. D. 1862-1869. — Definition of the indemnity claims of the United States against Great Britain. — First stages of the Negotiation. — The rejected Johnson-Clarendon Treaty. — "A review of the history of the negotiations between the two Governments jirior to the corrc- .si)ondenco between BirEdward Thornton and Mr. Fish, will show . . . what was intended by these words, ' geiierically known us the Alabama Claims,' used on each side in that correspondence. The correspondence betwec^n the two Govermcnts was opened by Mr. Adams on the 20th of Novem- ber,1862 (less than four months after the escape of the Alabama), in a note to Earl Russell, written under instructions from the Government of the United States. In this note Mr. Adams sub- mitted evidence of tlie acts of the Alabama, and stated : ' I have the honor to inform Your Lord- ship of the directions which I have received from my Government to solicit redress for the nationaland private injuries thus sustained.'. . . Lord UiisscU met this notice on the 19th of December, 1862, by a denial of any liability for any injuries growing out of the acts of the Ala- bama. ... As new losses from time to time were suffered by individuals during the war, they were brought to the notice of Her JIujcsty's Government, and were lodged with the national and individual claims already preferred; but arguincutative discussion on the issues involved was by common consent deferred. . . . The fact that the first claim preferred grew out of the acts of the Alabama explains how it was that all the claims growing out of the acts of all the vessels came to be 'geuerically known as the Alabama claims.' On the 7th of April, 1865, the war being virtually over, Mr. Adams renewed the discussion. He transmitted to Earl Ivusaell an ollicial report showing the number and tonnage of Vnierlcun vcssoU tnms- fcrred to the Urltish V.\k, during tlie war. He said: 'The l'nited Stales (omnuTce'ls nipidly v.'iinshiug from .he face of the ocean, and that of Great lirit.iiii is mc'tiplyiiig in nearly the same ratio.' 'This pn ecs* is going on by rea.son of the action of Hritish sul)jects in cooperation with einis.iarieH of the insurgents, w ho have supplied from the ports vf He" Majesty's Kin.gdoin lUl the materials, such u . vessels, arnuiment, supplies, anil men, indi.-ip 'is i|>le to the effective prosecu- tion if this ic: ult oil the ocean.' . . . lie stated that he 'was under tlie painful necessity of aiiii(mr..ing that his Government cannot avoid entailing upon the Government of (Jreat Britain the responsibility for this daiiiagc. ' Lord Bus- sell . . . said in repiv, 'lean never admit that the <lutics of Grciit Britain toward the United States are to be measured by the losses which t\w trade and commerce of the United States have sustained. . . . Beferring to the offer of arbitraticm, madoouthe2Utliday of October, 1803, Lord Bussell, in the same note, said: 'Her ^'aiesty's Government mu.st dediiK! cither to ike reparation and conipensatiou for the cap- aires made by the Alabama, or to refer the question to any foreign State.' This terminated the first stage of the n'gotiations between the two Governments. . . . In the summer of 1860 a change of MinLstry took place in England, and Lord Stanley became Secretary of State for For- eign Affairs in the place or Lord Clarendon. He took an early opportunity to give on intima- tion in the House of Commons that, should the rejected claims be revived, the new Cabinet was not prepared to say what answer might be given them; in other words, that, should nu oppor- t'.inily be offered, Lord Russell's refusal might possibly be reconsidered. Mr. Seward met these overtures by instructing Jlr Adams, on the 27th of August, 1800, ' to call Lord Stanley's attention in tt rcspeeiful but earnest manner,' to 'a suiii- niary of claims of citizens of the United States, for damages which were suffered by tUem during the period of the civil war,' and to say that the Government of the United States, while it thus insists tpou these par- ticular claims, is neither desirous nor willing to assume an attitude unkind and uncon- ciliatory toward Great Britain. . . . Lord Stan- ley mot this overture by a communication to Sir Frederick Bruce, in which he denied the liability of Great Britain, and assented to a reference, ' provided that a fitting Arbitrator can be found, and that nu agrecnncut can be come to as to the points to which the arbitration shall apply.' . . . As the first result of these negotiations, a con- vention known as the Stanley-Johnson convention was signed at London 011 the 10th of November, 1868. It proved to be unacceptable to the Gov- ernment of the United States. Negotiations were ot once resumed, and resulted on the 14th of January, 1809, iu the Treaty known as the Johnson-Clarendon convention [having been negotiated by Jlr. Beverdy Johnson, who had succeeded Mr. Adams as United States Minister to Great Britain]. This latter convention pro- vided for the organization of a mixed commi Aon with jurisdiction over 'all claims on the part of citizens of the United States upon the Govern- ment of Her Britannic ]\Iajesty, including the so-called Alabama claims, and all claims on the part of subjects of Her Britannic Majesty upon 26 ALAHAMA CLAmS. ALABAMA CLAlMa. •ho GDVcrnmcnt of tlio Unlu^d Htntca wliicli iimy Imvu birti presented In eltlier K"Vi'riiiiient for its illterIll>^iliull witli tin- cjllier since the 'Jfltli July, IHo;), and wliieli yet remain iinsellled,' " The Johnsont'lariiKloirirealy, when suliinilted ti) thi' Sen:ite, was rejeeled liy tlial liody, in April, "bieaiise, altlioUKh it made jirovision for the |mrt of tlie Alahiima elaitns wliieli consisted (if claims for individual losses, the provision for the more exti'nsive national losses was not witis- faetory to the Senate."— 77/c .l)v/»w</(< >if l/w I' II Hot Stiifili lUiireirAl to tlic Triliilliill <;/' Alhi- tniti'iii (It (h'lierii, June 1."), WTi. Dirinhn 111, mrt. i. A. D. 1869-1871. — Renewed Negotiations. — Appointment and meeting of the Joint High Commission.— The action of the Senate in rejeclini; the .lohnson-C'larendon treaty was taken in April, IHItO, a few weeks after Presi- dent (Jnint entered upon his olllee. At this tini(i " the condition of Kurope was sneh as to induce the British .Ministers In take into consideration the foreign relations of Great Britain; and, as Lord Granville, the British Minister of Foreign AITairs, has himself stated in the House of Lo.ds, they «iw caii.se to look with solicitude' on the uneasy relations of the British Govennnent with the United States, and the inc()nveiiien<e thereof in case of possible complications in Europe. Thu.s impelled, the Govennnent dispatched to Wash- ington a gentleman who enjoyed the contidenoe of both Cabinets, Sir John Itose, to ascertain whether overttircs for reoi)ening negotiations would be received by the President in spirit and terms acceptable to Great liritain. . . . Sir John Rose found the United States disposed to meet with perfect correspondenc e of good-will the ad- vances of the British Government. Accordingly, on the 20th of January, 1H71, the British Gov- ernment, through Sir "Edward Thornton, finally proi)o.sed to the AmiTican Government the ap- pointment of a joint High Commission to hold its sessions at AVashington, and there devise means to settle the various pending ([uestions between the two Governments alTecting the British pos- sessions in North America. To this overture Mr. Fish replied that the President woidd with pleasure appoint, as invited, Comnnssioner.s on the part of the Unite' States, provided the deliberations of the Commissioners .should bo extended to other differences, — that is to say, to include the difTerences growing out of incidents of the late Civil AVur. . . . The British Gov- ernment promptly accepted this proposal for enlarging the sphere of the negotiation." The joint High Commission was speedily constituted, as proposed, by appointment of the two govern- ments, and the promptittidc of proceeding was suca liiat the British commissioners landed at New York in twenty-seven days after Sir Edward Thornton's suggestion of January 20tli was made. They sailed without waiting for tlieir commis- sions, which were forwarded to them by special messenger. The High Commission was made u?> as follows: "On the part of the United .States were five j)ersons,— Hamilton Fish, Robert V. Sehenck, Samuel Kelson, Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar, and George II, Williams,— cnunently fit representatives of the diplomacy, the bench, the bar, and the legislature of the United States: on the part of Great Britain, Earl Dc Grey» and Kipon, President of the Queen's Council; Sir S'afford Northcote, Ex-Ministcrand actual Mcm- Iht of the Ilousaj of Commons; Sir Edward Thorntr)!!, the universally respected Briti.sli Min- ister at WashiuLrton; Sir John | \.\ .Macdonald, the able and eioi|Ucnt I'render of the Canadiiiu Do'uiiuon; :.nd, in revival of the good old time, when h'arning was "((ual to iuiy other tilh^ ni ]iid)lic honor, the Universities in the person of I'rofessor .Aionlaguc Bernard. ... In the facc^ of many dillicullies, the Comndssioners, on IIk yih of Nlay, IHTl, completed a treaty [known as (he Treaty of Washington], which receivcil Ihe prompt approval of their respective (Jovern- menls. " — C. Cushing, 'I'/w 'J'ruiti/ of Wun/iiiiy- l"ii, PI'. 18-20, (I ml U-l;!. .Vi,s(> I.N A. I.ai.g, /Jt'i-. Littin, and Diaricii iif Sir Sliiffiinl Miirtlici/te, Fimt Karl nf Iililin/tiij/i, ch. Vi(>\ S)._A. Badeau, (Iniiitin ihnr. <•/(. '25. A. D. 1871.— The Treaty of Washington.— The treaty signed at AVashington on the Mth day of May, 18*1, and the ratilicalions of which were exchanged at I.ond in on tlw^ 17th da • <if the following June, .set forth its i)rineipal agreeineui. in the llrst two articles as follows: "Whereas dilferenecs have arisen between the Govennnent of the United States and the Government of Her Brittanic Majesty, and still e.\i:t, growing out of thii acts committed by the Rcvcriil vessels which have given r'se to tiio claims ^''''nerically known as the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her Britannic Majesty has authorized Her High Com- missioners and Plcinpotcntiaries to express in a friendly spirit, the regret felt by Iler Majesty's Government for the cpcape, imder wliatever cir- cumstances, of tlic -Mabaina and other vessels from British ])orts, anil for the depredations com- mitted by tlio.se v'>.:iL'ls: Now, in order to reniove and ;Kljust all complaints and claims on the part of tiie United States and to provide for the speedy settlement of such claims which are not admitted by Ilcr Britannic Majesty's Gov- ernment, the high conf eting parties agree that all the said claims, grjwing out of acts com- mitted by the aforcsai(. vessels, and generically known as the ' Alabama Clfdms,' shall be referred to a tribunal of arbitration to be composed of live Arbitrators, to be api)ointcd in the following manner, that is to sav: One shall be named by the President of the United States; one .shall lie named by Her Britannic Majesty; Ilis Majesty the King of Italy shall be requested to name one ; the I'resident oi' the Swiss Confederation sliall be retjuested to name one; and His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil shall be requested to name one. . . . The Arbitrators shall meet at Geneva, in Switzerland, at the earliest convenient day after they shall have been named, and shall pro- ceed impartially and carefully to examine and decide all questions that shall be laid before them on the part of the Governments of the United States and Her Britannic Majesty resiieclively. All questions co.isidered by the tribunal, includ- ing tlic final award, shall be decided by a majority of all the Arbitrators. Each of the high con- tracting jiarties shall also name one person to attend tlu! trilmnal as its Agent to represent it generally in all matters connected with the .uhl- tiation." Articles it, 4 and 5 of the treaty specify the mode in which each iiarty shall submit its case. Article declares that, "In deciding tlic matters submitted to the Arbitrators, they shall be governed by the following three rules, which are agreed upon by the high contracting parties as rules to be taken as applicable to the case, and 27 A1.ABAMA CLAIMS. ALABAMA CLAIMS. by such principles of international law not incon- sistKiit tiR'n'witli as tlic Arliitmtors shall deter- mine to have heen iipiilicuhlu to the case: A neutral Oovermncnl is IiohikI — l''irst, to use due dili;;iMKe to prevent the littnisr out, arming, or erpiippiiij,'. within its jurisdietion, of any vessel Avhieli it has reiison.ible ground to believe is intendrd to cruise or to carry on war against a Power with wliieli it is at peace; and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure from its ju.'sdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry t)n war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to waiiike use. Sec- ondly, not to jiermit or suffer either belligerent to malte use of its ports ur waters as the base of naval openitions against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augnientation of mili- tary supplies or arms, or tlic recruitment of men. Thirdly to e.xcrcise duo diligence in its jwn ports and ^vaters. and, a3 to all persons within its ju'isdiciiou, to jjrevcnt any violation of the foregoing obligations an<l duties. Ilcr Britannic Majesty has commanded her High C'mnnis- sioners and Plenipotentiaries to declare that Her Majesty's Government cannot assent to the fore- going rules as a statement of principles of inter- national law which were in force at the time when the claims mentioned in Article 1 arose, hut that Her JIajesty's Government, in order to cvin<'c its desire of strengtliening tin; friendly relations betw ?n tlie two countries and of making satisfactory provision for the future, agrees that in deciding the questions between the two countries arising out of those claims, the Arbitrators should assume that Her JIajesty's Government had undertaken to act upon the principles set forth in these rules. And the high "ontracting parties agree to observe these nile s between themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowledge of other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to them." Articles 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the procedure of the tribunal of arbitration, and provide for the determination of claims, by assessors anil commissioners, in ca.se the Arbitrators should llnd any liability on tlie part of Great Britain and should not award a sum in gross to be paid in Bcttlenicnt thereof. Articles 18 to 25 relate to the Fisheries. By Article 18 it is agreed that in addition to the liberty secured to American lish- crmen by the convention of 1818, "of taking, curing and drying lisli on certain coasts of the British North Aiiiericaii colonies therein defined, the inhabitants of the United States shall have, in common with the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, the liberty for [a i)eiiiid of ten years, and two years further after noliee given by cither party of its wish to terminate the arrange- ment] ... to take lish of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea-coasls and shores, and in the hays, harbours and creeks, of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and the colony of Prince Edward's Island, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, with- out being restricted lO any distance from the shore, with permission to land upon the said coasts and shores and islands, and also upon the Magdalen Islands, for the purpose of drying their ni'ts and curing their tlsh; provided ihat, in 80 doing, they do not interfere with the rights of private property, or with British lishernun, in the peaceable use of any part of the said coa.sts in their occupancy for the same purpose. It is understood that the above-niButioned liberty applies solely to the sea-lishery, and that the salmon and shad tisheries, and all other lisheries in rivers and the mouths of rivers, are hereby reserved exclusively for British fishermen." Article 19 secures to British subjects the corre- .sponding rights of fishing, &c., <m the eastern sea-coasts i!!:;'i shores of the United States nortli of ilie 39th parallel of nortli latitude. Article 20 ! icservcs from these stipulations the places that were reserved from the common right of fishing under the first article of the treaty of June 5, 1854. Article 21 provides for the reciprocal admission of fisli and fish oil into each country from the other, free of duty (excepting fish of the inland lakes and fish preserved in oil). Article 22 provides that, "Inasmuch as it is asserted by tlu; Government of Her Britannic Majesty that the privileges accorded to the citizens of the United States under Article XVIII of this treaty are of greater value than those accorded by Articles XIX and XXI of this treaty to the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, and this assertion is not admitted by the Gov- ernment of the United States, it is further agreed that C'omnussioners shall be appointed to determine . . . the amount of any compensa- tion which in their opinion, ought to be jiaid by the Government of the United States to the Gov- ernment cf Her Britannic JIajesty." Article 23 provides for the appointment of such Commis- sioners, one by the President of the United States, one by Her Britannic JIajesty, and the third by the President and Her JIajesty con- jointly; or, failing of agreement within three months, the third Commissioner to he named by tlie Austrian Minister at London. The Coinir.':i- sioncrs to meet at Halifax, and their procedure to be as prescribed and regulated by Articles 24 and 25. Articles 20 to 31 define certain recipro- cal privileges accorded bj' each government to the subjects of the other, including the naviga- tion of the St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine and Stikine Rivers, Lak(! JlicUigan, and the Wclland, St. Lawrence and St. Clair Flats canals ; and the transportation of goods in bond through the territory of one country into the other witliout Iiayment of duties. Article 32 extends the pro- visions of Articles 18 to 25 of the treaty to New- foundland if all parties concerued enact the necessary laws, but not otherwise. Article 33 limits the duration of Articles 18 to 25 and Arti- cle 30, to ten years from the date of their going into eitect, antl "further until the expiration of two years after either of the two high contract- ing parties shall have given notice to the i^ier of its wi.sh to terminate the same." The rcflnin- ing articles of the treaty provide for submitting to the arbitration of the Emperor of Germany vhe Northwestern water-boundary question (in the channel between Vancouver's Island and the conthient) — to complete the settlement of North- western boundary disputes. — I'lratirs and Con- ri'itdona heticccii the U. S. and other I'oiccrs (ed. of 1889), pp. 478-493. Also in C. Cushing, The I'irafi/ of Wa.ihiii;/- ton, app. A. D. 1871-1872.— The Tribunal of Arbi- tration at Geneva, and its Award. — " 'I'he ap- pointment of Arbitrators took place in due course, and with the ready good-will of the three neutral governments. The L^iited States up- 28 ALABAMA CLAIMS. ALANS. pointed Mr. Charles Francis Adams; Great Uritiiin appointed Sir Al(^\ande^ Cocliburn; tlie Kini; of Italy named Count Frederic Sclopis; the President of tlii^ Swiss Confederation, Mr. .lacol) StitmpHi : and the Emperor of Urazil, the Baron d'ltajuba. Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis was appointed Agent of the United States, and Lord Tentcrden of Great Britain. The Tribunal was organized for the rccepticm of the case of each parly, and held its first conference [at Geneva, .Switzerland] on the IHth of December, 1871," Count Selopii being eho-sen to preside. "The printed Case of the United States, with accom- jianying documents, was tiled by Mr. Bancroft Davis, and the printed Case of Great Britain, with documents, ■ by Lord Tenterde* The Tribunal made regulation for the tiling of the respective Counter-Cases on or l)eforo the 15th day of April next ensuing, as required by *ho Treaty; and for the (uinvening of a spiicial meet- ing of the Tribunal, if occasion should require; and then, at a second meeting, on the next day, they adjourned imtil tlie 15th of June next ensu- ing, subject to a prior call by the Secretary, if there should be oceabion." The sessions of the Tribunal were resumed on the luth of June, 1872, according to the adjouriunent, and were c(mtiuned \mtii the 14th of Si^ptomber following, when the decision and award were announced, and were signed by all the Arbitrators except the British representative'. Sir Alexander Cock- burn, who dissented. It was found by the Tribunal that the British Government had "failed to use due diligence in tlie performance of its neutral obligations" with respect to the cruisers Alabama and Florida, and the several tenders of those vessels; and also with respect to tlu! Shenandoah after her departure from Mel- bourne, Feb. 18, 1805, but n<it before that date. With respect to the Georgia, tlie Sumter, the Nashville, the Tallahassee and the Chickainauga, it was the linding of 'he Tribunal that Great Britain had not failed to perform the duties of a neutral power. So far as relates to the vessels called the Sallie, the Jelferson Davis, the 3Iusic, the Boston, and the V. II. Joy, it was the deci- sion of the Tribunal tliat they ought to be excluded from consideration for want of evi- dence. "So far as relates to the particulars of the indemnity claimed by the United States, tlie costs of ijiirsuit of Confederate cruisers " are declared to be "not, in the judgment of the Tribunal, properly distinguishable from the gen- eraj expiuises ot the war carried on by the United States," and "there is no ground for awarding to the United States any sun li- way of indemnity un i^r this head." A s.uillai- deci- sion put aside the whole consideration of claims for " prospective eai:>i!igs." Finally, the award was rendered in the following language; "Whereas, in order to arrive at an equitable compensation for the damages which have been sustained, it is necessary to sot aside all double ( laiins for the same losses, and all claims for 'gross freights ' so far as they cxeccid ' net f rcigli ts ;' and whereas it is just anil reasonable to allow interest at a reasonable rate ; and whereas, in nc- eordance with the spirit and letter of the Treaty of Washington, it is preferable to adopt the form of adjudication of a siiiu in gross, rather than to refer the subject of compensation l'>.r further discussion and deliberation to a IJoard of Assessors, as provided by Article X of the said Treaty: The Tribunal, making use of the au- thority conferred tipon it by Article VII of the said Treaiy, by a majority of four voices to one, awards to the United States the sum of fifteen millions live hundred thousand Dollars in gold as the indemnity to lie paid by Great Britain to the L'nited States for the satisfaction of all the claims referred to the consideration of the Tri- bunal, conformably to the provisions contained in Article VII of the aforesaid Treaty." It should be stated that the so-called "indirect claims " of the United States, for consequential losses and damagiw, growing out of the enr:our- agement of the Sotithern Uebillion, the prolong- ation of the war, iV'c., were dropped from con- sideration at the outset of the session of the Tri- bunal, in June, tlie Arbitrators agreeing then in a statement of opinion to the cfTeet that "these claims do not constitute, upon the principles of internatioual law applicable to such cases, good foundation for an award of compensation or computation of damages between nations. " This declaration was aecejited by the United States a8 deci.sive of the question, and the hearing pro- ceeded accordingly. — C. Gushing, The IVcaty oj Wdshinni'iii. Also i.\ F. Wharton, Digest of the Interna- tional Law of the If. .S. , ch. 21 {v. A). ALACA3, OR TOLOSO, Battle of (1212). See Almohauls. and Sr.MN: A. D. 114G-1233. ALADSHA, Battles of (1877). See Tuuks: A. D. 1877-1878. ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). See Noktii C.vitoMN.v: A. 1). 17G0-1771. ALAMANNI. See Ai,i:M.\NNr. ALAMO, The massacre of the (1836). See Texas; A. D. 1821-1830. ALAMOOT, OR ALAMOUT, The castle of. — The stronghoUl of the "Old Man of the ^Mountain," or Sheikh of tlie terrible order of the Assassins, in northern Persia. Its uaino signifies ' ' the Eagle's nest, " or ' ' the Vulture's nest. ' See Assassins. ALANS, OR ALANI, The.— "The Alani are lirsl mentioned by I)iony.sius tlie geographer (B. C. 30-10) who joins them with the Daci and the Tauri, and again places them between the latter and the Agatliyrsi. A similar po.sition (in the south of Russia in Europe, the modem Ukraine) is assigned to them by Pliny and .loseplius. Seneca places them f urth 'i "vest ujjon the Ister. Ptolemy lias two bodies of Alani, one in tlie position above described, the other in Scythia within the Iniaus, north and partly cast of the Caspian. It must liave been from these last, the successors, and, according to some, the descendants of the ancient Jlassagetie, that the Alani came who attacked Pacorus and Tiridates [in .Media and Armenia, A. D. 75]. . . . Tlie result seems to ha\e been that the invaders, after ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at their pleasure, carrie(( oil a vast number of l)risoners and an enormous booty into t.ieir own country." — G. liawlinson, Si.rth Great O.-iintal Monarchy, ch. 17. — E. II. Bunbury, llint. of Ancient Gcn;i., ch. 6, note II.—" The first of thia I the Tartar] race known to the Romans were the Alani. In the fourth century they pitched tlieir tents in the couutry between tliu Volga and 'le Tanais. ot an equal distance from the Black Sea and the Caspian."— J. C. L. Sismoudi, Fali of the lioman Enqnre, ch. 3. 29 ALANS. ALBA. A. D. 376. — Conquest by the Huns. Sco OOTHH (ViKKiOTlIf): A. I). JiTO. A. D. 406-409. — Final Invasion of Gaul. See (}Ai;i.: A. 1). 40(!-40y, A. D. 409-414.— Settlement in Spain. Hcc Spain: A. 1). 409-414. A. D. 429.— With the Vandals in Africa. Sei^ Vandals: A. I). 429-4:ii(. A. D. 451.— At the Battle of Chalons. See lIu.Ns: A. 1). 451. ALARCOS, Battle of (A. D. 1195). Sec Ai.MoHAnr.s. ALARIC'S RAVAGES IN GREECE AND CONQUEST OF ROME. Ste Goriis: A. 1). :«<"): 4(l(l-4(»:j, and Hdmk: A. D. 4US-H0. ALARODIANS. - IBERIANS. - COL- CHIANS.— "The Aliirodiiuis of IlorodoHis, joined with (hi; Siipeires . . . are almost cer- tainly the inhabitants of Armenia, whoso Semitic name was Urarda, or Ararat. ' Alarud,' indeed, is a mc-e variant form of 'Ararud,' the 1 and r being undistinguisliable in the old Persian, and ' Ararud ' serves deterniinately to connect the Ararat of Scripture with the Urardi>, or Urartlia of the Inscriptions. . . . The name of Ararat is constantly used in Srrliiture, but always to de- note a country rather iliui a particular moun- tain. . . . 'I'lii' connexion . . . of Urania with the Babylonian tribe of Akkad is iirovcd by the application in the inscriptions of the ethnic title of Burbur (?) to the Armenian king . . . ; but there is nothing to jjrove whether the Burbur (jr Akkad of Babylonia descended in a very remote age from the mountains to colonize the plains, or whether the Urardians were refugeesof a later period driven northward by the growing power of the Semites. The former supposition, how- ever, id most in ccmforniily with Scriptiu'e, and incidentally with the tenor of the inscrip- tions." — II. C. lljiwlinson, llint. of Ilcrmlotim, bk. 7, app. 3. — "The broad and rich valley of the Kur, which corresnonds closely with the modern Russian provmcc of Georgia, was [anciently] in the'possessionof a people called by Herodottis Sa'peires or Sapeires, whom we may identify with the Iberians of later writers. Ad- joining tipon them towards the sotitli, probably In the country about J>ivan, and so in the neighbourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians, whose nam J must be connected with that of the great mountain. On the other side of the Sapcirian country, in the tracts now known as Mingrelia and Iiiicritia, regions of a wonderful beauty and fertility, were the Colchians, — de- pendi'iits, but not exactly subjects, of Persia." — Q. Hawlinsou, Five (ircat Monarchies: I'cnia, eh. 1. ALASKA: A. D. 1867.— Purchase by the United States. — As early as 185!) there were uu- ollicialconinuniidilions between the Uussian and American govfnuncntj*, on the subject of the sale of Alaska iiy the former to the latter, llus- sia was more than w illing to part with a piece of territory wliich. site found dillicully in defending, In war; and the interests connected with liic llsheries and the fur-trado in the north-west Were disposed to proi.'iote the transfer. In March, 1807, defliiil^' negotiations on the subject were opened by th" Uus.siau minister at AVash- ington, and on the 'i'M of that month he received from Secretary Seward an offer, subject to the President's approval, of $7,200,000, on cuuditioQ that the cession be " free and imencumbered by any reservations, privileges, franci.isca, grants, or possessions by any associated companies, whether corporate or incorporate, Uussian, or any other." "Two days later an answer was returned, stating that the minister believed him- self authorized to accept these terms. On the 29th tiual instructions were received by cable from St. Petersburg. On the same day a note v/as addressed by tlic minister to the secretary of .state, informing him that the tsar consentc(l to the cession of Russian America for the stipu- lated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four o'clock the ne.xt morning the treaty was signed by the two parties without further pliras!. or negoti- ation, in May the treaty was ratified, and on .Tune 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued by the president of the United States." On the 18th of October, 1807, the formal transfer of the territory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau taking possession in the name of the Govern- ment of the United States. — II. H. Bancroft, JliKt. of tJio Pacific States, 1: 28, ch. 28. Ai.so IN W. H. Dall, Alaska and il« Iksourees. pt. 2, ch. 2. — For some account of the aboriginal inhabitants, see Amkuiian Abokigines: Es- KiMAiAN Family and Atiiai'Ascan Family. ALATOONA, Battle of. See Uxnion States OK Am.: a. 1). 1864 (Septe.mbeu — Octoiikk: Geouoia). ALBA. --Alban Mount. — "Cantons . . . having tLi>ir iciul, vous in rome .stronghold, and including a >;ertain number of clansiiips, form the primitive political unities with which Italian history begins. At what period, and to what extent, inch cantons were formed in Latiiim, cannot be determined with precision ; nor is it u matter of special historical interest. The isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlers the most wholesome air, the freshest springs, and the most secin'o position, would doubtless be first occupied by the new comers. Here accord- ingly, along the narrow plateau above Palaz- zuola, between the Alban lake (Logo di Castcllo) and the Alban mount (Monte Cavo) extended the town of Aiba, which was universally regarded as the primitive seat of the Latin stock, and the mother-city of Rome, as well as of all the other OliJ Latin communities. Here, too, on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin canton-centres of Lanir'ium, Aricia, and Tus- culura. . . . All these cantons were in primiti ire times politically soveroii5n, and c&cn of them was governed by its prince with the co-opera- tion of the council of elders and the assembly of warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellov/ ship based on community of descent ond of language not only jicrvaded the whole of them, but manifested itself in an important religious and political institution — the perpetual league of the collective Latin cantons. The presidency belonged originally, according to the tmiversal Italian as well as ilelleuic usage, to that cautim within who.se bounds lay the meeting- place of the league; in this case it was the canton of Alba. . . . The communities entitled to partici- pate in tliu league were in the beginning thirty. . . . The rendezvous of this tmitm was, like the Pambtcotia and tlie I'anionia among the Bimilar confederacies of the Greeks, the ' Latin festival ' (feriic Lutiiue) at which, on the Mount of Alba, upon a day annually appointed by the chief 30 ALBA. ALUEKUNl magistrate foi the purpose, an ox was offered in sacrifice by tlie iisseniblcd Latin stocli to the ' Latin god ' (Jupiter Latiaris)."— T. Jlommsen, Hint, of Rome, lik. 1, ch. 3. Ai.so IN Sir W. Gell, Tojy'ti. of Rome, v. 1. ALBA DE TORMES, Battle of. Sec Si-ain: a. I). IHO'J (AUOI.ST— XOVEMIIEK). ALBAIS, The. See Amehican Anouioi- NEs: Pampas Tkiiies. ALBAN, Kingdom of. See Albion; also, Scori.ANU; 8TH-itTII Centhuieb. ALBANI, The. See Britain, Tbibes of VvA.nv. ALBANIANS: Ancient. See Epibus and ll.I.YUIANS, Medisval. — "From tlie .scttlcnicnt of the Servian Sclavonians witliin the bounds of tlie empire [during the reign of Ilcraelius, first half of tlie seventh century], we may . . . venture to date the earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or Albanian nice on the Hellenic jjopulation. The .Mbanians or Arnauts, who are now called b;, tliemselves Skiptars, are supjiosed to be rem>uns of I lie great Thracian race wliicli, under various names, and more jiiirtieularly as Pa'.oniuns, Eiiirots and Macedcmiaiis, take lin impo' lant part in early Grecian history. Xo distinct Iraceof the period at which tlicj' began to be ro-proprietors of Greece with the Hellenic race can be fo\nid in history. ... It se(>ms very dilTicult to tract! back the history of the Grcjk nation without suspecting that" the germs jf their modern con- dition, like lho.se of the!; neighbours, are to be souglit in the singular events which occurred in the reign of Ilcraelius ■' — G. Finlay, Greece Vmhr the Romans, ch. 4, f.ct. 0. A. D. I443-Iij67. — Scanderbeg's War with the Turks. — "John Caslriot. Lord of Emal- thia (tlie in.K.ern district of Moghlene) [in Epiru.^ or .Albania] had submitted, like the other petty despots of those regions, to Amurath early in his reign, and had ])laced his four sous in tlio Sultan's liands as hostages for his fidelity. Tb-.ce of them died young. The fourth, whose name was George, pleased the Sultan by his beauty, strength and intelligence. Amurath caused him to be brought up iu the Mahometan creed; and, when lie was only eighteen, con- ferred on him the government of one of the Sanjaks of the empire. The young Albanian proved his courage and skill iu many exploits under .Vmurath's eye, and received from him the name of Iskanderbeg, the lord Alexander. When John Castriot died, Amunith took pos- session of liis priiicipaliti(^s and kept the son con- stantly employed in distant wars. Scanderbcg brooded over this injury ; and when the Turkish armies were routed by Huiiyades in the cam- paign of 1143, Scandefbegdeiermined to escajje from their side and assume forcible possession of his patrimonv. lie suddenly entered the tent of the Sultans chief secretary, and forced that functionary, witli tlie poniard at his throat, to write and seal a formal order to the Turkish commander of the strong city of (.'roia, in Albania, to deliver that place and the adjatuMit territory to Scanderbcg, as the Sultan's viceroy. He then stabbed the secretary and hastened to Croia. whore his strategem gained him instant adi'iittanee and submission. He now publicly abjured the Mahometan f .Hh, and declared his intention of defending the creed of his fore- fathers, and restoriut" the independence of his native land. Tlie Christian population tlockcii readily to his banner and the Turks -.vere mas- sacred witliout mercy. For nearly twenty-five years Scanderbcg contended a<:ainst all the jiower of the Ottomans, though, directed by the skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, the conqueror of Constantinople." — Sir E. 8. Crcasj', Hint, of the Otioinan Tiirkx, ch. 4. — " Scanderbcg died a fugitive at Lissus on the Venetian territory [ V. D. 1467J. His sepulchre was soon violated by the Turkish contjuerors; but the janizaries, who wore his bones enchased in a bracelet, declared by this superstitious amulet their involuntary reverence for his valour. . . . His infant son was saved from the national shipwreck; the Castiiots were invested with a, Neapolitan (lukod;)m, and their blood continues to How in the noblest families of the ralm." — E. Gibbon, Decline und Full of tlm Roman Empire, ch. B7. Also in A. Lamarline, Hist, of Turkey, bk. 11, sect. 11-25. A. D. 1694-1696. — Conquests by the Vene- tians. SeoTuuKs: A. I). lOS-t-ieUG. ALBANY, N. Y. : A. D. 1623.— The first Settlement. — In 1614, the year after the first Dutch traders had estallished their openitions on Manhattan Island, they built a trading house, which they called Fort Nassau, on Castle Island, in tlie Hudson lUver, a little below the site of the present city of Albany. Three years later this small fort was carried away by a llood and the island abandoned. In 1023 a more impoitant fortification, namcil Fort Orange, was erected on the site afterwards covered by tlio business part of Albany. That year, "about eighteen families settled themselves at Fort Orange, under Adriaen Joris, who 'staid with them all \?inter,' after sending his sliipliome to Holland in charge of his son. As soon as the colonists had built them- selves ' some huts of bark ' around the fort, the Mahikanders or River Indians [.Mohegans], the 3Iohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senccas, with the Mahawawa or Ottawawa Indians, 'came and made covenants of friendship . . . and desired that they might come and have a constant free trade with them, which was concluded upon.'" — J. II. Brodhead, Uist. of tlte State of JV. I'., r. 1, pp. 55 and 151. A. D. 1630. — Embraced in the land-purchase of Patroon Van Rensselaer. See New Yohk: A. IX 1021-llil(>. A. D. 1664. — Occupied and named by the English. SeeNEwYouK: A. 1). 10(!4, A. D. 1673. — Again occupied by the Dutch. See New Youk: A. I). lOTIJ. A. D. 1754. — The Colonial Congress and its plans of Union. Sec rxiTKi) States ok .Vm. : A. 1). ITol. ^ ALBANY AND SCHENECTADY RAIL- ROAD OPENING. Sec Stea.m Locomotion O.N Land. ALBANY REGENCY, The. See New Youk; A. 1). lyja ALBEMARLE, The Ram, and her de- struction. See United States ok Am.: A, 1). 1H(>4 (.Vi'Uii, — ;May: Nobtii Cauolina), and (Octouku: N. Cauomna). ALBERONI f^--"' , ine Spanish Min- istry of. See «i>ain: A. 1). 1713-1725; and Italy: A. D. 1715-1735. 81 ALUEUT. ALBIGENSES, ALBERT, King of Sweden, A. D. 1385-1388. ....Albert, riector of Brandenburg, A. I). 147()-14H(!.... Albert I., Duke of Austria and King of Germany, A. J). 1298-1308. .. .Albert II., Duke of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, A. D. 1437-1440; King of Germany, A. I). 1438-1440. ALBERTA, The District of Sec Noinii- \vi;ht 'ri:uitiT<)uiKS of (;an.\1)a. ALBERTINE LINE OF SAXONY. See Sa\(i.\y: a. 1). 1180-1553. ALBICI, The.— A Gullic tribe which occu- ])ii(l the hills above 51iissiliii (Marseilles) and will) are (leserihed as a savage people even in I'le time of C'lesar, when they helped the IMassil- iots to defend their city against him. — G. Long, V<cliiii' nf t/ic lioninii Ihpiiblie, r. 5, rh. 4. ALBIGENSES, OR ALBIGEOIS, The. — " Nothing is more curions in Christian history tlian the vitality of the Manieheau opinions. That wild, half poetie, half rationalistic theory of Christianity, . . . appears almost suddeidy in the 12th <'entury, in living, almost irvesist- ible power, lirst in its intermediate settlement in lliilgaria, and on the bcjrders of the Greek Empire, then in Italy, in France, in Ger- many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the Pyrenees. . . . The <hief seat of these opinions was the south of France. Innocent III., on his accession, found not only these daring insur- gents scattered in the cities of Italy, even, as it were, at his own gates (among hiii first acts was to sidxhio the I'aterines of Vilerbo), he found a whole province, a realm, in some re- spects the richest and noblest of his spiritual do- main, absolutely dissevered from his Emp' ■, in almost universal revolt from Latin ChrLstian- ity. ... In no [other] Euroitean country had the clergy (jp entirely, or it should seem so de- servedly, forfeited its nuthoritj'. In none had the Church more ab.solutely ceased to perform its proper functions." — II. II. Jlilman, llist. of L<itiii Ohristianity, hk. 9, ch. 8. — "By mere chance, the sects scattered in South France received the common name of Albigenses, from one of the districts where the agents of the church who came to combat them found them mostly to abound, — the dist-ict around the town of Alba, or Alby; and by this conmiou name they were well known from the commence- ment of the thirteenth century. Under this general denomination parties ct dillerent tonetu were cimiprcheuded together, but the Catharlsts seem to have constituted a pred uniuant element uraong the people thus designated." — A. Nean- dcr, Gen. liiat. of the ChrMan licl. and Ch., Ml pi:r., iU)\ 3, acrt. 4, fit. 13. — " Of the sectaries who sluired the errors of Gnostiiatni and iMani- chrcism and opposed the Catholic Church and her hierarchy, the Albigenses were the most thorough and radical. Their errors were, in- deed, pa.'tly Gnostic and partly JIanichivan, but the latter was the more prominent and fully developed. Tliey received their name from a district of 1 ruedoe, inhabited by the Albigeois and ki" ling the town of Albi. They are called i and Patarini in the acts of the Couiuiil i rs (A. D. 11G3), and in those of the third Ln m, Publiciani (i. e., Pauli- ciani). Like the Cathaii, they also held that the evil spirit created all visible things."— J. Alzog, Manual of Unie. (!li. Jlint., jKriod 3, efxich 2, pt. 1, ch. 3, sect. 238.— "The imputations of irreligion, heresy, and shameless debauchery, whicli have been cast with so much bittternoss on the Albigenses by their persecutors, and which have been so zealously denied by their apologists, are probably not ill founded, if the word Albigi^nses be employed as synonymous with tl J words Provengaux or Languedocians; for they were ajiparenlly a race among whom the hallowed charities of domestics life, and the reverence due to divine ordinances and the hom- age due to divine truth, were often impaired, and not seldom extlngulUied, by ribald jests, by infidel scollings, and by heart-hardening inii)uri- ties. Like other voluptuaries, the Provenyaux (as their remaining literature attests) were ac- customed to find matter for merriment in vices which would have moved wise men to tears. Hut if by the word Albigenses be meant the Vaudois, or those followers (or associates) of Peter AVahlo who revived the doctrines against which the Church of Home directed her censures, then the accusation of dissoluteness of maimers may be safely rejected as altogether calunmious, anil the charge of heresy may be considered, if not as entirely tinfoimded, yet as u cruel and injurious exaggeration." — Sir J. Stephen, Lccta. on the llint. of France, Icct. 7. Ai.BO IN L. JIariotti, Fm Dolciiio and his Tiniis. — See, also, P((uliciinin, anil Vathariats. A. D. 1209. — The First Crusade. — Pope "Innocent III., in organizing the persecution of the iJatiiarins [or CatharistsJ, the Patarins, and the Pauvres de Lyons, exercised a spirit, and displayed a genius similar to tho.so which had already elevated him to almost universal domin- ion; which had enabled him to dictate at once to Italy and to Germany; to c mtrol the kings of France, of Spain, and of England; to overthrow the Greek Empire, and to substitute in its stead a Latin dynastv at Con.-tantiuoplc. In the zeal of the Cistercian Ordci', and of their Abbot, Arnaud Amalric; in the tiery and unwearied (^reaching of the first Inquisitor, the Spanish iMissiouary, Dominic ; in the remorseless activity of Foulquet, Bishop of Toulouse ; and above uU, in the strong and tinpitjing arm of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Ijcicester, Innocent found ready instruments for his purpose. Thus aided, he ex- communicated Kaymond of Toulouse [A. D. 1207], as Chief of tlic Heretics, and he ijromised lemission of sins, and all the privileges wliich had hitherto been exclusively conferred on ad- venturers in Palestine, to the champions who should enroll themselves as Cru.saders in the far more easy enterprise of a Holy War against the Albigenses. In the lirst invasion of his territories [A. 1). 1209], Kaymoud VI. gave way before the terrors excited by the 800,00(> fanatics who pre- cii)itated themselves on Languedoc; and loudly declaring his personal freedom from heresy, he surrendered his chief castles, underwent a humili- ating penaiice, and took the cross against his own subjects. The brave resistance of his nephew IJaymond Uoger, Viscount of Bezii)res, deserved but did not obtain sueeess. When the crusaders surrounded his capital, which was occupied by a mixed population of the two Ueligions, a ques- tion was raised how, in the approaching sack, the Catholics should bo distinguished from the Ilerc- tics. ' Kill them all,' was the ferocious reply of Amalric; 'the Lord will easily know His own.' In compliance with this advice, not one human being within the walls was permitted to survive; 83 ALBIGENSE8. ALI3IGEN8E8. and the tale of slaughter has been variously estimated, bv those who have perhaps exagger- ated the mmibei-s, at (iO.OOO, but even in the ex- tenuiitiug desputeh, whicli tlio Abbot himself nd<lresscd to llie Poi)e, at not fewer than 15,000. Riiyinond Uoirer was not iucliulcd iu this fearful inassiv re, ai»l lie repulsed two altaeks upon Car- cassonne, before a treacherous bivach of faith placed him at tiic disposal of de Montfort, by whom h(! was i)oisoned after a sliort imprison- ment. Tlio removal of that yoimg and gallant Prince •■vas indeed most important to the ulterior project of liis capt(n-, who aimed at permanent establislnnent iu tlie South. Tiic familv of do Montfort liail ranla'd among the nobles of France for more tliau two centuries; and it is traced by some writers tlirougli au illegitimate channel even to the throne: but tlie possessions of Simon himself were scanty; necessity had compelled him to sell the Coiinty of Evrcux to Plnlippo Auguste ; and the English Earldom of Leicester whicli he inherited 'naternally, and the Lordship of a Castle about ten leagues distant from Paris, formed the whole of his revenues." — E. Smedley, Ilist. of France, eh. 4. Ai.so IN J. C. L. de Sismondi, Hist, of the Vrusddes ay'st the Albif/cnsci, eh. 1. — H. II. Mil- man, Hint, of Ddin Vhnntianity, bk. 0, eh. 8. — .1. Alzog, Man. of Unicerm' Chureh Hist., period 2, eiwch 3, pt. 1, eii. 3. — See, also, Inquisition: A. D. 1203-1535. A. D. I2I0-I2I3,— The Second Crusade. — " The comiuest of tlie Viscounty of Bezicrs liad rather inllamcd than satiated tlio cupidity of D ! Montfort and the fanaticism of Amalric [legate of the Pope] and of the monks of Citeaux. Raymond, Count of Toulouse, still possessed the fairest part of Languedoc, and was still sus- pected or accused of affording shelter, if not countenance, to his heretical subjects. . . . The unhappy Kaymond \.-as . . . ag;iin excommuni- cated from tlie Cliriatian Church, and his domin- ions offered a? a reward to the champions who should e.\ecute her sentence against him. To earn that reward Do Jlontfort, at the head of a new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promiso of earthly sjioils and of heavenly blessedness, once more inarched through the devoted land [A. D. 1310], and with him advanced Amalric. At <:<\c\\ suci!es.sive conquest, slaughter, rapine, and woes such as may not bo described tracked and polluted their steps. Heretics, or tliose sus- pected of heresy, wherever they were found, were compelled by the legate to ascend vast piles of burning I'agots' . . . At length the Crusaders rcachedandlaidsiegetotliecityofToulou.se. . . . Throwiu'' liimself into the place, l{)iymond . . . succeeded in repulsing Do Montfort and Amal- ric. It was. however, but a temiiorary respite, and the ;)relii(le to a fearful destruction. From beyond the I'ynuices, at tlie head of 1,000 knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to the rescue of Kaymond, his kinsman, and of the counts of Foix and of Comminges, and of the Viscount of Beam, his vassals; and their united forces came into communication with each other at Muret, a little town which is about three leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also on the 13lh of September [A. D. 1313], at the head of the champions of the Cross, and attended by Seven bishops, appeared Simon de Montfort in full militaiy array. The battle which followed was tierce, short and decisive. . . . Don Pedro 3 was numbered with the slain. His army, de prived of his cominand, broke and dispersed, ami the whole of the infantry of Kaymond and his allies were eitlier put to the sword, or swept away by the current of the Garonne. Toulouse immediately surrendered, and the whole of the dominions of Uaymond submitted to the cou- querors. At a council subsequently held at Jlontpcllier, com|)osed of the arclibisho])s and twenty-eight bishops, Do Montfort was unani- mously acknowledged as prince of the tief and city of Toulouse, and of tlie other counties con- quered by tlio Crusaders under his command." — Sir J. Stephen, Lcct's on the Hist, of France, Icet. 7. Ai.po IN J. C. L. de Sismondi, Hist, of Crusadea iif/'st the Alhi'jciiscs, ch. 3. A. D. 1217-1229. — The Renewed Crusades. — Dissolution of the County of Toulouse. — Pacification of Languedoc. — "The cruel spirit of De Mimtfort would not allow him to rest quiet in his new Empire. Violence and perse- cution marked his rule ; he sought to destroy the Proven(;al population by the s'vord or the stake, nor could he bring himself to tolerate the liber- ties of the citizens of Toulouse. In 1317 the Toulousans again revolted, and war once more broke out betwixt Count Raymond and Simon do Montfort. Tiic latter formed the siege of the capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, when a stone from one of the walls struck liiiu and put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury de Jlontfort, son of Simon, offered to cede to tlio king all his rights in Languedoc, which he was unable to defeud against the old house of Tou- louse. Philip [.ViigiLstiis] hesitated to accept the Important cession, and left the rival houses to the continuance of a struggle carried feebly on by either side." King Philip died iu 1323 and was succeeded by u son, Louis VIII., who had none of his father's reluctance to join in the grasping persecution of tlie unfortunate people of the south. Amaury de Montfort had been fairly driven out of old Simon de Jlontfort's con- quests, and he now sold them to King Louis for the olUce of constable of France. "A new cru- sade was preached against tlie Albigenses; and Louis marched towards Languedoc at the head of a formidable army in the spring of tlie year 1320. The town of Avignon hiul proferrcd to the crusaders the facilities of crossing the Rliono under her walls, but refused entry within them to such a host. Louis having ariivod at Avig- non, insisted oa passing through the town : tlio Avignonais .shut their gates, and defied the mon- arcli, who instanily forni'-d the siege. One of the rich municipalities of tiie soiitli was almost a match for the king of France. He was kept three months under its walls; his army a prey to fam- ine, to disease and to the assaults of a brave garri- son. The crusaders lost 30,000 men. The people of Avignon at length submitted, but on no dis- honourable terms. This was the only resistance tliat Louis experienced in Languedoc. . . . All submitted. Louis retired from his facile con- quest; he himself, and the e.'iiefs of his army stricken by an epideniy which had prevailed in the conquered regions. The monarch's feeble frame .could not resist it; he expired at Montpen- aier. in Auvergne, in November, 1326." Louis VIII. was succeeded by his young son, Louis IX. (Saint Louis), then a boy, under the regency of his energetic and capable mother, Blanche of 88 ALBIGENSES. ALCANTARA. Castile. " The termination of the war with the Alljigenses, and the paciflcation, or it might bo called the aaiuisition, of Laiigucdoc, was tlio chief aet of Queen Blanche's regency. Louis VIIL had overrun the country without resistance in liis last campaign ; still, at his departure, Ray- mond VL again appearecl, collected soldiers and continued to struggle against the royal lieuten- ant. For upward of two years he maintained himself; the attention of Blanche being occupied by the league of the barons against her. The successes of Raymond VIL, accomiianied by cruelties, awalicned the vindictive zeal of the pojjc. Liuiguedoc was threatened with another crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, and make considerable cessions, in order to avoid such extremities. In April, 1229, a treaty was signed: in it the rights of De Mont fort were passed over. About two-thirds of the domains of the count of I'oulouse were ceded to the king of France; the remainder was to fall, after Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne, who by the same treaty was to marry one of the royal princes: heirs failing them, it was to revert to the crown [wliicli it did in 1271]. On tliesc terms, with the liumiliating addition of a public penance. Raymond VIL once more was allowed peaceable possession of Toulouse, and of the part of his domains reserved to him, Alplionse, brother of Louis IX., married Jeanne of Tou- lou.se soon after, and took the title of count of Poitiers; that province being ceded ♦.) him in apanage. Robert, another brother, was made count of Artois at the Siuiio time. Lo 'is himself married JIargaret,tlie eldcstdaughterof Raymond Bcrenger, ccnmt of Provence." — E. E. Crowe, Hist, of France, v. 1, ch. 2-3. — "Tlie struggle ended ina vast increase of tlie power of the French crown, at the expense alilic of the house of Tou- louse and of the house of Aragon. The domin- ions of the count of To\ilouse were divided. A number of liefs, Boziers, Narbonno, Niines, Albi, and some other districts were at once aimcxed to the crown. The capital itself and its county passed to the crown flfty years later. . . . The name of Toulouse, except as the name of the city itself, now passed away, and the new ac- quisitions of Fran('e came in the end to be known by the name of the tongue which was connnon to tliem with A(iuitaiue and Imperial Burgundy [Provence]. Under the name of Languedoo they became one of the greatest and most valu- able provinces of the French kingdom." — E. A. Freeman, Hint. Qeog. of Kiinipe, ch. 9. The brutality and destructiveness of the Crusades. — "The Church ot the Albigenses had been drowned in blood. These supposed heretics had been swept away from the soil of France. The rest of the Languedocian peoi)lc had been overwhelmed with calamity, slaughter, and devastation. Tlie estimates transmitted to ns of the inimbers of the invaders and of the slain are such as almost surpass belief. AVe can neither verify nor correct t'.icm; but we cer- tainly know that, during a long succession of years, Langtiedoc had been invaded by armies more ntuncrous than had ever before been brought togetlier in Eurojiean warfare since the fall of tlie Roman empire. 'VVe know that these hosts were composed of num inllamed by bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that they Inid neither military pay nor magazines; that they provided for all their wants by the sword. living at the expense of the country, and seizing at their pleasure both the harvests of the peas- ants and the merchandise of the citizens. More than three-fourths of the landed proprietors had been despoiled of their flefs and castles! In hundreds of villages, every inhabitant had been massacred. . . . Since the sack of Rome by the Vandals, the European world had never mourned over a national disaster so wide in its extent or so fearful in its character." — Sir J. Stephen, Lects. on the Hist, of France, led. 7. ALBION. — "The most ancient name known to have been given to this island [Britain] is that of Albion. . . . There is, however, another allusion to Britain which seems to carry us much further back, though it has usually been ill understood. It occurs in the story of the labours of Hercules, who, after securing the cows of Geryon, comes from Spain to Liguria, where he is attacked by two giants, whom he kills before making his way to Italy. Now, according to Pomponius 3Iela, the names of the giimts were Albiona and Bergyon, which one may, without much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion and Iberion, representing, undoubtedly, Britain and Ireland, the position of wliicli in the sea is most appropriately symbolized by the story making tliem sons of Neptune or the sea-god. . . . Even in tlie time of Pliny, Albion, as the name of the island, had fallen out of use with Latin authors; but not so with the Greeks, or with the Celts themselves, at any rate those of the Goidelic branch; for they are probably right who suiipose that we have but the same word in the Irish and Scotch Gwlic Alba, genitive Alban, the kingdom of Alban or Scotland beyond the Forth. AJbion would be a form of the name according to tlio Brythonic pronunciation of it. ... It would thus appear that the name Albion is one that has retreated to a corner of the island, to the whole of which it once applied." — J. Rhys, Cdtia Britain, ch. 6. Also in E. Guest, Orirjiuca Ctllicae, ch. 1. — See ScoTLANU: 8Tir-9Tii cicNTiiiiKS. ALBIS, The. — The ancient name of the river Elbe. ALBOIN, King of the Lombards, A. D. 560-57;!. ALCALDE, — ALGUAZIL.—CORREGI- DOR. — "The word alcalde is from the Arabic ' al cadi,' the judge or governor. . . . Alcalde mayor signities a judge, learned in the law, who exercises [in Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil and criminal, in a town or district." In the Spanish colonies the Alcalde mayor was the chief judge. "Irving (Columbus, ii. 331) writes er- roneously alguazil mayor, evidently confounding the two offices. . . . An alguacil mayor, was a chief constable or high shcrill." " Corregidor, a magistrate having civil and criminal jurisdic- tion in the first instance ( 'nisi priiis') and gub- ernatorial inspection in the iiolitica! and_ eco- nomical government in all the towns of the district assigned to him." — II. II. Bancroft, Hist, of tlie Pacific States, r. 1, pp. 297 and 2i)0, foot-notes. ALCANIZ, Battle of. See Spain: A. D. 1809 (Fekuuauy — Jl'NE). ALCANTARA, Battle of ths (1580). See PouTt'dAi,; A. D. ir)75)-1580. ALCANTARA, Knights of.— "Towards the close of Alfonso's reign [Alfonso VIII. of Castile and Leon, who called himself ' the Em- 34 ALCANTARA. ALEMANNI, A. D. 250. pcror,' A. D. 1120-1157], may be assigned the origin of the miliUiry order of Alcantara. Two cavaliers of Salamanai, don Suero and don Gomez, left that city with tlic design of choos- ing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, whence they could not only arrest the continual Incursions of the floors, but make hostile irrup- tions th'Mnselves into the territories of tlie misbe- lievers. I'roceeding along the banks of the Coalcs, tliey fell in with a hermit, Amando by name, who encoura. ^d thera in their patriotic design and recomnit dcil the neighbouring her- mitage of St. Juliar 5 an excellent site for a fortress. Having examined and approved the situation, they applied to the bishop of Sala- manca for permission to occupy the place: that permission was readily granted : witli his assist- ance, and that of tlio hermit Amando, the two cavaliers erected a castle aroimd the hermitage. They were now joined by other nobles and by more adventurers, all eager to acquire fame and wealth in this life, glory in the next. Hence the foundation of an order which, under the name, first, of St. Julian, and subsequently of Alcan- tara, rendered good service alike to king and clmrcli." — S. A. Dunham, Ilist. of Spain and Portugal, bk. 3, sert. 3, ch. 1, dir. 3. ALCAZAR, OR " THE THREE KINGS," Battle of (1578 or 1579). Sec Mauocco: The AllAU CONCJUKST AND SINCE. ALCIBIADES, The career of. Sec Gkkece: B. C. 421-418, and 411-407; and Athens: B. C. 415, and 413-411. ALCLYDE. — Uhydderch, a Cumbrian prince of the sixth century who was the victor in a civil conflict, " fixed his hcadi'jarters on a rock in the Clyde, called in the Welsh Alclud [pre- viously a Koman town known as Theodosia], whence it was known to the English for a time as Alclyde; but the Goidels called it Dunbret- tan, or the fortress of the Brythons, which has prevailed in the slightly modified form of Dum- barton. . . . Alclyde was more than once de- stroyed by the Northm'-n."— .J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, ch. 4. — See, also, Cumbuia. ALCMi^ONIDS, The curse and banish- men*-. of the. See Athens: B. C. 613-505. AICOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spain: A. I). 1860-lN, !. ALDIE, Battle of. See United States ok Am.: a. D. 1803 (June — July: Pennsvi,- vania). ALDINE press. The. See Pkintino AND THE Press: A. D. 1400-1515. ALEMANNIA: The Mediaval Duchy. See Germany: A. D. 813-002. ALEMANNI, OR ALAMANNI: A. D. 2I3'— Origin and first appearance.— " Under Antoninus, the Son of Severus, a new and more severe war once more {' I). 213) broke out in Ractia. This also was v.aged against the Chatti ; but by their side a second people is named, which we liero meet for the first time — the Alanianni. Whence they came, we known not. According to a Roman writing a little later, they were a contlux of mi.xed elements; the appella- tion also seems to point to a league of conununi- ties, as well as the fact that, afterwards, the dillcrent tribes comprehended under this name stand forth — more than is the case among the other great Germanic peoples — in their separate cliaracter, and the Juthungi, the Lentienses, and other Alamannic peoples not seldom act inde- pendently. But that it is not the Germans of this region who liere emerge, allied uniier the new name and strengthened by the alliance, is shown as well by the naming of the Alainanni along side of the Cliatti, as by the nifntion of tlie unwonted skilfidness of the Alamanni in equestrian combat. On the contniry, it was certainly, in the main, hordes coming on from the East that lent new strength to the almost extinguished German resistance on the Rhine; it is not improbable that the powerful Semnones, in earlier times dwelling on tlie middle Elbe, of whom there is no further mention after the end of the second century, furnished a strong con- tingent to the Alamanni." — T. Mommsen, Ilist. ofllnine, bk. 8, ch. 4. — "The stJindard quotation respecting the derivation of the name from 'al'— 'all ' and m-n— 'man', so that the word (.somewhat exceptionably) denotes 'men of all sorts,' is from Agathias, who quotes Asinius Quadratus. . . . Notwithstanding tills, I think it is an open question, whetlicr the name may not liave been applied by the truer and more unequivocal Germans of Suabia and Francouia, to certain less definitely Germanic allies from Wurtemberg and Baden, — parts of the Decu- inates Agri — parts which may have supplied a Gallic, a Gallo-Ronian, or even a Slavonic ele- ment to the confederacy ; in which case, a name so German as to have given the present French and Italian name for Germany, may, originally, liave applied to a population other than Ger- manic. I know the apparently paradoxical elc- nicuts in this view ; but I also know that, in the way of etymology, it is quite as safe to trans- late ' all ' by ' alii ' as by ' omnes': and I cannot help thinking tliat the ' al- ' in Ale-maniii is tlie ' al- ' in ' alir-arto '(a foreigner or man of another sort), ' eli-benzo ' (an alien), and 'ali-laiid ' (cap- tivity in foreign land). — Grimm, ii. 628. — Recli- saltcrth, p. 350. And still more satislied am I that the ' al- ' in Al-cmauni is the ' al- ' in Al- satia='el-sass'=''ali-satz '='foreign settlement.' In other words, the prefix in question is more probably the 'al-'iii 'else', thr.n the 'al-'in ' all.' Little, however, of iirportance turns on tills. The locality of the Alcmannl was the parts about the Limes Romanu/. a boundary which, in the time of Alexanuer Severus, Niebuhr thinks they first broke tlirougli. Hence they were the Marchmcn of the frontier, who- ever those Marchmcu were. Other such March- men were the Sucvi; unless, indeed, we con- sider tlio two names as synonymous. Zeuss ad- mits that, between the Siievi of Suabia, and the Alomanni, no tiuigible dilTerence can bo found." — R. G. LaHian, The Cermania of Tacitus; EjnlegomeiM, sect. 11. Also in T. Smilli, Arniiniu.i, pt. 3, ch. 1. — See, also, Suevi, and Bav.mhans. A. D. 259. — Invasion of Gaul and Italy. — The Alcnianni, "hovering on the frontiers of the Empire . . . increased the ge leral dis- order tliat ensued after the death of Dccius. Tliey inflicted severe wounds on the rich provinCi!8 of Gaul; they were the first who rcraovf ;d the veil that covered the feeble majesty of Iti.ly. A numerous body of the Alemanni penetrated across the Danube and through the RhieJan Alps into the jilains of Lombardy, ad- vanced as far as Ravenna and displayed the vic- torious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome [A. D. 25U]. The insult anil the danger 86 ALEMANNI, A. D. 250. ALEMANNI, A. D. 547. rekindled in tlic scniite somi; sparks of their ancient virtue. IJotli tlie Emperors were en- gaged i!i far di.slant wars — Viileriuu in the Eiist and ( jiulienus on tlie Kliinc " 'I'lic senators, however, sii<<eeded in eonl'ronlinf; tlie iindaeions invaders with a force wliich checked their ad- vance, and they "retired into Germany laden with spoil." — E. Ciihhon, Decline ami Fall of the liomaii Kiiijiire, eh. 10. A. D. 270. — Invasion of Italy. — Italy was invaded liy the AUinanni, for th(! second time, in the riijin of Anrelian, A. I). 270. They rav- a;^ed the provinces from the Dannhu to the Po, and were retrealin;;, laden with sjjoils, when the vigorous Emperor intcrcepteil thera, on the banks of the former river. Half the host was permitted to cross the Danube; the other half was surprised and surrounded. IJut the.se last, unable to regain their own country, broke through the Roman lines at their rear and sped into Italy again, si>readiiig havoc as they went. It was only after three great battles. — one near Placentia, in which the Homans were almost beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Has- drubal was defeated), and a third near Pavia, — that the Germanic invaders were destroyed. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jloina/i Em- pire, eh. 11. A. D. 355-361. — Repulse by Julian. See Gaii,: a. 1). 355-301. A. D. 365-367. — Invasion of Gaul. — The Alemanni invaded Gaul in!i(55, committing wide- spread ravages and carrying away into the for- ests of Germany great spoil and many captives. The next winter they crossed the lihine, again, in still greater numbers, defeated the Roman forces ami captured the standards of the Heru- liau and Hatavian au.\iliaries. But Valeutiniau was now Emperor, and he adopted energetic measures. Ills lieutenant Jovimis overcame the invaders in a great battle fought near Chalons and drove them back to their own side of the river boundary. Two years later, the Emperor, himself, jjassed the Rhine and inllicted a memo- nible chastisement on the Aleniaimi. At tho same time he strengtliened the frontier defences, and, by dii)lomatic arts, fomented qmirrels be- tween tlu^ Alemanni and their neighbors, the Burgundians, whicli weakemKl both. — E. Gib- bon. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 25. A. D. 378.— Defeat by Gratian. — On learn- ing that the young Emperor Gratinu was pre- paring to lead the military force of Gaul and the West to the help of his uncle and colleague, Valens, against tho Goths, the Alemanni swarmed across the Rhino into Gaul. Gratian instantly recalled the legions that were marching to Pan- uonia and encountered tlu Gerinan invaders in a great battle fought near Ar'gentaria (moiU'rn t^olmar) in the month of May, A. D. 378. The Alemanni were routed with such slaughter that no more than 5,000 out of -10,000 to 70,000, are said to have escaped. Gratian afterwards crossed the Rhine and humbled his troublesome neighbors in their own country. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jioman Empire, ch. 20. A. "D. 496 -504.— Overthrow by the Franks. —"In the year 490 A. D. the Salians [Salian Franks] began that career of conquest which they followed up with scarcely any intermission until the death of their warrior king. The Aiemaoni, extending tUcmsclvcs from their origi- nal seats on the right 1 .ikof the Rhine, between the Main and the Danube, had pushed forward into (lermanica Prima, where they came into collision with tlie Prankish sid)jects of King Sigebert of Cologne. Clovis tlcw to the assist- ance of his kinsman and defeated the Alemanni in a great battle in tho neighl)ourhood of Zlll- pich [called, conimoidy, the battle of Tolbiacl. lie then cslablislied a considerable ninnber of his Franks in the territory of the Alemaimi, tlie traces of whose residence are found in the names of Franconia and Frankfort." — \V. C. Perry, 2' he Franks, ch. 2. — " Clovis had been intending to cross the Rhine, but the ho.sts of the Alamamii \' came upon him, as it seems, unexpectedly and : forced a battle on the left bank of the river. He seemed to be overmatched, and the horror of an impending ilefeat overshadowed the Prankish ' king. Tlien, in his despair, he bethought him- " self of the God of (,'lotilda [his queen, a Biirguu- diau Christian princess, of the orthodox Oi Catholic faith]. Riiising his eyes to heaven, ho said: 'Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda declares to be the Son of the living God, who art said to give help to those who a/e in trouble and who trust in Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succour! I have called on my gods and they are far from my help. If Thou wilt deliver me from mine enemies, I will believe in Thee, and be baptised in Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden change was seen in the fortunes of tlie Franks. The Alamanni began to waver, they turned, they fled. Their king, according to one account was slain; and the nation seems to have accejited Clovis as its over-lord." The following Christ- mas day Clovis was baptised at Reims and 3,000 of his warriors followed the royal example. " In the early years of the new century, probably about 5')3 or 504, Clovis was again at war with his old enemies, the Alamanni. .... . Clovis ■ moved his army into their territories and won a , victory much more decisive, though less famous ; than that of 406. Tliis time tlie angry king ' wo\ild make no such easj' terms as he had done before. From 'heir pleasant dwellings by the :Main and the Ncckar, from all the valley of tho Middle Rhine, the terrilied Alamanni were forced to tle(^ Their place was taken by Prank- ish settlers, from whom all this district received ■ in the Middle Ages the name of the Duchy of Francia, or, at a rather later date, that of the Circle of Franconia. The Alamanni, with their wives and children, a broken and disi>i'ile(l ho.st, moved southward t(j the sliores of the Lake of Constance and entered the old Roman province of Rhictia. Here they were on what was held to be, in a sense, Italian ground; and the arm of Theodoric, as ruler of Italy, as successor to the Emperors of tho West, was stretched forth to protect them. . . . Eastern Switzerland, West- ern Tyrol, Southern Baden and Wttrtomberg and Southwestern I'.ivaria ])robably formed this new Alaniannis, which will figure in later history as tho ' Diicatus Alamanniie, ' or the Circle of Swabia. — T. Iloflgkin, Italy and Ilcr Inradcrs. hk. 4, eh. 9. « Also TN P. Godwin, Hint, of Fr/incc: Ancient Gmd, hk. 3, eh. 11.— See, also, Suevi: A. D. 460-500; and Fuankb: A. D. 481-511. A. D. 528-729. -^Struggles against the Frank Dominion. See Geumany: A. D. 481- 708. A. D. 547.— Final subjection to the Franks. See Bavaui.v: A. D. 547. 36 ALKPPO. ALEXANDHIA, B. C. 283-240. ALEPPO: A. D. 638-969.— I'likcn liy tlio Arab followers ol' .Maluiiiu t in l!;iX, this tity was rwDViTcil bv the ]Jvziiiiliii(N in ;"'.ll. Sco IJtzan- TiNK KMiMiii;: A. D. UOii-lO'j:.. A. D. 1260.— Destruction by the Mongols. — Tlif JIonKols, miiliT Ivliiil:i u, or llouhifioii, brother of Maiifru Khun, liir rj; overrun Mrso- polauiia and cxtingiiislicd lli Talipliate at Hair- dad, crossi'd the Kupliratcs in tlif spriuj; of 1200 and advanced to Aieppo. Tlie city was taken after a siege of seven days and fiiven up for live days to pillage and slaughter. "When the carnage ceased, the streets were cumbered with corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and children were sold as slaves. The walls of Alepjjo were i.izcil, its mosques destroyed, and its gardens ra\aged." Damasois submitted and was spared. Kliulagu was meditating, it is said, the conquest of Jerusalem, when news of the death of the Great Khan ealleil him to the East. —II. n. Iloworth, Jlint. of (he Mongols, pp. 209- 211. A. D. 1401. — Sack and Massacre by Timour. See TiMoiii. ALESIA, Siege of, by Caesar. See Gaul: B. ('. ns-ut. ALESSANDRIA: The creation of the city (1168). See Italy: A. D. 1174-1183. ALEUTS, The. See American Abo.uoi- NES: KSKIMO. ALEXANDER the Great, B. C. 334-323- — Conquests and Empire. SeeMACKUONiA, iVe., B. C. :i34-;«0, and after. . . .Alexander, King of Poland, A. D. irjOl-loUT Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria. — Abduction and Abdication. Sec BiuiAUiA: A. IJ. 1878-1886. .. .Alexander 1., Czar of Russia, A. D. 1801-1823. . . .Alexan- der I., King of Scotland, A. D, 1107-1124. . . . Alexander II., Pope, A. D. 1001-1073 Alexander II., Czar of Russia, A. D. 185.5- 1881 Alexander II., King of Scotland, A. 1). 1214-1249. . . .Alexander III., Pope, A. D. 1159-1181.... Alexander III., Czar of Russia, A. D. 1881—. . . .Alexander III., King of Scot- land, A. D. 1349-1280. . . Alexander IV., Pope, A. D. 13,54-1261. . . .Alexander V., Pope, A. D. 1409-1410 (elected by the Council of Pisa).... Alexander VI., Pope, A. D. 1492-1503 Alex- ander VII., Pope, A. D. 1655-1007 Alex- ander VIII., Pope, A. D. 1089-1091.... Alex- ander Severus, Roman Emperor, A. D. 222-2:35. ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 332.— The Found- ing of the City.— ""Wlien Alexander reached the Egyptian military station at the little town or village of llhakotis, he saw with the quick eye of a great commander how- to turn this petty settlement into a great city, and to make its roadstead, out of which ships could be blown by a change of wind, into a double harbour roomy enough to shelter tie navies of the world. All tlmt was needed wm to join the island bv a mole to the continent. The site was admiriibly secure and convenien'„, a narrow strip of land "between the Jlediterranean and the great inland Lake Mare- otls. The whole northern side faced the two harbours, which were bounded east and west by the mole, and beyond by the long, narrow rocky island of Pharos, stretching parallel with the coast. On the south was the inland port of Lake Mareotis. The length of the citv was more than three mdes, the breadth more than three-quarters of a mUe; the mole was above three-quarters of a mile long and lix hundred feet broad; its breadth is now doiililed, owing to the silling up of the sand. Minlern Alexandria until lately only occupied t'.ic .nole, and was a great town in a corner of the space which Alexander, with large provision for the future, measured out. Tiie form of the new city was ruled by tliat of the sile, but the fancy of Alexander designed it in Ihc shape of a Maeeclonian cloak or ddaniy.a, such as a national hero wears on the (!oiiis of i'.ic kings of Maei'don, his ancestors. TIk^ situation is excellent for commerce. Alexandria, with tlic best Egyptian harbour on the Mediteiraneau, and the inland port coiuiected with the Nile streams and canals, was the natural emporium of the Indian trade. Port Said is su|)erior now, because of its graud artificial port and the advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- .oute."— R. S. Poole, Cities of H'jmit, ch. \%— See, also, MACiiDO.NiA, &c. : B. C. 3:14-330 ; and Egypt: B. V. 333. Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 282- 246. — Greatness and splendor of the City. — Its Commerce. — Its Libraries. — Its Museum. — Its Schools. — I'lolcmy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, succeeded to tlic ihrone of Egypt in 283 B. C. when his father retired from it in his favor, and reigned until 240 B. C. "Alexandria, founded by the great conqueror, increased and beautilied by Ptolemy Sotcr, was now far the greatest city of Alexander's Empire. It was the first of those new foundations which are a marked feature in Hellenism; there were many others of great size and importance — above all, Antioch, then Seleueia on the Tigris, then Nieomedia, Niea;a, Apamea, which lasted; besides such as Lysimacheia, Antigoueia, and others, whicli early disappeared. . . . Alexan- dria was the model for all the rest. The inter- section of two great principal thoroughfares, adorned with colonnades for the footways, formed the centre point, the omphalos of the city. The other streets were at right angles with these thoroughfares, so that the whole place was quite regular. Counting its old part, Khakotis, which was still the habitation of native Egyptians, Alexandria had live quarters, one at least devoted to Jews who had originally settled there in great numbers. The mixed popidation there of Mace- donians, Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians gave a peculiarly complex and variable character to the population. Let us not forget the vast number of strangers from all parts of the world whom trade and politics brought there. It was the great mart where the wealt h of Europe and of Asia changed hands. Alexander had opcnetl the sea- \vay by exploring the coasts of Me(lia and Persia. Caravans from the heail of the Persian Gulf, and ships on the Red Sea, brought all the wonders of Ceylon and China, as well as of Further India, to Alexandria. There, too, the wealth of Spain and Gaul, the produce of Italy and Macedonia, the amber of the Baltic and tiie salt tisli of Pontus, the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the timber of Macedonia and Crete, the pottery and oil of Greece — a thousand imports from all the Mediterranean — came to be cxchauged for the spices of Arabia, the splendid birds and embroi- deries of India and Ceylon, the gold and ivory of Africa, the antelopes, "the apes, the leopards, the elephants of tropical climes. Hence the enormous wealth of the Lagidic, for in addition to the mar- vellous fertility and great population — it is said 87 ALEXANDRIA, U. C. 283-240. ALEXANDKIA. U. C. 282-240. Ui Imvf Imiii seven millions — of Ejjypt, they miide Jill the prollt.s of thi^^ enormous earrying tnitle. We hh'o u t'ood ideii of whiil the sphu- (lour.s of tile eapiliil were by the very full uc<dunt preserved to us by Athenieus of the (f rent feast which inaugurated tlie reiirn of I'liilaih'lphus. . . . All this seems idle pomp, and the doiii;; of an idle sybarite. I'hiladelphiis wasanythin;; but that. ... It was be who opened tip ilie Kj;yp- tian trade with Italy, and made I'uteoli tlie Kreat port for ships from Ale.vandria, which it remained for ceiituries. It was he who explored Ktliiopia and the southern parts of Africa, and brou^jht back not only the curious fauna to his zooIo;,'ieal jfardcns, but the (ii>>t knowledjrc of the Tio^do- dytes for men of scil•ne(^ The cultivation of .science aial of letters too was so remarkably olio of his pursuits that the pro.i;res8 of the Alexan- dria of his day forms an epoch in the world's history, and we mu.st separate his University and its professors from this siininiary, and devote to them a .sepanite section. . . . The history of the orf;ani7.iilioii of the University and its stall is covered with almost impinetrable mist. For the Mus(!um and Library were in the strictest sense what we should now call an University, and one, too, of the Oxford type, where learned men were invited to take Fellowshijis, and spend their leiirned leisun; close to ob.servatories in scienc<'. and a jrreat library of books. Like the mediiev al universities, tliisendowineutof research naturally turned into an eiiLriiie for teaching, as all who desired knowledge Hocked to such a centre, and persuaded the Fcllcw to become a Tutor. The model came from Athens. There the schools, bogiiiiiing with the Academy of Plato, had a fixed iiropertv — u home witli its surrounding pardon, and in order to make this foundation Sure, it was made a shrine where the Muses were worshipped, and where the head of the school, or a priest appointed, performed stated sacriticcs. This, then, being hehl in trust by the successors of the donor, who bccpiealhcd it, to them, was a propc.Tty which it would have b<jon sacrilegious to invade, and so the title Musflum arose for a school of learning. Demetrius the Phalercaii, the friend and protector of Theophrastus, brought this idea with him to Alexandria, when his name- sake drove him into exile [see GllKixii: B. C. 307-197] and it was no doubt his advice to the tli-st Ptolemy which originated the great foun- dation, though Philadelphus, who again exiled Demetrius, gets the credit of it. TIk^ pupil of Aristotle nioriMiver impressed on the king the necessity of storing up in one central repository all that the world knew or could produce, in order to ascertain tlio laws of things from a pro- per analysis of detail. Hence was founded not only the great library, which in those days had a thousand times the value a great library has now, but also observatories, zoological gardens, col- lections of exotic plants, and of other new and strange things brought by exploring expeditions from the furthest regions of Arabia aiul Africa. This library and museum jjroved indited a home for the Muses, and about it a most brilliant group of students in literature and science was formed. The successive librarians were Zenodotus, the grammarian or critic; Callimachus, to wliose poems we shall presently return; Erato.sthenes, the astronomer, who originated the jirocess by which the size of the earth is determined to-day ; Appolionius the Rhodian, disciple and enemy of Callimachus ; Aristoplianesof nyzantiuin, foundr of a school of jihilological criticism; and Arip' .- elms of Samos, ri'putcd to have been the grei.icst Clitic of ancii'iit times. Tlie study of the text of Homer was the chief labour of Zenodotus, Aris- tophanes, and Arislarchus. and it was Aristar- clius who mainly tixed the form in which the Iliad and Odys.scy remain to this day. . . . The vast collections of the library and niii'-eiini actually (U'ti'rmined the whole chamcter of the literature of Alexandria. One word sums it all up — erudition, wlatlier in philosophy, in criti- cism, in .science, even in ])oetry. Strange to say, they neglected not only oratory, for which there was no scope, but history, and this we may attri- bute to the fact that history before Alexander had no charms for Hellenism. Mythical Uik, on the other hand, stnuige uses and curious words, were departments of research dear to them. In science tlicy did great things, so did they in geography. . . . Hut were they original in nothing? Did tlicy add nothing of theif own to the splendid record of Greek literature? In the next gener- ation came the art of criticism, which Ari.star- cliiis dcvelo|)ed into a real science, and of that we may speak in its place; but even in this generation we may claim for them the credit of three original, or nearly original, developments in literature — the pastoral idyll, as wo have it in Theocritus; tlie elegy, as we have it in the Homau imitatoi-s of Philetas and Callimachus; and the romance, or love story, the parent of our modiM-n novels. All these hiul early prototypes in the folk songs of Sicily, in the love songs of >Iinincrmus and of Antiniachus, in the tales of ^Miletus, but still the revival was fairly to be called original. Of these the pastoral idyll was far tlie mo.st remarkable, and laid hold iijion the world for ever." — J. P. Mahally, 'J'/u: IStory oj Alfxandev'K Empire, ch. 13-14. — "There were two Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the larger one in the quarter called the Uruchium, and the smaller one, named 'the daughter,' in the Serapeuin, wliicli was sittiated in the quarter called Uhacotis. The former was totally destroyed in the conllagration of the Bruehium during Ciesar's Alexandrian War [see below: B. C. 48-47]; but the latter, which was of great value. ^remained uninjured (see Matter, lluloire de I'Eeok (l'Ale.niii(lne, fol. 1, p. 133«f7., 237 seq.) It is not stated by any ancient writer where the collection of Pergamus [sec Pehoa- Mf.M] was placed, which Antony gave to Cleo- patra (Plutarch, Anton., c. 58); but it is most probable that it was deposited in the Brucliium, as that quarter of the city was now without a libnuy, and tlu^ queen was anxious to repair the ravages occasioned by the civil war. If this siip])osition is (-orrect, two Alexandrian libraries continued to exist after the time of Ciesar, and this is rendered still more probable by the fact that during the lirst three centuries of the Chris- tian era the Bruehium was still the literary quarter of Alexandria. But a great change took place in the time of Aurelian. This Ilinperor, in suppressing the revolt of Firmus in Egypt, A. D. 273 [see below: A. D. 273] is said to have destroyed the Bruehium ; and though this state- ment is hardly to be taken literally, the Bruehium ceased from this time to be included within the walls of A xandria, and was regarded only as o suburb of tne city. Whether the great library in the Bruehium with the museum and its other 38 ALEXANDUIA, n. C. 282-240. ALEXANDRIA. A. ». 273. literary establlslimoiits, pcrisliod at this time, we do not know; but the Serapciini for llie next ceiiMiry talies its i)la(c as tlic literary (|iiarter of Alexiindria, and l)e(onics tlie eliief library In the city. Hence later writers erroneously speak of tlie Serapeum as if it liad Ih . n from the iH't^inninK the iircnt Alexandrian library. . . . Gibbon seems to think that the whole of the Serapi'um was (le3trovi'<l [A. D. :!'<», by order of the Kmperor Theodosius— see below |; but this was not the ease It would a|)pearlliat it was only the sanctuary of tin; frod that was levelled with the jrround, and that the library, the halls and other buildinj^s in the consecrated ground reniaiiHMl standing; lonj; afterwun's." — E. Gibbon, Ihdine and FM of the Human t.'mpiie, c/i. 28. yiilishy Dr. William N/;»7//.— Concern- ing the rei)ute(l final destruction of the Librny by the Moslems, see below: A. 1). (lU-tiKi, Also in O. Delepierre, llintorieal l)i(lu-iiUii:<, eh. 3.— S. Sharpe, IUkI. of Erjupt, ch. 7, Hand 12. — See, also, Xi;o1'I..\t<inus. B. C. 48-47.— Cffisar and Cleopatra.— The Rising against the Romans.— The Siege. — Destruction of the great Library.— Roman victory. — Krom the battle held of I'liarwdia (see Uo.ME : B. 0. 48) I'cmipeius lied to Alexaudri.i in Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as he stepped on shore. Csesar arrived a f(!\v days afterwards, in close pursuit, and shed 1ear,s, it is said, on being shown bis rival's mangled head, lie had brought scarcely more than 3,000 of his soldiers with him, and he foiuid Egypt in a tur- bulent state of civil war. The throne was in dispute between children of the late king, I'tolemipus Auletes. Clei;patra, the elder daugh- ter, and Ptolemojus, a son, were at war with one another, and ArsinoC, a younger ilaughter, was ready to put forward claims (sec Egypt: B. C. 80-48). Notwith.standing the insignifi- cance of his force, Ca'sar did not hesitate to as- sume to occupy Alexandria and to adjudicate the dispute. But the fascinations of Cleopatra (then twenty years of age) soon made him her partisan, and her scarcely disguised lover. This aggravated the Irritation which was ca\ised in Alexandria by the presence of Cicsar's troops, and a furious rising of the city was provoked. He fortilied himself in the great palace, which he had taken possession of, and which com- manded the causeway to the island. Pharos, thereby commanding the port. Destroj-ing a large part of the city in that neighborhood, he made his position exceedingly strong. At the same time he seized and burned the royal fleet, and th\is caiiscd a contlagratitm in which tiic greater of the two priceless libraries of Alex- andria — the library of the JDiseum — was, much of it, consumed. [See above: B. C. 282-246.] By such measures Cajsar withstood, for several months, a siege conducted on the part of the Alexandrians with great determination and animosity. It was not until March, B. C. 47, that he was relieved from his dangerous situa- tion, by the arrival of a faithful ally, in the per- son of Mithridates, king of Persamus, who led an army into Egvpt, reduced "Pclusium, and crossed the Nile " at the head of the Delta. Ptolemajus advanced with his troops to meet this new invader and was followed and overtaken by Cttsar. In the battle which tlion occurred the Egyptian army was utterly routed and Ptole- msus perished in the Nile. Cleopatra was then married, after the Egyptian fashion, to a younger brother, i',n<l cslai)lished on the thnme, while .Vrsinor was sent a prisoner to Kome. — A. Ilirtius, Tht Aluaitdrian War. .Vi,S(» IN G. Long, DiiiiiiK of l/u- Rumait He- )iuhli<: r. T). ,•//. 26.— C. Meri'vale, lliot. of Oui llomaiiH, Hi. 18,— S. S!) rpe, IHkI. of K/iz/it. ch. 12. A. D. 116.— Dest.-ct-'on of the Jews. See .I|.;ws: A. I). 110. A. D. 215. — Massacre by Caracalla. — "Caracalla was the conunon ciiiiny of iniinkind. He left the capital (and he never iclurned to it) abo\it a year after the nun'der of Gcla [A. 1). 213]. Tile rest of his reign [four vears| was spent in the .several provinces of liu' Empire, partii'ularly those of the E:ist, and every jirov- iiice was, by turns, the scene of his rapine and cniclty. . . . In the midst of (leace, and upon the slightest ])rovo(iition. he issued his commands at Alexandria, Egypt |A. 1). 215], for a general mas.sacre. From a secure' post in tli(; temple of Serajiis, he viewed and din'cted the slaughter of m;iny thousand citizens, as w<'ll as strangers, without distinguishing eillier tlii^ number or the crime of the sulTcrcr.s. " — E. Gibbon, Dirline aiid Fall of the Iloman Fiiijiire, rh. 0. A. b. 260-272.— Tumults of the Third Cen- tury. — "Th(; peophi of Alexandri!i, a various mixture of nations, united the vanity and incon- stancy of the Greeks wiUi the superslilioii and obstinacy of the Egyptians. Tlu; most trilling occasion, a transient; "scarcity of ilesli or lentils, the neglect of un accustomed salutation, u mis- take of precedency in the public baths, or even a religious dispute, were at any time sulHcicnt to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, whoso resentments were furious and implacable. After the captivity of Valerian [the Homan V.m- jjcror, made pri.soner by Sapor, king of Persia, A. I). 200] and the insolence of his son had re- laxed the authority of the laws, the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the ungoverncd rage of their pas.sions, and tlieir unhappy country was the theatre of a civil war, wliich continued (with a few short and s,ispicious truces) above twelve years. AU intercourse was cut off between the several quarters of the atllicted city, every street was polluted with blood, every building ol strength converted into a citadel; nor did the tumult subside till a ccaisiderablo part of Alex- andria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious and magnificent district of Bruchion, with its [lahvces and museum, the residence of the kings and philosophers of Egyjitr, is described, above a century afterwards, as already reduced to its present state of dreary solitude." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Human F/n/n're, ch. 10. A. D. 273. — Destruction of the Bruchium by Aurelian. — After subduing Palmyra and Us (Jueeii Zenobia, A. D. 273, the Emperor Aure- lian was called into Egypt to pot down a re- bellion there, headed by one Firnius, a friend and ally of the Palmyreno ciueeii. EIrnuis had great wealth, derived from trade, and from the paper-manufacture of Egypt, which was mostly in his hands, lie was defeated and put to death. "To Aurelian's war against Firiuus, or to that of Probus a little before in Egypt, may be re- ferred the destruction of Bruchium, a great quarter of Alexandria, whicli according to Am- mianus Jiarcellinus, was ruined imder Aurelian and remained deserted e'.ern:^; ■. "—.I. B. L. Cre- vier, Jlist. of the Jioin-in Emperuis, bk. 27. 39 AI-KXAXDUIA, A. I). 200. AI.EXANDniA, A. I). 6-»l-«46. A. D. 296. —Siege by Diocletian.— A jrciieral rcvcplt of the Ariir.iii |iiiiviii(i s of llic Hdiimii Kiupirc (KTiirrid A. 1). -IMi. Tlie l)uibiin>u.< triliih i)f Ktli' )|>iii and the (h'scrt wero hroufflit Into iilllmicc Willi till' proviiuiiils of Egypt, (Jyri'iiaicu, CiUlliu^'o aixi Muiiritunia, aiuj the tlaiiio of war was uiiiviTsal. Both the (.'iiipcrors of Ihc: tiiiiL', Diocletian and Maxiniiau, were cidlcd to the Alrican Held. " Diocldiau, on Ids side, opened the (iiinpai>;n in Kjfyi't liy tlie liltfje of Alexandria, cut olfthe acpiediicts which conveyed the waters of the Nile ii'to every (jnar- tei '>f that innnense city, and, rendering his camp impregnable to the sidlies of the besieged multituih', lie jnished his reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of eight monlliB, Ah'Xandria, wasted by the sword and by lire, implored tlii^ cleinency of the coiKiiieror, but i(. experienced the full extenlof his severity. Many thousands of the citizens perished in a pro- miscuous slaugliler, and there were few obnox- ious persons in Egypt who escaped a sentence eillier of death or at least of exile. The fate of Husiris and of Coptos was still more melancholy than that of Alexandria; tliose proud cities . . . were utterly destroyed." — E. Uibbon, Decline and Full 11/ t/ie liomtiit Kiiijiirc, ch. 18. A. D. 365. —Great Earthquake. See Eaiith- (jtAiii; IN riiii l{oMA.\ Woiii.D: A. 1). iJlio. A. O. 389. — Destruction of the Serapeum. — " After tlie cilicta of Tlieodosius had severely jirohibited the sacrilices of the pagans, they were still tolirated in the city and temple of Serapis. . . . The archepiscopal throne of Alexandria was lilled by Theophilus, the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue; u bold, bad man, whose hands were alternately polutcd with gold and with blood. His pious indignation >va8 excited by the honours of Serapis. . . . The votaries of Serapis, whose strengtli and numbers were much inferior to tlio.se of their antagonists, rose in arms [A. D. 381)] at the instigation of the philo- sopher Olympius, who exhorted them to die in the defence of tlic altars of the gods. These pagan fanatics fortified themselves in the temple, or rather fortress, of Herapis; repelled the be- siegers by daring sallies and a resolute defence ; and, by the inhuman cruelties which they exer- cised on their Christian prisoners, obtained the last consolation of despair. The efforts of the prudent magistrate were usefully exerted for the establishment of a, truce till the answer of Tlieo- dosius should determine the fate of Serapis." The judgment of the emperor condemned the great temple to destruction and it was reduced fo a heap of ruins. "Tlie valuable library of Alexandria was pillaged or destroyed ; and, near twenty years afterwards, the appearance of the empty shelves excited the regret and indignation of every spectator whose mind was not totally darkened by religious prejudice." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of tlie Iloniun Empire, ch. 28. — Gibbon's statement as to the destruction of the great library in the Serapeum is called in ques- tion by his learned annotator. Dr. Smith. See above: B. C. 282-246. A. D. 413-415.— The Patriarch Cyril and his Mobs. — "His voice [that .if C^ril, Patri- arch of Alexandria, A. 1). 413—144] inflamed or appeased the passions of the multitude: his com- mands were blindly obeyed by his mnnerous and fanatic parabolani, familiarized in tlieir daily office with scenes of death ; and the priefects of Egypt we "e a^ved or provoked bv the temporal poiVer of hese Christian pontilVs. Ardent in ilic iiroseculion of heresy, Cyril auspiciously opened his reign by oppressing the Js'ovatiaus, the most innocent and harmless of the sectaries. . . . The toleration, and even the i)rivilege8 of the Jews, who had multiplii'd to the number of 40,01)0, weri! se(Mired bv the laws of the Ciesars and I'toleinies, and a long prescription of 7(M) years since the I'oiindation of Alexandria. With- out any legal senlenee, without any royal man- date, tfie patriarch, at the dawn of day, led a seditious nudiitude to the attack of tlie syna- KOgiics. Unarmed and unprepared, the .Tows were incaiialile of resi.itanee; their houses of Jirayer weri' levelled with th groun<I, and the episcojml warrior, after rewarding his troops with the plunder of their goods, expelled from the city tli<' remnant of the misbelieving nation. Per- hajis he might pleai' the in.solencc^ of their prosperity, and their iteadly liatred of the Cliris- tiai:s, whose blood tliey had recently shed in a malicious or accidental tumult. Such erinies would have deserved Uw. animadversions of the magistrate; but in this promiscuous outrage the innocent were confoundec. with the guilty." — E. Gibbon. D<rline mid Fidl of t/ie liniiiiiii Km- pire, cli. 47. — " liefore long the adherents of the archbishop were guilty of a more atrocious and unprovoked erinie, of the guilt of which a deep suspicion attadied to Cyril. All Alexandria respected, honoured, took prid'' in the celebrated Ilypatia. She was a ivoman of extraordinary learning; in her was centred the lingering knowl- edges of that Alexandrian Platonism cultivated by Plotinus and his school. Her beauty was equal to her learning; her modesty commended both. . . . Ilypatia lived in great intimacy with the pra'fcct Orestes; the only charge whiisjiered against her was that 'she encouraged him m his hostility to tlie patriarch. . . . Some of Cyril's ferocious partisans seized this woman, dragged her from her chariot, ind with the most revolt- ing indecency tort her clothes off and then rent her limb from hmb." — H. H. Milinan, Ui»t. oj Latin Chrisliin.'ti/, bk. 2. r!> 3 Also in C. Idngsley, iii/patia. A. D. 616. — Taken by Chosroes. Sec Egypt: A. D. 610-628. A. D. 641-646. — The Moslem Conquest. — The prec'"!; «' I'e of events in the Moslem con- qiic'it of Egj pi, by Amru, lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, is uncertain. Sir Wm. Muir fixes i.,e flret surrender of Alexandria to Amru in A. D. 041. After thut it was reoccupied by the Byzantines either once or twice, on occasions of neglect by the Arabs, as they pursued their con- quests elsewhere. 'The probability seems to be that this occurred only once, in 646. It seems also probable, as remarked by Sir W. Muir, that tlie two sieges on the taking and retaking of the city — 641 and 646 — have been much confused in the scanty accounts which liave come down to us. On the first occasion Alexandria would appear to have been generously treated; while, on the second, it suffered pillage and its fortifications were destroyed. IIow far there is_ truth in the commonly accepted story of the deliberate burn- ing of the great Alexandrian Library — or so much of it as had escaped destruction at tlic hands of Poman generals and Christian patriarchs — is a question still in dispute. Gibbon discredited the story, and Sir William Muir, the latest of 40 A'.EXANniUA. A. D. n41-«40. ALLOBUOGES. students in Mnhonictnn history, declines even the menliiin of it in liis namitivc of ilic cdninicit of E)fypt. Hut otiicr liistoriiiiis nf repute niaintnin tlif"i)riil)ul)le iiccuriicy of t lie tale told l)y Aliul- pliarajrus— tliat ('alll)li Omar ordered tlip de- stnutidii of tlie IJhrary, on tlie ground tliat, if tlie hciolts in it ajjn'ed witli the Ivoran they were useless, if they disagreed witli it they were pornieiou8.— 8i'e Mahometan Conqi'est: A. D. 64(1-640. A. D. 815-823.— Occupied by piratical Sar- acens from Spam. 8ee CUKTI,: A. 1). M'j;(. A. D. 1798.— Captured by the French under Bonaparte. See Kuanck: A. 1). 170H (Mav — AfllfHT). A. D. i8oi-t8o2. — Battle of French and English. — Restoration to the Turks. See FliANCK: A. I). 1H(M-|H((2. A. D. 1807.— Surrendered to the English. — The brief occupation and humiliating capitu- lation See PiiiKs: A. 1). 1S(MI-1S(I7. A. U. 1840.— Bombardment by the English. SeeTlliKs: A. D. Is;il-1H.',0. A. D. 1882.— Bombardment by the English fleet. — Massacre of Europeans. — Destruction. SecEoYi'T; A. I). IHT.VISHS, and 1HH2-18H;!. ALEXANDRIA, LA., The Burning of. See iNiTKi) StatksopAm. : A. I). 1H04 (.March — .May: Lodisia.sa ALEXANDRIA VA., A. D. i86i (May).— Occupation by Uni'/n troops.— Murder of Col- onel Ellsworth, tiee I'.mtkd Statks op A.m. : A. I), mn (.May: VmoiNi.\). ALEXANDRIAN TALENT. See Talent. ALEXIS, Czar of Russia, A. D. 164r>-1670. ALEXIUS I. (Comnenus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 1081-1118. ....Alexius II. (Comnenus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), V. I). 1181- 1183 — Alexius III. (Angelus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. D. 1195- l'.JO;j — Alexius IV. (Angelus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. i). 120^- 1204 Alexius V. (Dncas), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 1204. ALFONSO I., King of Aragon and Navarre, A. U. 1104-1134. . . .Alfo so I., King of Castile, A. D. ]0;2-1100; and VI. of Leon, A. I). 1065- llOi). ...Alfonso I., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. 1). 730-757 Alfonso I., King of Portugal, A. 1). 1112-1185.... Alfonso I., King of Sicily, A. D. 1416-1458. . . . Alfonso II., King of Aragon, A D. 1163-1196. ....Alfonso II., King of Castile, A. D. 1126- 1157 — Alfonso II., King of Leon and th3 Asturias, or Oviedo, A. U. 791-842. . . .Alfonso II., Kmg of Naples, A. L). 1494-1495 Alfonso II., King of Portugal, A. D. 1211- 1223... Alfonso III., King of Aragon, A. D. 1285-1291. . . Alfonso III.,TCing of Castile, A. D. 1158-1214... Alfonso III., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. I). 806-910. . . Alfonso III., King of Portugal, A. D. 1244- 1279.... Alfonso IV., King ofAtaeon, A. D 1327-1336 ...Alfonso lV.,^King ofLeon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. 1). 925-930.. ,0-?""° iX- ^^°^ °^ Portugal, A. D. 1323- l^ol . . .Alfonso v., Kiag of Aragon and I. of ^.'fi'';'.-^^- D- 1«6-1458; I. of Naples. A. D. .443-1408. ...Alfonso V., King of Leon and »ir ■'^st""as, or Oviedo, A. D. 999-1027 Alfonso v., King of Portugal, A. D. 1438-1481' Alfonso VI., King of Portugal, A. D. 1656-ltm7. . . .Alfonso VII., King of Leon, A. D. 1109-1126 .. Alfonso VIII., King of Leon, A. D. 1126-1157. . . A'fonso IX., King of Leon, A. I). 1188-1230. Alfonso X., King of Leon and Castile, A. I). 12. .'-12M4 . Alfonso XI., King of Leon and Castile, .\. I». 1312-1350.... Alfonso XII., King of Spain, A. I). 1874- 1885. ALFORD, Battle of (A. D. 1645). See ScoTt.ANi): .V. 1>. 1644 lai.'i. ALFRED, called the Great, King of Wessex, \. .'> HTl 901. ALGIEr'S AND ALGERIA,— ' The term Algiers literally s'jfiiilie.s 'the Island,' and was derived from the ori^'iiial construction of its harbour, one side of which was separated from the land. "—M. HuHsell, /fiKt. of th,' llnrlxin/ Slatcg, p, 314. — For history, see Bahiiauv Statks. ALGIHED, The.— The term by which a war is jiroclainied among the Malinnietans to bo a Holy War. ALGONKINS, OR ALGONQUINS, The. See .\mi;ui('an .Vdouiciinks: Ai.oonkin Family. ALGUAZIL. See Alcalde. ALHAMA, The taking of See Spain: A. D. 1476- 1492, ALHAMBRA, The building of the. See Spain: A. I). 1238-1273. ALI, Caliph, A. I). 6.55-(i61. ALIA, Battle of the (B. C. 300). See Rome: n. ('. 390-347. ALIBAMl i, OR ALIBAMONS, The. See Amf.iiican Aiiou'cinks ; Miskiiooee Family. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS, The. See Unitkii Status of Am: A. D. 1798. ALIGARH, Battle of (1803). See India: A. U. 1798-1805. ALIWAL, Battle of (1846). See India: A I). 1845-1849. ALJUBAROTA, Battle of (1385). See Poutuoal: a. D. 1383-1385, and Spain: A. D 1368-1479. ALKMAAR, Siege by the Spaniards and successful defense (1573). See Netiieklands: A. I). 1573-1574. ALKMAR, Battle of SccFuance: A. D. 1799 (Septemheii — Octoder). "ALL THE TALENTS," The Ministry of. SeoEsoLANi): A. I). 1801-1806, and 1806- 1812. ALLEGHANS, The. See American Abo- rigines: Allecilvns. ALLEMAGNE. — The French name for Germany, derived from the conl'ederaiion of the Alemanni. See Alemaxki: A. D. 213. ALLEN, Ethan, and the Green Mountain Boys. Sec Vermont. A. 1). 1749-1774... And the Capture of Fort T'conderoga. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1775 (.May). ALLERHEIM, Bs.ttle of (or Second battle of Nordlingen, — 1645.) See Germany: A. I). 1640-1645. ALLERTON, Isaac, and the Plymouth Colony. See MAf.SACiiu.sKTTs (I'ly.moith): A. D. 1623-1629, and after. ALLIANCE, The Farmers'. See United States of Am. • j\. O. 1877-1891. ALLuBROGEIS, Conquest of the. — The AUobrogcs (see i-Bdui ; also Gails) having sheltered the ehiela of the Sniyes, when the lat- 41 ..u*- ALLOBHOQES. ALOD. *CT succumbod to the Romans, and having I refused to lU•li^•(!^ them up, the proconsul Cii. ! I)oniiti\iH marched liis army toward their coun- try, U. C. I'Jl. The Allobroi-'cs advanced to meet him and were defeated at Vindalium, near the jimction of tlie Sorgues willi the Hlione. and not far from Avignon, having 20,000 men sluiti and 'ii,W)i) talien prisoners. The Arverni, wl\o were the allies of the Allobroges, then took tho ' tiehl, crossing the C'evennes mountains and the j liver Hhonc with a vast host, to attack the snuiU i Koman army of IIO.OOO men, which had passed | under the couunand of Q. Fahius Maxinuis vKMiiManus. <»n the Sih of August, B. ('. 121, the (iaulish horde encountered the legions of Home, at a point near the junction of the Isere and the Uhoue, and were routed with such enor- mous slaughter that 150,000 are said to have been slain or drowned. This battle settled the fate of the Allobroges, who surrendered to Home without further struggle: but the Arverni were not pursued. The liiial con(iuest of that people was reserved for Oitsar. — G. lAmg, ,Utctine of the lidiiiaii Ucpubhc, c. 1, ch. 21. ALMA, Battle of the. See Russi.\: A D. 1854 (St-.1>TF.MIU-.K) ALMAGROS AND PIZARROS, The quarrel of the. See I'ljir: A. 1). 15:!:!-1548. ALMANZA, Battle of (A. D. 1707). See Spain: A. 1). 1707. ALMENARA, Battle of (A. D. 1710). See Spain: A. 1). 1707-1710. ALMOHADES, The. — Tho empire of the Almoravides, in Morocco and Spain, which originated in a Moslem missionary m vcmont, was overturned in the middle of the twelfth cen- tury by a movement of somewhat similar nature. The agitating cause of tho revolution was a re- ligious teacher named Jfahomet ben Abdallah, who ro.ie in the leign of All (succes.sor to the j^rcat Almoravido prince, Joseph), who gained the odor of sanctitv at Morocco and who took the title of Al Meli'di, or El Jlahdi, the Leader, "giving himself out for the person whom inanj' Midiomelaiis expect under that title. As before, the sect grew into an army, and the army grew into an empire. The new dynasty were calli'd Almohades from Al Melidi, and l)y his ajipoint- ment a certain Abdelmumen was elected Caliph and Commander of the Faithful. Under his vigorous guidance the new kingdom rapidly grew, till the Almohades ol)tained (jiuto tho upper hand in Afri<'a, and in 1140 they too pas.sed into Spain. Under AbiU Imuincn and his successors, .Joseph and .b'col) Alman.siir, tlii^ Al- mohades entirely supplanted the Almoravides, and became more formidable foes than they had been to the rising Christian powers. .Tacoh Al- niansor won in 11U5 the terrible batth; of Alarcos against Alfonso of Castile, and carried his con- quests deep into that kingdom. Ilis faiin' spread through tile whole Moslem world. . , . With Jacob .Umansor pcrislieil the glory of the Almo- ha<les. His successor, Mahomet, lost in 1211 [June 10) the great batth' of Alacab or Tolosa against -Mfon.so, and that day may be said to liavi' decided tlic fate of Malmmelauism in Sjiaiu. The Alinohade dynasty gr.idually declined. . . . Tiie Almohades, like the Oinmiails anil the Al- moravides, v.iiiish from history amidst a scene of contusion the details of which it were hopeless to attempt to rememl.vr." — E. A. Freeman, Uint. ami Vom/utnts of the tiiracenn, het. 5. Also in II. Coppfie, Conquent of Spain by the Arah-Moorii, bk. 8, ch. 4.— Sec, uiso, Spain . A. D. 1140-1233. ALMONACID, Battle of. See Spain: A. 1). 180!) (AllUST— NoVK.MIlKli). ALMORAVIDES, The.— During the con- fusions of the nth century in the Jtosicin world, a missionary from Kairwan — one Abdallah — preaching the faith of Lslaiii to a wild tribe in Western North .Vfrica, created a religious move- ment which "naturally led to a political one." " The tribe now called themselves Almoravides, or more properly Morabethah, which appears to mean followers of tho Marabout or religious teacher Abdallah does not appear to have Inm- self claimed more than a religious authority, but their princes Zachariah anil Abu Bekr were comi)letely guided by his coun.sels. After liis death Abu Bekr founded in 1070 the city of Morocco. There he left ns his lieutenant his cousin JoseiJh, who grew so powerful that Abu Bekr, by a wonderful exercise of moderation, abdicated in his favour, to avoid a probable civil war. This Joseph, when he had become lord of most jiart of Western Africa, was requested, or caused himself to be requested, to assume the title of Emir al Momcnin, Com- mander of the Faithful. As a loyal subject of the Caliph of Bagdad, he shrank from such sacri- legious usurpation, but he did not scruple to style liim.self Emir Al Muslemin, Commander of the Moslems. . . . The Almoraviile.Ioseph passed over into Spain, like another Tarik; he van- quished Alfonso [the Christian prince of the rising kingdom of (^astile] at Zalacca [Oct. 23, A. D. 1080] and then converted the greater por- tion of Mahometan Spain into an appendage to his own kingdom of Morocco. The chief jior- tion to escape was the kingdom of Zaragossa, the great out-post of the Saracens in north- eastern Spain. . . . The great cities of Andalu- sia were all brought under a degrading submis- sion to the Alinoravidcs. Their dynasty how- ever was not of long duration, and it fell in turn [A. D. 1147] before one whose origin was stiik- mgly similar to their own" [the Almohades]. — E. A. Freeman, Hist, fid Conquests of the Sira- cens, Uct. 5. Also in II. Coppee, Conquest of Spain hi/ the Arab-Moors, hk. 8, ch. 2 and 4. — See, al90,'PouTU- oal: Eakly HiSTOiiY. ALOD.— ALODIAL.— " It may be ques- tioned whether any etymological connexion ex- ists between the words odal and alod, but their signilication ap])lied lO land is the same: the alod is the hereditary e.itate derived from primitive occupation; for which the owner owes no service except the personal obligation to ajipear in the hostanilin the council. . . . The land held in full ownership might be either an ethel, an inherited or otherwise acipiired portion of original allot- ment; or an estate created by legal process out of public land. Both these are includeil in the more common term alod; but the former looks for its evidence in the iiedigrce of its owner or in the witness of the community, while the lat- ter can produce the charter or book by which it is created, and i called boclanil. As tho priinitive allnlments gradually lost their liis- lorieal clmractir, as the primitive modes of liansfer became obsolete, and the use of written records took their place, the ethel is lost sight of in the bookland. All the land that is not so ac- 42 A.LOD. AMALFI. counted for is folcliind, or public land."— W. Stubbs, Oimsf. Hist, of Eng., eh. 3, strt. 24, aiid ch. 5, ncct. 30. — "Alodiai lands are conimonly opposed to beneficiary or feudal ; tlie loruier Ijc- ing strictly proprietary, while tlie latter depended upon a superior. In tliis sense the word is of continual recurrence in anciimt histories, laws and instruments. It .sonietim-js, however, bears tlio sense of inlicritance. . . . Hence, in tlio charters of the c'.eventli century, hereditary flcfs arc frequently termed alodia." — I'l. Ilallam, Mid- dle Ages, ch. 'i, pt. 1, note. Also in J. M. Kemble, The S(t.wi!S in England, bk. 1, c7i. 11.— Sec, also, Foi.cland. ALP ARSLAN, Seljouk Turkish Sultan, A. I>. 10()3-1073. ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. ALSACE.— ALSATIA: The Name. See ALliM.\NM: A. 1). 213. A. D. 843-870.— Included in the Kingdom of Lorraine. See Lohkaink: A. I). 843-H70. loth Century. — Joined to the Empire. See LouKAixi;: A. D. <Jll-i)80. loth Century.^ Origin of the House of Hapsburg. See ArsTULx: A. D. 1240-1283. A. D. 1525. -Revolt of the Peasants. See Geilmany: a. D. 1524-ir.2r). A. D. 1621-1622. — Invasions by Mansfeld and his predatory army. See CJfumanv: A. D. ieai-).623. A. D. 1636-1639. — Invasion and conquest by Duke Bernhard of Weimar. — Richelie-j's ap- Sropriation of the conquest for France. Sec ■eumany: A. D. 1034-1039. A. D. 1648. — Cession to Frrnce in the Peace of Westphalia. See Geu.many: A. D. 1048. A. D. 1659. — Renunciation of the claims of the King of Spain. See Fhance : A. D. 1059- 1001. A. D. 1674-1678.— Ravaged in the Cam- paigns of Turenne and Conde. See Netiteh- LANDS (Holland): A. D. 1074-1078. A. D. 1679-1681.— Complete Absorbtion in France. — Assumption of entire Sovereignty by Louis XIV.— Encro. hments of the Chamber of Reannexation.— Seizure of Strasburg. — Overthrow of its independence as an Imperis,! City. See Fkancp;: A. D. 1079-1081. A. D. 1744.— Invasion by the Austrians. See Austkia: A. I). 1743-1744. A. D. 1871.— Ceded to the German Empire by France. See Fu.\nce: A. D. 1871 (J^vncauy —May). 1871-1879.— Organization of government as a German Imperial Province. See Germany: A. D. 1871-1879. ALTA CALIFORNIA-Upper California. See Calikohnl\: A. 1). ir)43-1781. ALTENHEIM, Battle of (A. D. 1675). See .Netiieulands (1Ioll.\nd): A. I). 1674- ALTSNHOVEN, Battle of (1793). See Fiiance: a. 1). 1793(FEimcAUY-Ai-im,) ALTHING, The. Sec TiiiNd; also, Non- MANS— Noutilmen: A. D. 800-1100; and Scan- dinavian States (Denmark— Iceland): A. D. 1849--1H74. ALTIS The. See Olymi-io Festival. <w„ J??^^^^^' ^'■''^ BuANDENUuua: A. D. 114« 11S2. ALTONA: A. D. 1713.— Eurned by the Swedes. See Scandinavian STArE8(SwEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718. ALTOPASCIO, Battle 01(1325). See Italy: A. D. 1813-1330. ALVA IN THE NETHERLANDS. See Nethep.., NDS: A. D. 1506-1508 to 1573-1574. AMADEO, King of Spain, A. 1). 1871-1873. AMAHUACA, The. See Amehican Abou- IQINES: Andesians. AMALASONTHA, Queen of the Ostro- goths. Se'iKoME: A. I). 535-553. "MALaKITES, The.— "Tlie Amalekites weio usualh' regarded as a branch of tlie Edomites or 'Red-slvins'. Amaiek, lilic Kenaz, the lather of the Kenizzites or ' Hunters,' was the grand.son of Esau (Gen. 30: 12, 10). He thus belonged to the group of nations, — Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabitcs, — wlio s^ood in a relation of clo.se kinsliij) I0 Israel. But tliey liad preceded the Israelites in dispossessing tlie older inhabitants of the land, and establisliiiig tliem- selves in th' ir place. The Edomites liad partly d<'stroycd, partly amalgamated the Horites of Mount Seir (Deut. 3: 12)'; the 3Ioabites had done the same to tlie Jjinim, * a i)eople great and manj', and tall as the Aiiakim' (Dent. 2: 10), while tlie Ammonites Uad e.xtirjjated and succeeded to the Hepliaim or 'Giants,' who in tliat part of the country were termed Zam/.unuuim (Ueut. 3: 30; Gen. 14: 5). Edoin however stood m a closer relation to Israel tlian its two more northerly neighbours. . . . Seiiarate from the Edomites or Amalekites were tlie Kenites or wandering 'smiths.' They formed an important Guild in an age when the art of metallurgy was conlined to a few. In the time of Saul -ve lie;ir of tliein as camping among the Amalekites (I. Sam. 15: 0.) . . . The Kenites . . . did uot constitute a race, or even a trilie. They were, at most, a caste. But they had originally come, like the Israelites or the Edomites, from tliose barreu regions of Nortiiern Arabia wliich were peopled by the Jlenti of tlie Egyptian inscriptions. Racially, tlierefore, we may regard them as allied to the descendants of Abraham. While tlie Kenites and Amalekites were thus Semitic in tlieir origin, tlie Ilivites or 'Villagers' are specially asso- •^iated witli Amorites." — A. II. Sayce, iJaa* of the Old Test, ch. 0. Also in II. Ewald, Hist, of Inrael, bk. 1, sect. 4. — See, also, Auahia. AMALFI. — " It was the singula' fate of this city to liave tilled up the interval between two periods of civilization, in neither of which she was ilestined to be distiuguislied. Scarcely known before the end of tlie si.\tli century, Anialtl ran a brilliant career, as a free and trad- ing republic [see Uo.me: A. D. 554-800], which was chocked by the arms of a conqueror in the middle of the twelftli. . . . 'I'liere must be, I suspect, some exaggeration about the commerce and opulence of Amalli, in the only age when she pos.sessed any at all." — II. JIallam, The Middle Ages, ch. 0, pt. 1, teith note. — " Amalfl and Atrani lie close togetlier in two . . . ravines, the mountains almo.st arching over thoni, and the sea washing tlieir very house-walls. ... It is uot easy to imagine the time wlien Amalli and Atrani were one town, with docks and anscnals and harbourage for their associated tleets, and when these little communities were second in importance to no naval power of 43 AMALFI. AMAZONS HIVEli. C'hristiiin Eiiropr. The Hyziiiilinf Empire lost ils liolil on Ittily (luring the' ci;:)!!!! century; iind after this liini'tlic liislory of Caliibriii is niiiinly concerned witli the republics of Niii)les and Amalli. their conflict with the Lombard dukes of Henevento, their opposition to the Saracens, and tlieir linal subjugation by llie Xorman coni|ueror8 of Sicily. Hetween the year S'M A. I)., when Ainnlli' freed itself from the con- trol of Naples and the yoke of 15enevento, and the year 11:11, when Ho^er of Il.nnteville incor- porated the re|iul)lic in his kingdom of the Two Sicilies, this city was the foremost naval ami connnercial jKU't of Italy. The burghers of Amalii elected their own doge; founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the knightly order of S. .lohn ; gave their name ♦f the richest (juarler in Palermo; and owned trading establishments or factories in all the chief cities of the Eevant. Their gold coinage of 'tari' formed the standard of currency before the Florentines had stamped the lily and S. John upon the Tuscan Uoriu. Their shipi)iug regulations supplied Europe with a code of maritime laws. Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark ages, prized and conned a famous copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and their seamen deserved the fame of having tirst used, if they did not actually invent, the compass. . . . The republic had grown and nourished on the decay of the Greek Empire. When the hard-handed race of llauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy [sec Italy (Southern): A. 1). KIOO-IODO], these adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalii. But it was not tlieir interest to extinguish the state. On the contrary, they relied for assistance upon the navies and the armies of the little common- wealth. Xew powers had meanwhile arisen in the North of Italy, who were jealous of rivalry upon the open seas; and wlien the Neapolitans resisted ICiiig Hoger in 1185, they called I'isa to their aid, and sent her fleet to destroy Amalti. The ships of AmalQ were on guard with Hoger's navy in the Hay of Naples. The armed citizens were, under Roger's orders, at Avcrsa. Jlean- while the lioine of the republic lav defenceless on its mountain-girdled seaboard. 'I'lie Pisans sailed into the harbour, sacked the city and carried oil the famous Pandects of Justinian as a trophy. Two years later they returned, to complete the work of devastation. Amalii never recovered from the injuries and the humiliation of these two attacks. It was ever thus that the Italians, like the children of the dragon's teeth which Cadmus sowed, consumed each other." — J. A. Symonds, Ski'tcKes <tml Studicit in lUilt/. pp. 2-4. AMALINGS, OR AIVIALS.— The royal race of the ancient Ostraifoths, as the Halthi or IJalthings were of the Visigoths, both claiming a descent from the gods. AMAZIGH, The. See Liuyans. AMAZONS.— " 'I'lie Amazons, daughters of Ares and llarmonia, are both early cn'ations, and frei|uent reproductions, of the ancient eiiic. . . . .\ nation of courageous, hardy and indefatigable women, dwelling apart from men. permiitins only a short tiinponiry intercourse for the pur- pose of renovating their numbers, and burning out their right brea.st with ir vii^w of enabling thciii.sclves to draw the bow freely, — this was at once a general type stimulating to the fancy of the poet, and u theme eminently popular with his hearers. Nor was it at all repugnant to the faith of the latter — who hail no recorded facts to guide them, and no other standard of credi- bility as to the past except such poetical narra- tives themselves — to conceive communities of Amazons as having actually existed in anterior time. Accordingly we Iind these warlike females constantly reappearing in the ancient poems, and universally accepted as past realities. In the Iliad, when rriaiii wishes to illustrate emphatic- ally the most numerous host in which he ever found himself included, he tells us that it was assembled in Phrygia, on the banks of the Sau- garius, for the purpose of resi.stiiig the formida- ble Amazons. When Hellero])hon is to be em- ployed on a deadly and iierilous undertaking, by those who indirectly wish to procure liis death, he is despatched against the Amazons. . . . The ,\rgoiiautic heroes tind tlu' Amazons on the river ThermOdon in their expedition along the south- ern coast of the Euxine. To the same spot llerakles goes to attack them, in the performance of the ninth labour imposed upon him by Eurys- theus, for the |)urpose of ])rocuiing the girdle of t he Amazonian iiueen, Ilippoly te ; and we arc told that they hail not yet recovered from the losses sustained in this severe aggression when Theseus also assaulted and defeated them, carrying off their (lueen AntiopO. This injury they avenged by invading Attica . . . and penetrated even into Athens itself; where the final battle, hard- fought and at one time doubtful, by which ThO- seus crushed them, was fcnight — in the very heart of the city. Attic antiijuaries contidently pointed out the exact ijosition of the two con- tending armies. . . . No porticm of the ante-his- torical epic appears to have been more (leeply worked into the national mind of Greece than this invasion and defeat of the Amazons. . . . Their ])roper territory was asserted to be the town and plain of Themiskyra, near the Grecian colony of Amisus, on the river Thermodon [northern Asia ,AIinor], a region called after their name by Homan historians and geographers. . . . Some authors jilaced the:r. i:; Libya or Ethiopia." — O. Grote, IIM. of (Ireece, pt. 1, c/i. 11. AMAZONS RIVER, Discovery and Nam- ing of the. — The mouth of the great river of South America was discovered in liiOO by Pin- zon, or Pinv'cm (see A.\ieiiica; A. D. 1409-1500), who called it ' Santa Maria de )a Mar Dulce ' (Saint Mary of the Fresh-AVater Sea). "Tills was the first name given to the river, except tliat older and better one of the Indians, 'Parana,' the Sea; afterwards it was Maraiion and Uio das Amazonas, from the female warriors that were supposed to live near its banks. . , . After Pin- ion's time, there were others who saw the fresh- water sea, but no one was hardy enough to ve.;ture into it. The honor of ils real discovery was reserved for Francisco de Orellana ; and he explored it, not from the east, but from the '.vest, in one of the most daring voyages that was ever recorded. It was accident rather than design that led him to it. After . . . Pizarro had coiKiucred Pi'ru, he sent his brother Gon- zaio, with ;t40 Spanish soldiers, and 4,000 Indians, to explore the great forest east of Quito, ' where there were cinnamon trees' The expe- dition started late in 15i!0, and it was two year.=i before the starved and ragged survivors returned to Quito. Ill the course of their wanderings they had struck the river Coco; buiUliug here a brig- 44 AMAZONS RIVEU. AMEIXAL, antine, they followed down the current, a part of thoin ill the vessel, a part on shore. After a while they met some Indians, who tolil them of a rich country ten days' journey beyond — a country of gold, and with plenty of provisions. Gonzalo placed.Orellami in eoinniand of the biig- antine, and ordered liini, witli oO sokliers, to go on to this gold-ltuul, and reti rn with a load of provision.s. Orellana arrived iit the month of the C'oei) in three days, but found no provisiims; 'and he considered that if he should return with this news to Pizarro, he would not reach him in a year, on account of thr strong current, and that if he remained where he was, he would be of no use to the one or to the other. Not know- ing how long Gonzalo I'izarro would take to reach the place, without consulting any one he set sail and prosecuted his voyage onwaril, intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, and obtain that govcriunent for himself.' Down the Nai>o and the Amazons, for seven months, these Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. At times they suffered terribly from hunger: 'There was nothing to eat but the skins which formed their girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few herbs.' When they did get food they were often obliged to tight hard for it ; and again they were attacked by thousands of naked Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish vessel. At some Indian villages, however, they were kindly received and well fed, so they could rest while 'luilding a new and stronger vessel. . . . Onthe26thof August, 1541, Orellana and his men sailed out to the blue water ' without either pilot, compass, or anything u.seful for naviga- tion; nor did they know what direction they should take' Foilowing the coast, they passed inside of the i.sland of Trinidad, and so at length reached Cubagua in September. From the king of Spain OreUana received a grant of the land he had discovered ; but he died while returning to it, and his company was dispei-sed. ''l was not a very reliable account of the river tlui* was given by Orellana and his chronicler, Padre C'ar- bajal. So Ilerren, tells their story of the warrior females, and very properly adds: 'Every reader may believe as much as he likes.'" — II. II. Sinitn, Brazit, the Amazons, ami the Oiaat, eh. 1. —In eh. 18 of this same work "The Amazon Myth" is discussed at length, with the re|)orts and opinions of numerous travellers, both early anil recent, eonjerning it. — Mr. Southey had so nu»;h respect for the memory of Orellana that he made an effort to restore that bohl but un])rin- cipled discoverer's name to the great rivi'r. " He discarded Maranon, as having too much resem- blanei' to Maianliam, and Amazon, as l)eing founded upon liclion and at the same time ineoii- veiiient. ^Sccordlngly, in his ina]), and in all his references to the great river he (U^uominates it Orellana. This decision of the poet-laureate of <!real Britain has not i)rovi(l authoritative in Brazil. O Aniazonas is the imiversal appellation of the great river among those who lloat upon its waters and who live upon its banks. . . . Pani, the aboriginal name of this river, was more appropriate than any other. It siirnities 'the father of waters.' . .' . The origin of tlie name and mystery eoncerinng the fcnnih; warriors, I think, has been solved within the last few yciirs by the intn'pid Mr. AVallace. . . . Mr. Wallace, I think, shows conclusively that Friar Caspar [Carbajttl] uud his conipunlons saw Indian male j warriors who were attired in habiliments such a.s ; Europeans would attribute to women. . , . I am strongly of the oiiinion tlnit the story of the Annizons has arisen from these feminine-looking [ warriors encountered by the early voyagers." — I J. C. Fletchei- and I). P. Kidder, Brazil "and the i ]iraziUan», ch. 27. Ai.so IN A. \K. Wallace, Traveli on the Ama- zon and Hill Nci/ro, ch. 17. — R. Southey, nint. nj \ Jhuizit. ch. 4 ('•.' 1). AMAZULUS, OR ZULUS.— The Zulu War. See Soi:tii Afuicv: TiiI': AHoiiioiXAi, I.Nii.vnnwNTs; and the same: A. 1). 1877-187S). AMBACTI.— "The Celtic aristocracy [of Gaul] . . . developed the system of retainers, that is, the privilege of th: .'lobility to surrotmd themselves with a muuber of hired mounted ser- vants — the ambacti as they were called — and thereby to form a state within a slate; and, resting on the sui)port of these troops of their own, they deflcd tlie legal authorities and the connnon levy and practically broke uji the com- monwealth. . . . 'rius remarkable word [am- bacti] miist have been in use as early as the sixth century of Rome among the Celts in the valley of the Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, however, but also German, the root of our 'Amt,' as indeed the retainer-system itself is common to the Celts and the Germans. It would be of great historical importance to ascertain whether the word — and therefore the thing — came to the Celts from the Germans or to the G(;rmans from the Celts. If, as is usually sup- posed, the word is originally German and pri- marily signitied the servant standing in battle 'against the back' ('and '-—against, 'bak'= baek^ of his master, this is not wholly irrecon- cilable with the singularly early occurrence of the word among the Celts. . . . It is . . . prob- able that the Celts, in Italy as in Gaul, em- l)loyed Germans chiefly as those hired servants- at-arnis. The 'Swiss guard' would therefore in that case be .some thousands of years older than peojde suppose." — T. >Iommsen, lli.it. of Rome, bk. 5, ch. 7, and foot-note. AMBARRI, The.— A small tribe in Gaul which occupied anciently a district between the Saone, the Rhone and the Ain. — Napoleon III., Hint, of Vmmr, bk. 3, eh. 3, note. AMBIANI, The. See Bei.o.k. AMBITUS. — liribery at elections was termed ambitus among the Romans, and many unavail- ing laws were enacted to check it. — W. Ramsay, .Manual of llonian, .ititir/., ch. 0. AMBl'VARETI, The.— A tribe in ancient Gaul which occupied the left bardcof theMeuse, to the south of the marsh of Peel. — Napoleon III., ITiKt.,of Cicmir, bk. 3, ch. 2, note. AMBLEVE, Battle of (716.) See Fhanks (Mkuovimii.\n IOmi'ikk): .V. 1). r)ll-7.")2. AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tumult of. See FitANci:: A. 1). irM!)-t.-,r.l. AMBOISE, Edict of. See Fu.vnce: A. D. i.-)iii(-i.-)tia AMBO'VNA, Massacre of. 3ee Indi.v: A. 1). 11)00-1702. AMBRACIA (Ambrakja). See Koukyh.\. AMBRONES, The. See CiMuiu and Teu- ■ro.NKs: H. C. li:{-102. AMBROSIAN CHURCH. — AMBRO- SIAN CHANT. Sec Milan: A. I). :i7l-:i!)T. AMEIXAL, OR ESTREMOS, Battle of (1663). .See Poiituoal: A. D. 10;)7-1(WH. 46 -^ AMERICA. FrehUtoric, AilERlCA. AMERICA. The Name. See below: A. D. 1500-1514. Prehistoric. — " Widely scattered throughout the United States, from sea to sea, artiticial mounds are discovered, which may be enumer- ated by tlie thousands or hundreds of thousands. They vary ^'reatly in size; some arc so small that a half-dozen laborers with shovels might con- struct one of them in a day, while others cover ,icres and are scores of feet in height. These mounds were observed by the earliest explorers and pioneers of the country. They did not attract preat attention, however, until the science of areha'ology demanded their investiga- tion. Then they were assumed to furnisli evi- dence of a race of people older than the Indian tribes. Pseud-arehii'ologists descanted on the Moiuid-builders that once inhabited the land, and they told of swarming populations who had reached a high condition of culture, erecting temples, practicing orts in the metals, and using hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the theme of many an essay on the wonders of ancient civilization. The research of the past ten or fifteen years has put this subject in a proper light. First, the am als of the Colum- bian epoch have been carelully studied, and it is found that some of the mounds have been con- structed in historical time, while early explorers and settlers found many actually used by tribes of Xorth American Indians; so we know that many of them were buildeys of mounds. Again, hundreds and thou-sands of these mounds have been carefully examined, and the works of art found therein have been collected and assem- bled in museums. At the same time, the works of art of the Indian tribes, as they were pro- duced before modification by European cidture, have been assembled in the same musuems, and the two classes of collections have been carefully compared. All this has been done with the greatest painstaking, and the ]\Iound builder's arts and the Indian's arts are found to be sub- stantially identical. No fragment of evidi^ncc remains to support the ligment of theory that there was an ancient race of Moiuid-builders superior in culture to the North American Indians. . . . That some of these mounds were built and used in modern times is proved in another way. They often contain articles mani- festly made by white men, such as glass beads and copper ornaments. ... So it chances that to-day unskilled aicha'ologi.sts are collecting many beautiful things in copper, stone, and shell which were made by white men and traded to the Indians. Now, souk; of these things are fotmd in the mounds; and bird Jiipes. elephant pipes, banner stones, copper sjiear heads and knives, and maehine-inade wampiun are col- lected in (|uantities and sold at high prices to wealthy aniatcuni. . . . The study of these mounds, historically and arelueologieally, proves that th' y were used for a variety of purposes. Some were for sepulture, and such are the most common and widely scattered. Others were used a.s artiticial hills on which to build com- munal houses. . . . Some of the very large mounds were sites of large communal houses in which entire tribes dwelt. There is still a third clnsj . . . constructed as places for public assi'mbly. . . . But to explain the mounds and their uses wouhl expand this article into a book. It is enough to say that the Mound-builders were the Indian tri'oes discovered by white men. It may well be that some of the mounds were erected by ♦ribes extinct when Columbus first .saw these" shores, but they were kindred in cul- ture to the peoples that still existed. In the southwestern portion of the United States, con- ditions of aridity prevail. Forests nre few and arc found only at great heights. . . . The tribes lived in the plains and valleys below, while the highlands were their hunting grounds. The arid lands below were often naked of vegetation ; and the ledges and clilTs that stand athwart the lands, and the canyon walls that inclose the streams, were everywhere quarries of loose rock, lying in blocks ready to the builder's hand. Jlcnce these people learned to build their dwellings of stone; and they had large com- mimal houses, even larger than the structures of woml made by the tribes of the ea.st and north. Many of these stone pueblos are still occupied, but the ruins are scattered wide over a region of country embracing a little of California and Nevada, much of Utah, most of Colorado, the whole of New Slexico nnd Arizona, and far southward toward the Isthmus. . . . No ruin has been discovered where evidences of a higher cidture are foimd than exists in modern times at Zuni, Oraibi, or Laguniv. The earliest may have been built thousands of years ago, but they were built by the ancestors of existing tribes and their congeners. A careful study of these ruins, made during the last twenty years, abundantly demonstrates that the pueblo culture began with rude structures of stone and brush, and gradu- ally leveloped, until at the time of the explora- tion of the country by the Spaniards, beginning about 1540, it had reached its highest phase. Zufii [in New SIcxico] has been built since, and it is among the largest and best villages ever established within the territory of the United States without tlie aid of ideas derived from civilized men." AVit'i regard to the ruins of dwellings found sheltered in the craters of extinct volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or other- wise contrived, the conclusion to which all recent archa!ological study tends is the same. "All the stone pueblo ruins, all the clay ruins, all the cliff dwellings, all the crater villages, all the cavate chambers, and all the ttifa-block houses are fully accounted for without resort to hypothet- ical peoples inhabiting the coimtry anterior to the Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture was indigenous; it began at the lowest stage of savagery and developed to the highest, and was in many places passing into barbarism when the good queen sold her jewels." — Major J. W. Powell, PrehiMorie Man in America; in " The Forum," January, 1890. — "The writer believes . . . that the majority of American archiEolo- gists now sees no sufflcient reason for sujiposing that any mysterious superior race has ever lived in any portion of our continent. They And no areha;ological evidence proving tliat at the time of its discovery any tribe had reached a stage of culture that can properly be called civiliza- tion. Even if we accept the exaggerated state- 1 ments of the Spanish conquerors, the most intelli gent and advanced peoples found here were only 8«!mi-borbaiians, in the stage of transition from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no 4(5 AMERICA. Showing the more Important of tho Journevt of Discovery and Early Settlements. REFCRENCr 70 J0URNEV9. Cilumbus ■. — ■ — — -. . . . J'lspttrtjift -.—,_.-.-,.,_,-.,_,_,. Jo7in Gibot — + -r + ■«. Miilbua Pnnce tie Lcvn ^~—.^^.^— Ojider I ( - t I I I ■ I>e Solo ++++|.++++++>.++^ , Oivnuiao — I — I (._ ,^j_^ ^ Cha hijda 1 n __ Ln:iftf(r "- ■ JitUlSUn T1 T M IIITTTITriTn Bala of SUIula MtW*. >eo mo o ]}^'' too- xU^iub "Miy ■-' ..I i;:'''^ ' AMERICA. Hortt Ditcovery. AMERICA. written language, or what can properly be styled nu alphabet, and not yet having even learned tlic use of beasts of burden." — II. W. Ilaynes, Prehistoric Archaoloatj of X. Am. (o. 1, c/i.'O, of " Xurratirc and Critical Hixt. of Am."). — "It may be premised . . . that llic Spanish adventiu'ers who thronged to the New World after its lUscovery found the same nco of Red Indians in the West India Islands, in Central and South Anieriea, in Florida and in Jloxieo. In their mode of life and means of subsisteuco, in their weapons, arts, usages and customs, iu their instituticns, and in their mental and physi- cal characteristics, they were the same jieople in ditfereut stages of advancement. . . . Tlierewas ndtlicr a political society, nor a state, nor any civilization in America wlieu it was discovered; and, excluding the Eskimos, but one race of Indians, the Red Race." — L. II. Morgan, Houses and lloHsc-Ufe of the American Aburiyiiies : (Om- tributioiistoX. A. Ethnology, v. 5.), ch. 10. — "We have in this country tlie conclusive evidence of tlie existence of man before the time of the glaciers, and from tlio primitive conditions of tliat time, he has lived here and developed, through stages whicli correspond in many par- ticulars to the Homeric ago of Greece." — F. W. Pimiani, Ilejyt. I'eubody Museum of Areha'oloyi/, IHSO. Al.so IN L. Carr, The Mounds of the Mississippi Vidlei/. — C. Tliomas, Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the U. 8.: Annual Rept. of the Bureau of Ethnology, 188U-84.— JIarquis de Nadaillac, Prehistoric America. — J. Fiske, llie Viscocery of America, ch. 1. — See, aluo, JIexico; i^Kiii;; and Ameuican AnoiiioiNios: Aixkguans, C'l] ::uoKi;i;s, and Mayas. loth-iith Centuries. — Supposed Discover- ies by the Northmen. — The fact that tlie Nortli- men knew of the existence of the Western Con- tinent prior to the age of Columbus, was promi- nenlly brought l)efore the people of this country '" the year 18;J7, when the Royal Society of in Korthern Antiquaries at Copenhagen publislied tlieir work on the Antiquities of North America, tmder tile editorial supervision of the great Ice- lanilie scholar. Professor Rafn. But we are not to suppose that the first general account of these voyages was th(,n given, for it has always been known that the history (jf certain early voyages to America by the Norllunen were i)rescrved in the libraries of Denmark and Iceland. . . . Yet, owing to tlie fact that tlie Icelandic language, thougli simple in construction and easy of acqui- sition, was a Icingne not understood by scholars, the subject lias until recent years been sulfered to lie in tlie background, and permitted, through n want of interest, to share in a measure the treatment meted out to vague ami uncertain re- ports. ... It now remains to give; the reader some general accuuiit of the contents of the nar- ratives which relate more or less to llie discovery of the western continent. . . The lirst extracts given are very brief. Thev are taken from the 'Landanama Book," and re,.ite to the report iu general circulation, wliich indicated one Gunni- b<>rn as the discoverer of Greenland, an event winch has been lixed at the vear STli. . . . The next narrative relates to the rediscovery of Greenland by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in 983 who there |)assed three vears in exile, and after- wards returned to Iceland. About the year 'JSB he brought out to Greenland a considerable colony 4 of settlers, who fixed their abode at Brattahlid, in Ericsflord. Then follow two versions of the voyage of Biarne Heriulfson, who, in the same year, 980, when sailing for Greenland, was driven away during a storm, and saw u new land at the southward, which he did not visit. Next is given tliree accounts of the voyage of Leif, son of Eric the Red, who iu the year 1000 sailed from Brattahlid to find the land which Biarne saw. Two of these accounts are hardly more than notices of the voyage, but the third is of considerable length, and details the successes of Leif, who found and explored this new land, where he spent the winter, returning to Green- land the following spring [having named diilcr- ent regions which he visited Ilelluland, Mark- laud and Yinland, mo latter name indicative of tlie linding of graiics]. After this follows the voyage oi' Thorvald Ericson, brother of Leif, who sailed to Viiilaiid from Oreeiiland, which was the point of departure in all these voyages. This expedition was begun in 1003, and it cost him his life, as an 'urow from one of the natives pierced his side, causing death. Tliorstein, hia brotlier, went to seek Viuland, with the inten- tion of bringing homo his body, but failed in the attempt. The most distinguislied explorer was Thortinn Karlsefne, the lloiieful, an Icelander whose genealogy runs biick in the old Northern annals, through Danisli, Swedish, and even Scotch and Irish ancestors, some of wliom were of royal blootl. In the year 1000 ho went to Greenland, where he met Gudrid, widow of Tliorstein, whom ho married. Aci;oir.panied by his wife, who urged him to the undertaking, ho sailed to Viuland in the spring of 1007, with thi'ce vessels and 100 men, where he remained three years. Here his son Snorro was born. He afterwards became the founder of a great family in Iceland, which gave the island several of its first bishops. Thorlinn finally left Viuland be- cause he found it dillicult to sustain himself against the attacks of the uatives. The next to undertake a voyage was a wicked woman named Freydis, a sister to Leif Ericson, wlio went to Viuland in 1011, where she lived fo • a time with lit • two ships, iu the same places occupied by Leif and Thorlinn. Before she returned, she caused the crew of one ship to be cruelly mur- dered, assisting in the butchery with her own liands. After this we have what are called the Minor Narratives, which are not essential." — B. F. Do Costa, Prc-Uolundjan Discovery of Am. , Gen- eral Introd. — By those who accept fully the claims made for tlie Northmen, as discoverers of tlie American continent iu tlie vojages believed to be authentically narrated in these sagas, the Helluland of Leif is commonly identilied with Newfouiidlaud, Marklaiid witliNova Scotia, and Viuland witli various jiarls of New England. !Massaeluisetts Bay, Cape Cod, Nantucket Island, Martha's Vineyard, Buzzard's Bay, Narragan- selt Bay, iMount Hope Bay, Long Island Soiuid, and New York Bay arc umong the localities supposed to be recognized in tlie Nors(? nami- tives, or marked by some tnices of the presence of the Viking explorers. Prof. Gustav Storm, the most recent of the Scandinavian investiga- tors of this suliieet, llnds the Ilelluland of the sagas in Labrador or Northern Newfoundland, Markland in Newfoundland, and Vinlaiid iu Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island. — G. Storm, Htudies of tlie Vinehind Voyages. — "The only dis- 47 AMERICA. Columbian Ditcovery. AMERICA, 1484-1492. credit wlikli has boon thrown upon tlie story of the Vinliind vnyut'is. in the oycs cithir of scliohir.s or of the general |ml)lic, lias arisen from t lie eager cre- dulity with which inirenioiis aiili(iiiariau.s have now and then tried to jirove more than facts will warrant. . . . Ar<lia'lo!,'ieal remains of the North- men abound in Greenland, all the way froir Im- martinek to near Cajie Farewell; the existence of one such relic on the North American con- tinent has never yet been proved. Not a single veslij;eof the Nor.hmen's presence here, at all wortliy of credeiu e, has ever been found. . . . The most convincing proof that the Northmen nc -er founded ii colony in America, south of Uavis Strait, is furni.shed by the total absence of horses, cattle and other domestic animals from the soil of North America until they were brought hither by the Spanish, French and English settlers." — J. Fiske, T/ie DiKcoviri/ of America, ch. 2. — " \Vliat Leif and Karlsefnc knew they experienced," wi-itos I'rof. Justin Winsyr, "and what the sagas tell 'is they underwent, must have just the dilference be- tween a crisp narrative of personal adventure and the oft-repeated and embellished story of a fireside narrator, since the traditions of the Norse voyages ■were not put in the shape of records till about two centuries had elapsed, and wo have no earlier inanuscrii)t of such a record than one made nearly two hundred years later still. ... A blending of history and myth prompts Horn to say that 'sonicof the saga? were doubtless originally based on facts, but the telling and retelling have changed them into pure myths.' The unsympathetic stranger soes this in stories that the patriotic Scandinavians are over-anxious to make appear as genuine chronicles. . . . The weight of probability is in favor of a Northman descent upon the coast of the American mainland at some point, or at several, somewhere to the south of Greenland; but the evidence is hardly that which attaches to well established historical records. . . . There is not a single item of all the evidence thus ad- vanced from time to time which can he said to connect by archaiological traces the presence of the Northmen on the soil of North America south of Uavis' Straits." Of other imagined pre-Columban discoveries of America, by tlie Welsh, bjr the Arabs, by the Basques, &c., the possibilities and i)robabilities are critically dis- cussed by Prof. Wiusor in the same connectiou. — J. Winsor, Karmtiec and Vn'lical Hist, of Am., V. 1, eh. 2, and Critical Xulcs to the same. Also in Bryant and Gay, Pojnilnr Hist, of the U. S., ch. 3.— E. P. Slaftcr, Ed. Voyages of the Northmen to Am. (Pnnee Soc, 1877). — The same. Discovery of Am. by the Northmen (N. U. llist. Sue., 1888). — N. L. Beamish, Discover!/ of Am. by the Northmen, — A. J. Weisc, Discoveries of Am., ch. 1. . A. D. 148A-1492.— The great project of Columbus, and the sources of its inspiration. — His seven years' suit at the Spanish Court. — His departure from Palos. — " All attempts to diniinisli the glory of Columbus' achievement by proving a previous discovery whose results were known to him have signally failed. . . . Columbus originated no new theory respecting the earth's form or size, though it popular idea has always prevailed, notwithstanding the state- ments of" the best writers to the contrary, that he is entitled to the glory of the theory lis well as to that of the execution of the project. He was not in advance of his age, entertained no new theories, believed no more than did Prince Henry, his predecessor, or ToscancUi, his C(m- temjiorary; nor was he the first to conceive the jwssibility of reaching the east by sailing west. lie was however the first to act in accordance with existing beliefs. The Northmen in their voyages had entertained no ideas of a New World, or of an Asia to the West. To knowl- edge of theoretical geography, Columbus added the skill of a iiractical navigator, and the iron will to overcome obstacles. He sailed west, reached Asia as ho believed, and proved old theories correct. There seem to be two unde- cided points in that matter, neither of which can ever be settled. First, did his experience in the Portuguese voyages, the perusal of sonic old author, or a hint from one of the few men ac(iuainted with old traditions, first suggest to Columbus his project ? . . . Second, to wlnt ex- tent did his voyage to the north [made in 1477, jjrobably with an English merchantman from Bristol, in which voyage he is believed to liav» visited Iceland] influence his plan ? There is no evidence, but a strong probability, that he heaixl in that voyage of the existence of land in the west. . . . Still, his visit to the north was in 14r7, several years after the first formation of his plau, and any information gained at the time could only have been confirmatory rather than suggestive." — II. H. Bancroft, lli.it. of tin Pacific States, v. 1, summary app. to ch. 1. — "Of the works of learned men, that which, according to Ferdinand Columbus, had most weight with his father, was the ' Cosmographia ' of Cardinal Aliaco. Columbus was also confirmed in his views of the existence of a western passage to the Indies by Paulo Toscanelli, the Florentine philosopher, to whom much credit is due for the encouragement he afforded to the enterprise. That the notices, however, of western lands were not such as to have much weight with other men, is sufficiently proved by the difllculty which Columbus had in contending with adverse geographers and men of science in general, of whom he says he never was able to convince any one. After a new world had been discovered, many scattered indications were then found \ja have foreshown it. One thing which cannot be denied to Columbus is that he worked out hi» own idea himself. ... Ho first applied himself to his countrymen, the Genoese, who would have nothing to say to bis scheme. He then tried the Portuguese, who listened to what he had to say, but with bad faith sought to anticipate him by sending out a caravel with instructions founded upon his plan. . . . Columbus, disgusted at the treatment he had received from the Portuguese Court, quitted Lisbon, and, after visiting Genoa, as it appears, went to see what favour he could meet with in Spain, arriving at Palos in the year 1485." The story of the long suit of Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand anil Isabella; of his discouragement and departure, with Intent to go to France; of his recall by command of Queen Isabella; of the tedious hearings and negotiations that now took place; of the lofty demands adhered to by the confident Ctenoese, who required "to be made an admiral at once, to be appointed viceroy of the countries he should discover, and to have an eighth of the profits of tlie expedition;" of bis second rebuff. 48 AMERICA, 1484-1492. Cotitmbinn Vucovtry. AMERICA, 1492. nis s(^coiiil (Icparture for Frmuc, iincl second re- cull by IsiilR'llii, who liniilly put her hciirt into the enterpriso and iirrsimdcil her more skeptical consort to us.scnt to it — the story of those seven years of the strufit'le of Columlms to olitiiiii "means for his voyane is fiiiniliar to all readers. "The ngreenu'iit" belnecn Coluinhiis and their Catholic highnesses was signed at Santa F6 on the nth of April, 1492; and Columbus went to I'alos to make preparation for his voyage, l)car- ing with him an order that the two ves.sels wliieh that city fnrnislied annually to tlie crown for three months slioidd be placed at his disposal. . . . The Pinzons, rich men and skilful nniriners of Palos, joined in I lie undertaking, subscribing an eighth' of the expenses; and thus, by these united e.\ertions, three vessels were manned with 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At length all tlic preparations were complete, and on a Friday (not inauspicious in tliis case), the 'iid of August, 1492, after they had all confessed mill received the sacrament, "tliey set stiil fnm the bar of Salte.s, making for tlie Canary Islands."— Sir A. Helps, T/t<i Spanish Conqua'- ill America, bk. 2, eh. 1. Also in J. AVinsor, Chrintopher Columbus, ch. 5-9, lui'l 20. A. D. 1492.— The First Voyage of Colum- bus. — Discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti. — Tlie tliree vessels of Columbus were called the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina. "All had forecastles and high poops, but the 'Santa Maria' was the only one that was decked amidships, and she was called ft ' nao ' or ship. Tlie other two were caravelas, a class of small vessels built for speed. The 'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices in the letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 130 tons, like a modern coasting schooner, and she carried 70 men, much crowded. Her sails were 11 foresail and a foretopsail, a sprit-sail, a main- sail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a niizzen, and a boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on the poop. The ' Pinta ' and ' Nifia ' only liad square sails on the foremast and lateen sails on the main and mizzcn. The former wns 50 tons, the latter 40 tons, with crews of 20 men each. On Friday, the 3d of August, the three little vessels left the haven of Pulos, and this memor- able voyage was commenced. . . . The expedi- tion proceeded to the Canary Islands, where the rig of the ' Pinta ' was altered. Her lateen sails were not adapted for running before the wind, and she was therefore fitted with square sails, like the ' Santa JIaria. ' Repairs were completed, the vessels were filled up with wood and water at Gomcra, and the expedition took its final de- parture from the island of Qomera, one of the Canaries, on September 6th, 1492. . . . Colum- bus had chosen his route most happily, and with that fortunate prevision which often "waits upon genius. From Gomeni, by a course a little south of west, he would run down the trades to the Bahama Islands. From the parallel of about 30° N. nearly to the equator there is a zone of perpetual winds — namely, the north-cast trade winds — always moving" in the same direction, as steadily as" the current of a river, except where they are turned aside by local causes, so that the ships of Columbus were steadily carried to their destination by a law of nature which, in due time, revealed itself to that close observer of her secrets. 'The constancy of the wind was one cause of alarm among the crews, for they tiegan to murmur that tlie provi.sotis would all be exhausted if they had to beat against these unceasing winds on the return voyage. The next event which excited alarm among the pilots was the discovery that the compa.sses had more than a point of easterly variation. . . . This was observed on the 17th of September, and about 300 miles westward of the meridian of the Azores, when the ships had been eleven days at sea. Soon afterwards the voy- agers found themselves surroun<led by ma.sses of seaweed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, anci this again aroused their fears. Tliey thought that the ships would g(!t entangled in the beds of weed and become immovable, and that the beds marked the limit of navigation. The cause of this accumulation is well known now. If bits ot cork are put into a ba.sin of water, and a circular motion given to it, all the corks will be found crowding together towards the centre if the pool where there is the least motion. The Atlantic Ocean is just such a basin, the Gulf Stream is the wliirl, and the Sargasso Sea is in the centre. There Columbus found it, and there it has remained to this day, moving up aud down and changing its position according to seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its mean position. ... As day after day passed, and there was no sign of land, the crews became turbulent and mutinous. Columbus encouraged them with liopes of reward, while he told them plainly that he had come to discover India, and that, with the help of God, he would persevere until he found it. At lengtli, on the 11th of Oc- ; tober, towards ten at night, Columbus was on the poop and saw a light. ... At two next morning, land was distinctly seen. . . . The island, called by the natives Guanahani, and by Columbus San Salvador, has now been ascertained to be Watling Island, one of the Bahamas, 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake in the centre, in 24° 10' 30" north latitude. . . . The difference of latitude between (Jomera and Watling Island is 235 miles. Course, W. 5° S. j distance 8,114 miles; average distance made good daily, 85' ; voyage 35 days. . . . After dis- covering several smaller islands the fleet came in sight of Cuba on the 27th October, and ex- plored part of the northern coast. Columbus believed it to be Cipanjjo, tlie island placed on the chart of Toscanelh, between Europe and Asia. . . . Crossing the channel between Cuba and St. Domingo [or Hayti], they anchored in the harbour of St. Nicholas Jlole on December 4th. The natives came with presents and the coun- try was enchanting. Columbus . . named the island 'Espaiiola' [or Ilispaniola]. But with all this peaceful beauty around him he was on the eve of disaster." The Santa !Maria was drifted by a strong current upon a sand bank and hopelessly wrecked. "It was now necessary to leave a small colony on the island. ... A fort was built and named 'La Navidad,' 39 men remain- ing behind .supplied with stores and provisions," and on Friday, Jan. 4, 1493, Columbus began his liomeward voyage. Weathering a danger- ous gale, which lasted several days, his little vessels reached the Azores Feb. 17," and arrived at Palos Marcli 15, bearing their marvellous news. — C. li. Markliam, The Sea Fathct-s, ch. 3. — The same. Life of Columbus, ch. 5. — The statement above that the island of the Bahamas on whicli 49 W?<" AMERICA, 14U3. Papal Orant. AMERICA, 1493-1490. Columbus first landcil. nml wliidi ha cnllpd Sun Hill viiilor, " liiiH now been asciTtiiincd to be Watling Island " Horms liardlv justilkd. Tlio (nicstion be- tween ^\ atlin^' Islan'd, San Salvador or Cat Island, Humana, or Attwoixl'sCav, Mari)?anna, theGnmd Turk, and others is still in disjiule. Profes- sor Justin Winsor says "the wel),'ht of modern testimony seems to favor Watlini;'s Island;" but at tlie .same timt; he thinks it, " (iroliable that men will never (luile agree which of the lialia- mas it was upon wliich tlie.se startled imd cxid- tunt Europeans llrst stepped. "—J. AVinsor, C/n/V tap/nr Oil II mil II n, ch. 9. —The same, JViirnilieo mill Critical Hint, of Am., r. 2, c/i. 1, note li.— Professor John Fiske, says: "All that can be positively asserted of Guanahani is that it was one of t he Ilahnmas ; there has been endless diseus- siou as to which one, and the i|uestioii isnotea.sy to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Gustavus Fo.x, of the United States A'avy, is on the whole best supported. Captiiin Fox maintains that the true Guanahani was the little Island now known as Samana or Attwood's Cay.'' — J. Fisko, Tlie IJiacoci'i-if of Ameriea, ch. 5 (/'. 1). Also in U. H. Coimtand Geoiktio buncy, liipt., 18^*0, iipii. 18. A. D. 1493. — Papal grant of the New World to Spain.— " Spain was iit lliis time coni'.eeted witli tlio Pope about a most momen- tous matter. Tlie Genoese, Cristoforo Colombo, arrived at the Spanish court in March, 140:i, with tlie astoundin;: news of tlio discovery of a new continent. . . . Ferdinand and Isabella thought it wise to secure a title to all thiitmight ensue from their new discovery. The Pojie, ns Viearof Clirist, was held to have authoni;-' to dispose of lands inliabited hy the hcatlien; and liv papal IJtdls the discoveries of PortULfal afoni^ the African coast liad been secured. The Portuguese showed signs of urgingclaims tothe New \\'orld, as being already couveyeil to them by 'the papal grants previously issued in their favour. To remove all cause of dispute, the 8i)ani.sh moiuirchs at once had recourse to Alex- ander VI., wlio issued two Bulls on May 4 and 5 [149;t] to determine therespeetive right.-'of Spain and Portugal. In tlie lirst, the Poi)o granted to the Spanish moiiarclis ami their heirs all lands' discovered or hereafter to be discovered in the western ocean. In the second, he delined his grant to mean all lands that might he discovered west and soutli of an iiiiagiimry line, drawn from the North to tlie South I'ole, at the distau -e of a hundred leagues westward of the Azores and Cape do Verd Islands. In the light of our pres- ent knowledge wo are umazed at this simple means of disposing of a vast extent of the earth's surface." L nder the Pope's stupendous patent, Spain was able to claim every part of the American Continent except tla; Brazilian coast. — M. Crei'^ii- ton, Hist, of the PuiHicy during (he Bcforma- (ion, bk. 5, ch. 6 (c. 3). Also IN E. G. Bourne, Tlic Deinarcntion Lineof Pope. Alexander VT. {Yale Rex., May, 1892).— J. Piske, The Discovery of America, ch. 6 (f. 1). — J. Gordon, The Hulls distributing Amerieet (Am. fyic. of Ch. Hist., T. 4).— See, also, below: A. I). 1494. A. D. 1493-1496. — The Second Voyage of Columbus. — Discovery of Jamaica ana the Caribbeer.. — .Subjugation of Hispaniola. — "The departure of Columbus on his second voyajru of discovery presented a brilliant con- trast to Ms gloomy embarkation at Pulos. On the 2.5th of September [149!t], at the dawn of day, the bay of Cadiz was whitened by his licet. There were three largo ships of heavy Imrden and fourteen caravels. . . . Before sunrise the whole tleet was under way." Arrived at the Canaries on the 1st of October, Columbus ])urchascd there calves, goats, sheep, hog.s, and fowls, with whidi to stock the island of Hispaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons, hergamots, melons, nud various orchard fruits, which were thus lirst introduced into tlie islands of tho west from the Ilesperides or Fortunate Islands of the Old AVorld." It was not until the i;!th of October that tho fleet left the Canaries, niid it arrived among the islands since called the Lesser Antilles or Caribbees, on the I'vcning of Nov. 3 Sailing through this archipelago, dis- covering tlie larger island of Porto Rico (m the way, ('olundius reached the eastern extremity of ilispauiola or Ilayti on tlie 2M of November, and arrived on tlic 2Tth at La Navidad, where he had left a garriscni ten months before. Ho found nothing but ruin, silence and the marks of death, and learned, after much inquiry, that his unfortunate men, losing all disciidine after his dejiarture, had provoked the natives by rajia- city and licentiousness until the latter rose against them and destroyed them. Abandoning the scene of this disaster, Columbus found an excellent harbor ten leagues east of Jlonte Christ! and there ho began tho founding of a city which I'.e named Isabella. " Isabella at the present day is (piite overgrown willi forests, in the midst of which arc still to be seen, partly standing, the pillars of tlie church, some remains of the king's storehouses, and part of the resi- dence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone." ■\Vhi'.e the foundations of tlie new city were being laid, Columbus sent back part of his sliiiis to Spain, and undertook an exploration of the interior of the island — the n-.ountains of Ciliao — where abundance of gold was promised. Some gold washings were funnd — far too scanty to satisfy the expectations 01 'be Sjianiards; and, as want and sickness soon made their ajipearance at Isabella, discontent was rife and mutiny afoot before tho year Inul ended. In April, 1494, Columbus set sail w' di three caravels to revisit the coast of Cuba, for a moro extended exploration than he had atteiupted on the lirst discovery. ' ' He supposed it to be a cont ineiit, and the extreme end of Asia, and if so, by following its shores in the proposed direction he must eventually arrive at Calliaj and those other rich and commercial, thoug'i semi-barbarous countries, described by Manlevillc and Marco Polo." Reports of gold le^l him southward from Cuba until he discovered i lie island which ho called Santiago, but which has kept its native name, Jamaica, signifying the Island of Springs. Disappointed in the Bcarcli for gold, he soon returned from Jamaica to Cuba and sailed along its southern coast to very near the western extremity, confirming himself and his followers in the belief that they skirted the shores of Asia and might follow them to the Red Sea, if their ships and stores were equal to so long a voyage. "Two or three days' further sail would have carried Columbus round the extremity of Cuba; would have dispelled his illusion, and might have given an entirely differ- ent course to his subsequent discoveries. In his present conviction he lived and died; believing to his last hour that Cuba was tho extremity of 50 AMERICA, 1403-1400. CabtiVi Vitcoverie: AilERICA, 1407. the Asiatic continent." Returning eastward, lie visileil .Tiiniaiea again and ijurposed some furtlicr exploration of tlio Caribbeo Islands, when liis toils and anxieties ovcreatne him. " lie fell into a deep lethargy, resembling deiitli itself. His erew, alarmed at this profound torpor, feared that death was really at Imnd. They abandoned, therefore, nil further ])r().se<ution of the voyage; and sl)reading their .sails to the cast wind so lirevalent in those seas, bore Cohmibus back, in a state of eoniiilctc insensibility, to the harlior of Isabella,"— Sept. 4. Reeoverinp: conscious- ness, the iidmiial was rejoiced to find his brother IJartholonicw, from whom bo had b?en Bcpiiratcd for y('iirs, and who had been sent out to him from Spain, in command of tliree slnps. Otherwi.se there was little to give jileasurc to Colimdius when he returned to IsaliLHa. His followers were again disorganized, again at war with the natives, whom they plundered and licentiously abused, and a mischief making prie-st hiul goiio back to Sjiaiii, along with certain intriguing otlicers, to make complaints and set enmities astir at the court. Involvc^d in war, Columbus prosecuted it relcntle.s.sly, reduced the island to submission and the natives to servitude and nusery by heavy exactions. In JIarcli 1400 he returned to Sjjain, to defind bim.self again.st tlic machinations of his enemies, transferring the government of Ilispaniola to his brother Bartholomew. — AV. Irving, JJfe and VotjngcH of Ciilurnhns, bk. 0-8 (!). 1-2). Also in II. II. Baiicroft, IliKt. of the Pdrifie States, V. 1, eh. 3. — J. Winsor, ChriM'iphcr Columbus, ch. 12-14. A. D. 1494. — The Treaty c» fordesillas. — Amended Partition of the New World between Spain and Portugal. — "When speaking or writ- ing of the con(piest of America, it is generally belirved that the only title upon which were basid the con(iuests of Spain and Portugal was the famous V;\\k\\ IJidl of partition of the Ocean, of 1493. Few modern authors take into consid- eration that this Bull was amended, upon the pe- tition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of Tordesilhus], signed by both powers in 1494, augmenting the portion assigned to the Portu- guese in the partition made between them of the Continent of America. Tlie aie of mcriiliaii fixed by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise, owing to the ignorance of the age, to so many diplomatic congresses and interminable contro- versies, may now be traced l)y any student of elementary mathematics. Tins line . . . runs along the meridian of 47° 32' 00" west of Green- wicli. . . . The name I!ra/,il, or ' tierra del Bra- zil,' at that time [the middle of the ICth century] referred oidy to the i)art of tlie continent pro- ducing the dye wood so-called. Nearly two centuries Inter tlie Portuguese advanced toward the South, and the name Brazil then covered the new posses-sions they were acquiring."— L. L. Dominguez, Iniroil. to " The Coiiquaitofthe River Plate " (IIaki:yt Soc. Pubs. No. 81). A. D. 1497,— Discovery of the North Ameri- can Continent by John Cabot.— "The achieve- ment of Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth of which the germ may have existed in the imngiuatiou of every thoughtfid mariner, won [in En'gland] the admiration which lielonged to genius that seemed more divine than human; und • there was great talk of it in all tlie court of Ilcnry VII.' A fteling of disappointment re- mained, that a series of dis-asters had ilefeated tlie wisli of the illustrious Genoese to make his voyage of essay uiulir tlie Hag of England. It was, therefore, not dilUciilt for John t'abot, a denizen of Venice, residing at Bristol, to interest that politic king in plans for discovery. On the Sthof March, i 190, be obtained under the grdit seal a commi.ssioii empowering himsi'lf and ';.is three sons, or either of them, their lieirs, or their de|nities, to sail into the eastern, western, or northern sea with a licet of five sliips, at their own expense, in search of islands, jirovinccs, or regions hitherto unseen by Christian people; to alllv tlio banners of Kngland on city, island, or continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, to possess and occupy the territories that might bo found. It was further stipulated in this ' most ancient American State jiaper of England,' that the iiatentees should be strictly liound, on every return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to p.ay to the king one-liftli part of their gains; wliilo the exduilvo right of frennenting all tin; coun- tries tlint might be found was reserved to them and to their assigns, without limit of time. Under this patent, which, at the first diie(ttiou of English enterprise towanl America, embodied tlio worst features of monoi)oly and commercial restriction, .lolin Cabot, taking with him his son Seb.astian, embarked in quest of new i.slands and a passage to Asia liy the imrth-wcst. After sail- ing prosperously, as be reported, for 701) leagues, on the 24th day of .lune, early in \U<: inori ' g, almost fourteen months before C'olumbiis on his third voyage came in sight of the main, and more tlian two years before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the Canaries, ho discovered the western continent, probalily in the latitude of about .'50° degrees, among the dismal clilTs of Labrador. lie ran along the coast for many leagues, it is said even for 300, and landed on what ho considered to be the territory of the Grand Cham. But he encountered no human bein^, although there were marks that the region was inhabited. Ho planted on the hind a largo cross with the flag of England, and, from alfec- tion for the republic of Venice, he added the ban- ner of ,St. Mi.rk, which lia<l never been borno so far before. On his homeward voyage he saw on his right liand two islands, which for want of provisionsi he couUl not stop to explore. After an absence of three months the great discoverer re-entered Bristol harbor, where due honors awaited him. The king gave him money, and encouraged him to continue his career. The ])eo- ple called him the great admiral; he dressed in silk; and the English, and even Venetians who chanced to bo at Bristol, ran after him with such zeal that he could enlist for a new voyage as many as lie pleased. ... On the third' day of the month of February next after his return, 'John Kaboto, Venecian,' accordingly obt.ained a power to take up sh'ps for another voyage, at the rates fixed for those employed in the service of the king, and once more to set sail with as many companions as would go with him of their own will. With this license every trace of John Cabot disappears. lie may liaVc died before the summer; but no one knows certainly the time or the place of his end, and it has not even been ascertained in what country this tinder of a continent first saw the light.'"' — G. Bancroft, Uiat. of the U. S. of Am. (Author's last Revision), 61 AMEUICA, 1407 Amrrirtit I'cfpuciiu. AMEUICA, 1407-140a. pt. 1, <•//. 1. — In tlio ("ritic;il Kssiiy npppnflod to A dmpliT (in llio voyiit'cH of tlu' ('alidts, in tin" Aarniliretiiiil Ciilirnl Hint. >>/ Am., there i.t ])iili- )islie(i, for tlu- lirsl time, iiii Kii(;lisli Iriinslalidn of II (liHi)iit(li frnm l{)iinicin(l(Mle honeinii, envoy of the I)nkn of .Milan to Ileniy VII., written Aug 24, 1107, iukI giving iin luconnt of the voy- age from which '.Master John Caliolo," 'a Veiii'- tiiin fellow,' liiul just reliirneil. This paper was hrouu'ht to light in \»>>'>. from the State Archives of Milan. lieferring to the dispatch, and to n li'tter, also ((uoted, from the ' Venetian Calen- dars,' written Aug. 'J:t, 1407, hy Lorenzo Pas- qiialigo, ft merchant in I.oM<lon, to his hrotliors in Venice, Mr. ( liarlcs Doane says: " These lettei-s are siilUcient lo show that North America was discovered by .I<ihn Caliot, the name of Seli.istian l)cing nowhere mentioned in tliein, and that the discovery was made in 1407. The jilace which ho lirst sighted is given on the map of 1")44 [a map of tSttbastian Catiot, disc(iverc<l in Ger- many in 184;ij as the north i)art of Cap(! IJreton Island, on which is inscribed ' prima ticrra vista,' whieli was reac bed, according to the Legend, on the 2Uh of June. Pasi[naligo. the only one who mentions it, says he coasted liOl) leagues. Mr. lirevoort, who "accepts the statement, thinks ho made the ])eriphi.s of the (Jnlf of St. L.iwreiice, passing out at the Straits of Ifellc Isle, and thence home. . . . The extensive sailing nj) and down the coast deseril)ed by elironiclcrs from conversa- tions with Sebastiail Cabot many years afle"'- wnrds, though apparently told as occurring on the voyage of discovery — as on'.v one voyage is over mentioned — must have taken jilace on a later voyage." — C. Dcane, Nurrnl i re. unil Criti- cal I/i.'.t, of Am., V. 3, (7i. 1, Vfil. /v'mk.v. Also IN IJ. IJiddle, Manoir of Selxiniian Cabot, rh. 1-8. A. D. 14971498. — The first Voyage of Americus Vespucius. — Misunderstandings and diiputes concerning it. — Vindication of the Florentine navigator. — His exploration of 4,000 miles of continental coast. — "Our information conccriung Anu'ricus Vespucius, from tlie early part of tlu' year 140G tuitil after his return from the Portuguese to the Spi.nish service in the latter part of l.ltM, rests primarily upon his two famous letters; llie one addressed to his old patron Lorenzo di Pier France.sco de.' Medici (a cousin of Lorenzo llw^ .Magiii(icent)aMd ■written in .March or Ai>ril, ITiO;!, giving an ac- count of his third voyage; tlie other addressed to his old school-fellow Piero Sodcrini [tlien Gonfidoni(*rc of Florence] and dated from Lisbon, September 4, l.'iiM, giving a brief account of four voyages winch he had made under various commanders in the capacity of astronomer or fjilot. These letters . . . became siieedily jjopu- ar, and many editions were published, more csi)erially in Prance, Germany, and Italy. . . . The letter to Sodcrini gives an account of foiu- voyages in which the writer took part, the tiist two In the service of Spain, the other two in the service of Portugal. 'I'lu^ lirst expedition .sailed from Cadiz :\Iay 10, 1407, and returned October 1"), 1408, after having exphned a coast so long as to seem unquestionably that of 11 continent. This voyage, as we shall see, was concerned with parts of Anu'Hca not visited again until 1518 and l.'in. It discovered nothing that was calculated to invest it with mucli importance in Spain, though it by no means passed without notice there, ns has often been wrongly asserted. Outside of S|)ain it c.imc to attract more atten- tion, but in an unfortunate way, for a slight but very .serious crri>r in proof-reading or editing, in the most important of the Latin veisions, caused it after a wliilo to be practically idenlitlcd witli the second voyagr', made two years later. This <'onfusion eventually led to most outrageous imputations upon the goo<l name of Americus, which it has been left for the present centtiry to remove. Tlie second v<iyag(^ of Vespucius was that in which he aecom])anied Alonso de Ojeda and Juan de la Costa, from May 20, 140iJ, to June, l.-)00. They explored the northern coast of South America from some point on what we would now call the north coast of Praz.il, ns far as the Pearl Coast visited by Columbus in the piccciling year; and ti ( y went beyond, as far as the tJiilf of Maracaibo. Hire the siiuadroii seems to have liecoine divided, Ojeda going over to llispaniola in September, while VespiU'itis remained cruising till February. ... It is cer- tainly much to be regretted that in the narrative of his tirst expedition, Vespucius did not hajipen to mention tlio name of the chief commauder. . . . However ... he was writing not for us, but for his friend, and he told Soderini only what he thought would interest him. ... Of the letter to SiMlcrini the version which has played the most important part in history is the Latin one tirst pulilishcd at the jiress of the little college at Saint-Die in Lorraine, April 2,5 (vij Kl'JMaij), l.W?. . . . It was translated, not from an original text, but from an intermediate French version, which is lost. Of hitc years, however, we have detected, in an excessively rare Italian text, the original fi'(un which the famous Lor- raine version was ultimately derived. ... If now wc compare this ]uinutive text with the Latin of the Lorraine version of l.')07, we observe that, in the latter, one proper name — the Indian name of a jdace visited by Americus on his lirst voyage — has been altered. In the original it is 'Lariab;' in the Latin it has become 'Parias.' Tills looks like an instance ot injudicious editing on the part of the Latin translator, although, of course, it may be a case of careless proof-reading. Lariab is n (picer-looking word. It is no woiuler tliiit ft schohir in his stuily among the mountains of Lorraine could make iiotliing of it. If lie liad happened to lie acquainted with the language ui the llua.stccas, who dwelt at that time about tlie river Paiiuco — licrceanddreadc ' enemies of their southern neighbours tlu; Aztecs — ho would have known that names of placys in that region were apt to end in ftb. . . . But fts sucli facts were quite beyond our worthy translator's ken, we cannot much biame him if he felt that such a word as Lariab needed doctoiing. Parias (Paria) was known to be the native name of a, region on the western shores of the Atlantic, and so Lariab becnme Parias. As the distance from the one place to the other is more than two thou- sand miles, this little eraendiition shifted the scene of the first voyage beyond nil recognition, and cast the whole' subject into an outer dark- ness where there has been much groaning and gnashing of teeth, A nother curious circumstance came in to conlirm this error. On his first voy- age, shortly before arriving at Lariab, Vesi)u- cius saw an Indian town liuil'. over the water, 'like Venice.' He counted 44 large wooden houses, 'like barracks,' supported ou liuge tree- 52 AMERICA, 1497-1408. AmerirUH Vespuctiu, AMEUICA, 1407 'iS. trunk!) onil commuiilciitiii)? with ciicli other by liri(lf,'i'S thiit foiihl bi'drawii \ip in cunc of (lander. Tliis inav well liuvc l)tcii a villajri' of comiiiuiial li()ii!*fs of tlic Clionlals on llio coast of Tabasco; but suili viila){cs were aftcrwarils seen on tlic (iulf of Alani<ail)o. ami one of tlicni was calicd Venezuela, or ' l.ittic^ Venice,' a name Hinco sprea-! over n territory nearly twice as larjje as !• riine('. ISo t'le anipliil)iou3 town descrilu'il l)y Vespucliis was incoiit ineutly nioveil to Muracaibo, as if vliere could be only one such place, as if tliat style of defensive l)uildinj,' had not l)een coiuinon enough in many i.j;'''' "'»' i" many )>arts cf the earth, from ancient Switzeiiand to modern iSiaiu. . . . Tlius ill spite bf the latitudes and lonu'ituiles distinctly stated by Vespuclus in his letter, did Lariab and the little wooden Venice get shifted from tlie Gulf of Jlexieo to the northern coast of South America. Now there is no question that Vespucius in Ids second voyage, with Ojeda for captain, did .sail elong that coast, visiting the gulfs of I'aria luid JIaracaibo. This was in the sumnuT of 14i)!», one year after a. part of the same coast had Uen visited by Col- luubus. Hence in u later period, long after the actors in tliesc scenes had been gathered unto their fatliers, luid when people had begun to wonder how tlie Xew World could ever have <(inie to be called America instead of Columbia, it was suggested that the first voyage described by Vespucitis must bu merely a clumsy and fic- titious duplicate of tlie second, and that, he invented it-aud thrust it back from 1499 to 1407, in order tliat he might be accredited with ' the discovery of the continent' one year in advance of Ills friend Columbus. It was assumed that he must have written his letter to Soderini with the liase intention of supidauting liis frieii<l, and that tlie shabby device was successful. This expla- nation seemed so simple and intelligible that it became (piile generally adopted, and it held its ground until tlie subject began to be critically studied, and Alexander von Humboldt showeil, about sixty years ago, that the first naming of America occurred in no such way as had been supposed. As* soon as we refrain from j)roject- iug our modern knowledge of geography into the past, as soon as w<! pause to consider how these great events eppeared to the actors themselves, the absurdity of this accusation against Ameri- cus becomes evident. We are told that he falsely pretended to have visited Paria and JIaracaibo in 1497, in order to claim jiriority over Colum- bus in the di-,eoverv of 'the continent.' AVliat continent V Wljeu Vespucius wrote tliat letter to tioderiiii, neither he nor an) body else suspected that what we now call America had been dis- covered. The only continent ot which there could lie any question, so far as supplanting Columlms was coucerucd, was Asia, liut in lo04 Columbus was generally supposed to have discovered the continent of Asia, by his new route, in 1492. ... It was M. Varnlmgen who lirst turned inquiry on this subject in the right direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by simply following the words of Vespucius him- self, from a primitive text, without reference to any iireconceived theories or traditions, JI. Varn- hagea liuds " tliat Amcricus in his first voyage made land on the northern coast of Honduras; " that he sjiiled annind Yucatun, and found his aquatic village ot communal houses, his little w ooden Venice, on the shore of Tabasco. Thence, &' after a flglit with tlie natives in which a few tawny prisoners were ca|)tiired and carried on board the caravels, Vespuciu.s seems to have taken a straight course to the Huasteca country by Tanipieo, witliout toucliing at points in the region subject or tributary to tlie Aztec eoiifed- criiey. This Tampico country was what Vespii- ( understood to be called Lariab. He again ives llie latitiuh^ delinitt'ly and correctly as '-It" and he mentions a few interesting eircum- stances. He saw the natives roasting a diMid- fiilly ugly animal," of whidi he gives what seems to be "an excellent description of the iguana, the flesh of which is to this day an ini- ])ortant article of food in tropical Anieriea. . . . After leaving tills country of Lariab the ships kept still to the northwest for a short distance, and then followed the windings of the coast for 870 leagues. . . . After traversing the 870 leagues of crooked coast, the slii|is found them- selves 'in the liiiest harbour in the world' Iwliich M. Varnhageii supposed, at tirst, to have been in Chesapeake Hay, but afterwards reached coii- clusi(ms pointing to the neighbourhood of Capo Canaveral, on the Florida coast]. It was in .June, 1498, tliirtecn months since tlicy had started from Hpaiii. . . . Tliey spent seven-and-thirty days in this unrivalled harbour, i)reparing for llie homo voyage, and found the natives very hospitable. These red men courted the aid of tlie white strangers," in an attack which they wished to make upon a fierce race of cannibals, who inhab- ited certain islands some dislat>ee out to sea. The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and .saileil late in August, t.iking seven of the friendly Indians for guii'.es. "After a week's voyage they fell in with tlie islands, sonic peopled, others uninhabited, evidently the Uermudas, (ibO miles from Cape Ilatteras as the crow flies. Tlio k;|)aiiiards landed on an island called Iti, and had u brisk fight," resulting in the capture of more than 'JOO prisoners. Seven of tliese were g' ,en to the Indian guides, who paddled home with tliem. " ' AV'c also [wrote Vespucius] set sail for Spain, with !J22 prisoners, slaves; and arrived in llie iiort of Cadiz on the lolli day of October, 1498, where we were well received and sold our slaves.'. . . The obscurity in wliicli lliis voy- age has so long been enveloped is due chiefly to the fact tliat it was not followed up fill many years had elapsed, and the reason for this iieg!i'ct inipres.se8 upon us forcibly the imiiossibility of understanding the history of the l)iscovery of Anieric." unless we bear in mind all the attend- ant ('ireumstances. One might at first suppose that a voyage which revealed some 4,000 miles of the coast ot North America would have attracted much attention in Spain and have become alto- gether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such an 'argumcul, however, loses sight of tlie tact that these early vovagers were not trying to 'dis- cover America.' 'hiere was nothing to astonish them in the existence ot 4,000 miles of coast line on tliis side of the Atlantic. To their minds it was simply the coast ot Asia, about which they knew nothing except from JIarco Polo, and the natural effect of such a voyage as this would bo simi)ly to throw discredit upon that traveller." — J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, ch. 7 (i). 2). Also in : C. E. Lester and A. Foster, Life and Voyages of Americas Vespucius, pt. 1, ch. 7. — J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, ch. 15. 63 AMERICA, 1498. Sebastian Cabot. AMERICA, 1498-ir)05. A. D. 1498.— Voyage and Discoveries of Sebastian Cabot.— The ground of English claims in the New World.— "Tlic sun of .lolm C'liliot, Scliastian, is not mcntiiini'd in this piilcnt [issued 1)V Henry VII., Feb. 3, 1 tOHj, as he had Wa ill that (if I-lflti. Yet ho alone protited by it. For the father is not again nienliniied in con- iiettion with tiie voyaire. . . . .Seliastian was now, if Humboldt's "suiipositlon is true tliat he was born in 1477, a young num of about 20 or 21 years of age. And iis he lii.d become prolieienl in astronomy and nnthematies, and liail gained naval exiwricMce in the voyage he had made in company with liis father; and as he knew better than any one else hi^ father's views, and .iLso the position of the newly discovered n.'gioiis, he may •low have well appeared to Henry as a lit person for till! conimand of another expedition to the northwest. Two slii|)S, manne(i with M) marin- ers and volunteers, were ready for him "aily in the spring of 1498; and he sailed witli thcni from Hristol. proliably in the beginning of tin! month of May. We have no certain information regard- ing his route. 15ut he appears to 'lave directed his course again to the country which he had seen the year before on the voyage with his father, our [ircsent Labmdor. lie .sailed along the coast of this country so far north that, even in the month of July, he encountered much ice. Observing at the same time, to his great dis- pleasure, that the coast was trending to the east, lie resolved to give up a fiirtlier ailvance to the north, and returned in a southern direction. At Kcwfoiindland, he prob.ibly came to anchor in 8onu! jiort. a. id refreshed his men, and retittcd his Vfsselsaflertheir Arctic harilshiiis. . . . He prob- ably was the lirst lishernianon the banksorshores of Newfoundland, which through him became famous ill Kuropi!. (^ailing from Newfoundland southwest, he kept the .oast in view as inueli as ])ossible, on his right side, 'always with the intent to lind a jiassage and open water to India.' . . . After having ioiinded Capo Cod, he niu:jt have felt fresh hope. He saw a coast runni.ig to the west, mid ojieii water before him in that direc- tion. It is Iherefi re nearly lertain that he en- tered soniewliat that broad .;ulf, in the interior corner of which lies the harlioi' of New York. . . . From a statement cont.iined in the work of I'eler Martyr it appears . . . certain that Cabot landed on some jilaces of the coast along which he sailed. This author, relating .1 conversation which he had with his friend Cabot, on the sub- ject of his voyage of 1498, .'.ays that Cabot told liiin ' he bad found on most of the places copper or brass among the aborigines.' . . . From another authority we learn that lu! captured some of these aborigines and brought them to England, when! they lived and were seen a few years afte. his return by the English chronicler, iJobert Fabyan. It is not stated at what iilace he captu'cd those Indians ; but it was not customaiy with the navi- gators of that time to take on lioan! the Ind'ans until near the time iif their leaving the country. Cabot's Indians, thi'refore, w^'re iiroliably cap- tured on .»ome shore south of New York harlior. . . . The soulhern terminus of his voyag(! is Iirotty well ascertained. He himself informed his friend Peter Martyr, that he went as far south I's iibi u! '•". latitude of the Strait of Gib- riiUivr, that is ,, say, about 30^ north latitude, which is r.eur that "of Cape llatteras. . . . On their ri'turn from the'r lirst voyage of 1497, the Crtliots believed that they Imil iliscovered jiortions of Asia and so pro{!lainie(l it. But the more extensive discoveries of the second voyage corrected the views of Sebastian, ind revealed to him nothing but a wild and barbarous coast, stretching through iiO degrees of latitude, from 071° to M°. The discovery of this impassable barrier across his passage to Cathay, as lie often complained, was a sore displeasure to him. In- stead of the rich possessions of China, which he hoped to reach, he was arrested by a New found land, .savage and uncultivated. A spirited Ger- man author. Dr. G. M. Asher, in his life of Henry Hudson, published in London in 181)0, observes: ' The disjileasure of Cabot involves the scientific discovery of a new world. He was the first to recognize that a new and unknown continent was lying, as one vast barrier, between Western Eurojic and Eas'ern Asia. "... AVhen Cabot made proposals in the following year, 1499, for another expedition to the same regions, he was supported neither by tlie king nor the merchants. For sev- eral years tlit! scheme for the discovery of a north-western route to Cathay was not much favored in England. Nevertheless, the voyt'.gc of this gifted and enterprising youth along the entire coast of the present United States, nay along the whole extent of that great continent, in which now the English race and language pre- vail and nourish, has always been considered as the true beginning, the foundation and c(nner- sto;ie, of all the English claims and possessions in the northern half of America." — ^'J. G. Kohl, JHiil. of tho Discireery of M<ii,.t; ch. 4. Also i.n: U. Biddle, Memoir of iSchaMian Cabot, ch. 1-10.— J. F. Nicholls, Life of Sebastian Cabot, ch. 5. A. D. 1498-1505.- The Third and Fourth Voyages cf Columbus. — Discovery of Trini- dad, the northern coast of S. America, the shores of Central America and Panama. — When Columbus reached Spain in June, 1490, "Ferdinand and Isabella received him kindly, gave him new honors and promised him other outlits. Enthusiasm, however, had died out and delays took place. The reports of the returning ships did not correspond with the jiictures of ^larco I'olo, and the newfound world was thought to be a very poor India after all. Most people were of this mind; though Columbus was not disheartened, and the public treasury was re;.dily opened for a third voyage. Coronel sailed early in 1498 with two ships, and Colum- bus followed with si.x, embarking at San Lucas on the SOtli of JIay. He now discovered Trini- dad (July iU), which he named either from its three peaks, or from the Holy Trinity; struck the northern coast of South America, and skirted what was later known as the I'earl coast, going as far as the Island of Margarita. He wondered at the roaring fresh waters which tiic Oronoco pours into the Gulf of Pearls, as he called it, and he half believed that its e.\uberant tide came from the ter-estrial paradise. Ho touched tho so 't hern coast of I lay ti on the IlOth of August. Here already his colonists bad established a for- tified post, and fninuled the town of Santo Domingo. Hi^' brother Bartholomew had ruled energetically during the Admiral's absence. 1ml ho had not prev<nti'd a revolt, which was headed by Uoldan. Columbus on his arrival found the insurgents still defiant, but he was able after 11 while to reconcile them, and he even succeeded 54 AMERICA, 1498-1505. iMst Voi/tiijes of Columbus. AMERICA, 1490-1500. in nttachinR Hcildan wnrmly to liis interests. Columbus' iibst'ncu from Spain, however, left his good niime witliout sponsoi-s; and to satisfy detractors, a new commissioner was sent over with enlarged powers, even with autlioritv to supersede Columbus in general conunand. if necessary. This emissary \vas Francisco de Bo- biulilla, "who arrived nt Siinto Domingo with two caravels on the 2;id of August, 1.500, tinding Diego in eonnnand, liis brother, the Admiral, being alisetit. An issue was at once made. Diego refused to accede to the commissioner's orders till t'olumlnis returned to juilge the case himself; so Hobadilla assinned charge of the crown ])roperty violently, tooli po.ssessiim of tlie Admiral's house, and wiien Columbus returned, he with his l)rotlier was arrested and put in iron.s. In this condition tlie prisoners were placed on shipboard, and sailed for Spain. The captain of the sliip olT. .'I'd to remove the manacles: but Colum!)US would not permit it, being determined to land in Sjiain bound as he was; and .so lie did. The effect of his degradation was to his advant- age; sovereigns and |)eople were sliocked at tlie sight; and Ferdinand and Isabella hastened to malie amends by receiving him with renewed favor. It was soon apparent that evcrytliing reasonatjle would be granted him l)y the mon- arclis, and that he coidd have all he miglit wisli short of receiving a new lea.sc of power in tlie islands, which the sovereigns were deterinined to see paeilled at least before Columbus should again assume governmentof them. Tlie Admiral had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy Seimlchro from tlie Inlidel; but the monarch's did not accede to his wisli to undertake it.. Dis- appointed in tins, he proposed a new voyage; and getting tlie royal countenance for this scheme, he was supplied with four vessels of from fifty to seventy tons each. ... He sailed from Cadiz, May 9, 1503, accompanied by his brotlier Bartholomew and his son Fernando. The vessels reached San Domingo June '.21). Bobudilla, whose rule of a year and a half had been an unhappy one, had g"iveii place to Nicho- las de Ovaiido; and the licet whicli brought the new governor— with Maldonado, Las Casas and otliers — now lay in the harbor waiting to receive Bobudilla for the return voyage. Columbus had been instructed to avoid llispaniola; but now tliat one of his vessels leaked, and he mrded to make repairs, he .sent a boat ashore, asking per- mission to enter the harbor. He was refused, though a storm was impending. He sheltered his vessels as bi's', he ('(add, and rode out the gale. The lleet which hail on board Bobudilla and Roldan, with their ill-gotten gains, was wrecked, and these enemies of (kilumlms were di-owned. The Admiral found a small harbor where he could make his repairs; and then, ,iuly 14, .sailed westward to tiiul, as he supposeil, the richer portions of India. . . A landing was made on the coast of Honduras, August 14. Three days later the explorers landed again fifteen leagues farther east, and took po.ssession of the country for Spain. Still east they went; nnd, in gratitude for safety after a haig storm, they named a cape which thev rounded, Oracias a Dios— a name still preserved at the point wliere the coast of Honduras begins to trend southward. Columbus was now lying ill on his bed, placed on ileck, and was half the time ill revery. Still the vessels coasted south," along nnd beyond the shores of Costa Rica ; then turned with the bend of the coast to the north- ea.st, until they reached Porto Bello. as we call it, where they found houses and orchards, and pa.ssed on ' to the farthest spot of Bastiilas' explorini:, who had, in 1.501, sailed westward along the nortliern coast of South America." There turning back, Columbus altem|(ted to found a colony at Veragna, on the Costa Hica coast, where signs of gohl were tempting. But the gold proved scanty, the natives hostile, and, the Admiral, withdrawing his colony, siiiletl away. "He abandoned one worm-eaten caravel at Porto Bello, and, re.'iching .b.maica, beached two otiicrs. A year of disappointment, grief, nnd want followed. Columbus clung to his wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied at his side, and roved about the island. Ovando, at His]ianiola, heard of his str.iils, but only tardily and scantily re!ic\ed him. Tiie dis- contented werelinally huniblnl; and .some ships, despatched by the Admiral's agent in Santo Domingo, at last readied him and brought him and his companions to that i)lace, where Oviindo reccivi-d him with ostentatiinis kindness, lodging I'im in his liouso till Ci>lumbus departed for Spain, Sept. 1'-.', 1.504." Arriving in Spain iu Xovember, disheartened., broken with disease, neglected, it was not until the following Jlay that he had strength c'.iough to goto tiie court at Segovia, and then only to be coldly received by King Ferdinand — Isabella being dead. "While .still hope was deferred, the inlirmitics of age and a life of hardships brouglit ('olumbus to his end; and on Ascension Day, the iiOlli of May, 1500, he died, with his sou Diego and a few devoted friends b^' his bedside." — ,1. Winsor, y((rntticc <inil Criliriil llixt. of \i»., r. ii, eh. 1, Also in: H. II. 'Bancroft, Ifixt. <>f the. Pticific Sliiti's, V. 1, eh. 3 iiKil 4. — W. Irving, Life ami [oi/cti/en of (''iliimhiis, M: 10-18 (c. 'i). A. D. 1499-1500.— The Voyage-! and Dis- coveries of Ojeda and Pinzon.— The Second Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. — Oiii' of the most daring and resolute of the adventurei's who accomiianied Columbus on his second voyage (in 149;!) was Alon/.o de Ojeda. Ojeda (luarrelled with the .Vilmiral and returiic('. to Spain in 1498. Soon afterwards, "he was provided by the Bishop Fonseea, Columbus' enemy, with a fragment of the map which the Admiral had sent to Ferdinand and Lsabella, showing the dis- coveries which he had iiiade in livi last voyage. Y 'til this assistance Ojv-da .set sail for Siailh America, accompanied by the p'lot, .Tuau de la Cosa, who had accompanied C ilumlms in his first great voyage in 149i, and if whom Colum- bus complained that, ' bein;' a clever man, he went ntiout saying tliat he knew more than he did,' and also by Amerigo Vespucci. They set sail oil the 20th of Jlay, 1499, with four vessels, and after a pa.s.sage of 21 days came in sight of the continent, 200 leagues east of the Oronoco. At the end of .Iiine, they landed on tin shores of Surinam, in si.\ degrees of ncntli latitude, and proceeding west saw the mouths of the Kssei|uibo and Oronoco. Passing the Boca del Drago of Trinidad, tliey coasted westward till ttiey reached the Capo de la Vela in Granada. It was in this voyage that was discovered the Gulf to which Ojeda gave the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice, on account of the cabins built on piles over the water, a mode of life which brought to 55 AMKUICA, 1499-1500. Third I'oyagit of I'espuciua. AMERICA, ISOO-inu. his mind tlic wnter-city of tlie Adriiitic. From till' AiiuTicuii loast (Jji.'ilii went to tlie Caril>l)('<' islaiiils, mill on llir! Oili of Scptcmhcr iva(lii<l Ya;;uimi), in llispaniola. where lie raised a revolt iicainst llie aiulinrily of Coluiiibiis. His i>laiis, however, were friislraled hy IJoldau and Cseobar, the delegates of Coliiniliiis, and he was <'omi)elled to withdraw from the island, ^)n the filh of i''el)niary, 1")00, he returned, earrying with him to lacliz an e.xtraordinary inimher of slaves, from wliieli he realized an enormous .sum of money. At the beginning of December, llit!', the same year in which Ojecla .set sail on his last voyage, another eoinpanioii of Columbus, iu his (list voyage, Vieent- Yafiez I'iuzon, sailed from I'alos, was the first to cro3.s the line on the American si<le of the Atlantic, and on the 20th of .January, l.'itH), discovered Cape St. Augustine, to which ii(' gave the name of Calio ,Santa Maria de la Consolaeion, whence returning northward lie followed the westerly trending coast, and so discovered the mouth of the Amazon, which he named I'aricura. Within a month after his de- parture from I'alos, he was followed from the Banie [lort and on the same route by Diego de Lepe, who was the lirst to discover, at the mouth of the Oronoeo, by means of a closed vessel, wlii( h oidy opened when it reached the bottom of the water, that, at a depth of eight fathoms and a half, the two lowest fathoms were salt water, but all above was fresh. Lepe also made the observation that licyond Cajie .St. Augustine, which he doubled, as well as I'inzon, the coast of Brazil trended .south-west." — H. II. Major, J.iff iif I'n'iicc lli'iin/ (if J'orl'ir/iil, c/i. 19. Al.so in: W Irving, Life and Vnyaijcs of C'lliiiiihii.t, r. ;i, ell. l-JJ. A. D, 1500.— Voyages of the Cortereals to the far North, and of Bastidas to the Isthmus of Darien. — "The Portuguese did not overlook the north while making their imiiortant discoveries to the south. Two vessels, probably in the spring of l.'jOU, were sent out under Uaspar C'orlereal. No journal <ir chart of the voyage is now in existence, hence lillle is known of its object or results. Still nioie dim is a previous voyage ascribed by Conleiro to .Jorto Vaz Cortereal, father of Gasiiar. . . . Touelii'ig lit the Azores, Oaspar Cortereal, jiossibly I'olkiw- ing Cabot's charts, struck the coast of Newfound- land north of Cape Hace, and sailing north di.seovered a land which he called Terra Verde, perhaps Greenland, but was .stopped by ice at a river which be named Hio X'.'vado, wlmse loca- tion is unknown. Cortereal returned to Lisbon before the end of VM). . . . In Oelober of this same year itiMlrigo de Bastidas sailed from Cadiz with two vessels. Touching tlu! shores nf South America near Isla Verde, which lies bet ween (iuadalupe and the main I.md, he followed the coast westward to K' Uelrete, or jierliaps Nombre de Dios on the Isthmus of Darii n, in about 9=' 30' north lun, !e. Keturning '.le was wrecked on Lspauol.i toward the end of l.")01, and reached Cadi/, in S<'ptember, l.'iO'.V This being the lirst nuthciitic voyage by Eur'.peans to the territory herein deliiicd iw llie I'acilic States, sucli inci- dents as are known will be given hereafter." — II. 11. Bancroft, iJinl. if the Pncifif SIhUd, v. 1, p. 111!. — " \Vc have Las Cas.is's authority for say- ing that BastiihuS was a humane man toward the Indians. Indcjd, he ufterwurds hist his iife by tlds liupmuity; for, when govuri'.or of Suutii Martha, not consenting to harass the Indians, be .so alienated his men that a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was murdered in his bed. The renowned Vasco Nui'iez [de Balboa] was in this e.xpedi'iou, anil the knowledge he gained there had the greatest inlluence on the fortunes of his varied and eventful life." — Sir A. Helps, Sjuiiiix/i ('oiii/iiint ill Am., hk. 5, ch. 1. Also i.n: .1. G. Kohl, Hint, of llie iJis.oeern if }fiiiiie, ch. •). — H. Biddle, .Veiiwir of tilxistiiiii Cii/x/t, bk. 'i, rh. ;!-.'). — See, also, Newkound- i..\nd: a. 1). l.Wl-1.5r8. A. D. 1500-1514.— Voyage of Cabral. — The Third Voyage of Americus Vespucius. — Ex- ploration of the Brazilian coast for the King of Portugal. — Curious evolution of the conti- nental name ".America." — " Alfairs now be- came curiously complicated. King Lmanuel of I'ortugal intrusted to Tedro Alvarez de Cabral the command of a fleet for Hindustan, to loUow uj) the work of Gama and establish a Porlu- guese centre of trade on the .Malabar coast. This licet of 13 vessels, carrying about 1,300 men, sailed from Lisbon March 9, l.WO. After passing the Cape Verde Lslauds, JIa.cl'. 2~, I'l r some reason not clearly known, whether driven by .stormy weather or seeking to avoid the calms that were apt to be troublesome on t!"' Guinea coast, Cabral took a somewhat mori Avesterly cour^;? than he realized, and on Ajiril 22, after a weary jirogrcss averging less than 00 miles per day, he found himself on the coast of Brazil not far beyond *lie limit reached liy Lepe. . . . Approaching it iu l'ucIi a way Cabral felt sure that this coast must fail to the east of the papal meridian. Accordingly on May day, a* I'orto Seguro in latitude 10° liO' S., he took li.rmal ]iiis.se.ssion of the country for I'oritigal, and .s;'iit Caspar de Lenios in one of his sliijis back t.' Lisbon with the news. On May 22 Cabral 'veiglied anchor and stood for tiie (.'ape of Good Hope. , . . Cabral called the land he had found Vera Cruz, a name which ]iresenlly became Santa Cruz; but when Lenios arrived in J.,is!)on with the news he had with him some gorgeous jiaro- (picls, and ani'ing the earliest names on ol ' maps of tliv; Jirazilian coast we liiid ' liimd of I'aro- (lUets'and 'Land of the Holy Cro.ss.' The lainl lay oliviously so far to the east that Spain '.'ould not deny that at last there was something for I'ortugal out in the 'ocean sea.' ^luch interest was felt at Lisbon. King Eniamiel began to prepare an e.vpcdition for exploring this new coast, and wished to .secure the services of some eminent jiilot and cosmographei familiar with the western waters. Overtures were made to Americus, a fact which jiroves that he hail already won a high reputation. The overtures were accepted, for what reason we do not know, and .soon after his re! urn from the voyage with Ojeda, iirobably in the autumn of ITiOO, Ameri- cus passed from the service of Spain into that of Portugal. . . . On May 11, l.'iOl, Vespuciu.s, who was evidently iirincipal pilot and guiding spirit in this voyage under unknown skies, set sail from J-isbon w itli three caravels. It is not (piite clearwho was chief captain, butSI.Varnhngenlias found reasons for believing that it was u certain Don Nuno Manuel. The tlrst halt was made on the African coast at Capo Verdo, the lirslf week iu.]uue. . . . After 07 days of 'the vilest weather ever seen by man ' they reach(!d the coast of Brazil in latitude about 5° S., on the evcuiug 56 AMERICA, 1500-t514. Namincj of America. AMERICA, 1500-1514. of the Ifith of August, tlie festival-day of San Koque, wliose name was accordingly given to the cape before wliicli they drojiped anclior. From tliis point they slowly followed the coast to the soiilliward, ftopiiing now and then to exam- ine the country. . . . It was not until All Saints day, tlie lirst cf November, tliat they reael'ed the bay ii; latitude VP S., whicli is still known by the name wlii('h they gave it, Hahiade Todos Santos. On New Year's ciay, 150',', tliey arrived at llie noble bay wlierc 54 years later the chief city of Ura/.il was founded. They would seem to "have nnst.aken it for tlie mouth of another huge river, like some tliat had already been seen in this strange world; for they called it Kio de Janeiro ( Uiver of .lamiary). Thence by February 15 they had passeilCapeSanta JIaria, when they left the coast and took a southeasterly course out into the ocean. Amerieus gives no satisfactory reason for tins change of direction. . . . I'er- hai)S he may have looked into tlie inoutli of the river La I'lata, which is a bay more tl .in a hun- dred miles wide; and the sudden westward trend of the shore may have led him I ) suppose that lie had reached the end of the continent. At any rate, he was now in longitude more than twenty degrees west of the meridian of Capo San Koipie, and theref<ire uiuiuestionably out of Portuguese waters. Clearly there was no use in going on and diseovc iig lands which could belong only to Spain. This may account, I think, for the change of direction." The voyage southeastwardly was ])ursued until the little fleet had reached the icy ami rocky coast of the island of South Georgia, in latiliide 54° S. It was tlien decided to turn homeward. " Ves- pucius . . . headed s.raiglit N. N. K. through the huge ocean, fur Sierra Leone, and the dis- tance of more than l,OU() miles was made — with wonderful atfuracy, though V'espucius says nothing ;ibout that — in 33 days. . . . Thence, after some further delay, to Lisbon, where they arrived on the 7th of September, 1.J03. . . . Vmong all the voyages made during that event- ful period there was none that as a teat of navi- gativn su-pa.ssed this third of Vespucius, and there was none, except the first of Columbus, that outranked it in iiistorical importance. For it was not only a voyage into the remo'est stretches of the Sea of Darkness, but it vas prei'miiiently an incursion into the antipodal world of the Southern hemisphere. ... A coast of continental e.\tcnt, beginning so near the meridian of tlie Cape Verde i.slands and run- ning southwesterly to latitude 35° S, ;;nd per- haps beyond, did not (it into anybody's scheme of things. ... It was land unknown to the ancients, and Vespucius was right in saying that he had beheld there things "by the thousand which I'liny had never r.ientioned. It was not strange that he should call it a 'New World,' and ill meeting with this phrase, on tliis first occasion in which it appears in any document with reference to any part of what we now call Anicrica, the reader must be careful not to clothe it witli tlui meaning whicli it wears in our mod- ern eyes. In using tliu expression ' New Worhl ' Vespucius was not tliinking of the Florida coast which he had visited on a former voyage, nor of the 'islands of Isidia' discovered by Columbus nor even of the Pearl Coa.st which he had fol- lowed after tlie Adiuiml in exploring. The expression occurs iu lus letter to Lorenzo do'Medici, written from Lisbon in March or April, 1.503, relating solely to this third voyage. The letter begins as follows: ' I have formerly writ- ten to you at sullicient length about my return from those new countries which in the siiijis and at the expense and command of the most gracious King of Portugal we have .sought and found. It is proper to call them a new world.' Observe that it is only the new countries visited on this third voyage, the countries from Cape San I{o(iue southward, that Vespuci. r thinks it projier to call a new world, and here is liis reason for .so calling them: ' Sinc(^ among our ancestors tliere was no knowledge of them, and to all who hear of the affair it is most novel. For it tran- scends the ideas of the ancients, since nio:,[ of tliem say that beyond the eiiuator to the south there is no continent, but only the .sea which ihey calleil the Allantit, and if any of them asserted the existence of a ( (iiitinent there, they found many reasons for refusing to consider it a habitable country, liut this last voyage of mine has i)roved that this opinion of tlieirs was cr.'oneous and in every way contrary to the facis. ' . . . This exi)ression ' Novus .Mundiia,' thus occurring in a private letter, liad a remark- able career. Early in .Tune, 1.5((3, about the time when Amerieus wasstarting on his fourth voyage, Lorenzo died. By the lieginning of 1.5()4, a l-atin version of the letter [translated by (iiovanni Gioeondo] was printed and pulilished. with the title ' jMundus Novus.'. . . The littl" four- leaved tract, ' Mundus Novus,' turned lUit to be the great liteniry success of the day. JI. Harisse has described at least eleven Latin edi- tions ])robabl)' pubiislied in the course of 1.504, and by 1500 not less than eight editions of Ger- man vc:rsions had liecn i.ssued. Intense curiosity was aiou.sed by this aiiiiounce-nciit (d' tin' exis- tence of a populous hind beyond Ihe equator and unknown (could such a filing be possible) to the ancients," — wlio did know something, at least, about the eastern parts of the Asiatic continent whicli Columbus was supposed to have reached. The "Novus .Mundus," so named, began soon to be represented on maps and globes, generally a.s a great island or iiuasi-continent lying on and below the cciuator. "Europe, Asi.a and Africa were the three i)arls of the earth (lu'cviously known], and so this opposite region, hitherto Unknown, but mentioned liy Mela and indicated by Ptolemy, was the Fourth P.irt. We can now begin to undersland the intense and wildly atisorbing interest with which jieoph! read the brief story of the third voyage of Vespucius, and wc can .see that in the nature of that interest tlierc was nothing calculated to bring it into com- parison with l\w. work of Columbus. Tlie two navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing the same tiling, but as men who had done two very dilfereiit things; and logivecredittoone was by no means e(|uivaleiit to withholding credit from .the other." In 1507, .Martin Waldsee- mlUler, profes,sor of geograiihy at Saint-Die, published a small treatise entitled "('osmo- graphie Introduetio," witli that second of the two known letters of Vespucius — the (iiw. addressed to SoderinI, of which an account is given abovo (A. I). 1407-1498)— appemled to it. "In this rare book occurs the first suggestion of tlie name America. After having trei.led of the division of the earth's inhabited surface info three parts — Europe, Asia, and Africa — WuldsecinUller 01 AMERICA, irm-ir>U. AMERICA, 1.509-1511. speaks of tlic discovery of a Fourtli Pnrt," and Hiiys: '■ ' WhcrcfDre I "do not sec wliat is riglilly toliiiidcT us from callini; it Ann'rige or AiiicTiia, i. 0., the land of Amcricu;*, after its discc)verer Aincrlcuii, a man of sai^'aeioiis mind, since liotli Kuriipe and Asia liave got tlieir names from wiiincn.' . . . Siicli were tlie winged words Imt for wliieli, as .\I. IIariss(; reminds us. tlie western liemispliere ndglit liave come to lie linown as Atlantis, or llesperides. or Santa Cruz, or Xew India, or perhaps Columbia. ... In about a (piarter of a century the first stage in the devel- opnieiU of the naming of America liaci been completed. That stage consisted of live distinct steps; 1. Americus called the regions visited by him liiyond the iMiiuitor ' a new^world ' beeau.se they were unknown to the ancients; 2. Giocondo maile this striking phrase '-Mundus Novus' iato a title for his translation of the letter. . . ; 3. the name Mundus Novus got placeil upon sev- eral maps as an e(iuivalent fur Terra .Sanctiu Crucis, or what we call lira/il; t. the sugges- tion was made that .Mundus Novus was the Fourth I'art of the earth, and miglit jiroperly be named America after its discoverer; o, the name America thus got placed ujKjn several maps [the first, so far lis known, being a map ascribed to liconaiilo da Vinci and ]uiblished about 1,511, and the second a globe made in 1.51.5 by .lohanu Sehouer, at Niireud)erg| as an e((uivalent feu- what we call Brazil, and sometimes came to stand alone as an e(iuivalent for what we call •South America, but still sigiiitied only a part of the dry land beycaid the Atlantic to which Columbus iiad led the way. . . . Tliis wider meaning (of South America] became all the more lirndy established as its narrower meaning was usnrpeil by the name lirazil. Tliree cen- turies before tlu' time of ( 'olnnd)Us the red dye wood called brazil-wood was an article of conuneree, under that .«anie name, in Italy and Spain. It was one of the valuable things brought from the East, and when the Portu- guese fo\uid the same dye-wood abiuulaut in thos<' tropical forests that had seemed so beauti- fid ;<) V'espucius, the name lirazil soou became fastened upon the country and helped to .set free the name America fron\ its local associa- tions." Wlicn, in time, and by slow degrees, the great fact was learned, that all the lands found lieyond the Atlantic by Columbus and his successors, formed iiarl of one continental system, and were all to be embraced in the con- ception of a New World, the name which had become synonymous with Xew World was then naturally" extended to the whole. The evolu- tionary iirocess of the naming of the western he;uis|iliere as a whole was thus n)ade complete in 1.511, by Mer-ator, who spread the name America in lar.g<' letters upon a globe which he constructed that year, so that part of itappeiired upon the northern and part upon the southern continent. — J. Fislse, The Dhcoccry of j. merica, c!i. 1 (i\ 2). Also in: AV. B. Scnife, Amcricn : Its (leoi/raph- t'l-iil llii^toni, sect. 4.— U. II. -Mii.jor, Ufe of Pi-inct Jlciirt/ of Portiir/nl, eh. 10. —,J. Winsor, Ji'ii'ratire mid Vntiatl Hint, of Am., v. 2, cli. 2, notes.— 1\. 11. Haucroft, Uist. of the Bteifie Stntes, r. 1, /(/>• lli)-H2, mid 123-12,5. A. D. 1501-1504.— Portuguese, Norman and Breton fishermen on the Newfoundland Banks. See Nkwfolndi,.\nu; A. 1). 1.501-1578. A. D. 1502.— The Second Voyage of Ojeda. — The first voyage of AUjuzo de Ojeda, from which he returned to Spain i' June 1.500, was profitable to nothing but his reputation as a bold and eiUerpri.sing explorer. Uy way of reward, he was given "a grant of laud in llispauiola, and likewise tlu- government of Coquibacoa, which place he had discovered [and which he had called Venezuela]. He wasauthorized to titouta number of ships at his own expense and to pros- ecute discoveries on the coast of Terra Firma. . . . With foiu- vessels, Ojeda .set sail for the Canaries, in 1.503, and thence luoceeded to the Gulf of Paria, from which locality he found his way to Co(nnl)acoa. Not liking this poor country, he sailed on to the " .v of Honda, where he determined to found ' is settlement, which was, however, destined be of short duration. Provisions very soon became scarce; and one of his iiartncrs, who ha<l been sent to procure supplies from .Jamaica, failed to return until t)jeda's followers were almost in a state of mutiny. The result was that the whole colony set .sail for Ilispainola, taking the governor with them in chains. All that Ojeda gained by his expedition was tliat he at leiiglh came oil wimier in a lawsuit, the costs of wiiicli, however, left him a ruined man." — H. G. Watson, .Spmiis/i itial I'orliir/iie.ie S. Am., M: 1, eh. 1. A. D. 1503-1504.— The Fourth Voyage of Americus Vespucius. — First Settlement in Brazil. — In .June, 1.5o;i, "Amerigo sailed again from Lisbon, with si.x .ships. The object of this voyage was to di.scover a certain island called Melclia, which was supposed to lie west of Cali- cut, and to be as famous a mart in the commerce of the Indian world as Cadiz was in Kurope. Tliey made the Cape do Verds, and then, con- trary to the judgment of Vespucci and of all the tleet, the Cominaudei ])ersisted in standing for Serra Leoa." The Commander's ship was lost, and Vespucci, with oue vessel, only, reached the coast of the Xew World, llnding a p(at which is thought to have been Pahia. Here " tliey waited above two months in vain expectation of being joined by the rest of the squadron. Having lost all hope of ihis they coasted on for 2(i0 leagues to the Southward, and there took port agiun in 18° S. ;!5' W. of the meridian of Lis- bon. Here they reuiidned live nuinths, upon good terms with tlie natives, with whom some of the jiarty i)euetrated forty leagues into the interior; and Ikm-c they erected a fort, in which they left 24 men who had been saved from the Commander's ship. They gave them 12 guns, besides other arms, and provisions for six mouths; then loaded with bra/.il [wood], sailed homeward and returned in safety. . . . The honour, therefore, of having formed i!.e first settlement in this country is due to Amerigo Vespucci. It does uot appear tliat any further attention was as this time paid to it. . . . Put the cargo of brazil which Vespucci had brought home tempted private adventurers, who wero ! content with peaceful gains, to trade thither for | that valuable wooii; and this trade became so i,-, well known, that in consecpicnce the (oast and | the whole country obtained the name of IJrazil, ^ notwithstanding the holier appellation [Santa Cruz] which Cabral had given It." — R. Southey, Jlist. of linnil, r. 1, eh. 1. A. D. 1509-151 1.— The Expeditions of Ojeda and Nicueaa to the Isthmus.— The Set- 68 AMERICA, 1509-1511. Settlement at Darien. AMERICA, 1509-1511. tlement at Darien. — "For several years after his ruinous, thougli siircessful lawsuit, we lo.se all traees of Almizo (le Ojeda, excepting that we are told he nintle anotlier voyage to Coquiliacoii [Venezuela], in 1505. No record remains of this exiH'dition, which seems to have been equally unprolitablo with tlie preceding, for we lind him, in l.")US, in tlie island of Hispaniola as poor in purse, though as jiroud in spirit, as ever. . . . About this lime tlie cupidity of King Ferdinand w;is greatly excited by the "accounts by Colum- bus of thegold mines"of Veragua, in which the adnural fancied he had discovered the Aurca Chersonesus of the ancients, whence King Solo- mon jiroeured the gold used in building the tem- ple of Jerusalem. S'-b.sequent voyagers had corroborated the opini' of Columbus as to the general riches of the cc of Terra Firma; King Ferdinand resolved, therefore, to found regular colonies along that coast, and to place the whole under some capable commander." Ojeda was recommended for this post, but found a conii)eti- tor in one of the gentlemen of the Spanish court, Diego de Xicuesa. "King Feriinand avoided the dilemma by favoring both; not indeed by furnishing them with ships and mor.ey, but bj' granting patents and dignities, which copt noth- ing, and might bring rich returns. lie divided that part of the continent which lies along the Isthmus of Darien into two provinces, tlie boundary line running through the Gulf of Uraba. The eastern part, extending to Capo do la Vela, was called New Andalusia, and the gov- ernment of it given to Ojeda. The otlier to the west [called Castilladcl Oro], including Veragua, and reacliing to Cape Gracias ft IJios, was as- signed to Nicuesa. The island of Jamaica was given to the two governors in connnon, as a place whence to draw supplies of provision.s." Slender means for the equipment of Ojeda's expedition Were supplied by tlic veteran jiilot, Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied him as his lieutenant. Nicuesa was more amply provided. The rival armaments arrived at San Domingo about the same time (in 1509), and much quarreling be- tween the two conunandcrs ensued. Ojeda found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- nandez de Enciso, who had niouc}' which he con- sented to invest in the enterprise, and who prom- iswl to follow him with an additional sliip-load of retruits and supiilies. Under this an'angemeut Ojeda made ready to sail in advance of his com- petitor, embarking Nov. 10, 1509. Among those who sailed with iiim was Francisco Pizarro, tlie future loiKiueror of Peru. Ojeda, by his energy, gained time enough to nearly ruin li'is expedition before Xieuesa reached the" scciK'; for, having landed at Carlhagena, he made war upon the na- tives, pursued lliem rcckles.sly into the iiiteri(U'of the country, with 70 men, and was overwhelmed by the desperate savages, escaping with only one companion from their poisoned urrows. His faithful friend, the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was among the slain, at.d Oiedahimself, hilling in the forest, was nearly d:. id of hunger and exposure when found and rescued by a sei'rcliing pnrrv from his ships. At this juncture the licet of Ni- ! iiesa made its appearance. Jealousies were for- gotten in a common rage against the natives and the two expeditions were joined in an attack on the Indian villages which spared nothing. Nicu- esa thon proceeded to Veragua, while Ojeda founded a town, which he called Sau Sebastian, nt the oa.st end of the Gulf of Uralia. Incessantly hara.ssed bj- the natives, terrilicd by the effects of the jjoLson which these used in their warfare, and threatened with starvation by the rapid exhaustion of its supplies, the settlement lost courage and hoi)e. Enciso and his promised ship were waited for in vain. At length there came a vessel which certain piratical adventurers at Hispaniola had stolen, and which brought some welcome pro- visions, e.igcrly bouglit at an exorbitant price. Ojeda, half recovered from a jjoisoned wound, wliieh he had treated heroically with red-hot plates of iron, engaged the pirates to convey him to Hispaniola, for tlio procuring of suiJidies. The voyage was a disastrous one, resulting in shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a month of desijcrate wandering in the morasses of the island. Ojeda survived all these perils and sull'ering.s, made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to San Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had sailed for the colony long before, with abundant supplies, but could Icaru nothing more. Nor could he obtain for himself any means of return- ing to San Sebastian, or of di.spatehing relief to the place. Sick, penniless and disheartened, he went into a convent and died. Meantime the despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited until death had made them few enough to be all taken on board of the two little brigantines which were left to them ; then they sailed away, Pizarro in command. One of the brigantines soon went down in a squall; the other made its way to llie harbor of Carlhagena, where it found the tardy Enciso, searching for his colony. Enciso, under his commission, now took conmiand, and insistetl upon going to San Sebasiian. There the old ex- periences were soon renewed, and even Enciso was ready to abandon the deadly place. The latter had brought with him a needy cavalier, Vasco Nunez de Balboa — so needy that ho smuggled himself on board EucLso's ship in a cask to escape his creditors. Vasco Nunez, wlio had coasted this region with ISastidas, in 1500, now advised a removal of tlie colony to Darien, on the opposite coast of the Gulf of "Uraba. His advice, which was followed, proved good, and the hopes of the settlers were raised; butEneiso's modes of government proved irksome to them. Then Balboa called atte'ition to the fact that, when they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, they passcil out of the territory covered by the patent to Ojeda, uiiil(>r which Eu;mso was commissioned, and into that granted to Nieuesa. On this sug- gestion Enciso was promi)tly depo.sed and two alcahlcs were elected, Balboa being one. While events in one corner of Nieuesa's domain wero thus establishing a colony for that ambitious gov- ernor, he himself, at the other extremitv of it, was faring badly. He had sulTered hardships, separation from most of his command and long abandonment on a desolate coast; had rejoined his followers after great sufferinir, only to suller yet more in their company, until less than one hundred remained of liie "TOO who sailed with liiin a few months before. The selllement at Veragua had been deserted, and another, named Nombre de Dios undertaken, with no improve- ment of circuinstinces. In tliis situation ho was rejoiced, at last, by the arrival of one of his lieu- tenants, Rodrigo tie Colmenares, who came with supplies. Colmenares brought tidings, moreover, of the prosperous colony at Darien, which he had discovered on his way, with an invitation to 39 AMERICA, 1509-1511. nincot'rrjf nf the I'aciflc. AMEUICA, 1513-1517 Nicucsa to cniiu.' nml iissiimo the novprnnu'nt of it. IIu acccptfii IIh; iiivilaliiiii with <liliL,!.t; but, alii.s! tilt! comimniity at Diirk'H liiul rcpi'iitcil i>f it licforc! he niulictl lli"m, and tlicy refused to receive liini wlieii ho arrived. Permit led linally to land, lie was seized Ijy a treaelierous iwi'ly aiiuiii)^ tlio colniii.si.s— to wlioiii Ualboa is said to liave opiiosed all the resistaiiee in liis power — was put on lioard of an old and crazy lirigaiiline, Willi seventeen of liis friends, and eonipelled to talv(! an oath that lie would siul straight to Spain. "'I'he frail li.irk set sail on the tinst of Mareli, 1511, and steered aeross the Caril)bcaii Sea for the island of Ilispaniola, but was i.ever seen or heard of more." — W. \r\\iii;, Life and Vui/dyis of Coliim- bu,i fintl hiti (,oinjianiifn:t, v. 3. Ai.st) I.N- H. H. Haneroft, Jfist. of the Pacific StiitiK, V. \,ch, C. A. D. 151 1. — Tha Spanish conquest and oc- cupation of Cuba. See C,'i;iia: A. 1). 1511. A. D. 1512. — The Voyage of Ponce de Leon in quest of the Fountain of Youth, and his Discovery of Florida. — "Whatever may have been the Southernmost point reached by Cabot in coasting Aineriea on his return, it is certain that he did not hmd in Florida, and that the honour of first exploring that country is due to tluan Ponco de Leon. This cavalier, who was governor of Puerto Kieo, induced by the vague traditions circulated by the natives of the West Indies, that thiic was a, country in the north possessing a fountain whose waters restored the aged to youth, made it an object of his ambition to be the first to discover this marvellous region. With this view, he resigned the governorship, and set sail with three caravels on the 3d of March 1512. Steering N. J N., he came upon a country covered with flowers and verdure; and as the ilay of his discovery hapjicned to bo Palm Sunday, called by the Spaniards ' Pasqiia Florida,' he gave it the name of Florida from this cireumstanee. He landed on the 2d of A])ril, and took i)ossession of the coinitry in the name of the king of Ca.stile. The warlike people of the coast of Cautio (a name given by the Indians to all the coimtry lying between Cape Cifiaveral and the southern point of Florida) soon, how- ever, cotni)elled him to retreat, and he pursued his exploration of the coast as far as 30° 8' north latitude, and on the 8th of May doubled Cape Cailaveral. Then retracing his course to Puerto Kico, in the hope of flndiug the island of liimini, which he believed to be the Land of Youth, and described by the Indians as ojiposito to Florida, he di^icovered the liahamas, and some other islands, jireviously uidiuown. Bad weathercom- pelling him to ptit into the isle of Guanima to repair damages, he despatched one of his cara- vels, tinder the orders of Jaun Perez de Ortubia ami of the pilot Anton de Alamiuos, to gain in- formation respecting '.iie desired l.iiul, which he had as yet been totally unable to discover. He returueil to Puerto Uieo on the 21st of Sejitem- lier; a few days afterwards, Ortubia arrived also with news of Uimini. Heieiiorted that ho had e.\|)lored the i.slaiid, — which he described as large, well wooded, and watered by numerous 'reams, — but ho had failed in discovering the iiutain. Oviedo places IJiinini at 40 leagues west of the island of Bahama. Thus all the ad- vantages which Ponce de Leon promised himself from tills voyage turned to the (irolit of geogra- phy : the title of ' Adelantado of Bimiui and Florida,' whieh was conferred upon him, was purely honorary; but the route taken by him in order to return to Puerto Hico, showed the advan- tage of making the homeward voyage to Spain by the Bahama Channel." — W. B. Uye, lutrod. t<: " Discorevy niid CoiKjtiesl of Tcvra Flonila, hy » yentkman of Elvm" (Uakluyt Soc, 1851). Also IN G. H. Fairbanks, Hint. ofFloriila, ch. 1. A. D. 1513-1517.— The discovery of the Pacific by Vasco Nuflez de Balboa. — Pedra- rias D'.vila on the Isthmus. — Willi Enci.so de- posed from authority and Nicuesa sent adrift, Vasco Nunez do Ba.'boa seems to have easily held the lead iu aifairs at Darien, though not without much opposition ; for faction and turbu- lence were rife. Enciso was permitted to carrj his grievances and complaints to Spain, but Bal- boa's colleague, Zamudio, went with him, and another comrade proceeded to Hispauiola, both of them well-furnished with gold. For the quest of gold had succeeded at last. The Darien ad- venturers had found considerable quantities in the possession of the surrounding natives, and were gathering it with greedy hands. Balboa had the prudence to establish friendly relations with one of the most important of the neigh- boring caciques, whose comely daughter he wed- ded — according to the easy customs of the country — and whose ally he became in wars with the other caciques. By gift and tribute, therefore as well as by plunder, he harvested more gold than any be ro him had found since the ransack- ing of the New World began. But what they obtained seemed little compared with the treas- ures reported to them as existing beyond the near mountains and toward the south. One In- dian youth, sou of a friendly cacique, particu- larly excited their imaginations by the tale which ho told of another great sea, not far to the west, on the southward-stretching shores of which were countries that teemed with every kind of w ealtli. lie told them, however, that they would need a thousand men to fight their way to this Sea. Balboa gave such credence to the story that ho sent envoys to Spain to .solicit forces from the king for an adequate expci'ition across the mountains. Tliey sailed in October, 1513, but did not arrive in Spain until the following May. They found Balboa in much disfavorat the court. Enciso and the friends of the unfortunate Nic- uesa had unitedly ruined him by their complaints, and the king had caused criminal proceedings against him to be commenced, ileantimc, some inkling of these hostilities had reached Balboa, himself, conveyed by a vessel which bore to him, at the same time, a commission as captain-gen- eral from the authorities in Ilispaniola. He now resolved to become the discoverer of the ocean which his Indian friends described, and of the rich lamb bordering it, before his enemies could interfere with him. "Accordingly, early in Sep- tember, 1513, ho set out on his renowned expe- dition for finding Uio other sea,' accoinpauicd by 100 men w ell armed, and by dogs, which were of more avail than men, and by Indian slaves to carry the burdens. Ho went by sea to the ter- ritory of his father-in-law. King Careta, by whom he was well received, and accoinpanieil by whose Indians he moved on into Ponc.ha's territory." (Juieting the fears of this cacique, ho jiassed his country without lighting. The next chief encoun- tered, named Quaro(iua, attempted resii''ince, but was routed, with a great slaughter 0! his 60 AMERICA, 1513-1517. FinrUtig o/ Mexico. AMERICA, 1517-1518. people, and Bnlhoa puslicd on. "On the 25th of September, 151:), he cnnio iienr to tlie top of a mountain from whenee the South Sen wii.s visi- ble. Tlio distance from Ponclm's cliief town to this poh't was forty leagues, reelioncd tlien six (lays journey; but Vasco Nunez aud his men took twenty-five days to aee()mi)lisli it, as they suffered much from" tlie roughness of the ways and from the want of provisions. ,V little before Vnsco Nuflez reached the height, Quarcqua's In- dians informed him of his near apiiroacli to tlio sea. It was a sigl\t in beholding which, for tlie first time, any man would wish to be alone. Vasco Nuiiez bade his men sit down while ho ascended, and then, in solitude, looked down upon the vast Pacific — the first man of the Old World, so far as wo know, who had done so. Falling on his knees, ho gave thanks to God for the favour .shown to him in hi-: being permitted to discover the Sea of the South. Tiicn with his hand be beckoned to his men to come up. When they had come, both he and they knelt down and poured forth their thanks to God. lie tlien ad- <lressed them. . . . Having , . . addressed his men, Vasco Xuiicz jiroceeded to take formal possession, on behalf of the kings of Castile, of the sea and of all that was in it; and in order to make memorials of the event, ho cut down trees, formed cnxsses, and heaped up stones. IIi^ also inscribed the names of ihe monaichs of Castile upon great trees in the vicinity." Afterwards, when he had descended the western slope and found the shore, " he entered tiie sea np to his thighs, having his sword on, and with his shield in liis hand ; then he called the l)y-stan<iers to witness how he touched witli his person and took jiossession of this sea for the kings of Castile, anil declared tliat he woidd defenif the possession of it against all comers. After this, Vasco Nunez made friends in the usual manner, first conquer- ing and tlien negotiating with " the several chiefs or caciqties whoso territories came in his way. He explored the Gulf of San Miguel, finding much wealth of pearls in the region, and re- turned to Darien by a route which crossed the isthmus considerably farther to the north, reach- ing his colony on the 29th of January, 1514, hav- ing been absent nearly five months. " lli.s men at Darien received him with exultation, and }ie lost no time in sending his news, ' sucli sigr.il and new news,' ... to the King of Spain, nc- companying it with rich presenis. His letter, which gave a del ailed account of his journey, and which, for its length, was compared by Peter JIartyr to the celebrated letter that came to the senate from Tiberius, contained in every page thanks to God that he liad escaped from such great dangers and labours. Both the letter and the presents were intrusted to a man named Arbolanche, who depr -ted from Darien about the beginning of March, t514. . . . Vasco Nunez's messenger, Arbolanche, leacliod the court of Spain toolatn for his master's interests." Tlio hitter Imd already been superseded in the Gov- ernor.shin, and his successor was on the way to take his authority from him. The new gover- nor was one Pedraria.s Do Aviln, or Davila, ns the n.imo is sometimes written;— an envious and inalignant eld man, under whoso rule on the isthmus the destructive energy of Spanish con- quest rose to its meanest and most heartless and brainless development. Conspicuously exposed as lie was to the jealousy and hatred of Pedra- rias, Vasco Nuflez was probably doomed to ruin, in some form, from IIk^ first. At one time, in 1510, there seemed to be a proini.se for him of alliance with his all-powerful enemy, by a mar- riage with one of the governor's daughters, and he received the comiiiaiid of an expedition which again crossed the isllimus, carrying ships, and began the exploration of the Pacific. Hut cir- eiimstanCt'S soon arose whicli ga\e Pedrarias an opportunity to accu.se the exiilore.'of trea.soniiblc designs and to accomplish his arrest — Francisco Pizarro being tlic otiicer fitly charged with the execution of the governor's warrant. Brought in chains to Aria, Vasi'o Nunez was suiiiinarily tried, found guilty and led forth to swift death, laying his head iijion the block (.V. D. 1517). "Thus perished Viisco Nunez de Balboa, in the forty-second year of his age, tlie man who, since the time of Columbus, had shown the most states- manlike and wariiorliko powers in that part of the world, but whose career only too much re- sembles that of Ojeda, Nicuesa, and the other un- fortunate commaiiikrs who devastated those beautiful regions of the earth." — Sir A. Helps, Spaninh Conquest in Am., bk. 6 (p. 1). — "If I have npplietf strong terms of denunciation to Pcdraias Davila, it is because ho unquestionably deserves it. lie is by far the worst man who came oflicially to the Now World during its early government. In this all authorities agree. And all agree that Vasco Nunez was not deserv- ing of death."— II. H. Bancroft, IlUt. offhcPcusi- fic StaUs, V. 1, ch. 8-12 (foot-note, p. 458). Ai.so IN AV. Ir.'ing, Life and Voyages of Col- unibiis and ?ii,i Companinn.i, v. 3. A. D. 1515.- Discovery of La Plata by Juan de Solis. See Pakaih ay: A. I). 151,")- 1557. A. D. 1517-1518.— The Spaniards find Mexico. — "An hidalgo of Cuba, named Her- nandez de Cordova, sailed with three vessels on an expedition to one of the neighbouring Bahama Islands, in quest of Indian slaves (Feb. 8, 1517). Ho encountered a succession of heavy gales whicli drove him far out of his course, and at tlie end of three weeks he found himself on a strange and unknown coast. On lauding and asking the name of the country, he was answered by the natives 'Tectelan,' meaning 'I do not understand you,' but which tlio Spaniards, mis- interpreting into the name of the place, easily corrupted into Yucatan. Some writers give a dllTerent ct_>mology. . . . Bernal Diaz says the word came from the vegetable ' yuca ' and ' tale,' the name for a hillock ia which it Is planted. . . . !M. Waldeck finds a much more plausible derivation in the Indian word ' Oiiyouckatan,' •listen to what they say.'. . , Cordova had landed on the north-eastern end of the peninsula, at CapoCatoche. He was astonished at the size and solid materials of the buildings constructed of stone and lime, so different from the frail tenements of reeds and rushes which formed the habitations of the islanders. He was .struck, also, v.ith the higher cultivation of the soil, aiul with the ilelicate texture of the cotton garments and gold ornaments of the natives. Everything indicated a civilization far superior to anything he had before witnessed in the New 'World. He saw the evidence of a different race, moreover, in the warlike spirit of the people. . . . Where- ever they lunded they were met with the most deadly hostility. Cordova liimself, in one of his- 61 AMERICA, 1517-1518. I'liliage of Muyellan. A^IEIUCA, Ijl9-lj.i4. gkinni.shcs ".vitli the Iiiiliiiiis, received more tliiiu 11 dozen woliiiils, and (iiit- only of his piirty escaped unliurt. At leiij^ili, wlien he liad coasted llie peninsula as far us C'anipeachy, lie returned to Cuba, wliieli he reached ufler an absi'nce of several inontlis. . . . TIk- reports he had hrouirht hack of the country, and, still more, the spi'ciiMens <if curiously wrought ;:old, con- vinced Velasijuez [L''overnor of Cuba] of the ini- porlance of this discovery, and ho orepared with all despat<h to avail I'imself of it. lie aceor(lin),dy litted j)Ut a little scpiadron of four vcssils lor the newly discovered lands, and I)laced it under the coininaiid of his nei)he\v, .Juan de Grijalva, a man on whose jirobity, prudence, and attachincnt to himself lie kianv lie could rely. The licet left the jiort of St. Jai^o de Cuba, May 1, 1.'518. . . . Grijalva soon passed over to tlic continent and coasted the peninsula, touchin:^ at the same places us his predecessor. Kver3'where ho vas struck, like liiin, with the e\ideiices of a hiiflier civilization, espe<nally in the architecture; as ho well might he, since this was the region of those extraordi- nary remains which have bcconio recently the subject of so inucli speculation. IIo was aston- ished, also, at the si.irlit of larjic stone crosses, evidently objects of worship, which he mot with in various ] daces, ^{eiiiiiidcd by these circum- stances of his own country, ho gave the penin- sula the name Xew Spain, a naiiio since ap- propriated to a much wiiler i-xteiit of territory. AVherever Grijalva landed, he experienced the same unfriendly reception as Cordova, though ho sulTered less, being better i)ri'pared to meet it." He suecieded, however, at last, in opening a friendly cont'ercnce and tralUn with one of tho chiefs, on the l{io do Tabasco, and " had the satisfaction of receiving, for a few worihhss toys JK .1 trinkets, a rich treasure of jewels, gold ornaments and vessels, of the r'.ost fantastic forms and workini.nsliip. Grijalva now tliought that in ' his successful trallic — successful beyond his most sang'-ilne cxiK'Ctations — he had accom- plished the chief object of his mission." He therefore dis])atclicd Alvarado, one of his cap- tains, to Velas(iuez, with the treasure acquired, and continued his voyage along the coast, as far as the ])roviiue of Pauuco, returning to Cuba at the enil of about six months from bis departure. "On reaching the Island, he was surprised to learn that unotlier and more formidable arma- ment had !)een tilted out to follow up his own discoveries, and to lind orders at tho same time from the go\'eriior, couched in no very courieous langmiLre. to repair at once to St. ,Iago, He was received by that personage, not merely with cold- ness, but with reproaches, for having neglected .so fair an opportunity of establishing a colony in the country lie had "visited." — W. II. I'roscott, Ctiiiijiiixt "f Mtxifii, Ilk. 'J, i-h. 1. Al.so IN: C. St. J. I'ancourt. Hut. of Yiimtnn, ch. l-i. — Heriial Diaz tiel Castillo, Memoirs, v. 1, eh. 2- lit. A. D. 1519-1524.— The Spanish Conquest of Mexico, Sec ,Mk\ico: .V. 1). i.")l!t-l.V.'4. A. D. 1519-152,,.— The Voyage of Magellan and Sebastian del Cano. — The Nevy World passed and the Earth circumnavigated. — The Congress at Badajos. — Fernando Magellan, or -Magalhaes, was "a disalfected Portuguese gen- tleman w ho had served his country for live years iu tho Indies under Albuquerque, and uuderiituod well the secrets of tho Eastern trade. Iu 1517, conjointly with his geographical and astronomi- cal friend, Kuy Falorio, another unrequited Por- tuguese, he otferod his services to the Simnlsli court. At the same time these two friends pro- jiosed, not only to prove that the Moluccas were | within the Spanish lines of demarkation, but to I discover a jiassago thither dilTerent from that used bv the Portuguese. Their schemes were listened to, adojited and carried out. Tho Straits of Magellan were discovered, the broad Soulii Sea was crossed, tho Ladrones and the Phil- l!l)iiies were iiis])ected, the Jloluceas wore passed through, tho Ci.pe of Good Hope was doubled on the homeward voyage, and the globe was circuinnavigati'd, all 'in' less than thri'o years, from 1.J19 tfp 1,")*2. JIagellan lost his life, and only one of his live ships roturneil [under Sebiii- tian del Cano] to tell the marvelous story. The; magnitude of the enterprise was etiualled only by the magnitude of tho results. The globe for the Urst time began to assume its true character and size iu tho minds of men, and the minds of men began soon to grasp and utilize tho results of this circumnavigation for the enlargement of trade and commerce, and for tho benetit of geog- raphy, astronomy, mathematics, and the other sciences. This wonderful story, is it not told in a thousand books ? , , . The Portuguese in India and the Spiceries, as well as at homo, now seeing the inevitable conflict approaching, were thur- ouglily aroused to the im])ortaiice of inaintaiuiiig their righl.s. They openly asserted them, and Iironounced this trade with the Moluccas by the Spanish an encroachment ou their prior discov- eries and possession, as well as a violation of the Papal Compact of 1494, and preiiared theiuselves energetically for defense aud olTense. Ou the oilier hand, the Spaniards as openly declared that jMagellan's licet carried the first Christians to tho Moluccas and by friendly imercourso wiili the kings of those islands, reduced tlieni to Chris- tian subjection and brought back letters and tribute to Ca!sar. Hence these kings and their people came under tho protection of Charles Y. llesides this, the Spaniards claimed that the Moluccas were within the Spanish half, and were therefore doubly theirs. . . . I'datters thus wax- ing hot. King John of Portugal begged Charles V. to delay (lispatching his new fleet until the disputed points could bo discussed and settled. Charles, who boasted that ho had rather bo right than rich, consented, and tho ships were sinid. These two Christian princes, who owned all the newly discovered and to be discovered parts of the whole world between them by deed of gift of tho Pope, agreed to meet in Congress at Badajos by their representatives, to discuss and settle all matters in ilisputo about the division of their patrimony, and to dotiue and stake out their lands and waters, both parties agroeiiiL' to abide by the decision of the Congress. Accord- ingly, iu the early spring of 1,524, up wont to this little border town four-and-tweuty wise men, or thereabouts, chosen by each prime. Thev comprised the tirst judges, lawyers, mathe- maticians, astronomers, cosmogiapliers, naviga- tors and pilots of tho land, among wlio.se names were many honored now as then — such as Fer- nando Columbus, Sebastian (Jabot, Estovan Gomez, Diego lUbero, etc. . . . Tho debates and proceedings of this Congress, as reported by Peter Martyr, Oviedo, uud Goiuura, are very amusing. 62 AMERICA, 1519-1534. Voyages of Verrdzano. AMERICxV, 1523-1524. hut no rpgu!iir joint decision could bo ronchod, tlie Portuguose dcclininj; to subscrilx' to the ver- dict of tlio Spmiiiirds, inasmucli iis it deprived tliem of tlio .^lollU■Cll8. So eiieh pnrty pulilislicd nnd proelainicd its own decision after tlie Con- gress brolio up in eonfusion on the last day of May, l")3t. It was, however, tacitly understood that the Moluccas fell to Spain, wliile IJrazil, to the extent of two hundred leagues from Cape St. Augustine, fell to tlie Portuguese. . . . However, much good resulted from this tirst geographical Congress. The extent and breadth of the Pacific were appreciated, anil tlie inlluence of the Congress was soon after seen in the greatly improved maps, globe<, and charts." — H. .Ste- vens, //['«<. aixl (ieog. Notes, U.-jS-ISSO. — "For three months and twenty days he [.Mngellanl sailed ou the Pacific and never saw inhabited land. He was compelled by famine to strip olt the pieces of skin and leather wherewith his rigging was here and there bound, to soak them in the sea nnd then soften thera with warm water, so as to make a wretched food; to cat the sweepings of the sliip and other loathsome mat- ter; to drink water gone putrid by keeping; nnd yet he resolutely held on his course, though lii.s men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- tory of human undertakings there is nothing that exceeds, if indeed there is anything that cciuals, this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in comparison. It is a display ot superhuman courage, superhuman persever- ance." — J. W. Draper, Iliat. of the Intellectual Derclnpmcnt of Europe, c!i, 16. — "The voyage [of Magellan] . . . was doubtless the greatest feat ot navigation that has ever been performed, and nothing can he imagined that would surpass it e.vcept a journey to some other planet. It has not the uni(|ue historic position of the first voy- age of Columbus, which brought together two streams of human life that had been di.sjoined .since the Glacial Period. But nr, an nchieve- moiil in ocean navigation that voyage of Colum- bus sinks into insignificance by the side of it, and when the earth was n second time encom- passed by the greatest English sailor of his age, tlie advance in knowledge, as well as the ditt'cr- ent route chosen, had much reduced the difli- culty of the performance When we consider the frailness ot the ships, the immeasurable ex- tent of the unknown, the mutinies that were prevented or quelled, nnd 'ho hardships that were endureil, we can have no hesit.ition in Speaking of Alagellan as the prince of naviga- tors." — J. Fiske, T/ie Discovery of America, ch, 7 (V. 2). Also in Lord Stanley of Alderlev, The First Voyage round the Worlil (Ihkliiyt S>c., 1874). — U. Kerr, Collection of Voi/(i(/c.i. v. 10. A. D. 1519-1525.— The Voyages of Garay and Ayllon.— Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi.— Exploration of the Carolina Coast. — In l.")19, Prancisco do Garay, governor of .laniaica, ' ' • had been one of the companions of Columhii liis second voyage, having heard of the ss and beauty of Yucatan, "at his own cU.i: .sent out four ships well equipped, nnd with -ood pilots, under the com- mand ot Alvarez Alonso do Pineda. His pro- fessed object was to search for some strait, west of Florida, which was not yet certainly known to form a part of the co'ntinent. The strait having boon sought for in vain, his ships turned toward the west. tho attentively exnmining ports, rivers, inhabitants, and everything efse fy exnmmi , , , . (1 everythii „ that seemed worthy of remark; and especially noticing the vast volume of wa'er brought down by one very large stream. At last they came upon the track of Cortes near Vera Cruz. . . . The can'fully <lrawn map of the jiilots showed di.stinetly tlie Mississippi, which, in this earliest authentic trace of its outlet, bears the name of the Espiritu Santo. . . . Hut Garay thought not of the Jlississippi and its valley: he coveted necesa to the wealth of Jlexico; and, in \r>i'i, lost fortune and life ingloriously in a dispute with Cortes for the governinei.t of the country on the river Painico. A voyage 'or slaves brought the Spaniards in l.-iSO still farther to tho north. A coniiiany ot seven, of whom tho most distinguished was Lucas V'asquez do Ayllon, fitted out two slave ships from St. Dominc-o, in quest ot laborers for their i>lantations nnd mines. From 'C Bahama Islamls they passed to the coiist of South Carolina, whicli was called Chicora. The Combahee river received tho nrine of Jordfin; tho name of St. Helena, whose day is the 18th of August, was given to a cape, but now belongs to tho sound." Luring a largo number of, tho confiding natives on board their ships the adventurers treacherously set sail with them ; but jne of tho vessels foundered at sea, and most 01 th. 'japtives on tho other sickened and died. Vasipiez d3 Ayllon was rewarded for his treacherous exploit hy being authorize 1 and appointed to make the coiiqaest of Chicora. "For this bolder enterprise the undertaker wasted his fortune in preparatiors; in 1525 his largest ship was stranded in the river Jordan; many of his men were killed by the natives; uiul he himself escaped only to suffer from the con- sciousness of having done nothing worthy of honor. Yet it may be that ships, sailing under his nuthority, made the discovery of the Chesa- peake and named it tlio bay of St. Miiry; and perhaps even entered the bay of Delaware, which, in Spanish geographv, was called St. Christo- pher's. "—G. Bancroft, Jlist. of the U. S., pt. 1, ch. 2. Also in II. 11. Bancroft, Hist, of the Pacifie States, r. 4, ch, 11, ami v. 5, eh. G-7. — W. G. Simms, Ilist.of S. (jirolina, bk: 1, ch. 1. A. D. 1523-1524. — The Voyages of Verra- zano. — First undertakings of France in the New Vw orld. — "IL is constantly admitted in our history that our kings paid no attention to Amer- ica before the year 1523. Then Francis I., wisli- iiig to excite tho emulation of his subjects in li'^'.-.rd to navigation and comnnrce, as he had already so successfully in regara i. the sciences I lid fine arts, ordered .John Verazani, who was in his service, to go and explore the New Lands, which began to bo much talked of in France. . . . Verazani was accordingly sent, in 1.52.1, with four ships to discover North America ; but our historians have not spoken of his first expedition, and wo shouU' bo in ignorance of it now, luul not Itainusio /reserved in his great collection a letter of Vera, ani himself, addi 'ssed to Francis 1. and dated D 'ppe, .July 8, 1524. In it ho sup- poses the ki.ig already informed of tho success and details of the voyage, so that ho contents himself with stating that he sailed from Dieppe in four vessels, which he had safely brought back to that port. In January, 1524, he sailed with two shljis, the Dauphine and the Normande, to 63 AMERICA, 1523-1524. Viscovery of I-etru. AilElUCA, 1524-152S. cruise against the Spiiuiiirds. Towards the close of the siiine your, (ir larly in tlii' next, lie nijiiiii flltwl out the Duupliiiii', on which, einbiirking with 50 Mien iiml provisions for ei^ht niontlis, lie first Kiiiled to tlie isliuul of MiKlcini." — Fiilhcr (,'hiirlevoi.x, JM. of Stw Frauee (I runs. Iii/ J. (I. Slu,i). bk. 1.— "On the 17lli of .lanuiiry, 1.524. he [V'critiziiiio] parted from the 'Islas dosiertas.'a well-known little group of islands near Jladeira, and sailed at first westward, running in 25 days 500 leafiues, with a light and pleasant easterly breeze, nlonjf the norlliern liorder of the trade winds, in aliout 30^ N. His track was conse- quently nearly like tliat of I'oUiinbus on his liist voyage. On the 1 1th of February he met ' with as violent u liiirritnne as any ship ever en- countered.' But he weathered "it, and pursued his voyage to the west, ' with a little deviation to the north;' when, after having sailed 2-1 days and 400 leagues, he descried a new country which, as he suppoHi'd, had never before been seen either by modern or ancient navigators. The country was very Inw. From the above des- cription it is evident that Verrazauo came in siglil of the east coast of the United States about the lOlli of .March, 1.524. He places his land-fall in 31° X., whicli is the latitude of Cape Fear." lie tirst sailed southward, for about 50 leagues, ho states, looking for a harbor and finding none. lie then turned northward. "I infer that V^'iia- zano saw little of the coa.st of South Carolina and notliing of that of Georgia, and that in these regions he can, at most, be called the discoverer only of the coast of North Carolina. ... lie rounded Capo llattcras, and at a distance of about 50 leagues came io another shore, where ho an- chored and sp nt several days. . . . This was the second principal landing-place of Veriazano. If wo reckon 50 leagues from Capo Ilatteras, it would fall scanewhere upon tlie east coast of Del- aware, in latitude 38° N., where, by some authors, it is tliouglit to have been. But if, as appears most likely, Verrazano reckoned his dis- tance here, as he iliil in other cases, from his last anchoring, and not from Cape Ilatteras, we must look for his second landing somewhere south of the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and near the en- trance to Albemarle Sound. And this better agrees with the 'sail of 100 leagues' which Ver- razano says he made from his second to his third landing-place, in New York Bay. . . . lie found at this third lauding station an excellent berth, where he came to anchor, well-protected from the winds, . . . and from ■which he ascended the river in his boat into the interior. He foun(l the shores very thickly settled, and as he passed up half a league further, ho discovered a most beautiful lake ... of three leagues in circum- ference. Here, more than 30 canoes came to him witli a multitude of people, who seemed very friendly. . . . This description contains several accounts whicli make it still more clear that the Bay of New York was the scene of these occur- rences." — Verrazano'a anchorage having been at Gravesend Bay, the river which ho entered being the Narrows, and the lake he found being the Inner Harbor. From New York Bay Verrazano s!iiled eastward, along the southern shore of Long Island, and following the New England coast, touching at or describing points which are identified with Narragansett Bay and Newport, Block Island or Martha's Vineyard, and Ports- mouth. His coasting voyage was pursued as far a.s SO"' N., from which point he sailed homeward. "He entered the [xjrl of Dieppe early in July, 1524. His whole exploring expedition, from Madeira and back, had accordingly lasted but tiveand ah.ilf months." — .1. O. Kohl, llht. of the Diiteuvenj af Muiius (Me. Hint. Soc. Coll., 2d Series, V. 1), eh. 8. Also i.n O. Dexter, Cortcreal, Verrazano, tie. {Xdrnitire and Critical Hist, of Am., v. 4, ch. 1). — Ilclatioii of Verrazano (A'. }"". lliat. Sue. Coll., r. 1, and A'! S., v. 1). — J. C. hrt-vooTt, Verrazano the A'ariyator. A. D. 1524-1528. — The Explorations of Pizarro and Discovery of Peru. — "Tlie Soiitli Sea having lieeu di.seovercd, and the inhabitants of Tierra Finne having been conquered and pacified, the Governor Pedrarias de Avila founded and settled the cities of Panama and of Nata, and the town of Nombre do Dios. At this time the Captain Francisco Pizarro, son of the Captain Gonzalo Pizarro, u knight of the city of Truxillo, was living in the city of Panama; possessing his house, bis farm and his Indians, as one of the principal people of the land, which indeed lie always was, having distinguished him- self in the conquest and settling, and in the service of his Majesty. Being at rest and in re- pose, but full of zeal to continue his labours and to perform other more distinguished services for the royal crown, he .sought permission from Pedrarias to discover that coast of the South Sea to the eastward. He spent a large part of his fortune on a good ship which ho built, and on necessary supplies for the voyage, and he set out from the city of Panama on the 14th day of the in<mth of November, in the year 1524. lie had 112 Spaniards in his company, besides some Indian servants. He commenced a voyage in which they suffered many hardships, the season being winter and impropitious. " From this unsuccessful voyage, during which many of his men died of hunger and disease, and in tlie course of which ho found no country that tempted his cupidity or his ambition, Pizarro re- turned after some months to "the laud of Panama, landing at an Indian village near the island of Pearls, called Chuehaina. Thence he sent the shii) to Panama, for she had become un- sea worthy by reason of the teredo; and all that had befallen was reported to Pedrarias, while the Captain remained behind to refresh himself aud his companions. When the ship arrived at Panama it was found that, a few days before, the Captain Diego de Almagro had sailed in search of the Captain Pizarro, his companion, with another ship and 70 men." Almagro and his party followed the coast until they came to a great river, which they called San Juan [a few miles north of the port of Buenaventura, in New Granada]. . . . They there found signs of gold, but there being no traces of the Captain Pizarro, the Captain Almagro returned to Chucharaa, where he found his comrade. They agreed that the Captain Almagro should go to Panama, re- pair the ships, collect more men to continue the enterprise, and defray the expenses, which amounted to more than 10,000 castellanos. At Panama much obstruction was caused by Pedrarias and others, who said that the voyage should not be persisted in, and that his Majesty would uot be served by it. The Captain Alma- gro, with the authority given him by his com- rade, was very constant in prosecuting the work 04 AMEIUCA, 1534-1528. Cnrtier in Ihe at. Lawrence. AMEllICV, 1534-1535. he liiid commenced, iiiid . . . Pedraria8 was forceil to allow him to eiignse men. lie set out from Pannmii wllli 110 men; and went to tlio I'lace where Pi/.arro waited with nnollier 50 of the llrst 110 who sailed with him, and of llie 70 wlio accompanied Almagro when lie went in search. The other 130 were dead. Tlu^ two cajitains, in their two hliips, sailed witli UiO men, anil coasted along the land. When they thought they saw signs of lial)italions, they went on slioVe in three canoes tliey had with tiiem, rowed by 1(0 men, and so they sought for provisions. Tliey continued to sail in this way for three years, sulfering great hardships from hunger and cold. The greater part of the crews died of hunger, insomucli that there were not 50 surviv- ing, ami during all tliose three years they dis- covered no good land. All was swamp and in- imdated country, without inhabitants. The good coimtry they <liscovere(l was as far as the river San .Inan, where the Captain Pi/.arro re- mained with the few survivors, sending a cap- tain with the smaller ship to discover some good land further along the coast. He sent the other ship, with the Captain Diego de Almagro to Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 days, the cxjiloring ship came l)ack with good reports, and with specimens of gold, silver and cloths, found in a country further south. "As soon as the Captain Almagro arriveil from Panama with a ship laden with men and horses, the two shii)s, with their conuuanders and all their peo])le, set out from the river San .Inan, to go to that newly-discovered land. But the navigation was dilllcult: they were detained so long that the provisions were exhausted, and the people were obliged to go on shore iu search of supplies. lie ships reached the bay of San Mateo, and M)me villages to which the Spaniards gave the name of Santiago. Next they came to the villages of Tacamez [Atacames, on the coast of modern Kcnador], on the sea coast further on. These villages were seen by the Christians to bo largo and well peoi)led: and when 90 Spaniards had advanccil a league bcj'ond the villages of Tacamez, more than 10,000 Indian warriors enconntereil them ; but seeing that the Christians intended no evil, and did not wish to take their goods, but rather to treat them peace- fully, with much love, the Indians desisted Irom war. In this laud there were abundant supplies, and tlie people led well-ordered lives, the vil- lages having their streets and squares. One village liad more than 2,000 houses, and others were smaller. It seemed to the captains and to the other Spaniards that nothing could be done in that lard by reason of the smallncss of their luunbera, which rendered them uuablu to cope with the Indians. So they agreed to load the ships with the supplies to be found in the villages, imd to return to an island called Gallo, where they would be safe until the ships arrived at Panama with the news of what liad been dis- covered, and to apply to the Governor for more men, in order that the Captains might bo able to continue their undertaking, and conquer tlic land. Captain Almagro went in the Rhips. Many persons had written to the Governor entreating him to order the crews to return to Panama, saying that it was impossible to endure more hardships than they had suffered during the lust three years. The Governor ordered that all those who wished to go to Panama might do 80, wliile tliose who desired to continue the <lis- coveries were at liht rty to remain. Sixteen men stayed with Pi/.arro, and all the rest went back in the ships to Panama. The Captain Pizarro was on that island.for live' months, when oiu) of the ships returned, iu which he continued the discoveries for a hundred leagues further down the coast. They found many villages anil great riches; and they brought away more specimens of gold, silver, and ('lotlis than had been foiuul before, which were presented by the natives. The Captain returned becau.se the time graiUed by the governor had expired, anil the last day of the jieriod had been rc;iclieil wlit n he entered the port of Panama. The two Captains were so ruined that they could no longer prosecute their undertaking. . . . The Captain Francisco Pi/.arro was only able to borrow a little more than l.lKJO <astellanos anioi.g his friends, with which sum he went to Ca.stile, and gave an account to his Majesty of the great and signal services he had l)erformed." — V. de Xeres (Sec. of Pi/.arro), Ac- fiiKiil iif ihc I'mriiii-i' I'f Ciuco ; ti: and ctl. hi/ G. Ji. MarklutmAlliildiiu't S/c, 1872). Also in: W. II. Prcseott, JfUt. of the. Conquett ofl'a-n, bk. 3, cli. 2-4 (<■. 1). A. D. 1525. — 'Ihe Voyage of Gomez. Sec Canao.v (Nkw Fii.vNiK): Tui; N.\mks. A. D. 1526-1531. — Voyage of Sebastian Cabot and attempted colonization of La Plata. See P.vii.voiAv: A. D. 1515-1. "i.")7. A. D. 1528-1542. — The Florida Expeditions of Narvaezand Hernando de Soto. — Discovery of the Mississippi. See Plouida: A. D, 1528- 1542. A. D. 1531-1533. — Pizarro's Conquest of Peru, See Pi;ni : A. I). 1.52«-1.5;J1, and 1.5:!1- 1533. A. D. 1533. — Spanish Conquest of the King- dom of Quito. See EciADoit. A. D. 1534-1535.— Exploration of the St. Lawrence to Montreal by Jacques Cartier. — "At last, ten years after [the voyages of Verra- zano], Philip Cliabot, Admiral of France, induced the king [Francis I.] to resume the project of founding a French colony in the Xew World whence the Si)aniards daily drew such great wealth ; and he i)resented to him a Captain of St. JIalo, by name Jacijues Cartier, wliose merit lie knew, and whom that prince accepteil. Cartier having received his instructions, left St. Malo tho 2d of April, 1534, with two ships of 00 tons and 123 men. He steered west, inclining slightly north, and liad such fair winds that, on the 10th of Jlay, he niad(! Cape Bonavista, in Newfound- land, at 46'^ north. Cartier found the land there still covered witli snow, and the shore fringed with ice, so that lie could not or dared not stop. He ran down six degrees south-southeast, and entered a port to whicli he gave the name of St. Catharine. Thence he turned back north. . . , After making almost the circuit of Newfound- land, though without being able to satisfy him- self that it was an island, he took a southerly course, crossed the gulf, approached the conti- nent, and entered a very deep bay, where ho si'ffered greatly from heat, whence he called it Chaleurs Baj'. He was charmed with the beauty of 'ho country, and well pleased with tho Indians that he met and with whom ho ex- changed some goods for furs. ... On leaving this bay, Cartier visited a good part of the coasts around the gulf, and took possession of the couu- AMKIUCA, l.VU-ir.3r). Canada. AMEIUCA, IMl-lOOU. try In the iiiimc of llir must Cliiistimi kinp, as ViTii/iiiii had <Iiini' in all llii' places wliciv he liinilcil. Ill- sit sail au'airi mi the l-ltli of August U) rctmii 111 Kraniv, aial rcachi'd St. Malo safely on tlii^ .')th of Bi'plcnihcr. . . . On the report wliiih he iiia(l(! of liis voyage, the cotirt eoii- clndeil that it would he useful to Kraiice to have a set I lenient in that part of America; tmt no one lool< this affair more to heart than the Vice- Atlmiial (Miarlrsde.Mony, Sieiirde la Mailleniye. This iiolile olitaineil u new commission for Car- tier, more ample than the first, and fravc him three ships well cc|uipped. This licet was ready about llie middle of .May, and {'artier . . . cm- barkiil on Wednesday the lOth." Ilis tlin'O vessels were se|)ariited by violent storms, hut found one anotlKT, near the close of .Inly, in the gulf which was their appointed place of rendez- vous. "On the 1st of All trust had w eat lier drove hllii to take refuge in the port of St. Nicholas, at the mouth of the river on the north. Here Car- tier planted a cross, with thi'arnisof France, and remained until the 7tli. This port is almost the only spot ill Canada that 1ms kept the name given hy Ciirtier. . . . On the 10th the three vessels re-entered the ;;ulf. and in honor of the saint whose feast is cekhnited on that day. Car- tier f:ave the jjulf the name of St. Lawrence; or ratlur he gave it to a bay lyinj; between Anti- costi Island and the north shore, whence it ex- tended to the whole i;ult of which this bay is Imrt; and because the river, bi-fore that called {iver of Canada, empties into the same gulf, it insensibly aci|uircd tlie name of St. Lawrenee, which it still bears. . . . The three vessels . . . aseciKled the liver, and on the 1st of September they entereil the river Sagucnay. Cartier merely rcconnoilered the mouth of this river, and . . . hastene<l to seek a port where his vessels might winter in safety. Eight leagues above I.sle au.v C'oudres he found another much larger and hand- somer island, all co.crcd with trees and vines. He called it liacchus Island, but the name has been changed to Isle d'Orlean.s. The author of 1li(^ relation to this voya<^e, printed under the mime of Cartier, preti mis that only here the country tiegins to be called Canada, liiit he is surely mistaken; for it is certain that from the earliest times the Indians gave this name to the whole eouiiliy along the river <m both sides, from its mouth to the Sagiien.iy. From Bacchus Island, Cartier proceeded to "a little river which i.s ten leagues off. and comes f'om the north; he called it I{ivii^re de SleCroi.x, because In: entered it on the l-llli of September (Feast of the K.xalta- tion of the Holy Cross); but it is now commonly called Iliviere de JaecpK's Cartier. The day after his arrival he received a visit from an Indian chief named Domiacona, whom the author of the relation of that voyage styles Lord of Canada. Cartier treated with this cjiief l>y means of two ludii.ns whom he had taken to France the year before, and who knew a little French. They informcil Domiacona that the strangers wished to go to Ilochelaga, which seemed to trouble him. Ilochelaga was a' pretty large town, situated on an island now km -n under the name of I.sland of Montreal. Cartier had heard much of it, and was loth to return to France without seeing it. Tlic rea.son why this voyage troubled Donnacona was that the lieople of "ilochelaga were of a dif- ferent nation fiom his, and that he wished to prolit exclusively by the advautivges which he hoped to derive from the slay of the French in his countrv." Proceeding with one vessel to Lake St. I'ierrc, atid thence in two boats. Car tier reached HiKhelaga Oct. 'J. "The shape of the town was round, and tlii'ee rows of palisades inclosed in it about 50 tunnel shaped cabins, each over OO paces long and 14 or 15 wide. It was entered by a single gate, above which, as well as along the first palisade, ran a kind of gallery, reached by ladders, and well provided with Iiieces of rock and pebbles for the defence of the lilace. The inhabitants of the town sjioke the Huron language. They received the Frcncli very well. . . . Cartier visited the niountain at the foot of which the town lay, and gave it the name >f Mont Hoyal, which has beccaiie that of the wliole Island [Montreal]. From it he dis- covered a great extent of country, the night of which charmed him. . . . He left Ilochelaga on the fltli of October, and on the 11th arrived at Sainte Croi.x." AVintering at this place, when' his crews siilTered terribly from the cold and from scurvy, he returned to France the following spring. " Some authors . . . pretend that Car- tier, disgusted with Canada, dissuaded tlie king, his master, from further thoughts of it ; and Cliamjilain seems to have been of that opinion. I5ut this does not agree with what Cartier him- self says in Iiis memoirs. . . . Cartier in vain extolled the country which ho bad di.seovered. His small returns, and the wretched condition to which his men hud been reduced by cold and scurvy, persuaded most that it wotdd never be of any use to France. Great stress was laid on the fact that he nowhere saw any appearance of mines; and then, even more than now, a strange land which produced neither gokl nor silver was reckoned as nothing." — Father Cliarlevoi.x, Jlixt. (if ycin Fraiire (Inins. In/ J. 0. Shea), hk._\. Also in: H. Kerr, Otiteml Call, of ]oi)iu/ei>, ]>t. 2, Ilk: 3, f//. 12 (r. 0).— F. X. Oarneau, Jlist. of Ciiiiiiilii, r. 1, fli. 2. A. D. 1535-1540. — Introduction of Printing in Mexico. See I'ltiNTiMi, ttc. : A. 1). l.");!."!- 1700. A. D. 1535-1550. — Spanish Conquests in Chile. See Cltil.i-:: A. 1). 1450-1724. A. D. 1536-1538. — Spanish Conquests of New Granada. See CoLo.MurAN Statks: A. 1). ir,;ni-ir.il. A. D. 1541-1603. — Jacques Cartier's last Voyage.— Abortive attempts at French Colo- nization in Canada. — "Jean Francois de la Hoiiue, lord of Hoberval, a gentleman of Picardy, was the most earnest and energetic of tho.se who desired to colonize the hinds discovered by Jac([ues Cartier. . . The title and authority of lieutenant-general was conferred upon him; his rule to extend over Canada, IIoc/iela;ca, Saguenay, Newfoundland, IViIe Isle, Carpon, Labrador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos, with the delegated rights and powers of tiio Crown. This patent was dated the 15th of January, 1.540. Jacques Cartier was named second iu command. . . . Jacques Cartier sailed on the 28d of May, 1541, having provisioned his tieet for two years." He remained on the St. Ltiw- rence until the following June, seeking vainly for the fabled wealth of the land of Saguenay, finding tlie Indians strongly inclined to a treacherous lio8lilit,v, and sulfering severe hardsliips during tiic winter. Entirely dis- couraged and disgusted, lie abandoned his under- 66 AMERICA, iMi-inoa Hairkim and the HUltv Tfilite. AMERICA, 1S62-1507. taklriR curly in the Riinimcr of IMO, mid siiilcd for Iionic. Ill the roiid of St. John's, Ncwfoiiiiil- huicl, Ciirticr met his tiirdy cliitf, Hoherviil, just coniinj,' to join him; but no pcrKUasion could induce the disiippoinlcd explorer to turn ))iick. "To iivoid the cliiinee of ;in open rupture with Roherviil, the lieulenant silently weijihed iinelior (iuriuf; the ninlit, and made all sail for France. Tills in^florious withdrawal from the enterprise paraly/.ed Rohcrval's power, and deferred the per..ianent settlement of (iinada for generations iIk'II unhorn. Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to Europe." Roherval proceeded to Canada, built ii fort at Ste Croi.\, four lea^nes west of Orleans, sent back two of his three ships to Eranee, and remained through the winter with liis colony, havini; a troubled lime. There is no certain accr)nnt of the endini; of tli(! enter- prise, but it ended in failure. For half a cen- tury afterwards there was little attemjjt made by the French to eiiloni/e any jiart of New France, though the French tisheries on the New- foundlaiHl Uaiik and in the Gulf of St. Eawrcnec were steadily growini; in activity and import- ance. " When, after tifty years of civil strife, the strong and wi.se sway of Henry IV. restoreil rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery again aro.se. Tin; Mar(iuis de la Hoche, a Breton gentleman, obtained from the king, in l.'iiJB, a patent granting the same powers that l{ol)erval iind posses.se(l. " Hut La Roche's undertaking proved more disaslrou.s than Roberval's had been. Yet. there lia<l been enough of successful fur- trading opened to stimulate enterprise, despite tliese misfortunes. "Private uilventurers,unpro- tected by any special privilege, began to barter for the rich peltrii'S of the Canadian hunters. A wealthy inerehant of St. ^lalo, named Pont- grave, was the boldest and most successful of these traders; lie made several voyages to Ta- (loussae, at the mouth of the Sagueiiay, bringing bat'k each time u rich cargo of rare and valuable furs." In 1000, Pontgravu efTected a partner- ship with one Chauvin, a naval captain, vvlio obtained a patent from the king giving him a monopoly of the trade; but Chauvin died in 1J03 witlumt having succeeded in ostablisliing even a trading post at Tiidoussac. Dc Chattc, or De Chastes, governor of Dieppe, succeeded to llie privileges ol Chauvin, an<l founded a company of merchants at Rouen [1003] to undertake the development of the resources of Can.ida. It was under the auspices of this company that Samuel Cliamplain, the founder of New France, came upon the scene.— E. Warburton, The Conquest of CaiMila, i\ 1, ch. 3-3. Also in : F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in, the Xetiy World: Champlain, c' , 1-2. A. D. 1562-1567.— The slave trading Voy- ages of John Hawkins.— Beginnings of Eng- lish Enterprise in the New World.— "Tlic history of English America begins with the three slave-trading voyages of John Hawkins, luade in the years l-'JOS, 1.564, and 1507. Noth- ing that Englishmen had done in connection with America, previously to those vov.iges, had any result worth recording, England had known the New World nearly seventy j ears, for John Cabot reached it shortly after its d" Ty by Columbus; ami, as the tidings of >ie is- covery spread, many English .'idventurc crossed the Atlantic to the A merican coast, as years passed, and the cxe'.'teraent of ncvelty subsided, the English voyages to America had become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased altogether. It is easy to account for this. There was no opening for con'(uest or plunder, for the Tudors were at i)eace with tlie Spanish sovereigns: and there could be no territorial occupation, for the Papal title ;)f S|iain and Portugal to the whole of the new continent could not be disputed by CiitlMlie England. No trade worth having existed wi»h the natives; and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with their own settlers ill their own hands. ... As the plantalicms in America grew and multiplied, the demand for negroes rapidly increased. The Spaniards h.id no African .settlements, but the Portuguese had many, and, with the aid of French and English adventurers, 'hey procured from these settlements slaves enough to supply both themselves and the Siianiiirds. Hut tho Brazilian plantations grew so fast, about the middle of the century, that they absorbed the entire supiily, and the Spanish ( 'onisl.s knew not where to look for negroes. 'I penury of slaves in llie Spanish Indies hcciu e known to the English and French captains w bo frei|uented the Guinea coast; and John Hawkins, who had been engaged from boyhood in the trade with Spain and the Canaries, resolved in l.'iO'J to (ako a cargo of negro slaves to Hispiuiiola. The little squadron with which he executed this project was the lirst English scjuadron which navigated the AVest Indian seas. This voyage opened those .seas to the English. Englaml had not yet broken with Spain and tlie law excluding English vessels from trading with th(i Sjianisli colonists was not strictly enforced. The trade was profitable, and Hawkins found no dilliculty in disiiosing of his cargo to great advantage. A meagre note . . . from the pen of Hakliiyt con- tains .ill that is known of the first American voyage of Hawkins. In its details it must have (closely resembled the second voyage. In tho first voyage, Jiowever, Hawkins had no occasioa to carry his wares further than three ports on the northern side of Ilisiianiola. Thesi! jiorts, far ■:,\\i f from San Domingo, the capital, were already well known to the French smugglers. He did not venture into the Caribbean Sea; and having loaded his ships with their return cargo, he made the best of his way back. In his second voj'agc ... he entered the Caribbean Sea, still keeping, however, at a safe distance from San Domingo, and sold his slaves on the mainland. This voyage was on a much larger scale. . . . Having sold his slaves in the conti- nental ports [South American], and loaded his vessels with hides and other goods bought with the produce, Hawkins determined to strike out a new patli and sail home with the Gulf-stream, which would carry him northwards past the shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . . . proves that at every jjoint in these expeditions the Engnsliman was following in tho track of the French. He had French pilots and seamen on board, and there is little doubt that one at least of these had already been with Laudonniere in Florida. The French seamen guided him to Laudonniere's settlement, where his arrival was nwX oi)portune. Thev then pointed him the way by the coast of North America, then uni- versally know in tho mass as New France, to Newfoundland, and thence, with the prevail- ing westerly winds, to Europe, This was tho m AMERICA, \rm\rM7 Drake's Viiyaijea. AMERICA, 1572-1,'580. pioneer voyngf made l)y Euglislimcn nloiiR coasts nftcrwiirils famous ia liistory tliroujili English (oloni/.atiou. . . . The extremely iiit'i- estiiii? narrative . . . given . . . from tlie ]i mi of Jolm Sparlve, one of Ilawliins' i;ent'.,'men companions . . . contains tlie (irst information conecrnini; America and its natives wlilcli avs puhlislied in ICngland by an English eye-wit- ness." Hawkins planned a thiid voyage in l.^Ofl, but the remonstrances of the Spanish king caused him to he sfopjied Iiy the English court. He sent out his ships, ho "ver, and they came iKrnie in due time richly freighted, — from what source is not known. "In another year's time the aspect of things liad changed." England was venturing into war with Spain, "and Haw- kins was now able to execute his plans without restraint, lie founded a permanent fortified factory mi the Guinea cna-^t. where negroes might" be collected all the V' round. Tlience lie sailed for tlie West li ■ a third time. Young Francis Drake sailiii with him in com- niuiid of the '.Judith,' a small vessel of lifty tons." The voyage )ia.! a pro'^ixTous beginning and a disastrous ending. After disposing of most of their slaves, they were driven by storm.4 to take refuge in the Mexican liort of Vera Cruz, and tliere they were attacked liy a Spanish 1!< et. Dral* in the ".Tudith"lind I'lawkiiis in .iiother small vessel escajied. iiut ll,:' latter was overcrowded with men ami oliliged to ])ut hr"' of them ashore on the ..Mexican coimt. The majority of those lift on board, as well as a majority iif Drake's crew, died on the voyage liome, and it was a miseniblt remnant that landed in Kngland, in .lamiary, 15(50. — E. J. Payne, Vnymja nf the Eliznhctlian Sumen to Am., cli. 1. Also in: The llmrkinn Voi/iif/eii; ed. by C. 1{. Marhhitm {Iln/dni/t Sic, A". 57). — R. Southey, Lici/i iif tht Jlritixh Ailiiiinilx. i\ '.i. A. b. 1572-1580. — The Piratical Adventures of Drake and his Er.rompassinf; of the World. — "Erancis Drake, the iirst of the Kiiglish I,uc- caneers, was one of the twelve childrvn of Ed- ward Drake of Tavistock, in Devonslnri , a staunch I'rotestant, who had lied his native place to avoid ])ersecutioii, and had then become a ship's chaplain Drake, like Colun'.bus, had been a seaman by profession from boyhood ; and . . . had served as a young man, in conniiand of the .ludith, under Hawkins. . . . Haw- kins had conlined himself to smu-gling: Drake advanced from this to piracy. This practice was authorizt . liy law in the luitUUe ages for the purpose of recoverii.g debt.s or damag"S from the sulrjeets of another natiim. Tlej Eng- lish, esjiec. Uy those of the west country, were the most forinidable pirates in the woiid ; and the whole nation was by this time roused a^ liust Sp.iiii, in coiisetiuunce of the ruthless war waged against I'rotestani^sn, in the Netherlands by Philip II. Drake liad accouuLs of his own to settle with the Spaniards. Tlunigli Elizabeth had not declared for the revolted States, ami imrsued a shifting policy, her interests and theirs were identical; and it was with a view of cutting oil those supjilies of gold and silver from Aniericii which enabled Philip to bribe politicians and pay soldiers, in pursuit of his jiolicy of aggression, that the famous voyage was autl) irized by English statesmen. Drake had receutlv mailc more thuu one successful voyage of plunder to the Araericnn const." In .July, 1573, he surprised tlie Spanish town of Nonibre do Dios, which was tl'.e shipping port on the northern side of the Isthmus f(n' the treasures of Peru. His men made their way into the royal treasure-hou.sc. where they laid hands on a" heap of liar-silver, 70 feet hmg, 10 wide, and 10 high; but Drake himself hail re- ceiveil a wound which comixdlcd the pirates to retreat with no very large part of the splendid booty. In the winter of 1578, with the help of the runaway slaves on the Isthmus, known as Cimarroiics, he crossed the Isthnuis, looked on the Pacific ocan, approached witiiin .=iglit of the city of Panama, and .va\ laid a transportatiou party conveying gold to ^sombre de Dios; but was disappointed of his pn^y by the excited con- duct of some of his men. When he saw, on this occasion, the great ocean be^-ond th" Isthnuis, "Drake then and there resolved to lie the pioneer of England in the Pacific; and on this resolution he solemnly besought tlie blessing of God. Nearly four years elajised before it was executed; for it was not until November, 1577, that Drake embarked on his famous voyage, in the cour.se of which he proposed to plunder Pern itself. The Pcruviiin ports were unfortified. The Spaniards knew them to be by nature abso- lutely secured from attack on tlu! north; and they never dreamed that the English jiirates would lie daring enough to pas>, the terrible straits of Magellan ami I'tli'^'k them fnim the south. Such was the pla 1 of Drake; and it was executed with complete success." He sailed from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, with a fleet of four >cssels. and a pinnace, but lost one of the si" ! afiei- had cnteri'd the Pacific, in a storm which dro !iim .southward, and which made him the di.s. verev of Cape Horn. Another of his shi;is, seji ■ ed fnim the s(|iiadrou, returned '■ mie, and a thud, while alteni|iting to do the same,, '.las lost in the river Plate. Drake, in his own vessel, the Golden Hind, procee(h'd to the Per'iviaii coasts, where he cruised until he had taken and iilundercd a score of Sjianish ships. " r.aden with a rich booty <if Peruvian treasure he <leeined it unsafe to return by the way tiii'.t ho came. He therefore resolved to strik(! acro.ss the Paiific, and for this purjiose maih' the latitude in which this voyage was usually peri'.>rmed by the Slianisli government vessels which sailed annually from Acainiico to the Philippi.ies. Drake thus reached the coast of California, where the Indiars, delighted beyond ineasur ■ by presents of clothing and trinkets, invited hiin to remain and rule over them. Drake took pos- session of th(! country in the name <if the (Jueeii, and refitted liis vessel in preparation for the unknown perils of the Pacific. The place where he landed must have been cither the great nay of San Praucisco [per contra., see C".\i iKonM.v; A. I). 1840-1847] or the small 1 y of Bodega, which Mes a few leagues furtlicr north. The greai seaman had already coasted five degrees more to the northward before finding u suitable liarlionr. He bel':ved him.self to be the first European who had coasted these shores; but it is now well knov.n that Spanish exj>h)rers hiul preceded him. Drake's circunuiavigatioii of the globe was thus no deliberate feat of seaman- ship, but the necessary residt of circumstances. The voyage mad*' in nnae than oik' way a grcit epoch 'in English nautical history," Dniko 68 AMERICA, 1572-1580. Raicujtt'tt First Colony. AMERICA, 1584-1586. reached Plvninuth on Ins return Sept. 20, 1.580. E, J. Pavno, Voi/d'jcs of the ElizaMluiii Seamen, pp. 141-143. Also in F. t'letclicr, The World Bncompaf-ird buSirF. Drake (Ifiihliiyt Soe., 1854).— J. Barrow, Lift of Drake.— 11 Southey, Lives of British AditiiniKi, r. 3. A. D. 1580.— The final founding of the City of Buenos Ayreb. ^^(■e AiuiKNTiNii HicrLULic: A. 1). l.-|SO-17T7. A. D. 15S3.— The Expedition of Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert. — Formal possession taken of Newfoundland. — In 1578, Hirlliiniiihrey Gill.ort, an Englisli gentleman, of Devonshire, whoso younger half-hrothcr was t'-n more famous Sir "Walter Rjilcigh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter cinpowering him, for the ne.tt six years, to discover "such remote heathen and barbarous! lands, not actually possessed by any Christian ))rinee or people,'' as he might be shrewd or fortu,.ata enough to find, and to oc- cupy the same as their proprietor. Gilbert's first expedition was attempted the next year, with Sir Waller Raleigh associated in it; but misfor- tunes drove back the adventurers to port, and Spanish intrigue jircvented their sailing again. " In June, 1583, Gilbert sailed from Cawsand Bay with live vessels, with the general intention of discovering and colonizing tlie northern i)arfs of America. It w"r '.„ lirst colonizing exiiedition which left tie s'atires of Great Britain; and the narr.itive of the expedition by Hayes, who com- laanded one of Gilhert's vessel;,, forms the first pngo in the ?.i.':*.,..> of English colonization. Gill .'rt did no more than go through the empty fii'-.. of taking possession of the Island of Kew- fc.iilland, to which the ICnglish name formerly apjilied to the continent in general . . . was now restricted. . . . Gilbeit dallied here too long. When he set sail to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence and take possession of Cajie Breton and Xovii ,Seotia the season was too far advanced ; one of his largest ships went (l.)wn witlif all on 1 'i;u(l, including the Hungarian scholar Par- nienius, •vho had come out as the historian of tlic expedition; the stores were exhausted and the crews dispirit"'!, anu Gilbert resolved ou sailing home, intending to return an<l prosecute his discover!' i the next spring. Ou the home voyage the little vessel in which he was sailing foundered; and the pioneer of English coloniza- tion found a watery grave. . . . Gilbert was a man of courage, piety, ami learning. He was, howevu", an indilTerent seaman, and quite in- competei.t for the ta.sk of colonization to which he had set his hand. The misfortunes of his ex- pedition induced Aniadiu and Barlow, who fol- lowed in hs steps, to abandon the northward voyage ana sail to the shores intended to be oc- cupied by the easier but more circuitous route of the Canaries and the W.'st Indies." — E. J. Payne, Voyiges of the EliMliethan Seamen, pp. 173-174.— "On Monday, the 9th of September, in the afternoon, the frigate [the 'Squirrel '] was near cast away, oppressed by waves, yet nt that time recovered ; and giving fcrth signs of joy, the general, .sitting abaft with a book in liis hand, crieil out to us in the ' Hind ' (so oft as we did approach within hearing), ' We are as near to heaven by sea as by land,' reiterating the same speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute )•• Je;!U8 Christ, as I can testify be was. On the same Monday night, about twelve o'clock, or not long after, the frigate being ahead of tis in the 'Golden Hind,' siuhlenly her lights were out, whereof as it were in a moment we Icwt the sight, and withal our watch cried the General was ctist away, which was too true; for in that moment the frigate was devoured and swallowed up by the sea. Yet sidl we looked out all that night and ever after, until we arrived upon the coast of England. ... In great torment of weather and peril of drowning it pleased jod to .send safe home the 'Golden Hind,' which arrived in Falmouth on the 22d of September, being Sunday.' — E. Hayes, A lie part of the Voi/age l/i/ Sir Ilumphrey Oilbcrt {repriried in Payne's Yoyages). Also in E. Edwards, Life of liahigh, v. 1, eh. 5. — H. Ilakluyt, Principal yaci'jations; cd. by E. Ooldmiiid, r. 12. A. D. 1584-1586.— Raleigh's First Coloriiz- irg attempts and failures. — "The task in which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken by one better qualilicd to carry it out. If any Englishman in that age seemed to be marked out as the fo'under of a colonial empire, it was Raleigh. Like Gilbert, he had studied books; like Drake he could ride men. . . . The associa- tions of his youth, and the training of his early manhood, fitted him to sympathize with the aims of .3 half-brother Gilbert, and there is little reason to doubt that Raleigh had a share in his undertaking and his failure. In 1584 he obtained a patent precisely similar to Gilbert'.s. His first step showed the thoughtful an<l well-planned .system rn which he began his task. Two ships were .-icnt out, iv.i with any idea of settleiiu ut, but to examine and report ujion the country. Their commanders were Arthur Barlow and Philip Amidas. To the former we owe tlie cxiant record of the voyage: the name of the latter would suggest that ho was a foreigner. Whether by chance or design, tlicy took a more .southerly course than anj' of their predecessors. On tli? 2d of July the presence of shallow water, and a smell of sweet flowiTs, warned them that land was near. The promise thus given was amply fnlliUed upon their approach. The sight before them was far diirerent from that which had met the eyes of Iloro and Gilbert. Instead of the bleak coast of Newfoundland, Barlow and Amidas looked upon a .scene which might recall the softness of tlie ^lediterranean. . . . Coasting along tor about 120 mile.s, the voyagers reached an inlet and with some dilliculty entered. Tluy then solemnly took po.<-^ession of the land in tho Queen's name, and then delivercil it over to Raleigh according to his patent. They soon dis- covered that tho land upon whii '> they had touched was an island about 20 miles long, and not above six broad, named, as they afterwards learnt, R(;auoke. Beyond, separating them from the mainland, lay an eiiclo.sed sea, studded with more than a hundred fertile and well-wooded islets." Tho Indians jiroved friendl;, , and were described by Bar'ow as being " iiioiit gentle, lov- ing and faithful, void of all guile and treasiai, and such iis live after the iiianner of the golden age." "The report which the voyagers took homo spoke as favourably of the land it.self as of i inhitbitants. . . . With them tliey brought ' vo of tho savages, named Wanchcse and Mau- eo. A probal'le tradition tells us that the queen herself named tho country Virginia, and that linleigh's knighthood was the reward and ac- 60 AMEKICA, 1584-1580. iMst Colony of lioanoke. AMERICA, 1587-1590. kn()wle(lf,'incnt of liis success. On the strength of this report l{iileif;h at once made preparations for a settlement. A lleet of seven sliips was pro- vided for the eonveyanee of 108 settlers. Tlie fleet was under the c<iniman(l of Sir Kicliard (iienville, wlio was to establish the settlement unil leave it imder the char.L'o of Ralph Lane. . . . On the yili of April [l'>S'>] the eniiirrants set sail." For some reason not well explained, the lleet made n eireuil to the West Indies, and loitered for live weeks at the island of St. John's and at llispauiola, reaehini^ Virginia in the last days of .June. IJinirrels between the two com- manders. Grenville and I.ane, had already begun, and both seemed equally ready to provoke the enmity of the natives. In August, after explor- ing some sixty miles of the coast, Grenville re- turned to England, promising to come back the next spring with new colonists and stores. The stltlemenl, thus left to the care of Lane, was established "at the north-east corner of the island of Roanoke, whence the .settlers ccmld conunand the strait. There, even now, choked by vines and \m(lerwood, and here and there broken by the crumbling remains of an earthen bastion, may be traced the outlines of the ditch which enclosed the camp, some forty yards square, the home (>f the first English settlers in the .Xew AVorld. Of the doings of the settlers during the winter nothing is reconhnl, but by the next spring their prospects looked gloomv. The In- dians were no longer friends. . . . The settlers, unable to make fishing weirs, and without seed corn, were entirely d; i.ciiiVjnt on the Indians for their daily fcXHl. Under the.e circumstances, one would have supposed that Ijane would have best emiiloyed himself in guarding the .settle- I'^ent and impioving ils condition, lie, however, thought otherwise, and ai)plied himself to the ta.sk of exploring the neighbouring territory." But a wide combination of hoslih Indian tribes had been formed against the English, and their situation became fronulay to day more imperilled. At the beginning of June, l.')bfl, Lane fought a hold battle with the savages and routed them; but no sign of Grenville appeared ami the pros- pect looked hopeless. Ju.st at this juncuire, a great English lleet, sailing homewards from a piratical expedition to the Spanish JIain, luuler tlic famous Captain Drake, came to anchor at Roanoke and olfered succor to the disheartened colonists. With one voice they petitioned to be taken to England, and Drake received the whc 'e party on board his ships. "The help of which the colonists had desjiaired was in reality elo.se nt hand. Scarcely had Drake's lleet left tlio coast when a ship well furnished bv Raleigh with need- ful supplies, reached Virginia, and "after search- ing forthedeiiarted settlers returned toKiio;l,i„(l. Ai. nit a for'-iight later Grenville himself arrived with 'hree sliip.s. lie spent some time in the coiuurj exploring, seardiingfor the settlers, and at last, unwilling to lo.se iiosscssion of the coun- try, lamled fifteen men atKoanoke veil supplied for two years, and then set sail for Emiland, nlnndering the A/ores, ainl doing much damage to the Spaniards."—,). A. Doyle, T/ir Eiif/linh ui Aiiuiioi : \'irtiiiii(i, (fr., eh. ■{.—" It seems to l)j generally admitted that, when Lane and hiscom- pany went back to England, they carried with them tobacco as one of the product.: of the coun- try, wha'h they presented to Ral igh, as the planter of the colony, uud by hhn it was brought into use in England, and gradually in other European countries. The autliorities are not en- tirely agreed upon this point. Josselyn says: "I'obaceo lirst brought into England by Sir Joh!i Hawkins, but lirst brought into use by Sir Walter Kawleigh many years after.' Again ho says : " Xow (say some) Yobacco was first brought into England by >lr. Ralph Lane, out of Virginia. Others will l.ave Tobacco to be first brought into England from I'eru, by Sir Francis Drake's iMari lers.' "amdeii fixes its introduction into England by Ralph Lane and the men brought back with him in the ships of Drake, lie says: 'And these men which were brought back ivere the lirst that I know of, which brought into England that Indian plant which tliey call To- bacco and Xieotia, and use it against crudities, being taught it by the Indians.' Certainly from that time it began to be in great requ( si, and to be sold at a high rate. . . . Among the 108 men left in the colony with Ralph Lane in 1585 was Air. Thomas Ilariot, a man of a strongly mathe- matical and i-cienlilic turn, whose services in this connection were greatly valued. He remained there an entire year, aiid went back to England in 1580. He wrote out 'i full account of his ob- servations in tlie Xew World." — I. N. Tarbox, Sir Walter lliileigh and his Colony (Prince Hoc, 1884). Also in T. Harlot, Driff and true Rejwt (lie- jnintcd in, aljovc-namcd Prince, Soc. Publication). — F. L. Hawks, Hint, of N. Carolina, v. 1 (contain- iiifj reprints of Lane's Account, Ilariot'a Rcjwrt, lie. — Original Doc's ed. by E. E. Hale (Arelia- ol<ir/ia Americana, v. 4). A. D. 1587-1590. —-The Lost Colony of Roanoke. — End of the Virginia Llndertak- ings of Sir Walter Raleigh. - " Ualeigl., undis- mayed by lo.sses, determined to plant an agricul- tural state; to send emigrants with their wives and families, who should make their homes in the Xew World; and, that life and i)roperty might bo secured, in •January, 1587, he granted a charter for the settlement, and a municipal government for the city of 'Raleigh.' John AVhitc was ni)pointed its governor; and to him, with eleven assistants, tfie administration of the colony was intrusted. Transpoit ships were l)re]iared at the expense of the proprietary; '(Juecn Elizabeth, the godmother of Virginia,' deelined contributing 'to its education.' Em- barking in April, in July t'ley arrived on the coast of North C'arolina; they were saved from the dangers of Cape Fear; and, passing Cape Hatteras, they hastened to the i ,le of Roanoke, to search for the handful of men whom Gren- ville had left there as n garrison. They found the tenements deserted and overgrown with weeds; human bones lay scattered on t''c field where wild deer were reposing. The fort was in ruins. Xo vestige of surviving life appeared. The instructions of Raleigh had designated the place for the new settlement on the bay of Cliesapeaki. Rut Feri audo, the naval ollicer, eager to renew a profitable trallic in the West Iialies, refu.sed his assistance in exploring the coast, and While was compelled to remain on Roanoke. ... It was th<Me that in Jidy the foundat'ons of the city of l{aleigli were laid." Rut the colony was doomed to disaster from the beginning, being quickly involved in warfare with the surro, Hiding natives. "With the re- turning sliip White embarked for England, un- AJrERICA, 1587-1590. Xea England. AMERICA, 1603-1005. der the excuse of interceding for rc-cnforcements and supplies. Yet. on the 18th of August, nine days previous to his dopaituie, liis daugliter Eleanor Dare, the wife of one of the as.sistants, gave l)irlh to a female cliiUl, the first olVsprinir of Englisli parents on the soil of the United States. The infant was named from the place of its hirtli. The colcmy, now compose<l of 81) men, 17 women, and two children, whose names are all preserved, might reasonably hope for the speedj' return of the governor, as ho left with them his daughter and his grandchild, Virginia Dare. The farther hi.story of this plantation is involved in gloomy uncertainty. The inhabit- ants of 'the city of Ualeigli,' thcrcmigrants from England and the first-born of America, await(!d death in tbe land of ihcir ado])tion. For, when White reached England, ho found its attention absorl)od by the threats of an invasion frjm Spain. . . . Yet Raleigh, whose i)atriotism did not diminish his generosity, found means, in April 1.588, to despatch White with supplies in two ves- sels, But the comjjany, desiring a gainful voy- age rather than a safe one, ran in chase of prizes, till one of them fell in with men of war from Udchelle, and, after a l)loody fight, w.as bo'irded and rificd. Uotli ships were comjielled to rctiun to Kngland. The delay was fatal: the English kiugdoni and the Protestant refonnatiou were in ''anger; nor cotdd tin; pocrr colonists of Roanoke be again remembered till aft jr the discomlituroof the lnvincil)le Armada. Even then Sir Walter Ridcigh, who had already incurred a fruitless expense of £40,000, found his impaired fortune insullicicnt for further attempts at colonizing Virginia. He therel'ore used tlio privilege of his patent to endow a company of merchants and ad- venturers with large concessions. Among the men who thus obtained an assignment of tlic pro- prietary's rights in Virginia is found the name of Richard Ilakluyt; it connects tlie first efforts of England in North (^arolina with the linal coloniza- tion of Virginia. Tlic coloiusts at Roanoke had emigrated with a charter; the instrument of Mareli, 1589, was not an assignment of Raleigh's patent, 'lut the extension of a grant, already lield under its sanction by increasing the number to whom the rights of that charter belonged. More than another year elapsed before White could return to seardi I'or Ids colony and his daughter; and then the island of Roanoke was a desert. An inscription on the bark of a tree p >intcd to C'roatan; but the season of llie year and tni> dan- gers fnau storms were pleaded "as an excuse for nu inuneili ite return. TIk; conjecture has been hazarded that the deserted colony, neglected by their own countrymen, were hospitably adopted into Uie tribe [the C'roatansJ of Hatteras Indians. Raleigh long cherished the hope of discovering some vestiges of tlieir ex-slence, and sent at his own charge, and, it is said, at live several limes. to search for his liege men. Hut imagination reeeivcd no helj) in its attempts to trace thi! fate of (he colony of I'.oanoke."— O. Bancroft, Jli.it. «/' 1/,^ U. K. pt. 1, eh. 5 (i). 1).— "The Croatans ot to-day claim descent from the lo.st colony Their habits, disposition and mental characteris- tics show tiaces both of savage ami civilized ancestors. Their language is the English of :!00 years ago, and their names are in many cases tlie same as those i)orne by the original ciilonists. No other theory of their origin has been ad- vanced."— S. li. Weeks, The Lost Colony of Roanoke (Am. Hist. Ass'n Papers, v. 5, ;)/. 4). — ■ "This last expedition [of W^hite, searching for liis lost colony I was not despatched b_\' Raleigh, but by his successors in t!ie American patent. Anil our history is now to take leave of that illustrious nii.n, witli whose -schemes and enter- liriscs it ceases to have any further connexion. The ardour of his mind was not exhausted, ))ut diverted by r. nudtiplicity of new and not less arduous inidertakings. . . . Desirous, at tin; sani'j time, that a project which he had carried so far should not be entirely abandoned, and hoping that the spirit of conunerce woidd pre- serve an intercourse with Virginia lliat might lernunati' in a colonial establishment, he con- sented t" assign his patent to Sir Thoiras Smith, and a company of merchants in London, who uiidertook to establish and maintain a trallic between England and Virginia. ... It ap- peared very soon tliat Raleigh had transferred liis patent to liands very dilferent from his own. . . . Satisfied with a pa!tr_,- trafiic carried on by a few small vessels, they n.ade no attempt to take possession of the country: and at the jieriod of Elizabeth's death, not a single Englislimnn was settled in yVmerica." — J. Grah;iine, Hist, of the llise and Pvoi/ reus of the U. S. of N. Am. till 1088, (7/. 1. Ai.so IN \\. Stith, Hist, of 17,., hh: 1. — F. L. I ILiwks, Hist, of X. a. r. 1, X'.i. 7-8. A. D. 1602-1605.— The Voyages of Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth.— The First English- men in New England. — Barlbolomew Gosnold was a WestorEngland mariner who had served in the expeditions of Sir Walter Raleigh to the Virginia coast. Under his commaiuC in the sjuing of lliO'i, " with the consent of Sir Waller lialeigh, and at the cost, among others, of Henry Wriolliesley, Earl of Southampton, the accom- plished patron of Shakespeare, a small vessel, called the Concord, was equipped for expli^ration in 'the north part of Virginia,' witli a view to the establishment of a colony. At tills lime, in the last year of I ho Tudor dynasty, and nineteeu years after the fatal termination of Gilbert's cnlerprise, t'lcrc was no European inhabitant of North America, except those of Spanish birth in Florida, and some twenty or thirty French, the miserable relics of two frustrated attempts to scllle what they called New France. Gosnold sailed from Falmouth with a comjmny of thirty- two persons, of whom eight were seamen, and twenty were to become planters. Taking a straight course across the Atlantic, instead of the indirect course by the Canaries and the West Indies which had iieen 'lithcrto pursued in voyages to Virginia, at the end of seven weeks he saw land in iMassachusetts Ray. probably near what is now Salini Harbor. Here a boat came olT, of Hasiiue build, manned by eight natives, of whom two or three were dres.sed in Europeaii clollics, indicating the presence of earlier foreign vovagers in these waters. Next he stood to the southward, and his ".n'-v took great (|iiaiitilics of codlisii liy a bead lai..., . d by him for that rea.son C^pe Cod, the uiunc, .vliich it retains. Gosnold, Rrereton, and three others, went on si >re, the lirst Englishmen who are known to have set foot upon the soil of Massachusetts. . . . Sounding Ids way cautiously along, tirst in .1 soullu'ily, and llicn in a westerly direction, and urobably pa.ssing to the south of Nantucket, Gosnold next landed on a small island, now 71 AMERICA, 1002-1605. Jimiaon'H ExjftoraUuns. AMERICA, 1C09. culled No Mail's I.aiiil. Tn this lie giive tlio liiinit! of Martlia's Vineyard, since transferred to tlic lurirer island fiirtlu- north. . . . South of liuzzard's Bay, and separated on the south by the Vineyard Sound from Martlia's Viueyard, is scattered tlie group denoted on modern maps as tlie Elizabeth Islands. The .soiithwestcrnmost of tlie.se, now known by the Indian name of Cuttyliunk, was denominated by Gosnold Elizabeth Island. . . . Here Gosnold found a liond two mile.s in eircumference, separated from the .sea on one side by a beach thirty yards wide, and enclosing 'a rocky islet, containing near an acre of ground, full of wood and rubbish.' This islet was lixed ujinn for a. settlement. In three weeks, while a part of tlie company were absent on a trailing expedition to the mainland, the rest dug and stoned a cellar, prepared timber and built a house, which tliey fortilied with palisades, and thatched willi sedge. Proceeding to make an inventory of their provisions, they found that, litter supplying the vessel, which was to take twelve men on the return voyage, there would be a sulliciency for only six weeks for the twenty men who would remain. A dispute arose upon the question whether the pariy to be left behind would receive i> share in the proceeds of the cargo of cedav, sassi fras, furs, and other commodities which liad been collected. A small parly, going out in riuest of sliell-fisli, was attackeil by some Indiiins. 'With men having already, it is likely, little stuniach for such cheerless work, these cii'cuiiistances easily led to the decision to abandon for the present the Ki-heme of a settlement, and in the following mouth the adventurers sailed for England, and, after a voyage of five weeks, arrived at Exiiiouth. . . . The c.vpeditiou of Gosnold was preguunt with consequences, though their development was slow. The accounts of the hitherto iiiiknowu country, whitli were circulated by his company on their return, excited an earnest interest." The next year (April, 1003), JIartin Pring or Prynne was sent out, by several merchants of Bristol, with two small vessels, seeking cargoes of .sassafras, which had ac(iiiire<l fi high value on account of suiiposed mcdiciral virtues. Pring coasted fnan -Maine to Martha's Vineyard, Secured his desired cargoes, and pave a gooil account of the country. Two years later (.Marc'.i, 100.")), Lord Southampton and Lord Wardoiir sent n vessel commanded by George Weymouth to reconnoitre the same coast with an eye to settlements. Wevmouth ascended either the Kennebec or the I'euobscot river some 30 or 00 miles and kidnapped live natives. "Except for this, and for some addition to the knowleilge of the local geoirraphv, the vovage was fruitless. " — I. (i. Palfri'y, j'/iKt. of A'.' Kii;/., r. 1, ,/(. 2. Also in M(Im. Hist. Sic. Coll., 'M Sriea, v. 8 (1843). — 1. McKeeii, On the Voyiir/e of Uco. M'ey- month (Miiinr lli.it. '-or. toll., v. .')). A. D. 1603-1608.— The First French Settle- ments in Acadia. See ('AN.\i).\ (Ni;w EllA.Ni i:); A. 1). UiO:i-l(;u.""), and IfiOO-KKW. A. D. 1607.— The founding of the English Colony of Virginia, and the failure in Maine. See ViU(;i.NJ.\: A. I). lOlM.-KiUT, and after; and M.mnk: a. 1). 1007-lOOS. A. D. 1607-1608.— The First Voyages of Henry Hudson.— "The lirsl recorded voyage made l>y Henry Hudson was u.ndertak"-! . ." . for the Muscovy or Russia Company [o( Eng- land]. Departing fn 11 Grave.seiid the first of May, 1007, with tl.. intention of sailing straight across the north pole, bv the north of what Is now called Greenland, ifudson fount! that this land stretched further to the eastward than he had anliciiiated, and that a wall of ice, along which he coasted, extended from Greenland to Spitzbergen. Forced to reliiuiuish the hope of finding a passage in th<; latter vicinity, he once more atteiujitcd the entrance of Davi.s' Straits by the north of Greenland. Tliii design was also friist.ated and he apiiarcutly renewed the at- tempt in a lower latitude and nearer (Greenland on his homeward voyage, lu this cruise Hudson attained a higher degree of latitude than any previous navigator. . . . He reached England on his return on the loth September of that vear [1007]. . . . Ou the 22d of April, 1008, Henry Hudson luenceu his second recorded voyage for tl .Liiscovy or Russia Company, with the design f Minding a Jiassage to tlie East Indies by tlie norlh-east.'^' . . . On the 3d of June, 1C08, liud.sou li;;d reached the most northern point of Isorway, and on the lltli was in latitude 7u' 24', between S|utzbergeu and Kova Zeinbla. " Fail- ing to pass to the north-east beyond Nova Zenibla, he returned to England in August. — J. JI. Read, Jr., Jli.it. Inquiry Conccniing Jlcnry Ihuimn, pp. 133-133. Also in G. M. Ashcr, Henry lludnon, the Kai-i'jdtordhihlinit .S/i'., 1800). A. D. 1608-1616.— Champlain's Explora- tions in the Valley of th? St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. See C.vnap.v (New Fhaxc:;^; A. IJ. KiDS-lOU, and lOU-1010. A. D. 1609. — Hudson's Voyage of Discovery for the Dutch. — "The failure of two expedi- tions daunted the eiuerpriso of Hudson's em- ployers [the Muscovy Company, in England], tlie3' could not daiinl the couiiigc of the great navigator, who was destined to become the rival of Sniilli and of Chani|)lain. He longed co tempt once more the dangers of the northern seas ; and, repairing to Holland, he offered, in the service of the Duteli East India Comjiany, tocxpkiie the icy wastes in search of the coveted passage. The voyage of Smith to Virginia stimulated desire; the Zcidaiiders, fearing the loss of treasure, ob- iccted ; but, by the inlluehco of Balthazar Mouclieron, the directors for Amsterdam re- solved on equipping a small vessel of discovery; and, on the 4tli day of April, 1000, the ' ( 'rescent ' [or ' Half-Moon, ns the name of the little ship is more commonly translated], commanded by lliulson, and maimed by a mixed crew ol Eng- lishmen and Hollanders, his son being of the number, set sail for the north-western passagn. JIasses of ice impeded the navigation towards NovaZembla; Hudson, who had examined the maps (d' Jolin ."^mitli of Virginia, turned to die west; and passing beycmd Greenlund and New- foundland, and running down the coast of Acadia, ho anchored, probably, in the mouth of the Penou.scct. Then, following the track of (iosuold, ho came u] on the jironiontory of Cape Cod, and. believing himself its first discovorer, gave it the name <d' New Holland. Long after- wards, it was claimed ns the north-eastern bwiud- ary of Now Netherlands. From the sands of Cape Cod, he steered u southerly course till he vas opposite the entrance into the bay of Vir- ginia, whore Hudson remembered that his couu- trymcn were planted. Then turning again to 72 AMERICA, 1009. Captain John Smith. AMERICA, 1014-1015. tho north, he discovered the Delaware Bay, c.v- amincd its currents and its soundings, and, with- out going on sliorc, toolc note of the aspect of tlie country. On tlie 3d day of Scptemljcr, almost at llio time when Champlain was invad- ing Xew York from tho nortli, less tlian live nnnths after tlio truce witli Spain, which gave tho Netherlands a diplomatic existence as a state, tho 'Crescent' ancliored within Sandy JIooIj, and from tho ueigliboring shores, that were crowned with 'goodly oaljcs,' attracted frequent, visiu from the natives. After a weeii's delay, Hudson sailed tliro.igh tho Xarrows, and at the mouth of tho river ancliored in a liarI)or which was pmnounceil to bo very good for all winds. . . . Ton days were employed i:i explor- ing the river; the first of Europeans, Iludsim went sounding his way above t'x Highlands, till at last tlio ' Crescent ' had sailed some miles beyond the city of Hudson, and a boat had ad- vanced a little beyond Alljany. Frequent inter- course was held with the astonished natives [and two batlles fought with them]. . . . Having completed his discovery, Hudson descended the stream to which time iias given his name, and on the -Itli day of Octolier, about tho season of tlie return of John Smitli to England, lie set sail for Eurojio. ... A hapjiy return voyage brought tlio 'Crescent' iuto liartniouth. Hudson for- warded to his Dutch employers a brilliant ac- count of his discoveries; but ho never revisited the lands which he eulogized: and th«; Dutcli East-India Company refused to search further for the north-western jiassage." — Ct. Bancroft, Jlint. of the U. S., ch. 1.5 {orpt. 2, ch. VZ of " Authur\' iMst Rcciniiin"). Also i.v II. R. Clf.vki.and, Life of Ifeiin/ Ihidmn (Lib. of Am. Bio;/., v. 10), ch. 3-4. — R. Juet, Joantiil of IIiulioiCii Voyage (X. Y. Hint. Soc. C'o/l., Second /fi-rics, v. 1). — J. V. N. Yates and J. W. Jloullon, Jlist. of the State of JV. 1' pt. 1. A. D. 1610-1.614. — The Dutch occupation of New Netherland, and Block's coasting exploration. See New Yokk: A. 1). 1010- 1014. A. D. 1614-1615.— The Voyages of Capt. John Smith to North Virginia. -The Naming of the country New England. — "From the time of Ciipt. Smith's departure from Virginia [see ViuGixrA: A. I). 1007-1010], till the year 1014, there is a chasm in his biographv. . . . In 1014, proliably by his advice and at liis sug- gestion, an expedilinn was fitted out by soiiic London incrcliants, in tiie e.xpense of which ho also- shared, for tlie jiurposes of trade and dis- covery ill New England, or, as it was then called. North Virginia. ... In March, 1014, ho set sail from London with two ships, one commanded by himself, and the otlier liy Captain Thomas Hunt. Tliey arrived, April 30tli, at the island of Manhegiii, on the coast of Maine, where tliey built seven boats. The purposes for which thev were sent were to capture whales and to search for mines of gold or copper, which were said to be there, and, if these failed, to inalvc uf) a canro of fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indi- cations, and they found whale-tisliiiig a 'costly conclusion;' for, altliough tlvy saw many, anil chased tliem too, tliey succeeded in tjilting" none. They thus lost the best part ot tlie fishing season ; but, after giving -ip their gigantic gaiiio, they ddigeiitly employed the months of July and 7 August in taking and curing codfish, an humble, but more lain prey. Willie tlio crew were tlius enipldwd. Captain Smitli, with eight men in a small boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, from Penobscot to Capo Cod, traf- ficking with tlic Indians for furs, and twice lighting with tliem, and taking such ob.serva- tions of tlie prominent points as enabled him to coiLsiruct a map of tlio country'. Ho then sailed for England, where ho arrived in August, within six monllis after his departure. He left Captain Hunt beliind him, witli orders to dispose ot his cargo of tisli in Spain. L'nfortunately, Hunt was a sordid .'ind unprincipled inisereant, who resolved to make his countrynieu odious to the Indians, ami thus jirevent the establislmient of a permanent colony, which would diminish tlie la.'ge gains he aiul a few others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traOic. For this pur- pose, having ilecoyed '~4 of the natives on board his ship, ho carried them off and sold them as slaves in the port of Malaga. . . . Ca|itain Smitli, upon his return, presentc'd his map of the country between Penoliseot and Cape Cod to Prineo Charles (.afterwards Cliarlcs I.), with a reipiest that he would substitute others, instead of tlio 'barbarous names' which had been given to particular places. Smith himself gave to tho country the name of New England, as he expressly states, and not Prince Charles, as is commonly suppos<'d. . . . The first port into which Captain Smith put on his return to Eng- land was Plymoutli. There ho related his adventures to some of bis friends, 'who,' he says, 'as I supposed, were interested in the ilead patent of this unregarded country.' Tho Ply- moutli Company of _ad venturers to North Vir- ginia, by nattering' hopes and large promises, induced him to engage his services to them." Accordingly in 3!arcli, 101.5, ho sailed from Plymoutli, witli two vessels under bis command, bearing 10 settlers, besides tlieir crew. A storm dismasted Smitli's ship and Irovo her back to Plymuutli. "His consort, commanded by Thomas Dermcr, meanwhilo proceeded on her voyage, and returned with a profitublo cargo in August; but the object, which was to elfect a ])ermanont settlement, was frustrated. Captain Smitii's vessel was probably found to bo so much shattered as to render it inexpedient to repair her; for we lind that he set sail a second time from Plymouth, on the 21lli of June, in a small bark of 00 tor.s, manned by 30 men, and carrying with him tlio same 10 settlors he had taken before. But an evil destiny seemed co hang over this enterprise, and to make the voy- age a succession of disastera and disappoint- ments." It ended in Smith's capture by a pirat- ical French fleet and his deteiilioii for some months, until he made a daring escape in a small boat. "Whilo ho had been detained on board tlio French pirate, in order, as he says, 'to keep my jierplcxed thougii.s from too miich medita- tion of my miserable e.itate,' ho employed liim- S(df in writing a uariali\e of Ids two voyages to • New England, and an account of tho country. This was publislied in a (luarlo form in June, 1010. . . . Captain Smilh's work on New England was the first ;o recomniend that country as 11 place of settlement. "—Ct. S. llillard. Life of Cant. John Smith (ch. 14-15). Also in Capt. John Smith, Description of K Eng. \S AMERICA, IfilO. 77k Buceaneert. AJIEHICA, 1639-1700. A. D. 1619.— Introduction of negro slavery into Virginia. Scr Vihhima; A. D. Ifili). A. D. 1620.— The Planting of the Pilgrim Colony at Plymouth, and the Chartering of the Council for New England. Sec .Mass.v- t lllM/ns (I'l.YMorTll t'or.oNY): .V. I). Ki'JO; iiiul Ni;rt- Hscil..\M>: \. I). 1I1',MI-1 ()!>;!. A. D. 1620.— Formation of the Government of Rio de La Plata. Sue Auoentink Kk- I'l 111,1.-: \. 1). !.■)«()- 1777. A. D. 1621.— Conflicting claims of England and France on the *'orth-eastern coast. — Naming and graiiti: of Nova Scotia. Set' Nkw Kx.u.and: A. D. l(>'il-l(i:!l. A. D. 1629. — The Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.— " Sir Kdlxit Heath, lUtonioy- jiiiicnil ti) Charlrs I., obtiiincd a prant of the laiiils liftwciii the Mbtlli [;!()tli Vl dogrep of nortli latitude to the river St. Matlieo. His charter bears date of October 5, Ki'^iO. . . . Tlu^ tenure is declared lo be as ample as any bisliop of l>urliaiii I Palatine], in the Uiiiudom of England, ever held mid enjoyed, or ought or could of right have held and enjoyed. Sir Kobert, his heirs und a.ssigiis, are conslitiiteil the true and absolute lords and proprietors, and the country is erected into a province by the name of Carolina |or Car(ilaiia|, and the islands are to be called the Carolina islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right some time aflcr to the earl of .Vrundel, Tliis nobleman, it is said, planted several |iarts of his aciiui.sitiou. but his iitlein|it to coloni/e was checked by the war with Scotland, and after- wards the civil war. Lord Maltravers. who soon lifter, on his father's death, became carl of Arundel and Sussex . . . made no attempt to avail himself of the grant. . . . Sir Koliert. Heath's grant of land, to the soulliwanl of Virginia, perhaps the most extensive pos.session ever owned by an individual, remained for a long time almost aksolutely waste and unculti- vated. . This v.ist extent of territory occui)ied all the country between the libtli and IWth degrees of northern latitude, which embraces the pres- ent states of Xorth and South Carolina, Georgia, [Alabama |, Tennessee, !Mi.ssissip])i, and, with very little exceptions, the whole slate of Louisiana, and the territory of East and West Florida, a considerable part of the state of Missouri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiulmha itc. The grantee had taken pos,ses- sion of Un\ country, soim after he had obtained his title, whieli he afterwards had conveyed lo the earl of Arundel. Henry lord .Maltravers ap pears lo have obtained ;«>me aid from the prov- ince of Virginia in IIWO, at the desire of (;iiarlcs I., for the settlement of Carolana, and the coun- try had since become the property of a Dr. Cox ; yel. at this time, there were two ]Miiiits (mly in which incipient English setllemenis could be discerned; the one on the northern .-liore of Albemarle Soimd and the streams that How into it. The population of it was ve:y thin, and the greatest portion of it was on tlu' liorth-east bank of Chowan river. The settlers had come from that part of Virginia now known as the County of Nansemond. . . . They had been joined by a number of (Quakers and other sectaries, whom the spirit of intolerance had driven from New England, and some emignxiits from Bermudas. . . . The other settlement 01 the English was at ihe mouth of Cape Tear river; . . . those who composed it liml come thither from New England in lOoO. Their attention was confined to rearing cattle. Tl cannot now be ascertained whether the assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the charter under which it was held, nor whether it was considered as having become vacated or obsolete by non-user, or by any other means." — F. X. JIartin, IIM. of A\ Cnroliiw, r. 1, eh. 5 and 7. A. D. 1629.— The Royal Charter to the Gov- ernor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. Sec MASsAciiusKTrs: A. 1). I(i23-l(;21), The DOUC'IIESTKII CoMTANY. A. D. 1629-1631. — The Dutch occupation of the Delaware. See Uki.awaue: A. I). 10'.29- lOiil. A. D. 1629-1632. — English Conquest and brief occupation of New France. See Canada (Nf.wFuanik): a. I). 11128 -KWi, A. D. 1632.— The Charter to Lord Balti- more and the founding of Maryland. .S'e 3Iakvi,anii; A. 1). IftW. and A, 1). I(i;i;!-lfi;i7. A. D. 1638. — The planting of a Swedish Colony on the Delaware. Sec Delaware: A. 1). 10;iS-l(ilO. A. D. 1639-1700. — The Buccaneers and their piratical warfare with Spain. — "The ITth century gave birth to a class of rovers wholly distinct Irom any of their jiredecessors in the annals of the world, dill'.'iing as widely in their plans, org:;nization and exploits as in the princi- ples tliat governed their acti ns. . . . After the native iniiabilants of Haiti had been exterini- iiated, and the Spaniards liad sailed farther west, a few adventurous men from Normandy settled on the shores of the island, for the purpose of hunting th(i wild bulls and hogs wliicli roamed at w'll through the forests. The small island of Tort igas was their market; thither they repaired with heir salted and smoked meat, their hides, Ac, ih'd disposed of them in exchange for pow- der, le.'d, u!h1 other necessaries. The places where ihese semi-wild hunters jircpared the slaughtered carcases were called 'boucans,' and they themselveij beeaine known as IJuccaneers. Probably the world has never before or since wit- iies.se(lsuclian extraordinary association as tlieira. Unburdened by women-folk or cliil('''en, these men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each other services, and having entire community of property — a condition termed by them niatclot- nge, from the word 'matelot,' by which they addressed one another. ... A man on joining the fraternity completely merged his identity. Each memlier received a nickname, and no at- temi>t was ever made to in((uire into his antece- dents. When one of their number married, ho ceased to be iv buccaiiecr, having forfeited his ineinber.ship by so civilized a proceeding. He might cont.niie lo dwell on the coast, and to hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'matelot' — as a Benedick he had degenerated to a ' colonist.' . . . Uncouth and lawless though the bucca- neers were, the sinister signilication now attach- ing to their name would never have been merited had it not been for the unreasoning jealousy of the Spaniards. Tlie hunters were actually a source of (irolit to that nation, yet from an in- sane antipathy to strangers the dominant race resolved op exterminating the settlers, i'.ttacked whilst dispersed in pursuance of their avjcations, the latter fell easy victims; many of tnem were wantonly massacred, others dragged in'.o slavery, . . . Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the 74 AMERICA, 1639-1700. AMEUICA, 1713. brethren of the coast' united their scattered forces, and a war of horiible n'prisals com- nienee'd. Fresli Iroojis arrived from fSpain, wliilst tlie ranlis of tlie huecaneers were filled by adven- turers of all nations, nlhired by love of pliuider, and lired with indi^'iiation at the cruelties of the aggressors. . . . Tlic Spaniards, utter'y failing to oust their opponents, hit upon a new ex- pedient, so short-sighted th.it it reUects but little ered't on their statesmanship. This w:is the externunation of the .'lorned cattle, by which the biieeaneers derived their means of subsistence; ii L'cneral slaughter took place, an<l the breed was almost extirpated. . . . The pulled up arrogance of th(! Spaniard was curbed by no prudential consideration; calling upon every saint ia his calendar, and raining curses on the heretical bnceaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- ate enemies, who harassed the colonial trade of an empire already betraying signs of feeldencss with tiie pertiui city of" wolves, and who oidy desisted when her commerce had been reduced to insignilicaneo. . . . Devoured by an undying liatred of their assailants, the buccaneers de- veloped into a new association — the freebooters." — f. II. Eden, Tin Wcxt Indits, ch. 3.— "The moiiarclis both of England and Franca, but espeeiallv the former, connived at and even en- courageil the freebooters [a name which thi! pronunciation of Freni'h sailors transformed into ' llibnstiers,' while that corruption became Aiiirlicized in its turn and produced the word tililnistersl, whose services coidd be obtained in time of war, and whose actions could be dis- avowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, tilibuster, and sea-rover, were for the most part at leisure to liinit wild cattle, and to pillage and massacre the Spaniarils wherever tliey foiuid an opportunity. When not on some marauding ex- pedition, they followed the ehiuse." The ))iratical biieeaneers were first organized under a leader in Hiiii), the islet of Tor'uga being their favorite rendezvous. " So rapid was tlie growth of their .selllenieats that in 1041 we lind governors ap- lioiiited, and at San Ohristobal a governor-general named Ue Poincy, in charge of the French lilibuslers in the Indies. I>uring that year Tortuga was garrisoned by Frencli troops, and the Englisli were driven out, both from that islet and from Santo Domingo, securing harboraae elsewhere in the islands, Xevertlieless corsairs of botli nations often made common cause. . . . In [li;,j 1 1 Tortuga was again recaptured by the Spai iards, but in 1000 fell once niin'e into the ham's of the French; and in their coiujuest of .Ta-.iaica in 10,').') the JSritish troops were re(!n- I'orceil by a large party of buccaneers." The tirst of the more famous buccaneers, and ap- |iarenlly the most ferocious among them all, was a Frenchman called Francois L'Olonnois, who harried the coa,st of Central .Vmerica between 1000-100.5 with six ships and 700 men. At the same time another buccaneer named ^lansvelt, was rising in fame, and with him, as second in comniaiid, a Welshman, Henry Morgan, who be- came the most notorious of all. In 1008, Jlorgan attaeUed and captured the strong town of I'ortu- bello, on the Isthmus, committing indescriliable atrocities. In 1071 he crossed the Isthmus, defeated the Spaniards in battle and gained pos.sessiim of the great and wealthy citv of Panama — the largest and richest in the New World, rontainiiig at the time !}0,000 inhabitants. The city was pillaged, fired and totally destroyed. 'I'lic exploits of this nillian and the stolen riches wliich he carried home to England soon after- ward, gained the honors of liiiightliood for him, from tiie worthy hands of Charles II. In lOHO, the buccaneers under one Coxon again crossed ;he Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been considerably rebuilt, and captured tlu le a Spanish fieet of four ships, in which they launched themselves upon the Pacific. From that tlmetiicir iiliindcring operations v.erc chielly dircctiMl against the Pacific coast. Towards the close of the 17th century, the war l)ctwecii Eng- land and France, and the Iloiirbon alliance of Spain with France, brouglit about the .liscour ngement, the decline and finally the extinction of the buccaneer organization. — II, II. Bancroft, llUt. of the Pacific l<tat':s: Central Am., v. 2, ch. 2C-?0. Also IN W. Thornbury, The liitceaneers. — A. O. Exquenielin, 7//i<. of the Ihiccamcrs. — J. IJuniey, Hist, of the Buccmicra of Am. — See, also, J.vMAic.v: A. D. 10,'-.,5-1790. A. D. 1655.— Submission of the Swedes on the Delaware to the Dutch. See Dklawauk: A. 1). 10-;0-10r)0. A. D. 1663. — The grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. See XoiiTii Cauoi.ina: A, I). 100;!-1070. A. D. 1664. — English conquest of New Nethorland. Sec Nuw Youk: A. D. 1004. A. D. 1673. — The Dutch reconquest of New Netherlana. Sic New Yoiui: A. I). 107:i. A. D. 1673-1682. — Discovery and explora- tion of the Mississippi, by Marquette and La Sa'Ie.— Louisiana named and possessed by the French. See Canada (Niiw Fhanck); A. I). 1034-107;{. and 100U-10S7. A. D. 1674. — Final surrender cf New Neth- erland to the English. See 2S'etiieki.a>:us (lI(>i,i..\.ND): A. n. 1071. A. D. 1681.— The proprietary grant to Wil- liam Penn. See Pi;xnsvi,vama: A. I). 1081. A. D. 1680-1697.— The first Inter-Colonial War: Kini William's War (The war of the League of Augsburg). See Canada (Ni;w FUANCE): A. D. 1080-1690; 10yj-lGU7; also, 3S'i;wKoiNDi,AN"D: A. D. 1094-1097. A. D. 1690. — The first Colonial Congress. See I'Nnia) Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1090; alsi , Canada (Ni;w FiiANCK): A. I). 1089-1090. A. D. 1698-1712. — The French colonization of Louisiana. — Broad claims of France to the whole Valley of the Mississippi. See Loiisi- ana: a. 1). 1098-171^. A. D. 1700-1735. — The Spread of French occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on the Lakes. 8ee Canada (New Fuance): A. D. 17(M)-17:i.-). A. D. 1702. — Union of the two Jerseys as a royal province. Sec New Jehsev: A. I). 1088- I7;i8. A. D. 1702-1713.— The Second Inter-Co- lonial War: Queen Anr.c's War (The War of the Spai.ish Suc(:es<=:an\ — Final acquisition of No/a Scotia by the F.nrlish. Sec New Enu- i.and: A. I). 17();3-1710; Cus'ada (New Fk^vnce): A. I). 1711-1713. A. D. 1713.— Division of territory between England and France by the Treaty of Utrecht. See Canada (New Fiiance) • A. I). 1711- 1713. 70 AMERICA, A. D. 1729. AMEUICAN ABORIGINES. A. D. 1729.— End of the proprietary gov- ernment in North Carolina. See Noktii L'Aiioi.iNA: A. 1). l(iMS-17~".t. A. D. 1732.— The colonization of Georgia by General Oglethrope. Sic (ii.oUdiA: A. 1). I7;t.>- ;-:!!». A D. 1744-1748.— The Third Inter-Colon- ial War: King George s War (The War of the Austrian Succession). See New Enoi.and: A I) 1711; 171."); iiml 17iri-17-(S. A. D. 1748-1760. — Unsettled boundary dis- putes of England and France. — The fourth and last inter-colonial var, calUd the French and Indian War (The Seven Years War of Europe). — English Conquest of Canada. Sio Canada (Ni:\v FuA.NCE): A. D. 175l>-17r);i; 17()0: Nova Scotia: A. D. 1741)-17.w; 1755, (Jiiio (Valley): A. D. 1718-1751; 175-1; 1755; Cai-e Breton iM.A.NU: A. D. 1758-1700. A D. 1749. — Introduction of negro slavery into Georgia. See CrKouciA; \. 1). 17135-174!). A. D. 1750-1753. — Dissensions among the English Colonies on the eve of the great French War. Seo U.mted .Srvncs ot' A.M.: A. 1). 175i)-175;l. A. D 1754. — The Colonial Congress at Albany.— Franklin s P'.an of Union. See L'.MTKii Stati;s oi' A.M.: A. T). 1751. A. D. 1763.— The Peace of Paris.— Canada, Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) ceded by France to Great Britain. — West of the Mississippi and Ne'w Orleans to Spain.— Florida by Spain to Great Britain. See Sevks Ykahs \\\n. A. D. 1763-1764.— Pontiac's War. See Pou- TIAC'S WaU. A. D. 1763-1766, — Growing discontent of the English Colonies. — The question of taxa- tion. — The Stamp Act and its repeal. Sec United Stati-.s of Am. : A I). 1700-177.5, to 1700. A. D. 1766-1769. — Spanish occupation of New Orleans and Western Louisiana, and the revolt against it, .See Louisiana : A. i). 17(i(j- 170.H, iiud 1700. A. D. 1775-1783.— Independence of the Eng- lish colonies achieved. See United States ok A.M. : \ I). 1775 (.Vi'iiii.) to 1783 (SEi'TEMincii). A. D. 1776.— Erection of the Spanish Vice- royalty of Buenos Ayres. See Auoentine Reithi.ic: a. I). 1580-1777 A. D. 1810-1816.— Revolt, independence and Confederation of the Argentine Provinces, Se(! AiuiK.NTiNE Uei-uhlic: a. I). 1800-18:30. A. D. 1818. — Chilean independence achieved. See Chile: A. D. 1810-1818. A. D. 1820-1821. — Independence Acquired by Mexico and the Central American States. See Me.vico: A. D. 18-'0-1820, uiul Centual Ameuka: a. D. 1821-1871. A. D. 1824. — Peruvian independence won at Ayacucho. SecPKUU: A. D. 1820-1820. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. Linguistic Classification. — In the Seventh Annual Report of the l!\ire:m of Ktiinnloiry (for 18S.5-80, jHililislu'tlin USJU), :\Iiijor ,1. W. I'cWell, the Dirii torof the Bureau, has'iriveii aelassilica- tion of the lani^uajjes of the North Ameriean nbo- riTJne.s based Ujicntlie most recent investigations. Tlie followiiigisalist of families of speech, orlin- tCulstic, stocks, which are deliiied and named: "Adaizan [identilled since the publication of this list as being but i)art of the Caddoan stock]. — Algonimian, — Athapascan. — Attacajian. — BeotluiUau. — Caddoan.— Cliimakuan.— Chimari- liaii. — Cliinnnesyan. — Cliiiiookan.— Chitimachan. — Chumaslian. — Coaliuiltcean. — Copelian. — Cos- tanoan. — Eskiman;in. — Esselenian. — Iroquoian. — Kalapooiiui.— .'varaniiawaii. — Kcrcsaii. — Kiowan. — - Kituanahan. — Koluschan. — Kulaiiapaii. — Xusiiii. — I.utujimian. — ;\Iariposan. — ^loquclum- iiaii. — -Arusklioireau. — Natclician. — Palailmihan. — I'imaii. — Pujiinaii.— Quoratean.— Salinui. — Salislian. — Sastean. — Shaliap*iaii. — Slioshoncuu. — Siouan.— Slii'.la.iretaii.— 'rakilmaii.--Tarioan. — Timu(|iianan.—Toiiikaii.— Tonka wan.— Uchean. — \\'aiilat|)uan.— "WaUeslian. — Washoan. — AVeit- spckan. — Wislioskan. — Vokonan. — Yauan. — Yiikian. — Ynman. — Zunian. " — Tliese families are severally defined in the summary of in formation given below, and the rcla'tioiis to tliem of all tribes liaving any historical impor- f.ince are shown by cross-references and ollicr- ^yise; but many other groupings and associa tions, and many tribal names not scientificall,' recognizcl, are likewise exliil)ited here, for the reason that they have a signifiv.ince in history and are the subjects of frequent allusion in litcri'ture, Abipones. See below : Pampas Tkibks. Abnakis, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.— '•The Abnakis wire called Taranteens l)y the English, and Owcn.igungas by the New Y'orkers. . . . We must admit that a, large jjortion of the North American Indians were called Abnakis, if not by themselves, at least by others. Tliis word Abnaki is found spelt Abenaques, Abenaki, Wapanacbki, and 'NVabenakies by diftereut; writ- ers of various nations, each adopting the manner of spelling according to the rules of pronunci- ation of their resp.ective native languages. . . . The word generidly received is spelled thus, Abnaki, but it should be 'Waubanaghi,' front the Indian word ' waubnnbau,' desiguating the people of the Aurora Borealis, or in general, of the plate where the sky commences to appear white at the breaking of the day. ... It has been diflicult for different writers to determine tlie miml)er of nations 'T tribes comprehended under this word Abnaki. It being a general word, by itself designates tlie people of the east or noiUieast. . . . ^,V'e find that the word Abu.aki was applied iu general, more or less, to all the Indians of the East, by persons who were nut much acquainted with the aborigines of the country. On the contrary, the rnrly writers and otliers well aciiuainted witli the natives of New Prance and Acadin, and the Indians themselves, by Abnakis alwavs pointed out a particular nation existing noi;li-westahd south of the Ken- nebec river, and they ne\er designated any other people of liie Atlantic shore, from Cape JIatteras to Newfoundland. . . . The Abnakis had five great villages, two amongst the French colonies, which must be the village of St. .loseph or Sillery, and that of St. Francis de Sales, both iu Canada, three on the head waters. 70 AMERICAN ABORiaiXES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. or nlonR three rivers, between Acmliii and New Kngliuui. Those three rivers are tliu Kennebec, tlie Androseoggin, and tlie Saco. . . . Tlio na- tion of the Alinaliis Ix-ar evident niarlts of hav- ing lueii an original peoi)lo in tluir name, man- ners, and iangiiage. Tliey sliow a liind of eivil- 'zation which must be the etfeet of anti(iuity, and of a past tlourislnng age."— E. Vetroniilc, , The Ahnaki IiuUiins(M<tine Hist. Soe. Call., v. C).— See, also, below: Al.(iON'(i:r.\N F.\mily.— For some account of the war^ of the Abnakis, with the New England colon'os, see C'.\nad.v (Nkw Fu.\XCK); A. I). 1089 1000, and 1092-1097; New England: A. l>. 1075 (.July— Sbpt.); 1702-1710, 1711-17l:.i; and Nova Scotia: A. I). 17i:!-17;iO. Absarokas, Upsarokas, or Crows. See below: Sioi;an Family. Acawoios. See below: C'Anins and tiieih KlNI>TlI-.D. Acolhuas. See JIexico. A. D. 132o-1503. Adais.*- -These Indiiiiis were a "tribe who, ac- cordi.ig to Dr. Sibley, lived al)out the year 1800 near the old Spanish fort or mis.sion of Adaize, 'about 40 miles from Xiilrliitoelies. below the Yattassees, on a lake eallcil Lac Mac don, which communicates with the division )f Red River that passes by Bayou Fierre ' [Lewis and Cliirke]. A vocabulary of about 250 words is all that re- mains to us of their language, which aecoiiling to the collector. Dr. Sibley, 'dilVers from all others, and is so dilllcult to speak or \niderstand that no nation can speak ten words of it. ... A recent comparison of this vocabulary by Mr. Oatschet. with several Caddoan dialects, has led to the discovery that a consicU-rable percentage of tlie Adi'ii words have a more or kss remote allirity with Caddoan, and he regards it as a Caddoan dialect." — J. W. Foivell, Scrciilh An. Urjinrt, Bureau of KthiwUMiy, pp. •l.)-40. — See preceding ])age. Adirondacks. — "This is a terra bestowed by the Iroquois, in deris'on, on the tribes who appear, at an early day, to have descended the Utawas river, and occupied the left banks of the St. Lawrence, above the present site of tjuebec, about the close of the loth century. It is said to signify men who eat trees, iu allusiou to their using the bark of certain trees for food, when reduced to straits, iu their war e.xcurs, us. The French, who entered the St, Livwreuco from the gulf, called the same people Algonciuius — a generic appellation, which has been long employed and come into universal use, among historians and philologists. According to early accounts, the Adirondacks had preceded the Iroquois in arts and attainment "."—11. II. Schoolcraft, Kotes on the Iroquois, Ji. 5.— See, also, below: luoquois Confedeuacy: Tueh; CoNQUiisra, &c. iEsopus Indians. See below: Aloonquian Family. Agniers.— Among several names which the Mohawks (see below: Iiioquois) bore in early colonial history was that of the Agniers.— F. Parkrann, llie Connpiraey of Pontiac. r. 1, ji. 9, foot- note. Albaias. See below: Pampas Tuibes. Aleuts. See below; Eski.mauan Family. Algonquian(Algonkin) Family.—" About the period 1500-1000, those related tribes whom wo nov know by the name ol Algonkins ^\erc at ihe height of their prosperity. They occupied the • See Note, Appendix E. Atlantic coast from the Savannah rivron the south to the strait of Belle Isle on the north. . The dialects of all these were related, and evidently at some distant day hud been derived from the same primitive tongue. Which of thciu had preserved the ancient forms most closely, it may be prema- ture to decide positively, but tin; tendency of modern studies has been to assign that place to the Cree — the northernmost of idl. We camiot erect a genealogical tree of the.se dialects. . . . We may, howi'vcr, group them in such a manner as roughly to indicate their relationship. This I do" — in tlie following list: "Cree. — Uld ■Vlgonkin. — ilontagnais. — Cliipeway, Ottawa, I'oltawattomie, .Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankisliaw, Kaskaskia, Menominee, Sue. Fo.\. Kikapoo. — Sheslmtapoosh, SecolTeo, Jlicmac, -Melisceet, Etchcmin, Abnaki. — Mohegan, Massachusetts, Shawnee, Miiisi, Uiiami, Unalachtigo [the lust three named forming, together, the nation of the Lenape or Dclaware.s], Nanlicoke, Powhatan, Pampticoke. — Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, .Shey- enne. . . . All the Algoukin nations who dwelt north of the Potomac, on the east shore of Chesapeake Bay, and iu the basins of the Dela- ware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship and an identical origin, and were at times united into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the western and southern tribes they were col- lectively known as Wapanaclikik — • those of the eastern region' — which in the form Abnaki is now conlined to the remnant of a tribe in ^Maine. . . . The members of the confederacy were the Mohegans(.Mahicanni) of the Hudson, who occu- pied the valley of that river to the falls above the site of Albany, the various New >Iersey tribes, the Delawares proper on the Delaware river and its branches, including the .Aliiisi or Monseys, among tlio mountains, the Nn?iticokes, between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, and the small tribe called Canal, Kanawhas or Ganawese, whose towns were on tributaries of the Potomac and Patuxent. . . . Linguistically, the MohcgiMis were more closely allied to the tribes of New England than to those of the Delaware Valley. Evidently, most of the tribes of Massachusetts and Connecticut were compara- tively recent offshoots of 'he parent .steiu on the Hudson, supposing the course of migration had been eastward. . . . The Nanticokes occupied the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the ocean, except its southern extremity, which ap- pears to have been under the control of the Powhaten tribe of Virginia." — D. G. Brinton, The lj:nnpc and their Lerjenils, ch. 1-2. — " Jlolie- gaiis, Munsees, jManhattans, ^Iet^iacs, and other alhliated tribes and bauds of Algonduia lineage, inhabited the banks of the Hudson and ihe islands, bay and.seaboardof New York, including Long Islanil, during the early penods of the rise of the Iroipiois Confederacy. . . . The Jlohegans finally retired over the Highlands east of them into tlie valley of the llousator.i-. The JIunsccs and Nanticokes retired to the Delaware river and reunited with their kindred, the Lenapees, or modern Delawares. The ^Manhattans, and numerous other bands and sub-tribes, nielted awiiy under Ihe intluence of licpior and died in their tracks." — II. R. Schoolcraft, yuttitonthe Iror/'i'iin, ch. 5. — " On the basis of a dilTcrence in (lialeci, that portion of the Alg(m(iuin Indians wnieh dweit in New England has been classed in two divisions, one consisting of those who in- 77 AMEHICAX \noIUGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. hatiilcci wliiit is now the Slate of Miiinc, nearly up toils ueslein bonier the oiIkt corisistiiii; of the r<'st of tiu' native population. The .Maine Indians may have heen some l.'i.lMK) in niiinlHi', or sotnewhat less than a thinlof tlienalive popu- lation of New Hn!,'laiiil That portion of llieni \vlioflw<'lt furthest, lowarilstheeasl were known 1)V the name of Ktclehemins. The Abenacjuis. inebiiliriir the Tarratiiies, hunleil on both sidesof the I'eiiobseot, ami westwanl as far as the Sai'o, if not ipiile to the I'lscilaipia. The tribes fou ml in tile rest ot New Knirlaml weri! ile-ii^'iiateil by II greater variety of names. The lioiiu.' ot the Peiiaeook or I'awtuekel Indians was in the Koiillieast eorni'V of what is now New Ilainpshire and the eonliguous re,u;ioii of .Massaehuselts. Next dwelt the Massaeliusetts tribe, alonj; the bay of that name. Then wen^ found sueei'ssively the I'okanokets, or Wampanoags, in the south- easterly refiioii of Massachusetts, and by IJuz- zard's and Narraiiansetl nays;th<^ Narrajransetts, with a tributary raee called Nyanties in what is now the western part of the State of RIkhIo I.sland; the I'eipiots, betweiai the NarraLmnsett.s and the river formerly called the Pecpiot River, now the Thames; ami t lie Muli(^;?aus, spreading themselves beyond the River t'ouneetieut. In the central region of Massachusetts were the Nipiuucks, or >iipiiets; and along Cape Cod were the Nausets, who ap])eared to have owed some fealty to thi; PoUanokets, The New England Indians exhibited an inferior type of humanity. . . . Though lleet and agile when excited "to some occasional elTort, they were found to be in- capable of continuous labor. Heavy and lihli'gmalii', they scarcely wept or smiled." — J. <i. I'all'rev, Oiiiij)fnili'iii.i Hint, of N. J'Jii'/., bk. 1, <•//. a (/•. 1).— "The vMvy of the ' ('ahohatatea,' or Mauritius River [i. c., the Hudson River, as now iiamiMl| at the time Hud- son lirst iscended its waters, was inliabitc^d, chielly, by two aboriginal races of Algoiuiuin lineage, afterwards known among the English colonists by the generic names of Moheguns iind Mincees. The Dutch generally called 'ho Mohcgans, Mahicans; and the Mincees, Sauhikans, These two tribes were subdivided into numerous minor bamls, each of which liad a distiiu^tive name. The tribes on the east side of the river were generally .^[ohe- gaus; those on the west side, Mincees. They were hereditary enemies. . . . Long Island, or 'Sewau-liacky,' was occupied by thcsavage tribe of Metowacks, which wassubdivided into various clans. . . . StJiten Island, on thi' ojiposite side of the bay, was inhabited by the ^lonatons. . . . Inland, to the west, lived the ]{aritaus and the Hackinsaeks; while the regions in Itie vicinity of the well-kiK wu ' llighland.s,' south of Sandy Hook, were i.ihabited by i; band or sub-tribe called the Nevesincks or Navisiuks. . . . To the south and west, covering the centre of New Jersey, were the Aqnuniachukesuml the Stanke- kans; while the Niwiey of the Delaware, north- ward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by yaricais tribes of the Eeiiapc race. . . . The isla (I of the ^lanhattans " was occupied by the tribe which received that name (see M.vxii.wi'AN). Ou the shores of the river, above, dwelt the Tuppans, the Wecki[uaesgeeks, the Siut Sings, "whose chief village was named Cssin-Sing, 'or ' the Rlace of Stones, ' " the Rachami, the Waoriii- ucks, the Wappiugers, and the \Varouawaukongs. "Further north, an<l occupying the present counliesof Ulster and fJreene, were the jliiKpni elans of .Minnesineks, Nanticokes, Mincees, anil Hilawares. These clans had i)resse(l onwanl fiiiin the upper valley of the Delaware. . . . They were generally known among the Dutch as the .Esopus Indians."— J. It. lirodhead. J/int. of the State of .\. )'., r. 1, <■/(. '•i7^"'Y\\i' area for- im^rly occupied by tlie Algonquian family w;h more ex;"'isive than that ot any other linguistic stock in Nor'h America, their territory reaching from I.abiiido • 'othe Rocky .Mountains, and from Churchill River of Hudson Hay as far south at least us Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In the easter.i part of this territory was an area occupied liy Iroquoiau tribes, surrounded on •dmost all sides by their Algonquian neighbors. On the south the Algonquian tribes were Imr- dered by tlio.se of Irixiuoianand Siouan (Catawba) stock, on the southwest and west by the ^lusk- hogean and Siouan tribes, and ou the northwest by the Kitunahan and the great Athapaseun families, while along the coast of Labrador and the eastern shore of Hudson Hay they caine in contact with the Eskimo, who were gradually retreating before them to the north. In New'- foundland they encountered tliv Ueothukan family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portion of the Shawnee at some early period had sep- arated from the main body of the tribe in central Tennessee and i)Ushed tiieir way down to the .Savannah River in South Carolina, where, known as Savannahs, they carried on destructive v 'irs with the surrounding tribes until about the be- ginning of the 18lh century they were tinally driven out and joined the Delaware in the north. Soon afterwards the rest of the tribe was expellej by the Cherokee and Chicasa, who thencefor- ward claimed all the country stretching north to the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, two allied tribes ot this stock, bad l)ecome sej)- arated from their kindred on the north and had forceil tlieir way through hostile tribes across the .Missouri to the IJlack Hills country of South Dakota, and more recently into Wyoming and Colorado, thus forming the advance guard of the Algonquian stock in that direction, having the Siouan tribes behind them and those of the Slioshonean family in front. [The following arc thej principal tribes: Abnaki, Algonquin, Ara- l)aho, Clieyenne, Jonoy, Cree, Delaware, Po.v, Illinois, Kickapoo, Mahican, Massachuset, Me- nominee, Miami, Jlicniae, ilohegau, Montagnais, Mo'ilauk, ^.Munsee, Nanticoke, Narragauset, Nauset, Nipmuc, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Pamlico, Pen- nacook, Pequot, Piaukishaw, Pottawotomi, Pow- hatan, Sac, Shawnee, Siksika, '\Vami>anoag, Wappinger. The present number of the Algon- (Uiiaii stock isaboutSJ.j, 000, of whom abouttW^OOO are in Canada and the remaimler iuthe United States." — J. W. I'owiiW, iicvcuth Annual licport, Bureau of Ethiiolor/r/, pj). 47-48. Also in J. W. Do Forest, Hist, of the Indians of Vonnecticut. — A. Gallatin, Synojmis of the Indian lYilieii ( Arcka'olur/ia Anteriaiiut, v. i), iutro., sect. 2.— S. Q. Drake, Aboriginal liaees of N. Am., bk. 2-8. — See, also, below: Del.vwauics; lIotUK.^NS; SlIAWANESt ; SUStJUISIIANXAS; O.IIll- WAs; Illinois.— For the Indian wars of New England, see Niiw Kngland: A. D. 1037 (The PKiiL'OT W'Aii): A. D. 1074-1675 to 107«-l(i78 (Ivixu Philip's Wau). — See, also, Pontiac's Wau. 78 AMEHICAX ABOUIOIXES. AMKUICAX . noHIOINES. Alibamus, or Alabamas. Sci' Ih'Idw: >Ir.<K- iKMMAN Family. Alleghans, or Allegewi, or Talligewi.— '■Tlic iiMcst tiilic of llic Unilcil Slates, i)f wliicli llicrr is iidistiiiil tniditidii, Hire the AUcKlmiis. 'I'lic term is iiii-pcliiiitcil ill the |iriiiii|iiil cimiiidf iiiDUiilaiiis travcrsinir the coiiiitiy. Tliis trilie, at all iiiiliiiui' prriocl, liail the .seat i)f their power iu tlie ')lii(> Valley ami its eoiilliieiit slieiiiiis. wliicli \V( le tile sites of their niiiiK'lous towiH Mini villaires. Tliey appear (irii^inally li> have liiirne the name of Alii, or Alle.i;. and hence the Miiiiies of Talli.\'e\vi anil Allei;e\vi. (Trans. Am. I'lii. Hoc, vol. 1.) I!y addiii;,' to the nidieal of this word the jiartiele 'haiiy 'or 'gliany,' iiieaniiiir river, they ile.scril)ed the jjrineipal scene of their residence— namely, the Allcgliaii_v, or Uiver of tli<> Alli'L'iians, liow called Ohio. The word Ohio is of Iroiiuois origin, and of a far later period; li;iviiiir hecii bestowed by them after their eoiU|iiest of the country, in alliance with tile Lenapees, or ancient Delawares. (Phi. Trans.) The term was aoplied to the entire river, from its conlliieiice with the Mississippi, t> its oriirin in the liroad spurs of the Alle- irliaiiics, ill New York and I'ennsylvania. . . . There are evidences of antii(iio labors in the alluvial i)laius and valleys of the Scioto, !Miami, and Muskingum, the Wabash, Ka.skaskia,(.'ahokia, and Illinois, denoting that the aneie'it Alleglmns, and their allies and confederates, ci;ltivated the soil, and were semi-agriculturists. These evi- dences have been t.'accd, at late periods, to the fertile table-lands of Indiana and Michigan. The tribes lived in lixed towns, cultivating exti'nsive fields of the zca-iii:ii/.e ; and also, as deiiote<I by recent discoveries, . . . of some species of beans, vines, and esculents. They were, in truth, the ukjuiiI buihlers." — II. ij. .Selioolcraft, Infunniitioit ■/■iKjHcliiir/ the Iiuliitn 'J'ribis, jit. 5, ]). i;W. — This conclusion, to which Mr. bchoolcraft had arrived, tliat the ancient Alleghans or Tallegwi were the mound builders of llie Ohio Valley is being sustained by later investigators, and seems to have become an accepted opinion amimg those of highest authority. The Alleghans, moreover, are being ideiitilied with the Cherokecs of later tinu.'s, in whom their race, once suppo-sed to be extinct, has apparently survived; while the fact, long suspected, that the Cherokee language is of the Iro.iuois family is being proved by the latest studies. According to Indian tradition, the Alleghans were driven from their ancient scats, long ago, by a combination against them of the I.eniipe (Delawares) and the Mengwo (Iroquois). The route of their migrations is being traced by the character of the mounds which they built, and of the remains gathered from the iiiounds. "The general movement [of retreat before the Iroipiois and Lenape] . . . must have been southward, . . . and the exit of the Ohio iiiound- Imilders was, iu all probability, up the Kaimwah Valley on the samej Hue that the Chetokees appear to have followed in reaching then- historical locality. ... If the hypothesis here advanced be correct, it is apparent that the Cliurokees eutered the imiuediate valley of the >Iississippi from the northwest, striking it iu the region of Iowa."— C. Thoiuus, The Pmljkm of the Ohio Moumh (Bureau of Ethiiologi/, 1880). Also in The same. Burial Mouiuh of the Sorlhcrn Sections of the If. *'. {Fifth An. liept. C of the Bureiiu of /■Jihiioloi/i). 18*1-84).-.!. Ilecke- welder, Arct. of the Indinn ydlions. eh. 1. — See, below: Clli;ii()KKKS. and Iiioyrols C'oNKKU- KiiA(v; also .VMi;iit( A. I'nioiiisiniiic. Amahuacas. See below : .\ni>i;sl\ns. Andastes. See below: StsijficiiANNAii. Andesians. — "The term Andesians or An- tesiaiis. is used with geographical rather than ethnologie.-d limits, and embrai'es a nuniber of tribes. First of these are the C'ofau in Kipiador, east of Chimbora/o. They fought valiaiitly against the Spaniards, and in limes past killell many of the missionaries .sent among them. Xow they are greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The lluamalioya are their near neighbors. The .Hvara, west of the river I'as- taca, are a warlike trilic. who, po.ssibly through a mi.xture of Spanish blood, have a Kuropeau cast of couutciiancc and a beard. The half Christian Napoortiuijo audtheir peaceful neigh- bors, the Zaporo, live on the IJio Xapo. The Yameo, living on the lower Chambiva and cross- ing the Maranon, wandering as far as Saryacu, have a clearer complexion. The Facamora and the Yuguarziaigo live on the .Maranon, where it leaves its northerly <'ours(,' and bends toward the cast. The Cochiijuima live on the lower Vavari: the JIayonina, or Uarbudo, oii the usiddle l.'cayali beside the Caiiipo and Cocliibo, the most terrible of South Americau Indians; they dwell in tliu woods between the Tapiche and the .Maranon, and like the Jivaro have a heard. The Fano, who formerly dwelt in the territory of I.alaguiia, but who now live in villages on the upper L'cayali, are Christians. . . . Their language is the prin- cipal one on the river, and it is shared by seven other tribes called collectively by the mission- aries Jlanioto or ilayuo. . . . AVithiu the woods on the right bank live the Amahuaca and Sha- caya. On the north lliev join the Hemo, a pow- erful tribe who arc distinguished from all the others by the custom of tattooing. Outside this Fano linguistic grouj) stand the Canipa, Campo, or Antis on the east slope of the Feruvian (,'or- dilleiaat the source of the Rio 15eni and its tribu- taries. The Choutiuiuiros, or Firu, now occupy almost entirely the bank of the L'cayali below the Pachilia. The Mojos or JIoxos live in the Bolivian provii.ce of JIoxos with the small tribes of the Baurc, Itonair.a, Facaguara. A number of smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian group need not bo enumerated. The late Frofessor James Orton described the Indian tribes of the territory between Quito ami the river Aniazou. The Najio approach the typ(> of the Quichua. . . . Among all the Indians of the "roviucia del Orieute, tlio tribe of .Jivaro is one or the largest. These people are divided into a great number of sub-tribes. All of these speak the dear musical Jivaro language. They are muscular, active men. . . . The Morona are cannibals in the full .sen.se of the word. . . . The Campo, still very little known, is perhaps the largest Indian tribe iu Eastern Fern, and, according to .some, is reliited to the Inca race, or at least with th"ir successors. Thoy are said to be cannibals, though James Orton does not think this po.ssiblc. . . . T'lc nearest neighbors of the Campo are the Chontakiro, or (Jhontaciuiro, or Chomiuiro, called also Firu, who, accoriling to Paul Marcoy, are said to be of the same origin with the Campo, but the language is wholly dilTercnt. . . .Among the Fano people are the wild Couibo ; they arc 79 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. the most interesting, but are jinssing into extinc- tifin." — The StaiiiUtrd Nulural llintorji (./. S. KiiKjuley. «1.), V. 6, ?//<. 227-231. Apache Group.*-rM(Ur llic ficiienil iminc of the .Vpiiihcs ' I incluiU' nil llic savaire tribes roMiiiiii}; iIiioulIi New ^Mexico, the iiortli-wcstcrii |i(irliiiii of 'IVxas, a small part of uorthcni Mexico, and ,Vri/.ona. . . . Owing to their rov- ing proelivilji'S anil incessant raiils they are leil lirst in oik! direction and then in another. In general terms they may he said to range about as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni. consisting of three tribes, the C'onianches projK'r, the Vamparacks, anil Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, easlorii Chihualiiia, Xuevo Leon, ('■lahiiila, Duraiigo, and portions^ of .south- western N'ew .Mexico, by language iiUied to the (Shoshone family ; the Apaches, who call them- selves iShis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' and whose tribal divisions are the t'liiricaguis, ('oyotero.s, Faraoncs, (Jilenos. Lipanes, l.laii- eros, .Mescaleros, .Mimbrenos, Natages, I'elones, I'iiialenos. Tejuas, Tontos, aial Va(|Ueros, roaming over New .Mexico, Arizona, North- western Texas, Chihuahua and Sonora, and who are allied by language to the great Tinneh family; the Navajos, or Tenuai, 'men,' US tliey designate themselves, having linguistic allinities with the .\j)ache naliim, with which they are .>ionulimes classed, living in and around the Sierra de los .Mimbres; the .Mojaves. occupy- ing both b.uiksof the Colorado in .\lojave Valley ; the llualapais, near the head-waters of Bill Williams Fork; tiie Yunias, un the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Gila; the Cosninos, who, like the llualapais, are sonietinu'S included in the Apache nation, rang- ing through the MogoUon >Iounlains; and tlic Yampais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Rio llassayampa. . . . The Ai)ache coimtry is prol)ably the most desert of all. ... In both mountain and desert the lierce, rapacious Apache, inured from childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. . . The I'ueblos . . . are nothing but partially recliiimed Apaches or Comanches." — II. 11. Baiier-if!, ydtii-f UiiCiK of til)', I'licific Stdtin. v. 1, ell. 5. — Dr. Brinton jirefers the name Yuma for the whole of the Apache Group, conlining the name Apache (that being the Yiuna word for "light- ing men") to the one tribe so called. "It has also been .allcd the Katchan or Cuchan stock." — 1). G. I'rinton, I'lie Aiiitrienii Iture., p. lOU. — See, also, below: Aiii.\rAs< an Family. Apalaches. — " Among the aboriginal tribes of the I'nited States perhaps noi.e is n "e enig- malicul than the A]iala( lies. They are mentioned as an important nation by many of the early French and Spaiush travellers and historians, their name is presi'rved by a bay and river on the shores of the Gulf of Jlexico, and by the great eastern coast range of mountains, and has been apjilied by ethnologists to a family of cog- nate nations that iound their hunting grounds from the jMississippi to the Atlantic and from the Ohio river to the Florida Keys; vet, strange to .say, their own race and jilace have been but guessed at." The derivation of the name of the Ajialaches "has been ii 'iiiU'Slio vexata' anuing Inilianologists. " We must " consider it an in- dication of ancient coniH'ct ions with thesmitheru contlnenf, and in itself u pure Carib word 'Apiilicho' iu the Tumuuaca dialect of the * Bee Note, Appendix E. fiA Qiiaranay Stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,' and llie earliest apf)lication of the name in the northern continent was as the title of the chief of a country, 'I'liomme par excellence,' and hence, like " very many other Indian tribes (.Vpaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjects assumed by eminence the ])roud appcllatiim of 'The .Men'.' . . We have . . . found that though no general migration took place from the continent .southward, nor from the islands north- ward, yet there was a considerable intercoune in both directions; that not only the natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and Y'ucat;in, but also numlars of the Guaranay stem of the southirn continent, the Caribs proper, cros.sed the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their cii.stoms and languaco became to a certain extent grafted ujjon those of the early possessors of the soil; and to this foreign langimge the name Apalache behmgs. As previously .stated, it was used as a generic title, apjilied to a confederation of nvmy nations at one time luulcr the domina- tion of one chief, whose jiower probably ex- tended from the Alleghany mountains on the north to the .shore of the Gulf; that it included tribes speaking a tongue closely akin to the Choktah is evident from the fraginents we have remaining. . . The location of the tribe in after vears is very uncertain Dumont jilaced them m the northern part of what is now Ala- bama and Georgia, near the mountains that bear their name. That a portion of them did live in lliis vicinity is corroborated by the historians of South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 1703, found them 'between the liead-waters of the Savaimah and Altamaha.' , . . According to all the Spanish atithorities, on the other hand, they dwelt iu the region of country between the Suwannee and Aiipalachicola rivers — vet must not be confounded with the Apalachicoios. . . They certainly had a large and prosperous town iu this viciniiy, said to contain 1,000 warriors. ... I am inclined to believe that these were dilTerent branches of the same confederacy. . . . In the beginning of the 18th century they sufTered much from the devastations of the Eng- lish, French and Creeks. . . . About the time Spain regained jiossessiou of the soil, they migrated to the West and settled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River, Here they had a village numbering about 50 souls." — I). Q. Brinton, Notes on the Floridiaii Peninsula, eh. 2. — See, also, below : Muskiiookan Family. Apelousas. Sl'cTe.kas: The Aboriginal in- ItAIllTANTS. Araicu. See below : Glck on Coco Gitour. Arapahoes. See above: Aloonql'Ian Family. Araucanians. See Ciiilk. Arawaks, or Arauacas. See below: Cauihb AND Tiiiiin IvinnuiiiJ. A.icunas. See below: Caiuub and tueiu KiNIUKI). Arikaras. Family. Arkansas. See below: Siouan Family. Assiniboins, See below: Sioi:an Fa-Mily. Athapascan Family.-— Chippewyans.— Tin- neh. — Sarceesf — "This name [Athapascans or Athabascans] has been api)lied to a class of tribes who are situated north of the groat Churchill river, and north of the source of the fork of the Saskat<'hawine, extending westward See below ^ Pawnke (Caddoan) AMERICAN ABOniGINES. AMEKICAK ABORIGINES. till within about 150 miles of the Pacific Ocean. . . . The inline is tlerived. arbitrarily, from Lake Athabasca, wliich is now more generally called the Lake of the Hills. Surrounding this lake extends the tribe of the Chii)pcwyans, a people so-called by the Kenistenoa ami Chip- pewas, because lliey were found to be clothed, in some i)rimary encounter, in tlie scanty garlj of the fisher's skin. . . . AV'e arc informed liy Mackenzie that the territory occujtied by the Chippewyans extends between the parallels of 00° and 05° north and longitiides from 100° to 110° west." — II. K. Schoolcraft, In- furmation liesjk'ctiiif/ the IntUan I'rihcn, jit, 5, p. 173. — "The Tinneli may be divided into four great families of nations, namely, the Chippe- wyans, or Athabascas, living between Hudson Ray and the Koeky Jlountains; the Tacullies, or Cairiers, of New Caledonia or North-western Britisli America; the Kutchins, occupying both banks of the Upper Yukon and itu Iribntiu-ies. from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and the Kenai, inhabiting the interior from (he lower Yukon to Copiier River." — II. II. Bancroft, T/w, Kdtiix Rues of the Pacific States, eh. 2. — " Tlie Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent region may be divided into two groups . . . . 1. Tinneh — Chippewyans of authors. . . . Father retilol diseusses tlie terms Atliabaskans, Chip- pewayans, Montngnais, and Tinneh as applied to this group of Indians. . . . This great family includes a large number of American tribes ex- tending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie south to the borders of ^lexico. The Apaches and Navajos belong to it, and the family seem* to intersect the continent of North America in a norti erly and southerly (direction, principally along the Hanks of the Rocky Moimtains. . . The designation [Tinneh] proposed by Messrs. Ross and Gibbs lias been accepted by most modern ethnologists. ... 3. T'linkets," which familv includes the Yakutats and other groups. — W.'II. Dall, Trilics of the Extreme Korthwcst (Contributions to X. Am. Kthiwtoi,;/, i: 1). — "Wlierever found, tlie members of this groii]) present a certain family resemblance. In ap- l)earance they are tall and strong, the forehead low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightly oblique, the nose prominent but wide toward the base, tlie mouth large, tlu^ hands and feet small. Their strength and endurance are often phenouienal, but in the North, at lea.u. their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. Intellectually they r.mk below most of their neiglibors, and nowhere do tlu!V appear as fos- terers of the germs of civili/.ation AVherc, as among the Navajos, we find them having .some repute for the nieehanieal arts, it turns out that this is owing to having captured and adopted the menibersof more gifted tribes. . . . Agriculture was not iiractised either in the north or souiii, the only exception being the Navajos, and with tliera the insi)iralion came fn.n otiier slocks. . . . The mo.st cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'large cornfields,' from their extensive agriculture. When the Spaniards first met them in 1541 they Were tillers of tlu^s<iil, erected large granaries for their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or aceijuias, and lived iii substan- tial dwellings, i)artly underground; but they had not then learned the art of weavi.ig the eelo brated 'Niivujo bliuikcts,' that being u later acquisition of their arti.sans." — 1). G. Brinton, The Aiiicricaii Uoce, pp. 09-72. — Sec, above, APACiii; Gitot'p, and Blackkkkt. Atsinas (Caddoes).* See Inflow: Blackfket. Attacapan P'amily. — "Derivation Prom a Choctaw word meaning 'man-eater.' Little is known of the tril)e, the language of whicli forms the basis of the present family. The sole know- ledge possessed by Gallatin was deiivc^d from a vocabulary and soiiu- scanty information fur- nished by Dr. .John Sibley, who collected his ma- terial in the year 1805. Gallatin states that the tribe was recluci d to 50 men. . . . Jlr. Gatschet collected some 3.000 words and a considerable body of text. Ilis vocabulary dilVers considtr- ably from the one furnished by Dr. Sibley and published by Gallatin . . . The above material seems to show that the Attaca|)a language is dis- tinct fnmi ali others, except po.ssibly the Chiti- maclian," — .1. W. Powell, Seccnth Annual lit port, liurKVi of Ethiioloim, p. 57. Aymaras. See Pehu. Aztecs See below: Mayas; also Mexico: A. D. 1335-1503 ; and Aztec and Maya Pictuue Writing. Bakairi. See below: Cakids. Balchttas. See below : Pampas Tkiuks. Bannacks, Seeljelow: Suosiionean Family. Barbudo. See aiiove: Amjksians. Bare. See b> low Gi:ck oil Coco Guoup. Baure. See aliove : Amdesians. Beothukan Family. — Tlie Beothuk were a tribe, now extinct, which is believed to have oecupiiid the whole of Newfoundland at the tirao of its dis;><)very. What is known of the language of the Beothuk indicates no relationship to any other Ameiiean tongue — J. W. Powell, Scvcntl- Annual liept. of the liurtau of Ethnolor/y, p. I'i . Biloxis. See below: SioUA.x Fa.mh.v. Blackfeet, or Siksikas.— ' Tlu^ trilie that w uu- ilered the furthest from the primitive home of the stock [the Alg(aiquian| were the Blackfeet, or Sisika, which word Iris this signilieatiou, It is (1l rived from their earlier habitat in the valley of llie Red river of the north, where the soil was dark and blackened their moccasins. Their bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegan Indians. Half a century ago they were at the h^ iui of a eonfi'deracy wliieh embraced these and also the Sarcee (Tiiine) and the Atsina (Cuddo) nations, and numbered about 30,000 souls. They have an interesting mythology and an unusual knowledge of the constellatiims. " — D. G. Briu- ton. The Aiaeriam llace, p. 79. — See above: AuiONijiiiAN Fa.mily; and. below: Flatiieads. Blood, or Kenai Indians. See above : Black- 1'-i;et. Botocudos. Seebelov/: Tupi. — Guauani. — Tui'UYAS. Brule'. Se(! below : Sioian Famii-v. Caddoan Family. See below. Pawnee (Cad- KoA.N) Family; see, also, Texas: Tiiic Ahohio- INAL InIIAIUTANTS. Cakchiquels. See below: Quiches, and Mayas. Calusa. See below: Tu.MLquANAN Family. Cambas, or Campo, or Campa. See above: Andkkians; also, I'ximvia: AnomoiNAL In- IIAIUTANTS. Cattares. See Ecuadok. Canas. See Peuu. Canichatias. Sec Bolivia: Abohiuinal In- uajhtantb. * Oee Note, Appendix L. 81 AMKKICAN AKOmOIXES AMKRICAN ABOHIGINES. Caniengas. Si.'u below; luoiiiois C'onfkd- i;iiA<v. Cariay. Spc below: GrcK oil Coco Giiovp. Caribs and their Kindred. — "Tlio -niirlikf iitul Miiyicliliiiir clianiclrr (if tlicso pcopli', so dillcri'iit from tl!;it of thi'pusilliiniiuoiis niilioiis nrouiiil llicm, iiiiil tlio wide scopi! of their enter- prises iiml w,.:iileriii!rs, like those of the noninil tribes of the OM World, entitle them to (lis- tin.;:iii--he(l iitteiition. . . . The trnilitionul lu- (?onnls of their oriirin, tlionirh of course extremely viigiio, are yet eapuble of being veriflctl to a preat deirree by treojrraidiical facts, and open one of the rich veins of cnrioiis iiKjiiiry and specula- tion which abound in the Xew World. They are said to havenii);rated from the remote valleys emb(>some(l in the Analaehian niotuiiains. The earliest accomits we have of them rei)resent them with weapons in their hands, continually en- gaged in wars, winniiif: their way and shift- in!: their abode, tuitil, in I'.iO course of timi;, they found themselves at the extremity of Florida. Uere, abandoning the northern continent, they passed over to tlio Lueayos [Bahamas], and thence gradually, in the jirocess of years, from island to island of that vast verdant eh.ain, which links, ns it were, the end of Florida to the coast of Paria, on the southern continent. The archi- pelago extending from Porto Hico to Tobago WM their stronghold, and the island of Guada- loupe in a manner their citadel. Hence they maile their expeditions, and .spread the terror of their name through all the surrounding countries. Swarms of them landed upon the southern con- tinent, and overran .some parts of terra firma. Traces of them have been (lis(H)Vered far in the interior of that vast cotintry ilnough which Hows the (Iroonoko. The Huteh found colonies of them on the banks of the Iliouteka, which emp- ties into the Surinam; along the Ksquibi, the Maroni, and other iiv(rs of Guayana; and in the coiuitry watered by t)ie windings of the Cay- eime " — AV I'n ;'g, Life nml Voyiujea of Coliim- bii.% W- 0, rh. 3 (B. 1). — "To this account [sub- stantially as given above] of the origin of the Insular C'liaraibes, the generality of historians have given their assent; nut there are d(nib*,s uttending it that ar_ n(5t easily solved. If [mey n''grii'.(i fr(, II Florida, the imperfeet state anil natural C(nirsi' of their navagation induce a be- lief that traces of them would have been found on those islands which are near to the Florida shore; yet the natives of the Bahamas, when dis- coveretl by Columbus, were evidently a similar people to those of Ilispaniola. Besides, it is Kufllciently knuwn that there existed anciently manv numerous and powerful tribesof Charailx'S on the southern peninsula, extending from the river Oronoko to Es.seiiuebe, and throughout the whole province of Surinam, even to Brazil, some of which still maintain their independency. . . . I incline therefore to the opinion of Jlartyr, and conclude that the islanders were rather a colony fron\ the Charaibes of South America, than from any nation of the North. Hochefort admits that tlifir own traditions referred constantly to Gui- ana." — B. Edwards, JJigl, of lint. t'olonUiiin the W.Indie>,bk. 1, ch. 2.— "The Carabisc-e, Cara- beesi, Charaibes, Caribs, or Galibis, originally ix-cunied [in Guiana] the principal rivers, but as the Dutch encroached upon their possessions they retired inlniul, ami are now daily dwind- ling away. According to Mr llillhoiise, they could formerly uuister nearly l.OfK) fighting men, but are now [1^.55] scarcely able to raise a. tenth part of that number. . . . The smaller islands of the Caribbean Sea were formerly thickly ])opulated by this tribe, but now not a trace of tliem remains " — 11. O. Dalton, Hist, of British (liiidiin, V. 1, rh. 1. — E. F. iin Thurn, Avtoiifj the Indians of (iniuiKi, ch. C. — "H(;cent ro- ,';'arcbes have shown that the original home of the stock was south of the Amazon, and prob- ably in the highlands at the head of the Tapajoz river. A tribe, the Bakairi, is still resident there, v.hoso language is a ptire and archaic form of the Carib tongue." — D. G. Brinton, J{a- ct'.i (1 11(1 Peoples, p. 208. — "Belated to the Caribs stand a long li.st of small tribes . . . all inhabit- ants of the great primeval forest in and near Guiana. The)' may have characteristic dilTeren- ccs, but uoiKi worthy of mention are known. In • bixlily appearance, according to all accounts, these relative's of the Caribs are '".autifid. In (Jeorgetown the Artuiacas [or Arawaks] are cele- brated for their beauty. They are slender and graceful, and their features handsome and regu- lar, the face having a Grecian profile, and the skin being of a reddish cast. A little farther in- land we lind the Macushi [or JMaeusis], with a lighter complexion and a Hoinan nose. These two types are repeated in other tribes, except in the Taruini, who are decidedly ugly. In mental characteristics great similarity prevails." — The Stiuidard Xntnrtil Jli.itnrji (J. S. Kin'jsley, ri!.),p. 'i'M. — "The Arawaks occupied on the continent the area of the modern Guiana, between the Corentyn and llu; Pomeroori rivers, and at one time all the West Indian Islands. From some of them they were early driven 'jy the Caribs, and within 40 years of the date of Columbus' first voyage the Spanish had exterminated nearly all on the islands. Their course of migration had been from the interior of Brazil northward; their di»tant relations are still to be found between the headwaters of the Paraguay ;ind Schiugu rivers." — n. G. Brinton, l!(tces nml Peoples, p. '..'OS-aOO.— "Th(^ Kapohn (Acawoios, Waikas, Ac) claim kindred with the Caribs. . . . The Acawoios, thoigh resolute and determined, are less hasty and impetuous than the Caribs. . . . According to their tradition, one of their hordes removed [to the Upper Demerera] . . . from the Jlasa- runi. The I'arawianas, who originally dwelt on the Demerera, having been exterminated by the continual incursions of the Caribs, the AVaika- .Vcawoios occupied their vacant territory. . . . The JIacusis . . . are supposed l)y some to have formerly inhabited the baidcs of the Orinoco. ... As they are industrious and unwarlike, the/ have been the prey of every savage tribe around them. Tlie Wapisianas an^ sujjposed to have driven them nortlnvard and taken possession of their country. The Brazilians, as well as the Caribs, Acawoios, &e., have long been in the habit of enslaving them. . . . The Arecunas have been accustomed to descend from the higher lands and attack the Macusis. . . . This tribe is said to have formerly dwelt on the banks of the Uaupes or Ucayiui, a tributary of the Rio Negro, . . The Warnus appear to have been the moiit ancient inliabitants of the land Very little, however, can be gleaned from them re- specting their early history. . . . The Tivitivaa, mentioned by Italeigh, were ])robably a branch of the Warnus, whom he calls Qnarawetes."— 18 AMERICAN ABOHIOINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. ^V, II. Bn'tt, Indian Tribes of Ginaiin, jit. 3, ch. Caripuna. Soo brlow: Guck ou Coco Gltorp. Cat Nation, or Eries. Scobtloxv: llimixs, &i'., 1111(1 luoiiioiH Co.m'kukhacy: Tiikiu Cox- (jrKsTs. itc. Catawbas, or Kataba. Sec bilow: Siouan Family; nlso, TiMUiiiANAS. Cayugas. Seo below: Ikoquois Conpedek- A( V. Chancas. Seo PEur. Chapas, or Chapanecs. See below: Zapo- tW^, KTC. Cherokees. — "The Cherokee tribe has lon.ij been a puzzling factor to students of ethnology ami N'orth Aiiierieau languages. Whether to bo considered an abnormal offshoot from one of the well-known Indian stocks or families of North America, or the renuiant of some tin(lct<;rmiiied or almost extinct family which has merged into another, appear to be questions yet unsettled." — C. Thomas, Jiurinl MduiuIs of the Nortltcrn Sec- tions of the U. S. (Fifth Annual Rtpt. of the Bureau of Ethnolorji/. 1883-4).— Facts which tend to identify tlio Cherokees with the ancient "mound-builders" of the Ohio Valley — the Al- leghans or Tallipewi of Indian tradition — are set forth by Prof. Thomas in a later paper, on the l^obleni of the Ohio Mounds, published by the Bureau of Ethnology in 1889 [seo above: Ali.koh.vxs] and in a little book published in 1890, entitled "The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian Times." "Tlio Cherokee nation has jirobably occupied a more prominent place in the affairs and history of what is now the United States of America, since the date of the early European settlements, than any other tribe, nation, or con- federacy of Indians, unless it bo possible to ex- cept the powerful and warlike lea,guo of the Iroquois or Six Nations of New York. It is al- most certain that tlicy were visited at a very early period [l")4(l] folli>wing the discovery of the American continent Ijy that daring and enthusi- astic Spaniard, Fernando do Soto. ... At the time of the English settlement of the Caroliiias tlie Clierokees occupied a diversified and well- watered regio'i of country of large extent upon the waters of tlio Catawba, Broad, Saluda, Keo- wee, Tugaloo, Savannah, and Coosa rivers on the cast and south, and several tributaries of the Tennessee on the north and west. ... In sub- sequent years, through frequent and long con- tinued conllicts with the ever advancing white settlements, and tliu succcs.sivo treaties whereby the Cherokees gradually yielded portions of their % domain, the location and names of their towns were continually changing un'il tin; final removal of the nation [1H36-1839] west of the Mi.ssis.sippi. . . . This removal turned the Cherokees back iu the calendar of progress and civilization at least a (piarter of a century. The hardships and ex- posures of the journey, couple<l with the fevers and malaria of a radically different climate, cost the lives of pcrhai)s 10 per cent, of their total popidatijn Tlie animosities and turbulence horn of the treaty of 1HI15 not only occasioned the loss of many lives, but rendered property in- secure, and in consequence diiniuished the zeal and industry of the entire ccmimunity in its ac- cumulation- A brief period of comparative (puct, however, was again characterized by an advance toward u higher civilizutiou. Fi.e years after their removal we find from the re- •See Note. Appendix E. gn port of their agent that they are again on the increa.se in population. . . . With the exception of occasional drawl)acks — the res\ilt of civil feuds — the j)rogress of the nation in ediualion, industry and civilization o ntinued mil II the outbreak of the rebellion. At this period, from the best attainable information, the Cherokees numbered 21,(K)0 souls. The events of the war brought to them more of desolation and ruin than nerhaps to any other community. Raided and .sacked altcrnatel3', not only by the Confed- erates and Union forces, but by tlic vindictive ferocity and hate of their own factional divis- ions, their cotuitry became a blackened and deso- late waste. . . . The war over, and the work of reconstruction '. ommenced, found them number- ing 14,000 inqioverished, heart-broken, and revengeful people. , . . To-d.iy their country is more jjrosperous than ever. They number 22,000, a greater iiopulatlon than they have had at any previous period, except jicrhaiis just prior to the date of the treaty of 183.1, when those east added to those west of the Jllssi.ssippi are stated to have aggregated nearly 25,000 peo- ple. To-day they have 2,300 scholars attend- ing 75 schools, established and supported by themselves at an aiinind expense to the nation of nearly $100,000. To-day, 13,000 of their jieoplo can read and 18,000" can speak the Eng- lish language. To-day, 5,000 brick, frame and log-houses are occupied by them, and they have 04 churches witli a memliersliip of several thou- sand. They cultivate 100,000 acres of land and have an additional 150,000 fenced. . . . Tliej' have a constitutional form of gov< rnment predi- catcu iipon that of the United States. As a ride their laws are wi.se and benelicent and are en- forced with strictness and justice. . . . The present Cherokee population is of a compo-.ltc character. Kenuiants of other nations or tribes [Delawarcs, Shawnees, Creeks, Natchez] have from time to time been ai.sorbedand admitted to full participation in the beneli'sof Cherokee citi- zenshii)." — C. C. Koycc, The Cherokee Nation of IniUaiis {Fifth Annua/. Jiipt. of the Bureau of E/hnoloy//, 1883-84).— This elaborate paper by Mr. Uoyce is a narrative- in detail of the ollicial relations of the Cherokees with the colonial and federal governments, from their first treaty with South Carolina, in 1721, down to the treaty of April 27, 1808 —"As early as 1798 Barton com- pared the Cheroki language with that of the lro(piois and stated his helief that there was a connection between them. . . . Mr. Hale was the llrst to give formal expression to his belief in tlie allinity of the Cheroki to Iriapiois. Recently ext 'usive Cheroki vocabularies have come into possession of the Bureau of Ethnologv, and a caieful comparisini of them wi'h ample Irorpiois material has been made by Mr Hewitt. The re- sult is con'incing iiroof of the relationship of the two languages. — J. W. Powell, Sirenth An- nual Uepl. <f the Bureau of Fthnolot/y, p. 77.* Also i;; S. G. Drake, The Alxiriginal Ilaees of X Am., bk. 4, eh. 13-10.— See, above: Ai.r.K- (iiiANs. — See, also, for an account of the Che- rokee War of 1759-1701, South Cakolina: A. D 1759-1701; and for "I^rd Dunmore's War," Oiiio(Vaixey). a n 1774. Cheyennes, or Sheyennes. Sec above- At,- ooN(iiiAN Family Chibchas. — The most northerly group of the tribes of the Andes "are \\w Cundinaiiiiiieu of AMERICAN AnOHIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. the tnMfi lands of PojTota. At tlic time of tlic coM(|iicst I lie walcrslu'd of tlic Mag<lal('na was rx'cupicil hy the Cliihclia. or, as tlicy witc iiilli'd l)y tile Siianiards, Muyscas. At that liint! tlio Cliil)clia wi'Ti: tlio most iKiwcrful of all tlio autoclitlionoiis trilns, liad a loii^ liisfory lichiiid thrill, were well alvaiKcd I iward (■ivilizaticiii, to which iMiiiicioiis aiiti<)iiilics l.car witness. The (^liihrha of to-day no loni;cr speak tin; wcU- dcvclopcd and musical Iani;uac:(' of their forc- fallieis. It hecaiiie exlinct iiliiiilt 17i!0, and it cm now only he inferred Ironi cxistiiii; diiiKcIs of il ; these arc the laiif^uaj^cs of the Turiero, a trill" dwclliiii; north of Ro.i^ota, and of the Itoco Indians wlio live in tlu; nci^^hhorliooil of the cclehrated Emerald mines of Mu/.o. " — T/w Hldii- rhird .\'tttiiriil i/ixlori/ (J. S. Kiiiff.ilfi/, erf.) v. 0, p. SI."). — "As potters and goldsmiths they [the Chihcha] ranked among the tincst on the conti- nent." — I). U. nrinlon, limciaml PtoplcH, p. 273. — Sec, also, Colo-Mbian St.\tes: A. D. 151!0- 17:11. Chicasas. See hehuv: Mi'sivIiogean Family; also. I.oiisiANX: A. I). 17li)-1750. Chichimecs. See >!i;xi(i): A. ■*). 132.")-l.-,()2. Chimakuan Family. — "The Cliimakiini arc said to liavi' hecn formerly one of the largest and most powerful tribes of Paget Sound. Their warlike habits early tended to diminish their num- bers, and when visited by Gibbs in IH.-ii ihey counted only about 70 individuals. This small remnant occuiiied some \h small lodges on Port Towns 'nd liay," — J. W. Powell, Sfteulh AiininU Hcji'trt, liid'Cdii iif KthiKiliigji, p. 03. Chimarikan Family. — "According to Powers, this f.imily was reprcsi'iited, so f:vr as known, by two tribes in Califnrni.i, one the ('liinnil-a-kw(', living on New River, a branch of tli(^ Trinity, the other the C'liiniariko, residing upon the Trin- ity itself from Itnrnt Rincli up to tlie mouth of N'orlli Pork, California. The two tribes are .said to have been as numerous formerly as the Ilujia, by whom they wen overcome and nearly exter- minated. Upon the arrival of tlii' Ameriians only 3.") of the Ohimalakwc were left." — .1. W. Powell, Sii nth Annual Ueport, Bureau of Eth- noljit/!/, p, 03. Chinantecs. See below: ZAroTlX's, etc. Chiriookan Family. — "The bank.s of the Col- umbia, from the Grand Dalles to it.= nioutli. belong to the two braneliesof theTsinfik [or CliinookJ nation, whicii meet in the neighborhood of the Kowlit/. River, and of vhieli an almost nominal remnant is left. . . . T\u; position of the TsinQk previous to their depopulation was, as at once appc irs, most important, oce",i]iying both sides of the great artery <.f Oregon for a distance of 300 miles, they |)ossesscd the principal Hiorouglifarc between the interior aial the ocean, boniidless resources of provisions 01 various kinds, and facil- ities for trade almost une(piallcd on the Paci- fic." — G. Giblw, 'J'n'l.,:f of ir<.«/ ]\'(m/iiii</l()n and X. II' OiYi/nn (Contn'li. to X. A. Kthndhuj)/, v. 1), ;). 1<U. — .See, also, below: Fi. vtiiicads. Chippewas. See below ; 0,iiiiwas; and above: Ai.iio .(jfiAN Family. Chippewyans. See below : Athapascan Famii.v. Choctaws. See below: MtsKiionEAN Family. Chontals and Popoloflas.-" According to the census of IHHI) there were Id, (I'M) Indians in Mexico belonging (o the Familia Choiilixl. No such family exists. I'he word 'chontulli ' in thu Nahuatl langua-^e rx'ans simply 'stranger,' and was applied !•; '.; ■ Xaliuas to any ])eop!e other tiiaii their own. According to the Mexican statistics, the Chontals arc fouinl in the states of Mexico, PiK'lila, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tabasco, Guatemala and Nicaragua. A siiniliar term is 'popoloca,' which in Nahuatl means acoar.se fellow, one s|)eaking badly, that is, broken Nahuatl. The Popolocas liavc^ also hecn erected into an ethnic entity by some etiinographers, with as little justice as the Chontallis. They ar<' stated to have lived in the provinces of Puebla, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan and (iuatemala." — I). G. Rrinton, The Anwrivnn li'vv. pp. Uti-lTia. Chontaquiros. Sec above: Anuksians. Chumashan Family. — " i)erivation: From Chuniash, the name of the Santa Rosa Islanders. The several dialects of this family Inivu long been known under the group or fiimily name, 'Santa Barbara," which seems first to have been used in a comprehensive sense by Latham iu 18.50, who incliKled under it three languages, viz. : Santa Rarbara, Santa Inez, and Sau Lii's Obispo. The term has no siiecial pertinenco as a family designation, except from the fact that the Santa ISarliara Mission, around which one of the dia- lects of the family was spok(Mi, is perhaps more widely known than any of the others." — J. W. Powell, ti'mnth Annual Iteport, Bureau of Etli- nnlmiji, p. 67. Cliff-dwellers. See Amehioa: PnEiiisTonic. Coahuiltecan Family. — "Derivation: From the name of the ^Mexican State Coahiiila. This family appears to have included numer us tribes in southwestern Texas and iu Mexico. ... A few Indians still survive who speak (me of Iha dialects of this family, and in 188(> .Mr. Gatschet collected vocabularies of two tribes, the Come- crudo and Cotoname, who live on the Rio Grande, at J, as Prictas, State of Tamaulipas." — J. W. Powell, Sunth Annual liept , Bureau of Eth- noliii/j/, p. 08. Coajiro, or Guajira. — "An exceptional posi- tion is taken, in many respects, by the Coajiro, or Guajii'a, who live on the peninsula of the same name on the northwestern boundary of Venezuela. Bounded on all siiles by so-called civilized [)eoples, this Indian tribe is known to have maintained its indcpcnileiice, and acquired the well-deserved reputation for cruelty, a tribe which, in many respects, can be classed with the A])aclies and t'oinanchcs of New Mexico, the Aiaucani.uis of Chili, and the Guaycara and Giiaraiii on the Parana. The Coajiro are mostly large, with chestnut-brown complexion and black, sleek hair. While all the other eoast tribes have adojited the Spanish language, the Coajiro lii!"e preserved their own speech. They are the especial foes of the other peoples. No one is given entrance into their land, and they live with their neighbors, the Venezuelans, in constant hostilities. They have fine horses, which they ki tv how to ride excellently. . . . They have m;. _; rous herds of cattle. . . . They follow agriculture a little." — 7'he Standard AV;(- ural Ifistorn (J. S. KinijHky, «/.), r. fl, p. 243. Cochibo. See above: Andesians. Cochiquima. See above: Andesians. Coco Group, See below: QiicK oil Coco (iH"ll". Coconooiis. Sec below: Mauipohan Family. Cofan, See above; Andbhianh. 84 AMEIUCAX A;'J0KIGINE8. AMKUICAN AI10UIGINE8. ColUs. Sco Pkuu. Comanohe^^. Scf .jclow: Siiosiionean Fam- ily, aud Klu,.AN Famii-y; mid iibovu: Al'Afllli Giioi r. Conestogas. See below: Sl'squeiiannas. Conibo. .See above: Andkhians. | Conoys. See above: Aiaioscjuian Family. | Copehan Family. — "The territory of the Cope- | liiiri fiiiiiily is bouiiiled on the north by Mount ■ Sli:ist;i and I lie territory of the Sustean and Lutu- ;iiuian families, on tlie east l)y the territory of the Paluihnihan, Yanan, and Punjunaii families, and on the south by the bays of San Pablo and Suisiiii and the lower waters of the Sacramento." ! — J. W. Powell, Scirnth Ann mil liept., Bureau of Ethii(>liiii!i, j). (ii). Costanoan Family. — "Derivation: From tho Spanish eostano, ' eo.islinen. ' Under this group name Latham included live tr s . . . wliieli were luuler the supervision of t" iission Dolores. . . . The territory of tlie Cos .noan family ex- tends from the Golden Gate to a point near the .southern end of Jlonterey Hay. . . . The surviv- ing Indians of the once populous tribes of this family are now scattered over several counties and probably tlo not number, uU told, over iiO individuals, as was ascertained by Mr. Ilenshaw iu 1MS8. Most of these are to be found near the towns of Santa Cruz ami Monterey." — J. W. Powell, Sei^enth Annual litpt., Bureau, of Eth- iiuliKjii, p. 71 . Creek Confederacy. — Creek Wars. See below: MusiiiiouiiAN Family; also United States of Am.: A. D. 1813-1814 (August— Ai'Uil); andFLOuiDA: A. D. 1810-1818. Crees. See above : Aloo.nquiax Family. Cr- \tdns. See America: A. D. 1587-1590. Crows (Upsarokas, or Absarokas). See below: SiouAN Family. Cuatos. See below: Pampas TitiuES. Cunimare. See below: Guck oil Coco Giioci'. Cuyriri or Kiriri. See beiow : Guck ou Coco Giioii'. Dakotas, or Dacotahs, or Dahcotas. See below : SiouA.N Family and Pawnee (Cauuoan) Family. Delawares, or Lenape. — "The proper name of the Delaware Indians was and is Leniipu (ii as in father, e as a in mate). . . . The Lenape were divided into three sub-tribes: — 1. Tiie .Miiisi, Mouseys, Montheys, Munsees, or Jlini- .siiiks. 2. The Unami or Wonameys. i3. The I'nalachtigo. No explanation of these designa- tions will be found in Ileckowelder or tho older writers. From investigations among living Dela- wares, carried out at my request by Mr. Horatio Hale, it is evident that they are wholly geo- grapiiical, and refer to the location of these sub- tribes on the Delaware river. . . . The Jlinsi liv(Hl in the moiintainous region at tho head waters of the Delaware, above the Forks or junction of iIk- Lehigh river, . . . The Uuamis' territory on the right bank of the Delaware river e.xtended from the Lehigh Valley southward. It. was with them tuid their soiuheru neighbors, th(! I'nalachtigcs, that Pitnn dealt for the land ceded to him in the Indian deed of 1082. The Minsis did not take part in the transaction, and It was not until t7:i7 that tlu^ Colonial authorities treated directly with the latter for the cession of their territory. The Uualaehtigo or Turkey totciin had its principal .seat ou the aiUueuts of the Delaware near where Wilmington now stands." — D. O. Brinton, The Lenajte and Their Ixi/ends, eh. 3. — "At the . . . time when William Penn landed in Pennsylvania, the Delawares had been subju- gated and madi! women by the Five Nations. It is well known that, according to that Indian mode of expression, the Delawares were henceforth prohibited from making war, and placed under the sovereignty of the conquerors, who did not even allow sales of land, in the actual itossession of the Delawares, to be valid widiout their appro- b:iti(jn. AVMlliani Penn, his descendants, and the Stale of Pennsylvania, accordingly, alwiiys i)ur- chased the right of po.s.session from the Delawares, and that of Sovereignty from the Five NatioiLs. . . . The use of arms, though from very differ- ent causes, was equally pro.hibited to the Dela- wares and to the Quakers. Thus the coloniza- tion of Pennsylvania ami of West New .Jersey by the I5riti.sh, comniene(Ml under tl:>' most favorable auspices. Peace and the utmost harmony i)rc- viuled for more thai si.xty ye.'irs betweci the whites and the Indians; for the.se were for the first time treated, not only justly, but kindly, by tho colonists. Hut, however gradually and peaceably their lands might have been purchased, tho Delawares found themselvi^s at last in the.same situation as all the other Indians, without lauds of their own, and therefore without means of suljsistcnce. They were compelled to seek refuge on the waters of the Su.s(iuelianna, as tenants at will, ou lands belonging to their hated conquerors, the Five Nations. Kven there and on the Juniata they were encroached upon. . . . Under those circumstapces, many of the Dela- wares determined to remove west of tho Alle- ghany Jlounlains, and, about the j'ear 1740-50, obtained from their ancient allies and uncles, the Wyandots, the grant of a derelict tract of land lying principally <iu the Muskingum. The great body of the nation was still attached to Peunsyl- vaiiia. But the grounds of complaint increased. The Delawares were encouraged by tho western tribes, and by the French, to shako off tho yoke of the Six Nations, and to join iu the war against their allies, tho British. Tlie iro;itier settlements of Pennsylvania were accordi'igly attacked both by the Delawares and the bl.:iwnoes. And, although peace was made with vliem at Easton in in 1758, and the coucjucst of (;au.i.la put an end to the general war, both tho Sliawuoes and Dela- ware , removed altogether iu 170^j beyond the Alleghany Mountains. ; . . The years 1705-1795 are the true period of the i« •."cr and importance of the Delawares. United with the Shawiiocs, who were settled on the Scioto, they sustained during the Seven Years' War the declining power of France, and arrested for some years the pro- gress of the Briti.sh and American arms. Although a portion of the nation adhered to the Amerieans during the War of Independence, the main body, together with all the western nations made common cause with the British. And, after the short truce which followerl the treaty of 17o*!t, they were again at the head of the western confederacy in tiieir last struggle for indepen- dence. Placed by their geographical situation in the front of battle, they were, during those three wars, the aggressors, and, to the last moment, the most active and formidable enemies of America. The decisive victory of General Wayne (1794), dissolved the confederacy ; and the Delawares were tho greatest sufferers by the 85 AMEUICAN AUORIOINES. a:«eiuc'ax aboijigines. trciity of (irc'cnvillp of IT!)")." After this, the ^rrciitrr |iait (if the Dclaniircs were si'ttU'd on White I{iver, liidiaim, "till tlieyear 1819, when they linnlly ceiled llieir clai.n to tlic United Slates. TlVisc residing there were tlien reilueed to alHiut H0() souls. A nuniher . . . liad pre vioiisly removed to Cnnadii ; nnd it is dillicult to aseerti'iin IIk' situation or numhers of the residue at tills time [IWitl]. 'I'liose «lio have lately removed west of the Mississippi are. In an esti- mate of the War Department, eom|iuted at 4lK> soids. Former einijtratlons to that (|uarter liad however 'aken ida<e, and several snnill dispersed hands are, it is l)elleve<l, tniited witli the f^eneeas anil some other trihes." — A. Gallatin, Si/iioiisik of till' liiiliiiii 'J'filiiii (.[rf/(ii(ili)f/i(i Aiiirrieiiini, c. 2), iiitroil.. Kii't. "J. — See, ahovc: Al.(i<>X(jl'IAN F.\M- u.v; helow: Sii.wanksic, and P.wvnki-: (C.M)- IMl.VN) K.\MII.V. — Also, I'oNTIAC's 'W.Ml; r.MTKl) Htati:sok Am. : A. I). ]T(i.")-17fl8; and Mohavian 1{iiktiiui;n; nnd, for an aeeount of "Lord Dun- niore's War, " see Ohio (\'ai-i.i;y); A D. 1?74. Eries. See l)elow- lIinioNs, &c, and Iiio- tiiois C'oNFi-;Di;uAev: TiiKiu Conijuests, &c. Eslcimauan Family. — "Save a slight inter- nii.'cture of European settlers, the Eskimo are tlie onlylnhabltanlsof the shores of Arctic Amer- ie.i, and of both sides of D.vvis Strait and Haf- fin Hay, iucludlii); Greenland, as well as n tract of about 400 niile.s on the Bchring Strait coast of Asia. Southward they extend ns fur as about no' N. L. on the eastern side, (ilP on the west- ern side of America, and from ri.>° to 00^ on the shores of Hudson Hay. Only on the west the Eskimo near their frontier arc interrupted (m two small spots of the coa.st by the Indians, named Kennayans and Ugalenzes, who have there advanced to the scasliore for the sake of Ashing. These coasts ot Arctic America, of course, also comiirlse all the surrounding islands. Of these, the Aleutian Islands form an excep- tional group; the inhabitants of these on the one hand (listiuctly dillering from the coast people hero mentioned, while on the other they show a closer relationship to the Eskimo than any other nation. The Aleutians, therefore, may be cou- sidereil as only an abnormal branch of the Eskimo nation. ... As regards their northern limils, the Eskimo ]ieople, or at least remains of their habitations, have been found nearly as far north as any Arctic explorers have hitherto advanced; and very possibly bands of them may live still farther to the north, ns yet iiuite unknown to lis. ... On comparing the Eskimo with the neighbouring nations, their physical complexion certaiidy seems to point at an Asiatic origin; hut, as far as we know, the latest investigations have also shown a tran- sitional link to exist between the Eskimo nnd the otliT American nations, which would suf- liciently indicate the possibility of a common origin from the same continent As to their mode of life, the Eskimo decidedly resemble their American neighbours. . . . With regard to their language, the Eskimo also appear nkin to the American nations in regard to its decidedly polysynthetic structure. Here, liowever, on the other hand, we meet with some very remarkable similarities between the Eskimo idiom and the language of Siberia, belonging to the Altaic or Finnish group. . . . According to the Sagas of the Icelanders, they were already met with on the east coast of Gwenlaud about the year lOOO, • Bee Note, Appendix E. |^ mill almost at the .same time on the east const of the American continent. . . . Between the years 1000 and i;(0(l they do not seem to have occupied the land south of 05^ N. L. on the west const of Greenland, where the Scandinavian colonies were then situated. But the colonists seem to have been aware of their existence in higher latitudes, and to have lived in fear of an attack by them, since, in the year 1206, an expedition was sent out for the purpose of exploring the abodes of the Skrajlings, as they were called bv the colonists. . . . About the year 14.)0, the last accounts were received from the colonies, and the way to Greenland was entirely forgotten in the mother country. . . . The features of the natives in the Southern pnrt of Greenland indicate a mixed descent from the Scanilinavians and Eskimo, the former, how- ever, not having left the slightest sign ot any inlluence on the nationality or culture of the present natives. In the year 138.5, OroeMland was discovered anew by John Davis, and found inhabited exclusively by Eskimo." — II. Rink, J'dli'H ami Tiutditions of the Bukimo, iutrod. atuC eh. 0. — The same, 'I'/ie. Enkiino tribes. — "In 1809, I proposed for tlie Aleuts and people of Innuit stock collectively the term Oiarians, as indicative of their coastwise distribution, and as supplying the need of a general term to designate a. very welldefiucd race. . . . The Orarians are divided into two well-marked groups, namely the Innuits, comjirising all the so-called Eskimo and Tnskis, and the Aleuts. "— W. II. Doll, Tribes of the Extreme Nurthiccst (Ointrib. to N. A. Eth- iiitlof/!/, i: 1\ pt. 1. Esselenian Family. — "The present family was iiiduded by Latham in the heterogeneous group called by him Salinas. . . . The term Salinan [is now] restricted to the San Antonio and San Miguel languages, leaving the present family . . . [to he] called Esselenian, from the name of the single tribe Esseleu, of which it is (•omposed. . . . The tribe or tribes composing this family occupied a narrow strip ot the C'ah- fornia coast from .Monterey Bay south to the vicinity of the Santa Lucia Mountain, a distance of about 50 miles." — J. W. Powell, iieveiith Aii- iiiKil liipt.. liiinau of Ethnoloffj/, pp. 75-70. Etchemins. See above : Ai.oo.NCiUiAN Family. Eurocs, or Yuroks. See below: Modocs, &c. Five Nations. Sec below: luoijuois Con- Fi;i)i:UA(Y, Flatheads (Salishan Family).^" The name Flathead was commonly given to the Choctaws, though, says Du Pratz, lie .saw no reason why they should bo so distinguished, when the prac- tice of llattening the head was so general. And in the enumeration just cited [Documentary Hist, of N. Y., v. 1, p. 24] the ne.\t paragrai)h ... is: ' The Flathi'ads, Cherakis, Cliicachas, and Totiris are included under the n,>ine of 'Flatheads by the Iroquois." — M. F. Force, Some Edrly yutices of the Iiuliaiis of Ohio, p. 32. — "The Salish . . . are distinctively known as Flatheads, though the custom of deforming the cranium is not confined tolhcin." — D. O. Brinton, The Ameri- ciin liiiec, p. 107. — "In . . . early times the hunters and trappers could not discover why the Blackfeet and Flatheads [of Montana] re- ceived their respective designation.s, for the feet of the former are no more inclined to sable than any other part of the body, while the heads of the latter possess their fair proportion of AMEIUCAN ABOUiaiNES. AMEHK'AX AHOUIGIXES. nitumlity. Imk'i'd it is only below the falls and ra|)iils tlmt roal Flathcads appear, and at the niiiiitli (if the Columbia that they llourish most siipernaturally. The tribes who pnieliee thi- eiistdin of tlattcniiii; the head, and who lived at the mouth of the Columbia, dilfered little from caeh other in laws, manners or euslonis, and were composed of the Cathlamahs, Killmueks, Clat- sops, Chinooks and Chilts. The abominalile CMstiim of flattening their heads prevails amoni^ lliem all."— P. Honiin, JM. Skcteh of the. Fliit- Imitl Iiidiou Kiitioii, j). IT. — In >lajor Powell's linguistic classification, the " Sulishan Familv " (Flathead) is given a distinct jilace.— J. \V. Powell, tltnnt/t AniiiKil liept. of the Biimin of Elhuoloijy. p. 103. Fox Indians. See above: Ai.ooNQfiAN F.\Mii.y, and below, S.\cs Ac. — For an account of the massacre of Fox Indiansat Detroit in 1713, see Can.\da (New Fhance): A. I). 1T11-I7i;i. —For nn account of the Black Ilawk War, see Illinois: A. D. 1833. Fuegians. See below: P.\TA0ONiANg. Gausarapos or Guuchies. Sec below: Pam- pas TltlllKS. Ges Tribes. Sec below: Ttin. — Qiiauani. — Tltuyas. Gros Ventres (Minnetaree ; Hidatsa).* Sec below: HiDATSA; also, above: Ai.uoNquiAN Family. Guaicarus. Sec below : Pampas Tkiues. Guajira. Sec above: Coa,iii(o. Guanas. Sec below: Pampas TitiisEs. Guarani. Sec below : Ti pi. Guayanas. Sec below : Pampas Tkiiieb. Guck or Coco Group. — An extensive linguistic gn>i pof tribes in Brazil, on and north of the Ama- zon, extending as far as the Orinoco, has been called the Guek, or Coco group. ' There is no common name for the group, that here used meaning a father's brother, ii very inijiortant iier- soiiage in these tribes. The Gu. k group em- braces a large number of tribes. . . . We need enumerate but few. The Cuyriri or Kiri:' (also known as Sabaja, Pimenteifas, etc.), number aDout 3,000. Some of them are half civilized, some are wild, and, without restraint, wander ahmU, csiK'cially in the mountains in the Prov. iiice of Pernambuco. The Araicu live on tin lower Amazon and the Toeantins. Xext come the .Manaos, who have a prospect of nuiintaining tli< mselves longer than most tribes. With them i.s connected the legend of the golden lord who washed dm gold dust from his limbs in a lake [see Ya. DouiDo]. . . . The Uirina, Bare, and C'ariay live on tlie Hio Negro, the Cunimare on the .hirua, the JIaranha on the .lutay. AVhethcr the Chamicoco on the right bank of the Paraguay, belong to the Guck is uncertiun. Among the trilies which, though very much mixed, are still to be enumerated with the Guek, are the Tecuna and the Passe. In language the Teeunas show many similarities to the Ges; they live on the «e>lc'rn borders of Brazil, and extend in Ecpiador tci ihe Pasta(,'a. Among them occur iieculiar niiisnues which strongly recall those found on the northwest coast of North America. ... In the same district belong the Uaupe, who are no- ticeable from the fact that they live in barracks, indeed the only tribe in South America in which this cust(mi appears. The communistic houses »f the Uaupc are called ' malloca ; ' they arc build- ings of about 130 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 30 hiirh, in which live a band of about 100 persons in 13 families, each of the latter, however, in it.s own room. . . . Finally, complex tribes of the most ditl'ercnt nalionality are comprehended under names which indicate oidy a eonmion w:iy of life, but are also incorrectly used as elhno- giaphic names. These are I'aripuna, .Alura, and .Miranlia, all of whom live in the neighborhood of the Madeira Hiver. Of the Caripuna or tIailn-Avri (both terms sigiufy ' watermen'), who are mixed with (^uieliua blood, it is related that they not only ate human llesh, but even cured it for preservation. . . . Formerly the .Miira . . . were greatly fean'd; this once powerful and populous tribe, however, was almost entirely destroyed at the end of the last centiuy by the Jluiidruco; the remnant is scattered. . . . The JIurn arc the gypsies among the Indians on the Amaz(m; and by all the other tribes they are regarded with a certain degree of contempt as ])ariahs. . . . Much to be feared, even among the Indians, are also the Jliranha (i. e., rovers, vaga- bonds), a still populous tribe on the right bank of the Japura, who seem to know nothing but war, robbery, murder, and man hunting." — 2'he SUtmliinl yoturnl llhtory (J. S. Kingsley, ed.), V. 6, pp. 245-348. Also in F Keller, The Ammon and Madeira Rivers, eh ^aiidli. — II. W. Bates, A Niituralist on the Hirer Amaions, eh. 7-13. Guuchies. See below: Pampas TninF.s. Haclcinsacks. See above : Aloonc^uian Family. Haidas. See below: Sicittaof.tan Family. Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Grosventres?— "The llidat.sa, ^Miniiotaree, or Grosventre In- dians, are one of the three tribes which iit pres- ent inhabit the permanent village at Fort Ber- thold, Dakota T( rrilory, and hunt on the waters of the Upper Missnuri and Yellowstone Rivers in .Northwestern Dakota and Eastern .Montana. The history of this tribe is . . . intimately C(m- iiceted with that of the iioliticallv allied tribes of the Aricarccs and Maudans." The name, Gros- ventres, was given to Ihe j.eople of this tribe " by the early French and Canadian adventurers. The same name was applieil also to a tribe, tottdly distinct from these in language and (>rigin, which lives some hundreds of miles west of Fort Bert hold; and the two nations are now distinguished from one another as Grosvcntres of the Missouri and Grosventres of the Prairie. . . . Edward Unifreville, who traded on the Saskatche- wan Kiver from 1784 to 1787, . . . remarks: . . . ' They [the Canadian French] call them Grosventres, or Big-Bellies; and without any reason, as they are as comely and as well made as any tribe whatever.'. . . In thc^ work.s of many travellers they are culled Minnctarees, a name which is spelled in various ways. , . . This, although a Hidatsa word, is the name ap- plied to them, not by themselves, but by the JIandans; it signifies 'to cross the water,' or ' they crossed the w.'iter. '. . . Hidatsa was the name of the village on Knife Hiver farthest fror the Missouri, the village of those whom .jcwis and C'larke ccmsidered the Minnetarees proper." It is the name "now gen- erally used by this peop'" to designate them- selves." — W. Matthews, .thnogriiphji and Phil- ology of the Ilidatna Indiana, pt. 1-3 (U. S. Gcolofj, and Geo;/. 8nrvey, /■'. V ITayden, Min. Pub., Ko. 7).— Sec also, below: biouA.N Family. * See Note, Appendix E. 87 AMEUICAN AB(^rUGINE9. AMERICAN AHOUIGINES. Hitchitis. S«! Mow: Muskhooean Family. Horikans.— Xorlli iif tlic M((hcKaiii<. who oc ciipii'il llii' rust liiinU lit' till' liiiilsdri Hivcr opposilc Alliiiiiy, iinil covcriiii,' the picsciil conn- tics (if ('iiliiinliiii mill Wriissclacr, dwelt tlio Al- >;i)iikiii liilii' of Horikans, "wjinsc liiiiitin}; ({riiiimU appi'ur to Imvi; cxtcMilrd from the watt'is of llic Coiilircticut, across llio Orccii Mountains, to the borili is of thai licaiillfiil lake liianicil Ijikc (Jci)rj;c hy the too loyal Sir Wil- liam .I:iliiisonl which "tnifjht now well hear their sonorous name." — J, H, Urodheiid, Hint. of th, Sl.it, „f .V, )',, /). 77. Huamaboya. See ahove; Andksians. Huancas. See l'i;m'. Huastecs. See hclow: Mayas. Huecos, or Wacos. See helow: Pawnee (Cadiida.n) Family. Humas, or Oumas, See helow: Mubkuo- <ikan Family. Hupas.* See helow: MoDiiis, A;( . Hurons, or Wyandots. — Neutral Nation. — Eries. — "The peninsula helweeu the Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario was occupied hy two (listiuut peoples, s|)eaking dialects of the Iro- <iui)is lonRUe. The Hiu'onsor Wyandots, includ- ing the trihe called hy the French the Dionondii- dies, or Tohaeco Nation, dwelt among the forests which hordcred the eastern shores of the fresh water sea to which they liavu left their name; wliile the Neutral Nation, so called from their neutrality in the war between the llurons and the Five Nations, inh;il)ited tlie northern wliores of Lake Eric, and even extended their oastern Hank acro.ss the strait of Niagara. The population of the Hurons has been variou.sly staled at from lO.OItO to aO,000 souls, but proba- bly did not exceed the former estimate. The Franciscans and the .Jesuits were early among them, and from their descriptions it is apparent that, in legends, and superstitions, manners and lialiits, religious observances and .social customs, they were closely a.ssimilatcd to tlicir brethren of the Five Nations. . . . Like the Five Nations, the Wyandot, were in .some measure an agricul- tural people; they bartered the surplus products of their maize llelds to surrounding tribes, usually receiving fish in exchange; and this trafllc was so considerable that the Jesuits .styled their country the Granary of the Algonipiins. Their jirosperity wis rudely broken hy the hos- tilities of the Five Is itions; for though the con- tli' ting p::rtie3 were not ill matched in point of ii.nnhers, yet the united counsels and ferocious energies of the confederacy swept all before them. Ill the year Kifl), in the depth of winter, their warriors invaded the country of the Wyan- dots. stormed their largest villages, and involved all within in indiscriminate .slaughter. The sur- vivors tied in panic terror, luid the whole nation was breken and dispersed. Some found refuge among t!ie Fri'iieh of Canada, where, at the village of l.,orette, near Quebec, their descendants still remain; others were incorporated with tlieir comiuerors, wliile others again tied northward, beyond Lake Superior, and sought an asylum among the ••vastcs which bordered on tins uortli- eastcru lauds of tlie Dahcotjih. Driven back hy those fierce bi>o«-h\mters, they ne.xt estjiblished themselves about the outlet of Lake Superior, and the shores; and islands in the uortliern parts of Lake Huron. Tlience, about the year 1880, they descended to Detroit, where they formed u per- * See Note, Appeudix K. 3g innnent settlement, and where, by tlieir superior valor, capacity and address, lliey soon acquired an ascendancy over the surrounding Algoni|uins. The ruin o' 'le Neutral Nation followed close on that of tin .I'yandots, to whom, according to .Jesuit authority, they bore -.i:: e.xact resemblance in character and manners. The Seneeas soju found means to i)ick a iiuairel with them; they were assailed by all the strength of the in.satiablc confederacy, and within a few years their destruction as a nation was complete." — F. I'arkman, ?'A(i (''i/mjiimri/ nf l'<iiif/iii;ch. I. — The same, T/ic Ji«iiitn in So, h Aiiti'ficti, eh. I. — ■'Thellrst in this locality [namely, the western extremity of the Stiite of New York, on and around the site of the city of Buffalo], of whom history makes mention, were the Attiouandar- onk, or Neutral Nation, called Kahkwas by the Seneeas. Tliey had tlieir council-tires along "he Niagara, hut iirincipally on its western side. Their hunting grounds extended from the Gen- esee nearly to the eastern shores of Lake Huron, embracing a wide and important territory. . . . They are first mentioned hy Champlaiu during liis winter visit to the Hurons in 1015 . . . but ho was unable to visit tlieir f-rritory. . . . Tlie peace which this peculiar people had so long maintained with the Iroqu lis was destined to be broken. Some jealousies uid collisions occurred in 1(U7, which culminated in open war in 1650. One of tlie vilhiges of the N:utral Nation, nearest the Seneeas and not far from the site of our city [BulTalo], was captured in the autumn of the latter year, and another the eusuiug spring. So well-directed au'' energetic were the blows of the Irocpiois, that tirj total d-jstruction of the Neutral Nation was speedily accomplished. . . . The survivors were adopteil by their connuerors. ... A long period intervened between the destruction of the Neutral Nation and the per- manent occupation of their country by the Sen- eeas," — which latter event occurred after the expulsion of the Seneeas from the Genesee Valley, hy the expedition under General Sulli- van, "in 1779, during the Hevolutiouarv War. "Tliey never, as a nation, resumed th.'ir ancient seats along the Genesee, but sought and found a new home ou the secluded banks and among the basswood forests of the I)6-syo-wrt, or Buffalo Creek, whence they had driven the Neutral Nation 130 years before. ... It has been as- sumed hy many writers that the Kahkwas and Eries were identical. This is not so. The latter, according to the most reliable authorities, lived .south of the western extremity of Lake Erie until they were destroyed by the Iroquois in 1055. The Kahkwas "were exterminated by them as early as 1051. Ou Coronelli's map, published in 1CW8, one of the villages of the latter, called ' Kahouagoga, a destroyed nation," is located at or near the site of Buffalo." — O. II. Marshall, The yiiKjuni Frontier, pp. 5-8, unci ' foot-note. — "Westward of the Neutrals, along the Southeastern shores of Lake Erie, and stretch- ing as far east as the Genesee river, lay the country of tlie Eries, or, as they were denomi- nated "by the Jesuits, ' Jja Nation Chat,' or Cat Nation, who were also a member of the Hurou- Iro(iuois family. The name of the beautiful lake (m whose margin our city [Buffalo] was cradled is tleir most enduring monument, as Lake Huron js that of the generic stock. They were called Jiu Cat Nation either because that AMEHICAN AIJOUIGIXES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. inlcri'stlnp but mischievous nniinnl, tlm raccoon, wliirli th(^ holy fiitlicrs rrroiR'i^.isly chisscd in till' Iclinc f,'<'"><i Wiis the tolcin of tlirir k'lidiiiif <l!m. or sc])t, or in consniiicnci' of the iilmndiincc of that iiianiniul whhin tluir territory. " — \V. ('. liryaiit, Intinxtinn Airliitflnijiciil Slmliai i,i tiiiil iihiiil hiiffohi, p. li.— Mr. Schook'inft cither iduntilit's or confwsfs the Erics and tin; Xcntral Nation.— II. U. Sclioolcnifl, SMc/i „f t/w. Hist. of l/ii' Andeiit Erim (liifuniiution IIcijm ct i ny (In: tmUun Tri.i'H, }it. 4, ;;. 197). Also in J. G. Shea, Inqiiirieii Itaijwcliii;/ t/if Uf yfiitnil Xation (miiu; pt. 4, ;;, 204).— 1). Wilson, The IIiiivii-InKjiKu'n of (Minida (Tniim. I!,j!/,i/ S(m: of Caiimhi, 1884).— I'. I). Chirko, {Jriijin (tiid fnitlitioitiil Iliat. of tlw Wi/aiiUdtlcK. — \V. Ketchuni, Jlixt. of Jliiffiilo, v. 1, r/i. 1-3.— N. li. Crai;,', 77«,' (Jhkii Time, c. 1, ;;. 225.— Sue Ik'Iow: Iiiocjuois Co.nkedkuacv; also, Can.\d.v (Nkw PliANXE): A. I) 1008-1011; 1011-1010; lfl;t4-l«52; 1040-1700.— See, nlso, 1'onti.vc's Waii, and for an aecount of "Lord Uunniorc's War,". see Ohio (Vali.iov): A. I). 1774. Illinois and Miamis. — "Passing the country of the Lcnapo and tlio Shawanoes, and dcstend- ing the Oliio, tlio traveler would have found its valley cliieth' occupied by two iu;tious, tile I'ianiis or Twighnvees, ou the Wabasli and its Iraneliijs, and the Illinois, who dwelt in the ucigldjorhood of the river to which they have given their name, while jiortious of them ex- tended beyond the Jlississippi. Though never subjugated, as were the Lenape, both the Jliainis and the Illinois were reduced to the last c.vtreniity by the n^peated attacks of the Five Nations; and the Illinoi.s, iu particular, suffered so inueli by these and other wars, that the popu- lation of ten or twelve thousand, ascribed to them by the early French writers, had dwindled, during the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- tury, to a few small villages." — F. Parkman, CoitujiifMi/ of Pontiuc, eh. 1. — See, also, above: Aloomji'ian Family; and below: Sacs, Ac; also C'AXADA (New Fu.unce): A. D. 1009-1087. Incas, or Yncas. See Peuu. Innuits. See above : Eskimauan. lowas. See below : Siol'an Family, and Paw- ni;k. (Caouoan) Family. Iroquois Confederacy.— Iroquoian Family. — " At the outset of tlie 10th Century, when the live tribes or nations of the Inxiuois confederacy first became known to EurOjK^an explorers, tliey were found occupying the \ alleys and uplands of northern New York, in that picturesque and fruitful region whicli stretches westward from the head-waters of the Hudson to the Genesee. The .Mohawks, or Caniciigas — as they sliould properly be called — po.sse.sscd the :Mohawk Hiver, and ccjvered Lake George and Lake Chamiilain witli their flotillas of large canoes, managed with the boldness and skill which, hereditary iu their descendants, make them still tliebest boatmen of the North American rivers. West of the Canien- gas the Oneidas held the small river and lake which liear tlieir name. . , . AVest of the Oneidas, the imperious Onondagas, the central and, iu some re- spects, the ruling nation of the League, possessed the two lakes of Onondaga and Skaneateles, to- gether with the common outlet of this inland lake system, the Oswego River to its issue into Lake Ontario. Still proceeding westward, the lines of trail and river led to the long and winding stretch of Lake Cayuga, about which were clustc'red the towns of the people who gave their name to the l;ike ; and beyond Ihein, over the wide e.vpan.se i>f hills and dales surrounding Lakes Seneca and Caiiandaigua. were scattered the populous vil- lages of the Senecas. more correctly called Sonon- ti>wanas, or Mountaineers. SiU'h were the iinmes and abodes of the alliid nations, members of the far-famed Kanonhiomii, or Leni;ue of I'nileil Households, who were destined to become for a time the most notable and powerful community among the native tribes of North America. The region whicli has been described was not, however, Iheorigiiial seat of those nations. They belonged to that linguistic family which is known to ethnol- ogists as the Huron-Iroi[uois stock. This stock comprised the Ilurons or Wyandots, the Atli- wandaronks or Netitral Nation, the lr<M[Uois, the Erics, the AndastesorCo.iestogas, the Tusearoras and some smaller bunds. The tribes of this family occupied a long irregular area of inland tern- lory, stretching from Canada to North Carolina. The northern nation.s went all clusK'red about the great lakes; the southern bands held the fer- tile valleys bordering the headwaters of the rivers which flowed from the Allegheny moun- tains. The hmguages of all these tribes showed a close allinity. . . . The evidence of language, so far as it has yet been examined, seems to show that the Huron elans were the older menroers of the group; and the clear and i)ositive traditions of all the surviving tribes, Ilurons, Iroijuois, and Tusearora, i)oint to the lower St. Lawrcnc(! as the earliest known abode of their stock. Hero the first explorer, Cartic'r, found Indians of this stock at Iloclielag.. and Stadacone, now the sites of Montreal and (Quebec. ... As their numbers increased, dissensions arose The bi'e swarmed, and band after band moved off to the west and south. As they spread they encountered |)eoplo of other .stocks, with whom they had freiiucnt wars. Their most constant and most dreaded enemies were the tribes of the Algonkiu family, a fierce and restless people (jf northeru origin, who everywhere surrounded them. At one period, however, if the concurrent traditions of both Iro(juois and Algonkins can be believed, these contending races for a time stayed their strife, an<l unilid their forces iu an alliance against a common and formidable foe This foe was the nation, or perhaps the confederacy, of the Alligewi or Talligewi, the .semi-civilized ' .Mound-builders' of the Ohio Valley, who have left their nanu! to the Allegheny river and moun- tains, and wliosi^ vast earthworks are .still, after half-a-centtiry of study, the perjilexity of arclue- ologists. A desperate warfare ensued, which lasted about a hundred years, and ended in the c<miplete overthrow and destruction, or expul- sion, of the Alligewi. The survivors of the con- ([Uered peoi)le fled southward. . . . Tlic time which has elapsed since the overthrow of the Alligewi is variously estimated. The most prob- able conjecture places it at a period about a thousiind years before the present day. It was ajiparently soon after their expulsion that the tribes of the Huron-Irocjuois and the Algonkiu stocks scattered themselves over the wide region south of the Great Lakes, thus left open to their occupancy." — II. Hale, Jiitrud. to Iroquois Book of Jlites. — After the coining of the Europeans into the New World, the French were the first to be involved in hostilities with the IrcKpiois, and their early wars with them produced a hatred §9 AMKI'.ICA.N AHOltlOlNKS. AMKUICAN AIJOIUOINES. wlii( li couUl ncv'-r lie ('.\lin>;ui.sli<(l. IIiiii- the Ellt:liHli were ii'lc to win the alliiincc i>( ,, c Five Niilions, wlicii llicy slriiL't-'lid with Kniiicc! for the riuislcry nf llic' Xoitli Aincricaii ((intiiu'iit, ntiil the V cmid their victory to lh:it iilliaiuo, proh- ably, more than to any oilier single eaiise. Enir- lanil still rdaiiKd thu raitlit'iil rriiiiil>hi|) and alliance of the Iro(|Uoi-; wlicti she came to a HtriiifL'le with her own colonies, and all the tribes except the Oik iilas were in arms ajiainst tlii' Americans in the Uevolulion.iry War. " With the restoration of piiKc the political transactions of till! Leajjiie were substantially closed. This was, in cflect, the termination of their political existence. The jurisdiction of the Tniteil States was extended over tlu'ir anciiiil territories, and from that time forth they became dependent nations. Durinnthe jiro^fress of the Hevobition. the .Molmwks abandoned tlicir country and re- moved to Canada, llnally establishing themselves partly upon Orand Hiver, in thu Xia.nara penin- sula, and jiartly near Kingston, where they now reside upon two reservations secured to them by tlie IJritish govermnent. . . , The Jiolicy of the State of New York [toward the Irocpiois nations] wasever justand humane. Although llieircoiin- Iry, with the exception of that of the O.ieidas, might have been considered as forfeited by tlie event of the Hevolution, yet the govermnent never enforced the rights ()f coiupiest, l)ut ex- tinguished the Indian title to the country by purchase, and treaty stipulations. A jiortion of the Oneida nation [who had sold their lands to the State, from timt to time, excepting one small reservation] emigrated to a reservation on the river Thamesin Canada, where about 40()()f them now [IH'ilJ reside. Another and a larger band removed to tJreeii Hay, in Wisconsin, where they still make their homes to the number of 700. But 11 small part of the ii .lion have remained aroimd the seat of their an' lent coimcil-lire . . . near Oneida Castle, in thi, coiiniy of Oneida." The Onondagas "still r'iaiii their bcautifid and secluded valley of On.vndaga, with sudicieut ter- ritory for their comfortable maintenance. About 150 biKmdagas now reside with the Senecas; another party are established on Grand Kiver, in Canada, anil a few have removed to the west. . . . In the brief space of twelve years after the lirst house of the white man was erected in Cay- uga county (17.Si)) the whole mition [of the Cay- ugas) was uprooted and gone. In 1705, they reded, by treaty, all their lands to the State, with the exception of one reservati(m, which they fin- ally abandoned aoout tlic vear 1800. A portion of them removed to Green i5ay, another to Grand River, and still another, and a iinicli larger band, settled at Sandusky, in Ohio, from w hence they were removed by goverument, ii few years since, hito the Indian territory, west of the ilissis.sippi. About 120 still reside among the Senecas, in west- ern New York. . . . The Tiisearoras, after re- moving from the Oneida territory, tinally located near the Niagara river, in the vicinity o'f Lewis- ton, on a tract given to them by the Senecas. . . . The residue of the Senecas are now shut up within three small rcsirvations, the Tonawanda, the Cattaraugus and the Alleguuy, which, united, would not cover the area of <me of the lesser comitiea of the State." — L. II. Morgan, The Lfitijitc of the Ir'ii/iioia, hk. 1, ch. 1. — "The In- dians of the State of New Y'ork number about 5,000, and occupy lands to the estimated extent peopl( Indiai f H7,OT7 acres. With few exceptions, thoe ire the direct clescendants of the native ians, who otu i' possessed and controlled tlit' soil of the entire State." — liijit. of Sjucidl Com. Ifi Inrmtiiiiilc tin' Indiiiu I'rolilcm of the State of y. y.. 1HH9.— II. If. Schoolcraft, y'oti^on the Iro- i/Koin. — F. I'arkman, 'J'hc ('oiiKj)iiiii\i/ if J'^mtinr, i-h. 1. — C. Coldcn, llUt. <// the Fire ludidii, An- tioiiK. — J. Fiskc, Diaeoeerji (f Ainerieii, eh. 1. — In 1715 the Five Nations of the Inxiuois Con- federacy became Six Nations, by the admission of tlie'l"u.scaroras, from N. Carolina. — See below: Inovirois Tiiim-:s ov Tin-: Sotrit. — On the relationship between the Iro((Uois and the Cher- okees, see above: Ciii;i!(i]C1':ks. Iroquois Confedciacy. — Their Name. — " Tlie origin and proper meaning of the wurd Iroquois are doubtful. All that can be said with cer- tainty is that Ihcexplanation given by Charlevoix cannot possibly be correct. The niime of Ir(i((uois, he says, is purely French, and lias been formed from the term 'hiro,' 'I have spoken,' a word by which these Indians close all their speeches, aial 'koue,' which, when long drawn out, is a cry of sorrow, and when briefly utt<'red is an exclamation of .joy. . . . Hut . . . Cham|)lain had learned the name from his Indian allies before he or any other Frenchman, so far as is known, had ever seen an Iryijuois. It is i)robable that the origin of the word is to besought ill the Huron hiiiguage: yet, as this is similar to the Iroipiois tongue, an attemiit may be made to liiid a solution in the latter. According toUruyas, the word ' garokwa ' meant a pipe, and also a piece of tobacco, — and, in its verbal form, to smoke. This word is found, somewhat disguised by aspirates, in the Book of Hites, — denighroghkwayen, — ' Ictus two .smoke togetlicr.'. . . In the indeterminate form the verb becomes ' ierokwa,' which is certainly very near to Iroquois. It might be rendered ' they who smoke,' or "they who u.se to>acco,'or, bVietiy, 'the Tobacco People. ' This naiie, the Tobacco Nation ('Nation du Petim ') whj given by the French, and ^robablj' also by the ...''ronkhs, to one of the Il'ion tribes, the TionontaKJ, noted for the excellent tobacco wliich they raised and sold. The Iroipiois were eiiually well known for their cultivatiim of this plant, of which they had a choice variety. " — II. Hale, Ivo(juoi.i Book if Rites, <ij)p. , note A. Iroquois Confederacy. — Their conquests and wide dominion. — "The luojcct of a League [among the 'Five Nations' of the Iro- ([UoLsJ originated with the Onondagas, among whom it was lirst suggested, as a means to enable them more ellectually to resist the i)res- siire of contiguous nations. The epoch of its establi.shiiieiil cannot now be decisively ascer- tained; although the circumstances attending its formation are still iireserved by tradition with great minuteness. These traditions all refer to the northern shore of the Onondaga lake, as the pla.e where the Iroquois chiefs assembled in gereral congress, to agree upon the terms and principles of the compact. . . . After the forma- tion of the League, the Irociiiois rose rapidly in power and influence. , . . With the lirst con- sciousness of rising power, they turned their longcherished resentment upon the Adiron- dacks, who had oppressed them in their infancy as a nation, and had expelled them from their country, in the lirst struggle for the ascendancy. 90 AMEIilCAX ABORIGINES. AMEHICAX ABORIGIXES. i 171 ... At the cm of French discovery (15!!.")), tlie hitler iiiilioii [the Adiroiidiieksl iippeiir to hav<' lii'cii dispossessed of their original conntry, and ilriveu down the St. Lawrence as far as (i"ue))ee. ... A new era commenced witli tlie Iro(jiiois iipDii tlie e.stalilislmieut of tlie Dutch tradiug- pii>l at Orange, now Alliaiiy, in 1015. . . . I'ljciidly relations were established between the In.tpiois '.ind the Dutch, wiiieh continued witli- (piit internipt'on until the latter surrendered llieir pos.sessioiis ujioii the Hudson to tlie Eng- lish ill 1004. During tiiis period a trade sprang up between tlie'ii in furs, wliica the Iroipiois ex- eliaiiged for European falir,.-,, but more efi- iicciidly for lirearnis, in ilie use of which they iieic afterwards destined to become so expert. Tile J'.iiglish, in turn, cultivated tlu^ saim^ re'.a- tidiis of friendship. . . . With the iiosse.ssion of lii'earnis coninienced not oiilv the rapid eleva- tiiai, but absolute .supr'inat of the Iroipuiis over other Indian nations. In V'AS, they tx- liclled the Xeiiter Nation i'rom the Niagara pen- insula and established a ]ierinanent settlement at the Mioiilh of that river. They nearly exlerniin- uted, in KmIJ, the Erics, who occupied the south siile of Lake Erie, and from thence east to the Ucnesee, and thus possessed them.selves of the wli(]|e area of western New York, and the nortli- eia jtart of (Jliio. About the year 1070, after tliiy had Ihially completed the dispersion and siilijugation of the AdirondaeUs and llurons, tliey ticcpiired pos.session of the whole country between lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and of till iiorlli bank of the St. Lawrence, to the moiilli of the Ottawa river, near ^Montreal. . . . Thi'V also made constant inioads upon the Ne^w Kiiulaiid Indians. . . . In 1080, the Senecas with (iili) warriors invaded the country of the Illinois, upiiii tlie borders of the iMississippi, while La Salle was among the latter. ... At various times, both before and after this period, the Iro- (jUois turned their warfare against the Cherokees upon the Tennessee, and the Catawbas in South C'anilina. . . . For about a century, from the year lUtlU to the year 1700, the Iroc;\iois were in- volved in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At the elo.se of this period, they hacl subdued and held in maninal subjection all the iiriiieipal Indian na- tions occupying the territories wliich are now eiiibraeed in the states of New York, Delaware, JIaiyland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the north- ern and western parts of Virginia, '^hio, Kcn- tucUy, Northern Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, ilicliigan, a portion of the New England States, and the iirincipal i)art of Upper Canada. Over these nations, the haughty and imperious Iro- tjuois exercised a constant supervision. If any of them became involved in domestic difflculties, a delegation of chiefs went among them and re- stored traiKpiillity, prescribing at the same time their fulure conduct." — L. II. Jlorgan, League of t/ic Iiwjuoin, bk. 1, (•/(. 1. — "Their [the Iroquois's] war-parties roamed over half America, and their iianif was a terror from the Atlantii; to the Mis- .sissippi ; but when we ask the numerical strength of the dreaded confederacy, when we discover that, in the days of their greatest triumphs, their united cantons could not have mustered 4,000 warriors, we stand amazed at the folly and dissension which left so vast a region the i)rey of a handful of bold marauders. Of the cities and villages now so thickly scattered over the lost domain of the Iroquois, a, single one might • See Note, Appendix E. 91 boast a more numerous ])opulati<m than all the live unilcil tribes. " — F. I'arknian, The Connjiir- itejl (if I'liidiar. i-li. 1. Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1608-1700. — Thtir wars with the French. See (.'.vnad.v (Ni;w Fu.\N(e;): A. D. 1008-1011; 1011-1010; 1034-1052; 1040-1700; 1006. Iroquois Confederacy : A. D. 1648-1649. — Their destruction of the Hurons and the Jesuit Missions. See ('.\.nai).k (Ni;\v Fii.VNCE): A, I). V'l !4-105-' ; also, above, HluoNs, Iroquois Confederacy : A. D. 1684-1744.— Surrenders and conveyances to the English. See Ni;v,- Voiti;: A. D. KiSl, and 17-'(i; ViK (;ima: a. D. 1744; Ohio (Vai.i.kv): A. D. 1748- 1754; UxiTKi) Status of A.m. : A. 1). 1705-1708. Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1778-1779. — Their part in the War of the American Revo- lution. See U.NiTKi) States oi' Amkuica; A. 1). 1778 (.luNi;— NovK.Mwsn) and (July); and 1770 (AliasT — SEPTKMnLli). Iroquois Tribes of the South * "The s(Hitliern Iroipiois tribes occupied Ch nvan Hiver audits tributary streams. 'I'hey wire bounded on the east by tlie mo.st southerly Le'.ape tribes, who were in iiossession of the \ .w country along the sea shores, and those of Albemarle ami Pamlico Sounds. Toward.s the south and the west they extended beyond the river Neiise. They appear te have been known in Virginia, in early times, under i'.ie 'ime of Monaeans, as far north as Jaincs Pivi r. . . . Lawson, in his account of the North Cirolina Indians, enumer- ates the Chowans, tm, Meherrins, and the Not- toways, as having together 05 warriors in the vcar 1708. But the .Melierrins or Tuteloes anil the Nottoways inhabited respectively the two rivers of that name, and were principally seated in Virginia. We have but indistinct notices of the Tulcloes. ... It appears by Beverly that the Nottoways had preserved their independence and their'mimbers later Uian the Powhataiis, and that, at the end of the 17th century, they had still 130 warriors. They do not appear to have migrated from their original seats in a body. In the year 18'i0, they are said to have been reduced to 37 souls, aud were stili in possession of 7,000 acres in Southamp'iou county, Virgiuin, which had been at au early date reserved for them. . . . The Ttiscaroras were by far the most l)owerful uatiou in North Carolina, aud occupied all the residue of the territory in that colony, which has been described as inhabited by Iroquois tribes. Their principal seats in 1708 were 0.1 the Nei'se aud the Taw o» Tar rivers, and according to Lawson they had 1,200 warriors in fifteen towns." lu 1711 the Tuscaroras attacked the English colonists, massacring 130 in a single day, aud a tierce war ensued. "In the autumn of 1712, all the inhabitants south and southwest of ChowiMi Uiver were obliged to live iu forts; and the Tuscaroras expected assistance from the Five Nations. This coidd not have been given without involving the confederacy in a war with Great Britain; and the Tuscaroras were left to their own resources. A force, con- sisting chiefly of southern Indians under the command of Colonel Jloore, was again sent by the government of South Carolina to assist the nortliern Colonies. He besieged and took a fort of the Tuscaroras. . . . Of 800 prisoners 000 were given up to the Southern Indians, who carried them to South Carolina to sell them us AMKKICAN ABOUIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 8l:ivc8. The Eastern Tuscnroriis, who<" principal town •as on the Taw, twenty miles above Washinni m, irnniediiitely made (lenee, an<l a portion was settled a few years after north of the Koanoke, near Windsor, where they con- tinued till the year 180:?. But the great body of tlie nation removed in lTll-15 to the Five Nations, was reeeiveil as the Sixtli, and has since sliared their fate."— A. (iallatin. ,Si/ni>piiiii of the Jmlidii 7'nV«a (Airtutohirjia Americana, t. 2), iiilroil., Kt'ct. 'I. Also in .1. W. Moore, IfM. of N. Carolina, r. 1, ch. 13. — See, also, above: luoquois Cos- Fi;iii;n.\cy. ItOCOS. See above: (,'lltllcnAS. Itonamos, or Itonomos. See above: Andk- glANs; also Bolivia: Auoiiloi.VAL lN'iiAHlT.\yT8. Jivara, or Jivaro. See above: Andksianh. kah-kwas. See above: lIiiioNs. Ac. Kalapooian Family.—" Under this family name Scolder ((laces two trdies, the Kalapooian, iiihabitiii},' ' the fertile Willamat jilains' and the Yamkallie, who live 'more in tlie interior, towards the sources of the Willamat River.' . . . The tribes of the Kalapooian family iidiabited the valley of Willamette River, UreROn, above the falls.'' — 1. \V. To well, lien nth Annual liept., UidUitii (if Elhidiliiii,,, p. 81. Kanawhas, or Ganawese. See above: Aloo.mji IAN Tamily. Kansas, or Kaws, See below : SiouAX. Kapohn. See aliove: Cakmis and tiii:iu KlNDHKIV Karankawan Family.— "The Karaid<awa for- merly dwell iii)on the Te.\an coast, accordinj; to Sililey, ujion an island or jKninsida in the Bay of St. Beriiaid (.Matairorda Bay). . . . In 1884 Mr. Gatschet found aTonkaweat Fort Gritlin, Texas, who chimed to have formerly lived among the Karankawa. From hima vocabulary of twenty- live terms was obtained, which was all of the language he remembered. The vocabulary . . . such as it is, represents all of the language that is e.\tant. Judged by this vocabidary the language seems to bo distinct not only from the Attakapa but from all others." — .1. W. Powell, He.vcnth Annual Utpor.t, lluiraii of Ethnoliijn, p. 80. Karoks, or Cahrocs. See below : Modocs. Kaskaskias. See ubovc: Algonquian Fam- ily. Kaus, or Kwokwocd. See below: Kuban Famil.v. Kaws, or Kansas. See below : SIOUAN. Kenai, or Blood Indians,* See above: Black- KHET. Keresan Family. — "The . . . pueblos of Iv'eresan stock . . . are situated in New ilexieo on the upper Kio Grande, on several of its small western atUuents, and on the Jcmez and San Jo.su, which also are tributaries of the Rio Grande." — J. W, Powell, tkMnth Annual Rept., lluri.iu of ElhnoUnjji, p. 8^. — See Pueblo. Kikapoos. See above: Ai,(ioN(jiiiAN Family, and below: Sacs. Ari., and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. Kiowan Family, — "Derivation: From the Kiowa word K6-i, plural Ko-igu, meaning ' Kayowe man.' The Comanche term kiiyowG means 'rat.' The author who llrsl formally separated this family appears to hav(' been Turner. . . . Ttirner, upon '.he strength of a vocabulary furnisluHl by Lieut. Whipple, dis- iitiuts froiii the opinion expressed by Pike and others to the effect that the language is of the same stock as the Comanche, and. while admitting that its relationship to Comanche is greater than to any other family, thinks that the likeness is merely the result of long intercommunication. His opinion that it is entirely <listinct from any other language has been indorsed by Buscli- mann and other authorities. The family is rep- resented by the Kiowa tribe. So intimately associated with the Comanelies have the Kiowa been since known to history that it is not easy to determine their ])ristine home. . . . Pope deli- nitely locates the Kiowa in the valley of the Upper Arkansas, and of its tributary, the Purga- tory (Las Animas) River. This is in .substantial accord with the statements of other writers of about the same period. Schermerhorn (1812) pl;u:es the Kiowa on the Jic;ids of the Arkansas and Platte. Earlier still they appear upon tlie headwaters of the Platte.' — J. W. Powell, Sfirnth Annual licjurl, ISnreaa of Ethnologi/, p. 84. Kiriri, Cuyriri. See above: Guck ou Coco GitoiTr. Kitunahan Family. — "This family was based upon a tribe variously termed Kitunaha, Kutenay, Cootenai, or Flatbow, living on the Kootenay River, a branch of tlie Columbia in Oregon." — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Itept., Bureau of Kthnoloijij, p. 85. Klamaths. See below : JIoDOca. Koluschan Family. — " Derivation: From the Aleut word kolosh, or more properly, kalu;;a, meaning 'dish,' the allusion being to the dish- shaped lip ornaments. This family was based by Gallatin upon the Koluschcn tribe (the Tshinkitani of .'Marchand), ' who inhabit the islands and the [Pacilie] coast from the COth to the 55tli degree of north latitude.'" — J. W. Powell, Seccnth Annual Rept, Ditrcau of Eth- nology, p. 80. kulanapan Family. — "The main territory of the Kuhmapan family is bounded on tlie west by the Pacilie Ocean, on the east by the Yukiau and C!opehan territories, on the north by the watershed of the Russian River, and on the south by a line drawn from Bodega Head to the south'vest corner of the Yukian territory, near Santa Rosa, Sonoma County, California. "—J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Rept., Bureau of Eth- nolofj!/, p. 88, Kusan Family."*—" The ' Kaus or Kwokwoos' tribe is merely mentioned by Hale as living on a river of tlie sanK! name between the Unnjua and the Clamet." — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Rept., Hurcau of JJthnoloffi/, p. 89. Kwokwoos. See above : Kusan Family. Lenape. See above: Delawahes. Machicuis. Sec below : Pampas Tuibes. Macushi, See above: Caiiibb and theiu KiNDUED. Manaos. See above: GucK ou Coco QuoUP. Mandans, or Mandanes. See below : Biouan Family, Manhattans. See above : Alooncjuian Fam- ily, and, also, Manhattan Island. Manioto, or Mayno. See above: Andesians. Mapochins. See Chile: A. D. 1450-1724. Maranha. See above: Guck oh Coco Guotii". Maricopas, See below : Pueblos. Mariposan Family. — " Derivation: A Spanish word meuuiug ' buttcrlly,' applied tu a county iu * See Note, Appendix E. 93 AMERICAN ABOUIGINES. AMERICAN ABOUIGINES. Ciiliforiiia iiiid siibspquciitly taken for the family name. Lntliiini mentions tlio reMiniints of three (lislinet bunds of the C^oconooii, eaeli with its own lanfinage, in the north of Mariposa County. Tliese are classed together under the above name. More recently the tribes speaking lanjiuages allied to the CoeonTin have been treated of under the family name Yokut. As, however, the stock was established by liathamon a sound basis, his name is here restored." — J. \V. I'owell, ty.Fcnth Annual Jlept,, Burcm of Eth- ""/",'/.'/. ;'■ fO- Mascoutins, or Mascontens. See below: 8a(S, iV:('. Massachusetts. ' See abo\e; Ai.gonquian Family. Mataguayas. See Bolivia: Ahoiugixal in- HAIllTANrS. Mayas. — "In his second voyage, Columb\is heard vague rumors of a mainland westward from Jamaica and Cuba, at a distance of ten days' journey in a canoe. . . . During his fourth voy- age (ir)()3-4), when he was exploring the Gulf southwest from Cuba, he picked \ip a canoe laden with cotton clothing variously dyed. The natives in it gave him to understand that tOey were merchants, and came from a land called Maia. This is the lirst mention in history of the territory now called Yucatan, and of the race of the .Mayas; for although a i)rovince of similar name was found in the we.stern extremity of the island of Cuba, the similarity was accidental, as the evidence is conclusive that no colony of the Mayas was found on the Antilles. . . . Maya was the patrial name of the natives of Yucatan. It was the proper name of the northern portion of the peninsula. No single province bore it at the date of the Conquest, and probably it had been handed down as a generic term from the period, about a century before, when this whole district ^,■as united under one government. . . . Whatev^.r the primitive meaning and lirst appli- cation of the name Maya, it is now \ised to signify speeilieally the aborigines of Yucatan. In a more extended sense, in the expression ' the Maya family,' it is understood to embrace all tribes, wherever found, who speak related dialects pre- sumably derived from the .same ancient stock as the Maya proper. . . . The total number of Indians ;)f pure blood speaking the JIaya proper may be estimated as nearly or (iuitc2()t),000, most of them in the political limits of the department of Vueatan; to these should be added nearly 100,000 of mixed blood, or of European descent, who use the t(mgue in daily life. For it forms one of the rare examples of American languages possessing vitality enough not only to maintain its groimd, but actuu.iy to force itself on Euro- pean settlers and supplant their naiive speech. . . . The Mayas did no' claim to be autoch- thones. Their legends referred to their arrival by llie sea from the East, in remote times, under the leadersliip of Itzamna, their hero-god, and also to a less numerous immigration from the West, which was coimected with the history of another liero-g(«i, Kukul V&n. The lirst of these appears to be wholly mythical. . . . The second tradition deserves more attention from the his- torian. ... It cannot bo denied that the JIayas, the Kiehes [or Qui'dies] and the Cakchiquels, in their most venerable traditions, claimed to have migrated from tlie north or west from some part of the prc80Dt country of Mexico. These tra- ditions receive additional importance from tiic presence on the shores of the Jlexiean Gulf, on the waters of the river Panuco, north of Vera (^ruz, of a pronnnent branch of the Maya family, the lluastecs. The idea suggests itself that these were the rear-gmu'd of a great migration of the Maya family from the north toward the south. Support is given to this by tli> dialect, wliich is most closely akin to that of the . ^endals of Taba.sco, the nearest Maya race totlu- outhof them, and also by very ancient traditions of the Aztecs. It is noteworthy that these t wo partially civilized races, the .Mayas and the Aztecs, though dilfering radically in language, had legends which claimed a comnuinity of origin in some indelinitely remote past. We find these on the Maya si<le narrated in the sacred book of the Kiehes, the Poiiol Vuh. in tlie Cakcbiipiel 'Records of Tecjian Atillan,' and in various l)urc .Maya .sources. . . . Theannalsof the Aztecs contain i'reiiiient allusions to the lluastecs." — D. G. Brinton, The .^fdi/ii dhn/iiiclen, introd. — " Closely cnvc^loped in the dense forests of Chia- pas, Gautemala, Yucatan, and Honduras, tho ruins of several anc'.ent cities have been discov- ered, which are far superior in extent and mng- nillcence to any seen in Az*ec territory, and of which a delailed description may be found in the fointh volume of this work. .Most of tluse cities were abandoned and more or less unknown at the time of the [Spanish] Con<(Uest. They bear hieroglyiihic iuscrii)lions apparently identical in character; in other respects they resend)le each other more than they resemble the Azt 'c ruins — or even other and apparently later works in Guatennda and Honduras. All these remains bear evident marks of great antiquity. ... I deem the groimds sullieient . . . lor accepting this Ceutr.il American civilizati<in of the past as a fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient race, but to the direct ancestors of the Jieoples still occupvlng the country with the Spaniards, and applying to it the name JIaya as that of the lan- guage which has claims as strong as any to lie considered the mother tcmgue of the linginstic fanuly mentioned. . . . There are no data by which to lix the period of the original JMaya empire, or its downfall or breaking up into rival factions by civil and foreign wars. The cities of Yucatan, as is clearly shown by Jlr. Stephens, were, many of them, oceupit<l by the des'jcnd- ants of the biulders <lown t'^ the conquest, and contain some renmaritsof woc^l-work still in good preservation, although some of the structures appear to be built on the ruins of others of a somewhat dilTerent type. Palenque and Cojian, on the contrary, have no traces of wood or other perishable material, and were . iinhabited and probably unknown in the Kit'i ceutury. The loss of the key to what nv ■ have lieen an advanced system of hieroglyphics, wliile the spoken language survive<l, is also an indication of great antiquity, conllrmed by the fact that the tiuiche structures of Gmitemala differed materi- ally from those of the more ancient epoch. It is not likely that the .Maya empire in its integrity contintncl later than tlie ;!(i or 4th century, although its cities may have been inhabited much later, and I should tix the epoch of its highest power at a date i)receding rather than following the Christian era. "—II. H. Bancroft, A'<(^'(v Uaet* of the "tiHJic t<tates, v. 2, ch. 'i; v. 4, ch. 8-0/ «. 5, rA. 11-13. 98 AMERICAN ABOKIGIXES. AMEHICAN AB0HIG1NE9. Also ix Marquis dp Nnclaillac, PnhiMorle Aiiiericii. rh. (1-7. — .1. J.. Stephens, IncuUitts of Trdiiiia YnntUni; tiitd 'J'nirH in Ci ntriilAmtrica, ilr. — 13. y\. \i)riii;iii, UainhUs in Yiimtiiii. — D. Cliariiay, Anricut Citim of the Nfir M'oHd. — Sec, also, ".Mexico: Ancient, and Aztec A^•D M.W.V I'lCTniE-WuITINd. Mayoruna, or Barbudo. See above : Ande- SI.\NS. Menominees. Seeabove: Aloonqcian Fam- ily, ami Sa( s, Arc. Mctoacs. Sec above: Ai.oonquian Family. Miamis, orTwightwees. Sec above: Aloon- tji lA.N Family, Ii.i.i.nois, and Sacs, Ac. Micmacs. See above: Ai.c,<iN(iriAX Family. Mingoes. — " The name of .Minjro, or ^lenirwe. by vliieli Ihe Iroquois were known to the Dela- w'ares and Ihe oilier southern Algonkin.s, is said to bo a eoiitraetion ot Ihe Leiiape word ' ^la- hoiigwi,' ineaninjr the 'Peopli! of the Sprinjjs.' The Iroquois po.sses.sed the head-waters of Ihe rivers wliieh lloweil throufih the eountry of the Delawares." — II. Hale, 'I'lie. Ir>i(jiii>ia Ihok of Jiitis. iipiK, Holt' .1. Minneconjou. See below: SiofAN Family. Minnetarees.* See above: IIid.vtsa; and below; SiotAN Family. Minquas. See below: Scscjcehanxas; and above: Ai.o(iN(;riAN Family. Minsis, Munsees, or Minisinks. See above: Di;i.AWAiii:s, and Ai iioNtjcjAN Favii.y. Miranha. See above: GccK ok CocoGitour. Missouris. See below: Siovan Family. T^ixes. See below: Zapotecs, etc. Mixtccs. See below : Zatotecs. etc. Mocovis. .Sec below : Pami'\s TluuEs, Modocs (Klamaths) , and their California ..d Oregon neighbors.— "The piineipal tribes oecujiviiig Ibis region [of Northern California i from l{o,i;ue Uiver on the uorlh to the Eel Hiver. i south] are Ihe Klamaths, who live on the head • waters of llie river and on the shores of the hxkv. { of that name; the Modocs, on Lower Klamath Lake and aloni; Lost Kiver; the Sha.stas, to the I south-west of the Lakes; the Pitt Hiver Indians; the Kuroes, on the Klamath Hiver between AVeitspek and the coast; the Cahroes, on the Klamath Hiver from a short distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Moun- tains; the Iloopahs [or llupas, a tribe of the AthaDafcau Family] in Hoopali Vallev on I' e Trinity near its junction with the Klamatu; nunu'rous tribes on the coast from Kel liiver and Humboldt Bay north, such as the Weeyols, Wallies, Tolewabs, etc., and the Hoguc Kiver Indians, on and about the river of that name. The Northern Califoriuans are in every way superior to the ecniiiil and southern tribes." — H. H. Bancroft. I'/if \,ilirc Rdct's <if the Pacific /S/ij^.", r, 1, (7/. 4. — "On the Klamath there live lliic<' distinct tribes, called the Yiirok, Ka-rok, and -Alo-dok, which names are said to mean, respect iv<'ly, 'down the river,' 'up the river,' and ' head" of the river.' . . . The Karok are probably the llnest tribe in California. . . . lloopa Valley, on the Lower Trinity, is the home of [the Hii-pi'i]. Ne.\t after the" Ka-rok they are Ihe line.st race in all that re;;ion, and they ev(>n excel them in their stateeraft, and in the sinjinlar influence, or jierhaps brute force, which llicy exercise over the vicinal tribes. They ail' the Homans of Northern California in their valor and tlieir wide-reaching dominions; • See Note, Appendix E. 94 they arc the French in the extended diffusion of their languaiie." TheModoks, "on the whol<> . . . are ratlier a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily good-nature(l race, but treacherous nt bottoni, sullen when anirered, notorious for keeping Punic faith. But their bravery nobody can impeach or deny; their heroic and long defense of tlieir stronghold against the appliances of modern civilized warfare, including that arm so awful to savages — the artillery — was almost the onlv feature that lent respectability to their wretched tragedy of the Lava Beds [1873]."— S. Powers, Trilies of California (Coiitribiiiioihi t:i X. A. Ethnology, r. 3), ch. 1, 7, ami 27.— "The home of the Klamath tribe of soulhwcsteru Oregon lies upon the eastern slope of the south- ern extremity of the Cascade Bange, and very nearly coincides with what we may call the I'.ead waters of the Klamath Hiver, the main course of which lies in Northern California. . . . The main seat of the Jlodoc peojile was the valley of Lost Hiver, the shores of 'I'lile and of Little Klamath Lake. . . . The two main bodies forming the Klamath ])eople are (1) the Klamath Lake Indians; (2) the Jlodoc Indian.s. TI;o Klamath Lake Indians number more than twice as many as the Modoc Indians. They speak the northern dialect ami form the nortlieru chief- taincy. . . . The Klamath people possess no historic traditions going further back in time than a century, for the simple reason that there Wiis a .strict law prohibiting the mention of the person or acts of a deceased individual by using liis name. . . . Our present knowledge does not allow us to connect the Klamath language gem .ilogically with any of the other languages compared, but ... it stands as a linguistic family for it.self."— .v. S. Gatschet, The Klamath Iiitliiins (Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, r. 2, jit. 1). — In Major Powell's linguistic classiBca- lion, the Klamath and Modoc dialects are em- braced in a fa.nily called tbe Lutuamian Family, derived from a Pit Biver word signifying "hike;" the Yuroks in a family called the AVeitspekan; and the Pit Biver Indian dialects are provisionally set ajiart in a distinct family named the Palaihnihan F"amily. — J. AV. Powell, S'ccnth Annual Jfcport, Bureau of Ethnolof/ii, pp. 89 and 97. Mohaves (Mojaves). See above: Apacue Giioip. Mohawks. See .ibove: FEDEltACV Mohegans, or Mahicans. ooN(jiiAN Family; and below: uians; also. New EnolaNd: Montagnats. See above : Ihckjuois Con- See above: \h- Stockhhidoi; In- A. I). 1037. Aloonquian Fam- ily; and Athapascan Fa.mily. Montauks. See above: Aloonquian Family. Moque.jmnan Family. — "Derivation: From the river and hill of the same name in Calaveras County, California. ... It was not until IH'iO that the distinctness of the linguistic family was fully set forth by Latham. Under the head of Jloqueluniiie, this author gathers several vocabu- laries representing ditfcrent languages and dia- lects of the same stock. These are the Talatui ot Hale, the Tuol-.imno from Schoo'craft, the Sonoma dialects us represented by the Tshoko- yem vocabulary, the Choeiiyem and Youkiousmo iialernostcrs, and the Olanientke of Kostro- mitonov in Biler's Beitrllge. . . . The Moipie- luinnuu family occupies the territory buuuded AMEIUCAN ABOKIGINES. AMEUI' aN aborigines. on the north by the Cosumne River, on tlie south tiy the Fresno River, on tlie O'lst by thb Sierru Nevada, and on tlie west b: the San Joaquin River, witli tlio exception 'of a strip on the cast l)ank occupied by tlie Cliolovonc. A part of tliis family occiiines also a territory boiuided on the south by San Francisco Bay. "—J. W. Powell, Sircnth Annual liipt., Bureau of Ethnology, pj). 92-93. Moquis. See below: Pueblos. Moroiia. See above: Andehians. Moxos, or Mojos. See above: Andesians; alsii, Hoi.ivi.v: AiiouiriiNALlxii.vuiT.vsT8. Mundrucu. See below : Tupl Munsees. S"e above: Delaw.vues, and Al- fioN(iii AN Family; also Manhattan Island. Mura. See above: GrcK on Coco Guorp. Muskhogean, or Maskoki Family. — "Amoni; till' vaiicius nationalities of the Gulf territories tlieMrskoki family of tribes occupied a central and eonunanding position. Not only the large extent of tciTitory held by them, but also their numbers, tlieir prowess in war, and a certain (legiec of mental culture and self-esteem made of the JIaskoki one of the most important groups in Indian history. From their ethnologic con- dition of later times, wo infer that these tribes have extended for many centuries back in time fn)m the Atlantic to tlie Mississippi and beyond tliat river, and from tlie Apalachian ridge to the Gidf of Mexico. 'With sliort intermissions they kept up warfare with all the circumjacent Indian comnr.mities, and also among each other. . . . The irresolute and egotistic policy of these tribes often caused serious dilUculties to the govern- ment of the English and French colonies, and some of them constantly wavered in their adlie- .sion between the French and the English cause. The American government overcame their ojipo- sition easily whenever a coiitlict presented itself (the Seminole War forms anexn|ition), becau.se, like all the Indians, they nevi r knew how to unite against a common foe. The two main branches of the stock, the Creek and the Cha'hta [or C'lioetaw] Indians, were constantly at war, and the remembrance of their deadly conflicts has now jiassed to their descendants in the form of folk lore. . . . The only characteristic by which a subdivision of the family can be at- tempted, is that of language. Following their juicient topographic location from cast to west, we obtain the following .synopsis: First branch, or Maskoki proper; The Creek, ilaskokalgi or Maskoki proper, settled on Coosa, Tiillapoo.sn, Upper and Middle Chatahuchi river.s. From these branched olf by segmentation the Creek portion of the Seiiiinoles, of the Yiimassi and of the little Yamaeraw community. Second, or Apalachian branch: This southca.stern division, wiiich may be called also 'a parte potiori' the Iliuhiti connection, anciently comprised the trilie.'j on the Lower Chatahuchi river, and, casi, from there, the extinct Apalaehl, the Slikasuki, an 1 the llitchiti portion of the Seniinolcs, Yii- massi and Yamacraws. Third, or Alibanui branch, comprised the Alibamu villages on the river of that name ; to them belonged the ICoas- siti and Witnmka on Coosa river, its northern ntllueiit. Fourth, Western or Cha'htii [Choctaw] branch; From the main peoi)le, the Cha'hta, set, d in the middle portions of the State of Mis- sissippi, the CIdcasa, Paseagoula, Biloxi, Iluma, and other tribes once became separated through segmentation. Tlie strongest evidence for n com- munity of origin of the JIaskoki tribes is fur- nished by the fact that their dialects belong to one linguistic family. . . . Maskoki, Maskogi, isti IMaskoki, designates a single person of the Creek tribe, and forms, as a colh^ctive plural, Maskokiilgi, the Creek conununity, the Creek people, the Creek Indians. English authors write this naini^ Muscogee. Muskhogee, and its plural Muscogulgee. Tlie first syllable, as pronounced by the Creek Indians, contains a clear short a. . . . The accent is usually laid on the mid- dle syllable: Maskoki. JInskogi. None of tliq tribes are able to explain the name from their own language. . . . Why did the English colo- nists call them Creek Indliins? Because, when the English traders entered tlie JIaskoki country from Charleston or Savannah, they hiid to cross a number of streams or creeks, especially between the Chatahuchi and Savannah rivers. Gallatin thought it iirobable that the inhabitants of the country adjacent to Savannah river were called Creeks from an early time. ... In the southern part of the Cha'hta territory several tribes, repre- sented to be of Cha'hta lineage, iippenr as dis- tinct from the main body, and are always men- tioned separately. The French colonists, la whose annals they ligure extensively, call them Mobilians, Tohonies, I'a.scogoulas, liiloxis, Mou- goulachas, Bayogoulas and Ilunuis (Ouiiias). They have all disappeared in our eiioch, witli tiie exception of the Biloxi [.Major Powell, in the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnol- ogy, places t!ic Biloxi in the Siouan Family],*of whom scattered remnauls live in tlie fcn-ests of Loui-siana, south of the Red I'iver." — A. S. Gats- cliet, ,1 Mif/ndi'in L(!/cn(l<'ft/(C Crii klntltiiim, r. 1, pt. 1. — " Tlio I'chees and the Natches, who are both incorporated in the piuskhogec or Creek] confederacy, speak two (iistinct languages alto- gether dilTerent from tlie Muskhogee. The Nat- ches, a residue of the well-known nation of that name, came from the banks of the Mississipjii, and joined the Creeks less than one hundred years ago. The original seiits of the Ucliees were east of the Coosa and iirobably of tlie Chatalioochee; and they consider themselves as the most ancient in- habitants of the country. They may have been the same nation which is called Apalaclies in the accounts (^f De Soto's expedition. . . . The four great Southern nations, according to tlie estimates of the War Department . . . consist now [1830] of 67,000 souls, viz.: The Cherokees, lo.OOO; the Choctaws (18,500), the Chioa.sas (5,500), 24,000; the Mu.skhogees, Seminoles, and llitchittees, 20,000; the tjchees, Alibamons, Coosadas, and Natches, 2,000. The territory west of tlic; Mis- sissippi, given or offered to them by the United States in exchange for tlieir lands east of that river, contains 4b,(M)0,000 acres, exclusively o" what may be alhttted to the Chicasas." — A. Gal- latin, tlyiioimD of (he Indian Trihes (Arcluvolorjia A : ■ i'nna, v. 2), wet. iJ. — See below: Seminoles. !./U.".quito, or Mosquito Indians. — "That por- tion of Honduras known as the Musiiuito Coast derived its name, not from the abundance of those troublesome inscct.s, but from a native tribe who at the discovery occupied the shore near Blewfield Lagiwin. 'I'hey are an intelligent people, short in stature, unusually dark in color, with finely cut features, and small straight noses — not at all negroid, except where there has been an admixture o^ blood. They number •See Note, Appendix E. 95 AMKIUCAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. alxmt 0,0(10, ii:iriy of whcini liiiv(^ bucn partly civili/,i'(i l>v llie i-liorls of iiiissioniiries, who liuve rt'il'.iceil the hiiiKiniKi! to writing' anil ])iil)lislio(l 1e it 11 ii umber -.f works. The Tmii,'las arc onu of the Bilb-trilics of the Musiiiiitos." — 1). G. Briiiton, I'/w Aint rimn Itnce, p. 163. — Sec, also, Nicakaoua: ^ 1)., 18r,0. Nahuas. See Mkxico, Anxient: Jiie Maya AND .N A 111' A PkOI'I.KS. Nanticokes. See above : Au)o.N(iUiAN Fam- TI.V. Napo. See above: Anuksians. Narragansetts. See above: .Vuionijitian Family; also JtiioDi: Island: A. I). lOIiO; ami Ni;\v Enoi.axi): A. I). 1037; 1074-1075; 167r); and 107«-l(i78. Natchesan Family. — When tli' Freneh first entered the lower .Mississippi valley, they found the Natchez |Na'htelii] o(cu!)yin)^ a region of country lliat now .surrotinds the city which bears their nante. "By the persevere hig curiosity of Gallatin, it is established that the Natchez were distinguished from the tribes around them less by their customs and the degree of their civilization limn by their language, which, as far as comparisons have bi'eu instituted, has no etymological allinity with any other whatever. Here again the imagina- tion too readily invents theories; and the tradi- tion has been widely received that the dominion of the Natchez once extended even to the Wabash. History knows them o:''y ns a feeble and inconsiderable nation, who in iMe 18th century attached themselves to the confed-^racy ol the Creeks."— O. Bancroft, Hint, of the U. S. (Aiithor'n last lYi'.), V. 2, p. 07. — '■ Chateaubriand, in his charming romances, and some of the early French writers, who often drew upon their fancy for their facts, have thrown an interest around the Natchez, as a semi-civilized and noble race, that lias i)assed into history. We find no traces of civilization in their architecture, or in their social life and customs. Their religiim was brutal and bloody, indicating an Aztec origin. They were perlldious and cruel, an<l if they were at nil superior to the neighboring tribes it was probably due to the district they occupied — the most beautiful, lieallhy and productive in the valley of the Jlississippi — and the inllucnce of its attractions in subslituling permanent for temporary occupation. The residence of lla^ grand chief was merely ii spacious cabin, of one apartment, with a mat of ba.sket work for his bed and a log for his pillow. . . . Their govern- ment was an absolute despotisi.i. The supreme chief was master of their labor, their proi)crty, and their lives. . . . The Natchez consisted c.\- clusively of two classes — the Blooil Royal and its connexions and the common people, the Mich-i-iniolii-(iuipe, or Stinkards. The two classes understood each other, but spoke a dif- ferent dialect. Tlieir customs of war, their treatment of prisoners, their ceremonies of marriage, their feasts and fasts, their sorceries and witchcraft, dilfered very little from other savages. Father Charlevoix, who visited Nat- chez in 1731, sjiw no evidences of civilization. Their villages consisted of a lew cabins, or rather ovens, without windows ai:J rm)fed with uiat- tiug. The house of the Sun was larger, piastered with mud, and a narrow bench for a seat and bed. No other furniture in the mansion of tins grand digultary„w ho has been described by imaginative writers as the peer of Monte- zuma!" — J. F. II. Claiborne, J/(W»«'/);)i, c. 1, f/i. 4. — In 1739, the Natchez, maddened by insolent oppressions, plannefl and executed u general niassacr'! of the French within their territory. As a consetpience, the tribe was virtually ex- terminated within the following two years. — C. Gay.irre, l.nuininim, itx Colmiial Hint, and limniutre, Udmriisjift. '3 luul 5, — "The Na'htchi, according to fiallatin, a residue of the well- k'own nation nf that name, came from the bi.nks of the Mississippi, and joined the Creek less than one iiundred years ago. The seashore from .Mobile to the llississippi was then in- habited by several small tribes, of which the Na'htchi was the principal. Before 1730 the tribe lived in the vicinity of Natchez, Jlis.s., along St. Catherine Creek. After their disper- sion by the French in 1730 most of tlie remainder joined the Chicasa and tifterwards the Upper Creek. They are now in Creeli and Cherokee Nations, Indian Territory. The linguistic rela- ticms of the language spoken by the Taensa tribe have long been in doubt, and it is possible they will ever remain so." — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual liept., 'iiimin af Ethiiolofiij, p. 90. — See Louisiana: A. I). 1719-1750. — See, also, above: Mt.'SKiiouEAN Family. Natchitoches.* See Texas: The Aboihginal Iniiaiutants. N^usets. See above: Aloonquian Family. Navajo3. See above: Atiiai-ascax F.vmily, and Ai'ACiiK Oiioup. Neutral Nation. See above : Hurgns, &c. ; and litoijLois Confeukuacy: Tiieik Co.S'- (jlTESTS, in:. Nez Perces, or Sahaptins. — "Tlie Sahaptins or Nez Perces [the Shahaptian Family in iMajor Powell's classilication] , w i ih t heir alii liated t ribes, occupied the middle and upper valley of the Columbia and its atilueuts, and also the passes of the mountains. They were in contiguity with the Shoshones and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus holding an important i)osition, intermediate be- tween the eastern and the Pacitic tribes. Hav- ing the commercial instinct of the latter, they made good use of it." — D. G. Brinton, Tht American, Itace, p. 107. Also in .1. W. Powell, Seivnth Annual llept. of the liureuit. of Ethnoloi/)/, p. 100. Niniquiquilas. See below: Pampas Tuides. Nipmucs, or Nipnets. See abo' e : Aloon- ijuiAN Family ; also, New Englanp: A. D. 1074- 1075; 1075; and 1070-1078 (Ki.no I'liiLip's WAii). Nootkas. See belov/: W..kabhan Family. Nottoways. Sec above: liiO(iUoi8 Tuibes Ol.' THE South. Nyantics. See above : Aloonciitian F.vmily. Ogalalas. Sec below; Siouan Family. Ojibwas, or Chtppei^as. — "Tlie < ibways, with their kindred, the Pottawattaiuus, and their friends the Ottawas, — the latter of whom were fugitives from the eastward, whence they Iiad lied from the wrath of the Iroquois, — were banded into a sort of confederacy. Tlicy were closelj' allied in blood, language, manners ami character. The Oj ibways, by far the most numerous of the three, occupied the Lisiu of Lake Superior, and extensive luljiicent rcigious. In llieir boundaries, the career of Iroquois coiuiuest found at length n check. I'he fugitive Wyandols sought refuge iu tlie Ojibwiiy hunt- lug grounds; uud tradition lelutcs that," at the •See Mote, AppeudU E. 96 AMKRICAN ABOUIGINE8. AMERICAN ABOmCJIJiES. outlet of Lake Superior, an Iroquois war-party ouce L'ucountcrcd a disastrous repulse. lu their iikhIc of life, they were far inorc rude than tin; Iro(|Uois, or even the southern Aljronquin tribes." — F. Parknian, Conspirncy of Po/iliac, ch. 1. — "The name of the tribe ni)peiirs to he recent. It is not met with in the older writers. The French, who were the earliest to meet them, in their tribal seat at the falls or Saidt de Ste >Iarie, named them Saulteur, from this circum- stance. Jl'Kenzie tises the term ' Jibway,' as the equivalent of this term, in his voyages. They are referred to, with littlo dilTerenco in the orthdgraphv, in General Washington's report, in 17.")4, of his trip to Lc liieuf, on Lake Erie; hut are first recognized, among our treaty-tribes, in the general treaty of Greenville, of 1794, in which, with the Otiawas they ceded tlie island of jlichilimackinac, and certain dependencies, conceded by them at former peritMls to the French. . . . The Chippewas arc conceded, by writers on American philology ... to speak one of the i)urest forms of the Algonquin." — II. U. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the llist.. Condition and Proapscts of the Indian Tribes, pt. 5, p. 142. Also in G. Copway, The Ojibicai/ Nation. — J. O. Kohl, Kitchi-gami. — See, also, Pontiac's \V.\u; and above: AliOONQUi an Family. Omahas. See below: Siouan Family, and Pawnek (Caddoan) Family. Oneidas. Sec above: luotjuois Confedeb- ACV. Onondagas. See above: luoquois Confed- KUACY. Orejones. See below: Pampas Tkibes. Osages. See below: Siouan Family, and PAwMit: (Caddoan) Family. Otoes, or Ottoes. See below : Siouan Family, and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. Otomis. — "According to Aztec tradition, the Otomis were the earliest owners of the soil of Central 3Ie.\ico. Their language was at the conquest one of the most widely distributed of any in this portion of the continent. Its central regions were the States of Queretaro and Guan- ajuato. . . . The Otomis are below the average sUiture, of dark color, the skull markedly dolicho- cephalic, tilt no.se short uud flattened, the eyits slightly oblique." — 1). 0. Urinton, The Ameri- can ]{:uv, p. i;!.1. Ottawas. See above: Algonquian Family, uud Ojibwas. — See, also, Pontiac's War. Pacaguara. See above : Andesians. Pacamora. See above: Andesians. Pamlicoes. See above: Alcioncjuian Fa.mIly. Pampas Tribes. — "The chief tribe of the Pampas Indians was entitled Querandis by the Spaniards, al'.hough tlu^y called themselves Pe- Imelches [or Puclts — that is, the Eastern]. Vari- ous segments of tlu'se, under different names, occupied the immense tract of ground, bet\V(uii the river Parana and the republic of Chili. The C^uerandis . . . were the great opponents to Bettlemcnt of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres. . . . The Ancas or Aracaunos Indians [see C'hile] resided on tlie west of tlie Pampas near Chili, and from time to time assisted the CJueran- ilis in transporting stolen cattle acniss the Cor- ililleras. The southern part of the Patniias was occupied by the Balehitas, Uhilehes, Telmel- tlits, and others, all of whom were brunches of the original CjuelcUus horde. The Guuraui In- dians were the most famous of the South Ameri- eiiii races. . . . Of the (luayauas lion let hen; were several tribes — independent of each other, and speaking diiferent idioms, although having the same title of race. Their territory extended fr<im the river Guarai, one of the aflluents into the Uruguay, for many leagues nortlivards, and stretched over to tiie I'arana opjwsite the city of Corpus Clnisti. They were some of the most vigorous o|)poiients of the Spanish invaders. . . . Tlie Xalicurgas Indians, who lived up to near 21° S. hit. were reput<'d to dwell in caves, to be vcrv limited in number, and to go entirely naked. 'I hcCiau.sarapos, or (iuuchies dwelt in the marshy districts near wlieic the river Gausarapo, or Guuchie, h;is its soiiice. This stream enters from the cast into the Paraguay at 11)'^ 10' ^0" 3. lilt. . . . The Cuatos lived inside of a lake to the west of the river Paraguay, and constituted a very small tribe. . . . The Orejones dwelt on the eastern brows of the mountains of Santa Lucia or San Fernando — close to the western side of Paraguay river. . . . Another tribe, the Niniqui(iuilas, had likewise the names of Potre- ros, Siinanos, Barccnos, anil Lathanos. They occupied a forest which began at about 10'^ S. hit., some leagues baekward from the river Para- guay, and separated the Oraii Chaco from the province of Los Chiquitos in Peru. . . . The Guanas Indians were divided into eight separate segments, for each of whieli there was a particu- lar and diiferent name. They lived between 20° and 22° of S. hit. in the Gran (Jliiico to the west of Paraguay, and they were not known to the Span- iards till the latter crossed the last-named river in l(i7!5. . . . The Albaias and Payagiias Indians . . . in former times, were the chief tribes of the Paraguay territory. . . . The Albaias were styleil Machieuis and Enimgas by otiier authors. At the time of the Spaniards' arrival here, the Albaias occupied the Gran Chaco side of the river Paraguay from 20° to 22° S. hit. Here they entered into a treaty ollensive and defen- sive with the I'ayaguas. . . . The joined forces of Albaias and Pavuguas had managed to extend their territory in 10715 down to 24° 7' S. on the eastern side of Paraguay river. . . . The Al- baias were a very tall and muscular race of l)eople. . . . The Payagu- Indians, before and up to, as well as after, m; jjcriod of the eiai- quest, were sailors, and ilomim^ered over the river Paraguay. . . .Tiie Guaiearus lived lai the Chaco side of Paraguay river and subsisted en- tirely by hunting. From the barbarous cu.stom which their winiien had of inducing abortion to avoid the jiain m' troiibli; of child-bearing, they became exterminated socm after the conquest. . . . The Tobas, who have also the titles of Nateciet and Yncanabaite, wvtv among the best fighters of the Indians. They occupy the Gran Chaco, cliielly on the banks of the river Verniejo, and between that and tlie Pileoniayo. Of these there arc some remains in tlu; i)reseiit day. . . . The Jlocovis are likewise still to be founil in the Chaco. . . . Tlie Abipones, who were also styled Ecusgina and Quiubanabuite, lived in the Chaco, so h)w down as 28° south. This was the tribe with whom the Jesuits incorporated, when they erected the city of San Genminio, in the Gran Chaco, and nearly opposite Goya, in 1741^." — T. J. Hutchiusim, 1% Parana, cii. 8-7.— "The Abi- pones inhabit [in the 18th century] the i>rovince Chaco, the centre of all Paraguay ; they have no 97 A.MKKICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. fixed .'ihodcs, III)!' any bouiKliirii'S. cxirpt what f<'ar of tlicir iiciiflilKjurs lias cstalilislud. Tlicy roam cxtciisivi'ly in every direction, wlienever the oiiporluiuly of iitl.iekinj: their enemies, or tlie necessilv of avoiding them renders a journey advisable. 1"he norlhern sliore of the I{io (Jrande or Berniejo, wliieli the Indians call Inatf'. was their native land in the last century |lhe 17th]. Thence they removed, to avoid the war carried ou apiinst Cliaeo hy the Spaniards . . . and, migratiii!; towards tli<^ south, took I'.o.ssession of n vallev formerly held by the CalchtKiuis. . . . From what rcfrion their ancestors came there is uo room for conjecture. " — M. Dobrizholler, Arrt. ofllieAliipri/itD, r. 2, r/i. 1. — "The Abipoiies aro iu general above the middle stature, and of a robust constitution. In stimmer tiiey fjo (juite naked; but in winter cover themselves with skins. . . . They paint themselves all over with dilferent colotirs."— Fathe. Charlevoix, Hint, of I'liriif/iKii/, bk. 7 (r. 1). Also in The Shimlonl Kuturiil Iliittory {J. S. Kin'iKkii. eti.), v. ^, pji. 'SM-'H't'i. — See, also, below: Ti Ti.— Giah.vxi. Pampticokes. See above: Algonijui.kn F.\MII.V. Pano. See above: Andkshns, Papagos. See below: Pi.M.vx F.\Mii,Y, and Pi-K.m.os. Parawianas. See above: C.\hib8 and tueiu KiM)iii;i>. Pascogoulas. See above: Muskhooean F.VMII.Y. Pass£. See above: GrcK ou Coco GitofP. Patagonians and Fuegians. — " The Patago- nians call themselves Chonek or T/oiieca, or Inaken (men, people), and by their Pampeaii neighbors are referred to asTelimdChe, southern- ers. They do not, however, l)elong to the Au- canian stock, nor do they resemble tlie I'ampcaus physically. They are celebrated for their stature, many of them reaching from six to six feet four inches in height, and built iu luoportion. In color tliev are a reddish brown, and have aipiiline noses and good foreheads. They lare little for a sedentarv life, and ronm the coast as far north as the Rio \egro. . . . Ou the inho.spitahle shores of Tierra del Fncgo there ilwell three nations of diverse stock, hut ou about the same jtlane of culture. One of these is the Yahgans. or Vajioos, on the Ikagle (!anal; the second is theOuas or Aonik, to the north and east of these; and the third the Aliculufs, to the north ami west. . . . The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker of Paris, that the Fuegians represent the oldest type or variety of the American race. Ho be- lieves that at one time this type occupied the whole of South America south of the Amazon, and that the Tapuyasof Brazil and the Fuegians are its surviving meuibers. This interesting theory deiiiiinds still further evidence before it can be accepted."— U. G. Brinton, I'/ic Ameticnn liwv. pp. ;j'>7-332. Pawnee Family (named "Caddoan" l)y Major I'owelll.— " I'lie Pawnee Family, Ihougii some of its branches have long been known, is perhaps in history and language cme of tlie least understood of "the important tribes of the West, In lK)th respects it seems to constitute n distinct group. During recent years its extreme northern and southern branches have evinced a tendency to blend with surrounding stocks; but the central branch constituting the 98 Pawnee proper, maintains still in its advanced decadence a bohl line of demarcation between itsilf and all adjacent tribes. The members of the family are : The Pawnees, the Arikaras, the Caddos, the lluecos or Wacos, the Keechies, the Tawaccmies, and the Pawnee Picts or Wichitas. The last five may be designated as the Southern or Red Hivcr branches. At the date of the Louis- iana |)urclias(' the Caddos were living about 4(1 miles northwest of where Shreveport now stands. Five years earlier their residence was upon Clear Lake," in what is now Caddo Parish, This spot tliev claimed was the i)lace of their nativity, and t!icirresidencefrom time immemorial, . . . They have a tradition that they are the jiarent stock, from which all the sou them branches liave sprung, and to some extent this claim has been recog- nized. . . . The live [southern] bands are now all gathereil upon a reserve .secured for them in the Indian Territory by the Go\crument. . . . In many respects, their method of building lodges, their equestrianism, and certain social and tribal usages, they (juite closely resemble the Pawnees. Their connection, however, with the Pawnee family, not fill recently ii vcr mentioned, ismaiidy a matter of vague coiijecture. . . . The name I'awnee is most probably derived from ' pii- rlk-I,' a horn; and seems to have been once used by the Pawnees themselves to designate their peculiar scalp-lock. From the fact that this was the most noticeable feature iu their costume, the name came naturally to be the denominative term of the tribe. The word iu this use once ])robably em))raccd the Wichitas (i. e., Pawnee Picts) and the Arikaras. . . . The true Pawnee territory till as late as I*j;( may l)e described as extending from the Niobrara soiith to the Arkansas. They freciuently hunted considerably beyond the Ar- kansas; tradition says as far as the Canadian. ... On the east they claimed to the Missouri, though in eastern Nebraska, by a sort of tacit permit, the Otoes, Poncas, and Omalias along that ,stream oecui)ied lands extending as far west as till' Elkhorn, In Kansas, also, ea.st of the Big Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct con- trol, as several remnants of tribes, the Wyandots, Delawares, Kickai)oos, and lowas, had been .set- tled there and wi'ic living under the guardian- shi]) of the I'liited States. . . . On the west their grounds were marked by no ntitural l)ouudary, but iiuij- perhaps be described by a line drawn from the mouth of Snake River on the Niobniru southwest to the North Platte, thence south to the Arkansiis. . . . It is not to be supposed, how- ever, that they held altogether undisturbed pos- session of this territory. On the north they were incessantly harassed by various liands of the Da- kotas, while upon the south the Osages, Conian- ches, Clieyeimes, Arapahoes and Kiowas (the last three originally northern tribes) were eciually re- lentless in their hostility. . . . In 183;J the Paw- nees surrendered to the" United States their cbim upon all the above described territory lying south of the I'latte. In 1858 all their remaiiiing terri- tory was ceded, except a reserve 30 miles long and 15 wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, its ea.stcrn limit beginning at Beaver Creek. In 1874 they sold this tract and removed to a reserve secured for them by the Government in the In- dian ';'erritory, between the Arkansas and Cimar- ron at their junction."— J. B. Dunbar, T/ie Pdinie4 Indiam(Mag. of Am. HM., April, 1880, V. 4). AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. Ai,so IX O. B. Grinnell, Pawnee ILro Stnriai. — I). O. Briiiton, Tite American liaiv, j'p. U.')-!)7. —.1. W. Powell, iktenth An. liept. of the Burmu of Ethnolofiji, ]). 50. — Soo, nlso, ubovc: Adais utid Bl.ACKFEKT. Payag^as. Scealiovi-: Pampas Thibes. Penuelches, or Puelts. Sco ubovo: Pampas TiiiiiKs, Penacooks, or Pawtucket Indians. Sec aliiivi': Ai.ooNijiiAN Family. Peorias. Si'c above : Ai.uonquian Family. Pequots. St'o above: Algonijiian Family; and below: Shawanese; also, New Enolanu: A. D. 1037. Piankishaws. Sec above: Algonquian Fam- ily, and .Sacs, itc. Piegans. See above: Blackfeet. Piman Family. — "Only a small portion of the territory oeenpied by this family is ineluded williin the United States, the greater portion bciii): in Mexieo, where it e.xtends to the Gulf of Calit'ornia. The family is rejiresented in the IJiiled States by three tribes, Pima alta, Sobaipuri, and Papajro. The former liavc lived for at least two centuries with the Maricopa on the Gila Hiver about ItiO miles from the moutiL The Sobai))uri oeenpied the Santa Cruz and San IVdro Rivers, tributaries of the Gila, but are no longer known. The Papago territory is much more e.xtensive and extends to the south across the border." — J. W. Powell, iScctnt/i Annual Kept., Ihiirau of Etluwlugy, pp. 98-09. — See below: PrKliLOS. Pimenteiras. See above: Guck or Coco Gitori', Piru. See above : Anuicsiaxs. Pit River Indians. See above; Modoc8(Kla- SLVTUS), &c. Piutes. See below: Siiosiioxean Family. Pokanokets, or Wampanoa^s. See above: Aloo-s^i IAN Family; also, ><kw P^xviLA.M): A. I). 1074-1075; 1075; 1070-1078 (Kino Philips Wau). Ponkas, or Puncas. See below: Sioi:ax Family: andabove: Pawnee(Caudoan)Family. Popolocas. See above: Chont.\L8. Pottawatomies, See above: Aloonqui.vn Family, Ojibwas, and Sacs, &c. Powhatan Confederacy. — "At the time of the first settlement by the Euroiieans, it has been estimated that there were not more than 2(1,000 Indians within the limits of the State of Virginia. Within a circuit of 00 miles from Jamestown, Captain Smitli says there were about 5,000 souls, and of these scarce 1,500 were warriors. The wliole territory between the mountains and the sea was occupied by more than 40 tribes, 30 of w'lom were united in a con- federacy under Powhatan, whose (hmiinions, hereditary and acquired by conquest, comprised llie whole coimtry between the rivers .lames and Potomac, and extended into the interior as far as the falls of the principal rivers. Campbell, in his History of Virginin, states the number of Powhatan's sul lects to have been 8,000. Pow- hatan was a remaikable man; a sort of savage Napoleon, who, by the force of his character and the superiority of his talents, had raised himself from the rank of a petty chieftain to something of imperial dignity uid power, lie had two places of abcKle, one called Powhatan, where Uiihmond now stands, and the other at VV'erowo- comueo, on the north side of York River, within the present county of Gloucester. . . , Besides the large confederacy of which Powhatan was the chief, there were two others, with which that was often at war. One of these, called the -MaiHiahoaes, con.sisted of eight tribes, and occu- pied till! country between the Rappahannoc and York rivers; the other, consisting of (ive tribes, was called the Monacans, and was settled lietween York and .lames r.vers above the Falls. There were also, iu a<ldition to these, many scat- tering and independent tribes." — G. S. llillard, /■'/'■ ofCiipt. Jofiii '^niilh {/.i/zniri/ of Am. J>i"f/.), c/t. 4. —"The Engi.sh invested sivage life witii all the dignity of European courts. Powhatan was styled 'King,' or 'Emperor,' hi-; |irin(ipal warriors were lords of the kingdom, his wives were queens, his daughter was a 'princess,' and his cabins were his various se:its of resi- dence. ... In his younger days Powhatan had been a great warriia-. llerediiarily, In' was the chief or werowance of cigiit tribes; through con- questliisdominicaisbad beenextended. . . . The name of his nation and the Indian appellation of the James Hiver was Powhatan, lie himself pos.sessed several names." — K. Eggleston and L. E. Seelye, I'ocahinitn.'i. cli. 3. Also in Capt. John Smith, Dmcripiion of 17/- giuiit, and General llintorie of \'a. (Arber'i reprint of Works, pp. 05 and 300). — See, also, above: Ai.ooxgiiAX Fa.mily. Puans. See below: Siouan Family. Pueblos. — "The non-iumiadie semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples of New Mexico and Arizona ... I call the Pueblos, or Towns- people, from pueblo, town, iioitulation, jicople, a name given by the Spaniards to siicli inhabi- tants of this region as were found, when first discovered, permanently locateil in comiiaratively well-built towns. Strictly spetdiing, the term Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries between latitudes 34"^ 45' and 30° 30', and although the name is employed as a general appellation for this division, it will be used, for the most iiart, only in its narrower and popular sense. In this division, besides the before mentioned Pueblos projjer, are embraced the Moquis, or villagers of eastern Arizona, and the non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower Gila river, — the Pimas, ilaricopas, Papagos, and cognate tribes. The country of the Towns- people, if we may credit Lieutenant Simpson, is one of ' almo.st universal barrenness,' yet inter- spersed with fertile sj.ots ; that of the agricultural nations, though dry, is more generally pro- ductive. The fame of this so-called civilization reached Mexie } at an early day . . . in exagger- ated rumors i,f great cities to the north, which prompted the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1530, of Coronado in 1540, and of Espejo in 1580 [1.583]. These adventurers visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of tjuivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great riches were said to exist. The name of (Juivira was afterwards api)lied by them to one or more of the pueblo cities. The name Cibola, from 'Cibolo,' ^lexican bull, 'bos bison,' or wild ox of New Mexico, where the Spaiuards first encoun- tered butf.do, was given to seven of the towns which were afterwards known as the ':ieven Cities of (;ibola. But most of the villages known at the present day were mentiofied in the reports 01 the early expeditious by their present names. 99 AMERICAN AHOUIOINES. AMEHICAN ABORIGINES. . . . Tlic towns (if the I'lii'blos arc csscntiiilly imi(|ii(', mid iin; the doiiiiimnt fcuturc of tlicsi' iiborijiirml.s. Some of tlii'iu iiro sitiiiitol in viilli'js, others on mesas; somctiMies tlicy are planted on eh'viitions ahnostinacocssiljlc, reached only by arthieial Kra<lcs. or by steps cut hi tlie solid KK'k. Some of the towns are of an ellipti- cal shaiie, while others are square, a town helm,' frecpiently hut a block of bnildinps. Thus a I'ueblo consists of one or more scpnires, each enclosed by three or fonr l>uil(lini;sof from 300 to 400 fi.et in leiiKlli, and about bit) feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from eight to nine feet each in hei),'ht. . . . The stories are built in a series of ^'radations or re- treatini,' surfaces, deereasiiif; In size as they rise, thus forming a succession of terraces. In some of the towns tlie.se terraces are on both sides of the buildim,'; in others they face only towards the outside; while again in others they are on the inside. These terraces are about six feet wide, and extend around the three or four sides of the S(iuare, forming a walk for the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the Story beneath; so witli tin' stories above. As there is no inner communication with one another, the only means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand at convenient distances along the several rows of terraces, and tli<'y ma\' be drawn up at pleasure, thus cutting olf all unwelcome intrusion, The outside walls of one or more of the lower stories are entirely solid, having no openings of any kind, with the exception of, in some towns, a few loopholes. ... To enter the rooms on the ground floor from the out.side, one must mount the ladder to the tirst balcony or terrace, then desci'iid through a trap door in the tloor by another laiUler on the inside, . . . The several stories of these huge structures are divided into multitudinous ciimpartnicnts of greater or less size, wliicli are apportioned to the several families of the tril)l^" — 11. II. Uancroft, Kdtiri- ItiieiHdf thf Pufifie Stdtfn, r. 1, r/i. 5. — "There can be no doubt that Cibola is to be looked for in Xcw Mexico. . . . We cannot . . . refuse to adopt the views of General .Simp.son and of Mr. \V. \V. II. Davis, and to look at the pueblo of ZuiSl as occupying, if not the actual site, at least one of the sites within the tribal area of the. Seven CUties of Cibola. Xor can we refuse to identify Tusayan with the Moqui dis- trict, and Acuco witli Acoma." — A. F. Ban- (lelier, Hint. Introil. to Stiidicji among t?ie Sedentari/ ImliitiiK (if K. Me.vicn (Papers of the Arc/i(Toloi/. Inst, if Am.: Am. fleries, r. 1). Ai.so IX ,1. II. Simpson, T/ic Maivh of Coro- nado. — L. H. Alorgaii, llouses and House-life of the Am. Aborigines (Contributions to JV' Am. Ethnologi/, r. 4), eh. 6. — P. H. Gushing, Mi/ Adcenturcs in Ziini (Century, v. 3-J). — The same, Fhurth Annual liept. of the liureaii of EthtMlom/ (1883-83). yi/). 478-180.— F. W. Blackiiiar, Spanish Institutions of the Southitest, eh. 10. — See, also, AMtniic.t, Phkiiistouic, and above: Piman Family, and Krrksan Family. Pujunan Family. — "The following tribes were placed i.i this group by Latham :"Pujuni, Secumne, Tsamak of Hale, and the Cuslina of Sch(X)lcraft. The name adopted for the family is the name of a tribe given by Hale. This was one of the two races into which, ii))on the infor- mation of Captain Sutter 'as derived by Mr. Dana, all the Sacramento tribes wore believed to be divi<led. ' These races resembled one another in every respect but language. ' . . . The tribes of this family liave been carefully studied by Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all we know of their distribution. They occupied the eastern bank of the Sacramento in California, beginning soiik! 80 or 100 miles from its mouth, and extended northward to within a short dis- tance of Pit River."—.!, W. Powell, Seeenth Annual Ilept., Hureaii of Kthnologi), pp. 90-100. Puncas, or Ponkas. See below: Siouan Family; and above; Pawnee (Cauuoan) Fa.mily. Purumancians. See Chile: A. I). 1450- 17124. Quapaws. See below : Srou.w Family. Quelches. See above: PA.\ri'AHTiiinKs. Querandis, or Pehuelches, or Puelts. See above: Pami-as TuiiiKs. Quiches. — Cakchiquels.— " (Jf the ancient races of America, those which approached the nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dia- lects of a tongue, which from its principal mem- bers lias been called the Maya-Quiche linguistic stock. Even to-day, it is estimated that half a million persons use these dialects. They are scattered over Yucatan, Ouatemala, and the ad^a- <'ent territory, and one branch formerly occupied the hot lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz. The ijo-callcd ' metropolitan 'dia- , lects are those spoken relatively near the city of Guatemala, and include the Cakchiquel, the (Juichc, the Pokonchi and the Tzutuhill. They are quite closely allied, and are luutuaKy intelli- gible, resembling each other about as much as did ill ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic an<l Doric dia- lects. . . . The civilization of these people was such that they used various mnemonic signs, approaching our nlpliabet, to record and recall their mythologj' and history. Fragments, more or less complete, of tliese traditions have been lireserved. The most notable of them i:i the national legend of the Quiches of Guatemala, the so-called Popol Vuh. It was written at an un- known date in the Quiche dialect, by a native who was familiar with the ancient records." — D. G. Brinton, Essaj/s of an, Americanist, p. 104. Also in The same, ^lH«a/s «/</i« Cakchiquels. — II. II. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, eh. 11. — See, also, above: Mayas. Quichuas. See Pehtj. Quijo. See above : Andesians. Quoratean Family . — ' ' The tribes occupy both banks of the lower Klamath from a range of hills a little above Happy Camp to the jutictiou of the Trinity, and the Salmon River from its mouth to its sources. On the north, Quoratean tribes extended to the Athapascan territory near the Oregon line." — .1. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Rept., liureau, of Ethnology, p. 101. Rapid Indians. — A name applied by various writers to the Arapalioes, and other tribes. Raritans. See above: ALGON<iUiAN F.uiily. Remo. See above : Andesians. Rogue River Indians.* See above: MoDOCS, ETC. Rucanas. See Peuu. Sabaja. See above: Guck ok Coco Guoi!i'. Sacs (Sauks), Foxes, etc.— "The Sauks or Saukies (White Clay), and Fo.\es or Outagamies, so called by the Europeans and Algonkius, but whose true name is Musquakkiuk (Red Clay), are in fact but one nation. Tlr <;h missionaries •See Note, Appendix & 100 AMERICAN AB01UGINE8. AMERICAN AQORIGINES. on coming first in contact with them, in the year lB6r), lit once found tlmt they spoke the same lan- jiuiige, and that it dillered from the Alf;onl<in, tlioujili belonging to tlie same stock ; and also that tills liingiiage was common to the Klckapoos, and to those Indians they called Maskontcns. This last nation, if it ever "had an existence as a dis- tinct tribe, has entirely disa])peared. But we are informed by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft cor- roborates the fact, that the word ' Jlasconteiick ' means a country without woods, a prairie. The name Mascontons was therefore used to designate ' prairie Indians.' And it appears tliat they con- sisted principally of Sauks and Klckapoos, with an occasional mixt\ire of Pntowotamies and Miamis, who probably came there to hunt the Uuflalo. The country a.ssigned to those ^'ascon- teus lay south of the Fox River of LaU Michi- gan and west of Illinois River. . . . When first discovered, the Sauks and Foxes had f' ■iv seats toward the southern extremity of Greei Hay, on Fox River, and generally farther east than the country wli'Ch they lately occupied. . . . By the tre.ity of 1801, the Sauks and Fo.xes ceded to the United States all their lands east of . . . the Mississippi. . . . The Kickapoos by various treaties, 1809 to 1819, have also ceded all the'> lands to the United States. They claimed all the coiu'try between the Illinois River and the \Val)ash, north of the parallel of latitude jjassing by the mouth of the Illinois and south of the Kankakee^ River. . . . The territory claimed by the .Miamis and Fiankishaws may be generally stated as having been bounded east wardly by the .Maumeo River of Lake Erie, and to have in- cluded all the country drained by the Wabash. The I'iankishaws occupied the country border- ing on the Ohio." — A. Gallatin, tSyitopsis of the IiuUan Tribes {Arelueologia Aineriaiiut, r. 2), introil., sect. 2. — The Mascontens, or Mascoutins, " seldom appear alone, but almost always in connection with their kindred, the Ottagamies or Foxes and the Kickapoos, and like them bear a character for treachery and deceit. The three tribes may have in earlier days formed the Fire- Xation [of the early French writers], but, as Gallatin observes in the Archreologia Americana, it is very doubtful whether the Mascoutins were ever a distinct tribe. If this be so, and there is no reason to reject it, the disappearance of the name will not be strange." — J.> G. Shea, linef Hescarches Uespectiiif/ the Mascoutins (Schoolcraft's Information Respecting Indian Tribes, pt. 4, p. 245).— See above, Algonqiii.\n F.\mii,y. — For an account of the Blofk Hawk War see Illinois, A. 1). 1832. Sahaptins. See above : Nez Pkuies. Salinan Family. — This name is given by JIajor Powell to the San Antonio and San Sliguel dialects spoken by two tribes on the Salinas River, Monterey County, California. — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual lieport, Bureau, of Eth- noloijji, p. 101. — See Esselenian Family. Saiishan Family. Scj above : Flatheaus. Sanhikans, or Mincees. See above: Aloon- QLiAX Family. Sans Arcs. See below: Siou.vn Family. Santees.* See below : Siouan F^vmily. Sarcce (Tinneh).* See above : Blackfeet. Sastean Family. — "The single tribe upon the language of which Hale based his name was located by him to the southwest of the Lutuami or Klamath tribes. . . . The former territory of •See Note, Appendix E. . \0\ the Sastean family is the region drained by the Klamath River and its tributaries from the western base of the Cascade range to the point where tin? Klamath Hows through tlu^ ridge of hills east of Happy Cami), which forms the boundary between th" Sastean and the (Juoratean families. In ad'lition to this region of the Kla- math, the Shasta extended over the Si.skiyou raiiire northward as far as Ashland, Oregon." — .f. \\. Powell, S lenth Annual Iie]it., Bureau of Etlinolofiy, /), lOti. Savannahs. See above: Aloonquian Family. Seminoles.— "The term 'semanole,' or ' isti Simanole,' signitles 'separatish' ot 'runaway,' and as a tribal name ])oints to the Indians who left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek settle- ments, for Florida, to live, Inint, and lish there in independence. The term does not mean ' wild,' 'savage,' as freciuently stated; if ajiplied now in this sense to animals, it is l)eeause of its original meaning, 'what has become a runaway.'. . . The Seminoles of modern times are a ])eoplo compounded of the following elements: separa- tists from the Lower Creek and Hitchiti towns; renuiants of tribes partly civilized by the Spaniards; Yanui.ssi Indians, and sonu' negroes. . . . The Seminoles were always regarded us a sort of otitcasts by the Creek tribes from which they had seceded, and no doubt there were reasons for this. . . . These Indians showed, like the Creeks, hostile intentions towards the thirteen states during and after the Revolution, and con- jointly with the Upper (.'reeks on Tallapoos;i river concluded a treaty of frien<lship with the Sp'.niards at Pensacola ui Jlay, 1784. Although imder Spanish control, the Seminoles entered into hostilities with the Americans in 1793 and 181'2. In the latter year Payne niiko [' King Payne'] was killed in a battle at Alachua, and his brother, the infiuential Bowlegs, died soon after. These unruly tribes surprised and massacred American settlers on the Satilla river, Georgia, in 1817, and another confiict began, which terminated in the ' destruction of the Mikasuki and Suwanec river ; towns of the Seminoles by General Jackson, in ! April, 1818. [See Flohida: A. I). 1810-1818.] After the cession of Florida, and its incorporation into the American Union (1819), the Seminoles gave u p all their territory by the treaty of Fort Moultrie, Sept. 18th, 1823, receiving in exchange goods and annuities. When tlie government concluded to move these Indians west of the Jlississippi river, a treaty of a conditional character was con- cluded with them at Payui;'s landing, iu 1832. The larger portion were removed, but the more stubborn p:»rt dissented, and thus gave origin to one of the gravest conllicts which ever occurred between Indians and whites. The Seminole war begun with the massacre of Major Dade's com- mand near Wahoo swamp, December 28th, 1835, and coutiinied with unabated fury for five years, entailing an immense expenditure of money aiuj lives. [See Flouida: A. D. 1835-1843.] A number of Creek warriors joined the hostile Seminoles in 1838. A census of the Seminoles taken iu 1823 gave a population of 3,899, with 800 negroes belonging to them. The population of the Seminoles in the Indian Territory amounted to 2,087 iu 1881. . . . There are some Seminoles now in Miixico, who went there with their negro slaves." — A. S. Gatschet, ^1 iligrution legend of the Creek Indians, c. 1, pt. 1, sect. 2. — " Ever since the first settlement of th>.ie Indians in Florida AMERICAN AUG UIG INKS. AMEUICAN ABORIGINES. tlit'V liiivc been cngngpil in n strife with tlie wliitcs. ... In tlic iiimnifiioiH jn(lf;nu'nt of unprcjudiccil writers, tlie whites liiive ever l)een in tlie wroiiK- " — I*. G. IJrintoii, Nutcn on the FloriiUiiii I'minmilii, p. MH— " Tliero were in Florldii, Oelober 1, 1880, of tlie Indiana com- iiionlv known ii.s Seminole, 308, Tliey coosti- tilled' ;(7 families, livini,' in 33 eamps, which were jratliered into five widely separated groups or settlements. . . . This people our Goveriiinent 1ms never been able to conciliate or to conquer. . . . Tlie .Seminole have always lived within our borders as aliens. Il is only of late years, and tliriiUL'li natural iiecessilies", that any friendly intereoiirso of white man and Indian has been secured. . . . The liidians have appropriated for their service souk; of tlie products of European civilization, such as weaiions, implements, domestic utensils, fabrics for clotliini,', itc. Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which they received long ago from the teaching of Hpanish niissionari(?s, and, in the southern settle- ments, excepting some few Spanish words, the Seminole have accepted and appropriated prac- tically nothing from the white man." — C. Mac- Cauley, The f>emiHi>lc IiitHdiiii of Florhhi (Fifth An. Ikpt. of the Jiiire/iu of Ethnology, 1883-84), intn/tl. null ch. 4. Also in ,J. T. Sprague, I'he Fhrida War. — 8. G. Drake. The A/Hin'f/iiuil liiicesof N. Am., hk. 4, ell. 0-31. — See, also, above: Muskuooean F.\.\iii.v. Senecas; their name. — "How this name originated is a ' ve.xata (lUiestio' among Indo- antiiiuariaiis and etymologists. The least i)lausi- blo .supjiositiou is, that the name has any reference to the moralist Seneca. Some hav supposed il to be a corruption of the Dutch term for Vermillion, cinebar, or cinnabar, under the a.ssumption that the Senecas, being the most warlike of the Five Nations, u.scd tliat pigment more than the others, and thus gave origin to the name. This hypothesis is suiiported by no authority. . . . The name ' Sennecas ' first appears on a Dutch map of 1010, and again on .lean de Laet's map of 1033. ... It is claimed by some that the word may be derived from 'Siuiieko.'c,' the Algoniiuin name of a i:ibe of Indians spoken )f in Wassenaer's Histoiy of Europe, on the iiuthority of Peter Barentz, who traded with them about the year 1020. . . . Without assuming to solve the mystery, the writer contents himself with giving some data wliieh may possibly aid others in arriving at a reliable conclusion. [Here follows a discussion of the various forms of name by which the S(!iiecas designated themselves and were known to til-- Hurous, from whom the Jesuits first heard of them.] By dropping the neuter pre- li.'k O, the national title became 'Nan-do-wah- gaali, ' or ' The great hill people,' as now used by the Senecas. ... If the name Seneca can legiti- mately be derived from the Seneca word ' Nan-do- wah-gaair. . . it can only be done by prelixing 'Son,' as was the custom of the Jesuits, and dropping all unnecessary letters. It would then form the word ' Son-non-do-wa-ga,' the first two and last syllables of which, if the French sounds of the letters are given, are almost identical in pronunciation with Seneca. The chief dilllculty, however, would be iu the disposal of the two superliuous syllables. They may have been dropped in the process of contraction so common in the composition of Indian words — a result which would be (juite likely to occur to a Seneca name, in its transmissicm through two other languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The foregoing (pieries and suggestions are thrown out for what they are worth, in the absence of any more reliable theory." — O. II. Marshall, J/tHtori-ntWi-itiii;/.'), p. 231. — See above: Ikoqiiois Co.NFKDKUACV, and HuHoNS, ice. — See, also, I'ox- Ti.vc's Wak, and for an accouit of Sullivan's ex- [ledition against the Senecas, see United States uv Am.; a. D. 1779 (AudUsT — Sei'te.mheh). Shacaya. See above: Andesians. Shahaptian Family. Sec above: Nez 1'eiu i';s. Shastas. See above: Sastean Family. Shawanese, Shawnees, or Shawanoes. — "Adjacent to the Lenape [or Delawares — see above], and associated with them in some of the mo.st notable pas.sagea of their history, dwelt the Shawanoes, the Chaouunons of the French, a tribe of bold, roving, and adventurous spirit. Their eccentric waiidering.s, their sudden appear- ances and disappearances, perplex Iheantiipiary, and defy research; but from various scattered notices, we may gather that at an early period they occupied the valley of the Ohio ; that, be- coming embroiled with the Five Nations, they shared the defeat of the Andastes, and about the year 1073 tied to escape destruction. Some found an asylum in the country of the Lenape, where they lived tenants at will of the Five Nations; others .>ouglit refuge in the Carolinas and Florida, wlierc, true to their native instincts, they soon came to blows with the owners of the soil. Again, turning northwards, they formed new settlements in the vallej' of the Ohio, where they were now sullered to dwell in iicace, and where, at a later period, they were joined by such of their brethren as had found refuge among the Lenape." — F. Parkman, The Cun- itpiraey of Pontine, ch. 1. — "The Shawnees were not found originally in Ohio, but migrated there after 17.jO. They were called Chaouanons by the French and Shawanoe;; by the English. The English name .Shawano changed to Shawanee, and recently to Shawnee, Chaouanou and Shawano are obviously attempts to represent the same sound by the orthograply of the two re- spective languages. . . . Jludi industry has been used by recent writers, especially by Dr. Brintou, to trace this nomadic trite to its original home; but I think without success. . . . We first find the Shawano in actual history about the year 1000, and living along the Cumberland river, or the Cumberland and Tennessee. Among the conjectures as to theirearlier history, the greatest probability lies for the present with the earliest account — the account given by Perrot, and ap- parently obtained by him from the Sh.'iwanoes themselves, about the year 1080 — tlu.t they formerly lived by the lower lakes, and were <lriven thence by the Five Nations." — W. F. Force, Some Edrly Nuticca of the Indians of Ohio. — "Tlieir [the Shawnee's] dialect is more akin to the Mohegan than to the Delaware, ai.'d when, in 1093, they lirst appeared in the arei: of the Eastern Algonkin Confederacy, they can. " as the friends and relatives of the former. They were divided into foitr bands " — Piqua, liroperly Pikoweu, ^lequachake, Kiscapokoke, Chilicotlie. "Of these, that which settled in Pennsylvania ■•"'as the Pikoweu, who occupied 102 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. ami giive their imme to tlio Pcqvm vnllcv in Laii- (lister county. Ai'cordinjr to ancient Moliogan tradition, tlic Now Knj^land PcchkhIm were nicin- licrs of tlii.s l)and." — I). O. Hrinton, Th<; Ijeiiniie iiiiil Ihiir L<r/iii>li>. e/i. 2. — Tlic same, The H hair- iices ami thiir Mii/rntiniiii {Ilint. Mitfi., v. U), IHOO).— "TlieSliawanese, wliose vllla.i;es were on tlie western bank [of llic Sus(iuelianna] came iiili) the valley [of \Vyomin!;| from tlieir former localities, at tli(^ 'forks of tlie Delaware' (the jimction of the Delaware and Lchiftli, at Eastoii), to which point tiiey had been induced at some remote period to eini^'ratc from llieir earlier home, near the mouth of the river Wabasli, in tlie 'Ohio re^tion,' upon tlie invitation of the Delawares. Tliis was Iii<lian diplomacy, for the Delawares wen; desirous (not being upon llie most friendly terms willi tiu! Jlinitos, or .Si.\ Nations) to aceuniulale a force against tliose powerful neighbors. But, as might be expected, they (lid not long live in peace with their new allies. . . . The Sliawaiics(; [about IT.").'), or soon after] were driven out of the valley by their more powerful neighbors, the Delawares, and the contlict which resulted in their letiving it grew out of, or was precipitated by, a very trilling incident. While the warriors of the Delawares were engaged iii)on the mountains in a hunting expedition, a number of 8(iua\vs or female Indians from Mauglnvauwame were gather- ing wild fruits along the margin of tin; river below the town, where tli(;y foiind a number of Shawanese scpiaws and their children, who Had crossed tlic river in their canoes upon (lie same Imsiness. A child belonging to the .Shawanese having taken a large gra.ssliopper, a (piarrel arose among the children for the possession of it, in which their mothers soon took part. . . . The quarrel became general. . . . Upon the return of the warriors both trilies prepared for battle. . . . The Shawanese . . . were not able to sus- tain the conflict, and, after the loss of about half tlieir tribe, the remainder were forced to lice to their own side of the river, shortly after which they abandoned their town and removed to the Ohio." This war between the Delawares mid Shawanese has been called the Grasshopper War. — L. H. Miner, The Valley of Wyoming, p. 33.— Sec, also, above, Ai.(ion(juian Famit.y, and Dela- WAiiEs. — See, also, Pontiac's Waii; United States of Am. : A. D. 1765-1708; and (for an account of "Lc"d Dunnioro's War") see Ohio (Valley); A. I). 1774. Sheepeaters (Tukuarika). See below; Suo- 8IIONEAN Family. Sheyennes. See above ; Aloonqcian Family. Shoshonean Family. — "This important family occupied a large jiart of th(! great interior basin of the United States. Upon the north Shoshonean tribes extended far into Oregon, meeting Shaliaptian territory on about the 44th Iiarallel or along the Blue ^lountains. Upon the northeast the eastern limits of the pristine habi- tat of the Shoshonean tribes are unknown. The narrative of Lewis and Clarke contains the explicit statement that the Sho.shoni bands en- countered upon the Jefferson River, whose sum- mer home was upon the head waters of the Columbia, formerly lived within their own recollection in the plains to the east of the Rocky Mountains, whence they w(!re driven to their niomitain retreats by the Jliunetaree (AtsiiuO, who had obtained tirearms. . . . Later a divi- •See Note. Appendix E sion of the Bannock held the (Inest portion of Southwestern Montana, whence apparently tli(>y were being pushed westward across the moun- tains by Blackfcet. Upon the east the Tukuarika or Shet-peatcrs held the Yellow.stone Park country, where they were bordered by thcSioiian territory, while tlie Washiiki occupied soiilli- wcstern Wyoming, Nearly the ciiliic nioun- lai:ious part of Cohirado was held by the several ..'ids of tin; Ule, the eastern and .southeastern parts of the Stale being held respectively by tlio Arapaho and Cheyenne (.Vlgoii(|uian), and the I\aiow(; (Kiowan), To the soutlica.sl the Ute couiK.y iiiciiided the northern drainage of the San .luan, extending farther cast a short dis- tance into New .Mexico. Tlii; Coniancln; divi- sion of llie family extended farther cast than any other. . . . Bourgi'iiiont found a Comaniho tribe on the upper KaiLsas River in 1724. Accord- ing to Pike the Comanche territory bordered the Kaiowo on the north, the former occupying the head waters of the Upper Red River, Arkan- sas and Rio Grande. IIow far to the southward Shoshonean tribes extended at this early period is not known, thmigii the (evidence tends tosliow that they raided tar down int'> Texas, to the terri- tory tliey have occupied in more recent years, viz., the extensive ])laiiis from the Rocky iU^un- tains eastwiird into Indian Territory and Texaa to about 'J7°. Upon the .soutli Shoshonean teiri- tory was limited generally by the Colorado River . . . while the Tusayan (.Moki) had es- tablished their seven i)iieblos ... to the east of the Colorado Chiciuito. In the southwest Sho- shonean tribes had pushed across C.ilifornia, oc- cupying a wide band of country to the Pacitic." — .1. W. Powell, iHi-iittli Aiiiiiiiil Jiijit., It'iiritu of Ktliiiiiluini, pji. 109-110.— "The Pah Utes oc- cupy the greater jiart of Nevada, and extend southward. . . . The Pi Utes or Piutes inhabit AV'estern Utah, from Oregon to New Jlexico. . . . The Gosh Utes [Gosuitcs] inhabit the coun- try west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to the Pah Utes."— H. II. Bancroft, yutirc liactK of the Pacific States, o. 1, ch. 4. Siksikas, or Sisikas. See above ; Blackpeet. Siouan Family.— Sioux.*— " The mitions wliidi speak the Sioux language may be con- sidered, in reference both to their respective dialects and to tlieir geographical jiosition, as consisting of four 8ub(livisions, viz., the Winne- bagoes; the Sioux proper and the Assiniboius; the Minetaro group; and the Csagesand other southern kindred tribes. The Winnebagocs, so called by the Algonkins, but called Puans and also Otcliagras by the French, and Horoje (' fish- eaters ') by the Omahaws and other southern tribes, call themselves Ilochungonih, or the ' Trout ' nation. The Green Bay of Lake Michi- gan derives its French name from theirs (Baye dcs Puans). . . . According to the W^ar Depart- ment they amount [1830] to 4,000 souls, and ap- pear tociiltivatethesoil to a considerable degree. Their jirincipal scats nre on the Fox River of Lake Michigan, and towards the heads of the Rock River of the Jlississippi. ... The Sioii." proper, or Naudowessics, names given to ihtin by the Algonkins and the French, call thcms'jlvcs Dahcotns, and .sometimes 'Ocliente Shakoans,' or the Seven Fires, and are divided into seven bands or tribes, closely connected together, btit apparently independent of each other. Th(;y do not appear to have been known to the French 108 AMEUICAN AHOUIUINES. AMERICAN AUOUI0INE.S. iH'fiirr llic yi'iir HW, . . . 'I'lii' four moat luHtfrii trllMs of tlic DalKotiis lire known liy tlic niinic of the Mi'nili'walikiintoan, iir '(icns dii Ltic,' Wulikpiitoiin anil Walikpakot.ian, or ' I'coiiU- of llic LravcM,' and Sisiloans. . . . Tlic tlirco westerly Iriliis, the Valiktoni' tlie Yanktonans, iind tlie'Tetonn, wander tietwecM tlii' Mississippi uikI tl (• .Missouri. . . . Tlie Assinil)i)ins (Stono Iiidiiiiis), as tliey lire <'alled liy the Al>,'()iikins, are a Dalicota tribe separated from tlie rest of the natidii. anil on that aceoinit called llnha or Hehels,' liy the oIIkt Sioux. They are said to have niadepart i)rii,Mrnilly of the Yauktons. . . . Aiiiitlier trilie. called Sliey'''ii>c>* <ir t 'heyennes, were at no very remote period seatcil on the left bank of the Ued Kiver of Lake Wiiniipek. . . . ("arver reckons them as one of the Sioux tribes; and .Mackenzie iid'orins us that they were driven away by the Sioux. They now [IHifllJ live on the lieailwaters of the river Sheyeniie, a south- western tributary of the .Missouri. ... I have been, liowever, assuri'd by a well-informed person who trades with them that Ihey speak a distinct luliKtlage, for which there is no Kuropean inter- preter. . . . Till' .Minetares(Minetareeaiid .Miiie- taries) consist of three tribes, speaking three dilXerent languaKcs, which belonj; to ii common stock. Its lilUiiities with the Daheota arc but remote, but have appeared sulllcient to entitle them to be considered as of the same family. Two of thus*' tribes, the Mandaiies, whosiMUim- bor does not exceed 1,500, and the stationary Minetares, .imoimtinH: to ;i,()00 souls, includini; those called Amialmwas, cultivate the soil, and live in villages situated on or near tlie Jlissouri, between 17' and -18° north latitude. . . . Tlie third .Miiieture tribe, is that known by the name of the ('row or Upsaroka [or Absarokii] nation, probably the Keehcetsas of Ijcwis and t'larke. They are an erratic tribe, who hunt south of the Mis.souri, between the Little Missouri and the southea.sterii branches of the Yellowstone Kiver. . . . The southern Sioux consist of eight tribes, s|)eakiiig four, or at most live, kindred dialects. Their territory originally extended along the Mississippi, from lielow the mouth of the Arkansas to the forty -tirst degree of north lati- tude. . . . Their hunting grounds extend as far west as the Stony Mountains; but they all culti- viite the soil, and the most westerly village on the Missouri is in about 100° west longitude. The three most westerly tribes are the Quappas or Arkansns, at the iiiuutli of the river of that name, and the Usages and Kansas, who inhabited the country sotith of tlu^ Missouri and of the river Kansas. . . . The Osages, properly Wiiu- saslie, were more numerous and powerful than any of the neighbouring tribes, and perpetually at war with all the other Indians, without ex- cepting the Kmsas, wlio speak the same dialect ■with themselves. They were originally divided Into Great and Little b.sages; but about forty years ago almost one-half of the mition, known by the name of f'haneers, or Clermont's Hand, separated from tlie rest, and removed to the river Arkansa. The villages of those several subdivisions are now [1830] on the headwaters of tile river Osage, and of the Verdigris, a northern tributary stream of the Arkansa. They amount to about 5,1)00 souls, and have ceded a portion of their lands to the United States, re- serving to themselves a territory on the Arkansa. south of 38° north latitude, extending from 95° to 100' west longitude, on a breadth of 45 to SO miles. The territory allotted to the Cherokees, the Creeks and the ChiH-taws lies south of that of the Osage, . . . The Kansas, who have always lived on the river of that name, have been at peace with the Osage for the last thirty years, and intermarry with tlicm. Tliev amount to 1,500 souls, and occupy a tract of about !t, 000,000 acres. . . . The live other tribes of this sub- division are the lov.ays, or I'ahoja (Grey Snow), the Missouris or Xeijehe, the Ottoes, or Wali- tootahtah, tlu^ Omahaws, or Malms, and the I'uncas. . . . All the nations speaking languages Ix'longing to the Great Sioux Family may . . . lie computed at more than 50,000 souls." — A., (Jallatin, Sjimijms of tin- liitlinit Trihm (Arc/ueo liiijiii Ami'ricitnii, i\ 'i), mrt. -t. — "Owing to tli<^ fact that ' Sioux ' is a word of reproach and means snake or enemy, the term has been dis- carded by many later writers as a family dcsigua- lioii, and ' Dakota,' which sigiiitles friend or ally, has been employed in its stead. The two won's are, however, by no means prop- erly synonymous. The term ' Sioux ' was used by Gullatin in a comprehensive or family sense and was applied to all the tribes collec- tively known to him to speak kindred dialects of a widespread language. It is in this sense only, as applied to the linguistic family, that the term is here employed. The term ' Daheota' (Dakota) was correctly applied by (ialliitin to the Dakota tribes proper as distinguished from the other members of the linguistic family who are not Dakotas in a tribal sense. The u.se of the term with this signiticatioii should lie perpetuated. It is only recently that a delinite decision has been reached respecting the relationship of the Catawba and Woccoii, the latter an extinct tribe known to have been linguistically related to the Catawba. Gallatin thought that he was able to discern some allinities of the Catawban language with 'Muskhogec and even with Choctaw,' though these were not suflicient to induce him to class tliem together. Mr. Gat.scliet was the tlrst to call attention to the presence in the Catawba language of a considen'.ble number of words having a Siouan allinity. Kccently Mr. Dorsey has made a critical examination of all the Catawba linguistic material available, which has been materially increased by the labors of Jlr. Gatschet, and the result seems to justify its in- clusion as one of the dialects of the widespread Siouan family." The principal tribes in the Siouan Family named by ^lajor Powell are the Dakota (including Santeo Sis.seton, AYahix'tou, Yankton, Yanktonnais, Teton, — the latter em- bracing Brule, Sans Arcs, Blackfeet, ^Minnecon- jou. Two Kettles, Ogalala, Uucpapa), Assinaboin, Omaha, Poiica, Kaw, O.sage, (juapaw, Iowa, Otoe, Missouri, Winnebago, Mandan, Gros Ven- tres, Crow, Tutelo, IMloxi (see Muskiiooean Fa.mii,y), Catawba and Woccou. — J. W. Powell, Nereuth Annual liept. of the Bureau of Ethnotoiiij. p. 113. Ai-.so IN ,1. O. Dorsey, Migrations of Siouan Triht'K (Aimrimn Xaturaliet. r. 20, March). — The sniue, Ililoxi Indians of Ijntisiana (V.-P. aMn.s.'i A. A. A. S., 1803), — Sec, above: Hidatsa. Sissetons. See above Siouan Familv. Six Nations. See above: Iuo<juoi8 CoN- FEDEIIACV, Skittagetan Family. — "A family designa- tion . , , retained for the tribes of the Queen 104 AMEUICAN AUOUiaiNES. AMEIUCAN ABOIUGINES. Clmrldttc ArcliipflftKo which have usually bpi'u <iiI1(m1 llaiilii. Krotii n ((iinimrisoii of lUv V(«iil)U- hirics (if the llaidii laii.i;iiaf;c with otliiTs of lliu luiKlihoriiitr Kcilusclmii family, Dr. Krariz Hoas is iiiclinc<l to cDiisiiU'rlliat tliclwoaro jjiniclically nlalcd. Till! two laiiKuaf;cs |)os.s<'ss a consider- alile number of words in common, l)Ut a more lliiiroufrh investigation is requi-ile for tlie settle- iiicnt of the <niestion." — .1. W. I'owell, Seent/i Aiitiuiil Hi'/it., Ihiinni of h'thimliif/!/, j). I'JO. Snakes. Seealiove: Shohiionkan Family. Stockbrid^e Indiana. — '■The Htoekbridfiu In- dians \veaM)nKinally a part of tli(! Ilousatannuck Tril)e (.Moliegans], "to whom the l,cjj;islature of Massachusetts granlc(l or secured a township Jaflerward called .Sum kliridijej in the vear 17!iO. Tlieir number was increased by Waijpinjjers and .Moliikanders, and perha])s also by Indians be- loniiinf; to several other trilieit, both of N'ew Ijiirland and New York. Since their removal to .New Slockbridfre and Hrotlierlon, in tlie w<'Stcrn parts of Xew York, tJie^ hav(^ been joined bv .Miilu'irans and other Iialians from Ea.st Connecti- cut, and even from Rhode Islanil and Lon^ I'-laml." — A. (iallalin, Synojm.i nf Inilidn Trilim (Arclufologin. AmtrimiKi, r. '2), p. 115. Also in A. Holmes, AuimUdf Am., 1730 (c. 2). — S. Ct. Drake, Aborit/iiitil Uiiivn, p. 15. Susquehannas, or Andastes, or Conestogas. — "Duleh and Swedisli writers speak of a tribe called .Min(iiiiis; . . . the French in Canada . . . make freipient allusions to the Gandastojrues (more brietlv Andastes), a tribe friendly to their allies, tlu' lliirons, and jturdy enemies of the Irixpiois; later still Pennsylvania writers speak of tlie Conestojias, the tribe to which Lojfan be- loiijred, and the trilic which peri.shed at the haiiils of the Fa.xton boys. Although Gallatin in liis map, followed by Bancroft, i)lace(l the Andastes near Lake Erie, my researches led me to correct this, and ideutify the Husiiuehannas, Mimpia, Anda.stes or OandastoKUos, and Cones- liinas as being all the same tribe, the first name beiiii; apparently an appellation given them by the Virginia tribes; the second that given them liy the AlgoiKiuins on the Delaware ; while Gan- dastogue as the French, or Concstoga as the English wrote it, was their own tribal name, meaning cabin-pole men, Nutio Perticarum, from 'Anda.sta,' a cabin-pole. . . . Prior to 1(500 the Siis(|uehaunas and the Mohawks . . . came iiihi ciillision, and the Susquehannas nearly ex- tciiiiiiiated the Jlohawks in a war which lasted ten years." In 16-47 they offered their aid to the Iluroiis against the Iroiiuois, having 1,300 war- riors trained to the use of lire-arms by three Swedish soldiers; but the propo.sed alliance failed. During the third quarter of the 17th century they seem to have been in almost con- tinuous war with the Five Nations, until, in 1075, they were completely overthrown. A party of about 100 retreated into Maryland aud became involved there in a war with the eiilonists and were destroyed. "The rest of tlie tribe, after making overtures to Lord Balti- more, submitted to the Five Nations, and were allowed to retaiu their ancient grounds. When Pennsylvania was settled, they became known as Conestogas, aud were always friendly to the colonists of Penn, as they ha<l been to the Dutch and Swedes. In 1701 Canoodagtoh, their king, made a treaty with Penn, aud in the docu- ment they are styled Miuquas, Conestogas, or Susqueii.mni.^.. They appear as a tribe In a treaty in 174'2, but were dwindling away. In 1703 the feeble remnant of the tribe begamc in- volved i;, the frencral suspicion entertained by the colonists against the red men, arising out of nia.ssacres on the borders. To escape danger the l>oor creatures t(«)k refuge in Lancaster jail, and Ui'Tv they were idl butchered bylhePa.xton boy.s, who burst into the jilace. Pafkman, in his Con- spiracy of I'ontiac, p. 414, details the sad story. The last interest of lliis unfortunate tribe centres in Logan, tlie friend of the white man, whoso spec(^h is so familiar to all, that we must regret that it has not sustained the historical scrutiny of Hrantz Mayer (7'(l/((/l(/y'H^' ,■ </;• /xv/k/i <tii<l('<ipt. ^ Michiid Ciraiii), Mun/tiiitil 'lint. .Sl/c, ^flll/, 1051; aiul Sro. Allxiiiy, 1H07). Logan was a Cones- toga, in other wonls a Sus(|uelianna. " — J. G. Shea, Sotf 40 to Guifr/i: Atnop'ii V/mnietir nf the I'rorince of Mit ri/lti ml (lloinia'a liiliUntliecii Aiutri- eitiKi, 5). — See, also, above: IlKHii'oii Conkku- i:uA(V. Tachies. See Te.\as: The auukkiinai. in- IIAUITANTS AND THE NAME. Tacullies. See below: Athapascan F.'.mily, Taensas. See Natchesan Family. Takilman Family.*— " This name was pro- posed by y\v. (Jatschet for a distinct language spoken on the coast of Oregon about the lower Kogiie Hiver." — J. W. Powell, Stcinth Aiiiiiud Jii'/it., liiiiiiiuof Ethiiohiiji/, p. li\. Talligewi. See above: Ai.i.eohans. Tafioan Family. —"The tribes of this family in the United States resided exclusively u|>on the lUo Grande and its tributary valleys from about 33Mo about 30". "—.1. W.Powelf, S, eaith Aii- iiiiiil Hcpt., liiinaii of Kthiioluijn, p. 122. Tappans. See above: Aloonijiuan Family. Taranteens or Tarratines. See above : Au- NAKIS;also, ALOONyl.lAN Fa.mily. Tarascans. — " The Tarascaus, so called from Taras, the name of a tribal god, had the reputa- I Ion of being the tallest and handsomest pcojilu of Mexico. They were the inhabitants of the present State of Michoacan, west of the valley of Mexico. According to tlieir oldest traditions, or perhaps those of their neighbors, they had mi- grated from the north in company with, or about tlie same time as, the Aztecs. For some 300 years before the coneiuest they had been a seden- tary, semi-civilized people, maintaining their in- dependence, and progressing steadily in culture. When first encountered by the Spaniards they were quite equal and in some respects ahead : the Nahuas. ... In their costume the Taru.,j08 liiffered coiisiderabl v from their neighbors. Tlie feather garments which they manufactured sur- passed all others iu durability and beauty. Cot- ton was, however, the usual materinl " — D. G. Brintou, Tlie American Jiace, p. 130. Tarumi. See above: CAiiiBii anutueik Kln- DllED. Tecuna. See above : GucK on Coco O'loup. Tehusl Che. See above: Pataoonians. Telmelches. See above : Pampas Tiudes. Tequestas. See below: Tlmuquaxan Family. Tetons. See above : Siouan Family. Teutecas, or Tenez. See below : Zapotecs, etc. Timuquanan Family. — The Tequestas. — " Beginning at the southeast, we first meet the historic Timucua family, the tribes of which are extinct at the present time. ... In the 10th •See Note, AppenUbc E. 105 AMKKICAX ABOUIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. CPiittirv the Timuciia ii:!i:i'iit<!(l the norllicrii nixl iiii(l(ll<' portiim <if llic pcninstilii of Floridii. 1111(1 allliough tlifir cxiK t limits to the north nn? uiiknonn, tlioy hold a portion of Florida liord(:rinf( on Ocofgia, and s<-nic u{ tlio coast islands in tlic Atlantic, ocean. . . . The people received il.snaine from one of their villages called Tiniagoa. . . . Tlie naiiK; mean.; ' lunl,' ' ruler,' 'master' ('atiiiuica,' waited upon, 'niuea,' by servants, 'ali'i, and tlie people's name i.s writ- ten Atimuea early in the 18lh century. . . . The langiiaKC'i spolieii by tlie (alusa and by the peo- ple ne.\t in order, tlie Te((iiesta, are unknown to us. . . . The Caliisa held the southwestern e,\- treniity of Florida, and their tribal name is left recorded in Calusahntchi, a riversouth of Tampa bay. . . . Of the Tecpicsta people on tlie .south- eastern end of the ]ieiiinsula we know still less than of the ('aliis,a Indians. Tliere was a tradi- tion thai they were the same people which ! ':\ the Iliihama oi Lucayo Islands. " — A. S. ai- Kchet, ,1 Miyrntioii Liijend <'f the Creek Indirtim, r. 1. pt. 1. Tinneh. Sei? above ; Atiiap.vscan Family. Tivitivas. See above: ("Aiiiii and tiieik KiMirtKi). Tlascalans. .^eo JIexico ; A. 1). 1519 (Junb — Ocroiiicii). T'linkets. See above: Atiiai'Ascan Fa.mily. Tobacco Nation. See above: 1Ii:hons; and InoiJfOIH CONKKIIICU.VCV: TllEIlt NAME. Tobas. See above: Pampas TitiiiEP. Toltecs. See ^Ikxicd, Ancient. Tonikan Family. — "The Tonika arc known to have occupied tliri'C localities: First, on the Lower Ya/.oo River (ITOO) ; second, east shore of Mississippi River (about 1T04); third, in Avoy- elles Parish, Louisiana (181T). Near Marksville, the county seat of that parish, about twenty-live are now liviiis- ' — '. W. Powell, Seeenth Annual lie/it., lliirain nf Ethmihtgii, p. Vi'). "Tonka wan Family. — "The Tonkawa were a iniirratory |ieople and a coUiivies ucntiuni, whose earliest haliitat is unknown. Their lirst inen- tion occurs in ITllI; at that time and ever since they roamed in the western and southern parts of what is now Texas. " — .1. W. Powell, tictenth Anniiiil liept., liiiraii of Et/inoloi///, p. ViG. Tontos. See above : Apache Group. T'^romonos. See Bolivia: Aikihioinal in- IIAlin'ANTS, Totonacos. — "The lirst natives whom Cortes met on landing in Jlexico were the Totonacos. They ""cupied the territory of Totonicapau, now includ , in the State of Vi'ra Cruz. According to traditions of their own, they had resided there 800 years, most of which time they were inde- pendent, though a few generations before the arrival of the Spaniards tliey had been subjected by the arms of the .Montezumas. . . . Sahagun descrilies tlicm as almost white in color, tlieir heads artilicially deformed, but their features regular and handsome. Robes of cotton be.inli- fully dyed served thimi for garments, and their feet were covered with sandals. . . . These people were highly civilized. Cempoalla, their ojipilal city, was situate about live miles from the sea, at the juiH ti;;;; 'if two streams. Its houses were of brick and mortar, and each was sur- rounded by a small gartlen, at the foot of which a .stream of fresh water was conducted. . . . The atliiiities of the Totonacos arc dittlcult to make out. . . . Their language has many words from JIaya roots, but it has also many more from the Nahiiall." — I). G. Urinton, 1" he Ameri- can liaee, p. KiO. Tukuarika. See above : Siiosiionean F.vmily. Tupi. — Guarani. — Tupuyas. — "The first In- dians with whom the Portuguese came iu con- tact, on the discovery of Brazil, called themselves Tupinama, a term derived by Barnhagen from Ttipl anil .Alba, .something like warrior or noble- man; by ^lartiiis from Tupi and Ananiba (rela- tive) with the signification 'belonging to the Tupi tribe.' Tlie.sc Tupi dwell on the east coast of Brazil, and with their language the Portuguese were soon familiar. It was found especially ser- viceable as a means of communication with other tribes, and this led the Jesuits later to develoji it as much as possible, and introduce it as a uni'.ersal language of intercourse with the Savages. Thus the ' lingua geral Brasilica' aro.se, which must bo regarded as a Tupi with a Portuguese pronun- ciation. The result was a suriirising one, for it really succeeded in forming, for the tribes of Brazil, divided in language, a universal means of communication. Without doubt the wide ex- tent of the Tujii was very favorable, especially since on this side of the Andes, as far as the Caribbean Sea, the continent of South America was overrun witli Tupi hordes. . . . Von ilar- tius has endeavored to trace their various migra- tions and abodes, by which they have acquired a sort of ubiijuity in tropical South America. . . . This history . . . leads to the supposi- tion that, had the discovery been delayed ii few centuries, the Tupi might have become the lords of eastern South America, and have spread a higher culture over that region. The Tupi family inny bo divided, according to their lixed abodes, into the southern, northern, eastern, western, and central Tupi; all these are again divided into a. num' er of smaller tribes. The southern Tupi are usually called Guarani (warriors), a n:unc which the Jesuits lirst in- troduced. \l cannot be determined from which direction they came. The gr"atest number arc in Paraguay and the Argentine province of Cor- rientes. The Jesuits brought tliem to a very high degree of civilization. Tlie casteru Tupi, the real Tupinamba, an; scattered along the At- lantic coast from St. Catherimi Island to the mouth of the Amazon. They are a very weak tribe. They say tliey came from the south and west. The northern Tupi are .a weak and widely scattered remnant of a large tribe, and are now in the province of Para, on iho island of Marujo, and along both banks of the Amazon. ... It is somewhat doubtful if this peaceable tribe arc really Tupi. . . . The central Tupi live in several free hordes between the Tocantins and Madeira. . . . Cutting oft' the heads of enemies is in vogue among them. . . . The Mundrucu are especially the head-hunting tribe. The western Tupi all live in Bolivia. 'I'liey are the only ones who came in contact with the Inca empire, and their character and nianners show the inlluence of this. Some are a picture of idyllic gayety and patriarchal mildness." — The StuntJard J\'nt iir.il Jfixt. {J. S. Kin<id<'!i,ed.) c. (!, yi;). 248-240. — "In freiiuciit contiguity with the Tupis was another stock, also widely dispersed tlirough Brazil, called tlii^ Tupuyas, of whom the Boto- cudos in eastern Brazil are the most iirominent tribe. To them also belong the Ges nations, south of tlie lower Amazon, and others. They Km AMERICAN ABOUIGINES. AMERICAN ABORIGINES. are on a low grade of culture, going quite naked, not cultivating the soil, igiioriint of pot- tirv, and with jjoorly made canoes. They are doiiehoceplialic. and nuist have inhabited the countrvalong time." — D. G. Brinton, liacta and Piojihs. lip. 209-2T0. Turiero. See above : Ciiidchab. Tuscaroras. See above: luoQtrois CoNi'ED- Ei!A( V, and Ihocjiois Thiuks or thk Soith. Tuteloes. See above: SiouAN Family. Twightwees, or Miamis. Seo above: Illi- Kois. Tvyo Kettles. See above: SiofAN Family. Uaupe. See above : Gi:cK ou Coco Gkoup. Uchean Family. — " The pristine homes c' the Ymlii are not now traceable with any degree of certainly. The Yuchi are supposed to have been visited by l)e Soto during liis memorable niiueli, and the town of Colitaeliiqui chronicled by liim, is believed by many investigators to liiive stood at Silver iJlulf, on the left bank of the Savannah, about 25 miles below Augusta. If, as is supposed bj' some authorities, Cotita- clii(iui was a Yuchi town, this would locate the Yiiclii in a section which, when first known to the whites, was occupied by the Shawnee. Later the Yuchi appear to have lived somewhat farther down the Savaimah." — J. W. Powell, Scteiith Ahiiudl Jiept., JJitnau of Ethiiohffi/, p. 120. Uhilches. See above : Pami'As Thibes. Uirina. See above: Guck ou Coco Gkocp. Uncpapas. Sll- above: Souan Family. Upsarokas, or Absarokas, or Crows. See aliove: Siou'AN y . ui.i Utahs. Si'tr i.hove: Siiosiionean Family. WabenaLit.= '^rAbnakis. See above : Abna- liis. Wacos, or Huicos. See above: Pawnee (Cahdoan) F.xMily. Wahpctons Seeatiovi.: SiouAN Family'. Waiilatpiiaii Family. — "Hale establiahcd this family an,i ;;laced under it the CailloiLX or CaMisi or A\ illetpoos, and the Molele. Their lu'ail(niart.:!!i as indicated by Hale are the upper liart of ;iie Walla AValla River and the country about Mo'.iits Hood and Vancouver." — J. AV. Powell, Seventh AuMtc! Report, Bureau of Elhiiol'if/!/, ]), 127. Waikas. See above: Cauibs and their KiNi)iii;i). Wakashan Family.— " The above family nanio was based ui)on a vocabidary of the Widiash Indians, who, according to Gallatin, ' inhaliit the island on ^\hich NootUa Sound is situated.'. . . The term ' Wakash ' for this groui) of languajjcs has since been generally ignored, and in Its place Nootka or Nootka- C'oliunbian has been adopted. . . . Though by no means as appropriate a designation as could be found, it seems clear that for tlie so-called Wakasli, Newittee, and other r'died languages usually assembled under the Nootka family, the term Wakash of 1830 has i)riority a'ld must be retained." — J. "W. Powell, t<ei-enih Annual lie- ixnl. IhimiH of Ethnolnrjji, pp. 129- 130. Wampanoags, or Pokanoketi. See above: PoKANOKETS. Waplsianas. See above : Cauibs Ai-,":> tueik KlMUil'.I). Wappingers. Seo above : Aloonqclan Fam- ily, Waraus. Seeubove: Caiubs and their Kin- DllKU. Washakis. .'^ee above: Siioshoxean Family. Washoan Family. — "This family is repre- .senti d by a single well known tribe, whose range extended from Reno, ou the line of the Central I'aeili'; Railroad, to the lower end of Carson Valley." — J. W. Powell, Strenth Annual Re- port, liuveitu of Ethiiulofjji, p. 731. Wichitas, "or Pawnee Picts. Sec above: Pawnee (Cadmoan) Family. Winnebagoes. See above: Siouan Family. Wishoskan Family.— "This is a small and obscure lingui.stic family !ind little is known cim- cerning the dialects composing it or of the tribes which speak it. . . . The area occupied by the tribes speaking dialects of this language was the coast frcmi a little below the nioulh of Eel Ri\ er to a little north of JIad River, including I'.ar- ticularly the country alioiit Humboldt IJay." — J. W. Powell, Sienth Annual Repurr, liuraiuof Etlni'il'iiji/, p. 133. Witumkas. See above: Muskiiooean Fam- ily. Woccons. See above: Siouan Fa.mily'. WyandotS. See above: IIuuoNS. Yamasis and Yamacraws. S ? above: Ml'SKIKKJEAN FaJ M Y. Yamco. See alove:" Andesians. Yanan Family. — "The eastern boundary of the Yanan territorv is formed by a range of moiatains a livile west of Lassen Butto and terminating near Pit River; the northern boundary by a line ruiming from northeast to southwest, passing near the northern side of Round Moimtain, three miles from Pit River. The western boundary from Redding southward is on an average 10 miles to the east of the Sacramento. North of Redding it averages double that distance or about 20 miles." — .1. W. Pl VLdl, Hfeiit/i Annual Rejtort, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 13.j. Yanktons and Yanktonnais. Sec above: SioiAN Family. Yncas, or incas. Sve Peru. Yuchi. Sic above: Uciiean FamiLY. Yuguarzongo. See above: Andesians. Yukian Family. — " Round Valley, California, sub.seciuently made a reservation to receive the Yuki and other tril)es, was formerly the chief seat of the tribes of tlie family, but they also extended across the mountains to the coa.st. " — J. W. Powell, l<ei('iith Annual Rejx/rt, Bureau of Elhnohy;/, o. VM. Yuman Family. — " The center of distribution of the tribes of lliis family is generally con- sidered to be the lower Colorado and Gila Valleys." — J. W. Powell, S-Centh Annual Re- ]>ort. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 137. — See above: Apache Group. Yuncas. See Peru. Yuroks or Eurocs. See above: Modocs, &c. Zaporo. See above: Andesians. Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Zoques, Mixes, etc. — "The greater part of Gaxaca [Mexico] aial the neighboring regions are still occupied bv the Zapytees, who call themselves Uidjaza. 'riieru are now about 205,000 of them, about 50,000 of whom speak nothing but their lative tongue. lu ancient times they constituted a i)owerful independent state, the citizens of whicli seem to have been quite as highly civilized as any mem- ber of the Aztec family. They were agricul- tural ami sedentjiry, living in vilhiges and cuustructiug buildiugs of stone uud murtar. Tho im AMERICAN ABORIGINES. AMMON. most rcmiirkiiblc, but by no mcuns tho only, 8|M!cim('nH of Uivsc still icnmining arc the ruins of Alitla. . . . Tlie Mixtccs adjoined tlio Ziipotocs to the west, extending along the coast of the Pueilio to about the present port of Acapulco. In eulturo they were equal to the ZajHitees. . . . The inountain regions of the istlimusof Tehuantepeeand the adjacent portions of lh( stales of Chiapas an<l Oaxaea are the habitats of tlie Zoques, Mixes, and allied tribes. The early historians draw a terrible picture of their valor, savagery and cannibalism, which reads more like talesto deter the Si)aniards I'nim approaching their domains than truthful accounts. However this may be, they have been for hundreds of years a peaceful, ignorant, timid i)art of the population, homely, lazy and drunken. . . . The faint traditions of these peoples jiointed to the South for their origin. . . . The Chinantecs inluibitcd Chinantla, which is a part of the slate of Oaxaea. . . . The Chinantecs had been reduced by the Aztecs and severely oppressed by them. Hence they weleonied the Spaniards as deliverers, . . . Other names by which thev are mentioned are Tenez and Teutccas. ... In si>eaking of the province of Chiapas the historian 'Ilerrera informs us that it derived its name from the pueblo so-called, "whose inhabitants were the most remarkable in New Spain for their traits and inclinations.' They had early accpiired the art of horsemanship, they were skillful in all kinds of music, excellent p.iinters, carried on a variety of arts, and were withal very courteous to each other. One tra- dition was that they had reached Chiai)us from Nicaragua. ... Hut the more authentic legend of the Ciiapas or Chapanecs, us Ihey were pro- perly called from their totemie bird the Chapa, the red macaw, recited that the whole stock moved down from a northern latitude, following down the I'acilic coast until they came to Soconusco, wheri^ they divided, one part enter- ing the mountains of Chiapas, the other pro- ceeding on to Nicaragim." — D. G. Sriuton, T/ie Aiiifricon Jiiire, pp. IIO-MO. Ai,s<) IN A. Uandelier, Itcpt. of Arducologieal Tour in .\f(xic:>. Zoques. — See.nbove: Z.VfOTECS, ETC. ZuBian Family. — " Derivation: From the ("ochili term ^Uunyi, .said to mean 'the people of the long nails,' referring to the surgeons (tf Zuili who always wear some of their nails very long (Cushing)!"— ,1. AV. Powell, Scanth Xnuual Jkjiort, Buriiiu of KlhtioUyii, p. 138, — See, above, Pueblos; also, Amehicv: Prehistoric. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See Uniti;i) St.\ti:s ok Am. : A. 1). IHliO (Nove.mher— Ue- rEMiu;ii), and after.— Statistics of. Sec same: A. 1). IHO.") (M.w). AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order of. See Unhei) ST.\ri;s 01' Am,; A. I). 1801 (October). AMERICAN PARTY, The. Sec United St.vtes OF Am. : A. I). \Kvi. AMERICAN SYSTEM, The. Seo Tariff Ia:(iisi..\Tio.s (United Stateb): A. D. 181(1- 18'J1, AMHERST, Lord, The Indian Adminis- tration ol. See India; A. I). lH;>:j-lH3;i. AMHERST'S CAMPAIGNS IN AMER- ICA. See Canada (New FranceV A. D. 17.58 to 1700. AMICITI^, Sec Guilds of Fi„.vders. AMIDA, Sieges of. — The ancient city of Ainida, now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the Upper Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians from the Romans, in the course of the long wars between the two nations. In the lirst instance, A. D. !i59, it fel' after a terrible siege of seventy- three day.s, conducted by I he Persian king Sapor in pcr.son, and was given uj) to pillage and sla'ighter. the Roman commanders crucilied and the few stirviving inhabitants dragged to Persia as slaves. The town was then abandoned by the Persians, repeopled by the Romans and re<'overed its prosperity and strength, only to pass through a similar experience again in 502 A. U. , when it was besieged for eighty days by the Persian king Kobad, carried by storm, and most of its inhabit- ants slaughtered or enslaved. A century later, A. D. 005, Cliosroes took Amida once more, but .vith less violence. — G. lijiwliuson, tkvcnth Gnat Oriental Monarehi/, eh. 9, 19 and 34. — See, also, Persia: A. D. 226-027. AMIENS. — Origin of name. See IJelo.e. A. D. 1597. — Surprise by the Spaniards. — Recovery by Henry IV. See France: A. D. 1593-1598. A. D. 1870. — Taken by the Germans. See France: A. I). 1870-1871. AMIENS, The Mise of. Sec Oxkord, Pro- visions ok. AMIENS, Treaty of (1527).— Negotiated by Cardinal Wolsey, between Henry VIII. of Eng- land and Francis 1. of France, establishing an alliance against the Em])eror, Charles V. Tlu; treaty was scaled and sworn to in the cathedral church at Amiens, Aug. 18, 1527. — J. S. Brewer, lieiiiii if llcnrii VIII., r. 2, cli. 'id and '28. AMIENS, Treaty of (1801). See France: A. 1). 1801-1802. AMIN AL, Caliph, A. U. 809-813. AMIR. — Au Arabian title, signifying chief or ruler. AMISIA, The.— The iineient name of the river Ems. AMISUS, Siege of.— The siege of Amisus by LucuUus was one of the important operations of the Third Mithridatic war. The city was on the coast of the Black Sea, between the rivers Ilalys and Lycus; it is repre- sented in .site by the modern town of Sam- soon. Amisus, whidi was besieged in 73 B. C. held out until th(! following year. Tyninnio the grammarian was among the i)risoners taken and sent to Rome. — G. Long, iJtdinc of the lionuiii, liejuihlic, r. 3. ch. 1 and 2. AMMANN.— This is the title of the Mayor or President of the Swiss C'omiuunal Council or Gemeinderath. Sec Switzeki.and: A. D. 1848- 1890. AMMON, The Temple and Oracle of.— The Ammonium or Oasis ot Anniion, in the Libyan desert, which was visitiid by Alexander the Great, has been identitied with the oasis now known as the Oasis of Si wall. "The Oasis of Siwah w.as (irst visited and described by Browne in 1792; and its identity with that of Amnion fully estab- lished by Major Uenncll (' Geog. of Herodotus,' pp. 577-591). . . . The site of the celebrated temple and oracle of Amnion was first discovered by Air. Hamilton in ISr'' 'Its famous orach; was frequently visited _, jiccks from Cyrene, us well as irom other jwrts of the Hellenic world, and it vied in reputation with those of Delphi 108 AMMON. ASIPIIIKTYONIC COUNCIL. and Dmlona." — E. II. Biinbury, IliM. of Ar.cicnt (hog., eh. H, scet. 1, nndch. 12, ncrt. 1, and lutte E. — An expedition of 50,000 men sent by Cambyses to Ammon, B. (). 525, is snid to liave perished in tlic desert, to tlie last man. See Eoypt; B. C". 52.")-;?;i2. AMMONITES, Tiie.— Aceording to tlic iiar- nitive in Gene.sis .\i.\ ; !30-;i9, tlie Ammonites were de.scended from Ben-Ammi, son of Lot's second daugliter, as tlie Jloabites came from Moab, the eldest daughter's son. The two people are much as.sociated in Biblical history. "It is Imrd to avoid the conclusion that, while Moab was the settled and civilized half of tl>o nation of Lot, the Bene Ammon formed its predatory and IJedouin section." — G. Grove, Diet, of the Bible. — See Jews: Tin; Eauia' IIubuew IIi'stohy; also, MoAltlTES. AMMONITI, OR AMMONIZIONI, The. See Florence: A. D. 1358. AMORIAN DYNASTY, The. See Byzan- tiNB E.MPIBE: A. D. 820-1057. AMORIAN WAR, The. —The Byzantine Emperor, Theophilus, in war with the Saracens, took and destroyed, with peculiar animosity, the town of Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which hapjiencd to be the birthplace of the reigning caliph, Motassem, son of llaroun Alraschid. The calii)h had condescended to intercede for the place, and his enemy's conduct was personally insult- ing to him, as well as atrociously inhumane. To avenge the outrage he invaded Asia Jlinor, A. D. 838, at the head of an enormous army, with the special purpose of destroying the birthplace of Theoiihilus. The unfortunate town which suf- fered that distinction was Amorium in Phrygia, — whence the ensuing war was called the Amorian War. Attempting to defend Amorium in the fleld, the Byzantines were hopelessly defeated, am', the doomed city was left to its fate. It made an heroic resistance for tifty-live days, and the siege is .said to have cost the caliph 70,000 men. But he entered the place at last with a merciless Bword, and left a heap of ruins for the inoiniment of his riivenge. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lloman Empire, eh. 52. Ai.so IN G. Finlay, If int. of the Byzantine Em- pire, from 716 to 1057, b/c. 1, eh. 3, sect. 2. AMORITES, The. — "The Ilittites and Ainorites were . . . mingled together in the mountains of Palestine like the two races wliidi etiniologists tell us go to form the modern Kelt. But the Egyj^tian monuments teat'h ua that they were of very dilTerent origin and character. The Ilittites were a people with yellow skins and ' Jlongoloid ' features, whose receding foreheads, oblicpie eyes, and protruding upper jaws, are rep- resented as faithfully on their own monuments as they are on those of Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egpytian artists of caricatiu'ing their enemies. If the Egyptians have made the Ilit- tites ugly, it was because they were so in reality. The Ainorites, on the contrary, were a tall antl handsome i)eople. They are depicted with white skins, blue eyes, anil reddish hair, all the chiiraeteristics, in fact, of the white race. Mr. Petrie points out their resemblance to the Dar- diniians of Asia Minor, who form an intcr- nieiliale link between the white-skinned tribes of the Greek seas and the fair-complexioned Libyans of Northern Africa. The latter are still found in large immbers in the mountainous regions which stretch eastward from Morocco, and are usually known among the French under the name of Kabyles. The traveller who first meets with them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their likeness to a certain part of tlie population in the British I.sles. Their clear-white freckled skins, their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tall stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish village ; and when we find that their skulls, which are of the so-called <loliclioeephalie or ' long- headed ' type, are the same a.s the skulls discov- ered in the i)rehisloric cromlechs of the country they still inhabit, we may conclude that tliey represent the modern descendants of the white- skinned Libyans of the Egpytian monuments. In Palestine also we still come across representa- tives of a fair-coniplexio..ed blue-eyed race, in whom we may see the descendants of the ancient Ainorites, just as we see in the Kabyles the des- cendants of the ancient Libyans. We know that the Am()rite type continued "to exist in Judah long after the Israelitish coniiuest of Canaan. The eai>tives taken from the southern cities of Judah bv Shishak in the time of Helioboam, and de- picted by him upon the walls of the great temple of Karnak, are people of Ainorite origin. Their 'rcnilar profile of sub-aquiline cast,' as Mr. Tc ins describes it, their liigh cheek-bones and ni:i A expression, are the features of the Amor- ites, and not of the .lews. Tallness of stature has always been a distinguishing chanicteristie of the white race. I lence it was that the Anakim, the Ainorite inhabitants of Hebron, seemed to the Hebrew spies to be as giants, while they themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' by the side of them (Num. xiii: 33). After'the Israel- itish invasion remnants of the Anakim were left in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh. xi:33), and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and his gigantic family were objects of dread to their neighbors (3 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, that the Ainorites of Canaan belonged to the same white race as the Libyans of Northern Af- rica, and like them preferred the mountains to the hot plains and valleys below. The Libyans themselves belonged to a race which can be traced through the peninsula of Spain and the western side of France into the British Isles. Now it is curious that wherever this particular branch of the white race lias <'xlen(led it has been accompanied by a particular form of cromlech, or sei)ulcliral chamber built of large uncut stones. . . . It has been necessary tQ enter at this length into what has been discovered concerning the Ainorites by recent reseai'ch, in order to show how carefully they should bf distinguished fnmi the Ilittites with whom they afterwards inter- mingled. They must have been in possession of Palestine long before the Ilittites arrived there. Tliev extended over a much wider area. " — A. H. Sayce, The Ilittiten, eh. 1. AMPHIKTYONIC COUNCIL. — "An Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an Ampliik- tionic, body was an assembly of tlic tribes who dwelt around any famous temple, gathered to- gether to manage the alTaiis of that temple. Tliere were other Amphiktyonic Assemblies in Greece [besides that of DelphiJ, amongst which that of the isle of Kalaureia, olT the coast of Argolis, was a body of some celebrity. The Anipliiktyons of Delphi obtained greater import- ance than any other Ainphiktyons only because of the greater importance of the Delphic sanctuary, and beeau.se it incidentally hap- 109 AMl'lIIKTVONIC COU>XIL. AMSTERDAM. pencil tliiit tlie frrciitcr part of tlie Greek nil- tinii hail some kind of reprcsentiitiDU among tliiMii. llut that body could not be looked upon as a perfert representation of the Greek nation whieli, to postpone othi bjections to its ooMslii".',i.in, f'Mind no place fi r m) lariie a fnic- tion of the llillenic body as the Arkadians. Slill the Ainph ktyons of" Delphi undoubtedly came nearer than aiiv other existing body to the iliaracterof a j:eni''al repri'sentation of all G' eece. It is iherefore easy to und'Tstand how the .elig- imis functions of such a body might incidentally avxume a political character. . . Once or twice lliiii, in the course of Greciiiii history, we do linil the Amphiklyonic body acting with real ilignity in the name of united Greicr. . . . Though the list of member, of the Council is given with some slight variations by ditTerent authors, all agree in making the constituent inemlM'rs of the union tribes and not cities. The representatives of the Ionic and Doric races sat and voted as single meml)i'rs, side by side with the representatives of petty peoples like the MagnOsians and I'hthiotic Achaians. When the <'ouncil was first formed. Dorians and lonians were doubtless mere tribes of northern Greece, and the prodigious (h'velopment of the Doric and Ionic races in after times made no dilTerence in its constitution. . . . Tlie Ami)hiktyonic Coun- cil was not e.xactlv a diplomatic congres.s, but it was nuieh more l!ke a diplomatic congress than it was like the governing assembly of any com- monwealth, kingdom, or federation. The I'yla- goroi and llieromnOmones were not e.vactly Ambassadors, btit they were nuich more like Ambassadors than they were like meml)ers of a British Parliament or even an American Congress. . . . The nearest apjiroach to the Amphik- lyonic Council ill modern times would be if the College of Cardinals were to consist of members chosen by the several Homaii Catholic nations of Kiirope and America." — E. A. Freeman, llht. of Fllkriil ISnrf.. r. I, ,•/(. li. AMPHILOCHIANS, The. See Ak.vun.v- KI.\NS. AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, occupying an important situation on the eastern bank of the river SIrymon, just below a small lake into which it widen.s near its mouth, was originally called "The Nine Ways." and was the scene of a horrible human sacrilicc made by Xerxes on his nnirch into Greece. — Thirlwall, Hint, iif On'icc, rh. \'i. — 't was subsequently taken by the Athenians, h. C. 437, and made it capital city by them [see Atiiicxs: li. C. 44()-4;i7|. dominating the surrounding district, its name being changed to Ampliipolis. During the I'clopomiesian War (H. C. 424), the able Laecdiu- monian general, Brasidas, led a small army into Macedonia and succeeded in capturing Atnphi- polls, which caused great dismay and discourage- ment at Athens. Thucydides, the historian, was one of the generals held responsible for the dis- aster and he was driven as aconseiinence into the fortunate e. lie which produced the composition of his history. Two years later the Athenian demagogue-leader, Cleon, took conunaud of an expedition sent to recover Ampliipolis and other points in Macedonia and Thrace. It was disastrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but Brasidas fell likewise in the battle. Whether Athens suflFered more from licr defeat than Sparta from her victory is u question. — Thucy- dides, Hutory, hk. 4, itect. 103-135, bk. 5, seet. 1-11. — Sec, also, Atiikns: B. C. 460-454, and Gkkkck: B. C 424-4'.il. — Ampliipolis was taken bv Philip of Macedon, B. C. ;i.").S. — Sec Ghekce: 15. C. ;t5<J-:i.-.8. AMPHISSA, Siege and Capture by Philip of Macedon (B. C. 339-338). See Gueece: B, c. :i.^)7-:!:!(). AMPHITHEATRES, Roman. — "There was hardly a town in the [HomaiiJ empire which had not an ampliitheatre large enough to contain vast multitudes of spectators. The savage ex- citement of gladiatorial combats .seems to have been almost necessary to the Hoiuan legionaries in their short intervals of inaction, and was the first recreation for which they provided in the places where they were stationed. . . . Gladia- torial coml)ats were held from early times in the Forum, and wild beasts huntcil in the Circus; hut until Curio built his celebrated double theatri' of wood, which could be made into au amphitheatre by turning the two semi-circular portions face to face, we have no record of any special building in the peculiar form afterwards adopted. It may have been, therefore, that Curio's mechanical contrivance first suggested the elliptical shape. ... As specimens of archi- tecture, the ampliitheatrcs are more remarkable for the mechanical skill and admir.ible adaptation to their purpose disi)layeil in them, than for any beauty of shape or decoration. The liugest of all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and uni)leasing in its lines when entire." — 1{. Burn, liiiiiii (Uitl tin' (^impii'iitii, intn/d. AMPHORA.— MODIUS. — " The [Roman] unit of capacity was the Amplioru or (Jua- drantal. which contained a cubic foot . . . equal to r>.(W7 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 3 quarts, 1 i>int, 3 gills, nearly. The Amphora was the unit I'lir both liquid and dry measures, but the latter was generally referred to the Modius, which contained one-third of an Amphora. . . . The Culeus was eipial to 30 AmplionB. " — W. Ramsav, Murmalof limitiin Antiii.. eh. 13. AMklTSAR. See Sikhs. AMSTERDAM : The rise of the city,— "In 13().') a low and prolitless marsh upon the coast of Holland, not far from the coiitines of Utrecht, had been |)arlially drained by a dam rai.scd upon the hitherto s(|iiandered stream of the Amstel. Xear this ilani a few huts were tenanted by poor men who earned a scanty live- lihood by tishiiig in the Zuyder Sea; but so uninviting seemeil that barren and desolate spot, that a century^ later Amstel-dam was still au obscure seafaring town, or rather hamlet. Its subsequent progress was luon' rapid. The spirit of the land was stirring withih it, and every por- tion of it thrilled with new energy ami life. Some of the fugitive artizaiis from Flanders saw in the thriving village safety and peace, and added what wealth they had, and, what was better, their manufacturing intelligence anil skill, to the humble handet's store. Amsteldaia ■was early admitted to the fellowship of the Ilanse League; and, in 1343, having outgrowa its primary limits, required to be enlarged. Fur this nn expensive process, that of driving piles into thfc swampy plain, was necessary; and ii this circumstance, no doubt, it is owing that the date of each successive enlargement has been so nccumtely rcconied." — W. T, McCullugh, Lulus- trial Uiatory of Three Nations, ml, 2, c7i. 9. 10 AMT. ANABAPTISTS. AMT -AMTER. See PjANDINAVian States iinmauk — Iceland): A. D. 1840- 1874: aiKi die siimL-(NouwAY): A. I). 1814-1813. AMURATH I., Turkish Sultan, A. I). 1350- 1389....Amurath II., A. 1). 1431-1451.... Amurath III., A. 1). 1574-1595. .. .Araurath IV., A. 1). 1623-1040. AMYCLiE, The Silence of.— Amvclic was the chief city of Laconiu while that district of Peloponnesus was occupied by the Achreans, before the Doric invusiou and before the rise of Sparta. It maintained its independence against the Doric Spartans for a long periotl, but suc- cumbed at length under circumstjinccs which gave rise to a proverbial saying among the Greeks concerning "the silence of Amvcla'." " Tlie peace of AmycUu, wo are told, had been so often disturbed by false alarms of the eucniy's approach, thnt at length a law was passeil forbidding such reports, and the silent city was taken by surprise." — C. Thirlwall, JftKt. of (Irfcce, ch. 7. AMYTHAONIDiE, The. See Auoos.— An- OOIJS. AN, The City of. See Ok. ANABAPTISTS OF MONSTER. - "MUnster is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a bishop, walled round, with a noble cathedral and niiuiy churches; but there is one peculiarity al)()ut !Mllnster that distinguishes it from all othiT old German towns; it has not one old church spire in it. Once it had a great many. How comes it that it now has none? In Mtlnster lived a draper, KuipperdoUing by name, who was much e.\cited over the doctrines of Luther, and he gathered many people in his house, and spoke to them bitter words against Ihe Pope, the bishoi)s, and the clergy. The bishop at this time was Francis of Waldcck, a man much in- clined himself to Lutheranism ; indeed, later, ho proposed to s>ip;iress Catholicism in the diocese, as he wanted to seize on it and appropriate it as a possession to his family. Moreover, in 1544, lie joineil the Protestant princes in a league against the Catholics; but ho did not want things to move too fust, lest he should not be able to se- cure the wealthy See as personal property. Knipperdolling got a young ])ri(;st, named Uott- maini, to preach in one of the churches against the errors of Catliolicism, and he was u man of such tiery elo(iuence that he stirred up a mob which rushed through the town, wrecking the churches. The mob became daily more daring and threatening. They drove the priests out of the town, and some of the wealthy citizens fled, not knowing what woidd follow. The bishop would have yielded to all the religious innova- tions if the rioters had not threatened his tem- poral position and revenue. In 1538 the pastor, Rottniaun, began to preach against the baptism of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrating, but in vain. The bishop was not in the town ; he was at Slinden, of whicli See ho was bishop as well. Finding that the town was in the hands of Knipperdolling and Uottmann, who were con- flseating the goods of the churches, and exclud- ing those who would not agree with their opin- ions, the bishop advanced to the i)lace at the head of some soldiers. Mllnster closed its gates against him. Negotiations were entered "into ; the Landgrave of Hesse was called in as paciflca- tor, and articles of agreement were drawn up and signed. Some of the churches were given 8 to the Lutherans, but the Cathedral was reserved for the Catholics, and the Lutherans were for- bidden to molest the latter, and disturb their re- ligious services. The news of the conversion of the city of MUnster to the gospel spread, and strangers came to it from all parts. Among these was a tailor of Leyden, called John Uockel- son. Uottmann now threw up his Lutheranism and proclaimed himself opposed to many of the doctrines which Luther still retained. Amongst other things he rejected was infant baptism. This created a split among the reformed in ilUns- ter, and the disorders broke out afresh. The niob now fell on the cathedral and drove the Catholics from it, and would not permit them to worship in it. They also invade(l the Lutheran churches, and filled them with uproar. On the evening of January 28, 1534, the Anabaptists stretched chains across the streets, assembled in armed bands, closed the gates and placed senti- nels in all directions. 'VVlien day dawned there appeared suddeidy two men dressed like Proph- ets, with long ragged beards and flowing man- tles, staff in hand, who ])aced through the streets solemnly in the midst of the crowd, who bowed before them and saluted them us Enoch and Elias. These men were John Bockelson, the tiiilor, and one John Mattheson, head of the Ana- baptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once as- sociated himself with them, and shortly tho place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Jlcn and women ran about the streets screaming and leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of angels with swords drawn urging them on to tho extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. . . . A great number of citizens were <lriven out, on a bitter day, when the land was covered with snow. Those who lagged were beaten; those who were sick were carried to the market-place and re-baptized by Uottmann. . . . This was too nmch to be borne. The bishop raised a:; army and marched against the city. Tlius began a siege which was to last sixteen montlis, during which a multitude of untrained fanatics, com- manded by n Dutch tailor, held out against a numerous and well-armed force. Thenceforth tho city was ruled by divine revelations, or rather, by the crazes of the diseased brains of the prophets. One day they declared that all the otllcers and nuigislrates were to be turned out of their oflices, and men nominated by them- selves were to take their i)laces; another day Mattheson said it was revealed to him that every book in the town except the Bible was to be destroyed ; accordingly all the archives and libraries were collected in tho market-place and burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the spires were to bo pulled down; so the church towers were reduced to stumiis, from which the enemy could be watched and '■•hence cumiou could play on them. On(! day he declared ho had been onlered by Heaven to go forth, with promise of victory, against the besieg rs. He dashed forth at the head of a large '■ . but was surrounded and he and his banu .. dn. The death of Mattheson struck dismay into tho hearts of tho Anabajitists, but John Bockelson took advantage of tho moment to establish him- self as head. Ho declared that it was revealed to him that Mattheson had been killed because he had disobeyed the heavenly cmnnutud, which was to go forth with few. Instead of that ho had gone with many. Bockelson said ho had 111 ANABAPTISTS. ANX'IIORITES. bcc-n orderrd in vision to marry MnUlieson's widow and a.ssunio Ills place. It was further re- vealed to liini that .MUnster was to he the lieavenly Zion, llie capital of the eartli, and he wa.s lo be kinf? over it. . . . Then he had an- other revelation that every man was to have ns many wives u.s lie lilied, and lie gave himself si.xteen wives. This was too outrageous for some to enilure, anil a plot was formed against liiiii oy II lilacksiiiith and about 200 of the more respe 'table citizens, but it was frustrated and led 'T the .siezure of the conspiratoi-s and the e.\ecution of ii number of them. ... At last, on midsummer eve, I.WO, after a siege of sixteen niontlis, the city was taken. Several of tlie citizens, unable longer to endure the tyranny, erueltv and abominations committed by the king, lielpeA the soldiers of the prinobishop to climb the walls, open the pates, and surprise tlie city. A desperate hand to-linnd tight ensued; the streets run with blood. John Hockel.son. instead of lending his people, hid himself, but was cauglit. So was Knipperdolling. When the I)laee was in his lianu: ■ ':e iirince-bishop entered. John of licyden and lvri!pi)erdolliiig were cruelly tortiiri-;, their tlesli plucked oil with red-hot pincers, and then a dagger was thrust into tlieir hearts. Finally, their bodies were hung in iron cages to the towerof a church in .Mlliister. Thus ended this hideous drama, which produced an indescribable ctfec't throughout Germany. JlUns- ttr, after this, in s|)ite of the desire of the prinee- bisliop to estalilish Liitherauism, reverted to C'atholi(Msm, and remains Catholic to this day." — S. Hariiig-Uould, The tStury of Oermaivj, eh. 30. Ai.so t.\ the same. Historic Otldilies iiiul Strange Jiiviitu, 2(1 tScrien. — L. von Itanke, Hist. / t/ie ReforiiMtioii ill OeriiHtni/, hk. (t, ch. 9 (c. 3). — C. Beard, The Reformation (Ilibttert Lefts., 1883), lirl. (\. ANAHUAC. — "The word Anahuac signifies 'near tlie water.' It was, probably, first applied to the country around the lakes in the Mexican VaUey, and gradually exteiidcil to the remoter regions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other semi-civilized races. Or, possibly, the name may have been intended, as Veytia suggests (Hist. Aiiti<i., lib. 1, cap. 1), to denote the laud between the waters of tlie Atlantic and Pacific." — W. II. Pre.scott, Oinqucstnf Mt\rico,hk. 1, ch. 1, note 11.— See Mkxico: A. D. 13^5-1502. ANAKIM, The. See IIokjtes, and A.Mou- ITICS. ANAKTORIUM. See Kouiivit.^. ANAPA: A. D. 1828.— Siege and Capture. — Cession to Russia. Sec TuiiKs: A. D. 1820- 182!». ANARCHISTS.— "The anarchists are . . . a small but determined bund. . . . Although their prograinme may be found almost word for word in I'loudhon, they prolV'ss to follow more closely Bakounine, the liussian nihilist, who sep- iirale<l himself from Marx and the Iiiteruatioiials, and formed secret societies in Spain, Switzerland, France, and eiscwhere, and thus propagated nihilistic views; for anarchy and niliilism are pretty much one and the same thing when nihilism is uuderslowl in tlie older, stricter sense, which docs not include, as it does iu a larger and more modern sense, those who are simply political and constitutional a'tormers. Like princu Krupotkinu, Bakouuiue came of an old and prominent Russian family; like him, ho revolted agaiimt the cruelties and injustices he saw about him; like him, he de- spaired of peaceful reform, and eonclndcd that no great improvement could bo exiiected until all our present political, economic, and social insti- tutions were so thoroughly demolisheil that of the old structure not one stone should be left on another. Out of the ruins a regenerated world might arise. We must bo purged as by fire. liiUe all anarchists and true nihilists, he "was a thorough pessimist, as far as our present manner of life was concerned. Ueaction against conser- vatism carried him very far. lie wished to abolish private property, state, and inheritanr- , Equality is to be carried so far that all must '.car the same kind of clothing, no dilferenr-. being made even for sex. Religion is an ..:,v,iration of the brain, and slioidd be abolished. Fire, dyna- mite, and assassination are approved of by at least a large number of the party. They arc brave men, and fight for tlieir faith with the devotion of martyrs. Imprisonment and death are counted but as rewards. . . . Forty-seven anarchists signed a declanitfon of principles, which was read by one of their number at their trial at Lyons. . . . ' Wo wish liberty [they declared] and we believe its existence incom- patible with the existence of any power what- soever, i'hatever its origin and form — whether it bo selected or imposoii, monarchical or repub- lican — whether inspired by divine riglit or by popular right, by anointment or universal suff- rage. . . . The best governments arc the worst. The substitution, in a word, iu human relations, of free contract perpetually revisablc and dissoluble, is our ideal.' "—H. T. Ely, French untl (/crman Sorialisni in MoUern Times, ch. 8. — "In anarchism we have the extreme antithesis of socialism and communism. The socialist desires so to extend the sphere of the state that it shall embrace all the more important concerns of life. The com- munist, at least of the older school, would make the sway of authority and tl.e routine wliicli fol- lows therefrom universal. The anarcliist, on the other lianil, would banish all forms of authority and have <mly a system of the most perfect lib- erly. The anarciiist is an extreme individual- ist. . , . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elaborately formulated by Proudhon. In the first part of his work, 'What is Property '^ ho brielly stated the doctrine and gave it the name 'anarchy,' absence of amasterorsovcreign. . . . About Vi years before Proudhon published his views, Josiali Warren reached similar conclusions in America," — II, L, Osgood, Scientijic Anarch- ism (I'd. L^ci. Quart., Mar., 1889), pp. 1-3. — See, also. Nihilism. ANARCHISTS, The Chicago. See Cm- CAOo: A. 1). lW(i-l887. ANASTASIUS I., Roman Emperor (East- ern.) A. I). i\n-r,iS Anastasius II., A. I). 713-710. ANASTASIUS III., Pope, A. D. 911-91!) Anastasius IV., Pope., A. L), 1153-1154. ANATOLIA. Sec Asi.v MiNOU. ANCALITES, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons whose home was near the Thames, ANCASTER, Origin of. See Caubenn^, ANCHORITES.— HERMITS.— " The fer- tile and peaceable lowlands of England . , . offered few spots sutUcicntly wild and lonely for the habitation of a hermit; those, therefore, 112 ANCHORITES. ANGLES AND JUTES. who wished to retire from the world into a more strirt and solitary life than that which the men- iistory afforded were in the habit of immuring themselves, as anchorites, or in old Eu{;lish 'Ankers,' in little cells of stone, built usually apiinst the vwW of a church. There is notliing new under the sun; and similar anchorites might have been seen in Egypt, oOO years before the time of St. Antony, immured in cells in the temples of Isis or Serapis. It is only recently timt antiquaries have discovered how common tliis practice was in England, and how frequently the traces of these cells are to be found about our parish churches." — C. Kingsloy, T/ir, Hermits, ]}. S'2'.l — The term anchorites is applied, gener- ally, to all religious ascetics who lived in solitary cells. — .1. Hingham, Aniiq. oftlie Chnstian Oh., Ilk. 7, (•/(. 1, Ki'ct. 4. — " Tlie essential difference between an anker or anchorite and a hermit appears t'> have been that, whereas the former I)assed his whole life shut up in a cell, the latter, although lending indeed a solitary life, wandered aboutat libert; ." — U. K. Sharpe, Int. to "C'alen- (liir of Wills ill Hie Court of Hunting, Loiulon," ANCIENT REGIME.— The political and social system in France that was destroyed by the Hevolution of 1789 is commonly referred to asthe "ancien regime." Some writers translate this in the literal English form — "the ancient regime;" others render it more appropriately, perhaps, the "old regime." Its special applica- tion is to tlie state of things described under Fii.\nce: a. D. 1789. ANCIENTS, The Council of the. See Fhance: A.I). 1795 (June — Septkmbeu). ANCRUM, Battle of. — A success obtained by the Scots over an English force making an incursion into the border districts of their country A. 1). 1.544.— J. H. Burton, Jlist. of Scotland, c/i. 3.5 (('. 3). ANDALUSIA : The name.— "The Vandals, . . . tliough they passed altogether out of Spain, have left their name to this day in its southern part, under the form of Andalusia, a name which, under the Saracen conquerors, spread itself over the whole peninsula." — E. A. Ireeman, Historical Gcog. of liurope, ch. 4, sect. 3. —See, also: Vand.\i,s: A. I). 428. — Roughly speaking, Andalusia represents the country known to the ancients, first, as Tartessus, and, later, as Turdetania. ANDAMAN ISLANDERS, The. See Iniiia: The Ahouioinal Inhahitants. ANDASTES, The. See Amehican Anoni- OINKS: St'SCJlTKIIAKNAS. ANDECAVI.— The ancient name of the city of Angers, France, and of the tribe which occu- pied that region. See Veneti ok Westeun Qai:i,. ANDERIDA. — ANDERIDA SYLVA.— ANDREDSWALD.— A great forest which an- ciently stretched across Surrey, Susse.\ and into Kent (southeastern England) was called Anderida Sylva by the Romans and Andredswald by the Saxons. It coincided nearly with the tract of Cfumtry called in mwli ni times the Weald of Kent, to which it gave ii • name of the Wald or Weald. On the southern coast-border of the Anderida Sylva the Romans established tlu; im- portant fortress and port of Anderida, which has been identifled with motlern Pevensey Here tlie Komauo-Britous made an obstinate stand against the Saxons, in the fifth century, and An- derida was only taken by .Elle after a long siege. In the worils of the Chronicle, the Saxons "slew all that were therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left."— J. R. Green, The Makimj of Unij., ch. 1. Ai,8o IN T. Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon, ch. .">. ANDERSON, Major Robert.— Defense of Fort Sumter. See Umtkd St.vtknof Am., .\. D. 1860(l)ECEMEii.:u): 18(U (Maucii— Aphii,). ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See Prisons ani} Puison-I'k.ns, Confedkuatk. ANDES, OR ANDI, OR ANDECAVI, The. See Vkneti of Western Gaul. ANDESIANS, The. See Ajierican Aboki- GiNES ; Andesians. ANDR^, Major John, The Capture and execution of. See United St.\te8 of Am., A. I). 1780 (August- September). ANDREW I., King of Hungary, A. D. 1046-1000.... Andrew II., King of Hungary, A. I). 1204-1235.... Andrew IIL, King of Hungary, A. D. 1290-1301. ANDRONICUS I., Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), A. U. 1183-1185 Andronicus II. (Palsologus), Greek Emperor of Constantinople, A. 1). 1282-1328 An- dronicus III. (Palaeologus), A. D. 1328-1341. ANDROS, Governor, New England and New York under. See New England: A. D. 1086; .Massachusetts: A. D. 1671-1680; and 1086-1689; New York: A. D. 1688; and Con- necticut: A. D. 1685-1687. ANDROS, Battle of (B. C. 407). See Greece: B. C. 411-407. ANGELIQUE, La Mire. See Port Rotal AND THE Janhenisth; A. 1). 1002-1660. ANGERS, Origin of. See Veneti of West- eun Gaul. ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- PIRE. See England: A. D. 1151-1189. ANGHIARI, Battle 01(1425). See Italy: A. I). 1412-1447. ANGLES AND JUTES, The.— The men- tion of the Angles by Tacitus is in the following passage: " Next [to the Larigobardi] come the Reudigni, the Aviones, ilie Anglii, the Varini, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and Nuithones, who are fenced in by rivers or forests. None of these tribes have anj^ notinvortliy feature, except their common worship of Ertha, or mother-Earth, and their belief thai she interposes in human affairs, and visits the nations in her car. In an island of the ocean there is a sacred grove, and within it a eonsecrateil chariot, covered over with a gar- ment. Only one priest is permitted to touch it. He can perceive the presence of the goddess in this sacred recess, and walks by her side with the utmost rev(?renco as she is drawn along by heifers. It is a season of rejoicing, and festivity reigns wherever she deigns to go and be receivecl. They do not go to battle or wear arms ; every weapon is under lock ; peace and quiet are wel- comed only at these limes, till the goddess, weary of human intercourse, is at length restored by the same priest to her temple. Afterwards the ear, the vestments, and, it you like to believe it, the divinity lier,self, are purilied in a seerei- lake. Slaves perform the rite, who are instantly swal- lowed up by its waters. Hence arises a myster- ious terror and a jiious ignorance concerning the nature of that which is seen only by men doomed 118 ANGLES AND JUTES. ANJOU. to die. This limncli indccfl of the Supvl stretches into ihcrcmotiT rc),'lon.sof GtTmaiiy."— Tacitiis, (ieriiuuiii; Iraim. hi/ Vhurch mid Jinxlrihb, ch. 40. — "In (Idsc noiiilibDuHuMxl witli the Hiixons in tlip riiiddliMif th(' fourth icntury were tlic Angli, It trihe whose origin is niore uncertain and tlie iipplicutidn of wliose name is still more n matter of (lucstion. If the name belongs, in the pages of tlie several geonniphers, to the same nation, it was situated in the time of Tarituseast of the Elbe: in the time of I'lolemv it was found on the middle Elbe, betweon the 'I'hurinKians to the south and the Varini to the north; and at a, later period it was forced, perhaps by the growth of the Thuringian power, into tlie neck of the ('im- bric ))eniiisula. It may, however, be reasonably doubted whether this "hypothesis is sound, and It is by no means clear whether, if it be so, the Angli were not eoimected more closely with the Thuringians than with the Haxons. To the north of the Angli, after they had readied their Schles- wig home, were the Jules, of whose early his- tory- we know nothing, e.tcept their claims to be regarded as kinsmen of the Goths and theclo.se similarity between tlieir descendants and the neighbour Frisians." — \V. Stubb.s, Coniit. Hist, of Enf/., V. 1, rli. 3. — " Important as are the An- gles, it is not too much to say that they are only known through tlieir relations to us of England, their descendants; indeed, without this paramount fact, they would be liable to be confused with the Frisians, with the Old Saxons, and with even Slavonians. Tliis is chiefly because there is no satisfactory trace or fragment of the Angles of Germany witliin Germany; whilst the notices of the otiier writers of antinuity tell us as little as the one we tind in Tacitus. And this notice is not only liricf but complicated. ... I still think that the Angli of Tacitus were — 1: Tlie Angles of England; 'i: Occiiiiaiits of the nortliern parts of Hanover; :$: At least in the time of Tacitus; 4: And that to the exclusion of any territory in Holsteiii, which was Frisian to tlie west, and Slavonic to the east. Still the question is one of great magnitude and numerous complications." — U. G. Latham, 7'Af Germany of Taeitua; Epil- egomena. sect. 49. Also in J. .>I, Lappeuberg, IUst f Enr/. under the AngUi-Siixon Iiiiif/n, r. 1, pp. ,s!)-95. — See, also, Avio.NES, and Saxons. — The conquests and settlements of tlie Jutes and the Angles in Brit- Bin are deseribed under Enolajjd: A. D. nil- 473. and r)47-0:!:». ANGLESEA, Ancient. See Mona, Monapia, and NoKMANs; Htii-!)tii Centuuiks. ANGLO-SAXON.— A term which may be considered as a compound of Angle and Saxon, the names of the two principal Teutonic tribes which took )ios.session of Britain and formed the Engli.sh nation by their ultimate union. As thus regarded and used to designate the race, th? language and tlie institutions which resulted from that union, it is only objectionable, perhaps, as being siiiktOuous, because English is the ac- cepted name of the people of England and all pertaining to them. But the term Anglo-Saxon has also been more iiarticularly employed to designate the Early English people and their language, before the Norman Conquest, as though they we.-c Anglo-Saxon at that period and became English afterwards. Modern his- torians are protesting strongly against this use of the term. Mr. Freeman (Norman Conquest, v. 1, note A), says: "The name by which our forefatliers really knew themselves and by which thev were known to other nations was Engli.sh and no other. 'Angli,' 'Engle,' 'Angel cya,' ' Engli.sc' are the true names by which the Teu- tons of Britain knew themselves a,fid their lan- guage. ... As a chronological term, iVnglo- Saxon is equally objectionable with Saxon. The 'Anglo-Saxon period,' as far as there ever was one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our forefathers, not as 'Saxon.s,'or even ns 'Anglo Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, as Englislimen — 'Angli,' 'Engle,' — 'Angel cyn.'" — Sec, also, Saxons, and Angles and Jutes. ANGLON, Battle of.— Fought in Armenia, A. I). WH, betw. '1 tlie Uop- .wsund the Persians, with disaster to tiie lurmer. — G. Ilawliusou, Seventh Great Oriental Moudreh)/, eh. 20. ANGORA, Battle of (1402). See Ti.mohb- also, Tl'Iiks: A. D. 13H!(-I403. ANGOSTURA, OR BUENA VISTA, Battle of. See Mexico: A. I). 1840-1847. ANGRIVARII, The.— The Angrivarii were one of the tribes of ancient Germany. Their settlements "were to the west of the Weser (Visurgis) in the neighbourhood of Minden and Herford, and tlius coincide to some extent with Westphalia. Tlieir territory was the scene of Varus' defeat. It has been thought that the name of this tribe is preserved in that of the town Engern." — A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, Tdfitiin'a Germany, notes. — See, also, Bkucteki. ANL— Storming of the Turks (1064). See TuuKs: A. D. 1003-1073. ANILLEROS, The. See Spain: A. D. 1814-1837. ANJOU : Creation of the County.— Origin of the Plantagenets. — "It was the policy of this unfairly depreciated sovereign [Charles the Bald, grandson of Charlemagne, who received in the dismemberment of the Carlovingian Empire the Neustrian part, out of which was developed the modern kingdom of France, and who reigned from 840 to 877], to recruit the failing ranks ot the false and degenerate Frankish aristocracy, by calling up to his jieerage the wise, the able, the honest and the bold of ignoble birth. . . . lie sought to surround himself with new men, the men without ancestry; and the earliest historian of the Houiie of Anjou both describes this system i.'id affords the most splendid example of the 'lueory adopted by the king. Pre-eminent amongst these parvenus was Torquatus or Tor- tulfus, an Armorican peasant, a very rustic, a backwoodsman, who lived by hunting and such like occupations, almost in solitude, cultivating his 'quillets,' his 'cueillettes,' of land, and driv- ing his own oxen, harnessed to his plough. Tor- quatus entered or was invited into the service of Charles-le-Chauve, and rose high in his sover- eign's contidimce : a jirudent, a bold, and a good man. Charles appointed him Forester of the forest called 'the Blackbird's Nest,' the 'nid du merle,' a pleasant name, not the less pleasant for its familiarity. This happened during the con- flicts with the Northmen. Torquatus served Charles strenuously in the wars, and obtained great authority. 'Tertullus, son of Torquatus, inherited his father's energies, quick and acute, patieift. of fatigue, ambitious and aspiring; he became the liegeman of Charles; and his mar- riage with Petronilla the King's cousin. Count 114 ANJOU. ANJOU. Hugh the Abbot's daughter, introduced him into the very circle of tlie royal fainily. Chil- tciiii Limdon and other benefices in the Gastinois were acquired by him, possibly as the laly's dowry. Seneschal also was Tertullus of the same ample Gustinois territory. Ingelgcr, son of Tertullus and Petronilla, appears as the first hereditary Count of Anjou Outre-Maine, — Mar- quis, Consul or Count of Anjou, — for all these titles are assigned to him. ^et the ploughman Tonpiatus must be reckoned as the primary Plaiitiigenet: the rustic Tonpiatus founded that brilliant family." — Sir P. Palgrave, Ilist. uf Nor- mdinlyaml Enyldnd, bk. 1. ch. 3. Ai.so IN K. Norgate, England undtr the An- geriii Kin<jK, c. 1, ch. 2. A. D. 987-1129.— The greatest of the old Counts.— " Pule Nerra, Pidc the Black [A. D. 987-1040] is the greatest of the Angevins, tlio first in wliom we can trace that marked type of character which their house was to preserve with a fatal constancy through two hundred {rears. lie was without natural affection. In lis youth he burned a wife at the stake, and legend told how he led her to her doom decked out iu his gayest attire. In his old age Iks waged his l)itterest war ^igainst his son, and exacted from him when vanquished a humilia- tion which men reserved for the deadliest of their foes. ' You are conquered, you are con- quered!' shouted the old man in lierce exulta- tion, as Qeoffry, bridled and saddled like a beast of l)urden, crawled for pardon to his father's feet. . . . But neither the wrath of Heaven nor the curses of men broke witli a single mishap the fifty years of his success. At his accession Anjou was the least important of the greater provinces of Prance. At his death it stood, if not iu extent, at least in real power, first among them all. . . . His overthrow of Brittimy on the field of Concjuereux was followed by the gradual absorption of Southern Touraine. . . . His great victory at Pontlevoi crushed the rival house of BIoLs; the seizure of Saumur completed his con- quests in the South, while Northern Touraine was won bit by bit till only Tours resisted the Angevin. The treacherous seizure of its Count, Herbert Wake-dog, left Maine at his mercy ere the old man beqiunithed his unfinished work to his sou. As a warrior, Geoffry Martel was hardly inferior to his father. A decisive over- throw wrested Tours from the Count of Blois; a second left Poitou at his mercy ; and the seizure of I,e JIans brought him to the Norni;m border. Here . . . his advance was cheeknl by the genius of William the Concpieror, and with liis death the greatness of Anjou seemed for the tiin(! to have come to an end. Stripped of JIaine by the Normans, and weakened by internal dis- sensions, the weak and profligate administration of Pule Rechin left Anjou powerless against its riv.ils along the Seine. It woke to fresh energy with the accession of his son. Pule of Jerusalem. . . . Pule was the one enemy whom Henry the First really feared. It was to disarm his restless hostility timt the King yielded to his son, Geof- fry llie Handsome, the hand of his daughter Miitilda."— .1. U. Green, A Short History of tlie Eiinlisk Pmph\ ch. 2, gcct. 7. At.so IN K. Norgate, England under the Ange- rin Kings, r. 1, e/i. 2-4. A. D. 1154. — The Counts become Kings of England. See Enol.a.nd : A. 1). 1104-1189. A. D. 1204. — Wrested from the English King John. See Pk.v.nck: A. D. llHO-1224! A. D. 1206-1442. — English attempts to re-- cover the county. — The Third and Fourth Housesof Anjou.— Creation of the Dukedom. — King .lohn, of England, did not voluntarily submit to the sentence of the peers of Prance which pronounced his forfeiture of the fiefs of Anjou and Maine, "since he invaded and had po.ssession of Angers again in 1200, when, Goth- like, he demolished its ancient walls. He lost it in the following year, an' . . . made no further attempt upon it until l£i3. In that year, having collected a powerful army, he landed at Hochelle, and actually occupied Angers, without striking a blow. But . . . the year 1214 beheUl him once more in retreat from Anjou, never to reap- pear there, since lie died on the 19th of October, 1'316. In the person of King John ended what is called the ' Second H(nise of Anjou. ' In 1204, after the confiscations of John's Prench pos.se8- sions, Philip Augustus estublislie<l hereditary senesclials in that part of Prance, the first of whom was the tutor of the nnfortunate Young Arthur [of Brittany], named William des Iloches, who was in fact Count in all except the name, over Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, owing alle- giance only to the crown of Prance. The Sene- schal, William des Uoches, died in 1222. His son-in-law, Amaury de Craon, succeeded him," but was soon afterwards taken prisoner during a war in Brittanv and incarcerated. Ilcnry 111. of Englaml still claimed the title of Count of Anjou, and in 1230 he "disembarked a consid- erable army at St. Malo, in tlie view of re-con- quering Anjou, and the other forfeited possessions of his crown. Louis IX., then only fifteen years old . . . advanced to the attack of the allies; but in the following year a peace was concluded, the jirovincD of Guienne having been coded to the Englisli crown. In 1241, Louis gave the counties of Poitou and Auvergne to his brother Alphonso ; and, in the year 1246, he invested his brother Charles, Count of Provence, with the counties of Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling the nmk and title of Seneschal, and instituting the Thinl House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder of the proud fortunes of this Third House, was ambi- tious iu character, and events long favoured his ambition. Count of Provence, through the in- heritance of his consort, had not long been invested with Anjou and JIaine, ere he was in- vited to tlie conquest of Sicily [see It.vi.y (SouTiiEitN): A. D. 1250-1268].'' The Third House of Anjou ended in the person of John, wlio became King of Prance in Vd~)0. In 1356 lie invested his son Louis with Anjou and Maine, and in 1360 the latter was created the first Duke of Anjou. The Pourtli House of Anjou, which began with this first Duke, came to an end two generations later with Uene, or Hegnier, — the "good King Uene" of history and story, wliose kingdom was for the most part a name, and who is best known to English rcadeii, perhaps, as the father of Margaret of Anjou, tiiu stout- hearted queen of Henry VI. On the death of his father, Louis, the second duke, Kene becamt by his father's will Count of Guise, his elder brother, Louis, inheriting the dukedom. In 1434 flic brother died without issue and Rene succeeded him in Anjou, Maine and Provence. He had already become Duke of Bar, as the adopted heir of his great-uncle, the cardinal- 115 ANJOU. ANTILLES. dukp, mill Duke of Lomiinc (ICid), l)y ilcsignn- tion of llii- lull' Duki-. wUnst- dini^rlilcr Ik; Imd nmrrird. In 1 t:t.") I"' received fmiii tjiicpii Joaiinii i>f Naples the cli)iil>tfid lei.'iiiy of tliat di.slriieted Uiniriloni, wliicli she liiiil previously Ijequiallied lirsf, to Alphonso of Arai^oii, and nflerwards — revokiriirllial testainc'iit — to Uene's brother, Louis of Aiijou. Kin;; Hone enjoyed the titli' liurinf; liislife-linii', and the aetual king- dom for a brief pcrliHl ; liiil in 1 t-t'J lie was ex- pelled from Naples 1>V ids eoniiietitor Alphonso (see Italy: A. P. 141^-1447). —M. A. Ilook- lium, Ufe mill Tiiikh <>/ Sfnryiiret of Anjoi/, introd. and eh. 1-2. ^^ ANJOU, The Englit.i House of. See Eno- l,AM): A. I). II.M-IIN'.I. ANJOU, The Neapolitan House of: A. D. 1266.— Conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. See Italy: A. 1>. l','."i(i-r,'(lH. A. D. 1282. Loss of Sicily. — Retention of Naples. See Italy: A. D. l',>H-,>-i;!()(), A. D. 1310-1382. — Possession of the Hun- garian throne. See llrMiAUY: .V, D. i:!01-144a. A. D. 1370-1384.— Acquisition and loss of the crown of Poland. See I'm, and: .V. I). i:t:i;i-ir)7->. A. D. 1381-1384. — Claims of Louis of Anjou. —His expedition to Italy and his death. See Italy: A. I). i34:i-i;W'J. A. D. 1386-1399.— Renewed contest for Naples.— Defeat of Louis II. by Ladislas. See Italy: A, D. i;iHO-1414. A. D. 1423-1442. — Renewed contest for the crown of Naples.— Defeat by Alfonso of Ara- gon and Sicily. See Ital/: A. 1). 1412-1447. ANKENDORFF, Battle of. See Geu.«any: A. I). 1S07 (FEUUtAUY- .IlNK). ANKERS. See ANriioitiTKS. ANNA, Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1780- 1740. ANNALES MAXIM I, The. See Fasti. ANNAM: A. D. 1882-1885.— War with France. — French protectorate accepted. See France: A. I). Ists-IHSU. ANNAPOLIS ROYAL, NOVA SCOTIA: Change of name from Port Royal (1710). See NkwEnoland: A. D. r't2-1710. ANNATES, OR FIRST-FRUITS.— " A pmetico had existed for some hundreds of years, in all the chiir.-:hes of Europe, that bishops and archbishops, on presentation to their sees, should transmit to the poji' on receiving their bulls of investment, one .\ r's income from their new- preferments. It w. IS called the iiayment of An- nates, or tirst-fruits, and had originated in the time of the crusades, as a means of providing a fund for the holy wars. Once established it had settled into custom, and was one of the cliic^f resources of the iiapal revenue." — .1. A. Froudc. Jlistory of Kii{/tiuitl, eh. 4. — " Tlie claim [by the pope] to the tirst-fruits of bishoprics and other promotions was apparently first made in England by Alexander IV. in 12."i(S, for live years; it was renewed by Clement V. in 1306, to "last for two years; and it was in a measure successful. By .lolin XXII. it was claimed throughout Christen- dom for three years, and met with universal resistiuice. . . . Stoutly contested as it was in the Council of Constance, and frequently made the subject of debate in parliament and council the dumuud must have buuu rugulurly complied with."— W. Slubbs, Ciiiint. Hint, of Kiig.,eh. 19, met. 7IH — See, also, t)l KKN .V.NNK's Boi'.NTY. ANNE, Queen of England, A, I). 1T02-1714. ANNE OF AUSTRIA, Queen-regent of France. .Sei'FiiA.NtK: A. I). 11142-1048, to 1651- lOriii. ANNE BOLEYN, Marriage, trial and execution of. SecMvSdLASU: A. I). 1527-l.5;i4, and l.");itM."(4;i. ANSAR, The. See Maho.metan Conquest: A. 1). ()(l!»-0:!2. ANSIBARII,The. SeeFuASUs: Ouioix. &c. ANSPACH, Creation of the Margravate. See Okkmanv: i;tTir ('KSTiiiv. .. .Separation from the Electorate of Brandenburg. See IJuANDK.NniiKi: A. I). 1417-1040. ANTALCIDAS, Peace of (B. C. 387). See Oiikkck: H. C. :i)H)-«87, ANTES, The. See Slavonic Peoples. ANTESIGNANI, The.—" In each cohort [of the Honiiin legion, in Ciesur's time] a, certain niimlHT of the best men, probably about one- fourth of the whole detacbment, was as.signed as 11 guard to the standard, from whence thi^y derived tlieir name of Antesignani." — ('. Mcn- vale. Hint, iifthe Jioiiiiinn, ch. 1"). ANTHE'MIUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. I). 407-472. ANTHESTERIA, The. Sec Dionysia at Athens. ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. See Tar- IKK l,i:<iisLATioN (England): A. I). 18.S6-1839, and 1845-1846. ANTI-FEDERALISTS. See United States OF Am. : A. 1). 1789-17«3. ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American. See New Vouk: A. I). 182fl-18;!2. ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, Mexican. See Mexico: A. D. 1832-1828. ANTI-RENTERS.— ANTI-RENT WAR. See LiviNosTON Manor. ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENTS. See Slavery, Neoro. ANTIETAM, OR SHARPSBURG, Battle of. See United States of Am. : A. I). 1803 (Septemiier: Maryland). ANTIGONE A. See JUntinea: B. C. 222. ANTIGONID KINGS, The. See Greece: B. C. 307-197, ANTIGONUS, and the wars of the Dia- dochi. See Macedonia: B. C. 333-316; 315- 310; 310-301. ANTIGONUS GONATUS, The wars of. See Macedonia: B. C. 377-344. ANTILLES.— ANVILIA.—" Familiar as i.s the name of the Antilles, few are aware of the antiquity of the word ; while its precise signifi- cance sets etymology at defiance. Common con- sent identified the Antilia of legend with the Isle of the Seven Cities. In the year 734, says the story, the Arabs having conquered most of the Spanish peninsula, a number of Christian emignints, under the. direction of seven holy bishops, among thein the archbishop of Oporto, .sailed westward with all that they had, and reached an island where they founded seven towns. Arab geographers speak of an Atlantic island called in Arabic El-tennyn, or Al-tin (Isle of Serpents), a name which may possibly have become by corruption Antilia. , . . The seven bishojis were believed in the 16th century to be still represented by their successors, and to pre- ■ "" " Most side over a numerous and wealthy people. Most 116 ANTH.LKS. ANTUUSTIONES. pooernplicrs of llio 15lli rciitiiry believed in tlio cxisleiue of Antiliii. Il was ifpiosciitcd as IviTiy; wi'st of till' Azores. ... As soon as it bci nine linowii in Europe llial ('(iluiiil)nH liaii (iiscoveiiil II large island, Kspafiola was at onee identilied witli Antilia, . . . and the name . . . lias ever sinee been iipi>lied generally lo llie AVest Indian islands." — K. J. J'a.vne, J/inl. of the Aiw \\'i/ilil odUil Ainiriai, r. I, j>. 08.— See, also, West ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY IN PURITAN MASSACHUSETTS. Sec Mas- ^.\(iiisi;ith: A. 1). UWd-ltlJiH. ANTIOCH : Founding of the City. See Hi;i.i;iiil).K; and iMAei;iK)M.\, itc. : 15. C. 310- 301. A. D. 36-400. — The Christian Church. See CiiitisriANrrv, Eaulv. A. D. 115. — Great Earthquake. — "Early in tlie year 115, aceording to the mostexaet eliron- ology, . . . the splendid capital of Syria was visileil by an eartlupiake, one of the 'iiost disas- trous apparently of all tbo similar inllictioiis from wliieh that luekless city lia.s periodically sulfered. . . . The calamity was enhanced by the presence of unusual crowds from all the cities of tlie east, assend)led to pay lionmge to the Emperor [Trajan], or to take part iu his expe- dition [of conquest in the cast]. Among the victims were many Iloinans of distinction. . . . Trajan, himself, only escaped by creeping through a window." — C. Merivule, Jlint. of the Romans, ch. C.5. A. D. 260. — Surprise, massacre and ' pillage by Sapor, King of Persia. See I'khsia: A. 1). 220-0^7. A. D. 526. — Destruction by Earthquake. — During the reign of .)u.stinian (A. 1). 518-505) the cities of the liomaii Empire " were overwhelmed by earthquakes more frequent than at any other period of history. Antiocb, the metro])olis of Asia, was entirely destroyed, on the 20tb of May, 536, at the very tiiiie when the inhabitants of the adjacent country were assembled to cele- brate the festival of the Ascension; and it is allirmed that 250,000 persons were crushed bv the fall of Its sumiJtuous edifices." — J. C. L. (fc Sismondi, Fall of the, lioinaii Empire, eh. 10. Also in : E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Human Empire, eJi. 43. A. D. 540. — Stormed, pillaged and burned by Chosroes, the Persian King. See Peusia : A. 1). 220-027. A. D. 638. — Surrender to the Arabs. See Mahometan Conquest: A. D. 632-030. A. D. 969. — Recapture by the Byzantines.— After linving renuiined 328 years in the jiossession of the Saracens, Autioeli was retaken in the winter of A. D. 969 by the Byzantine Emperor, Nieepho- rus Pliokas, and became again a Qliristian city. Three years later the Moslems made a great effort to recover the city, but were defeated, The Byzantine arms were at this time highly successful in the never ending Saracen war, and John Zimiskes, successor of Nicephorus Phokas, marched triumphantly to the Tigris and threat- ened even Bagdad. But most of the cimquests thus made in Syria and Jlesopotamia were not lasting.— G. Vm\a\, IHkI. of the liyzaiitim: Em- pire, A. 1). 710-1007, M-. 2, eh. 2.— See Byzan- tine E.mi-iue. A. D. 063-1025. A. D. 1097-1098. — Siege and capture by the Crusaders. Sec Ckuijauiss: A. D. 1000-1009. A. D. 1099-1 144.— Principality. Sec Jeru- salem: A. r,>. looo-iiii. A. D. 1268.- Extinction of the Latin Prin- cipality. — Total destruction of the city. — An- tiocb fell, before the arms of Bibars, the Sultan of Egpyt and Syria, and tlie Latin principalily was bloodily extingviislied, in 1208. "The lirsl seat of the CInislian name was dispeopled by the slaughter of Mvenleiii, and the captivity of one hundred, thousand of her inliabilaiits. " This fate befell Antioch only twenty three years before the last vestige of the eoiKiuests of the crusaders was obliterated at Acre — E. Gibbon, J)ifliiie and Fall if the Human Empire, ch. 50. — "The sultan lialteil for sevi rai weeks in the l)lain, and permitted his soldi,'rs t(j hold a large market, or fair, for the sale of their iiooly. This market was attended by Jews and jiedlars from all parts of the East. . . , 'It was,' savstlie Gadi Mohieddin, "a fearful and lie:irt-ren(iing sight. Even the hard stones were soltened witli grief.' lie tells us that the captives were so numerous that a fine heartv boy might be |)ur(hased for twelve ])ieees of silver, and a little girl for live. When the work of i)illage ha 1 been completed, when all the ornaments and decorations bad been carried away from the churdies, and the lend torn from the roofs, Antioch was fired Jn dif- ferent places, amid the loud thrilling shouts of 'Allah Acbar,' 'God is Victorious.' The itreat diurehes of St. Paul and St. Peter burnt witli terrific fury for many days, and tlu^ vast end venerable citv was left witbo'it u habitation and without an inhabitant." — 0. G. Addison, l\'ie Knif/hts Templars, eh. 0. ANTIOCHUS SOTER AND ANTIO- CHUS THE GREAT. See Seleucii).*;, The: B. C, 281-224, and 224-187. ANTIPATER, and the wars of the Dia- dochi. See Macedonia: B. C. 323-316. ANTIUM. — " Antium, once a flourishing city of the Volsci, and afterwards of the liomans, their conquerors, is at iiresent reduced to a small number of inhabitants. Originally it was with- out u iiort ; the harbour of the Antiates having been the ncighbouriug indentation in the coast of Ceno, now Nettuno, distant more than a nule to the eastward. . . . The piracies of the ancient Antiates all proceeded from Geno, or Cerio, where they bad 22 long ships. These Nuraicius took; . . . some were taken to Bome and their rostra suspended in triumph in tlie Forum. ... It [Antium] was reckoned 2C0 stadia, or about 82 miles, from Ostia." — Sir W. Qell, Topog. of Rome, r. 1. ANTIUM, Naval Battle of (1378). See Venice: A. 1). 1378-1370. ANTIVESTiEUM. See li;;iTAiN, Tuujes OP Celtic. ANTOINE DE BOURBON, King of Na- varre, A. ]). 15.'")5-1557. ANTONINES, The. See Uo.me: A. D. 138- 180. ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor, A. I). 101-18(). ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman Emperor, A. I). 138-101. ANTONY, Mark, and the Second Triumvi- rate. See Home: B. C. 44 to 31. ANTRUSTIONES.— In the Salic law, of the Franks, there is no trace of any recognized order of uobility, "Wc meet, however, with 117 ANTUrSTIONEH. APOLLONIA IN ILLYHIA. froiii ollici'H poliliciil anil jiiilii'iiil, or from a J pimitioii alH>ut till' ners) f llic kiiiK. Aiiiomk j llii'w tlic AiilriiNlloni's, who wcri' iti conslaiit, i attriiilaiHC ii|miii tlic kiti);, played a ciinsplciuiMs i part. . . . AiitnisliiPiics :in(f ConvivH- IJiyis [Udtnans who liclil thr Haiiic |Mwitli)nl tire Uw. pri'ilrri'ssiintof the VuHxi Doniliiici of later times, [ anil like these were lioiitiil to the kiiiK '>>' at! is- | iHiial iiath of personal and per|Mtual servi .• I'liev fornied part, as it \v<'re, of the kiiiv H family, and were expected to resi<le in the jialaci, where Ihey superintended the various depart meiits of the rovid household."— VV. C. I'crry, 7'A,' FniiikK. r/i. '|(». ANTWERP: The name of the City.— Its commercial greatness in the i6th centuiy. — "The city was so ancient that its jrenealoj^isi :, with ridiculous j;"'^'''.'*'. ascended to a perii«l two centuries before the Trojan war, and dis- covered a giant, rejoicing in the classii^ name of AiitlKonus, estalilisiiiMl on the Seheld. Tliis patriarch exacted one half the merchandise of all navigat/irs who passed his castle, and was ac- customed to amputate and cast into the river tlic rijfht hands of i'iohi who infringed this simple tariff. Tliiis '11 l-werpen,' hand-throwing, i)e- cninc Antwerp, and hence, two hands, in the PKcufchunn of the city, were ever held up in heraldic attestation of the truth. The giant was, in his turn, thrown into the Hcheld by a hero, named Hralio, from whose exjiloils Urahant de- rived its name. . . . Ilut for these antiipiarian researches a simjiler derivation of the name would seem 'an t' werf," 'on the wharf.' It had now [iu the lirst half of the 18th century | be- come the principal entrepot and exchange of Kuropc . . . the commercial capital of the world. . . . Venice, Niiremburg, Augsburg, Bruges, wore sinking, but Antwerp, with its deep anil convenient river, stretched its arm to the ocean and caught the golden prize, n.s it fell from its sister cities' grasp. . . . No city, except Paris, surpas.sed it in population, nono approached It in conuncrcial s|)lendor." — J. L. Motley, T/ie Rim of the Dutch IltiniMic. Hint, /iiti-nil./nirt. Vi. A. D. 1313.— Made the Staple for English trade. See fSiwfi.K. A. D. 1566. — Riot of the Image-breakers in the Churches. .See Nktukiu.a.nds: A. 1). 1500- 1508. A. D. 1576.— The Spanish Fury. See Nktii- KiiLANDs: A. I). l.')7.'i-1.577. A. D. 1577.— Deli\erance of the city from its Spanish garrison.— Demolition of the Cita- del. See Nktiikui.ands; A. 1). ir)77-l.Wl. A. D. 1583. — Treacherous attempt of the Duke of Anjou.— The French Fury. See Ni. . 1 Klii.ANiis: A. I). l.lHl-l.'iSl. A. D. 1584-1585.— Siege and reduction by Alejiander Farnese, Duke of Parma.— The downfall of prosperity. See NETiiKuiiAUDs: A. I). loS-l-l.Wo. A. D. 1648.— Sacrificed to Amsterdam in the Treaty of Miinster.— Closing of the Scheldt. See Nktiikiu.ands: A. I). 10(0-1018. A. D. 1706.— Surrendered to Marlborough and the Allies. See Xkthkui.ands: A. 1). 1700- 1707. A. D. 1746-1748.— Taken by the French and restored to Austria. See Nktiikiilands: A. D. 1740-1747; ami Aix-i.a-Cu.u'el!.::: The Con- UltCSii, A. O. 1832.— Siege of the Citadel by the French.- Expulsion of the Dutch garrison. Jk'p Nktukulands: A. D. IWJO-lsaS. APACHES, The. See Amkiiican Anonio- im;s .\i'\< hk Omu 1". and .Vtiiai'ahcan Family. APALACHES, The. See Amekican Aim)R- khm.h: .\|'ai,a( iiks. APAMEA.— .\pamca. a city founded by Melcucus Nicator on the Kuphrates, the site lif ^^hicli is occupied by the miMlern town of Bir, had become, in Sirabo's time (near the beginning )f the Christian Era) one of the principal centers of Asiatic trade, st'cond only to Kphesus. Thap- sacus. the former customary crossing-place of the Kuphrates. had ceased to be so, and the pas- sage was made at .Vpamea. A place on the opposite bank of the river was called Zeugma, or "the bridge." Bir "is still the usual place at which travellers proceeding from Antioch or .\leppo towards Bagdad cross the Kuphrates." — K. 11. Buuburv. J/ixt. of Aucifiit Ueog.,ch. 22, met. 1 (i\ 'i. /»;)."238 nnil HH). APANAGE. See Aitanaoe. APATURIA, The.— An anniud family festi- val of th(^ Atheinans. celebrate<l for three' days In the early part of the month of October (Pyaiu'i).sion). "This was the characteristic festival of the Ionic race; handed down from a period anterior to the constitution of Kleisthenes, and to the ten new trit)es each containing soniany demes, and bringing together the citizens in their |)rimitive unions of family, gens, phratry, etc., the aggregate of which had originally con- stituted the four Ionic tribes, now superannuated. At the Apaturia, the family ceremonies were gone th'-ough ; marriages were enrolled, acts of adoption were promulgated and certified, the names of youthful citizens first entered on the gentile aiuf phratric roll ; sacrltlces were jointly celebratcil by these family a.s.semblage3 to Zeus Phratrius, AthCnO, and other deities, accompanied with much festivity and enjovment."— G. Orote, IliM. of (/rcfcc, pt. 3, c/i. 64 (i\ 7). APELLA, The. See Spauta: The Con- stitution, iiC. APELOUSAS, The. See Texas: The abo- IIIC.INAI. ImIAIIITANTS. APHEK, Battle of. — A great victory won by Ahab, king of Israel over Benhadad, king of Damascus.— I. Ewald, Jlist. of Inritci, bk. 4, »ect. 1. APODECT.(E, The. — "When Aristotle speaks of the ollicers of government to whom the public revenues were delivered, who kept them and distributed them to the several admin- istrative departments, these arc called, he adds, apodectic and treasurers. }:i Athens tlie apodectic were ten in number, in accordance with the nuwber of the tribes. They were appointed by lot. . . . They had in their possession the lists of the debtors ol tlie itjite, rccived the money which was paid in. r. , istered nii account of it and noted the amount iii ^rrear, and in the council house in the presence of the council, erased the names of the debtors who had paid the demands against them from the list, and deposited this again in the arclnves. Finally, they, together with the council, apportioned the sums received."— A. Boeekh. Public Ikommy of Atheim (ti: hif Lamb), bk. 3. (•/(. 4. APOLLONIA IN ILLYRIA, The Found- ing of. See KouKYBA. 118 AP08TA8I()N. AQUITAINE. APOSTASION, Scr Poif.t.k. AHOSTOLin MAJESTY: Origin of the Title. Sec Hum \itv: A. 1), 1173-1114. APPANAGE. — "The term iippiiniipr (Icnolcs till' provision nmdc! lor tlii! youiiK<'r cliildrcii of II kliij? of Fniiicp. This alwiiyf consisted of lands iind feudal superiorities held of the crown liy the tenure of peenigc. It is evident tlmt this iisiice, lis it produced ii now olnss of iiowerful fcudatiirics, wiis hostile to the iiiterests iind policy of the sovereii^n, imd retarded the suhjuj;ation (if Uu: ancient aristocracy. Hut in usiijie coeval with tiie monarchy was not to he aiiro^aled, and llic scarcity of money rendered it ih\possil)le to provide for the younger branches oi' the royal family by any other means. It was i"stnnned howeverns far as circumstances wouhl i.ermit." —II. Ilallam, T/ie MiiUllc Aijik. eh. 1, ;),' 2.— "From the wordi' ' ad ' and ' panis,' meaning that it was to i)rovi(h' hrciid for the person w lio heli." it. .V portion of ai)pana;te was now given to each if the king's younger sons, which descended to lii.< direct heirs. b\it in default of Wwm reverted to the crown." — T. Wright, UtHt. of France, v, 1, p. 30H, iwh. APPIAN WAY, The -Appius Claudius, culled the IJiind, who ■ .s censor at Home from WVi to 30H B. C [sec Uo.mk: B. C. 312], con- structed during tliat »im,^ "the Appian road, the i|uci'ii of roads, because I'le Lntui road, passing by Tusculum, and thnugh the country of the Ilcrnicuns, was so much cndangeved, and ha<l not yet been (putc recovered by the Homans: the Appian road, passing by Ternuina, Fund' and Moia, to Capua, was intended to be a shorter and safer one. . . . The Appian road, even if Apjiius did carry it as far a;i Capua, was not c.xecnicd by him with that splendour for which we still admire it in those parts vhich have not been destroyed intentionally: the ( lo.sely joined polygons of basalt, which tlimisands of years have not been able to displace, are of a some- what later origin. Appius commenced the road bcciiuse there was actual need for it; in the year A. r. \'u [B. C. 297] pepcrino, and simie years later basalt (silex) was first used for paving roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small distance from the Porta Capena to the temple of JIars, as we ai'e distinctly told by Livy. lioads j constructed according to artistic prinein'es had previously existed." — B. O. Niebuhr, lA;cts. on the Hint, of Rome, leet. 4.5. Also in: Sir W. Gell, Tojwg. of Rome, v. 1. — II. I!. Lid.lell, Hint, of Home. v. 1, p. 2,51. APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, Lee's Surrender at. 8ee Unitki) States ov Am. : A. 1). 180.") (Ai'hil: Viugini.\). APULEIAN LAW. See JIa.tf.stas. APULIA: A. D. 1042-1 127.— Norman con- quest and Dukedom. — Union with Sicily. See Italy (Soi^tiikiin): A. I>. 1000-1090, aud 1081-1 1!)4. APULIANS, The. Sec SAunn.:8; also, Sam- NiTi;s. AQU/E SEXTIiE. See Salves. AQUiE SEXTIiE, Battle of. Soo Cimbui and I'lu-TONEs; B, C. 113-102. AQUiE SOLIS.— The Roman name of the long famous watering-place known in modern England as the city of Batli. It was splendidly adorued in liomau times with temples and other edilices. — T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saiw, ch. 0. AQUIDAY, OR AQUETNET.— The native name of Bliodi' Island. Sec liiiuDB Island: A. 1). 1«:IH-1((40. AQUILA, Battle of (1434). Sec Italy: A. I>. 1412-1447. AQUILEIA.— A(|uileia, at the time of the destruction of that city by the Iluns, A. I). 453, was, "both as a fortress and a conimercial emporiuiii, second to none in Northern Italy. It was situ lU'd at the norlhernmost point of the gulf of iladria, about twenty miles northwest of Trieste, and the placi- where it once sIcmmI is now in tlu! Austrian donuiiions, just over the border which separates tliem from the kingdom of Italy. In the year 181 B. ('. a Honian colony had been sent to Ibis far corner of Ilaly to serve as an outpost against some intrusive I rilies, called by the vagne name of Uauls. . . . Pos.sessing a good harbour, with which it was connected by a navigable river, A(iuileia gradually became the chief entrepot for the commerce iietween Italy and what are now the Illyriau j)iovinces of Austria." — T. Ilodgkin, Italy and J/er Invaders, bk. 3, eh. 4. A. D. 238.— Siege by Maximin. See Roue: A. I). 23.S. A. D. 388.— Overthrow of Maximus by The- odosius. See Ho.mi:: A. I). \\Vi-\\W,. A D. 452.— Destruction by the Huns, See IIiN.i: A. 1). 452; also, Vknre: A. I). 452. AQUITAINE : The ancient tribes.— The Homan coiKpiest of Aciuilania was achieved, B. ( . 5(1. by oi.e of Ciesar's lieutenants, t.'ie Younger Crii.ssus, who first brought the people called the Sotiatcs to submi.ssiim and then defeated their combiiied neiglibors in a murderous battle, where three fourths of them are said to ha.'o been slain, '."'he tribes which then submitted "wore the Taibelli, Bigerriones, I'reciani, Vo- iHtiS, Tarusates Elusates, Garitcs, Ausci, Gnr- umni, Sihuzates and Cocosjites. "The Tarbelli were in the lowe." basin of the Adour. Their chief place was on 'he site of the hot springs of I)ax. The iiigcrriones ap|)ear in the name Bigorre. The chief place of the Elusates was Elusa, Eause; and the iownof Audi on the river Gers preserves the mune of the Ausci. The names Oarites, if the name is genuine, and Oar- unini contain the same >^lement. Gar, as the river Garumna [Garonne] and the Gers. It is stated by Walckenaer that the inhabitants of tlie south'Tn part of Les Landes arc still called Cousiots. Cocosa, Caus.sinue, i.s twenty-four miles from Dax on the road from Dax to Bor- deaux." — G. Long, Decline of t'>e Roman Re- public, V. 4, ch. (5. — "Before the arrival of the brachyccpiinlic Ligurian race. ti\0' Iberians ranged over the greater ])art of Francs. ... If, as seems probable, we may identify ti\em ; Illi tliG Aquitani, ','nc of the three races wl<fch oc- cupied Gaul in liie time of Cicsar, they must have retreated to the leighbourhood of the Pyrenees before the beginning of the historic perio<l." — I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, ch. 2, sect. 5. In Csesar's time. See Gaul described by C.KSAll. Settlement of the Visigoths. See Goths (VisiiioTiis): A. D. 4 '0-1 19. A. D. 567. — Diviaed bstween the Merovin- gian Kings. See FuANKS: A. I). 511-752. A. D. 681-768.— The independent Dukes and their subjugation. — "The old Homan AQUITAINE, A. D. 081-768. AquiUmia, in the first division of tlie spoils of the Kinpirc, had fallen to the Visigoths, who conqtiered it without inneh trotd)le. In the struiiple between tlieni and the Merovinjrians, it of coyrse passed to tlie vietorious party. Uut the (piarrels. so fiercely eontested between llie dilTereiil nii .•nl)ers of tlie Fniiik nioiiareliy, pre- vented tiieiii from retainiiiL' a distant possession williin (heir grasp; and at this period |6>h1-718, whi'n llic Mayors of the I'alacc, Pepin and Carl, well' giitheriilg tlie reins of government over the three kingdoms — Austrasia, Neustria and isiirgimdy — into their hands], Kudo, the duke of Aqiiitiiine, was really an independent prince. The population had never lost its Itomnn char- ncter; it was, in fact, by far the most Romanized in the whole of Gaul. " Hut it had also received H new element in the Vascones or Gascons [see BAsqtiKsJ, a tribe of I'yrenean mountaineers, who descending from their mouutain.s, advanced to- wards the north until their progress was checked by tlie broad waters of the Garonne. At this time, however, thev obeyed Etido. "This duke of Aquitaine, Kudo, idlied himself with the Neustrians against the ambitious Austrasian Mayor, Carl Martel, and shared with them the crushing defeat at Soi.ssons, A. I). 718, which establislied the Hammerer's power. Eudo aeknowledged allegiance and was allowed to retain his dukedom. Hut, half-a-centurj after- wards, Carl's son, Pepin, who had puslied the ' faineant ' Merovingians from the Frank throne and sealed himself upon it, fought a nine years' war with the then duke of Aquitaine, to establish his sovereignty. "The war, which lasted nine years [700-768], was signali/.ed by frightful ravages and destruction of life upon both sides, until, at last, the Pranks became masters of Berri, Auvergne. and the Limousin, with their ()rincipal cities. 'Die able and gallant Guaifer or Waifer] was assassinaied by his own sub- jects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of finally uniting the granci-duchy of Aquitaine to the monareliv of the Franks." — J. Q. Sheppard, Fallofllome, leet. 8. Also in: P. Godwin, Hist, of France: Ancient Gaul, eh. 14-15.— W. II. Perry, The Franks, ch. 6-0. A. D. 732. — Ravaged by the Moslems. See M.MioMKT.VN Conqi'Kst: A. I). 715-733. A. D. 781. — Erected into a separate king- dom by Charlemagne. — In tlie year 781 Chatle- magiie erected Italy and A(iuitai"ne into separate kingdoms, placing his two infant sons, Pepin and Ludwig or Louis on their respective thrones. "The kingdom of Aquitaine embraced Vasconia [Oascony], Septimania, A(|uitaine proper (that IS, the country between the Garonne and the Loire) and the "county, suUscfiuently the duchy, of Toulouse. Nominally a kingdom, Aqtiitaiiie was i« reality a province, entirely dependent on the central or ])ersoiml government of Charles. . . . The nominal designations of king and kingdom might gratify the feelings of the Aquitanians, but it was a scheme contrived for holding them in a state i.f absolute dependence and subordination." — J. I. 3Iombert, Jlist. of ChiirhK l/i, <;n',il. bk. 2, ch. 11. A. D. 843. --In the division of Charle- magne's Empire. See Fhanck: A. I). 843. A. D. 884-1 TSi.— The end of the nominal kingdom.— The disputed Ducal Title.— "Car Ionian [who died 884], son of Louis the Staiu- AQUITAINE, A. D. 1187-1152. merer, was the last of the Carlovingians who bore the title of king of Aciuitaine. This vast slate ceased from this time to constitute a kin,^(lom. It had for a lengthened period been divided between powerful families, the most illustrious of wh'cli are those of the Counts of Toulou.se, founded in the ninth century by Fredelon, the Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of Auvergne, the ManpiLses of Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes of Gascouy. King Eudes had given William the Pius, Count of Auvergne, the investiture of the duchy of Aquitaine. On the extinction of that family in 928, tlie Counts of Toulouse and tl-.^se of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and their quarrel stained the .south with blood for a long time. At length the C'ounts of Poitou acquireii the title of Duke i of Aquitaine or Guyenne [or Guieunc, — supplied to be a corruption of the name of Aquitaine, which came into use during the Middle Ages], which remained in their house up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet I. [Henry II.], King of England (1151)." — E. De Honneclio.se, Hist. <f France, bk. 2, rh. 3, foot-note. — "The duchy Aquitiiine, or Guyenne, as held bv Eleanor's predecessors, consisted, roughly speaking, of the territory between the Loire and the Garonne. More exactly, it was bounded on the north by Anjou and Touraiue, on the east by Berry and Auvergne, on the south-east by the (Juercy or t!ounty of Culiors, and on the south-west by Gascoiiy, which had been tinited with it for the last hundred years. The old Karolingian king- dom of Aquitania had been of far greater extent; it had, in fact, included the whole country between the Loire, the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean. Over all this vast territory the Counts of Poitou asserted a theoretical '•laim of over- lordship by virtue of their ducal title ; they had, however, a formidable rival in the house of the Counts of Toulouse." — K. Norgate, England •under the Angevin Kings, v. 1, ch. 10. — Sec, also, T0ULOU8K: IOtii and IItii Ckntl'hiks. A. D. 1137-1152. — Transferred by mar- riage from the crown of Francs to the crown of England.— In 1137, "the last of the old line of the dukes of Aquitaine — Williini IX., son of the gay crusader and troubadou .■ whom the Red King had hoped to succeed — cNed on a pilgrim- age at Compostella. Ills only sou was already dead, and before setting out for his pilgrimage he did what a greater personage had done ten years beforr : witl- the consent of his barons, he left the wiiole of his dominions to his daughter. Morcovci, he bequeathed the girl herself as wife to the young king Louis [VII.] of France. This marriage more than doubled the strength of the French crown. It gave to Louis absolute pos session of all western Aquitaine, or Guyenne as it was now beginning to be called ; that is the counties of Poitou and Gascony, with the im- mediate overlordship of the whole district lying between the Loire and the Pyrenees, the Rhone and the ocean: — a territory live or six times as large as his own royal domain and over wliicli his predecessors had never been able to assert more than the merest shadow of a nominal superi- ority." In 1152 Louis obtained a divorce fn-m Eleanor, surrendering all the great territory which she had added to his dominions, rather than maintain an unhappy union. The same year the gay duchess was wedded to Henry Plan- tagenet, then Uuku of Normandy, afterwards 120 AQUITAIXE, A. D. 1137-1152. ARABIA. Henry 11. King of England. By this marriage Aquitaine beoaine joined to tlio crown of England and rtMnained 80 for tliree liundrcd years. — K. iS'orgatc. Eii'ilnnd under the Amictin Kings, v. 1, c/i. 8. i2th Century. — The state of the southern parts. See Phovknck: A. I). 1179-1-.2()7. A. D. 1360-1453. — Full sovereignty pos- sessed by the English Kings. — The final con- quest and union with France. — " li" the i^'.nce of iketigiiy [sec Ku.\nck: A.I). 13S7-i;)«()] Ed- ward III. resigned his cl linis on the crown of France ; but he was recogniix-d in return as inde- pendent Prince of Aquitaine, without anv hom- age or superiority being reserved to the t'rench monarch. When Aquitaine therefore was con- quered by France, partly in the 14th, fully in the 15th century [.see Fuanck: A. D. 1431-1453], it was not the ' reunion ' of a forfeited flef, but the absorption of a distinct and sovereign state. The feelings of Aquitaine itself seem to have been divided. The nobles to a great extent, though far from iiniversally, preferred the French cimuexion. It better fell in with their notions of chivalry, feudal dependency, and the like; the privileges too which French law conferred on noble birth would make their real interests lie that way. But the great cities and, we have reason to believe, the mass of the people, also, clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes ; and they liad good reason to do so. The English Kings, both by habit and by interest, naturally pro- tected the mimicipal liberties of Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and exposed no jjart of their subjects to the horrors of French taxation and general oppression." — E. A. Freeman, 77ie Fi-anks and the Oauls (Ilistoricdl Ekmi/s, \st iknes, No. 7). AQUITANI, The. See Ibeihans, The Wkstkhn, ARABIA.— ARABS : The Name.— "There can be no doubt that the name of the Arabs was . . . given from their living at tlie westernmost part of Asia; and their own word 'Gharb,' the ' West,' is another form of the original Semitic name Arab." — O. Kawlinson, Xoti-s to Herodotus, V. a, p. 71. The ancient succession and fusion of Races. — "The population of Arabia, after long cen- turies, more esiiecially after the propagation and triumph of Islamism. became uniform through- out the peninsula. . . . But it was not always thu.s. It was very slowly and gradually that the inhabitants of the various parts of Arabia were fused into one race. . . . Several distinct races successively immigrated into the peninsula and remained separate for many ages. Their dis- tinctive characteristics, their mamjers and their civilisation prove that these nations wen; not all of one blood. Up to the time of Mahomet, several different languages were spoken in Arabia, and it was the introduction of Islamism alone that gave predominence to that one ainon_gst them now called Arabic. The few Arabian historians deserving of the name, who have used any discernment in collecting the traditions of their country, Ibn Khaldoun. for example, distinguish three successive popida- tions in the peninsula. They divide these primi- tive, secondary, and tertiary Arabs into three divisions, called Ariba, MolarVba, and Mostareba. . . . The Ariba were the first and most ancient inhubituuts of Arabia. They consisted prin- cipally of two great nations, the Adites, sprung from Ham, and the Amalikaof tlie race of Aram, descendants of Slicm, mixed with nations of secondary importance, the Thamudites of the race of Ham. and the i)eople of the Tasm, and .ladis, of the family of Aram. The Motari'ba were tribes sprung from Joktan, scm of Eber, always in Arabian tradition called Kalilan. The Mostareba of more modern origin were Isinael- itish tribes. . . . The Cu.shites, the first in- habitants of Arabia, are known in the national traditions by the name of Ailites, from their pro- genitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham. All the accounts given of them by Arab his- torians are but fanciful legends. ... In the midst of all the fabulous traits with which these legends abound, we may perceive the remem- brance of a powc'rful empire founded by the Cushites in very early ages, apparently including the whole of Arabia Felix, and not only Yemen l)roper. We also find traces of a wealthy nation, constructors of great buildings, with an advanced civilisation analogous to that of (^'lialduea, pro- fessing a religion similar to the Babylonian; a nation, in short, with whom material progress was allied to great moral depravity and obscene rites. ... It was about eighteen centuries be- fore our era that the .loktanites entered Southern Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the invasion, like all events of a similar nature, was accomplished only by force. . . . After this in- vasion, the Cushite element of the population, being still the most numerous, and possessing great su])eriority in knowledge and civilisation over the Joktanites, who were still almost in the no";iadic state, soon recovered the moral and material suprennicy, and political dominion. A new empire was formed in which the power still bek)nged to the Sal pans of the raw of C^ush. . . . liittle by little the new nation of Ad was formed. The centre of its jiower was the country of Sheba proper, where, according to the tenth chapter of Genesis, there was no primitive Jok- tanite tribe, although in all the neighbouring provinces llicy were already settled. . . . It was during the tirst centuries of the second Adite empire that Yemen was temi)orarily sul)jected by the Egyptians, who called it the land of Pun. . . . Conquered during the minority of Tliothmes III., and the regency of the Princess Ilatasu, Yemen appears to have been lost by the Egyp- tians in the troublous times at the close of the eighteenth dynasty. Ramses II. recovered it almost immediately after be a.scended the throne, and it was not till tlie time of the cfTeniinate kings of the twentieth dyna.sty, that this splendid ornament of Egyptian power was finally lost. . . . The conquest of the land of Pun under Hatasu is related in the elegant bsis-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari, at Tliebes, published by M. Duemichen. . . . The bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Uahari afford undoulited proofs of the existence of conimeree between India and Yemen at the time of the Egyptian expedition under Hatasu. It was this commerce, much more than the fertility of its own soil an<l lis natural productions, that made Southern Arabia one of the richest countries in the world. . . . For a long time it was carried on by land only, by means of caravans crossing Arabii; for the navigation of the Red Sea, much more difiiculi and dangerous than that of the Indian Ocean, was not attempted till some centuries later. . . . 121 ARABIA. ARABIA. The cnravnns of myrrli, incense, nnd balm cross- ing Arabia towards tlio land of Canaan arc men- tioned in llie Bible, in the history' of josepli, wliirli l)elonj?s to a period very near to the first eslal)lishnient of the C'anaani'.es in Syria. As 8oon as coniniercial towns arose in I'lurnicia, we find, as the prophet Kzek el said, 'The iiier- cliants of Hliel)a and Raamah, tliey were thy merchants: they oecui)ied in tliy fairs with chief of all spices, and witli all ])recioiis stones and gold.'. . . A great number of I'litenieian mer- chants, attracted bytliis trade, established them- selves in Yemen, lladramaiit, Oman, and Bahrein. Plui'nieian faelories wen; also eslal)- lished at several places on tlie Persian Gulf, Binonest otliers in the islands of Tylos and Arvad, formerly occupied by their ancestors. . . . This commerce, extremely Hourisliing dur- ing the nineteenth dynasty, seiMns, together with the Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have ceased under the feeble and inactive successors of . I{jimscs III. . . . Nearly two centuries passed Bway, whin Hiram and Solomon despatched ves.scls down tlie Red Sea. . . . The vessels of the two monarehs were not content with doing lneri;ly what had once before lieen done under the Egyptians of the nineleenlli dynasty, namely, fetching from the ports of Yemen the merelian- dise collected there from India. They were much holder, and tlieir enterprise was rewarded with success. I'roliting by tlie regularitv of the m<msoons, they fetclieit tlie jiroducts of India at first hand, from the very place of tlieir shiiirncnt in the ports of tlie land of Opliir, or Abhira. These distant voyages were repeated with suc- cess as long a;i Solomon reigned. The veasels going to Ophir necessarily touched at the ports of Yemen to take in provisions and await favourable winds. Tlius tlie renown of the two allied kings, jiarticularly of tlio power of Soloiuon, was spread in the land of the Adites. Tliis was tlie cause of tlie journey made by the queen of Sheba to Jerusalem to sec Solomon. . . . The sea voyages to Ophir, and even to Yemen, ceased at the death of Solomon. The separation of the ten tribes, and tlie revolutions that simultaneously took place at Tyre, rendered any such expeditions impracticable. . . . The empire of tlie second Adites lasted ten centuries, during wliieh the Joktanite tribes, multiplying in eacli generation, lived amongst the Cushitc Saba'ans. . . . The assimilation of the Joktanites to the Cushites was so complete that the revolu- tion which gave political supremacy to the descendants of .loktan over those of (iiish pro- duced no sensible change in the civilisation of Y'emen. But although using the same language, the two elemeiils of the population of Southern Arabia were still iiuite distiiu't from each otlier, and antagonistic in their interests. . . . Both were called Sabiraiis, but the Bible always care- fully distinguishes them by a ditTerent "orthog- raphy. . . . Tlie majority of the Saluean Cush- ites, however, especially tin superior castes, refused to submit to tiio Joktanite yoke. A separation, therefore, took place, giving rise to tlie Arab proverb, 'divided as the Sabieans,' nnd tlie mass of the Adites emigrated to another country. According to M. Caussin de Perceval, the passage of the Sabieans into Abyssinia is to be attributeil to the coi!se(|Uences of the revolu- tion that established Jolitaiiite supremacy in Yemen. . . . The dute of tlsc passage of the SabcDans from Arabia into Abyssinia is much more dillicult to prove than the fact of their having done so. . . . Y'arub, the conqueror of the Adites, and founder of the new monarchy of Jok- tanite Arabs, v as sacceeded on the throne by his son, Yashdjob, a weak and feeble prince, of whom nothing is recorded, but that he allowed the chiefs of t .le various provinces of his states to make the'viselves independent. Abd Shems, surnamed S'.ieba, son of "^'ashdjob, recovered the power his predecessors had lost. . . . Abd Shems had several children, the most celebrated being Ilimyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous pos- terity. From th(!se two personages were de- scended the greater part of the Y'emcnito tribes, wlio still existed at the time of the rise of Islam- isin. The Ilimyarites seem to have settled in the towns, whilst the Knhlanites inhabited tlie country and the deserts of Y'emen. . . . This is the substance of all the information given by the Arab historians." — F. Lcnormant and E. Chevalier, Manual of Ancient Hist, of the East, hk. 1, eh. 1-3 (r. 3). Sabaeans, The. — "For some time past it has been known that the Himyaritic inscriptions fall into two groups, distinguished from one another by phonological and grammatical differences. One of the dialects is philologically older than the other, containing fuller and more primitive gram- matical forms. Th(! hiscriptions in this dialect belong to a kingdom the capital of which was at JIa'in, and which represents the country of tli(! ilina'ans of the ancients. The inscriptions ill the other dialect were engraved by the princes and people; of Sabii, the Sheba of the Old Testa- ment, the Sabieans of classical geography. The Sabican kingdom lasted to the time of Moham- med, when it was destroyed by the advancing forces of Islam. Its rulers for several genera- tions had been cop crts to Judaism, and had been engaged in ali constant warfare with the Ethiopic kingd ,i of Axum, which was backed by tlie iiillueucc and subsidies of Rome and Byzantium. Dr. Glascr seeks to show that the founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the Ilabasa, or Abyssinians, who migrated from Ilimyar to Africa in the second or lirst century B. C. ; when we first hear of them in the inscrip- ti(ms they are still the inhabitants of Korthern Y'emen and Malirah. !More than once the Axum- ites made themselves masters of Southern Arabia. About A. I). 300, they occupied its ports and islands, and from SoO to 378 even the S.ibu'an kingdom was tributary to them. Their last suc- cesses were gained in ."iS.l, when, with By/.amine help, they coiKpiered the whole of Y'emen. But the Saba'an kingdom, in spite of its temporary subjection to. Ethioiiia, had long been a formid- able State. Jewish colonies settled in it, and one of its princes became a convert to the Jewish faith. His successors gradually extended their dominion as far as Ormuz, and after the success- ful revolt from Axum in 378, brought not only the wliol(! of the southern coast under their sway, but the western coast as well, as far north as .Mekka. Jewisli infiuence made itself felt in the future birthplace of Mohamiiu>d. and thus introiluced those ideas and beliefs xvliich subse- (pK'ntly had so profound an elTect upon the birth of Islam. The Byzantines and Axumites en- deavoured to counteract the ini'iience of Judai.sm by means of Christian colonies -.nd pro.selytism. Tlie result was a conflict between Sabft and its 122 ARABIA. AUAVISCI. assailants, which toolc tlic form of a conflict between the members of tlie two religions. A violent persecution wns directed against the Christians of Yemen, avenged by the Ethiopian conquest of the coimtry and the removal of its capital to San'a. The "intervention of Persia in the struggle was soon followed by the appear- ance of jlohammedanism upon the scene, and ,k'\v. Christian, and Parsi were alike overwhelmed by tlie (lowing tide of the new creed. The epi- gVai)hic evidence makes it clear that the origin of the kingdom of Sabit went back to a distant date. Dr. Glaser traces its history from the time when its princes were still but Makarib, or 'Priests,' like Jethro, the Priest of Midian, through the ages when they were 'kings of Saba,' and later still ' kings of Saba and Kaidiin,' to the days wh( i they claimed imperial suprcMu- acy over all the principalitiesof Southern Arabia. It was in this later period that they dated their inscriptions by an era, whicli, as llalevy first dis- covered, corresi)ond9 to ll.T B. C. One of the kings of Saba is mentioned in an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon (B. C. 71ij), and Dr. Glaser believes that lie has found liis name in a ' Ilimyaritic ' te-xt. AVhen the last pri"st, Samah'ali Darrahh, became king of Sab(i, we do not yet know, but the age must be sulliciently remote, if the kingdom of Sabil already existed wlien the Queen of Sheba came from Ophir to visit Solomon. The visit need no longer cause astonishment, notwithstanding the long journey by land wliich lay between Palestine and tlie south of Arabia. ... As we have seen, the in- scriplious of JIa'in set before us a dialect of more primitive character than that of SabS. Hitherto it had been supposed, however, that the two dialects were spoken contemporaneously, and tliat the ^Mimean and Sabaan kingdoms existed side by side. But geograpliy offered didiculties in the way of such a belief, since the seats of Jliniean power were embeiUlcd in the midst of tlie Saba>an kingdom, much as the fragments of ''romarty are embedded in the midst of other eounti("s. Dr. Glaser has now made it clear that the old supposition was incorrect, and that the Jliniean kingdom preceded the rise of Sabit. We can MOW understand why it is that neither in the Old Testament nor in the Assyrian inscrip- tions ilo we hear of any princes of JIa'in, and that though the classical wrii ts are acquainted with the Mimcan people they know nothing of a Miiuean kingdom. The 5Iina'an kingdom, in fact, with its culture and moniinients, tlie relics of whirh still survive, must have flourished in the giey dawn of history, at an cpoi^h at which, as we have hitherto iniiigined, Arabia was the home only of nomad barbarism. And yet in tliis remote age alphabetic writing was already known and liractiscd, the alphabet being a moditieation of the Phoenician written vertically and not horizon- tally. To what an early date are we referred for the origin of the Pluenieian alphabet itself I The Mimcan Kingdom must have had a long exist- ence. The names of tliirty-tliree of its kings are already known to us. ... A power which reached to the borders of Palestine must nec-es- surily have come into contact with the great monarchies of the ancient world. The army of MMua Gallus was doubtless not the first which had sought to gain po8.se88ion of the cities and spic(>-garden8 of the sf >utli. One such invasion is alluded to in an lu8cri|)tion which was copied by JI. llalevy. . . . But the epigraphy of ancient Arabia is still in its infancy. The inscriptions already knc .vii to us re])resent but a small pro- portion of tho.se that are yet to be discovered. . . . The dark jiast of the Arabian peninsula has been suddenly lighte<l up, and we find that long before the days of Slohammed it was a land of culture and literature, a scat of powerful king- doms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail to have exercised an influence upon the general history of the world." — A. II. Sayce, Ancient Arnhia (Contcmp. Her., Dec., 1H89). 6th Century. — Partial conquest by the Abys- sinians. See Ahvssim.v: Grii to IOtu Cen- TUniKS. A. D. 609-432. — Mahomet's conquest. See Mahometan Co.N(jukst : A. D. G0!)-Cy2. A. D. 1517.— Brought under the Turkish sovereignty. See Timiks: A. D. 1481-1530. ARABS, Conquests of the. See MAHOStETAN Conquest. ARACAN, English acquisition of. See India: A. 1). 183;i-1838. ARACHOTI, The.— A people who dwelt an- ciently in the Valley of the Arghandab, or Ur- gundab, in eastern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave tliein the tribal name of "Paclycs," and the modern Afghans, who call themselves "Pashtuu" and "Pakhtun," signifying "mountaineers," are probably derived from tliem. — M. Dunckcr, 77i's<. of Anliqvitjl, bk. 7, eli. 1. ARAGON : A. D. 1035-1258.— Rise of the kingdom. See Spain: A. D. 10;rj-1258. A. D. 1 133. — Beginning of popular repre- sentation in the Cortes. — The Monarchical con- stitution. See CoitTKS, The Eaui.y Si'amsii. A. D. 1218-1238.— The first oath of alle- giance to the king. — Conquest of Balearic Islands. — Subjugation of Valencia. See Spain : A. D. 1212-1338. A. D. 1410-1475.— The Castilian dynasty. — Marriage of rerdinand with Isabella of Castile. See Spai.n: A. 1>. KSOH-l 179. A. D. 1516.— The crown united with that of Castile by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See Spain; A. I). 14<J()-1517. ARAICU, The. See Ameuican Aboiiioines: GucK on Coco Guoip. ARAM.— ARAM NAHARAIM. — ARAM ZOBAH.— ARAM^ANS. See Semites; also, Semitic LANorAuEs. ARAMBEC. See Nouumbepa. ARAPAHOES, The. See .Vmeiucan Auo- uioiNEs: AicoNcjriAN Family, and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. ARAR, The. — The .;m;ieiit name of the river Saone, in France. ARARAT. — URARDA. See Alarodians. ARATOS, and the Achaian League. Sec Gueece: B. C. 28()-14((. ARAUCANIANS, The. See ('iiii.E. ARAUSIO. — A Uoir.'in colony was founded by Augustus at Ara'isio, \v!:ich is rejiresented in niinie and site by the modern town of Omnge, in the department vt Vaucluse, France, 18 miles north of Avignon. — P. Goodwin, IlUt. of France: Anc. Gaul, bk. i. rh. 5. ARAUSIO, Battle of (B. C. 105). Sco Cim- uni and TEiroNEs: B. C. 113-103. ARAVISCI AND OSI, The. — "Whether . . . the Aruviscl migrated into Pannonia from 1 L'.'J ARAVISCI. AKEOPAGUS. the Osi, a German race, or whether the Osi came from the Anivisei into Germany, as both nations still retain the same language, institutions and customs, is a doubtful matter."— "The locality of the Aravisei was the extreme north-eastern part of the province of Pannonia, and would thus stretch from Vii'nnn (Vindobona), eastwards to Kaab (Arrabo), taking in a portion of the south-west of Hungary. . . . The Osi seem to have dwelt near the sources of the Oder and the Vistula. Thev would thus have occupied a part of Galliciii."— Tacitus, Gevwamj, trans, hy lltiirch initl llroiln'hh, iritli r/eoi/. iwtm. ARAWAKS, OR ARAUACAS, T'-e. See Amiciiuan .VnoKKiiNKs: C',\Knis. ARAXES, The,— This name seems to have been applied to a number of Asiatic streams in ancient times, but is connected most prominently with an Armenian river, now called tlie Aras, whicli Hows into the Caspian. AREAS, Battle of.— One of the battles of the I{(im,ins with the Persians in which the for- mer sulTered defeat. Fought A. I). 581. — G. Kawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, i-h. '.>•>. ARBELA, or GAUGAMELA, Battle of (B. C. 331). See Mackuoni.v: 15. C. 3y4-;i30. ARCADIA.— The central district of Pelo- ponnesus, tile great soutliern peninsula of Greece — a district surrounded by a singular mountiiin circle. " From the circle of mountains which has been jiointed out, all the rivers of any note take their rise, and from it all the mountainous nuiges diverge, which form the many headlands and points of Pelopormesus. The interior part of the country, however, has only one opening towards the western sea. through whicii all its waters (low united in the Alplieus. The pecu- liar character of this inland tract is also in- creased by llie circumstance of its being inter- sected by some lower secondary chains of hills, which compel the waters of the valleys nearest I0 the great chains either to form lakes, or to seek a vent by subterraneous passages. Hence it is that in the luountainous district in the northeast of Peloponnesus many streams disappear and again emerge from the earth. This region is Arcadia ; u coin, ry consisting of ridges of hills and ele- vated jilains, and of deep and narrow valleys, with streams flowing througli channels formed by prei'ipilous rocks; u country so manifestly separated by nature from the rest of Pelopon- nesus that, although not ])olitically united, it was always considered in the light of a single com- mimity. Its climate v, as extremely cold; the at- mosphere dense, particularly in the mountains to the north : the ell'ect which this had on the char- acter and dispositions of tlie inhabitants has been described in a masterly manner by Polvbius, himself a native of Arcadia." — C. O. JtlMler, Ilint. iinti Antiij. iif t/ic Doric Race, bk. 1, eh. 4. — "The later Uomaii jioets were wont to speak of Arcadia as a smiling land, where gras.sy vales, watered liy gentle and pellucid streams, were inhabited by a race of primitive and pictures{|ue shepherds and shepherdesses, who divided their time between tending their lh)cks and making love to one another in the most tender an<l roman- tic fashi<m. This idyllic conception of the country and the people is not to be traced in the old Hellenic poet.s, who were better acquainted with the actmil fac'ts of the case. The Arcadians w-'^re sulHciuntly primitive, but there was very little that was graceful or picturesque about their land or their li\'es." — C. II. Hanson, The iMnd of Greece, pp. H81-;)82. B. C. 371-362. — The union of Arcadian tovyns. — Restoration of Mantineia.— Building of Megalopolis. — Alliance with Thebes.— Wars with Sparta and Elis. — Disunion.— Battle of Mantineia. See Gueece: B. C. 371, and 371-3(W. B. C. 338. — Territories restored by Philip of Macedon. See Gueece: B. C. 3.')7-336. B. C. 243-146. — In the Achaian League. See Gueece: B. V,. 280-140. ARCADIUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. 1). 30.5-408. ARCHIPELAGO, Th. Dukes of the. See Naxos: The >Iedi/evai. Uukedo.m. ARCHON. See Atifens: Fro.m the Dorian MldllATION TO B. C. 083, ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle of. See France: a. D. 1814 (Januauy — Makch). ARCOLA, Battle of (1796). See France: A. 1). 1700-1797 (OcTOiiEii— April). ARCOT: a. D. 1751.— Capture and defence by Clive. S"e India: A. D. 1743-1753. A. D. 1780.— Siege and capture by Hyder Ali. See India: A P. 1780-1783. ARDEN, Forest of. — The largest forest in early Britain, which covered the greater part of modern Warwickshire and " of which Shakes- peare's Ardcn became the dwindled representa- tive." — J. U. Green, Tlie Making of England, ch. 7. ARDENNES, Forest of.— "In Cussar's time there were in [Gaul] very extensive forests, the largest of which was the Arduenna (Arden- nes), which extended from the banks of the lower Uhine probably as far as the shores of the North Sea. " — G. Long, Decline of the lioman Republic, V. 3, ch. 22. — "Ardennes is the name of one of the northern French depaitments which contains a part of the forest Ardemics. Another part is in Luxemburg and Belgium. The old Celtic name exists in En,-laud in the Arden of War- wickshire." — The name. T. 4, ch. 14. ARDRI, OR ARDRIGH, The. See Toath. ARDSHIR, OR ARTAXERXES, Found- ing of the Sassanian monarchy by. Sec P£U- bia: B. C. 1.j()-A. 1). 320. ARECOMICI, The. See Voi.cjb. ARECUNAS, The. Sec American Abo- rigines: C'ARIBS and TIIEIII KiNDRiJD. AREIOS. See Aria. ARELATE: The ancient name of Aries. — The territory covered by the old kingdom of Aries is sometimes called the Arelate. See Bur- gundy: A. 1). 1137-1378, and Salves. ARENGO, The. See San Marino, The UEi'inii.io OK. AREOPAGUS, The. — " Whoever [in an- cient Athens] was susiiec :'d of having b'.ood upon his hands had to abstain from approaching the common altars of the land. Accordingly, for the purpose of judgments ci, oerning the guilt of blood, ehoic:e had been .lade of the barren, rocky height which lies opposite the ascent to the citadel. It was dedicated to Arcs, who was said to have been the first who was ever iiidged here for the guilt of blood ; and to thi^ Erinyes, the dark powere of the guilt-stained conscience. Here, instead of a single judge, a 124 AUE0PAGU8. AnOENTINE REPUBLIC. college of twelve men of proved integrity eoii- iliiclcd the trial. If the iiccuspd hud iin e(|U!il miiiiher of votes for and against him, he was acciuitted. The eourt on the hill of Ares is one of the most ancient institiilions of Athens, and none aehieved for the eity an earlier or more widely -spread recognition." — B. (Jurlius, ///V. of Urcecf, bk. 2, cfi. 2. — "The A eopagiis, or, as it was interpreted hy an ancient legend. >hirs' Hill, was an eminence on the westi'rn sid(^ of the Acropolis, which from tlm(! immemo- rial had heen the seat of a highly revered court (if criminal iustice. It took cognizance of charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning •uid arson. Its forms and modes of ])roceediiig were pecidiarly rigid and solenui. It was hel<[ in the open air, perhaps that the judges might not he polluted by .sitting under the same roof witli the criminals. . . . The venerable character of the court seems to have determined Solon to apply it to another purpo.se ; and, without mak- ing any change in its original jurisdiction, to erect it into a siii)renie council, inve.ited with a superintending and controlling authority, whicli extended over every part of the social .sj-stem. He constituted it the guardian of the public morals and religion, to keep watch over the edu- cation and conductor the citizens, and to protect tlic State from the disgrace or pollution of wan- tomiess and profanene.ss. Ho armed it with ex- traordinary I'/Owers of interfering in pressing emergencies, to avert any sudden and inuninent danger which threatened the public safety. The nature of its functions rendered it scarcely pos- sible precisely to define their limits; and Solon probal)ly thought it best to let them remain in that obscurity which ■ agnifies whatever is in- distinct. ... It was tilled with archons who had discharged their odice with ;ipproved lidelit v, and they hold their seats for life. "— -C!. Tliirlwail, Hint, of Greece, j'. 1, eh. 11. — Tlicso enlarged functions of the Areopagus were witlidrawn from it in the tinu! of Pericles, through the agency of Ephialtes, but wore restored, about B. (;. 40(), after the overthrow of the Thirty.— "Some of the writers of antiijuity ascribed the first establishment of the senate of Areopagus to Solon. . . . But there can be little doubt that this is a mistake, and that the senati: of Are- opagus is a primordial iustituticm of immemorial niiti(piity, thougli its constitution as well iis its functions underwent nuuiy elianges. It stocwl at first alone iis a permanent aiul collegiate au- tliiirity, originally by the side of the kings and afterwards by the side of the archons: it would then of course be known by the title of Tlu! Beule, — the .senate, or c( meil; its distinctive title 'senate of Areopagus,' borrowed from the place where its sittings were held, would not be bestowed until the formation by ' Solon of tlu- second senate, or council, from which there wiis need to di.scriminato it." — O. Orote, Jlint. of Oreei-e, pt. 3. e/i. 10 (r. !)).— Hoc, also, Athens: B. (;. 477-4(13, and 4fi«-4r)4. ARETHUSA, Fountain of. See Syiiacuse. AREVAC/E, The.— One of the tribes of the! Itiherians in ancient Spain. Their chief town. miantia, was the stronghold of C'eltiberian re- lanc(! to the lioman conipiest. See Numan- \N Wah. ARGADEIS, The. See Phyl.b. ARGAUM, Battle of (1803). See India: A. D. 1798-iaor). ARGENTARIA, Battle of (A. D. 378). Sec A 1,1; .MANN I: A. I). :i7H. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC : Aboriginal inhabitants. See Amkuican Anouiiii.Nics: Ti;i'i. — (il'AUANI. A. D. 1515-1557.— Discovery, exploration and early settlement on La Plata. — First founding of Buenos Ayres. Sec Pauauiay: A. 1>. l.")l.-.-I.-Mr. A. D. 1580-1777.— The final founding of the City of Buenos Ayres.— Conflicts of Spain and Portugal on the Plata.— Creation of the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. — "lu the year l.l.SO the foundations of a lasting eity were "laid at Buenos Ayres by I)e Garay on the same .situa- tion as had twice previously been cho.sen — namely, by Mendoza, and byCabeza de Vaca, respectively. The same lea(ler had before this founded the settlement of Saute Feonthe Parana. The site selected for the future cajjital of the Pampas is iiroliably one of the worst ever chosen for a city . . . has probably the worst harbour in the world for a large commercial town. . . . Notwithstanding the inconvenience of its harbour, Buenos Ayres soon became the chief conunercial entrepot of the ValU^y of the Plata. The settlement was not efTected without some .severe fighting between He Oaray's force and the (Jiierandies. The latter, liowever, were elTeetmdly {|uelled. . . . The Spaniards were now nominally masters of the; Bio de La Plata, but they had still to apprehend hostilities on the part of the natives between their few and far- distant settlements [concerning which see Paii.\- ouav: a. I). ir)l,5-l,>j7J. Of this liability De Oaray himself was to form a lamentable example. On his passage back to A.suncion, having inca\!- tiously landed to sleep near the ruin.s of the old fort of San Espiritu, he was surprised by a party of natives and murdered, with all his compani- ons. The death of this brave Biscayan was mourned as a great loss by the entire colony. The importance of the cities founded by him was .soon apparent; ar.d in 1030 all the settlements south of the conlluence of the rivers Parana and Paraguay were formed into a separate, indepen- dent government, >mder the name of Hio de La Plata, of whicli Buenos Ayres w.is declared the capital. This city likewise became the .seat of a bishopric. . . . The merchants of Seville, who had obtained n monopoly of tlu; supply of Jlexieo and Peru, regarded with much jealousy the prospect of a new opening for the South Ameri- can trade by way of La Plata," and procured re- strictions ui)on it which were rela.xed in UllH .so far as to permit the sending of two ves.selsof 100 tons each every year to Spain, but subject to a duly of TiO per cent. " Under this miserable commercial legislation Buenos Ayres continued to languish for the first century of its existence. In 1715, after tlie treaty of Utrecht, tlui English . . . obtained the 'asiento' or contract for sup- plying Spanish colonies in America with African slaves, in virtue of which they had permission to form an establishment at Buenos Ayres, and to send thither annually four ships with 1,300 negroes, the value of which they mightexport in produce of the country. They were strictly for- bidden to introduce other gfM-ds than those neces.sary for their own establishments; but under the temptation of gain on the one side and of demand 011 the other, the asiento ships natur- ally became the means of transacting a consider- 125 AHGENTINE I{p:PUnLIC, 1580-1777. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1806-1820. able contmliiiiul tniile. . . . Tho English were nut the only sinui;glcrs in the river Flute. By till' treaty (if Utrecht, the Portuguese hml obtained tlie in)|)"ortaiit settlement of Colonia [the lirst wttleinent of the Banda Oriental —or ' Eastern Border' — afterwards called Uruguay] directly facing Buenos Ayres. . . . The Portuguese, . . . not contented with the posses-sion of CJolonia . . . commenced a mon; important settlement near Monte Video. From this place they were dislodged by Zavala [Governor of Buenos Ayres], who, by order of his government, proceeded to est.-iblisli .-iettleinents at that place and at Maldo- niido. Under the above-detailed circumstances of contention . . . was founded the healthy and agreeable city of :Monte Video. . . . The mevi- table consequence of this state of things was fresh antagonism between the two countries, winch it was sought to put an end to by a treaty between the two nations concluded in IT.IO. One of the articles stipulated that Portugal should cede to (Spain all of her establishments on the eastern bank of the Plata; in return for which she was to receive the seven missuinary towns [known as tho 'Seven Reductions'] on tlie Uruguay. But . . . the inhabitants of thi' .Missions naturally rebelled against the idea of being handed over to a people known to them only by their slave-deal- ing atrocities. . . . The result was that when a, 000 natives had been slaughtered [in the war known as the War of the Seven Reduction.s] and their settlements reduced to ruins, the Portuguese repudiated the conii)act, as they could no longer receive their c(iuivalent, and tliey .still tiiereforo retained (Colonia. When hostilities were re- newed in 1763, the governor of Buenos Ayres succeeded in possessing himself of Colonia; but in the following year it was restored to the Por- tuguese, who continu;!d in ])Ossession until 1777, when it was detinitely ceded to Spain. The con- tinual encroachments of the I'orluguese in the Rio de La Plata, and the impunity with which the contraband trade was carried on, together with the (piestions to which it constantly gave rise with foreign governments, had long shown the necessity for a change in tlie government of that colony'; for it was still under the supciinten- i deuce of the Viceroy of Peru, residing at Lima, ! 3,000 miles distant. The Spanish authorities accordingly resolved to give fresh force to their representatives in the Rio de La Plata; and in ! 1770 they took the important resolution to sever the connection between the provinces of La Plata | and the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were now erected into a new Viceroyalty, the capital ! of which was Buenos Ayres. . . . 'I'o this Vice- ' royalty was apixiinled Don Pedro Cevallos. a former governor of Buenos Ayres. . . . The first act of Cevallos was to take possession of the island of St. Kathcrine, the most important Portuguese possession on the coast of Brazil. Proceeding thence to the Plate, ho razed the fortifications of Coloiuu to tho grotmd, and drove the Portuguese from tlie neighbourhood. In October of the fol- lowing year, 1777, n treaty of peace was signed at St. Ildefonso, between Queen Maria of Portu- gal and Charles III. of Spain, by virtue of which St. Katherine's was restored to the latter country, whilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Orien- tal or Uruguay, and relinquished all jiretensions to tho right of navigating the Rio do La Plata and its atluientsbt-yond its own frontier line. . . . The Viceroyalty of Buunos Ayres was sub-divided into the provinces of — (1.) Buenos Ayres, the capital of which was the city of that name, and winch comprised the Spanish possessions that now form the Republic of Uruguay, as well as the Argentine provinces of Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, Eutre Rios, and Corrientes; (2.) Para- guay, the capital of which was Asuncion, and which comprised what is now the Republic of Paraguay; (!i.) Tucuman, the capital of which was St. lago del Estero, and which included what are to-day the Argentine provinces r f Coi- dova, TiKUiinan, St. lago, Salta, Catamarca, Rioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Cliarcas or Poto.si, the capital of which was La Plata, and which now forms the Republic of Bolivia; and (5.) Chiquito or Cuyo, the capital of which was Men- doza, and in wliich were comprehended the pre- sent Argentine provinces of St. Luiz, Mendoza, and St. Juan." — R. G. Watson, Spnniah and Por- tuguese South Amerini, v. 2, cli. 13-14. Also in: E. J. Payne, Iliatori/ of European CoUmies, eh. 17.— S. H. Wilcocke, Hint, of tlie Vieeroiialtji of Buenos Ayres. A. i). 1806-1820. — The English invasion. — The Revolution. — Independence achieved ■ - Confederation of the Provinces of the P' te River and its dissolution. — "Tlie trade of Jie J'lato River had enormously increased since the sub.stitution of register ships for the annual tlotilla, and the erection of Buenos Ayres into a viceroyalty in 1778; but it was not until the war of 1797 that the English became aware of its real extent. The British cruisers had enough to do to maintain tlie blockade : and when tho English learned that millions of hides were rotting in tlic warehouses of Jlonte Video and Buenos Ayres, tliey concluded that the people would soon see that their interests would be best served by submis- sion to tlie great naval power. The peace put an end to these ideas; but Pitt's favourite pro- ject for destroying Spanish influence in South America by the English arms was revived and put in execution soon after tlie opening of the second European war in 1803. In 1800 ... ho sent a squadron to the Plato River, which offered tho best point of attack to the British fleet, and the road to the most promising of the Spanish colonies. The English, under General Bores- ford, though few in number, soon took Buenos Ayres, for tho Spaniards, terriried at tlie sight of Britisli troops, surrendered without knowing how insignificant tho invading force really was. When they found this out, tliey mustcrecl cour- age to attack Beresford in the citadel ; and tlie English commander was obliged to evacuate the l)lace. The English soon afterwards took pos- session of Monte Video, on the other side of tlie river. Hero they vero joined by another squa- dron, who were under orders, after reducing Buenos Ayres, to sail round the Horn, to take Valparaiso, and estnblisli posts across the conti- nent connecting tliat city with Buenos Ayres, thus executing the long-cherished plan of Lord Anson. Buenos Ayres was therefore invested a second time. But the English land forces were too few for their tusk. The Spaniards spread all round the city strong breastworks of oxhides, and collected all their forces for its defence. Buenos Ayres was stormed by the Englisli at two points on the 5tli of July, 1807; but they were tinable to hold their ground against the unceasing flro of tho Bpaniards, who were greatly superior in numbers, and the next day 126 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1806-1820. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1819-1874. tlioy cnpitu'iitcd, ami iigrt'cil to evncimto tlip province within two iiioiitlis. Tlio EiiKlisli liiul iiimirined tlint tlic; colonists would rpudily flock to their standard, and throw oir tho yoke of Spain. This was a great mistake; and it needed the events of 1808 to lead the Spanisli (colonists to their independence. ... In 1810, when it came to be known that the French armies had crossed the .Sierra Morena, and that Sjtain was a conquered country, the colonists would no longer submit to the shadowy authority of the colonial olliccrs, and elected a "junta of their own to carry on the Government. Most of the troops in the colony went over to the cau.se of inde- pendence, and easily overcame the feeble resist- ance that was made by those who remaincHl faithful to the regencj' in the engagement of Las I'iedras. The leaders of the revolution were the advocate Castclli and General Belgrano; and imder their guidance scarcely any obstacle stopped its jirogrcss. They even sent their armies at once into Upper Peru and the Banda Oriental, and their privateers carried the Inde- jiendcnt flag to the coasts of the Pacific; but these successes were accompanied by a total anarchy in the Argentine capital and ])rovinces. TUv. most intelligent and capable men had gone off to fight for liberty elsewhere; and even if they had remained it would have been no easy task to establish a new governntont over the scattered and half-civilized population of this vast country. . . , The (irst result of indepen- dence was the formation of a not very intelligent party of cou itry proprietors, who knew notliing of the mystei'es of politics, and were not ill- content with the existing order of things. The business of the old viceroyal government was delegated to a supreme Director; but this func- tionary was little more than titular. How limited the aspirations of the Argentines at first were may be gathered from the instructions with which Belgrano and Rivadavia wore sent to liurope in 1814. They were to go to England, and ask for an English protectorate ; if possible under an English prince. They were next to try the same plan in France, Austria, and Rus- sia, and lastly in Spain it.self : and if Spain still refused, were to offer to renew the subjection of the colony, on condition of certain specified con- cessions being made. This was indeed a strange contrast to tlie lofty aspirations of the Colom- bians. On arrivingat Rio, 'he Argentine dele- gates were assured by the English minister. Lord Strangford, that, as things were, no Euro- l)ean power would do anything for them: nor did they succeed bettor in 8i)ain itself. Mean- while the government of the Buc!M)s Ayres junta was powerless outside tlie town, and the country was fast lapsing into tlie utmost dis- order and confusion. At lengtli, when Govern- ment could hardly be said to exist at all, a general c<mgress of the provinces of the Plate Hiver assembled at Tucuman in 1810. It was resolved that all the states should unite in a con- federati<)n to be called the United Provinces of the Plate River: and u constitution Wiis elabor- ated, in imitation of the famous one of the United States, providing lor two legislative <'liiunbcrs and a president. . . . Tlie influence of the capital, of which all the other provinces were keenly jealous, predominated iit the con- gress; and "Puyrredou, an active Buenos Ayres politiciuu, was made supreme Director of tho Confederation. The j)eopl<' of Buenos Ayres thought their city destined to exercise over" the rural provinces a "similar influence to.that which Athens, under similar circumstances, had exer- cised in Greece; and able Buenos Avreans like Puyrredon, San Martin, and Rivadavia, now be- ciime the leaders of the unitary partv. The powerful ])rovincials, represented by sudi men as Lopez and tjuiroga, soon found out that the Fed- eral sclieine meant th<' supremacy of Buenos Ayres, anil a political change which would deprive t hem of most of their influence. The Federal .sys- tem, Iheiefore, could not be expected to last very long: and it did in fact collapse after four years. Artigas led the revolt in the Banda Oriental (n;)W Uruguay], and the Hiverene Provinces so(m followed the example. For a long time the provinces were practically under the authority of their local chiefs, the only semblance of politi- cal life being confined to Buenos Ayres itself." — E. J. Payne, Jfist. of Kiimpean Colonien, ch. 17. Also in: M. G. Mulhall, Tlie Eimlish in 8. America, cJi. 10-13, and 10-18. — J. Miller, Mem- oirs of Ocneral Miller, ch. 3 (r. 1).— T. J. Page, La Plata, the Argentine Confederation and Para- ijnny, ch. 31. A. D. 1819-1874. — Anarchy, civil war, despot- ism. — The Ion? struggle for order and Con- federation. — "A new Congress met in 1819 and made a Constitution for the country, which was never adopted by all the Provinces. Pueyrredon resigned, and on June lOtli, 1819, Jose Rondeau was elected, who, however, was in no condition to pacify the civil war which had broken out during the government of his predecessors. At the commencement of 1830, the last 'Director General ' was overthrown ; the municipality of the city of Buenos- Aires seized the government; the Confederation was declared dissolved, and eacli of its Provinces received liberty to organize itself as it pleased. This was anarchy ollicially Iiroclaimed. After the fall in the siune year of some military chiefs who had seized the power, Gen. ilartin Rodriguez was named Governor of Buenos- Aires, and he succeeded in establish- ing some little order in this chaos. He chose M. J. Garcia and Bernardo Rivadavia — one of tlie most enlightened Argentines of his times — as his Ministers. This administration did a j.-rcat deal of good by exchanging conventions of friendship and commerce, and entering into (!■; lomatic relations with foreign nations. At the end of his term General Las Ileras — 9th May, 1824 — took charge of the government, and called a Constituent Assembly of all the Pro- vinces, which met at Buenos-Aires, December lOtli, and elected Bernn rdo Rivadavia President of the newly Confederated Republic on the 7tli Feb- ruary, 1835. This excellent Argentine, however, found no assistance in the Congress. No under- standing could be come toon the form or the test of the Constitution, nor yet ujion the place of residence for the national Oovernnient. Whilst Rivadavia desired a centralized Constitution — called here ' unintarian ' — and that the citv of Buenos- Aires should be declared capital of the Republic, the majority of Congress held a dif- ferent opinion, and this divergence caused the resignation of the President on the liih July, 1827. After this event, the attempt to 'stablisli a Con- federation whicli would include all the Pro- vinces was considered as defeated, and each Province went on its own way, whilst Buenos- 127 ARGENTINE HEPUBLIC, 1810-1874. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1880-1891. Aires clfrtcd Maiiufl Dorrogo, the chief of the federal partv, for its Governor. He was Ininiffiirau'il on the l.'ilh August, 1837, and at once miilerlook to organize a new Confederation of the I'rovhices, opening relations to this end with the (Joverniniiil of Ccirdoh.i, the most important I'roviriee of the interior. He suc- ceeded in reCslahlishing repose in the interior, nnd was instrumental in preserving a general peace, even lieyond the limits of his young country. Tlie Emperor of Hrazil did not wish to acknowledge the rights of the United Pro- vinces over the Cisplaline jirovince. or I5an<la Orii'ntal |now Uruguayl. He wished to annex it lo his empire, and de(Jared war to the Argen- tine ISepuhlie on the 10th of December. 1820. An army was soon organized by the latter, under the com'miuid of General Alvear, winch on the 20th of February, 1827, gained a complete victory over the Brazilian forces — twice their number — at the i)lains of Ituzaingo, iu the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul. The navy <,)f the Argentines also triumphed on several occasions, so that when England offered her intervention, Brazil renounced all claim to the territory of Uruguay by the convention of the 27th August, 1828, and the two parties ugreeil to recognize and to maintain the neutrality and independence of that country. Dorrego, however, had but few sympathies in the army, and a short time after liis return from Brazil, the soldiers wider Laviille rebelled and forced him to lly to the countrv on the 1st December of the same year. There he found aid from the Com- mander General of the country districts, Juan Manuel Rosas, and formed a small battalion with the intention of marching on the city of Buenos- Aires. But Lavalle triumphed, took liim prisoner, and shot him without trial on the 18tli December. . . . Not only did the whole interior of the province of Bnenos-Aires rise against Lavalle, under the direction of Rosas, but also a large part of other Provinces considered this event as a declaration of war, and the National Congress, then assembled at Santa-Fe, declared Lavnlle's government illegal. The two parties fought with real fury, but in 1829, after nn inter- view between Rosas and Lavalle, a temporary reconciliation was effected. . . . The legislature of Buenos-Aires, which had been convoked on account of the reconciliation between Luvallc nnd Rosas, elected the latter as Governor of the Pro- vince, on December 0th, 1839, and accorded to him extraordinary powers. . . . During this the first period of his government he did not appear in his true nature, and at its conclusion he refused a reelection and retired to the country. General Juan 1{. Balearce was then — 17th December, 1832— named Governor, but could only maintain himself some eleven months: Viamont succeeded him, also for a short time only. Now the moment had come for Rosas. He accepted the almost unlimited Dictator.ship wliicli was offered to liim on the 7th March, 183.5, and reigned in a liorrible maimer, like a mad- man, until his fall. Several times the attempt was made to deliver Buenos-Aires from his terrible yoke, and above all tlie devoted nnd valiant efforts of General Lavalle deserve to be mentioned; but all was in vain; Rosas remained unshaken. Finally, General Justo Jose De Urquiza, Governor of the province of Kntre- Rios, iu alliauce with the province of Corrientes and the Em])ire of Brazil, rose r.gain.st the Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of Uruguay, and the city of Monte-Video — the a.sylum of the ailversafies of Rosas — from the army which besieged it, and tliereafter pa.ssing the great river Parana, with a relatively large army, he completely defeated Rosas at Monte- Caseros, near Buenos- Aires, on the 3rd February, 1853. I)nring the same day, Rosas sought ami received the f rotection of nn English war- vessel which was in the road of Buenos-Aires, in which he went to England, where he still [IH70] ' resides. Meantime Uniuiza took charge of the Goverimient of the United Provinces, imder the title of 'Provisional Director,' and called a general meeting of tlio Governors at San Nicolas, a frontier village on the north of the i)rovince of Buenos-Aires. This assemblage continued him in his temporary power, and called a National Congress which met at 8anta-Fe and made a National Constitution under date of S.ltli yiny, 18.53. By virtue of this Constitution the Con- gress met again tlie following year at Parana, a cit}' of Entre-Rios, which had been made the capital, and on the 5th May, elected General Unjuiza the first President of the Argentine Con- federation. . . . The important province of Buenos- Aires, liowever, liad taken no piirt in the deliberations of the Congress. Previously, on the 11th September 1852, a revolution against Urquiza, or rather against the Provincial Government in alliance with him, had taken place and caused a temporary separation of the Province from the Republic. Several efforts to pacify the disputes utterly failed, nnd a battle took " place at Cepeda in Santa-Fe, wherein Urquiza, who commanded the provincial troops, was victorious, although his success led to no definite result. A short time after, the two armies met again at Pavou — near the site of the former battle — nnd Buenos-Aires won the day. This secured the unity of the Republic of which the victorious General Bartolome Mitre was elected President for six years from October, 1802. At the same time the National Goverm.'ent was transferred from Parana to Buenos-Alres, and the latter was declared the temporary capital of the Nation. The Republic owes much to the Government of Mitre, and it is probable that he would have done more good, if war had not broken out with P .raguay, in 1805 [see Pau.uiuav]. The Argen- tines took part in it as one of the three allied States against the Dictator of Paraguay, Fran- cisco Solano Lopez. On the 12th October, 1808, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento succeeded Gen. Alitre in the Presidency. . . . The 12tli October, 1874, Dr. Nicolas Avellaueda succeeded him in the Government." — R. Napp, T/w Arf/cntine licpuhlic, ch. 3. Ai.soin: D. P. Sarmiento, Life in tt e Argentine Republicin the Days of the J'l/nints. — J. A. King, Tirenti/'fitur ycarx in the Aiy/entine Republic. A. C! 1880-1891. — The Constitution and its working. — Governmental corruption. — The Revolution of 1890, and the financial collapse. — "The Argentine constitutional system in its (.utward form corresponds closely to that of the United States. . . . But the inward grace of enlightened public opinion is lacking, and political practice falls below the level of a self- governing democracy. Congress enacts laws, but the Presidei . as" commaudcr-iu-chief of the 128 ARGENTINE UEPUBLIC, 1880-1891. AUGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. array, and as tho head of a civil service depend- ent "upon Ills will and cajirice, possesses abso- lute aiilliority in adniinistratinn. Tlie country is jj;()veriied by executive decrees ratlier tlian by constitutional laws. Elections are carried l)y military pressure and nianipulalion of tlio civil service. . . . President Uoca [who succeeded Avellaneda in 1880J virtuallv nonnnated, and elected his brother-in-law, .Juarez Celnian, as liis successor. President Juarez set his heart upon controlling tho succession in the interest of one of his relatives, a prominent olHcial ; l)Ut was forced to retire before ho could carry out Ids purpose. . . . Nothing iu tho Argentine sur- prised me more than the boldness and freedom witli which the press attacked the government of the day and exposed its corruption. . . . The government paid no lieed to these attacks. Ministers did not trotible themselves to repel charges affecting their integrity. . . . This wliolesome criticism from an independent press had one important effect. It gave direction to public opinion in tlie capital, and involved tho organization of tlio Union Civica. If tlio coun- try liiid not been on the verge of a financial revulsion, there miglit not have been tho revolt against tlie .Juarez administration in July, 1800 ; hut with ruin and disaster confronting them, men turned against the President whose incom- petence and venality would have been condoned if the times had been good. The Union Civica was founded when the government was charged with maladministration in sanctioning an iliegal issueof $40,000,000of papermoney. . . .The gov- ernment was suddenly confronted with an armed coalition of the best battalions of the army, the entire navy.and the Union Civica. The manifesto Issued by the Ucvolutionary Junta was a terrible arraignment of the political crimes of the Juarez Government. . . . The revolution opened with every prospect of success. It failed from tlie incapacity of the leaders to co-operate harmo- niously. On July 19, 1890, tlic defection of the army was discovered. On July 20 the revolt broke out. For four days there was blooilshed without definite plan or purpose. No deter- mined attack wa.s made upon the government palace. Tho fleet opened a fantastic bombard- ment upon tho suburbs. There was inexplicable mismanagement of tlie insurgent forces, and on July 29 an ignominious surrender to the govern- ment with a proclamation of general amnesty. General Roca remained behind tho scenes, appar- ently master of the situation, wliile President Juarez, had fled to a place of refuge on the Uosario railway, and two factions of the array were playing at cross purposes, and the police and the volunteers of the Union Civica were shooting women and cliildrcn in the streets. Another week of hopeless confusion passed, and General Roca announced the resignation of President Juarez and the succession of vice- President Pellegrini. Tlieu the city was illumi- nated, and for three days there was a pande- monium of popular rejoicing over a victory which nobody except General Uoca understood. . . . In Juno, 1891, tho deplorable state of Argentine finance was revealed in a luminous statement made by President Pellegrini. . . . All business interests were stagnant. Immigration had been diverted to Brazil. ... All industries wore prostrated except politics, and the pernicious activity displayed by factious was an evil augury for the return of prosperity. . . . During thirty vears the country has trebled its population, its increase bein'^ relatively much more rapid than that of the United Statesdiiring tlie .siime period. The estimate of the present iiopulation [1893] is 4,()0(),0()0 in place of 1,100,000 in 18r)7. . . . Disiist rolls as tlie results of political government aiKl^liiiancial disorder have been in the Argen- tine, its ultimate recovery by slow stages is probable. It has a magniiicent railway system, an industrious working population recruitetl from Europe, and nearly all the material appli- ances for prtigress. " — I. N. Ford, Tropical America, ch. 0. — See Constitution, AiKiEXTiNE. A. D. 1892.— Presidential Election.— Dr. Luis Saenz-Pena, former Cliief Justice of tho Supreme Court, and reputed to lie a .nan of great integrity and ability, was chosen Presi- dent, and inaugurated October 12, 1893. » ARGINUSAE, Battle of. See Giieece: B. C;. 400. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, The.— "The ship Arg</ was tho theme of many songs during the oldest periods of the Grecian Epic, even earlier than the Odyssey. The king ^-EOtOs, from whom she is departing, the liero Jason, who commands her, and the goddess HOrC, who watches over him, enabling tho Argo to traverse distances and to escape dangers which no ship had ever before encountered, are all circum- stances briefly glanced ut by Odysseus in his nar- rative to Alkinous. . . . Jason, commanded by Polias to depart in quest of the golden fleece be- longing to the speaking ram which had carried away Phryxus and HellO, was encouraged by the oracle to invite the noblest youth of Greece to his aid, and flfty of the most distinguished amongst them obeyed the call. HflraklOs, TliOseus, Telamon and PGIeus, Kastor and PoUu.x, Idas and Lynkeus — Zfltes and Kalais, the winged sons of Boreas — Mcleager, Ampliiaraus, KPph- eus, LaertOs, Autolykus, Men-etius, Aktor, Er- ginus EuphCmus, Aukieus, Pa-as, Periklvnienus, Augeas, Eurytus, AdmOtus, Akastus, ICieneiis. Euryalus, POneleos and LCitus, Askalaphus and lalmonus, were among them. . . . Since so many able men have treated it as an undisputed reality, and even made it the pivot of systematic chronological calculations, I may liere repeat the opinion long ago expressed by Ileyno, and even indicated by Burmann, that the process of dis- secting tho story, in search of a basis of fact, is one altogether fruitless." — G. Grote, Ilisl. of Orccce, i\ 1, pt. 1, ch. VS. — "In the rich cluster of myths which surround the captain of the Argo "and his follows are preserved to us the whole life and doings of the Greek maritime tribes, which gradually united all the coasts witli one another, and attracted Hellenes dwelling in the most different seats into the sphere of tlieir activity. . . . The Argo was said to liave weighed anchor from a variety of ports — from lolcus in Tliessaly, from Antlied<m and Sipliie in Ba'otia: the home of Jason liiinself was on Mount Pelion by the sea, and again on Lemnos and in Corinth;" a clear proof of how liomo- geneous were the influences running on various coasts. However, the myths of the Argo were developed in the greatest completeness on the Pagasean gulf, in the seats of tlie Miiiyi ; and they are the first with whom a perceptible move- ment of the Pelasgian tribes beyond the sea — in 129 AIJOONAUTK; EXI'KDITION. AUGOS. other words, a Greek history in Europe — bo- aiivi "— E. ("iirtius, JIM. <'f (Irnr,-. hk. 1. fh. 2-3. ARGOS.-ARGOLIS.-ARGIVES.— ' No iliHlricl (if (lr<'Oio coiitaiiH so dciisc a succession of powerful eiludels in ii narrow spiiee as Argo- lis [tlie eastern peninsular proje<'tl()n of the Pelopoiuiesiis], Lofty liarlssa, apparentl_>' de- slgned liy nature as the eentre of the distrKil, is Bureeeded hy Myeenie, deep in the recess of the land; nt "the foot of th(^ mountain lies .Mideu, 8t the brink of tlie sea-eoiist Tiryns; and lastly, nt a farther distani'e of half ivn hour's march, Nauplia, with its liarbour. This succession of ancient fastnesses, whose iiich'structilile struc- ture of stone we admire to this day [see Sehlic- muiin's ' Mycout' and ' Tiri/ioi'] is clear evi- dence of mighty conllicts wliidi agitate<l tlio earliest days of Ar^os; and proves that in this one plain of Inachus S(!Veral principalities must have arisen hy the side of one another, each l)Uttlng Its coiilldence in the walls of its (citadel ; some, iiceording to their position, maintaining iin intercourse witli other lands by sea, others rather a connection with the inland country. The evidence i)reserved hy lhes<^ monuments is borne out by that of the mytlis, according to which the dominion of Danaus is divided among his successors. Exiled Pnetus is brought home to Argos by Lyc^ian banils, with whose help he builds the coast-fortress of Tiryns, where he holds swiiy as the first and mightiest in the hind. . . . The other line of the Danaidic Is also in- timately connected witli Lyeia ; for Perseus . . . [wlio] on Ins return from the East founds iMycenoB, as the new n'gal seat of the united kingdom of Argos, is himself essentially a Lycian hero of light, belonging to tlie religion of Apollo. . . . Finnlly, Heracles liimself is connected with the family of the Perseidte, as a prince born on tlio Tirynthian fastness. . . . During these divisions in tlio house of Danaus, and tlie misfortunes be- falling that of Prietus, foreign families ac(iuire influence and d(miinion in Argos: these are of tlie race of .Eolus, and originally belong to the harbour-country of the western coast of Pelo- ponnesus — the Amythaonida;. . . . While the dominion of the Argive land was thus sub- divided, and the native warrior nobility subse- quently exhausted itself in savage internal feuds, a new royal house succeeded in grasping the supremo power and giving an entirely now im- portance to the country. This house was that of the Tantalidie [or Pei.oi'ips, which skc], united with tlie forces of Achican population. . . . The residue of fact is, that the ancient dy- nasty, connected by descent with. Lyeia, was overthrown by the house which derived its origin from Lydia. . . . The poetic myths, ab- horring long rows of names, monti.in three prin- ces as ruling here in succession, one leaving the sceptre of Pelops to the other, viz., Atreus, Tliy- estes and Agamemnon. Mycenie is the chief seat of their rule, which is not restricted to the district of Argos. " — E. Curtius, JIM. of Oreere, bk. 1, ch. 3. — After the Doric invasion of the Peloponnesus (see Gueeck: TiiI': Miouationk; also, D<)i(i.\N8 AND loNiANs), Argos appears in Greek history as a Doric state, originally the foremost one in power and intliieneo, but humili- ated after long years of rivalry by her Spartan neighbours, " Argos never forgot that she had once been the chief power in the peninsula, and her feeling towards Sparta was that of a jealous but impotent competitor. By what steps the decliiii! other power had taken place, we are un- able to make out, nor can we trace the succes- sion of her kings subseijuent to Pheidon [Htli century H. t'. ]. '. . . The title [of king] existed (tliougli iiroliably witli verv limited functions) at the time of tlie Persian War [H. V. 4()(M7!)|. . . . There is some ground for presuming that the king of Argos was even at that time a Iler- akleid — since the Sparl -ns olTered to him a third ])art of tlie comniaiid of the llelleni(^ force, conjointly with their own two king.s. The con- (piest of Thyreates by the Spartans [about 547 B. C] deprived the Argeians of a valuable por- tion of their I'eri(ekis, or dependent territory. But Orneie and the remaining portion of Kynu- ria still continued to belong to them: tlie plain round their city was very productive; and, ex- cept Sparta, then; was no other power in Pelo- ponnesus superior to them. Mykenie and Tiryns, nevertheless, seem both to have been indepen- dent states at the time of the Persian War, since both sent contingents to the battle of Plata'a, at a time whe« Argos held aloof and rather favoured the Persians." — G. Grote, Jlist. of (lirm; pt. 3, eli. 8 (». 2). B. C, 406-421. — Calamitous War with Sparta. — Non-action in the Persian War. — Slow recovery of the crippled State. — "One of the heaviest blows which Argos ever sustained at the hand of her traditional foe befell her about 496 B. C, six years before the first Persian in- vasion of Greece. A war with Sparta having broken out, Clcomenes, the Lacedoemonian king, succeeded in landing a large army, in vessels he had extorted from the .lEjjinetans, at Nauplia, and ravaged the Argive territory. The Argeians mustered all their forces to resist lilm, and the two armies encamped opposite each other near Tiryns. Cleomenes, however, contrived to at- tack the Argeians nt a moment when they were unprepared, making use, if HerodotuL is to be credited, of a stratagem which proves the ex- treme incapacity of the opposing generals, and completely routed them. The Argeians took refuge in a sacred grove, to which the remorse- less Spartans set lire, and so destroyed almost the whole of them. No fewer than 6,000 of the citizens of Argos perished on this disastrous day. Cleomenes might have captured the city itself; but he was, or affected to be, hindered by un- favourable omens, and drew off his troops. The lo.ss sustained by Argos was so severe as to re- duce her for some years to a condition of great weakness; but this was at the time a fortunate circumstance for tlie Hellenic cause, inasmuch as it enabled the Laccdsemonians to devote their whole energies to the work of resistance to the Persian invasion without fear of enemies at home. In this great work Argos took no part, on the occasion of either the first or second attempt of the Persian kings to bring Hellas under their dominion. Indeed, the city was strongly sus- pected of ' medising ' tendencies. In the period following the final overthrow of the Persians, while Aniens was pursuing the splendid career of aggrandisement and conquest that made her the foremost state in Qrt?ece, and while the Lace- diBinonians were paralyzed by the revolt of the Messeuians, Argos regained strength and in- fluence, whicli she at once employed and in- creased by the harsh policy ... of dc^popula- tiug Mycena; and Tiryns, while she compelled 130 AUGOS. AHIANISM. Kcvpral other scmi-indepcmlent places in tlic Ar- (ioliii ti> acknowledge her .sii|)rema(y. Duriiij; the lirst elevn y<'ars of tlu? Pclopoiniesian war, down to the peace of N'ieias (4Jl 11. C), Ari;oM held aloof from all partici|)ation in the stniKK'e, adding to her wealth and perfecting her nulitary organization. Ah to her domestic conditions and political system, little is known; but it is certain that the governnfcnt, unlike that of other Oorian Btates, was democratic in its character, though then' was in the city a strong oligarchic and philo-Laconian party, which was destined to e.\- ercise a decisive inlluenceatuu important crisis." — C II. llan.son, Tlie hind of Greece, ch. 10. Ai-so IN: O. Orote, llist. of Oreeco, pt. 2, eh. 30 (c. 4). B. C. 421-418. — League formed against Sparta. — Outbreak of War. — Defeat at Man- tinea. — Revolution in the Oligarchical and Spartan interest. See CiuKixi;: IS. (', 4.;i-tlM. B. C. 395-387.— Confederacy against Sparta. — The Corinthian War. — Peace of Antalcidas. SeeUiiEicK: IJ. C. *Jl)-;{87. B. C. 371. — Mob outbreak and massacre of chief citizens. See Oukkck: B. C. ;i71-;ili>'. B. C. 338.— Territories restored by Philip of Macedon. See (JiiKixi;: 15. (;. ;J.")7-;j3(i. B. C. 271. — Repulse and death of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. See ^I.vckdo.nia: B. C'. 277- 2-14. B. C. 229. — Liberated from Macedonian con- trol. SeeGltliKCK: B. t!. 280-140. A. D. 267. — Ravaged by the Goths. See GoTiis: A. 1). 258-207. A. D. 395.— Plundered by the Goths. See Gorim: A. 1). 31)5. A. D. 1463. — Taken by the Turks, retaken by the Venetians. See Giiiibxic: A. 1). 1454- 147'J. A. D. 1686.— Taken by the Venetians. See TuuKs: A. U. 1084-1090. ARGYRASPIDES, The.— " lie [Alexander the Great] then marclied into India, that he might have his empire bounded by the ocean, and the extreme parts of tlie East. That the equipments of his army might be suitable to the glory of the Expedition, he mounted the trap- pings of the horses and tlie arms of the soldiers with silver, and called a body of his men, from having silver shields, Argyraspides." — Justin, Ilistori/ (trans, by J. IS. Wntson), bk. 12, ch. 7. Also in: C. Thirl wall, Hist, of Greece, ch. 58. —See, also, Macedonia: B. C. 323-316. ARGYRE. See Ciikvsk. ARI A.— ARE lOS.— ARE I ANS.— The nilmo by which the Ilerirud and its valley, the district of modern Herat, was known to the ancient Greeks. Its inhabitants were known as the Arei- ans.— M. Duncker, lUst. of Anliq., bk. 7, ch. 1. ARIANA. — " Strabo uses the name Ariana for the land of all the nation.s of Iran, except that of the Medes and Persians, i. e. , for the whole eastern half of Iran" — Afghanistan and Bcloochistan. — M. Duncker, llist. of Antiquity, V. 5, bk. 7, ch. 1. ARIANJSM.— ARIANS.— Prom the second century of its existence, the Christian church was divided by bitter controversies touching the mystery of the Trinity. "The word Trinity is found neither in the Holy Scriptures nor in the writings of the first Christians ; but it had been employed from the beginning of the •>coud cen- t\iry, when a more metupliysical turn had been given to the nunds of men. and theologians Inul begiui to allcnipt to .plain the divine nature. . . . The Eouiidc ol the new ridlgion, the Being who lia<l brought upon earth a divine light, was he God, was ho man. was ho of an in- termediate nature, and, thouf.'h superior to all other creati'd beings, yet him.self created ? This latter opinion waslielll by Alius, an Alexandrian priest, who niaintain('<l it in a series of learned controversial works tietwecn the yars 318 and 325. As soon as the discussion had (pillled the walls of the .schools, and been taken up by the people, mutual accusiitions of the gravest kind took the jilace of metaphysical subtleties. The orthodox party reproached the Arians with blaspheming the deity hiinsclf, by refusing to acknowledge hlin in tiie person of Christ. The Arians accused the orthodo.v of violating the liiiidamenlal law of religion, by rendering to the creature the worship due only to tlu! Creator. ... It was dillicult to decide which numbered the largest body of followers; but the ardent en- tliusiastic spirits, the jiopulace in all the great cities (and especially at Alexandria) tlie women, and the newly-founded order of tlie monks of the desert . . . were almost without exception partisans of the faith which has since been de- clared orthodox. . . . Constantine thought tliia (piestion of dogma might be decided by an as- sembly of the whole church. Iii the year 325, ho convoked the couru-il of Nice [see Nlc.KA, Council oi'-l, at which 300 bishops pronounced in favour ot the equality of the Son with the Father, or the doctrine generally regarded as orthodox, and condemned the Arians to exile and their books to the llames. " — J. C. L. de Sis- mondi. Fall of the liomim J'Juijiire, ch. 4. — ' Tho victorious faction [at the Council of Nice] . . . anxiously .sought for some irreconcilable mark of distinction, the rejection of which might in- volve the Arians in tlie guilt and consequences of heresy. A letter was publicly read and igno- miniously torn, in which their patron. Eusebius of Xicomedia, ingeniously confessed that the ad- mi-ssion of the hoinoousion, or consubstantial, a wortl already familiar to the Platonists, was in- compatible with the principles of their theo- logical system. The fortunate opportunity was eagerly embraced. . . . The consulistanliality of the Father and the Son Wiis established by the Council of Nice, and has been unanimously re- ceived as a fundaineulal article of the Christian faith by the consent of the Greek, the Latin, the Oriental and the Protestant churches." Not- withstanding the decision of the Council of Nice against it, the lieresj' of Ariiis continued to gain ground in the East. Even the Emperor C/'onstantino became friendly to it, and the sons of Constantine, witli some of the later emperors who followed them on the eastern throne, wero ardent Arians in belief. The Homoousians, or orthodox, were subjected to persecution, which was directed with special bitterness against their great leader, Athaiiasius, the famous bishop of Alexandria. But Arianism was weakened by hair-splitting distinctions, which resulted in many diverging creeds. "The sect which as- serted the doctrine of a 'similar substance' was the I.' -it numerous, at least in the provinces of Asia. . . . The Greek word which was chosen to express this mysterious resemblance bears so close on affinity to tho orthodox symbol, that the 131 AlUANISM. ARIZONA. priifiini- iif every iiffe Imvc deriilcd tlie furious (KiiilcHtH wlili'h the ililTcriiKc nf ii single diph- tliDiiif exiilcil lielwcen llie IIomiMJiisiiitis iind th(^ lloiiuiioiisiuiiM." The l-aliii (liurehes of the WeKt, with Home at their liead, remained (,'<•»• erallv (Inn in tlie ortliodoxy of the Ilonioousian rreed lint tlie (lollis. wlio liad reeeived tlieir Christianity from tlie Kast, tinctured with Arianisni. earrii'd that heresy westward, anil spread it amoiiir tlieir Imrlmriaii iieiL'libiirs — Vandals, Hiirfjiindiansand Sueves — through the inlliiiiiee of the (lotliie Hible of Ultiliis, which lie and his missionary successors bore to the Teu- tonic iieopies. " TIu! Vandals and Ostrogoths persevered in the professhm of Arianisni till the tinal ruin [A. I). ^<-V-i and SWJ of the kingdoms wliicli they had founded in Africii and Italy. Tin- biirbariaiis of Gaul submitted FA. 1). 5071 to the orthodox dominion of the t ranks; and Spain was restored toi'ie C'atholii^ Church by the voluntary conversion of the Visigoths [A. I). r>Hi)]." — E. Oibbon, JJtdiiie and Fall <if tin: ILtiima Kmpiiv, '•li. 21 mitl 87. — TheiMlosius formally proclaimed his adhesion to Trinitarian orthoilo.xy by his celebrated edic't of A. O. 380, and coinman'ded its acceptance in the Kastern Kmpire. Sue UoMK: A. D. 379-aU,).— A. Nc- iindiir, (nil. J fiat, of Uhrist. Rd. ami Ch., trans, by Torn/, i: 2. Htrl. 4. Alsoin; J. Alzog, Maniinl nf Univ. Ch. Hint., sect. UO-114.— W. G. T. Shedd, Jlist. of Cliiint. Doctrine, bk. 3. — J. II. Newman, Ariam of the Foiiiih Century. — A. P. Stanley, Lecta. on the Hint, of the East. Ch., lects. 3-7.— J. A. Dorner, Jlinl. of the Derelopmeiit of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ, din. 1 (p. 2).— See, also, GoTiis: A. D. 341-381; Fiiasks: A. 1). 481-511; also, GoTiis (Visigoths): A. I). 507-509. ARICA, Battle of (i88o). See Cuile: A. D. 183;(-1HH4. ARICIA, Battle of.— A victory won by the Romans over the Aunincians, U. C. 497, which 8iimniarily ended a war that the latter had de- clared against the former. — Livv, Hist, of Rome, bk. 2. ch. 20. ARICIAN GROVE, The.— The sacred grove at .Vricia (one of the towns of old Latium, near Alba Louga) was the center and meeting-place of nn early league among the Latin peoples, about which little is known. — W. Ihnc, llisi. of lionie, bk. 2, ch. 8.— Sir. W. Gell, Toixy. of Row:. V. 1. — "On the northern shore of the lake Wjt Nemi] right under the precipitous cliffs on which the mmlern village of Nemi is perched, stood Iht sacred grove and sanctuary of Diana Ncmoreus.,,, or Diana of the Wood. . . . The site was ex- cavated ill 1885 by Sir John Saville Lumley, English ambassivdor at Home. For a geneml description of the site and excavations, sei the Atheiiieum, lOth October, 1885. For details of the tinds see ' IJuUetino dell ' Instituto di Corris- poudenza Archcologica,' 1885. . . . The lake and the grove were sometimes known as the lake and grove of Aricia. But the town of Aricia (the modern La Uiccia) was situated about three miles off, at the foot of the Alban Mount. . . . According to one story, the worship of Diana at Nemi was instituted by Orestes, who, after killing Tlioas, Kinjj of the Tauric Chersonese (the Crimea), lied with his sister to It^ily, bring- ing with him the image of the Tauric Diana. . . . Within the sanctuary at Nemi grew a cer- tain tree, of which uo branch might be broken. Only a runaway slave was allowed to break off, if lie could, one of its boiiglis. Success in thu attempt entitled him to light the priest in single conilmt, and if lie slew him lie rcigiu'd in his stead with the title of King of tlic^ Wood (I{ex Neniorciisis). Tradition averred that the fateful branch was that Golden IJoigh which, at the Sibyls bidding. .Kiieas plucked before he essayed the perilous journey to the world of the dead. . . . This rule of succession by the sword was observed down to imperial times; for aniongst his other freaks Caligula, thinking that the priest of Nemi had held olllce too long, hired a more stalwart riitllan to slay him." — J. G. Fra/er. The (rolilen Umi/h, ch. 1, sect. 1. ARICONIUM.— A town of Himian Ilritaiu which appeals to have been the principal mart of till! iron manufacturing industry in the Forest of Dean. — T. Wright, IVie Celt, the Itoman and the Siuon, ji. 101. ARII, The. Sei' Lyoians. ARIKARAS, The. See Amehican Abori- (Ji.SK.s: I'awx (Caddoan) Family. ARIMINUlvi. — The Hoiiian cohmy, planted in the third ccntiry H. C, which grew into the niodcrii city of liimini. See Ko.Mi;: H. C. 295- 191. — When Ciesar entered Italy as an invader, crossing the frontier of Cisalpine Gaul — the Kiibicon — his first movement was to occupy Ariminum. He halted there for two or three weeks, making his preparations for the civil war which he had now entered upon and waiting for till! two legions that he had ordered from Gaul. — C. Merivale, Ili.it. of the Itomiuis, ch. '4. ARIOVALDUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 020-038. ARISTEIDES, Ascendancy of. See Ath- ens: B. C. 477-4(!2. ARISTOCRACY.- OLIGARCHY.— " Aristocracy signifies the rule of the best men. If, however, this epithet is referred to an absoluto ideal standard of excellence, it is manifest that an aristocratical government is a mere abstract notion, which has nothing in history, or in nature, to correspond to it. But if wo content ourselves with t.iking the same terms in a relative sense, . . . aristocracy . . . will bo that form of gov- ernment in which the ruling few are distin- guished from the multitude by illustrious birth, hereditary wealth, and personal merit. . . . AVhenever such aclmnge took place in the char- acter or the relative position of the ruling body, that it no longer commanded tho respec -if its subjects, but found itself opposed to then,, and compelled to direct its measures chiefly to tho preservation of its power, it ceased to be, in tlio Greek sense an aristocracy ; it became a faction, an oligarchy." — C. Thirl wall, Uist. of Greece, ch. 10. ARISTOMNEAN WAR. Sec Messeniaw Wahs, Fihst and Second. ARIZONA: The Name. — "Arizona, proba- bly Arizonac in its original form, was the native and probably Pima name of the place — of a hill, valley, stream, or some other local feature — just south of the modern boundary, in tlio mountains still so called, on the headwaters of the stream flowing past Saric, where the famous Planchas do Plat-a mine was discovered in tlie middle of the 18tli century, the name being first known to Spaniards in that connection and being a])plied to the mining camp or real de minas. The aboriginal meaning of the term is not 132 ARIZONA. ARKANSAS. known, though from llio conimnn oocurn'nrc in this region of tlui prolix 'iiri,' tlic riM)t 'son,' imd tlio terniiuiition 'or,' tlic dcriviilion ought not to csciipu till! ri'wiircli of i\ conipotont Htiulcnl. iSucli guesscH UH iiro extant, founiivd on tin; niitivi; tongiR'M, olTcr only tlic Imri'st pos.sil)llUy of a iwrliai nnd iicciciontid accuracy; wliilo similar derivations from tlio Spunisii arc extremely alisurd. . . . Tlic name slioidd properly he writ- ten and pronounced Arisona, as our Knglisli •sound of the z docs not occur in Spanisli." — H. II. Uancroft, JIi»t. of the IMeific States, v. 13, p. 520. Aboriginal Inhabitants. Sco Amekic.vn .VlloUKM.NKS: PlKIll-DS, Al'ACIIE Qiiori', Siio- HUoNK.vN Family, ano Utaiis. A. D. 1848.— Partial acquisition from Mex- ico. See .^IKXI(■(): A. I). IMW. A. D. 1853.— Purchase by the United States of the southern part from Mexico.— The Gads- den Treaty.— "On nccemlier 80, MTti, James (ladsdeii, L iiitod States minister to Mexico, con- cluded II treaty by which the boundary line was moveil southward so as to give the United States, for a monetary consideration of S10,000,0(M), all of niiidern Arizoim south of the Gila, an elTort so to lix tlie line as to include a port on the gulf being unsuccessful. . . . On the face of the matter this Gadsden treaty was a tolerably satis- fiictory settlement of a boundary dis|)ut(', mi<l a purchase by the United States of a route for II southern railroad to California." — II. II. Ban- croft, Hist, of the Piicifc States, v. 13, ch. 30. ARKANSAS, The. Sco Ameiiican Ano- KUiiNKs: SioiiAN Family. ARKANSAS: A. D. 1542— Entered by Her- nando de Soto. See Floiuda: A. I). 1538- 1543. A, D. 1803. — Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. See Louisiana: A. I). 17iW-lH03. A. D. 1810-1836.— Detached from Missouri. —Organized as a Territory. — Admitted as a State. — " Preparatory to tlic assumption of .state government, the limits of the Missouri Territory were restricted on the south by the pamllel of 30^ 30' north. The restriction was made by an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1819, entitled nn 'Act establishing a separate territorial government in the southern portion of the Mis-sourl Territory. ' The portion thus sep- arated was subsequently organized into the second grade of territorial government, and Colonel James Miller, a meritorious and distin- guished officer of the Northwestern army, was appointed first governor. This territory was known os the Arkansas Territory, and, at the period of its first organization, contained an aggregate of nearly 14,000 inhabitants. Its limits comprised all the territory on the west side of tlie Mississippi between tlio parallels 33'' and 30° 30'. or between the northern limit of Loui- siana and the southern boundary of the State of Missouri. On tl»e west it extended indeflnitely to the >Iexican territories, at least 550 miles. The Post of Arkansas was made the seat of the new government. Tho population of this exten- sive territory for several years was comprised chietly in the settlements upon the tributaries of White River and the St. Francis ; upon the Mis- sissippi, between New Madrid and Point Chicot; and upon both sides of the Arkansas River, within 100 miles of its mouth, but especially in tho vicinity of tho Post of Arkansas. ... So fei'ble was the attraction in this remote region for the active, industrious, and wclldlsposed liortion of the western pioneers, that the Arkan- sas Territory, in 1830, ten years after its organi- zation, had ac(iuired an aggregate of only 30,388 souls, including 4,. 570 slaves. . . . The western half of the territory had been erected, in 1834, into a separate district, to be reserved for tho future residence of the Indian trilies, and to bo known as the Indian Territory. From tills time the tiilo of emigration began to set more actively into Arkan.sas, as well as into otlier portions of the southwest. . . . The territory increased rap- idly for several years, and the census of 1835 gave the whole number of inhabitants at .58,134 souls, including 9,((;10 slaves. Thus the Arkan- sas Territory in the last five years had doubled its population. . . . The people, through tho General Assembly, made application to Congress f(jr authority to establish a regular form of state government. The assent of (Congress was not withheld, and a Convention was authorized to meet at Little Rock on the first day of January, 1830, for the purpose of forming and adopting a State Constitution. Tlio same was approved by Congress, and on the 13tli of Juno following tho State of Arkansas was admitted into the Fedeml Uiii(m as an independent state, and was, in point of time and order, the twenty-fifth in the con- federacy. . . . Like the Jlissouri Territory, Arkansas had been a slaveholding country from the earliest French colonies. Of course, the institution of negro slavery, with proper checks and limits, was sustained by the new Constitu- tion." — J. W. Monette, Disrocery and Settlement if the VaUei/ of the Misaimppi, bk. 5, ch. 17 (». 3). — See, also, United States op Am. : A. D. 1818-1831. A. D. i86i (March). — Secession voted down. See United St.\tes op A.m. : A. U. lUOl (.Mahcii — Al'IlIL). A. D. i86i (April).— Governor Rector's reply to President Lincoln's call for troops. See United St.vtes ok Am. : A. D. 1801 (Ai'Uii.). A. D. 1862 (January — March). — Advance of National forces into the State.— Battle of Pea Ridge. See United States of Asi. : A. D. 1863(.Ianuary — March : Missouui— Aiwansas). A. D. 1862 (July— September).— Progress of the Civil War. See United States ok Am. : A. U. 1803 (July — Septe.miieu: JIissouui — Arkansas). A. D.i862(December).— The Battle of Prairie Grove. See Unitei> States ok Am. : A. D. 1803 (Septemueu — Dece-Muei;: Missouri — Arkansas). A. D. 1863 (January). — The capture of Arkansas Post from the Confederates. Seo United .States op Am. : A. D. 1803 (January: Arkansas). A. D. 1863 (July).— The defence of Helena. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1803 (July: On the Mississippi). A. D. 1863 (August— October).— The break- ing of Confederate authority. — Occupation of Little Rock by National forces. Seo United States ok Am. : A. I). 1803 (Auuust — October: Arkansas — Missouri). A. D. 1864 (March— October).— Last im- portant operations of the War.-^Price's Raid. Seo United States ok A.m. : A. I). 1804 (iLutcu —October: A«k.\N8A8— Missouri). 133 ARKANSAS. ARMENIA. A. D. i86^.— First steps toward Reconstruc- tion. Sec I NiTKi) StatI'.s of a.m. : A. I). 1803- IMft-t (DKCK.Miir.u— .Iii.y). A. D. 1865-1868.— Reconstruction com- pleted. Sco L'.MTKn St.vtesof Am. : A. D. 186.'5 (May— Jni,Y). to 1808-1870. ARKITES, The.— A Cnnannite tribe who oriiipicd llic pliiin ncirtli of [/olianon. ARKWRIGHT'S SPINNING MACHINE, OR WATER-FRAME, The invention of. Sec CoiTDN .\I.\.m;k,\(TUUK. ARLES: Origin. Sec Sai.yeb. A. D. 411. — Double siege. Soe Rritai.n: A. i). 107. A. D. 425. — Besieged by the Goths. Sec (foTHH (Vlsl'dDTlIf): \. 1). 41!>-t.")l. A. D. 508-510.— Siege by the Franks.— After lh(^ overthrow of the V'lsif,'()thic kiiiKilom of Toulouse, A. I). .507, by tho victory of Clovls, kiiiK of till! Franks, at, Voclail, near Poitiers. •' tln^ preat city of Aries, once the Roman capital of (iaul, rnaintaincil a gallant (lefenee against the united Franks ami l{iirj:un(liaus, anil saved for peneralions tlie Visiirotliic rule in Provence and .southern riauiriiedoc. (Jf tlio siege, which lasted aitparently from .lOS to ."dO, we have some gnipliic (letails intliclifeof St. (Jicsarius. Bishop of Aries, written by his disciples." The city was relieved in .510 bv an O.strogothic army, sent by king ThcDdoric of Italy, after a great battle in which ;!0,0(H) Franks "were reporle<l to be slain. "The result of llie battle of Aries w\s to put TheiMlorie, in secure pos.se.-ision of all Pro- vence and of so much of Jyanguedoc as was needful to ensure liis access to Spain" — where the Ostrogolhic king, as guardian of his infant grandson, Amalaric, was taking (arc of the Visi- gotliie kuigdoni. — T. ilodgkin, Jtali/ ami llci- In- milrnt. Iik\ 4, eh. !). A. D. 933.— Formation of the kingdom. See BiiKirNov: A. I). 8i:i-!i;i;i. A. D. 1032-1378. — The breaking up of the kingdom and its gradual absorption in France. S"o litnotNDV: A. I). 10;t'.2. and ll'.iT-l:!7.S. 1092-1207. — The gay court of Provence. See PuovKNCi;: A. 1). !)l;!-l()!)2. and llTO-ieO'. ARMADA, The Spanish. Sec Enol.\nd: A. 1). l.")SS. ARMAGEDDON. See .AlF.(iim)o. ARMAGH, St. Patrick's School at. S IllEI,.\Nl): .-)lll to Hill ('KNTfUlKS. ARMAGNAC, The counts of. oeo FnANC : A. I). i;!L'7. ARMAGNACS. Soe France: A. D. 1380- 141.'). and 141.V14H). ARMENIA. — •• .Vlmos* immediately to the west of the Caspian there rises a high tableland diversilled by mountains, which .stretches oast- ward for more than eighteen degrees, between the 3(th and 41st parallels. This iiighland may properly be regarded as n contimiation of the great Iranean jilali'au, with which it is connected at its .southeastern corner. Ii comprises a por- tion of the modern Persia, the whole of Armenia, and most of Asia Minor. Its principal moiui- tjjjn ranges ari' latitudinal, or from west to cast, only th(" minor ones taking the opposite or lon- gitudinal direction. . . , The heart of the moim- tain-region, the tract extending from the district of ICrivan on the east to the tipper course of the Kizil-Irmnk river and the vicinity .of Sivas upon the west, wa.s, r.s it still is, Armenia. Amidst these natural fastnesses, in a country of lofty ridges, deep and narrow valleys, nninerous niid copious streams, and occiusional broad plains — a country of rich jiasture grounds, productive orcharJls, and abundant harvests — this interest- ing people has maintained itself almost ini- changed from the time of the early Persian kings to the present day. Armenia was one of the fnost valuable portions of the Persian empire, furnishing, as it did, besides stone and timlier, and several most important minerals, an annual supply of 20,000 excellent horses to the stud of the Persian king." — O. I{iiwlinson. Fire (iriiit Moii- nirhim: Penia, ch. 1. — Before the Persians es- tablished their sovereignty over the country, "it seems certain that from one (piarter or another Armenia h.id been Arianized: tlie old Turanian character bad passed away from it; immigrants had Hocked in and a new people had been formed — the real Armenians of later times, and indeed of the present day." Submitting to Alexander, on the overthrow of the Persian momirchy, Ar- menia feP afterwards under the yoke of the Se- leucidic, but gained independence about I'JO IJ. (!., or earlier. Under the inlluenco of Parthia, a branch of the ParlhiiMi royal family, the Arsa- cids, was sul)se(|ucntly placed on the throne and a dynasty established which reigned for nearly six liundrcd years. Tin; fourth of these kinijs, Tigrancs. who occui>ic<l the throne in the earlier part of tlie last cent.tiry B. f'., pl.iced Armenia in the front rank of "Asiatic kingdoms and in powerful rivalry with Paifhi.i. Its subsequent history is one of many wars and invasions and much bulTcling between Uomaiis, Parthians, Persians, and their successors in the conflicts of the eastern world. The part of Armenia west of the Euphrates was called by the Romans Ar- menia Minor. For a short period after the revolt from the Seleticid monarchy, it formed a dis- tinct king(lom called Sophene. — G. llawlinson, 8i.r)h itnd Si-ivnt/i (Irrat Oneiitnl .VoimirliitK. B. C. 69-68.— War vyith the Romans.— Great defeat at Tigranocerta. — Submission to Rome. Sec Uome: B. C. 78-<!H. and 0'J-H;i. A. D. 115-117. — Annexed to the Roman Empire by Trajan and restored to independ- ence by Hadrian. See Komi:: A. I). !)t)-i;i8. A. D. 422 (?).— Persian Con(iuest. — Becomes the satrapy of Persarmenia. Sen Persia: A. D. 'J'-'fi-OJT. A. D. 1016-1073. — Conquest and devastation by the Seljuk Turks. Sec Tiuks (Sei.iuks): A. I). 1()04-10(!H. and 1003-107!!. I2th-I4th Centuries. — The Mediaeval Chris- tian Kingdom.— " The last decade of the 12th century saw the establishment of two small Christian kingdoms in the Levant, which long outlived all other reliefs of the Crusades except the military orders; and which, with very little help from the West, sustained a hazardous ex- istence in complete contrast with almost every- thing around them. The kingdoms of Cyprus and Armenia have a history very closely inter twined, but their origin and most of their cir- cumstances were very difTereiit. By Armenia as a kingdom is meant little more than the ancient Cilicia, the land between Taurus and the sea, from the frontier of the principality of Antioch, eastwaril, to Kelendcris or Palii-opolis, a little beyond Heleucia; this tcrrittiry, which was com- puted to contain 10 ilays' journey in length, 134 ARMENIA. ARNyEANS. measured from fonr miles of Antioch, by two in brciidtli, was separated from the Greater Ar- menia, wliich before the period on wliich we arc now employed had fallen \inder the away of thu Seljuks, by the ridges of Taurus. The popula- tion was composed largely of the sweepings of Asia Jlinor, Christian tribes which Iiad taken refuge in the mountains. Their religion was partly Greek, partly Armenian. . . . Their ridel's were )>rinces descended from the house of llu! Bagratidie, who had governed the Greater Armenia as kings from the year 885 to the reign of ConstJintino of Monomaehus, and had then merged their hazardous independence in the mass of till! Greek Empire. After the seizure of Asia -Minor by the Seljuks, the few of the Bagra- tidie who had retained possession of the moun- tain fastnesses of Cilieia or the strongholds of Mesopotamia, acted as independent lords, showing little respect for By/.antium save where there was something to be gained. . . . Kupin of the Mountain was prince! [of Cilieia] at the; time of the capture of Jerusalem by .Saladin; he died in 1189, and his successor, Leo, or Li vim, after hav- ing successfully courted the favour of pope and emperoi , was recognised as king of Armenia by the emperor Henry V'l., and was crowned by Conrad of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of jMainz, in lli)8." The dynasty ended with Leo IV., whose " whole reign was a continued struggle against the .Moslems," and who was assassinated about i;U3. "The live remaining kings of Ar- menia sprang from a branch of the (^vpriot house of Lusignan [see Cvpius: A. D. 1 1 92-1 48!) | and were little more than Latin exiles in the midst of several strange populations all alike hostile." — W. Stubbs, tAfts. on the Stiitli/ nf Mtddeiiti <iiid Moihni Jlint.. Icr/.S. A. D. 1623-1635. — Subjugatedby Persia and regained by the Turks. !See Tuiiivs: A. 1). l(i'->;!-l((10. ♦ ARMENIAN CHURCH, The.— The church of the Armenians is "the oldest of all national churches. They were converted by St. (Gregory, called ' The Illuminator,' who was a relative of Dcrtad or Tiridates, their ])riuce, and had been forced to leave the country at the same time with him, and settled at Ca'.sarcia in ('api docia, where he was initiated into the Christian faith. When they returned, both prince and people em- braced the Gospel through the preaching of Gregory, A. D. 27(1, and t litis presented the Hrst instance of an entire nation becoming Christian. ... By an accident they were unrepresented at [the C'ouncil of] Chalcedon [A. D. 451], and, owing to the poverty of their languagr in words serviceable for the purposes of thei logy, they had at that time but one wonl for Xature and Person, In conseiiuence of which they misunder- stood the decision of that council [that Christ posses.sed two natures, divine and human, in one I'erson] with sulllclent clearness. ... It was not mitll cighly-four years had elapsed that they finally adopted Eutychlanism [the doctrine that the divinity is the sole nature m Christ], and an analhenia was pronounced on the Chalcedonian decrees (530)." — II. F. Tozer, The Church and thf, Kcutern Rmpiiv, fh. 5. — "The religion of Armenia could not derive much glory 'rom the learning or the power of its inhabitants. The royalty expired with the origin of their schism; and their Chrlst'un kings, who arose and fell in the 13th century on the confines of Cilieia, were the clients of the Latins and the vassals of the Turkish sultan of Iconium. The helpless nation has seldom been permitted to enjoy the tran- quility of servitude. From the earliest period to the present hour, Armenia has been the thcf>tre of perpetual war; the lands between Tauris and Erivan were dispeopled by the cruel policy of the S'-piiis; and myriads of Christian families were transplanted, to perish or to propagate In the dis- *aiit provinces of Persia. Under the roil of oppression, the zeal of the Armenians is fervent and intrepid; they have often preferred the crown of martyrdom to the white turban of 5Ia- hornet; they devoutlv hate the error and idola- iry of the Greeks." — fe. Gibbon, Decline and Fcdl of the llmnun Empire, ch. 47. ■ ARMINIANISM. SeeNETiiEULANDS: A. D. lOtm-Kiut. ARMINIUS, The Deliverance of Germany by. See (ii.itM.\.\v: 15. C. 8-A. 1). 11. ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Origin of.—" As to armorial bearings, there is no doubt that em- blems .somewhat similar have been immemorially used both in war and peace. The shields of an- cient warriors, and devices upon coins or seals, bear no distant rcseniblanee to modern blazonry. Hut the general Introduetlon of such bearings, as hereditary distinctions, h!is been sometimes at- tributed to tournaments, wherein the champions were distinguished by fanciful devices; some- times to the crusades, where 11 niultltudi' of iill nations and languages stood in need of .some vis- ible token to denote the liaiuurs of their respec- tive chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of her- aldry point to both these sources and have been borrowed in jiart from each. Hereditary arms were jjcrhaps scarcely used by private families before the beginning of the thirteenth century. From that time, however, thev became very gen- eral. '— It. Ilallam, The Middle Ayes, eh. 3, pt. 2. ARMORICA. — The peninsular projection of the coast of Gaul between the moulhs of the Seine and the Loire, embracing modern IJrltlany, and a great part of Xormanily, was known to the Komaiis as Arniorira. The most important of the Armoilcan tribes in Ciesar's time was that of the Vcnetl. " In the fourth and tifth centu- ries, the northern coast from the Loire to the frontier of the Netherlands was called ' Trnctus Arenioricus,' or Aremorica, which in Celtic sig- iillies 'maritime country.' The commotions of the third century, which continued to incr-'aso during the fourth and liftli, repeatedly drove the Uoinans from that country. French antlqua- ries imagine that it was a regularly constituted (lalllc republic, of which CUilovIs had the protec- torate, but this Is wrong." — B. G. Niebuhr, /jedn. on Ancient Ethnor/raphi/ ami Gcor/., v. 2, i>. .'tl8. Also i.n: E. il. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geiir/., r. 3, ;;. 235. — See, also, Vicnkti op AVest- HUN (l.vt'T,, and IiiEiirAKS, Tmo Westehn. ARMSTRONG, General John, and the New- burgh Addresses. See Unitei) Sr.\Ti,s of .Vm. ; A. I). 1782-178;! Secretary of War.— Plan of descent on Montreal. See Unitkd States OF Am. : X. '). 1813 (OfTouEU- Xovkmheii). ARMY, The Legal Creation of the British. See .MvTiNV Acts. ARMY PURCHASE, Abolition of. See Enhi.am): A. D. 1871. ARN.(EANS, The. See Gueixe: The M"- GIIATIONS. 136 ARNAULD. ARTHUR. ARNAULD, Jacqueline Marie, and the Monastery of Port Royal. Sec I'oitT Hoyai. aiM tli..lANsi:NisTs: A. I). UiOi-KHK). ARNAUTS, The. Soc Ai.iunians, .Medle- ARNAY-LE-DUC, Battle of (1570). See FiiANiK: A. I). IJ(i:!-l.')70. ARNOLD, Benedict, and the American Revolution. Sec; C'a.nada: A. D. 177.3-1770; ttiirl I'mikd States ok Am. : A. D. 177.'; (May); 1777 (.Ii'i.Y— ()( roiiKH); 1781) (.Vuoust— Skptem- BEK); 17H0-1781; 1781 (.Ianu.\uy— M.w); 1781 (.May — OcToiiKii). ARNOLD OF BRESCIA, The Republic of. Sec U.iMK: A. 1). 1 U.")-!!."!,"). ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED, at the Battle of Sempach. Set- Switzkulani): A. 1). i;!8((-i;»88. ARNULF, King of the East Franks (Germany), A. 1). 888-89!); King of Italy and Emperor, A. D. 801-8!)!), AROGI, Battle of (l868). Sec Auyssima: A. 1) 18"i4-188!(. ARPAD, Dynasty of. Soe Hungarians : IlAVAdES IN KfiioPE; and IIuNOAKV: A. D. 972- IIU; 1114-iaOl. ARPAD, Siege of.— Conducted hy tlio Assyrian Ci)i'.(iU('ror 'rif^liith-l'ilcser, benniniii!; IJ. 0. 743 i>iid liisliuLt Iwii years. The fall of the city brout^htwith it the submission of all north- ern Svria. — .V. II. Savee, A.iKi/ri(i, eh. 3. ARQUES, Battles at (1589). See Fkance: A. 1). i:)8!)-ir.!)o. ARRABIATI, The. See Fi,oiie.\ce: A. D. 14!l()-l 1!IS. ARRAPACHITIS. See Jews: The Eaki.y HkIIHKW lllSTOUV. ARRAPAHOES, The. See Ameuic.vn Abo rioines; Ai,ii().N(iiiAN Family. ARRAS: Origin. See Bei.o.e. ' A. D. 1583. — Submission to Spain. See Netiikiii.ands: A. D. 1.584-l")8r). A. D. 1654. — Unsuccessful Siege by the Spaniards under Condi. See France: A. 1). 1653-1((.')6. — ♦ ARRAS, Treaties of (1415 and 1435)- See FuAMi;:.V. 1). I!i8()-14ir), ami 14;il-14.V}. ARRETIUM, Battle of (B. C. 285). See Uomk: H. C. 3!).-)-lill. ARROW HEADED WRITING. See Cu- neikoum WurriNu. ARSACIDiE, The.— The dynasty of Par- thian kinns were so culled, from the founder of the line, Arsaces, who led the revolt of Parthia from the nile of the Syrian Seleucidiu and raist'd lnms«df to the throne. Accordiii)^ to some unciont writers Arsaces was 11 Ilactrlan; i-.ccord- ing to others a Scythian. — O. Kawlinson, tSixt/i Oreat Oriindtl MoiKtrfhy, ch. 3. ARSEN.— In oni; of' the earlier raids of the Beljuklan Turks into Armeina, in the eU^venlli rentnry the city of Arsen was destroyed. "It had long been the great city of Ea.stern Asia Minor, the centre of Asiatic trade, the depot for merchandise transmittcMl overland from Persia and India to the Ea.stern Ki'",.irc and Europe generally. It was full of v.irehouses beli>ngini,' to .Vrmenians and Syrians md is said to have contained 800 churches ami 300.000 people. Having failed to capture the citv, Togrul's genenil succeeded in burning it. 'f he tlestruc- Uon of so much woultk struck iv fatal blow at 1 Armenian commerce."— E. Pears, The FaU of CoiiKtiintiniiplc, fh. 2. ARSENE, Lake. — An ancient name of llie Lake of Van, which is also called Thopitis by Stnibo.— E. II. Bunbury, Uist. of Ancient Oeog., ch. 33, iiret. 1. ART ABA, The. See Ephah. ARTAXATA.— The ancient capital of Armenia, said to have been built under the superintendence of Hannibal, while a refugee in Armenia. At a later time it was called Neronia, in honor of the Roman Emperor Nero. ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS, King of Persia, U. C. 40.')-43.'i Artaxerxes Mne- mon, King of Persia, IJ. C. 40.5-3.59 Artaxerxes Ochus, King of Persia, B. C. 3.59- 338 Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, Founder of the Sassanian monarchy. Sec Peusi.-.: B. C. 150- A. 1). 330. ARTEMISIUM, Seafightsat. SccGreece: B. C. 480. ARTEMITA. See Dastaoerd. ARTEVELD, Jacques and Philip Van; Their rise and fall in Ghent. Sec Fi.andeus: A. 1). 1335-1337, to 1383. ARTHUR, King, and the Knights of the Round Table. — "On the dillicult question, whether there was a historical Arthur or not, ... a word or two must now be devoted . . . ; and here one has to notice in the first place that Welsh literature never calls Arthur a gwledig or lirince but emperor, and it may be inferred that his liistorical position, in case he had such a position, was that of one lilling, after the departure of the Romans, the olUce which under them was that of the Comes Britanniiu or Count of Britain. The officer so called had a roving commission to defend the Province wherever his presence might be called for. The other military captains here were the Du.x Britaimiarum, who had charge of the forces in the north and especially on the Wall, and the Comes Littoris Saxonici [Count of the Saxon Shore], who was entrusted with the defence of the south-iNistern coast of the island. The successors of both these; captains seem to have been odlcd in Welsh gwledigs or princes. So Arth\ir'« suggested position as Comes Britamiiai would be in a sense superior to theirs, which harmtmizes with his bemg called emperor and not gwledig. The Welsh have borrowed the Latin title of imper- alor, 'emperor,' and made it into 'amherawdyr,' later 'andierawdwr,' so it is not imi)ossible, that when the Roman impenitor ceased to have anything more to say to this country, the title was given to the highest officer in the island, namely the Comes Britanniiu, and that in the words 'Yr Amherawdyr Arthur,' 'the Emperor Arthur,' we have a renmaut oi" our insular history. If this view !;<: correct, it might be regarded m; something more than an accident that Arthur's l)osition relatively to that of the other Brylhonic princes of his time is exactly given by >renniiis, or whoever it was that wrote the Ilistoria Brittonum ascribed to him: there Arthur is represented lighting in c(mipany with the kings of the Brythons in defence of their conunon couidry, he being their leader in war. If, as has sometimes been argued, the tnide i>f Maglocuinis or .Muelgwn, whom the latter is accused by Oilda of having slain and supcraeded. was no other than Arthur, it would supply one reason why that writer called Macljjwu 'insu- ARTHUR. ARYANS. laris dra'.'o,' 'the dmgon or wiir-captiiin of the isliiiid,' 1111(1 why i,hu latter iiiid his successors after lam were called hy the Welsh not gwledigs but kings, though their great ancestor Cuueda was only a gwledig. On tlio other hand the way in which Oildas alludes to th(! uncle of Maelgwn without even giving his name, would sceni to suggest that in his estimation at least ho was no more illustrious than his predecessors in the position which ho held, whatever that may have hcen. How then did Arthur become famous above them, and how came lie to be the subject of so much story and romance 1 I'lie answer, in short, which one has to give to this hard (juestion must be to the ellect, that besides a historic Arthur there was a Brythonic divinity named Arthur, after whom the man may have been called, or with whose name his, in case it was of a dilferent origin, may have become identical in sound owing to an accident of speech ; for both explanations are possible, as we shall attempt to show later. Leaving aside for a while the man Arthur, and assuming the existence of a god of that name, let us see what could be made of him. Mythologically speaking ho would probably have to be regarded as a Culture Hero; for, a model king and the institutor of the Knighthood of the Round Table, ho is represented as the leader of cxpeiUtions to the isles of Hades, and as one who stood in somewhat the saiiK! kind of relation to Qwalchmei as Gwydion did to ILeii. It is needless hen; to dwell on the character usually given to Arthur as a ruler: he with his knights around him may be compared to Con- chobar, in the midst of the Champions of Emain JIacha, or Woden among tlie Anses at Valhalla, while Arthur's Knights arc called those of the Round Table, around which they are described pitting; and it would be interesting to under- stand the signification of the term Round Table. On the wliole it is the table, probably, and not its roundness that is th'j fact to which to call attention, as it possibly means that Arthur's court was the lirst early court where those present sat at a table at all in Britain. No such tiling as a common table tigiires at Conchobar's court or any other described in the old !cgc;ids of Ireland, and the same applies, we believe, to those of the old Norsemen. Tlie attribution to Arthur of the first use of a common table would lit ill well with the character of a Culture Hero which we have ventured to as-^ribc to him, and it derives countonance from the pretended history of the Round Table: for the Arthurian legend traces it back to Artliur's father, Uthr Bendragon, in whom we have under one of Ids many names the king of Hades, the realm whence all culture wiis fabled to have been derived. In a wider sense the Round Table jiossibly signified plenty or abundance, and might be compared with the table of the Ethiopians, at which Zeus and the other gods of Greek irythology used to feast from time to time." — J. Rhys, Stiiilien in the Arthnn'iiii fjer/eiid, ch. 1. — See, also CuMimiA. ARTHUR, Chester A.— Election to Vice- Presidency. — Succession to the Presidency. See Inithd ST.vriis ok Am. : A. D. IBSO and 1881. ARTI OF FLORENCE. See Fi.oiiknce: A. D. li.io-ian:). ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION (American). See Unitku States of Am. : A. D. 1777-1781, aud 178»-1787. ARTICLES OF HENRY, The. See Po- land: A. I). Vu'A. ARTOIS, The House of. Seo Bourbon, TiiK llorsK OF. ARTOIS : A. D. 1529.— Pretensions of the King of France to Suzerainty resigned. .Sco iTAi.v: A. 1). l.-)2T-l.J2!). ARTYNI. .See Dkmiluoi. ARVADITES, The. — The Canaanite in- habitants of the i.slaud of Aradus, or Arvad, and who also held territory on the main land. — F. Lenorniaut, Miiiiial of Ancient JIM., bk. 6, c/i. 1. ARVERNI, The. See JEdvi; also, Gauls, and Ai.i.oiiKooEs. ARX, The. See Capitoline Hill; also Gens, Roman. ARXAMUS, Battle of.— One of the defeats sustained bv the Romans in their wai-s with the Persians. Battle fought A. 1). COS.— G. Raw- linson, Serenth Gnat Orieittal Moimrehi), eh. 24. ARYANS.— ARYAS.—" This family (which is sometimes called Japhetic, or descendants of Japhet) includes the Hindus aud Persians among Asiatic nations, and almost all the peoples of Europe. It may seem strange that we English should be related not only to the Germans aud Dutch and Scandinavians, but to the Russians, French, Spanish, Romans and Greeks as well; stranger still that we can claim kinship with such distant peoples as the Persians and Hindus. . . . What seems actually to have been the ease is this: In distant ages, somewhere about the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, and on the north of that mountainous range called the Hindoo- Koosh, dwelt the ancestors of all the nations we have enumerated, forming at this time a single and united jieople, simple and primitive in their way of life, but yet having enough of a common na- tional life to preserve a common language. They called themselves Aryas or Aryans, a word which, in its very earliest sense, seems to have meant those who move upwards, or straight; and hence, probably, came tostaml for the noble race as compared with other races on whom, of course, they would look down. ... As their numbers increased, tlie:4paco wherein they dwelt became too small for them who had out of one formed many dilTerent peoples. Then began a series of migrations, in which the collection of tribes who spoke one language and formed one Jieople started oH to si'ck their fortune in new lands. . . . First among them, in all probability, started the Kelts or (!elts, who, travelling jierhaps to the South of the Caspian and the North of the Black Sea, found their way to Europe and spread far on to the extreme West. . . . Another of the great families who left the Aryan home was the Pelasgic or the Griico- Italic. These, journeying along first South- wards and then to the West, passed through Asia Minor, on to the countries of Greece and Italy, and in time separated into those two groat peoples, the Greeks (or Hellenes, as they came to call themselves), and the Romans. . . . Next we come to two other great families of nations who seem to have taken the same route at first, and perhaps began their travels together as the Greeks and Romans did. These are the Teutons and the Slaves. . . . The word Slave comes fromSlowan, which in old Slavonian meant to speak, and was given by theSlavonhms to themaulveH as the people who could Hpeak iu 187 ARYANS ASIA. opposition to otlirr nations wliom, rs tliey were not alilc to understand tlicm, tiny were jileased to consider as diitnl). The (in'ok woni liarliaroi (whence onr l)arl)arlans) aros-' in obedience to a iilie prejudice, oidy from an imitation of l)al)t)ling sncli as is niadcliy sayinj? ■ liar lwrl)ar.' " — ('. F, Keary, Ihurn 'if Jfi!'tiin/. eh. 4. — Tlie aljove pass-ige sets fortli tlio older theory of an Aryan family of nations as well as of languages in its nn(|nidilie(l form. lis later modifications are in- dicated in the following: " Tlie discovery of Sanscrit and the furtlier discovery to which it led. that the l.inguiiges now variously known as Aryan, Aryanic, Indo-Kuropcan, Indo-Uennanic, IniloCellic and Japhetic are closely akin to oni^ another, spread a spell over the world of thought which cannot 1)0 said to have yet wholly passed away. It was hastily argued from the kinship of their languages to the kinship of the nations thals|)oke ilicni. . . . The (piestion then arises as to the Inane of the ' holetlinos.' or parent Irihe, before its dispersion and during the pro- ethnic period, at a tin'.e when as yet there was neither Greek nor Hindoo, neither Celt nor Teutiai, but oidy an undifTercnliated Aryan. Of course, the answer at lirst was — wlierc coulil it have been but in the East. And at length the glottologist f()un<l It necessary to shift tlie cradle of the Aryan race to the nciglibourhood of the Oxns and the .laxartes, so as to place it somewhere between the Caspian Sea and the Himalayas. Then Doctor Latliam boldly raised his voice against tin; Asiatic theory altogether, and staicd that ho regarded the at- tempt to d"duce the Aryans from Asia as resem- ■. Mag an attempt to derive! the reptiles of this roimtry from those of Iscland. Afterwards Uenfey argued, from the presence in the vocabu- lary ccanmon to the Aryan languages of words for bear ami wolf, for birch an(l beech, and tlio absence! of certain others, such as those for lion, tig(T and palm, that the original home of the Aryans n\ust have been within the tempernte zcMie in Europe. ... As might be expected in the case of such a dilHcult (piestion, those who are inclined to l)elieve in Iho European origin of the Aryans are by no means agreed among them- selves as to the spot to bo lixed upon. Latham placed it east, or .south-east of Litliuania, in Po- dolia, or Volhynia; Henfcy had in view adistricfc above the Hlack Sea and not far from the Cas- pian ; Pcschel lixed on the slopes of the Caucaans; (,"\mo on the great plain of Central EurojK'; Fligior on the wMithern part of Russia; POsche on the tract between the Niemen and the I)niei)er ; L. (leiger on central and western Oermanv; an<l I'enka on Scandinavia." — J. Rhys, litre fhforics (ill Xew Priiuvton liev., Jan., 1888). — " Aryan, in scientific language, is iitterly inapplicable to race. It means language, and nothing but lan!.'uage; ■ and, if we speak of Aryan race at all, we should know that it means no more than x + Aryan speech. ... 1 have declared again and again that if I say Aryas, I mean neithi'r blood iior bones, nor hair nor skull; 1 mean simply those who speak ati Aryan language. The same ap- plies to Hindus, Greeks, Komans, Germans, Celts and Slaves. ... In that sense, and in that sense only, do I say that even the blackest Hin- dus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech an 1 thought than the fairest Scandinavians. . . . If an answer must be giveti as to the place where our Aryan unccsturg dwelt before Uieirseparutiuu, 138 whether in large swarms of millions, or in a f-.-w scattered tents and huts, I should still say, as I said forty years ago, •Somewhere in Asia,' and no more." — F. Max .Mliller, ISiog. of Wonls mid Hiniie of the Ai'iidn, ch. 0. — The theories which dispute the Asiatic origin of the Aryans arc strongly jircsented l)y Canon Taylor in The Orifjin. of the Arijinu, by G. II. Rendall, in The .('i-ii(Ue of the An/(iM, and by Dr. O. Sclirader in PiehiHtorie Antiquities of the Aryan Peoplen. — See, also. India: Tiik ABOuiyiNAL iNiiAniT- AN'Ts, and Tub Im.miguation and C->NCiUEST8 ov THE AiiVAs. AS.— LIBRA.— DENARIUS.— SESTER- TIUS. — "The term As [.imong the Uonian.sJ and the words which denote its divisions, were not confined to weight alone, but were applied to measures of length and capacity also, and in general to any ol)jcct which could bo regarded as ccaisiiting of twelve equal ])arts. Thus they were commonly Tised to denote shares into which an inheritance was divided." As a unit of weight the As, or Libra, "occupied the same ])osition in the Roman system as tlio i)ound does in our own. According to the most accurate researches, the As was 0(|ual to about Hi oz. avoirdupois, or .7375 of an avoirdupois pound." It " was divided into 1') eq.ial l)arts called uiicia', and I he uncia w;is divided into 24 oijual parts called .scrupula:" "The As, regarded as a coin [of copi)er| originally weighed, as the name im- plies, one pound, and the smaller cojiper coins those fractions of the pound denoted by their names. Hy degrees, however, the weight of the As, regarded as a coin, was greatly dimini.shed. We are told that, about the commencement of the first Punic war, it had fallen from 13 ounces to 3 ounces; in the early part of the second Punic war (B. C. 217), it was roduc-i to one ounci!; and not long afterwards, by a Lex Papiria, it was fixed at half-an-ouncc, wliicl. re- mained the standard ever after." The silver coins of lioi'K! were the Denarius, equivalent (after 317 B. C.) to 10 Asses; the tiuinarius and the Sestertius, which became, respectively, one half and one fourth of the Denarius in value. The Sestertius, at the cIo.se of the Republic, is estimated to have been equivalent in value to two pence sterling of English money. The coinage was debased under the Empire. Tlie princii)al gold coin of the Empire was the De- narius Aureus, which passed for 2o silver De- narii. — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiq., ch. 13, ASCALON, Battle of (A. D. 1099). See .Ieuisai.km: a. D. 101)9-1 144. ASCANIENS, The. See llKANDENBDlta ; A, 1), !)38-1143. ASCULUM, Battle of (B. C. 279). See Romk: li, C. 383-37.), ASCULUM, Massacre at. See Ro.me: B, C, it()-8S. ASHANTEE WAR, The (1874). Sec Eng- land: A, 1). ..•T:',-!880. ASHBURION TREATY, The. See Uniti;i> STArK! oi' Am, : A. D. 1842. ASHDOD. See PniMSTiNEs. ASHRAF, Shah of Persia, A. D. 1725- 1730, ASHTI,'Battleof(l8i8). See India: A. D. 181(1-1819. ASIA : The Name. — "There are grounds for believing Europe and Asia to have originally ASIA. ASIA MINOR. signified 'the west ' ami 'the east ' respectively. IJoth iire Semitic terms, aiid i)r()l)rtl)ly passed to the Greeks from the Pluenieiaiis. . . . The (treeks lirst apjilied the title [Asia] to that i)or- tion of tlie eastern coiitiueiit wliich lay nearest to tlicin, and witli which they hecaine lirst ac- quainted — the coast of Asia Minor opposite th(^ C'ydades; whence they extended it as their knowledge grew. Still it had always a special application to the country about Kphesus." — G. Kawlinson, .V'^.i ti> JlermliitxH. v. 3, /). 33. ASIA: The Roman Province (so called). — "As ori,i;;inally coiisliluted, it corresponded to the doniiiiions of tlie kings of Pergamus . . . left bv tlie will of Attains III. to the Roman people (li. ('. 133). ... It included the whole of Mysia and Lydia, with ^liolis, Ionia and Caria, except a small i)art which was subject to Rliodes, and the greater i)art, if not the whole, of Plirygia. A portion of the last region, however, was de- tached from it." — E. II. Uunbury, llUt. of Ancient CIcof/., eh. 20, Kcct. 1. ASIA, Central. — Mongol Conquest. See M0N(!«)I,S. Turkish Conquest. See Tuuks. Russian Conquests. Sec Russia: A. I). 1859-1870, and 1809-1881. ASIA MINOR.— "The name of Asia Minor, so familiar to the student of ancient geography, was not in use either among Greek or Roman writers imtil a very late period. Orosius, who wrote in the fifth centmy after the Christian era, is the first extant writer who employs the term in its modern sense." — E. H. B>inbury, //j«<. of An- cient Qcorj., ch. 7, sect. 3. — The aame Anatolia, which is of Greek origin, synonymous with "The Levant," signifying " The Sunrise," came into use among the Byzantines, about the 10th century, uud wag adopted by their successors, the Turks. Earlier Kingdoms and People. See Piikyui- ASSANi) Mysians.— Lydians. — Cauians. — Lyci- AN8. — BiTHY'NrANS.— PONTUS (CAPPADOCIA). — Pai'Iilaoonians. — Thcia. The Greek Colonies. — "The tumult which had been caused by the irruption of the Thes- protians into Thessaly and the tlisplacement of the population of Greece [sec Oiikicce: Tub MidiiATioN, &c.] di<l not subside within the lim- its of the peninsula. From the north and the south those inhabitants who were unable to muin- tidn their groimd against the incur.si(ms of the Thessjdians, Arnaeans, or Dorians, and iireferred exile to submission, sought new homes in the is- laiKls of the Aegean and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The migrations continued for sev- eral gtuierations. Wlien at length tliey came to uu end, and the Anatolian coast from .Vlouut Ida to the Triopian headland, with the adjacent Islands, was in the possession of tlie Greeks, three great dlvisioiis or tribes were di.stinguislied in the new settlements: Dorians, lonians, and Aeolians. In spite of the i)resenco of .some alien elements, the Dorians and lonians of Asia Minor were tlie same tribes as th(^ Dorians and lonians of Greece. The Aeolians, on the oilier hand, were a composite tribe, as their name implies. ... Of thes<,' three divisions the .Veolians lay farthest to the north. The precise limits of their territory were dilfereutly fixed by different au- thorities. . . . The Aedlic citU's fell into two groups: a norlhem, of which Lesbos was tin; centre, and a southern, composed of the cities in the immediate neighbourhood of the Hennus, and foundeil from Cyme. . . . The northern group indudeil the islandsofTenedos and Lesbos. In the latter there were originally six cities: Methyiniia, Mytilene, Pyrrlia, Eresus, Ari.sba, and .\iiti.ssa, but Arisba was subsequently con- (picred and enslaved by Mytilene. . . . The sec- ond great stream of migratiim proceeded from Athens [after the death of Codrus — see Athens: Fno.M TlIK DoUlAX MlliltATION TO B. C. 083 — according to Greek tradition, the younger sons of Codrus leading these Ionian colonists across the Aegean, first to the Carian city of Miletus — see JIii.i;ti:s, — which they captured, and then to the coiKiuest of Ephesus and the island <"f Samos]. . . . The colonies sjjread until a (lodccaiK)lis was established, similar to the union wliich the lonians had founded in their old settlements on the northern shore of Peloponnesus. In some cities the Ionian population formed a minority. . . . The coloni.sation of Ionia was undoubtedly, in the main, an achievement of emigrants from Attica, but it was not accomplished by a .single family, or in the space of one life-time. . . . The two most famous of the Ionian cities were Mi- letus and Ephesus. The first was a Carian city previously known as Anactoria. . . . Ephesus wns originally in the li.inds of the Lelegcs and the Lydians, who were driven out by the lonians under Androclus. The ancient stmctuary of the tutelary goddess of the place was transformed by the Greeks into r. temple of Artemis, who was here worshipped as the goddess of birth and productivity in accordance with Oriental rather than Hellenic ideas." The remaining Ionic cities and islands were Myus (named from the mos- quitoes which infested it, and which finally drove the colony to abandon it), Priene, Ery- thrao, Clazomi'me, Teos, Phocaea, Colophon, Lebedus, Samos and Chios. "Chios was first inhabited by Cretans . . . and subsequently by Cariaus. ... Of the manner in which Chios be- came connected with the lonians the Chians could give no clear account. . . . The southern part of the Anatolian coast, and the southern-most islands in the Aegean were colonised by the Dorians, who wrested them from the Phoenician or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is tlie most important. . . . Crete was one of the old- est centres of civilisation in the Aegean [see ('iiETE ]. . . . The Dorian colony in Rhodes, like that in Crete, w;is ascribed to the band which left Argos under the command of Althaemenes. . . . (ither islands colonised by the Dorians were Tliera, . . . Melos, . . . Carpathus, Calvdnae, Nisyrus, and Cos. . . . Prom the islands, the Dorians spread to the mainland. The penin.stda of Cnidiis was perhaps the first settlement. . . . llalicarnassus was founded from Troezen, and the loniim element must luive been considerable. ... Of tlu! Dorian cities, six united in the com- mon worship of Apollo on the headland of Tri- opium. These were Lindus, lalysiis, and Ca- inirus in Rhodes, Cos, and, on the mainland, llalicarnassus and Cnidus. . . . The territory which the Aeolians acquired is (h'scribed by Herodotus as more fertile than that occupied by the lonians. but of a less excellent climate. It was inhabited by a number of tribes, among which th-j Troes or Tcueri were the chief. . . . In Homer the inhabitants of the city of the Troad are Dardani or Thk'S, and the name Teiicri does not occur. In historical times the Oerglthes, 13!) ASIA MINOR ASIA MINOR. who dwelt in the town of the same name . . . nca' Ijimpsacus, and also fornKul thp subject p-,,nihiti(iii of Miletus, were the only remnants of '.his once famous nation. Hut their f(jrmer great- ness was attested liy the Homeric poems, and the o<rurrenee of tlie name (terpithiens at various plaees in the Troad [see Tno.l\]. To this trilie belonu'ed the Troy of tlie (Jreeian epic, tlie .site of whieii, so far as it represents any liistorieal city, is fi.xed at Ili.ssarlik. In the' Iliad the Trojan empire extends from the Aesepus to tlie Caieus; it was divided — or, at least, later his- torians speak of it as divided — into principali ties which recognised Priam as their chief. Hut tlie Homeric descriptions of tlie city and its emi- nence are not to lie taken as historically true. Whatcer the power and civilisation of the ancient stronghold exhumed by Dr. Schliemann may have been, it was neccs,siiry for the epic poet to represent Priam and his nation as a dan- gerous rival in wealth and arms to the preat kings of Mycenae and Sparta. . . . The .radi- tional dates fix these colonics [of the Grjeks in Asia Minor] in the generations which followed tlie Trojan war. . . . We may suppose that the colonisation of the Aegean and of Asia Jlinor by the Greeks was coincident with the expulsion of tlic Phoenicians. Tlie greatest extension of the Phoenician power in the Aegean seems to fall in the 15tli century B. C. From the 13th it wa^ gradually <.n the decline, and the Greeks were enabled "to secure the trade for themselves. . . . By 1100 B. C. Asia Minor may have been in the hands of the Greeks, though the Phoenicians still maintained tliemselves in Rhodes and Cyjirus. But all attempts at chronology are illusory." — E. Abbott, Hint, of Greece, c/i. 4(r. 1). Ai.boin: E. C'urtius. Jfiat. of Greece, bk. 2, c/i. 8 (c. 1).— G. Grote, Hist, of Greecf, pt. 2, ch. 18-15. — J. A. Cramer, Oeog. aiulJIist. Description of Asia Minor, sect. 6 (v. 1). — See, also, Miletus, f*IIOt'*ANB. B. C. 724-539. — Prosperity of the Greek Colonies. — Their Submission to Croesus, King of Lydia, and their conquest and annexation to the Persian Empire. — "The Grecian colonics on the coast of Asia early rose to wealth by means of trade and manufactures. Though wc have not the means of tracing their commerce, we know that it was considerable, with the mother country, with Italy, and at length Spain, with PhtEnicia ond the interior of Asia, whence the prcxluctions of India passed to Greece. The Milesians, who had line woolen manufactures, extended their commerce to the Euxine, on all sides of which they founde<l factories, and exchanged their manufactures and other gorKl.s with the Scythians and the neighbouring peoples, for slaves, wool, raw hides, bees-wax. flax, hemp, pitch, etc. Tliere is even rea.son to suppose that, by means of caravans, their traders tiartered their wares not far from tlie conflncaof China [see Miletus]. . . . But while they were aii^anoing in wealth and prosperity, a powerful monarchy formed its<;lf in Lv<lia, of which the capital was Sordes. a city at the foot of Mount Tm</liM." Gyges, the first of the Mermnad dvnasty of Lydian kings (see Lydians). w hose reign is STjpposerl to have l»;gun aliout B. C. 7^4, " tuniH his arms against tlie Ionian cities on the con.st. I)uring a century and a half the efforts of tlie Lydian monarchs to re- duce these states were unavailing. At length (01. 55) [B. U. 56»J the celebrated Crcesus I mounted the throne of Lydia, and he made all Asia this side of the River Ilalys (Lycia and I Cilicia excepted) acknowledge "his dominion. Tiie Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian cities of tlie coast all i)aid him tribute; but, according to the usual rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled not witli their political institutions, and they might deem themselves fortunate in being insured against war by the payment of an annual sum of money. Crcesus, moreover, cultivated the friend- ship of the European Greeks," But Cra'sus was overthrown, B. C. 554, by the conquering Cyrus and his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed lip in the great Persian empire then taking form [see Pehsia: B. C. 540-5;; 1]. Cyrus, during his war with Cra'sus, had i, led to entice the lonians away from the latte)' and win tliem to an alliance witli himself. But they incurred his resentment by refusing. "They and tlie vEolians now sent arnbassadors, praying to be received to submis- sion on the same terms as those on which they had obeyed the Lydian monarch ; but the Mile- .sians alone found favour: the rest had to prepare fur war. They repaired the walls of their towns, ami sent to Sparta for aid. Aid, however, was refused; but Cyrus, being called away by the war with Babyiui,, iieglectcd them for the pres- ent. Three years afterwards (01. 59, 2), Ilarpa- gus, who had saved Cyrus in his infancy from his grandfather Astyagcs, came as governor of Lydia. He instantly prepared to reduce the cities of the coast. Town after town submitted. The Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to Abdcra in Thrace; the Phoca'ans, getting on shipboard, and vowing never to return, sailed for Cor.sica, and being tliere harassed by the Car- thagenians and Tyrrhenians, they went to Rhegion in Italy, anil at length founded Massalia (Marseilles) on the coast of Gaul. The Grecian colonies thus became a part of the Persian em- pire." — T. Keightley, Jliat. of Greece, pt. 1, ch. U. Also in : Ilerodotus, Hist. , tr. and ed. by O. RaiclinsoH, bk. 1, and app. — M. Duncker, Hist, of Antiquilu, bk. 8, ch. 0-7 (». 6). B. C. 501-493. — The Ionian revolt and its suppression. See Peksia ; H. C. 521-19B. B. C. 479. — Athens assumes the protection of Ionia. See Athens: B. C. 479-478. B. C. 477. — Formation of Confederacy of Delos. See Greece: B. C. 478-477. B. C. 413. — Tribute again demanded from the Greeks by the Persian King. — Conspiracy against Athens. See Greece: B. C. 413. B. C. 413-412.— Revolt of the Greek cities from Athens. — Intrigues of Alcibiades. See Greece: B. C. 418-412. B. C. 412. — Re-submission to Persia. See Persia ; B. C. 486-405. B. C. 401-400.— Expedition of Cyrus the Younger, and Retrf^.-it of the Ten Thousand. See Persia: B. C. I 400. B. C. 399-387.— Spartan war with Persia in behalf of the Greek cities. — Their aban- donment by the Peace of Antalcidas. See GiiEKCE: B. C. 80(l-;!87. B. C. 334. — Conquest by Alexander the Great. Sec Macedonia: B. C. 8;!4-:530. B. C. 301. — Mostly annexed to the Thracian Kingdom of Lysimachus. See Macedonia, &c. : H. C, 310-301. B. C. 281-224.— Battle-ground of the war- ring monarchies of Syria and Egfypt. — Changes of masters. See Seleucidj::. 140 ASIA MINOR. ASSASSINS. B. C. 191. — First Entrance of the Romans. — Their defeat of Antiochus the Great. — Their expansion of the kingdom of Perga- mum and the Republic of Rhodes. Sw Sklku- HD.i'.: IS, C. 224-1^7. B. C. 120-65. — Mithrtdates and his king- dom. — Massacre of Italians. — Futile revolt from Rome. — Complete Roman Conquest. Sec JIiTimiDATic AVaus; also Home: B. C. 78-C8, unci (ii)-0;j, A. D. 292. — Diocletian's seat of Empire es- tablished at Nicomedia. Soo Homk: A. D. 28l-:i()ri. A. D. 602-628.— Persian invasions. — Deliv- erance by Heraclius. Set' Home: A. D. .lOri- 628. A. D. 1063-1092. — Conquest and ruin by the Seljuk Turks. See Tuuks (Seljuks): A. D. l()(i;t-1073; and 1073-;093. A. D. 1097-1 149.— Wars of the Crusaders. See Crusades: A. D. l()!l«-1009; and 1147-1149. A. D. 1204-1261. — The Empire of Nicaea and the Empire of Trebizond, Sec Guekk Emi'iiie ok Nic.ea. ASIENTO, OR ASSIENTO, The. See Si..\\i:uy: A. D. 1698-i.Vtt; Dtueciit: A. D. 1713-1714; Aix-la-Chapeli.e, The Congress of; England: A. D. 1739-1741; and Geouoia: A. n. 1738-1743. ASKELON. See Philistines. ASKLEPIADS.— "Throughout all the his- torical ages [of Greece] the descendants cf Asklepius [or Esculapius] were numerous and widely diffused. The many families or t!;entcs called Asklfipiads, who devoted themselves to the study and practice of medicine, and who princi])rtlly dwelt near the temples of AsklOpius, whither sick and suffering men came to obtain relief — all recognized the god, not merely as the object of their common worship, but also as their actual ])rogenitor." — G. Grote, Iliat. of Orccee, pt. 1, r//. 9. ASMONE ANS, The. See Jews: B. C. 166- 4(1. ASOPIA. See Sicyon. ASOV. See Azof. ASPADAN.— The ancient name of which that of Ispahan is a corrupted form. — G. Kawliiison, /'\'ct< Great Mi>nnrchies: ^f<^(li(t, ch. 1. ASPERN - ESSLINGEN (OR THE MARCHFELD), Battle of. See Germany: A. i), 1809 (.Ianuauy— June). ASPIS, The. See Phalanx. ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at (1862). See Italy: A. D. 18(i2-18ti0. ASSAM, English Acquisition of. Sec India: A. I). 1823-1833. ASSANDUN, Battle of.— Tlio sixth and last l)attle, A. 1). lOlti, between Edmund Iron- siilos, the English King, and his Danish rival, Ciiut, or Canute, for tlic Crown of England. Tlie English were terribly defeated and the flower of their nobility perished on the field. Tlie result was a division of the kingdom ; but Edmund soon died, or was killed. Ashington, in Essex, was the battlegrouml. See Eniiland: A. 1). 979-101(1. ASSASSINATIONS, Notable.— Abbas, Pasha of Egypt. See Eoypt: A. 1). 1840-1809. Alexander II. of Russia. See Russia: A. I). 1879-1881.... Beatoun, Cardinal. See Bcotla^d: a. D. 1040 Becket, Thomas. ScoEnoland: A. D. 1163-1170 Buckingham. See E.NOLAND: A. I). 1028. . . .Cssar. Sec RiiMr;: li. V. 44... Capo d'Istrea, Count, President of Greece. See (iuKi:(i:: A. 1). 1830-1802 Cavendish, Lord Frederick, and Burke, Mr. See luKLAXD: A. I>. 18,S2 Concini. See ruANCK; A. 1). 1010-1019.... Danilo, Prince of Montenegro (i860). See .Mo.ntenkcuo Darnley. See Scotland: A. D. 1501-1.108 Francis of Guise. SeeFuANCK: A. I). 1500-1503. Garfield, President. See U.nitkd States OK Am, : A, 1). IH.si Gustavus III. of Sweden, See Scandinavian States (Sweden): A. U. 1720-1792. .. .Henry of Guise. See France: A. D. 1584-1589. . . . Henry III. of France. See France: A. I). 1584-1589. .. .Henry IV. of France. See France: A. D. 1.599-1000 Hipparchus. See Athens: B. C. 500-510 John, Duke of Burgundy. See France: A. D. 1415-1419.... Kleber, General. See France; A. D. 1800 (January— June) Kotzebue. See Germ.\ny: A. D. 1817-1820 Lincoln, President. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1805 (April 14tii) Marat. See Pr-^nce: A. I). 1793 (July). . . .Mayo, Lord. Sec India: A. D. 1802-1870 . . .Murray, The Regent. See Scotland: A. D. 1501-1508 Omar, Caliph. See Maho.metan Conquest, &c. : A. I). GOl .... Paul, Czar of Russia. See Russia: A.I). 1801. Perceval, Spencer. See England: A. D. 1803-1812.... Peter III. See Russia: A. D. 1761-1703 ... Philip of Macedon. See Greece: B. C. 357-330... Prim, General (1870). See Spain: A. I). 1800-1873. .. .Rizzio. See Scot- land: A. D. 1.501-1568 Rossi, Count. See Italy: A. D. 1848-1840. . . .Wallenstein (1634). See Germany: A. D. 1032-1034. .. .William the Silent. See Netherlands: A. 1). 1581- 1584 Witt, John and Cornelius de. See Netherlands: A. D. 1072-1074. ASSASSINS, The.— "I must here speak with the brevity which my limits prescribe of that wond(!rful brotherhood of the Assassins, wliicli during the 12th and 13th centuries spread sucli terror through nil Asia, Mussulman and (Mirlslian. Their deeds sliould be .studied in Von Hammer's history of tlieir order, of whiih however there is an excellent analysis in Taylor's History of Jlohammedanism. The word Assassin, it must be remembered, in its ordinary signitiea- tiou, is derived from this order, ah>i not the re- verse. The Assassins were not so called because- they were murderers, but murderers are called assiissins because the Assassins were iiiurderei-s. The origin of the word Assassiu has been much disputed by oriental scholars; but its application is sulliciently written upon the Asiatic history ol the 13th century. The As.sassins were not, strictly siieaking, a dynasty, but rather nn order, like the Templars; only the otlice of Grand-Master, liUo the Calipliate, became hereditary. They were originally a branch of the Egyptian Isliniaelitea [see Mahom1':tan Conquest:" A. D. 908-1171] and at first professed the principles of that sect But there can be no doubt thai their inner doc- trine became at last a mere negation of all religion and all morality. ' To believe nothing and to dare everything ' was the summary of their twiching. Tlieir c;cotcric principle, addressed to the non-initiated members of the onler, was simple blind obedience to tlio will of their su I)eriors. If tlie Assassin Wiis ordered to take oil u Caliph or u Sultuu by the dagger or the bowl. 141 ASSASSINS. ASSYRIA. the clccil wnMilonr; if lie was onlcrod to throw liiiiisi'lf from the niiii|)iirts, tlif deed was done !ikrwis<'. . . . Tlicir founder was I Iiissan Sabali, who, ill lOitO, shortly licfore the death of Malek Hhah, Nelze<l the caslU' of Alamout — the Vul- ture's nest — ill northern I'ersla. wlienee tliey ex- tended their ixwse-isions over a wliol(! <'liain of inountaiii fortresses in that roiintiy and in Syria. The (iiand-Masler was tlie Slieili'liiil-Jelial, tlie fainoiis Old Mat. of tlie .Moiiiitaiii, at wliose name Eiiri>|)e and A^ia shuddered." — E. A. Freeman, Hist. II ml Ciimiiieiiln of the Suniei'iin, led. A. — " In Ilie Katitniiic Kliallf of Egypt, lliey [tlie Assassins, or IsimiUiens of Syria and Persia] he- lield an inearnate deity. To kill his enemies, in will. .ever way they best eoiild, was nn nelion, the' merit of whieh eould not he disputed, and the reward for which was certain." Hasan Hatiali, the founder of the ()r(h'r, died nt Ala- mout A. 1>. 11-t. " From the day he entered Alamul until that of his death — ii period of thirty-live years — \w never emerge 1, but upon two occasions, from the seclusion oi his house. Pitiless and inscrutable as Destiny, he watched tile troutiled world (>f Oriental politics, himself invisible, and whenever he perceived a formida- ble foe, caused a dagger to be driven into his heart." It was not until more than a ccntuiy after the death of its founder that the fearful organization of the Assassins was extinguished (A. 1). 12.")T) by tlie aime flood of Mongol inva- sion which swept Uagdad and the Caliphate out of existence. — K. 1). Osborii, hhtm viukr the Khalifn of Jliiffdml, pt. ;J, c/i. 3.— W. (.'. Taylor, Jlint. of }fi>hiiinme.iianisin iind its Secln, ch. 9. — The Assassins were rooted out from all their strongholds in Kuhistan and the neighboring re gion, and were practieidlv exterminated, in 1357, by the Jlongols under Khulagu, or Houlngou, brother of AI()ngu Khan, the great sovcl'eign of the Mongol Empire, then reigning. Alamut, the Vulture's Xest, was demolishet'. — II. H. lloworth. Hint, of the ^f<>llf/o!s, ]mH 1, n. 193; itnil part ;i, /(/). 91-1(K— See li.\(il)Al): A.'l). 1258. ASSAYE, Battle of (1803). See India: A. D. 1798-1805. ASSEMBLY OF THE NOTABLES IN TRANCE (1787). See Fiianck: A. 1). 1774- 1788. ASSENISIPIA, The proposed State of. See NonTiiwKST Ticuiiitohv of tiik United St.\tks OK Am. : A. 1). 1784. ASSIDEANS, The. See Ciiasidi.m, The. ASSIENTO, The. See Asiento. ASSIGNATS. See France: A. 1). 1789- 1791; 1794-1795 (Jui.v — Apiiti,); 1795 (OcTo- BEIl — 1)k(i:mi.i-.ui. ASSINARUS, Athenian defeat and sur- render at the. See Sykacuse; U. C. 41.5-413. ASSINIBOIA. Sec NonTirwEBT Teiiri- TOHii;s OK Canada. ASSINIBOINS, The. Sec American Auo- HiiiiNKs: SiofAN Family. ASSIZE, The Bloody. See England: A. I). 1085 (SKfTICMUKH). ASSIZE OF BREAD A'^'D ALE. — The Assize of Hread and .Vie wa*^ m English ordi- iiaiiee or enactment, dating back to the time of Henry III. in the 13tli century, which fixed the price of those coniinodities by a scale regulated according to the market prices <if wheat, bailey and oats. "The .Vssi/.e of bread was re-enacted so lately as the beginning of the last century and was only abolished in Londcm and its neighbour 1io(nI about thirty years ago" — that is, early in the present century. — O. L. Craik, Jlitl. of Ihitinh Comiiifnv, 1: 1, ;). 137. ASSIZE OF CLARENDON, The. See Enoi.and: A. D. Il<i2-1 17(». ASSIZE OF JERUSALEM, The.— " No sooner liad Oodfrey of Itoiiilliin |elc<'lcd King of Jerusalem, after the taking of the Holy City bv tlie t'rusiulcrs. A. I). lt)99| accepted the otllee o'f supreme magistrate than lie solicited the public and private advice of the Latin pilgrims who were the best skilled in the statutes and customs of Europe. From these materials, with the counsel and approbation of the Piitriareh and U.roiis, of the clergy and laity, Godfrey coni- ])Osed the Assise of .lerusaleni, a |)recious moriu- iiient of feudal jurisprudence. The new code, attested by the seals of the King, the Patriarch, and the Viscount of .leru.saleiu, was deposited ii. the holy sepulchre, enriched with the iiu- proveiueiitsof succeeding times, and respectfully consulted asoften as any doubtful nueslion aro.se in the tribunals of Palestine. With the king- dom and city all was lost; the fragment.? of the written law were preserved by jealous tradition and variable practice till the middle of the thirteenth century. The code was restored by the pen of John d'Ibelin, Count of Jaffa, one of the principal feudatories; and the final revision was accomplislied in the year thirteen hundred and sixty-nine, for the use of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus."— E. Giblion, Decline u ml Full of the liomiin Empire, eh. 58. ASSIZES. — "The formal edicts known under the name of Assizes, the Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton, the Assize of Arms, the Assize of the Forest, and the Assizes of Measures, are the only relics of the legislative wcrk of the period [reign of Henry II. in England]. These edicts are chiefly composed of new regulations for the enforcement of royal justice. ... In this respect they strongly resemble the capitu- laries of the Frank Kings, or, to go farther back, the edicts of the lioman jinutors. . . . The term Assize, which comes into use in tliis mean- ing about the middle of the twelfth centuiy, both on the continent and in EngUind, appears to be the proper Norman name for such edicts. ... In the ' Assize of Jerusalem ' it simply means a law; and the same in Henry's legisla- tion. Secondarily, it moans a form of trial established by the" particular law, ns the Great A.ssize, the As.size of Mort d'Ancester; and thirdly the court held to hold such trials, in which sense it is commonly used at the present dav."— W. Stubbs, Comt. Hint. ofEn(j.,ch. 13. ASSUR. See AssviitA. ASSYRIA. — For matter relating to Assyrian history, the reader is referred to the caption Semites, under which it will be given. The sub- ject is deferred to that i)nrt of this work which will go later into print, for the reason that every month is adding to the knowledge of the students of ancient oriental history and clearing away dis- puted (pitstions. It is quite possible that the time between the i)ubli(?ation of our first volume and our fourth or lifth may inakc important ad- di'ions to the scanty literature of the suliject in Fuglish. Modern exaivation on the sites of the ancient cities in the East, bringing to light large dirary collections of inscribed clay tablets,— tacred and historical writings, otHcial records, 141 ASSYRIA ASTY. business contrncts and mnny vnrictics of inscrip- tions, — Imvc iilmost revolutionized tlic study of ancient liistorj' and tlic views of antiquity derived from it. "M. Botta, wlio was appointoil Frencli consul at Mosul in 1842, was tlic first to com- mence excavations on the sites of the buried cities of Assyria, and to liim is due the honour of the first discovery of her long lost palaces. M. ijotta commenced liis labours at Kouyunjili, the large mound oppo.site JIosul, but he found hcie very little to compensate for his laliours. New nt t1ie time to excavations, he does not appear to have worked in tlie best manner; JI. Hotta at Kouyunjik contented him.self with sinking pits in the mound, and on the.sc proving unproduc- tive abandoning tliein. While M. IJotta was ex- cavating at Kouyunjik, liis attention was called to the mounds of Khorsabad by a native of the village on that site ; and he sent a party of work- men to the spot to commimco excavation. In a few days liis perseverance was rewarded by the discovery of some sculptures, after which, aban- doning the work at Kouyunjik, he transferred his establishment to Khorsabad and thoroughly explored that site. . . . The palace which >i. Botta had discovered . . . is one of the most per- fect Assyrian buildings yet explored, and forms nn excellent exanii)Ic of Assyrian architecture, Beside the palace on the mound of Khorsabad, M. Botta also opened the remains of a temple, and a grand porch decorated by six winged bulls. . . . The operations of M. Botta were brought to a clo.sc in 184.'), and a splendid collection of sculptures and other antiquities, the fruits of his labours, arrived !n Paris in 1^40 and was de- posited in the Louvre. Afterwards the French Government appointed JI. Place consul at JIosul, and he continued some of the excavations of his predecessor. . . . 3Ir. Layard, whose attention was early turned in this direction, visited the country in 1840, and afterwards took a great in- terest in the excavations of jM. Botta. At length, in 1845, Layard was enablc'd through the assis- tance of Sir Stratford Canning to commence exca- vations in Assyria himself. On the 8tli of Novem- ber he started from Mosul, and descended th(! Tigris to Kimioud. . . . Mr. Layard has described in ills works with great minuteness his successive excavations, and the remarkable and interesting discoveries lie made. . . . After making tliese discoveries in Assyria, Mr. Lavard visited Baby- lonia, and opened trenches in several of the mounds there. On the return of 5Ir. I.,ayard to England, excavations were continued in the Euphrates valley under the superintendence of Colonel (now Sir Henry) Bawlinson. Under his directions, Jlr. llormiizd Uassam, Mr. Loftus, and Mr. Taylor excavated various sites and made uumerous discoveries, the British JIuseum receiv- ing tlic best of the monuments. The materials collected in the national museums of France and England, and the numerous inscriptions pub- lished, attracted tiie attention of the learned, and very soon considerable light was thrown on the history, language, manners, and customs of an- cient Assyria and Babylonia." — O. Smitli, As- tyrian Viseoreriea, ch. 1. — "One of the most im- portant results of Sir A. IL Layard's explorations at Xineve'i was the discovery of the ruined library of tlie ancient city, now buried under the mounds of Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets belonging to this library not only furnished the student with au immense mass of literary matter, 10 but also witli direct aids towards a knowledge of the Assyrian syllabary and language. Among the literature reprcsciHed in the library ot Kou- yunjik were lists of characters, with their various phonetic and ideographic ni tnings, tables of synonymes, and catalogues of ih(^ names of plants and animals. This, however, was not all. The inventors of the cuneiform system of writing had been a people wlio ])roceded the Semites in the occupation of Babylonia, and who sjioke an ag- glutinative language utterly diflerent from that of their Semitic succe.s.sors. These Accadiaiis, as they are usually termed, left behind them a considerable amount of literature, whicli was highly prized by the Semitic Babylonians and As- syrians. A large i)ortion of the Jsinevite tablets, accordingl3', consists of interlinear or parallel translations from Accadian into Assyrian, as avcU as of reading books, dictionaries, and grammars, in which the Accadian original is placed by the side of its Assyrian equivalent. . . . The bilingual texts have not only enabled scholars to recover the long-forgotten Accadian language ; they have also been of the greatest possible assistance to them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian dic- tionary il.self. The three expeditions conducted by Jlr. George Smith [1873-1870], as well as the later ones of Mr. llormuzd Hassam, have added largely to the stock of tablets from ICouyunjik originally acquired for the British Museum by Sir A. II. Layard, and have also brought to light a few other tablets from the libraries of Baby- lonia." — A. II. Sayce, Fresh Liyht from ths An- cient Monuments, ch. 1. Ai-soin:G Uawliiison, Firedrcnt Monarchies: The Second Moniirehi/, ch. 0. — M. Duncker, Hist. ofAntir/iiili/, /j/cs3-4. — Geo. Smith, Ancient Hist, from the Monuments: Assi/ria. — Sec, also, Bauy- i,oNi,\ and Skmiths. ASSYRIA, Eponym Canon of. — "Just as there were archoiis at Athens and consuls at Home wlio were elected annually, so among the As.syrians there was a custom of electing one man to be over the year, whom they called 'liniu,' or 'eponym.' . . . Babylonian and Assyrian documents were more generally dated by the names of these eponyms than by that of the reigning King. ... In 1862 Sir Henry Hawlinson discovered the fragment of the eponym canon of Assyria. It was one of the grandest and most important discoveries ever made, for it has decided definitely a great many lioints which otiierwisc could never have been cleared up. Fragments of seven copies of this canon were found, and from these the chronology of Assyria has been definitely settled from B. C. 1330 to about IJ. C. G30."— E. A. AV. Budge, li((hi/lj)niiin Life ninl Hislori/, ch. 3, ASTOLF, King of the Lombards, A. D. 74i)-7r)!), ASTRAKHAN : The Khanate, See Mon- gols: A, 1), l',>;iS-13i}l. A. D. 1569.— Russian repulse of the Turks. See Hissi.v: A. I), l.')09-l.'i71. ASTURIANS, The. See C.VNTAnui.VNS. ASTURIAS: Resistance to the Moorish Conquest. SccSi-ain: A, 1). 713-737. ASTY, OR ASTU, The.— The ancient city of Athens i)roi)er, as distinguished from its con- nected harbors, was called the Asty, or Asm. — .1. A. St. .lohn. The Hellenes, bk. 1, ch. 4. Ai-so IN : W. M. Leake, Toimjraphy-of Athens, sect. 10.— See, also, Atukns: Aueia, «&c. 143 ATHENS. ATHENS. ASTYNOMI.— CiTtiiiii police offlrinls in nn- <iciil .\ I Inns, tin in immbi'r. "Tlicy were cliargwl with all tliiit licloiiftH tn street siiiier- visioii, c. i!., liic cli'iiiisln^ of tlio slrectM. fur wliicli purpose ll oprolojri, or street-sweepers, were iinilertlieir orders; tlie seeiiriiigof moriililv 1111(1 decent lieliiivioiir ill tlie streets."— (I. I<\ .Seliiimiiiiii. .Xiitiij. iifilirerr : Tin Stiilr, ]it. I!. r!i. ',\. ASUNCION : A. D. 1537.— The founding of the city. See I'xuMirw: .V. I), l.")!.")-!.")"!?. ATABEGS, ATTABEGS, OR ATTA- BECKS.— ■• Kroiii the ileeMiie of the dynasty of .Seljooli to the eoiic|iiest of I'ersiii l)y Iliilakoo Ivhaii, the son of Clien^diis, 11 iK'ri(Hl of more than a century, tlial country wii.s distracted hy the contests "of petty princes, or jtoveriiors, called Att«t)ej;s, wlio, taliins iidvaiitaffe of tliu weakness of tlie last Seljookiaii moiiarelis, and of the distractions wliich followed their tinal extinction, estnttlislied their authority over some of the finest jirovinces of the Empire. Many of these petty dynasties ac(piired such a local fame U8. to this day, gives an importjiiice to their memory with the inhahitaiits of the countries over which they ruled. . . . Tlie word Atta- beg is Turkish; it is a compound word of 'atta,' muster, or tutor, and 'beg,' lord; and signilies a governor, or tutor, of a lord or prince." — Sir J. Malcolm, Uht. nf Persia, r. 1. rh. 0. — "It is true that the Atabciis appear but a short space as actors on the stage of Kastern history; but these •tutors of princes' occupy n position neillier insignitie.-int nor unimportant in ihe course of events which occurred in Syria and Persia at the time they nourished." — W". 11. .Alorlcy, Preface tn Mirkiidiiil's //int. of the Alabeka. — See, also, S.M.ADIN. TlIK K.MI'IUK OK. ATAHUALPA, The Inca. Sec Peru; A. I) l.VU-1."):!:!. ATELIERS NATIONAUX OF 1848, AT PARIS. See Fkanck; A. I). 18-18 (Pkiihi;.\iiy —.May), ami (.\im:ii.— I)K(l-:Miti-;u), ATHABASCA, The District of. See Nouth- WKsr TKiturroKtKs of ('a.sad.v. ATHABASCANS, The. See American Aiioiii(ii..i-:s; Atiiai'ascan Family. ATHALAYAS. See .Saudinia, The Island: NAMK AND KAIil.V IlISTOKY. ATHEL.-ATHELING.— ATHEL- BONDE. See .Vdki,. ATHENRY, Ba'tle of.— The most desperate battle fought by the Iiish in resisting the Eng- lish coiKpiest of Ireland. They were terribly slaught-ered and the chivalry of Connaught was crushed. The battle occurred Aug. 10, A. D. 1316.— >[. Haverty, Hist, of Ireland, p. 283. ATHENS. The Preeminence of Athens. — " When we speak of Greece we think tirst of Athens. . . . To citizens and to strangers by means of epic recitations and dramatic siiectacles, she presented an idealised image of life itself. She was the home of new ideas, the mother-city from which poetry, ehxiuence, and philosophy spread to distant lands. While the chief dialects of Greece survive, each not as a mere dialect but as the language of literature, — a thing unKnown in the history of any other people, — the Attic idiom, in which ttie characteristic elements of other dialects met and were blended, has become to us, as it did to the ancients, the very typo of Hellenic speech. Athens was not only the ' capi- tal of Greece. ' the ' school of Greece ; ' it deserves the name applied to it in an epitaph 011 Euripides: 'liis country is Athens, Greece of Greece.' The rays of the Greek genius here foimd a centre and a focus." — S. H. Butcher, Soiiu; Asjxets nf the Greek Oenins, pp. 38-30. — "Our interest in an- cient history, it inaj' be said, lies not in detai?s but in large masses. It matters little how early the Arcaclians acquired a political \inity or what Nabis did toMycenic; that which interests us is the constitution of Athens, the repulse of Persia, the brief bloom of Thebes. Life is not so long that we can spend oiir days over the unimportant fates of uninteresting tribes and towns." Area and Population. — "Tln^ entire circuit of the Asty [the lower city, or Athens proper]. Long Walls and maritime city, taken as one In- closure, is equal to alxnil 17 Engli.sh mile.s. or 148 stades, This is very dilterent from the 300 stades which Dion Chry.sostoin .states to liave been the circumference of the same walls, an estimate exceeding by more than 20 stades even the sum of the peripheries of the Asty and Peiraic tnwns, according to the numbers of Thucydidcs. . . . Uonie was circular, Syracuse triangular, and Athens consisted of two circular cities, joined by a street of four miles in length, — a figure, the superficies of which was not more than tlie fourth part of that of a city of an equal circumference, in a circular fornL Hence, when to Rome within the walls were added suburbs of c(jual extent, its population was greater tlian that of all Attica. That of Athens, although the most populous city in Greece, was probably never greater than 300,' lOO." — W. M. Leake, Topoyraph)/ of At/iens, sect. 10. Ionian Origin. See Dorians and Ionians. The Beginning of the city-state. — How Attica was absorbed in its capital. — " In the days of Cecrops and the first kings [see Attica] down to the reign of Theseus, Attica was divided into communes, having their own town-halls and magistrates. Except in case of alarm the whole people did not a.s8emble in council under the king, but administered their own affairs, and ad- visetl- together in their several townships. Some of them at times even went to war with him, as the Eleu.sinians under Eumolpus with Erectheiis. But when Theseus came to the throne, he, being a powerful as well as a wise ruler, among other improvements in the administration of the coun- try, dissolved the councils and separate govern- ments, and united all the inhabitants of Attica in the present city, establishing one council and town-hall. They continued to live on their own lands, but he compelled them to resort to Athens as their metropolis, and henceforward they were all inscribed in the roll of her citizens. A great city thus arose which was handed down by The- seus to his descendants, and from his day to this the Athenians have regularly celebrated the na- tional festival of tlie Synoecia, or ' union of the communes ' in honour of the goddess Athene. Before his time, what is now the Acropolis and the ground lying under it to the soutli was the 144 '1 ■:•& =3 O -^ o 5 s " W •« * g »- 3 5 « V t« q 1« CO o s s i W tl g ^ ,3 'J* aa O o o i- pa o w n CQ B 5 O 'A O Q !« O H ;« ■«i O Q « H a o S tn P >5 "8 e e ■J ^ 5 ■2 «J "3 •9=301 .r»:32 = •s ^ -B 1 I 53 -a 3, s| ^-a 1^ - ^a "B rt 3 « w :r^ J "i/ "g " o" ^ 'C "3 ■" u •O <w^f" o.S_r.s-S C >> ^ ^ C C3 J3 _ t3 .as s t 2 ^»^js Ji a a a d ^ ^ S' •2 -S a g = ■^i £• e ■a s 2 N ^ 5 ft sJ3o-.2t»2 5 -•^g'Ss.s •S -S o 3 a £ I ?J 2 a S O ^ .H -C S ® • - I 5 ; ■3I, T ; 8 >. § & 1 5 1 g 5 1 I a 2 -i a^l •32 3r= o JJ ^-^ t 'cfs §11 ill.2l-? >.- s-^a wg-H j-f- •3s'S>M«~22 m ^ 3 g a -3 -s " ^ I S.2 S w= "^ C 2 to a c c oi 5 is >• 5 I? 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J _ ■? i* "5 =S .2 2 a. 5 S5 a J^-r " .«j ... „ £-3 C a i! a n 60^ # ■S a a js ^ll a u) a 0) — ■a s -5 > Q. 2 i2 Lh ?^ 3 o ^ .a qj ^ g).g §)«2 -a, "! a 2 « 2 ^.2 5 is 5 •n ''■«| g a ■ «- a^ - - ' ^ 3 S ° a K ''^ &a ^^S3 ^ 2 9 S .S £ 2 5 8a ?.a 3 - ^ s s Q) a a; -2 GJ •a i" S -a - « ■" ° -s " .§ ^ I -3 ? .2 J .S :;a.2 a g 52'2t.fe'-33«^2®:^ r-^2--^^=22g2aJo2>.g a-s 3 3|:g|5H::2| ^-g^S I g^ g>« a-3.2^ fea ^-s 0*-i d"^ rtwcn'^ r*^ iJ^ g 5 a J Wj a J^ J? a ti. ■< 2 « I & (2 .a PLAN OF ATHENS. From -Mythology and MonumenU of Ancient Athem^' by Jane E. Harrison and Margaret de G. Verrall. IIAHIIOHS OK ATHENS. 146 ATHENS. ATHENS, B. C. 624. city. Miiny reasons may bo urjrod in proof of this slatciiv'tit."— Tlmcydidfs, llintory (Joicctt's traiiK.). Ilk: i. Kirl 1."). Ai.w) I.N: .M. Diiiirlicr, IIi»t. of Oreeee, hk. 3, eh. 7 (r. 'i). From the Dorian Migration to B. C. 683.— End of kingship and institution of the Archons. — At tlic cihiiIi nf llio Itin'otiaii ;ind |)i)ri.iii iiii:;i:itions (m'c (iKKKiK: Thk Mlc.U.v- Tio.Ns), Attica was lloodi'il by fiisritivos. lK>th fniiii till' iiiirtli and from llie Pt'loponnesus. "But thi' bidlv of the refuirt'fs passtd on to .Vsia. and built up tho litios of louia. . . . Wlicii the swarms of cinisrriiuts dcari'd i>ff. lUid Alliens is aiiaiii disccrnablo, the crown luis piLsstd from the old royal house of the Oecropidiie to a family of exiles from Peloponnesus. ... A generation later the Dorian invasion, which had overwhelmed Coriiitli and torn away Mesr.irtj from the .\ttic dominion, swept up to the very gates of Athens. An oracle dechmnl that the city would never fall if its ruler perishe<l by the haiid of the invaders: therefore Kin; t'odrus disj;\iis('d himself as a peasant, set out "" r the Dorian <an\p. struck down the lirst man he met, and was himself slain by the second. The inva- sion failed, and the .Vthenians, to perpetuate the memory of their monarch's patriotism, would not allow tilt title of 'king' to be borne by the descendants who succeeded him on the throne, but chaniieil the name to 'arclion,' or 'ruler.' . . . These legends evidently cover .scmie ob.scure changes in tiie internal history of Attica." — 0. W. 0. Oman, ///V. of (Inw. ch. 11. — "After the death of (.'odrus the nobles, taking advan- tage, perhajjs, of the opportunity alforded by till' dispute between his sons, are Si.M t., have abolished the title of king, and to have suJisti- tuted for it that of Arclion. This change, how- ever, seems to have been important, rather as it indicated the new, precarious tenure by which the royal power was held, than as it immediately affected the nature of the olHce. It was, indeed, still held for life; and Medon, the son of Codrus, ti-ansmitted it lohispo.sterity. . . . .\fter twelve reigns, ending with that of .VIcma'on [B. ('. 7.')3], the duration of the ollice was limited to ten years; and through the guilt or calamity of llippomenes, the fourth decennial arclion, the house of Medim was deprived of its privilege, and thc! suiireme magistracy was thrown open to the whole body of nobles. This change was speedily followeii by one much more important. . . . Tlie duration of the archonship was again reduced to a single year [B. C!. (18;)] ; and, at the same lime, its branclu^s were severed and dis- tributed among nine new magistrates. Among these, the first in rank retained the distinguish- ing title of the Arclion. and the year was marked by his naiiii'. lie n'prescnted the majesty of the stitte, and exercised a peculiar jurisilielion — that which had belonged to the king as the conumm parent of his people, the jiroteclor of families, the guardian of orphans and heiresses, and of the general rights of inheritance. For the scu'ond arclion tlie title of king Ibasileus], if it had been laid aside, was n^vived, as the fune- tic:is a.ssigned to him were tlio.se most associated with ancient recollections. He represented the kinji- as the high-priest of his people; he regu- hitec' the celebration of the mysteries and the most Holemn festivals; decided all cuu.ses which affected thc interests of religion. , . . The third archon bore the title of Polemarcli, and filled the idace of the king as the leader of his people in war, and the guardian who watched over its securitv in time of peace. . . . The r(unaining six I'.rclions received the common title of tliesmo- thetes, which literally signifies legislators, and was jirobably ap|died to them as the judges who determined tlie great variety of cau.ses which did not fall under the cognizance of their colleagues; because, in the absence of a written ciHle. those wiio declare and interpret the laws 'may be properly said to make them." — C. Thirl- wail. llinl. (if (frccre, eh. 11. — "We are in no condition to determine the civil classification and political constitution of Attica, even at tin' period of the Archonship of ivreon, 083 B, C, when aullientic Athenian chronology first com- mences, much less can we ijrclend to any knowl- edge of the anterior centuries. . . . All the information which we jiosscss respecting that old polity is derived from authors wdio lived after all or most of these great <haiiges [by Solon, and later] — and who, finding no records, nor anything belter than current legends, ex- plained the foretime as well as the)' could by guesses more or less ingcniinis, generally at- tached to the dominant "egen-hiry names." — G. Grote, Hint, nf Oreeee, pt. 2, '/. 10. Also in; G. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of O recce : The Stfite. pt. 3, eh. 3.— SI. Duncker, in.-<t. of Greece, bk. :t, eh. 7 (r. 2). B. C. 624, — ^Under the Draconian Legisla- tion.— " Drako was the first lli;'smotlict, who was called upon to set down his thesmoi [ta'di- naiices and decisions] in Avriling, and thus to in- vest them essentially with a character of more or less generality. In the later and better-known times of Athenian law, we find these archons de- prived in great measure of their powers of judg- ing and deciding, and restricted to tlie task of lii'st hearing of parties and collecting the evi- dence, next, of introducing the matter for trial into the apiuopriate dikastery, over which they presided. Oi j;inally, there was no separation of powers; the iiiclions both judged and adminis- lere(l. . . , All of these functionaries belonged to the Eupalrids, and all of them dotilitless acted more or less in the narrow interest of their order; moreover, there was ample room for favouritism in the way of (connivance as well as antipathy on the part of i\w. archons. That such was decid- edly the ease, and that discontent began to be serious, we may infer from the duty imposed on the thesmothet Drako, B. C, 024, to put in writ- ing the Ihesmoi or ordinances, so tliat they miglit \w 'shown publicly' and known beforehand. He did not meddle with the political constitution, and in his ordinances Aristotle llnds little wortliy of remark except the extreme severity of the punishments awarded: petty thefts, or even proved idleness of life, being visited with death or disfranchisement. But we are not to construe this remark as demonstrating any special inhu- manity in the character of Drako, who was not invested with the la.ge power which Solon ...- lerwards enjoyed, and cannot be innigined to have imposed upon the community severe laws of his own invention. . . . The general spirit of l)enal legislation had become so much milder, during the two centuries which followed, that these old ordinances appeared to Aristotle intol- erably rigorous." — G. Qrote, Hi«t, of Oreeee, pt, 3, e/i. 10 (c. 3), 146 ATHENS, B. C. 013-595. ATHENS, B. C. 594. . B. C. 612-595. — Conspiracy of Cylon. — Banishment of the Alcinaeonids. — The tiist at- teinpt 111 Athens to dvcnuni thu oligiirchical governiiR'iit iinil estahlish a inTsonal tyranny was made, B. C. 012, by Cylon (Kyh)ii), a patrician, son-inlaw of the tyrant of Jlegari, ■ttiio was cncouragcil and helped in hi ■. undw- takini; by the latter. The conspiraey failed miserably. The partisans of Cylon, blockaded in the aerojiolis, were forced to surrender; but they ])laced themselves unthM' the protection of tlie" jjoddes.s Minerva and were jjromi.sed their lives. Jlore elfectually to retain the protection of the goddess until their escape was eirected, they' attached a cord to her altar and helil it in their hands as they passed out through the midst of their enemies. Unhappily the cord broke, and the archon Megades at once declan^d that the safeguard of Minerva was withdrawn from them, whereupon they were massacred without mercy, even thougli they tied to the neighboring altars and clung to them. The treachery and l)a(l faith of this cruel deed does not seem to have dis- turl)ed the Athenian people, but the sacrilege involved in it caused horror and fear when they bad had time to reflect upon it. Megacles and his whole family — the Alcmieonids as they were called, from the name of one of their an- cestors — were held accountable for the affront to the gods and wei'e considered i)olluted and accursed. Every public calamity was ascribc^d to their sin, and at length, after a solenm trial, they were banislied from the city (about 590 or 695 B. C), while the dead of the fanuly were disinterred and cast out. The ; ,''.ations of this affair cvercised an important influence on the course of c\ents, which opened the way for Solon and his constitutional reforms. — C. Thirl- wall, Hist, of Greece, eh. 11. Also in: G. Grote, Hint, of Civree, pt. 2, eli. 10. B. C. 610-586. — Struggle vyith Megara for Salamis.— Cirrhaean or First Sacred War. — " The petty state of Megara, which, since the earlier ages, had, from the dependent of Athens, grown up to the <lignity of her rival, taking ad- vantage of the internal dissensions in the latter city, succeeded in vresting from the Athenian government the isle of Salairis. It .vas not, how- ever, without bitter aiid repeated struggles that Athens at last s\ibmitled to the surrender of the isle. But, after signal losses and defeats, as nothing is ever more odious to the multitude than \nisuccessful war, so the popular feeling was such as to induce the government to enact a decree by which it was forbidden, upon pain of death, to propo.sc reasserting the Athen' ^n claims. . . . Many of the younger portion of the com- munity, pining at the dishonour of .:eir ciun- try, and eager for enterprise, were secretly in- clined to countenance any stratagem 'hat might induce the reversal of the decree. At this time there went a rei)ort through the city that a man of distinguished birth . . . had incurred the con- Bceniting misfortune of insanity. Suddenly this person appeared in the market place, wearing tlu^ peetdiar badge [a cap] that distinguislied the si(rk. . . . Asc(!nding the stone from which the heralds made their proclamations, he began to re- cite aloud a poem upon the loss of Salamis, boldly reproving the cowardice of the people, and in- citing tlKMU again to war. His supposed insanity protected him from tlu^ law — his rank, reputa- tion, and the circuuistauce of his being himself a native of Salamis, conspired to give to his exhor- tation :\ i>owerful effect, and the friends he had secured to back his attempt loudly proclaimed their applauding sympathy witli the spirit of the address. The name of the pretended madman was Solon, son of E.xecestides, the descendant of Codrus. . . . The stratagem and the elociuence of Sohm jiroduced its natural elfect upon his spirited and excitable audience, and the public enthusiasm permitted the oligarclucal g ivern- inent to i)ropo.se and effect the repeal of the law. An expedition was dtjcreed and planned, and Solon was invested with its command. It was l)ut a l)rief struggle to recover the little i.sland of Salamis. . . . But the lirave and resolute Mega- rians were not men to be disheartened liy a sin- gle rever.se; they pei'sisted in the contest — losses were sustained on either side, and at length both states agreed to refer 'iieir several claims on the sovereignty of the island to the decision of Spartan arliiters. And this appeal from arms to arl)it ra- tion is a proof how much throughout Greece Iiad extended that spirit of civilisation which is but an extension of the sense of justice. . . . The arbitration of the innpires in favour of Athens only suspended hostilities; and the Megarlansdid not cease to watch (and shortly afterwards they found) a fltting occasion to regain a sett lenient .so templlngto thelrambltion. The credit acquired by Sol '■■ in this expediticm was shortly after- wards greatly increased In the estimation of Greece. In tlu! Bay of Corinth was situated a, town called Ciirha, Inliabited by a tierce and ftwless race, who, after devastating the sacred territories of Delphi, sacrilegiously besieged the city Hself, in the desire to possess themselves of the treasures which the piety of Greece had ac- cunuilated in the Temple of Apollo. Solon ap- peared at the Amiihictyonic council, represented the sacrilege of the CMrrlueans, and jiersuaded file Greeks to arm in defence of the altars of their tutelary god [B. C 595 1. Cllsthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon, was sent as commander-in-chief against the Cirrhicans; aiid (according to Plutarcli) the records of Delphi inform us that Alcnueon was the leadcu' of the Atlienians. The war [known as the First Sacred War] was not very successful at the ousel , the oracle of Aiiollo was consulted, and the answer makes one of the mcst amusing anecdotes of i)riestcraft. The Iieslegers were in- formed by the god that the place would not bo reduced until the waves of the C!irrliican Sea washed tlie territories of Delphi. The reply jjcr- plexed the army; but the superior sagacity of Solon was not slow in discovering that the holy intention of the oracle was to appropriate the lands of the CIrrluuans to the prolil of the tem- ple. Ho therefore advised the besiegers to at- tack and to conquer Cirrha, and to dedicate its whole territory to the service of the ,god. The advice was adopted — Cirrha was taken [B. (!. 5W)1 ; it became thenceforth the arsenal of Delphi, and the insulted deity had the satisfaction of seeing the sacred lands washed by the waves of the Cirrhican Sea. . . . 'i'lie Pythian games com- menced, or were revived, in celel)ration of this victory of the Pythian god." — Sir E. Bulwer Lytlon, Athens: Its lUso and ]<\ill, bk. 3, cA. 1. — See, also, Dloi.lMir. B. C. 594.— The Constitution of Solon.— The Council of Four H..ndred. — " Sohm, ArclionOl. 4fl,l, was chosen midlator. Eqiiitv ami moderation are described by the ancients us 14; ATHENS, B. C. 594. Constitution of Solon. ATHENS, B. C. 594. f ho rhjirnrtrristips nt his mind ; ho dotorminofl to iiliiilisli thr privilcircs of purticular oIhsmcs, iind 1lii> luliilrary piiwcr of olllcrrs, and to render all the parlieipiit'^rs iti eivil and i)iiliti('ai freedom equal ill tlie eye of tlie law. at the same time rn.suring to every cue the integrity of those ri/,ditn to whieh lil.i r"al merits entitled him; on the other hand, he was far from contemplating ii total subversion of e.xlsting regulations. . . . Whatever was excellent in prescription was in- corporated with the new laws and thereliy stamped .ifresh; liut prescription as such, with the e.vception of some unwritten religious ordin- ances of the Euniolpids, was deprived of force. The law was destined to bo the sole centre, whence every member of the political community was to derive n fixed rule of conduct." — W. Wachsmuth, Hintonrdl Antiqnitirit of the, (ri'eeks, xrt. 4fi (r. 1). — "The factions, to allay the reviv- ing animosities of which was Solon's immediate object, had, at that time, formed parties corn - spomling to the geographical division of the country, which we have already adverted to; the Pediiei, or inhabitants of the lowlands, in- sisted on a strict oligarchy; the Parali, on the coast, who, did v c not tind the Alcmaeonid Megaeles at their head, might be considered the wealthier portion of the people, wished for a mixed constitution; buttheDiacrii orliyperncrii [of the inoinitainous district] formed the great majority, who, in their impoverished state, looked "for relief only from a total revolution. Solon might, had he so chosen, have made him- self tyrant by heading this populace: but he preferred acting as mediator, and with this view caused himself to be elected archon, B. C. 594, as being an Eupatrid of the house ... of Codru.s," — C. F. Hermann, Manual of the Political Antiquities of Oreere, ch. 5, seet. 106. — "The chief power was vested in the collective people ; I)ut in oilier that it might be exercised with ad- vantage it was necessary that they should be endowed with common rights of citizeiwhip. Solon elTected this by raising the lower class from its degradation, and by subjecting to legal control those who had till now formed the governing order, as well as by rendering the liberty of both dependent upon the law. . . . This change was brought about by two ordin- ances, whicli must not be regarded as mere remedies for the abu-ses of that period, but as the permanent basis of free and legal citizenship. Tlie one was the Seisachtheia; this was enacted by Solon to afford relief to oppressed debtors, by reducing tin ' debts in amount, and by rais- ing the value of money in the payment of interest nnd principal; at the same time he abrogated the former rigorous law of debt by wliirli the freeman might be reduced to servitu'de, and thus secured to him the unmolested possession of his legal riglits. ... A second ordinance enjoined, that their full and entire rights sliould be restored to all citizens who had incurred Atimia, except to absolute criminals. This was not only destined to heal the wounds wdiicli had beeii caused by the previous dissensions, but as till that t;me the law of del-t hail been able to re- duce cilizens to .\timia, and thc^ majority of the Aliinoi jioinlcd out by Solon were slaves for debt, that declaration stood in close connection witli the Seisachtheia, and had the effect of a proclamation from tiie state of its intention to guarantee the validity of the new ciiizenship. 1 . . . The right of nntttrnlization was granted by Solon to deserving aliens, when 6,000 citizens decl.ired theinselves ill favour of tlie measure, but these new citizens were likewise deficient in a few of the privileges of citizenship. . . . The statement tliat Solon received a great many foreigners as citizens, and -very ariizan that presented himself, appears highly improbable, as Solon was the first legislator who systemati- cally regulated the ocndition of the Meta^ci. Tlie Meta'ci . . . probably took the place of the former Demiurgi; their position was oiie of sufferance, but the protection of tlie laws was guaranteed them. . . . The servile order, ex cliLsively consisting of purchased aliens and their descendants, did not, as a body, stand in direct relation with the state ; individual slaves became the property of individual citizens, but a certain number were employed by the state as clerks, etc., and were abandoned to the arbitrary pleasure of their oppressive taskmasters. . . . Those who were manumitted stood upon tha footing of MetoBci ; the citizens who enfranchised tliem becoming their Prostata;. . . , Upon at- taining the age of puberty, tlie sons of citizens entered public life under the name of Ephebi. The state gave them two years for the full development of their youthful strength. . . . Upon the expiration of the second, and accord- ing to the most authentic accounts, in their eighteenth year, they received the shield and spear in the popular assembly, complete armour being given to the sons of those wlio liad fallen in battle, and in the temple of Agraulos took the oath of young citizens, the chief obligations of which concerned the defence of their country, and then for the space of one or two years per- formed military service in the Attic border fortresses under the name of Peripoli. T'le cere- mony of arming them was followed by enrol- ment in the book which contained the names of those who had attained majority; this era- powered the young citizen to manage his own fortune, preside over a household, enter the popular assembly, and speak. When he asserted the last right, viz., the Iscgoria, Parrhesia, ho was deiioi.'iinated Rhetor, and this appellation denoted thvi difTerenco between him and the silent member of the assembly, the Idiotes. . . . Upon attaiiMng his 80th year, the citizen might assert his superior rights ; he was qualified for a membe" of the sworn tribunal entitled Heliica. . . . The word Ileliast does not merely signify a judge; but the citizen who has fully attained maturity. . . . The juitges of the courts of the DiiDtctic and Epheta;, which existed without the circle of the ordinary tribunals, were required to be still older men than the Hellasts, viz. , 50 or 60 years of age. Solon appointed gradations In the rights of citizenship, according to the con- ditions of a census in reference to olHces of state. . . . Upon f'e principle of a conditional equality of rights, wiiich assigns to every one os much as he deserves, and which is highly characteristic of Solon's policy in general, he instituted four clas.ses according to a valuation; these were the Pentacosiomedimni [whose land yielded 500 measures of wheat or oil], the Ilippcis [horse- men], tlie ZengitiB [owners of a yoke of mules], and the Tlietes [or laborers]. The valuation, however, only affected that portion of capital from which contributions to the stJite-burthens were i'eo'.ired, consequently, according to 48 ATHENS, B. C. 594. ATHENS, B. C. 510-507. Biickli, a taxable capital. . . . The Thotos, the last of these classes, were not rcRularly sum- moned to perform military service, but only exercised the civic riglit as members of the as- sembly and the law-courts: . . . the highest class exclusively supplied the superior olHees, such as the archouship, and through this the council of the Areopagus. ... In lieu of the former coun- cil of administration, of which no memorial has been preserved, Solon instituted a Council of four hundred citizens tjiken from the first three classes, 100 from every Phyle, of which no person under 30 years of age could be a member. The appointments were renewed animally; the candidates underwent an examination, and such as were deemed eligible drew lots. " — W. AVachs- muth. Historical Antiquities of the Greeks, sect. 46-i7 (a. 1). Also in; G. F. Schiimann, Antig. of Greece: The 8iate, pt. 3, ch. 3, sect. 4.— E. Abbott, Hist, of Greece, pt. 11, ch. 3. — G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, eh. 11. — Plutarch, Solon. — Aristotle, Onthe Const, of Athens (tr. by E. Poste), ch. 5-13. — See, also, AuEoi'AGUS, PitYTANES, Hei.i^.\, and Debt. B. C. 560-510.— The tyranny of the Pisis- tratidz. — "The constitution which he [Solon] framed was found to be insufficient even in his own life-time. . . . The poor citizens were still poor, in spite of the Seisachtheia and the reform of the constitution. At the same time the ad- mission of the lowest class in the scale of prop- erty to the rights of Athenian citizenship, and the authority given to the General As.sembly, had thrown a power into the hands of the masses which filled the more conservative citizens with resentment and alarm. And so the old party qtnir- rels, which had divided Attica before the reforms of Solon, reappeared after them with even greater violence. The men of the plain were led by Miltiades, a grandson of the tyrant of Corinth, and Lycurgus, the son of Aristolaidas; tlie men of the shore by Megacles, the Alcmu.'onid, who had recently strengthened the position of his family by his marriage with Agariste, the <laughter of Clisthenes of Sicyon. At the head of tlie mountaineers stood Pisistratus, a descend- ant of the royal stock of Nestor, who . . . had greatly distinguished himself in the Salaminian war. As he possessed property in the neighbor- hood of Marathon, Pisistratus may have been intimately known to the inhabitants of the adjacent hills. . . . Solon watched the failure of his hopes with the deepest distress. He en- deavoured to recall the leaders of the contend- ing parties to a sense of their duty to the country, and to soothe the bitterness of their followers. With a true instinct lie regarded Pisistratus as by far the most dangerous of the three. Pisistratus was an approveil general, and the faction which he led was composed of poor men v/ho had nothing to lose. . . . Pisistratus met tne vehement expressions of Solon by driv- ing W(mu(led into the 7uark.vt-place. The people's friend had suffered in the jicople's cause; his life was in danger. The incident roused the Athenians to an unusual exercise of political power. Without any previous dis- cussion in the Co\uicil, a decree was passed by the peo[)le allowing Pisistratus tosiirround bins- self with a body-guard of fifty men, and to arm them with clubs. TliUi- ])rotecte(l, he tlu'ew oil' all disguises, and established himself in the Acropolis us tyrant of Athens [U. C. 500]. . . . Herodotus tells us that Pisisiratus was a just and moderate ruler. He did not alter the laws or remove the existing forms of government. The Council was still elected, the Assembly c mtinued to meet, though it is improbable that either the one or the other was allowed to extend its functions beyond dimiestic aifairs. The archons still continued to be the executive magis- trates of the city, and cases of nuirder were tried, as of old, at the Areopagus. The tyrant contented himself with occupying the Acropolis with his troops and securing important posts in the administration for his family or his adherents. '•■ Twice, liowever, Pisistratus was driven from l)ower by the combination of his oi.ponents, and into exile, for four years in the tirst instance and for ten years in the last ; but Athens was compelled to p" ept him for a ruler in the end. "Pisistratus ren- ined in undisturbed possession of the throne till us death in 527 B. C. He was succeeded by liis eldest son Hippias,with whom Hipparchus and Thessalus, his younger sons, were associ- ated in the government." But those younger tyrants soon made themselves intolerably hate- ftil, and a conspiracy formed against them by Harmodius and Aristogeiton was successf\d in taking the life of Hipparchus. Four years later, in 510 B. C, with the help of Delphi and Sparta, Hippias was driven from the city. Clisthenes, at the head of the exiled Alcma;onids, was the master-spirit of the revolution, and it was under his guidance that the Athenian democratic con- stitution was reorganized. — E. Abbott, Hist, of Gj-eece, v. 1, ch. 15. Ai.so IN : G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, ch. 11 and'iO. B. C. 510-507. — The constitution of Cleis- thenes. — Advance of democracy. — "The ex- pulsion of the Pisistratids left the democratieal party, which had first raised them to power, without a leader. The Alcma-onids had always been considered as its adversaries, though they were no less opposed to the faction of the nobles, which seems at this time to have been headed by Isagoras. . . . Cleisthenes found him- self, as his party had always been, unable to cope with it; he resolved, therefore, to shift his ground, and to attach himself to that popular cause which Pisistratus had used as the stepping stone of his ambition. His aims, however, were not confined to a temporary advantage over his rivals ; he planned an important (change in the constitution, which should forever break the power of his whole order, by dissolving some of the main links by which their sway was secured^ For this purpose, having gained the confidence of the commonalty and obtained the sanction of the Deljihic oracle, he abolished the four ancient tribes, and made a fresh geographical division of Af, ica into ten new tribes, each of whi(}h bore a name derived from some Attic hero. The ten tribes were sulxlivided into districts of various extent, called denies, each containing a town or village. . . . Cleisthenes appears to have preserved the ancient phratries; but as they were now left insulated by the abolition of the tribes to which they bclrnged, they lost all political importance. . . . Ck sthenes at the same time increased the stnugth of the com- monalty by making a great many new citizens, and he is .said to have cnfrancliised not only aliens — and tliesi! both resiiieuts and ailvi'uturers from abroad — but slaves. . . . The whole frame of the state was reorganized to corresiioud U!) ATIIKNS, B. C. 510-507. ATHENS, B. C. 501-490. with tlic new division of the country. The Bcniile (if the Four Hundred wns increased to Five Hundred, tiiat tifty niiglit l)e drawn from fiieli trihc. and llie rotation of tlie presidency wa.s ad.ipled to tliis change, the (Ifly councillors of each irilic filling that ollice for thirty-five or thirty-six days in .sncee.s.sion, and nine coun- cillors heing elected one from each of the other trihes to preside at the (.'ouncil lual the Assenihly of (he I'lnplc, which was now called regidarly four times in the month, certain business being a.s.signed to each meeting. The Heliica was also (listriliutcd into ten courts: and the same division henceforth |)revailed in most of the public oflices. though the number of the archons re- maine<l unchang<'d. To Clei.sthenes also is iLScribed the formal institution of the ostracism. . . . These changes, and the intlnence they ne(piired for their author, reduced the party of Isagoras to utter weakness, and they saw no prospect of maintaining themselves but by foreign aid." Isagoras, accordingly, applied for help to Ch'omenes, one of the kings of Sparta, who had already interfered in Athenian affairs by assi-sting at the expulsion of the Pisistratidie, C'leomenes responded by coming to Athens with ft small force |B. C 508], which snfliced to over- awe the peoi)le, and, as.stiming dictatorial authority, he established Isiigoras in power, v, ith un attenlpted rearrangement of the government. "He began by banishing 700 fiimilies designated by I.sagoras, and then proceeded to suppress the Council of the Five Hundred, and to lodge the government in the hands of Three Hundred of liis friend's partisans. When, however, the couiu'illors resisted this attempt, the peoi)le took heart, and, Cleomenes and Isagoras having occupied the citadel, ro.se in a body and besieged tJiein there. As they were not jirepared to sustain a siege, they capitulated on the third day: C'leomenes and Isagoras were permitted to depart with the Lac^ediemonian troops, but they were compelled to aliandon their adherents to the mercy of their enemies. All were i)Ut to death, and Cleisthenes and the 700 banished families returned triumphantly to Athens." Cleomenes soon afterwards raisi'd a force with which to subdue Athens and restore Isagoras. Thi^ Athenians in their alarm sent an embassy to Hardis to solicit the iirotectiou of the Persians. Forttnuitely, nothing came of it, and Cleomenes was .so in\ich opposed in his jiroject, by the Corinthians and other allies of .Sparta, that he Lad to give it up. — C. Thirlwall, lliit. of Greecf, U. 11. Also in: Q. Grotc, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, eh. 31. — K. Abbott, Hint, of Oreeec, clt. 15.— Aristotle on the CoiiKl. of Al/ieiiit {ti: hy E. PoHte),ch. 20-22. B. C. 509^506.— Hostile undertakings of Kleomenes and Sparta. — Help solicited fron" the Persian king. — Subjection refused. — Fail- ure of Spartan schemes to restore tyranny. — Protest of the Corinthians. — Successful war with Thebes and Chalcis.— " Witli Sparta it was obvious that the Athenians now liad a deadly (luarrel, and on the other side they knew that Hippias was seeking to precipitate on them tile po\ier of the Persian king. It seemc<l therefore to be a matter of stern necessity to anticipate the intrigues of their baui.sbed tyrant; and the Athenians accordingly sent ambassadors to Sardeis to make an indci)emleiit alliance with the rersiau despot. The envoys, on being brought info the presence of Artapherncs, the Satrap of Lydia, were told that Dareios would admit them to an alliance if they woidd give him earth and water, — in other words, if they wouhl acknowledge themselves his slaves. To this demand of absolute subjection the envoys gave an ns.scnt which was indignantly repmli- ated by the whole body of Atlieniau citizens. . . . Foiled for the time in his efforts, Kleo- menes was not cast down. Kegardiiig the Kleis- thenian constitution as n personal insult to him- self, he was resolved that Isagoras should be despot of Athen.s. Summoning the allies of Sparta [including the IJu'Otian League headed by Thebes, and the people of Chalci, in Eiibiea], he led them as far us Eleusis, Vi miles only from Athens, without informing them of the purpose of (he campaign. He Iiad no sooner confessed it than the Corinthians, declaring that they had been brought away from home on an unrighteous errand, went back, followed by the other Spartan King, Demaratos, the son of Aris- ton; and this conflict of opinion broke up the rest of the army. This discomfiture of their enemy seemed to inspire fresh strength into the Athenians, wao won a series of victories over the Boiotians and Euboians" — ccmipletely over- throwing the latter — tlie Chalcidians — taking possession of their city, and making it a peculiar colony and dependency of Athens. — See Klek- uciis. The anger of Kleomenes "ou being dis- comfited at Eleusis by the defection of his own allies was heightened by indignation at the dis- covery that in driving out his friend Hippias he bad been simply the tool of Kleisthenes and of the Delphian priestess whom Kleisthenes had bribed. It was now clear to him and to bis coimtrynu'ii that the Athenians would not ac(|uiesce in the predominance of Sparta, and that if they retained their freedom, the power of Athens would soon be equal to their own. Their only sjifety lay, therefore, in providing the Athenians with a tyrant. An invitation was, therefore, sent to Hii)pias at Sigeion, to attend a congress of the allies at Sparta, who were sunnnoned to meet on the arrival of the exiled despot." The ai)pointe(l congress was held, and the Spartans besought their allies to aid them in bumbling the Athenian Democracy, with the object of restoring Hippias to power. But again the Corinthians protested, bluntly suggesting that if the Spartans thought tyranny a good thing they might first try it for them- selves. Hippias, speaking in his own behalf, attempted to convince them that the time was coming "in which they would And the Atiie- niaiis a thorn in their side. For the present lis e.xhortatations were thrown away. The allies jirotcsted unanimously against all attempts to interfere with the internal administration of any Hellenic city ; and the banished tyrant went back disappointed to Sigeion." — G. W. Co.\, The Givekn mid the PeniaiiK, ch. 4. Also in : G. Qrote, UUt. of Greece, pt. 3, ch. 31 (r. 4). B. C. 501-490.— Aid to lonians ag.-' t Per- sia..— Provocation of King Darius. — 1. wrath and attempted vengeance. — The first Persian invasions. — Battle of Marathon. — "It is un- ileniable thai the extension of the Pcrsiin do- minion over Asia Minor, Syria, and Egy uaive a violent check to the onward movement 01 t.reek life. On the other hand, it seemed us if the great 160 ATHENS, IJ. C. 501-400. Persian War. ATHENS, B. C. 501-490. ontcrprise of Diirius Hj'Stnspia ngainst the Scy- thians ought to have uuitcd thi; Ori'cks and I'cr- siiiiis. It WHS of a pk'(:c' with tliu geiit-ral policy of Uariiis tliat, after defeating .so many other ail- versaries, lie undertook to prevent for all suc- ceeding time a repetition of those inroads with which, some centuries before, the Scythians had visited Asia and the civilized world. lie l)0s- sessed authority enougli to unites the diiVcrent nations which obeyed Ins sceptre in a iircat cam- paign against the Scythians. . . . The Greeks were his best idlies in his campaign ; tliey built him tlic bridge by which he crossed the Bosporus, and also the bridge of boats over the Danube by whi .h he made his invasion into the enemy's territory. The result was not one which could properly be called unfortunate; yet it was cer- taiidy of a very doubtful character. . . . A great region, in which they had already obtained very considerable intluence, was closed to them once more. The I'ersian army brought the popula- tions upon the Strymon, many in number and individually weak, under the dominion of Persia; and even Amyntas, the king of Makedonia, one of a race of rulers of Greek origin, was compelled to do homage to the Great King. Thus t!ie movement which had thrust hack the Greeks from Egypt and Asia Minor made advances even into the regions of Europe which bordered upon Northern llellas. It was an almost inevitable conse([uenceof this that the Greeks were menaced and straitened even in their proper home. A pretext and opportunity for an attack upon the Greek islands was presentid to the Persians by the (juestions at issue between the populations of the cities and the tyrants. . . The instnunent by whom the crisis was brought about was not a person of any great iiuportance. It is not al- ways great natures, or natures strong in the con- sciousness of their own powers, that bring on such conflicts; this is sometimes the work of those flexible characters which, being at the point of contact between the opposing forces, pass from one side to the other. Such a charac- ter was Aristagoras of Miletus. . . . ^lorally contemptible, but gifted intellectually with a range of ideas of unlimited extent, Aristagoras made for himself an imperishable name by being the first to entertain the thought of a collective opposition to the Persians on the part of all the Greeks, even contemplating the po.ssibility of waginga g.eataudsuccessfuloltensivo wuiupon them. ... He announced in Miletus his own resignation of power and the restoration to the peoi)le of their old lews. ... A general over- throw of tyranny ensued [B. C. 50lJ, involving a revolt froiu Persia, and Slrategi were every- where appointeil. The supreme power iu the cities was based upon a gooil understanding between the holders of power and the Persians; the fact that one of these rulers found the uii- tliority of the Persians intolerable was the signal fur a tunversal revolt. Aristagoras himself vol- untarily renounced the tyranny, the other tyrants were compelled to take the same course; and thus the cities, iLssuming at the same lime ademo- cnitic organization, came into hostility with Persia. . . . The cities and islands wliich had so often been for(;cd to submission could not hope t^) resist the Persians by theirown unaided ellorts. Even Aristagoras could not have expectiil so much. . . . He visited I,akediunion, the strong- est of the Greek powers, iu person, and en- deavored to carry her with him in hi.s pl.ins. . . . Uejected by Sparta, Aristagoras betcHtk himself to Athens. . . . The Athenians granted Arista- goras twenty ships, to which the Eretrians, from friendship to .Miletus, added live more. The coiu'age of the lonians was thus revived, and an attack upon the Persian domiidon commenced, directed, not indeed against Su.sa, but against Sardis, in their immediate neighborhood, the capi- tal of the satrapy which imposed on them their heaviest burdens. . . . By the burning of Sardis, in which a sanctuary of Kybele had been de- stroyed, the Syrian nations had been outraged in the pers(m of their gods. We know that it was part of the system of the Persians to take the gods of 11 coiintry under their i)rote(tion. Nor would the great king who thought himself ap- liointed to l)e master of the world fail to resent an invasion of his dominions as an instdt calling for revenge. The hostile attciupts of the lonians made no great impression upon him, but he asked who were the Athenians, of whose share in tlie campaign he had been informed. They were foreigners, of whose power 'he king had scarcely heard. . . . The enterprise of Arista- goras had meanwhile caused general conuuotion. He had by far the larger part of Cyprus, to- gether with the Carians, on his .side. All the country near the Piopontis and the Hellespont was iu revolt. The Persians were compelled to make it tlieir first ccmeern to suppress this insur- recticm, a task whir:h, if attempted by sea, did not promise to be an easy one. In their lirst en- counter with the Phuuiicians the lonians had the advantage. AV'hen, however, the forces of the great empire were assembled, the insurrection was everywhere put down. ... It nuist be reckoned among the conse(iuences of the battle of Lade, by which tlu' combination against the Persian empire had been annihilated, that King Darius, not content with having consolidated his dominion in Ionia, once more resumed the plan of pushing forward into Eurojic, of which his enterprise against the Scythians formed part. With the execution of this ])rojeet he commis- sioned one of the principal persons of the empire and the court, . . . Mardonius by name, whom lie luiitcd to his faitiily by marrying him to his daughter. . , . This general cro.ssed the Helles- pont with a large army, his fleet always accom- panying him along the .shore whilst he pushed on by the mainland. He once more subihied Makedonia, probably the districts which had not yet, like the ;\Iaked(mian king, been brought into subjection, and gave out that his aim wu3 directed against Eretria and Athens, the enenue.s of the king. ... In the stormy waters near Mount Athos, which have always made the navi- gation of the ^Egean dillicult, his licet sullered ship-wreck. But without naval supports he could not hope to gain possession of an island and a maritime town situated on a promcmtory. Even by land ho encountered resistance, so that ho found it advisable to postpone the further execu- tion of his undertakings to another time. ... In order to subdue the recalcitrants, especially Athens an<l Eretria, another attempt was organ- ized without delay. Liider two generals, one of whom, Datis, wasaMede, the other, Artai)herues, the son of the satraji of Sardis of the same name, and brother of the Dirius who was in alliance with Ilippias, a maritime expedition was under- take! .'or the imme<liate subjugation of the 151 ATIIKNS, B. C. 501-400. Prraian li'ar. ATHENS, B. C. 480-480. Islnnils mid the inaritimodi.'^trirts, Tt wns tintdo- sijfiK'ii fiir open hostility aiiaiiist tlic Orcclis in Ktiicnil. . . . Tlicir (li'.siffii wii.s to iitiiizi- tlic ill- tei-nal ilis.scn.si()ii.t of (Jnccc in coiiiiiicrinf; the principal ciiciiiics upon wlioin llic (Jrcat Kiiij; liitd .swi.rii v<'ni;can(c, and presenting tlieiii as captives at Ids i'eet. Tlie project Huccceded in till' case of Krcliia. In spiKiof u brave resisl- jinco il fdl by treacliery into tlieir hands, and they could aviiii;<' the sacrilege coninilltcd at Hurdis liy pluiKlering and <levastating Grcciiin simrtuarfes. They expected now to be able to ovctiiower Athens also without iiiucli trouble. . . . Il was a circiuustance of great value to the Athenians that there was a man amongst them who w IS familiar with the Persian tactics. This was Miiilades, the .son of Kiiiion. . . . Although a Thnich :i jirince, he had neviT ceased to be a C'ti/.en of .Vlhcns. Here he was iiiipeaclied for having helil a tyranny, but was ac(iuitted and cho.seu strategiis" for the democracy could not reject a man who was so admirably (jualilie.l to be at tlieir head in the interchange of hostilities with Persia. Miltiades was c(mducting his own personal (luariel in undertakinjj the defence of Attica. The force of the Persians was indeed incomparably the larger, but the plains of Mara- thon, on which they were drawn up, prevented tlieir proper deployment, and they saw with as- tonishment the Athenian lioplites displaying a front as extended as their own. These troops now rushed upon them with an impetus which grew swifter at every moment. The Persians easily sueeeeded in breaking through the centre of the Athenian army; but that was of no moment, for the strength of the onset lay in the two wings, where now began a haii<l-to-liand tight. The Persian sword, formidable elsewhere, was not adapted to do good service against tlie bronze armor and the spear of the Hellenes. On both Hanks the Athenians obtained the advan- tage, and now attacked the Persian centre, which was not able to withstand the onslaught of men whose natural vigor was lieighteued liy gymnastic training. The Persians, to their misfortune, had calculated upon desertion in the ranks of their opponents; foiled in this hope, they retreated to the shore and to their ships. Herodotus in- timates that the Persians liad secret intelligence with a party in Athens, and took their course round the promontory of Sunium toward the city, in the hope of surprising it. But when they came to anchor the Athenians had arrived also, and they saw themselves once more confronted bv the victors of Marathon." — L. von Uanke, tTniKriKil Jlistor//, eh. 6. Ai.so IX : Herodotus, History, hk. 6. — V. Duruy, Hist, of Greece, eh. 16 (». 2). — See, also, Peiisia: B. C. r/)l-l<)3, and Gui.:ece: B. C. 493-401, and 400. B, C. 489-480. — Condemnation and death of Miltiades. — The iEginetan war. — Naval power created by Themistocles. — "The vic- tory of -Marathon was chietly due to Miltiades; it was he who brought on the engagement, and he was chief in command on the day when the battle was fought. Such a brilliant success greatly im|)roved his position in the city, and excited in his enemies a still deeper hatred. Kvor on the watch for an opportunity to inill down their rival, it was not long before they found one. Soon after liis victory, Miltiades caiue befoa- the Athenians with a request that a .scptadrnn nf 70 Ships miffht bo placcil at his dis- posiil. The purpo.se for which lie rc(Hiired then III' would not disclose, though iik'dging his word that the expedition woiikl add largely to the wealth and prosperity of the city. The re(|ucst being granted, he sailed wilii the .ships to Piirns, an island which at this time was subject to Persia. From the Parians he demanded 100 talents, and when they refused to pay he block- aded the city. So vigorous and succ«'.ssful was tlic resistance offered that, after a long delay, -Miltiades, himself dangerously wounded, was compelled to return liome. His enemies, with Xaiithippus at their head, at once attacked him for ini.scimduct in the enterprise. . . . Miltiades was unable to rcjily in jicrson ; he was carried into court, wliile his friends pleaded his cause. The sentence was given against him, but the penalty was reduced from death to a tine of .W talents. So large a sum was more than even Miltiades could pay; he was thrown into prison as a public debtor, where he smm died from the mortification of his wound. . . . His condemna- tion was one in a long scries of similar punish- ments. The Athenians never learnt to be just to those who served them, or to di.stinguish be- tween treachery and errors of judgment. . . . AVe have very little information about, the state of Athens immediately after the battle of Mara- thon. So far as we can tell, for the chronology is most uncertain, she was now engaged in a war with -iEgina. . . . Meanwhile, a man was rising to power, who may be said to have created the history of Athens for the rest of the century, — Tliemistocles, the son of Neodes. ... On the very day of Marathon, Themistocles had proba- bly made up his mind that the Persians would visit Greece again. What was to keep them away, so long as they vore masters of the ^gean? . . . With an insight almost incredi- ble he perceived that the Athenians could be- come a maritime nation ; that Athens possesses harbours largs enough to receive an enormous fleet, and capable of being strongly fortified; that in possession of a fleet she could not only secure her own safety, but st^ind forth as a rival power to Sparta. But how could Themistocles induce the Athenians to abandon the line in which they had been so successful for a mode of warfare in which even Miltiades had failed? After the fall of the great general, the conduct of affairs was in the hands of Xanthippus . . . and Aristides. . . . They were by no means prepared for the change which Themistocles was meditating. This is more especially true of -/•Lrisiidcs. He had been a friend of Clisthenes; he was known as an admirer of Spa-tan customs. ... Ho had been second in command at Mara- thon, and was now the most eminent general at Athens. From him Themistocles could only ex- pect the most resolute opposition. Xauthijipus and Aristides could reckon on the support of old traditions and great connections. Themistocles had no support of the kind. He had to make his party, . . . Conscious of their own posi- tion, Aristides and Xanthiiipiis looked with con- tempt upon the knot of men who began to gather round their unmannerly and uncultivated loader. And they might, i)orliaps, have inain- lainod their position if it had not boci for the yE.ginetan war. That unlucky struggle had be- gun, soon after the reforms of Clisthenes, with an unprovoked attack of the /Eginctans 011 tliu 152 ATHENS, B. C. 489-480. I*ernian trar. atiip:ns, b. c. 480-479. mast of Attica (500 B. C), [^Kgiim being allied with Thebes in tlie wiir mentioned above — B.C. 509-5001. It was renewed when tin; .Kginetans gave earth and water to tlie heralds of Darius in 491, and thoiigli suspended at the time of the Persian invasion, it brolie out again witli re- newed ferocity soon afterwards. The jEginelans had the stronger Ueet, and defeated the Athenian sliips. "8ucli e.\p(!rionees naturally caused a change in the minds of the Athenians. ... It was clear that the old arrangements fo- tlie navy were unite iiiade((nate to the task which was now reciuired of them. Vet the leaders of the state made no proposals." Themistoeles now "came forward publicly with proposals of naval reform, and, as he expected, he drew \ipoii him- self the strenuous oi)position of Aristides. . . . It was clear that uotliing decisive could bo done in the iEginctaii war unless the proposals of Themistoeles were carried ; it was equally clear tliat they never would be carried while Aristides and Xauthippus were at hand to oppose them. Under these circumstances recourse was had to the safety-valve of the constitution. Ostracism was p'"opo8ed and accepted ; and in this manner, by 483 B, C, Themistoeles had got rid of both of Ins rivals in the city. Ho was now master of the situation. The only obstacle to the reali- zation of his plans was the expense involved in building ships. And this he was able to meet by a happy accident, which brought into the treasury at this time a large surplus from the silver mines from Laurium. ... By the sum- mer of 480, the Athenians . . . were able to launoli 180 vessels, besides providing 20 for the use of the Chalcidcans of Euboea. ... At the same time Themistoeles set about the fortiflca- tion of the PeiriEus. . . . Could he have carried the Athenians with him, lie would have made the Peinuus the capital of the country, in order that tlie sliips and the city might be in close connec- tion. But for this the people were not pro- pared." — E. Abbott, Pericles and Vie Oolden Age of Athetu, ch. 2. Also IN: Plutarch, Arintides. — ThemiKtocles. B. C. 481-479.— Congress at Corinth.— Or- ganized Hellenic Union, under the headship of Sparta. See Giiekce: B. C. 481-479. B. C. 480-470. — The second Persian inva- sion. — Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Platxa. — Abandonment of the City. — "The last days of Darius were clouded by the disaster of ilarathon; 'that battle formed the turning point of his good fortune,' and it would seem that the news of it led to several insurrections, particularly that of I5gyi)t ; but they were soon put down. Davius died (Olyrap. "73, 3), and Xer.xes, who succeeded him, was p.e vented from taliing rev<,vige on the Athenians liy the revolt of Egypt, which engaged his attention during the first years of his reign. But ho completely con- •luered the insurgents after they had maintained themselves about four or tive years; and he then made prepanuions for that vengeance on Athens for which his barbarian pride was longing. The account of the three years' preparations of Xerxes, how he assembled his army in Asia Jlin >r, how he made a bridge across the Helles- pont, how he cut a canal through the isthmus of Jlount Athos to jirevcnt his fleet being destroyed by .storms — all this is known to every one who has read Herodotus. History is here so much in- terwoven with ijoetry, that they can no longer be separated. . . . The Greeks awaited the at- tack 'Olyrnp. 75. 1), 'but they were not agreed among Uiemselves. The Argives from hatriMl of Sparta joinecl the Persians, and the miserable Boeotians likewise supported them. The olliers kept together ojily from nercssity; and without the noble spirit of the .Vtheiiians Greece would have been lost, and that from the most paltry circumstaiiees. \ dispute arose as to who was to be honoured' with the r.upreme command : the Athenians gave way to all, for llieii- only desire was to .save Greece. Had the Persians moved on rapidly, they would have met with no resistance, but thy proceeded slowly, ..nd matters turned out dilferently. ' A Greek arm v was encamped at Tenipe, at the entrance of 'I'hessaly, and at tlrst determined on defeniling Thessaly. But they must have seen that they could 1"; entirely surrounded from Upper Thessaly; and when they thus discovered the impossibility of stop- ping the Persians, they retreated. The narrative now contains one inconceivable circum.stauco after another. ... It is inconceivable that, as the Greeks did make a stand at Tliermopylae, no one else took his position tlu'-n except King Leonidas and his Spartans, '■ ' icluding even the Lacedaemonians, forthi r...ined at home! Only 1,000 Phociaus occu,,.jd the heights, though that people might surely have furnished 10,000 men; 400 of the Boeotians were iiosted in the rear, as a sort of hostages, as Herodotus re- marks, and 700 Tliespians. Whore were all the rest of the Greeks 'if . . . Countless hosts are in- vading Greece ; the Greeks want to defend them- selves, and are making active preparations at sea ; but on land hundreds of thousands are met by a small biuid of Peloponnesians, 700 Thes- pians, 400 Thebans as hostages, and 1,000 Pho- ciaus, stationed on the heights I A pass is occu- pied, but only that one, and the others are left unguarded. . . . All this is quite unintelligible; it would almost appear as if there had been an intention to sacrifice Leonidas and his men; but we oarnot suppose this. These circumstances alone suggest to us, that the numbers of the Porsi'in army cannot have been as great as they are described; but even if we reduce them to an immense extent, it still remains inconceivable why they were not opposed by greater numbers of the "Greeks, for as afterwards they ven- tured to attack the Persians in the open field, it was certainly much more natural to oppose them while inarching across the iiil's. But however this may be, it is an undo.ibted fact, that Leoni- das and his Spartans fell in the contest, of which we may form a conception from the (lescriptiou of Herodotus, when after a resistance of three days they were surrounded by the Persians. A few of the Spartans escaped on very excusable groumls, but they were so generally despised, that their life became unendurable, and they iliade away with themselves. This is certainly historical. . . . After the victory of Thermopylae all Hellas lay open before the Persians, and they now advanced towards Athens, a distance which they could march in a few days. Tliebes opened her gates, and joyfully admitted them from hatred of Athens. ' lleantime a portion of the army appeared before Delphi. It is almost ia- couceivable that the Persians did not succeed in taking the temple. . . . The miracles by which the temple is said to have been saved, are re- peated in tlio same manner tluring the attack of 153 ATIIKNS, 11. C. 480-479. Prrnian War. ATHENS, B. C. 470-478. tlicOmilfl. But tliptpmplonf I)f]plii wasrertninly mil pliiTiclcrcil.' . . . 'riicciiy of .Vtlwti.sli!i(l inthc ini;iiilimr l"'iii .iIpiiiiiIoikmI l)y all tin- pcopli'; tlu! (iilcnci'lcss li.ul takiri rcfuK'i' liitlicsmiill isliiim .' Hiiliiiiiis, i)r 111' 'I'hii'/.cii, •and all tlic Athenians uipiibic of bciirin;,' arms cinliarkcd in the tlct't.' . . . The Persians thus took Alliens witlioutany resistance. . . . Durini? the same days on wliicli tlie battli'of Thermopylae was foUijht, the Greek fleet was ensraired in two indecisive hnt ijlorious li.illles near the proniontorv of Artemisium. ' In a third IIk' Persians jjaineii tlie upper liand. and wlien the (ireeUsat the siiini' time heard of the defeat at ThiMinopylae, they withdrew, and (loul)lini; Cipe Suninm sjiiled towards Salamis,' (}i)il sent tlien\ a storm whereby the Persians in their pursuit sulTeredsliipwreik. . . . While tlio (ireek tleet was stationed in the channel between the island of Salainis anil Attica, towards Pi- nieeus. discord broke out atnom; tli(^ Greeks. Tlie Peloponnesians thout;lit only of themselves; they had fortilied the Isthmus"; tlierc they weru a.ssemblcil, and there they wanted to olTer resist- ance to the Persians. In their folly they forgot, that if tlie enemy with his superior lleet, should turn ay.insl Peloponnesus, they mii^lit land wherever llicy liked. . . . HulThemistoeli^s now declared, that all the hopes of the Athenians were directed towards the recovery of their own city; that, if tlu^ Peloponnesians should saerifico them, and, thinkinu; of themselves onlv, should abandon Attica to tin barbarians, the Athenians would nolbesocbildisb astosiKTilice themselves for them, but would take their women and chil- dren on board their ships, and sail far away from the Persians to the island of Sardinia, or some other place where (Jreek colonies were estab- lished; that there they would settle as a free people, and abandon Peloponnesus to its fate; and that IIkm. iht! peninsula would soon be in the hands of the enemy. This frightened the Pelo- ponnesians, and they resolved to stan I by Athens. It is evident that, throughout that ii , Themis- toeles had to struggle with the most intolerable dilllculties, which the allies phiced in his way, as well as with their jealousy, meanness, ami inso- lence. 'The rudeness of the .Spartans and Cor- inthians is nowhere more strongly contrasted with the letlnement of the Athenians, than on that occasion.' lint aftiT he had tried everything, and oven'ome by every possible means a hundred dilfercnt dillicullies, lie yet saw, that he could not rely on the iiersevcraiice of the Peloponne- sians, and that tliey would turn to the Isthmus as soon as Xerxes should proceed in that direc- tion. He accordingly induced tlu; Persian king, by a false message, to surround the Greek tleet, for the purpose of cutting off the retreat of the Peloponnesians. He declared himself ready to deliver the whole of the Greek lleet into his Imnds. This device was ((uitcto the mind of the Persians; Xer.xes believed him, and followed his advice. When Theinistocles was thus sure of the Peloponnesians, the ever-memorable battle of Salamis commeneo<l, which is as certainly histori- cal as that of Cannae, orany moderu battle, ' what- ever the numbers may be.' The battle ])roeeeded somewhat in the manner of the battle of Leipzig: wlien the issue was decided, a portion of tho.,e wiio ought to have joined their countrymen before, made common cause with the Greeks. . . . Their iieocssioii increased the victory of the Greeks. . . . Curtuiu as the battle of Salamis is, all the uccouuts of what took place after it, are very doubtful. This much is certain, that Xerxes returned, 'leaving u portion of his army under Mardonius in Greece;' . . . Winter was now approaching, ,Mid ."ilardonius withdrciw from ravaged Attica, taking up his wint('r-([uarters |)artly in Thessaly and partly in Hoi'oiia. . . . The probability is, that the Alheniiiris remained the wintei- in Salamis in sheds, or under the open sky. .Mar- donius olfered to restore to them Attica unin- jured, so far as it liad not already been devas- tated, if they would c()nclude peace with him. They iiiight at that time have obtained any terms they pleased, if they had abandoned tlu' common cause of the Greeks ; and the Per- sians would have kept the peace; for when they concluded treaties they ob.served them: they were not faithless barbarians. But on this occa- sion again, we see the Athenian people in all its greatness and excellence; it scorned such a peace, and preferred the good of the Pelopon- nesians. . . , Mardonius now again advanced towards Athens; the Spartans, who ought to have proceeded towards Cithaeron, had not ar- rived, and thus lie again took possession of Attica and ravaged it completely. At length, however (Olymp. 75, 3), the Athenians prevailed upon the Peloponnesians to leave the Isthmus, and they grailually advanced towards Bocotia. There the battle of Plataeac was fought. . . . In regard to the accounts of this battle, it is his- torically certain tliat it was completely won by the Greeks, and that the remnants of the Persian army retreated without being vigorously pur- sued. It must have reached Asia, but it tiien ilisappears. It is also historically certain, that Pausanias was the commander of the allied army of the Greeks. . . . After their victory, the Greeks advanced towards Thebes. In ac- cordance with a vow which they had made before the war, Thebes ought to have been de- stroyed by the Greeks. But their opinions were divided. . . . On the same day on which the battle of Plataeae was fought, the allied Greeks gained as complete a victory at sea. . . . After this victory of .Mycale, the Ionian cities revolted against the Persians. " — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient Ilintor//, v. 1, leets. 37 and 38. Al-so IS: Herodotus, History; trans, and ed. hij II. Rawlinson, bk. 7 (o. 4). — Plutarch, The- niittocles. — G. W. Cox, Tlie Greeks and Persians B. C. 479-478. — Protection of Ionia assumed. — Siege and capture of Sestus. — Rebuilding and enlargement of the city and its walls. — Interference of Sparta foiled by Themistocles. — "The advantages obtained by tlie Hellenes [in their war with Persia] came upon tlieni so unex- pectedly as to And them totally unprepared, and accordingly embarrassed by their own vic- tories. What was to be done with Ionia t Was the wliole country to be admitted into the Hellenic confederation '! Too great a re- sponsibility would, in the opinion of tlie Pelopon- nesians, be incurred by sucii a step. . . . It would be better to sacritice the country, and establish the lonians in settlements in other parts, at the expense of those who hail favoured the Medes, i. e., of the Argives, Bicotians, Locri- ans, and Thessaliaus. . . . The Athenians, on the other hand, espoused the cause of the cities. . . . Ionia ought to be a bulwark against the Barbarians, and to belong to the Hellenes. . . . The Athenians found a, support in the feeUng 1M ATHENS, B. C. 479-478. ATHENS, B. C. 477-462. prevalent nmon^ tlie loiiiuus, who wore nuturully opitostd to any lorcutil scttlciiu'iit. Ai< onliiiffly, ill tliL- llrst iiisliinci,', Samos, Lesbos, I'liios, iiiiil n mimlicr of other i.slund-towiis, were luhuiltcd into the confederntioii . . . and a new llelhi.s was formed, u Greel< empire coniprehending both sides of tlie sea. Considerations of eaution made it necessary, above all, to secure the pas.snge from Asia to Europe; for it was universally be- lieved that the bridge over cite IIellesi)ont was cither still in existence or hud been restored. Wlien it was found to have been destroyed, the Pelopoiiuesians urged the termination of "the cam- paign. . . . The Atlienians, on the other hand, declared theinselves resolved . . . not to leave nalinislied what they had begun. Sestus, tlie strongest fortress on the Hellespont, ought not to be left in the hands of the enemy; an attack on it ought to be ri.sked without delay, before the city had jlrepared for a siege. Tliey allowed the Peloponnesians to take their departure, and under the command of Xanthippus united with the sliips of tlio loniaiis and nellespontians for tlie purpose of new tiiidertakings. " Tlie I'crsians in iSestus resisted obstinately, enduring a long siege, but were forced to surrender at last. " Jlcanwliile, the main point consisted in the Atlienians having remained alone in the field, in tlieir having fraternized with the lonians as one naval power, and having after such successes attained to a confidence in victory, to which no enterprise any lonjjer seemed either too distant or too dilllcult. Already they reijarded their city as the centre of the coast-lands of Greece. But what was the condition of this city of Athens itself V A few fragments of the ancient city wall, a few scattered houses, which had served the Per- sian cominanders as their quarters, were yet standing ; the rest n-as ashes and ruins. After the battle of Platieie the inhabitants had returned from Salamis, Trtezene, andvEgina; not even the fleet and its crews were at hand to afford them assistance. They endeavoured to make shift as best they could, to pass through the trials of the winter. As soon as the spring arrived, the res- toration of tlie city was commenced with all possible activity. . . . But even now it was not the comforts of domesticity wliicli occupied their thoughts, but, above all, the city as a whole and its security. To Theraistocles, the founder of the port-town, public confidence was in this matter properly accorded." It was not possible "to carry out a new and regular phm for the city ; but it was resolved to extend its circum- ference beyond the circle of the ancient walls, . . . so as to be able, in case of a future siege, to offer a retreat to the country-population with- in the capital itself. . . . But the Athenians were not even to be permitted to build their walls undisturbed; for, as soon as their grand plan of operations became known, the envy and insidious jealousy of tlieir neighbours broke out afresh. . . . The Peloponnesian states, above all -Egina and Corinth, hastened to direct the atten- tion of Sparta to tlie situation of affairs. . . . As at Sparta city walls were objected to on principle, and as no doubts prevailed with regard to the fact that a well-fortified town was impreg- nable to tlie military art of the Peloponnesians, it was actually resolved at any price to prevent the building of the walls in Attica. " But, for shame's sake, the interference undertaken by Sparta was put upon the ground that in the event of a future invasion of tlie country, only the iieninsula could be successfully d( fended ; that central Oreece wouM necessarily be abandoiii'd to the eiieniy ; and that every fortiliecUcity in it would furnish Iiim a dangerous base. " At such a irisis craft aloiii! could be of avail. When IIk! Spartans made their imperious demand at Athens, Tluniis- todes ordered the Immediate cessation of build- ing operations, and witli assumed sul)mis.sive- ne.ss, promised to present liiniself at Sparta, in order to pursue further negotiations in pers(m. On his arrival there, he allowed one day after the otlier to go by, pretending to be waiting for bis fellow envoys." In the meantiine, all Athens was toiling night ami day at the walls, and time enough was gained by the audacious duplicity of Tiieniistocles to build them to a safe lieight for defence. " The enemies of Athens saw that their design bad been foiled, and were forced to l)iit the best face upon their discomfiture. They now gave out that they had intended nothing be- vond good advice." — E. Curtius, lliat. of Greece, U. a, eh. 3 ()'. 2). Also in G. W. Cox, Hint, of Greece, bl: 3, ch. 7-8 (c. 1-3). B. C. 478-477. — Alienation of the Asiatic Greeks from iJparta. — Formation of the Con- federacy of Delos. — The founding of Athenian Empire. See GuEiicii: B. C. 4T8-477. B. C. 477-462. — Constitutional gains for the democracy. — Ascendency of Aristeides.— De- clining popularity and ostracism of Themis- tokles.— The sustentation of the commons. — The stripping of power from the Areopagus. — At the time when the Confederacy of D(do8 was formed, "the Persians still held not only the important posts of Eion on the Strymon and Doriskus in Thrace, but also several other posts in that country which are not specified to Ui: ^Ve may thus understand why the Greek cities on and near the Chalkidic peninsula . . . were not less anxious to seek protection in the bosom of the new confederacy than the Dorian islands of Rhodes ond Cos, the Ionic islands of Samos and Chios, the .lEolic Lesbos and Tenedos, or con- tinental towns such as Miletus and Byzantium. . . . Some sort of union, organised and obli- gatory upon each city, was indispensable to the safety of all. Indeed, even with that aid, at the time when the Confederacy of Delos was first formed, it was by no means certain the Asiatic enemy would be effectually kept out, especially as the Persians were strong not merely from their own force, but also from the aid of internal parties in many of the Grecian states — traitors within, as well as exiles without. Among these traitors, the first in rank as well as the most formidable, was the Spartan Pausauias." Pau.sanias, whose treasonable intrigues with the Persian king began at Byzantium (See Gueece: B. C. 478-477) was convicted some nine or ten years later, and suffered a terrible fate, being shut within a temple to which he had fled, and starved. " His treasonable projects implicated and brought to disgrace a man far greater than himself — the Athenian Themistoklcs. . . . The charge [against Theinistokles] of collusion with the Persians connects itself with tlie previous movement of political parties. . . . The rivalry of Theniistokles and Aristeides had been greatly appeased by the invasion of Xerxes, which had imposed upon both the peremptory necessity of 155 ATIIKXH. B. C. 477-462. ATHENS, B. C. 477-402. rooporntion nffiiinRt n common enemy. And ii|)|»irentlv it wiim not reKUMicil diiriiiu' llic limes wliicli iiiiiiicilialely niKceiilid tl;c niiirii (if lliit AtlienianH In their CDiiiitiry: lit li i«t we Iieiir of liotli 111 1 llective servici' iiliil in prominent posts, Tlieinistoltles stamls forward as tlie (Minlriver of tlie city walls and iireldleet of I'eiraeiis: Aris- teidis Is eominaiMler of t lie licet and lirst orKuiiiser of the ConfediTaey of Delos. .Moreover we seem to deteet n rhaiijfe in the elmraeler of the latter. lie liail ceased to lie the champion of Atlienian old f.isliioiied landed Interest, ajiainst 'I'lieniis- lokhs as the oriu'inator of the maritime iniio- vationH. Those iniioviitions had now, sinccMlie buttle of Salamis, t)e<otne an established fact, . . . FroM- henceforth llie lleet is endeared to every man as tlie Km" ' force, olTcnsive and defensive, of the Ktate. in which character all the political leaders af;ree in iicceptin>; it. . . . The triremes, and the men who manned tlieiii, taken collectively, were now the delermiiiintr element in the state, .Moreover, the men who maimed them bad just retnrned from Salamis, fresli from a Hceiie of trial and danifer, and from n harvest of victory, wliuh had efimdizcd for the moment all .\thcniaimas siilTerers, as combatants, and a.s patriots, . . , The political chaiiKC arising from hence in Athens was not less important than the military. 'The maritime multitude, authors of the victory of Salamis." aii<l instruments of the new vocation at Atlu'iis as hiMid of the Delian Confederacy, appear now ascendunt in the political constitution also; not in any w;iy as a sep.irate or privileged cliisg, but R8 leavcniiiR the whole mass, strengthening the democrat i<al sentiment, and protesting against all recognised political inequalities. . . . Early after tlu' return to Attica, the Kleistheuian constitution was enlnrgp<l as respects cligiliility to tlio magistracy. According to that consti- tution, the fourth or last class on the Solonian census, including the considerable majority of freem(!n, were not admissible to ofTlccs of state, though they possessed votes in common with the rest; no person was eligible to be a magis- trate unless he belonged to one of the tlin^e high(!r classes. This restriction was now annulled and eligibility extended to all the citizens. We may appreciate the strength of feeling with which such reform was demanded when we find that it was proposed by Aristeides. . . . The popularity thus ensured to him, probably heigh- tened by some regret for his previous ostracism, was calculated to acquire permanence from his stniightforward and incorruptible character, now brought into strong relief by his function as assessor to tlie new Delian Confederacy. On the other hand, the ascendency of Themistokles, ;hough so often exalted by his unrivalled politi- cal genius and daring, as well as by the signal value of liis pulilic recommendations, was as often overthrown liy his duplicity of means and unprincipled thirst' for money. New political opponents sprung up against him, men syiiqia- thising with Aristeides. ... Of these the chief were Kimon [Cimon], (son of Miltiadcs), and Alkmicon." In 471 B. C. Themistokles was sent into exile by a vote of ostracism, and retired to Argos. Five years later he was accused of ccmiplicity in the treasonable intrigues of Pausanias, and (led to the court of the Persian king, where he spent the remainder of his days. " Aristeides died about three or four years after the ostracism of Themistokles." — d. Orote, Iliiif. nfaniri; /il. 2. rfi. 44 (c. .'i),— The constitutional I tfcctsof the Persian war, anil the political situa- tion of Athens immediatciv after the war, are represented somcwliat dilTereiitly from the account above, in the liitr-ly discovered work on the Constitution of .\thcns which is attributed to Aristolh', The following is (|U<>tcd from one of the tran.slationsof the latter; " After the jMedinn war the council of .\icopai,'US [.See AiiK<)r.\(ifs] recovered Ktrength and ruled the state, not that any law conferred the liegi'iiKiny on them, Imt iMratise the aristocratic party had the credit of the victory at Halamis. For when tlu! generals had despaired of the country and procl;iimed a sauve (pii pent, the Areopagus raised funds, gave every man eight drachmas (tis, Cd.) and induced them to man the ships. In consc(|uenco of this public service th(^ Ecclesia yielded the nscendency to the Areoiiagus, and public afTuirs were admirably ailministered during the follow- ing epoch For they accjuired the art of war, inad(! their name honoured throughout the Hellenic vyorld, and pos.ses.sed them.scdves of the sovereignty of the sea witli the consent of l.akedaimon. At this time the leaders of the commons were Aristeides. son of Lusimachos, and Themistokles, son of Xeokles ; the latter s'udious of the arts of war, tlic former reputed eminent in statesmanship and honest beyond his contemporaries; wdiich characters made their countrymen cmpi ly the one as a general, the other "as a councillor. The rcluiilding of the walls of Athens w'as their joint work, though they were otherwise at feuil. The detachment of the lonians from Persia and the formation of an alliance with Sparta were due to the counsels of Ari.steides, who seized the opportunity afforded by the discredit cast on the Lakonians by the ccmduct of Pau.sanias. He too originally apportioned, two years after the battle of Salamis, in the archonship (of Timosthenes (478 B. C), the contribution to be paid by the islanders. . . . Subsequently, when lofty thoughts filled every bosom and wealth was accumulating, Aristeides advised them to administer the liegemony with their own bands, to leave their country occupations and fix their domicile in the city. Sustcntation, he jiromised, would be provided for all, eitlier as soldiers or sailors in active service, or as troops in garrison or as public servants ; and then they could ii^rease the vigour of their imperial sway. They followed his advice, and, taking the rule into their own bands, reduced their allies to the position of va.ssal8, except the Chians, Lesbians, and Samians, whom they kept as satellites of their power, and permitted to retain their own constitutions and to rule their own dependencies: and they provided for tlieir own sustcntation by the method which Aristeides indicated; for in the end the public revenues, the taxes and the tributes of the allies gave maintenance to more than 20,000. There were 0,000 dicasts or jurors, 1,000 archers, 1,200 cavalry, 500 senators, 500 .';<)ldier3 of the dockyard garrison, ."jOcity guards, 700 home magistrates, 700 foreign magistrates, 2,.50O heavy armed soldiers (this was their num- ber at the beginning of the Pcloponnesian war), 4,000 sailors manning 20 guardships, 2,000 sailors appointed by lot, manning 20 tribute- collecting ships, and in addition to these the Prutancion, the orphans, the gaolers ; and all 156 ATHENS, B. C. 477-468. ATHENS, n. C. 4fl6-«84. those persons wcro maintnlncd at the expense of the iiiUinnitl trciisiiry. The sustciitiition of tlii' commons whh thus Kciurcd. Tlic 17 yciirs which followed tlic .Mi'iliiiii war were ahout Ihc ])criiMl (liiriiii; which llic country continued under the usccndency of the Areopajjus, though its aristo- criilic features were K''a''"""y on the wane. When tho masses had grown more and more preponderani, Kphialtes, son of Soidionides, nputeil ineorniptihle in his loyalty to deinoi'- nicy, hcc-aine leader of the conmions, and began to attack the Areopagus. First, ho put to death many of its meintiers, l)y impeaching them of olTences connnitted in their administration. Afterwards in tl\e archonship of Konon (ttiS H. ('.)he despoiled tho council itself of all its more recently HC(iuired attributes, which were the keystone of tl'O existing constitution, and (liatributod them aiaong the Senate of noo, the Kcclesia, and the c(.urts of law. In this work he had the co-operation of Themistokles, who was himself an Areopagite, l)ut expecting to bo impeached for trcaso.'iahfo correspondenee with Persia. . . . EpIiialte.H and Themistokles kept accusing the Areopagus before tho .Senate of 500, and again l)efore tho commons, till linally thoy stripped it of all its principal fiuictions. The assassination of Kphialtes by the instru- mentality of Aristodikos of Tanagra followed not long after. Such were tho circumstances of till! overthrow of the Areopagus. After this the degradation of the constitution proceeded without intermission from the eagerness of politicians to win pop\dar favour; and at the same time there happened to be no organizer of tho aristocratic party, whose head, Kimon, the son of Miltiades, was too young for some years to enter political life; besides which their ranks were much devastated by ■(var. Expeditionary forces were recruited by conscription; and as the generals had no military experience and owed their appointment to the reputation of their ancestors, each expedition entailed the sacrifice of 3,000 or 8,000 lives, cliietly of the noblest sons of Athens, whether belonging to the wealthy classes or to the commons. " — Aristotle, On the VoHStitution of Athens {tr. by E. Poste.) eh. 23-26. — On the above. Dr. Abbott comments as follows: "So much of this account as refers to Thomistodes may be at once dismissed as un- liistorical. ... If the evidence of Thucydides is to count for anytliing, it is quite certain that Tliomistocles finally left Greece for Persia about 406 B. C. . . . Plutarch says not a word about Themistocles. But the remainder of the account [of the attack on the Areopagus] is supported by all our outhoritics — if indeed it is not merely repeated by them." — E. Abbott, Hist, of Greece, pt. 3, eh. 11, seet. 5. Also in .T. P. MnhafTy, Problems in Oreek History p. 96.— Plutarch, Themistocles. Sec, also, below: B. 0. 406-454. B. C. 470-466. — Continued war against the Persians. — Cimon's victories at the Euryme- don. — Revolt ard subjugation o.f Naxos. — "Under the guidance of Alliens, tlin war against the Persians was continued. C'im.m [Kimon] sailed with a fleet to the coast of Thrace, and laid siege to Eion on the Strymon [H. C. 470]. The Persian garrison made a gallant defence; and finally Boges, the governor, rather than surrender," cast all his gold and silver into tho river; and, having raised a huge pile of wood, slew his wives, children and slaves, and laid their bodies on it: then setting tire to it, he Mung himself into tliellames: the garrison surrendered al discretion. Doriscus was attacked in vain, but all thf other I'ersian garrisons in Europe were ri'ilu((d. (iinon then, as executor of an Ainpliielyoiiic decree, tiinieil his arms against lli(! (liralic Dulopiansof the l><leof Siyros, whom he expelled, and tilled the ishinil with Atlieniiiii colonists. On this occasion he sought and fiiund (as was supposed) the bones of the hero Theseus, who had died in this island HOO years before; and he broiiglil them in his "ii'!? ♦'ireme to Athens. — an act which gained him grea' favour >vith the people By this time, some o'" the confederates were grown weary tif war, and began to murmur at the toils and expense to which it put them. The people of Naxos were the first who pnsi- tiv<'ly refused to contribute any longer; but the Athenians, who had tasted of the sweets of com- mand, would not now permit the exercise of free will to their allies, C'iiiion appeared (Ol. 78,3) IB. ('. 4(i(l| with a large lleet before Xaxos; the Naxians defended themselves with vigour, but were at length forced to submit; and tho Athenians had tho hardihood to reduce tlieni to the conditiim of subjects to Athens — an ex- ample which thoy soon followed in other cases. . . . After the reduction of Naxos, Cimon sailed over to tho coast of Asia, and learning that tho Persian generals lia<l asncmblod a large fieet and army in Pamphylia, ho collected a licet of 200 triremes at Cnidos, with which he proceeded to the coast of that country, and laid siege to the city of Phaselis, which, though Greek, obeyed th(! Persian mcmarcli. Having rediieed it to submission, he resolved to proceed and attack the Persian fleet and army, which he learned were lying at tho river Eurymedon. On his arrival, the Persian fieet, of 3.50 triremes, fear- ing at first to fight till 80 Phoenician vessels, which they were expecting, should come up, kept in the rivr; but finding that the Greeks were preparing to attack, thoy put out to sea and engaged ;!iem. The action did not continue long: the I}arharians fled to the land; 200 ships fell into the hands of the victors, and several were destroyed. Without a moment's delay, Cimon disembarked his men, and led them against the land forces: the resistance of the Persians was obstinate for some time, but at last they turned and fled, leaving their camp a prey to the conquerors ; and Cimon had thus the rare glory of having gained two important victoriea in the one day. Hearing then that the 80 Phoe- nician vessels were at Hydros, in tho Isle of Cyprus, he immediately sailed thither and took or destroyed the whole of them. The victory on the Eurymedon may be regarded as the termination of the conflict between Greece and Persia. The year after it (01. 78,4) [B. C. 465], Xerxes was as.sassinated, and the usual confusion took place in the court of Susa." — T. Keightley, Hist, of Greece, pt. 1, «•/(. 13. Also in W. W. Lloyd, The Age nf Pericles, eh. 27 (». 1). See also Pf.rsia : B. (.'. 486-405. B. C. 466-454. — Leadership in the Deliaa confederacy changed to sovereignty. — Revolt and subjugation of Thasos. — Help to Sparta and its ungracious requital. — Fall and exile of Cimon. — Rise of Pericles and the demo- cratic anti-Spartan policy.— Removal of the 157 ■-^ ATHENS, B. C. 460-454. ATHENS, B. C. 466^54. federal treasury from Delos. — Building the Long Walls. — " It wiisnow evident to tlie whole boily of tlie allied of Athena Unit l)y joinin;; the league they had provided themselves witli a mistress rather tlian a leader. . . . Two years nfter tlie reduefion of Naxos another powerful island-state broke out into rebellion nfjainst the supreinaey of Athens. The people of 'I'hasos had from very early times ;■ isessod territory on the mainland of Thrace ojiposito to their island. I!y holdinir tliis coast-slip they enirriiss"il the trade of the Valley of the .Sliymoii. a I held the rich gold mines of Mount Pangaeiis. But the Athenians, after tlie capture of EVon, set thomsolves to develop that port as the commercial centre of Thrace. . . . A spot called 'The Nine Ways,' • ■ . where that great rivir lir.st begins to broaden out into its e.stuary, but can still be spanned by a bridge, was the "chosen site of a fortress to secure the hold of Athens on the land. But the native Thraeian trilies banded themselves together, and fell upim the invaders with such despention that . . . the Athenian armies were defeated. ... It was probably tlie discouragement which this defeat caused at .Vthens that enibolilened Tliasos to declare her secession from th(! Confederacy of Delos. She wished to save her Thraeian trade, before Athens could make another attempt to divert it from her. Tlie Thasiaiis did not rely on their own resources alone; they "nlistcd the Thracians and Macedonians of the mainland, and sent to Sparta to endeavour to induce the ephc s to deelare war on Athens." Tlic Spar- tans were well disposed to take up the cause of tlie Thasians; but at tliat moment they .vere overwhelmed l)y the cdaniily of the frightful Earthquake of 404, instantly followed by the rising of the lldots and the third Messenian war (See Mkssf.xian War, Ti k TiiiitD). "The Islnnd-statt^ was therefore left to its own re- sources; and these were so considerable that she held out against the force of tlie Athenian con- federacy for two whole vcurs. . . . She was obliged at last to surrender to Cimon [B. C. 403], whose army had long been lying before her walls. Like Na.\os, she was punished ".ir her defection by the loss of her warlleet and her fortiticati-,.s, and the iniiiosition of a line of many talents. Still more galling must hav ■ been the loss of her trade with Thrace, which now passed entirely Into Athenian hands. . . . The Spartans were still engaged in a desperate .strn;';- gie with their revolted subjects when the siegcof Thasos came to an end. C'inion, who was now at the height of his reputation and jiower, saw with distress the troubles of the city he so much admired. lie set himself to persuade the Athe- nians that they ought to forego old grudges, and.' .t from destruetlon tlie state wliieh had shared with them the glory of the Persian war. . . . ills pleading was bitter.y opposed by the nnti-Siiartan jiarty at Athens, headed by two 8tatesn> 'n, Ephliiltfs and Pericles, who had already come into notice as antagonists of Cimon. '.lut the more g<'nerous and unwise policy prevail'Hl, and 4,000 huplitcs were sent to the aid ..i Sparta [B. C. 'W]. This army was pursued by misfortune; it i. jS so unsi'-^eess- ful in altaeking Ithonie that the Spartans attributed it; f'ailun' to 111 will rather than ill luck. They, therefore, begun to treat their allies '.rith marked discourtesy, and at last sent them home without a word of thanks, merely stating that their services could be of no further use I Sec Messenian Wau, Tiik Tnruol. This rudeness and ingratitude fully justilied the anti-Spartan party at Athens. . . . Cimon was now no longer able to deal with the policy of the state as he cho.se, and the conduct of alfairs began to pass into the hands of men whose for- eign and domestic policy were alike ojijiosed to all his views. Ephialtes and Pericles proceeded to form alliances abroad with all the states whicli were ill disposed toward Sparta, and at homo to commence a revision of the constilution. They were detciinined to carry out to its fur- thest logical development the democratic ten- dency which Cleistlienes had 'ntroduced into the Athenian polity. Of Ephialtes, the son of Sophonides, comparatively little is known. But Pericles . . . was the son of Xanthippus, the accuser of !Miltiades in 480, B. C, and the victor of Mycale and Sestos; while, on his mother's siilo, he came of the blood of the Alcmaeonidae. Pericles was staid, self-contained, and haughty — a strange thief for the pojiular party. But his relationship to ('lei.stlicnes, and the enmity wliieh existed lietween his house and that of Cimon, urged him to espouse the cause of democracy. . . . While Cimon had Greece in his mind, Peii- cles could only think of Athens, and the temper of the times was favourable to the narrower policy. . . . The first aim which Pericles and Ephialtes set before themselves w.^ ; the cutting down of the power of the Areopagus [See above: B. C. 477 -40x;]. That body had since the Per- sian war bi'como the stronghold of the Conserva- tive and jihilo-Laconian jiarty. . . . Ephialtes took the lead in the attack on the Areopagus. He ehiise a moment when Cimon was away at sea, bent on assisting a rebellion against the Great King wliieh had broken out in Egypt. After a vic'ent struggle, he succeeded in carry- ing a law which dejirived the Areopagus of its ancient censorial power, and rcilueed it to a mere court to try honiieide^ . . . When Cimon came home from Egypt he was wildly enraged. . . . Hecourse was had to the lest of ostracism. It decided against Cimon, who therefore went into banishment [B. C. 459]. But this wrong against the greatest general of Athens was, not long after, avenged by an over-zealous and unscrupu- lous frieml. Ephialtes was slain by assassins in his own house. . . . The immediate result of this murder was to leave Pericles in sole and undivided command of the democratic party. The foreign policy of Pericles soon began »o involve Athens in troubles at home. He con- cluded alliances with Argos and Thessaly, both states at variance with Sjiarta, and thereby made a collision with the liacijdn'inonian confederacy inevitable He gave still more direct offence to Corinth, one of the most powerful members of that confederacy, by con'^'I,.diiig a clo.se alliance with Megara. ... in iioeolia, loo, he stirred up enmity, by giving an active support to the demo- cratic party in tliat country. These provoca- tions made a war inevitable. In 458 B. C. the storm burst. ... At the moment of the out- break of the t''-st important naval war wdiich .she had to wage with a Greek enemy since the formation of her I'mpire, Athens look two ini- liorlant steps. The lir.st was destined to guard against the risk of misfortunes by sea; it eou- sisied in the transference from Delos to Athena 158 ATIIliNS, B. C. 466-454. ATHENS, B. C. 460-449. [dated by different authorities between 401 and 454 B. C] of the eeutnil treasury of t''" "onfed- enicy. ... It was not long before !lic Atiie- uiaiis came to regard the treasury as their own, and to draw upon it for jiurely Attic needs, whicli liad no connection with tlie welfare of tlie otlier -onfederate.s. . . . Tlie second important event c the year 458 B. C. was the commence- ment of the famous ' Lons; Walls ' of Athens [See Long AVali.s]. . . . When they were fin- ished Alliens, Peirajus, and Phaleriini, formed the angles of a vast fortilied triangle, while t)ie space between them, a considerable expanse of open country, c(mld be utilized as a i)lace of refuge for the iioiiulatiou of Attica, and even for their tlocks and herds."— C. W. C. Oman, Hut. of Greece, cli. ;2;i-24. Also i.n E. Abbott, Pmdea and the Oolden Aqe of Athens, ch. 5-0.— U. Thirhvall, Hut. of race, ch. 17 (i: 3).— Plutarch, Cimon; Periclen. B. C. 46o-449.^Disastrous expedition to Egypt. — Attaclcs on the Peloponnesian Coast. —Recall of Cimon. — His last enterprise against the Persians. — The disputed Peace of Cimon or Callias. — Five years truce with Sparta. — " hianis, king of some of the Libyan tribes on the western border of Egyjit, had e.xcited an insurrection there against the Persians [about 460 B. C], and his authority was acknowl- edged throughout the greater part of the coun- try. Artaxer.xes sent his brother Achicmenes with a great army to (juell this reli' ilioii. Au Athenian armament of 200 galleys v as lying at the time oil Cyprus, and Inarus sent to obtain its assistance. The Athenian commanders, whethiT following thei"- own discretion, or after orders reccivi from ' le. quitted Cyprus, and having joined with tin surgents, enabled them to (U'feat Acha'mewes, n o fell in the battle by the hand of Inari's. Tii./ then sriled up the Nile to Jre:',,yhis, where a body of Persians, and some Egyptians, v, ho still adhered to their cause were in jiossessiou of one quarter of the city, callc 1 While (.astle. The rest was subject "to Inar is, and there the Athenians stationed them- selv( s, and besieged the Persians. . . . Artax- erxci sent a Persian, named Jlegabazus, to Spar.a, with a sum of money, to be em|)loyed in bribing the principal Spartans to u.se their inllu- eiice, so as to engage their countrymen in an expedition ag".inst Attica. Megabazus did not find the leading Spartans unwilling to receive his money; but they seem to have heen unable to render him the service for >vhich it was otTerrd. Ithomc still held out: and Sparta had probably not yet suniciently either recovered her strength or restored internal tranquility, to ver'ure on the proposed invasion. Some rumoui's of this negotia- tion may have reached Athens, and have (piiek- end the energy with which Pericles now urged the completion of the long walls. . . . But amonir his opponents tliere \va.". a faction i...(> viewed the progress of this great work in a dill'ereut light from Cinicm. and saw in it, not the means of securing the indei>endence of Athens, hut a bulwark of the hated cunimonalty. They too would have gla<lly seen an invadiBg army in Attica, which might' assist them in destroy iug the work and its authors." 'I'his jiarty was iiecnse<l of sympathy with the Spartan expedi- tion which came to the help of Doris against the Phoriaus in 457 IJ. V., and which defeated the Athenians al Tanagra (See OiiKiiCE ; U. C. 458- ' (4.')0). In 455, " the Spartans were reminded that they were also liable to be attacked at home. An Atheniar. arinanient of 50 galleys, and, if we may trust Diodoru.s, with 4,000 heavy armed trocps on board, sailed round Peloponnessus under Tolmides, burnt the Spartan ai-senal at Gythium, took a town named Chalcis belonging to the Corinthians, and defeated the Sicy<nians, who attemiited to oppose the landing of the troops. But the most important advantage gained in the expedition was the capture of Naiipactus, which belonged tolhe (Jzolian Locri- ans, and now fell into the hands of the Athenians at a very seasonalile juncture. The tliirtl Mes- seiiian war had just come to a clo.se. The brave defenders of Ithoine had obtained honourable terms. . . . The besieged were permitted to (piit Pelojionnesus with their families, on condition of being detained in slavery if they ever returned. Tolmides now setth^d the honieles-s wantl-r^r.'' in Naupaetus. . . . But these successes were counterbalanced by a revei-se which befid the arms of Athens this stiineyear in another quarter. After the defeat of Achiemens, Artaxerxes, disappointed in his hopes of assistance from Sparta, . . . raised a great army, which he placed under the command of an abler general, Megabyzus, son of Zopyriis. Megabyzus defeated the insurgents and their allie" ^a forced the (.ireeks to evacuate Meinphii ead to take refuge in au island of the Nile, named Prosopitis, vvhicli contained .i town called Byblus, where Le hesiegi-d tlieiu 'or 18 month". At length he resorted to the contiivance of turning the stream. . . . The Gri">'': galleys were all left aground, and were lire' by the Athenians themselves, that they might not fall into the enemy's hands. The Persians then marched into the island over tlie ilry bed of the river: the Egyptians in disir. ly abandoned their allies, who were overpowered by i.-imbera and almost all destroyed. . . . Inarus himself Wiis betrayed into the hands of the Pei-sians and put to death. . . . I'^gypt . . . was again redu(;e(l un''er the Per- sian yoke, except a part of the lielt.a, where another pietender, named Aniyrtaais, w'l>o assumed the title of king . . . maintained him- self for several years against the power of the I'ersian monarchy. But the misfortune of the Athenians did not eiul with the destruction of the great tleet and arinv which had been first emp.oyetl in the war. I'hey had sent a sipiadron of 50 galleys to the relief of their country- men, which, arriving liefore the i-ews of the recent disj'.ster hiul reached them, entered the IMendesian branch of the Nile. They vere here surprised by a combined attack of th'; Persian land force and a Phoenician tleet, ami but few escarwl to bear the nioiinitul tidings to Athens. Yet jven after tlii> calamity we 'ind the Atlieni- ians, not suing for peace, but bent on extending their power, and aunuyiiig iheir enemies." Early in 454 they sent an expedition into Thcs- saly," to restore a ruU'r named Ore.stes, who had been driven out. "Hut the superiority of the Tliessiilians in cavalry cheeked all their opera- tions in the liefl; they failed in an attempt upon Pharsalus, and were at length forced t) retire without having accomplished any of their ends. It was perlaps to soothe the public disappoint- ment that Pericles shortly afterwards embarked at Pegic with 1,000 men, and, coasting the south side of the Corinthiau gulf made u 159 ATHENS, B. C. 460-449. ATHENS, B. C. 445-431. descent on 'he territory o' Sicyon, iiiul routed tlie Hieyon fo. 'c ■:<;nt to oppose liisliinding. He tlien . . . laiil siege to the town of (Eniadte. . . . Tliis iittcinpt, however, proved unsuccess- ful ; and tlie general result of the campaign seems not to liave been on the whole advantage- ous or encouraging. ... It se( ms to have been not long after the events whicli have been just related that Cimon was recalled from his exile; and the de, ree for that purpose was moved by I'erides himself; — a fact which seems to inti- mate that some change had taken place in the relations or the temper of parlies at Athens. . . . The three years next following Cimon's return, as we have tlxcd its date [B. C. 454 or 453|, passed, happily for his contemporaries, without affording any matter for the hi.storian ; and tins pause was followed by a five years' truce [with Sparta], in the course of which Cimon embarked in his last expedition, and died near the scene of his ancient glory. The pretender Amyrtocus had solicited succour from the Athenians. . . . Cimon was appointed to the connnand of a fleet of 200 galleys, with which he sailed to Cyprus, and sent a s,;uadron of GO to the assiiitance of Amyrtieus, while he himself with the rest laid siege to Citiura. Hero ho was carried off by illness, or the consequences of a wound ; and the armament was soon after comptlled, by want of provisions, to raise the siege. But Cymon's spirit still animated his countrymen, who, when they had sailed away with his remains, fell in with a great fleet of Phoenician ai.d Cilician galleys, near the Cyprian Salamis, and, having completely de- feated them, followed up their naval victory with anotl'er which they gained on shore, either over the troops which had landed from the enemy's ships, or over a land force by which they were supiiorted. After this they were joined by the sq\nidron which had been sent to Egypt, and which returned, it would nppear, without having achieved any material object, and all sailed liomc (B. C. 449). In aftor-timea Cimon's military renown was enhanced by the report of u peace [sometimes called tho Peace of Cirion, and sometimes tlie Peace of Callias], which his victories had compelled the Persian king to conclude on terms most humi'iating to the monarchy. Within les.-s than a century after his death it was, it not conunonly believed, con- fidently asserted, that by this treaty, negotiated, as it was sui>posed, by Callias, son of llipponi- ci)!!, the lersians had agreed to iibandon at '.oast the military occupation of Asia Minor, to the distance of three days journey on foot, or one on horseback, from tlu! coast, or, according to another account, the whole peninsula west of the Halys. and to ab.stain fr.im passing the mouth of the Bospliorus and tlio Chelidonian islands, on the coast of Lycia, or the town of Phaselis, into the Western Se;i. The mere silence of 'rhMey(lid('S(m so important a transaction would be enough to render the whole account extreinelv suspicious." — O. Thirlwall, Itixt. ,>f Gi-ai-e, fli.'ll (r. 'A). Sir. Qroteaccepts the Peace of Cimcm as an historical fact; I'rof. (^urtius rejects it.--'}. Grote, lll.it. of (Iviiir. lit. a, eh. 45 (c. 5).— E. C'urtius, Illi>t. oj (Vn-MV. Ilk: :i, -■//. 2(;'. 2). B. C. 458-456.— War for Megara with Cor- inth and iCgma. — Victories of Myronidcs. — Siege and conquest of /Egina. — Collision with the Spartans in Boeotia. — Defeat at Tanagra. —Overthrow of the Thebans.— Recovered As- cendency. See GuEECK : B. C. 4.'58-456. B. C. 449-445.— Hostile revolution in Boeo- tia.— Defeat at Coroneia. — Revolt of Eubcea and Megara.— The thirty years' truce. — Ter- ritorial losses.-Spartan recognition of the Delian Confederacy. See Greece : B. C. 449- 44.1. B. C. 445-431.— Supremacy of Pericles and thp popular arts by which he attained it. — The splendor of Athens and grandeur of the Athenian Empire under bis rule. — "The con- clusion of peace left the Athenians to their con- federacy and their internal politics. . . . After the death of Cimon the oligarchical party at Athens had been led by Thucydides. the son of Melcsias, a man of higli character and a kinsman of Cimon. . . . Hitherto the members had sat here or there in the assembly as they p'cased ; now they were combined into a single body, and sat in a special place. Such a consolidation was doubtless needed if the party was to hold its own against Pericles, who was rapidly carrying all before him. For years past he li.td provided a subsistence for many of the poorer citizens by meia'.s of his numerous colonies — no fewer than .'i.O.jO Athenians must have been sent out to the ' deruchies ' in the interval between 453 B. C. and 444 B. C. The new system of juries [See Dic\- stkiiia] had also been established on the fall of the Areopagus, and the jurymen v^ere paid — a second source of income to the poor. Suc'h measures were beyond anything that the private liberp.lity of Cimon — splendid as it was — could achieve; and on Cimon's death no otiier aristocrat came forward to aid his party with 111" purse. Peri- cles did not stop hero. Since the cessation of the war with Persia tliere had been fewer drafts on the public purse, and the contributions of the allies were accumulating in the public treasury. A .scrupidous man would have regarded the surplus as the money of the allies. . . . Pericles took another view. He plainly told the Atheni- ans that so long as the city fulfilled the contract made with the allied cities, and kept Persian vessels from their shores, the surplus was at the disposal of Athens. Acting on this principle, he devoted a part of it to the embellishment of the city. AVith the aid of Pheidias, tlu; sculptor, and Ictinus, the architec^t, a new temple began to rise on the Acropolis in honour of .Vthena — the celebrated Parthenon or ' Virgin's Chamber ' [See P.vhtiikxon]. . . . Other public buildings were also begun about this time. Athens was in fact a vast workshoj), in which employment was found for a great luimbcr of citi/ens. Nor was this all. . . . For eight m' utlis of the year flO ships were kept at sea with ere -s on b'-ard, in order that there might be an ampu- sui)ply of practical seamen. . . . Tluisby director indirect meAns l^ericles made the state the payma.ster of a vast number of citizens, and the slate was liraetically himself, with these paid citizens at ills back.' At the same time tbir public festivals of the city were cidergcd and adoriied with new splendour.^ . . That all might attend the thea- tre in which the plavs were acted, I'cricles ])ro- vided that every citizen should receive from the state a sumsulticient to pay the charge deinand( il from the spectators by the lessee [See Ivioliol.vj. We may look on these mcr.sures as the arts of a demagogue. . . . Jr we may say that Pericles 160 ATHENS, B. C. 445-431. Age of I'vricles. ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. was ftble to gratify his pnaaion for (irt at the ex- pense of tlie Atliciiians ami tlioir allies. Nuitlicr of tliese views is altogetlier untenable; and botli are far from including tlio wiiole truth. Pericles . . . was, if we please to say it, a demagogue and a connois.'Jeur. But lie was somctliing more. Liioliing at tlie wiiole evidence before us witli impartial eyes, we cannot refuse to acliiiowledgc tliat lie clicrislied aspirations worthy of a great statesman. He sincere' v desired that every Atlienian sliould owe to liis city tlie biossing of an education in all that was beautiful, and tlie opportunity ot a happy and useful life. . . . Tlie oligarchs determined to pull down Pericles, if if were possible. . . . They proposed, in tlie winter of 445 B. C, that there slioulil bo an ostracism in the city. The people agreed, and tlie usual arrangements were made. But when the <iay came for <lecision, in the spring of 444 B. C, tlie sentence fell, not on Pericles, but on Thucydides. The sentence left no doubt about the feeling of tlic Atlienian people, and it was hcceptod as final. Thucydides disappeared from Athciis, and for the next tifteeii years Pericles was master of the city. . . . While Alliens was active, organizing her confedi racy and securing her communication with the nortli, tlie Pelo- ponnesians had allowed tlie years to pass in apathy and inattention. At length they awoke to a sense of the situation. It was clear that Athens had abandoned all idea of war with Per- sia, and that the confederacy of Delos was trans- formed into i.n Athenian empire, of wliose forces the great city was absolutely mistress. And meanwliilc in ^isible greatness Athens had be- come far the first city in Greece. " — E. Abbott, Pericles, eh. 10-11. — "A rapid glance will f.i'tlicc to show the eminence which Athens had atiained over the other states of Greece. She was the Jiead of the Ionian League — tlie mistress of the Grecian seas; with Sparta, the sole rival that could cope with her armies and arrest he am- bition, she had obtained a peace; Corinth was humbled — .iEgina ruined— Megara had shrunk into lier dependency and garrison. I'lie states of hjcotia had received their very constitution from the hands of an Athenian general — the d<'rnocracies planted by Atiiens served to make liberty itself subservient to lier will, and involved in her siifety. She had remedied the sterility of her own soil by securing the rich pastures of the neiglibouring Eub(na. She had added tlie ^old of Tha.sos to the silver of Laurion, and eslab- li.shed a footing in Thessaly which was at onc'> a fortress against the Asiatic arms and a mart for Asiatic commerce. Tlie fairest lands of the opposite coast — the most powerful islandsof the Grecian seas — amtributed to Iier treasury, or were almost legally subjected to her revenge. ... In all Greece, Myronides was perhaps the ablest general — Pericles . . . was undoubtedly the mo.st hiffhlv educated, cautious and com- manding statesman. ... In actual p >s.session of the tribute of her allies, Athens acquired a new ri.Ltht to its colk'Pti(m and its management, and while she devoted .some of the treasures to the maintenance of her strength, slie began early to uphold the prerogative ot a]>propriaaug a part to the enhancement of her splendour. ... It was now [about H. C. 444J resolved to make Alliens also the scat and centre of the judicial nulJKirity. The subject-allies were compelled, it not ou minor, at least on all important cases. to resort to Athenian courts of law for justice. And thus Athens became, as it were, the metropo- lis of the allies. . . . Before the Persian war, and even scarcely before the time ot Cimon, Athens cannot be said to have eclipsed her neighbours in the arts and sciences. She be- came the centre and capital of the most polished communities ot Greece, and she drew into .i focus all the Grecian intellect; she obtained from her dependents iie wealth to administer the arts, whicli universal tralllc and intercourse taught her to appreciate ; and thus the Odeoii, and the Parthenon, and the Propyliea aro.se. During the same administration, the iortifications were com- pleted, and u third wall, iiarallel and near to that uniting Piricus witli Athens, consummated the w<>rks of Themistocles and Cimon, and preserved the c<mimuuicution between the twofold city, even should the outer walls fall into the hands of an enemy." — E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, Athens: Its Rise and Fall, bk. 4, ch. 5, bk. 5, eh. 2. Ai.so FN: W. W. Lloyd, The Aije of Pericles, — Plutarch, Pericles. B. C. 445-429.— The Agfe of Pericles : Art. — "The Greeks . . . were industrious, commer- cial, sensitive to physical and moral beauty, eager for discussion and controversy ; they were proud of their humanity, and happy in the pos- session of their poets, their hi-storians, their ora- tors and artists. It is siugul.ir, in the history of nations, to meet with a people distinguished at once by mercantile ai)titude, and by an ex(iuisite feeling and sympathy for works of art ; to see the vanity of wealth compatible with a nice dis- cernment for the true jirinciples of taste; to be- iiold a nation, inconstant in ideas, Inconceivably t/c''.le in prejudices, worshipping a man one day and proscribing him the next, yet at the sumo time progressing with unheard-of rapidity ; within tl.e space of a few years traversing all systems ot phihisophy, all forms of government, laying the foundationa )f a'.l sciences, making war (m all its neighbors, yet, \i\ the midst ot this chaos ot ideas, systems, ind pass'ons, developing art steadily and with -aim intelligence, giving to it novelty, origiiialit}', and beauty, while preserv- ing it pure fnmi the aberrations and caprices ot wliat w(! now call f^ishion. At llie time of tlie battle of Salainis, 480 B. C, Athens had been destroyed, its territory ravaged, an<l the Athen- ians had nothing left but their ships; yet so great was the activity of this commercial but artistic people, that, only twenty years after- wards, they had built the Parthenon." — E. E. Violletle-Duc, Discourses on Architecture, p. G5. B. C. 445-429.— The A^e of Pericles: Do- mes',:ic life. — The Athenian house. — "For any oni: coming from Asii it seemed as if in centering Athens lie was ccmiing into an ant's nest. Pos- sessing, at the epoch of its greatest power, tlio three ports of Munychia, Phalerum and the Pi- ra'us, it covered a district whose circumfen'nco measured two hundred stadia (twenty-four ndles). But it was around the Acropolis that the houses were crowded together and the population always in activity. The'e wagons were passing to and fro, tilled with merchandise from the ports or conveying it thitiier. The streets and public places in which people passed their lives presented a busy and noisy scene. Strangers, who came to buy or to sell, were continually en- tering or leaving the shops and places of manu- facture, and slaves were carrying messages or 101 ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. A an of PcricltfH. ATHENS, n. C. 445-431*. biinicns. Women ns well ns n.pii wfi-c to be wen in tlicstncts, irdinjjlo the markets, the public fumes 1111(1 the meetillJr^ of cDrporiite bodies, 'roiii the earliest hours of the day larjre numbers of peasants ini.!j;lit be seen brin^rini; in veijetables, fruit 1111(1 ixmltry. and crying their wares in the streets. Houses of .he liij;lier class occupied the second zone; they generally posses.sed ti garden and .soinetimes outbuildings of considerable ex- tent. Around them were to be seen clients and parasites, wailing for the hour when the master should make his appearance; and whiling away the time discussing the news of tlie day, repeat- ing tile rumours, true or false, that were current in the city; getting the slaves to talk, and laugh- ing among themselves at. the strangers that hap- pened to be passing, or addressing them with a view to make fun of their accent, garb or dress. The house of (Jhremyliis, recently built in that second zone, was a subject of rennirk fir all the idlers. Chremylus, who had lately be- come we.ilthy by means ot coininerce, and of certain transactions of more or h'ss creditable character in the colonies, was an object of envy and crilicism to most people, and of admiration for some who did justice to Iiis intelligence and energy. He enjoyed a certain degree of in- liueiice in the jiublic a.sseinblics — thanks to his liberality; while he took care to secure the good graces of the arelions and to enrich the temples. PLAN OP ATHENIAN HOUSE. We have [in the accompanying fi,J;iirc] tlie ground-plan of the residence 'of this Athenian citizen. The entrance x opciis on the public road. The site is bonnded on cither side by narn)w streets. This entranci x opens on the court (), w'licli is surroiiiided hy porticos. At A is the porter',) lodge, and at U the rooms for tlie slaves, with kitchen iit C and latrincH at a. From this first court, in the centre of which is a small fountain with a basin which receives the ra'n water, the pas.sage I) leads into the inner c( urt K, which is larger and is likewise sur- rouiide(l by iiorticos. At G is the reception room, at H the strong room f(n' valuables, and at S the private altar. At F is a large storeroom contain- ing provisions and wine; and at I the small din- ing room (tricliiiium); the cookiiig-romn for the family being at .1 with latrines at b. The large tricliiiiu.n is at K. The passage in admits to the gyiiieceum, containing the bedrooms P along the portico >I, a common room for the women, with its small enclosed garden, and clo.sets at c. The (liiarters for visitors are entered by the passage t, and consist of bedrooms V, a portico T, a small garden and closets f. At d is an opening into tlie lane for the servants, when reiiiiired. The gardens extend in llie direction Z. This house is situated on the slopes of the bill wlii<;h to the soutli-wesi looks towards the Acropolis; thus it is sheltered from the violent winds wliich sometimes blow from this (piarter. From the large diiiing-liall and from the terrace L, which adjoins it, there i a charming ]irospeet; for, aliove the trees of the garden is seen the city overlooked by the Acropolis, and towards the left the bill of the Areopagus. From this terrace L there is a descent to the garden by about twelve steps. The positi(m was chosen with a view to protection against the sun's heat and the troublesome winds. From the porticro of the gynieceum arc .seen the hills extending towards the north, covered with lunises surrounded 1)}' olive-trees; and in the background Jlouiit I'eii- telicus. ... In tlie dwelling of Cbrcinyliis the vari(nis deparlmeiils were arranged at tiie pio- l)rictor's discretion, and the architect only con- formed to his instructions. Thus the front jiart of the house is assigned to the external relations of the owner. In this court O assemble the agents or factors who come to give an account of tile commissions they have executed, or to le- cciv<^ orders. If the master wishes to speak to any of them, ho takes him into bis reception room; his bedchamber being at I{, he can easily repair to that reception-room or to the gynieceum reserved for the women and younger (children. U he entertains friends, they have their separate apartments, which are shut oil, not being in coinmimiciition with the first court except through the jiassage t. All that part of the habi- tation which is beyond the wide entrance-hall 1) is consecrated to douK'.stic life; and only the inti- mat.; friends of the family are admitted into tlie second court; 'or example, if they are invited to a baiKpict, — which is held in the great hall K. The master usually takes his meals with his wife and (>ne or two members of his family who live in the house, in the smaller room 1, tlie coiuiies of which will hold six iier.sons; w hen'iis lifteeii guests can be accommodated on the couches of the great ball Iv. Chrcmylus liaa spared nothing to render his bouse one of the most sumptuous in the city. Tlie columns of I'cntclicap marble support architraves ol wood, surmouiit('d by friezes and cornices overlaid with stucco and ornamented with delicate painting. Every- where the walls are coaled with line smootli plas'. c, adorned with paintings; and the ceilings are of limber artistically wrought and coloured." — 10. Viollet-le-Diic, T/ie Jlabitationn of Man m all Ayen, ch. 17. 162 ATHENS, B. C, 445-429. Age of Pericles. ATHENS, B. C. 445-439. B. C, 445-429. — The Age of Pericles : Law and its Administration. — Contrast with the Romans. — "It is icmiukiililc . . . tliat the 'ciiuality ' of liiws 1)11 -.vliidi thu G .-I'k (k'luocv nicies prided themselves — tliiit, ei. ality which, ill the beiiutifiil drinkiii!; song oi Oallistriitus, Harmodius and Aristogilon arc said to have given to Athens — had little in common with the ' equity ' of the Romans. The lirst was an e(i\ial administration of civil laws among the citizens, however limited the class of citizens might be; the List implied the ai)plical)ility jf a law, which was not civil law, to a class which (lid not necessirily consist of citizens. The tiret exclnded a despot; the last included foreigners, and for some purposes slaves. . . . There arc two special dangers to which law, and society which is hold togethi '"• law, appear to bo lial)le in their infancv ,,.e of them is tiiat law may he too rapidly veloped. This occairred with the codes of the more progressive Greek communities, which disembarrassed them.selves with astonishing facility from cumbrous forms of procedure and needless terms of art, and .soon ceased to attach any superstitious value to rigid rules and prescriptions. It was not for the ultimate advantage of mankind that they did so, though tlie immediate benelit conferred on their citizens may have been considerabh;. One of tliL rarest qualities of national character is the capa(aly for applying and working out the law, iis such, at tno cost of constant miscarri.iges of abstract justice, without at the same time losing the hope or the wish that law may bo conformed to a higher idea'. The Greek intellect, with all its nobility and elasticity, was quite unable to conline itself within the strait waistcoat of a legal formula; and, if we may judge them by the popular courts of Athens, of whose working wo ))ossess accurate knowledge, the Greek 1ril)unalo exhibited the strongest tendency to confound law and fact. Tlie remains of the Orators and • foren.sic commonplaces pre- served by Aristoile in his Treatise on lUietoric, show that questions of pure law were constantly argued on every consideration which could jiossibly influence the mind of the judges. No durable system of juri.sprudonco could be pro- duced in this way. A community which never hesitated to relax rules of written law whenever they stood in the way of an ideally perfect decision on the facts of particular cases, would only, if it, bequoathod any body of judicial principles to posterity, bequeath one consisting of the ideas of right and wrong wliicli happened to be prevalent at the time. Suih jurispru- dence would contain no framework to which the more advanced conceptions of subseciuent ages could be fltt(>d. It would amount at best to a philosophy, marked with the imperfections of the civili.sation under which it grew up. . . . The other liability to which the infancy of society is e\i)()sed has pievenfed or am^sted the prog-.vss of far the greater part of mankind. The rigidit;- of primitive law, arising chielly from ils earlier association and MentiUcalion with religion, lias chained (hiwn the ma.ss of the human race to those views of life and conduct which they entertained at the tiino when their usage;; were first consolidated into a systematic form. There were one or two races e.vempted by a marvellous fate from this calamity, a-id grafts from these stocks have fertili.se<l"a few m idem societies ; but it is .still tnic that, orcr the larger part of the world, the perfection of law lias always been considered as consisting in iulhereiice to the ground plan supposed to liavc lieen marked out by llie original legislator. If intelle(;t has in such cases been exercised on jnrisiiriidence. it has uniformly jirided it.self on tlie subtle pervi'i'sity of tlie conclusions it could build on imcient texts without discoverable departuH! from their literal tenour. I know no reason why the law of the Uomans should be superior to the. laws of the Hindoos, unless the theory of Natural Law had given it a type of excellence diircrent from the usual one." — II. S. Maine, Anrient Litic, rh. IS—}. — "Uut both the Greek and \\\i'. English trial by jury were at one time the great political .safeguard against state oiipression anil injustice; and, owing to this origin, free nations become so attiiched to it that they are blind to its defects. And just as Ireland would now benefit beyond conception by the abolition of tlie jury .system, so the secured Athenian (or any other) democracy would have thriven Vietter had its laws been administered by courts of skilled judges. For these l.irge bodies of average citizens, who. by the way, were not like our jurymen, unwilling occupants of the juiybo.x, but who made it a paid business and an amusement, did not regard the letter of the law. They allowed actions barred by the reasonable limits of time; they allowed arguments totally besidc! the question, though this too was illegal, for there was no competent judge to draw the line; they allowed hearsay evidence, though that too was against the law; indeed the evidence produced in most of the speeches is of the loosest aiul ])oorest kind. Worse than all, there were no proper records kept of their d.jcisions, and witnesses were called in to swear wli'it had been the past decisions of a jury sitting in the t-ime city, and under the same procedure. This is the more remarkable, as there were state archives, in which the decrees of the popular assembly were kept. . . . There is a most extraordinary speccli of Lysias against a man called Nichomachus, who was appointed to transcribe the laws of .Solon in four months, but who kept them in his i)o.sses.sion for six years, and is accusetl of having so falsified thorn as to have substituted himself for Solon. Henco there can have been no recognized dupli- cate extant, or 'jucli a thing could not be attempted. So again, in the Trapeziticus of Isocrates, it is mentioned as a well known fact, that a certain I'ythodorus was convicted of tampering with state-documents, signed and sealed by the magistrates, and deposited in the Acropolis. All tliese things meet us in every turn in the court speeches of the Attic oratora. We are amazed at seeing relationships proved in will cases by a man coming in and swearing that such a man's father had told him tiiat his brother was niarrie<l to such a woman, of such a house. We find the most libellous charges brought against opponents on matters totally beside the qiiestion at issue, and cvi'U formal evidence of general bad character admitted. We find some speakers in consequence treating the jury with a .sort of mingled deference and contempt wliicli is amusing. 'On the former trial of this case,' they say, ' my opponent man- aged to tell you many well devised lies; of courao you were deceived, how could it he other- 163 ATHENS, 13. C. 445-429. Aue nf iVn'f/ejf. ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. wise, find ynii m.idp n false decision ;' or else, • You were so puzzled tliiit you fjol at variiiuce witli one aiiollicr, you voted at six<'s and seven.s, ami liy a small iiiajoiily you cai'ie to an absurd de<lsj()n.' 'Hut 1 lliinli yiiu know well,' .says Isoerat<'S, 'tliat the <lly lias often repented so liitlerlv <'i'e this for decisiims made in passion and williout eviilenee. as to desire after no loni; interval to punish those who misled it. and to wisli those who ha<l been ealumniated were mor(! than restored to their former prosperity. Keepini; these fai s l)efor<' y(«i, you ought not to be hasty in believing the prosecutors, nor to hear the defendants witli interruption and ill temper. For it is a .shame to have the character of lieini,' the j;entlesl and most humane of the Greeks in other respects, and yet to act ('ontrary to this reputation in the trials which take place here. It is a .shame that iu other cities, when a human life is at stake, a consideral)Ic majority of votes is re(iuired for conviction, but that nmoMg yo\i those iu danger do not even got an equal chance with their false accu.sers. You swear indeed once a y<'ar that you will attend to bolli plaiiitilT and defendant, but in the interval oiily kee|) your oath so far as to accept what- ever the accusers .say, Iiut you sometimes will not let those who are trying to refute them utter <'ven a single word. Y'ou think those cities iininhabitable, in which citizens are executed without trial, and forget that those who do not give both sides a fair hearing are doing the very same thing.'" — .T. K MahalTv, >i-)nal Life in Grar,'. ,-h. VA. B. C. 445-429. — The Age of Pericles : Poli- tical life. — The democracy. — "The real life of Athens lasted at tlie most for 200 years: and yet there are moments in which all that we have won by the toils of so many generations seems as it it would be felt to be but a small thing beside a single liour of Perikles, The Democracy of Athens was in truth the noblest fruit of tliat self- developing ])ower of the Greek mind which worked every possession of the conunon heritago into some new and more brilliant sliap", but which learned nothing, notliing of all that formed its real life and its real glory, from the Barba- rians of the outer world. Men tell us that Greece learned this or that mechanical invention from PluiMiieia or Egyi)l or Assyria Be it so; but stand in the Pny.x; listen to the contending ora- tors; li I eii to the ambassadors of distant cities; listen to each side as it is fairly hearkened to, ancl see the matter in hand decided by the peaceful vote of thousiuids — here r' least of a truth is something which Athens dnl not learn from any Assyrian despot or from any Egyptiiin priest. And we, chil'lren of the conunon stock, sharers in the common heritage, as we see man, Aryan man, in the full growth of his noblest type, we may feel a thrill as we think that KleLsthenCs and PeriklOs were, after all, men of our own blood — as we think that the institutions which grew up under their hands and the institutions under which we ourselves are living are alike branches sprung from one stock, portions of one inluii- tance in which Athens and England have an equal right. In the Athenian Denn'iraey we see a i)opular constitution taking the form which was natural for such a constitution to take when it was able to run its natural course in' a common- wealth which consisted only of a single city. Wherever the Assembly really remains, in truth ns well as in name, an Assembly of the whole people in tlieiri)wn jH-rsons, it nnisl in its own nature be sovereign. It must, in the nature of things, delegate more or less of power to magis- trates and generals; but such power will be sim- ply delegated. Their antliority will be a mere trust from the sovereign l)ody, and to that sov- ereign body they will be responsible for its exer- cise. That is to say, one of the original elements of the State, the King or chief, now represented by the elective magistracy, will h)se its indepen- dent jwwers, and will sink i to a body vho have only to carry out the will of the sovereign Assem- bly. So witli anoth' of the original elements, the Council. Tills b.ly too loses its inde|)endent b(Mng; it has no ruling or checking power; it be- comes a mere (-'onunitlee of the Assembly, chosen or appointed by lot to jiut measures into sliape for more easy discussion in the sovereign body. As society becomes more advanced and comi)li- cated, the judicial power cjin no longer be exer- cised by the Assembly itself, while it would bo against every democratic instinct to leave it in tlie arbitrary power of individual magistrates. Other Committees of the Assembly, .Juries on a gigantic scale, with a presiding magistrate as chairman rather than as Judge, are therefore set apart to decide causes and to sit in judgment on oifenders. Such is pure Democracy, the govern- ment of the whole people and not of a part of it only, as carried out in its full perfection in a single city. It is a form ol government which works up" the faculties of man to a higher pitch than any other; it is the form of government which gives the freest scope to the inborn genius of the whole community and of every member of it. Its weak point is that it works up the facul- ties of man to a ])itcli so high that it can hardly be lasting, that its ordinary life needs an enthusi- asm, a devotion too highly strung to be likely to live through many generations. Athens in the days of her glory, tiie Athens of PeriklOs, was truly ' the roof und crown of things; ' her democ- racy raised a greater number of human beings to a higher level than any government before or since; it gave freer play than any government before or since to the ])ersonaI gifts of the fore- most of mankind. But against the few years of Athenian glory we must set the long ages of Athenian decline. Against the city wlu^e Peri- klOs was General we must set the city where Hadrian was Archon. On the Assemblies of other Grecian cities it is hardly needful to dwell. Our knowledge of their practical working is slight. We have one picture of a debate in the popular Assembly of Sparta, an Assembly none the less popular in its internal constitution be- 1 :iuse it was the assembly of what, as regarded I lie excluded classes of the State, was a narrow oligarchy. We see that there, as might be looked for, the chiefs of the State, the Kings, and yei. more the Epliors, spoke with a degree of otllcial, as distinguished from personal, authority which fell to tlie lot of no man m the Assembly ot Athens. PeriklCs reigned supreme, not because he was one of Ten Generals, but because he was PeriklOs. ... In the Ekklfisia which listened to PiniklOs and DflmosthenOs we feel almost as much at hmnc as in an institution of our own land and our own times. At least we ought to feel iit home there; for we have the full materials for calling up the political life of Athens in all its fullness, and within our own times one of the 164 ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. Age of PeriHfi. ATIIEXS, R. C. 445-439. j^rpiitpst minds of our own or of any iiije 1ms given its full strength to clear away llie mists of error awl ealuiniiy which so long shrouilcd the parent state of justice anil freedom. Among tlie eon- temporarii'S and countrymen of Mr. (Jrote it is shame indeed if men fail to see in tlie great De- mocracy the first .stati' which taught manliind tliat tliu voice of persuasion could l)e stronger than a despot's will, the lirsl which taught that disputes could be settled by a free debate and a free vote which in other lands could have been decided only by the banishment or nnissacre of the weaker side. ... It must be constantly borne in mind fhat the true dill'erence between an aristocmtic and a democratic government, as those words were tmderstood in the politics of old Greece, lies in this. In the Democracy all citi- zens, all who enjoy civil rights, enjoy also pSliti- eal rights. In the aristocracy political rights belong to only a part of those who enjoy civil rights. Hut, in eitlier case, the highest authority of the State is the general Assembly of the whole nding body, wheilier tliat riding body be the whole jteopleor only a part of it. . . . The slaves and strangers who were shut out at Athens were, according to Greek ideas, no Athenians; but every Athenian liad his place in the sovereign assembly of Athens, while every Corinthian had not his' place in the sovereign assembly of Corinth. But the aristocratic and the democratic commonwealth both agreed in placing the final authority of the State in the general Assemtily of all who enjoy the highest franchise. . . . The people, of its own will, placed at its head men of the same class ns those who in the earlier state of tilings had ruled it against its will. Perikles, Nikias, Alkibiades, were men widely difTering in character, widely dirturing in their relations to the popular governmen' IJut all alike were men of ancient birth, w'lo, as men of ancient birth, found their way, i Imost as a matter of course, to those liigli places of the State to which Ivleon found his way only by a strange freak of fortune. At Rome we find quite another story. There, no less than at Athens, the moral influence of nobility survived its legal privileges; but, more than this, the legal privileges of the elder nobility were never whoUy.swept away, and the inherent feeling of respect for illustrious birth called into being a younger nobility by its side. At Athens one stage of reform placed a distinc- tion of wealth instead of a distinction of birth: another stage swept away the distinction of wealth also. But the reform, at each of its stages, was general: it affected uU otliees alike, save those sacred oflices which still remained the special heritage of certain sacred families. . . . In an aristocratic commonwealth there is no room for I'eriklOj ; there is i. > -ooin for the people that hearkened to PeriklOs ; but in men of the second order, skilful co.iservative administrators, men able to work the system which they find estab- lished, no form of government is so fertile. . . . But overywhea' we learn the same les.son, the inconsistency of commonw(!altlis which boast themselves of their own freedom and cKalt them- selves at the cost of the freedom of others." — E. A. Freeman, C'omjkirative Politkn, Urt. 5-0. — "DGincs was himself King, Minister, and I'aiiia- iiictit. He had liib smaller otiicials to carry out the necessary details of public business, but he wus most undoubtedly his own First Lord of the Treasury, his rjwn Foreign Secretary, his own Secretary f'lr the Colonics. Hi.> himself kept up a personal correspoiulenci^ both with foreign ])oteiitates and witli Ills own ollicers on foreign service; the 'despatches' of Nikius and tli(! ' notes ' of I'hilip were alike addressed to no ofU- cer slun't of the .sovereign himself ; ho gave per- sonal audience to I lie aiiil)assadors of otiier. states, and el )tlicd his own witli just .so great or so small a share as lie deemcMl good of his own Ixnindless authority. He had no need to entrust the care of his tlioiisan<l dependencies to ihe niys- terious working of a Foreign Ollice; he himself sat in judgnvnt upon Mitylenaiaii rcbi'ls; he him self settled the allotmeiuOf lands at Chalkis or Ampliipoli.s; he decreed hy his own wisdom what <luties should be levied at the Sound of Byzau- lion; he even ventured on a task of which two- aiid-twenty ages have not lessened the dilliculty, and undertook, without the help of a Lord High Commissioner, to ailjust the relations and compose the seditions even of Korkyra and Za- kyntlios. He was his own Lord HIltIi Cliai eellor, his own Lonl Primate, his own Commaiiiier-in- Chief. He listened to the arguments of Kleon on behalf of a measure, and to the arguments of Xikias against it, and he ended by bidding Nikias to go and carry out the proposal which he had denounced as extravagant or unjust. He listened with approval to his own ' e.\i)lanations; ' he passed votes of confidence in bis own policy; he advised himself to give his own royal assent to the bills which he had himself passed, with- out tlie form of a second or third reading, or tlie vain ceremony of moving that the Prytancis do leave their chairs. . . . We susjieet that the average Athenian citizen wa.s, in ])olitical intelli- gence, above the average English Member of Parliament. It was this concentration of all power in an aggregate of which <^very citizen formed a part, which is the distinguishing char- acteristic of true Greek democracy. Florence had nothing like it; there; h.is been nothing like it in the modern world: the few |)ure democra- cies which have lingered on to our own day have never had such mightv (luestions laid la^fore them, and have never luul siich statesmen and orators to lead them. The great Den.ocracy has ..ad no fellow: but the political les.sons which it teaches are none the less lessons for all time and for every land and people." — E. ^. Freeman, Historical Enmyii(v. 2) .• The Aiheniiiii Denwenicy. "The individual freedom wliich was enjoyed at Athens and which is extolled lij' Pericles was plainly an exception to the common usage of Greece, and is so regarded in tl e Funeral Speech. The word 'freedom, 'it .shoulu be remembered, boro an ambiguous meaning It denoted on the one hand political iiidepeiidence, — theexerci.se of .sovereign power by the State and of political rights by the citi.;ens. In this .sense every Greek citizen could claim it as his birthright. Even the Spartans could tell the Persian Hydarnes tliat he had not, like them, tasted of freedom, and did not know whether it was sweet or not. But the word also denoted personal and social liberty, — freedom from the excessive restraints of law, the absence of a tyrannous public opinion and of in- tolerance between man and in.ui. Pericles claims for Athens ' freedom' in this double sense. But fr;edoin so far as it implies the absence of legal i' .terference in ihe private concerns of life was l-.ut little known except at Athens." — S. II. Butcher, Some Aspects of Oreek Oeiuns, pp. 165 ATUENS, 15. C. U5-4'i9. Ayr «/ ATHENS, IJ. C. 440-t37. 70-71,_> 'To Athens . . , we look ... for (in unswcr to the iiiicslioii, Wlmt iIdi'H liis'ory ti'acli in I(m;iiI(1 Io IIh- vIiIiK! of a piiri'ly ilciinxTatic (joviTiii'iciit ? And here wo iimy vaffly say tlial, under fiiv(mrd)li' ciriMini ■tanccs, tlicrc is no form of i;ovcrnnii'iit which, whili; it lusts, has such a virtue to irive scope to a vigorous crowlh and lu.xuri.int fniilni,'e of various inanliooil as a pure donocracy. . . . Hut it does not follow tliat, thouijli in tliis re;;aril it has not been surpassed by any oIlK'r form of ;iovernmenl, it is therefore absolutely the besi of all forms of government. . . . Neither, on the other hand, doe.s it follow from the shortnc'^sof the l)ri!;ht reiifii of Athenian (leinocracy — not ore than :)!)() years from C'lis- theiies to the Macedonians — that all ('eniocraeies all! short-lived, and must piiy, like dissipated young gentlemen, with premaiurt! decay for the feverish abuse of their vital loiee. Po.ssil)le no <Ioid)t it is, lliat if the i)o\ver of what we may (•nil a sort of Athenian Secotid Chamber, the Areiopagus, ii.stead of being weakened as it was by Arislides and I'erieles, had been built up ac- cording to the idea of -Kschylus and the intelli- gent iiristo(!rats of his day, such a body, armed, like our House of I^ords, with an cfTectivo nega- tive on all outbiu'sts of p(.pular rashness, might have i revented the anil)ition of tlie Athenians from!iunchiiigon that famous .Syraciisan expedi- tion which e.xhaustcd their force and maimed their action for the future. IJutthe lesson taught by the short-lived glory of Athens, and its sub- jugation under the rough foot of the astute JIace- donian, is not that democracies, under tlie influ- ence of fa('tion. and, it may be, not free from venality, will sell their liberties to ii strong neigh- bour — for a'i;tocraticPoland did this in a much more blushless way than democratic Greece — but that any loose aggregate of independent .States, given more to quarrel amongst themselves than to unite agaiitst a common enemy, whether democratic, or aristocratic, or monarchical in their form of government, canu,)t in the long run maintain their groimd agaiiLst the tirm i)olicy and the well-inasscd force of a strong monarchy. Athens was blotted out from the map of free peoples at Chieronea, not because the Athenian people had too nuich freedom, but becau.se the Greek States had too little unity. They were used by I'hilip e.xiictly in the same way that Napoleon uised the German States at the com- mcnceiuent of the i)resent century." — J. S. Ulackie. W/ml docx Ilintorn Tench f pp. 28-31.— "In Herodotus you have the beginning of the age of discussion. . . . The discourses on democ- racy, aristocracy, and monarchy, which he puts into the mouth of the Persi m conspirators when the monarchy was vacant, have Justly been called absiml, as speeches supposed to have been spoken by tho.se persons. No Asiatic ever thought of such things. Vou might as well imagine Saul or David speaking them as those to whom Hero- dotus attributes them. Tliey are Grcjk speeches, fidl of free Greek discussions, and suggested by the exiierience, already cimsideiable, of the Greeks in the results of discussion. Tlic age of debate is liegimiing, and even Herodotus, the least of a wrangler of any man, and the most of a sweet and simple narrator, fell the etTect. When we come to Thucydides, the results of discussion are iis fidl as they have ever been; his light is pure, 'dry light.' ffee from tlu; 'humours' of liabit, aiul purged from consecrated u.iage. As Orotc's history often roads like a report to Parlia- ment, so half Thucydides reads like a speech, or materials for a speech, in the Athenian Assembly." — \V. Hagehol, I'/i;/.v'ft< and I'nUticH. iip. 170-171. B. C. 440-437,— New settlements of Kler- ouchoi. — The foundings of Amphipolis. — Revolt and subjugation of Samos. — ' 'l"he great aim of Perikles was to strengthen tlie power of Athens over the whole area occupied by her confederacy. The establishment of settlers or Klerouehoi [see Kl.niliciis], who re- taiiie(' their rights ■,.•* Athenian citizens, had answered so well in the I.,elantian plain of Kiiboia that it was obviously gdod policy to ex- tend the system. The territory of Hestiaia in the north of Kiiboia and the islands of rjcnmos, Imbros, and Skyros, were thus occupied; and Perikles himself led a body of settlers to the Thrakian Chersonesos where he repaired the old wall at the neck of the peninsula, and even to Sinope whii'h now became a member of the .Vtheniaii alliance. A generation had passed from the time when Athens lost ID.OOO citizens in the attempt to i'ouii'' a colony at the mouth of the Strymon. The task was now undertaken successfully by llagnon, and the city came into existence winch was to be the cause of disa.slcr to the historian Thucydides and to witness the death of Urasidas and of Kleim [see Ampiii- I'oi.is]. . . . Two years before the founding of Amphipolis, Samos revolted from Athens. . . . In this revolt of Samos the overt action comes from the oligarchs who had seized upon tlie Ionian town of Priene, and defeated the Mile- sians who opposed them. The latter appealed to the Athenians, and received not only their aid but that of the Samian demo.s. The latter now became the rtiling body in the island, lifty men luid fifty boys being taken from the oligarchic families and placed as hostages in Leinnos, which, as wc have seen, was now wholly occupied by Athenian Klerouehoi. But the Samian exiles (for many had fled rather than live under a democracy) entered into covenant with Pis- .soutimes, tin Sardian satrap, crossed over to Samos and seized the chief men of the demos, then falling on Lemnos succeeded in stealing away the ho.stages; and, having handed over to Pissouthnes the Athenian garrison at Samos, made ready for lai expedition against Miletos. The tidings th".!, Byzantion had joined in this last revolt left to the Athenians no room to doubt tlie gravity of the crisis. A fleet of sixty ships was (lispatclied to Samos under Perikles ana nine other generals, of whom the poet Sophoklos is said to have been one. Of these sliips sixteen wore sent, some to gatlicr the allies, others to watch for the Pheniciiin fleet which they be- lieved to be olT the Karian coast advancing to tlie aid of the Samian oligarchs. With the re- mainder ■ ikies did not hesitate to engage the Samian fleet of seventy .ships which he encoun- tered (m its return from Miletos off the island of Tragia. The Athenians gained the day : and Samos was blockaded by land ai;,l .sea. But no sooner li:id Perikles sailed with sixty sliips to meet the Plienician fleet, than the Samians, mak- ing a vigorous sally, broke the lines of the be- siegers and for fourteen days remained masters of the .sea. The return of Perikles changed th.; face of things. Soon after the resumption of the siege the arrival of sixty fresh sliip-> from Athens under live Slrutcgoi in two detavhmeiits, 166 TO THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAE. CONTEMPOHAXI'.OUS EVENTS. B.C. 770. Beginning of the Olympiads. 7liH. The foiMulinK of Homo.* 745. First war bi-twccn Sparta and Jft'ssenia. 734. Koundins of Symcuso l)y Orcclvs from (lorintli. 722. Ovcrtliniw of tlic liingdom of Israt-l l)y tlic Assyrians.— Captivity of the Ten Tribes. 085. The second war between Messenia and Sparta. 024. Supposed dale of tlie legislation of Draco, at Athens.* 012. (Jonspiracy of Cylon at Athens. <J08. Accession of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylonia. (too. Destruction of Nineveh and overthrow of tlie Assyrian empire by the Medes.* 508. Invasion of Palestine by Nebucliadnezzar. 504. The Constitution of Solon adcpted at Athens. 58G. Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. — End of the kingdom of Judah and exile of the remnant of the people to Babylon. 5(iO. Tyranny of Pislstralus established nt Athens. 641). Overtlirow of tho Median nionarcliy by Cyrus, and founding of the Persian. 54((. Overthrow of Crccsus and the liingdom of Lydia by Cyrus, Iting of Persia. 538. Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. 520. Dcatii of Cyrus and accession of Cambyses, to the tlirone of Persia. 525. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses king of Persia. — Birth of /Eschylus (d. 456). 52 1 . Accession of Darius 1., king of Persia. 510. Invasion of Scytliia by Darius, king of Persia.* 510. E.\pulsion of tlie Pisistratids from Athens. 500. Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome.* — Founding of the Republic (Roman chronology). 508. Political reorganization of Atliens by Cleisthenes. 500. Rising of tlie Greek colonies in Ionia, against the Persians. 403. League of the Romans and La' ins. 492. First secession of tlie Roman '.'lebs. — (Creation of tiie Trilmnesof the People. 400. First Persian expedition against Greece. — Tlieir defeat at Marathon. 480. Condemnation and death of Jliltiades at Athens.* 480. Accession of Xer.xes to the throne of Persia. 480. Second Persian invasion of Greece. — Tliermopylic— .Vrteniisium. — Salamis. — Retreat of Xerxes. — Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. — Battle of Ilimerii. — Birth of Euripides.* 470. Battles of Platwa and >Iycalo and end of tlie Persian invasion of Greece. 478. Beginning of tlie tyranny of Hieron at Syracuse. 477. Formation of the Confederacy of Dclos, under Athens. 4GG. Naval victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Eurymedon. — Outbreak of the Plague at Rome. — Revolt of Naxos from the Delian Confederacy. — Fall of tlio tyrants at Syracuse. 464. (livat earthquake at Sparta. — Rising of the Helots; beginning of third Messenian War. 458. Commencement of the Long Walls of Athens. 457. Beginning of war of Corinth, Sparta, and /Egina with Athens. — Battle of Tanagra. 450. End of war against Athens. — Framing of the Twelve Tables of the Roman Law. — The Decemvirs nt Rome. — Birth of Alcibiades* (d. 404). 447. Defeat of ihe Athenians by the Bu'otians at Coronen. 445. Conclusion of the Thirty Years Peace between Ath. ns :md Sparta and their allies. — Ascendancy of Pericles at Atliens. — Peac? of Callias between Greece anil Persia. — Birth of Xenophon.* 444. Creation of Consular Tribunes at Rome. — Exile of Thucydides from Athens. 432. Complaints iigainst Athens. — Peloponnesiau Congress at Sparta. — Revolt of Potidoea. 431. Beginning of the Peloponnesiau War. — Invasion of Attica. 43(). Second invasion of Attica. — Tlie Plague at Athens. 421>. Death of Pericles at Athens. -Capture of Polidtua.— Birth of Plato (d. 347). 42 T. Destruction of Platiea by the Peloponnesians. — Massacre at Corcyra. 425. Surrender of Spartans to the Athenians at Sphacteriu. — Accession of Xerxes II., king of Persia. 421. Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta, ending first periou of Peloponnesian War. 415. Expedition of tlie Athenians against Syracuse. — Mutilation of the Hernia; at Athens.— Accusation and flight of Alcibiades. 41.3. Disaster to the Athenians before Syacuse. — Renewal of the Peloponnesian War. 411. Oligarchical revolution at Athens.— The Pour Hundred and their fall. — Recall of Alcil)i!i('5s. 409. Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. 400. Victory of the Athenians over the Peloponnesians in the battle of Arginuste. — Execution of the geuerals at Athens. 405. Defeat of the Athenians at Aigospotamoi. — Successful revolt of the Egyptians agaiust tlie Persians, and independence established. 404. Pall of Athens.— End of the Peloponnesian War. 400. Retreat of the Ten Thousand under Xenophon.— Birth of Timoleon* (C. 337). * Uncertain date. FOUBTH AND THIRD CENTURIES, B. C. CONTKMPOHANEOU8 EVENTS. n. c. .'«»». CJondomnntion iind (Inath of Socrfttcs at Athens.— War of Sparta with Persia. :iUti. l.ciiBiii- of Orcck citifs iiBiilnst Spartu. — Tlie CoriiilliiuD War. . .'«)<>. Kofiif (lestroycil l>y tlio (iiiuls. J187. I'caci! of Atitiilciilas betwoca tlieOrecits and Persians. :tH4. Kirth of Aristotle (d. 323). :iHii. Hctrayal of 'i'licbes to Sparta.— War of SyraciLso witli CorthaRe. ;J7J». Overthrow of the Olvnthiaii League by Hparl a— Deliverance of Tliebes. JIT I. I)(!feat of Sparta at Leuctra.— Aseeiidancy of Thebes.— Arcadian Union. SW7. Adoption of the liicinian l^awH at Uonie. !U(2. Victory and deatli of 10paiiiiiioii<la9 at .Mantinea. iifiU. Accession of I'hilip to the throne of jMacedonin. JW>7. Oiitlireak of the Ten Years SacrccI War in Oreecc. itnU. Hiirninf; of the Temple of Diana at lOphesus.— llirth of Alexander the Great (d. 828). iir»it. l'"inal conqnest of Egypt l>y the I'ersians. ;i5iJ. Interfereni'e of I'liilip of "iMaeedonia in tlie Oreelt Sacred War.— First PInlippic of Demosthenes. J{4t'). Deliverance of Syracuse l.y Tiinoleoii.— First Samnite War in Italy. <<<'{8. IjcaRue of Greek cities aijiiiiiHl I'liiMp of iMaccdonia. — tlis victory at ClioiroDea. — His Uoinination established. — Subjugation of the I..aliiis by lionic. 3t'{((, Assjissination of Philip of iMaceiloniu, and accession of Alexander the Oreat. mm. Itevolt of Thebes. — Alexander's desi ruction of the city. 3;i4. Alexander's expedition against I'ersia. — His victory at the Qranicus. !{:if{. Alexander's victory over the IVrsians at Issu.s. 3!{i2. Alcxander'.s .sieges of Tyre and (Ja/.a, conipiest of Egypt and founding of Alexandria. 3IJ1. Alexander's vic'tory at Arbela. — Overthrow of the I'i'rsian empire. 32U. Alexander in India. — Defeat of Porus. — Beginning of second Sainnitc War in Itidy. sua. Death of Alexander the Oreat at Babylon. — Partition of his dominion among the generals. — Revolt in Greece. — The Lainiaii War. i)2t2. Subjugation of Athens by the Maccdo'dans. — Death of Demosthenes. !)til. Beginning of the War.) of the Succtessors of Alexander. — Founding of the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt. — Defeat of tin; Itomans by the Samnites at the Caudinc Forks. 317> Execution of Phocion at AtlK^iis. 307. Athens under the rule of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 300. I{oyal titles assumed by Aniigonus (as king of Asia), Ptolemy, iu Egypt, Seleucus Nicator, in Syria, Lysimachus, in Thrace, and t'as.sander. in Macedonia. 305. Siege of lihodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 301. Battle of Ipsus. ^Overthrow and death of Antigonus. 2f***. Beginning of third Sannnte War. 2f>o. Romap defeat of Uw Gauls at Seiitinuni. 287. Birth of Archin<edes* (d. 212). 280. Adoption of the Hortensian Laws at Home. 280. Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. — Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. — Rise of the Achaian licague. 278. Pyrrlnis iu Sicily, in war against Cartilage. 275. Defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum. 204, Beginning of tlie first Punic War between Rome and Carthage. 203. Athens captured by Antigonus Gonatus. 255. Defeat and capture of Uegulus in Africa. 250. Founding of the kingdom of Parthia by Arsaccs.* 241. End of the first Punic W.'r.—Ri)iiian compiest of Sicily. — Revolt of the Carthaginian meri-enaries. 227. War of Sparta with the Acliaia:-. League. 222. Roman conquest jf Cisalpine Gaul coinpleted. 221. Battle of Sellasia. — Sparta crushed by the king of Macedonia. 213. Beginning of tlie second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. — Hannibal iu I tap. 217. Hannibal's defeat of the Romans at the Trasimene Lake.— Cuele-Syria and Palestine ceded to Egypt by Antiochus the Great. 210. Great defeat of tlie Romans by Hannibal at Cannu!. 214. Beginning of war between Rome and Macedonia. 212. Siege and reduction of Syracuse by the Romans. 21 1. Hannibal at the Roman gates. 207. Defeat of Ilasdrubal on the Metaurus. 205. End of first i\Iaccdonian War. 202. Scipio's decisive victory at Zaina, in Africa, ending the second Punic War. 201. Subjection of the Jews to the Seleucid inonarchy. 200. Roman declaration of war against the king of Stacedouia. * Uncertain date. ATHENS, H. C. 440-487. Pt'toinmiietian War. ATIIKNH, H. C. 4;J1. with thirty from Clilos and Lcsboa, (hiinp(Ml tlio tncrgy of tlic Hiiiiiiiin ()li;{iirclis; mid nn iiiisur:- rcssful I'fTort at sea \,'as followcil liy llieir sub- mission in tin; niiitli launtli after the. iicginniti!; of tlio revolt, tlie lerms t)ein>,' tliiil tliey slioulil r,i/.(^ tlieir walls, i^ivo hostages, surreniler their sliips, and pay llie ('.xpensesof the war. Follow- injr their example, the Byzantines also made Mieir pence witli Allien*. The Pheiii<'iaii llee( never came. . . . The Athenians escaped at the Bamo time a far j];reater <lani;er nearer home. Till! Samians, lik(! the men of Tliasos. had ap- plied for aid to the Spartans, who, no longer pressed by llie Helot war, summoned a congress of their allies to discuss tac^ (pieslion. For tlie tnice which had still tlveaiul-twenty years to run Sparta chared nolliing. but she encountered an opposition from the (\)riiiiliiaii.s which per- haps sIkmiow .scarcely expeclwl. . . . Tlic Spar- tans wvvii eompeiled to give way; and there can be no doubt that when some years later the Corinthians claimed the gratitude of the Athen- ians for tills de(!ision, they took credit for an act of good .service singularly opportune. Had they voted as Sparta wished, Athens might by the extension of revolt amongst her allied cities liave lieen reduced now to tlie condition to whicli, in cor..se(juencc perhajis of this respite, she was not brouglit until the lifetime of a generation had lieen s|)ent in desperate warfare." — G. W. Cox, /[int. (if (Irei'd-, III,: :!, rli. 1 (r. 2). B. C. 431. — ^Beginning of the Peloponnesian War.— Its Causes.— "In 15. C. 431 tlie war ))roke out between Alliens and the Peloponnesian League, which, after twenty-seven years, ended in tlio ruin of the Athenian empire. It began through a iiuarrel betweiMi Corinth and Keriiyra, in wliicli Athens assisted Kerkyra. A congress was lield at Sparta ; Corinth and other States complained of the conduct of Alliens, and war was decided on. The real cause of the war was tliat Sparta and its allies were jealous of the great power that Athens had gained [see Oueece: B. C. 43,>4iJ3 and 433-431]. A fnr greater number of Greek States were engaged in this war tlian had ever been engaged in a single undertaking Iwfore. States that had taken no part in the Persian war were now fighting on one side or the other. Sparta was an oligarchy, and the friend of tlic nobles everywhere; Athens was a democracy, and tlu friend of the coininon people ; so tliat the war was to some extent a struggle bctweeen tiiese classes all over Greece, and often '.vithin the same city walls the nobles and the people attacked one another, tlie nobles being for Sparta and the jieople for .Vtliens. On tlie side of Sparta, when the war began, there was all Peloponnesus except Argos and Aehx'a, and I'lso the oligarcliical Boeotian League under Thebes besides Pliokis, Lokris, and otiier States west of them. They were very strong by land, but the Corintliiaus alone had a good tieet. Later on we shall see the powerful State of Syracuse witli its navy, acting witli Sparta. On the side of Atliens there were almost all the .,^Ogieau islands, and a great number of the ..'EgiBan coast towns as well as Ker- kyra and certain States in tlie west of Greece. I'iic Athenians had also made alliance with Sitalkes, tlie barbarian king of the interior of Thrace. Athens was far stronger by sea than Sparta, but had not such a strong land army. On the other hand it luul a large treasure, and a system of taxes, while the Spartan Fieague hud little or no money."— C. A. PyfTe, lli»l. <if Orcii'e, illiHlorfi I'riinirK), p. 84. — TIk? Ionian cities, called "allies" of .Vtliens, were subjects in reality, and held in subjection by tyrannieni measures which made the yoke odious, as i» plainly explained by Xenoplion, wlu) says : "Some person might say, Ihat it is a great support to the Athenians "that their allies should be in a condition to contribute money to them. To the plebeians, how(!ver, it seems to lie of mueli greater advantages that every individual of the Athenians should get some of the property of the allies, and that tli<> allies themselves should have only so much as to I'nabh; tlicm to live and to till the ground, so that they may not be in a condition to form conspiracies. The people of Atliens seem also to have acted injudiciously in this respect, that they oblige their allies to malie voyages to Atliens for the decision of their law- suits. But the Athenians consider onlv, on the other hand, what benelils to the state of Athens are attendant on this practice; in the first place they receive their dues throughout the year from the prytaneia; in the next place, they manage the governnu'nt of the alliecl states while sitting at home, and without sending out ships; they also support suitors of the lower orders, and ruin tliose of an opposite character in their courts of law; but if eacli state had its own courts, they would, as being liostile to the Athe- nians, bo the ruin of those who were most favourable to the peo|)le of Atliens. In addition to these advantages, the Athenian people have the following jirotits from the courts of justice for the allies being at Athens; first of all the duty of the liundrcdtli on what is landed at the Peirteeus affords a greater revenue to the city; next, whoever has a lodging-house makes more money by it, as well as whoever has catths or .slaves for hire; and tlie heralds, too, are benetited by the visits of tliu allies to the city. Besides, if the allies did not come to Atliens for law, they would honour only such of the Atlienians as were sent over the sea to them, as generals, and captains of vessels, and ambas.sadors ; but now every individual of the allies is obliged to flatter the people of Athens, knowing tliat on going to Athens In; must gain or lose ids cause according to the decision, not of other judges, but of the people, as is the law of Atliens; and he is compelled, too, to u.se supplication before the court, and, as any one of the people enters, to take him by tlio hand. By these means the allies are in conseciuence rendered much more the slaves of the Athenian people." — Xenoplion, Oil the Atlumitiii (roivr /intent {.)fiiir/r IVoi'kn, trail.', bji Hen. J. S. Watmn), p. 33.). — The revolt of these coerced and hostile "allies," upon the outbreak of iiie P(dcponnesian War, was inevi- table. — The prominent events of tlio Peloponne- sian war, ill whicli most of the Greek States were 'uvolved. arc proiierly narrated in their connection witli Greek history at large (see Qukkce: B. C. 431-439, and after). In this place it will only be necessary to take account of the consequences of tlie war as they alfected the remarkable city and people wliose superiority had occiisioned it by cliallenging and sonicwliat offensively provoking the jealousy of tlKsir neighbors. B. C. 431. — Peloponnesian invasions of Attica. — Siege of Athens. — ' While the Pelo- ie7 ATlIENa, 13. C. 431. Funeral Oration of Per idea. ATHENS, B. C. 430. ponncsinns woro Rntlierinsr nt thn Isthmus, and Vivn' still on their wiiy, but befon; tliey MiUTcd Attica, I'cridcs, the son of Xantliippus, who was one of tlic ten Athcniiin goiU'nils, . . . r<'|)Ciit<Ml (to tlir Athenians] his previous advice; they must pri'pan^ for war and bring their prop- erty from the counlry into the city; they nuist defend thc'lr walls but not go out to battle; they should also eipiip for service the lieet in which lay their strength. . . . The citizens were per- suaded. an(' brought into the city their children an<l wivi'S, their hou.sehold gO(Kls, and even lIk; wood-Work of tlieir houses, which they took down. Their tlocks and bea.sts of bunU'n they conveyed to Kidioca and the adjacent islands. The removal of tlu^ inhabitants was painful; for the Athenians had always been accustomed to resid(! in the country. Such a life had been characteristic of thcin more than of any other Hellenic people, from very early times. . . . When they came to Athens, only a few of them had liouses or could lind homes among friends or kindred. The majority took up their abode; in the vacant spaces of the city, and in tlie tem- ples and shrines of heroes. . . . Many also estab- lished themselves in the turrets of the walls, or in any other place which they could lind; for the city could not contain them when they first came in. I5ut afterwards they divided among them the Long Walls and the greater |)art of the Piraeus. At the same time the Atlieniar ] ap- plied themselves vigorously to the war, sununon- ing their allies, and [n-eparing an expedition of IIH) ships against the Peloponuese. While they were thus engaged, the Peloponnesian army was advancing: it arrived first of all at Oenoe," wliero Arcliidamus, the Spartan king, wasted much time in a fruitless siege and assault. "At last they marcheci on. aiKl about the eightieth day after the entry of tlie Thebans into Plataea, in the middle of the siunmer, when the corn was in fidl car, invaded Attica. . . . Tliey encamped anil ravaged, first of all, Elcusis and the plain of Thria. ... At Acharnae they encamped, and remained there a considerable time, ravaging the country." It was the expectation of Arcliidamus that the Athenians would be [irovoked to come out and meet him in the open field ; and that, iiidcecl, tliey were eager to do; but the prudence of their great leader held them back. "The peo- ple were furious with Pericles, and, forgetting all his previous warnings, they abused him for not leading them to battle." But he was vindi- cated by tile result. "The Peloponncsians re- mained in Attica as long as their provisiims lasted, and then, taking a new route, retired through Boeotia. ... On their return to Peloponnesus the troops dispersed to their several cities." Meantime the Athenian and allied fleets were ra iging the Peloponnesian coast. "In the same summer [B. C. 4!U] the Athenians expelled the Aeginetausand their families from Aegina, alleg- ing that they had been the niain cause of the war. . . . The Lacedaemonians gave the Aegine- tan exiles the town of Thyrea to occupy and the adjoining country to cultivate. . . . About the end of the summer the entire Athenian force, including the metics, invaded the territory of Megara. . . . After ravaging the greater part of the country tliey retired. They repeated the invasi(m. .sometimes with cavalry, sometimes with the whole Athenian army, every year during the war until Nisaoa was taken [B. C. 424]." — Thucy- dides, nhtoti/; trnn». by 77. Jowett, bk. 3, tect. VA-'.n {i: 1). B. C. 430. — The funeral oration of Pericles. — During the winter of the year B. C. 431-430, "in accordanee with an ol<l national custom, tlie funeral of those who first fell in this war was cele- brated by the Athenians at the public charge. The ceremony is as follows : Three days before the celebration they erect a tent in which the bones of the dead are laid out, and every one brings to his own cleu'' any offering which he l)leases. At the time of the funeral the bones are place<l in chests of cypress wood, which are conveyed on llcar.ses; there is one chest for each tribe. They also carry a single empty litter dei'ked with ,•! pall for all whose bodies are miss- ing, and cannot be recovered after the battle. The procession is accompanied by any one who chooses, whether citizen or stranger, and the female relatives of the deceased are present at the place of interment and make lamentation. The public sepulchre is situated in the most beau- tiful spot outside the walls; there they always bury those who fall in war; only after the battle of Marathon the dead, in recognition of their lire-eminent valour, were interred on the field. When the remains liave been laid in the earth, some man of known ability and higli reputation, clio.sen by the city, delivers a suitable oration overtheni; after which the people depart. Such is the manner of interment ; and the ceremony was repeated from time to time throughout the war. Over those who were the tirat buried Pericles was chosen to speak. At the fitting monuMit he advanced from the .sepulchre to a lofty stage, which had been erected in order th.it he might bo heard as far as possible by the mul- titude, and .-ipoke as follows: — 'Most of those who have spoken here before me have coiu- lueuded the lawgiver who added this oration to our other funeral customs ; it seemed to them a worthy thing that such an honour should be given at their burial to the dead who have fallen on the field of battle. But I should have preferred that, when men's deeds have been brave, they shouUl be honoured in deed only, and with such an honour as this jiublic funeral, which you are now witnessing. Then the reputation of many would not have been imperilled on the eloquence or want of eloquence of one, and their virtues believed or not as he spoke well or ill. For it is dilHcult to say neither too little nor too much; and even moderation is apt not to give the im- pression of truthfulness. The friend of the dead who knows the facts is likely to think that the words of the speaker fall short of his knowledge and of his wishes ; another who is not so well, in- formed, when he hears of anything which sur- passes his own powers, will be envious and will suspect exaggciation. Mankind are tolerant of the praisesof others so long as each hearer thinks that he can do as well or nearly as well himself, but, when the speaker rises above him, jealousy is aroused and he begins to be incredulous. How- ever, since our ancestors have set the seal of their approval upon the practice, I must obey, and to the utmost of my power shall endeavour to satisfy the wishes and beliefs of all who hear me. I will speak first of our ancestors, for it is right and becoming that now, when we are lamenting the dead, a tribute should be paid to their inem- ory. There has never been a time when they did not inhabit this land, which by their valour 168 ATHENS, B. C. 430. Funeral Oration of PericUm. ATHENS, I). C. 430. tlie.v liavp Imndoil down from generation to gon- iTatiou, iiiiil wo liav(! received from tliem a free state. But if tliey were wortliy of ]>rai.se, still more were our fatliers wlio added to tlieir inheri- tance, and after many a struggle transmitte '. to us their sons this great empire. And we our- selves assembled here to-day, who are still most of us in the vigour of life, have chiefly done the work of improvement, and have richly endowed our city Willi all things, so that she is sulHcient for herself Ijoth in jieaoe and war. Of the mili- tary e.vploits Ijy whieli our various possessions were ac(iuired, or of the energy with which W(! or our fatlars drive l)aelc tlie tide of war, Hel- lenic or Barliarian, I will not spealc; for the tale would be l(mg and is familiar to you. But l)e- fore I i)raise the dead, I should lilio to point out l)y what principles of action we rose to power, and under what institutions and through what manner of life our empire became great. For I conceive, that such thoughts are not unsuited to the occasion, and that this numerous a.snembly of citizens and strangers may protitably listen to them. Our form of government does not enter into rivalry with the instit' tions of others. We do not copy our neighbours, but are an example to them. It is true that we are called a democ- racy, for the administration is in the hand ' of the many and not of the few. But while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes, the claim of e.vcelleneo is also recog- nised; and when a citizen is in any way distin- guished, he is preferred to the public service, not as a matter of privilege, but as the reward of merit. Neither is poverty a bar, but a man may benefit his country whatever bo the obscur- ity of his condition. There is no exclusivencss in our public life, and in our private intercourse we aie not suspicious of one anotlier, nor angry with our neighbour if he docs what he likes ; we do not put on sour looks at him which, tliough harmless, are not pleasant. While we are '.hus unconstrained in our private intercourse, a spirit of reverence jiervades our public acts ; we are pre- vented from doing wrong by respect for author- ity and for the laws, having an especial regard to those which are ordained for the protection of the injured as well as to those unwritten laws wliich bring upon the transgressor of them tlie reprobation of the general sentiment. And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil ; we have regu- lar games and sacrifices throughout the year; at home tlio style of our life is refined ; and the delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish melancholy. Because of tlie greatness of our city the fruits of tlie whole earth flow in upon us; so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as of our own. Then, again, our military training is in many respects superior to that of our adversaries. Our city is tlirown open to the world, and we never expel a forjjigner or prevent him from seeing or learning anything of whicii the secret if revealed to an enemy might profit him. We rely not upon management or trickery, but upon our own liearts and hands. And in the matter of education, whereas they from early youth are always under- going laborious exercises which are to make them brave, we live at e.ase, and yet are equally ready to face the Lacedaemonians come into Attica not by tliemsclves, but witli their whole confederacy following ; we go alone into a neighbour's country ; and although our opponents are fighting for their homes and we on a foreign soil we liav(! seldom any dilHculty in overcoming them. Our enemies have never yet felt our uiiiteil strength; the care of a navy divides our attention, and on land we are ol)liged to send ourt wn citi/.eiis everywhere. But tliey, if they tr 'ot and defeat a part of our army, are as proud as it they had routed us all, and when defeated they pretend to have been v.uiquished by us all. If then wo prefer to meet danger with a light heart but without laborious training, and with a courage which is gained by habit and not enforced by law, are we not greatly the gainers V Since we ilo not anticipate the pain, although, when the hour come", we can be us brave as those who never m'Io- .hemselves to rest; and thus too our city is eq ,.;iy admirable in peace and in war. For we are lovers of the bi'autiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cul- t; > ite the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk and ostimtation, but when there is a real use for it. To avow iiov- erty with us is no disgrace; the true disgrace is in iloing nothing to avoid it. An Atlienian citi- zen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his own household; and tivnx those of us who are (Migaged in business have a very fair idea of politics. Wo alone regard a man who takes no interest in public alTairs, not as a harm- less, but as J. useless character; and if few of us are originators, we are all sound jrdges of a policy. The great impediment to action is, in our opinion, not discu.ssion, but the want of that knowledge whicli is gained by discussion pre- paratory to action. For we have a peculiar power of thinking before we act and of acting too, whereas otiier man are courageous from ignorance but hesitate upon retlection. And they are surely to be esteemed the bravest spirits who, having tlie clearest sense both of the pains and pleasures of life, do not on that account shrink from dan- ger. In doing good, again, we are unlike others ; we make our friends by conferring, not by re- ceiving favours. Now he who ■ outers a favour is the firmer friend, because he would fain by kindness keep alive the memory of an obligation; but the recipientis colder in his feelings, because he knows that in requiting another's generosity he will not bo winning gratitude but only paying a debt. Wo alone do good to our neighbours not upon a calculation of interest, but in the confi- dence of freedom end in a frank and fearless spirit. To sum up; I say that Atliens is the school of Hellas, and that the individual Athe- nian in Ills own person seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action witti the utmost versatility and grace. This is no passing and idle word, but truth and fact ; and tlie assertion is verified by tlio position tc whicli these qualities have rai.sed the state. For in the hour of trial Athens alone among her contemporaries is superior to the report of her. No enemy who comes against her is indignant at the reverses which he sustains at the hands of such a city ; no subject complains that his mas- ters are unworthy of him. And we shall as- suredly not be without witnesses; there are mighty monuments of our power which will make us the wonder of this and of succeeding ages; we shall not need the praises of Homer or of any other panegyrist whose poetry may please for the moment, althougli his representation of the facts will not bear the light of day. For wo 169 ATHENS, B. C. 430. i>*unfirnl Orntion of Pericles. ATHENS, B. C. 480. have rompcllrd pvcry Ifintl anrt pvery SPd to open a piltJi for our valour, iind liiivc everywhere planted eleriiiil inenioriiils of our friemlsliip and of our <'r'niitv. Su('li is the eily for \vlios(^ sake tliesi' men nolily fou(.;lil and died; lliey could not iH'ar the thouuhl tliat slie niii;lit Ite talten from them ; and ev<'ry one of um who .survive should gladly toil on her behalf. I have dwelt upon the greatness of Athens because I want to show you that we are contending for a higher ])ri/.e than tho.se who enjoy none of these privileges, and to cstalilisli by manifest proof the merit of these men whom I am now commemorating. Their loftiest i>raise has been already spoken. For in magnifying the city I have magnitied them, and men like them whose virtues made her glorious. Arid of how few Hellenes can it be said as of them, that their deeds when weighed in the balance have been found equal to their fame! Melhinks that ii death such as theirs has been gives tli(! true measure of a man's worth; it may be the lirst r<!velation of his virtues, but is at any rate their tiiial seal. For even those who come short in other ways may justly plead the valour with which they have fo;ight for their coimtry ; they have blotted out the evil with the good, and have benelited the state more by their public services than they have injured her by their pri- vate actions. None of these men were enervated by wi.'alth or hesitated to resign the pleasures of life; none of them put off the evil day in the hope, natural to poverty, that a man, though poor, may one day become rich. But, deeming that the punishment of their enemies was sweeter than any of these things, and that they could fall in no nobler cause, they determined at the haxiird of tlieir lives to be honourably avenged, and to leave the rest. They resigned to hope their un- known chance of happiness ; but in the face of death they resolved to rely upon themselves alone. And when the moment came they were minded to resist and suffer, rather than to liy and sjive their lives; they ran away from the word of dishonour, but on the battle-field their feet stood fast, and in an instant, at the height of their fortime, they passed away from the scene, not of their fear, but of their glory. Such was tli . end of these men ; they were worthy of Athens, and the living need not desirj to liave a more heroic spirit althoug''. they may pray for a less fatal issue. The value of such a spirit is not to be expressed in words. Any one candiscour.se to you for ever about the advantages of a brave de- fence which you know already. But instead of listiming to him I woidd have you day by day fl.K your eyes upon the greatness of Athens, until you become tilled with the love of her; and when you are injpressed by the spectncle of her glory rctl(!ct that this empire has been acquireil by men who knew their duty and had the courage to do it ; who in the hour of conliict liad the fear of dishonour always present to them, and who, if ever they failed in an enterprizc, would not allow tlieir virtues to be lost to their country, but freely gave their lives to her as the fairest olfering which tliev could present at her feast. The saeriliee which they collectively made was individually repaid to them; for they received again each one for himself a praise which grows not old, and the noblest of all sepulchres — I speak not of that in which their remains are laid, but of tlnit in which their glory survives, and is pro- claimed always and on every tittiug occasion both in word and deed. For the whole earth is the sepulch.e of famous men; not only are they <!ommemorat(!d by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but in foreign lands there ilwellsalsoan unwritten memorial of them, graven not on stone but in the hearts of men. iMake them your e.xamphis, and esteeming courage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not weigii too nicely the perils of wn-. The un- fortunate who has no hope of a cliange for the better has less reason to throw away his life than the prosperous who, if he survive, is always liable to a change for the worse, and to whom any accidental fall makes the most serious dif- ference. To a man of spirit, cowardice and dis- aster coming together are far more bitter tliau death striking him unperceivod at a time when he is full of courage and animated by tlie gen- eral liope. Wherefore I do not now commiserate the parents of the dead who stand here; I would rather comfort them. You know that your life has been passed iimid manifold vici.ssitudes; and that tliey riiay be deemed fortunate who have gained most honour, whether an honourable death like theirs, or an honourable sorrow like yours, and whose days have been so ordered that the term of tlieir liapiiincss is likcwi.se the term of their life. I know how hard it is to make you feel this, when the good fortune of 'Others will too often remind you of the gladness which once lightened your Iiearts. And sorrow is felt at the want of those blessings, not which a man never knew, but which were a part of his life before they were taken from him. Some of you are of an age at wliicli they may hope to have other children, and they ought to bear their sorrow better; not only will the children who may here- after be born make them forget their own lost ones, but the city will be doubly a gainer. She will not be left desolate, and she will be safer. For a man's counsel cannot have equal weight or worth, when he alone has no chiUlren to risk in the general danger. To those of you who have pas.sed their prime I say; "Congratulate yourselves that you have been happy during the greater part of ytmr days ; remember that your life of sorrow will 'lot last long, and be comforted by the glory of tho.se who are gone. For the love of honour alone is ever young, and not riches, as some say, but honour is the delight of men when they are old and useless. " To you who a.x! the sons and brothers of the departed, I see that the struggle to emulate them will be an arduous one. For all men praise the dead, and, however pre-eminent your virtue may be, hardly will you be thought, I do not say to equal, but even to approach t'-em. The living have their rivals and detractors but when a man is out of the way, the honour rud good-will which he re- ceives is unalloyed. And, if I am to speak of womanly virtues to those of you wlio will hence- forth be widows, let me sum them up in one short admonition: To a woman not to show more weakness than is natural to her sex is a great glory, and not to be talked about for good or for evil among men. I have paid the required tribute, iu obedience to the law, making use of such lil- ting words as I bad. The tribute of deeds has been paid in part ; for the dead have been honour ably interred, and it remains only that their children should be maintained at the public charge until they are grownup: this is the solid prize with which, as with a garland, Athens crowns 170 ATHENS, B. C. 430. The Plague. ATHENS, B. C. 429-421. licr sons living and duad, after a struggle like iheirs. For where tlio rewards of virtue are greatest, tliere tlie noblest eitizens are enlisted in tlie serviee of tlie stale. And now, wlien you luueduly lamented, every on(^ Ids own dead, you may depart.' .Sueli was I lie order of tlie funeral eeleljrated in tliis winter, with the end of wiiieli ended the first yciir of the I'elopoiiiiesian War." — Tliueydides, Jlixton/, tnin/i. In/ li. Jiiirctt, v. 1, l,k. 2, md. :«-47. B. C. 430-429. — The Plague in the city.— Death of Pericles. — Capture of Potidaea. — "As soon as the summer returiieil [H. ('. 4;il)J tlie Ptloponne.sians . . . invaded Attiea, whc: tliey estal)lislie(l themselves and ravaged tlie conn' y. Tiiey had not been tliere many days when tlie plagui broke out at Athens for tiie lirst time. . . . The disease is said to liave be- gun south of Eirypt in ^'Ethiopia; thenco it de- scended into Egypt and Libya, and after spread- ing over tile greater part of the Persian Empire, iiiddenly f"ll upon Athens. It lirst attacked the iiihabilauts of the I'iranis, and it was sujiposcd lliat the Peloponnesians liad poisoned the cis- terns, no conduits having as yet been made there It afte. wards reached the ujiper city, and then the mortality became far gn^ater. As to its i)robab'" origin or the causes which miglit or could lia\e produced such a disturbance of nature, every man, whetlier a ])liysician or not, will give liis own opinion. But I shall deserit)e its actual course, and the symptoms by whicli any one who knows them beforehand may recog- nize the disorder should it ever reappear. For I was myself attacked, and witnessed the sulTer- ings of others. The season was admitted to have been remarkably free from ordinary sick- ness; and if anybody was already ill of any other disease, it was absorbe<I in this. JIany who were in perfect health, all in a moment, and without any apparent .eason, wre seized with violent heats in tlie head and with redness and inllammation of the eyea. Internally the throat and tongue were quickly sulfused with blood and the breath became unnatural and fetid. Tliere followed sneezing and hoarseness; in a short time the disorder, accompanied by a vio- lent cough, reached tlie chest; then fastening lower down, it would movt the stomacli and bring on all the vomits of bile to which physi- cians have ever given names; and they were very distressing. . . . Tlic Ijody L.>.ternally was not so very hot to the touch, nor yet pale; it was a livid colour inclining to red, and breaking out in pustules and ulcers. Bui the internal fever Aasiiiteii.se. . . . The disorder wliieh had origi- nally .se'tled in the head passed gradually through the whole body, and, f a person got over th? worst, would often seize the extremi- ties and leave its mark, attacking the privy parts and the lingers and toes: and some ese:ipeil witli the loss of these, some with the loss of tlieir eyes. . . . The crowding of the i)eoi)le out of the country into the city aggravated the mi.sery; and tlie newly-arrived suffered most. . . . The mortality among them was dreadful and the}' perished in wild disorder. Tlie (U^ad lay as they liad died, one upon another, while others harilly alive wallowed in the streets and crawled about every fountain craving for water. The temples In which they lodged wore full of tlie corpses of those who died in them; for the violence of the calamity was such that men, not knowing where to turn, grew reckless of all law, human and divine. . . . Tlie pleasure of the moment and any sort of thing which conduced to it took the ])laee both of lainour and of expediency. No fear of God or law of ni;in dclerrcd a <riiiiinal." Territieil by the idau'ue, when they learned of it, tlie Pel ipoiiiu'sians retreated from Attica, after ravaging it for forty days; but, in the mean- time, their own coasts liad been ravaged, as be- fore, l)y tlie Athenian lleet. And now, being caco more relieved from the presence of the enemy, tliough still gri(!Voii.sly alUicted liy the plague, tl'.e Atheiii.ins turned upon I'ericles with co'n- l)laints ami reproaches, and imposed a tine upon liim. They also sent envoys to .Sparta, with I)eai proposals wiiieh received no encourage- ineiK. But Pericles spoke calmly and wisely to the people, and they acknowledged llieir sense of depend nee upon him l>y re-electing him gen- eral and committing again "all their alfairs to his charge." But lie was stricken next year with the ])lague, and, lingering for some weeks in bi )ken Inuillh, he died in the summer of 429 B. C. By his d'Htli tlie republic was given over to striving dem.igogues and factions, at just the time when a capable brain and hand were needed in its government ino^t. The war went on, acquiring more ferocity of temper with every campaign. It was especially emliittered in the course of the second summer by the execution, at Athens, of several Lacedaemonian envoys who were caiitiired while on their way to solicit help from the Persian king. One of these un- fortunate envoys was Aristeus, who liad organ- ized the defence of Potidaea. That city was still holding out against the Atheniaiis, who block- aded it obstinately, although their troops suf- fered frighifully from the plague. But in the winter of 430-429 B. C. they sueeumbeil to star- vation and surrendered tliei'' town, being per- mitted to depart in search of a new home. Potidaea was then peopled anew, with colonists. ^Tliueydides, Histori/, ti: by Jowdt, bk. 2, sect. 8-1 J. Also xn: E. Abbott, Perklca and tlie Golden Age of AtJions, eh. IS-I,--..— W. W. Lloyd, The A;/e of Pericles, eh. G4 (c. 2).— L. Wliibley, Politi- eitl Parties in Athens during the Pehponncsian War. — W. Wachsmuth, Ili.it. Antiquities of the (iri;/c.i. .lais. 02-04 (r. 3). B. C. 429-421.— After Pericles. — The rise of the Demagogues. — "When Periels rose to ])ower it would have been possible to frame a Pan-llellenic union, in wliich Sparta and Athens would have beiai die leading states; and such a dualism wiuld have been the best guarantee for the riglits of the smaller cities. AVliee he died there was 110 policy left but v.ar with Sparta, .ind conquest in tli(! West. And not only so, but there was no politician who could adjust the relations of domestic war and foreign conquest. Tlie Athenians ])assed frorri one to the other, as they were addressed by Cleon or Alcibiatles. yVa cannot wonder tliat the men who lived in those days of trouble spoke bitterly of Pericle-s, holding him accountable for the miseries which fell upon Athens. Other statesmen had be- queathed good laws, as Solon and Clisthenes, or the memory of great achievements, as Themisto- cles or Citnon, but the only changes which Pericles liad introduced W(!rc thought, not with- out rciuson, to be elianges for the worse ; and be left his countrv involved iu a ruinous war." — E. in ATHENS, B. C. 429-421. nine of the Demagogues. ATHENS, U. C. 424-406. Abbott, Pericleji and tlic OoUlen Age of Atlienii, j)/). 'M'i-',Wi. — "Tli(' nionil clmnfif wliieli had . . . bcfiillcn thr Attic comimiiiity hud, it is true, even iluriiii; th(^ lifetime of Pericles, iimiil- festcd itself by means of .siillleieiitly clear pre- monitory sipiis; but Pericles Imd, not withstand- ing, up to the days of his last illness, leniained the centre of the state; the people had ajfainand again returned to him, and by subordinating themselves to the personal authority of Pericles had succeeded in recovering the demeanor which betitted them. Hut now tlie voice was hushed, which liad been able Ic sway the unndy citizens, even again.st their will. No other authority was in existence — no aristocracy, no ollicial class, no board of experienced statesmen — nothing, in fact, to which the citizens miglit have looked for guidance and control. The multitude had re- covered absolute independence, and in propor- tion a.s, in the interval, readiness of speech and sophistic v(!rsatility had spread in Athens, the number ha<l increased of those who now put themselves forward as popular speakers and lea<lers. But as, among all these, none was capable of leading the multitude after the fashion of Pericles, •• notlier method of lca<ling the people, another kind of demagogy, sprung into existence. Pericles stood above the multitude. . . . Ills successors were obligc<l to adopt other means ; in order to" ac(iuire inlluence, they took ndvnn- tnge not so much of the strong as of the weak points in the character of the citizens, and achieved popularity by flattering their inclina- tions, auil endeavoring to satisfy the cravings of their baser nature. . . . Now for the first time, men hidonging to the lower class of citizens thrust themselves forward to play a part in politics, — men of the trading and artisan class, the culture and wealth of which had so vigor- ously increased at Athens. . . . The ofBce of general frequently became a post of martyrdom ; and the bravest men felt that the prospect of being called to accovmt as to their campaigns by cowardly demagogues, before a capricious mul- titude, disturbed the straightforward joyousness of their activity, and threw obstacles in the way of their successes. . . . On the orators' tribune the contrast was more striking. Here the first prominent successor of Pericles was n certain Eucrates, a rude and uneducated man, wlio was ridiculed on the —imic stage as the 'boar' or 'bear of Melite' (the name of the district to which he belonged), a dealer in tow and mill- owner, who only for a short space of time took tlio lead in the popular as.sembly. His place was taken by Ly sides, who had actiuired wealtli by tho cattle-trade. ... It was not until after Lysicles, that tho demagogues attained to power who had first made themselves a name by their op- positi<m against Pericles,and, among tliem,Cleon was tho first who was able to maintain hisauthority for a longer period of fime; .so that it is in his pro- ceedings during tlie ensuing years of the war that the whole character of the new demagogy first thoroughly manifests itself." — E. C' rtius. History of Greece, v. ii, ch. 3. — "Tlic cha' .tors of tho militiiry commander and the political leader were gradually separated. Tho first gcrni'' of this division wo find in the days of Kimon and PerikiiS.s. Kimon was no mean poli- tician; but his real genius clearly called him to warfare witli the Barbarian. PoriklOs was an uble and successful general; but in him the military character wa.' quite sulionlinnte to tliat of the political I'lwfer It was a wise com- promise wliich ^ ciiiiisted Kimon with the de- fence of the .state abroad and PeriklOs with its muaagetnent at liome. After PeriklCs the separa- tion widened. We nowhere hear of DOmos- tlienPs and Phormion as political leaders; and even in Nikias the political is subordinate to the military character. Kleon, on tho other hand, was a politician but not a soldier. But the old notion of combining military and pol'tical i)osi tion was not quite lost. It was still deemed that h(^ who propo.sed a warlike expedition should himself, if it were needful, be able to conduct it. Kleon in an evil hour was tempted to take on himself military functions; ho was force<l into connnand against SphaktOria ; by tho able and h)yal help of DflmosthonCs he accjuitted himself with honour. But his head was turned by suc- cess; he iispircd to independent command; he measured himself against tho mighty Brasidas; ind the fatal battle of Amphipolis was tho result. It now became clear that the I)omagogue and the General must commonly bo two distinct persons. Tlie versatile genius of AlkibiadOs again united the two cliaracters ; but ho left no successor. . . . A Demagogue then was simply an influ- ential speaker of popular politics. DOmosthenfis is commonly distinguished as an orator, while Kleon is branded as a Demagogue; but tho position of tho ono was the same as the position of tho other. The only (juostion is as to tho wisdom and honesty of the advice given either by Kleon or by D6mostlienf5s. " — E. A. Freeman, JliHtorknl Essays, 2dser.,pp. 138-140. B. C. 429-427. — Fate of Plataea.— Phormio's Victories. — Revolt of Lesbos. — Siege of Mity- lene. — Cleon's bloody decree and its reversal. See Greece : B. C. 4'29-127. B. C. 425. — Seizure of Pylus by Demos- thenes, the general. — Spartans entrapped and captured at Sphacteria. — Peace pleaded for and refused. See Queece: U. C. 43.'). B. C. 424-406. — Socrates as soldier and citizen. — The trial of ths Generals. — " Socrates was born very shortly before the year 469 B. C. His father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor, his mother, Pha;narete, a midwife. Nothing lefi- nito is known of his moral and intellectual development. There is no speciflc record of him at all until he served at the siege of Potidica (433 B. C.-429 B. C.) when lie was nearly forty years old. All that we can say is that his youtii and manhood were passed in the most S])len(liil period of Athenian or Greek history. ... As a boy ho received the usual Athenian liberal edu- cation, in music and gymnastic, an education, tliat is to say, mental and physical. He was fond of quoting from the existing Greek lit'Mii- ture, and he seems to have boon familiar with it, especially with Homer. Ho is represented by Xenophon as repeating Prodicus' fable of the choice of Heracles at length. He says that he was in tlie habit of studying witli his friends ' the treasures which tlio wise men of old have left us in their books:' coUection.s, that is, of the short and pithy sayings of the seven sages, such as 'know thyself; a saying, it may be noticed, which lay at the root of his wliole teaching. And ho had some knowledge of mathematics, and of science, as it existed in those days. He understood something of astronomy and of advanced geometry; and he 172 ATHENS, H. C. 424-400. Sorrntffi n» Soldier and Citizen. ATIIKN8, B. C. 421. was PcqiminJcd with cortnin, at any rate, of the tlico'.ics of Ills i)U'ilect'ssorw iii iiliilosopliy, the ]"iysiail or C.'osmicii' pliilosoplitTs, such as llcraclitusund Piirnu'iiiilos, and, espi'cially, with tliose of Anaxairoras. But tliero is no trust wort liy pvideuce whicli I'nahles us to jro licyond the bare fact tliat In: had sudi kuowli'd^tc . . . All tlien tliat we can say of the lirst forty years of Socrates' life consists of general statements like these. During these years there is no specific record of hii7i. Between 4;J3 H. C:. and 429 B. C;. he served as a common soldier at the siege of Potidiua, nn Athenian ilependency which had revolted, and surpassed every one in his powers of enduring hunger, thirst, and cold, and all the hardships of a severe Thracian winter. At this siege we liear of him for the lirst time in con- nection witli Alcibiades, whose life he saved in a skirmish, and to whom lie eagerly relinciuished the prize of -'alour. In 431 B. C. the Pelopon- licsian W"' nroke out, and in 424 B. C. the Athenian. were disastrously defeated and routed by the Tliebans at the battle of Deliuni. Socrates and Laches were among the fuw who (lid not yield to panic. They retreated together steadily, and the resolute bearing of Socrates was conspicuous to friend and foe alike. Had all the Athenians behaved as he did, says Laches, in the dialogue of that name, the defeat would have been a victory. Socrates fought bravely a third time at the battle of Amphipolis [422 B. C] against the Peloponnesian Torces, in which the commander.:; on both sides, Cleon and Brasidas, were killed : but there is no record of liis specific services on that occasion. About the .same time that Socrates was displaying con- spicuous courage in the cause of Atliens at Delium and Amphipolis, Aristophanes was hold- i!ig him up to hatred, contempt, and ridicule in the comedy of the Clouds [B. C. 423]. . . . The Clouds is his protest against tlic Immorality of free thought and the Sophists. He cliosc Socrates for his central figure, chieliy, no doubt, on acco uit of Socrates' well-known and stninge l)ersonal appearance. The grotesciue \igliness, and Hat nose, and prominent eyes, ami Silenns- like face, and shabby dress, might be seen every (lay in the streets, and were familiar to every Athenian. Aristophanes cared little — probably he did not take the trouble to find out — that Socrates' whole life was spent in flgliting against the Sophists. It was enough for him tliat .Socrates did not accept the traditional beliefs, and was a good centre-piece for a comedy. . . . Tile Clouds, it is needless to say, is a gross and absurd libel from beginning to end: but Aristophanes hit tlic popular conception. The charges whicli he made in 423 B. C. stuck to Socrates to the end of his life. They are exactly the charges made Ijy popular prejudice, against wliieh Socrates defends himself in the first ten chapters of the Apology, and whicli he says have been so long ' in the air. ' He formulates them as follows: ' Socrates is an evil doer who busies himself with investigating things beneath the eartli and in the sky, and \vlio makes the worse appear the better reason, and who teaches others these same things.'. . . For sixteen years after the battle of Amphipolis we hear nothing of Socrates. The next events in his life, of which there is a specific record, are those narrated by himself in the twentieth chapter of the Apology. They illustrate, as he meant them to illustrate, r his invincible moral courage. ... In 40fl B. C. the Athenian lleet defeated the Lacedn'inonians at the battle of Argimisa', so called from some small islands olT the south-east point of Lesbos. After the battle the Athenian commanders omitted to recover the bodies of their dciid, and to save the living from olT their disableil enemies. The Athenians at home, on hearing of this, were furious. The due performance of funeral rites was a very sacred duty with the Greeks; and many citizens mourned "for friends and relatives who had been left to drown. The commanders were immediately recalled, and an assemlily was held in which they were accused of neglect of duty. Tliey defended themselves by saying that they had ordered certain inferior olUcers (amongst others, their accuser Tliera- menes) to perform the duty, but that a storm had come on which had rendered the perform- ance impossible. The debate was adjourned, and it was resolved that the Senate shouUl decide in what way the command' rs should be tried. The Senate resolved tl\iit the Athenian j)eople, having heard tlie accusation and the defence, should proceed to vote forthwith for the acquittal or condemnation of the eight com- manders collectively. The resolution was grossly unjust, and it was illegal. It substi- tuted a popular vote for a fair and formal trial. . . . Socniles was at that time a member of the Senate, the only ollice that he ever filled. The Senate was coinpcjsed of five hundred citizens, elected by lot, fifty from each of the ten tribes, and holding ofllce for one year. The members of each tribe held the Prytany, that is, were responsible for the conduct of business, for thi.ty-fivo days at a time, and ten out of the fifty were proedri or presidents every seven days in succession. Every bill or motion was exam- ined by the proedri before it was sulmiitted to the Assembly, to see if it were in accordance with law ; if it was not, it was (luashed : one of the proedri presided over the Senate and the As- semlily each day, and for one day only : he was called the Epistates: it was his duty to put the (piestion to the vote. In short he was the speaker. ... On the day on which it was pro- posed to take a collective vote on the ac((uittal or condemnation of the eight commanders, Socrates was Epistates. Tlie propo.siil was, as we have seen, illegal: but the people were furious against the accused, and it was a very jiopular one. Some of the proedri opposed it before it was submitted to the Assembly, on tlic ground of its illegality; but they were" silenced by threats and subsided. Socrates alone refused to give way. lie would not put a question which he knew to be illegal, to the vote. Threats of suspension a-id arrest, the clamour of an angry people, the fear of imprisonment or dcatli, could not move liim. . . . But his authority lasted only for a day ; the proceedings were adjourned, a more i)liant Epistates suc- ceeded him, and the generals wore condemned and executed. " — F. . I. Church, Intrmi to Trial and Detlth of Somites, pp. 9-23. — See, also, GilEKCE: B. C. 406. B. C. 421. — End of the first period of the Peloponnesian War. — The Peace of Nicias. — " The first stage of the Peloponnesian war came to an end just ten years after the invasion of Attica by Archidamus in 431 B. C. Its results hiid been almost purely negative; a vast quan- ATHENS, B. C. 421. Siritian Kxpfdition, ATIIRNS, n. C. 415. tUy of blofKl mid troftsuro hud been wo.stod on each sidi), but In no great purpose. Thi,' AUicniaii naval power was unimpaired, ii'id the confederacy nf Delos, lliDUirl. sliiikcii b, tlie suece.ssful revolt of Anipliipolis anil the T jiice- ward towns, was still left siibsistiii!;. On the other liaiid. the attempts of Athens to aeeom- plish aiiytliiiii; on land had entirely failed, anil the defensive pulley of I'erieli'S had been so far jiistilied. Well would it have been for Athens if her eiti/.i as had taken the h^ssoii to heart, and conti'iili'd tl.emselves with having escaped .so easily from the greatest war they had ever known." — C. SV. (,'. (Jiuan, Jfi.il. of Uneee, p. 341. — "Thr! tr^Mity called .since ancient times the Pi ,.ec of AiciiLS . . . put an end to the war be- tween the 1 wo Greek confederations of states, after it had lasted for rather more than ten years, vi/,., fro, a the attack of the Huiotians upon Plala'ie. ()1. l.\.\xvii, ' (beginning of April 1!. (.'. 4:!1) to Ol. l.\x\..\. H (towards the uuddle of April H. ('. 4','1). ''"lie war was for this reason known under the name of the Ten Years' War, while the Poloponnesians called it the Attii' War. Its end constilutod a triumph for Athens; for all the plans of the enemies who had attacked her had come to naught ;. 'Sparta had been unable to fullil a sin- gle one of the i)romises with which she had entered upon the war, and was ultimately forced to acknowledgi! the domiiuon of Atheiis in its whole extent, — notwithstanding all the mistakes and ndsgivings, notwithstanding all the calami- ties attributable, or not, to the Athenians them- .•ielves; the' resources of otTence and defence which the city owed to Pericles had therefore ])roved their excellence, and all the fury of her opponeiUs had wasted itself against her in vain. S..arta herself was s.itistied with the advantages which the jieace offered to her own city and citi- zens; but great was the discontent among her confederates, i)articularly among the secondary .states, who had originally occasioned the war and obliged Sparta to take l)art in it. Even after the conclusion of the ])eace, it was imi)os- sible to iniluce Thebi's and Corinth to accede to it. The result of the war to Sparta was there- fore the dissolution of t'.'e confeder.tion at whose head she had begun the war; she felt herself thereby placed in so dangerously isolated a posi- tion, that she was obliged to fall back upon Athens in self-defence against her own confeder- ates. Aci:ordingly the Peace of Xicias was in the course of the same year converted iiUo a lifty years' alliance, under the terms of which Sparta and Athens contracted the obligation of mutual assistance against any hostile attack." — E. Cur- tius, I/i>sl. of Grcfce, Ik. 4, c/t 3 {o. 3).- — See, also, Gheece: B. C. 4'J-l-l'il. B. C. A21-418. — New combinations. — Con- flicting; alliances with Sparta and the Argive Confederacy. — Rising influence of Alcibiades. — War m Argos and Arcadia.- -Battle of Man- tinea. See GlUiKCE: 15. ('. 4ei-llS. B. C. 416. — Siege and conquest of Melos. — Massacre of the inhabitants. See Giieece: IJ. I'. 110. B. C. 415. — The expedition against Syra- cuse.— Mutilation of the Hermae (Hermai). — A ((uarrel having broken out in Sicily, between the ci ies of Segesta and .Selinous. "the latter obtained aid from Syracuse. Upon this, Segesta, httviug vainly sought help from Carthago, ap- I pealed to Athens, where the exiled Sicili. ins were ruinerous. Alkibiades liad been one of the nio.st ; urgent for the attack upon .Melos, and he did not I lose the present opportunity to incite the Athen- i ians to an enterprise of much greater importaiici'. j and where he hoped to be in command \ll men's minds were tilled with iimbitious hopes. Everywhere, says I'liilarcli, were to be seen young men in the gymnasia, old men in work- shops and public places of meeting, drawing tho map of Sicily, talking about the sea that sur- rounds it, tlie goodness of its harbors, its jiosi- tion opposite Africa. Established there, it would 1)e ea.sy to cross over and subjugate t'arthage, and extend their sway as far as the Pillars of Hercules. The rich diet not approve of this rash- ness, but feared if they opposed it tliat the op- posite faction would aecu'.e them of wishing to avoid the service and costs of arming galleys, Nikias had more courage; even after the Athen- ians had apMointed him general, with Alkibiades and Lamachos, lie spoke i)ublicly against the enterprise, showed the imprudence of going in search of new subjects when those they already had were at the moment in a state of revolt, as in (.'halkidike, or only waited for a di-saster to break the chain which bound them to Athens. He ended by reproaching Alkibiades for jdunging the republic, to gratify his iiersonal ambition, into a foreign war of tiic greatest danger. . . . One of the demagogues, however, replied that he would put an end to all this hesitation, and he ])roposed and si cured the pas-sage of a decree giving the generals full jiower to use all the resources of the city in preparing for the expedi- tion (March 24, 415 li. ('.) Nikias was com- pletely in the right. 'I'lie eviiedition to Sicily was impolitic and foolish. In the ^Ega'an Se.", lay the empire of Athens, and there only it could lie, within reach, do. e at liand. Every aciiuisition westward of the Peloponnesos was a source of weakness. Syracuse, even if coniiuered, would not long remain subject. Whatever might be the result of the expedition, it was sure to be di.sastrous in the end. . . . An event which took place shortly before the departure of the lieet (8-9 June) threw terror into the city: one morn- ing the hermai throughout the city were seen to have been mutilated. . . . 'These Henna;, or half-statues of the god llermfts, were bl'"ksof marble about the height of the human ,,Mire. The upper part was cut into a head, face, neck and bust; tho lower i)art was left as a quad- rangnlar pillar, broad at the base, without ar'us, body, or legs, but with the significant mark of the male sex in front. They were distributed in great numbers throughout Athens, and always in the most cousiiicuous situations; standing he- side tho outer doors of i)rivate houses as veil as of temples, uear the most frequented porticos, at the intersection of cross ways, in the public agora. . . . The religious feelings of the Greeks considered the god to be planted or domiciled where his statue stood, so that the companion- ship, sympathy, and guardianship of Hennas became a.ssociated wliii most of the manifesta- tions of conjunct life at Athens, — politinil. social, commercial, or gymuiistie. ' . . . To all ])ious minds the city seeiued menaced with great misfortunes uide.ss the anger of Heaven should be appeased by a suHicient expiation. While Alkibiades hail many partisans, he had also vio- lent enemies. Not long before this time Hyper- 174 ATHENS, B. C. 415. Sicilinn Kxpedition. ATHEr^S, B. C. 415-418. bolos, a contemptible man, had almost liucceedcd In obtaining; his banishment ; and he had cacapod this danger only by uniting his party with that of Nikias, and causing the demagogue himself to sulTcr ostracism^ The affair of the hernial ap- peared to his adversaries a favourable occasion to repeat the attempt made by Ilyperbolos, and we have good reason to believe m a political machination, seeing this same populace applaud, a few months later, ihc impious audacity of Aristophanes in his comedy of The Birds. An inquiry was set on foot and certain mctoikoi and slaves, without making any de|)03ition as to the hermai, recalled to mind that before this time 8<)me of these statues had been broken by young men after a niglit of carousal and intoxication, thus indirectly attacking Alkibiadcs. Others in set terras accused him of having at a banquet parodied the Eleusinian Mysteries; and men took, advantage of the superstitious terrors of the peo- ple to awake their political an.\ieties. It was re- peated that the breakers of sacred statues, the profaners of mysteries, would respect the gov- ernment even less than they had respected the gods, and it was whispered tliat not one of these crimes had been committed without the partici- pation of Alkibiades; and in proof of tills men spoke of the truly aristocratic license of his life. Was he indeed the author of this sacri- legious freak? To believe him capable of it would not bo to calumniate him. Or, on the other hand, wiis it a sclicme planned to do him injury? Although proofs are lacking, it is cer- tain that among the rich, upon whom rested the heavy burden of thr naval expenses, a plot had been formed to destroy the power of Alkibiades, and perhaps to prevent the sailing of the fleet. The demagogue- who had intoxicated tlie peo pie with hope, vVmc for the expedition; but the popularity of Alkibiades was obnoxious to them : a compromise was made between the two fac- tions, as is often done in times when public morality is enfeebled, and Alitibiades found him- self thteatcncd on all sides. . . . Urging as a pretext the dangers of delay In sending off the expedition, they obtained a decree that Alkibiades should embark at once, and that the question of his guilt or innocence should be postponed until after his return. It was now the mitldle of summer. The day appointed for departure, the whole city, citizens ;, nd foreigners, went out to Pciraieus at daybreak. ... At tliat moment the view was clearer as to the doubts and dangers, and also the distance of the expedition ; but all eyes were drawn to the immense preparations that had been made, and contidenco and pride consoled those who were about to jjort. " — V. Du- ruy, Iliat. of the Orcek People, ch. 25, si:ct. 3 (c. 3). Also in: Thucydides, History, bk. 0, sect. 37-38. — Q. \V. Cox, The Athenian, Empire, ch. 5. — G. Qrote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, ch. rtS (o. 7). B. C. 415-413. — Fatal end of the expedition against Syracuse. — ' ' AlkibiadSs was called back to Athens, to take his trial on a charge of im- piety. . . . He did not go back to Athens for his trial, but escaped to Peloponn6sos, where we shall hear from him again. Meanwhile the com- tLanil of the Athenian force in Sicily was left pruuiically in the hands of Nikias. I w Nikias could always act well when he did ^ct; but it was very hard to make hira act; above all on an errand which he hated. One might say that Syracuse was saved through the delays of Nikias. He now went off to petty expediticms in the west of Sicily, under cover of settling matters at Segesta. . . . Thi^ Syracusan'j by this time (luito despised the invaders.' Their horsemen rode up to the camp of the Athenians at KatanC, and asked them if they had come into Sicily merely to sit down there as colonists. . . . The wuiter (B. C. 415-414) waschielly spent on both sides in sending embassies to and fro to gain allies. Nikias also sent home to Athens, .skiiig for horsemen and iiumey, and the people, without a word of rebuke, voted him all that ho asked. . . . But the most important embassy of all was that whicli the Syraciisans sent to Corinth and Sparta. Corinth zealously took up the cause of her colony and pleaded for Syracu.se at Sparta. And at Sparta Corinth and Syracuse found a helper in the banished Athenian AlkibiadCs, who was now doing all that he coulil against Athens. ... lie tolil the Spartans to occupy a fortress in Attica, which they soon afterwards did, and a great deal came of it. But he also told them to give vigor- ous help to Syracuse, and above all things to send a Spartan commander. The mere name of Sparta went for a great deal in those days; but no man could have been better chosen than the Spartan who was sent. Ht was Gylippos, the deliverer of Syracuse. He was more like an Athenian than a Spartan, quick and ready of resource, which few Spartans were. . . . And now at last, when the spring came (414) Nikia , was driven to do something. . . . The Athenians . . . occupied all that part of the hill which lay outside the walls of Syracuse. Tliey were joined by their horsemen, Greek and Sikel, and after nearly a year, the siege of Syracuse really began. The object of the Athenians now was to build a wall across the hill and to carry it down to the sea ou both sides. Syracuse would thus be hemmed in. The object of the Syra- cusans was to build a cross-wall of their own, which should hinder the Athenian wall from reaching the two points it aimed at. This they tried more than once ; but in vain. There were several lights on the hill, and at last there was a fight of more importance on the lower ground by the Great Harbour. . . . The Syracusans were defeated, as far as lighting went; but they gained far more than tliey lost. For Lamachos was killed, and with him all vigour passed away from the Athenian camp. At the same moment the Athenian fleet sailed into the Great Harbour, and a Syracusan attack on the Athenian works on the hill was defeated. Nikias remaiued in command of the invaders; but he was grievously sick, and for once in his life his head seems to have been turned by success. He finished the wall on the south side; but he HLglected to finish it on the north side also, so that Syracuse was not really hemmed in. But the hearts of the Syracusans sank. ... It wab at this darkest moment of all thot deliveranc "ime. ... A Corinthian ship, under its cap. i Gongylos, sailed into the Little Harbour. He brought the news that other ships were on their way from PeloponnOsos to the help of Syracuse, and, yet more, that a Spartan general was actually in Sicily, getting together a land force for the same end. As soon as the good news was heard, there was no more talk of surrender. . . . And one day the Athenian camp was startled bjr the ap- pearance of a Lacedajinouian herald, offering them a truce of five days, that they might get them 175 ATHENS, H C. 415-413. Siiilliin Eximlition. ATIIKNS. B. C. 413-418. out of Slrlly with huff iiml bitfCfrnKC Oylippns wiis now on the liill. He of roiirsc did not ex- prct Hint tlic -Vllii'Ti' iirniy W(ml(i rciilly «o iiwiiy in tlvi' days. Hut it wiis ii (^rciit tliinir to sliow lH)tli I" tin- iM'sicKcrs unci tollii^ .Hyrucusiins timt till' deliverer liiiil eonie. iind timt deiiverunee wiH iieiti'i'iinK. Nil<iii,s hiul Iteptsiieli Imd wiitcli thiit (tyiippos and liis triMips li;id come up the lii)l iinii tile Syriu'usims iuwl come out luid met liicm, without his ItnowledKo. Tlie Spiirtiin, as ii mutter of course, tiKilc tlii^ command of tlie wlwile force; he olfcreil Imtlle to tlu^ Atlieniiins, wliicli tliey refused; lie tiien entered the city. Tlie vc^ry next day li(^ liegan to carry out liis Hclieme. Tills was to build ii group of forts near the western end of th(! hill, and to join them to the city by a wall runniiif? east and west, which would hinder the Athenians from ever linishing their wall to the north. Each side went on building, and some small actions took place. . . . Another winter (IJ. I,. 414-413) now cumo on, and with it much sendin;; of envoys. Oylippos went about Sicily collecting fresh troops. . . . Moanwhilo Xikias wrote a letter to the Athenian people. . . . This letter came at a time when the Laccdiemonian alliance had de- termined to renew the war with Athens, and when they were making t^verytliing ready for an invasion of Attica. To miu\ out a new force to Sicily was simple madness. We hear nothing oi the delmt<« in the Athenian assembly, whether any one argued against going on with the Sicilian war, and whether any demagogue laid any blame on Nikias. But the assembly voted that a new force equal to the tirst should be sent out under DflmosthenCs, the best soldier in Athens, and Eurymi ion. . . . Meanwhile the Syracus- ans were strengthened by help both in Sicily and fi )m PeloponnCsos. Their main object now was to strike a blow at the fleet of Nikias before the new force came. ... It had been just when the Syracusaus were most downcast that they were cheered by the coming of the Corinthians and of Gylippos. And just now that their spirits were highest, they were dashed again by the the coming of DflmosthenCs and Eurymcdou. A fleet as great as the first, seventy-five ships, car- rying 5,000 heavy-armed and [a crowd of light troops of every kind, sailed into the Groat Har- bour witli all warlike pomp. The Pclopoui'e- sians were already in Attica ; they had planted a Peloponnesian garrison there, which brouglit Athens to great straits; but the fleet was sent out to Syracuse all the same. DSmosthenCs knew what to do as well as Lamachos liad known. He saw that there was nothing to be done but to try one great blow, and, if that failed, to take the fleet home again. . . . The attack was at first successful, and the Athenians took two of the Syracusan forts. But tlie Thespian allies of Syracuse stood tlieir ground, and drove tlie as- sailants back. Utter confusion followed. . . . The last chance was now lost, and DCmostheu6s was eager to go liome. But Nikias would stay on. . . . When sickne.ss grew in the camp, when fresh help from Sicily and v'lie great body of the allies from Peloponnflsos came into Syra- cuse, ho at last agreed to go. Just at tliat moment the moon was eclipsed. . . . Nikias consulted his .soothsayers, and he gave out that they must stay twciity-niue days, another full n'volution of tlie moon. This resolve wai the destruction of the Ixaieging army. ... It was felt onlMith sides that all would turn on one more flght by sea, the Athenians striving to get out of the liarlxmr, and the Syracusans stnving to keep them in it. The .Synicusiins now blocked up the mouth of th<^ harlHiur by miniring vessels across it. Tlie Athenians left llieir position on thi! hill, a sign that the siege was- ovr'r. and brought their whole force down to the shore. It was no tinu^ now for- any skillful manoeuvres; the chief thing was to make the sea- fight as much as might be like a lanil-tight. a strange need for Athenians. . . . The last, fight now began, 110 Athenian ships against 80 of the Syra(!usans and their allies. Never before did so many ships meet in so small a siiacc. . . . The light was long and confu.sed; at last the Athenians gave way and fled to the shore. The battle and the invasion were over. Syracuse was not only saved ; she had begun to take vengeance on her enemies. . . . The Athenians waited one day, and then set out. hoping to make their way to .some safe place among the friendly Sikels in the inland country. The sick hud to lie left be- hind. . . . On the sixth (hiy, after frightful toil, they determined to cliange their course. . . . They set out in two divisions, that of Nikias going first. Mucli better order was kept in the front division and by the time Nikias reached the river, DOmosthenfls was six miles beliird. . . . In the morning a Syracusan force came up with the frightful news that the whole division of DOmosthenCs were prisoners. . . . The Athenians tried in vain to escape in the night. The next morning they set out, harassed as before, and driven wild by intolerable thirst. They at last reached the river Assinaros, which runs by the present town of Nolo. Tliere was the end. . . . The Athenians were so maddened by thirst that, though men were falling under darts and the water was getting mudJy and bloody, they thought of nothing but drinking. . . . No furtlier terms were made; most of the horse- men contrived to cut their way out; the rest were made prisoners. Most of them were embezzled by Syracusans as their private slaves; but about 7,000 men out of the two divi- sions were led prisoners into Syracuse. Tliey were shut up in the stone-quarries, with nO' furtlier heed than to give each man daily half a slave's allowance of food and drink. Many died ; many were sold ; some escaped, or were set free ; the rest were after a while taken out of the quar- ries and set to work. Tlie generals had made no terms for themselves. HennokratCs wished tO' keep tliem as hostages against future Athenian attempts against Sicily. Gylippos wished tO' take tliem in triumpli to Sparta. The Corinth- ians were for putting them to death ; and so it was done. ... So ended the Athenian invasion of Sicily, the greatest attempt ever made by Greeks against Qreelcs, and that which came to- the most utter failure." — E. A. Freeman, The Story of Sicily, pp. 117-137. Also in: Thucydides, History; trans, by B. Jowett, bk. 6-7 (v. 1). — See, also, Sykacuse: B. C. 415-413. B, C. 4[I3-4I2.— Consequences of the Sicilian Expedition. — Spartan alliance with the Per- sians. — Plotting of Alcibiades. — The Decelian War. — "At Athens, where, even before this, every one hiul been in the most anxious suspense, the news of the loss of the expedition produced a consternation, which was certainly greater than 176 ATHENS, B. C. 418-412. ATHENS, H. C. 413-411. that at limiHi nftor llic buttle of Cimniic, or thiit iu our own (lays, iift(!r tin; Imttlc of .Icna. . . . 'A' li isl 4(),(Am> (■ili/.cMS, allies and ulaves, had perished; and anions them there may easily hav(^ been lO.OOO Athenian rilizens, most of whom be- lonj^ed to the wealthier and hij;her classes. The flower of the Athenian people was destroyed, as at the time of the |)laij;ue. It is iinpossibhf to say what amount of public property may have beeii lost; the whole licet was jforif. The eoiise- qtlcnces of the disaster soon slii'Wed tliemselvc-'. It was to be foreseen that Chios, whieli had loni; been wavering, and whose disposition could not be trust<'d, would avail itself of this moment to revolt; ami the cities in Asia, from whidi Athens derived her lar;^e revenues, were expected to do the siuue. It was, iu fact, to be foreseen, that the four islands of L(«bos, Chios, Sainos, e.nd Rhodes, wcyuld instantly revolt. The Spartan". were established at Decelea, iu Attica itself, and thence ravaKc<l the country far and wide: so that it was impossible to venture to go to the coast without a stroni; escort. .\lthou,i;h there were many districts in which no Spartan was seen from one year's end to the other, yet there was no safety anywhere, except in fortified places, 'and the Athenians were constantly obliiied to guard the walls of their city; and this state of things ba^ already been going on for the last twelve mouths.' In this fearful situation, the Athenian people showed the same flrmuess lus the Komans after the battle of Cannae. Had they but had one great man among them, to whom ihe state could have been entrusted, even more might.per- haps have been done ; but it is astonishing that, although there was no such man, and although the leading men were only second or third-rate persons, yet so many useful arrangements were made to meet the necessities of the case. . . . The most unfortunate circumstance for the Atbcaiaus was, that Alclbiudes, now an enemy of his country, was living among the Spartans; for he Introduced into the undertakings of the Spartans the very element which before they hud been altogether deficient in, namely energy and elasti- city : he urged them on to undertakings, and in- duced them now to send a fleet to Ionia. . . . Erythrae, Tecs, and Jlilctus, one after another, revolted to the Peloponnesians, who now con- cluded treaties with 'Tissaphernes iu the name of the king of Persia — Darius was then king — and in bis own name as satrap ; and iu this manner they sacrificed to bim the Asiatic Greeks. . . . The Athenians were an object of antipathy and implacable hatred to the Persians ; they had never doubted that the Athenians were their real oppo- nents iu Greece, and were afraid of tbem; but they did not fear the Spartans. They knew that the Athenians would take from them not only the islands, but the towns on the main land, anil were in great fear of their maritime power. Hence they joined the Spartans; and the latter Avere not ashamed of negotiating a treaty of sub- sidies with the Persians, in which Tissaphernes, in the king's name, promised the assistance of the Phoenician fleet ; and large subsidies, as pay for the army. ... In return for this, they re- nounced, in the name of the Qret '«, all claims to independence for the Greek cities in Asia." — B. C. Niebubr, Ijfctiircs on Ancient Iliston/, b. 2, lects. 53 and 54.— See, also, Gueece: D. C. 413- 412. Also in; G. Grote, Ilist. of Qreece, eh. CI (». 7). B. C. 413-412. — Revolt of Chios, Miletus, Lesbos and Rhodes from Athens. — Revolu- tion of Samos. .See (lliKt;(i;; 11. C. lilt. B. C. 413-411.— The Probuti. — Intrigues of Alcibtades.— Conspiracy against the Consti- tution. — The Four Hundred and the Five Thousand. — InuncMliately after tlx; dreadful calamity at Syracuse became known, "extraor- dinary measures were adopted by the peo|)le; a number of cili/.ens of advanced age were formed into a deliberative and executive lioily under the name of I'robuli, and empowered to fit out a fleet. Whether this laid the foundation for oli- garchical machinations or not, those aged men were unable to bring back men's minds to their former course; tlie prosecution of tin- H<'rmo- copidie had been most mischievous in its results; various secret associations had sprung up and conspired to reap advantage to themselves from the distress and embarra.Hsmeiit of the stat(s Ibo indignation caused by the infuriated excesses of tlie people <luring that trial, po.ssibly here, as ' fre((uently happened in other Grecian states, determined the more icspectable members of the community to guard against the recurn'uce of .similar scenes iu future, by the establishment of an aristocracy. I^astly, the watchful malice of Alcibiades, who was tlie implacable enemy of that ])opulace, tn whose blind fury he had been sacrificed, battled all attempts to restore confi- dence ami tran((uillity, and there is nodoubt that, whilst he kept up a corresijondence with his par- tisans at home, ho did everything iu his power to increase the i)erplexity and distr'^ss of bis native city from without, in order that ho might be recjilled to provide for its safety and defence. A favourable opportunity for the execution of bis plans presented itself m the fifth year of his exile, 01. (t2. 1; 411. B. C. ; as ho had incurred the suspicion of the Spartjius, and stood high iu the favour of Tissaphernes, the Athenians thought that his intercession might enable them to obtain assistance fn.in the Persian king. The people in Athens were headed by one of liis most inveterate enemies, Androcles; and be well knew that all attempts to cfTect his return would bo fruitless, until this man and the other demago- fjues were removed. Hence Alcibiades entered into negotiations with the commanders of tho Athenian fleet at Samos, respecting the estab- lishment of an oligarchical constitution, not from any attachment to that form of government in itself, but solelv witli the view of promoting his own ends. /'hrynicbus and Pisander were equally insincere in their co-operation with Alci- biades. . . . Their plan was that the latter should reconcile tho people to the change in tho constitution which he wished to effect, by pro- mising to obtain them the assistance of the great king; but they alono resolved to reap the benefit of his exertions. Pisander took upon himself to manage the Athenian ])opulace. It was in truth no slight undertaking to attempt to overthrow a democracy of a hundred and twenty years' standing, and of intense develoDment; biit most of the able bodied citizens were absent with the fleet, whilst such as were still in tho city were confoimded by the imminence of the danger from without; on tho other hand, the prospect of succour from the Persian king doubtless had some weight with them, and they possibly felt some symptoms of returning affection for their former favourite Alcibiades. Nevc-tbeless, Pisan- 177 ATHENS. D. C. 41 1-111. Kilil of Ihr ATHENS. B. C. 404^03. (lor and IiIh urcnnipllcog mnp'.iyocl cmft mid per- 'illy til lU't'oi'iplisli tlii'iril ii^im; tlir pi'opir wiTi; nut jH'rHiiiiilril or riiiiviiicnl, liiit ('iitriiplii'il into coinplianri' willi tlii'ir iiiriiHiirvs. I'ixaiiili.'r giiiiii'il iiviT til his piirpi Hit till- uIhivi' natucil rliilis, mill iiiilncil till' pi'iiplii ti> HiMiil liiiii witli trii pk'iiipDti'iitiiirii's Id till! navy at Sanio.H. In tlin miMin tinii' ilir n'st. of \\w nmspirators prosi-rnti'il till- worl< i>f ri'iniMli'llinn llii' conHtitution." — VV. WiK'lisnmtli, ///W. AntiiiiiitiiK "f the <lreek», v. 3, pp. "J.VJ -','"1."). — I'lii' priipli', or an iissi'mlily cleviTly nmili' up anil niiinipiilati'il tn rrpri'Hr'a th.: pi'iipio, wiTr iniliireil to viiti; all tliu powcrn of KDViTinni'iit Into till) ImiiilH of a cuiincil of Foil. Hnnilrril, of wliirli counril tluM'itixrns appointuil only (Ivo mi'inlttTH. Tlioso tlvo oliosi; nlnoty- flvu moro, to niaku ono liunilrcil, anil uacli of that linnilrril then chose thri'ii colleatjues. The con- gpiralors thus iMsily niailo up the Four llun- druil to tlii'ir likinu;, from tlirirown rankH. This counril was to oiiivi'iu; an assembly of Five Thousand citizens, whenever it saw tit to do so. But when news of this constitutional cliangn renehed the army at Samos, where the Athenian henili)uarters for the iDiiian war were llxed, the citizen soldiers refused to submit to it — repudi- ated it altiijfi'tlier — and orfjanized themselves as ail independent state. The rulinjj spirit umonjj them was Thrasvhulus, iiiid his inlliience bi'ou,t,'ht about a reconciiiation with Alcibiades, then an exile slieltered at the Persian court. Ali-ibiades was recalled by the army and placed nt its head. Presently a reaction at Athens ensued, after the oligarchical i)urty liiid given signs of treasonable communication witli Hparta, and in .lunc the people assembled in the Pny.x and reas.sertcd their sovereignty. " Tlie (Jouncii wa.'i deposed, and the supremo sovereignty of the .state restored to the people — not, however, to the entire mu'titiide; for the principle was retained of reserving full civic rights to a committee of men of .i certain amount of property; and. as the li:.i8 of the Five Tliousand had never been drawn up, it was decreed, in order that the desired end might be speedily reached, to follow the precedent cf similar institutions in otlier states and to constitute all Athenians able to furnish them.selves with a complete military equipment from tlieir own resources, fuUcitizens, •with the rights of voting and participating in the government. Tims the name of the Five Thou- sand had now become a very inaccurate designa- tion; but it was retained, because men had in the last few months become habituated to it. At the same time, the abolition of ])ay for civic otHces and functions was decreed, not merely as a temporary measure, but as a fundamental principle of the new cominonwcalth. which the citizens were bound by a solemn oath to main- tain. This reform was. upon the whole, a wise combi;'ation of aristocracy and democracy ; and, accordiiik; to the opinion of Thucydides, the best constitution wliicli the Athenians had hitherto possessed. Oh the motion of Critias, the recall of Alcibiades was decreed about the same time ; and a deputation was despatched to Samos, to accomplish the union between army and city." — E, Curtius, Iliiit. of OroM, bk. 4, ch. 5.— Most of the leaders of the Pour linndred tied to the Spar- tan camp at Dccelia. 1 wo were taken, tried and executed. — Thucydides. llinton/, bk. 8, sect. 48-97.— See, also, GnKKCE: \S. C. 413-413. Also in : V. Duruy, HiH. of Greece, ch. 36 {v. 3). B. C. 41 1-407.— Victories at Cvnossema and Abydos.— Exploits of Alcibiades. —His tri- umphal return. — His appointment to com- mand. —His second deposition and exile. Si'eOnr.Krt-:: li. t'. 111-4(17. B. C. 406.— The Peloponnesian War: Battle and victorr of Arginusae.— Condem- nation and exc :ution of the Generals. .See OltKKii;: U. (.'. KMt; and above: H. (,'. 431-100. B. C. 405. — The Peloponnesian War: Decisive defeat at Aigospotamoi. .See (iukkck: B. ('. 4(»."). B. C. 404. -The Surrender to Lysander. — After the battle i.f .Kgosiiotami (August, B. C. 40.')). which destroyed their navy, and cut off nearly all HUiiplies to the city by sea, as the tlimrtiins at I)ccelea had long cut off suppllcf u|)on the land side, the Athenians had no hope. They waited in terror and despair for their enemies to close in upon them. The latter were in no haste, for they were sure of their prey. Lysander, the victor at yEgospotaini, cunio leisurely from the Hellespont, receiving on his way the Hiirieniler of the cities subject or allied to Athens, and placing Spartan harinosts and garrisons in them, with the local oligarchs established uniformly in power. About Novem- ber he reachi'd the Saronic gulf and blockaded the Athenian liarbor of Pineus, while an o^-er- whclming Pi'lupoimesian land force, undir the Lacedicmonian king Pausaiiias, arrived .simul- tjineoudly in Attica and encami)eil at the gates of the city. The Athenians had no longer any power except the power to endure, and that they exer- cised foi more tlian three months, mainly resisting the demand that their Long Walls — the walls which protected the connictiiiii of the city with its harbors — sliould be thrown down. Hut when famine had thinned the ranks of the citizens and broken the spirit of the survivors, th-y gave up. "There was still 1, high-spirited minority who entered their protest and preferred death by famine to such i ..' !i|)])ortable disgrace. The large majority. In. vever, acceptcil them [the terms] and the aecc/tance was iiiaile known to Lysander. It was on tl'.e Kith day of the Attic month Miinychion, — iiuout the middle or end of March, — that this vict'>rious en uimnder sailed into tlie Peinuus, twenty-seven years, almost exactly, after the surprise of Platiea by the Thebans, which op' ned the Peloponnesian War. Along with him came the Athenian exiles, several of whom appear to have lieeu serving with his army ami assisting him with their coun- sel. "— O. Grote, Hint, of Greeee, pt. 3. cli. fl.'j (p. 8). — The Long Walls and the fortiflcations of Pineus were demolished, and then followed the organization of an oligarchical government ut Atlieiis. resulting in the reign of terror under " The Thirty."— E. Curtius, lliat. of Greece, bk. 4, ch. 5. Also in: Xenophon, Hellenics, bk. 2. ch. 2.— Plutarch, Lymmler. B. C. 404-403.— The tyranny of the Thirty. — The Year of Anarchy. — la the summer of B. C. 404. following the siege and surrender of Athens, and the humiliating close of the long Peloponnesian War, the returned leaders of the oligarchical party, who had been in exile, suc- ceeded with theiielp of their Spartan friends, in overthrowing the democratic constitution of the city and establishing themselves in power. The revolution was accomplished at a public assem- .1^8 ATHENS, B. C. 4)4-403. ATHENS, n, C; 3r,0-338. My of citizens, in the prcsoncii of LyHnmlor, flic victorious Lnrnlirmoniiiii ik ininil, wliosc llirt In tlin IMrnMis liiy rriuiy to su'^iort Ills di iiiiinds. " In tliUiissctnlily, Driicontid is, iiHcoimilrcl upon wlioni rcpcriti'd sentences li.id been passed, broujilit forward II motion, proposinft the transfer of till' K"verninent Into tlie liands of Thirty per- sons; and Tlierainenes supported lliis i)roposal wliieli ill' declared to e> press the wishes of Hparta. Kvon now, tliesi speeches produced a storm of indignation; after all the acts of vio- lence wliich Athens had nnderifonc, she yet con- tained men outspoken ciiou;.;h to venture to (lefen<i the constitution, and to appeal to tho fact iiiat the eapitidtuion siuictloned by both parties contained no [irovNioTi as to the Internal nlTairs of Alliens, Hut, Jwr^uipon, Fiysander himself came forward and spoke to the citizens without reserve, like oiw who was their absolute master. , . . ll^- such means the motion of I)ra- contiius was passed; bntonly a small inimlier of unpatriotic and cowardly citizens rai.scd their liands in token of assent. All (letter patriots contrived to avoid participation in this vote. Next, ten members of the government wen; chosen liy ('ritias and his collea);ues [tlu^ ('ritias of Plato's Dialogues, pupil of Socrates, and now the violent and lilooil-thirsty leader of the ami- democratic revolutionj, ten l.y Theramenes, the contldential friend qf Lysander, and tinally ten out of the, assembled multitude, probably by a free vote; and this boanlof Thirty was hereupon established as the supreme government authority by a resolution of the assembly jiresent. Most of the members of the new government had formerly been among the Four Hundred, and had therefore long pursued a common cour.se of action." The Thirty Tyrants .so placed in power were masters of Athens for i'iglit months, and executed their will without conscience or mercy, having a garrison of Spartan soldiers in tlie Acropolis to support them. They were also sus- tjiined by a picked body of citizens, "tiie Three Thousand," who bore arms while other citizens were stripped of every weapon. liaigc numbers of the more jiatriotic and high-spii '.id Vtlienians had escaped from their unfortunate city ami had taken refuge, chlclly at Thebes, the old enemy of Athens, but now sympathetic in her distress. At Thebes these exiles organized themselves under Thrasybulus and Anytus, and determined to expel the tyrants and to recover their homes. They first SLized a strong post at Phyle, hi Attica, where they gained in numbers rapidly, and from which point they were able in a few weeks to advance and occupy the Piricus. When the troops of The Thirty came out to attack them, they drew back to the adjacent height of Jluiiychia and there fought a battle which deliverecl their city from the Tyrants. Critias, the master-spirit of the usurpation, was slain; the more violent of his colleagues took refuge at Eleusis, and Athens, for a time, remained under the government of a new oligar- chical Board of Ten ; while Thrasybulus and the democratic liberators maintained tlicir headquar- ters at Munychia. All parties waited the action of Sparta. Lysander, tlie Spartan general, marched an army into Attica to restore the tyranny which was of his own creating ; but one of the two Spartan kings, Pausanias, intervened, assumed the command in his own person, and appliwl his efforts to the arranging of peace between the .Vtlicnian parlies. The ri'sult was a restoration of the deinoeralie constitulion of the Attic stale, with sonic' imporlaiit reforms. Sev- eral of The Thirty were put lodeath, — treacher- ously, it was said, — but an amnesty was extended to all their partisans. TIk? year in wliiili they and The Ti'n controlled affairs was termed ill the ollleial annals of the city yie Year of Anarchy, and its magistrates were tt«l recognized. — k. Curtius, Jlint. (if OiYar, bk. 4,,r/i. ."t, ainlbk. 5, <•/<. 1. ; Ai.so i\: Xenophon, JfellenirMk, 2, r/i. !l-l. — C. Sankey, T/n: .S/xi/Vn/t and T/ief!ii^ Siijiriimi- cii'». ch. 3-H B. C. 395-387.— Coni'ederacT against Sparta. — Alliance with Persia. — The Corinthian War. — Conon's rebuilding of the Long Walls. — Athenian independence restorea, — The Peace of Antalcidas. See Oiikkci;: U, (J. liDO- ;W7. B. C. 378-371.— Brief alliance with Thebes against Sparta. See (iiiKWi;: It. (', \iT.)-'Xi\. B. C. 378-337.- The New Confederacy and the Social \Var. — Upon the liibcratiim of Thebes and the sign, that began to ap[)ear of tlie decline of Spartan p > wer- -during the year of the arclion- ship oi Nausiiii('us, 15. C 378-7, which was made meuK.rable at AtluiH by various movements of •loliticai regeneration, — the organization of a new Confederacy was undi'rtaken, analagous to tliu Confederacy of Delos, formed a century before. Athens was to be, " not the ruling capitiil, but only the directing city :n possession of the pri- macy, the seat of the iVderal council. . . . Calli- stratus was in a scr ' the Aristides of the new confederation and doubtless did much to bring about an agreement; it was likewi.so his work that, in place of the ' tributes ' of odious memory, the payments iieces.sary to the existence of the confe(h'ration were introduced under the gentler name of 'contributions. ' . . . Amicable relations were resumed with the Cyclades, Hliodes and Perinthiis; in otlier words, the ancient union of navies was at once reiuiwcd upon a large scale and in a wide extent. Even sucli states ioined it as liad hitherto never stoinl in confederate re- lations with Atlicns, above all Thebes." — E. Cur- tius, llisl. 0/ Greece, bk. 0, ch. 1. — This second confederacy renewed much of the prosperity and induence of Athens for ;v brief period of about twenty years. But in 3.'»7 B. C, four imiiortant members of the Confederacy, namely, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium leagued themselves in revolt, with the aid of jMausoliis, prince at Carta, and an inglorious war ensued, known as the Social War, which lasted tliree years. Athens was forced at last to assentto the secession of the four revolted cities and to recognize their inde- pendence, which greatly impaired her prestige and power, just at tlic time wlien she w .^ called upon to resist the cncroaclimenis of Philip of Macedonia. — C. Thirl wall, JUkI of Oreece. eh. 43. B. C. 370-362.— Alliance with Sparta against Thebes.— Battle of Mantinea. See Gkkece: B. C. 371-303. B. C. 359-338.- The collision with Philip of Macedon. — The Policy of Demosthenes and Policy of Phocion. — " A new period opens with the growth of the Macedonian power under Philip (3.59-330 B. C.) We are here chiefly con- cerned ti) notice the effect on the City-Statc [of Athens], not only of the strength and policy of this new power, but also of the efforts of the 179 ATHENS, B. C. 350-338. Demnnthenen and !dacedon. ATHENS, B. C. 336-323. Greeks tliem.selves to counteract it. At tlie time of I'liilip's accession the so-ciilletl Tliebiin suprcmiicv Im<l just i)racticiilly fn(Ie<l with the deal li of kiiainiiioiKlas. Tlicrc was now ii l<iri(l of balance of i)ower lietweeri llie tliree leadiiii; States, .Sjjarla, Alliens, and Tiielies, no one of whicli was ;,'really stronger than Ww others; and such a l)alance could easily l)e worked upon h}' any grei.t power from without. Thus when Macedoii came into the rniiLre of Greek polities, under a man of ^r^t diplotnatie ns well as niili tary capacity, who, like a (,'/arof to-day, wislied to secure a tlrin footinij on the seaboard of the .^i^ean [see GliKlxK; W. ('. ariO-iriH], she found her work comparatively easy. The stronj? im- perial policy of Philip foun(f no rei)l antagonist except at Athens. W(Mik as she was, and straitened by the break-ui) of her new con- federacy, Athens coidd stil. produce mi^n of great talent and energy; but she was hampered by divided couu.sels. Two Athenians of tliis ])eriod seem to represent the eurn^nts of Greek political thought, now running in two different directions. bemosthenes represents the cause of the City-State in this age, of a uni(m, that is, of perfectly free Hellenic cities against the com- mon enemy. Phocion represents the feeling, which seems to liave liecn long growing up am.ing thinking men at Athens, that the City- Stato was no longer what it had l)een, and could no longer stand li.\ itself; that what was needed was a general Hellenic peace, and possibly even an arbiter from without, an arbiter not wholly un-Hcllenic like the Persian, yet one who might succeed in stilling the fatal jealousies of the leading States. . . . The efforts of Demosthenes to c;heck Philip fall into two periods divided by the peace of Philoerates in 346 B. C. In the first of these he is acting chiefly with Athens alone ; Philip is to him not so much the common enemy of Greece ns the dangerous rival of Athens in the north. His whole mind was given to the internal reform of Athens so as to strengthen her afe'ainst Philip. In her relation to other Greek States he perhaps hardly saw beyond a balance of power. . . . After 346 his Athenian feeling scema to become more dis- tinctly Hellenic. But what could even such a man as Demosthenes do with the Hellas of that day ? He coidd not force on the Greeks a real anil pernianent union; ho could but urge new allianc'js. His strength was spent in embassies witi, this object, embassies too often futile. No alliance could save Greece from the Macedonian power, as subsequent events plainly showed. What was needed was a real federal tmion be- tween the leading States, with a strong central controlling force; and Demosthenes' policy was hopeless just because Athens could never be the centre of such a union, nor could any other city. Demosthenes is thus the last, and in some re- spects the most heroic cliampion of the old Greek instinct for autonomy. He is tlie true child of the City-State, but the child of its old ago and dcca'pitude. He still believes in Athens, and it is on Athens that all his hopes are based. He looks on Philip as one who must inevitably be the foe alike of Athens ;iiid of Greece. He seems to think that he can be beaten off as Xer.xes was, and to f(,rget that even Xer.\es almost triumphed over the divisions of the Greek States, and that Pliilip is a nearer, a more prominent, and a far less barbarian foo. . . . Phocion was tlic somewhat odd exponent of the practical side of a school of thought which had been gaining strength in Creece for some lime past. Tliis school was now brought into prominence by the risi' of Macedon, and came to liave a marked in- fliu'uce on the history of the City-State. It began with the philo.sophers, and with the idea that the iihilosoplier may belong to the worhl as well as to a |)articidar city. . . . Athens was far more open to criticism now than in the days of Pericles; and a cynical dislike betrays itself in the l{epublic for the jxiliticiiuis of the day and their tricks, and a longing for a strong govern- ment of reason. . . . Aristotle took the facts of city life as they were and showed how they might be made the most of. . . . To him Mace- don was assuredly not wholly barbarian; and war to the death with her kings could not have been to him as natura! or desirable ns it seemed to Demosthenes. And tbough he has nothing to tell us of .Macedon, we can hardly avoid the con- clusion that his desire was for peace and interral reform, even if it mcto under the guarantCij of the ni/rthern i)ower. ... Of this philosophical view of Greek politics Phocion was in a manner the political exponent. But his policy was too much n negative one; it might almost be called one of iadifferentism, like the feeling of Lessing and Goethe in Germany's most momc^ntous period So far ns we know, Phocion never pro- posed nn nlliance of a durable kind, either Athenian or Hellenic, with JIacedon; he was content to be a purely restraining intluence. Athens had been constantly at war since 433; lier own resources were of ilio weakest; tliere was little military skill to be found in lier, no reserve force, much talk, but little solid courage. Athens was vulnerable at various points, and could not possibly defend more than one at a time, therefore Phocion despaired of war, and the event proved him right. Tlie faithfulness of the Athenians towards him is a proof that they also instinctively felt that he was right. But he was wanting on the practical and creative side, and never really dominated either Athens, Greece, or Pliilip. ... A policy of resistance found the City-State too weak to defend itself; a policy of inaction would land it in a Macedonian empire which would still further weaken its re- maining vitality. « The first policy, that of Demosthenes, did actually result in disaster and the presence of Macedonian garrisons in Greek cities. The second policy then took its place, and initiated a new era for Greece. After the fatal battle of Chajronea (338 B. C.) Philip assumed the position of leader of the Qreelc cities."— W. W. Fowler, The City-State of thi Orceks and Romans, ch. 10. — See, also, Greece: 357-336. B. C. 340. — Alliance with Byzenttum against Philip of Macedon. See Gueecb: B. C. 340. B. C. 336-322.— End of the Struggle with the Macedonians. — Fall of Democracy. — Death of Demosthenes. — Athenian decline. — "An unexpected incident changes the whole aspect of things. Philip falls the victim of assassination ; and a youth, who as yet is but lit- tle known, is his successor. Immediately Demosthenes institutes a second alliance of the Greeks; but Alexander suddenly appears be- fore Thebes; the terrible vengeance which he here takes, instantly destroys the league ; Demos- thenes, Lycurgus, and several of their support 180 ATHENS, B. C. 330-323. Afacedonian Hupiemacy. ATHENS, B. C. 336-323. crs, arc required to 1m; lielivercd up ; but Dcmndes is nt tlmt time able to seUle the (lilUculty luul to appease the kiii.i;. His strength was therefore enfeebled as Alexander departed for Asia; he begins to raise his head once more when Sparta attempts to throw olT the yoke; but under Anti- pater he is overpowered. Yet it was about this very time that by the mr it celebrated of his dis- courses be gained the victory over the most elo- ([uent of bis adverec ries ; and /Ksehines was forced to dc^part from Athens. But this seems only to have the uior ; embittered bis enemies, the leaders of the 51: cedoniau jiarty; and they soon found an opporttuiity of preparing his do\v;ifall. When Hirpaliis, a fugitive from the army of Alexander, came with bis treasures to Athens, and the (lU'jb'ion arose, whether he eotdd be permitted to reniaia there, Demosthenes was accused of having been corrupted by his money, at least to be silent. This was sulllcient to procure the imposition of a line; and as this was not paid, he was thrown into |)rison. From thence he succeeded in escaping; but to the man who lived only for his country, e.xilo was no less an evil than imi)risonment. lie resided for the most i)art in iEgina and at Tnezen, from whence he looked with moist eyes toward the neigh- bouring Attica. Suddenly and unexpectedly a new ray of liglit broke through the clouds. Tidings were brought, that Alexander was dead. The moment of deliverance seemed at band; the excitement pervaded every Grecian state; the ambassadors of the Athenians i)assed through the cities; Demosthenes joined himself to tlij number and exerted all liis ehxiueuce and jjower to luiitc them against Macedonia. In requital for such services, the people decreed bis return ; and years of sufferings were at last followed by a day of exalted compensation. A galley was sent to .lEgiua to bring back the advocate of liberty, ... It was a momentary glimpse of the sun, which still d-irker clouds were soon to conceal. Autipater and Craterus were victori- ous; and with them the Macedonian parly in Athens; Demosthenes and bis friends were num- bered among the accused, and at the instigation of Demades w^re condemned to die. . . . De- mosthenes had 'escaped to the island Calauria in the vicinity ol Troczen; and took refuge in the temple of N( ptuue. It was to no purpose that Archias, tlu satellite of Autipater, urged him to surrender himself un<ler promise of par- don. He pretended be wished to write some- thing; bit the (juill, and swallowed the poison contained in it." — A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections on the Politics of Ancient Greece, trniu. by O, Rincrofl, pp. 278-280. — Sec, also, on the "Lamian War," the suppression of Democracy at Athens, and the expulsion of poor citizens, Gukece: B. C. 323-323.— "With the decline of political indc- r Mideuce, . . . the mental powers of the nation received a fatal blow. No longer knit together by a powerful esprit de corps, the Greeks lost the habit of working for the conunon weal ; and, for the most i)art, gave themselves up to the petty interests of home life and their own personal troubles. Even the better disposed were too nuich oceu])ied in opposing the low tone and corruption of the times, to be able to devote themselves, in tlieir moments of relaxation, to a free and speculative consideration of things. Wliat could be expected in such an age, but that philosophy would take a decidedly practical turn, if indeed it were .studied at all ? And yet such were the politir.u antecedents of the Stoic and Epicurean sj stems of philosophy. . . . Stoic apathy. Epicurean self-satisfaction, and SceiJtic imperturbability, were the (loctrines which responded to the political helplessness of the age. They were the <loctrines, too, which met with the most general acceptance. The same politica! "'clplessuess imxluced the sinking of national di:- ctions in the feeling of a com- mon humanity, ind the separation of morals from politics wh.ch characterise the philosophy of the Alexand'ian and Roman pcricxl. The barriers between nations, together with national independence, bad been swept away. East and West, Greeks and barbarians, were united in large empires, being thus thrown together, and brought into close contact on every possible point. Philosophy might teach that all men wer? of one blood, that all were e(iually citizens of one empire, that morality rested on the rela- tion of man to bis fellow men, independently of nationalities and of .social ranks; but in so doing she was orly explicitly stating truths which had been already realised in part, and which were in l)art corollaries from the existing state of so- ciety." — E. Zcller, The Utoics, Kpicurcana, and Sceptics, pp. 10-18. — "What we have said con- cernmg the evidence of comedy about the age of the fli'st Diadochi amounts to this: Menander and bis successors — they lasted barely two gen- erations — printed in a few stereotypes a small and very worthless society at Athens. There wos no doubt a .similar set of people at Corinth, at Thebes, possibly even in the city of Lycur- gus. These people, idle, for the most part rich, and in good society, si)ent their earlier years in debauchery, and their later in sentimental reflec- tions and regrets. They had no serious object in life, and regarded the complications of a love affair as more interesting than the rise and fall of kingdoms or the gain and loss of a nation's liberty. They were like the people of our day who spend all their time reading novels from the libraries, and who can tolerate these eternal variations in twaddle not only without disgust but with interest. They were surroimded with slaves, on the whole more intelligent and inter- esting, for in the first place slaves were bound to exercise their brains, and in the second they had a great object — liberty — to give them a keen pursuit in life. The relations of the sexes in this set or poition of society were bad, owing to tl want of education in the women, and the want of earnestness in the men. As a natural consequence a class was foui;il, apart from household slaves, who took ad' iint;ige of these defects, and, bringing culture i fascinate un- principled men, establisheil those relations which brought estrangements, if not ruin, into the home life of the day." — ,1. P. Mahaffy, O eek Life and Thoxujht, pp. 123-124. — "The amount of Persian wealth poured into Greece by the accidents of the conqvicst, not by its own indus- tries, must have produced a revolution in prices not since equalled except by the inllux of the gold of the Aztecs and Incasinto Spain. I have already pointed out how this change nuist have l)ressed upon poor people in Greece who did not share in the jilunder. The price of even neces- sary and simple things must have often risen beyond their means. For the udventurcre brought home large fortunes, and the traders 181 ATHENS, B. C. 330-322. Expnnninn nf IletlenUm. ATHENS, B. C. 330-323. nml purveyors of 1 111 armies made Ihem; and with thcoe Kasleiii forliinrs nuist liave come in tlie tnste for all tlie superior eomforls and luxuries wliieli lliey found among llii; I'ersian jtraTidees. Not only "llie appointments of the tahle, in tlie way of plate and pottery, hut llie very tastes and flavours of (Ireek cookery must have protiled by comparison with the knowledge of the Kast. So also the furniture, especially in carpets and hangings, must have copied Persian fashion, just as we still alTect oriental stulTs and designs. It was not to he e.\pected that the example of so many regal courts and so much royal ceremony shoidd not alTect those in contact with them. These infhienecs were not only shown in the vulgar ' braggart captain,' who came to show oil Ills sudden wealth in impudent extnivagance among his old townspeople, but in the ordinary life of ridi young men. So I imagine the personal appointments of Alcibir.des, which WL'ro the talk of Greece in his day, would have appeared poor mid mean beside those of Aratus, or of the gen- eration which preceded liim. Pictures and Btatues began to ndorn private houses, and not temples and public buildings only — a change beginning to show itself in Dcmosthcnes's day, but coming in like a torrent with the opening of Greece to the Eastern world. It was noticed that Pliocion's house at Athens was modest in size and furnituie. but even this was relieved from sliabbiness by the ((uaint wall decoration of shining i)lates of bronze — n fashion dating from prehistoric times, but still admired for its very anti<iuity." — .1. P. Malialfy, Oriek lAfe, mul Thoui/ht, [iji. KW-IOO. — "The modern historians of Greece are much divided on the ipiestiou where a history of Hellas ought to end. C'ur- tius stops with the battle of Cliaeroneia and the prostnitiou of Athens before the advancing power of Alacedon. Grote narrates the cain- paigns of A,exander, but stops short at the con- clusion of the Lamiau War, when Greece had in vain tried to shake olT the supremacy of his gen- erals. Thirhvall brings his narrative down to the time of Mummiiis, the melancholy sack of Corinth and the constitution of Achaia as a, Roman province. Of these divergent views we regard tliat of the German historian as the most correct. . . . The historic sense of Grote did not exclude prejudices, and in this case he was probably led astray by political bias. At the close of his ninety-sixth chap' -r, after mentiim- ing the embassies sent by the degenerate Athe- nians to King Ptoleiny, King Lysimachus, and Antipater, he throws ilown his pen in disgust, 'and with sadness and humiliation brings his nar- rative to a close.' Athens was no longer free and no longer dignified, and so Jlr. Grote will have done with Greece at the very moinent when the new Comedy was at its height, when the Museum was founded at Alexandria, when ..le plays of Euripides were acted at Hahylon and Cabul, and every Greek soldier of fortune car- ried a, diadem in his baggage. Surely the his- torian of Greece ought either to have stopped wlien the iron hand of Philip of .Macedon put an end to the liberties and the ixilitical wranglings of Hellas, or else persevered to the time when Home and Parthia crushed Greek power between them, like a ship between two icebergs. No doiilit his reply would be, that he declinetl to regard the triumph abroad of Macedonian arms as a continuation of the history of Hellus. . . . The truth is, that the history of Greece consistx of two parts, in every respect contrasted one with the other. The tll-st recounts the stories of the Persian and I'eloponncsian wars, and ends with the destruction of Thebes and the subjuga- lion of Athens and Sparta. The Hellas of which it speaks is a cluster of autonomous cities in the Peloponnesus, the Islands, and Northern Greece, logetlier with their colonies scaltered over the coasts of Italy, Sicily, Thrace, the Black Sea, Asia Minor, and Africa. These cities care only to be independent, or at most to lord it over one another. Their political in.stitiitions, their re- ligious ceremonies, their customs, arc civic and local. Language, commerce, a common Pan- theon, and a common art and poetry are the tics that bind them together. In its second jiliase, Greek history begins with the expedition of Alexander. It reveals to us the Greek as every- where lord of the barbarian, as founding king- doms and federal systems, as the instructor of all mankind in art and science, and the spreader of civil and civilized life over the known world. In tlie first period of her history Greece is form- ing herself, in her second she is educating the world. We will venture to borrow from the Germans a convenient expression, and call the history of independent Greece the history of Hellas, that of imperial Greece the history of Hellenism. . . . The Athens of Pericles was dictator among the cities which had joined her alliance. Corinth, Sparta, Thebes, were each the political head of a group of towns, but none of tile throe admitted these latter to an equal share in their councils, or a<lopted their political views. Even in the Olynthian League, the city of Olynthus occupied a position quite superior to that of the other cities. But the Greek cities had not tried the experiment of an alliance on ccpial terms. This was now at- tempted by some of the leading cities of the Peloponnese, and the result was the Achaean League, whose history sheds a lustre on the last (lays of independent Greece, and whose generals will bear comparison with the statesmen of any Greek Hepnblic [see Gukkcf:: B. C. 280-146 J. . . . On tiie field of Sellasia the glorious hopes of Cleomenes were wrecked, and the recently reformed Sparta was handed over to a succession of bloodthirsty tyrants, never again to emerge from obscurity. But to the Achneans themselves the interference of Macedon was little le.ss fatal. Henceforth a Macedonian garrison occupied Corinth, which had been one of the chief cities of the League; and King Anligonus Doson was the recognized arbiter in all disputes of the Peloponncsian Greeks. ... In Northern Greece a strange contrast iiresented itself. The historic races of the Athenians anil Boeotians liuiguished in peace, obscurity, and luxury. With them every day saw something added to the" enjoy- ments and elegancies of life, and every day politics drifted more and more into the back- ground. On the other hand, the rude semi-Greeks of the West, Aetoliaus, Acarnaiiians, and Epi- rotes, to whose manhood the repulse of the Gauls was mainly due, came to the front and .showed the bold spirit of Greeks divorced from the finer factilties of tlie race. The Acarnaniaus formed a league somewhat on the plan of the Achaean. But they were overshadowed by their neighbors the Aetoliaus, whose union was of a ditferent character. It was tho first time that there had 182 ATHENS, B. (J. 336-323. ATHENS, B. C. 200. been formed in Hellas ii stiito framed in order to prey upim its neighbours, ... In the course of the' Pcloponnesian \V ~.r Greek relijjion beijan to lose its hold on the Greelis. This was ])artly the work of c sophists and pliilosopliers, who sousiht more lofly and moral views of Deity tlian were furnished by llie tales of popular mythology. iStill morn it resulted from growing materialism among the people, who saw more and more of their immediate and physieal needs, and less and less of the underlving spiritual elements in life. But thougli plulosophy and luaterialisni had made tlio n.'ligion of Hellas paler and feeliler, they had not altered its nature or expanded it. It still remained esseiUially national, almost triltal. When, therefore, Greeks and Macedonians suddeidy found themselves masters of the nations of tlie East, and in close contact witli a hundred forms of religion, an extraordinary and rapid change took jilaee in their religious ideas. In religion, as in other matters, Egypt set to the worhl the example of prompt fusion of the ideas of Greeks and natives. . . . Into Greece i)roi)cr, in ntturn for her population wliidi flowed out, there llowed in a crowd of foreign deities. Isis was especially welcomed at Athens, where she fot. id many votaries. In every cult the more mysterious elements were made more of, and the brighter and more materialistic side passed by. Old statues which liad fallen somewhat into con- tempt in the days of Pheidias and PraxiteU^s were restored to their places and received ex- treme venemtion, not as beautiful, but as old and strange. On the coins of the previous period the representations of deities had been always the best that the die-cutter could frame, taking as his models tlu; finest contemporary sculpture; but henceforth wo often find them strange, uncouth figures, remnants of a jioriod of struggling early art, like the Aj)ollo at Aniyclae, or the Hera of Saiiios. ... In the iii- tellectiml life of Athens there was still left vitality enough to formulate the two most com- plete expressions of the ethical ideas of the times, the doctrines of the Stoics and the Epi- cureans, towards one or tlic other of which all educated minds from tliat day to this have been drawn. No doubt our knowledge of these doc- trines, being largely drawn from the Latin writers and their Greek contemporaries, is some- what coloured and unjust. With the Uomans a system of philosophy was considered mainly in its bearing upon conduct, whence tlio etl.ical elements in Stoicism and Epicurcaiiism have been by their Uoman adherents so thrust iiitr the foreground, that we have almost lost siglit of the intellectual elements, which can have had little less importance in the eyes of the Greeks. Notwithstanding, the rise of the two philosophies must bo held to mark a new era in the history of thought, an era when the importance of con- duct was for the first time recognized by the Greeks. It is often observed that the ancient Greeks were more modern than our own an- cestors of the Middle Ages. But it is less generally recognized how far more modern than the Greeks of Pericles were the Greeks of Aratus. In very many respects the age of Hellenism and our own age present remarkable similarity. In botli there appears a sudden increase in the power over material nature, arising alike from the greater accessibility of all parts of the world and from the rapid development of the sciences which act upon tlie physical forces of the world. In both this spread of science and power acts upon religion with a dissolving and, if we may so speak, centrifugal force, driving ,s(niie men to take refuge in tiu' most conservative forms of faith, sop.e to fly to new creedsand superstitions, some to drift into unmeasured scepticism. In botli the facility of moving from place to place, and finding a distant liome. tenils to dissolve the closeness of civic and family life, and to make the individual rallier than the family or th(^ city tlie unit of social life. And in the family re- lations, in the character of individuals, iii the state of iiiorali'y. in tlie condition of art, wo find at both periods similar results from the similar causes we have mentioned. " — P. Gardner, JVrin Ch(i}it(rK in Ora-k JiMori/, rh. 1,5. B. C. 317-316.— -Siege by Polysperchon.— Democracy restored.— Execution of Phocion. —Demetrius of Phaleron at the head of the government. See (tm;i'.('i;: Ii, ('. iWl-:!!'.;, B.C. 307-i97.--Under Demetrius Poliorcetes and the Antigonids. See Gkkkck : B. V. 307- V.)7. B. C. 288-263. — Twenty years of Indepen- dence. — Siege and subjugation by Antigonus Gonatas. — \vheii Denietrius Poliorcetes lost the .Macedonian tlirone, 15. ('. 288, his fickle Atlienian subjects and late worshippers rose against his autiiority, drove his garrisons from tlie .Museum and the Pirieus and abolished the priesthood they had consecrated to him. Demetrius gathered an army from some quarter and laid siege to the city, but without success. The Atlienians went so far as to invite Pyrrhus, the warrior king of Epinis, to assist them against him. Pyrriius came and Denietrius retired. Tlio dangerous ally contented himself with a visit to the Acropolis as a worsliijiiier, and left Athens in pos.sessioii, undisturbed, of her fieslily gained freedom. It was enjoyed after a fashion for twer.iy years, at tlie end of wliicli jicriod, B. C. 288, Antigonus Gonatas. the son of Deme- trius, having regained the .Macedonian crown, reasserted his claim on Atliens, and the city was once more besieged. Tlie Lacediomoniaiis mid Ptolemy of Egypt both gave some inclfectiial aid to tlic Athenians, and the siege, interrupteil on several occasions, was iirolonged until B. C. 203, when Antigonus took i)os.se8sion of tlie Acropolis, tlie fortified ^Iiiscum and the Piiwiis as a master (see Macedoni.v, ifce. : B. C. 277-244). Tills was sometimes called the Chremonidean AVar, from the name of a jiatriotic Atlienian who took the ino.st prominent part in tlie long defence of his city. — C. Tliirlwnll, ITiit of Oirccc, eh. 01. B. €.'229. — Liberation by the Achaian League. See Oukeck: B. C. 280-140. B. C. 200. — Vandalism of the second Mace- donian Philip.— In the year B, C. 200 the Mace- donian king, Philip, made an attempt to surprise Athens an . iailed. "He then encamped in tlie outskirts, mvX proceeded to wreak his vengeance on the Athenians, as he bad indulged it at Tlierinus and Pcrgamus. He destroyed or de- faced all the inonuments of religion and of art, all the sacred and pleasant places which adorned the suburbs. The Academy, the Lyceum, and Cynosarges, with their temples, schools, groves anil gai'dena, were all wasted with fire. Not oven the * pulchres were spared." — C. Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, ch. 04. 183 ATHENS, y. C. 197-A. D. 138. Planting of Christ iauity. ATHENS, A. D. 54 (?). B, C. 197-A. D. 138.— Under Roman rule. — " \tlicns . . . '.ii'onls the (lisliciirlcuiiii; pic- ture (if u coiiimoMwciiltli |miii|)<'recl by llio su- pri'iiic power, uiiil tlimncially u.s well as iiionilly ruined. Hy rights it ought to have found itself in 11 llourisliin); condition. . . . No cily of iin- tiquity elsewhere ])os.sessed u domain of its own, such .IS was Attica, of about 700 s(|Uare miles. . . . Hut even beyond Attica they retained what they i)<)s.ses.se<l, as well after the Milhridatic War. bv favour of Sulla, as after the Pharsalian battle. In' which tliey had taken the side of Pom peius. by the favoiir of Ca'sar; — he asked them only how often tliey would still ruin themselves and trust to be saved by the renown of their an- cestors. To the city there still belonged not merely the territory, formerly jiossessed by Haliartus, in lJo(rolia. but also on theii own coast Salaniis. tlie old startinjr-point oi their dominion of the sen, and in the Thraciim Sea the lucrative islands Scyros, Leinnos, and Imbros, as , well as Delos in the AejT('an. . . . Of the fur- ther jiraiils, which they had the skill to draw by flattery from Antoninus, Autfiistus. a;j;ainst whom they had taken iiart, took from them cer- taiidy Aegina irul Erctria in Kuboea, but they were allowed to retain the smaller islands of the Thracian Sea. . . . Hadrian, moreover, gave to them the best i)art of the great island of (,'ephal- lenia in the loiuan Sea. It was only by the Emperor Severns, who bore them no goinl will, that a portion of these extraneous posses.si(Mis was withdraw, from them. Hadrian further granted to the Atln-.-'ians the delivery of a cer- tain (juantity of grain i;t the expense of the em- pire, and by the e.xtcu.sion of this pri"ilege, hitherto reserved for the capital, acknowledged Athens, as it were, as another metropolis. Not less was the bli.ssful institute of alimentary en- dowments, which Italy had enjoyed since Trajan's time, extended by Hadrian to Alliens, and the capital requisite for this purpose certainly pre- sented to the Athenians from his purse. . . . Yet the community was in constant distress. " — T. Mommsen, Tlist. of Jioine, hk. 8, <•//. 7. Also IN: J. P. Mahaffy, The Greek World under liomiiH Sway. — See, also, Greece: B. C. 146- A. D. 180. B. C. 87-86.— Siege and capture by Sulla.— Massacre of citizens. — Pillage and depopula- tion. — Lasting injuries. — The early successes of Jlithridates ot Pontu.s, in his .savage war with the liomans, included a general rising in his favor among the Greeks [see Mitiiuidatic AVaus], suijported by the fleets of the Pontic king and by a strong invading army. Athens and the I'irreus were the strongholds of the Greek revolt, and at Athens nn adventurer named Aristion, bringing from Mithridates a body-guard of 2,000 soldiers, made himself tyrant of the city. A year pa.ssed before Rome, distracted by the beginnings of civil war, could effectively niter- fere. Then Sulla cnnie (B. C. 87) and laid siege to the Piricus, where the principal Pontic force was hxlged, while he shut up Athens by blockade. In the following March, Athens was starved to such weakness that the Hoinans entered almost unopposed and killed and plundered with no mercy ; but the buildings of the city suffered little h.irm at their hands. The siege of the Pincus was carried on for scnne weeks longer, until Sulhi had driven the Pontic forces from every part except Munychia, and that they evacu- ated in no long time. — W. lime, I/iKt. of liuiiu; hk. 7, eh. 17. — "Athens was . . . taken by assault. . . . The majority of the citizens was slain; the carnage was so fearfully great as to become memorable even in that age of bloodshed ; the private movable property was seized by th(! soldiery, and Sylla assumed some merit to him- .self for not committing the ritlcd houses to the llames. . . . The fate of the Pincus, >vhich he utterly destroyed, was more severe than that of Athens. From Svila's campaign in Greece the commencement ot the ruin and depopulation of the country is to be dated. The destruction of property caused by his ravages in Attica was so great that Athens from that time lost its commer- cial as well as its political importance. The race of Athenian citizens was almo.st extirpated, and a new population, composed of a heterogene- ous mass 01 settlers, received the riglitof citizen- ship." — G. Finlay, Greere under the liomunn. eh. 1. A. D. 54 (?).-^The Visit of St. Paul.— Plant- ing of Christianity. — " When the .lews of Thes- salonica had knowledge that the word of God was ])roclaimed of Paul at Berca also, they came thither likewise, stirring up and troubling the mul- titude. And then immediately the brethren sent forth Paul to go as far as to the sea: and Silas and Timoth'Mis abode there still. But they that conducted Paul brought him as far as Athens; and receiving a commandment unto Silas and Tiniotheus that they .should come to him with all speed, they departed. Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked within him, as he beheld the city full of idols. So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews, and the devout persons, and in the market place every day with them that met with him. And certain also of the Epicurean anil Stoic philoso- phers encotmtered him. And some said, what would this babbler say ? other some. He scemeth to be a setter forth of strange gods: because lie preached Jesus and the resurrection. And they took hold of liiin, and brought him unto the Areojiagus, saying. May we know what this new teaching is, which is spoken by thee ? For tliou bringest certain strange things to our eare: we would know therefore what these things mean. (Now all the Athenians and the strangers sojourn- ing there spent their time in nothing else, but either to tell or to hear some new tliinj'.) And Paul stood in the midstof the Areopagus, and said. Ye men ot Athens, in all things I perceive that ye are somewhat superstitious. For as I passed along and observed the objects of your worship, I found also p.n altar with this inscrijition, ' To an Unkno .T. God.' What therefore ye woi'sliip in ignorance', this set I forth unto you. . . . Now when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some mocked ; but otlujrs said. We will hear tlieo concerning this yet again. Thus Paul went out from among them Howbeit certain men clave unto him, and bel^ ved: among whom also was Dionysius the Areopagite, and a woman named Damaris, and others with tliein." — Acta of the AjKstles, lievised Version, ch. 17. — "Consider the ditticultics which must have beset the planting of tlie Church in Athens. If the burning zeal of the great Apostle ever permitted him to feel diffldenco in addressing an assembly, he may well have felt it when Ik addressed on Mars' Hill for the Ih'st time an Athenian crowd. No doubt the Athens of his time was in her tlecay, inferior iu opulence and grandeur to many younger cities. 184 ATHENS, A. D. 54 (?), ATHENS, A. D. 530. Yet even to a Jew, provided lie hud r^cei''e(l some educiitioiml impressions l>ey(md the fiinatieitl sliibboletlis of Plmrisaism, tliere was mueli in tliat wouderfiil centre of intellijience to slialte liis most inveterati^ prejudices and inspire liini witli unwilling respect. Shorn indeed of her political greatness, deprived even of her philosophical supremacy, she still shone with a hrilliant after- glow of tusthetic and intellectual i)restige. Her monuments Hashed on the visitor numiories recent enough to dazzle his imagination. Her schools claimed and obtained even from Emperors the homage due to her uni()ue past. Uecognis iug her as the true nurse of Hellenism and the chief missionary of human refinement, the best spirits of the age held her worthy of admiring love not iinmi.xed with awe. As the seat of the most brilliant and popular university, young men of talent and position (locked to her from every quarter, studied for a time within her colon- nades, and carried thence the recollection of a culture which was not always deep, not always erudite, but was always and genuinely Attic. To subject to tlie criticism of this people a doctrine professing to come direct from God, a religion and not a philosophy, depending not on argument but on revelation, was a task of which the difflculties might seem insuperable. When we consider what the Athenian character was, this language will not seem exaggerated. Keen, subtle, capricious, satirical, sated with ideas, eager for uo\'elty, yet with the eagerness of amused frivolity, not of the truth-seeker: critical by instinct, exquisitely sensitive to the ridiculous or tlie absurd, disputatious, ready to listen, yet impatient of all that was not wit, satistied with everything in life except its shortness, and there- fore hiding all references to this unwelcome fact under a veil of complacent eupliemism — where could a more uncongenial soil be found for the seed of the Gospel ? ... To an Athenian the Jew was not so much an object of hatred (as to the Roman), nor even of contempt (as to the rest of mankind), as of absolute indifference. He was simply ignored. To the eclectic philosophy which now dominated the schools of Athens, Judaism alone among all human opinions was as if non-existent. That Athenians should be con- vinced by the philosophy of a Jew would be a proposition expressible in words but wholly des- titute of meanirg. On the other hand, the Jew was not altogether uninfluenced by Greek thought. Wide apart as the two minds were, the Hebraic proved not insensible to the charm of the Hellenic; witness the Epistle to the Hebrews, witness Philo, witness the intrusion of Greek methods of interpretation even into the text-books of Uabbinism. And it was Athens, as the quin- tessence of Hellas, Athens as represented by Socrates, and still more by Plato, which had gained this subtle power. And just as Judiea alone among all the Jewish communities retained its exclusiveness wholly unimpaired by Hellen- ism, so Athens, more than any Pagan capital, was likely to ignore or repel a faith coming in the garb of Judaism. And yet within less than a century we find this faith so well establislied there as to yield to the Church the good fruits of inarlyrdom in the person of its bishop, and of able defences in tht; person of three of its teachers. The early and th'.' later fortunes of the Athenian C'liurch are buried in oblivicm; it comes but for a brief period bcforo the scene of liistory. But the UP''.ying interest of that one dramatic moment when Paul proclaimed a bodily resurrection to the authors of the conception ot a spiritual im- mortality, will always cause us to linger \,ith a strange sympathy over every relic of the Chris- tianity ot Athens."— (;. T. ('ruttwell, A Literary llixtiiry of Eurty Chn'iilianili/, r. 1, h/c. 3, rh. 4. Also IN: W. ,J. Conylx-are and J. 8. Howson, Life anil Mtem of St. Paul. v. 1, rh. 10.— P. C. Baur, Paul, pt. 1, ch. 7 (r l). — On the in.scrip- tion, see E. de Pressense, T/ie Earlji Yearn of CfiriKtiaiiifi/ : The Apontolie Era, hk. 3, eh. 1. A. D. 125-134.— The V70rks of Hadrian.— The Emperor Iliiilrian interested himself greatly in th(.' venerable decaying capital of the Greeks, which he visited, or resided in, for considerable pericMis, several times, between A. 1). 135 and 134. These visits were made important to the city by tlie great works of rebuilding which ho undertook and supervised. Large parts of the city are thought to have been reconstructed by him, "in tlie open and luxuriousstyleof Antioch and Epliesus. " One ((uarter came to bo called " Hadrianapolis," as though he had created it. Several new temples were erecte<l at his com- mand; but the greatest of the works of Hadrian at Athens was the completing of the vast national temple, the Olympieum, the beginning of which dated back to the age of Pisistnitus, and which Augustus had put his hand to without finishing. — C. llerivale. Hint, of the llomanK, e/t, 00. A. D. 267.— Capture of, by the Goths. See GoTiis: A. D. 2.'58-307. A. D. 305. — Surrender to Alaric and the Goths. — Wlien the Goths under Alaric invaded and ravaged Greece, A. D. 395, Athens was sur- rendered to them, on terms which saved the city from being plundered. "The fact that the depredations of Alaric hardly exceeded the ordi- nary license of a rebellious general, is . . . per- fectly established. The public buildings and monuments of ancient splendour sulfered no wanton destruction from his visit ; but there can be no doubt that Alaric and his troops levied heavy contributions on the city and its inhabit- ants. — G. Finlay, Greece under the liomans, ch.2, sect. 8. Also in; E. Gibbon, Decline ami Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 30. — See, also, Goths: A. D. 395, .i.L.^nic'8 Invasion of Greece. / ., D. 529. — Suppression of the Schools by Justinian. — " The Attic schools of rhetoric and philosophy maintained their superior reputation from tlie Peloponnesian War to the reign of Jus- tinian. Athens, though situate in a barren soil, possessed a pure air, a free navigation, and the monuments of ancient art. That sacred retire- ment was seldom disturbed by the business of trade or government ; and the last of the Athen- ians were distinguished by their lively wit, the purity of their taste and language, their social manners, and some traces, at least in discourse, of the magnanimity of their fathers. In the suburbs of the city, the Academy of the Pla- tonists, the Lycajuin of the Peripatetics, the Portico of the Stoics and the Garden of the Epi- cureans were planted with trees nnd decorated with statues; and the philosophers, instead of being immured in a cloister, delivered their in- structions in spacious and pleasant walks, which, at different hours, were consecrated to the exer- cises of tlie mind and body. The genius of the founders stilllived in those venerable seats. . , . 185 ATHENS, A. D. 539. ATLANTIC OCEAN. The schools of Atheng were protected by the wisest and most virtuous of tlie iionmii ])rinces. . Some vestige of royul l)()unty miiy Ik; found under tliv; suecessors of Constantine. . . . The golden chain, as it was fondly styled, of the Pla- tonic succession, continued ... to tin- edict of Jiislinian fA. I). n'JO] whicli imposed a per- petual silence on the schools of Athens, and excited the gri'.'f and indignation of the few re- maining votJiries of Greek science and supersti- tion." — E. Oiblion, Decline itnil Fiillaf the Itomdii Kinpire, eh. Ait. A. D. 1205. — The founding of the Latin Dukedom. — "The portion of Oreec^e lying to the south of the kingdom of Haloniki was divided by the Crusaders [after their conquest of Constan- tinople, A. I). 1204 — see IJvzantink E.mpike: A. I). 120;t-12()4J amcmg several great feudatories of th(' Empire of Itomania. . . . Tho lords of Boudop'tza, Saliraa, Ncgropont, and Athens aru alone mentio.ied as existing to the north of tho isthmus of Corinth, and the history of the petty sover(!igns of Athens can alone be traced in any detail. . . . Otho de la Uoche, a Burgundian nol)leinan, who had distinguished himself (hiring the siege of ('onslantinojile, marched southward with the army of Boniface the king-marquis, and gained possession of Athens in 120.1. Thebes and Athens had probably fallen to his share in the partition of the Empire, but it is possible that the king of Saloniki may have found means to increase his portion, in order to induce him to do homage to the ('rown of Saloniki for this addi- tion. At all events, it appears that Otho de la Koehc did liomage to Boniface, either as his im- mediate superior, or as viceroy for the Emperor of Uomania. . . . Though the Byzantine aristoc- racy and dignified clergy were severe sufferers by the transference of tho government into the hands of the Franks, the middle classes long en- joyed peace and security. . . . Tho social civili- zation of tho inhabitants, and their ample com- mand of tho necessaries and many of the luxuries of life, wore in those days as much superior to the condition of the citizens of Paris and London as they are now inferior. . . . The city was large and wealthy, the country thickly covered with villages, of which the ruins may still be traced in spots affording no indications of Hellenic sites. . . . Tho trade of Atlicns was considerable, and the luxury of the Athenian ducal court was cele- brated in all the regions of the West where chiv- alry nourished. " — G. Finlay, Hist, of Oreece from its Conquest by the Crusaders, ch. 7. Also in: C. C. Felton, Qreeee, Ancient and Modcrv Wi Course, kct. 5. A. D. 1311-1456. — Under the Catalans and the Florentines. See Catalan Ouand Com- pany. A. D. 1456, — The Turks in possession. — Athens was not occupied by the Turiis until three years after the concjuest of Constantinople (see C'oNSTANTiNopi.K: A. I). 14r)l)). In the mean- time the reign of the Florentine dukes of the house of Acciaioli came to a tragical close. The last of the dukes. Maurice Acciaioli died, leaving a yoiuig son and a young widow, the latter re- nowned for her beauty and her talents. Tho duchess, whom the will of her husband had made regent, married a comely Venetian named Pal- merio, who waswiid to have pois(med his wiH' in order to be free to accept her hand. Thereupon a nephew of the late duke, named Franco, stirred up insurrections at Athens and lied to Constanti- nople to complain to tho sultan, Mahomet II. "The sultan, glad of all pretexts that coloured his armed intervention in the affairs of these prin- cipalities, ordered Omar, son of Tourakhan, chief of the permanent army of tho Peloponnesus, to take possession of Athens, to dethrone tho duchess anu *o confine her sons in his prisons of tho citadel of Megara. " This was done; but Palmerio, the duchess's husband, made bis way to the sultan and interceded in her be- half. " Mahomet, by the advice of his viziers, feigned to listen eciually to the complaints of Palmerio, and to march to reestablish tho legiti- mate sovereignty. But already Franco, en- tering Megara under the nusi)iccs of the Otto- man.s, had strangled both tho duchess and her sou. Mahomet, advancing in turn to punish him for his vengeance, expelled Franco from Athens on entering it, and gave liim, in compensation, tho inferior ami dependent principality of Thebes, in Bocotia. Tho sultan, as lettered as ho was warlike, evinced no less pride and admiration than Sylla at the sight of the monumer.cs of Athens. ' What gratitude,' exclaimed he before the Parthenon and the temjdoof Theseus, 'do not religion and the Empire owe to the son of Tour- aklian, who has made them a present of these spoils of the genius of tho Greeks. '" — A. Lamar- tine, Hist, of Turkey, bk. 13, sect. 10-13. A. D. 1466. — Capture and plundering^ by the Venetians. See Greece : A. D. 14.')4-1479. A. D. 1687. — Siege, bombardment and capture by the Venetians. — Destructive ex- plosion in the Parthenon. See Turks: A. 1). 1684-1696. A. D. 1821-1829. — The Greek revolution and war of independence. — Capture by the Turks. See Greece: A. D. 1831-1829. ATHERTON gag, The. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1836. ATHLONE, Siege of (A. D. 1691). See Iueland: a. 1). 1689-1691. ATHRAVAS. See Maqians. ATIMIA.— Tlio penalty of Atlmia, under ancient Athenian law, was tho loss of civic rights. — Q. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece : The State, pt. 3. ch. 3. ATIMUCA, The. See American Abo- RKIINES: TiMtTCUA. ATLANTA : A. D. 1864 (May— September). — Sherman's advance to the city. — Its siege and capture. See United States of Am. : A. D. (864 (.May: GEOiiaLA); and (May — Septeubek: Georgia). A. D. 1864 (September). — Exclusive military occupation of the city. — Removal of inhabit- ants. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 (September — Octoher : Georgia). A. D. 1864 (November). — Destruction of the city. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 (November — December : Georgia). ATLANTIC OCEAN: The name.— The Atlantic Ocean is mentioned by that name in a single passage of Herodotus; "hut it is clear, from the incidental way in which it [the name] is here introduced, that it was one well known in his day." — E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., ch. 7, sect. 1, iwte. — For a sketch of tlie history of the modern use of the name, see Pacific Ojean. 186 ATREBATES. .TTICA. ATREBATES, The.— This nnmc wns liorno by H Irilx' i" iiinii'iit Hclj^irdaul, which occupiccl modern Arlois and part of Krcncli Flanders, and, also, by a tribe or group of tribi's in Hrilain, which dwelt in a region between the Tluunes and the Severn. The latter was probably a colony from the former. Sec Beloa;; also IJiiiTAiN, Cki.tic TniUEs. ATROPATENE. — MEDIA ATROPA- TENE. — " Atr()i)atene, aH a naniefor the Alpine land in the northwest of Iran (now AderlK'ijan), came into use in the time of tlie Greek Empire [Alexander's] ; at any rate we cannot tra(.'o it earlier. 'Athrapaiti means 'lord of lire;' 'Athrapata,' 'one protected by Are ; ' in the re- mote mountains of this district the old flre- worship was ])rcservc<l with peculiar zeal under the Seleucids. " — M. 1)\\ncker, Jlist. of Aiitir/niti/, bk. 7, (h. 4. — Atropatenc "comprises the entire basin of Lake Lrumiycb, together with the country intervening between that basin and the high moimtain cliain which curves roimd the southwestern corner of the Caspian." — G. Raw- linson, I<Hve Oreat Moiinivldcn : Media, ch. 1. — Atropatenc was "named in honour of the satrap Atropates, who bad declared liimself king after Alexander's death." — J. P. JIahally, Story of Alexiiniler'a Empire, ch. 13. ATSINAS. Sec Amehican Aborigines: Bl.ACKKKKT. ATTABEGS. Sec Atatieos. ATTACAPAN FAMILY, The. SeeAMEiii- CAN AuDHKilNKS: AtTACAI'AN FAMILY. ATTAMAN, or HETMAN. Sec Cossacks. ATTECOTTI, The. See Otadeni; also, Bnn'AiN, Celtic 'riuiiES. ATTIC SALT. — Thyme was a favorite con- diment among the ancient Greeks, "which tlirove nowhere else so well as in Attica, Even salt was seasoned with thyme. Attic salt, liow- ever, is famed rather in the figurative tliau in the literal sense, and did not form an article of trade." — G. F. SchOmaun, Aiitiq. of Greece: J'/ie Sl,ct,\ pi. 3, ch. 3. ATTIC TALENT. See Talent. ATTIC WAR, The. See Ten Yeahs' Wau. ATTICA. — "It forms a rocky peninsula, separated from the mainland by trackless moun- tains, and jutting so far out into the Eastern Sea that it lay out of the path of the tribes moving from north to south. Hence the migratory pa.ssages which agitated the whole of Hellas left Attica untouclicd, and for this reason Attic history is not divided into such marked epochs as that of Peloponnesus; it possesses a superior unity, and presents an uninterrupted development of conditions of life native in their origin to the land. ... On the other 'laud Attica was perfectly adapted by natu.e for receiving immigrants from the sea. For the whole country, as its name indicates, coirsists of coast-land; and the coast abounds in harbours, and on account of the depth of water in the roads is everywhere accessible ; while the best of its i)laius open towards the coast and invite the mariner to land. The first liiudings by which the monotonous conditions of the age of the Pelasgians were interrupted where those of the Phoenicians, who domesticated the wor'ship of Aphrodite, as well as that of the Tyrian Jlelcar on the coasts. Afterwards the tribes of the sUores of Asia Minor came across; in the first place the Carians, who intr(«lnrcd the worship of llic Carian Zeus and Posiilon. and were fol- lowed by ('rctans, I,y<'ians, Dardanians and Old lonians. Tlie population became mixed. . . . Tins first epoch of the national history the ancients connected with the name of Cccrops. It forms the transitiim from the life of rural dis- tricts and villages to that of a slate. Attica lias become a land with twelve citadels, in each of which dwells a chieftain or king, who has his domains, his suite, and his sul)jects. Every twelfth is a state i)y itself, with its separate |)ublic hall and common hearth. If under these circumstances a cimuntm national hi.story was to be attained to, one of the twelve towns, dis- tinguished by special advantages of situation, would have to become tlie capital. And to such a position undeniable advantages entitled the city whose ?• at was in the plain of the Cephisus. . . . Into the centre of the entire plain advances from the direction of Hymettus a group of rocky heiglits, among them an entirely separate and mighty block which, with tlio cxcepticm of a narrow access from the west, offers on all sides vertically precipitous walls, surmounted by a broad level sufiiciently roomy to afford si)ace for the sanctuaries of the national gods and the habitations of the naticmal rulers. It seems as if nature hud designedly placed this rock in this l)()sition as the ruling castle and tlic centre of the national history. This is the Acropolis of Athens, among the twelve castles of the land tliat which was preeminently named after the national king Cecrops. ... So far from being sulliciently luxuriant to allow even the idle to find easy means of sustenance, the Attic soil was stony, devoid of a sufflcient supply of water, and for the most part only adapted to the cultivation of barley; everywhere . . . lal)our and a regu- lated industry were needed. But this labour was not unremunerative. Whatever orchard and garden fruits prospered were peculiarly delicate and agreeable to the taste ; the mountain-herbs were nowhere more odourous than on Hymettus; and the sea aboimdcd with fish. The mountains, not only by the beauty of their form invest the whole sc(;nery with a certain nobility, but in their depths lay an abundance of the most excellent building-stime and silver ore; in the lowlands was to be found the best kind of clay for pur- poses of manufacture. The materials existed for all arts and handicrafts; and finally Attica rejoiced in wliat the ancients wei wise enough to recognize as a special favour of Heaven, a dry and tiimsparent atmosphere, by its peculiar clearness productive of bodily freshness, health and elasticity, while it sharpened the senses, dis- posed the soul to cheerfulness and aroused and animated the powera of the mind. Sucli were the institutions of the land which was developing the germs of its peculiar history at the time when the [Dorian] migrations were agitating the whole mainland. Though Attica was not her- self overrun by hostile multitudes, yet about the same time she admitted manifold accessions of foreign population in smaller groups. By this means she enjoyed all the advantages of an invigorating impulse without exposing herself to the evils of a violent revolution. . . . The immigrauts who domesticated themselves in Attica were . . . ohieUy families of superior eminence, so that Attica gained not only in numbers of population, but also la materials of 187 ATTICA. AUGURS. OUHOfaof rvpry (l('H('ri|itii)ii."— K. Curtlus, IIM. tfOfteu, bk. 3, <•/!. 3. Al.HO in: .1. r. L<Kklmrl. Attica and Athens. — 8(!c. iilsd. ,\riiKN«: TiiK I1k.<iinnin(i. ATTILA'S CONQUESTS AND EM- PIRE. S(c Hi Ns. ATTIOUANDARONK, The. See Amkui- v.\s .Viiouiimnkm: III uons, &c. ATTYADiE, The.— The tli-st dynasty of tlio kinuH of Lyilia, claiiiicil to Ik; spnm;; froin Attvs, son of Ui(! K'xl Manes. — M. Ountkcr, Ui^i of A itiiiuilii. hk. 4, ell. 17. AUJBAINE, The rieht of. — "A prcrogntivo t)y wliicli \\\v Kings of France claiincd tlio prop- erty of foreigners wlio (iicil in tlieir liingdoni witliout lieirig naturalized." It was suppressed l)y ('oll)ert, in tlie reign of Louis XIV. — J. A. Hiamiui, llUt. nf Pol. hhinomi/ in Euroj)e, p. 28.1. AUCH: Orifirin of the name. See Aquitaine: TlIK .\N(Ii;ST TlllUKS. AUCKLAND, Lord, The Indian Adminis- tration of. See Imjia: A. I). 1W!0-1«-15, AUDENARDE. .See Orni.NAiinE. AUDIENCIAS.— "For more tlian two cen- turies and 11 lialf tlie wiiole of Soiitli America, except iini/.il, .s<'ttled down under tlio colonial government of Spain, and during the greater part of that time tliis vast territory was under the rule of the Viceroys of Peru residing at Limn. Tlie impossibility of conducting an elll- cient administration from such a centre ... at once became apparent. Court.s of justice called Audiuncias were, therefore, established in the distJtnt provinces, and their presidents, sometimes with the title of captains-general, had charge of the executive under the orders of the Viceroys. The Atidiencia of Charcas (tlie mo<lern Bolivia) was established in 1550. Chile was ruled by captains-general, and an Audicncia was estab- lished at Santiago in 1508. In Now Grenada the president of tlie Audicncia, created in 15U4, was also captain-general. The Audicncia of Quito, also with its president as captain-general, dated from 1542; and Venezuela was under a captain- general." — C. U. Markham, Colonial Hist, of S. Am. {Narrative and Critical Hist, of Am., v. 8, p. 29.-)). AUERSTADT, Battle of. See Geumany: A. I). 18()6 (OcTonEU). AUGEREAU, Marshal, Campaigns of. Sec France: A. D. 1797 (SEPrEMUEu) ; Gekmanv: A. D. 1806 (OcTOBEK); Spain: A. D. 1809 (FEimuAHY — June); and Russia: A. D. 1813 (June — Septembeii); 1813 (August), (Octo- BEn), (OcToiiEK — Deckmhek). AUGHRIM, OR AGHRIM, Battle of (A. D. 1691). See Ireland: A. D. l«89-169i. AUGSBURG: Origin. See Auousta Vi>'- DEMCOKUM. A. D. 955.— Great defeat of the Hungarians. See HuNdAiiiANS: A. I). 934-955. A. D. 1530. — Sitting of the Diet.— Signing and reading of the Protestant Confession of Faith. — The Imperial Decree condemning the Protestants. .See Papacy: A. D. 1530-1531. A. D. 1555.— The Religious Peace con- cluded. .Se<' Gkumany: A. n. 1.5.52-1.501. A. D. 1646. — Unsuccessful siege by Swedes and French. See Geumany; A. I). 1046-1648. A. D. 1686-1697.— The League and the War of the League. Sec Geumany : A. D. 1086; and FiiANCE: A. U. 1689-1690, and afUir. A. D. 1703.— Taken by the French. See Geumany: .V. I). 1703. A. D. 1801-1803.— One of six free cities which survived the Peace of Luneville. .Seo (iKilMANV: .\. I». 1.S()1-;h()3, A. D. 1806. — Loss of municipal freedom. — Absorption in the kingdom of Bavaria. Seo (Jeumany: A. I). 180.5-1806. AUGURS. — PONTIFICES. ~ FETIA- LES.—" There was . . . enough of priest lioml and of i)riests in Ronie. Tho.si', however, who had business with a god resorted to the god, and not to the priest. ICvery suppliant and inquirer ad- dressed himself directly to the divinity • . . ; no intervention of a i)ricst was allowed to con- ceal or to obscure this original and simple rela- tion. But it was no easy matter to hold con- verse with a god. The god had his own way of speaking, wliich was intelligible onlv to those ac(|uaiiited with it; but one who did rightly understand it knew not only how to ascertain, but also how to manage, the will of the ginl, ami even in case of need to overreach or to constrain him. It was natural, therefore, that the wor- shipper of the god should regularly consult such men of skill and listen to tlieir advice; and thence arose the corporations or colleges of men spocially skilled in religious lore, a thoroughly national Italian institution, which had a far more important iiitltience on political develop- ment than the individual priests or priesthoods. These coHeges have been often, but erroneously, confounded with tlie priesthoixls. Tho prie.st- IkkmIs wore churged with the worship of a specific divinity. . . . Under the Roman constitution and that of tho Latin communities iu general there were originally but two such colleges: that of the augurs and that of the pontitices. The six augurs were skilled in interpreting tho language of the gods from tho (light of birds; an art which was prosecuted with great earnest- ness and reduced to a ciuasi-scientiflc system. The five 'bridge buildere' (pontifices) tlerived their name from their function, as sacred as it was politically important, of conducting tlie buildnig and demolition of the bridge over the Tiber. Tliey were the Roman engineers, who undorstowl the mystery of measures and num- bers; whence there devolved upon them also the duties of managing the calendar of the state, of proclaiming to the people the time of new and full moon am' the days of festivals, and of see- ing that every religious and eveiy judicial act took jilace on the right day. . . . Thus they ac- (juired (althou;;h not probably to the full extent till after the abolition of the monarchy) the gen- eral oversight of Roman worship and of what- ever was connected with it. [The president of their college was called the Pontifex JIaxiinus.] . . . They themselves described tho sum of tlieir knowledge as ' tho science of things divine and human.' ... By the side of these two oldest and most eminent cm-porations of men versed in spiritual lore may be to some extent ranked tiie college of tho twenty state-heralds (fotiales, of uncertain derivation) destined as a living reiKisi- tory to preserve traditionally tho remorabrauce of the treaties concluded with neighboring com- munities, to pronounce an authoritative opiuiun on alleged infractions of treatyrights, and in case of need to demand satisfaction and declare MommsuD, Uist. of Borne, bk. 1, eh 12 188 AUGURS. AUSPICES. At,ho in: E. Giilil niiil W. Konpr, Life of the (Greeks niul llomdim, lud. 103. — Sou, ii\no, Ai'h- pirK«. and FKxrM.KH. AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. SteTiifevKH, OllKlIN <1K. AUGUSTA VEROMANDUORUM.— Mod- <Tii St. {iiictitiii. Si'c |{ki.(i.k. AUGUSTA VINDELICORUM. — " Au- gusta Viii(l('li((iriiin is the iiii«lirii Aiij?sl)ur(f, foiiiidcd, it. miiy 1m' suppowd, idumt tlic yciir 710 [U. C. 14) lifter tiu' comiucst of Hliii'tiii l)y Driiaus. . . . Tliu ItincniricM ivprcwiit, it ii.s llin ccntrt' of tlip roiul.s from Vrroim, .'^irmium, iiiid Trcviri." — (!. iMcrividc, Hint, of the lliimans, ch. 'M, note. AUGUSTODUNUM. — Tlio Emperor Aii- flHstus clmiiiii'd 1li(! immcof Hibriu'tc in (tiiul to Auj!;iisto(iuniim, v 'li tiniu lins corniptt'd, sinco to .\utiiii. AUGUSTONEMETUM. 8co GKunoviA of Till'. .\IIVK11NI. AUGUSTUS.- AUGUSTA: The Title.- " OdaviiiM [sc(! UoMi;: \\. V. ;U-14| liad warily (iccliiii'd any of tlio recoj^nizpd designations ol sovereipn ndc. Antoniiis lind abolisiied tlio dic- latorsliip; lii.s Kiucessor respected the acelama- tions witli wliieh tlu! people liud greeted this di;- eree. Tlu^ voiees wliicli had saluted (Jiesar witli the title of kinij were peremptorily eoinmanded to bo duml). Yet Oetavius was fully awar(! of tlie infiuence wliicli attached to distinctive titles of honour. While lie scnipiilotisly renouiued the names upon wliieh the lireath of human jeal ousy had liiown, he conceived tlio subtler poli<T of ereatin;^ another forliimself, wliieli borrowing; its original splendour from his own charaeter, siiouhl reflect upon him an untarnished lustre. . . . The epithet Augustus . . . ha<l never lieen borne by any man before. . . . But tlie adjunet. though never given to a man, had been applied to things most noble, most venerable and most (iiviue. The rites of the gofls were called august, the temples were august; the word itself was de- rived from the holy auguries by which the divine will was revealed; it was connected with tlio favour and nutliority of Jove himself. . . . The illustrious title was bestowed upon the heir of the Cicsarian Empire in tlie middle of the month of January, 737 [B. C. 27], and thenceforth it is by the name of Augustus that he is recognized in Roman history." — C. Merivale, Hint, of the liomans, ch. 30. — " AVhen Octavianus liatl firmly establislied his power and was now left without 8 rival, the Senute, being desirous of distinguish- ing him by some peculiar and emphatic title, de- creed, in B. C. 37, tliat ho should be styled Au- gustus, an epithet properly applicable to some object demanding respect and veneration beyond what is bestowed upon hi'.man tliinga. . . . This being an honorary appellation ... it would, as a matter of course, have been transmitted by in heritance to his immediate descendants. . . . Claudius, although he could not be regarded as a descendant of Octavianus, assumed on his ac- cession the title of Augustus, and his example was followed by all succeeding rulers . . . who communicated the title of Augusta to their con- sorts." — W. Ramsay, Manual of liomaii Antiq., (h. 5.— See. also, Rome: B. C. 31-A. 1). 14. AULA REGIA, The. See Cuuia Regis op THE NOHMAN KiNOS. AULDEARN, Battle of (A. D. 1645). Sc.? Scotlakd; a. D. 1644-1645. ^^ 189 AULERCI, The.— The Aulorrl were an ex- tensive nation in luirient Oaul which (x'cupied the country frum I be lower course of the .Seine to the .Mayenne. It was sulHlivided into threo great tribes — tli(^ Aulerc-i Cenomauni, Aulercl Diablinles and Aulerei Kburoviees. — Napoleon J II., l/iKt. of ('ii'«,i,: M: ;t, ch. a. AULIC council, The. See Geilmanv: a. I). MiCl-l.THt. AUMALE Battle of (159a). See Fhance; A. I). I.'.»l-|.ji).t. AUNEAU, Battle of (1587). See Fhance: A. I), l."iM4-l.'iH!t. AURANGZEB, Moghul Emperor, or Padis- chah of India, A. I), U(.">H-1707. AURAV, Battle of (1365). See Biuttany: A. I). i;ui-i;ttr>. AURELIAN, Roman Emperor. A. I). 270- 27.->, AURELIAN ROAD, The.— One of tlie great Roninii roads of aiiti(niilv, whicli ran from Home to I'isa and Luna. — T. .Momniseii, J/iiit. <f Home, Ilk: 4,ch. 11. AURELIO, King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. I). 7(IH-774. AURUNCANS, The. See Aubonians; also OSCANH. AUSCI, The. See Aquitaine, the ancient TllIllKS, AUSGLEICH, The. See Austiha: A. J). lH<i(i-lH(lT, AUSONIANS, OR AURUNCANS, The.— A tribe of the ancient Volscians, wlio dwelt in the lower valley of the Liris, and who are said to have been exterminated by tlu^ Romans, B. C. 314.— W. Ihne, Hist, of Jiome, bk. 3, ch. 10.— See, also, Oscans. AUSPICES, Takingr the.— "Th" Romans, in the earlier ages of their history, never entered upon any important buainess wliatsoever, whether public or private, without endeavouring, by means of divination, to ascertain the will of the gmis in reference to the undertal<ing. , . . Tills operation was termed 'suniere auspicia;' ond if the omens proved unfavourable the busi- ness was abandoned or deferred. . . . No meet- ing of the Couiitia Curiiita nor of the Comitia Centuriata could be held unless tlie auspices had been previously taken. ... As far us public proceedings were concerned, no private in- dividual, even among the patricians, had tho right of taking auspices. This duty devolved upon the supremo magistrate alone. ... In an army this power belonged exclusively to the commander-in-chief; and hence all achievements were sad to be performed under his auspices, even although he were not present. . . . The objects observed in taking these auspices were birds, tlie class of animals from which the word is derived ('Auspicium ab ave spicienda '). Of tliese, some were believed to give indications by their flight . . . others by their notes or cries . . . wliile a third class consisted of cliickens. Cpulli ') kept in cages. Wlien it was desired to obtain an omen from those lait, food was placed before them, and the manner in which tliey com- ported themselves was closely watclied. . . . The manner of taking tlio auspices previous to the Comitia was as follows: — The magistrate who was to presido at tlie assembly arose .inmediately after midniglit on the day for wliicli it Imd been summoned, and called upon an augur to assist him. . , . With his aid a region of the sky and AU8PICB». AUHTUALIA. 1601-1800. n (tpncn of f;roiii)(l, within which the imspirrs wiTc oliHcrvnl, wen- iimrkcil (iiit l>v thi,' (livinin^ BtutT ('liliius')<if Ihc iiiiKur. . . . 1'hiH opL'nttioii wuH pcrforiiiril with tliv );ri'itti'Ht can'. ... In iniii(in)f the ncrcHsary olwcrvations, tlif l)r('si(li,'nt wax Kuiil''! ftilirclv l»y tliu aii;;ui', wlio ri'p()rli'<l to liini tlic iTHiiU." — \V. Kuiuauy, Manual of Jiuni. Aiitiij., eh. 4. A1.W1 in: \V. llinc, y/iX. of Itome, U: 6, eh. 13. — Hcc. ulsci. Al'fiiu. AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. Sec Pkance: A. I). IH(I."m.Mmi« II — Dkckmiikh). AUSTIN, Stephen F., and the settlement of Texas. Sir Tkxah: A. D. IMI'.I-IKI.-). AUSTIN CANONS, OR CANONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. -■•Alioul tlic michllc of the tllli ('('iitiiry iin atli'inpt liad been mad*' to redress I lie balance between the regular and secular elerfjy. and restore to the latter the inllii- enee and eoiiHidi'ration in spiritual matters whieli they had, partly by their own fault, already to a great extent lost. Some earnest and ihouKhtful epirits, distressed at once by tlii^ abuse of monastic priviicffes and by the general decay of eccleshisti- cal order, sou^rht to elTecla reform by the estiibllsh- ment of a stricter and belter orpinlzed diseipliiiG in those cathedral and other churches which were Ber\ed by coileftes of secular ])rie8t8. . . . Towards the becinninjf of tlie twelfth century the attempts at canonical reform issueil in the f( in of what was virtually a new relif,'ious order, that of the Augustinians, or Oanons l{e;;ular of the iirder of S. Au)?ustiiie. Like the monks and unlike the secular canons, from whom they were eiu'efully distin>fnislied, Ihev ha<l not only their table and dwelling but all things in common, and were bouml v a vow to the obser- vance of their rule, frrouiKied upon a i)assaj;e in one of the letters of that s'"<'at father of the Latin Church from whom they took their name. Tlieir Hcheme was a compnmiiso between the old- fashioned system of canons and timt of the mon- Miitie confraternities: but a couipromise leaning strongly towards the monastic side. . . . The Austin <anons. as tiiey were commonly called, made their way across the channel in Henry's reign." — K. Xorgate, Enrjland nntkr the Aixjnciii Jkiiif/n, r. 1, eh. 1. Also in: E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Outractem of the MiiUllf A'leit. rh. 3. AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1601-1800. — Dis- covery and early exploration. — The founding of the penal colonies at Sydney and Norfolk Island. — "Australia has had no Columbus. It is even doubtful if the llrst navigators who reached her shores .set out with any idea of dis- covering a great south land. At all events, it would seem, their ncliievemonts were so little esteemed by themselves and their countrymen that no means were taken to i)rcscrve their names in connexion with their discoveries. Holland hmg had the credit of bringing to light the existence of that island-continent, which until recent yeai-s was best known by her name. In 1801, however, Mr. JIajor, to whom we are indebted for more recent research upon the sub- ject, i)roduccd evidence which appeared to demonstrate tliat the Portuguese had reached the shores of Australia in 1001, live years before the Dutch yacht Duyphen, or Dove, — the earliest vessel whose name has been handed down, — sighted, about March, 1000, what is believed to liave been the coast near Cape York. Mr. Major, In a lenmed paper read before the Sooioty of Anti(|uaries in 1H72, indicated the probability that tlie Ili-st discovery was made 'in or lieforo the year 1531.' The dates of two of the six maps from widch Mr. Major derives his Infor- mation are 1531 and 154'i. The latter clearly indicates Australia, which is calledJa vela Grande. New Zealand is also mai'kcd." — F. P. Lnbllllere, Kivh) IHkI. of the Ciilonji of Vielni-ia, eh. 1. — In 1000, Di' Quiros, a Spanish navigator, sailing from Peru, acro.ss tlie Pacille, ii'iiched a shore which stretched so far that he look it to bo a continent, "lie called the place ' Tierra Australls dc Kspiritu Hanto,' that Is ' Southern Land of the Holy Spirit.' It is now known tliat this was not "really a continent, but merely one of the New lle'.rldes Islands, and more than a thou.sand miles away from the mainland. ... In after vears, the name he had invented was ilivlded into two (larts: the island he had really dis- covered being called Espiritu Santo, while the continent he thought he had di.seovered was called Terra Australls. This last name was shortened by another discoverer — Flinders — to the iiresent "term Australia." After the visit to tlic Australian coast of the small Dutch ship, the " Dove," it was touched, during the next twenty years, by a number of ve».sels of the siinio "nationality. "In 1023 a Dutch ship, the ' Leeuwiii,' or 'Lioness,' sailed along the south- ern coast, and its name was given to the south- west cape of Australia. ... In 1028 General Carpenter sailed completely round the large Gulf to the north, which has taken its name from this circumstance. Thus, by degrees, all the northern and western, together with part of the Boutliern shores, came to 1^ roughly explored, and the Dutch even had some idea of colonizing tills continent. , , . During the next fourteen yi'ars we hear no mon; of voyages to Atislralia; but in 1013 Antony Van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch possessions in tlie East Indies, scat out his f-icnd Abel Jansen Tasman, with i vo ships, to make discoveries in the South Seas." Tasman discovered the island which ho called Van DicMuen's Land, but which has since been named in his own honor — Tasmania. "This he did not know to be an i.sland ; ho drew it on his maps as if it were a peninsula belonging to the mainland of Australia." In 1090, the famous buccane(!r, William Daini)ier, was given the com- mand of a vessel sent out to tlio southern seas, and ho explored about 000 miles of tho north- western coast of Australia; but the description which lie gave of the country did not encourage the adventurous to seek fortinie in it. " We hear of no further explorations in >*;iis part of the world until nearly a century utter; and, even then, no one thought of sei ding out ships specially for the i)urposo. But 'u tlio year 1770 a series of important discoveries verc indircctly brought about. The Royal Society of Loiulon, calculating that the planet Venus would cross the disc of tlie sun in 1709, persuaded the English Qovornmeut to send out an expedition to tlie Pacific Ocean for the purpose of making observations on this event which would enable astronomers to calculate the distance of tho earth from the sun. A small vessel, the ' Endeavour,' was chosen ; astronomers with their instruments embarked, and the whole placed under tho charge of " the renowned sailor, Captain James Cook. Tho astronomical purposes of the expedition 190 AUSTHALIA. 1601-1800. AUSTHALIA. 1800-1840. wore siitlsfiictnrily iirc'ompUslicd iit Otnlicltr, nnd Citptuiii C.'(ii)k llii'ii priici'ciird to iiii cxploriitlDii of till' shores iif Ni'W Zcalimd and Austriilia. llaviiiff entfrrd ii lino bay on llir soiillicastciii coa.st of Australia, "he cxainiiiad tlw coiinlry for 11 few miles lidatid, and two of Ids Keientille frii-nds — Sir .losepli Hanks anil Dr. Solander — inades|)lendid colleetlotis of botanical specimens. From this circiunslancc the place was called IJotany Hay. and Its two head-lands received th(' names of Cape Itanks and Cape Solaniler. It was here that Captain Cook . . . look imssession of tile couiilry on behalf of Ills lirilannie Majesty, givlni; it the name " New Soulli Wales,^ on account ol the resemblance of its coasts to the southern shoresof Wales. Shortly after they had set sail from Holany Hay theV ol)serv'ed a small opening In tlie land, but Cook did not slay to examine it. merely marUini; It on his chart as Port .lackson. In honour of his friend Sir Georgi' Jackson. . . . Tlie reports brou?;lit home by Captain Cook completely changed the beliefs current in those days with re.a;ard to Auslraliii. ... It so happened that, shortly after Cook's return, tlu^ KiiKlisli nation had to (leal with n /^real dilllcidt.y in regard to its criminal population. In 1770 tlie United Slates declared their Independence, and the IOn:;lisli then founil they could no lonj^er send their con- victs over to Virgiiua, as they had formerly done. In a short time the gaols of England were crowded with felons. It became neces.sa.y to select 11 new place of transportation: and, just as this (UHlcuIly arose. Captain Cook's voyages called attention to a land in every way suited for such a i)urpose. botli by reason of its ferlility and of its great distance. Vi.scuunt Sydney, tlieie- fore, determine<l to send out a party to Botany Bav, lu order to found a convict settlement there ; and in May, 1787, a fleet was ready to sail." After a voyage of eight months the lleet arrived at Botany Baj', in January. 1788. The watew of the Bay were found to bo too shallow for a proper harbour, and Captain Phillip, the appoinl.ed Governor of the settlement, set out, with three boats, to search for something better. "As he pa.ssed along the coast he turned to cxa'iilne the opening which Captain Cook had called Port Jackson, and soon found himself in a winding channel of water, with great clilTs frowning overhead. All at once a magnificent prospect opened on his eyes. A harbour, which is, perhap.s, the most beautiful and perfect in the worlil, stretched before him far to the west, till it was lost <m the distant horizon. It seemed a vast maze of winding waters, dotted hero and there with lovely islets. . . . Captain Phillip selected, as the pinco most suitable to the settle- ment, u small inlet, which, in honour of the Minister of State, ho called Sydney Covo. It was so deep as to allow vessels to approach within a yard or two of tlie shore." Great dilficulties and sufferings attended the founding of tlie penal settlement, and many died of actual starvation as well as of (lisease ; but in twelve years the population had liseu to between (),000 and 7,000 persons. Meantime a branch colony had been established on Norfolk Island. In 1793 Governor Phillip, broken in health, had resigned, and in 1795 he had been succeeded by Governor Hunter. "AVheu Governor Hunter arrived, in 1795, he brought with him, on board his ship, tlie 'Keliance;' a young surgeon, George Bass, and a mhlshipman called Matthew Kllnder*. They Were young men of the most admirable character. . . . Within a month after their arrival Ihcy purchased a small boat about eight feet in lengtii. which Ihcy christened the 'Tom Thumb.' Hs crew consisteil of Ibemselvcs and a boy to assist." In this small craft they began a survey of the coast, usefully charllng many miles of it. Soon afterwards, ('}eorg(^ Ha.ss, In an open whale boat, pursued his exploralions south- wards, to till! region now called Victoria, and through tlii^ straits which bear his name, lliiis discovering llie fact that Van Dlemcn's l.and, or Tasmania, is an Island, n<il a peninsula. In 1708, Bass and Klindcrs, again associated and furnislie<l with a small sloop, sailed round and surveyed the entire coast of Van Diemens Land. Bass now went to .South America and Ihere dis- appeared. Flinders was commissioned by Ihu Hntisli (iovernment In 181)1) to make jincxtcnslvo survey of the Austndiaii coasts, and did so. Kelurning to England with his maps, lie was laUcii iirlsoner on tlie way by tlu! French and held in captivity for six years, wliilu tlie fruits of his labor were stolen. lU: died a few years after being rehiased. — A. and G. Sutherland, Ifint. 'f AuntrdliK, eh. 1-3. Also in: G. W. Uusden, Jlint. of Auatralin, eh. l-:i ((', 1). A. D. 1800-1840.— Beginning of the Pros- perity of New South Wales.— Introduction of sheep-farming. — The founding of Victoria and South Australia. — " For tweiily years and more no one at homo gwvo a thought to New South Wales, or 'Botany Bay,' as it was still erron- eously called, unless in vague horror and com- passion for the poor creatures who lived there in exile and starvation. The only civilizing cle- ment in the place was the incsenco of a devoted c:lergyman named Johnson, who liad voluntarily aecompaiiie<l the llrst batch of convicts. . . . Colonel Lachlan JIacquarie entered on tlie ollico of governor in 1810, and ruled the settlement for twelve yeai-s. His administration was the tli-st turning point In its history. . . . Alaciiuarie saw tliat llie best and cheapest way of ruling llie convicts was to make them freemen as soon as possible. Before his time, the governors had looked on the convicts as slaves, to be worked for the profit of tlio government and of the free- settlers. ]Mac<iuarie did all ho could to elevate the class of emancipists, and to encourage the convicts to persevere in sober industry in the hope of cno day ac<iulring a respectable position. He beiran to di.5toptinuo the government farms, and to employ the cuvicts in road-making, so as to extend the colony m all directions. When ho came to Sydney, the country more than u day's ride from the town was (iiiito unknown. I'lio growth of the settlement was stopped on tlio west by a range called the Blue .Mountains, which before his time no one had succeeded in cro.sslng. But in 1813, there came a drought upon the colony: the cattle, on which everything depended, wore tmable to find food. jNIacciuaric surmised that there in>:st bo plenty of pasture oa the plains above tho Bli'o 'T';j:itains: he sent an exploring party, tellinr, them that a pass must be_ discovered. In a few months, not only was this task accomplished, and the vast and fertile pastures of Bathurst reached, but a road 130 miles long was made, couuectiug them with Syd- ney, The Lachlan and 3lac(xuarie rivers wore 191 AUSTIIAMA. 1800-1840. AL'STIiALlA, 1800-1840. Kil nut to till' wrHt (if tlit^ tthw MoiiiitalnN. IcHthlll, colli WIIH follllll 111 llll' lllolltll llf till' HnntiT rlviT, liml tlir Hclllctlirlil ilt NcwniHlIc fiiriiii'il. . . . Wlii'ii il iMTiuiir known lliiil the |M'nitl w'ttlrnicnt wiiM ){rii(liially iHTiiniiti); ii frri- I'olonv, itnil tliiit Sydney luiil ItM |io|iiilitlliin wrrc riipliny clmnKinK tliclr cliiiriu'tcr. I'nirliili ami Hi'iiii'li |M'o|>lt' HiHni Im'||ioii);IiI tliriu of cini ^'nitiiiji; to the new country. .\iiici|iiiirii' rcliirnnl lionic in \Hi-i, lca>inu New Sonlli WalcH four tiini'MiiH |)<i|iiiloiis, anil twenty llnirs as larKe a.s when lie went out, ami ininy years in aiivanec of wiiat II iiil);iit liave lieen uniler a less iilile anil «'Mer;fetie (governor. 'I'lie discovery of tlie line pastures iH'yond tlie lllue .Mountains Hcttled the destiny of "the colonv. The s4'tlltTS came up tliitlier with their IIis'Kh lon>; iK'fore .Maei|narle's road was linisiied: and II liirned out tiiat tlie downs of Australia were llie liest shecp-wallvs in tiie world. Till' sheep thrives biiti'r there, and prixliiees liner and inorealiundaiil wool, than any- where else, .loliii .Maearlliiir. a lieiilenant In llie New South Wales corps, had spent several years In ^illd^ inn the elTect, of tlie Anstraliiin clliniile upon the sheep; and he rli;litly Hiirniised that the stii|ile of the colony would Ih- its line wool. In 1M(K(, he went to Knulaiid and procured some pure Spanish merini) sheep from the Hock of (JeorKi! III. . . . The I'rivy Council listened to his wool projects, and he received a lar^^n grant, (if land. .Mai artliur had found out tlie true way to Australian prosjierily. When tliu jfrcat up- land pastures were discovered, the nierino lireed was well estuhlisheil hi tile colony; and the glieepowners, wiihoui waiting for grants, spread Willi tliiir Hocks over ininiense tracts of (ouiitry. This was Ihu lieginniiii; of what is called sipiat- tiiig. The tKiualters aficrwaids jiaid a ipiit rent to llie goveriimenl and thus ;fot their runs, as tli'7 called the great districts where they pas- tured tlieir llocks, to n certain extent secured to tliein. . . . Hundreds upon hundreils of si|uare miles of the great Aiistialian downs wen; now explored and stocked with sheep lor the Knglish woolniarket. ... It was in llie ijnie of .Mai - quarie's successor. Sir Tiioinas lirisliane, that the prospects of Ne^v Simtli Wales liecame generally known in England. Five emi.'^rants, eacli bring- ing more or less capital with him, now iioiired In; lUiil the deinand for labour became enormous. At (li'st the penal seltleinents were renewed as depots for the supply of lalhiiir, and it was even proposed that the convicts slimilil be sold bv auc- tion on tlieir arrival ; but in tiiC end the iiilliix of free labourers entirely altered the iiuestion. In Brisbane's time, and tliat of his successor. Sir Kalph Darling, wages fell and work becanio scarce in England; and English working men now turned their attention to Australia, llitlierlo the people had lieen either convicts or free set- tlers of more or less wealth, and 1,'ilween these classes there was great bitterness of feeling, eaeli, naturally enough, thinking that the colony ex- isted for tlieir own exclusive benetlt. Tlie free labourers who now poured in greatly contributed iu course of time to fusing tlie population into one. In Brisbane's time, trial by jury and a free jiress were intriKliiced. The linest jiastui-ea in Australia, the Darling Downs near Morcton Hay, T/ere discovered and settled [1825]. The rivers which pour into jMoreton Bay were explored: one of them was named the Brisbane, and a few miles from its luoulU the town uf the same uume WA8 founded, nrlsbane U i.ow tlio ranltal of tlio colony of (jiieeiisland : and olier explorallonH In Ills time led to the foundallon if ii m-coiiiI liide- penileiil colony. Tin; Macipiaric was traced Im'- voiid the marshes, In which il w;.s Hiipposed to lime itself, and named the Darling: i.nd the Miir- niy river was dlHi'ovcrcd ||N21»|, '1 'le tracing out of the iMiirray river by the ailvnlurous traveller Stiirl, led to u colony on the slti which he iiained South Australia. In DarlingK :iini'. tlie Swan Hlver Colony, now called Westiin .Vustra!ia, was cominenced. Darling . . . was till' tirst to sell the land at a sniall fixed price, on tlie system adopted in America. , . . Darling returned to England in 1N:||; and the six-years ailminisirathin of his kuc- cessor, .Sir Kichanl Ilmirke, marks a fresh turning point In Australian history. In his time the ciiliiny threw olT two great olTsliools. Tort I'liillip, on wliicli now stands the great city of .Melbourne, had been discovered in IHO'J, and in the !<ext year the government sent hillier u convict ciiiony. This did not prosper, and ilis line site was neglected for thirty years. Winn the sudden rise of New South Wales began, the squatters began to settle to the west and north of Port I'liillip; and the government at once sent an exploring parly, who reported most favour ably of the conntry around. In IH^IO, Governor iloiirke founileil a .settlement in tills new land, which had been called, from its ricli promise, Australia Felix: and iindi'r bis directions the site of a capital was laid out. to be called Mel- bourne, In honourof the English Prime .Minister, This was in IMIJT, so that the beginning of the colony (•oriesponds nearly witli that of Queen Vietoria's reign; a circumstance wliich after wards led to its being lianied Victoria. Fiirtlier west still, a second new colony arose about this time on the site discovered bv Slurt in 1820. This was called South Australia, and tlic tirst governor arrived tlierc at the end of Hie year lH;tlt. The intended capital was naineil Ade- laide, in honour of the (Jiieen of William IV. Botli Hie new colonies were commenced on a neiv system, called from its inventor the Waketield system, but the founders of Soutli Australia were able to carry it out most efrectually. be- cause they were (piite independent of tlie experi- ence and the prejudices of the Sydney govern- ment. Mr. Waketield was an ingenious man and a clever writer. . . . His notion was that tlie new colonies ought to be made ' fairly to repiesent English society.' His ])lan was to ar- rest tlie strong democratic tendencies of the new coininMiity, and to reprinluce in Australia the strciig distinction of classes wliii li was found in England. He wii-ited the land sold as dear as possible, so that labourers might not bcconie landowners: and the produce of the land was to be ai)i)lie,l in templing labourers to emigrate with the prospect of belter \vagcs than they got at home. A Company was easily formed to carry out these ideas in South Australia. . . . Like the seltlemeut of Carolina as framed by Locke and Somers, it was really a plan for getting the advantages of the colony into the hands of the non-labouring clas.scs: and by the natural laws of ])olitical economy, it failed everywhere. Adelaide bccjiine the sctene of an Australian 'bubble.' The laud -jobbers and money-lenders made fortunes: but the people who emigrated, mostly belonging to the middle aod upper 192 AU8TUALIA, JS00-1H40. AUWTHAIJA, 1830-183.'.. clnNxrH, found tli<t Hclirnin i<i )h <» :'eluiiinn, bind nipldly pohk In vitliio, iinti iim rii|>ldlv Hiink; unci liitH f(ir which lh« i'nil;;ninl.i Inid 11111.1 hlfth prIrrH ttfciunc jihnost wciilMisM Tni! ln'oiiircrs t'nilKnitcd cIscwlH'ri-, anil mi dlit th(mu of the lapl'JiliNlH will) hud unylhint; Icl't. . . Thu dc prc^iiin of South AuHtriiliu, Iiowcmt, wii.i li\it trinporury. It containH the licst corn land In tho whole iHliinil : iin<l hcnco it of coui'mc hoou Iic- caiui! tlu^ cliicf Hourci! of the food Huppiv of tlic nel>?lil)ourinK colonicH, bi'sjdcs cxporiln,: liir>;n (pnintitlcH of corn to Kn^ljind. It contiiiis ricli inincM of copper, iind produces lar^u (|Uiiiititiei< of wool." — k. J. I'uyue, Ui»l. uf li!iin>iiean Colo- iiifii, eh. 12. Al.m) IN: O. W. Uusilen, Jfint. uf Aiiiilnilii,. r. 1-a. A.D. 1830-1855.— Prog;ress of the Port Phillip District. — Its Separation from New South Wales nnd erection into the colonyof Victoria. —Discovery of Cold. — Constitutional organiza- ♦ ion of the colony. — " In H:il> Hie population of I'crt I'hillli) amounted to nearly (l.UOK, and wmi heln^ rapidly uuitnieuted from without. The Hheep i.< th(! dlHtrlct exceeded half a million, Jind cf cattlu .>nd horscH the nuinliers wen^ in pro- poiiion <'(ii.-dly lari^e. The place was daily t'rowin.i; in Inii ortanee. The Home Government theref(n'e decided 'o send an olliccr, with the title of Superintendent, ^i take charge of the district, but to act under the Uovernor of New South Wales, (,'harles Joseph la Trobe, Ksi|., wits ap- pointed to this olllce. . . . He arrived at Mel- bourne on the liOth Septeml)er, 1*JD. Soon after this all classes of the new commi:uily appear to have bccomo affected by a mania for . oeculation. ... As is nlways the case when sp^'iuilation takes the place of steady industry, the I'eees- miries of life became fabulously dear. ')f money there was but little, in consideration 01 the amount of bu.slness done, and large transac- tions were effected by meansof paper and credit. From hiKhe.st to lowest, all lived extniva^'antly. . . . Such II slate of things could not last for- ever. In 1842, by which time the population had increased to 24, 000, tho crash came. . . . From this depression the colony slowly recovered, and a sounder business system took the jilace of the speculative one. . . . All this time, however, the colony was 11 dependency of New South Wales, and .1 strong feeling had gained ground that it suffered in consc(|U('nce. ... A ci-y was raised for separation. The demand was. as a matter of course, resisted by New Sotith Wales. Ir^t ns the agitation was carried on with increased "••tivity, :* was at last yielded to l)y the Home : jtliorities. The vessel bearing the intelligence arri ed on the 11th November, 1850. The news Boon spread, and great was the satisfaction of the colonists. Uejo'eings were kept up in Mc! bourne for five consecutive days. . . . Before, however, the sepanition could be IcL^ally accom- l^'ished, it was necessary that an Act should bo passed in New South Wales to settle (Ictails. . . . The recjuisite forms were at length given effect to, and, on the Ist July, 1851, a day which l>as ever since been scrupulously observed ns a public holiday, it was proclaimed that the Port Phillip tlistriet of New South Wales had been erected into a separate colony to be called Victoria, after the name of Her Most Gracious Majesty. At the same time the Superintendent, Mr. C. J. La Trobe, was raised to the rank of Lieutenant- Oovcrnor. At the commencement of the year of Ncparatiiin the population >>f Port Phillip num- iH'rcd TO.IKMI, the sheep ll.(NNl.OIK>, the cattlii !IMO,000. . . . In a little morethan a inoii;!i iifier llie cstablUhinent of VIcliiria as an Independent colony, it lns'amc? generally known that rich ileposlls of gold existed witldn its iMinlcrs. . . . The discovery of gold ... In New South Wales, l)y Hargri'aveH, in February, IH.'il, caused numiiers lo endgrale In that colony. This being considered detrimental to the Interests of Victoria, a public meeling was held in .Melbourno on the Ulh of June, at which a "gold -discovery committee' wasappolnteil. which was authorized to offer rewards to any that shoulil discover gr)l(| in rcnunierative (]uantiti<'s wllhin tin* colony. The colonists wen; already on the alert. At tho lime this meeting was held, several parlies wero lUt searching for, and some had already found g.>ld. The ' rcelous inelal was llrst discovered at v'lunes, then In the, Varra ranges at Anderson'H C'reck iion after at lluidnyong and Hallarat, shortly afterwards at Mount Alexan<ler, and eventually ul Ikn(!';;o Thedeposits were found to be rlclwr and to extend over a wider area than any which had been discovered in New South Wales. Their fame soon spread to Ww adjacent coloides. and iboiisands hastened to the spot. . . . When I be news reached home, crowds of endgrants from the l'nile<l Klngilon> hurried to our shores. Inhabitants of other Kuropean countricsi|ulcklv joined In the rush. Americans from the Atlantic. States were not long In follow- ing. Stalwart Californlaiu" left their own gold- yielding rocks and placers to try llieir fortunes at the Southern Kldoraihi. Last of all, swarms of Chinese arrived, eager to unile In the general scramble for wealth. . . . The Important posi- tion which the Auslralian colonies had obtained In eonseipienc<! of the discovfry of gold, and tho i.'Hiix of |)opulation conscMpient thereon, was tho occasion of the Imperial Uoveniment determin- ing in tho latter end of 18.52 that each colony should be iMviled to frame such a (.'onstitution for Its govern. nent as its representatives might deem best suited lo its own peculiar circum- stances. The ConsilMition framed in Vit'toriu, and afterwards approve.! by the Hritish I'arlia- ment, was avowedly bused upon that of tho United Kingdom. It providei'. for the establish- ment of two Houses of Legis' .;. i- with power to make laws, subject to the , -i.sen, if the Crown as represented generallv ' the Gov 'rnor of tlio colony; the Legislati\ Council, or Ui),.er House, to consist of 30, and the Legislative Assembly, or Lower House, to consist of (50 members. JMembers of both Houses to bo elective and to l)ossess property <nialilication.s. Electors of both Ilouses to jiossess either property or professional (jualificrttions [the iiroperlyqualilicationof mcm- beisand electors of tho Lower House has sinco been abolishedl. . . . The Upper House not to bo dissolved, but live members to retire every two years, and to be ejigible for ro election. The L(»wer House to bo dissolved e\ery five yc.irs [sinco reduced to three], or oftener, at the dis- cretion of the Governor. Certain officers of tho Government, four at least of whom should havo seats in Purliumeut, to be deeme.l ' Ke- tnonsiblo Ministers." . . . This Constitution was liidclaimod iu Victoria on the 23d November, 18;.5."— H. H. Hayter, Mtei on the Colony of Vici'iHa, eh. 1. 193 AUSTRALIA, 1830-1855. nderatUm. AUSTKALIA, 1890. Al,(to IN; I'. P. Lal)ilIiorc, Kiirli/ IIi»t. of the, Coliinn of Virloriii. r. 2. — \V. WcstKurtli, Fint IVi'iili/ YtiirH <if till' f'oloiii/ of Vii-tiin'ii. A. D. 1859. — Separation of the Moreton Bay District from New South Wales. —Its erection into the colony of Queensland. — " Until Dcccni- bfr, IM.")!), Ilic iiortliwcsl portion of tJR' Fifth Continent was kno'.vn lis tliu .Moreton Buy dislriel, anil l>elon.i,'('il to the colony of Now South Wales; hut nt that date it had grown so largo that it. was crecte 1 into a .separate and independent colony, under the nanu^ of Queensland. It lies hctween lat. 10^ -J;)' S. and 2«^S., and long. 138^ and 1.530 E., bounded on the north by Torres Straits; on the north-east by the ('oral Sea; on the east by the South Paeilie ; on the south by New South wales and South Australia; on the west by South Australia and the Northern Territory ; and on the northwest by the Gulf of Carpentaria. It covers an area . . . twenty times as large as Ireland, twenty-three tii s as large as Scotland, and eleven times the i i^nt of England. . . . Numerous good harbours are found, many of which form tlie outlets of navigable rivers. The principal of these [is] Moreton Hay, at the head of which stands IJrisbane, the capital of the colony. . . . The mineral wealth of Queensland is very great, and every year sees it more fully developed. . . . Until the year 1807, when the Gympie field was discovered, gold mining as an industry was hardly known." — C. II. Eden, The Fifth CmliiKHt, eh. 10. A. D. 1885-1892. — Proposed Federation of the Colonies. — "It has been a common saying in Australia tliat our fellow countrymen in that part of the world did not recognise the term 'Australian;' each recognised only his own colony and the empire. But the advocates of combination for certain common purposes achieved a great steji forward in the formation of ft ' Federal Council' in 188.'). It was to be only a ' Council,' its decisions having no force over any colony unless accepted afterwards by the colonial Legislature. Victoria. Queenslancl, Tasmania, and West Australia ioi.ieil. New South Wales, South A.istralia, and New Zealand standing out. and, so constituted, it met twice. The results of the deliberations were not un.satisfactorj', and the opinion that the move was in the right direction rapidly grew. In February of 1800 a Federation Conference, not private but reiiresentative of the different Governments, was called at Jlelbourne. It adopted an address to the Queen declaring the opinion of the conference to be that the best interests of tlie A\istralian colonies rerjuire the early formation of a union under the Crown into one Government, both legislative and executive. Events proceed quickly in (Jolonial History. In the course of 1800 the hesitation of New South AVales was finally overconu^ powerful factors being the weakening of the Free Trade position at tlie election of 1890, the report of General Edwards on the Defences, and the difflculties about C;hinese immigration. A Convention accordingly assembled at Sy<liiey in March, 1891, which agreed upon a Constitution to be recom- mended to the several Colonies." — A. Caldecolt, Fii'/linh Oiloniziitiou and Eini>ive, eh. 7, scet. 2, — "On Monday, March 2nd, 1891, the National Australasian Conventiini met at the Parliament House, Sydney, New South Wales, and was attended by seven representatives from each Colony, except New Zealand, which only sent three. Sir Henry Parkcs (New Soiith Wales) was elected President of the Convention, and Sir Samuel GriHith (Queensland), Vice-President. A series of resolutions, in' ved by Sir Henry Parkas, occupied the attention of tlie Convention for several days. Tliesc resolutions set forth the ])rinciples upon which the Federal Government shoiilil be established, which were to the effect that the powers and privilegesof existing Colonics should be kei)t intact, except in cases wliero surrender would be necessary iu order to form a Federal Government; that intercolonial trade and intercourse should be free; that power to impose Customs duties should rest with the Fed- eral Government and Parliament; and that the naval and military defence of Australia should be entrusted to the Federal Forces under one coinmaiul. The resolutions then went on to approve of a. Federal Constitution which should establish a Federal Parliament to consist of a Senate and u IIou.se of Keprcsentatives; that a Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, to he a High Court ot Appeal for Australia, should be established; and that a Federal Exe- cutive, cimsisting of a Governor-General, with respon.sible advisers, should be constituted. These resolutions were discussed at great length, and eventually were ndoi)tcd. The resolutions were then referred to three Committees chosen from the delegates, one to consider (/'onstitutional Machinery and the distribution of powers and functions ; one to deal with matters relating to Finance, Taxation, and Trade Regulations; and the other to consider the ((ucstion of the estab- lishment of a Federal Judiciary. A draft Bill, to constitute the ' Commonwealth of Australia,' was brought up by the Ui-st mentioned of these Com- mittees, and after full consideration was 1 .opted by the Convention, and it was agreed iiiat the Bill should be ])resented to each of the Austra- lian P vliaments for approval and adoption. On Thursday, April 0th. the Convention closed its proceedings. The Bill to provide for the Feder- ation of the Australasian colonies entitled ' A Bill to constitute a Commonwealth of Australia,' which was drafted by the National Australasian Convention, has been introduced into the Parlia- ments of most of the colonies of the groi'p, and is still (October, 1802), under consideration. In Victoria it has passed the Lower House with some amendments." — Statesniaii'g Year-book, 1893, ;*. 308. A. D. 1890.— New South Wales and Vic- toria. — "New South Wales bears to Victoria a certain statistical resemblance. The two colonies have [1800] about the same population, and, roughly speaking, about the same revenues, ex- penditure, debt and trade. In each, a great capital 'inWevlti in one neighbourhood more than a third of the total population. . . . But . . . considerable differences lie behind and are likely to develop in the future. New South Wales, in the opinion of her enemies, is less enterprising than Victoria, and has less of the go-ahead spirit which distin- guishes the Melbourne |)eople. On the other hand she possesses a larger tei'ritory, abundant supplies of coal, and willh ve probably, in con- sequence, a greater future. Although New South Wales is thix'c and a half times as large as Victoria, and has the area of the German Empire and Italy combined, slie is of course much smaller than the three other but as yet less impor- tant colonies of the Australian coatiucut [namely 194 AUSTRALIA, 1800. AUSTRASIA. Qiiecnslnnd, South Australi:i iinil Wostorn Aus- tralia |. As tlio country was in a larijc ilcgicc soltlfd by assisted cmigrntits, of whom some- thing liliC lialf altogether have been Irish, while the English section was li rgcly composed of Chartists, . . . tlie legislation of New South Wales has natiirully shown signs of its origin. Manhooil sulfrage was carried in 1858; the abo lition of iH'ir.i >genitnre in 1862; safe and easy transfer of land thro\igh the machinery of the Torrens Act in the same year; and also the abolition of state aid to religion. A public .sys- tem of education was introduced, with other measures of democratic legislation. . . . Public education, which in Victoria is free, is still paid for by fees in N^w South Wales, though children going to or returning from school arc allowed to travel free by railway. In gencial it may be said that New Soutli Wales legislation in recent times has not been so bold as tlic legislation of Victoria. . . . The land of New South AVales has to a large extent come into the hands of wealthy per- sons who are becoming a territorial aristocracy. This has been the effect tir.stly of grants and of squatting legislation, then of the perversion of the Act^ of 1801 [for ' Free Selection l)cforc Survey '] to the use of those against whon \'^ had been aimed, and finally of natural tau.ses — soil, climate and the lack of water. . . . The traces of the convict element in New South Wales 'mve become very slight in the national character. The prevailmg cheerfulness, running into flcklc- ness and frivolity, with a great deal more vivacity than exists in England, does not sug- gest in the least the intermixture of convict blood. It is a natural creation of the climate, and of the full and varied life led by colonists in a young country. ... A population of an e.\ccllent typo has swallowcil up not only the convict element, but also the unstable and thriftless element ship|)ed by friends in Ilrit- ftin to Sydney or to ]\Ielbourne. The ne'er- do-weels were either somewhat above the aver- age in brains, as was often the case with those who recovered themselves and started life afresh, or people who drank themselves to death and disap))eared and left no descendants. The convicts were also of various classes; some of them were men in whom crime was the outcome of restless energy, as, for instance, in many of those transported for treason and for manslaughter; while some were jieople of average morality ruined through companions, wives, or sudden temptation, and some persons of an essentially depraved and criminal life. The better classes of convicts, in a new countiy, away from their old companions and old tempta- tions, turned over a new leaf, and their abilities and their strong vitality, which in some cases had wrought their ruin m the old world, foimd healthful scope in subduing to man a now one. Crime in their cases was an accident, and would not be tran'smitted to tlie children they left be- hind then. On the otlier hand, the genuine criminal'., and also tlie drunken ne"er-do-wcels, left no children. Drink and vice among the 'assigred servants' class of convicts, and an absence ''f all facilities for marriage, worked them off the r.-.?o of the earth, and those who had not been killed before the gold discovery generally drank themselves to death upon the diggings. " — Sir 0. W. Dilke, Probkim of Greaier Jirilain, pt. 2, ch. 3. AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA, OR NEUSTRASIA.— •• It iseonjeclured by Luden, with great probability, that the Uipuarians wto originally called the ' Ea.stcrn ' people to distiu- giush them ""roMi the Salian Franks who lived to the West. IJut when the old home < f the con- (picrors on the right bank of the llliinc was united with their iiew settlements in Gaul, the latter, as it woidd seem, were called Neustria or Neustrasia (New Lands); while the term Aus- Irasia came to denote the original seats of the Franks, on what we now call the German bank of the Rhine. The most important di'Tcrence between them (a (iiirer<'nce so great as to lead to their pc-rmancnt sepai-.ition into the kingdoms of France and Germany by the treaty of Verdun) was this: that in Xeustria the Frankish element was ([Uickly absorbed by the nia.ss of Gallo- Romanism by which it was surrounded; while in Austrasia, which included the ancient seals of the Frankish conijucrors, the German element was wholly predimiinant. The import of the word Austrasia (Austria, Austritrancia) is very fluctuating. In its widest sense it was used to denote all the countries ineorporate<l into the Frankish Empire, or even held in subjection to it, in which the German language and poi)ulatioa prevailed; in this accept;ition it included there- fore the territorv of the Alemanni, Bavarians, Tburingians, and even that of the Saxons and Frises. In its more common and projicr sense it meant that part of the territory of the Franks themselves which was not included in Neustria. It was s\d)divided into Upper Austrasia on tho JfoscUc, and Lower Austrasia on the Rhine and Jleuse. Neustria (or, in the fulness of tho monkish Latinity, Neustrasia) was bounded on the north by the ocean, on the south by the Loire, and on the southwest [southeast?] towards Hur- gundy by a line which, beginning below Gien on the Loire, ran tiirough the rivers Loing and Yoinie, not far from their sources, and iiassing north of Auxerre and south of Troyes, joined the river Aube above Arcis." — AV. C. Perry, The Fraiik.i, ch. 3. — "The northeastern part of Gaul, along the Rhine, together with a slice of ancient Germany, was already distinguished, as we have seen, by tlic name of the Eastern King- dom, or Oster-rike, Latinized into Austrasia. It embraced the region first occupied by the Ri- puarian Franks, and where they still lived the most compactly and in the greatest number. . . . This was, in the estimation of the Franks, the kingdom by eminence, while the rest of tho north of Gaul was simply not it — ' ne-oster- rike,' or Neustria. A line drawn from the mouth of the Scheldt to Cambrai, and thenco across the JIarno at Chateau-Thierry to the Aube of Bar-sur-Aube, would have separated the one from tho other, Neustria comprising all the northwest of Gaul, between tho Loire and the ocean, with the excepfion ot Brittany. This had been the first possession of tho Salian Franks in Gaul. ... To .iUcli an extent had they been absorbed and influenced by the Roman elements of the population, that the Austrasians scarcely considered them Franks, while they, in their turn, regarded the Austrasians as tho merest untutored barbarians. " — P. Godwin, ITist. of France: Ancient Qavl, bk. 3, ch. 13, tnith note. Also in: E. A. Freeman, Hist. Geog. of Europe, ch. 5, sect. .'5. — See, also, Fiianks (JIekovixgian Empire): A. D. 511-753. 195 AUSTRIA. AUSTRIA. AUSTRIA. The Name.— " The nnnie of Austria, Ocstpr- reioli — O.St ricli lis our forcfiithcrs wrote it — is, miluriilly enough, n comnioii name for tlie east- ern part of any kini;<loMi. Tlie Franltisli Iviiig- doiM of tlie ^Merwings had its Austria ; tlie Italian kingdom of the Lombards had its Austria also. \Ve are half inclined to wonder that the name was never given in our own island either to Essex or to KastAnglia. But, while the other Austrias have passeil away, the Oesterreich, the Austria, the Eastern mark, of the German kingdom, its defence against tlic Magyar invader, has lived on to our own times. It has not only lived on, but it has become one of the chief European powers. And it lias become so by a process to which it would be hard to find a parallel." — E. A. Freeman, The Ilistuneal Qeoijraphy of Burape, v. 1, ch. 8, p. 305. The birthplace. — "On the disputed frontier, in the /one of jierpetual conflict, were formed and developed the two states which, in turn, ■were to dominate over Germany, namely, Aus- tria and Prussia. Both were born in the midst of the enemy. The cradle of Austria was the Eastern march, cstablislied by Cliarlcinagne on tlie Danube, beyond Bavaria, at I'w: very gate through which have passed so many i.ivaders from the Orient. . . . The cradle of I'russia was the march of Brandenburg, between the Elbe and the Oder, in the region of the e.xterminated Slavs." — E. Lavissc, General View of the Poliii- cal Ilintory of EurojK, ch. 3, sect. 13. The Singularity of Austrian history. — A power which is not a national power. — "It is by no means an easy task to tell the story of the various lauds which have at different times come under the dominion of Austrian princes, the story of each land by itself, and the story of tliera all in relation to the common power. A continuous narrative is impossible. . . . Much mischief has been done by one small fashion of nKHlern speech. It has within my memory he- come usual to personifj' nations and j)owers on the smallest occasions in a way which was for- merly done only in language more or less solemn, rhetorical or jioetical. We now talk every mo- ment of England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, as if they were persons. And as long as it is only England, France, Germany, Russia, oi* Italy of which we talk in this way, no practical harm is done; the thing is a mere question of style. For those are all national powers. . . . But when we go on to talk in this way of 'Austria,' of 'Turkey," direct harm is done; thought is confused, and facts are misrepresented. ... 1 have seen the words 'Austrian national honour ; ' I have come across jieople who believed that 'Austria ' was one Jand inhabited by ' Austriaus,' and that ' Austriaus ' spoke the ' Austrian ' lan- guage. All such jihrases are misapplied. It is to be presumed that in all of them 'Austria' means something more than the true Austria, the archduchy; what is commonly meant by them is the whole dominions of the sovereign of Austria. People fancy that the inhabitants of those dominions have a common lieing, a com- mon interest, like that of the people of England, France, or Italy. . . . There is no Austrian language, no Austrian nation; therefore there can be no such tl'.iag as 'Austrian national hon- our.' Nor can thi re be an 'Austrian policy' in tlie same sense in which there is an Engli.sh or a French policy, that is, a policy in which the English or French government carries out the will of the Engli.sh or French nation. . . . Such ))hiases as 'Austrian interests,' 'Austrian policy,' and the like, do not mean the interests or the l)olicy of any land or nation at all. They simply mean the interests and pol'cy i, f a particular rul- ing family, which may often be the same as the interests and wishes of particular parts of their dominions, but which can never represent any common interest or common wish on the part of the whole. . . . We must ever remember that the dominions of the House of Austria are simply a collection of kingdoms, duchies, etc., brought together Ijy various accidental causes, but which have nothing really in common, no common speech, no common feeling, no common interest. In one case only, that of the Magyars in Hungary, does tlie House of Austria rule over a whole nation ; the other kingdoms, duchies, etc. , are only parts of nations, liaving no tie to one another, but having the closest ties to other parts of their several nations which lie close to them, but whicli are uniler other governments. The only bond among them all is that a series of marriages, wars, treaties, and so forth, liave given them a common sovereign. The same jierson is king of Hungary, Archduke of Austria, C(iuut of Tyrol, Lord of Trieste, and a liundred other things. 'Tliat is all. . . . The growth and ihe abiding dominion of the House of Austria is one of the most remarkable pluenomena in Euro- pean liistory. Powers of the same kind have arisen twice before ; but in both cases they were very short-lived, wliile the power of the House of Austria has lasted for several centuries. The power of the House of Anjou in the twelftli cen- tury, the power of the House of Burgundy in the fifteenth century, were powere of exactly the same kind. They too were collections of scraps, with no natural connexion, brought together by the accidents of warfare, marriage, or diplomacy. Now why is it that both these powers broke in pieces almost at once, after the reigns of two princes in each case, while the power of the House of Austria has lasted so long? Two causes suggest themselves. One is the long connexion between the House of Austria and tlie Roman Empire and kingdom of Germany. So many Austrian Ijrinces were elected Emperoi-s as to make the Austrian House seem something great and im- perial in itself. I believe that this cause liaa done a good deal towards the result; but I be- lieve that another cause has done yet more. This is tliat, though the Austrian power is not a national power, there is, as has been already no- ticed, a nation within it. AVliile it contains only scraps of other nations, it contains the whole of the Magyar nation. It thus gets something of the strength of a national power. •. . . The kingdom of Hungary is an ancient kingilom, with known boundaries which have changed sin- gularly little for several centuries; and its con- nexion with the archduchy of Austria and the kingdom of Bolieinia is now of long standing. Anything beyond this is modem and shifting. The so-'"-"ed 'empire of Austria' dates only from , iiir 1804. This is one of the simplest matte. o . ti.'e world, but one which is constantly forgc'.teu. ... A smaller point on which con- 19B mmtmHTmoeccoi/THmiii AUSTRIA. AUSTRIA, A. D. 80,')-1240, fusion also provnils is tliis. All the mombcrs of tliu House of Austria arc ronimonly spoken of as arclulukes and arcliduelicsses. I feel sure that many people, if aslied the meaning of the word nrrhdukc. woiild say that it was the title of the children of the 'P^niperor of Austria,' as grand- duke is used in Russia, and prinei! in most countries. In truth, nrrhduke is the title of the sovereign of Austria. He has not given it iip; for he calls himself Archduke of Austria still, though he calls himself 'Emperor of Austria' as well. But hy Gerninn custom, the chihlren of a duke or count arc all called dukes and counts for ever and ever. In this way the Prince of Wales is called 'Duke of Saxony,' and in the same way all the children of an Archduke of Austria are archdukes and archduchesses. For- mally and historically ftlicn, the taking of an liercilitary imperial title hy the Archduke of Austria in 1804, and the keeping of it after the growth, apes in whioh the idea of right, as em- hodicd in law, was the leading idea of states- men, and the idea of rights justified or Justillahle hy the letter of law, was a profound intluenco with politician .... The house of Austria . . . lays thus the foimdation of that empire whicli is to he one of the great forces of the next age; not hy fra\id, not l)y violenee, hut here hy a politic marriage, here by a well advocated inheritance, here by a claim on an imperial fief forfeited or escheated: honestly where the letter of the law is in her favour, hy chicanery it may he here and there, but that a chicanery that wears a spe- cious garb of right. The imperial idea was Init a small intluence comoared with the super- structure of right, inheritance, and suzerainty, that legal instincts and a general aecpiieseenee in legal forms liad raised upon it." — W. Stubbs, Seventeen [jcctures on the Stm^i/ of Medieval and Modern IHntory, pp. 209-210. "V T (' 6 A X O N Y__^ i^ p „ ^j S S , ^V^ V A R ^^M'f^ "*'"S"» IV/-> <_ )— ,„y- ■■ •C., '■•% VO * '^ \ ^S«='»>»-f.l««,^llutl.o..lang/?S'-. Iiiii7.jirii.'k * aS '? o 11 ^' ' ^.S 1 O V I! 11 O (*' X. oI*aibacb r** \ <%> '^<^r^ y: .s -./■■ .--^ ^ Cro^atl,,,,^ (■. <f ROUMANIANS ■.■*■/„ V V^'jnifolTHUKs R O U M A N I A '''1<S« _*'» \ ' jv> B O S N I A.»\ > rk I 8 E R V I A SSh -^ — \ • fe|^»N"eomA^->. \ ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAP OF ^^^' / -v V ATJSTRIA- « o N T>.._ •^'^ HUNGARY N E a R o ^^'— '. NOTE; Tht aliaded parts denote tfia \ distribution of the Germans, prince who took it had ceased in 1806 to be King of Germany and Roman Emperor-elect, was a sheer and shameless imposture. But it is an im- posture which has thoroughly well served its ends." — E. A. Freeman. Prefnee to rAy/er'sJIiatory of Austro-IIungary. — "Medieval History is a history of rights and wrongs; modern History as contrasted with medieval divides itself into two portions ; the tirst a history of jiowers, forces, and dynasties; the second, a history in which leas take the place of both rights and forces. . . Austria may be regarded as representing ilie more ancient form of right. . . . The middle ages proper, the centuries from tlic year 1000 to the year 1500, from the Emperor llcnry II. to the Emperor Slaxitniliau, were ages of legal The Races. — "The ethnical elements of the population are as follows (1890 for Austria and 1880 for Huufary) on the basis of language : — Austria (1890): German 8,461,580; Boliemian, Moravian and Slovak 5,472,871; Polish 3,719,- 232; Ruthenian 3,105,221; Slovene 1,176,672; Servian and Croatian 644,920; Italian and Latin 675,305; Roumanian 209,110; Magyar 8,139. Hungary (1880): German 1,972,115; Bohemian, Moravian and Slovak 1,893,800; Ruthenian 360,051; Slovene 86,401; Servian and Croatian 2,3,59,708; Roumanian 2,423,387; Magyar 6,478,711; Gipsies 82.2.56; Others 83,940.''— Statesman's Vear-lJook. 1893 ; ed. bi/ J. S. Keltic. A. D. 80S-1246. — The Rise of the Margrav- iate, and the creation of the Duchy„ under the 197 AUSTRIA. A. D. 80(5-1246. finhrnberg Itf/naily. AUSTRIA, A. D. 805-1246. Babenbergs.— Chaneingr relations to Bavaria. — End of the Babenberg Dynasty.—" Austria, as Is wi'll known, is Init llic li.'ilin funii of tlie OrrinaiiOcstcrrcicli, lli('l<iiij.'iloiii of tliccast [an; aliovc: Ai :sriiASiA|. Tliis cclcliralcd liistrirical naiiic a|)|>i'ars for tli(< first linu^ in 000, in a docu incnl signed liy tlio onipcrorOtto 111. (' in rcjiiono vulKari iioniiiic Ostcrnclii'). Tlic land to wliicli it is tlicrc applied was rri'al<'d a iiiarfli afti'r tlie (IcslrnclioM of tli(' Avar iMiipiro [80,")], and was frovcriK'il lilu- all I ho other (Jerinan niarclies. Politically it wasdividcd into two inari^raviates; that of Friuli, in(lii(lin!.f Friuli properly so called. Lower Paniionia to IIk^ south of the Dravo, Car- inthia, Istria, and the iiilerior of Dalnialia — tlio sea-coast havinj; been ceded to the Eastern eni- lieror ; — the eastern niariiraviate comprising Lower Pannonia to the nortli of the Drave, Upper I'atnionia, and the Ostniark properly so called. The Oslniark inehided the TraUMKau to the east of the Kniis, which was coniplelelv Ger- man, and the Griin/.vittigau. . . . Tlieearly his- tory of these countries lacks the unity of interest which the fate of a dynasty or a nation jjives to those of the Majryar and the t'hekh. They form but a port ion of the Gernian kin.ij;don'i,and have no strongly marked life of their own. The inarch, with its varying frontier, had not oven a geograph- ical unity. In 870, it was enlarged by the ad- dition of IJavaria; in 800, it lost I'annonia, which was given to Hracislav, the Croat prince, in re- turn for his help against tlie JIagyars, and in 0;!7. it was destroyed and absorbed by tlio ^lag- yars, who e.vtendod their frontier to the river Enns. After tlic battle of Lcchfehl or Augsburg (9,>1), Germany and Italy being no longer exposed to llnugarian invasions, the march was rocon- stituted"!!!!!! f.rantod to the margrave IJurkhard, the brother-in-law of Henry of liavaria. Leopokl of IJabenborg succeeded him (97.'!), and witli him begins the dynasty of 15abenberg, which ruled the country (hu'ing the time of the Promyslidcs [in Bohemia] and the house of Arpad [in Hun- gary]. The IJaboiibergs derived their name from the castle of Habonborg, built by Henry, mar- grave of Nordgau, in honor of his wife, Baba, sister of Ilonry the Fowler. It reappears in tlie name of the town o' Bamberg, which now forms part of the 1 ig .om o/ Bavaria. . . . Though not of right au li jreditary ofllco, the margraviate soon 'lecame so, and remained in the family of the Babenbergs the niniili was so important a part of the cm )ire thin no do. '^t. the emperor was glnd to mi te the defence of this exposed district the especial interest of one family. . . . The marriages of the Babenbergs were fortunate ; in 1138 the brother of Leopold [Fourth of that name in the Jlargraviate] Conrad of Hohen- staufen, Duke of Franconia, was made emperor. It was now that the struggle began between the house of Ilohenstaufen and the great house of ■\Velf [or Guelf: See Guki,fs and Guiiiklines] whose reprcsenttitivo was Henry the Proud, Duke of Sa.xony and Bavaria. Henry was defeated in the unequal strife, and was i^laced inidcr the ban of the Empire, wlnle the duchy of Sa.vony was nwaiiieil to Albert the Bear of lirandonbtirg, and the duchy of Bavaria fell to tho share of Leopold IV. (1138). Henry the Proud died in tlie follow- ing year, leaving behind him a son under age, who was known later on as Ileury the Lion. His uncle Welf would not submit to the forfeiture by his house of their old domiuious, and marched against Tjcopold torccon(iupr Bavaria, but bown» defeated by Conrad at tlie buttle of Weinsbcrg (ll-tD). Leopold <lied shortly after this victory, and was succeeded both in the <luchy of Bavaria and in the margraviate of Austria by his brother, Henry II." Henry II. endeavored to strengthen himself in Bavaria by marrying the widow of Henry tlie Proud, and by extorting from her son, Ilonry the Lion, a renunciation of the lalter'.s rights. But Henry the Lion afterwards repudi- ated his renunciation, and in tb'iO the German diet decided that Bavaria should bo restored to him. Henry of Austria was wisely persuaded to yield to the decision, anil Bavaria was given tip. " He lost nothing by this unwilling act of disinterestedness, for he secured from the emperor considerable compensation. From tlii.s time for- ward, Austria, which had been largely increased by the addition of the greater part of the lands lying between tlie Enns and the Inn, was re- moved from its almost nominal subjection to Bavaria and became a .separate duchy [Henry II. being the lirst hereditary Duke of Aiistria]. Aii imperial edict, dated the Ststof September, ll.ICi, declares the new duchy hereditary even in the foinale line, and authorizes the dukes to absent themselves from all diets except those whidi were held in Bavarian territory. It also permits them, in case of a tlireatoned o.vtinction of theirdynasty. to proiiose a successor. . . . Henry II. was one of the founders of Vienna. He constructed a fortress there, and, in order to civili/.e the sur- rouiKling country, sent for some Scotch monks, of whom there were many at this time in Ger- many." In 1177 Heni'v II. was succeeded by Leopold v., called tho Virtuous. " In his reign the duchy of Austria gained Styria, an iir;/ortant addition to its territory. This province was in- habited by Slovenes and Germans, and took its name from the castle of Steyor, built in 080 by Otokar III., cotmt of the Trungau. In 1050, it was created a iiiargraviate, and in 1150 it was enlarged by the addition of the counties of Maii- bor (Marburg) and Cilly. In 1180, Otokar VI. of Styria (1104-1192)obtained the hereditary title of duke from the Emperor in return for his help against Henry the Lion." Dying without cliil- dreii, Otokar made Leopold of Austria bis heir. " Styria was annexed to Austria in 1192, and has remained so ever since. . . . Leopold V. is the first of the Austrian ]irinces whose name is known in Western Europe. He joined the third crusade, " and quarrelled with Richard Coeur de Lion at the siege of St. Jean d' Acrc. Afterwards, when Ricliard, returning liomo by the Adriatic, at- temiited to pass through Austrian territory in- cognito, Leopold revenged himself by seizing and imprisoning the English king, finally selling his royal captive to a still meaner Emperor for 20,000 marks. Leopold VI. who succeeded to the Austrian duchy in 1198, did much for the commerce of his country. ' ' He made Vienna tlie staple tovn, and lent a sum of 30,000 marks of silver to the city to enable it to increase its trade. He adorned it with mauy new buildings, among tliom the None Burg." His son, called Frederick the Fighter (1230-1346) was the last of theBaben- berg dynasty. His hand was against all his neighbors, including the Emperor Frederick IL. and their liands were against him. He pcrislied in June, 1240, on the banks of the Leitlia, while at war with the Hungarians. — L. Lcgcr, Ilist. of Austvo-IIuiujary, ch. 9. 198 c; 1? ^ {q aj >N a, 1 E ^-1 03 ^ •f-H 2 ^ 1— 1 o -+^ o QC :i -a: a <:«— 1 to O O i sm **"•} Q P s-^ ii5 H =3 -<; O w »< CO o M la (U) >5 3 •a o !ii o O n > .2 o y i '* s J a a II 1 1 bo" a X o a to o .2 " ii s i = g § El *2 i> "o o „ o £ J fl a " .S I ^i -^ ^ - « 2 a I „ ^ •^ (S .t: ^^ rh ^ w " -3 " > •= wj ^ a u u « o .2 ^^ -S -3 ?r *3 — i» ■S C ° u Itsi ^s'^-;s3i .a' E 3 2 9 -S .5 X a i-g I Li f2 ^ .4J M rr^ ?. Ml CO a V Z. a •» o o _ a ^ ■2 ^ - ^- I -^ -^ "••^■^ 13 a^y I-iO Stfcj gi-s s !i| I i I = s 5 l^fTii g g s a t)*;^ E5t3 o"-'a S.t= (U 3 „ -S -S -S ^ ,*^ Jf 5-, S -a tt -g if 2 a o V a ■~ .5 ■3 a a H P. oo i fco a 1JI h J s J a 5 -2 "^ is ? S "^ »- ti 3- 3. 5 ftS.^ ^ ^ 5j ^ 2 a X .3 5 =3 " •9 = 1 ^ »^ O •3 &=• § o o a — 38*3 „ _ a q ja a a a .a -^^^ -a o3-gHa-a P o,<S 3 h S ?, o. s I ^ "' fe 3 99 O U 1^11 g SI » vj ♦J ja 3 e .3 s i! 2 ^ I 2 a&i f « « S •35 ?^ "3 - O - O . - 5 J a - 1. Ts -3 ^ .2 S ,5; I ^ ^ ^ S g S I ri ' S 0) a ^."^ 3 a t-.-g 3 -a W •SS **-• ^ *- 73 a -3 ti^ "■ 2 e *' a 11 £? a n S S o a g - O-^ -3 •^-f AUHTUIA, rjw-iaw. fiinttihth «/ Ihitttbu uii)tbury. AU8TUI.V, 12lrt-13b}. A1.H0 IN: E. F. IlcndtTH-m, SUd Ifinl. Duft. nf the Miiltlle Ai/m. Iik. 'i, no. 7. A. D. I346-I383.— Rodolph of Hapiburs and the acquisition of the Duchy for his family. — "'Inr House nf Au-itriit Dwcs its origin and povviT to Hliinloljili of IIa|)Hliui'i;li, Hoii of Albert IV. cdunt of lla|>HlMirt,'li. Tlio AuHtiiiui KciicaloKists. who have taken inclefatli;aiil(! but luelTcetuul pahiK to trace his Illustrious ilesi'etit from thu Koniaiis, carry It with Krcat pniliahlllty to Ktlilco, (luku of Alstu'i', III the sevi'iilh century, aM<l uui|UL'stlonalily to (iuntraui \\u'. Itleh, count of Alsacu 1111(1 Ilrls^^au. who llourislied in the tenth." A Kf""!^"" <'f Ountniin. Werner hy name, " bucaniu bl.sliop of iStrasburjih, anil ou an enilneiicu above Winillsch, built the castle of Ilapsbur^h [' llabichtHbur!,'' 'the castle of vul- tures' 1, which becanu! the residence of the future counts, and gave a new title to the descendants of Ountram. . . . The successors of Werner In- creased their fai'iily Inheritance by marrlai;es, donations from the Emperoi-s, and by becoming prefects, advocates, or administrators of the neljfhbourlng abbeys, towns, or districts, and his gri grandsim, Albert III., was possessor of no ill .siderablu territories in Suabia, Alsace, and that part of Switxurlaiid which is now called the Argau, and held tin; landgnivlate of Upper ^visace. Ills son, Uhodolp'i, received from the Kinperur, in addition to his paternal inheritance, the town and district of Lauffenburgh. an im- perial city on tile Uliine. lie aci|uirv(l also a considerable acces-siou of lerritrry by obtalniiii; the advocacy of Uri, Scliwdtz, and Under- walden, whoso natives laid the foundation of the Helvetic Confederacy, by their union against the oppressions of feudal tyranny." — W. Co.se, IIM. vf the IldiiHe of Aimtrid, ch. 1. — "(Jn the death (if Hodolpli In 1233 his estates were divided between Ids sons Albert IV. and Uixlolph II. ; the former receiving the landgravlute of L'pper Al.saee. and the county of Hapsburg, togetlicr with the patrimonial castle ; the latter, the coun- ties Hlieinfelden and LautTenburg, and some other territories. Albert espoused Iledwige, daughter of Ulric, count of Kybiirg; and from this union sprang the great UiKlolph, who was burn on the Ist of Aiay 1218, and was pre- sented at the baptismal font by tlie Emperor Frederic II. On the death of his father Albert in 1340, Rodolph succeeded to his estates ; but the greater portion of these were in the hands of his paternal iincle, Rodolph of Laullenburg; and all lie could call his own lay within sight of the great Imll of his castle. . . . Ills disposition was waywanl and restless, and drew him into repeated contests with his neighbours and rela- tions. ... In a ([uarrel with the Bishop of Basic, Rodolph led his troops against that city, and burnt a convent in the sidiurbs, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV. He then entered the service of Ottocar II. King of Bohemia, imder whom he served, in company with the Teutonic Knights, in his wars against the Prussian pagans; and afterwards against Bela IV. King of Hungary." The surprising election, in 1373, of tids little known count of Hapsburg, to be King of tlie Romans, with the substance if not the title of the imperial dignitj which that ckctioa carried with it, was due to a singular frieuu'ship which he had acquired some fourteen years before. When Archbishop Wer- ner, Elector of Meatz, was on his way to Rome In 12.'D. to receive the pallium, he " \\n% enrnrtod across till' Alps bv RiHlolph of llapsliurg, and under Ills proteelfiiii seeurecl from ihe robliers who beset the pass<'S, Channed with the allii- blllty and frankness of his protector, (he Arcli- bishop conceived a slroint regard for Uodolph;" and when. In 1272, iifli r the nieat Interregnum Isee Okum.vnv: A. 1) f.VV)-12?'.;|, the (iermanic Electors found dlllleiillv In choosing an Em- peror, the Elector of .\|eiit/, reeemmendeil his i'rieiid III' Hapsburg as a camlldale. "The Electors an- described by a contemporary as desiring an Empemr but detesting bis jMiwer. The comparative' lowliness of the Count of Hapsburg recoinmeniled lilm as one from whom their aiithorltv stood in little jeopardy ; but the cliiims of tlK^Klngof Holienil;i were vigorously urged; and it was at length agreed to decide the election by the voice of the Duki^ of llavarla. Eewis without hesitation noiniiiaied Roilolph. . . . 'V\w early days of Rodolph's reign wero diKlurbed by the contumacy of Ottocar, King of Itohemla. ^Phat Prince . . . persisted in refus- ing to acknowledge the Count of Hapsburg as his soveridgn. Possessed of the diitchles of Austria, Styria, Carnlola and Carinthia, he ndght rely upon his own resources; and lie was forli- lied in his resistance by the alliance of Henry, Duke of I<ower Bavaria. But the very posses- sion of these four great fiefs was suttlcient to draw down the envy and distrust of the other Qerman Princes. To all these territories, in- deed, the title of f)ttocar was sulllciently dis- putable. On the death of Frederic II. fifth duke of Austria [and last of the Babenberg dynasty] In 124(1, tliat dutcliy, together with Sty I la and Carniola, was claimed bv his nieco Oertrude and his sister Margaret. IJy i. mar- riage with the latter, and a victory over Bela IV. King of Hungary, whose uncle married Uer- triide, Ottocar obtained po.ssession of Austria and Styria; and in virtue of a purchase from Ulric, I)nko of Carinthia and Carniola, he pos- sessed himself of those dutchies on Ulric's death in 1269, in detiaiice of tlie claims of Pliillp, brother of the late Duke. Against so ))owerful a rival the Princes a.ssembled at Augsburg readily voted succours to Rodolph; and Ottocar having refused to surrender the Austrian domin- ions, and even hanged the heralds who wero sent to pronounce tlie coiise(iueiit sentence of Iiroscription, Rodolph with his accustomed l)romptitnde took tlic field [1276], and con- founded his enemy by a rapid march upon Austria. In his way he surprised and van- quished the reljel Duke of Bavaria, whom ho compelled to join his fortes; he besieged and reduced to the last extremity the city of Vienna; and had already i)repared a bridge of boats to cross the Danube and invade Bohemia, when Ottocar arrested his progress by a message of submission. The terms agr';ed upon were severely humiliating to the i)roi.ul soul of (Jtto- car," and he was so<m in revolt i!gain, with the support of the Duke of Bavaiia. Roilolpli marched against him, and a desperat;! battle was fought at Marschfeld, August 26, 1278. in which Ottocar, deserted at a critical moment, by the Moravian trooi)s, was defeated and slain. " The total loss of the Bohemians on that falnl day amounted to more than 14,000 men. In the lirst moments of his triumph, Rodolph designed to appropriate the domiuious of his dcceused 199 AUSTRIA, 1246-1883. AUSTKIA, 1201-1319. oncniy. But liis avidity was restrained by tlio I'riiices of tlie Empire, wlio interposed ou belialt (if the son of Oltociir; and Wcnceslaua was per- iiiitled to ri'liiiii liolieniia and Moravia. Tlie projected union of liie two families was now reneweci: Judilli of llapsburg was alllauced to tlie young King of Boliemia; wliose sister Agnes was marrle(i to Hodolpli, youngest son of tlie King of the Homaus." lu 1283, Rodolpb, "after satisfying tlie several claimants to those territories by various cessions of lands . . . ob- tained the consent of a Diet held at Augsburg to •he settlement of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, upon his two surviving sons; who were accord- ingly jointly invested with those dutchics with great pomp and solemnity ; and they are r t this hour enjoyed by the descendants of Rodo ph of llapsburg!"— Sir R. Comyn, Uiat. of the Western Empire, ch. 14. Also i.v : .1. Planta, Jfi.st. of the Helvetic Confed- eracy, bk. 1. ch. Tt (i\ 1). A. D. 1282-1315. — Relations of the House of Hapsburg to the Swiss Forest Cantons. — The Tell Legend.— The Battle of Morgarten. See SwiTZEUi.ANi): Thk Tiikke FouKsf Can- tons. A. D. 1390. — Beginning of Hapsburg designs upon the crown of Hungary. Sei' Iuxoakv: A. I). Illl-i:i01, A. D. 1291-1349. — Loss and recovery of the imperial crown. — Liberation of Switzerland. — Conflict between Fredericic and Lewis of Bavaria. — The imperial crown lost once more. — Itiidolf of llapsburg desired the title of King of the Romans for his sou. "But tlie electors already fo\ind that the new house of Austria was becoming too iiowerfui, and they refused. Ou Iiis death, in fact, in 1291, a prince from another family, poor and obscure, Adolf of Nassau, was elected after an interregnum of ten mouths. His reign of si.\ years is marked by two events; ho sold himself to P^dward I. in 1291, against Philip the Fair, for 100,000 pounds sterling, and used the money in an attempt to obtain in Tlmringia a principality for liis family as Rudolf liad done in Austria. The electors were displeased and chose Albert of Austria to succeed him, who conquered and liillcd his adversary at Gollhcim, near Worms (1298). Tlie ten years reign of the new king of the Romans showed that he was very ambitious for liis family, which be -vislied to establi.sh ou the throne of Bohemi'i wlierj the Slavonic dynasty had lately died o.it, and also in Tlmringia and ^Meissen, wliere he lost a battle. He was also bent upon extei'fling his riglits, even unjiistly— 'u Alsace and Switzerland — and it proved an unfortunate venture for liim. For, ou the one hand, he roused the three Swiss can- tons of Uri, Scbweitz, and Unterwalden to revolt; on the other hand, be roused the wrath of his ncpliew .lohu of Swabia, wliom he defrauded of his inlieritanco (domains in Switzer- land, Swabia. and Alsace). As he was crossing tlie Reuss, .lolin thrust him through with his sword (i;i08). The assassin escjiped. One of AUierl's daughters, Agnes, dowager queen of Hungary, had more than a thousand innocent people killed to avenge the death of her father. The greater part of the present Switzerland had been originally included in tlie Kingdom of Bur- gundy, and was ceded to the empire, together with that kingdom, in 103U. A feudal nobility, lay and ecclesiastic, had gained a firm footing there. Nevertheless, by tlie 12th century the cities had ri.sen to some Importance. Znri<'li, Basel, Bern, and Freiburg had an extensive com- merce and obtained municipal privileges. 'I'hree little canton.s, far in the heart of the Swiss moun- tains, jireserved more than all the others their in- domitable spirit of independence. When Ai.jcrt of Austria became Emperor [King?] be arro- gantly tried toencroach up(m their independence. Three heroic mountaineers, Wi.rner StaiifTacher, Arnold of ^lelchthal, and Walter FiU'st. each witli ten chosen f..ends, conspired together at RlUli, to throw olf the yoke. The tyranny of the Austrian bailill Oesslcr, and William Tell's well-aimed arrow, if tradition is to bo believed, gave the signal for the insurrection [see Swit- zerland: The Three Forest Cantons]. Albert's violent death left to Leopold, his suc- cessor in the duchy of Austria, the care of repressing the rebellion. lie failed and was completely defeated ot Jlortgorten (1315). That was Switzerland's field of Mai .Uhon. . . . Wlien Rudolf of Hapsburg was chosen by the electors, it was because of his poverty and weakness. At his deatli accordingly they did not give their votes for his son Albert. . . . Albert, however, succeeded in overthrowing his rival. But ou his death they were firm in their decision not to give tlie crown for a third time to the new and ambitious house of Hapsburg. They likewise refused, for similar reasons, to accept Cliarles of Valois, brother of Philip the F'ir, whom the latter tried to place on the imperial throne, in order tliat he might indirectly rule over Ger- many. They supported the Couut of Luxem- burg, who became Henry VII. By choosing em- perors ['ingsV] wlio were poor, theeleotors placed them vinder the temi)tation of enriching them- selves at the expense of the empire. Adolf failed, it is true, in Thuringia, but Rudolf gained Austria l)y victory; Henry succeeded in Boliemia bj- means of miu'riage, and Bohemia was wortli more than Austria at that time beeatiso, besides Moravia, it was made to cover Silesia and a jiart of Lusatia (Oberlausitz). Henry's son, John of Luxemburg, married the lieires i to that royal crown. As for Henry him- self lie remained as poor as before. He had a vigorous, restless spirit, and went to try bis for- tunes on his own account bej'ond the Alps. . . . He was seriously threatening Naples, when ho died cither from some sickness or from being poi- soned by a Dominican in partaking of the host (1313). A year's interregnum followed ; then two emperors [kings Vj at once : Lewis of Bavaria and Frederick the Fair, son of tlie Emperor Albert. After eight years of war, Lewis gained his i)oint by the victory of Mlihldorf (1322V which deliv- ered Frederick into his liauds. Ho kept him in captivity for three years, and at the end of that time became reconciled witli him, and they were on such good terms that both boro the title of King and governed in conunon. Tlie fear inspired in Lewis bv France and the Holy See dictated tliis singular agreement. Henry VII. had revived tlie policy of interference by the f Jermau emperors in the affairs of Italy, and had kindled again the quarrel with the Papacy which had long appeared extinguished. Lewis IV. did tlie same. . . . AVliilo Boniface VIH. was making war on Philip the Fair, Albert allied himself with him; when, on the other hand, the Papacy was reduced to the state of a 200 AUSTRIA, 1291-1349. Acquisition of Tyrol. AUSTRIA, 1330-1304. servile nuxilinry to France, tlic Emperor returned to liis former lio.stility. When ex-communicated by I'ope Jolin XXII., wlio wislied to give tlie empire to tlie king of France, Clinrles IV., Lewis IV. made use of tlie same weapons. . . . Tired of a crown loaded with anxieties, Lewis of Bavaria was Anally about to submit to the Pope and al dieate, wlien the electors perceived the necessity of supporting their Emperor and of fiiiiiii'.Hy releasing the supremo power from foreign dependency which brought the whole nation to shame. That was the object of the Pragmatic Sanction of Frankfort, pronounced in 1338 by tlie Diet, on the report of the electors. . . . The king of France and Pope Clement VI., whose claims were directly alTected by this declaration, set up against Lewis IV. Charles of Luxemburg, son of John the Blind, who became king of Bohemia in 1340, when his father had been killed lighting on tlie French side at the battle of Crecy. Lewis died the following year. He had gained possession of Brandenburg and the Tyrol for his house, but it was unable to retain possession of them. The latter county reverted to the house of Austria in 1303. The electors most hostile to the French i)arty tried to put up, as a rival candidate to Charles of Lux- emburg, Edward III., king of England, who refused the empire; then they offered it to a brave knight, Gunther of Sehwarzburg, who (lied, perhaps poisoned, after a few months (1349). The king of Bohemia then became Emperor as Charles IV. by a second election." — V. Duruy, T/ie. Histvni of the Middle Ages, bk. 9, ch. 30.— See, also, Ukumanv: A. I> 1314-1347. A. ^. 1330-1364. — Forged charters of Duke Rudolf. — The Privilegium Majus. — His as- sumption of the Archducal title. — Acquisition of Tyrol. — Treaties of inheritance with bohe- mia and Hungary. — King .John, of Bohemia, had uiarrieii his second son, .John Ilenry, at the ago of eight, to the afterwards notable JIargaret Jlaultasehe (Pouchmouth), daughter of the duke of Tyrol and Carinthia, who was then twelve years old. He hoped by this means to reunite those provinces to Bohemia. To thwart this scheme, the Emperor, Louis of Bavaria, and the two Austrian princes, Albert the Wise and Otto the Gay. came to an understanding. "By the treaty of Hageiiau (1330), it was arranged that on the death of duke Henry, who had no male heirs, Carinthia should become the property of Austria, Tyrol that of the Emperor. Ilenry died in 1335, whereupon the Emperor, Louis of Bavaria,, declared that Margaret Maultasche had forfeited all rights of inheritance, and proceeded to assign the two provinces to the Austrian princfj, with the exception of some portion of the Tyrol which devolved on the house of Wit- telsbaeh. Carinthia alone, however, obeyed the Emperor ; the Tyrolese nobles declared for Mar- garet, and, with the help of John of Bohemia, this princess was able to keep possession of this part of her inheritance. . . . Carinthia also did not long remain in the undisputed possession of Austria. Margaret was soon divorced from her very youthful husband (1342), and shortly after married the son of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, who hoped to be able to invest his son, not only with Tyrol, but also with Carinthia, and once more we lind the houses of Hapsburg and Lux- emburg united by a common interest. . . . When ■ . . Charles IV. of Bohemia was chosen em- l)eror, he consented to leave Carinthia in the pos.session of Austria. Albert did homage for it. . . . According to tlu' wish of their father, the four sons of Albert reigned after him; but tlio eldest, Rudolf IV., exercised executive authority in the name of the others [1358-130.')]. ... Ho was only 19 when he came to the throne, but ho had already married one of the daughters ol the Emperor Charles IV. NotwitliHtandiiig this family alliance, Charles had not given Austria such a place in the Golden Bull [see Gekmany: A. H. 1347-1492] as seemed likely to secure either her territorial importance or a projier position for her princes. They had not been admitted into the eletloral cellege of the ICmpire, and yet their scattered po.ssessions stretched from the banks of the Leitlia to the Rhine. . . . These grievances were enhanced by their feeling of envy towards Bohemia, which had attained great prosperity under Charles IV. Jt was at this time that, in order to increase the importance of his house, Rudolf, or his ollicers of state, had recourse to a measure which was often employed in that age by princes, religious bodies, and even by the Holy See. It was pretended that then; were in (existence a whole series of charters which had been granted to the house of Austria by various kings and emperors, and which secured to their princes a position entirely inde- pendent of both empire and Emperor. Accord- ing to these documents, and more especially the one called the 'privilegium majus,' the duke of Austria owed no kind of service to the empire, which was, however, bound to protect him ; . . . he was to appear at the diets with the title of archduke, and was to have the first place among the electors. . . . Rudolf pretended that these documentshad justcometo light, and demanded their coniirmation from Charles IV., who refused it. Nevertheless on the strength of these lying charters, he took the title of palatine archduke, without waiting to ask the leave of Charles, and used the royal insignia. Charles IV., who could not fail to be irritated by these pretensions, in his turn revived the claims which he had inherited from Premysl Otokar II. t" tli! lands of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. These claims, however, were simply theorei icul, and no all. . :it was made to enforce then', nnd the mediation of Louis the Great, King of j lungary, linally led to a treaty between the two princes, which satisUed the ambition of the H bsburgs (1304). By this treaty, the houses of Habsburg in Austria imd of Luxemburg in Bohemia each guaranteed the in- heritance oj their lands to the other, in case of the extinction of cither of the two families, and the estates of Bohemia and Austria ratilied th s agreement. A similar (ompact was concluded between Austria and Hungary, and thus the boundaries of the future Austrian state were for the first time marked out. Rudolf himself gained little by these long and intricate negoti- ations, Tyrol being all he added to his territcvry. Margaret Maultasche had married her sou Meiu- liard to the daughter of Albert the Wise, at the same time declaring that, in default of heirs male to her son, Tyrol should once more become the possession of Austria, and it did so in 1303. Rudolf immediately set out for Botzen, anil there received the homage of the Tyrolese nobles. . . . The acquisition of Tyrol was most important to Austria. It united Austria Proper with the old possessions of the Habsburgs in Western Oer- 201 AUSTRIA, 1330-1304. T!w lluuduriim C'yowH. AUSTUIA, 1438-1403. mnny, and opened the way to Italy. !Margaret Maiillasclio died at Vienna in KiCiU. The memory of tills restless and dissolute princes.s still survives BMioni; the Tyriilese." — L. Leger, Jlint.oJ ^iu^lro- Uiiiii/ii)-!/, pp. 143-148. A. D. 1386-1388.— Defeats by the Swiss at Sempach and Naefels. See Switmculani): A. I). i:!80-i;wH. A. D. 1437-1516.— Contests for Hungary and Bohemia.— The right of Successioa to the Hun- garian Crown secured. — "Euroi'.e would liiive na<l nothing to fear from the JJarhariiuis. if Hun- gary had been permanently united to IJohemia, and had held them in eheek. Hut Hungary in- terfered both with the independence and the re- ligion of Hoheuiia. In this way they weakened caeh other, an<l in the 15lli century wavered be- tween the two Sclavonic and German ])owers on their borders (Poland and Austria) [se^.- HrNr.AKY; A. I). 1301-1443, and 1'143-1458J. United undei a German i)rinee from 1455 to 145S, .separated for a time iinder national sovereigns (Bohemia initil 1471, Hungary iintil 1490), they were once niori united mider Polish princes until 152(5, at wbii h period they passed delinitively into the hands of Austria. After the reign of Ladislas of Austria, who won so much glory by the exploits of John Ilunniades, George Podiebrad obtained the crown \f( Uohemia, and Matthias Corvinus, the son of llumiiades, was elected King of Hun- gary (1458). These two jjrinces opposed suc- cessfully the chimerical i)reteusioii8 of the Em- peror Frederick III. Podiebrad protected the llussites and incurred the enmity of the Popes. JIatthias victoriously encountered the Turks and obtained the favour of Paul II., who offered him the crown of Podiebrad, his father-in-law. The latter opposed to the hostility of JIatlhias the alliance of the Kingof Poland, whose cld'^t son, Ijadislas, lie designated as liis successor At the same time, Casimir, the brother of Lam las, en- deavoured to take from Slatthias the crown of Hungary. Matthias, thus pressed on all sides, was obliged to renoinice t he conquest of IJohemia, and content him.self with the i)roviuces of Mora- via, Silesia, and Lusatia, which were to return to Ladislas if Matthias died first (1475-1478). Tlie King of Hungary compensated himself at the exiiense of Austria. On the pretext that Frederick HI. liad refused to give him his daugliter, lie twice invaded liis states and re- tained them in his posses.siou [see Hunoahy: A. I). 1471-1487]. With thisgi-eat prince Chris- tendom lost its chief defender, Hungary her con- quests and her political preponderance (1490). The civilization which he had tried to introduce into his kingdcmi was deferred for many cen- turies. . . . Ladislas (of Poland), King of Bohe- mia, having been elected King of Hungary, was attacked by his brother John Albert, and by Maximilian of Austria, who both i>rctcnded to tliat crown. He aiijicased his brother by the ces- sion of Silesia (1491), and Maximilian by vesting in the House of Austria the right of succession to tlie throne of Hungary, in case lie himself should die without male issue. Under Lad- islas, and under his son Louis II., who succeeded him while still a child, in 1510 Hungarv was ravaged with impunity by the Turks. " — J. Jliche- let, A SiiviiiKiri/ of Modern llhUn-y, ck. 4.— See, also, Boiikmia; A. I). 14.58-1471. A. D. 1438-1493.— The Imperial Crown last- ingly regained. — The short reign of Albert II., and the long reign of Frederick III. — "After the death of Siglsniund. the |irinces, in 1438, elected an emperor [kingVj from the house of Aus- tria, wliicli, with scarcely any intermission, has ever since occupied the ancient throne of Ger- many. Albert II. of Austria, who, as son-in-law of the late Emperor Sigismund, had become at thesame time Kingof Hungary and Bohemia, was a well-meaning, distinguislied prince, iiud would, without doulit, have proved of great benefit to the empire; but he died ... in the second year of his reign, after his return from an expedition against the Turks. . . . In the year 1431, during the reign of Sigismund, a new council was assem- bled at Basle, in order to carry on the work of re- forming the church as already commenced at Con- stance. But this council .soon became engaged in many perplexing controversies with Po])e Eu- gene IV. . . . The Germans, for a time, took no part in the dispute; at length, however, under the Emperor [King?] Albert II., they formally adopted the chief decrees of the council of Basle, at a diet held at Mentz in the year 1439. . . . Amongst the resolutions then adopted were .such as iiiiileiially circumscribed the existing privi- legesof the pope. . . . Tliese and other decisions, calculated to give important privileges and con- siderable independence to the German church, were, in a great measure, annulled by Albert's cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of Austria, who was elected by the i)riiices after liim in the year 1440, as Frederick III. . . . Frederick, the emperor, was a prince who meant well but, at thesame time, was of too quiet and easy a nature; bis long reign presents but little that was calcu- lated to distinguish Germany or add to its re- nown. From the east the empire was endangered by the approach of an enemy — the Tui-ks, against whom IK) precautionarv measures were adojited. They, on the 29th of ^lay, 1453, conquered Con- stantinople. . . . They then made their way to- wards the Danube, and very nearly succeeded also in taking Hungary [see Hukoauy: A. D. 1443-1458]. . . . The Hungarians, on the death of the son of the Emperor Albert II., "VViadislas Posthumus, in the year 1457, without leaving an heir to the throne, chose JIatthias, the son of John Corvinus, as king, being resolved not to elect one from amongst the Austrian princes. The Bohemians likewise selected a private noble- man for their king, George Padriabrad [or Podie- brad], and tlius the Austria'! house found itself for a time rej'icted from holding possession of either of iXw&y. countries. ... In Germany, meantime, there existed numberk.ss contests and feuds; each party considered only his own per- sonal quarrels. . . . The cinpe?'or could not give any weight to jjublic measures ; scarcely could he maintain his dignity amongit his own sub- jects. The Austrian nobility" were even bold enough to send challenges to their sovereign; whilst the city of Vienna revolted, 'ind his brother Albert, taking pleasure in this disorder, was not backward in adding to it. Things even went to such an extremity, that, in 1402, the Emperor Frederick, together with his consort and son, Maximilian, tlien four years of age, was besieged by his subjects in his own castle of Vienna. A plebeian burgher, nami.-' Ilolzer, liad jilaced him- self at the head of the insurgents, 1 nd was made burgomaster, whilst Duke Albert ci>.me to Vienna personally to superintend the siege of the castle, which was intrenched and boitibarded. . . . The 202 AUSTRIA, 1438-1403. The Burgundian Marriage. AUSTHIA, 1477-1495. German princes, however, could not witness witli iiidifterence such ilisgrnccful treiitment of tlieir emperor, and tliey assembled to liberate bini. George Padriabrad', King of Hohen.ia, >.-as the first who hastened to the spot with assistance, set the emiieror at liberty, and ellectcd a reconciliation be- tween him and his brother. The emperor, how- ever, was obliged to resign to him, for eight years. Lower Austria and Vienna. Albert died ni the following year. ... In the Germanic empire, the voice of the emperor was as littlo heeded as in his hereditarv hinds. . . . The feudal system raged under f reilerick's reign to such an e.vtent, tliat it was pursued even by the lower classes. Thus, in 1471, the shoeblacks in Leipsic sent a challenge to the university of that place; and the bakers of the C( ,nt Palatine Lewis, and those of the Margrave of Baden defied several imperial cities in Swabia. The most im- portant transaction in the reign of Frederick, was the uuion which he formed with the house of Burgimdy, and which laid tlie foundation for the greatness of Austria. ... In the year 1486, the whole of the assembled princes, infiuenced es- ])ecially by the representations of the faithful and now venerable Albert, called the Achilles of Hnmdenburg, elected JIaximiliau, the emperor's sou, King of Home. Indeed, about this period a clianged and improved spirit began to show itself in a remarkable degree in the minds of many throughout the empire, so that the pro- found conten'iplator of commg events might easily see the dawn of a new era. . . . These last years were the best in the whole life of the emperor, ami yielded to him in return for Ins many suffer- ings that trau(iuillity which was so well merited l^y his failhful generous disposition. He died on the I'Jtli of August, 1403, after a reign of 54 vears. The emperor lived long enough to obtain, in the year 1400, tlic restoration of his hereditary estates by the death of King llattliias, by means of a compact made with Wladislas, his successor." — F. Koldrausch, Iliston/ of Gcrnmini, ch. 14. — SeeGEUMANv: A. D. 1347-1493. A. D. ii|68. — Invasion by George Podiebrad of Bohemia. — The crusade against him. See Bohemia: A. I). 1458-1471. A. D. 1471-1491. — Hungarian invasion and capture of Vienna. — Treaty of Presburg. —Succession to the throne of Hungary secured. — " George, King of Bohemia, expired in 1471; and the claims of the Kmperor and King of Hungary being equally disregarded, the crown was conferred on Uladislaus, son of Casimir IV. King of Poland, and grandson of Albert II. To this election Freileric long per- sisted in withholding his assent; but at leugtli he detennined to crush the claim of JIailhias by formally investing Uladislaus Ati*b the kingdom and electorate of Bohemia, and the office of imperial cup-bearer. In revenge for this affront, Matthias marched into Austria: took possession of the fortresses of the Danube ; and compelled the Emperor to purchase a cessation of hostilities by undertaking to pay an hundr.'d thousand golden florins, one-half of which was disbursed by the Austrian states at the appointed time. But as the King of Hungary still delayed to yield up the captured fortresses, Frederic rcfu,sed all further payment; and the war was again renewed. Matthias invaded and ravaged Austria ; and though he experienced fornndablo resistance from several towns, his arms were crowne<i with success, and he iK'came master of Vienna and Neustadt. Driven from his capital the terrified Emperor was reduced to the utmost distress, and wandered from to\.ii to town and from <'onvent to convent, emleavouriiig to aroiise tlie German States against the Hungarians. Yet even in this exigency his good fDrtune did not wholly forsake him; and I;e availed himself of a Diet at Fraiii I'ort to procure the election of his son Maximilian as King of the Uomans. To this Diet, however, the King of Bohemia received no sununiins, and therefore protested against the validity of the election. A full apology and admissicm of his right easily satisfie<l Uladislaus, and he consented to remit the line which the Golden Bull had fixed as the penalty of the omission. The death of Jlatthias t'orvinus in 1400, left the throne of Hungary vacant, and the Hungarians, inlluenced by their widowed (|ueen, conferred the crown upon the King of Bohemia, without listening to the pretensions of ^Maxi- milian. That valorous prince, however, sword in hand, recovered his Austrian domiiuous; and the rival kings concluded a severe contest by the treaty of Presburg, by which Hungary was for the present secured to Uladislaus; but on his ileath without heirs was to vest in the descen- dants of tlie Emperor." — Sir K. C'omyn, The llistoni of the Wextcni Empire, ch. 28 '(0. 2).— Sec HuNCiAiiV: A. D. 1471-1487, and 1487-1520. A. D. 1477-1495. — Marriage of Maximilian V7ith Mary of Burgundy. — His splendid do- minion. — His joyous character. — His vigorous powers. — His ambitions and aims. — ".Maxi- milian, who was as active and enterprising as his father was indolent and timid, married at eigh- teen years of age, the only daughter of Chark'S the Bold, duke of Burgundy [see Nktiieui.anus: A. D. 1477]. She brought him Flanders, Pranchc-Comte, and all the Low Countries. Louis XL, who disputed some of these terri- tories, and who, on the death of the duke, had seized Burgundy, Picardy, Ponthieu, and Arlois, as fiefs of France, whicli could not be i)ossessed by a woman, was defe.ited by Maximilian at Guinegaste; and Charles VIII., who renewed the same claims, was obliged to conclude a disad- vantageous peace." Maximilian succeeded to the imperial throne on the death of Ins father in 1403.— W. Russell, Hist, of Modem Europe, letter 40 (v. 1). — " Between the Alps and the Bohemian frontier, the mark Austria was first founded round and about the castles of Krems and Jlelk. Since then, beginn ng first in the valley towards Bavaria and Hungary, and coming to the House of Habsburg, it had extended across the whole of the northern slope of the Alps until where the Slavish, Italian, and German tongues part, and over to Alsace; thus becoming an arcliduchy from a mark. On all sides the Archdukes hall claims; on the German side to Switzerland, on the Italian to the Venetian possessions, and on the Slavish to Bohemia and llungary. To sucli a pitch of greatness had Maximilian" by his mar- riage with Maria of Burgundy brought the herit- age received from Charles the Bold. True to the Netherlanders' greeting, in the inscripthm over their gates, 'Thou art our Duke, fight our battle for us,' war was from the first his handi- craft. He adopted Charles the Bold's hosiile attitude towards France; ho saveil the greater part of his inheritance from the schemes of Louis XL Day and uigUt it ..'u< his whole 203 AUSTRIA, 1477-149S. Maxitni'.ian, AUSTRIA, 1477-1495. thought, to conquer it entirdj'. Hutaftcr Maria of IJurKumly's prcuuiture dcatli, revolution fol- lowed revolution, and his father Frederick lieing too old to protect liimself, it came about that in the year 1488 he was ousted from Austria l)y the Hungarians, whilst liis son was kepta prisoner in Bruges by tlie citizens, and they liail even to fear the estrangement of tlie Tyrol. Yet tliey did not lose courage. At this very time tlic fatlicr denoted with the vowels, A. E. I. O. U. (' Allcs Krdnich ist Oestcrreich unterthan' — AH the earth is subject to Austria), tlie extent of his liopes. In the same year, his son negotiated for a Spanish alliance. Tlieir real strength lay in th(^ imperial dignity of Ma.ximilian, which they had from the German Empire. As soon as it l)e- gan to bestir itself, JIaximilian was set at Iil)erty ; as soon as it supported him in the persons of only a few princes of the Empire, he became lonl in Ills Netlicrlands. . . . Since tlien his plans were directed against Hungary luid Burgundy. In Hungary ho could gain nothing except securing the succession to his house. But never, fre- q\iently as he concluded i)cace, di(i he give up his intentions upon Burgundy. . . . Xow that lie liad allied himself with a Sforzi! and had joined the Liga, now that his father wa.s dead, and the Empire was jiledged to follow him across the mountains, and now, too, tliat tlic Italian complications were threatening Cliarles, he took fresh hope, and in this hope he summoned a Diet at Worms. JIaximilian was a prince of whom, although many portraits Iiave been drawn, yet there is scarcely one that resemliles another, so easily and entirely did he suit himself to circum- stances. . . . Ills soul is full of motion, of joy in tilings, and of plans. There is scarcely any- thing that lie is not capable of doing. In his mines lie is a good screeuer, in his armoury the best plater, capable of instructing others in new inventions. With musket in hand, lie defeats liis best marksman, George Purkliard; with heavy cannon, which lie lias shown how to cast, and lias placed on wheels, he comes as a rule nearest the mark. He commands seven captains in their seven several tongues; he liimself chooses .md mixes liis food and medicines. In the open country, lie feels himself liajipicst. . . . What really distinguishes his public life is that pre- sentiment of the future greatness of his dyuastj wliicli he has inlierited of his father, and the restless striving to attain all that devolved upon him from the House of Burgundy. All his policy and all his schemes were concentrated, not upon his Empire, for the real needs of which he evinced little real care, and not immediately upon the welfare of his liercditary lauds, but upon the realization of that sole idea. Of it all his letters and speeches arc full. ... In March, 1495, JIaxiniilian came to the Diet at Wonns. ... At this Reichstag the King gained two momentous prospects. In Wurteraherg there had sprung of two lines two counts of quite opposite characters. . . . AVitli the elder, Maxi- niiiian now entered into a compact. Wurtem- berg was to be raised to a dukedom — an eleva- tion wliich excluded the female line from the succession — and, in the event of the stock fail- iog, wa.a to be a ' widow's portion ' of the realm to tile use of the Imperial Chamber. Now as the sole hopes of this family centred in a weakling of a boy. this arrangement held out to Maximilian and hia successors the prospect of acquiring a splendid country. Yet this was the smaller of his two successes. The greater was the espousal of his chihlren, Philip and Mari'aret, with the two children of Ferdinand the Cttholic, ,Iuana and Juan, which was here settled. This openeil to his house still greater expectations, — it brought him at once into the most intimate alli- ance with the Kings of Spain. These matters might possibly, however, have been arranged elsewhere. Wliat Maximilian really wanted in the Reichstag at "Worms was tlie assistance of the Empire against the French with its world- renowned and much-envied soldiery. For at this time in all the wars of Europe, German auxilia- ries were decisive. ... If ^laximilian liad united the whole of this power in his hand, neither Europe nor Asia would have been able to withstand him. But God disposed that it should rather be employed in the cause of freedom than oppression. What an Empire was that which in spite of its vast strength allowed its Emperor to lie expelled from his lieritage, and did not for a long time take steps to bring him back again ? If we examine tlie constitution of the Empire, not as wc sliould picture it toour.selvcs in Jlenry III. '8 time, but as it liad at length become — the legal independence of the several estates, the emptiness of the imperial dignity, the electivc- ness of a head, that afterwards exercised certain rights over the electors, — we are led to inciuire not so much into the causes of its disintegration, for tills concerns us little, as into the way in wliich it was held together. What welded it together, and preserved it, would (leaving tra- dition and the Pope out of the question) apjiear, liefore all else, to have been the rights of in- dividuals, the unions of neighbours, and tlm social regulations which universally obtained. Such were tho.se rights and privileges that not only protected the citizen, his guild, and his quarter of tlio town against his neiglibours ami more powerful men tlian hitisclf, but wliich also endowed him with an iuLer independence. . . . Next, the unions of neighbours. These were not only leagues of cities and peasantries, expanded from ancient fraternities — for who can tell the origin of the Hansa, or the earliest treaty between LI ri and Scliwyz? — into large as- sociations, orof knights, who .str.ngtliened a really insignificant power by confederations of neigli- bours, but also of the princes, who were bound together by joint inheritances, mutual expectan- cies, and the ties of blood, wliich in some cases were very close. Tliis ramification, dependent upon a supreme power and coutirmed by it, bound neighbour to neighbour; and, whilst securing to each his privilege and liis liberty, blended together all countries of Germany in legal bonds of union. But it is only in the social regulations that the unity was really perceivable. Only as long as the Empire was an actual reality, could the su- preme power of the Electors, each with his own .special rights, bo maintained ; only so long could dukes and princes, bishops and abbots hold their neigh) ^urs in due respect, and throiiorh court offices v.- hereditary services, through 'fs and tlie di uity of their independent i' i give their vassals a peculiar position vholc. Only so long could tlie cities enjoyin iliate- ness under the Empire, carefully o d into free and imperial cities, be not merely protected, but also assured of a participation in the govern- ment of the whole. Under this sanctified and 204 AUSTRIA, 1477-1405. ir. tiding Thrift. AUSTRIA, 1510-1555. traditional system of siizeniinty nixl vassalage all were liappy and contented, ami bore a love to it such as is clierialietl towards a native town or a fatlier's house. For some time i)ast, tlic House of A'.istria had enjoyed tlie foremost jjosition. It also had a union, and, moreover, a great fac- tion on its side. Tlio union was tlie Suiil)iau League Old Suabia was divided into tlirce league.^ — the league of tl:e peasantry (tlie origin of Switzerland); the league of tlie Itniglits in tlic Blaclv Forest, on tlie Koclier, tlio Neciiar, and tlio Danube ; and the league of tlic cities. The peas- antry were from the tirst hostile to Austria. The Emperor Frederick brought it to pass that the cities aiul knights, that had from time out of mind lived in feud, bound themselves together with several princes, and forme<l, under his pro- tection, the league of the land of Suabia. IJut the party was scattered throughout the whole Empire." — L. von Ranko, Jlistory of tlie Latin and Teutonic Nations, bk. 1, ch. 3. A. D. 1493-1^19. — The Imperial reign of Maximilian. — Formation of the Circie of Austria. — The Aulic Council. See Gkum.\ny: A, 1). 149;!-1519. A. D. 1496-1499. — The Swabian War with the SwisF Confederacy and the Graubunden, or Grey Leagues (Grisons). — Practical inde- pendence of both acquired. Sec Switzeikl.us'u: A. 1). 1300-149!). A. D. 1496-1526. — Extraordinary aggran- dizement of the House of Austria by its marriages. — The Heritage ot Charles V. — His cession of the German inheritance to Ferdinand. — The division of the House into Spanish and German branches. — Acquisition of Hungary and Bohemia. — In 1400, Philip the Fair, son of Ma.xirailian, Archduke and Emper- or, by his marriage with JIary of Burgundy, "espoused the Infanta of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand [of Aragon] and Isabella of Castile. They had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the former of whom, known in history by the name of Charles V., inherited the Low Countries in iight of his father, Philip (1506). On the death of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather (1510), he became heir to the whole Spanish succession, which comprehended the kingdoms of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with Spanish America. To these vast possessions were added his patrimonial dominions in Austria, which were transmitted to him by his paternal grandfather, the Emperor JIa.ximilian I. About the siime time (1510), the Imperial dignity was conferred on this prince by tlie electors [see Germany: A. D. 1510]; so that Europe had not seen, since the time of Cliarlemagne, a monarchy so powerful as that of Charles V. This Emperor concluded a treaty with his brother Ferdinand; by which he ceded to him all his hereditary possessions in Germany. The two brothers thus became the founders of the two principal branches of the House of Austria, viz., that ot Spain, which began with Charles V. (called Charles I. of Spain), and ended with Charles II. (1700); and that of Germany, of which Ferdinand I. was the ancestor, and wliich became extinct in the male line in the Emperor Charles VI. (1740). These two branches, closely allied to each other, acted in concert for the advancement of their reciprocal interests ; more- over they gained each their own separate advan- tages by Uie marriage connexions which they 14 formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line married Anne (1521), sister of Louis King of Hungary and Bohemia, who having been slain by the Turks at the battle of Mohacs (1520), these two kingdoms devolved to Ferdiiiaiid of the House of A.istria. Finally, the marriage which Charles V. contracted witli the Infant Isaltella, daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, procured I'liilip 11. of Spain, the sim of that marriage, the whole Portuguese monarchy, to which he succeeded on the death of Henry, called the Cardinal (1.580). So vast an aggrandisement of power alarmed the lutionn of Europe, period 0. Sovereigns of Europe. " — C. W. Koch, The Beta- Also in : W. Co.xc, Hint, of the Ifoime of Austria, eh. 25(tntli7 (c. 1).— W. Robertson, I'lial. of the Jiei(/n of OhurlcsV., bk. 1. — See, also, Spain: A. I). um-ihn. A. D. 1510.— Death of Maximilian.— Elec- tion of Charles V., " Emperor of the Romans." SccGku.manv: A. D. 1510. A. D. 1519-1555. — The imperial reign of Charles V. — The objects o^ his policy. — His conflict with the Reformation and with France. — ' ' Charles V. did not receive from nature all the gifts nor all the charms she can bestow, nor did experience give him every talent ; but he was equal to the part lie had to play in the world. He was sufliciently great to keep his many- jewelled diadem. . . . His ambitioi' was cold aud wise. The scope of his ideas, which are not quite easy to divine, was vast enough to control a state composed of divers and distant portions, so as to make it always very dillicult to amalga- mate his arinies, and to supply them willi food, or to procure money. Indeed its very existence woukl have been exposed to permanent ilaugcr from ])owcrful coiditions. had Francis I. known how to place its iiiost vulnerable jioiiits under a united pressure from the armies of France, of England, of Venice, and of the Ottoman Empire. Charles V. attained his first object when he pre- vented the French monarch from taking pos- session of the inheritance of the house of Anjou, at Naples, and of that of the V^iscontis at Milan. Ho was more successful in stopping the march of Solyman into Austria than in eheckiug the spread of the Reformation iu Germauv. . . . Charles V. had four objects very much at heart: ho wished to be the master in Italy, to check the progress of the Ottoman power in the west of Europe, to cou(|uer the King of France, and to govern the Germanic body by dividing it, and by making the Reformation a religio\is pretext for oppressing the political defenders of that belief. In three out of four of these objects he succeeded. Germany alone was not conquered: if she was bc'Uen in battle, neither any political triunii)h nor any religious results ensued. In Germany, Charles V. began his work too late, and acted too slowly ; he undertook to subdue it at a lime when the abettors of the Reformation had grown strong, when he himself was growing weaker. . . . Like many otlier brilliant careers, the career of Charles V. was more successful and more strikiug at the commencement and the middle than at the end, of its course. At Madrid, at Cambrai, at Nice, he made his rival bow down his head. At Crespy he again forced him to obey his will, but as he had completely made up his mind to have peace, Charles dic- tated it, in some manner, to his own detriment. At Passauhe had to yield to the terms of his enemy 205 AUSTUIA, 1.J10-15j5. Charlf ilif Fifth. AUSTHIA, 1525-1527. — of nn pncriiy wlmin ClmrU'S V. cnrountcrt'd in his 1)1(1 i\v,^\ iitid wlii'ii his powers hud dci'iiycd. Although il may be wiid that tho extent iimlthc jiowcrof the sovciX'ignty which Clmrles V. left to his siieeesKor ill his death were not diminished, still his armies were weakened, his (Inances were exhausted, and the eoiintrv was weary of the tyranny of the imperial lieutenants. The supremacy of the empire in Germany, for which lie had stVu,t;!;leil so much, was as little cstAl)- lisheilat the end as at the licginningof his reign; religious unity was solemnly destroyetl by tho •Recess' of Augsburg. Uut that wliich marks the position of Charles V. as the representative man of his epoch, and as the founder of the l)oliey of mo<lern times, is that, -wherever he was victorious, the elTect of liis success was to crush the last ('(torts of the spirit of the middle ages, and of the independence of nations. In Italy, in Spain, in Germany, and in the Low Countries, his triumphs were so much gain to the eau.se of nb.solule monarchy anil so much loss to the liberty derived from the old state of society. Whatever was the chaiiicter of liberty in the middle ages — whether il were contested or incomplete, or a mockery — il played a greater part than in the four succeeding centuries. Charles V. was assuredly one of those who con- tributed the most to found and consolidate the political system of modern governments. His history has an asi>ect of grandeur. Had Fnuicis I. been as sagacious in the closet as ho was bold in the Held, i)y a vigorous alliance with England, with Protestant Germany, and with soini.' of the republics of Italy, he might jierhtips have balanced and controlled the jjowcr of Charles V. But tho French monarch did not possess the foresight and the solid understanding necessary to pursue such a policy with success. His rival, therefm'e, occupies the first place iu the historical picture of the epoch. Charles V. had the .sentiment of his |)osition and of the l)art he had to play." — J. Van I'ract, Kimii/s on the Pdlitkid IlinlDii/ <if the, X'sth, Utth, iiiul Vllh t'enturien, pp. 190-194.— See, also, Gi;k.many; A. D. 1519 to l.V)2-1.5Ul, and Fit.\NCi:: A. D. l.JSO-l.'iSa, to 1.547-:5.59. A. D. 1525-1527.— Successful Contest for the Hungarian and Bohemian Crowns. — In Hungary, "under King JIatlbiiis the house of Zapolya, so culled from a Slavonic village near Posehega, whence it originated, rose to peculiar eminence. To this house, in particular. King Wladislas had owed his acces.sion to tho throne; whence, however, il thought itself entitled to claim a .share in the .sovereign ])ower, and e»'en u sort of prospective right to the throne. Its mem- bers were the wealthiest of all the magnates ; they jjossessed seventy-two castles. ... It is said that a prophecy early promised the crown to the young John Zapolya. Pos.sessed of all the power conferred by his rich iidieritance. Count of Zips, and AVoiwixle of Transylvania, he soon collected 11 strong part)' around him. It was he who maiidy persuaded the Hungarians, in the year l.'iOu, to exclude all foreigners from the throne by a formal decree; which, though they were not always able to maintain in force, they could never be induced absolutely to revoke. In the year 1514 the Woiwmle succeeded in putting down nn exceedingly formidable Insurrection of the peasants with Ids own forces ; a service which the lesser nobility prized the more highly, because it enabled thent to nvluec the jx-nsantry to a still liardi r state of servitude. His wish was, on the death of .Vladislas, to lx;come Gul>crimtor of the kingdom, to ntarry the (lccease<l king's daughter Amie, and then to await the course of events. But he was here encounterwl by the policy of Maximilian. Anne was married to tlie Archduke Fenlinand; Zapolya was excluded from the ndministratioii of the kingtloni; even the vacant Palatinate was refused him and given to his old rival Stephen Buthory. Ho was highly incensed. . . . But it was not till the year 1535 that Zapolya got the upper hand at the linkuscli. ... No one entertain".! a doubt that he aimed at the throne. . . . But before anything was accomplished — on the contrary, just as these party contliets had thrown the country into the utmost confusion, tho mighty enemy, Soliman, appeared on the frontiers of Hungary, (letermined to put an end to tho anarchy. ... In his i)ri.son at iMadrid, Francis I. had found iiuanst*) entreat the assistance of Solimnn; urging that it well beseemed a great emperor to succour the op- pressed. Plans were laid at Constantinople, according to which tho two sovcreigiLS were to attack Spain with a combined fleet, and to send armies to invade Hungary and the north of Italy. Soliman, without any formal treaty, was by his position an ally of tho Ligue, as the king of Hungary was, of the emperor. On the 23(1 of April, 1520, Soliman, after visiting tho graves of his forefathers and of tho old Moslem martyrs, marched out of Constantinople with a mighty host, consisting of about a hiiiidred tlioiLsaud men, and inces.santly strengthened by fresh re- cruits on its road. . . . What ])ower had Hun- gary, in the condition we have just descril)ed, of resisting such an attack'? . . . The young king took the lield with a following of not more tliiin three thousand men. ... He proceeded to the fatal plain of Mohaez, fully resolved with his small band to await in tho open tiekl the overwhelming force of the enemy . . . Pei-soiml valour could avail nothing. The Hungarians were immediately thrown into disorder, their best men fell, the others took to flight. The young king was comjielled to liee. It was not even granted him to (lie iu the field of battle; a far more niiserablo end awaited him. jMoimted behind a Silesian soldier, wlio served him as a guide, ho had already been carried across tho dark watera that divide the jjlaiii; his horse was already climbing the bunk, when lie slijiped, fell back, and buried himself and liis rider in tho morass. Tliis rendered the defeat decisive. . . . Soliman had gained one of those victories which decide the fate of nations during long epochs. . . . That two thrones, tho succession to which was not entirely free from doubt, had thus liien left vacant, waa an event that necessarily caused a great agitation throughout Christendom. It was still a (luestion whether such a European power as Austria would continue to exist; — a (lUestion which it is only necessary to stale, in order to be aware of its vast importance to tl'.u fate of mankind at large, and of Germany iu par- ticular. . . . The claims of Ferdinand to both crowns, unquestionable as they might be in reference to the treaties with the reigning houses, were ojiposed in tho nations themselves, by the right of election and the authority of considerable ! rivals. In Hungary, as soon as tho Turks had I retired, John Zapolya appeared with tho tiiic 06 AUSTRIA, 152.V1537. Uunyary and Bohemia, AUSTHIV, 1504-1618. iiriny whicli he had kept hack from tlie conllict ; the fall (if the kiiii; was at the same time tlio fall of Iii8 ndvei'snries. . . . Even in Tokay, how- ever, John Zapolya was saluted us king. Mean- wliile, the dukes of Bavaria conceived tlie (le.si.i;n of getting pos-session of tlic throne of lioheniia. . . . Nor was it in the two king<loni3 alone that these pretenders had a considerahle party. The state of politics in Kurope was such as to insure them powerful supporters ahroad. In the first place, Fnuicis I. was intimately connected with Zapolya: in a sliort time a delegate from tlie pope was at his siile, and the Ocrmnns in Home maintained that Clement a.ssisted the fac- tion of the Woiwode witli money. Zapolya sent an agent to Venice with n direct re(iuest to be admitted a member of tlie Ligue of Cognac. In lioheinia, too, the French had long had devoted jiartisans. . . . Tlie conse(|uences thai must liave resulted, had this sehenie 8uccee(le<l, are so iiicaleuli.ble, that it is not too much to .say they would have completely changed the political history of Europe. The power of Bavaria would have outweighed that of Austria in both German and Slavonian countries, and Zapolya, thus sup- ported, would have been able to maintain his station; the Ligue, and with it high iiltra-mon- tano opinions would have held the ascendency in eastern Europe. Never was there a project more pregnant with danger to the growing power of tlie house of Austria. Ferdinand behaved witli all the prudence and etiergy which that house has so often displayed in dillictdt emergen- cies. For tile present, the all-important object was the crown of Bohemia. . . . All his meas- ures were taken with sueli skill and prudence, that on the day of election, though the Bavarian agent had, up to the last moment, not the slightest doubt of the success of his negotiations, an over- whelming majority in the three estates elected Ferdinand to the throne of Bohemia. This took pliice on the 23d October, 152G. ... On his lirother's birth-day, the 24th of February, l.')27, Fertlinand was crowned at Prague. . . . The affairs of Hungary were not so easilv" or so peace- fully settled. ... At tirst, when Zapolya came forwanl, full armed and powerful out of the general desolation, he had the uncontested superiority. The capitjd of the kingdom sought his i)rotection, after which ho marched to Stulil- weissenburg, where his partisans bore down all attempts at opposition: he was elected and crowned (11th of November, l.WO); in 'Croatia, too, he was acknowledged king at a diet; he tilled all the numerous places, temporal and spiritual, left vacant by the disaster of Jlohaez, with his friends. . . . [But] the Germans nilvanccd witliout interruption ; and as soon as it aiipeiired possible that Ferdinand might be successful, Zapolya's followers began to desert liiiii. . . . Never did the German troops (lisjilay more bravery and constancy. They had often neither meat nor bread, and were obliged to live on sucli fruits as they found in the gardens: the inhabitants were wavering and imcertain — they submitted, and then revolted again to the enemy ; Zapolya's troops, aided by their knowledge of the ground, made several very formidable attacks by night; but tlie Germans evinced, in the moment of danger, the skill and determination of a liiimau legion : tliey showed, too, a noble con- shmcy under ditti(!Ulties and privations. At ToUay they defeated Zaiwlyu uud comiMiUed him to (juit Hungary. . . . On the :1<1 November, 1527, Ferdinand was crowned in !Stuhlweis.sen- burg: only tlve of the magnates of the kingdom adhered to Zapolya. The victory appeared com- plete. Ferdinand, however, distinctly felt that this appearance was delusive. ... In Boluuniii, too, his power was far from secure. His Bavarian neighbours had not relir..iui.slied the hope of drivin;^ him from the thro • at the first general turn of affairs, The Oltoi ans, meanwhile, act- ing u|>on the ])ersua-iion tli 'Very land in which the head of their chief liad rested belonged of right to them, were jirepariiig to return to Hun- gary; either to take possession of it themselves, or at Hrst, as was their custom, to bestow it on a native ruler — Zapolya, who now eagerly sought an alliance with them — as tlieir vassal." — L. Von Kaiike, Ilistorji of the liifurmation in Ucr- mil II I/, hk. 4, rli. 4 ('•. 2). A. D. 1564-1618. — The tolerance of Maxi- milian II. — The bigotry and tyranny of Ro- dolph and Ferdinand II. — Prelude to the Thirty Years War. — " There is no perio<l eon- nccte(l with tliese religious wars that ileserves more to be studied than these reigns of Ferdi- nand I., Ala.ximiiian [tlie Second], and those of his successors who preceded the thirtv years' war. We have no sovereign who e.vhibitcd that exercise of moderation and good sense wliicli a philosoplier would require, but Mu.ximilian; and lie was imniediately foHowed by princes of a ditTerent complexion. . . . Nothing could be more complete than the difflculty of toleration at tlie time when JIaximilian reigned; and if a mild i)olicy could be attended with favourable effects in liis age and nation, tliere can bo little fear of the experiment at any oilier i)eriod. No party or person in the state was thei. disposed to tolerate his neighbour from any sen.se of the justice of sui'h forbearance, btit from motives of temporal policy alone. The Lutherans, it will be seen, could not bear that the Calvinists sliould have the same religious privileges with them- selves. The Calvinists were equally opinionated and unjust ; and Maximilian himself was probably tolenint and wise, chietly because .le was in his real opinions a Lutheran, and in outward pro- fession, US th'! head of the empire, a Roman Catholic. For twelve years, the whole of his reign, he preserved thi religious peace of the community, without di'stroying the religious freedom of the human mind. He supported the Roman Catholics, as the predominant party, in all their rights, po.ssessions, and jirivileges ; but he protected the Protestants in every exercise of their religion which was then [iracticable. In other words, he was as tolerant and just as the temper of society then admitted, and more so than tiie state of things would have suggested. . . . The merit of Maximilian was but too appar- ent the moment that his son Rixloloh was called upon to supply his place. ... He ' , always left the education of his son and successor too much to the discretion of his bigoted consort. Ro- dolpli, his son, was tlierefore as ignorant and furious on his part as were tlie PVotestants on theirs; ho had immediate recourse to the usual expedients — force, and the execution of the laws to the very letter. . . . After Rcxlolph comes Matthias and, unhappily for all Eurojie, Bohemia and the empire fell afterwards under the management of Ferdinand II. Of the differ- ent Austrian princes, it is the rcigu of Ferdinand >07 AUSTKi.V. 1564-1018. % Wiir. AUSTRIA, 1618-1648. II. tliiit Ik inon' particularly to be congidcrptl. Siii'li wa.s the iirbltniry nutiirc or IiIh f;ovi'rii- niciil over lil.s Hiilijcct.'i in liolii'inia, tiiiit tlicy r(!voii((l. Tlicv fi<'»i('(l for tiii'ir kliig tliu youii)r Elt'ctor l\tluliiii-, hoping thus to cxtricul)! tlicniwivcs from tlio bigotry iind tyriimiy of Ffrdiimiid. This crown ho olYcrcd wiis accepted ; and. in the event, tlie cause of tln^ lioheniiaiis became tlie clause of tlie J{efonnation in (}er- many, and the Kleclor Palatine the hero of thai cans*'. It is this which gives tlu; great Interest to tills reign of Ferdinand II, to these concerns of his subjects in Bohemia, and to the character of this Klector Palatine. For all these events and circuinstiinces led to the thirty years' war. " — W. Sinvth, J,ertiiriH on Mmlirn JIihIoii/, v. 1, hrt. i:t.--See Hoiii:mi.\: A. I). lOU-1018, and Okhm.xny: a. I). l(ilH-U)-J(). A. D. 1567-1660.— Struggles of the Haps- burg House in Hungary and Transylvania to establish rights of sovereignty.— Wars with the Turks. .Sec 1Ii,noauy: A. D. 1507-1(104, and 10()«-1600. A. D. 1618-1648.— The Thirty Years War. — The Peace of Westphalia. — "The thirty vear.s' war made Germany the centre-point of European ]iolitics. . . . No one at itsconunence- menl could have fores^een the dination and extent. 15ut the train of war was everywliere laid, and reiiuired only the match to set it going; more than one war was joined to it, and swal- lowed up in it; and the melancholy truth, that war feeds itself, was never more clearly displayed. . . . Though the war, whicli lirst broke out in Bohemia, concerne<l only the house of Austria, yet by its originating in religious disputes, by its peculiar character as a religious war, anil by the measures adopted both by the insurgents and the emperor, it acquired such an extent, that even the quelling of the insurrection was insuf- fleient to put a stop to it. . . . Though^ the lioliemian war was apparently terminated, yet tlie llame had communicated to Germany and Hungary, and new fuel was added by the act of proscription promulgated against the elector Frederic and his adherents. From this l"mi nar derived that revolutionary character, which was henceforward peculiar to it; it was a step that could nC but lead to further results, for the ques- tion of vl>o relations between the emperor and his states, was in a fair way of being jjractically considered. New and bolder projects were also formed in Vienna and ^ladrid, wliero it was resolved to renew the war witli the Netlierlands. Under the present circumstances, the suppres- sion of the Protestant religion and the overthrow of German and Dutch liberty appeared insepar- able; while the success of the imperial arms, supported as they were by the league and the co-oi)eration of the Spaniards, gave just grounds for hope. ... By the carrying of the war into Lower Saxony, the principal seat of tlie Protes- tant religion in Germaiiy 'the states of which had appointl'd Christian IV. of Denmark, as duke of Ilolstein, head of their confe<leracy), the northern states had already, though without any benetieial result, been involved in the strife, anil the Danish war had broken out. But the elevation of Albert of Wallenstein to the dignity of duke of Friedlaud and imperial general over the army raised by himself, was of considerably more importance, as it affected the wh le counse ttud character uf the war. From this time the war was completely and truly revolutionary. The peculiar situation of the general, the manner of the formation as well as the maintenance of his army, could not fail to make it such. . . . The distinguislied success of the imperial arms in the north of Germany unveiled the daring schemes of Wallenstein. He did not come for- ward as coiU|Ucror alone, but, by the investiture of Mecklenburg as a state of the empire, as a ruling |irince. . . . But the elevation and conduct of this novus homo, exasperated and annoyed the Catholic no less than the Protestant states, especially the league and its chief; all implored peace, and Wallcnstein's discharge. Thus, at the diet of the electors at Augsburg, the emperor was reduced to the alternative of resigning him or his allies. He chose the former. Wallen- stein was dismis.sed, tlie majority of Ids army disbanded, and Tilly nimiinated comniander-in- cliief of the forces of the emperor and the league. . . . On the side of the emperor sutlicienl care was taken to prolong the war. The refusal to restore the unfortunate Frederic, and even the sale of his upper Palatine to Bavaria, must with justice have e.\cited the apprehensions of tlie other princes. But when the .Jesuits tlnally succeeded, not only in extorting the edict of restitution, but also in causing it to be enforced in the most (xlious manner, the Catholic st^ites themselves saw with regret that peace could no longer exist. . . . The greater the success that attended the house of Austria, the more actively foreign policy laboured to counteract it. Eng- land had tiiken an interest in the fate of Fred- eric V. from the first, though this interest was evinced by little beyond fruitless negotiations. Denmark became engaged in the (luarrel mostlv through the iutluencc of this power ami llollaiul. liic^helieu, from the time he became prime minister of France, had exerted himself in opposing Austria and Spain. He found employ- ment for Spain in the contests resjiecting Vcltelin, and for Austria soon after, by the war of Alantua. Willingly would he have detached the German league from the interest of the emperor; and though he failed in this, he procured the fall of Wallenstein. . . . Much more important, however, was Kiclie- lieu's influence on the war, by the essential share he had in gaining Qustavus Adolphiis' active particijiation in it. . . . The nineteen years of his [Gustavus Adolphus'l reign which had already elapsed, together with the Polish war, which lasted nearly that time, had taught the world but little of the real worth of this great and talented hero. The decisive superi- ority of Protestantism in Germany, under his guidance, soon created a more j ust knowledge, and at the same t;nie showed the advantages which must result to a victorious supporter of that cau.se. , . . The battle at Leipzig was decisive for Gustavus Adolphus and his party, almost beyond expectation. The league fell asunder; and in a short time he 'was master of the coun- tries from the Baltic to Bavaria, and from tlie Rhine to Bohemia. . . . But the misfortunes and death of Tilly brought Wallenstein again on the stage lus absolute commander-in-chief, bent on plans not a whit less extensive than those he had before formed. No period of the W!ir gave i)romise of such great and rapid successes or reverses as the present, for both leaders were deteruiiued to effect tliuin; btit the victory of 208 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: FIRST HALF. CONTEMPOKANEOUS EVENTS. A. D. KlOli. Clmrtcrinj; of Dutch Knst Iiidiii C'oinpiiny. — First aclin? of Sliakcspciiro's "Ilninlet." KtOH. Death of Qui'(M\ Eli/.nlii'th of Kiiirlaiiil ami accession of .lames I. 1(«>5. Cliiiipowder plot of Enjtlisli ('atlinlics. — Publication of Bacon's " Advaii' incnt of [iCaniin!,'." and part 1 of Cervantes' "Don (Jnixotc." lOOO. IMiarter jrrajited to the London and I'lymoiith companies, for American coloni/.ntion. — Organization of the Independent church of Hrowinsts at .Scrool)y, England. 1007. Settlement of .lameslown, Virginia. — Migration of Scrooliy Independents to Holland. lOOJK Settlement of the exiled Pilgrims of Scrooby at Leyden. — Construction of the telescope by Galileo and discovery of .lupiter's moons.* KtlO. Assassination of Henry IV'. of Franco and accession of Louis XHI. 161 1. Publication in England of thi' King .lames or Authorized version of the Bible. 1014-. Last meeting of tlie States General of France before the Hevolulion. mm. Appearance at Frankforton the-.Main of the first known weekly newspaper. lO lO. Opening of war between J^weden and Poland. — Death of Shakespeare and Cervantes. 1((18. IJising of Protestants in Bohemia, l)eginning the Thirty Years War. 1(tl)>. Trial and execution of .lolm of Banieveldt. — Inlioductiou of slavery in Virginia. 1U120. Decisive defeat of the Protestants of ISohenua in tlie battle of the White Moinitain. — Rising of the Freni h Huguenots at Hoehelle. — Migration of tlie Pilgrims from Leyden to America. 1G21. Formation of the Dutcli West India Company. — The lirst Tiianksgiving Day in Xew England. I((2i2. Appearance of the first known i)rintcd newspaper in England — "The Weekly Newcs," 1024. Beginning of Richelieu's ministry, in France, loss. Death of .lames L, of England, and accession of Charles I. ; beginning of the English struggle between King and Parliament. — Engagement of Wallenstein and Ills army in the service of the Emperor against the Protestants. 1027. Alliance of England witli the French Huguenots. — Siege of Uochelle by Richelieu. 1028. Passage by the English Parliament of the act called the Petition of Uiglit. — A.ssassina- tlon of the duke of Buckingham. — Surrender of Roehelle to Richelieu. — Publication of Harvey's discovery of tlie circulation of the blood. 102il. Tumult in the English Parliament, dissolution by the king and arrest of Eliot and others. 1030. Appearance in Germany of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, as the champion of Protestantism. — Settlement of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in New England, and founding of Boston. — The Day of the Dupes in France. 1031. Siege, capture and sack of ^Magdeburg by tlie imperial general, Tilly. — Defeat of Tilly on the ilreitenfeld, at Leipzig, by Gustavus Adolphus. 1G32. Defeat and death of Tilly. — Victory and death of Gu.stavus Adolphus at LUtzen. — Patent to Lord Baltimore by James L, of England, granting him the territory in America called Man-land. — First Jesuit mi'.sion to Canada. 1034:. Assassination of Wallenstein. — Levy of Ship-money in England. 1035. First settlements in the Connecticut valley. 1030. Banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts, and his founding of Providence. 1037. The Pequot War in New England. — Introduction of Laud's Service-book in Scotland; tumult in St. Giles' church. 1038. Banishment of Anno Hutchinson from JIassachusetts. — Rising in Scotland against the Service-book; organization of the Tables; signing of the National Covenant. 1030. The First Bishops' War of the Scotch with King Charles L 1040. Meeting of the Long Parliainont in England. — Recovery of independence by Portugal. 1041. Impeacbmcut and execut' n of Strafford and adoption of the Grand Remonstrance by the English Parliament. — Catholic rising in Ireland and alleged massacres of Protestants. 1042. ICing Charles' attempt, in England, to arrest the Five Members, and opening of the Civil War at Edgeliill. — Conspiracy of Cinq Mars in France. — Death of Cardinal Richelieu. 1G43. Meeting of the Westtninstcr Assembly of Divines. — Subscription of the Solemn League and Covenant between the Scotch and English nations. — Siege of Gloucester and lifst battle of Newl)ury. — Death of Louis XIII. of France and accession of Louis XIV. 1044. Battles of Marston Jloor and the second Newbury, in the English civil war. 1045. Oliver Cromwell jjlaced second in command of the English Parliamentary array. — His victory nt Nascby. — Exploits of Montrose in Scotland. • 1046. Adoption of Presbyterianism by the English Parliament. —fjurrendcr of King Charles to the Scottish army. 1047. Surrender of King Charles by the Scots to the English, and his seizure by tue Army. 1048. Tlie second Civil War in England. — Cromwell's victory at Preston. — Treaty of New- port with the king. — Grand Army Remonstrance, and Pride's Purge of Parliament. — Last campaigns of the Thirty Years War. — Peace of Westphalia; cession of Alsace to Franc(!. 1040. Trial and execution of King Charles I., of England, and establishment of the Common- wealth. — Campaign of Cromwell in Ireland. — First civil war of the Fronde in Prance. 1050. Charles II. in Scotland. — War between the English and the Scotch.— Victory of Crom- well at Dunbar. — The new Fronde ia France, in alliance with Spain. SEVENTEENTn CENTURY: SECOND HALF. CONTKMPOIUNKOUM EVENTS. A. n. 1(151. Invasion of Kn^^land by Charles II. ami tbu Scots; Crom^voll's victory nt Wnrceater; COIII|llltl' <'<>lll|ll('Nt of S<'(ltlllll(l, I<i52. Victorious imviil war of the English with the Dutch.— End of the Fronde.— InstitutiDM of llif l.ilicniiii Veto in Poland. 1<)5<'{. Expulsion of " the lluinp " by Cromwell, and eHtabllsliniGnt of the Protectorate In England.— Adoption of the Instrument of Oovernruent. — Ucturn of Mazariu to power In France. — The ('roniwellian settlenu^nt of Ireland. .lOA-!:. Incorporation of Hcotlatul with the (English Commonwealth, under Cromwell. — Peace between the English and Dutch. — ('on(iuest of Nova Scotia by the New England colonists. miiR. Alliance of England and V ranee against Spain. — English conquest of Jamaica. lOnO. licglnning of tlie persecution of the (Quakers in .Massaeliusetts. 1058. (lapture of Diuikirlt from tlie Spaniards and possession given by the French to the English, — Deatli of Cromwell and succession of his son Kichard as Protector. 1U50. .Meeting of a new Parliament in England; its dissolution; resuscitation and ro-expulsion of the Kum]), and formation of a provisional government by the Army. lOOO. .March of the English army under Monk from Scotland to London. — Call of a new Par- liament Ijv Monk, and restoral:ion of the monarchy, in tlie person of (!liarles II. KlOl. Hestoratinii of the (Jhurch of England and ejection of 2,000 nonconformist ministers. — Personal assumption of government by Louis XIV. in France. — Beginning oT tlie ministry of Colb(Tt. lOOti. Sale of Dunkirk t(» France by Charles II. — Uestorution of episcopacy in Scotland and persecution of the Covenanters. 1004. Seizure of New Netherland (henceforth New York) by the English from the Dutch and grant of the province to the duke of York. — Grant of New Jersey to Berkeley and Carteret. 1005. Outbreak of the great Plague in London. — Formol decluratiuus of war between the Englisli and the Dutch. 1GU<(. The great Are in London. — Tremendous naval battles between Dutch and English and defeat of the former. 1007. Havagcs by a Dutch fleet in the Thames. — Peace treaties of Breda, between England, Holland, France and Denmark. — War of Louis XIV., called the War of the Queen's liights, In the Spanish Netherlands. 1008. Triple alliance of England, Holland and Sweden against France. l((Ot>. First exploring journey of La Salle from the St. Lawrence to the West. I<t70. Treaty of the king of England with Louis XIV. of Fronce, betraying his allies, the Dutch, and engaging to profess himself a Catholic. 1072. Alliance of England and France against the Dutch. — Ilcstoration of the Stadtholdership in Holland to the Prince of Orange, and murder of the De Witts. 1073. Hecovery of New Netherland by the Dutch from the English. 1074. Treaty of Westminster, restoring peace between the Dutch and English and ceding Now Netherland to the latter. 1075. War with the Indians in Now England, known as King Pliillp'a War. 1078. Pretended Popisli Plot in England. — Treaties of Nimeguen. 1071>. Passage of the Habeas Corpus Act in England. — Oppression of Scotland and perseoi- tion of the Covenanters. — Defeat of Claverhouse at Drumclog. — Defeat of Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge. 1680. First naming of tlie Whig and Tory parties in England. 1081. Merciless despotism of tlie duke of York in Scotland. — Beginning of "dragonnado" persecution of Protestants in France. — Grant of Pennsylvania by Charles II. to William Penn. 1082. E.vploration of the Mississippi to its mouth by La Salle. 1<{8:). The Uyehouse Plot, and execution of Lord iiussell and Algernon Sidney, in England. — Great invasion of Hungary and Austria by the Turks; their siege of Vienna, and the deliverance of the city by John Sobieski, king of Poland. — Establishment of a penny post in London. 1085. Death of Charles II., king of England, and accession of his brother James II., an avowed ('atholic. — Uebcllion of the duke of Monmouth. — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. of France. 1086. Consolidation of New England under a royal governor-general. — League of Augsburg against Louis XIV. of France. 1G88. Declaration of Indulgence by James II. of England, and imjirisonment and trial of the seven bishops for refusing to publish it. — Invitation to William and Mary of Orange to accept the English crown.— Arrivol in England of the Prince of Orange and flight of James. 1080. Completion of tlie English Uevolution. —Settlement of the crown on William and Mary. —Passage of the Toleration Act and the Bill of Rights.- Landing of James II. in Ireland and war in that island ; siege and successful defense of Londonderry. lOOO. The first congress of the American colonies. —Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. 1602. The Salem Witchcraft madness in Massachusetts.— Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland. 1095. Passage of the first of the Penal Laws, oppressing Catlioiics in Ireland. 1007. Peace of Ryswick. — Cession of Strasburg and restoration of Acadia to France. 1690. Peace of Carlowitz, between Turkey, Russia, Poland, Venice, and the Emperor. 1700. Prussia raised in rank to a kingdom. — First campaigns of Charles XII. of Sweden. AUSTRIA, 1618-1048. Pritct of holla. Weiliiha AUSTRIA, 1072-1714. LUtzvn, wlillf' It cost OimtnviiH IiIh life, prcnarcfl tliu full of Wiillciistciii. . . . Tliiiii«li the fall of Oustiivus .V<l(>l|iliii-i friistratcil liis own pri c views, it liiil not tl.oHc of hi.s piirly. . . I'lic BCliool of OuNtiiviis produced it iiuiiiIkt of iiit'ii. Kri'itt ill the cubiiK't and in tliu llcl<l ; yet it waH hard, even for an O.v'nHteirn, to pre.serve tlie importance uf iSweden unimpaired : and it waH l)ut partially done by tli" ulliancc of 'Ileilliroiin. ... If tlie fortes of Sweden overrun alniont every part of Germany in tiu^ folluwiii^ niontliH, under tlic K»idauce of tlic pupilH of tlie l<inj?, Hernard of Weimar and OuKtavus Horn, we must appurently attribute It to Wallenstein's intentional Inactivity in Roliemia. Tlic distrust of liim increased in Vienna tlie more, as he toolt but little trouble to dimini.sli it; and tlioufrli his fall was not sullicient to atone for treachery, if proved, it was for Ills ciiuivocal cliaracter and imprudence. Hia dealli probably saved Ger- many from a catastroplie. ... A great change took place upon tlie deatli of Wallenstein; as a prince of tlio bhxMl, Ferdinand, kinif of llunifary and Uoiiemia, obtained I he coinmand. Tlius an end was put to plans of revolutions from this quarter. But in the same year the liattle of Nordlingeii gave to the imperial arms a sudden preponderance, such as it had never before! acquired. The separate peace of Saxouy with the emperor nt Prague, and soon after an alli- ance, were its cimseciueiices; Sweden driven liack to Pomerania, seemed unable of lier.sclf, during tlie two following years, to maintain lier ground in Germany: the victory of Wittstock turned the scale iu lier favour. . . . Tlie war was pro- longed and greatly extended by the active share taken in it by Prance: lirst against Spain, and soon against Austria. . . . Tlie German war, after the treaty with Hernliard of Weimar, was mainly carried on by France, liy the arming of Germans against Germans. But the pupil of Gustavus Adolplius preferred to light for him- self rather than others, and ills early death was almost as much coveted by France as by Austria. The success of the Swedisli arms revived under Baner. ... At the general diet, wliicli was at last convened, the emperor j'ielded to a general amnesty, or at least what was so designated. But when at tlic meeting of tiie aiiil)assadors of tlie leading powers at Hamburg, tlie prelimin- aries were signed, and tlie time and place of tlie congress of peace fixed, it was deferred ofter Richelieu's death, (wlio was succeedeil by JIaza- rin), by the war, which both parties continued, in the hope of securing better conditions by victory. A new war broke out in the north between Sweden and Denmark, and when at last the congress of peace was opened at Munster and Osnabruck, the negotiations drugged on for three years. . . . Tlie German peace was negotiated at Munster between tlie emperor and Prance, and at Osnabruck between the emperor and Sweden; but both treaties, according* to express agreement, Oct. 34, 1648, were to be considered as one, under the title of the West- phalian." — A. H. L. Heeren, A Manual of Hie Ilktury of t/te Political System of Europe and its Colonies, pp. 91-99. — "Tlie Peace of Westphalia has met manifold hostile comments, not only in earlier, but also in later, times. German patriots complained that by it the unity of tlie Empire was rent; and indeed the connection of the States, \ ich even before was louse, was relaxed to the extreme. Tliis was, however, an evil wliich could net be avohled, and it had to \w. accepted in ordiT to prevent the French and Swedes from using their opportunity for the fiirtlier enslavement of the land. . . . The rellgi(nis parties also maiU; objections to the peace. The strict C'atliolies condemned it ac t work of Inexeusable and arliitrary injustice. . . . Tlie dissatisfaclion of the Protestants was cliietly Willi the recognition of tin- Keclrsiastical Reservation. They complnincd also that their bretliren in the faith were not allowed the free exercise of their religion in Austria. Tlieir hos- tility was limited to llieorelical di.scuHsIons, whicli 8(M)ii ceased when Louis XIV. took advan- tage of the preponderance wliich he had won to make outrageous assaults upon Germany, and even the Protestants were compi^lli'd to acknowledge the Emperor as the real defender of German independence." — A. Giihiely, History of the Thirtii Yearn' War. r. 2, eh. 10. Hect. 4.— See, lilso, Gku.\iany: a. 1). 1618-1620, to 1048; Fu.\nck: a. D. 1624-1626; and Italy: A. D. 1637-16;!1. A. D. i62i.— Formal establishment of the right of primogeniture in the Archducal Family. See (Jkkma.nv: A. 1). 16;!6-16.'i7. A. D. 1624-1626. — Hostile combinations of Richelieu, — The VaitelUne war in Northern Italy. See Fuanck: A. I). 1624-1626. A. D. 1627-1631. — War with France over the succession to the Duchy of Mantua. Sec Italy: A. I). 1627-16;il. A. D. 1660-1664. — Renewed war with the Turks. — Help from France. — Battle and victory of St. Gothard. — Twenty years truce. See IIi:n<iauv: A. I). 1660-1664. A. D. 1668-1683. — Increased oppression and religious persecution in Hungary. Revolt of Tekeli. — The Turks again called in. — Mus- tapha's great invasion and siege of Vienna. — Deliverance of the city by John Sobieski. See lIixciAUY: A. I). 16(W-16«;I A. D. 1672-1714. — The wars with Louis XIV. of France : War of the Grand Alliance. — Peace of Ryswick. — "The leading principle of the reign [in Francel of Louis XIV. ... is the principle of war with tlie dynasty of Charles V. — tlie ehler bruucliof which reigned in Spain, while the descendants of tiio younger branch occupied the imperial tlirono of Germany. . . . At the death of Mazarin, or to speak more correctly, immediately after tlie death of Philip IV tlio early ambition of Louis XIV. sought to prevent tlie junior lirancli of the Austrian dynasty from succeeding to tlio in- lieritance of tlie elder brancii. He had no desire to see reconstituted under tlie imperial sceptre of Germany the monarcliy wliich Cliarles V. had at one time wislied to transmit entire to his son, but which, worn out and weakened, lie sub- sequently allowed without regret to he divided ' between liis son and his brother. Before making war upon Austria, Louis XIV. cast his eyes upon a portion of tlie territory belonging to Spain, and the expedition against Holland, begun in 1672 [see Netherlands (Holland): A. D. 1672-1674, and 1674-1678], for the purpose of absorbing the Spanisli provinces by overwhelm- ing them, opened the series of his vast enter- prises. His first great war was, historically speaking, his first great fault. He fulled in hfe object: for at the end of six campaigns, during 209 AUSTRIA, lfl72-17U. Wan tritk lAtuit XIK AUSTRIA. 1673-1714. wlilrh tlio French nrmlcs olitiilixMl (front and ilrwrviMl Hiio'c'SN, lliilliinil rriiiiilMcil iitiniii' (|ii<Ti'il, Thus WHH Kiiri)|M- wiiriicil Ihnt the lust of i'c>ii(|U<'Mt iif It yiiiiii); iMDiiiiri'h, whn iliil in't hiiiist'lf piiMMcsM iiiilittiry Ki'iiiiiH. lint who fimii>l in hln L'l'nrriil I the rewiiirceH iiiiil iil)ility in wliicli lie was hlinsi'lf (letlcjent, wiiiild kihim threaten her Indeiienilence, Cciniii' iinil Tnreiiiie, after havinit lieen relielliiiiiM duhjeets under the UeKenev. were aluiiit tii lieeoine tlie tlrnt and tlie must illiistrioiiM lleiileiiaiits <if liouis XIV'. KiirDpe, however, tlioiii;h warned, was not iinmeiliately ready to detVnd herself. It was from Austria, more directly exposed to tlii; daniters of the ){reat war now <M)minen(ini,', that the llrst Kvs- tematlc resistance outfht to have come. IJut Austria was not prepared to play such li part; and the Kiiiperor Leopold possessed neither the (genius nor the wish for it. lie was. in fact, nothliiif more than the nominal head of Germany. . . . Such was the state of alTairs in Kuropu when William of ()rani,'e tlrst made li anpear- iinre on the Kta);e. . . . The old (juestion of HuprcTuacy. which Loids XIV. wishcii t< IlLtht out as a duel witli the House of Austria, was now ahout to cliange its aspect, and, owini; to tlie presence of an unexpected j;eniiis, to hring into tlie riuarrel other powers lipsides the two orijfinal competitors. The foe of Louis XIV. ou(;ht by rifrhts to have been horn on the banks of the DaiMdie, and not on the shores of the North Sea. In fact, it was Austria that at that moment most needed a man of ijenius, eilliei on the throne or at the head of allairs. Tlie eveiitsof thecentury ■would, in this ca.se, doiibtles.s have followed a dilTerent course: the war would have been less general, and the maritime nations would not have been involved in it to llie same degree, . . . Tlic treatii'S of peace would have been signed in some small place in France! or (rermany. and not in two towns and a village in Holland, such as Nimcguen, Uyswick, and I'lreclit. . . . William of Orange found himself in a jxisition soon to form the Triple .Vlliance wliuli the very iioliev of Louis XIV'. suggested. For France to attack Holland, when her object was eventually to reach Austria, and kei^p her out of the Spanish succession, was to make enemies at one and the same time of Spain, of Austria, and of Holland. lint if it afierwards rc(iuired considerable elTorts on the part of William of Orange to maintain this alliance, it demanded still more energy to extend it. It formed jiart of the Stadtliolder's ulterior plans to couibine the uiiicm between liim- lelf and the two branches of the Austrian family, with the old Anglo-Swedish Triple Alliance, which had just been dissolved under the strong pressure brought to bear on it by Louis XIV. . . . Louis XIV^., whose linanccs were exhausted, was very soon anxious to make peace, even on the morrow of his most brilliant victories; whilst William of Orange, beaten and , retreating, ardently desired the continuance of tlie war. . . . The Peace of Nimeguen was at lost signed, and by it were secured to Louis XIV. Frauche-Cointe, and some important places in the Spanish Low Countries on his northern frontier [sen Nimeoven, Pkace op]. This was the culminating point of the reign of Louis XIV. Although the coalition had prevented him from attaining the full object of his designs against the House of Austria, which had been to absorb by conquest so much of the territory belonging to Spain as would sorure him agalimt the ctTeel of a will preserving the whole in- heritance intact in the family, vet his armies had been constantly succcNsful. and icany of his op- ponents wen- evidently llri'd of .he struggle. . . . Some vears passeil thus, with the appear- ance, of calm. ICurope was c(in((Uered ; and when peace was broken, because, as was said, the Treaty of Nimcguen was not duly ex^M'Utcd, the eventsof the war were for some time neither brilliant or important, for M-veral campaigns began and ended without any consich'rablc re- sult. . . . .\t length liOuls XIV. entered on the second half of his reign, which dilTered widely from the llrst. . . . During this second period of more than thirty years, which begins after the Treaty of Nimeguen aral lasts till the Peace of Utreclit, events succeed each other In complete logical setpience, so that the reign presents Itself as one continuous whole, with a regular move- ment of ascension and decline. . . . The leading; principle of the reign remained the same; it was always the desire to weaken the House of At's- tria, or to secure an advantageous partition of the Spanish succession. I!ut the Kmperor of Germany was protecti.'d by the coalition, and the King of Spain, whoso deatli was considen-d imminent, would not make up his mind to die. . . . During the first League, when the Prince of Orange was contending against Louis XIV. with the co-operation of the Emperor of Ger- many, of the King of Spain, and of the Klectors on the Khine, the religious element playe<l only a secondary part in tlie war. Hut we shall see this clement make its presence more manifest. . . . Thus the irillui nee of Protestant Kngland made itself more and more felt in the alTairs of Kurope, in proportion as the government of the Stuarts, from its violence, its unpopularity, and from tlie opposition olTcred to it, was apjiroach- ing its end. . . . The second coalition was neither more united nor more tlrm than the first hail been: but, after the expulsion of the Stuarts, the germs of dissolution no hinger threatened the same dangers. . . . The Hritisli nation now made itself felt iu the balance of F^iirope, and Williiiniof Orange was for tlie fii-st time in his life successful in w;ir at tlie head of his Kngli.sh troops. . . . This was the most brilliant epoch of the life of William HI. . . . He was now at the height of his glory, after u period of twenty years from liir tart in life, and his destiny was !iecomi)lished; .sO that until tlu^ Treaty of Hys- wick. which in 1098 put an end to his hostilities with France, and brought aliout his reciignition as King of Kngland by Louis XIV., not much more was left for him to gain ; and lie had the skill to lose nothing. . . . The negotiations for the Treaty of Uyswick were conducted with less ability and boldness, and concluded on less advantageous terms, than the Truce of Ratisbon or the Peace of Nimeguen. Nevertheless, this treaty, wliich securc'd to Louis the possession of Strasbourg, might, particularly as age was now creeping on him, have dosed his military career without disgrace, if the eternal (piestion, for the solution of which he had made so many sacri- flces, and which had always held the foremost place in his thoughts, had not remained as un- settled and as full of dilliculty as on the day when he had mounted the throne. Charles II. of Spain was not dead, and the question of the Spanish succession, which bad so actively 210 AUSTRIA, 1072-1711. Pntri- »/ Utrrchl. AUSTRIA, 1718-1738. cmploynl the iiriiiics cif I,i)iii>i XIV., itnil taxed IiIm (llploiMiii'y, wiLs iiH undi'iiilcil itH lit tlii' Ih;- {i(liiiilii){iif IiIh rt'l^n. Louis XIV. kuw two niter- iiiitlvcH iH'fon* liliii: n piirtitloii of the HiireesKlon Ix'twceii the Kinperor ami lilniHelf (ii Holiitloii proiMwed thirty years before as a means to avoid war), or else a will in favoiirof France, followed of course by a ree(aniiiencernent of j?''"''""' hostilities. . . . t.onis XIV. proposed in sue- Cl'iwion two scbenii'S, not, as thirty years before, tn the Kniperor, lint to the KIiik of Kn^rlunil, whose power and whose jfenius rendered him the arbiter of all the jtreat alTairs of Kurope. ... In the first of the treaties of partitlr)n, Spain ami the Low Countries were to Ik^ j;I^''''> to llie I'rince of liavaria: in the second, to the Archdiilii' Cliarles. In both, France obtaini'd Naples anci Sicily for llie Mauphln. . . . Ilolli tlies<,' arrangements . . . suited both France and Kiigland as ii paiillu solution of tiie (|uestion. , . . Hut events, as '■(. know, deranj;ed all these caloiihttlons, and Charles II., who. by contituiinK to live, had disappointed so mucii impatient <'X- IX'Ctation, by his last will provokeil a ^j^eueral war. to be carried on auMinsI Friinie by the union of Knjjiaml with tiie Kinpire and with Holland — a luilon which was much strenj;lhcnecl under the new dynasty, and which afterwards embraced the northern stales of (Jermany. . . . William III. died at tiic ajre of llfly-two, on tho llth of March, 170'), at the beuihninif of the War of Succession. After him. the part he was to have played was <lividcd. I'rince Kujfcne, Marlborougli, and Ileinsius (tlie (irand Pen- sionary) had the coiuluct of jxilitical and especially of military alTairs, and actecl in con- cert. The disastrous conseipienccs t(» France of tliat war, in winch William liad no part, are iiolorious. Tiie battles of ISlenheim, of Hamilii's, and of Oudenardu l)roUf,dil the allied arnncs on tlie soil of France, and ])lace(l l,()\iis XIV. on tiu' vcrifi! of ruin." — ,1. Van I'niet. A'wn/* mt the I'liiiticitl IHkI-ii-ji iif the Wh, \Wi, and llth Centiirieii, pp. :t9()-4t4 ami \-i\-AThi. Ai.s<> IN': II. Martin, Hint, of France: Aqe of hndx XrV.. i\ 3, (■/(. 3 and 4-0.— T. II. I)y<'r, Hint, of )fo(lcni Kiinipf, hk. 5. eh. 5-0 (c. ;i). — See, also, <}kumanv: A. 1). 1080; and Fii.v.M i:: A. 1). 10H!)-l(i!)() to 10!)7. A. D. 1683-1687.— Merciless suppression of the Hungarian revolt.— The crown of Hungary made hereditary in the House of Hapsburg. Sue IliN(i.utv: A. I). l(W!-UWr, A. D. i68vif99-— Expulsion of the Turks from Hungary. — The Peace of Carlowitz. Seo iIrN<iAKV. A. I). lOHlt-lMUl). A. D. 1699-1711.— Suppression of the Re- volt under Rakoczy in Hungary. See IIln- (iAKv: A. I). 10!)!l-iri«. A. D. 1700. — Interest of the Imperial House in the question of the Spanish Succession. See Spain: A. I). 1C9H-170(). A. D. 1701-1713.— The War of the Spanish Succession. See OiiUMANv: A. D. 1(03, to 1704; Italy: A. D. 1701-1718: Si'ain: A. I). 1703. to 1707-1710, and Xi:tiii;hi,ax!)s: A. I). 1703-1704. to 1710-1713. A. D. 171 1.— The War of the Spanish Sue cession. — Its Circumstances changed. — "The death of the Emperor tlosepli I., wiio expired April 17, 1711, at the age of thirty-two, changed the whole character of the War of the Spanish Succession. As Joseph left no male heirs, tbu hereditary dotniidons of the House of .\uHtrlik devolved to his brother, the Ari'hiluke Charles; and though that prince had not been ele<-ted King of the Kianans, and had tin refore to Im-- come a candidale for the imperial cniwn, yet there coidd be little doubt that he would attidn that dignity. Ileni-e, if Charles slxudil also be- come sovereign of Spain and tin- Indies, the vast empire of Charles V, WDuld be again united in one person; and lliat very evil of an almost uni- versal monarchy would be eslablislied, the pre- vention of which had been the chief cause for taking up arms airidnst Philip V. . . . After an interregnum of half a yi'ar, during which tho alTairs of the F.inpire had been 1 '"iilucted by tlii; Klector Palatine juid the Klector of Saxony, a.<i imperial vicars for South and North (lermany, the Archduke Charles was imaidmously named Kmperor by the Klecloral College (Oct. 13th). . . . Charles . . . received tho imperial crown a' Frankfort, Dec. 33d, with the title of Charles VI."— T. II. Py. r, Hint, of .Viuiern Kiiro]u\ hk. B, eh. (r. :(). A. D. 1713-1711J.— Ending of the War of the Spanish Succession.— The Peace of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastadt.— Acquisition of the Spanish Netherlands, Naples and Milan. See L'TUKdir: A. 1). 1713-lTll. A. D. 1713-1719. — Continued differences with Spain. — The Triple Alliance. — The See Si vi.N; A. 1). 1713- Quadruple Alliance. I.3.V A. D. 1714.— The Deserticiiof the Catalans. See Si'ain; A. I). 17i;t-1714. A. D. 1714-1718.— Recovery of Belgrade and final expulsion of the Turks from Hun- gary. See III XOAIIV: A. D. 1000-171H. A. D. 1718-1738.— The question of the Suc- cession. — The Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI., and its guarantee by the Powers. — "'»n the death [.V. D. 17111 "'' •'"sepli, the hopes . f \\w house of Austria and tlie fuluri! destiny of Oermany rested on Charles |tlien, as titular king of Spain, Charles III., inelTectually contesting the Spanish throne with the Hourtion heir, Philip V. ; aflerwiirds, as ICmperor, Cliarles VI.] who was the only surviviiiir male of liis illius- trious family. Hy that event the I iscs of Aus- tria, (termaiiy and Kurope were idarcd in a new and critical situation. From a principle of mis- taken policy the succession to the licieditary do- minions hail neverliecn eslablislied according to an invariable rule; for il was not clearly ascertained whetlier males of the collateral branches should be preferred to females in lineal descent, a?i un- certainty which h:id l'rc(|uently occasioned many veliement disputes. To obviat,' this evil, as well as to lirevent future disputes. Leopold I father of .losepli and Cliarles] lia<l arranged the order of succession: to ,Jo.se))li he assigned Ilnn- gary and 15olieiiiia. and the other hereditary do- minions; and to Charles the crowu of Spain, and all the ter:-itories wliicli belonged to the Spanish inheritance. Should .loscph die without issue male, the whole succe.s.sion was to descend to Charles, and in case of his death, under similar circumstances, tlie Austrian dominions were to dc'volvo on the daughters of .Joseph in prefer- ence to those of Charles. This family compact was signed by the two brothers in the presence of Leopold. Joseph died without male issue; but left two daujf liters." He was succeeded by Charles in uccoruaucc with the compact. "On 211 AUSTRIA, 1718-1738. Pragmatic Sanction. AUSTRIA, 1740. Ihf 2n(l nf Atiffiifit, 1718, soon ftfterthcsigniituri' of tlic (Quadruple Alliance, Charles promulgated fl new law of suceession for the inheritanee of tlx- house of Austria, under the name of the Prairniati'' Sanction. Aceordinp to the family conipaet formed by I,eo]ioId, an<l eonlinned liy Jo.ieph and Charles, the succession was entailed on the dauiihters of .Joseph in preference to the daughters of Charles, should they both die without issue male. Charles, however, had scarcely ascended the throne, tliough at, that time without children, than he reversed this compact, and settled the right of succession, in ■ default of his male issue, first on his daughters, then on the (laughters of .Joseph, and afterwards on the queen of Portugal and the oIIkt daugli- tors of Leopold. Since the promulgation of that decree, the Empress had borne a son who died in his infancy, and three daughters, Maria Theresa, ]\Iaria Anno and Maria Amelia. With a view to insure the succession of these daughters, and to obviate the dangers which might arise from the claims of the .losephine archduchesses, he pub- lished the Pragmatic Sanction, and compelled Ills nieces to renounce their pretensions on their marriages with the electors of Saxony and 15a- varia. .Vware, however, that the strongest re- nunciations are disregarded, he obtained from the (lifTerent states of his extensive (hmiinions the acknowledgement of the Pragmatic Sanction, and made it the great object of his reign, to which he sacriliccd every other consideration, to procure the guaraiity of the European powers." This guaranty was obtained in treaties with the several powers, as follows : Spain in 172.'); Rus- sia, 1726, renewed in 17IW; Prussia, 1728; Eng- land and Holland, 1731 ; France, 1738; the Empire, 1732. The inheritance which Charles thus en- deavored to secure to his daughter was vast and imposing. "lie was by election Emperor of Gernianv, by hereditary right sovereign of Hun- gary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, the Tyrol, and the Bris- ga>i, and he had recently obtained Najdes and Sicil}', the Milanese and the Netherlands." — W. Co.\e, JUkI. (if the Huune of Aiistrui, ch. 80, 84-8.5 (v. 3). — "The Pragmatic Sanction, though framed to legalize the accessioi, of Maria Theresa, ex- cludes the present Emperor's daughters and his grandchild by postponing the succession of females to that of males in the family of Charles VI."— J. D. Boure: The ITcritar/e of the ILipsburris (Fortninh llev., March, 1889). Also i.n: H. Tuttk, IlUt. of Prussia, 1740-1745, ch. 3. — S. A. Dunham, Ilist. of the Germanic Empire, bk. 3, rh. 3 (i\ 3). A. D. 1719. — Sardinia ceded to the Duke of Savoy in exchange for Sicily. See Si'ai.v: A. D. 1713-1725; and It.vi.v; A. D. 1715- 1735. A. D. 1731. — The second Treaty of Vienna with England and Holland. See Siwik: A. D. 1720-1731. A. D. 1732-1733.— Interference in the elec- tion of the King of Poland. See Poland; A. 1). 1732-1733. A. D. 1733-1735.— The war of the Polish Succession.— Cession of Naples and Sicily to Spain, and Lorraine and Bar to France. Sec Ekanck: a. I). 1733-1735, and Italy; A. I). 1715-173,5. A. D. 1 737- 1 739. — Unfortunate war with the Turks, in alliance with Russia. — Humiliating peace of Belgrade. — Surrender of Belgrade, with Servia, and part of Bosnia. See Russia: A. 1). 172.5-1731). A. D. 1740 (October).- Treachery among the Guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction. — The inheritance of Marie Theresa disputed. — "The Enii)eror Charles VI. . . . died on the 20th of October, 1740. His daughter Maria Theresa, the heiress of his dominions with the title of Queen of Hungary, was but twenty- three years of age, without experience or knowl- edge of business; and her husband Francis, the titular Duke of Lorraine and reigning Grand Duke of Tu.scany, deserved the praise of amiable (|ualities rather than of commanding talents. Her Jlinisters were timorous, irresolute, and useless: 'I saw theuj in despair,' writes Mr. Robin.son, the British envoy, 'but that very despair was not capable of rendering them bravely desperate. ' The treasury was exhausted, the army dispersed, and no General risen to re- I)lace Eugene. The succession of JIaria Theresa was, indeed, cheerfully acknowledged by her subjects, and seemed to be secured amongst foreign jjowers by their guarantee of the Prag- matic Sanction; but it soon appeared that such guarantees are mere wortliless parchments where there is strong temptation to break and only a feeble army to stipport theuL The l)rincipal claimant to the succession was the Elector of Bavaria, who maintained that the will of the Emperor Ferdinand the First devised the Austrian states to his daughter, from whom the Elector descended, on failure of male lineage. It appeared that the original will in the archives at Vienna referred to the failure, not of the male but of the legitimate issue of his sons; but this document, though ostontatiou.sly dis- played to all the Jlinisters of state and foreign aml)assadors, was very far from inducing the Elector to desist from his pretensions. As to the Great Powers — the Court of France, the old ally of the Bavarian family, and mindful of its injuiies from the House of Austria, was eager to exalt the first by the depression of the latter. The Bourbons in Spain followed the direction of the Bourbons in France. The King of Poland and the Empress of Russia were more friendly in their expressions than in their designs. An opposite spirit pervaded England and Holland, where motives of honour and of policy combined to supi)ort the rights of JIaria Theresa. In Germany itself the Elector of Cologne, the Bavarian's brother, warmly espoused his cause; and 'the remaining Electors,' says Chesterfield, ' like electors with us, thought it a proper op- portunity of making tlie most of their votes, — and all .at the expense of the helpless and abandoned House of Austria!' The first blow, however, came from Prussia, whore the King Frederick William had died a few months be- fore, and been succeeded by his son Frederick the Second; a Prince surnamcd the Great by poets."— Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of Kmj., 1713-1783, ch. 23 (c. 3). — "The elector of Bavaria acted in a i)rompt, honest, and consistent manner. He at once lodged a protest against any disposition of the hereditJtry estates to the prejudice of his own rights; insisted on the will of Ferdinand I. ; and demanded the production of the original text. It was promptly protluced. But it was found to convey the succession to the heirs of his daughter, the ancestress of the 212 AUSTRIA. 1740. Wnr of the Sncresaion, AUSTRIA, 1740-1741. elector, not, ns ho conteiulod, on the failure of male heirs, but in tlie absence of more direct heirs born in wedloclc. Maria Tlieresa could, how- ever, trace lierdcscert through nearer mule heirs, ami had, therefore, a superior title. Charles Albert was in any event only one of several claimants. The King of Spain, a liourbon, pre- sented himself as the heir of tlio llapsi)urg emperor Cliarles V. The King of Sardinia alleged an ancient marriaft'c contract, from wliich he derived a right to tlir duchy of ^Milan. Even August of Saxony claimed territory by virtue of an anti(iuated title, which, it was i)rctended, the renunciation of his wife could not alTect. All tlu'sc were, however, mere vultures compare<l to the eagle [Frederick of 7'ru.5siii] which was soon to descend upon its prey." — II. Tattle, Hist, of Pnima, 1740-1745, ch. 2. A. D. I740(0ctober — November).— The War of the Succession. — Conduct of Frederick the Great as explained by himself. — "This Prag- matic Sanction ha<l liccn guarantied by France, England, Holland, Sardinia, Saxony, and tlie Roman empire; nay by tlie late King Frediric William [of Prussia] also, on condition that tlie court of Vienna would secure to him tlie succes- sion of Juliers and Berg. Tlie emperor i)romiscd him the eventual succession, and did not fullil his engagements; by which the King of Prussia, his successor, was freed from tliis guarantee, to which his father, the late king, liad pledged him- self, conditionally. . . . Frederic I., when he erected Prussia into a kingdom, had, by that vain grandeur, planted the scion of ambition in the bosom of his posterity ; which, soon or late, must fructify. The monarchy he had left to his des- cendants was, if I may be permitted the expres- sion, a kind of hermaplirodite, which was rather more an electorate than a kingdom. Fame was to be acquired by determining the nature of tliis being: and this sensation certainly was one of tliose which strengthened so many motives, con- spiring to engage the king in grand enterprises. If tlie acquisition of the dutcliy of Berg had not even met witli almost insurmountable impedi- ments, it was in itself so small that the possession would add little grandeur to the house of Bran- deubourg. These reflections occasioned the king to turn his views toward the house of Austria, the succession of which would become matter of litigation, at the death of the emperor, when the throne of the Cajsars should be vacant. That event must be favourable to the distinguished part which the king l;.ul to act in Germany, by the various claims of the houses of Saxony and Bavaria to these states ; by the number of candi- dates wliich Miight canvass for the Imiierial crown ; and by the projects of the court of Versailles, which, on such an occasion, must naturally prolit by the troubles that the death of Charles VI. could not fail to excite. This accident did not long keep the world in expectation. The em- peror ended his days at the palace La Favorite, on I he 26th [20tli] day of October, 1740. Thenews arrived at Kheinsberg when tlie king was ill of a fever. ... lie immediately resolved to reclaim the principalities of Silesia ; the rights of his house to wliich [lo.ig dormant, the claim dating back to a certain covenant of heritage-brotherhood with the du'ie of Liegnitz, in 1587, which the cniperor of that day caused to be annulled by the Stales of Bohemia] were incontestable: and he prepa.V'd, at the same time, to support these pre- tensions, if necessary, bv arms. This project ac- complished all his political views; it ailordcd the means of acquiring reputation, of augmenting the power of the state, and of terminating what related to tlie litigious succession of tlie dutchy of Berg, . . . The state of the court of Vienna, after the <leath of the emperor, was deplorable. 'I'lie finances were in disorder; the army was ruined and discouraged liy ill success in its wars with the Turks; the ministry disunited, and a youthful unex])eri('nced iirincess at the head of the government, who was to defend the succes- sion from all claimants. The result was that the government couhl not appear formidable. It was besides impossible that the king should be destitute of allies. . . . Tlie war wliich he might undertake in Silesia was the only offensive war that could be favoured by the situation of his states, for it would be carried on upon his front- iers, and the Oder would always furnish him with a sure communication. . . . Add to these reasons, an army tit to marcli, a. treasury ready prepared, and, perhaps, the ambition of acquir- ing renown. Such were the cau.ses of the war wiiich the king declared against Maria Theresa of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia." — Frederick II. (Frederick tlie Great), Jlist. of My Own Timfx; I'onthutiunis Works {trans, by Ilol- croft), V. 1, ch. 1-2. A. D. 1740-1741.— The War of the Succes- sion : Faithlessness of the King of Prussia. — The Macaulay verdict. — "From no ((uarter did (he young ((Ueen of Hungary receive stronger as-: .i ranees of friendship and support than from the King of Prussia. Yet the King of Prussia, the ' Anti-Machiavel,' had already fully determined to commit the great crime of violating his plighted faith, of robbing the ally whom he was bound to defend, and of plunging all Europe into a long, bloody, and desolating war, and all this for no end whatever except that ho might extend his dominions and see his name in the gazettes. lie determined to assemble a great army with sjieed and secrecy, to invade Silesia before Maria Theresa should be apprized of his design, and to add that ricli province to his king<lom. . . . Without any declaration of war, without any demand for reparation, in the very act of ])ouring fori h com- pliments and assurances of good will, Frederic commenced hostilities. Many thousands of his troops were actually in Silesia before the Queen of Hungary knew that he had set up any claim to any part of lier territories. At length he sent her a message which could be regarded only as an insult. If she would but let hi'.i have Silesia, he would, he said, stand by lier against any power which should try to deprive her of her other dominions: as if he was not already bound to stand by her, or as if his new promise could be of more value than the old one. It was the depth of winter. The cold was severe, and the roads deep in mire. But the Prussians pressed on. Resistance was impossible. The Austrian army was then neither numerous nor elli- cient. Tlie small portion of that army which lay in Silesia was unprepared for hostilities. Glogau was blockaded ; Breslau opened its gates ; Ohlau was evacuated. A few scattered garri- sons still held out; but the whole open country was subjugated : no enemy ventured to encounter the king in the field ; and, before the end of .Jan- uary, 1741, he return ;d to receive the congratula- 213 AUSTRIA, 1740-1741. Conduct of Frederick the Ureal. AUSTRIA, 1741. tions of his sul)joct.s at Hcrlin. Had the Silcslan (|ucsti()n lit'cii iiicrt'ly a fiucstion hctwccii FrediTic and .Maria Theresa it would bo iiiipossiblf to aciiiiit iIk; I'ru.ssiaii Itiiig of f!frf)ss perfidy. IJiit when we consider tlie effeots whicli Ids policy produced, and could not fail to jiroduce, on the whole community of civilized nat; )ns, we are <(irnpelled to pronoimco a conilcmnation still more severe. . . . Tlic selfish rapacity of the king of Prussia gave the si/jiial to hi.s neigh- Iiours. . . . The evils produceil by this wicked- ness were felt in lands wliire the name of Prussia was unknown; and, in order that he might rob a neiirhbour whom ho had promised to defend, black men fought on the coa.st of Coroniandel, and red men scalped eacli other by the great lakes of North America. Silesia had been occu- pied without a battle; but the Austrian troops were advancing to the relief of the fortresses which still held out. In the spring Frederic re- joined his army. He had seen little of war, and had never commiindcd any great body of men in the field. . . . Frederic's first battle was fought at Molwitz [April 10, 1741], and never did Uw career of a great commander open in a more in- auspicious maimer. His army was victorious. Not only, however, did he not establish his title to the character of an able general, but ho was so unfortunate as to make it doulrtful whether he possessed the vulgar courage of a soldier. The cavalry, whicli he comnian<lcd in person, was put to flight. Uimccustomed to the tumult and carnage of a field of battle, he lost his self-pos- session, and listened too readily to those wlio urged him to save himself. His English gray carried him many miles from the field, while Schwerin, though wounded in two places, man- fully upheld tile day. The skill of tlie old Field-Marshal and the steadiness of the Prussian l)attalli)ns prevailed, and the Austrian army was driven from the field with the loss of M.OIM) men. The news was carried lato at night to a mill in which the king had taken shelter. It gave him a bitter pang. He was successful ; but he owed his success to dispositions which others had made, and to the valour of men who had fought while he was flying. So unpromising was the first appearance of the greatest warrior of that age." — liord .Macaulay, Frederic, the Great (A't- .*(//.«, )'. 4). A. D. 1741 (April— May).— The War of the Succession: French responsibility. — The Carlyle verdict. — "The battle of MoUwitz went off like a signal shot among the Nations; inti- mating tliat they were, one and all, to go battling. Whicli they cliii, with a witness; making a ter- rible tiling of it, over all the world, for above seven years to come. . . . Not that .Mollwitz kindled Europe; ►Europe was alreaily kindled for some two years past; — especially since the late Kaiser died, and his Pragmatic Sanction was superadded to the other troubles afoot. But ever since that image of Jenkins's Ear had at Inst blazed-up in the slow English brain, like a flerv constellation or Sign in the Heavens, sym- b' 'uC of such injustices and unendurabilities, and nad lighted the Spanish-English War (.see Eni;- I,.VNI): A. 1). 1739-1741], Europe was slowly but liretty surely taking fire. France 'coidd not see Spain humbled,' she said: England (in its own dim fooling, and also in the fact of things), could not do at .all without considerably humbling Spain. France, endlessly interested in that Spanish-English matter, was already sending out lleet.s, firing shots. — almost, or altogether, put- ling her hand in it. ' In which case, will not, must not, Au.strlahelp usT thouglit England, — and was asking, daily, at Vienna . . . when the- late Kai.ser died. . . . IJut if not as cause, then as signal, or as signal and cause together (which it properly was), the IJattle of Mollwitz gave the fiiiLsliing stroke and set all in motion. . . . For directly on the back of Mollwitz, thoro ensued, first, an explosion of Diplomatic activity, sucli as was never seen b<'fore ; E.tcellencies from the four winds taking wing towards Friedrich; and talking and insinualing, and fencing and fug- ling, after their sort, in that Silesian camp of his, the centre being there. A universal rookery of Diplomatists, .vhosc loud cackle is now as if gone mad to us; their work wholly fallen putres- cent and avoidable, dead to all creatures. And secondly, in the train of that, there ensued a universal i.,,.ropean War, the French and the English being chief parties in it; which abounds in battles and feats of arms, spirited but delir- ious, and cannot be got stilled for seven or elglit years to come ; and ill which Friedrich and his War swim only as an intermittent Episode hence- forth. . . . Tlio first point to be noted is. Where did it originate ? To which the answer mainly is . . . with Monseigneur, the Marechalde IJelle- isle principally; with the ambitious cupidities and baseless vanities of tlie French Court and Nation, as represented by IJelleisle. . . . The English-Spanish War bad a basis to stand on in this Universe. The like had the Prussian-Aus- trian one; so all men now admit. If Friedrich had not business there, what man ever had in an enterprise he ventured on? Friedrich, after such tri.il and i)roof as has seldom been, got his claims on Schlesien allowed by the Destinies. . . . Friedrich h.td business in this War; and Jlaria Thi^resa versus Friedrich had likewise cause to ajjpear in Court, and do her utmost pleading ag;iinst liiiii. Hut if we ask. What Belleisle or France and Louis XV. had to do there? the answer is rigorously Nothing. Their own windy vanities, ambitions, sanctioned nut liy f.ict and the Almiglity Powers, but by Phan- tasm and the babble of Versiilllcs; transcendent .self-conceit, intrinsically insane; pnHensionsover tlieir fellow-creatures which were without basis anywhere in Nature, except in the French liiaiu; it was this that brought nelleisle and France into a German War. And Helleislc and Fiance having gone into an Anti-Pragmatic War, the unlucky George and his Englnnd were dragged into a Pragmatic one, — (luilling their own liusi- ness, on the Spanish Main, and hurrying to tier- many, — in terror as at Doomsday, and zeal to save the Keystone of Nature there. That is the notiible point in regard to this War: 'I'lmt France is to bo called the author of it, who, alone of all the parties, lm<l no business there whatever."— T. Carlyle, Hint, of Fricdvkh II.. hk. 13, (•/(. 11 ()i. 4).— See, also, Fkanch; A. D. ITH;!. A. D. 1741 (May — June). — Mission of Belle- isle.— The thickening of tlie Plot. — " The defeat of Maria Theresa's onfy army [at Mollwitz] swept away all the doubts anil scruples of France. The fiery Belleisle had already set out upon his mission to the various Gfcrraan courts, armed with powers which were reluctantly granted by the cardinal [Fleury, the French minister j, and were promptly enlarged by the aiubassaaor to 214 AUSTRIA, 1741. Maria Therein in Hungary. AUSTRIA, 1741. suit Wa own more ambitions virws of tlie situa- tiou. He travelled in orientiil state. . . . The almost royal pomp with wliieli lie strode into the presence of prinres of tlie blood, the copious eloquence with which lie jtlcaded his cause, . . . were only the outward decorations of one of the most iiiiquitous schenies ever <levised by an un- scrupulous diplomacy. The scheme, when stripped of all its details, did not indeed at first appear absolutely revolting. It proposed simply to secure the election of Charles Albert of Bavaria as emperor, an honor to which he had a jierfect right 'D aspire. But it was dilllcult to obtain the votes of certain electors without offering tliem the prospect of territorial gains, and iinpos- sible for Charles Albert to support the imperial dignity without greater revenues than those of Bavaria. It was i>roposed, therefore, that pro- vinces should bo taken from JIaria Theresa her- self, lirst to purchase votes against lier own husband, and then to swell the income of the successful rival candidate. The three episcopal electors were tirst visited, and .subjected to vari- ous forms of persuasion, — bribes, (lattery, threats, — until the elTects of the treatment began to appear; the count iialatine wasdevoted to France : and these four with Bavaria made a majority of one. But that was too small a margin for Belle- isle's aspirations, or even for the safety of liis project. The four remaining votes belonged to the most powerful of the German states, Prussia, Hanover, Saxony and Bohemia. . . . IJohemia, if it voted at all, would of course vote for the grand-duke Francis [husband of jMaria Theresa]. Sa.\(my and Hanover were already negotiating with Maria Theresa; and it was well understood tliat Austria could have Frederick's support by paying his i>rice." Austria refused to pay the price, and Frederick signed a treaty with the king of France at Breslau on tlie -lib of .June, 1741. "The essence of it was contained in four secret articles. In these the king of Prussia re- nounced liis claim to JiUicb-Berg in behalf of the house of Sulzbach, and agreed to give his vote to t!ie elector of Bavaria for emperor. Tlie king of France engaged to guarantee Prussia in the possession of Lower .Silesia, to send within two nioiitlis an arm}' to the support of Bavaria, and to provoke an immediate ruiitiire between Swe- den and Russia." — II. Tuttle, Hist, of I'ruma, 1740-1745, <•/(. 4. Also i\: W. Coxe, Hist, of the House of Austria, ch. 'J'J (;•. li). A. D. 1741 (June— September).— Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — " During these anxious summer months Maria Tlieresa and the Anslriau court had resided mainly at Presliurg, in Hungary. Here she had been occuiiied in tlie solution of domestic as well as inleriialional proliliMns. The Magyars, as a manly and chivalrous race, had been touched by the perilous situation of tliu young queen; but, while ardently protesting tlieir loyalty, insisted not the less on the recognition of their own inalienable rights. Tliese had been inade(|Ualely observed In recent years, and in conse(iuence no little dis- alfectiou prevailed in Hungary. The magnates resolved, therefore, us they iiad resolv<'d at the beginning of previous reigns, to demand the restoration of all their riglits and ])rivileges. But it does not apjiear that they wislied to take any ungenerous advantage of the se.\ or the necessities of Maria Theresa. They were argu- iicntativc and stubborn, yet not in a bargaining, liiercennry spirit. Tliey accepted in .Tune a (pialitied compliance with tlieir (lemands, ;;:.d when on the 2.5tli of that month the queen ap|)eare(l liefore the diet lo receive the crown of St. Stephen, and, according to custom, waved the great sword of the kingdom toward the four ])oints of the conipa.'^s, toward the north and the south, the east and the west, challenging all enemies to dispute her right, the asst nbly was carried away by enthusiasm, and it seemed as it an end had forever been put to constitiition.al technicalities. Such was. liowever, not th(! case. After the excitement caused by the dramatic coronation had in a measure subsided, the old contentions revived, as bitter and vexatious as before. Tliese concerned especially the manner in which the administration of Hungary should be adjusted to meet the new state of things. Should the chief political otlices be filled by native Hungarians, as the diet demanded ? Could the co-regenev of the grand-duke, which was ardently desired by tlie (pu'en, be accepted by the Magyars"? For two months the dispute over these proljlems raged at Preslnirg, until finally Maria Theresa herself found a bold, ingenious, and patriotic solution. The ni'ws of the Franco- Bavarian alliance and the fall of Passau deter- mined her to throw lierself completely upon the gallantry and devotion of tlie JIagyars. It had long been the policy of the court of Vienna not to entrust tlie Hungarians with arms. . . . But Maria Theresa had not been robbed, in spite of her experience with France and I'rus.sia, of all her faith in human nature. She took the respon- sibility of her decision, and the result proved that her insight was correct. On the 11th of September she summoned the members of the diet Ijc^fore lier, and, seated ini I lie throne, explained to them tlie perilous situation of her dominions. Tlie danger, sin; said, threatened herself, andall that was deartoher. Abandcmed by all her allies, she took refuge in the fidelity and the ancient valor of tlie Hungarians, to whom slie entrusted he-self, her children, and her empire. Here she broke into tears, and covered her face with her l.iiidkercliief. The diet responded to this apjieal by proclaiming tlio ' insurrection ' or the rMiuipment of a large pop- ular I'cn'ce for the defence of the queen. So great was .the enthusiasin that it nearly swept away even the original avei-sion of the Hun- garians to the grand-duke Francis, who, to the (lueen's delight, was finally, though not witliout some murmurs, accepted as co-regent. . . . Tills uprising was organized not an hour too early, for >'.ingers were pressing upon tlie queen froiii everjT side." — H. Tuttle, '//('«<. of Prussia, 1740-1745, ch. 4. Also in : Due de Broglie, Frederick the Great and Maria Thcrcia, ch. 4 (c. 3). A. D. 1 74 1 (August — November). — The French-Bavarian onset, — " France now licgan to act with energy. In the month of August [1711] two French armies crossed the Rhine, each about 40, 000 strong. The lirst inarched into West- phalia, and frightened George 11. into conclud- ing a treaty of neutrality for Hanover, and jirom- ising his vote to the Klector of Bavaria. The second advanced through South Germany on Passau, the frontier city of Bavaria and Austria. As soon as it arrived on German soil, the French officers assumed the blue and white cockade of 215 AUSTRIA, 1741. Silesifi to h^-ederick. AUSTRIA, 1742. Bnvnrin, for it was tlie cue of Fmncc to nppfiir only us nil auxiliary, and the nominal romnianil of lirr army was vested in the Elector. From Passavi the French and liavarians passed into Upper Austria, and on Sept. 11 entered its eai>i- tal, I. in/., where the Elector assumed the title of Archduke. Five days later Sa.\ony joined the allies. Sweden had already declared war on Rus- sia. Spain trumped up an old claim nud at- tacked the Austrian domiiuonsin Italy. It seemed ns if Belli'isle's schemes were about to be crowneil with coniiilete success. Had the allies pushed forward, Vienna must have fallen into their hands. But the French did not wish to bo too victorious, lest they should make the Elector too jiowerful, and so indi'pendent of them. Therefore, after si.x weeks' delay, they turned aside to the con- quest of Bohemia." — F. W. Lon>;man, Frederick the (Jrciit niitl the Seven Years M'ar, eh. 4, sect. 4. — " While ... a portion of the French troops, under the command of the Count de Segur, was left in Upper Austria, the remainder of tlie allied army turned towards Bohemia ; where they were joined by a body of Sa.xons, under the couuuand of Count Rulowsky. They took Prague by as- sault, on the nijj;lit of the 2.5th of Novend)er, while the Grand l)ukc of Tuscauy, the husband of JIaria Theresa, was marching to his relief. lii Prague, 3,000 prisoners were taken. The elector of Bavaria hastened there, iiiion hearing of the success of ills arms, was crowned King of Bo- hemia, during the month of December, and re- ceived the oath of fidelity from the constituted authorities. But while he was thus employed, the Austrian general, Khevenlndler, had driven the Count de Segur out of A\islria, and had him- self entered Bavaria ; which obliged the Bavarian army to abandon Bohenda and hasten to the de- fence of their own countiv." — Lord Dover, Life of Frederick II., bk. 2, c/i.'H (r. 1). Also in; Frederick II., Hist, nf My Own Times {Post/niiuoiis M'orks, r. 1, c/i. ■')). A. D. 1741 (October).— Sect et Treaty ^w^th Frederick. — Lower Silesia conceded to him. — Austrian success. — "By October, 1741, the fortinies of JIaria Theresa had sunk to the low- est ebb, but a great revulsiim speedily set in. The martial enthusiasm of the Hungarians, the subsidy from England, and the brilliant military talents of General Khevenlndler, restored her armies. Vienna was put in a state of defence, and at the same time jealnusies and suspicion made their way among the confederates. The Electors of Bavaria and Saxony were already in some degree divided; and the Germans, and es- ])eciaily Frederick, were alarmed by the growing ascendency, and irritated by the haughty de- meanour of the French. In the moment of her extreme depression, the Queen consented to a concession which England had vaiidy urged upo3i her before, and which laid the fou.idation of her future success. In October 1741 she entered into a secret convention with Frederick [called the convention of Ober-Schnellendorf], !)■ which that astute sovereign agreed to desert li', ,llies, and desist from hostilities, on condition of ulti- mately obtaining Lower Silesia, with Brcslau and Neisse. Every precauti(ra was tiiken to ensure secrecy. It was arranged that Frederick should continue to besiege Neisse, that the town should ultimately be surrendered to him, and that his troops shouhl then retire into winter quarters, and take no '.urther part in the war. As the sacrifice of a few more lives was perfectly in- dillerent to the contracting parties, and in order that no one should suspect the treachery that was contemplated, Neisse, after the arrangement had been made for its surrender, was subjected for four days and four nights to the horrors of bombardment. Frederick, at the same time talked, with his usual cynical frankness, to the English ambassador about the best way of at- tacking his allies the French; and ob.served, that it tlie Queen of Hungary prospered, he would perhaps sujiport her, if not — everyone must look for himself. He only assented verbally to this convention, and, no doubt, resolved to await the course of events, in order to decide which Power it was his interest finally to betray ; but in the meantime the Austrians obtained a respite, which enabled them to throw their whole forces upon their other enemies. Two brilliant cam- jiaigna followed. The greater part of Bohemia was recoven d by an army under the Duke of Lorraine, and the Flench were hemmed in at I'rague; while another army, under General Khevenhuller, invaded Ujiper Austria, drove 10,000 French soldiers within the walls of IJnz, blockaded them, defeated a body of Bohemians who were sent to the rescue, compelled the whole French army to surrender, and then, cross- ing the frontier, poured in a resistless torrent over Bavaria. The fairest plains of that beauti- ful land were desolated by hosts of irregular troops from Hungary, Croatia, and the Tyrol; and (m the 12tli of February the Austrians inarched in triumph into Munich. On that very day the Elector of Bavaria was crowned Emperor of Germany, at Frankfort, under the title of Cliarh^s VII., and the inipenal crown was thus, for the fust time, for many generations, .separ- ated from the House of Au.stria. " — W. E. II. Lecky, ///-'. „/ h'mj., \8lh Codim/, ch. 3 (c. 1). Also in: F. 7on Itaumer, Ci'ittribiitioiis to Mmtcrn Iliat.: Fred'k II. and his Times, ch. 13-14. A. D. 1741-1743. — Successes in Italy. Sie It.\i.Y: a. D. 1741-17-13. A. D. 1742 (January — May). — Frederick breaks faith again. — Battle of Chotusitz.— "The Queen of Hungary had assembled in the licginning of the year two considerable armies in Moravia and Bohemia, the one under Prince Lobkowitz, to defend the former ])rovince, and the other commanded by Prince Charles of Lor- raine, her brother-in-law. This young Prince possessed ns much bravery ami activity as Frederick, and had equally with him the talent of inspiring attachment and confidence. . . . Frederick, alarmed at these preparations and the progress of the Auslriaus iu Bavaria, ..bruptly broke oil the convention of Ober Schnellendorf, and recommenced Iioslilitiea. . . . The King of Prussia became apprehensive that the Queen of Hungary would again turn her arms to recover Silesia. He therefore dispatched Marshal Schwerin to seize Olmutz and lay siege to Glntz, which surrendered after a desperate resistance on the 9th of January. Soon after this event, the King rejoinetl his army, and endeavoured to drive the Austrians from their advantageous position in the southern parts of Bohemia, which would have delivered the French troops in the neighbourhood and checked the progress of Khevenhuller in Bavaria. The king advonccd to Iglau, on the frontiers of Bohemia, and, oc- 216 AUSTRIA, 1742. Hattle of Chotu3itz. AUSTRIA, 1742. cupying the bnuks of the Taya, made irruptions into Ujipcr Austria, liis liussars sjjrcadiiij!; terror cvcu to tlio gates of Vietuia. Tlie Austrians drew from Uavaria a eorps of 10,000 men to cover tlie ea])ilal, wliile Prince Cliarles of Lor- rnine, at tlie liead of ,'50,000 men, tlireatened tlie Prussian magazine.s in Upper Silesia, an<l by this movement compelled Prederiek to detach a con- siderable force for their protection, and to evacuate Moravia, which he had invaded. Broglii', who commanded the French forces in that country, must now have fallen a sacritice, hud not the ever-active King of Prussia brought up 30,000 uien, which, under the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, entering Bohemia, came up witli Prince {.'harles at Czaslau, about thirty-live miles from Prague, before he could form a junction Willi Prince I.,obkowitz. Upon this ensued [May IT, 1742] what is known in history as the battle of Czaslau [also, and more commonly, called the hattle of Ciiotusitz]. . . . The numbers in tlie two armies were nearly eiiual, and the action was warmly contested on both sides. . . . The Prus.sians remained masters of the field, with 18 cannon, two pairs of colours and 1,200 prisoners; hut they indeed paid dearly for the honour, for it was computed that their loss was equal to that of their enemy, which amounted to 7,0t*(> men on either side; while the Prussian cavalry, under Field-^Marshal IJuddenbroch, was nearly ruined. . . . Although in this battle the victory was, without doubt, on the side of the Prussians, yet the immediate consequences were highly favour- able to the Queen of Hungary. The King was disappointed of his expected advantages, and conceived a disgust to the war. lie now lowered his demands and made overtures of accommoda- tion, which, on the 11th of June, resulted in a treaty of peace between the two crowns, which was signed at Breslau under the mediation of the British Ambas.sad<jr." — Sir E. Cust, Annals of the Wars of tlie ISth Century, v. 2, ;). 19. Also in : T. Carlyle, Hist, of Fricitrich II. of Prnma, hk. 13, ch. 13 (r. Tj). A. D. 1742 (June). — Treaty of Breslau with the King; of Prussia. — "The following are the lireliininary articles which were signed at Breslau: 1. The queen of Ilungarj' ceded to the king of Prussia Upper and Lower Silesia, with the principality of Qlatz; except the towns of Troppau, Jaegendorfl and tlio high mountains situated beyond the Oppa. 2. The Prussians undertook to repay the EnglLsh 1,700,000 crowns; which smn was a mortgage loan on Silesia. The remaining articles related to a suspension of arms, an exchange of prisoners, and the freedom of religion and trade. Thus was Silesia united to the Prussian States. Two years were suf- ficient for the conquest of that important jirov- Ince. The treasures which the late king had left were almost expended; but provinces that do not cost more than seven or eight millions are cheaply purchased."— Frederic II., Hist, of My Otni 'J'imcs {Posthumous Works, v. 1), ch. 6. A. D. 1742 (June — December). — Expulsion of the French from Bohemia. — Belleisle's re- treat from Prague. — " The Austrian arms began now to he successful in all qiuirters. Just before the signature of the preliminaries. Prince Lob- cowitz, who was stationed at Budweiss Avith 10,000 men, made an attack on Frauenberg ; Brog- lio and Belleisle advanced from Piseck to relieve the town, and a combat took place at Sahay, in whicli the Austrians were repulsed with the losi* of .'iOO men. This trilling alTair was magiiitied inio a decisive viclory. . . . .Marshal Broglio, elated with this advantage, and relying on the immediate junction of the King of Prussia, re- mained at Frauenberg in jicrfect security. But his expectations were disai)poiiited; Frederic had already commenced his secret negotiations, and Prin('(! Charles was enabled to turn his forces against the French. Beii.g joined by Prince Lob cowitz, they attacked Broglio, and compelled him to ((uit Frauenberg with such precipitation that his baggage fell intothe hands of the light troops, and the French retreated towards Branau, har- assed by the Croats and other irregulars. . . . The Austrians, pursuing their success against the French, drove Broglio from Branau, and fol- 1 lowed him to the walls of Prague, where he fouial I Belleisle Vfter several consultations, the two generals called in their posts, and secured i their army jiartly wilhiii the walls and partly I within a peninsiila of the Moldaii. . . . Soon j afterwards the duke of Lorraine joinetl the army i [of I'riiu'e Charles], which now amoiinled to70,- ' 000 men, and the arrival of the heavy artillery I enabled the Austrians to commence the siege." — j W. Coxe, Hist, of the House if Austria, ch. 102 (». 3). — "To relievo the French at Prague, Mar- shal Maillebois was directed to advance with his army from Westphalia. At these tidings Prince Charles changed the siege of Prague to a block- ade, and marching against his new opponents, checked their jirogress on the Bohemian frontier; the French, however, still occupying the town of Egra. It was under these circumstances that Belleisle made Ills masterly and lenowned retreat from Prague. In the night of the lOtli of Di'cem- ber, he secretly left the city at the head of 11,000 foot and 3,000 horse, having deceived the Aus- triars' vigilance by the feint of a general forage in the opposite quarter; and pushed for Egra through a liostile country, destitute of resources and surrounded by superior enemies. His sol- diers, with no other food than frozen bread, and compelled to sleep without covering on the snow and ice, perished in great numbers ; but the gallant si)irit of Belleisle triumphed over every obstacle; he struck through morasses almost untrodden before, olTered battle to Prince Lobko- witz, who, however, declined engaging, and at length succeeded in reaching the other French army with the Hower of his own. The remnant left at Prague, amlan.iuinting only to 6,000 men, seemed an easy prey; yet their threat of tiring the city, and perishing beneath its ruins, and the recent proof of wliat despair can do, obtained for them honourable terms, and the permi.ssion of rejoining their comrades at Egra. But in spite of all this skill and courage in the French invaders, the final result to them was failure; nor had they attained a single permanent advan- tage beyond tlK.'ir own safety in retreat. Maille- bois anil I)e I>rogli(^ took up winter quarters in Bavaria, while IJelleisle led back his division across the Hhinc ; and it was computed that, of the 35,000 men whom he hadlirst conducted inti Germany, not more than 8,000 returned beneati hislianner." — Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of Enij., 1713-1783, ch. 24 (e. 3).— " Thus, at the termination of the campaign, all Bohemia was regained, except Egra; and on the 12th of .May. 1743, Maria Theresa was soon afterwards crowned at Prague, to the recovery of which, says her 217 AUSTRIA, 1742. Bnllte of Dctiinyen. AUSTRIA, 1743-1744. grcftt Hviil, lipr firmness Imd more oontrihMtod tliiiii llic force of her iirms. The only reverse wliieli the A\i.striiins experieneed in tlic nildsl of their sueeesses wiis tlio teniponiry lo.ss of Ilii- vnriii, wliicli, on the retreat of Kevenliidler, was occupied by niarslial Seckt'ndorf; and the Ktn- peror made his entry inti> .Miinicli on tlie 2d of October. " — W. Coxo, Hint. ofthellouteofAvatria, ch. im 0: 3). A. D. 1743. — England drawn into the con- flict. — The Pragmatic Army.— The Battle of Dettingen. — " 'liie causiM)!' .Maria 'riieicsa had bejiiin to excite a retnarkalilc enthusiasm in Enirland. . . . Tlie couveiitiou of neutrality :'n- tered into by Cii'oru;o II. in September 1741, 1 nd the e.Mortioii of liis vote for the Elector 01 '.{a- viiria, i)roperly concerned that prince oidy as Elector of Ilanover; yet, as ho was also King of Enirlaiid, they were felt us a distjrare by the English iicoplo. The elections of that year went against WalpoU , and in February 1742 he found himself compe'.lei'. to resign, lie was succeeded ill the administration by Pulteney, Earl of Bath, though Lord Carteret was virtually prime min- ister. Carteret was an ardent supporter of the cause of Maria Theresa. His accession to office was immediately followed t)y a large increase of the army and navy; live millions were voted for carrying on the war. and a subsidy of £.'>00,()0() for the t^ueen of Hungary. The Earl of Stair, with an army of Kt.OOO men, afterwards reinforced by a large Ixxly of Hanoverians and Hessians in British pay, was despatched into tlio Xetherlunds to cooperate with tlie Dutch. IJut though the 8tates(Jeneral, at the instance of the liritish Cabinet, voted Maria Theresa a subsidy, they ■were not yet jirepared to tak(^ an active part in a war which might ultimately involve them in hostilities with France. The exertions of the English ministry in favour of the Queen of Hun- gary Imd therefore been conlined during the year 1743 to diplomacy, and they had helped to bring about . . . the Peace of IJfeslau. In 1743 they were able to do more." In April, 1743, the Em- peror, Charles VII., regained possession of Ba- varia and returned to Munich, but only to be driven out again by the Austrians in June. The Bavarians were badly beaten at Simpach {.May 9), and Jlunicli was taken (June 12) after a short bombardment. "Charles VII. was now again obliged to fly, and took refuge at Augsburg. At his cominand, Scckendorf [his general] made a convention with the Austrians at the village of NiederschOnfeld, by whicli ho agreed to abandon to them Bavaria, on condition that Charles's troops should bo allowed to occupy unmolested quarters between Frauconia and Suabia. JIaria Theresa seemed at first indisposed to ratify even terms so humiliating to the Emperor. She had become perliaps a little too niuch exalted \i the rapid turn of fortune. She had caused herself to be crowned in Prague. Slie had received the homage of the Austrians. and entered Vienna in a sort of triumpli. She now dreamt of nothing less than contjuering Lorraine for herself, Alsace for the Empire; of hurling Charles VII. from the Imperial throne, and placing on it her own consort. " She was persuaded, however, to con- sent at length to the terms of the NiederscliOnfeld convention. "Meanwhile the allied army of English and Germans, under the Earl of Stair, nearly 40,000 strong, which, from its destined object, hud assumed the name of the ' Pragmatic Army,' had oros.spd the Meiise and the Rhine in March and April, with a view to cut off the army of Bavaria fnmi France. George II. had not concealed his intention of breaking the Treaty of ilanover of 1741, alleging as a ground that the duration of the lu^itrality .stipulated in it had not been deterinin<'il; and on June lOtli he had joined tlie army in perscm. lie found it in li most critical jiosition. Lord Stair, who had never distinguislied him.self as a general, and was now falling into dotage, had led it into a narrow valley near Aschatleuburg, between .Mount Spessart and the river Main ; wldle Marshal Noailles [commanding the Frencli], who had crossed the Rhine towards the end of April, by seizing the principal fords of the Main, both above and below the British position, Imd cut him ott both from his magazines at Hanau, and from the supplies whicli lie had expected to procure in Franconia. Xothing remained but for him to fight his way back to Hanau." In the battle of Dottingen, which followed (June 27), all the advantages of the French in position were thrown away by the ignorant imiietuosity of the king's nephew, the Duke of Grammont, who comm;;iid"d one division, and thev sufTerecl a severe defeat. "The French are said to have lost 6,000 men and the British half that number. It is the last action in which a king of England has fought in pers(m. But George II., or rather Lord Stair, <lid not know how to profit by liis victory. Although the Pragmatic Army was joined after the battle of Dottingen by 15,000 Dutch troops, under Prince Maurice of Nassau, nothing of importance was done during the re- mainder of tlie campaign." — T. 11. Dyer, Hist, of Modern, Eurojic, bk. 0, ch. 4 (r. 3). Also in: W. Coxe, IIM. of the House of Aus- tria, ch. 104 (i\ 3). — Sir E. Cust, Annals of the Wars of the IHth Century, v. 3, ;);;. 30-30.— Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of Eng., 1713-1783, ch. 3.5 (p. 3). A. D. 1743. — Treaty of Worms with Sar- dinia and England. See Italy: A. D. 1743. A. D. 1743 (October).— The Second Bourbon Family Compact, -- ■ - See FuAKCE: A. D. 1743 Prussian King 1743-1744. — The again. — The Union of Frankfort (OCTOllEU) A. D strikes in again Siege and capture of Prague. — "Everywliore Austria was successful, and Frederick had reason to fear for himself unless the tide of contjucst could be stayed. He explains in the ' Histoire de Mon Temps' that he feared lest France sliould abandon the cause of the Emperor, which would moan that the Austrians, who now boldly spoke of compensation for the war, would turn their arms against liimself. . . . France was trem- bling, not for her conquests, but for her own ter- ritory. After the battle of Dettingen, the victorious Anglo-IIanoverian force was to cross the Rhine above Mayence and march into Alsace, while Prince Charles of Lorraine, with a strong Austrian army, was to pass near Basle and occupy Lorraine, taking up his winter quar- ters in Burgundy and Champagne. The English crossed without any check and moved on to Worms, but the Austrians failed in their at- tempt. Worms became a centre of intrigue, which Frederick afterwards culled ' Cette abyme de mauvaise foi. ' The Dutch were persuaded by Lord Carteret to join the English, and they did at last send 14,000 meu, who were never of 18 AUSTRIA, 1743-1744. Couture of Prague. AUSTRIA, 1744-1745. the Icftst iiBC. Lonl C'lirtcrcrt also (Icti.fhcd CliarU's Eninnuol, Kinj; of Siirdiniiv, from his Fri'iich li'iuiings, and per.suach'd him to (uitcr into tlio Austro-Enjilisli allianie [by the treaty of Worms, Sept. lit, 1743, wincli "conceded to tlic Kinj; of Sardinia Finale, the cily of Flaceii- tia, with some other small districl.s and gave him command of the allied forces in Italy], It was clear that action could not be long post- poned, and Frederick began to recognize the necessity of a new war. Ilis lirst an.xiety was to guard himself against interference from his northern and ca.stern neighbours. He secured, ns he ho])e<l, the neutrality of Russia by mar- rying the young princess of Anhalt-Zorbst, afterwards the notorious Empres.s Catherine, with the Grand-Duke Peter of Ru,ssia, nephew and heir to the reigning Empress Elizabeth. . . . Thus sirengthened, as be hoped, in bis rear and (lank, and having made the conmiencement of a German league called the Union of Frank- furt, by which IIes.se and the Palatinate agreed to join Frederick and the Kaiser, Ik; concluded on the i)th of .June, 1744, a treaty which brought France also into this alliance. It was secretly agreed that Frerlciick was to invade Boliemia, coiiiiuer it for the Kaiser, and have the districts of K()niggril*7., IJunzlau, and Leitmeritz to repay him for bis trouble and' costs; while France, which was all tlii.s time at war with Austria and England, should send an army against Prince Charles and the English. , . . The tirst stroke of the coming war was delivered by France. Louis XV. sent a large army into the Netherlands under two good leaders, Noailles and Maurice de Sa.xe. Urged by his mistress, the Ducliessc de Chiiteau- roux, he joined it himself early, and took the nominal command early in June. . . . The towns [Menin, Ypres, Fort Knoque, Funics] rapidly fell before him, and Marshal W'ade, with the Anglo-Dutcli-lIanoverian army, sat still and looked at the success of the French. Hut on the night of the 3t)tli June — 1st Jul^', Prince Charles crossed the Rhine by an operation which is worth the study of military students, and invaded Alsace, the French army of observation falling back before him. Louis XV. hurried back to interpose between the Austrians and Paris. . . . Maurice de Baxe was left in the Netherlands with 45,000 men. Thus the French army was paralysed, and tlie Austrian array in its turn was actually invading France. At this time Frederick struck in. He sent word to the King that, though all the terms of their arrange- mLUt had not yet been fulfilled, he would at once invade Bohemia, and deliver a stroke against Prague which would certainly cause the retreat of Prince Charles with his 70,000 men. If the French army would follow Prince Charles in his retreat, Frederick would attack him, ancl between France and- Prussia tlie Austrian army would certainly be crushed, and Vienna be at their mercy. This was no doubt an excellent plan of campaign, but, like the previous opera- tions concerted with Proglio, it depended for success upon the good faith of the French, and this turned out to be a broken reed. On the 7th of August the Prussian ambassador al Vienna gave notice of the Union of Frankfurt and with- drew from the court of Austria; and on the loth the Prussian army was put in march upon Prague [opening what is called tlie Second Silesian VVar]. Frederick's forces moved in 16 three columns, the total strength being over 80,000. . . . Maria 'I'beresa was now again in great danger, but as usual retained her high courage, and once more called forth the enthu- siasm of her Hungarian subjects, who sent swarms of wild troops, horse and fool, to tho seat of war. . . . On the 1st of Septemli^r tho thre<! columns met before Prague, whidi had better defences than in the last campaign, and a garrison of some 1(1, (Hto men. . . . During iho night of the itlh the bombardinent commenced , . . and on the Kith the garrison surrendered. Thus, one month after the commencement of the inarch Prague was captured, and tlie campaign opened with a brilliant feat of arms." — Col, ('. B. Brackenbury. Fntlcrick- the (hint. fh. 7. Also IN: W. Riis.sell, //int. DjModrni JC)i rope, pt. 2, Mtir 28. — F. Von Raumer, ('i/ittrihutions to MiHlern Hint. : Fralk. II. and his Times, ch. 17-10. A. D. 1744-1745. — Frederick's retreat and fresh triumph.— Austria recovers the imperial crown. — Saxony subdued. —The Peace of Dresden. — After the reduction of I'rague. Frederick, "in deference to the opinion of Marshal Belleirile, but against his own judgment, advanced into the south of Bohemia with the view of threatening Vienna. He thiisexiiosei' himself to the risk of being cut oil from Prague. Yet even so he would probably have been able to main- tain himself if the i'rench had fullilled their engagements. But while he was con((uering the districts of the Ui)per Moldau, the Austrian army returned unimpaired from Alsace. The French had allowed it tn cross the Rhine unmo- lested, and had not niad'j the slightest attempt to harass its retreat |but applied themselves to the siege and capture of Freiburg]. They were only too glad to get rid of it themselves. In the ensuing operations Frederick was completely outmanoeuvred. Traun [the Austrian geuer'lj, witlDUt risking a battle, forced him back towards the Silesian frontier. He had to choose between abandoning Prague and abandoning his com- munications with Silesia, and as the Saxons bad cut oft his retreat through the Electorate, there was really no choice in the matter. So he fell hack on Silesia, abandoning Prague and his iieavy artillery. The retreat was attended with considerable loss. Frederick was much struck with the skill displayed by Traun, and says, in his 'llistoire de mou Temps,' that he regarded this campaign as his school in the art of war and M. de. Traun as his teacher. The campaign may have been an excellent lesson in the art of war, but in other respects it was very disastrous to Frederick. lie had drawn upon himself the whole power of Austria, and had learnt how little the French were to be depended upon. His prestige was dimmed by failure, and even in his own army doubts were entertained of his capa- city. But, bad as his i)osition already was, it became far worse when the unliai)py Emperor died [Jan. 20, 174.)], worn out with disease and calamity. Tliis event put an end to the Union of Frankfort. Frederick could no longer claim to be acting in defence of his oppressed sovereij;n ; the ground was cut from uiuler his feet, jsor was there any longer much hope of preventing the Imp-irial" Crown from reverting to Austria. The new Elector of Bavaria was a 1 lere boy. In this altered state of affairs lie sovght to make peace. But Maria Theresa would not let him 219 AUSTRIA, 17'W-174r). Ilnngp of Htlpn- tiuvij'Lurraine. AUSTIUA, 1755-1703, off sornsily. In order tlmt slir iiiij;lit tisc nil licr forces iiKiimst liiiii, she Kraiile(l pence to Biiviiria, and )fave buck to the young elector his hercdi- turv dnniiiiioiis. on eoniiition of his resif;ning all tljiini to liers and promising to vote for lier Tins- iMiiid as Kinperor. While Frederick thus lost ii friend in IJavaria, Siixony threw lierself com pli'lely into t lie arms of his enemy, and united with Austria in a treaty [May 1H| which hail for its <il)jeet, not the recon(|Uest of Hilesiii merely, but the partition of Prussia aiul the reduction of l\\v kini; to his aii<ient limits as JlnrL'rave of Branilenliurg. Sa.xony was then much larger than it is now, hut it was not oidy the luimlier of troops it coidd send int. the tleld that made its hostility dangerous. Jt was partly the geo- gra]>hical po.sition of the country, which maile it an excellent base for operations against I'russia, but .still more the alliance that was known to subsist iN'twecn the Elector (King Augustus III. of Poland) and the Kussiir.i Court. It was prob- nlilc that a Prussian inv.ision of Sa.\ony would be followed by a Hu.ssian invasion of Prussia. Towards the end of May, the Austrian and Sa.xon army, 75,1)00 strong, cros.sed the (iiant Mountains and descended iiixin Silesia, Tin; Aiistrians were again commanded by Prince Charles, but the wise liead of Traun was no longer there to guide him. . . . The encoimter took place nt Hohenfriedberg [June 5J, and resulted in a comjilete victory for Prussia. The Austrians and Saxons lost 9,000 killed and woiunled, and 7,000 iirisoners, besides 0(! cannons and 7;! flags and standards. Four days after the battle they were back again in Holiemia. Frederick followed, not with the intention of attacking them again, but in order to eat the country l)are, so tlmt it might alTord no sust<'n- anee to the enemy during the winter. For his own part lie was really anxious for peace. His resources we'O all but exhausted, while Austria ■\vaS| fed by a constant stream of Kuglish sub- sidies. As in tlic former war, England interposed with her good offices, hut without elTect; Maria Theresa was by no means disheartened by her defeat, and refiised to liear of peace till she had tried the chances of battle once more. On Sept. 13 her Inisband was elected Eini)eror by seven votes out of nine, the dissentients l)eing tiie King of Prussia and the Elector Palatine. This event raised the spirits of the Empress-Queen, as Maria Tlieresa was lienceforward called, and opened a wider field for her ambition. She sent peremptory orders to Prince Cliarles to attack Frederick before lie retired from Boliemia. A battle was accordingly fought at Solir [Sept. 30], and again victory rested witli the Prussians. Tlic season was now far advanced, and Frederick returned home expecting that there would be no more fighting till after the winter. Such liowever, was far from lieiiig the intention of liis enemies." A plan for the invasion of Brandenburg by three Austrian and Saxon armies, simultaneously, was secretly concerted; Imt Frederick iiad timely wamiiii,' of it and it was frustrated l)y his BCtiviiy nml energy. On tlie 23d of November h') surprised and defeated Prince Charles at Ilenncrsdorf. "Some tlirc; weeks afterwards [Dec. 15] tlie Prince of De.«.snu defeated a second Saxon and Austrian army at Kesselsdorf, a few miles from Dresden. Thii victory completed the subjugation of Saxony and put an end to tlie war. Three days after Kesselsdorf, Frederick entered Dresden, and asfonislied every one by the graciousness of his l)ehaviour and by tlie modenition of his terms, Fn.ni Saxony he exacted no cession of territory, l)ut merely aeon- trihutirm of 1,000,()(H) thalers" (£150,000) towards the expenses of the war. From Austria ho deinanded a guarantee of the treaty of Hreslau, in return for which he agreed to recognize (■'iiuiiis as Emperor. Peace was signed [at Dresden] on Christmas Day." — F. W. liOngman, Fnderick the Urtiit ttml the Seven Yuirs War, c/i. '). Ai.hoin: T. Carlvie, IlUt.of Fredenck IL, M: 15, <•//. 3-15 (r. 4).— liord Dover, Life of Fredtrick ir.hk. 3, rh. 3-5 (r. 1), A. D. 1745. — Overwhelming disasters in Italy. Sii- Ir.M.v: A, I), 1T4."., A. D. 1745 (Mav). — Reverses in the Nether- lands.— Battle of Fontenoy. See \i:tiii;ii. i..\Nl)s: A. I). 1745. A. D. 174s (September— October).— The Consort of Maria Theresa elected and crowned Emperor. — Rise of the new House of Haps- burg-Lorraine.— Francis of Lorrain(s Cirand Diikeof 'I'uscaiiy and husl>and of Maria Theresa, was elected Emperor, at Frankfort, Sept. 13, 1745, and crowned Oct. 1, wdtli the title of Fran- cis I. "Thus the Empire; returned to the New House of Austria, tlmt of Hapslmrg-Lorraine, and France had missed the principal object for which she had gone to war." By the treaties signed at Dresden, Dec. 25, between Prussia, Austria and Saxony, Frederick, as Elector of Brandenburg, assented to and recognized the election of Francis, against which he and the Elector Palatine liad previously protested. — T. II. Dyer, Hint, of Mo<lern Europe, lik. 0, c/i. 4 (r. 3). A. D. 1746-1747. — Further French con- quests in the Netlierlands. — Lombardy recov- ered. — Genoa won and lost. See Netiiku- lands: a. D. 1740-1747; and It.\ly: A. I). 1740-1747. A. D. 1748 (October). — Termination and re- sults of the War of the Succession. See Aix- L.\-Cll.\I'EI.I.K, Till-; CONOIIKSS OF. A. D. 1755-1763.— The Seven Years War.— Since the conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great of Prussia, "lie had cast off all reserve. In his extraordinary Court at Potsdam this man of wit and war laughed at God, and at his brother philosophers and sovereigns; he ill- treated Voltaire, the chief organ of the new opinions; lie wounded kings and queens with his epigrams; he believed neither in the beauty of Madam de Pompadour nor in the poetical genius of thq Abbe Bernis, Prime Minister of France. The Empress tliought the moineut favourable for the recovery of Silesia; she stirred up Europe, especially the queens; she persuaded the Queen of Poland and the Empress of Russiii ; she paid court to the mistress of Louis XV. The monstrous alliance of Franco with tlie ancient state of Austria against a sov- ereign who maintained the equilibrium of Oer- niauy united all Europe against him. England alone supported him and gave him subsidies. She was governed at tliat time by a gouty law- yer, the famous William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, who raised liimself by his eloquence and by his hatred of the French. England wanted two things; the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe, and the destruction 220 AUSTRIA, ITM-ITO:!. Seven Yeurt H'cir. Ar.STUIA, 1700-1707. of the French nnd Spanish colonics. Iler pricfs were seriouH; tlio Spiiiiiiinls Imd lll-trcotcil licr smujjgliTs and tlic Frencli wanted to prevent her from settling on tlieir territory in Cai\ndn. In India, J.a Hourdonnaie and his 8ue<-essor Duplel.'c threatened to found a great empire in the face of tlie Englisli. As a declanition of war tlic Englisli eonllscntcd 300 French ships (nnO). Tlie marvel of the war was to see tlds little Itingdom of Prussia, interposal between tlie liuge powers of Austria, France, and Russia, run from one to the otlier, and defj' tliem all. Tills was the second period of the art of war. The unskillful adversaries of Frederick thought that he owed all ids success to the precision of the inan(ruvres of the Prussijin soldiers, to their excellent drill and rapid tiring. Frederick had certainlv carried tiio soldier machine to perfec- tion. This was callable of imitation; the C'/.ar Peter III. and the Count of St. Germain created militaiy automatons by means of the lash. Hut they could not imitate the (piickness of his niaiueuvres; the happy arrangement of his iimivhes, which gave him great facility for moving and concentrating large masses, and directing tliem on tlie weak points of theeneinv. In this terrible cha.se given by the large unwieldy armies of the allies to the agile Prussians, one cannot help noticing the amusing ciicumspec- tion of the Austrian tacticians and the stupid folly of the fine gentlemen who led the armies r)f Fiance. The Fabius of Austria, tlie sage and heavy Daun, was satisfied with a war of posi- tions; he could not find encampments strong enough or mountains suHlciently inaccessible; his stationary troops were always beaten by Fred- erick. To begjn witli, he freed liinis"lf from the enmity of Saxony, lie did not hurt, he only disarmed her. lie struck his next blow in Uoliemia. Repul.sed by the Austrians, and aliandoned by the Knglish army, wliicli deter- mined at Kioster-seven to fight lio more, threat- ened by the Russians, who were victorious at Joegerndorf, he passe<l into Saxony and found tlie French nnd Imperialists combined there. Prussia was surrounded by four armies. Fred- erick fancied himself lost and determined on suicide. He wrote to his sister and to d'Argens announcing his intention. There was only one tiling which frightened him: it was, that wlien once he was dead the great distributor of glory — Voltaire — might make free with his name: ho wrote an epistle to disarm him. . . . Having written this epistle ho defeated the enemy at Ro.sbach. The Prince of Souhise, who tliought that he fled, set off rashly in pursuit; then the Prussians unmasked their batteries, killed 3,000 men, and took 7,000 prisonei's. In tlio French camp were found an army of cooks, actors, hair- dressers; n number of "parrots, parasols, and huge cases of lavender-water, ikc. (1707). None but a tactician could follow tlie King of Prussia i»i this series of brilliant and skillful battles. The Seven Years' War, however varied its inci- dents, was a political and strategic;il war: it has not the interest of the wars for ideas, the struggles for religion and for freedom of the Kith century and of our own time. Tlie defeat of Hosbach was followed by another at Crevelt, nnd by great reverses balanced by small advan- ta.!?es; the total ruin of the French navy and colonies; the Englisli masters of the ocean and conquerors of India ; the exhaustion and huinili- )f old Europe in the presence of younff I. This is till! history of the Seven Vi'ars ation of Pru8.sia. War. It was terminated under the ministry of the Duke of Choiseul," by the Peace of Iluberts- iirg and the Peace of" Paris. — J. Miche'et, A SumiiKiri/ iif .ViKlifit Ifistiiry, pp. 3(MJ-302. — See aKiiMANV; A. I>. 17r(5-1758, to 1703; and, also, Sevkn Yk.\hs' W.vii. A. D. 1772-1773.— The First Partition of Poland. Set; Poi.ANl): A. I). 17«;!-177;!. A. D. 1777-1779. — The question of the Bava- rian Succession. See l!.\v.\iti.^: A. |). 1777- 1770, A. D. 1782-1811.— Abolition of Serfdom. See Si..vvK.nv, Mkdi.kv.m.: Gkhm.vnv. A. D. 1787-1791.— War with the Turks.— Treaty of Sistova.— Slight Acquisitions of Territory. See Tiiiks: A. D. 177(l-17!r.'. A. D. 1790-1797.— Death of Joseph II. and Leopold II.— Accession of Francis II.— The Coalition against and war with revolutionary France, to the Peace of Campo Formio.— " It is a mistake to imagine that the Kuropeau Powers attackrd the Revolution in France. It was the Revolution which attacked them. The diplomatists of tlie lt<tli century viewed at first witli cynical indiireieiice the meeting of the States - General at Versailles. . . . The two points which occupied the attention of Europe in 1780 were the condition of Poiand and the troubles in the East. The ambitious designs of Catherine and the assistance lent to them by .Joseph threatened the existence of the Turkish Empire, irritated the Prussian Court, and awak- ened English aiiprehensions, always sensitive about the safety of .Stamboul. Poland, the battle-field of cynical diplomacy, torn by long dissen.sions and ruined by a miseiabh^ constitu- tion, was vainly endeavouring, under the jealous eyes of her great neighbours, to avert tlie doom impending, and to reassert her ancient claim to a place among the nations of the world. But Russia had long since determined that Poland must be a vassal State to her or cca.se to be 11 State at all, while Prussia, driven to face a hard necessitv, realisi'd that a strong Poland and a strong f'russia could not exist together, and that if Poland ever rose again to power, Prussia must bid good-bye to unity an(l greatness. These two (luestions to the States involved seemed to be of far more moment than any ])olitical reform in France, and engrossed the diplomatists of Europe until the summerof 1701. In February, 1700, a new infiuence was introduced into European politics by the death of tlie Einiieror .loseph and the accession of his brother, Leopold II. Leopold was a man of remarkable ability, no entliusia.st and no dreamer, thoroughly versed in the sellish traditions of Austrian policy aifd in some of the subtleties of Italian statecraft, dis- cerning, temperate, resolute and clear-headed, quietly determined to have his own way, and gencnilly skilful enough to secure it. Leopold found his new dominions in a state of the utmost C(mfusion, witli wiirand rebellion threaten- ing him on every side, lie speedily set about restoring order. He repealed the unpopular de- crees of Joseph. He conciliatcfl or repressed his discontented subjects. He gradually re-estab- lished the authority of the Crown. . . . Accord- ingly, the first eighteen months of Leopold's reign were occupied with his own immediate interests, and at the end of that time his success 221 AUSTRIA, 1700-1707, W'-rt wilh Kntituliimary /•Vance. AUSTRIA, 170ft-lH06. ■wftR miirkod. ('iithcrinc's vast srlicmrs In Tur- ki'y liiiil Ix'i'ti clicckccl. War Imil bcrii averted. I'i)lati(l had lieeii streiiKtlK'iied by internal cImnKes. I'riiHKia had been coneillated and oiit- mana'uvred, and her inlliieneo had been impaired. At laKt, at tile end of Aajfust, 1701, the Kniperor was free to face the Freiieh problem, and he Het out for the CaNtle of I'illnitz to meet the KiiiK of I'rn.ssia atid the Kmi),'rnnt leaders at the Sji.\on Elector's Court. For some time past the restless- ness of the freneh EmiKnints had been eaiisiiiK grent perple.xity i[i Knrope. Heeeived with open arms by tlu^ eeelesiastieal princes of the Hhine, by tli(" Klectors of .Mayencc and Trc^'ves, they proceeded to ai^itate busily for their own restora- tion. . . . TIk' object of the Emigrants was to brinj,' pressure to liear at the Eurojiean Courts, with tile view of inducing the Powers to inter- vene actively in their behidf. . . . After Ids eacaix! from France, in ,Iune, 1790, tlu^ Comte do Provence establislie<l his Court at Cobleut.", where he was joined l)y his brother the Come d'Artois, and where, on the plea that l/Otiis was a prisoner, lie claimed the title of Hegeiit, and u.ssume<l I hi! authority of King. The Court of the two Fi<'ni'h iniiices at Coblent/, represented faithfully the faults and follies of liie F.mignint parly. IJiil a more satisfactory spectacle was oHered by the camp at Worms, where Condij was bravely trying to organi.se an army to flglit against the Hevclu.icm in France. To Comic's standard Hocked the more patriotic Kniigrants. . . . Hut the (ierman Princes in tlie neighbour- IkxhI looked witli disfavour on the Kniigrant army. It caused confusion in their dominions, and it drew down on them the hostility of the Frencli Government. Tlie Empenir joined them in protesting against it. In February, 171)3, Conde's army was compelled to abandon its camp at Worms, and to retire further into Germany. The Kmper.ir was well aware of tlie reciiless BcltLslinessof the Kmignint princes. He had as little sympathy with them as his sister. He did not inteiul to listen to their demands. If he in- terfered in France at all, it would only be in a cautious and tentative manner, and in order to save Marie Antoinette and her husband. Cer- tainly he would not undertake a war for the restor- ation of the Ancien Itegime. . . . Accordingly, the interviews at Pillnitz came to notliing. . . . Early in .March, 1703, Leopold suddenly died. His heir Francis, unieslrained by his father's tact and moderation, assumed a dilTerent tone and showed less patience. The chances of any eiTectivc pres- sure from tlie Powers declined, as the ])rospect of war rose on the horizon. Francis' language was sulliciently sharp to give tlie As.sembly the pretext which it longed for, and on the" 20th Apill, Louis, amid general enthusiasm, came down to the Assembly and declared war against Austria. The ellects of that momentous .step no comment can exaggerate. It ruined llie best hopes of the Hevolution, and prepared the way for a miiitniy despotism in the future." — C. E. >Iallet, T/ie French liemliition, ch. 7. — See Fiianck: a. I). 1790-1791: 1791 (.Ii:i.v— Decem- uiiU); 1791-1793; 1793 (Aruii. — .h:i,v), and (SEPTE.MnEii — DECEMHEn); 1793-1793 (Decem- BEU — FEUiiu.\itV); 1793 (Febhuaiiy — Ariiii.), and (Jri.Y— I)i-;cEMUEu)-. 1794 (JI.\iicir— July); 1794-1795 (OcTOHEU— May) ; 1795 (June— I)e- CEMUEit); 1790 (Ai'uii, — Octobek); and 1796- 1707 (Octobek— Atuil). A. D. 1794-1796.— The Third partition of Poland.— Austrian share of the spoils. See Poland: A. D. 179:1-179(1. A. D. 1707 (October).— Treaty of Campo- Formto with France.— Cessio.n of the Nether- lands and Lombard provinces. — Acquisition of Venice and Venetian territories. Seo FiiANci:: A. I). 1797 (.May— OcronDH). A. D. 1798-1806.— Congress of Rastadt,— Second Coalition aeainst France.— Peace of Luneville.— Third Coalition.— Ulm and Aus- terlitz. — Peace of Presburg.— Extinction of the Holy Roman Empire. — Birth of the Empire of Austria. — " When Honaparte. sailed for Egypt he lia.l left a congress at Hastadt discussing means fia- the execution of certain articles in tho treaty of Campo Formio which were to establish ])cace between France and the Empire . . . Tliough openly undertaking to invite the Ger- mans to a congress in order to settle a general peac<' on the basis of tin; integrity of the Empire, tlie Enipen)r agreed in secret articles to use Ids inlltience to procure for the Republic the left bank of the Rhine with the exception of the Prus.sian provinces, to join with France in obtain- ing compi'nsation in Germanv for tlio.se injured by this change, anil to contribute no more than his necessary contingent if the war were jiro- longed. The ratilication of these secret pro- visions had been extorted from the Congress by threats before Honaparte had left; but the (pies- tion of indemnitlcation had progressed no farther than a decision to seculari.se the ecclesiastical states for the purpo.se, when extravagant de- mnnds from the French deputies brought nego- tiation to a deadlock. Meanwhile, another coali- tion war hail been brewing. Paul I. of Russia had regarded with little pleasure the doings of the Revolution, and when his proteges, the knights of St. .lolin of .lerusalem. had been deprived of ^lalta by Honaparte on his way to Egypt, whoa the Directory established by force <if arms a Helvetic republic in Switzerland, when it found occasion to carry olf the Pope into exile aiul erect a Roman republic, ho abandoned the cautious and self-seeking policy of Catherine, and cordi- ally responded to Pitt's advances for an alliance. At tho same time Turkey was compelled by the invitation of Egypt to ally itself for once with Russia. Austria, conviiued that the French did not intend to pay a fair i)rice for the treaty of Campo Fonuio, also deterMiined to renew liostili- ties; and Naples, exasperated by the sacrilege of a republic at Rome, and alarmed by French ag- gressiveness, enrolled itself in the league. Tho Neapolitan king, indeed, opened the war with some success, before he could receive support from his allies ; hut he was soon vanquished by the French, and his dominions were converted into a Partlienopean republic. Austria, on tho contrary, awaited the arrival of the Russian forces; and the general cami)aign began carlj' in 1799. The French, lighting against such gener- als ns the Arcluhike Charles and the Russian Suvaroir, without the supervision of Carnot or the strategy and enterprise of Bonaparte, sulTereil severe reverses and great privations. Towards the end the Russian army endiu'ed much hardship on account of the selfish- ness of the Austrian cabinet; and this caused the Tsur, who thotight he had other reasons for discontent, to withdraw his troops from the field. When Bonaparte was made First Consul the 222 AUSTRIA, 1708-1806. H'nrn irith AUSTHIA, 170H-1SWI. military iHwitioii of Friincn wiis, ncvcrlliclcss. vcrj' pW'ciU'iiiiis. . . . Till' Koiimii mill ('isiiliiiiii' n'pulilli'H liMil fiillrii. Till" vrry coiiKri's^ at Itaf- tiiilt liiul lirrii illMpiTKril liy tlii' apprimcli of llic AiistriiMiH: anil tin- Kiriicli I'liils.sarii'H had liirn Halard l>y Ausliiun Iripopn-s, llioiiuli Imw lliilr ilisoli'iici- caiui' til III' tliiis foully punlslii'il Iiiih iirviT bcrit clrmly rxplainril. At tills irisls Friimr was itkciii'iI from forilicn fors ami ilomcstic (llsordi'i's by its most surrcssful jri'ii- i-ral. ... Ill tlio rampaiirn wliirli followed, FniiHT otitaincd si!;iial sallsfartiim for its (•liaj;riii. [,caviiiK .Moiraii to carry tlii,' war into Gcrmanv, IJonapar'i^ siiddrnly crossi'd tlir .VIps, and ili'^'iitL'd tin' Aiislrians on lliii plain of JlarenKo. The Aiistriuus, llumirh lomplrti'ly cowed, refrained from eoiicludin); iv dellnite peace out of respect for their enita>;cments with EiiKland ; and annislices, expiring into desiil- torv warfare, proloiij^ed the eoiitesl till Moreiiii laiil the way open to Vienna, by wiiniini'' i Hplendid triumph at Holienlinden. A treat> t jicace was llnally concliiiled iit, Liineville, win n Francis II. pli'd(,'cd the Knipire to its provisions oil the ground of the con.sents already niven at Ilastailt. Ill conformity with the "treaty of Canipo Forniii), Austria retained theliouiidary of the Ailigc ill Italy ; France kept Helgium and the left lianU of the liliine; and the princes, dis- possessed by the cessions, were iiromised com- pensation in Germany ; while Tuscany was given to France to sell to Spain at the i)rice of Parma, Louisiana, six sliips of the line, and a sum of money. Shortly afterwards peace was extended to N'lples on easy terms. . . . The time was now come for the Uevolutiou to com- plete tii^, ruin of the Holy lionian Empire. I'ursuant to the treaty of Luiieville, the German Diet met at Uegensb'urg to discuss a scheme of compensation for the dis|)o.ssessed rulers. Vir- tually the meeting was ii renewal of the congress of Hastadt. ... At Ifastadt the incolierence and diiiintegration of the venerable Kmpire had become i)aiiifully apparent. . . . When it was known tliat tin; head of the nation, wlio had guaranteed ihe integrity of the Empire in the preliminaries of Leoben, imil hiul renewed the assiiraiice when he convoked the as.senibly, had in trutli belrnyed to the striuiger nearly all the left bank of the Rhine, — the Geriimn rulers greedily hastened to .secure every possible trille ill tlic acrmnble of recMstribution. The slow and wearisome debates were supplemenled by intrigues of the most degraded nature. Con- scious that the French C'imsul could give a casting vote on any disputed question, the princes found no indignity too shameful, no trick too base, to obtain his favour. . . . The First Consul, on his side, prosecuted with a duplicity and address, heretofore unequalled, the traditional policy of France in German affairs. . . . Feigning to take into his counsels the young Tsar, whose convenient friendship was thus easily obtained on account of his family connections with the Geriimu courts, he drew up a scheme of iudemnilication and presented it to the Diet for endorsement. In due time u ser- vile assent was given to every point wliicli con- cerned the two autocrats. By this settlement, Austria and Prussia were more equally balancecl pgainst one another, the former being deprived of influence In Western Germany, and the latter finding in more convenient situations a ri<'h recompeiiHc for its ccHsions on tlu' Klilno: while the iniddli' Hitites, Ilavaria, lladin, and WUrtem- berg, leeeivid very considerable accessions of territory. Hut if lionaparte dislocated yet fur- ther the |ioliticiil slructure of (termany, he wiM at least instriiinriilal in removing the woi-st of the anachronisms which slilled the development of improved inslitiilioiis among a iarge division of its people. The sjinie measure which brought German si'paratism loaclimax. alsoe\tini;iiislieil the ecclesiastical soverei.rnlies iind nearly all the free cities. That tliese stiongliolds of priestly obscurantism and bourgeois apathy would .some day be invaded by their more amiiilious and active neighbours, hail long bieii appaniit. . . . And war was declined wlnii Ihousaiids of British subjects visiting France had already been ensnared and imprisoned. . . . Pitt had taken the conduct of the war out of the hands of Aihlington's feeble ministry. Po.ssessing the conlldence of the powers, he rapidly concluded olTensive alliances with Uussia, Sweden, and Austria, though Prussia o'istinalely remained iieiitriil. Thus, by IHO."!, Xtipolton had put to hazard all his lately won iiower in a conllict with the greatiT part of Europe. Tlie battle of Cape Trafalgar crushed for goml his maritimo power, and rendered England sale from direct attack. The campaign on land, however, made him master of central Europe. linnging the Austrian army in Germany to an inglorious capitulation at Ulin, he marched through Vienna, and, with inferior forces won in Ills best style the battle of Aiislerlitz against the troops of Francis ami Alexander. The action was decisive. The allies thought not of renewing the war witli the relays of troops which were hurrying up from North and South. P"ssia'; and Austrian alike wished to be rid oi their ill- fated connection. The Emperor Alexiinder silently returned home, pursued only by X.ipo- leon's tlalteritig tokens of esteem: the Emperor Francis accepted the peace of Presburg, which deprived his house of the ill-gotteii Venetian States, Tyrol, and its more distant posses- sions in Western Germany; the King of Prussia, who had been on the point of joining the coalition with ;> large army if his lueiliation were uiisucce.ssful, was committed to an alliance with the conqueror by his terrilied negotiator. .Vnd well did Xapoleon apjiear to make the fruits of victory compciisivte France for its exer- tions. The empire was not made more unwieldy in bulk, but its dependents, Bavaria, Wl\rteni- berg, and Baden, received consideralile acces- sions of territory, and the two lirst were raised to tlie rank of kingdoms; while the Emperor's Italian i)rincipality, which he had already turned into a kingdom of Italy to the great dis- gust of Austria, was iiicreased by the uddilion of the ceded Venetian lauds. But the full depth of Europe's humiliation was not experienced till the two following years. In 180(1 an Act of Federation was signed by the kings of Bavaria and Wttrtemberg, the Elector of Baden, and thirteen' minor princes which united them into a league under the protection of the French Emperor. The objects of this confederacy, known as the Rheinbund were defence against foreign aggression and the exercise of complete autonomy at homo. . . . Already the conse- (juences of the Peace of Lunevillo had induced tiie ruling Hapsburg to assure his equality with 223 AUSTRIA, ITOH-INOO, W.irK irlth AUSTRIA. 1800-1814. tliP ROvrrrlffiiR "f Kninco iiml HuhhIu by tnkiii); till' iinjii'riiil tillr ill his nwn iIkIiI : uml licfori- tin- Coiifrili'tiillnii (if llic Ithiiii' was iiiiiclc piililic- lir foriimlly ic'IioiiikimI liiHolllic of i'IimIIvc KliipiTor iif llii- IIkIv Itoiiiiiii Kiiipirc anil I'cli'iisi'il from iillrL'laiH r to him all tlir statiH iiiiil prilici'snf the Krii'li. Till' triiimpli of the Ocriiiiiii iiolicy of till' CiiiiHiilali' was compli'lf." — A. Wi'lr, Tlif JliHliirirul Itimiit nf Mmlifn Kurojie, rh. 4. — Src, also, KiiANCK: A. D. lT!»H-nUl», to 1805, ami (JKHMANv: A. I). lH(ii-lHo;t, to isori-iMtwi. A. D. 1809-1814.— The second struKgle wit'i Napoleon and the second defeat. -The Ma: ■ riage alliance.- -The Germanic War of LiUcr ation. — The final alliance and the overthrow of the Corsican.— " Mi tlir r.'tli of .Inly. IHOtt, foiirlccii princes of the south and wi'st of (icr- inany united tlieniselves into the confederation of llie Kliiiic, iinil recoL'iiised Najjoleon asllieir protector. On tlie Isl of Aufjiist, they si'rnilled to the diet of Kalislion their separation from the (lermanlc body. The lOmpiri' of (Jerniaiiy ceased to exist, and Francis II. alidicated the title hy proclamation. Ity a convention siLrncd at Vienna, on the Lltli of Decemhcr, Prussia exchanircd the territories of Aiispach, Clevcs and Ncufchritil for tlieeh'ctorateof Hanover. Niipo. Icon had all the west under his power. Absolute master of Knineeaiid Italy, 11s emperor and kini;, lie w lis also master of JSpaiii, by the dependence of that rourl ; of Naples and Holland, by his two brothers; of Switzerland, by the act of mediation', and in Ocrmany he liail at. his dis- ])osal the Uintrsof H.ivaria and Wurtemberir, and the confcilcration of the Uliine against Au.stria and Prussia. . . . Tliisencroachin.irproffrcssfjave rise to tlie fourth coalition. Prussia, neutral since the peace of IWlc, Imd, in the last campaiKn, been on the point of joininj; the AustroUnssian coalition. 'I'he rapidity of the cmjieror's vic- tories had alone restrained her; but now, alarmed at the iifigrandi/.ement of the empire, and eneour- iif^ed by tin; line condition of her Iroop.s, she lea)j:ue(l with Russia to dii e the French from (Jermany. . . . The campaiun opened early in October. Kiipoleon, as usual, everwhelmeif the coalition by the promptitude of his marches and the vii^our of his measures. On the Mill of t)ctob(r, he destroyed at Jena the military moniircliy of Prussia, by a ilecisive victory. . . ". The campaiirn in Poland was less rajiid, Init ;'.s brilliant as that of Prussia. Russia, for the third time, measured its strength with France. Con- quered at Zurich and Aiisterlitz, it was also (lefeuted at Eyiau and Friedland. After these memorable battles, the emperor Alexander entered into a nejrotiiilion, and concluded at Tilsit, on the 21st of June, 1807, an iirmislice which was followed by u definitive treaty on the 7th of July. The iieaee of Tilsit extended the French domina- tion on the conlinent. Prussia was reduced to half its extent. In the south of Germany, Napoleon had Instituted the two kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurteniberg against Austria; further to the north, ho created the two feudatory kingdoms of Saxony and Westphalia against Prussia. ... In order to obtain imiversal and uncontested supremacy, he made use of arms against the continent, and the cessation of com- merce against England. But in forbidding to the continental states all communicatiim with England, he was preparing new dilliculties for himself, and soon added to the animosity of opinion excited liy his degpotlHrn, and the hatred of states pi'iHliiccil by Ills com|Ueriiig domination, the exasperation of private Interests and com- mercial sulTering iwcasioned by the blockade. . . . TluM'Xpeditlon of Portugal In 1H07, and the invasion of Spain in INOH. began for him and for Kiiropeimew order of events. . . . The reaction iniinifested itself in three countries, liitlierti) allies of France, 'iml It brought on the tiftli coalition. The court of Rome was dissatlstled; till' |)eiiinsula wii.-i wounded in its national priile by having imposed upon it a foreign king; in its isages, liy the suppression of convents, of the Inquisition, and of the grandees; Holland siili'ered in its coinmerie from the blockade, and Austria supported impatiently its losses and subordinate condition. England, walcliing for an opportunity to revive the struggle on the continent, excited the ii'sistiince of Rome, tho peninsula, and the cabinet of Vienna. . . . .\ustria . . . madea jiowerful elTort, and raised .'."lO.tMKt men, comprising the I.iinilwelir, and took the Meld in the spring of IMdi). Tlie Tyrol rose, anil King Jerome was driven from Ills capil.il by the Westphali.ins; Italy wavered; and Prus.sia oidy waited till Napoleon met willi 11 reverse, to take arms; but tlu^ emperor was still at the height of his power and ))rc)sperity. He ha.steiied from Madrid in the beginning of Feb- ruary, and directed the membci'sof the confedera- tion to keep their I'ontingents in readiness. On the 12th of \\m\ he left Paris, passed the Rhine, jilunged into Germany, gained the victories of KikmUhl and Essling, oceupieil Victuu', a second time on the l.'ith of May, and overthrew this new coalition by the battle of AVagrnm, after a cami)aign of four moiillis. . . . Thepcaceof Vienna, of liie lltli of October, IHO!). deprived the house of Austria of several more provinces, and compelldl it again to adopt the continental system. . . . Napoleon, who seemed to follow a rash Imt inllexible policy, deviated from his course about this time by a second marriage. He divorced Josephine that li(^ might give an heir to the empire, and married, on the l.st of Ajiril, 1810, Marie-Ijouise, areh-ducbess of Austria. Tliis was a decided error. He (luitted his position and his post as a parvenu and revo- lutionary monarch, opposing in I'Vance the an<;ieut courts as the repulilii; had opposed the ancient governments. He placed himself in a false situation with respect to Austria, which he ought either to have crushed after the victory of Wiigram, or to have reinstated in its possessions after his marriage with the arch-duchess. . . . The birth, on the 2()th of .March, 1811, of a son, who received the title of king of Rome, seemed to consoliihite the pow'cr of Napoleon, by secur- ing to him a successor. Tlie war in Spain was prosecuted with vigourduring tlie years IHlOand 1811. . . . While the war was proieeding in the peninsula with advantage, but without any decided success, a new campaign was preparing in the north. Russia perceived tin; empire of Napoleon approaching its territories. . . . About the close of 1810, it increased its armies, renewed its commercial relations with Great Britain, and did not seem indisposed to a rupture. The year 1811 was spent in negotiations which led to nothing, and preparations for war were made on lioth sides. . . . On the 0th of March, Napoleon left Paris. . . . During several montlis he fixed his court at Dresden, wlicre the emperor of 224 ALSTIUA. 1H()«-1«U. Ih^rthrotr of Al^'lUIA. ISLVlSSa. AiiKtrlii, tlif kiiiK iif Prii.sslii, iinil all llii' (uivcrciKtiH (if Ocriimiiv, (iiimc Io Ihiw lictorc hit lii^'li fdrtiiiu'. Oil tli'f 'J'JikI (if .luiic. will' wiiH (lo'liircd ii^'iiiiiNt Itiisslii. . . . Nii|i(ili'<iii, wild, a'ciirdini; Io his ciiKtuni, wished to llnisli all in iiiic ('aiiipaiKn, advanced at (incc into tlie heart of KiiNsia, iiisteiid (if prudently (irKaiii/.ini; the I'dlish liiiirler against it. IliKariny aiiKiiinted t(i ahdilt rilHI.INHI iiieii. lie passed llie Nieiiiendll the '.>4tli (if .lime : tiKik Wiliia. and Wilepslv, defeated tlie liiisslans at Asli'dWiiii, I'dldtsU, .Mdliilow Hiiidleiisiid, at the Mdslidwa, and (in the 14tli (if Hepteinlier. made his entry iiilii .Moscow. . .Mdscow was hiuiicd hy its ffdVcriKir. . . . Tlie ciiipei'dr dilKlit to have seen that this war would not terminate as the others liad done; yel, coii- (|iier(ir of the f(H', and master of his eimilal, lie Cdiiccivcd hopes of pcac- which the Uiissians skilfully eiieo'i rafted. Winter was iipproacliiii);. and Napolei.i pniloiiKcd his stay at .Moscow for si.\ Weeks. He (ielayed his moveinenls on Hccouiit of tlie deceptive iiej,'otialioiis of tlie Kiissians; and did not decide on a retreat till the IWtliof Oclolier. Tills retreat was disastrous, and began the downfall of the einpiie. . . , The taliinet of llerliii began the defections. On the 1st of March, IHtli, it joined Russia and England, which were forming the si.xtli coalition. Sweden needed to it soon after; yet the emperor, wliom the confederatt' powc tliought prostrated by tlie last di.saster, opened llie campaign with new victories. The battle of I,ut/.eii, won by con- scripts, on the 2Dd of Slay, the occupalioii of Dresden ; tilt! victory of naiitzen, and the war carried to the Elbe, astonished the coalition. Austria, wliicli, since 181(1, liad liccn on a foot- ing of peace, was resuming arms, and already meditating a change of alliance. Slie now pro- po.sed herself as a mediatri.x between the emperor and the confederates. Her mediation was iiccepted; an urmisticu was concluded at Pless- wit/., on the 4tli of .Iiiuc, and a tongres.s iis.semliled at Prague to negotiate peace. It was impossible to come to terms. . . . Austria joined the coalition, and war, tlic only means of settling this great contest, was resumed. Tlie emperor liad only 280,000 men against 520.000. . . . Victory seemed, at fli"st, to second lilm. At Dresden ho defeated the combined forces; but the defeats of his lieutenants demnged his plans. . . . Tlio princes of the confederation of the Khinc chose this moment to desert the cause of the empire. A vast engagement having taken place at Eeipsic between the two armies, tlie ba.vons and Wiirteml .rgcrs passed over to the enemy on the liekl of battle. This defection to the strcngtli of the coalesced powers, who had learned a more compact and skilful mode of war- fare, oliligcd Napoleon to retreat, after a si rug gle of tiiree days. . . . The empire was invaded in all directions. The Austrians entered Italy ; the English, having made tliemselves masters of the peninsulii during the last two years, liad passed the Bidassoa, under general Wellington, and appeared on the Pyrenees. Three armies pressed on France to the east and north. . . . Napoleon was . . . obliged to submit to tlie conditons of the allied powers; their pretensions inerciwed with their power. . . . On the 11th of April, 1814, lii> renounced for liimself and children the thrones of France and Italy, and received in exchange for his vast soverignty, the limits of which had extended from Cadiz to the Ilallh' S<'a, the liiile island of F.lbu.'-P. A. .Migliet, llinlniii iif l/if l''reiiih l{i rtiliitU'ii, tit. 1.1. — .Sle(jKIIM.\NV: A. I) IStmd.VNlIAUV— .Il.Nh), to IHlll; Ut'SMM A I) 1H12; and Fiianck; A. I). lHlO-1813 to 1M|.(. A. D. 1 314. -Restored rule in Northern Italy. Sec Itm.v: A. I». IHHIHI.-). A. D. 1814-1815.— Treaties of Paris and Con- presa of Vienna.— Readjustment of French boundaries. - Recovery of the Tyrol from Ba- varia and Lombardy in Italy.— Acquisition of the Venetian states. Sec Kuan(I.:A. D. 1811 (.Vruii, — .liNK). and IMi.'i (.Iii.v — Novk.mukh): also ViKNNA, TlIK ('llN(illKSS (IK, A. D. 1814-1820.— Formation of the Ger- manic Confederation. .See (>i:um.\sv: A. I>. 1811-1S-.M. A. D. 1815.— The Holy Alliance. Sec lldi.v .\l.l.I \N( 1;. A. D. 1815.— Return of Napoleon from Elba. — The Quadruple Alliance. — The Waterloo Campaign and Us results, See Fii.\.N('I'.: A. I). 1814-181."). A. D. 1815-1835. — Emperor Francis, Prince Metternich, and "the system."— ' ,Mler the treaty of Vienna in 1801), and slili more con- spicuously after the pacilicatiiin of Eiinipe, the political wisdom of the rulers (if Austria in- clined them ever iiidre and more to the main- tenance of tliat slat(! of things which was known to friends and foes as tlie System. l!ut what was the System V It was the organi.salion of do- nothing. It (iimidt even he said to liave been reactionary: it was simply inactionary. . . . "Mark time in place' was the word of command in every goveriinient ollice. The bureaucracy was engaged from morning to night in niaking work, but nothing ever came of it. Xot even were the liberal innovatidiis wliich had lasted through the reign (if Lcopdld got rid of. Every- thing went on in the confused, iintini.slied, and inelTective state in wliicli the great war had found it. Sucli was tlie famous System which was venerated by the iiltra-Tdriis of every land, and most venerated wlieie it was least under- stood. Two men dominalo the histiiry of Austria during this iinliappy tMiu; — men who, though utterly unlike in clianutcr and intellect, were nevertliele.ss admirably tilted to work to- gether, and whose names will be long united in an unenviable notorietv. These were the Emperor Francis and Prince Metternich. Tlio Jirst was the evil gi nius of internal politics; the second exercised a hardly less baneful iiillucnco over foreigii affairs. . . . For tlie external policy of Prince iietternich, the first and most neces- sary condition was, tliat Austria should give to Europe the impression of fixed adherence to the most extreme ('(Uiservntive views. So for iTiany years they worked together, Prince Metternich always declaring that he was a mere tool in the hands of his master, but in reality far more absolute in the direction of his own "department than the emperor was in his. . . . Prince Metter- nich hud the power of making the most of ail he knew, and constantly left upon persons of real merit the impression tliat he was a man of lofty aspirations and liberal views, who forced himself to repress such tendencies in others be- cause he thought that their repression was a sine qua non for Austria. The men of ability, who knew him intimately, thought less well of him. To them he appearou vain and superficial, with 2 '2: AUSTRIA, 1815-1835. Prince Mettemlch and *• the System." AUSTRIA, 1815-1840. much thnt recnlled tlio French nohlcssc of the old regime in liis way of looliing at tilings, and cmijhutically wanting in every element of great- ness. With the ontbrenk of the Greek insurrec- tion in 1821, began a period of difllculty and complications for the statesmen of Austria. There were two things of which they were mortally afraid — Russia and the revolution. Now, il tliey assisted the Greelis, tliey would be playing into tlie hands of tlie second; and if they oppo.sed the Greeks, they wouhl 1)e likely to embroil tliemsclves with tlio tirst. The whole art of Prince Metternic'h was tlierefore exerted to licep things (luiet in tlie Eastern Peninsula, and to postpone the intolerable ' question d'Orient.' JIaiiy were the shifts he tried, and sometimes, as j nst after the accession of Nicholas, his hopes ' se very higli. All was, however, in vain. En( and and Russia settled matters bo- hind liis ba^k; and although the tone which tlie publicists in his ])ay adopted towavds the Greeks became more favourable in 1836-7, the battle of Navariuo was a sad surjirLse and mortification to the wily chancellor. Not less annoying was the commencement of hostilities on tlie Danube be- tween HusfJa and the Porte. Tlie reverses with which tlie great neigliliour met in his first cam- paign cannot liave been otherwise than pleasing at Vienna. But tlie unfortunate succi'ss which attended his arms in the second campaign soon turned ill-dissembled joy into ill-concealed sorrow, and the treaty of Adrianople at once lowered Austria's prestige in the East, and de- posed Metternich from tlie commanding position which he had occupied in the councils of the Holy Allies. It became, indee<1, "ver more and more evident in the next few years that the age of Congress politics, during which he had been the observed of ah observers, was past and gone, that the diplonatic period had van- ished away, and that the military period had be- gun. The very form in whidi the highest in- ternational (pu'stions were ilebated was utterly changed. At V'ienna, in 1814, the diplomatists had been really the primary, the sovereigns only secondary personages; while at the interview of Mtinchengratz, between Nicholas and the Em- peror Francis, in 1883, the great autocrat ap- peared to look upon Prince Metternich as hardly more than a confidential clerk. The dull monotony of servitude which oppressed nec''" the wliole of the empire was varied by the at tions of one of its component parts. AVheu the Hungarian Diet was dissolved in 1813, the emperor had solemnly promised that It should be ci,lled together again within three years. Up to 181.5, accordingly, the nation went on giving ex- tnionlinary levies and supplies without much opposition. When, however, the appointed time was fulfilled, it began to murmur. . . . Year by year the agitation went on increasing, till at last the breaking out of the Greek revolu- tion, and the thrt;;tenii<g appearance of Eastern politics, induced Pru^c., Metternich to join his entreaties to those of many other counsellors, who could i' t be suspected of the slightest lean- ing to constitutional views. At length the emperor yielded, and in 1825 Presburg was once more filled with the best blood and most active spirits of the land, assembled in parliament. Long and stormy were the debates which ensued. Bitter was, from time to time, the vexation of the emperor, and great was the excitement throughout Hungary. In the end, however, the court of Vienna triumphed. Hardly any griev- ances were redressed, while its demands were fully conceded. The Diet of 1835 was, however, not witliout fruit. The discussion which tooli plac(' advanced the political education of the people, who were brought back to the point where they stood at the death of Joseph II.-- tliat is, before the long wars with France had come to distract their attention from their own affairs. . . . The slumbers of Austria were not yet over. The System dragged its slow length along. Little or nothing was done for the im- provement of the country. Klebelsberg ad- ministered the finances in an easy and careless manner. Conspiracies and risings in Italy were easily checked, and batclv.i of prisoners sent off from time to time to JIantua or Spielberg. Austrian influence rose ever higlier and higher in all the petty courts of the Peninsula. . . . lu other regions Russia or England niiglit be will- ing to thwart him, but in Italy Prince Metter- nich might proudly reflect that Austria was in- deed a 'great power.' Tlie French Revoluticm of 1830 was at first alarming; but when it re- sulted in the enthronement of a dynasty which called to its aid a 'cabinet of repression,' all fears were stilled. The Emperor Francis con- tinued to say, when any change was proposed, ' We must sleep upon it,' an(l died in 1835 in ' the abundance of peace.'" — M. E. Grant Duff, Stittlien ill European Politics, pp. 140-149. — See, also, Geumany: A. D. 1819-1847. /> D. 1815-1846. — Gains of the Hapsburg monarchy. — Its aggressive absolutism. ^ Death of Francis I. — Accession of Ferdinand I. — Suppression of revolt in Galicia.— Extinc- tion ana annexation of the Republic of Ciacow. — "In the new partition of Europe, arranged in the Congress of Vienna [see Vienna, The Con- guess of], Austria received Lonibardy and Venice under the title of a Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the Ulyrian provinces also as a king- dom, Venetian Dalmatia, the Tirol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, the Innviertel and Ilausrucksviertel, and the part of Galicia ceded by her at an earlier period. Thus, after three and twenty years of war, the monarchy had gained a considerable accession of strength, having obtained, iu lieu of its remote and unprofitable possessions in the Netherlands, territories which consolidated its power in Italy, and made it as great iu extent as it had been in the days of Charles VI., and far more compact and defensible. The grand duchies of Modena, Parma, and Placentia, were moreover restored to the collateral branches of the house of Hapsbi.rg. . . . After the last fall of Napoleon . . . the great powers of the con- tinent . . . constituted themselves the champions of the principle of absolute monarchy. The maintenance of that principle ultimately became the chief object of the so-called Holy AUianco established in 1816 between Russia, Austria and Prussia, and was pursued with remarkable stead- fastness by the Emperor Francis and his min- ister. Prince Metternich [see Holy Alliance]. . . . Tlienceforth it became the avowed policy of the chief sovereigns of Germany to maintain the rights of dynasties in an adverse sense to those of their subjects. The people, on the other hand, deeply resented the breach of those promises which had been 'avishly made to them on the general summons to the war of 226 AUSTRIA, 1815-1846. Absolut isni. AUSTRIA, 1815-1849. liberation. Disaffection took the place of that entliusiastic loyalty with which they had bled and suffered for their native princes; the secret socictieu, formed with the concurrence of their rulers, for the purpose of throwing olf the yoke of the foreigner, became ready instruments of .sedition. ... In the winter of 1819, a German federative congress assembled at Vienna. In May of the following year it published an act containing closer detinitions of the Fedei'ative Act, having for their essential objects the ex- clusion of the various provincial Diets from all positive interference in the general affairs of Germany, and an increase of the power of the princes over their respective Diets, by a guaran- tee of aid on the part of the confederates" (sec Gkrmanv: a. D. 1814-1820). During the next three years, the powers of the Holy Alliance, under the lead of Austria, and acting under a concert established at the successive congresses of Troppau, Laybacli and Verona (see Veuona, C'ONOiiEss OF), interfered to put down popular risings against the tyranny of government in Italy and Spain, wliile they discouraged the re- volt of the Greeks (see Italy: A. D. 1820- 1831 ; and Spain : A. D. 1814-1837). "The com- motions that pervaded Europe after the French Revolution of 1830 affected Austria only in her Italian dominions, and there but indirectly, for tlie imperial authority remained undisputed in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. But tlie duke of Slodena and the archduke of Parma were obliged to quit those states, and a formid- able insurrection broke out in the territory of the C'luirch. An Austrian army of 18,000 men quickly put dowi the insurgents, who rose again, however, as soon as it was withdrawn. Tlie pope again invoked the aid of AiLstri-^i, whose troops entered Bologna in January, 18''3, and established themselves there in garrison. Upon this, the French imiuediately sent a force to occupy Ancona, and for a while a renewal of the oft-re])catcd conflict between Austrii', and France on Italian ground seemed inevitable ; but it soon appeared that Prance was not prepared to support the revolutionary party in the pope's dominions, and that danger passed away. The French remained for some years in Ancona, and the Austrians in Bologna and other towns of Romagna. This was the last important incident in tlie foreign affairs of Austria previous to the death of the Emperor Francis I. on the 2nd of March, 183.5, after a reign of 43 years. . . . The Emperor Francis was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I., whose accession occasioned no change in the political or administrative syst<'iu of the empire. Incapacitated, by physical and mental infirmity, from labouring as his father had done in the business of the state, the new monarch left to Prince Metternich a much more unrestricted power than that minister had wielded in the preceding reign. . . . The prov- ince of Galicia began early in the new reign to occasion uneasiness to the government. The Congress of Vienna had constituted the city of Cracow an independent republic — a futile representative of that Polish nationality which I'md once extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. After the failure of the Polish insurrection of IS'il against Russia, Cracow became the focus of fresh conspiracies, to put an end to whicii the city was occupied by a mixed force of Russians, Prussians, and Austrians; the two former were soon withdrawn, but the latter remained until 1840. When they also had retired, the Polish propaganda was renewed with consideralile effect. An insurrection broke out in Galii ia in 1846, when the scantiness of the Austrian mili- tary force in the province seemed to promise it success. It failed, however, as all [irevious efforts of the Polish patriots had failed, because it rested on no basis of popular sympathy. The nationality for which they contended had ever been of an oligarchical jiattern, hostile to the freedom of the middle and lower cla°",es. The Galician peasants had no mind to exchange the yoke of Austria, which pressed lightly upon them, for the feudal opjiression of the Poli.sli nobles. They turned upon the insurgents and slew or took "them prisoners, the police inciting them to the work by publicly offering a reward of live florins for every suspected person de- livered up by them, alive or dead. Thus the agents of a civilized government became the avowed instigator' of an inhuman 'iac(iuerie.' The houses of the landed proprietors were sacked by the jteasants, their inmates were tortured and murdered, and bloody anarchy raged throughout the land in the prostituted name of loyalty. The Austrian troops ,at last restored order ; but Szela, the leader of the sanguinary marauders, was thanked and higlily rewarded iu the name of his sovereign. In the same year the three protecting powers, Austria, Russia, and Pr issia, took possession of Cracow, and, ignoring the right of the other parties to the treaty of Vie ina to concern themselves about the fate of tbo re- public, they announced that its iiulepindeiice was annulled, and that the city and territory of Cracow were annexed to, and forever incorpo- rated with, the Austrian monarchy. From tills time forth the political atmosphere of Europe became more and more loaded with the presages of the storm that burst in 1848."— W. K. Kelly, Continuation, of ('o.re'n Hist, of the IIouhc of Austria, ch. .'i-O. A. D. 1815-1840. — Arrangements in Italy of the Congress of Vienna. — Heaviness of the Austrian yoke. — The Italian risings. — "By the treaty of Vienna (181.5), the . . . entire king- dom of Venetian- Lombardy was handed over to the Austrians; the duchies of Modena, Iteggio, with Massa and Carrara, given to Austrian princes; Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to Napoleon's queen, Maria Luisa, because she was an Austrian princess ; the grand-duchy of Tus- cany to Ferdinand III. of Austria ; the duchy of Lucca to a Bourbon. Rome and the Roman states were restored to the new Po|)e, Pius VII. ; Sicily was united to Naples under the Bourbons, and later deprived of her constitution, despite the promised protection of England ; the Canton Ticino, though strictly Italian, annexed to the Swiss Confederation; the little republic of St. Slarino left intact, even as the principality of Monaco. England retained ]\Ialta ; Corsica was left to France. Italy, so Jletternich and Europe foudly hoped, was reduced to a geographical ex- pression. Unjust, brutal, and treacherous as was that partition, at least it taught the Italians that ' who would be free himself must strike the blow.' It united them into one common hatred of Austria and Austrian satellites. By substitut- ing pa])al, Austrian, and Bourbon despotism for the free institutions, codes, and constitutions of the Napoleonic era, it taught them the difference 227 AUSTHIA, 1815-1849. The Fi-iink/ort Asui'mhly, AUSTRIA, 1848-1840. l)CtW(>('ii rule ami misru'c. Hence the (leniiiiKl nf the Neapolitans iliiriii); their lirst I'evohitiiui (1821)) was for a conslitiition; that of tlie I'ied monle.so anil Lombards (18^1) for a constitiitioii iiml war aijaliist .Viistria. The liimrhoii swore aiKl foreswore, aiicHhe Austriaiis ' restored orih'r ' in Naples. The I'iednionlese. who had not con- certed Ihiir movenient iiiilil Naples was crushed — after the alidication of Victor Kniinamul I., the jiranting of.the constitution by the re;;ent Charles Albert, and its abropition l>y the new kiii?r Cliarles Felix — saw the Aiistrians enter Pied- mont, while Ihu leaders of the revolution went out into e.xile [see It.vi.y: A. I). 182(»-1S,>1]. Hut those revoliilioiisand those failures were the beijinninir of the end. The will to be independent of all fca'eiirners, the thirst for freedom, was universal; the very name of empire or of em- peror, was rendere<l ridiculous, reduced to a parody — in the person of Ferdinand of Austria. But one illusion remained — in the lilieratin.;,' virtties of France and the French; this had to be dispelled by bitter experience, and for it substi- tuted the new idea of one Italy for the Italians. 11 nation tuii'cd, iniU'pendent, free, j;overned by a president or by a kini; cliosen by the soveieijin jieople. The apostle of tliLs idea, to which for lifty years victims and martyrs were sacriticed by thousands, was Joseph Mazzini ; its champion, Joseph Uaribaldi. IJy the genius of the former, the prowess of the litter, the al)nejjation, the constancy, the tenacity, the iron will of both, all thi.' i)op\ilations of Italy were sul)jugated by that idea: iihilosophers ilemonstrated it, i)oets sung it, ])ioiis Christian priests proclaimed it, states- men found it confronting their negotiations, baffling their half-i'ieasures." — J. W. V. Mario, Inlrodnctioii to Aitt(iliiof/nij)/ii/ of Oin\hid(U. — ScelT.M.Y: A. D. 18;i0-18,32, and '1848-1819. A. D. 1835.— Accession °f the Emperor Ferdinand I. A. D. 183^-1840.— The Turko-Egyptian question end its settlement. — ^Quadruple Alli- ance. SeeTi:uKs: A. I). ls;il-lS.l(». A. D. 1848. — The Germanic revolutionary rising. — National Assembly at Frankfort. — Archduke John elected Administrator of Ger- many. — "When the third French Hevolution broke out, its inlluence was immediately fell in Germany. The jiopidar movement this time was very dilferent from any the Governments liad hitherto had to contend with. The people were cvidciuly in earnest, and resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their chief demands. . . . The Hevolution was most .serious in the two great German Stales, I'russia and Austria. ... It was g<'nerally hoped that union as well as free- dom was now to be achieved by Germany ; but, as Prussia and Austria were in too much dis- order to do anything, about .WO Germans from the various States met at Frankfurt, and on ;\larcli 21 constituted themselves a provisional I'ailia ment. .\ii extreme party wished the assembly to declare itself permanent; but to this the ma- jority would not agree. It was decided thai a National A.s.sembiy should be elected forthwith by the German people. The Confederate Diet, knowing that the i>rovisioual Parliament was approved by the nation, recognized its authority. Through the Diet the various Governments were communicated with, and all of thi^m agreed to make aiTangcmenIs for the elections. . . . The National Assembly was upeucd in Fruukfurt on May 18, 1848. It elected the Archduke John of -Vu.stria as the licad of a new provisional central (Jovcrnment. The choice was a happy one. The .Vrchduko was at onee iicknowlcdged bv the diirercnt governments, and on July 12 the Presi- dent of the Confederate Diet formally made over to him the authority wliicli had hitherto belonged to the Diet. Tl.e I)iel tlien ceased to e.xist. The AichduUe chos{^ from the Assembly seven mem- bers, who forjued a responsible ministry. The Assembly was divided into two parties, the Kight and the Left. These again were broken u|) into varicms sections. Much time was lost in useless discussions, and it was soon suspected that the Assembly would not in the end prove equal to the great task it had undertaken." — J. Sime, lliHiory of Oerinrny, eh. IP, ,i(C<«. 8-11. — .See Giou.m.\ny: A. D. 1848' (.Makcii— Sept;;m- UKIi). A. D. 1848 (December).— Accession of the Emperor Francis Joseph I. A. D. 1848-1849.— Revolutionary risings. — Bombardment of Prague and Vienna.— Abdica- tion of the Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of Francis Joseph. — The Hungarian struggle for independence. — "The rise of n.iticaial feeling am nig (Ik; Hungarian, Slavonic, and Italian subject i)f the House of Ilapsburg wa.s not the only dillictilty of the Emperor "Ferdinand I. Vienna was then the gayest and the dearest centre of fashion and lu.xury in Europe, but side by side with wealth there seethed a mass of wretched lioverty; and the protective trade system of .\ustria so increased the price of the necessaries of life that bread-riots were frecinent. . . . The university students were foremost in the demand for a constitution and for the removal of the rigid censorship of the press and of all books. So, wdien the news came of the llight of Louis Philippe from Paris [see Fii.\nck: A. D. 1841- 1848, and 1848] the students as well as the artisans of Vienna rose iu revolt (.March 13, 1848), the latter breaking machinery and attack- ing the houses of unpopular employers. A deputation of citizens clnmoured for the resigna- tion of the bated Metternicli: his house was burnt down, and ho tied to England. A second outbreak of the e.xcited populace (May 1,5. 1848), sent the Emperor Ferdinand in heli)less Hight to InnsprUck in Tyrol; but lie returned when they avowed their loyalty to his person, though they detested the old bureaucratic system. Far more comi)licate(l, however, were the race jealousies of the Empire. The Slavs of Bohemia , . , had demanded of Ferdinand the union of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia iu Estates for those provinces, and that the Slavs should enjoy equal jirivileges with the Germans. After an unsatis- factory answer had been received, they convoked a Slavonic Congress at Prague. . . . But while this Babel of tongues was seeking for a means of fusion. Prince windiscligriltz was assembling Austrian troops around tlie Bohemian capital. Fights in the streets led to a bombardment of the city, which Windi»eiigiai£. soon entered in triumph. This has left 11 bitterness between the Tsechs or Bohemians and the Germans which still divides Bohemia socially and jiolitically. . . . The exciting news of the spring of 1848 had made the hot Asiatic blood of the Magyars boil; yet even Kossuth and the democr-ats at first only demanded tlic abolition of Metter- nich's systtni in favour of a represeututive gov- 28 AUSTRIA, 1848-1849. Ilnngarinn Struggle for Indeiitfmience. AUSTIUA, 1848-lH4n. trnmcnt. . . . Unfortuniiloly Kossuth (^liiiiiu'd lliiit tliL' T.Iiigyiir laws iiiul liuiguiij^e iiuisl now be siipri'iuc, not only in Iliuifriirv propiT, but also in the IIttn.L,'iuian 'crown lands' of Diilnni- tia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and tlu; enthusiastic Magyars wi: hcd also to absorb tlic ancient principality o" Transylvania; l)ut this a;xain was stoutly resisted by the Roumanians, Slavs, and Saxons of that little known corner of Kurope. and their discontent was fanned by the court of Viennii. .lellachich, the Ban or" G()vern(n- of Croatia, headed this movement, which aimed at making Agram the capital of tlie southern Slavs. Their revolt against the Hungarian ministry of Battliyanyi was at lirst disavowed in June, 1848, but in October was encouraged, by the perlidious government of Vienna. A co'iference between IJatthyanyi and .Tellachich ended with words of deliance: 'Then wo must meet on the Drave ' said the Hungarian. "No, on the Danube,' re- torted the champion of the Slavs. The vacil- lating Ferdinand annulled his acceptance of the new Hungarian constitution and declared .lellachich dictator of Ilungarj-. His tool was unfortunate. After crossing the Drave, the Slavs were defeated by the brave Hungarian 'honveds' (defenders); and as many as (),()()() were made prisoners. Unable to sid)due Hiuigary, .lellachich turned aside towards Vienna to crush the popular pii'y there. For the democrats, exasperated by the perlidious policy of the government, liad, on October 6, 1848, risen a third time: the war-minister, Latour, had been banged on a lamppost, and the t. , .'ror again lle<l from histurl)ulent capital to the ever-faithful Tyrolese. But now .lella- chich and WindisehuTiltz bombanled the rebel- lious cai)ital. It was on the point of surrendering when the Hungarians appeared to aid the city; but the levies raised by the exertions of Kossuth were this time outmameuvrcd [and defeated] by the imperialists at Scliwecliat (October 30, 1848), and on the next day Vienna surrendered. Blum, a delegate from Saxony [to the Olerman Piulia- ment of Frankfort, who had come on a mission of mediation to Vienna, but who had taken a part in the lighting], and some other democrats, vere shot. By this clever but unscrupulous use of race jealousy the Viennese Government seemed to have ovijrcome Bohemians, Italians, Hungarians, and the citizens of its own capital in turn; while it had diverted the southern Slavonians from hostility to actual service on its side. . . . The weak health and vacillating spirit of Ferdinand did not satisfy the knot of courtiers of Vienna, who now, flushed by success, sought to concentrate all p iw er intheVienne.se Cabinet. W<r.n out by the excitements of tin; year and by the demands of these men, Ferdi- nand, on December 'i, 1848, yielded up the crown, not to his rightful successor, his brother, but to his nephew, Francis .Joseph, lie, a yo\ith of eighteen, ascended the throne so rudely shaken, and still, in spite of alir.ost tuiiform dis- aster in war, holds sway over an empire larger and more powerful than he found it in 1848. The Hungarians refused to rccogidse the young sovereign thus forced upon them ; and the fact that he was not crowned at Presburg with the sacred iron crown of St. Stephen showed that he did not intend to recognise the Hungarian con- stitution. Austrian troops under Windischgriltz entered Buda-Pusth, but the Hungarian patriots witlalrew from their capital to organize a jiational resistance; and when the Austrian (Jov- ennnciit proclaimed the Hungarian constitution abolished and the complete absorption of Hun- gary in the Austrian Kinpire. Kossuth and his collea'.rues retorli'd bv a Declaration of Inde- pendence (April '.U, 184!)). The House of Haps- hurg was declared biuiishe<l from Hungary, which was to be a republic. Kossuth, the tirst governor of the new rcpulilic. and (Jiirirei, its general, raised ai.nies which soon showed their prowess." The lirst important battle of the war had been fought at Kapolna, "ii the right bank of the Theiss, on the 'itilli ol February, 184!», OOrgei and Dendiinski conunaeding the Hun- garians and Windiscbgrilt/ leading the .Vustri- ans. The latter won the victory, and the Hungarians retreati'd toward the Theiss. About the middle of .March, Oorgei resumed the olVeii- sivc, advancing toward Peslh, and encountered the Austriansatlsas/.eg, where he defeated them in a hard-fought battle, — or rather in two bat- tles which are sometimes caUed by dilTerent names: viz., that of Tapio Biscke fought \pril 4th, and that of Godolo, fought on the ."ith. It was now the turn of the Austrians lo fall back, and they («ncentrated behind the Hakos, to cover Pestli. The Hungarian general passed round their left, carried W'aitzen by storm, forced them to evacuate Pcsth and to retreat to Presburg, abandoning the 'vhole of Hungary with the exception of a fev, fortresses, which they held. The most import ut of these fort- resses, that of Bud;i, the " twin-city, " opposite Pesth on the Danube, was besieged by the Hungarians and carried by storm on the tilst of .May. "In Transylvania, too, the Hungarians, under the talented Polish gener.d Bem, overcame the Auslrians, Slavonians, ind Uoiunanians in many lirilliant encounters. But the proclama- tiim of a republic had alienated those Hunga- rians who had only striven for their old constitu- tional rights, so ((Uarrels arose between Gorg<'i and the ardent democrat Kos.suth. Worse still, the Czar Nicholas, dreading the formation of a republic near his Polish provinces sent the military aid which Francis .Joseph in May 1840 i.n- plored. Soon 80,000 Uussians unchr Paskiewitch poured over the northern Carpathians to hel]> the beaten Austrians, while others overpowered the gallant Bem in Transylvania. .Jellachich with his Croats again invaded South Hungary, and Haynau, the scourge of Lombardy, marched (m the siruigest Hungarian fortress, Komoru, ou the Danube. ' The Hungarian.s, overpowered by the combination of Austrians and Uussians against them, were defeated at Pered, .June 21; at Acz, July 3; at Kombrn, July 11 ; at Waitzen, July 10; at Tzombor, July 30; at Segesvar, July ;U; at Debreczin, August 3; atSzegedin, August 4; at Temesvar, August 10. "In despair Kossuth handed over his dictatorship to his rival (liirgei, who soon surrendered at Vilagos with all his forces to the HiLssians (Aug\ist 13, 1849). About 5,000 men with Kossuth, Bem, and other leaders, escaped to Turkey. Even there Uussia and Austria sought to drive them forth; but the Porte, upheld by the Western Powers, main- tained its right to give sanctmiry according to the Koran. Koss\ith and many of his fellow- exiles finally sailed to England [and afterwards 1:> America], where his nuijestic elocjuence aiuuscd deep sympathy for the iilllicted country. 229 AUSTRIA. 1848-1849. fifrman Hurvaucravy. AUSTRIA, 1840-1859. Many Ilunnaiiiin ))iitrir)ts sulTorcil (Iciilli, All ivIh'Is hull tlirir property contiscntcil, imil tlic <'i)imlry was for yciws ruled l)y armed force, and lis old ri^rlils were iil)olislied." — J. 11. Rose, A C'ciitiin/ <;/' ('nntinentitl lliKtory, eh. 31. Ai.so I.N: Sir .\. Ali.son. IHhI. nf Europe, ISLV IH.Vi, eh. Tht. — A. CJilr^cei, My Life ami Aetn -'ii Jlinir/an/. — (Jeiieral Klapka, MenmirH af the War of IniU'peiiiU nee in Jliiii;/un/. — Count, llartij;, deiiiKin of the lleroliitioii in Austria. — W. II. Stiles, Auxfria in lH4H-4». A. D. i848-i849.^Revolt in Lombardy and ■ Venetia. — War with Sardinia. — Victories of Radetzky. — Italy vanquished again. See Itm.v: a. 1). IHIS-IHH . A. D. 1848-1850. — Failure of the movement for Germanic national unity. — End of the Frankfort Assembly. — " Krank-forf, bad become tlieeentreof tliemoveineut. The helpless Diet had acknowledged the ne< essity of a Geriuau i)arlia- uienl, and had sunimoned twelve men of conti- dence charged with drawing up a new imperial constitution. But it was unable to supply what was most wanted — a strong executive. . . . Instead of establishing before all u strong execu- tive able to control and to realise its resolution.s, the Assembly lost months in discussing the fundamental rights of the German people, and tluis was overhauled by the events. In June, Prince Windiscligraetz crushed the insurrection at I'rague; and in November the anarchy which had prevailed during the whole summer at Herlin was put down, when Count Ilrandenburg became first minister. . . . Sehwarzeiiberg [at Vienna] declared as soon as he had taken the reins, that his programme was to maintain the unity of the Austrian empire, and demanded that the whole of it should enter into the Ger- manic confederation. This was incompatible with the federal state as contemplated by tlie National Assembly, and therefore Gagern, who had become president of the imperial ministry [at Frankfort], answered Schwarzeiiberg's pro- gnunme by declaring that the entering of the Austrian monarchy with a majority of lum-Ger- niau nationalities into the German federal state was an impossibility. Thus nothing was left but to place the king of Prussia at the head of the German state. But in order to wi" a majoritj' fo:' this plan Gagern foi.ud it neires- sary to make large concessions to the d 'inocratic party, amongst others universal suffrage. This was not calculated to make the olTer of the imperial crown uci'cptable to Frederic Williaui IV., but his princii)al reason for declining it was, that he would not exercise any pressure on the other German sovereigns, and that, notwitu- standiiig Schwarzenberg's haughty demeanour, he could not make up his mind to exclude Aus- tria from Germany. After the refusal of the crown by the king, the National Assembly was <ic)onu'd; it had certainly committed great faults, but the decisive reason of its failure was the lack of a clear and resolute will in Prussia. History, however, teaches that great enterprises, such as it was to unify iiii empire dismen-.bered for cen- turies, rarely succeed at the first attempt. The capital importance of the events of 1848 was that lliey had made the German unionist move- ment an historical fact; it could never be effaced from the annals, that all the Qerinan govern- ments had publicly acknowledged '.hat tendency us legitimate, the direction for the future was 230 given, and even at the time of failure it was certain, as Stockinar said, that the necessity of circumstances would bring forward the man who. lirofitiug by theexpericiu'esof 1848, would fuHil the national aspirations." — F. II. GetTckeii, The I'liiti: <if (ri'-iniiiiil (KiniUnh llintorieal Iter., Ai V. ly.ll).— See Gki'imanv: A. I). lM4K-lH.-)(t. A. D. 1849-1859. — The Return to pure Ab- solutism. — Bureaucracy triumphant. — ' ' Tin.' two great gains whi<'h the moral earth(|uake of 1848 brought to Austria were, that through wide provinces of the Empire, and more especially in Hungary, it swept away the sort of .semi- vassalage in which the peasan'.ry had been left by the Urbariutii of -Maria Theresa [an edict which gave to the peasants the right ot moving from |)lace to i)lace, and the riglit of bringing up tlK'ir children as they wished, while it estab- lished in certain courts the trial of all suits to which they were parties], and other reforms akin to or foimded upon it, and introduced modern in the place of middle-age relations between the two extremes of society. Secondly, it overthrew the policy of do-uotliiug — a surer guarautee for the continuance of abuses than even the deter- mination, which soon manifested itself at head- quarters, to make the head of tlie state more absolute than ever After the taking of Vicuna by Windischgriltz, the Natioaal Assembly had, on the 15th of November 1848, been removed from the capiti;" > the small town of Kremsier, in Moravia. Here it itrolongcd an ineffective; existence till March 1849, when the eoiu'l camarilla felt itself strong enough to i)ut an end to an inconvenient censor, and in March 184!) it ceased to exist. A constitution was at the same time promulgated which contained many good provisioui, but which was never heartily ai)prove(l by the ruling jiowers, or vigorously carried into cITcct — the proclamation of a state of sic;;e in many cities, and other expedients of authority in a revolutioiuuy period, easily enab- ling it to be set at naught. The 8ucces.ses of the reaction in other parts of Europe, and, above all, the coup d'etat in Paris, emboldened Schwartz- enberg to throw off the mask ; and 011 the last day of 1851 Austria became ou('e more u l)ure despotism. The young emperor had taken ' Viribus unitis' for his motto; and his advisers iuterjireted those words to luciui that Austria was henceforward to be a state as highly cen- tralised as France — a state in which the minister at Vienna was absolutely to govern cverythiug from Salzburg to the Iron Gate. The baud of authority laul been severely felt in the pre- revolutionary jieriod, but now advantage was to be taken of the revolution to make it felt far more than ever. In Hungary, for example, . . . it was fondly imagined that there woidd be no more trouble. The old political division into counties was swept away; the whole land was divided into live provinces; and the coin-tiers might imagine that from henceforth the Magyars would be as easily led as the inhabitants ot Upper Austria. These delusions soon became general, but they owed their origin partly to the enthusiastic ignorance of those who were at the head of the army, and partly to two men" — Priiu'e Schwartzenberg and Alexaiuler Bach. Of the latter, the "two leading ideas were to cover the whole empire with a German buifau- cracy, and to draw closer the tics which con- nected the court of Vieima with that of Rome. AUSTRIA, 1840-1850. Tlie It'iir t'n Italy. AUSTRIA. 1802-1800. ... If iil)solutism in Austria Imil ii fair trial from tlic ;tlst of I)i'cc'iiil)cr 1851 to tin- Italian war, it is to Hat "i tliat it was owinii; and if it utterly and ludicrously failed, it is lie more than any other nnm who mist bear the blame. Already, in 1840, the bureaucracy liad been reorj^anised. l)iit in 18.52 new and stricter resula- tiiins were introduced. Everythin;; was deter- mined l>y jirecise rules — oven the e.xact amount of hair whieli the employe was i)ermitt"d to wear upon his face. Hardly any (jucstion was thought sulliciently insigiiiticant to l)e decided upon the spot. The smallest matters had to be referred to Vienna. . . . We can hardly be sur- prised that the great nun of the Italian war brought down with a crash the whole editice of the reaction. " — M. E. G. Dull, studies in Euro- pctiii Politics, ch. 3. Al^so IN: L. Eegor, llint. c Ailxtro-ITuiii/nri/, ch. 3;i. A. D. 1853. — Commercial Treaty with the German Zollverein. See Tahiff LK(ii.si,ATio.v ((JioitMA.NY): A. I). 185:i-18!)2. A. D. 1853-1856. — Attitude in the Crimean War. See UtssiA; A. 1). 185;j-1851, to 1854- 18.50. A. D. 1856-1859.— The war in Italy with Sardinia and France. — Reverses at Magenta and Solferino. — Peace of Villafranca. — Surren- der of Lombardy. — "From the wars of 1848-0 the King of Sardinia was looked upon by the moderate party as the champi(m of Italian free- dom. Charles Albert had failed: yet his sim would not, and indeed could not, go back, though, wlien he be,gan his reign, there were many things against him. . . . Great elTorts were made to win him over to the Austrian jmrty, b\it the King was neither cast down by defeat and distrust nor won over by soft words. He soon showed that, though he had been forced to make a treaty vith Atistria, yet he would not cast in his lot with the oppression of Italy. He made .Massimo d'A/.eglio bis chief Jlinister, and Ciunillo Benso di Cavour bis Minister of Com- merce. AV'ilh the help of these tvo men he honestly carried out the reforms which bad been granted by his father, and set new ones on foot. . . . The (juick progress of reform frightened Count Massimo d'Azeglio. lie retireil from otlice in 1853, and his place was taken by Count Cavour, who made a coalition with the demo- cratic party in Piedmont headed by Urbano Rat- tiizzi. The new chief Minister began to w(nk not only for the good of Piedmont iait for Italy at large. Tlie Milanese still listened to the hopes which Mazzini held out, and could not .quietly bear their subjection. Count Cavour indignantly remonstrated with Radetzky for his liarsh govermnent. . . . The divi i(m and slavery of Italy had shut her out from European itolitics. Cavour held that, if she was once looked tipon as an useful ally, then her deliverance might ho hastened bj' foreign interference. The Sar- dinian army had been brought into good order by Alfonso della Marmora ; and was ready for action. In 18.55. Sardinia made alliance with England and France, who were at war with Russia; for Cavour looked on that power as the great support of the system of despotism on the Continent, and held that it was necessary for Italian freedom that Russia should be hunibled. The Sardiiuau army was therefon^ sent to the Crimea, under La Marmora, where it did good service in the battle of Tchernaya. . . . The ne.xt year the Congress of Paris was held to arrange terms of peace between the allies and Russia, and Cavour took the opportuiutv of lay- ing before the representatives of the liuropeau powers the unhappy state of his couiitrymeu. . . . In December. 1851, Louis Napoleon Huo- naparte. the President of the French Republic, .seized tlie government, and the next year took the title of Emperor of the French. He was anxious to weaken the power of Austria, and at the beginning of 18.50 it became evident that war Avould soon break out. As a sign of the friendly feeling of the French Emperor towards the Italian cause, his cousin. Napoleon .Joseph, mar- ried Clotilda, the daughter of V'ietor Emmanuel. Count Cavour now declared that .Sardinia would make war on Austria, unless a separate and na- tional govcrnmi'iit was granted to Lombardy and Venetia. and unless .Vustiia promised to meddle no more with the rest of Italy. On the other band, Austria demanded the disarmament of Sardinia. The King would not listen to this demand, and France and Sardinia declared war against Austria. The Emperor Najxileon de- ciared that he would free Italy from tla; Alps to the Adriatic. . . . The Austrian army crossed the Ticino, but was defeated by the King and General Cialdini. The French victory of 3Ia- genta, on June 4th forced the Austrians to re- treat from Lombardy. . . . (Jn .June 24tli the Austrians, who had crossed the .Mincio, were defeated at Solferino by the allied armies of France and .Sardinia. It seemed as though the French Emperor would keep his word. Rut he found that if he went further. Prussia would take up the cause of Austria, and that lie would have to tight on the Rhine as well as on the Adige. When, therefore, the French army came before Verona, a meeting was arranged between the two Emperors. This took place at Villafranca, and there liuonaparle, without con- sulting his ally, airreed with Francis Joseph to favour the establishment of an Italian (.'oiifeder- atioii. . . . Austria gave u]) to the King of Sar- dinia Lombardy to tiie west of jNIincio. Rut the ({rand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of Mo- deiia were to return to their Slates. The \)Vo- posed Confederation was never made, for the people of Tuscany, Modena. Parma, and Ro- magna sent to the King to pray that they miglit be mi'de part of his Kingdom, aii<l Victor Em- manuel refused to enter (m the scheme of the French Emperor. In return for allowing the Italians of Central Italy to shake off the yoke, Ruonaparte asked for Savoy and Nizza. . . . The King . . . consented to give up the 'glorious cradle of his Monarchy ' in exchange for Central Italy."— W. A. Hunt, Ilintovy of itnlij.ch. 11. Also in: J. AV. Probyn, Jtoiy from 1815 to 1800, ch. 0-10.— C. de Maznde, Life of Count Giroiir, ch. 3-7. — See, also, Italy: A. 1). 1850- 1850, and 1850-1801. A. D. 1862-1866.— The Schleswig-Holstein question. — Quarrel with Prussia.— The humili- ating S ven Weeks War. — Conliict with Prus- sia ..trew out of the complicated Schleswigllol- steii, (}uestion, reopened in 1803 and i)rovisioiially settled by a delusive arrangement between Prus- sia and Austria, into which"tlie latter was artfully drawn by Prince Bismarck. See Scandi.navian St.\te9(Den.ma:ik): A. 1). 1848-1803, aiul Gku- MANY: A. D. 1801-1800. No sooner was the wur 231 AUSTRIA, 1862-lSOO. Seven Week* War. AUSTRIA, 186tt-lH67. ■wifli Drnmnrk over, tlinn "Prussia sliowcil llmt it wiiH liiT intciilioii to annex tin- iit'wly a('(|uir<'il (liicliicK to licrsclf. This Austiiii foiilil not cn- duro, iind Bicoiilinjrly. in 1W(H!, wiir hroke out between Austria and I'russia. Prussia soujrlit nllianee with Italy, wliich slie stirred u|)toatta(k Austria in lier Italian nossessiiais. Tlio Austrian army (h'fealed tlic Italian at I^ustaz/.a [or Cus- tozza (see Italy: A. I). 18(l2-18(i0)] : hut the fortunes of war were ajjainst them in Germany. Allieil witli the Austriai\s were the Saxons, the Ravarians, the WUrtenibeiXf'rs, Radeii and Ilesse, and Hanover. The Prussians advan(<Ml with their chief armv into Uohemia witli tlie utmost rapidity, dreading lest tlie .So\itliern allies fihouUl march north to Hanover, and cut the kim;dom in half, an<I ])ush on to Rerlin. The Prussians had three armies, which were to enter Holieiuia and elTect a junction. The fllbe army wider tlie Kiiij;. tlie tiist army \nidcr Prince Frederick Charles, and the second army under the Crown Prince. The Elbe army advanced across Saxony by Dresden. The first army was in Lusatia, at Reiclienberg, and the second army in Silesia at Ileisse. Tliey were all to meet at Oitschin. The Austrian army under General Renedek was at KiMiiggriltz, in Eastern Holiemia. ... As in the wars with Napoleon, so was it now ; the Austrian generals . . . never did the right tliini? at the right moment. Uenedek did indeed march against the first army, but too late, and when he found it was already through the niountain door, ho retreated, and so gave time for the three armies to cimcentrate upon biin. The Elbe army and the first met at Milnchengratz, and defeated an Austrian army then.', pushed on, and drove them back out of Gitschin on ICOnig- griltz. . . . The PriLssians pushed on, and now the Elbe army went to Smidar, and the first army to llorzitz, whilst the second army, under the Crown Prince, was pushing on, and had got to Gradlitz. The littUt river Ristritz is cro.s.sed by the high road to Kitniggriltz. It runs through swampy ground, and forms little inarehy jiools or lakes. To the north of Ki'iniggriltz a little stream of much the same character dribbles through boL's into the Elbe. . . . Rut about Chlum, Xnlclist and Lippa is terraced liigh ground, and there Renedek planted his cannon. Tlie Prussians advanced from Smidar against the left wing of the Austrians, from llorzitz against tlie centre, and the thrown Prince was to attack ^lie right wing. The battle began on the 3d of July, at 7 o'clock in the morning, by the simultaneous advance of the Elbe and the first army upon the Ristritz. At Sadowa is a wood, and there the battle raged most fiercely. . . . Two things were against the Austrians; first, th'j incompetence of their general, and, secondly, the inferiority of their guns. The Prussians had ■what are called needle-guns, breach-loaders, ■which are fired by the prick of a needle, and for the rapidity with which tliey can be fired far sur])assed the old-fashioned muzzle-loaders used bv the Austrians. After this great battle, which is called by the French and English the battle of Sadowa (Sadowa, not Sadowa, as it is erroneously pronounced), but wliich the Germans call the battle of Kiiniggn'ltz. the Prussians marclied on Vienna, and reached the Marchfchl before the Emperor Francis Joseph would come to terms. At last, on the 33d of August, a peace which £avc a crushing prupondentnco ia Germany to Prussia, was concluded at Prague."— S. Raring- Gould, T/ir KOiry <>f Oirmaini, pp. 39()-3!»-l.— See (}H:iiM.\NV: A. I). 1800. A. D. i866.— The War in Italy.— Loss of Venetia. See Itai.v: A. 1). 1802-|H(iO. A. D. 1866-1867. — Concession of nationality to Hungary. — Formation of the dual Austro- Hungarian Empire. — "For twelve years the name of Hungary, as a Stale, was erased from the map of Kuiope. Riireaucratic Absolutism ruled suiireme in Austria, and did its best to ob- literate all Hungarian institutions. Germani.sa- tiiiii was the order of the day, the German tongue being declared the exclusive language of otilcial life as well asof the higher school.s. riovernnunt was carried on by means of foreign, German, and (,'zcch odieials. No vestige was left, not only of the national independence, but either of Home Rule or of self-government of any sort; the country was divicled into provinces without re- gard for historical traditions; in short, an at- tempt was made to wipe out every trace denoting the existence of a separate Hungary. All ranks and classes opposed a sullen pikssive resistance to these attacks against the existence of the nation; even the sections of the nationalities which had rebelled against the enactments of 184S, at the instigation of the reactionary Camarilla, were e(iually di.salTected in consenuence of the short- sighted policy of despotical centralisation. . . . Finally, after the collapse of the system of Ab- solutism in conse<iuencc of financial disasters and of the misfortunes of the Italian War of 18.")!), the Hungarian Parliament was again convoked; and after jirotracted negotiations, broken olT and resumed again, the impracticability of a system of provincial Federalism having been proved in the meantime, and the defeat incurred in the Prussian War of 1860 having demonstrated the futility of any reconstructi(m of the Empire of Austria in which the national aspiratiims of Hungary were not tjiken into due consideration — an arrangement was concluded under the aus- pices of Francis Deak, Count Andra.ssy, and Count Reust, on the basis of the full acknowl- edgment of the separate national existence of Hungary, and of the continuity of its legal rights. The idea of a centralised Austrian Em- pire had to give waj' to the dual Au.stro-Hiin- garian monarchy, which is in fact an indissoluble federation of two equal .States, under the com- mon rule of a single sovereign, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, each of the Slates having a constitution, government, and parliament of its own, Hungary especially retain- ing, witli slight 'Modiflcatious, its ancient institu- ti(ms remodelled in 1848. The administration of the foreign iiolicy, the management of the army,^ and the disbursement of the expenditure neces- sary for these purposes, were settled upon he common affairs of the entire monarchy, for the management of which common ministers were instituted, responsible to tlu; two delegations, co-equal committees of the parliaments of Hun- gary and 'if the Cisleithanian (Austrian) prov- inces. E 'orate provisions were framed for the smooth WDiking of these common institutions, for giving weight to the constitutional inlluence, even in matters of common policy, of the sepa- rate Cisleii lian and Hungarian ministries, .ind for renderi their responsibility to the respect- ive Parliaments an earnest and solid reality. The fiuancial questions pending in the two iiide- 32 AUSTHIA, 1800-1867. Atutro-Hun- gnrian Empire, AUSTRIA, 1800-1887. pendent nnd cfiiial States wcro .settled by a eoiii- Ijioiiiise; lueasures were taken for the eiiuitable arraugeiueiit of all inalteis whieh might luise in relation to interests toiicliing both States, sneli as duties, eonmieree, and indireet ta.\ation, all legislation on these subjerts taking place by means of identical laws separately enacted by the Parliament of each State. . . . Simulta- neously with these arrangements the political diirereiices between Hungary and Ooatia were compromised by granting provincial Ilomc^ Hule to the latter. . . . Thus the organisation of tlie AustroIIimgarian monarchy on the basis of dualism, and the compromise entered into be- tween the two halves composing it, whilst uniting for the purposes of defence the forces of two States of a moderate .size and extent into those of r. great empire, able to cope with the exigencies of an a(h'(iuate position amongst the lii'st-class Powers of Kurope, restored also to Hungary its iudcpendenee and its \mfettered sovcrei.^nty in all internal matters." — A. Pulszky, Iliiiir/nri/ (ytitwiiiil Life (iiid Tlwurjht. /^W." 3). — "The Ausgloich, or agreement with Hungary, was arranged by a committee of 07 membera of the Hungarian diet, at the head of whom was the Franklin of Hungary, Francis Deak, tlu; true patriot and inexorable legist, who had taken no part iu the revolutio'is, but who had never given up one of the smallest of the rights of his country. ... On the 8th of June [I'^OT], the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned with great pomp at Pesth. Onthe 38th of the following June, he approved the decisions of the diet, which settled tlie position of Hun- giu'y with n^ganl to the other countries belong- ing to his majesty, and moditied some portions of the laws of 1848. . . . Since the Ausglcich the empin^ has consisted of tv.o parts. . . . For the sake of clearness, ])olitical language has been increa.sed by the invent ion of two new term-, Cisleithauia and Transleilhaniii, to <leseribc the two groups, separated a little below Vienna by a small aflluent of the Danul)e, called the Leitha — a stream which never expected to become so celebrated." — L. Leger, llist. of Austro-Ilun- ijiiri/, eh. 35. Also in: Francis Deak, A ifemnir, ch. 20-31. — Count von Beust, Memoirs, v. 3, ch. 38. — L. Pelbermann, Ilinir/nri/ (iiul its I'caplr, ch. 5. A. D. 1866-1887.— The Austro-Hunp^arian Empire, — Its new national life. — Its difficul- ties and promises. — Its ambitions and aims in Southeastern Europe. — " Peace politicians may Siiy that a war always does more harm than good to the nations wliich engage in it. Perhaps it alwiiys does, at any rate, moralli' speaking, to the victors: but that it does not to the van- (piished, Austria stands as a living evidence. Finally excluded from Italy and Germany by the campai^'U of 1860, she has cast aside her dref.n..^ of foreign domination, and has set her- self manfullj' to the task of making a nation out of the vanou.s conflicting nationalities over which she presides. It does not require much insight to perceive that as long as she held her position in Germany this fusion was hopeless. The overwhelming preponderance of the Ger- man element made any api)roach to a recipro- city of interests impossible. The Germans always were regarded as soverciins, the icmain- ing nationalities as subjects; it was for thesi' to conunaud, for tLose to obey. In like maancr, it wa.s impos.sible for the Austrian Government to (■.■itabli.sh a mutual undei-standing with a popu- lation which felt itself attracted — alike by the tics of riu:e, langmige, ami geographical position — to another political union. Nay more, as long as the occupation of the Italian provinces remained as a blot on the Imperial escutcheon, it was impossible for the Uovermnent to com- mand any genuine sympathy from any of its subjects. Uut with the close of the war with Prussia these two dilllcullies — the relations with Germany and the relations with Italy — were swept iiwiy. From this time forward Austria could appear before the world as u Power binding (o,:;etlier lor the interests of all, a nund)er of petty nali(ai:'.lilies. each of whieh was too feeble to maintain ;i separate! existence. In short, from the year 1860 Austria had a raison d'Otre, whereas beto e she had noia'. . . . liaron Heust, on the Vth of February, 1807, took ollice under Fran/. .1 weph. His ijrogranune may be stated as follow.;. He saw that the day of centralism and imperi:,l unity was gone past recall, and that tlie most liberal (.'onstilution iu the world would never reconcile the nationalities to their present position, as provinces under the always detested and now dcspi.sed Empire. But then came the ((Uesticai — Gran'ed that a eerlain disintegration is iiu^vitablc, ho.v far is this dis- integration to go ? licust proposed to disarm the opposition of the leading uatDuality by the gift of an almost complete indepciidence, and, resting on tla^ support thus obtained, to gain time for conciliating the remaiiung provinces by building \ip a new system of free govermnent. It would be out of place to give a detailed account of the well-known measure which con- verted the 'Austrian empire' into the ' Austro- Hungarian monarchy.' It will be necessary, however, to describe the additions made to it by the political machinery. The Hungarian Keichs- t;ig was constructed on the same principle as the Austrian Ileichsrath. It was to meet in Pesth, as the Heichsrath at Vienna, and was to have its own responsibli! ministers, From the mendjcrs of tlie keielisratli and Kcichstag respectively were to be chosen annually sixty delegates to represent Cisleithanian and sixty to represent Hungarian interests — twenty being taken in each case from the Upper, folty from the Lower House. These two 'Delegations,' whose votes were to be taken, when necessary, collectively, though each Delegation sat in a distinct chamber, owing to the diircrence of language, formed the Supreme Imperial Assembly, and met alter- nate years at Vienna and Pesth. They were competent in matters of foreign policy, in mili- tary admini.strati(m, and in Imperial liiiancc. At their head stood three Imperial ministers — the Keichskan/.ler, who presided at the Foreign Ollice, and was ex olHeio Prime Jlinister, tho Jlinistcr of War, and the 1 inister of Finance. These three ministers were independent of the Heichsrath and Keich.stag, nnd could only be dismissed by a vote of want of eonlidence on tho part of the Delegatiims. Tlic ' Ausglcich ' or scheme of federation with Hungary is, no doubt, much open to criticism, both is a whole and in its several parts. It must always be borne iu mind that administratively and politically it was a retrogression. At a time in which -W other Eiiopeau nations — notably Xorlli (Jermany — were simplifyiug and unifying their political 233 AUHTIUA, 180(}-I88;, A uttlft}' Hun- garian Empire. AUSTRIA, 1806-1887 gysU-ms, Aiistriii wiis found ilolncf the very reverse. . . . The true iiuswer to these objec- tions is, that tlu! measure of 1H(I7 wiis eon- sirueled to meet ii pruetleal ilidieulty. Its end was not tlie formation of a syninietrlral system of government, but tlu' paeilieation of llunv;ary. . . . Tile inlernul liistory of tlie two Iialvcs if tlio empire Hows in two dilTerent channels Oriif Andrassy, tlio Ilunf^arlaii Premier, liad a comparatively easy task before him. There were sev<'ral reasons for this. In the lirst jjliice, the pnMlominunet! of Ihe Magyai-s in Uun^fary was more assured llian that of the Oi'rmans in Cisleitliaiiia. It is true lliat tliev luimlieredonlv ri.mtO.OOO out of tlie l(!,(M)().(mO inlmbitants; bu"t in tliesi- .j,01)(),()(M) were ineluded almost all the rank, wealth, and iiitellii^enee of the country. Hence they formed in the Ueichstag a compact and homogeneous majority, under which the remainiiiu,' Slovaks and Oroatians soon learnt to ran.ije tliemselves. In tlie second place, Hun- (jary had the >;rcat advaiUa^e of slartini? in a certain degree afresh. Her goveiiunent was not bound by the traditional policy of former Viemia ministries, and ... it had manngcd to keep its tinancial credit unimpaired. In the third place, as those who are accpiainted with Hun- garian history well know. Parliamentary institu tions ,'iad for a long time nourished in Hungary. Indeed the Magyars, who among their many virtues can hardlj' be credited witli the virtue of humility, assert that the world is mistaken in ascribing to England the glory of having invented representative government, and claim this glory for themselves. Hence one of the main dilli<^ulties with which the Cisleithanian Government bad to deal was already solved for Graf Andrassy and his colleagnes." — Aiixtriti siin'c Sdditita (QiKiHciiji liericin, i\ lUl, j>j>. 00- 95). — "It is dilUcult for any one except an Auslro-Hungarian statesman to realise the dilll- ctilties of governing the Dual ilonarchy. Cis- Leithania lias, as is well-known, a Uciehsratb and seventeen Provincial Diets. Tlic two Austrias, Stvria, Carinthia, and Salzburg i)re- sent no dillfeulties, but causes of trouble are abundant in the other districts. The Emperor will probably end by getting himself crowned King of IJohemia, although it will be dilllcult for him to lend himself to a pro.scription of the German language by the Tsi' :hs, as he has been forced by the .Magyars to lend himself to the proscription in parts of Hungary of Uoiunau ai\d of various Slavonic languages. But how far is this process to continue ? The German Austrians are as unpopular in Istria and Dalmatia as in Bohemia; and Dalmatia is also an ancient kingdom. These territories were originally obtained by the election of the K.!!-^ of Hun- gary to the crown of the tripartite ^i.igdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. I, ■ Ferencz Jozspf ' to be crowned King of Dalmitia? And is Dalmatia to have its separate Miinsfy and its separate olUcial language, and its c;ompletely separate laws? And what then of Fiume, tlio so-called Hungarian port? Then, again, Galicia is also an ancient kingdom, although it has at other times formed part of Poland; and the Emperor is King of Galicia, as he is King of Hohemia and Dalmatia. Is he to be crowned King of Galicia? And if so, is the separate e.vistenco of Galicia to be a Polish or a Ruthenian existence, or, indeed, a Jewish? for the Jews are not only cxtrncrdlnarily powerful and numerous there, but arc gniniiig ground day by day. The Rutheriians complain as bitterly of being bullied by the Poles in Galicia as the Croats complain of the Magyars. Even here the dilflculties are not ended. The .Mnrgraviatc of iMoravia contains a large Tsecli population, and will have to be adile<l to the Hohemian kingdom. Hukowinj'. iiay go with Galicia or Transylvania. Austria'. Silesia may be divided between the Tsedis of Bohemia and .Moravia on the one part, and the Poles or Rutbenians or Jews of Oalicia on the other. But what is to become of that which, with the most obstinate disregard of pedants, I intend to continue to call the Tyrol ? Trieste must go with Austria and Sal/.burg, and the Northern Tyrol and Styria and Carinthia no doubt; but it is not difliciilt to show that Austria would actually be strengthened by giving up the Southern Tyrol, where the Italian ijcople. or at least the Italian language, is gain- ing groimd day by day. There really seems very little left of the integrity of the Austrian E;m|)ir(.' at the conclusion of our survey of its constituent parts. Matters do not hmk nuich better if we turn to Trans- Lcithania. Hungary has its Reichstag (which is also known by some terrible Magyar name), its Hou.sc of Representa- tives, and its House of Magnates, and, although there are not so many Provincial Diets as in Austria, Slavonia and the Banat of Croatia possess a Common Diet with which the JIagyars are far from popular; and the Principality of Transylvania al.so pos.sessed separate local rights, for trying completely to suppress which tlu! Magyars are at present highly luipopular. The Principality, although undi'r Magyar rule, is divided between 'Sa.\<ms' and Rinimans, who eipially detest the Magyars, and the Croats and Slovenes who people the IJniiat are Slavs who also e.\ecrato their iJgi ' m rulers, inscriptions in whose language are deiaced whenever seen. Croatia is uiuler-rcpresented at Pest, and says that .she goes unheard, and the Croats, who have partial Home Rule without an executive, ask for a local executive as well, and demand Fiume and Da.matia. If we look to the numbers of the various races, thcie are in Austria of Ger- mans and Jews about 9,01)0,000 to about 13,000,000 Slavs and a few Italians and Ron- mans. There are in the lands of the Crown of Hungary 3,000,000 of Germans and .lew.s. of Roumaiis nearly 3,000,000. although the M-.w, yars only acknowledge 3,500,000, and of Mag- yars and Slavs between five and six millions apiece. In the whole of the territories of the Dual Monarchy it will be seen that there are 18,000,000 of Slavs and only 17,000,000 of the ruling races — Germans, Jews, and Magyars — while between three and four millions of Rou- mans and Italians count along with the Slav majority . as being hostile to the dominant nationalities. It is difflcult to exa.^genite the gravity tor Austria of the state of things which these tlgures reveal." — T/ie Present Position of European Politics (Fortnif/htly Reciein, April, 1887). — " In past times, when Austria had Iwld France tight bound between Spain, Germany, and the Nc'lierlands. she had aspired to a dominant position in Western Europe; and, so long as her eyes were turned in that direction, she naturally had every interest in preserving the Ottoman Empire intact, for she wos thus S84 AUSTRIA, 1800-1887. AVARS. i;\mrftntrr(l ii);i'''i*'t "" attnrka from the fioiUh. But. lifter till' loss i>f licr Itii'iaii i)()sscssi()iis In IHO.j, iind of piirt. of Croiiliii in IHOll, ufiiT tlio (li»iUit<T» of 1H41), 1H.-)1I and IStlrt, she tlioUKlit more! and more seriously of indemnifying lier- .self at the expense of Turkey. It was niori'over evident that, in on'eivto paralyse tli<^ daniiii;inK power of Hunpirv, it was essential for her to assimilntt! the priiiiit ve and scattered peoples of Turkey, aeeu.stomed to centuries of complete suhniission and oliedience, anil form thus a kind of iron hand whi<h shouhl encircle Iliuiuary and elfectually prevent her from risinj?. If, in fact, we glance hack at the position of Austria in IHfiO, and tak(! the trouble carefully to study the clmn;;e of ideas and interests which hud then taken place in the policy of France and of Kussia, the tendencies of tlie .strongly consti- tuted nations who were repiigniint to the authority and inlluence of Austria, the hasis of the power of that empire, and, linnlly, the internal ruin with which she was then threat- ened, we cannot but arrive at the conclusion that Austria, by the very instinct of self- preservation, was forced to turn eastwards and to consider how best she might devour .sonic, at least, of the European provinces of Turkey. Austrian statesmen have been thoroughly con- vinced of this fact, and, impelled by the instinct above-mentioned, liave not ceased carefully and consistently to prepare and follow out the policy here indicated. Their objects have already been partially attained by the practical annexation of liosiiia and Herzegovina in 1878 [see TuilKS: A. I). 1878] ; and it was striking to observe with what bitter feeling and rescntineut this measure was looked upon at tlu! time by the Hungarian section of the empire. . . . Russia has never made any secret of her designs upon Turkey; she has, indeed, more than once openly made war in order to carry them out. Hut Austria AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN SMPIRE. See AfsTKl.v: A. I). 1800-1867. AUTERI, The. Sec Iuei-and, Tribks op EAiti.v Cki.tic INMIAHITANTS. AUTUN : Origin. See Gai;ia A. D. 287.— Sacked by the Bagauds. Sec Haoacds. Sec D. AUVERGNE, Ancient. The country of the Arveiiii. See/Enui; also Gai'I.s. AUVERGNE, The Great Days of. Franct:: A. I). lOfi.l. AUXILIUM. See Tat,i„\ok. AVA. See India: A. I). 1823-1833. AVALON. See NKWFOuxni.AND: A lfllO-in.5.5; and Mauyi.ani): A. D. 1033. AVARICUM. See Bouikiks, Oiiioi.\ op. AVARS, The. — The true Avars arc repre- sented to have been a iiowerful Turanian people who exercised in the sixth century a wide dominion in Central Asia. Among the tribes subject to them was one called tin; Ogors, or Oiiigours, or Oniars, or Ouar Kliouni, or Varch- onitcs (these diverse names have been given to the nation) which is supposed to have belonged to the national familv of the Huns. Some time in the early half of the sixth century, the Turk.s, then a people who dwelt in the very center of Asia, at the foot of the Altai mountains, making their first appearance in history as conquerors, crushed and almost annihilated the Avars, there- 16 ^ remains a fatal obstacle in her path. Even as things at pri'sent stand, Austria, bv her geo- grapliieal position, so commands and dominates the Hu.ssian line >>f operations that, once the Danulx- pas.sed, the Uussians are constantly menaced b^' Austria (in the Hank and rear. . . . And if tins be true now, how much more true would it be were Austria to continue her inarch eastwards towards .Salcniici. That necessiirily, at some time or other, th.it inarch must be con- tinued may he taken for almt ttcertain; but that Austria has it in lier power to commence it for till! present, cannot, I think, be admitted. She must further consolidate and make certain of wnat she has. .Movement now would bring upon iier astruggk' for life or death — a struggle wlio<e issue may fairly be saiil in no uiirriendly spirit to Austria, to be doubtful. With at hnrnu a bitterly discontented Croatia, strong I'an- slavistic tendencies in llosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalinatia, a (tii'ck population thoroughlv dis- aflectcil, and a Hungary whose loyally is iloubt- fill, sIk^ would have to deal bcyonil her frontiers with the not contemptible armies, when coir- bineil. of Servia, Hulguria, and (Jreecc, whose a"p 'Dtions she would be asphyxiating for ever, with a bitterly hostile population in Macedonia, with the wlioW armed force of Turkey, and with the gigantic military power of Russia; whilst it is not fantastic to suppo.se that Germany would be hovering near, rcadjf to pounce on her Ger- man provinces when the ' moment psychologi- <iue' should occur. With such a prospect before her, it would be worse than madness for Austria to move until the cards fell more favourably for her." — V. C'aillard, The Bill- f/iiriiin Imbroglio (Fortnightly lici'icw, Dreemlxr, 188.')). A. D. 1878.— The Treaty of Berlin.— Acqui- sition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. See Tuhks: A. I). 1878. bv becoming the lords of the Ouigours, or Ouar Ivhouni. Hut the latter found ;im opportunity to escape from the Turkish yoke. "Gathering together their wives and their children, their flocks and their herds, they turned their waggons towards the ,Setting Sun. This immense exodus comprised upwards of 200.0i)i) jxTsons. The terror which inspired their flight rendered them resistless in the onset; for the avenging Turk was behind their frr.ck. They overturneil e very- thin,'!; before them, even the Hunnic tribes of kindred origin, who had long hovered on the north-east frontiers of the Empire, and, driving out or enslaving the inhabitants, established themselves in tiie wide plains which stretch between the Volga and the Don. In that age of imperfect information they were naturally enough confounded with the greatest and most formid- able tribe of the Turanian stock known to the nations of the AVest. The report that the Avars had broken loose from Asia, and were coming in irresistible force to overrun Europe, spread itself all along both banks of t he Danube and penetrated to the Byzantine cour* '*'ith true barbaric cun- ning, the Ouar Khoui. I themselves of the mistake, and by calling Ives Avars largely increased the terrors of li. . name and their chances of conquest." The pretended Avars were taken into tlic pay of the Empire by .Jus- tinian and employed against the Hun tribes north and cast of the" Black Sea. They presently 35 AVAKS, AVIONON. nrriiilrcil ii Arm fcMjtinj; 'Hi Ixitli banks of the DiiniilH', iinil tur'X'cl tlx'ir iiriiiH iiKaiiist tlic Kiiipirc, Thf impou.'it cily of (Siniiitim wiih taken by tliciii ul'icr an '>t>»linal(' Kii';^<; and il.H inlialiitantH put ti> tlic sword. Tlicir ravagi'S ex- tended over central Kumpe to tlie Elbe, wliere tliey were l)ealen l)a(k l)y the warlike; Kninks, aiicl, Hoiitliwards, tliroiiL'li Moesia, Illyria, Thrace, Macedonia and (Jreere, eventotlie I'eloponnesus. Conslanlinopli' itself was tbn'atened more tliaii once, anil in the suinnicr of *\'M, it was desper- ately attacked tty Avars and Persians in con- j 1111(1 ion (see UoMic: A. I). .')(),'>-(l28), with dis- astrous results to tlic assailants. Hut the seat of their Knipire was tlu; Dacian coiintrv — iiKwlerii Houinunia. Transylvania and part of Hunirary — in which the Avars had helped the Loinbanis to crush and cxlinijuisli the (icpidu'. Thi' Slavic tribes which, by this time, had movcii in j;reat numbers into central and .south-eastern Kurope, were larirely in subjection to the Avars and did their biddiiu; in war and peace. "These iinfor tunalc creatures, of apparently an imperfect, or, at liny rate, imperfectly I'ultivated intelli- jronce, endured such fri.iflitfiil tyranny from their Avar con(iuerors, that their very name has passed iiitoasynoiiyme for tin- most de^^radedserviuide." — J. G. Shepi)ard, h'dU nf liinne, lid. 4. Also in: K, Giblxm, 7>fr/*H« and Fall of the lioiniin ICmpiiv, ch. 4'J. 7th Century.— The Slavic Revolt.— The Em- [lire of the Avars was shaken and much diniiii- islied in the Seventh ('eiiturv by an extensive risiiis; of their oppres.sed Slavic subjects, rouseil and led, it is said, by a Frank merchant, or ail- vcnlurer, named .Sanio. who l)ecame their kiiifr. The tirst to throw olf the yoke were a tribe called the Veiides, or Wendes, or Veiiedi, in JJohemia, who were reputed to be lialf-castes, resultini;: from intercourse tictween the Avar warriors and the woiie -I of their Slavic vassals. Under the lead ot lino, the Wendes and Slovenes or Slavonians drove the Avars to the east and north; and it seems to have been in connection with this revolution that the Emperor lleraclius induced the Serbs or .Servians and Croats — Slavic tribes of the same race and region — to sottle in depopuhited Dalmatia. "'From the year (i^O A. I).' writes >I. Thierry, 'the Avar people are no longer mentioned in the annals of of the East ; the successors of Attila no longer figure beside the succes.sors of, Coustantine. It required new wars in the West to bring upon the stage of history the khan and his jieoph.' In these wars [of Pepin and Charlemagne] they were linally swept off from the roll of Euro- pean nations." — J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, led. 4. A. D. 791-805. — Conquest by Charlemagne. — " Hungary, now so called, was po.sses,sed by the Avars, who, joining witli themselves a multi- tude of llumiish tribes, accumulated the im- mense spoils whieli both they themselves and their eiiually barbarous predecessors had torn fmni the other naticms of Europe. . . . They extended their limits towards Lombardy, anil touched upon the very verge of Bavaria. . . . Much of their eastern frontier was now lost, al- most without a struggle on their part, by tlie rise of other barbarous nations, especially the various tribes of Bulgarians." This was the position of the Avars at the time of Cliarli!- mague, whom they jirovokcd by funniug an al- liance with the ambitious Duke of Bavaria, Tas- silo, — most obstinate of all who resisted the Frank king's imperious and imperial rule. In a series of vigorous cuinpaigus, between 7Ut and 71)7 Charlenmgne crushed the power of the Avars and took po.sM'Ssion of their country. The royal "ring" or stnmghoUl — believed to have been situated in the neighborhood of Tatar, lie- Iween the Danube; and the Tlieiss — was pene- trateil, and the vast treasure ston'd there was seized. Charlemagne di.stribuled it with a gen- erous hand to churches, to monasteries and to the poor, as well as to his own nobles, servants and .soldiers, who are said to have iH'cn madu rich. There were sub.se(|iienl risings of the Avars and wars, until H0."», when the remnant of that almo.st annihilated people obtained permis- sion to settle on a tract of land between Sarwar and Ilaimbiirg, on the right bank of the Danube, where they would bo jirotected from their Slavonian enemies. This was the end of the Avar nation. — O. P. H. Jumus, IIM. of Charle- miii/iie, bka. l) iiiiil 11. Al.so in: J. I. Mombert. Hint, of Charles the Great, bk. 2, di. 7. » AVARS, The Rings of the.— The fortilica- lions of the Avars were of a iieculiar and effec- tive construction and were called Ilrings, or liiugs. "They seem to have been a series of eight or nine gigantic ramparts, constructed in concentric circles, the iuui.' one of all being called the royal circle or camp, where was de- posited all the valuable |)lun(ler which the war- riors had collected in their expeditions. The method of constructing these ramparts was .somewhat singular. Two para'lel rows of gigan- tic piles were driven into .he ground, some twenty feet apart. The intervening space was tilled with stones, or 11 species of chalk, so com- pacted as to become a solid nia.ss. The sides and summit were covered with soil, upon which were iilantcd trees and shrubs, who.se interlacing branches formed an impenetrable hedge." — J. O, Shejipard, Full of Itinnc, led U. AVEBURY. Sec Auuuv. AVEIN, Battle of (1635). See Netiier- i.ANDs: A. D. lOri-1038. AVENTINE, The. See Seven Hills of HoMK. AVERNUS, Lake and Cavern.— A gloomy lake called Avernus, wliicli tilled the crater of an extinct volcano, situated a little to the north of tlie Bay of Naiili'S, was the object of many super- stitious imaginations among the ancients. "Tliere was a place near Lake Avernus called the prophetic cavern. Persons were in attend- ance there who called up ghosts. Anv one desiring it came thither, and, liaving killed a victim and poured out liliatioiis, siiminoncd what- ever ghost he wanted. The ghost came, very faint and doubtful to the siglit, but vocal and prophetic; and, having answered the questions, went off." — Maxinuis Tyrius, i|Uoted by C. C. Felton, in Greece, Ancient iiiul Modern, e. 2, led. 9. — See, also, CUM.K and B.\l.«. AVERYSBORO, Battle of. See United St.\tks OK Am. : A. D. 18(35 (Feuhuauy—Maiich; TiiK Cakoi.inas). AVIGNON: loth Century.— In the Kingdom of Aries. Sec Buikiunuv: A. D. 843-933. A. D. 1226.— Siege by Louis VIII. See Al- muENSEs: A. D. 1217-1229. 236 AVIONON AZTKC WD MAYA PICTUni: WRITING. A. D. 1300-1348.— Made the seat of the Pa- pacy.— Purchase of the city by Clement V. ■Sec I'aI'Acy; A. 1>. l'i!)4-i:tlM. A. D. 1367-1369.— Temporary return of Ur- ban V. to Rome. Sec I'.vi-At v; A. D. i;r»0-i;i7H. A. D. 1377-1417.— Return of Pope Gregory XI. to Rome. — Residence of the anti-popes of the great Schism. .Scr I'acacy: .\.. 1). I;i7i-1UT. A. O. 1790-1791.— Revolution and Anarchy. —Atrocities committed. —Reunion with France decreed. Sic Kiianck; A. I). lTi)i)-17i)l. A. D. 1797.— Surrendered to France by the Pope. Std Fkasck: A. I). I7mi-171)7 (Octoueb — .(I'ltii,). A. D. 1815. — Possession by France con- firmed. .Sec \ IK.NNA, 'rilK CONdllKSS OK. ♦- - AVIONES, The. — •' Tilt! Avloncs were 11 Sui'vl<: c'liiii. Tlicy iir(! inciitlDncd by Tiicitiis in councxiun with the lieuilignl, Angll, ViirinI, Euilosi's, HuiirdDncs niid Nuithoncs, all Suuvic clans. These tribi'S must Imvo occupit'd iMcck- leubiirj?Sch\verin, Meckli'nl)ur;;-8lri'litz and Slt'swick-IIolstfiii, tli(.' Klbu bciiij? their Eastern boundary. It is, however, Impossible to dellne their precise loeiilltles." — A. J. Church and W. .1. Brodribb, Minov Works of Tacitus, Q»>'i. Notes to the ilirmiinn. AVIS, The House of. See Poiituoai,: A. D. 1383-l;!8r). AVIS, Knights of.— This is a Portuguese military rellu:ious order which originated about 1147 during the wars with the Moors, and which formerly observed the monastic rule of St. Bene- dict. It became connected with the order of Calatrava in Spain and rei^eived from the latter its property in Portugal. Pope Paul III. united the Qnuid .Mastership to the Crown of Portugal. — P. C. 'tVoodhouse, Militavy Religious Orders, pt. 4.— Ree, also, Poktuoai,: A. I). lOaVKia."). AVITUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 45.'i-4.')(!. AVVIM, The. — The original inhabitants of the south-west corner of Canaan, from which they were driven by the Philistines.— II. Ewahl, Hist, of hruel. bh. 1. sect. 4. AYACUCHO, Battle of (1824). See Pehu: A. 1). 18'.J(»-182(!. AYLESBURY ELECTION CASE. Sec En(ii.a.ni): a. 1). 171:!. AYLESFORD, Battle of (A. D. 455).— The first battle fought and won by the invading Jutes after their landing in Britain under Hen- gest and Horsa. It was fought at the lowest ford of the river Med way. See Enuland: A. D. 44«-47;i. AYMARAS, The. SeePEUU: TiieAuokioi- NAI, iNMAmTANTS. AYOUBITE OR AIYUBITE DYNASTY. See Sai.adin, Tub Emimuio of. AZINCOUR (AGINCOURT), Battle of. See PitANCK: A. I). 141;). AZOF OR AZOV : A. D. 1696.— Taken by the Russians. See Tuiuw: A. I). l(i84-l(i'J(). A. D. 171 1. — Restoration to the Turks. .See Scandinavian St .ATEs (Sweden): A. I). 1707- 1718. A. D. 1736-1739. — Captured by the Russians. —Secured to them by the Treaty of Belgrade. See Russia; A. D. 1725-1739. AZTEC. See Mexico, Ancient ; and A. D. 1835-1503; also, Amkuican AuoKiQiMES: Mayas. AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRIT- ING. — " .\o nation ever reduced it | pictography 1 more to a system. It was in constmit us<' In liie dally transactions of life. They [the A/tecs| manufactured for writing purposes a thick coarse paper from the leaves of tliir agave plant by a process of maceration ami pre.ssuri-. .\n Aztec book closely resembles one of our i|Uarl() volumes. It Is made of a sIngh? sheet, 12 to 15 inches wide, and often (iO or 70 feel long, and is not rolled, but foldeil eitlier in sipiares or xlgxagH in such a manner that on oiieiiing there are two pages exposed to view. '1 hill wooden boards lire fastened to each of the outer leaves, so that the whole presents as neat an appearance, remarks Peter .>fartyr, as if it had come from the shop of a skilful book binder. They al.so covereil build- ings, tapestries and scrolls of parchment willi these devices. . . . What Is still more astonish- ing, there is rea.son lo believe, in some instances, their figures wen; not painted, but actually printed with movable blocks of wood on which the symbols were carved in relief, though this was probably conlliied to those intemled for ornament only. In these records we discern soinetbing higher than a mere symbolur notation. They contain the germ of a iihonetic alphabet, and represent .sounds of spoken language. The symbol is often not comiected with the idea, but with the word. The iiUHle in which this is dono correspomls precisely to that of the rebus. It is a simple method, readily suggesting it.self. In the middle ages it was mtich in vogue In Europe for the same purpose for which it was chielly employed in Mexico at tlie .same time — tho writing of |)roper names. For example, tho English family Bolton was known in heraldry by a 'tun ' transfixed by a 'bolt.' Precisely so the Mexican Emp«"ir Ixcoatl is mentioned in tho Aztec innniiscript idcr the figure of a serpent, 'coatl,' pierced by oljsidiiin knives, 'ixtli.'. . . As a syllable could be expres.sed by any object whose name commenced with it, as few words can be given the form of a rebus without soino change, as the figures sometimes represent their full phonetic value, sometimes (mly that of their initial sound, and as universally the attention of the artist was directed less to the sound than to the idea, the didactic painting of the .Mexicans, whatever it might have been io them, is a sealed book to us, and must remain so in great part. . . . Immense masses of sucli documents wero stored in the imperial archives of ancient .Mexico. Toniuemadii asserts that five cities alone yielded to the Spanish governor on one reipiisition no less tlian 10,000 volumes or scrolls! Every leaf was destroyed. Indeed, so thonnigh and whole- sale was the destruetiou of these memorials, now so precious in our eyes, that hardly enough remain to whet the wits of antiiiuaries. In tho libraries of Paris, Dresden, Pestli, and tho Vatican are, however, a sulUcieiit number to make us despair of deciphering them, had wu for comparison all which the Spaniards des- troyed. Beyond all others the Mayas, resident on the peninsula of Yucatiin, would seem to have approached nearest a true phonetic system. Tliey had a regular and well understood alpha- bet of 37 elemenuiiy s<mn<ls, tho letters of which are totally dilferent from those of any other nation, and evidently originated with themselves. But besides these they used a large number of purely couveatioaal symbols, uud moreover 237 AZTKU VNI) MAYA I'ICTUUE WUITINO. UAHYLONIA. were iirruHtomcd ronstiintiv to fmploy tlu' iiiiclnil |ii('ti>Kr»|ilii(.' iiii'tli(H( ill aililllion as ii Horl of ('iiiiiiiit'mary mi tlu; hoiimiI rcpiTHt'iitol. . . . With till' alil of this alplialM't, wliicli liax fiirtiiiiatcly Imi'Ii priscrvcd, we art' cnublcil ti) Hpcll nut a few words on the Viicalccaii iiiaiiil- HcrijiUi uud fuviulen, but thus fur with no puitilivL' rcgultn. The losM iif the nncii'iit pmnunclatloti Is cHiiccijilly III the way of such Htudlcs. In South Ariicrica, also, thi'ru is luxM to have lu'vu a nation wlio ciiltivulcd tliu art of piituro- wrltlnj;, the I'unos, on thii river Ucuyalf. " — I). O. llrluton, The Myth* of th» Neie World, eh. 1. B. BABAR, King of Ferghana, A. I). 1404—; King of Kabul, A. I). WM — -. Moghul Em- peror or Padischah of India, A. I). i:i;>(i-iri;ti). BABENBERGS, The. .SccAustuia: A.I). wr. ijKi. B AB V LON : The City.— " The city stands on a broad plain, ami is an exact Nipiare, a litiiidrcd and twenty furloiiRS in U'nj,'tli caitli wi.y, so that tlic eritiro circuit is four hundred and ei;;lity furlongs. Wliile sucli is its si/.c, in inaKliili- cence there Is no otiier city that approaches it. It is surrounded, in tlie tiist place, by a broad and deep moat, full of water, licbiiid whicii rises a wall llfly royal cubits in widlli mid two bun- dreil in heij;lit. . . . And here I may not omit to tell the use to wliicli tlie iiioiild dug out of the H''''i't iiioiit was tinned, nor llu! manner wlierein th(^ wall was wrought. As fast as they duj; the moat llie soil wliicli they t^i'l from the cutting; was made into bricUs, and wlien a siif- flcieiit iiumlier were completed lliey baked the bricl^s in kilns. Then they set to biiildiii!;, and bej;aii with lirickin.i; the borders of I lie inoal, after which they proceeded to construct the wall itself, usinj; tliroun'iout for their cement hot bilumen, and interposinj; a layer of wattled reeils at every tliirlietli course of I lie brick. On the to|), aloiii' the edges of the wall, they con- structed liuililings of a single chamber facing one another, leaving between tliem room for a four horse cliariot to turn. In tlie circuit of tlie wall are a iiuiidred gates, all of brass, with lira/.en lintels and side po.sts. Tlie bitumen used in tlie work was brmiglit to Babylon from the Is, a small stream wliicli flows into the Euphrates at the point wliere the city of the same name stands, eiglit days' journey from Uabyloii. Lumps of iiitumenare found in great aliinulance in this river. Tlie city is divided into two portions by the river wiiicli runs through the midst of it. This river is tlie Euplirales. . . . The citv wall is brouglii down on both sides to the cilge of the stream; thence, from the corners of the wall, there is carried along each bank of the river a fence of burnt bricks. The houses are mostly three and four stories liigli; the streets all run in straight lines; not only those parallel to the river, but also the cross streets which lead down to tlie water side. At the river end of these cross streets are low gates in the fence that skirts the stream, whieli are, like the great gates in the outer wall, of bra-ss, and open on the water. Tlic outer wall is the main defence of the city. There is, however, a second inner wall, of less tliickncss than the first, but very little inferior to it in strength. Tlic centre of each division of the town was occupied bj' a fortress. In tlie one stood ^he palace of the kings, surrounded by a wall of great strength and size: in the other was the sacred precinct of Jupiter Bulus, a square enclosure, two furlongs each way, with .-ates of solid brass; which was al.su remaining in my time. In the miihlle of the precinct there was a tower of solid ni;isonry, a fui'long 111 lengtli and lireadlh, upon which wu» raised a second tower, and on that a third, and so on up to eiglit. Tlie ascent to the top is on tlie (lUlsiile, by a path which winds round all tlie towers. . . . On the topmost tower there is a spacious teiii|)le."— HeriMlolus, lliiit.. trans. Ill/ (I. JlnwUiiMoii, bk. 1, rh. 178-181. — According to (;tesias, the circuit of tlie walls of liabyloa was but IIIIO furlongs. The historians of Alex- ander agreed nearly with this. As regards the lieiglii of llu! walls, "Strabo and the historians of Ale.vander substitule 50 for the iJOO cubits of Herodotus, and it may Ihercfon' be suspected that tlie latter author refc^rred to Imiids, four of whicli were e(|ual to the cubit. The measure, inileed, of 50 fathoms or 200 royal cubits for the walls of a city in a iilain is iiuite preposterous. . . . >Iv own belief is that the height of tlio walls of Halivloii did not exceed flO or 70 Eng- lish fci't."— ll. 0. Uawlinson, note to iilKire. — Sec, al.so. nAiivi.()Nt.\: H. V. 02.5-5:19. BABYLON OF THE CRUSADERS, The. See CltiHADKs: A. I). 1248-1254. BABYLONIA, Primitive.— (So much new knowledge of the ancient peoples in tlic East ling been and is being brouglit to light by recent search and study, and the account of it in English historical literature is so meagre as yet, that there .seems to be good reason for deferring the treat- ment of these subjects, for llie most part, to a later volume of tliis work. Tlu^ reader is referred, therefore, to the article "Semites," in the hope that, before its publication is rcacbi'd, in the fourth or fifth volume, there will be later and better works to cpiotc from on all the subjects embraced. Terrien de Lacouperie's interesting theory, which is introduced below, in this jilace, is questioned by many scholars; and Professor Sayce, whose writings have done mucli to popu- larize the new oriental studies, .seems to g.isonie- times in advance of the sure ground.) — The Sumirians, inhabitants of tlie Sliinar of the Old Testament narrative, and Accadians, who di- vided primitive Babylonia between them, "were overrun and conquered by the Seniitic Baby- loniaus of Inter history, Accad being apparently the first half of the country to fall under the sway of the new comers. It is possible that Casdim, the Hebrew word translated Clialdecsor C'haldeans in tlie authorized version, is the Baby- lonian 'casidi' or conquerors, n title whicli con- tinued to cling to them in consequence of tlieir conquest. The Accadians had been the inven- tors of the pictorial hieroglyphics which after- wards developed into the cuneiform or wedge- shaped writing ; tliey had found d the great cities of Clialdea, and Iind attained to a high degree of culture and civilization. Their cities possessed libraries, stocked with books, written partly on papyrus, partly on clay, which was, while still 238 nAUYI.ONI.V. nABVLONIA. iioft, ItnprpiuM'il wlili clmriicliTH liy mrnnn of ri iiu'tiil KtyliiH. Till' iMHikH wi'rr iiiiiiicniiis, and rt'liiltMl lo It vurli'ty of HultjcclH. . . . Iti nmrsi' of llinc. Imwfvcr, llii' two (llalcctn i>f Suiiilr and Accad ri'iiHctl to Im' Hpokoii; Imt tlir ni'ccHMitv for IcariiiiiK tlii'in Htill rrliiaiiicd, and w<> Mtxl, ac- ('(mlln){ly. that down totlifilalcHt ilay.sof tH)tli As Nyria anil Baliylonia, tlic cdiicali'd clasMi'M were tiiUfclit till' old extinct Accadian, Inst as In imihI- t'rnEuro|H' tlicyanitaiiiflit Jiatin.' —A. II. Haver, Frenh IA<lht //•«/;» the Ain-liiit Monumiiitii, eft. 2. — ".Slni-i' Siitnlr, the Slihiar of the lllhlc, was tlic tlntt pail of till' country occupiiil liy tlic in- vading; S<'inil<'S, wliilo Accuil lon<; continued to Ik! rcKitrded as tlie Heat of an alien race, tlie lan- &w\liv ami population of prindtive Ciialdea liave t'cn named Aecadian l)y tlic ninjorily of As 1 yrlan scholars. Tli<' i)art |)layed by tliesi- Ac- eailians in the intellectual liislorv of mankind is liiilhly iinporlanl. They were tlic I'arliest eivili- /.ers of Western Asia, and it Is to them that we have to trace the arts and .sciences, the reliKioiis traditions and the philosophy not only of tlie As- Syrians, hut also of the I'lioMiicians, the Ara- nia'ans, and even the Hebrews (hemselvcs. It was, t(M), from Chaldca that the xerms of (Jreek art and of much of tlii' (J reek pantlieon and niytli- ology orljxinally came. Columnar areliiteelure reached its llrst and highest development in Hahylonia; the lions that still gourd tlw main en- trance of .MykeniL' arc distinctly Assyrian In char iicler; and the Ureek lleniklcs willi liis twelve lalMiurs finds his prototype in the hero of the grciit C'haUlean epic. It is dillicult to say how much of our present culture is not owed to the stunted, olilicpie-eyed people of ancient Baby- lonia; Jerusalem and Athens are the sacred cities of our modern life ; and both .Icrusalem and AIIkmis were profoundly intluenced by tlic ideas which had their first starting-point in priniieval Accad. The Semite has ever been a trader and an inter- niedinry, and his earliest work was the ])recious trade in spiritual and mental wares. Babylonia was the home and mother of Semitic culture and Semitic inspiration; the I'h<eniciaiis never forgot that they were a colony from the Persian Gulf, while the Israelite recounted that his fatiier Abraham had been born in Vr of the (!hal(lees. Almost the whole of the As.syrian literature was derived from Accad, and translated from the dead language of primitive Ciialdea." — A. II. Sayce, liiibyliiiiMn Literature, pp. 0-7. — Tlie same. Ancient Empiren of the fjixt, ii/ip. 2. — "The place of China in the past and future is not that which it was long supposed to 1k'. Uecent researches linve disch)se(l that its civilization, like ours, was variously derived from the same old focus of cul- ture of south-western Asia. . , . It was my good fortune to be able to show, in an uninterrupted series of a score or so of papers in periodicals, of communications to the Royal Asiatic Society and elsewhere, published and unpublished, and of contributions to .several works since April 1880, downwards, that the writing and some knowl- edge of irts, science and government of the early Chinese, more or less enumerated below, were derivei'. from the old civilization of Babylonia, through the secondary focus of Susiana, and that this derivation was a social fact, resulting not from scientilic teaching but from practical in- tercourse of some leugtn between the Susian con- federation and the future ci vilizers of the Chinese, the Bak tribes, who, from their neighbouring 239 (M>ttlemont« In the N., moved cn.^twards nt the timi' of the gn'iit rising of tlii' XXIII, crnlnry B. C. Coming again in tlie Held, Dr. .1. Kdkins has Joined me on the same line." — Terrien <hr I.acouperic. Itilii/I'iniu unit Chimi [.{dideni)/, A'l;/. I. IHMO).— •• We could enumerate a loiig series of alllnities between Chaldean culture ami Chini'se civili/.alion. allhough the last was not iMirrowcfl directly. From what evidenc'c we have, it Heeins highly probable that ac( rtain number of families or of tribes, wilhoiit any apparent gen eric mime, but among wliicli the" Kutia tilled an important .>osilioii, ciime to China about the year 'J.'idil 11. C, Thi'se trilx v, which came from the West, were obliged to (piit the neighlHinrhiKid, probiibly north of the Susiana, and were com- prised in tli(! feudal agglomeration of that region, where thiy must have been iiilliii'iieed by the Akkado-Chaldeim culture." — Terrien de I.iicoii- perie, h'lirl;/ lli't. of ('liiiieiie ('irili:;iitiiin, ;i. 32. — See, also, Ciiiw TukOhkiinof thi-: I'koim.k. The early (Chaldean) monarchy.— " Our earliest glimpse of the polilical condition of Ciialdea shows us the connliy divided into numerous sniiill states, each headed by a gri'iit city, made famous and powerful by thesanetuiiry or temple of .some particular deity, and ruled by a piitesi, a title wliicli is now thought to mean I)riest-king. i. e., i)riest ii.id king in one. There Clin be liltle doubt that the beginning of tlie city was every where the temple, with its college of ministering priests, and that the surrounding settlement was gradually formed by pilgrims and worshippers. That royalty developed out of the priestlioiHl is also more than probable. . . . There comes a time when for the title of l>iitesi is substituted that of king. ... It is noticeable tliat the distinction between the Semitic newcomers and the indigenous Sliumiro- Aecadians continues long to be tmceable in the names of the royal lemple-bnilders, even after the new Seinilic idiom, wliich we call the Assyrian, had entirely ousted the old language. . . . Furthermore, even suiierlicial observation shows that the old language and the old names survive longest in Sliiimir, — the South. From this fact it is to be inferred witli little chance of mistake that the North, — the land of Accad, — was earlier Semiti/.ed, that the Semitic im- migrants established their first heiidciuarters in that part of the country, that their power and influence thence spread to the South. Fully in accordance with tliese indications, the first grand historical figure that meets us at the threshold of Chaldean history, dim with the mists of ages and fabidous traditions, yet immistakably real, is that of the Semite Sliamikin, king of Accad, or Agade, as the great Northern city came to be calle(l — more gencndly known in history under the corrupt mcMlern reading of Sargon, and called Sargon I., 'the First,' to distinguish him from a very famous Assyrian monarch of the same name who reigned many centuries later. As to the city of Agade, it is no other than the city of Accad mentioned in Genesis x, 10. It was situated close to the Euplmites on a wide canal just opposite Sippar, so that in time the two cities came to be considered as one <lcuble city, and the Hebrews always called it 'the two Sippars ' — Sepharvaim, which is often spoken of in the Bible. . . . The tremendcmsly ancient date of 3800 B. C. is now generally" accepted for Sargon of Agade — perhaps the remotest BABYLONIA. BACTRIA. autliontic date j'ct nrrlvi'tl at in history." — Z. A. Hajjoziii, Shin/ I if V/mlileit, e/i. 4. — ••.(. liordi' of Cassilcs or Kossii'ans swept down from the iiiouMlaiiis of Nortliern Khun under tlieir h'adcr, Khaninnirafras; Aecad was (•on(iuered, a foreign dynasty estalilislied in tlie land, and tlie capital transferred from Aga(U! to Babylon. Bah-lon now lH(ame a city of importanee for the lirst time: the rank assij,'ne(l to it in the mythical age was hilt a rellection of the |)osition it held after the Cassile > ()n<piest. The ('.issite dyna.sty is prohahly the Arabian ynasty of Berosos. . . . A newlv-found insenption ot Nabonidos makes the date fof its advent] B. ('. 3~r,0 [fo,il-ii„ti'\. . . . The tirst care of Kliammiiragas, after estab- lishing Idmself in Aecad, was to extend his sway over tlie southern kingdom of Sinner as well. . . . Khamni'Tiigas hecamit king of the whole of Babylonia. From this time onward the coun- try remained a united monarchy. The C'assito dynasty must have lasted for several cemuries, and probably included more than one line of kings. ... It was under the C'as.site dynasty that the kingdom of Assyria tiist took its rise, — partly, perhai)s, in conseiiuence of the Asiatic conquests of tlie Egyptian monarchs of tiie eighteenth dynasty. ... In B. C. 1400 the Cassite king married an Assyrian princess. Iler son, Kara-Murdas, was murdered by the party oppo.sed to Assyrian intluence, but the usurjier, Nazi-bugas, was (pnckly overthrown by the Assyrians, who placed a vassal-iirince on the throne. This event may bo consiilercd the turn- ing-jioint in the history of the kingdoms of the Tigris and Euphrates; As.syria henceforth takes the place of the worn-out monarchy of Babylonia, and plays the chief part in the affairs of Western Asia until the day of its final fall. In little more than a liundred years later the Assyrians were again in Babylonia, but this time as avowed enemies to all ])arlies alike ; Babylon was captured by the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-Adar in B. C. 1270, and the rule of the Cassite dynasty came to an end." — A. II. Saj'ce, Ancient Enipin^ of the Eimt, iipp. 2. Al.fo IN: G. Kawlinson, FtK Grrnt Monarchies : Chnldea, ch. H.— See. also, Asuviii.v. B. C. 625-539.— The later Empire.— For more than si.\ centuries after the conquest of B. C. 1270, Babylonia was oiiscurcd by Assyria. During most of that hing period, the tJhalilcan kingdom was subject to its northern neighbor and governed by Assyrian vicen)ys. There were frequent revolts and some intervals of indepen- dence: but they were brief, and the political life of Babylonia a.s a distinct p(,wer nniy be said to have been suspended from 1270 until 625 B. C, when Nabopolassar, who rii!jd tirst as the viceroy of the As.syrian monarch, threw olT bis yoke, took the attributes of sovereignty to himself, and joined the Jlcdes in extinguishing the glory of Nineveli. "The Assyrian Empire was now shared between Media and Babylon. lyabu- cudur-utser. or Nebuchadrezzar, Nabojiolassar's eldest son, was the real founder -'f the Babylonian empire. The attempt of Pharaoh Nceho to win for Egypt the inheritance of Assyria was over- thrown at the battle of Carcheniish, and when Nebuchadrezzar succeeded his father in B. C. 604, he fo"-id himself the <indisputed lord of Western As) Palestine was coerced in (102, ai ' I'.ie destruction of Jeruaalcra in 587 laid a way open for the invasion of Egypt, wliiuh took place twenty years later. Tjtc also u.idorwent a long siege of thirteen years, but it is doiib'.lul whelher it was taken after all. Babyl:)ri was now enriched with the spoils of foreign conquest. It owed as much to Nehuehadrezzar as Home owed to Augustus. The buildings and walls with which it was adorned were worthy of the metropolis of the world. The piilace, now rep- reseiiU'd by the Kasr mound, was built in (ifteen days, and the outermost of its three walls was seven miles in circuit. Hanging gardens were constructed for Queen Amytis, the (laughter of the Median prince, and the great temple of Bel was roofed with cedar aiid overlaid with gold. The temifle of the Seven Lights, dedicated to Nebo at Borsi|)i)a by an early king, who had rai.sed it to a height of forty-two cubits, was completed, and various other temples were erected on a s.imptuous scale, both in Babylon and in the neighbouring cities, while new libra- ries were estalilislied there. After a reign of forty-two years, six nuinths and twenty -one days, Nebuchadrezzar died (B. ('. 562), an ■ tt the crown t(- his sou Evil->Ierodach, who i a short and inactive reign of three years, and 1 ,.irty- four days, when he was murdered by his brother- in-law, Nergal-slmrezer, the Neriglissar of the Greeks. . . . Tlie chief event of his reign of four yeii"^ and four months was the construction of a new palace. His son, who succeeded him, was a mere lioy, and was murdered after a brief reign of four months. The power now passed from the house of Nabopolassar, — Niibu-uahid or Nabonidos, who was mised to the throne, being of anotli.r family. Ilis reign flisted .seventeen years and tiv(^ months, and witnessed the end of the Babylonian empire," — which was overthrown by Cyrus the Great (or Kyros), B. 0. 530 [see Peiisia: B. C. 54t)-52)], and swal- lowed up in the Persian empire which he founded. — A. II. Sayce, Ancient Eminres of the East, app. 2. Also in: M. Duncker, Hist, of Antiquity, hk. 4, ch. 15. — G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies : The Fourth Monarch//, ch. 8. BABYLONIAN JEWS. See .Iews: B. C. 53(!-A. D, 50, and A. 1). 200-100. BABYLONIAN TALENT. See Talent. BABYLONIAN TALMUD, The. See Tal- mud. "BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY" OF THE POPES. See PaI'Acv: A. I>. 1294-1348. BACCALAOS, OR BACALHAS, OR BACALHAO COUNTRY. See Newkoi:,.)- L.VNii: A. I). 1501-1578. BACCHIADiE. See Couintii. BACCHIC FESTIVAi-S. See Dionysia. BACENIS, Forest of. See Hekcynian For- ' BACON'S REBELLION. See Virginia: A. D. 16(!0-107V. BACTRIA.— "Where the edge [of the table- land of Iran] rises to the lofty Hindu Kusli, tlu-e !ies on its northern slope a favored district in the region of the Upper Ox us. . . . On the banks of the river, which Hows in a north- westerly direction, extend broad mountain pas- tures, where support is found in the fresh moun- tain air for numerous herds of horses and sheep, and beneath the wooded hills are blooming val- leys. On those slopes of the Hindu Kush, the middle stage between the table-land and the 240 BACTRIA. BAODAD. deep plain of the Caspian Sen, l(iy tho Baotrians — tlic" Bal<litri of tlio Achacmcniirs, tlic Bal(h(llii of tlio Avestii. ... In ancient times tlie Bac- trians were liardly distinguislied from nomads; but tliiiir land was e.x^vr.cive and produced fruits of nil kinds, witli the exception of the vine. Tlie fertility of tho land enabled the Hellenic princes to make great conqtiests. " — >I. Dunckcr, Hist, of Anlii/inti/, lik. 6. ch. 3. — Tlio Bactrians were among tlie people subjugated by Cyrus tlie Great and their country formed part of tlie Per- sian Empire until tho latter was overthrow n bv Alexander (see Macedoni.v, &c. : B. C. 330-323). In the division of tho ]^Iacedonian conquests, after Alexander's death. Bnctria, with nil the fartlier east, fell to the share of Seleucus Nicator and formed part of what came to be called the kingdom of Syria. About 2.50 B. C. the Bactrian province, being then governed by an ambitious Greek satrap named Diodotus, was led by him into revolt against the Syrian monarchy, and easily gained its in<'.epen(lenct, witli Diodotus for its king (see SeleuciDvE: B. C. 281-224). "Tho authority of Diodotus was confirmed and riveted on liis subjects by an undisturbed reign of eighteen years before a Syrian army even showed itself in his neighbourhood. . . . The Bactrian Kingdom was, at any rate at its com- mencement, as thoroughly Greek as that of the Seleucidffi." "From B. C. 206 to about B. C 185 was tlie most tlouri-shing period of the Bac- trian monarchy, which expanded during that s'>aee from a small kingdom to a considerable empire " — extending over tho greater part of modern .\fgliani.»ta'i ami across the Indus vato the Punjaub. But meantime tho neighboring Parthians. who tlirt v oti the Scleucid yoke soon after the Bactrians Had done so, were growing in pe "r «nd they soon passed from rivalry to mn: f. Tlie iJactrian kingdom was prac- tica extinguished about 150 B. C. by the con- qui.'Si )f Iho Parthian Jlithridatcs I,, "although Gieek 1.. 'larclis of the Bactrian series continued airsters of Cabul and Western India till about B. C. lt?C."— G. Itiiwlinson, Sixth Omit Oriental Ml narchji, eh. 3-5. iIADAJOS : The Geographical Congress (1524). See Amkuicv: A. 1). 1510-1524. BADEN : Early Suevic population. See Si;i;v;. A. D. 1801-1803. — Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville. See Geumanv: A. 1). 1801-1803. A. D. 1805-1806.— Aggrandized by Napo- leon. — Created a Grand Duchy. — Joined to the Confederation of the Rhine. See Gkilmany: A. 1). 18,)5-1800, and Wm (Jakuauv— AuousT). A. D. 1813. — Abandonment of the Rhenish Confederacy and the French Alliance. See Fu,vnck:A. I). 18'4(.Ianiiauv— Maucii). A. D. 1849. — Revolution .suppressed by Prussian troops. See Gkh.many: A. D. 1848- 18.50. A. p. 1866.— The Seven Weeks War.— In- demnity and territorial ession to Prussia. SicGi:ii.\iANy: A. D. 18U0. A. D.1870-1871.— Treaty of Union with the Germanic Confederation, soon transformed into the German Empire. See Gkkmanv: A. D. 1870 (Septe.mueii— December\ and 1871. BADEN, OR RASTADT, Treaty of (1714). See Utueciit: A. D. 1713-1714. BAOn, OR BEDR, Battle of. See Ma-- IIOMKTAN CoNCJUMST: A. 1). 000-633. BiECULA, Battle of. See Plnic Wau, TiiK Sr.coNi). BjERS/ERK. See BEnsERKEU. BiETICA. — The at cient name of the prov- ince in Spain which afterwards took from the Vandals the name of Andalusia. See Spain: B. C. 218-25, and A. D. 428; also Tuudetani, and Vandals: A. D. 428. B./ETIS, The. — The ancient name of the GuadaUiuiver river in Spain. BAGACUM. See Neuvii. BAGAUDS, Insurrection of the (A. D. 287). — The peasants of Caul, whose conditio-i had become very wretched during the distractions and misgovernment of the third century, were provoked to an insurrection, A. I). .187, which was general and alarming. It was a rising which seems to have becm much like those tliat occurred in France and England eleven centuries later. The rebel peasants were called Bagnuds, — 1' name which some witers derive from the Celtic word "bagad" or "bagat,' signifying "tumultuous assemblage." They sacked and ruined several cities, — taking Autun after a siege of seven months, — and committed many terrible atrocities. The Emperor Maximian — colleague of Diocletian, — succeeded, at last, in suppressing the general outbreak, but not in extinguishing it every where. There were traces of it surviv- ing long afterwards. — P. 'Godwin, IIi»t. of France, 0. 1: Ancient (ia .1, lik. 2, ch. 6. Also in: W. T. Arnold, The Roman System of Pnirinfial Administration, ch. 4. — See, also, Dedititm.s. BAGDAD, A. D. 763.— The founding of the new capital of the Caliphs. See Mahometan C0W7UKST Ni) Empiui;: a. I). 763. A. D. 815-945.— Decline of the Caliphate. See Mahomi-.tas CIoncji'kst and Fh'Piui;: A. 1). 815-945. A. D. 1050. — In the !;ands of the Seldjuk Turks. S(cTruKs:A. 1). 1004-100;!. A. D. 1258.— The Fall of the Caliphate.— Destruction of the city by the Mongols. — In 1252, on the accession of ^Mangu Kliaii, grandson of .lingis Khan, to the sovereignty of the Moagol Empire [sco Mongols] ■■> ^r^.-.t Kuiiltai or council was held, at wluuli it was decided to send an expedition into the West, for two pur- poses: (t), to exterminate tho Isinaileans or Assassins, who still maintained their power in northern Per.sia; (2), to reduce tlu! (,'alipli of Bagdad to subini.ssion to the Mongol supreiuacy. The command )f the expedition was given to 3Iaugu's brothci' Kliulagu, or lloulagou, wlio ])erformed his aj. pointed tasks with tliorough- iiess and unmerciuil resolution. In 1257 ho made an end of the Assassins, to tho great relief of the whol. eastern world, JIahometan and Christian. In 1258 he psw-sed on to Bag<lad, preceded by an embassy which euininoned the Caupli to sui-init, to nizo the walls of Bagdad, to give up his vain pretensions to the sovereignty of the Moslem world, and to acknowledge the Great Khan for his lord. The feebU; calipli and his treacherous and incapable ministers neither submitted nor made vigorous preparations for defence. As a consequence, Bagdad was taken after a siege which only exc'ted the ferocity of the Mongols. They tired the city and .slaughtered its people, excepting some Christuius, who ore 241 BAGDAD. HAINBRIDOK. Raid to Imvo been sijiircd tlir<>uj,'li the influence of one of KliiiliiKu's wives, wiio wns e Nestoriiui. The siiek of Biigdiul liisted seven days. Tlie numl. r of tlie (leml, we lire told by Rii.scliid, wiiH 800,000. The ciiliph, iM().stiis.seni. with all his family, was put to death. — H. 11. Il(, vortli. Hint, of tlie Moiifiith, V. 1, pp. 103-201. — For a I considerable period before thi.s final catastrophe, in the decline of the Seljuic Empire, tli(^ C'liliphnte at Ha;;clad had become once more "an inde- pendent temporal state, though, instead of rul- ing in the three .piarters of the globe, the caliphs riih^d only over the province of Irak And)i. Their position was not unlikt! that of th(^ Popes in recent times, whom they itlso resembled in a.ssuming a new name, of a pious character, at their inaui^uration. Hoth the Christiiin and the Jloslem pontiff was the real temporal sovereign of a small state ; each claimed to be spiritual sovereign over the whole of the Faithful; each was recogni/.ed assucli by a large body, but rejected by others But in truth the spiritual recognition of the Abbaside caliphs was more nearly universal in their last age than it had ever been before." Witli the fall of Bagdad fell the caliphate sis a temporal sovereignty^; but it stirvived, or was resurrected, in its spiritual functions, 'o become merged, a little later, in the supremacy of the sultan of the Ottoman Turks. " A certain Ahmed, a real or pretended Abbasside, fled [from Bagdad] to Egypt, where he was proclaimed caliph by the title of Al Mostanser Billah, under the protection of the then Sultan Bibars. He and his successors were deemed, in spiritual tilings. Commanders of the Faithful, and they were found to be a convenient instrument both by the Mameluke sultans and by other Mahometan princes. From one of them, Baiazet the Thunderbolt received the title of Sultan ; from another, ,Sclim the Inflexible pro- cured the cession of his claims, and obtained the right to deem himself the shadow of God upon earth. Since then, the Otto.nnn Padishah has been held to inherit the rights of Omar and of Ilaroun, rights which if strictly pressed, might be terrible alike to enemies, neutrals, and allies." — E. A. Freeman, Hut. and Conq. of tlie Saracens, leet. 4. A. D. 1393. — Timour's pyramid of heads. See Ti.Mot'u. A. D. 1623-1638.— Taken by the Persians and retaken by the Turks. — Fearful slaughter of the inhabitants. See Ti:nKs: A. D. 1C23-1G40. BAGISTANA. See Bkiiistcn, Rock of. BAGLIONI, The.— "TheBaglioni first came into notice during tlie ^\a^s they carried on with the Oddi of Perugia in the 14th n'rd l.'ith cen- turies. Tliis was one of those duels to the death, like that of tlie Visconti with the Torrensi of Milan, on which the fate of so many Italian cities of the middle ages hung. The nobles fought; the townsfolk assisted like a Greek chorus, sharin;^ the passions of tlie actors, but contrr'buting little to the catastrophe. The piazza was the theatre on whicli the tragedy was played. In this contest the Baglioni proved the stronger, and began to sway the state of Perugia after the irregular fashion of Italian despots. They had no legal right over the city, no hereditarj' magistracy, no title of princely authoiity. The Church was reckoned the supreme administrator of the Perugian common- wealth. But in reality no man could set foot on the rmbrinn i)lain witliout pemiis.sion from the Baglioni, They elected tiie olUcers of stale. The lives and goods of the citizens were at their discretion. When a Papal legale showed his face, they made the town too hot to hold him, ... It was in vain that from time to time tlie l)<o])le ro.se against them, massacring Pandolfo iJ.'iglioid on tlie public sijuaro in UiiKi, and join- ing with Uidolfo and Braccio of the dominant house to assassinate another Pandolfo with his son Niccolo in 1400. The more they were cut down, the more they fli>uri.slicd. The wealth they derived from tlieir lordships in the duchy of "Spoleto and the Uinbrian liillcitics, and the treasures they accumulated in tlic service of the Italian republics, made them omnipotent in their native town. . . . From father to son they were warriors, and we have records of few Italian houses, except perhaps the JIalatesti of Rimini, who ecpialled them in hardihood and fierceness. Esi)(^cially were they noted for the remorseless vendette which they carried on among themselves, cousin tracking c.iusin to death with the ferocity and and craft of sleuth- hounds. Had they rcstraineil these fratricidal passions, they might, perhaps, by following some common policy, like that of the Medici in Florence or the Bentivogli in Bologna, have suc- cessfully resisted the Papal authority, and se- cured dynastic sovereignty. It is not until 1495 tliat the history of the Baglioni becomes dra- matic, possibly" because till then tliey lacked the pen of Matarazzo. But from this year forward to their final extinction, every detail of their doings has a picturesque and awfu! interest. Domestic furies, like the revel descried by Cas- sandra above the palace of Mycenae, seem to take possession of the fated house ; and the doom which lias fallen on tlieni is worked out with pitiless exactitude to the last generation." — J. A. Symonds, Sketches in Italy and Greece, pp. 70-73. BAGRATIDAE. The. SccAkmenia: 12th- 14th Cknturies. BAHAMA ISLANDS : A. D. 1492.— Dis- covery by Columbus. See Amebica: A. D. 14i)2. BAHRITE SULTANS. See Egypt: A. D. 19,')0-1,')17. BAIiE. — Baia>, m Campania, opposite Puteoli on a small bay near Naples, was the favorite watering place of the ancient Romans. "As soon as the reviving heats of April gave token of advancing summer, the noble and the rich hurried from Rome to this choice retreat; and here, till the raging dogstar forbade the toils even of amusement, they disported themselves on shore or on sea, in the thick groves or on the placid lakes, in litters and chariots, in gilded boats with painted sails, lulled by day and night with the sw(."test symphonies of song and music, or gazing indo.^^ntly on the wanton measures of male and female lancers. Tlie bath, elsewhere their relaxation, wan here the business of the day ; . . . they turned the pools of Avernus and Lucrinus into tanks for swimming ; and in tlk se pleasant waters both sexes mot familiarly to- gether, and conversed amidst the roses sprinkled lavishly on their surface." — C. Merivale, llist. of the IlDinniiD, ch. 40. BAINBRIDGE, Commodoie William, in the War of 1812. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 18ia-1813. 242 I*'i 'Vivi T f^ ^ ,^' n fl.-. IS," -~<5^^ •o(r ASIA MIXOH MAR rm cuu or tm twiuth ctNTufrv. niiiaicln ^.^t^^' BYZ/kmiNEEM _J StU TURKS , 1 SERVIA _J BULGARIA ! CILICIAN ARMENIA VENETIAN POSSESSIONS i STATES UNDER LATIN RULE I ' COUNTY SALATINATEOFCtPMALDNIA ti s:v' / ^\ ^ r. win L. 1 4.1 0^'^°*'' SHomaiituTMloliriAairiNC WPinc T'l^ W*jlf-OS<i>i "^ <-*'Ttf \\ '-7 I u FN rfiiiiiiimi .,• S[LJUKI»N n«*S I3l/«l.l*CHW« 5WK, SICaiHN POSStSSiaS _JVtlltIl«P(ISSE3S«lll5' GREEK EMPIRE OF TREBIZOND- „ RESTORED BYZANTINE EMPIRE _ GREEK DESPOIAI OF 6PIRUS • _ STATES UNDER LATIN RULC i sutffSM'ftrmanfCO i'Th mn* U^^^^^^ r;., ^^4 JvAM'KMNSl'LA ^SfcKi, 'V-a'^ WTKMIDDltor TDK . ilM. V \ ' ^OUCl HAIJiAM'K iKniiMntrr MtAJHus OF aiwtiA Aha ^^^w^t r .A^^S^*^ "^. fc. £0. llWTHt OBMANLI POWER) 5 OSMAIIll lURRS 1 SEBVIHN IMPlRt I S^tUflKSUNDEROTHER DYNASTItS - ■ L__l iiioBi piBstssioii5^_ivn(mAK PosstssOHS . r;^ BYZANTINE EMPIRE - T | i iSTAItS UNDER LATIN RULE ■ jUi', - CREEK EMPIBEOFTREBIZOND ^^ !l r_..in"* /r ▼ \\.iv o 'J "'-^1 WyA \. L A\C H ■•ill . ss, \tA d L * V 1 A'fk/ ^.c^Mj'^ ^' / ■raETrRKLsiiKju'im: * " "I accession or "■"'' MfHUHMKD II.'H.':i I fulfil ^..., ,.in«HTIM EMPIRE [ZDOSMANU TURKS '__) ™™<S UNDER OTHER CnrNASTIES :" 1 VENETIAN POSSESSIONS ' -__] GENOESE POSSESSIONS — ."l SfATtS UNDER LATIN RULE uatj „ . jbREEK EMPIRE OF TREBUOND- - i — 1 1 ' -g. 3 IJAIHEUTH, BALKAN AND PANUniAN STATES, BAIREUTH, Creation of the Principality of. Sec (JkkMANY; TllIUTKKNTlI t'KNTl'UY, Separation from the Electorate of Branden- burg. See BuANDE.MiLiKi: A. 1). 1417-1040. BAJAZET I.— Turkish Suhan, A. D. 1380- 14(1'-' Bajazet II., A. I). MHI-loia. BAKAIRI, The. Sec Amkuican Aiioni(3i- NKs: Cauiiw. BAKER, Colonel Edward D., Killed at Ball's Bluff. Hoe L'nitkd (States ok Am. : A. D. 18(11 ((_)(Ti>i!i:u: Viu(iiNiA). BAKSAR, OR BAXAR, OR BUXAR, Battle of (1764). Hoc India: \. 1). n.J7-17T:J. BALACLAVA, Battle of. See Ulbsia: A. U. IS.W (OtTOIli:!! — NoVEMllKIi). BALBINUS, Roman Emperor, -' . 1) BALBOA'S DISCOVERY OF THE CIFIC. See Amicuiia: A. I), inilj-l,-)!?. BALCHITAS, The. See A.MEiacAN Abo- uioiNEs: Pampas Tuihrs. BALDWIN OF FLANDERS, The Cru- sade of. Soe Ckusai>es: A. I). r.;oi-12()3 Baldwin I., Latin Emperor at Constantinople (Romania), A. 1). 1204-120.") Baldwin II., A. 1). 12;!7-iaoi. BALEARIC ISLANDS: Origin of the Name, &c. — "The iiilmbitiiiits were celebrated for the skill and force with whicli they man- aged their slings of leather, hemp or rushes; in the wurs of the Carthagiuiaus with the liomans 238. PA- tliey were a most formidable description of light troops. Tlic imme ' lialcarcs ' was <lcrive(l liy the Greeks from ' ballciii,' to throw ; but tlie art was taught thcni by the Pliieniciaiis, and the name is no doul)t I'hoMiiCian." — ,J. Keurlek. I'/innirin, r/i. 4. — For the chief incidents in the history of these islands, sec MiNoitiA and .Ma.iokia. BALIA OF FLORENCE, The.— The chief iiistrument eni|doycd liy the .Medici to establi'ih their jiowcr in Florence was "the pernicious system of tlie I'arlamcnto and IJali;!, by means of winch tiie people, ass"inblc(l from time to time in tlie public S((uare. and intimidated l)y tlie reigning faction, entru.sted full powers to a k( led com- mittee nominated in private by the chiefs of the great house. . . . Scgni say.s: 'The Paianiento is a meeting of the Florentii"' people on the Piazza of the Sigiiory. When tlie Signory lias taken its place to address the meeting, the piazza is guarded by armed men, and then the people are nskcd wlK'thcr they wish to give absolute power (Balia) and authority to the citizens named, for their good. When the answer, yes, prompted partly by inclination ai il partly liy compulsion, is returned, the Signory immediately retires into tlie palace. Tliis is all that is meant by this par- lamento, which thus gives away the full ])ower of effecting a change in the stale." — ,1. A. Sy- monds, Renaissance in Italy : Af/e of the Desjmts, p. 164, and foot-note. — See, also, Floiiencb: A. D. 1378-1427, and 1458-1469. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. Ancient History. — The States of south- eastern Europe, lately emancipated, for the most part, from the rule of the Turks, arc so nssociited by a common history, nlthougli re- marka'-'.y diverse in race, tliat it seems expedient to brill T them for discussion together. They occupy mainly the regions known in Roman times as Moe8i.\, Dacia and Ili.vuicum, to which names the reader is referred for some account of the scanty incidents of their early history. — See, also, Avars. Races existing. — "In no part of Western Europe do wc find districts inh-bited by men differing in speech and national feeling, lying in distinct patches hero and there over a large country. A district like one of our larger coun- ties in which one parish, perhaps one hundred, spoke Welsh, another Latin, anotlicr English, another Dani.sh, another Old French, anothc- the tongue of more modern settlers, Flemings, Huguenots or Palatines, is something which we find hard to conceive, and which, as applied to our own land or to any other Western land, sounds absurd on the face of it. Wiien we pass into Souvli-„astern Europe, this state of things, the very idea of which seems absurd in the West, is found to be perfectly real. All the races which we find dwelling there at the beginning of recorded history, together with several races which have come in since, all remain, not as mere fragments or survivals, but as nations, eaoh with its national language and national feelings, and each having its greater or' less share of practical importance in the politics of the pr-sent moment. Setting aside races which have simply passed through the coi.ntry without occupying it, we may say that all the races wliich have ever .settled in the country are there still as distinct races. And, though each race has its own partictdar region where it forms the whole people or the great majority of the people, still there are large districts where different races really live side by side in the very way which seems .so absurd when we try to conceive it in any Western country. We cannot coa- ceive a Welsh, an English, a: id a Norman vil- lage side by side; but a Greek, a IJulgarian, and a Turkish village side by side is a tiling which may be seen in 11 any parts of Thrace. The oldest races in thoije lands, those which answer to Basques and Bretons in Western Europe, hold ([uite another position from that of Basques and IJretons in Western Europe. They form three living and vigorous nations, Greek, Albanian, and Uouman. They stand as nations alongside of the Slaves who came in later, and who answer roughly to the Teutons in the West, while all alike are ur.'ler the rule of the Turk, who has nothing ai. .wering to him in the West. . . . When the itomans contjuered the Southeastern laiids, they found there three great races, the Greek, the Illyrian, and the Thracian. Those three races are all there still. The Greeks speak for themselves. The Illyrians are represented by the nioderr Albanians. The Thracians are represented, there seems every reason to believe, by the modern Roumaiis. Now had the whole of the Soutli-eastern lands been inhabited by Illyrians and Thracians, those lands would doubtless have become as thoroughly Roman as the Western lands became. ... But the [losi- tiou of the Greek nation, its long history and its high civilization, hindered this. The Greeks could not become Romans iu any but the most 243 BALKAN AND DANUniAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANLHIAN STATKS. purely politiral scnsr. Like otlior siibjrctH o( the Kdinan Kinpirc, tlicy Rrudimlly look i\\r Komaii nninc; but they ki'pt their own liiii guugr, HtLTiituro, luid civili/aliiin. In Hliorl we may say tliat tlio Hotuan Km|)irc in llic Kust became (ireek, and tbat tlie (Jrirk nation lie- came H(mmn. Tlie EasttTu Enii)irc and tlu; Oretk-spoakinj? lands bccanio nearly (UH'Xtx'u- sive. Greek lieeanie the om: lan)j;uaKo of the Eastern Homau Empire, while those tliat .spoke it still ealled themselves Homans. Till (piitc^ lately, tbat is till the miMlern ideas of nationality bega'n to spread, the Greek-speaking siibjeets of the Turk called themselves by no name but that of Uontans. . . . While the Greeks thus took the Uoman name without adopting the Latin language, another people in the Eastern penin- sula adopted both name and language, exactly asthenationsof the West (lid. If, as there is good reason to believe, the modern Houmaiis repre- sent the old Thracians, tbat nation came under the gei.oral law, exactly like the Western nations. The Thracians became tbnrotighly Homan in speech, as they have ever since kept the lioman name. They form in fact one of tlii' Romance nations, just as nuich as the people of Gaul or Spain. . . . In short, the existence of a highly civilized people like tiie Greeks hindered in every way the inlluence of Home from being 80 thorough in the East as it was in llie West. The Greek nation lived on, and alongside of itself, it preserved the other two ancient nations of tlie peninsula. T lus all three have lived on to the ])resent as dist n(a nations. Two of them, the Greeks and the Ulyrians, still keep their own languages, while the llurd, the old Thracians, speak a Homance language and call themselves jjoumans. . . . The Slavonic nations bold in the East a place answering to that wliich is hekl by the Teutoidc nations in the West. . . . Rut though the ."slaves in the East thus answer in many ways to the Teiitons in the West, their position with, regard to the Eastern Empire was not (luitc the sanu' as that of the Teutons to- wards the Western Empire. . . . They learned much from the half Komau, half Greek power with which they had to do; but they did not themselves become either Greelc or Homan, in the way in which tbi! Teutonic con(iuerors in die Western Empire became Homan. . . Thus, while in tlie West everything ex( few survivals of c;,rlier nations, is either Hianaii orTciitoiiie, in llie East, Greeks, Ulyrians, Thraci- aus or Houmaiis, and Slaves, all stood side by side as distinct nations when the next set of in- vaders came, and they remain as distinct nations still. . . . TlM'reci.meamoiigthem, inthel'ormof the Ottoman Turk, a jieople witli whom union was not only hard but imiKissible, a peojile who were kept distinct, not by special circumstances, hut by tli6 inherent naiiirc of the case. Had the Turk been other than what he really was, he iiiiglit simply have become a new nation aloiig.sido of the other South-eastern nations, lieing what be was the Turk could not do this. . . . Tlie original Turks did not belong to the Aryan branch of mankind, and their original speech is not an Aryai speech. The Turks and their speecli belong to altogether another class of nations and languages. . . . Long before tlu; Turks came into Europe, the JIagyars or Hun- garians had come ; and, before the jlagyars came, the Bulgarians had <:omc. Both the Magyars and the Bulgarians were In their origin Tur- anian lations, nations as foreign to the Aryan jH'ople of Europ(^ as the Ottoman Turks them- selves. Hut their history shows that a Turanian nation settling in Europe may cither be assimi- lated with an existing European nation or may sit (l')wn as an European nation alongside of others. The Iliilgiiriaiis hav(' done one of these things; tlie .Magyars have done the oilier; Uiit Ottoman Turks have done neither. So iiuicli has been iieard lately of the Bulgarians as being in our times the special victims -i' the Turk that some peopli! may lliid it stra ige to bear who the original Bulgarians wer . They were a people more or less nearly iinin to the Turks, and they came into Europe as barbarian con- querors who were as much dreade<l by the nations of Soiitii-eastern Europe as the Turks themselves were afterwards. The old Bulgar- ians were a Turanian people, who settled in r large imrl of the South-eastern peninsula, in lands wliich had been already occupied by Slaves. They came in as barbarian couiiuerors; but, exactly as happened to so many conijuerors in Western Europe, they were jiresently assimi- lated by their Slavonic subjects and neighbours. They learned the Slavonic speech; they gradii- allylost all traces of their foreign origin. Those whom we now call Bulgarians are ,. Slavonic peoide speaking a Shivoiiic tongue, and they have nothing Turanian about them except the name which they borrowed from their Turanian masters. . . . The Bulgarians entered the Em- pire in the seventh century, and embraced Christianity in the ninth. Tliey rose? to great ]iower in tlie South-eastern lands, and played a great iiart in tlieir hi.story. But all their later liistory, from a comparatively short time niter the first Bulgarian conquest, lias been that of a Slavonic and not that of a Tuii'iiian people. Tlie history of tlu^ Bulgarians therefore shows that it is quite iiossible. if circumstances are favourable, for a Turanian people to settle among the Aryans of Europe and to be thor- oughly assiniilaled by the Arvaii nation among whom they settled." — E. A. I'Vcenian, The Otto- .iKUi Poircr ill I'Si(ro/)(\ cli. 3. Also in: H. G. liatham, The Xationalities of Kiiyiipt'. 7th Century. — (Servia, Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia and Montenegro.) — The Slavonic settlement. — "No couiuiy on the face of our unl'ortunate planet has been ofteiier ravaged, no land so often soaked with the blood of its in- habitants. At the dawn of history Bosnia formed part of Illyria. It was .said to have been already i)eopled by Slav tribes. Home con- (piereii all tliis region as far as tlie Danube, and annexed it to Dalmatia. Two jirovinc were f. •ined, 'Dalmati.i maritima,' and ' Daliiiatia in- tci 'a,' or 'lllyris barbara.' Order reigned, and as the interior comiiuinieated with tlie coast, the whole country tlouiished. Important ports grew upon the littoral. ... At the fall of the Emiiire came tlie (lOtlis, then the Avars, who, for two centuries, burned and massacred, and turned the whole! country into a desert. ... In 030 the Croats began to occupy the ])rcscnt Croatia, Slavonia, and the north of Bosnia, and in 040 the Servians, of the same " jc and language, ex- terminated tlie Avars .iiid peopled Servia, Southern Bosnia, Montencgn, and Dalmatia. TUe etUiic situation which exists to-day dales 245 BALKAN AND DANI'IUAX STATKS. HALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. from tills opncli." — E. do Lnvclcyc, Thf ndhin J'ii(iii»iilii, c/i. iJ, — " Hcnii-liilH [will) ociiipifil tlic tliriuic of the KiihIitm Kiiililrc iit Consliiii- tiiiiiplr frciMi (110 til tll'J| iippi'urs to liiivc InriiiiMl till' plan or rNtiililisliiiiu; ii prnimiit'Tit Imrrirr In p^uriipr ii;;iiliist tliu t'iKToiicliiiii'iits of tlm Avars iinilSclavDiiiaiis. . . . Ti)«cci)iiiplisli lliisolijcct, lli'racliiis liiilii'.'ril the iScrbs, or Wcslrrii iScla- VDiiiaiis, will) iHTupli'il till! cimiitry aliiiiit t.ii; Carpalliiaii iiiiiiiiitaiiis, anil who liail siirri'ssfii'ly <i|)piisi'il till' I'xiriisloii of till' Avar riiipiri'iii that din rl ion, to aliandon tlirir aiirii'iit, scats, and iiiovr down to till! SiMilli into tlu' proviiici's br- twi'i'ii till' Adriatirand tlir Daiiiibi-. Thr Konian and (ini'k popiilatiiiii of thi'sc prnvincos had hern drivrii towards tlin scacnast by the con- tinual iiiriirKiiais of till' norlhirii tribi's, and thi! <lrsolati! plains of tliu iiili'rior had bri'ii orrnpicil by u few Srlavoiiian subji'Cts and vassals of tlio Avars. Tlii' most important of tlii! wrstcra Hclavoniaii tribi'S who moved southward at tlin invitutioii of irerat'lius were thu Servians and <!roiitiaiis, who settled in the countries still peopled by their deseemiants. Their orijjiiial settlements were formed in con.seiiuenee of friendly arranj^ements, and, doubtless, under the sanction of an express treaty ; for the .Sclavonian people of Illyria and Dalmatia long regarded Iheinselves as bound ii) pay a certain degree of territorial allegiance to the l-jastern Kiiipire. . . . These colonies, unlike tlie earlier invaders of the Kmpire, were composed of agricultuml com- munities. . . . Unlike the military races of Ooths, Huns, and Avars, who had ])receded them, the Servian nations inca'ased and tlourislied in the lands whi(!li they liaii colonized ; and by tlio absorption of every relic of the ancient liiipiilation, they formed political communitich and independent states, which olTered n firm barrier to the Avars and other hostile nations. . . . The states which they constituted were of considerable weight in the history of Europe; and the kingdoms or bannats of Croatia, Servia, Bosnia, Itascia and Dalmatia, occupied for some centuries a political position very similar to that now held by the secondary monarchical states of the present day." — O. Finlay, Greece uiuler the litwuiim. ch. 4, sect. 0. — See, also, Avahs: TifE BiiKAKiNoop TiiEiu DOMINION; and Slavonic Nations; (Itii and 7tii Centuuieb. yth'-Sth Centuries (Bulgaria). — Vassalage to the Khazars. See Khazahs. 9th Century (Servia).— Rise of the King- dom. — "At the iieriod alluded to [the latter part of the ninth century] the Servians did not, like the rest of the L'llavonians, constitute a, distinct state, but ncknovv'edged the 8U)iremacy of the Eastern lloman Eniiieror: in fact the country they ir.'.abitcd had, from ancient times, formed part of the Boman territory ; and it Mill remained part of the Eastern Kmpire when the Western Empire wasreestablished, at the liine of Charle- magne. The Servians, at tlie same period, em- braced the Christian faith ; but in doing so they did not subject themselves entirely, either to the empire or church of the Greeks. . . . The Em- l)eror . . . permitted the Servians to be ruled by native chiefs, .solely of their own election, who preserved a patriarchal form of government. ... In the eleventh century, the Greeks, des- pite of the stipulations they had entered into, at- tempted to lake Servia under their immediate control, and to subject it to their liuaucial sys- tem." The attempt met with a defeat which wasdeclslve. " Not only did it put a speedy ter- miiialion to the encroachment of the Court of Conslanlinopli' in imposing a direct governmint, but it also tirnily cslalilished the princi'ly power of the Grand Shiipanes; whose existence du- Iiended on the preservation of the national iiidc- peiidenie. . . . Pope Gregory VII. was the first who saluted a Grand .Shupane as King." — Ij. Von Itaiike, Hint, af S-rri<i. c!i. 1. 9th-i6th Centuries (Bosnia, Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia.)— Conversion to Christianity.— The Bogoiniles. — Hungarian crusades. — Turkish conouest. — .Vflir tlie Slavonic sillleinent of Ser- via, Bosnia, Croatia iind Dalmatia, foratimn "the sovereignty of By/.antium was acknowledged. But the conversion of these tribes, of Identieal race, totwodiirereiitChristian rites, created an an- tagonism which .still exists. The (,'roats were con- verted llrst bv missionaries from Home; tliey thus adopted ).iatiii letters and Latin ritual ; the Servians, on the contrary, and consei|ueiitly ))art of the inhabitants of Bosnia, were brought to Christianity by Cyril and Methodius, wlio, coining from Thcssalonica, brought the char- acters and rites of the Eastern ('liurcli. About 860 Cyril translated the Bible into Slav, invent- ing an alphabet which bears his name, and which is still in use. ... In 874 Budimir, tlio first Christian King of Bosnia, Croatia and Dalmatia, called a diet upon the plain of Dalminium, where ho tried to establish a regular organization. It was about this time that the name Bosnia appeared for the first time. It is st.id to bo derived from a Slav tribe coming originally from Tliraci!. In 905 Brisimir, ICing of Servia. annexed Croatia and Bosnia; 'iiit this union iliil not last long. The sovereignty of By/.antium cca.sed in these parts after tlie year ItiOO. It was gained by Lailislaus, King of Hungary, about 1091. In 1103 Coloman, King of Hungary, added the titles of 'Uex I^lmlB ' (Herzegovina), then of ' Kcx Bosniic.' Since then Bosnia has always been a dependence of the crown of Saint Stephen. . . . About this time some Albigenses came to Bosnia, who converted to their beliefs a large number of the people who were called Cauire, in German Patarener. In Bosnia they received and adopted the nai)ie of Bogomile, which means 'loving God.' Nothing is more tragic than the history of this heresy. . . . They [the BogomilesJ became in Bosnia a oliicf factor, both of its history and its present .situation. . . The Hungarian Kings, in obedi- ence to the Pope, ceaselessly endeavoured to extirpate them, and their frequent wars of extermination provoked the hatred of the Bosnians. ... In 1238 the first great crusado was organized by Bela IV. of Hungary, in obedience to Pope Gregory VII. The whole country was devastated, and the Bogomiles nearly all massacred, except a number who escapoil to the forests and mountains. In 124.') the IIiui- garian Bishop of K^ilocsa himself ? 1 a second crusade. In 1280 a third crii«aile was luuk'r- taken by Ladi.slaus IV., King of Hungary, in order to regain the Pope's favour. . . . About the year 1300 Pan' of Brebir, 'Banu.- Croatorum et llosnia; dominus,' final!_> added Herzegovina to Bosnia. Under the Ban Stejihen IV., the Emperor of Servip, the great Dushan, occupied Bosnia, but it soon regained its independeiice (1355), au'l under Stephen Tvartko, who took 246 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. HAI-KAN AND DANUDIAN STATES. tlio title of kins, tlm cmintry enjoyed ii last pcrliiil (if jieiiee iind prospcilty. . . . Uefore Ills (lentil the Turks appejired iiii the frontiers. At the inenionilile unci dei.'lslve haltle of Kos.sovo [seeTlltKs: A. D. IMIIO-IUHII). whieh iriwe them Servhi, ;)(),(Mm liosnlans were engiitred. and, thoii^fli retreatiiii; stopped the conciueror. Under Tvariko II., the second kinir, who was iv Uo;;otuile. IJo-inla en|ove(l some years' peaeo (l!)'-'fl-IU;)). Then followed |seeTlliKs: A. I). 14()'J -I4.")l| a liloodv interlude of civil war," ■which invited the Turks and prepared the way for them. "Mohammed II.. wiioha<l just taken ConstantinopI ' (ll.Vt), ailvaiicd with a fonnid- nblc armv of l.'iD.OdO men, wliicli notldn.i; could resist. The country was laid waste: ;ltl,(M)() younj? men were circumcised and enrolled lUiKUiftst the janissaries; 2(M),tHI0 (irisoners were nu.le hi'ives; the towns which resisted were buri.ed, the churches turned into mosr|ues, and Uic lui.,1 coiillscated by Ihr conciuerors (I4ti;t). . . . \. period of stni^fgle lasted from 1 1(K{ till tho detlnil(i concpiest in l.V.>7 Isee Ti:i<Ks: A. I). 1451-1481 1. . . . When the l)allU! of Mohac/ (August 2l», 1520) jjavi! llun^rarv to the Otto- mans [see lIiNOAilV: A. I). 14H7-1.V.J(() .laitche. the last rampart of Hosniu, whoso detenee had inspired acts of legendary co\ira)r<', fell In its tuin in 1527. A strange cin umstauco facilitated the Musf.ulninn concpicst. To .save their wealth, the greater nund)er of magnates, and almost all the Uogoniiles, who were exasperated by the cruel persecution.s directed against them, went over to Islauiism. From that time they became the most ardent followers of -Mohanui'cdanism, whilst keeping the language and names of their anc( stors. They fouglit everywhere iii the fore- front of the battles which gained llungiiry for the Turks." Within the present century the Bosnian ^lussulmans have risen in arms "against all the reforms that Europe, in the name of modern pri.iciples, wrested from the Porte." — E. de Laveleye, T/ie Ihtlhui PcniuKuUt, ch. 3. Also in: L. von lliuike. Hint. <if Serriii, ita. loth-iith Centuries (Bulgfaria).— The First Bul|;arian Kingdom and its overthrow by Basil II. — "The glory of the Huljarians was <;onliue(l to a narrow scope both of time and place. In the Olh and 10th eeiiturioH they reigned to the south of the Danube, but the moro powerful nations iliat bad followed their ■emigration rci)elled all return to the north and all I'rogrcss U, the west. ... In the beginning of the ilth century, the Second Basil [Byzantine or (Ireek Emperor, A. I>. 97(5-102r)J who wivs born in the purple, deserved the appellation of confjueror of the Bulgarians [subdued by his predecessor, John Zimi.sces, but still rebellious]. His avarice was in some measure gratified by a treaiiure of 400,000 nounds sterling (10,000 pounds' weight of gold) which he found in the palace of Lychuidus. His cruelty inllicted a cool and exquisite vengeance on 15,001) captives who had been guilty of the defence of their country. They were deprived of sight, but to one of each hunllred a single eye was left, that he might con- duct Ills bliiul century to the presence of their king. Their king is said to have expired of grief and horror; the nation was awed by this terrible example, the Bulgarians were swept away from their settlements, and circumscribed witliin a narrow province; tlie surviving chiefs be- queuthcd to their children the ail vice of patience and the iluly of revenge." — E. Qlblion, Dteliiie iindj'iill iif tlic Uiimdii /•'mpirf, ch. 55. Also i.n: (1. Kinlay, Hint, nf ihf fii/zmitiiit Kmiiiir,friim "Itl to 1(H»7, hk. 2, ch. 2.— See. also, ('oNHT.\NTi.Noi'i.i:: \. I). ll07-104iJ, and AciiliiiiA, TlIK KINOIIOM ul'. A. D. 1096 (Bulgariai.— Hostilities with the First Crusaders. .Se Cm sauks: V. I), lultd- lOllO. I2th Century (Bulgaria).— The Second Bul- garian or Wallachian Kingdom.— " Thi' reign of Isaac II. I llv/anline or (ireek Emperor. A. I). 1 1H5-I11(.')| is tilled with a series of revolts, caused by his incapable administration anil linamial rapacity. 'I hi' most important of these was thn great rebellion of the V'allacbian and Hulgiirian population which oceupied the country between Mount Ibeiniis and the Danube. The imiueiiso po|)ulation of this extensive country now sep- arated itself llnally from the government of tlio Ea.stern Empire, and its political destinies ceased to be united with those of the Greeks. A new European monarrhy, called the Vallachian, or Second Biilgnriaii kingdom, was formed, which for some time acti'd an important part in the alTairs of the Ity/.antine Empire, and contributed |)owerfully to the depression of the Greek race. The sudden ImportauciMi.ssumed by the Vallachian population in this revolution, and the great extent of C'ountry then occupied by u |)eople who had I)reviously acted no ])rominent part in the political events of the East, render it necessary to give some account of their previous history. Four dilTerent countries are spoken of under the name of Vallacbia by the Byzantine wr'ters: Gre.it Vallachia, which was the country round the plain of Thessaly, particularly the southern and south- western part. White Vallachia, or the modern Bulgaria, which formed the Vallachiollulgariaa kingdom that revolted from Isaac II. ; Black Vallachia, Mavro- Vallachia, or Karabogdon, which is Moldavia; and Ilungarovallachia, or the Vallachia of the jjresent day, comprising a part of Transylvania. . . . The ciuestion remains un- decided whether these Vallachians are the lineal descendants of the Thracian race, who, Strabo tells us, extended as far south as Thessaly, and as far north as to the borders of Pannonia; for of the Thracian language we know nothing." — O. Finlay, Jlht. of the Hyzdntiiw and Greek Km- pircs, from 710 to 145H, lik. 3, ch. 3, sect. 1. — " Whether they were of Slavic origin or of Gaelic or Welsh origin, whether they were the abo- riginal inhabitants of theco\intry whohadcome under the influence of tl;e elder Home, and had acijuired so many Latin words as to overlay their language and to retain little more than the gram- maticai forms and mould of their own language, or whether they were the descendants of the Latin colonists of Dacia [see Dacia: Thajan's Con- ijlt.st] with a, large mixture of other peoples, are all questions which have been much contro- verted. It is remarkable that while no peojilo living on the south of the Balkans appear to be mentioned as Wallachs until the tenth century, when Anna Comneua mentions a village called Ezeban, near Mimnt Kissavo, occupied by them, almost suddenly we hear of them as a gieat nation to the south of the Balkans. They spoko a language which differed little from Latin. Thessaly, during the twelfth century is usually- called Great Wallachia. . . . Besides the Wal- lachs in Thessaly, whose descendants are now 247 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. riilk'(i KutzoWnlliichs, there were the Wnllachs ill Diiciii, th(! aneestors of the jirescnt Uouman inns, 1111(1 Miivro-Wullnclis in Dtilmatin. Indeed, iiocording to tlie Iliingiiritin and Byzantine writ- ers, tlien! were during tlie twelftli rentury ii series of Wallncliian peoples, (extending from the Tlieiss to tlie Dniester. . . . Tlie word Wallacli is used hy tlie Byzantine writers as equivalent to shepherd, and it may be that the eonimon use of a dialeet of Latin by all the Wallaohs is the only bond of union among the peoples bearing that name. Thcj were all occasionally spoken of by the By/.antinc! writers as descendants of the Itomaiis." — E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, eh. 3. — " The classical type of feature, so often met with among Roumanian peasants, pleads strongly for the theory of Roman extraction, and if just now I compared the Saxon pca.sants to Noah's ark figures rudely carved out of the coarsest wood, the Roumanians as often remind me of a type of face chiefly to be seen on cameo ornaments, or ancient signet rings. Take at ran- dom a score of individuals from any Roumanian village, and, like a handful of antique gems which liave been strewn broadcast over the land, you will there surely find a good choice of classi- cal profiles wortliy to be immortalized on agate, onyx, or jasper. An air of plaintive melancholy generally characterizes the Roumanian peasant: it is the melancholy of a long-subjected and oppres.sed race. . . . Perhaps no other rac pos- sesses in such marked degree the blind and im- movable sense of nationality whicli charac ierizes the Roumanians. They liardly ever mingle with the surrounding races, far less adopt manners and customs foreign to their own. Tliis singular tenacity of tlie Roumanians to their own dress, manners and customs is probably due to the in- fiiience of their religion [the Greek church], which teaches tliat any divergence from their own established rules is sinful." — E. Gerard, Trnn- nt/lriiiiiini PcojilcK (Coiiti'mp. Jicv., Mareh, 1887). A. D. 1341-1356 (Servia). — The Empire of Stephan Dushan. — "In llUl, when .John C'nn- tacuzeiius assumed the purple [at Constantinople], important prospects were opened to the Servians. Cantaeiizenus . . . went up the mountains and prevailed upon Stephan Dushan, the powerful king of the Servians, whom he found in a coun- try palace at Pristina, to join his cause." As the result of this connection, and by favor of the op- portunities which tlie civil war and general de- cline in the Greek Emiiire afforded him, Stephan Dushan extended his dominions over Epirus, Thessaly, Macedonia, and a part of Thrace. "The Shkypetares in Albania followed his standard ; Arta and Joanninu were in his posses- sion. From these points his Voivodes [Palatines], whose districts may easily be traced, spread themselves over llic whole of the Roumelian terri iry on the Vardar and the Mariz/.a. as far as Bulgaria, which he also regarded as a province of his kingdom. Being in the posses- sion of so extensive a dominion, he \ iw ventured to assume a title which was still in dispute be- tween the fjastern and Western I'Imiiires, and could not riirhtly be claimed by either. As a Servian Krale, he could neither ask nor expect the obedience of tlie Greeks: therefore he called himself Emperor of the Rounielians — the Mace- donian (,'lirist-Ioving Czar — and began to wear the tiara. . . . Stephan Dushan died [Dec. 2, 1S56J before he had completed the Empire of which he had laid tlu; foundation, and ere he had strengtliened his power by the bulwark of national institutions." — L. Von lianke, Hut. of Srria, ch. 1-2. Ai.soin: M'me E. L. Mijatovicli, Kokkhvo, Int. A. D. 1389 (Bulgaria). — Conquest by the Turks. See Tithkk (The Otto.mans): A. D. 13fiO-i;!89. 14th Century (Bulgaria). — Subjection to Hungary. See Hunoauv: A. D. l;)01-1442. I4th-i8th Centuries (Roumania, or Wal- lachia, and Moldavia). — Four Centuries of Conflict with Hungarian'j and Turks. — "The AVallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, whatever may have been its limit.s, was annihilated by a horde of Tartars about A. 1). IS.W. The same race committed great havoc in Hungary, conquered the Kuniani, overran Moldavia, Transylvania, Ac, and held their ground there until about the middle of the 14th century, when they were driven northward by the Hungarian, Saxon, and other settlers in Transylvania; and with their exit we have done with the barbarians. . . . Until recently the historians of Roumania have had little to guide them concerning the events of the ])eriod beyond traditions which, though very interesting, are now gradually giving place to recorded and authenticated facts. ... It is admitted that the plains and slopes of the Carpathians were inhabited by communities ruled over by chieftains of varying power and influence. Some were banates, as that of Craiova, which long remained a semi-indepen- dent State; then there were petty voivofles or ])rinces . . . ; and besides these there were Khanates, . . . some of which were petty principalities, whilst others were merely the govcrnorsliips of villages or groups of them. . . . ^lircea, one of the heroes of Roumanian history, not only secured the independent sovereignty, and called himself Voivodc of Wal- lacliia 'by the grace of God,' but in 1389 he formed an alliance with Poland, and assumed other titles by the right of conquest. This alliance . . . had for its objects the extension of his dominions, as well as protection against Hungary on the one hand, and the Ottoman power on the other; for the . . . Turki.sli armies had overrun Bulgaria, and about the year 1391 they first made tlieir appearance north of the Danube. At first the bravery of Mircea was successful in stemining tlie tide of invasion;" but after a year or two, "finding himself be- tween two powerful enemies, the King of Hun- gary and the Sultan, Jlircea elected to form an alliance with the latter, and concluded a treaty with him at Nicopolis (1393), known as the First Capitulation, by which Walla'-hia retained its autonomy,' but agreed to pay an annual tribute and to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . According to several historians Mircea did not adheri! to it long, for he is ^ lid to have been in command of a contingent in tlie army of the crusaders, and to have been present at the battle of Nicopolis (1396), in which the fiower of the French nobility fell, and, when he found their cause to be hopeless, once more to have deserted them and joined the victorious arms of Bajazct. (1f the continued wars and dissensions in Wal- lacliia during the reign of Mircea it is unneces- sary to speak. He ruled with varjfing fortunes until 1418 A. D." A Second Capitulation was concluded, at Adrianople, with the Turks, in 248 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 1400. 1-v a Inter Walliutliiiiu voivcdi', named Vlad. It iiiereased the tribute to tlie I'ortc, Imt made no other important chaniie in tlie terms of suzerainty. Meiuilime, in tlie neigld)()uring Moldavian principality, eveut.s were bcKinning to shape themselves into some historical distinet- nes.s. "For a century after the foundation of Moldavia, or. as it was at tirst called, Bogdania, hy Bogdan Dragosch [a legendary hero], the history of the country is shrouded in darkness. Kings or princes are named, one or more of whom were Lithuanians. . . . Atlengthaiirince more )iowerful than the rest ascended the throne. . . . This was Stephen, sometimes called tlus 'Great' or ' Good.' ... He came to the throne about 115(5 or 1458, and reigned until 1504, and his whole life was spent in wars against Transyl- vania, AVallu('hia, . . . the Turks, a. ' TartaV.s. ... In 1475 he was at war with t.-e Turks, whom he defeated on the river Birlad. ... In that year also Stephen . . . completely overran Wallachia. Having reduced it to siibmission, he placed a native boyard on the throne as his viceroy, who showed his gratitude to Stephen by rebelling • nd libc'rating the country from his rule; but he was in his turn murdered by his Wnllacliian subjects. In 1470 Steiihen sustained a terrible defeat at the hands of the Ottomans at Valea Alba (the 'White Yalk^), but eight years afterwards, allied with the Poles, he again en- countered [and defeated] this terrible enemy. . . . After the battle of .Moliacs [see IIunoahy: A. D. 1487-1520] the Turks began to encn)ach more openly upon IJoinr.anian (Moldo-Wal- lachian) territory. They occupie<l and fortified Braila, Giurgevo, and Galatz; interfered in the election of the princes . . . adding to their own intluence, and rendering the ])rinces more and more suli.servient to their will. This state of things histed until the end of the 10th century, when another hero, Jlichael the Brave of Wal- lachia, restored tranquility and independence to the Principalities, and raised i hem for a .season in the esteem of surrounding nations." Michael, who moiuited the throne in 1593, formed an alliance with the Prince of SiebenbUrgen (Transylvania) and tlu? voivode <if Jloldavia, against the Turks. He began his warfare, November. 1594, by a wholesale massacre of the Turks in Bucharest and .Tassy. lie then took Giurgevo by storm and defeated the Ottoman forces in a battle at Hustchuk. In 1595, Giurgevo was the scene of two bloody battles, in both of which ]\lichael came off victor, wiJi famous laurels. The Tui-ks were effectually driven from the country. The ambition of the victorious Michael was now excited, and he invaded Transylvania (1599) desiring to add it to his do- minions. In a battle " whieli is called by some the battle of Schellcnberg, and by others of Hermanstadt." he defeated the reignir.g prince. Cardinal Andreas, and Transylvania was at his feet. He subdueil ^lohlavia with equal ease, and the whole of ancient Dacia became subject to his rule. The Emperor Rudolph, as suzerain of Transylvania, recognized his authority. But his reign was brief. Before the close of the year 1600 a rising occurred in Transylvania, and Michael was defeated in a battle tbught at Miriszlo. He escaped to the mountjiins and bi;- came a fugitive for some months, while even his Wallachian throne was occupied by a brother of tlui Moldavian voivode. At length he made terms with the P2ni])eror Rudolph, wlio.se au- thority had been slighted by the Tran.sylvanian insurgents, and procured men and money with whicli heretuna-d in force, <ruslic(l hisopponents at Goioszlo, and reigned again as viceroy. Hut he quarrelef' soon with tlie cdmmandci- 'if the imperial troi d.s, General Basta, and the hillcr caii.sed him to be assassinated, some time in Augu.st, 1601. . . . TlK! history of Mohh)-\Val- laeliia (luring the 17th century . . . possesses little interest for English readers." At the end of the 17th century "another great Power [Russia] was drawing nearer and nearer to Rou- niania, which was e\ eiitually to exercise a grave intluence upon her ilestiiiy. ... In the begin- ning of the ]8tl century there ruled two voivodes, f'oiistaiu.n,' Br.ucovano. in AVallaihia. and Deme.'vius C'antei"''r in Moldavia, both of whom had been apji liuted in the usual manner under the suzerainty of tli(! Porte; but these jiriuces, indejiendently of each other, had entered into ni'gotiations with Peter the Great after the defeat of diaries XII. at Pultawc (1701.,., to assist them against the Sultan, tlieii suzi-rain, stipulating for their own iudepeisdiuce under the protection of the Czar." Peter was induced to enter the country with a CijusuleriJiIe army [1711], but s"on found himself in a position from which there appeared little cha.ice or escape. He was extricated only by the cleverness of the Czarina, who bribe<l the Turkish commander with her jewels — sec Scandix.\vi.\n St.\te8 (SwEDKN); A. D. 1707-1718. The Moldavian Voivode escaped with the Russians. The Wal- lachian, Braneovano, was seized, taken to Con- stantinople, and put to death, along with his four sons. "Stephen Cautacuzeue, the son of his accusers, was made Voivode of Wallachia, but like his iiredecessors he only enjoyed the honour for a brief term, and two years after- wards he was deposed, ordered to Constantinople, imprisoned, and decapitated; and with him terminated the rule of the native princes, who were followed, both in Wallachia and ^loldavia, by the so-callcil Phanariote governors [see PiiANAHioTEs] or farmers-general of the Porte." — J. Samuelson, lioumania. Pant and Present, pt. 2, di. ii-i;i. I4th-I9th Centuries : (Montenegro) The new Servia. — " The people that inhabit the two territories known on the map as Serv;a and Jlontenegro are one and the same. If you ask a Montenegrin what language he speaks, he replies 'Serb.' The last of the Serb Czars fell gloriously lighting at Kossovo in 1389 [.see TuKKs: A. D. 1360-1380]. To this day the jMontenegrin wears a strip of black silk upon his headgear in memory of that fatal day. . . . The brave Serbs who escaped from Kossovo found a sanctuary in the mountains that overlook the Bay of Cattaro. Their leader, Ivo, sur- nanied T,sernoi (Black), gave the nauic of Tzrnogora (Montenegro) to these de.scrt rocks. . . . Servia having become a Turkish province, her colonists created in Montenegro a new and independent Servia [see Tukks: A. D. 1451- 1481]. The iiH-'inory of Ivo the Black is still greeu in the country. Springs, ruins, and caverns are called after him, and the people look forward to the day when lie will reappear us a political Messiah. But Ivo's descendants proved unworthy of him; they committed the unpardonable sin of marrying alieua, and early 249 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. in the ■'.fltli century the Iftst dcsrcndant of Ivo the Blnck retired to Venice. From 1516 to Kii)? Montenegro wius ruled by elective Vlndikii-s or Bishops; from 1097 to 1^51 by hereditnry Vlii- dil a.s. For the Montenegrins the 16th, 17tli and 18' 1> centuriea formed a period of incessiuit wnrfiirc. . . . Up till 1703 the Serbs of the mountHin were no more absolutely independent of the Sultan than their enslaved kinsmen of the f)lain. The Iluvatch or Sultan's slipper tax was evied on the mountaineers. In 1703 Danilo Petrovitch celebrated his consecration as a Christian Bi.shop by ordering the slaughter ; f every Mussulman who refused Lo bo baptised. This ma.ssacre took jdaeeon Christmas Eve 1703. . . . The 17th and 18th centuries were for IMontenegro a struggle for existence. In the 10th century began their struggle for an outlet to the sea. The fall of Venice would naturally have given the mountaineers the bay of Cattaro, Inid not the French stepped in and annexed Dal- matia." In 1813, the Vladika, Peter I., "with the aid of the British fleet . . . too!; Cattaro from the French, but (pursuant toan arrangement between Russia and Austria) was compelled sub- sequently to relin<iuish it to the latter power. . . . Peter I. of Montenegro . . . died in 1830, at the age of 80. . . . His nephew Peter II. was a wise ruler. . . . On the death of Peter II., Prince Danilo, the uncle of the iirescnt Prince, went to Russia to be consecrated Bishop of JMontenegro. The czar seems to have laughed him o>it of this ancient practice; and the late Prince instead of converting himself into monk and bishop returned to his own country and married [IH.'il]. . . . Prince D.inilo was a.ssas- Binated at Cattaro (1860). . . . He was succeeded l)y his nephew Nicholas." — J. G. C. Jlinchin, fkrvin and Montenegro (Natiomd Life (Did Thoufiht, ket. 19). — "The present form of government in Jlontcnegro is at once the most despotic and the most pojiular in Europe — des- potic, because the will of the Prince is the law of the land ; and popular, because the ])ersonal rule of the Prince meets all the wants and wishes of the people. No Sovereign in Europe sits so firmly on his throne as the Prince of this little St^'^e, and no Sovereign is so absolute. The -Montene- grins have no army; they are themselves a standing army." — J. G. C. Mi^'jhin, The Growth of Freedom in the PalKon Pent nmihi, eh. 1. — A. A. faton, Renciirehes on Jie Dnniihe amltheAdriatie, bk. 3, c!i 7 (p. 1). — L. Von Ranke, Jlist of Seritia. Ac. : Slnre Provinces of TurK-eij, eh. 3-0. — " Montenegro is an extremely curious instance of the way in wliich favourable geographical ' conditions may aid a small jieople to achieve a fame and a place in the world quite out of pro- portion to their numbers. Tlie Black Mountain is the one place wliere a South Sclavonic com- munity maintained themselves in independence, sometimes seeing their territory overrun by the Turks, but never acknowledging Turkish authority de jure from the time of the Turkish Conquest of the 15th century down to the Treaty of Berlin. Montenegro could not have done that but for her geographical structure. She is a high mass of hmestone; you cannot call it a plateau, because it is seamed by many valleys, — and rises into many sharp mountain-peaks. Still, it is a mountain mass, the average height of which is rather more than 2,000 feet above ; the sea, with summits reaching 5,000. It is bare limestone, so that there is hardly anything grown on it, only grass — and very good grass — in spots, with little patclies of corn and jiotatoes, and it has scarcely any water. Its upland is covered with snow in winter, while m sum- mer the invaders have to carry their water with them, a .serious diffleidty when there were no roads, and active mountaineers fired from behind e%'ery rock, a dilficulty which becomes more serious the larger the invading force. Consequently it is one of the most impracti(.ablo regions imaginable for an invading army. It is owing to those circumstances that this handful of people — i)ecause the Alontenegrins of the 17th century did not number more than 40,000 or 50,000 — have maintained their independence. That they did maiiUain it is a fact most importjxnt in the history of the Balkan Peninsula, and may have great con.seq\ience8 yet to come." — J. Bryce, Jlelationa of Jlistori/ and Qeography (Contemp. Iter., Mar., 1880). I4th-i9th Centuries.— (Servia) : The long oppression of the Turk. — Struggle for free- dom under Kara Georg and Milosch. — Inde- pendence achieved. — The Obrenovitch dy- nasty. — "The brilliant victories of Stephan Dushan wore a misfortune to Christendom. They .shattered the Greek empire, the last feeble bulwark of Europe, and paved the way for those ultimate successes of the Asiatic conquer- ora wliich a timely imion of strength might liavc lireventod. Stephan Dushan conquered, but did not consolidate: and his scourging wars were in- suflleiently balanced by the advantage of the cotlo of laws to which he gave his name. His son Urosh, b' ing a weak and incapable prince, was murdered by one of the generals of the army, and thus ended the Neman dynasty, after havuig subsisted 313 years, and produced eight kiu-^s and two cmijorors. The crown now de- volved on Knes, or Prince Lasar, a connexion of the house of Neman. ... Of all the ancient rulers of the country, his memory is liold the dearest by the Servians of the jiresont d;iy." Knes Lasar perished in the fatal battle of Ivos- .sovo, and with liim fell the Servian monarchy (see TuuKS: A. D. 1300-1389, 1403-1451, anU 1459; also Mo:;tenkoho). "The Turkish con- quest was followed by the gradual dispersion or (lisappeanmce of the native nobility of Servia, tlie last of whom, the Brankovitch, lived as ' despots ' in the castle of Semoudria up to the l-iginning of the 18th century. . . . The period lirocoding the second siege of Vienna was tlie spring-tide of Islam conquest. After this event, in 1684, began the ebb. Hungary was lost to the Porte, and six years afterwards 37,000 Ser- vian fap'ilies emigi -ted into that kingdom ; this first led the way to ccntact with the civilization of Germany. . . . Seivia Proper, for : a short time wrested from the Porte by the victories of Prince Eugene, again became a part of tlie do- minions of the Sultan [see Russia: A. D. 1739]. But a turbulent militia overawed the govern- ment and tyrannized over the Rayahs. Pasvan Oglou and his bauds at Widdin were, at the end of the last century, in open revolt against the Porte. Otlier chiefs liad followed liis example ; and for the first time the Divan thought of associating Christian Rayahs with the spaliis, to put down these rebels. The Daliis, as these brigand-chiefs were called, resolved to anticipate the approaching struggle by a massacre of tho 250 BALKAN AND BANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. most influential Cliristiiins. This nlrooious nms- siirrc was ciirriod out witli indcscribiiljlo liorrors. . . . Kiira Qt'org [Black Georj^i'], a peasant, born at ToDola about the year 1707, Kfttinfr timely information tliat his name was in tin; list of the (loomed, tied into tlie woods, and gradu- ally orjranized a formidable force. In tlie rame ofthePorIc lie cond)ated the Dahis, wlio liad usurped local autliority in defiance of tlie I'aslia of Belgrade. Tlie Divan, little anticipating tlie idtimate is.stio of tlie struggle in iServia, was at first deliglited at tlie siiccess of Kara Georg; but soon sjiw witli constLrnation that tlieri.sing of tlic Servian peasants grew into a formidalilc rebellion, and ordered tlie I'aslias of Bosnia and Scodra to assemble all thei disposable forces and invade Scrvia. Between 40,000 ai.d .")0,000 Bosniac burst into Scrvia on the west, in the spring of 1800, catting to pieces all who refu.sed to receive Turkish authority. Kara (Jcorg undauntedly met the storm," defeating 'the Turkish forces near Tchoupria, September, 1804, and more severely two years later (August. 1800) at Slia- batz. In December of the same year he surprised and took Belgrade. "The succeeding years were passed in the vicissitudes of a guerilla warfar.i, neither party obtaining any marked success; and an au.xdiary corps of Uiissians assisted in pre- venting the Turks from making the re-coiKjuest of Scrvia. . . . Kara Georg was now a Russian lieutenant-general, and exercised an almost un- limited power in Scrvia; the revolution, after a struggle of eight years, api)cared to be .success- ful, but the momeiitous events then passing in Europe completely altered the aspect of affairs. Russia, in 1813, on the approach of ihe countless legions of Napoleon, precipitately concluded the treaty of Bucharest, the eighth article of wlii( :!i foriually assured a separate administration to the Servians. Next year, however, was fatal to Kara Georg. In 18l;J, the vigour of the Otto- man cmpir . . . was now concentrated on the resubjugation of Seri ■'a. A general panic .seemed to seize the nation; and Kara Geor), and his companions in arms sought a retreat on the A\is- trian territory, and thence passed into Wallachia. In 1814, 300 Christians wereimjinled at Belgrade by the Pasha, and every valley in Scrvia pre- sented the spectacle of infuriated Turkish spahis avenging on the Servians the blood, exile and confiscation of the ten ])receding years. At this period, Jlilosh Obrenovitch api)ears iironiinently on the political tapis, lie spent his youth in herding the famed swine of Scrvia; and during the revolution was employed by Kara Georg to watch the ]iasses of the Balkans. . . . lie now saw that a favourable conjuncture had come for his advancement from the positio;i of cliieftain to that of chief; he therefore lost no time in making terms with the Turks, offering to collect the tribute, to serve them faithfully, and to aid them in the resubjugation of the people. . . . He now displayed singular activity in the ex- tirpation of all the other popular chief.s," until lie found reason to suspect that the Turks were only using him to destroy him in the end. Then, in 1815, Tie turned upon them and raised the standard of revolt. The movement which he headed was so formidable that the Porto made liaste to treat, and Milosch made favvnirable terms for himself, being reinstated as tribute- collector. "Many of the chiefs, impatient at the speedy submission of Milosh, wished to flght 17 the matter out, and Kara Georg, in order to give effect to tlieir i)laiis, landed in Scrvia. iMilosh pretemled to he friendly to his designs, but secretly betrayed his place of concealment to the governor, whose men brok(! into the cottage where lie .slejjf, and |)ut him to death." — A. A. Paton, KiDiiuv/iiK on the Ihumlie iiiiil the Ailriatic, Ilk. 1, (•/(.;!. — "In 1817 Milosch was proclaimed hereditary Prince of Scrvia by the National As.sembly. ... In 1830 the autonomy of Scrvia was at length .solemnly rceogni/ed by the Porte, and Miloscli proclaimed ' the father of the Father- land.'. . . If asked why the desceiulants of M'l- os 1' still rule over Scrvia, am', not tlic dcsceuil- nnts of Kara George, my answer is that every step in Servian progress is connected witli the (ibrenovitcli dynasty. The liberation of the country, the creation of a juNisant jiroprietary, the filial withdrawal of tlie Turkish troops from Belgrade in 1803, tlie independence of the country, the extension of its territory, and tlie making of its railways, — all of these are among the results of Obrenovitch rule. The founder of the dynasty had in 1830 a great opportunitv of making his people free as well as independent. But Milosch hi'd lived too long with Turks to be a lover of freedom. ... In 1839 Milo.scli ab- dicated. The reason for this step was that he- refused to accept a constitution which Hu.ssia and Turkey concocted for him. Tliis charter vested the actual government of the country in a Senate comjiosed of Miloseh's rivals, and en- tirely independent of that Prince. ... It was anti-democratic, no less tlian anti-dynastic. Jlil- oscli was succeeded first by liis son Milan, and on Jlilan's deatli by Michael. Micliacl was too gentle for the troubled times in which lie lived, and after a two years's reign lie too started upon his travels. . . . When Micliacl crossed the Save, A lexander Kara Georgevitcli was elected Prince of Servia. F.om 1843 to 18r)8 the son of Black George lived — he can scarcely be said to have reigned — in Belgrade. During these 17 years this feeble son of a strong man did absolutely nothing for liis country. . . . Late in 1858 lie fled from Servia, and >lilosch ruled in his stead. Milosch is the Grand Old Man of Serb history. His mere presence in Scrvia cliccked the in- trigues of foreign powers. lie died peacefully in his bed. . . . Slicliacl succeeded his father. . . . Prince Micliacl was murdered by convicts in the park at Topschidera near Belgrade." lie "was succeeded (1808) by Milan, the grandson of Ze- lihrem, the brotlicr of Milosch. As Milan was barely fourtec^n years of age, a Regency of three was api)ointcd." — J. G. C. Jlincliin, Seirin and Montenegro {Nntionid Life diul Thout/ht, leet. 19). Ai.so IN: E. de Luvelcye, The lidlhni I'cnin- siilfi, eh. 0. A. O. 1718 (Bosnia). — A part ceded to Aus- tria by the Turks. See IIuno.\uv: A. I). 1099- 1718. A. D. 1739 (Bosnia and Roumania). — Entire restoration of Bosnia to the Turks, and Ces- sion of Austrian Wallachia. See Russia: A. D. 1725-1739. 19th Century (Roumania Jtnd Servia). — Awakening of a National Spirit.— The effect of historical teaching. — "No political fact is of inort! importance and interest in modern conti- nental history than the tenacity with which the smaller nations of Europe jireserve their pride of nationality in the face of the growing tendency 251 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STAT:3S. lowiiids the fi)rinnli(m (if liirgc, strniiKly cm- fciitnilt'di'inpircs, suppdi'lcd by pDWcmil armies. Why HliDiild I'nrtugal utterly refuse to unite with Spain? Wliy do Holland and Belgium cling to their existence as separate States, in spite of all IheefTorts of .statesmen to join them 1 Why do the people of Bohemia and C^roalia, of Finland, and >f Polani!, refuse to ('oalesee with the rest of the ixiniil.ition of tlie em- pires of v.hich they form hut small sections? Why, linally, <lo the new kingdoms of Houmania and'Servia show such astonishing vitality V Tlic arguments as to distinctive race or distinctive lHnguag(.' fail to answer all these (piestions. . . . This rekindling of the nati(mal spirit is the result chiefly of the (levelopnient of tlie new historical school all over the Continent. Instead of remain- ing in ignorance of their pa.st history, or, at l)e8t, regarding u mass of legends as containing the true talc of their countries' •ichievcmenls, these small nations have now learnt from the works of their great historians what the story of their fatlierlands really is, and what title they have to be proud of their ancestors. These great historians — llerctdano, Palacky, Szuchenyi, and the rest — wlio made it their aim to tell the truth aud l..^t to sliow off the beauties of a tine literary style, all belonged to the generation winch had its interest aroused in the history of the past by tlic novels of Sir Walter Scott and the iiroductions of tlie Romantic School, and they all learnt how history was to be studied, and tiien written, from Nielmhr, Von Banke and their disciples and fol- lowers. From these masters tlicy learnt that their Instories were not to be mad'.' interesting at the expense of truth. . . . The vitality of the new historical .school in Uouimuila is particularly remarkable, for in the Dai'.ubian jjrovinces, which form that kingdom, ccn more strenuous efforts had been made to stamp out the national spirit than in Boliemia, The e.Mraordinary rapidity with which the .{oumanian ])eople has rea.ss<!rted itself in recent y. 'ars, isoneof the most remarkable facts in m(xlern European history, aud it is largely due to the labours of its histor- .luis. Up till 1833 the Roumanian language was vigorously proscribed ; the rulers of the Danubiau provinces permitted instruction to the upper cluisses in the language of the rulers (mly. and while Slavonic, anl in the days of the Phanariots Greek, was the oflicial and fashional)le language, used in educating the nobility and bourgeois, the pcitsants were left in ignorance. Four men, wnose names deserve record, tiret endeavoured to raise the Roumanian language to a literary level, and not only studied IJoumanian history, but tried to teach the Roumanian people some- thing of their own early history. Of these four, George SchinkaY was by far the most remark- able, lie was an inhabitjint of Tmnsylvania, a Roumanian province which still remains subject to Hungary, and he lirst thought of trying to revive the Roiunanian "nationality by teaching t/ic people their history. He arranged the amials of his country from A. D. 80 to A. '>. 1739 with indefiitigaJ)le hdniur, during the last .iilf of the 18th century, ami, according to Edgar Quiuct, in such a trulj- nyKlcni manner, after such care- ful weighing of originid autlM>rities, aud with such critical power, that he deserves tc be ranV.cd with the (treators of the modern historical sch'Md. It need hardly lie sakl that SchinkaYs His' /ry was not allowed to \xi priatcd by the Hungarian authorities, who had no desire to see the .'Rou- manian nationality re-as.sert itself, and the ceiisor marked on it 'opus igue, auctorpatibulodignus. ' It was not published tmtil 1H.");J, more than forty years after its completion, andtlien only al.Ta.ssy, "for the Hun';ari ins still proscri'oed it in Transyl- vania. Si'hinkal's friend, Peter .Major, was more fortunat(Mii his work, a ' History of the Origin of the Roumanians in Dacia,' which, as it did not touch (m modern society, was jiassed by tlio Hungarian censorsliip, and printed at Buda instil in 181!t. The two men who llrst taught Roumanian history in the provinces which now form the kin.gdoni of Roumania were not such learned men as SchinkaV an<l Peter Major, but their work was of more practical importance. In IHlli George Asaky got leave to open a Rou- manian class at the Greek Academy of Jassy, under the pret(t.\t that it was necessary to teacli surveying in the Roumanian tongue, because of the (piesiions whicli c(aistantly arose in that pro- fession, in which it would bo neces.sary to .s])eak to the ijcasants in their own language, and in his lectunis he carefully inserted lessons in Rou- mnnian history, and tried to irousc the spirit of the people. George Lazarus imitated him at Bucharest in 1810, and the fruit of this instruc- tion was seen when the Roumanians partially re- gained their freedom. The Moldo-Waliachian princes encouraged the teaching of Roumanian idstory, as they encouraged the growth of the spirit of Roumanian independence, and when the Roumanian Academy was founded, an historical section was formed with the special mission of studying and publishin.g documents connected with Rouniaiuan history. The modern scientitic spirit has spread widely throughout the king- dom." — II. Morse Stephens, Modern Jlistoii 'Ui ami Hmall Nationalities (ConttMp. Rev., July, 1887). A. D. 1829 (Roumania, or Wallachia and Moldavia). — Important provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople. — Life Election of the Hospodars. — Substantial independence of the Turk. See Tuiiks: A. 1). 182«-183!). A. D. X856 (Roumania, or Wallachia and Moldavia). — Privileges guaranteed by the Treaty of Paris. See Russi.v: A. I). IHnt-lH.jO. A. D. 1858-1866.— (Roumania or Wallachia and Moldavia). — Union of the two provinces under one Crowrn. — Accession of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern. See Tuuks: A. I). 18()1-1877. A. D. 1875-1878.— The Breaking of the Turkish yoke. — Bulgarian atrocities. — Russo- Turkish War.-— In 1875, a re\olt broke out in Herzegovina. "The efforts made to suppress the growing revolt strained the already weakened resources of the Porte, until tliev could bear up against it no longer, and the lierzegovinese re- bellion proved tlie last straw which broke the back of Turkish solvency. . . . The liojies of the insurgents were of course quickened by tliis catastroidie, wliich, as they saw, would alienate much sympathy from the Turks. The advisers of the Sultan, tlicrefo'o, thought it necessary to be conciliatory, and . . . they induced him to i-ssiie an Inule, or circular note, promising tlie re- mission of taxes, and economical am! social reforms. . . . Europe, however, had grown tired of the Porte's promises of amemlment, and for some time the Imperial Powers liad been laying their heails togetlier, and the result of tlicir con- }52 UALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN' AND DANUBIAN STATES. sultatioiis WHS the Aiulnissy Note. The iliito of this (lociiinent wiis DfccinbtT !10tli, 1^75, mid it WHS scut to tliosu of tlie Wt'steni Powers who liiul signed tlie treaties of 185(5. It dechired tlmt iiltlioujjh tlie spirit of llie suggested reforms was good, tliere was some doiil)t whetlier tlic I'orU^ had the strcngtli to carry tliem out; Count An- drassy, tlierefore, projiosed tliat tlie o.xccutioii of tlie iieee.s.sar}' measures should be placed under the care of a special commission, half the mem- bers of which should be Mu.ssuhiiaiis and half Christians. . . . It concluded with a. serious warn- ing, that if the war was not gone witli the snow, ' the Governmcuts of Sijrvia and .Montenegro, rt'liich have lia<l great dillleulty in keeping aloof from the movement, will be unable to resist the current.'. . . It was evident, however, that this note would have but little or no ellect; it con- tained no coercive precautions, and accordingly the Porte quietly allowed the (juestion to drop, and contented liiinself with profuse promises. . . . So affairs drifted on; the little war continued to sputter on the frontier; reinforced by Servians and Montenegrins, the ilcrzegovinese succeeded in keeping their enemy at bay, and, instigated, it is saicl, by Russian emissaries, put forward de- mauds whicli the Porte was unable to accept. . . . The Powers, in no wise disconcerted by the failure of their first attempt to settle the dittl- culties between the Sultan and his rebellious sub- jects, had published a sequel to the Andrassy Note. There was an informal conference of the three Imperial Chancellors, Prince Bismarck, Prince Qortschakoff, and Count Andrassy, at Berlin, in JIay. . . . Then on 3Iay IfJth the Am- bassadors of England, France, and Italy were invited to Prince Bismarck's house, and the text of the famous Berlin Memorandum was laid be- fore them. . . . While the three Chancellors were forging their diplomatic thunderbolt, a catastroplie of such a terrible nature had occurred in the interior of Turkey that all talk of armis- tices and mixed coinmissions had become stale and unprofitable. The Berlin ^Memorandum was not even presented to the Porte ; for a rumour, though carefully suppressed by Turkish olHcials, was beginning to leak out that there had been an insurrection of the Christian population of Bul- garia, and that the most horrible atrocities had been committed by the Turkish irregular troops in its suppression. It was communicated to Lord Derby by Sir Henry Elliot on the 4th of JIay. ... On June Iflth a letter was received from him at the Foreign Ottice, saying, ' The Bul- garian insurrection appears to be unquestionably put down, although I regret to say, with cruelty, and, in some places, with brutality. ' . . . A week afterwards the Constantinople correspondent of the Daily News . . . gave the estimates of Bul- garians slain as varying from 18,000 to 30,000, and the number of villages destroyed at about a hundred. . . . That there was much truth in the statements of the newspaper correspondents was . . . demonstrated beyond possibility of denial as soon as Sir Henry Elliot's despatches were made public. ... 'I am satisfied,' wrote Sir Henry Elliot, ' that, while great atrocities have been committed, both by Turks upon Christiana and Christians upon Turks, the former have been by far the greatest, although the Christians were undoubtedly the first to commence them.' . . . Meanwhile, the Daily News had resolved on send- ing out a special commissioner to make an iuvesti- galioii iiiilcpi udciil of olUiial reports. Jlr. .1. A. 5lac(iahaii, an American, who had been one of that journal's correspondents during tlie Franco- German War, was the person selected. He started in comiiany with Mr. Eugeni! Schuyler, the great authority on the Central Asian (luestion, who, in the capacity of Consul- General, was about to prepare a similar state- ment for the Hon. lIora<;e .Mayiiard, the riiiled States jMinisterat Ccaistantiiiople. They arrived ! at Pliilippopolis on the Wtliof .luly, when .Mr. < Walter Bariiiif, one of the Secretaries of the I British Legation at Constantinople, was already ; engaged in collecting iiiforniati(ai. The first of 1 Mr. .MacGahan's letters was dated .luly the 28th, and its publication in this country revived in a i nioinent the half-extiuct excitt'iiunt of the popu- lace. . . . Perhaps the iiassage whirli was u'-st frequently in men's mouths at the time was i.iat in which he described the appearance of the mountain village of Batak. ' We entered the town. On ever' side were skulls luid skeletons charred anumg the ruins, or lying entire where they fell in their clothing. There were skeletons of girls and women, with long brown hair hang- ing to their skulls. We approached the church. There the.se remains were more frequent, until the ground was literally covered by skeletons, skulls, and putrefying bodies in clothing. Between the church and school there were heaps. The stench was fearful. We entered the ciiurchyard. The sight was more dreadful. The whole churchyard, for three feet deep, was festering with dead bodies, i)artly covered; hands, legs, arms, and heads projecting in ghastly confusion. I saw many little hands, heads, and feet of children three years of age, and girls with heads covered with beautiful hair. The church was still worse. The floor was covered with rotting bodies {juito uncovered. I never imagined anything so fearful. . . . The town had 9,000 inhabitants. There now remain 1,200. JIany who had escaped had returned recently, weeping and moaning over their ruined homes. Their sorrowful wailing could be iieard half a mile olT. Some were digging out the skeletons of loved ones. A woman was sitting moaning over three small skulls, with hair clinging to them, which she had in her hip. The man who did this, Achmed Agra, has been promoted, and is still governor of the district.' An exceeding bitter cry of horror and disgust arose throughout the country on the receipt of this terrible news. 3Ir. Anderson at once asked for information on the subject, and Mr. Bourke was entrusted with the dilUcult duty of replying. Ho could only read a letter from Jlr. Baring, in which he said that, as far as he had been able to discover, the proportion of the numbers of the slain was about 13,000 Bulgarians to 500 Turks, and that 00 villages had been wholly or partially burnt. . . . Mr Schuyler's opinions were, as might be expected from the circumstance that his investigations had been shorter than those of Mr. Baring, and that ho was ignorant of the Turkish Tanginige — which is that cliietly spoken in Bulgaria — and was therefore at the mercy of his interpreter, the more liighly coloured. He totally rejected Lord Beacons- field's idea that there had been a civil war, and that cruelties had been committed on both sides. On the contrary he asserted that ' the insurgent villages made little or no resistance. In iiiauy m BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. cases they siirrciulcred tlicir arms on tlic llrst demand. . . . No Tiirki.sli woniei, -)r children were killed in cold l)l(Mid. No Mn.-is iliimn women were violated. No Mii.ssiilmanc were tortured. No purely Turkish villa(;e was attacked or burnt. No Moscpic was desecrated or destroyed. The llaslii-Hazouks, on the other hand, hail liuriit about «.') villages, and killed at least 15,000 Buljiarians. ' Tlu^ terrible story of the destruction of Hatak was told in lanRuajjc^ of |)recis<'Iy similar import to that of ,Mr. .Slac- Gahan, wlioso narrative the American Consul hiui never seen, though there was a slight dilTer- ence in the numbei's of the ma.ssacre<l. 'Of the 8,000 inhabitants,' he said, 'not '2,000 are known to survive'. . . . Abdul Aziz had l"t loose the hordes oi BashiBazouks on <lefenceless Bul- garia, but Murad seenud utterly unable to rectify the fatal error; the proviiiee fell into a state of complete anarcliy. ... As Lord Derby reimu'ked, it was impossible to effect much with an imbecile monarch and ba.ikrupt treasury. One thing, at any rate, tlie Turks were strong enough to <lo, and that was to <lefcat the Ser- vians, who declared war on Turkey on July 1st. . . . Up to the last Prince Milan "declared that his intentions were purely i)aeilic; but the Increa.sing troubles of the Porte enabled him, with some small chance of success, to avail liim- self of the anti-Turkish spirit of his people and to declare war. His example was followed by Prince Nikita of Montenegro, who set out with his brave little army from Cettigne on July 2nd. At first it appeared as if the principalities would have the better of the struggle. The Turkish generals showed their usual dilatoriness in attacking Servia, and Tchernaieir, who was a man of considerable military talent, gave them the good-bye, and cut them ofT from their base of operations. This success was, however, tran- sitory; Abdul Kerim, the Turkish Conuuander- in-Chief, drove back tlie enemy by mere force of numbers, and by the end of the month he was over the border, jreaiiwhile, the hardy ^Monte- negrins had been consider;. )ly more fortunate; but their victories over Mukhtar Pasha were not sufficiently important to effect a diversion. The Servians fell back from all their positions of defetice, and on September 1st received a most disastrous beating before the walls of Ale.xinatz. . . . On September 10th the Porte agreed to a 8usj)ensi(m of hostilities until the 3."ilh. It must be acknowledged that the Servians used this period of grace e.xceedingly ill. Prince Milan was procl;;imcd by General Tchernaieff, in his absence and r-rainst his will, King of Servia and Bosnia; and though, on the remonstrance of the Powers, he readily consented to waive the obnoxious title, the evil effect of the declaration remained. Lord Derby's propo.sals for peace, which were made on September 21st, were nevertheless accejited by the Sultan when he saw that unanimity prevailed among the Powers, and he offered in addition to prolong the formal suspension of hostilities to October 3nd. This offer the Servians, relying on the Russian volun- teers who were flocking to join Tcliernaieff, rejected with some contempt, and hostilities were resumed. They paid dearly for their temerity. Tchernaielf's position before Alex- iniitz was forced by the Turks after three days' severe fighting; position after position yielded to them ; ou October 31st Alexiuatz was taken, and Delif<rad was occupied on November 1st, Nothing remained betwcf n the outpost of the crescent and Belgrade, and it .seemed as if tho new Kingdom of Servia must perish in the throes- of its birth." Russia now invoked the inter- vention of the powers, and brought about a con- ference at Constantinople, which effected nothing, the Porte rejecting all the proposals submitted. On the 24th of April, 1877, Russia declared war and entered upon a conflict with the Turks, which had for its result the readjust- ment of affairs in South-eastern Europe by the Congress and Treaty of Berlin. — Ciikik'II'h [Uiih- tr<U((l llhtorii of h'lii/ldiid, r. 10, '■//. 22-23.— Sec TruKS: A. I). 1877-1878, and 1878. A. D. 1878.— Treaty of Berlin.— Transfer of Bosnia to Austria. — Independence of Servia, Montenegro and Roumania. — Division and semi-independence of Bulgaria. — "(t) Bosnia, including Herzegovina, was assigned to Austria for pcnnanent occupation. Thus Turkey lost a great province of nearly 1,250,000 inhabitants. Of these about 500,000 were Christians of tho Greek Church, 4.')0,000 were Jlohammedana, mainlj' in the towns, who offered a stout resist- ance to tlie Austrian troops, and 200,000 Roman Catholics By the occupation of the Novi-Baznr district Austria wedged in her forces between Montenegro and Servia, and was also able to- keep watch over the turbulent province of Mace- donia. (2) Jlontenegro rePeived less than the- San Stefano terms had i)romiscd her, but secured the s( aports of Anti vari and Dulcigno. It needed a demonstration of the European fleets off tho latter port, and a threat to seize Smyrna, to make the Turks yield Dulcigno to the Montencgrians (who alone of all the Christian races of the penin- sula had never been coiKpiered by tho Turks). (3) Servia was proclaimed an independent Prin- cipality, and received the district of Old Servia on tho upper valley of the Jlorava. (4) Rou- mania also gaiii.'d her independenco and ceased to pay any tribute to the Porte, but had to jjivo up to her Russian benefactors the slice aciiuired from Russia in 1850 between the Prutli and tho northern mouth of the Danube. In return for this sacrifice she gained tlie large but marshy Dobnidscha district from Bulgaria, and so ac- (juired the port of Kustendjo on the Black Sea. (5) Bulgaria, which, according totlw rin Stefano terms, would have been an indepeiKkiit State as large as Roumania, was by the Berlin Treaty subjected to the suzerainty of tlie sultan, divided into two jiarts, and confined witliin much nar- rower limits. Besides the Dobrudscha, it lost the northern or Bulgarian part of Alacedonia, and the Bulgarians who dwelt between the Balkans and Adrianople were separated from their kins- folk on the north of the Balkans, in a province called Eastern Roumclia, with Philippopolis as capital. Tho latter province was to remain Turk- ish, under aChristain governor nominated by the- Porte with the cons;!nt of the Powers. Turkey was allowed to occupy the passes of the Balkans ill time of war." — J. 11. Rose, A CeiUuri/ of C(«i.- tinental IlUtovy, c/i. 43.— See Tukks: A. D. 1878. Also in: E. Hc.'tslet, The Map of Europe by Treaty, r. 4, ms. 518, 534-533. A. D. 1878-1891.— Proposed Balkan Con- federation and its aims. — " During the reaction against Russia wliich followed the great war of 1878, negotiatians were actually set on foot with a view to forming a combination of the Balkan 254 BALKAN AND DANUHIAN STATES. BALXAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. StntfiS for the piirpose of rcflisting Ruasinn nffgrcs- sion. . . . Prinro Alcxiiiidcr iilwiiys favoiiri'd the idea of ii Hidkiin (^jiifedcrtitioii wliicli wiis to include Turlicy ; uiiil even listened to proposals on the piirtof Greece, (h'tlninjj the Biiljjrtriaii and Greek spheres of intiuence in .Macedonia. But the revolt of Eastern Uounielia, followed by the Hervo-l!iil;rarian war and the clui.stisement of Greece by the Powers, provoked so much bitter- ness of feelintt among the rival races that for many years nothini; more was heard of a Balkan Confederation. Tlie idea lias lately been revived under dilTerent auspices and with somewhat dif- ferent aims. Durinj; the past si.v years the Triple Alliance, with England, has, despite the indilTerenee of Prince Bismarck, protected the Balkan States in general, and Biilgiria in par- ticular from the armed intervention of Russia. It has also acted the part of i)oliceman in ])reserv- ing the peace throughout tin- Peninsula, and in deterring the young nations from any dangerous Indulgence in tluir angry jjassion.s. Tlie most remarkable feature in the history of this period has been the extraordinary ])rogress made by Bulgaria. Since the revolt of Eastern Roumelia, Bulgaria lias been treated by Dame Europa as a naughty child. But the Bulgarians hav(! been shrewd enough to .sec that Mie Oentral Powers and England have an interest in their national independence and consolidation; they have re- cognised the truth that fortune favours those who help themselves, and they have boldly taken their own course, while carefully avoiding any breach of the proprieties such as might again b: ing them under the censure of the European Ar(-op';gus. They ventured, indeed, to elect a Prince of their own choosing w"thout the sanc- tion of that a\igust conclave ; the wiseacres shook their heads, and prophesied tliat Prince Ferdi- nand's days in Bulgaria might, ])erliaps, be as many as Prince Alexander's years. Yet Prince Ferdinand rf mains on the throne, and is now en- gaged in celebrating the fourth anniversary of his accession; the internal development of the country proceeds ajjace, and the progress of the Bulgarian sentiment outside tlie country — in other words, the Macedonian propaganda — is not a whit behind. The Bulgarians have made their greatest strides in Slacedonia since the fall of Prince Bismarck, who was always ready to humour Russia at the expense of Bulgaria. . . . Wliat liapi)encd after the great war of 1878 ? A portion of the Bulgarian race was given a nomi- nal freedom wliicli was never expected to be a reality; Russia pounced on Bessarabia, England on Cyprus, Austria on Bosnia and Herzegovina. France got something elsewhere, but ^liat is another mutter. The Bulgarians have never for- given Lord Beaconslield for the division of their race, and I have seen some liitter poems upon the great Israelite in the Bulgarian tongue ■v'vhich many Englishmen would not care to hear trans- lated. The Greeks have hated us since our occu- pation of Cyprus, and tirmly believe that we mean to take Crete as well. 'The Servians have not forgotten how Russia, after instigating them to two disastrous wars, dealt with their chiims at San Stefano ; they ^ annot forgive Austria for her occupation of B aia and Herzegovina, and every Servian peasant, as he pays his heavy taxes, or reluctantly gives a big price ' < some worth- less imported article, feels the galling yoke of her fiscal and commercial tyranny. Need it be said how outraged Bulgaria scowls at Russia, or how Roumania, who won Plevna for lu r heart- less allv, weeps for lier Bessarabian <liildren, and will not be comforted V It is evident that the Balkan peoples have no reason to expect much benetit from the next great war, from the European (.'onferenee which will follow it, or from the sympathy of the Christian Pov.ers. . . . What, then, do the authors of the proposed Confederation sugge ' as its ullimate aim .md object'? The Balkan States are to act independ ently of the foreign Powers, and in concert with one another. The Sick Man's inherilanec lies before them, and they are to take it when an op- l)ortunity presents itf^df. They must not wait for the great Armageddon, for then all may be lost. If the Central Powers come victorious out of the conlliet, Austria, it is believed, will go to Salonika; if Russia con(|uers, slii! will plant her standard at Stamboul, and practically annex the Peninsulii. In either case the hopes of the young nations will be destroyed forever. It is, there- fore, sought to extricate a portion at li'asl of the Eastern Question from the tangled web of European politics, to isolate it, to deal with it as a matter wliidi solely concerns the Sick Man and his imnii'diate successors. It is hoped that the Sick Man may be induced by the determined attitude of his expectant heirs to make over to them theirseveral portions in his lifetime; should he refuse, they must act in concert, and provide eutliaimsia for tlie moribund owner of Macedonia, Crete, and Thrace. In other words, it is believed tliat the Balkan States, if once they could come to an understanding as regards their claims to what is left of the Uttonian Empire in Europe, miglit conjointly, and without tlie aid of any foreign Power, bring such pressure to bear upon Turkey as to induce her to surrender peaceably her European possessions, and to content herself henceforth with the position of an Asiatic Power. " — J. D. Bourchier, A Biilkaii Confederation (FortniuhtUi lifvietn, Sept., 1891). A. D. 1878-1886 (Bulg;aria) : Reunion of the two Bulgarias. — Hostility of Russia.— Vic- torious war with Servia. — Abduction and abdication of Prince Alexander. — "The Berlin Treaty, by cutting Bulgaria into three pieces, contrary to tlie desire of her inhabitants, and with utter disregard of botli geographical and ethnical litne.ss, liad jirepared the grouml from wliicli a crop of never-euding agitation was inevitably bound to spring — a crop wliicli tlie Treaty of San Stefano would have ended in pre- venting. On eitlier siilc of the Balkans, botli in Bulgaria aud in Roumelia, the same desire for union existed. Both parties were agreed as to this, and only dilTered as to the means by which tlie end should be attained. The Liberals were of opinion that the course of events ought to be awaited ; the unionists, on tlie otlicr hand, main- tained that tliei ' ould be challenged. It was a few individuiiio .lelonging to the latter party and acting witli M. Karaveloff, the head of the Bulgarian Cabinet, wlio prepared and successfully carried out tlie revolution of September 18, 1885. So unanimously was this movement supported by the whole population, including even the Slussiilmans, that,it was accomplished and the union proclaimed without the least resistance being encountered, and without the shedding of one drop of blood ! Prince Alexander was in no way made aware of what was in preparation; 255 BALKAN AND DANUHIAN STATES. BALKAN AND DANUBL\N STATES. but 111' kiuw very wiOl thai it would be his duty to phici' hijusi'lf lit the licnd of iiny iiationiil iiiovi'iiu'iit, iind ill II iH'iK Iiuuiitioii diitrd tlu> ItMli of Scpti'iuticr. mid iidilivssi'd from Tiniova, tlii' aiicii'iit lapitiil. lie rrcoiniiii'iidi'd union and assuiniil tlic litli' of I'rinco of Nortli anil Soulli Huluaria, 'I'lii' I'ortc protrstrd in ii ciiciilar. dated tlio 2.'li(l of ScptcTiiln'r, and calliMJ upon the I'owcrs who liiid sif;iii'd tlii' Trnily of Hciliii, to I'lifoici' till' obsorvmici! of its HtipulationM. On till' l;ith of October, the Powcrn colU'ctively declare 'lliatthey eondenin this violation of the Troatv, and are sure that tlie Sultan will do all that lie call, consistently with lii.s soverei^'ii rights.hefore resortinj; to the force which he has at his disposal.' From tlie nionieiit when there was opposition to the use of force, whidievcii the Porte did not seem in a hurry to employ, the union of the ;wo Hulgarias necessarily became an accomplished fact. . . . Whilst Enu:land and Austria both accepted the union of the two Bulgariiis as being rendered necessary by the position of affairs, whilst even the Porte (although protesting) was resigned, the Kmperor of Ifiissia displiiyed a passionate hostility to it, not at all in accorcl with the feelings of the Russian nation. ... In Uussia they hud reckoned upon all the liberties guaranteed by the (."onstitutiou of Timova becoming so many causes of disorder and anarchy, instead of whicli the Bulgarians were growing accustomed to freedom. Schools were being endowed, the countrv was progress- ing in every way, and thus the Bulgorians were becoming less and less fitted for transformation into llussian subjects. Their lot was a prefer- able one, by far, to that of the people of Russia — henceforth they would refuse to accept the Russian yoke! ... If, then, Russia wanted to maintain her high-handed policy in Bulgaria, she must oppose the union and hinder the con- solidation of Bulgarian nationality by every means in her power ; this she has done without scruple of any sort or kind, as will be shown by a brief epitome of what has happened recently. Servia, hoping to extend her territory in the direction of Tru and Widdin, and, pleading regard for the Treaty of Berlin and the theory of the balance of power, attacks Bulgaria. On November 14th [17th to 19th?] 188,5, Prince Mcxander defends the Slivuitza positions [in a throe days' battle] with admirable courage and strategic skill. 1 he Roumelian militia, coming in by forced marches of unheard-of length, per- form prodigies of valour in the field. Within eight days, i. e., from the 20th to the 28th of November, the Scirviiin army, far greater in numbers, is driven back into its own territory ; the I>ragonuin Pass is crossed ; Pirot is taken by assault; and Prince Alexander is marching on Niscli, when his victorious progress is arrested by the Austrian Jlinister, under threats of an armed intervention on the part of that country I On December 21st, an armistice is concluded, afterwards made into a treaty of peace, and signed at Bucharest on March 3rd by M. Miyatovitch on behalf of Servia, by :M. GuechofI on beholf of Bulgaria, and by Aladgid Pascha for the Sultan. Prince Alexander did all he could to bring about a reconciliation with the Czar and even went so far as to attribute to Russian instructors all the merit of the victories he had just won. The Czar would not yield. Then the Prince turned to the Suit* n, and with him MUcceeded In coming to a direct understand- ing. The I'rincc was to be nominated (Jovernor- (k'lieral of RouiiH'lia; a mixed Commission wa.l to meet and modify tlie Roiimeliiin stututes; more tlian lliis. the Porte was .xmnu to iiliicu troops at his (lispo.sal, in the eveiil of his being attacked. . . . From tliat date the Czar sworo that he would cause Prince Alexander's down- lull. It was said that Prince Alexander of Hiittenlierg had changed into a sword thesceptro which Uussia had given him and was going to turn it against his liencfactor. Nothing could he more untrue. Up to the very last moment, he dill everylhing he (iiiild to disarm the anger of the Czar, but what was wanted from him was this — that he should make Bulgaria an obedient satellite of RiLss^a, and rather than con- sent to do so he left Solia. The story of the Prince's dethronement by Russian intluence, or, as Lord Salisbiirv said, by Russian gold, is well known. A humlful of malcontent olllcers, a few cadets of the fecole Miiitaire, and some of Zan- kofT's adherents, banding themselves together, broke into the palace during tlie night of the 21st of August, seized the Prince, and had him carried olT, without escort, to Rahova on the Danube, from thence to Reni in Bessarabia, where he was handed over to the Russians 1 The conspirators endeavoured to form a government, but the whole country rose against them, in spite of the support openly given them by M. Bogdanoff the Russian diplomatic agent. On the 3rd of September, a fc'w days after these occurrences, Prince Alexander returned to his capital, welcomed home by the acclamations of the whole peojile ; but in answer to a respectful, not to say too humble, telegram in which he offered to re])lace his Crown in the hands of the Czar, that i)oteutate replied that he ceased to have any relations with Bulgaria as long as Prince Alexander remained there. Owing to advice which came, no iloubt, from Berlin, Prince Alexander decided to abdicate ; he did so because of the demands of the Czar and in the interests of Bulgaria." — E. de Laveleye, T/i6 Balkan Peninnulit, Introd. Also in: A. Von Iluhn, Tlie Struggle of tht liulgarianH. — J. G. C. ^linchin, Orowth of Free- dom ill the lialkun Peninsula. — A. Koch, Princt Alexander of liattenberg. A. D. i8y9-i88c) (Servia).— Quarrels and divorce of King Milan and Queen Natalia. — Abdication of the King.— "In October, 1875. . . . Aliliiii, then but twenty -one years old, mar- ried Natalia Kechko, herself but sixteen. The present Queen was the daughter of a Russian officer and of the Princess Pulckerie Stourdza. She, as little as her husband, had been born with a likelihood to sit upon the throne, and a ((uiet burgher education had been hers at Odessa. But even here her great beauty attracted notice, as also her abilities, her ambition and her wealth. ... At first all went well, to outward appearance at least, for Milan was deeply en- amoured of his beautiful wife, who soon became the idol of the Servians, on account of lier beauty and her amiability. This affection was but increased when, a year after her marriage, she presented her subjects with an heir. But from that hour the domestic discord began. The Queen had been ill long and seriously after her boy's birth ; Milan had sought distractions else- where. Scenes of jealousy and recrimination >56 BALKAN AND DANUDlAX STATES. BALTIMOnE. ffTPW fr('<|ucnl. Fiirthor, Sorviii was tlien pnss- inj,' tliroiiKli u (lilllciilt |)(>litlnil rrlsis; tli<' Turkish war wiis in full Hwiiijj;. .Milan, litllclic loved ever siiKT lie lic;j;an to reign, brought home no wreaths fruiu tlii.'s coiitlict, iilthoui^h Jiis siib- jectK (Ilstinguislied IhcMiselves l)V their valour. Then followed In 18H2 tlie rnisiiijV of the prinei- pnlity hilo;a kingdom — ii fact whieli left the Servians very indilTereiit. and in wliieh they merely beheld the prospect of increased taxes, a ju'evisinn that was reali/.ed. As time went on, and troubles increased. King Mil.in l)ccan.e some- what of a despot, who was sustaine<l solely by the army, itself undermined by faetious in- trigues. iMeantiiue thetjuecn, now grown some- wdiat callous to her liusbaiid'sintidelitiis. aspired to comfort herself by assuming a l)oliti<'al role, for which slie believed herself to have giuat ap- titude. ... As she could not intluenco tlin de- cisions of the I'rinc<', the Ind;, vntered Into op- position to liiui, and made it lier aim to oppose all Ills projects. Tlie ((uarrel spread throughout the entire I'alace. and two inimical factions were formed, that of the King and tliat of the (^lU'en. . . . Meantime Milan got deeper and deeper into debt, so that after u time he ha<l almost mort- gaged his territory. . . . Wliile theliushandaiid wife were thus (piarrelling and going tlieir own ways, grave events were maturing in neighbour- ing Uulgaria. The coup d'etat of Fillipi)opoli, which annexed Eastern Houmella to tli,e i)rin( i- pality, enlarged it in such wise that Servia henceforth had to cut a .sorry ligure in tlie Balkans. Lilian roused himself, or i)retended to rouse himself, and war was declared against Bulgaria. . . . There followed the crushing (h'- feat of Slivitza, in which Prine(! Alexander of Battcnbcrg carried olT such laurels, and the Servians had to beat a disgraceful and precipitate retreat. Far from proving himself the hero Na- thalie had dreamed, Milan . . . telegraphed to the Queen, busied with tending tlie woinidcd, that he intended to abdicate forthwitli. This cowardly conduct gave the death blow to any BALKH. — Destruction by Jingis Khan (A. D, I22I). — From his concpiest of the region heyond the Oxus, Jingis Klian moved southward with his vast liordc of Jiongols, in pursuit of the fugitive Khalirezmlan prince, in 1220 or 122!, and invested the great city of Balkh, — wlilch is thought In the east to be the oldest city of the world, and wdiich may not impossibly have been one of the capitals of tin; primitive Aryan nice. "Some idea of its extent and riches [at that time] may possibly be formed from the statement that It contained 1,200 large mosques, without including chapels, aud 200 public baths for the use of foreign merchants and travellers — though it has been suggested that the more correct reading would be 200 nios(pies and 1,200 baths. Anxious to avert the horrors of storm and pillage, the citizens at once offered to capitulate; but Chinghiz, distrusting the sincerity of their submission so long as Sultan jMohammed Shah was yet alive, preferred to carry the place by force of arms — an achievement of no great diffl- ctilty. A horrible butchery ensued, and the ' Tabernacle of Islam ' — as the pious town was called — was razed to the ground. In the words of the Persian poet, quoted by Major Price, ' The noble city he laid as smooth as the palm of his hand — its spacious and lofty structures he fooling the Quocn might have retained for the King. Henceforth she dcspiHcd him, and took no pains to hiile the fact. ... In IHH7 the pair parted without outward scandals, the (Jueen taking with her the Crown Prince. . . . Florence was the goal of the (Jui'cn's wanderings, and here she spent a ((ulet winter. . . . The winter enilcd, Nathalie th'sired to return to Belgrade, Milan would not hear of it. . . . Tlie (Jueen went to Wiesbaden in cdiiscquenee. While re- siding tliere .Milan professed to be smldenly taken with a liaternal craving to see his son, . . . And to the shame of the (jerman (iovcrnmcnt, be it said, tiiey lent tliii'' hand to abducting an only child from his mother. . . , Before ever the ex- citement about this act could subside in Europe, Jlihin . . . pctitioiicd the Servian Synod for a divorce, on the ground of 'irreconcilable mutual antipathy ' Neither by canonical (>r civil 1,'iw was this iiosslble, and the (Jueen refused her consent. . . , Nor could the divorcf have lieen oblaini'd t-ut 'or the servile complaisance of t. A "c'vian Metropolitan Theodore. . . . Quick vengc' lee, however, was in store for Milan. The interiiatlonal affairs of Servia had grown niori iMid more disturbed. . . . The King, per- plex I, .ifraid, storm-tossed between (livided counsels, highly Irritable, aud deeply impressed by Uudolph of Hapsburg's recent suicide, sud- denly minounced his intention to alKlicate in favotirof his son. . . . Without regret his people saw (lc))art from among them a man who at thirty-live j ( ars of age was already decrepit, and who had not the pluck or ambition to try and overcome a didlcult political crisis. . . . After kneeling down before his son and swearing fldelity'to him as ri subject (March, 1889), Milan betook himself off lo tour through Europe . . . leaving the little uoy and his guardians to extri- cate themselves. ..." Now I can see mamma again,' were tlie first words of the boy King on hearing of his elevation. . . . Three Regents are appointed to aid the King during his niinority." — " Politlkos," The Sovereiijns, pp. 353-363. levelled In the dust.'" — J. llutton, Central Asiit, eh. 4. Also in: H. H. Iloworth, Hist, of the Mongols, V. \,rh. 3. BALL'S BLUFF, The Battle of. See United Statkh OF Am, : A. I). 1801 'October: VlUCltNI.V), BALMACEDA'S DICTATORSHIP. See Cim,E: A, D. 1885-1891. BALNEiE. See TirERM.5:. BALTHI, OR BALTHINGS.— " The ru'ers of the Visigoths, though they, like the An.<il kings of the Ostrogoths, had a great house, the Bnlthi, sprung from the seed of gods, did not at this time fwlien driven across the Danube by the Huns] bear the title of King, but con- tenteil themselves with some humbler designa- tion, whicli the Latin historians translated into Judex (Judge)." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Inr(tih'V!i. int., rh. 3.— See Baitx, Louds of, BALTIMORE, Lord, and the Colonization of Maryland. See Makyi.and : A, D. 1032, to 1088-17.", BALTIMORE, A. D. 1729-1730.— Found- ingof the city. See JIauvland : A. 1). 1729-1730. A. D. 1812.— Riotineof the War Party. —The mob and the Federalists. See United States OK Am. : A. D. 1812 (June— OcTOUiiii)- t&r L\LTIMORE. BARBARY 8TATE8. A. D. 1814.— British attempt againjt the city. H('<! I'N' iKi) HTAiriti OK Am.: \. I» lMt4 (Au<H!»r— Hpi.TKMllKIl). A. D. i860. —The Douglas Democratic and Constitutional Union Conventions. !S(^c UNriKii Statkm ok Am.: A. I). 1H<K) (Aimul— NoVKMIIKU). A. D. 1861 (April).— The city controlled hy the Secessionists. — The Attack on the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment. Hcu Uniteu Htatkmi.k .\M. : A. I). lH(lT(Al'iiil,). A. D. 1861 (May).— Disloyalty put down. 8p<! Unitki) Htatkh ok Am. : A. 1). '»*ll (Ai-un. — .May: Maiivi.and). BALUCHISTAN. Hec Siiipluineut in v 5. BAN.— BANAT.— " Han Is Duke (I)p.:«), ami riiiiiat i.s Duchy. TlietiTrilorj [lliinfi;ariatij ca.st of the {'Hrpiithians is llu' llaiiat of Sovori" aii'i that of the west llic Haiiat of Tcmcs.'i Tlu^ Haiiat is tliu ciirnucopin, not only o .uii- gary, liiit of tlic wIkjU; Austrian Knipiro." — A. A. Paton, lltKiiiir/un oil the Ihtniitie 'iiid the Ad- riatic, i\ 2, i>. 'iH. — A'lionj; tlui Croats, "after the kinj?, the most important olHcersof the state wiTe tlu! bans. .Vt first there was but one l)an, who was a kind of lieuienaut-general; but later on there were seven of them, eaeli known by the name of tlii! province he governed, as the linn of Sirniia, ban of Dalmatiu, etc. To tliis day the royal lieutenant of Croatia (or ' governiir-gi'n- eml,' if tliat title be preferred) is called llu^ i>an." — L. Legi'r, lli«t. nf Aiintru-llungiiry, p. 55. BAN, The Imperial. See Sa.\ony: A. I). 1178-1 IHH. BANBURY, "Battle of.— Sometimes called the " Uattle of Edgecote"; fought July 20, 1409, and with success, by a body of Lancastrian in- surgents, in the English " Wars of the Ko.scs," against the forces of the Yorkist King, Edward IV. Tlio latter were routed and most of their leaders taken and beheaded. — Mrs. llookham. Life lUid TiiiKH of ^fin'</<ii'it of Aiijon, v. 2, c/i. 5. BAND A ORIENTAL, The.— .Signify ing the " Eastern Horder"; a name ai)plied originally by the Spaniards to the country on th(^ eastern side of Uio de La Plata winch afterwards took the name of I'ruguay. See Auoemtine Uei'uulic: A. 1). ir.H(l-17T7. BANGALORE, Capture of (1790). See Inmia: A. I). 178.V17!»:i. BANK OF ST. GEORGE. See Genoa: A. I). 1407-1448. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1«33-1838. BANKS, General Nathaniel P.— Command in ihe Shenandoah. H<'e Uniti'.h Statkm ok \M. : A. I>. 18(12 (.Mav — IrsK: VlltoiNiA) SiegeandCaptureof Port Hudson. See Unitki> .States >►' Am.: A. I). 18(j;l (.May — ,I(!i,v: On THE .MisHiHsii'i'i) Red River Expedition. .See United States ok Am. : A. I). 18IU (.Maikii — May: Loiisiana). BANKS OF AMSTERDAM, ENGLAND AND FRANCE.— The Ilaiik of Amsterdam was founded in K'Oll, uid icplared, after 1814, by the Netherland Bank. The Bank of England was founded in KilM bv William Pulterson, u Scolciiman; anil lliat of Prance by .Tohn Law, in 1710. The latter eollupsed with the Mississippi scheme and was revived in 1770, — J. J. Lalor, ed. C'l/dojxmliii of Ikil. Seifiice. Aiiso IN: J. W. Oilburt, JIi»l. ami I'rinciplM of liiiukimj, met. 1 mid 'A. BANKS, Wildcat. See Wildcat Banks. BANNACKS, The. See American Auout- oiNKs: Siiosiio.NiA.s' Family. BANNERETS, Knights. See Knioiits Bannkukts. BANNOCKPURN, Battle of (A. D. 1314). See Scotland: A. I). l;!14;and 1314-1328. BANT, The. .See Gau. BANTU TRIBES, The. See South Af- rica: Ti'E AitoEiKiiNAi. iniiahitants; and Akuica: The iNiiAiuriNo uaces. BAPTISTS. See article In the Supplement, / V. n. ' BAR. A. D. 1659-1735.— The Duchy ceded to France. Seel-^iANCE: A. I). 1050-1001, and 17;!3-173;5. BAR : The Confederation of. See Poland: A. 1). 170.3-1773. BARATHRUM, The.— "The barathrum, or ' pit of ou'iislinieiit' at Athens, was a deep hole like a well iatc which criminals were precipi- tated, iron hooks were insiTted in the sides, which t >re tlr- body in pieces as it fell. It cor- respondc 1 to the Ceadas of the Laccdiemonians." — O. Haw 'inson, Hist, of llerodotnit, bk. 7, nec.t. 133, wit,: BARBADOES : A. D. 1649-1660.— Royalist attitude towards the English Commonwealth. See Xavkiatio.n Laws; A. 1). Ui.ll. A. D. 1656. — Cromwell's colony of disor- derly woien. See Jamaica: A. D. 1655. ♦ BARBARIANS. See AiivANa. BARBAROSSAS, Piracies and dominioo of. See Baubaiiy States: A. D. 1510-1535. BARBARY STATES. A. D. 647-709.— Mahometan conquest of North Africa. See Mauometak Conqoest: A. D. 047-709. A. D. 908-1 171.— The Fatimite Caliphs. See JIaiiometan Conijuest and E.mpire : A. D. 908-1171. A. D. 1415.— Siege and capture of Ceuta by the Portuguese. See] Portugal : A. D. 141.'>- 1460. A. D. 1505-1510.— Spanish conquests on the coast. — Oran. — Bugia. — Algiers. — Tripoli. — In 1505, a Spanish expedition pir.nned and urged by Cardinal Ximencs, captured Mazarquivcr, an "important port, and formidable nest of pirates, on the Barbary coast, nearly opposite Cartha- gena." In 15()9, the same energetic prelate led personally an expedition of 4,CH)0 horse and 10,000 foot, with a fleet of 10 galleyr, and 80 smaller vessels, for the conquest of Oran. "This place, situated about a league from the former, was one of the most considerable of the Moslem possessions in the Jleditcrranean, being a princi- pal miirt for the trade of the Levant," and main- tained a swarm of cruisers, which swept the Mediterranean " and made fearful depredations on its populous borders." Oran was taken by 258 HAIIBAKY STATE'S, 150.V1310. Vtr ItariHtniHMiH. BA :BAUY states, 1516-1885. ttortn, " No merry was h1i( wn ; no rcspt'ct for age or SOX ; un<l tin Hohliciy iiIiuikIomi'iI tliciii- HulvuH to all the lirutiil llcciist iiiiil ferocity wliicli soeiii to Htiiin religious warn ahovc I'vcry other. . . . No less than 4,()()() .Moors were sa'd to havi' fulh'ii in llic liattle, and from Tt.WW to H,(Ml() were nmcl(! prisoners. The loss of tlie Christians was Inconsiderahle." Ki'called to Spain by Kin^ Ferdinand, Ximenes left the army In AfrUii under the command of Count I'eilro Navarro. Navarro's "tlrst enterprise was a;{alnst Hii^jla (Jan. l:tlh, VtUh. whose kinj;, al the heail of a powerful artny, ne routed in two pitched hatth'S, and Kot pos.sessiiin of his tlourishlnj; capital (Jiin. yist). Algiers, Tennis, Treiuecin, and other cities on the IJarliary coast, submitted one after another to tlie Hpaidsh urn\s. The inliabitaiits were received as vassals of the Catholic king. . . . They giniranteed, moreover, tlu^ liberation of nil ('hrislian captives in their <lominions; for which the Algerines, liowever, took care to in- demnify themselves, by e.Morting the full ran- som from their •'. 'vi.sh resiilents. . . . On the 26th of July, l.)l(), ti.,' ancient city of Trip Hi. after a most Moody and <I"sperate delenee, i iir- rcndered to the arms of the victorious gene al, whose nami.' bad now become \"rnble ii'-mi" the wliole norlliern bordersof Africa. In the follow- ing nionlli, however (Aug. i8th), lio met willi a serious discomtilure in the isliiid if Gelves, where i,00() of his men were slain or made prisonirs. This cheek ill the brilliant career of Count Navarro put a tbial stoji to the progress of the Castilian arms in Africa under Ferdinand. Tilt results obtained, however, were of great im- portance. . . . jAlost of the new concpiests escaped from the Spanish crown in later times, through the imbecility or Indolence of Ferdi- nand's successors. The conciuests of Ximenes, liowever, were placed in so strong a ])ostuie of defence as to resist every attempt for their re- covery by tlie enemy, and to remain permanentlv incorporated with the Spanish empire." — W. li. Prescott, Hint, of the Ileigii of Ferdinand diul IsahcUii, eh. 21 (c. 3). A. D. 1516-1535. — Piratical dominion of the Barbaiossas in Als^iers. — Establishment of Turkish sovereignty. — Seizure of Tunis by the Corsairs and its conquest by Charles V. — " About the beginning of the Itith century, a sudden revolution happened, which, by render- ing the states of IJarbary formidable to the Europeans, hath made their history worthy of more attention. This revolution was brought about liy pel•.s^ns born in a rank of life which entitled them to act no such illustrious part. Home and Il.iyradin, the sons of a potter in the isle of Lisbo.s, prompted by a restless and enter- prising sjjirit. forsook their father's trade, ran to sea, and joined a crew of pirates. They soon distinguished themselves by their valor and ac- tivity, and, becoming masters of a small brigan- tine, carried on their infamous trade with such conduct and success that they as.seml)led a licet of 13 galleys, besides many vessels of smaller force. Of this fleet Ilorue. the elder brotlier, calh^l Rarbarossa from the red color of his beard, was admiral, and Hayradiu secoml in command, but with almost cijual authority. They called themselves the friends of the sea, and the ene- mies of all who sail upon it; and their names soon became terrible from the Straits of the Dar- danelles to those of Gibraltar. . . . Tliey often carried the prizes which they took on the roasts of Spain and lialy into the ports of liarli.try, and. eiirieliiiig the inhabitants by the Mile of their booty, and the thoiighth.'ss pnxligality of their crews, were welcome guests In every place at whicli tliev toiielied. The convenient sitna tion of these iiarboiirs. lying so near the greati'st commercial slates at tliiit time in Christendom, made the brothers wish fra- an establishment in tliat country. An opiKirtiiiiily of aecomplishlng this (|uickly pre.s<'nted itself fl'iKll. which they did not siilTer to pa.ss nnimpnived." Invited liy Kntenii, king of Algiers, to assist him in taking a Spanish fort which had been built in his neighlioiirliood. liarbiirossa was able to ninr der Ills too conllding employer, master the Al gerine kingdom and usurp its crown. "Not satisfied willi the throne whicli be bad aci|uired, he attacked the neighbouring king of Tieiiiecen, and, having vaii(|uislied liiin in battle, added his dominions to those of Algiers. At tlie same time, he continued to infest the coasts of Spain and Italy with fleets whicli resembled the iirina- inents of a great moiiareh, rather than the light scpiadrons of a corsair. Their frci)ueiit cruel dn- vastations obliged Charles I the Fifth — thi^ great Emperor and King of Spain: 151t)-l.'),"i.')|, about the beginning of bis reign, to furnish the Mar- (piis dc Comares. governor of Oran, with troops sultlcient to attack him." Barlmrossa was de- feated ill the ensuing war, driven from Trcnie- ceil, and slain [LjISJ. "His brother llayradin, known likewise by tlu; name of Barbaros.sa, assumed tlu; sceptre of Algiers with the same anibitioii and abilities, but with better fortune. His reign being undisturbed by the arms of the 'jpaniards, whicli had full occupation in the wars among the European powers, he regulated with admirable prudence the interior police of his kingdom, carried on bis naval operations with great vigour, and e.vtended his con(|nests on the ciailiiient of Africa. Hut perceiving that the jMoors and Arabs submitted to bis government with reluctance, and being afraid that his con- tinual depredations would one day draw upon him the arms of the Christians, be put his do- iiiiniiais under the protection of the Grand Seig- nior [151!)], and received from him [with the title! of Bey, or Beylerbey] a liody of Turkish .soldiers sulllcient for his domestic as well &i foreign enemies. At last, the fame of his exploits daily increasing, Solyman offered him the com- mand of the Turkish tleet. . . . Barbarossa re- ])aired to (,'oiistaiitinople, and . . . gained the entire confidence both of the sultan and his vizien To them he communicated a scheme which he had formed of making himself master of Tunis, the most fl;)url. "ling kingdom at thai lime oil the coast of .A.fiica; and tills being aji- jiroved of by them, he obtained whatever he demanded for carrying It into e.\eeutioii. His hopes of success in iliis undertaking were founded on the intestine divisions in the king- dom of Tiini.s." The last king of that country, having 31 sons by different wives, had estab- lished one of the younger sons on the throne as his successor. I'liis young king attempted to put all of his brothers to death ; but Alraschid, who was one of the eldest, es(;apcd and fled to Algiers. Barbarossa now jiroiKised to the Turk- i.sli sultan to attack Tunis on the jiretence of vindicating the rights of Alraschid. His pro- posal was adopted and carried out; but even 259 BAItlJARTi STATES, 1510-1535. Kxnrrliliim of Charles V. HARBAItY STATES, 154a-1560. before tlie Tiirkisli expedition siiiled, Alraseliid hiuiHclf dififtijpeured — ii prisoner, slnit up in tlie Heriifflio — iind was never heard of iijf"'"- T'"-' use of liis name, liowever, enabled Uarbarossa to enter Tunis in triumph, and tlie betrayed in- habitants diseovered too late that he eainc ns a vieeroy, to make them the subjects of the sultan. ' ' Being now possessed of sueh extensive ter- ritories, he carried on his depredations against the C'hriatian states to a greater extent and with more destructive violence than ever. Daily complaints of the outrages committed by his cruisers were brought to the emperor by his subjects, both in Spain and Itjily. All C'liristen- dom seemed to expect from him, as its greatest and most fortunate prince, that he would put an end to this new and odious species of ()pi)ressi(m. At the sjime time Jluley-Ilascen, the exiled king of Tunis, . . . apilied to Charles as the only person who could assert his rights in opposition to such a formidable tisurpcr." Tiie Emperor, accordingly, in 15ii5, prepared a great expedition against Tunis, drawing men and ships fronj every part of Ids wide dominions — from Spain, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands. "On the 10th of July the lleet, consisting of near 500 ves- sels, liaving on board above 30,000 regidar troops, set sail from Cagliari, and, after a pros- perous navigation, lande<l within sight of Tunis." The fort of (joletta, eonunanding the bay, was invested and taken; tlie corsair's fleet sur- rendered, and Barbarossa, advancing boldly from Tunis to attack the invaders, was overwhelm- ingly beaten, and lied, abandoning his capital. Charle-s's soldiers rushed into the unfortunate town, eseajjing all restraint, and making it a scene of indescribable horrors. "Above 550,000 of the innocent inhabitants perished on that un- happy day, and 10,000 were carried away as slaves. Muley-IIascen took possession of a throne surrounded with carnage, abhorred by his subjects, on whom he had brought such calamities." Before quitting the country, Charles concluded a treaty with Muley-IIaseen, under wliicli the latter iteknowledged that he held his kingdom in fee of the crown of Spain, doing homage to the Emperor as his liege, and main- taining a Spanish garrison in the Golctta. lie also released, without ransom, all the Christian slaves in his dominions, 20,0P^ in number, and jvioniised to detain in servitude no subject of tlie Em|)eror thereafter. He opened his kingdom to the t;liristian religion, and to free trade, and pledged himself to exclude Turkish corsairs from liis jjorts. — W. Robertson, Hist, of the Bcign of Vharlei V., bk: 5 (c. 2). A. D. 1541. — The disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Algiers. — Kneouraged, ami deceived, by his easy success at Tunis, the em- peror, Charles V., determined, in 1541, to under- take the reduction of Algiers, and to wholly exterminate the freebooters of the north African coast. Before his iireparations were completed, "the season unfortunately was far advanced, on which account the Pope entreated, and Doria conjured him not to expose his whole armament to a deslnuaiou almost unavoidable on a wild shore during the violence of the autumnal gales. Adhering, howevi 1, to his plan with determined obstinacy, he embarked at Porto Venere. . . . The force . . . which he had collected . . . consisted of 20,000 fwit and 2,000 horse, mostly veterans, together with 8,000 volunteers. . . . Besides these there had joined his standard 1,000 soldiers sent by the Onler of St. John, and led by 100 of its most valient kniglits. Landing near Algi(^rs without opposition, Charles imme- diately advanced towards the town. To oppose the invaders, IIas.san had only 800 Turks, and 5,000 Jlcxirs, partly natives of Africa, and partly refugees from Spain. When summoned to sur- render he, nevertheless, returned n tierce and haughty answer. But with such a handful of troops, neither his desperate courage nor con- summate skill in war could have long resisted forces superior to those which had formerly defeated Barbarossa at the head of 00,000 men." He was speedily relieved from danger, however, by an ojiportune stonn, which burst upon the region during the second day after Charles's de- barkation, 'i'lie Spanish camp was flooded ; the soldiers drenched, chilled, sleepless and dis- liirited. In this condition they were attacked iiy the Moors at dawn, and narrowly escaped a rout. "But all feeling of this disaster was soon obliterated by a more affecting spectacle. As the tempest continued with unabated vio- lence, the full li.ght of day showed the ships, on which alone their safety depended, driving from their anchors, dashing against one another, and many of them forced on the rocks, or sinking in the waters. In less than an hour, 15 ships of war and 140 transports, with 8,000 men, per- ished before their eyes; and sueh of the unhappy sailors as escaped the fury of the sea, were mur- (h^red by the Arabs as soon as they reai^hed land. " With such ships as lie could save, Doria sought shelter behind Cape JIatafuz, sending a mes- sage to the emperor, advising that he follow with the army to that point. Charles could not do otherwise than act according to the sugges- tion; but his army suffered horribly in the retreat, which occupied three days. "JIt.ny jierished by famine, as the whole army subsisted eliielly on roots and berries, or on the llesh of horses, killed for that purpose by the empe-or's orders; numbers were drowned in the swollen brooks; and not a few were slain by the enemy." Even after the army had regained the fleet, and was reembarked, it was scattered by a second storm, and several weeks passed before the emperor reached his Spanish dominions, a wiser and a sadder man. — 31. Russell, Ilist. of the Bar- bary States, ch. 8. Also in : W. Robertson, Ilist. of the Reign of Charles V.,bk. Q (v. 2.) A. D. 1543-1560. — The pirate Dragfut and his exploits. — Turkish capture of Tripoli. — Disastrous Christian attempt to recover the place. — Dragut, or TorgliQil, a native of the Caramanian coast, opposite the island of Rhodes, began his career as a Alediterranean corsair some time before the last of the Barbarossas quitted the scene and was advanced by the favor of the Algerine. In 1540 he fell into the hands of one of the Dorias and uiis bound to the oar as a galley-slave for three years, — which did not sweeten his temper toward the Christian world. In 1543 he w-as ransomed, and nsumed his piracies, with more energy than before. "Dra- gut's lair was at the island of Jerba [called Gelves, by the Spaniards]. . . . Not content with the rich spoils of Europe, Dragut took the Spanish outposts in Africa, one by one — Siisa, Sfax, Mouastir; and finally .set forth to conquer ' Africa. ' It is nut uueommuu in Arabic to call 260 DAKBAUY STATES, 1543-13B0. LOMS of Tripoli. UAKBAUY STATES, 1572-1573. a coiintry niul its capital by tlic same name. . . . | ' Africi' ' nitwit to the Arab.s the province of Cartilage or T'lnis and its capital, wliich was notat first Tunis but successively Kayrawannnd Malidiya. Throughout the later middle ages the name 'Africa' is applied by C^hrlstian writers to the latter city. . . . This was the city which Dragul took without a blow in the spring of LViO. j^Iahdiya was then in an anarchic stat" ruled by a council of chicf.s, each ready to betni) the ether, and none owing the smallest allegiance to aiy king, least of all the despised king of Tui Is, Ilamid, who had deposed and blinded his father, Hasan, Charles V.'s protege. One of M., .se chiefs let Dragut and his merry men into ih J city by night. . . . So ea.sy a triumph roused th • emulation of Christendom. . . . Don Garcia de Toledo dreamed of outshining the Corsair's glory. His father, the Viceroy of Naples, the Pope, and others, promised their ai(l, and old Andrea Doria took the c'ommand. After much delay and consultation a large body of troops ■was conveyed to Mahdiya and disembarked on Juno 28, 1550. Dragut, though aware of the project, was at sea, devastating the Gulf of Genoa, and paying himself in advance for any loss the Christians might inllict in Africa: his nephew Ili.sar Ueis cimimanded in the city. When Dmgut returned, the siege iiad gone on for a month," but he failed in attempting to raise it and retired to .lerba. Alabdiya was airried by assault on the 8th of Septtiinber. "Ke.xtyear, 1551, Dragut's place was with the Ottoman navy, then commanded by Sinan Pasha. . . . With nearly 150 galleys or galleots, 10,000 soldiers, and numerous siege-guns, Sinan and Dragut sailed out of the Dardanelles — whitlier bound no Christian could tell. They ravaged, as usual, the Straits of Messina, and then revealed the point of attack by making direct for Malta." Hut the deinonstratif)n nnulc against the strong fortifications of the Knights of St. John was ill- planned and feebly executed; it was easily repelled. To wipe out his defeat, Sinan "sailed straight for Tripoli, some 04 leagues away. Tri- poli was the natural antidote to Alalta ; for Tripoli, too, belonged to the Knights of St. Jolin — much against their will — inasmuch as the Emperor liad made their defence of this easternmost Barbary state a condition of their tenure of MaltJi. Hut the fortifications of Tripoli were not strong enough to resist the Turkish bom- bardment, and Gaspard de Villiers, the com- mandant, was forced to surrender (A gust 15tli), "on terms, as he believed, identical with those ■which Suleyman granted to the Knights of Khodes. Hut Sinan was no Suleyman; more- over, he was in a furious rage with the wliole Order. He put the garrison — all save a few — in chains and carried them olt to grace his triumi)h at Stambol. Thus did Tripoli fall once more into the hands of the Moslems. . . . The misfortunes of the Christians did not end here. Year after year the Ottoman fleet appeared in Italian watere. . . . Unable as they felt theni- selves to cope with the Turks at sea, the powrs of Southern Europe resolved to strike one more blow on land, and recover Tripoli. A fleet of nearly 100 galleys and ships, gathered from Spain, Genoa, ' the Iteligion,' the Pope, from all quarters, with the Dnke de Medina-Celi at their head, assembled at >[e.ssina. . . . Five times the expedition [-'t to sea; live times was it driven back by contrary winds. At las., on February 10, 1560. it was fairly away for the African C(.ist. \ln-i\ fresh troubles awaited it. Long delays in crowded vesre'-' had produce<l their disastrous elfectM; fevers and scurvy and dysentery were working their terrible ravages among the crews, and 2,000 corpses were filing into the sea. It was impossible to lay siege to Tripoli with a diseased army, and wheii actually in sight of their object the admirals gave orders to return to Jerha. A sudden <le.scent ijuickly gave them the command of the beautiful island!. ... In two months a strong castle was built, with all scientific earthworks, and the admiral jtrepared to carry home such troojis as were not needed for its defence. Unliai)|)ily for him, he had lingered too long. . . . He was about to prepare for deiiarture when news came that the Turkish fleet had been seen at Goza. Instantly all was panic. Valiant gentlemen forgot their valour, forgot their coolnes.s. . . . Bef ire they could make out of the strait . . . the dread Corsair [Dragut] himself, and Ochiali, ind Piali Pasha were upon them. Then ensued a scene; of confusion that baflles description. Despairing of weathering the north side of .lerba the panic- stricken Christians ran their ships ashore and deserted them, never stopping even to .set them on fire. ... On rowed the Turks ; galleys and galleons to the number of 50 fell into their hands; 18,000 Christians bowed down before their scimitars; the beach on that memorable lltli of !May, 1500, was a confused medley of stranded sliips, helpless iirisoners, Turks busy in looting men and galleys — and a hideous heap of mangled bodies. The fleet and the army which had sailed from ^Messina . . . were absolutely lost." — S. Lane-Poole, Story ,</ the Darlmry Cormirs. Also in: W. H. Prescott, Hint, of the liei'juof Philip IL, bk. 4, <•//. 1. A. D. 1563-1565. — Repulse of the Moors from Oran and Mazarquiver. -Capture of Penon de Velez:. — In the spring of 1503 a most determined ind formidable attempt was made by Hassem, the dey of Algiers, to drive the Spaniards from Oran and Mazarquiver, which they had held since the African con- quests of "{/"ardinal Ximenes. The siege was fierce and desperate; the defence most heroic. The beleaguered garrisons held tlicir ground until a relieving expedition from Spain came in sight, on the 8th of June, when the Moors retrer.ted hastily. In tlie summer of the next year the Spaniards toolc the strong island fortress of Penon de Velez, breaking up one more nest of piracy and strengthening their footing on the IJarbary coast. In tlie course of the year fol- lowing they blocked the mouth of the river Tetuan, wh'icli was a place of refuge for the marauders. — W. H. Prescott, Hist, of the Reign of Philip II., hk. 4, ch. 1 (p. 2). A. D. 1565.— Participation in the Turkish Siege of Malta. — Death of Dragut. See IIosi'iT.\i.Li;ns oi- St. John: A. 1). l.'iliO-b'iOo. A. D. 1570-1571. — War •with the Holy- League of Spain, Venice and the Pope. — The Battle of Lepanto. See Turku: A. D. 1566- 1571. A. D. 1572-1573. — Capture of Tunis by Don John of Austria.— Its recovery, with Goletta, by the Turks. See Tuuks; A. D. 1572-1573. 261 BARBARY STATES, 1579. Wars wiih France. BARBARY STATES, 1004-1084. A. D. 1579.— Invasion of Morocco by Sebas- tian ci Portugal. — His defeat and death. Suu PoKTi (iAi.: A. I). 15711-l.Wl). A. D. 1664-1684. — Wars of France against the piratical powers. — Destructive bombard- ments of Algiers. — "Tlii^ iiiiciciit alliance of till' cTdwii of Kiiuicc with the Ottoman Porte, always unpopular, and less necos.snry since France had become so strong, was at this montent [early in the reign of Louis XIV.] well-nigh bn.ken, to the great satisfaction both of the Christian nations of the South and of the Austrian empire. . . . Divers jilans were ])roposed in the King's council for attacking the Ottoman jjower on the Moorish coasts, and for repressing the pirates, who were tho terror of the merchautshipping and maritime provinces. Colbert induced the king to attempt a military settlement among the Moors as the best jueans of holding them in check. A squadron commanded by tlie Dukede Beaufort . . . landed ft, 000 picked soldiers be- fore ■Jijeli (or Djigelli), a small Algerine port between Bougiah and Bona. They took [losses- sion of Jijeli without dilliculty (.fuly ;.>3, 1004); but discord arose between Beaufort and his officers; they did not work actively enough to fortify themselves," and before the end of September they were obligeil to evacuate the place precipitately. " Tlie success of Beaufort's squadron, commanded >iiider the didic by the celebrated Chevalier Paul, ere long clTaccd the impression of th's reverse: two Algerine flotillas were destroyed in the cour.se of 1005." The Dey of Algiers sent one of his French captives, an officer named l)u Babiuais, to France with propo.sals of peace, making him swear to return if his mission failed. The proposals were re- jected; l)u Babinais was loyal to his oath and returne<l — to sutTer death, as he cxjiected, at the hands of the furious barbarian. "The devotion of this Breton Hegulus was not lost: despondency soon took the place of anger in the heart of the Sloorish chi(^fs. Tunis yielded first ( ) the gui;s of the French S(iuadron, brought to bear on it from the Bay of Goletta. The Pacha and the Divan of Tunis obligated themselves to restore all the French slaves they possessed, to re- spect French ships, and thenceforth to release .•xll Frenchmen whom they should capture on foreign ships. . . . Rights of aubaine, and of admiralfv and shipwreck, were suppressed as re- garded trenchmep (November 25, 1005). The station at Cape Ne,.5ro was restored to France. . . . Algiers submitted, six months after, to nearly the same conditions imposed o;i it by Louis XIV. ; one of the articles stipulated that French merchants shoidd be treated as favorably as any foreign nati(m, and even more so (May 17, 1060). :More than 3,000 French slaves were set at liberty." Between 100!) and 1072, Louis XIV. was .serib\isly meditating a great v it of conquest with the Turks and their dependencies, but pre- ferred, finally, to enter upon his war with Hol- land, which brought the other project to naught. France and the Ottoman emi)ire then remained on tolerably good terms until 1081, when a ".squiulron of Tripolitau corsairs having carrie<l off a French shij) on the coast of Provence, Duquesne, at the head of seven vessels, pur- sued the pirates into the waters of Greece. They took refuge in the harbor of Scio. Duquesne summoned the Pacha of Scio to expel them. The Pacha refused, and flred ou the French 8(|ua(Iron, when Duquesne canror.inled both the jjirates and the town witii such violence that the Pacha, terrilied, asked for a truce, in order to refer the matter to the Sultan (.July 23, 1081). Duquesne converted the attack into a bl<K;kade. At the news of this viohition of the Ottoman territory, the Sultan, Mahomet IV., fell into u rage . . . and dispatched the Captain-Pacha to Scio with 32 galleys. Duquesne allowed tho Turki.sh galleys to enter tho harbor, then block- aded thi^m with the pirates, and declared that ho would burn the wholo if satisfaction were not had of the Tripolitans. The Divan hesitated. War was about to recommence with the Em- l)eror; it was not the moment to kindle it against France." In the end there was a "ompromise, and the Tripolitans gave up the French vessel and tho slaves they had captured, promising, also, to receive a French consul at Tripoli. "During this time another squadron, commanded bv Chateau-Renault, blockaded the coasts of >lorocco, the men of Maghreb having rivalled in depredations the vassals of Turkey. The jiowcrful Emperor of Morocco, Muley Ismael, sent the governor of Tetuan to France to solicit peace of Louis XIV. The treaty was signed at Saint-Germain, January 29, 1082, on advantage- ous conditions." including restitution of French slaves. " iVflairs did not terminate so amicably with Algiers. From tliis piratical centre had proceeded the gravest offenses. A captain of the royal navy was held in slavery there, with many other Frenchmen. It was resolved to in- flict a terrible piuiishment on the Algerines. The thought of con({uering Algeria had more than once presented itself to the king and Colbert, and they appreciated the value of this conquest ; the Jijeli expedition had been fn.-merly a first attempt. They did not, however, deem it incumbent on them to embark in sudi an enterprise; a descent, a siege, would have re- quired too great preparations; tliey lii.J recourse to another means of attack. The regenerator of the art of naval construction, Petit-Renau, in- vented bomb-ketches expressly for the purpose. . . . July 23, 1082, Duquesne anciiored before Algiers, with 11 ships. 15 galleys, 5 bomb- ketches, and Petit-Renau to guide them. After five weeks' delay caused by bad weather, then by a fire on one of the bomb-ketc/ies, the thorough trial took place during the night of August 30. The effect was terrible; a part of the great mos((ue fell on the crowd that had taken refuge there. During the night of Sep- tember 3-4, the Algerines attempted to capture the bomb-ketches moored at the entrance of their harbor; they were repulsed, and the bombard- ment continued. The Dey wished to negotiate; the people, exasperated, prevented him. The wind shifting to the northwest presaged the equinoctial storm; Duquesne set sail again, September 12. The expedition had not been decisive. It was begun anew. June 18, 1083, DiKiuesnc reappeared in the road of Algiers; he had, this time, seven bomb-ketches instead of five. These instruments of extermination had been perfected in the interval. The nights of June 20-27 witnessed the overthrow of a great num- ber of hou les, several mosques, and the palace of the Dey. A thousand men perished in the harbor and the town. " The Dey opened noirotia- tions, giving up 700 French slaves, hu. was killed by Ms Juuizaries, aud oue Uudgi-Uusseiu 262 BARBARY STATES, 1664-1684. American JiesiHtaiice. BARBARY STATES, 1785-1801. pnxjiaiined in his stciid. "The boiubardniciit wiis rt'suiucd witli iiicreiising violence. . . . The . Llgeriuos avcuj;ed themselves by binding to the muzzles of their guns a number of Krenchmen who remained in their hands. . . . The fury of the Algerines drew upon them redi/Ubled calamities. . . . Tlie bombs rained ubi.,)st with- out intermission. The harbor was strewn with the wrecks of vessels. Tlie city was ... a heap of bloody ruins." Hut "the bomb-ketebes had exhausted tlieir ammunition. September was approaching. Duquesue again departed; but a strong l)lockading force was kept up, dur- ing the whole winter, as a standing threat of the return of the 'infernal vessels.' Tlie Algerines finally bowed their head, and, April 2,"), 1084, peace was accorded by Tourville, the coin- uiauder of the blockade, to the Pacha, Dey, Divan, and troops of Algiers. The Algerines restored !!20 French slaves remaining in their power, and 180 other Christians claimed by the King; the janizaries only which had been taken from them were restored; they engaged to make no prizes within ten leagues of the coast of France, nor to assist tlie other ^Moorish corsairs at war with France ; to recognize the iireceihmce of the Hag of I'^ance over all other Hags, &c., &c. ; lastly, they sent an embassy to carry their submission to Louis XIV. ; they did not, how- ever, pay the damages which Du(iuesne had wished to exact of tlieni." — II. Martin, Jlixt. of Fraiicc: Arje of Lutiis XIV., v.. 1, eli. 4 and 7. A. D. 1785-1801. — Piratical depredations upon American commerce. — Humiliating trea- ties and tribute. ^The example of resistance given by the United States. — "It is dillicult .for us to realize that only 70 years ago the Jledi- terranean was so unsafe that the merchant ships of every nation stood in danger of being cap- tured by pirates, unless they were iiroteeted cither by an armed convoy or by tribute paid to the petty Barbary powers. Yet we can scarcely open a book of travels during the last century without mention being made of the immense risks to whicli every one was exposed who ven- tured by sea from j\Iarseilles to Najdes. . . . The European states, in orilor to protect their com- merce, had the choice either of paying certain sums per head for each captive, which in reality was a premium on capture, or of buying entire freedom for their commerce by the expenditure of large sums yearly. The treaty renewed by France, in 1788, with Algiers, was for lifty years, and it was agreed to piij- $200,000 annually, be- sides large jiresents diatributed according to custom every ten years, and a great sum given down. The peace of Spain witli Algiers is said to have cost from three to Ave millionsof dollars. There is reason to believe that at the same time England was jiaying an annual tribute of about $280,000. England was the only power sutli- ciently strong on the sea to ]5ut down these pirates ; but in order to keep her own position as mistress of the seas she preferred to leave them in existence in order to be a scourge to the commerce of other European powers, and even to supjiort them by paying a sum so great that other states might And it dillicult to make peace with them. When the Revolution broke out, we [of the United States of America] no longer hod the safeguards for our commerce that bad been given to us by England, and it was therefore that in our very first uegotitttioiis for a treaty with Franco we desired to have an article inserted into the treaty, that the king of France should secure the in- habitants of the United Statia, and iheir vessels and elTects, against all attacks or depR'dations from any of the Barbary iiowers. It was fouml impossible to insert this article in tlic treaty of 1778, and instead of that the king agreed to 'em- ploy his good otllces and interposition in order to provide as fully and ellicaciously as po.ssiblo for the benedt, conveniency and safety of the United States against the jirinces and the states of Barbary or their subjects.' " — Direct negotia- tions between the United States and the jiiratical powers were opened in KH."). by a call which Jlr. Adams made upon the Tripolilaii ambassador. The latter announced to .Mr. Adams tliat " ' Tur- kej', Tripoli, Tunis, Algiei's, and Morocco were the sovereigns of the Mediterranean; and that no nation could navigate that sea without a treaty of peace with them.' . . . The ambassador de- manded as the lowest price for a perpetual peace 30,000 guineas for his emiiloyers and £3,000 for himself; that Tunis would probably treat on the same terms; but he could not answer for Algiers or ^lorocco. Peace with all four powers would cost at least ,^1,000,000, and Congress hadai)pro- priated only $80,000. . . . 3Ir. Adams was strongly opposed to war, on account of the ex- pense, and preferred the payment of tribute. . . . Mr. ticfierson quite as deeidedl}- iireferrcd war." The opinion in favor of a trial of pacific negotiations prevailed, and a treaty with the Emperor of Morocco was concluded in 1787. An attempt at the same time to make terms with the Dey of Algiers and to redeem a number of American caiitives in his bands, came to nothing. " For the sake of saving a few thousand dollars, fourteen men were allowed to remain in imprison- ment for ten years. ... In November, 1793, the number of [American] prisoners at Algiers amounted to 115 men, among whom there re- mained only ten of the original captives of 1785." At last, the nation began to realize the intolerable shame of the matter, and, "on January 2, 17U1, the House of Representatives resolved that a ' naval force adequ^jte for the protection of the eommerco of the United States against the Al- gorine forces ought to be provided.' In the same year authority was given to build six frij^ates, and to procure ten smaller ves.sels to be C(iuipped as galley.s. Negotiations, however, continued to goon," and in SepteniVier, 1795. a treaty with the Dey was concluded. ' ' In making this treaty, however, we had been obliged to follow the usage of European powers — not only pay a large sum for the purpo.se of obtaining peace, but an annual tribute, in order to ke(!p our vessels from being captured in the future. The total cost of fuimiing the treaty was estimated at $992,- 463.25." — E. Schuyler, Ameriaiii Diplomiuij, pt. 4. — "The tirst treaty of 1795. with Algiers, which was negotiated during Washington's ad- ministration, cost the United States, for tlie ran- som of American captives, and the Dey's forbear- ance, around $1,000,000, in addition to which an annuity was jjroinised. Treaties with other Bar- bary i^tatcs followed, one of which purcliaseil peace from Tripoli by the payment of a gross sum. Nearly $3,000,000 had been squandered thus far in bribing these powers to respect our flag, and President Adams complained in 1800 that the United States had to pay three times the tribute Imposed upon Swcdcu and Deumurk. 268 BJUBAUY STATES, 1785-1801. D*'ratHr'H Exploit. BAUBARY STATES, 1803-18015. But tliis toniporizin^; policy only mndo mnUprs worse. C'liptiiiii Bainl)ri(lKc iirrivcd iit AlgicTs ill 1800, benriiig tlic annuiil ti'lbut,(! money for tlio I)('3' in II niitioiiiil frigiite, aiul tlie Dey ordered liiiii to proceed to Constimtinople to deliver Al- ijerino dispatches. ' English, French, and Span- ish ships of war have done the same,' said the Dey, insolently, when Bainbridgo and the Ameri- can consul remonstrated. ' You pay me tribute because you are my slaves. ' Bainbridf^e had lO obey. . . . Tlie lesser Barbary States were still more exasperating. The Bashaw of 'I'ripoli had threatened to seize American vessi'ls unless President Adams sent him a present like that bestowed upon Algiers. The Bashaw of Tunis made a similar demand iipon the new President [Jefferson]. . . . Jefferson had, while in Wash- ington's cabinet, expressed his (U'testation of the method hitherto favored for pacifying these pests of commerce ; and, availing himself of the pres- ent favonible opportunity, lie sent out (Commo- dore Dale with a squadron of three frigates and a sloop of war, to make a naval demonstration on the coast of Barbary. . . . Commodore Dale, upon arriving at Gibraltar [July, 1801], found two Triijolitan cruisers watcliing for American vessf's; for, as had been suspected, Tripoli already meditated war. Tlie frigate Pliiladelphia blockaded these vessels, while Baiubridge, with tUo frigate Essex, convoyed American vessels in the Mediterranean. Dale, in the frigate Presi- dent, proceeded to cruise off Tripoli, followed by the »''hooner Experiment, which presently captured a Tripolitim cruiser of 14 guns after a spirited actio.?. The Barbary powers were for a time overawed, and the United States thus set the first example among Christian nations of making reprisals instead of ransom the rule of security against these commercial marauders. In this respect Jefferson's conduct was applauded at liome by men of all parties." — J. Schoulcr, JlUt. of the U. S., ch. 5, sect. 1 (v. 3). Also in: 11. L. Playfair, T/te Scourr/c of Chris- tendom, ch. 10. A. D. 1803-1805. — American War with the pirates of Tripoli. — "The war with Tripoli dragged tediously along, and seemed no nearer its end at the close of 1803 than 18 months be- fore. Commodore Morris, whom the President sent to command the jSIediterranean squadron, cruised from port to port between May, 1802, and August, 1803, convoying merchant vessels from Gibraltar to Leghorn and JIalta, or lay in liarbor and repaired his ships, but neither block- aded nor molested Tripoli ; until at length, June 21, 1803, the President called him home and dis- missed him from the service. His successor was Commodore Preble, who Sept. 12, 1803, reached Gibraltar with the relief-squadron which Secretary Gallatin thought unnecessarily strong. ... He found Morocco taking part with Tripoli. Captain Bainbridge, who reached Gib- raltar in the 'Philadelphia' August 24, some tliree weeks before Preble arrived, caught in the neighborhood a Moorish cruiser of 22 guns vitli an American brig in its clutches. Another American brig liiul just been seized at Mogador. Determined to stop this peril at the outset, I'reble united to his own squadron the ships which he had come to relieve, and -with this combined force, . . . sending the ' Pliiladelphia ' to blockade Tripoli, he crossed to Tangiers October 0, and brought the Emperor of Morocco to reason. On both sides prizes and prisoners w<'re restored, and the old treaty was renewed. This 'iffair consumed time; ami when at length Preble got the ' Constitution ' under way for the Tripolitan coast, he spoke a British frigate off the Island of Sardinia, which reported that the 'Philadelphia' had been captureil October 21, more than three weeks before. Bainbridge, cruising off Tripoli, had chased a Tripolitan cruiser into shoal water, and was hauling off, when the frigate struck on a reef at the mouth of the harbor. Every effort was made without success to float her; but at la.st she was sur- rounded by Tripolitan gunboats, and Bainbridge struck his flag. The Tripolitans. after a few days work, floated the frigate, and brought her under the guns of the castle. The olIl(«rs be- came prisoners of war, and the crew, in number 300 or more, were iiut to hard labor. The affair was in no way discreditable to the squadron. . . . The Tripolitans gained nothing except the jirisoncrs ; for at Bainbridge 's suggestion Preble, some time afterward, ordered Stephen Decatur, a young lieutenant in command of the 'Enter- prise,' to take a captured Tripolitan craft re- named the 'Intrepid,' and with a crew of 75 men to sail from Syracuse, enter the harbor of Tripoli by night, board the 'Philadelphia,' and burn her under the castle guns. The order was literally obeyed. Decatur ran into the harbor at ten o'clock in the night of Feb. 16, 1804, boarded the frigate within half gun-shot of the Pacha's castle, drove the Tripolitan crew over- board, set the ship on fire, remained alongside until the flames were beyond control, and then withdrew without losing a man." — H. Adams, Hist, of the U. 8. : Administration of Jefferson, V. 2, e?i. 7. — "Commodore Preble, in the mean- time, hurried his preparations for more serious work, and on July 35th arrived off Tripoli with a squadron, consisting of the fiigate Constitu- tion, three brigs, three schooners, six gunboats, and two bomb vessels. Opposed to him were arrayed over a hundred guns mounted on shore batteries, nineteen gunboats, one ten-gun brig, two schooners mounting eight guns each, and twelve galleys. Between August 3rd and Sep- tember 3rd five attacks were made, and though the town was never reduced, substantial damage was inflicted, and the subsequent satisfactory peace rendered possible. Preble was relieved by Barron in September, not because of any loss of confidence in his ability, but from exigencies of the service, which forbade the Government sc "di'.ig out an oHicer junior to him in the relief squidron which reinforced his own. Upon his return to the United States he was iiresented with a gold medal, and the thanks of Congress were tendered him, his otlicors, and men, for gallant n> 1 faithful services. The blockade was main 1 ued vigorously, and in 1805 an attack was made upon the Tripolitan town of Derna, by a combined land and naval force ; the former being under command of Consul-General Eaton, who had been a captain in the American army, and of Lieutenant O'Bannou of the Marines. The enemy made a spirited though disorganized defence, but the shells of the war-ships drove them from point to point, and finally their prin- cipal work was carried by the force under O'Bannon and Jlidshipmau Mann. Eaton was eager to press forward, but he was denied rein- forcements and military stores, and much of his 264 BARBARY STATES, 180»-1806. Bombardment u/ Algieri. BARBARY STATES, 1816. adviuitngc was lost. All further openitloiis w<Ti', however, (liseontinueil in Ju .'\ 1805, when, niter the ii.stiul inlrifjues, ilelay.s, iiiid prevuriciitidiis, a Ire.ity was signed by the i'asim, whieh ])ri)\ ided that no further trilmto should be exaeted, and tliat Anieriean ve.ssels should 'le forever free of his rovers. Satisfac- tory as was this conclusion, tlie uncomfortable fact remains that tribute entered into the settle- ment. After all the prisoners had been ex- changed man for man, the Tripolitan Govern- ment demanded, and the United States paid, the handsome sum of si.\ty thousand dollars to close the contract. This treaty, however, awakened the conscience of Europe, and from the day it was signed the power of tlie Uarbary Corsairs began to wane. The older countries saw their duty more clearly, and ceased to legalize robbery on the high seas." — S. Lauo-Poolu, Story of the liarbary Vur»air», eh. 20. Also in : J. P. Cooper, Hist, (if the U. 8. Navy, V. 1, eh. 18 and t. 2, ch, 1-7. — The same. Life of I'rchlc. — A. S. .Mackenzie, Life of Deca- tur, ch. 3-7. A. D. 1815.— Final War of Algiers with the United States. — Death-blow to Algerine piracy. — ".Just as the late war with Great Britain broke out, the Dey of Algiers, taking offense at not having received from America the precise articles in the way of tribute demanded, had unceremoniously dismissed Lear, the consul, had declared war, and had since captured an American vessel, and reduced her crew to slavery. Immediately after the ratification of the treaty with England, this declaration had been reciprocated. Efforts liad been at once made to fit out ships, new and old, including several small ones lately purchased for the pro- posed squadrons of Porter and Perry, and before many weeks Decatur saded from New York with the Guerriiire, Macedonian, and Constel- lation frigates, now rideased from blockade ; the Ontario, new sloop of war, four brigs, and two schooners. Two days after passing Gibralter, ho fell in with and captured an Algerine frigate of 44 guns, the largest ship in the Algerine navy, which struck to the Ouerrifire after a running light of twenty-live minutes. A day or two after, an Algerine brig was chased into shoal water on the Spanish coast, and captured by the smaller vessels. Decatur having appeared oil Algiers, the terrified Dey at once consented to a treaty, which he submitted to sign on Decatur's quarter deck, surrendering all prisoners on hand, making certain pecuniary indemnities, renouncing all futuni claim to any American tribute or presents, and the practice, also, of reducing prisoners of war to slavery. Decatur then pro- ceeded to Timis and Tripoli, and obtained from both indcnuiity for certain American vessels captured under the guns of their forts by British cruisers during the late war. The Bey of Tripoli being short of cash, Decatur agreed to accept in part payment the restoration of liberty to eight Danes and two Neapolitans held as slaves." — R. llildrcth, Hint, of the U. S., Second Series, ch. 30 (p. 3). Also in: A. S. JIackenzio, Life of Decatur, ch. 18-14. A. D. 1816.— Bombardment of Al|;iers by Lord Exmouth. — Relinquishment of Christian slavery in Algiers, Tripolis and Tunis. — "The corsairs of Barbary still scoured the Mediter- ranean; the eai)tives, whom they had taken from {Christian vessels, still languished iii eaptivilv in Algiers; and, to the disgrace of the civilized world, a piratical state was suffered to exist in its very centr<'. . . . The C(m<'lusion of the war [of the Coalition against N'a])oleon and France | made the continuance of the.se ravages utterly intolerable. In the interests of civilization it was essential that piracy shoidd be put down; Britain was mistress of the seas, and it therefore devolved upon her to do the work. . . . Happily for this country the Mediterranean command was held by anodicer I Lord Exmouth | whose bravery and sliill were fully (Mpi.tl to the dangers before him. . . . Early in 181(1 Exmouth was instructed to proceed to ilie several stales of Barbary ; to re(|uin; them to recognize the cession of the Ionian Islands to Britain; to conclude peace with the kingdoms of Sardinia an<l Naples; and to abolish Christian slavery. The Dey of Algiers readily assented to the two first of these condi- tions; the Beys of Tripolis and Tunis followed the example of the Dey of Algiers, and in addi- tion consented to refrain in future from treating l)risoners of war as slaves. Exmouth thereupon returned to Algiers, anil endeavoured to obtain a similar concession from the Dey. The Dey pleaded that Algiers was subject to the Ottoman Porte," and obtained a truce of three months in order to confer witli the Sultan. But meantime the Algerincs made an luiprovoked attack upon a neighbouring coral fishery, which was pro- tected by the British flag, massacring the fisher- men and destroying the flag. This brought Exmouth back to Algiers in great haste, with au ultimatum which he delivered on the 27th of August. No answer to it was returned, and the fleet (which had been joined by some vessels of the Dutch navy) sailed into battle range that same afternoon. " The Algorines permitted the ships to move into their stations. The British reserved their fire till they could deliver it with good effect. A crowd of spectators watched the ships from the shore; and Exmouth waved his hat to them to move and save them- selves from the fire. They had not the prudence to avail themselves of his timely warning. A signal shot was fired by the Algeriues from the mole. The 'Queen Charlotte' replied by delivering her entire broadside. Five hundred men were struck down by the first discharge. . . . The battle, which had thus beguu at two o'clock in the afternoon, continued till ten o'clock in the evening. By that time half Algiers had been destroyed ; the whole of the Algerine navy had been burned; and, though a few of the enemy's batteries still maintained a casual fire, their principal fortifications were cnunbling ruins; the majority of their guns were dis- mouuted." The Dey humbled himself to the terms proposed by the British commander. "On the first day of September Exmouth had the satisfaction of acquainting his government with the liberation of all the slaves in the city of Algiers, and the restitution of the money i)aid since tlie commencement of the year by the Neapolitan and Sardinian Governments for the redemption of slaves." He had also extorted from the piratical Dey a solemn declaration that he would, in future wars, treat all prisoners according to the usages of European nations. In the battle which won these important results, " 138 men wero killed and 090 wounded on 265 UAUBAHY STATES, 1810. Algler» Subdued. BARBARY STATES, 1830-1846. boiml tlip British fleet ; the Diiteli lost 13 killed and ry2 wounded." — 8. Wiilpole, IIi»t. of Kinj. from 1815, ch. 2 (r. 1). Also in: II. Mnrtineaii, IIi»t. of the riiirty Tears Peace, bk. 1, ch. 6 (c. 1).— L. Ilertslet, OolUctii/ii of Treittie* uitd Coittentionn, v. 1. A. D. 1830. — French conquest of Algiers. — "DuriuK llie Niipoleonie wars, the Dey of Al- giers sii|)pli('<l grain for tlie use of the Fr<'iuh armies; it was bouglit by mereliants of .Mar- seille.s, and there was a dispute about tlie niiiltir wliicli was unsettled as late as 1829. Several in- stalments liad been paid; tlie dey demanded payment in full nceonling to his own figures, while ilie French government, believing tlie de- mand exee.ssive, required an investigation. In one of tlio numerous debates on the subject, Ilussiein Paslia, the reigning dey, became very angry, struclt tlie consul with a fan, and ordered him out of tlie house. lie refused "ll reparation for the insult, even on the formal demand of the French government, and conseipiently there was no alternative but war." Tlie expedition launched from the port of Toulon, for the chastisement of the insolent Algerine, "compri.sed 37,.W() men, 3,000 horses, and 180 pieces of artillery. . . . The sea-forces included 11 ships of tlie "line, 23 frigates, 70 smaller ves.sels, 377 transports, and 830 boats for landing troops. General Uourmont, Minister of War, commanded the expedition, which appeared in front of Algiers on tlie 13th of June, 1830." Hussein Pasha "had previously asked for aid from the Sultan of Turkey, but that wily ruler had blankly refu.sed. The beys of Tunis and Tripoli had also declined to medclle with the affair." The landing of the Freni'h was effected safely and without serious oppo.si- tion, at Sidi-Ferruch, about 16 miles west of Algiers. The Algerine army, 40,000 to 50,000 strong, commanded by Aga Ibrahim, son-in-law of the dey, took its position on the table-land of Staoueli, overlooking the French, where it waited while their landing was miuie. On the 19th General IJourmont was ready to advance. His antagonist, instead of adhering to the waiting attitude, and forcing the French to attack liiiii, on his own ground, now went out to meet tlieiii, and flung his disorderly mob against their dis- ciplined battalions, with the result that seldorti fails. "The Arab loss in killed and wounded was about 3,000, . . . while the French loss was less than 500. In little more than an hour the buttle was over, and the Osmaulis were in full and disorderly retreat." General Bourmont took possession of the Algerine camp at Staoueli, wliere he was again attiicked on the 24tli of June, with a similar disjistrous result to the Arabs. Ho then advanced uiwii the city of Algiers, established his army in jxisition behind the city, constructed batteries, and oiieued, on the 4th of July, a bombardment so terrific that the dey hoisted the white flag in a few hours. " Hussein Pasha hoixid to the last moment to retain his country and its indeiiendence by making liberal conces.sions in the way of indemnity *or tlie ex- ]x;nses of the war, and offered to liberate all Christian slaves in addition to paying them for their services and sufferings. The English con- sul tried to mediate on this basis, but his offers of mecllation were politely declined. ... It was finally agreed that the dey should surrender Algiers with all its forts and military stores, and be permitted to retire wherever he chose with his wives, children, and personal belongings, but he was not to remain in the country under any circumstances. On the 5tli of July the French entered Algiers in gr:>at pomp aiuf took possession of the city. . . . The spoils of war were such as rarely tall to the lot of a cou(|uer- ing army, when its numbers and the circumstan- ces of the campaign are considered. In the treasury was fouiui a large room filled with gold and .<ilver coins heaped together indiscriminately, the fruits of three centuries of piracy; they were the coins of all the nations that had suffered from the depredations of the Algerines, and the variety in tlie dates showed very clearly that the accumulation had been the work of two or three hundred years. How much money was contained in this vast pile is not known; certain it is that nearly 50,000,000 francs, or £2,000,000 sterling, actually reached the French treasury. . . . The cost of the war was much more than covered by the captured property. . . . Jlany slaves were liberated. . . . The Algerine power was forever broken, and from that day Algeria has been a prosperous colony of France. TIu' .sein Pasha embarked on the 10th of July with a suite of 110 persons, of whom 55 were women. He proceeded to Naples, where he remained for a time, went afterwards to Leghorn, and finally to Egypt." In Egypt he died, under circum- stances which indicated poison. — T. W. Knox, Decisive Battles Since Waterloo, eh. 5. Ai.so IN: R. L. Playfair, Tlie Scourge of Ghria- teiulom, ch. 19. — E. E. Crowe, Hist, of the Iteigna oflMiiis XVIIT. and Charles X., v. 2, ch. 13. A. D. 1830-1846.— The French war of Sub- jugation in Algeria with Abd-el-Kader. — " When Louis Philippe ascended the throne [of France, A. D. 1830] the generals of lii." predeces- sor had overrun the country [of Algiers] — though they did not effectually subdue it ; their absolute dominion not extending far round Al- giers — from Bona, on the east, in lat. 36° 53' N., long. 7° 46' W., to Oran, on the west — nearly the entire extent of the ancient Libya. . . . There was always a party in the chamber of deputies oppo.sed to the concjuest who deprecated tlie colonisation of Algeria, and who steadily op- posed any grants of either men or money to bo devoted to the African enterprise. The natural result followed. Ten thousand men could not effect the work for which 40,000 were required; and, whilst the young colony languished, the natives became emboldened, and encouraged to make that resistance which cost the French so dear. Marshal Clausel, when entrusted with the government of the colony, and the supreme com- mand of the troops . . . established a series of fortified posts, which were adequately garrisoned ; and roads were opened to enable the garrisons promptly to communicate with each other. These positions, rapidly acquired, he was unable to maintain, iu consequence of the home govern- ment recalling the greater part of his force. To recruit his army he resolved to enlist some corps of the natives; and, in October, 1830, the first regiment of zouaves was raised." ... In 1833 we " fli-st hear of Abd-el-Kader. This chief was the son of a marabout, or priest, in tlie ])rovinco of Oran. He united consummate ability with great valour; was a devout Moliammedan; and when he raised the standard of the prophet, he called the Arabs around him, with the fullest con- fidence of success. His countrj men obeyed his 266 BARBARY STATES, 1830-1840. AMei-K<uirr. BARBARY STATES, 1830-1840. call in groat numhrrs; ami, rnroiiragcd by tlie entliusiasiii tlicy (lispliiy<'il, lu! llrst, iit tlio close of 1833, proclaiiiu'd liiin.sclf t'inirof Tli'iiiscn (the forriKT niiiiie of Oriiii), and then seized on tlio port of Ar/.ew, on tlie west sid(( of tlic gulf of tliatnamc; and the port of Mostaganem, on the opposite coast. The province! of Mascara, lying at tiie foot of the Atlas, was also under his rule. At that time general Desniiehels commanded at Oran. lie had not a very large force, but he acted promptly. .Marching against AbdelKader, 1:0 defeated him in two pitched battles; retook Arzew and Mo.staganem; and, on the 2(lth of February, 1834, entered into a treaty with the emir, by whieli both parties were liound to keep the peace towardseacli other. During that year the terms were ob.served; but, in 183."), the Arab chief again commenced hostilities. He marched to the east, entered the French territories, and took possession of J[edeali, being receive " with tlie utmost joy by the inhabitants. On the 20th of June, general Trezel, with only 3.300 men, marched against him. Abd-el-Kader had 8,000 Arabs under his command ; and a sanguinary combat took place in the deliles of .Moidey-Ismnel. After a severe combat, the French forced the passage, b\it with considerable loss. . . . The French general, tinding liis positi(m untenable, commenced a retrograde movementon the28lli of June. In his retreat he was pursued by the Arabs ; and before he reached Oran, on the 4th of Jidy, he lost all his waggons, train, and baggage ; be- sides having ten olllcers, and 'i'ri sous-ollicers and rank-and-tile killed, and 308 wounded. The heads of many of the killed were displayed in triumph by the victors. This was a severe blow to the French, and the cause of great rejoicing to the Arabs. The former called for marshal Clausel to be restored to bis command, and the govennnent at home complied ; at the same time issuing a proclamation, declaring tliat Algeria should not be abandoned, but that the honour of the French arms should be maintained. The marshal left France on the 28th of July; and as soon as he landed, he organised an expedition against Slascara, which was Abd-el- Kader's capi- tal. . . . The Arab chieftain advanced to meet the enemy; but, being twice defeated, he resolved to abandon his capital, which tlic French entered on the 0th of December, and found completely deserted. Tlw streets and houses were alike empty and desolate; and the only living creature they encountered was an old woman, lying on some mats, wlio could not move of hereelf, and had been either forgotten or abandoned. The French set lire to the deserted houses ; and having effected the destruction of Mascara, they marched to Mostaganem, which Clausel determined to make the centre of F/encli power in that dis- trict." — Thos. AVrif^'.it. History of France, v. 3, m>. 033-035. — " A. camp was established on the Taafna in April 1830, and an action took place there on the 2oth, when the Tableau states that 3,000 French engaged 10,000 natives; and some of the enemies being troops of ^Morocco, an ex- planation was required of JIuley-Abd-er-Rach- man, the emperor, who said that the assistance was given to the Algcrines witliout his knowledge. On July 01 h, 1830, Abd-el-Kader suffered a dis- astrous'defeat on the river Sikkak, near Tlemsen, at the hands of Marshal Bugeaud. November 1830, the first expedition was formed against Constantina, . . . After the failure of Clauzel, 18 26 General Damremont was appointed governor, Fi'b. 12th, 18:t7; and (m the 3Uth of May the treaty of the Taafna between GcMKTal Hugeaud and AbdelKader left the French government at liberty to direct all their attention against ("on- stanlina, a camp being formed at .Medjoy-el- Ahmar in that direction. An army of l(i,00ii men set out thence on the 1st of October, 1837, for Constantina. On the 0th it arrived before (-onstantina; and on the 13th the town was taken with a severe loss, including Damremont. Mar- shal Vallee succeeded Damremont as governor. The fall of (,'onstaniina destroyed the last relic of the old Turkish govennnent. . . . Hythe2*th January, 1838, 100 tribes had subnntted to the French. A road was cleare<l in Ajiril by (Jeneral Negrier from Constantina to Stora on the sea. Tills road, passing by the camiis of Smcndou and the Arroiich, was 22 leagues in length. The coast of the Bay of Stora, on the site of the an- cient Rusicada, became covered with French settlers: and I'hilippeville was founded Oct. 1838, threatening to supplant Bona. Abd-i'lKader advaii ing in December 1837 to the province of Constantina, the French advanced also to observe him; then both retired, without coining to blows. A misunderstanding which arosc^ respecting the second artieleof the treaty of Taafna was settled in the beginning of 1838. . . . Wlien Abd-el- Kader assumed the royal title of Sultan and the command of a numerous army, the French, with re])ublican charity and fraternal .sympathy, sought to infringe tlie Taafna treaty, and embroil tlie Arab hero, in order to ruin his rising empire, and found their own on its ashes. The Kmir had been recognised by the whole country, from the gates of Ouchda to the river Alijerda, . . . The war was resumed, and many French razzias took jilace. They once marched a large force from Algiers on INlilianah to surprise the sultan's camp. They failed in tlieir chief object, but nearly cap- tured the sultan himself, lie was surrounded in the middle of a French sepiare, which thought itself sureot the rewardof 100,o00francs(E4,0O0) offered for him ; but uttering his favourite ' en- sliallair (with the will of Ood), he gave his white horse the spur, and came over their bayonets un- wounded. lie lost, however thirty of his body- guard and friends, but killed six Frenchmen witli his own hand. Still, notwithstanding his successes, Abd-el-Kader had been losing all his former power, as his Arabs, though brave, could not match P" 000 French troops, with artillery and all the oilier ornaments of civilised warfare. Seven actions were fought at the Col de Mouzaia, where the Arabs were overthrown by the royal dukes, in 1841 ; and at the Oued Foddha, where Changarnier, witli a handful of tnxips, defeated a whole population in a frightful gorge. It was on this occasion tliat, having no gun.s, lie launched his Chasseurs d'Afriquc against the fort, saying, ' Voili mon nrtillerie!' Abd-el-Kader had then only two chances, — the support of Muley-Abd-er- liidiinan. Emperor of Morocco; or the iieace that the latter might conclude witli France for him. General Bugeaud, who had replaced Marshal Vall6e, organised a plan of campaign b}' movable columns riuliating from Algiers, Oran, and C'on- stantina; and having 100,000 excellent soldiers at his disposal, the results as against the Emir were slowly but surely effective. General Ne- fricr at Constantina, Cliangarnier amongst the ladjouts about Medcali and Aliliauah, Civaiguac 7 UAKH.VliV HTATE-S, 18H0-1846. BAHCELONA. iinil Liiiuipricii'^rc in Onin, — niiricil out the c'oiiiiimiiili'riii'cliicf'H instruc-tioiis witli iiiitiriiii; t'ncp,'y and jM'rsi'V('r:iiu(,'; iiiiil in tlic sprliiK "f IHIll llio Diir il'Aunmli', in coinpiiny wllli (icn- rnii C'li:in,':irnliT, surpriswi tlit,' Kniir's camp in llic iil).s<'ni'(' of tlic firciilcst part of lil.s force, and it was witii (iillicuitv lliat lie lilmself escaped. Not lonK afterwards lie tools refiii?e in Moroeeo, t'.\<'ile(l tlie fanatical passions of tlie populace of that empire, and llicrcliy forced its ruler, .Muley- Abil-eritaliman, nuich aj^ainst his own inclina- lion, into a war wiJi Kran<te; a war very speedily terminated liv (rcncral Hui;eaud's victory of Isly, with some sli^jht assistance from the liomburd- mcnt of Tani^ier and MoKiwIor by the I'rince de JoiiiVille. In 1845 the stniKifle was maintained amidst the hills by the partisansof Abdellvadcr; but our limits ])revent us from dwelling on its particulars, save in onc! instance. . . . On the night of tlic lath of .June, 1845, about three months before Marshal Uugoaud left Algeria, Colonels Pelissicr and St. Arnaiid, at the head of a considerable force, attempted a ra/./.la upon the tribe of the Beni-Ouled-Uiali, numbering, in men, women, and children, about TOU persons. This was in the Dahra. The Arabs escaped the first clutch of tlieir pursuers; and wlien hard pres-sed, as they soon were, t<x)k refuge in tlie ciivo of Khartani, which had some oilour of sanc- tity about it: some holy man or maraliout had lived and died there, wc believe. Tlie Frendi troops came up (|uickly to the cntranc^e, and the Arabs were summoned to surrender. Tliey made no reply. Possibly they did not hear the sum- mons. ... As there was no other outlet from the cave than that by which tlie Arabs entered, a few hours' pati(Mice must have been rewarded by the unconditional surrender of the imprisoned tribe. Colonels Pcdissier and St. Arnaiid were (h:sirous of a speedier result; and Ijy their order an immense tire was liindled at the moutli of the cave, and fed sedulously dtiring tlie summer night with wood, grass, reeds, anything that would help to keep up the volume of smoke and flame which the wind ilrove, in roaring, whirling eddies, into the mouth of the cavern. It was 1(H) late now for the unfortunate .Vnibs to olTer to surreniicr; the discharge of a cannon woulil not have Dccn licanl in the roar of that liuge blastfurnace, mucli less smoke-strangled (Ties of human agony. TIk- tire was kept up throughout the night; and when the day had fully dawnc<l, the tli(!n expiring emli<TS were kicked aside, and as s<H)n as a sulHcienl time Imd elapsed to render IhcMiir of th(^ silent cave breathable, some soldiers were directed to ascertain liow niatters wen; within. They were gone but a few minutes; and they came back, we are told, pale, trembling, tcri-ilied, hardly daring, it seemed, to confront the light of day. No wonder they trembled and looked pale. They had found all the Arabs dead — men, women, <;hildren. ... St. Arnaud and Pelissicr were rewarded by the French min- ister; and Marshal Soult observed, that 'what would be a crime against civilisation 'n Europe miglit be a justiliable necessity in Africa.' . . . A taste of Frencli bayonets at Isly, and the booming of French guns at Mogador, liatl brought Morocco to reason. . . . Morocco sided witli France, and threatened Abd-cl-Kader, who cut one of their corps to pieces, and was in June on tlie point of coming to blows with Muiey-Alid- el-Ilahman, the emperor. But the Emperor of Morocco took vigorous measures to oppose him, nearly exterminating the tribes frieuiliy to him; which drew off many partisans from the Emir, who tried to pacify the emperor, but unsuc- cessfully." In December, 1840, "he asked to negotiate, offered to surrender; and after 24 hours' discussion he came to Sidi Braliim, the scene of his last exploits against the French, where he was received with military honours, and conducted to the Duke of Aumale at Ne- mours. France has been severely abused for the detention of Abdel-Kader in Ham." — ,T. K. Morell, A/i/crid, fk. "23. A. D. i88i. — Tunis brought under the protec- torate of France. See Fuance : A. D. 187o-1889. BARBES.— BARBETS.— Theeldersamong the early Waldeiises were called barbes, wliicli signirted " Uncle." Wlu^nce came the nickname Barbets, applieil to tlie \Valdensian peoi)le gen- erally. — B. Comba, Hint, of the Waldenaes of Italy, p. 147. BARCA. SeeCTRENE. BARCELONA: A. D. 713.— Surrender to the Arab-Moors. See 8i'.\in': A. D. 711-713. A. D. 1151. — The County joined to Aragon. See Sp.u.v: A. D. 1035-1258. I2th-i6th Centuries. — Commercial prosper- ity and municipal freedom. — "The city of Bar- celona, whicli originally gave its name to the county of which it was the capital, was distin- guished from a very early period by ample miuiicipal privileges. After tlie union with Ara- gon in the 13tli century, the momirclis of the lat- ter kinjjdom extended towards it the same liberal legislation; so that, by tlie 13th, Barcelona had reached a degree of commercial prosperity rival- ling that of any of the Italian republics. She divided witli them the lucnitive commerce with Alexandria ; and her port, thronged with foreign- ers from every nation, became a principal em- l)orliim in the Mediterranean for the spices, drugs, perfumes, and other rich commodities of the Eiust, whence tUey were diffused over the in terior of Spain and the European continent. Her consuls, and her commercial factories, were es- tablished in every considerable port in the .Medi- terranean and in tlie north of Europe. The natu- ral products of her soil, and her various domestic fabrics, supplied her with abunchmt articles of export. Fine wool was imported by her in con- siderable quantities from England in the 14th and 15th centuries, and returned there manu- factured into cloth ; an exchange of commodities the reverse of that existing betwecm tlio two nations at the present day. Barcelona claims the merit of having established the flrst bank of exchange and deposit in Europe, in 1401 ; it was devoted to the accommodation of foreigners as well as of her own citizens. She claims the glory, tix), of having compiled the most ancient written code, among the moderns, of maritime law now extant, digested from the usages of commercial nations, and which formed the basis of the mer- cantile jurisprudence of Europe duriu" the Mid- dle Ages. The wealth which tlowcd in ujioii Barcelona, as the result of her activity and enter- prise, was evinced by her numerous public works, her docks, arsenal, warehouses, exchange, hospi- tals, and other constructions of general utility. Strangers, who vi.sited Spain in the 14th and 1,5th centuries, expatiate on the luaguiflccnce of tliis - .:i UAUCEF.OXA. nAKNEVELDT. city, Itscommodlniw private cdlflrM, tlio rlonnll- nciisof its si reels mill publie Mc(iiares (ii virtue by no nienns iisiiul in that duyi. luid on tliu iimenily «f ItH ;r»rili'ii.s and ciillivaled enviri)iis. lint the Eeculiar ijlory iif IJarcelona was the freedom of er iiiiiiiielpal institutions. Her government consisted of a senate or rouncil of one hundred, and a body of rei^idores or eounseliors, as they Were styli'd. varyin;? at times from four to six in numlicr; llic> former intrusted wilii the lej^is- Jiilive, the latter with tlii? executive functions of ndiulnistration. A larj;e proportion of these bodies weri! selected from the mercliants, trades- men, and nieclianics of the city. They were In- vested not merely with municipal authority, but with many of the rights of soven^iu'nty. They entered into commercial treaties with foreifju powers; superintended llie defence of the city in time of war; provided for the seciuMty of trade; jjranted letters of reprisal ajjainst any na- tion who mi^lit violate it; and raised ami appro- priated the public moneys for the construction of useful works, or the encoura^jemeut of such commercial adventures as were too hazardous or expensive for individual enterprise. The coun- sellors, who ])re.sidedoverth(! municipality, were complimented with certain lionorary iirivileges, not veil .•iccorded to the nobility. They were addressed liy the title of maifnilicos; were .seated, with their lieads covered, in the presence of roy- alty; were preceded by mace-bearers, or lietors, in their jirogress through the country ; and depu- ties from their body to tlio court were admitted oil tlie footini; and "received the honors of foreif^n ambassadors. These, it will be recollected, were plel)eians,- merchants and mechanics. Trade never was esteemed a dei^radation in ('ataloiiia, as it came to be in (Castile." — \V. II. I'rescott, 7/('.^^ (if the lUiijii (if Finliiiniul anil IiuiMla, in- trod., Ki'i'l. 3. A. D. 1640.— Insurrection. See Sp.vin: A. D. 164O-104U. A. D. 1651-1652. — Siege and capture by the Spaniards. SeeSi-.u\: A. 1). lOW-KI.Vi. A. D. 1705. — Capture by the Earl of Peterborough. ScoSi-.vin: A. I). nO.T A. D. 1706. — Unsuccessful siege by the French and Spaniards. .See Sp.mn: A. D. 170(1. A. D. 1713-1714.— Betrayal and desertion by -the Allies. — Siege, capture and massacre by French and Spaniards. See Spai.n: A. U. 17i:i-1714. A. D. 1842. — Rebellion and bombardment. See Spain: A. D. 1S:!:{-1840. BARCELONA, Treaty of. See Italy: A.D. l.TJT-l.Vii). BARCIDES, OR BARCINE FAMILY, The. — The family of tlie jjreat Carlhai^iiiian, liamilcar 'Jarcii, father of the more famous Hannibal. Tlie surname Barca, or IJurcas, given to Hamilcar, is c(iuivalent to the Hebrew IJarak and signirted lightning. — II. U. Smitli, Cart'iuge and till' C(irt/uir/<iHiiii,i, cl'. 7. BARDS. See Fii.r. BARDULIA, Ancient Cantabria. See Spain: A. D. 1026-1>;50. BARE, The. See A.mehican AuouiaiNEs: GucKou Coco GiiofP. BAREBONES PARLIAMENT, The. See EniILAND: a. I). lfi.");J (•IlINK— I)K('KMIIKU). BARfeRE AND THE COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY. See France : A. 1). 1793 or .Mini— .Il'NK);(SRPTP.>'ltF.K — DECEMnElO; TO lTltl-17!l.', (.Iii.Y— .Vl'liii,), BARKIAROK, Seljoulc Turkish Sultan, A. I>. I(i!t3-ll()l. BARMECIDES, OR BARMEKIDES, The. — The liarmecides, or llarmekides, famoiH iu the history of the Caliphate at Bagdad, ami made familiar to all the world by the stories of' the " .Vnibian N'ighls," were a family which rose to great power anil wealth uu<ler the Caliph llarouri .Viraschid. It took its name from ono Khaled ibn Barmek. a Tcrsian, whose father had' been the " Barmek " or cuslodian of one of the most celebratecl temples of the Zoroastrian faith. Ivhali'd ai'ccpted .Mahometaiiism and bec.ime 0110 of till! abli'st agents of tli uspiracy which overthre',.' the ()mmlail Caliphs and Viiised thu Abbasides to the thioiie. The tlrst of the .Vbba- siile Caliphs recogni/ed his ability and made him vizier. His son Yaliya succeeded to his power and was the llrst vizier of the Tamoiis Ilaroun .Viraschid. But it was .laafar, one of the sons of Valiya, who became the prime favorite of Haroun and who raised the family of the Barmecides to its acme of splendor. So much greatness hi a Persian house excited wide Jealousy, however, among the Arabs, and, in tliu end, the capricious lord and master of the all powerful vizier .Jaafar turned his heart against him, and against all his house. The fall of tho Barmecides was made a.s cruel as their advance- ment had been unscrupulous. .Taafar was be- headed without a moment's waniiiig; his father and brother were imprisoned, anil a thou.sand members of the family are said to liave been slain.- -If. I). Us'iorn, IkIiuii under the Klodifii iif liiif/ZidHd, pt. 3, (•/(. 3. Also in: E. II. Palmer, Ilaroun Alnwchid, ch. 3. BARNABITES. — PAULINES.— "Tho clerks-regular of St. Paul (Paulines), wiiose con- grcgatiou was founded by .Vntonio .Maria Zachariiiof Cremona and cwo Milanese associates in l.");i3, approviMl by Clement VII. in I'M, and continued as independent by Paul HI. in l.l;i4, iu X'A'i toolc the name of Barnabites, from tho church of St. Barnabas, which was given up to them at Milan. The Barnabites, who have been described as tho democmtic wing of tho Tliea- tiiie.s, actively engaged in the cimversiim of lieretics,. botliin Italy and in Franco and iu that homo of heresy, Bohemia." — A. W. Ward, Tlie Counter lieforniatioii, j>. 39. BARNBURNERS. Sec U.nited States of A>r. : A. I). 1845-1840. BARNET, Battle of (A. D. 1471).— The do- cisive battle, and the last but ono fought, in tho "Wars of tho Hoses." Edward IV., havinji; been driven out of England and Henry VI. re- instated by Warwick, "tlie King-maker," the former returned before six montlis Iwid pn 'd and made his way to London. Warwick liiustciird to meet him with an army of Laiica.strians and the two forces camo together on Ea-ster Sunday, April 14, 1471, near Barnet, only ten miles from London. The victory, long (hmbtful, was won for tho white rose of Y()rk and it was very biiKxlily achieved. Tlio Earl of Warwick wa.s among tho slain. See England: A. D. 1455- 1471. BARNEVELDT, John of, The religious persecution and death of. See NiiiuiiiiLANOS: A. D. 1003-1019. 2iid HAUON. nA8IN0 HOUSE. BARON.— "Tlic title of Imrnn, tinlike tlmt of Kuri, is II (Ti'iitloti of tile [Nomiiiiil OonqiiCHt. Tlie woni, in its oriKi" eiiiiivaleiit to 'lioino,' receives iiiider feudal institiltioiiH, like 'hoiiii>' itHi'lf, tlii^ nteaniiiK of vtiHStil. Iloinii^e (lioiniii- iiim) is tlio ceremony by wliieli tiie vassal becomes the man of liis lord; and tlie lioinines of tlie kiuK are barons. I'ossibly the kin);'s tliegn of \nj?lo-Saxoii tiin:'S may answer to the Norman baron." — \V. Htubbs, Cout^. lli»t. of Eitf/., <•!,. 11, «'•<. 124. BARON, Court. See Manouh. BARONET.— "One approaches with reluc- tance the modern title of baronet. . . . Gram- matically, the term is clear enoURli; it is lli<' ditninutive of baron; but baron Ls einpliatically a man, the lieRc va.ssal of the kiiifj; ami baronet, therefore, etymologically would seem to imply a a doubt. Degrees of honor admit of no diminu- tion; a 'damoisel' and u 'donzello' are gram- matical diminutives, but they do not lessen the rank of the bearer; for, on the contrary, they denote the heir to the larger honor, being attributed to none but the sons of tiie prince or nobleman, who boro the paramount title. Tliey did not degrade, even in their etymological signitlcation, which baronet apixart. to do, and no act of i)arliainent can remove this radical defect. . . . Independently of these considera- tions, the titli^ arose from the expedient of a needy monarch [.lames I.] to raise money, and was offered for sale. Any man, provided he were of good birth, might, ' for a consideration,' cantcm his family shieUl with the red hand of Ulster." — U. T. llampson, Originea Patricia, pp. 868-it«l). BARONS' WAR, The. See England: A. 1). 121(i-l'..'7i BARONY OF LAND.— "Fifteen acres, but in some places twenty acres." — N. H. Nicolas, Notitia Ilistorien, p. 134. BARRIER FORTRESSES, The razing of the. See Netiieki.ands (Holland) : A. D. 1746-1787. BARRIER TREATIES, The. See Eng- land: A. D. 1(01), and NKTnEUL.\ND8 (Hol- land): A. I). 1713-1715. BARROW. — A mound raised over the buried dead. " This form of memorial, . . . a.s ancient as it has been lasting, is found in almost all parts of the globe. Barrows, under, diverse names, line the coasts of the Mediterranean, the seats of ancient empires and civilisations. . . . They abound in Great Britain and Ireland, dif- fering in shape and size and made of various materials; onil are known as barrows (mounds of earth) and cairns (mounds of stone) and popu- larly in some parts of England us lows, houes, and tuinps." — AV. Oreenwell, British Barrows, pp. 1-3. Also in : Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, eh. 5. BARTENSTEIN, Treaty of. See Ger- many: A. D. 1807 (Februaky — June). BARWALDE, Treaty of. See Germany: A. I). 1031 (January). BASH AN. See Jews: Israel under the J u does. BASHI BOZOUKS, OR BAZOUKS.— For the suppression of the revolt of 1875-77 in the Cliristian provinces of the Turkish dominions (see Turks: 1801-1876), "besides the regular forces engaged against the Bulgarians, great numlK'rs of the Moslem part of the local popu- lati<m hiul been armed bv the Government and turned loose to tight the Insurgents In their own way. These irregular warriors are called Hashl lio/.oiiks, or Uottenlieads. The term alludes to their iM'liig sent out without regular organization and without olllcers at their head." — H. O. Dwij^ht, Turkish l.ifc in Wiir Time, p. 15. BASIL I. (called the Macedonian), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 867- Ht6 Basil, or Vassili, I., Grand Duke of Volodomir, A. I). 127a-ls.'7tl Basil 11., Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). U(t3-l()'.>5 Basil, or Vassili, II., Grand Prince of Moscow, A. 1). 138i)-14-.>5 Basil III. (The Blind), Grand Prince of Moscow, A. I). 14a5-l4;i2 Basil IV., Czar of Russia, A. I). 1.505-1.5JJ3. BASILEUS.— "From the earliest period of history, the .sovereigns of Asia had been cele- brated in the Greek language by the title of Basileus, or King ; and since it was considered as tlie llrst distinction among men, it was soon employed by the servile provincials of the east in their humble address to the Uonian throne." — E. Gibbon, Ikdinc iiiul Fall of the llomaii Enipire, ch. 13. BASILIAN DYNASTY, The. See Byzan- tine Emimre: a. D. 820-1057. BASILICiE. — " Among the buildings appro- priated to tile public service at Koine, none were more important than the Basilicic. Altliougli their name is Greek, yet they were essentially a Uoman creation, and were used for practical purposes peculiarly Uoman, — the administration of law and the trausaetiou of merchants' busi- ness. Historically, considerable interest attacl^es to them from their connection witli the first Christian churches. The name of Basilica was applied by the Romans equally to all large buildings intended for the special needs of public business. . . . Qenendly, however, they took the form most ndaptetl to their ')urposes — a semicircular apse or tribunal for legal trials and a central nave, with arcades and galleries on each side for tlie transaction of business. They existed not only as separate buildings, butlulso as reception rooms attached to the great man- sions of Rome. ... It is the opinion of some writers that these private basilictD, and not the public edifices, served as the model for the Christian Basilica." — R. Burn, Rome and the Campaf/na, introd. Also IN: A. P. Stanley, Christian Imtitutioiis, eh. 0. BASILIKA, The.— A compilation or codifi- cation of the imperial '..\vs of the Byzantine Em- pire promulgated A. D. 884, in the reign of Basil I. and atterwarc s revised and amplified by his son, Leo VI. — Q. i'inlay. Hist, of the Byzan- tine Empire, from 716 to 1057, bk. 2, ch. 1, sect. 1. BASING HOUSE, The Storming and De- struction of. — "Basing House [mansion of the Alarquis of Winchester, near Basingstoke, in Hampshire], an immense fortress, with a feudal castle and a Tudor palace within its ramparts, had long been a thorn in the side of tlie Parlia- ment. I'our years it had held out, with an army within, well provisioned for years, and blocked the road to the west. At last it was resolved to take it ; and Cromwell was directly commissioned by Parliament to the work. Its capture is one of the most terrible and stirring incidents of the 270 BASINO nOl'SE. BATAVIANS. wnr. After hIx dnys' constant ninnonmlp. the Mtorm Ix'Kiin at hIx o'clock in tli« incirnin^ of the 14th()f Oclohrr [A. I). UUr,]. After homu- hours of dcNpcrutc (Ijflititift, oni' after another Itn ile fences were taken and lis ({arrison put to the Hword or taken. The pUinder was |)rodi^'i(iiis: the destru('ti()t\ of properly unsparhi;;. It was gutted, Imrnt, and the very ruiim carted uway," — F. Harrison, (Jlinr ('niinirrll, cli. T). Al.HolN: S. 11. Oardlner, llint. nft/ic Ciril War, ch. U7(r. 2). — .Mrs. Thonip.son, Jl)T,>ll,vliuii»i>J' /.it- irari/ C/inriifti m iiiid Cilthniliil I'liii-in, r. 3, eh. 1. BASLE, Council of. Hee l».vi'.\CY: A. 1). li:il-ltis. BASLE, Treaties of (1795). See Fii.vNCB: A. I). ITUl-r.in (( )(ToHKU— .\1\Y), and 17U5 (Jink — I)Kri'.Mni;iii. BASOCHE.- BASOCHIENS.— " The Bas oche was an association of tiie ' cleros du I'arle- meiit' [Parlliinient of I'aris]. The etymolojry of the name is uncertain. . . . Tlie Hii.socho is Rupposed to liave l)ecn inslitiit<'d in VM'i, l)y Pliilippe-lelJel, wlio pive it the title of ' Itov- aurne dc la Hasoclii',' and orilered tluit it should form a trilmnal for judi^inj;, witliout appeal, all civil and criminal matters that ndght arise among the clerks and all actions brought eijainst them. Ho likewise ordered that the president should be caHed ' Koi de la Ha.soclie.'and that the king and his subjects should have iui annual 'montre'or review. . . . L'nder tlie reign of Henry III. the number of subjects of the roi de la lla.sochi! nmounted to nearly lO.OIW. . . . The members of the Uusoche t(M)k upon themselves to exhibit plays in the ' Palais,' in which they censured the public manners; indeed they mny be sidd to have been the first comic authors and actors that ap- peared in Paris. ... At the commencement of the Revolution, the Hasochicns formed a troop, the uniform of which was red, witli epaulettes and silver buttons; but they were afterwards disbanded by a decree of the > ational Assem')l y. " —lli«t.ofPariit(tA>n(lon:G.B. Whittaher, 1837), «. 2, ;). iO«. BASQUES, The.— "The western extremity of the Pyrenees, where France and Spain join, gives us a locality . . . where, although the towns, like Hayonue, Panipeluna, and Bilbao, are French or Spanish, the country people are Basques or Biseayaus — Basques or Biscayans not only in the provinces of Biscay, but in Ahvva, Upper Xavarre, and the French districts of La- bourd and Soule. Their name is Spjnisli (the word having originated in that of the ancient Vascones), and it is not the one by which they designate themselves; though possibly it is in- directly connected with it. Tiie native name is derived from the root Eusk-; which becomes Euskani when the language, Euskkerria when the country, and Euskaldunac when the people are spoken of." — U. G. Latham, Ethnology of Euro])e, ch. 2. Ai.so IN : L Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, ch. 4, iiect. 4. — See, also, Ibekiass, The Western, and Appendix A, v. 1. BASSANO, Battle of. See Prance: A. D. 1706 (April— OcToiiKit.) BASSEIN, Treaty of (1802). See India: A. n. 17118- 1 SIC). BASSORAH. See Bussoraii. BASTARN./E, The. See Peucini. BASTILLE, The.— "The name of Bastille or Bastel was, in ancient times, given to any kind of erection calculated to withstand a mill tary fonc; and thus, formerly in Knglaml and on the borders of ScollanrI, the term Bastel- house was usuidly applied to places of strength and fancied security. Of tlie many Bastilles in France that of Paris, . . . which at first was called the Bastille St.Vntoi '', from being erected near the suburb of l| Aiitoine, retained the name longest. This fortress, of nielancholy celcbrlly, was erected under the following eireunistances: In the year i;i.'')(l, when the English, then at war wiili France, 1 'n the ncighlKMirhood of I'aris, it wasconsidired neees- sary by the inhabilaiits of the French capital to repair the biilwiirks of their city. Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchants, undertook this task, and, amongst <itlier defences, added to the fortillcations at the eastern entrance of the town a gate fianked with a tower on eai'h sidi ." This was tlie beginning of tlie constructii'is of tlie Bastille. They were enlarged in IIHIK by Hugh Aubriot, provost of Paris under Charles V. He "added two towers, which, being placed opposite to those ain iiily existing on eacli side of the gate, made of the Bastille a s<iuare fort, witli a tower at each of the four angles." After the death of Charles V., Vubriot, who had many enemies, was prosecuted for alleged crimes, "was condemned to perpetual conllne- ment, and placed in tin? Bastille, of which, ac- cording to some hi.storians, he was the tlrst ])risoner. At'< ■• some time, lie was removed thence to Fori rEvC(|ue, another jirLson," from which he was lilKiated in 1:181, by the insurrec- tion of the Jlaillotiiis (see Paris: A. I). l:t81). "After the insurrection of the Maillotins, in ll!83, the young king, Charles VI., still further enlarged the Bastille by adding four lowers to it, thus giving it, instead of the square form it formerly posscs.seil. the shape of an oblong or parallelogram. Tlie fortress now consisted of eight towers, each 101) feet high, and, like the wall which united them, nine feet thick. Four of these towers looked on the city, and four on the suburb of St-Antoine. To increase its strength, the Bastille was surrounded by a ditch 25 feet deep and 120 feci wide. The road which formerly passed througli it was turned on one side. . . . The Bastille was now completed (1383), and though additions were subsequently made to it, the body of the fortress underwent no important change. . Both as a place of military de- fence, and as a state prison of great strength, the Bastille was, even at an early period, very formidable." — Hist, of the Ba»tille (Chambers » MMcllany, no. 132, r. 17). — For an account of the taking and destruction of the Bastille by the people, in 1789, see France: A. I). 1789 (.July). Also ix: 1). Bingham, Tlic Bastille. — It. A. Davenport, Hint, of the liastile. BASTITANI, The. See Tukdetanl BASUTOS, The. See South Africa: A. D. 1811-1808. BATAVIA (Java), Origin of. See Netiier- LA.NDs: A. D. 1594-1020. BATAVIAN REPUBLIC, The. See Fr'ANCE; A. 1). 1794-1795 (OcTonER — May). ;:.1.T AVIANS, OR BAT AVI, The.— "The Oermauic Batavi had been peacefully united with the [RomiiD] Empire, not by Cicsar, but not long afterwards, perhaps by Drusus. They were settled in the Rhine delta, that is on the left bank of the Rhine and on the islands formed 271 BATAVIAN8. BATTr.E OF TIIK KE08. by Itn nrmn, iipwnnN ii« fur nt Icnut nn flic Old Itliiti)', iukI ho iirarlv fniii) Antwrrp to I'trcrht iiikI l/('yil<'ri tn /rafiiml iinil HoutliiTii llollaml, oil trrrltory oriiflrmlly Crlllc — iit li'iiHt, the IcmuI niiiiii's urn nn'iloiiiliiiintly Ccllir: lliiir riaiiii' \n Hiill liornt' liv llic Itrtiiwi', the liiwl:iiiil Itrtwccn till' Wiial itiic) till- 1,1'i'k with till! capital Novlinii- UKiiH, now Niim'KUi'ii- Tliry wcri'. I'spi'dally '•oMiimri'il with till' ri'Htli'SH iiiiil refractory (ilN, olM'illi'iit anil iiNi'fiil KiiliJi'clH, ami hence occiipieil u ilistlnctive poHitioii ill the aKK<°<'K»t<'. <■'<'' P'T- ticiilarly in the military HyNteiii of the Uoniaii Kiiipinv Tliey reniained i|iille free from taxa- tion, Imt Wire (III the other hand drawn upon moro largely lliaii any other canton in llie re- cruiting; thin one canton fnrnisheil to llie army l.IMM) horsemen and D.OlHI foot HoldierM; hesldeM, the men of the imperial licMly-jjuard were taken (■Hpecially from them, The comieand of thcHe Uutiivian dlvisioim was conferred ixcliisivelv on native Hatuvi. Tiie Ilalavl were accoiinteil lii- dlsputahly not merely as the best riilers ami swimmers of the army, hut nUo as the moilel id' true soldiers. " — T. Mommsen, Hint, nf linaie, hk. 8, fh. \. — " When tlieCimlirl and their iissi«'iates, fttioiit a century before our erii, made their menioralile oiiHlaiiirlit upon Itome, tiie early in- habitants of the iiliinu island of Hatavia, who were proliabiy Celts, joined in tlie expedition. A recent and tremendous Iniindatioii had swept II way their miserable homes. . . . The island was deserted of its population. At alioiit tlie Sttino period a civil dissension amonjj the C'liatti — a powerful Oermaii race within tlic Iler- cynian forest — resulted in the expatri.itiim of a fi'ortion of the people. The exiles soiigiit a new loiiio in the empty Hliine island, called it 'Bet-iiuw,' or 'Rood meadow,' and were tliem- gelves called, tlieiiieforward, IJatavi, or Hiitav- ians. " — J. L. Jlotiey, Itineof the Dutch Ikpublic, intrntl., mrt. 2. A. D. 69.— Revolt of Civilis. — " Galba [Roman EmperorJ, siicceedinK to the purplo upon the suicide of Nero, dismissed tlie Bntavmn life-guards to w lioin he owed his elevation. He is murdered, Otlio and Vitelliiis contend for the succession, while all eyes are turned upon the eight Hatavian rei;iinents. In their hands the scales of Empire seem to rest. Tliey declare for Vitellius and the civil war begins. Otho Is defeated; Vitellius acknowledged by Senate and people. Fearing, like his predecessors, the imperious turbulence of the Hatavian legions, he, tix), sends them into Oermany. It was tlia signal for a long and extensive revolt, wliifh had well-nigh overturned the lioman pow>r in Gaul and Lower Germany. Claudius Civilis was a Hatavian of noble raci', who had served twenty-tlvo years in the Konian armies. His Teutonic name has perished. . . . After a quarter of a century's service he was sent in chains to Rome and his brother executed, both falsely charged with conspiracy. . . . Desire to avenge his own wrongs was mingled with loftier motives in his breast. lie knew that the sceptre was in the gift of the Batavian soldiery. . . . By his courage, eloiiucnco and talent for politi- cal combinations, Civilis effected a general con- federation of nil the Netherland tribes, both Celtic and German. For n brief moment there was a united people, a Batavian commonwealth. . . . The details of the revolt [A. D. 091 have been carefully preserved by Tacitus, and form one of Ills grandest and most elaborate plctiirpn. . . . The battles, the sieges, the defeats, thii imlninituble spirit of CiviliH, still llainlng most brightly wlien the clouds were darkest around him, have been described by the great historian in his most powerful inanner. . . . Thestriigghi was an unsuccessful one. After manv vIctorleH and many overthrows, Civilis was left alone. . . . lie accepted the offer of negotiathin from Cerialis [the lioman commanderj. ... A co|- iiiipiy was agreed upon. The bridge across t ho Nabalia was broken asunder In the middle and Cerialis mill Civilis met upon the severed sides. . . . Here the story abruptly terminates. Tho remainder of the Itoman's narrative is lost, and upon that broken bridge the form of the Hatiivlan hero disaiipears foreviT " — J. L. .Motley, Jliiie of the hutch Ittpiililic, iiitrixl., mrtK. !(-4. Almoin: Tacitus, Ilintovn, li/cn. 4-5. BATH, The Order of the.— "The present Military Order of the Hath, founded by King (Jeorgel. in tlie year 11V>, differs so essentially from the KniglitiioiHl of tlii' Hath, or the custom of making Kniglits with various rites and cero- inonies, of wliicli one was Hathing, that it may almost be considered a distinct and new fni- ternlty of chivalry. The last Knights of the Hath, inadeiiccording to the ancient forms, were at the coronation of Kint,' Charles II.; and from that period until tlii' reign of tlie llrsl fleorge, tlie old inslitiition fell into total oblivion. At the latter epoch, however, it was determined to revive, as it was termed, Tlie Order of tlie Hath, by erecting it ' into a regular Military Order'; and on the 25tli May, I7'J5, Letters Patent were issued for tliat purpose. Hv the .Statutes then promulgated, the number of Knights, indepen- dent of the Sovereign, a I'rince of the BIoikI Royal, and a Great Master, was restricted t()il5." It 1ms since been greatly increased, and the Order divided into three classes: First Class, con- sisting of " Knights Grand Cross," not to exceed 50 for military and 25 for civil survice: Second Class, consisting of " Kni>^!-ts Commanders," not to exceed 103 for military aii.l 50 for civil service; 'Third Class, "Companions." not to exceed H'i'y for military and 200 for civil seii-lco. — Sir B. Burke, Jiook of Orders if Knighthmd, p. 104. BATH, in Roman times. See AijU/K Sous. BATHS OF CARACALLA, Nero, etc. See Tm;uM-K. BATONIAN WAR, The.— A formidable revolt of the Dalmatians and Pannonlans, A. D. 6, involved the Roman Ev.ioire, under Aiigu.stus, in a serious war of tlirie years duration, which was e:illed the Batoniaii ^Var, from tlie names of two leaders of the insurgents, — Bato the Dalma- tian, and Bato the Pannonian. — T. Mommsen, Jlint. of Home, bk. 8, ch. 1. BATOUM : Ceded to Russia.— Declared a free port. See Turks: A. 1). 1878. BATTIADiE, The. See Cvuene. BATTLE ABBEY. Sec England: A. D. 1000 (OCTOIIEU). BATTLE ABOVE THE CLOUDS, The. See United States of A>i. : A. D. 1803 (Octo- iiEii — NovE.MUF.u : Tennessee). BATTLE OF THE CAMEL. See Ma- hometan Conquest: A. D. 601. BATTLE OF THE KEGS, The. Sec PHiLADELPniA: A. D. 1777-1778. 272 r\TTLK OF THK NATIONS. HAVAHIA. BATTLE OP THE NATIONS (Lelpiic). R<l' OKUMANV. \. '>. 1H|;| (SKI'IKMIIKII— OCTO- UKio, iind (OcTi'ii '.III. BATTLE OF THE THREE EMPER- ORS.- Till' >,., lie <il AiiHlcrllt/, — Mcc Fiian<k: A. I). 1H(»,T(M.\IU'II— DMKMHKK)— WUHMOCullcil by NjiiKplcdii. BATTLES.— Tli<' iMittlcH of which mioiint Id k'^''" i» ll'i'* wiirk arc mi nuiiicroiiH that no C()tivciilciic(^ would be wrvcd by collect iii){ n-fcrciiccH to them under iliit Keiicrul lieiidiiiK. Tlicy arc Mevcrally Imlcxed \inilcr tlic iiunicH by which they are hlHtorlcally known. BAURE, The. Sei^ Amkiiidan Aiiohioinkh: Andknian.-i. BAUTZEN, Battle of. See Qriimanv: A. D. 1H|;|(Mav— Atoisr), BAUX, Lords of; Gothic Origin of the.— The illustrious Vlsiijolhlc rac(( of the "Ilallhi" or "lialtha" ("the bold"), from which Hpraii^ Alaric, "continued to llourish in Kraiu'c in tlie Ootldc province of Sc|itiinania, or Ijingu doc. under tiiu corniiitcd appellation of ''"<ix, and ii branch of that, family afterwards 8, ilcd in tin- kingdom of NapicN. " — K. Gibbon, Decline aiul Ji'iltnt' l/if lliiniiin h'miiin; ch. !l(l, note. BAVARIA: The name.— Bavaria derived its name from the Hoii. — U. (J. Latliuin, The tier- null id iif Tiieitun; Epilegomciui, Met, 20. — See, also, BoiANs. The Ethnology of. — "Bavaria . . . falls into tAvo (liviHionM; the Bavaria of the lihine, and the Biivuria of tin; Daiuilx-. In Itlienisli Bavaria the descvut h from tlie ancient Vangiones ami Nc- mctes, cither Qermanized Qauis or Ouliici/.cd GermauM, with Homan 8uperiidditi(ms, After- ■warda, an extension of tlic Alemamncand Huevic {)opulations from ihu riitlit bank of the Upper thine completes the cvoiulion of their present Germanic cliaractcr. Danubian Uaviirm fails Into two sulxlivisions. North of the Danube the valley of the Naab, at Ica.st, was orij;inally Sla- vonic, containini; an extension of tlie Slavonic popnhition of Bohemia. But disturlmnco and displacement l)e);an early. ... In the third and fourth centuries, the Suevi and Alemanni ex- tc-ndcd themselves from tlie Upper Uhine. . . . The northwestern parts of Bavaria were jirolialily German from the bcRinninK. Soutli of tlte Dan- ube the ethuoloKy clianses. In the first place the Uonian eleiiK'nts increase; since Viudelicia was a Uoniaii province. ... Its present charac- ter has arisen from an extension of tlie Germans of the Upper Rhine." — K. 0. Latham, Ethrutlogy of Ell rope, eh. 8. A. D. 547.— Subjection of the Bavarians to the Franks. — " It is about this period [A. D. 647] that the Bavarians first become known iu history as tributarioa of the Pranks; but at what time they became so is matter of dispute. From the previous silence of the annalists re- specling this pi »i)le, we may perhaps infer that both tliey and the Huabians remained independ- ent until the fall of the Ostrogothic Empire 'n Itidy. The Gotliic dominions were bounded on the "north by Bliietia and Noricum ; and between these cimntries and tlie Tluiringians, wlio lived still further to the north, was the cotmtry of the Bavarians and Suabians. Tliuringia liad long been possessed by tlie Franks. Hhietia was ceded by Vitisges, king of Italy, and Venetia was con- quered by Tlieudebert [the Austrasian Frank King]. The Bavarians Avere therefore, at tliis perirKJ, almost Riirroundcd by the Prankish ter- ritories. . . . Whenever lliey may liave tintt h ibndtted to the yoke, it is certain that at the line of Theudcbcrt's death |A. I). Wi], or Nho.'tly after that event. iHith Bavarians and Suali'aiis (or AlemannianN), had lieconie subjects of the .Merovingian kings." — W. ('. Perry, The FiiiiikH, eh. H. A. O. 843-963.— The ancient Duchy. See (}|;UMANV: \. I) Hi:t im>. A. D. 876.— Added to the Austrian March. See Auslriii: .V I). HO.".- 1 OKI. A. D. I07i-i;78.— The Dukes of the House ofGuelf. See t^i'Kl.Ks AND ()iiiiil':i.i.iM.s; and Saxo.nv: a. D. 1I.s-iih:i A. D. iioi.— Disi'strous Crusade of Duke Welf. SecCiusADDs. a. I). IKM-llO'i. A. D. 1125-1153.— Tl."! origin of the Elector- ate. See (iKitMANY: A. I? 1 1 •-'.■) 1 1 .'. .. A. D. ii38-ii83.^Invoi"cd in the begin- nings of the Guelf and Ghibctline Conflicts.— The struggles of Henry the Pioud and Henry the Lion. See <Jri:i,Ks and Oiiihi:i.i.i.\kh. and Saxon v: A. I). 117H-I1H;1. A. D. 1 156. — Separation of the Austrian March, which becomes a distinct Duc.Sy. See Aistuia: a. I), H().Vlil((. A. D. 1 180-1356.— The House of Wittels- bach.— Its acquisition o' Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine— uoss of the Elec- toral Vote by Bavaria.— When, iu IIHO, tlio dojuinions of Henry the Mon, under the brin of the Kmpire, were stripped from liim(sce Saxony: A. I). 1 178-1 18;t). by the imperial sentence of for- feiture, and were divided and conferred upon others by Krcdcrick Barbaro.ssa, tla; Duchy of Bavaria "was given to Otto, (,'ounl Palatine of Wittelsbacli. " As he claimed a descent from an ancient royal family of Bavaria, it was alleged that, in obtainiiig the sovereignty of tliat state, he had only iu some inea.-sure regained those riglits which in former times belonged tohis ancestors." — Sir A. Ilalliday, Aniiiitu of the lloime of linn- orer, v. 1,/). 'i~H\. — "Otto . . . was a descendant of that Duke I.uilpoid who fiH in ccmiliat with the Hungarians, and wliose sons ancl gniudsons had already worn the ducal cap of Bavaria. No princely race in Europe is of sucli ancient ex- traction. . . . Bavaria was as yet destitute of towns: Lan('.shutt and ^Itinich tirst rose into con- sideration in the course of the KHh century; Hatisb "1, already a flourishing town, Avas re- ga-' d ' tile capital and resilience ot the Dukes of . avar. .... A furtlier accession of dignity ...ui powei awaited the family iu 1314 in the acquisition if tlie Palatinate of the Khino. Duke Ludwig Avas now the nio.st powerful ptince of Southern Germany. . . . Ilis son Otto tho Illustrious, remaining . . . true to the impcriil house, died excommunicate, and his :ioininioni> were placed for several years under an interdict. . . . Upim the death of Otto a partition of the inlieritance took place. This partition liccaine to the family an hereditary evil, a fatal source of (luarrcl and of secret or open enmity. ... In [the] dark and dreadful periiKl of interreguum [see Geilmanv: A. D. 12.50-1272J, when all men waited for the tinal dis-solution of tlie empire, nolliing ajipears concerning the 'Wittelsbacli family. . . . Finally in 1373 Kudolf, the first of die I'labsburgs, ascended the long-unoccupied throne. . . . He Avon over the Bavarian princes by bestowing his daughters upon them in 273 BAVARIA. BAVARIA. itiP'Hftffe. TjOiiis romninod fiiithfiil and rendered him jfood Hervicn: Imt the lurhulcnt llciirv, who hud already made -.var iipdii liis brother for the pos.soHsion of the ch'rtoral vote, deserU'd Inm, and for this Havaria was punislicd by '.lie loss of the vole, and of the territory above the Eiins. " Afterwards, for a time, the Duke of Bavaria and the (Jount Palatine e.\ercised the risht of the electoral vote altemaU^lv; but in 11)50 by the Gohlen Bull of Charles IV. [seoGEiiMANY: A. O. 1C47-14.13], the vote was given wholly to the Count I'alatine, and lo.st to Bavaria for nearly 300 years. — .1. I. von DOllinger, The JfoiiKe of Wittehhurh (Studies in Kuropiitii Hinloiji, cli. 3). A. D, 1314. — Election of Louis to the im- perial throne. .See Okum.\nv: A. D. 1314-1347. A. D. 1500.— Formation of the Circb. Sec Qekmany: a. D. 1493-1.519. A. D. 1610, — The Duke at the head of the Catholic Leafi^ue. See (jKini.^Ny: A. I). 1608- 1018. A. D. 161^ The Duke in command of the forces of the Jatholic League. Sec; Gekm.vnv : A. D. 1618-1020. A. D. 1623. — Transfer to the Duke of the Electoral dignity of the Elector Palatine. See Germany: A. J). 1021-1623, A. D. 1632. — Occupation by Gustavus Adol- phus. See Germany: A. I). 1031-1033. A. D. 1646-1648. — Ravaged by the Swedes and French —Truce made and renounced by the Elector. — The last campaigns of the war. See Germany: A. D. 1040-1048. A. D. 1648. — Acquisition of the Upper Pala- tinate in the Peace of Westphalia. Sec Ger- many: A. D. 1648. A. D. 1686. — The League of Augsburg. See Germany: A. D. 1686. A. D. 1689-1696.— The war of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. See France: A. D. 1689-1690; 1689-1691; 1093; 1093 (.July)- 1694; ie9,')-1696. A. D. 1700. — Claims of the Electoral Prince on the Spanish Crown. See Spain: A. D. 1698-1700, A. D. 1702. — The Elector joins France against the Allies. See Germany: A, D. 1703. A. D. 1703.— Successes of the French and Bavarians. See Germany: A. D, 1703. A. D. ^704. — Ravaged, crushed and surren- dered by the Elector. See Germany: A. D. 1704. A. D. 1705. — Dissolution of the Electorate. SeeGER.MANY; A. D. no.-i. A. D. 1714.- The Elector restored to his Dominions. See Utrecht: A. D. 1713-1714. A. D. 1740.— Claims of the Elector to the Austrian succession. See Austria: A. D. 1740 (OCTOliKR). A. D. 1742.- The Elector crowned Emperor. See Austria : A. D. 1741 (Ootoher). A. D. 1743 (April).— The Emperor-Elector recovers his Electoral territory. See Aus- tria: A. I). 1743 (.June— December), and 1743. A. D. 1743 (June).— The Emperor-Elector again a fugitive.— The Austrians in Posses- sion. .See AiSTuiA: A. 1). 1743. A. D. 1745.- Death of the Emperor-Elector. —Peace with Austria. Sec Austria: A. D. 1744-1745. A. D. 1748. — Termination and results of the war of the Austrian Succession. See Aix-i.a- CuAPBLLE, The Congress. A. D. 1767. — Expulsion of the Jesuits. See Jesuits: A. I). 1761- '.709. A. D. 1777-1779. — The Succession question. — " With the death of Ma.ximiliau .Joseph, of Bavaria (30 December, 1777), the younger branch of th(! house of Wittelsbach became e.xtinct, and the eleetorale of Bavaria . . . came to an end. By virtue of the original partition in 1310, the (lucliy of Bavaria ought to pass to the elder branch of the family, represented by Charles Theodore, the' Kleetor P.datine. But .Joseph [the Second, the Kmperor], saw the po.ssibility of securing valuable additions to Austria which woidd round otT the frontier on the west. The Austrian claims were legally worthless. They were based chietiy upon a gift of the Straubingen territory which Sigismund was said to have made in 1436 to his son-in-law, Albert of Austria, but which had never taken effect and had since been uttcly forgotten. It would be impossible to induce tho diet to recognise such claims, but it might be possible to come to an imderstanding with tho aged Charles Theodore, who had no legitimate ciiildren and was not likely to feel any very keen interest in his new inheritance. Without much difficulty the elector was half frightened, half induced to sign a treaty (3 January, 1778), by which he recognised the claims put forward by Austria, while the rest of Bavaria was guaranteed to him and his successors. Austrian troops were at once despatched to occupy the ceded districts. The condition of Europe seemed to assure the success of Joseph's bold venture. . . . There was only one quarter from which opposition was to be expected, Prussia. Frederick promptly ap- pealed to the fundamental laws of the Empire, and declared his intention of upholding them with arms. But he could And 'j supporters ex- cept those who were immediately interested, the elector of Saxony, whose mother, as a sister of the late elector of Bavaria, had a legal claim to hisallodial propert}', and Charles of ZweibrUcken, the heir apparent of the childless Charles Tlieo- dore. . . . Frederick, left to himself, despatched an army into Bohemia, where the Austrian troops had been joined by the emperor in person. But nothing came of the threatened hostilities. Fred- erick was unable to force on a battle, and the so-called war was little more than an armed nego- tiation. . . . France and Russia undertook to mediate, and negotiations were opened in 1779 at Teschen, where peace was signed on the 13th of May. Austria withdrew the claims which had been recognised in tho treaty with the Elector Palatine, and received the 'quarter of the Inn,' i. e., tho district from Passau to Wildshut. Frederick's eventual claims to tho succession in the Franconian principalities of Anspaeh and Baircuth, which Austria had every interest in opposing, were recognised by the treaty. The claims of Saxony were bought off by a payment of 4,000,000 thalers. Tho most unsatisfactory part of the treaty was that it was guaranteed by France and Russia. ... On the whole, it was a great triumph for Frederick and an equal humili- ation for Joseph II. His schemes of aggrand- isement had becL foiled." — R. Lodge, Jlist. of Modern Europe, eh. 30, sect. 3, Also in : T. H. Dyer, Hist, of Modern Europe, bk. 6, ch. 8 (». 3). A. D. 1801-1803. — Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville. Sec Geiuiam y : A. D. 1801-1803. 274 BAVARIA. BBC. A. D. 1805-1806.— Aggrandized by Napoleon. — Created a Kingdom. — Joined to the Con- federation of the Rhine. See Gkumany: A. I). 180r>-lH()«, ,111(1 IHOO (.lANDAiiY— August). A. D. ii09. — The revolt in the Tyrol.— Heroic strue;gle of Hofer and his countrymer. See Gkumany: A. 1). 1H09-1.S10 (Aimui^Fkh- BUAUY). A. D. 1813. — Abandonment of Napoleon and •the Rhenish Confederation. — Union with the Allies. Si'c Gkumany: A. I). 181H(.Skptk.mhku — OcTonKU), and (Octdhku — Dkckmijku). A. D. 1814-1815.— Restoration of the Tyrol to Austria. — Territorial compensations. See ViKNNA, The C0NOUE88 OF, nnd Pkance: A. D. 1814 (ApUII,- .lUNK). A. D. 1848 (March).— Revolutionary out- break. — Expulsion of Lola Montez. — Abdi- cation of the King. See Germany : A. I). 1848 {Makcii). A. D. 1866.— The Seven Weeks War.— Indemnity and territorial cession to Prussia. SeeGEHMANY: A. I). 1860. A. D. 1870-1871.- Treaty of Union with the Germanic Confederation, soon transformed into the German Empire. See Qekm^ny: A. D.* 1870 (Septembeu— Decembek), and 1 J71. BAVAY, Origin of. See Neuvii. BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, OR BUXAR, Battle of (1764). See Ii jia: A. D. 1757-1773. BAYARD, The Chevalier: His knightly deeds and his death. See It,\ly: A. D. 1501- 1504, aiKl Fkanck: A. D. ir.33-l.')25. BAYEUX TAPESTRY. — A remarkable roll of mediiEvnl tapestry, 314 feet long and 20 inches wide, preserved for centuries in the cathedral at Hayeiix, Normandy, on which a pictorial history of the Noriniin invasion and conquest of England is represented, with more or less of names and explanatory inscriptions. Mr. E. A. Freeman (Norman Conquent, r. 3, note A) says: "It will be seen that, throughout this volume, I accept the witness of the Baycux Ttti)e8try as one of my highest authorities. I do not hesitate to say that I look on it as lioldiug the first place among the authorities on the Nor- man side. That it is a contemporary work I e;.tertain no doubt whatever, and I entertain just as little doubt as to its being a work fully ■entitled to our general confidence. I believe the tapestry to have been made for Bishop Odo, and to have been most probably designed by him as an ornament for liis newly rebuilt cathedra! church of IJaycr.x." The precious tapestrj' is now preserved in the public library at Bayeux, carefully stretched round the room under glass. BAYEUX, The Saxons of. See Saxons op Bayeux. BAYLEN, Battle of (1808). See Spain: A. D. 1808 (May— Septembeu). BAYOGOULAS, The. See American Aborioines: Muskiiogean Family. BAYONNE : Conference of Catharine de' Medici and the Duke of Alva (1565). See France: A, D. 1503-1.570. BAZAINE'S SURRENDER AT METZ. See France: A. D. 1870 (July— August), (Au- gust — September), and (September — Octo- ber). BEACONSFIELD (Disraeli) Ministries. ,8ee England: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; 1868-1870, and 1873-1880. BEAR FLAG, The. Sec Califohnia: A. I). 1840-1847. BfeARN: The rise of the Counts. See BuHGi'Nnv: \. 1), 1033, A. D. 1620.— Absorbed and incorporated in the Kingdom of France. See France: A, I), 1030-1033, A, D. 1685. — The Dragonnade. — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. See France: A. I). 1081-1008. BEATOUN, Cardinal, The assassination of. See Scotland: A, 1), 1540, BEAUFORT, N. C, Capture of, by the National forces (1862). See United States op Am.: a, D. 1803 (January— April: North Carolina), , BEAUGE, Battle of.— The English com- mandt!d by the Duke of Clarence, defeated in Anjou by an army of French and Scots, under the Dauphin of Franco; the Duke of Clarence slain. BEAUMARCHAIS'S TRANSACTIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1770-1778. BEAUMONT, Battle of. See France: A. D, 1870 (August — September). BEAUREGARD, General G. T.— Bombard- ment of Fort Sumter. See United States op A.M. : A. I). 1801 (March- April) At the first Battle of Bull Run. See United States OF Am. : A. D. 1801 (July: Virginia) Com- mand in the Potomac district. See United St.\te9 op Am. : A. D. 1801-1803 (December- April: Virginia) Command in the West. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1803 (Febru- ary — April: Tennessee), and (ApRii^ — May: Tennessee — Mississippi) The Defence of Charleston. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1803 (August— December: South Carolina). BEAUVAIS, Origin of. See Belo«. BEBRYKIANS,The. See Bithynians. BEC, Abbey of. — One of the most famous abbeys and ecclesiastical schools of the middle ages. Its name was derived from the little beck or rivulet of a valley in Normandy, on the banks of which a pious knight, Herlouin, retiring from the world, had fixed his hermitage. The renown of the piety of Herlouin drew others around him and resulted in the formation of a religious coininunity with himself at its head. Among those attracted to Herlouin's retreat were a noble Lombard scholar, Lapfiuncof Pavia, who after- wards became the great Norman archbisliop of Canterbury, and Anselm of Aosta, another Italian, who succeeded Lanfranc at Canterbury with still more fame. The teaching of Lanfranc at Bee raised it, says Mr. Green in his fyliort llidory of the EnqUiih People, into the most famous school of Christendom; it was, 'n fact, the first wave of the intellectual movement which was spreading from Italy to the ruder countries of the West. The fabric of the canon law and of mediaeval scholasticism, with the philo.sophical skepticism which tirst awoke under its influence, all trace their origin to Bee. "The glory of Bee would have been as transitory as that of other monastic hou.ses, but for the ap- pearance of one illustrious man [Lanfranc] who came to be enrolled as a private member of the brotherhood, and who gave Bee for a while a special and honorable character with which hardly any other monastery in Christendom could 275 BEC. DEOUINES. compare." — E. A. Frcpinan, Norman Conquest, e/i. H. BECHUANAS, The. Scu South Afiuc.v; TllK Aiioiliiii.NAi, IN'IIAIIITANTB; ami Akhica: TlIK INHAmTIMl HACKS, BECKET, Thomas, and King Henry II. See ENdi.AM); A. 1>. IKW-UTO. BED-CHAMBER QUESTION, The. See E.N(ii.ANi): A. 1). 1h:(7-1h39. BED OF JUSTICE.— "The ceremony liy wliieli tlie KrciK li Uiiijis eoiiiijelled the rejj;istrii- lion of their edicts hv tlie Parliament was called a ' lit de justiee ' [bed of justice]. The monarch ]>roceeded in state to the Grand Chainbre, and the chancellor, having taken his plciisure, an- nounced that tlie kin;; re(iiiired such and such a decree to he entered on their records in his presence. It was liehl that this personal inter- ference of the sovercifrn suspended for the time being the functions of all inferior magistrates, and the edict was accordingly registered without ft word of objection. The form of registration was ns follows: ' Le roi scant en son lit de justice n or(h)nn6 et ordonnetiue les pre.sents edits seront cnrcgistres ;' and at the end of the decree, ' Fait en Parlenient, lo roi y scant on son lit do jus- tice.'" — StiidentK' Jlist. of France, note to ch. 19. — See, also, Paui.iament of Pauis.— "The origin of this term [' l)cd cf justice'] has been much discussed. The wits complained it was so styled because there justice was put to sleep. Tiic term was probably derived from the arrange- ment of the throne on which the king sat. The back and sides were made of bolsters and it was called a i)cd." — J. II. Perkins, Frnnee tinder Mazitrin, r. 1, p. 388, foot-note. — An elaborate and entertaining account of a notable Bed of Justice held under the Regency, in the early part of the reign of Louis XV., will bo found in the Memoirs of the Duke de Saint Simon, abridged trauslaiion of St. John, v. 4, ch. 5-7. BEDR, Battle of. See Mahometan Con- quest: A. 1). 009-6;!3. BEDRIACUM, Battles of. See Rome: A. D. CO. BEECHY HEAD, Battle of (A. D. 1690). SeeENdi.ANi): A. 1). 1690 (June). BEEF-EATERS, The. See Yeomen of THE GUAllI). BEEF STEAK CLUB, The. Sco Clubs: TuE Beef Steak. BEER-ZATH, Battle of.— The field on ^vhich the groat Jewish soldier and patriot, Judas Maecabicus, having but 800 men with him, was beset by an army of the Syrians and slain, B. C 161. — j'osephus, Antiq. o/the Jeirs, bk. 13, ch. 11. Also in : II. Ewald, Hist, of Israel, bk. 5, sect. 3. BEG. — A Turkish title, signifying prince or lord ; whence, also. Boy. See Bey. BEGGARS (Gueux) of the Netherland Re- volt. See Nktiieulani>s: A. D. 1562-1.')U0. BEGGARS OF THE SEA. See Netiieu- LANDS: A. I). 1572. BEGUINES, OR BEGHINES. — BEG- HARDS. — Weaving Brothers.— Lollards.— Brethren of the Free Spirit. — Fratricelli. — Bizochi. — Turlupins, — "In the year 1180 there lived in Liege a certain kindly, stammering priest, known from his infirmity as Lambert le Biigue. Tills man took pity on the destitute widows of the town. Despite the impedir in hi J spoecli, he was, as often happens, a maL u A cert.iiu power ana eloquence in preaching. . . This Lainl)ert so moved the hearts of his hearers that gold and silver i)oured in on him, given to relieve such of the destitute women of Liege as were still of good and jiious life. Witli the moneys thus collected, Lambert built a little square of cottages, with a church in the middle and a hospital, and at the side a cemetery, ilere he h()U.sed these homeless widows, one or two in each little house, and then he drew iqi a half moim.stic rule which was to :;uiile their lives. The rule was very simi)Ie, (]uile informal; no vows, no great renunciation bound the 'Swes- t rones Brod durch Got.' A certain time of the day was set apart for prayer and i)ioiis medita- tion ; the other hours they spent in spinning or sewing, in keeping their liou.ses clean, or they went as ntirses in time of sickness into the homes of the townspeople. . . . Thus these women, though pious and sequestered, were still in the world and of the world. . . . Soon wo find the name ' Swostrones Brod durch Got' sot aside for the more usual title of Beguines or Beghines. Different authorities give different origins of this word. . . . Some liave thought it was tiikon in memory of the founder, the chari- table Lambert le Biigut. Others think that, even as the Slystics or Mutterers, the Lollards or Hummers, the Popelhards or Babblers, so the Beguines or Stammerers were thus nicknamed from their continual murmuring in prayer. This is plausible ; but not so i)lausiblo as the sugges- tion of Dr. Moslieim and M. Augusto Jundt, who derive tlie word Beguine from tlio Flemish word 'beggen, 'to beg. For we know that those pious women had been veritable beggars ; and beggars should they again become. Witli surprising swiftness tiic new order spread through the Netherlands and into France and Germany. . . . Lambert may have lived to see a beguiiiago in every great town within his ken; but we hear no more of him. The Beguines aro no longer for Liege, but for all the world. Eacli city possessed its quiet congregation ; and at any sick-bod you might meet a woman clad in a simple smock and a great veil-like mantle, who lived only to pray and do deeds of mercy. . . . The success of the Bogunes had made them an example. . . . Before St. Francis and St. Dominio instituted the mendicant orders, there had silently grown up in every town of the Netherlands a spirit of fraternity, not imposed by any rule, but the natural impulse of a pooplo. The weavers seated all day long alone at their rattling looms, the armourers beating out their tlioughts in iron, the cro.ss-leggcd tailors and busy cobblers think- ing and stitching together — these men silent, pious, thoughtful, joined themselves in a fra- ternity modelled on that of tho Beguines. They were called the Weaving Brothers. Bound by no vows and fettered by no rule, they still lived the worldly life and plied their trade for hire. Only in their leisure they met together and prayed and dreamed and thought. . . . Such were the founders of the great fraternity of ' Fratres Toxtores," or Beghards as in later years the people more generally called them." — A. M. F. Robinson, T/ie End of the Middle Ages, 1.— " Tho Lollards differed from the Beghards less in reality than in name. \Vo aro informed re- specting them that, at their origin in Antwerp, shortly after 1300, they associated together for 'he purpose of waiting upon patients danger- ously sick, and burying the dead. . . . Very 276 BEQUINE8. BEHRINO SEA CONTROVEHSY. cnr.v, liowcvtT, nn clement of a rlilTcrcnt kind In'gi.n to work in tliose fellowships. Even ftbout the close of the liilh century irrejjuliiritiL's and cxtniviigances lire laid to their clmr/;e. . . . The charges brought against the later Ik'ghards and J/i>Ilards, in connection, on the ()n(^ hand, with the fanatical Franciscans, who were violently contending with the Church, and on the other, with the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, relate to three i)articulars, viz., an aversion to all useful industry, conjoined with a ])ropensity to niendlcancy and idleness, an inteini)erate spirit of op])osilion to the Church, and a .skepti- cal and more or less jiantheistical mysticism. . . . They . . . declare<l that tlie time of Antichrist was come, and on all hands endeavoured to em- broil the people with tlieir spiritual guides. Their own i)rofessed object was to restore the pure i)rimeval state, the divine life of freedom, innocence, and nature. The idea they formetl of that state wa.i, that man, being in and of him- self one with God, requires only to act in the consciousness of this unity, ffnd to follow un- restrained the divinely implanted impulses and inclinations of his nature, in order to be good and godly." — C. UUnumn, lieforiiters before the lie- formntioii. '• 2, jip. 14-10. — "The names of beg- Imrds'aiK' guines came not unnaturally to be used for u itees who, without being members of any regular nioniustic society, made a profes- sion of religious strictness; and thus the applica- tions of the names to some kinds of sectaries was easy — more especially as manj' of these found it convenient to assuiue the outward appearance of beghards, in the hojje of disguising their dif- ferences from the church. But on tlie other hand, tliis drew on the orthodo.v beghards fre- quent persecution.s, and many of them, for the sake of safety, were glad to connect themselves as tertiaries with the great mendicant orilers. ... In the 14th century, the popes dealt hardly with the beghards ; yet orthodox societies under this name still remained in Germany; and in Belgium, the country of their origin, sisterhoods of beguincs flouri.sh to the present day. . . . Matthias of Janow, the Bohemian reformer, in the end of the 14th century, says that all who act dilTcrently from the profane vidgar are called beghardi or turlupini, or by other blas- l)hemous names. . . . Among those who were confounded with the beghards — jiartly because, like tliem, they abounded along the Rhine — were the brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit. These appear in various places under various names. They wore a peculiarly' simple dress, professed to give themselves to contemplation, and, holding that labour is a hindrance to con- templation and to the elevation of the soul to God, they lived by beggary. Tlieir doctrines were mystical and almost ]iantheistic. . . . The brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit were much persecuted, and probably formed a largo pro- portion of those who were burnt under tlie name of beghards." — J. C. ]{obertsou, JfM. of Chris- tian Church, hk. 7, ch. 7(i'. 0). — " Near the close of this century [the 13tli] originated in Italj' the Fratricelli and Uizochi, parties that in Germany and France were denominated Beguards; and which, tlrst Boniface VIII., and afterwards other pontilTs condemned, and wished to see persecuted by the Inquisition and exterminated m every possible way. The Fratricelli, who also called themselves in Latin ' Fratres parvi ' (Ijittle Brethren), or 'Fraterculi de paupcre vita'' (Little Brothers of the Poor Life), were Francis- can monks, but detached from the great fantily of Franciscans; who wished to ob.serve the regu- lations prescribed by their founder St. Francis in(H-e perfectly than the others, and therefore jiossessed no itroperty, either individually or collectively, but obtained their necessary food from day to day by begging. . . . They pre- dicted a reformatiim and ]uirilication of the church. . . . Tliey extolled Celestine V. as the legal founder of their sect; but Boniface and the succeeding pontilT.s who opposed the Fratricelli, they denied to be true pontilTs. As the great Franciscan family had its associates and depend- ents, who observed the third rule prescribed by St. Francis [which retpiired only certain pious- observances, such as fasts, jirayers, continence, a coarse, cheap dress, gravity of manners, ic., but did not prohibit private property, marriage, public olllces, ajid worldly occupations], and who were usually called Tertiarii, so also tlie sect of the Fratricelli . . . hail numerous Tertiarii of its own. These were called, in Italy, Bi/.oelii and ">iicasoti; in France Begiiini; and in Ger- mans Heghardi, by which name all the Tertiarii were coinmoidy designated. Tliese dillered from the Fratricelli . . . only in tlieir nuMle of life. Tlie Fratricelli were real monks, living under the rule of St. Francis; but the Bizochi or Be- guini lived in tlie manner of otlier jieople. . . . Totallv different from these austere BeguinE and Beguiiiie, were tlie German and Belgic Beguina', wlio did not indeed originate in this century, but now first came into notice. . . . Concer ling the Turlupins, many have written;, but none accurately. . . . The origin of the name, I know not ; but I lun able to lu-ove from sub- stantial documents, tliat the Turluiiins who were burned at Paris, and in other ,.arts of France were no other than the Brethren of the Free Spirit whom ihe pontiffs and councils con- demned." — J. li. Von Mo.sheim, lust's of Eeele- siasticttl IIist.,hk. i, century 13, }U. 2, ch. 2, sect. 30^1, andch. 5, sect. Q, foot-note. Also in; L. JEariotti (A. Gallenga), /'Va Doleino- and his Times. — See, also, Pic.MiDS. BEGUMS OF OUDE, Warren Hasting* and the. See Indi.v; A. 1). 1773-1785. BEHISTUN, Rock of.— "This remarkable spot, lying on tlie direct route between Babylon and Ecbatana, and presenting the unusual com- bination of a copious fountain, a rich plain and a rock suitable for sculjUure, must have early attracted the attention of the great monarchy who marched their armies through the Zagros- range, as a place where they might conveniently set up memorials of their exploits. . . . The tablet and inscriptions of Darius, which have made Behistun famous in modern times, are in a recess to the right of the scari)ed face of the rock, and at a considerable elevation." — G. Raw- linson, Fire Oreat Monarchies: Media, ch. 1.-- Tho mountain or rock of Behistun fixes the location of the district known to the Greeks as Bagistana. "It lies southwest of Elvend, between that mountain and the Zagriis in the valley of the Choaspes, and is the district now known as Kirmensliah."— M. Duncker, llist. of Anlinuili), hk. 8, ch. 1. BEHRING SEA CONTROVERSY, and Arbitration. Sec United States of Am. : A.. D. 1886-1803. , 277 BEIRUT. BELGRADE. BEIRUT, Origin of. Sci' IJkuvtits. BELA I., King of Hungary, A. I). 1000- 1063 Bela II., A. 1) li:tl-1141 Bela III., A. D. U;:i-1190 Bela IV., A. I). 1205- 1270. BELCHITE, Battle of. Soc Spain: A. I>. 1801) (FKiiiif.Mtv— -Jink). BELERION, OR BOLERIUM. — The Koiimii iiiimc nf [.unil's P^iid, Eiigliuul. See BllIT.MN: Cl'l.TIC TlilllKS. BELF )RT.— Siege by the Germans (1870- 1871). S<'c FliANfE: A. I). 1H70-18T1. BELGiE, The.— "This Belgian confeileni- lioii inclmleil the people of all the country north of the Seine and JIarne, bounded by the Atlantic on the west and the Rhine on the north and east, fxcept the Medioniatriei and Treviri. . . . The old (livisions of France before the great revolu- tion of 1789 corresponded in some degree to the divisions of the country in the time of Cii'sar, and the names of the people aiKj still retained with little alteration in the names of the chief towns or the names of the antorevolutionary divisions of France. In the country of the Remi between the JIarne and the Aisno there is the town of Reims. In the territory of the Suessiones between the Marne and the Aisne there is Soissons on the Aisne. The Rellovaci were west of the Oise (Isara) a branch of the Seine: their chief town, which at some time received the name of CiEsiiromngus, is now Beauvais. The Nervii were between and on the Sanibre and the Schelde. The Atrebates were north of the Bellovuci be- tween the Somnie and the upper Schelde: their chief place was Nemetacum or Ncmetocenna, now Ariiis in the old division of Artois. The Ambiani were on the Sommc (Samara): their name is represented by Amiens (Samarobriva). The Jlorini, or sea-coast men extended from Boulogne towards Duukertjue. The Menapii bordered on the northern Slorini and were on both sides of the lower Rhine (B. G. iv., 4). The Caleti were north of the lower Seine along the coast in the Pays de Caux. The Velocasses were east of the Caleti on the north side of the Seine as far as the Oise ; their chief town was Rotoma- gus (Rouen) and their country was afterwards Vexin Norman d and Vexin Fran(,'ai9. The Vero- mandui were north of the Suessiones: their chief town under the Roman dominion, Augusta Veroinanduoruni, is now St. Quentin. The Adua- tvici were on the lower Maas. The Condrusi and the others included under the name of Qermani were on the Alaas, or between the ^Maas and the Rhine. The Eburones had the country about Tongorn and Spa, and were the immediate neigh- bours of the Menapii on the Rhine." — Q. Long, Decline of tfie Itoiium liepublir, r. 4, ch. S. — "Cajsar . . . informs us that, in their own esti- mation, they [the Belgiu] were principally de- scended from a German stock, tlie offspring of some early migmtion across the Rhine. . . . Slrabo ... by no means concurred in Cajsar's view of the origin of this . . . race, whicii he believed to be Gaulish and nou German, though differing widely from the Galli, or Gauls of the central region." — C. Merivale, Hist, of the lioinaiui, ch. .5. Also IN: E. Guest, Orir/iiies Celtinv, r. 1, ch. 12, B. C. 57. — Cssar's campaign against the confederacy. — In the second year of Ctusar's command in Gaul, B. C. 57, he led his legions against the Belgu;, whom he characterized in his Commentaries as the bravest of all the pcop'" of Gaid. The many tribes of the Belgian C( ry had joined themselves in a great league 1 op- jiose the advancing Roman ])ower, ancl were able to bring into the (ield no less than 290,000 men. The tribe of the Rend alone refused to join the confederacy and placed themselves on the Roman side. Ciesar who had ((Uartered his army during the winter in the country of theSequaiu, marched boldly, with eight legions, into the midst of these swanning enemies. In his tirst encounter with them on tlie banks of the Aisne, the Helgic bar- barians were terribly cut to pieces and were so disheartened that tribe after tribe made submis- sion to the ])roconsul as he advanced. But the Xcrvii, who Ijoasted a Germanic descent, together with the Aduatuci, the Atrebates and the Vero- mandui, rallied their forces for a struggle to the death. The Nervii succeeded in surprising the Romans, while the latter were preparing their cam]) on the banks of the Sambre, and verv nearly swept CItesar and his veterans off the fleld, by their furious an<l tremendous charge. But tlie energy and jiersonal influence of the one, with the steady discipline of the other, prevailed in the end over the untnuned vahmr of the Nervii, and the proud nation was not only defeated but annihilated. "Their eulogy is preserved in the written testimony of their con(i\ieror; and the Romans long remembered, and never failed to signalize their formidable valour. But this recollection of their ancient prowess became from that day the principiU monument of tlieir name and history, for the defeat they now sustained well nigh annihilated the nation. Their combat- ants were cut off almost to a man. _ The ciders and the women, who liad been left in secure re- treats, came forth of their own accord to solicit the conqueror's clemency. ... 'Of 600 sena- tors,' they said, 'we have lost nil but three; of 60,000 fighting men 500 only remain.' Cajsar treated tlie survivors with compassion. " — C. Jlerivalc, Hist, of the limruins, ch. 7. Ai,80 IN : Julius Cresar, Gallic Wars, bk. 2. — G. Long, Declini' of the Roman Republic, v. 4, ch. 3. — Napoleon III., Hist of Ofsar, bk. 3, eh. 5. BELGiE OF BRITAIN, The.— Supposed to be a colony from the Belga; of the continent. The territory which they occupied is now embraced in the counties of Wiltshire and Somerset. SeeBniT.\iN: Cei.tic TmnKS. BELGIUM: Ancient and Mediaeval His- tory. See BKLOiK, Nehvii, Fiianks, Louhaine, Fl.ANDEUS, LlEOE, NeTHEHI.ANDS. Modern History. See Nistiieulands. BELGRADE : Origin.— During the attacks of the Avars upon the territory of the Eastern Empire, in the last yeai-s of the Otli century, the city of Singidunuin, at the junction of the Save with the Danube, was taken and totally destroyed. The advantageous site of the extinct town soon attracted a colony of Sclavonians, who raised out of the ruins a new and strongly fortified city — the Belgrade, or the White City of later times. "The Sclavonic name of Bel- grade is mentioned in the lOtli century by Con- stantine Porphyorgenitus: tlie Latin appellation of Alba Qncca is used by the Pranks in the beginning of the 9\\\."—K.. G'\h\nn\, Decline a)\d Full of the Roimin Empire, ch. 46, note. A. b. 1425.- Acquired by Hungary and forti- fied against the Turks. SeelluNUAHY: A. D. 1301-1442. 278 BELGRADE. BENEDICTINE ORDERS. A. D. 1442.— First repulse of the Turks. 8tr Ti'iiks(TiikOttom.\n8): A. 1). 1402-14.'il. A. D. 1456.— Second repulse of the Turks. Sec lIuNdAUY: A. D. 144-,'-14r)8; uud Tl'HKS (TiiK Ottomans): A. D. I4.'il-14H1. A. D. 1521. — Siege and capture by Solyman the Magnificent. Sec IIi'.n(iauy: A. I), IIHT- 1526. A. D. 1688-1690.— Taken by the Austrians and recovered by the Turks. Sec IIunoahy: A. 11. KiHIi-KiO!). A. D. 1717. — Recovery from the Turks. ISco IIiNdAUY: A. 1). 1099-lTlH. A. D. 1739.— Restored to the Turks. See RtiHstA: A. I). ir2,)-17:!<J. A. D. 1789-1791.— Taken by the Austrians and restored to the Turks. SteTimKs: A. D. 1770-1792. A. D. 1806.— Surprised and taken by the Servians. Si'e Balkan and Danuhian States: 14th-19tii Cknturiks (Sk.uvia). A. D. 1862.— Withdrawal of Turkish troops. Sec Balkan and Danuhian States: 14th-19tii Centuiues (Seuvia). BELGRADE, The Peace of. See Russia: A. D. 172.'>-1739. BELIK, Battle on the (Carrha- B. C. S3)- See Rome: B. C. 57-53. BELISARIUS, Campaigns of. See Van- dals: A. D. 53»-.534, ami Home: A. D. 535-553. BELIZE, or British Honduras. See Nica- Kaoua: a. I). 18.50. • • BELL ROLAND, The great. See Ghent: A. D. 1,539-1540. BELLE ALLIANCE, Battle of La.— The bnttlc of Waterloo — sec Fkance: A. D. 1815 (June) — is so called by the Prussians. BELLE ISLE PRISON-PEN, The. See PuisoNs AND Puison-Pens, Confedekate. BELLOVACI, The. See Belg*. BELLVILLE, Battle of. See United States OK Am. : A. D. 1803 (July: Kentucky). BELMONT, Battle of. See United States OK Am. : A. D. 1861 (Septemuer — November : On the Mississippi). BEMA, The. See Pnyx. BEMIS HEIGHTS, Battle of. SeeUyiTED States of A.m. : A. D. 1777 (July — October). BENARES. — " The early history of Benares is involved in mnch obscurity. It is, indisputably, a place of great antiquity, and may even date from the time when the Aryan mco first spread itself over Northern India. ... It is certain that the city is regarded by all Hindus as coeval with the birth of Hinduism, a notion derived both from tradition and from their own writings. Allusions to Benares are exceedingly abundantin ancient Sanskrit literature ; and perhaps there is no city in all Hindustan more frequently referred to. By reason of some subtle and .lysterious charm, it has linked it.sclf with the religious sympathies of the Hindus through every c-;:tury of its existence. For the sanctity of it; in- habitants — of its temples and reservoir . ,^ its wells and streams — of tlie very soil inat is trodden — of the very air that is breathed — and of everything in and around it, Benares has been famed for thousands of years. . . . Previously to the introiluction of the Buddhist faith into India, she was already the sacred city of the laud,— the centre of Hmduism, and chief seat of its authority. Judging from the strong feelings | of veneration and afToction with which the native community regard her in the present day, and bearing in iiinid that the founder of Bull- (Ihisni coMiinenced his ministry at tliis spot, it seems indisputable that, in those early times ])re- ccding the Buddhist reformation, the city must have exerted a powerful and wide-'spnwl religious iiitluence over the land. Throughout the IJuddlilst ])eriod in India — a [x'tiod e.Mcnd- ing from 700 to 1.000 yeara — slie gave the same support to Buddhism which slie had previously given to the Hindu faith. Buddhist works of that era . . . clearly establisli tlie fact lliat the Buddhi.sts of those 'days regarded the city with much tlie same kind of veneration as thi^ Iliiidu does now." — M. A. Shcrring, T/ie i^Jirml Citi/ of the Hindus, eh. 1. — For an account of the Eng- lish annexation of Benares, see India: A. 1). 1773-178,5. BENEDICT II., Pope, A. I). 084-08.5 Benedict III., Pope, A. I). 8,5,V8,58 Benedict IV., Pope, A. I). 900-903 Benedict V., Pope, A. 1). 964-90.5 Benedict VI., Pope, A. 1). 972-974 Benedict VII., Pope, A. D. 97,5-984 Benedict VIII., Pope, A. 1). 1012- 1024 Benedict IX., Pope, A. I). 1033-1044, 1047-1048 Benedict X., Antipope, A D. 10.58-10,59 Benedict XI., Pope, A. D. 1303- 1304 Benedict XII., Pope, A. D. 1334-1342. ...Benedict XIII., Pope, A. I). 1394-1423 (at Avignon) Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D. 1724- 1730 Benedict XIV., Pope, A. D. 1740- 1758. BENEDICTINE ORDERS.— The rule of St. Benedict. — "There were many monasteries in the West before the time of St. Benedict of Nursia (A. D. 480) ; but ho has been rightly con- sidered the father of Western monasticism ; for he not only founded an order to whicli many religious houses became attached, but he estab- lished a rule for their government which, in its main features, was adopted as the rule of mon- astic life by all the orders for more than five centuries, or until the time of St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi. Benedict was first a hermit, living in the mountains of Southern Italy, and in that region he afterwards estab- lished in succession twelve monasteries, each with twelve monks and a superior. In the year .520 he foimded the great monastery of Monte Casino us the mother-house of his order, a liou';o which became the most celebrated and powerful monastery, according to Montalembert, in the Catholic universe, celebrated especially because there Benedict prepared his rule and formed the type wliich was to serve as a model to the innumerable communities sulunitting to that sovereign code. . . . NeithcV in the East nor in tlie West were the monks originally ecclesiastics; and it was not until the eighth century that they became priests, called regulars, in contrast with the ordinary parish clergy, who were called seculars. ... As missionaries, they proved the most powerful instruments in extending the authority and the boundaries of the church. The monk had no individual property: even his dress belonged to the monastery. ... To enable him to work eflleiently, it was necessary to feed him well; and such was the injuneti<m of Benedict, as opposed to the former practice of strict asceticism." — C. J. Stille, Sttidies in Mcdimml Hist., ck. 12. — "Benedict would fiot have the monks limit themselves to spiritual 279 BENEDICTINE ORDERS. BENEVOLENCES. labour, to the notion of the soul \ipon itself; he nuulc external laboui-, nianuiil or literary, a strict oliliKatiori of liis ruli'. . . . lu order "to banisii indolence, wliicli lie called tlie enemy of the soul, lie regulated minutely the employment of every hour of the day according to tlie seasons, and ordained that, after having celebrated the praises of God seven times u-day, seven hours a-day should be given to manual lalioiir, and two hours to HMiding. . . . Tliose wlio are sliilled in tlie priK'tice of an art or trade, could only exer- cise it by the permission of the abbot, in all humility; and if any one pri<led himself on his talent, or the prollt which resulted from it to the house, he was toliave his occupation dianged until lie liad humbled himself. . . . Obedience is also to his ej'es a work, obedieiitiae laborem, the most meritorious and essential of all. A monk entered into monastic life only to make the sacrillcc of self. This saeriliee implied especially that of the will. . . . Thus the rule pursued pride into its most secret hiding-place. Submission had to be prompt, perfect, and absolute. The monk must obey always, with- out reserve, and witliout murmur, even in those things which seemed impossible and above his strength, trusting in the succour of God, if a Innnblc and seasonable remonstrance, the only thing permitted to him, was not accepted by his superiors." — The Count dc Slontalembcrt, The Monks of tlm West, bk. 4, sect. 3 (v. 2). Also in; E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Chnracters of the Middle Af/es,ch. 2.— S. R. Maitlnnd, The Dark Ayes, No. 10. — J. H. Newman, Mission of St. Benedict (Hist. Sketches, v. 3).— P. Schaff, Ilist. of tJie Christian Church, v. 3, ch. 4, sect. 43-45. — E. F. Henderson, Select Hist. Docs, of the Middle Af/es, bk. 3, no. 1. — See, also. Capuchins. BENEFICIUM. — COMMENDATION,— Fcuilalism "had grown up from two great sources — the beneficium, and the practice of commendation, and had been spcvlaliy fostered on Gallic soil by the existence of a subject popu- lation which admitted of any amount of exten- sion in the methods of dependence. The beneficiary system originated partly in gifts of laud made by the kings out of their own estates to their kinsmen and servants, with a special undertaking to be faithful; partly in the sur- render by landownere of their estJitcs to churches or powerful men, to be rccr-'vcd back again and held by them as tenants for rent or service. By the latter arrangement the weaker man obtained the protection of the stronger, and he who felt himself insecure placed his title under the de- fence of the Churcli. By the practice of com- mendation, on the other hand, the inferior put himself under the personal care of a lord, but without altering his title or divesting himself of his riglit to his estate ; he became a vassal and did homage. The placing of his hands between those of his lord was the typical act by which the connexion was formed." — W. Stubbs, Const. Hist. ofEng., ch. 9, sect. 03. Also in : II. Hallam, The Middle Ages, ch. 2, pt. 1. — See, also, Scotland: IOtii-Hth Cen- turies. BENEFIT OF CLERGY.— " Among the most important and dearly-prized privileges of the church was that which conferred on its members immunity from the operation of secu- lar law, and relieved them from the jurisdic- tloa of secular tribunals. ... So priceless a prerogative was not obtained without a long and resolute struggle. . . . To ask that a monk or l)riest guilty of crime should not be siibiect to the ordinary tribunals, and that civil suits be- tween liiymen and ecclesiastics sliould ',)e referred exclusively to courts composed of the latter, was a claim too repugnant to the common sense of mankind to be lightly accorded. . . . The persistence of the ■••luireh, backed up by the unfailing resource of excomniunication, tinally triumphed, and the sacred immunity of tlie priesthood was aeknowltidged, sooner or later, in the laws of every r-t:)n of Europe." In England, when Henry II, in 1164, "endeavored, in the Constitutions of Ciarendon, to set bounds to the privileges of the church, he therefore especially attacked the benefit of clergy. . . . The disastrous result of the quarrel between the King and the archbishop [Becket] rendered it necessary to abandon all such schemes of re- form. ... As time passed on, the benefit of clergy gradually extended itself. That the laity were illiterate and the clergy educated was taken for granted, and the test of churchman ship came to be tlie ability to read, so that the privilege became in fact a free pardon on a first offence for all who knew their letters. . . . Under Elizabeth, certain heinous offences were declared felonies without benefit of clergy. . . . Much legislation ensued from time to time, effecting the limitation of the privilege in vari- ous offences. . . . Early in the reign of Anne the benefit of clergy was extended to all male- factors by abrogatmg the reading test, tlius placing the unlettered felon on a par with his better educated fellows, and it was not until the present century wos well advanced that this remnant of mediajvnl ecclesiastical prerogative was abolished by 7 and 8 Geo. Iv. c. 28." — H. C. Lea, Studies in Church Hist., pt. 2. Also in : W. Stubbs, Coiut. Hist, of Eng. , sect. 722-735 {ch. 19, v. 3).— See, also, England: A. D. 1162-1170. BENEVENTO, OR GRANDELLA, Bat- tle of (1266). See Italy (Soutiiehs): A. D. 1350-1268. BENEVENTUM: The Lombard Duchy. — The Duchy of Beneventum was a Lombard fief of the 8th and 9th centuries, in southern Italy, which survived the fall of the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy. It covered nearly the territory of the modern kingdom of Naples. Charlemagne reduced the Duchy to submission witii considerable dilflculty, after he had extin- guished the Lombard kingdom. It was after- wards divided into the minor principalities of Benevento, Salerno and Capua, and became part of the Norman conquest. — See Italy (South- EUN): A. D. 800-1016; and 1000-1090; also, Lombards: A. D. 573-774, and Amalfi. BENEVENTUM, Battle of (B. C.27S). See Rome: B. C. 282-275. BENEVOLENCES. — "The collection of benevolences, regarded even at the time [Eng- land, reign of Edward IV.] as an innovation, was perhaps a resuscitated form of some of the worst measures of Edward II. and Richard II., but the attention which it aroused under Edward IV. shows how strange it had become under the intervening kings. . . . Such evidence as exists shows us Edward IV. canvassing by word of mouth or by letter for direct gifts of money from his subjects. Henry III. had thus 280 BENEVOLENCES. BERSERKER. begRcd for new ycnr'.s gifts. Edwdrd IV. roiiiu'stod and fxtort<,'d ' free-will offerings ' : rom every one wlio could not say no to the pie id- ings of such a king. He had a wonderful mem- ory, too, and knew the name ami the purtioidar property of every man in the country who was worth ta.xing in this way. He liad no e.xeu.so for such meanness; for the estates had shown themselv(!s libend."— W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of Eiuf., ch, 18, sect. 606. — Sec, also, England: A. D. 1471-1485. BENGAL, The English acquisition of. Sec India; A. I). 17.-M-1757; 17r)7; and 1757-1773. BENGAL: " Permanent Settlement." See India: A. I). 1 78.5-1 7i):i. BENNINGTON, Battle of. See United States ok Am: A. I). 1777 (.Iui-y— (JcTonEii). BENTINCK, Lord William, The Indian Administration of. See India: A. D. 1823- 1833. BENTONSVILLE, Battle of. See United States OP Am. : A. D. 18G5(FEiinu.\nY— M.uicii: The Cauolinas). BEOTHUK, The. Sec Ameuican Abouig- INES: Beothukan Family. BERBERS, The. Sec LinYA:;s; Numid- IAN8; Egypt, Ouigin op the Ancient people ; and Maiiocco. BERENICE, Cities of.— Ptolemy Phila- dolphus, the second of the Ptolemies, founded a city on the Egyptian shore of the Red Sea, to whicli he gave the name of his mother, Berenice. It became an important i)ort of trade. Subse- quently two other cities of the same name were founded at points further south on the same coast, while a fourth Berenice came into existence on the border of the Great Syrtis, in Cyrenaica. — E. 11. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., ch. 15, sect. 1. BERESINA, Passage of the. See Russla: A. D. 1813 (OcTODEH— Decembeu). BERESTECZKO, Battle of (1651). See Poland: A. D. 1648-1654. BERGEN, Battles of (1759 and 1799). See Germany: A. 1). 1759 (Apuii. — AtJOUST); and PiiANCE : A. D. 1799 (Septembek— October). BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, A. D. 1588.— The siege raised. See Netherlands: A. D. 1588- 1593. • A. D. 1622, — Unsuccessful siege by the Spaniards. See Netherlands: A. D. 1631- 1633. A. D. 1747-1748.— Taken by the French and restored to Holland, 1746-1747 gress. See Netherlands : A. J), and Aix-la-Cuapelle, The Con- BERGER. See Biroer. BERGERAC, Peace of. See France : A. D. 1577-1578. BERING SEA CONTROVERSY AND ARBITRATION. See United States op Am. : A. 1). 1886-1893. BERKELEY, Lord, The Jersey Grant to. See New .Jersey: A. D. 1664-1667, to 1688-1738. BERKELEY, Sir William, Government of Virginia. See Virginia: A. D. 1643-1649, to 1660-1677. BERLIN : A. D. 1631.— Forcible entry of Gustavus Adolphus. See Germany: A. D. 1631. A. D. 1675. — Threatened by the Swedes. Bee Brandenburg: A. D. 1640-1688. A. D. 1757.— Dashing Austrian attack. See Germany: A. 1). 1757 (Ji'i.v— Decemhkr). A. D. 1760. — Taken and plundered by the Austrians and Russians. See Germany: A.I). 1 '10. A. D. 1806. — Napoleon in possession. Sec Germany: A. I). 1806 (Octoheu). A. D. 1848.— Mistaken battle of soldiers and citizens.— Continued disorder.— State of siege. See Germany : A. I). 1848 (March), and 1848-1850. BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884-5), The. See Akimca: A. 1). 1884-1889; and Congo Free State. BERLIN, Congress and Treaty of. See Turks: A. I). 1878. BERLIN DECREE, The. See France: A. D. 1806-1810; and United States op Am. : A. D. 18(it-1809. BERMUDA HUNDRED. See Hundred, The. BERMUDA HUN)JRED, Butler's Army at. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 (May: Viu(iiMA), The Army ok the .Ia.mes. BERMUDAS, The.— English Discovery of the islands (1609). See Virginia: A. D. 1609- 1616. BERMUDO, Kingof Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. D. 788-791 Bermudo II., A. D. 983-909 Bermudo III., A. D. 1037- 1037. BERN, Dietrich of. See Verona: A. D. 493-535. BERNADOTTE, Career of. See France: A. I). 1798-1799 (Au(!U8T— April); 1799 (No- vember); 1806 (.January — October); 1814 (January- — March); 1806- '.807; Scandinavian States (Sweden): A. D. 1810; Germany: A. D. 1812-1813; 1818 (August), (September— Octo- ber), (October — December). BERNARD, St., and the Second Crusade. See Crusades: A. D. 1147-1149. BERNE, A. D. 1353.— Joined to the original Swiss Confederation, or Old League of High Germany. See Switzerland: A. D. 1333-1460. A. D. 1798. — Occupation by the French. — The plundering of the Treasury. See Switz- erland: A. D. 1793-1798. BERNICIA, The Kingdom of. See Eng- land : A. I). 547-633 ; and Scotland : 7th Cen- tury. BERSERKER. — BiERSiERK. — "The word Itersrerk is variously spelt, and stated to be derived from 'bar' and 'sicrk,' or 'bareshirt.' The men to whom the title was applied [among the Northmen] . . . were stated to be iu the habit of fighting without armour, and wearing only a shirt of skins, or at times naked. In Iceland they were sometimes called Ulfrhedin, i. e., wolfskin. The derivation of Biersairk has been questioned, as in philology is not uncom- mon. The habit of their wearing bear (bjOrn) skins, is said to afford the meaning of the word. In pinlology, to agree to differ is best. The Biersierks, according to the sagas, appear to Iiave been men of unusual physical development and savagery. They were, moreover, liable to what was called Bairstcrkegang, or a state of excite- ment in which they exhibited superhuman strength, and then spared neither friend nor foe. . . . After an attack of BcBrsoerk frenzy, it was 281 DERSERKEIl. BEY. liellevwl tlmt the siipcrhiinmn influonce or Bpirit l(;ft tilt! Hu'rsicrk'H Ixxly its ii 'Iiain,' nr ciist olT Blinpe or form, witli llic njHult tlmt the MiiT- siurk .siilTrri'd (jrciit cxlmUHtion, his imturiil forces beiii)^ used up." — J. V. Vii'iiry, Saga Tiiiw, c/i. 3. Ai.sr)iN: I'. «. 1)11 Clmillu, The Vikiny Age, V. 2. rh. 20. BERWICK-UPON-TWEED : A. D. 1293- 1333. — Conquest by the Eng^Hsh. — At the Iwifiii- nfiiji;, in ViVA, of the striitgle of tlio Hrottish nation to cast off the fcudiil yoKt! w hich Edward I. had laid upon it, tlic EiiKiish Icini?, marcliinR angrily nortlnvurds, inadi- his lirst assault upon Berwick. The citizens, whose only rampart was a wtxMlen stockade, foolishly aKgravatc<I his wrath by gibes and taunts. "Tlie stockiule was stormed witli the loss of a single knight, and nearly 8,000 of the citizens were mown down in a ruth- less carnage, while a handful of Flemish traders who held the town-hall stoutly against all as.sail- aiits were burned alive in it. . . . The town was ruined forever, and the great merchant city of the North sank from that time into a petty sea- Eort." Subsequently recovered by the Scotch, lerwick was held by them in 13!i3 when Edward III. attempted to seat Edward Balliol, as his vassal, on the Scottish throne. The English laid siege to the place, and an army under the regent Douglas came to its relief. The battle of lluli- don Hill, in which the Scotch were utterly routed, decided the fate of Berwick. "From that time the town remained the one part of Edward's conquests which was preserved by the English crown. Fragment as it was, it was viewed as legally representing the realm of wluch it had once formed a part. As Scotland, it had its tcliancellor, chiimberlain, and other oftlcers of state ; and the peculiar heading of acts of Parliament enacted for England ' and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed ' still preserves the memory of its peculiar jiosition." — J. R. Green, Short Jlist. of the English People, eh. 4, sect. 3 and 6. A1.80 IN : J. II. Burton, Hut. of Scotland, ch. 17.— See Scotland: A. 1). 1390-1305. BERWICK, Pacification of. See Scotland: A. 1). 1038-lti40. BERWICK, Treaty of. SccScotlakd: A. D. 1558-1560. BERYTUS.— The colony of Berytus(inodern Beirut) was founded by Agrippa, B. C. 15, and made n st 1 ion fr r two legions. A. D. i5i. — l„s Schools. — Its Destruction by Earthquake. — The city of Berytus, modern Beirut, was destroyed by earthquake on the 9th of July, A. D. 551. "That city, on the coast of Phoenicia, was illustrated by the study of the civil law, which opened the surest road to wealth and dignity : the schools of Berytus were filled with the rising spirits of the age, and many a youth was lost in the earthquake who might have lived to be the scourge or the guardian of his country." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, eh. 43. A. D. nil. — Taken by the Crusaders. See Cuusadeb: a. D. 1104-1111. BESANCON : Origin. See Vebontio. A. D. 1152-1648.— A Free City of the Em- pire. See FuANcnE Comte. A. D. 1674.— Siege and capture by Vauban. See Netiikklands (Hollaud): A. D. 1674- 1678. BESSI, The.— The BessI were an ancient Thraeiau tribe who occupied the mountain range of iliemus (the Balkan) and the upper valley of the Ilebrns. They were subdued by Lucullus, brother of the con(iueror of Mithridates. — E. II. Bunburv, Hist, of Ancient Oeog.,ch. 18, sect. 6. BESfeiN, The.— The district of Bayeux. Seo Saxons ok Bayki'x. BETH-HORON, Battles of.— The victory of ■lo.shua over "the tlvo kings of the Amoritcs" who laid siege to Gibeon; the decisive battle of the Jewish con(iucstof Canaan. "The battle of Beth-horon or Oibcon is one of the most important in the history of the worhl; and yet so profound has been the indiflFerenco, first of the religious world, and then (through their cxomple or in- fluence) of the common world, to the historical study ^of the Hebrew annals, that the very name of thiiJ great battle is far less known to most of us than that of Alarathon or Cannir." — Dean Stanley, Lccls. on the Hist, of the Jewish Church, led. 11. — In the Maccabean war, Beth-horon was the scene of two of the brilliant victories of Judas llaci;abens, in B. C. 167 and 162. — Joscphus, Antiq. of the\Teu>s, bk, 12. — Later, at the time of the Jewish rc'volt against the Romans, it witnessed the disastrous retreat of the Roman general Cestius. BETHSHEMESH, Battle of.— Fought by Jousli, king of Israel, with Amaziah, king of Judah, defeating the latter and causing part of the walls of Jeru.salem to be thrown down. — 3 Chroniclis, ,!•./•». BETH-ZACHARIAH, Battle of.— A defeat suffered (B. V. 163) by the Jewish patriot, Judas Muccabojus, at the hands of the Syrian monarch Antiochus Eupator; the youngest of the Macca- bees being slain. — Josephus, Antiq. of the Jews, bk. 13, ch. 9. BETHZUR, Battle of.— Defeat of an army sent by Antiochus, against Judas JIaccabicus, the Jewish patriot, B. C. 165, Josephus, Antiq. of the Jews, bk. 13, ch. 7. BEVERHOLT, Battle of (1381). See Flandeks: a. D. 1379-1381. BEY.— BE YLERBEY.— PACHA.— PAD- ISCHAH.—" The administration of the [Turk- ish] provinces was in the time of JIahomet II. [the Sultan, A. D. 1451-1481, whos(? legislation organized the Ottoman government] principally intrusted to the Beys and Beylerbeys. These were the natural chiefs of the class of feuda- tories [Spahis], whom their tenure of office obliged to serve on horseback in time of war. They mustered under the Sanjak, the banner of the chief of their district, and the districts them- selves were thence called Sonjaks, and their rulers Sanjak-beys. The title of Pacha, so familiar to us when speaking of a Turkish provincial ruler, is not strictly a term imply- ing territorial jurisdiction, or even military authority. It is a title of honour, meaning literally the Shah's or sovereign's foot, and implying that the person to whom that title was given was one whom the sovereign employed. . . . The title of Pacha was not at first applied among the Ottomans exclusively to those otticers who commanded armies or ruled provinces or cities. Of the five first Pachas, that arc mentioned by Ottoman writers, three were liter- ary men. By degrees this honorary title was appropriated to those whom the Sultan employed in war and set over districts and important 282 BEY. BLACK DKATII. towns; go thut tlif word Piicliu iH'camc nlmoRt nyiioiiymoim with the won! f^ovcnior. Tlir titl(; Pa(lis<'lmli, wliicli tlic Siiltiui liiriiscif bciirN, and wliirli tlio TiirkiHli diploiimti.stH liiivi^ been v^ry JL'ulou.s in allowing to L'liristian Sovenjigim, U an I'ntiruly diiTfrent woni, and moanH tlx: great, the iniperial Scliah or Sovereign. In the time of Mahomet II. the Ottoman Kmpire con- tained in Kuro|ie alone tli!rty-si.\ Sanjaks, or banners, around eaeli of which asHcnihled about 4()0 cavaliers." — Sir E. S. Creasy, llUt. of the Ottoman Turkit, rli. 0. BEYLAN, Battle of (183 .). Sco Tuhkb: A. 1). lH;il-IH40. BEYROUT, Origin of. Sec Hekytub. BEZANT, The. — The bezant was a Byzan- tine gold coin (whence its name), worth a little less than.ten English shillings — 1.2.50. BEZIERES, The Massacre at. See Ai.bi- OENSKs: A. I). 1200. BHARADhRS. See India: A. I). 1805-1810. BHONSLA RAJA, The. See India: A. I). 17i»8- 18(15. BHURTPORE, Siege of (1805). See India: A. I). 1798-1805. BIANCHI AND NERI (The Whites and Blacks). See Flokknck; A. 1). 1295-WOO, and 1301-iai3. BIANCHI, or White Penitents. See Wiiitk Penitknts. BIBERACH, Battles of (1796 and 1800). Sec FuANCi:; A. 1>. 1700 (Apiiii.— Uctoiieu) ; and A. I). 1800-1801 (May— Peukuaky). BIBRACTE. Sec Gauls. BIBROCI, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons who dwelt near the Thames. It is suspected, but not known, that they gave their name to Berks County. BICAMERAL SYSTEM, The.— This term was applied by .leremy Bentham to the division of a legislative body into two chambers — such us the Hou.se of Lords and House of Commons in England, and the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives in the United States of America. BICOQUE OR BICOCCA, La, Battle of (1522). SeeFuANCE: A. D. 1520-1523. BIG BETHEL, Battle of. See United States OF Am. : A. D. 1801 (.Iune: Viuoinia). BIG BLACK, Battle of the. See United States ov A.m.: A. D. 1803 (Aprii,— JnLV: On the Mississippi). BIGERRIONES, The. See AQurrAiuE, The Ancient Tuuies. BIGI, OR GREYS, The.— One of the three factions which divided Florence in the time of Savonarola, and after. The Bigi, or Greys, were the partisans of the Medici ; their opponents ■were the Piagnoui, or Weepers, and the Arra- biati, or Madmen. See Floiience: A. D. 1490- 1498. BIl T^ OF RIGHTS. See England: A. I). 1089 (Octoiieu). BILLAUD-VARENNES and the French Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety. See Fuance: A. I). 1793 (.June- Octobeu), (Septembek— Decembeu), to 1794-1795 (July— Apuil). I BILOXIS,The. See Ameuican ABonioiNEs: SiouAN Family. BIMINI, The island of. See America: A. D. 1512. BIRAPARACH, Fortress of. See Junoi- PACH. 19 2 BIRGER, King of Sweden, A. I). 1200- 1319 Birger, or Berger Jarl, Regent of Sweden, A. 1). 1250-1200. BISHOPS' WAR, The First and Second. See Scotland: A. 1). 1038-1040; and Eno LAND; A. I). 1040. BISMARCK'S MINISTRY. See Ger- many: A. I). 1801-lHOO, to 1888; and FRANCE: A. I). 1870 (.June— July); 1870-1871; and 1871 (.Ianuauv — May). BISSEXTILE YEAR. See Calendar. BITHYNIANS, THYNIANS.-" Along the coast of the Euxinc, from the Thnician Hosphorus eastward to the river llalys, dwelt Bithynians or Thynians, Mariandynians and Papldagonians, — all recognized branches of the widely extended Thracian race. The Hithynians especially, in the northwestern portion of this territory, ami nNU'hing from tlie Eu.xine to tlx^ I'ropontis, are often spoken of as Asiatic 'rhraciaiis,— while on the other hand various tribes among tlu^ Thru- cians of Europe are denominated Thyni or Thynians, — so little difference was there in tlie population on the two sides of the Bosphorus, alike brave, predatory, and sanguinary. The Hithynians ot Asia are also sometimes called Hebrykians, under which denomination they ex- tend as far southward as the gulf of Kios in the Propontis." — G. Orote, Hint, of (irrerc, pt. 2, cli. 10. — The Hithynians were among the people in Asia Minor subjugated by Cro'sus, kingof Lydia, and fell, with his fall, under the Persian rule. Hut, in s(mie way not clearly understood, an in- dependent kingdom of Hitliynia was formed, about the middle of the 5th century H. C. which resisted th(! Persians, successfully resisted Alex- ander the Great and his successors in Asia Minor, resisted Mithridates of Pontus, and existed until B. C. 74, when its last king Nimmedes III. beciueathed his kingdom to Home and it was made a l{oman itrovi::"". BITONTO, Battle of (1734). See France: A. 1). 1733-1735. BITURIGES, The. See ^dui; also Bouuges, Ouioin ok. BIZOCHI, The. See Beguines, etc. BIZYE. See Thracians. BLACK ACTS, The. See Scotland: A. D. 1584. BLACK DEATH, The.— "The Black Death api)ears to have had its origin in the centre of China, in or about the year 1333. It is said that it was accompanied at its outbreak by various terrestrial and atmosplierie pha-nomena of a novel and most destructive character, pha;- noniena similar to those wliich characterized the tirst appearance of the Asiatic Cholera, of the Intluenza, and even in more remote times of the Athenian Plague. It is a singular fact that all epidemics ot an unusually destructive character have had their homes in the farthest East, and have travelled slo\vly from those regions towards Eurupe. It appears, too, that the disease ex- hausted its<'lt iu the place of its origin at about the same time in which it made its appearance in Europe. . . . The disease still exists under the name of the Levant or Oriental Plagiie. and is endemic in Asia Minor, in parts of Turkey, and in Egypt. It is specitically a disease in which the "blood is poisoned, in which the system seeks to relieve itself by suppuration of the glands, and in which, the tissues becoming dis- 83 HLACK DEATH. BLOCKADE. or(?iuii/''<l, mi'l tho l)l(xxl tlicrfiipon Ix'liii? In- tlllratcil iiitii llii'iii. <liirk lilotrlicM iippcar i>n tho xkiii. Ilciicit the I'urlivHt iiikiiii- liy wliicli tin; l'liiK«<' "UH (IcHcrilMMl. TIk^ Htorm l)urKt on tlic IhIum(I i>f CypriiH iit tlui cnil of the yciir 1;147, iind WHS iiccoinpiinird. we iiri> told, liy remark' hIiIc physical plni'iionicnu, an coiivulHions of tliu ciirlli, and a total ('liatii(o In tho atniosphcrc. Many ixthoiis alTi'ilcd died instantly. Tlie Black Death si'eined, not otdy to the frightened ini- iiKix'ttion of thi^ people, hut even to the more Hoher oliservation of the few men of science of the litne, to move forward with measuied steps from the desolated East, under the form of a dark and fetid mist. It Is very likely that con- «'i|iient upon tho great physical convulsions which had renf tho eartli and preceded the dis- <'a.se, foreiijn substances of a deleterious chara(-ter had been proji'Cted into tlie almoHphere. . . . The Black Death appeared at Avignon in Jan- uary i;;»H, vislt<'d Florence by tlii! middle of April, and had thorouj;hly penetrated Franco and (ienuany by Auj;ust. It entered I'oland in l;)41t, reacheil Sweden in the winter of that year, and Norway by infection from Enj^land at about tho H«mc time. It spread even to Iceland and Oruenlaiul. ... It made its appearance in Uu.s- sla in i;!.')l, after it liad well-nijfh exhausted itself in Europe. It tlius lo<ik the circuit of tho Medi- terranean, and unlike most plagues which have penetrated from tho Eastern to tho Westoni world, was chocked, it would seem, by the barrier of th(! Caucasus. . . . Ilccker calculates the loss to Europe as amounting to 2.'),(KK),000. " —J. E. T. Rogers, JIiKt. of Ayricultiire ami PriciK, r. 1, ell. 1.5. Al-w) in: J. F. C. Ilockcr, KtndemicH of the Middle Agfs. — See. also, Enoi.anu: A. I). 1348- 1340; Fkanck: A. I). 1347-1348; Flohence: A. I). 1348; .Ikws: A. D. 1348-1349. BLACK EAGLE, Order of the.— A Prus- sian order of kiiightliowl inslitutod by Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg, in 1701. BLACK FLAGS, The. SooFiiance: A. D. 187.5-1889. BLACK FRIARS. See Mendicant Oiideiis. BLACK GUELFS^NERI). SooFlouenck: A. I). I'Ji).-)- 131)0, and 1301-1313. BLACK HAWK WAR, The. See Illi- nois: A. I). 1832. BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, The. Sco India: A. D. 17.")5- 17.57. BLACK PRINCE, The wars of the. Seo PoiTiEiis; FiiANci:: A. D. 1300-1380; and Spain (Castile): A, D. 130G-1309. BLACK ROBE, Counsellors of the. See Venice: A. I). 1033-1319. BLACK ROD.— "The gentleman whoso duty it is to ])reservo decorum in tho IIuusc of Lords, just as it is the duty of the Sergeaut-at- Arms to maintain order in tho IIouso of Ccmi- mons. These olllcials are bound to execute the commands of their respective chambers, even though the task involves th(f forcible ejection of an ob.streperous mcniber. . . . His [Black Uod'sJ most disturbing occupation, now-a-days, is when ho conveys a message from the Lords to tho Commons. . . . No sooner do the policemen l>crald his approach from the lobbies than tho doors of the Lower Chamber are closed against him, and he is compelled to ask for admission with becoming humility and humbleness. After this has been granted, he advances to the bar, bows to tho clmlr, nnd then — with ri-pented nets of olM'iKaiii'e — walks slowly to the table, wlieni his re<|Uest is madi; for the Speaker's attendance in the t'pper House. The object may b<' to lUteu to the (Queen's speech, or it may simply bo to hear tho Itoyal itssent given to various bills. . . . The conMe(iuence is nearly always the snmo. The Sergeant-at-Arins shoulders the mace, tho Speaker Joins Black KckI, the members fall in behind, and a more or h'.ss orderly procession then .starts on its way to the Peer's (Jnimber. . . . No matter what the subject under cimsideratlon. Black Hod's appeanuice necessitates a check . . . till the journey to tho Lords has iM'CiX'ompleted, The annoyance thus caus<'d has often fouial e.x- l)ression during recent sessions. So great was the grumbling last year [1890], indeed, that thu Speaker undertook to devlsc! a belter system." — liijniliir .Uc't of I'liiliiiiiuiitiin/ Procedure, p. 11. BLACK RbOD, of Scotland. Seo lloi.v UooD OK .Scotland. BLACKBURN'S FORD, Engagement at. See United St.vtes ok Am.: A. I). 1801 (.Iuly: V'lll(lINIA). BLACKFEET. Seo A.meuican Aborioines: Bl.AlKKEKr. BLADENSBURG, Battle of. Sec United States OK A.M. : A. 1). 1814 (Auoust— Septe.m- IIEIt). BLAIR, Francis P., Sr., in the "Kitchen Cabinet" of President Jackson. Seo United States OK Am.: A. I). 18-.29. BLAIR, General FrancisP., Jr.— Difficulties with General Fremont. Seo United States OF" A.M. : A. D. 18(il (Auoust— Octobeu: Mis- SOUlll). BLANCHE, Queen of Aragon, A. D. 142.5- 1441. BLANCO, General Guzman, The dictator- ship of. See Venezuela: A. D. 1809-1802. BLAND SILVER BILL, The. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1878. BLANII, The. See Iheland, Tiiibes op EAiiLY Celtic Inhabitants. BLANKETEERS, The. Seo England: A. I). 1810-1820. BLENEAU, Battle of (1653). See Fbanck: A. 1). 10.51-10.53. BLENHEIM, Battle of. Sec Germany: A. 1). 1704. BLENNERHASSET, Harman, and Aaron Burr. See United States OK A.M. : A. D. 1800- 1807. BLENNERHASSETT'S ISLAND.— An island in tho Ohio, near Marietta, on which Har- man Blennerlmssctt, a gentleman from Ireland, had created a charming home, at the begimiing of tho present century. He was drawn into Aaron Burr's mysterious scheme (seo United St.vtes ok Am. : A. D. 1800-1807); his island bo- came tho rendezvous of the expedition, and ho was involvoii iu the ruin of the treasonable pro- ject. BLOCK BOOKS. See Printing: A. D. 1430-1450. BLOCK ISLAND, The name. See New- York: A. D. 1010-1614. BLOCKADE, Paper.— This term has been applied to the assumption by a belligerent power, in war, of the right to declare a given coast or certain enumerated ports, to be in the state of blockade, without actual presence of blockading squadrons to enfore the declaration; us by tho 284 BLOCKADi:. B(KOTIA. Ilritlsli "Onlcnt in roiinrll," mid the " llcrlln " mill " Miliiii DciriTs" of NhpoIimmi, in IMIMI-IHOT. Hcc CmtkdHivtkhok Am. ; A. 1). 1H01-I«im. BLOIS, Treaties of. 8co Italt: A. D. 1804- 15(M1. BLOOD COUNCIL, The. Sto Netiikh- I.AMw: A. I). I. Mir. BLOOD, or Kenai Indians. Sim^ Aimkuican Aiu>uiiiim:s: I(i.A( Ki'i:i;r. BLOODY ANGLE, The. S.r Initki) Staii'.mdk .\m. : A. I». IH(lt (.May: Viii(iiM.\). BLOODY ASSIZE, The. Sec Kn.ii.anh: A. I). l(IH."l (Sr.PTKMIlKn). BLOODY BRIDGE, Ambuscade at (A. D. I763I. Sic I'nN'IIAc's \V\U. BLOODY BROOK, Battle of. Sou Nkw En(ii.aM): a. I). !•!;.■>. BLOODY MARSH, The Battle of the. StM'dKimuiA: A. 1). 17;tH-174;t. BLOREHEATH, Battle of (A. D. 1459). — FouKlit on a pliiiii cuIUmI Hlorcliciitli, iiciir Dniyloii, in HUilTordsliirc, En),'liWi(l, Sept. 'S,i. 14r)(), iM'iwi'cii 10,000 Liinciistrians, coniniiindiMl bv Lord Auillcy, luid about half that niiniber of \orkists under tlie Earl of Halisbury. The lat- ter won a victory by superior strategy. The battle was the Hocond that oeeurred in the Wars of the Uo.ses. See Enoi.and: A. I). liS.'i-UTl. BLOCKER'S CAMPAIGNS. .See Oku- MANv: A. D. 1H0« (OcToiiKH); 1813-1813; 1813 <AiMiii. — May) to ^Octohkh — I)kce.\ihku); FiiANCE: A. D. 1814 Manuauv— .Mahch), and 181.5. BLUE, Boys in. Bee Boys in Bi.uk. BLUE LICKS, Battle of (A. D. 1782). See Kkntucky: A. D. 17~r.-178t. BLUE-LIGHT FEDERALISTS. — " An ineident, real or inuiKinary, which had lately [in 1813] occurred at New Loudon [(JonnecticutJ was seized upon as additional proof of collusion between the Fedemlists and the enemy. [See Unitki) Status ov Am.: A. I). ISIS.]" As the winter approached, Decatur had expected to cet to sea with his two frigates. V'e.xcd to find him- self thwarted in every attempt by the watchful- ness of the enemy, he wrote to the Navy Deimrtment in a tit of disgust, that, beyond ail •doubt, the British had, by signals or otherwise, instantaneous information of till his movements; and as i)roof of it, he stated that, after several niglits of favorable weather, the report circulat- ing in the town that an attempt was to be made to get out, ' in the course of the evening two blue lights were burned on both points of the harbor's mouth.' These 'signals to the enemy,' for such he unhesitatingly pronounced them, had been repeated, so he wrote, and had been seen by twenty persons at least of the K(jua<lron, though it does not appear that Decatur him.self was one of the number. . . . Such a clamor was raised about it, that one of the Connecticut members of Congress moved for a committee of investigatiou. . . . The inquiry was . . . quashed; but the story spread and grew, and the more vehement opponents of the war began to be stigmatized as 'blue-light Federalists.' — K. Ilildreth, Jlist. nfthe. U. S., r. 0, ;). 407. BLUE PARTY (of Venezuela), The. See Ve.ne7.uela: a. D. 1839-188U. BLUE RIBBON, The Order of the. See SBHAPIIt.M. BLUES, Roman Faction of the. Sec Ciil- cus, Factions of the Ko.m.vn. BOABDIL, The last Moorish King in Spain. SeeSl'AIN: \. U. l(7flllir,'. BOADICE A, Revolt of. See Biutain : A. O. 01. bOAIRE, The.— A "Cow-lord," hiiving certain wiidlli iniatllr. among the- ancient Irish. BOARIAN TRIBUTE, The.— Also caUed the Boriiwa, or Cow tribute. .\u hujiiiliating exaction said to have been levied on tlio province if LciiiHlir by a King Tuathal of ICrlii, in the second cenlnrv, and wliich was maiii- laine(l for live hnndrcil years. BOCAGE. The. Sec Fkance: A. I). 1708 (.Mahcii .Vi'iiii.). BOCASOTI, The. See Hkoiines, &c. BOCLAND.— BOOKLAND. See Al.oi). BCEOTARCHS. S.c Hdc. tian I.kaoik. BCEOTIA. — BCEOTIANS. — ■lielween Pholiis iinil I.dkris on line side, and .Vtliia (from which it is divided by the mountains KitliaToii and Panics) on Iheoliier, we llnd the important territory called Bceotia, with its ten or twelve autononioiiy ''Ities, forming a sort of confederacy under the presidency of Tliebes, tlu! most power- ful among them. Even of this territory, destined dining tln^ second peri(Hl of this hi.story to play a purt so conspicuous and elTective, wo know nothing during tiie first two centuries after 770 B. C. We first aciiuire some insight into it on occasion of the disputes between Thebes and Platica, alKJUt the year H'H) B. C. "— O. Orote, Jfitt. of Ureeee, pt. 3, eh. 3. — In the Greek legcnihiry period one part of this territory, siib- sciiiiently Bteotian — the Copaic valley in the north — was occupied by the enterprising people called the Minyi, whose chief city wiis Orclio- menus. Their neighbors were the Cadmeians o£ Tliebes, who are "rich," as Orotc expresses it, "in legendary antiiiiiities." The reputed founder of Thclies was Cadmus, bringerof letters to Hellas, from PlKcnicia or from Egypt, accord- ing to different rei)resontations. Dionysus (Bacchus) and IWraklOs were both supposed to recognize the Cadmeian city as their birth-place. The terrible legends of (Edipiis and his un- happy family connc'ct them.selves with the same place, and the incident wars between Thebes and Argos — the assaults of the seven Argivo chiefs and of their sons, the Epigoni — were, perhaps, real causes of a real destruction of the power of some race for whom the Cadmeians stand. They and their neighbors, the Minyi of Orchomenus, appear to have given way before another i)eople, from Thessaly, who gave the name Bd'otia to the country of both and who were the inhabitants of the Thebes of historic times.— O. Grote, IUkI. "f On-ect; j>t. 1, eh. 14.— E. Curtiiis, Hint, of (h r, bk. 1, ch. 4.— "That the Ba'olia of history should never have attained to a signirtcancc corresponding to the natural advantages of the locality, and to the prosperity of the district in the prc-Homeric age, is due above all to one principal cause. The imniigra- tioa of the Tlijssiilian 15(coti.ins, from which the country derived its name and the licginnings of its connected history, destroyed the earlier civiliz^ition of the land, without succeeding in establishing a new civiiization capable of eon- ducting the entire district to a prosperous and harmonious development. It cannot be said that the ancient germs of culture were suijpressed, or that barbarous times supervened. The ancient scats of the gods aud orucles continued to be 285 U(K()TIA. HOIIKMIA, laSS. koiuiiircil itiiil tliii Hnrii-iil fciitlvalu of tlio Muhch on Miiiint lli'licon, mid of llic Cliiirllrx iil Orc'liiiiiiciiiiM, til III' rcUiliriitcil. In liifntiii tiHi till- liciK'lli'i'iit Intliit'nciMif Di'liilil wiiH lit Viirk. unil the piH'llr hcIiikiI iif IIchIihI, ciinnccti'il an it 'WiiM with Di'lplii, liiiiK iiiiiiiitairKHl itwlf lirrr. Anil II yet Mtroi:;trr incliniition wiih iliH|iliiyi'(l by till! /Koliaii iiniiiiKrants lowarilx niiniir uiiil Ivric piK'try. Tlieciiltlvatliinof tlii' niUHiiMir tlii' t)iitr waH i'ncimra(?i'<l l>y Hii^ cxccUuut n'odn of tlir Copiiii: nioriiHHC'H. TIiIh was tliu gvnitinoly national HprrirH of mimic In Ha-otia. . . . Anil yi't till! Ito'otianH liicltiMl tlic capacity for attract- UifC to tlicnisclvcH the earlier elementH of popula- tion in Hui'li a way iim to liring alioiit a iiiippy nnial)(aniation. . . . The Hieut Ian loniM were not much jireferable to the ThcHsnIlan; nor was tiicre any region far or near, inhabiteil by Greek tribes, which presented u harsher contrast in 'Millure or manners, than the district where the road led from tho Attic side of Mount I'arnes t cross to the Birotlan." — E. Curtlus, Jliit. of Viwi; bk. 6, ch. 1.— See, also, Qiikkck: Tiik JlldUATIONS. BCEOTIAN LEAGUE.— "The old Itootian Lriiifiie, as far as its outward forms went, seems to Imvc been fairly entitled to the name of a Federal Government, but In its whole history we tnico little more than tho gradual advance of Th ibes to a practical supremacy over the other clti's. . . . The common covernmcnt was carried on iti the name of tho whole Uieotian nation. Its most important magistrates bore the tilU; of Boco- tarc.'is; their exact number, whether eleven or thirteen, is a disputed pointof Greek archieology, or I'ther, of Uieotian geography. . . . Thebes chose two BiBotarchs and each of the other cities one."— E. A. Freeman, Ilitt. of Federal Govt., eh. 4, leet. 2. BOERS, Boer War. See SouTii Africa: A. I). 18(M1-1HH1. BOIjDANIA. Sec lUi,KAX AND Danubian St.^tei, Uxir-triTH Cf,nti;hies(Uou.mania, etc.) BOOESUND, Batile of (1520). Sec .Scan- dinavian States: A. 1). 1307-1537. BOGOMILIANS, The.— A religious sect which arose among the Sclavonians of Thrace and Bulgaria, in the eleventli century, and suffered persecution from tho orthodox of the Greek church. They symDathized with the Iconoclasis of former times, were hostile to the adoratiOE of the Virgin and saints, ami took more or 1 !8S from the heretical doctrines of the Pauliciaii! . Their name is derived by some from the two !''clavoniun words, "Bog," signifying God, and ''milui," "have mercy." Others say that " Bo 'imil,"meuniug "one beloved by God," was the cuiiect designation. Basilios, the leader of the Bogomilians, was burned by the Emperor Alexius Comnenos, in the hippixirome, at Con- stantinople, A. D. 1118. — G. Finliiy, Hiitt. of the Byzantine and Qrcek Eiipires, 710-1453, bk. 3, di. 2, seH. 1. — Sec Ba/.kan and Danuuian States: i)Tii-l(iTii Centi'uies (Bosnia, etc.) BOGOTA, The founding of the city (1538). See Coi.oMiiiAN States: i\. I>. 1536-1731. BOHEMIA, Derivation of the name. Sec Boianh. Its people and their early history. — " 'What- ever may be the inferences from the fact of Bohemia having been politically connected with the empire of the Germanic Marcomunni, whatever may be those from the element Boio-, IIS ronncrtlng Uk population with the Boli of Gaul mill Bavaria (Bulovi.rii), tho doctrine that the present SlavonI'; population of that king dniii — Tshekhs |or C/.ekliH| as they call Ihem- Ki'lves — Is eitliir recent in origin or Keeondary to liny German or Keltic aborigiiie.H, is wholly unsupported by history. In ollnr words, at the beginning of tlii^ lilstorical periinl Bohemia was as Slavonic as it is now. From A. I). WH\ to A. I). 550, Bohemia belonged to the great Thiir- ingian Empire. The notion that it was then Germanic (except In its political relations) Is gratuitous. Xeverthelcss, SchaiTiirik's account is, that tho ancestors of the present Tshekhs came, probably, from White Croatia: which was eitlier north of the Carpathians, or each side of them. According to other writers, how<!Vcr, the parts above the river Kulpa In Croatia sent tliet:i forth. In Bohemian the verb 'ceti'='to begin,' from which Dobrowsky derives the name Czekhs = the beginners, tlie foremost, i. e., the first Slavonians who passed westwards. The powerful Saino, the Just Krok, and his daughter, the wise liibussu, the founder of Prague, begin the uncertain list of Bohemian kings, A. I). 024- 700. About A. I). 723, a number of netty chiefB become united under F'remysl the husband of LIbusstt. Under his son Nezumysl occurs the first Constitutional Assembly at Wysegrad ; and In A. I). 845, Christianity was introduced. But it took no sure footing till about A. I). 006. Till A. I). 1471 tho names of the Bohemian kings and heroes are Tshckh — Wenccslaus, Ottokar, Ziska, Potliebrad. In A. I). 1504, tlic Austrian connexion atd tlio process of Germanizing began. . . . The history and ethnology of Moravia is nearly that of Bohemia, except tliat the Mar- comanuic Germans, the Turks, Iluns, Avars, and other less important populations may have effected a greater amount of intermixture. Both poiiulations are Tshekli, speaking the Tshckh language — the language, probably, of the ancient (Juudi." — H. G. LiUlham, Ethnology of Europe, eh. 11. 7th Century.— The Yoke of the Avars broken.— The Kingdom of Samo. See Avars: 7tii Century. oth Century.— Subject to the Moravian Kingdom of Svatopluk. See Moravia: 9th Century. 13th Century.— The King made a Germanic Elector. See Germany: A. I). 1135-11.52. A. D. 1276. — War of King Ottocar with the Emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg. — His de- feat and death. See Austria: A. D. 1240- 1382. A. D. 1310. — Acquisition of the crown by John of Luxembourg. See Germany: A. D. 1308-1313. A. D. 1347.— Charles IV. elected to the im- perial throne. See Germany: A. D. 1347- 1493. A. D. 1355. — The succession fixed in the Luxemburg dynasty. — Incorporation of Mo- ravia, Silesia, &c. — The diet of the nobles, in 1355, joined Charles IV. in "fixing the ortler of succession in the dynasty of Luxemburg, and in definitely establLsliing that principle of primo- geniture which had already been the custom in the Premyslide dynasty. Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia, Brandenburg, which had been acquired from the margrave Otto, and the county of Glatz (Kladsko), with the consent of 286 nouEMiA, laso. John ffiM. HOilKMIA, t40ft-141S. the iltctR nf thcM proviiitTK, wctc <lcclari'd In- ti'^rnil iiiul Inalienable portiDim of tli« kitiK<l<)iii iif Miilii'iiilii." — L. IjegcT, lliit. of Auttru-llun- gttiii, i-li. 11. A. D. 1364,— Reyeriton of the crown g^uar- anteed to the Home of Austria. Hce Ai'h- TKiv: A, l>, i:i;io-i;m». A. D. 1378-1400.— Imperial election and deposition of Wenceilaut. Svi; Okumany: A. I). 1!M7-I41»:i. A. D. 140^141$. — John Hut, and the movement of ReligiouaKefoimation. — " Honiu ■jiiirkK (pf llio lire Wiich Wlflif hml llfjliti'cl [nco Enui.ani); a. I). lll(i«-14141, blown ovi r liillf Europe, iiM fitr UH rcmoti! Hohi'inia, (iiiickciii'il into atriMiKiT activity 11 tluniu wliicU for lonK yourit biirni'ii unil scorclicil iinil <M)nHiiin<'(t, dofyiii); nil elTortH to cxtinKuiHli it. Hut for itll tlilx, it wiui not Wirlif who kiniilcd tlii' Uolicniiiin tires. IIIr writiiig did much to fan and feed tlicm; while the aHsuniud and in pari erroneously aasuincd, identity of hiit teaching with that of Hu8 contributed not a little to Hliape the tragic iMues of the Uolieniiun refonner'8 life. Hut the Boheniiau muvemeut wait an indepent'.ent uud eminently a uutionnl one. If wo l(M)k for the proper foreruunerg of IIus, hia true spiritual ancestor!), we shall tlnd them in his own laud, In a succcssiim of earnest and faithful preachers. . . . John IIus (b. 1!)80, d. 1415), tlie central figure of the Uoheniian lieforniation, took In the year 1394 his degree us Bachelor of Theo- logy in that University of Prague, upon the fortune.s of which he was destined to exercise so lasting un Influence ; and four years later, In 1098, he begun to deliver lectures there. . . . He soon signalized himself by his diligence in breaking the bread of life to hungering sotds, and his boldness In rebuking vice in high places as In low. 80 long as ho conllned himself to reproving the sins of the laity, leaving those of the (Hergy and monks unassuiled, he found little opposition, nay, rather support and applause from these. Biit when [1405] ho brought them also 'within the circle of his condemnation, and begun to u])braid them for their covetousness, their ambition, their luxury, tlieir sloth, and for other vices, they turned angrily upon him, and sought to under- mine his authority, every wliere spreading reports of the unsoundness of his teaching. . . . While matters were in this strained condition, events took place at Prague which are too closely con- nected with the story that wo are telling, exer- cised too great uu Intluenco in liringing al)out the issues that Ho before us, to allow us to pass them by. . . . The University of Prague, though recently founded — it only duteil back to the year lil48 — was now, next after those of Paris and Oxford, the most illustrious in Europe. . . . This University, like tliat of Paris, on the pattern of which it Inid been modelled, was divided into four ' nations ' — four groups, that is, or families of scholars — each of these having in academical affairs a single collective vote. These nations were the Bavarian, the Suxon, the Polish, and tlie Bohemian. This does not appear at first an unfair division — two Gorman and two Slavonic ; but in practical working the Polish was so largely recruited rom Silesia, and other German or half-German Ian<ls, that its vote was in fact German also. The Teutonic votes were thus as three to one, and the Bohemians in their own land and their own University on every Important matti-r hoiwlewtly outvoted. When, by aid of thix preponilerance, th(! Unlver»ltv wan motin to conilenui the teaching of Wicllf . , . mutttTH came to a criitlH. Urged by IIus, who as a stout patriot, and an earnest lover of the llohemljin language and lileralure, had more than a Iheologieal in'.erest in the nmlt<'r, — by .IiTciino (of Praguel,--by u large number of the llohe- mian nobility, — King Wen/.el pubiiHlird an edict whereby the relations of natives and foreigners were completely revers<>d. There should 1m! henceforth three votes for the Hohc- mian nation, and only one for the three others. •Such a shifting of the weights certainly a|)pearg as a re<lressing of one iue(|iuility by creating unotlier. At all events It was so earnestly reNenteu by tliu Germans, by professors uiki student* alike, that they <]uitted the University li; a iKMiy, sfjinesuvof five, -Mid some of thirty thousand, and founded the rival University of Leipsic, leaving no more than two thousanci students at Prague. Full of indignation against IIus, whom tliey regarded as the prim(! autlior of this ulTrimt and wrong, they spread tliroughout all Germany the most unfavourable reportsof him and of his teach- ing. ThisextHlus of the foreigners hud left IIus, who was now Hector of the University, with a freer field than before. But Church nuitters at Prague did not mend; they became more con- fused and threatening every day ; intil presently tho shamef id outrage against all Chri.stian morality which a century later did a still more elTectual work, served to put IIus into open opposition to the corrupt hierarchy of his time. Pone John XXIII., having a quarrel with the King of Naples, proclaimed a crusiide against Jdm, with what had become a constant acconipaidment of this, — Indidgences to matcli. But to denounce Indulgences, as IIus with fierce and righteous indignation did now, was to wound Home in her most sensitive part, lie was excommunicated at once, and every place which should harbour him stricken with an Interdict. While matters wore In this frame the Council of Consttiuce [see Papacy: A. D. 1414-1418] was opened, which should appease all the troubles of Ciiristendom, and correct whatever was nndss. The Bohcndan difiictdty could not be omitted, and IIus was siuiimonc<l to make answer at Constance for himself. He had not been tliero four weeks when be was required to appear before the Pope and Cardinals (Nov. 18, 1414). After a Itrief infor- mal hearing bo was committed to harsh durance from wlndi ho never issued as a free man again. Sigismund, the German King and Emporor Elect, who had furiushed IIus with a safe-con- duct which should protect him, ' going to the Council, tjirrying at the Council, returning from the Council,' was absent from Constjince at the time, and lioard with real displeasure how lightly reganlod this promise and pledge of his liad been. Some big words too he spoke, threatening to come himself and release tho prisoner by force; but, being waited on by a deputation from the Council, who represented to liim that he, as a layman, In giving such a sjifc-conducl had exceeded his powers, and intrudeil into a region which was not his, Sigismund was ccn- vincod, or affected to bo convinced. . . . More than -ii'ven months elapsed before Hus could obtidn <\ hearing before tlie Council. This was granted to him at last. Thrice heard (June 5, 7, 8, 1416),— if indeed such tumultuary sittings, 28' BOHEMIA, 1405-1415. Victnriet of the llusaiies. BOHEMIA. 1419-1434. where the man siiciiking for liis life, and for inueli more than his life, was continually inter- rupted and overborne by hostile voices, by loud cries of ' Itecant,' ' Hecant,' may be reckoned as hearings at all, — lie bore himself, by the con- fession of all, with courage, meekness and dignity." He refused to recant. Some of tlio articles brought against him, he said, "charged him witli teaching tilings which he had never taught, and he could not, by this formal act of retraction, admit that he had Uiuglit them." He was comicmned, sentenced to the stake, and burned, on the (5th of .Inly, 1415. His friend, Jerome, <if Prague, suffered the same fate in the following May. —R. C. Trench, fyedn. on Medineml Church IliHtonj. leH. 22. Also in: E.'H. Gillctt, Life and timfs of John IIus.—K. H. Wratislaw, Johnllus.- -A. Neiuider, Ocneral Hist, of Chrhtian lieiigion, v. 1), pt. 2. A. D. 1410. — Election of King Sig^ismund to the imperial throne. See Gehmanv: A. U. 1347-149:5. A. D. 1419-143/!.— The Hussite Wars.— The Reformation checked.— "The fate of Iluss and Jerome created an instant and fierce excite- ment among the Bohemians. An address, defending them against the charge of heresy and protesting against the injustice and barbarity of the Council, was signed by 400 or 500 nobles and forwarded to Constance. The only result was that the Council decreed that no safe-conduct could be allowed to protect a heretic, that the University of Prague must be reorganized, and the strongest measures applied to suppress the Hussite doctrines in Bohemia. This was a defiance which the Bohemians courageously accepted. Men of all classes united in proclaim- ing that the doctrines of Huss should be freely taught, and tliat no Interdict of the Church should be enforced: the University, and even Wennel's queen, Sophia, favored this movement, which soon became so powerful that all priests who refused to administer the sacrament ' in both forms' were driven from the churches. . . . When the Council of Constance was dissolved [1418], Sigismund [the Emperor] hastened to Hungary to carry on a new war with the Turks, who were already extending their conquests along the Danube. Tlie Hussites in Bohemia employed this opportunity to organize tliem- aelvcs for resistance; 40,000 of them, in July, 1419, assembled on a njounti'ia to which they gave the name of Tabor, and chose as their leader a nobleman who i/as surnamed Ziska, 'the one-eyed.' The excitement soon rose to such a pitch that several monasteries were stor;.ied and plundered. King Wenzel arrested some of the ringleaders, but this only inflamed the si)irit of the people. They formed a jiro- cession in Prague, marched through the city, carrying the sacramental cup at their head, and took forcible possession of several churches. AVhen they lialted before the city-hall, to demand the release of their imprisoneil brethren, stones were thrown at them from the windows, wliere- upon they broke into the building and hurled the Burgomaster and six other olilcials upon tlie upheld spears of those below. . . . The Huss- ites were already divided into two parties, one moderate in its "demands, called the Calixtines, from the Latin ' calix,' a chalice, which was their symbol [preferring to their demand for the ad- miuislratiuu of the eucharistic cup to the laity, or communion ' sub utraque specie ' — whcuce they were also called ' Utraquists '] ; the other radical aiid fanatic, called the 'Taborites,' who proclaimed their separation from the Church of Home and a new system of brotherly eciuality through which they expected to establish the Millenium upon earth. The exigencies of their situation obliged these two parlies 10 unite in common defence against the forces of the Church and the Empire, during the .sixteen years of war which followed; but they always remained separated in their religious views, and mutually intolerant. Ziska, who called himself ' John Ziska of the Chalice, commandc'r in the hope of God of the Taborites,' had been a friend and was an ardent follower of Huss. He was an old man, hahi-headed, short, broad-shouldered, with a deep furrow across his brow, an enormous afjuiline nose, and a short red moustache. In his genius for military operations, he ranks among the great commanders of the world ; his quickness, energy ard inventive talent were marvellous, but at ihe same time he knew neither tolerance nor mercy. . . . Sigismund does not seem to have been aware of tlie formid- able character of the movement, until the end of his war with the Turks, some months afterwards, and he then persuaded the Pope to summon all Christendom to a crusade against Bohemia. During the year 1420 a force of 100,000 soldiers was collected, and Sigismund marched at their head to Prague. The Hussites met him with the demand for the accepts': ce of the following articles: 1. — The word of God to be freely preached ; 2. — The sacrament to be administered in both forms; 3. — The clergy to possess no property or temporal authority; 4. — All sins to 'vC punished by the proper authorities. Sigis- mund was ready to accept these articles as the price of their submission, but the Papal Legate forbade the agreement, and war followed. On the 1st of November, 1420, the Crusaders were totally defeated by Ziska, and all Bohemia was soon relieved of their presence. The dispute between the moderates and the radicals broke out again ; the idea of a community of property began to prevail among the Taborites, and most of the Bohemian nobles refused to act with them. Ziska left Prague with his troops and for a tipio devoted himself to the task of suppressing all opposition through the country, with fire and sword. He burned no less than 550 convents and monasteries, slaying the priests and monks who refused to accept the new doctrines. . . . While besieging the town of Raby, an arrow destroyed his remaining eye, yet he continued to plan battles and sieges as before. The very name of the blind warrior became a terror throughout Germany. Li September, 1421, a second Crusade of 200,000 men, commanded by five German Electors, entered Bohemia from the west. . . . But the blind Ziska, nothing daunted, led his wagons, his flail-men, and mace-wielders against the Electors, whose troops began to fly before them. No battle was fought ; the 200,000 Crusaders were scattered in all directions, and lost heavily during their retreat. Then Ziska wheeled about and marched against Sigismund, who was late in making his appearance. The two armies met on the 8th of January, 1422 [at Deutschbrod], and the Hussite victory was so complete that the Emperor narrowly escaped falling into their hands. ... A third Crusade 288 BOHEMIA, 1419-1434. Tk» Brformntion Checked, BOHEMIA, 1434-1457. was arranged and Frcdi'rirk of Brandcnbiirfi (tlie Ilolien/.ollern) selected to comnmnd it, but the plan failed from laek of support. Tiie dis- sensions among the Hussites became licreer than ever; Ziska was at one time on the point of attacking Prague, but tlie leaders of the moder- ate party succeeded in coming 1o an under- standing with him, and he entered the city in triumph. In October, 1424, while marching against Duke Albert of Au.stria, who had iuva<lcil Moravia, he fell a victim to the plague. Even after death ho continued to terrify the German soldiers, who believed that his skin had been made into a drum, and still called the Hussites to battle. A majority of the Taborites eh'cted a priest, called Procopius the Great, as their com- mander in Zi.ska's stead; the others who thence- forth styled themselves ' Orphans,' anitcd under another priest, Procopius the Little. The approach of another Imperial army, in 1420, compelled them to forget their dilTerences, and the result was a splendid victory over their enemies. Procopius the Great then invaded Austria and Silesia, which he laid waste witliout mercy. The Pope called a fourth CJrusade, which met the same fate as the former ones: the united armies of the Archbishop of Treves, the Elector Frederick of Brandenburg and the Duke of Saxony, 200,000'strong, were utterly defeated, and lied in di.sorder, leaving an enormous quan- tity of stores and munitions of war in the hands of the Bohcnuans. Procopius, who was almost the equal of Ziska as a military leader, made several unsuccessful attempts to unite the Hussites in one religious boil}'. In order to prevent ilieir dis.seusions from becoming danger- ous to the common cause, he kept the soldiers of all sects under his command, and undertook fierce invasions into Baviirja, Saxony and Bran- denburg, which made the Hussite name a terror to all Germany. During these expeditions one hundred towns were destroyed, more than 1,500 villages burned, tens of thousands of the inhabi- tants slain, and such quantities of plunder col- lected that it was impossible to transport the whole of it to Bohemia. Freilerick of Branden- burg and several other princes were compelled to pay heavy tributes to the Hussites: the Empire was thoroughly humiliated, the people weary of slaughter, yet the Pope refused even to call a Council for the discussion of tlie diflic\ilty. . . . The German princes made a last and des- perate effort: an army of 130,000 men, 40,000 of whom were cavalry, was brought together, under the conuiiand of Frederick of Branden- burg, while Albert of Austria was to support it by invading Bohemia from the south. Proco- pius and his dauntless Hussites met the Crusaders on the 14tli of August, 1431, at a place called Thauss, and won another of thei'' marvellous victories. The Imperial army was literally cut to pieces, 8,000 wagons, tilled with provisions and mimitions of war, and 150 cannons, were left upon the lield. The Hussites marched northward to the Baltic, and eastward into Hun- gary, burning, slaying, anil i)lundering as they went. Even the Pope now yielded, and the Hussites were invited to attend the Council at Basel, with the most solemn stipulations in regard to personal siifety and a lair discussion of their demands. . . . lu 1433, finally ;i00 Hussites, headed by Procopius, appeared in Basel. They demanded nothing more than the acceptance of the four articles upon which they had united in 1420; but after seven weeks of talk, during which the Council agreed ujion nothing and ])romised nothing, they marched away, after stating that any further negotiation must he carried on in Prague. This course compelled the C'ouncil to act; an embassy was appointed, which proceeded to Prague, and <m the 30th of November, the same year, concluded a treaty with the Hussites. Tlie four demands were granted, but each with a condition attached which gave the Church a chance to regain its lost i)owcr. For this reason, the Taborites and ' Orphans ' refused to accept the compact ; the moderate party united with the nobles and undertook to suppress the former by force. A fierce internal war followed, but it was of short duration. In 1434, the Taborites were defeated [at Lipan, May 30], their fortified mountain taken, Procopius the Great and the Little were both slain, and the members of the se^ dispersed. The Bohemian Hefonnalion was never again dangerous to the Church of Home." — B. Taylor, JIi«t. (if Germany, ch. 23. Also in: C. A. Peschek, Reformation and Ant i-Ueformation in Ihheniia, iiitroductori/ ck. — E. H. Gillett, Life and Times of John Iliis, v. 3, eh. 13-18.— E. de Schweinitz, 'lliat. of the Ch. kuoirn as the Unitas Fratriim, eh. 9. A. D. 1434-1457.— Organization of the Utra- quist National Church. — Minority of Ladis- laus Posthumus. — Regency of George Podie- brad. — Origin of the Unitas Fratrum. — "The battle of Lipaii was a turning point in the his- tory of the Hussites. It put Bohemia and Jlora- via into the hands of the Utraquists, and enabled them to carry out their plans unhindered. The man who was foremost in shaping events and who became more and more prominent, until he exerci-scd a commanding influence, was John of Bokycana. ... At tlie diet of 1435 he was unanimously elected archbishop. . . . Meantime Sigismund endeavored to regain his kingdom. The Diet made demands which were stringent airtl humiliating; but he pledged l.'mself to fulfill them, and on the 5th of July, 1436, at a meeting held with great pomp ancl solemnity, in the market-place of Iglau, wno iormally acknowl- edged as Ki ig of Bohemia. Oi^ the same occasion, the Conpactata were anew ratified and the Bohemia '.^ readmitted to the fellowship of the mother church. But scarcely had Sigismund reached his capital when he begun so serious a reaction in favor of Rome that iiokycana secretly left the city and retired to a castle near Pardubic (1437). The king's treachery was, however, cut short by the hand of death, on the 0th of December, of the .same year, at Znaim, while on his way to Hungary; and his successor and son-in-law, Albert of Austria, fol- lowed him to the grave in 1439, in the midst of a campaign against the Turks. Bohemia was left without a ruler, for Albert had no children except a posthumous son [Ladislaus Posthumus. -See Hungary : A. D. 1301-1443, and 1443- 1458]. A time of auarithy began and various leagues arose, the most powerful of which stocxl under Baron Ptacek. . . . He . . . called an ecclesiastical convention at Kuttenberg (Oc:tober 4tli). This convention brought about far-reach- ing results. . . . Uokycana was acknowledged as Archbishop elect, the supreme direction of ecclesiastical affairs was committed into his huads, 289 BOHEMIA, 1434-1457. Tlie Unilfu t'ratrum. nOIIEMIA, 1458-1471. tlio pripst.i? prnmisod him obedience, and 24 doc- triiiul iiiid coiistitutioiiiil articles were adopted wliicli laid tlie fouiidutioii of the Utraquist Cliurcli as tlic National Church of Bohemia. But the Taborites stood aloof. ... At last a <lis- putntion was agreed upon," as the resultof which the Taborit(!S were condemned by the Diet. "They lost all prestige; their '^owns, with the exception of Tabor, passed oit of their hands; their membership was scattered and a largt part of it joined tlie National Chi;rch. In the follow- ing summer I'tacelf died and George Podiebrad succeeded him as the head of the league. Although a young man of only 34 years, he dis- played the sagacity of an exp '•'"need statesman and was distinguished bytlie virtues of a patriot. In 1448 abohl stroke made him master of Prague and constituted him pr.ictically Regent of all Bohemia ; four years later his regency was form- ally acknowledged. lie was a, warm friend of Uokycana, whose consecration he endeavored to bring about." When it was found that Home could not be reconciled, there were thoughts of cutting loose altogether from the Koman Catholic and uniting with the Greek Church. "Negotia- tions were actually begim in 14.')3, but came to an abrupt close in the following year, in conse- quence of the fall of Constantinople. About the same time Ladislaus Posthuinus, Albert's son, assumed the crown, Podiebrad remaining Ue- gent. The latter continued the friend of Uoky- cana; the former, who was a Catholic, conceived a strong dislike to him. iVs soon as Kokycana had given up the hope of conciliating Rome, he began to preach, with great power and clocjuence, against its corruptions." It was at this time that a movement arose among certain of his followers which resulted in the formation of tlio remark- able religious body which called itself Unitas Fratrum. The leading spirit in ■ > movement was Rokycana's nephew, commc called Gre- gory the Patriarch. The teaching and influence which shaped it was that of Peter Chelcicky. Gregory and his coinpanious, wishing to dwell together, in the Christian unity of winch they had formed an ideal in their muids, found a re- treat at the secluded village of Kunwald, on tlie estate of George Podiebrad. " The name which they chose was ' Brethren of the Law of Christ' — 'Fnitres Legis Cliristi'; inasmuch, however, as this name gave rise to the idea that they were a new order of Monks, they changed it simply into ' Brethren.' Wlicn the organization of their Church had been completed, they assumed the additional title of 'Jednotii Bratrska,' or Unitas Pratrum, that is, the Unity of the Brethren, which has rem.iined the otBcial and signiticant appellation of the Cliurch to the pres- ent day. ... It was often abbreviated into ' Tlie Unity.' Another name by which the Church called itself was 'The Bohemian Brethren.' It related to all the Brethren, whether they belonged to Bohemia, Moravia, Prussia or Poland. To call them The Bohemian-Moravian Brethren, or the Moravian Brethren, is historically incorrect. The ^ name Jloravian arose in the time of the Rene^tred Brethren's Church, because the men by whom it was reneweil came from Moravia. . . . The organization of the Unitas Fratrum took place in the year 1457." — E. Dc Schweinitz, Hist, of Vie Ohureh known as Unitas Fratrum, ch. 10-12. A. D. 1458.— Election of Georg^e Podiebrad to the throne. SgcHunoaby: A. D. 1443-1458. A. D. 1458-1471.— Papal excommunication and deposition of the king, George Podie- brad. — A crusade. — War with the Emperor and Matthias of Hungary.— Death of Podie- brad and election of Ladislaus of Poland. — "(iciirgc Podiebrad Imd scarcely ascended the throne before the ('alliolics, at the instigation of the pope, required hiin to fulfil his coronation oath, bv expelling all heretics from the king- dom, lie complied with their request, banished the Taborites, Picards, Adamites, and all other religious sects who did not profess the Catholic doctrines, and i.ssued a decree that all his sub- jects should become members of the Catholic church, as communicants under one or both kinds. The Catholics, howc n-.v, were not satis- fied; considering the Calixtins as heretics, they entreated him to annul the compacts, or to ob- tain a new ratification of them from the new pope. To gratify their wishes ho sent an em- ba.ssy to Rome, requesting a confirmation of the compacts; but Pius, under the pretence that the compacts gave occasion to licresy, refused his ratification, and sent Fantino della Valle, as legate, to Prague, for the purpose of persuading the king to prohibit the administration of the communion under both kinds. In consequence of this legation the king called a diet, at which the legate and the bishops of Olmutz and Bres- lau were present. The ill success of the embassy to Rome having been announced, he said, ' I am astonished, and cannot divine the intentions of the pope. The compacts were the only means of terminating the dreadful commotions in Bohemia, and if they are annulled, the king- dom will again relapse into the former disorders. The council of Basle, which was comp(\sed of the most learned men in Europe, approved and granted them to the Bohemians, and pope Eugenius confirmed them. They contain no heresy, and are in all respects conformable to the doctrines of the holy church. I and my wife hove followed tluMU from our childhood, and I am determined to maintain them till my d(!ath.' . . . Fantino replying in a long <ind virulent invective, the king ordered him to quit the assembly, and Imprisoned him in the castle of Podiebrad, allowing him no other sustenance except bread and water. The pope, irritated by this insult, annulled the compacts, in 1403, and fulminated a sentence of excommunication against the king, uuli.ss he appeared at Rome within a certain time to justify his conduct. This btdl iccasioncd li great ferment among the Catholics; Podiebrad was induced to liberate the legate, and made an apology to the offended pontiff; while Frederic, grateful for the assist- ance which he had recently received from the king of Bohemia, when brsieged by his brother Albert, interposed his mediation with the pope, and procured the suspension of the sentence of excommunication. Pius dj'ing on the 14th of August, 1464, the new pope, Paul II., perse- cuted the king of Bohemia with increasing acri- mony. He sent his legate to Breslau to excite commotions among the Catholics, endeavoured without effect to gain Casimir, king of Poland, by the offer of the Bohemian crown, and applied with the same ill success to the states of Ger- many. He at length overctiir^e the gratitude of tlie emperor by threats and promises, and at the diet of Nuremberg in 1467, ti'.e proposal of his legate Fantino, to form a crusade against the 290 BOHEMIA, 1458-1471. Strufffftp for the Crown, BOHEMIA, isTe-ioai. licrotic king of Bnlipmiii, wa.s supported hr tlio imperial lunbiissudors. Aitlioui^li this jiroposiil was rejected by tlie diet, tlie i)ope publislicd a sentence of depLiiii.,n against I'odiebrad. and his emissaries were allowed to preacli tlie cru- sade tlirougliDiit Geriniiny. and in every part of the Austrian territories. The conduct of Fred- eric drew from the king of Bohemia, in 1408, a violent invective against his ingratitude, and a formal declaration of war; li(^ followed this declaration by an irruption into Austria, spread- ing (hiViustation as far as the Danube. Frederic in vain applied to the princes of the empire for ussistimce: and at length excited Mattliias king of Hungary against his father-in-law, by olfer- ing to invest him with the kingdom of Bohemia. Matthias, forgettii.j his obligations to Podie- brad, to whom he owed his life and crown, was dazzled by the otter, and being assisted by bodies of German marauders, who had assumed the cross, invaded Bohemia. At the same time the intrigues of the jjope exciting the Catholics to insurrection, tlie country again became a prey to the dreadful evils of a civil and religious war. The vigour and activity of George Fodiebrad 8uppres.seil the internal commotions, and repelled the invasion of the Hungarians; an armistice was concluded, and the two kings, on tlie 4th of April, 1469, Iicld an amicable conference at Sternberg, in Moravia, where they entered into a treaty of peace. But Matthias, intluenced by the perfidious maxim, that no compact should be kept with heretics, was persuaded by the papal legate to restniK! hostilities. After overrunning Moravia and Silesia, he held a mock diet at Olniutz with some of the Catholic party, where he was clio.sen king of Bohemia, and .solemnly crowned by the legate. . . . Podiebrad, in order to baffle the designs both of the emperor and Matthias, summoned a diet at Prague, and pro- posed to the states as his successor, Ladislaus, eldest son of Casimir, king of Poland, by Eliza- beth, second daughter of the emperor Albert. The proposal was warmly approved .by the nation, » . . as tlie Catholics were desirous of living under a prince of their own communion, and tlie Calixtins anxious to prevent the acces- sion of Frederic or Matthias, both of whom were hostile to their doctrines. Tlie states accordingly assented without hecitatiou, and Ladislaus was unanimously nominated successor to the throne. The indignation of JIattliias was inflamed by his disappointment, and hostilities were continued with increasing fury. The two armies, con- ducted by their respective sovereigns, the ablest generals of the age, for some time kept each other in check; till at length both parties, wearied by tlie devastation of their respective countries, concluded a kina >;f armistice, on the 22nd of July, 1470, whicli put a period to hos- tilities. On the death of Podiebrad, in the ensuing year, Frederic again presenting himself as a candidate, was suiiported by still fewer ad- herents than on the former occasion; n more numerous party osi)oused tlie interests of Mat- thias ; but the majority declaring for Ladislaus, he was re-elected, and proclaimed king. Fred- eric supported Ladislaus in preference to Matthias, and by fomenting the troubles in Hungary, as well as by his intrigues with the Ling of Poland, endeavoured not only to disap- point Matthias of the throne of Bohemia, b-,jt even to drive him from that of Hungary. "— W. Coxe, ITist. of the Iloune of AusMd, eh. 18 (". 1). A. D. 1471-1479.— War with Matthias of Hungary. — Surrender of Moravia and Silesia. See llr.No.utv: A. 1). 1471-1487. A. D. 1490.— King Ladislaus elected to the throne of Hungary. See Hungary: A. D. 1487- ir)2«. A. D. 1516-1576.— Accession of the House of Austria.— The Reformation and its strength. —Alternating toleration and persecution.— In 1489 Vladislav " was 61ected to the throne of llunijary after the death of Mathias Corvinus. He ilied in 1510, and was succeeded on the throne of Bohemia and Hungary by his minor .son. Louis, who perished in 1520 at the battle of Mohacz against the Turks [see Hunqaky: A. D. 1487-1 520J. An equality of rights was main- tained between tlie Hussites and the Uoman Catholics during these two reigns. Louis left no children, and was succeeded on the tnrone of Hungary and Boliemia by I>\'r(liiiund of Austria [see, also, AusTUi.v; A. D. 1490-1520], brother of the Emperor Charles V.. and married to the sisterof Louis, a prince of a bigoted and despotic character. Tlie doctrines of Luther had already found a speedy eclio among.st the Calixtines under the preceding reign; and Protestantism gained so much ground under that of Ferdinand, that the Bohemians refused to take part in tlie war against the Protestant league of Smalkalden, and formed a union for tlie defence of the national and religious liberties, which were menaced by Ferdinand. The defeat of the Protestants at the battle of Muhlberg, in 1.547, by Charles V., which laid prostrate tlieir cause in Germany, produced a seviire reaction in Bohemia. Several leaders of tho union were executed, others imprisoned or banished ; the property of many nobles was confiscated, the towns were heavily lined, de- prived of sevend privileges, and subjected to new taxes. These measures were carried into execution with tlie assistance of German. Spanish, and Hungarian soldiers, and legalized by an as- sembly known under the name of the Bloody Diet. . . . The .Jesuits were also introduced dur- ing that reign into Bohemia. The privileges of the Calixtiiie, or, as it was offlcially called, the Utraiiuist Cliurch, were not abolished; and Ferdinand, who had succeeded to the imperial crown after the abdication of his brother Charles v., softened, during the latter j-earsof his reign, his harsh and despotic character. ... He died ii 1504, sincerely regretting, it is said, the acts of oppression which ho hail committed against his Bohemian subjects. He was succeeded by his son, the Emperor Maximilian II., a man of noble character and tolerant disposition, which led to the belief that he himself inclined towards the 'doctrines of the Iteformation. He died in 1570, leaving a name venerated by all parties. . . . Maximilian's son, the Emperor Uudolpli, was educated at the court of his cou.sin, Philip II. of Spain, and could not be but adverse to Protestantism, which liad, however, become loo strong, not only in Bohemia, but also in Austria proper, to be easily supjiressed; but several in- direct means were adopted, in order gradually to effect this object." — V. Krasinski, Lectx. on the liclif/ioua Hint, of the Slnconic Nations, led. 2. A. D. 1576-1604.— Persecution of Protestants by Rudolph. See UuNaAiiv: A. D. 1507- 1604. 291 BOIIKiMIA. 1011-1618. V7k« Letter of Majetty. BOHEMIA, 1011-1618. A. D. 1611-1618.— The Letter of Majesty, or Royal Charter, and Matthias's violation of it. — Ferdinand of Styria forced upon the nation as king by hereditary right.— The throwing of the Royal Counsellors from the window. — Beginning of the Thirty Years War.— Ill 1011, tlu: Emperor HcHlolpli was forced to surrender the crown of IJoliemiii to his brotlier Miitthiiis. The next year he died, and Mnttliiiw succeeded liitn as Emperor also. " Tlio traii(|uillity wliicli Undolph II. 's Letterot Majesty fsee Gkhmany: A. D. 1008-1018J had cstablislieJl in Bohemia lasted for some time, under the ndministmtion of Matthias, till the nomination of a new heir to this kingdom in the person of Ferdinand of Gratz [Styria]. This prince, whom we shall afterwards liccoinc better acquaiMtcd with under the title of Ferdinand II., Emperor of Germany, had, by the violent extirpation of the Protestant rolisioii within his hereditary dominions, announced himself as an inexorable zealot for popery, and was consequently looked upon by the Koman Catholic part of Bohemia as the future pillar of their church. The declin- ing health of the Emperor brought on this hour rapidly; and, relying on so powerful a sup- porter, the Bohemian Papists began to treat the Protestants with little moderation. The Protes- tant vassals of Uoman (,'atliolic nobles, in par- ticular, experienced the harshest treatment. At length several of the former were incautious enough to speak .somewhat loudly of their hopes, and by threatening hints to awaken among the Protestants a suspicion of their future sovereign. But this mistrust would never have broken out into actual violence, had the Roman Catholics conlined themselves to general expressions, and not by attacks on individuals furnished the dis- content of the people with enterprising leaders. Henry Matthias, Count Tliurn, not a native of Bohemia, but proprietor of some estates in that kingdom, had, by his zeal for the Protestant cause, and an enthusiastic attachment to Ids newly adopted country, gained the entire con- fl<ience of the Utraquists, which opened him the way to the most important posts. . . Of a hot and impetuous disposition, which loved tumult becau.se his talents shone in it — rash anil thoughtless enough to undertake things which cold prudence and a calmer temper would not have ventured upon-^un.scrupulous enough, where the gratification of his pa.ssions was con- cerned, to sport with the fate of thousands, and ftt the siimo time politic enougli to hold in lead- ing-strings such a people os the Bohemians then were. lie had already taken an active part in the troubles under Itotlolph's administration; and the Letter of jMajesty which the States hail extorted from that Emperor, was chiefly to be laid to his merit. The court had intrusted to him, as burgrave or castellan of Calstein, the custoily of the Bohemian crown, and of the national charter. But the nation had placed in his hands something far more important — itself — with the oliu* of defender or iirotoetor of the faith. Tlic aristocracy by whicli the Emperor was ruled, imprudently deprived him of this harmless guardianship of the dead, to leave him his full influence over the living. They took from him his ollice of burgrave, or constable of the castle, which had rendered him dependent on the court, thereby opening his eyes to the im- portauce of the other which remained, and wounded his vanity, which yet was the thing that made his ambition harmless. From tills moment he was actuated solely by a desire of revenge; and the oppor inity of gratifying it was not long wanting. In the Koyal Letter which the Bohemians had extorted from Rodolph II., as well as in the German religious treaty, one material article remained undetennined. All the i)rivileges granted by the latter to the Protestants, were conceived in favour of the Estates or governing bodies, not of the subjects; for only to those of ecclesiastical states had a toleration, and that precarious, been conceded. The Bohemian Letter of JIajesty, in the same manner, spoke only of the Estates and the im- perial towns, the magistrates of which had con- trived to obtain equal privileges with the former. These alone were free to erect churches and schools, and openly to celebrate their Protestant worship: in all other towns, it was left entirely to the government to which they belonged, to determine the religion of the inhabitants. The Estates of the Empire had availed themselves of this privilege in its fullest extent; the secular indeed without opposition; while the ecclesias- tical, in whose case the declaration of Ferdinand had limited this privilege, disputed, not without reason, the validity of that limitation. What was a disputed point in the religious treaty, was loft still more doubtful in the Letter of Majesty. ... In the little town of Klostergrab, subject to the Archbishop of Prague ; and in Braunau, which belonged to the abbot of that monastery, churches were founded by the Protestants, and completed notwithstanding the opposition of their superiors, and the (lisapprobation of the Emperor. ... By the Emperor's orders, the church at Klostergrab was pulled down ; that at Braunau forcibly shut up, and the most turbulent of the citizens thrown into prison. A general commotion among the Protestants was the con- sequence of this niea.ure; a loud outcry was everywhere raised at tl is violation of the Letter of Majesty; and Couit Tliurn. animated by revenge, and particula!)y called ui)oii by his oftlce of defender, showed himself not a little busy in inllaniing the minds of the people. At his instigation deputies were summoned to Prague from every circle in the empire, to con- cert the necessary measures against the common danger. It was resolved to petition the Emperor to press for the liberation of the prisoners. The answer of the Emperor, already offensive to the states, from its being aildressed, not to them, but to his viceroy, denounced their conduct as illegal and rebellious, justified what had been done at Klostergrab and Braunau as the result of an im- perial mandate, and contained some passages that might bo construed into threats. Count Thurn did not fail to augment the unfavourable impression which this imperial edict made upon the as.sembled Estates. ... He held it . . . advisable first to direct their indignation against the Emperor's counsellors; and for that purpose circulated a report, that the imii(!rial proclama- '•■)n had been drawn up by tl' government at ^rague and only signed in Vi' Among the imperial delegat<?s, the cl jects of the popular hatred, were the Pi of the Cham- ber, Slawata, and Baron Marti who had been elected in place of Count Tliuiii, Burgrave of Calstein. . . . Against two characters so un- popular the public indignation was easily ex- 292 BOHEMIA, 161t-l(318. Tliirtu Yrnr» War. nOIIEMIA, 1742. cited, find tlicy were marked out for a sacrifice to tlie gencruliiulignatioii. On the 33rd of May. 1618, the deputies appeared armed, and in great numbers, at tlie royal palace, and forced tlieir way into tlie hull where the Commisioners Stern- berg, Martinitz, Lobkowitz, and Slawata were assembled. In a threatening tone they demanded to know from each of them, wlictlier he had taken any part, or had consented to, the imperial proclamation. Sternberg received them with composure, Martinitz and Slawata with deimnce. Tills decided their fate; Sternberg and Lob- knwitz, loss hated, and more feared, were led by the arm out of the room ; JIartinitz and Slawata were seized, dragged to a window, and pre- cipitated from ft height of 80 feet, into the castle trench. Their creature, the secretary Fubricius. was thrown after them. This singular mode of execution naturally e.xcited the surprise of civilized nations. The Hohemians justitied it as a national custom, and saw notiiing remarkable in the whole affair, excepting that any one should have got up again safe and sound 'after such a fall. A dunghill, on which the imperial com- missioners chanced to be deposited, had saved them from injury. [The incident of the flinging of the obnoxious ministers from the window is often referred to as ' the defenestration at Prague. '] . . . By this brutal act of self-redress, no room was left for irresolution or repentance, and it seemed as if a single crime could be absolved only by a series of violences. As tlie deed itself could not be undone, nothing was left but to disarm the hand of punishment. Thirty directors were appointed to organize a regular insurrection. They seized upon all the otlices of state, and all the imperial revenues, took into their own service the royal functionaries and tlie soldiers, and summoned the wliole Boliemian nation to avenge the common cause." — F. Schiller, Hist, of the Thirty Yam' War. bk. 1, ]i\i. 51-5.). Also in: S. R. Gardiner, Tim Tliirtii Ycava' War, ch. 3.— A. Giudely, Hist, of the Thirty Fears' War, ch. 1. — F. Kohlrausch, Hist, of Germany, eh. 32. A. D. 1618-1620. — Conciliatory measures de- feated by Ferdinand. — His election to the Im- perial throne, and his deposition in Bohemia. — Acceptance of the crown by Frederick the Palatine Elector. — His unsupported situation. See Germany: A. D. 1018-1030. A. D. 1620. — Disappointment in the newly elected King. — His aggressive Calvinism, — Battle of the White Mountain before Prague. — Frederick's flight. — Annulling of the Royal charter. — Loss of Bohemian Liberties. See Gekmany: a. D. 1030, and IIunoauy: A. D. 1000-1060. A. D. 1621-1648. — The Reign of Terror. — Death, banishment, confiscation, dragoon- ades. — The country a desert. — Protestantism crushed, but not slain. — "In June, 1031, a fear- ful reign of terror began in Bohemia, with the execution of 37 of the most distinguished here- tics. For years the unhappy people bled under it; thousands were banished, and yet Protestant- ism was not fully exterminated. The charter was cut into shreds by the Emperor himself; there couKl be no forbearance towards 'such acknowledged rebels.' As a matter of course, the Lutheran preaching was forbidden under the heaviest penalties; heretical works, Bibles es- pecially, were taken away in heaps. Jesuit colleges, churches, and .schools came into power j but this was not all. A large number of dis- tinguished Protestant families were deprived of their property, and, as if that were not enough, it was decreed that no non-Catholic could be a citizen, nor carry on a trade, enter into a mar- riage, nor make a will; tiny one who harboured a Protestant preacher forfeited his property; whoever permitted Protestant instruction to bo given was to be lined, and whipped out of town; tlie Proti'Stant poor who were not converted were to be driven out of the hospitals, and to bo replaced by Catholic poor; he who gave free ex- pression to his opinions about religion was to be executed. In 1031 an order was issued to all preachers and teachers to leave the country within eight days under pain of death; and finally, it was ordained that whoever had not become Catholic by Easter, 1636, must emigrate. . . . But the real convei-sions were few ; thousands fpiietly remained true to the faith; otlier thou- .sands wandered as beggars into foreign lands, more than 30,000 Bohemian families, and among them 500 belonging to the aristocracy, went into banishment. Exiled Bohemians were to be found in every country of Europe, and were not wanting in any of the armies that fought against Austria. Those who could not or would not emigrate, held to their faith in secret. Against them dragoonades were employed. Detachmenta of soldiers were sen„ into the various districts to torment the hei'etics till they were converted. The ' Converters ' (Seligmacher) went thus throughout all Bohemia, plundering and murder- ing. . . . No succour reached the unfortunate people ; but neither did the victors attain their end. Protestantism and the Hussite memories could not be slain, and only outward submission was extorted. ... A respectable Protestant party exists to this day in Bohemia and Jloravia. But a de.sert was created ; the land was crushed for a generation. Before the war Bohemia hiul 4,000,000 inhabitants, and in 1648 there were but 700,000 or 800,000. These figures appear pre- posterous, but they are certified by Bohemian historians. In some parts of the country the population has not attained the standard of 1620 to this day." — L. Hilusser, The Period of the lie- formation, ch. 33. Also in: C. A. Peschek, litformation and Anti-Iteformatinn in Bolie.nia, v. 2. — E. de Sehweinitz, Hist, of tlie Church known as tlie Unita^ Fratrum, ch. 47-51. A. D. 1631-1632. — Temporary occupation by the Saxons. — Their expulsion by Wallenstein. Sec Germany: A. 1). 1031-1633. A. D. 1640-1645, — Campaigns of Baner and Torstenson. See Germany : A. D. 1640- 1615. A. D. 1646-1648.— Last campaigns of the Thirty Years War. — Surprise and capture of part of Prague by the Swedes.— Siege of the old city. — Peace. See Geumany: A. D. 1040- 1648. A. D. 1740.— The question of the Austrian Succession. — The Pragmatic Sanction. See Austria: A. D. 1718-1738, and 1740. A. D. 1741. — Brief conquest by the French, Bavarians and Saxons. See Austria: A. D. 1741 (August— November), and (Octoheb). A. D. 1742 (January -May).— Prussian inva- sion.— Battle of Chotusitz. See Austria: ■ A. i). 1742 (January— May). 293 HOJIEMIA, 1743 BOKHARA, 1210. A. D. i742(June— December).— Expulsion of the French.— Belleisle's retreat.— Maria The- resa crowned at Prague. Si;e At;sTUlA; A. I). 1743 (.Il'.NK— Dkokmiiku). A. D. 1757.- The Seven Years War. — Frederick's invasion and defeat. — Battles of Prague and Kolin. Seo Gkumany: A. D. n'u (Aruii,— .Jink). - — -♦ BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, The. Sen Boiikmia: a. 1). 14:14-1457, and Oeumany: A. I). 1030. BOHEMIANS (Gypsies). Bue Gyphies. BOI ANS, OR BOII.— Some passages in the curlier history ami movements of the powerful Qallic tribe known as the Boil will be found touched upon under KoMu:: B. C. 390-347, and B. C. 29.')-li)l, in aeeotmts given of the destruc- tion of Rome by the Gauls, and of the subse- quent wars of the Uoinans with the Cisalpine Gauls. After the linal con(iuest of the Boians in Gallia Cisalpina, early in the second century, B. C, the Romans seem to have c.xpcdled them, wholly or partly, from that country, forcing them "to cross the Alps. They afterwards occu- piiid a region embraced in modern Bavaria and Bohemia, both of whidi countries are thought to have derived their names from these Boian people. Some part of the nation, however, as- .sociated itself with the Ilelvelii and joined in the migration which C'lesar arrested. He settled these Boians in Gaul, within the ^Eduan terri- tory, between the Loire and the Allier. Their capital city was G(!rgovia, which was also the name of a city of the Arverni. The Gergovia of the Boians is conjectured to have been modern Monlins. Their territory was the modern Bour- bonnais, which probably derived its name from them. Three important names,' therefore, in European geography and history, viz. — Bour- bon, Bavaria and Bohemia, are traced to the Gallic nation of the J$oii. — Tacitus, Oermany, traiui. by C hutch and linxlribh, notes. AiiSO IN: C. Merivale, Hint, of Vie Itoimuui, ch. 13, note. BOIS-LE-DUC— Siege and capture by the Dutch (1629). Sec Netiieulands: A. D. 1031- 1033. BOKHARA (Ancient Transoxania).— "Taken literally, the name [Transo.xania] is a translation of the Arabic >Iavera-ini-nehr (that which lies beyond or across the river), and it might therefore be supposed that Transoxania meant the country lying beyond or on the right shore of the 0.\us. But this is not stricUy speaking the case. . . . From the period of the Samanidcs down to modern times, the districts of Talkan, Tokharistan and Zcm, although lying partly or entirely on the left bank of the O.vus, have been looked on as integral portions of Bokhara. Our historical researclies seem to prove that this arrangement dates from the Samanidcs, who were themselves originally natives of that part of Khorassan. ... It is almost impossible in dealing geographically with Transoxania to assign delinitely an accurate frontier. We can and will therefore compre- hend in our definition of Transoxania solely Bok- hara, or the khanate of Bokhara; for althougli it has only been known by the latter name since the time of ShcVbani and of the Ozbcgs [A. I). 1500], the shores of the Zcrofshan and the tract of country stretching southwards to the Oxus and northwards to the desert of Kizil Kum, n present the only i)arts of the territory which have remaim^d uninterruptedly portions of the original undivided state of Transf)xania from the earliest hi.storical times. . . . Bokhara, the capi- tal from the time of the Samanidcs, and at the date of the very earliest geogniphical reports concerning Transoxania, issai(l, during its pros- perity, to have been the largest city of the Islamite world. . . . Bokhara was not, however, merely a luxurious city, distinguished by great natural advantages; it was also the princijial emporium for the tra<le between China and Western Asia; in addition to the vast ware- houses for silks, brocades, and cotton stulTs, for the finest carpets,' and all kinds of gold and silversnuths' work, it boasted of a great moncy- nnirket, being in fact the Exchange of all the I)opulation of Eastern and Western Asia. . . . Sogd . . . comprised the mountainous part of Transoxania (which may lie described as the extreme western spurs ot the Tliien-Shan). . . . The capital was Samarkand, undoubtedly the .■Nlaraeanda of the Greeks, which they specify as tlie capital of Sogdia. The city Inis, throughout the history of Transoxania been tlie rival of Bokhara. Before the time of tlie Samanidcs, Samarkand was the largest city iKjyond the Oxus, and only began to decline from its former importance when Ismail chose Bokhara for his own residence. Under the Khahrczmians it is said to have raised itself again, and become much larger than its rival, ami under Timour to have reached the culminating point of its pros- perity. " — A. Vambery, llint. of liokhara, introd. Ai.soin; J. Ilutton, Centnil Aniit, ch. 3-3. B. C. 329-327. — Conquest by Alexander the Great. See AIackdonia: B. C. 330-333. 6th Century.— Conquest from the White Huns by the Turks. See Turks: Otii Ckn- TUKY. A. D. 710.— The Moslem Conquest. See Mahometan CoNtjUEST : A. I). 710. A. D. 991-998. — Under the Samanides. See Samanides. A. D. 1004-1193. — The Seldjuk Turks. Sec TuuKs(TiiB Sei,djuk8): a. D. 1004-1003, and after. A. D. 1209-1220. — Under the Khuarezmians. Sec Khuakezm: 13tii Century. A, D. 1219. — Destruction of the city by Jingis Khan. — Bokhara was taken by Jingis Khan in the summer of 1319. "It was then a very large? and magnificent city. Its name, according to the historian Alai-ud-din, is de- rived from Bokliar, which in the Magian lan- guage means the Centre of Science." File city surrendered after a siege of a few days. Jingis Khan, on entering the town, saw the great mos(iue and asked if it was the Sultan's palace. "Being told it was the house of Ottnl, he dis- mounted, climbed the steps, and said in a loud voice to his followers, 'The hay is cut, give your horses fodder. ' They easily understood this cynical invitation to idunder. . . . The inhabit- ants were ordered to leave the town in a body, witli only their clothes, so that it might be more easily pillaged, after which the spoil was divided among the victors. ' It was a fearful day,' says Ibn al Ithir; 'one only heard the sobs and weep- ing of men, women and children, who were separated forever; women were ravished, while men died rather than survive the dishonour of 294 BOKHARA, 1310. BOLOGNA. their wivps and diiughtcrs.' The Monpola ended l)y setting lire to nil the wooden portion of the town, and only the great inos(|ue and eerlain palaces wliieli were built of bri('k remained standing."— II. H. Howorth, UUt. of the Mnii- gols, V. 1, c/i. 3,_"The nourishing city on the Zercfslian had heeonie a heap of rubbish, but tlie garrison in the citadel, commanded by Kok Khan, continued to hold out with a bravery which deserves our admiration. The Mongols used every imaginable effort to reduce this last refuge of the enemy; the Bokhariots them.selves were forced on to the scaling-ladders: but all in vain, and it was not until the moat had been liter- ally choked with corpsesof men and animals that the stronghold was taken and its brave defenders put to (leath. The peacealde portion of the population was also made to suffer for this heroic resistance. More than 30,000 men were executed, and the remainder were, with the exception of the very old people among them, redviced to slavery, without any distiniition of rank what- ever ; and thus the inhabitants of Bokhara, lately so celebrated for their learning, their'Iove of art, and their general refinement, were brought down to a dead level of misery and degradation and scattered to all quarters." — A. Vambery, Hist, of Bukhara, eh. 8. — See JIonools: A. D. 1153-1237. A. D. i868.— Subjection to Russia. See RnssFA: A. D. 1839-1870. BOLERIUM. See Hki.kuion. BOLESLAUS I., King of Poland, A. D. 1000-1025 Boleslaus 11., King of Poland, A. D. 1058-1083 Boleslaus III., Duke of Poland, A. D. 1103-1138 Boleslaus IV., Duke of Poland, A. D. 114G-117;J Boles- laus v., King of Poland, A. I). 1227-1279. BOLEYN, Anne. — Marriage, trial and exe- cution. See England: A. 1). 1527-1534; and, 1536-1.143. BOLGARI. See Buloauia: OniGiN op. BOLIVAR'S LIBERATION OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. See Co- LOMUiAN States: A. D. 1810-1819, 1810-1830; and Peuu: A. D. 1820-1820, 1835-1820, and 1826-1876. BOLIVIA: The aboriginal inhabitants. — "With the Toromonos tribe, who occupied, as Orbigny tells us, a district of from 11° to 13° of South lat'tude, it was an established rule for every man to build his house, with liis own hands alone, and if he did otherwise he lost the title of man, as well as became the laughing- stock of his fellow citizens. The only clothing worn by these people was a turban on the head, composed of feathers, the rest of the body being perfectly naked ; whilst the women used a gar- ment, manufactured out of cotton, that only partially covered their persons. . . . The orna- ment in which the soft sex took most pride was a necklace made of the teeth of enemies, killed by tlieir husbands in battle. Amongst the Moxos polygamy was tolerated, and woman's infidelity severely pimished. . . . The Moxos cultivated the land with ploughs, and other implements of agriculture, made of wood. They fabricated canoes, fought and fished with bows and arrows. In the provmce of the Moxos lived also a tribe called Itonomos, who, besides these last named instruments of war, used two-edged wooden scimitars. The immorality of these Itonomos was something like that of the Mormons of our tim(^ . . . The (,'anichanas, who lived near .Maehupo, between 13=" and 14° S. lat. and 07° to 08° W. long., are reputed by M. d'Orbigny as the bravest of the Bolivian Indians. They are accredited to have been cannibals. . . . Where Jujuy — the mo.st northern ])rovinco of the Argentine Republic — ioins Bolivia, we have in the pres<>n day the Alatagmiya and Cambas Indians. \ 'c latter are represented to me by Dr. JIatien/,0, ' Ito.sario, as intelligent and devoted to agrieultiiral labor. They hiive fixed tdlderias [villages], the houses of whiCh are clean and neat. Each town is commanded by a capitan, whose sovereignty is liereditary to his male descendants only." — T. J. Hutchinson, The I'arana, ch. 4. — Se(;, also, Amkuican Abouigines: Anuesians, and Tui>i. In the Empire of the Incas. See Pehi;: Tife EMi'iuii OK THE Incas. A. D. 1559. — Establishment of the Audiencia ofCharcas. Sec Audikncias. A. D. 1825-1826.— The independent Repub- lic founded and named in Upper Peru.— The Bolivian Constitution. — " Ui)()er I'eru [or Las Chareas, as it was more specifically known] . . . had been detached [in 1776 — see Akoentinb UiuTiii.ic: A. 1). l.'580-1777] from the govern- ment of Lima ... to form part of the newly constituted Vicoroyalty of Buenos Ayres. The fifteen years' struggle for independence was here a sanguinary one indeeil. There is scarcely a. town, village, or noticeable place in this vast region where bl(Mxi is not recorded to have been shed in this terrible struggle. . . . T'lc Spanish army afterwards succumbed to that of the inde- pendents of Peru ; and thus Upper Peru gained, not indeed liberty, but independence tinder the rule of a republican aimy. This vast province was incaiiable of governing itself. The Argen- tines laid claim to it as a province of the con- federation ; but they already exercised too great a preponderance in the South American system, and the Colombian generals obtained the relin- (luishnient of these pretensions. Sucre [Bolivar's Chief of Staff] assu-ned the government until a congress could be assembled: and under the iutiuence of the Colombian soldiery Upper Peru was erected into au independent state by the name of Hie Republic of Bolivar, or Bolivia." — E. J. Pa^ ne, lliKt. of EavojKaii Colonies, p. 290. — For an account of the Peruvian war of liber- ation — the results of wliieh embraced Upper Peru — and the adoption of the Bolivian consti- tution by the latter, see Peuu: A. D. 1820- 1830, anil 1825-1830. A. D. 1834-1839. — Confederation with Peru. —War with Chile. See Peru: A. D. 1826- 1870. A. D. 1879-1884.— The war with Chile. See Chile: A. D. 1833-1884. BOLIVIAN ^CONSTITUTION, or Code Bolivar. See Peuu: A. D. 1825-1826, and 1826- 1876. BOLOGNA : Origin of the city.— On the final conquest of the Boian Gauls in 5forth Italy, a new lioman colony and frontier fortress were established, B. C. 189, called first Felsina and then Bononia, which is the Bologna of motlern Italy.— H. G. Liddell, Hist, of Home, bk. 5, eh. 41. Origin of the name. See Boians. 295 nOLOONA. noOK OF THE DEAD. B. C. 43. — Conference of the Triumvirs. Sec ItosiK; 15. ('. U-ii. nth Century.— School of Law.— The Glos- sators. — ".Just at this time [piuI of tlu; lltli ccn- ttiry] w(! lliulii fiiinous scliool of liiw pstjiblislied in Bologna, (viid frcfiucMtod bv multitudes of piipilB, not only from ail parts of Italy, but from Oermany, Franee, and oilier coiintrie.s. Tlio basis of all its instructions was tlie Corpus .IvirisCivilis. Its teaehers, who ronstituto 11 scries of dis- tiiiK'iislicd jurists extending over a eeiitury and a half, flevoted themselves to the work of ex- pounding the text and elucidating the prineiples of the Cortius .luris, and especially the Digest. From tlie form in which tliey recorded and handed down tlu! results of their studies, tlicy have obtaiited the name of glossators, (^n their copies of the Corpus .Juris tliey were accustonicd to write glosses. 1. e., brief marginal explanations and remarlis. These glosses came at length to b«! an immense literature." — .1. lladley, Iiitrml. to Itniwm Law, Urt. 3. iith-i2th Centuries.— Rise and Acquisition of Republican Independence. See Italy: A. D. 1050-1 l.W. A. D. 1275. — Sovereignty of the Pope con- firmed by Rodolphof Hapsburg. SecOKUMANv: A. I). 1373-1308. A. D. 1350-1447.- Under the tyranny of the Visconti. See .N1ii,\.n: A. D. 1377-1447; and Floukncr: a. D. i:i90-1403. A. D. 1512. — Acquisition by Pope Julius II. Sec Italy: A. 1). 15 10-1,-) 11!. A. D. 1796-1707. — Joined to the Cispadane Republic. See PiiancI':; A. D. 1790 (Apuii, — OcTouKU); 1790-1797 (Octoheh- .Vpuii,). A. D. 1831. — Revolt suppressed by Austrian troops. See Italy; A. D. 1830-1833. BOMBAY.— Cession to England (1661). See India: A. D. 1600-17')3 BON HOIVIME RICHARD AND THE SER APIS.— Sea-fight. See Unitki) Statks OF Am. : A. D. 1779 (SurTKMiiEU). BONAPARTE, Jerome, and his Kingdom of Westphalia. See Oicuma .v: A. D. 1807 (.luNK— .July); 1813 (SKPTE.MnEn — October), and {()cTom:n— Drx'EMHEU). BONAPARTE, Joseph, King of Naples and Xing of Spain. See Fiiance : A. D. 180r)-180« (Decembeii— 'jEPTE.MnEii); Spain: A. D. 1808 (May— Septembeii), to 1812-1814. BONAPARTE, Louis, and the Kingdom of Holland. See Xetiieulands: A. D. 1800-1810. BONAPARTE, Louis Napoleon. Sec Napo- leon III. BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, The career of. See Fkance: A. D. 1703 (July — December), and 179o (October— December), to 1815. BONAPARTE FAMILY, The origin of the. — "About four miles to the south of Florence, on an eminence overlooking tlie valley of the little river Qrevc, ?n'l tl>"3 tlien bridle-path leading towards Siena and Rome, there was a very strong castle, called Monte Uoni, Mons Boni, as it is styled in sundry deeds of gift executed within it,s walls in the years 1041, 1085, and 1100, by whicli its lords made their peace with the Church, in the usual way, by sharing with churchmen the proceeds of a course of life such as needed a whitewashing stroke of the Church's olUce. A strong castle on the road to F -me, and just at a point where the path ascended a steep hill, offered advantages and temptations not to he resisted; and the lords of M<)nt(^ lloni 'took toll' of pas.sen- gcrs. But, as Villaiii very naively says, 'tho Florentines could not endure that another should do what they abstained from doing. ' So as usual they sallied forth from their gates oik^ line morn- ing, attacked the strong fortress, and rii/.ed it to the ground. All this was, as we have seen, an ordinary occurrence enough in the history of young Florence. This was a way the burghers had. They were clearing their land of these vestiges of feudalism, miicli as an American settler clears his ground of the stumps remaining from tho primeval forest. But a special interest will bo admitted to belong to this instance of the clearing process, when we discover who those noble old freebooters of Monle Bcmi were. The lords of Mouto Boni were called, by an easy, but it might be fancied ironical, derivation from the name of their castle ' Buoni del Monte,' — the Good Men of the Mountain ; — and by abbreviation, Buondcl- monto, a name which we shall hear more of anon in tho pages of this history. But when, after tho destruction of their fortress, these Good Men of tho Mountain became Florentine citizens, they increa.sed and multiplied; and in tho next genera- tion, dividing off into two brunches, they as- sumed, as was the frequent practice, two distinc- tive appellations; the one branch remaining Buondelmonti, and the other calling themselves Buonaparte. This latter branch shortly after- wards again divided itself into two, of which ono settled at San Miniato al Tedesco, and became extinct there in the person of an aged canon of the name within this century; while tho other first established itself at Sarzana, a littlo town on the coast about half-way between Florence and Genoa, and from thence at a later period transplanted itself to Corsica ; and has since been heard of." — T. A. Trollope, Hint, oftlw Com- monirn ilt/i of Florence, 11 1, ;)/). 50-51. BONIFACE, ST., The Mission of. See CiiuisTL\NrTv: A. 1). 400-800. BONIFACE, COUNT, and the Vandals. See Vandals: A. D. 439-439. BONIFACE III., Pope, A. D. 007, Februaky to Nove.mber. . . . Boniface IV., Pope, A. 1>. 608-015 Boniface V., Pope, A. I). 'J19-635. Boniface VI., Pope, A. D. 890 Boniface VII., Pope, A. I). 974, 984-985 Boniface VIII., Pope, A. D. 1294-1303 Boniface IX., Pone, A. D. 1389-1404. BONN, Siege and Capture by Marlborough (1703). See Xetiieklands: A. 1). 1703-1704. BONNET ROUGE, The. See Liberty Cap. BONONIA IN GAUL. See Gesoriacum. BONONIA IN ITALY. See Bologna. 200K OF THE DEAD.— "A collection (ancient Egyptian) of prayers and exorcisms com- posed at various periods for the benctit of the pilgrim soul in his journey through Ameuti (tho Egyptian Hades) ; and it was in order to provide him witli a safe conduct through tho perils of that terrible valley that copies of this work, or portions of it, were buried with tho mummy in his tomb. Of the many thousands of papyri which have been preserved to this day, it is per- haps scarcely too much to say that one half, if not two thirds, are copies more or less complete of the Book of the Dead." — A. B. Edwards, Academy, Sept. 10, 1887. M. Naville published in 1887 a collatioa of tho numerous differing 296 BOOK OF THE DEAD. noROUOII. texts of tlic Hook ( f tlm Dciid, on tlic propnrullon of wliicli lie had been enpiijcMl for ten V'lirs. BOONE, Daniel, and the settlement of Kentucky. Sec Kentucky: A. D. 1705-1778, mill 1775-1;hI. BOONVILLE, Battle of. Sco MiBsoiiiti: A. I). ISC.l (Kkiiiuaiiy — Iri.Y). BOONSBORO, or South Mountain, Battle of. .Sf(. I'mti:!) Htaths kk Am.: A. 1). IHO'i (.Ski'tkmdku: Makyi.am)). BOOTH, John Wilkes.— Assassination of President Lincoln. Sec I'mtko Statics oi' Am.: a. 1), 1H(1.-) (AiMiii. 14tii). BOR-RUSSIA. SlcPiu-ksia: TiieObiotnai, Cot'.NTltY AM) IT.sNAME. BORDARII. See Slaveuv, Medieval: En(ii.ani): iilso Manoiis. BORDEAUX : Origin. Sue Hiudioala. A. D. 732.— Stormed and sacked by the Moslems. See Mahometan Conquest: A. D. 71.-5-732. A. D. 1650.— Revolt of the Frondeurs.— Siege of the city.— Treaty of Peace. Seo Fkance: a. I). l(i.j()-10.-)l. A. D. 1652-1653.— The last phase of the Fronde.— Rebellion of the Society of the Ormie. — Cromwell's help invoked. — Siege and submission of the city. — " Tlio peace of Bordeaux in October, 10.50, had left the city tran- quil, but not intimidated, and its citizens were neither attached to tlie government nor nfniid of it._ . . . There, as at Paris, a violent element ob- tained control, ready for disturbance, and not alarmed by the possibility of radical changes in the governtnoiit. . . . During the popular emotion against Epernon, meetings, mostly of the lower classes, had been held under some great elms near the city, and from this circumstance a party had taken the name of the Ormee. It now as- sumed a more definite form, and began to pro- test against the slackness of the otHcers and magistrates, who it was charged, were ready to abandon the popular cause. The Parliament was itself divided into two factions," known as the Little Fronde and the Great Fronde — the latter of which was devoted to the Prince of Conde. "The Ormee was a society composed originally of a small number of active and vio- lent men, and in its organization not wholly unlike the society of the Jacobins. . . . Troubles increased between this society and the parlia- ment, and on June 3d [1052] it held a meeting attended by 3,000 armed men, and decided on the e.xilo of fourteen of the judges who were re- garded as traitors to tli" cause. . . . The offend- ing judges were obliged to leave the city, but in a few days the Parliament again obtained con- trol, and the exiles were recalled and received with great solemnity. But the Ormee was not thus to be overcome. On June 25th these con- tests resulted in battle in the streets, in which the society had the advantage. Many of the judges abandoned the conflict and left the city. The Onneo established itself at the Hotel de Ville, and succeeded in controlling for the most part the affairs of the city. . . . Conde decided that he would recognize the Ormee as a political organization, and strengthen it by his approval. . . . The restoration of the King's authority at Paris [see Fka>-ce: A. D. 1651-1 653J strength- ened the party at Bordeaux that desired peace, and increased the violence of the party that was opposed to it. Plots were laid for the over- throw of the local autborllles, but they were wholly unsuccessful. . . . The desire of the lieople, the nobility, and the clergy was for peace. Only by sj^'cdy aid from Spain could the city be kept in hostility to its King and in allegiance to Conde. Spun was asked to send asHistanc(^ and prevent this important loss, but tlie Spanish delayed any vigorous action, partly from remissness and pu'lly from lack of troops and money. The mo.st ■ 1 he province of Uuienno was gmdiially lost to th. insurgents. . . . Condo .seems to have left Guienno to itself. ... In Ibis condition, the people of Bordeaux turned to Cromwell as the only person who had the iMiwer to help them. . . . The envoys were received by Cromwell, but be took no steps to send aid to Bordeaux. Hopes were held out which en- couraged the city and alarmed the French minis- ter, but no ships were sent." Meantime, the King's for<:es in Guienne advanced with steady success, and early in the summer of 1053 they began the si(^ge of the city. The peace party within, thus encouraged, soon overthrew the Ormee, and arranged terms for the 8ubniis.sion of the town. '"The government proceeded at once to erect the castles of Trompette and lid, and they were made i)owerful enough to check any future turbuli^nce." — J. B. Perkins, Frcnce under Mazarin, eh. 15 (r. 2). A. D. 1791. — The Girondists in the National Legislative Assembly. See France: A. D. 1791 (Octobeh). A. D. 1793. — Revolt against the Revolu- tionary Government of Paris. — Fearful ven- geance of the Terrorists. See Fuance ; A. D. 1793(June); (July— Decembeu); and 1703-1794 (OCTOIIEII — APUIL). A. D. 1814.— Occupied by the English. See Spain: A. D. 1812-1814. BORDER-RUFFIANS. See Kansas : A. D. 1854-1859. BORGHETTO, Battle of. See Fkance; A.D. 1700 (AruiJ. — Octobek). BORGIAS, The. See Papacy: A. D. 1471- 1513. BORIS, Czar of Russia. A. D. 1598-1005. BORLA, The. See Peku; A. D. 1533-1548. BORNHOVED, Battle of (1227). See Scandinavi.vn St.\tes: A. D. 1018-1397. BORNY, OR COLOMBEY-NOUIL!,Y, Battle of. See Fr.vxce: A. D. 1870 (July— AUOUST). BORODINO, OR THE MOSKOWA, Battle of. See Russia: A. D. 1813 (June— Septembeu). BOROUGH.— CITY— TOWN— VILLE. — "'file butJi of the Anglo-Saxon period was simply a more strictly organized form of the township. It was probably in a more defensible position; had a ditch and mound instead of the quickset hedge or ' tun ' from which the town- ship took its name ; and as the ' tun ' originally was \he fenced homestead of the cultivator, the burli was the fortified house and court-yard of the 7-.iigbty man — the king, the magistrate, or the noble. '^'—W. Stubbs, Omst. IIM. of Emj., eh. 5. — "I must freely confess that I do not know what difference, e:;cept a difference in rank, there is in England between a city and a liorough. ... A city does not seem to have any rights or powers as a city wliich are not equally shared by every other corporate town. The only 297 HOItOUGH. B08PII0nU8. corpomte towns which have any Hpt-olal powers hIhivc itthcrs arc lliosc whicli ari! couiitit'st of thciiiHclvi'M; and a'l citicH aru not coiintii'.s of tlicniiU'lvt'H, while Honu* townx which aru not cilicM aro. The city in KnKland is not ho eiutily duitncd an tlie city in tiio United StatcH. Tlier(\ every corponit(! town is a vity. Tlds nialicH ii Kn-nt many citii'H, and it ieads to an use of tin; word city in common talit wiiicii Keems a little BtmnKc in iSritisli ears. In Kn^land, even in BpeaiiinK of a real city, tin! word city is seldom used, except in languaj^o a little formal or rliotorical ; in Amerh'a it is used wluMiever a city is mentioned. Hut the American rule has tlie advanlaite of lieinj; perfectly clear and avoid- Inj? all doulil. And it ai;rees very well with tlie origin of the word: a corpoiate town is a ' civit4is,' a commonwealth; any lesser collection of men hanily is a conunonwealth, or is sucli only in a nuich less perfect (Uigrce. Tills brings us to the historical use of tlie word. It is clear at starting tliat the word is not Knglisli. It has no Uld-Knglish equivalent; burh, burgli, borough, in its various spc^Uings and various shades of meaning, is our native word for urbes of every kind from Rome downward. It is curious that this word should in ordinary speech have been so largely displaced by the vaguer word tun, town, which means an enclos- ure of any kind, and in some English dialects is still applied to a single house and its surround- ings. ... In common talk we use the word borough hardly oftener than the word city ; when the word is used, it has commonly some direct reference to the parliaiiK.'ntary or munici|)al characters of the town. Many people, I suspect, would define a borough as a town which sends members to Parliament, and such a definition, though still not accurate, has, by late changes, been brought nearer to accuracy than it used to be. City and borough, then, are both rather for- mal words; town is the word which comes most naturally to the lips when there is no special reason for using one of the others. Of the two formal words, borough is English ; city is Latin ; it comes to us from Gaul and Italy by some road or other. It is in Domesday that we tlnd, by no means its first use in England, but its first clearly formal use, tlic fli-st use of it to dis- tinguish a certain class of towns, to mark those towns whicli are 'civitates' as well as burgi from tliose which arc burgi only. Now in Gaul the ' civitas ' in fonnal Itonian language was the tribe nnd its territory, the whole land of the Arverni, Parisii, or anyOther tribe. In a secondary sense it meant the head town of the tribe. . . . When Cliristianity was established, the 'civitas' in the wider sense marked the extent of tiio bishop's diocese; the 'civitas' in the narrower sense became tlie immediate seat of his bisliopstool. Thus we cannot say that in Gaul a town became a city because it was a bisliop's see ; but we may say that a certain class of towns became bishops' sees because tlicy were already cities. But in modern French use no distinction is made between these ancient capitals which became bishoprics and other towns of less temijoral and spiritual honour. The seat of the bishopric, the head of the ancient province, tlie head of the modern department, the smaller town whicli has never ri-seu to any of tlui^c dignities, are all alike villu. Lyons, liheims, I'aris, are in no way distinguished from meaner places. The word citC is common laiough, but it has a purely Iim'uI meaning. It often distinguishes the old part of a town, the ancient 'civitas,' from later add!- llon.s. In Italy on the other hand, citti\ is both the familiar and tiii^ formal muw. for towns great and small. It is used Just like ville ia French." — K. A. Freeman, Vtty mid liuwiiyh (}f(icmill<iii'ii M,!)/.. Mail. IMHO). BOROUGH-ENGLISH. See Fkudai, Tkn- I'UKS. BOROUGHBRIDGE, Battle of.^— Fought March 16, VM'i, in tlie civil war which arose in England during tlie reign of Edward II on ac- count of the King's favorites, the Despenscrs. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the leader of opposi- tion, was defeated, captured, summarily tried and beheaded. BOROUGHS, Rotten and Pocket. See Enoi.and: a. I). IWIO, and 18;t()-t8;K. BORROMEAN, OR GOLDEN LEAGUE, The. See SwiTZKUi.ANi): A. I). ir)79-10;iO. BORYSTHENES, The.— The name which the Greeks gave anciently to the river now known as the Dnieper. It also became the name of a town near the mouth of the river, which was originally called Olbia', — a very early trading settlement of the Milesians. BOSCOBEL, The Royal Oak of. See Scot- land: A. I). 1051. BOSNIA. See Balkan- and Danudian Statks. BOSPHORUS, OR BOSPORUS, The.— The word means literally an 'ox-ford,' and the Greeks derive<l it as a name from tliu legend of lo, who, driv(m by a gad-fly, swam across the straits from Europe into Asia. Tliey gave the name particularly to tliat channel, on which Constantinople lies, but applied it also to other similar straits, such as the Cimmerian Bosporus, opening the Sea of Azov. The city and kingdom. — "Uespectiug Bos- porus, or I'antikapiciini (for botli names denote tlie same city, tliough tlie former name often comprehends the whole annexed domini(m) founded by Alilesian settlers ou the European side of the Kimmerian Bosporus (near ICertsch) wo first hear, about the pericwl when Xer.xes was repuLsed from Greece (480-479 B. C.) It was the centre of a dominion including Pliana- goria, Kepi, IIermonas.sa, and otlier Greek cities on the Asiatic side of tlio strait; and it is said ti» have been governed by what seems to have been an oligarchy — called the Archieanaktidie — for forty! wo years (480-438 B. C.) After them we have u scries of princes standing out individu- ally bv name, and succeeding each other in the same family, [438-284 B. C.]. . . . During the reigns of these princes, a connexion of some intimacy subsisteel between Athens and Bosporus ; a connexion not political, since tlie Bosporanic princes had little interest in tlie contentions about llellenic lugemony — but of private intercourse, commercial exchange lind reciprocal good olllces. The eastern corner of the Tauric Chersonesus, between Pantikapoeum and Theodosia, was well suited for the production of corn; while plenty of fish, as well as salt, was to be had in or near tlie Palus Mieotis. Corn, salted tisli and meat, hides and barbaric slaves in considerable num- bers, were in demand among all Greeks round the ^gean, and not least at Athens, where Scythian slaves were numerous; while oil and 298 IJOHPIKHIUS. nOSTOX. 1680. See Q0TII8, Ac- by the Turks. — FA. D. 50,5-574] tlin hud bei'ii citpturcil wliic, (iml othor prodiictH of more southprn n'KioiiH. wi'H! lU'ci^ptiibli' hi llosporiiH and the other Poiitli- portH. This iiiiporliiiit trullli' HcriiiH t» hiivi' Ik'CII iniiitily "iirricd on in Mliips and hy capital lu'lon^in^ Atlicns and otlicr /KKcaii niaritinic townH and must havo Ih'cii Kri'ntiy under tlii' prolcctiDi) anil rcjridation of till' Athenians, ho lon^ as tlieir luaritiine empire 8ill)sisled. Knterprisiiij? citizens of Athens went to Hosporus (as to Tlirace and tlie Tlinician C'liersonesus), to pusli tiieir fortunes. . . . We have no means of followiiuf [tlie fortunes of the Kosporanie princes] in detail-, l)Ut we know tliat, al)out II century H. ('., tlie tlicii reigninjf prince, I'arisades IV. found himself so pressed and Buuee/.ed hy tlie Scythians, that he wa.s forced {Ukv Oihia and tlie I'entapolis) to forego Ills Independence, and to call in, as auxiliary or muster, tlio formidablt! .Mithridales Kupator of Pontiis; from whom a new dynasty of Rospor- nnlc kings began — subject, Iiowever, after no long interval, to the dominion and interference of I{ome."— O. Qrotc, Ilint. of (Irci-ee, pt. 2, eh. 08. A1.8O IN: T. MomniiM'n, /fist, nf llmiit', hk. 8, eh. 7. — SeeMiTiiitiDATic Waiis, and Ko.mk: U. C. 47-40. Acquisition by the Goths. QUISITION (IF HoSI'lIMIirS. A. D. 565-574.— Capture " During the reign of .Justin ' city of Bosporus, in Tauris, by the Turks, who then occupied a considerable portion of tlie Tauric (Jliersonesus. The city of Cherson alone continued to maintain its inde- pendence in the northern regions of the Black Sea." — Q. Finlttv, Greece uiukr the Romaiui, ch. 4, sect. 8. — See I'uuKs; Sixth Centuky. BOSSISM.— The "Spoils System "In Ameri- can politics [see .Spoil ■, System] (levelo|ied enor- mously the influenc and power of certain leaders and managers of party organizations, in the great cities and some of the states, who acquired the names of " Bosses," while the system of poli- tics which they represented was called "Boss- ism." The notorious William M. Tweed, of the New York " Tainmanv Ring" [see New Youk: A. D. 1803-1871] scenis to have been the Hrst of the species to be dubbed "Boss Tweed" by his " heelers," or followers, and the title passed from him to others of like kind. BOSTON: A. D. 1628-1630.— The first white inhabitant. — The founding and naming^ of the city. See Mass.vciiusetts: A. 1). 1022- 1028, and 1030. A. D. 1631-1651. — The Puritan Theocracy.— Troubles with Roger Williams, Anne Hutch- inson and the Presbyterians. Sen Massachu- setts: A. n. 1031-1030, to 1040-1051. A. D. 1656-1661. — The persecution of Qua- kers. See .Massachusetts: A. D. 1050-1001. A. D. 1657-1669.— The Halfway Covenant and the founding of the Old South Church.— " In Massachusetts after 1050 the opinion rapidly gained ground that all bapti.sed persons of up- right and decorous lives ought to be considered, for pmctical purjioses, as members of the church, and therefore entitled to the exercise of political rights, even though unqualifled for participation in the Lord's Supper. Tills theory of church- membership, based on what was at that time stigmatized as the Halfway Covenant, aroused 20 tntonM opposition. It was the grpttt fiiiestlon of the day. In 1057 a couniil was held In itostoii. which Jipproved the |irincipl<' of the Halfway Covenant; and as this decision was far from satisfvlng the churches, a hvikkI of all the clergy- men fn .Massachusetts was lield live years later, to reconsider the great i|Ueslion. 'I he dei Isioii of the synod substantially eonllrnied the decision of the couiK'il, but thelis we., some <lissentlng voices. Koreniost among the dissenters, who wished to retain the old theocratic regime in all its strictness, was Charles Cliauncey, the presi- dent of Harvard College, and ltiercas(! Alather agreed with him at the time, though he after- ward saw reason to change his opinion and pub- lished two tracts in favour of the Halfway Cov- enant. .Most bitter of all toward the new theory of church-memlK'rslilp was, naturally enough, Mr. Davenport of New Haven. Tbis burning (luestion was the source of angry contentions In the First Church of Boston. Its teachiT, the learned and melancholy Norton, died in 1003, and four years later th<^ aged pastor, .lohn Wil- son, followed him. In clioosing a successor to Wilson th(^ church decided to declare itself in op- position to the liberal decision of the syninl, and in token thereof invited Davenport to come from New Haven to take cliarge of it. Davenport, who was then seventy years old, was disgusted at the recent annexation of his colony to Connec- ticut. He accepted the Invitation and came ti> Boston, against the wLslies of nearly half of the Boston congregation, wlio did not like the illib- eral principle which he represented. In little more than a year his ministry at Boston was ended by death; but the opposition to his call had already proceeded so far that a secession from the old church had become inevitable. In 1001) the advocates of the Halfway Covenant or- ganized themselves into a new society under tin? title of the ' Third Church in Boston. A wooden meeting-liou.se was built on a lot which had once belonged to the hite governor Winthrop, in what was then tlie south part of the town, so that the society and its mec^ting-house became known a.i the South Church ; and after a new church founded in Summer Street in 1717 took tlie name of the New South, the church of 1000 came to bo further distinguished as the Old South. As this church represented a liberal idea which was growing in favour with the people, it soon be- came the most flourishing church in America. After sixty years its nuiiibers had increased so tliat the ol(l lueeting-house could not c<>ntain tlicin; and in 1739 the famous building which still stands was erected on the same spot, — u building \vitli a grander history tliau any other on the American continent, unless it be that other plain brick building in Pliiladclphia where the Declaration of Independence \vas adopted and the Federal Constitution framed." — J. Fiske, Tlie Ikginnings of New Entj., ch. 0. Also in : H. M. Dexter, The Con/jregationaliKin, of the Inxt 300 yean, led. 0.— B. B. AVisncr, Hint, of the Old South Church, sermon 1. — W. Emer- son, Hist. Sketch of the First Ch. in Boston, sect. -King Philip's War. See D. 1074-1075; 1075; 1070- A. D. 1674-1678.- New England: A. 1078. A. D. 1689.— The rising for William and Mary and the downfall of Andros. Sec Massa- chusetts: A. D. 1080-1089. 299 nOSTOV, 1607. BOSTON, 176H. A. D. 1697.— Tbrektened attack by the French, rtrc ('.\NaUA (Nkw Kiianck): A. I). KHf.' ItlKT. A. D. 1704. — The first newspaper, Si-r riiiNTlNa, Ac: A 1). I7l»l-17',MI A. D. 1740-1743.— The origin of Faneuil Hall. Sci> KvNKi II, IIai.i.. A. D. 1761,— The queition of. the Writ* of assistance and Tames Otis's speech. Hi-i- .MA»«\<iiiM-:Trs: .\. I). l7tU. A. D. 1764-1767.— Patriotic self-denials.— Non-importation ag;reement». Sec Cnitki) StaiksokAm, : A. I). I7(ll-I7tl7, A. D. 1765-1767.— The doings under the Lib- erty Tree. Scr l.iiir.HTV 'riiKi;. A, D. 1768. —The seizure of the sloop " Lib- erty. " — Riotous patriotism, — " For hoiiiu yi'urs tlif'ti' oIllctTs [of th(^ <iistc)iiiH| liiiil liccii rc'sistcd in miikiiiK sclziiri's of iiiiciistomccl floods, which wero frciiiicntly ivsi'iii'd from their iHisscHslon by Intcrcstcil imilirH, iind tliu dctcrmiimtion of the coinmissioncrs of ciistonts to bri'iik up thin prac- tice freoucntly led to colli ms; hut 110 tluifriuit outbrc'iik occurred until tiie Hclzure of .fohii Hancock's Hloop ' Mberty ' (.Ii'ie 10, 1708), liiden with It ciirgo of Madi'ira wine. The olllccr in charge, refusiiijj; a bribe, was forclldy locked up In the cabin, tlic K''t'"l<''" P'""' "f t''" TOrgo was removed, and the reinaiiKler entered at the cus- tom-house as the whole cargo. This led to seiz- ure of the vessel, .said to have been the first made by the commissioners, and for security she was placed under the guns of the ' Honniey,' a man- of-war ill the harbor. For this the revenue olfl- cers were roughly handled l)y the mob. Their boat was burned, their houses threatened, and they, with their alarmed families, t(M)k refuge on board the ' Uomney,' and lliially in the Castle. The.se proceeiliiigs undoubtedly led to the send- ing additional military forces to Boston in Sep- tember. Tlie (leneriil Court was in session at the time, but noellcctual proceedings were taken iigain.st the rioters. l'ul)llc svinpathy was with them in their purpo.ses it not In their inea.sures. " — M. Chamberlain, Tho liewlution Inijxndinr/ (Narratitcand Critical Hint, of Am., v. 6, c/i. ij. A. D. 1768.— The quartering of British troops. — "Before news bad reached England of the late riot in Boston, two regiments from Hali- fax had been ordereil thither. When news of that riot arrived, two additional regiments were ordered from Ireland. Tlie arrival of an olHcer, sent by Cage from New York, to provide <iuartfrs for these troops, occasioned a town nieetiag in Boston, by which the governor was reciuested to summon a new General Court, which he peremptorily refused to do. The meeting then recommended a convention of delegates from all the towns in the province to assemble at Boston in ten days; 'in conse(iuence of prevail- ing apprehensions of a war with France' — such was tile pretence — they advised all persons not already provided witli tire-arms to procure them at (mcc; they also appointed a day of fasting and prayer, to be ob.served by all the Congregational societies. Delegates from more than a liundred towns met accordingly at the day appointed {Sept. 23], chose Ciishing, speaker of the late louse, as their chairman, and petitioned Bernard to summon a General CJourt. The governor not only refused tc!* receive their petition, but de- nounced the meeting as treasonable. In view of this charge, the pi-oceediags were exceedingly caiitioiH and mixlemte. All pretcnslnns to rdlitical authority were expressly disclaimed. n the course of a four days' session a pelitinn to the King was agreed to, and a letter to llie agent, l*e llerdt, of wliii'h tlie chief burden was to defend the provliit ' against the charge of a rebellious spirit Sueli was the llrsi of llioso popular conventions, (h'slined within a few yi'irs to assume the whole political aiilhority of lliii I'ol'inles. The day after llii' adjouminent llui troops from Halifax arrive<l. There was room in the barracks at the citstle, but Gage, alariiii'd at the accounts from .Massachusetts, had sent onlers from New York to have the two regiments i|iiartered In th(.' town. Tlw. council were called upon to Ibid (|uarters, but. by the verv terms of the {Quartering .\ct, as they alleged, till the barracks were full there was no necessity to pro- vide (iiiarters elsewhere. Bernard insisted that the barrai^ks hail been reserved forthe two regimenta expected from Ireland, and must, therefore, Iw considered as already full. The council replied, that, even allowing that to be the case, by tho terms of the act, the provision of iiiiarleni belonged not to them, hut to the local magis- trates. There was a large building in Boston belonging to the province, known as the ' Manu- factory House,' and occupied by a number of poor families. Bernard pressed the council to advise that this bivlding be cleared and pre|)ared for tho rocei)tion of the troops; but they utterly refused. The governor then undertook to do ft on his own authority. The troops had already landed, undi'r cover of the ships of war, to thu number of a thousand men. Some of them ap- peared to demand an entrance into the Manu- factory House; but the tenants were encouraged to keep jiossession ; nor did the governor venture to use force. One of the rt^giments encamped on the common ; for a partof the other regiment, which had no tents, the temporary use of Faneuil Hall was reluctantly yielded; to the rest of it, the Town House, useil also as a Slate House, all except the council chamber, was thrown open by the governor's oriler. It was Sunday. Tho 'Town House was directly opposite tho nieeting- hoiise of the First Church. Cannon were planted in front of it; sentinels were stationed in the streets; the inhabitants were challenged as they passed. The devout wero greatly aggravated and annoyed by the beating of drums and tho marching of tlie troops. Presently Gage camo t( yoston to urge the provision of quarters. Tile council directed Ills attention to the terms of the act, and referred him to the selectmc'ii. As the act spoke only of justices of the peace, tho selectmen declined to take any steps in tho matter. Bernard then constituted, wliat ho called a Board of .lusticos, and retpdred them to Iind quarters ; but they did not choose to exerci.se a (loubtful and unpopular authority. Gage was linally obliged to quarter the troops in liouses which he liired for the ptirpose, and to procure out of his own military chest the flring, bedding, and other articles mentioned in the Quartering Act, the council having declined to order any ex- penditure for tliose puriioses, on the ground that the appropriation of money belonged ex- clusively to llie General Court. —U. Ilildreth, Jligt. of the U. S., eh. 29 (n. 3). A1.80IN: U. Prothingham, Life and Tiinen of Joseph Warren, r,h. 0. — T. Hutchinson, lUM. of the Praei nee 0/ Mats. Bay, 1749-1774, fip. 202-217. 300 nrsTox, 1760. BOSTON, 1770. A. D. 1769.— The patriot! threatened and Virginia ipeaking out. Si-c Unitkd Ht.mkh ok Am.; \ 1). ITtH), A. D. 1770, — Soldier* and citizens in col- lision,— Tne " Massacre."— Removal of the troops,— " A.s till' Hpriri); oi' llir year 1770 iii)- tx'iiri'cl, till' I till anil :2U(li ri';;lin<'iils had hi'rii in ioHtoii uliDiit. M'Vrnli'i'ii iiiorithH. The I Itli waH in harruckH near llii' Uralllr Sircil Chiirrh; the ■Jllth was <|inirli'rri| junt sinilh nf Kiiijf Hlrcct; about iniilway lictwi'cii Ihi'iii, in Kin^ HtriTt, ami cliMi' at lianil tu the town-hmiNi', wan tlio inahi K'Hiril, whose niarnrss to the puhlie biiilii- Inj^s liail hrrn a subject of fjreat annoyance I.) tile people. . . . One is forceil toailnill . , . 'hat 11 Hixxl ilej;ri f (li."clpUne was inalnlahieil ; 110 lilooil hail as yet been shell by the soliliers, iilthouuli provoeatlons were eonslant, llie ruili! oloiuenl hi the town xr'^^inj,' >?railually inori? at?- (ifresslvu as Ilii! soldiers were never allowed to use their arms. Insults and blows with lists were freijuently taken and K'ven, uniieudifelsidsitcanif into fa.shion in thi- brawls. Whatever awe the regiments hai' insiiired at their llrst coming had lonj( worn oil'. In particular Ihi^ workmen of the rope-walks and siiip-yards alloweil their lon>{Ues the l:u')j[est license and were foremost in the en- coiniters. About the 1st of .March lights of un- usual bitterne.s.': . had occurretl near tjirey's rope- walk, not far from the (piarters of the 20th, between the Ininils of the lope-walk and soldu^rs <)t that ref^imcnt, which had a particularly bad reputation. 'I'lie soldiers had got the worst of it, and were much irritated. Threats of revenge had been made, which had called out arrogant replies, and signs abounded that serious trouble was not far olf. From an early hour on the evening of the 5th of March the symptoms were very ominous. . , , At length nn altercation be- gan in Iviiig Street betwen a company of lawles.s boys and a few older brawlers on the one side, und the sentinel, who paced his beat before the custom-liouse, on the other. . . , The soldier re- treated up the steps of tlie custom-house and called out for help. A tile of soldiers was at once despatched from the main guard, ucro.ss the street, by Captain Preston, olllcer of the guard, who him- self soon followed to the scene of trouble. A coat- ing of ice covered the ground, upon wliich shortly before had fallen a light snow. A young moon was shining; the whole transaction, therefore, was plainly visible. The soldiers, witli the sentinel, nine in number, drew up in line before the people, who greatly outnumbered them. The pieces were loaded and held ready, but the mob, believ- ing that the troops would not us(! their arms ex- cept upon requisition of a civil magistrate, shouted coarse insults, iircssed upon the very muzzles of the pieces, struck them with stick.s, and assaulted the soldiers with balls of ice. In the tumult precisely wliat was said aud done cannot be known. JIany nllidavits were taken in the investigation that followed, and, asalwa^-s at such times, the testimony was most contnidic- tory. Henry Kno.x, afterwards the artillery gencnd, at this time a bookseller, was on the spot and used his influence with Preston to pre- vent a command to tire. Preston declared that he never gavi; the command. The air, however, was full of shouts, daring the soldiers to Are, some of which may have been easily understood as conunands, and at last the discharge came. If it had failed to come, iuueed, the forbearance Would have been (|uile mImrulniiH. Three wen» killed (lutrlght, and eight were woiin<lei|, only one of whom, Crispus Attucks, a tall niulallo who faced the soldiers, leaning on a stick of conl- wiukI, had really taken aiiv part in the dis- turbance. The rest Were liystaiiderM or were hurrying into the street, not linowing the causo of the tumult. ... A wild confusion . . . tiM>lc possession of the town. The iilarnibellM rang frantically ; on the other hand the drums of Iho regliiu'nts thundered to arms. . . . What averted a fearful battle in the streets was tii(> excellent conduct of Hutchinson" — thelleiitenantgovernor, who miule his way promptly to the seeiu', caused the tr(K)ps to be sent hack to their barriwks, ordered the arrest of Cuptain Preston and tlio nine soldiers who had done the tiring, and began an investigation of thealTair the .same night. Tlio next day a great town meeting was held, aud, as crowds from the surroimdlng towns pres.sed in, it was adjourned from Fancull Hall to the (Md .South Church, and overllowed in the neighborhig streets. A formal ilemand for the removal of the troops was .sent to the governor and council by a coinmiltee which had Sanuu'l Adams at its head. (Jovernor Hutchinson disclaimed authority over the troops; but their commanding olllcer. Colonel l)alrympli>, proposed to compromise by seiidin{{ away the 2l)th regiment and retaiinng the 14th. As the committee! returiuMl to the meeting with this proposal, through the crowd, Adams dropped right and 1 ft the words, "Both regiments or none. "—" He (h regiments or none. " 80 he put into the mi)uJis of the people their reply, which they shouteit as with one voice when the report of the committee was made to them. There was a determination in the cry which overcame even the obstinacy of Oovernor llutchin.son, and the departure of both regiments was ordered that same day. " In Kngland the allair was regarded as a ' successful bully ' of the whole power of the government by the li:''o town, and when Lord North received details >)f these events ho always referred to the Mthand 29th as the ' Ham Adams regiments.'" — J. K. Ilosmer, Samuel Adtiinn, eh. 11. Also in: U. Frothingliam, Life <tud Times of JoKCjih Warren, eh. (t. — The same. The Sam. Adniii* Ili'f/imeii/i < .Ulaiilic Afonthli/, r. 9, 10, ami 13; 1863-63).— J. l Adams, Life of John AdamH, eh. 3 (('. 1). — T. Hutchinson, IIi»t. of the Promnee of Maui, nan, 1749-1774, /)/*. 270-380.— H. Niles, Prin editii Mattacre ineiples and Acts of the Kecolution (Centennial edition), pp. 15-79. — F. Kedder, Hint, of the ISoston A. D. 1770. — The fair trial of the soldiers. — "The episode [of tiie alTray of March 5thJ had ... a seejuel which is extremely creditable to tiie American people. It was determined to try the soldiers for their lives, and public feeling ran so fiercely against them that it seemed as it tlieir fate was sealed. The trial, iiowever, was delayed for seven months, till the excitement liiul in some degree subsided. Captain Preston very judiciously appealed to John Adams, who was rapidly rising to the first place both among the lawyers and the popular patriots of Boston, to undertake liis defence. Adams knew well how much lie was risking by espousing so un- popular a cause, but he knew al.so iiis pro- fessional duty, and, though violently opposed to the British "government, lie was an eminently honest, brave, and Uuraane man. In coujunc- 301 BOSTON, 1770. BOSTON, 1773. tioii with Josiuli Quincy, a young lawyer who w«» also of the ])atii()tic party, he undertook the invidious t^isk, and he diselmrged it witli con- sununate ability. . . . There was abundant evidence that t!ie soldiers had iMidured gross provocation and some violence. If the trial had been the prosecution of a smuggler or a seditious •writer, the jury would probably have decided against evidence, but they had no disposition to shed innocent blood. Judges, counsel, and jurymen acted bravely and honourably. All the soldiers were acquitted, except two, who were found guilty of manslaughter, and who escaped with very slight jiunishmcnt. It is very remarkable that after Adams had accepted the task of defending the incriminated soldiers, he was elected by the people of Boston as their representative in the Assembly, and the public opinion of the province appears to have .fully acquiesced in the verdict. In truth, altliough no people have indulged more largely tlian the Americans in violent, reckless, and unscrupulous language, no people have at every period of their history been more signally free from tlie thirst for blood, which in moments of great political excitement has been often shown both in England and France." — W. E. II. Lecky, UM. of Eitg. ill the Vith Century, ch. 13 (». 3). Also in; J. Adams, Autohionraphy (Works, v. 2, ;). 230). — Lord JIahon (Eurl Stanhope), Ui»t. ofKiig., 1713-1783, r. 5, p. 209. A, D 1773.— The Tea Party. — "News reached Boston in the spring of this year [1773] that the East India Company, which was em- barrassed by the accumulation of tea in England, owing to the refusal of the Americans to buy it, had induced parliament to permit its exportation to America witliout the payment of the usual duty [see United States of Av.: A. D. 1772- 1773]. This was intended to bribe the colonists to buy ; for there had been a duty both in Eng- land and in America. That in England was six pence a pound, that in AiiKnica three pence. Ships were laden and sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, and they were now expected to arrive in a short time. ... On the 28th of November, 1773, which was Sunday, tlie first tea-siiip (the ' Dartmoutli ') entered the harbor [of Boston]. The following morning the citizens were informed by placard that the ' worst o ' "^'agues, the iletested ten, ' had actually arrived, a that a meeting was to be held at nine in iie morning, at Faneuil Hall, for the purpose of making 'a united and successful resistance to this last, woret, and most destruc- tive measure of administration.' Tlie Cradle of Liberty was not large enough to contain the crowd that was called together. Adams rose and made n stirring motion expressing doter- minntion that the tea should not be landed, and it was unanimously agreed to. The meeting then adjourned to the Old South meeting-house, where the motion was repeated, and again adopted without an opposing voice. The owner of the sliip protested in vain that the proceed- ings were illegal ; a watch of tweuty-flve pei-sons was set, to sec that the intentions of the citizens were not evaded, and the meeting adjourned to the following morning. The throng at that time was as great as usual, and while the deliber- ations were going on, a message was received from the governor, through the sheriff, ordering them to cease their proceedings. It was voted not to follow the advice, ant' the sherilT wa» hissed and obliged to retreat discomfited. It was formally resolved that any person importing tea from Enghind should be deemed an enemy t 1 his eountrv, and it was declared that at the risk of their lives ind properties the landing of the tea should be prevented, and its return effected. It was necessary that some positive action should be taken in regard to tlie tea within twenty days from its arrival, or the collector of customs would confiscate ships and cargoes. . . . Tlie twenty days would expire on the lOtli of December. On the fourteenth a crowded meet- ' ing was held at the Old South, and the importer was enjoined to apply for a clearance to allow his vessel to return with its cargo. He applied, but the collector refused to give an answer until the following day. Tlie meeting therefore- adjourned to the ICtli, the last day before confis- cation would be legal, and before the tea would be placed under protection of the ships of war in the harbor. There was another early morning meeting, and 7,000 people thronged uliout the meeting-house, all filled with a sense of the fact that something notable was to occur. The importer appearetl and reported that the- collector refused a clearance. He was then directed to ask the governor for a pass to enable him to sail by tlie Castle. Hutchinson had retieated to his mansion at Milton, and it would take some time to make the demand. The importer started out in the cold of a New Eng- land winter, apologized to his Excellency for his visit, but assured him that it was involuntary. He received a reply that no pass could be given him. ... It was six o'clock before the importer returned, and a few candles wore brought in to relieve the fast-increasing darkness. He reported the governor's reply, and Samuel Adams rose and exclaimed: 'This meeting can do nothing more to save the country ! ' In an instant there was a shout on the ixjrch; there was a war-whoop in response, and forty or fifty of the men disguised as Indians rushed out of the doors, down Milk Street towards Griffin's (afterwards Liverpool) Wharf, where tiie vessels lay. The meeting was declared dissolved, and the throng followed their leaders, forming a determined giuinl about the wharf. The 'Mohawks' entered the vessel; there was tugging at the ropes; tliere was break- ing of light boxes; there was pouringof precious tea into the watere of the harbor. For two or three hours the work went on, and three hun- dred and forty-two chests were emptied. Then, under the light of the moon, the Indians marched to the sound of fife and drum to their homes, and the vast throng melted away, until not a man remained to tell of the deed. The committee of corresixmdence held a meeting next day, and Samuel Adams and four others were appointed to propare an account of the affair to be posted to other places. Paul Revere, who is said to have been one of the ' Mohawks, ' was sent express to Philadelphia with the news, which was received at that place on the 26tli. It was announced by ringing of bells, and there was every sign of joy. . . . The continent was uni- vei-sidly stirred at last "—A. Gilman, 27/« Story of Boston, oil. 23. Also in : E. G. Porter, The Beginning of the Bcmlution (Memorial Hist, of Boston, v. 3, ^i. 1). — B. J. Lossing, FVeld Book of tlis Revolution, v. 1, ch. 21,— T. Ilutchiason, Hist, of tlie Provitice of 302 BOSTON, 1773. BOSTON, 1774. MdM. lirt!/, 1740-1774, pp. 429-440.— Same, Dinn/ and letters, p. 138.— O. Bancroft, JIi«t. of the U. S. (Author HlaHtrennion), c. 3, ch. 34. — J. Kim- ball The l()0</t Aiinirvrmtry of the Destruction, of Tea (Km'.r Lint. Ilixt. Coll. , v. 12, w>. 8). A. D. 1774.— The Port Bill and the Massa- chusetts Act.— Commerce interdicted. — Town Meetings forbidden. Sou Uniteo States of A.M. : A. D. 1774 (.M.vucii— AriiiL). A. n. 1774.— The enforcement of the Port Bill and its effects.- -Military occupation of the city ty General Gage. — "The execution of tliis nu'iisure[tlie Port Bill) devolved on Tliomas Gage, wlio arrived at Boston May 13, 1774, as Captain General and Governor of Jlassachiisetts. Ho was not u stranger in tlic colonies. He had ex- hibited gallantry in Braddock's defeat. . . . He liad married in one of the most respectable fami- lies in New York, and liad partaken of tlio lios- pitalities of tlie people of Boston. His manners were pleasing. Hence ho entered upon his pub- lic duties with a large measure ot pojiularity. But he took a narrow view of men and things about liim. . . . General Gage, on the 17th of May, landed at the Long Wharf and was received with much parade. ... On the first day of June the act went into effect. It met with no opposi- tion from the people, and hence, there was no dilHculty in carrying it into rigorous execution. 'Ihear from many,'tlie governor writes, 'that the act has staggered the most presumptuous; the violent party men seem to break, an<l people to fall off from them.' Hence he looked for sub- mission ; Jjut Boston asked assistanf-e from other colonies, and the General Court requested him to appoint a day of fasting and prayer. The loyal- ists felt uneasy at the ab.sencc of the army. . . . Hence a respectable force was soon concentrated in Boston. On the 4tli of June, the 4th or king's own regiment, and on the l.'ith the43tl regiment, landed at the Long Wharf and enciimped on the common." The 5th and 38th regiments arrived on the 4th and 5tli of July ; th'> 59th regiment was landed at Salem August 6, and additional troops were ordered from New York, the Jerseys and Quebec. ' ' The Boston Port Bill went into operation amid tlie tolling of bells, fasting and prayer. ... It bore severely upon t^so towns, Boston ami Charlestown, which had been long connected by a common iiatriotism. Tlieir laborera were thrown out of employment, their poor were deprived of bread, and gloom pervaded their streets. But they were clieered and ST. stained by the large contributions sent froni every quarter for their relief, and by the noble words that accompanied them The ex- citement of the public mind was intense; and the months of June, July, and August, were characterized by varied political activity. Mul- titudes signed a solemn league and covenant against the use of British goods. The breach between the whigs and loyalists daily became wider. Patriotic donations from every colony were on their way tc the suffering towns. Supplies for the British troops were refused. ... It was while llie public inind was in this state of excitement tliat other acts arrived which General Gage was instructed to cayry into effect. " These were the acts which virtually annulled the Massachusetts charter, wliich forbade town meetings, and which provided for the sending of accused persons to England or to other colonies for trial. " Should Massachusetts submit to the new acts ? Wo\ild the other colonies see, with- out increaseil alarm, the humiliation of Jlassa- chusetts V Tliis wus the turning-point of the Revolution. It did not find the patriots iinjire- pared. They had an organization beyond tho reach alike of proclamations from the governors, or of circulars from tlie mini.s'ry. This was the Conunittees of Corres|)ondence, chosen in most of the towns in legal town-meetings, or by he vari- ous colonial assemblies, and extending through- out the colonies. . . . The crisis called for '.il the wisdom of these committees. A remarkable circular from Boston addressed to the towns(July, 1774), dwelt upon the duty of opposing tlie new laws; the towns, in their answei's, were bold, spirited, and tirm and echoed the necc ' v of resistance. Norwastliisall. Tlie people pnm.,;tly thwarted the first attempts to exercise authority tinder them. Such councillors as accepted their appointments were compelled to resign, or, to avoid compulsion, retired into Boston.' General Gage now began (in September) inovemeiits to secure the cannon and powder in the neighbor- hood. Some 250 barrels of powder belonging to the province were stealthily removed by his orders from a magazine at Charlestown and two field-pieces were carried away from Cambridge. " The report of this affair, spreading ra])idlj', ex- cited great indignation. The people collected in large numbers, and many were in favor of at- tempting to ivcai)tiire the powder and cannon. Inlluential patriots, however, succeeded in turning their attention in another direction. . . . Mean- time the fact of the removal of the powder be- came magnified into a report that the British had cannonaded Boston, wlien the bells rang, beacon- fires blazed on tho hills, the neighbor colonics were alarmed, and the roads were filled with armed men hastening to the point of supposed danger. Tlieso demonstrations opened the eyes of the governor to tlie extent of tlio popular movement. . . . General Gage saw no hope of ])rocuring obedience but by the power of arms; and the patriot party saw no safety in anything short of military preparation. Resistance to the a(;ts continued to be manifested in every form. On the 9th of September the memorable Suffolk resolves [drawn by Joseph Warren] were adopted [by a con'. ^ ition of Suffolk county, which em- braced Boston] . . . and these were succeeded by others in other counties equally bold and spirited. These resolves were approve(' by the Continental Congress, then in session. Every- wlioro the people either compelled the unconsti- tutional ofHcers to resign, or opposed every at- tempt to exercise authority, whether by tho governor or constable. They also made every effort to transport ammunition and stores to places of security. Cannon and muskets we-o carried secretly out of Boston. The guns were taken from an old battery at Charlestown, where tho navy yard is, . . . silently, at night. . . . Gen- eral Gage immediately began to fortify Boston Neck. This added intensity to the excitement. The inhabitants became alarmed at so ominous a movement; and, on the 5th of September, the selectmen waited on the general, represented the public feeling, and requested him to explain his object. The governor stated in reply that his object was to protect his majesty's troops and his majesty's subjects; and tliat he had no inten- tion to stop up tlie avenue, or to obstruct the free passage over it, or to do anything hostile 303 BOSTON, 1774. B0URGE8. iigninst the inliabitnnta. He went on with the works mill soim mounted on them two twenty- four pounders luid eiglit nine jjouuders." — K. Frotliingluun, Hint, of the Sk'jc of liontun, eh. 1. Al.fM) in: The siinie. Life and I'imeit of Joneph Wm-ivii, cJi. 11, aiul app. 1 (rjimiig tcH of the Suf- folk lUsolr<cK).—\\ . V. AVu'ls, Life of Sdiiuwl 'Aitamit. V. 3, pp. 104-282.— W. Tudor, Life of JamfH OtiH. ch. 37-29. A. D. 1775.— The beginning of war.— Lex- ington. — Concord. — The British troops be- leaguered in the city.— Battle of Bunker Hill. See L'.MTKl) Statks ok Am. ; A. O. \TiTt. A. D. 1775-1776.— The siege directed by Washingfton.— Evacuation of the city by the British. See United States of A.m. : A. U. 1775-1776. BOSWORTH, Battle of (A. D. 1485), Sec ENdLANP: A. I). 148a-liar). B01ANY BAY. See AusTiiALlA: A. D. lOOl-lHOO. BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Battle of. See Scotland: A. 1). 107!) (.June). BOTOCUDOS, The. See American Auohi- GINE8: Tui'i. BOUCHAIIf, Marlborough's capture of (1711). Sec Netiieulands: A. I). 1710-1713. BOUIDES, The. See JIaiio.metan Con- quest and E.mimue: A. I). 815-045; also, Tuuks (Tub Seuiuks): A. D. 1004-1063; also, Saman- IDES. BOULANGER, General, The intrigues of. See Fuance: A. D. 1875-1889. BOULE, The.— The Council of Chiefs in Homeric Greece. — Q. Grote, Hint of Greece, ch. 20. — See, also. Aueopagus. BOULOGNE : Origin. See Gesouiacum. A. D. 1801. — Bonaparte's preparations for the invasion of England. — Nelson's attack. See Fuance: A. D. 1801-1802. BOULON, Battle of. See France: A. D. 179:$ (.July— Oece.mueh). BOUQUET'S EXPEDITION. See Pon- tiac's WTmi. BOURBON, The Constable: His treason and his attack on Rome. See France : A. D. 1530-1.53;!, 152:5-1535, 1525-1526; and Italy: A. D. 1.523-1527, 1527. BOURBON : Origin of the name. See BoiANs; also Udme: B. C. 390-347. BOURBON, The House of: Its origin.— From King Louis IX. (St. Louis), of France, "tlirough his last male ehild, Robert de France, Comtc (ie Clermont, sprang the House of Bour- bon. An ancient barouy, the inheritance of Beatrix, wife of this prince, was erected into a dukedom in favour of Louis, his son, and gave to his descendants the name which they have re- tained, tliat of France being reserved for the Uoyal branch. . . . The House which had the honour of siipplying sovereigns to our country was called ' I ranee. ' But our Icings, jealous of that great name, reserved it for their own sons and grandsons. Hence the designation ' Ills ' and ' petit-lite dc France. ' The posterity of eacli ' tils de France ' formed a cadet branch which took it.s name from the title borne by its lioatl, Valois, Artois, Bourbon, &c. At the time of tlie acces- sion of Henry IV. the name of Bourbon remained with those younger branches of Conde and Mont- pcnsicr, wliich had sprung from the main branch before the death of Henry III. But Henry IV, 's children, those of Louis XIII., and those of vlieir succe-s-soi-s in the throne, were surnamed ' do France'; whilst in conformity with the law the descendants of Louis XIII. 's second sou recitived XW surname d' Orleans, from the tille borne by their grandfather. . . . Possessora of vast terri- tories wliich tliey [the Bourbons] owed more to family alliances than to the generosity of kings, llii^j' had known how to win the alTectiou of their vassals. Their maguiflccnt hospitality drew around them a numerous and brilliant nobility. Tims the ' hotel ' of those brave ami august princes, the "gracieux dues de Bourbon,' as our ancient poet called them, was considered the best school in wliieli a young nobleman could learn the profession of arms. The order of the Ecu, instituted by one of them, had been coveted aiul worn by the bravest warriors of France. Suf- ticicntly powerful to outshine the rank and tile of the nobility, they had at the same time neither the liii'ge estates nor the iniinense power which enabled the Dukes of Bourgogne, of Bretagne, and other great vassals, to become the rivals or the enemies of the royal authority." The ex- ample of the treason of tlie Constable Bourbon [seeFuANCE: A. I). 1520-1533] " was not followed by any of the princes of his House. . . . Tho property of the Conuetjible was definitely alien- ated from his House, ami Vendonie [his brother] did not receive the hereditary possessions of the Dukes d' Alen(;on, to which his wife was entitled. He died on the 25th of Slarch, 1538, leaving but a scanty patrimony to his numerous descendants. . . . Five only of his sous obtained tlieir majority. . . . Two of the.se princes founded families: Antoino [Due de Vendomc and afterwards King of Navarre through his marriage with Jeanne d' Albret, see Navauue: A. D. 1528-1.503], father of Henry IV., who was the ancestor of all the Bourbons now living, and Louis [Prince dc Conde, born 15301, who was the root of tlie House of Conde and all its branches." — Due d' Auinale, Hist, of tlie Princes of the House of Conde, bk. 1, ch. 1, and foot-note.— '^QC, also, Fuance: A. D. 1327. BOURBON: The Spanish House. Seo Spain: A. D. 1098-1700, and 1701-1702. BOURBON FAMILY COMPACT, The First. See Fuance: A. D. 1733 The Second. See France: A. D. 1743 (October). ....The Third. See France: A. D. 1761 (Auoust). BOURGEOIS.— BOURG.— In France, "tlio word Bourg originally meant any aggregation of houses, from the greatest city to the smallest liamlet. But . . . tlie word shifted its meaning, and came to signiiy an assemblage of housed surrounded' with walls. Secondlj', the word Bourgeois also was at (ii-st used as synonymous with the inhabitant of a bourg. Afterward, when corporate franchises were bestowed on par- ticular bourgs, the word acquired a sense corre- sponding with that of the English designation Burgess; that is a person entitled to the privi- leges of a municipal corporation. Finally, tho word Bourgeoisie, in its primitive sense, was tho description of the burgesses when spoken of collectively. But, in its later use, the word would be best rendered into English by our term citizensliip ; tliat is, the privilege or franchise of Ixiing a burgess. " — Sir J. Stephen, Lects. on tlie Hist, of France, lect. 5. BOURGES, Origin of.— The city of Bourges, France, was originally the capital city of the 304 B0URGE8. BOYS IN BLUE. QnlHo tribe of tlio Tlitungca, find was called Avarictiiin. "As with many other Gaulish towns, the original name heeanit exelianged for that of the pcoijlo, i. e. , Uituriges, and thence the modern Hourges and the name of the province, Berri." — C. Jlerivale, Hixt. of the Jltiiiiinin, ch. 13,— See, also, .EDtir, and G.ui,: H. C. 58-r.l. BOUVINES, Battle of (A. D. 1214).— The battle of Hoiivines, fought at Boiivincs, in Flan- ders, not far from Tournay, on the 27th of August, A. I). 1314, was one of the important battles of Euroi)eaii history. On one side were the French, led by tlieir king Philip Augustus, and lighting ostensibly as the champions of the Pope and the church. ' On the other side was an allied army of English, under king John, of Germans, under Otho, the Gu(;lf — one of two rival claimants of the imperial crown — and of Flemings and Lotharingians, le<l by their several lords. Philip Augustus had exiielled the English king from Ills Norman didiedom and causeil a court of the peers of France to declare the title forfeit. From that success his ambition rose so high that ho Inid aspired to the conquest of the English crown. A terrible pope — Innocent III. — had approved his ambition and encouraged it; for John, the miserable English king, had given pro- vocations to the church which had brought the thunders of the Vatican upon his head. Excom- municated, himself, his kingdom wider interdict, — the latter offered itself a tempting prey to the vigorous French king, who posed as the champion of the pope. lie had prepared a strong army and a fleet for the invasion of England ; but fate and papal diplomacy had battled his schemes. At the last moment, John had made a base submission, had meekly surrendered his kingdom to the pope and had received it back as a papal flcf. Whereupon the victorious pope commanded his French champion to forego his intended attack. Philip, under these circumstances, determined to use the army he had assembled against a trouble- some and contumacious vassal, the count of Flanders. The pope approved, and Flanders was overrun. King Jolui led an English force across the channel to the help of the Flemish count, and Otho, the Gcimnn king or emperor, who was king Jolm's nephew, joined the coali- tion, to antagonize France and the pope. The battle of Bouviues was tlie decisive conflict of the war. It luunbled, for the time, the independent spirit of Flander.s, and several remoter conse- quences can be traced to it. It was "tbelirst real French victory. It roused the national spirit as nothing else could have roused it ; it was the nation's lii'st taste of glory, dear above all things to the French heart. . . . The battle si newhat broke the high spirit of the barons: the lesser barons and churches grouped themselves round the king; the greater lords came to feel their weakness in the presence of royalty. Among the incidental consequences of the day of Bouvines was the ruin of Otho's ambition. Ho fled from the field into utter obscurity. He retired to the Ilartz moimtains, and there spent the remaining, years of his life in private. King John, too, was utterly discredited by his share in the year's campaign. To it may partly be traced liis humiliation before his barons, and the signing of the Great Charter in the following year at RuiHiymede." — G. W. Kltchin, Hul. of France, bk. 'A, ch. 7, sect. 4. — "The battle of Bouviues was not the victory of Philip Augustus aloue, over a coalition of foreign princes; the victory was the work of king and people, barons, burghers, and peasants, of lie <le Fiiince, of Orleanness, of Picardy, of Normandy, of Champagne, and of Burginidy. . . . The victory of Houvinesmarked the commencement of the time at which men ndght speak, and indeed did speak, by one single name, of 'the French.' The nation in France and the kingship in France on that day rose out of and abwo the fctidal system." — F. P. Gui/.ot, I'opuliir likt. of France, ch. 18. — See, also, Iialy: A. I). 1183-13.j(), and England: A. 1). 130.5-1313, and 131.5. BOVATE, OR OXGANG.— "Originally as much as an ox-teain cotdd plough in a year. Eight Boviites are usually .said to have made a Carucate, but the number of acres which made a Bovate are vaiiously slated in different records from 8 to 34." — N. H. Nicolas, Nutitm llintorica, V. 134. BOVIANUM, Battle of (B. C. 88). Sec Ro.mk: H. C. 90-88. BOWIDES, The. See JLuiometan Con- QUKST AND E-MPiuu: A. D. 815-945; also, Sa- MANIDES; also, TuiiKS (Seijuks): A. D. 1004- 1003. BCVACA, Battle of (1819). See Colombian States: A. U. 1810-1819. BOYARS. — "In the old times, when Russia was merely a collection of independent prin- cipalities, each reigning prince was surrounded by a group of armed men, composed partly of Boyars, or large landed proprietors, and partly of knights, or soltliers of fortune. These men, who formed the Noblesse of the time, were to a cer- tain extent under the authority of the Prince, but they were by no means mere obedient, silent executors of his will. The Boyars might refuse to take part in his military expeditions. . . . Under the Tartar domination this political equi- librium was destroyed. When the country had been conquered, the jirinces became servile vas- sals of the Khan, and arbitrary rulers towards their own subjects. The politi".d significance of the nobles was thereby greatly diminished." — D. M. Wallace, Ibmia, ch. 17. BOYNE, Battle of the (1690). See Ireland: A. D. 1089-1 091. BOYS IN BLUE.— BOYS IN GRAY.— Soldier nicknames of the American Civil War. — "During the first year of the war [of the Rebel- lion, in the United States] the Union sokliers commonly called their opponents ' Rebs ' and 'Secesh'; in 1863, 'Confeils'; in 1803, ' Gray- backs' and 'Butternuts'; and in 1864, 'Johnnies.' The nickname 'Butternuts' was given the C(m- federates on account of their homespun clothes, dyed reddish-brown with a dye made of butternut bark. The last name, 'Johnnies,' is said to have originated in a quarrel between two ])ickets, which began by the Union man's saying that the Confederates depended on England to get them out of their scrape. . . . The Union man . . . said that a 'Reb' was no better than a Johnny Bull, anyhow. . . . The name stuck, ami in the last part of the war the Confederate soldiers were almost univei-sally called 'Johnnies.' Throughout the war the Confederates dubbed all the Union soldiei-s 'Yankees' and 'Yanks,' without any reference to the part of the country they came from. . . . Other nicknames for Union soldiers, occasionally use<l, were 'Feds,' ' Blue Birds ' and ' Blue Bellies. ' Since the war 305 nOYS IN BLUE. BRANDENBURG, 1142-1153. the opponents have been commonly cftUed ' Boys in Bhi(! ' and ' Boys in Gray.'" — .1. 1). Cliump- llu, Jr., You ii'j Folks' IliHtury of tlie War for tlie Union, p. 137. BOZRA. See Gautiiaoe : Divisions, &c. BOZZARIS, Marco, The death of. See GuKKCi:: A. D. 1821-1829. BRABANT : Mythical Explanation of the name. Sue Antwkiu'. 4th centunr. — First settlement of the Franks. See Toxanduia. 9th century. — Known as Basse Lorraine, See LouuAt.Ni:: A. 1). 84;i-HT0. A. D. 1096-1099.— Duke Godfrey de Bouillon in the First Crusade, and his king^dom of Jerusalem. See Ciiusadks: A. D. 10<J0-1099; and Jkuusalkm: A. I). 1099-1144. 12th to 15th centuries. — The county and duchy. — From tlie beginning of the 12th century, the county, afterwards the ducliy, of Brabant, existed under its own counts and dulces, until the beginning of the loth century, wlien it drifted under the influences which at tliat time were drawing all the Netherland States within the sphere of the sovereignty of the Burguudian dukes. A. D. 1430. — Acquisition by the House of Burgundy. See Netiieklands: A. D. 1428- 1430. * BRACCATI, The. See Rome: B. C. 27.5. BRACHYCEPHALIC MEN. See Doli- CnOCEPIIAI.IC. BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT. See Ohio (Valley): A. D. 175,5. BRADFORD, Governor, and the Plymouth Colony. See JIassaciiusetts: A. D. 1621, and after. BRADFORD'S PRESS. See Puintino, &c. : A. D. 1535-1709, 1704-1729, and Pennsyl- vania: A. D. 1692-1096. BRAGANZA, The House of: A. D. 1640.— Accession to the throne of Portugal. See Poutugal: a. 1). 1637-1608. BRAGG, General Braxton. — Invasion of Kentucky. See United States of A.m. : A. D. 1862 (.Tune — Octoueii: Tennessee — Ken- tucky) The Battle of Stone River. See United States of Am.: A. D. 1862-1863 (Decemher — Janjauy: Tennessee) The Tullahoma Campaign. See United States of Am.: a. D. 1863 (June— July: Tennessee). Chickamauga. — The Chattanooga Cam- paign. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1863 (Atjoust — SEPTE.MBE11, and Octobeu — Novem- bek: Tennessee). BRAHMANISM. See India: The immigua- TION AND CONQUESTS OP THE AuYAS. BRAHMANS. See Caste system of India. — Also, India: The Abouiginal inhaiht.\nts. BRANCHIDiE, The. See Oii.\cles op the Greeks. BRANDENBURG: A. D. 928-1142.— Be- f;innings of the Margravatr. — "A. D. 928, Icinr}' the Fowler, marcliing iic'ss the frozen bogs, took Brannibor, a cliieL fortress of the Wends; first mention in human siieech of the place now called Brandenburg; Bor or 'Burg of the Brenns ' (if there ever was any Tribe of Brenns, — Brennus, there as elsewhere, being name for King or Leader) ; ' Burg of the SVoods,' say others, — wlio as little know. Probably, at that time, tt town of clay huts, with ditch and palisaded swl-wall round it ; certainly ' a chief fortress of tlie Wends,' — who must have been a good deal surprised at siglit of Henry on the rimy winter morning near a tliousand years ago. . . . That Henry ajipointed due Wardensliip in Brannibor was in the common coui-se. Sure enougli, some Markgiiif must take charge of Brannibor, — he of the Lausitz eastward, lor e.\ami)le, or he of Salzvvedel westward; — that Brannibor, in time, will itself be found tlie fit place, and have its own Markgraf of Brandenburg ; this, and what in Mie ue.xt nluo centuries Brandenburg will grow to, Henry is far from surmising. ... In old books are lists of the primitive Markgraves of Brandenburg, from Henry's time downward; two sets, 'Jlarkgraves of the Witekind race,' and of another: but they are altogether uncer- tain, a shadowy intermittent set of Markgraves, both the Witekind set and the Non- Witekind; and truly, for a couple of centuries, seem none of t'.iem to have been other than subaltern Depu- ties, belonging mostly to Lausitz or Salzwedel; of whom therefore we can say nothing here, but must leave the first two himdrcd years in their natural gray state, — pchaps sufHeiently con- ceivable by the reader. . . . The Ditmarsch- Stade kindred, much slain in battle witli the Heathen, and otherwise beaten upon, died out, about the year 1130 (earlier psrliaps, perhaps later, for all is shadowy still) ; and were succeeded in tlio Salzwedel part of their function by a kin- dred called 'of Ascanien and BallenstiUlt'; the Aseaiiier or Anlialt Jlargraves; whose History, and that of Brandenburg, becomes henceforth articulate to us. . . . This i^scanien, happily, has nothing to do with Brute of Troy or the I)ious JSneas's son; it is simply the name of a most ancient Castle (etymology unknown to me, ruins still dimly traceable) on the north slope of the Hartz Mountains; sliort way from Aschere- ieben,-the Castle and Town of Aschersleben are, so tc> speak, a second edition of Ascanien. . . . Tilt kindred, called Grafs and ultimately Ilerzogs (Dukes) of 'Ascanien and Ballcnstildt,' are very famous in old German History, espe- cially down from this date. Some reckon that they had intermittently been Markgrafs, in their regi<m, long before this ; which is conceiv- able enough ; at all events it is very plain they did now attain the Office in Salzwedel (straight- way shifting it to Brandenburg); and held it continuously, it and much else that lay adjacent, for centuries, in a highly conspicuous manner. In Brandenburg they lasted for about two- hundred years." — T. Carlyle, Frederick tlie Oreat, bk. 3, ch. Z-i. A. D. 1142-1152.— The Electorate.— "He they call 'Albert the Bear (Albrccht der Bilr),' first of the Ascanien ]\I-irkgnives of Branden- burg ; — first wholly definite JIarkgravo of Bran- denburg tliat there is ; once a very shining figure in the world, though now fallen dim enough again, . . . got the Northern jiart of what is still called Saxony, and kept it in his family; got the Brandenburg Countries withal, got the Lausitz ; was the shining figure and great man of the North in liis d.ay. 'fhc Mfvrkgrafdom of Salzwedel (which soon became of Brandenburg) lie very naturally acijuired (A. D. 1142 or earlier); very naturally, considering what Saxon and other honours and po.ssessious he had already got hold of. We can only say, it was the luckiest of events for Bmudcnburg, and the beginning of all 306 BRANDENDURO, 1143-1152. IJUANDEXBURQ, 1108-1417. the better dcstiules it has hud. A oonspicuous Country ever since in tlie world, and whieh grows ever more so in our late times. . . . He trans- ferred the Markgrafdoni to Rrandenlmrg, proba- bly as more central in his wide lan<ls; Salzwedel is henceforth the led Markgrafdom or ^larck, and soon falls out of notice in the world. Salz- wedel i.s called henceforth ever since the 'Old Marck (Alte Marck, Altmarck)'; the Branden- burg countries getting the name of ' New Marck.' . . . Under Albert tin; Markgrafd(jni had risen to be an Electorate withal. The Jfarkgraf of Brandenburg was now furthermore the Ivurf llrst of Brandenburg; oflicially ' Arch-treasurer of the Holy Roman Empire': and one of the Seven who have a right (which became about this time an exclusive (me for those Seven) to choose, to 'kicren' the Romish Kai-ser; and wlio are there- fore called • Kur-Princes,' Kurfllrste or Electors, as the highest dignity except the Kaiser's own. " — T. C'arlylc, Frederick the Great, bk. 2, eh. 4.— See, also, Geum.vny: A. I). 1125-1152. A. D. 1168-1417. — Under the Ascanian, the Bavarian and the Luxemburg lines, to the first of the Hohenzollern. — Albert the Hear was succeeded in 1108 by his son Otlio. "In 1170, as it would appear, the name of Brandenburg was substituted for that of North Mark, whicli iiad cciised to describe more thiUi the original nucleus of the colony, now one of the several districts into which it was divided. The city and territory of Brandenburg were not probably included in the imperial grant, but were in- herited from the AVeudish i>rince, Pribislaw, whom Albert had converted to Christianity. . . . Under (^tlio II., brother of the preceding, the family inheritance was sorely mismanaged. The Margrave becoming involved in .some (piarrel with the See of Magdeburg, the Arehbishoi) placed him under the ban; and as the price of release Otho was required to accept the Suzerainty of the prelate for the older ami better part of his doiuinious. His brother and suc- cessor, Albert II., was also unfortunate in the beginning of his career; but recovered the favor of the Eiuiieror, and restored the prestige of his house before his death. . . . Very important accpusitions were made during the reign of these two princes. The preoccupations of the King of Denmark gave them a secure foothold in Pomerauia, wliich the native nobility acknowl- edged; the frontiers were pushed eastward to the Oder, where the New jfark was organized, and the town of Frankfort was laid out; pur- chase put them in possession of the district of Lebus; and the l)ride of Otho III., a Bohemian jirincess, brought him as her dowry an extensive region on the L'pper Spree with several thriving villages — all this in spite of the <livision of power and authority. . . . Otho III. died in 1207, .lohn one year later; and a new partition of tlio estate was made between their several sons, the oldest, Otho IV., receiving, however, the title and prerogatives of head of the house." The last margnive of the A.scanian lino, Walde- mar, died in iiiiO. "His cousin and only heir, Henry, was a minor, and survived him but a year." Then "a host of claimants arose for the whole or parts of the JIark. Tlie estates showeil at lirst a gallant devotion to tlie widow, and in- trusted the reins of authority to her; but she repaid this tidelity i)y hastily espousing the Duke of Brunswick, and transferring her rights to him. The transiiction was not, however, ratitied by the estates, and the Duke failed to enforce it by arms, Pomerauia threw olf the yoke which it had once unwillingly accepted; Bohemia reclaimed the wedding portion of Otho's bride ; the Duke of Lleguitz sought to re- cover Lebus, although it had once been regtilarly sold; and in the general scramble the Church, through its local representatives, fought with all the energy of mere worldly robbers. But in this crisis the Emperor forgot neither the duties of his station nor the interests of his house. Louis II. of Bavaria tlien wore the purple. By feudal law a vacant lief reverted to its suzerain. . . . It was not therefore contrary to law, n<n'(Hd it shock the moral sense of the age, when Louis drew the JIark practically into his own pos.ses- siou I)y conferring it nomnially upon his nnnor son. . . . During the minority of Louis the Mar- grave, the province was administered by Louis the Emperor, and with some show of vigor." But troubles .so thickened about the Emperor, in his conrtict witli the House of Austria, on the one hand, andwitli the Pope on the other [see GiiiiMANY: A. D. 1314-13471, that lie could not continue the protccticm of his son. The Mark of Brandenburg was invaded by the King of Poland, and its Alargrave " watched the devasta- tion in helpless dismay." The people defended themselves. "The young city of Frankfort was the leader in the tardy but successful uprising. The Poles were expelled; the citizens had for the time saved tlie Mark. . . . The Margrave linally wearied even of the forms of authority, and sold his unhappy dominions to his two brotliers, another Louis and Otho. In the mean- time his father had died. The Electors — or live of them — had alreiuly deposed him and chosen in his place Charles of Moravia, a prince of the house of Luxemburg, as his successor. He be- came respectably au(l even creditably known in history as Charles IV. . . . Although he failed in the attempt to subdue by arms the Margrave of Brandenburg, who had naturally espoused his father's cause, he was persistent and in- genious ir. diplomatic schemes for overthrowing the House of Bavaria and bringing the Mark under liis own sceptre. . . . From Louis he pro- cured ... a treaty of succession, by whicli he should acquire Brandenburg in case of the deatli of that JIargrave and his brother Otho without hell's. His intrigues were finally crowned with ''onipleto success. Louis died suddenly in 1305. Otho, thenceforth alone in the charge, vacillated between weak submission to the Emperor's will, and spurts of petulant but feeble resistance; until Charles put an end to the farce by invading the JIark, crushing the army of the Margrave, and forcing him to an aliject capitulation. In 1371, after a nominal rule of half a century, and for the price of a meagre annuity, the Bavarian line transferred all its rights to the family of Charles IV." Charles died in 1378. His s<m Wenzel, " for whom the JIark had been destined in the plans of Charles, aciiuired, meanwhile, the crown of Bohemia a richer prize, and Brandeuburg passed to t le next son, Siglsmond. The change was a disastrous one." Sigismond pawned tlie Mark to his kinsman, Jobst, of Moravia, and it fell into great ilisorder. "Im- lierial altairs during this period were in scarcely less confusion. AVenzel of Bohemia had been chosen emperor, and then deposed for obvious 307 BUANDENBUHQ, 1168-1417. BRANDENBUUQ, 1640-1688. unfltnp.s.s. Kupcrt, Count Palatini', lind next lii'cii elected, anil liail died. ARiiin llie post was vacant, and Sigisniond, still the real Elector of Hrandenburj;, . . . Issued successfully from the <'ontest. His jroo<l fortune was due' in a con- spicuous degree to the influence and the money of Frederic, Bur),'grave of Nuremberg [see HoiiiCNZoi.i.KKN, liisK OF THE IIoiisK OFJ; and It Is to the credit of Slglsmond tliat lie did not add ingratitude to his otiier vices, but on his election as emperor hastened [1411] to make his l)atron statlhalter, or viceroy of the Mark." Si.x years later, In 1417, Frederic was formally In- vested with the sovereignty of tbe .Mark, as Margrave and Elector. — II. Ti-t.'e, JIM. of PruHniic til thf Afnunioii of Frcdei:': the Great, eh. 1 and 'A. A. D. 1355. — Declared an integral part of the Kingdom of Bohemia. See BoiiI':.mia: A. D. IIh^.X A. D. 1417-16AO. — Rising importance of the HoheuzoUetn family. — Acquisition of the Duchy of Prussia.— On being inj-ested with the Electorate of lirandenburg, Frederick of Xurem- berg sold the odice of Burggrave to the Nurem- bergers lind devoted himself to his new provl'ice. "Temperate, just, and tirm in his dealings, he succeeded in reducing Brandenburg from anarchy to order. Already as deputy for SIgismund he had begim the task. . . . During tlie reign of his son and successor, characteristically knowa as Frederick Ironteeth [1440-1472], the strong Hand was not rela.xed ; and Brandenburg became thenceforward tamed to law and order. The Electorate, which during the preceding century had been curtailed by losses In war and by sales, began again to enlarge Its borders. The New March, which had been sold in the days of SIgis- mund to tlic Teutonic Knights, was now [1455] bought back from them in their need. . . . Albert Achilles, the brother and successor of Frederick II., was a man as powerful and as able as his predecessor. By his accession the principalities of Balreuth and Anspach, which had been separated from the Electorate for tlie younger sons of Frederick I. , were reunited to It; and by a scheme of cross-remainders new plans were laid for the acquisition of territory. ... It was already understood that the Elector- ate was to descend according to the law of primogeniture ; but Auspach and Balreuth were still reserved as appanages for younger sous; and upon the death of Albert Achilles, In 1484, his territories were again divided, and romaineil so for more tlian a hundred years. The result of the division, however, was to multiply and wot to weaktm the strength of the House. The earlier years of the 16th century saw the Ilolien- zollerns rising everywhere to power. Albert Achilles had been succeeded [148i l)y John, of \vh(mi little is Isuown except his eloquence, and by .loaehlm [1409], who was preparing to bear his part against the Ileformation. A brother of Joachim hiul become. In 1514, Elector of Meutz; and the double vote of the family at the election of Cliarles V. had increased their importance. The younger branch was rising also to eminence. George of Brandenburg, JIargrave of Anspach, and grandson of Albert Achilles, was able in 1.534 to |)urcliase tlie Duchy of Jagerndorf in Silesia, and with it the reversions to the princi- palities of ()p|)elu and Kjvtibor, which eventually fell to him. Ills younger brother, Albert, had been chosen in 1511 Grand Master of the Teu- tonic Order, and was already C(ravertlng his olllce into the hereditary Dukedom of Prussia," which it became in 1.525 (see Pol.vnm): .V. D. 13;3;)-1572). "Tlie Elector Joachim I. of Bran- denburg Is perhaps the least prominent, but was" not the least prudent, of his family. Through- out his life he adhered to the old faith, and pre- served his dominions In tran<|uility. His son and successor, Joachim II., to the joy of his people, adopted the new religi(m [15:")9]; and found In the seculariz(nl bishoprics of Branden- burg, Ilavelburg. and Lebus, solium compensation for the ecclesiastical Electorate wliicli was about to pass, upon the death of Albert of Mentz, from his family. But he also was able to secure the continuance of peace. Di.strustful of the success of the League of SmalkakI he refused to join ill It, and became chletly known as a media- tor ill the struggles of the time. The Electors John George [1571-1.508] and Joachim Frederick [1598-1608] followed the same policy of peace. . . . Peace and internal progress had charac- terized the lOtli century; war and external acquisitions were to mark the 17th. The failure of the younger line in 1603 caused Bayreuth, Anspacli, and Jagerndorf to fall to the Elector Joachim Frederick ; but as they were re-granted almost at once to younger sons, and never again reverted to the Electorate, their acquisition became of little importance. TIk; JIargrave, George Frederick, however, had held. In addition to his own territories, the olHce of administrator for Albert Frederick, second Duke of Prussia, who had become imbecile; and, by his death, the Elector of Brandenburg became next of kin, and claimed to succeed to the ofHce. The ad- mission of this claim placed the Electors in virtual jjossession of the Duchy. By a deed of co-infeolfinent, which Joacliim II. had obtained In 1508 from his father-in-law the King of Poland, they were heirs to the Duchy upon failure of the younger line. . . . Duke Albert died in 1618; and Brandenburg and Prussia were then united under the Elector John SIgismund. It was well that the Duchy had been secured be- fore the storm which was already gathering over the Empire had burst. . . . fturing the long struggle of the Thirty Years' War, the history of Brandenburg Is that of a sufferer rather than an actor. . . . George William, who died in 1640, bequeathed a desert to his successor. That successor was Frederick William, to be known in history as the Great Elector." — C. F. John- stone, Ilistorieal Ahstracta, eh. 5. Also in: T. Carlyle, Hist, of Frederick the Great, bk. 3 (p. 1). A. D. 1609.— The JUlich-Cleve contest. See Giiu.MANY: A. D. 1008-1018. A. D. 1627. — Occupied by Wallenstein and the Imperial army. See Gkumanv: 1027-1629. A. D. 1630-1631. — Compulsory alliance of the Elector with Gustavus Adotphus of Sweden. Sec Geu.many: A. D. 1030-1031, and 1031. A. D. 1632.— Refusal to enter the Union of Heilbronn. See Germany: A. D. 1032-1634. A. D. 1634.— Desertion °^ ^^^ Protestant cause. — Alliance^ith the Emperor. See Ger- many: A. D. 10.34-1039. A. D. 1640-1688.— The Great Elector.— His development of the strength of the Electorate. — His successful wars.— His acquisition of the 308 BUANDENDUnG, 1040-1688. BRANDEffnUUO, 164i>-l(W8. complete sovereignty of Prussia. — Fehrbellin. — " l'V('(l('ri(^ William, known in liLstory as tlio Great Elector, was only twenty years old when he sureeeded liis father. He found everything in disorder: his country desolate, his fortresses garrisoned by troops under a solemn order to obey ordy the mandates of the Emperor, his army to be counted almost on the lingers. Ills first care was to conclude a truce with the Swedes; his second to .secure his western borders by an alliance with Holland; his third — not in order of action, for in that respect it tooli first place — to raise the nucleus of an army; his fourth, to cause the evacuation of his fortresses. . . . To allay the wrath of the Emperor, he temporised uutd his armed force had attained the n\imberof 8,000. That force once under arms, he boldly as- serted his position, and with .so much elfect that in the discussions preceding the I'eace of West- phalia he could e.\ercise a considerable influence. By the terms of that treaty, the part of Pomerania linown as Hinter I^)mmern, the principalities of Magdeburg an<l Ilalberstadt, and the bishoprics of Slindcn and Ivanunin were ceded to Branden- burg. . . . The Peace once signed, Frederic William set diligently to work to IumI the dis- orders and to repair the mischief which the long -war had caused in his dominions. . . . He speci- ally cherished his army. We have seen its small beginning in 1040-43. Fifteen years later, in lO.'i.'), or seven years after the conclusion of the Peace of W^estphalia, it amounted to 2.'),000men, ■well drilled and well disciplined, disposing ol seventy-two pieces of cannon. In the times in which he lived he had need of such an armj'. In 10.')4, (,'hristina, the wayward and gifted daugliterof Oustavus Adolphus, had abdicated. Her successor on tlie throne of Sweden was her co\'.sin, Charles Gustavus, Duke of Zweibrlicken. . . . Tlic right of Charles Gustavus to the suc- cession was, however, contested by .lolm Casimir, King of Poland. . . . War ensued. In that war the star of Charles Gustavus was in the ascend- ant, and the unfortunate John Casimir was forced to !d)andon his own dominions and to flee into Silesia. The vicinity of the two rivals to his own outlying territories was, however, too near not to renderanxiousFrederic William of Brandenburg. To protect Prussia, then held in fief from the King of Poland, he marched with 8,000 men to its bor- ders. But even with such a force he was tniable, or perhaps, more correctly, he was prudenth' unwilling, to resist the insisfjince put upon him at IConigsberg by the victorious King of Sweden (1650) to transfer to him the feudal overlordsliip of that province. Great results followed from this compliance. Hardly had the treaty been signed, whenjohn Casimir, returningfrom Silesia ■with an Imperial army at Iiis back, drove the Swedes from Poland, and recovered his domin- ions. He did not evidently intend to stop there. Then it was that tlie opportunity arrived to the Great Elector. Earnestly solicited by tlic King of Sweden to aid him in a contest which had as- turned dimensions .so formidable, Frederic Wil- liam consented, but oalv on the condition that he should receive the Polish palatinates (Woiwml- shaften) of Posen and Kalisch as the price of a victorious campaign. He then joined the King with his army, met thecnemy at Warsaw, fought with him close to that city a great battle, whicli lasted three days (38th to JWth July 1600), and which teriuiuutcd tlicu, thanks mainly to the pertinacity of the Brandeuburgers — in the com- plete defeat of I he Poles. The victory ginned, Frederic William withdrew his tnN>|)H. . . . Again did John Casimir recover from his defeat; again, aided by the Im|K>rialists, did lie nmnli to the front, reoccupy Warsaw, and take up ii tlireatening position (.|iposite to the Swedish camp. The Kim; of Sw' den l)eheld in this action on the part of his enemy ilie prelude to his own certain destruction, unless by any means he could induce tlie Elector of Hmndt iilmrg once more to save him. H(! sent, then, urgent nies.sengcr8 after him to beg him to return. The messengers found Frederic William at Labian. Tliere the Elector halted and tliere, joincil the nc.vt day, 20th November 10.">(), by King Charles Gustavii.s, he signed a treaty, by which, im condition of his material aid in tlie war, the latter renounced lii.s feudal overlordsliip over Prus.sia, and agreed to acknowledge the Elector and his male descend- ants as sovereign dukes of that province. In tho war which followed, the enemies of Sweden and Brandenburg multiplied on every side. Tho Danes and Lithuanians espoused the cause of John Casimir. Its issue seemed to Frederic Wil- liam more tlian doubtful. He asked himself, then, whether — the new enemies who had arisen being the enemies of Sweden and not of himself — he had not more to gain by sharing in tho victories of the Poles than in the defeats of the Swedes. Replying to himself alllrmatively, he concluded, 29th September 10.57, through the in- termediation of the Emperor, witli the Poles, at Wehlau, a treaty whcR-by the dukedom of Prus- sia \vi\c ceded "in absolute sovereignty to the Elect )r of Brandenburg and his male issue, with reversion to Poland in case of the extinction of the family of the Franeonian HolienzollernB; in return, Frederic William engaged himself to sup- port the Poles in their war against Sweden with a corps of 4,000 men. But before this ctmven- tion could be acted upon, fortune Inul again smiled upon Charles Gustavus. Turning in the heiglit of winter against the Danes, the King of Sweden had defeated them in the open field, p\ir- sued them across the frozen waters of the Belt to Filnen and Seeland, and had imposed ui)on their king the humiliating peace of l{oeskilde (Ifi.W). He seemed inclined to proceed .still further in tho destruction of the ancient rival of Ids countrj', wlien a combined army of Poll's and Brandeu- burgers suddenly poured through Mecklen- burg into Hnlstein drove thence the Swedes, and gave them i-.> rest till they had evacuated likewise Sc^hleswig and Jutland (16159). In a battle which took i)lace shortly afterwards on tlie island of Fl'uien, at Nyborg, the Swedes .s»if- fc'red a defeat. This defeat made Charles Giis- tavusdespairof success, and he had already begun to treat for peace, when deatli snatched liim from the scene (January 1600). Tlie uegotiations which had begun, however, continued, and finally iK'ace was signetl on tlie 1st May 1000, in the nioniistery of Oliva, close to Danzig. This peace confirmed to the Elector of Brandenburg his sovereign rights over the duchy of Prussia. From this e]XHh dates the complete union of Brandenburg and Prussia — a union upon which a great man was able to lay the foundation of a powerful North German Kingdom!" Duriug the next dozen years, tlic Great Elector was chiefly busied in es- tablishing his Authority in his doniinicms and curbing the ixiwer of the nobles, particularly in 309 BIUNDENBURO, 1040-1088. UKAZIL, 1510-lOei. PrusHiii. Ill 10T4, wlini Louis XIV. of Fmnce provoki'tl war witli the (Jcrmim princes by liis attiu'li on till' Diitcli, Ficilcric Willlimi led 2(),0(K) men into AIhiui' to join tlii' Inipcri!!! forces. Louis tlicn culled upon his iillies, the Swedes, to inviide Uranderd)urj(, which they did, under (}en- crul Wnuigel, in Jiinuiiry, 1075. " I'lundering and burning us they adviiueed, they cntereil llavcUaiid, lh<! granary of Herlhi, and carried their devastations up to the very jrates of that cajiital." Tile Elector was retn'utinj; from Alsace before Tureniu; when lu^ heard of tlie invasion. II(! paused for sonic v.eel<s, to put his army in good (H)iidition, and then he Iiurried northwards, liy forced marclie.,. Tho enemy was taken by surprise, and attacked while attemjiting to re- treat, near Fehrliellin, on tli<' 18tli of .Iimc. After two liotirs of a tremendous liand-to-liand contliet, "the right wing (>f the Swedes was crushed and broken; the centn. and left wing were in full re- treat towards Felirbellin. The victors, utterlv exhausted — they liad scarcely (luitted their sad- dles for eleven days — were too worn out to pur- sue. It wa" not till tho following iii'irning tliat, refreshed and recovered, they followed tlio re- treatiii,'^ foe to the borders of Mecklenliurg. . . . The Great Elector promptly followed up his vic- tory till he had compelled tho Swedes to evacuate all Pomerania. Three years later, when they once more crossed the border from Livonia, he forced tlicni again to retreat ; andaithoiigh in tlie treaty signed at St. Germain in 1079 he was forced to renounce his Pomeranian concjuests, he <lid not the less estalilisli tlie ultimate right of the State of which ho was the real founder to those lauds on the Baltic for wliidi he had so hardly struggled at the negotiations whicli iire- ceded the Peace of AVestplialia. When he died (i)tL Jlay 1088) he left the Kingdom already made iu a [losition of prosperity sutlicieiit to justify his son and successor in assuming, tliirteen vears lator, on the anniversary of the victory of t\'hr- bellin, the title of King."— G. B. Malleson, The Buttle Ficlth of Germany, ch. 8. — Sec, also, Sc.^vn- DiNAViAN States (Sweden): A. I). 1044-1007. A. D. 1648.— The Peace of Westphalia.— Loss of part of Pomerania. — Compensating acquisitions. See Geu.many: A. 1). 1048. A. D. 1672-1679.— In the Coalition against Louis XIV. See Nethkulands (IIoli..\m)): A. D. 1073-1074, and 1074-1078 ; also Nimeguen, Peace of. A. D. 1689-1696.— The war of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. See Fuance: A. D. 1089-101)0, to 1095-1090. A. D. 1697.— The Treaty of Ryswick.— Restitutions by France. See Fiu^'ce: A. D. 1007. A. D. 1700.— The Elector made King of Prussia. See Pkussia : A. D. 1700. BRANDY STATION, OR FLEET- WOOD, Battle of. Sec United States of A.M. : A. D. 1803 (.IiNE; Vikoinia). BRANDYWINE, Battle of the (A. D. 1777). See I'nited States of Am. : A. 1). 1777 <.Iani:auv — Decembeh). BRANKIRKA, Battle of (1518). See Scan- dinavian ST.vths: A. I). 1397-1.527. BRANT, CP lEF, and the Indian warfare of the American F evolution. Sec United States OF Am.: a. D. 1778 (June— Novemueu), and (July). BRASIDAS IN CHALKIDIKE. See Gukkck: H. C. 421-121: BRAZIL : Origin of the name. — " Asthemost valuable part of tlie cargo which Aliieri<us Vcs- pucius carried back to Eurojje was tlie well- known <lye-wooil, 'Ciesalpina Bni/iliensis, ' — called in the Portuguese language 'pan brazil,' on account of its resemblance to ' bra/as,' ' coals of fire,' — the land whence it came was termed the ' land of tlie brazil-wood '; and liiially this appel- lation was shortened to Brazil, an(I completely usurped the names Vera Cruz, or Santa Cruz." — J. C. Fietcher and 1). P. Kidder, llnizil and the llraziliann, ch. 3. — See, also, Ameuica: A. D. 1500-1514. The aboriginal inhabitants. Sec Ameuican AiiouioiNEs: Ti'i'i. — Guauani. — Tupuyas; also OucK or Coco Gkodp. A. D. 1500-1S04. — Discovery, exploration of the coast and nrst settlement. See Amkhica: A. I). 1499-1.")00, l.")()()-1514, and 1.5();!-1.5t)4. A. D. 1510-1661. — Portuguese colonization and agriculture. — Introduction of Slavery. — The coming of the Jesuits. — Conquests of the Dutch, and the Portuguese recovery of them. — "Brazil, on which tho Portuguese ships had been cast by accident, had been found to unite iu itself tlie capabilities of every part of the world in which Europeans have settled, though happily gold and .silver had not yet been discovered, anil the colonists betook themselves from the first to agriculture. The first perma- nent settlements on this coast were made by Jews, e.xiled by the persecution of the Imiuisl- tion; and the government supplemented those by sending out criminals of all kinds. But gradually the consequence of Bnizil became recognized, and, as afterwards happened in New England, the nobility at home asked to sliare the land among themselves. Emmanuel would not countenance such a claim, but this great prince died in 1531, and his successor, John III., ex- tended to Brazil the same system which had licen adopted iu Madeira and the Azores. The whole sea-coast of Brazil was parcelled out by feudal grants. It was divided into captaincies, each 50 leagues in length, with no limits In the interior; and these were granted out as male fiefs, witli atisolute power over the natives, such as at that time existed over the serfs who tilled tlie soil in Europe. But tlie native Brazilians were neither so easy a conquest as the Peruvians, nor so easily induced to labour; and the Portuguese now be- gan to bring uogros from the Guinea coast. This tratlic in human flesh had long been vigor- ously pursued in various parts of Europe ; the Portuguese now introduced it to America. The .settlors of Brazil were, jiroperly speaking, tho first European colonists. For they sold tlieirowu Iiossessions at home, and brouglit their house- holds with them to tlio new country. Thus they gradually formed the heart of a now nation, whereas the chief Spaniards always returned home after a certain tenure of their oflices, and tliose who remained in the colony descended to tho rank of the concpiored natives. JIany of those who came to Brazil had already served in the expeditious to tho East; and they naturally perceived that the coast of America might raise tlie productions of India. Ilonco Brazil early became a plantation colony, and its prosperity is very mucli due to the culture of the sugar cane. The Portuguese were greatly assisted, both in 310 BRAZIL, 1510-1661. BRAZIL, 1581-1841. the East and tlie West, by the efforts of the newly fouiiiled onler of the Jesuits. . . . John III. in [1549| sent out six of tlie order with the first governor of Bnizil. . . . Tlie Dutch, iniule bold by their great successes in i ■ P^ast, now- sought to win the trade of Brazil by force of amis, and tlic success of the I'^ist India Company encouraged tlic adventurers wliot subscribed tlie funds for tliat of the West Indies, incorporated in 1621. Tlic Dutch Admiral, Jacob Willeliens, suc- cessfully assaulted San Salvador [Bahia] in 1624, uiid thougli the capital was afterwards retaken by the Intrepid Archbishop Te.xeira, one lialf of the coast of Brazil submitted to the Dutch. Here, as in the Eiust, the proUt of the company was the whole aim of the Dutch, and the spirit in whicli they executed their design was a main cause of its failure. . . . But . . . the profits of tlie company . . . rose at one time to cent i)er cent. The visions of the speculators of Amsterdam be- came greater; and they resolved to become masters of all Brazil. . . . The man whom they despatched [1037] to execute this design was Prince John JIaurice of Nassau. ... In a short time he had greatly extended the Dutch posses- sions. But the Stad-houder was subject, not to the wise and learned men wlio sat in tlie States- General, but to the merchants who composed the courts of the company. They tliouglit of nothing but their dividends ; they considered that Maurice kept up more trooi)s and built more fortresses than were necessary for ii mercantile c(mimunity, and that he lived in too princely a fasliion for one in tlieir service. Perhaps they suspected him of an intention of slipping into tliat royal dig- nity wliich tlie feudal frame of Brazilian society seemed to offer him. At any rate, in 1643, tliey forced him to resign. A recent revolution had terminated tlie subjection of Portugal to Spain, and tlio new liing of Portugal concluded a truce for ten years with Holland. War was therefore supposed to be out of the question. . . . But the recall of Maurice was the signal for an independ- ent revolt in Brazil. Though the motiier coun- tries were at peace, war brolte out between the Dutch and the Portuguese of Brazil in 1045. Tlie Jesuits had long preached a crusade against the heretic Dutch. . . . Jolin Ferdinand de Vieyra, a wealthy merchant of Pernamlnico, led a general uprising of the Brazilians, and althougli the Dulcli made a stubborn resistance, they re- ceived no assistance from liome ; tiiey were driven from one post after another, until, in 1054, the liist of the company's servants quitted Brazil. The Dutch declared war against Portugal ; but in 1601 peace was made, aad the Dutch sold their claims for SfOOO, 000 florins, the right of trading being secured to tlieni. But after the expulsion of the Dutch, the trade of Brazil came more and more into tlie hands of the English." — E. J. Payne, Hist, of Europmn Cuhiiies, ch. 3-3. Also in: K. G. Watson, HjMimh and Portu- guese South Ainenca, v. 1, ch. Oaiul 15/ v. 2,ch. 1-4.— R. Soutliey, Jlint. of Bnizil, ». 1-2. A. D, 1524.— Conceded to Portugal. See America: A. I). 1519-1524. A. D. 1531-1641.— The Republic of St. Paul. — The Paulistas or Mamelukes. — "Tlie cele- brated reiniblic of St. Paul, as it is usually denominated, had its rise about the year 1531, from a very inconsiderable beginning. A mariner of the name of Ramalho, having been sliip- wreckcd on this part of the coast, was received among a small Indian tribe called the Pirallninga, after the name of their <'liief. Here he was found liy De Housa some years afterwards, and, contrary to the establislied policy of permitting no settlement excepting immediately on tin,' sea- coast, he allowed this man to reiiiaiii, on account of his having intermarried and having 11 family. The advantages of this establisliment were such, that permission was soon after given to otiiers to settle here, and as the adventurers intermarried with the natives, their numbers increa.sed rapidly. ... A mixed race was formed. ])ossessing a compound of civilized and uncivilized iiainners and customs. The Jesuits soon after establLsheil them.selves witli a number of Indians lliej had reclaimed, and exerted a salutary influence in softening and harmonizing tlie growing colony. In 1581, the seat of government was removed from St. Vincent on tlie coast to St. Pauls; but its subjection to Portugal was little more than nominal. . . . The mi.\,ture produced an im- proved race, 'tlie European spirit of enterprise,' .says Soutliey, 'develo])e<l itself in constitutions adapted to the country.' But it is much more likely that the free and popular government whicli they enjoyed produced the same fruits here as in every other country. . . . Tliey soon quarreled with tlie Jesuits [1581], on account of the Indians whom they had reduced to slavery. The Jesuits declaimed against tlie practice ; but as there were now many wealthy families among the Paulistas, the greater part of whose fortunes consisted in their Indian.s, it was not heard with patience. The Paulistas first engaged in war against the enemies of their allies, ami afterwards on their own account, on finding it advantageous. They established a regular trade witli the otlier provinces whom they supplied with Indian slaves. They by this time acquired tlie name of Mamelukes, from the peculiar military discipline they adopted, bearing some resemlilance to the Mamelukes of Egypt. The revolution in Portu- gal, when Philip II. of Spain jdaced himself on its throne,cast the Paulistas in a statu of iiide])cnd- ence, as tliey were tlic only settlers in Brazil wliich did not acknowledge tlie new dynasty. From the year 1580 until the middle of the follow- ing century, they may be regarded as a republic, and it was during tliis period they displayed that active and enterprising character for Avhieli they were so much celebrated. . . . While a Spani-sh king occupied the throne of Portugal, tliey attacked the Spanish settlements on the Para- guay, alleging that the Spaniards were encroach- ing on tlieir territory. . . . They attjicked tlio Jesuit missions [1629]. ... As tliey had fixed themselves east of the Parana, the Paulistas laid hold of this as a pretext. Tliey carried away upwards of 2,000 of tlieir Indians into captivity, the greater i)art of whom were sold and dis- tributed as slaves. The Jesuits complained to the king of Spain and to the pope; the latter fulminated his excommunication. The Paulistas attacked the Jesuits in their college, and ])ut their principal to death, expelled tiie leiiialiider, and set up a religion of tlieir own ; at least no longer acknowledged the supremacy of the jiope. Inconsequence of the interruption of the African trade during the Dutch war, the demand for Indian slaves was very mucli increased. Tiic Paulistas redoubled their exertions, and traversed every part of the Brazils in armed troops. . . . The foundation was laid of enmity to the Portu- 1 • BRAZIL, 1581-1641. BRAZIL, 1808-1823. ji;u('H(', wlilcli ('(intinui'.t to tliin <liiy. uIIUoukIi a L'lmiplotc nt()|> was put to the iiifainoiis practicn In tlio year 1750. . . . When llm liousu of Hra- Unma, in 1040, ascciulcd thr> throne, tlut I'aiilis- tns, iiiHt<'a(l of ackiiowlcdKinj; liiiii, conceived the idea of electing a liing for tlieniselves. Tliey actually elected a distlnj;iiislied citizen of llu' name of Hueno, who persisted in refusini; to accept, upon winch thev were induced to ac knowle(l),'i; Joani IV. [I<i41]. It was not tintil Jong afterwards that they came under thu Portu- guese government." — II. M. Hrackenridgo, Voy- wji' to ti/nt/t Ain/rira, v. 1, <•//. 2. Also i.n : K. Soutliey, Jliiit. of Brazil, ch. 311 (''. 3). A. D. 1540-1541.— Orellana's voyag^e down the Amazons. See Ama/.onh Kivku. A. D. 1555-1560. — Attempted Huguenot colony on the Bay of Rio Janeiro. Sec Fmiuid.v: A. !).» l.Wi-t'iOa A. D. 1654-1777. — The Portugfese policy of exclusion and restriction. — B'undary dis- putes with Spain. — "The period of peace which followed thesi' victories [over the Dutch] . . . was used by the Portuguese government only to get up a kind of old .Japanese system of isolation, by which it was intended to keep the colony in perpetual tutelage. In consequence of this even now, after the lapse of half a century since it violently separated itself, Brazilians generally cntcriaiu a bitter grudge against the mother country. All the trade to and from Brazil was engrossed by Portugal ; every functionary, down to the last clerk, was Portuguese. Any other European of scientitic education was looked at with suspicion ; and particularly they sought to prevent by nil means the exploration of the interior, as they feared not only that the eyes of the natives might be opened to their mode of administration, but also that such traveller:! might side with the Spaniards in their long dis- pute regarding the boundaries of the two nations, as the French astronomer. La Conda- mine, liad done. This ({uestion, which arose shortly after the discovery, and was hushed up only during the sliort union of both crowns (from 1581-1640), broke out with renewed vigor now and then, maugre the Treaty of Tordesilhas in 1494 [see Amkuic.x.: A. D. 1494]. ... By the Treaty of Silo Ildefouso, in 1777, botli parties having long felt how impracticable thu old arrangements were — at least, for their American colonies — the boundaries were fl.xed upon the principle of the 'uti possidetis,' at any rate so far as the imperfect knowledge of the interior allowed ; but this effort also jjioved to be vain. . . . The unsolved question descended as an evil heritage to their respective heirs, Brazil and the South American Kepublics. A few years ago it gave rise to the terrible war with Paraguay ; and It will lead to fresh conflicts between Brazil and the Argentine Republic." — F. Keller, Ttie Amnzon and }fa(kira liicera, pp. 33-34. Also in : R. Soutliey, History of Brazil, v. 3. A. D. 1713. — The Portuguese title con- firmed. See Utueciit: A. D. 1712-1714. A. D. 1759.— Expulsion of the Jesuits. See Jksuits: A. D. 1757-1773. A. D. 1808-1822.— Becomes the asylum of Portuguese royalty. — The founding of tne in- dependent Empire. — "While anarchy and ruin . . . oversprca(l the greater part of the beautiful continent of South America, the Empire of Bra- zil won an Independent existence without blood- shed, and kept It with credit. The Dutch con(|uest of Brazil, and its rccon(|Ucst by tlio Portuguese, has been mentioned in a former chapter. The country long remained iiniler the close anil oppressiv(.' monopoly imposed upon it by the Portuguese; but, in 1808 [\HOl:\ when Na- polecm invadciU Portus^al, the regent embarked [see Poutiioal: A. I). 1807], with the royal in- signia, for Brazil, which at once assumed the dignity of an integral part of the kingdom. The jiorts were opened to tlii! commerce of the world ; the printing-press was introduc('d ; learning was encouraged; the enormous resources of the country were explored; foreign settlers were in- vited to establish themselves; embassies were sent to Euroiiean powers of the first rank, and diplomatic agents rt'ceivcd. New towns and harbours were planned; new life was breathed into every department of the state. After a few years, the state of affairs in Europe compelled king John VI. to return to Eurofie, as the only chance of preserving the integrity of the mon- archy. The Cortes of Lisbon invited their sover- eign to revisit his ancient capital, and deputies from Brazil were summoned to attend the sit- tings of the National Assembly. But before tho deputies could arrive, the Cortes had resolved that Brazil should be again reduced to absolute dependence on Portugal. A resolution more senseless or more impracticable can hardly be imagined. Tho territory of Brazil was as large as all Europe put together; Portugal was a little kingdom, isolated and without influiaico among the monarchies of the Old World ; yet it was deliberately decreed that all the monopolies of the exploded colonial system should be re- vived, and that England should be deprived of her free trade to Brazil. The king ai)poiuted his eldest son, Uom Pedro, Regent of the new kingdom, and soon after took h's departure for Lisbon, with many of tlio emigrant nobility. Doin Pedro assumed tho government under the perplexing circumstances of an empty treasury, a heavy public debt, and the provinces almost in revolt. Bahia disavowed his authority, and the Cortes withheld their support from him. The regent reduced his expenditure to the monthly sum allowed to his princess for pin money ; he retired to a country house, and observed the most rigid economy. By great exertions he re- duced the public expenditure from S50,00l),000 to $15,000,000; but tho northern and internal provinces still withheld their ta.xcs; the army iiecame mutinous, and the ministers of his father, who still remained in power, were un- popular; the regent in despair drtnauded his recall. But the Bra".ilians were at length dis- armed by his noble conduct; they recognized his activity, his beneficence, his assiduity in the affairs of government, aud the habitual feelings of affection and respect for tlie House of Bra- ganza, which had for a moment been laid asleep by distrust, were reawakened with renewed strength. It was fortunate that the quarrels which disturbed Brazil wore accommodated before the arrival of intelligence from Portugal. Hardly had the king arrived in Lisbon when he found himself obliged to assent to a constitution which treated his Brazilian subjects as mere colonists; succeeding mails brought orders more and more humiliating to the Brazilians. The design of declaring Brazil an independent kingdom, grew 312 BRAZIL, 1809-1883. BRAZIL, 1871-1888. more nnd more In imbllc favour; but, the prince wiiH luiwillin;; to plarc liiinsclf in direct rrlx'llioii to till' crown III' I'ortii^iil, ami Hicaillly aillu'ri'il to hie (Ictcnnination to Icavo Aniiriia. At Icn^jtli, it is rdatcil, a licMnatch was dcliviTcii to tlir recent, wliiili 111' declined to show to any of Ids ministers, Iml which (evidently excited in Ids mind no ordinary emotions of un^er: he crushed the paper in his hand, and moved away to a window, where he stood for a few moments in thought; at length he turned to his council with the words ' Independencia ou morte': — the ex- clamation was received with tinnultuous cheers, nud was ailii|iteil as the watrliword of the IJevo- lution. The I'orluguese troops wen; sent liack to Kurojie. The Cortes of Llslmn were now anxious to recall their obnoxious decrees; to adnnt the deputies from llra/.il; to make any cuucession tliat ndght lie demanded, lint it was too late: the Independence of Bra/.il was for- mally proclaimed in August, 182'J, and in De- cember of the .same year, l>om I'edro was crowned Kmperor of Unizil i'his is tlie lirst, and as yet the only instance .i a modern colony nchicving its iiideiiendeni'e, and separating itself complett'ly from its metropolis without blixxl- shcd." — Viscount Hury, h'j.vilua of the Waitern Nations, i: 2, r/i. 11. Also in: J. Armitage, Hint, of Brazil, eh. 1-7. —See, idso, PointdAL: A. 1). 1820-182-1. A. D. 1825-1865.— Wars with the Argen- tines. — Abdication of Dom Pedro I.— The GuerradosCabanos. — "In 182."), cliietly through the mediation of England, iJrazil was acknowl- edged as un independent empire. Hut tlie inner commotions contiinied, and were not even soothed by a new Constitution, drawn up in 1823, and sworn to by the Emperor in 1824. New revolts in Pernambuco, and some of the other Northern provinces, and a war of three years with the Argentine Republic, which ended in 1828 by Brazil giving up Banda Oriental, annexed onlj eleven years before, disturbed and weakened the land. The foreign soldiers, enlisted for this wir, and retained after its conclusion to keep do ivn the Opposition, and the extravagant private life of the Emperor, who recklessly trampled down the honour of respectable families, i)rovokoil dissatisfaction and murmurs, which rose to the highest pitch wlien he insisted upon carrying on a most mipopular war in Portugal to defend the rights of his daughter. Dona Maria da Gloria (in ■whose favour he had abdicated the Portuguese Crown), against his brother, Don Miguel [see Poutuoal: a. D. 1824-188«j. In April, 1831, Dom Pedro I., so enthusiastically raised to the Brazilian throne only nine years before, was forced to abdicate it, deserted and betrayed by every one, in behalf of his younger son, Pedro. The next period was tlic most ilisturbed one that the young Empire had yet witnes.sed. Slave revolts at Bahia, a civil war in the South, which almost cost it tlie province of Hio Grande do 8ul, and the bloody rebellion known as the Querra dos Cabanos, in Pani and Amazon, from 183.5 to 1837, followed each other qinckly. In this last revolt, the Brazilians had stirred up the Indians and mestizoes against the abhorred Portuguese, without coiLsidering that they should not be able to quench the fire they had themselves kindled. In a short time, the fury of the whole colored population turned against all whites, Brazilians and Portuguese alike, without any distinction. More than 10, 000 persons are sidd to have perished in this (iiierra dos Cabanos; and, to the present day. those terrible times anil the barbarous iriii'lties conunitled by the In- diaiiH, half-castes, and mulattoes, continue to bo talked of with awe in the two priivinces. A ri'Volulliin in .Minas, got ui) by the personal ambitions of :i few political leaders, rather than I'manating from tl'e spirit of the people, and the war against Uosas, the Dictator of the Argiiitinu Uepubllc, pa,ssed over Brazil without leiving deep traces, at least when comiiared with the last war against Paraguay; which, besides the stimulus of the old diirerences about boundaries, was occasioned liy the endless vexations and re- strictions with which the Dictator Lopez strove to ruin the Brazilian Iniile on the Paraguay, and to prejudice the provlnre of .Mato Gros.sol" — V. Keller, Tlu: Amnion and ^f(Ulcir<^ Jticeri, pp. 2.5-20. Also in : J. Armitage, Jlial. of nrinil, 1808- 18:U.— See, also, AltOKNTlNIi lUil'iiiiLic: A. D. 1811(-I87I. A. D. 1865-1870.— The virar with Paraguay. See pAiiAiifAv: A, 1). 1(!08-1.ST:!. A. D. 1871-1888.— Emaucipation of Slaves. — The Brazilian act of emancipation, known as the Law of Bio Branco (taking that name from the Jlinlster who carried it through) was pii-sseJ on the 28th of September, 1871, "and from that date it was enacted 'that children henceforth born of slave women shall be considered of free condition.'. . . Such children are not to be actually free, but are bound to serve the owners of their mothers for a term of 21 years, under the name of 'apprentices.' These must work, under severe penalties, for their liereditary masters; but if the latter inflict on them excessivo bodily punishment, tliey are allowed tr, bring suit in a criminal court, which :\m\ duclare their freedom.. A [irovision was also made for the emancipation of government slaves; and there was a clause which insured u certain sum, to be annually set aside from fines, which was to aid each province in emancipating by purchase a certain number of slaves. . . . The passage of this law did not prove merely prospective In its elTects. In a very short time the sums placed aside for emanci- pating slaves by purchase resulted in tlie freedom of many bondmen. And more than this, there seemed to be a generous private rivalry in the good work, from motives of benevolence and from religious inlliience. Many persons in various parts of Brazil liberated their slaves without com- pensation. ... I am liajipy to say that the number liberated, either by the provisions of the .State or by private individuals, is always in an increasing ratio. When the writer fli-st went to Brazil [1852] ... it was estimated that there were 3,000,000 in slavery. . . . There were at the beginning of 1875, when the law of emanci- pation had been but a little more than three years in operation, 1,470,567 slaves." — J. C. Fletcher ond I). P. Kidder, Brazil and the Bra- ziliam, eh. 28.— "On the 25th of March, 1884, slavery was abolished in the province of Cearii. The liio News says, ' Tlie movement began only 15 months ago, tlie first municipality liberating its slaves on tlie Ist of January, 1883. The new tax law of last November greatly accelerated this progress, because it made slave-holding im- possible, the value of the slave being less than the tax.' " On the 28th of September, 1885, the 313 mixziu i87i-iN«t). lUtAZIL, 1880-tHOl. Impfttloncc of tlin nriizllliins to rid thcmfU'lvcA of (tliivcry t'xprcHHcil iucir in n ni;w Kiniim'l|iiilion A('t, Known UH till- Hiirulvii liiw. It (irovidod for fucilitiitin;^ ami liastcninK tlin ('Xlt'iiMion of freedom, by iniTcitNin); tin; piililic fund iijipnipri- atcd to it, liy dt'tlninK tliu vnluution of HlavoH, nnd l)y other efleetivti provisions, so timt " within ten yeiini [from its tiatoj it is NiippoMcd tliat Nliivery will liiivc ceiuwd to exist in Itrii/il." —II. ('. Dent, A Yrar ill, Ifrnzii, pp. Wl-'Um.— "On .Miirch !1(), 1H87, tlie olllcliil n'tiirn ^iive the niinil)er of hIuvcm in iira/il as 7'':l,410, of the legal value of i>.W5,23.'),aia. On May lU, lftH«, the Crown Princess, 'is recent, gave tlu! royal assent to a short nieasuro or two clauses, the (Irst dcclarinfi; that slavery was ulxilisheil In Ura/.ll from the (..ly of the promulgation of the law, and the second repealing all former Acts on the sub- ject. Both Chambers ref.ised tr) consider the claim for compeiisatioii made by Ihe slave own- ers." — StiitiniiKiii'n Ymr-lliHik, WW), p. 'M){. A, D, 1889-1801. — Revolution. — Overthrow of the Empire, — Establishment of the Republic of the United States of Brazil.— Religious freedom declared. — "The sudden collapse of the Imperial Clovernmcnt in November j ISHKj, residtlng in the downfall of Dom Pedro and Ins banishment, caused universal surprise. For some time tlu^ (iovernmeiit had l)een credited by the Kepubllcan journals with the wish and intention to disperse the army throughout the provinces nnd along the frontier, so that, witli the assistance of tlie newly-organised National Guard, the succession of the Princess Imperial to the throne might be secured in tlie event of the death or incapacity through old age of the Emperor Dom Pedro. An Infantry l)attallon, onlered to embark for a distant province, mutinied nnd refused to go. The AVar Depart- ment resolved to compel them by force to depart." The result was a general mutiny (November 15, 1889), which soon becnme n revolution. " Tlie organl.ser of the mutiny was Colonel Benjamin Constant Uotellio de Magal- hucs, an otlicer ul' exceptional ability and Pro- fessor in the Military Academy. The' movement seemed directed at first only ngninst the obnoxious Ouro Prcto Ministry ; but the enthusi- asm of the Ucpublicnns, under the leadership of a popular agitator, Jose de Patrocinlo, was so very pronounced, that nt a meeting held in the cky hall, in the afternoon of Nov. 15, a resolu' tion proclaiming the Uepublic was passed by acclamation. About the same hour, a self-con- stituted committee, consisting of General Deo- doro [da Fonscca], Benjamin Constant, and Quintino Bocnyuva, met and organised n Pro- visional Government," with Jlarshnl Dcodoro da Fonseca for its Chief, Colonel Botelho de Magal- hacs for Minister of War. ' ' A formal decree was issued declaring a federal Republic, the several provinces of the late Empire constituting the States and eacli State arranging its own con- stitution and electing its deliberative bodies and local governments. On the morning of the lOth the deposed Emperor received intimation that he and his family must leave the country within twenty-four hours : — ' Between 3 and 3 o'clock on the morning of the 17tli an olHcer appeared at the palace and informed the Emperor that he must at once embark, with all the members of his family. The wn^tched old mnn# protested that he was not a fugitive, and that he preferred to embark by day; but after llstenir. - to tho olllccr's explimatlon that a contliit might iNcur and bliMMl might Iw shed, he finally yielded, protesting that in such n crisis Ills old grey head was the only one that was c(k>1. And so at tho dead hour of night, with no one to say a fare- well and bid him G(Kl-speed, the aged Kmperor, witli his devoted wife and children, went down to the Caes Phanmx, where a launch was wait- ing to v.wvey them out to the sniull gunboat Parnahvba. About 10 oVlo(!k the gunboat hteameil out of the harbour nnd went down to Illia Grande to wait for the merchant steamer Alngoas, which had been <:hartered tocimvey tho exiles to Europe'. ... It wils said tlint tho Imperial Mlnl.stry, principally through tho instrumentality of Ouro Preko, had arranged with Dom Pedro to nlxilcate at the end of January, 1800, In favour of his daughter, tho Countess d'Eu. But the Countess, with her husband, was extremely unpopuhir with tho army nnd navy, nnd from these the feeling of dlsloj-alty spread rapidly among i\w people. By decree of the Provisional Government, tho provinces of Brazil, united by the tie of feder- ation, were to be styled tlie ' United States of Brazil,' and general elections were to take placo in August, 1800, to coullrm tiie establishment of the Hepublic. A counter-revolution broke out in Uio on Dec. 18. A numljcr of soldiers, sailors, and civilians took part in it, and troops had to bo ordered out to disperse them. It wns not until the 20th that the disturbance was finally (luelled. " — Aniiiiid ItiniHtei; 1880, pt. 1, pp. 444-448.— "Tlie revolution was the work of leaders who were not only conscious of tlielr jiower, but also confident that the nation would Inevitably con- done their teini)orary acts of usurpation. There were no signs of weakness, vneillalion or uncer- tainty in their action. ... A coalition of tho anny otiicers and the constitution-makers nnd political dreamers of the League would havo lx>en imprncticablo if the leaders had not known that the 20 ))rovliicc8 of the Empire were pro- foundly disaffected nnd would readily acquiesce in a radical cliango of government. . . . The Emperor of Brazil has enjoyed tlic reputation of being one of tho most enlightened nnd pro- gressive sovereigns of his time. . . . lie wns a ruler with many fascinating and estimable traits, who endeared himself to his people. This nnd much more may be said in praise of the deposed and banished Emperor; but when the record of his public services and of his private virtues is complete, tho fact remains that he stocKl for a system oif centralization that pmcticnlly deprived the great series of federated provinces of their nutouoniy nnd his subjects of the privileges of self-government. Dom Pedro IT. wns not a con- stitutionnl reformer. The charter whlcli he had received from his fnthcr was not modified in nny essential respect during his long reign. " — N. T. Tribune Extra, v. 1, no. 13 (1880).- "A new Constitution . . . was ratified by the first National Congress, convened on Nov. 15, 1890. By this instrument tho Brnzilinn nation consti- tuted itself into a federal republic, under the name of the United States of Brazil. Ench of the old provinces wns declared a self-governing state, to be administered under a repuJ)llcan form of government, with i)ower to impose taxes, and subject to no interference from the Central Government, except for purposes of national 3U BRAZIL, 1880-1801. BREITENFELD. (lofpiiw- or tho prpsorvnflon of intornnl order or for tlir cxcciitidii of Kt'ilcnil Iiiwh. l/*'f(iHliktion rcliititi){ to cuHtonis, [..ipor ciirrciicy, iiml postal foininuiiiciitionH Is nwrvcil to tliv Fi'doriil Oovcriiinent. Tlio right of HiifTraKe im«'ciin'<l to all iniilo citizpiiN over 31 yearH old, with tlu; C'xcoption of U'ggnn, poraoiis if^noraiit of tho alplialipt, KoldiurH in actual Horvico, and pcrson.s iitKltT iiioiiatttic vowH, reditu ration hcinK the; only nrcriMiulsitc. The executive authority is vested in the President . . . elected by tlii, people directlv for the term of 8ix years, and . . . not eligihlo for the succeeding term. . . . Bcnators are elected by the Lcgislatvires of the States for nine yi'urs, three from each Htate, one retiring and his nucccssor being cliosen every three years. . . . 'I'lii^ (;haml)er of Deputies has the initiative in nil laws relating to taxation. Deputies arc elected for three years by direct popular vote in tlio proporliim of one to every iO,(K)() Inliabitanls. . , . It is declared that no sect or church sliall receive aid from the National or State governments." In 1801, differences arose between tlie President and Congress, at flrst over llnaneial measures passed by the Chambers and vetoed by tho President and schemes recommended by tho President that were voted down by Congress. In November the President publislied a decree dissolving Congress, clos<'<l the Chamliers by force, pro- claimed himself Dictator on the invitation of ofllcers of tlie amiy, and convoked a new Con- gress, to be charged with the revision of tlio constitution. Tlie State of Uio Grande do Sul led olT in a revolt against this usurpation, and on tlie 2;Jd of November, after some shots had been tired into tlie city of Kio de ilaneiro by a naval scjuadrou acting against him, President Fonseca resigned. " Fmriano Pei.\oto was immediately instjilied by the revolutionary committee as President in his 8t«ad . . . and the country soon settled down under tlie new government." — Appleton's AiuiiitU Cjichixtdia 1891, pp. 01-96. — "When Deodoro, after struggling for twelve months witli tlie factions in Congress, closed the doors of Sao Christovao Palace and proclaimed a dictatorship, ho had recourse to a familiar expedient of Latin-American civilization. The speedy collapse of his administration, when it was wholly (lepcndcnt upon military force, was a good augury for the future of Brazil. ... la the early days of the Ucpublic, the Provisional Ministry were unable to agree upon tho radical policy of disestablishing the Church. . . . Forti'nately for Unizil tliere was no compromise of tlio disestablishment question. . . . Under the Constitution no religious denomination was permitted to liold relations of dependence upon, or alliance witli, the fedenil or State governments. . . . Every church was made free in the free State. Civil marriage was recognized as essen- tial. . . . Perhaps tlio most hopeful sign for the cause of progress and religion is tho adoption of educational sulTrage. "— I. N. Ford, Trofneal America, c/i. 4.— See Constitution of Bkazil. » BREAD AND CHEESE WAR. See Netiikklands: a. D. 143'3-Uy3. BRECKINRIDGE, John C— Defeat in Presidential election. See United States ok A.M. : A. D. 1800 (Apuii.— Nove.mbek). BREDA: A. D. 1575.— Spanish-Dutch Con- gress. See NETiiEKiiANus: A. D. 1575-1577. 21 A. D. 1590.— Cftpture by Prince Maurice of Nassau-Orange. Sp(' Netheiii.anuh: A. I). l.-iMH-i,',!);!. A. O. 1634-1635.— Siege and capture by the Spaniards. See NCTHKiti.ANim; .V. I). 1(121- l(ia:t. A. D. 1637.— Taken by the Prince of Orange. See Netiikhi.andh: A. f>. ltl;«-ltKtH. A. D. 1793.— Taken and lost by the French. See FuANCE: A. 1). 17y;MFKimiiAUY— APiiir.). B'^EDA, Declaration from. Sco Enui,aj«d: A. D. KiriH- 1(1(10. BREDA, Treaty of (1666). See Nether- l,ANi)s(IIi)i,i,ANl)): A. 1). inOS-lflfld. BREED'S HILL (Bunker Hill), Battle of. See I'.MTEi) Statics «)K A.M. : A. D. 1775 (.Iine). BREHON LAWS— "The portion of tho Irisli tribe Hystem which has attracted most attention is the mode in which the Judici,,! authority was withdrawn from the chief and n))- pronriated by the hereditary caste of the lireiions, and also tho siiiiposed anomaloim principles which they applieil to the decision of tho cases whicrh eanie before them. The earlier Englisli writers found no terms too strong to ex- press tlieir abhorrence and contempt of these native judges, and their contempt for the prin- ciples upon which they proceeded. On the other hand, Irish writers attributed to these profes- sional arbitrators advanced principles of e(iuity wholly foreign to an early community. . . . The translation of the existing va.st ma.ss of Brehon law books, and the translation [publication?] of tlio most important of them by the order of tlie government, have dispo.sed of the arguments and a.ssertions on both sides.. It is now ad- mitted, that the system and princijiles of the Brehon jurisprudence jiresent no characteristies of any special cliaracter, although in them primitive ideas of law were elaborated in a manner not found elsewhere; . . . the laws which existed among tho native Irish were in substance those which are found to have pro- vailed among other Aryan tribes in a similar stage of social progress; as the social develop- ment of the nation was prematurely arrested, so also were the legal ideas of the same stage of existence retained after tliey had disappeared in all other nations of Europe. This legal survival continued for centuries the property of an hereditary caste, who had acquired the knowl- edge of writing, and some tincture of scholastic philosophy and civil law. . . . The learning of the Brelions consisted (1) in an acquaintance with tho minute ceremonies, intelligible now onl^ to an archa'ologist, and not alwaj's to him, by which tlie action could be instituted, and without wliich no Brehon could assume the role of arbitrator; and (3) in a knowledge of the traditions, customs and precedents of the tribe, in accordance with which the dispute should be- decided." — A. G. Riclicy, Short llint. of the IrUh People, eh. 3. Also in: Sir II. Maine, Early Hist, of Iii- ttitutions. lect. 3. BREISACH: A. D. 1638.— Siege and cap- ture by Duke Bernhard. See Geu.manv: A. D. 1034-1(139. A. D. 1648.— Cession to France. See Ger- many: A. I). 1G4H. BREITENFELD, Battle of (or first battle of Leipsic). See Gek-hany: A. D. 1031 315 nUEITENFELD. BRETWALDA. The second battle of (1642). Sl'o Gehmany: A. I). Hiio-uur). BREMEN: I3th-I5th Centuries.— In the Hanscatic League. Sec IIansa Towns. A. D. 1525 — Formal establishment of the Reformed Religion. .Sec; Pai-acv: A. 1). {■>'ii- 1525. A. D. 1648. — Cession of the Bishoprick to Sweden. Sec (jKU.many: A. 1). 1048. A. D. 1720.— The Duchy ceded to the Elec- tor of Hanover. Seo Scandinavian States (SwKUi-.N): A. 1). 1710-1721. A. D. 1801-1803.— One of six free cities which survive the Peace of Luneville. >5ee Geum.vny: a. 1). 1H01-18(W. A. D. 1810. — Annexed to France. See France: A. I). 1810 (Feiiuuauy — Dkce.mhku). A. D. 1810-1815.— Loss and recovery of autonomy as a "free city." See Cities, Im- i'EUIAI, AND FllEE, OK GeU.MANY. A. D. i8r^. — Once more a Free City and a member of the Germanic Confederation. See Vienna, The Congkess oe. A. D. 1888. — Surrender of free privileges. — Absorption in the ZoUverein and Empire. See GEI1.M.VNY: A. D. 1888. BREMI : A. D. 1635-1638.— Taken by the French. — Recovered by the Spaniards, See Italy; A. I). lOao-KioO. BRfiMULE, Battle of (1119). Sec Eng- land: A. I). 1087-113.'). BRENHIN, The Cymric title. See Rome: B V. ;i9()-347. BRENNI, The. See Rii.stians. BRENTFORD, Battle of.— Fought and won by E;!::;',;;;d Ir^iiside.s in his contest with Cuut, or Ciinute, for the English throne A. D. 1016. BRESCIA: A. D. 1512.— Capture and pil- lage by the F.-ench. See Italy: A. D. 1510- 15i:!. A. D. 1849. — Bombardment, capture and brutal treatment by the Austrian Haynau. See Italy: A. D. 1848-1849. BRESLAU : A. D. 1741-1760.— In the wars of Frederick the Great. See Austuia: A. I). 1741 (May— .June); 1743 (Januauy— May); 1743 (June); Gekmany: A. D. 1757 (July— Decem- DEU), and 1760. BREST: A. D. 1694.— R 'se of the English fleet. See France: A. „ J94. BRETAGN.E. See Britt.vny. BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LOT OR COMMON LIFE.— " The Societies of the Beguines, Beghiuds, and Lollards [see Bequines], wliieh from the flrst laboured under various de- fects and imperfections, had in course of lime degenerated, and by their own fault, either fallen to pieces of themselves, or been sappressed. The two things, however, still existed, viz., the prop.'iisity to religious association, . . . and, likewise, th ■ outward condition, which required and rendered i,racticable the efforts of benevo- lence and charity, strengthened by cooperation. The asv was particularly the case lu the Nether- lands, and most in the northern provinces. . . . Heie, then, the In.stitutc of the Common Lot takcS its rise. . . . The first author of this new series of evolutions was Gerhard Groot (Geert Groete or do Groot, Gerhardus Magnus), a man of glowing piety, and great zeal in doing good, a powerful popular orator and an affectionate friend of youth [1340-1384]. . . . His affection for Holy Scripture and the ancient Fathers kin- dled in Gerhard's bo.soin the liveliest zeal for col- lecting the records of Christian antiquity. . . . Hence, he had long before employed young men, under his oversight, as copyists, theretjy ac- complishing the threefold end of inulliplyiug these good theological works, giving protilablo employment to the youths, and obtaining an op- ])()rtunity of influencing their iniuils. This he continued more and more to do. The circle of his youthful friends, scholars, and transcriliers, became from day to day larger, and grew at length into a regular society. Having thus in part owed its origin to the copying of tlio Scrip- tures and devotional books, the Society from the outset, and through its whole continuance, made the Holy Scripture and its projiagation, the copying, collecting, preserving, and utilizing of gooil theological and ascetical books, one of its main objects. . . . The members were called ' Brethren of the Common Lot,' [or of the Com- mon Life] or 'Brethren of Good Will,' 'Fratrcs Collationarii,' ' Jeronymians,' and ' Gregorians.' . . . Imitating the Church at Jerusalem, and prompted by brotherly affection, they mutually shared with each other their earnings and prop- erty, or consecrated also their fortune, if they Ijossessed any, to the service of the community. From this source, and from donations and lega- cies made to them, arose the ' Brother-houses,' 'u each of which a certain number of members lived together, subjected, it is true, in dress, diet, and general way of life, to an appointed rule, but yet not conventually sequestered from the world, with which they maintained constant intercourse, and in such a way as, in opposition to Monach- ism, to preserve the principle of individual liberty." — C. UUmann, lief ormcrk before the lit for- mation, V. 8, pt. 3, ch. 1. — "Through the won- derful activity of that fraternity of teachers, begun about 1300, called the Brethren of the Common Life, the Netherlands had the first sys- tem of common schools in Europe. These schools flourished in every large town and almost in every village, so that popular education was the rule." — W. E. Gritlls, T/ie Influence of t/ie jS'etherlandi, p. 8. Also in: S. Kettlcwell, Thomas d Keinpis and the Brothers of Common Life, ch. 5-0 (v. 1). BRETHREN OF THE FREE SPIRIT. See Beouines. BRETIGNY, Treaty of.— The treaty, called at the time " the great peace," concluded Jlay 8, 1360, between Edward III. of England and John II. of France, in which Edward renounced his pretensions to the French crown, released for a ransom King Jolni, then a prisoner in his hands, and received the full sovereignty of Guicnne, Poitou and Ponthieu in France, besides retaiu'ug Calais and Guisnes. — See France: A. D. 1337- 1300. BRETWALDA.— A title given to some of the early English kings. " Opinions differ a? to the meaning of the word Bretwalda. Palgri.ve and Lappenberg take it as equivalent to ' ruler of Britain': Kemble construes it 'broad-ruling,' and sees in it a dignity without duty, hardly more than an ' accidental predominance. (Saxons in England, ii., 18.) 'The list of those who obtained.. this ' "atus' includes Ethelbert of Kent, who broke .ao power of the potty kiuga 316 BHETWALDA. BniSTOL. as far as the Humber, Rodlmld of East Ani?lia, who obtained it bj- soino nicaiis even in tlie life- tiini! of Etlii'lbcrt, and tlio tliroe pretxt Nortli- umbrian l<ings, Edwin, Oswold and Oswv, wlioso supremacy liowcver did not exlcnil to kcnt." — C. Eltou, Ofi'iiiis rif EiuiUsh Hixt., p. 31)3, note. Also in: E. A. Freeman, Jliit. of the Xuriiuin Com/, of /•Jiir/., V. 1, npp, li. — SSee, also, Enolani): A. 1). 477-537, aii<l Enoland: 7tii ('i;ntii!V. BREWSTER, William, and the Plymouth Pilgrims. See Ini)i-;i'i:m)i;nts: A. 1). 10(U-1G17, anil .MAssAciiusinTs: A. 1). 1020, and after. BREYZAD.— The i)eople and the languafrc of Ibittanv, or Hretagne. See BitlTTANY: A. 1). 81H-0r2. BRIAN BORU, The reign in Ireland of. See Iui:i,a\d: A. 1). 1011. BRIDGE, Battle of the.— A serious reverse sulfered by the Arab followers of Jlahomet in their early movements against the Persians, A. D. 034. A force of 'J^OOO or 10,000 having crossed the Euphrates by a bridge of boats were beaten back, their bridge destroyed and half of them slain or drowned. — G. J{awlinsoii, t^icciith Great Orientitl Miinnrehu, ch. 20. — See Maiio.nie- TAN Conquest: A. O. 6;i2-6r)l. BRIDGE WATER, OR LUNDY'SLANE, Battle of. See UNiri;D Statics ok Am. : A. D. 1814 (July — SEi-TUMniiu). BRIDGEWATER, Storming of. See Eno- iiANo; A. 1). 1045 (,Il"ly— Sei'tkmuku). BRIENNE, Battle of. See Fhance : A. D. 1814 (.Januauy— Mauuh). BRIGANTES, The.— One of the strongest and fiercest of the tribes of ancient Britain, be- lieved by some historians to have been the origi- nal prc-Celtic inhabitants of the Island. At the time of the Koman conquest they held the whole interior northward from the Humber uud Mersey to the Forth and Clyde. Vhey wore subdued by Agricola. — E, Guest, Oni/iiifn Cclticm, v. 1, cli. 1. — See, also, Britain, Celtic Tuibes, and A. I). 43-53; also, Iuelanu, Tuides of Eauly Celtic lNllAniT.\NTS. BRIGANTINE.— BERGANTIN. See Cauavei.s. BRIHUEGA, Battle of (A. D. 1710). Sec Si'AJ.v ; A. D. 1707-1710. BRILL, The capture of. See Netueulands: A. D. 1572. BRISBANE. See Australia : A. D. 1800- 1840, and 1859. BRISSOT DE WARVILLE AND THE GIRONDISTS. See Fuance : A. D. 1791 (OcTonKU), to 1703 (Septemueh — Decembeu). BRISSOTINS.— The party of the Giron- dists, in the French I^cvoliition, was sometimes so called, after Brissot de Warville, one of its leaders. BRISTOE STATION, Battle of. See United States ov Am. : A. D. 1803 (July— No- VE.MiiKit: Viuuinia). BRISTOL : 12th Centurj;.— Its slave trade and other commerce. — "Within its compara- tively narrow limits Bristol must have been in general character and aspect not unlike what it is to-day — a bu-sy, bu.stling, closely-packed city, full of the eager, active, surging life of com- mercinl enterprise. Ostmen from Watcrford and liublin, Northmen from the Western Isles and the more ilistant Drkneys, and even from Norway itself, had long iigo learnt to avoid the shuck of the ' Uigru, ' the mighty uurruut which still kept its heathen name derived from the scii- god of their forefathers, and make it serve to float thi'm into the safe and conmuxlious har- bour of Bristol, where a thousand ships could ride at aiieli(a\ As the great trading centric of till! west Bristol riudced as the third city in tho kingdom, surpassed in importance only "by AVin- cliestcr and London. The most lucrative branch of its trade, however, retleets no credit on its burghers. All the elo(|iience of S. Wulfstan and all the .sternness of the ('on([ueror had barely availed to check for a while their practice of kidnapping men for tiie Irisli slave-market; and that the tnidle was in lull Ciireer in the latter years of Henry I. we learn from Hu! experiences of the canons of Laon." — K. Xorgato, EuyUtiul under t/ie Aui/iriii Kiiii/n. r. 1, c!i. 1. A. D. 1497. — Cabot's voyage of discovery. See Ami:iit<a: A. 1). 1197. A. D. 1645. — The storming of the city by Fairfax. See E.soi.ani): A. 1). 1015 (.1i:i,y— SlCl'TEMnEll). A. D. 1685. — The commerce and wealth of the city. — " Xext to the capital, but next at an immense distance, stood Bristol, then the first English seaport. . . . Pepys, who visited Bris- tol eight j-ears after the lU'storation, was struck by the splendour of the city. But nis standard was not high ; for he notctl down as a wonder tho circumstance that, in Bristol, a man might look round him and see nothi'ig but houses. ... A few churches of eminent beauty rose out of a labyrinth of narrow lanes built upon vaults of no great solidity. If a coach or cart entered those alleys, there was danger tnat it would be wedged between the housc-j, and daugcir also that it would break in the cellars. Goods were thcreforo conveyed about the town almost exclusively in trucks drawn by dogs; and the richest inhabit- ants exhibited their wealth, not by ridiig in carriages, but by walking the streets with trains of servants in rich liveries and by keeping tables loaded with good cheer. The hospitality of the city was widely renowned, and especially tho collations with wiiich the sugar retiuers regaled their visitors. . . . This luxury was supported by a thriving trade with the North American Plantations and with the West Indies. The pas- sion for coUmial trallic was so strong tlrat there was scarcely a small shopkeeper in Bristol who had not a venture on board of some ship bound for Virginia or the Antilles. Some of these ven- turers indeed were not of the most honourablo kind. There was, in the Transatlantic posses- sions of the crown, a great demand for labour; and this demand was i)artly supplied by a .system of crimping and kidnapping at the , •incipal English seaports. Nowhere was this system in such active and extensive operation as at Bristol. . . . The number of houses ai)pear.s, from the returns of the hearth-money, to have been, in the year 168.5, just 5,300. . . . The population of Bri.stol must therefore have been about 29,000. " — Lord Macaulav, I/ist. of Kii'j., ch. 3 {i\ 1). A. D. 1831.— The lieform Bill Riots.— Tho l)opular excitement produced in lOngland in 1831 by the action of the House of Lords in rejecting the Ueform Bill, led to riots in several places, but most seriously at Bristol. "The Bristol moba have always been noted for their brntidity; and the outbreak now svas such as to amaze and con- found the the whole kingdom. . . . The lower parts of the city wcio the harbourage of probably 317 BRISTOL. BRITAIN. ft worse seaport populncc than any other place in Enghind, wliile the police was ineffective ami de- moralised. There was no city In which a greater amount of savagery lay bcneatli a society proud, exclusive, and mutually repellent, ratlier tliaii enlightened and accustomed to social co-opera- tion. These are circumstimces which go far to account for the Bristol riots being so fearfully bad as they were. Of this city, Sir Cliarle's AVctherell — tlien at the height of his unpopularity as a vigorous opponent of the Iteform Bill — was recorder ; and there he had to go, in the last days of October, in his judicial capacity. . . . The symptoms of discontent were such as to induce the mayor, Jfr. Pinuey, to apply to the honie- oftlco for military aid. Lord Melbourne sent down some troops of horae, which were quartered within reach, in the neighbourhood of tlie city. . . . Kir Charles Wethcrell could not be induced to relinquish his public entry, though warned of the danger by the magistrates themselves. . . . On Saturday, October 20, Sir Charles Wethcrell entered Bristol in pomp ; and before he reached the Mi>i8ion House at noon, he must have been pretty well convinced, by the hootings and tnrowing of stones, that he had better have fore- gone the procession. For some hours the snecial constables and the noisy mob In front of the Man sion House exchanged discourtesies of an em phatic character, but there was no actual violence |till night. At night, the Mansion House was attacked, and the Riot Act was read; but the military were not brought down, as they ought to have been, to clear the streets. The mayor had ' religious scruples,' and was ' humane ' ; and his Indecision was not overborne by any aid fror/x his brother-magistrates. When the mili- tary were brought in, it was after violence had been committed, and when the passions of the mob were much excited. Sir Charles Wethcrell escaped from the city that night. During the dark hours, sounds were heard provocative of further riot; shouts in the streets, and the ham- mering of workmen who we? i boarding up the lower windows of the Mansion House and the neighbouring dwellings. On the Sunday morn- ing, the rioters broke into the Mansion House without opposition ; and from the time they got into the cellars, all went wrong. Hungry wretches and boys broke the necks of the bottles, and Queen Stiuare was strewed with the bodies of the dead-drunk. Tlie soldiers were left with- out orders, and their ofHcera without tliat Siuic- tion of tlic magistracy in the ab.sence of wliich they coidd not act, but only iiaradc; and in this parading, some of the soldiers naturally lost their tempers, and spoke and made gestures .)n their own account, which did not tend to the soothing of the mob. This mob never consisted of more than five or six hundred. . . . The mob declared openly what they were going to do ; and they went to work unchecked — armed witli staves and bludgeons from the quayp, and with iron palisades from the Mansion House — to break open and burn the bridewell, the jail, the bishop's ])alace, the custom-house, and Queen Square. They gave half an hoar's notice to the inhabitants of each house in the square, wliieh they tlien .set tire to in regular succession, till two sides, each measuring n.lO feet, lay in smoking ruins. Tlie bodies of the drunken were seen roasting in the Are. The greater number of the rioters were be- lieved to bo uuder twenty years of age, and some were mere children; some Sunday scholars, hitherto well conducted, and it may be ques- tioned whether one in ten knew anything ■ t the Reform Bill, or the offences of Sir Charles Weth- crell. On the Monday morning, after all actual riot seemed to be over, the soldiery at last made two slaughterous charges. More horse arrived, and a considerable bixly of foot soldiers; and the constabulary became active; and from that time the city was in a more orderly state than the resi- dents were accustomed to see it. . . . The magis- trates were brought to trial, and so was Colonel Brereton, who was understood to be in command of the whole of the military. The result of that court-martial caused more emotion throughout the kingdom than all the slaughtering and burn- ing, ancl the subsequent executions which marked that fearful season. It was a year before the trial of the magistrates was entered \ipon. The result was the acquittal of the mayor, and the consequent relinquishment of the prosecution of his brother-magistrates." — H. Martineau, A His- tory of tlie Tliirty Years' Peace, bk. 4, ch. i (v. 2). » BRIT AIN,Count and Duke of.— The military commanders of Roman Britain. Sec Bhitain : A. I). iJ'->l!-;i;i7, also Arthur, Kino. BRITAIN, The name. See Britannia. Celtic Tribes. — "It appears that the south- eastern part of the island, or the district now oc- cupied by the county of Kent, was occupied by the Cantii, a large and influential tribe, which in Cresar's time, was divided among four chiefs or kings. To the west, the Regni held the modern counties of Sussex and Surrey, from the sea-coast to the Thames. Still farther west, the Belgaj oc- cupied tlie country from the southern coast to the Bristol Channel, including nearly the whole of Hampshire, Wiltshire and Somersetshire. The whole of the extensive district extending from the Bclgaj to the extreme western point of the island, tliencalled AntivestsBumorBoleriuin (now the Land's End) including Devonshire and Corn- wall, was occupied by the Dumnonii, or Dam- nonii. On the coast between the Dumnonii and the Belgie the smaller tribe of the Durotriges held the modern county of Dorset. On the other side of the Thames, extending northwards to the Stour, and including the greater part of Middle- sex as well as Essex, lay the Trinobantes. To the north of the Stour dwelt the Iceiii, extending over the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge and Huntingdon. Tlio Coritavi possessed the present counties of Northampton, Leicester, Rut- land, Dcrl)y, Nottingham and Lincoln; and the S(;uth-easteru part of Yorkshire was held by the Parisi. Between the tribes la.st enumerated, in the counties of Buckingham, Bedford and Hert- ford, lay the tribe called by Ptolemy the Cat- yeuchlaiii, and by others Catuvellani. Another name, apparently, for this tribe, or for a ilivision of it, was the Cassii. West of these were the Atrebates, in Berkshire; and still further west were the Dobuni, in the counties of Oxford and Gloucestc. . . '''lie interior of the island north- ward was occupied by the Brigantes, who held the exten.sive districts, ditiicult of approach ou aceount of their mountains and woods, extend- ing from the Ituniber and the Jlersey to the present borders of Scotland. This extensive tribe apjiears to have included several smaller ones [tlie Voluntii, the Sestuntii, the Jugantes and the Cangi]. The Brigantes are believed to 318 BRITAIN. BRITAIN, A. D. 43-58. have been the originftl inhabitants of tlie inland, wlio liad been driven nortliward by successive in- vasions. . . . Wales, also, was inliabitcd by a primitive population. Tlie nortliern counties . . . was the territory of the Ordovices. The south- eastern counties . . . were held by the Demetae. Tlic still more celebrated tribe of the Silures in- habited the modern counties of Hereford, Riulnor, Brecknock, Monmouth and Glamorgan. Between these and the Brigantes lay the Cornabii or Carn- abii. The wilder parts of the island of Britain, to the north of the Brigantes, were inhabited by a great number of smaller tribes, some of whom seem to have l)een raised in the scale of civiliza- tion little above savages. Of these we have the names of no less than twenty-one. Bordering on the Bri;tantes were the Otadcni, inhabiting the coast from the Tyne to the Firth of Forth. . . . Next to them were tb" Qadeni. . . . The Selgovoe inhabited Annandale, Nitlisdale and Eskdule, in Dumfriesshire, with tlie East of Gallo- way The Novantes inhabited the remainder of Galloway. The Daiuuii, a larger tribe, held the country from the chain of hills separating Gal- loway from Carrick, northward to the river Em. These tribes lay to the south of the Forth and Clyde. Beyond the narrow boundary formed by these rivers lay [the Horestii, the Venricones or Vernicomes, the Taixali or Taexali, the Vaco- magi, the .S">ani, the Cantte, the Logi, the Carnabii, the Catini, the Mertaj, the Carnonaca;, the Creones, the Cerones, and the Epidii]. The ferocious tribe of the Attacotti inhabited part of Argyleshire, and the greater part of Bumbarton- shire. The wild forest country of the interior, known as the Caledonia Sylva (or Forest of Cel- yddon), extended from the ridge of mountains between Inverness and Perth, northward to the forest of Balnagowan, including the middle parts of Inverness and Ross, was held by the Caledonii, wliici; appears to have been at this time [of the conquests of Agricola] the most important and powerful of all the tribes north of the Brigantes." — T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon, cli. 2. Also in: J. Rhys, Celtic Britain. — J. F. Skene, Celtic Scotlaml, bk. 1, eh. 3. B. C. 55-54. -Csesar's invasions. — Having extended hi.s conquests in Gaul to the British Channid and the Strait of Dover (see Gaul: B. C. 158-51), CiBsar crossed the latter. In August, B. C. iiS, and made his tirst landing in Britain, with two legions, numl)ering8,000tol0,000mcn. Portus Ilius, from which he sailed, was probably either Wissant or Boulogne, a.ul his landing place on the British coast is believed to liave been nei r Deal. The Britons disputed his land- ing with great obstinacy, but were driven back, and olfered to submit; but when a few days afterwards, Ca'sar's fleet suffered greatly from a Btorm, tliey reconsidered their submission and opened hostilities again. Rcjuted in a second battle, tliey once more sued for peace, and gave hostages; whereupon Cicsar reembarked his troops and returned to the continent, having remained in Britain not more tlian three weeks and penetrated the island a short distance only. The following summer he crossed to Britain again, determined on making a thorougli con- quest of the country. This time he bad live legions at his back, with two th' usaml hoi-se, and the expedition was embarkcl on more than eight hundred ships. He sailed i'lom and landed at the same points as before. Having established and garri.soned a fortified camp, he advance<l into the country, encountering and defeating the Britons, tirst, at a river, supposed to be the Sfour which flows past Canterbury. A storm which damaged his fleet then interrupted his advance, compelling him to return to the coast. When tlie disaster had been repaired he marched again, and again found the cr.;nny on the Stour, nfekSembled under the command „f"Cassivelaunu8, whose kingdom was north of the Thames. He dispersed them, after much lighting, with great slaughter, and crossed the Thames, at a point, it is supposed, near the junction of the Wey. Thence he pushed on until he reached the " oppi- (lum " or stronghold of Cassivelaunus, which is believed by some to have been on the site of the imxlerntown of St. Albans, — but ihc point is a disputed one. On receiving the sibmission of CassivelaMnus, and of other chiefi, or kings, fixing the tribute they should pay ami tiiking hostages, Coesar returned to the coast, reem- barked his army and withdrew. His stay in Britain on this occasion was about sixty days. — Cojsar, Qallie War, bk. 4, ch. 20-3(>, and bk. 7, ch. 7-33. Also in: H. M. Scarth, lioman Britain 'ch. 2. — G. Long, Decline of tfie Roman Republic, c. 4, ch. 9 and 11-12. — T. Lewin, Invasion of Britain by C(tsar. — F. T. Vine, Ceesar in Kent. — E. Guest, Origines CfUicm, v. 2. A. D. ■ 3-53. — Conquests of Claudius. — Nearly a ' undred years passed after Cajsar's hasty invasion of Britain before the Romans reappeared on the island, to enforce their claim of tribute. It was under the fourth of the im- jicrial successors of Julius Cajsar, the feeble Claudius, that the work of Roman conquest in Britain •. -as really begun. Aulus Plautius, who commanded in Gaul, was sent over with four legions, A. D. 43, to obtain a footing and to smooth the way for the Eniiieror's personal cam- paign. With him went one, Vesjiasian, who began in Britain to win the fame which pusiicd him into the imperial seat and to a great place in Roman history. Plautius and Vespasian made good their occupation of the country as far as the Tliames, and planted their forces strongly on the northern bank of that river, be- fore th-^y summoned the Emperor to their aid. Claudius came before the clo' e of the military season, and his vanity was gia'itled liy the nomi- nal leading of an advance on the chief oppiduia, or stronghold of the Britons, called Camulo- dunum, which occupied the site of the modern city of Colchester. The Trinobantes, whose capital it was, were beater, and the place sur- rendered. Satisfied with this easy victory, tht Emperor returned to Rome, to enjoy the honors of a triumph ; while Vespasian, in command of the second legion, fought his way. foot by foot, into the .southwest of the island, and subjugated the obstinate tribes of that region. During the next ten years, under the command of Ostorius Scapula, who sueceeaed Plautius, and Avitiis Didius Gallus, who succeeded Ostorius, the Ilomiiii power was firmly settled in southern Bri- tain, from the Stour, at the East, to the Exe and the Severn at the West. The Silures, of South Wales, who had resisted most stubbornly, under Caractacus, the fugitive Trinobantine prince, were subduc;d and Caractacus made captive. The Iceui (in Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridge- 319 BRITAIN, A. D. 43-53. BRITAIN, A. I). 78-84. shire) werr reduced from allies Id s\illcn dciicnd- eirts. The lJrij;iuit('S, i lost powerful of all the tribes, and who held the ;,'reiiter part of the whole north of modern Knjrlanrl, were still in- dependent, hut distnicted hy internal dissen-sions which Roman inlluenee was active in keejiinj^ iilive. Thi.s, stated brietly, was the extent to which the conquest of Britain wius carried dur- ing the reign of Claudius, — between A. L 43 and 54. — C. Merivale, Uist. of the llomans, ch. 51. Also in : E. Quest, Orif/ines Celticcp, v. 3, pt. 2, ch. 13. — II. 51. Scarth, Roman Bntain. eh. 4. — See, also, ('oi.cnKSTKlt, OuKii.v of. A. D. 6i.--Campaigns of Suetonius Pauli- nus. — From \. D. 50 to 01, while Didius Oallus and his siu-cessor Veranius commanded in Britain, nothing was done to extend the Roman acquisitioug. In the latter year, Suetonius Paulinus en me to the command, and a stormy period o{ war ensued. His firet movement was to attpck the Druids in the isle of Mona, or Anglesey, into which they ha<l retreated from (iaul and Britain, in successive flights, before the implacable hostility of Rome. "In this gloomy lair, secure ai)pareutly, though shorn of might and dignity, they stiil persisted in the practice of their unholy superstition. . . . Here they retained their assemblies, their .schools, and their oracles ; here was the asylum of the fugi- tives; here was the sacred grove, the abode of the awful deity, whieli in tlie stillest noon of night or day the priest liimself scarce ventured to enter lest ho should rush unwittingly into the presence of its lord. " From Segontium (modern Uaernarvon) Suetonius crossed the Menai Strait on rafts and boats with one of his legions, the Bataviau cavalry swinnning their horses. The landing was liercely disputed by women and men, priesl.s and worshippers; but Roman valor bore down all resistance. "From this moment tlie Druids disappear from the page of history; they were exterminated, we may believe, upon their own altars; for Suetonius took no half measures." This accomplished, tlie Roman conunandcr was quickly called upon to meet a terrific outburst of patriotic rage on the part of the i)owerfid nation of the Iceni, who oc(-ui)ied the region now forming the counties of SutTolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and llun'iugdon. They had been allies of the Romans, ijrst; then tribu- taries, under their own kirg, and finally sul)- jects, much oppressed. Tlieir last king, Prasu- tagus, had vaiidy hoped to v;in favor for his wife and childien, when he died, by bequeath- ing his kingdom to the Roman State. But the widowed queen, Boudicea, or Boadicea, and her daughters, were only exposed with more help- lessness to the insolence and the outrages of a brutal Roman ollicer. They appealed to their people and maddened them by the cxposi;re of indescribable wrongs. T( ■ rising which ensued was tierce and general beyond precedent. "The Roniari cflicials Hod, or, if arrested, were slaugh- tered ; aiid a vast multitude, armed and unarmed, rolled southward to overwhelm and extirpate the intidders. To the Colne, to the Thames, to the sea, the coimtry lay entirely open." The colony at Camidodunum (Colchester), was de- stroyed; Veridamium (St. Albans), and Lon- dini'um (London), were sacked and burned ; not less than 70,000 of the Remans in Britain were slaughtered without mercy. Suetonius made haste to (put Anglesey when the dreadful news reached him, and pressed, with all speed, along the great highway of Watling Street — gathering \ip his forces in hand as he went — to reach the awful scene of rage and terror. He had col- lected but 10,000 men when he confronted, at last, the vast swarm of the insurgents, on a favorable piece of ground that he had secured, in the neighborhood of Camulodunum. But, once more, the valor of undisciplined serai-barliarism wrecked itself on the iirni shields of the Roman cohorts, and 80,000 Britons are said to have fallen in the merciless light. The insurrection was crushed and Roman authority in Britain re- allirmed. But the grim Suetonius dealt S3 harshly with the broken people that even Romo remonstrated, and he was, |)resently, recalled, to give place to a more pacilic commander. — C. Merivale, lUitt. of the Romans, ch. 51. Also in: II. JI. Scarth, llonvm Bntain, eh. 5. — T. Mommsen, J[ist. of Rome, hk. 8, ch. 5. A. D. 78-84. — Campaigns of Agricola. — For seventeen years after the recall of Suetonius Paulinus (A. D. 61) there was a suspension of Roman conquest in Britain. The military power in the island suffered great demoralization, residting naturally from the chaos of affairs at Rome, between Nerd and Vespasian. Theso conditions ceased soon after the accession of the Flavian Emperor, and he, who had attained first in Britain the footing from which he climbed to the throne. Interested himself in the spreading of his soverignty over tlie whole of tlie British island. C. Julius Agricola was the soldier and statesman — a great man in each character — whom he selected for the work. Agricola was made prefect or Governor of Britain, A. D. 78. "Even in his first summer, when he had beea but a few months in the island, and when none even of his own olUcers expected active service, Agricola led his forces into the country of the Ordovices, in whose mountain passes the war of independence still lingered, <lrove the Britains across the SIcnai Straits and pursued them into Anglesey, as Suetonius had done before him, by boldly crossing the boiling current in the face of the enemy. Another summer saw him advance northward into tlic territory of the Brigantes, and complete the organization of the district, lately reduced, between the llumber and Tyne. Struck perhaps with the natural defences of the line from tlie Tyne to the Solway, where tlm island seems to have broken, as it were, in tlio middle and soldered unevenly together, he drew a chain of forts from sea to sea. ... In the third year of his command, Agricola pushed forward along the eastern coast, and, making good w ith roads and fortresses every inch of his progress, reached, as I imagine, the Firtli of Forth. . . . Here lie repeated the operations of the preceding winter, planting his camps and stations from hiil to hill, and securing a new belt of territory, ninety miles acro.ss, for Roman occupa- tion." The next two years were spent in strengthening his position and organizing his con((uest. In A. D. 83 and 84 lie advanced beyond the Forth, in two campaigns of hard fighting, the latter of which was made memor- able by the famous battle of the Grampians, or Graupius, fought with the Caledonian hero Gal- gacus. At the close of this campi'ign he sent his fleet northward to explore the unknown coast and to awo the remoter tribes, and it is 320 BRITAIN, A. D. 78-84. BRITAIN. A. D. 888-888. clnimcd that tho vessels of Aprioola clrcnmnavi- giitcd the island of Uritiiui, for the lirst time, iiiid saw the Orkneys and Shctlands. The further plans of the sueeessfid prefect were internipteil by his sudden recall. Vespasian, lirst, then Titus, had died while he pursued his victorious course iu Caledonia, and the mean Doinitiau was envious and afraid of his renown. — C. Morivale, Hint, of the Romaiin, eh. 61. Ai.soiN: Tacitus, Agrieola. — Mommscn, IIM. of Home, Ilk. 8, ch. 5. 2d-3d Centuries. — Introduction of Chris- tianity. See ('nuisriAMTY: A. I). lOiMU'-i. A. D. 208-211. — Campaigns of Severus. — A fresh inroad of the wild Caledoniims of the north upon Uoinan Hrilain, in the year 208, caused the Emperor Severus to visit the distant island iu person, with his two worthless scms, Caracall and Geta. lie desired, it is said, to re- move t' 30 troublesome youths from Rome and to subject them to the wholesome discipline of military life. Tho only result, so far as they were concerned, was to give Caracalla opportuni- ties for exciting mutiny among the troops and for making .several attempts against his father's life. But Severus persisted in his residence in Britain during more than two years, and till his death, which occurred at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of February, A. D. 211. During that time he ])rosecuted tho war against tlie Cale- donians with great vigor, penetrating to the northern extremity of tho island, and losing, it is said, above ."50,000 men, more by tho hardships of the climate and the march than by the attacks of the skidking enemy. The Caledonians made a pretence of submission, at last, but wore soon in arms again, lieverus was then preparing to pursue them to extermination, when he died. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Full of the Eoman Em- pire, ch. 6. Also IN: T. Jlommsen, Ilist. <f Home, bk. 8, eh. a. A. D. 288-297. — Rebellion of Carausius.— " During tlie reign of Gallienus [A. D. 200-208] . . . the pirate Hoots of the Franks infested the British seas, and it became needful to have a fleet to protect the coast. The command of tins fleet had been conferred on Carausius, a Alenapiau by birth; but he was suspected of conniving at piracy, in order that he might enrich himself by becoming a sharer iu their booty, when they re- turned laden with i)lunder. To save himself, therefore, from iiunishment, ho UF:irped the im- periid power, A. D. 288, and reigned over Britain for seven years. A vast number of his coins struck in Britain have been pres(!rvcd, so many that the history of Carausius has been written from his medals. lie was slain at length by his minister AUectus, who usurped his power. The Franks Tas allies of AUectus] had wcll-nigli establishtd their power over the south portion of Britain when it was broken by Coiistnntius, the father of Constantino the Great, who defeated AUectus in a decisive battle, in which that usurper was slain. . . . AUectus held the govern- ment of Britjiiii for three years. Many of his coins arc found." — II. M. Scarth, Ro, in Britain, eh. 10. Af.so in: T. AVright, Celt, Raman and Saxon, ch. 4. A. D. 323-337. — Constantine's Organization. — Under tho scheme of government designed by Diocletian audumeuded by Coustantine, " Briiaiu formed part of a vast pro-consulate, extending from .Mount -Vtlas to the Caledonian deserts, and was grn'crned by the Gallic prefect, through a ' vicar ' or deputy at York. The island was divided into live lu'w provinces. . . . Hritain was imder the orders of the Count of Hritain, assisted by the subordinate ollUers. The Duke of Britain cimimanded in the north. The Count of the Saxon Shore, governed the '.Maritime Tract' and provided for the defence of the south- eastern coast. The Saxon Shore on the coast of liritain must not be mistaken for the Saxon Shore on the ojiposite coast of France, the head- (|uarlcrsof which were the harbourof Boulogne. The names of the several provinces into which Britain was divided are given in the 'Notitia,' vi/: — 1. Britamna Prima, which included all the south and west of England, from tho estuary of the Thames to that of the Severn. 2. Britaimia Secunda, which included tho Principality of Wales, bounded by the .Severn on the east and the Irish Channel on the west. 3. Flavia Ca'saricnsis, — all tho middle portion of Britain, from the Thames to the Iltunber and the estuary of the Dee. 4. Maxima Ca'sariensis, — tho Brigantian territory, lying between the- estuaries of the Ilumber and Dee, and the Barrier of the Lower Isthmus. 5. Valentin, — the most northern portion, lying between the barrier of Hadrian and that of Antoninus." — II. JI. Scarth, Iloinan Britain, cJi. 10. A. D. 367-370.— Deliverance by Theodosius. — The distracted conditicm of affairs in the Ro- man Empire that soon followed the death of Coustantine, which was relieved by Julian for a brief term, and which becaiue worse at his death, proved especially ruinous to Roman Bri- tain. The .savage tribes of t'aledonia — the I'icts, now beginning to bo associated with the Scots from Ireland — became bolder from year to yiiar in their incursions, imf il they marched across the whole extent of Britain. "Their path was marked by cruelties so atrocious, that it was be- lieved at the time and recorded by St. Jerome that they lived on human flesh. London, even, was threatened by them, and the whole island, which, like all the other provinces of the Empire, had lost every spark of military virtue, was in- capable of opposing any resistance to them. Theodosius, a Spanish olticer, and father of the great man of the same name who was afterwards associated in the Empire, was charged by Valen- tinian with the defence of Britain. II(' forced tho Scots to fall back (A. I). 367-370), but with- out having been able to bring them to an en- gagement."— J. C. L. do Sismondi, Fall of the ll'iinaii Empire, eh. 5. — "The splendour of the cities and the security of the fortifications were diligently restored by tho paternal euro of Theo- dosiu.s, who with a strong hand coidincd tho trembling Caledonians to the northern angle of the island, and perpetuated, by the name and settlement of the new province of Valentia, tho glories of the reign of Valontinian. " — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. S."). A. D. 383-388.-^Revoltof Maximus.— In38.'), four years after Theodosius the Great hud been associated in the Roman sovereignty by the young Emperor Gratian, and placed on the throne of the Bast, the generous Gralian lost his own throne, and his life, through a revolt that was organized iu Britain. "One Maximus, a Span- iard by birth, occupying u high olBcial position 321 BRITAIN, A. D. 383-388. BRITAIN. A. D. 446. in that province, forced on step !>>' step into in- surrection, by a soldiery and ii people of whom ho appears to hiive been the idol, raised the stiindardof revolt in the island, and piis.sed over into (laid, attended by a larjrci multitude, — 130,000 men and 70,000 women, says Zositnua, the Byzantine historian. This colony, settiinj; in the Armorican peninsula, gave it the name of Brittany, wliicli it has since retained. The rel)el forces were soon victorious over the two Km- perors who had agreed to share the Roman throne [Gratian and his l)oy-1jrother Valentinian who divided the sovereignty of the West between them, while Tlieo<losius ruled tlie East]. Gra- tian they slew at Lyons; Valentinian they speedily expelled from Italy. . . . Theodosius adopted the cause of his brother Emperor " and overtlirew Maximus (see Rome: A. I). 370-395). —J. G. Hhcp])ard, Fall of Home, led. (5. Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 27. A. D. 407. — The Usurpation of Constantine. — " Tlie Roman soldiers in Britain, seeing tlmt the Empire was falling to pieces under tlie feeble sway of llonorius, and fearing lest tliey, too, should soon lie ousted from their dominion iu tlie island (part of which was already known as the Saxon Shore) clotlied three usurpers successively with tlie imperial purple [A. D. 407], falling, as far as social position was concerned, lower and lower in their clioice cadi time. The last and least ephemeral of tliese rulers was a private soldier named Constantine, and chosen for no other reason l)ut his name, wliich was accounted lucliy, as having been already borne by a general who liad been carried by a Britisli army to supreme dominion." — T. \lijAgk\n,\Italy ami Her Invaders, bk. 1, ch. 5. — The usurper Constantino soon led his legions across the channel into Gaul, then ravaged by the Vandals, Sueves, Alans and Burgundians who passed tlie Rhine in 406. lie was welcomed with joy by tlie unhappy people who found theinsclves abandoned to the bar- barians. Some successes which the new Con- stantine had, in prudent encounters with de- tached parties of tlie German invadera, wore greatly magnified, and gave prestige to his cause, [e was still more successful, for a time, in buying the iirecarious friendship of some tribes of the enemy, and made, on tlie whole, a considerable show of dominion in Gaul during two or three years. Tlie seat of his government was estab- lished at Aries, to which city the olHces and court of the Roman Pncfect of Gaul had retreated from Treves in 403. With the help of a considerable army of barbarian auxiliaries (a curious mixture of Scots, Moors and Marcoin- anni) he extended his sovereignty over Spain. He even extorted from the pusillanimous court at Ravenna a recognition of his usurped royalty, and promised assistiinco to llonorius against the Goths. But the tide of fortune presently turned. The lieutenant of Constantine in Spain, Count Gorontius, became for some reason disalTected and crowned a new usurper, named JIaximus. In supiwrt of the latter he attacked Constantino and aliut him up in Aries. At the sanif! time, the Emperor Honorius, at Ravenna, having made peace with the Goths, sent his general Constantius against the Gallo-British usurper. Constantius, approaching Aries, found it already besieged by Gerontius. The latter was abandoned by his troops, and fled, to be slain soon afterwards. Aries capitulated to the representative of the great name which llonorius still bore, as titular Imperator of Rome. ConsUintine was sent to Ravenna, and put to death on the way (A. D. 411). — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lionian Empire, ch. 31. Also in : P. Godwin, Iliitt. of France : Ancient Gaul, hk. 3, cA.lO, A. D. 410. — Abandoned by the Romans. — " Up to the moment . . . when the Impi^rial troops ([uitted Britain, we see them able easily to repel the attacks of its barbarous assailants. When a renewal of their inroads left Britain weak and exhausted at the accession of the Em- peror llonorius, tlie Koman general Stilicho re- newed the triumphs which Theo<losiu8 had won. The Piet was driven back afresh, the Saxou boats chased by his galleys as far as the Orkneys, and the Saxon Shore probably strengtliened with fresli fortresses. But the campaign of Stilicho was the last triumph of the Empire in its western waters. Tlie struggle Rome had waged so long drew in fact to its end; at the opening of tne fifth century her resistance suddenly broke down; and the savage mass of barbarism witli which she had battled broke in upon the Empire. . . . The strength of the Empire, broken everywhere by military revolts, was nowhere more broken than in Britain, where tlic two legions wliieli re- mained quartered at Richborough and York set up more than once their cliiefs as Emperors and followed them across the channel in a march upon Rome. The last of these pretendere, Constantine, crossed over to Gaul in 407 with the bulk of the soldiers quartered in Britain, and the province seems to have been left to its own defence ; for it was no longer the legionaries, but ' the people of Britain ' wlio, ' taking up arms,' repulsed a now onset of the barbarians. . . . Tliey appealed to llonorius to accept their obedience, and replace the troops. But the legions of the Empire were needed to guard Rome Itself: and iu 410 a letter of the Emperor bade Britain provide for its own government and its own defence. Few state- ments are more false than those which picture the British provincials as cowards, or their struggle against the barbarian as a weak and un- worthy one. Nowhere, in fact, through the whole circuit of the Roman world, was so long and so desperate a resistance offered to the as- sailants of the Empire. . . . For some thirty years after the withdrawal of the legions the free province maintained an equal struggle against her foes. Of these she probably counted the Saxons as still the least formidable. ... It was with this view that Britain turned to what seemed the weakest of her assailants, and strove to find . . . troops whom she could use as mer- cenaries against tlie Pict." — J. R. Green, The Making of England, int. Also in: J. M. Lappenberg, Iliat. of Eng. vnder the Anglo-Saxon Kings, v. 1, jip. 574)6. A. D. 446. — The last appeail to Rome. — " Yet once again a supplicating embassy was sent to the Roman general ^tius, during his til ' consulship, in the year 446. . . . JEtiiis wa,~ unable to help them." — J. JI. Lappenberg, Hist, of Eng. uruler the Anglo-Saxon Kings, p. 63. — "The date of the letters of appeal is fixed by t ' form of their address : ' The groans of the tons to Aetius for the third time Consul. The. huvages drive us to the sea and the sea casts us back upon the savages : so arise two kinds of 322 BRITAIX, A. n. 4W. BRITISH COLUMBIA. dpfitli, nnd wonre either drowned or slnnglitcrod.' TIk! third C'onsuiiiti! of Aetius fell in A. I). 44ti, a yeiir mcmonihlc in tlie West as tlu- l)eKinniiii; of a ])r()f()iind eahn whicli preeede<l tiu^ on- sliuiglit of Attilii. The eompliiintof Britain Ims left MO tniee in tlie poems wliieh eelehrated Uh- j'ear of repose; and onr Chronicles are at any rate wrong wlien lliey attritmte its rejection to. the stress of a war with the Iluns. Jt is possible, indeed, tliat tlie appeal was never made, and that the whole story represents nothing hnt a rumour current in the days of Oildas among the British exiles in Armorica." — C. Klton, Urir/iiiK of Enylinh Hist., rli. 13. A. D. 449-633.— The Anglo-Saxon Con- quest. See Kmii.and: A. D. 44!)-47;i, t o .■)4T-<i;}:t. 6th Century.— The unsubdued Britons. — "Tlie Britons were soon restricted to tlio ■western parts of the island, where they main- taiueil themselves in several small states, of which those lying to the east yielded more and more to Germanic influence; the othei-s protected by their mountains, preserved for a considerable time a gradually decreasing independence. . . . In the south-west we meet witli the powerful territory of Danniouia, the Iviugdoui oL Arthur, ■which bore also the name of West Wales. Damnonia, at a later period, was limited to Dyvnaint, or Devonshire, by the separatiim of Cernau, or Cornwall. Tlie districts called by the Sa.xons those of the Siimorsietas, of the Thorn- sa'tas (Dorsetshire), and tlie Wilt'^ietas were lost to the kings of Dyvnaint at an early period; though for centuries afterwards a large British jjopulatiou maintained itself in those i)arts among the Haxon settlers, as well as among the Defusietas, long after the Saxon conquest of Dyvnaint, who for a considerable time preserv(Hl to the natives of that shire the appellation of the 'Welsii kind.' Cambria (Cymru), the country ■which at the present day we call Wales, Wiis divided into several states." The chief of these early states was Venedotia (Gwynedd), the king of which was supreme over the other states. Among those latter were Dimetia (Dyved), or West Wales ; Powys, which was east of Gwynedd and Snowdon mountain; Gwent (Monmouth- shire) or South-east Wales, the country of the Silures. "The usages and laws of the Cam- brians were in all these states essentially the same. An invaluable and venerable monument of them, although of an age in which the Welsh had long been subject to the Anglo-Saxons, and liad adopted many of their institutions and customs, are tlie laws of the king Howel Dda, ■who reigned in the early part of the 10th century. . . . Tlie partition of Cambria into several small states is not, as has often been s\ii)posed, the consequence of a division made by kiujj Kodri Mawr, or Koderic tlie Great, among ins sons. ... Of Dyfed, during the firet centuries after the coming of tlie Siixon.s, v.'o know very little; but with regard to Gwynedd, which was in jon- stant warfare with Northumbria and Mercia, our information is less scanty: of Gwent, also, as the bulwark of Dimetia, frequent mention occurs. On tlie whole we are less in want of a mass of inforniatiou respecting the Welsh, than of accuracy and [irecision in that which we possess. . . . An obscurity still more dense than that ■over Wales involves the district lying to tlie north of hat country, comprised under the name of Cumbria [see Cumv.uia and Strath- ri.Ynp.]."— .T. M. Lappenberg, ///*/. nf Eng. vnder the Aiii/lo-Si.riiH h'iiii/x, r. I, /). 119-123. A. D. 635.— Defeat of the Wllsh by the English of Bernicia. See Hkvk.nkiklu, Baiti.k OK Tin;. BRITAIN, Great: Adoption of the name for the United Kingdoms of England and Scotland. See Scotland: A. 1). 1707. BRITAIN, Roman Walls in. See Ro.man Walls in Ukitain. BRITANNIA, The Origin of the name.- " -Many are the speculations which have been stjiiteil as to tlie etymology of the word Britan- nia, an<l among the later ones have iR'cn some of the most extraordinary. Yet surely it is not one of those philological ililliculties wiiith we need despair of solving. Few persons will question tliat the na.ue Britannia is connected with the name B ilaniii, in the same way ao Ger- mania Galliii, Graecia, &c., w'thGermani, Galli, Graeci, ikc. , and it is not unreasonable to as- sume that Britanni was originally nothing more than the Latinized form of the Welsh word Brython, a name which we lind given in the Triads to one of the three tribes ^wlio first colo- ni/.ed Britain. . . . From the Welsh 'brith' and Irish 'brit,' parti-coloured, may have come Bry- thon, which on this hypothesis would signify the painted men. ... As far then as i)hilology is concerned, there seems to be no objection to our assuming Brytiion, and therefore also Britanni, to signify the painted mcu. How this Celtic name tirst came to denote the inhabitants of these islands is a question, tlie proper answer to which lies deeper than is generally supposed. . . . The ' Britannic Isles ' is the oldest name we find given to tliese islands in the classical writers. Under this title Polybius (3. 57) refers to them in connection with the tin-trade, and the well-known work on the Kosmos (c. 3) men- tions 'The Britannic Isles, Albiou and lerne.' . . . But in trutli neither the authorship nor the age of this last-named work has been satisfac- torily settled, and therefore ■wo cannot assert that the phrase ' The Britannic Isles ' came into use before the second century B. C. The name Britannia first occurs in the works of Cicsar and was not improbably invented by him." — E. Guest, Origiiies ('Mica, v. 2, ch. 1.— ^Tho etymol- ogy contended for by Dr. Guest is scouted by Jlr. Kliy s, on principles of Celtic plionology. He, on the contrary, trivces relations between the name Brython and "the Welsh vocables 'brethyn,' cloth, and its congeners," and con- cludes that it signified "a clothed or cloth-t'ad people." — .1. Rhys, Celtic liritain, ch. 6. BRITANNIA PRIMA AND SECUNDA. See BuiTALV: A. 1). :J3;i-3;i7. BRITISH COLUMBIA: Aboriginal in- habitants. See Ameuican Abokioines: Atilv- I'AscAN Family. A. E 1858-1871.— Establishment of provin- cial government. — Union -with the Dominion of Canada. -"British Columbia, the largest of the Canadi.in provinces, cannot be .said to have had any existence as a colony until 18.")8. Previous to that year provision liad been made liy a series of Acts for extending the Civil and Criminal Laws of the Courts of Lower and Upper Canada over territories not within any province, but otherwise the territory was used as a hunting ground of the Hudson's Bay Company. The 323 DIUTISII COLUMniA. DIUTTANY. disputes (ind (lifTlcMiUics that arose from the In- flux of millers owing to the polil discoveries in IH.W. resulti'd in tlic revocation of tlio lieenee of till! Hudson's Buy Comimnv, and tlio passing of the Imperial ActSl & i'i Vic., c. 90, to provide for the government of Britisli CJolumhia. . . . Sir James Douglas was appointed Governor and by his commission ho was authorised to make laws, institutions and ordinances for tlio peace, order and good government of llrilisli Columbia, by proclamation issued under tlie public seal of the colony. . . . Tlic Governor continued to legislate by proclamation until 18G4, when his proclamations gave way to Ordi nances passed by the Governor with the advice and con.sent of the Legislative Council. . . . Up to this tinu! the Governor of British Colum- bia was also Governor of the neighliouring island of Vancouver. Vancouver's Island is histori- cally an older colony than British Coliimliia. Though discovered in 1502 it remained practically unknown to Europeans for two centuries, and it was not until 1840, when the island was granted to the Hudson's Bay Company, that a Governor was appointed. ... In lHli5 the legislature of the island adopted a series of resnlutions in favour of union with British Columbia, and bv the Imperial Act 30 & 30 Vic. (i), e. 07, llie two colonies were united. . . . Bv an Order in Council dated the Kith day of May, 1871, Britisli Columbia was declared to be a iirovinoe of the Dominion [see Can.mi.v: A. D. 1807, and 1800- 1873] from the 20th of July, 1871."— J. E. C. Munro, T/te Coiiiititutitin of Citiinda, eh. 3. Ai.so in: II. H. Bancroft, Jlist. of the Pitcifc Statin, r. 37 .• lirilinh Culumliia. A. D. 1872.— Settlement of the San Juan Water Boundary Disi-ute. Hee B.vn Ju,»n ok NOKTIIWKSTKUN WaTKII Bol'NDAKV QUKSTION. ♦ BRITISH EAST AFRICA AND SOUTH AFRICA COMPANIES. See Africa: A. D. 1881-1889. BRITISH HONDURAS. See Centual Ameiuca: a. D. 1821-1871. BRITONS, OR BRITHONS. See Cklts; al.so, BuiTA.wi.v; and Bhitain': Otii Centuiiy. BRITONS OF CUMBRIA AND STRATHCLYDE. Sic Ciimiiiiia. BRITTANY, OR BRITANNY : lu the Roman period. See Aii.mohica; also, Veneti OK Wksteun Gaul A. D. 383.— Alleged origin of the British settlement and name. See Huitain: A. 1). 383-888. A. D. 409.— Independence asserted. — At the time that the Britisli isliiiul iiractically severed its connection witli the expiring Uomaii Empire (iihout 400) the Britons of the continent, — of the Arniorican province, or modern Brittany,— followed the example. "Tliey expelled the' Roman magistrates, who acted under the au- thority of the usurper Constantine; and a free government was established among a people who had so long been subject to the arbitrary will of a master." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall <f the, Roimin Umpire, ch. 31. — "From tliis time, per- haps, we ought to date iliat isolation of Brittany from the politic! of the rest of Prance which has not entirely disappeared even at the present day." — T. llodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, bk. 2, ch. 3. — The Armoricans, however, were found fighting by the side of the Romans and the Goths, against the Iluns, on the great day at (Ihalcns. See IIuns: A. I). 4r)l. A. D. 818-912.— The Breyzad Kingdom.— Subjection to the Norman Dukes. — •'Charle- magne's supremacy over the \rmoricans may be compared to the dominion exercised by Imperial Russia amongst the Caucasian tribes — periods during which the vassals dare not claim the rights of independence, intercalated amongst the converse periods when the Emperor cannot assert the rights of authority ; yet the Frank would not abaiulon the prerogative of the Caesars, whilst the mutual aniipatliy between the races inflamed the desire of dominion on the one part, and the determination of resistance on the other. Britanny is divided into Brctagne Brctonnante and Brc- tagno Gallicante, according to the predominance of the Breyzad and the Romane languages respectively. The latter constituted the march- lands, and here the Counts-marchers were placed by Charlemagne and his successors, Franks mostly by lineage; yet one Breyzad, NominotJ, was tru.sted by l.ouis-le-dehonnaire [A. D. 8181 with a delegated authority. NominoO deserved his power; he was one of the new men of the era, literally taken from the plough. . . . The dis.sen.sions among the Franks enabled NominoO to increase his authority. Could there bo any adversary of the Empire so stupid as not to profit by the battle of Fontcnay. . . . XominoO assumed the royal title, vindicated the indepen- dence of his antient people, and enabled them, in the time of Rollo, to assert with incorrect gran- diloquence, pardonable in political argument, that the Frank had never reigned within the proper Arniorican boundaries." NominoO transmitted his crown to his son IlerispoO; but tlie latter reigned briefly, succumbing to a conspiracy which raised his neiihew, Solomon, to the throne. Solomon was a vigorous warrior, sometimes fighting the Pranks, and sometimes struggling with the No.iiians, who pressed hard upon his small kingdom. He extended his dominions considerably, in Elaine, Anjou, and the future Normandy, and his royal title was sanctioned by Charles the Bald. But he, too, was conspired against, blinded and dethroned, dying in prison; and, about 013, the second duke of Normandy established his lordship over the distracted country. " Historical Britanny settled into four great counties, which also absorbed the Car- lovingian march-lands, Rennes, Nantes, Vannea and Cornouaille.s, rivalling and jealousing, snarl- ing and warring against each other for the royal or ducal dignity, until the supremacy was per- 7uanently established in Alan Fergant's line, the ally, the opponent, the son-in-law of William the BiLstard. But the suzerainty or superiority of I'.ll Britanny was vested in the Con(iucror's and the Plantagenet's lineage, till the forfeiture incurred by King John — an unjustexerciseof justice." — Sir P. Palirravc, Hist, ef Kormaiidy and Eiujlntid, bk. \.ch. 3'.' A. D. 992-1237. — The First Dukes. — "After the dealh of Solomon . . . all these districts or territories merged in the three dominations of Nantes, Rennes, and Cornouaille. Amongst the Celts concord was impo.ssible. In early times Nomenoe, the Ruler of Cornouaille, had assumed, by Papal authority, the royal style, but the Counts of Rennes acquired the pre-eminence over the other chieftains. Regality vanished. Geof- frey, sou of Couau [A. D, 003-1008] . . . must 324 nniTTANT. BRIXnAM CAVE. bo (ligtinp;uisho(l ns tlip first Duko of Britlany. He conslitutiMl himself Duko Hiiiiply by tiikiiiK the title. This nsHumption miiy nossihly have boon sanctioned by the successor of Haint Peter; find, by dejirces, his rank in llie civil hierareliy became ultimately recognized. . . . The t'ounts of Hriltimy, and tlie Dukes in lik(! manner, in later times, rendered liomage ' en parajie ' to iNormaudy in tlie llrst instance, and that same Jiomage wa.s afterwards demanded bv th(' crown of Franc(!. But the (.'apetian monan'iis refused to ncknowledge tlio ' Duko,' until the time of Peter Ma\iclerc, son of Hobert, fount of Dreux, Earl of Richmond [A. D. ]2i:i-12:t7]."— Sir F. Palgrave, Hint, of Nnriimnd)! and Kii'i., r. !t, ;). lOo. A. b. 1341-1365.— The long Civil War.— Montfort against Blois. — .Vlmost simultane- ously witli the beginning of tlie Hundred Years AViir of the Kngli.sli kings in France, there brok(! out a malignant and destructive civil war in Brittany, wliich French and English took part in, on the opposing sides. "John III. duke of tliat province, had died without issue, and two rivals disputed liis inheritance. The one was Charles de Blois, husband of one of his nieces and nephew of the King of Fr;i""''; tlie other, Montfort, . . . younger brothei ol ilie last duke and . . . disinherited by him. The Court of Peers, d-jvotcd to the king, adjudged the duchy to Charles de Blois, his nephew. Jlontfort im- mediately made himself master of the .strongest places, and rendered liomage for Brittany to king Edward [III. of England], whose assistance he implored. This war, in which Charles de Blois was supported by Franco and Montfort by England, lasted twenty-four yeara without inter- ruption, and presented, in the midst of heroic actions, a long course of treacheries and atrocious robberies." The war was ended in l!iG.5 by tlie battle of Auray, in wliieli Charles de Blois was slain, and Bertraiid Du Gue.sclin, the famous Breton warrior, was taken prisoner. This was soon follo-.ved by the treaty of Quorande, which o.stablifhe.l Montfort in Uio duchy. — E. De Bon- necliose. Hist, of France, v. 1, bk. 3, ch. 2 and 4. Also /n : Froissart (Johnes), Ohronicles, bk. 1, c/i. 04-227. A. D. 1491. — Joined by marriage to the French crown. — I'lie family of Montfort, hav- ing been established in the duchy of Brittany by the arms of tlie English, were naturally inclined to English connections; " but the Bretons would seldom permit tliem to be cfTLCtual. Two car- dinal feelings guided the conduct of this bravo and faithful people; the one an attachment to the French nation and monarchy in opposition to foreign enemies; the other, a zeal for their own privileges, and the family of Montfort, in opposi- tion to tlie encroachments of the crown. In Francis II., the present duko [at the time of the accession of Cliarles VIII. of France, A. D. 1483], the male line of that family was about to be ex- tinguished. Ilis daugliter Anne was naturally the objc^ct of many suitors, among whom were particularly distinguished the duko of Orleans, who se(^ins to have been preferred by herself; the lord of Albrot, a member of the Gascon family of Foix, favoured by the Breton nobility, as miist likely to preserve the peace and liberties of their country, but whose age rendered him not very accoi)t4ible to a youthful princess ; and Maximilian, king of the Romans [whose first wife, Mary of Burgundy, died in 1483]. Britany was rent by factions anil overrun by the armies of the regent of France, who did not lose this opportunity of interfering with its domestic troubles, and of persecuting her private enemy, the duke of Orleans. Anne f>f Britany, upon her father's death, llnding no other means of escap- ing the a<l(lresses of Albret, was married by proxy to .Maximilian. This, however, aggra- vated the evils of tlu^ country, since Franco was resolved at all events to break otT so dangerous a connexion. And as Maximilian liimself was un- able, or 00k not sulUcient pains to relievo his iM'trothed wife from her embarra-ssments, she was ultimately compelled to accept lli(^ hand of Charles VIII. He had long been engaged by the treaty of Arras to marry the daugliter of Maximilian, and tliat princess was educated at the Freiii h court. But this engagement had not prevented several years of hostilities, and con- tinual intrigues with tlic towns of Flanders against Maximilian. The double injury which tlie latter sustained in the marriage o," Charles with the heiress of Britany .seemed likely to ox- cite a jirotracted contest; but the king of France, who had other objects in view, and ))erliaps was conscious that he hud not acted a fair part, soon came loan accommodation, b^' which ho restored Artois and Franchc-cointo. . . . France was now consolidated into a great kingdom; the feu- dal system was at an end." — H. Hallam, The ^fithUe Ages, ch. 1, pt. 3. — In thi^ contract of marriage between Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany, "each party surrowlered all separate ])rcten.s"ions upan the bucliy, and 0110 stipulation alone was considered roiiuisite to secure the per- jietnal tniion of Bretany with France, namely, that in case the <iucen .should survive lier con- .sort, she should not remarry unless either with tlie future king, or, if that were not possible, with the i)rcsumptive heir of the crown.' — E. Smedley, Hint, of France, pi. 1, ch. 18. Also in: F. P. Guizot, Popular .'fist. ofFh-ance, ch. 26. A. D. 1532. — Final reunion with the crown of France. — " Dupnit [chancellor of Francis I. of France], wlioso administration was . . . shameful, promoted one measure of high ntility. Francis I. until then had governed Brittany only in the (imdity of duke of that province; Duprat counselled him to unite this duchy in an indis- soluble manner with the crown, and he prevailed upon the States of Brittany them.selvcs to rotiuest this reunion, whicli alone was capable of pre- venting tlie breaking out of civil wars at tho death of the king. It was irrovociibly voted by the States assembled at Vannes in 1.132. The king swore to respect the rights of Brittany, and not to raise any subsidy therein without the con- sent of the States Provincial." — E. de Ronne- ehoso, Iliiit. of France, bk. 1, ch. 3. A. D. 1793.— Resistance to the French Revolution.— The Vendean War. Sv.o Fiia.vce : A. D. 17U3 (Maucii— -Vpuil); (.Ju.Nii); (.lui.v— Decemheu). A. D. 1 794- 1 796.— The Chouans. See ''h.vnck: a. D. 1794-17fl(i. XHAMCAVE.— A cavern near Brixham, De\' ire, England, in which noted evidences of a viiy early race of men, contemporaneous with certain extinct animals, have been found. — J. Geikio, Prehistoric Kurope. Also in : W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting. 325 BnOAD-DOTTOMEn ADMINISTRATION. BUUN8WICK. BROAD-BOTTOMED ADMINISTRA- TION, The. Sec Kn(H..\ni>: A. I). IT I'.'-lTt*). BROAn CHURCH, The. Stu Oxkouii ok TllACIAIllAN .".SlVKMKNT. BROCK, General Isaac, and the War of 1812. Sec I'mtKI) StaTKH OK Am, : A. I). IMia (Jl'NK— ••crollKIl), (SkI'TKMIIKU— NoVE.MUKU). BROMSEBRO, Peace of (1645). 800 Okii- M.\ny; .\. I). lfl|()-llU5. BRONKHORST SPRUIT, Battle of (1880). SccSoiTii Akiika; a. I). 1H(»((-1HH0. BRONZE AGE. Sec Sto.nk A<h;. BROOKLYN, N. Y.: A. D. i634.-The first settlers. — "A IVw fimiilics of NViillodiiH, in UVU, tiuilt tlicir ('(itliiKcsou Loiiff IhIiukI, and l)i'.i;au tho cultivation of tlie lands they had Hcciircd, the women working in tlio liekls," whiles the men were engaged in tho service of tho ''ompiiny [llie l>utch West India C!ompany, controlling the colony of New Netherlandl. These were the first settlers of Brooklyn. They were joined in time by 11 few others, until there were enough to be incorporated as a village'. TheiiiiniberH were not large, for Brooklyn, nearly forty years after- ward, contained only 'HI households and 134 souls.'"— O. W. Schuyler, Colonial New York, v. i,^._.r D. 1646. — The town named and org^an- ized. — "The oceupalionof land wllliin the limits of the present city of Brooklyn . . . had steadily progressed, until now (104ti) nearly the whole water-front, from Newtown Creek to the southerly side of Gowanus Bay, was in the possession of individuals who were engaged in its actual culti- vation. . . . The village . . . which was located on the present Fulton Aventie, in the vicinity of the junction of lloyt and Smith streets with said avenue, and soiilheast of tho present City Ilall, was called Breuckclen, after the ancient village of the same name in Holland, some 18 miles from Amsterdam. " The town of Breuckelen was organized under a commission from the Colonial Ci)uncil in 1046, and two schepens appointed. Tho following winter Jan Teunissen was com- missioned ns sellout. — 11. R. Stiles, Hint, of Brooklj/ii, eh. 1. A. b. 1776.— The Battle of Long Island and defeat of the Americans. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1770 (August). BROTHERS.— BROTHERHOODS. See Brktiihic.n. BROTHERS' CLUB, The. See Clubs. BROWN, George, and the Canadian "Clear Grits." SeeCANAiM: A. I). 1840-1807. BROWN, General Jacob, and the War of 1812. See Uniteu States of Am. : A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBEU — NOVEMBEH); 1813 (OCTOBEU — NovEMiiEii); 1814 (July— Septembeh). BROWN, John. — Attack on Harper's Ferry. — Trial and execution. See United Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1850. BROWNISTS. See Independents. BROWNLOW, Parson, and the recon- struction of Tennessee. See Tennessee: A. D. 1865-1 8(Hi. BRUCE, Robert, King of Scotland, A. D. 130(5-1329. BRUCHIUM, The. See Alexandiua: B. C. 28','-246, and A. D. 273. BRUCTERI, The.—" After the Tencteri [on the Rhine] came, in former days, the Bructeri; but the general account now is, that the Cham- nvl and Angrivarii entered their settlementu, drove them out and utterly e.vterminatcd tlii'm with the common help of the neighbouring tribes, either from hatred of their tyranny, or from tho attractions of pluiuh'r. or from heaven's favour- able regard for us. It did not even gruilgi' ns the spt'ctacic of (he contlict. .More than 60,000 fell, not beneath the Roman arms and weapons, but, grander far, before our delighted eyes." — "The original settlements of tin! Bructeri, from which they were driven by the (/'hainavl anu Angrivarii, seem to hav(! been between tho Rhine and the I'hns, on either side of the Iiip|ie. Their destruction could hardly have been so complete as Tacitus represents, as they are sid)- se(|uently mentioned by Claudlan." — Tacitus, Miiwr workii, traim. by Chureh and Urodrihh: Th' Qcrmanij, irith gcog. iiotcH. — See, idso, FllANKH. BRUGES : 13th Century.- The Great Fair. See Ki.andehs: 13tii ('knti:iiv. A. D. i;jth-i5th Centuries. — Commercial im- portance in the Hanseatic League. Sec II ansa Towns. A. D. 1303. — Mass.irreof theFrench.— "The Bruges Matins." See Flandbus: A. D. 1200- 1304. A. D. 1341. — Made the Staple for English trade. See Staple. A. D. 1379-1381.— Hostilities with Ghent. Se(! Fi..vNi)i;iis: A. 1). 1379-1381. A. D. 1382.— Talten and plundered by the people of Ghent. See Fi.axdichs: A. I). 1382. A. D. 1482-1488. — At war with Maximilian. See Netheklands: A. I). 1482-1493. A. D. 1584. — Submission to Philip of Spain, See Netiiehlands: j\. 1). 1584-158.1. A. D. 1745-17A8.- Taken by the French, and restored. See .NkTiIeulands (Aubtiuan I'nov- iNCEs): A. U. 1745; and Ai.\-la-Chapelle: Tub CONOIIESS, &C. BRULE, The. See Amebican Abokioines: SioiAN Family. BRUMAIRE, The month. See Fkanck: A. 1). 1793 (OcTOBEii). BRUMAIRE, The Eighteenth of. See Fkanck: A. 1). 1799 (Nov embeii). BRUNDISIUM: Origin. See Rome: B. C. 282-275. B. C.49,— Flight of Pompeius before Czsar. See Rome: B. C. 50-49. B. C. 40. — The peace of Antony and Octa- vius. — The peace which Antony and Octavius were forced by tlicir own soldiers to make at Biundisium, B. C. 40, postponed for ten years tho linal struggle between the two chief Trium- virs. For a much longer time it "did at least secure the repose of Italy. For a period of three hundred and fifty years, excopt one day's fight- ing in the streets of Rome, from Rlicgium to the Kubieon no swords were again crossed in war." — C. Merivalc, Jlist. of t/ie Jiomans, ch. 27. — Sec, also, Rome: B. C. 31. BRUNKEBURG, Battle of the (1471). See Scandinavian St.vtes: A. D. 1397-1527. BRUNNABURGH, OR BRUNANBURH, Battle of. See England: A. D. 038. BRUNSWICK, The city of.-Origin and name. — In the ti.'ntli century, a prince named Bruno, younger son of the reigning duke of Ba- varia, and grandson of the Emperor Henry the 326 BRUNSWICK. BUDGKT. Fowler, received an liis piilriinoiiy \\w cimnlry about tile Oi'ker. " lluviii); llxecl lilx resideiieo at II villiiKe estalill.Hlied by ('biirleniuf?ne on tliu bnnkH of timt river, it beeiime Itiiowu us tlie ' VioiiH Uninonis,' niiii, wlien eiiliirf;e<l and formed into ii city, afterwards i^nw its name to tile iirincipalitv of wliicli it formeii llie ea|iital." — Kir A. Ilalllday, Aiiiiiiln of tliv Jloime of lldiionr, ('. 1. Ilk. I, In the Hanseatic League. Heu IIansa. BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG, OR HAN- OVER. See llANovKlt. BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL, OR BRUNSWICK : Origin of tiie iiouse and duke- dom. Se(^ Saxo.nv: Thk Oi,i> Duchy, and A. 1). 117M-1183. The Guelf connection. See Oi'elk ani> GiiiiiKi. LINK, ami lOsTi:, llorsK ok. A. D. 1543. — Expulsion of Duke Henry by the League of Smalcald. Sue Gekmany: A. 1). 153:1-1. MO. A. D. 1546. — Final separation from the Liineburg or Hanoverian branch of the house. See llA.NovKii: A. I). I.TIH. A. D. 1806. — The Duke's dominions confis- cated by Napoleon. See Uicuma.nv: A. I). IHIH) (UtTonKK — I)k(km;;kii). A. D. 1807. — Absorbed in the kingdom of Westphalia. ScuGeumany: A. I). 1S07(Ji'ne — Jui.v). A. D. 1830.— Dtposition of the Duke. Scu GEKM.VNY: A. I). 1819-1847. BRUSSELS: A. D. 1577.— The Union of the patriots. See Xktiieiii.anus: A. I). l.')7.')- 1577. A. D. 1585. — Surrender to the Spaniards. See -Netiieui.ands: A. I). l.W-l-l.Wr). A. D. 1695. — Bombardment by the French, SeeFiiANCE: A. I). lOO.^i-imtO. A. D. 1706. — Taken by Marlborough and the Allies. See Xetiikui.aniw: A. 1). 170(!-1707. A. D. 1746-1748. — Taken by the French and restored to Austria. Sec Nktheulands: A. D. 1746-1747, and Aix-la-Ciiapelle : The Con- ukebs, &c. A. D. 1815.— The Battle of Waterloo. Seo FiL^vNCE: A. I). 1815 (June). A. D. 1830.— Riot and Revolution.— Dutch attack on the city repelled. See Netiieu- lamuh: a. D. 1830-18:i-'. BRUTTII, The. See Samnites. BRUTUM FULMEN.— A phrase, signify- ing a Idind thrust, or a stupid and ineffectual blow, whiuli was specially applied in a contem- porary pamphlet by Francis Ilotmau to the Bull of excommunication issued by Pope Sixtns V. against Henry of Navarre, in 1585. — II. M. Baird, The Hiioucnotn and Ileiiry of Namrrc, v. l,p. 3(59. —SeeFiiANCE: A. I). 1584-1589. BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, and the expul- sion of the Tarquins. See Home: B. C. 510. BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, and the assassi- nation of Caesar. See Uome: B. C. 44 to 44-42. BRYTHONS, The. Sec Celts, The. BUBASTIS.— "On the eastern side of the Delta [of th<? Nile], more than half-way from Memphis to Zoan, lay the great city of Pi-beseth, or Bubastis. Vast mounds now mark the site and preserve the name ; deep in their midst lie the shattered fragments of the beautiful temple wliieli Ilerixlolus saw, and to which in liis days the Kgypiiaim came annually in vast iiumlH'rs to keep the greatest festival of the yi'ar, the Assem- bly of Hast, the gcsldessof the place. Here, after the Kmpire had fallen, Slilsliak [Slicslionkl set up his tiironi', and for a short spaet; revived Iho imperial iiiagiiillci'iiee of Thebes. "-It. H. Pisile, Ciliinol' Hiiinil. eh. 10. BUCcANEERS, The. See Ameuiua: A. I). 10:iit 1700. BUCENTAUR, The. See Venice: I4tii ('K.NTntV. BUCHANAN. JAMES.-Presidential elec- tion and administration. See United States OF Am.: A. I). lf<5(l lo tH((l. BUCHAREST, Treaty of (iSia). See Tuuks: A. D. 1789-lHfJ; also Balkan and Daniiuan States: Utii-1!»tii t'ENTUUiES (Seiivia). BUCKINGHAM, Assassination of. Seo Enoland: a. I). III'.'H. BUCKINGHAM PALACE. Sec St. .Iames, Tiir. Palace and Court ok. BUCKTAILS. SeeNEwYoKK: A. D. 1817- 1819. BUDA : A. D. 1526.— Taken and plundered by the Turks. Sec Hinoakv: A. 1). MHT-l.V.'d. A. D. 1529-1567.— Taken by the Turks.— Besieged by the Austrians.— Occupied by the Sultan. — Becomes the seat of a Pasha. See HiNdAuv: A. 1). \n-i{\-\rm. A. D. i686.— Recovery from the Turks. See IIuNoAiiv: A. I). 1(183-1087. A. D. 1849.— Siege and capture by the Hun- garians. S'cAustuia: a. 1). 1848-1819. ♦- BUDA-PESTH: A. D. 1872.— Union of the cities. — IJiidii, on the right bank of tho Danube, and Pestli, on the left, were incorporated 1 187'i into one city — Buda-Pesth. BUDDHISM. See India: B. C. 312 ; also liAMAs. — Lamaism; and China: The ue- LKIIONS. BUDGET, The.— "The annual financial statement which the Chancellor of the Exchequer makes in the House of Commons in a C'ommitteo of ways and means. In making this statement the minister gives a view of the general tiuancial ])olicy of the government, and at the same timo presents an estimate of the probable income and expenditure for tlie following twelve months, and a statement of what taxes it is intended to reduce or abolish, or what new ones it may be necessary to impose. — To open the budget, to lay before the legislative botly the finaiieial es- timates and plans of the executive gov't." — Imp. Did. — Mr. Dowcll in his lIMury of Taj^atioii (e. 1, ch. 5) states that the plirast? ' opening the Budget ' came into use in England during tho reign of George III., and that it bore a reference to tho bougette, or little bag, in which the chancellor of the exche(iucr kept his papers. Tlic French, ho adds, adopted the term in tlie present century, about 1814. The following, however, is in dis- agreement with Mr. Dowell's explanation: "In the reign of George II. the word was u.sed with conscious allusion to the celebrated pamphlet which ridiculed Sir R. AValpole as a conjuror opening his budget or 'bag of tricks.' After- wards, it must, for a time, have been current as slang; but, as it supplied a want, it was soon taken up into the ordinary vocabulary." — Athen <eum, Mb. 14, 1891, p. 313. 327 BUDINI. nUUUUNDIANS. BUDINI, The.— A noinudlc trila- which Hero. (lotus (IcHcrilK'H iiH itncii'iitly liihitliitinx ii rcuioii tH'twrtii till! I'ral MoiiiitiiiiiH HMil the CiiHpiiui Hen,— (}. (Initc, IUhI. <if (In-fd; pt. 'i, rh. 17. BUELL, General Don Carlos, Campaigns of. Sec Unitkii Statks <)!•■ Am.: A. I). li^HI (July— NovKMiiKK); 1H«3 (Januahy— Fkiiiu.'- auy: Kkntucky — Tknnkuhkk); (Febhuauy — AiMiii.: 'I'knnkiwkk); (Junk— Octohkk: Tkn- NKMWF.E — KkNTL'<'KV). BUENA VISTA, Battle of. Sco >U;xKn; A. I). IHltl-lHlT. BUENOS AYRES, Viceroyalty and Repub- lic of. Sec .\ii<ii:.NTi.NK Ukithlic. BUENOS AYRES, The City of: A. D. 1534.— First and unsuccessful founding of the City. Sec I'AliAdlAY: A. I). i:il5-ir,r)7. BUFFALO, N. Y.: The aboriginal occu- fants of the site. Set' Ammik an .Vhoukiini-.m; IlllONS, Ac. A. D. 1764.— Cession of the Four Mile Strip by the Senecas. Sec I'(>ntia(;'h Wak. A. D. 1779. — The site occupied by the Senecas after Sullivan's Expedition. Sec Unitioi) States ok Am.: A. D. 1770 (August — Ski'tkmiikh). A. D. 1799.— The founding and naming of the city. See Ni;w YoiiK: A. 1). 178(t-l7U0. A. D. 1812.— At the opening of the war. See Unitku States of A.m. : .\. 1). 18ia (Sei'- TEMIIEII — NoVEMIlEll). A. D. 1813.— Destruction by British and In- dians. See United States ok A.m. : A. I). 18i:j (Decemiikii). A. D. 1825.— Opening of the Erie Canal. See New Y«. UK: A. 1). 1H17-I82r.. A. D. 1848.— The National Free-Soil Con- vention. See United Siates of Am. : A. 1). 18-18. A. D. 1866.— The Fenian invasion'of Can- ada. See Canada: A I). iJU(|-1871. BUFFALO HILL, Battles cf. See United States of A.m.: A. 1). 1801 (AtousT- Decem- ueu: West Viuc.inia). BUFFINGTON FORD, Battle of. See United States of A.m. : A. 1). 180;) (July: Ke.n- tucky). BUGIA, Conquest by the Spaniards (1510), See Hakiiauy St.vtes: A. I). 1.505-1510. BULGARIA. See Balkan and Danuuian States. BULGARIANS, The religious Sectaries so called. See Paiimcians. BULL " Apostolicum," The. Seo Jesuits: A. I). 1701-1709. BULL " Ausculta fill," The. Sco Papacy: A. D. 12»l-i;!48. BULL "Clericis Laicos."— Published by Pope Uoiiifiiee VIII. Feb. 24, 1290, forbidding "the clergy to pay and the sccuhir powers to exact, under penalty of cxcoiiimunicalton, con- tributions or tuxes, tenths, twentieths, hun- dredths, o^ the like, from the revenues or tlio goods of the churches 01 their ministers." — AV. Stubbs, Conxt. Hist, of Eiuj., eh. 14. Also in: E. F. Henderson, Select Iliat. Doc's of the Mi(Me Ages, bk. 4, no. 6. — See, also, Papacy: A. I). 129.t-l;U8. BULL " Dominus Redemptor noster." See Jesuits: A. 1). 1709-1871. BULL "Exurge Doraine." See Papacy: A. D. ■517-1021. BULL, Golden. Seo Golden IJill, Btzak- tine; also Uekmany: A. IX 1347-140.'!, and IIinoauy: a. 1). 1114-11101. BULL, " Laudabiliter," The.— A papal bull pniniulgaled in lb'!."! by Pope Adrian IV. (the one Kngil.slunuii who ever attained lo St. Peter's Heat) a.sKUlidiig to liestow the kiiigdoui of Ireland on the Knglisli King Henry II. See Iueland: A. 1). 1100-1175. BULL," Salvatorraundi," The. See Papacy: A. I). l'201-i;i|8. BULL " Unigenitus," The. See PonT IJoval a.vd THE Jansenists: X. I). 1702-1715. BULL RUN, OR MANASSAS, First Battle of. Sec United States of .Vm. ; A. 1). 1801 (July: Vikoinia). ... .Second Battle of. See United States ok A.m. : A. I). 1802 (August — Sei-temheu: Viik'Inia). BULLA, The. See Tooa. BUMMERS, Sherman's. SeeUNiTKoSTATKB OF A.M. : .\.. 1). 1804 (XovEMiiEii — Dece.miieu: (Ieouoia). BUND, BUNDESRATH, BUNDESPRE- SIDENT, BUNDESGERICHT, The Swiss. See Swit/.euland: A. 1). 184H-1800. BUNDES-STAAT. See Oeilmany: A. D. 18I4-1H20. BUNDSCHUH INSURRECTIONS. See Oeumany: a. 1). 149-2-1514. BUNKER HILL, Battle of. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 1775 (June). BURDIGALA.— The original name of tlio modern city of Uonleaux, which was a town of the Oallic tribe called the IJituriges-VivIsci.— T. Jlommseii, IHst. of Home, bk. 5, c/i. 7. BURGAGE "f ENURE. Sec Feudai. Ten- UllES. BURGESS. Sec liouuoEOis. BURGH, OR BURGI, OR BURH. See Boiioroii. BURGOS, Battle of. See Spain; A. D. 1808 (Sei'temueh — Decemheu). BURGOYNE, General John, and the War of the American Revolution. .See United States of Am. : A. D. 1775 (Apiiil — .May); 1777 (July— OcToiiEii), BURGRAVES. See Palatine, Counts. BURGUNDIANS: Origin and early history. — "About the middle of the fourth century, the countries, perhaps of Lusaco and Thuringia, on eithersidoof the Elbe, were occupied by the vague dominion of the Uurgundians — a warlike and numerous people of the Vand.il nice, whose ob- scure name ins(msil)ly swelled into a powerful kingdom, and has finally settled on a nourishing province. . . . The disputed possession of some salt-pits engaged the Alemanui and the Burgun- (lians in frequent contests. Tlie latter wero easily t<;mpted by the secret solicitations and liberal offers of the emperor [Valcntiuian. A. D. 371] ; and their fabulous descent from the Roman soldiers who had formerly been left to garrison the fortresses of Drusus was admitted with mutual credulity, ns it was conducive to mutual interest. An army of fourscore thousand Bur- gundians soon appeared on the banks of the Ilhiue, and impatiently required the support and subsidies whicli Valentinian had promised ; but they were amused wi a excuses and delays, till at length,' after a fruitless expectjition, they were compelled to retire. The arms and fortifications of the Gallic frontier checked the fury of their just resentment. " — E. Gibbon, Decline and FaU, 328 nunauNDiANS. DUROUNDY. A. D. 848-0:13. 'if the lliininn Rinin'rc, eh. i.V — " \Vi' llrsi liciir (if tiii'iu [llic HurKXiiillium] im ii trilic of Teutonic. Hto<'k, lociilcil Ix'twct'ii till' ()<l('r and tin- ViMtiilu, on I'itliir Ipiink of llif river Wiirlu. When tlie Gi'|iiilu' (leseeliileil HolltilWiU'ii witll llie (iotlis, till' Hnr>;iiii(iians were eoniiielled to riioil liefore the iiilviinee of tiie former trilie: one portion of tliein liHili refii^'e in liorniioiin, iiii isliind of \\w. llallie; llie reiiiainiier turned weslwani, and made an allempt to enter (iiiul. 'I'liey were re- pul.seil liy I'rolms, Iiut iierniilled to wltle near tile HoureeM of tile Main. .Jovian slioweii tliem fiiviiur, and ^ave tliem iands in tlie (iernianiik Heeunda. Tiiix was in tlie l.,.ier part, o' tiie fourlli cenlurv. •Inst at its close, tliey iidi>iiled ('liri.sliaiiily, i)ut under iin .Vrian forin. Ammi- an'is tells n» lliat they were a most warliiic riic<'. " — .1. (i. Shcppard, The Full of limiie, leet. H. — "The other Teutxmic people had very little regard for tlic IJnrgundians; lliey aeetist'd them of having degenerated from tiii! valor of their unceston, liy taking in i)etty town.s (liour- giules), wlience their name Ilurguiulii Kpiang; and tliey looke(l upon them us lieing more Buit- ahle for tlie professions of mechanics, smitlis, and carpenters, tlian for a military life." — .1. {'.. I;, do Sismondi, 'J'hc Finieh iiiider the .]feriiriii- ffiaiw, eh. H. — "A document of A. i). 7H0, in noticing the liigli tract of lands helween Kll- wangen and Anspach, ha.s the following ex- pression, — 'in Waldo, (pd vocatur Virgunuia.' Orimm l(«)k» for the derivatiim of tliis word in the M<i'so-(Jotliic word 'fairguni,' Old High Ocrnian ' fergunud '= woody liillrangt-. ... I have little doulit Init that this is the name of the tract of land from wliidi the name Hurgundi aro.se; and tliat it is tin; one wliieli il.xes their locality. If so, hetween the Uurgundiau and Suevio Germans, tlie dilTerence, sueli as it was, was proliahly almost wlioUy i)olitical." — U. O. Latham, 'J'he Oermania of lacilun; EpUeyoincna, sect. 12. A. D. 406-409.— Invasion of Gaul. Sec Gaii. : A. 1). 4(Mi-40!». A. D. 443-451. — Their Savoyan kingdom. — "In the soullieast of Gaul, the IJurgundians had, after many wars and some reverses, estab- lished themselves (443) witli the consent of the Romans in the district then called Sii))audia and now tSavoy. Their territory was somewhat more extensive tliiin the province which was the cradle of the present roval hous(! of Italy, since It stretched northwards beyond the lake of Ncufchatel and southwards as far as Grenoble. Here the IJurgundian immigrants under their king Gundiok, were busy settling themselves in their new possession, cultivating the lands which they had divided by lot, each one receiv- ing half the estate of a Honiau host or 'hospes' (for under such gentle names the spoliation was veiled), when the news came that tlie terrible Ilun had crossed the Uhine [A. I). 451], and that all hosts and guests in Gaul must unite for its defence " — T. Ilodgkin, Itdly and Her Invaders, b/c 3, ch. 3. A. D. 4Si.— At the battle of Chalons. See Huns: A. D. 451. A. D. 500. — Extension of their kingdom. — "Their [tlie Uurgtindians] domain, considerably more extensive than when we last viewed it 011 the eve of Attila's invasion, now included the later provinces of Burgundy, Franche-Comte and Dauphiue, besides Savoy uud the greater part of Swil/erliind — In fact the whole of tlin valleys of the Sai ae and the Hhoiie, save that for the In.'^l hundred miles of its conrse the Visi- goths barnd tliem frnm the right bank and from the iiioullis of the latter river." M the tlinu now spoken of (.V. 1). 50(1), the MiirgiiiHlian kingdom wiiHilivlded between two brollierkings, Gnndobad, reigning at Lyons and Vicnne, aiul GiMleglsej at Geneva. GiMlegisel, the younger, had conspired willi Clovis, tlic^ king of the Franks, against Giniilobad, and in lliis year 5(M) tlietwoconfedi rates defeated llie latter, at Dijon, driving him from tlie most part of his kingdom. Hut Gundobad preseiilly recovered his fiKiling, besieged and captiiri'd his treacherous brother at Vicnne and promptly put him to death — lliire- by reuniting IIk; kingdom. — T. Ilodgkin, lluli/ Kill! J/i r liiniili f.i, hk. 4, rh. 0, A. D. 534. — Final conquest by the Franks.— " I iim iniialient lo pursue the tiiiiil ruin of that kingdom |tlie Ilurgundiaiil wliieli was accoin- plislied under the reign of Sigisniond, the son of Gundobald [or Gundobad]. 'I'lie Catholic Higis- mond has ai'i|iiired the honours of a saint ami martyr; but the hands of the royal saint were stained with tlie blood of his innocent son. . . . It was his liumble prayer that Heaven would inflict in this worhl tlie ])unislinient of his sins. His jirayer was heard; the avengers were at hand; and the provinces of Burgundy were over- whelmed by anarmy of victorious Franks. After the event of an unsuccessful battle, Sigismoiul . . . with his wife and two children, was trans- ])orted to Orleans and buried alive in a (h'ep well by the stern command of the sons of (Jlovi.s, whose cruelty miglit derive some excuse from tlie ma.xims and examples of their barbarous age. . . . The rebellious Biirgundians, for tliey iittemi)te(l to break their chains, were still per- mitted to enjoy their national laws under tlio obligation of tribute and military service; and tlie Merovingian princes peaceably n^igned over a kingdom wliose gloi'y and greatness had been first overthrown liy the arms of Clovis." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jlonuiii Empiee, ch. 38. Also in: W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 3. BURGUNDY: A. D. S34-752.-The Me.o- vingian kingdom. — After tlie overthrow oi the Burgundian mouarcliy by the sons of Clovis, tliu territory of the Burguudians, witli jmrt of the neighboring Frank territory adihd to it, became, under tlie name of Burguudia or Burgundy, one of the three Frank kingdoms (Austrasia and Neus- tria being the other two), into wliiclithe Merovin- gian princes divided their dominion. It occu- j)ied "the cast of the country, between the Loire and the Aliw, from Provence on the south to the hill-ranges of tlie Vosges on the north." — P. Godwin, Hist, of France: Ancient Gnat, eh. 13. A. D. 843-933. — Divisions of the early king- dom. — The later kingdoms of the south and the French dukedom of the northwest.— By the treaty of Verdun, A. D. 843, which formally divided the empire of Charlemagne between his three grandsons, a part of Burgundy was taken to form, with Italy and Lorniiiie, the kingdom of the Emperor Lotliar, or Lothaire. In tho further dis.solutions which followed, a kingdom of Burgundy or Provence was founded iu 877 by one Boso, a prince who hat' "ied Irmingard, daughter of the Emper » iis XL, son of 329 BURGUNDY, A. D. 843-933. BURGUNDY, 1032. liOthiiirc. It "inchidod Provence, Daupliinfi, the southern pnrt of Snvoy, ami the country between the Siioue and the Jura," (ind is some- times called the kingdom of ('is-.Jurane Bur- gundy. "The kingdom of Trans-Jurane Bur- gundy, . . . founded by Rudolf in A. D. 888, re"ognized in the same year by the Emperor Arnulf, ineludcd the nortliern part of Savoy, and all Kwit7,erland between the Rcuss and the Jura." — J. Brycc, Hie IMy Roman Empir", ch. 6, nnd (ipp., note A. — "The kingdoms of Pro- vence and T-'Hsjuran Burgundy wore \mited, In 033, by Raoul II., King of Transjuran Bur- gundy, and formed the kingdom of Aries, governed, from 037 to 903, by Conrad le Patiticiue." — F. Guizot, ITist. of Civilization, led. 24. — Sir P. Palgrave, Jlist. of I^oiinandy and Enplaiid, hk. 1, ch. 4. — "Several of the greater and more commercial towns of France, such as Lyons, Vienne, Geneva, Besan(;on, Avign.in, Aries, Marseille and Grenoble were situated within the bounds of his [Conrad the Pacific's] states." — J C. L. do Sismondi, France under the Feudal System, ch. 2. — "Of tlie older Burgundian kingdom, the northwestern part, fonning the land best known as the Duchy of Bur- gundy, was, ir the divisions of the ninth century, n flcf of Knrolingia or the Western Kingdom. This is the Burgundy which has Dijon for its capital, and which was held by more than one dynasty of dukes as vassals of the AVostern kings, first atLaon, and then at Paris. This Burgundy, which, as the name of France came to bear its motleni sense may be distinguished as the French Duchv, must be carefully distinguished from the Royal Burgundy " of the Cis-Junme and Trans- Jurane kingdoms mentioned above. — E. A. Free- man, Ilintoricul Geog. of Europe, ch. 0, Kcct. 1. A. D. 888-IOJ2.— The French Dukedom.— The founding^ of the First Capetian House. — Of the earliest princes of this northwestern frag- ment of the old kingdom of Burgundy little seems to have been discoverable. The lief and its title do not seem to have become heredit' ry until they fell into the grasping hands of the Capetian family, vhich happened just at the time when the aspiring counts of Paris wore rising to royal rank. In the early years of the tenth century the reigning count or duke was I{ichard-le-Jus- ticior, whose distinguishing pruiecly virtue is recorded in his name. This Itichard-le-Justicier was a brother of that Boso, or Boson, son-in-law of the Emperoi Loui.s II., who took advantage ot tlie confusions of the time to fashion for him- self a kingdom of Burgundy in the Souti. (Cis- Juraijc Burgundj-, or Provence, — see above). Richard's son Raoul, or Rudolph, married Emma, the daughter of Uobert, Count of Paris and Duke of France, who was soon afterwards elKisen king, by the nobles who tired of Carlovingian misrule. King Robert's reign was short; he fell in battle with the Carlovingians, at Soissons, the next year (A. D. 923). His son llugn, called Le Griind, or The Great, found it more to his taste to tie king-njaker tlian to be king. He decli;-."! the prolTered crown, and brought about the coro- nation of his brother-in-law, the IJurgundian Rudolph, who reigned for eleven years. When he died, in 934, Hugh tl'.c Great still held the crown at his disposal and still refused to wear It liim- seh It now pleased this king-mak( to set a Carlo. ingian prncc on the throne, in the pereon of Louis d'Outre Mer, a young sou of Charles the Simple, who had been reared in England by his English mother. But, if Duko Hugh cared nothing for the name, he cared mi'jh for the sub- stance, of power. He gmsped dominion whero- everit fell within his reach, and the Burgundian duchy was among the states which he clutched. King Rudolph left no son to inherit either his duKedom or his kingdom. He had a lirother, Hugh, who claimed the Duchy ; but the greater Hugh was too strong for him and secured, with the authority of the young king, his protege, the title of Duke of Burgundy and the larger part of the domain. "In the Duchy of France or the County of Paris Hugh-le-Grand had nothing lie- yond the regalities to desire, and both in Burgundy and the Duchy he now became an irremovable Viceroy. But the privileges so obtained l»y Hugh- le-Grand produced very important political re- sults both present and future. Hugh assumed even a loftier bearing than before ; Burgundy was annexed to the Duchy of France, and passecl with the Duchy ; and the grant thereof niiide liy Hugh Capet to his son [brother?] IIenri-1 and, sever- ing the same from the crown, ( ,ud the pre- mier Duchy of Christendom, tin nost splendid appanage which a prince of the third race [the Capetiaus] could enjoy — the rival of the throne." — Sir F. Palgrave, Jlist. of Kormandy and Eng., bk. 1, pt. 2, ch. l-i. — Hugh-le-Qrand died in 956. "His power, which, more than his talents or exploits, had given liim the name of Great, was divided between his children, who were yet very young. . . . There is some doubt as to their number and the order of their birth. It appears, howcvi ., that Otho was the eldest of his vlireo sons. He had given him his part of the duchy of Burgundy, and liad made him marry the daughter and heir of Gislebert, duke of another part of Burgundy, to which Otho succeeded the same year. The latter dyi.ig in 963 or 905, the duchy of Burgundy passed to his third brother, sometimes named Henry, sometimes Eudes. Ilugues [Hugh], sumamed Capet, who succeeded to the county of Paris and the duchy of France, was but the second son." — J. C. li. de Sismondi, Tlie French utvlcr the Ctirloringians, ch. 15. — In 987 Hugh Capet became king of France and founded the lasting dynasty which bears his name. His elder brother Henry remained Duke of Burgundy until his death, in 1002, when his royal nephew, Robert, son and successor of Hugh, annexed the Duchy to the Crown. It so remained until. 1032. Then King Henry I., son of Robert, granted it as an appanage to his brother Robert, who founded the fiv.-,t Capetian House of Burgundy. — E. de Bonn.""' ose. Hist, of France, hk. 1, ch 2. A. D. 1032. — T he last kingdom. — Its union with Germany, and its dissolution. — The last kingdom which bore the name of Burgundy — though more often cidled the kingdom of Aries — formed, as stated above, by the union of the shortlived kingdoms of Provence and Trans,; .1- rane Burgundy, became in 1082 nominally united to the dominions of the Emperor-King of Ger- many. Its last indeiiendent king was Rudolf HI., son of Conriid the Pacific, who was undo to the Emperor Henry II. Being childless ho named Henry his heir. The latter, however, died first, in 1024, and Rudolf attomiited to cancel his bequest, claiming that it Avas made to Henry personally, not as King of the G(!rman8. When, however, the Burgundian king died, in 380 BURGUNDY, 1032. BURGUNDY, 1127-1378. 1032, the then reigning Emperor, Conrad the Salie, or tlie Franconian, formally proclaimed the union of Burgundy with Germany. "But since • Burgundy was ruled almost exclusively by the great nobility, tlie sovereignty of the German Ei.ipcrors there was never much more than nominal. Besides, the country, from the Bernese Oberland to the Mediterranean, except that part of AUcmannia which is now German Switzer- land, was inhabited by a Romance people, too distinct in language, cuscoms and laws from the German empire ever really to form a part of it. . . . Yet Switzerland was thenceforth connected forever with the development ^of Germany, and for 500 years remained a part of the empire." — C. T. Lewis, Hist, of Germany, bk. 3, ch. 6-7.— " The weakness of Kodolph-le-Faineant[Kodol])h III., who made Henry II. of Germany his heir, as stated above], gave the great lords of the kingdom of Aries an opportunity of consolidat- ing their independence. Among these one begins to remark Berehtold and his son, Ilumbert-aux- Blanches-Mains (the White-handed) Counts of Maurienne, and founders of the House of Savoy ; Otto William, who it is pretended was the son of Adalbert, King of Italy, and heir by right of his mother to the county of Burgundy, was the founder of the sovereign house of Franche- Comte [County Palatine of Burgundy] ; Guigue, Count of Albon, tounder of the sovereign house of ihe dauphins of Viennois; and William, who it is pretended was the issue of a brotlier of Bodolph of Burgundy, King of France, and who was sovereign count of Provence. These four lords had, throughout the reign of Uodolpli, mucu more power than he in the king'om of iVrlcs; and when at his death Ivis crown was u\ited to that of the Empire, Ihe feudatories v. ho had grown great at his expense be onie ah.'ost absolutely independent. On the other hund, their vassals began on their side to acquire importance under them ; and in Provence can be traced at this period the succession of the counts of Forcakiuier and of Venaissin, of the princes of Orange, of tlie viscounts of ^Marseille, of the barons of Baux, of Sault, ot Qrignau, and of Castellane. We can still follow the formation of a great number of other feudatory or rather sovereigr. Iiouses. Thus the counts of Toulouse, those of Rouergue, the dukes of Gascouy, the counts of Foix, of Beam, and of Carcassone, date at le.:st from this epoch; but their existence is announced to us only by their diplomas and their wills." — J. C. L. de Sismondi, France under the Feudal Si/stein, c/t. 3. — See, also, Pkovence: A. D. 043-1093, and Fu.\NCiiE Comte. A. D. 1 127-1378. — The Franco-Gei manic contest for the valley of the Rhone. — End of the kingdom of Aries, — "As soon as the Capetiau iiionaiclis had ac(iuiied enough strength lit lioine to be able to look with safety abroad, they began to n'.ake aggressions on the tempting and wealthy At'in idencies ot the distant em- perors. But the Rhone valley was too i m porta t iij itself and of too great strategical value as Fccurini; an easy road to Italy, to make it pos- sible for the emperors to actiuiesce easily in its loss. Hence a long conllict, which soon became a national eonlliet of French and Germans, to maintain the Imperial position in the ' middle kingdom' of the Hhoiie valky. 51. Fourniei's book ['Le RoyauMie d' Aries et de Vienne (IIHS- 1178)'; par Paul Fournier] aims at giving an 23 adequate account of this struggle. . . . From the times of the mighty Barbarossa to the times of the pretentio'-.s and cunning Charles of Luxemburg [see Germany: A. D. 1138-1268, and A. 1). 1347-1403], nearly every emperor sought by constant acts of sovereignty to uphold Ills preearious powers in the Arelatc. Unable to elT"ct much with their own resources, the em- perors exhausted their ingenuity in finding allies and inventing brilliant schemes for reviving the Arelate, which invariably came to nothing. Barlwi'ossa won the hand of the heiress of the county of Burgundy, and sought to put in place of the local dyna.sties princes on whom he ccmld rely, like Berlholdof Zilringen, whose father had received in 1137 from Conrad III. the high- sounding but meaningless title of Rector of the Burgundies. Bu* his quarrel with the church soon set the clergy against Frederick, and, led by the Carthusian and Cistercian orders, the Churchmen of the Arelate began to look upon the orthodox king of the French as tlieir truest protector from a schismatic emperor. I'.ut the Frer : 1. kings of the p jrioil saw in the power of Henry of Anjou [Henry II., of England — see England: A. D. 1154-1180] a more real and pressing danger than the Empire of the Ilohen- staufen. The result was an alliance between Philip Augustus and his succes.sors and the Swabian emperors, which gave Frederick and his successors a new term in which they r 'ild strive to win back a real hold over Burgi—dy. Fred'.;'.;., li. never lost sight of this object. nU investiture of the great feudal lord William of Baux with the kingdom of Aries in 1315; his long struggle with tne wealthy merchant city of J[an.oiiles; his alliance with Raymond of Toulouse and the heretical elements in Provence against the Pope and the French ; his efforts to lead an army against Innocent IV. at Lyons, were among the chief phases of his constant efforts to make the Imperial influence really felt in the valley of the Rhone. But he had so little success that the French crusaders against the Albigenses waged open war within its limits, and ilestroyed the heretic city of Avignon [see Albioenses: A. D. 1317-1239], while Innocent in his exile could find no surer protection against the emperor than in the Imperial ^it;' of Lvous. After Fr.derick's death the policy of St. Louis of France was a complete triumph. His Ijrother, Charles of Anjou, established himself in Prov- ence, though in later times the Angevin lords of Provence and Naples became so strong tliat their local interests made them enemies latlier than friends of the ex'.ension of French i)ower on their borders. The subsequent efforts of the emperorn were the merest shams and unrealities. Rudolf of Ha|)sburg aciiuiesced without a murmur in tie progress ot Phili]) the Fair, wlio ni" le him- si if master of Lyons, and secured tlie Free County of Burgundy for his sini [see Fuanciie- Comte]. . . . The residence of the Popes at Avignon was a further help to the French advance. . . . Weak as were the early Valois kings, they were strong eiiougli to push still further tlie adviintage won by their greater jtre- deeessors.v The rivalry of the leading slates of the RhonoValley, Savoy and Dauphiny, facili- tated tlieir task". Pliilip VI. aspired to take Vienne as Pliilii) IV. had obtained Lyons The Dauphin, HumlWrt II., struggled in vain • :ain.st him, and at lasb., accepted the iuevit ; le by 331 \ BURGUNDY, 1127-1378. BUUOUXDY, 1167. CPflitiR to tlio French kiiiR the succession to all his riglils in Diiuphinj', liciiccfortli to l)eronic llie U|)|mim;;o of the eldest soiih of the French liinirs. At lust, Charles of liii.\iinl)ur;c, in lliTH, ftiive the Freiieh iii;f;reHsions ii le;?iil Imsis by coii- ferrinu; the Vieariiit of Arli s on tlie Dauphin Charles, suhse(iueiuly the mad Charles VI. of Fnuice. From this ;rrant Savoy only was ex- <'epte(l. llenceforlh the power of France in I lie Ulione valley lieeaine ko great that it soon lie- C'.ine tlie fashion to despise and ignore tlie theoretical claims of the Kmpire." — The Athin- teiiiii, Oct, ;!. l.S'Jl (nriiiriiir/ " f,e I{i>;/iiiiiiie d'^lrlix ct lie \'ii iiiu," luir J'liil /•'mniii'i: A. D. 1207-1401. — Advance of the dominions cf the house of Sr 'oy beyond Lalce Geneva. See Savoy: I Irii-l.lrii Ckntiiuks. A. D. 1364. — The French Dukedom. — The Planting of the Burgundian branch of the house of Valois.— The last Duke of liiirgundy of the Capetiaii Iiouso which descended from Itohert, son of King Kobert, died in December, 1361. He was called Philip de Houvre, localise the ChflteiUi de Houvre, near Dijon, had been his birth-idaee, and his residence. He was still in his youth when lie died, althougli he had borne the ducal title for twelve years. It fell to him at the age of four, when his father died. From his mother and his grandmother he in- herited, additionally, tl.e county, of Burgundy (Fnmclie Comte) and tli' eo\intics of Boulogne, Auvergne and Arlois. His tc nder years had not prevented the ma'riage of the young duke to j\Iargaret, daughter and heiiess of the Count of Flanders. John H. King of France, whose mother was a Burgundian princess, claimed to be the nearest relalivi.' of the young duke, when the hitter died, in 1361. and, although his claim was disputed by the King of Xavarrc, Charles the Bad, Kirg John took jiosse.ssion of the dnke- dom. lie took it by right of succession, and not as a flef which had lapsed, the original grant of King Robert having contained no reversionary provision. Franche Comte, or the county of Burgundy, together with Artois, remained to the young widow, Margaret of Flanders, while the counties of Boulogne and Auvrgne passed to John of Boulogne, Count de Mont fort. A grent opportunity for strengthening the crown 01 France, by annexing to it the powerful Burgun- <liaudukedoin, wasnowolTered to King Jolm; but he lacked the wisdom to !mi)rove it. lie preferred to grant it away as a splendid appanage for his favorite son — the fourth — t he si)iriled lail Philip, called the Fearless, who had stood by his father's side in the disiustrous batib of Poitiers, and who had shared his captivity in England. B)' a deed which took elTect on Kmg John's death, in 13C4, the great duchy of Burgundy was conferred on Philip the Fearless and on his heirs. Soon after- wards, Philip's marriage with the young widow of his predecessor, Philip de Rotivre, was i)ronght alMiut, which restored to their former union with the duk<,'iloin the Burgundian County (Franche ConU.e) and the county of Artois, while it gave to the new duke prospectively the rich county of Fhmders, to which Margaret was the heiress. Tlius was raised up anew the most formidable rival which the royal power in France had ever to contend with, and themagnitudeof the blunder of King .lohn was revealed before lialf a century had passed. — P^roissart (Johnes) Chvoniden. bk. 1, ch. 210. Ai.soix; F. P. Ouizot, Popular IIi»t. of France, eh. 22. A. D. 1383. — Flanders added to the ducal dominions. Sec !• i,.\.\i)i;ns: \. I). 13H3. A. D. 1405-1453.— Civil war with the Ar- magnacs. — Alliance with the English. See Fii.\.NCi:: A. D. 1380-141.-); 141.5-1411); 1417- 1-122; 1420-1431; 1431-14.53. A. D. 1430. — Holland, Hainault and Fries- land absorbed by the dukes. Sei^ .Vkimku- I.A.NDS (IIoLT.A.NI) AM) HaI.NAUI.T) : A. D. 1117- 1430. A. D. 1467.— Charles the Bold.— His posi- tion, between Germany and France. — His an- tagonism to Loiiis XI. — The " Middle King- dom" of his aims. — Charles, known conini'iiily in history as Charles the Bold, became Dnke of Bur- gundy in 1467, succeeding his father Philip, mis- named "Thevjiood." "His position was a vry ])eeuliar one; it rccpiires a successful shakingoil of modern noti.ins fully to take in what it was. ('harles held the rank of one of the first princes in Europe without being a King, and without possessing an inch of ground for which he did not owe service to .some superior h)rd. And, more tlinu this, ho did not owe service to one hn'd only. The phrase of ' Great Powers' had not been invented in the 15th century ; but there can be no dotibt that, if it ha<l beep, the Duke of Burgun<ly would have ranked among the foremost of them. He was, in actual strength, the equal of his royal neighbour to the west, and far more than thee(iual of his Imperial neighbour to the east. Yet for crery inch of his territories he owed a vassid's duty to one or other of tlunn. Placed on the borders of Franco and the Kini)ire, some jf histenitorics were held of the Empire and .some of the French Crown. Charles, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Flanders and Artois, was a vassal of France; but Charles, Dulie of Brabant, Count of Burgundy, Holland, and a dozen other duchies and counties, held his <lominions as a vas.sal of Ciesar. His dominions were largo in positive extent, and they were valuable out of all proportion to their extent. Xo other prince in Europe was the direct .sovereign of so many ri( h and flinu-ishing cities, rendered still more rich and tlouri.sliing tlirough the long and, in the main, ])eaceful admin' .tra- ti(m of ids lather. Thecilies of the Xetherlands were incomparably greater and more prosperous than those of France or England; and, though they enjoyed large nuinicipal jirivileges, they were not, like those of Germany, independent commonwealths, acknowh'dging only an external su/.er.iin in their nominal lord. Other parts of his dominions, the Duchy of Burgundy especi- ally, were as rich in men as Flanders was rich in money. So far the Duke of Burgundy had some great advantages over every other (irince of bis ticie. But, on the other liiuid, his dominions weic further removed than those of any prince in Eui >pe troni forming a compact whole. Ho was not King of one kingdom, but Duke, Count, and Lord of inimmerable duchies, counties, and lordships, ac(iiure(l by dilVerent meins, held by dilTer.'nt titles and of dilVerent overiords, speak- ing dillerent languages, subject to dilTerent laws, transmitted acconlmg to dilTerent ndcs of s\ic- cesssion. . . . They lay in two large nnisses, the two Burgimdies fonning one and the Low Countries forming the other, so that theirconmion master could not go from one capital to anotlier 332 IJIUGUNDY, 1167. BURGUNDY, I4tir-1408. without piissiiij; throiiKli it foreign territory. And, even williin llicso two urcat iimsscs, tlnTc wire porlions of t( rritory intVrscctiii!; tliu diictil (loiniiiions wliicl, llicro was no hope of iimicxliii; by fair incaiiH. . . . The career of Charles the Bold . . . divides itself into a French ami a fJeriiian jjorlioii. In both alil^e he is exposed to the restless rivalry of Lewis of France; but in the one jieriod liiat rivalry is carried on openly within the French territory, while in tlie second I)eriod the crafty kinir Ihids the means to deal far more clTcetnal blows throuirh Iheaiiency of Teutonic hands. ... As a French prince, he joined with other French i)rinces to put linnts on the power of the Crown, and to divide llie kingdom into great, fendal holdings, as nearly independent as inij;lit be of the connnou over- lord. As a French prince, he jilavcd Ins part in the War of ihe Pnblic Weal [see Fit.vNci;: A. 1). 1401-1408], and insisted, as ii main object of his policy, on the establislinient of the Kinjr's brother as an all but independent DnUe of Nor- mandy. The ol)ject of Lewis was to nuike France a compact monarchy; the object of Charles and his fellows was to keep Franco as nearly as niif;lit lie in the same state as Germany. But, when the otlicr French princes had li 'cn gradually coni|uercd, won over, or got rid of in some waj' or other by the crafty polic'yof I,ewis, CharU's remained no longer the cliief of a coalition of French princes, but the jicrsonal rival, the deadly enemy, of the Frencli King. . . . C'hronok)gically and geographically alike, Charles and his Duchy form the great barrier, or the great connecting link, whichever we choos(^ to call it, between the main divisions of Kuro- pean history and European geograjihy. The Dukes of Burgundy of the House of Valois form a .sort of bridge between the later Middle Ag<! and the period of the Renais.sance ami tlie Reformation. They coimect those two periods by forming the kerne' of the vast dondnion of that Austrian House which ;)ecanie their heir, and which, mainly by virtue of that heirship tills such a space in the history of the 101 h and 17th centuries. IJut the dominic'isof thcHurgundian Dukes hold i. still higher historical i)osition. They may be said to bind together the wdiolc of Eurlipcan history for the last thou.sand years. From the 9th century to the lUlli, the politics of lOurope have largely gathered round the rivalry between the Eastern and the Western Kingdoms — in jnodern language, between Gernnuiy and France. From the ilth century to the liltb, a sncces.sion of elforts have been made to establish, in one shape or another, a middle state between the two. Over and over again during that long period have men .striven to make tlie whole or .some portion of the frontier lands stretching from the mouth of the Rhine to the mouth of the Uhonc into an independent barrier state. . . . That object was never more distinctly aimed at, and it neverseemed nearerioits ac^complishnient, than when Charles the Hold actually reigned from the Zuyder Zee to the Lake of Nenfchatel, and was not without I'.opes of extending his frontier to the Gulf of Lyons. . . . Holding, as he did, parts of old Lotharingia and parts of old Bur- gundy, tnerecan bemxloubt that he aimed at the re-establishinent of a great .Middle Kingdom, which should tiike in all that had ever been Bnr- gundian or Lotharingian ground. He aimed, in short, as others have aimed before and since, at the fonnalionofa state which should liold aceii- tral iHisiticai bi tween France, Germany aial Italy — a slate which should discharge, wilh iidinitely greater strength, all the duties which our own age has endeavoured to throw on .Switzerland, Belgium and Savoy. . . . I'ndoubledly it wouUi have been for the permaia'Ut interest of Europo if he had succee(led in his attempt." — K. A. Freeman, Chitiirs tlir ]iiilil (Ilixtoiirnl Ekikijik^ 1st .•tiriis, no, 11). A. D. 1467-1468.— The war of Chailes the Bold with the Liegeois and his troubles with Louis XI. — "Soon after the pacilication of the troubles of France [.see Fuancio: A. D. 1401- 140M|, the Duke of Burgundy began a war against tlie I icgeois, which lasted for several years; and wiieiiever thi; king of l-'niiice [Louis XI. I had a mind to interru|it him, he attempted .sonii' new acli(ai against the Bretons, and, in the meantime, supported the Liegeois underhand; upon which the Duke of Burgundy turned against him to succour his allies, or else they came to .some treaty or truce among themselves. . . . During these wars, and ever .sii' .'e, secret and fresli intrigues were carried on by tlic princes. The king was so exceedingly exasper- ated against Ww Dukes of Bretagne and Bur- gundy that it was wonderful. . . . The king of France's aim, in the meantime, was chietly to carry his design against tli<! ])rovince of Bretagne, and he looked upon it as a /nore feasible attempt, and likelier to give him less resistance than the house of Burgundy. Besides, the Bretons were the people who protected and enterlained all his malcontents; as his brother, and others, whose interest and intelligence were great in his king- ilom ; for this cause he endeavoured very earnestly with Charles, Duke of Burgundy, by several advantiifgeous offers and proposals, to prevail with him to desert them, promising that upon tliose terms he also would abandon the Liegeois, and give no further ])rotection to his mal ■ontent.s. The Duke of Burgundy would by no means coiLscnt to it, but again made iircparalions for war against th(! Liegeois, who had broken the lieacc. " This was in October, 1407. The Duke (Charles the Bold) atlackcd St. Tron, which was held by a garri.s(m of 8,(«)() of the men of Liege. The Liegeois, 30.000 strong, came to the relief of th(! besieged town, and were routed, leaving 0,000 slain on the held. St. Tron and Tongres were both surrendered, and Liege, itself, after considerable strife among its citizens, opened its gates to the Duke, who entered in triuni])!! (Nov. 17, 1407) and hanged half-a-dozen for his moder- ate satisfaction. In the cimr.se of the next sum- mer the French king opencil war afresh upon the Duke of Brelagno and forced him into a treaty, before the Duke of Burgundy, his ally, could take the field. The king, then being extremely anxious to pacify tJie Duke of Bur- gundy, t<x)k the extraordinary ste]) of visiting the latter at Pcror.ne, without any guard, trusting himself wholly to the honor of his enemy. But it happened u:\fortunately, during the king's stay at Feronne, that a fcnx'ious revolt occurred at Liege, which was traceil beyond denial to the intrigues of two agents whom king Louis had sent thither not long before, for mischief making purposes. Thi' Duk(!, in his wrath, was not easily restrained frian doing some violence to the king; but the royal trickster escaped from his gnive predicament by giving up the unhappy 333 BUHOUNDY, 1407-1408. nUHOUXDY, 147&-1477. Llof^cnis to the vengeance of Duko Charles nnd pcrsoiiiiHy assisting the latter to inflict it. "After the eonelu.sion of the peare [dictated by Cliarles at I'eroiiiie and sitrned snhinissively by Louis] the Kinj? and the Duke of lluri^inidy set out the iie.\t morning [Oct. IT), 1408] for Cani- hray, and from thence towards tlie country of Liege: it was the beginning of winter and llie weather was very bad. TIk! I<ing had with him only his Hootch guards and a small body of liis standing forces; but he ordered liOO of his men lU-arms to join him." Liege was invested, and, notwithstanding its walls had been thrown dow-.i the previous year, it made a stubborn defe'se. During a siege of a fortnight, several <lespei.ile sallies were made, by the last oiw! of wbicli both the Duke and the King were brought to great personal jjeril. K.\hausted by this lih il ell'ort, the Liegeois were unpre|)ared to repel a grand assault which the besieging forces made upon the town the ne.\t morning — Sunday, Oct. 30. Liege was taken that day almost without resist- nnc(s tlie mi.serable inlial)itants Hying across the Maes into the forest of Anh.'imes. abandoning their homes to ])illage. The Duke of JJurgundy now permitted King Louis to return home, while he remained a few days longer in desolate Liege, which his tierce hatred had doomed. " Ik'fore the Duke left the city, a great numl)er of tliose poor creatures who had hid tliemselves in tlie Louses when the town was taken, and were after- wards made prisoners, were drowned. He also resolved to burn the city, which had always been very populous; and orders were given for tiring it in three different places, and ii.OOO vir 4,000 fool of the country of T.imbourg (who were their neighbours, and used the same habit and lan- guage), were conmianded to effect this desolation, Init to secure the churches. . . . Ail things being thus ordered, the Duke began his march into the country of Franchemont: lie was no .sooner out of town, but immediately we saw a great number of liouses Oil tire beyond the river; the duke lay that night four leagues from the city, yet we could hear the noise as distinctly as if we had been upon the sjiot- but whether it was the wind which lay that way, or our quartering uiion the river, tluu was the cause of it, I luiow not. The ne.xl day the Duk.; marched on. and those who were left in Llie town continued the coiillagratiou according to his orders; but all the cliurelies (except some few) were preserved, and above 300 houses belonging to the priests and otllcers of the churches, which was the reason it was so soon teinhabited, for many Hocked tliither to live with th.e priests." — Philip de Coinmines, Meiiwirs, bk. !;. Also in: J. F. Kirk, Hist, nf (Hiarku the Hold, hk. 1, ch 7-9; 4^•. 3.— P. F. Willert, The Ueiyn -/ Jaiiuh XL — Sir. W. Scott, Queidiii Durwanl.— See, also, Din.vnt. A. D. 1476-1477. -Charles the Bold and the Swiss. — His defeats and his death. — The effects of his fall. — "Sovereign of the duchy of Burgundy, of tlie Free County, of Hainaut, of Flanders, of Holland, and of Gueldre, Charles wished, by joining to it Lorraine, a portion of Switzerland, and the inheritance of old King licne, Count of Proven<e, to recompose tlie an- cient kingdom of Lorraine, such as it had existed nnder the Carlovingian dynasty; and Haltered himself that by offering his daughter to Maxi- milian, sou of ij'rederick IIL , he would olitain the title of king. Deceived iu his hopes, the Duke of Burgundy tried means to take away Lorraine from the young Uene. That province was neces- sary to him, ill order to join his northern states with those in the south. The conquest was rapid, and \ancy opened its gates to Charles the Hash; but it was ri-served for a small people, already celebrated for their heroic valour and by tlieir love of liberty, to beat this powerful man. Irritated against the Swiss, who had braved him, Charles crossed over the Jura, besieged the little town of Gr.inson, and, in despite of a capitula- tion, caused all the defenders to be hanged or drowned. At this news the eight cantons which then composed the Helvetian republic arose, and under the very walls of th iiwn which had been tile llieaire of his cnudty i.i.'y attacked tlu^ Duke and dispersed his troops [.March 3, 1470]. Some months later [.June 'Jl], supported by young Keiie of jjorraine, dcspoihMi of his inheritance, they exterminated a second Hurgiindian army before Moral. Charles, vaniiuished, reassem- bled a third army, and marched in the midst of winter against Nancy, which had fallen into the hands of the Swiss and Lorrainer.s. It was there that he perished [Jan. 5, 1477] bi^trayed by his mercenary .soldiers, and overpowered by num- bers." — L. de Bonnechose, lliKt. of Franct;, v. 1, bk. 3, ch. 3. — "And what was the cause of this war ? A miserable cart-load of sheep skins that the Count of liomont had taken from the Swiss, in his passage through his estates. If Uod Almighty had not forsaken the Duke of Burgundy it is scarce conceivable he would have exposed himself to such great dangers upon so small and trivial an occasion; especially considering the offers the Swiss had made him, and that his con- (piest of such enemies would yield him neither profit nor honour; for at that time the Swiss were not ill sui'li esteem as now, and no people in the world could be poorer." At Gran.son, " the pcwr Swiss were miglitily enriched by the' plunder of his [the Duke of Burgundy's] camp. At lirst they did not understand the value of the treasure they were masters of, especially the common .soldiers. One of llie richest and most inagniti- cent tents in the world was cut into pieces. There were .some of them that sold (luantities of dishes and plates of silver for about two sous of our moiiev, supposing they liiid lieen pewter. His great diamond, . . . witli a large pearl li.xed to it. was taken u|) by a Swi.ss, put up again into the case, thrown under a wagon, taken up again by the same foldicr, and after all offered to a i)riest for a llorlii, who bought it, and sent il to the magistrati's of that country, who returned him three francs as a sullicient reward. [Tliis was long suppo.sed to be the famous Sancy diamond; but Mr. Streeter thinks that the tradi- tion which .so connects it is totally disproved.] Til \- also took three very rich jewels called the Tliice Brothers another large ruby culled La Halle, and another called the Ballot Flanders, which 'Vere the fairest and richest in the 'vorld; besides a prodigious (luaiitity of other goods." Li his last liattle, near Nancy, the 1 )uke had less than 4,000 men, " and of that number not above 1,300 were in a condition to light." He cncoun- tercul on this occasion a powerful army of Swiss and Germans, which the Duke of I..orraino had been able to collect, with the help of the kingof France and others. It was against the advice of all his counsellors that the headstrong, half-mad Duke Charles dashed his little army upon this 334 BURGUNDY, 1470-1477. nURGUNDY, 1477. neater one, and ho paid the prnnlty. It was broken at tlio first shock, and the Duke was killed in the confused rout 'vithout beiiifj known. Ills body, St ripped naked by the iiillajcers and niiumled by wolves or dogs, was found frozen fust \n a ditch. " I cannot easily determine towards wlioin God Alinif];hly showed his anj!;er most, whether towards him who died suddenly, without pain or sickness in the field of battle, or towards his subjects, who never enjoyed peace after his death, but were continually involved in wars aijaiust wlii(!h they were not able to maintain themselves, upon ac(U)unt ot the civil dissensions and cruel animosities that arose among them. ... As I had seen these princes puissant, rich and lionour- abl(!, so it fared with their subjects : for I think I have seen and known tlio greatest part of Europe, yet I never knew any province or country, though of a larger extent, so abounding in money, 80 extravagantly tine in their furniture, so sump- tuous in tiieir buildings, so profuse in tlieir expenses, so luxurioiri in their feasts and enter- tainments, and so prodigal in all respects, as the subjects of tliese princes in my time; and if any think I have exaggerated, others who lived in my time will bo of opinion that I have rather said too little. ... In short, I have seen this fandly in all respects the most flourishing and celebrated of any in Christendom: and then, in a short space of time, it was quite ruined and turned upside down, and left the most desolate and miserable of any house in Europe, as regards bp*h prince and subjects." — Philip de Commines, Memoirs, bk. 5, eh. 1-9. — "The popular concep- tion of tills war [between Charles the Bold and the Swiss] is simply that Charles, a powerful and encroaching prince, was overthrown in three great battles by the petty commonwealths which he had expected easily to attach to his dominion. Grandson and !Morat are placed side by side with Morgarten and Sempach. Such a view as this; implies complete ignorance of the history ; it im- plies ignonince of the fact that it was the Swiss who made war upon Charles, and not Charles ■who made war upon the Swiss; it implies ignor- ance of the fact that Cliar:es's army never set foot on proper Swiss territory at all, that Grand- son and Jlorat were at the beginning of the wa)' no part of Mie possessions of the Confederation. . . . The mere political accident that the country •which formed tlie cliief seat of war now forms part of the Swiss Confederation lias been with many people encmgh to determine their estimate of the quarrel. Grandson and Morat are in Switz- erland; Burgundian troops appeared and were defeated at Grandson and Morat; therefore Oiiarlcs must have been an invader of Switzerlar d, and the warfare on the Swiss side must hav<. been a warfare of purely defensive heroism, 'ihc sim- ple fact that it was only through the result of the Burgundian war that Grandson and Morat ever became Swiss territory at once disposes of this line of argument. . . . Tlie plain facts of the ease are that the Burgundian war was a war declared by Switzerland against Burgundy . . . and that in the campaigns of Grand.son and Morat the Duke of Burgundy was simply repelling and avenging Swiss invasions of his own territory and the territory of his allies. " — E. A. Freeman, Historical Essays, i\ 1, iw. 11. Also in : J, P. Kirk, Hist, of Cluirles the Bold, bk. 5. — L. 8 Costello, Memoirs of Mary of Bur- gundy, ch. 14-37. A. D. 1477.— Permanently restored to the French crown. — Louis XI. of France, wlio had been eagerly watching while (.Charles tlu^ Bold shatteri'd his armies and exhausted liis strength in Switzerland, received eariy news of the death of the self-willed Duke. U'hile the panic and confusion which it caused still prevailed, the king lost no time in taking ])osse.ssion of the duchy of Burgumly, as an appanage which had reverted to the crown, througli default of male heirs. The U gality of his claim has been much in dispute. "Charles left an only daughter, un- doubted heiress of Flanders and Artois, as well as of his dominions out of France, but whose right of sui;i;es.sion to the duchy of Burgundy was more questionable. Originally the great flefs of the crown descended to females, and this was the case with respect to the two first men- tioned. But John had granted Burgundy to his son Philip liy way of appanage ; and it was eon- tended that the appanages reverted to the crown in default of male heirs. In the form of Philip's investiture, the duchy was granted to him and liis lawful lieirs, without designation of sex. 1 he construction, therefore, must be left to the established course of law. This, however, was by no means acknowledged by Mary, Charles's daughter, who maintained both that no general law restricted appanages to male heirs, and that Burgundy had always been considered as a feminine fief, John himself liaving possessed it, not by reversion as king (for descenclants of the first dukes were then living), but by inheritance derived through females. Such was this ques- tion of succession between Louis XI. and Mary of Burgundy, upon the merits of whose preten- sions I will not pretend altogether to decide, but sliall only observe that, if Charles had conceived his daughter to be excluded from this part of liis inheritance, he would probably, at Conflans or Peronne, where he treated upon the vantage ground, have attempted at least to obtain a re- nunciation of Louis's claim. There was one obvious mode of preventing all further contest, and of iggrandizing the French monarchy far more than liy the reunion of Burgundy. This was the marriage of JIary with the dauphin, which was ardently wished in Prance." Tht dau])liin was a child of seven years; Mary of Burgundy a masculine-minded young woman of twenty. Probably Louis despaired of reconcil- ing the latter to such a marriage. At all events, while he talked of it occasionally, he proceeded actively in despoiling the young duchess, seizing Artois and Franche Comte, and laying hands upon the frontier towns which were exposed to his arms. He embittered her natural enmity to him by various acts of meanness and treachery. " Thus the French alliance becoming odious in Flanders, this princess married Maximilian of Austria, son of the Emperor Frederic — a con- nexion which Louis strove to prevent, tliougli it was impossible then to foresee that it was or- dained to retJird the growth and to bias the fato of Europe during tlirce hundred years. This war lasted till after the death of .Mary, who lett one son Philip and one daughter iIargaret."--H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, ch. 1, pt. 3.—" The king [Louis XL] had reason to be n»ore than ordinarily pleased at the death of tliat duke [of Burgundy], and he triumphed more in liis ruin than in that of all the rest of his enemies, as ho thought that nobody, for the future, either of 335 DUROUNnV, 1477. nUTLER. his own Hiil)j('rt.s. or liis noighlxMirs, would Im' nhlo to o|)|)oso liiiii, or disturl) llic traii(|uillity of his rcigii. . . . AltlioiiKli Oixi Almiclity liiis bIiowii, ;iii(I doi'S still show, that, his (Ictcrminii' tloii is to piinishth('faiiiil3-ofnurj;uii(ly severely, not only in tlic person of the diiki', hut in their suhjccts and estates; yet I tlnnk the kin;; our master did not tal<e rijiht nieasures to that <'iid. For, if he had acted prudently, instead of ])re- teiKliuf; to e<in(iuer Iheui, Ik; should rather have endeavoured to annex all those larfre territories, to which he had no just title, to the crown of France by some treaty of marriage; or to have gained tlu; hearts and afTo^:tions of the i .'ople, and so have brought them over to his interest, which he ndght, without any great ditllcidty, have eir<'cted, considering how tlieir late atllic- tions lii'd impoverished and dejected them. If he had acted after that manner, h(' would not only have i)revented their ruin and destruction, but e.xtendcil and strengthened his own kingdom, and ustabli.jhed them all in a firm and lasting peace." — I'lnlip de Conunines Mi iimirK, hk. 5, cli. 13. — "He [Louis XI. | reassured, caressed, com- forted the duchy of JJurgundy, gave it a parlia- ment, visited his good city of Dijon, swore in St. B(augnus' church to respect all the old privileges and customs that co\d(l be sworn to, and ho\uid his successors to do the same on their acccs.sion. Burgundy was a land of nobles ; and the king raised u bridge of gold for all the great lonls to come over to him. — J. Jliclielet, JliKt. of Fviinrv, hk. 17, eh. !t-l. A. D. 1477-1482. — Reign of the Burgundian heiress in the Netherlands. — Her marriage with Maximilian of Austria. See Netiieu- LANUS; A. 1). 1477. A. D. 1512. — Formation of the Circle. See Geh.m.\ny: A. I). 14i):!-l.-)l!}. A. D. 1544. — Renunciation of the Claims of Charles V. See Fk.vnck: A. 1). I.i;i2-ir)47. BURH, The. See Bououoir. BURI, The. — A Suevio clan of Germans whose settlements were aneien'ly in the neigh- borhood of modern Cracow. — Tacitus, Gffiiiani/, traiix. Iiji CliHtrli II nd Itrnilrilili. ^•I'l'j. not en. BURKE, Edmund, and the American Revo- lution. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 177.5 (.Ianuauy — Mahcii) And the French Revolution. See KN(ii.AM)- A. I). 17i):!-170(). BURLEIGH, Lord, and the reign of Queen Elizabeth. See Knoi.aM): A. D. 1 Twrt- ; -.!I8. BURLINGAME CHINESE EMBAoSY AND TREATIES. See China: A. 1). 1857- 1808. BURMA: Rise of the kingdom.— First war with the English (1824-1826).— Cersion of As- sam and Aracan. See India: A. I). 182;!-I8;i;i. A. D. 1852.— Second war with the English. — Loss of Pegu. See India: A. 1). If't'i. BURNED CANDLEMAS. See Scotland: A. I). i:i;i;i-i;i7o. BURNSIDE, General Ambrose E.— Expe- dition to Roanoke. See United States ok Am. : A. I). 18(i'2 (.January— Aruii,: jSTohtiiCau- OLiNA) Command of the Army of the Poto- mac. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 1803 (Octoheu— Novemheu : Vihoinia) Retire- ment from command of the Army of the Poto- mac. See Uniti;!) States of Am. : A. I). 180;i (.Ianuauy — Ai-uii, : V'ikoinia) Deliverance of East Tennessee. See United States 336 of Am.: a. D. 1803 Auorsr — SEfTEMnEu: Tennessee) Defense of Knoxville. S<m) I'n iTED States OF- Am. : A. 1>. lH(i;t (Octoiieu — Decemiieu: Tennessee) At the siege of Petersburg. See United States of Am. : A.I). 18(14 (.Iunk: VimilNiA). (.liri.v: Vihoinia). BURR, Aaron.— Duel with Hamilton.— Conspiracy. — Arrest. — Trial. See United States OF A..r : A. D. 18(1(1-1807. BURSCHENSCHAFT, The. See Ger- many: A. I). 1817-18-.2(). BUSACO, Battle of (i8io). See Spain: A. I). i8i()-i8r.>. BUSHMEN, The. Sco Africa: The in- IIAHITINO HACES. BUSHY RUN, Battle of (A. D. 1763). Seo PONTIAC'S WaII. BUSHWHACKERS.— A name eommrmly given to the rebel guerrillas or half-biuidits of the southwest in the American Civil War. — .1. O. Nicolay and J. Hay, Ahniham Lincvlii, r. 6, p. 371. BUSIRIS.— Destroyed by Diocletian. Sco Ai.Ex.vNniuA: A. I). 2U((. BUSSORAH AND KUFA, The rise and importance of. — In the first years of their con- (|uest and occ\ipatt(m of Mesopotamia luid the Delta of the Euphrates and Tigris — as early as A. I). 638 — the Moslems founded two citii's which ncquired importance in JIahometan his- tory. In both cases, these cities appear to have ari.sen out of the need felt by the Arabs for more .salubrious sites of residence than their predeces- sors in the ancient country had been contented with. Of Hus.sorab, or Hassorah, the city founded in the Delta, the site is said to have been changed three tiuK'S. Kufa was built on a plain very near to the neglected city of Ilira, on the Euphrates. " Kufa and Bus.sorah . . . had a singular influence on the destinies of the Caliph- ate and of Islam it.4elf. The vast majority of the population came from the Peninsula and were of pure Arabian blood. The tribes which, with .heir families, scenting from afar llie pr(>y of Persia, kept streaming into Chiddiea from every corner of Arabia, .settled chietiv in ibese two cities. At Kiifa, the races from Veinen and the south predominated; at Bussorah, from the north. Rapidly they grew into two great and luxurious capitals, with an Arab poi)ulationeach of from 150,000 to 200,000 souls. On the litera- ture, theology, luid polities of Islam, these cities had a greater influence than the whole Moslem world besides. . . . The people became petulant and factious, and boih cities grew into hotbeds of turbulence and sedition. The Bedouin ele- ment, conscious of its strength, was jealous of the Coreish, and impatient of whatever checked its capricious humour. Thus factions sprang up which, controlled by the strong and wise arm of Omar, broke loose under the weaker Caliphs, eventually rent the unity of Islam, and brought on disastrous days." — Sir W. !Muir, Aiiiutls of the Early CalipluOc, ch. 18. — See, also, Mahome- tan Conquest: A. D. C33-051. PUTADiE, The. See V\\y\.m. BUTE'S ADMINISTRATION. See Eng- land: A. I). 17(iO-17!)3. BUTLE^t, General Benjamin F. — In com- mand at Baltimore. See United States op Am. : A. 1). 1801 (Ai'itiL— May: Mauyland) In command at Fortress Monroe. See United States ok Am: A. U. 1801 (JIay) The Hat- nUTLER. BYZANTIKE EMPIRE, A. D. 717. teras .Expedition. Sec United Statf.s of Am. ; A. I). IHtU (Ai-(H'rt: Noiitii Caiiomn.v) Command at New Orleans. ."•'I'l! U.nitkd St.viics OK A.M. : A. 1). 1H0:J (M.vy— Dw'KMiiku: LofiHt.\N.\) Command of the Army of the James, t-iuc rMTKi) Htatks ov A.h. : A. I>. 1S(W(.Hay: Viii(ii.ni.\). BUTLER, Walter, and the Tory and In- dian partisans of the American Revolution. Sec liNiTKi) Stati:s ok Am.: A. 1). 1778 (.Jink NoVKMllKll), mill v.JlLY). BUTTERNUTS. Sue Hoys in Di,Uf;; nl.so Unitki) Siatkh ok Am. : A. I). 1H04 (OcTonru). BUXAR, OR BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, Bat- tle 01(1764). See India: A. I). 175,-1773. BYRON, Lord, in Greece. Sec Okefxe: A. 1). 1H21-182i». BYRSA.— The citadel of Carthage. See CAinilA<IK. TlIK DoMI.MON OK. BYTOWN.— The original mime of Ottawa, the capital of tlie Doiniiiiou of Canada. See Ottawa. BYZACIUM. See Cabthage, The Domin- ion OK. BYZANTINE EMPIRE. — The Eastern Roman Empire, havinj; its capital at Uyzantiuni (modern Con.stantinople), the earlier liistory of which will be found sketched tinder the caption Rome: A. I). 394-39,'5, to 717-800, has been given, in its later years, the name of the Byzan- tine Empire. The propriety of this designation is questioned by some historians, and the time when it begins to be appropriate is likewise a subject of debate. For some discussion of these questions, see Romh: A. D. 717-800. Its part in history. — Its defence of Europe. — Its civilizing influence. — ^"The later Hoinan Empire was tlie l)nl\varlv of Europe against tlie oriental danger; Maurice and lleraclius, C"on- stantine IV. and Leo the Isaurian were the suc- cessors of Tliemistocles and Africanus. . . . Until the daj-s of tlie crusades, the German nations did not combine \vith the Empire against the common foe. Nor did the Teutons, by tlicmselves, acliieve any succcssof ecumenical im- jiortance against non-Aryan races. I may be reminded tliat Charles the Great exterminated the Avars; but that was after they had ceased to be really dangerous. When there existed a truly formidable Avar monarchy it was the Roman Empire th;t imn- the brunt; and yet while most people w mi 1 ■ mI history know of "the Avar war of Charles, how few tlierc are who have ever heard of Priscus, the general who so '1)ravely warred against the Avars in the reign of Maurice. I may l)e reminded that Charles Martel won a great name by victories in southern Gaul over the Saracens ; yet tho.se successes sink into insignitieanee by the; side of the achievement of his contemporary, the third Leo, who held the gate of eastern Europe agai. t all the forces which the Saracen power, thci at its height, coidd muster. Every one knows about the ex- ploits of the Frank; it is almost incredible how litiie is known of the Roman Emperor's defence of the greatest city of Christian Europe, in the quarter where the real danger lay. . . . The Em- pire was much more than the military guard of the Asiatic frontier; it not only defended but also kept alive the traditions of Greek and Roman culture. We cannot over-estimate tlie importance of the presence of a higlily civilised state for a system of nations which were as yet only beginning to he civilised. The constant intercourse of the Kmpire with Italy, which until the eleventh century was parllv imperial, and with southern (iaiil and Spain, had an in- calculable influence on the development of the West. Venice, which contributed .so much to the growth of western culture, was for n long lime actually, and for a much hinger time nomi- nally, a city of the Roman Empire, and learned what it taught from Hy/.antiuni. The Ilyzan- tine was the mother of the Italian school of painting, as Greece in the old days had been the mistress c Rome in the line arts ; and the Hyzan- tiiK' styl ; of architecture has had perhaps n wider irduence than any other. It was to New Rome hat the Teutonic kings applied when they n 'cded men of learning, and thither stu- dents trom western countries, who desired a university education, repaired. ... It was, moreover, in the lands ruled by New Rome that old Hellenic culture and tin! inonuments of Hel- lenic literature were preserved, as in a secure storehouse, to be given at length to the ' wilil nations ' when they had been sulliciently tamed. And in their taming Now Rome played an in- dispensable part. The Justinian law, which still interpenetrates European civilisation, was a product of New Rome. In the third place the Roman Empire for many centuries entirely maintained European commerce. This was a circumstance of the greatest importance; but unfortunately it is one of those facts concerning which contemporary historians did not tliink of leaving records to jjosterity. The fact that the coins of the Roman Emperors were u.sed through- out Europe in tlu^ >Iiddle Ages speaks for itself. ... In the fourth place, the Riyiuan Emiiiro preserved a great idea wliicli iiilluenced tho whole course of western European history down to the present Jay — the idea of tlie Roman Em- pire itself. If we look at the ecumenical event of 800 A. I), from a wide point of view, it really resolves itself into this: New Rome bestowed upon the western nations a great idea, which moulded and ordered their future history; she gave back to Old Rome the idea which Old Rome bestowed upon her five centuries before. ... If Constantinople and the Empire had fallen, the imperial idea would have been lost in the whirl of the 'wild nations.' It is to New liome that Europeans really owe thanks for tlio cstablisliment of the principle and the sy.stein whicli brought law iind order into the political relations of the West."— .1. R. I?ur.\ , Jlintory of the Lfitir Roiiutn Kinpiir, hk. (i, ch. 14 {i\ 2). A. D. 717. — Its organization by Leo the Isaurian. — " The accession of Leo the Lsaurian to tne throne of Constantinople suddenly opened a new era in tlie history of the Eastern Empire. . . . When Leo .II. "was proclaimed emperor [A. I). 717], it seemed as if no human power could save Constantinople from falling as Komo had fallen. The Saracens considered the sov- ereignty of every land, in whicli any remains of Roman civilizaticm survived, as within their grasp. Leo, an Isaurian. and an Iconoclast, con- sequently a foreigner and a heretic, ascended the tlironeof (.'onstantine and arrested the victorious career of the Mohammeilans. He then reorgan- ized the whole administration so completely in accordance witli the new exigencies of Eastern society tliat the reformed empire outlived for many centuries every government contemporary 337 BYZANTINE EMPIUK, A. I). 717. HYZANTINK EMPIUK, 10.17-1081. Willi iu cKtAhliHhinont. The KiiHtcni Uiniiun Empirr, llitix rcforincd, U Ciillrd liy miihIitii liis- t(iriari4 th(! liy/itiititic Ein|)lri'; mid tlic trriii is wi'll dcvixcd to murk tlu.' cIiiiiiki'h circitcd in the govcriiiiu'iil, lifter tliu cxtiiK'tinii of tlic lust trui'csof till' niililary niiiimrcliy of iinclciit Uoiiic. . . . Tlir jirovimial divisiniH of tliu Itoiiiari Einpiri' had fallen into ohlivion. A new KCoKraphieal arrmiKenient into Tlieines appears to liuvi.' been estalilislied by Ilenu^lids, when he riK^ovoml tlie AHiatic provinces fri.iii the IVr- sluns; it was reori?ani/.ed liy Leo, and endured ns lonjf IIS tlu! Byzantine governiiient. The DUinlHT of themes varied at dilTerent periods. Tho Emperor C'onstiintini^ I'orpliyrotfenitus, writin)^ aixiiit tho middle of the tenih century, counts si.xteen in the Asiatic jiortion of the Empire and twelve in the European. . . . The European iirovinces were divideil into eight con- tinental and live insular or transmarine themes, until the loss of the exarcliato of Kavennii re- duced the number to twelvi;. Venice and Naples, thoui^h they ac'tiiowledged tlie suzer- ninty r)f the Eastern Empire, acted jtcnerally as Independent cities. . . . When J,eowiis raised to the throne the Empire was threatened with im- mediate ruin. . . . Every army n.ssembled tc encounter tlio Saracens broke out into rebellion. The Bulgarians and Sclavoniuns wasted Europe up to the walls of Constantinople ; the Saracens ravnced the whole of Asia Minor to the shores of the Bosphorus." — G. Finlay, Hist, of the Bjizdiitine Empire, bk. 1, ch. 1. Also in: E. W. Brooks, The KmjKror Zenon andtlw Isininiim(f!ii(iUiih IHhI, liei;., April, 1803). A. D. 7i7-7g7.--TheIsaurian dynasty. — The dynasty founded by Leo the Isaurian held the throne until tlie dethronement of Constantine VL by his mother, Irene, A. D. 797, and lier de- thronement, in turn by Nicephorus L, A. 1). 802. It embraced the following reigns: Constantine v., called Copronymus, A. D. 741-775; Leo IV., 775-780; Constantine VL, 780-707; Irene, 707- 802. A. D. 726-751. — The Iconoclastic Contro- versy. — Rupture with the West. — Fall of the Exarchate of Ravenna. — End of authority in Italy. See Iconoclastic Contiioviousy, and Pai'.\cy: a. I). 728-774. A. D. 802-820. — Emperors : Nicephorus I., A. D. 802-811; Stauracius, A. D. 811; Michael I., A. D. 811-813; Leo V., A. I). 813-820. A. D. 803. — Treaty with Charlemagne, fix- ing boundaries. See Vemik: A. 1). (197-810. A. D. 820-1057. — The Amorinn and Basilian or Macedon:ian dynasties. — Michael, the Amori'M (82(Mi29) .so named from liis birth-place, Amorium, in Phrygia, was a soldier, raised to the throne by a revolution which deposed and assassinated his friend and patron, tlie Emperor Leo V. Michael transmitted tlic crown to his son (Tlieophiliis, 829-843) and grandson. The latter, called Jlicliael the Drunkard, was con- spired against and killed by one of the companions of his drunken orgies (807)" Basil tlie ^laeedonian, who had been in early life a groom. Basil founded a dynasty which reigned, with several interruptions, from A. I). 867 to 1057 — a period covering the following reigns: Basil I., A. D. 867-880; Leo VI. , A. I). 886-911; Constantine VII. (Porphyrogenitus), A. D. 911-9.10; Ucmianus I. (Colleague), A. D. 919-944; Constantine VIll. (Colleague). A. D. 944; Roimiaus II., A. D. 0.'5n-0«3; Nlceplioriis II., A. I). IKilt-IMlO; .lolm ZimiseiH, A. 1). tMlil-970; Basil II., A. I). 0(13- 1025; Constantine I.\., A. I>. 903-102H; Komaniis III., A. 1). 1028-1034; .Michael IV., A. I). 1034- 1041; Michiiel V., A. I). 1041-1042; Zoe and Theodnra, A. D. 1042-1056; Constanliiie X., A. 1). 1042-10.54; .Michael VI. , A. I). 10.50-I0,-.7. A. D. 865-10^3.— Wars, commerce and Church Connection with the Russians. Keo ItiKsiA.Ns: \. I>. Htri-OOO; alsoCo.NsTANTiNofl.K: V I). 805 and 907-1043. A. D. 8^0-1016. — Fresh acquisitions in South* ern Italy. See Italy (Soutiikkn): A. D. 800- 1016. A. D. 963-103^.— Recovery of prestige and territory. — " -Vinidsl all the crimes and revolu- tions ol the Byzantine government — and its history is but it series of crimes a'ld revolutions — it was never dismembered by intestine war. A sedition in the army, u tumult in the theatre, a conspiracy in the iialace, precipitated a mon- arch from till' lliromt; but tho allegiance of Con- stantinople was instantly transferred to his suc- cessor, and tho provinces Implicitly obeyed the voice of tlie capital. The custom, too, of parti- tion, so baneful to the Latin kingdoms, and which was not altogether unknown to the Sara- cens, never prevailed in tlie Greek Empire. It stood in the middle of the tenth century, us vicious indeed and cowardly, but more wealthy, more enlightened, and far more secure from its enemies than under the first successors of Ilerac- lius. For about one hundred years preceding there had been only partial wars with the Mo- hammedan potentates; and in these the emperors seem gradually to have gained the advantage, and to liave become more freciueiitly the aggres- sors. But the increasing distractions of the East encouraged two brave usurpers, Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, to attempt tho actual recovery of the lost provinces. They carried the Uoman arms (one may use the term with less relih tance tlian usual) over Syria; Antioch and Aleppo were taken by storm; Damascus submitted ; even the cities of Mesopo- tamia, beyond the ancient boundary of the Euphrates, were added to the trophies of Zim- isces, who unwillii'.gly spared the capital of tho Khalifate. i'roin sueli distant conquests it was expedient, and indeed necessary to withdraw; l)ut Cilicia and Antioch were permanently re- stored to the Kiniiire. At tlie close of the tenth century the emperors of Constantinople pos- sessed the best and greatest portion of the modern kingdom of Naples, a part of Sicily, the whole [present] European dominions of the Ottomans, the province of Anatolia or Asia Jlinor, with some part of Syria and Armenia." — II. Ilallam, The Middle Agat, ch. 6. A, D. 970-1014. — Recovery of Bulgaria. See CoNSTANTiNol'i.i-: A. 1). 907-1043; also BuL- OAUiA. and AfiiuiDA. A. D. 1054. — Ecclesiastical division of the Eastern from the Roman Church. See Fii.i- OCJUE CoNTUOVKItSY, Ulld OUTHOUOX ClILKCII. A. D. 1057-1081.— becween the Basilian and the Comnenian dynasties. — A dark period. — "The moment that the last of the ^lacedonian dytiiisty was g".;o, the elements of discord seemed unchained, and the double scourge of civil war and foreign invasion began to atllict the empire. In the twenty-four years between 1057 and 1081 wei:e pressed more disasters than 338 BYZANTINE P:MPIUE, 1057-1081. HYZANTINE EMPinE. 1146. hiul bopii fU'cn in niiy other pcrindnf EiihI Uoiimn hlHtnrv. Hiivi' iicrliiips tlic rclRii of Hcriicliun. . I'lic »iivi\ 'rii((Mloni liiiil imincti iih Iut kuc- Cfiiwor on tin; tlironi- Miclmcl St nil locus, li cori- temporiiry of her own wlio had liccii iiii nh\v soldier 'ih yeiirx buck. Mill iMichiu'l VI. wax );ro\vii a^'i'd and in<'<iin|)etent, and the empire wiiM full of andiitloiis ftrnerals, who would not tolerati^ a dotard on tlii' throne, liefore a year had passed a liiind of j;ri'at Asiatic noliles en- tered into a conspiracy lo overturn .Mi<hael. and replace him hy Isaac Comnenus, the chief of one of the ancient Cappiidocian houses, and the most popular >;i'neral of the East. Isaiu^ Conineniis and his friends took arms, and dispossessed the n^ed .Michael of his throne with little dilllciilty. lint a curse seemed to rest upon the usurpation; Isaac was slrieken down liy disease when he had been little more than a year on the throne, and retireii to a monastery "to dii'. Ills crown was transferred to Conslantine Ducas, another Cap- pa(h)ciau nol)le," who reiKne<l for seven troubled J ears. His three immediate successors were {omaniiH IV., A. 1). 1(M)7-1071: Michael VII., A. n. 1071-1078; Nieephonis III., A. D. 107»- 1081.— C. W. C. Oman, 7'/(c Story of the Hymn- tine Emjtirc, eh. 20. A. D. 1063-1092.— Disasters in Asia Minor. Bee Ti'iiKs (Hkljl'ks): A. I). l(m;t-107;t; and A. D. 107!J-10«a. A. D. 1064. — Great revival of pilgrimages from Western Europe to the Holy Land. Hue Ckl'sades: C.miskh, ktc. A. D. 1081. — The enthronement of the Comnentan Dynasty, See C'o.NsTAN'riNoi'i.i;: A. 1). lOHl. A. D. 1081-1085.— Attempted Norman con- quest from Southern Italy. — Itobert (iuiseard, Uie Norman adventurer who had carved forhim- gelf u ])rinelpality in Southern Italy and ac(,uireil the title of Duke of Apidia, — his duchy coincid- ing with the subsequent Norman kingdom of Naples — conceived the ambitious design of add- ing the Uy/.antine Empire to his estate. His coiKiuests in Italy had been mostly at the ex- pense of the Uy/.antine dominions, and he be- lieved that he had mea.sured the strength of the degenerate Ilonum-Greeks. He was encouraged, tuoreover, by the successive revolutions which tossed the imperial crown from hand to hand, and which hud just given it to the ('omnenian, Alexius I. Ueyond all, he had a claim of right to interfere in the affairs of the Empire; for his young daughter was betrothed to the heir-ex- pectant ^l■hose expectations were now vanishing, nnd had actually been sent to Constantinople to receive her education for the throne. To pro- mote his bold undertaking, Uobert obtained the approval of the pope, and an absolution for all who would join his ranks. Thus spiritually equipped, the Norman duke invadeil Greece, in the summer of 1081, with l.")0 ships and ;!0,000 men. Making himself master, on the way, of the island of Corcyra (Corfu), and taking .several ports on the mainland, he laid siege to Dyrra- chium, and found it a most obstinate fortification to reduce. Its massive ancient walls defied the Norman enginery, and it was not until February, 1083, that Robert Qinscard gained pcsscssion of the town, by the treachery of one of its defend- ers. Meantime the Normans had routed and scat- tered one large army, which the Emperor Alexius led in person to the relief of Dyrracliium ■ but Ued towii.i In Illyrirt nnd Eplrus deiityod nince toward ( Onstantlnople. HolMTt the fortille their advance toward Constantlnopi was called home lo Italy by important alTidrsaml left his sun lloheiniind (Ihe subse<|Uent CrUHiider and I'riiKM'of Aniioch), In command. Holiemiiml defcaled .Vlexliis again In Hie spring of 1 1 (Mil, and slill a third time the following auliimn. All Epiriis was overrun and Macedonia and Thesmdy invaded; but Ihe Normans, while iM'sieging I.arissa, were undone by a stratagem, lost tlieir camp and found it necessary to rclreal. Itobert was then just reentering tin" Held, in persiin, and had w.iii an imporlant naval lialtle at Corfu, over till' combined Oreeks and Venelians, wlien he died (July, lOH,")), anil his project of ccmiiueHt in Oreece ended with him. Twenty years after- wards, his son lloheniunil, when rrince of An- tioch, and i|iiarreling wllli the ity/.anline8, gathered a crusading army in France and Italy to lead it against Constanlinople ; but it wag stopped bysluliliorn Dyfrachium, am' iiev<r got beyond. Alexius hinl recovered that strong coast defence shortly after Uobert Uuiscard's death, with the help of the Venetians and Amal- llans. Hy way of reward, those merchant allies received import'int commercial privileges, and the title of Venice to llu^ sovereignty of Dalmu- tia nml Croatia was recognized. " From this lime th(^ dog(! appears to have styled himself lord of the kingdoms of Dalmalia and Croatia." — O. Fiiilay, I/int. of the liyzantineand ilreek ICiniiiret, bk. 3, eh. H.Kirl. 1. A. D. 1081-1 185. — The Comnenian emperors. — Alexius I., A. I). 1081-1118; .John II., A. U. 1118-1143; Manuel I., A. I). 1113-1181; Alexius II., A. U. 1181-1183; Andronicus I., A. I). 118M- 1185. A. D. 1096-1097. — The passage of the first Crusaders. .See Curs.\i)i;s; A. I). lOiMl-lOllO. A. D. 1 146.— Destructive invasion of Roger, Icing of Sicily. — Sack of Thebes and Corinth. — When Uoger, king of Sicilv, united Ihe Nor- man possessions in Southern Italy to his Sicilian realm he became ambitious, iii his turn, to aciiuiro some part of the Uyzantino |)ossessions. His single attack, however, made simultaneously with tiie second cru.sading movement (A. U. 1140), amounted to no more than a g'eat and destructive ])lundering raid in Greece. An insurrection in Corfu gave that island to him, after which his tieet ravaged the coastsof Eubueu an(l Attica, Acarnania and ..'Etolia. "It then entered the gulf of Corinth, and debarked a body of troops at Cris.sa. This force marched Ihnmgh the country to Thebes, plundering every town and village on the way. Thebes olTered no resistance, and was plundered in the most deliber- ate and barbarous manner. The inhabitiints were numerous and wealthy. The soil of IJieotia is extremely productive, and numennis manufactures established in the city of Thebes gave additional value to the abundant pnxluce of agricultural industry. . . . All military s))irit was now dead, and hw Thebans had so long lived without any fear of invasion that they hud not even adopted any effectual measures to secure or conceal their movable iiroiierty. _ The conquerors, secure against all (finger of inter- ruption, i)lundered Tllebes at their leisure. . . . When all ordinary means of colUcting booty were exhausted, the citizens were compelled to take an oath on the Holy Scriptures that they had uot concealed uuy portion of their property 339 BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 1140. BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 1203-1304 yet many of the wealthiest were dragged away ciiptivf. ill order to jiroflt by tlieir ratisom; and iiKiiiyof tlie most skiltul worliinen in tlic silk- nianufac loriL'S, for wliicli Tliebes had long been famous, were pressed on boanl tlie fleet to labour at the our. . . . IJenjaniinofTudela, who visited Thebes about to'enty yeare later, or perhaps in 1161, speaks of it as then a large eity, with two lliousaiid .Jewish inliabitants, wlio were the most eminent manufaiturers of silk and purple cloth in all Ureeee. The silks of Thebes continued to be eelehruled as of superior ([Uality after this invasion. . . . From Bieotia the army passed to <'orintli. . . . Corinth was sacked as cruelly as Thelirs; men of rank, beautiful women, and skilful artisans, witli tlicir wives and families, were eari'ied awcy into captivity. . . . This invasion of Greece was conducted entirely as a plundering expedition. . . . Corfu was the only cou(jue.<t of which Roger retained po.ssession; yet this jMissing invasion istho period from which the decline of Byzantine Greece is to be dated. The cent\iry-and-a-lialf which preceded this dis- aster had pas.sed in uninterrupted tranquillity, and the Greek peoi>le had increased rapidly in numbers and wealtlL. The power of the Sela- vonian pojiulation $ank with the ruin of the kingdom of Aeln-idii ; and the Sclavonians who now dwelt in Greece were peaceable cultivators of the soil, or graziers. T!ie Greek population, on tlie other hand, was in possession of an extensive coiniaerco and many flourishing manu- factures. The ruin of this commerce and of these manufactures lias been ascribed to the transference of tlie silk trade from Thebes and Corinth to Palermo, under the judicious pro- tection it received fron.\ Roger; but it would be more correct to .say that the injudicious and oppressive Jin.aneial administration of the Byzan- tine Emperors destroyed the commercial pros- perity and manufaeturmg industry of the Greeks ; while the wise liberality and intelligent pro- tection of the Norman kings extended the com- merce and increased the indutry of the Sicilians. When the Sicilian fleet returned to Palermo, Roger determined to employ all the silk-manu- facturers in their original occupations. lie eon- seiiuently collected all their families together, and settled them at Palermo, supplying tliem with the means of exercising their industry witli profit to themselves, and inducing them to teach his own subjects to manufacture the richest brocades, and to rival the rarest productions of the East. ... It is not remarkable that the commerce and manufactures of Greece were transferred in the course of another century to Sicily and Italy." — G. Finlay, Hist, of Bi/iniitine itml Greek Empires, from 710 to 1453, bk. 3, ch. 3, sect. 3. A. D. 1 147-1 148.— Trouble with the German and French Crusaders. SeeCucsADEs: A. D. 1147-1140. A. D. 1185-1204.— The Angeli.— Isaac II., A. D. 11H,V11«.5; Alexius III., A. I). 1195- 1203; Alexius IV., A. 1). 120:i-l20t. A. D. 1203-1204.-113 overthrow by the Venetians and Crusaders. — Sack of Constan- tinople. — The last of the Comnenian Emperors in the male line — the brutal Audronicus I. — jierished horribly in a wild insurrection at Con- stantinople which his tyranny provoked, A. D. 1185. His successor, Isaac Augelus, collater- ally related to the imperial house, had been a contemptible creature licforc his coronation, and received no tincture of manliness or virtue from that ceremony. In the second year of his reign, the Empire was shorn of its Bulgarian and Wallaehian provinces by a successful revolt. In the tenth year (A. D. 1105), Isaac was pushed from his throne, deprived of sight and sliut up in a dungeon, by a brother of equal worthless- ness, who styled himself Alexius III. The latter neglected, however, to secure the person of Isaac's son, Alexius, who es<;aped from Con- stantinople and niade Lis way to his sister, wife of Philip, tlie German King and claimant of the western imperial crown. Philip thereujion plotted with the Venetians to divert tlie great crusading expedition, then assembling to take ship at Venice, and to employ it for the restora- tion of young Alexius and his father Isaac to the Byzantine throne. The cunning and per- fidious means by which that diversion was brought about are related in another place (see CuusADES : A. D. 1301-1303), The great fleet of the crusading filibusters arrived in the Bos- phorus near the end of June, 1203. The army which it bore was landed first on the Asiatic side of the strait, opposite the imperial city. After ten days of parley and preparation it was conveyed across the water and began its attack. The towers guarding the entrance to the Golden Horn — the harbor of Constantinople — were captured, the chain removed, the harlior occu- pied, and the imperial fleet seized or destroyed. On the 17th of July a combined assault by limd and water was made on the walls of the city, at theii northwest corner, near the Blachern palace, where they presented one face to the Horn anil another to the land. The laLdattack failed. The Venetians, from their ships, stormed twenty- five towers, gained possession of a long stretch of the wall, and pushed into the city far enough to start a conflagration which spread ruin over an extensive district. They could not hold their ground, and witlidrew ; but the result was a victory. The cowardly Emperor, Alexius III., fled from the city that night, and blind old Isaac Angelus was restored to the throne. He was reaiiy to associate his son in the sovereignty, and to fulfill, if he could, the contracts which the latter had made with Venetians and Crusiiders. These invadcra had now no present excuse for making war on Constantinople any further. But the excuse was soon found. Jloney to pay their heavy claims could not be raised, and their hato- fulness to the Greeks was increased by the in- solence of their demeanor. A serious collision occurred at length, jirovoked by the ])lunderiiig of a Jlahonietan mosque wliieli the Byzantines had tolerated in their capital. Once more, on this occasion, the splendid city was fired by the ruthless invaders, and an immense district in tlie richest and most pojiulous jiart was destroyed, while many of the inhabitants perished. The Are lasted two days and nights, sweeping a wide belt from the harbor to the Marmora. The suburbs of Constantinople were ])ilhiged and ruined by the Latin soldiery, and more and more it became impossible for the two restored emperoi-s to raise money for iiaying tlie claims of the Crusaders who had ehampioned them. Their subjects hated tliem and were desperate. At last, in January, 1204, the public feeling of Constantinople flamed out in a revolution which crowned a new emperor, — one Alexis Duciis, 840 BVZAIsTINE EMPIRE, 1203-1204. BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 1204-1205. nicknaiufd Mmirtzophlos, on account of liis eye- brows, wliicli met. A few days aftcrwanis, with Buppicious opiortiineness, I .lac and Alexius died. Then botli sides entered upon active pre- parations for serious war; but it was not until April Oth tliat tlie Crusaders and Venetians were ready to assail the walls once more. The tirst assault was repelled, with heavy loss to tnc be- siegers. Tliey rested two <lays and repeated the attack on the 12tli witli irresistible resolution and fury. Tlie towers were taken, llie gates were broken down, knights and soldiers poured into the fated city, killing without mercy, burning without scruple — starting a third appalling contla- gration which laid another wide district in ruins. The new emperor lied, the tnxiiis laid down their arms, — (Jonstantinople was eon(piere<l and prostrate. "Then began the plunder of the city. The imperial treasun and the arsenal were placed under guard ; but with these e.vceptions the right to plunder was given indiserimiuately to the troops and sailore. Never in Europe was a work of pillage more systematically and shamelessly carried out. Never by the army of a Christian state was acre a more barbarous sack of a city than that perpetrated by these soldici's of Christ, sworn to chastity, pledged be- fore God not to shed Christian blood, and bearing upon them the emblem of the Prince of Peace. . . . 'Never since the world was created,' says the Marshal [Villehardouin] ' was there so much booty gained in one city. Each man took the house which pleased him, and there were enough for all. Those who were poor found themselves suddenly rich. There was captured an immense supply of gold and silver, of plate and of jjrecious stones, of satins and of silk, of furs and of every kind of wealth ever found upon the earth.' . . . The Greek eye-witness [Nicetas] gives the com- fde;nent of the picture of Villeliardouiu. The ust of the army spared neitlier maiden nor tlie virgin dedicated to God. Violence and debauch- ery were everywhere present ; cries and lamen- tations and the groans of the victims were heard throughout the city ; for (.'verywhere pillage was unrestrained and lust unbridled. ... A large part of the booty had been collected in the three churclies designated for tliat iHU'pose. . . . The disti'ibutiou was made during tlie latter cud of April. Many works of art in bronze were sent to the melting-pot to be coined. JIany statues were broken up in order to obtain the metals with wln"ch they were adoi-ned. The conijuerors knew nothing and cared nothing for the ai't which had added value to the metal. " — E. Pears, TIte Full of Constantinople, ch. 1 4-15. Also in: G. Fiulay, llist. of the Bjizaniine and Orcek Empires, from 716 to 1453, bk. 3, ch. 3, teet. 3. A. D. 1204.— Reig^n of Alexius V. A. D. 1204-1205. — The partitioning of the Empire by the Crusaders and the Venetians. — •' Before the crusaders made their last successful attack on Constantinople, they concluded a treaty jiartitioning the Byzantine empire and dividing the plunder of the capital. . . . Tliis treaty was entered into by the Frank crusaders on the one part, and the citizens of the Venetian republic on the otlier, for the purpose of ijreventing dis- putes and jireserving unity in the e.xpeilition." The treaty further i)rovided for the creation of an Empire of Romania, to take the place of the Byzautiuu Empire, and for the election of au Emperor to reign over it. The arrangements of the treaty in this hitter respect were carried out, not long after the taking of the city by the elec- tion of Baldwin, count of Flanders, the most esteemed and tlie most popular among tlio ))rinces of the crusade, and he received the imperial crown of the new Empire of Romania at the hands of the legate of the pope. " Meas- ures were immediately taken after the coronatioi, of Baldwin to carry into execution the act of partition as arranged by the joint consent of the Frank and Venetian commissioners. But their ignorance of geograpliy, and the resistance olfered by the Greeks in Asia Minor, and by the Vallachians and Albanians in Europe, threw innumerable dilllculties in the way of the pro- posed distribution of tiefs. The quartir of the Empire that formed the portion of BiiMw") con- sisted of the city of Con.stantinopl.-, with tho country in its immediate vicinity, as far as Ki/.ja and Tzouroulos in Europe and Nicomedia in Asia. Beyond the tiTritory around Constanti- nople, Baldwin po.s.sessed districts extending as far as the Strymon in Europe and the Sangarius in Asia; but his possess ans w lto intermingled with those of the Vcnetiacs and the vassa'.s of the Empire. Prokonneso'3, Lesbos, Chios, Lem- iios, Skyros, and several smaller islands, also fell to his share." — G. Finlay, Jlint. of Greece from its Conquest by the Crusaders, ch. 4, sect. 1-2. — "In the division jf the Gr'"'k provinces the share of the Veneti;.!.s was r ire ample than that of tho Latin emperor. No more than one fourth was api)ropriated to his domain ; a clear moiety of the remainder was reserved for Venice and tlie other moiety was distributed among the adventurers of France and Lombardy. Tlio venerable Daii- ilolo was proclaimed Despot of Romania, and was invested, after the Greek fashion, witli the ])urple buskins. He ended at Constantinople his long and glorious life; and if the prerogative was personal, the title was used by his successors till the middle of the fourteenth century, with the singular, though true, addition of ' Lords of one fourth and a half of the Roman Empire.' . . . Tliey possessed three of the eight (piarters of the city. . . . Tliey had rashly accepted tho dominion and defence of Adrianople ; but it was the more reasonable aim of their jiolicy to form a chain of factories and cities aiul islands along the maritime coast, from the neighbourhood of Ragusa to the Hellespont and the Bosphorus. . . . For the price of 10,000 marks the republic l>ur<liase(l of tlie marquis of Slontferrat the fiu'lile island of Crete or Caudia with the ruins of a hundred cities. ... In the moiety of tho ad venturers the Marquis Boniface [of Moiitferrat] might claim the most liberal reward; and, besides tlie isle of Crete, his exclusion from the, throne [for which he had been a candidate against Baldwin of Flanders] was compensated by the royal title and the provinces beyond tho itellespont. But he prudently exchanged that distant and ditlicult coiuiuest for the kingdom of Tliessalonica or Macedonia, twelve days' journey from the capital, where he might be supported by the neighbouring powers of his brother-in-law, the king of Ilimgarj'. . . The lots of the Latin pilgrims were rcgulated by chance or choice or subsequent exchange. . . . At tlie head of his knights and archers each baron mounted on horseback to secure the jios- session of his share, and their lirst efforts were 341 BYZANTINE EMPIPF 1204-1305. BYZANTIUM. gcncmlly successful. But the public force was \v('iikene<l by their (tispcrsion ; iiml a thousiiiul (piiirrels must <.: ise under n law niul among men whose sole umpire was the sword." — E. Gii)bon, Dirline (iiitl Full of the lioni'tii Empire, c/i. 61. A. D. 1204-1205. — The political shaping of the fraerments. Bee Ko.mania. Thk Emimuk; OiiKHK E.Mi'inKoF Nic/Ea; Tkkiiizoni); Eimhus; Na.xos, Tub Mkdi/KVAI. Dukedom: Aciiaia: A. I). 1205-1387; Athens: A. D. 120r>-14.")0; Sai.oniki. A. D. 1261-1453. — The Greek restoration. — Last struggle with the Turks and final over- throw. — '1 he story of the shadowy restoration of u Oreek Empii'c at Constantinople, its last struggle with the Turks, and its fall is told else- where. — See CoNSTANTtNOPi.E; A. I). 1201-14.')iJ, to Hr>3. — "Frcmi the hour of her foundation t.. that in which her sun Anally sank in bk.id. Christian Con^tjintinople was engaged in con- stant struggles against (.uccessive hordes of bar- barians. Hlie did not always triumph in the strife, but, even when she was beaten she did not succumb, but carried on the contest still; and tlie fact that she was able to do so is alone a sutlicing ])roof of the strengtli and vitality of her organization. ... Of the seventy-si.K em- perors and five empresses who occupied the Byzantine throne, 15 were put to death, 7 were blinded or otherwise mutilated, 4 were deposed and Imprisoned in monasteries, and 10 were compelled to abdicate. This list, comprising nearly half of the whole number, is sufficient indi- cation of the horrore by which the history of the empire is only too often marked, and it ma; be frankly admitted that these dark stains, 'dis- figuring pages which but for them would be bright witli the things which were beautiful and glorious, go some way to excuse, if not to jus- tify, tlie obloijuy which Western writers have been so prone to cast upon the East. But it is not by considering the evil only, any more than the good only, that it is possible to form a just judgment upon an historic epoch. To judge the Byzantine Empire only by the crimes which defiled the palace would be as unjust as if the French people were to be estimate('. by nothing but the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Reign of Terror, and the Commune of 1871. The dynastic crimes and revolutions of New Rome were not a constant feature in her history. On the contniry, the times of trouble and aui',chy were episodes between long periods of peace. They arose either from quarrels in the imperial family itself, which degraded the dignity of the crown, or from the contentions of pretenders struggling among themselves till one or other had woreted his rivals and was able to become the founder of a long dynasty. . . . The most deplorable epoch in the history of the Byzantine Emi)ire, the period in which assassination and mutilation most I'lwunded, was that in which it was exposed to the intluenee of the Crusaders, and thus brought into contact with Western Europe. . . . The Byzantine peoi)Ic, although in every respect the superiors of their contem- poraries, were unable entirely to escape the in- lluence of their ncighborhcHKl. As the guardians of class'.cal civilization, they strove to keep almve the deluge of barbarism by which the rest of the world was then inundatecl. But it was a Hood whose watere prevailed exceedingly vipon the earth, uud sometimes all the high hills were covered, even where might have « rested tho ark in which the traditions of ancient culture were iK-ing preserved. . . . The Byzantine Em- pire was predestinated to perform in esi)ecial one great work in humim history. That work was to preserve civilization during the perio<l of barbarism which we call the Jliddle Ages. . . . Constantinople fell, and the whole Hellenic world passed into Turkish slavery. Western Europe looked on with uneonix'rn at the appalling catas- troi)he. It was in vain tliat the last of the I'alaiologoi cried to them for lielp. ' Christen- dom,' says Gibb<m, 'beheld with indiflerence the fall of Ccmstantinople.' . . . Up to her last hour she had never ceased, for more than a thousand years, to fight. In the fourth century she fought the Goths; in the fifth, the Iluns and Vandals; in the sixt!;, the Slavs; in the seventh, the Persians, the Av.a's, and the Arabs; in the eighth, ninth, and tenth, the Bulgars, the Mag- yars, and the Russians; in the eleventh, tho Ivoumanoi, the Petzenegoi, and the Seljoukian Turks; in the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, the Ottomans, the Normans, the Crusiiders, the Venetians, and the Genoese. No wonder tluit at last she fell exhausted. The wonder is, how she could keep herself alive so long. But it was by this long battle that she succeeded in saving from destruction, amid the universjil cataclysm which overwhelmed the classical world, the civilization of the ancients, modified by the Christian religion. The moral and intellectual development of modern Europe are owing to the Byzantine Empire, if it be true that this development is the common offspring of antiquity upon the one hand and of Chris- tianity upon the othei-. " — Demetrios Bikehis, The Byzantine Empire {Scottish liev.. v. 8, 1880). BYZANTIUM, Beginnings of.— The ancient Greek city of Byzantium, which occupied part of the site of the motlern city of Constantinople, was fovmded, accortling to tradition, by Mcga- rians, in tlie seventh century B. C. Its situation on the Bosphorus enabled the possessors of the city to control the important corn supply which came from the Euxiiie, while its tunny fish- eries were renowned sources of wealth. It was to the latter that the bay called the Golden Ilorn was said to owe its name. The Persians, the Laceducmonians, the Athenians and the Macedonians were successive masters of Byzan- tium, before the Roman day, Athens and Spaita having taken and retaken the city from one another many times during their wars. B. C. 478.— Taken by the Greeks from the Persians. See Gheece: B. C. 478-477. B. C. 440. — Unsuccessful revolt against Athens. See Athens: B. C. 440-437. B. C. 408. — Revolt and reduction by the Athenians. See Gkeece: B. C. 411-407. B. C. 340. — Unsuccessful siege by Philip of Macedon. See Giieece: B. C. 340. B. C. 336. — Alliance with Alexander the Great. See Queece: B. C. 330-33.5. A. D. 194.— Siege by Severus. See Ro.me: A. 1). 192-284. A. D. 267. — Capture by the Goths. See Goi'iis: A. D. 258-207. A. P. 323. — Siege by Constantine. See Rome: A. D. SO.VSia. A. D. 330. — Transformed into Constanti- nople. See CONblANTLNOl'iai. 342 (,'A IIIA. CABIXKT. c. PA IRA: Theoriginofthecry and the song. — " When the news of the (lisasliDiis ivlreiit [of Wiishiiijrioii, in ITTO] throni^h the Jciseys and the miseries of Valley Forjic reiielieil France, many j^ood friends to Anuiica t)e!;an to tldnk that now indeed all was lost. 15ut the stout heart of Franlclin never llinelied. ' This is in- <leed bad news,' said lie, 'hut <;a ira, t/a ira [literally, 'this will ,u;o, this will ;;o'], it will all come ri.^ht in the end.' Old diplomats and courtiers, amazed at his conlidenee, i>assed ahout his elieerinji; words. They were taken up by the newspapers; they were remembered by the l)e()ple, anil, in the dark days of the French Hevolution, were reiieated over and over ajrain (m every side, and made the subject of a slirrin:^ scmij which, till thcMarseillaiie Hymn appeared, had no e(iual in France." — J. ii. !>t(Master. llixt. of the People of the U. S.. v. 2, p. 8'J.— L. Itoscn- thai, Americd and Fmiicc, p. 20!!. — "The original wcu'ds (afterward inucli changed) were by Lad re, a street singer ; and the nuisic was a popu' ir dance tune of the time comjiused by Becourt, a drummer of the Grand Opera." — Centuri/ DiclioiKin/. — "The original name of the tune to which the words wcmc written is 'Le Carillon J'^ational,' and it is a remarkable circumstance that it was a great favourite with the uufortiunite Marie Antoinette, who u.sed to play it on the liarpsiehord. " — J. O.xcuford, Jjuok of hVcnch iSon'/K {notr to " Va irn"). CAABA AT MECCA, The.— "An Arab legend asserts that this famous temple was erected by Abraham and his .son Ishmael with the aid of the angel Gabriel. Mahomet lent his authority to the legend and devoted to it fevoral chapters in the Koran, and thus it became one of the JIus- sulman articles of faith. Even before the intro- duction of Ishinusm this story was current through a great part of Arabia and spread abroad in i)roportiou as tlie Ishmaelitish tribes gained ground. . . . This temple, whose name 'siiuare house ' indicates its form, is still ])rcserved. It was very small and of very rude construction. It was not till com])aratively recent times that it had a door with a lock. . . . For a long time the sole .sacred object it contained was the cele- brated black stone hadjarel-aswa'i, an aerolite, which is still the object of Mussubnan venera- tion. . . . We have already mentioned llobal, the first anthropomorphic idol, placed in the Caaba. This example was soon copied. . . . The Caaba thus became a sort of Arabian Pan- theon, and even the Virgbi JIary, with her child on her knees, eventually tound a place there." — F. Lenormant, Maiiiidl of Ancient Hint, of the MiKt, hk. 7, ch. 3. Ai-boin: Sir W. !Muir, IJfc of Muhomet, ch. 2. CABAL, The. (See C.miinet, The English; also, En(ii.ani): A. 1). IGTl. CABALA, The.— "The term Cabala is usu- nlly applied to that wild .system of Oriental phi- losophy which was introduced, it is uncertain at what period, into the .Jewish schools: in a wider sense it comprehended all the decisions of the Uabbinical courts or schools, whether on religious or civil points. " — II. II. Milman, Hint, of the Jeics, V. 2, bk. 18. — "The ])hilosophic Cabala aspired to oe a more sublime and transcendental Habbin- ism. It was a mystery not ('xclusive of, but above their more couunou mysteries; a secret more profmmd than their profoundest secrets. It claimed the same guaranty of anticpdty, of revelation, of tradition; it was the triu', occult, to few inlelligilile seii.^e of the sacred writings and of the sayings of the most r ^n iwned Wise Jlen; the inward interpretation oc' .he geindne imerpretation of the Law and i le I'rophets. . 'en went on ; they advanced, they rose from the most full and i)effect study of the Talmuds to the higher doctrines, to the "more divine contem- plalious of the Cabala. And the Zohar was the liook of the Cabala which soared almost above Ihecomprehensionof the wisest. . . . Initstradi- tioiial, no doidit unwritten form, the Cabala, at li'ast a ('!' lala, ascends to a very early date, the ('aptivity ; in its proper and more mature form, it belongs to the lirst century, and reaches down to the end of the .seventh century of our era. The Sepher Yetzira, the I$ook of Creation, which l)oasts itself to be derived from Jloses, from Abraham, if not from Adam, or even aspires liigher, belongs to the earlier ])eriod; the Zohar, the Light, to the later. The remote origin of the (Cabala belongs vo that period \\ hen the je\. ish mind, during the Captivity, became so deeply impregnated with Oriental notions, those of the Persian or Zoroastrian religion. Some of the lirst principles of the Cabala, as veil as many of the tenets, still more of th(! superstitions, of the Talmud, coincide so exactly with the Zen- davesta . . . as to leave no doiibt of their kin dred and alliliatiou." — II. II. Milman, Jliiit. of the Jcirs. hk. :\Q. CABILDO, The. See Louisiana: A. D. 170i). CABINET, The American.— " There is in the government of the United States no such thing as a Cabinet in the English sense of the term. I5ut I use the term, not only because it is c:rrent in America to describe the chief mim's- ters of the President, but also because it calls attention to the remarkable dilTercnee which ex- ists between the great ollicers of State in America and the similar oHlcers in the free coiuitries ot Europe. Almost the cmly reference in the Con- stitution to the nnnisters of the President is tliat contained in the i)ower given him to ' reiiuire the opinion in writing of the principal oflicer in each of the e.xeinitive departments ujion any subject relating to the duties of their respective olllces.' All these dei)artments have been created by Acts of Ccmgrcss. Washingtim began in 17^9 with four only, at tlie head of whom were the follow- ing four ollicials: Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney <!eneral. In 17!t8 there was added a Secretary ■.f the Navy, in 1829 a Postmaster General, anil ill 1849 a Secretary of the Interior. . . . Each receives ii salary of S8,000 (£1,000), All are ap- pointed by the President, subject to the con- .sent of the Senate (which is practically never refused), and may be removed by the President alime. Nothing marks them oil from aiiv other ollicials wlio nnglit be placed in charge of a de partment, except that they are summoned by the President to his lu'iva'te council. None of them can vote in Congress, Art. XI.. § of the Constitution provi<ling that 'no person holding any othce \inder the United States shall be a memlicr of either House during his c<mtinuance inolUce.'" — J. lirycc, Z'/a' Jw, Commouiceallh,ch. 343 CABINET. CiVniNET. 0. — "III 1862 ft separate Department of ARricul- tiire was estnl)lislieil. ... In 1889 tlu^ head iif the Department heeaiiK' Secretary '-t the Depiirt- ineiit of A;,'r:eultiire and a ('a')met oflle<'r. A iiiireail of l,at)or under the Inierior Department wa.s created in 18HI. In '8S8 Con^iress con- utituted it, a separate department. Imt did not make its head a Seeretarv, and tln'refore not a <. al'inet ollleer." There "are now (1891) ei^ht licnds of departments who eonstitute tli(^ Presi- dent's ('al)init. — W. \V. and \V. F. \VilloU|,'ld>y, (Sort, and Aili/iiiiiiitriili<iu ofllie U. S. (Joliita Ilnp- kin* I'lii' Slidh'i'.i, gcrii'MlX., mm. 1-2), f/i. 10. CABINET, The English.— "Few tilings in our history are more eurious than the orij^in ami f>rowlh of the power now jiossessed l)y the Caliiiiei. From an early period the Kinfrs of Kn^land had been assisted by a I'rivy Coiineil to which tlie law assigned many important functions and duties [see I'liivy CouNCii,]. During several centuries tliis body delilierated on tlie gravest and most deiieate alTair.s. But by degrees its character changed. It became too large for des- patch and secrecy. The rank of Privy Councillor was often liestowed as an honorary distinction on per.sons to whom nothing wa.s C(mtided, and whos(! opinion was never asked. The sovereign, on the most important occasions, resorted for advice t« a small knot of leading ministers. The advantages and disadvantages of this course were early pointed out by Bacon, with hisusiud judg- ment and sagac-ity: but it was not till after tlio Ilestoration that the interioi' council began to attract general notice. During many years old fashioned ])oliticians continued to regard the Cabinet as an imconstitutional and dangerous board. Nevertheless, it constantly became more and more important. It at length drew to itself the chief executive power, and has now been regarded, during several generations, us an essen- tial part of our polity. Yet, strange to say, it still continues to be altogether imknown to the law. The names of the noblemen and gentlemen who compose it arc never ollicially announced to • he public. No record is kept "of its meetings iind resolutions; nor has its existence ever been i recognized by any Act of Parliament. During some years the word Cabal was popularly used as synonymous with Cabinet. But it happened by a whimsical coincidence that, in 1071, the Cftbinct consisted of live persons the initial let- ters of whoso names made uptlie'.'ord Cabal, Cliflord, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. '1 he.se ministers were therefore em- phatically called the Cabal; and they soon made that appellation so infamous that it has never since their time been used except as a term of reproach." — Lord Macaulay, IJist. of End., f^'- 2. I — " Walpole'swork, . . . the effect of his policy, ' vheu it was tinally carried tlu'ough, was to estab- lish the Cabinet on a delinite footing, as the seat and centre of the executive government, to main- tain the executive in the closest relation with the legislature, to govern through the legislature, and to transfer the power and authority of the Crown to the House of Commcns. Some writers have held that the first Ministry in the mo<leru sense was that combination of Whigs whom Wil- liam called to aid him in government in 1695. Others contend that the second administration of Lonl Bockingham, which came into power in 1783, after the triumph of the American colon- ists, the fall of Lord North, and the defeat of George III., was tlie earliest Ministry of the typo of to-day. At whatcMT <latc we choose lirst to see all the decisive marks of that rennirkablo system which combines unity, steadfastness, and initiative in the executive, with the i)os.session of supreme autliority alike over men and measures by the House of Conunons, it is certain that it was imder Walpole that its ruling principles were first fixed in i)arlianientary govenunent, .and that the Cabinet system received the impres- sion that it bears in our own time. . . . Perliaps the most important of all the distinctions between the Cabinet in its rudimentary stage at the beginning of the century and its later practice, remains to be noticed. Queen Anne held a Cabinet every Sumlay, at which she was her-self liresent, just as we have seen that she was pres- ent at debates in the House of Lords. With a doubtful exception in the time of George III., no sovereign has been present at a mce' :ng of the Cabinet since Anne. . . . This vital change was probably due to the accident that Anne's suc- cessor did not understand the language in which its deliberations were carried on. The with- drawal of the sovereign from o'abinet Countils was essential to the momentous change which has transferred the whole substance of authority and power from the Crown, to a committee chosen bj' one member of the two Houses of Parliament, from among other members. . . . The Prime Minister is the keystone of the Cidiinet arch. Although in Cabinet all its members f tind on an equal footing, speak with equal voici and, on the rare occasions when a division is taken, are counted on the fraternal principle of one man, one vote, yet the heail of the Cabinet is ' prinms inter pares,' and occupies a position which, so long as it lasts, is one of exceptional and peculiar authority. It is true that he is in form chosen by the Crown, but in practice tue choice of the Crown is pretty strictly confined to the man who is designated by the acclamation of a party ma- jority. . . . The Prime Minister, o-ice appointed, chooses his own colleagues, and assigns them to their respective otlices. . . . The flexibility of the Cabinet system allows the Prime Jlinister in an emergency to take upon himself a power not inferior to that of a dictator, provided always tliat the House of Commons will stand by him. In ordinary circumstances, he leaves the heads of departments to do their own worl in their own way. . . . Just as tliC Cabinet has been described as being the regulator of relations be- tween Queen, Lords and Commons, so is the Prime Minister the regulator of relations between the Queen and her servants. . . . Walpole was in practice able to invest hira.self with more of tlie functions and powers of a Prime Minister than any of his successors, and yet was com- pelled by the feeling of the time earnestly and profusely to repudiate both the name and title, and every one of the pretensions that it involves. The earliest instance m which I have found the head of the government designated as the Premier is in ft letter to tlie Duke of Newcastle from the Duke of Cumberland in 1746."— J. Morley, Wal- jwle, ch. 7. — "In theory the Cabinet is nothing but a committee of the Privy Council, yet with the Council it has in reality no dealings; and thus the extraordinary result has taken place, that the Government of England is in the hands of men whose position is legally undefined : that while the Cabinet is a ■»■, ord of every-day use, no 344 CABINET. C.ESAH AUGUSTA. lawyer can say what a Cabinet is: that while no ordinary Englishinun knows wlio the Lonl.s uf the Council are, tlie Cliiircli of England prays, Sunday by Sunday, that these Lt)rds may bo 'endued with wis>loni and understanding'! that while the collective responsibility of Ministers is a doctrine appealed to by inenibers of the Gov- eminent, no less than by their opponents, it Is more than doubtful whether such responsibility could be enforced by any legal penalties: that, to sum up this catalogue of contradictions, the Privy Council has the same political powers which it had wlien Henry VIII. ascended the throne, whilst it is in reality composed of persons many of whom never have taken part or wished to take part in the contests of political life." — A. V. Dicey, The Priri/ Council, p. 143. CABINET, The Kitchen. See United St.\tes of Am. : A. D. 1820. CABOCHIENS, The. See Fhance: A. D. 1380-1415. CABOT, John and Sebastian. — American Discoveries. See Ameuica : A. D. 1407, and 1408. CABUL: A. D. 1840-1841.— Occupation by the Brit'sh. — Successful native rising. — Re- treat and destruction of the British army. See Afghanistan: A. D. 18:58-1843. A. D. 1878-1880.— Murder of Major Cavag- nari. the British Resident. — Second occupation bv '.he English. See Afoii.vnistan: A. D. 1800- -.881. CACIQUE. — "Cacique, lord of vas.sals, was the ivMvv by which the natives of Cuba, (lesig- natod tl f chiefs. Learning this, the conquerors appli' " ne name generally to the rulers of wild tribes, a though in none of the dialects of the contiuei.t is the word found." — II. II. Bancroft, Hist. </ the Piicifii; Stiiti-i, r. 1, /*. '»10, foot-note. CADDOAN FAMILY, The. See Ameri- can AnouioiNEs: P.vw.nee (Caddoan) Family; olso, Texas: The Ahouigi.val inhabitants. CADE'S REBELLION. See England: A. D. 14.')0. CADESIA (KADISIYEH), Battle of.— This WHS the first of the decisive series of battles in which the Arab followers of Mohammed elTected the overthrow of the Persian Empire (the Sassannian) and the conquest of its domin- ions. It was desperately fought, A. D. 030, under the walls of the fortified town of Cadesia (Kadisiyeh in the Arabic) situated near the Sea of Nedjef, between the Euphrates and the Arabian desert. The Persians numbered 120,000 men, under Rustam, their best general. "The Arabs were but 80,000 strong at first, but were rein- forced the second day. They were eoinmaiuled by Sa'ad and led by the redoubtable Kaled. The battle was obstinately prolonged through four days, but ended in the complete rout of the Per- sians and the death of Uustam, with 40,000 of his men. — G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarch)/, ch. 20. — See, also, ^Mahometan Con- quest: A. D. 033-051. CADIZ : Origin. Sec Utica, and Gades. A. D. 1596. — Taken and sacked by the English and Dutch. See Spain: A. D. 1.590. A. D. 1702. — Abortive English and Dutch expedition against. See Spain: A. D. 1703. A. D. 1810-1811.— Siege by the French. See Spain: A. D. 1810-1813. A..D. 1823. — Siege, bombardment and cap- ture by the French. SccSpain: A. D. 1814r-1837. SB CADMEA(KADMEIA),The. SeeGiiEECE: B. C. 3H;i. CADMEANS, OR KADMEIANS. See BlKOTIA. CADURCI, The.— The Cadurd were one of the tribes of ancient Gaul whose chief place was Divona, now Cahora on the Lot. — G. Long, In- cline of the lioman Itrimhlic. r. 4, ch. 17. CADUSIANS, The. — An ancient people so- called by the Greeks, whose territory was on the sout'- ,1 stern Iwrder of the Caspian Sea, — the district of modern Persians called Ghilan or Gliulan. Their native name was "Gaels." — M. Duncker, Hint, of Aiitii/iiiti/. bk. 8, ch. 1. CADWALLON, Death of. See IIeven- FiEi.T), Battle of the. CiELIAN HILL, The. See Seven Hills OF Ho.VIE. CAERLAVEROCK, Siege of.— A famous siege and reduction of the Scottish castle of Caerlaveroek, in Dumfriesshire, by Edward I. A. 1). 1300. CAERLEON.— "Caer," like the "Oeaster" of the Saxons, is a corruption by Celtic tongues of the Roman "Castrum. ' "In memory of tho second legion, which had been so long established at the Silurian Isca, they [the Welsh] gavo to the ruins of that city the name of Caer- Legion, the city of flie legion, now softened to Caerleou." — T. Wright, Celt, Roman and iSaxon, ch. 5. CiESAR, JULIUS, Career and death of. See Rome: B. C. 00-03, to 44; Gaul: B. C. SB- SI; and BniTAiN: B. ('. 55-54. CiESAR, The title.— " Octavius was the adopted lieir of .Julius Ciusiir; from the moment of his adoption the surname Cicsar became ap- propriated to hiin, and it was l)y this n.inio accordingly that ho was most famiiiarly known to his own contemponiries. Modern writers for the sake of distinction have agreed for the most part to confine this illustrious title to tlie first of the Ciesarian dynasty ; but wo should (l(mbtles.9 gain a clearer conception of the gniilual process by which tlie idea of a dynastiv; succession fixed itself in tho minds of the Romans, if we followed their own i)raetice in this particular, and applied the name of Ca'sar, not to Augustus only, but also to his adopted son Tiberius, to the scions of the same lineage who succeeded him, and even to those of later and independent dynasties. As late indeed as the reign of Diocletian, the Roman nionarcli was still eminently the Ciesar. It was not till llio close of the third century of our era that that illustrious title was deposed from its preeminence, and restricted to a secondary and deputed authority. Its older use was however revived and perpetuated, though less exclusively, through the declining ages of the empire, and has survived witli perhaps unbroken continuity even to our own days. 'The Austrian Kaiser still retains the name, though he has renounced tho succession, of the Cicsars of Rome, while the Czar of Muscovy pretends to derive his national desig- nation by direct inheritance from tlie Cicsars of Byzantium." — C. Jlerivale, Hist, of the liomana, ch. 31.— See, also, Rome: B. C. 31-A. D. 14. CiESAR-AUGUSTA.- Onoof the fortified posts established in Spain bv the Emperor Augustus, B. C. 27, aud in which the veterans of the legions were settled. The jilace and its name (corrupted) survive in modern Saragossa. — C. Merivale, Uut. of the Itomam, ch. 34. 345 C.ESAUEA IN C..PPADOCIA. CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO. CiESAREA IN CAPPADOCIA: Origin. S<T M..ZA. A. A. D. 260. — Capture, massacre and pillaee by Sapor, king of Persia. Sci' I'i:hsia: A. 1). 2at(-<>'.'7. CiESAREA IN PALESTINE : Massacre of Jews. Sec .Ikwh: A. D. «(t-70. The Church in. ht-o Christianity: A. I). 100-:! r,'. C/ESAROMAGUS IN BRITAIN.— A Koman lowii iileiililii'd, j^cncnilly, willi iiioilfrn Cht'hnsford. — T. Wright, Celt, liomaiiandHaxon, eh. 5. CiESAROMAGUS IN GAUL.— Modorn Bt'iuiviiis. Sec l{i;i.(i.«. CiESARS, The Twelve. See Kome: A. D. 68-iHI. CiESAR'S TOWER. Sec Toweh of London. CAFFA. 8d! Oknoa: A. D. 1201-1399. CAHORS : Origin. Stc Caduiioi A. D. 1580.— Siege and capture by Henry of Navarre. Sec Fuanck: A. D. 1578-1580. CAIRN. Hcc Bauhow. CAIRO : A. D. 641.— Origin. Sec Maiiomk- TANC'oNiiiEsT: A. I). 0-40-«4(i. A. D. 967-1171.— Capital of the Fatimite Caliphs. See .Mahdmetan Conquest and Emi'IUK: a. 1). 908-1171. A. D. 1517. — Capture, sack and massacre by the Ottoman Turks. See Turks: A. D. 1481- 1620. A. D. 1798. — Occupied by the French under Bonaparte. See France : A. 1). 1798 (May — AUOUOT). A. D. 1800. — Revolt suppressed by the French. Bee France: A. H. 1800 (January- June). A. D. 1801-1802.— Surrender to the English. — Restoration to Turkey. Sec Fr.\nce : A. i). 1801-1803. A. D. 1805-1811.— Massacres of the Mame- lukes. See Eoyit: A. D. 1803-1811. A. D. 1879-1883.— Revolt against the Khe- dive and the foreign control. — Occupation by the British. Sec Egypt: A. D. 1875-1882, and 1883-1883. » CAIROAN. See Kairwan. CAIUS, called Caligula, Roman Emperor, A. I). 37-41. CAKCHIQUELS, The. See American Abo- BiciiNEs: Quiches, aud Mayas. CALABRIA : Transfer of the name.— "After the loss of the true Calabria [to the Lombards] the vanity of the Greeks substituted that name instead of the more ignoble appellation of Bnit- tium; and the change appears to have taken place before the time of Charlemagne." — E. Gib- bon, Decline and Fall nf the Homan, Empire, eh. 45, note. A. D. 1080. — Norman duchy. See Italy (Southern): A. D. 1000-1090. CALAIS : A. D. 1346-1347.— Siege and cap- ture by Edward III. — Immediately after his great victory won at Creci, the English king, Edward III. laid siege to the strong city of Calais. Me built a town of huts round the city, "which he culled 'Newtown the Bold,' and laid it out with a market, regular streets and shops, and all the cecessary accommodation for an army, aud hither were carried in vast stores of vieluals and other iie<'es.sarie.s, obtained by ravaging the country round and liy Hhipiiient from Eiiglaiiil." Calais held out for a year, and angered the king so by its obstinacy tlmt when, in August, 1347, starvation forced its people to sur- render, lie re(iuired that six of the chief burgesses should be given up to him, with halters round their necks, for execution. Kustaelie St. I'ierro and flvi! others nobly olTered themselves for tlio saerillee, and It was only by the weeping inter- cession of Queen Philippa that Edward was In- duced to spare their lives. He expelled all the inhabitants who refused to take; an oath of fealty to him and repeopled the town with Englishmen. — W. Warburtoi., rJilirard Iff., SiroiiU f)ecade, ch. 3.— See, also, France: A. I), 1337-1360. A. D. 1348.— The Staple for English trade. See Stai'LE. A. D. 1558.— Recovery from the English by France. See France: A. 1). l'>-i'i-Vh>\>. A. D. 1564.— Final surrender of English claims. See France: A. 1). 1563-15(14. A. D. 1596-1598. — Surprise and capture by the Spaniards. — Restoration to France. See Fr.\nce: A. 1). 1593-1598. CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO, Knights of. — "It was to repn'ss the never-ceasing incur- sions of the Mohammedans, us well as to return these incursions with interest, that, in the time of Fernando [SVrnimdo II. of the early Spanish kingdom of Leon], two military orders, those of Calatruva and Santiago [or St. Jago — or St. James of Compostella], were instituted. The origin of the former order was owing to tho devotion of two Cistercian monks; St. liaymond, abbot of Fitero, and his companion, the friar Diego Velasijuez. These intrepid men, who had both borne arms previous to their monastic pro- fession, indignant at the cowardice of the Temp- lars, who resigned into the king of Castile's hands the fortress of Calatruva, which had been coutided to their defense by the emperor Alfonso, proposed, in 1158, to the regency of that king- dom, to preserve that position against the assail- ants. The proposal was readily accepted. Tho preaching of the warlike abbot was so efficacious, that in a short time he assembled 20,000 men, whom he conducted to Calatrava, and among whom were not a few of his own monks. There he drew up the institutions of tl e order, which took its name from the place, and which in its religious government long followed the Cistercian rule, and wore tho same monastic habit, — a white robe and scapulary. [By pope Benedict XIII. the habit was dispensed with, and tho knights allowed to marry 'once.' — Foot-note.] The other order commenced in 1161. Some rob- bers of Leon, touched with their past enormities, resolved to make reparation for them, by defend- ing the frontiers against the incursions of tho Mohammedans. Don Pedro Fernandez — if the 'don' has not been added to ive something like respectubility to the origin — was the chief founder of the order. He engaged tho brethren to assume the rule of St. Augustine, in addition to the ordinary obligations of knighthood. His military and monastic fraternity was approved by king Fernando; at whose suggestion tho knights chose Santiago as their patron, whoso bloody sword, in form of a cross, became their professional symbol. These two orders were richly endowed by successive kings of Leon &n^ 346 CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO. CALENDAR Castile, until tht-lr possessions becamo Immense." — 8. A. Diiiiliam, Hint, of S/xiin itnd Piirtm/nl, M: 8, teel. 2, ch. 1, <lir. 2. —In litOO the Itiiiglits of the order of St. Jiiines of Conipostellii " received p(^rmi».siou to marry. In 140;t, the Grand Muster- sidp was iiiiited to tli(! erown of Hpaii'.." In 152!) tlie ri^ht of nomination lo tlie Grand Mas- tcrsliip of the Order of Caiatrii '.a was transferred from the Pope to tlie crown of Spain, "and since that time the order has gradually merged into a court In.stltutioii. The state dress is a white robe, witli a red cro.ss on the left breast. The permis-sion to marry has been enjoyed since 1540." — F. C. Woodhouse, Military Ileliffioun Ortlvrs, pt. A. CALAURIA, Confederation of.— A naval confiMlcration, formed at a very early period of Greek history, by the seven maritime cities of Orchomi'nus, Athens, .lEgina, Epidaiirus, llcr- mionc, Prasia; and Nauplia against tlie liings of Argos. The island of C'alauria, oil the eastern point of Argolis, was the center of the confeiieracy. — £. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, v. 1, bh. \,rh. 3. CALCINATO, Battle of (1706). See Italy (Savoy .UNI) PiKUMONT): A. U. 1701-1713. CALCUTTA : A. D. 1698.— The founding of the city. See Indi.v: A. I). 1000-1702. A. D. 1756.— Capture by Surajah Dowlah.— The tragedy of the B!:ick Hole. See India: A. D. 1755-1757. ♦ CALDERON, Battle of. See Mexico: A. D. 1810-1819. CALEDONIA, The name. See Scotland, TIIK Na.MK. Ancient Tribes. See IJihtain, Celtic Tuibes. Wars of the Romans. See Britain: A. I). 78-«4. CALEDONIA SYLVA. See Britain, Cel- tic Tribes. CALEDONII, The.— One of the vald tribes which occupied tlie Highlands of Scotland when the liomans held Britain, and whose name they gave linally to all the Highland tribes and to that part of the island. — W. F. Sl^eiie, Celtic Scotland, T. 1. — See Britain, Celtic Tribes. CALENDAR, The French Republican. See France : A. D. 17!).J (October). CALENDAR, Gregorian.— Gregorian Era. — "This was a correction and improvement of the Julian [see Calendar, Julian]. It was discovered at length, by more accurate astronomi- cal observations, tliat the true solar or tropical year was 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 57 seconds; whence it fell short of the Julian or Egyptian computation of 365 days and hours by an interval of 11 minutes, 3 seconds, . . .which, in the course of 130 years, amounted :o a whole day. At the end of 130 years, therefore, the tropical year began a day earlier than the civil, or fell back a day behind it. . . . In the time of Pope Gregory XIII. , A. D. 1582, : . . the [ver- nal] cquino.K was found to be on tlic lltli of March, having fallen back ten days. In order, therefore, to bring it forward to its former place of the 21st, he left out ten days in October, call- ing the 5th the loth day of that niontli. Whence in that year of confusion, the 22d day of Decem- ber became the flrst of January, A. I). 1583, which was the flrst year of the Gregorian Era. In making this correction, ho was prinrlpally a.ssislcd by llic^ cch'bratrd matliemallciau Clavlus. Hut to prevent the repi'tition of this error In future, a further reformation of the Julian Calen- dar was want lug. Because the vernal eipilnox fell backwards three days in the course of 31)0 years, Gregory, chielly l)y the assistance of Aloysius Llllius, decreed that thn'e days should be omitted in every four centuries: namely, that every flrst, seconil and third centurial year, which would otherwise be bisw.xtile, should be a com- mon year; but that every fourth centurial year should remain bi.s.sextile. Thus, llu! years A. I). 1700, l.SOl), 1900, and 2100, 22(h). 2300. were to Ixj common years; but A. I). 1000, 2000, 2400, to remain leap years. By this ingenious reform, the Julian Calendar is rendered sulllciently accu- rate for all tlu- purposes of chronology, and even of astronomy, for (IO(X) years to come. . . . The Gregorian or reformed Julian year was not adopted In England until X. 1). lt51, when, the deticiency from the time of the Council of Nice then amounting to elev(^ii days, this number wa.s struck out of the month of Septen ucr, by Act of Parliament ; and the 3(1 day was counted the 14th, in that year of confu.sion. The next year A. 1). 1752, was the flrst of the new style, be- ginning January 1, instead of Marcli" 25." — W. Hales, New Aintlyiiiii of Vhronolof/y, v. 1, l>Jc. 1. — The change from Old Style, as the Julian Calendar, and dates according with it, now came to be called to New Style, or the reformed, Gre- gorian Calendar, was made in Spain, Portugal, part of Italy, part of the Netherlands, France, Denmark, and Lorraine, in A. D. 1582; in Poland in 1586; in Hungary in 1587; in Catholic Switzer- land in 1583; in Catliolic Germany in 1584; la nio.st parts of Protestant Germany and Switzer- land in 1700 and 1701, and, lastly, in England, in 1751. In Russia, Greece, and the East generally, the Old Style is still retained. — Sir II. Nicolas, C'hroiwlot/i/ of History. CALENDAR, Julian.— Julian Era.— "The epoch of the Julia'i Era, which precedes the com- mon or Christian Era by forty-flve yeai's, is the n^formatiou of tlie Roman calendar by Julius Ciesar, who ordained that the Year of Rome 707 should consist ' if 15 months, forming altogether 445 days; that the ensuing year, 708, should be composed of 365 days; and that every fourth year should contiiin 306 days, tlie additional day being introduced after the Otii of the calends of March, i. c., the 24th of February, which year lie called Bissextile, because the 0th of the calends of March were then doubled. Julius Ca-sar also divided the months into the numbcrof days which they at present contain. The Roman calendar, which was diviiled into calends, nones and ides, was used in most public instruments throughout Europe for many centuries. . . . The calend is the 1st day of each month. Tlie ides wfrc eight days in each month: in March, Jlay, July and October the ides commence on th<i 15tli, and in all other laonths on the 13th day. The nones are the 5tli day of each month, excepting in March, May, July and October, when tlie iiones fall on tlie 7th day The days of the inontli were reckoned backwards instead of forwards: thus, the 3d calends of February is the 30tli of January ; the 4th calends of February the 29th January. . . . Excepting July and August, which were named after Julius and Augustus Ca;sar, having been called Quiutilis and Sextilis, tho 347 CALENDAR CALIFORNIA, 154!)-1781. Ilomiin months boro tliclr prcHont iiamcM. An error prcviiilcd for !17 years iifl<'r the dciilli of .luliiis Cicsiir, from reckoning? every third liisteiid of every fourth year ii hiKKextlle, or leap year, Rg if the year contained !t(ir((iays, 8 liouin. Wlien tliiH miHtalte wan (ietecteci, tliirteen interealatloiis Jiad occurred instead of ten, and tlio year consc- (|Uently l)ej{aii tliree days too lute: tlie calendar was, therefore, ajfuin corrected, and it was or- dered tliat eacli of tlie cnsidnp twelve years should contain 305 days only, and that there shoidd not be any leap year until A. U. C. 700 or A. D. 7. From that time the years have been ealcidated without mistakes, and tlie Uoman year lias been u(h>pted by all Christian nations, tlinuju;h about the sixth century they began to date from thebirtliof oiirHaviour." — l^irll. Nicolas, Chron- ology of JliKlon/, p. 4. — " It nilKht naturally have been cxp.^cted that Julius Ciesar would have so ordered his reformed solar year, as to begin on the day of the winter solstice, which. In the ' Year of Confusion ' [i. e., the year in which the error of the calendar was corrected] was supposed to fall on Dec. 2.5. Rut he chose to begin his new year on the first of January following, because on that day the n^oon was new, or in conjunc- tion witli the sun, at 7 hours, minutes and !i5 seconds after ncwn. By this means he began his year on a most high or holy day among tlio ar- dent Druids, with whoso usages ho was well ac- (|uainted, and also made his new year tlie first of u lunar cycle." — W. Hales, Kew Analysis of Chronology, v.\, bk. \. At.so in: C. '"lerivale, Ilist. of the Romans, eh. '20. — For on account of the subsequent correc- tion of tho Julian calendar, see CALEtroAR, Que- OOItlAN. CALENDS. See Calendar, Jclian. CALETI, The. See Bei.o^,. CALHOUN, John C, and the War of 1812. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1810-1813. . . . .And the Nullification Movement. See United States of A.m. : A. D. 1828-18.'i3. CALIFORNIA: The aboriginal inhabi- tants. See American Aborigines: Shosiionean Family, and SIodocs and their California NEIQllnORS. A. D. 1543-1781.— Origin of the name.— Early Spanish exploration and settlement. — The founding of the Franciscan missions. — "The settlements of the Spanish miasionaries within the present limits of the State of Cali- fornia date from the first foundation of San Diego in 1769. The mis-sions that were later founded north of San Diego were, with the original establishment itself, for a time known merely by some collective name, such as the Northern / Missions. But later the name California, already / long since applied to tho country of the peninsular missions to the Southward, was extended to the new land, with various prefixes or qualifying phrases; and out of these the defluitive name Alta [or Upper] California at last came, being ' ■ applied to our present country during the whole , period of the Jlexicau Republican ownership. As to the origin of the name California, no serious question remains that this name, as first applied, between 1535 and 1539 to a portion of Lower California, was derived from an old printed romance, tho one which Mr. Edward Everett Hale rediscovered in 1862, and from which he drew this now accepted conclusion. For, in this romance, the name California was already before 1520 applied to n fabulous island, deseril)e<l as near tlio Indies and also ' very near the Terrestrial Paradise. ' Colonists whom Cortes brouglit to the newly discovered peniiisida in 1535, and who returned the ne:;t year, may have been the first to apply the name to this supposed island, on which they had Iieen for a time resi- dent. The coast of Upper California was first visited (iuring the voyage of the explorer Juan Cabrillo in 1542-43. Several landings were then made on the coast and on the islands, in tho Santa Barbara regicm. ... In 1579 Drake's famous visit took place [see America: A. D. 1573-15801. . . . It ' is . . . almost perfectly- sure that he did not enter or observe the Golden Gate, and that he got no sort of idea of tho existence of the Great Day. . . . This result of the examination of the evidence about Drake's voyage is now fairly well accepted, although some people will always try to insist that Drake dis- covered our Bay of San Francisco. The name San Francisco was probably applied to a port on this coast for tho first time by Cermciloii, who, in a voyage from tho Philippines in 1595 ran ashore, while exploring tho coast near Point Reyes. It is now, however, perfectly sure that neither ho nor any other Spanish navigator be- fore 1709 applied this name to our present bay, which remained utterly unknown to Europeans during all this periotl. . . . lu 1602-8, Sebastian Vizouno conducted a Spanish exploring expedi- tion along tho California coast. . . . From this voyage a little more knowledge of the diaracter of tlie coast was gained; and thenceforth geographical researches in the region of Cali- fornia ceased for over 0. century and a holf. AVith only this meagre result we reach the era of the first settlement of Upper California. Tho missions of tho peninsula of Lower California passed, in 1767, by the expulsion of the Jesuits, into the hands of the Franciscans; and tlie Spanish government, whoso attention was at- tracted in tills direction by the changed con- ditions, ordered the immediate prosecution of a long-cherished plan to provide the Manilla ships, on their return voyage, with good ports of supply and repairs, and to occupy the north- west land as a safeguard against Russian or other aggressions. . . . Thus began the career of Spanish discovery and settlement in Cali- fornia. The early yeors show a generally rapid progress, only one great disaster occurring, — the destruction of San Diego Mission in 1775, by assailing Indians. But this loss was quickly re- paired. In 1770 tho ^Mission of San Carlos was founded at !Monterey. In 1772, a land expedi- tion, under Fages and Crespi, first explored the eastern shore of our San Francisco Bay, in an effort to reach by land the old Port of San Fran- cisco. . . . After 1775, the old name began to bo generally applied to the new Bay, and so, thenceforth, the name Port of San Francisco means what we now mean thereby. In 1775, Lieutenant Ayala entered the new harbor by water. In the-following year tho Mission at San Francisco was founded, and in October its church was dedicated. Not only missions, however, but pueblos, inhabited by Spanish colonists, lay in the ofllcial plan of the new undertakings. The first of these to be established was San Jose, founded in November, 1777. The next was Los Angeles, founded in September, 1781." — J. Royce, California, eh. 1, sect. 3. 349 CALIFORNIA, 1543-1781. CALIFORNIA, 184ft-1847. Also in: H. IT. Rnncroft, Ilht. of the PacijJc Sldtm, r. \;i(('iilif,inii(i, t, 1).— F. AV. IJlackniur, SlKtiiinh Iimtitiitiiiiiit iifilie Nmithirtut, eh. Tt-\Ti. A. D. 1846-1847. — The American conquest and its unexplained preludes.— " Knrly in 1H4(I, the AiiuTiiiiiiH ill Ciiliforniiuiumbcrcil nlioiit *{K), mostly iiblc-bodicd men, mid wlifi in llicir iictivity, (MitcTiirisc, mid midacllv, ((institulcd (initc II formidi'bic I'lcmcnt in tliis spiirscly in- linbitcd region. Tlio population of Ciilifornin iit this time was 6,000 Mc.xican.s mid 200,000 In- dians. Wc nnr^v come to a period in the history of California that has never been made clear, and respectinit which there nroconllicting statements ami opinions. The following facti wr,! ob- tained by careful inquiry of intelligent parties who lived in California during the period men- tioned, and wlio jiarti ■ipated in the scenes nar- rated. The native Californians appear to have entertained no very strong allection for their own government, or, rather, they felt that under the influences at work they would inevitably, and at no very distant period, become a dismembered branch o"f the Mexican nation; and the matter was finally nanowcd down to this contested point, nar.ielv, whether this state surgery sliould be performed by Americans or English, the real struggle beiug between tlioso two nationalities. In tlie northern part of tlie territory, such native Californians as the Vallejos, Castros, etc., with the old American settlers, Leese, Larkin, and others, sympathized with the United States, and desired annexation to tlie American republic. In the south, Pio Pico, then governor of the ter- ritory, ancl other prominent native Califoniians, with James Alexander Forbes, the English con- sul, who settled in Santa Clara in 1838, wer' ex- erting themselves to bring the country under English domination. . . . This was the state of affairs for two or three years previous to the Mexican War. For some months before the news that hostilities between the United States and Mexico had commenced [see Mexico: A. D. 1846-1847] reached California, the belief that such an event would certainly occur was uni- versal throughout the territory. This quickened the impulses of all parties, and stimulated the two .rivals — the American and English — in tlu'ir efforts to be the first to obtain a permanent hold of the country. The United States govern- ment had sent Colonel Fremont to the Pacific on an exploring expedition. Colonel Fremont had passed through California, and was on his way to Oregon, when, in Jlarch, 1846, Lieutenant Gillespie, of the United States marine service, was sent from Washington with dispatches to Colonel Fremont. Lieutenant Gillespie went across Mexico to Mazatlan, and from thence by sea to California. He finally overtook Fremont early in June, 1846, a short distance on the road to Oregon, ond communicated to hira the purport of his dispatches, they having been committed to memory and the papers destroyed before he en- tered Mexico. Wliat these instructions author- ized Colonel Fremont to do has never been pro- mulgated, but it is said they directed him to remain in California, and hold himself in readi- ness to cooperate with the United States fleet, in case war with Mexico should occur. Fremont immediately returned to California, and camped a short time on Feather River, and then took up his headquarters at Sutter's Fort. A few days after, on Sunday, June 14th, 1846, a party of fourteen Americans, under no apparent com- inancl, appeared in Sonoma, captured the place, raised tlie Bear flag, pronaimed the iiidependen'ee of California, and carried olT to Kremont's hea<l- ((uarters four prominent citizens, namely, the two Vallejos, J. P. Leese, .ii'il Colonel Priulhon. On the eoiisiimmationof these aeliievenients, one Merritt was elei'ted captain. Tills was a rough Iiarty of revolulioiiists, and the manner in which they improvised the famous Hear flag shows upon what slender means nations I'.nd kingiloms are sometimes started. From an estimable old la<ly they obtained a fragmentary portion of her whfte skirt, on which tliey painted what was in- ten' "(I to represent a grizzly bear, but not beintf artistic in their work . . . tlie Mexicans, with tl jir usual happy faculty on such occasions, called it the 'Bandera Colchis,' or ' Ilog Flag.' Ti.is flag now ornaments the rooms of the Pioneer Society In San Francisco. On the 18th of June, 1846, William B. Ide, a native of New England, who had emigrated to California the year pre- vious, issued a proclamation as commander-in- chief of the fortress of Sonoma. This proclama- tion declared the purpose to overthrow the existing government, and establish in its place the '■cpublican form. . . . General Castro now proposed to attack the feebly mantfed post at Sonoma, but he was frustrated by a rapid move- ment of Fremont, who, on the 4th of July, 1846, called a meeting of Americans at Sonoma; and this osscmbly, acting under his advice, pro- claimed tlie independence of the country, ap- pointed Fremont Governor, and declared war against ]\'exico. During these proceedings at Sonoma, a flag with one star floated over the headquarters of Fremont at Sutter's Fort. The meaning of this lone-star flag no one seems to have understood lust as Piemont, with his company, had started for tlie coast to con- front Castro, and act on the aggressive gener.illy, he was suddenly brought to a stand by the os- tounding intelligence that Commodore Sloat had arrived at Monterey, and that, on the 7th of July, 1846, he had raised the American flag and taken possession of the place ; also, that, by com- mand of Commodore Sloat, Con'mander Mont- gomery, of the United States sloop-of-war Ports- mouth, then lying in San Francisco Bay, had, on the 8th of "July, taken possession of Yerba Buena and raised the American flag on the plaza. This of course settled the business for all par- ties. The Mexican flag and the Bear flag were lowered, and in due time, nolens volena, all ac- quiesced in the flying of the Stars and Stripes. . . . Commodore Sloat . . . had heard of the commencement of hostilities on the Rio Grande, . . . sailed from Mazatlan for California, took possession of the country and raised the Ameri- can flag on his own responsibility. These deci- sive steps on the part of Commodore Sloat were not taken a moment too soon, as on the 14th of July the British man-of-war Collingwood, Sir George Seymour commanding, arrived at Mon- terey," intending, as Sir George acknowledged, " to take possession of that portion of the coun- try." In August, Commodore Sloat relinquished the command of the Pacific squadron to Com- modore Stockton, who "immediately instituted bold and vigorous measures for the subjugation of the territory. All his available force for land operations was 350 men — sailors and marines. But so rapid and skilful were Stockton's move- 849 rALIFOUNIA, 1840-1847. CALIFORNIA, 1856. mfnln, iiml ho rtllcli'nt wiis the rcM'ipcriitInn of KrriiiDiil with his kiiiuII troop, timt Culiforiiiik wiiH I'lTri'tiinlly coiiiiiii'rril in .litiiiiitry, lN4i. DiiriiiK all this" pfrlod the people of tlie Unilcil Htiites were Ixiionmt of wliiil was tranHpiritiff in ('alifoniia anil vice versa. Hut the aetlon of CoiinniMlore HIcmt . . . anil . . . ConiniiKlore Htix'ktoii . . . iliil hut anticipate the wishes of tlio United Slates (Joverntneiit, whieli had, in June, IHIfl, dispatched Oeneral Kearney across tbii country from Fort Leavenworth [see Nkw Mkxico: a. 1). IHJtl), at the liend of l.fXH) men, witn orders to conquer California, and \vhen conquered to assume the K'>veniorsldp of the territory. Oeneral Kearney arrived In California via Han Pasiiuxl with j^reatly dindnished forces, DecemlK^r, 18KI, a few weeks licfore active mili- tary openitioiiH ill that rej?ion ceased." — E. K. Dunbar, Th<' Unmanee of the Af/i; pp. 21)-4'3. Also in: H. 11. Bancroft, Iliiit. of the I'lififln matet, V. 17 (OiUfoniiii, v. ,'5), r/i. 'l-lB.— .1. C. Fremont, Mcintiimiifmi/ Life, r. 1, eh. 14-15. A. D. 1848.— Cession to the United States. SeeMKXKO: A. I). IHlrt. A. D. 1848-1849. -The discovery of Gold and the immigration of the Gold-hunters. — " In the summer of IH |7 the American residents of California, numbering perhaps 2,0(X), and mostly established near San Francisco Bay, looked forward with hope and copfiilenee to the future. Their government held secure posses- sion of the whole territory, and had announced its iiurpo.se to hold it pennanently. ... It so hap|)ened that at this time one of the leading representJitives of American interests in Califor- nia was John A. Sutter, a Swiss by his paren- tage; a Qernmn by the place of his birth in Baden ; an American by residence and natviraliza- tlou in Missouri; and a Jlcxicnn by subsequent residence and naturalization in California. In 18IiO he had settled at the lunotion of the Sacra- mento and American rivers, near the site of the present city of Sacromento." Ills rancho became known as Sutter's Fort. In the summer of 1847 he planned the build- ing of a Hour-mill, and "partly to get lum- ber for it, he determined to build a saw-mill id.so. Since there was no good timber in the valley, the saw-mill must be in the mountains. The site for it was selected by James W. Marshall, a native of New Jersey, a skilful wheelwright by occupation, industrious, honest, generous, but 'cranky,' full of wild fancies, and defective in some kinds of business sense. . . . The place for liis mill was in the small valley of Colonui, 1,.500 feet above the level of the sea, and 45 miles from Slitter's Fort, from which it was accessible by wagon without expense for road- making." Early in 1848 the saw -mill was nearly completed; "the water had been turned into the race to carry away some of the loose dirt and gravel, and then had been turned oft again. On theafterncKjnof Monday, the24tliof January, Marshall wasnvalking in the toil-race, when on its rotten granite bcd-ro^k he saw some yellow particles and picked up several of them. The largest were about the size of grains of wheat. . . . He thought they were gold, and went to the mill, where he told the men that he had found a gold mine. At the time, little import- ance was attached to his statement. It was regarded as a ijroper subject for ridicule. Mar- shall liummered Ids new metal and found it malleable; he put it Into the kitchen fire, nnd oliMS-ved that it did not readily melt or iH'come diseolored ; he compared Its color with gold coin; and the more be examined it the more he was eonviiiced that it was gold." lie soon found an opportunity to sliow his discovery to Sutter, who tested the metal with add and bv careful weighing, and satistii'd himself that MarshaH's conclusion was correct. In the spring of 1H4S San Fninclsco, a vilhigo of al)out 700 inhabi- tants, had two newspapers, the 'Californian' and the 'California Star,' both weeklies. Tho llrst printed nu'iition of the gold discovery was a short paragraph In the former, under date of the t5th of March, stating that a gold mine had been fouiiil at Sutter's Mill, and tliat a jmckiigo of the metal worth ililO had been received at New Helvetia. . . . Before the middle of Juno the whole territory resounded with the cry of ' gold ' ' . . Nearly all the men hurried oil to the minis. Workshops, stores, dwellings, wives, and even ripe tlclds of grain, were left for a time to take earo of themselves. . . . The reports of the discovery, which began to roach the Atlantic Sttites in September, 1849, commanded little criHlence there before January; but the news of the arrival of large amounts of gold ut Mazatlan, Valparaiso, Panama, and New York, in the latter part of tho winter, put an end to all doubt, and in the . , .ing there was sucli a rush of peaceful migration as the world had never seen. In 1840, 25,000 — according to one authority .50,000 — imndgrants went by land, nnd 23,000 by sea from the region east of tliB Rocky Mountains, and by sea perhaps 40,000 from other parts of the world. . . . Tho gold yield of 1848 was estimated at |5,000,000; that of 1840 at $2;),0(M),000; that of IS.W at .150,000,000; that of 18.53 at |05,000,()00; and tlu'n came tlie decline which has continued until the present time [1800] when the yield is about 112,000,000."— J. 8. Ilittell, The DiacoKrn of Gold in California (Century Magazine, February, 1891). Also in; E. E. Dunbar, Tlie Itmnanee irf the Ai/e, or the Diseotery of Gold in Cat. — II. H. Bi'incroft, Iliitt. of tlie Pucifie States, ». 18 (Cali- fornia, V. 6) eh. 2-4. A. D. 1850. — Admission to the Union as a free state. — The Compromise. See United St.\te8 op Am. : A. I). 1850. A. D. 1856. — The San Francisco Vigilance Committee. — " The association of cilizensknown a; the vigilance conmiittec, which was organized ii Ban Francisco on the 15th of May, 1856, has li ui such an iuHuence on tho growth and pros- pi vity of tliat city that now [1877], at tho end of 21 -ears, a true account of tho origin nnd subse- qiiei.*. u'jtionof that association will bo read with interest. For some time the corruption in the courts of law, the insecurity of the ballot-box at elections, and the infamous character of many of the public oflicials, had been the subject of coir plaint, not only in San Francisco, but throughout the State of California. It was evi- dent to the honest and respectable citizens of San Francisco that ... it would become the duty of the people to protect themselves by reforming the courts of law, and by taking tho ballot-box from the hands of greedy and unprincipled politicians." The latter were repre- sented by a newspaper called the Sunday Times, edited by one James P. Casey. The opinion of 350 CALIFORNIA. 1856. CALIFORNIA, ISM. thp hfitter cliw«'s of rltizonii was volcrd by tho Evcninji niillctin, wliow I'ditor wiis.Iiiiiich KIii);. On till- Mill rif Miiy, IMi], lUuii wan Hlmt l>y Ciiwy, In till? public Hircct, receiving ii wouiitl from which he (litvl nix diiys Inter, luid Intense excitement (if foelinf? In the city was iinHluccd. Cnsey Hiirrendercd liiiii.Helf and wa.s lodKed in jnil. DurliiK the cvcniiiK i)f till) Utli sonic of the nicnibcrs of ii vlttllnncc coiiiniittec which had been formed in IHUl, and which hud then checked ii free riot of crime in the suddenly populated and unorganized city, by tryirif? and exccutlnjf a few desperadoes, came to/;ethcr and determined theorfranizatlon of another conimlttce for the same purpose. " The next day (the 15tli) a set of rules and regulations wero drawn up which each member was obliged to sljrn. The coniniittce took spacious nMiins, and all citizens of 8iin Francisco having? the welfiiro of the city at heart were Invited to Join the association. Several thousands enrolled themselves in ii few days. . . . The members of the vi>;llaiice com- mittee were divided Into companies of ItH), each company Imvlm; a captain. Early on Sun- day (the 18th) orders were sent to the dilTcrcnt Crtptuins to appear with their companies ready for duty at the headquarters of the coninilttee. In Sacramento Street, at nine o'clock. When all the ccmipanics had arrived, they were formed Into one bodv, in all a'l.'mt 2,000 men. Sixty picked men >'ero ,electei; as ii guard frr the cxecutivo conimiUce. At half-past eleven the whole force moved in the directum of the jail. A Inrgj number of spectators had collected, but there was no ccmfusion, no noi.se. They marched through tho city to Broadway, and there formed in the open space bef.ire the jail. . . . The houses opposite tho Jail were searched for men and arms secreted there, the committee wishing to prevent any chance of u collision which might lend to bloodshed. A camion was then brought forward and idiiccd in front of the jail, the muzzle pointed at llic door." The jai'er was now called upon to deliver Casey io tlio com mittce, and complied, being unable to resist. One Charles Cora, who had killi-d a United States marshal the. November previous, was taken from the jail at the same time. The two prisoii- .■V8 were escort "d to the quarters of the vigilance committee and there conlined under guard. Two days afterwards (>Ioy 20th) Mr. King died. Casey and Cora 'vero put on trial before a tribu- nal which tho committee had organized, were condemned to death, and were hanged, with Bolemnity, on the 22d, from a platform erected in front of the building on Sacramenio Street. "The executive commitce, Hnding that tho power they held was perfectly under coutrol, and that there was no danger of any popui.;r excesses, determined to continue their work and rid the country of the gang of ruffians which had for so long a time managed elections in Sun Fran- cisco ond its vicinity. These men were all well known, and were ordered to leave San Francisco. Many went away. Those who refused to go were arrested and taken to the rooms of the committee, where they were contlned until opportunities offered for shipping them out of '..he country. . . . The governor of California at this time was Mr. .1. Jscely Johnson. . . . The major-general of tho second divifion of state militia (which included the city and county of Son Francisco) was Jlr. William T. Sherman [aftcrwartls well known In tho world m Oonoml Sherman] who had ri'»lgiied his commlHsloii in the rnlteil Slates army and had iM'coine a part- ner in the banking house of I^ucim, Turner & Co., In San Francisco. . . . Toward the end of May, Oovenior .loliiison . . . appealed to (Jen- cral Slierman for advice uiiil assistance in putting a stop to the vigilance committee. At this tinin (lenenil Wool was In command of the United States troops, and ('omnuHlore Karragut had charge of the navy yard." Oeneral Wool was applied to for amis, and Commodore Furragut was asked to si at Inn a vessel of war at anchor off San Francisci). Holh olllccrs i! ■clliied to act as re(iuested, having no authority to do so. " When (lovcrnor Johnson returned to Sacnimi'iito, a writ was issued, at his rc(iucst, by Judge Terry of the supremo court, conimandin)^ the slierlil of San Francisco to bring before him due William .Mulligan, who was then in the hands of tho vigilance committee." The vigilance conimitteo refu.scd to surrender their prisoner to the sherilT, and (Jcneral Sherinan was ordered to call out the militia of liis di\ision tosupport that otlicer. At the same time the governor Issued a proclamation declaring tho city of San Francisco in a state of Insurrection. General Shernian found it impo8.si- ble to arm his mlliliii for service, and resigned the command. The governor sought and ob- tained arms elsewhere; but tho schooner which brought them was seized and the arms possessed by tlie conimlttce. On attempting to arrest tliu person who had charge of the schooner, one of tho vigilance conimitte<''s policemen, named Hop- kins, WHS stabbed by the afterwards notorious Judge Terry, who, with .some others, had under- taken to protect tlio man. "The signal for a general meetiugund'r "rrus wf?" >-:i,iindc(l, and in a short time l.tWO inca wc"' reported ready for duty. In an hour 4,000 men were under arms and prepared to act against the so-culled law- and-order party, who were collected in force at tho dilTerent armories. These armories wero surrounded." Judge Terry was demanded and delivered up, and all the arms and ammunition ! in the armories were removed. "In this way was settled the question of powr between the vigilance committee, who wished to restore onler and were working to establish an honest judiciary and a ])ure tmllot, and their opponents, the law-and-ordcr party, who wished to uphold the dignity of the law by means of a butcher'8 knife in the hands of a judge of the supreme court. Although the committee were masters in San Francisco, their position was made more precarious by the very fact of their having dis- armed their opponents. The attention of the whole Union was attracted to the state of things in California, and it was rumore<i that instruc- tions had been sent from Washington to all the United States vcsselo in the Pacific to proceed at once to San Francisco ; an(i that orders were on the way, placing the United States military force In" California at the disposal of Governor Johnson. The committee went on steadily with their work. . . . All the iinportunt changed which they had undertaken had been carried out successfully, and they would gladly have given up the responsibility they hud a lined liud it not been for the ciwe of Judge Ti .... At last the physicians announced that lioi)kin8 was out of danger, and on the 7tli of August .Iiidgo Terry was released. . . . Having got rid of 351 CALIFORNIA, 1856. CALIFORNIA. 1877-1880. .TiuIro Terry tlie committee prepared to bring tlieir lnlx)ur» to a close, and on tlie IHtli of August tlic whole iissociiition, numbering over .1,000 men, after mareliing through the principiil streets of iSiin Francisco, returnecl to their headquarters in Sacramento Street, where aft<'r delivcriug up their arms they were relieved from duty. . . . In tlic following November there v.iis an election of city and county oflicers. Every thing went oil very (piietly. A 'people's tiolvet', bearing the mimes of thoroughly trustworthy citizens, irrespective of Jiarty, was elected by a largo majority, and for the last 30 years San Fmncisco has had the rejjutation of being one of the best governed cities in the United States." — T. G. Carv, The Sin Francisco Viyilanee Covimittc< (Atlantic MontMy, Dec. 1877). At.so in: n. II. Bancroft, Ilist. of the Pacific States, V. 18 (California, v. 0), ch. 35.— Gen. W. T. Sherman, Menunrs, ch. 4 (v. 1). A. D. 1877-1880.— Denis Kearney and the Sand Lot Party.— The new state constitution. — " Late in 1H77 a meeting was called in San Fran- cisco to express sympathy with the jnen then on strike at Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. . . . Some strong language used at this meeting, and ex- aggerated by the newspapers, frightened the business men into forming a sort of committee of public safety. . . . The chief result of the incident was further irritation of the poorer classes, who perceived that the rich were afraid of them, and therefore disiicscd to deal harshly with them. Shortly after came an election of miuiicipal olBcers and members of the State legislature. The contest, as is the custom in America, brought into life a number of clubs and other organizations, purporting to represent various parties or sections of a party, and among others a body calling itself 'The Working men's Trade and Labor Union,' the Secretary of which was a certain Denis Kearney. When the election was over, Kearney declared that ho would keep his imion going, and form a working man's party. He was a drayman by trade, Irish by birth, brought up a Roman Catholic, but accustomed to include his religion among the established in- stitutions be reviled. He had borne a good character for industry and steadiness till some friend 'put him into stocks,' and the loss of what he hoped to gain is said to have flt^t turned him to agitation. Ho had gained some faculty In speaking by practice at a Sunday debating club called the Lyceum of Self Culture. . . . Kearney's tongue, loud and abusive, soon fathered an audience. On the west side of San rancisco, as you cross the peninsula from tlie horbor towards the ocean, there is (or then was) a large open space, laid out for building, but not yet built on, covered with sand, and hence called the Sand Lot. Here the mob had been wont to gather for meetings; here Kearney formed his party. At first he had merely vagabonds to lis- ten, biit one of the two pcsA newspapers took him up. These two, the Chronicle and the Morning Call, were in keen rivalry, and the for- mer seeing in this new movement a chance of going ahead, filling its columns with sensational matter and increasing its sale among working men, went in hot and strong for the Sand Lot party. . . . The advertisement which the Chro-- nicle gave him by its reports and articles, and which he repaid by advising working men to take it, soon made him a personage; and his position was finally assured by his being, along with several other speakers, arrested and prosecuted on a charge of riot, in respect of in- llammatory speeches delivered at a meeting on tlie top of" Nob Hill, one of the steep heights whicli make San Francisco the most picturesque of American cities. The prosecution failed, and Kearney was a popular hero. Clerks and the better class of citizens now began to attend his meetings, tliough many went from mere curi- osity, as they would have gone to a circus ; tlio AV. P. C. (working man's Party of California) was organized as a regular party, embraring the whole Stiite of California, with Kearney for its President. . . . The Sand Lot party <lrew its support chiefly froir tlic Democrats, wlio here, as in the East, have the larger share of the rabble: hence its rise was not unwelcome to tlio Republicans, because it promised to divide and weaken their old opponents; while the Demo- crats, hoping ultimately to capture it, gave a feeble resistance. Tlius it grew the faster, and soon began to run a ticket of its own at city and State elections. It carried most of the city offices, and when tlie question was submitted to the people whether a new Constitution should be framed for California, it threw its vote in favor of having one and prevailed. . . . Next came, in the summer of 1878, tlie choice of delegates to the convention which was to frame the new Con- stitution. The Working man's Party obtained a substantial representation in the convention, but its nominees were ignorant men, without ex- perience or constructive ideas. . . . However the working men's delegates, together with the more numerous and less corruptible delegates of thr farmers, got their way in many things and produced that surprising instrument by which California is now governed. ... 1. It restricts and limits in every possible way the powers of the State legislature, leaving it little authority except to carry out by statutes the provisions of the Constitution. It makes 'lobbying,' i. e., the attempt to corrupt a legislator, and the cor- rupt action of a legislator, felony. 2. It forbids tlie State legistaturo or local authorities to incur debts beyond a certain limit, taxes uncultivated land equally ivith cultivated, makes sums due on mortgage taxable in the district where the mortgaged property lies, authorizes an income tax, and directs a highly inquisitorial scrutiny of everybody's property for the purposes of taxa- tion. 3. It forbids the 'watering of stock,' de- clares that the State has power to prevent cor- porations from conducting their business so as to 'infringe the general well-being of the State'; directs the charges of telegraph and gas com- panies, and of water-supplying bodies, to be regulated and limited by law ; institutes a rail- road commission withpow.T to fix the transpor- tation rates on all railroads and examine the books and accounts of all transportation com- panies. 4. It forbids all corporations to employ any Chinese, debars them from the suffrage, forbids their employment on any public works, annuls all contracts for 'coolie labour,' directs the legislature to provide for the punishment of any company which shall import Chinese, to impose conditions on the residence of Chinese, and to cause their removal if they fail to observe these conditions. It also declares that eight hours shall constitute a legal day's work on all public works. When the Constitution came to 352 CALIFORNIA, 1877-1880. CAMDORICUM. be submitted to the vote of the people, in JIny 1870, it was vcbomently oi)i)ose(l by the moiiicd men. . . . Tlie striij^^^le was severe, but tlie Grnnger party conmiandeil so many r\iral votes, and tlic Sand Lot party so many in San Francisco (wliose popidation is nearly a tliird of that of the entire State) that the Constitution was carried, though l)y a small majority, only 11,000 out of a total of 145,000 citizens voting. . . . The next thing was to choose a legislature to carrj' out the Constitution, Had the same influences pre- vailed in tliis election as prevailed in that of the Constitutional Convention, the results might have been serious. But fortunately there was a slight reaction. ... A series of statutes was passed which gave effect to the provisions of • je Con- stitution in a form perhaps as little harmful as could be contrived, and certainly less harmful than had been feared when the Constitution was put to the vote. JIany bad hills, particularly those aimed at tlii' Cliincse, were defeated, and one may say generally that the expectations of tlic Sand Lot men were grievously isappointed. AVhile all this was passing, Kearu ' had more and more declined in fame and po'.i .-r. lie did not sit either in the Constitutional C( nvention or in the legislature of 1880. The moh had tired of his harangues, especially as little seemed to come of them, and as the cimdidates of the W. P. C. had behaved no better in ofHce than those of the old parties. He had quarreled with the Chronicle. He was, moreover, quite unfitted by knowledge or training to argue the legal, economical, and political questions invo:ved in the new Constitu- tion so that the prominence of these questions •threw him into the background. . . . Since 1880 he has played no part in Californian politics, and is indeed so insignificant that no one cares to know where he goes or what he does. " — J. Bryce, The American Commomcealth, ch. 90 {v. 2), and app. to V. 1 (containing the text of the Const, of Col). — — • CALIGULA, SceCAius. CALIPH, The Title.— The title Caliph, or Khalifa, simply signifies in the Arabic language "Successor." The Caliphs were the successors of Mahomet. CALIPHATE, The. See Mahometan Con- quest. CALIPHS, The Turkish Sultan becomes successor to the. SeeB.\or)An: A. D. 13.58. CALISCH, OR KALISCH, Treaty of. See Geumany; A. I). 1813-1813. CALIXTINES, The. See Bohemia: A. D. 1419-1434. CALLAO: Siege, 1825-1826. See Peru: A. D. 1820-1836. A. D. 1866. — Repulse of the Spanish fleet. See Peru: A. D. 18?" 1870. CALLEVA. — One of the greater towns of Roman Britain, the walls of which, found at Sil- chester enclose an area of three miles in circuit. — T. Wright, Celt, lioman and Saxon, ch. 5. CALLIAS, Peace of. Sec Athens: B. C. 460-449. CALLINICUS, B-ttle of.— Fought la the wars of the Romans ^>ith the Persians, on the banks of the Euphraten, Easter Eve, iV D. 531. The Romans, commanded by Belisarius, suffered an apparent defeat, but they checked an intended advance of the Persians on Antioch. — G. Itawlln- son, Seventh Oreat Oriental Monarchy, ch. 19. CALLISTUS II., Pope, A. D. 1119-1124. . . . Callistus III., Pope, A. 1). 1455-1458. CALMAR, The Union of. See Scandina- vian States: A. I). I()18-i;t97, and 1397-1537. CALPULALPAM, Battle of (i860). See MkXICO; A. I). l«lH-lMflt. CALPURNIAN LAW,The.— "Intliisyear, B. (;. 149, the tribune L. Calpurnius Piso Frugl, who was one of tlie Roman writers of annals, proposed and carried a Lex Calpurnia, which made a great change in the Roman criminal procedure. Before tliis time and to the third P\uiic war, when a magi.stratus had misconducteil himself in his foreign administration by oppres- sive acts and si)oliation, tliere were several ways of inquiring into his offence. . . . But these modes of procedi.re were insufiicient to protect the subjects of Rome against bad magistratus. . . . The remedy for these evils was tlic establish- ment of a court under the name of Quaestio Per- pctiia de pecuniis ropetundis, the first regul.ir crinunal court that existed at Rome. Courts similiirly constituted were afterwards established for the trial of persons charged with other offences. The Lex ("alpnrnia defined the offence of Repetundw, as it was briefly named, to be the taking of money by irregular means for the use of a governor. The name Repetundas was given to this offence, because the object of the procedure was to compel the governor to make restitution. . . . The court consisted of a pre- siding judge . . . and of a body of judices or jui-ymen annually appointed. The number of this body of judices is not known, but they were all senators. The judge and a juiy taken from the body of the judices tried all the cases which came before them during one year; and hence came the name Quaestio Perpetua or standing court, in opposition to the extraordinary commis- sions which had hitherto been appointed as the occasion arose. We do not know that the Lex Calpurnia contained any ,yenaltics. As far as the evidence shows, it simply enabled the complain- ants to obtain satisfaction." — G. Long, Decline of the Roman liepubUc, ch. 3. CALUSA, The. Sec Americvn Aborigines : TiMUQUANAN FAMILY. CALVEN, Batl'a of (1499). Sec Switzer- land: A. D. 1390 .499. CALVIN Ar J THE REFORMATION. See Papacy: A. 1). 1531-1535; and Geneva: A. D. 1536-1564. CAMARCUM.— The ancient name of the town of Cambrai. CAMARILLA. — A circle of irresponsible chamber counsellors — court'"rs — surrounding a sovereign with influences superior to those of his responsible ministers. CAMBALU.OR CAMBALEC. SeeCiiiNA: A. I). 12.59-1394. C AMB AS, OR C AMPA, OR C AMPO, The. Sec BoLiMA: Aboriginal iniiahitants; and American Aiiouuiinks: Andesians. CAMBORICUM.— A Roman town in Bri- tain. — " Camboricum was without doubt a very important town, wliieh rommanded the southern fens. It had three forts or citadels, the principal of which occupied the district called the Castle- end, in the modern town of Cambridge, and ai)pears to have had a bridge over the Cam, or Grauta ; of the others, one stood below the town, at Ches- terton, and the other above it, at Granchcster. Numerous roads branched off from this town. 353. CAMBORICUM. CAMPBELL. , . . Bp(1o calls the representative of CamlK)ri- cum, in his time, a 'little deserted city,' and tells us how, when the nuns of Ely wanted a coflln for tlieir sjiiiitly abbess, Ethelnreda, tliey found a iH'autiful sculptured sarcophagus of white marble outside the city walls of tlie Roman town." — T. Wright, CkU, Roman and Siixoii, eh. ."i. CAMBRAI : A. D. 1581. — Unsuccessful siege by the Prince of Parma, See Netiieh- Lands: a. I). 1581-1584. A. D. 1595-1598.— End of the Principality of governor Balagni. — Siege and capture by the Spaniards. — Retention under the treaty of Ver- vfns. See Fuanck: A. D. ISOS-LIOS. A. .D. 1677.— Taken by Louis XIV. See Netiiehlan-us (Holland): A. I). 1674-1078. A. D. 1670.— Ceded to France. Sec Nime- OUEN, TuE Peace ok CAMBRAI, The League of. See Yekice: A. D. 1508-1. "509. CAMBRAI, Peace of. See Italy: A. D. 1527-1529. C AMBRI/^ .—The early name of Wales. See Kymuy, and C.1.MBI11A; also, Buitain : 6'rii Cen- tury. CAMBRIDGE, England, Origin of. See CAMBOUK't:M. ' CAMBRIDGE, Mass.— The first settle- ment. SiM' Maksaciiusettb: A. D. 1629-l«;i0. , CAMBRIDGE, Platform, The. See Mass.v Ciiusetts: a. D. 1«40-1G51. CAMBYSES, OR KAMBYSES, King of Persia, B. C. 529-522. CAMDEN, Battle of. See United States OF Am. : A. D. 1780 (FEimuAuv— August). CAMERONIAN REGIMENT, The.— In 1689, when Claverhouse was raising the High- land clans in favor of James II., " AVilliam Cle- land, who had fought with distinguished bravery at Bothwell, and was one of the few men whom Claverhouse feared, made an offer to the [Scot- tish] Estates to raise a regiment among the Cam- eronians, under tlie colonelcy of the Earl of Angus, and the offer was accepted. Such was the origin of the Camcronian regiment. Its first lieutenant-colonel was Cleland ; its first chaplain •was Shields. Its courage was first tried at Dun- keld, where these 800 Covenanted warriors rolled back the tide of Celtic invasion ; and since that, undegenerate thougli changed, it has won tro- phies In every quarter of tlie world." — J. Cuu- ningham. Church Hist, of Scotland, v. 2, eh. 7. Also in : J. Browne, Ilist. of the IlighlancU, «. 2, ch. 8. CAMERONIANS, The. See Scotland: A. D. 1081-1{)89. CAMISARDS, The revolt of the. See Fkance: a. D. 1702-1710. CAMORRA, OR CAMORRISTI, The.— "Besides the regular authorities known to and avowed by the law . . . there existed under t'le Bourbon rule at Naples [overthrown by Garibaldi in 1860] a self-constituted authority more terrible than either. It was not easy to obtain exact proof of the operation of this authority, for it was impatient of question, its vengeance was prompt, and the instrument of that ven- geance was the knife. In speaking of it as one authority it is possible to err, for different forms or branches of this secret institution at times revcalc(i their existence by the orders which thoy issued. Tliis si'cret influence was that of tlie Camorra, or Camorristi, a sort of combina- tion of the violence of the middle ages, of the trades union tyranny of Shetlleld, and of the blackmail levy of the borders. The Camorristi were a body of unknown individuals who sub- sisted on the public, especially on the smaller tradespeople. A man eflected a sale of his ware ; as the customer left his shop a man of the people would enter and demand the tax on the sale for tlie Camorra. None could escape from the odious tyranny. It was impalpable to the police. It did not confine itself to the industry of illicit taxation. It issued its orders. When the Italian Parliament imposed stamp duties, that sensibly increased the cost of litigation, that indispensable luxury of the Neapolitans, the advocates received letters warning them to cease all practice in tiie courts so long as these stamp duties were enforced. 'Otherwise,' continued the mandate, ' we shall take an early opportunity of arranging your affairs.' Signe{l hy 'the Camorra of the avvocati.' The arrangement hinted at was to be made by the knife. . . . The Italian governmeiit, much to its credit, made a great onslaught on the Camorristi. Slauy were arrested, imprisoned or exiled, some even killed one another in prison. But the total eradication of so terrible a social vice must be [published in 1867] a work of great dilBculty, perseverance and time." — The I'nnity of Italy; by an English Civilian, p. 70. CAMP OF REFUGE AT ELY. See Eng- land: A. D. 1009-1071. CAMPAGNA, OR CAMPANIA.— " 'The name of Campania,' says Pelligrini, ' which was first applied to the territory of Capua alone, ex- tended itself by successive rc-arraagements of the Italian provinces over a great part of Central Italy, and then gradually shrank back again into its birth-place, and at last berame restricted to the limits of one city only, Naples, and that one of the least importance in Italy. What naturally followed was tlie total disuse of the name.' . . . The term Campania, therefore, be- came obsolete except in the writings of a few mediaeval authors, whose statements created some confusion by their iguorauce of the different senses in which it had at different times been used. An impression seems, however, to have prevailed that the district of Capua had been so named on account of its flat and fertile nature, and hence every similar tract of plain country came to be called a campagna in the Italian language. The exact time wiien the name, which had thus become a mere appellative, wa» applied to the Roman Campagna is not accurately ascertained. ... It will be seen that the term. Roman Campagna is not a geographical definition of any district or province with clearly fixed limits, but tlmt it is a name loosely employed in speaking of the tract which lies round the city of Rome." — R. Burn, Jiome and the Campagna, 'ch. 14, note at end. Also in : Sir W. Gell, Topog. of Home, v. 1. CAMPALUINO, Battle of. See Floiiencb: A. T). 1289. CAMPANIANS, The, See Sabinks : also, Samnites. CAMPBELL, Sir Colin (Lord Clyde), The Indian Campaign of. See India : A. D. 1867- 1858. 354 CAMPBELL'S STATION. CANADA. CAMPBELL'S STATION, Battle of. See United States of Am. : A. D. ise."} (October— Dgcemurk : Tennessee). CAMPERDOWN, Naval battle of. Sue ENfii,.VNi) : A. 1). 1797. CAMPO-FORMIO, Peace of. See Fijance : A D. 17!)7(.May— OcTOiiEU). CAMPO SANTO, Battle of (1743). See Italy : A. D. 1741-1743. CAMPO-TENESE, Battle of (1806). See Fkajjce : A. D. 1805-1800 (Dece.muek— Sep- te.mbek). CAMPUS I.ARTIUS AT ROME, The. — "The history of the Cam 'pus Jturlius presents us witli a series of striking contrasts. It has been covered in successive ages, first by tlio cornfields of the Tarquiniau dynasty, then by the parade ground of tlie great military repub- lic, ne.\t by a forest of martle colonnades and porticoes, and, lastly, by a confused mass of mean and filthy streets, clustering round vast mansions, and innumemble cliurches of every size and description. . . . During the time of the Republic, tlie whole Campus seems to have been considered state property and was used as a military and athletic exercise ground and a place of meeting for the comitia centuriata." — K. Burn, Ilome ami the Campagna, ch 13, pt. 1. — "We have hitherto employed tins name to designate the whole of the meadow laud bounded by the Tiber on one side, and on the other by the CoUis Ilortulorum, the Quirinal and the Capito- line. . . . Butthc Campus Martius, strictly speak- ing, was that portion only of tlie tlat ground which lies in the angle formed by the bend of the stream. According to the narrative of Livy, It was the property of the Tarquins, and upon their expulsion was conflscateil, and then conse- crated to Mars ; but Dionysiiis asserts that it had been previously set apart to the gcd and sacri- legiously appropriated by tli(^ tyrant. . . . During the republic the Campus Martius was employed specially for two purposes. (1.) Asa placo'for holding the constitutional assemblies (coinitia) especially the Comitia Centuriata, and also for ordinary public meetings (coneiones). (2.) For gymnastic and warlike sport". For seven cen- turies it remained almost entirely open. ... In the Comitia, the citizens, when their votes were taken, passed into enclosures termed septa, or ovilia, which were, for a long period, temporary wooden erections. "— W. Uumsay, Manual of Jiomaii Antiq., ch. 1. CAMULODUNUM. See Colciiestek, Ori- gin OK. CAMUNI, The. See Rii.eti.\ns. CANAAN. — CANAANITES. — " Canaan signifies ' the lowlands,' and was primarily the name of the coast on which the great cities of Phoenicia were built. As, however, the inland parts of the country were inhabited by a kindred population, the name came to be extended to designate the whole of Palestine, just as Pales- tine itself meant originally only the small territory of the Philistines." — A. II. Sayce, Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments, eh. 2. — See PiifCNi- ciANs: OiiioiN and eahlv iiisToiiv ; also, Jews: The Early Hebrew History, and Hamites. CANADA. (NEW FRANCE.') Names. — "The year after the failure of Ver- razano's last enterprise, 1525, Stefano Gomez sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida; thence he steered northward in search of the long hoped- for passage to India, till he reached Cape Race, on tiic southeastern extremity of Newfoundland. The further details of his voyage remain un- known, but there is reason to suppose that he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and traded upon its shores. An ancient Castilian tradition existed that the Spaniards visited these coasts before the French, and having perceived no ap- pearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed frequently 'Aca nada' [signifying 'here is nothing 'J; the natives caught up the sound, and ■when other Europeans arrived, repeated it to them. The strangers concluded that lliese words were a designation, and from that time this mag- nificent country bore the name of Canada. . . . Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were the first discoverers of Canada, and that, finding nothing there to gratify their extensive desires for gold, they bestowed upon it the appellation of Capo di Nada, 'Cape Nothing,' whence by corruption its present name. ... La Potlierie gives the same derivation. . . . This derivation would reconcile the different assertions of the early discoverers, some of whom give the name of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Law- rence; others, equally worthy of credit, confine it to a small district in the neighbourhood of Stadacoua (now Quebec). . . . Duponceau, in the Transactions of the [American] Philosophical Society, of Philadelphia, founds his conjecture of the Indian origin of the name of Canada upon the fact that, in the translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew into the Mohawk tongue, made by Bmudt, the Indian chief, the wonl Canada f» always used to signify a village. The mistake of the early discoverers, in taking the name of a part for that of the whole, is very pardonable in persons ignorant of the Indian language. . . . The natural conclusion ... is, that the word Canada was a mere local appellation, without reference to the country; that each tribe had their own Canada, or collection of huts, which shifted its position according to their migra- tions." — E. Warburton, The Conquest of Canada, V. 1, ch. \, and foot-note. — " Canada was the name which Cartier found attached to the laud and there is no evidence that he attempted to displace it. . . . Nor did Roberval attempt to name the country, while the commission given him by the king does not associate the name of Francis or any new name therewith. . . . Tlicre seems to have been a belief in New England, at a later day, that Canada was derived from 'Willium and Emery de Caen (Cane, as the English spelled it), who were in New France in 1021, and later. Cf. Morton's 'New English Canaan,' Adam's edi- tion, p. 235, and Josselyn's 'Rarities,' p. 5; also, J. Reade, in his history of geographical naimiB in Canada, printed in New Dominion Jlonthly, xi. 344."— B. F. De Costa, Jacques Cartier and 355 CANADA. Founding nt " ' "■ ia(. Port Boyaf. CANADA, 1603-1605. his Sinrfiuort (Xarrntite and Crit. IIi»t. of Am., V. 4, ch. 2), iiitd Editor's foot -note.--" Cnrtior calls tin; Ht. Lawruncc the ' Uivcr of Ilochclaga,' or 'the great river of Cniinda.' He contines tlio naiiKr of Caiiathi to a district cvteniliiig from the Isle nu.x ("ouUres in the 8t. Lawrence to a poiiii at some (list.ii.ee i\l)o\e the Bite of Quolicc. The country belt .v, he adds, was called by the In- d'ans Hiiguenay, and that above, lloehelaga. In the map of Gerard Mcrcator (LWU) the name C.inadii !s given to a town, with an adjacent dis- trict, on the river Stadin (St. Charles). Lescar- bot, a later writer, insists that the coimtry on both sides of the St. Lawrence, from Ilochelaga to its mouth, bore the name of Canada. In the second map of Ortelius, puldished about the year 1572, New France, Nova Francia is thus divided: — ' Canada, 'a district on the St. Lawrence above the River Saguenay; 'Chilaga'(IIoclielaga), the angle between the Ottawa and the St. Law- rence; 'Saguenai.'a district below the river of that name; ' Moscosa,' south of the St. Lawrence and cast of the River Uichclieu; ' Avacal,' west and south of Moscosa; 'Norumbcga,' Maine and New Brunswicli; ' Apalachen,' Virginia, Penn- sylvania, etc.; 'Terra Corterealis,' Labrador; 'Florida,' Mississippi, Alabama, Florida. Mcr- cator contines the name of New Franco to districts bordering on the St. Lawrence. Otliers give it a much broader application. The use of this name, or the nearly allied names of Fnincisca and La Franciscane, dates bacl{, to say the least, as far as 15'25, and the Dutcli geographers are especially free in their use of it, out of spite to the Si)aniards. Tlie derivation of the name of Canada has been a point of discussion. It is, without doulit, not Spanish, but Indian. . . . Lescarljot alllrms that Canada is simply an In- dian proper name, of wliich it is vain to seelc a meaning. Bcllcforest also calls it an Indian word, but translates it ' Terre,' as does a'.so Tlievet." — F. Prtrlcman,/'('oH«'('« of Prance in the ■New World; CftampUiin, ch. 1, foot-note. The Aboriginal inhabitants. Sec American Abokioines: Aloonqui.'VN Family; Huhons; OjiuwAYs; SiouAN Family; Athapascan Family, and Eskimauan Family. A. D. 1497-1498.— Coast discoveries of the Cabots. See Amkuica: A. D. 14»7 and 1498. A. D. 1500. — Cortereal on the coast. See Am'-.tca: a. d. irm. f . D. 1501-1504. — Portuguese, Norman and Briton fishermen on the Newfoundland banks. See Newfoundland: A. D. 1501-11578. A. D. 1524. — The coasting voyage of Ver- razano. See Amkuica: A. U. 1533-1524. A. D. 1534-1535.— Possession taken by Jacques Cartier tor the King of France. See Ameuica: A. I). 1534-1535. A. D. 1541-1603.— Jacques Cartier's last undertaking. — Unsuccessful French attempts at Colonization. See America; A. D. 1541- 1003. A. D. 1603-1605.— The Beginning of Cham- plain's Career in the New World.— Coloniza- tion at Port Royal.— Exploration of the New England coast. — In Pontgrave's expedition of 1003 to New France [see America: A. D. 154'- 1003], "Sanniel de Cliamplaiu, a captain in tiie navy, accepted a command ... at the request of l)e Chatte [or De Cliastes] ; he was a native of Saiutonge, and had lately returned to Franco from the West Indies, where he had gaiued a high name for boldness and skill. Under the direction of this wise and energetic man the first successful efforts were made to foui.u a per- manent settlement in the magnificent province of Canada, and the stain of tlie errors and disaster* of more than seventy years was at len' th wiped away. Pontgrave and Champlaia sailed for the St. Lawrence in 1603," explored it as far as the rapids of St. Louis, and tlien returned to France. They found that the patron of tlieir undertaking, De tliastes, was dead. " Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Slonts, liad succeeded to tlie powers and privileges of the deceased, with even a more ex- tensive commission. De Jlonts was a Calvinist, and liad obtained from the king the freedom of religious faith for liimself and his followers in America, but under the engagement that *'ie lioman Catholic worship should be established, among the natives. . . . The trading company establislied by De Cliatte was continued and in- creased by Ills successor. With this additional aid De Monts was enabled to fit out a more com- plete armament tlian had ever liitherto been engaged in Canadian commerce. He sailed from Havre on the 7th of March, 1604, with four vessels. Of tliese, two under liis immediate command were destined for Acadia. Champlain, Poutrincourt, and many otlicr volunteers, em- barked their fortunes with liim, purposing to cast their future lot in the New World. A third vessel was dispatched under Pontgrave to the Strait of Canso, to protect the exclusive trading l)rivile"es of the company. The fourth steered for Tadoussac, to barter for the rich furs brought by the Indian Imnters from the dreary wilds of the Saguenay. On the 6th of May De Monts readied a harbor on the coast of Acadia ;" but, for some reason not to be understood, his pro- jected colony was quartered on the little islet of St. Croix, near the mouth of the river of that name, which became subsequently the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. Meantime, the fine harbor, now Annapolis, then named Port Royal, had been discovered, and was granted, with a large surrounding territory, by m lHonts to De Poutrincourt, who proposed to settle upon it as its feudal proprietor and lord. The colony at St. Croix liaving been housed and ])Ut in order, De Poutrincourt sailed for France, intending to bring his family and establisli him- self at Port Royal. De Monts, Champlain, and those who remained, suffered a winter of terrible hardsliips, and thirty-five died before spring. De Monts now resolved to seek a better site for his Infant settlement, and, finding no other situation so good he resumed possession of that most desirable Port Roy^l wliich lie had granted away to Poutrincourt and removed his colony thither. Cliamplain, meanwhile, in tlie summer of 1605, had explored the coast southward far down tlie future home of tlie English Puritans, looking into IMassachusetts Bay, taking shelter in Plymouth liarbor and naming it Port St. Louis, doubling Capo Cod ("whicli lie called Cap Blanc), turning back at Nausett Harbor, and gaining on the whole a remarkable knowledge of the country and its coast. Soon after Cliam- plf.in's return from this coasting voyage, De Monts was called home to Franco, by news of machinations that were threatening to ex- tinguish his patent, and Pontgrave was left in command of the colony at Port Royal. — E. War- burton, T/ie Conquest vf Canada, «. 1, ch. 3. — In 356 CANADA, 1003-1005. Champlaf i'» CAN AH A, 1008-1611. Do Monts' jwtitioii to tlu; kin/j; for leave to colo- nize Aciulia that rcj^ion viun dcfliicd "ttse:;teii(l- iiig from the lOtli to the 40tli degree of north iatitude or from Plulnd(dphiu to beyond Mou- ♦,2al." — F. Parkman, Pioneers of Friiiee in t'ui A'eie W'>rtd: Champlain, ch. 3. .A ' io IN : E. F. Slafter, [ftmoir pref. to " Voi/offeg of SmnuA de Chdn.pluiii " {Prince the., 1880), cA. 1-5. A. D. icj6-i6o8. — The fortunes of the Acadian colony. — "Pe Monts fou.id liis patli- way iu France surrounded witli ditllcidtiea. Tlie Kocliclle merchants wl)o were jiartners in tlio enterprise 'lesircd a return for tlicir investments. The Baron de Poutrincou.t, wlio was still possessed with the desire to make the New World his homo, proved of assistance to Do Monts. De Poutriucourt returned to Acadia and encouraged the colonists, wlio were on the verge of deserting Port Uoyal. With De Pou- triucourt emigrated at this time a Parisian advocate, named Mark Lescarbot, who was of great service to the colony. During the absence of De Poutrincourt on an exploring expedition down the coast, Lescarbot drained and repaired the colonists' fort, and made a number of ad- ministrative changes, much improving the con- dition of the settlers. The following winter was one of comfort, indeed of enjoyment. ... In May, however, the sad news reached the colony that the company of the merchants on whom it depended had been broken up. Their depen- dence being gone, on tlie 30th of July most of the colonists left Acadia for France ui vessels sent out for them. For two years the empty buildings of Port Royal stood, a melancholy sight, with not a white person in them, but under the safe protection of Memborton, the Micmak chief, who proved a trusty friend to the French. The opposition to the company of Rochelle arose from various causes. In addition to its financial difficulties the fact of De Monts being a Protestant was seized on as the reason why nothing was being done in the colony to christianize the Indians. Accordingly when De Monts, fired with a new scheme for exploring the northwest passage, turned over tlie man- agement of Acadian allairs to De Poutrincourt, who was a sincere Catholic, some of the diffi- culties disappeared. It was not, however, till two years later that arrangements were made for a new Acadian expedition." — G. Bryco, Short Hist, of the Gaihidian People, ch. 4, sect. 1. Also in: J. Hannay, llist. of Acadia, ch. 4. A. D. 1608-1611. — Champlain's third and fourth expeditions. — His settlement at Que- bec, discovery of Lake Champlain, and first Tvars with the Iroquois. — "Do Monts in no way lost heart, and he resolved to continue in the career of exploration for settlement. A new expedition Avas determined on, and De Jlonts selected the Saint Lawrence as the spot where the effort should be made. Champlain coun- selled the change. In ^^lova Scotia and on the coast of New Brunswicic and Maine he had been struck by the number of ports affording protec- tion to vessels from sea, and by the small number of Indians whom he had met. In Nova Scotia he would be exposed to rival attempts at settle- ment, and at the same time he could not see the possibility of obtaining Indian allies. In Canada the full control would remain with those who first made a settlement ou the Saint Lawrence, and Champlain counted the native tribes lus l)owcrful instiumciits in carrying out his pciicy. We have «lie key here to his "conduct in assisting the Ilurons in ftlK-ir wars. . . . In 1008 1 'ham- plain »tart'.'(' for the St. Lawrenc. I'ontgnive was with the expedition. .V settlement was made at Quebec, ns 'he most suitablr place. Some ground was cleared, buililings were com- nionced, when a conspiracy wa.s discoveicd. Tlie ringleader was lianged and three of those mtivdy iniplicated w'ere sent back to France witli Pontgrave on his return in the autumn. Matters now went peaceably on. The summer was passed in completing tlio ' Abitation de (Jue- bec,' of which Champlain has left us a sketch. It was situated in tlio jiresent Lower Town on the river bank, 'n\ the corner whore Notre Dame Street meets Sous le Fort '^treot. It was hero Champlain laid the foundation Uix the future city. Winter came, the scurvy carrying olf twenty of their number. ... In June, Dos JIarais, Pontgravo's son-in-law, arrived, telling him that Pontgrave was at Taddusac. Cliam- I)lain i)roceeded thither. The question had then to bo discussed, what policy sliould be followed with the Indians? Should they bo bo iiiileil by what force Champlain could command, in the expedition which they had resolved to make against the Iroquois ? It is plain that no advance in discovery could have boon made without their assistance, and that this assistance could only have been obtained by rendering them service. . . . AVith the view of making explorations beyond the points then known by Europeans, Champlain in the middle of June ascended the St. Lawrence. About a league and a half west of the river Saint Anne, they wore joined by a party of Algonquins wlio were to form a pari of the expedition. Cliamplaia tells us of their mortal feud with the Iroquois, a proof that in no way he created it. They all returned to Quebec, where there was festivity for some days. It was brought to a close and the war parties started ; Champlain with nine men, Dcs Marais and a pilot, joined it [them ?]. With his Indian allies lie ascended the Uiclielieu and reached Lake Champlain, the first white man who saw its waters: subsequently for 105 years to be the scene of contest between the Indian and white man, the French and English, the revolted Colonies and the Mother Country. . . . The advance up Lake Chaini)lain was made only by night. They reached Crown Point. They were then in the Iroquois domain ; very shortly they knew of the presence of the enemy." On the 30th of July the invaders fought a battle with the Iroquois, who fled in terror before the arque- buse of Champlain, which killed two of tlioir chiefs and wounded a third. Soon after his return to Quebec from this expedition — the beginning of the long war of the French with the Iroquois — Champlain was sunimoued to France. The patent of De Monts had been re- voked and he could not obtain its renewal. "Nevertheless, De Monts, with his associates decided to continue their efforts, and, in March, 1010, Champlain again started for Canada." After reaching Quebec his stay this time was short. He joined liis Indian allies in another expedition of war, and helped them to win another victory over ^tlie Iroquois, at a place on the Richelieu, one league above Sorel, On rcturniug he got news of the ossassiuatiou of 357 CANADA, 160a-16n. EnfjtiMh (iftitck itti Mount l)e»ert. CANADA, 1310-1613. Ilfurj- fV find gUirU'd (it once for France. "Tlio (Icalli of h 'ti'T IV. (••■'^rciscd great iiilluence on the I'ortuiieH of Cuniula. He hod nerHonuIly taken interest in Chuinpliiin's 'oyagcs, and Ins energetic mind was well tiualiflea to direct the fortnne? of u growing colony. Louis XIII. was not then ten years old. Mary of Sledecis was under the control of her favourites, Leonora Galigai, an<l her husband, Concino Coneini. Hiclielieu had not then appeared on the scene. . . . The Jesuits were becoming all-powerful at Court. . . . France was unsettled and disordered. The Protestants, not witliout provocation, were acting with passion and without judgment. The assassination of the King had alarmed tliem. The whole kingdom was threatened witli con- vulsion and anarchy, and Canada was to pass out of the notice of those in power: and, in the sense of giving aid, half a century was to elapse before the French Oovernnicnt could compre- lieiid the duty of ta'ing part in the defence of the country, and of protecting the persons of those living iu New France. The ground was to be regarded simply as a field for the active trader, side by side with the devoted missionary. Thus the Government fell virtually under the control of the Jesuits, who, impatient of contra- diction, aimed only at the establishment of their authority, which was to bring the colony to the verge or destruction." Cliamplain returned to his colony in the spring of 1011, facinjj its pros- pects with sucli courage as he found m his own stout heart. — W. Kiugsford, IliH. of Canada, bk. 1, eh. 3-4 (i>. 1). iVi.so in: E. B. O'Callaghan, ed., Doc. Hist, of y. r., T. 3, pp. 1-0. A. D. 1610-1613. — The Acadian colony re- vived, but destroyed by the English of 'ir- ginia. — Port Hoyal was left uninhabited till 1010, when Poutrincourt returned at the instance of the king to make the new settlement a central station for the conversion of the Indians, — a work winch made some Jesuit missionaries prominent in the history of the New World. His son fol- lowed in 1011, with fathers Pierre Biard, and Euemond Masse. !Madamc la ^Marquise de Guercheville, a pio\is Catliolic, to whom De Monts had ceded his title to Acadia, and to whom afterwards the Frcncii king granted the whole territory now covered by the United States, was the chief patroness of these voyages. Desiring to make another settlement, she des- patched a vessel in 1013 with two more Jesuits, father Quentin and Gilbert Du Thet, and forty- eight men under La Saussaye. "When they arrived at Port Boyal, they only found five per- sons — fathers Biard and Masse, their servant, the apothecary Hebcrt, and another. All the rest were absent, cither hunting or trading. They showed the Queen's letter to Hebert, who represented Bieucourt in his absence, and takirg the two Jesuits, with their servant and luggage aboard, again set sail. It was their intention to establish the colony at Pentagoet, which father Biard had visited the year previous, but when off Grand Manan a thick fog came on, which lasted for two days, and when it became clear, they put into a harbor on the eastern side of Mount Desert Islan)!, in Matne. The harbor was deep, secure and commodious, and they judged this would be a favorable site for the colony, and named the place St. Sauveur. . . . La Saussaye was advised by the principal colon- ists to erect a stifllcient fortification before com- mencing to cultivate the soil, but he disreg:irdcd this udvicc, and nothing was completed in t'lo way of defence, except the raising of a sma'l palisaded structure, when a storm buret upon the colony, wldch was little expected by its founders. In 1007 a company of London mer- chants liad founded a colony on the James River, in Virgil ia, where, after suffering greatly from the insal ibrity of tlie climate and want of pro- visions, they hail attained a considerable degree of property. In 1013 they sent a fleet of eleven vessels to fish on the coast of Acadia, convoyed by an armed vessel under the command of Cap- tain Samuel Argal, who had been connected with the colony since 1009. Argal was one of those adventurers formed iu the school of Drake, who made a trade of piracy, but confined themselves to the robbery of tliose who were so uufortimate as not to be their own countrymen. . . . When Argal arrived at Slount Desert, he was told by the Indians that the French were there in the harbor with a vessel. Learning tliat they were not very numerous, he at once resolved to attack them. All the French were ashore when Argal approached, except ten men, most of whom were unacquainted with the working of a ship. Argal attacked the French witli musketry, and at tlie second discharge Gilbert Du Thet fell back, mor- tally wounded; four others were severely in- jured, and two young men, named Lemoine and Neveau, jumped overboard and were drowned. Having taken possession of the ves- sel, Argal went ashore and informed La Saussqye that the place where they were was En^rlish territory, and included in the charter of Virgmia, and tliat they must remove ; but, if they could prove to him tliat they were there under a com- mission from the crown of France, he would treat them tenderly. He then asked La Saussaye to show him his commission ; but, as Argal, with unparalleled indecency, had abstracted it from his chest while the vessel was being plundered by his men, the unhappy governor was of course unable to produce it. Argal then assumed a very lofty tone. . . . When Argul arrived in Virgir'a, he found that his perfidious theft of the French governor's commission was likely to cause his prisoners to be treated as pirates. They were put into prison and in a fair way of being exe- cuted, in spite of Argal's remonstrances, until struck with sliame and remorse, he produced the commission which he had so dishonestly filched from them, and the prisoners were set free. But the protluction of this document, while it saved the lives of one set of Frenchmen, brought ruin upon all the othere who remained in Acadia. The Virginia colonists . . . resolved to send Argal to destroy all the French settle- ments in Acadia, and erase all traces of their power. . . . The only excuse offered for this piratical outrage of Argal — wliicli was com- mitted during a period of profound peace — was the claim which was made by England to the whole continent of North Amer' .., founded on tlie discoveries of tl'i Cabots more than a cen- tury before. That claim might, perhaps, have been of some value if followed by immediate occupancy, us was the case with the Spaniards in the ;South, but that not having been done, and the French colony being the oldest, it was entitled to, ut least, as much consideration as that of Virginia. Singularly enough, this act 358 CANADA, 1010-1813. Attack nn tie Iri'ifuoia. CANADA, 1011-1610. -J. produced no remonstrance from France, llaniiiiy. Hint, uf Aiadia, eh. (5. Ai.«) IN: W. C. Diyantand 8. II. Gay, Ihpii- i.r I fiat, of the U. S., r. 1, ch. 13. A. D. i6n-i6i6.— The founding of Montreal. — Champlain's invasion of the Iroquois in New York. — " In 1011 Cliunipliiiii ajruiii rt'turni.-d ti) Anicricn . . . iind on the 28th of May proceedt'd in search of liis allies, whom lie was to meet by appointment. Not (hiding them he employed Ills time in ehoosinj; a site for n new settlement, higher up the river than Quebec. After a care- ful survey, he fixed upon an eligible spot in the vicinity of Mont Uoyal. His choice lias been amply justified by the great prosperity to which tills place, under the name of Montreal, lias sub- sequently ri.sen. Having cleared a consi<lerable space of ground, he fenced it in by an earthen ditcli and planted grain in the enclosure. At length, on the 13tli of June, three weeks after the time appointed, a party of his Indian friends appeared. . . . As an evidence of their good will they imparted much valuable information respect- ing the gcoifraphy of this continent, with wliich they secmeiT to be tolerably well acquainted as far south as the Gulf of Jlexico. They readily agreed to his propo.sal to return shortly with 40 or 50 of his per)pIo to iirosecute discoveries and form settlements in their country if he thought proper. They even made a request that u French youth sliould accompany them, and make obser- vations upon their territory and tribe. Cham- plain again returned to France, with a view of making arrangements for more extensive opera- tions ; but this object was now of very dilUcult accomplishment. De Monts, who had been ap- pointe<l governor of Saintonge, was no longer inclined to take the lead in measures of this kind, and excused himself from going to court by stat- ing the urgency of his own alfairs. He tlierefore committed the whole conduct of the settlement to Cluimplaiu, advising him, at the same time, to seek some powerful protector, wliosc influence ■would overcome any opposition which might be made to his plans. The latter was so fortunate as to win over, almost immediately, tlie Count de Soissons to aid him in liis designs. This nobleman obtained tiie title of lieutenant-general of New France; and, by a formal agreement, transferred to Champlain all tlie functions of that high oflice. Tlie Count died soon after, but Champlain found a still more influential friend in tlie Prince of Conde, who succeeded to all the privileges of the deceased, and transferred them to him in a manner equally ample. These privi- leges, including a monopoly of the fur trade, gave great dis.satisfaction to the merchants; but Champlain endeavored to remove their principal objection, by permitting as many of them as chose to accompany him to the New World, and to engage in this traffic. In consequence of this permission, three merchants from Normandy, one from Rochellc, and one from St. Malo, accom- panied him. They were allowed the privileges of a free trade on contributing six men each to assist in projects of discovery, and giving one- twer.tieth of their iiroflts towards defraying the expenses of the settlement. In the beginning of March j;iR13] the expedition sailed from Har- fleur, and on the 7tli of May arrived at Queliec. Cliamplaiii now engaged in a new project." His new proje'c was a voyage of exploration up th" Ottawa Liver, which he accomplished with grcui dilllculty, through the aid of his Indian allies, but from which he returned disappointed in the hope he had entertained of discovering the north- ern sea and away to India theieby. The next summer found Champlain again in Prance, wliere •'matters still continued favorable for tlic col- ony. The Prince of Conde retained his influence at Court, and no diflleulty was coiise(|uently found in equipping a small fleet, to carry out settlers and sui)plies from Houen and St. Malo. On board of this fleet came four fathers of the order of the Kecollets, whos(! benevolence in- duced them to desire the conversion of the In- dians to Christianity. These were the first priests who settled in C'anada. Champlain arrived safely, on the a.'ithof May, at Tadoussac, wlience lie im- mediately inished forward to Quebec, and sub- secjuently to the usual place of Indian rendez- vous, at the Lachine Hapids. Hero he found his Algonquin and Huron allies full of projects of wai against the Irorpiois, whom they now pro- posed to assail among the lakes to the westward, with a force of 3,000 flgliting men."— J. Mac- Mullen, Hint, of Canada, ch. 1. — "Champlain found tlie Ilurons and tlieir allies preparing for an expedition against their ancient enemies, the Iroquois. Anxious to reconnoitre the hostile ter- ritory, and also to secure the friendship of tlio Canadian savages, the gallant Frenchman re- solved to accompany their warriors. After visit- ing the tribes at tlie hea<l waters of the Ottawa, and discovering Lake Huron [at Georgian Bay], which, because of its 'great extent,' he named ' A\ Mer Douce, ' Champlain, attended by an armed party of ten Frenchmen, accordingly set out toward the south, with his Indian allies. Enrap- tured with the ' very beautiful and pleasant country ' through whic:li they passed, and amusing themselves with fishing unci hunting, as the" descended the chain of 'Shallow Lakes,' which discharge their waters through the River I'rent, the expedition reached the banks of Lake Ontario. Crossing the end of the lake, ' at the outlet of the great River of Saint Lawrence,' and pass- ing by many beautiful islands on the way, tho invaders followed the eastern shore of Ontario for fourteen leagues, toward their enemy's coun- try. . . . Leaving tlie shores of the lake, the in- vaders continued their route inland to the south- ward, for 25 or 30 leagues." After a journey of five days, "the expedition arrived before tho fortified village of the Iroipiois, on the northern bank of the Onondaga Lake, near the site of the l)resent town of Liverpool. Tlie village was in- closed by four rows of palisades, made of largo pieces of timber closely interlaced. The stock- ade was 30 feet high, witli galleries running around like o parapet." In the siege which followed tlie Iroquois were dismayed by the fire- arms of Cliainpluiu and his men, and by tlie ojieration of a. moveable tower with which he ad- vanced to tlieir stockade and set fire to it. But his Indian allies proved incapable of acting in any rational or ctHcient way, or to submit to the least direction, and the attack was abortive. After a few days the invading force retreated, carrying Cliamplaiii with them and forcing him to remain in the Huron country until the follow- ing spring (1010), when he maile his way back to Montreal— J. R. Brodhead, Hist, of the State of New York, v. 1, eh. 3.— The above account, which fixes on Onondaga Lake the site of the Iroquois ' )tt to which Cliampioin penetrated, does not 359 CANADA, HI I -1616. '!%€ HutuSrea Astxiutet. CANADA, 1016-1628. iigr>.' with tlio vicwH of Pi'rkmnn, O'Cftlliiclmn, and Miinr tluT liiMtoriiuiH, wliotriicc Cliiimpliiiii'x iniite fiii lirr wcKlwiird in New York; but It ac- cepts tlic concliisii.iiH rciiclied by (). II. MurHlmll, ,1, v. II. (,'liirk, 1111(1 other turcf id studcntH of tin- ((lU'stlim. .Mr. MucMiilK'ii, in tlic "History of Ciimuhi" ouotod iibovo, find* nil extriiordlimry roule for the cxpt'dition via Lnkcs Huron and 8t. Clair, to the vicinity of Detroit.— J. V. H. Clark, Jfiiit. of Oiiondngit. Also is: O. H. MnrHhall, Ohamplain's Etp. uii'nt the Onondtiyas. — C'humplain's Voi/iK/ea O'riiiff S/jc.), 1880.— E. B. O'Callnglmn," ed., Dof. Hint, of X. Y.. r. !l, !>/). 10-24. A. D. i'6i6-i6a8.— Champlain and the fur traders.- The first Jesuit mission. — Creation of the Company of the Hundred Associates. — " Tlio exploration in tlie distant Indian terri- tories wliieh we liave just described in tlie i)re- ceding pages was the liutt made by Clminplain. He had plans for the survey of other regions yet unexplored, but the favorable opportunity did not occur. Henceforth ho directed his attention more exclusively than he had hitherto done to the enlargeni'^nt and strengthening of his colonial plantation, without such success, we regret to say, as his zeal, devotion and labors fitly do- served. The obstacles that lay in his way were insurmountable. The establishment or factory, we can hardly call it a plantation, at Quebec, was tlie creature of a company of merchants. They had invested considerable sums in ship- ping, buildings, nnd in the employment of men, in order to carry on a trade In furs and peltry wiUi tlie Indians, and they naturally desired reinunemtive returns. This was the limit of the).' purpose in making the investment. . . . Undci these circumstances, Champlain struggled on for yeors against a current wnich he could barely diiect, but by no means control. . . . He succeedc(i at length in extorting from the company a promise to enlarge the establishment to 80 persons, with suitable equipments, farming implements, all kinds of scede, and domestic animals, including cattle and sheep. But when the time came, this promise was not fulfilled. DiSereuces, bickerings and feuds sprang up in the company. Some wanted one thing, and some wantett another. The Catholics wished to extend the faith of their church into the wilds of Canada, while the Huguenots desired to prevent it, or at least not to promote it by their own contri- butions. The company, inspired by avarice and a desire to restrict the establishment to a mere trading post, iiiised an issue to discredit Cham- plain. It was gravely proposed that ho should devote himself exclusively to exploration, and that the government and trade should henceforth be under the d'rection and control of Pont Grave. But Champlain . . . obtained a decree ordering that he should liave the command at Qucliec, and at nil other settlements in New France, and that the company should abstain from any interference with him in the discharge of the duties of his office." In 1620 the Prince do Conde sold his viceroyalty to the Duke de Montmorency, then high-iidmiral of France, who commissioned Champlain anew, as his lieuten- ant, and supported him vigorously. Champlain had made voyages to Canada in 1617 and 1618, and now, in 1020, he proceeded to his post again. At Quebec he began immediately the building of a fort, which he called fort St. Louis. The company of associates opposed this work, and so provoked the Duke or Montinoreney by their conduct that "in the spring of U121, he Kiininiarily dissolved the association of mer- chants, which he denominated the 'Ciinipany of Uoiien and !St. .Malo,' and established iimitlier in its nlace. He continued Chainnlain in the otiloo of lieutenant, but committed all matters relating to trade to William do Caen, a merchant of higli standing, and to Enieric de Caen, tlie neiiliew of the former, a good naval captain." In tlio course of the following year, however, the new and the old trading companies were consolidated in one. "Champlain remained at Quebec four years before again returning to France. His time was divided between many local enterprises of great importimce. His special attention was given to anvancing the work on the unfinished fort, in order to provide against incursions of tlio hostile Irociuois, who at one time approached the very walls of Quebec, and attacked unsuc- cessfully the guarded house of the Herollccts on the St. Charles. " In the summer of 1024 Cham- plain returned again to France, where the Duko de Montmorency was just stdling, or had sold, his viceroyalty to the Duko do Ventadour. "This nobleman, of a deeply religious cast of mind, had taken holy orders, and his chief pur- pose in obtaining the viceroyalty was to encourage the planting of Catholic missions in New France. As his spiritual directors were Jesuits, he naturally committed the work to them. Three fathers and two lay brothers of this order were sent to Canada in 162.'), and othere subsequently Joined them. . . . Champlain was reappointed lieutenant, but remained in France two years." Returning to Quebec in July, 1026, he found, as usual, that everything but trade had suffered neglect in his absence. Nor was he able, during the following year, to improve much the prospects of the colony. As a colony, "it had never prospered. The average number composing it had not exceeded about 50 persons. At tins time it may have been somewhat more, but did not reach a hundred. A single family only appears to have subsisted by the cultivotion of the soil. The rest were sustained by supplies sent from France. . . . The company as a mere trading association, was doubtless successful. . . . The large dividends that they were able to make, intimated by Champlain to be not far from forty per centum yearly, were, of course, highly satisfactory to the company. . . . Nearly twenty years ha(l elapsed since the founding of Quebec, and it still possessed only the character of a trading post, and not that of a colonial plantation. This progress was satisfactory neither to Champlain, to the Viceroy, nor to the Council of State. In the view of these several interested parties, the time had come for a radi- cal change in the organization of the companv. Cardinal de Richelieu had risen by his extraordi- nary ability as a statesman, a short time an- terior to this, into supremo authority. ... He lost no time in organizing measures. . . . The company of merchants whose finances had been so skilfully managed by the Caens was by hira at once dissolved. A new one was formed, de- nominated ' La Compagnie de la Nouvelle- France,' consisting of a hundred or more mem- bers, ond commonly known as the Company of the Hundred Associates. It was under the control and management of Richelieu himself. 360 CANADA, 1016-1028. Jen Fair II f Ihe Hit MtMiinu CANADA, 1034-1053. Its iticmljcrs wc/o liirRcly Kcntlemon in olllcitil positions. ... Its 'uitliority exti'iiiifil over tlio wli)!'; (lomiiin o'' New i'miico and Fioridii. . . . If. I'litert'd into uii ohligatimi . . . witliin tliu sniice of 1^ y. ure to trnnsport 4,000 coloniHtii to New France. . . . Tin orj^iinizntion of tlio com- pany . . . WHS riititled by tlio Council of Stuto on tlio Ctliof M,.^, 1028."— E. F. Sliiftcr, Memoir of Vhamplaiii (\ uyayea : Prince iiuc., 1880, v. 1), c/i. 0. Also in: Pi\re Clmrl'ivoLx, llinl. of Xew Fniiirf, traim. by J. (f. N/xd, lik. 4 (t\ 2). A. D. 1628-1635. — Conquest and brief occu- pation by the English. — Restoration to France. — "Tlid first ciu'u of tlie new Conipiiiiy was to succor Quebec, whoso inmates were on tlic verge of starvfttiou. Four armed vessels, witli a fleet of transports commanded by Uo(|uemont, one of the associates, sailed from Dieppe witli colonists and supplies in April, 1628; but nearly at tlio snmo time another squadron, destined also for Q\iebec, was sailing from an English port. War had at length brolten out in France. The Hugue- not revolt had come to a head. Uocliellc was in arms against the king; and Richedeu, with his royal ward, was beleaguering it with the wliolo strength of the kingdom. Charles I. of England, urged by the heated pas.sions ('f Buckingliam, had declared himself for the rebels, and sent a fleet to their aid. . . . The attempts of Sir William Alexander to colonize Acadia hiul of late turned attention in England towards the New World ; and, on the breaking out of the war. an expedition was set on foot, under tlio auspices of tliat singular personage, to seize on the French possessions in Nortli America. It was a private enterprise, imdertaken by London merchants, prominent among whom was Gervaso Kirkc, an Eiiglislmian of Derbyshire, who had long lived at Dieppe, and had there married a Frenchwoman. Qervase Kirko and his associates fitted out three small armed ships, commanded respectively by his sons David, Lewis • -d Thomas. Letters of marque were obtained from the king, and the adventurers were authorized to drive out tlie French from Acadia and Canada. Many Huguenot ugees were among tlie crews. Having been expv,iled from New France as settlers, the persecuted sect were returning ai caemies." The Kirkes reached the St. Lawrence in advance of Roquemont's supply ships, inter- cepted the latter and captured or sank the whole. They then sailed back to England with their spoils, and it was not until the following summer that they returned to complete their conquest. Meantime, the small garrison and population at Quebec were reduced to starvation, and were subsisting on acorns and roots when, in July 1029, Admiral David Kirke, with his three ships, appeared before the place. Champlain could do nothing but arrange a dignifled surrender. For three years following, Quebec and New Franco remained under the control of the English. They were then restored, under a treaty stipulation to France. "It long remained a mj^stery why Charles consented to a stipulation wliich pledged him to resign so important a conquest. The mystery is explained by tlic recent discovery of a letter from the king to Sir Isaac AVake, his ambassador at Paris. The promised dowry of Queen Henrietta Maria, amounting to 800,000 crowns, had been but halt i)aid by the French government, and Charles, theu at issue with his 24 Parliament and in desperate need of money, iiislruits his ambassador tliat, when he receive* the balance due, and not before, he is to give up to tli(' Frcncli lioth Quebec and Port Uoval, wlilrli had also been captuicil by Kirke. I'lio letter was accompanied liy 'solemn instruments under our hand anil seal ' to make good the trans- fer on ftilfllment of tlie condition. It was for a sum e(|ual to about i(;240.(N)0 that Charles entailed on Great Britain and her colonics u century of bhwHly wars. The Kirkes Jind their associates, who hail made the conquest at their own cost, under tlie royal authority, were never reimbursed, though David Kirke received tho honor of knightlioiMl, wliieli cost the kinff nothing," — and also the grant of Newfoiinillanir On the .'ith of July, l«:i2, (Juebec was delivered up by Thomas Kirke to Emery de Caen, eom- missioned by the French king to reclaim tho lilace. Tlie latter held command for one year, with a monopoly of the fur trade; then Cliam- Iilain resumed the government, on behalf of tho lundred Associates, continuing in it until his deatli, which occurred on Christmas Day, 1035. — F. Parkinan, Pioiuem of tYance in the A'ino World: ChampUiin, cli. 10-17. Ai.soiN: Cdkmlar (f iSttite PajKri : Coloninl Series. 1574-1660, pp. 00-143.— D. Brymner, Rcpt. on Canadiiiii Archiren, pp. xi-rir. <tiul note D. — H. Kirke, Fint h'ni/lish ConqiteM of Canmht. —Sec, also, Newfoundi^and,' A. D. 1010-10.55. A. D. 1634-1652.— The Jesuit missions and their fate. — The fli-st of the Jesuit missionaries came to Quebec in 1025, as stated above, but it was not until nearly seven years later that t'ley made their way into tlio heart of the Indian country and began there their devoted work. "The Father Superior of the Jlission was Paul le Jeune, a man devoted in every libro of mind and heart to the work on which he had come. He utterly scorned ditHeulty and pain. He had received the order to depart for Canada 'with inexpressible 1oy at the prospect of a living or dying martyrdom.' Among his companions was Jean de Brebueuf, a man noble in birtli and aspect, of strong intellect and will, of zeal which knew no limit, and recognized no obstacle iu the path of duty. . . . Far in the west, beside a great lake of which the Jesuits had vaguely heard, dwelt tho Hurons, u powerful nation with many kindred tribes over which tliey ex- ercii^d Intluence. The Jesuits resolved to found a mission among the Hurons. Once in every year a fleet of canoes came down the great river, bearing six or seven hundred Huron warriors, who visited Quebec to dispose of their furs, to gamble and to steal. Breba'uf and two com- panions took passage [1034] with tlio returning fleet, and set out for the dreary scene of their new apostolate. . . . The Hurons received with hospitable welcome the black-robed strangers. The priests were able to repay the kindness with services of high value. They taught more effective metluMls of fortifying the town in which they lived. They promised the help of a few French musketeers against an impending attack by the Iroquois. They cured diseases; they bound up wounds. Tliey gave simple in- struction to the young, and gained the hearts of their pupils by gifts of beads and raisins. The elders of the people came to have the faith explained to them: they readily owned that it was a good faith for the French, but they could 361 CANADA, 1684-1609. TTn- fymeh in Ihf Went. CANADA. 1684-1673. not be pornimclcd that it wiis siiltiiWe- for the red limii. Till' fiitlirm laltnuri'il in liiipu iiiiil tlir ■»viiK<'^ liami'il to love tlii'tii. . . . Hoiiii- of tlii'ir iiirtlioilH of coiivcrxion were I'Xi'ccillnnly null'. A Irttcr from Fatlii'i' (JarnliT Iiiih Imtii iiri'srrviMl ill M-lilch picliircs an- ordiTril froii, I'raiK-c for the Hpiii'iial iiiiprovcmciit of the IndiuUN. Many ri'prrHcntUioiis of itoiils In piT- dition arc ri'iiuircd, witli appropriati^ lucoiiipaiii' mi'iit of thiiiii'M, and trliinipliaiit drinons trarini; thciii with pincrrM. One pictiiri' of Hiivrd souls woiilil sulllct', and 'a picturi? of Christ without iihrard.' Tliry were conHiinicd by ii zeal for the liaptiHiii of littk' childri'n. At the outset the Inciiiuis welcomed this ceremonial, liellevinjt that it was a eliarm to avert Rieitiiess and death. But wlieii e|iidemics wasted them they charged the calamity against the mysterious o|)eratioiis of the fathi'i'H, and refused now to permit bap- tism. The fathers recognized the hand of .''^atan in this proliibition, and refused to submit to it. They liaptl/.ed liy stealth. ... In time, the patient, self-denving labour of the fathers might have won thosit discimraging savages totlie cross; but a fatal interruption was at hand. A power- ful and relentless enemy, l)ent on c.vtermiimtion, was alioiit to sweep over the Huron territory, involving the savages and their teachers in one common ruin. Tliirty-two years had jms-sed since those illjudged expeditions in which <yhumplain bad given help to tlie Uurons against the Iroipiois. Tlic unforgiving savages had never forgotten the wrong. . . . The Iroquois [lt)48-ltUUJ attacked in overwhelming force tlio towns of their llurcm enemies; forced the inade- quate defences ; burned tlie palisades and woimIcii liuts; slaughtered with indescribable tortures the wretched inhabitants. In one of tliese towns they found IJrcbu'uf and one of his companion.s. Tliey bound the ilifated missionaries to stakes; they hung around their necks collars of red-hot iron; tliey poured boiling water on their heads; they cut stripes of tiesh from their quivering limbs and ate them in tlieir sight. To the last Brebieuf cheered with hopes of licaven the native converts who shared his agony. And thus was gained the crown of martyrdom for which in the fervour of their entiiusiasm, these food men had long yearned. In a few years the [uron nat \<m was extinct ; famine and small-pox swept oil 1 !io3o whom the Iroquois spared. The Huron mission was closed by the extirpation of the race for whom it was founded. Many of the missionaries iierishod ; some returned to France. Their labour seemed to liavc been in vain ; their years of toil and suffering left no trace." — U. Mackenzie, Amcriai: A Jlistori/, pp. 320-333. — " With the fall of the Ilurons, fell the best hope of the Caniulian mission. They, and the stable and populous comnuinities around them, had been the rude material from which the Jesuit would have formed his Christain empire in the wilderness; but, one by one, these kindred peo- ples were uprooted and swept away, while the neighboring Algonquins, to wliom they had been a bulwark, were involved with them in a common ruin. ... In a measure, the occupation of the Jesuits was gone. Some of them went home, 'well resolved,' writes the Father Superior, 'to return to the ccmbat at the first sound of the trumpet'; while of those who remained, about twenty in number, several soon fell victims to famine, hardship and the Iroquois. A few years more, and Canada ceased to l)p n mission jiolitical and commercial interestH gradually be- came ascendant, and tlie story of Jesuit pro- pagandism was interwoven with her civil and ' Mitary annals." — F. I'arkman, T/ie Jemtitu in X Am., r/i. m. Also i.\: Father Charlevoix, Jfint. nf New Fmui-r, tr. by Shin, bk. 5-7 (/•. 2).— J. O, Hliea, Tlie JiKiiitH, Uerollirlii, and the Iiiilinn» (Aarrii- till' ami Critiiud Hint, of Am , r. 4, eh. tl). A. D. 1634-1673.— Nicolet.—Marauette. — Joliet. — Pioneer exploration in the West and discovery of the Missis.iippi. — When Cliam- jilain gave up his work, the map of New France was blank beyond Lake Ontario and Ueorgian Hay. The first of the French explorers who wii'leneil it far westward was a Nonuati named Jean Nicolet, who came to America in KllH, and who was trained for many years in Champlain'a service. " After dwelling some time among the Nipisslngs, he visited tlie Far West; seemingly between the years 1034 and 1040. In a bircb- Imrk canoe, the brave Norman voyagenr croK.Hed or coasted Lake Huron, entered the St. Mary's River, and, tirst of white men, stood at the stndt now called Sault Hte Marie. He do(!s not seem to have known of Lake Superior, but returned down the St. Mary's River, passed from Lake Huron through the western detour to Michili- mackinac, and entered anotlier fresh-water sea, Mitcliigannon or Michigan, also afterwards known as the Lake of the Illinois, Lake St. Joseph, Lake Dauphin, or even Algoniiuin Lake. Here he visited the Menomoneo tribe of Indians, and after tliem the Winnibagoes. . . . The lierci! wrath of the Iroquois liad driven numbers of the Hurons, Ottawas, and sevenil minor Algonquin tribes westward. The Iroquois, like a wedge, had split tlie northern tribes into east and west. Sault Ste Marie be- came u centnd point for tlie refugees. . . . Another gathering place for the fugitives had been found very near the south-west corner of this great lake. This was La Pointe, one of the Apostle Islands, near the present town of Asli- lond in Wisconsin. Tlie Jesuits took up these two points as mission centres. ... In 1009 the Fathers Dablon and Marquette, with their men, had erected a palisaded fort, enclosing a chiqiel and house, at Sault Ste Marie. In the same year Father Allouez had begun a mission at Green Bay. In 1070 an intrepid explorer, St. Lusson, under orders from Intendant Talon, came west searching for copper-mines. He was accom- jianied by the afterwards well-known Joliet. When this party arrived at Sault Sto Marie, tlio Indians were gathered together in great num- bers, and with imposing ceremonies St. Lusson took possession of ' Sainte JIarie du Saut, as also of Lakes Huron and Superior, the island of ^lanetoulin, and all countries, rivers, lakes, and streams contiguous and adjacent thereunto.' ... It was undoubtedly the pressing desire of the Jesuit fathers to visit the country of the Illinois and their great river that led to the dis- covery of the 'Father of Watere.' Fatuer Allouez indeed had already ascended the Fo.x River from Lake Michigau, and seen the marshy lake which is the lieatl of a tributary of the Mississippi. At last on June 4th, 1673, the French minister, Colbert, wrote to Talon: 'As after the increase of the colony there is nothing more important for the colony than the discovery 362 CANADA, 1634-1073. CANADA. 1637-16.17. ■of n ixifWAKo to tlin .South .Son, his Mnjcsty wIshi'H you to j{lv(? It your iiltciitioii.' TIiIh tii('Hwif((> to tlii^ Intciulaiitntinc iis he wim Inivliin for Kraiicc, 1111(1 li<> ri'coiiiiiK'iKlcil the Ht'hciiiiMiiKl till' cxplori'r hu Imd ill view for ciirryliiK it out to llic notlct' of tlu! (lovcriior, Frontrimc, who hiid Just Brrlvcd. Oovmior Front<>!iii(' npprovcil iinil Ihr explorer stiirtcd. The niiiii chosen for the enter- prise WHS I.oiils .loliet, who had already been at Hault Hie Marie. He was of hunilile birth, and was II native of \ew Franee. . . . Tlu- Freneli Canadian ex|>lorer was aceeptalili^ to the niis- sionaries, and ininiediately journeyed west to meet Marquette, who was to iieeompany lilni. . . . M. iJoliet met the priest Marquette at Bt. Ignncc Migslon. Mieliiliinackinae. .laciiues Marquette, of wlioni we have already hearil, was born in 11137 at (iaoii, ('liaiiipaK"('. i" France. He spraii)? of an ancient and dis- tinKuished family. . . . On May 17tli, 1673, ■wiUi deepest religious emotion, tlie triwier and missionary launched forth on Lake Miehl);;an their two canoes, containing seven Frenchinen in all, to make the ftreatest (liscovery of the time. They hastened to Qrecii Hay, followed the couitie of Father Alloucz up the Fo.x Uiver, and reached the trilie of the Maseoutins or Fire Nation on .hia river. These were new Indians to the ex- plorers. They were peaceful, and helped the voyagers on their way. With Kuides furnished, the two canoes were transported for 2,700 paces, 4»nd the head waters of the Wisconsin were reached. After an easy descent of 30 or 40 leagues, on June 17th, 1673, the feat was accom- plished, the Mississippi was discovered by white men, and the canoes shot out upon its surface In latitude 43°. Sailing down the great river for a month, the party reached the village of Akansea, on the Arkansas liiver, in latitude 34°, and on July 17th began their return journey. It is but Just to say tliat some o. the Hecollet fathers, be- tween whom and the Jesuits jealousy existed, have disputed the fact of Joliet and Alarquetto ■ever reaching this point. The evidence here seems entirely in favour of the explorers. On their return journey the party turned from the Mississippi into a tributary river in latitude 38°. This was the Illinois. Ascending this, the Indian town of Kaskasl-ia was readied, and here for a time Father Marquette remained. Joliet and his party passed on," arriving at Montreal in due time, but losing all their papers In the rapids of the St. Lawrence. Father Mar- quette cstAblished a mission among the Illinois Indians, but his labors were cut short. He died while on a journey to Green Bay, May 18, 1675. "High encomiums of Father Marquette fill — and deservedly so — the 'Jesuit Relations.' We have his autograph map of the Mississippi. This great stream he desired to call ' Conception River,' but the name, like those of ' Colbert and ' Buade ' [the family name of Count Frontenac], which were both bestowed upon it, have failed to take the place of the musical Indian name. " — G. Bryce, Short JIM. of the Canadian People, eh. 5, sect. 3. Also in : F. Parkman, La Salle and the Dii- cmei-y of tht Qreat West, eh. 2-5.— C. W. Butter- flelu, Hilt, of the IHsanery of tfie N. W. by Mcolet.—J. W. Monette, Hist, of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Miss., hk. 3, ch. 1 (v. 1).— 8. 8. Hebberd, Ilist. of Wis. under the dominion of Franee, ch. 1-2. A. D. 1637-1657.— The Sulpicikn settlement of Montreitl and reliKtout activity at Quebec. — ('haiiiplulii was NUici'rdcd as governor of New France by .M, de Chillcaufdrl, of wlios<> brief administration little is known, and the latter was followed by M. dc Montiiiagny. out of the tranHlatiiin of whose name the Indians funned the title Onontio, signifying "Oreiit .Moun- tain," vlilch they afterwards appUcd to all the Frriuh governors. .Montinagiiy entered with zeal into the plans of Cliainplairi, "but dilllcul- ties accuinulate<l on all sides. .Men anil money were wanting, trade languiHlicd, and llie Akho- ciated C!onipanv in France were! daily becoming indilTerent to the success of the colony. Homo few merchants and inhabitants of tlie outposts, indeed, were enriched by llic prolllable deal- iiiilH of the fur-trade, but tlieir suddenly -aciiiilred weiiltli excited the jealousy rather than Increased the general pDspority of the si'ttlers. The work of rellgiou" inntitutions was alone j)ursueil with vigor and success in thosi! limes of failure and discouragement. At Sillery, one league from tiiiebec, i\n establishment was founded for the instniction of thesav'g"" and the dilTusion of Chrisiian liglit [1«:, 1. The Hotel Dieu owed its existence to the Duchesso d'Aiguillon two years afterwinl, and the convent of the Ursulines was founded by the pious and high- born Madame de la Peltrie. The partial success and subseiiuent failure of Champlain and his Indian allies in tlieir encounters with the Iro- quois had emboldened these bravo and politic savages. They now captured several conoea belonging to the Hurons, loden with furs, which that friendly people were conveying to tjuebec. Montmagny's military force was Ux) small to allow of his avenging this insult; he, however, zealously promoted an enterprise to build a fort and elTect a settlement on the island of Montreal, which he fondly hoped would curb the audacity of his savage foes. The Associated Company would render no aid whatever to this important plan, but the religious zeal of the Abb6 Olivier overcame all difllculties. lie obtAined a grant of Montreal from the king, and dispatched tho Sieur de Maisonneuve and others to take posses- sion. On the 17th of May, 1641, the place des- tined for the settlement was consecrated by the superior of the Jesuits. At the same time the go 'g^fnor erected a fort at the entrance of the F'ver Richelieu," which so far checked the Iro- quois tliot they entered into a treaty of peace f nd respected it for o brief period. — L. Warbur- ton, The Conquest of Canada, v. 1, ch. 12. — The settlement of Montreol was undertaken by an associatiim of thirty-flvc rich and influential per- sons in France, among whom was the Duke de Liancourt de la Roche Quyon. "This company obtained a concession of the island in 1640, and a member >f the association orrived at Quebec from Franco with several immigrating families, some soldiers, and on armament valued at 25,000 piastres." In 1642 "a reinforcement of colo- nists arrived, led by M. d'Ailleboust de Musseau, During the following year, a second party came. At this time the European population resident in Canada did not exceed 200 souls. The immi- grants who now entered it had been selected with the utmost care. "—A. Bell, Ilist. of Canada, bk. 8, ch. 1 (d. 1).— In 1657 the scigniority of Montreal was ceded to the Seminary of St. 8ul- pice in Paris, where the reins of its government 363 CANADA. I637-1(W7. navaoti of oil. tht /ruyHou CANADA, 1003-1874. wrrr belli iiiilll lOlW— Kiillicr Clmrlrvolx, Ilitt. 1)/ NfiP francf, trim*, by Shen. r. U, /), 2U. Al.KO IN: K. I'urkiiiiiii, Thf Jrimili in S'orlh Am., fh. 13- IS. A. D. 1640-1700.— The wan with the Iro- ?uoil. — " Friiin iilxpiil tlir ynir ItHO to llii- ynir 704), n I'lmntiinl wiirfitrr wiiHiMiiiiitiilnril Ix'twct'ii the in>(|ii(iiH iinil tli« Frriicli, inti'rru|it<Ml imcii- Hioniilly l)y n<'K<>tiittii>iiH mid brief ititervnlii of IM'iiee. An tlie former poHMeHKed botli biiiil(M of the Hi. Liiwrenee, ni.d tlie rirciiitH of liiltcH Krie and Ontario, llii'y intercepted tlie fur tnide, wliieb tlie Krenrb were aiixioim to maintain willi tlie weitlerii natioiiH. . , . Tbe war part les of tlie 1.1'aKiii' raiijfcd tliniilKli tliewi terrilorieH ho con- Htantly tliat it waH impoHHibli! for tlie Freiicli to piiHM in Hafety tbroilKli tlie lakeN, or I'ven up tlu^ Ht. Lawrence bImivc .Montreal. ... Ho ({rent wim tlio feur of tlicHv Huddeii uttackH, tliat iKitli tlie tnuU^nt and tlie nilsMlonaricM were obliKe<l to Mcend tlin Ottawa river to near its Hoiirce. and from tlience to crotw over to tlii' Haiilt St. .Marie, and tilt! Bliores of Lake .Superior. . . , To retali- ate for tlicMe freiiiient inroads, and to prevent their recurrence, tlie country of the Iro(|uois was often invaded by tlie French. ... In 1««.'), .M. Courcelles, (governor of Canada, led a Htrong party into the country of the Mohawks; hut tlio linrdsliips tliey encountered rendered it necessary for them to return without accompiishinjt their purpose. The ne.xt year, ,M. de Tracy, Viceroy of New France, with l,a(M) French and 000 In- dians, renewed the invasion with better success, lie captured Te-llton-ta-16-ga, one of the princi- pal villafj;cs of tho Mohawks, situated at the mouth of the Scliobaric Creek ; hut after destroy- ing till, town, and the stores of com, which they found in caches, they wore obliged to n'tire without meeting an opposing force. Again, In 16H4, -M. I)e La Ilarre, tlien governor of Canada, entered tin country of the Onondagas, with about 1,800 men. Having readied Hungry Day, on the east shoro of lake Ontario, a conferenco was had with a delegation of Iro(iuois chiefs. ... A species of armistice was Anally agreed upon, and tliiis tho expedition ended. A more guccessful enterprise was projected and carried Into execution in 1087 by M. I)c Nonville, then Sovcmor of Canada. Having raised a force of ,000 French and 000 Indians, he embarked them in a fleet of 200 bateau, and as many birch bark canoes. After coasting lake Ontario from Kings- ton to Irondequoit bay, in tho territory of the Senecas, ho lauded at the head of this bay, and found himself within a few miles of the pnncipal yillages of the Senecas, which were then in the counties of Ontario and Monroe." After one battle with about 500 of tho Senecas, the latter retreated into the interior, and the Frcach dc- ■troyed four of their villages, together with the surrounding fields of growing com. " To retali- ate for this invasion, a formidable party of tho Iroquois, in the fall of the same year, i.iadc a sudden descent upon Fort Chambly, on the Sorel River, near Montreal. Unablo to capture the fort, which was resolutely defended by tho gar- rison, they ravaged the settlements adjacent, and returned with a number of captives Ahout the same time, a party of 800 attacked Irontenac, on the site of Kingston, and destroyed and laid waste the plantations and establishments of the French without the fortification. In July of the ensuing year the French were made to feel Rtill more Hcniilbly the power of their revenffc. A band of t,', .K) warriors, animated with tlie- fiercest rewiilment, niiule a di'Hcnit upon tho iHiandof Monlrral. . . . All that were witlioiit the fortifiratioiiH fell under the rille or the n'lent- IcKjt loniahawk. Tlieir lioiisrs were burned, their plantatioiiH ravaged, and the whole iHland eov- eri'il with desolation. AlHiut l.dOOof the French, accordliig to Home writers, periHiied in this iiivu- sioii, or were larrh'd into captivity. . . . Over- whelmed bv this sudden dlsiiHler, the French ile- stroyed their fiirtsat Niagara and Fmiitcnae, and thus yielded the whole country west of .Montreal to the poHseHsion of tiie Iri>i|uoiH. At this erili- eal periiHi Count Froiiteiiac again becanio gov- ernor of Canada, and during tlie short residue of ills life devoted liiniself, witli untiring energy, to restore its declining prosperitv,"— L. H. Mor- gan, I ^atjue of the Irntiuniii, bk. I, eh. 1. Ai.KOlN: \V. Kiiigsford, lliiit. of ('muula, bk. 'i-i (c. 1-2).— E. n. O'Callaghan. ed., J),>e. Hint. of \. r, r, 1, pp. n7-278.--J. 1{. Hrodhead, hint, of the State of N. Y., ». 2, eh. 'A and 8.— O. H. Marshall, Kjrped. of the Marijuiii dti NonriUe iifl'nt the Semraii (llint. Writ i ni/M, pp. 123-180). A. D. 1660-1688. — French encroachments and Eng^liah concessions in Newfoundland. See Nkwkoiniii.a.ni): A. D. 1(10(»-|((HH, A.D. 1663-1674.— Erected by Colbert into a Royal Province. — Brief career of the French West India Company. — "In l(H!;t the ])roeeed- ings of llie company [of the liundred asstxiiates] became so obnoxious that the king of Franco decided upon the immediate resumption of his rights, and the erecting of Canada Into a royal government: Monsieur do Mosy was appointed governor, and proceeded from Franco to Quebec with 400 regular troops, and 100 families as settlers, witli cattle, horses and implements of agriculture. Under the royal jurisdiction, tho governor, a king's commissioner, an apostolical vicar, and four other gentlemen, woro formed Into a sovereign council, to whom were confided the powers of cognizance in all causes, civil and criminal, to judge in the last resort according to the laws anil orciinances of France, and the pnic- tice of tlie I'arliamcnt of Paris, reserving the general legislative powers of the Crown, to be applied acconling to circumstances. Tliia Coun- cil was further invested with the regulation of commerce, the expenditure of tho public monies, and tho establishment of inferior courts at Three Kivcrs and Montreal. This change of Canada from an ecclesiastical mission to a secular govern- ment was owing to the great Colbert, who was animated by tho exampTo of Great Britain, to improve the navigation and commerce of his country by colonial establishments. The enlight- ened policy of this renowned financial minister of Louis XIV. was followed by the success which' it deserved. To a regulated civil government! was added increased military protection against tho Iroquois Indians; tho emigration of French settlers to New France was promoted by every possible means, and a martial spirit was imparted, to the population, by the location in the colony of the disbanded soldiers of the Carignan regi- ment . . . and otlicr troops, whose ofticers became the principal Seigneurs of tho colony, on condition of making cessions of land under the feudal tenure, as it itill exists, to the soldiers and other inhabitants." Tho ambitious projects of Louis XIV. soon led, however, to a new measure 364 CANADA, 1608-1874. Krplnrntinnii nf iM Stlllr CANADA, 1880-1687 which nrovt'd h'nn witlufnctory In Itn working. "The rrciicli Wi'st Indlii Conipiiiiy wiih rr- mcMli'lli'tl [l(l6-t|, luiil CiiiiikIii iiddril to their p<m»«'H(il<)im, Hubordlniitc to the crown of Kriincc, with powers coiitrolU'il hy hin MiiJcxty'K )("'vcrn- orH iind IntcnduntH in tlic dUTcriiit cnlmdcH." The domain of llic compiuiy cndjriiccd all thn KomhckhIoiih of Friinco In the New World mid lti» ilandH and on the African coaNt. " Tlic com- pany was to enjoy ii monopoly of the lerritoricH and the trade of thi! colonicM thint conceded for 40 years; it was not oidy to enjoy the excliiHivc! nnvli(ation, hut hl» Majesty conferred a bounty of 00 l'v.<'« on every ton of jjcwmIs exported to France. . . The company was not only endowed IIS Heieiieur with all iinconccdcd lands, liiit !r. .( Med w<ll< the ri^ht of extliiKuihhInfr the titles of HelKnIories (framed or sold by previous coin- paiiies, on condition of reinibiirsin({ the ffnmtecs and purchasers forlheir costs and Improvements." The West India Company's manajrement soon showed evil elTects, and camo to an end after ti'n yearn of unsatisfactory trial. " Monsieur Dc Tnlon, the Intendant, a mini of profound views, . . . perceived that It was the natural Interest nf the ('oni|iiiiiy to discoiira^i^ coloni/.ation. He represented to tlur minister Colbert the absoliiti? neces-sity of the total resumption of the riffhts <if the crown; drew his attention to the means of obtaining abundance of warlike inutrunients and naval stores within the colony . . . anil, in fact, at last prevailed; so that, In 1074, the king of France resumed Ids rights to a'l the territories conceded to the West India Con, puny, as.sumed their debts and the current value of their stock, and appointed a governor, council and judges for the direction of the Canadian colonies. . . . From this period (1074), when the population, embracing ccmverted Ii'i'/ins, did not exceeil 8,000, the French seuienx t in Canada rapidly ■ progressed, and os it rose In power, and iiKsiimeil oflcnsivc operations on the New England frontier, the jealousy of the British o'onicH became roused, and both parties, aided alf rnately by tlio Indians, carried on a destructive and harassing border warforo. " — H. M. Martin, Jlist. of Upper and Lower Canada, eh. T. Also in : A. Bell, //«><. of Canada, bk. 8, eh. 8 (r. 1). — P. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, eh. 10-17. A. D. 1669-1687. — La Salle and the acquisi- tion of Louisiana. — " Second only to Champlain among the heroes of Canadian history stands Robert Cavclicr de la Salle — a man of iron if ever there was one — a man austere and cold in manner, and endowed with such indomitable pluck and perseverance as have never been sur- passed in tlds world. He did more than any other man to extend the dominion of France in the New World. As Champlain had founded the colony of Canada and opened the way to the great lakes, so La Salle completed the discovery of the Mississippi, and added to the French pos- sessions the vast province of Louisiana. . . . T~ 1009 La Salle made his first journey to the ■"' ,t, hoping to find a northwest passage to Chin' , out very little Is known about this expedi'' .., except that the Ohio River was discovered, and perhaps also the Illinois. La Salle's feudal domain of St. Sulpice, sot.e eight miles from Montreol, bears to-day the name of La Chine, or China, which is said to have been applied to it in derision of this fruitless expedition. In 1678 the priest Mnr(|iirttc and the furtmder .lolirt nrtunlty reached the MlHsiNsippI by way of the Wlscon sill, anil Kiiiled down the great river as far a.s the mouth of the .Arkansas; and now the life work of I,a Salle began In earnest. He formed 11 grand project forexhloriiig the .MissiHsipiil to Its mouth, and determining whether it flowed Into the (Julf of California or the (iiilf of Mexico. The ad- vance of Spain oil the Hide of .Mexico wiis to be chicked fori'Ver, the Kngiisii were to he (nntlned to the ciist of the Allcghaiiles, and (Uicli military posts wire t(.bi' establlKlied as would cITectuillly contlrm the authority of l.oiiis XIV'. tliroughout the centre of this continent. La Salle had but little ready money, and was surrounded by rivals and enemies; but he had a powirfiil friend In Count Fronteimc, the Viicroy of Cmia'la. . . . At length, after siirnioiinting innuiiienibli> didl- ciilties, a ve.H.Hel |llie OrilTon or (irilllii| was built and launchi'd on thi* Nlagani HIver 1 1071)1, a small I)arty of 110 or 40 men were gathered to- gether, and I.a Salle, having just recovered from a treacherous dose of iiolson, embarked on his great enterprise. His departure was clouded by the news that his Inipatient creditors had laid lianils upon his Ciinadiiin estates; but, nothing daunted, he piished on through 2,akes Krie iinu Huron, and after many disasters n'ached the southern extremity of Lake .Michigan. The vessel was now sent back, with half the party, to Ni- agara, carrying furs to apiicase the ercilitorsand |>iirchasc additional supiillcs for the remainder of the journey, while La Salle with his diminished company |iiislie<l <m to the Illinois, where a fort was built, and approi)riately named Fort Crdve- cieur, or, as we niiglit translate it, tlie ' fort of the breaking heart.' Here, amid perils of famine, mutiny, and Indian attack, and exposed to death from the wintry cold, they waited until it Inramo evident to all that their vessel must liave perished. She never was he 1 from again, and most likely had foundered on her perilous voyage. To add to the troulile. La Salle was again poisoned; but his iron constitution, aided by some lijcky anti- dote, again carried him safely through tlie ordeal, 11 lid Mlxiut the 1st of March, 1680, lie started on foot c Montreal. Leaving Fort Crftveco'iir and its tiny garrison under command of his faithful lieutenant, Tonty, he set out with four French- men and one Mohegan guide. . . . They made their way for a tliousanil miles acr.)ss Michigan and Western Canada to Niagara, and so on to ^Montreal. ... At Niagara La Salic learned that a ship from France, freighted for him with a cargo worth more than 20,000 livres, had been wrecked in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and nothing had been saved. In spite of this dreadful blow, he contrived to get together supplies and reenforce- ments at Montreal, and had returned to Fort Frontenac, at the lower end of Lake Ontario, when still more woful tidings were received. Here, towanl the end of July, a message came from the fortress so well named Criivccoeur. The garrison had mutinied and destroyed the fort,^ and made their way back through Michigan." The indomitable LaSalle promptly; hunted down he deserters, and sent them in cl. lins to Quebec, i'l then " proceeded again to the Illinois to re- construct his fort, and rescue, if possible, his lieutenant Tonty and the few faithful followers who had survived the mutiny. This little party, abandoned in the wilderness had found shelter among the Illinois Indians; but during the sum- 866 CAXADA, 1669-1687. CANADA, 1689-1600. »"er oi' 1680 the great village or town of the Illi- nois was destroyed by the Iroquois, und tlie hard- prcssei Frenchmen retreated up the western shore of Lake Michigan to Green Bi'.y. On arriving at the Illino!s, tlicrcfore. La Salle found nothing but the terrible traces of lire and massacre and cannibal orpies; but he spent the following win- ter to goo<l i)urpose in securing the friend, 'n of the western Indians, and in making an alh..ace witli them against the Iroquois. Then, in May, 1081, he set out again for Canada, to look after his creditors and obtain new resources. On the way home, at the outlet of Lake Michigan, he met Ins friend Tonty, and together they paddled their canoes a thousand miles and came to Fort Frontenac. So, after all this hardship and dis- aster, the work was to be begun anew ; and the enemies of the ^reat explorer were exulting in what they imagined must be his despair. But that was a word of which La Salle knew not the meaning, and now his fortunes began to change. In Mr. Parkman's words, ' Fate at length seemer' tired of the conflict with so stubborn an adver- i sary.' At this third venture everything went smoothly. The little fleet passed up the grt ., lakes, from the outlet of Ontario to the head of Michigan, and gained the Chicago River. Cross- ing the narrow portage, they descended the Illin- ois and the Mississippi, till they came out upon the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the 9th of April, 1683, the fleurs-de-lis were planted at the mouth of the great river, and all the country drained by its tributaries, from the Allcghanies to the Rocky Mountflins, was formally declared to be the prop- erty r '-.e king of France, and named after him L>'i'3iina. Returning up the river after his triumph. La Salle founded a station or small col- ony on the Illinois, which he called St. Louis, and leaving Tonty in command, kept on to Can- ada, and crossed to France for means to circum- vent his enemies and complete liis far-reaching schemes. A colony was to be founded at the mouth of the Mississippi, and military stations were to connect this with the French settlements in CanadA. At the French court La Salle was treated like a hero, and a tine expedition was soon fltted out, but everything was ruined by jealousy and ill-will between La Salle and the naval com- mander, Beaujeu. The fleet sailed beyond the mouth of the ilississippi, the colony was thrown upon the coast of Texas, some of the vessels were wrecked, and Beaujeu — though apparently with- out sinister design — sailed away with the rest, and two years of terrible suffering followed. At last, in March, 1687, La Salle started to find the Mississippi, hoping to ascend it to Tonty's fort on the Illinois, and obtain relief for his followers. But . ^ had scarcely set out on this desperate en- terprise when two or three mutinous wretches of his party laid an ambush for him in the forest, and shot him dead. Thus, at the early age of forty-three, perished this extraordinary man, with his life-work but half accomplished. Yet his labors had done much towards building up the imposing dominion with which New France con- fronted New England in the following century. " — J. Fiske, Tlis Ronianee of the Spanish and French Explorers (Harper's Mug., v. ti, pp. 446- 448. Also in : F. Parkman, La Salle and the Dis- covery of the Oreat West. — Chevalier Tonti, Acc't of M.de la Salle's last Exp. (N. T. Hist. Soc. Coil's, V. 8). — J. G. Shea, Discovery and Expl. of the Mis- nssij)]n Valley. — C. lid CXcTCCi, First Estahlishment of the Faith in A'. France, tr. by Shea,, ch. 21-35 (i-. 2). A. D. 1689-1690.— The first Inter-Colonial War (King William's War): The Schenectady Massacre. — Montreal threatened, Quebec at- tacked, and Port Royal taken by the English. — Tlie Revolution of 1688, in England, which drove James II. from the tli i-oiie, and called to it his daugiiter Slary with her able husband, Wil- liam of Orange, produced war between England and !■ ranee (see Fuance: A. D. 1689-1690). The French and English colonies in America were soon involved in the contest, and so far as it troubled American history, it bears in New England annals the name of King William's War "If the issue had depended on the con- dition of the colonies, it could hardly have seemed doubtful. The French census for the North American cc Cnent, in 1688, showed but 11,349 persons, scurcly a tenth part of the Eng- lish population on its frontiers ; about a twentieth part of English North America. West of Mon- treal, the princiiJil French posts, and those but inconsiderable ones, wer" at Frontenac, at Macki- naw, and on the Illinois. At Niagara, there was a wavering purpose of maintaining a post, but no permanent occupation. So weak were the garrisons that English traders, with an escort of Indians, had ventui'ed even to Mackinaw. . . . France, bounding its territory next New England by the Kennebec, claimed the whole eastern coast, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, New- foundland, Labrador, and Hudson's Bay ; and to assert and defend this boundless region, Acadia and itj dependencies counted but 900 French inhabitants. The miiisionaries, swaying the minds of the Abenakis, were the sole source of hope. On the declaration of war by France against England, Count Frontenac, once more governor of Canada, ivas charged to recover Hudson's Bay; to protect Acadia; and, by a descent from Canada, to assist a fleet from Franco in making conquest of New York. Of that province De Callieres was, in advance, ap- pointed governor; theEnglisli Catholics were to be permitted to remain, — other inliabitants to be sent into Peunsylvania or New England. . . . In the east, blood was first shed at Cocheco, where, thirteen years before, an unsuspecting party of 350 Indians ha 1 been taken prisoners and shipped for Bostor, to be sold into foreign slavery. The memory of the treachery was in- delible, and the Indian emissaries of Castin easily excited the tribe of Penacook to revenge. On the evening of tlie 27th of June [1689] two squaws repaired to the house of Richard Wald- ron, and the octogenarian magistrate bade them lodge on the floor. At ni^ht, they rise, unbar the gates, and summon tlieir companions," who tortured the aged WaldTOn until he died. "The Indians, burning his house and others that stood near it, having killed three-and-twenty, returned to the wiluerness with 29 captives." In August, the stockade at Pemaquid was taken by 100 Indians from the French mission on the Penob- scot. " Other inroads were made by the Penob- scot and St. John Indians, so that the settlements east of Falmouth were deserted. In September, commissioners from New England held a con- ference with the Mohawks at Albany, soliciting an alliance. 'We have burned Montreal,' said . they; ' we are the allies of the English; we will 366 CANADA, 1689-1690. CANADA. 1693-1697. keep the chain unbroken.' But they refused to Invade the Abcnakis. . . . Front ennc . . . now used every effort to win the Five Nations [the Iroquois] to neutrality or to friendship. To re- cover esteem in their eyes; to secure to Duran- taye, tlie commander at Mackinaw, the means of treating witli the Hurons and the Ottawas; it ■was resolved by Frontenac to make a triple descent into the English provinces. From Mon- treal, a party of 110, composed of French and of the Christian Iroquois, — having De Mantet and Sainte Helcne as leaders . . . — for two and twenty days waded through snows and morasses, through forests and across rivers, to Schenectady. The village had given itself calmly to slumber: through open and unguarded gates the invaders entered silently [Feb. 8, 1690], and having, just before midnight, reached its heart, the war- whoop was raised (dreadful sound to the mothers of that place and their children I), and the dwell- ings set on Are. Of the inhabitants, some, half clad, fled through the snows to Albany ; 60 were massacred, of whom 17 were children and 10 were Africans. . . . The party from Three Rivers, led by Hertel, and consisting of but 53 persons . . . surprised the settlement at Salmon Falls, on the Piseataqua, and, after a bloody engage- ment, burned houses, barns, and cattle in the stalls, and took 54 prisoners, chiefly women and children. . . . Returning from this expedition, Hertel met the war party, under Portneuf, from Quebec, and, with them and a reCnforcement from Castin, made a successful attack on the fort and settlement in Casco Bay. Meantime, danger taught the colonies the necessity of union, and, on the 1st day of May, 1690, New York beheld the momentous example of an American congress [see Unitkd States op Am. : A. D. 1690]. . . . At that congress it was resolved to attempt the conquest of Canada by marching an army, by way of Lake ( .;amplam, against Montreal, while Massachusetts should, with a fleet, attack Que- bec."— G. Bancroft, /Tm*. of the U. 8., ch. 31 (p. 3), {pt, 8, eh. 11, V. 3, ill the "Author's la«t Re- miion"). — Before the end of the month in which the congress was held. Port Royal and the whole of Acadia had already been conquered, having surrendered to an expedition sent out by Mas.sa- chusetts, in eight small vessels, under Sir Wil- liam Phips. The larger fleet (consisting of 33 ships and carrying 3,000 men) directed against Quebec, sailed in August from Nastasket, and was, likewise, commanded by Phips. "The plan of the campaign contemplated a diversion to bo made by an assault on Montreal, by a force composed of English from Connecticut and New York, and of Iroquois Indians, at the same time witli the attack on Quebec by the fleet. And a second expedition into Maine under Cap- tain Church was to threaten the Eastern tribes whose incursions had, during tlie last summer, been so disastrous. ... As is so apt to happen when a plan involves the simultflneous action of distant parties, the condition of success failed. The movement of Church, who had with him but 300 men, proved ineffective as to any con- tribution to the descent upon Conadn. ... It was not till after a voyage of more than six weeks tliat the fleet from Boston cast anchor within the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, and meanwhile the overland expedition against Mon- treal had miscarried. The commanders respec- tively of the Connecticut and the New York troops mi had disagreed, and could not act effectively t«- getlier. . . . The supply, both of boats and of provisions, was found to be insulHcient. The disastrous result was that a retreat was ordered, without so much as an embarkation of the troops on Lake Cliamplain. Frontenac was at Montreal, whither ho had gone ■ to superintend the defence, when the nitelligence, so unex- pected, roaclicd him from Quebec ; and presently after came the tidings of Phips's fleet beiuK in the St. Lawrence. Nothing could liave been more opportune thi»n this coincidence, which gave the Governor liberty to ha.sten down to direct his little force of 200 soldiers at the capital. The French historian says that, if he had been thr''e days later, or it the Englisli fleet had not been delayed by contrary winds, or had had better pilots in the river, where it was nearly a fortnight more in making its slow way, Fron- tenac would have come down from the upper country only to find the English nommander in his citadel. As it was, there ensued a crushing mortification and sorrow to Mnssacliusetts. New France was made much more formidable than ever." The fleet arrived before Quebec Oct. 6, and retreated on the lltli, after considerable cannonading and an assaidt which the French repelled. It suffered storms and disasters on the return vnyage. and lost altogether some 200 men. — J. G. Palfrey, Hist, of New Kng., hk. 4, eh. 3 {v. 4). Also in: F. Parkman, Count Frontenac and New France under Ijoxtis XIV., ch. 10-13. — Bee. Hist. ofN. T., V. 1-3.— F. Bowen, Life of SirW. Phips (Library of Am. Bio/;., v. 7), ch. 2-3.— J. R. Brodhead,J3i«^ of the State of N. V., v. 2, ch. 13. — .1. Pearson, et al. Hist, of the Schenectady Pat- ent, ch. 8-10. A. D. i692-i6()7.— The first Inter-Colonial War (King William's War) : Abortive plans of invasion on both sides. — French recovery of Acadia. — " The defeat of the expedition of 1690 was probably attributable to the want of concert on the part of tlie troops from Connecticut and New York and those from Massachusetts, and the failure of tlie supplies which were sought from England. . . . But there was mismanage- ment on all hands in the conduct of the expedi- tion; and it seems to have been predestinated that New England should not be delivered from the presence of the French at the north, until time had wrought the necessary changes which were to render the conquest of that country available for the promotion of still more impor- tant ends. Hence a new expedition, projected two years later, and resolved to be prosecuted in the following year [1693], was attendee with the like circumstances of mortification and defeat. England herself participated in this enterprise, and . . . the government was informed that it had ' pleased the king, out of his great goodness and disposition for the welfare of all his subjects, to send a considerable strength of ships and men into the West Indies, and to direct Sir Francis Wheeler, the admiral, to sail to New England from the Caribbee Islands, so as to be there by the last of M'iy or the middle of June at furthest, with a streiigth sufficient to overcome the enemy, if joined and seconded by tlie forces of New England.' . . . Unfortunately for the success of these plans, the letter, which should have reached Boston by the first of April, did not arrive until July ; and the mortality which prevailed in the CANADA, 1693-1697. CANADA, 1700-1785. fleet (luring its stiiy in tlie West Indies was ho grout tliot, wlien the commander-in-chief, bir Francis Wlieeler, ancliored off Nantaskct, — ))ringing liinist-lf the news of tlie projected invasion, — he liad lost 1,300 out of 2,100 sailors, and l,800out of 2,400 soldiers. All thoughts of reducing Caimila were therefore abandoned ; hut a plan for another year was settled with th(! governor, the details of which were that 2,000 land forces should be sent from England to Cunscau by the tirst of June, to be joined by 3,000 from the colonies, aud that the whole force should go up the St. Lawrence, divide and simultaneously attack Montreal and Quebec. Changes in the government of the province, however, and other causes, prevented the execu- tion of this plan, whose success was problem- atical even if it had been attempted. But if the plans of tlie English for the reduction of Canada were doomed to disappointment, the plans of the French for tlie recovery of Acadia were more successful. For the first year after the conquest of that country, indeed, the French were as little concerned to regain, as the English were to retain, the possession of its territory ; nor was Massachusetts able to bear the charge of a sufficient military force to keep its inhabitants in subjection, though she issued commissions to judges and other officers, and required the ad- ministration of the oath of fidelity. In the course of that year [1601], authority was given to Mr. John Nt'ion, of Boston, who had taken an active part in the overthrow of Andros, and who was bound thither on a tradiug voyage, to be commander-in-chief of Acadia; but as lie neared the mouth of the St. John's, he was taken by Monsieur Villebon, who, under a commission from the French king, had touched at Port Royal, and ordered the English flag to be struck, and the French flag to be raised in its place. The next year an attempt was made to dislodge Villebon, but witnout success. ... In the summer of 1696, Pemaquid was taken by the French, under D'lberville and Castine, and the frontier of the dominion of France was extended into Maine ; and by the treaty of the following year Acadia was receded to France, and the English relinquished their claims to the country. The last year of King William's War, as it was long termed in New England, was a year of especial alarm to the province [Massachusetts] and rumors were rife that the French were on the eve of fitting out a formidable fleet for the invasion of the colonies and the conquest of New York." According to the plan of the French undertaking, a powerful fleet from France was to be joined by a force of 1,500 men, raised by Count Frontenac, in Canada, and make, first, a conquest of Boston. "When that town was taken, they were to range the coast to Piscataqua, destroying the settlements as far back into the country as possible. Should there be time for further acquisitions, they were next to go to New York, and upon its reduction the Canadian troops were fc march overland to Quebec, laying waste the country as they proceeded." This project was frustrated bjr happenings much the same in kind as those which thwarted the designs of the English against Quebec. The fleet was delayed by contmry winds, and by certain boot- less undertakings in Newfoundland, until the season was too far advanced for the enterprise contemplated. " The peace of Kyswick, which 368 soon followed, led to a temporary suspension of hostilities. France, anxious to secure as large a share of territory in America as possible, retained the whole coast and adjacent islands from ]klaine to Labrador and Hudson's Bay, with Canada, and the Valley of the Mississippi. The posses- sions of England were southward from the St. Croix. Hut the bounds between the nations were imiierfectly define<l, and were, for a long time, a subject of dispute and negotiation."'— J. S. Barry, I'ltHt. of Mans., v. 2, eh. 4. Also in: F. Parkman, Count Frontenac and NeiB ]<Vance iiiuler Louis XIV., eh, 16-10. — J. Hannay, JltHt. of Acadia, ch. 14. — See, also, Newfoundland: A. D. 1694-1697. A. D. 1696. — Frontenac's expedition against the Iroquois. — The war with tlie "Bastonnais" or " Bostonnais," as he called the New England- ers, did not divert Frontenac's attention from "the grand castigation which at last he was planning for the Iroquois. He had succeeded, in 1094, in inducing them to meet him in general council at Quebec, and had framed the conc"'- tions of a truce; but the English at Albany intrigu' d to prevent the fulfilment, and war wos again imminent. Both sides were endeavoring to secure the alliance of the tribes of the upper lakes. These wavered, "nd Frontenac saw the peril and the remedy. His recourse was to at- tack the Iroquois in their villages at once, and conquer on tlie Mohawk the peace he needed at Michilimackinac. It was Frontenac's last cam- paign. Early in July [1690] he left Montreal with 2,200 men. He went by way of Fort Frontenac, crossed Lake Ontario, landed at Oswego, and struggled up its stream, and at last set sails to his canoes on Lake Onondaga. Then his force marched again, and Frontenac, enfeebled by his years, was borne along in an arm-chair. Eight or nine miles and a day's work brought them to the Onondaga village; but its inhabitants had burned it and fled. Vaudreuil was sent with a detachment which destroyed the town of the Oneidas. After com- mitting all the devastation of crops that ho could, in hopes that famine would help him, Frontenac began his homeward march before the English at Albany were aroused at all. The effect was what Frontenac wished. The Iro- quois ceased their negotiations with the western tribes, and sued for peace." — G. Stewart, Jr.,i Ji'rontenae and his Times (Narrative and Critical Hist, of Am., v. 4, ch. 7). Also in: F. Parkman, Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV., ch. 18-10. A. D. 1698-1^10. — Colonization of Louisiana and the organization of its separate govern- ment. See Louisiana: A. D. 1698-1712. A. D. 1700-1735. — The spread of French occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on the Lakes. — "From the time of La Salle's visit in 1679, we can trace a continuous French occu-' pation of Illinois. ... He planted his citadel of St. Louis on the summit of ' Starved Rock,' pro- posing to make that the centre of his colony. ... At first his colony was exceedingly feeble, but it was never discontinued. ' Joutel found a garrison at Fort St. Louis ... in 1687, and in 1689 La Ilontan bears testimony that it still con- tinued. In 1"96 a public document proves its existence; and when Tonty, in 1700, again de- scended the Mississippi, he was attended by twenty Canadians, residents on the Illinois.' CANADA, 1700-173(5. CANADA, 1711-1718. ISven while the wars named after King William and Queen Anne were going on, the French set- tlements were growing in numlxira iind increas- ing in size ; those wars over, they made still more rapid progress. Missions grew into settlements and parishes. Old Kaskaskia was begun in what La Salle called the ' terrestrial paradise ' before the clo.se of the seventeenth century. The AVabash Valley was occupied about 1700, the first settlers entering it by the portage lead- ing from tlic Kankakee. Later the voyageurs found a shorter route to the fertile valley. . . . The French located their principal missions and posts with admirable judgment. There is not one of them in which we cannot see the wisdom of the priest, of the soldier, and the trader com- bined. The triple alliance worked for an im- mediate end, but the sites that they chose are as Important to-day as they were when they chose them. ... La Salle's colony of St. Louis was planted in one of the gardens of the world, in the midst of a numerous Indian population, on the great line of travel between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. Kaskaskia and the ncigliboring settlements held the centre of the long line extending from Canada to Louisiana. The Wabash colony commanded that valley and the Lower Ohio. Detroit was a position so im- portant that, securely held by the French, it practically banished from the English mind for fifty years tlie thought of acquiring the North- west. . . . Then how unerringly were the French guided to the carryiug places between the Ntrthern and the Southern waters, viz., Green Bay, Fox River, and the AVisconsin; the Chi- cago River and the Illinois ; the St. Joseph and the Kankakee; the St. Joseph and the Wabasli; the Maumce and the Wabash; and, later, on the •eve of the war that gave New France to .ng- land, the Chautauqua and French Creek routes from Lake Erie to the Ohio. ... In due time the French began to establish tliemselves on the Northern frontier of the British colonies. They built Fort Niagara in 1726, four years after the English built Fort Oswego. Following the ^arly footsteps of Cliamplam, they ascended to the head of the lake that bears his name, where they fortified Crown Point in 1727, and Ticon- •deroga in 1731. Presque Isle, the present lite of the city of Erie, was occupied about the time that Vincennes was founded m the Wabash Val- ley [1735]. Finally, just on the eve of the last «truggle between England and France, the French pressed into the valleys of the Alleghany and the Ohio, at the same time that the English also began to enter them." — B. A. Hinsdale, The Old Northwest, eh. 4. A. D. 1702-1710.— The Secon<! Inter-Colo- nial War (Queen Anne's War) : Border rava- ges in New England and Acadia. — English Conquest of Acadia. See New England : A. D. 1702-1710. A. D. 1711-1713.— The Second Inter-Colo- nial War. — Walker's Expedition against Quebec. — Massacre of Fox Indians. — The Peace of Utrecht. — After the reduction of Port Royal, whiLli was practically the conquest of Acadia, Colonel Nicholson, who bore the honors of that achievement, repaired to England and prevailed with the government to fit out an ade- quate expedition for the Conquest of Canada. " The fleet, consisting of 15 ships of war and 40 transports, was placed under the command of Sir Hovonden Walker ; seven veteran reglmont« from Marllwroiigh's army, with a battalion of marines, were intrusted to Mrs. Masham's second brother, whom the queen had itensioned and made a brigadier-general, whom his bottle com- panions called honest Jack Hill. . . . From June 25th to the 30th day of July 1711, the fleet lay at Boston, taking in supplies and the colonial forces. At the same time, an army of men from C'onnecticut, New Jersey, and New York, Pala- tine emigrants, and about 'tOO Iroquois, assem- bling at Albany, prepared to burst upon Mon- treid ; while in Wisconsin the English had allies in the Foxes, who were always wishing to expel the French from Michigan. In Quebec, meas- ures of defence began by a renewal of friend- ship witli the Indians. To deputies from the Onondagas and Senecas, the governor spoke of the fidelity with whieli the French had kept their treaty ; and he reminded them of their jjromisc to remain quiet upon their mats. A war festival was next held, at which were present all the savages domiciliated near the French settlements, and all the delegates of their allies who liad come down to Montreal. In the presence of 700 or 800 warriors, the war song was sung and the hatchet uplifted. The savages of the remote west were wavering, till twenty Ilurons from Detroit took up the hatchet, and swayed all the rest by their example. By the influence of tlie Jesuits over the natives, an alliance extending to the Oiib- ways constit<ited the defence of Slontreid. De- scending to Quebec, Vaudreui! found Abenaki volunteers assembling for his protection. Meas- ures for resistance had been adopted with hearti- ness ; tlie fortiflcations were strengtliencd ; Beau- port was garrisoned; and the people were resolute and confiding ; even women were ready to labor for the common defence. Toward the last of August, it was said tliat peasants at Matanes had descried 90 or 06 vessels with the English flag. Yet September came, and still from the heights of Cape Diamond no eye caught one sail of the expected enemy. The English squad- ron, leaving Boston on the 30th of July [1711], after loitering near tlio bay of Gaspe, at last be- gan to ascend the St. Lawrence, while Sirlloven- tten Walker puzzled himself with contriving how he would secure his vessels during the winter at Quebec." At the same time, the present and actual difficulties of the expedition were so heed- lessly and ignorantly dealt with that eight ships of tlie fleet were recl-.ed among tlie rocks and shoals near the Egg Isi uds, and 884 men were drowned. Tlie enterprise was then abandoned. " 'Had we arrived safe at Quebec,' wrote the admiral, ' ten or twelve thousand men must have been left to perish of cold and hunger: by the loss of a part, Providence saved all the rest.' Such was the issue of hostilities in the nort ast. Their total failure left the expedition from Albany no option but to return, and Slontreal was unmolested. Detroit, in 1712, almost fell before the valor of a party of the Ottagamies, or Foxes. . . . Resolving to burn Detroit, tliey pitched their lodgings near the fort, wliieli Du Buisson, with but twenty Frenchmen, defended. Aware of their intention, he summoned his In- dian allies from the chase ; and, about tlic middle of Jlay, Ottawas and Ilurons and Pottawotta- inies, with one branch of the Sacs, Illinois, Mcnomonies, and even Osages and Missouris, each nation with its own ensign, came to his re- nfi9 CANADA, 1711-1718. Boundaru Dinpulea. CANADA, 1750-1753. llcf. So wide was the influence of the mission- aries in tlie West. . . . Tlic warriors of the Fox nation, far from destroying Detroit, were them- selves besieged, and at lust were compelled to surrender at discretion. Those who bore arms were ruthlessly murdered; the rest distributed among the confederates, to be enslaved or mas.sa- cred at the will of their masters. Cherished as the loveliest spot in Canada, the possession of De- troit secured for Quebec a great highway to the upper Indian tribes and to the Mississippi. . . . In the meantime, the preliminaries of a treaty had been signed between France and England ; and the war . . . was suspended by negotiations that were soon followed by the uncertain peace of Utrecht [April 11, 1713]. . . . England, by the peace of Utrecht, obtained from France large concessions of territorv in America. The as- sembly of New York had addressed the queen against French settlements in the West ; AVilliam Penn advised to establish the St. Lawrence as the boundary on the north, and to include in our colonies the valley of the Mississippi. ' It will make glorious country ' ; such were his pro- phetic words. . . . The colony of Louisiana ex- cited in Saint-John ' apprehensions of the future undertakings of the French in North America.' The occupation of the Mississippi valley had been proposed to Queen Anne; yet, at the peace, that immense region remained to France. But England obtained the bay of Hudson and its borders ; Newfoundland, subject to the rights of France in its tisherics ; and all Nova Scotia, or Acadia, accorumg to its ancient boundaries. It was agreed that 'France should never molest the Five Nations subject to the dominion of Great Bri- tain.' But Louisiana, according to French ideas, included both banks of the Alississippi. Did the treaty of Utrecht assent to such an extension of French terjitory 1 And what were the ancient limits of Acadia ? Did it include all that is now New Bruns vick ? or had Prance still a large ter- ritory on Mie Atlantic between Acadia and Maine ? And what were the bounds of the ter- ritory of the Five Nations, which the treaty ap- peared to recognize as a part of the English dominions ? These were questions which were never to be adjusted am!cably." — G. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. 8. (Author' i Last Jtension), pt. 3, ch. 12 (». 2). — With reference to the destruction of the Fox Indians at Detroit, a recent writer says: "The French official reports pretend that the Wisconsin Indians, being in secret alliance with the Iroquois and the English, had come to De- troit with the express purpose of besieging the fort and reducing it to ruins; and their state- ment has heretofore been unsuspectingly ac- cepted by all historians. But there is little doubt that the charge is a shameful falsehood. The Fox Indians had rendered themselves very ob- noxious to the French. Firmly lodged on the Fox River, they controlled the chief highway to the West; a haughty, independent and in- tractable people, they could not be cajoled into vassalage. It was necessary for the suc- cess of the French policy to get them out of the way. They were enticed to Detroit in order that they might be slaughtered." — S. S. Ilebberd, Hist, of Wis. under tlie dominion of France, eh. 5-0. Also in: Wis. Hist. Soc. Colls., v. 5. — W. Kiugs- ford. Hist, of Canada, bk. 6, ch. 5-6 (». 2).— It. Brown, Hist, of the Island of Cape Breton, letters 8-9.— See, also, Utrecht: A. D. 1712-1714, and Newfoundland: A. I). 1713. A. D. 1720. — The fortifying of Louisbourg. See Cape Bheton: A. D. 1720-1745. A. D. 1744-1748.— The Third Inter-Colonial War (King George's War). — Loss and recovery of Louisbourg and Cape Breton. See New Enoland: a. I). 1744; 1.45; and 1745-1748. A. D. 1748-1754.— Active measures to fortify possession of the Ohio Valley and the West, See Ohio (Valley): A. D. 1748-1754. A. D. 1750-1753. — Boundaries disputes with E ngland.— Futile negotiations at Paris.- " For the past three years [1750-1753] the commis- sioners appointed under the treaty of ;x-la- Chapelle to settle the question of bd laries- between France and England in America had been in session at Paris, waging interminable war on paper; La Galissoniire and Silhouette for France, Shirley and Mildinay for England. By the treaty of Utrecht, Acadia belonged to England ; but what was Acodia ? According to the English commissioners, it comprised not only the peninsula called Nova Scotia, but all tho immense tract of land between the River St. Lawrence on the north, the Gulf of the same- name on the east, the Atlantic on the south, and New England on the west. The French commis- sioners, on their part, maintained that the name Acadia belonged of right only to about a twen- tieth part of this territory, and that it did not even cover the whole of the Acadian peninsula, but only its southern coast, with an adjoining- belt of barren wilderness. When the French owned Acadia, they gave it boundaries as com- prehensive as those claimed for it by the English commissionaries ; now that it belonged to a rival, they cut it down to a paring of its former self. . . . Four censuses of Acadia while it belonged to the French had recognized the mainland as included in it; and so do also the early French maps. Its prodigious shrinkage was simply the consequence of its possession by an alien. Other questions of limits, more important and equally perilous, called loudly for solution. What line should separate Canada and her western dependen- cies from the British colonies? Various prin- ciples of demarcation were suggested, of which the most prominent was a geographical one. All countries watered by streams falling into the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi were to belong to her. This would have planted her in the heart of New York and along the crests of the Alleghanies, giving her all the interior of the continent, and leaving nothing to England but a strip of sea-coast. Yet in view of what France had achieved; of the patient gallantry of her explorers, the zeal of her mis- sionaries, the adventurous hardihood of her bushrangers, revealing to civilized mankind the existence of this wilderness world, while her rivals plodded at their workshops, their farms, or their fisheries, — in view of all this, her pre- tensions were moderate and reasonable compared with those of England. The treaty of Utrecht had declared the Iroquois, or Five Nations, to be British subjects ; therefore it was insisted that all countries conquered by them belonged to the British Crown. But what was an Iroquois con- quest ? The Iroquois rarely occupied the coun- tries they overran. . . . But the range of their war-parties was prodigious ; and the English laid claim to every mountain, forest or prairie where 370 CANADA, 1750-1758. The last ttntggU begun. CANADA, 1755. an Iroquois lind taken a scalp. This would give them not only the country between the Alle- chanies and the Mississippi, but also that between Lake Huron and the Ottawa, tlius reducing Canada to the patch on the American map now represented by the province of Quebec, — or rat»)er by a port of it, since tlie extension of Acadia to the 8t. Lawrence would cut off the present coimties of Qaspe, Rimouski and Bonaventuro. Indeed, among the advocates of British claims there were those who denied that France had any rights wliatever on the south side of the St. Lawrence. Such being the attitude of the two contestants, it was plain them was no resort but the last argument of kings. Peace must be won with the swonl." — F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, eh. 5 (r. 1). Also in: T. C. Haliburton, Account of Nova Scotia, V. i,pp. 143-149. — See, also. Nova Scotia: A. D. 1749-1755.— Relative to the very dubious English claim based on treaties with the Iroquois, see New York: A. D. 1684, and 1726. A. D. 17SS (April).— Plans of the English against the French. — "While the negotiations [between England and France, at Paris] were pending, Braddock arrived in the Chesopeake. In March [nUb] i -, reached Williamsburgh, and visited Annapolis; on the 14th of April, he, with Commodore Keppel, held a congress at Alex- andria. There were present, of the American governors, Shirley, next to Braddock in military rank; Delancey, of New York; Morris, of Pennsylvania; Sharpe, of Maryland; and Din- widdle, of Virginia. . . . Between England and France peace existed under ratified treaties; it was proposed not to invade Canada, but to repel encroachments on the frontier. For this end, four expeditions were concerted by Braddock at Alexandria. Lawrence, the lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, was to reduce that province according to the English interpretation of its boundaries; Johnson [afterwards Sir William Johnson, of New York] from his long acquaint- ance with the Six Nations, was selected to enroll Mohawk warriors in British pay and lead them with provincial militia against Crown Point; Shirley proposed to drive the French from Niagara ; the commander-in-chief was to recover the Ohio valley."— G. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. 8. (Author's last revision), v. 2, pp. 416-419. A. D. 17SS (June).— French disaster at Sea. — Frustrated attempt against Nova Scotia. — The arrival of Dieskau at Quebec. — " In 1754, France fully awakened to the fact that England not only intended to maintain her position in the wilds of America, but likewise by sea. She equipped an armament under the command of admirals Macnamara and Bois de la Mothe, of 18 ships of the line and 9 frigates, having on board, ostensibly for Canada, eleven battjvlions of troops under General Dieskau, an ' elfive ' of Marshal Saxe. England, apprised of this force being sent, despatched Vice-Admiral Boscawen with 11 ships of the lino and one frigate to intercept it en route. Botli sailed about the same time, the 22d of April, 1755. The French ambassador at London being duly notified, replied: 'That his royal master would consider the first gun fired at sea in a hostile manner to be a declaration of war.' The esoteric instructions of the French ileet were to rendezvous at Chebuctou Harbour, destroy Halifax, and then proceed to Annapolis for the same purpose. While the instructions were of necessity secret, it was well known In Acadia that an att(>mpt would be made by Frtmce to recover possession of the province. It was this fleet, so eagerly expected by the Acadians, that gave rise to the insolent manner in which they addressed the Council at Halifax, and which led to an inunediate removal of their arms and 8ubse(iuent dispersal. Owing to mis- adventure, some of the French fleet imder Alacnamara had to put back to Brest; the re- mainder met the Englisli off the coast of New- foundland [June 8] in a dense; fog ; avoiding an engagement, several of them escaped by taking the northern route via Bcllcisle . . . siiccess- fully reaching thei. 'harbour of refuge,' Louis- bourg. The ' Lys ' and the ' Alcyde ' were suf- ficiently unfortunate to be compelled to face the guns of the English frigates ' Dunkirk ' and ' Defiance, 'and after five hours close engageme\it the ' Lvs ' struck its colors . . . followed by the 'Alcyde,' when Hocquart in command became Boscawen's prisoner by sea for the third time, together with £76,000 sterling in money, eight companies of soldiers and several officers and engineers. The unexpected rencontre with Bos- cawen's fleet, the loss of two of their vessels, and the knowledge that the garrison at Halifax was considerably reinforced by the forces brought out by Boscawen, caused the abandonment of all attempts to recover Acadia. Dieskau, after landing a few regiments at Louisbourg, pro- ceeded to Quebec."— G. E. Hart, The Fall of New France, pp. 51-54. Also in: J. Campbell, Natal Hist, of Qreat Britain, v. 5, ;>;'• 104-106. A. D. 17SS (July).— Defeat of Braddock's Expedition against Fort Duquesne. Sec Ohio (Valley): A. D. 1755. A. D. 1 755 (August— October) : The abortive expedition against Niagara. — According to the English plan of campaign, concerted with Braddock at Alexandria, Governor Shirley was to lead an army for the conquest of Niagara ; but his march westward ended at Oswego. "Colonel Philip Schuyler led the first regiment of the expedition. Boats were built at Oswego to convey 600 men by lake. Shirley followed by way of the Mohawk, and reached Oswego August 21. He was delayed from various causes, and in October a council of war decided that the attack on Niagara should be postponed for a year. Shirley was to have met Braddock in victory at Niagara. Both branches of the plan had been shattered. The great western scheme sank to a mere strengthening of the defences of Oswego. Colonel Mercer was left in command of a garrison of 700 men, with instruc- tions to build two new forts, and General Shirley took the remainder of his force back to Albany. The pitiful failure led to recriminations relative to the causes of the fatal delays." — E. H. Roberts, New York, v. 1, eh. 20. Also in: R. Hildreth, Hiet. of the V. S., eh. 26 (v. 2). A. D I7SS (September).— The Battle of Lake George and defeat of Dieskau.— ' Tlie expedition against Crown Point on Lake Cham- plain, had been intrusted to General William Johnson. His troops were drawn principally from Massachusetts and Connecticut; a regiment from New Hampshire joined them at Albany. At the head of boat navigation on the Hudson, a fort was built which, in honor of their com- 871 CANADA, 1755. KxiU of tht Acadiam. CANADA, 1766. mander, wliom they revercncod ft« ' ii lirnvo nn<l vlrtiious iniin,' tlio RolditTH nnmcd Fort Lymiiii. Hut when .lohiiHon aHHiinu^d thi- coiiinmiid liu iiUKciu'rously chnngcd tlio niiinp to Fort Kdwiird. Leaving; a garrison in this fort, Joliiison moved with about ."i.OOO nwi\ to the licad of Laku Qeorgo, and tliiTL' f(>riiic<l a camp, iiitending to dfHrcnd into Lalte (Jhamplain. Ilcndricli, the celebniti'd Mohuwii chief, with lux warriors, were nnionj; these troopH. Israel Putnam, too, was tliere, as u captain, and Jolin Htarli as a lieutenant, each taking; lessons in warfare. The French were not idle; the district of Montreal made the most strenuous exertions to meet the invading foe. All the men who were able to bear arms were called into active service ; so that, to gather in the harvest, their places were supplied by men from other districts. The energetic Baron Dies- kau resolved, by a bold attack, to terrify the invaders. Taking with Iiim 200 regulars, and 4ibout 1,200 Canadians and Indians, he set out to capture Fort Edward; but, as he drew near, the Indians heard that it was defended by cannon, which they greatly dreaded, and they refused to advance. lie now changed his plan, and resolved to attack Johnson's camp, which wassnpposcd to >)« without cannon. Meantime scout« had reported to Johnson that they liad seen roads made through the woods in the direction of Fort Edward. Not knowing the movements of Dies- kau, a detaclmient of 1,000 men, under Colonel Ephraim Williams, of Massachusetts, and 200 Mohawks, under Ilendrick, marched to relieve that post. The French had information of their appniach and placed themselves in ambush. They were concealed among the thick bushes of a swamp, on the one side, and rocks and trees on the other. The Englisli recklessly marched into the defile. They were vigorously attacked [Sept. 5] and thrown into confusion. Ilendrick was almost instantly killed, and in a short time Williams fell also. The detachment commenced to retreat, occasionally halting to check their pursuers. The firing was heard in the camp ; as the sound drew nearer and nearer, it was evident the detachment was retreating. The drums beat to arms, trees were hastily felled and thrown together to form a breastwork, upon which were placed a few cannon, just arrived from the Hudson. Scarcely were thesr, preparations made whta the panting fugitives appeared in sight, hotly pursued by the French and Indians. Intending to enter the camp with the fugitives, Dieskau urged forward his men with the greatest Impetuosity. The moment the fugitives were past the muzzles of the cannon they opened with a tremendous sliowcr of grape, which scattered the terrified Indians and checked tlie Canadians, but the regulars pushed on. A determined con- test ensued, which lasted Ave liours, until the regulars were nearly all slain, while tlie Indians and Canadians did but little execution; tliey remained at a respectful distance among the trees. At length the enemy began to retreat, and the Americans leaped over tlie breastworks and pursued (hem with great vigor. Thot same evening, after the pursuit haa ceased, as the French were retreating, they were suddenly attacked with great spirit by the New Hamp- shire regiment, which was on its way from Fort Edward. They were so panic stricken by this now assault tliat they abondoned everything and fled for their lives. Dieskau had been wounded once or twice at the commencement of the battle, but he never left his post. . . . He was taken pri.Honer, kindly treated, and sent to England, where lie died. Joliiis<m wos slightly wounded at the commencement of the battle, and prudently retired from danger. To General livman belongs the honor of the victory, yet ■lolinson, in his report of the battle, did not even mention his name. .Tohnson, for his exertions on that ilay, was made a baronet, and received from royal favor a gift of |2.">,000. He had friends at court, hut Lyman was unknown. Col. Ephraim Williams, who fell in this battle, while pas.sing through Albany, had taken the precaution to make his will, in which he iK'queathed property to found a frc^c school in western Massachusetts. That school has since grown into AVilliams Col- lege." — J. II. Patton, Concise Jlist. of t/w Am. People, r. 1, rh. 22. Also in: W. L. Stone, Life and Times of Sir W. Johnson, v. 1, ch. 10. — F. Parkman, Montcalm and y/olfe, v. 1, ch. 9. A. D.I7S5 (October — November). — Removal and dispersion in exile of the French Acadians. See Nova Scotia: A. D. IT.W. A. D. 1756. — Formal declarations of war — the " Seven Years War " of Europe, called the " French and Indian War " in British America. — Montcalm sent from France. — "Ou the 18th of May, 1750, England, after a year of o])en hos- tility, at length declared war. She had attacked Franco by land and sea, turned loose lier ships to prey on French commerce, and brought some 300 prizes into her ports. It was the act of a weak government, supplying by spasms of vio- lence what it lacked in considerate resolution. France, no match for her amphiliious enemy in the game of marine depredation, cried out in horror; and to emphasize her complaints and signalize a pretended good faith which her acts had belied, ostentatiously released a British frigate captured by her cruisers. She in her turn de- clared war on the 9th of June : and now began the most terrible conflict of the 18th century; one that convulsed Europe and shook Amenica, India, the coasts of Africa, and the islands of the sea [seeENOLAND: A. D. 1754-175.5, and after; also Germany: A. D. 1755-1756, and after]. . . . Henceforth France was to turn her strength against her European foes; and the American war, the occasion of the universal outbreak, was to hold in her eyes a second place. . . . Still, something must be done for the American war; at least there must be a new general to replace Dieskau. None of the court favorites wanted a command in the backwoods, and the minister of war was free to choose whom he would. His choice fell on Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont- crim-Qozon de Saint Veran. . . . The Chevalier de Levis, afterwards Marshal of Franco, was named as his second in command. . . . The troops destined for Canada were only two battal- ions, one belonging to the regiment of La Sarre, and the other to that of Uoyal Roussillon. Louis XV. and Pompadour sent 100,000 men to fight the battles of Austria, and could spare but 1,200 to reinforce New France." Montcalm, who reached Quebec in Slay, was placed in difficult relations witli the governor-general, Vaudreuil, by the fact that the latter held command of the colonial troops. The forces in New France, w(!ro of three kinds, — "the ' troupes do terre,' troops of the line, or regulars from France ; the ' troupes 372 CANADA, 1756. 7^ "FVench and Indian War." CANADA, 1786-1757. de la marine,' or colony regulars; and lastly the militia. The first consisted of the four battalions that had como over with Dieskau and the two that had come with Montcalm, comprising in all a little Ics.? than 3,000 men. Besides these, the battalions of Artois and Bourgogne, to the num- ber of 1, too men, were in garrison at Louisbourg. " This constituted Montcalm's command. The colony regul rs and the militia remained subject to the orders of the governor, who manifested an early jealousy of Montcalm. The former troops numbered less than 3,000 men. " All theelTectivo male population' of Canada, from 15 years to 60, was enrolled in the militia. ... In 1750 the militia of all ranks counted obout 13,000; and eight years later the number had increased to about 15,000. Until the last two years of the war, those employed in actual warfare were but few. ... To the white flglifing force of the colony are to be added the red men. . . . Tlie military situation was somewhat perplexing. Ire luois spies had brought reports of great pre- parations on the part of the English. As neither party dared offend these wavering tribes, their warriors could pass with impunity from one to the other, and were paid by each for bringing in- formation, not always trustworthy. They de- clared that the English were gathering in force to renew the attempt made by Jolmson the year before against Crown Point and Ticon- deroga, as well as that made by Shirley against Forts Prontenac and Niagara. Vaudreuil had spared no effort to meet the double danger. Lotbinifire, a Canadian engineer, hod been busied during tlie winter in fortifying Ticondcroga, while Pouchot, a captain in the battalion of Beam, had rebuilt Niagara, and two French engineers were at work in strengthening the defences of Prontenac. . . . Indians presently brought word that 10,000 English were coming to attack Ticonderoga. " Both Montcalm and Levis, with troops, "hastened to the supposed scene of danger . . . and reached Ticonderoga at the end of June. They found the fort . . . advanced towards completion. It stood on the crown of the promontory. . . . The rampart consisted of two parallel walls ten feet apart, built of the trunks of trees, and held together by transverse logs dovetailed at both ends, the space betv^een being filled with earth and gravel well packed. Such was the first Port Ticonderoga, or Carillon, — a structure quite distinct from the later fort of which the ruins still stand on the same spot. . . . Ticonderoga was now the most advonced position of the French, and Crown Point, which hod before held that perilous honor, was in the second line. . . . The danger from the English proved to be still remote. . . . Mean- while, at the head of Lake George, the raw bands of ever-active New Engloud, were mustering for the fray." — P. Porkmon, Montcalm and Wolfe, V. 1, ch. 11. Also in: W. Kingsford, Ilist. of Canada, bk. 11, ch. (v. 3). A. D. 1256-1757. — French successes. — Capture of Oswego and Fort William Henry. — Bloody Twork of the savage allies. — On the death of Braddock, Gov. Shirley became cora- monder-in-chief of the British forces in America, "a position for which he was not adopted by military knowledge. . . . His military schemes for the season of 1756 were grand in conception and theory, but disastrous failures in practice. Ten thousand men were to advance against Crown Point — 6,000 for service on Lake On- tiirio, 3,000 for an attark on Fort Duciuesne, and 2,000 to advance up the river Kennebec, destroy the settlement adjoining the Chaudiire and descending the mouth of that river within three miles of Quebec, keep all that part of Canada in alarm. While each of these armies was being put into motion, the season Inid be- come too fur advanced for action at any one point. Moreover, the British Government, dis- satisfied with a Provincial officer being at the head of its army in America, determined upou sending out General Lord Loudoun. Wlule Shirley was preparing, Montcalm advanced against the three forts at Oswego, the terror of the French in the Iroquois country and which it had been their desire to destroy for many years back ; they likewise commanded the entrance to Lake Ontario. The English liad a garrison of 1,800 men in these divided between Fort Ontario . . . Fort Oswego . . . and Fort George, or Rascal . . . about a mile distant from each other." Montcalm took oil three of the forts without much difficulty, and demolished them. " Shirley was much blamed for this defeat and the failure of his projects, and lost both his fovemment and command, being succeeded by ohn Campbell, fourth Earl of Loudoun, Baron Mauchlaw, one of the si.xteen peers of Scotland, witli General Abercromby as second in command — both notorious for previous incompetency. . . . They were sent out with considerable rein- forcements, and had transferred to them by Shirley 16,000 men in the field, of whom 6,000 were regulars; but, with that masterly inactivity and indecision for which Loudoun was most renowned, no further movement was made this year. The year 1757 was not distinguished by any military movements of much moment." An intended attack on Louisbourg was postponed because of news that a powerful F; 'ch tleet held possession of its harbor ond that the garrison was very strong. "Montcalm, finding himself free from attack, penetrated with his army of 7,006 men to Port William Henry, at the iiead of Lake George. Included wore 2,000 Indians. The fort was garrisoned by 2,264 regulars under Colonel Munroe of the 85th Regi- ment, and in the neighborhood there was an additional force of 4,600 men under General Webb. On tlie 3d of August the fort was in- vested and, after a summons to surrender was rejected, the attack was begun and continued with undiminished fervor until the 0th at noon, when a capitulation was signed. General Webb did not join Munroe, as he was instructed to do by Abercromby's plans, some cowardice being attributed to him by contemporary writers. An incident of the war which has given rise to a great deal of controversy and ill-feeling up to the present moment, was the so-called massacre at Fort William Henry, the outcome of the numerous horde of savages the French allies had in the engagement. ... On the morning following the ■ surrender, the garrison was to march out under a proper escort to protect them from injury at the hands of the Indians. The evacuation had barely commenced, when a repeti- tion of the looting of the day previous, which en- sued immediately after the capitulation had been signed, was attempted. An effort being made by the escort to stop it, some drunken Indians 373 CANADA, 176ft-1757. lAntialHiurff and Ticonderoga, CANADA. 1758. attnrkrd the ilrllh". which rosiiltcd In tlip miirdpr- Injt 1111(1 Hciilpinj; of koiiic (10 or 70 of the iirTfHiiirrM ; nmltrcntInK imd rohliiti^ n largv niini- xwT of others. I'poii a cnrcful invcslljfntlon of the rontempomry niiflioritics, no liliiiiiewlmtovcr cnn bo nttiichcd to tlie koo(1 fiiiiu' of the brave nnd hiimano Moritrnlm or Do LeviH. . . . Fort Georije, or Williiim llenrv, ns it wiis IndilTereiitly callecT, like Its rompeer l'N)rt Oswejro, was razed to the ground and tlu^ army retreated into tlieir winter quarters at Montreal. The termination of the year left the Freiieh masters of Lakes Clmmplaln and Georgo, together wIlIi the ehaiii of great lakes connecting the 8t. Lawrence witli the MisBlssippi ; also the undisturbed possession of all the country in dispute west of the Alle- ghany Mountains."— O. H Hart, T/ie Fall of Neie France, pp. 70-70. Also in: E. Warlmrton, Conquest of Canada, V. 2, <•/(. 2-3. A. D. 1758. — The loss of Louisbourg; and Fort Du Quesne.— Bloody defeat of the Eng- lish at Ticonderoga. — "The affairs of Great ISritain in North America wore a more gloomy aspect, at the close of the camjiaign of 1757, than at any former period. By tlio acquisition of fort William Henry, the French had obtained complete possession of the lakes Champlain, and George. By the destruction of Oswego, thev had acquired the dominion of those lakes which connect tlie St. Lawrence with the waters of the Mississippi, and unite Canada to Louisiana. By means of fort Du Quflsne, they maintained their ascendency over the Indians, and held undis- turbed possession of the country west of tlie Allegheny mountains; while the Lnglish settlers were driven to the blue ridge. The great object of the war in that quarter was gained, and France held the country for which hostilities had been commenced. . . . But this inglorious scene was about to be succeeded by one of unrivalled brilliancy. . . . The brightest era of British his- tory was to commence. . . . The public voice had, at length, made its way to the throne, and had forced, on the unwilling monarch, a minister who has been justly deemed one of the greatest men of the age in which ho lived. ... In the summer of 1757, an administration was formed, which conciliated tlio great contending interests in parliament; and Mr. Pitt was placed at its head. . . . Possessing the public confidence without limitation, he commanded all tlie re- sources of the nation, and drew liberally from the public purse. . . . In no part of his majesty's dominions was the new administration more popular than in his American colonies. . . . The circular letter of Mr. Pitt assured the several governors that, to repair tlie losses and disap- pointments of the last inactive campaign, the cabinet was determined to send a formidable force, to operate by sea and land, against the French in America; and he called upon them to raise as large bodies of men, within their re- spective governments, as the number of inliabit- ants nii-'ht a'low. . . . The legislature of Mas- sachu.si its agi cd to furnish 7,000 men; Connec- ticut 5,000; and New Hampshire 3,000. . . . Three expeditions were proposed. The first wis against Louisbourg; the second against Ticon- deroga and Crown Point ; and the third against fort Du QuCsne. The army destined against Louisbourg, consisting of 14,000 men, was com- manded by major general Amherst. [The expe- dition was suoccssfiil and Tjouisbourg fell, July 2(1, 1758.— See Cave Bukto.v Iki.a.M): A. I). 1758-1700.1 . . . The expedition against Ticon- deroga and Crown Point was conducted by gen- eral Aberrrombie in person. His army, consist- ing of near 10,(X)0 ciTectives, of wliom 9,000 were provincials, was attended by a fonnldable train of artillery, and possessed every retiuisite to ensure success. On the 5th of July he embarked on lake George, and reached the land- ing place early the next morning. A discmbarli- ation being ciTected without opposition, the troops wen; immediately formed In four columns, the Britisli in the centre, and the provincials on tlie Hanks; In wliicli order tliey marched towards the advanced guard of the French, composed of one battalion posted in a log camp, which, on the approach of the Knglisli, made a precipitate retreat. Abercrombie continued his march to- wards Ticonderoga, with the intention of invest- ing that place ; but, tlie womls being thick, and the guides unskilful, his columns were thrown into confusion, and. In some measure, entangled with each otlier. In this situation lord Howe, at the head of the right centre column, fell in with a part of the advanced guard of the French ; which, in retreating from lake George, was like- wise lost in the wood, lie immediately attacked and dispersed them ; killing several, and taking 148 prisoners, among wliom were five ofilcers. This small advantage was purchased at a dear rate. Though only two officers, on the side of the British, were killed, one of these was lord Howe himself, who fell on the first fire. This gallant young nobleman had endeared himself to the whole army. . . . Without farther oppo- sition, the Englisli army took possession of the post at the Saw Mills, within two miles of Ticonderoga. This fortress Tcalled Carillon by the French], wliicli commands the communica- tion between the two lakes, is encompassed on three sides by water, and secured in front by a morass. The ordinary garrison amounting to 4,000 men, was stationed under the cannon of the place, and covered by a breast-work, the ap- proach to which had been rendered extremely difficult by trees felled in front, with their branches outward, many of which were sharp- ened so as to answer the purpose of chevaux-de- f rize. This body of troops was rendered still more formidable by its general than by its position. It was commanded by the marquis de Montcalm. Having learned from his prisoners the strength of the army under the walls of Ticonderoga, and that a reinforcement of 3,000 men was daily expected, general Abercrombie thought it ad- visablo to storm the place before tl.is reinforce- ment should arrive. ,Tlie troops matched to the assault with great intrepidity ; but tiieir utmost efforts could make no impression on the works. . . . After a contest of near four hours, and several repeated attacks, general Abercrombie ordered a retreat. The army retired to ihe camp from which it had marched m the morniiig ; ancl, the next day, resumed its former position on the south side of lake George. In this rash attempt, the killed and wounded of the English amounted to near 2,000 men, of whom not quite 400 were provincials. The French were covered during the whole action, and their loss was incon- siderable. Entirely disconcerted by this unex- pected and bloody repulse, general Abercrombie relinquished bis designs against Ticonderoga 374 CANADA, 1758. Kngliah Conituest of i^ebev. CANADA, 1759. and Crown Point. ScarehinK howovcr for tlio mcnns of rcpniring tlio misfortune, I not the (llHirrncu, BUHtuincii ))y IiIh iirniH, he rciidilv ix'- ccdcd to a proposition nmde by colonel Briid- street, for in expedition iijjuin.st 'nrt Frontljjnae. This fortn stands on tlie north si<Ie of On- tario. . . . Colonel Briidstreet embarked on the Ontario at O.swcro, and on the 25th of August, landed within one mile of the fort. In two (lays, his batteries were opened at so short a distance that almost every shell toolt elTeet; and the j{ov- ernor, finding; the j)lace absolutely untenal)le, sumindered at discretion. . . . After destroying the fort and vessels, and such stores as could not be brought olT, colonel IJradstreet returned to tlic army wliich undertook nothing fartlierduring the can paign. The demolition of fort Frontig- nac and of tlie stores which had been collected there, contributed materially to the success of tlie expedition against fort Du (JuCsne. The conduct of this enterprise had been entrusted to general Forbes, who marched from Philadelphia, about the beginning of July, at the head of the main body of the army, destined for this service, in order to join colonel Bouquet at Raystown. So much time waF cmployecl in preparing to move from this place, that the Virginia regulars, commanded by colonel Washington, were not ordered to Join the British troops until the month of September. . . . Early in October general Forbes moved from liaystown ; but the obstruc- tions to his march were so great that be did not reach fort Du C^uGsne until late In November. The garrison, being deserted by the Indians, and too weak to maintain the place against the formid- able array which was approaching, abandoned the fort the evening before the arrival of the British, and escaped down the Oliio in boats. The English placed a garrison in it, and changed its name to Pittsburg, in compliment to their popular minister. The acquisition of this post was of great importance to Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia." — J. Marshall, Life of Wathinglon, V. 1, ch. 13. Also in : W. C. Bryant and 8. H. Gay, Pop. Hist, of tlie U. S., V. 8, eh. 11.— B. Fernow, Tim Ohio Valley in Colonial Dat/t, ch. 7. — Major U. Rogers, Journals, erf. by Ilongh, pp. 115-123. — W. Irving, Life of Washington, v. 1, ch. 24. — N. B. Craig, The Olden Time, v. 1, pp 177-200. A. D. 1759 (June— September).— The Fall of Quebec. — "Wolfe's name stood high in the esteem of all who were qualified to judge, but, at the same time, it stood low in the column of colonels in the Army List. The great minister [Pitt] thought that the former counterbalanced the latter. . . . One of the last gazettes in the year 1758 announced the promotion of Colonel James Wolfe to the rank of major-general, and his appointment to the chief command of the expedition against Quebec. About the middle of FebruaVy, 1759, the squadron sailed from England to Louisbourg, where the whole of the British force destined for the River St. Lawrence was ordered to assemble. . . . Twenty -two ships of the line, five frigates, and nineteen smaller vessels of war, with a crowd of transports, were mustered under the orders of the admiral [Saun- ders] , and a detachment of artillery and engineers, and ten battalions of infantry, with six companies of Rangers, formed Wolfe's command ; the right flank companies of the three regiments which still garrisoned Louisbourg soon after joined the army, and were fonne<l Into a corps called tho Louisbourg Orcnadiers. The total of tho land forces embarked were somewhat under H,000. " — E. Warburtoii, Coin/uest of ('diKiiIti, r. 8, eh. 0. — "Wolfe, with his 8,(MH) iiuii, ascended the Ht Lawri'TK'o in the licet in the month of June. With him came Brigadiers .Monckton, Towns- hend and Murray, youthful and bmve like liimself, and, like himself, already 8ch(H)lcd to arms. . . . The Grenadiers of tho army were commanded by Colonel Guy Carieton, and part of the light infantry by Lieuteuant-Colonol Wil- liam Howe, both destined to celebrity in after years, in llie annals of the American revolution. Colonel Howe was brother of the gallant Lord Howe, whose fall in tho preceding year was so generally lamented. Among the ofllcers of tho licet was Jervi.s, the future admiral, and ulti- mately Earl St. Vincent ; and the master of ono of the ships was James Cook, afterwards re- nowned as a discoverer. About the end of June, the tr(M)ps debarked on the large, populous, aiul well-cultivated Isle of Orleans, a little below Quebec, and encamped in its fc'rtile fields. Quebec, tho citadel of Canada, was strong by nature. It was built round tlio point of a rocky promontory, and flanked by precipices. . . . Tho place was tolerably fortified, but art had not yet rendered it, as at the present day, iniitrcgiiable. Montcalm commanded tho post. His troops were more numerous than the assailants; but the greater part of them were Canadians, n;any of them inliabitants of Quebec; and he had a host of savages. His forces were <lrawn out along the northern shore below the city, from the River St. Charles to the Falls of >Iontmorency , and their position was secured by deep intrench- ments. . . . After much resistance, Wolfe estiib- lished batteries at the west point of tho Isle of Orleans, .and at Point Levi, on the right (or south) bank of the St. Lawrence, within cannon range of the city. . . . Many houses wire set on fire in the upper town, the lower toTn was reduced to rubbish; the main fort, however, remained unharmed. Anxious for a decisive action, Wolfe, on the 9th of July, crossed over in boats from the Isle of Orleans to the north bank of the St. Lawrence, and encamped below the Montmorency. It was an ill-judged position. ... On the 18th of July, Wolfe made a recon- noitcring expedition up the river, with two armed sloops, and two transports with troops. He passed Quebec unliarmed and carefully noted the shores abov<' it. Rugged cliffs rose almost fn,n the water's edge. . . . He returned to Montmorency disappointed, and resolved to attack Montcalm in his camp, however difticult to be approached, iii'd however strongly posted. Townshend and Murray, with their brigades, were to cross the Montmorency at low tide, below the falls, and storm the redoubt thrown up in front of the ford. Monckton, at tho same time, was to cross, with part of his brigade in boats from Point Levi. ... As usual in complicoted orders, port were misunderstood, or neglected, and confusion was the consequence." The assault was repelled and Wolfe fell back across the river, having lost four hundred men, with two vessels, which ran aground and were burned. He felt the failure deeply, and his chagrin was increased by news of the successes of his coadju- tors at Ticonderoga and Niagara. "The dilB- culties multiplying around him, and the delay of 375 CANADA, 176». Pmth nf ANADA. 1789. Ofliiprnl Amhorst In hiuitnninf; to lii« aid, prpyod !nri'S8iintly »» liU HpiritH. . . . TIh- itgltation of his initxl, and IiIh itciitc RcnHlbillty, linxi^ht on a fc'vcr, wlilcli for Home thntt incitimcitatod lilm from laklnK tin- Held. In tlic midst of IdxillnnKH ho t'ttllcd u conncil of war, in whicli thi' wliole plan of (>[H'mtionH was altered. It was deter- mI'iCKl to convey tr(M>ps above the town, and endeavor to make ii tliversion in that direetion, or draw Montcalm into the open Held. . . . The brief (Canadian Kumnier was over; they were in the month of M.'ptemlM'r. Tlie canii) at Mont- morency was broken up. The troops were transported to Point Levi, leaving a sufllcient number to man the batteries on the Isle of Orleans. On the ,'ith and fith of September the embarkation t(H)k place above Point Levi, in transports which had been sent for the |)nr- pose. Montcalm detache<l I)c Bongainville with 1,500 men to keep alon^ the north shoro •ibove the town, watch the movements of the scjuadron, and prevent a landing. To deceive him. Admiral Holmes moved with the ships of war three leagues beyond the place where the landing was to bo Bttcmpt<'d. lie was to drop down, how- ever, In the night, and protect the landing. . . . The descent was made In tiat-bottomed boats, past midnight, on the 13th of September. They dropped down silently, with tho swift current. ' Qui va la 'I ' (wh(, goes there ?) cried a sentinel from the shore. 'La France,' replied a captain in tlio first boat, wlio understood tho French language. ' A quel regiment ? ' was the demand. ' De la Itelne ' (tho queen's) replied the captain, Itnowlng that regiment was in Do Ilougainville's detachment. Fortunately, a convoy of provisions was expected down from De Bougainville's, wliich the sentinel supposed this to be. ' Passe,' cried he, and the boats glided on without further challenge. The landing took place in a cove near Cape Diamond, which still bears Wolfe's name, tie had marked it in rcconnoiterlng, and saw tliat a crngged path straggled up from it to the Heights of Abraham, which might be climbed, though with difflculty, and that it appeared to be slightly guarded at top. Wolfe was among tlie first that landed and ascended up the steep and narrow path, where not more than two could go abreast, and which liad been broken up by cross ditches. Colonel Howe, at the same time, with the light infantry and High- landers, scrambled up the woody precipices, helping themselves by the roots and branches, and putting to flight a sergeant's guard posted at the summit. Wolfe drew up the men in order as thcv mounted ; and by the break of day found liimself in possession of the fateful Plains of Abraham. Montcalm was thunderstruck when word was brought to him in his camp that the English were on the heights threatening the weakest part of the town. Abandoning his intrenchments, he hastened across the river St. Charles and ascended the heights, which slope up gradually from its banks. His force wos equal in number to that of the English, but a great part was made up of colony troops and savages. When he saw the formidable host of regulars he had to contend with, he sent off swift messengers to summon De Bougainville with his detachment to ills aid ; and De Vaudreil to reinforce him with 1,500 men from the camp. In the meantime he prepared to flank the left of the English line and force them to the opposite precipices. " In the memorable battle which ensued, Wolfe, who led the KnglUh line, received, first, a musket ball in hi.H wrist, and sixm afterward wa.s struck by a second In the breiust. He was borne mortally wounded to the rear, and lived just long enough to hi'ar a cry from those around him that the enemy ran. Giving a (juiek order for Webb's regiment to be hurried down to tho Charles Kiver bridge and then? obstruct the Fn-nch retreat, he turned upon his side, saving, "Now, (l(xl be praised, I will die In peace,'' and expired. In the meantime the French commander, Jlont- calm, had received his death-wound, while striving to rally his flying troops. Tho victory of the Knglish was complete, and they hastened to fortify their position on tho Plains of Abraham, preparing to attack the citadel. But, Montcalm dying of his wound the following morning, no further defence of the place was undertaken. It was surrendered on the 17th of September to Gen- eral Townshend, who had succeeded to the com- mand. — W. Irving, Lifcof Wnthiiii/ton, v. 1, eh. 25. Also in: P. Parknian, ^f()lltralrn and Wolfe, eh. 27-28 (v. 2). — H. Wright, Lifi of Wolfe, eh. 21-33.— Lord .Mahon (Karl Stitnho}y;), Im. of Knfi., 17i:i-1783, eh. 35 {v. 4).— W Smith, Hut. of C'atuula, v. 1, eh. 6. — .7. Knox, IfinforiealJonr- nnl, V. 1, jtp. 2.M-360; r. 3, pp. \-\:\'Z. A. D. 1759 (July— August).— The fall of Niagara, Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — " For tho campaign of 1751) the British Parlia- ment voted liberal supplies of men and money, and tho American colonics, encouraged by the successes of the preceding year, raised large num- bers of troops. Amherst superseded Abercrombie as commander-in-chief. 'The plan for the year embraced three expeditions: Fort Niagara was to bo attacked by Prideaux, assisted by Sir William Johnson ; Amherst was to march his force against Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and Quebec was to be assailed by an army under Wolfe and a fleet under Saunders. Prideaux and Amherst, after tho capture of the forts, were to descend the St. Lawrence, take Montreal, and join the army before Quebec. . . . Vaudreuil, the Governor, having received warning from France of the intentions of the English, sent a small force to Niagara under the engineer Pouchot. not expecting to be able to hold the post, and not wishing to sacrifice many men, or to spare the troops from the more important points. Pouchot repaired the defences, and when the alarm was given that the English were near, sent for men from Presqu' Isle, Venango, and Detroit. Prideaux, in command of two British regiments, a battalion of Royal Americans, two battalions from New York, and a train of artillery, was joined by Johnson with a detiichment of Indians. They began their march from Schenectady on the 30th of May, and, after a difficult journey, reached Oswego, wliere a detachment under Colonel Haldimand was left to take possession and form a post, and the remainder of the forces embarked on Lake Ontario, and on the 1st of July landed without opposition about six miles east of the mouth of the Niagara. . . . Prideaux began his trenches on the 10th, and on the 11th a sally was made from the fort ; but the English placed themselves in line of battle, and the French were obliged to retire. Prideaux was steadily advancing tho work . . . when, on the 19th, he was killed by the bursting of a shell from a Coehorn mortar in one of the trenches, where he had gone to issue 376 CANADA, 1750. TV fymrh Sumnttrr, CANADA. 1760. orders. Amlier«t iinpolnU'il Ocnonil Qftjfo to micrfcd liiiii. but iK'Tori! tlii^ iirrlvitl of ih\)fv llic cumiimjiikI ili'volvi'd ii|)(iii Ot'ticnil Joliiimiii, who curried on tlii' Hlcffc- lU'cordliig to llu? pliiiis of I'ridnuix." On tlii> 34tli ii coiisldcriililu force of Frciich itiid Iiidliiiix, ul)out 1,(1(10 Hlroii)(, Kent to the rclli'f of tlie bcleiif^uercd fort, wjis Inter- cepted and routed, most of the French oIllcerH nnd men beinn nliilnor captured. TlilHt(H)k from Pouebol his iiiHt hope, iind ho surn'ndered th<! followlnif (hiy. " Ah the stivlions lK>yond Nhiifiim were now completely cut olT from communieik- tion with the en.st, iind had i:f\\fi\ up ii lur^e piirt of their men to join D'Aubry |in the iittx-mpt to reli(^ve Niujfiim], they were no lonfjer ciipiible of resistllnc(^ I're«(|u'^.sle, Vetmngo, iind Le U(eut were easily tnlceli l)y Oolouel liouquet, who had l)een sent {() sinninon them to surrender." The detiichmeiit left at Oswejfo. in charge of Btores, was atti.cked by a Ixxly of French and Indians from r,a Presentation (Ugdeusburi^). but the at- t4ick failed. " For tho reduction of the fort» at TieoncU'rogii and Crown I'oint, Amherst had somewhat more than ll.UOO men. He be^an prepariitions early In May at Albany, preparing boats, ^fathering stores, and disciplining the now recruits." In Juno he reached LakeOeor^o with his army, but It was not until late in .July that "the army moved down the lake in four columns. In a lleet of whale-boats, bateau.x, and artillery rafts, very much as Abercromby's men had gone to their defeat tho year before, and Icf- ihe boats nearly opposite tho former landing-place. The vanguard, pushing on rapi(dy over the road to the falls, met a detachment of French and In- dians, whom they overpowered and scattered after a slight skirmish, and tlio main body pressed on and took a position at tho saw mills. From prisoners it was learned that Bourlamnquo commanded at Ticonderoga with 3,4()0 men. Montcalm was at Quebec' The French with- drew from their outer lines into tho fort, ond made a show of resistance; for several doys while they evacuated tho place. An explosion, during the night of tho a.'ith of July, "and the light of tho burning works, ossunul tho English of the retreat of the Frcpch, of which they had already heord from a deserter, and Colonel Ilaviland pur- sued them down tho lake with a few troops, and took sixteen prisoners anil some boats laden with powder. . . . After tho flames were extinguished, Amherst, who had lost about 75 men, wont to work to repair tho fortifications and complete tho road from tho lake. Some sunken French boats were raised, and a brig was built. Amherst was slowly preparing to attack Crown Point, and sent Rogers with his rangers to reconnoitre. But on the first of August they learned that tho French htul abandoned that fo^'t also ; and on tho 10th that Bourlamaquc's men were encamped on the Isle aux Noix, at tho northern extremity of Lake Champlain, commandii'g the entrance to the Richelieu. They had- been joineil by some small detachments, and numbered about 3,500 men. Amherst spent his time in fortifying Crown Point, and building boats and riifta," until "it was too late to descend to Montreal and go to tho help of Wolfe; the time for that had been passed in elaborate and useless preparations." — R. John- son, Iliiit. of the French War, ch. 18. Also IN: E. Warburton, Conquest of Canada, v. 3, ch. 0.— W. L. Stone, Life and Timet of Sir W. Johnson, v. 2, eh. 4. 30 A. D. 1760.— The completion of the Ensllih conquest. —The end of " New France."— " Not- witliMtundiriif till' HuecesMcs of IT.-iK, Canada wa« not yet coMipletely coticpiered. If .Vndierst had moved on faster and taken .Montreal, the work would have been llnished; but his failure to do HO gave th(! Fn-nch forces an opportunity to rally, and the indefatigabh! De Levis, who had Hucceerled .Montt'alm, gjithered what remained of tho army at .Montreal, and nunli! preparation:! for attemptitig the recovery of (^uebi'c. . . . After several fnutless utiaeks hiiil been made on the British outposts during the winter. De l,evi» refitted all the vessels y<'t ri'maining early in tho spring and gathered the stores still left at tho forts on th(^ l{lch<'lieu. On the 17th of .Vpril. hn left .Montreal with all his force and deseended the river, gathering up llw, iletaehed troops on the way; the whole amountini; to more than 10,000 men. Quebec had In'en left in charge of Murray, with 7,(MM) men, a supply of heavy ar- tillery, and stores of anununilioii a id provisions; out the lUimber of men had been much reduce(l by sickness and by hanlship encountered in bringing fuel 'o the citv from forest), some as far as ten niilof away. Their position, however, had been very much strengthened. . . . De Levis encamped at St. Foy, and on the '27tli advanced to within three miles of the citv." — 11. Johnson, Jfigt. of thi: French Wir, ch. 2t"— "On the 28tU of April, Murray, marching out from tho city, luft tho advantageous ground which he first o(!CU])ied, and hazarded an attack near Sillery Wood; The advance-guard, under Bourlamaque, returned it with ar(h)r. In danger of being sur- nnindcd, Murray was obliged to fiy, leaving 'his very fine trainof artillery,' and losuig 1,000 men. Tho French appear to have lost about HOO, though Murray's report increased it more tlian eightfold. During the next two days, L(!vl [Levis] opened trenches against the town; but the frost delayed the works. The English gar- risoii, reduced to 2,200 elToctive men, labored with alacrity; women, and even cripples were set to light work. In tho French army, not a word would be listened to of the possibility of failure. But Pitt liad foreseen and proparea for all. A fleet at his bidding went to relievo tho city ; and to his wife he was able to write in Juno: 'Join, my love, with mo, in most humble and grateful thanks to the Almighty. Swanton arrived at Quebec in the Vanguard on the 15ili of May, and destroyed all the French shipping, six or seven in number. Tho siege was raised on the 17th, with every happy circumstance. The enemy left their camp stanaing; abandoned 40 pieces of cannon. Happy, happy day I My joy and hurry are inexpressible.' When tho spring opened, Amherst had no difficulties to encounter in taking possession of Canada but such as he himself should create. A country suffering from a four years' scarcity, :i dis- heartened peasantry, flve or six battalions, w^isted by Incredible services and not recruited from France, offered no opposition. Amherst led tho main army of 10,000 men by way of Oswego; though the labor of getting there was greater than that of proceeding directly upon Jlontrcal. He descended tho St. Lawrence cautiously, tak- ing possession of the feeble wo'-ks at Ogdeng- burg. Treat 'ig the helpless Canadians with humanity, ami with no loss of lives except in passing the nipids, on the 7th of September, 1760, 377 CANADA, 1780. TV ^^ CANADA, 1T8JHTT4. \w mot bpfon- Mmitrritl ilio nrmy of Murniy. Thi^ next ility Iliiviliincl iirrivcd witli forcrH fmrii Crown I'oint; iiikI, in tin- view of the tlircc urnilt'H, III)' tliiK (if HI. OcorKi* wjih niiiM'il in triiinipli over tlu- gnXv of Moiitri'iil. . . . Tlie <.'a|iitiiliition [HiKiicij liy liir MiiniiilHilcViiiulrt'uii, jfovirnor. uKiiinul tlic pnilcHl of [,i'vis| Inclucti'il »li Citniiiiii, wlilcli wiiH Hiilil til cxti'iiil III till' rrrst of liinil liiviiiini; liniiiclirH of \.ttkvn Krii' iiiiil Mirliik'iiii from tliiwi' of tlii' Miiinii, llir W'iiIiiihIi, nnil till' liliiioiH riviTH. I'rojiiTty anil rriiKin" wcri' ciirril fur in liii' trriuH of Murri'nilcr; Imt for civil lilHTty no Htl|iuliillon wiih tlioiiKlit of. . . . On till' tlftli <lnv iiftt'r tlii^ capituliitlon, lioKcrH (Icparti'il with 2(H) niiiKcrH to carry Kn({lisli lian- nvrx to till' iippiT postH. . . . '1*111' InilliinH on till) liiki'H wi'ir at iii'iici', iiniti'il unilcr I'ontiac, tlio xn-at chief ot tint OttawiiN, liappy in a country fruitful of corn anil alioiuiilinK in Kainc. Tilt! Aincrli'an.H were met at the mouth of a river by a deputation of Ottawat*. ' Pontlae,' Haiti tliey, ' IH the chief and lord of the country you are in; wait till he can see you.' When" Pontine and IlogerH met, the savnn*-' chieftain asked: 'How have you dared to enter mv country without my leave?' 'I come,' replieil the English agent, ' with no design against the Indians, but to re- movo the Frtmch.' " Pontlae, after some delay, smoked the calumet with Itugcrs and consented to his mission. The latter then priK'eeded to take iwssesslon of Detroit. In the following spring he went on to the French posts in the northwest.— a. Bancroft, IlUt. of the If. S. {Autlu)r'» liut retinion), V, 3, pp. .523-534. Also in: W. Smltli, JIUt. of Caiuuhi, r>. 1, ch. 7 (giving the Articles of Capitulation In full).— F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, ch. 20-80 (r. 2). A. D. 1763.— Ceded to England by the Treaty of Paris. Sec Seven Years Wau. A. D. 1763-1774.— The Province of Quebec created. — Eleven years of military rule. — The Quebec Act of 1774. — Extension of Quebec Province to the Ohio and the Mississippi. — " For three years after the conquest, the govern- ment of Canada wasentrusted to military chiefs, stationed at Quebec, Montreal and Three Itlvcrs, the headquarters of the three departments Into which General Amherst divided the country. Military councils were established to administer law, though, as a rule, the people did not resort to such tribunals, but settled their difflcultics Jimong themselves. In 1703, the king, Qcorgc III. , Issued a priKlamation establishing four now governments, of which Quebec was one. Lab- rador, from St. John's River to Hudson's Bay, Anticostl, and the Magdalen Islands, were placed under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland, and the islands of St. John (or Prince Edward Island, as Jt was afterwards called), and Cape Breton (He Royale) with the smaller islands adjacent thereto, were added to tlie government of Nova Scotia. Express power was given to the governors, in the letters-patent by ■ dilch these governments were constituted, to summon general assemblies, with the advice and consent of His Majesty's Council, ' in such manner and form as was usual in those colonies and provinces which were under the King's immediate government.'. . . No os- genililv, however, ever met, as the Frencli-Cana- diaii population were unwilling to take the test oath, and the government of the province was carried on solely by the governor general, with the assistance of an executive coimcil, composed in the first instance of the two lioutcnant-gov- I'ruom of Montreal and Three Itlvi-rs, the ddef Justice, the surveyor general of customs, and eight othorH chosen fniin the leading residents In the colony. From lifllt to 1771 the province ro- mained in a very unsetlied state, rhictly on ac- count of the uncertainty that previdled as to the laws artiially in force. . . . The province nf (^ucIh'c ri'iuaini'd for eleven years under the system of government estjihlished liv the pro- clamatliinof 170:i. In 1771, Parliament Intervened for i\w first time in Canadian alTuirs ami niiiile Important ciinHtitutional changes. The previous constitutliin had been created by letters patent under tlie great seal of Oreat Britain, in the ex- ercise of an unquestionable and undisputed pre- rogative of the ('rown. The ciiliiniai inslitutliins of the old iKissessions of Great Britain, now known as the United States of .<Vmerl('a, had their origin In the same way. But in 1774, a system of government was granted to Cainida by tho express authority of Parliament. This constitu- tion was known its tlic Queliec Act, and greatly extended the boundaries "f tho province of Quebec, as detlned in the proclamation of 17flti. On one side, the province expended to the fron- tiers of New England, Pennsylvania, Now York province, the Oulo, and tho left bank of the Mississippi; on the other, to tho Hudson's Bay Territory. Labrador, and the Islands annexed to Newfoundland by the proclamation of 1763, wero made part of the province of Quebec. . . . Tho Act of 1774 was exceedingly unpopular in Eng- land and In tho English-speaking colonies, then at tho commencement of the Involution. Par- liament, however, appears to have been influenced by a desiro to adjust the government of tho province so as to conclliaio tho majority of tho people. . . . The new constitution came into force in October, 1774. The Act sets forth among the reasons for legislation that tho provisions made by the proclamation of 1763 were ' Inap- plicable to the state and circumstances of tho said province, tho inhabitants whereof amounted at the conquest, to above 65,000 persons pro- fessing the religion of the Church of Rome, and cnjoyii.g an established form of cou.<-titutlon and system of laws, by which their persons and prop- erty had i)cen protected, governed, and ordered for a long scries of years, from tho first establish- ment of the province.' Consequently, it is pro- vided that Itoman Catholics should bo no longer obliged to take the test oath, but only the oath of allegiance. Tlio government of the province was entrusted to a governor and a leglslativ„ council, appointed by the Crown, inasmuch as it was 'inoxpodlcnt to call an assembly.' This coimcll was to comprise not more than twenty- three, and not less Uian seventeen members, and had the jiower, with the consent of the governor or commander-in-chief for the time being, to make ordinances for the peace, welfare, and good government of the province. They had no au- thority, liowevcr, to lay on any taxes or duties except such as the inhabitants of any town or district might be authorized to assess or levy within its precincts for roods and ordinary local services. No ordinance could bo passed, except by a majority of the council, and every one had to be transmitted within six months after its enact- ment to His Majesty for approval or disallow- ance. It was also enacted that In all matters of controversy, relative to property and civil rights, 378 CANADA, 17ea-t774. Inviulon. CANADA, m*-1778. n-couriM! dhoiild Iw Imil tn the Fn-ncli civil pro- <'i'iliiri', wliilNttlKMTiiiiltml likw of KtiKJiinil Nhniiltl obtain til llit> cxi'IuhIiiii of cviTV iitlirr criiiiiiial cihIc wliicli iiii^lit liiiv*^ iirt'viilli'il iM'fiirc 17li(. . . . Uoiiiiiri CiilliiilirH wrr« iiiTiiiitli'il to oliwrv" tliclr religion with pcrfccl frriMJiitn, iiiiil tlicir I'lrr^y wi'rr to enjoy their ' lU'eUNtoineil due-t tin<l rlxlilH' witli respect to Kuch per^ions at profeSMeil tliitt creeil. ('onNei|Uently, the Itoinan Catliollc poiiulation of (^anaila were relieved of their dix- aliilitleH many years before peimji' of the Hanie belief III Orea't llrltain and Ireland received Niiniljir prlvile>;eH. TIk' new coiiMlitiilion wns inaiinnruted by .Major Oeneral Carletoii, after- wards liord Dorehi'stcr, who iioniiiiated a le);i>;- lalivi^ coiiiici! of twenty tiiree iiieinbers, of wliom ei){lit wen? Itoiiian Catholii'S. " — .1. (i. liourinot MitiiHitl iif ('iinnt. Hint, iif ('iti)iiilii, eh. 2-H. Ai.hoin: W. Houston, lhinniu'iit» llUmtriilire of t/ii" f.'iiimdiiin I'liiiMitutiiiii, jip. IMI-IMI. — See, also, IInitkdHtatksok Am. : A. I). l77l(M.\iU'ii — Afim.). A. D. 1775-1776.— Invaiian by the revolting American colonists. — Loss and recovery of Montreal. — Successful defence of Quebec— At the befjiniiiiif; of the revolt of \\w thirteen colonies which siib^"(iiieiitly forini'd, by tlu'ir Hepiiration from (Ireut Hritain, the Unlteil States of Amorlctt, it was believed aiiioiiK them that Canada would join their inovciiiciit if the liritish troops which occupied tlu? country were driven out. Acting on this belief, the ('ontinental Con- gress at I'hilailel|>liia, in .liine. 177."), ailoptcd a resolution instnictiiii; (J<'iieral Schuyler to repair without delay to TiconderoKa (which had been surprised and taki'ii a few weeks bi^foreby Ktlian Allen and his " Green .Mountain Hoys"), and " if he found it practicable, anil it would not be dis- at^recable to the Cauadiaiis, imiuediately to lake possession of St. .John's and Montreal, aiid pursue any othe? luensures in Canada which iniitht have a tendepcy to promote tlie peace and security of these colonic.-*." Oeneral Schuyler found it dilllcult to gather tr(«)ps and supplies for the ])rojected expedition, and it was the middle of Aiiiiust before he was prepared to move. His chief subordinate ofllcer was Oen. Uichard Mont- gomery, an Irishman, formerly in the Hritisli service, but settled latterly in New York; iind lu- was to be suiipor'.ed by a cooperative move- ment planned and led by IJeiiedict Arnold. "Oeneral Montgomery, with 3,0()0 men, would go ilowu Lake Chaniplain and attack Montreal; while Oeneml Arnold, with 1,300, was to seek the headwaters of Kennebec Uiver, cross the height of land, and descend the Chaudicre to the very gates of (Jiiebec. The bnive General Cnrleton, who had been with Wolfe at Quebec, was now in command of the forces of Canada — if .'iOO Uritish regulars and a few hundred militia might be so denominated. No doubt Governor Carleton with his small army undertook too much. He sought to defend the way to Montreal by holding Port St. John, and that to (Juebec by defending Chambly. IJotli tlie.se places fell be- fore the Americans. Oeneral Slontgomery pushed on down tlie Uiver Uichelieii and occu- pied Sorel, throwing forces across the St. Lawrence, and erected batteries on both sides to prevent intercourse between ^lontreal and Quebec. Montreal, now <lefonceless, was com- pelled to surrender on the lUtli of November, and 11 British vessola were given up to the enemy. It wn* D'rllyadark hour for Canada. Oeneral Carh'ton nas been severely critici/ed fur dlvidln){ his forces. The truth is, the attack wax ho un- expected, and Ml HiHin after the mitbreak of tliu relM'llion, lliat no plan of defence for Canailn had been laid. . . . Oenerid Carliton escaped from .Monln'iil, and, in a boat, passed the Sorel biitti'ries with iniilllid oars under covir of night. The general had but I'euchi'd (Quebec in tiiiie. The expedition iif Arnnld had already gained tliu St. Lawreni n the side opiiosite the ' Ancient Capital.' The energy displayed by Arnold's men was remarkable. The Kiimeliec Is a series ' of rapids, lis swift current hurrirs over dan- genius nicks at every turn. The highlands when reached cunslst of Hwamiis and riH'ky ridges coven'd witli forest. 'I he Cliaudlera proved worse than the Keiineliec, and, thu eiirn'iit lieing with the boats, dashed them to pieces on tlie I'iM'ks. Arnold's men, on their six weeks' inanli, had run short of fond, and w(>re <'i impelled t4>eat the dogs which hadaccompanleil Ihein. Not much more than half of Arnold's army reached the St. Lawrence. Arnold's force inissed the St. Lawreni'e, laniled at Wolfe's Cove, and built huts for themselves on the I'lains of Abraliaiii, On the Tith of December .Mont- ginnery joined the Kcniielicc men before tjnebec. The united force was of some II.OOO men, sup- ported by about a dozen light guns. Carleton liail, for the defence of Quebec, only one com- pany of ri'gulars and a few seamen and marines i.f a sloop of war at tjiieliec. The popularity of. the governor was such that he easily prevailed upon the citizens, both Kn-nch and Kiiglish, to enroll themselves in coinpan'es for tlie defence of their lionies. He wis able to count upon about 1,000 bayonets. The defences of (Jueliec were, however, too strong for the Americans. On the night of December Jilst, a desperate eirort was made to take the city by escalaile. Four attacks were made simultaneonsly. Arni'ld sought to enter by the St. Charles, on the north side of Quebec, and Jlontgomery by the south, between Cape Diamond and the St. Lawrence. Two feints were to be made on the side towards the I'lains of .'Vliraham. The hope of the com- manders was to have forced the gates from the lower to the upper town in both ciLses. Arnold failed to reach the hiwer town, and In a sortie the def.'ndeis cut olt nearly the whole of his (Mjluinn. He escap ;d wounded. Montgomery was killed at the s<;coijd entrenchment of the lower town, and Ir's troops retired in confusion. The American ge lerals have been criticized by" experts for not ir iking their chief attack on the wall ft.cing on the I'lains of Abniham. . . . Oeneml Arnold .emained before Quebec, though his troops had become reduced to 800 men. General Car'.e^on pursued n policy of actiiik strictly on the defensive. If he retained (Juebco it wou'd bi; his greatest success. General Aniolil sought to gain the sympathy of the French Canadian lei'gniors and people, but without any success. Three thousand troops, however, came to reinforce Arnold early in the year, and 4,000 occupied Montreal, St. .John's, and Chambly. Hut on the 0th of May relief came fnini Eng- land; men of war and transports, with three brigades of infantry besules artillerv, stores, and ammunition. The Americans withdrew to Sorel. The Hritisli tniops followed them, and a brigade encuiupc'd ttt Three Kivers. The Ameriuuus at- 379 CANADA, 1775-1776. Thr Family Compact. CANADA, 1820-1837. tempted to si.rpriso the force at Three Uivcrs, but were repulH;'(l witli heavy loss. The Ameri- cans now fell buck from Slontreul, deserted nil the posts down to LiikeClmmpliiin. and Governor Ciirleton had the pleasure of occupying Isleuux- Noix as tlie outpost, h'avinjr C'aniula as it had been Iwfore the lirst attack In the year before." — ti. Hryce. f^/iort Jfint. <// the Camidiaii J'coplc, eh. 6, met. 'i. Ar.so IN: IJ. J. Lossing, Life and Times of Philip Schiii/let; r. 1, eh. 10-29, and v. 8, eh. 1-4. — J. Sparks, Life and Tfeamii of Benedict Arnold, eh. 3-5 {Lihrary of Am. Bioy,, v. 3). — J. Arm- strong, Life of liicluird Montr/oineri/ (Lib. of Am. Jliof/., V. 1). — C. II. Jones, Jlist. of the Vampainn for the Comiuentof Cnna<Uiin 1776. — J. J. Henry, Arihold's CamjMiign ar/uinst Quebec. A. D. 1776. — General Carleton's unsuc- cessful advance against Ticonderoga. See UxiTKi) Statks OK Am. : A. I). 1770-1777. A. D. 1777. — Burgoyne's disastrous invasion of New York. See Unitkd States of Am. : A. D. 1777 (,ri:LY— OCTOUEH). A. D 1783. — Settlement of boundaries in the Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and the United States. See United States ov Am. : A. I). 1783 (Ski'Temdeb). A. D. 1783-1784.— Influx of the "United Empire Loyalists " from the United States. Bee ToKiBs of the American Revolution. A. D. 1791— .The Const tutional Act. — Di- vision of the province into Upper and Lower Canada. — " In 1791 a bill was introduced by Pitt dividing the Province into Upper and Lower Canada, the line of division being so drawn as to give a great majority to the British element in Upper Canada and a great majority to the French settlers in Lower Canada. The measure was strongly oppo.sed by Fo.k, who urged that the separation of the English and French inlmbitiuits ■was most undesirable. . . . The act was passed, and is known us the Constitutional Act of 1791. ... In each province the legislature was to consist of tlie Governor, a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly. The Governor had power to give or withhold the royal assent to bills, or to reserve them for consideration by the Crown. He could summon, pnirogue, or dis- solve the legislature, but was required to con- vene the legisluture at least once a year. The Legislative Council in Upper Canada consisted of not less than 7, and in Lower Cunada of not Ijss than I.') members, chosen by the King for life, the Speaker being appointed by the Go vernor-Oeneral. The Legislative Assembly was in counties elected bj' 40s. freeholders, and" in towns by owners of houses of £5 yearly value and by resicient inhabit- ants paying £10 yearly rent. The numbtr and limits of electoral districts were fixed by the Gov- ernor-General. Lower Canada had 50 members. Upper Canada 16 members, assigned to <heir respective legislatures. The new Constitutir a did not prove a success. Serious differences arose between the Legislative Council and the Legislat- ive Assembly in regurd to the control of the revenue and supplies, diiterences which were aggravated bv the craflict tnat still went on between the p'rench and English races. . . . The discontent resulted in the rebellion of 1837-8. " — J. E. C. Muuro, I'he Uonxtitutionof Canuda, ch. 2. Also in: W. Houston, D(ks. Illustrative of the Gaiuidiun Const., pp. 112-133. — D. Brymner, Mept. on Canadian. Arcldves, 1890, app, B. A. D. 1812-1815.— The War of Great Britain with the United States. See United States OK Am. : A. I). 1813 (June — October), to 1815 (.lANI'AllY). A. D. 1818. — Convention between Great Britain and the United States relating to Fisheries, etc. See Fisiiekies, Nokth A.meiii- can: a. 1). 1814-1818. A. D. 1820-1837.— The Family Compact.— " The Family Compact manifestly grew out of the principles of the U. E. Loyalists. It was the union of the leaders of the loyalists with others of kindred spirit, to rule Upper Cunada, heedless of the rights or wishes of its people. We have admired the patriotic, heroic and sentimental side of U. E. loyalism ; but plainly, as related to civil government, its political doctrines and Ijructices were tyrannical. Its prominent mem- bers belonged to the class which in the American colonies, in the persons of Governors Bernard and Hutchinson, and many o^'-ers of high ofHcc and standing, had plotted to destroy the liberties of the people and had hastened the American revolution. ... By the years. 1818 or 1820 a junto or cabal had been formed, definite in its aims and firmly combined together, known as the r'amily Compact, not to its best leaders seeming an embodiment of. selfishness, but rather set for patriotic defence and hallowed with the name of religion. " — G. Bryce, Short Hist, of the Canadian People, ch. 10, seet. 2. — "Upper Canada . . . has long been entirely governed by a party commonly designated throughout the Province as the ' Family Compact, ' a name not much more appropriate than party designations usually are, ina smuch as there is, in truth, very little of family connection among the persons thus united. For a long time this body of men, receiving at times accessions to its members, pos- sessed almost all the highest public otlices, by means of which, and of its influence in the E.xecutive Council, it wielded all the powers of government; it maintained influence in the legis- lature by means of its predominance in the Leg- islative Council ; and it disposed of a large num- ber of petty posts which are in the patronage of the Government al' /ver the Province. Succes- sive Governors, as they came in their turn, are said to have either submitted quietly to its influ- ence, or, after a short and unavailing struggle, to have yielded to this well-organized party the real conduct of affairs. The bench, the magis- tracy, the high offices of the Episcopal Church, and a great part of the legal profession, are filled by the adherents of this party : by grant or pur- chase, they have ucquireil nearly the whole of the waste lands of the Province; they are all powerful in the chartered banks, and, till lately, shared among themselves almost exclusively all offices of trust and profit. The bulk of this party consists, for the most part, of native-born inhabit- ants of the colony, or of emigrants who settled in it before the last war with the Unitci States; the principal members of it belong to the church of England, and the maintenance of the claims of that church has always been one of its dis- tinguishing characteristics." — Earl of Durham, Itept. on the Affairs of British N. Am., p. 105. — "The influences which produced the Family Compact were not confined to Upper Canada. In the Lower Province, as well as in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, similar causes led to similar results, and the term Family Compact has at one 380 CANADA, 1820-1837. Discontent and Rebellion. CAKADA, K37. time or anotlicr been a familiar one in all the British North American colonies. . . . The des- ignation Family Compact, however, did not owe its origin to any combination of North American colonists, but was borrowed from the diplomatic history of Europe."— J. C. Dent, Tlic Story of the Upjifr Camulinn Ii/:l)ellion, eh. 3. ^ A. D. 1837. — The Causes of discontent which, produced rebellion. — "It was in Lower Canada that the greatest difUculties arose. A constant antagonism grew up between the majority of the legislative council, who were nominees of the Crown, and the nuijority of the representa- tive assembly, who were elected by the popula- tion of the province [see above: A. D. 1791]. The homo Government encourr.ged and indeed kept up that most odious and dangerous of all instruments for the supposed management of a colony — a 'British party' devoted to the so- called interests of tlie mother country, and obedi- ent to the word of command from their miusters and putrons at liorae. The majority in the legis- lative council constantly thwarted the resolu- tions of the vast majority of the popular assembly. Disputes arose as to the voting of supplies. The Government retained in their service officials whom the lepresentative assembly had con- demned, and insisted on the right to pay them their salaries out of certain funds of the colony. The representative assembly took to stoppmg the supplies, and the Government claimed the right to counteract this raea.sure by appropriating to the purpose sucli public moneys as happened to be within their reacli at the time. The colony — for indeed on these subjects the population of Lower Canada, right or wrong, was so near to being of one mind that we may take the declara- tions of public meetings as representing the col- ony — demanded that the legislative council should be made elective, and that tlie colonial government should not be allowed to dispose of the moneys of the colony at their pleasure. The House of Commons and the Gtovemment lierc re- plied by refusing to listen to tlie proposal. . . . It is not 'necessary to suppose that in all these disputes the popular majority were in the right and the officials in the wrong. No one can doubt that there was much bitterness of feeling arising out of tile mere differences of race. ... At last the representative assembly refused to vote any further supplies or to carry on any further busi- ness. They formulated their grievances against the liome Govt.ninent. Their lomplaints were of arbitrary conduct on the part of the governors ; intolerable composition of the legislative council, wliich they insisted ouglit to be elective; illegal appropriation of the public money, and violent prorogation of the provincial parliament. One of the leading men in the movement which after- wards became rebellion in Lower Canada was Mr. Louis Joseph Papineau. This man had risen to high position by his talents, his energy, and his undoubtedly honourable character. He had rep- resented Montreal in therepresentative Assembly of Lower Canada, and he afterwards became Speaker of the House. He made himself leader of the movement to protest against the policy of the governors, and that of the Government by whom they were sustained. He held a series of meetings, at some of which undoubtedly rather strong language was used. . . . Lord Gosford, the governor, began by dismissing several militia officers who had taken part in some of these demonstrations; Mr. Papineau himself was an officer of this force. Then the governor issued warrants for the apprehension of many members of the popular A.ssembly on the charge of high treason. Some of these at once left the country ; others against whom warrants were issued were arrested, and a sudden resistance was made by their friends and supporters. Then, in a manner familiar to all who have read anything of the history of revolutionary movement s. the resistance to a capture of prisoners suddenly transformed itself into open rebellion." — J. McCarthy, Hist. of our own Times, b. 1, ch. 3. — Among the griev- ances which gave rise to discontent in both Upper and Lower Canada, " ilrst of all there was the chronic grievance of the Clergy Keserves [whicli were public lands set ajiart by the Act of 1791 for the sujjport of the Protestant Clergy], com- mon both to Britisli and Frene'i, to Upper and to Lower Canada. In Upper Canada these reserves amounted to 2,500,000 acres, being one-seventh of the lands in tlie Province. Three objections were made against continuing these Ileserves for the purpose for which they had been set apart. The first objection arose from the way in which the E.xccutive Council wished to apply the rev- enues accruing from these lands. According to the Act they were to be applied for ' maintaining the Protestant religion in Canada' ; and the Execu- tive Council interpreted this as meaning too ex- clusively the Church of Englan<l, which was es- tablished by law in the mother-country. But the objectors claimed a right for all Protestant de- nominations to share in tlie Reserves. The second objection was that the amount of these lands was too large for the purpose in view: and the third referred to the way in which the Reserves were selected. Tliese 2,500,000 acres did not lie in a block, but, when the early surveys were made, every seventh lot was reserved ; and as these lots were not cleared for years the people complained that they were not utilized, and so became incon- venient baiTiers to uniform civilization. With the Roman Catholics, both priests and people, the Clergy Reserves were naturally unpopular. . . . An additional source of complaint was found in the fact that the government of Upper and Lower Canada had found its way into the hands of a few powerful families banded together by a Family Compact [see above : A. D. 1820-1837]. . . . But the Constitutional difficulty was, after all, the great one, and it lay at the bottom of the whole dispute. . . . Altogether the issues were very complicated in the St. Lawrence Valley Provinces and the Maritime Provinces . . . and so it is not to be wondered at that some should internret the rebellion as a class, and perhaps semi-religious, contest rather than a race-con- flict. The constitutional dead-lock,however, was tolerably clear to those who looked beneath the surface. . . . The main desire of all was to bo f .-eed of the burden of Executive Councils, nom- , *nated at home and kept in office with or without the wish of the people. In Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie, and in Lower Canada. Louis Papineau and Dr. Wolfred Nelson, agitated forindependence."— W. P. Greswell, Iliet. of the Dominion of Canada, ch. 16. Also in: J. McMulIen, Hist, of Canada, ch. 19-20.— Earl of Durham, Rept. and Dispatches. —Sir P. B. Head, Narrative.— Rgpt. of Gomrs. ap- pointed to inquire i •;'■ 'iw, grievances complained of in Lower CavMla{HaumofComimns, Feb. 20, 1837). 381 CANADA, 1837-1888. Burtiing of the Carolitie. CANADA, 1840-1841. A. D. 1837-1838.— The rebellion under Papi- neau and Mackenzie, and its suppression. — The Burning: of the Caroline. — " Iiuincdiiitely on tlio breaking out of the rebellion, t!ie cou- stitulion of Lower Ciuiada wiis suspended; the revolt was put down at once, and with little dilHculty. Though the outbreak in Upper Can- ada showed that a comparatively small portion of the i)0i)uhition was disaffected to the govern- ment, there were some sharp skirmishes before the smouldering tire was completely trodden out. ... On the night of the 4th of December, 1837, when all Toronto was asleep, cxcejjt the police- men who stocxl sentries over the arras in the city hall, and a few gentlemen who sat up to watch out the night with the Adjutant-Oeneral of Militia in the Parliament House, the alarm came that the rebels were u])on tiic city. They were under the command of a n nvspaper editor named Mackenzie, whose grotes jue llgure was until lately [this was publishci in 1805] familiar to the frequenters of the iJanadian llouse of As- sembly. Kumours Iwi been rife f'^r some days past of arming and drilling among t.ie disaffected m the Home and London districts. . . . The alarm threw Toronto into commotion. . . . The volunteers were formed in the market square during the night and well armed. In point of discipline, even in the ...st instance, they were not wholly deficient, many of them being retired officers and discharged men from both the naval and military services. . . . Towards morning news came of a smart skirmisli which had occurred during the night, in whidi a party of the rebels were driven back and their leader killed. During the succeeding day and night, loyal yeomen kept pouring in to act in defence of the crown. Sir Allan, then Colonel, Jfacnab, the Speaker of the Hcuse of Assembly . . . raised a botly of his friends and adherents in the course of the night and following day, and, seizing a vessel in tlie harbour at Hamilton, hurried to Toronto. . . . Tlie rebels were de- feated and dispersed next day, at a place somo two miles from Toronto. In this action, the Speaker took the command of the Volunteers, which he kept during the subsequent campaign on the Niagara frontier, and till all danger was over. . . . ^lackenzio soon rallied his scattered adherents, and seized Navy Island, just above Niagara -Falls, where he was joined by large numbers of American 'sympathizers,' who camo to the .spot on the chance of a quarrel with the English. On receipt of is intelligence, the Speaker hastened from neighbourliood of Brantford (where he had just dispersed a baud of insurgents imder the command of a doctor named Duncombe) to reinforce Colonel Cameron, formerly of the 79th, who had taken up a posi- tion at Chippewa. Navy Island, an eyott somo quarter of a mile in length, lies in the Niagara Hiver within musket-shot of the Canadian bank. The current rims past the island on both sides with great velocity, and, immediately below it, hurries over the two miles of rocks and rapids that precede its tremendous leap. The rebels threw up works on the side facing the Cana- dians. They drew their siipplies from Port Schlosaer, an American work nearly opposite the village of Chippewa." A small steamboat, named the Caroline, had been secured by the insurgents and was plying between Fort Schlo.sser and Navy Island. She "had brought over several fleld-pieces and other military stores ; it therefore became necessary to deciile whether it was not expediimt f'.r the safety of Canada to destroy her. Great Britain was not at war with the United States, and to cut out an Americaa steamer from an American port was to incur a heavy responsibility. Nevertheless Colonel Mac- nab determined to assume it." A party sent over in boats at night to Fort Schlosser surprised the Caroline at her wharf, tired her and sent her adrift in the river, to be carried over the Falls. — Viscount Bury, Krodua of the Western Nations, V. 3, ch. 12. — "On all sides the in.surgcnts were crushed, jails were lilled with their leaders, and 180 were sentenced to be hanged. Some of them were executed mid some were banished to Van Dieman's Land, while others were pardoned on account of their youth. But there was a great revulsion of feelmg in England, and after a few years, pardons were extended to almost all. Even Papineau and JIackenzie, the leaders of the rebellion, were allowed to come back, and, strange to say, both w jre elected to seats in tlio Canadian Assembly." — W. P. Greswell, Ifist. of the Dominion of Canada, ch. 16, sect. 13. — On the American border the Canadian rebellion of 1837- 38 was very commonly called ' ' the Patriot War. " Also in: C. Lindsey, Life and Times of Wm.' Lyon Mackenzie, v. 3. — J. C. Dent, Stor;/ of tlie U. Canada liebellion, A. D. 1840-1841. — International Imbroglio' consequent on the burning of the Carol! le. — The McLeod Case. — The burning of the steamer Caroline (see, above, A. D. 1837-1838) gave rise to a serious question between Great Britain and the United States. "In the fray which occurred, an American named Durfree was killed. Tlie British government avowed this invasion to be a public act and a necessary measure of self-defence ; but it was a question when Mr. Van Buren [President of tlie United States] went out of olHcc whether this avowal had been made in an authentic manner. ... In November, 1840, one Alexander 3IcLeod came from Canada to New York, where he boasted that he was the slayer of Durfree, and thereupon was at once arrested on a charge of murder and thrown into prison. This aroused great anger in England, and the conviction of ^IcLeod was all that was needed to cause immediate war. . . . Our [the American] government was, of course, freatly hampered in action ... by the fact that IcLcod was within the jurisdiction and in tlio power of the Now York courts, and wholly out reach of those of the United States. . . . Jlr. Webster [who became Secretary of State under President Taylor] . . . was hardly in ofiice before he received a demaiu' from Mr. Fox for tlie release of McLeod, in which full avowal was made that the burning of tlic Caroline was a public act. Mr. Webster determined that . . . tlie only way to dispose of McLeod was to get him out of prison, separate him, diplomatically speaking, from the affair of the Caroline, and tlien take that up as a distinct matter for nego- tiation with tlic British government. . . . His fii'st step was to instruct the lAttorney-GeneRil to pruceed to Lockport, where ^IcLeod was imprisoned, and communicate with the counsel for the defence, furnishing tliem with authentic information that the destruction of the Caroline was a public act, and that therefore McLeod could not bo held icsponsible. . . . This threw 382 CANADA, 1840-1841. Clear Oritt and Cotuervatitvs. CANADA, 1866-1871. tlie responsibility for McLcod, and for consequent peace or war, wlicie it b<'lougcd, on tlie New Yorlt iiutliorities, who scemeil, liowcver, but little inclined to assist the general government. McLeod came before tlie Supreme Court of New Yoric in July, on a writ of habeas corpus, but tlicy refused to release hini on tlie grounds set 'forth in Mr. ^Vc^bste' s instructions to the Attor- ney-General, and 'le was remanded for trial in October, which wps highly embarassiug to our government, as it liciit tliis dangerous affair open." But when McLeod came to trial in October, 1841, it appeared that he was a mere braggart wlio liad not even be :n present when Durfree was liilled. Ilis acquittal liapi)ily ended the cose, and smootlieil tlie way to tlie negoti- ation ol iho Asliburton treaty, wliicli opened at Wasliington soon afterwards and whieli settled all questions between England and the United States.— II. C. Lodge, Danid Webster, cli. 8. Also in : \V. II. Seward, Works, r. 2, pp. 547- 588.— 1). Webster, Works, v. 0, ;)/). 247-209. A. D. 1840-1867.- -Reunion of the provinces. — The opposition of races. — Clear Grits and Conservatives. — "The reunion of the two I'ro- vinces liad been projected before: it was greatly desired by tlie Brilisli of tlie Lower Province; and in 1822 a bill for the purpose had actually been brought into the Imperial Parliament, but the Prc.ieh being bitterly opposed to it, tlie Hill had been dropped. The French were as much opposed to reunion as ever, clearly seeing, what the author of the policy [Lord Durham] had avowed, that the measure was directed against their nationality. But since tlie Hebelliou they were jirostrate. Their Constitution had been superseded by a Provisional Council sitting under the protection of Imperial bayonets, and tills Council consented to the union. The two Provinces were now [July, 1840] placed under a Governor-General with a single legislature, con- sisting, like the legislatures of the two Provinces before, of an Upper House nominated by the Crown and a Lower House elected by tlie people. Each province was to have the same number of representatives, although the population of the French Province was at that time much larger than that of the British Province. The French language was proscribed in official proceedings. French nationality was thus sent, constitutionally, under the yoke. But to leave it its votes, necessary and right as that might be, was to leave it the only weapon which puts the weak on a level with the strong, and even gives them the advantage, since the weak are the most likely to hold togetlier and to submit to the discipline of organised party. . . . The French . . . ' had the wisdom,' as their manual of history . . . complacently observes, ' to remain united among themselves, and by that union were able to exercise a happy intluence on the Legislature and the Government.' Instead of being politically suppressed, they soon, thanks to tlieir compact- ness as an interest and their docile obedience to their leaders, became politically dominant. The British factions began to bid against each other for their support, and were presently it their feet. , . . Tlie statute proscribing the use of the French language in official jiroceedings was repealed, and the Canadian Legislature was made bi-linguu'. Tlie Premiership was divided between the Engl'ih and the French leader, and the Ministries were designated by the double name — 'the Lafontaine-Baldwin,' or 'the Mac- donald-Tache.' The French got their full share of seats in the Cabinet and of patronage; of public funds they got more than their full share, especially as being small consumers of imported goods they contributed fnr less than their quota to the public revenue. By their aid the Roman Catholics of the Upper I'^rovince obtained the privilege of Sejiarate Schools in contravention of the principle of religious e(iuality and severance of the Church from the State. In time it was recognized as a rule that a ^Ministry to retain power must have a majority from each section of the Province. This practically almost reduced the Union to a federation, under which French nationality was more securely entrencliecl than ever. Gradually the Fixiicfi and their clergy became, as tlie^v have ever since been, the basis of what styles itself a Conservative party, playing for French support, liy defending clerical privilege, by protecting Frencli nation- ality, and, not least, by allowing the French Province to dip her liand deep in the common treasury. On tlie other hand, a secession of thorough-going Reformers from the Jloderates . . . gave birth to the jiartv of the ' Clear Grits,' the leader of which was ilr. George Brown, a Scotch Presbyterian, and which having tirst insisted on the secularization of the Clergy Reserves, became, when that (juestion was out of the way, a party of g(meral opposition to French and Roman Catholic influence. ... A change had thus come over the character and relations of jjarties. French Canada, so lately the seat of disaffection, became the basis of the Conservative party. British Canada became the stronghold of the Liberals. ... A period of tricky combinations, perlidious alliances, and selfish intrigues now commenced, and a series of weak and ephemeral governments was its fruit." — Goldwin Smitli, Canada and the Canadian Question, cli. 7. Also in : W. Houston, Bom. lllustratite of tlie Canadian Const., pp. 149-185. — J. G. Bourinot, Manual of the Const, hist, of Canada, cli. 5. A. D. 1842. — Settlement of boundary dis- putes with the United States by the Ash- burton Treaty. See Umted States ok A.m. : A. D. 1842. A. D. 1854-1866.— The Reciprocity Treaty with the United States and its abrogation. See Tauiff Lkgislation (Unitkd States and Canada): A. D. 1854-1806. A. D. 1864.— The St. Albans Raid. See United States of Aji. : A. D. 1864 (Octobeu). A. D. 1866-1871. — Fenian invasions. — The Fenian movement (see Iueland: A. .'). 1858- 1867) had its most serious outcome in an at- tempted invasion of Canada from the United States, wliich took place in 1800. "Canadian volunteers were under arms all day on the i7th of .March, 1800, exijccting a Fenian invasion, but it was not made: in April an iiisignifieant attai:;k was made upon New Brunswick. About 900 men, under Col. O'Neil, crossed from BulTalo to Fort Erie on the night of May 31st. Jloving westward, this body aimed at destroying tlie Welland Canal, when they were met by the Queen's Own Volunteer Regiment of Toronto, and the 13th battalion of Hamilton Militia, near the village of Ridgeway. Here, after a conflict of two hours, in wliieli for a time the Volunteers drove the enemy before them, the Canadian 383 CANADA, 1866-1871. FedfratUm nf the l^rovincea. CANADA. 1867. forces retired to nidgewny, and tlienco to Port Colborne, with a losw of nine killed aud ilO wouiuled. Col. Peacoek, in charge of a body of regulars, was inarching to meet the volunteers, so that O'Xeil was compelled to tlee to Fort Erie, and, crossing to the United States with his men, was arrested, but afterwards liberated. The day after the skirmish the regulars and volunteers encamped at Fort Erie, and the danger on the Niagara Frontier was past. A Fenian expedi- tion threatened Prescott, aiming at reaching the capital lit Ottawa, and another band of marauders cro.ssed the ))order from St. Albans, Vermont, but both wen; easily driven back. The Fenian troubles roused strong feeling in Canada against the American authorities. ... A Fenian attack was led by Col. O'Neil on the Lower Canadian frontier, in 1870, but it was easily met, and the United States authorities were moved to arrest the repulsed fugitives. A foolish movement was again made in 1871 by the same leader, tlirough Minnesota, against Manitoba. Through the prompt action of the friendly American com- mander at Fort Pembina, the United States troops followed the Fenians across the border, arrested their leader, and, though he was liberated after a trial at St. Paul, Minnesota, tl(e expedition ended as a miserable and laughable failure. These movements of the Fenian Society, though trifling in effect, yet involved Canada in a con- siderable expense from the maintenance of bodies of the Active Militia at different points along the frontier. The training of a useful force of citizen soldiery however resulted." — G. Bryce, 81iort Hist, of t/ie Canadian People, pp. 468- 470. Also IN: G. T. Denison, Jr., The Fenian Raid on fbrt Erie. — Corr. relating to tlie Fenian In- vasion. — Official Report of Gen. John O'Neill. A. D. 1867. — Federation of the provinces of British North America in the Dominion of Canada. — The constitution of the Dominion. — " The Union between Upper and Lower Canada lasted until 1867, when the provinces of British North America were brought more closely to- gether In a federation and entered on a new era in their constitutional history. For many yearS/ previous to 1865, the administmtion of governs ment in Canada had become surrounded with political difficulties of a very perplexing charac- ter. . . . Parties at last were so equally balanced on account of the antagonism between the two sections, that the vote of one member might decide the fate of an administration, atd the course of legislation for a year or a series of years. From the 31st of May, 1863, to the enlV of June, 1864, there were no less than five dif- ferent ministries in charge of the public busi- ness. Legislation, in fact, was at last practi- cally at a dead -lock. . . . It was at this critical juLcturc of affairs that the leaders of the govern^, ment and opposition, in the session of 1864, came^ to a mutual understimding, after the most ma- ture consideration of tlie whole question. A, coalition government was formed on the basis oil a federal union of all the British American provinces, or of the two Canadas, in ?ase of the failure of the larger .scheme. . . . It was a happy coincidence that the legislatures of the lower/ provinces were about considering a maritime' union at the time the leading statesmen of Canada had combined to mature a plan of set- tling their political difficulties. The Canadian ministry at once availed themselves of this fact to meet the moritime delegates at their conven- tion in Charlottetown, and the result was tlioj' decision to consider the question of the larger^ uni(m at Quebec. Accordingly, on the lOtli of October, 1864, delegates from all the British North American provinces assembled in confer- ence, in 'the ancient capital,' and after veryt / ample deliberations during eighteen daj's, agreecl ^ to 73 resolutions, which form the basis of the Act of Union. These resolutions were formally submitte<l to the legislature of Cana(Ui in Janu- ary, 186.'), and after an elaborate debate, which'' extended from the 3d of Feburary to the 14th of March, both houses agreed by very large majori- ties to an address to her Majesty praying her to submit a measure lo the Imperial Parliament ' for the purpose of unitii.g the provinces in ac- cordance with the provisions of the Quebec resolutions. ' Some time, however, liad to elapse before the Union could be consummated, in con- sequence of the strong opposition that very soon exhibited itseli in the maritime provinces, more especially to the financial terms of the scheme." Certain modifications of the terms of the Quebec resolutions were acccordingly made, and "the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, being at last in full accord, through the action of their respective legislatures, the plan of union was submitted on the 12th of Feb- ruary, 1867, to the Imperial Parliament, where it met with tlie wann support of the statesmen of 1 11 parties, and passed without amendment in the course of a few weeks, the royal assent being given on the 39th of JIarch. The new constitution came into force on the First of July [annually celebrated since, as ' Dominion Day 1 1867, and the first parliament of the united provinces met on November of the same year. . . . The confederation, as inaugurated in 1867, consisted only of the four provinces of Ontario [Upper Canada], Quebec [Lower Canada], Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. By tlie 146th sec- tion of the Act of Union, provision was made for the admission of other colonies on addresses from the parliament of Canada, and from the respective legislatures of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and British Columbia. Rupert's Land and the North-west Territory miglit also at any time be admitted into the Union on the address of the Canadian Parliament. . . . The title of Dominion did not appear in the Quebec resolutions. The 71st Kes. is to the effect that ' Iler Majesty be solicited to determine the rank and name of t le federated Provinces. ' The name ['The Dom.nionof Canada'] was arranged at the conference 'leld in London in 1866, when the union bill was i.nally dVafted."— J. G. Bouri- not. Manual of Const. Hist, of Canada, eh. 6-7 {inth foot-note).— " 'V\\Q Federal Constitution of the Dominion of Canada is contained in the British North America Act, 1867, a statute of the British Parliament (30 Vict., c. 3). I note a few of the many points in which it deserves to be com))ared with that of the United States. Tlie Federal or Dominion Government is con- ducted on the so-called 'Cabinet system' of England, i. e., the Ministry sit in Parliament, antf hold office at the pleasure of the House of Commons. The Governor-General [appointed by the Crown] is in the position of an irrespon- sible and permanent executive similar to that of the Crown of Great Britain, acting on the advice 384 CANADA, 1807. The Dominion of Canada. CANADA, 1809-1873. of responsible ministers. lie can dissolve Pnr- liumcnt. The Upper House or Heiiiite, is com- posed of 78 persons, noniiniited for life by tlie Oovernor-Geiierul, I. e., the Ministry. The House of Commons has at present 210 members, who arc elected for Ave years. Both senators and members receive salaries. The Senate has very little i)ower or inlluence. The Governor- General has a veto but rarely exercises it, and may reserve a bill for the (Juecn's pleasure. The judj^es, not only of the Federal or Dominion Courts, but also of tlie provinces, are appointed by tlio Crown, i. e. , by the Dominion Jlinistry, and hold for good \)ehaviour. Each of the Provinces, at present [1888] seven in number, has a legislat\ire of its own, which, liowever, consi.sts in Ontario, British Columbia, and Mani- toba, of one Hou.se only, and a Lieutenant- Governor, with a riglit of veto on the acts of the legislature, which he seldom exercises. Mem- bers of the Domiiuon Parliament cannot sit in a Provincial legislature. The Governor-General has a right of disallowing acts of a Provincial legislature, and sometimes exerts it, especially when a legislature is deemed to have exceeded its constitutional competence. In each of the Provinces there is a responsible ^linistry, work- ing on the Cabinet system of England. The distribution of matters within the competence of the Dominion Parliament and of the Provincial legislatures respectively, bears a general resem- blance to that existing in the United States ; but there is tliis remarkable distinction, that whereas in the United States, Congress lias only the powers actually granted to it, the State legisla- tures retaining all such powers as liave not been taken from them, the Dominion Parlianient has a general power of legislation, restricted only by the grant of certain specific and exclusive powers to the Provincial legislatures. Criminal law is reserved for the Domiinon Parliament; and no Province has the right to maintain a military force. Questions iis to the constitu- tionality of a statute, whether of the Dominion Parliament or of a Provincial legislature, come before the courts in tlie ordinary way, and if ap- pealed, before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in England. The Constitution of the Dominion was never submitted to a popular vote, and can be altered only by the British Parliament, •except as regards certain points left to its own legislature. . . . There exists no power of amend- ing the Provincial constitutions by popular vote similar to that which the peoples of the several States exercise in the United States." — J. Bryce, I'/te Amcncaii Commonwealth, v. 1, app., note (B) to ch. 30.— See Constitution op Canada. Al.so in: J. E. G. Slunro, The Count, of Caiuulu (with text of Act in app.) — Pari. Debate on Confederation, 3d Sem., Sth Prm. Pari, of Caniula. — \V. Houston, Boen. Illustrative of the Canmlian Const., pp. 180-324. A. D. 1869-1873.— Acquisition of the Hud- son's Bay Territory. — Admission of Manitoba, British Columbia and Prince Edward's Island to the Dominion. — "In 1869 . . . the Dominion was enlarged by the acquisition of tlie famous Hudson's Bay Territory. Wlien the charter of the Hudson's Bay Company exi)ired iu 1869, Lord Granville, then Colonial Secretary, pro- posed that the chief part of the Company's territories should be transferred to the Dominion for £300,000; and the proposition was agreed to on both sides. The Hudson's Bay ("barter dated from the reign of Charles II. The region to which it referred carries some of its history im- printed in its names. Prince Uupert was at the head of the association incorporated by the Cliarter into the Hudson's Bay Company. The name of Kupert's Land perpetuates his memory. . . . The Hudson's Bay Company obtained from King Charles, by virtue of the Charter in 1070, the sole and absolute govenmient of the vast watershed of Hudson's Bay, the Kupert's Land of the tUiarter, on condition of paying yearly to the King and his successors 'two elks and two black beavers,' 'whensoever and as often as we, our heirs and successors, shall happen to enter into the said countries, territories and regions.' Tlie Hudson's Bay Company was o])posed by the North West Fui Oomi)any m 1783, which fought them for a long time with Indians and law, with the tomahawk of the red man and the legal itidgment of a Komilly or a Keating. In XHVi Lord Selkirk founded the Bed lUver Company. This interloper on the battle field was harassed by the North West Company, and it was not until 1821, when the Hudson's Bay and North West Companies — impoverished by their long warfare — amalgamated their interests, that the Red Hiver settlers were able to reap their har- vests iu ijcace, disturbed only by occasional leagues of locusts and blackbir<ls. In 1835, on Lord Selkirk's death, the Hudson's Bay Company bought the settlement from his executors. It had been under their sway before that, having been committed to their care by Lord Selkirk during his lifetime. The privilege of exclusive trading east of the Hocky Jlountaius was con- ferred by Uoyal license for twenty-one years in May 1838, and some ten years later the Company received a grant of Vancouver's Island for the term of ten years from 1849 to 1859. The Hud- son's Bay Company were always careful to foster the idea that their territory was chielly wilder- ness, and discountenanced the reports of its fer- tility a 'd fitness for colonisation which were from time to time brought to the ears of the English Government. In 1857, at the instance of Mr. Labouchere, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to enquire into tho state of the British possessions under the Com- pany's administration. Various Government expeditions, and the publication of many Blue Books, enlightened the public mind as to the real nature of those tracts of land which the council from the Fenchurch Street house declared to be so desolate. . . . During the sittings of the Com- mittee there was cited in evidence a petition from 575 Bed River settlers to the Legislative Assem- bly of Canada demanding British protection. Tins appeal was a proceeding curiously at vari- ance with the later action of the settlement. When in 1809 the chief part of the territories was transferred to Canada, on the jjroposition of Earl Granville, the Red River country rose in rebellion, and refuscil to receive tlie new Gov- ernor. Louis Riel, the insurgent chief, seized on Fort Garry and tlie Company's treasury, and proclaimed the independence of tlie settlement. Sir Garnet, then Colonel, AVolseley, was sent in command of an expedition which reached Fort Garry on August 23, when the insurgents sub- mitted without resistance, and the district re- ceived the name of ^Manitoba." — J. McCarthy, Iliat. of our own Times, ch. 55 (». 4). — Manitoba 885 CANADA, 1809-1878. CAN0S8A. niid t]if! Northwest TiTritorics wcro admitted to tlit^ DiiiiiiiiioiiConfcderution Miiy I'i, 1870; liritisli (-'oliimbiu, July 20, 1871; Prince Edward Island, July 1, 187^. — J. McCouu, ManUuki ami tlu- Great Xorth Weal. Ai.Ho in: G. M. Adam, The Canadian Kurth- vxnt, ch. 1-ia.— O. L. lluyshe. The Red Hirer Expedition.— \y . P. Oreswcll, Ilint. of the Do- minion of UaiuuUi, p. 313. — J. E. 0. Munro, The (hnMitution of Canada, eh. 2. — O. E. Ellis, The IlniUon Jiay Company (Xarratice and Crit- ical Jlist. of Am,, V. 8).— See, also, British Columbia : A. D. 1858-1871, and Nortitwest Tkiiiiitouies of Canada. A. D. 1871.— The Treaty of Washing^ton. See Alabama Claims: A. I). 1871. A. D. 1877.— The Halifax Fishery Award. See FisiiEitiKS, NouTii Amkuican : A. I). 1H77- 1888. A. D. 1885-1888.— Termination of the Fish- ery articles of the Treaty of Washinj^ton. — Renewed controversies. — The rejected Treaty. See FisEiKiiiEs, NoUTll A.MEIIICAN : A. I). 1877- 1888. CANAI, The. Sec American Aiiouioines: Ai.dONQLiAN Family. CAN ARES, The. Sec Ecuador: The auo RKilNAL ISllAUnW "S. CANARY ISLa:IDS, Discovery of the.— The llrst great step in African e.vploration " was the discovery of the Canary Islands. These were the ' Elysian fields ' and ' Fortunate islands ' of an- tiquity. Perhaps there is no country in the world that lias been so many times discovered, con(iuered, and invaded, or so much fabled about, as these islands. There is scarcely a nation upon earth of any maritime repute that hius not had to do with them. PlKcnicians, Car- thaginians, Romans, floors, Genoese, Normans, Portuguese, and Spaniards of every province (Aragonese, Castilians, Gallieians, Biscayans, Andalucians) have all made their appearance in these islands. The Cartliagiuians are said to have discovered them, and to have reserved them as an asylum in case of extreme danger to the state. Sertorius, the lloman general who par- tooli the fallen fortunes of Marius is said to have meditjited retreat to these ' islands of the blessed,' and by some writers is supposed to have gone there. Juba, the JIauritanian prince, son of the Julia celebrated by Sallust, sent ships to examine them, and has left a description of them. Then came the death of empires, and darkness fell upon the human race, at least upon the records of their history. When the world revived, and especially when the use of the loadstone began to be known among mariners, the Canary Islands were again discovered. Petrarch is referred to by Viera to prove that the Genoese sent out an expedition to these islands. Las Casas mentions that an English or French vessel bound from France or England to Si)ain was driven by con- trary winds to the Canary Islands, and on its return spread abroad in Franco an account of the voyage." — A. Helps, Njmnish Conquest, bk. 1, ch. 1. Also in : E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., ch. 20, note E. CAN AS, The. See Peru: The aboriqinal INHAniTANTS. CANCELLARIUS. See Chancellor. CANDAHAR.— Siege and relief of English forces (i38o). See Afouanistan: A. D. 1809- I88I; CANDIA. — This is the name of the principal town in the island of Crete, but has been often applied to Crete itself. See Turks: A. D. 1045- 1009, where an account is given of the so-culled " War of Candia"; also Crete: A. I), ii'i'i. CANDRAGUPTA, OR CHANDRAGUP- TA, The empire of. See India: B. C. 327-312, and 312 . CANGI, The.— A tribe in early Britain which occupied the westerly part ot Modern Car- narvonshire. See Britain, Celtic Tribes. CANICHANAS, The. See Bolivia: Abo- RKIINAL l.NHABITANT.S. CANIENGAS, The. Sec American Abo- RKilNKs: Iroquois Conkederacv. CKaHJE, Battles of (B. C. 216). See Punic War: The Second (B. C. 88). See Home: B. C. 90-88. CANNENEFATES, The.— " On the other bank of the Rhine [on the right bank] ne.vt to the Batavi, in the modern Kennemer district (nMrth Holland, bevond Amsterdam) dwelt the Cannenefates, closely related to them but less numerous ; they arc not merely named among the tribes subjugated by Tiberius, but were also treated like the Batavi in the furnishing of soldiers." — T. Jlommsen, Iliat. of Rome, bk. 8, ch. 4. CANNING, Lord, The Indian administra- tion of, A. D. 1850-1802. CANNING MINISTRY, The. See Eng- land: A. D. 1820-182:. CANOPUS, Decree of. — An important in- scribed stone found in 1805 at San, or Tauis, in Egypt, which is a monument of the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, who ascended the throne in 240 B. C. It gives "in hieroglyphics and Greek (the demotic version is on the edge) a decree. of the priests assembled at Canopus for their yearly salutation of the king. When they were so assembled, in his ninth year, his infant daughter Berenice, fell sick and died, and there was great lamentation over lier. The decree first recounts the generous conduct and prowess of the king, who had conquered all his enemies abroad, and hud brought back from Persia all the stJitues of the gods carried off in old time from Egypt by foreign kings. Ho had also, in a great threaten- ing of famine, when the Nile had failed to rise to its full amount, imported vast quantities of corn from Cyprus, Pha'nicia, &c., and fed his people. Consequently divine honours are to be paid to him and his queen as ' Benefactor-Gods ' in oil the temples of Egypt, and feasts are to be held in their honour. . . . This great inscription, far more perfect and considerably older than the Rosctta Stone, can now be cited as the clearest proof of Champollion's reading of the hiero- glyphics." — J. P. 'iilaXiafXy, Story of Alexander's Empire, ch. 15, w>te. CANOSSA, Henry IV. at.— In the conflict which arose between the German Emperor, Henry IV. (then crowned only as King of the Romans) and Pope Gregory "V^II. (the inflexible Hildebrand), the former was placed at a great disadvantage by revolts and discontents in his own Germanic dominions. When, therefore, on the 22d of February, A. D. 1076, the au(4acious pontiff pronounced against the king his tremen- dous sentence, not only of excommunicat'on, but of deposition, releasing all Christians from 386 CANOSSA. CAPE UHICTON ISLAND. allt'giancp to liini, ho addressed u larjte party, bolli in Ofrniaiiy and ItJily, who were more than willinj; to accei)t an excuse for (k'privini; Henry of hid erown. Thi.s party controlled a (liet helll at Tribiir, in Oetober, which declared that Iuh forfeiture of the throne would be made irre- vocable if he did not procure from tlie pope a relea.se from his exconununication before the com- ing amiiversary of its pronunciation, in February. A diet to be held lien at Aiigsburir, under the presidency of the pope, would deternune the alfairs of tl'e Empire. 'Yith characteristic energy, Henry resolved to make his way to tlu- popi!, in person, and to become reeoni:iled with liim, before tlie Augsburg meeting. Accom- panied by the (lueeii, her child, and a few attendants, he cros.s('d the Alps, with great liaril- shij) and danger, in the midst of an uncom- monly cohl and .snowy winter. jMeantirne, the pope liad started U])on his journey to Augsburg. Ileiiring on the way of Henry's movement to meet him, not desirmg the encounter, and dis- trusting, moreover, the intentions of his enemy, he took refuge in the strong fortress of Cancssa, high up in the rocky recesses of the Apennines. To that mountain retreat the despenito king pre.s.se<l his way. "It was .lanuary 21, 1077, when Henry arrived at Canos.sa; the cold was severe and the snow lay deej). He was lodged at the foot of the castle-steep, and had an inter- view with the countess Matilda [mistress of the castle, and devoted friend of the pope], Hugh, abbot of Clugny, and others, in the Chapel of St. Nicolas, of which no traces now remain. Three ilays were spent in debating terms of reccmciliation; Matilda and Hugh interceded with the pope on the king's behalf, but Gregory was inexorable; unless Henry surrendered the crown into the pope's hands the ban should not be taken off. Henry could not stoop so low as this, but ho made up his mind to play the part of a penitent suppliant. Early on the morning of January 25 he mounted the winding, rocky path, until he reached the uppermost of the three walls, the one which enclosed the castle yard. And here, before the gateway which still exists, and perpetuates in its name, ' Porta dl penit<jnza,' the memory of this strange event, the king, barefoot, and clad in a coai-sc woolen shirt, sto(Kl knocking for admittance. But he knocked in vain: from morning till evening the heir of tlie Roman Empire stood shivering out- side the fiist-closed door. Two more di>ys he climbed the rugged path and stood weeping and imploring to be admitted." At last, the iron- willed pontiff consented to a parley, and an agree- ment was brought about by which Henry was released from excommunication, but the question of his crown was left for future settlement. In the end he gained nothing by his extmordinary abasement of himself. 3Iany of his supporters were alienated by it; a rival king was elected. Gathering all his energies, Henry then stood lii^ ground and mailc a flglit in which even Gregory fled before him; but it was all to no avail. The triumph remained with the priests. — W. R. AV. Stephens, JliUlebrand and Ilis Times, eh. 11-15. AIjSO in: a. F. Villcmain, Life of Oregory VI L, l)k. 5.— See, also, Pai-acy: A. D. 1050- 1122; also Homk: 1081-1084. CANTABRIA, Becomes Barduliaand Cas- tile. Sec Sl'Au; ; A. D. 1020-1230. CANTABRIANS AND ASTURIANS, The. — The Canlabrians were an ancient people in the north of Spain, inhabiting a region to the west of the Asturians. They were not con(|Uered by the l{omans imtil the reign of Augustus, who led an expedition against them in person, 11. C. 27, but was forced by illness to conunit the campaign to his lieutenants. The Cantabrians s\ibmitted soon after being defeated in a great battle at Vellica, near the sources of the Ebro; but in 22 IJ. C. they joined the .\sturians in a desperate revolt, which was not subdued until three vears later.— {;. ilerivale, IUkI. <if the Itomann, ch. JM. Also in: T. )Iomms<.'n, Hist, of Home, lik. 8, ch. 2. — See Ai'I'kndix A, v. 1. CANTjE, The.— a tribe in ancient Cale- donia. See Hkitain. Cki.tic TuniKs. ^CANTERBURY.— The murder of Becket (1170). See Enoi.ani): .\. I). 11(VJ-1170. CANTERBURY PRIMACY, Origin of the. See Enoi-a-mj: A. I). 51)7-085. CANTII, The. — The tribe of ancient liritons liich occupied the region of Kent. See Bkitain, .i.Tic Thiiucs. CANTON: A. D. 1839-1842.— The Opium War. — Ransom of the city from English as- sault. — Its port opened to British trade. See China: A. U. 18;)'J-I842, A. D. 1856-1857.— Bombardment by the English. — Capture by the English and French, See China: A. 1). 1850-1800. CANTONS, Latin. See Gens, Roman; also Al.llA. CANTONS, Swiss. See Switzeuland: A. 1>. 1848-18U0. CANULEIAN LAW, The. See Rome: B. C. 445. CANUTE, OR CNUT, King of England, A. I). 1017-1(J35, and King of Denmark, A. 1). 1018-1035 Canute II., King of Denmark, A. D. 1080-1080 Canute III., King of Den- mark, A. I). 1147-1150 Canute IV., King of Denmark, A. I). 1182-1203. CANZACA. See Eciiatana. CANZACA, OR SHIZ, Battle of.— A battle fought A. I). 591, by the Romans, under Narses, supporting the cause of Chosro(!s II. king of Per- sia, against a usurper Bahrain, who had driven him from his throne. Bahrain was defeated and Chosroi!s restored. — G. Rawlinson, Seventh Oreat Oriental Moiuirchy, ch. 23. CAP OF LIBERTY, The. See Liberty Cai\ CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1497.— Discovery by John Cabot. See Ameiiica : A. U. 1407. A. D. 1504. — Named by the fishermen from Brittany. See Nkwkouni>lani): A. I). 1501- 1578. A. D. 1713. — Possession confirmed to France. See Newfoundland: A. 1). 1713. A. D. 1720-1745. — The fortification of Louis- bourg. — After the surrender of Placentia or Plaisance, in Newfoundland, to England, under the treaty of Utrecht (see Newfoundland: A. I). 1713), the French government detennincd to fortify strongly some suitable harbor on the islanc of Cape Breton for a naval station, end especi illy for the jjrotcction of the fisheries of Franci '>n the ueigliboring coasts. The harbor knowu. orcviously as Havre &. \' Anglois wat chosen ior the purpose. "When the French 387 CAPE UUETON ISLAND. CAPITOLINE HILL AT HOME. government decided In favour of Ilnvro A 1' An- gluix itH imnic wtis <tliitnK<'d to LoiiiHboiirK, in iionour of tlie kinKI and, to murk the value set upon Cape Hrelon it was called Isle lioyale, which it retained until its thial conquest In 1758, when its ancient name was resumed." In I'i'M the fortitU'ations wer<' commeneed, and the work of their construction was prosecuted with enerjjy and with unstinted lllteralily for more thiin twenty years " Even the Enf^lish colonies contributed a gri ; proportion of I !ie materials u.sed in their consti uclion. When Messrs. Newton and Hrad- street, who were sent to confer with M. de St. Ovule [to remonstrate against the supplying of arms to the Indliuis in Nova ScotiaJ . . . re- turned to Annapolis, they reported that during their short stay at Loulsbourg, In 17!)!), fourteen colonial ves.sels, belonging chlclly to New Eng- land, arrived there with cargoes of boards, timlyer and bricks. . . . Loulsbourg [described, with a J)lau, in the work liere(|Uoled| . . . had, between the years 1720 and 1745. cost the French nation the enormous sum of U(),(M)(),000 llvres, or £1,- 200,000 sterling; nevertheless, as l)u8sie\ix In- forms us, the fortitlcatlons were still vmtlrilshed, and likely to remain so, because the cost had far exceeded the estimates; and it was found such a large garrison would be re((ulred for their defence that the government had abandoned the idea of completing them according to the original de- sign." — U. Brown, J/inl. df (he hUind of (,'(ij»^ Breton, Utten 9-11. — "The fort was built of stone, with walls more than iiO feet high, and a ditch 80 feet wide, over which was a communica- tion with the town by a drawbridge. It had si.\ bastions and three batteries, with platforms for 148 cannon and sl.x mortars. On an islet, which was flanked on one side by a shoal, a battery of 30 guns, 28 pounders, defended the entrance of the harbor, which was aliout 400 yards wide, and was also commandi^d from within by the Grand or Royal Battery, mounting as many guns, of the calibre of 42 pounds. The fort . . . was a safe rendezvous and refuge for French fleets and privateers, sailing in the Western Hemisphere. It connnanded the maritime way into Canada, and it watched the English settlements all along the coast. It was a standing threat to the great business of New England seamen, which was the fishery on the banks."— J. G. Palfrey, llint. of N. Eiiff., bk. 5, ch. U (r. 5).—" ' So great was its strength that it was called the Dunkirk of America. It had nunneries and palaces, terraces and gardens. That such a city rose upon a low and desolate island in the inmncy of American colonization appears incredible; explanation is alone found in the fishing enthusiivsm of the period.' "— C. B. Elliott, I'lie IT. 8. andt/ie N. K. IFinheries, p. 18. A. D. 1744.— Outbreak of the Third Inter- colonial War. Sec New Ekolakd: A. I). 1744. A. D. 1745.— Conquest by the New Eng- landers.- Fall of Louisbourg. See New Eno- i..\nd: A. I). 1715; and En(ii..\ni>: A. D. 1745- 1747. A. D. 1748.— Restored to France. See Aix- LA-CitAfKi.i,u, TiiK Conokesb; and New Eno- l.w,d: a. D. 1745-1748. A. D. 1758-1760.— The final capture and destruction of Loulsbourg, by the English.— " In Slay, 1758 [during the Seven Yeare War — see Canada; A. D. 1750-1703 and after', a powerful fleet, under rommand of AdndrnI Iloscawen, arrived at Halifax for the purpose of reciipturing a pla<'e [Loulsbourg! whicli ougiit never to have i)een given up. The fleet con- sisted of 23 ships of the line and 18 frigates, besides transports, and when it left Halifax it innnbered 157 vessels. With It was a land force, under .TelTery Amherst, of upward of 12,0(M) men. The i rench forces at Louisbonrg were much Inferior, and consisted of only 8 ships of the line and 3 frigates, and of about 4.(MH) soldiers. The English fleet set siul from Halifax on the 28th of May, and on the 8th of June a landing was effected In Oabarus Bay. The ne.\t day the attack iM'gan, and after a sharp conflict th(! French abandoned and destroyed two Important batteries. The siege was then pushed by regular ajiproaches ; but it was not until the 2<tth of July that the garrison capitulated. By the terms of surrender the whole garrison w(mo to become prisoners of war and to be sent to England, and the English acquired 218 cannon and 18 mortars, beside great quantities of ammu- nition and nnlitary stores. All the vessels of war had been captured or destroyed; but their crews, to the number of upward of 3,600 men, were included In the capitulation. Two years later, at the bi'ginning of 1760, orders were sent from England to demolish the fortress, render the harbor impracticable, and transport the garrison and stores to Halifax. These orders were carried out so effectually that few traces of Its fortifications remain, and the place is inhabited only by fishermen." — C. C. Smith, 77*« \\'tirs on the tkalward (Xarratice and Critical IliKt. of Am., r. 5, eh. 7). Also in: F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, ch. 10 (r. 2). — See, also, Canada (New Fu.^nce): A. I). 1758. A. D. 1763.— Ceded to England by the Treaty of Paris. See Si;ven Yeahs Wau. A. D. 1763. — Added to the government of Nova Scotia. See Canada; A. D. 1763-1774 CAPE COLONY. See South Akhica. CAPE ST. VINCENT, Naval battle of. See Enoland: A. I). 1797. CAPETIANS, Origin and crowning of the. See Fhanck: A. 1). 861, and 877-987. CAPHARSALAMA, Battle of.— One of the victories of the Jewish patriot, Judas Maccaboius over the Syrian general Nicanor, B. C. 162. — Josephus. Antiq. of the JeiM, bk. 12, eh. 10. OAPHTOR. — An ancient Phoenician settle- ment on the coast of the Nile Delta. ' ' From an early period the whole of this district had been colonised by the Phnenicians, and as Phmnicia itself was called Keft by the Egyptians, the part of Egypt in which they had settled went by the name of Keft-ur, or '(Greater Phoenicia.'" — A. 11. Sayce, Freah Liyht from the Ancient Monu- ments, eh. 2. — On the other Inind, Ewald and other writers say that "the Philistines came from Caphtor," and that " this now obsolete name probably designated either the whole or a part of Crete." CAPHYjE, Battle of.— Fought B. C. 320 in the Social War of the Acluean and ^Etolian Leagues. The forces of the former were totally routed. — C. Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, r.h. 63. CAPITOLINE HILL AT ROME.— The Capitol. — "In prehistoric times this hill was called the Mons Saturnius, see Varro, Lin. Lat., 388 CAPITOLINE HILL AT HOME. CARAFFA. V. 41 ; its nnmc bcinjf connertrd witli that logcn- dnry ' xoUU'ii age ' wlii'u Hiitiini Iiiiii.si'lf reigned fii Italy. . . . This liill, wliitli, lilio tlio otiior hills of liomc, has hail its contour much altered by cutting away and levelling, consists of a moss of tufa rock harder in structure than that of the Palatine hill. It appears once to Iiavc been surrounded by elilTs, very steep at most places, and had only approaches on one side — that tr)\vards the l-'oruiu. . . . The top of the hill is shap<'d into two peaks of about e()ual height, one of whicli was known as tlic Capi- toliuni, and the other as the Arx, or Citadel. . . . The Capitolium was also in early time known ns the 'Mons Trtri)oius,' so called from the familiar legend of the treachery of Tarpeia. . . . In later times the name 'rupes Tarpeia ' was applied, not to thi^ whole peak, but to a part of its elill wliicth faced towards the ' Vicus Jugarius' and the 'Forum Magnum.' The identification of tliat part of th(! Tarpeian rock, which was used for the execution of criminals, according to a very primitive custom, is now almost impossible. At one place the clilT of tlie Ca])itolium is quite f)erpcndicular, and has been e\it very carefully nto an upright even surface; a deep groove, about a foot wide, runs uj) the face of this cutting, and tlicre are many rock-cut chambers excavated in this part of tlie cliff, some openings into which appear in the face of the rock. This is popularly though crroneoi" 'y known as the Tarpeian rock. . . . The perpendicular cliff was once very much higher than it is at present, as there is u great accumulation of rubliish at its foot. . . . That this cliff cannot be the Tarpeian rock wlicro crindnals were executed is shown by Dionysius (viii. 78, and vii. 35), who expressly says that this took place in the sight of people in the Forum Magnum, so that the popular Uupes Tarpeia is on the wrong side of the hill. " — J. II. Middleton, Ancient Home in 1885, ch. 7. — See, also. Seven Hills op Rome, and Gens, Roman. CAPITULARIES.— "It is commonly sup- posed that the term capitularies applies only to the laws of Charlemagne; this is a mistake. The word 'capitula,' 'little chapters,' equally applies to all the laws of the Frank kings. . . . Charlemagne, in Ids capitularies, did anything but legislate. Capitularies are, properly speak- ing, the whole acts of his government, public acts of all kinds by which he manifested his authority." — F. Guizot, Hist, of CiHlization, lect. 31. Also in : E. F. Henderson, Select Ilist. Docs, of the Middle Ar/cs, bk. 3. CAPITULATIONOF CHARLES V. See aEHMANY: A. D. 1520-1531. CAPO D'ISTRIA, Count, The Assassina- tion of. See GnEECE: A. I). 1830-1863. CAPPADOCIA. See MiTiiniD.VTic Waus. CAPS, Party of the. See Scandinavian States (Sweden): A. D. 1730-1793. CAPTAL. — A title, derived from " capitalis," originally cqiuvalent to count, and anciently borne by several lords in Aquitaiue. "Towards the 14th century there were no more than two captals acknowledged, that of Buch and that of Franc." — I roissart (.lohnes), Chronicles, bk. 1, eh. 158, note. CAPTIVITY, Prince of the. See Jews: A. D. 300-400. CAPTIVITY OF THE JEWS, The. See Jews: B. C. 604-536. CAPUA.— Capua, originally an Etruscan city, callcil Vulturnum, was taken l)y \\u- Sam- nites, U, ('. 434, and was afterwards a city in whicli Etruscan and neighboring,' (Jreek inllueiiccs were ndxed in their effect on a barbarous new population. "Capua iH'came by its commereo and agriculture the si^cond city in Italy in point of size — the tlrstin point of wealth and luxury. Tlie deep demoralization in which, aei'ording to the accounts of the ancients, that city surpassed all others in Italy, is especially retlecled in llie mercenary recriiiting and in tlie gladiatorial sports, both of which nre-eminenlly nourished in Capua. Nowlien^ did recruiting (iIHcits tind so numerous a concourse as in tins metroiiolis of demoralized ('ivili/.ation. , . . Tlie gladiatorial sports ... if they did not originate, were at any rate carried to perfectiim in Capua. There, sets of gladiali.rs made their appearance even during baiKiuets." — T. Mommsen, Jlinl. of lloine, bk. 3, ch. r,. B. C. 343. Surrender to the Romans. See Rome: IJ. ( ;i;i-3iKI. B. C. 2I0-2H.— Welcome to Hannibal. — Siege and capture by the Romans. — The city repeopled. Seel'i'Nic Wau, The Second. A. D. 800-1016. — The Lombard principality. See Italy (Soutiieun): A. I). Hl)0-ll)ltl. A. D. 1501. — Capture, sack and massacre by the French. See Italy: A. I>. 1501-1504. CAPUCHINS, The.— "The Capuchins were only a branch of the great Franciscan order, and their mode of life a nuxliflcalicm of Its Rule. Among the Franciscans the severity of their Rule had early become a subject of discu.ssion, whicli finally led to a secession of some of tlio members, of whom Matteo do' Bassi, of the con- vent of Montefalcone was the leading spirit. These were the rigorists who desired to restore the iirimitive austerities of the Order. They began by a change of dress, adding to tlie usual monastic habit a 'cappuccio,' or pointed hoixl, which Matteo claimed was of the same pattern as that worn by St. Francis. By the bull ' Religionis zelus (1538), Matteo obtained from Pope Clement VII. leave for himself anil his companions to wear this peculiar dress ; to allow their beards to grow; to live in hermitages, according to the rule of St. Francis, and to devote themselves chietiy to the reclaiming of great sinners. Paul III. afterwanls gave them pi.'r- mission to settle wheresoever tliey liked. Con sistently with tlie austerity of their professions, their churches were unadi''..ed, and their con- vents built in the simplest style. They beeanio very serviceable to tlie Church, and their fear- lessness and assiduity in waiting ujion tlie sick during the plague, which ravaged the whole of Italy, made them extremely pojiular. " — J. Alzog, Manuiil of Unicermil Church Hint., p. 3, /). 455. CAPUCHONS, OR CAPUTIATI. See White IIoods ok Fkance. CARABOBO, Battles of (1821-1822). See Coi.OMUiAN St.\tes: a. I). 1810-1830. CARACALLA, Roman Emperor, A. I). 211-217. CARACCAS : A. D. 1812.— Destruction by earthquake. Se6 Colomuian States; A. 1). 1810-lHU). CARAFFA, Cardinal (Pope Paul IV.) and the Counter Reformation. Sec Papacy: A. U. 1537-1563, and 1555-1603. 389 CAUA«. CARL. CARAS, OR CARANS, OR CARANQUIS, The. Sit Ki rAiHiii. CARAUSIUS, Revolt of. Sec IIuiiain: AD. '-'MH 'iKT. CARAVELS. — GALEONS, Etc. — ' Tli<' term ciinivcl wiih originally Ki^'<'<i '<> Hliips iiiiviKiitr<l wholly l>y Hiiils iih (liHtin^riiiHliiMl from till! ftiillcy propi'llcil liy oars. It lias Ik'cii np|ilic<l U) n Kr''"! variety of vchscIs of (lllTcri'iit »i/.i' atitl ('(mBtnutlioti. 'I'lio raravcis of the New World (liscovcrcm may \h; jfiK'niUy (k'lW'rilK'd as loiijt narrow bouts of from 2i) to 100 tons burden, with tliroo or four maNis of about ciinal hei.i;iil carryini; hoiik times sipiare and sonuMimes lateen miils, the fourth mast set at the heel of the bow- sprit carrying s(|uare sails. Tliey were tisually Imlf-deeked, and adorned with the lofty forecastle nnd loftier poop of thi^ day. The latter eon- Btiliited over that part of the vessel a double or trebh' deck, which was pierced for caimoii. . . . The galera was a vessel of low bulwarks, navi- gated by sails and oars, usually twenty or thirty oars on cither side, four or live oarsmen to a bench. . . . The gulea/a was the larfjest class of fralera, or cnift propelled wholly or in part by ojirs. ... A galeota was a small galera, having only 10 or 20 oarsmen on a side, and two mast,s. The galeim was a largo armed merchant vessel with liigh bulwarks, three or four decks, with two or three masts, 8(|imre rigged, spreading courses and top-.sails, and sometimes topgallant sails. . . . Those which iplied between Acapuleo and Manila were from 1,200 to 2,(H)0 tons burden. A galeoncillo was a small galeon. The carac was a large carrying ves.s<'l, the one intended for Columbus' second voyage being 1,2.)0 toneles or 1,500 tons. A nao, or navio, was a large ship witli high bulwarks and three masts. A nave was a vessel with deck and sails, the former distinguishing it from tlio barca, and tlie absence of oars from a galera. The bergantin, or brig, had low bulwarks. . . . The name brigautine was api)lied in America also to an open tlat- bottomed boat, which usually carried one sail and from 8 to 10 men." — IL II. Bancroft, Hint, of the Piieific titiiten, v. 1, p. 187, foot-note. — Sec, alst), Amkhic.x.: a. I>. 1402. CARBERRY, Mary Stuart's surrender at. See Scotland; A. D. irjOl-l.lOS. CARBONARI, Origin and character of the. Bee Italy (SouTiiEnN): A. I). 1808-1809. CARCHEMISH. See IIittitks, The. CARCHEMISH, Battle of.— Fought, B. C. 604, between the armies of Necho, the Egyptian Pharaoh, and Nebuchadnezzar, then crown prince of Babylon. Necho, being defeated, was driven back to Egypt and stripped of all his Syrian conquests. — V. Lcnormant, Manual of Ancient llii>t. of the Kimt, bk. 2, ch. 4. CARDADEN, Battle of (i8o8). Sec Spain: A. I). 1808-1809 (I)kci.;m!h.:k— March). CARDINAL INFANT, The. See Netiieu- l.ANOs: A. I). 10;i5-16:!8. CARDINALS, College of. Sec Ccria, Tue UoMAN (Fai'ai,), and Papacy: A. D. 1059. CARDUCHI, The. -"South of the lake [Lake of Van, in Asia Minor] lay the Carduclii, wliom the later Greeks call the Qordyipaus nnil Gordycnes ; but among the Armenians they were known as Kordii, among the Syrians as Kardu. These arc the ancestors of the modern Kurds, a nation also of the Aryan stock." — M. Duuekcr, Uint. of Antiquity, bk. 2, ch. 13. — See, also, (loiiDVKNE.— Under 8aladln nnd the Ayonblto dyniisty tli<- Kurds played nn Important part in medlM'val hislorv. Hec Sai.adin, Empikk oF. CARGILLITES, The. See Scoti.amij: A, I). lOMI-KWlt. CARHAM, Battle of.— Fought and won bv an army of Scots, under King Maldihn, inva(l- iiig the then English earldom of Bernicia, A. I). 1018, and securing the aimcxation of Lothian to till' Scottish kingdom. The l)atllcli('ld was near that on which I'lodden was afterwards fought. — E. A. Freeman, S'nnnan ('oni/iimt, eh. 0, met. 3, CARIANS, The.— "The Carians may bo called the doubles of the Ldeges, They aro termed the 'speakers of a barliarous tongue,' and yet, on tlie other hand, Apollo is sitid to have spoken Carian. As a people of pirates dad in bron/.c they onc^; upon a time bad their day in tlio Archipelago, and, Hue tlie Normans of the Middle Ages, swooped down from the sea to desolate the coasts ; but their real home was in Asia Minor, where their settleini'nts lay bc'tween those of I'lirygians and Pisidians, and eom- munity of religion united them with the Lydians and RIysians." — E. Curtiiis, IM, of llreee^, bk. 1, elt. 3. — The country of the Carians was tlio mountainous di.strict in the southwestern angle of Asia .Alinor, tlie coast of which is indented with gulfs and frayed with long-projecting rocky promontories. The island of llhofles lies close to it on i\w south. The Carians were sub- jugated by the Lyilian King Cnesus, and after- wards passed under the Persian yoke. The Persians i)ermitted the establishment of a vassal kingilom, under a dynasty which fixed its cajjital at llalicarnassus, and made that city one of the splendid Asiatic outpo.sts of Greek art and civilization, though always faithfully Persian in its politics. 'It was to the memory of one of the Carian kings at llalicarnassus, 5laiisolus, that the famous sepulchral monument, which gave its name to all similar edifices, and which the oncients counted among the seven wonders of the world, was erected by his widow, llali- carnassus offered an obstinate resistance to Alex- ander the Great and was destroyed by that ruth- less conqueror after it had succumbed to his siege. Subsequently rebuilt, it never gained inj- porlancG again. The Turkish town of Budruin now occupies the site. — C. T. Newton, Travel* and DtKCorerien in the I/evant, r>. 3. — Sec, also, Hamites and Doiuans and Ionians. CARIAY, The. See American Auouioineb: QucK OR Coco Group. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS, The. See Ami;uica: a. D. 1493-1490, and West Indies. CARIBS, The. See American Aboiuoines: Cariils. CARILLON.— The French name of Fort Ticonderoga. See Canada (New France): A. I). 1758. CARINTHIA, Early mediaeval history. See Slavonic Peoples: 6tii-7th Centuries, nnd Germany: A. D. 843-963. CARINUS, Roman Emperor. A. D. 383- 284. CARIPUNA, The. See American Ajiori- oines: Guck or Coco Group. CARISBROOK CASTLE, The flight of King Charles to. See England: A. D. 1647 (August — December). CARIZMIANS. See Kiiuarezm. CARL, OR KARL. Sec Etbel.— ExnEiiiNa. 390 CAHLINOM. CARNOT. CARLINGS. 8cc Fhankh ((!Ani.ovi!«niAN E.MI-IUK): A. I). 7ft« Hll. CARLISLE, Origin of. See Lii(ii;vAi,i,irM. CARLISTS AND CHRISTINOS. *,• 8l>AI\; A. I), IHim-IHltl, 1111(1 1M7;|-1HH,-,. CARLOMAN, King of the Franks (East Franks — Germany — in association with Louis in.), A. I). H7(|-8M1 : (Burgundy and Aquitaine), A. I). H7U-HSI Carloman, Duke and Prince of the Franks, A. I). 711-717. CARLOS. SccCiiAui.hx CARLOVINGIANS. 8p.- Fuanks (Cabo- LlNiiiAN KMriiiK): A. D. 788-814. CARLOWITZ, Peace of. Soo IIunoaky: A. I). l(W;t-imH». CARLSBAD, Congress of. Sci; Okkmamy: A. 1). IHll^lMO. CARMAGNOLE. Sou Fuancb: A. I). 1703 (Fkiiiiiakv — .Vi'uii.). CARMANIANS, The.— "The normoiiliuis of llcrDiliitiis n\v. till! Oariiiiiniiiim of tlio liitiT Gri'cks, who uIm) piissed willi tlii'in us a Hi'piinite nation, tliou;^h closi'ly iillicil to the I'lTHiiins itiid Modes. Tlicy wiiiidcred to mid fro to the east of Persia in the district now called Klrnian." — M. Diiiickcr, IHxt. of Antiqiiiti/, v. !>. Iik. H. c/t. ii. CARMATHIANS, The.— " In the 277th year of the IIcKira [.V. I). HUO), and in the iieijch- bourlKMKl of C'ufa, an Arabian preacher of the name of C'aniiath assumed the lofty and iiicoin- nrehenslhle style of the Ouiih', the Director, tl.o Deinonstratioii, the Word, the Holy Qlio.st, the Camel, the Herald of the Messiah, who had con- versed with him in a human shape, and the repres('iitative of Mohammed the son of Ali, of St. John the Baptist, and of the Anj;el Gabriel." Carmath was one of the eaat(!rn proselytes of the sect of the Ishmaileans or Ishniailitcs — the same from which spraiii; the terrible secret order of the Assassins. He founded another branch of the Ishmaileans, which, taking his name, were culled the C'armathiaiis. The sect made rai)id goins amoiij; the Ucdouins and were so(m a for- midable and uncontrollable body. "After a blo(xly conllict they prevailed in the province of Bahrein, along the Persian Gulf. Far anil wide the tribes of the desert were subject to the sceptre, or rather to the sword, of Ai)u Said and bis son Abu Taher; and these rebellious imams could muster in the field 107,000 faiiaties. . . . The cities of liaccu and Baalbee, of Cufa and Bassorali, were taken and pillaged; Bagdad was filled witli consternation ; and the caliph trembled behind the veils of his palace. . . . The rapine of the Carmathians was sanctified by their aver- sion to the worship of Jlecca. They robbed a caravau of pilgrhns, and 20,000 devout Moslems were abandoneil on the burning sands to a death of hunger and thirst. Another year [A. D. 929] they sutTered the pilgrims to proceed without interruption; but, in the festival of devotion, Abu Taher stormed the holy city and trampled on the most venerable relics of the Mahometan faith. Thirty thousand citizens and strangers were put to the sword; the sacred precincts were polluted by the burial of 3,(M)0 dead bodies; the well of Zemzen overfiowed with blood ; the golden spout was forced from its place; the veil of the Caaba was divided among these im- pious sectaries; and the black stone, the first monument of the nation, was borne away in triumph to their capital. After this deed of sacrilege and cruelty they continued to infest the contlnes of Irak, 8yria and KgVPt; but the vital prlnciiile of cnthiisiaHm had withered at the root. ... It is needless to enipiire into what factions they were broken, or by whose swords they wero finiillv extirpated. The sect of llic CarmalhiaiiH may be eonsldei' ' as the seconil visible cause of th(! decline and fall of the empire of the caliphs." — K. GiblMin, Dedine mill FnUnfl/iK Unmiiit Kin- pi iv. r/i. ,12, iinil note />;/ Dv. liinith. — St'O, uliM), CARMELITE FRIARS. — " About the niiildleof thel 12lli)ci'nlury, one llerthold. a Cain- briaii, wllli a few companions, migrated to Mount Carmel [I'lilestine], and iu the place where tliD prophet Klias of old is said to liiive hiil himself, iiuilt a humble cottage with a cliapel. In whicli he and his assix^iates led a laborious anil solitary life. As others continued to unite themHi'lveii with these residents on .Mount Ciirinrl, .Vlliert tho patriarch of .Icrusalcm, near the cominencement of the next centurv prescribed for them a riilo of life; which the pontilTs afterwards sanctioned by their authority, and also cliaiiged in v.irioiis respects, and when it was found too rlgnroiis anil burdensome, mitigated eonsideralily. Such was the origin of the celebrated order of Car- melites, or as it Is commonly called the order of St. Mary of Mount Carmel (and known in Eng- land as the White Friars]; which subseiiueiitly _,as.sed from Syria intc Kurope, and became ono of the principal niendi( mt orders. The Carmel- ites themselves reject with disdain this account of their origin, and most strenuously contend that the holy prophet Klias of the Old Testament, was the parent and founder of their society. But they were able to persuade very few, (or rather none out of their soi^iety), that their origin was so ancient and illustrious." — J. ],. von Mos- lii'im, Iimtiliitin of Ktvlcniimlifiit Ifinton/, hk. 'A, cenfji 12, pt. 2, i-k. 2, met. 21. Ai.soin: G. Wadilington, Hint, of the C'/iiiir/i, eh. II), seet. 5. — J. Alzog, Munuiil of Unineriiiil Chiireli Hint., sect. 244 (r. 2). — K. L. Cutts, Scene* and (!hiiiiietern of the Miilille Ai/en, ch. 5. CARMIGNA'NO, Battle of (1796). See FitAMic: .V. I). 179(1-1797 (OcTonKK—Ai'HiL). CARNABII, OR CORNABII, The. Se^ BitlTAIN, ClJ.TIC TitllllOS. CARNAC. See .ViiLUY. CARNATES, The. See Tiuanian Races. CARNEIAN FESTIVAL, The.— A Spar- tan festival, sjiid to liave been instituted B. C. 070. "The Carneian festival fell in the Spartan mouth Carneius, the Athenian .Metageitnon, cor- responding nearly to our August. It was held in lionour of Apollo Carneius, a deity worshipped from vi'ry ancient times in the Peloponnese, especially at Amycia;. ... It was of a warlike character, like the Athenian BoedrUmia." — O, Uawlinson, Note to Ileroilotiis, bk. 7. Ai.so IN : E. Curtius, Jliit. of Oreece, bk. 2, eh. 1. CARNIANS, The. See UiiAvrrANs. CARNIFEX FERRY, Battle of. See Unitkd Statks ok Am. : A. O. 1801 (August — DECK.MHKn: West Vikoinia). CARNONACiE, The. Sec Buitain, Celtic Tiiiuks. CARNOT, Larare N. M., and the French Revolution. See France: A. D. 1793 (June— OcTouKii), to 1707 (SEi-rEMBEii), and 1800-1801 (May— FEniiuAuv). CARNOT, Sadi, President of the French Republic, 1887 . 391 CAItNUTES. CAUTHAaE. CARNUTBS, The.— The Cnrnutpn w«ro n tlilM! who iXcupU'il a rc^iiiii HiippoM"! to lie tlic O'litcr of (liiul. Till' miimUtm city ( 'hurt res BtuiuU III tlic iiiidMt of it. Till- hiiitimI K<'>i<'r<>l mcctiti); plarc of tlw DruidH wiin in tlii' coiiiilry of the ('iirmiti H, — <1. Loiij;. ItrHine of tlit Itnmnii Urjiuhlie, r. 11, rh. 'J2.— Hw, iilxo, ° VknK'I'I ok Wkhtkiin (Iaii,. CAROLINAS, The. Hon Novtii Cakomna, and Sol I'll Caiiomna. CAROLINE, Queen, Trial of. Hoc Eno- l,ANl>: A. I), lM'2()-lHa7. CAROLINE, The BurninE of the. Hie Canada: A. I). 1h;)7-1h;ih, nrci ThK>-1s41. CAROLINE BOOKS, The.— A work put fortli l)y ('liiirlciniiK'X' iiK"'"'*' l>iiitK<''W>i''*l>>J>> '" roMHiili'riklil(^ Hyinpittliy witli tlic vIcwh of tlii^ KuMtiTii IcoiiocliiNtH iiiui nKiiiiiHt tlic ilccrrcM of tlio Sccoml Couiuil of Nioi'ii (A. I). 787), l.s known iih tlic Ciiroliiic Hooks. It is Huppoxcd to hiivi' l«'cn rldctly tlic coinposllion of the kind's Iciinicd friend iind counxcllor, Alcuin, the En^- liHliniiin. — .1. I. Monibort, Jliitt. nf dharlet the Orenl. ttk. a, rh. 13. CAROLINGIA.— On the division of tho ••mpiro of ('liiirli'innKno between his three ;?riin(i- Bons, A. I). 843, the western kinirdom, whieU fell to ("hiirles, took for u lime the name of ('urolin>;iii, as part of liothitr's middle kingdom t(K)k the mime of Lotliarin^ia, or Lorniine. liut tho imine died out, or wiis slowly superseded by that of France. — K. A Freeman, Hist. Deog. uf Kurvix, ell. (I. nect. 1. CAROLINGIANS. See Fkankb (Cako LiNdiAN Emi-iuk): a, '~ 708-814. CARPET-BAGGE. 3. Sec United States OP Am.: a. 1). 1H««-1M71. CARR DIKE.— A Hoioan work in Britain, formed for tlic draining of the Lincolnshiro Fens, and usckI, also, as a road. — 11. 51. Hearth, Jiomnn Hntain, eh. 16. CARRACKS, OR CARACS.-" A larRc species of luereliant ves.sel, principally used hi coasting trade," among the Spaniards of tho inth and 10th centuries. — W. Irving, Life and Voyage» of Ooluml/uf, Ilk. 0, ch. 1 (n. 1), fuot-note. — See, aisc, Cauavki.b. CARRARA FAMILY, The: Its rite to sovereignty at Padua and its struggle with the Visconti of Milan. Hco Vekona: A. 1). 1260-i;mH, and Milan: A. D. 1377-1447. CARRHiE, Battles of (B.C. 53). See Rome: B. 0. ri7-53 (A. D. 207), See Persia: A. D. 230-«37. CARRICK'S FORD, Battle of. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1801 (June— July : West VlUOINIA). CARROCCIO, The.— "Tho militia of every city [in Lombardy, or northern Italy, eleventh and twelfth centuries] was divided into separate bo<lies, according to local partitions, each led by a Qonfaloniero, or standard-bearer. They fought on foot, and assembled round the carroecio, a heavy car drawn by oxen, and covered with the flags and armorial bearings of the city. A high pole rose in the middle of this car, bearing ttic colc-rs and a Christ, which seemed to bless the army, with both arras extended. A priest said daily mass at an altar placed in the front of the car. The trumpeters of the community, seated on the back, part, sounded the charge and the retreat. It was Ileribert, archbishop of Milan, contemporary of Conrad the Salic, who invented this car In Imitation of the ark of alllanro, and cailHcd it to be adopted at Milan. All the freir I'llieHof Italy followed the example: this sacred car. intriiHled to the giianliiinship of the nillltia, gave them weight and r'ontldeiiei'." — .1. ('. Ii. do Hlsiiioiidl. Hint, iif the Itiiliiin llijiii/ilicii, rh. 1. CARTEREl*. Sir George, The Jerser Grant to. Sec New .Jeiirev: A. D. lOei-lOOT, to 1(1HH-17;18. CARTERET'S MINISTRY. Sec Eno- I, A Nil: A. I). 1 74'.'- 1 7 1.-). CARTHAGE, The founding of.— p:thbaal, or Ilhobaal, a priest of .Vslarle, ac<|iiired pos-ses- sion of the throne of Tyre H. (', 1117, deposing and putting to <leatli the legitimate prince, a descendant of Hiram, Solomon's ally and friend. The .Ie/.el«'l of .lewish history, who married Ahab, king of Isi el, was the daughter of this king Kthbaal. "Kthbaul was siici'eeded by his son Hale/.or (88.V-877 H (.'.). After eight years Hale/.or left two sons, Mutton and Sicharbaal, both under age. . . . Mutton died in the year 851) li. ('. and again left a son nine years old, Pygmalion, and a daughter, Klissa, a few years older, whom he had married to his brother Sicharbaal, the priest of the templt! of .Melkarth. Mutton had intended that Eli.ssa and Pygmalion should reign together, and thus the ])ower really pa.ssed into the hands of Sicliarbaal, the husband of Elissa. When Pygmalion reached his six- teenth year the people transferred to him tho sovereignty of Tyre, and he put Sicharbaal, his uncle, to death . . . (84011. C.). Eli-ssii [or Dido, as she was also called) lied from Tyre before her brother, as we are told, with others who would not submit to the tyranny of Pygmalion. Tho exiles . . . are said ... to have landed on the coast of Africa, in the neighbourhood of Ityke, tho old colony of the Pheiiieians, and there to have bought as much land of the Libyans as could be covered by the skin of an ox. By dividing this into very thin strips they obtained a piece of land sutlieient to enable them to build a fortress. This now dwelling-place, or the city which grew up round this fortress, the wander- ers called, in reference to their old home, Kar- thada (Kartiv hadasha), 1. e., 'the new city,' t'lio Karchedon of the Greeks, the Carthage of the Romans. The legend of the purchise of the soil may have arisen from the fact that the settlers for a long time paid tribute to the ancient iiopulation, the Maxyans, for their soil." — M. Duncker, Jliat. of Antiquity, hk. 3, ch. 11. Also IN: .1. Kenrick, Phncninn : Hi»t.,eh. 1. Divisions, Size and Population. — "The city proper, at the time at which it is best known to us, the iieriixl of the Punic wars, consisted of the Byrsa or Citadel quarter, a Greek word corrupted from the Canaanitish Bozrn, or Bostra, that IS, a fort, and of the Cothon or harbour quarter, so important in the history of the final siege. To the north and west of these, and occupying all the vast space between them and • he isthmus behind, were the Megara (Hebrew, taguriin), that is, the suburbs and gardens of Carthage, which, with tho city proper, covered an area of 23 miles in circumference. Its popu- lation must have been fully proportioned to Its size. Just before the third Punic war, when its strength had been drained ... it contained 700,000 inhabitants."— R. B. Smith, Carthage and tflw Cartliaginians, ch. 1, 392 CAnriiAOE. (AnTIIAOK. Krcoimin, Girthdtgt (Ui»l. Al.w) IN: K. A. Kmxiiin, Ath tfrif*). Tiie Dominion of.— " All mir piwltlvi' liifor iiiittloii, Hciiiity iM it U, iilHiiil ()iirtli»K<' it»<l Ix'i' iiiHtitiuioiiH, rclulcM to tli(! fdurtli, tliliil, <ir hi'coikI cfiitiirli'H H. ('. ; vi't It iniiy lir lidil In justify pi'cHiiiiiptivc {'oncfuHloim iis to llir llflli ct'iiliirv "■ <'i •■.H|>('(iiilly In rrfcrniri' to llic fri'iicriil KyHtcm piirsiii'il. Tlic iiiitxirniiiii of her nowcT WHS iiltiilncd hrforc her Ili'Ht wiir willi Uonic, wlilcli bcifiiii in 'HH It. ('. ; tlu- tint unci M-coiid i'iuil(^ wiirs hoth of tlicin ((rcatlv ri'iliici'il licr HtrciiKtli niid (loiiiliiloii. Yet In Hprirof hucIi ri'tliu'tion wo Iciirn llmt iiboiit I.IO IJ. ('. Hlinrlly hcforu tli(! third I'unic war, whicli ended In tlic- capluit' mid depopulation of the eilj'. not less tlian 7(K),(M)0 kouIs were eonipiited in it. as rx'cu- pantH of a fortilled eireuniference of above twenty MiileH, covering a peninsula with its isthmus. Upon this iHthinus Its citaiiel liyrsa wasNituated. surrounded liy a triple wall of its own, and crowned at its suinniit liy a nijif^nitlcent teniplo of .itlsculapius. Tlie numerous population isthu moro remarkalile, since Ulica (a consldemble city, colonized from I'lnenlela more anciently tlian even (lartha^e itself, and always indepenil- cut of the Carthaginians, tliou)^li In tlie condition of an inferior aiKldiscontentcd ally) was within till! distance of seven miles from (;artha)i;c on the one side, and Tunis Hceminf^ly not miicli further olT on tliu other. Even at that time, tiK), thy Cartliaginians arc said to havu possessed aoo tributary cities in Libya. Yet this was but a small fraction of the pr(xliKious empire which liad belonged to them certainly in the fourth century U. C. and in all probability also I 'tween 4«0-110 B. C. That cmnirii extended eastward as far a.s the Altars of the I'liilicnl, near tlie Great Syrtis, — westward, all along the coast to the Pillars of Herakles ami tlie western coast of Morocco. The Hue of coast southeast of Car- thage, as far as the bay called the Lesser Syrtis, was proverliiai (under tlio name of liyzaclum ami the Emporia) for its fertility. AK>ng this extensive line were distributed indigenous Libyan tribes, living l)y agriculture; and a mixed population called I.iiby-Pha'nician. . . . Of the Litiy-i*h(enician towns the numlier is not Itnown to us, but it must liave been pnKligiously great. ... A few of the towns along the coast, — Hippo, Utica, Adrumotum, Tiiapsus, Lcpils, &c. — were colonies from Tyre, like Carthage Itself. . . . Yet tlie Carthaginians contrived m time to render every town trlbutjiry, witli the exception of Utica. ... At one time, immedi- ately after the first Piniic war, they took from the rural cultivators as much as one-lialf of their prmluce, and doul)1ed at one stroke the tribute levied upon the towns. . . . The native Cartlia- ginians, though encoiinigcd liy lumorary marks to undertake . . . inilitary service were gener idly averse to it, and sparingly employed. . . . A chosen division of 2,.')U0 citizens, men of wealth and family, formed what was called the Sacred Hand of Carthage distinguished for their bravery in the field as well as for the splendour of their arms, and the gold and silver plate wiiicli formed part of their baggage. We shall find these citizen troops occasionally employed on service in Sicily : but mo.st part of the Cartha- ginian army consists of Gauls, Iberians, Liby- ans, &c., a mingled host got together for tiie occasion, discordant in lauguagc as well as in 26 riiiiU)m«."— O. Orolf, IM. of Oretet, pt. 3, eh. Ml. B. C. 480.— Invasion of Sicily.— Great defeat at Himera. See Sn ii,v; ». c. Imo, B. C. 409-40^.— Invasion* of Sicily.— De- struction, of Selinus, Himera and AKrigentutn. .Sic .S|( ii.v; 11. ( ', 4()!»- lO.V B. C. 396.— Siege of Syracuse. See Svha- (1 sk: h. c. ;)(»t :m(i. B. C. 383.— War with Syracuse. See Sicily : H. (,'. ;w;i. B C. 3io-3o6.— Invasion by Agathoklea. SeeSviiACl'SK: II. C. !J17-'JH1). B. C. 264-241.— The first war with Rome.— Expulsion from Sicily. — Loss of maritime supremacy. .Sec I'lsic Wak, 'I'm-; l-'iiisr. B. C. 241-238.— Revolt of the mercenaries. — At the close of the First I'unic War, the vet- eran armv of mercenaries with whhh llamilcar liarca had maintained hlms<'lf so loni; In Sicily — a motley gathering of Greeks, Llgurians, Gaiiis, Ilieriaiis, Libyans and others — was sent ov<'r to Cartilage for the long arrears of pay due them and for their discharge. The party 111 power in Carthage, being botli Incapable and mi'ari, and being also embarrassed by an empty tri'asiiry, exasperated this dangeri.us body of men by ilelays and by attempts at bargaining with them for a reduction of their claims, until a general mutiny was provoked. The mercenaries, 20,000 strong with Spendliis, a runaway Campanlan slave, Matlio, an African, and Aiitaritus, a Gaul, for their leaders, marched from tin; town of Sicca, where they were quartered, and campi'd near Tunis, threatening Carthagi-. The government became jiaiiicstricken and t<M)k no measures which did not embolden the mutineers and increase tlieir demands. All the oppressed Afri- can peoples in the Carthaginian (tomain rose to join the revolt, and poured into tlu^ hands of tlio mercenaries the tribute money which Carthage would have wrung from them. The latter was soon brought to a state of sore distress, without an army, without ships, and with its supplies of f<M: I mostly cut off. The neighboring cities of U'i'a ami Hippo Zarytus were besieged. At len^tli the Carthaginian government, controlled by a party hostile to llamilcar, was obliged to call him to the command, but a.ssoelated witt him Hanno, ids biltert^st personal enemy and the most incompetent leader of the ruling faction, llamilcar succeeded, after a desperate and long struggle, in destroying the mutineers to almost the last man, and in saving Carthage. But the war, whicli lasted 'nore than three years (U. C. 241-238), was merciicss and horrible beyond de- scription. It was known to the amiints as the "Trucelcss War" and the " Inexp: l)lo War." The .scenes and circumstances of it ii;ne lieen ex- traordinarily [lictured in Klaulicrt's " Salammbo," which is one of the most revolting but most powerful of historical romances. — K. B. Smith, C'art/iii (tiul the Oirt/uif/inUiiui, ch. 8. Al,i-() i.v: W. llinc. itiiit. '// Itoiiw. hk. 4, cli. A. B. C. 237-202.— Hamilcar in Spain.— The second war with Rome. — Hannibal in Italy and Sicily.— Scipio in Africa. — The great de- feat at Zama.— Loss of naval dominion and of Spain. .See Pu.Nic Wau, The Siico.NU. B. C. 146.— Destruction by Scipio.— Car. tliage existed by Uoiiian su/Teraiice for fifty years after the ending of the Second Punic War, and even recovered some considerable prosperity 393 CAHTIIAGE. CARTHAGE. In tniflp, tt;on;?li Home took care tlmt licr clmnops for recovery sliould bu slij^lit. Wlicii IIannil)!iI giivo sij^iis of lu'iug ulile to reform tlm govern- meiit of lUv city aixl to distiiiguisli liiiiiself in statesmanship as lie Iniil imniortali/.eil liimself in war, Home (lenniiided liini. and he escaped her chains only liy llight. When, even wilhont Ilannilial, Carlhafce slowly rcpidred the broken fortunes of her merchants, there was an enemy at her door always ready, at the biilding of Itome, to ])hinder them afresh. This was Mas- sinissa, the Numidian prince, client and obedient serv.uit of the Roman state. Aitain and afjain the helpless Carthai^inians appealed to Rome to protect them from Ins depredations, and linally they ventured to attempt the protection of them- selves. Then the patient perlidy of Roman state- craft gras|>ed its reward. It had wailed many years for the iirovocations of Massirussa to work their ciTect; the maddened Carthaginians had broken, at last, the hard letterof the treaty of 201 by as.sailing the friend and ally of Rome. The pretext. siilliccd foranewdei'laration of war, with the ILved purpose of pressing it to the last ex- treme. Old Cato, who had been crying in the cars of the Senate, "Carthago deleiula est," should have his will. The doomed Cartha- ginians were kei)t in ignorance of the fate (lecreed, until they had been foully tricked into the surrender of their arms and the whole arma- ment of their city. IJut when they knew the dreadful truth, they threw off all cowardice and rose to such a majesty of spirit as liad never been exhibited in their history befcnc. Without weapcms, or engines or ships, until they made them anew, they shut their gates and kept llie Roman armies out for more than two years. It was another Scipio, adopted grandson and name- sidie of the concpieror of Hannibal, who finally entered Carthage (H. C. 146), fought his way to its citadel, sU-cet by street, and, against his own wish, by commaiKl of the implacable senate at Rome, levelled its last building to the earth, after sending the iidiabitants who survived to be sold as slaves. — R. 15. Smith, Cartluuje itiul the C'art/iiif/iniiin/i, eh. 20. Ai>s() in: II. G. Liddell, Hist, of lioine, ch. 40. B. C. 44.— Restoration by Csesar.— "A set- tlement named .lunoiiia, had been made at Car- thage by C. Gracchus [which fiu'nished Ids enemies one of their weai)ons against him, be- cause, they sai<l, he had drawn on himself the curse of Seipio] and it aj^ijoars that the city of Gracchus still existed. Cae.sar restored the old name, and, as Strabo says, rebuilt the place: many Romans who preferred Carthage to Rome were sent there, and some .soldiers; and it is now, adds Strabo [reign of August 11.',] more pojjtdous than any town in L'bya." — G. Long, Dediitcof the lioiiMii liepiihUc, V. a, ch. 33. 2d'4th Centuries. — The Christian Church. SeeCiiitisTiANiTy: A. I). 100-;!12. A. D. 439.— Taken by the Vandals. — Cartilage was surprised and captured by the '•■ dais on the 9th of Oct., A. 1). 4;)!).— nine • ,i's after the C(m(iuest and destruction of the . frican provinces by Genseric began; — M^ years after the ancient Carthage was destroyed by Scipio. " A new city had risen from its ruins, with the title of a colony; and though Carthago might yield to the royal jn-erogatives of Coustautiuople, and perhaps to the trade of Alexandria or the splendour of Aiitioch, she still maintained the second rank in the West — as the Rome (if we may use the style of contemporaries) of the African world. . . . The buildings of ('ar- thage were tiniform and magiiilieent. A shady grove was ])lanttHl in the midst of the capital; the new port, a secure and capacious liarl)our, was subservient to the commerdal industry of citizens and .strangers; and the splendid games of the circus and theatre were cxliibite<l almo.st in the i)resence of the barbarians. Tlie reputation of the Carthaginians was not ecpial to that of their couritry, and the reproach of Punic faith still adlu^red to their subtle and faithless chamc- ter. The habits of trade and the abuse of luxury had corrupted their manners. . . . The King of the Vandals severely reformed the vices of a voluptuous people. . . . The lands of the proconsidar i)rovince, which formed the im- mediate district of Carthage, were accurately measured and divided among the barbarians." — E. Gibbon, Derliiu and ?all of the liomiiii Empive, ch. 33. — See, also, Vandai.s: A. D. 439- 439. A. D. 533. — Taken by Belisarius. See Vandai.s. a. I). r)33-.'")34. A. D. 534-558.— The Province of Africa after Justinian's conquest.— "Successive in- roads [of the Moorish tribes] had reduced tho l)rovince of Africa to one-third of the measure of Italy; yet the Roman emperors ccmtinued to reign above a century over Carthage and the fruitful coa.st of the Mediterranean. But the victories and the losses of Justinian were alike pernicious to mankind ; and such was the desola- tion of Africa that a stranger might wander whole days rtilliout meeting the face either of a friend or an enemy. The nation of the Vandals liad disajjpeared. . . . Tlicir numbers were inlinitely surp!is.sed by the number of the Moorish families extirpated in a relentless war; and the same destruction was retaliated on the Romans and tlieir allies, who peri.slied by the climate, their mutual (piarrels, and the rage of the barbarians. When Procopius first landed [with Belisarius, A. D. 1)33] he admired tho populousness of the cities and country, strenuously exercised in the labours of commerce and agriculture. In less than twenty years that busy scene was converted into a silent solitude; the wealthy citizens escaped to Sicily and Constantinople; and tho secret historian has confidently atlirmcd that live millions of Africans were consumed l)y the wars and government of the Emperor Justinian." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Full of the Itomaa Empire, ch. 43. A. D. 698. — Destruction by the Arabs, — " In the 77tli year of the Ilegira [A. D. 098] . . . Abd'ahnalec [the Calii)li] sent llossau Ibn An- no'man, at the head of 40,000 choice troops, to carry out the scheme of African coiuiucst [wliicli had languished for some years, during the civil wars among tho Moslems]. That general pressed forward at once with his troops agairst tho city of Carthage, which, though deelined from its ancient might and glory, was still an important seaport, fortified witii lofty wails, haughty towera and powerful bulwarks, and liad a numerous garrison of Greeks and other Christians. Ilossan proceeded accortling to tho old Arab mode ; be- leaguering and reducing it by a long siege; ho then as.sailed it by storm, scaled iis lofty walls with ladders, ami made himself master of the place. Many of the iuhabituuls fell by the edge 394 CARTHAGE. CAUTOUCHE. of the sword ; many escnped by scp to Sicily and Spain. The walls were then demolished; the city \ras given up to be plundered l)y the sol- diery, the meanest of whom was enriched by booty. . . . The triumph of the Moslem host was suddenly interrupted. While they were revelling in the ravaged palaces of Carthage, a fleet appeared before the port ; snapped the strong chain wliicli guarded the entrance, and sailed into the harbor. It was a combined force of sliips and troops from Constantinople and Sicily ; re- inforced by Qoths from Spain ; all >mdcr the com- mand of the prefect John, a patrician general of great valor and experience, llossan felt himself unable to cope with such a force ; he withdrew, however in good order, and conducted his troops laden with spoils to Tripoli and Caerwan, and, having strongly posted them, lie awaited rein- forcements from the Caliph. These arrived in course of time by sea and land. llossan again tooli the field ; encountered the prefect John, not far from Utica, defeated him in a pitched battle and drove him to embark the wrecks of his army and make all sail for Constantiiiople. Carthage was again assailed by the victors, and now its desolation was complete, for thu vengeance of the Moslems gave that majestic city to the flames. A heap of ruins and the remains of a noble aque- duct are all the relics of a metropolis that once valiantly contended for dominion with Home." — W. Irving, Maliamet aiul his Successors, v. 3, eh. 5i. Also in : N. Davis, Carthage and Her Remains. — See, also, Mahometan Conquest : A. D. 647- 709. ♦ CARTHAGE, Mo., Battle of. See United States of Am. : .'.. D. 1861 (July— Septemdeh : Missouri). CARTHAGENA (NEW CARTHAGE).— The founding; of the city. — Hasdrubal, son-in-law and successor of Hamilcar Barca in Spain , founded New Carthage — modern Carthagena — some time between 339 and 331 B. C. to be the capital of the Carthaginian dominion in the Spanish penin- sula. — U. B. Smith, Carthage and t/ie Cartlia- ginians, ch. 9. Capture by Scipio. See Punic War. The Second. Settlement of the Alans in. See Spain: A. D. 409^14. CARTHAGENA (S. Am.): A. D. 1697.— Taken and sacked by the French. — One of the last enterprises of the French in tlie war which was closed by the Peace of Ryswick — under- taken, in fact, while tin negotiations at Ryswick were in progress — was the storming and sacking of Carthagena by a privateer squadron, from Brest, commanded by rear-admiral Pointis, April, 1697. "The inhabitants were allowed to carry away their effects ; but all the gold, silver, and precious stones were the prey of the conqueror. Pointis . . . reentered Brest safe and sound, bringing back to his ship-owners more than ten millions. The oflicers of the squadron and the privateers had well provided for themselves be- sides, and the Spaniards had probably lost more than twenty millions." — 11. Martin, Ilist. of Prance: Age of Louis XIV. {tr. by M. L. Booth), i>. 3, ch. 3. A. D. 1741. — Attack and repulse of the English. See England: A. D. 1739-1741. A. D. 1815.— Siege and capture by the Spaniards. See Colomhian States: A. D. \HU\- 1819. CARTHUSIAN ORDER.— La Grande Chartreuse.— " St, Bruno, once a canon cf St. Cunibert's, at Cologne, and afterward clian- collor of the metropolitan church of P.heims, fol- lowed by six companions, founded a monastery near Grenoble, amii' the bleak and rugged mountains of the ('jsert of Cliartreuse (A. D. 1084). The rule given by St. Bruno to his disci- ples was founded upon that of St. Benedict, but with such modifications as almost to make of it a new and particular one. The Carthusians were very nearly akin to the monks of Vallis-Unibrosa and Camaldoli; they led the same kind of life — the eremitical joined to the cenobitic. Each re- ligious had his own cell, where he spent the week in solitude, and met the commimity only on Sim- day. . . . Never, perhaps, had the monastic life surrounded itself with such rij' ors and holy aus- terities. . . . Thereligious we, e bound to a life- long silence, having reno\mced tlie world to hold converse with Heaven alone. Like the solitaries of Thebais they never eat meat, and tlieir dress, as an additional penance, consisted only of a sack-cloth garment. >Ianual labors, broken only by the exercise of common prayer ; a boird on the bare earth for a couch; a vn.. w cell, whero the religious twice a day receives his slight allowance of boiled herbs;— such is the life' of pious austerities of whicli the world knows not the heavenly sweetness. For 800 years has this order continued to edify and to serve the Church by the pmctice of the most sublime virtue ; and its very rigor seems to hold out a mysterious attraction to pious soids. A congregation of women has embraced the primitive rule." — J. E. Darras, Ilist of tin: Catlwlie Church, v. 3, ch. 4, ]mr. 26, and ch. 10, par. 11. — From the account of a visit to the Grande Chartreuse, the parent monastery, near Grenoble, made in 1667, by Dom Claude Lancelot, of Port Royal, the follow- ing is taken: " All I had heard of this astonish- ing seclusion falls infinitely short of the reality. No adequate description can be given of tho awful magnificence of this dreary solitude. . . . The desert of the Chartreuse is wholly inacces- sible but by one exceedingly narrow defile. This pass, which is only a few feet wide, is indeed truly tremendous. It winds between stupendous granite rocks, which overhang above. . . . The monastery itself is as striking as the approach. ... On the west . . . there is a little space whicli ... is occupied by a dark grove of pino trees ; on every otlier side tlic rocks, whicli aro as steep as so many walls, are not more than ten yards from the convent. By this means a dim and gloomy twilight perpetually reigns within." — M. A. Schimmelpenninck, A tour to Alet and La Orande Chartreuse, v. 1, ;);'• 0-13. CARTIER, Jacques, Exploration of the St. Lawrence by. — See Amekica: A. D. 1534-1535, and 1541-1003. CARTOUCHE.— "It is impossible to travel in Upper Egypt without knowing what is meant by a cartouche. A cartouche is that elongated oval terminated by a straight line which is to be seen on every wall of the Egyi)tian temples, and of wliich other monuments also afford us numerous examples. The cartouche always contains the name of a king rr of a queen, or in 395 CAUTOUCHE. CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA. Bomc cases the names of royal princesses. To designate a king there are most frequently two cartouches side hy side. The first is called the pnenomen, the second thenomen." — A. Mariette, Monument* of Upjier Eijypt, p. 43. CARTWRIGHT'S POWER LOOM, The invention of. .See Cotton Manufactuue. CARUCATE. See Hide op Land. CARUS. Roman Emperor, A. 1). 282-383. CAS A MATA, Battle of. See Mexico: A. D. 1847 (Maucii— Sei'temheu). CASALE: A. D. 1628-1631.— Siege by the Imperialists. — Final acquisition by France. See Italy: A. I). 1027-1031. A. D. 1640. — Unsuccessful siege by the Spaniards. See Italy: A. D. 1635-1659. A. D. 1697.— Ceded to the Duke of Savoy. See Savoy and Piedmont: A. D. 1580-1713. CASALSECCO, Battle of (1427). See Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. CASAS, Bartolom^ de las. The humane labors of. See Slaveuy: Modern — ov the Indians. CASDIM. See Baotlonia, Primitive. CASENA, Massacre at. See Italy: A. D. 134:i-1393. CASHEL, Psalter of. See Tara, The IIii.l AND the Feih ok. CASHEL, Synod of. See Ireland: A. D. 1169-1175. CASHMERE: A. D. 1819-1820.— Conquest by Runjet Singh. See Sikhs. A. D. 1846.— Taken from the Sikhs by '^'•e English and given as a kingdom to Gholab Singh. See India: A. D. 1845-1849. *■ ■ CASIMIR I., King of Poland, A. D. 1037- 1058 Casimir II., Duke of Poland, A. D. 1177-1194 Casimir III. (called The Great), King of Poland, A. D. 1333-1370 Casimir IV., King of Poland, A. D. 1445-1493 Casimir, John, King of Poland, A. P. 1648- 1668. CASKET GIRLS, The. See Louisiana: A. D. 1728. CASKET LETTERS, The. SeeScoTLANU: A. D. 1561-1568. CASPIAN GATES (PYLiE CASPIiE).— An important pass in the Elburz Mountains, so called by the Greeks. It is identifled with the pass known to the modern Persians as the Girduni Surdurrah, some fifty miles or more eastward, or northeivstward, from Teheran. "Through this pass alone can armies proceed from Armenia, Media, or Persia eastward, or from Turkestan, Khorasnn and Afghanistan into the more western parts of Asia. Tlie position is therefore one of primary importance. It was to guard it that llhages was built so near to the eastern end of its territxiry. " — G. Kawlinson, Sixth Oreat Oriental Monarchy, eh. 4. Also in: Same, Mm Great Monarchies: Media, ch. 1. CASSANDER, und the wars of the Dia- dochi. See Macedonia: B. C. 323-316 to 297-280; also Greece: B. U. 321-312. CASSANO, Battles of (1705 and 1799). See Italy: A. D. 1701-1713, and France: A. D. 1799 (April — Septemiieu). CASSEL: a. D. 1383.— Burned by the French. See Flanubiw: A. D. 1383. CASSEL, Battles of (1338 and 1677). See Flanders; A. D. 1328, and Netherlands (Hol- land): A. I). 1674-1678. CASSIAN ROAD.— One of the great Roman roads of antiquity, which ran from Rome, by way of Sutrium and Clusium to Arretium and Florentia. — T. Jlommseii, llist. of Rome, bk. 4, ch. 11. CASSII, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons whose territory was near the Thames. See Bri- tain, (;eltio1''uiiies. CASSITERIDES, The.— The " tin islands," from which the Pha>nicians and Cartliaginians obtained their supply of tin. Sonio arcliajologists identify them with the British islaiids, some with the Scilly islands, and some with the islanr' 4 in Vigo Bay, on the coast of Spain. — Charles Elton, Origins of Eiig, Hist. Also in; .1. Rhys, Celtic Britain. CASSOPIANS. See Epirus. CASTALIAN spring.— a spring which issued from between two peaks or cliffs of Mount Parnassus and flowed downward in a cool stream pa.st the temple of Apollo at Delphi. CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA, The.— " Tlie caste system of India is not based upou an exclusive descent as involving u difference of rank and culture, but upon an exclusive descent as In- volving purity of blood. In the old materialistic religion which prevailed so largely in the ancient world, and was closely associated with sexual ideas, the maintenance of purity of blood was. regarded as a sacred duty. The "individual had no existence independent of the family. Male or female, the individual was but a link in the life of the family ; and any intermixture would be followed by the separation of the impure branch from the parent stem. In a word, caste was the religion of the sexes, and as such exists in India to this day. . . . The Hindus are di- vided Into an infinite number of castes, accord- ing to their hereditary trades and professions ; but in the present day they are nearly all com- prehended in four great castes, namely, the Brahmans, or priests ; tlie Kshatriyas, or soldiers ; the Vaisyus, or merchants ; and the Sudras, or servile class. The Brahmans are the mouth of Brahma ; the Kshatriyas are his arms ; the Vaisyas are hi? thighs ; and the Sudras are his feet. The three first castes of priests, soldiers, and mer- chants, are distinguished from the fourth caste of Sudras by the thread, or paita, which is worn depending from the left shoulder and resting on the right side below the loins. The investiture usually takes place between the eighth and twelfth year,and is known as the second birth, and those who are invested are termed the ' twice born. ' It is difilcult to say whether the thread in- dicates a separation between the conquerors and the conquered ; or whether it originated in a re- ligious investiture from which the Sudras were excluded."— J. T. Wheeler, Hist, of India, v. 3, jip. 114 and 64. — " Among the delusions about modern India which itsecms impossible to kill, the belief still surviveo that, although there have been many changes in the system of caste, it re- mains true that the Hindu population is divided into the four grcaf, classes described by Manu ; Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. In India itself this notion is fostered by the more learned among the Brahmans, who love to make themselves and others believe in the continuous existcucu of a diviuely constituted organization. 396, CASTE SYSTEM OP INDIA. CASTLE ST. ANGELO. To whiit extent the religious nnil sociiil systems slindowed fortl: in tlic ancient liraluniiniciil litera- ture had nn aetuai -ixistencc it is dillicult to say, but it is certain tliat little n-iiiains of tlieni now. The Bn\hnians maintain their exceptional posi- tion; but noonecan discern theo .er great castes which Manu descrilKjd. Excluding the lirali- mans, caste means for the most i)ail hereditary occupation, but it also often signifies a common oi.ginof tribe or race. India, in the words of Sir Henry Maine, is divided into a vast number of independent, self-acting, organised social groups — trading, manufacturing, cultivatinjj. ' In the enormous majority of instances, caste is only the name for a ui\mbcr of practices wliicli are followed by each om; of a midtitude of groups of men, wlielher such a group be ancient ami natural or mo<lern and artificial. As a rule, every tiiide, every profession, every guild, every tribe, every class, is also a caste ; and the members of a caste not only have their special objects of worship, selected from the Hindu Pantheon, or adopted into it, but they exclusively eat togctlier, and exclusively intermarry.' ^Ir. Kitts, in his interesting ' Compendium of the Castes and Tribes of India,' compiled from the Indian Census re - })orts of 1881, enumerates 1039 dilferent castes. *"orty-8even of these have each more than 1,000,- 000 members; twenty-one have 3,000,000 and uj)- wards. The Bralimans, K\nibis (agriculturists), and Chumars (workers in leather), are the only three castes each of which has more than 10,- 000,000; nearly 15 perceiit. of the inhabitants of India arc included in these three castes. Tlie distinctions and subdivisions of caste are in- numerable, and even the Brahmans, wlio have this in common, tliat they arc reverenced by the members of all other castes, are as much divided among themselves as the rest. There are nearly 14,000,000 Brahmans; accor^ling to Mr. Sherring, in his work on ' Hindu Tribes and Castes,' there are more than 1,800 Brahmanical subdivisions; and it constantly happens that to a Brahman of some particular class or district tlie pollution of eating with other Brsilimans would be ruinous. . . . The Brahmans have become so numerous that only a small proportion can be employed in sacerdotal functions, and the charity which it is a duty to bestow upon them could not, however profuse, be sutllcient for their support. Tliey are found in almost every occupation. They are soldiers, cultivators, traders, and servants; they were very numerous in the old Sepoy army, and the name of one of their subdivisions, 'Pande,' became the generic term by which the mutineer of 1857 were commonly known by the English in India. . . . Mr. Ibbetson, in his report on the census In the Punjab, shows liow completely it is true that caste is a social and not a religious institution. Conversion to Alohammednnism, for instance, does not necessarily affect the caste of the convert. " — Sir J. Strachey, India, led. 8. Also in : JI. Williams, Rcligiou* Thought and Life in India, eh. 18. — Sir A. C. Lyall, Asiatic StudifK, ch. 7. — Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communi- tien, eh. 2. CASTEL. See Mogontiacu.m. CASTELAR AND REPUBLICANISM IN SPAIN. See Spain: A. D. 1800-1873, and 1873-1885. CASTELFIDARDO, BatMe of (i860). See Italy: A. I). 1859-1861. CASTELLANO. See Spanish Coins. CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. See France: A. I). 17!))) (ApKir. — OcTonKu). CASTILE, Early inhabitants of. Sec Ckltidkiiianh. A. D. 713-1230.— Origin and rise of the kingdom. See Spaln: A. 1). 713-737, and 1020- 1230. A. D. 1 140.— Separation of Portugal as an independent kingdom. See I'oien-oAi,: A. I). 1095-1325. A. D. 1169.— The first Cortes.— The old monarchical constitution. See C'outks. A. D. 1212-1238.— Progress of arms.— Per- manent union of the crown with that of Leon. — Conquest of Cordova. — Vassalage impos<>d on Granada and Murcia. See Spain; A. (). 1212-1238. A. D. 1248-1350.— Reigns of St. Ferdinand, Alfonso the Learned, and their three succes- sors. See Spain: A. 1). 1248-1350. A. D. 1366-1360^— Pedro the Cruel and the invasion of the English Black Prince. See Spain (Castii.e:): A. 1). 1360 1309. A. D. 1368-1476.- Under the house of Tras- tamare.- Discord and civil war. — The triumph of Queen Isabella ^nd her mar.iage to Ferdi- nand of Aragon. See Spain: A. 1). 1^08-1479. A. D. 1515. — Incorporation of Navarre with the kingdom. See Navauuk: A. I). 1443-1521. A. D. 1516.— The crown united with that of Aragon, by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See Spain: A. I>. 1496-1517. CASTILLA DEL ORG. Sec Ameuica: A. D. 1.509-1511. CASTILLON, Battle of (1450). See Fhance: A. D. 1431-1453. CASTLE ST. ANGELO.— The Mausoleum of Hadrian, begun by the emperor Hadrian, A. I). 135, and probably completed by Antoninus Pius, "owes its preservation entirely to the peculiar litne.ss of its site and shape for tlie purposes of a fortress, which it has served since the time of Belisarius. . . . After the burial of Marcus Aurelius, the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome by Alaric in 410 A. D., when his barba- rian soldiers probably broke it open in searcli of treasure, and scattered theashesof the Antonines to the winds. From this time, for a hundred years, the tomb was turned into a fortress, the possession of which became the object of many struggles in the wars of the Goths under Vitiges (537 A. D.) and Totilas (killed 553). From the end of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great saw on its sun.mit a vision of St. Michael sheathing his sword, in token tliat the prayers of the Romans for preservation from the jilague were heard, the Mausoleum of Hadrian was considered as a consecrated building, under the name of 'S. Angelus inter Nubes,' 'Usque ad Ccelos.'or 'Inter Ca'los,' until it was seized in 023 A. D. by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the infamous JIarozia, and again became the scone of the fierce struggles between Popes, Emperors, and reckless adventurers which marked those miserable times. Tlic last injuries appear to have been infl-xtcd upon the building in the contest between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the Italian Pope Urban VIII. [see Papacy: A. D. 1377-1417]. The exterior was then finally dis- mantled and stripped. Partial additions and resto- rations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., in the beginning of the fifteenth century, erected 397 CASTLE ST. ANGELO. CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. new bfttUcments and fortifications on and around the building; and .since his time it has remained In the ])()s.session of the Papal go /eminent. Tlie strange niedlcv of Papal reception rooms, dun- geons and nulitary magazines wliieli now en- cunihers llie top, was chiefly huilt by Paid 111. The corridor connecting it with the Vatican dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (1494 A. I).), and the bronze statu(' of St. Michael on the summit, whidi replaced an older marlile statue, from the reign of Benedict XIV." — K. Burn, llitiitf (iiid the Vmnjxit/nii, ch. 11. Al.so in: W. W. Story, dnntlc St. Aiii/elo. C ASTLEN AUDARI, Battle of (1632). See Fuanck: a. I). lf.;!0-lfi:!2. CASTLEREAGH, Lord, and the union of Ireland with Great Britain. Sec Ikei.and: A. I). 170H-1H0O. CASTOR WARE.— " Durobrivian or Castor ware, as it is variously called, is the pnxluetion of the extensive Homano-British potteries on the River Nen in Northamptoiisliire and Hunting- donshire, wliicb, with settlements, arc computed to have covered a district of some twenty sipiarc miles in extent. . . . There are several varieiiis . . . and two especially have been reniarl<ed; the first, blue, or slate-coloured, the otlier reddish-brown, or of a dark copper colour." — L. •Tewett, Gtutve Mounds, 2> 1'')3. CASTRA, Roman. — '" When a Roman army was in tlie field it never halted, even for a single night, without throwing up an entrenchment capable of containing tlie wliolc of the troops and their baggage. Tliis field- worli was tcrniL'd Castra. . . . The form of the camp was a square, each side of which was 2,017 Roman feet in length. Tlic defences consisted of a ditch, (fossa,) the earth dug out, being thrown inwards so as to form a rampart, (agger,) upon the sum- mit of which a palisade (vallum) was erected of wooden stakes, (valli — sudes,) a certain number of wliich were carried by each soldier, along witli his entrenching tools." — W. Ramsay, Manual of lioirmii Aiitiq., rh. 13. CASTRICUM, Battle of. Sec Fuanck: A. D. 1799 (Septkmiiku — OcTonKii). CASTRIOTS, The. See Ai.hani.'VNS: A. D. 1443-14B7. CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, The des- potism of. See Italy: A. D. i;!i;i-i;330. CAT NATION, The. See Amkkican Aiio- nioiNKs: IIuKONS, &c., and Iiioquois Con- fedeuacv: Tiikik Conquests, &c. CATACOMBS OF ROME, The.— "The Roman Catacomlis — a name con.secrated bj lung usage, but having no etymological meaning, and not a very determinate geograpliical one — are a vast labyrinth of galleries excavated in the bowels of the earth in the hills around the Eternal City; not in the hills <m wliich the city itself was built, but in tliose beyond the walls. Their extent is enormous, not as to the amount of superficial soil which they underlie, for they rarely, if ever, pass beyond the third milestone from tlie city, but in the actual lengtli of their galleries; for tlie.se are often excavated on various levels, or piani, three, four, or even five, one above the other, and they cross and reeross one another, some times at sliort intervals, on each of these levels; so that, on the whole, there arc certainly not less that 350 miles of them; that is to say, if stretched out in one continuous Une, they would extend the whole length of Italy itself. The galleries are from two to four feet in width, and vary in height acconliiig to the nature of the rock in whicli they are dug. The walls on both sides are pierced with horizontal niches, like slielves in a book-ca.se, or bertlis in a steamer, and every niche once contained one or more dead bodies. At various intervals this succes.sion of shelves is interrupted for a moment, that room may be made for a doorway opening into a small chamber; and the walls of these chambers are generally pierced with graves in the same way as tlu! galleries. These vast ex- cavati<ms once formed the ancient Cliristian cemeteries of Rome; they were begun in apostolic times, and contii.'ied to be used as burial-places of the faithful until the capture of the city by Alaric in the year 410. In the third century, the Roman Cliurch numbered twenty- five or twenty-six of them, corresponding to tno number of her titles or parishes within tlie city; and besides thes<;, there are about twenty others, of smaller dimensions, isolated monuments of special martyrs, or belonging to this or that private family. Originally tliey all belonged to private families or individuals, the villas or gardens In which they were dug being the property of wealthy citizens who had embraced the faith of Christ, and devoted of their substance to His service. Hence their most ancient titles were taken merely from tlie names of their law- ful ownei-s, many of which still survive. . . . It has always been agreed among men of learn- ing who have had an opportunity of examining these excavations, that tliey were used exclusively by the Christians as places of burial and of holti- ing religious assemblies. Modern research has placed it beyond a doubt, that they were also originally designed for this purpose and for no other." — J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, Roma Sotterranen, bk. 1, ch. 1. A1.8O IN: A. P. Stanley, Chvintinii Inntitntions, ch. 13. CATALAN GRAND COMPANY, The.— The Catalan Grand Company was a formidable body of militjiry adventurers — mercenary sol- diers — formed in Sicily during the twenty years of war that followed the Sicilian Vespers. " High pay and great license drew the best sinews in Catalonia and Aragon into tlie mercen- ary battalions of Sicily and induced tliem to s'lbniit to the severest discipline." The con- clusion of peace in 1302 threw this trained army out of employment, and the greater part of its members were enlisted in tlie service of Androni- cusll., of the restored Greek empire at Constanti- nople. They were under the command of one Roger de Flor, who had been a Templar, de- graded from his knighthood for desertion, and afterwards a pirate; but wliose military talents were undoubted. The Grand Company soon quarrelled with the Greek emperor; its leader was assassinated, and open war declared. The Greeli army was terribly defeated in a battle at Apros, A. I). 1307, and tlie Catalans plundered Thrace for two years without resistance. Galll- poli, tlieir headquarters, to which they brought their captives, became one of tlic great slave marts of Europe. In 1310 they marched into the heart of Greece, and were engaged in the service of Walter de Brienno, Duke of Athens. He, too, found them dangerous servants. Quarrels were followed by war; the Duke perished in a battle (A. D. 1311) with his Catalan 398 CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. CATHOLICS. mercenaries on the banks of the Cephissus; his dukedom, embrncing Attica and Bojotia, was tlie prize of their victory. The widows and daugli- ters of the Greek nobles wlio liad fallen were forced to marry the officers of the Catalans, who thus settled themselves in family as well us estate. They elected a Duke of Athens; but proceeded afterwards to make the duchy au appanage of the House of Aragon. The title was held by sons of the Aragonese kings of Sicily until 1377, when it passed to Alphonso V., king of Aragon, and was retained by the kings of Spain after the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile. The titular dukes were represented at Athens by regents. " During the period the duchy of Athens was possessed by the Sicilian branch of the house of Aragon, the Catalans were incessantly engaged in wars with all their neighbours." But, gradually, their military vigor and discipline were lost, and their name and power in Greece disappeared obout 1388, when Athens and most of the territory of its duchy was conquered by Nero Acciainoli, a rich and powerful Florentine, who had become governor of Corinth, but acted as an independent prince, ond who founded a new ducal family. — G. Finlay, IIi»t. of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, bk. 4, ch. 2, sect. 3. Also in : Same, Uist. of Greece from its Comj. by the Crusaders, ch. 7, sec. 3. — E. Gfibbon, Decline and Fall of Die Roman Empire, eh. 63. CATALANS: A. D. 1151— The County of Barcelona united by marriage to Aragon. See Spain : A. D. 1035-1258. A. D. I2th-i5th Centuries. — Commercial importance and municipal freedom of Barce- lona. See Barcelona: 13th-10th Centuuiks. A. D. 1461-1473. — Lon^ but unsuccessful revolt against Jonn IL of A. D. 1368-1479. ■ Aragon. See Sp.\in : A. D. 1630-1640. — Causes of disaffection and revolt. See Spain: A. D. 1637-1640. A. D. 1640-1652. — Revolt.— Renunciation of allegiance to the Spanish crown. — Annexation to France offered and accepted. — Re-subjec- tion to Spain. See Spain: A. D. 1640-1043; 1644-1646; 1648-1653. A. D. 1705.— Adhesion to the Allies in the War of the Spanish Succession. See Sp.\in : A. D. 1705. A. D. 1713-1714. — Betrayed and deserted by the Allies. See Spain: A. D. 1713-1714. CATALAUNIAN PLAINS. See Huns: A. D. 451. CATALONIA. See Catalans. CATANA, OR KATANA, Battle of. See Syisacuse: B. C. 397-390. CATANIA. — Storming and capture by King Ferdinand (1849). See Italy: A. D. 1848-1849. CATAPAN. See Italy (SotrrnERN): A. 1). 800-1016. CATAWBAS, The. See American Abo- KioiNKs: Siouan Family. CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, Treaty of. See France: A. D. 1547-1559. CATERANS.— "In 1384 an act was passed [by the Scotch parliament] for the suppression of masterful plundered, who get in the statute their Highland name of 'catenm.'. . . This is the first of a long succession of penal and denuncia- tory laws against the Highlanders." — .1. H. Bur- ton, Hist, of Scotland, v. 3, eh. 37. catharists, or PATARENES.— "Among all the sects of the Middle Ages, very far the most importiint in numbers and in radical antagonism to the Church, were the Cathari, or the Pure, as with characteristic sc<:tarian a.ssumption they styled themselves. Albigenses they were called in Languedoc; Patareiies in North Italy ; Good Men by themselves. Stretch- ing through central Europe to Thrace and Bulgaria, they joined hands with the Paulicians of the East and shared their errors. Whether these Cathari stootl in lineal historical descent from the old Manichicaiis, or hiul generated a dualistic scheme of their own, is a ({uestioii hard to answer, and which has been answered in very different ways. This much, however, is certain, that in all essentials they agreed with tliem." — U. C. Trench, Lects. on Mediieval Church Hist., leet. 15. — "In Italy, men supposed to hold the same belief [as that of the Paulicians, Albigenses, etc.] went by the name of the Pateriui, a word of uncertain derivation, perhaps arising from their willingness meekly to submit to all sufferings for Christ's sake (pati), perhaps from a quarter in the city of Jlilan named ' Pataria ' ; and more lately by that ol Catiiari (tlie Pure, Puritans), which was soon corrupted into Gazari, whence the German ' Ketzer, ' the general word for a heretic." — L. Mariotti, Pra Doleitu) and hit Times, ch. 1. — See, also, Paulicians, and Albi- genses. CATHAY. See China: Tiik Names of thk Coi'.NTKV. CATHELINEAU and, THE INSUR- RECTION IN LA VENDEE. See France: A. D. 1793 (March — April); (June); and (July — ~"D K C F MBE R^ CATHERINE I., Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1735-1737 Catherine II., Czarina of Rus- sia, A. D. 1763-1796 Catherine and Jean d'Albret, Queen and King of Navarre, A. D. 1503-1513 Catherine de Medici : her part in French history. See France: A. D. 1533- 1547, to 1584-1589. CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION AND THE CATHOLIC RENT IN IRELAND. See IREL.VND: A. D. 1811-1839. CATHOLIC DEFENDERS. See Ireland: A. I). 1760-1798. CATHOLIC LEAGUE, The. See Papacy: A. D. 1530-1531. CATHOLIC LEAGUE IN FRANCE, The. See France: A. I). 1576-1.585 and after. CATHOLICS (England): A. D. 1572-1679. — Persecutions. See En(!L.vni); A. U. 157^ 1603; 1585-1587; 1.587-1588; 1678-1679. (Ireland) : A. D. 1691-1782.— Oppression of the Penal Laws. See Irelakd: A. 1). 1691- 1782. (England): A. D. 1778-1780.— Repeal of Penal laws.— No-Popery Riots. See Eng- land: A. U, 1778-1780. (Ireland) : A. D. 1795-1796.— Persecution by Protestant mobs.— Formation of the Orange Society. See Irei..\.nu; A. 1). 1795-1796. (Ireland) : A. D. 1801. — Pitt's promises broken by the King. See Enoland: \. \). 1801-1806. (England and Ireland): A. D. 1829.— Eman- cipation from civil disabilities. See Ioeland: A. D. 1811-1839. 399 CATHOLICS. CAUCASUS AND THE CniCAS8IAN8. CATHOLICS, Old. Sec Papact: A. D. 18««-1H7(). CATILINE, The Conspiracy of. See Rome: B. ('. «:). CATINI, The. See Huitain, Cki.tk' Tiiiiiks. CATO THE YOUNGER, and the last ▼ears of the Roman Republic. See Rome: IJ. ('. 03-r)H, ti) 47-4(1. CATO STREET CONSPIRACY, The. Sec Kn(ii,.\ni>: \. I). 1H30-18:37. CATRAIL, The. — An anciont ninipart. the reiniiins of wliieli are found in southern Heot- hinil, runninjj from the south-east corner of PcebleKiiliire to the south slilo <>f Lulilesdnle. It is supposed to have marked the boundary between the old Anglian kingdom of Bernicia and the territory of the British kings of Alcluith (Dumbarton).—" W. F. Skene, CelticSoithiiid.v. 1. CATTANI.— VASSALL— MASNADA.— SERVI.— The feiidal barons of northern Italy were called t'attani. In the Florentine territory, "many of these Cattani, after having be^n sub- dued and made citizens of Florence, still main- tained tlieir feudal following, and weie usually attended by troops of retainers, half slaves, linff freedmen, called 'Uomini di Masnada,' whohchl certain possessions of them by the tenure of military service, took oaths of fidelity, and appear to have included every rank of person in the different Italian states according to the quality of the chief; but without any degrada- tion of character being attached to such employ- ment. This kind of servitude, which could not be thrown off without a formal act of manumis- sion, was common in the north of Italy, and began in the 11th century, when innumerable chieftains started up owning no superior but the emperor. Being at constant war with each other they sought every means of creating a military foUowin'j by granting lands to all ranks of people, and it is probable that many slaves were tnen partly emancipated for the purpose: such a condition, though not considered dis- honourable, was thus essentially tinged wit': the colours of slavery, and so far differed from tie ' Vassi 'and ' Vassali,' as well as from the 'Vava- sours.' . . . Some slight, perhaps unnecessary distinction is made between the 'Vassi,' who are supposed to have been vassals of the crown, and the 'Vassali,' who were the vassals of great lords. The ' Vavasours ' were the vassals of great vassals. . . . This union [as described above] of ' Servi,' slaves, or vassals of one chief, was called ' Masnada,' and hence the name ' Mas- nadieri,' so often recurring in early Italian his- tory; for the commanders of these irregular bands were often retained in the pay of the republic and frequently kept the field when the civic troops had returned to their homes, or when the war was not sufficiently important to bring the latter out with the Can-occio. . . . Besides these military Villains, who were also called 'Fedoli,' there were two other kinds of slaves amongst the early Italians, namely prisoners of war and the labourers attached to the soil, who were considered as cattle in every respect except that of their superior utility and value: the former species of slavery was probably soon dis- solved by the union of self-interest and human- ity: the latter began to decline in the 12th cen- tury, partly continued through the 13th, and vanished entirely in the I'Mi centur''." — H. E. Napier, Florentine HUtorij, o. 1, p. 634 CATTI, The. See Ciiatti. CATUVELLANI, The. S.e BniTAiN, Cei,- CAUCASUS AND THE CIRCASSIANS. — The Russian conquest. — "The Caucasus ha.s always po.s,ses.sed a certain fas<ination not for the Russians only, but also for western nations, and is pecidiarfy rich in historical traditions, and in memories of ancient times and ancient nations. Here to the rocks of Elbruz, Prome- the 8 lay chained; and to Colchis, wliere the Phasis flowed towards the sea, through ever green woods, came the Argonaut.s. The present Kutais is the old capital of King .Eetes, near which, in the sacred grove of Ares, hung the golden fleece. The gold mines which tlie Rus- sians discovered in 1804 were apparently known to the Greeks, who.se <!olony, Dioscurias, was an a.s.semblage of .'iOO diverse nationalities. . . . Here on the coasts of the stormy and dangerous Black Sea arose the famous Pontine kingdom [seo MiTiiiiiiUTic Wahs] which in .spite of its valiant resistance under Mithridates. fell a victim to Roman aggression. Along the rivers Kura and Rion ran the old commercial road from Europe to Asia, which enriched the Venetians and the Genoese in the middle ages. Up to recent times this trade consisted not only of all sorts of other merchandise, but of slaves; numberless girls and women were conveyed to Turkish harems i.nd there exercised an important inlluence on the character of the Tartar and Jlongol races. In the middle ages the Caucasus was the route by which the wild Asiatic hordes, the Goths, Khasars, Huns, Avars, Mongols, Tartars, and Arabs cro.ssed from Asia into Europe ; and con- sequently its secluded valleys contain a popula- tion composed of more different and distinct races than any other district in the world. . . . It was in the 16th century, under Ivan the Ter- rible, that Russia first turned her attention to the conquest of the Caucasus; but it was not till 1859 that the defeat and capture of the famous Schamyl brought about the final subju- gation of the country. ... In 1785 [after the partial conquest of 1784 — see Turks: A. D. 1776-1792] the mountaineers had been incited to take arms by a so-called prophet Scheick Man- sur, but he was seized and banished to Solovetsk, on the White Sea. In 1820 a MoUah, Kasi by name, made his appearance in Daghestan, and began to preach the ' Kasawat,' that is, holy war against the Russians. To him succeeded another equally fanatical adventurer, Hamset Beg. The work which they had begun was carried on by Schamyl, who far surpassed his predecessors in all the qualities which make up a successful guerilla chief, and who maintained the unequal conflict against the en6:r>'es of his country for 35 years with singular good fortune, undaunted courage, untinng . energy, and conspicuous ability. He was of the tribe of tlie Lesgliians in Daghestan, and was bom in 1796, in the village of Gimri, of poor shepherd parents. In spite of his humble origin he raised himself to the rank of an Imaum, surrounded himself with a strong body-guard of devoted adherents, whom he named Murides, and succeeded in fanning to a flame the patriotic ardour of his fellow-country- men. The capture of the mountain fastness of Achulgo in 1839 seemed to be the death-blow of Schamyl's cause, for it brought about the loss of the whole of Daghestan, the very focus of the 400 CAUCASUS AND THE CIRCASSIANS. CECROPIA Muridcs' activity. Srhamyl barely cscapfid beiaij madi! u prisoner, ami was forceci to yield up ills son, Djammel-ICddeii, only nine years of ago as a hostage. The boy was sent to St. Petersburg and placed in a cadet corps, which he left at the conclusion of his military educa- tion somewhere about 18.50 and returned to his native countrv in 1854 where he <lied a few years later. In 1840 the Tchetcliens, who had jjrt^viously been pacified, rose in arms once more, and Daghestan and other Jj)i»rts of the country followed their example. The country of the Tchetchens was a specially favourable theatri! for the conflict witli the Russians; its long mountain chains, rocky fastnesses, impenetrable forests, and wild precipices and gorges rendered ambusciules and surprises of constant and, to the Russians, fatal occurrence. During the earlier stages of the war, Russia liad ransomed the officers taken prisoners by tlie mountaineers, but, subsequently, no ([uarter was given on either side. At last, by means of a great cou- wjntration of tnwps on all the threatened points, by fortifying the chief central stations, and by forming broad military roads tliroughout the district, tiie Russians succeeded in breaking down Scliamvl's resistance. He now suffered one reverse after another. His chief fastnesses, Dargo, Weden, and Guni, were successively stormed and destroyed; and, finally, he himself and his family were taken prisoners. He was astonished and, it is said, not altogether grati- fied to find that a violent death was not to close his romantic career. Ho and his familv were at first interned at Kaluga in Ru.ssia, both a house and a considerable sum of money for his mainte- nance being assigned to him. But after a few years he was allowed to remove to Mecca, where he died. His sons and grandsons, who have en- tirely adopted the manners of the Russians, are oflScers in the Circassian guard. In 1864 the pacification of the whole country was accom- plished, and a few years later the abolition of serfdom was proclaimed at Tiflis. After the sub- jugation of the various mountain tribes, the Circassians liad the choice given them by the QovemmcDt of settling on tlie low country along the Kuban, or of emigrating to Turkey. The latter course was chosen by the bulk of tlu nation, urged, thereto, in great measure, by en- '• ys from Turkey. As many as 400,000 are said u have come to the ports, where the Sultan had promised to send vessels to receive tlicm; but delays took place, and a Irrge number diid of want and disease. Those \vlio reached Turkey were settled on the west coasts of the Black Sea, in Bulgaria and near Varna, and proved them- selves most troublesome and unruly subjects. Most of tlione who at first remained m Circassia followed their fellow-countrymen in 1874." — H. M. Chester, Rusna, ch. 18. Also in; F. Mayne, Life of Nietiolas I., pt. 1, eh. 11 and 14. — S. M. Schmucker, Life and Reign of Nicholas L, ch. 21. CAUCAPUS.The Indian.— "The real Cauca- sus was the inost lofty range of mountains known to the Greeks before [Alexander's conquests], and they were generally regarded as the highest mountams in the world. Hence when the army of Alexander came in sight of the vast mountain barrier [of the Hindoo Koosh] that rose before them as they advanced northward from Aracho- sia, they seem to have at once concluded that this could be no other than the Caucasus." Hence the name Caiicasus given by the Greeks to those mountains; "for the n;une of Hindor Koosh, by which they ari' still known, i • nothing more than a corruption of flic Indian (Jaucasus. — E. II. Bimburv, Hint, of Ancient Oeog., eh. 13, note Q. CAUCI, The. Sei^ Ikeland, TninEs ok K\ui,v Cki.tic Inii.vhitants. CAUCUS.— In KtlU — the fourth year of the colony of .Massacliusetts May — the freemen of the colony chose niiillr\ instead of Winthrop for governor. The iir\i year they " followed up tlie doctrine of rotation in olll<'e by choosing Haynes as governor, a dioice agreeil \ipon l)y deputies from the towns, who came together for tliat purpose previously to the meeting of the court — the first instance of 'tlie cauiMis system' on record." — K. Hildreth, Hint, of the U. S., i: 1, /). 334. — See, also, CoNanEss of the United St a t k s CAUDINE FORKS, The Romans at the. See R0.M1:: B. C. :!t:t-3«0. CAUSENNiE, OR ISINiE.— A town of some importance in Roman Brilain. "Tliera can be no doubt that this town occupied tlie site of tlie modern Ancaster, wliicli has been cele- brated for its Roman antiquities since the time of Lcland." — T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, ch. 5. CAVALIERS, The party of the. See Eng- land; A. I). 1641 (Octodeu); al.so. Round- heads. CAVE DWELLERS.— "We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Bel- gium, Germany, and Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming part of a fauna in which northern and soutliern, living and extinct, species are strangely mingled with those "now living in Europe. In the neolithic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of the Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the small dark-haired peoples of Europe." — W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting, ]>. 430. CAVE OF ADULLAM. See Adullam, C.\VE OF. CAVOUR, Count, and the unification of Italy. See Italy; A. D. 1856-1859, and 1859- 1861. CAVOUR, Treaty of (1561). See Savoy: A. D. 1559-1580. CAWNPUR, OR CAWNPORE: A. D. 1857. — Sieee by the Sepoy mutineers. — Sur- render and massacre of the English. See India; A. D. 1857 (May— August), and 1857- 1858 (July— June). CAXTON PRESS, The. See Printing andtiiePiiess; a. D. 1476-1491. CAYENNE, Colonization of. See Guiana: A. D. 1580-1814. CAYUGAS, The. See Ameiucan Abo- rigines; Iroquois Confedeuacy. CEADAS, The. See Baratiiuu.m. CEBRENES, The. See Thoja. CECIL, Sir William (Lord Burleigh), and the reign of Elizabeth. See England; A. I). 1558-1598. CECORA, Battle of (1621). See Poland: A. D. 1.590-1648. CECROPIA.— CECROPIAN HILL.— The Acropolis of Athens. See Attica. 401 CEDAU CREEK. CENSORS. CEDAR CREEK, Battle of. Hoc United Statk.s ok Am. : \. 1). \HM (AuiiUHT — OcxoiiEn: VimiiNi.\). CEDAR MOUNTAIN OR CEDAR RUN, Battle of. Sec Uniteu States ok Am. : A. D. 1882 (.IiJi.Y— Auni'BT: Vikoinia). CELESTINE 11., Pope, A. D. 1143-1144. . . . .Celestine III., Pope, A. 1). 1191-1198 Celestine IV., Pope, A. I). 1241 Celestine v.. Pope, A. I). 1294. July to December. CELTIBERIANS, The.— "The Celtiberi (K'cupled the centre of Spain, and a large jjartof the two Castiles, an elevated tabk^ land bordered and internectt'd by muuntaiu8. They were the most warlike race in the Spanish peninsula. " — O. Long, Decline of the Ildiiuiii Itepublie, ch. 1. — "Tlie appellation Oelliberians indicates that in the north-eastern part of the peninsula [Spain] there was a mi.\ture of Celts and Iberians. Nevertheless the Iberians must have been the prevailing race, for we find no indications of Celtic characteristics in the people." — \V. Ihne, llUt. of Jloine, hk. 3, ch. 6, note. — See, also, KuMANi'iAN Wau. CELTS, The.— "The Celts form a branch of the great family of nations which lias been varioush called Aryan, Indo-PIuropeiui, ludo- Qermanic, IndoCeltic and .Japhetic, its other branches being represented by the Italians, the Greeks, the Litu-Slaves, the Armenians, the Persians and the chief peoples of Hindustan. . . . The Celts of antiquity who appeared tirst and oftr^iiest in history were tho.se of Gallia, which, having been made by the French into Gaule, we term Gaul. It included the France and Switzerland of the present day, and much territory besides. Tliis people iiad various names. One of them was Oalli, which in their language meant warriors or brave men; . . . but the Gauls themselves in Ctcsar's time appear to have preferred the name which he wrote CeltfB. This was synonymous with the other and appears to have meant warriors. . . . The Celtic family, so far back as we can trace it into the darkness of antiquity consisted of two groups or bran<'lies, with linguistic features of their own which marked them off from one another. To the one belonged the ancestors of the jicople who speak Gaelic in Ireland, the Isle of JIan and the Highlands of the North. . . . The national name which the members of this group have always given themselves, .so far as one knows, is that of Gaidhel, pronounced and spelt in Englisli Gael, but formerly written by themselves Goidel. . . . The other group is represented in point of speech by the ])eople of Wales and the Bretons. . . . .''he national name of those speaking these dialects was that of Briton ; but, since that word has now no precise meaning, we take the Welsh form of it, which is Brython, and call this group Brythous and Brythouic, whenever it is needful to be exact. The ancient Gauls must also be classifled with them, since the Brythons may be regarded as Gauls who came over to settle in Britain." — J. Khys, Celtic Britain, ch. 1. — See, also, AuvANS, and Ari'ENin.K A, v. 1. Origin and first meaning of the name. — " Who were the Keltic of Spain V tlie population whose name occurs in the word Celtic! and Celtiberi, Keltic Iberians or Iberian Kelts V . . . I think, that though used to denominate the tribe and nations allied to tlie Gauls, it [the word Celt or Kelt] was, originally, no Gallic word — as little native as Welsh is British. I also think that even the first populations to which it was applied were other than Keltic in the nuxlern sense of the term. I think, in short, that it was a word belonging to the IlK'rian language, applied, until the time of Coisar at least, to Iberic ])opulations. ... By the time of CiEsar, how- ever, a great number of undoubted Gauls were included under the name Celtic : in other words, the Iberian name for an Iberian population was first adopted by the Greeks as the name for all the inhabitants of south-western Gaul, and it was then extended by the liomans so as to include all the populations of Gallia except the Belgiu and Aquitanians." — U. G. Latham, /l%- nology of Kuroiye, ch. 2. ♦ CELTS. — A name given among archieologists to certain iirehistoric implements, both stone and bronze, of the wedge, chisel and axe kind. Mr. Thomas Wright contends that the term is properly applied only to the bronze chisels, which the old antiquary Ilearne identified with the Itomau celtis, or chisel — whence the name. It has evidently no connection with the word Celt used ethnologically. CELYDDON, Forest of (or Coed Celydon). See Bhitain, Celtic Tuibes. CENABUM. See Genabum. CENOMANIANS, The. See Inscbiiians. CENSORS, The Roman.—" The censorship was an office so remarkable that, liowever familiar the subject may be to many readers, it is necessary here to bestow some notice on it. Its original business was to take a register of the citizens and of their property; but this, which seems at first sight to be no more than the dniw- ing up of a mere statistical report, became in fact, from the large discretion allowed to every Uoman officer, a political power of the highest importance. The censors made out the returns of the free population ; but they did more ; they divided it according to its civil distinctions, and drew up a list of the senators, a list of the equites, a list of the members of the several tribes, or of those citizens who enjoyed the right of voting, and u list of the lurarians, consisting of those freedmen, naturalized strangers, and others, who, being enrolled in no tribe, possessed no vote in the comitia, but still enjoyed all the private rights of Uoman citizens. Now the lists thus drawn up by the censors were regarded as legal evidence of a man's condition. . . . Prom tlience the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decision of questions of right; sucli as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank. ... If a man behaved tynmuically to his wife or children, if he was guilty of excessive cruelty even to his slaves, if he neglected his land, if he indulged in habits of extravagant expense, or followed any calling which was regarded as degrading, the offence was justly noted by the censors, ami the offender was struck off from the list of senators, if his rank was so high; or, if he were an ordinary citizen, he was expelled from his tribe, and reduced to the class of tlio icrarians. . . . The censors had the entire management of the regular revenues of the stjite, or of its vcctigalia. They were the commonwealth's stewards, and to their hands all its property was entrusted. . . . With these almost kingly powers, and arrayed in kingly state, for the censor's robe was all scarlet 402 CBNovyRS. CENTRAL AMERICA. . . . tho ceniora might well seem too great for a free commonwcultli. — T. Arnold, Iliit. of Iloinf, eh. 17. — See, iilso, Lurtkilv. CENTRAL AMERICA: Ruins of ancient civilization. See Amkuican Aiiouiuineh: Mayas, iiiid QticiiKs; also, Mkxico, Ancient. Discovery and early settlement. See Ameii- ICA A. 1). 14»8-ir)0,j; inOK-ir.U; 1513-1517. A. D. 1831-1871. — Separation from Spain, and Independence. — Attempted federation and its failures. — Wars and revolutions of the five Republics. — "The eenlral part of the American continent, extending from the southern boundary of Mexico to tho Isthmus of Panama, consisted in the old colonial times of several Inteiulaneiea, all of which were united in the Captaincy-Gen- eral of Guatemala. Like the West Indian Islands, it was a negleci ■ i part of the Spanish Empire. . . . Central America has no history up to the epoch of independence. ... It was not until the success of the Revolution had become certain on both sides of them, both In Mexico and New Qn\na<la, tlnit the Intendancies which made up the Captaincy-General of Guatemala declared themselves also independent of Spain. The cry of liberty had indeed been raised in Costa Rica in 1813, and in Nicaragua in 1815; but tho Revolution was postponed for six years longer. Guatemala, tho seat of government, published its declaration in September, 1821, and Its example was speedilv followed by San Salva- dor and Honduras. Nicantgua, on jiroclaiming its independence, together with one of the depart- ments of Guatemala, declared its adhesion to wliat was known in Mexico as the plan of Iguala [see Mexico: A. D. 1820-1830]. As there were no Spanish troops in Central America, the recu- sant Spanish official party could make no resist- ance to the popular movement; and many of them crossed the sea to Cuba or returned to Spain. . . . Tlie Revolution of Central America thus stands alone in the history of independence, as having been accomplished without the shed- ding of blood." During tho brief empire of Iturbidc in Mexico [see as above] the Central American states were annexed to it, though with strong resistance on the part of all except Guatemala. "On the proclamation of the Fed- enjl Republic in Mexico [1824], tlie whole of Central America, except the district of Chiapas, withdrew from the alliance, and drove out the Mexican officials as only a year before they liad driven out the Spanish officials. The people now had to face the task of forming a government for themselves: and . . . they now resolved on combining in a federation, in imitation of tlie great United States of North America. Perhaps no states were ever less suited to form a federal imion. The petty territories of Central America lie on two oceans, are divided by lofty niountiiins, and have scarcely any communication with each other: and the citizens of each have scarcely any common interest. A Central American feilera- tion, however, 'was an imposing idea, and tlie people clung to it with great pertinacity. The first effort for federation was made under the direction of General Fillsola. All the Intendan- cies combined i'l one sovereign state; iii-st under the name of the 'United Provinces,' afterwards (November 23, 1823) under that of the ' Federal Republic ' of Central America. ... A constitu- tion of tlie most liberal kind was voted. This constitution is romarliable for having been the first which nbolKdied slavery at o.ncc and abso- lutely and declan'd the slave trade to bo piracy. . . . The clerical and oligarchic party set their faces stubbornly against the execution of the constitution, and began the revolt at Leon in Nicaragua. The union broke down in 182(t, and though Mora/.an [of Honduras] reconstituted it in 1820, its history Is a record of continual re- bellion and reaction on the part of the Guatc- maltec oligarchy. Of all South American con- servative parties this oligarchy was perhaps the most despicable. They sank to their lowest when they raised the Spanish fiag In 1832. Rut in doing this tliey went too far. Morazan's successes date froni this time, and having beaten the Guatemaltccs, ho transferred the Federal government In 1834 to San Salvador. Hut the Federal Republic of Central America dragged on a precarious existence until 1838, when it was overthrown by the revolt of Carrera in Guate- mala. From the first the Infiuenco of the Fed- eralists in the capital began to decay, and it was soon apparent that they lia<l little power except in Honduras, San Salvador and Nicaragua. The Costa Ricans, a thriving commercial community, but of no great ))olitical importance, and sepa- rated by mountainous wastes fro r. all the rest, soon ceased to take any part in public business. A second Federal Republic, excluding Costiv Rica, was agreed to in 1842; but it fared no better than tho first. Tho chief representative of tlic Federalist principle in Central America was Jlorazan, of Honduras, from whose govern- ment Carrera had revolted in 1838. On tho fail- ure of the Federation Morazan had fled to Chile, and on his return to Costa Rica ho was shot at San Jos6 by the Carrerlsts. This was a great blow to the Liberals, and It was not until 1847 that a third Federation, consisting of Honduras, San Salvador, and Nicaragua, was organized. For some years Honduras, at tho head of these states, carried on a war against Guatemala to compel It to join the union. Guatemala was far more than their match: San Salvador and Nica- ragua soon failed in the struggle, and left Hon- duras to carry on the war alone. Under General Carrera Guatemala completely defeated Its rival; and to his successes are due the revival of the Conservative or Clerical party all over Central America. . . . The government of each state became weaker and weaker: revolutions were everywhere frequent: and ultimately . . . the whole country was near falling into the hands of a North American adventurer [see Nicauaocja: A. D. 1855-1800]. In former times the English government had maintained some connection with the country [originating with the bucca- neei-s and made important by the mahogany -cut- ting] through the independent Indians of the Mosquito co;ist, over whom, for the purposes of their trade with Jamaica, it had maintained a protectorate : and even a small English eoinmer- cial colony, called Greytown, had been founded on this coast at the mouth of tho river San Juan. Towards the close of Carrera 's asceiuhiiify this coast was resigned to Nicaragua, iind tho Bay Islands, which lie off the coast, to Honduras: and England thus retained nothing In the country but the old .settlement of British Honduras, with its cap! tal, Belize. After Carrera's death in 1805, tho Liberal party began to reas.sert itself: and in 1871 tiiere was a Liberal revolution in Guatemala It- self." — E. J. Payne, Hint. oJ'Eurup'u Culou's, c/i.21. 108 CENTRAL AMERICA. CIIALCI8 AND ERKTRIA. Al.do IN : 11. 11. Bancroft, Ilitt. of the Pneifle Staten. * CENTRAL ASIA. See Aria, Ckntiiai,. CENTRE, The. Hci' Ukiiit. &v. CENTREVILLE, Evacuation of. Hce Unitki) Statkh ok Am. : A. D. 18fll-lM63 (I)e- CKMiiKU— Maiicii: Viuoinia). CENTURIES, Roman. See C'o.mitia Cen- Tl'IIIATA. CENTURION.— The onkrrcommamllnjf one of llic llfty live ('cnturlcs or ('(imimiiics in a Uoiimri l('u;iiiii of tlic empire. See Lkoion, CENWULF, KingofMercia, A. D. 704-819. CEORL. See Kom,, and PItiiki,. CEPEDA, Battle of (1859). ^^i'*" Auoentink Rkim lil.ic: A. I). IHID-IHT'T CEPHISSUS, Battle of the (A. D. 1311). See Catalan Oiiand Company, CERAMICUS OF ATHENS.— Tlio Ceni- niicus was orl^rinally tlic most important of tlie suburban (iiHtriets of Alliens and derived its name from the potters. "It is iirobalile tliat about the time of I'isislmtus tlie market of tlio aneient suburb called tlie Ceramieus (for every Attic district jiossessed its own marliet) was con- stituteil the eenlral market of the ('ity. . . . They [the Pisistratidie] connected Athens In all directions by roadways with the country di.s- tricts: tiiese roads were accurately measured, and all met on the Ceramieus, in the centre of which an altar was erected «o the Twelve Gods. From this centre of town a id country were cal- culated the distances to tlie dilTerent country districts, to the ports, and to the most important sanctuaries of the common fatherland. . . . [In the next century — in the age of Pericles — the population had extended to the north and west and] part of the ancient potters' district or Ceramieus had long become n quarter of the city [the Inner Ceramieus]; the other part remained Siiburb [the Outer Ceramieus]. Between the two lay the double cntc or Dipylum, the broad- est and most splendid gate of the city. . . . Here the broad carriage-road which, avoiding all lieiglits, ascended from the market-place of llippodamus directly to the city-inarket of the Ceramieus, entered the city ; from here straiglit to the west led the road to Eleusis, the sacred course of the festive processions. . . . Prom this road again, immediately outside the gate, branched off that which led to the Academy. . . . The high roads in tlie vicinity of tlie city gates were everywhere bordered witli numerous and handsome sepulchral monuments, in par- ticular the road leading through the outer Cera- mieus. Here lay the public burial-ground for the citizens who had fallen in war; tlie vast space was divided into fields, corresponding to the different battle-fields at home and abroad." — E. Curtius, Iliat. of Greece, bh. 3, ch. 2, and bk. 3, eh. 3. Also in : AV. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, sect. 3. CERESTES, OR KERESTES, Battle of (1596). See Hungary : A. D. 1595-1606. CERIGNOLA, Battle of (1503). See Italy: A. n. ir)0i-i,')()4. CERISOLES, Battle of (1544). See France: A. 1). ir)32-1547. CERONES, The. See Bihtain, Celtic TaiBBS. CERRO GORDO, Battle of. Sco Mexico: A. I>. IH47(.MAmir— SKi-rKMnK.n). CESS.— A word, corrupted from "assess," si>;iiifyiiig a rate, or ta.\; used especially in Scotland, and applied more particularly to a tax imposed in 1()7N, for the maintenance of troops, during tlie persecution of the Covenanters. — A Cl'iiiil of M^itnetnes, ed. hy ,T. II, Thoinpmin, p. 67. — The Imp. Dirt. CEUTA, A. D. 1415.— Sieg^e and capture by the Portugese. See 1'oiituoai,: A. 1). 14ir(- MIIO. A. D. 1668.— Ceded to Spain. See Pohtu- oal: a. D. 1637-1608. CEVENNES, The prophets of the (or the C^venol prophets). — The Camisards. See FllANCK: .\. 1). 17tl',>-171(). CEYLON, 3d Centary B. C— Conversion to Buddhism. SeelNHiA: B. ('. 312 . A. D. 1802.— Permanent acquisition by England. See Fhanck: A. I). lMOl-1803. ♦ CHACABUCO, Battle of (1817). SccCuilk: A. I). 1H10-1H18. CHACO, The Gran. See Guan Ciiaco. CHiGRONEA, Battles of (B. C. 338). See GiiKiccE; U. C. 357-386 (B. C. 86). See MiTiiuiDATu: Wahs. CHAGAN. See Khan. CHA'HTAS, OR CHOCTAWS, The. See Ameuican Ahokioines: Muskiiooban Family. CHALCEDON.— An ancient Greek city, founded by tlio Megarians on the Asiatic side of the Bosphoriis, nearly opposite to Byzantium, like whicli city it suffered in early times many changes of masters. It was bequeathed to the P.omans by tlic last king of Bithynia. A. D. 358.— Capture by the Goths. See Goths: A. I). 258-267. A. D. 616-635. — The Persians in possession. See Peiisia: A. D. 226-627. CHALCEDON, The Council of (A. D. 451). See Nestorian and Monophysite Contro- versy. CHALCIS AND ERETRIA.-"Tlie most dangerous rivals of Ionia were tlic towns of Euba!a, among whicli, in the fl,rst instance, Cyme, situated in an excellent bay of the east coast, in a district abounding in wine, and after- wards the two sister-towns on the Euripus, Chal- cis and Eretria, distinguished themselves by larger measures of colonization. While Eretria, tlie 'city of rowers,' rose to prosperity especially by means of purple-flshericB a!id a ferry-naviga- tion conducted on a constantly increasing scale, ('halcis, the 'bronze city,' on the double sea of the Boeotian sound, contrived to raise and employ for herself the most important of the many treasures of the island — its copper. . . . Chalcis became the Greek centre of tins branch of industry ; it became the Greek Sidon. Next to Cyprus there were no richer stores of copper in tlie Greek world than on Euboea, and in Chal- cis were tlio first copper- works and smithies known in European Greece." — E. Curtius, UUt. of Greece, bk. 2, ch. 3.— Tlie Chalcidians were enterprising colonists, particularly in Thrace, in tlie Macedonian peninsula, whore they are said to have founded thirty-two towns, which wore collectively called the Chalcidice, and in southerj Italy and Sicily. It was the abundant wealth of 404 CHAWI8 AND ERETHIA. CnANOBLLOR Tlimcfi In mctnlllo nrrH which drew tlic Chiilcl- dliiim to it. About 71)0 H. C. u bonier feud l)etwct'n Clmli'lH iiiid Krclrlii, comcrriiii;; iTrtaiii " Lvlniitiiiii llcldM" wliicli liiy bi'twtcn lliciii, grew to Hiicli proporlioiiH and ho iiiiiny other Htutea eimu' to tiike part In it, that, "according to Tluieydides no war of iiioro iiidverHul import' aiico for the whole imlloti was foujflit between tho fall of Troja and the Persian war." — The Kanie, r. 1, lik. 2, c/i. 1. — ChalelH wan subdued by thi! Athenians in H. (;. BOO. 8ec Athenb: B. C. noO-.IOd ; also Ki.Eiiiifns, and Eoikea. CHALCUS. See T.m.knt. CHALDEA. — CHALUEES. See Bahv- LONIA, CHALDEAN CHURCH. Sec Nkstokians. CHALDIRAN, Battle of (1514). He.' TiriiKs; A. I). HHI^l.V.'O. CHALGROVE FIELD, Fall of Hampden at. See Enoi.and: A. I). 1643 (Auoust — Sei-- TEMHKIl). CHALONS, Battles at (A. D. 271).— Amonc the many pretenders to tlio Roman imperial throne — "tlie thirty tyrants," as they were called — of the distracted reign of Oalllenus, was Tetrieus, who had been governor of Aquitaine. Tho dangerous honor was forced upon him, by a demoraliz(^d army, and he reigned against his will for several years over Gaul, Spain antl Britain. At length, when the iron-handed Aurellan had taken tho reins of government at Itomo, Tetrieus secretly plotted with him for deliverance from bis own uncoveted greatness. Aurellan invaded '' ud and Tetrieus leu an army against him, only betray it, in a great battle at Chalons (271), « liero the rebels were cut to pieces. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, eh. 11. A. D. 366. See Alemanni, Invasion of Gaul by the. A. D. 451. See Huns: A. D. 451, Attila's Invasion of Qaui,. CHALYBES, The.— Tho Chalybes, or Chalybians, were an ancient people in Asia Minor, on the coast of the Euxino, proboblv east of tho Halys, who were noted as workers of Iron. — E. H. Bunbury, Ilist. of Ancient Oeog., ch. 22, note A. CHAM AVI, The. See Bructeri; also, Franks; also, Gaul: A. D. 355-301. CHAMBERS OF REANNEXATON, French. See Fhance: A. I). 1670-1081. CHAMBERSBURG, Burning of. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (July: Virginia — Maryland). CHAMPAGNE: Origin of vhe county.— In the middle years of the revolt that dethroned the Carlovinglans and raised the Capotians to a tlirone which they made the throne of a kingdom of France, Count Herbert of Vermandoiii allied himself with tho party of the latter, and began operations for the expanding of Ids domain. "The Champaign of Rheims, the 'Campania Remensis' — a most appropriate descriptive de- nomination of the region — an extension of the plains of Flanders — but not yet employed politi- cally as designating a province — was protected against Coimt Herbert on the Vermandois border by the Castrum Theoilorici — Chateau Thierry. . . . Herbert's profuse promises induced the commander to betray his dutj'. . . . Herbeit, through this occupation of Ch&teau Tlueiiy, obtained therltv of Troyesandall the 'Campania ReinensiM.' wlilrb, under his poti'nt sway, was speedily developed Into the magnilleent ('ouiily of Champagne. Herbert and his lineage lielil Chanipagne during three genenilions, until some time after the accession of the Capets, when the Grand Fii'f pas.sed from the Mouse of Ver- mandois to the lliiuse of lllois,"— Sir F. I'al- grave. Hint. <if SnniHiinhi mul /■.'m/., r. 2, ;>. 103. CHAMPfeAUBERT, Battle of. See I'^hanci;: A. D. Ihi 1 (.Iamaiiy— Maiicii), CHAMPION Y.Sortie of (1870). See France: A. I>. 1H70-IH7I. CHAMPION'S HILL, Battle of. See United States ok Am. : A. I). 1863 (Arnii Jfi.Y: On the Missihhippi). CHAMPL AIN, Samuel.— Explorations and Colonizations. See Canada (Ni^w FitANcE): A. 1). 160;t-Ul(r(; KIOH-lOll; and lOll-lOIO. CHAMPLAIN, Lake: A. D. 1776. -Arnold's naval battle with Carleton. See II.nitemStateh OF A.M. : A. I). 177<l-1777. A. D. 181^. — Macdonough's naval victory. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 1814 (Sep- tember). - — » CHAMPS DE MARS. -CHAMPS DE MAI. — Wlien the Merovingian kings of the Franks summont'd their captains to gather for tho plaiming and preparing of campaigns, tho assemblies A-ere cailecl at first the Champs do Mars, because the meeting was In earliest spring — In March. " But as the Fnmks, from serving on foot, became cavaliers under tho second [tho Carlovlnglan] race, the time was change(l to May, for the sake of forage, and the as-semblies were called Champs do Mai." — E. E. Crowe, Hint, of France, ch. 1. — See, also, Mallum, and Parliament of Paris. CHANCAS, The. See Peru: The Abori- ginal INIIAHITANTS. CHANCELLOR, The.— "Tho name [of tho Chancellor], derived [irobably from the cancelll or screen behind which the secretarial work of the royal household was carried on, claims a con- siderablo antiquity ; and the offices which it de- notes are various in proportion. The chancellor of the Karollngian sovereigns, succeeding to tho place of the more ancient rcferendarius, Is simply the royal notary, the archifancellarius Is tho chief of a large body of such officers a.ssoclated under the .mmo 01 the choncery, and is the keeper of the royal seal. It is from this minister that the English chancellor derives his name and function. Edward the Confessor, the first of our sovereigns who had a seal, is also the first who had a chancellor ; from the rcign of the Conqueror tho office has descended in regular succession. It seems to have been to a comparatlv(!ly lato period, generally if not always, at least in Eng- land, held by an ecclesiastic who was a member of the royol household and on a footing with tho great dignitaries. The chancellor was the most dignified of tho royal chaplains, if not the head of that body. Tho whole secretarial work of the liousehold and court fell on the chancellor and the chaplains. . . . Tho chancellor was, in a manner, the secretary of state for all depart- ments."— W. Stubbs, Const. Hist. ofEng.,ch. 11, sect. 121.—" In the reign of Edward I. we begin to perceive signs of the rise of the extraordinary or equitable jurisdiction of the Chancellor. Tho numerous petitions addressed to the King and 406 niANCELLOR CHARLES. liiH (.'ouncil, McckinK tlio Inturpmiltion of tlw- royal KHicp und fuvoiir cither to niltlnuti! tli(! ImrHli- MfsH of the ( 'oniiiioii I.iiw or Hiipply ItH (Ictlcii'iiriis, had Utii In tliu H[M'('iitl care of the (.'haiitrllor, who uxumiiK-d and reported upon tliem to the Khix. . . . Al letit'th, in t!WH, l)y a writ or or- dinance of the 'i'M vcar of KdwanI III. all such niattcrH iw were 'of (knco ' were ciirccttMl to he <liHpatclieil hy the Chamudlor or liy the Keeper of the I'rivy Heal. Thin wan n great Htep in tlie re<'o^Tiltion of tlio o(|iiital>ie Jurisdiction of tlip (Nuirt of (liancery, hh diHtinct from the legal jurisdiction of the Ohancclior and of thu (NxirtH of Common Law; although it was not until the following reign tliat it can be sidd to havu been permanently cHtaliliHhed." — T. I'. Tasweli-Lang- mead, h'ng. Omul. JIiiit.,j>p. 17:1-174.— "The Lord Chancellor is a I'rivy Councillor by IiIh offlcc; a Cabinet Minister ; and, according to Lord Chancel- lor KllcHinere, prolocutor [I'hainnan, or Speaker] of the IIous(! of Lords by prescription." — A. C. Ewald, T/ic Croitn and it» Ailrisert, Uet. 2. Amm) in : E. FiBchcl, 2'he KnglUh Corutitntion, bk. 5, ek. 7. CHANCELLOR'S ROLLS. See Excue- qllKK. — ExcilKtilKK KoI.I.M. CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battles of. Bee Un'teij States ok A.vi. : A. 1). 1883 (.VrniL— M.\/: Viu(iinia). CHANCERY. Hee CiiANCEi,i,on. CHANDRAGUPTA, OR CANDRAGUP- TA, The empire of. Bee India: H. C. 327-312, und 312 . CHANEERS, The. See Ameuican Aboiii- gineh: SioiAN Family. CHANTILLY, Battle of. See United States op Am. : A. I). 1802 (Auoubt— Septem- HEit: Vihoinia). CHANTRY PRIESTS.—" With the more wealthy and devout lin the 14th, 15th and 16th centiirfeH] it was the pnicticc to erect little chapels, which were cither added to churches or enclosed by screens within them, where chantry priests might celebrate mass for the good of their souls in perpetuity. . . . Large stmis of money were . . . devoted to the maintenance of chantry priests, whose duty it was to say mass for the rcpo.se of the testator's soul. . . . The character and conduct of the chantry priests must have be- come somewhat of a lax order in the 16th cen- tury. "—K. It. Sharpc, /;i^ to •' Calendar of Wills in the Ctiiirt of Iliiatinr/, Ix/mlon," n. 2, ;). viii. CHAOUANONS, The. See American Abo- niOINES: SlIAWANESi;. CHAPAS, OR CHAPANECS, The. See Ameuican .Viioukiinks: Zapotkcb, &c. CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of. See Mexico: A. D. 1847 (Maucii— SEi-rEMiiKii). CHARCAS, Las. — The Spanish province which now forms the Republic of Uolivia. Also called, formerly, Upper Peru, and sometimes the province of Potosi. — See Aimientine Republic : A. D. 1580-1777; and Bolivia: A. D. 1825- 1826. CHARIBERT I., King of Aquitaine, A. D. 561-507 Charibert II., King of Aquitaine, A. D. 628-031. CHARITON RIVER, Battle of. See United Stati:s ok Am. : A. D. 1862 (.Iult — SEPTKMiiEU : Missorui — Aukansak). CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE. See Fuankb(CaulovingianEmpiue): A. D. 708-814; Roman Empike: A. D. 800; Lombards: A. D. 7M-774; Baxonh: A. D. 772-Sftl; Avarh: 701- 805; and HpAiN: A. I). 778. CHARLEMAGNE'S SCHOOL OF THE PALACE. See HciKHIL OK THE I'alack. CHARLEROI : A. 0. 1667.— Taken by the French. Sec Nktiieklands (The Hpanihii I'uoviNCEK): A. I). 1007. A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. See Nrthkh- LANDS (Holland): A. I>. 1608. A. D. 1670.— Restored to Spain. See Nimb- oi'EN, The Peace ok. A. D. 1693.— Siege and cnoture by the French. Sec FnAN( e: .V. " lOu.t (■Iin.Y). A. D. 1697.— Restored to Spain. See Francb : A. I). 16 >7. A. D. 1713.— Ceded to Holland. See Utheciit: a. I). 17l'2-1714. A. D. 1746-1748.— Taken by French and ceded to Austria. Hee Netiieiilandh: A. I). 1740-1747,andAix LA (;iiapelle,Tiie(;on«reb8. CHARLES (called The Great — Charle- magne), King of Neustria, / . I). 768; of all the Franks, A. D. 771 ; of Franks and Lorabardy, 774 ; Emperor of the West, 800-814 Charles of Austria, Archduke, Campaigns of. See France: A. I). 1706 (Aprii,— Octobeu); 1700- 1707 (October— April) ; 1707 (Aprii^.May); 1708-1700 (August— April); 1700 (August- December); also Ger.many: 1800 (.January- June), ( .July— Seitemueu ) Charles of Bourbon, King of Naples or the Two Sicilies, 17:J4-1750 Charles (called The Bold), Duke of Burgundy, 1407-1477 Charles I., King of England, 1625-1640.— Trial and execution. See England: A. I). 1640(.Januauv) Charles I. (of Anjou), King of Naples and Sicily, 1200- 1282; King of Naples, 1282-128.5 Charles I., King of Portugal, 1880- Charles II. (called The Bald), Emperor, and King of Italy, A. 1). 875-877; Kingof Neustriaand Burgundy, 840-877 Charies II., King of England, 1000- 1085. (Bt a loyal fiction, supposed to have reigned from 1649, when his father was be- headed ; though the throne was in Cromwell's possession) Charles II., King of Naples, 1285-1300 Charles II., King of Navarre, 1340-1387 Charles II., King of Spain, 106.'>- 1700 Charles III. (called The Fat), Em- peror, King of the East Franks (Germany), and King of Italy, A. 1). 881-888; King of the West Franks (France), 884-888 Charles III. (called The Simple), King of France, A. D. 802-020 Charles III., King of Naples, 1381-1386 Charles III., King of Navarre, 1387-1425 Charles III., King of Spain, 17.50-1788 Charles IV., Emperor, and King of Italy, 135.5-1378; King of Bohemia, 1340- 1378; King of Germany, 1347-1378; King of Burgundy, 130.5-1378 Charles IV., King of France, and of Navarre (Charies I.), 1322-1328. . . . .Charies IV., King of Spain, 1788-1808 Charles V., Emperor, 1510-1558; Duke of Bur- eundy, 1500-1555; King of Spain (as Charles I.) and of Naples, or the Two Sicilies, 1516- 1556. See Austria: A. I). 1400-1526 Charies V. (called The Wise), King of France, 1304-1380 Charles VI., Germanic Emperor, and King of Hungary and Bohemia, 1711-1740. . . . .Charies VI. (called The Well-loved), King of France, 1380-1422 Charies VII. (of Ba- varia), Germanic Emperor, 1742-1745 Charies VIL, King of France, 1422-1461 406 CHARLES. CIIATILLON sun HKINK. Charlei VIII., King of France, 148»-1408. Charles IX., King of France, I.VIO-lfl74. Charlei IX., King of S'/eden. HlOl-ltlll. Charles X., King of France (the last of the House of Bourbon), I^Jt-iHilo Charles X., King of Sweden, HW-Kino Charles XI., King of Sweden, tiWI()-|<m7 Charles XII., King of Sweden, KIDT-WIH Charles XIII., King of Sweden, Ihoimhih Charles XIV.(Bernadotte), King of Sweden, IHlH-mit. . . . .Charles XV., King of Sweden, 1H,-.I»-|HTJ. Charles Albert, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, ts:il IHII) Charles Emanuel, Duke of Savoy, l.'iHO-KIMO Charleb Emanuel II., Duke of Savoy, ItllW KC." ...Charles Emanuel III., Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 17;lO-177;t Charles Emanuel iV., Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinip 1 DXl- mn Charles Felix, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, lHJl~lH;ti Charles Mar- tel, Duke of Austrasia and Mayor of the Palace (of the King of the Franks), .V. D. 71.')-7U Charles Robert, or Charobert, or Caribert, Kingof Hungary, lMi)M-i;ilJ Charles Swrr- kerson, King of Sweden. lltll-ll«7. CHARLESTON, S. C. : A. D. i6ao.— The founding of the city. Scu HouTii Caiiolina: A. 1). 1(170- loim. A. D. i7o6.— Unsuccessful attack by the French. Sim; South Caiioi.ina: A. I). 1701- 1700. D. 1775-1776. — Revolutionary proceed- Suo .Soi-Tii Caikm.ina: A. I). l77.') anil D. 1776.— Sir Henry Clinton's attack repulse. See United States ok Am. : A, ings. 1776. A. and A. I). 1*70 (.lUNE). A. D. 1780.— Siege by the British.— Sur- render of the city. Sec United States of Am. : A. 1). 1780 (Feiiuuauy — Ai:oUKT). A. D. i860.— The splitting of the National Democratic Convention. See United ST.vrns okAm. : A. 1). lH0O(AiMiii Novk.miikii). A. D. i860.— The adoption of the Ordinance of Secession. Sec United States of Am. : A. I). 1800 (NovEMHEii — Decemueii). A. D. i860. — Major Anderson at Fort Sum- ter. Sen United States ok Am. : A. D. 1800 (Decemueu). A. D. 1861 (April). — The Beginning of war. — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. Sec United 8t.\tes OK Am. : A. U. 1801 (Maiuh— Aphil). A. D. 1863 (April).— The attack and repulse of the Monitor fleet. See United States of Am. : A. I). 1803 (Ai'iui, : South Cauomna). A. D. 1863 (July). — The Union troops on Morris Island. — Assault on Fort Wagner. See United States ok A.m. : A. 1). 180!) (Jii.y: South Caiioi.ina). A. D. 1863 (August — December).— Siege of Fort Wagner.— Bombardment of the city. See United States OK Am. : A. I). 1803 (August — Decemueu: South Caiioi.ina). A. D. 1865 (February). — Evacuation by the Confederates. — Occupation by Federal troops. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1865 (Febru- Auv : South Caholina). CHARLESTOWN, Mass.: A. D. 1623.— The first settlement. See Massachusetts: A. 1). lOaO-1630. CHARTER OAK, The. See Connecticut : A. I). 1085-1087. CHARTER OF FORESTS. 8«'eENiil.AND: A. 1). l'Ji:;-l.'71. CHARTERHOUSE,OR CHARTREUSE. Hoc {'AUTIIIHIXN OllMKIl. CHARTISTS. -CHARTISM. See E.so- land: A. 1». IHItH-lMfJ, Jtnci IMIH. CHARTRES, Defeat of the Normans at.— The Nonimii, Unlli), liivcHtiiiff llic city cif CImr- trcH, Hustiiined there, mi the '.iOtli of .luly, A. I>. 911, the most Herli>us defeiit which hv iiiul his piriites ever «ii(Tere(l. — Sir F. I'iil){rm-e, //int. of Xormii mil/ mill A'/h/., tik: 1, r/i. 5. CHARTREUSE. La Grande. See Caii- TlirwlAN Okdkk. CHASIDIJa, OR CHASIDEES, OR AS- SIDEANS, The.— .V Tmmc, HiKiiifyiiiK the jjdilly or pliiiis, iiHKumeil liy 11 party ainoii); the ,IeWH, III the .second century M. i',., who resisted the (JrccliuilzInK tendencies of the time under the liilliienee of the OriecoSyriiui ddininiitliiii, mid who were the nucleus of the Mucciil«'an revolt. The latiT school of the Pharisees if rc^p- resented by Kwald (Ifinl. of Im-ii '<■. 5, nirt. 'i) to have lieen the prisluct of a 11,1. ..wIiik iraiis- foriiiationof the school of the Cliasidiiii; wliili'thii Es.senes, in Ills view, were a purer resiiliii^ of the Cliashlini "who strove after piety, yet would not Joii. the Pharisees" ; who abandoned " society as worldly and Incurably corrupt," and in whom "the con.selenee of the nation, as it were, with- drew into the wilderness." — II. Ewahl, Iliiit. of hriifl, hk. 5, met. 'i. — A iinMlerii sect, iHjrrowinjj; the name, founiled l)y one Isnu'l Baal Sehein, vrlio first appeared In Podolla, in iriO, is said to em- brace most of the .Jews In tjallcia, Hungary, Southern Russia, and Wallai liin — 11. C. Adams, Hint, of the Jeim. p. 333. Ai,s() IN ; II. Oraetz, JftHt. of t/ieJeies, v. \ ch. P. CHASuARII, The. See Franks: Oihoin, ETC. ^ CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty of (1559).^ SeeFliANCE: A. D. l.')47-15r)i). CHATEAU GALLAIRD.— This was the name given to a famous castle, built by Hichard Cu!ur (le Lion in Normandy, and designed to be the key to the defences of that important duchy. "As a iiioiiument of warlike skill, his 'Saucy Castle,' Chateau CJaillard, stands first among tlio fortresses of the AIi(hlle Ages. Uieliard ti.\(!d its site where the Seine benils suddenly at Gail- Ion in a great semicircle to the north, and where the Valley of Les AndiMys breaks the line of the chalk cliffs along its bank. The castle ff)rnied part of an intrenched camp which Hidiard ile- signed to cover his Norman capital. . . . The easy reduction of Normandy on the fall of Cliiltcau Gaillard at a later time [when it was taken by Philip Augustus, of France] proved HU^hard's foresight." — .1. It. Green, Short Ilist. of the Kiiqlinh People, ch. 2, neet. 0. CHATEAU THIERRY, Battle of. See France: A. D. 1814 (.Januauv— .Maucii). CHATEAUVIEUX, Fete to the soldiers of. See LiiiEitTY Cai*. CHATHAM, Lord; Administration of. See Enoland: a. I>. 17.')7-17«0: 1760-1703, and 1765-1708 And the American Revolution. See United States of A.m. : A. I). 1775 (.Janu- ary — Mahcii). CHATILLON, Battles of (1793). See France: A. D. 1703 (.July- Decemueu). CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, Congress of. See France : A. D. 1814 (January— SIauch). m CHATTANOOGA. CIIERU8CI. CHATTANOOGA : The name. Sco United Statics of A.m. : A. I). 186a (Auoust — Skitkm- iiEii: Tennebskk). A. D. 1862.— Secured by the Confedemtes. Sni' United States ok Am. : A. I). 180a(.IrNE — OCTOIIEII : Ten.nehskk — Kentih'ky). A. D. 1863 (August). — Evacuation by the Confederates. Hcu United States of Am. : A. I). 18(1!{ (AudusT — Septembek: Tennessee). A. D. 1863 (October— November).— The siege. — The battle on Lookout Mountain. — The assault of Missionary Ridge. — The Rout- ing of Bragg's army. Sec United States of Am.: a. I). 180!! (Octobek— Novembem : Ten- nessee). * CHATTI, or CATTI, The.— "Beyond [the JIuttiaei] are the Clmtti, wliose settklnents begin lit the llercyniiin forest, where the country is not so open luiil marshy ns in the other <;antons into which Germany stretches. They are found where there are hills, and with them grow less frequent, for the llercynian forest keeps close till it has seen llie last of its native Chatti. Hardy frames, close-knit limbs, fierie countenances, und a peculiarly vigorous courage, mark the tribe. For Germans, they have nnich intelli- gence and sagacity. . . . Other tribes you see going to battle, the Chatti to a campaign." — "The settlements of the Chatti, one of the chief German tribes, apparently coincide with poi ions of Westphalia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstjidt and Hcsse-Cassel. Dr. Latham assumes the Chatti of fiicitus to be the Suevi of Cicsar. The fact that the name Chatti does not occur in Ca'sar renders this hypothesis by no means improbable." — Tacitus, Germany, trans, by Church and Brod- rihh, and note. — See, also, SuKVl. CHAUCER, and his times. See England: A. D. 1350-1400. CHAUCI and CHERlISCI,.The.— "The tribe of the Chauci . . . beginning at tlie Frisian settlements and occupying a part of the coast, stretches along the frontier of all the tribes which I have enumerated, till it reaches with a bend as fcr as the Chatti. This vast extent of country is not merely possessed but densely peopled by the Chauci, the noblest of the Ger- man races, a nation who would maintain their grnntnesw hy .igliteous dealing. Without am- bition, without lawless violence, ... the crown- ing prnf of their valour and their strength is, that they keep up tlieir superiority without harm to ethers. . . . Dwelling on one side of the Chauci and Chatti, tlic Cherusci long cherished, unossailed, au excessive and enervating love of peace. This was more pleasant than safe, . . . and so the Cherusci, ever reputed good and just, are now called cowards and fools, while in tlie case of tlie victorious Chatti success has been identified with prudence. The downfall of the Cherusci brt ught with it also that of the Fosi, a neighbouring tribe." — "Tlie settlements of the Chauci . . . nuist have included almost the en- tire country between tlie ^ ^s and the Wes(!r — that is, Oldenburg and ^ of Hanover — and have taken in portions ot Westphalia about Munstcr and Paderboni. The Cherusci . . . appear to liave occupied Brunswick and the south part of Hanover. Armiuius who destroyed the Komau army under Varus, was a Clicruscim chief. . . . The P\)si . . . must have occupied part of Hanover. " — Tacitus, Minor Works, trans. by Chureh and lirodribb: The Germany, iHth (leoff. notes. — ULshop Stubbs conjectures that the fthauci, Cherusci, and spme other tribes may have been afterwards comprehended under the general name "Saxon." See Saxons. CHAZARS, The. See Kiiazaus. CHEAT SUMMIT, Battle of. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1861 (August — Decem- uek: W?;st Vihoinia). CHEBUCTO.— The original name of the harbor chosen for the site of the city of Hali- fax. See Nova Scotia: A. D. 1740-1755, and Halifax: A. D. 1749. CHEIROTONIA .—A vote by show of hands, among the ancient Greeks. — Q. F. SchOmann, Anttq. of Orcece: The State, pt. 8, eh. 3. CHEML See Eovi'T : Its NA.ME8. CHEMNITZ, Battle of (1639). Sec Ger- many: A. D. 1634-1639. CHERBOURG.— Destroyed by the Eng- lish. See England: A. U. 1758 (July — August). CHEROKEE WAR, The. See South Cauoi.ina: a. D. 1759-1761. CHEROKEES, The. See American Abo- rigines: ChEKOKEES. CHERRONESUS, The proposed State of. See Northwest Territory of the United States of Am. : A. D. 1784. CHERRY VALLEY, The massacre at. See United States op Aji. : A. D. 1778 (June — No'> ember). CHERSON. See Bosphorus: A. D. 565- 574. A. D. 988.— Taken by the Russians.— "A thousand years after the rest of the Greek nation was sunk in irremediable slavery, Cherson re- mained free. Such a phenomenon as the ex- istence of manly feeling in one city, when man- kind everywhere else slept contented in a state of political degradation, deserved attentive con- sideration. . . . Cherson retained its position as an independent State until the reign of Theo- philus [Byzantine emperor A. D. 829-842], who compellecl it to receive a governor from Con- stantinople; but, even under the Byzantine government, it continued to defend its municipal institutions, and, instead of slavishly soliciting the imperial favour, and adopting Byzantine manners, it boasted of its constitution and self government. But it gradually lost its former wealth and extensive trade, and when Vladimir, the sovereign of Russia, attacked it in 988, it was betrayed into his hands by a priest, who in- formed hiin how to cut off the water. . . . Vladimir obtained the hand of Anno, the sister of the emperors Basil XL and Constantine VIII., and was baptised and married in the church of the Panaghia at Cherson. To soothe the vanity of the Empire, he pretended to retain possession of his conquest as the dowry of his wife. Mony of the priests who converted the Russians to Christianity, and mLuy of the artists who adorned the earliest Russian churches with paintings and mosaics, were natives of Cherson. " — G. Finlay, Hist, of the Byzantine Empire fro^n 716 to 1057. « CHERSONESE, The Golden. SceCHRYSE. CHERSONESUS.— The Greek name for a peninsula, or "laud-island," applied most especi- ally to the long tongue of land between the Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas. CHERUSCI, The. See Cuaucl 408 CHESAPEAKE AND SHANNON. CrilCAQO. CHESAPEAKE AND SHANNON, The fight of the. Sci' L'.NITED 8t.vti:s ok Am. : A.I). 18l'i-I81i!. CHESS, Origin of the game of,— "If wc wisheil to know, for iiistanci!, wlio has tjiu>;ht us tlie game of cliess, thu name of chess would tell us better than anything else that it canio to the West from Persia. In spite of all that lias been written to the contrary, ches,s was originally the game of Kings, the game «f Shahs. This worcl Shall became in Old French eschac, It. scacco, Germ. .Schach; while the Old French eschecs was further corrupted into chess. Tlic more original form chec has likewise been prcserve<l, though wc little think of it when we draw a clicquo, or when wo suffer a check, or wlien we speak of the Chancellor of tlic E.\ehoquer. The great object of the chess-player is to protect the king, and when the king is in danger, the opponent is obliged to say 'check,' i. e.. Shall, tiie king. . . . After this the various meanings of check, cheque, or exchequer become easily intelligible, though it is quite true that if similar changes of meaning, which in our case we can watch by the light of history, had taken place in the dimness of prehistoric ages, it would be dilTlcult to convince the sceptic that exchequer, or scaccarium, the name of the chess-board was afterwards used for the checkered cloth on which accounts were calculated by means of counters, and that a checkered career was a life with many cross-lines." — F. Max MUUer, Bio(i. of Wordu, ch. 4. CHESTER, Origin of. See Deva. CHESTER, The Palatine Earldom. See Palatine.Tue English Counties; also AVales, PniNCE OP. CHESTER, Battle of.— One of the fiercest of the battles fought between the Welsh and the Angles, A. I). 613. The latter wore the victors. CHEVY CHASE. See Otteubuun, B.vtti.e OP. CHEYENNES, OR SHEYENNES, The. See American Abouig INKS : Algonquian Fa.m- ILY. CHIAPAS : Ruins of ancient civilization in. See Am Kuic.\N AnouiGiNEs ; Mayas ; and Mexico, Ancient. CHIARI, Battle of(i70i). Sec Italy (Savoy AND Piedmont): A. D. 1(01-1713. CHIBCHAS, The. Sec Ameuican Abo- RIOINES: ClIIBCIIAK. CHICAGO: AD. 1812.— Evacuation of the Fort Dearborn Post, and massacre of most of the retreating garrison. See United States OK Am. : A. D. 1813 (.Iune— Octoiiek). A. D. i860.— The Republican National Con- vention. — Nomination of Lincoln. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1800 (Apuil— Novem- ber). A. D. 1871.- The great Fire.—" The greatest event in the history of Chicago was the Great Fire, as it is terme(i, which broke out on the evening of Oct. 8, 1871. Chicago was at that time [except in the bu.siness centre] a city of wood. For a long time prior to the evening re- ferred to there had been blowing a hot wind from the southwest, which had dried everything to the iuflammability of tinder, and it was ui)on a mass of suu and wind-dried wooden structures that the Are began its work. It is supposed to have originated from the accidental upsetting of a kerosene lamp in a cow barn [Mrs. O'Leary's] 27 409 on De Koven Street, near the corner of .Tcfforson, on the west side of the river. Tnis region was composed large'^' of shanties, and the fire spread rapidly, very • 1 crossing the river to the South Side, and fas ing on that portion of the city which contained nearly all tiie leading business hoiLses, and which was built up very largely witll stone and brick. Rut it seemed to enkindle as if it were tinder. Some buildings were blown up with gunpowder, which, in connection with the .strong southwest gale, prevented the exten- sion of the Ihinies to the south. The tire swept on Monday steadily to the north including every- thing from the hike to the South Branch, and then crossed to the Xorth Side, and, taking in everything fnmi tli(^ lake to the North Branch, it burned northward for a distance of three miles, where it died out, at the city limits, when there was nothing more to burn. In the midst of this broad area of devastation, on the north side of Washington Square, between Clark Street and Dearborn Avenue, the well-known Ogden house stands amid trees of the ancient forest and sur- rounded by extensive grounds, the solitary relic of that section of the city lieforc the liery tlood. The total aren of the land burned over was 3,100 acres. Nearly 30,000 buildings were consumed; 100,000 people were rendered homeless; 200 lives were lost, and the grand total of values destroyed is estimated at |200,000,000. Of this vast sum, nearly one-half was covered by insurance, but under the tremendous losses many of the in- surance companies were forced to the wall, and went into liquidation, and the victims of the con- flagration recovered only about one-flfth of their aggregate losses. Among the buildings which were burned were the court-house, custom-house and post office, chamber of commerce, three rail- way depots, nine daily newspaper oftlces, thirty- two hotels, ten theatres and halls, eight public schools and some branch sc'iool buildings, forty- one churches, five elevators, .!nd all the national banks. If the Great Fire was r.n event without parallel in its dimensions and the magnitude of Its dire results, 1 he charity which followed it was equally unrivalled in its extent. . . . All the civilized world appeared to instantly appreciate the calamity. Food, clothing, supplies of every kind, money, ".iiessages of atfection, sympathy, etc., began pouring in at once in a stream that ap- peared endless and bottomless. In all, the amount contributed reached over §7,000,000. . . . It was believed by many that the fire had forever blotted out Chicago from the list of great American cities, but the spirit of her people was undaunted by calamity, and, encouraged by the generous sympathy and help from all quarters, they set to work at once to repair their almost ruined fortunes. . . . Rebuilding was at once com- menced, and, within a year after the fire, more than $40,000,000 were expended in improvements. The city came up from its ruins far more palatial, splendid, strong and imperishable than before. In one sense the fire was a benefit. Its consequence was a class of structures far better, in every essential respect, than before the conflagration. Fire-proof buildings became the rule, the limits of woo<l were carefully restricted, and the value of the reconstructed portion imnieasuralily ex- ceeded that of the city which li,n 1 been destroyed. " —ifarquis' IfiiullMKik of C/iicai/u, p. 32.— "Thou- sands of people on the North Side fleil far out on the prairie, but other thousands, less fortunate, were CHICAGO. CHICAGO. Iicmmcd in before they could ronch the country, and wen; driven to tlie Sands, n group of l)encii- hillociis fronting on Lalie Micliigiui. Tlicsc liad been covered willi rescued mereliamlise 'ind fui niture. Tlie (lames fell fiercely upon the heaps of goods, and the miserable refugees were driven into the iilacli waves, wliere they stood neck-deep in rhilllng water, scourged l>y sheets of sparks and blowing sand. A great number of )<orses had been collected hero, and they too dashed into tlic sea, where scores of tliem were drowned. Toward evening tlie Mayor sent a ticet of tow- boats which took off tlie fugitives at the Sands. When the ne.xtday [Tuesday, October 10] dawned, the |)rairie was covered with the calcined ruins of more than 17,000 buildings. . . . Tills was the greatest and most disastrous c(mtlagration on reconl. The burning of Mo.scow, in 1813, caused ft loss amounting to .€30,000,000; but the loss at Chicago was in excess of this amount. Tlie Great Fire of London, in lOflO. devastated a tnict of 486 acres, and lestroyed IJi.OOO buildings; but that of f'hicago swept over 1,000 acres, and burned more than 17,000 buildings." — M. P. Swcetser, C'him;io (" Cities of the \YiirM," r. 1). — The following is the statement of area burned over, and of propt^rtv destroyed, made by tlie Chicago l{elief and Aid Society, and wliicli is probably authoritative: " The total area burned over in the city, including streets, was 3, 124 acres, or nearly tliree and one-third stiuare miles. Tliis area contJiined about 7U miles of streets, 18,000 buildings, and the homes of 100,000 people." — A. T. Andreas, IHkI. of Cliirarjo. v. 3, /). 760. Ai-s«> IN: J]. Colbert and E. Chanibcrlnin, Chi- ear/o and the Great ('onjliif/nitioii. A. D. 1886-1887.— The Haymarket Con- spiracy. — Crime of the Anarchists. — Their trial and execution. — " In Februaiy, 1886, Messrs. McCormick, large agriceUurnl machine makers of Chicago, refusing to yii 1 to the dictation of their workmen, who required tliem to discharge some non-Union hands they had taken on, announced a 'lock-out,' and pre- pared to resume business as soon as possible witli a new stalT. Spies, Lingg, and other German Anarchists saw their opportunity. Tliey jier- suaded the ousted workmen to prevent the ' scabs,' — anglice, ' blacklegs, ' — from entering the works on the day of their reopening. Revolvers, rifles, aid bombs were readily found, the latter being entrusted principally to the hands of professional 'Ueds.' The most violent a])peals were made to the members of Unions and the populace generally ; but though a succession of riots were got up, they were easily quelled by tlu! resolute action of 'lie ])oliee, backed by the approval of the immense majority of tlie people of Chicago. Finally, a mass meeting in arms was called' to take place on .May 4tli, 1886, at 7.!!0 i),m.. In tlie Haymarket, u long and recently wideiK'd stri'et of "the town, for the express purpose of denouncing the police. IJut the intention of the Anarchists was not merely to denounce the police : this was the pretext only. The i)ris()ns were to be forced, the police-stations blown up, the public buildings attacked, and the onslaught on property and capital to be inaugurated by the devastation of one of the fairest cities of the Union. By 8 p. m. a mob of some three or four tliousand persons had been collected, and were regaled by speeches that became more violent as the night wore ou. At 10 p. in. tlie police appeared in force. The crowd were commanded to disperse peaceably. A voice shouted : ' We arc peaceable. ' Captain Scliaack says this was a signal. The words were hardly uttered when 'a spark flashed through the air. It looked like (he lighted remnant of a cigar, but hissed like a miniature sky-rocket.' It was a bomb, and fell amid the ranks of the police. A terrific explosion followed, and immediately afterwards tlie mob opened Are upop the police. The latter, stunned for a nionient, soon recovered them- selves, returned the lire, charged the mob, and in a couple of minutes dispersed it in every direction. Hut eight of their comrades lay dead upon tli(! pavement, and scores of others were weltering in their blood around the spot. Such was the Chicago outrage of May 4(li, 1886." — The Spectator, Apr. 10, 1890 (reriewiny Sehaiirk'8 " Amirchy and Anarehintn"). — The Anarchists who were arrested and brought to itrial for this crime were eight in number, — August Spies, Michael Schwab, Samuel Fielden, Albert H. Parsons, Adolpli Fischer, George Engel, Louis Lingg, and Oscar W. Neebe. Tlic trial began July 14, 1886. The evidence closed on the 10th of August ; the argument of council consumed more tlian a week, and on the 20tli of August the jury brought in a verdict which condemned Neebe to imprisonment for fifteen years, and all the other i)risoi'ers to death. Lingg committed suicide in prison ; the sentences of Schwab and Fielding wen; commuted by tlie Governor to imprisonment for life; the remaining four were hanged on the 11th of November, 1887. — Judge Gary, The Chieai/o Anarchists of 1880 (Century Mmi., April, 1893). Also in: il. J. Scliaak, Anarchy and Anar- ch ints. A. D. 1892-1893.— The World's Columbian Exposition. — " As a fitting imxle of celebrating (he four hundredth anniversary of the landing of Columbus on Oct. 13, 1493, it was proposed to liave a universal exhibition in the United States. Tlie idea was flrsi taken up by citizens of New York, where subscriptions to the amount of $5,000,000 were obtained from merchants and capitalists before application was made for the sanction and support of the Federal Government. Wncn the matter came up in Congress the claims of Chicago were considered superior, and a bill was passed and approved on April 35, 1890, entitled ' An Act to provide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, by hold- ing an international exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois.' Tlie iict provided for the appointment of commissioners who should organize tlie exposition. . . . Wlien the organ- ization was completed and the stipulated fliiau- cial support from the citizens and munieipali'.y of Chicago assured, President Harrison, on Dec. 24, 1890, issued a proclamation inviting all the nations of the earth to participate in the World's (lolumbian Exposition. Since tlie time was too sliort to have tlie grounds and buildings com- pleted for the summer of 1893, as was originally intenclcd, the opening of the exposition was announced for May, 189!). When the work was fairly begun it was accelerated, as many as 10,000 workmen being employed at one time, in order to have the buildings ready to be dsdi- 410 CHICAGO. CHILE, 14S0-1734. catcd with imposing ceremonios on Oct. 12, 1803, in comniL'inomlion of tliu i'.\act date of the dis- covery of Anicrica." — Appleton'a Annual Cydo- padid, 1891, p. 8^7. —On .May 1, 180iJ, tlie Fair was opened witli appropriate ceremonies hy President Cleveland. CHICASAS, The. Sec American Abo- BloiNKs: MusKiiooKAN FAMILY; also, Louisi- ana: A. D. 1719-t7r)0. CHICHIMECS, The. See .Mexico: A. D. CHICKAHOMINY, Battles on the (Gaines' Mill, 1862; Cold Harbor, 1864). See Unitkd Status ok Am.: A. I). ISO'J (.Tune— July: ViK(iiNiA); and lHfi4(.MAY — Jt;xi;: Viikhnia). CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of. See United States of Am, : A. I). 1863 (August— Septem- ber: Tennknskk). CHICORA. — Tlie name given to the region of South Carolina by its Spanish discoverers. Sec America: A. D. l.JlO-l.T'.l CHILDEBERT L, King of the Franks, at Paris, A. I). oll-r),j8 CTiildebert 11., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. 1). .")?."i-.VJ{I; (Burgundy), rm-rm Childebert HL, King of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. I). 60.'>-711. CHILDERIC U., King of the Franks (Aus- trasia), A. 1). 0(10-078 Childeric UL, King of the Franks (Neustria), A. 1). 743-753. CHILDREN OF REBECCA. See ItEBEC- CAITE8. CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, The. Set) Crusades: A. D. 1313. CHILE:' The Araucanians. — "The land of Chili, from f!0" south latitude, was and is still in part occupied by several tribes who speak tlie same language. They form the fourth and most southern group of the Andes people, and are called Araucanians. Like almost all American tribal names, the term Araucanian is indefinite ; sometimes it is restricted to a single band, and som. ''.nes so extended as to embrace a group of tribes. Some regard them as a separate family, calling them Chilians, while others, whom we follow, regard them as the soutliern members of the Andes group, and still others class them with the Pampas Indians. The name Araucanian is an improper one, introduced by the Spaniards, but it is so firmly fixed that it cannot be changed. The native names are Mohiche (warriors) and Alapuche (natives). Originally thev extended from Coquimbo to the Chonos Archipelago aiul from ocean to ocean, and even now they extend, though not very far, to the east of the Cordilleras. They are divided into four (or, if we include tlie Picuhcho, five) tribes, the names of which all end In ' tche ' or 'che,' the word for man. Other minor divisions exist. The entf'c number of the Araucanians is computed at about 30,000 souls, but it is decreasing by sickness as well as by vice. They are owners of their land and have cattle in abundance, pay no taxes, nml even their labor in the construction of liigliways is only light. They are warlike, brave, and still enjoy some of the blessings of the Inca civilization; only_ the real, western Araucanians in Chili have attained to a sedentary life. Long before the arrival of the Spauia.ds the government of the Araucanians offered a striking resemblance to the military aristocnicy of the old world. All the rest that has been written of their higli stage of culture has proved to be an empty picture of fancy. Tlicy followed ngriculfure, built fixed lioii.ses, and made at least an attempt at a form of governnient, but they still remain, as a wliohi, cruel, plundering savages." — T/ie StandttrJ Niituml Hint. (J. H. Kinf/slei/, ed.), v, 6, ;)/). 333-334.— " Tlie Araucanians inlialiit the delight- ful region between tlii' Andes iind the sea. and between the rivers Hio-bio and Valdivia. They derive tlie api>ellation of Ariiucaiiians from the province of Aniiico. . . . The i)i)litical division of the Araucanian .state is regulated with much intelligence. It is divided from north to south into four governments. . . . Each government is divided into five provinces, and each piovlnco into nine counties. Tlie state; consists of three orders of nobility, each being subordinate to tlio other, and all having tlieir respective vassals. They are the Txiui.s, the .Vpo-Ulmenes, and the Ulmenes. The Toqiiis. or governors, are four in numlier. They are independent of each oilier, but confederated for the public welfare. The Arch-Ulmenes govern flie provinces under their resiiective Toquis. Tuo Ulmenes govern the i counties. The upper ranks, generally, are like- I wise comprehended under the term Ulmenes." — R. G. Watson, Spanish ami Porttiytwse S. Am., v. 1, ch. 13. Ai-SoiN: J. I. Molina, Oeog., Natural and Civil Hint, of Chili, i\ 3, bh. 3. A. D. 1450-1724. — The Spanish conquest. — The Araucanian War of Independence. — " In the year 14.50 the Peruviin Iiiea, Yupauqui, desirous of extending his d( minions towards the south, stationed himself wit.'i a powerful army at Atacama. Thence he dispatched a forces of 10,000 men to Chili, under the command of Chincliiruea, w' o, overcon;ing almost incredible obstacles, inarched through 1: sandy de.sert as far as Copiapo, a di.stance of 80 leagues. The Ci^piapins flew to arms, and preiiared to resist tills invasion. But Chinchirue.i, true to the policy which the Incas always observed, stood upon the defensive, trusting to persuasion rather than to force for the accomplishment of his d ■ igns. . . . Willie he proffered peace, he wiiued them of the consequences of resisting the ' Children of the Sun.' " After wavering for a time, the Copianins submitted themselves to the rule of the Incas. " The adjoining province of Coquimbo was easily subjugated, and steadily advancing, the Peruvians, some six years after their first entering the country, firmly established t.hcm.selves in the valley of Chili, at a distance of more than 300 leagues from the frontier of Atacama. Tlie ' Children of the Sun ' had met thus far with li*,tlc resistance, and, encouraged by success, they marched their victoiious armies agaiiLst the Purumancians, a warlike people living beyond the rivsr Rapel." Here they were desperately resisted, in a battle which lasted three days, and from which both armies witli ■ drew, undefeated and unvictorious. On learning this result, the Inca Yupanqul ordered his gen- erals to relinquish all ittempts at further con. quest, and to " seek, vy the introduction of wise laws, and by instructing the people iii agricuK turc and the arts, to establish themselves more firmly in the territory already acquired. To what extent the Peruvians were successful in the cndaavor to ingr.ift their civilization, religion, and customs upon the Chilians, it is at iliLi distaut day impossible to determine, since the earliest 411 CHILE, 1450-1784. CHILE, 1810-1818. historiiins difTer widely on tlit subject. Certain it is, that on the arrival of tlic Spaniards the Incas, at least nominally, ruled tlie country, and received an annual tribute of gokl from the people. In the year l.^SS, after the death of the unfortunate Inca Alahuullpu, Diego Ahnagro, fired by the love of glory and the thir.st for gold, yiehled to the solicitations of Fnuiei.sco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, and .set out for the subjection of (.'hili, which, as yet, had not been visited by any European. His arniy con- sisted of 570 H|)aniards, well cquippeil, and 15,000 Peruvian auxiliaries. Regardless of diffi- culties and dangers this impetuous soldier se- lected the nec.r route that lay along the summits of tlie Andes, in preference to the more circuitous road passing through the desert of Atacama. Upon the horrors of this inarch, of which so thrilling an account is given by Pre.scott in the 'Conquest of Peru,' it is unnecessary for us to dwell ; suffice it to state th'it, on reaching Copiapo no less than one-fourth of his Snanish troops, and two-thirds of his Indian ajxilia'ies, had perished from the effects of cold, fatigue and starvation. . . . Everywhere the Spaniards met with a friendly reception from the natives, who regarded them as a superior race of beings, and the after conquest of tlie country would probably hi ve been attended with no dilticulty had a con- ciliatory policy been adojited ; but this naturally inoffensive people, aroused by acts of the most barbarous cruelty, soon flew to arms. Despite the opposition of the natives, who were now rising in every direction to oppose his marcli, Almagro kept on, overcoming every obstacle, until he reached the river Cachapoal, the north- ern boundary of the Purumauciau territory." Here he met with so 8tid)born and effective a resistance that he abandoned his expedition and returned to Peru, where, soon after, he lost his life [see Peru: A. D. 153:5-1548] in a co.^test with the Pizarros. " Pizarro, ever desirous of conquering Chili, in 1540 dispatched Pedro Val- divia for that purpose, with some 200 Spanish soldiers and a large body ot Peruvians." The invasion of Valdivia was opposed from the moment he entered the country ; but he pushed on until he reached the river Mapoclio, and "encamped upon the site of the present capital of Chili. Valdivia, finding the locution pleasant, and the surrounding jilain fertile, here founded a city on the 24tli of February, 1541. To this first European settlement in Chili he gave the name of Santiago, in honor of the patron saint of Spain. lie laid out the town in Spanish style ; and as a place of refuge in case of attack, erected a fort upon a steep rocky hill, rising some 200 feet above the plain. " Tlie Mapochins soon attacked the infant town, drove its people to the fort and burned their settlement; but were finally repulsed with dreadful slaughter. "On the arrival of a second army from Peru, Valdivia, whose ambition had "Iways been to conquer the southern provi.iccs o* Chili, advanced into the country (if the Parumancians. Here history is probably d(^fccti\e, as we have no account of a'iy battles fought with these brave peoj/le. . . . We simply learn tliat the Spanish leader eventu- ally gained their good-will, and established with them an alliance both offensive and defensive. ... In the following year (1546) the Spanish forces crossed the river Maule, the southern boundary of the Purumancians, and advanced toward the Itata. While encamped near the latter river, they were attacked at dead of night by a body of Araucanians. So unexpected was the approach of this new enemy, that many of the horses were cajitured, and the army with difficulty escaped total destruction. After this terrible defeat, Valdivia finding himself unable to proceed, returned to Santiago. " Soon after- wards he went to Peru for reinforcements and was absent two years; but came oack, at the end of that time, with a large band of followers, aud marched to the South. "Keaching the bay of Talcahuano without liaving met with any oppo- sition, on the 5th of October, 1550, he founded the city of Concepcion on a site at present known as Penco." The Araucanians, advancing boldly upon the Spaniards at Concepcion, were defeated in a furious battle which cost the invaders many lives. Three years I'lter, in December, 1553, the Araucanians liad their revenge, routing the Spaniards utterly and pursuing them so funously that only two of their whole army escaped. Valdivia was among the prisoners taken and was- slain. Again and again, under the lead of a youthful hero, Lautaro, and a vigorous toqui, or chief, named Caupolican, the Araucanians as- sailed the invaders of their country with success; but the latter increased in numbers and gained ground, at last, for a time, building towns and extending settlements in the Araucanian territory. The indomitable people were not broken ii» spirit, however; and in 1598, by an universal and simultaneous rising, they expelled tlie Spaniards from almost every settlement they had made. "In 1602 ... of the numerous Spanish forts and settlements south of the Bio-Bio, Naciiniento and Arauco only had not fallen. Valdivia and Osorno were afterward rebuilt. About the same time a fort was erected at Boroa. This fort was soon after abandoned. Valdivia, Osorno, Naci- miento, and Arauco still remain. But of all the ' cities of the plain ' lying within the boundaries of the haughty Araucanians, not one ever rose from its oshes; their names exist only in liistory ;, and the sites where they once flourished are now marked by ill-detiued and grass-grown ruins. From the period of their fall dates the independ- ence of tlie Araucanian nation; for though a hundred years more were wasted in the vain attempt to reconquer the heroic people . . . the Spaniards, weary of constant war, and disheart- ened by tlie loss of so much blood and treasure, were Anally compelled to sue for peace ; and in 1724 a treaty was ratified, acknowledging their freedom, aud establishing the limits of their terri- tory." — E. K. Smith, The Araiiamiaiis, cli. 11-14. Also in: R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portu- {lueseS. Am., r. l,ch. 12-14. — J. I. Molina, Qeog., .Natund and Vivil Hist, of Chili, v. 2, bk. 1, 3-4. A. D. 1568. — The Audiencia established. See Ai:dienc'i.\s. A. D. 1810-1818. — The achievement of in- dependence. — San Martin, the Liberator. — " Chili lirst threw off the Spanish yoke in Sep- tember, 1810 [on the pretext of fidelity to the Bourbon king dethroned by Xapoleon], but the national independence was not fully established till April 1818. During the intermediate period, the dissensions of the different parties; their dis- putes as to the form of government and the law of election; with other distracting causes, arising out of the ambition of turbulent individuals, and the inexperience of the whole nation in political 412 CHILE, 1810-1818. CHILE. 1833-1884. affaire ; so materially retarded the union of tlie cowntry, tliat tlie Spaniards, by Hcnding expedi- tions from Peru, were eiialilcd, in 1(H14, to regain their lost authority in Cliili. Meanwliiie tlic Oovcnnnent of IJucnos Ayrcs, tlio independence of wliicli liad been establislied in 1810 [see Aii- OENTINE Kkpuiii.ic: A. D. 1800-1820], naturally dreaded that tlie Spaniards would not long be confined to the western side of tlio Andes; but would speedily make a descent upon the prov- inces of the River Piute, of which Buenos Ayres is the capital. In order to guard against this for- midable danger, they bnively resolved themselves to become tlie invaders, and by great exertions equipped an army of 4,000 men. The command of this force was given to General Don Jose de San Jilartin, a native of the town of Yapeyu in Paraguay ; a man greatly beloved by all ranks, and held in such high estimation by the people, that to his personal exertions the formation of this army is cliicflv due. With these troops San Martin entered Chili by a pass over the Andes heretofore deemed inaccessible, and on the 12th of February, 1817, attacked and completely de- feated the royal army at Chacabuco. Tlie Cliilians, thus freed from the immediate presence of the enemy, elected Gcnenil O'Higgins [see Peru: A. D. 1550-1816] as Director; and lie, in 1818, offered the Chilians a constitution, and nominated live senators to administer the affairs of the country. This meritorious oflicer, an J isliman by descent, though born in Chili, has er since [1825] remained at the head of the government. It was originally proposed to elect General San Martin as Director; but this he steadily refused, proposing his companion in anns, O'Higgins, in his stead. Tlie remnant of the Spanish army took refuge in Talcuhuana, a fortified sea-port near Conception, on the southern frontier of Chili. Vigorous measures were taken to reduce this place, but, in tlie beginning of 1818, the Viceroy of Peru, by draining that prov- ince of its best troops, sent off a body of 5,000 men under General Osorio, who succeeded in joining the Spaniards shut up in Talcuhuana. Thus reinforced, the Itoyal army, amounting in all to 8, 000, drove back tlio Chilians, marched on the capital, and gained other considerable advan- tages; particularly in a night attack at Talca, on the 19th of March 1818, where the Royalists almost entirely dispersed the Patriot forces. San Martin, however, who, after the battle of Chaca- buco, had been named Commander-in-chief of the united armies of Chili and Buenos Ayres," rallied his army and equipped it anew so quickly that, " on the 5th of April, only 17 days after his defeat, he engaged, and, after an obstinate and sanguinary contlict, completely routed tlie Span- ish army on the plains of Maypo. From tliat day Chili may date her complete independence ; for althougli a small portion of the Spanish troops endeavoured to make a stand at Concep- tion, they were soon driven out and the country left in the free possession of the Patriots. Having now time to breathe, the Chilian Government, aided by that of Buenos Ayres, determined to attack the Royalists in their turn, by sending an armament against Peru [see Peuu: A. D. 1830- 1820] — a great and bold measure, originating with San Martin." — Capt. B. Hall, ExtrcKts from ajounuil, t. \, ch. 1. Also in : J. Sliller, Menwira of General Miller, cJi. 4r-7(». 1). — T. Sutcliffe, Sixteen Years in Chili and Pern, eh. 2-4.— Gen. R. Mitre, Th" Eman- ei}xitioii of S. Aiiieriea : Hint, nf Sin .\fiirtin. A. D. 1820-1826.— Operations in Peru. See Peiii;; A, 1). 1820-1820. A. D. 1833-1884. — A successful oligarchy and its constitution. — The war with Peru and Bolivia. — "After tlu; perfettion of its national independence, the Chilean government soon pa.s.sed into the permanent control of civilians, ' while the other governments of the west coast remained priz<'s for military chieftains,' Its present constitution was framed in 1833. and though it is only half a century old ' it is the oldest written national constitution in force in all the world except our own, unless the Magna Cliarta of England be included in the category.' The political history of Chile during the fifty years of its life has been that of a well ordered commonwealth, but one of a most unusual and interesting sort. Its government has never been forcibly overthrown, and only one serious at- tempt at revolution lias been made. Chile is in name and in an important sense a republic, and yet its government is an oligarchy. Suffrage is restricted to those male citizens who are regis- tered, who are twenty-five years old if unmar- ried and twenty-one if married, and who can read and write; and there is also a stringent property qualification. The consequence is tliat tlie privilege of voting is confined to an aristoc- racy : in 1876, the total number of ballots thrown for president was onlj' 46,114 in a population of about two and a quarter millions. The presi- dent of Chile has immense powers of nomina- tion and appointment, and when he is a man of vigorous will he tyrannically sways public policy, and can almost always dictate tlie name of his successor. The government has thus become practically vested in a comparatively small number of leading Chilean families. There is no such thing as ' public opinion ' in the sense in which we use the phrase, and the newspapera, though ably conducted, do not attempt, as they do not desire, to change the existing order of tilings, 'History,' says Mr. Browne, 'does not furnisli an example of a more powerful political " machine " under the title of republic; nor, 1 am bound to say, one which has been more aiily directed so far as conc(!rns the ag- grandizement of the countrj', or more honestly administered so far as concerns jiecuniary cor- ruption.' Tlie population of Chile doubled be- tween 1848 and 1875; the quantity of land brought under tillage was quadrupled; . . . more than 1,000 miles of railroad were built; a foreign export trade of |31, 695,039 was reported in 1878; and two powerful ironclads, which were destined to play a most important part in Chilean affairs, were built in England. Mean- while, the constitution was officially interpreted so as to guarantee religious toleration, and tlie political power of the Roman Catholic priest- hood diminished. Almost everything good, except home manufactures and popular educa- tion, flourished. The develo])ment of the nation in tlicse years was on a wonderful sc'ale for a South American state, and the contrast between Chile and Peru was peculiarly striking. . . . Early in 1879 began the great series of events which were to make the fortune of Chile. We use the wonl 'great,' in its low, superficial sense, and without the attribution of any moral signiflcauce to the adjective. The aggressor in 413 CHILE, 1833-1884. CHILE, 1885-1891. the war botwocn Chilo and Peru was inspired b_v thf most jMiri'ly soltlsh motives, iind it rcinains to ln' wen wlirtlicr tlio just gods will not win in tlic ionK run, even tliouRli tlio gamo of tlicir anlaKonists bo played with lioavily plated iron- clads. . . . At the date last mentioned Chile was sufTerinif, lik<! many other nations, from a general depression in business pursuits. Its people w(!re in no serious trouble, but as a govornment it was in a bad way. . . . The means to keep up a sinking fund for the foreign del)t had failed, and the (hilean live per eents were <]Uoled ill London at si.vty-l'oiir. 'A i)olitieal eloud also was darkening again in tin; north, in the renewal of something like a confederation between IN'rii and Holivia.' In this state of things the governing oligareliy of Chile decided, rather suddenly, Mr. Urowne thinks, upon a scheme whicli was sun; to result either in splendid prosperity or al)solnte ruin, and which comeinplatcd nothing less than a war of conquest against Peru and l5olivia, with a view to se'i/.ing the most valuable territory of the former countrj'. There is a certain strip of land bordering >ipon the Pacilic and about 401) miles long, of which tlie northern tliree quarters be- longed to Peru and Bolivia, the remaining one quarter to Chile. Upon this land a heavy rain never falls, and often years pass in whicli the soil does not feel a shower. . . . Its money value is immense. ' From this region the world de- rives almost its whole supply of nitrates — chieHy saltpetre — and of iodine;' its mountains, also, are rich in metals, anil great deposits of gimno are found in the highlands bordering the sea. The nitrate-bearing country is a plain, from lifty to eighty miles wide, the nitrate lying in layers just below a thin sheet of impacted stones, gravel, and sand. The export of salt- petre from this region was valued in 1883 at nearly po,000,000, and the worth of the Peruvian section, wliich is much the largest and most pro- ductive, is estimated, for government purposes, at a capital of $600,000,000. Cliile was, natu- rally, well aware of the wealth which lay so close to her own doors, and to possess herself thereof, and thus to rehabilitate her national fortunes, she addressed herself to war. The occasion for war was easily found. Bolivia was first attacked, a difficulty whii li arose at her port of Antofagasta, with respect to her en- forcement of a tax upon some nitrate works carried on by a Cliilean company, affording a good pretext; and when Peru attempted inter- vention her envoy was confronted with Chile's knowledge of a secret treaty between Peru and Bolivia, and war was formally declared by Chile upon Peru, April 5, 1879. This war lasted, with some breatliing spaces, for almost exactly five years. At the outset the two belligerent powers — Bolivia being soon practically out of the contest — seemed to be about equal in ships, soldiers, and resources ; but the supremacy which Chile soon gained upon the seas svibstantially determined the war in her favor. Each nation owned two powerful iron-clads, and six months were employed in settling the question of naval superiority. ... On the 21st of May, 1879, the Peruvian fleet attacked and almost destroyed the Chilean wooden frigates which were blockading Iquique ; but in chasing a Chilean corvette tlie larger Peruvian iron-clad — the Independencia — ran too near the shore, and was fatally wrecked. ' So Pent lost one of her knights. The game she played with the other — the iluascar — was ad- mirable, hut a losing one;' and on the 8th of October of the same year the Iluascar was attacked by the Chilean licet, which included two ironclads, and was finally captured 'after a desperate! resistance' . . . From this moment the Peruvian coast was at Chile's mercy: the (Jhilean arms prevailed in every pitclied battle, at San Francisco [November 10, 187i)J, at Tacna I .May 26, 1880], at Arica [.Uuw 7, 1880] ; and flnafly. >"i the 17lh of .January, 1881, after a series of actions whicli resembled in some of tlieir <l(!tails the engagements that preceded our capture of the city of .Slexico [ending in what is known as the Battle of Miratloresl, the victorious army of Chile took po.ssession of Lima, the capi- tal of Peru. . . . The results of the war have thus far exceeded the wildest hopes of Chile. She has taken absolute possession of the whole nitrate region, has cut liolivia oil from the scui, and achieved the permanent dissolution of the Peni-Bolivian confederation. As a consequence, her foreign trade lias doubled, the revenue of her government has been trebled, and the public debt greatly reduced. The Chilean bonds, whicli were sold at 64 in London in tianuary, 1879, and fell to 60 in March of that year, at the announce- ment ui uio war, were quoted at 95 in .January, l'<8t."— 7'/ic Orowing Poieer of the Jtepuhlic of Vhile (Atlantic Monthly, July, "1884). Also in: II. Birkedal, The lute M'^ar iiiS. Am. (Ore.rliind jVonthli/, Jan., Feb., and Afarch, 1884). — C. li. Markhani, The War bet. Peru, and Chile. — H. N. Boyd, Chile, ch. IQ-n.—.Veasage of tlie Prca't oftiM v. 8., transmittinq Papers relating to the War in 8. Am., Jan. 36, 1883.— T. W. Knox, Decisive Battles since Waterloo, ch. 23. — See, also, Peuu: a. U. 1826-1876. A. D. 1885-1891.— The presidency and dic- tatorship of Balmaceda. — His conflict with the Congress. — Civil 'war. — "Save in the one struggle m which tlie parties re-sorted to arms, the political development of Chili was free from civil disturbances, and the ruling class was dis- tinguished among the Spanish- American nations not only for wealth and education, but for its talent for government and love of constitutional liberty. Tlie republic was called ' the England of South America,' and it was a common boast that in Chili a pronunciamicnto or a revolution was impossible. The spirit of modern Liberalism became more prevalent. ... As the Liberal party became all-powerful it split into factions, divided by questions of principle and by strug- gles for leadership and olHce. . . . The patron- age of the Chilian President is enormous, em- bracing not only tlie general civil service, but local officials, except in the municipalities, and all appointments in the army and navy and in the telegraph and railroad services and the giv- ing out of contracts. The President has always been able to select his successor, and has exer- cised this power, usually in liarmony with the wishes of intliumtial statesmen, sometimes call- ing a conference of party chiefs to decide on a candidate. In tlie course of time the more ad- vanced wing of the Liberals grew more numer- ous than the Motlerates. The most radical section had its nucleus in a Reform Club in Santiago, composed of young university men, of whom Balmaceda was the finest orator. Enter- ing Congress in 1868, he took a leading part in 414 CHILE, 1885-1891. CIIIMAUIKAN FAMILY. debates. ... In 1885 lie was the most popular mun in the country ; but his cliiim to t!ie jiresi- (lential succession was cont<.'8t<,'il by various otlicr aspirants — older politicians und leaders of fac- tions striving for supremacy in Coi):<rcss. He was elected by an overwlielniing majority, and as President enjoyed an unexampled degree of popularity. For two or tlnfc years the politi- cians who had been his party associates worked in liarmony witli his ideas. ... At tlie lloml of the democratic tide he was tiie most popidar man in Soutli America. Hut when the old teriitorial families saw the seats in Congress and tile posts in tiie civil service tliat had been their l)rerogative Ulled by new men, and fortunes made Ijy upstarts wliere all chances had been at their disposid, tlien a reaction .set in, corruption was scented, and Jloderato Liberals, joining hands witli the Nationalists and the reviving Conservative party, formed an opposition of respectable strength. In the earlier part of his administration Baimaceda had the co-operation of the Nationalists, wlio were represented in the Cabinet. In the last two years of his term, when the time drew near for selecting his successor, defection and revolt and the rivalries of aspir- ants for tlie succession tlirew the party into dis- order and angered its Intlierto unciuesticmed leader. ... In January, 1890, the Opposition were strong euoiigii to place their candidate in tlie chair when the House of Hepreseutatives organizctd. Tlie ministry resigned, and a conllict between tlie E.xccutive and legislative brandies of the Government was openly begun when the President appointed a Cabinet of liis own selection. . . . This ministry had to face an over- whelming majority against tlie President, whicli treated hini as a dictator and began to pass hos- tile laws and resolutions that were vetoed, and refused to consider the measures that he recommended. The ministers wen; cited before tlie Chambers and questioned about the manner of tlieir appointment. Tlicy either declined to answer, or answered in a way tliat increased the animosity of Congress, whicli finally passed a vote of censure, in obedience to which, as was usual, the Cabinet resigned. Tlieu Baimaceda apjiointed a ministry in open detiance of Con- gress, witli Sanfuentes at its head, tlie man who was already spoken of as his selected candidate for the presidency. He prepared for tlie strug- gle that lie invited by removing the chiefs of the administration of the departments and replacing them witli men devoted to himself and liis policy, and making clianges in the police, tlie militia, und, to some extent, in the army and navy com- mands. The jjress denounced i.im as a dictator, and indignation meetings were held in every town. Baimaceda and his supporters pretended to be not only the champions of the people against tlie aristocracy, but of the principle of Chili for the Chilians." — Appletoii's Annual Ci/dop.,-[mi,pp. 133-124.— " Tlie conllict between President Baimaceda und Congress riiiened into revolution. On January 1, 1891, the Opposition members of tlie Senate and House of Deputies met, and signed an Act declaring that tlio Presi- dent was unworthy of his post, and that he was no longer head of tlie State nor President of tlio Republic, as he had violated the Constitution. On January 7 the navy declared in favour of the Legislature, and against Baimaceda. The Presi- dent denounced the luvy as traitors, abolished all the laws of the country, declared himself Dicta- tor, and proelaimcil martini law. It was a reign of terror. The Opposition recruited an army in the Island of Santa .Maria under Oeneral Urrutia and Commander Canto. ( )u Fi'bruary It a severe light took place witli the (lovernment troops in Liuiiiue, and the (Congressional army took i)ossession of Pisa(j;ua. In April, President ialmaceda . . . delivered a long message, de- nouncing tlie navy. . . . The contest continued, and April 7, Ariea, in tlie province of Tar- apaca, was taken by the revolutionists. Some naval lights occurred later, and the iron-clad Blanco Encalada was blown up by the Dicta- tor's torpedo cruisers. Finally, on August 21, General Canto landed at Concon, ten miles north of Valparaiso. Balniaeeda's forces attacked im- mediately and were routed, losing 8,500 killed and wounded. The Congress army lost COO. On the 2«tli a <lecisive battle was fought at Pla- cilla, near Valparaiso. The Dictator liad 12,000 troops, and the opposing army 10,000. Balnia- eeda's forces WL'tr, completely routed after live hours' hard ligliting, with aloss of 1.500 men. Santiago formally siirrendered, and tlie triumph of tile Congress party was complete, A Junta, headed by Sefior Jorge Montt, tcuik charge of , alTairs at Valparaiso August iiO. Baimaceda, who had taken refuge at the Argentine Lega- tion in Santiago, was not able to make his escape, and to avoid capture, trial, and punishment, com- mitted suicide, September 20, by rshooting him- .self. On the 19tli November Admiral Jorge .Montt was chosen by the Electoral College, at Santiago, President of Cliili, and on December 26 he was installed with gi'eat ceremony anrl general rejoicings." — Annual /iiyister, 1891, p. 420. CHILIARCHS.— Captains of thousands, in the army of tlio Vandals. — T. Hodgkin, Italy and Tier Invadem, bk. 3, eh. 2. CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of (1840). See India: A. D. 1845-1849. CHILPERICL, King of the Franks (Neus- tria), A. D. 561-584 Chilperic II., King of the Franks, A. D. 71.5-720. CHILTERN HUNDREDS, Applying for the Stev7ardship of the. — A seat in the lintish House of Coninums "cannot be resigned, nor can a man wiio has once formally taken his seat for one constituency tlirow it up and contest another. Eitlier a disqualification must be in- curred, or the House must declare the seat vacant." The necessary disqualitieation can be Incurred by accepting an office of profit under the Crown, — witliin certain olBcial categories. "Certain old otllces of nominal value in the gift of tlie Treasury are now granted, as of course, to members who wisli to resign their seats in order to be quit of Parliamentary duties or to contest anotlier constituencv. These offices are the Stewardship of tlie Chiltern Hundreds [Crown property in Bucliinghamshire], of tlie manors of East Ilendred, Northstead, or Hemp- holme, and the escheatorship of JIunster. The office is resigned as soon as it has oi)erated to vacate the seat and sever the tie between the member and his constituents." — SirW. R. Anson, Law and Custom of the C'onxt., v. 1, p. 84. CHIMAKUAN FAMILY, The. See American Ahouioines: Ciii.maku.vn Fa.mily. CHIMARIKAN FAMILY, The. See Ameuic'A^ Auokioines: Cuimakikan Family. 416 cniNA. CHINA. CHINA. The names of the Country.— "That spacious gent of imcici I civilization which we cull China haB loomed iilways ho largo to western eyes, . . . that, at eras far apart, we find it to have l)ec'ii (listinguished by different appellations nccordin^c as it was reganhid as the terminus of a Houtherii sea-route coasting the great penin- sulas and islands of Asia, or as that of a northern land route traversing the longitude of tliat con- tinent. In the former aspect the name applied lias nearly always been some form of the name bin, CInn, 8inie, China. In the latter point of view the region in (lueation was known to the ancients as the land of the Hercs; tho middle ages us the Empire of Cathay. The name of China has been supposed, like many another word and name connected with 'rade an("l geogrnphy of the far east, to have come to us through the Malays, and to have been applied by them to the great eastern monarchy from the style of the dynasty of Thsin, which a little more than two centuries before our era enjoyed a brief but very vigorous existence. . . . There are reasons however for believing that the nume of China must have been bestowed at a much earlier date, for it occurs in tlie laws of >Ianu, which assert the Chinas to have been degenerate Ifsha- tryas, and in the Mahabharat, compositions many centuries older than the imperial dynasty of Thsin. . . . This name may have yet possibly been con- nected with the Thsin, or some monurchy of like dynastic title; for that dyjinsty had reigned locally in Shensi from the 9th century before our era; and when, at a still wirlier date, the empire was partitioned into many small kingdoms, we find among them the dynasties of tho T(;in and tho Ching. . . . Some at least of the circum- stances which have been collected . . . render it the less improbable that tho Sinim of the prophet Isaiah . . . should bo truly interpreted as indicating the Cliinese. The name of China in this form was late in reaching tho Greeks and Romans, and to them it probably came through people of Arabian speech, as tho Arabs, being without tho soimd of ' ch, ' made the Chii a of the Hindus and Malays into Sin, and perhaj s some- times into Thi'i. Hence the Thin of the ai thor of th(^ Perijjlus of the f>y thraean Sea, who appears to be tho flist extant author toemploy f ho name in this form ; hence also tho Sinajaud Thinai of Ptolemy. ... If wo now turn to the Seres we find this name mentioned by classic authors much more frequently and at an earlier date by at least a century. Tlie naiuo is familiar enough to the Latin poets of the Augustan age, but always in a vague way. . . . Tho name of Seres is proba- bly from itii earliest use in the west identilied with the name of the silkworm and its produce, und this association continued until the name ceased entirely to bo used as a geographical expression. ... It was in the days of the Jlou- gols . . . bhat China tirst became really known to Europe, and that by a name which, though especially applied to tlio northern provinces, also came to bear a more genend ai)plication, Cathay. This name, Khitai, is tliat by which Chi"a is styled to this day by all, or nearly all, the nations which know it from an inland point of view, including the Russians, the Persians, and the nations of Turkestan; and yet it originally belonged to a people who were not Chinese at a I .'ho Khitans were a people of Mancliu rui , who iidiabited for centuries a coimtry to the north-east of China." During a peri(Hl between the 10th and 12th centuries, tlie Khi- tans ac(|uired supremacy over their neighbours and established an empire wliich embraced Northern China and the adjoining regions of Tartary. "It must have been during this piriiwl, ending' witli the overthrow of tliedyna.sty I called the Leao or Iron Dynasty) in 1 12:1, and whilst this northern monarchy was the face whiiJi the Celes- tial Empire! turned to Inner Asia, tliat the name of IChitan, Khitat, or IChitaT, became indissolu- bly associated with China." — II. Yule, t'athny iiml the Wdjl Thither: I'nUiiiititiry ICmdi/. The Origin of the People and their early History. — "The origin of the Chinese race is slirouded in some obscurity. The llrst recorda we have of them represent them as a band of immigrants settling in tho north-eastern pro- vinces of the modern empire of China, and fight- ing their way amongst tho aborigines, much a3 tho Jews of old forced their way into Canaan against tlio various tribes which they found in possession of tho land. It is probable that though they all entered China by the same route, they separated into bands almost on tho threshold of the empire, one b(xly, those who have left us the records of their history in tho ancient Chinese books, apparently followocl tho cour.se of tho Yellow River, and, turning south- ward with it from its northernmost bend, settled themselves in tho fertile districts of the modern provinces of Shansi and Ilonan. Rut as wo find nlso that at about tho same period a largo settle- ment was made as far south as Annaiii, of which there is no mention in the books of the northern Chinese, we must assume that another body struck directly southward through the southern provinces of China to that country. The ques- tion then arises, where did these people come from? and the answer which recent research [see Rahvlonia Primitive] gives to this question is, from the south of the Caspian Sea. ... In all probability, the outbreak in Susiana of, possibly, some political disturbance, in about the 24th or 23rd century H. C, drove the Chinese from the land of their adoption, and that they wandered eastward until they finally settled in China and the countries south of it. . . . It wou'd appear also that tho Chinese came into China possessed of the resources of Western Asian culture. They brought with them a knowledge of writing and astronomy, as well as of the arts which primarily minister to the wants and comfort of mankind. The invention of these civilising influences is traditionally attri- buted to the Emperor Hwang-te, who is said to have reigned from H. C. 2U9;-2597. But tho name of this sovereign leads us to suppose that ho never sat on tho throne in China. One of his names, we are told, was Nai, anciently Nak, and in the Chinese paleographical collection he is described by a character composed of a group of phonetics which read Nak-kon-ti. Tlio resemblance between this name lud that of Nak- liunte, who, according to the S isian texts, was the chief of the gods, is sulliciontly striking, and many of the attributes belonging to him arc such as to place him on an equality with the Susian deity. In exact accordance also with the system 416 CHINA. Dytuutie; CHINA. of Hiibyloninn chronology lie cgtabllshcd a cycle of twelve years, und Uxeil the length of the your ut 300 (luyH composed of twelve months, with an intcrculury month to bulance the surplug titnc. lie further, we are told, built a Ling tai, or observatory, rendnding us of the IJabylonian Zigguratu, or house of observation, ' from which to watch tlie movements of the heavenly Imdies.' The primitive Chinese, like the Habyloniuns, recognised live planets besides the sun and nioon, und, with one exception. Itnew them by the same names. . . . The various phusiis of these |)lanet8 were curefully watched, and portents were derived from every real and imaginary change in thei.- relative ))08itions and colours. A coini)ari- gon between the astrological tablets translated by Professor Sayce and the astrological chapter {87th) in the She ke, the earliest of the Dynastic Histories, shows a remarkable parallelism, not only in the general style of the forecasts, but in particular portents which arc so ctmtrary to Chinese prejudices, as a nation, und the train of thought of the people that they woidd be at once put down as of foreign origin, even if they were not found in the Babylonian records. ... In the reign of Chwan Hu (2513-2435 13. C), we find according to the Chinese records, that the year, us umong the Chnldeans, began with the third month of the solar year, and a comparison between the ancient names of the months given in the Urh ya, the oldest Chinese dictionary, with the Accadian eciuivalcnts, shows, in some instances, an exact identity. . . . These parallel- isms, together with a host of others which might be produced, all point to the existence of an early relationship betveen Chinese and Slesopo- tamian culttirc; and, armed with the advantages thus posscs.sed, the Chiiieso entered Into the empire over which they \v. '•o ultimately to over- spread themselves. But tiiey came among tribes who, though somewhat inferior to them in general civilisation, were by no nienns destitute of culture. . . . Among such people, and others of a lower civilisation, such as the Jungs of the west and the Teks, the ancestors of the Tekke Turcomans, in the north, the Chinese succeeded in establishing themselves. The Emperor Yaou (2350-2255 B. C.) divided his kingdom into twelve portions, presided over by as many Pas- tors, in exact imitation of the duodenary feudal system of Susa with their twelve Pastor Princes. To Yaou succeeded Shun, who carried on the work of his predecessor of consolidating the Chinese power with energy and success. In his reign the first mention is made of religious wor- ship. ... In Shun's reign occurred the great flood which inundated most of the provinces of the existing empire. The waters, we are told, rose to so great a height, that the people had to betake themselves to the mountains to escape death. The disaster arose, as many similar dis- asters, though of a less magnitude, have since arisen, in conseciuence of the Yellow River bursting its bounds, and the ' Great Yu ' was appointed to lead the waters back to the'r chan- nel. With unremitting v-'nergy he set about his task, and in nine years succeeded in bringing the river under control. ... As a reward for the services he had rendered to the empire, hn was invested with the principality of Hea, and after having occupied the throne conjointly with Shun for some years, he succeeded that soverign on his death, in 2208 B. C. With Yu began the dynasty I of Ilea, which gave place, in 1706 B. C, to tho Shang Dynasty. The last soverign of the lira line, Kieh kwei, is said to have been u monster of Iniquity, and to have sulTered the just punish- ment for his crimes at the hands of T'aiig, tho prince of the Stale of Shung, who took his throne from him. In like manner, 040 years later. Woo Wang, the prince of (,'liow, overthrew ('how Sin, the last of the Shang Dynasty, ond estab- lished himself as the chief' of the soverign state of the enii)ire. By empire it must not bo supposed tliat the empire, as it exists at present, is meant. The ('hiiia of the Chow Dynasty lay between tho 33rd and 38th parallels of latitude, and the 100th and llOth of longitude oidy, and extended over no more than portions of the pro- vinces of Pill ('hih-li, Shunse, Shense, Honan, Keang-so, ond Shan-tung. This territory was re-arranged by Woo Wang into the lune princi- palities established by Yu. . . . Woo is held up \n Chinese history as one of the model monarchs of antiquity. . . . Under the next rider, K'ang (B. C. 1078-1053), tho empire was consolidated, and the feudal princes one and all acknowledged their allegiance to the ruling house of Chow. . . . From all accounts there speedily occurred a marked degeneracy in the characters of the Chow kings. . . . Already a spirit of lawlessness was spreading far and wide among the princes and nobles, and wars and rumours of wars were ctjating misery and unrest throughout the coun- try. . . . Tho hand of every man was against his neighbour, and a constant state of internecine war succeeded the peace and prosperity which had existed under the rule of Woo-wang. . . . As time went on and the disorder increased, supernatural signs added their testimony to the impending crisis. The brazen vessels upon which Yu had engraved the nine divisions of the empire were observed to shake and totter as though foreshadowing the approaching change in the political position. Jleanwhile Ts'in on the northwest, Ts'oo on the south, and Tsin on the north, having vanquished all the other states, engaged in the final struggle for the Mastery over the confederate principalities. The ul!,- mate victory rested with the state of Ts'in, and in 255 B. C., Chaou-seang Wang become the acknowledged ruler over the 'black-haired' peo- ple. Only four years were given him to reign supreme, and at the end of that time he was suc- ceeded by his son Ileaou-wan Wang, who died almost immediately on ascending the throne. To him succeeded Chwang-seang Wang, who was followed in 240 B. C. by Che Hwang-te, the first Emperor of China. The abolition of feudalism, whicli was the first act of Che Ilwaug-te raised much discontent among those to whom the feudal system had brought power and emoluments, and the countenance which had been given to the system by Confucius and Mencius made it desir- able — so thought the emperor — to demolish once for all their testimony in favour of that condition of affairs, which he had decreed should be among the things of the past. With this object ho ordered that the whole existing litera- ture, with the exception of books on medicine, agriculture, and divinotion should be burned. The decree was obeyed as faithfully as was possible in the case of so sweeping an ordinance, • and for many years a night of ignorance rested on the country. The construction of one gigan- tic work — the Great Wall of China — has made 41! CHINA. HrligionM. CHINA. the nam<! rit tliis mnnarcli im famnufi as tlin dcH- triiclinri of till! IxKikH Iiiih made it infamous. Fiiiiliiitr tlic nuiiiiK'MU TartarH wi-nr maliiii^ ilanKvroua inroads into tliv rinpiri', luHlctcrmintMl will) characteristic tlioniiiKlincsH to liiiild u liugo barrier which Bhould protect tho norlliern fron- tier of the empire throii^li all time. In 211 n. (-'. tho work was betcnn under his personal super- vision, and tlmugh every endeavor was made to hasten its completion he died ('.2(10) leaving it un- t1ni.shc<l. Ilis death was the signal for an out- 'ireak among tho dispossessed feudal princes, who, however, after some yi iirs of disorder, were ii^ain riMlueed to the ranli of <iti/.ens liy a siic- cessi.:' leader, who adopted the title of itaoii-te, and iian."d his dj'iiaHt y that of Han (200). From that day to thi.s, with occasional interregnums, the empire lias liec^n ruled on tlie lines laid down liy Che Hwangle. I>ynasty has succeeded dynasty, but tho political tradithm has remained unchanged, and though iMongols and Manchoos have at different times wrested the throne from its legitimate heirs, they have been engulfed in tho homogeneous mass inhabiting the empire, and instead of impressing their seal on the coun- try have become but the retleclion of the van- (|uisbcd. Tlie dynasties from the beginning of the earlier Han, founded, as staled above, by Kaou-te, are as follows: — The earlier Han Dynasty B. C. 206- A. 1). 2.5; tho late Han A. D. 25-220; the Wei 220-280; tho western Tsin 205-317; the eastern Tsin 317-420; the Sung 420-479; the Ts'e 479-,5()2; the Leang 502-557; the Ch'in 557- .580. Simultaneouslv w'ith these — the northern Wei A. 1). :t8fi-5;)4"; tho western Wei 535-557; the eastern Wei 534-550; the northern Ts'e 550- 577; the northern Chow 557-580. The Suy .589- 018; the Tang 618-907; tho later Leang 907-923; the later T'ang 923-930; the later Tsin 930-947; the later Han 947-051 ; tho later Chow 951-900, tho Sung 960-1127; the southern Sung 1127- 1280; tho Yuen 1280-1808; the Ming 1308-1044; the Ts'ing 1044. Simultaneously with some of tlicse — the Leaou 007-1125; the western Leaou 1125-1108; the Kin 1115-1280."— R. K. Douglas, China, ch. 1. Also rN D.C. Boulger, Jlut of China, v. 1-2. The Religions of the People. — Confucian- ism. — Taouism. — Buddhism. — " Tho Chinese describe themselves as possessing three religions, or more accurately, three sects, namely Joo keaou, tho sect of Scholars; Fuh keaou, the sect of Buddha; and Taou keaou, the sect of Taoii. Both as regards age and origin, the sect of Scholars, or, as it is generally called, Con- fucianism, represents pre-eminently the religion of China. It has its root in tlie worship of 8hang-te, a deity which is associated with tho earliest traditions of tlio Chinese race. Ilwang-te (2097 B. C.) erected a temple to his honour, and succeeding emperors worshipped before his .shrine. . . . During the troulilous times which followed after the reign of the few llrst sovereigns of tlie Chow Dynasty, the belief in a personal deity grew iudi-stinct and dim, until, when Con- fucius [born B. C. 551] began his career, there appeared nothing strange in his atheistic doc- trines. He never in any way denied the ex- istence of Shang-te, but he ignored him. His concern was with man as a member of society, and the object of liis teaching was to lead him into those patlis of rectitude which might best contribute to bis own liappiucss, and to tJie well- 418 being of that <'ommunity of which he formed part. Man, he held, was born g(Kid, and was endowed with (iiialilles which, when eultivote<l and improved by watclifuliK'SS and self-restraint, might eiiablo him to aciiuiro godlike wisdom and to become 'the equal of Heaven.' He divided mankind into four classes, viz., those who are born with the possession of knowledge; tho.>M' who learn, and so readily get possession of knowledge; those who are dull anil stupid, and yet succeed in learning; and, lastly, those who are dull and stupid, and yet do not learn. To all tlie.se, except those of tho last class, the path to the climax reached by tho 'Sage' is open. Man has only to watch, listen to, understand, and obey the moral sense implanted in him by Heaven, and the highest perfection is within his reach. ... In this system there is no place for a i)er8onal God. I'lie impersonal Heaven, according to Confucius, implants a pure nature in every being at his birtli, but, having done thi.s, there is no further supernatural interference with the thouglits and deeds of men. It is in tlie power of each one to perfect his nature, and tliiTc is no divine inlluence to restrain those who take the downward course. Man has his destiny in his own hands, to make or to mar. Neither had Confucius any inducement to offer to en- courage men in tho pnictico of virtue, except virtue's self. He was a matter-of-fact, unim- aginative man, who was quite content to occupy himself with the study of his fellow-men, and was disinclined to grope Into tlic future or to peer upwards. No wonder that his system, as he enunciated it, i)roved a failure. Eagerly he sought in tho execution of his olllcial duties to effect the regeneration of the empire, but beyond tlio circle of lu.s personal disciples ho found few followers, and as soon as princes and statesmen had satisfied their curiosity about him they turned their backs on his precepts and would none of his reproofs. Succeeding a^es, recognis- ing tho loftiness of his aims, eliminated all that was imi)n";ticablo and unreal in his system, and held fast to that part of it that was true and gootl. They were content to accept tho logic of events, and to throw overboard the ideal 'sage,' and to ignore the supposed potency of his in- fluence; but '.hey cUmg to the doctrines of filial piety, brot'.erly love, and virtuous living. It was admin: tion for tlic emphasis which he laid on these and other virtues which has drawn so many millions of men unto him; which has made his tomb at Keo-foo been to be the Mecca of Confucianism, and has adorned every city of the empire with temples built in his honour. . . . Concurrently with the lapse of pure Confucian- ism, and the adoption of those principles which lind their earliest expression in tlio pre-Confucian classics of Cliina, there is observable a return to the worship of Shang-tc. Tho most magnificent temple in tho empire is the Temple of Heaven at Poking, where the highest object of Chinese worslup is adored with the purest rites. . . . What is popularly known in Europe as Con- fucianism is, therefore, Confucianism with the distinctive opinions of Confucius omitted. . . . But this worsliip of Shang-te is confined only to the emperor. 'Tlie people have no lot or heritage in the sacred acts of worship at the Altar of Uca"en. . . . Side by side with the revival of the Joo keaou, under the influence of Confucius, grew up a system of a totally different nature. CHINA. Kublai Kluin. CHINA, rjftU-ia94. and wlilrli, wlii-n (llvcstcd of its OHotcrIc doc- trinrs, mid rcduccil l)y tlio priicllriilly-inirKh'd ChinuMirii to II (ikIi: of iiiondH, wim tli'Mtiiiid in futuro UKVS to liccoini' iilUIiiitcd with tliu tciicli- ingH of tlio tingv. Tliis wiis TitoiiiHiii, wlilrli wi»B founded liy Liioii-tazt', who wiw a con- tt'inpomry of Confucius. An uir of niyHt<'rv haiif^s over the liistory of I.aoii Iszc. Of lifs purputagc wo liiiow nolliiii);, imd Ihi^ liistorianM, in tht'ir anxh'ty to coiiri'al llicir i>riioraii(tc of liis earlliT ycant, Hlicltcr IIiciiihcIvi-i Iwhind llic Icffcnd tlial ho was liorii an old man. . . . Tlic primary nicaniiij; of Taou is 'Tlio way,' "Tlio palli,' Imt in Laoiitszo's jihliosopiiy it was more tlian tiio way, it was tlio way-jjix'r as well. It wim an eternal road; alon^ it nil bein^fs and thiii)5» walked; it was everylhinj? and nothing, and llio (.'auso and eileet of all. All things originated from Taoii, eoiiforined to Taou, and to Taou at last returned. ... 'If, then, wo hud to e.\press tlio ineaniiiK of Taou, wo should desorilio it as tlio Absoluto; the totality of Ueing and ThinKs ; tho phenomenal world and its order ; and tho ethical nature of the goml man, and the principle of his action.' It was absorption into tills ' Alothcrof all things' that Laou-t.szo aimed at. And this end was to bo attained to by self- emptiness, and by Kiting free; scope to the un- containinated nature which, like Confucius, he taught was given by Heaven to all men. . . . But these subtleties, like the more abstruse speculations of Confucius, were suited only to the taste of the schools. To the common people they were foolishness, and, before long, the philosophical doctrine of Laou-tszi? of the identity of existence and non-existence, a.ssumed in their eyes a warrant for the old Epicurean motto, ' Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die.' T'!n pleasures of sen.se were substituted for the delights of virtue, and the next step was to desire prolongation of the time when those pleasures could bo enjoyed. Legend said that Laou-ts/.o had secured to himself immunity from death by drinking the elixir of immortality, and to enjoy tho same privilege became the all- absorbing object of his followers. The demand for elixirs and charms produced a supply, and Taoulsm quickly degenerated into a system of magic. . . . Tho teachings of Laou-tszo having familiarised the Chinese mind with philosophiciii doctrines, which, whatever were their direct source, bore a marked resemblance to ti mus- ings of Indian sages, served to prepare \ way for the introduction of Buddhism. The exact date at which the Chinese first became acquainted with the doctrines of Buddha was, according to an author quoted in K'ang-he's Imperial Ency- clopajdia, the thirtietli year of the reign of She Hwang-te, i. e., B. C. 216. The story this writer tells of the difficulties which the first missionaries encountered is curious, and singularly sugges- tive of the narrative of St. Peter's imprison- ment." — 1? K. Douglas, China, ch. 17. — Also IN The same, Confucianiam and Ttwuiam. — ''Buddhism . . . penetrated to China along the fixed route from India to that country, round tho north-west corner of the Himalayas and across Eastern Turkestan. Already in the 2nu year B. C, an embassy, perhaps sent by Iluvishka [who reigned in Kabul and Kashmere] took Buddhist books to the then Emperor of China, A-ili; and the Emperor Ming-ti, 02 A. I)., guided by a dream, is said to have sent to Tartury and Central India and brought HiKldhist books to China. From this lime Buddhism rapidly spread there. ... In thi! fourth cenlurv Buil- dliisni beeami' the slate religion. "—T. W. Rbyt Davids, Jlmlil/iium, ch. 0. Ai.wi IN J. Legge,"7'A<! Jit lif/ions of China. — J. Edkins, Ileliyion in China. — The same, ChiufM Jliiililhinin. — .S. Beals, /liiililhium in China. — S. .lohnson, Oritiital IttUfiionn: China. A. D. 1205-1334.— Conquest by Jinei* Khan and his son. — "The eoiKpiest of ('linia was (■omiiieiieid liy Cliiiighiz lor .linirLs Kliaii|, although it was not completed for several gen- erations. Already in 120.') lie had invaded Tiin gut, a kingdoin occupying tlie (ixlreiiie north- west of China, and extending beyond Chinese limits in the same ilirection, held by a dynasty of Tibetan race, which was or had been avassal to the Kill. Tliis invasinn was repeated In suc- ceeding years; and in 1211 his attacks extinded to tho Empire of the Kin itself. In 1214 ho ravaged their provinces to the Yellow Hiver, and in tho following year took Cliungtu or Peking. In 121U he turned his arms against AVestern Asia; . . . but a lieutenant whom he had left behind him in tlii^ East continued to proseeuto the subjection of Nortliern China. Chinjrhiz himself on his return from his western coiuiui'sts renewed his attack on Taugut, and died on that enterprise, 18th August. Okkodai, tlie son and successor of Chinghiz, followed up the subjuga- tion ( f Chiiifli, extinguished tlie Kin llnally in 12a4 and con.solidated with his Empire all" the provinces nortii of the Great Kiang. Th'> Southern j)rovinces remained for the present subject to the Chinese dynasty of the Sung, reigning now at Kingsso "or iJaugcheu. This kingdoin was known to the Tartars as Nangkiass, and also by tho quasi-Chinese title of Mungi or Manzi, made so famous by Marco Polo and the travellers of the following age." — II. Yule, Cathaji and the II'k.v Thither. Preliminary Kk- »<ty, tert. 91-02. — See, also, Mongols: A. I). 1153-1'227. A. D. 1259-1294.— The Empire of Kublai Khan. — Kubhii, or Kliubilai Khan, one of tho grandsons of Jingis Khan, who reigned as the Great Khan or Supreme lord of the Mongols from 1250 until 1204, "was tho sovereign of the largest empire that was ever controlled by one man. China, Corea, Thibet, Tung-King, Cochin China, a great portion of India beyond the Ganges, the Turkish and Siberian realms from the Eastern Sea to the Dnieper, obeyed his com- mands ; and although the chief of the Hordes of Jagatui and Ogatui refused to acknowledge him, the Ilklians of Persia . . . were his feudatories. . . . The Supreme Khan had immediate authority only in Mongolia and China. . . . The capital of the Kliakan, after the accession of Khubilai, was a new city ho built close to the ancient metropo- lis of the Liao and Kin dynasties." — II. II. Iloworth, //(■«<. (/ the Mongols, v. 1, pp. 210-283. — "Khan-Biilig (.Mong., 'The Khan's city'), the Cambalu of Marco, Peking . . . was cap- tured by Chinghiz in 1215, and hi 1204 Kublai made it his chief residence. In 1207 he built a new city, three ' li ' to the north-east of the old one, to which was given the name of Ta-tu or ' Great Court,' called by the Mongols DaYdu, the Taydo of (Jdoric and Taidu of Polo, who gives a description of its dimensions, the number of its gates, etc., similar to that in the text. The 419 CHINA. 1250-1204. Tartar fktvrrrigniy. (^IIINA, 1204-1H82. C'lilncRO iiccountit elvo nnly cloven fcatcn. Tills city WHH ikbiiniliiiKMi iis ii roviil rcitltltMu'c on the uxpulHioM (if tilt) MoMpil (lyiiiiHty In lilUH. Iml re (h-(-u|iIimI in I4'.il by tlii'tlilnl .Mini; Kin|i<'r(ir, wild liuilt tlic walls IIS tluiy iinw exist, ri'iliii'iii>; tlu.'ir extent mill the iiunilii'r <if the gates to nine. ThU Ih what is riiiiim<iiily called the ' Tartar city ' of the present day (I'lilled also by the Clil- nes(> LaU'ChhiiiK <ir '(')1(1 Town'), wl'iieli IJiere- fore represenls tlie Taydo of Odorle." — II. Yule, Valhiiji ami t/ui Way Thither, v. 1, j>. 127, foot- note. Al.KO IN .Marco I'olo, Trnrelt, irith Xotetbif Sir II. Yide. hk. 2.— See, also, Monooi.h: A. 1). 122U- 12114, and I'oi.o. M.MUo. A. D. 1294-1883.— Dissolution of the Em- pire of Kublai Khan.— The Mine dynasty and its fall.— The enthronement of the pre- sent Manchu Tartar Dynasty, of the Tsingsor Ch'ings.— The appearance of the Portuguese and the Jesuit Missionaries. — "The ininieiliate Kuecessors of Kiililiii, bniiiKht up In the luxuries of the Imperial palace, the most gorgeous at that time in the world, relied upon the pre.stigi^ with which the glory of the late emperor invested them, and never dreunied that changu could touch a dominion so vast and so solid. Some de- voted themselves to elegant literature and the improvement of the people; later princes to the mysteries of Buddhism, which biraiiie, in Home degree, the state religion; mid as tlie cycle went round, the dregs of the dynasty iihaiiddiied themselves, us usual, to priests, women, anil (mnuclis. . . . The distant provinces threw oil their subjection; robbers ravaged the land, and pirates the Hca; a minority ami a famiiiu came at the same moment; unif in less than ninety years after its commencement, the fall of the dynasty was only illumined by some few Hashes of dying heroism, and every armed Tartar, who could obtain a horse to aid his (light, spurred back to Ills native deserts. Sonio of them, of the royal race, turning to the west, took refuge with the Manchows, and in proccs-s of time, marrying with ine families of the chiefs, intermingled the blood of the two great tribes. The proximate cause of this catastrophe was a Chinese of low birth, who, in the midst of the troubles of the time, found means to raise him- self by his genius from u servile station to the leadership of a body of the malcontents, and thence to step into the imperial throne. The new- dynasty [the Sling] began their reign with great brilliance. The emperor carried tlio Tartar war into their own country, and at home made unre- lenting war u|)on the abuses of his palace. lie committed the niisttike, however, of granting separate principalities to the members of his house, which in the next reign caused a civil war, and the usurpation of the throne by an uncle of the then emperor. The usurper found it necessary to transfer the capital to Peking, as u post of dcfcn. e against the eastern Tartars, who now made their appearance again on this eventful stage. He was successful, however, in his wars in the desert, and lie added Tonnuin and Cochin China to the Chinese dominions. After him the fortunes of the dynasty began to wane. The government became weaker, the Tartars stronger, some princes uttaclicd them- selves to literature, some to Buddhism or TaOism; Cochin China revolted, and was lost to the em- pire, Japan ravaged the coasts with her priva- terrH ; famine camo to odd to the horrors of mis- rule. "— l.,eltcli Ultchie. IUkI. of tlie Oriental A'a- liiiiiik. Ilk. 7, eh. 1 (/'. 2). — " tVoni wllhout, the .Mings weni ciiiisliiiilly hiiras.>«'il by the eiieriiach- ments of the Tartars; fnini within, the ceaseless intriguing of the eunuchs (resulting in one case In the teiiipiirary deposition of an Hmiieror) was a fertile cause of trouble. Towards the close of the tOtli <;eiiturv the I'nrtuguese appeared upon the scene, and troin their 'concesHiiin ' at .Macao, Home time the residence of Camoens, opened ciimmereliil reliitioim between China and the West. They brought the ChineHe, among otiier things, opium, which had previoUHly been Im- ported overiaiid from India. They pos.Hibly taught them how to make gunpowder, to the in- vention of which the CliiiieKe do not neem, upon striking a balance of evidence, to iio.ssesH an in- dependent claim. About the name time [15M0J Koine ciintribiited the llrst instalment of tliose wiinderful .lesuil fathers, whose names may truly be said to have tilled the empire 'witli soiindH that echo still,' the memory of their selentitlo labours and the benetitH they thus conferred upon China having long Hurvived the wreck and dis- credit of llie faith to which thi-y devoted their lives. And at this distance of time it diH^s not appear to be a wild Htatement to as.sert that had the Jesuits, the Franciscans, and the Dominicans, beenabli! to resist quarrellii , among them.selves, and had they rather united to persuade I'upal in- fallibility to permit the incorporation of ancestor worsliip with the rites and ceremonies of the lioml.sh church — China wouhl ut this moment be a Catholic country, and liuddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism would long since have receded into the past. Of all these Jesuit mi.ssionaries, the name of Matteo Uicci [who died in 1610] stands by coninion consent llrst upon the long list. . . . The overthrow of the Mings [A. 1>. lt}44] was brought about by a combination of events, of the utmost importance to those who would understand the present position of the Tartars as rulers of China. A sudden rebellion had resulted in the capture of Picking by the in- surgents, and in the suicide of the Emperor who was fated to be the last of his line. The Im- perial Commander-in-chief, Wu San-kuei, at that lime away on the frontiers of Alanchuria, en- gaged in resisting the incursions of the Manchu Tartars, now for a long time in a state of fer- ment, immediately hurried back to the capital, but was totally defeated by the insurgent leader, and once more made his way, this time as a fugitive and u suppliant, towards the Tartar camp. Here he obtained [iromises of assistance, cl'ielly on condition that he would shave his head and grow a tail in accordance with Manchu cus- tom, and again set oil with his new auxiliaries towards Peking, being reinforced on the way by a body of Mongol volunteers. As things turned out y^w San-kuei arrived at Peking in advance of these allies, and actually succeeded, with the remnant of his own scattered forces, in routing the troojis of the rebel leader before the Tartars and the Slongols came up. lie then started In pursuit of the flying foe. Meanwhile the Tar- tar contingent arrived ; and on entering the capi- tal, the young JIanchu prince in command was invited by the people of Peking to ascend the vacant* throne. 80 that by the time Wu Sun-kuei reappeared ho found a new dynasty [the Ch'ing or Tsing dynasty of the present day] already 420 CHINA, rju4-iH»a. O/iiuiM W'ltr, CHINA, lMau-1843. C!itiil)lish('(l, iiml Ills liitn Miindiii nlly lit tin- liciiil of iilTiilrH. His tli'Ml intention Imil ilniilitlcHM I n to t'ciiKlniic till' Ming line of i' iiprriirs; lint lii^ scciiiH to liiivu rniilily fiillcn !> v, llli tliii iirriiiiKi'- nu'Mt iilrriiily iiiiulc, itnil to liitvo tciuiiTi'il liU fornml iillcfilitni'i^ on tlii' four following conili- tionH: — (l.)Tliat no ClilnrHi' woniitn Hlioiild Ik- tiikrn Into tlio Iinprriiil MniKlio. (2.) Tliiit thi- ll fhI ptiu eat t lii' grrat I rirnniiil rxiiuiiniit ion for tlio lilKlx'tl litiTiiry ilinrrrH hIioiiIiI ncvrr liii glvrn to a Tartar. (It.) Tliat tin; propli- hIiouIiI itiiopt tliii nntiniial I'OHtiiinr of tlie Tartars in llirlr evi-ry- day nil'; but that tliry kIiouIiI lie allowi'il to bury thi'ir i:i>rp»M'H in the ilrrs.sof the lati> liyna^ty. (t.) That tills I'onilition of coHtunie nIioiiIiI not apply to tlin womrii of Cliina, who wcrit not to br conipclli'il vithi-r to wi-iir tlii! hair in ii tail lu'forii niarriage(aH tlm Tartar t;lrls ilo)iir to abanilon tlic (Mistoin of conipri'HsinK tlii'ir fri't. TIki grrat Mini; liviiastv was now at an end, though not (Icstlni'il wholij to pass away. A largii part of it may bo fuiiil to ri'nmin in tlii> litrrary inonii- Mii'iits wliicli wi-ri! i-.xi'cuti'il liiiring its tlireo ccn- turii's of cxistciiri.-. Tlu- ilri'ss of thi) period survives upon tliu mu'' .:: Chinesu stage; anU when oeea.slonally the present alien yoke is found to gall, seditious whispers of ' restoration' are not altogether unheard. . . . The age of the ('h'iiiga U the age in whieh we live; but it i.s not so fu- miliiir to some persons as it ought to be, that a Tartar, and not a Chinese sovereign, is now dented upon tlie throne of ('hina. For some tiiuo after the aeeession of the llrst Manehu Kniperor there was considerable frietioii between the two raecs, due, among other natural causes, to the enforced ado|ition of the peculiar coiiluru in vogue among the .Manchus — i. e., the tidl, or plaited queue of hair, which now liaugs down every Chinainan'a back. This fashion was for a long time vigorously resisted by the inhabitants of soutliern China, though now regarded by all alike as one of the most sacred characteristics of the 'bhick-baircd people' . . . The sulij ligation of the empire by tlie Manchus was followed by u military occupatiim of the ('ouiitry, which has survived the original neceasity, and is part of the system of government at the present day. Gar- risons of Tartar troops were stationed ut various important centres of population. . . . Those Tartar garrisons still occupy the same positions ; and the descendants of the flrst battalions, with occasional reinforcements from Peking, live side by side and in perfect harmony with the strictly Chinese jjoiiulations. These Bannernien, as they are called, may be known by their square, heavy faces, which contrast strongly with the sharper and more astute physiognomies of the Chinese. Tliey speak the dialect of Peking, now recognised as the ofliciiil language par excellence. They do not use their family or surnames — which belong rather to the clan tlian to the individual — but in order to conform to the requirements of Chinese life, the personal name is substituted. Their women do not coiiipress their feet, ana the female coiffure and dress are wholly Tartar in character. Intermarriage betweeu the two races is not considered desirable, though instances are not unknown. In other respects, it is tl:3 old story of ' victa victrix ; ' the conquering Tartars have been themselves conquered by the people over whom they sei themselves to rule. They have adopted the language, written and collo- quial, of China. . . . Manehu, the language of the roniiuerors, is still kept alive at tlie Court of j'l'kiiig. liy u Stale lirtion, it is HiippoHcd to be the langiiuge of the sovrreigii. . , . Kiglit em- perors of this lliii! have already ix'cupii'd the throne, and 'beeuini' guests on high;' the ninth is yet [in IHH'i] a boy less than ten years of age. of these eight, the second in every way tills tin) largest spare in Chinesi! history, ivaiig llsi (or Kaiig Hi) reigned for slxty-omj years. . . . I'lider the third .Maiiihii J-'mperor, ^ ling (.'heng [A. I). 17'J!t-17;mi. liegiiii that violent iiersecu- tion of the Catholii's which has rontlniled almost to the present day. The various M'cta — Jesuits, Doniinicans, Kraneiscaim — had been unable to agree about the Chinese enuival"nt for (lod, and the matter had been tlnally referred to the Pone. Another ditlleiilty had arisen as to the toleratloa of ancestral worship by Chinese converts pro- fessing the (.'atliolic faith. ... As the Pope re- fused to permit the embodiment of this ancient (custom with the ceremonies of the Catholic church, the new religion ceased to advance, and liy-and-by fell into disrepute." — H. A. Giles, lIMorie China, cli. f>-0. Al.H( IN 8. \V. Williams, The Muhllf. Kingdom, eh. 17, and Ui-'iO (v. 2).— C. Gutzlaff, Skf.trhof Chinese Hid., v. 1, rh, 10, v. 2. — ,1. Uoss, Th« Manchim. — Abh6 Hue, Chrittianity in ifhina, r. 2-8. A. D. 1839-1842.— The Opium War with England. — Treaty of Nanlcinz. — Opening of the Five Ports. — "The (Irst Chinese war [of KnglundJ was in one sense directly attributablo to the altered position of the Kast India Com- puiiy after 1833. [.See India: A. D. 1823-1833. 1 Up to that year trade between England and China had been conducted in both countries on principles of strict monopoly. The Chinese trade was sectired to the East India Company, and the English trade was confined to a company of merchants specially nominated for (he pur- pose by the Emperor. The change of thought which produced the destruction of monopolies in England did not penetrate to thi' con.servative atmosphere of the Celestial Empire, and, while the trade in one country was thrown open to everyone, trade in the other was still exclusively confined to the merchants nominated by the Chinese Government. Th(-se merchants. Hong merchants as they were called, traded separately, but were mutually liable for the dues to the Chinese Government and for their debts to the foreigners. Such conditions neither promoted the growth of trade nor the solvency of the traders; and, out of the thirteen Hong merchants in 1837, three or four were avowedly insolvent. (State Papers, v. 27, p. 1310.) Such were the general conditions on which the trade was con- ducted. The most important article of trade was opium. The importation of o'>Mim into China had, indeed, been illegal since 1.00. Hut the Chinese Government had nmdu no stringent efforts to prohibit the trade, and a Si'lect Com- mittee of the House of Commons had declared that it was inadvisable to abandon an important source of revenue to the East India Company. (State Papers, v. 29, p. 1020.) The opium trade consequently throve, and grew from 4,100 chests in 1790 to 30,000 chests in 1837, and the Chinese connived at or ignored the growing trade. (Ibid., p. 1010). ... In 1837 the Chinese Gov- ernment adopted a fresh policy. It decided on rigourously stopping the trade at which it bad 421 CHINA, 1839-1842. Opium War. CHINA, 1889-1848. previously tacitly connived. . . . Whether the Cliinesfl Government was roiilly slioclcud lit tlio growing uw. of tlio drug nnd the consequences of Its use, or whcher it wiis iilarmcd nt a drain of silver from C'ina wliicli disturbed wliat tlie political nrithmcticians of England a hundred years before would have called the balance of trade, it undoubtedly determined to check the trafTlc by every means at its disposal. With this object it strengthened its force on the coast nnd sent Lin, a man of great energy, to Canton [March, 1839] with supremo authority. (State rapers, v. 29, p. 934, and Autobiography of Sir H. Taylor, v. 1, appx., p. 343.) Before Lin's arrival cargoes of opium had been seized bv the Custom House autliorities. On his arrival L'u required both the Hong merchants and the Chmese merchants to deliver up all the opium In their possession in order tliat it might bo destroyed. (State Papers, v. 29, p. 930.) The interests of England in China were at that time entrusted to Charles Elliot. . . . Hut Elliot occupied u very difllcult position in China. Tlie ("' 'nese placed on their communications to him the Chinese word 'Yu,' and wished him to place on his despatclies to them the Chinese word 'Pin.' But Yu signifies a commond, and Pin a humble address, rnd a British Plenipoten- tiary could not receive commands from, or liumblc himself before, Chinese ofUcials. (State Papers, v. 29, pp. 881, 880, 888.) And hence the communications between him and the Chinese Government were unable to follow a direct course, but were frequently or usually sent through the Hong merchants. Sucli was the state of tlr.ngs in China when Lin, arriving in Canton, insisted on the surrender and destruction of all tlie opium there. Elliot was at Macao. He at once decided on icturning to the post of difllculty and danger; and, though Canton was blockaded by Chinese forces and its river guarded by Chinese batteries, he made his way up in a boat of H. M. S. 'Lame,' and threw himself among his imprisoned countrymen. After his arrival he took the responsibility of demanding the surrender into his own hands, for the service of his Government, of all the British opium i, China, and he surrendered tlie opium wliicli he thus obtained, amounting to 20,283 chests, to the Chinese authorities, by whom it was destroyed. (Ibid., pp. 945, 007.) The imminent danger to the lives and properties of a Icrge number of British subjects was undoubtedly removed by Elliot's action. Though some difllculty arose in connection with the surrender, Lin undertook gradually to relax the s ringeucy of the measures " which he had adopted (ibid., p. 977), and Elliot hoped that his own zealous etforts to carry out the arrangement which he had made would lead to the raising of the blockade. He was, how- ever, soon undeceived. On the 4th of April Lin required Iiim, in conjunction with the mer- chants, to enter into a bond under which all vessels hereafter engaged in the opium traffic would have been confiscated to the Chinese Government, and all persons connected with the trade would 'suffer death at the hands of the Celestial Court.' (Ibid., p. 989.) This bond Elliot steadily refused to sign (ibid., p. 992); and feeling .hat ' all sense of security was broken to pieces' (ibid., p. 978), he ordered all British sub- jects to leave Canton (ibid., p. 1004), he himself withdrew to the Portuguese settlement at Macao (ibid., p. 1007), ond ho wrote to Auckland, the Governor-Oenerul of India, for armed assistant :'.. (Ibid., p. 1009.) These grave events natuniUy created profound aii.victy. A Select Committee of the Ilouse of Commons had formally dechned to interfere with the trade. The opiuui ii..'nopoly at that time was worth some £1,000,000 or £1,500,000 a year to British India (ibid., p. 1020); and India, engaged in war with Afghanistan and already involved ia a serious deficit, could cot afford to part with so large an amount of its revenue (ibid., p. 1020). Nino-tenths of the British merchants ?n China were engaged in the illegal trade (ibid., p. 1030), while Elliot, in enforcing the surreiuli-r of the opium, had given the merchants bonds on the British Government for its value, and the 20,000 chests surrendered were supposed to be worth from 000 to 1,200 dollars a chest (ibid., p. 987), or say from £3,400,000 to £4,800,000. ... As the summer advanced, moreover, a fresh outrage increased the intensity of the crisis. On the 7th July some British seamen land(!d near Ilong Kon,\ aad engaged in a serious riot. A native wu. un- fortunately killed on the occasion, and though Elliot, at his own risk, gave the relations of the victim a large pecuniary compensation, and E laced the men engaged in the riot on tlieir trial, in was not satisfied. lie moved down to the coast, cut off the supplies of British subjects, and threatened to stop the supplies to Macao if the Portuguese continued to assist the British, flbid., pp. 1037-1039.) The British were in con- sequ-ince forced to leave Macao; and about the same time a small sel tr, the 'Black Joke,' was attacked by the nese, and a British sub- ject on board of her .^ riously wounded. Soon afterwards, however, the arrival of a ship of war, the 'Volage,' in Chinese waters enabled Elliot to assume a bolder front. lie returned to Slacao; he even attempted to procure supplies from tlie mainland. But, though he succeeded in purchasing food, 'the Mandarin runners ap- proached and obliged the natives to take back their provisions,' and Elliot, cxasnerated at their conduct, fired on some war junks of the Chinese, which returned the fire. A w .ek afterwards Elliot declared the port and river of Canton to be in a state of blockade. (Ibid., p. 1000.) The conunencemeut of the blockade, however, did not lead to immediate war. On the contrary, the Chinese showed considerable desire to av^"^ hostilities. They insisted, indeed, that some British sailor must be smrendered to them to suffer for the death of the Chinaman who had fallen in the riot of Kong Kong. But they showed so much anxiety to conclude an arrange- ment on this jioint that they endeavoured to in- duce Elliot to declare that a sailor who was acci- dentally drowned in Chinese waters, and whose body they had found, was the actual murderer. (State Papers, v. 30, p. 27.) And in the mean- while the trade which Lin had intended to de- stroy went on at least as actively as ever. Lin's proceedings had, indeed, the effect of stimulat- ing it to an unprecedented degree. The destruc- tion of vast stores of op'"-m led to a rise in ihe price of opium in China, The rise in price pro- duced the natural consequence of an increased speculiviion; and, though British shipping was excluded from Chinese waters, and the contents of British vessels liad to be transferred to Ameri- can bottoms for conveyance into Chinese ports, 422 CHINA. 1839-1843. Opium War. CHINA, 1830-1842. Dritish trade liail nevur bc-i'n so largo or so ailvuntttgcous as in tlio period wliich siicuceclfd Liu's arliitrary proti'fdiiigs. lOlliot was, of course, uualjlc to prevent war either by the surrender of a British sailor to tlie Cliineso, or hy even assuming tliat a drowned man was the murderer; and war In consequence l)ecanic daily more probable. In January, 1840, operations actually coninicnccd. Elnot was instructed to make an armed demonstration on the northern coasts of China, to take possession of some island on the coast, and to ol)tain reparation and in- demnity, if possible by a mere display of force, but otherwise to proceed with the squadron and thence send an ultimatum to Pekin. In accordance with these orders the Island of Chusiui was occupied in July, and the llect was sent to the mouth of the Peiho with orders to transmit a letter to Pckin. But the sea off the Peiho is shallow, the ships could not approach the coasts, and tlie Chinese naturally refused to yield to an empty demonstration. The expedi- tion was forced to leturn to Chusan, where it found that the tioops whom they had left be- hind were smitten by disease, that one out of every four men were dead, and that more than one-half of the survivors were invalid(;d. Thus, throughout 1840, the Chinese war was only at- tended witli disaster and distress. Things com- menced a little more prosperously in 1841 by the capture of the Chinese position at the mouth of the Canton river. Elliot, after this success, was even able to conclude a preliminary treaty with the Chinese authorities. But this treaty did not prove satisfactory either to the British Govern- ment or to the Chinese. The British saw with di-smay that the treaty made no mention of the trade in opium which had been the ostensible cause of the war. The Whig Government accordingly decided on superseding Elliot. He was recalled and replaced by Henry Pottinger. Before news of his recall reached him, however, the treaty which had led to his supersession had been disavowed by iiio Chinese authorities, and Elliot had commenced a fresh attack on the Chinese force which guarded the road to Canton. British sailors and British troops, under the com- mand of Bremer and Gough, won a victory which placed Cau:on at their mevy. But Elliot, shrinking from exposing a grciit town to th'> horrors of an assault, stopped the ad 'ance of the troops and admitted the -Uy to ". ransom of £1,250,000. (Sir II. Taylor^s Autobiography, V. 1, appx., pp. 353-303.) His moderation was naturally unacceptable to the troops and not entirely approved by the British Government. It constituted, howeve;, Elliot's last action as agent in China. The subsequent operations were conducted under Pottinger's advice." — S. Walpole, Ilist. of Eng. from 1815, Note, v. 5, pp. 287-291. —"Sir Henry Pottinger, who irrived as Plenipotentiary on the 10th of August, took the chief direction of the affairs. ... To the end of "lWX there were various successes achieved hy the laud and naval forces, which gave the Biitish possession of many large fortided towns, amongst which were Amoy, Ting-hai, Chin-hai, Ning-po, and Shang-hai. The Cliinese were nevertheless persevering in their resistance, and in most cases evinced a bravery which showed how mistaken were the views which regarded the subjection of this extraordinary peopV as an easy task. . . . The British fleet on the IS.hof Jime [1843] entered the great river Kiang, and on tlie 0th of July advanced up the river, and cut off its communication witli the Grand Canal, by which Nanking, the ancient capital of Cliina, was supplied with grain. The point where the river intersects tlie canal is the city of Chin- Kiang-<()0. ... On the morning of the 2l8t the city was stormed by the Britisli, in three bri- gades. The resistance of tlie Tartar troops was most desperate. Our troojis fought under a burning sun, whose overpowering heat caused some to fall dead. The obstinate defence of the ]iIaco prevented its being taken till six o'clock ill the evening. When the streets were entered, the houses were found almost deserted. They were llUed with ghastly eorp.ses, many of the Tartiir soliliers having destroyed their families and tlien committed suicide. The city, from the number of the dead, had become uninhabitable." — C. Kniglit, Popular JUkI. of Emj., v. 8, ch. 25. — "Tlie (lestruction of life was appalling. . . . Every Manehu preferred resistance, death, suicide, or lliglit, to surrender. Out of a Mauchu population (jf 4,000, it was estimated that not more than 50(» survived, the greater part having perished by their own hands. . . . Within twenty-four hours after the troops landed, the city and suburbs of Cliinkiang were a mass of ruin and destrrction. . . . The total lo.ss of the English was 37 killcl and 181 wounded. . . . Some of the large ships were towed up to Nan- king, and i...e whole fleet reached it August 9tli, at which time preparations had been made for the assault. . . . Everything was ready for the assault by daylight of August 15th ; " but on the night of the i4th the Chinese made overtu.es for the negotiation of peace, and the important Treaty of Nanking was soon afterwards con- cluded. Its terms were as follows: "1. Last- ing peace between the two nations. 2. The ports of Canton, Amoy, Fulichau, Ningpo, and Shanghai [known afterwards as the Treaty Ports] to be opened to British trade and resi- dence, and trade conducted according to a well- understood tariff. 3. ' It being ob\ usly ueccs- • ■../ and desirable that British subjects should have some port whereat they may careen and refit their ships when required,' the island of Hongkong 'o be ceded to her Slajesty. 4. Six millions of dollars to be paid as the value of the opium which was delivered up ' as a ransom for the lives of H. B. M. Superintendent anu sub- jects,' in March, 1839. 5. Three millions of dollars to be paid for the debts due to British merchants. 6. Twelve millious to be paid for the expenses incurred in the expedition sent cut ' to obtain redress for the violent and unjust pro- ceedings of the Chinese high authorities.' 7. The entire amount of $31,000,000 to be paid before December 31, 1845. 8. All prisoni rs of war to be immediately released by the Chinese. 9. The Emperor to grant full and entire amnesty to tliooo cf hio subjects who hud aided the British." Articles 10 to 13 related to the tariff of export and import dues that should be levied at the open ports; to future terms of ofllcii.1 corre- spondence, etc. Tlie Treaty was signed by the Commissioners on the 29th of August, 1843, and the Emiieror's ratilication was received Bepteni- ber 15th.— S. W. Williams, Tlw Middle King- dom, ch. 32-23. Also in D. C. Boulger, Hid. of China, o. 3, eh. 5 -7.— E. II. Parker, Chinese Ace' t of the Opium War. 423 CHINA, 1850-1804. Tniping liebetUon. CHINA, 1850-1864. A. D. 1850-1864.— The TaipineT Rebellion. — "Thf jilnusc! 'Tiiiping IU?l)ellioii is wliolly cf foii'ijjii iimmifactiire; at Pcliiiig and every where ainoiij!; those loyal to the government the in- surgents were styled ' Chiing-nmo tseh,' or 'liong-lmired rehels,' while on their side, by i\ 'wliiinsienl resemblance to English slang, the im- perialists were di.Micd ' imps.' When tlie chiefs n8suine<i to be aiming at independence in IS.TO, in order to identify their f.)llowers with their cause they took the term ' Ping Chao.'or 'Peace Dynasty,' as the style of their sway, to dis- tinginsh it from tlie 'Tsing Chao,' or 'Pure Dynasty ' of the IVlanchus. Each of them pre- fixed the adjective 'Ta' (or 'Tai,' in Cantonese), 'Great,' as is the Chinese custom with regard to dynasties and nations ; thus tlie name Tai-ping became known to foreigners." — S. W. Williams, T/ie Middle. Kiiir/dom. f/i. 24 (r. 2),— "This re- markable movement, which at one time excited much interest in Western lands, originated with a man named Hung Sew-tseucn [or Hung Siu- tseiien], son of a humble peasant residing in a village near Canton. On the occasion of one of liis visits to the provincial city, probably in the year 1833, he apjiears to have seen a foreign Protestant missionary addressing the populace in the streets, assisted by a ni'.live interpreter. Either then or on the following day he received from some tract-distributor a book entitled 'Good Words for Exhorting the Age,' which consisted of essays and sermons l)y Leang A-fah, a well-k'iown convert and evangelist. Taking the volume homo with him, he lookecl it over with some interest, but carelessly laid it aside in his book-case. A few years afterward lie at- tended for the second time the competitive literary examination with high hopes of honor and clistinction, having already passed with much credit the lower examination in the dis- trict city. His ambitious vent\ire, however, met ■with severe di.^ippointment, and he returned to his friends sicV in mind and body. During tliis state of mental depression and pliysiealinlirmity, which continued for some forty days, lie had certain strange visions, in which lie received commands from heaven to destroy the idols. These fancied revelations seem to have produced a deep impression on his mind, and led to a cer- tain gravity of demeanor after his recovery and return to his quiet occupation as a student and vil'ago schoolmaster. When the English war broke out, and foreigner.^ swept up Canton River •with their wonderiul fire-ships, ... it is not surprising that Hu.ig should have hsnl his atten- tion again attracted to the Christian publication ■wliich had lain so long neglected in liis library. . . . The writings of Leang A-fah contained chapters from the O'd and New Testament Scriptures, which he found to correspond in a striking manner with the preternatural sights and voices of that memorable period in his history [during his .sickness, si.K years before]; and this strange coincidence convinced liimot their truth, and of his being divinely appointed to restore the world, that is China, to the worship of the true God. Hung Sew-tseucn acct^pted his mis- sion and began the work of propagatiiig tlie faith he liad eppou.scd. Among his tir,st converts ■was one Fung Yun-san, who became a most ardent inissior.ny and disinterested preacher. These two lenders of the movement traveled far and near through the country, teaching the people of all classes and forming a society of G(Kl-worsliippers. All the converts renounced idolatry ami gave up the worship of Confucius. Hung, at this time apparently a sincere and earnest Lctker after truth, went to Canton and placed himself under the instructions of the Hev. Air. Roberts, an American missionary, who for some cause fearing that his novitiate mij'lit be inspired by mercenary motives, denied him the rite of bajitisin. But, without being offended at this cold and suspicious treatment, he went home pnd taught his converts how to baptize themselves, "rho God-worshippers rapidly in- creased in numbers, and were known and feared as zealous iconoclasts. . . . For a year after Hung Sew-tseuen had rejoined the God-wor- sliippers that society retiiined its exclusively religious nature, but in the autumn of 1850 it was brought into direct collision with the civil magistrates, when the movement assumed a political character of the highest aims." It was soon a movement of declared rebellion, and allied with a rebel army of bandits and pirates which liad taken arms against the govern- ment in south-eastern China. — L. N. Wheeler, T/ie foreigner in China, ch. 13. — "The Ilakka schooliniwter proclaimed his ' mission ' in ISr.O. A vast horde gathered to him. He nominated five 'Wangs 'or soldier sub-kings from out of his clan, and commenced liis northward movement from Woosewen in January, 18!j!. Through the rich prosperous provinces liis desultory march, inters'jersed with frequent halts, spread, destruction and desolation. The peaceful fled shuddoringly before this wave of fierce, stalwart ruflianhood, with its tatterdemalian tawdrincss, its flaunting banners, its rusty naked weapons. Everywhere it gathered in the local scoundrelism. The pirates came from the coast; the robbers from the interior mountains rallied to an enter- prise that promised so well for their trade. In the perturbed state of the Cliinese population the horde grew like an avalanche as it rolled along. The Heavenly King [as Hung now styled himself] met with no opijosition to speak of^ and in 1853 liis promenade ended under the shadow of the Porcelain Tower, in the city of Nanking, the second metropolis of thi, Chinese Empire, where, till the rebellion and liis life ended siniu'taneouslj', he lived a life of licen- tiousness, darkened furtlier by the grossest cruelties. The rebellion had lasted nearly ten years when the fates brought it into collision with the armed civilization of the West. The Imperialist forces had made sluggishly some head against it. Nanking had been invested after a fashion for years on end. ' Tiie prospects of the^Tai-pings,' says Commander Brine, 'in the early spring of 1860, had become very gloomy. ' The Imperialist generals had hemmed Tai-ping- dom witliin certain limits in tlie 1 wer valley of the Yantsze, and the movement languilied further ' from its destructive and exhausting nature, ■whicli for continued vitality constantly required new districts of country to exhaust and destroy.' But in 1859 China and the West came into collision. . . . The rebellion had opi)or- tunity to recover lost ground. For the sixth time the ' Faithful King ' relieved Nanking. Tlie Imiierialist generals fell back, and then the Tai-pings took the offensive, and as the result of .sundry victories, the rebellion regained an active and flourishing condition. . . . Shanghai, one of ■<24 CHINA, 1850-1804. War with Etigtand and trance. CHINA, 1850-1860. llio trenty ports, was tlireiitencd. " — A. Forbes, Chinese Gordon, ch. 3. — " Europe . . . has known ev.' diiys nmler the Imnds of lierco cou- ■inerors, pi indering and destroying in religion's name; but .ts annuls may be ransacked in vain, witJKMit fin Ing any parallel to the miseries endured in t.iose provinces of Cliina over which ' The Heavenly King,' tlic Tai-ping prophet, ex- tended his fell sway for ten sad years. Hung Sew-ts\ien (better known in Cliina by liis assumed title, Tien Wang) . . . liad read Christian tracts, had learnt from a Christian missionary; and when ho announced publicly three years aft(!r- wards that part of his mission was to destroy the temples and images, and showed in the jargon of his pretended visions some traces of his New Testament study, the conclusion was instantly seized by the sanguine minds of a section set upon evangelizing the East, tliat their efforts had produced a true prophet, tit for the work. SVeiUled to tliis fancy, they rejected as the in- ventions of the enemies of missions the tales of Taiping cruelty which soon reached Europe: and long after the details of the impostor's life at Nankin, with its medley of visions, execu- tions, edicts, ap'l Inirem iiuhdgcnce, became notorious to the world, prayers were offered for his success by devotees in Great Britain as bigoted to his cause as the bloodiest commander, or ' Wang,' whom ho had raised from the ranks of his followers to carry out his ' exterminating decrees.' The Taiping cause was lost in China before it was wholly abandoned by these fanatics in England, and their belief in its ex- cellence so powerfully reacted on our policy, that it iniglit have preserved us from active intervention down to the present time, had not certain Imperialist successes elsewhere, the diminishing means of their wasted possessions, and the rashness of tlieir own chiefs, brought the Taiping arms into direct collision with us. And with the occasion tliere was happily raised up the man whose prowess was to .scatter their blood-cemented (impire to pieces far more speedily tlian it had been built up." — C. C. Chesney, Essays in Military E'>q., ch. 10. — "The Taiping rebellion was of so barbarous a nature that its suppression had become necessary in the interests of civilization. A force raised at the expense of the Shanghai merchants, and sup- ported by the Chinese government, liad been for some years struggling against its jirogress. This force, known as the 'Ever Victorious Army,' was commanded at first by Ward, an American, and, on his death, by Burgevine, also an American, who was summarily dismissed ; for a short time the command was held by Holland, an English mi'rine odicer, but he wivs defeated at Taitsiui 2i Feb., 1803. Li Hung Chang, governor-general of the Kiang provinces, then applied to the Britisli conuuander-inchief for the services of an English olllccr, and Gordon [Charles George, subsequently known as ' Cliinese Gordon'] was authorised to accept the command. He arrived at Sung-Kiong and entered on his new duties as a mandarin and lieutenant-colonel in the Chinese service on 21 Marcli ly03. His force was composed of some tliiee to four tliou- sand Chinese, oflicered by li50 Europeans of almost eveiy nationality and often of doubtful character. By the indomitable will ot its com- mander this heterogeneous body was moulded into a little army whoso high-sounding title of 28 'ever-victorious' became a reality, and in less than two years, after IW engagements, the jiower of the Taipings was completely broken and the rebellion stamped out. 'I'lie theatre of operations was the district of Kiangwio, lying between the Yang tze- Kiang river in tlie north and the bay of Hangcliow in the south." Ik- fore the summer of 1803 was over, Gordon h id raised the rebel .siege of Chanzu, and taken frcn the Taipings the towns of Fushaii, Taitsan, Ouinsan, Kahpoo, Wokong, Patacbiaow, Leeku, Wanti, and Fusai(iwan Finally, in December, the great city of Soo-chow was surrendered to him. Gordon was always in front of all his storming parties, "carrying no other weapon than a little cane. His men called it his ' magic wand,' regarding it as a charm that prote<^ted his life and led them on to victory. When .Soo- chow fell Gordon had stipulated with the Governor-general Li for the lives of the Wangs (rebel leaders). They were treacherous'.y mur- dered by Li's orders. Indignant at this per- fidy, Gordon refused to serve any longer with Governor Li, and when on 1 Jan. 1804 money and rewards were heaped upon him by the Em- peror, declined them all. . . . After some [two] months of inaction it became evident that if Gordon did not again take the field the Taipings would regain the rescued c<Aintry," and he was prevailed upon to resume his campaign, wliich, although badly wounded in one of the battles, he brought to an end in the follow lUg April (1804), by the capture of Chan-chu-fu. "This victory not only ended the campaign but com- pletely destroyed the rebellion, and the Chinese regular forces were enabled to occupy Nankin ill the July folloviug. The large money present offered to Gordon by the emperor was again declined, although he had spent his pay in pro- moting the efHciency of his force, so that he wrote home : ' I shall leave China as poor as w lien I entered it.'" — Col. R. H. Veitch, Charles Oeorr/e Gordon (Diet, of Xat. Iliog.) Also in: A. E. Hake, The titori/ of Chinese Gordon, ch. 3-8.— W. F. Butler, Chas. Georf/e Gordon, ch. 3. — S. Mossman, General Gordon in, China. — Private Diary of Gen. Gordon in China. — Jim. Gallery and Yvan, Hist, of tlie Insurrec- tion in China. A. D. 1856-1860.— 'War with England and France. — Bombardment and capture of Can- ton. — The Allies in Pekin. — Their destruction of the Summer Palace. — Terms of peace. — The speech from the throne at tlie opening of the Englisli Parliament, on February 3, 1857, "stated that acts of violeuce, insults to the British flag, and infractions of treaty rights, com- mitted by the local authorities at Canton, and a pertinacious refusal of redress, had rendered it necessary for her JIajesty's olllrers in China to have recourse to measures of force to obtain satis- faction. Tlie alleged ollences of the Cliinese au- thorities at Canton had for their single victim the lorclia 'Arrow.' The lorclia 'Arrow' was a small boat built on the European model. The word ' Lorclia' is tiiken from tlie Portuguerx set- tlement at Macao, at tlie mouth of tlie Cant(m river. It often <ccui-s in treaties with the Chinese authorities. On October 8, 1850, a party of Chinese in charge of an oflicer boarded tlio 'Arrow,' in the Canton river. Tliey took off twelve men on a charge of piracy, leaving two men in charge of the lorcha. The ' Arrow ' was 426 CHINA, 1856-1860. Affair of the Arrow. CriINA, 1856-1860. declared by its owners to be n British vcssci. Our eonwul ut C'linton, Mr. Parlies, (loiiiiUKlrd from Yell, the Chinese Governor of Canton, the return of the men, basing liis demand ujion the Treaty of 18i:t, siiiipiemenlai to the Treaty of 1842. This treaty did not !;ive the Chinese" au- thorities any ri;;hl to seize Clnnesc? olTenders, or supposed ollenders, on board an Knirlish vessel. It merely gave tlieni a right to re(|uire the sur- render of the offenders at the hands of the Enjilisli. The Chinese Governor, Yeh, con- tended, liowever, that the loreha vas a Chinese pirate vessel, whieh had no riglit whatever to hoist the flag of England. It may be plainly stjited at once that the ' Arrow ' was not an English vessel, hut only a Chinese ves.4el whieh hail obtained by false pret-nees the temporary possession tif a Uritish tlag. Mr. Consul Parkes, however, wis fussy, and l:e demanded the in- stant rcstoniiion of the captured men, and he sent oil to our Plenipotentiary at Hong Kong, Sir John Bowring, for authority and assistance in the business. >Slr .John Bowring . . . ordered the Chinese authorities to surrender all tlie mea taken from the ' Arrow,' and he insisted that an apology should be olTered for their arrest, and u formal pledge given that no such act should ever be committed again. If this were not done witldn forty -eight hours, naval ojierations weretobe be- gun against the Chinese. Tlie Chinese Governor, Yell, sent back all the men, and undertook to pnmiise that for the future great care should be tiiken that no Britisli ships slionld be vi.sited im- properly by Chinese ollieers. But he could not offer an apology for the particular case of the ' Arrow,' for he still niaintaim^d, as was indeed the fact, that tlie 'Arrow' was a Chinese vessel, and that the Englisli had nothing to do with lier. Acordingly Sir John Bowring carried out his tlireat, and had Canton bombarded by the fleet which Admiral Sir Michael Seymour commanded. From October 23 to November liJ naval and mili- tary operations were kept uj) continuously. Com- missioner Y'eli retaliated by foolislily offering a reward for tlie head of every Englishman. This news from Cliiiia created a consiilerable sensation in England. On February 24, 1857, Lord Derby brought forward in tlie House of Lords a motion, comprehensively condemning the wliole of tlie proceedings of the British authorities in China. The debate would liave been memorable if only for the powerful speech in which the venerable Lord Lyndliurst sup|,orted the motion, and ex- posed the utter illegality of tlie course pursued by Sir John Bowring. The House of Lords re- jected the motion of Lord Derby bv a majority of 146 to 110. On February 26" Mr. Ci.'hIcu brouglit forward a similar motion in the House of Commons. . . . Mr. Cobdeii had probably never dreamed of the amount or the nature of the sup[)ort his motion was destined to receive. The vote of censure was carried by 263 votes uguinat 347 — a majority of 16. Lord Puhnerston announced two oi three days after that the Government had resolved on a dissolution and an appeal to the country. Lord Palmerston under- stood his countrymen." In the ensuing elections his victory was complete. "Cobden, Bright, Mil- ner Gibson, W. J. Fox, Layard, an(l many other leading opponents of the Cliinese policy, were left without seals. Lord Palmerston came back to power with renewed and redou'jled strength." lie "had tUc satisfaction before he left ofliee [in 18,')8] of lieing able to announce the capture of ('anion. The operations against China had been virtually suspended . . . when the Indian !Mii- tiay liroke out. England liad now got the co- operation of France. France had a complaint of long standing against Cliina on account of the murder of some mis.sionaries, for which redress had been asked in vain. There was, tlierefore, an allied attack made upon Canton [December, 1857], and o? courae the city was easily captured. Conimi.ssioner Y'eh himself was taken iirisoner, not until he had beiMi sought for and hunted oiit ill most ignominious fasliion. He was found iit last hidden away in some obscure part of a Iioiise. He was known by his enormous fatness. . . . He was put on board an Engli.sli man-of-war, and afterwards sent to Calcutta, where he died early in the following yei'.'.'. Unless report greatly be- lied him he had been exceptionally cruel, even for a Chinese olllcial. Tlie Englisli and French Envoys, Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, succeeded in making a treaty with China. By the con- ditions of tlie treaty, England and France were to have ministers at the (!liinese Court, on certain special occasions at least, and China was to be represented in London and Paris; there was to be toleration of Cliristiauity in Cliina, and a certain freedom of access to Chinese rivers for English and French mercantile vessels, and to the interior of Cliina for Englisli and French sub- jects. China was to pay the expenses of the war. It was further agreed that the term 'barbarian' w.is no longer to be applied to Europeans in Cliina. There was great congratulation in Eng- land over this treaty, and the prospect it alforded of a lasting peace with China. The peace thus ])rocurcd lasted in fact exactly a year. . . . The tieatiy of Tien-tsin, which had been arranged by Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, contained u clause providing for the exchange of the ratifications at Pekin within a year from tlie date of the sig- nature, wdiicli took nlace in ■Tune 1858. Lord Elgin returned <o Eng and, and his brother, Mr. Frederick Bruce, was appointed in JIarcli 1859 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- tiary to China. Mr. Bruce was directed to pro- ceed by way of tlic Peilio to Tien-tsin, and thence to Pekin to excliange the ratifications of tlic treaty. Lord Malmesbury, who was then Foreign Secretary . . . impressed upon Mr. Bruce that he was not to be put off from going to the capit'.l. Instructions were sent out from fingland at the same time to Admiral Hope, the Naval Com- mander-in-Cliief in Cliina, to i)rovido a sufBcient force to accompany Jlr. Bruce to tlie mouth' of the Peiho. The Peiho river flows from Mie liigli- lands on the west into the Gulf of Pecheli, at the north-east corner of the Chinese dominions. Tlie capital of the Empire is about 100 miles inland from the mouth of the Peiho. It does not stand on lliat river, which flows past it at some dis- tance westward, but it is connected with the river by means of a canal. The town of Tien- tsin stands on the Peiho near its junction with one of the many rivers that flow into it, and about forty miles fn^n the mouth. The entrance to the Peilio was defe.vled by tlie Taku *'orts. On June 20, 1859, Mv. Bruce and the French En- voy reached the mouth of the Peilio witli Admind Hope's Meet, some nuieteen vessels in all, to escort them. They found the forts defended; some negotiations and inter-communications took place, and a Chinese official from Tien-tsin came 426 CHINA, 1850-1800. Bnrbarinn» in Pekin. CHINA, 1857-1868. to Mr. nruc<! nnd endeavoured to oMiiin some delay or coin promise. Mr. Hruce became con- vinced tliat tlie condition of tilings predicted by Lord Malmesbury was coming about, and tliat tlie Cliincse authorities were only trying to de- feat his purpose. lie called on Adinirid Ilojje to clear a passage for the vessels. WI.en tlie Adinind brought up his gunboats the forts opened lire. The Chinese artillerymen showed unexpected skill and precision. Four of the gun- boats were almost immediately di.sablcd. All the attacking vessels got aground. Admiral Hope attempted to storm the forts. The attempt was u complete failure. Admiiiil Hope himself was wounded; so was the commander of the French veuse! which had contriliuted a con'ingent to the storming party. The attempt to loice a passage of the river was given up nnd the mis- sion to Pekiu WHS over for the preser.t. It seems only fair to say that the C^hinese at tlie mouth of the Peiho cannot bo accused of perfidy. They had mounted the forts and barricaded the river openly and even ostentatiously. ... It will be easily imagined that the news created a deep sensiitioii in Kngland. People in general made up their minds at once that the matter could not be allowed to rest there, and that the mission to Pekin must be enforced. . . . Before the whole question came to be discussed in Parliament the Conservatives liad gone out and the Liberals had come in. The English and French Qovernments deti.rinined that the men who had made the treaty of Tien-tsin — Loril Elgin and Uaron Gros — should be sent back to insist on its reinforce- ment. Sir Hope Grant was appointed to the military command of our land forces, and Geneml Cousin de Montauban, afterwards Count Palikao, commanded the soldiers of France. The Chinese, to do them justice, fought very bravely, but of coui-so they liad no chance whatever against such forces as those commanded by the English ami French generals. The allies captured the Taku forts [August, 1800], occupied Tien-tsin, and marched on Pekia. The Chinese Government endeavoured to negotiate for peace, and to inter- pose any manner of delay, diiilomatic or other- wise, between the allies and their progress to th'! capital. Lord Elgin consented at last to enter into negotiations at Tungchow, a walled town ten or twelve niiles nearer than Pekin. Before the negotiations took place. Lord Elgin's secre- taries, Mr. Parkes and !Mr. Loch, some English otticers, Mr. Bowlby, the correspondent of the ' Times,' and some membei's of the stall of Baron Oros, were treai herously seized by the Chinese while under a Bug of truce and dragged off to various jirLsons. Mr. Parkes and Jlr. Loch, with eleven of their companions, were afterwards re- leased, after having been treated with much cruelty and indignity, but thirteen of the prison- ers died of the horrible ill-treatment tlicy re- ceived. Lord Elgin I'cfusetl to negotiate untii the jirisoners had been returned, and the allied armies were actually at one of the great gates of Pekin, and had their giuis in position to blow the gate in, when the Chinese acceded to their term.s. The gate was surrendered, the allies en- tered the city, and the English and French flags were hoistecf side by side on the walls of Pekin. It was only after entering the city that Lord Elgin learned of the murder of the captives. He then deterntined that the Summer Palace should be burnt dowu as a, means of impressing the mind of the Chinese authorities generally with some sen.se of the dnugiT of treachery and foul play. Two days were (M'cupied in the destruc- tion of the palace. It covered an area of many miles. Garilens, temples, small lodges, and i)a- godas. groves, grottoes, lakes, bridges, terraces, artificial hills, diversitied the vast space. All the artistic treasures, all the curiosities, arch' aeologieal and other, that C)liinese wealth and Chinese taste, such as it was, co\ild bring to- gether, had been accunuilated in this inai;nilicent pleasaunce. The surrounding scenery was beautiful. The high mountains of Tarlary ram- l)arted one side of the enclosure. The buildings were set on tire; the whole place was given over to destruction. A monument was raised with an inscripti(jn in Chinesi^ setting forth that such was the reward of perfidy and cruelty. Very different ojjinions were held in England a • the destruction of the Imperial palace. To ni.niy it seemed an act of unintelligible and unpardonable vandalism. Lord Elgin explained, tlial if he did not demand the surrender of the a(ttual perpetra- tore, it was because he knew full well that no dilHculty would have been made about giving him a seeming satisfaction. The Chinese Govern- ment would liave selected for vicarious punish- ment, in all probability, a crowd of mean and unfor'unato wnjtches who had nothing to do with the murders. ... It is somewhat singular that so many persons should have been roused to in- dignation by the destruction of a building who took with perfect composure the unjust invasion of a country. The allied powers now of course had it all their own way. England established her right to have an envoy in Pc'kin, whether the Cliinese liked it or not. China 'lad to pay a war indemnity, and a large sum of money as com- pensation to the families of the murdered prison- ers and to those who had suffered injuries, and to make an apology for the attack by the garrison of the Taku forts. Perhaiis the most important gain to Europe from the war was the knowledge that Pekin was not by any means so large a city as we had all imagined it to be, and that it was on the whole rather a crumbling and tumble- down sort of place." — J. McCarthy, Short Hint, of ouv own Time, ch. 12, 15, 17 (c/t. 30 and 43, V. 3, of larger work). Also in: L. Oliphant, Narrative of tlte Earl of Elgin's Mission, v. 1. — H. B. Loch, Personal Mar- ratire. — S. W. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, ch. 25 (,v. 2).— Col. SirW. F. Butler, Ohas. Geo. Gordon, ch. 3. A. D. 1857-1868.— Treaty w.th the United States. — The Burlingame Embassy and the Burlingame Treaties. — "The government of the United States viewed with an.xiety tlie new breaking out of liostilitics between Great Britain, supported by Prance as an ally, and China, in the year 18.^0. President Bucharnn sent thither the Hon. William B. Reed to watch the course of events, and to act the part of a mediator and peacemaker when opportunity should offer. In this lie waj sustained by Ihe intlueuce of Russia. Mr. Reed arrived in Hong-Kong, on the fine war steamer Minnesota, November 7, 1857. He at once set himself to remove the dilliculties between the English and Chinese, and save if possible the future effusion of blood. He en- tleavored in vain to persuade the proud and ob- stinate governor Yeh to yield, and save Cantou from bombardment. He proceeded to the north. 427 CHINA, 1857-1868. HurUnffame JCmlxusy. CHINA, 1857-1868. hik) iniuli' on licliair of his ^ovcriiiiiciit a treaty of |uii(T Willi CliiTia wliicli wa.s sij^iicd .luiic IH. Till! first article of the treaty contains a sijfiiitl- cant reference to the postuii; of the United Stal<'s In relation to the war then in jjrogrcHs, as well as to any which might thereafter arise. The article says: 'There shall he, as there have always been, i)eace and friiaidship between the United .States of America and the Ta-Tsing Kmpire, and between their jieople respectively. They shall not insidt or oppress each other for any trilling cause, so as to produce an estran^e- ni'nt between them; and if any other nation should net unjustly or oppres-sively, the United StJites will e.xerl their good ollices, (ui being informed of the ca.se, to bring about an amicable arrangement of the (piestion, thus showing their friendly feelings.' A subseiiuent article of this treaty is to be interpreted by keeping in view the Wtter root of the dilliculties between Groat Britain and China which led to the previous war of 1839 to '4'2, and to this war. After stating the ports where Americans shall be perinilted to reside and their vessels to trade, it contuiues in the following language: 'But said vi'.,sels shall not carry on a dandestini; and fnmdulent trade lit other ports of China not dedarec, to be legal, or aUmg the coasts thereof; and any vessel under the American Hag violating 'his provision shall, with her cargo, be subject t( .onliscation to the Chinese government; and any citizen of the United States who shall trade in any contraband article of merchandise shall be subject to be dealt with by the Chinese government, without being entitled to any countenance or protection from that of the United States ; and tlie United States will take measures to prevent their flag from being abused by the subjects of other nations 88 a cover for the violation of the laws of the empire.' . . . Tlie developinent of the foreign trade with China during the brief time which lias passeil [1870J since the last war has been very gri at. . . . The Aiaericau government has lieen represented most of the time by tlie Hon. Anson Burlingame, who has taken the lead, with re- markable ability and success, in establishing the policy tf peaceful co-operation between the chief treaty powers, in encouraging the (^'liinese to adopt a more wise and progressive jiolicy in their entercoiirse with foreign nations and in the introduction of the improvements of the age. . . . Mr. Burlingame, who liad been in China six years, determined [in 180V] to resign his i)ost and return to America. The news of it excited much regret among both Chinese and foreign tliploma- tists. The former endeavored in vain to dissuade him from his purpose. Failing to accomplish this, lie was invited by Prince Kung to a farewell enter- tainment, at which were present many of the lead- ing offleers of the government. During it they c.ipressed to him their gratitude for his offices to tliem as an intelligent and disinterested counselor and friend. And they seem to have conceived at this time the thought of putting the relations of the empire with foreign countries upon a more just and equal bas's, by sending to them an imperial embassy of which he should be the head. They ptomptly consulted some of their n'.ore reliable friends among the foreign gentlemen at the capi- tal, and in two days after they tendered to Mr. Bi-rlingame, much'to his surprise, the appoint- ment of minister plenipotentiary of China in the Western powers. . . , Mr. Builiugume leU the Chinese capital on the H'Ah of November, 18(17. The embassy consisted, besides the principal, of Cliih-k>')'; and Hun Chiakii, a Manchii and a Chinese olHcer, each wearing the red ball on his cap which indicates on ollicial of a rank next to the highest in the empire; J. McLeary Browr formerly of the British legation, and M. I)i cliainp.s, as secretaries; Teh -Aliiig and Fung 1 as (Chinese attaches, and several other jiersuns in subordinate pcsitions. ... It went to Hhnug- liai, thence to San Fniucisco, where it was most cordially welcomed by both the American and Chinese mercantile communities. It reached ■Washington in JNIay, IHOS. The embassy was treated with iiiiich distinction at the American capital. No American .slatcsman was so capable and disposed to enter cordially into its objects as tlie Secretary of Slate at that time, the lion. William II. Seward, whose mind had long ap- l)reheii<led the great features of the policy which American and foreign nations should pursue in relation to the Chinese em|)irc. On the lOtli of .Inly the Senate of the United States ratified a treaty which he had made in behalf of this country with the representative of the Chinese government. The treaty defines and fixes the ))riiiciples of the intercourse of Western nations- with China, of t'" importance of which 1 have already spoken, .t secures the territorial integ- rity of the empire, and cimccdes to China the rights which the civilized nations of the world accord to each other as to eminent domain over land and waters, and jurisdiction over persons and ])ropcrty therein. It lakes the first step toward the appointment of Chinese consuls in our seaports — a measure promotive of both Chinese and American interests. It secures ex- emi/tion from all disability or persecution on account of religious faith in either country. It recognizes the right of voluntary emigration and makes penal the wrongs of the coolie tralHc. It jiledgcs jirivik'ges as to travel or residence in either country such as are enjoyed by the most favored nation. It grants to the Chinese per- mission to attend our schools and colleges, and. allows us to freely establish and maintain schools in China. And while it acknowledges the right of the Chinese government to control its own whole interior arrangements, as to railroads, telegraphs and other internal improvements, it suggests the willingness of our government ta> alford aid toward their construction by desig- nating and authorizing suitable engineers tO' perform the work, at the expense of the Chinese government. The treaty expressly leaves the- question of naturalization in either country an open one. ... It is not accessary to follow in detail the jjrogress of this first imperial Chinese embassy. In England it was r(;ceived at first very coldly, and it was soii'e months before l)roi)er attention could be secured from the gov- ernment to its objects. At length, however, on/ November 20, it was presented to the queen at Windsor Castle. . . . What Iieart is there that will not join in the cordial wish that the treaties- made b' the embassy with Great Britain, France, Prussia and other Luropean powers may be the commencement of a new la'a in the diplomatic and national intercourse of China with those and all other lands of the West ! "— W. Speer The Oldest and l/ie Newest Empire, ch. 14. Also in: Treatum and Conventions bet. th«. U. IS. and other Pmers (1889), p. 159 ami 179. 428 CHINA, 1884-1885. Future of the Chinene. CHIPPEWA. A. D. i884-i88s.— War with France. Hcv. Fh.vnck; a. I). 1H75-1MW). A. D. 1892. — Exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Sec I'mtki) Sia ti'.s oi- A.m. : A. I). IHICJ. A. D. 1893. — The future of the Chinese. — A speculation. — " China is goncnilly rc^iirdcd a.sii stalioimry power which can fairly hold it.s own, though it has lost Anuani to Jraiicc, and the Kiizcrainty of Upper Hurmah to England, and thu Amoor Valley to Russia, hut which is not 11 Korious competitor in the race foreni|)irc. There is a certain idausihility in this view. f)n the other hand. China has recovered Eastern Turkes- tan from Jlahomniedan rule and from a Uussian protectorate, is dominating the Corea, and has stamped out a dangerous rebellion in Yunnan. No one can doulit that if China were to get for sovereign a man with the organising and aggres- sive genius of Peter the Great or Frederick the Second, it would he a very formidable neighbour to either British India or Uussia. Neither is it easy to suppo.se that the improvements, now tentatively mtroduced into China, will notsoonbu taken up and pushed on a large scale, so that railways will be ('arried into the heart of Asia, and large armies Irilled an<l furnished with arms of precisiim on the European model. In any such case the rights which China has reluctantly conceded or still claims over Annam and Ton- <iuiu, over Siam, over Upper ISurmah, and over Nejjaid, may become matters of very serious dis- cuesion. At present the French settlements arrest the e.vpansiou of China in the direction most dangerous to the world. Unfortunately, the climate of Saigon is such as no Europe.m cares to settle in, and the war to secure Ton(ju.n was so unpopular that it cost a French premier his tenure of oflice. . . . AVhatever, however, be the fortune of China in this direction, it is scarcely doubtful that she will not only people up to the furthest boundary of her recognised territory, but gradually acquire new dominions. The history of our Straits Settlements will afford a familiar instance how the Chinese are spread- ing. They already form half the population liredominating in Singapore and Perak, and the best observers arc agreed that the Malay cannot hold his cwn against them. They arc beginuing to settle in Borneo I'ud Sumatra, and they are supplanting the natives in some of the small islands of the Pacilic, such as Hawaii. The climate of all these countries suits them, and they conmieud themselves to governments and em- ployers by their power of steady industry; nml they intermarry freely up to a .saf<r i)oint with the women of the "country, getting all th« advantages of alliance, yet not saerillcing their nationality. Several eaus<'S have retarded their spread hitherto: the regions enumeral<'d have mostly bei'ii loo insi'cun' for an industrial people to tlourisli in, until the British or tho Dutch established order; the government of China has hitherto discouraged enngralion; English administrations have been obliged to bo rather wary in their dealings with a pi uph; who •showed at "Si.rawak and Peiiang that tliey were capable of combining for purposes of massacre; and the Chinese superstition about burial in tho sacred soil of the Celestial Empire made tho great majority of the emigrants birds of i)assiigc. All these causes are disappearing. . . . Euro- peans cannot tlourisli under the tropics, and will not work with the hand where an inferior raoo works. What W(! have to consider, flierefore. is the probabilitv tl.at lli(! natives who are givinjj way to the Chinese in tlie Malay Peninsula will bo able to make head against them in liorneo or Sumatra. Borneo is nearly si.\ times as big as .lava, and if it were peopled like .lava would support a population of nearly 100,000,000. . . . In tlu: long run tho Chinese, who out-nund)er the Malay, as si.\teen to one, who are more detlucdly industrial, and who organise where they can in a way that i)recludes competition, are tolerably certain to gain the upjier hand. They may not destroy tlie early settlers, but they will reduce them to the positicm of the Hill tribes in India, or of the Ainos in Japan. Assume flfty years hence that China has taken its inevitable ptsition as one of the great powers of tho world, and that Borneo has a population of 10,000,000, predominantly Chinese, is it ea.sy to suppose in such a case that the larger part of Borneo would still bo a dependency of the Netherlands V or that the A'hole island woidd not have passed, by arms or diplomacy, into the possession of Cliina ? . . . There are those who believe that tho Chinaman is li.:ely to super.ede the Spaniard and Indian alike in parts of South America. Without assuming that all of these possibilities arc likely to be realised, there is surely a strong presumption that so great a people as the Chinese, and possessed of such enormous natural resources, will sooner or later overflow their borders and spread over new territory, and submerge weaker races." — C. H. Pearson, National Life and Character, pp. 45-51. CIIINANTECS, The. See A.muuican Aaio- iiKiiNKs: Zapotecs. etc. CHING OR TSING DYNASTY, The. See China: A. D. 1394-1883. CHINGIS KHAN, Conquests of. See Mon- gols: A. D. 1153-1337; and India: A. D. 077- 1290. CHINOOK, The. See Ameiucan Ajsoui- aiNEs: Ciiinookan Family. CHIOGGIA, The War of. See Venice: A. D, 1379-1381. CHIOS. — Tho rocky island known anciently as Chios, called Scio in modern times, was one of Uie places which claimed Homer's birth. It is situated in the J5gean Sea, sepam.'ed by a strait only five miles wide from the Asiatic coast. The wines of Chios were famous in anti<iuity and have a good reputation at tho preen I day. Tho island was an important member of the Ionian confederation, and afterwards subject to Athens, from which it revolted twice, suffering terrible barbarities in consequence. See Asia Minok: TheGheek Colonies. B. C. 413. — Revolt from Athens. See Greece: B. C. 413-413. A. D. 1346.— Taken by the Genoese. See Constantinople: A. I). 1348-13.>5. A. D. 1681.— Blockade and attack by the French. See BauuaiivSt.\tes: A. I). 1(104-1084. A. D. 1770. — Temporary possession by the Russians. See Ti;kks: A. I). 1708-1774. A. D. 1822.— Turkish massacre of Chris- tians. See Gueece: A. I). 1831-1829. CHIPPEWA, Battle of. See United States OF Ml. : A. D. 1814 (.JuLV— Septembeu). 429 CniPPEWAS. CHIVALRY. CHIPPEWAS. OR OIIBWAS, The. Seo Amkkican AiiDiiKiiNKs: Ai.(ioN({Ui\N Family, AM) O.MIIWAM. CHIPPEWYANS, The. 8«c Amehican AiioiiKiiNKH: Atiiai'ascan Family. CHITON, The.— "Thcrliitoii [of the oncicnt Orccks] wiis an dIiIomj; pioi^c of cloth iirniiiKL'd round tUr iHxIy no that the arm was |)ut through a hole ill the iloscd Hide, the two ends of the open side iH'ing fastened over tlic opposite slioulder liy means of a l>utton or elasp. On tliis latter Hide, therefore, tlie chiton was completely open, at least as far as the thigh, underneath of wliich the two ends might he cither pinned or stitched together, UouikI the liips the chiton was fas- tciK'd with a rlhhon or girdle, and the lower part could lie shortened as much as required by pull- ing it through this girdle. . . . Freiiuently sleeves, cither shorter and covering only the upper arm, or continued to the wrist were adcU'd to the chiton. . . . The short-.sleeved chiton is frequently worn by women and children on inonu- mcuta. Of the Hlecveless chiton, worn by men over both shouhlers, it is stated that it was the sign of a free citizen. Slaves and artisans arc said to Iiavc wo-n a chiton witl one hole for the left arm, the right arm and half the chest remain- ing (juitc uncovered. ... It apjiears clearly that the whole chiton consists of (me jiicce. Together with the open and half-open kinds of the chiton we al.so find the clo.sed double chiton flowing down to the feet. It was a p!"ce of cloth considerably longer than the human body, and clo.sed on both sides, inside of which the per- son putting it on stood as in a cylinder. " — K. Quid and \V. Koncr, Life of the Oivcht (tiid Ii/>maM, pt. 1, nect. 41. — "The principal, or ratlier, the sole garment, of the Dorian maidens was the chiton, or himation made of woolen stutf, and without sleeves, but fastened on either shouhh'r by a large clasp, and gathered on the breast by a kind of brooch. This sleeveless robe, which seldom reached mere than half way to the knee, was moreover left open up to a certain point on both sides, so that the skirts or wings, tiying open as they walked, entirely exposed their limbs. . . . The married women, however, did not make their appearance in public ' en che- mise,' but when going abroad donned a second garment which seems to have resembled pretty closely their luLsbauds' himatia." — J. A. St. John, T/ie Itillciien. bk. 8, ch. 6. CHITTIM. Sec Kittim. CHIVALRY.— "The primitive sense of this well-known word, derived from the Frencli Chevalier, signifies merely cavalry, or a body of soldiers serving on h'>rseback ; and has been used in that general acceptation by the best of our poets, ancient and .nodern, from Milton to Thomas Campbell. But the present article respects the peculiar meaning given to the word in modern Europe, as applied to the order of knighthood, establLshed in almost all her king- doms during the middle ages, and the laws, rules, and customs, by whici it was governed. Tliose laws and customs have ".ong been anti- quated, bu'o their cfTects may stili be traced in European manners; and, excepting only the change which flowed from the introduction of the Christian religion, wo know no cause which has produced such general and permanent diflfer- encc betwixt the ancients and modems, as that which has arisen out of the irstitutiou of chivalry. . . . Prom the time thnt cavalry hecomes used In war. tin- horseman who furnishes and supportH a charger arises, in all countries, into a person of superior importanee to the mere foot-soldier. . . . In various militarv nations, therefore, wo tlnd that horsemeu arc distingidshed as an order in the state. . . . liut, in the middle ages, thu distinction ascribed to soldiers serving on horse- back assumed a very pecidiar and imposing character. They were not merely respected ou iiceount of their wealth or military skill, but were li<mnd together by a union of a very peculiar character, which monarehs were am- bitious to sliare with the poorest of their subjects, and govenK'd by laws (firected to enhance, Into enthusiasm, the military spirit and the sense of personal honour associated with it. The aspir- ants to this dignity were not permitted to assume the sacred ch.iracter of knighthood until after <l long and severe probation, during which they I)i.'''tised, as acolytes, tlie virtues necessary to the order of Cliivalry. Knighthood was tho goal to which tlie ambition of every noble youth turned; and to support its honours, which (in tlieory at least) could only be conferred on tho gallant, tho modest, and thu virtuous, it was neccessary he shoultl ^pend a certain time in a subordinate situation, attendant upon somo knight of eminence, oli.serving the conduct of his master, as what must in future be the model of his own, and practising the virtues of humility, modesty, and temperance, until called upon to display those of a higher order. ... In tlio general and abstract deflnition of Chivalry, whether as compiising a body of men whoso military service was on hoiseback, and who were invested with peculiar honoui's and privi- leges, or with reference to the iikkIc and period in which tliese distinctions and privileges were conferred, there is nothing either original or exclusively proper to our Gothic ancestors. It was in the singular tenets of Cliivalry, — in tho exalted, enthusiastic, and almost sanctimonious, ideas connected with its duties, — in the singular balance which its institutions offered against the evils of the rude ages in which it arose, that we are to seek those peculiarities whicli render it so worthy of our attention. . . . The education of the future knight began at an early period. Tho care of the mother, after tlie llrst years of early youtli were passecl, was deemed too tender, and the indulgences of the paternal roof too eliemi- nate, for tlie future aspirant to the honours of chivalry. . . . To countenict these habits of indulgence, the first step to the order of knight- hood was the degree of Page. The young and noble stripling, gciicriilly about his twelfth year, was transferred from his father's house to that of some baron or gallant knight, sedulously chosen by the anxious parent as that which had the best reputation for good order and discipline. . . . When advancing age and experience in the use of arms had qualified the page for the hanlship? and dangers of actual war, he was ivmoved, from the lowest to the second gradation of chivaliy, and bcoame an Eseuycr, Esquire, or Squirr . The derivation of this phrase has been much contested. It has been generally supposed to be derived from it ; becoming the ofllcial duty of the esquire to carry the shield (Escu) of tho knight his master, until he was about to engage the enemy. Others have fetched the epithet (more remotely certainly) from Scuria, a stable. 430 cm VLUY. CIIOCZIM. the rhfirgcr of the knight being under the especial care of the s(iuiro. Otiicrs, again, UHcrilH! the derivation of tlie word to tlie riglit wliich tlie squire himself liad to carry a shield, and to blazon it witli armorial bearings. Tliis, in later times, became almost the exclusive meiuiing attJiclied to the appellative esquire; ami, accordingly, if the pliras(! now means any- thing, it means a genth'man having ii riglit to carry arms. There is reason, jiowever, to think this is n secondary meaning of tlie word, for wv do not find tlie word Escuyer, applied as a title of rank, until so late as the Ordonnance of Blois, in 1579, , , . In actual war the page was not expected to render much service, but that of the squire was important and indispensable. Upon a march he bore the helmet and shield of the knight and led his horse of battle, a tall heavy animal lit to hear the weight of a man in armour, but wliicli was led in haml in marching, while the knight rode an ambling hackney. The squire was also qualiticd to perform the part of an armourer, not only lacing his master's helmet ami buckling his cuirass, but also closing with a liammer the rivets by which the various pieces were united to each other. ... In the actual shock of battle, the esquire attended closely on the banner of his master, or on liis person if he were only a knight bachelor, kept pace with him during tlie melee, and was at hand to remount him when his steed was slain, or relieve him when oppressed by numbers. If the kniglit made prisoners they were the charge of the esquire; if the esquire himself fortuned to make one, the ransom belonged to his master. ... A youth usually ceased to be a page at 14, or a little earlier, ond could not regularly receive the honour of knighthord until he was oneand- twenty. . . , Knighthood was, in its origin, an order of a republican, or at least an oligarchic nature; arising , . . from the customs of the free tribes of Germany [see Comitatus], and, in its essence, not requiring the sanction of a monarch. On the contrary, each knight could confer the order of knlghtliood upon whomsoever prepara- tory noviciate and probation had fitted to receive it. The highest potentates sought the accolade, or stroke which conferred the honour, at the hands of the worthiest knight whose achieve- ments had dignified the peritxl. . , , Though no positive regulation took place on the subject, ambition on the part of the aspirant, and pride and policy on that of the sovereign princes and nobles of high rank, gradually limited to the latter the power of conferring knightlioo<l, , , , Knights were usually made either on the eve of battle, or when the victory had been obtained ; or they were created during the pomp of some solemn warning or grand festival. . , . The spirit of chivalry sunk gradually under a combination of physical au(I moral causes ; the first arising from the change gradually introduced into the artof var, and the last from the equal'y great alteration iiri.iuced by time ?n the habits and modes of thinking in modern Europe, Chivalry began to dawn in the end of the 10th, ami beginning of the 11th century. It blazed fortli with high vigour during the crusades, which indeed may be considered as exploits of national kniglit-errantry, or general wars, undertaken on the very same principles which actuated the con- duct of individual knig'-ts adventurers. But its most brilliant period 'as during the wars between J'rance and England, anil it was un- (|Ue8tionably in those kingdoniH tliat the habit of constant and honourable opposition, iinemliittcred liy rancour or personal liatred, gave tlie fairest opportunity for tlie exercise of .lie virtues reciuired from him whom (!liaueer teriiiH 'a very perfect genth- kniglit.' Fniissart fre(|uently makes allusions to the generosity exercised liy the French and English to tlieir prisoners, and con- trasts it with the diingetms lo wliicli eaptivefi taken in war were consign"d both in Spain and (lerniany. Yet both tliese countries, and indeed every kingdom in Europe, partook of the spirit of chivalry in a greater or less degree; and even the Moors of Spain caught tlie emiilati(m, and had their oniers of KnighthoiKl aa well as the Cliristians, Hut even during this splendid period, various causes were silently operating tile future oxtinction of the llame, wliicli blazed thus wide and brightly. An important di.scovi'ry, the iuvenMon of gunpowder, had takeii place, and was beginning to be used in war, even when chivalry was in its higliest glory, , . . Another change, of vital importance, aro.se from the insti' ution of the bands of gens-d'armes, or mer at arms in France, constituteil . . . expressly as 1 sort of standing army. ... A more fatal ca ISO had, however, been for some time operating in England, as well as France, for the destruction of the system we are treating of. The wars of York and Lancaster in England, and those of the Huguenots and of the League, were of a nature so bitter anc'. rancorous, as was utterly Inconsistent with the courtesy, fair play, and gentleness, proper to chivalry. . . . The civil wars not only operated in debasing the spirit of chivalry, but in exhausting and destroying the particular class of society from which its votaries were drawn. "—Sir W. Scott, KHsay on Chimlry. Also in; G. P. R. James, llht.of Chimlry. — H. Hallam, State of Europe duriiir/ tfte MiddU Atfei, eh. 9, pt. 2 (v. 3),— F. P. Ouizot, Hist, of Civilimtioii in France, fSth lect., id course (o. 4). — C. Mills, Hist, of Chivalry.— n. Stebbing, Jlifit. of Chimin/ and the Crusades. — L. Gautier, 'Chivalry. — K. II. Digby, The Broadatone of Honour. — Dr. Doran, Knights and tlieir Days. — See, also, Kniohtiiood, Orders op. CHLAMVS, The.— "The chlamys [worn by the ancient Greeks] . . . was an oblong piece of cloth thrown over the left shoulder, the open ends being listened across the right slioulder by means of a clasp ; the comers hanging down were, as In the himation, kept straight by means of weights sewad into tbem. The chlamys was principally used by travellers and soldiers. " — E. Gulil and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks ami Ro- mans, pt. 1, sect. 43, CHOCIM. See Ciioczim, CHOCTAWS, OR CHA'HTAS, The. See A.MEUICAN Atioukiinks: Mi:fiKii<)(iE\N Family. CHOCZIM (KHOTZIM, CHOTYN, KHO- TIN, CHOCIM, KOTZIM): A. D. 1622.— De- feat of the Turks by the Poles. See Poland: A. D. l.')90-1648. A. D. 1672.- Taken by S.ibieska and the Poles.— Great defeat of the Turks. See Poland: A, D, 16C8-1696. A. D. 1739.— Captured by the Russians and restored to the Turks. See Russia: A, I). 1725- 1739. A, D. 17 q. — Taken by the Russians. — De- feat of the Turks, bee Turks: A, D. 1708-1774. 431 cnocziM. CHRISTIANITY. A. D. 1790.— Defeat of the Turki by the Rui- ■ians. Hc.Tiukh: A. I). 177(l-l71»a. CHOLEl, Battles of. Sui; Fuanck: A. D. 17l»lt (.ll I.V — I)K(K.MIlKll). CHOLULA, Pyramids at. See Mkxico, An- CIKnt; Thk Tki.tkc I'.mi'IUk. A. D. 1519.— The Massacre at. Boo Mextco: A. I). 1510 (OcToiiKU). CHONTALS, The. Sec Amkbican Aiioiii- oini;h: CiiDNTAi.s. CHONTAQUIROS, OR PIRU, The. Sif A.MKIIU AN AllOKKllNKM: AM)I>IANH. CHORASMIA. SiM' Km AiiK/.M. CHOREGIA. Sec LntiidiKH. CHOTUSITZ, OR CZASLAU, Battle of. 80c AfsTHiA: A. 1). 1743 (Jan L-AiiY— May). CHOTYN. Sio('ii()(Zi.M. CHOUANS. — CHOUANNERIE. Scu Fkance: a. 1). 1704-17ra. CHOUT.— Thp hlrtckmnll levlrd by the Miih rmtiiH. Her India; a. I). IHCVIHUI. CHOWANS, The. Set! Amkuican Aiioiii (HNi:k: liioijrDiM TiiiiiKu ok tiik .SdiTii. CHREMONIDEAN WAR, The. Sto Atiiknh: II. ('. ;.'HH->,>(i;i. CHRIST, Knights of the Order of. Hvu roUTiciAi,: A. I). 1 1 1.'.- 1 100. CHRISTIAN I., Kineof Denmark, Norway and Sweden, A. I>. lllM-MHl Christian II., A, I). l.'^pUI-I.Wt Christian III., King of Denmark and Norway, A. i). init^-l.'JriH Christian IV., A. 1). IftHH-UllH Christian v., A.I). l«70-ltH)« Christian VI., A. 1). 17:10-174(1 Christian VII., .\. I>. 17mi-tH08. Christian VIII., King of Denmark, A. I). lH;iU-lH4H Christian IX., A. I). 1H(|;1-. CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, The United States. Sec SaNITAUY t'oMMIHKION. CHRISTIAN ERA. See Eiu, Ciiuibtian. CHRISTIANITY. §; " Historicftl Kcogrnphv has of late years be- come an iutejjral part of the historical science. Recent inveHtigatioiis have opened up the subject and a solid beginning has been made — b\it It is only a beginning. It is clearly recognized that the land itself as it appears at dillerent i)eriod8 is one of those invaluable original documents upon which history is built, and no stone is being left unturned to clear away my.steries and to bring to our aid a realism hitherto unknown to the science. . . . But the special branch of this vast and complicated theme of historical ;eograpliy which interests us most and which I Icsire briefly to bring to your attention is that %.'hich deals with the Christian Church. . . . Our eyes lirst rest upon that little group at Jerusalem that made up the Pentecostal Church. Its spread was conditioned by tho extent and character of the lioman Empire, by the municipal genius of that empire, its great highways by land and sea; coudit'oned by the commerciul routes and the track of armies outside the bounds of civiliza- tion ; conditioned by tho spread of languages — Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, — and, most import- ant of all, conditioned by the whereabouts of the seven million Jews massed in 8yria, Babylonia, and Egypt, and scattered everj where through- out the Iiiinpire and far beyond its boundaries. " — H. W. llulbert. The Historical Oeixjraphy of the Christian Church (Am. Soc. Church Ilist., v. 3). — " When we turn from the Jewish ' dispersion ' in the East to that in the West, we seem in quite a dillerent iitmosphere. Despite their Intense nationalism, all unconsciously to tliemseUes, their mental characteristics and tendencies were in the opposite direction from those of their brethren. With fIio.se of the East rested the future of Judaism ; with them of the West, in a sense, that of the world. The one represented old Israel groping back into the darkness of the East ; the other young Israel, stretching forth its ands to where the dawn of a new day was about to break. These Jews of the West are known by the term Hellenists. . . . The translation of the Old Testament into Greek may be regarded as the starting point of Hellenism. It rendered possible the hope tha^ what in its original form had been confined to tho few, might become acces- sibU, to the world at large. ... In tho account of the truly representative gathering in Jerusalem on that ever-memorable Feast of Weeks, the divi- sion of the ' dispersion ' into two grand sections — the Eastern or Trans-I^uphratic, and the West- ern or Hellenist — seems clearly marked. In this arrnngement the former would include ' the Partliians, Medes, Elamites, and dwellers in Meso- potamia,' Judiea standing, so to speak, in the middle, while ' the Cretes and Arabians ' would typically represent the farthest outrunners re- spectively of the Western and Eastern Diaspora. The former, as wc know from the New Testament, commonly bore in Palestine the name of tho ' dis- persion of tho Greeks ', and of ' Hellenists ' or 'Grecians.' On the other hand, the Trans- Euphnitic Jews, who ' inhabited Babylon and many of the other satrapies,' were included with the Palestinians and the Syrians under the term ' Hebrews,' from the common language which they spoke. But the difference between tho 'Grecians' and the 'Hebrews' was far deeper than merely of language, and extended to the whole direction of thought." — A. Edersheiin, The JJfe and Times of Jentta the Messiah, v. 1, bk. 1, ch, 3-3, and 1. — " Before Pentecost an assem- bly of tho believers took place, at which the post vacated in the number of the apostles by tho suicide of the traitor Judas of Keriotli, was filled up by the electitm of Matthias by lot. On this occasion the number of the assembled brethren nmoimted to about 130 men. ... At the feast of Peutecost ... a very considerable accession was made to the formerly moderate baud of be- lievers in Jerusalem . . . ; about 3,000 soids re- ceived the word and were joined to the Church by baptism (Acts ii. 41). We must iiot, however, at once credit the Church in Jerusalem with this increase. For among the listeners to the apos- tolic discourse there were Israolitish guests and proselytes from near and distant countries (ii. 5, 9-11, 14), whence we m.ay infer that of those newly converted many were not living in Jeru- salem itself, but partly in Judiea and Galilee, partly in countries beyond Palestine, who there- fore returned home after the feast days were 432 D/XEr.OPMEXT Mi\F> or CHRISTIANITY urnr if nnirriwrrr <t ntcaMiKiMiin or TM loarH cn-njir . . TtimiTaiT camiriAwzED « ra[ SEvntii md UUTV coTuaru _ . TtltfniIRrCilDlinAIIIZilllll THtDJHmTBTH iMBiuvsinicinTuiiits . r 1 Tm nuiiiTOiT smt huthik h int «•-' mcimn Of m imrm (onuiT DiiHms rwcHuKic or rxt urosroiic nmoD ca-ioo)** umnuiiu) n\is . . na-jiirrn nKMon niD«a[iiT cHinuiEjgrrNE post- tfOSTOUC HHIODIIOO-llDAKCUNIKIIUIini THUS . - - . ^Nif-oineclin . amaia umai nggiiE «s crwrncs or dif- ruuON aiiTH mm unsTOUC «ho post - ArasToiic Kitnouirt laoiCAns n tut OOUUE UKDfKUIIC THU AnUocl, THE jouimirs ottkc apostle paul adc WICKTBO THUS .— --;.V., tITIO or THE noiUN PCRIOt) IK INDI - CATCDINTVUTrPE Medialaiiiini . CITIES or THE MEOIAEWinmoOAK moid TED IN THIS TTPC Fuhia. TXE DATU ON THE MAP An IITTEXDED fO INOICATC TKE APPROtlMATC PERIODS OrCOHVEUION. ■^RRtMtnrirvGCca ui?ntv CIIRISTIANITV. Jewish Christianity. CHRISTIANITY. «nded. Some of these might, under certain cir- cumstances, form the centre of a small Church in the diapcrsion, so that gradually Churches may have arisen to which also James may pos- sibly have addressed his Epistle. ... So abun- dantly did God bless with success tlie activity oi the early ajiostles though limited to the nation of Israel and the land of Canaan, and their lidel- ity within a ciiiuniseritied sphere. Hence there existed at the end of the period of wliich wc treat numerous Christiar Churclies in Jerusalem and tlie whole country of Judiea ^eonip. Oal. i. 22, etc. ; .LCts xi. 1), also on the coast (Acts i,\. 32-i55, etc." in Sanjaria and Galilee, and finally in Syria, Plieuicia, and Cyprus, '.\cts ix. 2, 10, 25, xi. 10), some of wliich were directly, some in- diri tly, founded by the Tsvelve, and were, in any case, governeil and guided by them. In tli(^ above named districts outf^ide Palestine, it might not, indeed, have been easy to find a Christian Cliurch consisting exclusively of be- Jieving Jews, for as a rule they consisted of be- lieving Jews and individual Gentilej. On the other hand, we shall scarcely be wrong in re- garding the Cliristian Churclies within Palestine •itself as composed entirely of believing Israelitos. But even among these there were many distinc- tions, e. g., between Palestinians and Hellenists." — G. V. Lechler, The Apostolic ami Post-Apon- folic Timen. v. 1, ;). 30-3,j.— " We find the early J^Jewish] Ciiristians observing the national feasts and holidays (Acts ii. 1; xviii. 21; xx. 6, 16; Uom. xiv. 5). They take part in tlio worship of tlip temple and the synagogue ; they pray at the customary hours (cliaps. ii. 40; iii. 1; v. 42; x. 'J). They observe the fasts, and undergo volun- tary abstinence, binding themselves by special vows like all pious Jews (xiii. 2; xvii. 18; xxi. 23). They scrupul usly avoid unlawful food, and all legal defiler..ent (x. 14). They have their children circumcised (xv. 5; xvi. 3; Gal. v. 2). . . . This scrupulous piety won for them the esteem and admiration ol the people (chap. t. 18)." At first their creed was "comprised in a single dogma: ' Jesus is the Messiah. ' . . . Their preaching of the Gospel strictly followed the lines of Alessianic tradition (i. 7 ; ii. 36 ; iii. 20). . . . But in reality all this formed or: y the out- side of their life and creed. . . . Herein lies the profound significance of the miracle of Pente- cost. Tliat (lay was the bii ihda"' of tlie Church, not because of tlic marvelous 'r i,ss of Peter's preacliing, but because tlie Christian principle, hitherto existing only objectiv(dy and externally in the person of Jesus, passed from lliat moment into the souls of His disciples. . . . And thus in the very midst of J.idaism we see created and unfolded a form of rcli.^ious life essentially dif- ferent from it — tlie Christian life." — A. Sabatier, r/io AiMftle Paul, pp. 35-36.— "By the two parables of the Mustard Seed and the Leaven, Christ marked out the two sides or aspects of His truth — its external growth from the least to the greatest, and its internal action on society at large — as setting up a ferment, and making a new lump out of the unkneaded mass of the old humanity. With tlieso two symbols in view we may gauge what the gospel was designed to be and to do. It was to grow into a great outward society — tlie tree of tlic Churcli ; but it was also to do a work on secular society as such, corre- sponding to (he action of leaven on flour. Tlie history of Christianity has been the c:ir'*ying out of these two distinct and contrasted conceptions : but how imperfectly, and under what draw- backs." — IJev. J. H. Heard, AUxamlrian ami Cartha'jiiiiiiii T/ieolot/i/ Oinlniiitcil. p. 186. — "The organic connection of Jewi^li Ciiristians with the synagogue, wliidi niii.st, in acconlancc witli tlii! facts before us, be reg.mled as a rule, is certainly not to be taken as a mere incidental pbcnonienon, a customary liabit or arbitraiy accommodation, but as a moral fact resting uiioii an internal necessity, liaviiig its foundation in tlie love of Jcwisli Christians to their nation, and in the ad- hesion of llieir religious consciousness to tlie olil covenant. To mistake tliis would be to under- rate the wide bearing of tlie fact. But lest we should over-estimate its importance, we must at once proceed to another consideration. Within Judaism we must distinguish not only the Ilab- binical or Pliarisaic tradition of the oriL'inal canonical revelation, but also withui tlie canon itself we .'lave to distinguish the Levilieal ele- ment from the prophetic, . . . taking the latter not in a close but a wide .sense as the living spiritual development of tlie tlieocracy." — O. V. Lecliler, The AjMistolie ami Post- AponUilic Times, V. 1, p. 54. — " Moreover the law had claims on a Hebrew of Palestine wholly independent of his religious obligations. To liim it was a national institution, as well um a divine covenant. Under the Gu '.pel he might consider his relations to it in this latter character altered, but as embodying the decrees and usages of his country it still de- manded his allegiance. To be a gixid Christian he was not reiiuired to be a bad citizen. On these grounds the more enlightened members of t'.ie mother-church would justify tlieir continued adhesion to tiie law. Nor is there any reason to supijoso that St. Paul himself took a different view of their ':l"'gation.s."-J. B. Lightfoot, Disstrtations on the Apostolic ^lye, p. 67. — "The term ' Jewish-Cliristianity ' is applicable exclu- sively to those Christians wlio really retained, .'iitirely or in the smallest part, the national and political forms cf Judaism and insisted upon tlie observance of the Mosaic Law without modiflc a- tion as essential to Christianity, at least to the Christianity o' the Jewish-born converts, o- who indeed rjjected tliese forms, but acknowlv:dgcd the prerogative of the Jewish people also in Cliri.stianity." — A. Harnack, Outlines of the Ilis- tofji of Dognw, pi. 75. A. "D. 33-100. — The Rise of the Churches. — Jerusalem. — "After tlvj miraculous healing of the cripple and the discourse of tlie Apostle Peter on that ( < casion, the historiiui goes on to say, ' iMany of them which heard the word believed, and the number of the men was about 5,000 ' (iv. 4). It seems as if in consequence of this event, whicli made no little stir, a larger number joined tlicmselves to the Church. Nor is it ])robal)le tliat this healing took plswc! until a long time after tlie beginning of the Cliurch. The miracle, with the effect which it had, serves as a resting place at which the result of the previous growth of the Church may be ascertained. And here the number again in- cidentally mentioned refers witliout doubt to the Church at Jerusalem. "—G. V. Lechh r, Th6 Apostolic and Post- Apostolic Times, v. 1. ;). 83. — The early history of the Churches "falls into tliree periods wliicli nio'k three distinct stages In its progress: (1) The Extension of the Church to the Gentiles; (2) The Kecognition of Gentile 433 CHRISTIANITY. Firtt ApoaloUc MissioHi. CHRISTIANITY. Liberty; (3) The Emancipation of the Jewisli Churches. . . . And soon enough tlie pressure of events began to be felt. The dispersion was the link which connected the Hebrews of Pales- tine with the outer world. Led captive by the pow'T of Greek philosophy at Athens and T^irsus and Alexandria, attracted by the fascinations of Oriental mysticism in Asia, swept along with the busy whirl of social life in the city and court of the Ca'sars, these outlying members of the chosen race had inhaled a freer spirit and con- tract<!d wider interests than their fellow-country- men at home. By a series of insensible grada- tions — proselytes of the covenant — proselytes of the gate — superstitious devotees w^o observed the rites witliout accepting the faith of tlie Mosaic dispensation — curious Ixjkers-on who interested tlieniselves in the Jewish ritual as they would in the worship of Isis or of Astarte — the most stubborn zealot of the law was linked to the idolatrous heathen whom he abhorred an<l who despised him iu turn. Thus tlie train was uneonscioiisly laid, when the spark fell from heaven and tired i',. . . . Mean while at Jerusalem some vears p.issed away before the barrier of Judaism was a.ssailed. The Apostles still observed the Mosaic ritual; they still confined their pleaching to Jews by birth, or Jews by adoption, the proselytes of the covenant. At length a breach was made, and the assailants as might be e.\pected were Hellenists. The first step towards the creation of an organized ministry wa'o also the first step towards the emancipation of the Church. Tne Jews of Judrea, ' Hebrews of the Hebrews' had ever regarded their Hellenist brethren with suspicion and distrust; and tliis estrangement reproduced itself In the Christian Clnu'ch. The interests of the Hellenist widows had been neglected in the daily distri- bution of alms. Hence ' arose a murmuring of the Hellenists against the Hebrews ' (Acts vi. 1), which was met by the appointment of seven persons specially charged with providing for the wants of these neglected poor. If the selection was made, as St. Luke's language seems to imply, not by the Hellenists themselves but by the Chvirch at large (vi. 2), the concession when granted was carried out in a liberal spirit. All the names of the seven are Greek, pomting to a Hellenist rather than a Hebrew extraction, and one is especially described as a proselyte, being doubtless chosen to represent a hitliLTlo small but growing section of the comnumlty. By this appointment the Hellenist members obtained a status in the Church ; and the effects of this measure soon became visible. Two out of the seven stand i)rominently forward as the cham- pions of emancipation, Stephen the preacher and martyr of liberty, and Philip tlio practical worker." — J. B. Lightfoot, Binnertations on the ApoHtoUc Age, pp. 50-52. — "The IlelUmist Stephen roused deep-stirring movements cliietty in Hellenist circles. . . . The persecution of the Jerusalem community — perhaps spec il'y of its Hellenist part — whicli followed tlie ining of Stephen, became a means of promoting the spread of the Christinri filth to . . . Cyprus, at last to so important a centre ns Antioch, the imperial capital of the E ist. To the winning of the Jews to faith in Jesus there i^ already ailded the reception into the Christian community of the pious Gentile Cornelius, a proselyte of the gate. . . . Though this appears iu tradition as an individual case sanctioned by special Divine guidance, in the meantime Hellenist Christians had already begun to preach the Gospel to born Greeks, also at Antioch in Syria, and suecess- fiilly (Acts xi. 10-28), Barnabas is sent thither froir Jerusnlem." — W. Moeller, Ilhtory of the Chrintidn Church, p. 53-54. — "Philip, driven from Jerusalem by the persecution, preached Christ to the Samaritans. . . . The Apostles who had remained at Jerusalem, hearing of the success of Philip's preaching, sent two of their number into this new and fruitful field of labor. . . . Peter and John return to Jerusalem while the Deacon Philip is called, by a new manifesta- tion of the will of God, yet further to extend the field of Christian missions. It is not a Samari- tan but a pagan, whom he next in.struets in the truth. . . . He was an Ethiopian eunuch, a greot dignitary of the court of MeroO, treasurer of the Queen. . . . This man, a pagan by birth, had taken a long journey to worehip the true God in the temple of Jerusidem." — E. DePressense, T/ie Eiirly Years of ChriHtianity, pp. 71-74. — "For the sake of the popular feeling Herod Agrippa laid hands on members of the community, and caused James the brother of John (the sons of Zcbedee) to be put to death by the sword, in the yi^ar 44, for soon thereafter Herod Agrippa died. Peter also was taken prisoner, but miracu- lously escaped and provisionally left Jerusalem. From this time on James the brother of the Lord appears ever more and more as really bear- ing ranit as head of the Jerusalem community, viiile Peter more and more devotes himself to the apostolic mission abroad, and indeed, more . accurately, to the mission in Israel. " — VV. l^Ioeller, History of the Christian Church, p. 55. — "T' e accounts which we have regarding the apostle Peter, represent him as preaching the gospel from the far cast to distant parts of the west. . . . According to his own words, he founded churches in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithy- nia, and according to the testimony of ancient historians of the Church in the east also; in Syria, Babylon, Mcsoiotamia, Clialdaea, Arabia, Phoenicia and Egyp', and in the west, at Rome, in Britain, Ireland, Helvetia and Spain." — J. E. T. Wiltscli, IlaiuJ. Hook of the. Geography and Statistics of Tlie Church, v. 1, pp. 19-20.— "Three and three only of the personal disci- ples and immediate followers of our Lord hold any prominent place in the Apostolic records — James, Peter, and John; the first the Lord's brotlier, the two latter the foremost members of the Twelve. Apart from an incidental refer- ence to the death of James the son of Zebedee, which is dismissed in a single sentence, the rest of the Twelve are mentioned by name for the last time on the day of the Lord's Ascension. Thenceforward they disappear wholly from the canonical writings. And this silence also extends to the traditions of succeeding ages. We read indeed of St. Thomas in India, of St. Andrew in Scythia; but such scanty notices, even if we accept them as trustworthy, show only the more plainly how little the Church could tell of her earliest teachers. Doubtless they laboured zealously and effectively in the spread of the Gospel ; but, so far as we know, they have left no impress of their individual mind and character on the Church at large. Occupying the foreground, and indeed covering the whole canvas of early ecclesiastical history, 434 CHRISTIANITY. Advent of f». I-aul. CHRISTIANITY. npponr four figures alone, St. Piiul, nnd the tlircu Apostlea of the Circumcision." — J. U. Liglitfoot, DiiaertatioHS on tite Apostolic Age, p. 46.— "Wliile Peter (ns it appears) is occupied with tlie worli of preaching to the Jews outside of Palestine, tlie community at Jerusalem, and Indeed the Palestinian communities in general, stand under the leadership of the brother of the Lord, James, as tlieir recognised head. They remain strictly in tli"; life; of the law, nnd still hold securely to the hope of the conversion of the whole of God's people (which Paul hail for the present gi'en up). The mission to tlie Gentiles is indeei,' recognised, but the manner of its conduct by Paul anil the powerfid increase of Pauline comr'.uiuties excite misgivings and dis- sensions. For in these mi.xed communities, in the presence of what is often a preponderating Gentile elenr.ent, it becomes ever clearer in what direction the devel'>'iment is pressing; that, in iact, for the sake o ilie higher Christian com- munion the lega istoms even of the Jewish Christians in thesv ommunities must inevitably be broken down, and general Christian freedom, on principle, frrm the commands of the law, giiin rcco^i^itiou." — Dr. Wilhelm Moeller, Hist, of the Christian Church, p. 73.— "The fall of Jerusalem occurred in the Autumn of the year 70 [see Jews: A. D. 66-70], And soon the catastrophe came which solved the difficult prob- lem. . . . Jerusalem was razed to the ground, and the Temple-worship ceased, never again to be revived. The Christians foreseeing the calam- ity had fled before the tempest. . . . Before the crisis came, they had been deprived of the coun- sel and guidance of the leading apostles. Peter had fallen a martyr at Rome ; John had retired to Asia Minor ; Jam<;s, the Lord's brother, was slain not long before the great catastrophe. ... He was succeeded by his cousin Symeon, the son of Clopas and nephew of Joseph. Under these cir- cumstances the Church was reformed at Pella. Its history in the ages following is a hopeless blank. " —J. B. Lightfoot, Dissertations on the Apostolic Age, p. 68. — "While Cocsarea succeeded Jerusa- lem as the political capital of Palestine, Antioch succeeded it as the centre of Christendom." — A. Plummer, Church of the Early Fathers, ch. 8. Antioch. — " Untfer Macedonian rule the Greek Intellect had become the leading intellectual power of the world. The great Greek-speaking towns of the Ea^-t were alike the strongholds of intellectual power, the battlefields of opinion and systems, and the laboratories of scientific research, where discoveries were made and liter- ary undertakings requiring the combination of forces were carried out. Such was Antioch on the Orontes, the meeting point of Syrian and Greek intellect ; such, above all, was Alexandria. " — J. J. v.:n Diillinger, Studies in European His- tory, p. 165. — " The chief lino along which the new religion developed was that which led from Syrian Antioch through the Cilician Gates, across Lycaonia to Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome. One subsidiary line followed the land route by Philadelphia, Troas, Philippi, and the Egnatian Way to Brindisi and Rome; and another went north from the Gates by Tyana and Cscsarcia of Cappadocia to Amisos iu Pontus, the great har- bour of tl'.e Black Sea, by which the trade of Central Asia was carried to Rome. The main- tenance of close and constant communication between the scattered congregations must be presiipposcd, as necessary to explain the growtli of the Church and the attitude which the State assumed towanls it. Such communication was, on the view advocated in tlie present work, maintained along the same lines on which the general develo|)ment of the Emi)ire took place ; and politics, education and religion grew side by side." — W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the lioman Empire, p. 10.— "The incitement to the wider I)reaching of the Gospel in the Greek world starts from the Christian community at Antioch. For this purpose Barnabas receives Paul as a companion (Acts xiii. , and xi v.) Saul, by birth a Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, born ut 1 arsus in Cilicia, educated as a Pharisee, and although indeed as a Hellenist, he had command of Greek and had come into contact with Greek culture and Greek life, yet had not actually pa.ssed through the diicipline of Greek culture, was introduced by Gamaliel to the learned study of the law, and hii, whole soul was seized with tiery zeal for the Statutes of the fathers. . . . After [his conversion and] his stay in Damascus and in Arabia and tlie visit to Peter (and James) at Jerusalem, having gone to Syria and Cilicia, he was taken to Antioch by Barnabas. " — W. Moel- ler, History of the Christian Church, p. .57. — "The strength and zeal of the Antioch (Christian society are sliown in the sending forth of Paul and Barnabas, with Murk, a cousin of Barnabas, for tlieir companion for a part of the way, on a preaching tour in the eastern districts of Asia Elinor. First they visited Cyprus, where Scrgius Paulus, the proconsul, was converted. Thence they sailed to Attalia, on the southern coast of Pamphylia, and near Perga; from Perga they proceecled to Antioch in Pisiilia, and from there eastward to Iconium, and as far as Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia. Retracing their steps, they came back to Attalia, and sailed directly to Antioch. . . . This was the first incursion of Paul into the domain of heathenism." — G. P. Fisher, Jlistoi-y of the Christian Church, p. 23. — " How then should Paul and Barnabas proceed ? To leave Syria they must go first to Seleucciu, the harbour of Antioch, where they would find ships going south to the Syrian coast and Egypt, and west either by way of Cyprus or along the coast of Asia Minor. The western route led toward the Roman world, to which all Paul's subsequent history proves that he considered himself called by the Sjiirlt. The Apostles embarked in a ship for Cyprus, which was very closely con- nected by commerce and general intercourse with the Syrian coast. After traversing the island from east to west, they must go onward. Ships going westward naturally went across the coast of Pamphylia, and the Apostles, after reaching Paphos, near the west end of Cyprus, sailed iu one of these ships, and landed at Attalia in Pam- phylia." — W. JI. Riimsay, The Church in the lioman Empire, p. 60. — " 'The work starting from Antioch, by which access to the faith is opened to the Gentiles, the formation of (prcponderat- ingly) Gentile Christian communities, now intro- duces into the original Christian development an important problem, which (about the year 53, probably not later), (Gal. ii. ; Acts xv.) leads to discus.sions and explanations at tlie so-called Apostolic Council [at Jerusalem]. . . . For Paul, who has risen to perfect independence by the eiier(;v of his own peculiar stamp of gospel, there now begin the years of his powerful 436 CHRISTIANITY. Journeys. CimiSTIANITy. activity, in wliicli !ie not only i\R(iin visits unci cxtc'n(is liis former missionary liclil in Asia Minor, bnt K"i>i» " linn footing in MaciHionia (I'liiiippi), Atlicns, ami Acliala (Corintli); then on tlic so- caiiwi tiilrii missionary jonrnt-y iic cxcri'iscs a comprc'licnsivc intincncc durinL; a stay of neariy tlir(!(! years at ICpliesus, and linally looks from Aclutia towards tlie metropolis of I'lit; world."— W. Moellcr, //(■*/. of the (Jhiintidit Vhnrch, ]i/i. 57-51).— "If tli(! lieathen wliom iw (I'aid) liad won to the faith and received into the Chnrcli were to be pcrsimded to adopt drcnmeision and tlie law before iiiey coidd attain to full partici- pation in the Christian salvation, ids prcachinj; liad fallen sliort of his aim. it had been in vain, .since it was very doubtfid whether tlie (Jentiles gained over to believe in the .Messiaii wonld sub- mit to the condition. I'aid coidd only look on tho.se who nuide sucli a demand a.s false bretliren, who liaving no claim to ChrLstiau brotherhood had forced themselves into tlie Chnrcli at Antioch In an unauthorized way (Oal. ii. 4), and was i)er- suaded that neitlierthe primitive Cliurch assndi, nor its rulers, shared tliis view. In order tlierc- fore to prevent the Gentile Christians from being disturbed on this point, lie determined to go to Jcrusaluni and there to challenge a decision in the matter that shonld ptit an end to tlie strife (ii. 2). The Church at Antioch also recognized tills necessity ; hence followed the i)rocceding8 in Jerusalem [about A. D. 52], whither Paul and Barnabas repaired with other associates (Gal. ii. 1, Acts XV. 2 if). ... It is certain tluit when Paul laid ids (free) gospel before tlie authorities in Jerusalem, tliey added notliing to it (Gal. ii. 2-6), i. e., they di(f not require that tlie gospel ho preached to tlie Gentiles should, besides the solo condition of faith which he laid down, impose Judaism upon them as a condition of participa- tion in salvation. . . . Paul's stipulations with the authorities in Jerusalem respecting tlieir future work were just as iraport«nt for him us the recognition of his free gospel (Gal. ii. 7-10). They had for their basis a recognition on the part of the primitive apostles that ho was en- trusted witli the gospel of the imcircumcision, to whicli they could add nothing (ii. 6), just as Petei (f.s admittedly the most prominent among the prii.iitive apostles) was entrusted with that of the circumcision." — Bernhard Weiss, A Man- iial of Introdiietion to the New Testament, v. 1, ;);). 172-175, 178.— "It seems clear that tlie first meetings of tlie Christians as a community apart — mcetin(js that is of a private ratlier than a proselytising (ilmracter — took place, ns we see from Acts 1. 13-15, in private apartments, the upper rooms or large guest-chambers in the houses of individual members. Sucli a room was doubtless provided by the liberality of Titus Jus- tus (Acts xviii. 7), such a room again was tlio upper chamber in wliicli St. Paul preaclied at Troas (Acts xx. 7, 8); in such assembled the con- verts saluted by the Apostle ns the church wliicli is in the house of Aquila and Prisca, of Nymphas and of Philemon. . . . The primitive Roman house had only one story, but as tlie cities grew to be more densely populated upper stories came into use, and it was the custom to place in these dining apartments, which were called cenacula. Sucli apartments would answer to the ' upper rooms' . . . associated with the early days of Christianity. . . . The Christian communities contained from an early period members of wealth and social position, who could accommo- date in their houses larg(? gatherings of the faith- ful ; and it is interesting to rctlcct that while some of the mansions i/T an ancient city might be wit- nessing in supi)ers of a Trimalchlo or a V'irro, scenes more revolting to modern taste than almost anything presented by the pagan world, others, perhaps in the same street, might be the seat of Christian worsliip or of the simple Christian meal." — G. B. Brown, From Se/iola to Ciillinlrill. /iji. :(H-4;t. Asia Minor and Greece. — "Our knowledge of the Apostle Paul's life is far from bc'iig com- plete. We have only a brief sketcli of journeys and toils that extended over a period of thirty years. Large sjiaces are ])as.sed over in silence. For example, in the catalogue of his suflerings, incidentally given, he refers to tlie fact that ho had been sliipwreckcd tlirec times, and these dis- asters were all prior to the shipwreck on the Island of Malta described by Luke. Shortly after the conference at Jerusalem he started on his second missionary tour. He was accom- panied by Silas, and was joined by Timothy at Lystra. He revisited his converts in Eastern Asia Minor, founded churches in Galatia and Plirygia, and from Troas, obedient to a heavenly summons, crossed over to Europe. Having planted at Pliilippi a church that remained re- markably devoted and loyal to him, he followed the great Roman road to Thessalonica, the most important city in Alacedonia. Driven from there and from Berea, he proceeded to Athens [sen Athens: A. D. 54 (?)J, In that renowned and cultivated city he discoursed on Mars Hill to auditors eager for new ideas in philosophy and religion, and in private debated with Stoic? and Epicureans. At Corinth, wliich had risen from its ruins and was once more rich and prosperous, he remained for a j'ear and a half. It was there, probably, tliat ho wrote his two Epistles to the Thessalonian Christians. After a short stay at Ephesus he returned to Antioch by way of Cesarea and Jerusalem. It was not long before Paul — a second Alexander, but on a peaceful expedition — began his third great missionary journej'. Taking tlie land route from Antioch, he traversed Asia Jlinor to Ephesus, a flourish- ing commercial mart, tlie capital of ilic Roman province of Asia. Tliere, witli occa.-^ional ab- sences, he made his abode for upwards of two years. From Ephesus, probably, he wrote the Epistle to the Galatians. . . . From Ephesus Paul also wrote the First Epistle to the Cori.i- tliians. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians he probably wrote from Pliilippi. . . . Coming down through Greece, he remained tliere three months. There lie composed his Ephtle to the Romans. . . . The untiring Apostle now turned his face towards Jerusalem. He desired to be present at the festival of the Pentecost. In order to save time, he sailed past Ephesus, and at Miletus bade a tender farewell to the Ephcsiau elders. Ho had fulfilled his pledge given at the conference, and ho now carried contributions from the Christians of Macedonia and Achaia for the poor at Jerusalem." — G. P. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, pp. 27-28.— "Wo may safely say that if Saul had been less of a Jew, Paul the Apostle would have been less bold and independent. His work would have been more superficial, and his mind less unfettered. God did not choose a heathen to be the apostle for the 436 CHRISTIANITY. iMbort of St. Paul. CHRISTIANITY. heftthen ; for he might have been ensnared by the triuiitions of Jiuhiism, by its priestly liiur- archy iind the splemloura of its worsliip, a.i In- deed it happened witli tlie clmreh of tli(! second century. On the contrary Oiid cliose a Pharisee. But this Pharisee lia<l tlie most complete e.K- perience of the emptiness of external ceremonies and tlie crushing yoke of the law. Tliere was no fear that he would ever look back, that he would be tempted to setup aHain what the grace of Oo() had justly overthrown (Oal. ii. 18). Juda- ism was wholly vancpiishcd in his soul, for it was wholly displaced." — A. '&i\ha.l{Kr,The Apontle Paul, p. (ii). — "Notwithstanding the opposition he met from his countrymen, in spite of all the liberal and the awakened sympathies which he derived from liis work, despite the necessity of contending daily and hourly for the freedom of the Gospel among the Gentiles, ho never ceased to be a Jew. . . . The most ardent patriot could not enlarge with greater pride on the glories of the chosen race than he does in the Epistle to the Romans. His care for the poor in Judica is a touching proof of the strengtli of this national feeling. His attendance at the great annual fes- tivals in Jerusalem is still more significant. ' I must spend the coming feast at Jerusalem.' This language becomes the more s^rilcing when we remember that he was then intending to open out a new field of missionary labour in the far West, and was bidding perhaps his last farewell to the Holy City, the joy of the whole earth." — J. B. Liglitfoot, Biblical Essays, pp. 209-210.— "The Macedonian Churches are honorabijr dis- tinguished above all others by their fidelity to the Gospel and their affectionate regard for St. Paul himself. While the C.aircli of Corinth disgraced herself by gross moral delinquencies, while the Galatians bartered the liberty of the Gospel for a narrow formalism, while the be- lievers of Ephesus drifted into the wildest speculative errors, no such stain attaclies to the brethren of Philippi and Thessalonica. It is to the Macedonian congregations that tlie Apostle ever turns for solace in the midst of his severest trials and sufferings. Time seems not to have chilled these feelings of mutual alfeetion. The Epistle to the Philippians was written about ten years after the Thessalonian letters. It is the mori surprising therefore that they should re- semble each other so strongly in tone. In botli alike St. Paul drops his official title at the outset, . . . and in both ho adopts throughout the same tone of confidence and affection. In this inter- val of ten years we meet with one notice of the Macedonian Churches. It is conceived in terms of unmeasured praise. The Macedonians had been called upon to contribute to the wants of their poorer brethren in Judaia, who were suffer- ing from famine. They had responded nobly to the call. Deep-sunk in poverty and sorely tried by persecution, they came forward with eager joy and poured out the riches of their liberality, straining their means to the utmost in order to relieve the sufferers. . . . We may imagine that the people still retained something of those simpler habits and that sturdier character, which triumphed over Greeks and Orientals in the days of Philip and Alexander, and thus in the early warfare of the Christian Church the Macedonian phalanx offered a sue "ssful resistance to the assaults of an enemy, Jore which the lax and enervated ranks of Asia and Achaia had yielded ignominiously. "—J. B. Lightfoot, liihlicnl Knsaiis, pp. 240-ar)().--At Jerusalem, "thi^ Apostle was rescued by a detachment nf the liomuii giirrison from a mob of Jewish malignants, was liclil in custody for two years at Ccsarea, and was finally enabled to iiccomplish ii longcherishcd intention to go to R<mie, by being conveyed there as a priscmer, he having made an appeal to Ciusar. After being wreckei' on the Mediterranean anil cast ashore on the Island of Malta, under the ci:- cumstances rclateil in Luke's graphic and accu- rate description of the voyage, ho went on his way ill safety to the capital." — 0,.P. fM-nher, Ili.i~ tun/of tlie Vhi-i.il inn C/iiii-rh, p. 20. — " Paul's ajios- tolic career, as known to iis, lasted . . . twenty- nine or thirty years; and it falls into three distinct periods which are smnmarized in the following chronological table: Fii-st Period — Es- sentially Missionary; 35 A. T)., Conversion of Paul. — .lourney to Arabia; 38, Eirst visit to Jerusalem; 38-40, Mission in Syria and C'ilieia — Tarsus and Antioch; r)0-r)l,First missionary jour- ney — Cyprus, PampliyliaandGalatia (Acts xiii., xiv.); 52, Conference at Jerusalem (Acts XV. ; Gal. ii.); 52-55, Second missionary journey — Epistles to the Thesialonians (from Corinth). Scconil Period — The Great Conflicts, and the Great Epis- tles: 54, Return to Antioch — Controversy with Peter (Gal. ii. 12-22); 55-57, Mission to Epliesus and Asia ; 56, Epistle to the Galatians ; 57 or 58 (Passover), First Epistle to the CoWnthians (Epliesus); 57 or 58 (Autumn), Second Epistle to the Corinthians (Macedonia); 58 (Winter), Epistle to the Romans. Third Period — The Captivity: 58 or 59 (Pentecost), Paul is arrested at Jerusalem; 58-60, or 59-61, Captivity at Cscs- area — Epistles to Philemon, Colossians and Ephesians; 60 or 61 (Autumn), Departure for Rome; 61 or 62 (Spring), Arrival of Paul in Rome ; 62-63, Epistle to the Philippians ; 63 or 64, End of the narrative of the Acts of tin Apos- tles.' — A. Sabatier, T/ie Aposi'e Paul, pp. 21-22. — "The impression that we get from Acts is, that the evangelisation of Asia Minor originated from St. Paul ; and that from his initiative tlie now reli- gion gradually spread over the country through the action of many other missionaries (Acts xix. 10). Moreover, missionaries not traincMl by him, were at work in South Galatia and in Ephesus as early as 54^56 A. D. (Gal. v. 7-10; Acts xviii. 25). . . . The Cliristiau Church in Asia Minor was always opposed to the primitive native char- acter. It was Christianity, and not the Imperial government, which finally destroyed the native languages, and made Greek the unlversrd lan- guage of A.'iia Jlinor. Tlie new religion was strong in the towns before it liad any hold of the country parts. The ruder and the less civilised any district was, the slower was Christianity in permeating it. Cliristianity in the early centuries was the religion of the more advanced, not of the ' barbarian ' peoples ; and in f " ^t it seems to be nearly confined within the limits of the Roman world, and practically to take little thought of any people beyond, though in theory, ' Barbarian and Scythian are included in it. . . . The First Epistle of John was in all probability ' addressed primarily to the circle of Asiatic Churches, of which Ephesus was the centre.'" — W. M. Ram- say, The Church in the Roman Empire, pp. 284, 44, 303. — " Unless we are prepared to reject with- out a hearing all the traditions of Christianity, we cannot refuse to believe that the latest years 487 CHIUSTIANITY. at. JoAn, CnniSTIANITY of the Apogtlc St. John were spent In the Ilomnn provlnro of Asin nnd clilctly In KphcHtitt lt8 capi- tal. This tniditioii Ih Hin>;iilarly full, coiiHlstciit and well uutliciiticntcd. Here he Kutlirrcd dlst'i- {)lo.s about liliii, orj^aiilzcd cliurclics, appointed il.shopH and proHliytiTS. A whole chorus of voices unite in bearing teHliniony to its truth. One who passed his earlier life in these parts and had heani his aged master, n disciple of .St. John himself, recount his personal reminiscences of tlie great Apostle; another, who held this very sec of Ephesus, and writing less than a century after the Apostle's death was linked with the past bv a chain of relatives all bishops in tlie Christian Church; a third who also flourished about the close of the century and numbered among his teachers nn old man from this very district — are the principal, because the most dii'inct, witnesses to a fact which is implied in several other notices of earlier or contempo ..ry writere. As to the time at which St. John left his original home and settled in this new abode no direct account is pre- served ; but a very ])robable conjecture may be hazarded, Tlie impending fall of the Holy City was the signal for the dispersion of the followers of Christ. About this same time tlie three other great Apostles, St. Peter, St. Paul and St. James, (lied a martyr's death ; nnd on St. John, the last Burvivini; of the four great pillars of the Church, devolvccl the work of developing the theology of the Gospel and completing tlio organization of the Church. It was not unnatural that at siieli ii crisis he should fix his residence in the centre of a large and growing Christian community, which liad been planted by the Apostle of the Gentiles, nnd watered by the Apostle of the Circumcision. The missionary l:.bours of St. Paul and St. Peter in Asia Minor were confirmed nnd extended by the prolonged residence of their younger con- temporary. At all events such evidence ns we possess is favourable to this view of the date of St. John's settlement at Ephesus. Assuming that the Apocalypse is the work of tlie beloved Apos- tle, and accepting the view wliicli assigns it to the close of Nero's reign or tlicreabouts, we find hiin now for the first time in the immediate neighbourhood of Asia Minor and in direct com- munication with Ephesus and the neiglibouring Churches. St. John howevM was not alone. AVliether drawn thither by tlir attraction of liis presence or acting in pursuance if some common agreement, the few surviving pur- mal disciples of tlie I.ord would seem to have chosen Asia Elinor as their permanent abode, or at all events as their recognised headquarters. Here at least wo meet with tlie friend of St. John's youth and perhaps his fellow-townsman, Andrew of Beth- saida, who with liiin had first listened to John the Baptist, and witli him also luul been the earliest to recognise Jesus as tlie Christ. Here too we encounter Philip tlic Evangelist with his daugh- ters, and perlinps also Philip of Bethsaida, the Apostle. Here also was settled the Apostle's namesake, John tlie Presbyter, also a personal disciple of Jesus, and one Aristion, not other- wise known to us, who likewise had hea d the Lonl. And possibly also other Apostles whose traditions Papias recorded [see J. B. Lightfoot, Apogtolic Fathers, p. 537], Matthew and Thomas and James, may liuve had some connexion, tem- porary or permanent, with this distflct. Thus surrounded by the surviving disciples of the Lord, by bishops and presbyters of his own ap- pointment, and by the pupils who gathered alM)ut him and looked to him for instruction, St. John was the focus of a large and active society of lielievers. In tills respect he holds a unhpie position among the great teachers of the new faitli. St. Peter and St. Paul converted disciples and organized congregations; St. John alone wag the centre of a scliool. Ills life prolong.^d till the close of the century, when the Church was firmly rooted and wiaelv extended, combined with his fixed aliode in the centre of an estab- li.slied community to give a certain detlniteness to his personal infiuence which would be wanting to the wider labours of these strictly missionary preachers. Hence the notices of St. John have a more solid basis and claim greater attention than stories relating to the other Apostles." — J. B. Lightfoot, liiUicnl EMayii, pp. 51-.5!t. — "In the pnrnbic of Jesus, of which we are speaking, it is said that ' the earth bringeth forth fruit of her- self;' — that is, to tmnsfer tlio Greek term into English, ' automatically. ' That epithet is chosen which denotes most precisely a self-acting, spon- taneous energy, inherent in the seed which Jesus, through his discourses, his acts of mercy and power, and his patience unto death, was sowing in the world. This grand prophetic declaration, uttered in a figure so simple and beartiful, in the ears of a little company of Galileans was to be wonderfully verified in the cominj"- oges of Christian history." — G. P. Fisher, The Nature ami Method of Uevelatiim, p. 47. Alexandria. — "Plutarch looked upon it as the great mission of Alexander to transplant Greciim culture into distant countries, ond to conciliate Greeks and barbarians, and to fuse them into one. He says of him, not without reason, that ho was sent of God for this purpose; though the historian did not divine that this end itself was only subsidiary to, and the means of, one still higher — the making, viz., the united peoples of the East nnd West more accessible to the new creation which was to proceed from Christianity, and by the combination of the ele- ments of Oriental and Hellenic culture the pre- paring for Christianity a material in which it might develop itself. If we overlook this ulterior end, and do not fix our regords on the higher quickening spirit destined to reanimate, for some new end, that combination which already bore within itself a germ of corruption, we might well doubt whether that union was really a gain to either party; w^hcther, at least, it was not everywhere attended with a correspondent loss. For the fresh vigour which it infused into the old national spirit must have been constantly re- pressed by the violence which the foreign ele- ment did to it. To introduce into that combina- tion a new living principle of development, and, without prejudice to their original essence, to unite peculiarities the most diverse into a whole in which each part should be a complement to the other, required something higher than any element of human culture. The true living com- munion between the East and the West, which should combine together the two peculiar prin- ciples that were equally necessary for a complete exhibition of the type of humanity, could first come only from Christianity. But still, as pre- paratory thereto, the influence which, for three centuries, went forth from Alexandria, that cen- tre of the intercourse of the world, was of great importance." — A. Neander, General Jliat. of the 438 CHRISTIANITY. Thr Kiirly Oturch at Hume. CHRISTIANITY. Chrittinn lirliginn .iml dhiirch, r. 1, intrml — "Tlio Gri'ck virsion [of the Old TcHliunciit, the Suptiiii^rint], liko IhuTiir^Miinof tlic I'lilt'stiiiiiuis, oriKinuti'd, no doubt, in tlic llfHt j>liu'c, in u full national wiint on the piirt of the lldlcnists, who ns a body wore ignorant of Ilelni-w, Hence wo find notices of very early Greek vernion» of ut least parts of tlie Fentaleueh. Hutlliis, of course, coulil not BUllice. On the other liaii(l, there ex- isted, as we may suppose, a natuvil curiosity on the part of the students, si)ecinlly in Alexandria, which had so large a .lewish population, to know the suered Ijooka on which tlic religion and history of Israel were founded. Kven more tlian this, wu must tnl(o into account the literary tastes of tlie first three I'tol.'inies (successors in Egypt of Alexander the Great), and the eMcp- tioiial favour whicli tlie Jews for a time enjoyed. " — A. Edersheiin, Life and Timet of Ji'iis the Mentiiih, V. 1, ;). 24. Rome. — "Alongside of tlio province ul Asia ISIinor, Home \c'ry early attains to an outstnndinc Importance for young Christianity. If, as wu have supposed, the community liere which eman- cipated itself from the synagogue was mainly recruited from among the proselyte circles which hurt formed themselves around the Jewish syna- gogue, if Taul (luring the years of his captivity, and Peter al.so, influenced this preponderatingly Gentile-Christian community, we must, however, by no means undervalue for the Christian com- munity the continuous influence of Judaism on the Roman world, an influence widch was not lessened l)Ut ratlier increased by the destruction of Jerusalem. Many thousards of Jewish cap- tives Imd arrived liere and been sold as slaves — Rome was the greatest Jewish city in the Empire, . . . and in part it wat' an enlightened and lil)eral Judaism. Jewisli Hellenism liad already long availed itself of the weapons of Hellenic philoso- phy and science ... in order to exalt the Jewish foitli. . . . Under this stimidus tlicre was . . . developed a proselytism wliich was indeed at- tra 'ted by tliat monotheism and the belief in pro\idence and prophecy and tlie moral ideas allieo therewitli, and whicli also had a strong tendei.ey to Jewish customs and festivals — es- pecially the keeping of the Sabbath - - but which remained far from binding itself to a strictly legal wa}' of life in circumcision, etc. We may suppose \liat Roman Cliristianity not only ap- peorcd in \he character of such a pro.selytism, but also retained from it a certain Jewish colouring." — W. Moel.er, History of the Chri»tian Gliurck: A. D. 1-000, pp. 83-84.— "The last notice of tlie Roman Church in tlie Apostolic writings seems to point to /'vo separate communities, a Judaiz- Ing Cliurcli and a Pauline Cliurch. The arrival of the Qentiie Apostle in the metropolis, it would appear, was the signal for the separation of the Judaizcrs, who had hitherto associated with their Gentile bretlircn coldly and distrustfully. The presence of St. Paul must have vastly strength- ened the numbers and influence of the more liberal and Catholic party; while the Judaizers provoked by rivalry redoubled their efforts, that in making converts to the Gospel they miglit also gain proselytes to the law."^J. B. Lightfoot, Dissertations on the Apostolic Age, p. 94. — " His- torical information of any certainty on the latter period of Paul's life is entirely wanting. While the epistles require this unknown period, and a second captivity, as a basis for their apostolic origin, on the other hand, the hypothesis of a second captivity Hcarccly tlnds any real founda- tions except In the three Pastoral iellers. " — A. Sabatier, The A/xisIl,' I'aiit, p. ','01). — It only re- mains f<ir us, ri'turning to the close of the apos- tle's life, to ])ut together the slender inilleatioiis that we liaveof its date. He embarked for Rome In the autumn of 00 (or 01) .\. I>. ; but was eoni- pelled by shipwreck to winter in the island of Malta, aiid only ri ..ilied the Klernal City in the spring of 01 ((('.!; l,uke adds tliat he remained there as a pri.viier for two years, living in a private house under the guard of a soldier; tlieu his narrative breaks oil' uhruplly, and we are confronted witli the unknown (.Vets, xxviii. 30). Caul is suppo.sed to have perished in the friglit- ful persecution caused by the tUf of Rome in July 04 A. I). All that is" certain is that he died a martyr at Rome under Nero (Sabatier). [The puroo.se of what follows in this article Is to give a brief history of Christiunity in some of its relations to general history by the method of tills wirk, and in the light of .some of the best thoug'.l, of our time. The article as a combina- tion of quotations from many authors attempts a presentation of historic facts, and also a positive and representative view, so far as this may bo obtained under the guidance of ideas common to nany of the books used. Some of tlie.se books have had more iiitlucnce on the development of the article than others: entire liarinony and a full presentation of any author's view would mani- festly be impossible. Nevertheless, the reader may di.scover in the article principles and ele- ments of unity derived from the literature and representing it. Unfortunately, (/no of the es- sential parts of such a history niu;it be omitted — biography.] A. D. 100-312.— The Period ■>t Growth and Struggle. — "Christian belief, Ciiristian moral- ity, the Christian view of tlie world, of which the church as a religious society and institution Is the focus, as fluid spiritual elements iiermento humanity as it becomes Christian, far beyond the sphere of the church proper; while conversely the church is not assured against tlie (lossibility that spiritual elements originally ali( n to her may dominate and influence her in their turn. ... In this living Interaction tlie peculiar life of the church is unfolded, in accordance with its internal principles of formation, into an ex- traordinarily manifold and complicated object of historical examination. . . . For this jiurpose it is necessary to elucidate the general historical movement of the church by the relative separa- tion of certain of Its aspects, without loosening the bond of unity." — "W. Moeller, Hist, of the Christian Church: A. IX 1-000, ;*/>. 1-3. — "Such, in fact, has been the history of the Faitli: a sa(l and yet a glorious succession of buttles, often hiirdly fought, and sometimes indecisive, between the new life and the old life. . . . Tlie Christian victory of c(miinon life was wrought out in silence and patience and nameless agonies. It was the victory of the soldiers and not of the captains of Christ's army. But in due time another conflict had to be sustained, not by the masses, but by great men, the consequence and the completion of that which liad gone before. . . . The discipline of action precedes the effort of reason. ... So it came to pass that the period during which this second conflict if the Faith was waged was, roughly speaking', from the middle of the second 489 CHRISTIANITY. (Irrrk I'hiloiinphrrt dm/ Chrttluin A}mUnii»ta. cnniSTIANITY. to the middle ( f llu' third ii-ntury."— R F. WcHt- cott, KuKiji) in the lli»tiirii of l{elii/ii>n» 'J'/imii/ht in t/if Wmt. pp. llM-t«7.— "I'hIloHophv wi'iit on ItH Hiiy uniong thu lii>;hcT cliism.!i, Itut fiild iih- wilutily nr) hold on nicn iil liir^fi,'. Tho refornm- tion which it wrought in ii few elect Kpirits failed utterly to Hpreiid downward to the miuhh of mankind. The poor were not toiiehed by it; Bociety wa.s not helped by it; its uobleHt men, nnd tliey K''ew fewer and fewer, genera- tion by generation, bewailed bitterly the univer- snl IndilTerenee. The sehoolit dwindled into a mere university Hystem of culture; (-"hrisli- onity developed into a religion for the cIvlliHed world. . . . New Ideas it liad in abundance, b';"; new ideas were not the serrcit of its power The essential mutter iuthe Qospel was that it was the history of a Life. It wa.s a tale of fact t'lut all could luidcrstjuid, that all could believe, that all could love. ItdilTered fundamentally from I'lil- losophy, because it appealed not to culture, but to life. . . . It was the spell of substantial facts, living facts, . . . the spell of aloyaltytoapersonai Lord; and those who have not mastered thodllTer- enco between a philosopher's speculations about life, and the actual record of a life which. In all that makes life holy and beautiful, transcended the philosopher's most |)ure and lofty dreams, have not underatocKl yet the rudiments of the reas<m why the Stoic could not, while Christianity could anil did, regenerate society." — J. H. Brown, Stoics and Hiintii, pp. 85-88. — The "period, from the accession of Marcus Aurelius (A. I). 101) to the accession of Valerian (A. I). 25,3) was for the Gen- tile world a period of vinrest and exhaustion, of ferment and of indecision. The time of great hopes and creative minds was gone. The most conspicuous men were, with few exceptions, busied with the past. . . . Local beliefb hud lost their power. Even old Rome ceased to exercise an uncjuestioned moral supremacy. Men strove to be cosmopoliton. They strove vaguely after a unity in which the scattered elements of ancient experience should be harmonized. The effect can be seen both in the policy of statesmoi; and In the speculations of philosophe'-s, in Marcus Aurelius, or Alexander Sevcrua, or Decius, no less than In Plotlnus or Porphyry. As a necessary consc- Suence, the teaching of tlie Bible accessible in reek begun to attract serious attention among the heathen. The assailants of Christianity, even If they affected contempt, shewed that they were deeply moved by its doctrines. The mem- orable saying of Numenius, ' What Is Plato but Moses speaking in the language of Athens ? ' shews at once the feeling after spiritual sympathy which begun to be entertained, and the want of spiritual Insight In the representatives of Qcntlle thought." — B. P. Westcott, Esmys in the Iliitory of lidigious Thought in the West, pp. 196-107.— ' ' To our minds It appears that the prepurutlon of philosophy for Christianity was complete. . . . The time was ripe for that movement of which Justin Is the earliest [complete] representative." — G. T. Purves, The Testimony of Jvstin Martyr, p. 135. — "The writing in defense of Christi- anity is called the apology, and the writer an apologist. . . . There were two classes of apolo- gists, the Greek and the Latin, according to the territory which they occupied, and the language In which they wrote. But there were further differences. The Greeks belonged mostly to the second century, and their writings exhibited a profound Intimacy with the Greek philosophy. Home of them hud studied In the Greek Nchools, and entered the church only In mutiire llfi . They endeavored to prove that Christianity was tho blossom of idl that was valuable In every »v8teni. They stootl largely on the defensive. The Latins, on the other hanif, were aggressive. They lived mostly in the third century. . . . The principal Greek apologists I were] Aristo, Quadratiia, Arls- ti(h's [A, I), nil], .lUHtin [A. 1). 100], Melito [A. D. 170], Miltiades, Ip'naeus, Athenagorus |A. D. 17H), Tatian, Clement of Alexandria [A. I). 200], llippolytus, and Origen [A. I). 8'i5]."— J. P. Ilurst, Short History of the Christian Church, p, 83. Light foot assigns to about A. D. 180 (?) the author of the Epistle to Dlogncti "Times without number the defenders of Christianity appeal to the great and advantageous "hunge wrought by the Gospel in all who embraced It. . . . ' We who hated and destroyed one unotlier, and on u'-count of their different manners would not receive Into our houses men of a different tribe, now, since the coming of Christ, live fa- miliarly with them. We pray for our enemies, we enif' avor to persuade those who hate us un- justly to live conformably to the beautiful pre- cepts of Chri;-t, to the end that they may become partakers with ui of the same joyful hope of a reward from God, the Ruler ot all.' This dis- tinction between Christians and heathen, this consciousness of a complete change in character and life, is nowhere more beautifully described than In the noble epistle ... to DIognetus." — Gerhard Uhlhorn, TJie Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism, p. 106. — "For Christians are not distinguished from the rest of mankind either In locality or in speech or In customs. For they dwell not somewhere in cities of their own, neither do they use some different language, nor practise an extraordinary kind of life. . . . But while tl ey dwell In cities of Greeks ond barba- rians ai the lot of each is casi, and follow the native i istoms In dre.ss and food and the other arrangen. ntsof life, yet tho constitution of their own citlzcish'p, which they set forth, is marvel- lous, and i.onfcssedly contradicts expectation. They dwell in their ov^n countries, but only as sojourners; they bear their share In all things as citizens, and they endure all hardships as strangers. Every foreign country is a fatherland to them, and every fatherland ir, foreign. . . . Their existence is on earth, but their citizenship is In heaven. They obey the established laws, and they surpass the laws In their own lives. They love all men and they are persecuted by oil. . . . AVur is urged ngainst them as aliens by the Jews, and persecution Is carried on against them by the Greeks, and yet those that hate them cannot tell the reason of their hostility." — J. B. Llghtfoot, T^ans. of the Epistle to Diognetus {The Apostolic Fathers, pp. 505-506). — "Tliese apolo- gists rise against philosophy also, out of which they themselves had arisen. In the full conscious- ness of their faith open to oil and not only to the cultured few, the certainty of which, based upon revelation, cannot be replaced by uncertain human wisdom, which, moreover, is self-contradictory in its most Important representatives. On the other hand, they willingly recognise in the philosophy by means of which they had themselves been educated, certain elements of truth, which they partly derive from the seed-corns of truth, which the divine Logos hud scattered among the heathen « 440 CHRISTIANITY. Rnme and Chrittinnily. CHRISTIANITY. ftlso, partly e.xtorniiPy from n (It'pcndciu'o r)f tircck wiwloni nii tlio inut'li (ildiT wiwloiii of tlio East, 1111(1 tlieriifori,' from the um! of the 8crl|itiirt's of tlio Olil Tcsliuiu'iit. To the reproach thjit they hml <lcsi'rtc'(l the relij^lon which Imd been himdcd down from their iinceNtors and thereby miule sacred, tikey oppose llie rl>;ht of recoj^nised truth, tlie right of freedom of coiisoienee; re- ligion becomes the peeiiliiir iilTiilr of Mersoniil conviction, ngnlnst wlilch methmls of force do not gutnce: QimI la to be obeyed rnther thiui man." — W. Moeller, I'M. of the Hhrintuin Church: A. D. l-OOO, ;). 170. — "Such ii morality, os Uomun greatness was passing away, tooli possession of the ground. Its l)egliuiinga were scarcely felt, scarcely known of, in the vast movement of allairs lu the greatest of empires. By and by Its presence, strangely austere, strangely gentle, strangely tender, strangely inllexll)le, began to be noticed. But its work was long only a work of indirect prcparatio.i. Those whom It charmed, those wl.om It opposed, those whom it turned, know not whot was being done for tlie genera- tions which were to follow." — U. \V. Church, T/ie Gift* of Cieilizdtinn, p. 1(30. — "The more spiritual and profound historians of the Church recognize it as a manifestation of this divine life flowing into liuman history. But this is true of tlie organized church only 'vith important qualifications. Tlie life must manifest itself in an organization ; but the organization is neither the only nor the complete exp 'lion of the life. . . . The life which creates e organization penetrates and purities also the ..miily and the state, renovates individuals, and blooms and fructifies in Christian civilizations; and these are also historical manifestations." — S. Harris, The Kingdom of Christ oil. Earth, p. 87. — It was tlie great formative period of the world's ne\v life, and all streams tended to How together. The in- fluence of Greek thought on Komau law had led, under the circumstances of Roman commercial Uf., to the development of an ideal "jus gen- Mum," a kind of natural law discovered by the reason. This conception transformed the Roman law and brought it into touch with the new sense of human relations. "It was by means of this higher conception of equity which resulted from the idcntitlcation of the jus gentium with the jus naturale — that tlie alliance between law and philosophy was really nade eflicient. " — W. C. Morey, Outlines from Roman Licw, p. 114. — "There were three agencies whose influence in working simultaneously and successively at this identical task, tl e developing and importing of the jus gentinM, was decisive of the ultimate result. These were the praetorian edict [which reached its climax under the Republic and was completed under lladrinn], Roman scientiflc juris- prudence [which developed its greatest ability about A. D. 200] and imperial legislation." — R. 8o\im, Inatiti.ites of Roman Law, p. 40. — "The liberal policy of Rome gradually extended the privileges of her citizenship till it included all her subjects; and along with the 'Jus suffragii,' went of course the 'Jus honorum.' Even under Augustus we find a Spaniard consul at Rome; and uiuier Galba an Egyi)tian is governor of Egypt. It is not long before even the emperor himself is supplied by tlie provinces. It is easy to comprehend therefore how the provincials forgot the fatherland of their birth for the father- land of their citizenship. Once win the fran- 30 cIiInc, and to great capacity was opened a great career. The Roman Empire cam" to be u homo- geneous mass of privileged persons, largely using the same language, aiming at the same type of cIvillHatlon, e(iual among themselves, but all alike eoiiHcious of their superiority to the Hiirrounding barbarians."— \V. T. Ariulld, The llouiiin Sj/stcin if I'roriiirial Ailmiiiist ration, p. !17. — "As far as she could. Koine destroyed the individual genius of nations; slie .seems to have rendered them un(|iiulitlr(l for a national ex- istence. When the public life of the Empire ceased, Italy, Uaul, and Hpaiii were thus unable to become nations. Tlieir great historical ex- istence did not coiiiniencc until after the arrival of the barbarians, and after several centuries of experiments amid violence and <alaniity. But how does it happen that the countries which liomc did not con(|uer, or dhl not long have uilder her sway, now hold such a prominent place In the world — that they exhibit so much originality and such complete confidence in their future? Is It only becaime, having existed a shorter time, they are eiititle(l to a longer future? Or, perchaiKc, did Rome leave behind lier certain habits of mind, intellectual and moral <|iialities, which impede and limit activity? "— E. Lavissc, I'oHtiriil Jlisl. of Einojie, p. 6. — Patriotism was a considerable part of both the ancient religion and the old morality. The empire weakened the former ..nd deeply Injured the latter by conquest of the individual states. It had little to offer In place of these e.vccpt that anomaly, the worship of the emperor; and a law and justice adminis- tered by rulers who, to say 'he least, grew very ri.;h. "The feeling of pr'de in Roman citizen- ship . . . btcamo much weakeros the citizenship was ^\idencd. . . . Uoinan citizenship Included an ever growing j.roportlon of the population In every land round the Mediterranean, till at last it embraced the whole Roman world. . . . Chris- tianity also created a religion for the Empire, transcending all distinctions of nationality. . . . Tlie path of development for the Empire lay in accepting the religion offered it to complete Its organisation. Down to the time of Hadrian there was a certain progress on the part of the Empire towards a recognition of this necessity." — W. M. Ramsay. The Church, in tlie Roman Empire, pp. 373, 1»1-10'3.— The relations of the laws of the Empire to Christianity may be briefly atJited, but there are differences of opinion which cannot be noted here : "A. D. 30 to 100, Christians treated as a sect of the Jews and sharing in the general toleration accorded to them. A. D. 100 to 250, Christians recognized, . . . and rendered liable to persecution : (1st) For treason and impiety. (2nd) As belonging to illegal associations, but at the same time protected In their capacity of members of Friendly or Burial Societies of a kind allowed by the law. A. D. 2r)0 to 200, Christi- anity recognized as a formidable power by the State. Commencement of an open struggle be- tween Christianity and the secular authority. . . . The cemeteries of tlie Chris'tians now for the first time interfered with and become places of hiding and secret assembly. A. D. 200 to 300, Persecutions cease for a time, 40 years Peace for the Church. Time of much prosperity wlien, as Eusebius writes, ' great multitudes flocked to the religion of Christ. ' A. D. 300 to 313, Last de- cisive struggle under Diocletian." — G. B. Brown, Pi-om SchoUi to Cathedral.— ''The judges decided 441 CHRISTIANITY. The Early Persecutions, CimiSTIANITY. simply in accordance witli tlic laws, and, in the great majr.dfy of cases, did so roolly, calmly, without piission, as men who were simply dis- charging their duty. . . . Not the priests, but the Emperors led the attack. ... It is true tlie Christians never rebelled ngain.stthe State. Tliey cannot be reproached with even the appearanci! of a rcvolutionarv spirit. Despised, persecuted, abused, they still never revolted, but showed themselves everywhere obedient to tlio laws, and ready to pay to the Emperors the honor whic^li was their due. Yet in one particular tliey could not obey, the worship of idols, the strewing of in- cense to the CtBsar-god. And in this one thing it was made evident that in Christianity lay the ferm of a wholly new political and social order, his is the character of the conflict which we are now to review. T'-. jg ^ contest of the spirit of Antiquity against that of Christianity, of the ancient heathen order of the world against the new Christian order. Ten persecutions are com- monly enumerated, viz., under Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian, JIarcus Aurelius, Septimius Scvcrus, Maximinus the Thracian, Decius, Va- lerian, and Diocletian. This traditional enumera- tion is, however, very superficial, and leaves en- tirely unrecognized the real course of the struggle. . . . Though times of relative tranquillity oc- curred, Christianity remained, notwithstanding, a prohibited religion. This being the case, the simple arrangement of the persecutions in a series makes the impression that they were all of the same character, while in fact the persecution under Nero was wholly different from that under Trajan and his successors, and this again varied essentially from those under Decius and Diocle- tian. The first pensecution which was really general and Bystematically aimed at the suppres- sion of the Church, was the Decian [see Home: A. D. 192-284]. That under Trajan and his suc- cessors [see Home: A. D. 00-138, 138-180, and 803-305] consisted merely of more or less fre- quent processes against individual Christians, in which the established methods of trial were em- ployed, and the existing laws were more or Isss sharply used against them. Finally, the perse- cutions under Nero and Domitian [see Rome: A. D. 04-68, and 70-96] were mere outbreaks of nersonal cruelty and tyrar icul caprice. . . . Christianity is the growing might; with the energy of youth it looks the future in the face, and there sees victory beckoning onward. And how changed are now its ideas of tliat triumph 1 The earlier period had no thought of any victory but that which Christ was to bring at his coming. . . . But in the time of Cyprian the hopes of the Christians are directed towards another victory : they begin to grasp the idea that Christianity will vanquish heathenism from within, and become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. . . . It is true that the Christians were still greatly in the minority. It is generally assumed that they formed aboutone-twelfth of the whole population in the Euat, a^d in the West about one-flfteenth. Even this is jierhaps too hi^h an estimate. But there wtro two things which gave a great im- portance to thi."* minority. First, tliat no single religion of the much divided Heathenism had so many adherents as the Christian. Over against the scattered forces of Heathenism, the Chris- tians formed a close phalanx ; the Church was a compact and strongly framed organization. Second, the Christians were massed in the towns, while the rural population was almost ex- clusively devoted to Heathenism. There existed in Antioch, for instance, a C'lristian church of fifty thousand souls."— G. Ulilhorn, The Conflict of Christianity with Ileatheniim, bk. 3. — "The Encyclopedia of Missions " on the authority of tlie late Prof. H. I). Hitchcock states that there are on record "the names of cliurches existing at this period [at the close of the persecutions] in 525 cities: cities of Europe 188, of Asia 214, of Africa 123." (See Appendix D.) There were tendencies at work in many of these against that toward general cathclic (universal) organization, but in sulTering and sympathy the Christian Churches formed a vast body of believers. ' ' Such a vast organisation of a perfectly new kind, with no analogy in previously existing institutions, was naturally slow in development. . . . The critical stage was passed when the destruction of Jerusalem annihilated all possibility of a localised centre for Cliristianity, and made it clear that the centralisation of the Church could reside only in an idea — viz., a processof intercommunication, union and brotlierhood. It would be hardly possible to exaggerate the share which frequent inter- course from a very early stage betwecm the sep- arate congregations had in moulding the develop- ment of tlie Church. Most of the documents In the New Testament are products and monuments of this intercourse ; all attest in numberless details the vivid interest which the scattered com- munities took in one another. From the first the Christian idea was to annihilate the separation due to space, and hold the most distant brother as near as the nearest. A clear consciousness of the importance of this idea first appears in the Pastoral Epistles, and Is still stronger in writ- ings of A. D. 80-100. . . . The close relations between different congregations is brought into strong relief by the circumstances disclosed in the letters of Ignat'us: the welcome extended everywhere to him; the loving messotres 'tent when he was writing to other churches ; the depu- tations sent from churches off his road to meet him and convoy him ; the rapidity with which news of his progress was sent round, so that deputations from Ephesus, Magnesia, and Tralles were ready to visit him in Smyrna; the news from Antioch which reached him in Troas, but which was unknown to him in Smyrna; the directions which he gave to call a council oi the church in Smyrna, and send a messenger to con- gratulate the church in An.ioch ; the knowledge that his fate is known to and is engaging the efforts of the church in Rome." — AV. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Minpire, pp. 364-366. — "The fellowship . . . thus strongly impressed by apostolic hands on the infant Church, is never wholly lost Right of throughout all the ages, and its permanent expression is found in the synod, whether oecumenic, provincial, or diocesan. This becomes fainter as we reach the age in which a presbyter, told off from the body to a distinct parish, attains gradual isolation from his breth- ren. But this conies some centuries later. . . . Everywhere, till that decline, the idea is that of a brotherhood or corporate office, a unity of function pervaded by an energy of brotljerly love. ... It is no mere confluence of units be- fore distinct." — H. Hayman, Diocesan Synod* (Contemp. Rev., Oc<., 1882). — " It is the age when the New Testament writings begin to come to- gether to form a generally recognized canon. 442 CHRISTIANITY. The Patistic Church. CHRISTIANITY. The opposition too to the sovereign spirit of Montanist prophecy undoubtedly increased the need for it. . . . After the example of the Gnostics, a beginning is also made with c.xe- getical explanation of New Testament writings; Mellto with one on the Revelation of John, a cer- tain Heraclitus with one on the Apostles. . . . Finally, in this same opposition to the heretics, it is sought to secure the agreement of the dif- ferent churches with one another, and in this re- | lation importance is gained by the idea of a imi- vcrsnl (Catholic) Clmrch. So-called catliolie Epistles of men of repute in the church to dilTer ent comnumities are highly regarded. As ilUr,- trntions take those of Ui.shop Dionysius of Cjr- inth to Lacedajmon, Athens, Crete, Paphlag' nlii, Pontus, Rome(Eu8eb. 4, 23)."— \V. Jloeller, Ilinl. of (he Chnstian Church, pp. 183-184.— "This period [100-312] may be divided into the Post- Api'StoUc Age which reaches down to t tie middle of the second century, and the Age of the Old Catholic Church which ends with the establish- ment of the Church under Constantine. . . . The point of transition from one Age to the other may be imhesitatingly set down at A. D. 170. The following are the most important data in re- gard thereto. The death about A. D. 165 of Justin Martyr, who marks the high'^st point reached in the Post- Apostolic Age and forms also the transition to the Old Catholic Age ; and Irenaeus, flourishing somewhere about A. D. 170, who was the real inaugurator of this latter age. Besides these we come upon the beginnings of the Trinitarian controversies about the year 170. Finally, the rejection of Montauism from the universal Catholic Church was effected about the year 170 by means of the synodal institution called into existence for that purpose." — J. H. Kurtz, Church History, v. 1, p. 70. — "If every church must so live in the world as to be a part of its co'rieutivc being, then it must always be construed in and through the place and time in which it lives." — A. M. Fairbairn, The Place of Christ in Modern Tlieology. — "The Church of the first three centuries was never, except perhaps on the day of Pentecost, in an absolutely ideal condition. But yet during the ages of persecu- tion, the Church as a whole was visibly an un- worldly institution. It was a spiritual empire in recognized antagonism with the world-empire. " — F. W. Puller, The Primitive /Saints and The See of Home, p. 153. — All the greater forces of the at.", political and legal, and commercial, ai'ed those working within the church to create au organic unity. "Speaking with some qualifications, the patristic church was Greek, as the primitive church had been Jewish, and the mediojval church was to be Latin. Its unity, like that of the Greek nation, was federative; cacli church, like each of the Gi'ecian states, was a little commonwealth. As the Greece which resisted the Persians was one, not by any imperial organization, but by com- mon ideas and a. common love of liberty, so the church of the fatliei-s was one, not by any organic connection, but by common thoughts and sym- Sathies. above all by a common loyalty to Christ, [aturally the questions which agitated such a church were those which concern the individual soul rather than society. Its members made much of personal beliefs and speculative opinions ; and so long as the old free spirit lasted they al- lowed one another large freedom of thought, only requiring that -ommon instinct of loyalty to Christ. Happily for the world, that free spirit did not die out from the Kast for at least two centuries after Paul had prorlaiined the individ- ual relationship of Ww. soul to tjod. . . . The genius of the Greek expressing it.se"" in thought, of the Latin in ruling power, the Christianity which was to the formera body of truth, became to 'he hitter a system of government." — G. A. Jack- ton, The Fathers of the Third Century, pp. 154- 50. — The Apostolic ideal was set fortli, and it'ithin a few generations forgotten. The vision vas only for a time and then vani.shed. "The Kiu.gdom of Clirist, not beuig a kingdom of this world, is not limited by the restrictions which fetter other societies, political or religious. It is in the fullest sense free, comprehensive, univer- sal. ... It is most important that we should keep this ideal d-thiitely in view, and I have therefore stated it as broadly as possible. Yet the broad statement, if allowed to stand alone, would suggest a false iiiipiessiou, or a; least would convey only a half truth. It must be evident that no societ; of men could hold to- gether without olUceis, without rules, witlicut institutions of any kind; and the Church of Christ is not exempt from this universal law. The conception in short is strictly an ideal, which we must ever hold before our eyes. . . . Every member of the human family was potentially a member of the Church, and, as such, a priest of God. ... It will hardly be denied, I think, by those who have studied the history of modern civilization with attention, that this conception of the Christian Church has been nuiiuly instru- mental in the emancipation of the degraded and oppressed, in the removal of artificial barriers between class and class, and in the ditlusion of a general philanthropy untrammelled by the fet- ters of party or race ; in short, that to it mainly must be attributed the most important advan- tages which constitute the superiority of modern societies over ancient. Consciously or uncon- sciously, the idea of au universal priesthood, of the religious equality of all men, which, though not untaught before, was first embodied in the Church of Christ, has worked and is working un- told blessings in political institutions and in social life. But the careful student will also observe that this idea has hitherto been very imperfectly apprehended; ":it throughout the history of the Church it has been struggling for recogni- tion, at most times discerned in some of its aspects but at all times wholly ignored in others; and that therefore the actual results are a very inadequate measure of its efficacy, if only it could assume due prominence and were allowed free scope in action. ... It may be a general rule, it may be under ordinary circumstances a practically universal law, that the highest acts of congregational worship shall be performed through the principal olli,.jrs of the congrega- tion. But an emergency may arise when the spirit and not the letter must decide. The Christian ideal will then . . . interpret our duty. The higher ordinance of the universal priestliood will overrule all special limitations. The lay- man will assume functions which are otherwise restricted to the ordained minister."— J. B. Light- foot, Disstrtatione on the AjMstolic Aye, pp. 137- 140, 237. — "No Church now existing is an exact counterpart of the Apostolic Church. . . . Allu- sions bear out the idea that the Church at Corinth was as yet almost structureless — little more than 443 CnniSTIANITY. Rue of the Episcopate . CHRISTIANITY. an aggregate of iudividuuls — with no bishop, presbyter or deacon. " — J. W. Cunuingliam, The Grmcth of the Church in its Organization ami In- ttitutionn, pp. 73, 18. — "Some time before the middle of tlie second century heresy begun sadly to distract tlie Christian community ; and to avoid InuD'nent danger of schism, it was deemed expe- dieni in a few great towns to arm the chairman of the I'dership with additional power. A modified form of prelacy was thus introduced." — W. I). Killea, 2VieOl(l Catholic Church, p. 51. — Respect- ing tlie rise of the Episcopate as a distinct otllcc there j a difference of opinion among scholars, — some holding thatit was expressly ordained by the Apostles, others that it arose quite independently of them ; a third class think that it was developed gradually out of the eldership, but not without the sanction of one or more of the Apostles. "For the Church is a catholic society, that is, a society belonging to all nations and ages. As u catholic society it lacks the bonds of the life of a city >T a nation — local contiguity, common lan- guaf.e, common customs. We cannot then very ■wel! conceive how its corporate continuity could have been maintained otherwise than througli some succession of persons such as, bearing the apostolic commission for ministry, should be in each generation the necessary centres of the Church's life."— C. Gore, The Mission of the Church, pp. 10, 11. — "Jewish presbyteries existed alreiidy in all the principal cities of the dispersion, and Christian presbyteries would early occupy a no', less 'vide area. . . . The name of the presbyter thuc presents no difficulty. But what must bo said of the term bishop? . . . But these notices, besides establishing the general prevalence of episcopacy, also throw considerable light on its origin. They indicate that the relation suggested by the historyof the word ' bishop ' and its trans- ference from the lower to the higher office is the true solution, and that the episcopate was created out of the presbytery. . . . They leem to hint also that, so far as this development was affected at all by national temper and characteristics, it ■was slower where the prevailing influences were more purely Greek, as at Corinth and Philippi and Rome, and more rapid where an Oriental spirit predominated, as at Jerusalem and Antioch and Ephesus. Above all, they establish this re- sult clearly, that its maturer forms are seen first in those ref 'ons where the latest surviving Apootlcs (more especially St. John) fixed their abode, and at a time when its prevalence cannot be dissociated from their influence or their sanc- tion." — J. B. lAghtioot, Dissertations on the A]M8- tolic Age, pp. 151, 190, 191. — "Since then in the constitution of the church two elements met to- gether — the aristocratic and the monarchical — it could not fail to be the case that a conflict would ensue between them. . . . Th_se struggles be- tween the prcsbyterial and episcopal systems belong among the most important phenomena connected with the process of the develop- ment of church life in the third century. Many gresbyters made a capricious use of their power, urtful to good discipline and order in tlie com- munities." — A. Neander, General History of tlie Christian lieligion and Church, v. 1, sect. 2. — "As 4 rule Christianity would get a footing first in the metropolis of its region. The lesser cities would be evangelized by missions sent from thence ; and so the suffragan sees would look on themselves as daughters of the metropolitan see. The metropolitan bishop is the natural center of unity for the bishops of the province. . . . The bishops of the metropolitan sees acquired certain rights which were delegated to them by their brother bishops. Moreover, among the most im- portant churches a certain or<ler of precedence grew up which corresponded with the civil dig- nity of the cities in which those churches existed ; and finally the churches which were founded by the apostles were treated with peculiar rever- ence." — F. W. Puller, The Primitii.. Saints and the See of litmie, pp. 11 and 18. — "The triumph of the episcopal system undoubtedly promoted unity, order, and tranquillity. But, on the other hand, it was unfavourable to the free development of the life of the church; and while the latter promoted the formation of a priesthood foreign to the essence of that development of the king- dom of God which the New Testament sets forth, on the other liand a revolution of senti- ment which had already been prepared — an altered view of the idea of the priesthood — had no small influence on the development of the episcopal system. Thus docs this change of the original constitution of the Christian communi- ties stand intimately connected with another and still more radical change, — the formation of a sacerdotal caste in the t mristiitn church. . . . Out of the husk of Judaism Christianity had evolved Itself to freedom and independence, — had stripped off the forms in which it first sprang up, and within which the new spirit lay at first concealed, until by its own inherent power it broke through them. This development belonged more par- ticularly to the Paulino position, from which proceecled the form of the church in the Gentile world. In the struggle with the Jewish elements which opposed the free development of Christi- anity, this principle hud triumphantly made its way. In the churches of pagan Christians the new creation stood forth completely unfolded; but the Jewish principle, which had been van- quished, pressed in once more from another quarter. Humanity was as yet incapable of maintaining itself at the lofty position of pure spiritual religion. The Jewish position was bet- ter adapted to the mass, which needed first to be trained before it could apprehend Christianity in its purity, — needed to be disabused from pagan- ism. Out of Christianity, now become indepen- dent, a principle once more sprang forth akin to the principles of the Old Testament, — a new out- ward shaping of the kingdom ox God, a new discipline of the law which one day was to serve for the training of rude nations, a new tutorship for the spirit of humanity, until it should arrive at the maturity of the perfect manhood in Christ. This investiture of the Christian spirit in a form nearly akin to the position arrived at in the Old Testament, could not fail, after the fruitful prin- ciple had once made its appearance, to unfold itself more and more, and to bring to light one after another all the consequences which it in- volved ; but there also began with it a reaction of the Christian consciousness as it yearned after freedom, which was continually bursting forth anew in an endlets variety of appearances, until it attuioed its triumph at the Reformation." — A. Neander, General Uiiiory of the Christian Reli- gion and Church, v. 1, sect. 3, Ji. — "Though the forms of [pagan] religion had broken -vway, the spirit of religion was still quick; it uad even developed: the sense of sin, an almost new 444 CHRIS! lANITY. The Sprenit of the faith. CIIKISTIANITY. phenomenon, began to invade Society and Philoso- phy ; and along with this, au almost importunate cruving after a revelation. Tlie changed tone of philosophy, the spread of mysticism, tlio rapid growtli of mystery-worship, the revived Plato- nism, are all articulate expressions of this need. The old Philosophy begins not onlv to proach but to pray: the new strives to catch the revealed voice of God in the oracles of less unfaithful days. ... In the teeth of an organised and con- centrated despotism a new society had grown up, scIf-supporting,'self-regulated, self-governed, a State within tlio State. Calm and assured amid a world that hid its fears only In blind ex- citement, free -amid the servile, sanguine amid the despairing. Christians lived with an object. United in loyal fellowship by socred pledges more binding than the sacramentum of the sol- dier, welded together by a stringent discipline, led by trained and tried commanders, the Church had succeeded in attaining tmlty. It had proved Itself able to command self-devotion even to the death. It had not feared to assimilate the choicest fruits of the choicest intellects of East and West. . . . Yet tlie centripetal forces were stronger; Tertullian had died an hercsiarch, and Origan but narrowly and somewhat of grace escaped a like fate. If rent with schisms and threatened with disintegration, the Church was still an undivided whole."— G. H. Rendall, The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, pp. 21-23.— " The designation of the Universal Chris- tian Church as Catholic dates from the time of Irenaeus. ... At the beginning of this age, the heretical as well as the non-heretical Ebionism may be regarded as virtually suppressed, although some scanty remnants of it might yet be found. The most brilliant period of Gnosticism, too, . . . was already passed. But in Manichoiism there appeared, during the second half of t)\e third cen- tury, a new peril of a no less threatening kind in- spired by Parseeism and Buddhism. . . . With Marcus Aurclius, Paganism outside of Christi- anity as embodied in the Roman State, begins the war of extermination against the Church that was ever more and more extending her boun- daries. Such manifestation of hostility, however, was not able to subdue the Church. . . . During the same time the episcopal and synodal-hierarchi- cal organization of the church was more fully developed by the Introduction of an order of Metropolitans, and then in the following period it reached its climax in the oligarchical Pentarchy of Patriarchs, and in the institution of oecumenical Synods." — J. H. Kurtz, Church Histori/, v. l,pp. 72-73, to which the reader is also referred for all periods of church history. See, also,P. Schafr,Ifi»- tory of tlie Christian Church; ond, for biography, W. Smith and H. Wace, A Dictionary of ChrisUan Biography. — " Missionary effort in this period was mainly directed to the conversion of the hea- then. On the ruins of Jerusalem, Hadrian's colony of ^lia Capitolina was planted ; so that even there the Church, in its character and modes of worship, was a Gentile community. Christianity was early carried to Edessa, the capital of the small state of Osrhene, in Mesopo- tamia. After the middle of the second century, the Church at Edessa was sufflciently flourishing to count among its members the king, Abgar Bar Manu. At about this time the gospel was preached in Persia, Media, Parthia, and Bactria. We have notices of churches in Arabia in the early part of the third century. They were vi.sit('<l several times by Origen. the celebrated AK'.Miiulriaii Church toucher (185-254). In the middle of the fourth century a missionary, Thoo- philus, of Diu, found churches in India. In E.irypt, Christianity niade great progress, especi- ally at Alexandria, wlienco it spread to Cyrcne and otlicr neighboring places. In upper Egypt, wlicre tli(! Coptic language and the superstition of the ijcopie were obstacles in its path, Cliristi- auity had, nevertheless, gained a foothold as early as towards tlie close of tlu; second century. At tliis time tlie gospel had been planted in pro- consular Africa, being conveyed thitlier from Rome, and there was a llourislilng church at Carthage. In Gaul, where the Druiilical sy.stem, with its priesthood and sacrificial worsliip, was the religion of the Celtic population, several cliurclies were founded from Asia Jlinor. At Lyons and Vienne there were strong cliu'ches in the lust quarter of the second century. At this time Irenicus, Bishop of Lyons, speaks of the establishment of Christianity in Germany, west of the Rhine, and Tertullian, the North African presbyter, speaks of Christianity in Britain. The fatliers in tlic second century describe in glowing terms, and not without rhetorical exaggeration, tlio rapid conquests of the Gospel. The number of converts in the reign of Hadrian must have been very large. Otherwise we cannot account for the entliusiastic language of Justin Martyr respecting the multitude of professing Christians. Tertullian writes in a similar strain. Irenajus refers to Barbarians who have believed without having a knowledge of letters, through oral teaching merely." — Q. P. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, pp. 45^6. Alexandria. — "Christianity first began its activity in the country among the Jewisli and Greek population of the Delta, but gradually also among the Egyptians proper (the Copts) as may be inferred from the Coptic (Memphytic) translation of the Now Testament (third cen- tury). In the second century. Gnosticism [see Gnostics], which had its chief seat here as well as in Syria, and, secondly, towards the close of the century, the Alexandrian Catechetical School, show the importance of tliis centre of religious movement and Cliristian education." — W. Moel- ler, Ilist.ofthe Ohriatian Church, p. 105. — "Never perhaps has the free statement of the Christian idea had less prejudice to encounter than at Alexandria at the close of the second century. Never has it more successfully vindicated by argument its right to be the great interpreter of the human spirit. The institutions of tlie great metropolis were highly favourable to this result. The Museum, built by tlie Ptolemies, was in- tended to be, and speedily became, the centre of an intense intellectual life. The Serapeum, at the other end of the town, rivalled it in beauty of architecture and wealth of rare JISS. The Sebas- tion, reared in honour of Augustus, was no un- worthy companion to these two noble establish- ments. In all three, splendid endowments and a ricli professoriate attracted the talent of the world. If the ambition of a secured reputation drew many eminent men away to Rome, the means of se(;uring such eminence were mainly procured at Alexandria. . . . The Christian Church in this city rose to the height of its grand opportunity. It entered the lists without fear and witliout favour, and boldly proclaimed its competence to 445 CHRISTIANITY. ne AleJranilrinn Church. CIIIUSTIANITy. satisfy the intellectual cravings of man. Num- Dcrs of restless and iiuiiiiriiiK Bpirits eiiine from till |)arts (if the worlil, liopin.; to t1ii<l ii solution of the (loiihts that perple.'ied them. And the Chureli, which hud nlreiidy hrou^ht pence to th(^ soids of the wontiin and tlie slave, nriw fflrded herself to the harder task of c'onvincin;; the trained intelligence of the man of letters and the pliilosopher." — C. T. C'ruttwell, A Litinin/ Ilin- ton/ of Eiirlif Chrintiiinitu, hk. 4, rh. 1 (c. 2). — "TluMiuestion . . . came up for decision towards the close of the mibapostolic aije, as to what shape the Church was tinally to take. Two types were set before her toclioose from — one the Hebrew-Latin type, as \\v. may call it, into which . . . site finally settled down; the otlier the Hellenist type of a Demos, or commonwealth of free citizens, all equal, all alike kings and priests unto Qod, and whose moml and spiritual growth was left very much to the initiative of eacli mem- ber of the community. In Alexandria, as the meeting-point of all nationalities, and where Judaism itself had tried to set up a new typo of thought, eclectic between Hebraism and Hellen- ism, and comprehending what was best in both, naturally enough tliere grew up u Christian type of eclecticism corresponding to that of Philo. . . . Into this seething of rival sects and races the Alexandrian school of catechists threw them- selves, and nnule a noble attempt to rescue the Church, the synagogue, and the Stoics alike from the one bane common to all — the dangerous delu- sion that the truth was for tlu^m, not they for the truth. Setting out on the assumption that God's purpose was the education of the whole human faini'.y, they saw in the Logos doctrine of St. John .le key to harmonise all truth, whether of Chris -ian sect, Hebrew synagogue, or Stoic philosophy. ... To educate all men up to this standard seemed to tliem the true ideal of the Church. True Gnosis was their keynote; and the Gnostic, as Clemens loves to describe himself, was to them the pattern philosopher and Chris- tian in one. Tliey regarded, moreover, a disci- pline of at least three years as imperative; it was the preliminary conditiou of entrance into the Christian Church. — J. B. Heard, Alexandrian ami Cartluiginian Theology Contrasted, pp. 37-38. — The two great Christian writers of Alexandria were Clement and Origen. "The universal in- fluence of Origen made itself felt in the third century over the whole field of Greek theology. In him, as it were, everything whidi had hitherto been striven after in tlie Greek field of tlieology, had been gathered tofjether, so as, being collected liere in a centre, to give an impulse in the most various directions; lienco also tlio further de- velopment of theology in subsequent times is always accustomed to link itself on to one side or the other of his rich spiritual heritage. . . . And wliilo this involves that Christianity is placed on friendly relations with the previous philo.sophicul development of the highest concep- tions of God and the world, yet on the other hand Cliristian truth also appears conversely as the universal truth which gatliers together in itself all the hitherto isolated rays of divine truth. ... In the great religious ferment of the time there was further contained the ten- dency to seek similar religious ideas amid the different mythological religious forms and to mingle them syncretistically. This religiotis fer- ment was still further increased by the original content of Christianity, that mighty leaven, which anno'inced a religion destined to the re- demption and ])crfectiug of the world, and by this means a like direction and tendency was im- l)arted to various other religious views likewise. Tlie exciting and moving etfect of Gnosticism on tlie Chureli depended at the same time on the fact, that its re|)rcs<'ntatives practically appre- hended Christianity in the manner of the antique religiotis mysteries, and in so doing sought to lean tiixm the Christian comnuinities and make themselves at home in them, according as their religious life and usages seemed to invite them, and to establish in them a community of the initiated and perfect; an cndeavfmr wliidi the powerful ascetic tendency in tlie church exploited and augmented in its own sen.se, and for which the institution of prophecy, wiiich was so higlily respected and powerful in the communities, afforded a handle. In this way the initiated were able to make for themselves a basis in tlie com- munity on which tliey could depend, while the religiophilosophical speculations, which arc always intelligible only to a few, at the same time propagated themselves and branched out scholastically." — W. Moeller, Jlintoryofthe Chris- uan Church, pp. 215, 213, 130-131.— "At Alex- andria, Basilides (A. D. 12.')) and Valentine ex- erted in turn an extraordinary influence; the latter endeavored to establish Ins school at Homo about the year 140. The Gnostics of Syria pro- fessed a more open dualism than those of Egypt. The Church of Antioch had to resist Siiiurnin, that of Edessa to oppose Dordesancs and Tatian." — E. De Pressense, The Early Years of Christian- ity; The Martyrs and Apologists, p. 135. — "There was something very imposing in those mighty sys- tems, wliich embraced lieaven and earth. How plain and meagre in comparison seemed simple Christianity 1 There was something remarkably attractive m the breadth and liberality of Gnos- ticism. It seemed completely to have reconciled Christianity with culture. How narrow tlie Christian Church appeared 1 Even noble souls might be captivated by the hope of winning tlie world over to Christianity in tliis way. . . . Over against tlie mighty systems of tlie Gnostics, the Church stood, in sober earnestness and child- like faith, on the simple Christian doctrine of tlie Apostles. This was to be sought in the churches founded by the apostles themselves, where they had defined the faitli in their iireaching." — G. Uhlhorn, 7 he Conflict of Christianity with Ilea then- -'sm, bk. 2, ch. 3. — "Greek philosopliy had joined Hands with Jewish theosophy, and the Church knew not where to look for help. So serious did the danger seem, when it was assailed at once and from opposite sides by Jewish and Greek tyjjes of Grtostici'^m, the one from the monotheistic point of view in ugning the Gotlhead, the other for the Docetic side explaining away [as a spiritual illu- sion] the manhood of Christ, that the Church, in despair of beating error by mere apology, fell back on the method of authority. Tlie Church was the only safe keeper of the deposit of sacred tradition ; whoever impugned that tradition, let him bo put out of the communion of saints."— Rev. J. B. Heard, Alexandrian and Carthaginian Theology Contrasted, p. 41. — " The interest, the meaning, of Gnosticism rest entirely upon its ethical motive. It was an attempt, a serious attempt, to fathom the dread mystery of sorrow and pain, to answer that spectral doubt, which is mostly crushed msF CHRISTIANITY. The Si/rinn r*Aurr'u'«. ClIRISTIAXITY. down by force — Can the world ns wo Vnow it Imvo been made by God? 'Ceiwe,' sajji Biisil- idcs. 'from idle anil curious variety, and let us riitber discuss tlie opinions, wliicli even barbari- ans liave lield, on tlie sutgect of go(Kl and evil.' ' I will say anytliing ratlicr tlmn adndt that Providence is wicked. ' Valentinus describes in till! strain of an ancient prophet the woes that alllict mankind. 'I durst not afllrin,' he con- <'ludes, • that God is the author of all this.' So Tcrtullian says of Marcion, 'like many men of our time, and especially the heretics, he is be- wildered by the question of evil.' They ap- jiroach the problem from a non-Christian point of vi(^w, and arrive therefore at a non-Christian solution. . . . Many of thcnj, especially the later sectaries, accepted the whole Christian Creed, but always with reserve. The teaching of the Churcli thus became in their eyes a popu- lar exoteric confession, beneath their own Gnosis, or Knowledge, <vhich was a Mystery, jealously guarded from all but the chosen few. ' — C. Bigg, T/if C/iristiiiii PliiiimintaofAlcriindna, pp. 28-29. Czsarea. — "The chief points of interest in the history of the Church of Ctcsarea during this period are the residence of Origen there (first between A. I). 31!) and 219 and again after his final departure from Alexandria in 2;!1), the (■duration of Eu.sebius, the foundation of the great library by Pamphilus, and the martyrdoms il\iriiig the Diocletian persecution. Most of these will come before us again in other con- nexions, but they require mention here. It would be ditflcult to ovcr-e.stimato the effect of what they imply on the Churoh at large. Had the work of Origen, Pamphilus, and Ensebius at Cii'sarea remainecl unrecorded, there would be a huge blank in ecclesiastical history, rendering much that is otherwise known scarcely intel- ligible. Had that work never been done, the course of ecclesiastical history would have been very dilferent. In the whole of the second and third centuries it would be dilHcult to name two more influential Christians than Origen and Euscbius; and Panipliilus laboured earnestly to preserve and circulate the writings of the one and to facilitate those of the other. It was from the libraries of Pamphilus at Ctcsarea and of Alexander at Jerusalem that Eusebius obtained most of his material " for his " Ecclesinstical His- tory," wliich has preserved titles a' .i quotations from many lost books of exceeding value. — A. Pluiuiner, The Church of the JSarly Fathers, ch. 3. Edessa. — ' ' Edessa (the modern Urf a) was from the beginning of the third century one of the cliief centres of Syrian Christian life and theo- logical study. For many years, amid the vicissi- tudes of theological persecution, a series of flourishing theological schools \\ ;re maintained there, one of which (the 'Persia" school') is of great importance as tlie nursery of Nestorianism in the extreme East. It was as bishop of Edessa, also, that Jacob Baradaeus organized the mono- pliysite churches into that Jacobite church of which he is the hero. From the scholars of Edessa came many of the translations which carried Greek thought to tlie East, and in the periods of exciting controversy Edessa was within the range of the theological movements that stirred Alexandria and Constantinople. The ' Chronicle of Edessa,' as it is called because the greater number of its notices relate to Edessene affairs, is a brief document in Syriac contained in a manusoript of six leaves in the Vatican library. It is (me of the most important funda- mental sources for tin? history of Edessa, c(m tains a long otUcial narrative of the floinl of A. I). 2(11, which is perhaps the only existing inonu- nieiit of lieathen Hyriac literature, and includes an excellent and vcTy carefully dated list of the bishops of Edessa from A. I). '.iV.i to 54!}." — An- (lonr Uiricw, r. 19, p. 374. — The Syriac Versions (of the Gospel) form a group of which mention should undoubtedly be made. The Syria(r ver- sions of the Bible (Old Testjiment) are among the most ancient remains of the language, the Syriac and the Chaldee being the two dialects of the Ammaean spoken in the North. Of versions of the New Testament, "the 'Peshito' or the 'Simple,' though not the oldest text, has been the longest known. . . . The 'Curetonian' . . . was discovered after its existence had been for a ling time 8usi)ected by sagacious scholars [but is not much more than a series of fragiiiciitsl. . . . Cureton, Tregelles, Alford, Ewald, BleeU, and others, believe this text to be older than the Peshito [which speaks for the Greek text of the second century, though itsowndate is doubtful]. . . . Other valuable Syriac versions an; 'Phil- oxenian "... and the ' Jerusalem Syriac Lec- tionary "... a service-book with lessons from the Gosjiels for Sundays and feast days tlirougli- out the y(!ar . . . written at Antioch in 10!i() in a dialect similar to that in use in Jerusalem and from a Greek text of great antiquity." A recent discovery renders these facts and statements of peculiar interests. — G. E. Merrill, T/te Story of tlie Miinunerlpts, eh. 10. Rural Palestine. — " If Eliionism [.see Eiuon- ismJ was not ])riniitive Christianity, neither was it a creation of the second century. As an or- ganization, a distinct sect, it first made itself known, we may suppose, in the reign of Trajan: but as a sentiment, it had been harboured within the Church from the very earli(!st days. Mod- erated by the personal infiuenee of the Apostka, soothed by the general practice of their church, not yet forced into declaring themselves by the turn of events, though scarcely tolerant of others, these Judaizers were tolerated for a time them- selves. The beginning of the second century was a winnowing season in the Chnic.h of the Circumcision. ... It is a probalile conjecture, that after the destruction of Jerusalem the fugi- tive Christians, living in their retirement in the neiglibourhood of the Essene settlements, re- ceived largo accessions to their numbers from this sect, wliich thus inoculated the Cliurch with its peculiar views. It is at least worthy of notice, that in a religious work emanating from this school of Ebionites the ' true Gospel ' is re-ported to have been first propagated ' after the destruc- tion of the holy place' " — J. B. Lightfoot, Dis- sertations on, the Apostolic Age, pp. 7y->S0. Carthage. — "If the world is indebted to Rome for the organisation of the Church, Rome is indebted to Carthage for the theory on which that organisation is built. The career of Car- thage as a Christian centre exemplifies the strange vicissitudes of history. The city which Rome in her jealousy had crushed, which, not content with crushing, she had obliterated from the face of the earth, had at the bidding of Rome's greatest son risen from her ashes, and by her career almost verified the poet's taunt that the greatness of Carthage was reared on the 447 CimiSTIANITV. Carlhaye and Home. CHRISTIANITY. ruin of Itftly. For in tnith the Afrirnn capital was In all but political i)()wor no unworthy rival of Home. It liad stoadily grown in comniiTcial prosperity. Its site was so advantajjeoiis as to invite, almost to compel, the inthix of trade, which ever spontaneously moves along the line of least resistance. And the people were well abl(^ to turn this natural udvant^ige to account. A mi.\ed nationality, in which the original Italian innnigration lent a steadying force to tlie native I'unic and kindred African elements that formed its basis, with its intelligence enriched by large accessions of Greek settlers from Cyrene and Alexandria — Cartilage had developed in the second century of our era into a community at once wealthy, enterprising and ambitious. ... It was no longer in the sphere of profane literature, but in her contributions to the cause of Christianity and the spiritual armoury of the Church, that the proud Queen of Africa was to win her second crown of fame. . . . The names of Tertullian, Cyprian and Augustine, at onco suggest the source from which Papal Rome drew the principles of Church controversy, Church orgaidsation, and Church doctrine, which have consolidated her authority, and to some extent justified her prcteiLsions to rule the con- science of Christendom." — C. T. Cruttwell, A Literary IlisUiry of Early Christianity, bk, 5, ch. 3 (». 2). — "At the end of the second century th ; African Tertullian first began to wrestle wi i the dilllculties of tlie Latin language in the \- deavour to make it a veliicle for the expression /f Christian ideas. In reading his dogmatic writ- ings the struggle is so apparent that it seems as though we beheld a rider endeavouring to disci- Eline an unbroken steed. Tertullian's doctrine I, however, still wholly Greek in substance, and this continued to be the case in the church of the Latin tongue until the end of the fourth century. Hilary, Ambrose, even Jerome, are essentially interpreters of Greek philo.sophy and theology to the Latin West. With Augus- tine learning begins to assume a Latin form, partly original and independent — partly, I say, for even later compositions are abundantly inter- woven with Greek elements ond materials. Very gradually from the writings of the African lathers of the church does the specific Latin element come to occupy that dominant position in Western Christendom, which soon, portly from self-sufllcient indifference, partly from ignorance, so completely severed itself from Greek influences that the old unity and harmony could never be restored. Still the Biblical study of the Latins is, as a whole, a mere eclio and copy of Greek predecessors " — J. I. von Di>l- linger, Studies in European History, pp. 170-171. — From Carthage which was afterward the resi- dence of " tlie primate of all Africa . . . tlie Christian faith soon disseminated throughout Numidia, JIauritania and Getulia, which is proved by the great number of bishops at two councils held at Carthage in 250 and 308. At the latter there were 270 bishops, whose names are not given, but at the former were bishops from (87) . . . cities."— J. E. T. Wiltsch, i/aHd- book of the Geography and Statistics oft/ie Church, Rome. — "In the West, Rome-remains and in- deed becomes ever more and more the ' sedes Apostolica,' by far the most important centre where, alongside of the Roman element, there are to be found elements streaming together from all points of the Empire. Orc(^k names, and the long la.sting (still dominant in the second century) maintenance of Greek as the written language of Roman Christianity are liere noteworthy. . . . Rome was the point of departure not only for Italy and the Western Provinces, but without doubt also for Proconsular Africa, where in turn Carthage becomes the centres of diffusion. . . . Tlie diffusion in tlie Gncco-Roman world as a whole goes first to the more important towns and from tliese gradually over tlie country. . . . The instruments however of this mission are by no means exclusivelv apostolic men, who pursue mi.ssions as their cafliiig . . . ; every Christian becomes a witness in liis own circle, and inter- course and trade bring Christians hither and thither, and along witli them their Christian faith." — W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, pp. 105-107. — " It has been contended, and many still believe, that in ancient Rome the doctrines of Christ found no proselytes, except among the lower and poorer classes of citizens. . . . The gospel found its way also to the man- 1 'ons of the masters, nay, even to the palace of tuL Cn;sars. The discoveries lately made on this subject are startling, and constitute a new chapter in the history of imperial Rome. ... A ditficuity may arise in the mind of the reader: how was it possible for these magistrates, gen- erals, consuls, officers, senators, and governors of provinces, to attend to their duties without per- forming acts of idolatry ? . . . Tlie Roman em- perors gave plenty of liberty to tlie new religion from time to time; and some of them, moved by a sort of religious syncretism, even tried to ally it with tlie official worship of the empire, and to place Christ and Jupiter on the steps of the same ■lararium.'. . . We must not believe that the transformation of Rome from a pagan into a Cliristian city was a sudden and unexpected event, which took the world by surprise. It 'vas the natural result of the work of three cen- turies, brought to maturity under Constantine by an inevitable reaction against the violence of Diocletian's rule. It was not a revolution or a conversion in the tnie sense of these words ; it was the ofl[lcial recognition of a state of things wliich had long ceased to be a secret. The moral superiority of the new doctrines over the old religions was so evident, so overpowering, tliat the result of the struggle had been a fore- gone conclusion since the ago of the first apolo- gists. Tlie revolution was an exceedingly mild one, tlie transformation almost imperceptible. . . . The transformation may be followed stage by stage in both its moral and material aspect. There is not a ruin of ancient Rome that does not bear evidence of the great change. . . . Rome pos- sesses authentic remains of the ' houses of prayer ' in which the gospel was first announced in apos- tolic times. ... A very old tradition, confirmed by the ' Liber Pontiflcalis,' describes the modern church of S. Pudentiana as having been once the private house of the same Pudens who was baptized by the apo.iitles, and who is mentioned in tlie epistles of S. ?aul. . . . The connection of the house with tlic apostolate of S8. Peter and Paul mide it very popular from the beginning. . . . Remains of tlie house of Pudens were found in 1870. They occupy a considerable area under the neighboring houses. . . . Among the Roman churches whose origin can be n-aced to the hall of meeting, besides those of Pudens and Prisca 448 CHRISTIANITY. nniil and Simin. CHRISTIANITY. nlrpftdy mentioiipd, (ho best pri^servrd socins to be tbut billlt by DemetriiiHUt thetliini mile-stone of the Via Liitinn, near Ibc ' piiiiited tombs.' . . . Tlie Cliristians to.)lc advantage of tlie freedom accorded to funeral colleges, and associated thcmsi'lvcs for tlie same purpose, following as closely as possible their rules concerning contri- butions, tlie erecti(m of lodges, the meetings, ami the . . . love feasts; and it was largely through the niloption of these well-understood and re- 8]>eoted customs that they were enabled to hold their meetings and keep together as a, corporate bo<ly througli thi! stormy times of the second and third centuries. Two excellent specimens of scholoe connected with Christian cejueteries and with meetings of the faithful have come down to us, one above the Catacombs of Callixtus, the other above those of Soter." This formation of Christian communities into colleges is an import- ant fact, and connects these Christian societies with one of the social institutions of the Empire which may have influenced the church as an or- ganization. "The experience gained in twenty- tlve years of active exploration in ancient Home, both al)ove and below ground, enables me to state that every pagan building which was cai)able of giving shelter to a congregation was transformed, at one time or anotlier, into a church or a chapel. . . . From apostolic times to the persecution of Domitian, tlie faithful were buried, separately or collectively, in private tombs which did not have the character of a Church institution. These early tombs, whether above or below ground, display a sense of per- fect security, and an absence of all fear or solici- tude. This feeling arose from two facts: the small extent of the cemeteries, which .secured to them the rights of private property, and the pro- tection and freedom which the Jewish colony in Rome enjoyed from time immemorial. . . . From the time of the apostles to the first persecu- tion of Domitian, Christian tombs, whether above or below ground, were built with perfect impunity and in defiance of public opinion. We have l)ccn accustomed to consider the catacombs of Rome as crypts plunged in total darkness, and penetrating the bowels of the earth at unfathom- able deptlis. This is, in a certain measure, the case with those catacombs, or sections of cata- combs, which were excavated in times of perse- cution ; but not with those belonging to the first century. The cemetery of these members of Domitiau's family who had embraced the gospel — such as Flavins Clemens, Flavia Domitilla, Plautilla, Petronilla, and others — reveals a bold example of iiublicity. . . . How is it possible to imagine that the primitive Church did not know the place of the '".eath of its two leading apostles V In default cc written testimony let us consult monumental evidence. There is no event of the imperial age and of imperial Rome which is attested by so many noble structures, all of which point to the same conclusion, — the presence and execution of the apostles in the capital of the empire." — R. Lanciani, Pagan ami Christian Itome, ch. 1, 3 and!. — The Church at Rome "gave no Illustrious teachers to ancient Christianity. . . . All the greatest questions were debated elsewhere. ... By a sort of in- stinct of race, [it] occupied itself far more with points of government and organization than of speculation. Its central position, in the capital of the empire, and its glorious memories, guar- anteed to it a growing authoritv. " — K. He Pres- sense, The Kiirlji Viun of Vhriiitiiinity : 'Die Miiiii/rii ami Ajxiliif/iiilii, p. 41. Gaul.— "Of the history of the Galilean Churches before the middle of the second century we have no certain information. It seems fairly probable indeed that, when we read in the Apostolic age of a mission of Crescens to •Oalalia' or 'Oa\il,' the western country is meant rather than the Asiatic settlement wliich bore the same name; and, if so, this points to some relati(m8 with St. Paul himself. But, even though this explanati(m should be accepted, the notice stands (juite alone. Jjator tradition indeed supplements it with legendary matter, but it is impossible to say what sulistratum of fact, if any underlies these comparatively recent stories. The connection between the southern parts of Gaul and the western distrii'ts of Asia Minor had ' 'cn intimate from very remote limes. Gaui was in(lebte<l for her earliest civil- ization to her Greek settlements like Marseilles, which ha<l been colonized from Asia Minor some six centuries before the Christian era; and dose relations ajipear to have been maintained even to the latest times. During the Roman period the people of Marseilles stdl spoke the Greek language familiarly ahmg with the vernacular Celtic of the native population and the oflicial Latin of the 'dominant power. When therefore Christianity had established her heachiuarters in Asia Jlinor, it was not umiat\iral that the Gosi)el should flow in the same channels which already conducted the civilization and the commerce of the Asiatic Greeks westward. At all events, whatever we may think of the antecedent pro- babilities, the fact itself can hardly be disputed. In the year A. D. 177, under Marcus Aurelius, a severe persecution broke out on the banks of the Rhone in the cities of Vienne and Lyons — a jiersecution which by its extent and character bears a noble testimony to tlie vitality of the Churches in these places. To this incident we owe the earliest extant historical notice of Christianity in Gaul." — .1. B. Lightfoot, Emays on the work entitled Supernatural lieliijion, pp. 2.')l-253. — "The Churches of proconsular Africa, of Spain, of Italy, and of Soutiiern Gaul consti- tute, at this period, the Western Church, so dif- ferent in its general type from tlie Eastern. With the exception of Ircnaeus [bishop of Lyons] and Hippolytus [the first celebrated preacher of the West, of Italy and, for a i)eriod, Lyons] who represent the oriental element in Gaul and at Rome, the AVestern Fathers are broadly distin- guished from those of the East. . . . They afflrm rather than demonstrate; . . . they pre- fer practical to speculative questions. The sys- tem of episcopal authority is gradually developed with a larger amount of ])assiun at Carthage, with greater prudence and ])atience in Italy." — E. I)e Pressense, 1 he Early Years of Christi- anity: the Martyrs and ApoUigists. Spain. — "Christians are generally mentioned as liaving existed in all parts of Spain at the close of tlie second century ; before the middle of the third century there is a letter of the liomun bishop Anterus (in 237) to the bishops of the provinces of Ba-tica and Toletana . . . ; and after the middle of the same century a letter of Cyprian's was addressed to . . . people ... in the north ... as well as . . . in the south of that country."— J. E. T. Wiltsch, Handbook of 449 CIiniSTIANITY. of tilt (litlht. CHRISTIANITY. the Oe/>qraphy and fUatittia of the Church, pi>. 40-41. Britain. — "All tlmt wo can snfcly nsaort Ih tlijit there is Hnme rcnson for Ix'licvinp; thiit tlicrc were (Miristiiins in Hritniii boforo A. 1). 2(Mt. ("crtnliily there was a Itritish (Miiireh with hisliops of its own soon after A. I). U0(), and poHsilily sonic time before tlmt. Very little can be known about this Celtic (,'hiireli; but tli(> sciinly evidence tends to establish tlireo points, (1) It liad its ori||;ii' from, and remained largely uependent upon, llic Gallic Church. (2) It was confined almost exclusively .i> Itoman settle- ments. (U) Itsiiiunbers were small and its mem- bers were poor. . . . That lir'tiiin may have «lerived its Cliri.stianity from Asia .Minor cannot be denied: but the ])cculiar lirilish custom respecting; Kaster must not be (piotcd in evidence! of it. Itsec^ms to hav(! been a mere blunder, and not a contiiunilion of the old Quarta-decimim practice, (laul is the more i)robabl(! parent of the liritisli Cluirch. ... At the (.'ouncil of liimini in iWO Constantius olTered to Jiay out of the trea.sury the travelling e.\penses of all the bishops who attended. Out of more than four hundred bishops, tluee from Hritain were the only clergy who availed themselves of this offer. Neither at Himini, any more than at Arle.s, do the British representatives make any show: they appear to be tpiitu witliout iniluence. " — A. Plummer, T/ie Ckuvch of the Eni'ly Fatliem, eh. 8. Goths. — "It has been observed that the first indjspulalile appearance of the Ooths in European history must Ix^ ;lated in A. 1). 21(8, when they laid waste the Soulh-Dunubian province of Moesia as far as the HIack Sea. In the thirty years (2;i8-2(i9) that followed, there took place no iew<'r than ten such inroads. . . . From these expeditions tlicy returned with immen.se booty, — corn and cattle, silks anil line linen, silver and gold, an<l captives of all ranks and ages. It is to tliese captives, many of whom were Chris- tians, and not a few clergy, that the introduction of Christianity among the Ooths is primarily due. . . . Tile periixl of tlie inroad", wliicli so strangely formed a sowing-time for Ciiristianity, was followed by a long perio<l of tniiiiiuiility, during wliicli the new faith took root and spread. ... It is to the faithful work and ])Ui'e lives of [CliristianJ men . . . wlio had tied from Uoman civilisation for conscience sake, to the example of patience in misfortune and higli Ciiristian cliaractcr displayed by the captives, and to the instruction of the presbyters sprinkled among thein, that we must look, as the source of Christianity among the Goths. . . . The fact (to ■which we shall have to refer later), tiiat, of all the sea raids undertaken by the Goths between the years 238 and 209, the Visigoths took i)iirt in only two, while tlie Ostrogoths, wlio were settled in Southern Russia along the coast of the Euxine from tlie (-'rimea to tlic Dneister, were engaged ])robably in all of tliein, makes it very unlikely that tlie captives mentioned by Plnlostorgius were curried nnywiicre else than the eastern settlements. To the influence of these Asian Ciiristinns, exerted mainly, if not entirely upon the Ostrogoths, must be added tlie ever-increas- ing intercourse carried on by sen lietweeu the Crimea and both the southern siiore of the Euxine and Constantinople. To these probabili- ties has uow to be added the fact that the odI\ traces if an organised Qotliic Church existing- before he year :141 are clearly to be referred loiv commui ity in tliis neighbourhood. Among tlio bishops ,"lio were present at the Council of Nicaca (A. I). 32.')), and who signed the symlMd wliicli was tlien approved, we find a certain Theophilus, before wliose name stand tlie words, 'do Oothis,' an<l after it the word ' Hospliori- tanus.' Tiiere can be little doubi that tins was a bishop representing a Gothic Church on the Cimmerian Rosphorus: and if, following the Paris MSS., we read further down the list tlie name Domnus Rosphorensis or Rosplioranus, wo mav find here anotlier l)isliop from this (liocese, aiul legaiil Theophilus as chief w archbishop of the Crimean churclies. Tlie undoubted presence at this council of at least one bishop of the Goths, and the conclusion drawn therefrom in favour of the orthodoxy of tlie Gothic Churcli ia general, led afterwards to the greatest confusion. Failing to distinguish lietween the Crimean and Danubian communities, th(> historians often foiiml tlieir information contradietory, and altered it ill tlie readiest way to suit tlie condition of the (Miiircli which tliey had specially in view. . . . Tlie conversion of tliat section of tlie nation, wliich beciime the Gothic Ciiurcli, was due to the apostolic labours of one of tlieir own race, — tlie great missionary bishop Ultilas [see GoTiis: A. D. ;i41-;i81J. Rut to him too was to be traced the heresy in wliicli they stopped short on the wa> from lieatlienism to a complete Christian fjiitli." — C. .V. A. Scott, Ulfilitn. AjMmtle of tlie (rot/is, j)p. 19-;)0. — "The suiierstitions of tlie barbarians, who had found homes in the empire, had been exchanged for a more whole- some belief. Rut Christianity had done more than this. It liad extended its infiuence to the distant East and South, to Abyssinia, and the tribes of the Syrian and Lybiaii deserts, to Armenia, Persia, and Indiif. " — G. P. Fisher, J/ixt. of the Ohrinddn Chureh, p. 98. — ' ' We have bef(ue us many significant examples of the facility witli which the most intelligem. .'f the Pagans accepted the outward rite of Chrisliui baptism, and made a nominiil professlm of tin Faitli, while they retained and openly I'ractieed, without rebuke, witliout remark, >vitli the indulgence even of genuine believers, tlie rites and usages of tlie Paganism tliey prel ended to have abjured. We find abundant records of the fact that personages high in olllce, such as con- suls and other magistrates, while admiuisteriag the laws by wliicli the ohl idolatries were pro- scribed, actually performed Pagan rites and even erected public statues to Pagan divinities. Still more did men, high in tlie respect of tlieir fellow-Christians, allow themselves to cherish sentiments utterly at variance with the defini- tions of the Church." — C. Mcrivale, Four leetnre* on some Epochn of Early Church IIi»tory, p. 150. — ' We loolt back to the early acts and policy of the Church towards the new nations, their kings and their people; the ways and works of her mission- aries and lawgivers, Ultilas among the Goths, Augustine in Kent, Remigius in Fmnce, Roni- face iu Germany, Anscliar in the North, the Irish Coluinban in Rurgiindy and Switzerland, Benedict at llonte Cassino; or the reforming kings, the Arian Theodoric, the great German Charles, the great English Alfred. Measured by the liglit and the standards they have heljicd 'IS to attain to, their methods uo doubt surprise. 4uU CHRISTIANITY. Conifriion of CantUmiint. CIIKISTIANITY. (llsnpnoint — It may bo, mvcilt im; iim' we ((well upon Is tlic childlslincss, till that or till' liii|H'rfc<'t moriillty, of their iitteiiipts. Hut if there in iinythiiiK ('crtaiii in liiHtory, It la thut in thcHe rmi/h cnniniuiiieittiiiiiM of tlin (lettpest truths, iu iiiesf [for us| often ((uestionitble niiMles of rulinj? niimls and souls, the seeds were sown of all that was to make the hope and the glory of the foremost nations. ... I have spoken of three other groups of virtues which are 'leld In speeial rejjard and respect amonjr us — those roimected with manliness luid hard work, witli reverenre for law and lilierty, and with pure fanuly life. The rudiments and tendencies out of which tliesc' have grown appear to have been early marked in the (ierinHii races; but they were only rudiments, e.xistinn in company with nuicli wUder and stronger elements, and liable, amid the changes and cliances of liarbariun existence, to Ix.- paralysed or trampled out. No mere barbarian virtues could by themselves have KtxKxl the trial of having won by coniiuest the wealth, the lands, the power of Home. IJut their guardian was there. What Christianity (lid for these natural tendencies to good was to adopt them, to watuh over them, to di.scipline, to consolidate them. The energy which warriors were accu.slomed to put forth in their elTorts to c(amuer, the mls.slonarics and ministers of Christianity exhibited in their enler|)rises of conversion and teaching. Tlie crowd of unknown saints whose iiantes till the calendars, and live, 8o;iie of them, only in tlie titK f our churches, mainly represent the age of heroic spiritual ventures, of which we see glimpses in liie story of St. H(mifac(s the aposth; of Germany; of St. Coluniban and St. Uidl, wandering from Ireland to reclaim tlio barbarians of the Uurgundian deserts and of the shores of the Swiss lakes. It was among men like these — men who were then termed emphatically ' men of religion ' — tlnit tlie new races saw the example of life ruled by a great and serious purpose, which yet was not one of ambition or the excitement of war; a Hie of deliberate and steady industrv, of hard and uncomplaining labour; a life as full of activilv in peace, of stout and brave work, as a warrior's was wont to be in the camp, on the march, in the battle. It was in these men and In the Christianity which they taught, and which inspired and governed them, that the fa iters of our iiKHlern nations first saw exemplified the sense of human responsibility, first le irned the nobleness of a ruled and disciplined life, first enlarged their thoughts of the uses of existence, first were tauglit the dignity and sacredness of lionest toll, riicse great axioms of nuxlern life passed silently from the speciid homes of religams employment to those of civil; from tlie cloisters and cells of men who, when they were not engaged In worship, were engaged in tleld-work or book-work, — clearing the forest, extending cultivation, multiplying manuscripts — to the guild of the craftsman, the shop of the trader, the study of the scholar. Religion gener- ated and fed these ideas of what was manly and worthy in man." — R. \V. Church, The Gifts of Civi'''mtion, pp. 270-283. A. D. 312-337.— The Church and the Em- pire. — " Shortly after the beginning of the fourth century there occurred an event which, had it been predicted in the days of Nero or even of Dcciua, would have been deemed a wild fancy. It was nothing less than the conversion of the Roman Kinpcror to the Christian faith. It was an evinl of monicntoiis iniporlance In tli' history of the Christian religion. Tlic Roman empire, from being the enemy and persecutor of the Church, thenceforward became its protector and patron. The Church entered into an alliance with the State, which was to prove fruitful of consei)ueiices, both good and evil, in the subse- (puiit hisloiy of Kurope. Chrisliaiilly was now to reap the advantages and incur the dangers arising from the friendship of earl lily rulers and from a close connection with the civil authority. C(Ui.stanlin(! was born In 274. lie was the son Iif Constaiitins Chioriis. His mother, Helena, was of obsenri! birth. She became a Christian — whether before or after his conversion, is doubt- ful. . . . After the death of Ccinslaiiline's fallier, a revolt against (ialerius augmented tlu^ niiniber of emperors, so that. In !t(JH, not less llian six claimed to exercise rule. The contest of Con- stantiiie was at first In the West, against the tyrannical and dissolute Alaxentiiis. It was just before his victory over tills rival at the .Mllvian Hridge, near Rome, that he adopted the Christian faith. That there mingled in this deeisiiai. as In most of the steps of his career, liolitieal ainhilion, is highly prohable. The slrength of the Chris- tian community made it pulilic for hiiii to win its united support. Hut he sincerely believed in the (JimI whom tla; Christians worsliipped, and in tlie help which, tliroui'h his providence, he could lend to his servants. . . . Shortly before his victory over Maxenlius there occurred what he ii.s.serted to be the vision of a fiaming cro.ss in the sky, seen by him at noonday, on wliicli was the iiiseriiition, in (ireek, ' Hy this coiKiuer.' It was, jierhaps, an optical illusion, the etfect of a parhelion beheld in a moment when the imagin- ation . . . was strongly excited. He adopted the labarum, or the standard of the cross, which was afterwards carried in his armies. [See Ro.mk: A. 1). !i2:}.] In later contests with Licinius, the ruler in tlie East, who was a defender of paganisni, Constaiitine became more distinctly the champion of tlie Christian (.'ause. The final defeat of liicinius, In !t2;i, left him the master of the whole Roman world. An edict signed by Galerius, Constaiitine, and Lieinins, In 311, had proclaimed freedom and toleration in matters of religion. The edict of Milan, in 312, emanating from the two hitter, established unrestricted liberty on this subject. If we consider the time when it was issued, we shall be surprised to find that It alleges as a mo- tive for tlie edict the sacred rights of con- science." — G. P. Fisher, llidt. of the Christian Chnreh, pp. 87-88. — "Towanls the end of the year Constantine left Rome for Jlilan, where \u: met Licinius. This nieetinif resulted in the issiK of the famous edict of Slilan. Up to tliat hour Christianity had been an ' illiclta religio,' and It was a crime to be a Christian. Even in Trajan's answer to Pliny this position is as.sume(I, though it forms the basis of liumane regulations. The edict of Milan is the cliarter of Christianity; it proclaims absolute freedom in the matter of religion. Both Cliristians and all others were to be freely permitted to follow whatsoever religion ' each might choose. Moreover, restitution was to be made to the Christian body of all churches and other buildings which had been alienated from them during the persecution. This was in 461 CIIUISTIANITY. f/iiii'./i IfrffanixiiUitn. CIIUISTIANITY. 818 A. I). . . . Hilt till' cauw'H of (liHHcnHioii rcinaiiicil lu'liiml. Oiicr inorr (!t'J!)) llic (|ii«'sll<>ii Im'Iwci'm imKiuiixni iiikI Cliristiiiiilty was to he trii'il (III till' tti'lil iif Imtllc, ami tliri'r aniilcH con friiiitcil one aiiiitlirr on tlir iiliiliiMiif ii ^''iitiioiilc. AkiiIii till' "I^Hl of CiiiiNtaiitlnr anil .lir trained valour of his tri>o|iN jirovcd siipi'iior to the iiii- (U.srlliliiiril li'vics of LicinldH; wlillc at wa Cri.s- pilH, llic <'lili-Ht iinil iil-t'atrd son of CoiiHlantini', di'Htroyrd tlii' rnciny'H lli'ct in tlir rrowdrd waters of tile llelli'spont, sowillff tlieretiy llie seeds of liis fatlier's jealousy, liy/.antiiiin fell, )mt not witlioiit a vigorous resistance; and, aftiT one more iriisliiiiK defeat on llie site of tlu; iniMlern Hciitiiri, IJciniiis suliinitted liiniself to the mercy of ('oiiHtantinu. . . . ^VIlat we notice iu the whole' of these events Is the enormous power which still belonged to iiaKanisni. The uitlaiice still wavered between paKiinlsm and ("hristianity. , . . ('onstantine had now, by a marvellous succession of victories, iilaced him- Hclf in a position of supreme and undisputed power. At this juncture it is of interest to observe that . . . the divided empire, which followed the rei>;n of C,'oii*tuiitine, served to sustain Calliolicity at least in one half of the world. . . . The foundation of Constant inople was the outward symbol of the new monarcliy and of the triumph of Christianity, . . . Tlic choice of tliis incomparable position for the new ca])ital of the world remains the iastin); i)roof of Constantiue's genius. . . . The magnificence of its public' buildings, its treasures of art, its vast endowments, the lieauty of its situation, the rapid growtli oC its eomnierce, made it worthy to l)c 'as it weiv 11 (laughter of Home herself.' But the most important thought for us is the relation of Constantinople to the advance of Christianity. Tliat the city which had sprung into supremacy from its birth and had become the capital of the conquered world, should have excliKled from the circuit of its walls all public recognition of ])olytheism, and made the Cross its most conspicuous ornament, and the to!<en of its greatness, gave a realitv to the relij.'ious revolution. . . . The imiu'rial centre of the world had been visibly displaced." — A. Carr, The Church and the linvutn Jimpire, rh. 4. — AVith the first General Council of the Church, lield at Nicii'a, A. D. 325 (see Nic/Ka), " the decisions ... of which received the force of law from the confirmation of "le Emjieror, a tendencv was entered upon winch was deci.sive for tile further development : decisive also by the fact that the Kmpcror lu^d it to be his duty to compel subordination to the decisions of the council on penalty of banisliment, and actually carried out this biinishment in the case of Arius and several of his adherents, Tlie Emperor summoned general synods, the liseus provided tile cost of travel and subsistence (also at other great synods), a imperial commissioner opened them by rcailing the imperial edict, and watched over the course of business. Only the liishops and their ainiointed representatives had votes. Dogmatic jioints ti.xed . . . were to be the out- come of unanimous agreement, the rest of tlie ordinances (on the constitution, discipline and worship) of ii majority of votes." — W. Mocller, Hint, if Vie ClirUtiiin Church, p. 337.— "The direct influence of the cmi)eror, however, does not appear until the Emperor Marcian procured from the Council of Chalccdou the completion of the Patriarchal Hysti'iii, Asouniing that Home, .Vlcxandrla, and Anlioch were I'atriarchates bv the recognition of their privileges at the Council of Nica'a (though the canon of that (iiiincil does not really admit that inference), tlie Council of Chalccdon, by its uinth, seventeenth and twenty- eighth canons, enlarged and ti.xed the patriarclial jurisdiction and privileges of the I'hurcli of Constantinople, giving it authority over the Dioceses of Thrace, Asia and I'ontus, with the power of ordaining and reiiiiiring canonical obedience from the metropolis of tliose Dioceses, and also tlie right to adjiidi('at(! appeals in (iiuses ecclesiastical from the wholi- Eastern Church. The iiisliopof .Teriisalem also obtained in this council ]>atriarclial authority over Pales- tine. The organization of the Church was thus conformed to that of the empire, the patriarchs corresponding U> the I'netoriiin Prefects, the e.xarchs, tothe governors of tlie Dioceses, and the luetroixililans to the governors of the provinces — the Bishop of I{onie being given by an edict of Valenliniaii 111., of the year 44.'), supreme appellate jurisdiction in the West, and the Bishop of (.'oiistantinoplc, liy tliese canons of Chalcedon, supreme appellati; jurisdiction in the East. . . . Dean Milinan remarks that the Episcopati^ of St. John Chrysostom was the last altem|)t of a bishop of Constantinoph' to lie inde- jicndent of tlie political power, and that his fato involved the freedom of the Churdiof thatcity." — J. II. Egar, Chriiiteiuhim : Krclcniniiticnl and l'olitic4il, from ('nimtniitiiie to the Kefonmttion, pp. 2.5-27.'— "The name of patriarch, probably borrowed from .riidaisni, was from this jii^iod the appellation of the highest dignitari(.>s of the church, and by it were more immediately, Imt not e.xclusivelv, designated the bishops of Con- stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. One patriarch accordingly presided over several provinces, and was distinguished from the metro- politan in this, that the latter was subordinate to him, and had only the superintendence of one • |)rovince or a small district. However the desig- nation apidied only to the highest rulers of the church in tlie east, and not to those in the west, for here the title of i)atriarch was iiot unfre- queutly given, even in later tiniits, to the metror politan. The first mention of this title occurs in the Bccoud letter of the Uoman bishop, Anncle- tus at the beginning of the second century, and it is ne.xt spoken of by Socrates; and after the Council of Chalcedon, m 451, it came into general use. The bishop of Constantinoiile bore the special title of a'cumenical bishop or patriarch ; there were also other titles in tise among the Nes- torians and Jacobites. The Primates and Metro- politans or Archbishops arose contemporane- ously. The title of Eparch is also said to have been given to jirimates about tlie middle of the liftli century. The metropolitan of Epliesus sub- scribed himself thus in the year 680, therefore in the succeeding period. There was no particular title of long continuance for the Hoiuaii bishop until the sixth century ; but from the year 536 he was usually called Papa, and from the time of Gregory the Great he styled hiiiLself Scrvus Servorum Dei." — J. E. T. Wiltsch, Ilnndbook of t/ie Geography and Statistical of the Church, pp. 70, 71 amlli. — " Christianity may now be said to have ascended the imperial tliroue: with the single exception of Julian, from this period the mouarchs of the Itomau empire professed 452 0IIIII8TIANITY. flury'lrlna I'uuanum, CnniSTIANITY. tho religion of tlip OoHpol. This Importiiiit ciiHis In tilt! lilHtory of ('liristiniiily iilinoNt furrlbly am'MtN the iittcMtioii to coiitcmplute tlu* cliiuiKt' wrouKilt III (.'liriHtiiiiilty )iy IIm iiilviiiicciucnt Into II (loiiilniiiit power In the Ntatc; iinil tlif('lmiiK<' in th(! I'oiitlitioii of iiiiinkiiul up to this pcrliHl, ttttillmtiiblf to the dlri'ct iiiitliority or liidiicct inlliit'iice of llic iii'W rclijjion. Hv criisin- to vxl.Ht iiM itwpiu'iitiM'oiiiiiitiiilty, iiiiil iiy iiilviiiicini; iti) pri'triitloiiM to liiMiiciK'i' the f^i'iicriil jjovcrii- meiit of iiiiiiikliKl, ( 'liristlitiilty to u ci'rtiiiii extent, forfeited Its liiilepeiideiiee. It eoiild not lint suliiiilt to these Ittws, friinied, its It iiilf;ht m'ein, with Its own concurn'nt voice. It was no lonj^er II republic, ftovernt'd exclusively — iis fur, iit least, as Its rellgoiis concerns — bylts own Inter- nal polity. The Interference of the civil power in 801110 of its most private alTuIrs, the proniiilKa- tiou (<. Its i;anons, and even, In sonic cases, the eluction o'' Its bishops by the state, was the price ■,■ '''h :t must Inevitably pay for its iissoeialioii with the rulinj? power. . . . During; the reij;n of Constantlne Christianity had made a rapiil advance, no doubt. In the number of its prose- lyti's as well as in Its exU'rnal position. It was not yet the establLshed reliKlon of tli^ empire. It did not as yet stand forward as the new religion adapted to the new onler of things, as a part of the great simultaneous change which gave to the Roman world a new capital, a new system of government, and. In some Important Instances, anew jurisprudence. . . . The religion of the emperor would soon become that of the court, and, by somewhat slower degrees, that of the empire. At present, however, as we have seen, little open agression took place upon pagan- Ism. The few temples which were closed were insulated cases, and condemned as offensive to public morality. In general the temples stood in all their former majesty, for as yet the ordinary process of decay from neglect or suplneness could have produced little effect. The differ- ence was, that the Christian churches began to assume a more stately and imposing form. In the new capital they surpassed in grandeur, and probably in decoration, the pagan temples, which belonged to old Byzantium. The im- munities granted to the Christian clergy only placed them on the same level with the pagan priesthood. The pontifical olBces were still held by the distinguished men of the state: the emperor himself was long the chief pontiff ; but the religio\is offlce had become a kincl of append- ago to tho temi>oral dignity. Tlie Christian pre- lates were constantly iwlmitted, in virtue of their office, to the imperial presence." — 11. II. Milman, Hist, of GhristiaiUty, bk. 3, ch. 4. — "As early as Constantino's time tho punisliment of crucifixiou was aliolished ; immoral practices, like infanti- cide, and the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, were discouraged, the latter of these being for- bidden in Constantinople; and in order to improve the relation of the sexes, severe laws were passed against adultery, and restrictions were placed on the facility of divorce. Further, the bishops were empowered, in the name of religion, to intercede with governors, and even with tho emperor, in behalf of the unfortunate and opprcssetl. And gradually they obtained the right of exercising a sort of moral superin- tendence over tho discharge of their offlcial duties by the judges, and others, who belonged to their commumties. The supervision of the prisons, in purtii'iilar, was enlriisted to them; and, whereas in the llrst inslani'e llieir power of Interferniee wjis liiiilled to exhortations addressed to the Judges who su|N'riiiten(le<l them, in .liis- tiiiian's ri'lgn the bisliops were conimiMsioiied by law to visit the prisons on two ilii\'S of eacli week 111 order to liKiiilrc Into, iiiiil. If necessiirv, report upon, Ihc- trealini'iit of ill" prisoners. In all these and ni'iiiy other ways, the inlliience of the Hlate in (•onlrnlliiin and iiiipn)vliig society was ailvaneed by its aTllance with tlie Chut , — 11. F. To/er, 'till! dhitirli iinil tl • Kimtifii h'in- jiiiv, pp. M-^T. — "The Cliristiuns were nIIU a separate people. . . . It can scureely be doubled that the stricter moral tone of ('onstaiitlne's leg- islatifm more or less remotely emanated from Cliristianity. . . . During the reign of Constaii- tiiie Christianity coiitiiiued to advance beyond the lH)rtlersof the Uoniaii empire, and In some degree to indemnify herself for the losses wliieli she sustained In the kingdom of Persia. Tlio Kthlopians appear to have attained some degreo of eivilizatlon; a considerable part of the Aral>iaii commerce was kept up with l\u' oilier side of tho Hed Hea through the port of ..dulls; and (Ireek letters appear, from Inscriptions recently ilis- covered, to have made considerabli' progres,s among this barbarous people.- . . . Tlie theo- logical opinions of Christianity naturally inado more rapid progress than its moral Intluence. The former had only to overpower tho resistance of a religion which had already lost its hold upon tho mind, or a philosophy t<K) speculative for ordinary understandings and too unsatisfactory for the more curious and imiuiring; It had only to enter, us It were, into a vacant place in tho mind of man. But the moral intliienco had to contest, not only with tho natural dispositions of man, but with the barbarism and depraved manners of ages. While, then, the religion of tlie world underwent a total change, the Church rose <m the ruins of the temple, and the pontifi- cal establishment of paganism became gradu- ally extinct or suffered violent suppression; the moriil revolution was far more slow and far less complete. . . . Everywhorr lliero was exagger- ation of one of the constituent elements of Christianity; that exaggeration which is tho inovitable consequence of a strong impulsi! upon the human mind. Wherever men feel strongly, they act violently. The more speculative (Chris- tians, therefore, who were more inclined, in tho deep and somewhat seltish solicitude for tlieir own salvation, to isolate themselves from tho infected class of mankind, pressed into the ex- treme of asceticism; the more practical, who were in earnest in the desire of dis.s<uniuating tho blessings of religion throughout society, scrupled little to press into tlieir service whatever might advance their cause. With both extremes tho dogmatical part of the religion predominated. . . . In pro) rtion to the admitted importance of tho creed, r.icn became more sternly and exclu- sively wedded to their opinions. . . . Wlillo they swept in converts indiscriminately from the palace and the public street, while tlie emperor and the lowest of the populace were alike admitted on little more than the open profession of allegiance, they were satisfied if their alle- giance in this respect was blind and complete. Hence a far larger admixture of human passions, and the common vulgar incentives of action, were infused into the expanding Christian body. 453 t'lmiHTIANirY. Chunk. CHItlSTIANlTV. Men iH-mmP C'hriHtlunii, ortlioilox ClirlHllittiM, Mitli llltli- Hiuritlo' of tliiit. wlilcli CliriHlliiiiilv iiliiii'il rliii'tlv III ixtirpiitr. Vil, iiflcr iill, lliis lMi|«Tfr(t vfrw of CliriHliitrilty Imil |iri)liiil)ly Hoint' I'tTcrt ill ciinci'iitntiiiiK tlii' CliriNtliiii coin- tntiiiitv, itiiil liolililiK it toifi'lliiT hv II lirw ami iiiiirc fmllHMiliililc lioiiil. 'I'lii' wiir''l illviiliil iiiln two partlcH. . . . All, liiiwcvcr, wit<( ciirolUMl uiiilrr oiii' or tli(> iitlicr Niaii.lanl. inti tlio party wliirli triiiiiiiilicil I'vrntii iMv would riilr tlio wIkiIi' CliriMlian worlil."— if. II. Milniaii, ///«/. of (HiriHliiiiiitii. Ilk. ;), c,'. 4-."i. — "Of tlii.s ditrr iiirutiiiii of iiiomlM we ii.'Vi aliiiiiilaiit tiviiliiiii'. Krail till' Caiioimof tlii> viirin'mCouiicilMaiiil yoil will Irani that llir Cliiirrl: iiiiiiil it iifccHxary to ]iroliil)il till! (■iiiiiiniH.sioii of till' iiioHt liciiioiiH ami aliomliialilr I'riinrH i. >t only liy the laity, but ••veil by the cli'rjty. !><'ail tlio lioiiiilii's of hiicIi pri'iiclicrs iiH (HiryHo.'Stom llaKil, ami (licf^orv', ami you may infer wliat tlii' inoriil toiii- of a CliriHtlaii ('oiiKri'xatloii iiiUMt liavr Ihtii to wliicli NiK'li rcpriKifs coiilil be aiiil'cs.'U'il. Ucail, alnivc all, till' tri'iitisc (III Proviiicnci', or Di' (lubrriia- lloiic Dei, written at tlie close of our period by Salvian, a presbyter of .Marsellle.s. The bar- barians had over-spread the West, and C'liris- tlans hiid siitTereil ho iiiaiiy liiirdHliips that they be);au to doubt wlictliir there was any Divine governinent of buiiian affairs. Salvian retorted that the fait of llieir sulTeriiij; was tlie best evi- clenee of llie (loetriin' o!' I'lovideliee, for the miseries they endured were tlio effects of the Divine displeasun^ provoked by the debauchery «)f the Church. And then he proceeds to draw up an imiictiuenl and to lend priKif wliicli I prefi'r not to >?ive in detail. After making every iilliiwance for rhetorical exajjKeration, enough remains to sliow that the niorah'y af the Church had i^rievoiisly deeliiied, and that tlie declensiuu was duo to the inroads of J'agan vice. . . . Under this head, had space permitted, some nccoiinl would liavo been jtiveii of the Krowth of the Cliristian literature of tliis iktIixI, of the great writers uml preachers, and of tlie opposinj^ scIkmiIh of interpretation which divided Cliristeu- dom. Ill the Eastern Church we should have had to notice [at greater length the work of| Eusebius of Cii'.sarea, tlie father of Church History and the friend of Constiuitine ; Ephreiu the Syrian, the poet -preacher; the three Cappii- docians, IJasil of Ciesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, ond Gregory of Nii/.iiinzus, each great in his own way, the first as a preacher and adm'uis- trator, the second as a thinker, the third, us a poet and panegyrist; (;iiry.so,stom, theorotorand cxegete ; Theixlore of >Iopsuestia and Theodoret of Kyros, along with Chrysostom the most in- fluential representatives of the School of Antioch. In the Western Church we should have liiul to speak of Ambrose, the eloquent prenclicr and voluminous writer; of Jerome, tne biblical critic; and of Augustine, the philosopher nnil controversialist, whose thoughts live among us even at the present day."— W. Stewart, The Churc/i of the Ath ami ath Centuries (St. Qileii' Lecturefi, 4th xerieii). — See RoMK: A. D. 323, to 8111-305. — "Hitherto Christian asceticism had been individualistic in its character. ... In the third century hermits began to form a class by themselves in the East and in Africa; in the fourth they liegan to be organized into communi- ties. After the institution of monastic societies, this development of Christian asceticism spread far agil wide from the dPHort* of thcThobnld anil 'Aiwer Kgypt; liasil, .leroine, AthanaHliis. Aii- gilNline, Aliibnise, were foieinost among its earliest advoeateM and pn>paK'>'<"°'<; CasHian, Coiumbaiius, lii'iiediet, and otiiers, crowned the labourH of their predei'essorH by a nioie elalKirato orgiinl/.iilion." — I. Gri'gory Smith, Chnntian Mimiintirimii, pp. 'i'A-m. A. D. 318-335.— The Arian Controversy and the Councir of Nicca. See Auiamsm, and Nir.KA. TlIK FinsT ColMII. OK. A. D. 330-105^.— The £aatern (Greek, or Orthodox) Church.— " 'The KasU'rn Church,' says a well-known writer, 'was iikir the Kast, Htiitlonary and lininiitable; the Western, like the West, progressive and llexible. This distinction is the more remarkable, iM'cause at certain iM^riixIs of their course, then^ can be no doubt that the civili/.ation of the Kastt ni Churili wa;f far higher than that of the Western.'"— G. !•'. Maeh'iir, The Slum, p. 'J.'i. — It is the more reniarkabh' lie- cause this lung continuing iiiilforniity, while peculiarly adapted to a people and a chiufh wlileh slioiild retjiin and tninsnitt an ir'heritiince of faith and culture, stands in singiil'ir "ciiti'Uit to the reputed character of the Greeli-speaking peoples of the East. The word Grei k, however, lias, as an iidjeeiive, niaiiy meanings, ami there is danger of wrong infeienee through inattentiim to these; some of its ilistinctive cliaracters are therefore indicated in brackets in various places in the following matter. "The New lioine at the time of its foundation was Hoinan. . . . IJiit from tliiMlrNt it was destined to iR'come Greek; for tlie Grii'ks, who now iK'gan to call theiiLSi'lves Uoinans — an ap|M'llatioii which they have ever since retained — held fast to their language, inanners, and prejudices, wliile they availed them.selves to the full of their rights as Homau citizens. The turning-point in this re- siH'ct was the separation of the einpircH of the East and the West in tlie time of Arcadlim and llonoriua; and in Justinian's time we tind all the higliest olllccH in the hands of the Greeks, and (ireek was the pri^vailing language. But the people whom we call by this naiiv were not the 1 lelleiies of Greece proper, but tlie Macetlonian Greeks. This distinction arose with the estnb- lisliment of Greek colonies with municipal gov- ernment thioughout Asia by Alexander the Great and his liuccessors. The tyiie of character which was developed in them and among those who were Ilelleniiiwl by their intlucnce, (liffenKl in many respt^cts from that of the old Greeks. The res»'inblancc between them wius iniU^'il main- tained by similarity of education and social feelings, by the posp-'ssion of a common lan- guage and literature, iiiu! by their exclusive- ness, which caused them t<) look down on less favoured races; but while the inhabitants of Greece retained more of tlie iudeix'ndcnt spirit and of the moral character and patriotism of their fort-fathers, the Macedoniati Greeks were more cosmopolitan, more subservie.'it, and more ready to take the impri'ss of those among whom they were tlirown: and the astuteness iind versa- tility which at all times luul formed one element in the Hellenic character, in tltcm became the leading characteristic. 'The influence 01 this type is traceable in the ixJicy of the Eastern Empire, varying in intensity in different ages in proportion to the power exercised by the Greeks: until, during the later period of the history — in 454 CHIIWTIANITY TTie ChHtHimitrit Urrrka, ClIltlSTIANITY. tli« timi! nf the (?omni>ir,, iinil Rtlll mnni In Hint of the I'iilii'ol(i({l — It Utii • priMliitiiiniinl fi'iitiin'." — II. F. To/.cr, The C/iiirr/i ami llw h'liiittrii Kin/iiiv, }i)). 1)-10. — " Wliiii !iav<! Imtii tlicclIi'cN of CliriHrlaiilty on wimt wr citll imlioiiiil rlmritc'- tcr iti KiiHlcni ('lirlHtc'iiili)iiiV . . . 'I'lic OrrckH of tho l,owiT ICiil|>lrt' arc liikcii iis the lyi)i('al cxitiiipic of tlicHc rac'i'H, anil tlic OrcckM of tlii^ LowiT Kni|)iri' have Iutoiiil' a l)y\V(iril fiirt'vcry- tiling; IliJit H falHt' atJil bani'. TIk^ Itvaiitlni' waH profoiiiiiliv tlii'ol(i)(|ral, wi' arc tolil, anil pro- foiiMilly vlli'. . , . 'I'lioHi! will) wIhIi to III' Just to [It I . . . will pass ... to thii . , . I'liiiitalili) mill coiisrii'Mllous, lint hy no niraiis, Inilnlgrnt, JiiilKnii'nts of Mr. Finlay, Mr. Krrcinan, ami IK'an Staiilry. Oni^ fact aloni- Is Hiilllrii'nt to onKiiKt' '"ir ilrrp Inlcri'st In I Ills raro. It was Ori'i'KS llli'llrnist ,lfWH| anil projilr liiilinril wllli On'ik lilnis who llrst wi-lcoinril ('lirlstlaiilty. It was in llirlr JaiiKUaKi' that it first spoki; to t'.i- woriil, anil its tirst lioiiif was in Oii'rk hoiiHi>- lioiils anil In Ori'i'k citii's. It was In Uri'i'k [Ili'lii-nistii'l atmosiilii'ri! tliat tlin Divinu Stran- iiT friini till- Kii.Hl, in niaiiy ri'spccts ho wlilrly uKIerent from all that Qri^^ks were aornHtoini-il to, first >{n!W up to strength anil shapi'; tirst hIiiiwciI lt.s power of assimiiutlng anil rccoiiriiing ; llrst hIiowviI what It was to lie In human sorirty. Its I'ariii'st nursiings were Greeks; Greeks [Hel- lenist Jews] II r.st took in tile meaning; anil mea- sure of Itsamii/ing and eventful aniiouneements; Greek sympathies llrst awoke anil vllinited to its appeals: Greek olieiiienee, Greek courajfe, Greek guiieriug llrst lllu.strateil its new les.sons. Hail it not llrst,;aiiie(l ov.tr Greek iiiiiul anil Greek lielief. It Is liai'd to see how It would have made its fur- ll'erway. . . . The Roman comiuest of the world fou:id the Gri'ek raee, and the Kastern nations whicli It had Intluuueed, in a low and deeliii- ing stai't — morally, H'>cially, politleally. Tlie lioinau Gn:|iire, when It Tell, left them In the same diseourii'ln).^ eonditlon, and sulTerlng besides from tile degr.Mliilioij and inl'ichlef wrought on all Its subjects by its clironlc anil relentless flscal oppression. . . . These were the men in whose cliildish eonccit, childish frivolitv, childish self- assertion, St. Paul saw such (laugers to the growth of C'hristian manliness and to the unity of the Clirlstiau biMly — the Idly curious and gos- siping men of Athens; the va'n and shamelessly ostentatious Corinthians, men in mtellect, but In inonil seriousness liabus; the £|iheslans, 'like children carried away with every Must of vain teachinif,' tlie victims of every impostor, and sport of every deceit; the Cretans, pro.'erbially, 'ever liars, evil beasts, slow bellies;' the pas- sionate, volatile, Greek-speaking, Celts of Asia, the ' foolish ' Galatians. . . . The Greek ot the Roman times is portrayed in the special wan- ings ot the Apostolic Epistles. After Apostoliu times he is portrayed in the same way by the heathen satirist Lucian, and by the Christian preacher Chrysostom ; and such, with all liis bad tendencies, aggmvated by almost uninterrupted misrule and oppression, the Empire, when it broke up, left him. The prospects of such a people, amid the coming storms, were dark. Everything, their gifts and versatility, as well as their faults, threatened national decay and disintegration. . . . These races whom the Em- pire of the Coesars left like scattered sheep to the mercy of the barbarians, lived through a succession of the most appalling storms, and kept Ihi'mM'lveN together, holding fiiHl, rcMiliitn ami unwavering, amid all their iiilwrirH and all tlii'ir ili'liaM'inent, to the failh of their nallimal briillierliood, . . . This, it seeiiiM lo ine, Clirit liiuiity dill for a raie wlileli had npparenlly lived its time, and had no future before It — Ilie'Greek rare in tile days of the Cie.sars. It created In lliein, in a new and ehaniileristie degree, national enduraiiie, iiatinnal felluwhlilp and HVinpathy, natlniial Impe. . . , It gave thein an I'.inpire of tlieirnwn, wliltli, undervalueil n* It is by lliiise fiiinillar with the ultimate ri'siills of U'esterii liisliiry, yet witlisliMKi the assaults be- fore whli'li, fur the niiinient, Western elvillHa- tlon sank, and whiili had the strength to last a life— II stirring and eventful life — of ten cen- turies. The Greek Kinpire, with all s evils and weaknes,seH, was yet in its time tlie only existing image in the world of a civilised Htate. . . . The lives of great men priifouniily aiiii per- miinently inlliienee national eharaeter; and the great men of later (Jnek memory are siiints. Tliey belong to the people more than emperors and warriors; for tlie Clinreh Is of tlie penple, . . , The mark which siieh men left on Greek society and Greek cliaracter has not been elTaced to this day, even by the nielanelioly examples of many degenerate succes.s'>r,.. . . . Why, if Christianity alTected Greek chariu'ler .so pro- foundly, did it not do more? Why, if it cured It of much of its instaliillly and trilling, did it not also cure It of its falselioiil and dissimula- tion? Why, If It Impressed the Greek mind so deeply with the n'ality of tlie objects of faltli, did it not also check the vain lni|iiisltiveness and spirit of disjiulaiiousness and sophistry, wMcU lllleil Greek Cliurcli history Avitli furious wran'j lings about the most lioiieless problems? Why, if It could raise such r.diniration for imselllsli- ness and heroic nobleness, haa not this admiratton borne more cong'^ninl fruit? Why, if heaven was felt to be so great and so near, was there in real life such coarse and mean worldlincss? Why, Indeed? . . . Profoundly, permanently, as Christianity affected Greek character, tliero was much in that character whiili Christianity failed to reach, much that it failed to cnrrect, much that was obstinately refractory to iiillu- ences which, elsewhere, were so fruitful of good- ness and greatness. The East, as well as the West, hi' . . ''11 much to lea.ii from that religion, which acii too e.xolusively claims to umler- s» ' to ap reciate, and to defend." — R. V. oliiirch, The'Hfts of Cimlimtion, pp. 1HH-'J1«. — "The types oi character that were developed in the Eastern Church, as might be expected, were not of the very highest. There was among them no 8t. Francis, no St. Louis. The uni- formity which pervades everything Byzantinu prevented the development of such salient characters as are found in the West. It is dllH- cult, no doubt, to form a true estimate of tlio li.lluence of religion on men's lives in Eastern coi:utries, just as it is of tlieir domestic relations, and 'tveu of the condition of the lower classes, becaui e such matters are steadily ignored by tlio contemiMirary historians. But all the evidence tends to bhow that individual rather than heroic piety was fostered by the system which pre- vailed there. That at certain iieriods a high tone of spiriMiallty prevailed among certain classes is suffltiently proved by the beautiful hymns of the Eusteru Church, many of which, 455 CHRISTIANITY. JCcclPnifiMtical Jiome. CHRISTIANITY. thanks to Dr. Noale's singular felicity in trans- lation, are in use ainonj; ourselves. Hut the loftier development of their spirit took the form of asceticism, and the scene of tliis wius rather the scciiuled monastery, or the pillar of tlie Btyiite, tlian human society at large. But if the Eastern C'iiur('h did not rise as high as her sister of the West, slie never sjink as low." — II. F. Tozer, The Okurch and the Eastern Empire, pp. 45-40.— "The Greek Cliurch, or, as it calls itself, the Holy Orthodox, Catholic, Apostolic, Oriental Clnireh. has a venerahle if not an event- ful history. Unlike the Church of the West, it has not been moidded by great political move- ments, the rise and fall of kingdoms, and tlie convidsions which have passed over the face of mcKlern society. Its course has been out of the siglit of European civilisation, it has grown up among peoples who have been hut slightly ttlfccted, if tliey have been aflected at all, by the progressive movements of mankind. It has no middle ages. It has no renaissance. It has no Ileformation. It has given birth to no great universities and schools of leaminj' It has no Protestantism. It remains very .luch as tlie fourth and fifth centuries left it. . . . When tlie royal throne in the days of tlie first Christian Emperor was removed from Rome to Constanti- nople, there arose at once a cause of strife between the bisliops of old and new Rome, as Byzantium or Constantinople was named. Eacli claimed pre-eminence, and each alternately re- ceived it from the governing powers in Churcli and State. One Council decreed (A. D. 381) that the Bishop of the new Rome should be inferior only to that of the old ; another declared (A. D. 451) the equality of both prelates. The Patri- arch of Constantinople at the close of the aixtli century claimed suiieriority over all Christian Churches, — a claim which might have developed, had circumstances favoured it, into an Eastern Papacy. The assumption was, however, but short-lived, and the Bishop of Ron- Boniface, obtained lii^m the Emperor Phoci. in 606 the much-coveted position. The Eastern Church submitted, but from this time looked with a jeal- ous eye on her Western sister. She noted and magnified every point of divergence between them. Differences or apparent differences in doctrine and ritual were denounced as heresies. Excommunications fulminated between the East- em and Western city, and ecclesiastical bitter- ness was intensified by political intrigue. . . . In the ninth, century the contest grew very fierce. The holder of the Eastern see, Photius, formulated and denounced the terrible doctrinal and other defections of the Western prelate and his followers. The list is very formidable. They, tlie followers of Rome, deemed it proper to fast on the seventh day of the week — that is on the Jewish Sabbath; in the first week of Lent they permitted the use of milk and cheese ; they disapproved wholly of the marriage of priests; they thought none but bishops could anoint with the holy oil or confirm the bap- tized, and that they therefore anointed a second time those wlio had been anointed by presby- ters; and fifthly, they had adulterated the Con- stantinopolitan Crectl by adding to it tlie words Filioque, thus teaching that the Holy Spirit did not proceed only from the Father, but also from the Son. This last was deemed, and has always been deemed by the Greek Church the great heresy of the Romaa Church. . . . The Greek Church to-day in all its branches — in Turkey, Greece, in(' Russia — professes 'o hold firmly by the formulas and decisions of e seven (Ecu- menical or General Councils, regarding with special honour that of Nice. The Niceiie and Athanasiau Creeds are the symbols of its faith, the Filioqae clause being omitted from the former, and the eighth article reading thus: ' And in the Holy Oliost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, and with the { Father and Son togetlier is worshipped and glorified.' . . . The Greek Church, unlike the Latin, denounces the use of images as objects of devotion, and holds in abhorrence every form of what it terms 'image worsliip.' Its position in this munner is very curious. It is true, no figures of our Lord, of the Virgin, or saints, such as one s<;es in cliurches, wayside chapels, and in the open fields in countries where the Roman Church is powerful, arc to be seen in Russia, Greece «r ai.y of those lands where the Eastern Church is supreme. On the other hand, pictures of the plainest kind everywhere take their place, and are regarded with the deepest veneration. " — J. C. Lees, T/te Greek Church (in the Churcfies of Christendom), lect. 4. — See, also, Filioque CONTUOVKKSY. A. D. 337-476.— The fall of Imperial Rome. — The rise of Ecclesiastical Rome. — The poli- tical and religious history of the Empire from the death of Constantine is so fully narrated under Rome that mere mention here of a few events will suffice, viz. : the revival of Paganism under the Emperor Julian; the reascendency of Christianity ; the formal establishment of Chris- tianity as the religion of the Romans, by the suf- frages of the senate ; the final division of the Em- pire into East and West between the sons of Theodosius ; the three sieges and the sacking of Rome by Alaric; the legal sepamtion of the Eastern and Western Empires; the pillage of Rome by the Vandals and its final submissicm to the barbarians. See Rome: A. D. 337-361, to 445-476. For an account of tlie early bishops of Rome, see Papacy. "A heathen historian traces the origin of the calairities which he re- cords to the abolition of sacrifice by Theodosius, and the sack of Rome to the laws against the an- cient faith passed by his son. This objection of the heathens that the overthrow of idolatry and the ascendency of Christianity were the cause of the misfortunes of the empire was so wide spread, and had such force with those, both Pagans and Christians, who conceived history to be the out- come of magical or demonic powers, that Augus- tine devoted twelve years of his life to its refuta- tion. His treotise, ' De Civitate Dei,' was begun in 413, and was not finished till 426, within four years of his death. Rome had once been taken ; society, consumed by inward corruption, was shaken to its foundations by the violent onset of the Teutonic tribes; men's hearts were failing them for fear; the voice of calumny cried aloud, and laid these woes to the charge of the Chris- tian faith. A. gustine undertook to refute the calumny, and to restore the courage of his fel- low-Christians. Taking a rapid survey of his- tory, he asks what the gods had ever done for tlie well-being of the state or for public morality. He maintains that the greatness of Rome in the past was due to the virtues of her sons, and not to the protection of the gods. He shows that. 46^ CimiSTIANITY. Weniern Empire anti Church. CHRISTIANITY. long before the rise of Cliriatiiinity, her ruin Iiml be;j;un with the introduction of foreign viees lifter the destruction of Curtlmge, nnd declares that much in the ancient worship, instead of pre- venting, had haiitened that niin. Ho rises above the troubles of the present, and amid the vanish- ing glories of the city of men he proclaims tlie Stability of the city of God. At a time when the downfall of Home was thought to presage ai)proacliing doom, Augustine regarded the dis- asters around liim as the birth-throes of a new world, as a necessary moment in the onward movement of (,'liristianity." — W. Stewart, The Church of the Ath and Tith Centuries (St. Giles' Lectures, Ath series). — " There is as little groimd foi discovering a miraculous, as there is for dis- owning a providential clement iu tlie course of events. Tlic institutions of Roman authority and law had been planted regularly over all the territory which the conquermg hordes coveted and seized; alongside of every magistrate was now placed a nunister of Christ, and by every Hall of Justice stood a Hou.se of Pniyer. The Representative of Cicsar lost all his power and dignity when the armies of Cicsar were scattered in flight; the minister of Clirist felt that beliim' him was an invisible force \ 't': which the hosts of the alien could not cope, und his behaviour im- pressed the barbarian with the conviction that there was reality here. That beneficent mission of Leo, A. D. 452, of which Oibbon says : ' The pressing eloquence of Leo, his majestic aspect and sacerdotal robes, excited the veneration of Attila for the spiritual father of the Christians ' — would be but an inst^ince of what many name- less priests from provincial towns did, ' not count- ing their lives dear to them.' The organisation of the Latin state vitalised by a new spiritual force vanquished the victors. It was the method and the discipline of this organisation, not the subtlety of its doctrine, nor the fervour of its ofllcials, that beat in detail one chief with his motley following after another. Hence too it came about that the Christianity which was adopted as the religion of Europe was not modi- fled to suit the tastes of the various tribes that embraced it, but was delivered to each as from a common fountain-head. ... It was a social triumph, proceeding from religious motives which we may regard with unstinted admiration and gratitude."— J. Watt, The iMtin Church {St. Oiles' Lectures, Ath series. — "The temporal fall of the Imperial inctrr^^olis tended to throw a brighter light upon her ecclesiastical claims. The separation of the East and the West had already enhanced the religious dignity of the ancient capital. The great Eastern patriarcliates of An- tioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem had up to that time all held themselves equal, if not superior to Rome, Constantinople had even assuuieil certain airs of supremacy over nil. The General Coun- cils which had defined the Faith at Nicrea and Constantinople had been composed almost wholly of Orientals. The great Doctors of the Church, the men who had defended or diffused the com- mon Faith, had been mostly Greeks by origin and language. None had been Ronuuis, and it was rarely, till the fourth century, that any of them had written in the Latin tongue. When Atlianasius, exiled from Alexandria, came to Italy and Gaul, it was three years before he could learn enough of the language of the West to address its congregations in public. But this '' 457 curious fact .shows that the Western Christians were now no longer the little Greek colony of the first and second centuries. Christianity had be- come the national religion of the native races. The liomans might now feel that they were be- coming again a people; that their glorious career was assuming, as it were, a new point of depart- ure. . . . For at tliis moment the pojiuliir in- stinct could not fail to perceive how strongly the conscience of the barbarians ha<l been affected by the spiritual majesty of Christian Home. The Northern hordes liad beaten down all armed re- sistance. They had made a deep impression upon the strength of the Eastern Empire; they had, for a moment at least, actually overconu; the Western; they had overrun many of the fairest provinces, and had effected a permanent lodge- ment in Gaul and Spain, and still more recently in Africa. Yet in all these countries, rude as they still were, they had sul)mitted to accept the creed of the Gospel. There was no such thing as a barbarian Paganism established within the limits of the Empire anywIuTe, except perhaps in furthest Britain." — C. Merivale, Four lectures on some Kixichs of Eu rly Ch u rch History, pp. 1 HO- 136. — " When the surging tides of barbarian in- vasion swept over Europe, tlio Christian organi- zation was almost the only institution of the past which survived the flood. It remained as a visi- ble monument of what had been, and, by so re- maining, was of itself an antithesis to the present. The chief town of the Roman province, whatever its status under barbarian rule, was still the bishop's see. The limits of the old 'province,' though the boundary of a new kingdom might bisect them, were still the limits of his diocese. The bishop's tribunal was the only tribunal in which the laws of the Empire could be pleaded in their integrity. The bishop's dress was the ancient robe of "a Roman magistrate. Tlie an- cient Roman language which was used in the Church services was a standing protest against the growing degeneracy of the ' vulgar tongue.' ... As the forces of the Empire became less and less, the forcesof the Church became more and more. The Churches preserved that which had been from the first the secret of Imperial strength. For underneath the Empire which changed and passed, beneath the shifting pageantry of Em- perors who moved across the stage and were seen no more, was the abiding empire of law and administration, — which changed only as the deep sea changes beneath the windswept waves. That inner empire was continued in the Christian Churches. In the years of transition from the ancient to the modern world, when all civilized society seemed to be disintegrated, the confederation of the Christian Churches, by the very fact of its existence upon the old imperial lines, was not only the most powerful, but ilie only powerful organization in the civilized world. It was so vast, and so powerful, that it seemed to be, and there werg few to question its being, the visible realization of that Kingdom of God which our Lord Himself had preached." — E. Hatch, The Urr/nni^ittion of the Christian Churches, pp. 100-178. A. D. 347-412.— The Syrian Churches. — "St. Chry.sostom was born there A. 1). !MT; and it was in his time that Antioeli, with its hundred thousand Christians, became the leading Church in Asia, especially in the Arian contn-ersy [see Auianism], for Arianibm was very prevalent CmUSTIANITY. Cnnvemion of the frank*. CIIIIISTIANITY. then'. But all tliis lies outsido our period. The s(i (iillcil ' School of Antioch ' 1ms itH origin just before . . . our i)eri(Hl [8U, WiltschJ. Doro- theus, . . . luid the iimrtyr Luciaii may be re- garded as its founders. In contrast to the allegor- ising inysliciMn of the School of Alexandria, it was tlistinguislicd liy a more sober and erill< ill in- terpretation (if Scripture. It looked to grammar and history for its principles of e.xegesis. IJut we must not suppose that there was at Antioeh an educational eslablishnient like the Catechetical School at Alexandria, which, bv a succession of great teachers, kept up a traditional mode of exegesis and instruction. It was rather an in- tellectual tendency which, begirniing with LiU'ian and Dorotheus, developed in a definite direction in Anlioch and other Syrian Churches. . . . Thes(' notices of the Churches of Jerusalem, Ca'siirea in I'idestino, and Antioeh must sufflee as representative of the Syrian Cluirches. The number of these Churches was considerable even in the second century, and by the beginning of the fourth was very large indeed, as is .seen by the inind)er of bishops who attend local Coun- cils." — A. Plummer, T/ie Church <if the Early Fathen, ch. 3. — " It has ofteu astonished me that no one has ever tr;inslated the letters of St. Jerome. The letters of St. Atigtistine have been translated, and are in many parts very enter- taining reading, but they are nothing in point of living interest when compared with St. Jerome'.s. These letters illustrate life about the year 400 as nothing else can. They show us, for instance, what education then w;as, what clerical life con- sisted in; they tell us of modes and fashions, and they teach us how vigorous and constant was the commtmication at tliat same period between the most distant parts of the Uoman empire. We are apt to think of the fifth century as a time when there was very little travel, and when most certainly the East and West — Ireland, England, Gaid and Palestine — were much more widely and conijiletely separated than now, when steam has practically annihilated time and space. And yet such an idea is very mistaken. There was a most lively intercourse existing between these regions, a constant Church correspondence kept up between them, and the most intense and vivid interest maintained by the Gallic and Syrian churches in the minutest details of their re- spective liistories. Mark now liow this happened. St. Jerome at IJethlehem was the centre of this intercourse. His position in the Christian world in tlie beginning of the fifth century can only he compared to, but was not ut all equalled by, that of John Calvin at the time of the Reformation. Men from the most distant parts consulted him. Bishops of highest renown for sanctity and learning, like St. Augustine, and Exuperius of Toulouse in southern France, deferred to his authority. The keen interest he took in the churches of Gaul, and the intimate knowledge he possessed of tlie most petty local details and religious gossip therein, can only t)e understood by one wlio has studied his very abusive treatise against Vigilantius or his correspondence with Exuperius. . . . Hut how, it may he asked, was this correspondence carried on when there was no postal system ? Here it was that tlu eanization of nionasticisin supplied a ■ ; Jerome's letters tell us the very name of his postman. He was a monk nanied Sy.jinniu.-i. He was perpetually on the roud between Mar- seilles and Ilethlehem. Again and again does Jerome mention his coming and his going. His a|)peanince must indeed have been tlie great ex- citement of life at Bethlehem. Tnwelling probably via Sanlinia, Hemic, Greece, and the islands of the Adriatic, he gathered up all kin<is of clerical news on the way— i piece of conduct on his part which .seems to liave had its usual residt.s. Ai a tale-bearer, !)<■ not oidy revealed secrets, but also separated chief friends, and this monk Sysinnius with his gossips seems to have lic<'n the original cause of the celebrated (pnirrel between Augustine and Jerome." — G. T. Stokes, Ircliind and the Celtic Church, pp. 170-173. A. D. 496-800.— The Prankish Church to the Empire of Charlemagne. — "The baptism of Chlo(lovech [Clovis— see Fiianks: A. 1). 481- .'illl was followed by the wholesale c(mversion of the Franks. No compulsion was used to bring the heathen into the Church. As a heathen, Chlodovech had treated the Church with for- bearance; he was eeiually tolerant to heathenism when he was a Christian. But his example worked, and thousands of noble Franks crowded to the water of regeneration. Gregory of Tours reckons the Franks as Christians after the bap- tism of their king, which took place at Christmas, A. D. 496. His conversion made no alteration in the policy and conduct of Chlodov(!ch; ho remained the same mixture of cunning and audacity, of cruelty and sensimlity, that he was before. . . . Btit, tliough his baptism was to him of no moral import, its consequences were wide spreading. When Gregory of Tours compares the conversion of Chlodovech with that of Con- stantino the Great, he was fully in the right. . . . And the bajitism of Chlodovech declared to the world that the new blood being poured into the veins of the old and expiring civilization, had been quickened by the same elements, and would unite with the old in the new development. . . . That many of those who were baptized car- ried with them into their new Christianity their old heathen superstitions as well as their barbarism is certain ; and the times were not those in which the growth of the great Christian graces was encouraged; the f^erms, however, of a new life were laid." — S. Baring-Gould, The Church in Germany, ch. 3. — "The details of the history of the Merovingian period of Fnuikish history are extraordinarily complicated ; happily, it is not at all necessary for our purpose to follow them. ... In the earlier years after the conquest, all ranks of the clergy were filled by Qallo-Komans. The Franks were the dominant race, and were Christian, but they were new converts from a rude heathenism, and it would take some genera- tions to raise up a ' native ministry ' among them. Not only the literattire of the (Western) Church, but all its services, and, still more, the conversational intercourse of all civilized and Christian people, was in Latin. Besides, the Franks were warriors, a conquering caste, a sei)arate nation ; and to lay down the battle-axe and spear, and enter into the peaceful ranks of the Komano-Gallic Cluirch, would have seemed to them like changing their nationality for that of the more highly cultured, perhaps, but, in their eyes, subject race. The Frank kings did not ignore the value of education. Clovis is said to have established a Palatine school, and encour- aged his yoimg men to qualify themselves for the positions which his conquests hud opened out 458 CnmSTIANITY. ^fiMilmlt to the (it'ntuina. CIIUISTIANITY. to them. Ilis grandsons, we liiivc seen, prilled tlicmsclvesontlieirLiitiu culture. Afterii while, Franks aspired to the ninRnilieeiit i)ositioii9 whieh the ^'cat sees of the Chureh olTere.l to their ambition ; and we find men with Teutonic names, and 10 doiiht of Teutonic race, among the bishOj-'S. . . . For a still longer period, few Franks entered into the lo\v<'r ranks of the Cliiireh. Not only did the priesthood offer little temptation to them, but also the policy of the kings and nobles opposed the diminution of their military strength, bj- refusing leave to their Franks to enter into holy orders or into the mon- r.sterics. Tlie cultured families of the cities would afford aiv ample supply of men for the clergy, and promising youths of a lower class seem already not infrequently to have been edu- cated for the service of the Church. It was only in the later period, when some approach had been made to a fusion of tlie races, that we tind Franks entering into the lower ranks of the Ohurch, and simultaneously wc tind Gallo- liomans in the ranks of the armies. . . , ]\Iouks wielded a powerful spiritual inlluence. But the name of not a single priest appears in the history of the times as exercising any influence or authorit}-. . Under the gradual secularization of the Cliu in the Merovingian period, the monasteries I tlie greatest sliarc in keeping alive a remnant of vital religion among the people; and in the gradual decay of learning and art, the monastic institution was the ark in which the ancient civilization survived the deluge of barbarism, and emerged at length to spread itself over the modern world." — E. L. Cutts, Charle- magne, ch. 5 and 7. — " Two Anglo-Saxon monks, St. Wilfrid, bishop of York, and St. Willibrord undertook the conversion of the savage fisher- men of Friesland and Holland at the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century; they were followed by another Englishman, the most renowned of all these missionaries, AVin- frith, wliose name was changed to Boniface, perhaps by the'Pope, in recognition of his active and beneficent apostleship. AVhcn Gregory II. appointed him bishop of Germany (723), he went through Bavaria and established tliere the dio- ceses of Frisiugcn, Passau, and Ratisbon. AVhen Pope Zaclmrias bestowed the rank of metro- politan upon the Clmrch of Mainz in 748, he entrusted its direction to St. Boniface, who from that time was iirimate, as it were, of all Ger- many, under the authority of the Holy See. St. Boniface was assassinated by the Pagans of Fries- land in 755." — V. Duruy, Ilist. of the Middle Ages, bk. 3, ch. 8. — "Boniface, whose original name was AVinfrid, was of a noble Devonshire family (A. D. 680), educated at the monastery of Nutcelle, in Hampshire, and at the age of thirtj'- five years had obtained a high reputation for learning and ability, when (in A. I). 716), seized with the prevalent missionary enthusiasm, ho abandoned his prospects at home, and set out with two companions to labour among the Fris- ians. . . . AVinfrid was refused permission by the Duke to preach in his dominions, and he returned home to England. In the following spring he went to Rome, where he remained for some months, and then, with a general authori- zation from the i)ope to preach the gospel in Central Europe, he crossed the Alps, passed through Bavaria into Thuringia, where lie began his work. AVhilc here the death of Radbod, A. I). 710, and the coniiuest of Frisia by Cliarles Martcl, opened up new prospects for the evau- gelizaticjii of that country, and Boniface went thither and laboured for three years among the missionaries, under Willil)r()nl of I'lredit. Then, following in the track of tlie victorious forces of Charles Alartel, he i)liiiiged into the wilds of Ilessia, eonverted two of its chiefs whose exaiii])lo was followed by niultiludes of the Hessians and Saxons, and a monastery arose at Amllneburg as the liead-(piarters of the mission. The Bishop of Rome being informed of this success, sum- moned Boniface to Home, A. 1). 723, and con.se- crated him a regionarv bislio]!, with a general jurisdiction over all wliom he should win from paganism into the Christian fold, reipiiriiig from him at the same time the oath which was usually required of bishops within the patriarchate of Rome, of obedience to the see. . . . Boniface was not only a zealous missionary, an earnest preacher, a learned scholar, but he was a stati'S- man and an able administruior. 1I(> not only s|)read the Gospel among the heathen, but he organized the Church among the newly converted nation^ if Germany; he regulated the disorder which 1 \isted in the Frankish Churcli, and estab- lished the relations between Church and State on a settled basis. The mediaeval analysts tell us that Boniface crowned Pepin king, and modern writers have usually reproduced tlie statement. ' Rettberg, and the able writer of the biography of Boniface in Ilerzog (Real Ecyk, s. v.), argue satisfactorily from Boniface's lett<'rs that he took no part in Pepin's coronation.' AVhen Boniface withdrew from the active supervision of the Frankish Churches, it is j)robable that his place was to some extent supplied in the councils of the mayor and in the synods of the Church by Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, a man whose character and inlluence in the ..Istcry of the Frank Church have hardly hitherto bee:! appre- ciated." — E. L. Cutts, Charlemagne, eh. 12. — "Both Karlmann and Pippin tried to reform certain abuses that had crept into the Church. Tv.'o councils, convoked by Karlmann, the one in Germany (742), the otlier in the following year at Lestines (near Charleroi, in Belgium), drew up decrees which abolished superstitious rites and certain Pagan ceremonies, still remaining in force; they also authorized grants of Church lands by the ' Prince ' for military purposes on condition of a payment of an annual rent to the Church; they reformed the ecclesiastical life, forbade the priests to hunt or to ride through the woods with dogs, falcons, or sparrow-hawks; and, finally, made all iiricsts subordinate to their diocesan bishops, to whom they were obliged to give account each year of their faith and their ministry — all of which were necessary jirovisions for the organization of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and for the regulation of church government. Similar measures were taken by the Council of Soissons, convok(!d by l'ii)i)in in 744. In 747, Karlmann renounced the world and retired to the celebrated Italian monastery of Monte ^Cas- sino. As he left he entrusted his children to the care of their uncle, Pippin, wlio robbed them of their inheritaiiee and ruled alone over the whole Frankish Empire. . . . Cliarlemagne enlarged and coini)leted the work which had only been begun by Charles JIartel and Pippin. . . . The Middle Ages acknowledged two Masters, the Pope and the Emperor, nnd these 459 CIIIUSTIANITY. Chnrli'mnijnc and the church. CHRISTIANITY. two powrrs came, the one from Rome, nnd the other from Aiistnisiiin Pmnre. . . . The mayors of Austrasiii, I'ippin of Ileristal, iiiul Cliarh's Murtcl, rclmilt the Krankish monarchy and pre- [Hirvil the way for tlic empire of (JliarleniHKne ; . , . th<' Koinan poiitilTs , . , feathered around thcni all the ehurchcs of the West, and placed themselves at the head of the jrreat Catholic society, over which one day Gregory VII. and Innocent ' ' I. should claim to have sole dominion. " —V. Durv.y, J/ixt. ,if the MkhUe. AfftK, pp. 110- ', KIH. — See M.wons ok tiik Pai.ack ; Fiianks : A. n. 7(1W-H14; and Papacy: A. D. T.W-TTt, and 774. — The coronation of Charlemagne at l{ome by Pope L('o III. (see Roman E.mi'Iki;, A. D. 8('H)) gave tlii^ Western Church the place in the state it had held under the earlier Roman emper- ors. The character of so great n man, the very books he read and all tluit fed the vigorous ideal element in so powerful a spirit are worthy of Interest; for this at least he sought to accomplish — to give order to a tumultuous and barbarian world, and to e.stjiblish learning, and purify the church: "While at table, he liked to hear a recital or a reading, and it was histories and the great deeds of past times which were usually re;'.d to him. He took great pleas\ire, also, in the works of St. Augustine, and especially in that whose title is I)e (,'ivitato Dei.'. . . He prac- ticed the Christian religion in all its jiurity and with great fervnir. whose principles had been taught him from his. infancy. . . . He diligently attended . . . church in ihe evening and morn- ing, and even at night, to assist at the olllccs and at the holy sacritice, as much as his health permitted him. He watched with care that nothing should he done bui with the greatest propriety, constantly orde'.mg the guardians of the chureli not to allow anytliing to be brought there or left there inconsistent with or imworfliy of the sanctity of the place. . . . He was always ready to help the poor, and it was not only in his own country, or within his own dominions that he dispensed those gratuitous liberalities which the Greeks call 'alms,' but beyond the Beas — in Syria, in Egypt, in Africa, at Jerusalem, at Alexandria, at CJarthage, everywhere whore lie learned that Christians were living in jioverty — he pitied their misery and loved to send them money. If he sought with so much care the friendship of foreign sovereigns, it was, above nil, to procure for the Christians living under their rule help and relief. Of all the holy places, he had, above all, a great veneration for the Church of ,,he Apostle St. Peter at Rome." — Eginhard, Life of Charkmagnc. — "The religious side of Charles' character is of the greatest inter est in the study of his remarkable character as a whole nnd his religious policy led to the most important and durable results of his reign. He inherited an ecclesiastical policy from his father; the policy of regulating and strengthening the influence of the Church in his dominions as the chief agent of civilization, and a great means of binding the various elements of the empire into one ; the policy of accepting the Bishop of Rome as the head of Western Christianity, with patri- archal autliority over all its Churches." — E. L. Cutts, CharUmnonc, ch. 23. — The following is a noteworthy passage from Charlemagne's Capitu- lary of 787 : " It is our wish that you may be what it behoves the soldiers of the church to be, — religious in heart, learned in discourse, pure in act, eloquent in speech ; so that all who appr" ich your house in order to invoke the; Divine M; r, or to behold the excellence of the religious ,ae, may be editied in beholding you, and instructed in hearing you discourse or chant, and may return home rendering thanks to Gwl most High. Fail not, as thou regardest our favour, to send a copy of this letter to all thy suffragans and to all the monasteries; and let no monk go beyond his monastery to administer justice or to enter the assemblies and the voting-places. Adieu." — J. U. Mullinger, Tlu ffchooU of Chiiiicx the Great. Sth-7th Centuries. — The Nestorian, Mono- physite and Monothelite Controversies. See iS'KSTOUIAN and .MoNOlMlVHITK, alld MoNOTHE- I.ITK. Sth-^th Centuries. — The Irish Church and its missions. — The story of the conversion of Ireland by St. Patrick, and of the missionary labors of the Church which he founded, is briefly told elsewhere — see luEiiAND: 5tli-8th Ckn- Ti:uiES. "The early Church worked her way, in the litenil sense of the word, 'underground,' uii'ler camp and palace, under senate and forum. Put turn where we will in these Celtic missions, ■,ve notice how diiferent were the features thai marked them now. In Dalaradia St. Patrick obtains the site of his earliest church from the chieftain of the country, Dichu. At Tara, he ol>tains from King Laoghaire a reluctant toler- ation of his ministry. In Connaught he addresses himself first to the chieftains of Tirawle)', and in Alunster baptizes Angus, the king, at Cashel, the scat of the kings. What he did in Ireland reproduces itself in the Celtic missions of Wales and Scotland, and we cannot but take note of the important influence of Welsh and Pictish chiefs. . . . ' The people may not have adopted the actual profession of Christianity, which was all perhaps that in the first instance tliey adopted from any clear or intelligent appreciation of its superiority to their former religion. But to olitain from the people even an actual profession (if Christianity was an important step to ultimate success. It secured toleration at least for Chris- tian institutions. It enabled the missionaries to plant in every tribe their churches, schools, and monasteries, and to establish among the half pagan inhabitants of the country societies of holy men, whose devotion, usefulness, and piety soon produced an effect on the most barbarous and savage hearts.' " — G. F. Maclear, Conversion of the We»t: The Celts, ch. 11.— " The Medieval Church of the West found in the seventh century an immense task before it to fulfil. . . . The missionaries who addressed themselves to the enormous task of the conversion of Germany may be conveniently divided into three groups — the British, the Frankish, and, entering some- what later into an honourable rivalry with these, the Anglo-Saxon. A word or two upon each of these groups. The British — they include Irish and Scotch — could no longer find n field for the exercise of their ministry in England, now that there the Roman rule and discipline, to which they were so little disposed to submit, had every- where won the day. Their own religious houses were full to overflowing. At home there was little for them to do, while yet that divine hunger and thirst for the winning of souls, which had so possessed the heart of St. Patrick, lived on in theirs. To these so minded, pagan Germany offered a welcome field of 460 CimiSTIANITY. MiMiwuiriea. CHRISTIANITY. labour, and one in which there was ample rooni for all. Then tlicro were the Frankisli mission- aries, wlio enjoyed tlio siipport of tlic Franliish kings, whicli sometimes served tliem in good Btead; while at otlier times tliis protection was very far from a recommendation in tlieir eyes who were easily iiersuaded to sec in tlicH(! missionaries the emissaries of a foe. Aiid to tlicso the Anglo- Saxons; these last, mindful of the source from which they had received tlieir own Christianity, making it a point to attacli their converts to Rome, even as they were themselves hound to lier hy the closest ties. Tlie language which these spoke — a language which as yet can have diverged very little from tlie Low German of Frisia, must have given to them many facilities whicli tlie Frankish missionaries possessed in a far slighter degree, the British not at all; and this may help to account for a success on their parts far greater than attended the labours of the others. To them too it was mainly due that the battle of the Creeds, which had been fought and lost by the Celtic missionaries in England, and was presently renewed in Qermnny, hail finally the same issues there as in England. ... At the same time, there were dilTerences in the intensity and obstinacy of resistance to the message of truth, which would be olTercd by different ti 'les. There was ground, whictli at an early day had been won for the Gospel, Imt which m the storms and confusion of the two preceding centuries had been lost again; the whole line, that is, of the Danube and tlio Rhine, regions fair and prosperous once, but in every sense wildernesses now. In these we may note a readier acceptance of the message than found place in lands which in earlier times that mes- sage had never reached; as though obscure reminiscences and traditions of tlie past, not wholly e-xtinct, had helped to set forward the present work.'" — R. C. Trench, Lectures on Medieml Church llintorj/, led. H. — "From Ireland cameGallus, Fridolin, Kilian, Trutbert and Levin. . . . The order in which these men succeeded one another cannot always be established, from the uncertainty of the accounts. We know thus much, that of all those above-mentioned, Gallus was the first, for his labours in Helvetia (Switzerland) were continued from the preceding into the period of which we are now treating. On the other hand, it is uncertain as to Fridolin whether he had not completed his work before Gallvis, in the sixtli century, for in the opinion of some he closed his career in the time of Clodoveus I., but, accord- ing to others, he is said to have lived under Clodoveus II. , or at another period. His labours extended over the lands on the Moselle, in the Vosges Mountains, over Helvetia, Rhtetia and Nigra Silva (the Black Forest). He built the monastery of Sekkinga on the Rhine. Trutbert was a contemporary and at the same time a countryman of Gallus. His sphere of action is said to have been Brisgovia (Breisgau) and the Black Forest. Almost half a century later Kil- ian proclaimed the gospel in Franconia and Wirtzburg, with two assistants, Colonatus and Totnanus. In the latter place they converted duke Qozbert, and were put to death there in 388. After the above mentioned missionaries trom Ireland, in the seventh centurj', had built churches and monasteries in the southern Ger- many, the missionaries from Britain repaired with a similar purpose, to the northern countries. . . . Men from other nations, as Willericus, bishop of Brenia, preached in Vransalbingia at the beginning of the ninth century. Almost all the missionaries from the kingdom of the Franks selected southern Ocrniaiiy as their sphere of action: Emmeran, about 040, Ratisbona, Uud- bert, about C9(t, IJajoaria (iJavaria), Corbinian tho country around Frisinga, Otliert the Hrelsgau and Black Fiacst, and I'irniiiiius the lircisgau, Uajoaria, Franconia, Helvetia, and Alsatis." — .1. E. T. Wiltsch, lliimllKi'ik tifihe (leor/fii/i/iy <iii(l Stiitinlics of tlie Church, r. 1, ;)/). iiO.'i-UOT. A. D. 553-800.— The Western Church.— Rise of the Papacy. — "Though kindly treated, the Cliun^h of Rome did not make any progress under the Ostrogoths. But when their power had been broken (r).");!), and Rome had been placed again under the authority of the Emperor of Constantinople [see Rome: A. I). SILl-.^.i;}], the very remoteness of her new master insuo'd to the Church a more i)rosperous future. The in- vasi(m of the Loinbanls drove a great many refugees into her territory, and the Roman popu- lation showed a slight return of its old energy in its double hatred toward them, as barbarians and as Arians. ... It was at this favorable point in the state of affairs, though critical in some re- spects, that Gregory the Great made his appear- ance (590-604). 1I(; was a descendant of tli(! noble Anicia family, and added to his advantages of liirtli and position the advantages of a well- endowed body and mind. He was prefect of Rome when less than thirty years old, but after holding tliis olHce a few months he abandoned the honors aiul cares of worldly things for the retirement of the cloister. His reputation did not allow him to remain in the obscurity of that life. Toward 579 he was sent to Constanti- nople by Pope Pelagius II. as secretary or p;,pal nuncio, and he rendered distinguislicid services to the Holy See in its relatiais with the Empire and in its struggles agains^, the Lombards. In 590 the clergy, the senate, and the people raised him with one accord to the .sovereign pontificate, to succeed Pelagius. As it was still necessary for every election to be confirmed by the Em- peror at Const^intinople, Gregory wrote to him to beg him not to sanction this one; but the letter was intercepted and soon orders arrived from Slaurice ratifying the election. Gregory hid himself, but he was discovered and led back to Rome. When once Pope, though against his will, he used his power to strengtlien the papacy, to propagate Christianity, and to improve the discipline and organization of the Church. . . . Strengthened thus by his own efforts, he under- took the propagation of Christianity and ortho- doxy both within and without the limits of the old Roman Empire. Within those limits there were still some who clung to paganism, in Sicily, Sardinia, and even at the very gates of Rome, at Terracina, and doubtless also in Gaul, as there is a constitution of Childebert still extant dated 554, and entitled: 'For the abolition of tho re- mains of idolatry. ' There were Arians very near to Rome — namely, tho Lombards; but through the intervention of Theudalinda, tlieir queen, Gregory succeeded in having Adelwald, tho heir to the throne, brought up in the Catholic faith; as early as 587 the "Visigoths in Spain, under Rcccared, were converted. . . . The Roman Empire had perished, and the barbarians had built upon its ruins many slight structures that 461 CHRISTIANITY. fiiite of the Pajmcy, CHRISTIANITY. wore soon overthrown. Not ovrn Imd the FriinkH, wlio were destined to Iks perpettmted as a nation, as yet siiceeeded in foiindin); a Hoeial state of any strengtli; tlieir laek of experience led tlieni from one attempt to anotlier, all ecpnUly vain; even tlie attcm|)t of C'lmrlemaj;ne met witli no morn permanent suecess. In tlie midst of these siieeessive failure.^ one institution alone, developinK slowly and steadilv through the cen- turies, followiiig out the spirit of its principles, continued to grow and gain in power, in extent and in imity. . . . The Pope had now become, in truth, the nder of Christendom. He was, however, still a subject of the Greek Emperor; but a rupture was inevitable, as his authority, on the one hand, was growing day by day, and the emperor's on the contrary, was declining." — V. Duruy, Jfint. of the Miililh Agm, pp. 114-115, 108-109, 117. — "'^he real i)ower which advanced the credit of the Roman see during these ages was the reaction against the Byzantine despotism over the Eastern Church; and this is the expla- nation of the fact that although the new map of Europe had been marked out, in outline at least, by the year 500, the Roman see. clung to the eastern connection until the first half of the eighth centtiry. ... In the political or diplo- matic struggle between the Church and the Em- perors, in which the Emperors endeavored to make the Church subservient to the imperial policy, or to adjust the situation to the neces- sities oi the empire, and the Church strove to retain its autonomy as a witness to the faith and a legislator in the affairs of religion, the Bisliop of Rome became, so to speak, the constitutional head of the opposition; and the East was willing to exalt his authority, as a counterpoise to that of the Emperor, to any extent short of acknowl- edging that the primacy implied a supremacy." — J. II. Egar, ChriiitcmUym : Ecclestatitical and Politirnl, from Cnnstantiiie to tlie licformation, p. 99. — "The election system was only used for one degree of the ecclesiastical dignitaries, for the bishopric. The lower dignitaries vvere chosen by the bishop. They were divided into two categories of orders — the higher and the lower orders. There were three higher orders, namely, the priests, the deacons, and the sub-deacons, and four lower orders, the acolytes, the door- keepers, the exorcists, and the readers. The latter orders we.-e not regarded as an integral part of the clerg^', as their members were the servants of the otiiors. As regards the territorial divisions, the bishop governed the diocese, which at a much later date was divided into parishes, whoso spiritual welfare was in the hands of the parish priest or curate (curio). The parishes, taken together, constituted the diocese ; the united dioceses, or suffragan bishoprics, constituted the ecclesiastical province, at whose head stood the metropolitan or archbishop. When a provin- cial council was held, it met in the metropolis and was presided over by the metropolitan. Above the metropolitans were the Patriarchs, in the East, and the Primates in the West, bishops who held the great capitals or the apostolic sees, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Jerusalem, Cesarea in Cappadocia, Carthage in Africa, and Heraclius in Thrace; among them Home ranked higher by one degree, ond from this supreme position exercised a supreme author- ity acknowledged by all the Church." — V. Duruy, Uiit. of t>ie Middle Ages, pp. 100-110.— "The divergence of the two Churches, Eastern and Western, was greater in reality than it appears to be from a superficial view. It was based on essential varijitions in tlx^ character and disposition of the people in the Kast and in the West, on the nature of their civilization, and on theditTerenl, almost antagonistic, development of the Christian idea in on(! Cliurch and in tlic other. . . . The Ea.stern Church rejoiced in its direct alllliation with apostolic times, in its carefid pre- servation of traditions, and was convinced of its especial right to be considered the true heir and sncces.s()r of Christ. . . . The letter of the law superseded the spirit ; religion stiffened into for- malism; piety consisted in strict observance of ceremonial rites ; external holiness replaced sin- cere and heortfelt devotion. . . . Throughout the West the tendency was in a contrary direc- tion — towards the practical ai)plication of the religious idea. The effete, worn-out civilization of the past was there renovated by contact and admixture with young and vigorous races, and gained new strength and vitality in the struggle for existence. The C'lurch, freed from control, became independent and self -asserting ; the re- sponsibility of government, the preservation of social order, devolved upon it, and it rose proudly to tlie task." — A. F. Heard, The lius- Htaii Church and Ruman Jh'ssent, pp. 0-10. — "On the overthrow of the Western Empire, and the demonstration, rendered manifest to all, that with the complete triumph of the new world of secular polities a new spiritual development, a new phase of Divine guidance, was opening, the conscience of the believers was aroused to a sense of the sinfulness of their cowardly inac- tivity. 'Go ye into all nations, and baptize them,' had been the last words of their blessed Master. ... It is to this new or revived mis- sionary spirit which distinguished the sixth cen- tury, of which I would place Pope Gregory the First, or the Great, as the central figure, that I desire now to introduce you. Itcmcmber that the Empire, which had represented the unity of niankiid, had become disintegrated and broken into iiagments. Men were no longer Romans, but Goths and Sueves, Burgundians and Van- dals, and beyond them Huns, Avars, Franks, and Lombards, some with a slight tincture of Christian teaching, but most with none. . . . Let but the Gospel be [jroclaiined to all, and leave the issue in God's hands I Such was the contrast between the age of Leo and the age of Gregory I . . . The conversion of Clovis and the Franks is, I suppose, the earliest instance of a Christian mission curried out on a national scale by the common action of the Church represented by the Pope and See of Rome. It becomes accordingly a great historical event, deserving the earnest consideration not of Churchmen only, but cf all political enquirers. " — C. Merivale, Four Lectures on sonie Epochs of Early Church Hist., pp. 172-177. — "Christianity thus renewed its ardor for proselytisin, and Gregory contributed to its success most wisely by enjoining precepts of moderation upon his missionaries, and by the skillful manner in which ho n\ade the transition to Catholicism easy to the pagans ; he wrote to Augustine : ' Be careful not to destroy the pagan temples ; it is only necessary to destroy the idols, then to sprinkle the edifice with holy water, and to build altars and place relics there. If the temples arc well built, it is a wise and useful 462 CHRISTIANITY. ConvrritiitH of the KnglUh. fliniSTIANITY. thinR for tlipm to priss from the worship of demons to the worship of the true (}o<l : for wliile Ihe iiiition sees its old phiees of worship gtil! standing,', it will \w. the more ready to go there, by force of lial)it, to worship the true 0<hI.' In the interior Gregory sucreeded in arninfrinj; the different degrees of power in the Church, and in forcing the recognition of tlu^ supreme power of the Holy See. W'e find liini granting the title of Vicar of Oaul to the bishop of Aries, and corresponding witii Augustine, arclibishop of Canterbury, in regard to Great Britain, with the archbishop of Seville in regard to Spain, with tlio archbishop of Thessalonica in regard to Greece, and, finally, sending legates 'a latere' to Constantinople. In his Pastoral, wliich he wrote; on tlie occasion of his election, and which became an established precedent in tlie West, he prescril)cd to the bishops their several duties, following the decisions of many cbimcils. Ho strengthened the hierarchy by preventing the encroachments of the bishops upon one another: 'I have given to you the spiritual direction of Britain,' he wrote to the ambitious Augustine, 'and not that of the Gauls.' He rcarnuiged the monasteries, made discipline the object of his vigilant care, reformed Church music, and substituted the cliant that bears his name for tlie Ambrosian chant, 'which re- sembled,' according to a contemporary, ' the far- ofl noise of a chariot rumbling over pebbles.' I{ome, victorious again with the help of Gregory the Great, continued to push her conquests to distant coimtries after his death." — V. Duruy, Hist, of the Middle Ages, p. 116. — See, above: A. I). 496-800, and Rcme: A. D. 590-640. A. D. 597-800.— The English Church.— "It siH'ms right to add a word of caution against the common confusion between the British Church and the English Church. They were quite dis- tinct, and had very little to do with one another. To cite the British bishops at the Councils of Aries and Uimini as evidence of the antiquity of the English Church is preposterous. There was then no England ; and the ancestors of English Churchmen were heathen tribes on the continent. The history of the Church of England begins with the episcopate of Archbishop Theodore (A. D. 668), or at the very earliest with the land- ing of Augustine (A. D. 507). By that time the British Church had been almost destroyed by tlie heathen English. . . . Bede tells us that down to his day the Britons still treated English Christians as pagans. " — A. Plunimer, Tlie Church of the Early Fathers, eh. 8. — "About the year 580, in the pontificate of Pelagius, Gregory occu- pied the rank of a deacon among the Roman clergy. He was early noted for his zeal and piety ; coming into large possessions, as an off- shoot of an ancient and noble family, he had ex- pended his wealth in the foundation of no less than seven monasteries, and had become himself the abbot of one of them, St. Andrew's, at Rome. Devoted as he was from the first to all the good works to whicli the religious profession might best apply itself, his attention was more par- ticularly turned to the cause of Christian mis- sions by casually remarking a troop of young slaves exhibited for sale in the Roman market. Struck with the beauty or fresh complexion of these strangers, lie asked whether they were Christians or Pagans. They wore Pagans, it was replied. How sad, he exclaimed, that such fair countenaces should lie under the power of lii'nions. ' Whence came they Y' — ' From Anglia. ' — 'Truly they art^ Angels, What is tlie name of their country?' — ' Deira.' — "I'ritly they are Niiliject to the wrath of God: ira Dei. Ami their king?' — 'Is named .Klla.' — ' I.et them learn to sing Allelujah.' Britain had lately fallen under the sway of the heatlien Angles, Throngliout the eastern section of Ww. isliind, Ihc; faith of Christ, which Imd Imm'U established there fnmi early limes, had been, it seems, utterly extirpated. The British church of Lucius and Albanus still lingered, but was chielly confined within the ruder districts of Cornwall, Wales, and Cumbria. The reported destruction of the people witli all their churches, and all their culture, begun by the Picts and Scots, and carried on by the Angles and their kindred Saxons, had miule a profound iMipres.sion upon Christendom. Tlie 'Groans of the Britons' had terrified all man- kind, and discouraged even the lirave mis- sionaries of Italy and Caul. . . . Gregory <le- termined to make the sacrifice liimself. Ho prevailed on the Pope to sanction his enter- prise ; but the people of Rome, with whom he was a favourite, interposed, and he was constrained reluctantly to forego the peril and the blessing. But the sight he had witnessed in the market- place still retained its impression upon him. He kept the fair-haired Angles ever in view; and when, in the year 592, he was himself elevated to the popedom, he resolved to send a mission, and fling upon tlie obscure shores of Britain the full beams of the sun of Christendom, as they then seemed to shine so conspicuously at Rome. Augustine was the preacher chosen from among the inmates of one of Gregory's monasteries, for the anluous task thus imposed upon him. He was to be accompanied by a select band of twelve monks, together with a certain number of attendants. . . . There is something very re- markable in the facility with which the fierce idolaters, whose name had struck such terror into tlie Christian nations far and near, yielded to the persuasions of tliis band of peaceful evangelists." — C. Alerivale, Four lectures on some Epochs of Eirly Church Jfistory, pp. 19'3-198. — See Enoland: A. D. 507-685. — The Roman missionaries in England landed in Kent and ap- pear to have had more influence with the petty courts of tlie little kingdoms than with the people. The conversion of the North of England must be credited to the Irish monastery on the island of lona. "At the beginning of the sixth cen- tury these Irish Christians were seized with an unconquerable impulse to wander afar and preach Christianity to the heathen. In 563 Columba, with twelve confederates, left Ireland and founded a monastery on a small island off the coast of Scotland (lona or Hy), through the influence of which the Scots and Picts of Britain became converted to Christianity, twenty-three missions among the Scots and eighteen in the country of the Picts having been established at the death of Columba (597). Under his third successor the heathen Saxons were converted; Aedan, summoned by Osward of Northumbria, having labored among them from 635 to 651 as missionary, abbot, and bishop. • His successors, Finnan and Colnian, worthily carried on his work, and introduced Christianity into other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms near East Anglia, Mercla, and Essex."- H. Zimmer, The Irish 463 CHUISTIANITY. The llulynrian t'ltunh. CHRISTIANITY. JBtmsnt in Medimnl Culture, pp. 10-21.— "Two bands "f di'votcd nici hud hllliiTto iM'cn cm- |)li)y('<l in llit'convrrMioiiof KukIiimiI, tlip l^)nlltIl, iimmlt'd liy tlicir ((invtTl.s iiikI Mmu\ tciirlicrs from Fnincc, and tli(^ lriH)i, who were pliihily thu liir^iT l)ody. Hcl ween the two thcru were tho old ditrcrciicos iih to thr time of Iteoping Kuster luid tlii^ form of tile clerical tonsure. . . . Tims, while ()8wy [Kiiiff of Mcrcia] was cele- hratin^; Kustcr accordinj.^ to the custom he had learnt at lona, his (jueen Karlleda observed it aeeordiuK to the rule which slu; had learnt in Kent, and was still jiraetisinK th(> austerities of Lent. Thes(' dilTerences were tolerated during the Kpiscopate of Aidun and Finan, but when Kinan died and was succeeded by ('olman, the controversy " was terminated by Oswy, after much debate, with the words — " 'I will hold to 8t. I'eter, lest, when I present myself at the gates of Heaven, he should close them against me.' . . . Colman, with all his Irish brethren, and thirty Northundirians who had joined the monastery, uultted Lindisfarnc and sailed to lona." — O. F. Madear, Cimreritiiin of the UW.' The Fnfflia/i, jip. Sl-S."). — The imj)artial historian to whom we owe all the early histr)ry of the English Church, thus records the memory of these devoted men as it remained in the minds of Englishmen long after llu'ir (lei)arture. It is a brief passage, one' like those in the greater Ecclesiatical History of Eusebius, which mi;st stand for much wo <lo not know. Iteferriug to their devoted lives — "T-^r this reason the relig- ious habit was at that time in great veneration; 80 that wheresoever any clergyman or monk hupiiened to come, he was joyfully received by all persons, as God's servant; and if they chanced to meet him upon the way, they ran to him, and bowing, were glad to be signed with his hand, or blessed with his mouth. Great attention was also paid to their exhortations; and on Sundays they flocked eagerly to tho church, or the monasteries, not to feed their bodies, but to licar tho wonl of God; and if any priest happened to come into a village, the inhabitants flocked together to hear from him the word of life ; for ' le priests and clergymen went into the village on no other account than to preach, baptize, visit the sick, and, in few words, to take care of soids ; and they were so free from worldy avarice, that none ■ I hem received lands and possessions for building monasteries, unless they were com- pelled to do so by the temporal authorities; which custom was for some time after observed in all the churches of tho Northumbrians. But enough has now been said on this subject." — T!te Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England; ed. by J. A. Giles, bk. 3, ch. 26.— Tho English Church passed through several stages during tills period. A notable one was the rise and fall of a loose monastic system which attracted men and women of the better classes, but for lack of a strict rule brought itself into disrepute. Another was the development of classical learning and the foundation of the school at Jarrow in Northumberland resulting in making England the intellectual centre of the world. Venerable Bede, who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of tlio English Church, was the greatest teacher of this epoch ; and Alcuin, a Northumbrian by birth, and of the school at York, of the next. Invited bv Charlemagne to the Frankish Court, he curried English learning to the Continent, and although h(.' died at tlic time of the foundation of tlui P^mpire, left his influence In many ways on tho (li'velopment of Kuropean culture. A single fact of interest will siifllce, to show the close connection of this early history with tliot of Home and the continent — viz., to Alruin we arc largely indebted for the parent script which formed our Uoman letters. (I. Taylor, TIte Alpha/jei, r. 3, /). IMO.) Nortliumlirian learning and the rich libraries of ancient and Anglo- Saxon literature were destroyed by the Danes, who, in their incursions, showed for a long time peculiar animosity to monks and monasteries. Although the service of this early Anglo-Saxon Church was partly in the vernuculnr, and largo portions, if not all, of the Gospels had been translated, little remains to us of its early relig- ious literature The translations of the Gospel into Anglo-Saxon that have come down to us aro to be attrilmted to a late period. 9th Century. — The Bulgarian Church.— "In the beginning of this 9tli (;entury, a sister of the reigning Bulgarian king, Bogoris, had fallen as a captive into the keeping of the Greek em- peror. For thirty -eight years she lived at Con- stantinople, and was there instructed in the doc- trines of tile Christain Faith. Meanwhile, the administration passed into the hands of the cm- press Kegent, Theodora. She was interested in a certain monk named Cupharas, who had been taken prisoner by tho Bulgarians, and with a view to his redemption, she opened negotiations with Bogoris. An exchange of prisoners was Anally elfected. The sister of Bogoris was re- stored to him, while Cupharas was iiermitted to return to Constantinople. iJefore the release of the iiious monk, however, he had striven, though (luito uimvailingly, to win the Bulgarian prince to the service of the Cross. These fruitless en- deavors were supplemented by the entreaties of the king's sister, on her return from Constanti- nojile. ... At last, fear snapped the fetters which love had failed to disengage. . . . His baptism was celebrated at midmglit with pro- foundest secrecy. The rite was administered by no less a personage than the patriarch Photius. lie emphasized the solemnity of the occasion by jircsentinfj the neophyte with a lengthy treatise on Christianity, theoretical and practical, con- sidered mainly in its bearings on tlie duties of a inonurch. Tlie emperor jMichael stood sponsor by proxy, and the Bulgarian king received, as his Clinstian name, that of his imperial god- father. . . . The battle-cries of theology rang over Christendom, and the world was regaled with the spectacle of a struggle between the rival Churches for the possession of Bulgaria, a country till recently so conspicuously destitute of dogma of any kind. The Bulgarians themselves, doubt- less much astonished at the uproar for their sake, and, surely, more perplexed than ever by the manners and customs of Christianity, begun to waver in their adherence to the Western Cliuich, and to exhibit symptoms of an inclination to trans- fer their allegiance to Constantinople. The strife went on for years. At last, A. D. 877, tho Latin clergy liaving been dismissed from the country. Pope John VIII. solemnly expostulated, protesting against the Greek proclivities of the Bulgarians, and predicting dire results from their identity with a Church which was rarely free from heresy in one form or another. Neverthe- less, the Byzantine leanings of Bulgaria did cul- 464 CHRISTIANITY. Ulavt and Northmen. CimiSTIAN[TY. jninato in union witli tlio Kustorn Cliurcli. A Oruolc nrchl)lMlio|) luul ))i.slio|)s of tliu Hitme com- munion, Ht'ttlnl 111 Iho coimtry. . . . ' Tlio Eiist- em bnincli ' of tlio Hlavonlc; fiiM>iuiiKi'«. properly lociillcii, 'comprclifiuiMllic Husslaii, witli viirious locui (iiiiicctH, till! liiilKiiriiui, and tlio Illyriari. Tli(! most luu'iciit (liK'iuticrit of this EiisU'ni bnmcli is tlie no-cuIIciI (•(•(•Icslastical Slavonic, 1. L'., till! ancient Hiilj;iiHaii, into wliicli Cyrilliis t ml Metliodins tniiislateil tlii! Iiil)le in the miiidic oi tlie i>tli eenturv. This is still the authorized version of tliu Hililo for the whole .-ilavonic race, anil to the student of the Slavonic lanKuaKea it is what Gothic is to the student of Oerinan. ' — O. F. Maclear, t'untergion i>f the Went: The Slam, pp. r>4-09. 9th Century.— Conversion of Moravia. — " In tlie opening years of the Ktli century, Moravia stretched from the Uavarian borders to the Hun- farian river Drina, and from the banks of the )anul)e, beyond the ('nrpathian mountains, to the river Stryi in Hoiithern I'oland. Into this territory (Jhristianity had been ushered as early lis A. i). 801, by Charh'inaKne, who, as his cus- tom was, enforced baptism at the jioint of the sword, at least as far as the kinj; was concerned. Ellorts were 8ubse(|iiently madi^ by the arch- bishops of Saizbiirff and I'assaii to fan this first feeble tlickcr into somethinK like a tlanic. iiiit no .wccess attended their exertions. Paganism was overpoweringlv strong;, and (.'hristianity not only veak, but rude and uncouth in type. . . . Tlie story of this country, during; tlie process of emancipation from paganism, is but a re|)eti- tion of tlie incidents witli which, in neighbouring states, we have already become familiar. Kami- flcations of the work of (Jyril and Metliodius ex- tended into Servia. The Slavonic alphabet made way there, as in Bohemia and .Moravia, for Christianity. Tlic Servians ' enjoyed the advant- age of a liturgy which was intelligible to them ; and we find that, early in the 10th century, a considerable number of Slavonian priests from all the dioceses were ordained by the bishop of Nona, who was himself a Slavonian by descent. ' " — G. P. >Iaclear, Conversion of the We»t: The Slats, eh. 4. 9th-ioth Centuries. — The Eastern Church as a missionary Church. — " If the missionary spirit is tlic best evidence of vitality in a church, it certainly was not wanting in the Eastern Church during the nintli and tenth centuries of our era. Tliis period witnessed the conversion to Cliris- tianity of the principal Slavonic peoples, whereby they arc both linked witli Constantinople, and bound together by those associations of creed, as well as race, wliicli form so important a factor In the European politics of tlie present day. The Moravians, the Bulgarians, and tlie Russians were now brought witliin the fold of the Church ; and the way was prepared for tliat vast exten- sion of the Greek communion by -wliicli it has spread, not only throughout the Balkan penin- sula and the lands to the north of it, but wlier- cver Russian intiueiice is found — as far as tlio White Sea on the one side, and Kamtchatka on the other, and into the heart of Central Asm. The leaders in tliis great work were the two brothers, Cyril and Methodius, wlio in conse- quence of tills, have since been known as tlie Apostles of the Slavonians. What Mezrop did for the Armenians, what Ulfllas did for the Ooths, was accomplished for that race by Cyril In the Invention of a Slavonic alphnhrt, which from this cause is still known by the name of tlie Cvrillic. The same teacher, by his translittloii of the Scriptures into their tongue, pnivhicd them with a literary language, tliercliy priKliicIng the same result wliicli Luther's Bible siil)se(nicntly cITected for (Jermany, and Dante's Divina Coni- niedia for Italy. It is no matter for surprise that, throughout the whole of this great branch of the human race — even amongst the Uussians, who owed their Christianity to anotlicr source — the names of these two brothers should occupy the foremost places in the calendar of Saints. It is not less signitlcant that their names art; not I'Ven mcntioiicii by the Byzantine historians." — II. F. Tozer, The Church and the Kunlern Kinpire, ch. 7. 9th-iith Centuries.— The Western Church asa missionary Church. — TliecarlicrinisslnMsof tlie Western (Miiircli have been described, but it is notewortliy tliat again and again missions to tlie same regiims are necessary. It reiniiressucli a map as the one accompanying tlds artlcli' to maki! plain tlie slowness of its dilTusions and the long period needed to produce even a nomi- nally (Miristian Europe. "The views of Cliarlo magne for the con(|ue.st and convcrsicui of tliu Northern heathens [see Saxons: A. 1). 773-H04], were not confined to the limits, wide as they were, of Saxony. The final paeiticalion elTeeted at Salz, seemed to open liis ev<'-S to more extensive enterpris<'s in prospect. Political may have combined witli religious motives in i'i'',iic- ing him to secure the peace of his new frontii i.s, by enlisting the tribes of Denmark under the banner of the Cross, and he conceived tlie idea of planting a church in tlio neighbourhood of Hamburg, whidi should become a missionary centre. This plan, though interrupted by his death, was not neglected by liis snii Louis lo Debonnaire, or 'the Pious.'. . . But it is easier to propose sucli a plan than find one willing to carry it out. The well-known ferocity of the Northmen long deterred any one from offering himself for such a duty. At length he received intelligence from Wala, the abbot of Corbey, near Amiens, tliat one of his monks was not unwilling to undertake the perilous enterprise. Tlie intrejiid volunteer was Anskar." — O. F. Maclear, Conversion of the Wei^t : The Northmen, eh. 2.— "In 822, Harold, the king of Jutland, and claimant of tlie crown of Denmark, came to seek the help of Louis tlie Pious, tlie son, and one of the successors, of Charlemagne. ... On Harold's return to Denmark he was accompanied by Anskar, who well deserves to be called the apostle of Scandinavia. . . . Tlius An.skar and Autbert set out in the train of Iliirold, and during tlie journey and voyage a kindly feeling sprang up between the royal and the missionary families. Harold got no cordial greeting from liis proud heatlum subjects when he announced to them that he had done homage to the emperor, and tliat he had embraced tlie gospel. He seems to have been very sincere and very earnest in his endeavours to induce his nobles and subjects to abandon idolatry and embrace C'hristianity. To expect that he was altogether judicious in these efforts would lie to suppose that ho liiul those views regarding flic relation that ouglit to sub- sist between rulers and subjects, . . . views regarding liberty of conscience and the right of private judgment. . . . The result was that 465 CIIRISTIANITV. Thr liuwian f'hurrh. CHRISTIANITY. afUT two yporii, in 828, he wiw compollpd to nlHlicutctlu^tlircitic. . . . Tin- ixmltlimor AiiMkiir, (lilliclllt IIH it WIIN Wllilc Unroll! WIIH DM llll' tliroiu', l)pciiini! Htill iniirc lillllcnlt after liis alKliciitioii. . . , liiit JuHtitt tliK tiiiii' wlicri till' door wiwj*liut HKiiinst liim in I>riiiniirl<, iiiiutlirr witH opi'iK'il ill Hwi'ilcn, wliicli proinisi'il to hr. wilier iinil morn clTrctim!. . . . Iln wiis kinilly rt'coivcil by tlio HwimIIhIi kllin, who K"ve him {M'rmiHMiim to preach, iiiiil IiIh Hiibjeetx fn'eilom to iitri'pt mill profess the gospel of ('lirlst. As Aimkiirhiiil iM'eii leil to expert, so he fouiiil, miiiiy ('hristliin captives, wlio liiiil been hroiiKht from other countries, — Fnmce, (Jermiiny, Hritnln, Ireland, — and wlio, having; been as slieep with- out II Hheplierd, gladly received from Aiiskar those consolations and exhortations wliidi were fltte<l to alleviate tlie sorrows of tlieir captivity. . . . After a year and a hnlf's stay in Hweilen, Anskar nttiimed home, and Klaildened the heart of the >(immI emperor, and lioiibtless of many others, by the cheering prospect lie was able to present of the acceptance of the gospel by the bwedes. lie was now made nominally bisliop of Hamburg, but with the special design of super- intending and conducting missionary operations both in Denmark and Hwe<len. . . . Ilorik, king of IDenmark, who had driven Harold from his throne, . . . had been hitiicrto an uncom- promising enemy of the gospel. Anskar under- took the management of some political negoti- ations with him, and in the conduct of them made so favourable an impression on him that he refused to have any other negotiator or ainbas.sailor of the German king at his court. He treated him as a personal friend, niid gave him full liberty to conduct missionary operations. These operations he conducted wltli his usual zeal, and by Qixl's blessing, wltli much success. Alaiiy were baptized The Christiana of Ger- many and Holland traded more freely with the Danes than before, and tlio Danes resorted in larger numbers as traders to Holland and Germany ; and in these and otlicr ways a knowl- edge of the gospel, and some apprehension of the blessings wliich it brings with it, were diffused among the people. . . . Although the Norwegians were continually coming into con- tact, in the varying relations of war and peace, with tlio Swedes and the Danes, tiie French ancl the Germans, the English and the Irish, and although in tiiis way some knowledge of the Christian system must have been diffused among them, yet tlie formal introduction of it into their country was a full century later tlian its intro- duction into Denmark and Sweden." — Thomas Smith, Medittml Mimons, pp. 123-138.— "The conversions in Denmark were confined to the mainland. Tlie islands still remained pagan, while human victims continued to be offered till the Emperor Henry I. extorted from Gorm, the first king of all Denmark, in A. D. 934, protection for tlie Christians throughout his realm, and the abolition of human sacrifices. In Sweden, for seventy years after Anskar's death, the nucleus of a Chnstiau Church continued to be restricted to the neighbourhood of Birka, and the country •was hardly visited by Christian missionaries." — G. F. Jlaclcar, Contersion of the West: The Northmen, eh. 2. — "It is very remarkable that. In the wliole history of the introduction of Christianity into Norway and Iceland, extending over a period of u century and a half, we meet not with the name of any noted hloliop, or eccleiil- astic, or mlsMionary. Tliere were, no doiilit, eerlesiaHtlis I'liiployed in the worit, and themj would appear to iiave been generally Knglish- men; liut they occupied a secondary jilace, almost tiieir only province being to bapti/.e those wliom tlie kings compelled to Niibmit to tliat onlinance. The kings were tlie real missionaries; and one cannot help feeling a kind of admiration for the ferocious zeal which one and another of them manifested in the undertaking, — even as tlic Lord comnicnileil the unjust steward because he had done wisely, altlioiigh his wisdom was wholly niisilirected. Tlie most persistent and tlio most successful of these missionary kings was Olaf tlie Thick, wlio came from England in 1017, and set himself with lieart and soul to the work of the demolition of heathenism, and the sub- stitution of (Christianity as the national re- ligion." — Thomas Smith, .Afe<li(Friil Afimonn, pp. 140-141. loth Century.— The Russian Church.— "In the middle of the 10th century, tlie widowed Princess Glga, lately released from the cares of regency, travelled from Kief to Constantinople. Whether her visit had political objects, or whether she was protuptcd to pay it solely, as some say, by a desire to know more of the holy faith of which only glimpses had been vouch- safed her at home, cannot be positively dechled. IJut her sojourn in the imperial city was a turn- ing-point In her career. Haptism was adminis- tered to her by the patriarch Polyeuetes, the emperor Constantino Porphyrogcnitus officiating as sponsor. Polyeuetes then solemnly addressed tlie princess, predicting that through her instru- mentality Uussia should be richly blessed. 'Olgii,' writes M. Mouravieff, 'now become Helena by baptism, tluit she miglit resemble both in name and deed the mother of Constontine the Great, stowl meekly bowing down her head, and drinking in, as a sponge that is thirsty of moist- ure, the instructions of the pi;'latc. ' . . . Some latent Impressions favourable to Chi-istianity her youngest grandson, Vladimir, doubtless owed to her. Nevertheless when, at the death of his brother Yarapolk, for which indeed he was held responsible, he mounted the throne, no signs of a grocious character revealed themselves. He was, on the contrary, a bitter and bigoted pagan. ... It seems to have occurred to many mission- aries of varying types, tliat a chief of such mark should not be left at the mercy of his own violent passions. The spiritual well-being of Vladimir accordingly became the object of laborious jour- neys, of much exertion, and of redundant elo- quence. . . . Last of nil came a Greek emissary. He was neither ' a priest nor a missionary, but a. philosopher.' . . . Like Bogorid, the wild Rus- sian chief was greatly moved. . . . The follow- ing year the king laid before the elders of his council the rival pleas of these variously recom- mended forms of faith, and solicited their advice. Tlie nobles mused awhile, and then counselled their master to ascertain how each religion worked at home. This, they thought, would be more practical evidence than the plausible repre- sentations of professors. On this suggestion Vladimir actetl. Envoys were chosen, — pre- sumably, for their powers of observation, — and the embassy of inquiry started. ' This public agreement, says the historian of the Russian Church, 'explains in some degree the suddeii 466 nimaTiANiTY. CTirUCH OP KNOLAND. and noiiprii' luccptiincf of ClirlHtlnnity which Hhortly iiflcr .'ollowcil in KuhmIii. It in |)r()lmbl() thnt nnt only tlin chii^rx, l)Ut tho coniinoii people bIso, were expecting and ready for tlu- elnuiKO.' A report, far from encoiiraKlnK, was In due time received from the umbiiSHiutorK. Of the (lerman nnil Itoinan, an well as the .lewiHli, rellKlonH in dally life, they Hpoke in very diHpaniKdn); lerins, while they (h'clared the MiiHHulinan creed, when reduced lopractice, to Ih' utterly outof the iiuch- tion. Disuppointed in all tlu'w (piarters, they now proceeded, by c<miniand, to (.'oiiHtantinople, or, aH tlu^ UuHtilanH railed it, T/araKoriMl. . . . Singularly enough, the UuHxian envoys, nccuH- tnnie<l, M we inUHt HuppoHC them to Imvo been, only to the ban-Ht Himplicity of life, had roni- plained not otdy of the paucity of decoration in the Latin cliurclicH, but of a laclc of beauty in their nppointmentx. Thux the preparations of tlio patriarch were accurately fitted to their ex- pectant frame of ndnd. They were U^d into the church of S. Sophia, gleaming; with variegated marbles, and porphyries, and Jasper, at thnt timo ' the ma.Hterpie<'e of Ohrislian architecture.' Tho building glittered with gold, and rich mosaics. The service was that of a high fcstivid, either of St. John Olirysostom, or of the Deatli of the Virgin, and wiw conducted by the patriarch In person, clad In his most gorgeous vestments. ... On their return to Vladimir, tlicy dilated with eager delight on the wonders they had seen. The king listened gravely to tbi'ir glowing ac- count of 'the tcmi)le, like which tliero was none upon earth.' After sweetness, they protested, bit- ternes.s would l)o unbearable, so that — whatever others might do — they at all events should at onco abandon heathenism. While the king hesi- tated, his boyers turned tho scale by reminding him that if tlio creed of tho Oreeks had not in- deed had much to recommend it, his pious and sagacious gnindmother. Princess Olga, would not have loved and obeyed it. Her name acte<l like a talisman. Vladimir resolved to conform to Chiistianity. Hut still, fondly clinging to the habits of his forefathers, he cherislied tho idea of wooing and winning his now n^ligion by the sword. . . . Under the auspices of the sovereign, the stately church of St. Itasil soon arose, im the very spot recently occupied by the ti-mplo of Perun. Kief iM'came the centre of ('hristlan In- lluence, whence evangell/.ltigencrgies nidiatcd In idl directions. Schools and churches were built, while .Michael, th(> first Pii'tropolitan, attended by his bislKips, 'man.' progresses into 1 hi' interior of KuHsia, everywhere oapll/.ing and instructing the people.' The Orcek c.uioii law came Into force, and llic use of the scj-vicebook anil choral music of the (Ireek communion iH-camc general, wlule. In llie Slavoid(! Scriptures and Liturgy of ('yril and MetlKulius, a road was discovered which led Htraight to the hearts of th(^ native population. 'Cyril and .MetlKHliiis, if anyone, must be considered by antlclpalioi. as the (Irst Christian teachers of Russia; their rude alphabet first instructed the Russian nation in letters, and, by Its quaint Oreek cjiaractcrs, still tcslilles In every Uussian book, and on every Russian house or shop, tlie (Ireck source of the religion and lit- erature of the empire. '" — (J. F. .Maclear, Cnnrer- »ioHofthe We»t : T/te Slam, eh. 5. "As in the first centuries it was necessary tliat the leaven of Christianity sbouM gradually pcnctrat(! the entire intelieefual life of the culti- vated nations, befont a new spiritual creation, striking its root in the forms of tho (Irecian an(l Roman (•ulture, which Chrisfianily appropriated, coidd in tliese forms completely \infold itself; so after the same i tanner it was necessary that tho Icnvon of Chrisuan.ly which . . . had been intro- duced into the masses of the tuifutored nations, sliould gradually iii'netrate their whole inward life, before u new and peculiar spiritual creation couhl spring out of it, which shouli! go on to unfold itself through the entire i>eri(Ml of tho middle ages. And tho period in which we now aro must bo regarded as still belonging to the epoch of transition from tliat old spiritual crea- tion which flourished on tlie basis of (Irecian and Roman culture to tho new one." — A. Neandcr, (teneral lli»t. of the ('hrintian IMif/ioii, niid Vhurfh, V. 3, p. 456. — Wo leave tho author's sen- tence incomplete, that it may express tlie more fully all tho subsequent history of Christianity. CHRISTINA, Queen-regent of Spain, A. D. 1833-1841 Christina, Queen oi Sweden, A. I). 163J5-1054. CHRISTINOS. The. See Spain: A. I). 1833-1846. CHRISTOPHER I., King- of Denmark, A. D. 1253-1259 Christopher II., A. 1). 1819-1834 Christopher III., King of Den- mark, Sweden and Norway, A. D. 1430- 1448. CHRYSE. — Vague reports of a region called Chryso (tho Golden), somewhere beyond tho Ganges, and of an isl ind bearing tho sumo name, off llio mouths of the Ganges, as well as of another island called Argyro (tho Silver Island), were prevalent among the early Roman geo- graphical writers. 'They probably all had reference to tho Malay peninsula, which Ptolemy called the Golden Chersonese. — E. 11. Bunbury, HiH. of Aneient Gcog., eh. 25. CHRYSLER'S FARM, Battle of. Sec United Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1813 (Octobek — NOVEMBEU). CHRYSOBULUM. See GoujBaj Bull, Byzantine. -,.■■■■ - , . . CHRYSOPOLIS.— Modern Scufjiri, opposite Constantinople ; originally tho port of the city of Chalccdon. CHRYSOPOLIS, Battle of (A. D. 323). See Home: A. I). 30.')-323. CHUMARS. See Caste Svste.m or India. CHUMASHAN FAMILY, The. See Ameuican AiiouiQiNEs: Chimasiian Family. CHUR, The Bishopric of. Sco Tyuoi,, and Switzehi.and: A. D. 13IW-1490. CHURCH, The Armenian. Sen Akmeman Ciiuncii. CHURCH OF BOHEMIA, The Utraquist National. SccHoiikmia: .V. 1). 1134-1457. CHURCH IN BRAZIL, Disestablishment of the. SeeBuAZii.: A. 1). 1889-1891. CHURCH OF ENGLAND: Origin and Establishment. See Knol.vnd: A. D. 1527- 1534; 1531-1.563; and 1535-1539. The Six Articles. See Esoland: A. I). 1539. The completed Church-reform under Ed- ward VI. See Enoi.and: A. D. 1547-1553. The doubtful conflict of religions. See Eng- land: A. D. 1553. 467 CHURCH OP ENOLANO. CILK^IAN GATES. Romaniim reitored by Mary. Sci> Enoi.and : A. I). I.Vm-I.mM. Recovery of Proteitantiim under Eliiabeth. Bvi' KN"I.AM); a. I). l.V)M-l.')HH. The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. 8.-I' K.Noi.AMi: A. I). I.V)1I. Riie of Puritanitm. Siie Enoi^nu: A. I>. irL^u-iNMi; i:>()i-ir»<n(Y). The Deipotiam of Laud. 8vc Enulanu: A. I». in;i:i-i((i(i. Riie of the Independents. Hm Enoland: A. 1>. Hl:tH Itmi. The Root and Branch Bill. Hvv. Enoland: A. I). Kill (Maui II — May). The Westminster Asiembly. See Eniii.and: A. I). llUlK.li i.v), ami DMlKMAm ii). The Solemn League and Covenant. Sou EN(11.A.NI». .V. 1). Ittl!) (.Ii:i.Y— Sl:|-TKMI1KU) The Restoration.— The Savoy Conference. Hi'c KNdi.AM); A. 1). lltOl (Ai'uii.— .hi.v). The Act of Uniformity and persecution of Nonconformists. .Sec K.n<ii./.m>: A. I). UWi- uwr,. Charles' Declaration of Indulgence, and the Test Act. Hee Enoi.anu: A. 1). 1073-1073, luid 10H7. James' Declaration of Indulgence.— Trial of the seven Bishops. .Sec En(ii.ani); A. I). 10H7- 10«8. The Church and the Revolution. — The Non- Jurors. See En(1I,anii: A. I). tOHU (AlMllL — AlIUUHT). A. O. 1704.— Queen Anne's Bounty. Sec Qukkn Annk'h Hoi nty. A. D. 1711-1714. — The Occasional Conform- ity Bill and the Schism Act. Hov. Emii.anii: A. I). 1711-1714. A. D. 1833-1845.— The Oxford or Tract- arian Movement. Si'O Oxfoiid oil Tuact- AlllAN .MoVE.\lliNT. ♦ CHURCH OF FRANCE. Seo Gallican CiiiJiicir. CHURCH, The Greek or Eastern. Suu CiiiiiHTiANnY: A. D. mO-um. CHURCH OF IRELAND, Disestablish- ment of the. See Enoi.and: A. 1). 1808-1870. CHURCH OF LATTER DAY SAINTS. .See M0UMONI8.M; A. I). 18'.>-18;tO. CHURCH OF ROME. See Papacy. CHURCH, The Russian.— The great schism known as Raskol. Hce Uuhhia : A. D. lOS.'i- 1059, CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.— Its birth. SeeScciTi and; A. 1). 1.547-1.')57. The 1 J rst Covenant. Seo Scotland: A. 1). 1557. Rebellion and triumph of the Lords of the Congregation. See Scotland: A. D. 1558- 1500. Restoration of Episcopacy. Sec Scotland : A. I). 1573. The First National Covenant. See Scot- land; A. I). 1.581. The Black Acts. See Scotl.\nd: A. D. 1584 Appropriation of Church lands. Sec Scot- land: A. I). 1587. The Five Articles of Perth. Sec Scotland: A. I). 1018. Laud's liturgy and Jenny Geddes' stool. Sec Scotland: A. I). 1037. The signing of the National Covenant. Sec Scotland: A. D. 1038. The First Bishops' War. See H<;otlani>: A. I). I0;!8-10»0, The Second Bishops' War. See Enoland: A. I). 1010, The Westminster Assembly. Sees England: A. I). |0.»3(,)ii,v). The Solemn League and Covenant. See Eniii.anI): .V. I). 1043 (.lll.Y— Ski-ikmiikk). Montrose and the Covenanters. Seo Scot- land: A. I>. HM4-1045, The restored king and restored prelacy. Seo Siori.AND; A, l», IftOO 1000. Persecutions of the Covenanters. See Scot- I.A.nd: a. I). 100»-1071»; 10711; IOMl-iri81t. The Revolution and re-establishment of the Presbyterian Church. Sec Scotland: A. I). 1088-101M>. The Disruption. — Formation of the Free Church. See S<(>Ti.AND; A. I). 184:1. CHURUBUSCO, Battle of. See Mkxico: A. I). 1847 (.Maiicii— Ski'tk.miikk). CIBALIS. Battle of (A. D. 313). See Home: A. I). 305-33)). CIBOLA, The Seven Cities of. See Amkui- cAN Aiiiiukiinkh: Pijkhi.on. CICERO, and the last years of the Roman Republic. See Uomk: H. V. OU-03, 1. 1 44-13. CILICIA.— KILIKIA.— An luuient distriet ill the soiitlieiiHterii corner of A«lii Minor, border- ing on Syriii. It wuh 11 siitrupy of llie Persian Empire, then i\ part o.' the kingdom of the Sc- liieidie, iind iifterwiird.s a Uoiimn province. The chief city ot Cilicia was Tarsus, a very ancient eoniinercial eniporiuin, whime peo|)lo were noted for mental acuteness. The ApoHtle Paul is to Im) counted among the d!stingui.shed natives of Tar- sus, and a (plite rtimarkalile number of eminent leaclu^rs of philosophy were from the same birth- place. CILICIA, Pirates of.— DuringtheMithridatic wars ])inuy was developed to alarming propor- tions 111 the eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea. Distracted by civil conflicts and occupied by foreign ones, simultaneously, the Uomaiis, for a considerable period, gave uo proper heed to the growth of this lawli'.ssness, until they found their commerce half destroyed and Home and Italy actually threatened with starvation by the intercepting of their supplies from abroad. The pirates flourished under the protection and en- couragement of the king of Pontus, at whoso instance they established their chief head- quarters, their docks, arsenals and magazines, at various points on the coast of Cilfria. Hence the name Cilician came to be applied to all the pirates of the time. This era of piracy was brought to an end, at last, by Pompey, who was sent against them, B. C. 67, with extraordinary powers conferred by the law known as the Lex Qabinia. He proceeded to his undertaking with remarkable energy and ability, and his hunting down of the freebooters which lie accomplished effectually within three months from the day his operations begun, was really the most brilliant exploit of his life.— U. G. Liddell, Hist, uf Jiome, bk. 7, eh. 03. Also in : C. Merivule, Hist, of the liomant, eh. 1. — O. Long, Deeline of the Roman Repxiblie, V. 3, ch. 0-7. CILICIAN GATES.— A pass through the Taurus range of mountains, opening from Cap- padocia into Cilicia, was anciently culled the 468 CILICIAN OATKS. CIMnill AND TKUTONKS. Pylm rr.lrlio or Clllrliwi (IiiUh, Tin- city of Tyikiin witn HitiiiiU'd ut tlic I'litriincc to llin pimi. Ilotli XtMioiilioii iiikI Alrxiuuirr, wlir> trikvcrm'il It, fU'om to liavi* ri'KiirilciI the \mnn im our whit'li iionriiiy coiilil fonuilf propi'rlyiU'ffliKliMl. — K. II. liiinltuVy, Uiiil. iif Aneifitt (lemj., eh. 10, iiecl. 2, ami rli. \'i. mrt. 1. CILURNUM.— A Koinnn city In Hrltnlii. " tin' cxIciikIvc riilim of wlilcli, well (IcHcrllicil iiH n MritiMli I'otnpt'il, iin; vIhIIiIc iiciir tin- iiKidcrn liiunlctH of ClicHtcrH." — T. Wright, Celt, Human antf Stiroii, r/i. 5. CIMARRONES, The. SrcAMKitiCA: A. D. tr)Ti-\r,m, hihI .Iamaua; a. I). i()r)5-l7u«. CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, The.— "For II coiislilcral)!)' period [second century, B. (',] nn ' iinwttleil people ' Imd been wiinderlnjf alon^ the northern vcrife of the country oc(!upied hy the Cell!* on hollisldcH of the Diirnihc. They I'lilled theinMclves the t.'Inihrl. thiit l«, the C'hein- nho, Iho chitniplotm, or, hh their enemies tranH- lilted It, the robbers; ii dcHlKniitlon, however, which to all iippeiinince hiid become the niimo of th(^ people even before their mljfriitlon. They came from the north, and the llntt Celtic pcoph; with whom they canii^ In contact were, so far as Is known, the lioil, probably In liohenda. More exact details as to the cause and the direction of their mlKi'iitlon have not iK'cn recorded by con- tcniponiries and cannot be supplied by C(mjecture. . . . Hut th(' hypothesis that the Chnbri, us well as the similar horde of the Teutones which after- wards joined them, belonged In the main not to the (y'eftic nation, to which the Uonians at first assigned them, but to the Germanic, Is supported by the most dctlnlte facts: viz., by the existence of two small tribes of the same name — remnants left behind to all appearance In their primitive seats — the C'Imbri In the mfslern Denmark, the Teutones in the north-east of Germany in the neighlwurluMxl of the IJaltlc. where .fythcas, a contwnporary of Alexander the QreuL, makes mention of them thus curly in j'oiinoction with the umlx'r trude; by the insertion of the CImbri and Teutones in the list of the Germanic peoples among the Ingfcvones niongside of the Chanel; by the judgment of Ciesar, who first made tlio Romans acquainted with the distinction between the Germans and the Celts, and who includes the CImbri, many of whom he must himself have seen, among the Germans; and lastly, by the very names of the peoi)le and the statements as to their physical appearance and habits. . . . On the other hand it is conceivable enough that such a liorde, after having wandered perhaps for many years, and having doubtless welcomed every brother-in- arms who joined it in its movemeii's near to or within the land of the Celts, would include a certain amount of Celtic elements. . . . When men afterwards began to trace the chain, of which this emigration, the first Germanic move- ment which touched the orbit of -.ncient civili- zation, was a link, the direct and living knowledge of it had long passed away." — T. Mommsen, ITi/it. of Rome, hk. 4, ch. 5. — "The name Kymri, or Cymri, still exists. It is the name that the Welsh give themselves, but I •\,m not aware that any other people have called iiicm by that name. These Kymri are a branch of the great Celtic peonle, and this resemblance of the words Kymri and Cimbri has led many modern writers to assume that the Cimbri were also a Celtic people, as many of the ancient writers namo them. liut these ancient writers an- principally tlie later Greeks, who are no authority at all on such a mailer. . . . Th<' nami- Clinbrl hait perished in Germany, wliUetlmt of the Teutones, iiy some strange aeeldent. Is now the tiameof Iho whole Germanl(! population." — G. Long, AWi'/io i>f Ihi' Itiimitii lliim/ilii; r. 3, r/i, t. Al.Ho IN: W. Ihne, Ifinl. if li,imi\ hk, 7, <•//. It. B.C. 1 13-103.— Battle* with the Romani. — The CImbri and the Teutones made tlii'lr llrst nppeitrancu on the Itoman horl/.on In the year 118 IJ. C. when Ihey eiilired .Noricum. The Norlcans were an independent people, as yet, but accepted a lertiiln protect Ion from Itoine, and the latter sent her eon ul, Carbo, with an I'rmy, to defend them. Carbo inaile an unfortu- nate attirmpt to di'id Ireaeherouslv with Iho invaders and siilTered an appalling defeat. Then the migraling barbarians, Invtead of press- ing into Italy, on the heels lA the tlying Itomans, turned westward through Helvetia" to (hiul, and occupied themselves for four yeiirs In ravaging that unhappy country. In 100 H. ('., having gathered tiielr plunder Into the forlilled town of Aduatuca and left It well protectiMl, they advanced into the Iloman province of Narbo, .Southern Gaul, and demanded land to settlii upon. The Romans reslst<'d and were agniti overwhelmingly beaten. Rut even now thu victorious host did not venture to enter Italy, and nothing is known of Its movements until 10,5 R. ('. , when a third Roman army was defeated in Roman Gaul an<l Its commaniler taken prisoner and slain. The alTrighted l^)muns sent strong recnfo.'-cemcnts to the Rhone; but jealousy between the consul who commandeil the new army and the proconsul who retained command of the f)ld delivered both of them to destruction. They were virtually annlhilateil, Oct. fl, B. C. 10.'), at Arausio (Orange), on the left bank of Iho Rhone. It Is said that 8U,(MX) Roman soldiers perished on tluit dreadful field, liesides half as many more of camp followers. "This much is certain," says Mommsen, " that only a few out of the two armies succeeded in escaping, for tho Romans had fought with the river in their rear. \* was a calamity which materially and morally f. • surpas8t!d the day of Canine." In the panic wliich tills disaster cn'\sed at Rome the consti- tution of tho Republic was broken down. Marius, conqueror of Jugurtha, was recalled from Africa and not only re-ehiclcd to tho Consul- ship, but invested with the otlice for five successive years. He took command In Gaul and found that the formit'able Invaders had moved off into Spain. This gave him time, fortunately, for the organizing and disciplining of his demoral- ized troops. When the barbarians reappeared on t!ie Rhone, in the summer of 103 I). C. , ho faced them with an army worthy of earlier Roman times. They had now resolved, apparently, to force their way, at all hazards, into Italy, and had divided tlieir incrt'iising host, to move on Rome by two routes. The Cimbri, reinforced by the TIgorini, who had joined them, made a circuit to tlio Eastern Alps, while tho Teutones, with Ambrones and TougenI for con- federates crossed tho Rlione and attacked tho defenders of the western passes. Failing to make any impression on the fortified camp of Marius the Teutones rashly passed it, marching straight for the coast road to Ituiy. Mariuii 469 CIMBRI AND TEUT0NE8. CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OP THE. cautiously followed nnd after some days gave battle to the barbarians, in the distrint of Aqiiic Scxtiie, a few miles nortli of Massilia. Tlic Uomans that day t<iok revenj^e for Arausio with a\vf\il int<^rest. The whole barbaric horde was antiiliilated. "So great was tlic number of dead bo<iie8 that the land in tlie neighborlioo<l was made fertile by them, and the people of Massilia used the Ixmes for fencing tlieir vine- yards." Meantime tlie Cimbri nnd their fellows had reached and penetrated the Brenner pass and were in the valley of the Adige. The Roman army stationed there had given way before them, and Marius was needed to roll the invasion back. lie did so, on the 30th of July B. C. 101, when the Cimbr; were destroyed, at a ba'tle fought on the Raudine Plain near VerccUa;, : is completely as the Tcntones had been destroyed at Aqua; Bcxtiffi. — T. Mommsen, Hint, of Rome, bk. 4, eh. 5. Ai-BO IN : W. Ihne, Hut. of Rome, bk. 7, ch. 0. CIMBRIAN CHERSONESUS.— The mod- ern Danish promontory of tlutland; believed to have been the liomo of the Cimbri before they migrated southwards and invaded Gaul. CIMINIAN FOREST, The.— The moun- tains ol Viterbo, which formed anciently the frontier of Rome towards Etruria, were then covered with a thick forest — "the 'silvaCim- Inia' of which Livy gives so romantic a descrip- tion. It was, however, nothing but a natural division between two nations which were not con- nected by friendship, and wished to have little to do with each other. . . . This forest was by no means like the 'silva Ilercynia' with which Livy compares it, but was of just such an extent that, according to his own account, the Romans only wanted a couple of hours to march through it." — B. Q. Niebuhr, Leets. on the IlUt. of Rome, leet. 44. CIMMERIANS, The.— "The name Cim- merians appears in the Odyssey, — the fable describes them as dwelling beyond the ocean- stream, immersed in darkness and unblessed by the rays of Helios. Of this people as existent we can render no account, for they had passed away, or lost their Identity and become subject, previous to the commencement of trustworthy authorities : but they seem to have been the chief occupants of the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea) and of the territory between thr.c peninsula and tlie river Tyras (Dneister) at th : time when the Greeks first commenced their permanent settlements on those coasts in the sevcntli century B. C. Th'i numerous localities which bore their name, even in the time of Herodotus, after they had ceased to exist as a nation, — as well as the tombs of the Cimmerian kings then shown near the Tyras, — sufficiently attest the fact; and there is reason to believe that they were — like their con- querors and successors tlie Scythians — a nomadic people, mare-milkers, moving about with their tents and herds, suitably to the nature of those unbroken steppes which their territory pre- sented, and which offered little except herbage in profusion. Strabo tells us — on what autliority we do not know — that tlicy, us well as the Trflres and other Thracians, had desolated Asia Jlinor more tlian once before the time of Ardys [King of Lydia, seventh century B. C] and even earlier than Homer." — G. Grote, JIM. of &reece, pt. 2, ch. 17. — See, also, CuMiE. CIMON, Career of. Sec Atkens: B, C. 477- 463, to .'30-449. CIMON, Peace of. See Athens: B. C. 400- 440, CINCINNATI : A. D. 1788.— The founding and naming of the city. — In 1787 "an offer was made to Congress by Jolm Clevc Sj .nines [after- wards famous for his theory that the earth is hollow, with openings at the poles], to buy two millions of acres betwf anthe Little and the Great Miamis. Symmes was a .Terseyman of wealth, had visitet' the Shawanese country, had been greatly pleased with its fertility, and had come away declaring that every acre in the wildest part was worth a silver dollar. It was too, he thought, only a question of time, and a very short time, when this value would be doubled and tripled. Thousands of immigrants were pouring into this valley each j'ear, hundreds of thousands of acres were being taken up, and the day would soon come when the rich land along the Miamis and the C'hio would be in great de- mand. There was therefore a mighty fortune in store for the lucky speculator who should buy land from Congress for five shillings an acre and sell it to immigrants for twenty. But . . . his business lagged, and though his offer to pur- chase was made in August, 1787, it was the 15th of May, 1788, before the contract was closed. In the meaatime he put out a pamphlet and made known his terms of sale. A copy soon fell into the hands of Matthias Denman. He became in- terested in the scheme and purchased that section on which now stands the city of Cincinnati. One third he kept, one third he sold to Robert Patter- son, and the remainder to Jolm Filson. The con- ditions of the purchase from Symmes gave them two years in which to begin making clearings and building huts. But the three determined to lose no time, and at once matle ready to lay out a city directly opposite that spot where the waters of the Licking mingled themselves with the Ohio. Denman and Patterson were no scholars. But Filson had once been a school- master, knew a little of Latin and something of history, and to him was assigned the duty of choosing a name for the town. . . . He determined to make one, and produced a word that was a most absurd mixture of Latin, Greek and Frenoh. He called the place Losnntiville, which, being interpreted, means the city opposite the mouth of the Licking. A few weeks later the Indians scalped him.' — J. B. McMaster, Hist, of the Peo- ple of the U. S., V. 1, p. 516. — The name given a little later to Filson's settlement was conferred on it by General St. Clair, Governor of the Ter- ritory, in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati. See Northwest Teruitory of the U. S. : A. D. 1788-1802. Ai-soiN: F.W. Miller, Cincinnati's BeginntTms. A. D. 1863. — Threatened by John Morgan's Rebel Raid. See United States op Am. ; A. D. 1883 (July: Kentucky). CINCINNATI, The Society of the.— "Men of the present generation who in childhood rum- maged in their grandmothers' cosy garrets can- not fail to have come across scores of musty and worm-eaten pamphlets, their yellow pages crowded with italics and exclamation points, in- veighing in passionate language against the wicked and dangerous Society of the Cincinnati. Just before the army [of the American Revolu- 470 CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE. CINQUE PORTS. tion] was disbanded, the oflicers, at the sugges- tion of General Knox, formed themselves [April. 17831 into a secret society, for the purpose of kcepuig up their friendly intercourse and cher- ishing the heroic memories of the struggle iu whicli they had taken part. With the fondness for classical analogies which characterized that time, they likened themselves to Cincinnatus, V, ho was taken from the plow to lead an army, and returned to his quiet farm so soon as his warlike duties were over. They were modern Cincinnati. A constitution and by-laws were established for tlie order, and Washington was unanimously chosen to be its president. Its branches in the several states were to hold meet- ings each Fourth of July, and there was to be a general meeting of tlie whole society every year in the month of May. French officers who had taken part in the war were admitted to membership, and the order was to be perpetu- ated by descent through the eldest male repre- sentatives of the families of tlie members. It was furflier provided tliat a limited membersliip should from time to time be granted, as a dis- tinguished honour, to able and worthy citizens, without regard to the memories of tlie war. A golden American eagle attached to a blue ribbon edged with white was tho sacred badge of the order ; and to this emblem especial favour was shown at the French court, where th^ insignia of foreign states were generally, it is said, regarded witii jealousy. No political purpose was to be subserved by this order of the Cincinnati, save in so far as the members pledged to one another their determination to promote and clierisli the union between the states. In its main intent the society was to be a kind of masonic brotherliopd, charged with the duty of aiding the widows and the orpl.an children of its mi mbers iu time of need. Innocent as all this was, however, the news of the establishment of such a society was greeted with a howl of indignation all over the country. It was thought that its founders were inspired by a deep-laid political scheme for centralizing the government and setting up a hereditary aristocracy. . . . The absurdity of tlie situation was quickly realized by Washington, and he prevailed upon the society, in its first annual meeting of May, 1784, to abandon the principle of hereditary membership. The agita- tion was thus allayed, and in the presence of graver questions the inuch-dreaded brotherhood gradually ceased to occupy popular attention." — J. Fiske, The Critical Period of Am. Hist., cli. 3. —J. B. McMaster, lEd. of tlve People of the U. S., V. 1, ch. 3. — "Tlie hereditary succession was never abandoned. A recommendation to tliat effect was indeed made to tlie several State Societies, at the first General Meeting in Phila- delphia. . . . But tlie proposition, unwillingly urged, was accepted in deprecatory terms by some, and by others it was totally rejected. . . . At the second General Meeting, it was resolved ' that the alterations could not take effect until they had been agreed to by all the State Societies. ' They never were so agreed to, and consequently the original Institution remains in full force. Those Societies that accepted the proposed alter- ations unconditionally, of course perished with their own generation." — A. Johnston, Some Ace'', of thi Sac. of the Cincinnati (Penn. Hist. Soc. Memoirs, v. 6, pp. 51-53). — "The claim to mem- bership has latterly been determined not by strict primogeniture, but by a 'just elective preference, especially in the line of tlie tlrst-born, ' who has a moral but not an absolutely indisputable right; and membership has always been renewed by election. . . . Si.\ only of the original thirteen states — Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina — are still [in 1873] represented at tlie General Meetings. Tlie largest society, that of Jlassa- chusetts, consisting originally of 343 members, now [1873] numbers less than 80; that of New York, from 230 had in 1858 decrcaseil to 73; the 368 of Pen.isylvania to about «0; the 110 of New Jersey, in 1860, to 60; and the 131 of South Carolina was, in 1849, reduced to 71." — F. S. Drake, Meriuirials of the Soc. of the CinHimati of Mass., p. 37. CINCO DE MAYO, Battle of (1862). See Mexico;, A. D. 1861-1867. CINE, The.— Kinsfolk of the head of the tribe, among the ancient Iribh. CINQ MARS, Conspiracy of. See France: A. D. 1641-16;3. CINQUE PORTS, The.-" Hastings, Sand- wich, Dover, Romuey, Ilythe — this is the order in which the Cinque Ports were ranked in the times when they formed a nourishing and important confederation. Winchelsca and Rye were added to these live . . . soon after the Nor- man Conquest. . . . The new comers were ofHcially known as 'the two Ancient Towns.' Wlien therefore we wish to speak of this famous corporation with strict accuracy wo say, ' Tlio live Cinque Ports and two Ancient Towns. ' Tlie repetition of the number ' five ' in this title proba- bly never struck people so much a.s we might expect, since it very soon came to be merely a technical term, tlie French form of the word being pronounced, and very often spelt ' Synke ' or ' Sinke,' just as if it was the English ' Sink ' . . . The difference between the Cinque Ports and the rest of the English coast towns is plainly indicated by mcdiaival custom, since tlicy were generally spoken of collectively as ' The Ports. ' . . . Most writers upon this subject . . . have been at pains to connect tlie Cinque Ports by some sort of direct descent with the Ave Roman stations and fortresses whicli, under the Comes Littoris Saxonicl [see Saxon Siioiie, Count of], guarded the soutli-eastern shores of Britain." — M. Burrows, The Cinque Ports, eh. 1-3. — "Our kings have thought them [the Cinque Ports] wortliy a peculiar regard ; and, in order to secure them against inv;isions, have granted tlieni a particular form of government. They are under a keeper, who has the title of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (an officer first appointed by William the Conqueror), who has lie i- uthority of an admiral among them, and issues out writs in his own name. The privileges anciently annexed to these ports and tlieir dependents wen! [among others]: An exemption from all taxes and tolls. ... A power to punish foreign- ers, as well as natives, for theft. ... A power to raise mounds or banks in any man's land against breaches of tlie sea. ... To convert to their own use such goods as tliey found floating on the sea; those thrown out of ships in a storm; and those driven ashore when no wreck or ship was to be seen. To be a guild or fraternity, and to be allowed the franchises of court-leet and court-baron. A power to assemble and keep a portmote or parliament for the Cinque Ports, 17J. CINQUE PORTS. CISTERCIAN ORDER. . . . Their bnrona to have the privilege of gup- porting the cnnopy over tlie king's liead at liis coronation. In return for tlicse privilege.s the Cinrjue Port.s were required tr Hi o>it 57 ships, cacli niiinned witli 21 men and a boy, witli whicli they were to attend the king's service for 15 days at tlieir own expensf ; but if the state of affairs reiiuired tlieir assistance any longer they were to be paid by the crown. ... As the term baron occurs continually throughout all the charters of the Ports, it may not be improper to inform our readers that it is of the same imiiort as burge.ss or freeman. . . . The representatives of the Ports in |)arliament are to this day styled barons." The post of Warden of the Cinque Ports, " formerly considered of so much honour and consequence, is now converted into a patent sinecure place, for life;, with a sjilary of £4,000 a year." — llint. of the Jloroufflui of Ore/it Britain; tof/et/ier with the Cinque Ports, v. 3. — The olHceof Warden of the Cincpie Ports has been held during the present century bv Mr. Pitt, the Earl of Liverpool, the Duke of Wellington, the Enri of Dalhousie, Viscount Palmcrston, and Earl Granville. CINTRA, Convention of. See Spain: A.I). 1808-1809 (August— .I.VNu.\Hv). CIOMPI, Tumult of the. See Florence: A. D. 1378-1427. CIRCARS, OR SIRKARS, The northern. See lNr>i.\: A. D. 1758-1761. CIRCASSIANS. See CJaucasus. CIRCLES OF GERMANY, The. See Gekmanv: a. I). 149:^1519. CIRCUMCELLIONES, The. See Dona- TISTS. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE WORLD: A. D. 1519-1522.— Magellan's voy- age : the first in history, ^ee America : A. D. 1519-1524. A. D. 1577-1580. — Drake voyage. See A.m:HiCA: A. O. 1572-1580. CIRCUS, Factions of the Roman.—" The race, iu its tirst institution [among the Romans], was a simple contest of two chariots, whose drivers were distinguished by white and red liveries: two additional colours, a light green and a cerulian blue, were afterwards introduced ; and as the races were repeated twenty-five times, one hundred chariots contributed m the same day to the pomp of the circus. The four fac- tions soon acquired a legal establishment and a mysterious origin, and their fanciful colours were derived from the various appearances of nature in the four seasons of the year. . . . Another interpretation preferred the elements to the seasons, and the struggle of the green and blue was supposed to represent the conflict of the earth and sea. Their respective victories announced either a plentiful harvest or a pros- perous navigation, and the hostility of the hus- bandmen and mariners was somewhat less absurd than the blind ardour of the Roman people, who devoted their lives and fortunes to the colour which they had espoused. . . . Constantinople adopted the follies, though not the virtues, of ancient Rome ; and the same factions which had agitated the circus raged with redoubled fury in the hippodrome. Under the reign of Anastasius [A. D. 491-518J this popular frenzy was intlamed by religious zeal; and the greens, who had treacherously concealed stones and daggers under baskets of fruit, massacred, at a solemn festival, 3,000 of their blue adversaries. From the capital this pestilence was diffused into the proviilces and cities of the East, and the sportive distinction of two colours produced two strong and irrecon- cilable factions, which shook the foundations of a feeble government. ... A sedition, which almost laid Constantinople in ashes, w as excited by the mutual hatred and momentary reconcilia- tion of the two factions. " This fearful tumult, which ac(iuired the name of the Nika scditi m, from the cry, " Nika " (vanquish), adopted by tho rioters, broke out in connection with the celebra- tion of the festival of the Ides of January, A. D. 532. For five days the city was given up to tho mob and large districts in it were burned, in- cluding many churches and other stately edi- fices. The emperor Justinian would have abandoned his palace and throne, but for tho hen ic "pposition of his consort, Theodora. On the sixth ■ lay, the imperial authority was re-estab- lished by the great soldier, Iielisarius, after 30,000 citizens had been slain in the hippodrome and in tlu streets. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lio lUtii Empire, ch. 40. CIRC JS MAXIMUS AT ROME, The.— "The races and wild beast shows in the circi were amon^;; the most ancient and most favourite Roman iinusements, and the buildings dedicated to these miwrts were numerous, and nearly equal in inagiiilicence to the ninphitheatrcs. The '^ir- ons Maxim JS, .which was first provided with permanent f.cats for the spectators as early as the time of Taiquinius Priscus, was successively re- stored and ornamented by the republican govern- ment in 327 and 174 U. C. and by Julius CfEsar, Augustus, Claudiiw, Domitian and Trajan. Tho result was a building which, in dimensions and magniflcei.^e, rivalled the Coliseum, but has, unfortunately, prove(\ far less durable, scarcely a vestige of it now being left. " — R. Burn, Rome and tlie Campngnn, int. and ch. 12. — See, also, FounM BOARIUM. CIRENCESTER, Orign of. See Corinium. CIRRHA. See Deli-iii. CIRRHiEAN, OR KIRRHiEAN WAR, The. See Athens: V.. C. 010-580, and Delphi. CIRTA. — A-n ancient Numidian city. Tho modem town of Constantina in Algeria is on it» site. See Numipians. CISALPINE GAUL (GALLIA CISAL- PINA). See Rome: B. C. 390-347. CISALPINE REPUBLIC. See France: A. D. i. 796-1 797 (October— April); 1797 (May — October); 1799 (April — SeptemiJer); and 1801-1803. CISLEITHANIA. See Austria: A. D. 1866-1807. CISPADANE GAUL.— Cisalpine Gaul south of the Padus, or Po. See Padus. CISPADANE REPUBLIC, The. Sec France: A. D. 1796-1797 (October— ^Vpril), and 1797 (May— Octoiser). CISSIA (KISSIA). See Ela.m. CISTERCIAN ORDER.— The Monastery of Citeaux. — "Harding was an Englishman who spent his boyhood in the monastery of Sher- borne in Dorset, till he was seized with a passion for wandering and for study which led him first to Scotland, then to Gaul, and at last to Rome. It chanced that on his return thence, passing through the duchy of Burgundy, ho stopped at the abbey of Mol6mes. As he saw the ways and 472 CISTERCIAN ORDER. CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE. hnbits familiar to his cliildhood reproduced in tliose of tlie monlis, the wanderer's lieart yearned for tlie peaceful life which he had forsaken ; he took the vows, and Lecame a brother of the house. But when, with the zeal of a convert^ ho began to look more closely into his monastic obligations, he perceived that the practice of MolCmes, and indeed of most other monasteries, fell very far short of the strict rule of 8. Benedict. He remonstrated with his brethren till they had no rest in their minds. At last after long and anxious debates in the chapter, the abbot deter- mined to go to the root of the matter, and ap- pointed two brethren, whose learning was equalled by their jiiety, to examine diligently the original rule and decla'e what they found in it. The result of tlieii investigations justified Hai-ding's reproaches and caused u schism in the convent. The majoritj' refused to alter their 1 ecustomcd ways; tlnding they were not to be reformed, the zealous minority, consisting of Robert the abbot, Harding himself (or Stephen as he was called in religion) and sixteen others equally ' stilf -necked in their holy obstinacy,' left MolCmes, and sought a new abode in the wilder- ness. The site which they eho.se — in the diocese of Ohalon-sur-Saone, not far from Dijon — was no happy valley, no ' green retreat ' such as the earlier Benedictine founders had been wont to select. It was a dismal swamp overgrown with brushwood, a forlorn, dreary, unhealthy spot, from whose marshy character tlie new house took its name of ' the Cistern ' — Cistellum, commonly called Citeaux. There the little band set to work in 1098 to carry into practice their views of monastic duty. . . . Three-and-twenty daugh- ter houses were brought to completion during his [Harding's] life-time. One of the earliest was Pontigny, founded in 1114, and destined in after-days to become inseparably associated witli the name of another English saint. Next year there went forth anotlicr Cistercian colony, whose glory was soon to eclipse that of the mother-house itself. Its leader was a young monk called Bernard, and the place of its settle- ment was named Clairvaux. From Burgundy and Champagne the 'White Monks,' as the Cis- tercians were called from the colour of their habit, soon spread over France and Normandy. In 1128 they crossed the sea and made an en- trance Into their founder's native land." — K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, v. 1, eh. 1. Also in: S. R. aiaitland, Tlie Bark Ages, 21. CITEAUX, The Monastery of. See Cister- cian Order. CITIES, Chartered. See Com.mtjne; also BoRouoiis, and Guilds. CITIES, Free, of Italy. See Italy: A. D. 1056-11.52, and after. CITIES, Imperial and Free, of Germany. — "The tenitorial disintegration of Germany [see Germany: 13th Century] had introduced a new and beneficial element into the national life, by allowing the rise and growth of the free cities. These were of two ehisses : those which stood in immediate connection with the Empire, and were practically independent republics; and those which, while owning some dependence vipon spiritual or temporal jirinces, had yet con- querc!^ for themselves a large measure of self- government. The local distribution of the former, which is curiously unequal, depended 31 upon the circumstances which attended the dis- solution of the old tribal dukedoms. Wherever some powerful house was able to seize upon tlie inheritance, free cities were few : whenever the contrary was the case, they sprang up in abund- ance. In Swabia and on the Rhine there were more than a himdrcd: Franconia on the contrary counted only N'.^rnberg and five smaller cities: Westphalia, Dortmund and Ilerford: whil(^ in Bavaria, Regensburg stood alone. . . . The Im- perial free cities . . . were self-governed, under constitutions in which the aristocratic and the democratic elements mingled in various propor- tions: they provided for their own defence: they were republics, in the midst of States where the personal will of the ruler counted for more and more. ... In these cities the refined and luxurious civilization, to which the princes were indifferent, and on which the knights wagi'd predatory war, found expression in the pursuit of letters and the cultivation of the arts of life. Tliere, too, the Imperial feeling, which was else- wliere slowly dying out of the land, retained much of its force. The cities held, so to speak, directly of the Empire, to which they looked for protection against powerful and lawless neigh- bours, and they felt that their liberties and privileges were bound up with the maintenance of the general order. ... In them, too, as we might natunilly expect, religious life put on a freer aspect." — C. Beard, Martin Lnlher and the Jicformation, p. 16. — " Prior to the peace of Luneville [1801], Germany possessed 133 free cities, called Reiclistildte. A Reichstadt (' civitas imperii ') was a town under the immediate authority of the Emperor, who was represented by an imperial oflicial called a Vogt or ScliulHieis. The first mention of the term ' civitas imperii ' (imperial city) occurs in an edict of the emperor Frederick II. [1214-12r)0], in which Lubeck was declared a ' civitas imperii ' in perpetuity. In a later edict, of the year 1287, we tind tliat Kiiig Rudolf termed the following places 'civitales regni ' (royal cities), viz., Frankfort, Friedberg, Wetzlar, Oppenheim, Wesel, and Boppart. All these royal cities subsequently became imperial cities in consequence of the Kings of Germany being again raised to the dignity of Emperors. During tlie reign of Louis tlie Bavarian [1314- 1347] Latin ceased to be the official language, and the imperial towns were designated in the vernacular 'Richstat.' In course of time the imperial towns acquired, either by purchase or conquest, their independence. Besides the Reichstildte, there were Freistttdte, or free towns, the principal being Cologne, Basle, Mayence, liatisbou. Spires, and Worms. The free towns appear to have enjoyed the following im- munities: — 1. They were exempt from the oath of allegiance to the Emperor. 2. They were not bound to furnish a contingent for any ex- pedition beyond the Alps. 3. They were free from all imperial taxes and duties. 4. They could not be pledged. !>. They were dis- tinguished from the imperial towns by not hav- ing the imperial eagle emblazoned on the muni- cipal escutclieon. " Subsequently "the free towns were placed on the same footing as the Reichstttdt, and the term ' Freistadt, ' or free town, was disused. The government of the imperial towns was in the hands of a military and civil governor. ... On the imperial towns becoming independent, the adrliii'tration of the town wa» 473 CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE. CIVIL RIGHTS BILL. entrusted to a collecc of from four to twenty- four persons, ncconlin); to the population, and the nienil)ers of this liind of town eounci! were called either liiitlismimn. Uiithsfreiind, or Rnths- Lerr, whieh means couneilinan or adviser. The town councillors appear to have si^lected one or more of their number ns presidents, with the title of Rathsmeister, Burgermoister, or St4»dt- meister. . . . -Many of the imperial towns gained their autonomy either by i)urchase or force of arms. In lilie manner we tind that others either lost their privileges or voluntarily became sub- jects of some burgravo or ecclesiastical prince, e. g., Cologne, Worms, and Spires placed them- selves under the jurisdiction of their respective archbishops, whereas Altcnburg, Chemnitz and Zwickau were seized by Frederick the Quarrel- some in his war with the Emperor; whilst othei-s, like Hagenau, Colmar, Landau, and Strasburg, were annexed or torn from the German Empire. As the Imperial towns in- creased iu wealth and power they extended the circle of their authority over the surrounding districts, and, in order to obtain a voice in the affairs of tlie empire, at length demanded that the country imder their jurisdiction should be represented at the Ileielmtag (Imperial Diet). To accomplish this, they formed themselves into Bunds or confederations to assert their claims, and succeeded in forcing the Emperor and the princes to allow their representatives to take part in the deliberations of the Diet. The principal confederations brought into existence by the struggles going on in Germany were the Rhenish and Suabiau Bunds, and the llansa [see Hansa Towns]. ... At the Diet held at Augsburg in 1474, it appears that almost all the imperial towns were represented, and in 1648, on the Beace of Westjihalia, when their presence in the 'let was formally recognized, they were formed into a separate college. ... By the peace of Luneville four of the imperial towns, viz., Aix- l»Chapelle, Cologne, Spires, and Worms, were ceded to France. In 1803, all the imperial towns lost their autonomy with the exception of the following six: — Augsburg, Nuremberg, Frank- fort, Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen; and in 1800 the first three, and in 1810 the others, shared the same fate, but iu 1815, on the fall of Napoleon, Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck, and Frankfort, recovered their freedom, and were admitted as members of the German Bund, which they continued to be up to the ye.ir 1866." — AV. J. Wyatt, JIM. of Pruasia, v. 3, pp. 427- 433. — " According to the German historians the period of the greatest splendour of these towns was during the 14th and 15th centuries. ... In the 10th century they still enjoyed tlio same prosperity, but the period of their decay was come. The Thirty-Yeare War hastened their fall, and scarcely one of them escaped destruc- tion and ruin during that jieriod. Nevertheless, the treaty of Westphalia mentions them posi- tively, and asserts their position as immediate states, that is to say, states which depended im- mediately upon the Emperor; but the neigli- bouriug Sovereigns, on the one hand, and on the other the Emperor himself, the exercise of whose power, since the Thirty-Years War, was limited to the lesser vassals of the empire, restricted their sovereignty within narrower and narrower limits. In the 18th century, 51 of them were still iu existence, they tilled two benches at the diet, and had an independent vote there ; but, in fact, they no longer exercised any intluence upon the direction of gen(!ral affairs. At liome they were all heavily burthened with debts, partly bo- eau.se they continued to bo charged for the Im- perial taxes at a rate suited to their former splendour, and partly because their own ad- ministration was extremely bad. It is very re- markable that this '>ad administration seemed to be the result of so'.ne secret disease which was common to thera all, whatever might l)e the form of their constitution. . . . Their popula- tion decreased, and distress prevailed in them. Thej/^ were no longer the abodes of German civilization; the arts left them, and went to shine in the new towns created by the Sovereigns, and representing modern society. Trade forsook them — their ancient energy and patriotic vigour disappc »red. Hamburg almost alone still re- mained a great centre of wealth and intelligence, but this was owing to causes quite peculiar to her- self." — A. de Tocqueville, State of Society in France before 1789, mte 0. — See, also, IIanba Towns. — Of the 48 Free Cities of the Empire re- maining in 1803, 43 were then robbed of their franchises, under the exigencies of the Treaty of Luneville (see Geiimany: A. D. 1801-1803). After the Peace of Pressburg only three sur- vived, namely, Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen (see Geumanv: A. D. 1805-1806). These were annexed to France by Napoleon in 1810. — See France: A. D. 1810 (Febuuaky — Decembeu). The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, restored fiee- dom to them, and to Frankfort, likewise, and they became members of the Germanic Coa- fcderation then formed. — See Vienna, Tfik CoNGiiEss OP. — Lubeck gave up its privileges as a free city in 1866, joining the Prussian Customs Union. Hamburg and Bremqn did the same in 1888, being absorbed in the Empire. This extin- guished the last of the "free cities." See Ger- many: A. D. 1888. CITY. See Bououoh. CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN.— "Ancient poets called Athens 'The City of the Violet Crown,' with an unmistakable play upon the name of the Ionian stock to which it belonged, and which called to mind the Greek word for violet." — Q. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece: T/ie State, pt. 3, (•/(. 3. CITY REPUBLICS, Italian. See Italy: A. D. 1056-1153. CIUDAD RODRIDGO: A. D. i8lo-i3l2.— Twice besieged and captured by the French and by the English. See Spain: A. 1). 1810-1813. CIVES ROMANI AND PEREGRIN!.— "Before the Social orMarsic war(B. C. 90) tliere were only two classes within the Roman domin- ions who were designated by a political name, Cives Romani, or Roman citizens, and Peregrini, a term which comprehended the Latini, the Socii and the Provinciales, such as the inhabitants of Sicily. The Cives Itoinani were the citizens of Rome, the citizens of Itoman colonies and the inliabitants of the Municipin niiich had received the Roman citizenship." — mg, Decline of the li/)man Republic, ch. 17.— Iso, Rome: B.C. 90-88. CIVIL RIGHTS Bli The First. See United States of Am.: .. I). 1866 (April). — The Second, and its declared unconstitution- ality. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1875. 474 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN ENG- LAND.— •' It was not till loMK lifter lH3a tlmt the itiluTcnt mischief of tliii piirtisiiii system [of appointments in the national civil service] l)ecan\e manifest to the great body of thinking people. When that result was attained, the final struggle ■with patronage in the hands of members of Par- liament began on a large scale. It seems to have been, even then, foreseen by the best informed that it could not be removed by any partisan agency. They began to sec the need of some method by which fitness for the public service could he tested otherwise than by the fiat of a member of Parliament or the vote of the Cal)inet or the Treasury. What that metliod should be was one of the great problems of the future. No government had then solved it. That there must be tests of fitness independent of any political action, or mere ottlcial influence, became more and more plain to thinking men. The leaders of the great i)urties soon began to see that a public opinion in favor of sucli U'sts was being rapidly developed, which seriously threat- ened their power, uidess the [larty system itself could be made more acceptable to the people. . . . There was an abundance of fine promises made. But no member gave up his patronage — no way was opened by which a person of merit could get into an ofiice or a place except by the favor of the party or the condescension of a member. The jiartisan blockade of every port of entry to the pul)lic service, which made It tenfold easier for a decayed butler or an in- competent cousin of a member or a minister, than for the promising son of a poor widow, to pa.ss the barrier, was, after the Reform Bill as before, rigidly maintained. Fealty to the party and work in its ranks — subserviency to mem- bers and to ministei's — and electioneering on their behalf — these wore the virtues before which the ways to office and the doors of the Treasury were opened. Year by year, the public discontent with the whole system increased. . . . During the Melbourne administration, between 1834 and 1841, a demand for examina- tions, as a condition for admission to the service, came from two very different quarters. One was the higlier officials, who declared that they could not do the public work with such poor servants iis the partisan system supplied. The other was the more independent, thoughtful portion of the people, who held it to be as un- just as it was demoralizing for members of Parliament and other officers to monopolize the privilege of saying who might enter the public service. Lord Melbourne then yielded so far as to allow pass examinations to bo instituted in some of tlie larger offices ; and he was inclined to favor competitive examinations, but it was tliought to be too great an innovation to attempt at once. Tliese examinations — several of them being competitive — introduced by public officers in self-defence many years previous to 1853, had before thi\t time produced striking results. In the Poor Law Con: lission, for example, they had brought about a reform that arrested public attention. Under the Comnuttee on Education, they had caused tlie selection of teachers so much superior ' that higlier salaries were bidden for tliem for private service.' . . . These ex- aminations were steadily extended from office to office down to the radical change made in 1853. ... It had been provided, long before 1853, that those de8igne<l for the civil service of India, should not only be subjected tc a piuss examina- tion, but should, before entering the service, be subi('<ted to a course of speci.:' instruction at llaileybury College, a .sort of civil West Point. Tins College was abolished in 18.54, but e<iuiva- Icnt instruction was elsewhere provided for. The directors had the patronage of nonnnation for such instruction. . . . If it seems strange that a severe cour.se of study, for two years in such a college, was not sufficient to weed out the in- competents wliich patronage forced into it, we must bear in mind that the same influence wliieh sent them there was used to keep them there. . . . Both the Derby and the Aberdeen aundnis- tratlon.s, in 1853 and 1853, took notice tliat the civil service was in a condition of peril to British India; and, without distinction of i)arty, it was agreed that radical reforms nuist be jiromptly made. There was corruption, there was incflicieuey, there was disgraceful ignorance, there was a humiliating failure in the govern- ment to command the respect of the more intelli- gent [jortion of the people of India, and there was a still more alarnnng failure to overawe the unndy classes. It was as bad in the army iis in the civil offices. . . . There was, in short, a hotbed of abuses prolific of those influences which caused the fearful outbreak of 1857. It was too late when reform was decided upon, to prevent the outbreak, but not too lute to save British supremacy in India. A change of system was entered upon in 1853. The 30th and 3Tth cla\ises of the India act of that year priividcd ' that all powers, rights, and privileges of the court of directors of the said India Company to nominate or appoint persons to be adnntted as students . . . shall cease ; and that, subject to such regu- lations as miglit be made, any person, being a natural born subject of her Alajesty, who might be desirous of presenting himself, should be admitted to be exannned as a candidat<'.' Thus, it will be seen, Indian patronage received its death-blow, and the same blow opened the door of study for the civil service of India to every British citizen. ... In 1853, the British Govern- ment had reached a final decisicm that the partisan system of appointments coidd not be longer tolemted. Substantial control of nondua- tionsby members of Parliament, however guarded by restrictions and improved by mere pass examinations, had continued to be demoralizing in its effect upon elections, vicio\is in its intluence upon legislation, and fatal to economy and efficiency in the (lepartments. . . . The adminis- tration, with Lord Aberdeen at its head, promptly decided to undertake a radical and systematic reform. ... It was decided that, in the outset, no application should be made to Parliament. The reform should be imdertakeu by the Eng- lish Executive . . . for the time being. The first step decided upon was an inquiry into the exact condition of tlie public service. Sir Stafford Northcote (the present Chancellor of the Exchequer) and Sir Cliiirles Trevelyan were appointed in 1853 to make such inciuiry and a report. They submitted their report in Novem- ber of the same year. ... A system of com- petitive examinations . . . [was] recommended. . . . The report was accoinpanieilwitli a scheme for carrying the examinations into effect, from which 1 quote the following passages. . . . ' Such a measure will exercise the happiest inllu- 475 CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: THE U. 8. cuce in tlio education of tlie lower diissps througliout KnKlniul, acting l)y the surest of all motives — tlie ifeaire a man liasof bettering liiiu- self in life. . . . Tliey will have attained their situations in an independent manner througli their own merits. The sense of tliis conduct cannot but induce self-respect and dilfuse a wliolesonie respect among tlie lower no less than the liiglier clas.ses of offleial men. . . . Tlie elTect of it in giving a stimulus to the education of tlie lower classes can hardly be overestimated.' Such was ihe spirit of the report. This was the theory of the merit system, then first approved by an English administration for the home government. I hardly need repeat that the examinations referred to as existing were (witli small exception) mere pass examinations, and that the new examinations proposed were open, competitive examinations. . . . But the great feature of the report, which made it really a pro- posal for the introduction of a new system, was its advocacy of open competition. Except the experiment just put on trial in India, no nation had adopted that system. It was as theoretical as it was radical. ... A chorus of ri<iicule, indignation, lamentation, and wrath arose from all the ollicial and partisan places of politics. The government saw that a further struggle was at hand. It appeared more clear than ever that Parliament was not a very hopeful place in which to trust the tender years of such a refortn. . . . The executive caused the report to be spread broadcast among tlie people, and also requested the written opinions of a large number of persons of worth and distinction both in and out of office. The report was sent to Parliament, but no action upon it was requested. . . . About the time that English public opinion had pronoimced its first judgment upon the oftlcial report, and before any final action had been taken upon it, the Aberdeen administration went out. . . . Lord Palmerston came into power early in 1855, than whom, this most practical of nations never produced a more hard-headed, practical statesman. . . . Upon his administra- tion fell the duty of deciding the fate of the new system advocated in the report. . . . He had faith in his party, and believed it would gain more by removing grave abuses than by any partisan use of patronage. . . . Making no direct appeal to Parliament, and trusting to the higher public opinion, Lord Palmerston's ad- ministration advised that an order should bo made by the Queen in Council for carrying the reform into etiect; and such an order was made on the 21st of May, 1855."— I). B. Eaton, Civil Service in Oreat Britain. CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.— "The question as to the Civil Service [in the United States] arises from the fact that the president has the power of appointing a vast number of petty officials, chielly postmasters and officials concerned with the collection of the federal revenue. Such officials have properly nothing to do with poli- tics, they are simply the agents or clerks or servants of the national government in conduct- ing its business; and if the business of the national government is to be managed on sucli ordinary principles of prudence as prevail in tiie management of private business, such servants ought to bo selected for personal merit and re- tained for life or during good behaviour. It did not occur to our earlier presidents to regard the management of tlu^ public business in any other light tlian tills. But as early as the beginning of tlie jiresent century a vicious system was grow- ing up in New York and Pennsylvania. In those states the appointive offices came to be u.sed as bribes or as rewards for partisan services. By securing votes for a successful candidate, a man with little in his pocket and notliing in particular to do could obtain some office with a comfortable salary. It would be given to him as a reward, and some other man, jierhaps more competent than himself, would have to be turned out in order to make room for him. A more eflectivo method of driving good citi/i^ns ' out of politics' could hardly be devised. It called to the front a large class of men of coarse moral fibre. . . . The civil service of these states was seriously damaged in quality, politics degenerated into a wild scramble for ofilces, salaries were paid to men who did little or no public service in return, and tlie line which separates taxation from rob- bery was often crossed. About tlie same time tliLre grew up an idea that there is something especially democratic, and therefore meritorious, about 'rotation in office.'" On tlie change of party which took place upon the election of ■lackson to the presidency in 1828, " tlie methods of New York and Pennsylvania were applied on a national scale. Jackson cherished the absurd belief that the administration of his predecessor Adams had been corrupt, and he turned men out of office witli a keen zest. During the forty years between Washington's first inauguration and Jackson's the total number of removals from office was 74, and out of this number 5 were de- faulters. During tlie first year of Jackson's ad- ministration the number of changes made in the civil service was about 2,000. Such was tho abrupt inauguration upon a national scale of tlio so-called Spoils System. The phrase originated with W. L. 3Iarcy, of New York, who, in a speech in the senate in 1831 declared tliat ' to the victors belong the spoils.' . . . In the canvass of 1840 the Whigs promised to reform the civil service, and the promise brought them many Democratic votes ; but after they had won tho election they followed Jackson's example. The Democrats followed in the same way in 1845, and from that time down to 1885 it wa.i customary at each change of parly to make a ' clean sweep ' of the offices. Soon after the Civ'il War the evils of the system began to attract serious attention on the part of thoughtful people." — J. Fiske, Civil Gov't in the U. 8., pp. 261-264.— "It was not until 1867 that any important move was mado [toward a reform]. . . . This was by Mr. Jencks, of Rhode Island, who introduced a bill, made an able report and several speeches in its behalf. Unfortunately, death soon put an end to his labors and deprived tho cause of an able advocate. But the seed he had sown bore good fruit. At- tention was so awakened to the necessity of re- form, that President Grant, in his message in 1870, called tho attention of Congress to it, and that body passed an act in March, 1871, which authorized the President to prescribe, for admis- sion to tho Civil Service, such regulations as would best promote its efficiency, and ascertain the fitness of each candidate for the position he sought. For this purpose, it says, he may ' em- ploy suitable persons to conduct such inquiries, and may prescribe their duties, and establish 476 CIVIL-SERVICE REFOKM; THE U. 8, CLAIRVAUX. TC'guliitions for ttie conduct of persons who miiy receive appointments in the Civil Service.' In accordiinco wltii tills act, President Oriint ap- Solnted a Civil Service Commission, of wliich eorgo William Curtis was made chairman, after- wards succeeded by Dorman B. Eaton, and an Bi)propriatlon of $25,000 was made by ConKr<'ss to defray its expenses. A like sum was voted ne.vt year; but after that notlilng was granted untilJune, 1882, when, instead of §2.'), 000 asked for by the President, S1.'),0()() was grudgingly appropriated. It is due to Mr. Silas W. Burt, IJaval Officer in New York, who had long been greatly interested in the 8ul)ject of Reform, to say tliat he deserves tlie credit of having been tlie first to introduce open competitive examinations. Before the appointment of Grant's committee, he ]iad held sucli an examination in his oltice. . . . Under Grant's commission, open competitive ex- aminations were intnKluced in the departments at Wasliington, and Customs Service at New York, and in part in the New York Postofflcc. Although tills commission labored under many disadvantages in trying a new experiment, it was able to make a very satisfactory report, which was approved by the President and liis cabinet. . . . 'file rules adopted by Grant's commission were prepared by the chairman, Sir. Curtis. They were admirably adapted for their purpose, and have served as the basis of similar rules since then. The great interest taken by Mr. Curtis at that time, and the practical value of his work, entitled him to be regartled as the leader of the Reform. . . . Other able men took an active part in the movement, but tlie times were not pro- pitious, public sentiment did not sustain them, and Congress refused any further appropriation, although the President asked for it. As a con- sequence, Competitive Examinations were every- where suspended, and a return made to 'pass examinations.' And this method continued in use at Washington until July, 1883, after the {lassage of the Civil Service Reform Act. . . . 'resident Hayes favored reform of the Civil Service, and strongly urged it in his messages to Congress; yet he did things not consistent witli his professions, and Congress paid little attention to his recommendations, and gave him no ef- fectual aid. But we owe it to liim that an order was passed in March, 1870, enforcing the use of competitive examinations in the New York Cus- tom House. The entire charge of this work was given to Mr. Burt by the Collector. ... In 1880, Postmaster James revived tlie competitive methods in some parts of his ollicc. . . . When the President, desiring that these examinations sliould be more general and uniform, asked Con- gress for an appropriation, it was refused. But, notwitlistanding this, competitive examinations continued to be held in the New York Custom House and PostotBce until the passage of the Reform Act of 1883. Feeling that more light was needed upon the methods and progress of reform in other countries, President Hayes had formally requested Mr. Dorman B. Eaton to visit England for the purpose of making such in- quiries. Mr. Eaton spent several months in a cjireful, thorough examination; and his report was transmitted to Congress in December, 1879, by the President, in a message wliicli described it as an elaborate and comprehensive history of the whole subject. This report was afterwards embodied in Mr. Eaton's ' Civil Service in Great Britain.'. . . For this invaluable service Mr. f^aton received no <:onipensation from the (Jovem- ment, not even his personal expenses to England having been paid. And to Mr. Eaton is due, also, the credit of originating Civil Service Re- form Associations." — H. Laniliert, T/ii< I'rogrcus iif t'ieil firciee Jltfuriit, in the Unitid Sldti'n, pp. O-IO.— "The Na't'onal Civil Service Reform League was organized at Newport, R. I., on tlio Utli of August, 1881. It was the res\iU of a conference among members of civil service reform associations that had spontaneously arisen in various parts of the country for the purpose of awakening public interest in the question, like the clubs of the Sons of Liberty among our fathers, and tlie anti-slavery societies among their cliildren. The first act of the League was a resolution of hearty approval of the bill then pending in Congress, known as the Pendleton bill. Within less than two years afterward the Civil Service law was passed in Congress by a vote in the Senate of 38 yeas to 5 nays, 33 Sen- ators being absent, and in the House only a week later, by a vote of 155 yeas to 47 nays, 87 mem- btrs not voting. In the House t:ie bill was put upon its passage at once, the Speaker permitting only thirty minutes for debute. This i wift en- actment of righteous law was due, undoubtedly, to the panic of the party of administration, a panic whicli saw in the disastrous result of the recent election a demand of the country for honest politics; and it was due also to the exult- ing belief of the party of opposition that the law would essentially weaken the dominant party by reducing its patronage. The sudden and over- whelming vote was tliat of a Congress of which probably the members had very little individual knowledge or conviction upon the subject. But the instinct in regard to intelligent public opinion was UL'doubtedly sure, and it is intelligent public opinion which always commands the future. . . . Tlie passage of the law was the first great victory of the ten years of tlie reform movement. The second is the demonstration of the complete practicability of reform attested by the heads of the largest offices of auministration in the country. In the Treasury and Navy departments, the New York Custom House and Post Office, and other important ■ ustom houses and post offices, without the least regard to the wishes or the wrath of that remarkable class of our fellow -citizens, known as political bosses, it is conceded by officers, wholly beyond suspicion of party independence, that, in these chief brandies of the public service, reform is perfectly practicable and the reformed system a great public benefit. And, although as yet these offices are by no means tlioroughly reorgan- ized upon reform principles, yet a ((uartcr of the wliole number" of places in the public service to which the reformed methods apply are now in- cluded within those methods."— G. W. Curtis, Address at Annual Meeting of t!ui Xational Cinl- Servi-, Reform League, 18i)l. CIVILIS, Revolt of. See Batavians: A. D. 69. CIVITA-CASTELLANA, Battle of (1798). SeeFu.\NCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (Aikiust—Ai'iul). CIVITELLA, Siege of (1557). See Fuance: A. D. 1547-1559. CLAIR-ON-EPTE, Treaty of. See Non- manb: a. 1). 876-911. CLAIRVAUX, The Monastery of.— St. Ber- nard, "the greatest reformer of the abuses of 477 CLAIRVAUX. CLANS. tho monastic life, If not the gn'ut<!gt monk In history FA. I). 1001-1153] . . . revived the priic- tice In tlie monastery of Clteiiux, wliicli he llrst rntereil, and in tliut of Clairvaux, wliieli Im; ufUTwards founded, of llie Nternest diseii)iine wliicli liiid l)een enjoined liy St. Heuediet. lie iK'cumc! tlie Ideal type of the perfect monl(. . . . lie was not a I'opi', but he was greater than any I'op<! of his day, and for nearly half a century t\w history of tiie Chrislian Cliurch is the history of the Intliienee of one monk, the Abbot of Clairvaux. " — C. J. Stille, Studies in Meiliirral Hint,, eh. 12. — "The convent of Citeaux was found too small for tlie number of persons who de- sired to join the society which could boast of so eminent a saint. Finding his influence beneticial, Bernard proceeded to founil a new monastery. The spot wlii<'h he chose for his purpose was ni a wild and gloomy vale, formerly known as the Valley of Wormwood. . . . The district i)er- taineil to the bishopric of Laugres; and here Uernard raised his far famed abbey of Clair- vaux." — II. Stebbing, Hint, of C'hriat's Unie. Church, ch. 2«. AiiHO IN ; A. Butler, Lireii of the Saints, v. 8. — W. P. Hook, KcdeHimtinil liioy., v. 2.— J. C. Morison, Life and Times of St. Bernard. — See, also, CiSTKllCIAN Okueu. CLANS, Highland.—" The word Clan signi- fies simply cliildren or descendants, and the clan name thus implies tliat the members of it are or were suppo.sed to be descended from a common ancestor or eponymus, and they were distin- guished from each other by their patronymics, the use of surnames In the proper sense being unknown among them. [SccGenh, Ro.man.] . . . In considering the genealogies of the Highland clans we must bear In mind that in the early state of the tribal organisjition the pedigree of tlie 8ei)t or clan, and of each member of the tribe, had a very important meaning. Their rights were derived through the common ancestor, and their relation to him, and through him to each other, indicutcd their position in the suc- cession, as well as their place In the allocation of the tribe land. In such a state of society the pedigree occupied the same position as the title- deed of tlie feudal system, and the Scnnachics were as much tin; custodiers of the rights of families as the mere panegyrists of the clan. . . . During the 16th century the clans were brought into direct contact with tlie Crown, and in the latter part of it serious efforts were made by the Legislature to establish an eflicient control over tliem. These gave rise to the Acts of 1587 and 1504 . . . ; but they were followed in a few years by an important Statute, which had a powerful effect upon the position of the clans, and led to another great change iU the theory of their descent. . . . Tlie chiefs of , ..e clans thus found themselves compelled to defend their rights upon grounds wliicli could compete witli the claims of their eager opponents, and to maintain an equality of rank and prestige with them in the Heralds' Ollice, which must drive them to every device necessary to effect their purpose ; and they would not hesitate to manu- facture titles to the land when they did not exist, and to put forward spurious pedigrees better calculated to maintain their position when a native descent had lost its value and was too weak to serve their purpose. From this period MS. histories of the leading Highland families began to lie complied, in which these pretensions were advanced and spurious charters Inserted. . . . Tlie form which these pretentious genealo- gies took was tliat of making the eponymus or male ancestor of the clan a Norwegian, Dane, or Norman, or a cadet of some distinguished family, who succeeded to the clilefship and to the terri- tory of the clan by marriage with the daughter ana heiress of the last of the old Celtic line, thus combining the advantage of a descent which could compete with that of the great Norman families with a feudal succession to their lands ; and (he new form of the clan genealogy wouUl have the greater tendency to assume this form wliere the clan name was derived not from a |)ers()iial name or patronymic but from a personal epithet of its founder. . . . The conclusion, then, to which [an] analysis of the clan pedigrees which have been popularly acc(!pted at <llfferent times has brought us. Is that, so far as they pro- fess to show the origin of tlie different clans, they are entirely artlllclal and untrustworthy, but that the older genealogies may be accepted as showing the descent of the clan from its eponymus or founder, and within reasonable limits for some generations beyond him, while the later spurious pedigrees must be rejected altogether. It may seem surprising tliat such spurious pedigrees and fabulous origins should be so readily credited by the Clun families as genuine traditions, and receive such prompt acceptance as the true fount from wliicli they sjjrung ; but we must recollect that the fabulous history of Hector Uik'cc was as rapidly and universally adopted as the genuine annals of the national history, and became rooted in those parts of the country to which its flctitious events related as local traditions. AVlien Hector Boeco invested the ob.scure usurper Grig with the name and attributes of a fictitious king, Gregory the Great, and connected him with the royal line of kings, the Clan Gregorat once recognised him as their eponymous ancestor, and their descent from him Is now implicitly believed In by all the JlacGregors. It is possible, however, from these genealogies, and from other Indications, to dis- tribute the clans in certain groups, as having apparently a closer connection with each other, and these groups we hold in the main to repre- sent the great tribes Into which the Gaelic popu- lation was divided before they became broken up into clans. The two great tribes which possessed the greater part of the Highlands were the GttUgaldheal or Gael in the west, who had been under the power of the Norwegians, and the great tribe of the Moravians, or Jlen of Moray, in the Central and Eastern Highlands. To the former belong all the clans descended of the Lords of the Isles, the Campbells and Mac- leods jirobably representing the older inliabitants of their respective districts; to the latter belong in the main the clans brought In the old Irish genealogies from the kings of Dalriada of the tribe of Lorn, among whom the old Mormacrs of Moray appear. The group containing the Clan Andres or old Rosses, the !Mackcnzies and Mathesons, belong to the tribe of lloss, the Clan l)onnachy to Atliole, the Clan Lawren to btrat- herne, and the Clan Pharlane to Lennox, while the group containing the MacNabs, Clan Gregor, and Mackinnons, appear to have emerged from Glcndochart, at least to be connected with the old Columban monasteries. The Clans, properly m CLANS. CLIVE IN mniA. w cnllcil, were thus of niitivo origin; the §ur- nnmci* partly of niitlvc jtiid partly of fori'lpn dcwcnt."— W. F. Skene, Crltie S;,ll,iii(l. M: M, ell. 1) (r. H). CLARENDON, The Constitutions and the Assize of. See KNdi.ANO; A. I). UfW-U70. CLARIAN ORACLE, The. See Ohacles OK TIIK (JllKKKH. CLARK, George Rogers, and the conquest of the Northwest. See Uniti:i> Statics ok .Vm. : A. I). I77H-I77i». CLAUDIUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 41-54. ....Claudius IL, A. I). i(lK-j7(l. CLAVERHOUSE AND THE COVE- NANTERS. Se<' Scotland; A. D. 1079; 1081- 10H», mill l'!Hi)(.h-i,Y). CLAY, Henry, and the war of l8l2. ^co Fnitko St.vtks ok Am.: A. D. 1810-1812 Negotiation of the Treaty of Ghent. See UnitiodStatksok.Vm. : A. 1). 1814(I)ECK.\tliK!0. And the Tariff question. Bee Taiukp Lk(iihi,ation(Unitki> Statics): A. I). 1810-1821. and 18;)3; uml Unitkd Statics ok Am.: A. I). 1828-1833 And the Missouri Compromise. Sec U.NiTici) Statics ok Am.: .V. I). 1818-1H21. In the Cabinet of President John Quincy Adams. See Unitkd Statics ok Am. : A. I). 182.'V-1828 Defeat in the Presidential elec- tion. See Unitici) Statks ok Am. : A. I). 1844. The Compromise Measures of 1850. See L'nitkd States ok A.m. : A. 1). 18.")0. CLAYBANKS AND CHARCOALS.— During IIh; American civil war the (loiiservative and liiulicnl factions in Missouri were sonietiiuos called Claybanks and (Jliareoals. — .1. O. TCicolay and .1. Hav, Ahni/niin, l.iiicnln, >\ 8, /». 204. CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, The. See Nicauaoua: A. D. 1850. CLEAR GRITS. See Canada: A. D. 1840- 1807. CI EISTHENES, Constitution of. Sec Athens: B. C. r)10-507. CLEMENT II., Pope, A. D. 1046-1047 Clement III., Pope, A. I). 1187-1191 Clem- ent IV., Pope, A. D. 1205-1208 Clement V., Pope, A. D. 1305-1314 Clement VI., Pope, A. D. 1342-1353 Clement VII., Pope, A. I). 1378-1394 (Antipopc at Avignon) Clement VII., Pope, A. 1). 1523-1534 Clement VIII., Pope, A. D. 1591-1605 Clement IX., Pope, A. D. 1667-1609 Clement X., Pope, A. I). 1670-1676 Clement XI., Pope, A. D. 1700- 1731 Clement XII., Pope, A. D. 1730- 1740 Clement XIII., Pope, A. D. 1758- 1709 Clement XIV., Pope, A. 1). 1769-1774. CLEOMENIC (KLEOMENIC) WAR, The. See Queece: B. C. 280-146. CLEOPATRA AND CiESAR. See Alex- ANDiuA: B. C. 48-47 And Mark Antony. See Rome: B. C. 31. CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES.— "The two obelisks known as Cleopatra's Needles were originally setup by Tbothmes III. at Heliopolis. Augustus transferred them to Alexandria, where they remained until rccetjtlv. At present (July, 1880) one ornamenta the "Thames Embankment [Loudon] while the other is on its way to the United States of America. " — G. Itivwlinson, Hist, of Ancient Egypt, ch. 20, note. — The obelisk last mentioned now stands in Central Park, New York, having been brought over and erected by Commander Gorringe, at the expense of the late William H. Vanderbilt.- 11. II. Gorringe, Egyp- tian Ohfli»k». — 8<H!, also, Eoytt: AnotTT B. C. 17(H)-M(M). CLEPHES, King of the Lombards, A. D. r)73-5H(t. CLERGY, Benefit of. See Bk.nkkit ok ('i.icmiY. CLERGY RESERVES. See Canada: A. I). 1837. CLERMONT. See (m.kgovia op tub Au- VEUNI. CLERMONT, The Council of.— Speech of Pope Urban. S<'c CiirsADKs: .\. I). lOilt. CLERUCHI. See Ki.iciiK lis. CLEVELAND, Grover : First Presidential election and administration. See I'mtki) St.vtesok .\m. ; A. I). 1884 to 1889 De'eat in Presidential election. Sec United Statics OP Am.: a. I). 1888 Second Presidential election. See United Statics ok A.m. : \. I). 18112. CLEVELAND: The founding and naming of the City (1796). See Ohio; .V. I), 178(I-I7!M1. CLICHY CLUB. — CLICHYANS, The. See FitANCE; A. D. 1797 (Ski-ticmiieu). CLIENTES, Roman.— "To fihe Homanl family or bou-sehold united uiiilcr the eoiitrol of a living ma.ster, and tlie claii which originated out of the breaking up of such liousehiilds, lliere furthiT belonged the dependents or 'listeners' (elientes, from 'cluere'). Tliis term denoted not theguest.s, tiiat is, the ineinbers of similar circles who wcr(! temporarily sojourning in another household than their own, and still less the slaves who were looked upon iu law as the prop- erty of the household and not as nieinhers of it, but those individuals who, while they were not free burges.ses of any commonwealth, y<'t lived within one in a condition of protected freedom. The class included refugees who hud found a re- ception with a foreign protector, and those slaves in respect to whom their master had for the time being waived the exercise of his rights, and so conferred on them practical freedom. Tliis rela-. ti<m had not properly the character of a relation ' de jure,' like the relation of a man to his guest or to his slave: the client remained non-free, although good faith and use and wont alleviated in his case the condition of non-frcedoin. Hence ' the ' listeners ' of the household (elientes) together with the slaves strictly so-called formed the ' body of servants ' (' familia ') dependent on the will of the 'burgess' ('patronus,' like ' patri- cius')." — T. Mommscn, Jliat. of li/nne, bk. 1, ch. 5. Also in: Pastel De Coulanges, Tlie Ancient City, bk. 4, ch. 1 and 6. CLINTON, Dewitt, and the Erie Canal. SeeNEW Yoiik: A. D. 1817-1825. CLINTON, George, The first Governor of New York. See New Youk: A. 1). 1777. CLINTON, General Sir Henry, and the war of the American Revolution, Sec United States OK Am. : A. I). 1775(Ai'Hii.— .May); 1776 (June), (August); 1778 (June); 1778-1779; 1780 (Februauy— AuousT); 1781 (Januauy). CLINTONIANSAND BUCKTAILS. See New Youk: A. I). 1817-1819. CLISSAU OR CLISSOW, Battle of (1703). See Scandinavian Statics (Sweden); A. 1). 1701-1707. OLIVE'S CONQUESTS AND RULE IN INDIA. See Indl^: A. D. 1743-1752, to 1757- 1773. 479 CLOACA MAXIMA. CLuns. CLOACA MAXIMA OF ROME, The.— " Kvni III till' ptTwiil iliiy llirrc HtiindH uiiclmiiKcil tli« Krciit wwcr, the 'cloiicii iiiiixiiiia,' tlic olijcct of wlilrli, it limy lie iiltscrvi'd, wild iKit iiicri'ly to curry iiwiiy tlin rcfiiw-of tli<? clly, Init cliiclly Id ilniiii the liirt'c lake wlilcli wiiH foriricil liy I lie TIImt liclwccn the Ciipiloliiii', Avciilliic iinil I'jilii- liiir. tlii'ii cMi'iuli'd liclwccii the I'alatiiit' and ('apitdliiic, anil rrailii'd iih a Nwanin iih far iiMtlic district lictwi'i'ii the (jiiiriniil and Viiniiial. Tills worii, consisting; of tliri'C scnilrlrrlcs of iiniiii'iiso Hqiiaii' blocks, uliicli, tliouKli willioiit mortar, liavu not to this day niovcil ii knife's lirciidtli from oiii' anotluT . . . c<iualliiiff the pyramids in cvtcnt and niassivcncss, far surpasses llicm in tlit'dilllciilty of its execution. It Is so gigantic, tliiit the more one examines it tlic more liieon- celvalile it iM'comes liow even a large and power- ful state could have excKiuted It. . . . Whether the cloaca nia.xima was actually executed by Taniuiniis IVisciis or by his son Superbiis is a ()Uestlon about wliicli the ancients themselves are not agreed, and respecting whicli true historical criticism cannot presume to decide. Hut thus much may lie said, that the structure must have been completed before tile city encompassed tlie space of the seven lillls and formed a compact whole. . . . But such a work cannot possilily have been executed by the powers of a state such as Home is said to have been in those times." — B. O. Niebulir, LccU. on the JIM. of Home, leeta. 6 anil 8. CLODOMIR, King of the Franks, at Or- leans, A, 1). riii-,wt. CLONARD, Monastery of. — .V great monas- tery founded in Aleath, Ireland, b^' St. Finuian, in the sixth century, " which is said to have con- tained no fewer than 3,000 monks and which be- cameu great training-school in the monastic life." Tlie twelve principal <lisciple8 of FInnian were called the "Twelve Apostles of Ireland," St. Columba being the chief.— W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotldiitl. U: 2, eh. 2. CLONTARF, Battle of. SeeliiEL.VND: A.D. 1014. CLONTARF MEETING, The. 8eo Ihe- LANl): A. I). 1841-1848. CLOSTER-SEVEN, Convention of. See Qeu.manv: A. I). 1757 (July— Dkckmueu), and < 1758. CLOTHAIRE I., King of the Franks, A. D. 511-5(11 Clothaire II., King of the Franks (Neustria), A. 1). .584-028 ; (Austrasia), 613-822; Burgundy, «13-«28 Clothaire III., King of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. I). 660-070 Clothaire IV., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. I). 717-719. CLOVIS, King of the Franks, A. D. 481- 511 Clovis II., King of the Franks (Neus- tria), A. D. 038-654; (Austrasia), 650-654 ; (Bur- gundy), 638-654 Clovis III., King of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. D. 601- 605. CLUBS, Ancient Greek. Sec Lesche, IIbt- .iKBiKs, Eit.\Ni and Tiiiasi. The Beefsteak. — " In 1735 there was formed in the capital [London] the celebrated Beefsteak Club, or ' Sublime Society of Beef Steaks,' us its membei-s always desired to be designated. The origin of this club is singular, and was in this wise. Rich, a celebrated harletiuin, and patentee of Covent Garden Theatre in the time of George II., while engaged during the daytime iu direct- ing and controlling the nrmngcmcntfi of the stago scenery was often visited by his friends, of wlioni he had a very numerous circle. One (lay, whilo the Karl of Peterborough was present, Hieli felt the pangs of hunger so keenly that he cooked a beef steak and invited the earl to partake of it, which he did, relishing It so greatly that lie ciimu again, bringing some friends with him on iiurposu to taste tile same fare. In priK'css of time tliu beef-steak dinner became an institution. Homo of the chief wits and greatest men of tlu^ nation, to the number of 24, formed themselves Into ii society, and took as their motto 'Steaks and Liberty. ' Among its early celebrities wore Hiibb Doddington, Aaron Hill, Dr. Iloadley, Itiehard (ilover, the two Colmans, Oarriek and .lohn Beard. The number of the 'steaks' remained at its original limit until 178.'), when it was aug- mented liy (me, in order to secure the admisHion of the Ileir- Apparent." — W. C. Sydney, Kiiy- liind (tnd tlie KnyU»h in t?ie 18</» Centiivy, ch. 6 (». 1). The Brothers'.— In 1711, a political club which took this name was founded in London by Henry St. ,Iohn, afterwards Lord Bollngbroke, fo counteract the "extravagance of the Kit Cut " and " the drunkenness of the Beefsteak." "This society . . . continued for some time to restrain the outburst of those elements of disunion with which tlie llarloy ministry was so rife. To be a member of this club was esteemed a distinguished honour. They addressed each other as ' brother'; and \v(f find their ladies In their corre.spondenco claiming to be enrolled a.s sisters, llie mem- bers of this club were the Dukes of Oniiimd, Shrewsbury, Beaufort; the Earls of Oxfonl, Arran, Jersey, Orrery, Bathurst; Lonla llarley, Duplin, Masliam; Sir Robert Raymond, Sir William Windham, Col. Hill, Col. Desney, St. John, Granville, Arbuthnot, Prior, Swift, antl Friend." — O. W. Cooke, Memoirs of Bolinijbroke, V. 1, ch. 10. TheClichy. See Fuance: A.D. 1797 (Sep- TE.MHKU). The French Revolutionary. Sec Fhancb: A. I). 1700. The Hampden. See England: A. D. 1816- 1820. Dr. Johnson's. — "During his literary career Dr. Johnson assisted in the foundation of no fewer than three clubs, eacli of which was fully deserving of the name. In 1740 he established a club at a house in Ivy Lane, Paternoster How, and only the year before he died he drafted a code of rules for a club, of which the members should hold their meetings, thrice in each week, at the Essex Head iu the Strand ; an establish- ment which was then kept by a former servant of his old friends the Thrales. Those members who failed to put in an appearance at the club were required to forfeit the sum of two pence. There is an interesting account of one of the meetings of the Ivy Lane Club, at which .lolmson presided, in Sir John Hawkins's biography of him. . . . The next club with which Johnson became acquainted wnS the most influential of them all, and was the one which is now chietly remembered in connection with his name. It was, however, a plant of slow and gradual growth. The first meeting of its members, wlio exulted in the designation of 'The Club,' was held in 1763 at a hostelry called the Turk's Head, situated in Gerard Street, Soho. 'The im CLUBS. COAMTIONS. Cliil) ' retained that title \iiitil nfter the funeriil of (Inrriek, when It wiw iilwiiyH known im 'Tlie Llteriiry Club, ' As ItH nunil)erH were Hnmll iiiul limited, the lidtnlHsion to it was an honour Kreutly coveteil in politleal, leKal, and literary eireies. 'The Cluh' originated with 8ir Joshua Heynoldh, then i'resident of the Hoyal Academy, wlio at llrnt restrleted ItM nunilMTH to nine, these beinn IteynoIdH hiiiiHelf, Kaniuel .TohuNon, Kilmund linrke. Dr. CliriHtophcr Nugent (an aeeomplii*hed lionian Catholie i)hyNlelan), Hennet Langton, Tonliam ileauelerk, 'Hir Jolui llawkhm, Oliver Ooldsniith, and M. (Mianiier, Secretary in the SVar Ollice. The niendierx asiKMnhled every Monday evening piinctually at seven o'clock, and, having partaken of an inexpensive supper, conversed on literary, scientillc and artistic topics till the clock in<licale(l the hour of retir- ing. The nundiers of tlu^ Literary Clul) were Hnl)se(|ueiitly augmented by the enrolment of Garrick, Kdward Giblion, Lord Gharlemont, BIr William .lones. the enunent Oriental linguist, and James Hoswell, of hiographical fame. OtlxTS were adnutted from time to tiuK!, until in ITDl it niunhered 35. In Deeendicr, 1773, tlu; day of meeting was altered to Friday, and the weekly 8up|)ers were coniuuiled to fortnightly dliuiers 4luruig the sitting of parliament. <)wing to tin; conversion of the original tavern into a private house, the clul) moved, in I7H3, first to Prince's, in Hackvillc Street; next to Le Teller's in Dover Street; then, in llO'i, to Parsloe's in St. James's Street; and lastly, in February, 1709, to the Thatched House Tavern in St, James's Street, where it reniain<'d until long after 18-W. " — W. (-'. Sydney, Eiuilniid utid the Enyliah in Vie \Hth Century, ch. (i\ 1). The King's Head. See Enoland: A. D. 1678-10711. The Kit Cat.— " The Kit Cat Club was Insti- tuted In 1091). Its most illustrious members •were Cougreve, Prior, Sir John Vanbrugh, the Earl of Orrery, and Lord Somers; but the members becoming more numeroiis, the most violent party obtained the majority, and the Earl and his friends were less regvdar in their attendance. . . . The Kit Cat took its name from a jiastry-cook [Christopher Katt], whose pies formed a regular dish at the suppers of the club." — Q. W. Cooke, Memoirs of Jiolimjbroke, v. 1, ch. 10, fuot-/iote. Also in: J. Timbs, C'liihH and Club Life in London, pp. 47-53. — VV. C. Sydney, England and the Ent/linh in the i%th century, ch. 6. The Mohocks. See JIoiiocks. The October and the March.— "The October •Club came first into importance in the latest years of Anne, although it had existed since the last decade of the 17th century. The stout Tory squires met togetlier in tlie ' Bell ' Tavern, in narrow, dirty King Street, Westininst(T, to drink October ale, under Dahl's portrait of Queen Anne, and to trouble with tlieir tierce uueompromising Jacobitism tlic fluctuating pur- poses of Harley and the crafty counsels of St. John. The genius of Swift tempered their liot zeal with tlie cool air of his 'advice.' Then the wilder spirits .seceded, and formed the March Club, which retained all the angry Jacobitism of the parent body, but lost all its importance. " — J. McCarthy, Uiat. of tlie Four Georf/en, v. 1, ch. 5. Also in: W. C. Sydney, England and tlie English in the 18th century, ch. 6. CLUBMEN. H«!e England: A. D, 1045 (Jri.Y— .Vi oisT). CLUGNY.OR CLUNY.The Monastery of. — The famous monastery of Clugny, or t'liiny, WHS founded \. D. 010, at Cluiiy, iii'ar .Macon, in Hurgundy, by the abbot Count H"-rno, who had previously established and ruled ilie monastery of Oignl, near Lyons, It was founded under the auspices and at the e,\pense of William, Count of .Vuvergne, eoinnionly called William the Pious. " In the disastrous times which followed the death of Charles the Great anil the failiirct of his scheme to reorganize the Western world iinilcr a single head, the discipline of the religious houses fell with everything el.se; fell, not perhaps quite so soon, vet by the end of the ninth century hail fallen atinost as low us it was possible to fall. Hut here symptoms of a moral reaction showed themselves earlier than el.se- where. The revival dales from 010, the year of the foundation of the Monastery of Cliigny in Hurgundy, which was destined to exercise an enormous Inlluence on the future of the Church. While matters at Home were at their worst, there were silently training there the men who should inaugurate a new state of things [notably Ililde- lirand, afterwards Pope Gregory V II.] Already, so one .siud at the time, the whole house of tlu! C'hiirch was tilled witli the sweet savour of the ointment there poured out. It followed that wherever in any religious house tliere were any aspirations after a higher life, any longings for reformation, that house atllliated itself to Clugny; thus beginning to constitute a Congregation, that is a cluster of religious houses, scattered it might be over all Christendom, but owning one rule, acknowledging the superiority of o'le mother house, and receiving its abbots and priors from thence. In the C^iigni.in Congrega- tion, for example, there were about two thousand houses in the middle of the twelfth century — these mostly in France; the Abbot, or Aieh- Abbot, as he was called, of Clugny, being a kind of Pope of Monasticism, and for a long time, the Pope excepted, quite the most influential Church- ruler In Christendom." — U. C. Trench, Lect's on Medi(fml Oh, Hist., ch. 8. Also in: 8. R. Maitland, The Dark Ages, ch, 18-26.— A. F. Vfllemain, Life of Gregory VI L, hk. 1. — S. K. Gardiner and J. 11. Mulllnger. Int. to the Study of Eng. Hist., ch. 3, sect. 8.— E. F. Henderson, iklect Hist. Docs, of tlie Middle Ages, bk. 3, no. 4. CLUNIAC MONKS. See Cluony. CLUSIUM, Battle of (B. C. 83). See Uomk: H. C. 88-78. CLYPEUS, The.— The round iron shield of the Uomaiis. — E. Gtild and W. Koner, Life of the Greek.1 and Romans, sect. 107. CNOSSUS. See Cuetk. CNUT. Sec Can-utk. CNYDUS, Battle of (B. C. 394). See GiiEECK: B. C. 399-387. COAHUILTECAN FAMILY, The. See A.MERICAN AliOltlia.NEB: COAIIUILTECAN FAMILY. COAJIRO, The. See Ameiucvjj Auoui- oiNES: Co.uino. COALITION MINISTRY OF FOX AND LORD NORTH. See Enolam): A. I). 178'-'- 1783; and 1783-1787. COALITIONS AGAINST NAPOLEON. See FitANCE; A. D. 1805 (Januahy— AruiL); 481 COALITIONS. COLCIIIAN8. Ok.hmanv. a. I). IHtS-lHia. iukI 1H18 (May— AiMii KT), iitid FuAN< k: a. I). IHlt-IHl.V COALITIONS AGAINST REVOLU- TIONARY FRANCE. Scr KiiAMK \. I). ITlCt (.Maucii— Ski-tkmiiku); 17UH-17I)1) (Aiiiiht — .\l'HII,». COBBLER'S LEAGUE, The. Sec Gku M\ny: a I). lWJ-l.Vr». COBDEN, Richard, and the Free Trade movement. Sec Taiiikk I,i;(iini.ati()n (Kmi- LAND): A. I). 1H;)«-IH;1U; 1H4'.'; 1M4.')-1H»0; imd llicHiiMic(KnAN(K.): A. 1). la-.H-lKHO. COBDEN-CHEVALIER COMMERCIAL TREATY, The. Sec Tauii'k I,i;(iiki.ati<>n (KllANiK); A. I). 1H.-)H-IH(10. COBURG, OriKination of the Dukedom of. Hrc Saxony: A. 1). 11H((-1,-.,W. COCCIUM. — All iniportuiit Udiiihii town in Itritaiii, the rcmiiiim of which iirc supjxiMcil to ho found lit llilx lu'HttT.— T. VHght, CHI, llotnan mill Siij'oii, fli. .1. COCHIBO, The. 8ce Ameiiican Abori- OI.Nl'.H- AnKIXANH. COCHIQUIMA, The. See Ahkkican Adohi- (iiNKs: Aniimsians. COCO TRIBES. Sec Amkuican Anoiii- (iinkh: (ir( k <ir Coco Gliofl'. COCONOONS, The. Hoc Amf.uicak Ahoki- (iinkh; Maiiii'oha.n Family. COCOSATES, The. Sec Aqiitaine, The ANCIl'.NT TkMIKM. COD, Cape: A. D. 1602.— Named by Bar- tholomew Gosnold. .Sec Amkhica: a. D. KIO'J- 100."). A. D. 1605.— Called Cap Blanc by Cham- plain. S<c Canada (Xkw Fuanck): A. I). WWA- Kfor.. A. D. 1609.— Named New Holland by Hud- son. Sec Amkuua; a. I). KlOtl. CODE NAPOLEON, The. See France: A. 1). lHOl-1804. CODES. Sco Laws, &c. CODS, The. Sec Netherlands (II0L1..VND): A. I). 134,')-1354;iiua 1483-149:1 CCELE- SYRIA.— "Hollow Syria"— the long, broud, fertile and bcimtiful valley which lies bclwccn the Lilmnus and AntilibaniiH ranges of mountains, and is watered by the Orontcs and the Leontes or Littany rivers. "Few places in the wo''d are more remarkable, or have a more stirring history, than this wonderful vale." — Q. Rawlinson, Fiee Great Monarchicg : Babylonia, eh. 1. C(E N OBI U M.— CCENOBITES. -"The word ' Ca'uobiuni ' is e(iuivalent to ' moiuistc- rium ' in the later sense of that word. Cussian distinguishes the word thus. 'Monastcrium,' he says, ' may be the dwelling of a single monk, Ccenobium must be of several; the former word,' he adds, ' expressed only tlie place, the latter the manncrof living.'" — I. G. Smith, Christian Mon- atticism, p. 40. Also in; J. Bingham, -4n<i'y. of the Christ. Ch., bk. 7, eh. 2, sect. 3. COFAN, The. Sec American AuoRiarNEg: Anijesianh. COGNOMEN, NOMEN, PRiENOMEN. See Gens. Uoman. COHORTS. See Leoion, Roman. COIMBRA: Early history. See Portugal; Early history. COLBERT, The System of.— Colbertism. Se<' Taiiikk I,e<iihi,atio.n : \. I> 1(M14-1««7 (FllANCE). AImo. Fhanie; A. I). Ultll HWM. COLCHESTER, Origin of.-Wlien Cusar tlrxt opened to the UciiiiaiiH homic knowledge of liritain, the slti' of ino<lern ColclK'ster was (H'eii- pied by an "oppidiini," or fastness of the Trlno- liantcM. which the Homaimcalled CaniuhMlunum. .V little later. Cainuloilunuin acquired sonie re- nown as the royal town of the Trinobuntlne king, or prince, Cunobellii, — the Cyinbclliie of Shakespeare. It was after the death of Cunobe- llii, and when his son CaractacUM was king, (luring the reign of the emperor Claudius, that the Hoiimns began their actual con<(Uest of liri- tain. Claiidii. was present. In pirson, when Cainulodiinuin was taken, and he founded there the first Honiiin colony in the island, calling it Claiidiana Vletrlcensls. That name was too cum- brous to be preserved; but the ■ lonial character of the town caused it toliecallcii ' i>|onia-ceaster, the Colonia fortress. — abbreviat' 1. In time, to Colne-icasler, and, llnally, to Colchester. The colony was deslroycd by "the Iceni, at the time of their rising, under Hoadicca, lilt was recon- Htltiilcil and grew into an important Uoman town,— C. I,. Ciitts. CiilrhcHtn; eh. I-<I, A. D. 1648.— The Roundhead siege and cap- ture. — On tile collapse of the Uoyalist rising of 1(14M, which prixliiced what is called the Second Civil War of the I'liritaii revolutionary jieriod, Colchester received tlie "wreck of the insurrec- tion," so far as London and the surrounding country hail lately been threatened by it. Troops of cavaliers, under Sir Charli's Lucas and Ijord Capel, having collected in the town, were sur- rounded and beleaguered there by Fairfax, and held out against their besiegers from .Iiinc until late in August. "After two months of the most desperate n'sistance, Colchester, conquered by famine and sedition, at last surrendered (Aug. 27); and the next day a court-martial cimc^mned to death three of its bravest defenders. Sir Cliarles Lucas, Sir George Lisle, and Sir Bernard Gascoign, as an example, it was said, to future rebels who might be temi)ted to imitate them. In vain did the other i)rlsoner8, Lord Capel at their head, entreat Fairfax to suspend the execu- tion of the sentence, or at least that they should all undergo it, since all were alike guilty of the of ice of these three. Fairfax, excited by the long struggle, or rather intimidated bv Ireton, made no answer, and the condemned olBcers were ordered to be shot on the spot." Gascoign, however, was reprieved at the last moment. — F. P. Guizot, Hist, of the Eng. Revolution, bk. 8. Also in: C. It. Markham, Life of the Great Lord Fail fur, eh. 26-27. COLCHIANS, The.— "The Colchions ap- pear to have been in part independent, in part subject to Persia. Their true home was evidently that tract of country [on the Euxine] about the river Phasis. . . . Here they first became known to the commereial Greeks, whose early dealings in this quarter seem to have given rise to the jioetic legend of the Argonauts. The limits of Colchis vnried ut different times, but the natural bounds were nei-er greatly depart(;d from. They were the Euxine on the "east, the Caucasus on the north, the mountain range which forms the watershed between the Phasis (Uioti) and the Cyrus (Kur) ou the west, and the high ground 482 COLCniANS. COLOMBIAN STATES. l.Wft-t7.11 botwoon ni\tn\im ami Kiirs (tlii' Mofirhi.in moiin- UiluM) on till' Hoiitli. . . . Tlii> inimt irilcri'HtiiiK question connciti'il with tin- Cnlcliittim Ih tlntt cnnncclt'il witli tlicir niitioimliiy. Tlirv wcru ii Murk nici' ilwrlUnj? In llic tnlcUt of wdllc-t, and In a country which i1(hm not, tend to make im inhabltanl.H ilark coniiilcxioiicd. That they wcrx comparatively recent immli;riintM from a hotter climate Heenm therefore to lie certain. The notion cntertalneil Ity lli'rodotus of their K)jy|)tian extraction appears lo have been a conjecture of liiH own. . . . I'erhapH the nKHlcrn theory that the OolchlanH were lmini)f rants from India is entitled to some sliare of our attention. ... If the true Colchi were a colony of lilacks, thi-y must have l)ecome (fradually al)Horl>ed in tlic white populati<m proper to the country." — (}. Hawlinson, lli'tori/ nf llrri»liitu», lik\ 7, upp. 1. — See. also, Al..Mloi)l.\SS. COLD HARBOR, First and second battles of. Hei Unitki) Htatkh uk Am.; A. I). lM6a (.It'NK— .Ilii.v: VimiiNiA). and 1M(I4 (May— Junk; VllKlI.NIA). COLDEN, Cadwallader, The lieutenant- l^overnorship of. See Nkw Youk; A. i>. I77:t- 17^4 lo 177r( (.Vi-nii.— Ski'Iumeikii). COLIGNY, Admiral de, and the religious wars in France. See Khanck; A. I). ITittO- ITitCi to \'u'i American Colonies. See Fu.hida; a. 1). iMa-moa, \rM\-\rm, and \ms. COLLAS, The. See Pehu; The Ahokkiinai, IMIAniTANTS. COLLEGIA. — Numerous associations called "oolleftia" cxi.sted in ancient Kome, havlni? various jiurposes. Some were relitrious associa- tions (colleffia templorum); some were orpitd/.a- tlons of clerks or scribes; some were j^uilds of workmen; some ap[)ear to \uwv had a political character, althoujrh tlic political clubs were more commonlv called "sodalitates. " — U. Lon^, De- cline of Oie liiiiuiiu Uepiihlie, r. ii, e/i. 11. COLLINE GATE, Battle of the (B. C. 83). See HoMK: H. ('. HH-7H. COLLOT D'HERBOIS, and the French Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety. Sue KiiANci-:; A. 1). nilii (Junk— Octobek), to 17«+-17i(r> (July— Apkii.). COLMAR, Cession to France. Sec Ger- many; A. I). UUS. COLMAR, Battle of (1674). See NETireu- 1.AND8 (Holland) : A. I). 1674-1678. COLOGNE: Origin. See Colonia Aorippi- NENSIS. The Electorate. Sec Germany: A. D. 1125- 1153. In the Hanseatic Leag^ue. See Hanba Towns. COLOMAN. See Koloman. COLOMBEY-NOUILLY, OR BORNY, Battle of. See France: A. D. 1870 (July— AUOUST). COLOMBIA, United States of. See Col- OMIHAN StATKS. COLOMBIAN STATES, The.— This gen- eral title will be used, for convenience, to cover, for considerable jieriods of their history, the territory now divided between the republics of Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Unite(i States of Colombia (formerly New Granada), the latter embracing the Isthmus of Panama. The history of these countries being for a long time substan- tially identical In the main, and only illHtlnKiiish- able at intervals, it si'cms to be illtllcult to <1(> olherwiM- than hold it, somewhat arbitrarily, under one heading, until the s<>veral currents of events part company ilistinctly. The aboriginal inhabitants. See Amkhican .Vnoiiioi.NKH: CiiinciiA. A. D. 1536-1731.— The Spaniiih conquest of New Granada.— Creation of the new vice- royalty.— " For some time after the disiistroiis failure of the attempt of l.as (asas to found 11 colony on the I'earl coast of Ciimana, the norlh- em portion of Spanish South America, from the (irinoco westwards, is almost lost to hlslorv. The powers working for iiihA had siif:ialU" falli'd, and the powers of evil seemed to have tt almost all their o>vn wav. . . . l.yiii); behind these extensive coasts to tlie westward in the in- terior, is the region to which the Spaniards )ravo the name of the kingdom of New (iranada, the name beini; applied in consei|ueiice of a rescm- li!i..ice which WHS detected between the idaiti around Santa Fe de Bogota and thi' royal Vega which adjoins the historical .Moorish cap'tal. New Granada was a most extensive reiiloii. com- prising as ii dill the entire country from sea to si'ii In the north, Iving between flD' and "H longi- tude, and from 6' to 15^ of latitude." The Spanish connuest of New Granada was achieved in till' main by Xiniencs de (jiicsada. who in- vaded the eoiintiy from the north, ,' Ithoiigh the governor of t^u to, IJcnalea/ar, cut Ted it like- wise from the south. "Ximcne, de (^iiesaila came to America about the year l.");t,">, in the suite of tlie (Jovernor of Santa .Miirta, by whom he was selected to lead an expedition against the ('hibchas, who dwelt on the plain of Hogotil and around the headwaters of the .Magdaleiia. Set- ting out in Aiuil ir>;)6 with HIM) men, he suc- ceeded in pushing his way through the forest and acoss imiumerable streams lie contrived to subsist for eight months, during which he traversed 450 ndlcs, enduring meanwhile the very utmost exertions and privations that human nature coidd support. . . . When he had sur- mounted the natuntl ditlieulties in his jiath. his remaining force consisted of but 166 men, with 60 horsi's. On MiU' 2d, 1537, he resumed his advance; nnd, as tiMially happened, the mere sight of his horsemen territied the Indians into submission. At Tunja, according to the Spanish historians, he was treacherously attacked whilst resting in the palace of one of the chiefs. ... In any case, tlie chief was taken, and, after much slaughter, Ximenes found liimsclf the ah.solute jjossessor of immense riches, one golden li ntern alone being vali:cd at 6,000 ducats. From Tunja Ximenes marched tipon the sacred city of Iraca, where two Spanish soldiers accidentally set tire to the great Temple of the Sun. The result was that, after a contlagration which lasted several days, both th" city and the temple were utterly destroyed. ... On the Uth of August, 1538, was founded the city of Bogota. Ximenes was soon here joined by Frederman, a subject of the Emperor Charles V., with 160 soldiers, with whom he had been engaged in conquering Venezuela; and likewise by Benal- civzar, the conqueror of Quito. This hitter warrior had crossed tlie continent in trium|)li at the head of 150 Spaniards, together with a multitude of native followers." In the intrigues and jealous rivalries between the three which 483 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1536-1731. COLOMBIAN STATES, 1810-1819. followed, Ximencs de Qiiesada was pushed aside!, at tlrst, and even lined and banished by the Emperor; but in the end he triumphed and was appiiiiited marshal of tlic kingdom of New Granada. "On his return to Bogota in 1551, he, to his credit, exhibited an energy in pro- tecting the people of the country against their invaders, e(jual to that which he liad displayed in elTecting tlieir conepiest. Ten years later he conimaniled a force organized to repel an attack from the ruler of Venezuela; shortly after which he was apiminted Adehintado of the Kingdom of New Granada. He devoted three years, and an enormous amount of toil and money, to an absurd expedition in ipiest of the fabled lOl Dorado [.see El Douado]. " CJuesada died of leprosy in 1572. Until 1718 the kingdom of New Grannda re- mained subject to the Viceroy of Peru. In that year the Viceroyalty of Peru " was divided into two portions, the northern region, from the frontiers of jSIexico as far as to the Orinoco, and on the Southern Sea from Veragua to Tumbcz, forming the Viceroyalty of New Gninada, of which the capital was Bogota. To this region, likewise, was assigned the inland province of Quito. The Viceroyalty of New Granada, in fact, comprised what now [1884] forms the Republic of Venezuela, the United States of Columbia, and the Republic of Equador." In 1731 "it was deemed expedient to detach from the Viceroyalty of New Granada the provinces of Venezuela, Maracaibo, Varina.s, Cumana, and Spanish Guyana, and to form them into a sepa- rate Captain-Generalship, the residence of the ruler being fixed at Caracas in Venezuela." — R. G. AVatson, Spanish and Portuguese South Americn, t>. 2, ch. 0. A. D. 1810-1819.— The strugrJc for inde- pendence and its achievement,— Miranda and Simon Bolivar. — The Earthquake in Vene- zuela. — The founding^ of the Republic of Colombia. — "The Colombian IStates occupy the first place in the history of South American independence. . . . The Colombian States were first in the struggle because they were in many ways nearest to Europe. It was through them that intercourse between the Pacific coast and Etirope was mainly carried on : Porto Bello and Carthagena were thus the main inlets of European ideas. V 'des, there was here constant com- municat' with the AVest Indies; and govern- ment, pi ulation and wealth were less centralised than in the more important viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru. The Indians of New Granada had always been a restless race, and the increase of taxation which was resorted to for the defence of the coast in the war with Great Britain (1777- 1788) produced discontents among the whole population, both red and white. . . . The French I{evolution, coming soon afterwards, was another link in the chain of causes. ... In Venezuela, which the industry of its inhabitant^ liad nuscd from a poor mission district to a thriving commercial ])rovince, the progress of nuxlern ideas was yet faster. . . . The concpiest of Trinidad by Eugknd in 1707 gave a new turn to the movement. ... It was from Trinidad that the first attempts were made to excite the Spanish colonists to revolution. Francis Miranda, by whom this was done, was a type of many other men to whom is due the credit of leading the South American peoples to indepuudeuce. He was a native of Caraccas, and when a young man had held a French com- :iussion in the American War of Independence. On his return to Venezuela in 1783 he found the populace, as we have already mentioned, in an excited state, and finding that he was suspected of designs for liberating his own country, ho went to Europe, and again attacht'd himself to the French service. . . . Being proscribed by the Directory, he turned to England, and . . . when the war [between England and Spain] broke out afresh in 1804, and England sent out an expedition to invade Buenos Ayres, Miranda believed that his opportunity was come. In 1800, by English and American aid, he sailed from Tjimdad and landed with 500 men on the coast of Venezuela. But the 'Colombian Army,' as Miranda named it, met with a cool reception among the people. His utter inability to meet the Spanish forces compelled him to retreat to Trinidatl, nor did he reappear on the continent until after the revolution of 1810. The iirincipal inhabitants of Caraccas had been meditating the formation of a provisional government, on the model of the juntas of Spain, ever since the abdication of the king [see Spain : A. D. 1807- 1808] ; but it was not until 1810, when the final victory of Napoleon in Spain appeared certain, that they made a decisive movement in favour of independence. Spain, for the time at least, was now blotted out of the list of nations. Acting, therefore, in the name of Ferdinand VII., they deposed the Spanish colonial officers, and elected a supreme junta or council. Similar juntas were soon established in New Granada, at Santa Fe, Quito, Carthagena, and the other chief towns of the Viceroyalty . . . and the fortune of the patriot party in new Granada, from their close neighbourhood, was closely linked with that of the Venezolans. The Regency of Cadiz, grasping for itself all the rights and powers of the Spanish nation, determined to reduce the colonists to subjection. They therefore declared the port of Caraccas in a state of blockade, as the British government had done in the previous generation with that of Boston ; and, as in the case of Boston, this reso- lution of the Regency amounted to a declaration of war. ... A congress of all the provinces of Venezuela now met at Caraccas, and publislied a declanition of independence on the 5th of July, 1811, and those of Mexico and New Granada soon followed. . . . 'Ihe powers of nature seemed to conspire with the tyranny of Europe to destroy the young South American Republic. On the 26Hi of March, 181"^, Vene- zviela was visited by ! ;arful earthouiu 0, which destroj'cd the capitjil [Caraccas] aiil .several other towns, together with 20,000 people, and many others jjerished of hunger and in other ways. This day was Holy Thursday ; and the super- stitious people, prompted by their priests, believed this awful visitation to be a judgment from God for their revolt. The Spanish troops, iinder Montevcrde, now began a fresh attack on the disquieted Venezolans. Miranda, who on his return bad been placed at the head of the army, had in the meantime overrun New Granada, and laid the foundation of the future United States of Colombia. But the face of affairs was changed by the news of the earthquake. Smitten with despair, his soldiers now deserted to the royalists; he lost ground everywhere; the for- tress of Puerto Cavello, commanded by the 484 COLOMBIAN aXATES, 1810-1819. COLOMBIAN STATES, 1819-1830. great Bolivar, then a colonel in the sorvict! of the Republic, was surrendered through treachery. On the 25th of June iMimnda himself capitu- lated, witli all his forces; and Venezuela fell once more into the hands of the royalists. Miranda himself was arrested, in defiance of the terms of the surrender, and perished in an European dungeon, as Toussaint had perished a few years b'.rore. . . . Monteverde emptied the prisons of taeir occupants, and tilled them with the families of the principal citizens of the republic; and Caraccas became the scene of a Ueign of Terror. After Miranda's capitulation, Bolivar had gone to New Granada, which still maintained its independence, and entered into the service of that republic. Bolivar now reappeared in a new character, and earned for himself a rep\itation in the history of the new world which up to a certain point ranks with that of Washington. Simon Bolivar, like Miranda, was a native of Caracci\s. . . . Like Miranda, he had to some e.xt'jpt learned modern ideas by visiting tlie old worlu and the United States. When the cruelties of Monteverde had made Venezuela ripe for a new revolt, Bolivar reappeared on his native soil at the head of a small body of troops from the adjacent repub- lic. The successes which he gained so incensed the royalists that they refused quarter to th( ir prisoners, and war to the death ( ' guerra u muertc ') was proclaimed. All obstacles disappeared before Bolivar's generalship, and on the 4th of August, 1813, he publicly entered Caraccas, the fortress of Puerto Cavello being now the only one in the possession of the royalists. Bolivar was hailed with the title of the liberator of Vene- zuela. Ho was willing to see the republic restored; but the inhabitants very properly feared to trusr. at this time to anything but a militarj^ govcriiment, and vested the supreme power in him as dictator (1814). The event mdeed proved the necessity of a nulitary govern- ment. The defeated royalists raised fresh troops, many thousands of whom were negro slaves, and overran the whole country ; Bolivar was beaten at La Puerta, and forced to take refuge a second time in New Granada ; and the capital fell again into tlie hands of the royalists. . . . The War of Independence had been under taken against the Regency ; and had Ferdinand, on his restoration to the throne in 1814, shown any signs of conciliation, he might yet have recovered his American provinces. But the government persisted in its course of absolute repression. . . . New Granada, where Bolivar was general in chief of the forces, was the only part where the insurrection survived; and in 1815 a fleet containing 10,000 men under General Morillo arrived off Carthagona, its principal ])ort. . . . Carthagena was only provisioned for a short time : and Bolivar, overpowered by num- bers, quitted the soil of the continent and went to the West Indies to seek help to relievo Carthagena, and maintain the contest for liberty." Obtaining assistance in Hayti, he fitted out an expedition " which sailed in April from the port of Aux Cayes. Boll var landed near Cumana, in the eastern extremity of Venezuela, and from this point he gradually advanced westwards, gaining strength by slow degrees. In the meantime, after a siege of 1 16 days, Carthagena surrendered ; 5,000 of its inhabitants had perished of hunger. Both provinces were now in Morillo's hands. Fancying himself com- pletely master of the country, he proceeded to wreak a terrible vengeance on the Granadines. But at the news of Bolivar's rcai)p('araMce, though yet at a distance, the face of alTairs chanijed. . . . Ills successes in the year 1817 were sure, though slow: in 1818, after he had been joined bv European volunteers, they wi re brilliant. Bolivar beat the royalists in o le pitched battlj after another [Sagamoso, July 1, 1819, and Pantano de Bargas, July 'J.')]: anil at length a decisive victory was won by his lieuten- ant, Santander, at Boyaea, in New (iranada, August 1, 1819. This battle, in which some hundreds of British and French auxillari' fought on the side of liberty, com])letely freed the two countries from the yoke of Spain." — E. J. Payne, Ilist. of European Colonien, cIl 10. Also in : C. S. Cochrane, Jourixd of a UeKUknm in Colombia, v. 1, ch. 6-8. — II. Brownell, X. <ind S. America lUuKtrated, pp. 310-334. — V. Cusldng, Simon Bolivar (jV^. Am. Jiev., Jan., 1839, amlJan., 1830).— II. L. V. D. Ilolstein, Memoirs of liolimr, ch. 3-20.— .Major Flintner, Hist, of the Item- liition of Caraccas. A. b. 1819-1830.— The gloiy and the fall of Bolivar. — Dissolution of the Colombian Fed- eration. — Tyranny under the Liberator, and monarchical schemes. — Three davs after the battle of Boyaea, Bolivar entered Bogota in triumph. " A congress met in December anil ('ecided that Venezuela and Nueva Granada Fliould form one republic, to be called Colombia. Morillo departed for Europe in 1820, and the vic- tory gained by Bolivar at Carabobo on Jime 24, 1821, decided the fate of Colombia. In the fol- lowing January General Bolivar assenil)k'd an army at Popayan to drive the Spaniards out of the province of Quito. His second in conunand, General Sucre, led an advanced guard, which was reinforced by :i contingent of volunteers from Peru, under Santa Cruz. The Spanish General Ramirez was entirely defeated in the battle of Pichincha, and Quito was incori)orated with tlie new republic of Colombia." — C. R. Jlarkham, Colonial Hist, of S. America (Narrative and Crit- ical Hist, of Am., V. 8, ch. 5). — "The provinces of New Granad and Venezuela, together with the Presidency of Quito, now sent delegates to the convention of Cueuta, in 1831, and there de- creed the unifm of the three countries as a single state by the name of the Republic of Colombia. The first Colombian federal constitution was con- cocted by the united wisdom of the delegates ; and the result might easily have been foreseen. It was a farrago of crude and heterogeneous ideas. Some of its features were imitated from the American political system, some from the Eng- lish, some from the French. . . . Bolivar of course became President: and the Republic had need of him. The task of liberation was not yet completed. Carthagena, and ni'uiy other strong places, remained in Spanish hands. Bolivar re- duced these one by one, and the second decisive victory of Carabobo, in 1822, finally secured Col- ombian freedom. Tlie English claim the chief share in tlie battle of Carabobo: for the British legion alone carried the main Spanish position, losing in the feat two-thirds of its numbers. The war now fast drew to its close. The republic was able to contest w'ith the invaders the do- minion of the sea: General Padllla, on the 23rd of Ju.y, 1823, totally destroyed the Spanish fleet: 485 COLOMBIAN 8TAT£S, 1819-1830. COLOMBIAN STATES, 1826. and the Spanish commander Anally cnpitiilatrd at Puerto Cavello in December. All these hnrd- won successe.'i were mainly owinj; to the hnivery and reKolution of Bolivar. Bolivar deserves to the full the reputation of an able and patriotic soldier. He was now set free . . . to render im- portant services to the rest of South America : and among the heroes of independence perhaps liis name will always stand flret. But Bolivar the statesman was a man very different from Bolivar the general. He was alternately timid and arbi- trary. He was indeed afraid to" touch the prob- lems of statesmanship which awaited him: but instead of leading the Colombian peojde through independence to liberty, he stubbornly set his face against all measures of political or social re- form. His fall may be said to liavo begun with the moment when his military triumphs were complete. The disaiTection to the constitution of the leading people in Venezuela and Ecuador [the new name given to the old province of Quito, indicating its position at the equator] in 1820 and 1827, was favoured by the Provincial governors, Paez and Mos(iuera ; and Bolivar, instead of re- sisting the disintegration of the state, openly favoured the military dictatorsliips which Paez and Jlosqucra established. This policy fore- shadowed the reign of absolutism in New Granada itself. Bolivar . . . had now become not only the constitutional head of the Colombian federa- tion, but also the military head of the Peruvian republics [see Pkiht: A. I). 1820-1826, 1825- 1826, and 1826-1870] : and there can be no doubt tint he intended tlie Colombian constitution to be reduced to the Peruvian model. As a first step towards reuniting nil the South American nations under a military government, Paez, be- yond reasonable doubt, with Bolivar's connivance, prool. limed the independence of Venezuela, April 80th, ;826. This practically broke up the Col- ombian federation: and the destruction of the constitution, so far as it regarded New Granada itself, s.Kin followed. Bolivar had already re- sorted to the usual devices of military tyranny. The terrorism of Sbirri, arbitrary arrests, the as- sumption of additional executive powers, and, finally, the suppression of the vice-presidency, all pointed one way. ... At length, after the practical se<ession of Venezuela and Ecuador under their jnilitary rulers, Congress decreed a summons for ;'. Convention, which met at Ocaiia in March, 1828. . . . The liberals, who were bent on electoral reform and decentralization, were paralyzed by the violent bearing of the Bolivian leaders: and Bolivar quartered himself in the neighbourhood, and threatened the Convention at the head of an army of 3,000 veterans. He did not, however, resort to open force. Instead of tliis, he ordered his party to recede from the Convention: and this left the Conven- tion without the means of making a quorum. From this moment the designs of Bolivar were unmistakable. The dissolution of the Conven- tion, and the appointment of Bolivar as Dictator, by a junta of notables, followed as a matter of course ; and by the ' Organic decree ' of August 1828, Bolivar assumed the absolute sovereignty of Colombia. A reign of brute force now fol- lowed: but the triumph of Bolivar was only ephemend. . . . The Federation was gone : audit became a question of securing military ride in the separate provinces. A portentous change now occurred in Ecuador, Tlie democratic party under Flores triumphed over the Bolivians tmdcr Mosfpiera : and Paez assured his chief that no help was to be e.vpccte<l from Venezuela. At the Convention of Bogota, in 1830, though it was packed with Bolivar's nominees, it became clear that the liberator's star had set at last. . . . This convention refused to vote him President. Boli- var now withdrew from public life: and a few months later, December 17, 1830, he died broken- hearted at San Pedro, near Santa ^Martha. Boli- var, though a patriot as regarded the struggle with Spain, was in the end a traitor to his fellow citizens. Recent discoveries leave little doubt that he intended to found a monarchy on the ruins of the Spanish dominion. England and France, both at this time strongly conservative powers, were in favour of such a scheme ; and a Prince of the House of Bourbon had already been ■"-.minated to be Bolivar's successor." — E. J. Payne, HM. of JHuropeaii Colonies, ch. 16. — " About one month before his death. General Bolivar, the so-called ' Liberator ' of South Amer- ica, wrote a letter to the late Oenend Flores of Ecuador, in which tlie following renuirkable passages occur, which have never before been published in the English language: 'I have oeen in power for nearly 20 years, from which I have gathered only a few definite results: 1. America, for us, is ungovernable. 2. He who dedicates his services to a revolution, plows the sea. 3. The only thing that can be done in America, is to emigrate. 4. This country will inevitably fall into the hands of the unbridled rabble, and little by little become a prey to petty tyrants of all colors and races. ' " — F. Has-saurek, Four Yearn nmomj Sp<tnish-Ameriettiis, eh. 12. Also IN: J. M. Spence, The Lniul of Bolirar, V. 1, ch. 7. — E. B. Eastwick, Venezuela, ch. 11 {Battle of CaraMw). A. D. 1821-1854. — Emancipation of slaves. — The abolition of slavery in the three republics of New Grenada, Venezuela and Ecuador was initiated in the Republic of Colombia, while it embraced them all. "By a law of the 21st of July, 1821, it was provided that the children of slaves, born after its publication in the principal cities of the republic, should be free. . . . Cer- tain revenues were appropriated to the creation of an emancipation fund in each district. . . . Aside from a certain bungling looseness with which almost all Spanish-American laws are drawn, it [the act of 1821] contains some very sensible regulations, and served to lay a solid foundation for the work of emancipation, since completed by the three republics which then constituted Colombia." In Ecuador the comple- tion of emancipation was reached in 1854. — F. Hassaurck, Four Tears among Spanish- Ameri- cans, pp. 830-383. A. D. 1826. — The Congress of Panama. — "The proposition for assembling this body eman- ated from Bolivar, who, in 1823, as president of Colombia, invited the governments of Mexico, Peru, Chile, and Buenos Ayres, to form a con- federacy of the Spanish-American states, by means of plenipotentiaries to be convened, in the spirit of classic analogy, in the isthmus of Pan- ama. To this inv;t)»tion the governments of P"ru and Mexico promptly acceded, Chile and Buenos Ayres neglecteel or declined to be repre- sented in the assembly, for the reasons which we shall presently state. This magniticcnt idea of a second AchKan League seized on the imagina- 486 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1826. COLOiMBIAN STATES, 1830-1886. tions of miiiiy speculative and of some practical men in America and Europe, us destined to create u new era in the political liistor/ of the world by originatinj^ a ])urcr system of public law, and almost realizing Bernardin dc Saint Pierre's league of the m(Klern nations. In its original shape, it was professedly a plan of a bel- ligerent nature, having for its main object to combine the revolutionized states against the conunou enemy. But time was re(iuired for carrying it into effect. Meanwhile the project, magnitled by the course of events, began to change its complexion. The United States were invited to participate in the Congress, so as to form an American policy, and n rallying point for American interests, m opposition to those of Europe ; and, after the discussions which are so familiar to all, the government of the United States accepted the invitation, and despatched its representatives to Panama. ... In the in- terval, between the proposal of the plan and its execution, Centnd America was added to the family of American nations, and agreed to take part in the Congress. At length, after many delays, this modern Amphictyonic Coun- cil, consistmg of plenipotentiaries from Colombia, Central America, Peru and Jlexico, a.sscmbled in the city of Panama, June 23, 1826, and in a session of three weeks concluded various treaties ; one of perpetual union, league, and confedera- tion; others relating to the contingents which the confederates should contribute for the common defence; and another for the annual meeting of the Congress in time of war. Hav- ing th\i3 promptly despatched their private affairs, the assembly adjourned to Tacubaya in Mexico, on account of the insalubrious climate of Panama, before the delegation of the United States had arrived; since when it has justly ac- <iuircd the epithet of 'introuvable,' and probably never will reassemble in its original form. Is there not a secret liistory of all this ? AVhy did Chile and Buenos Ayres refuse to participate in the Congress ? Why has it now vanished from the face of the earth? The answer given in South America is, that Bolivar proposed the assembly as part of a grand schf.'me of ambition, — ascribed to him by the republican party, and not witliout some countenance from his own conduct, — for establishing a military empire to embrace the whole of Spanish-America, or ut least an empire uniting Colombia and the two Perus. To give the color of plousibility to the projected assembly, the United States were in- vited to be represented; and it is said Bolivar did not expect, nor very graciously receive, their accep^nce of the invitation." — C. Gushing, Bo'i- var and the Bolimaii Constitution (N. A. Hev., Jan., 1830). — In the United States "no question, in its day, excited more heat and intemperate discussion, or more feeling between a President and Senate, than this proposed mission to the Congress of American nations at Panama; and no heated question ever cooled off and died out so suddenly and completely. . . . Though long since sunk into oblivion, and its name almost forgotten, it was a master subject on the political theatre during its day; and gave rise to ques- tions of national and of constitutional law, and of national policy, the importance of which survive the occasion from which they sprung; and the solution of which (as then solved), may be some guide to future action, if similar questions again occur. Besides the gnivc ijuestions to which the subject gave rise, the subjec^t itself became one of unu.sual and |>ainful excitcnu-nt. It agitated tlie people, mad(! a violent (h bate in the two Houses of Congress, inllamed the passions of parties and individuals, rai.sed a tenii)est before which Congress l)ent, made bad feeling between the President [Jolm Quincy Adams] and tlie Senate; and le(l to the duel between Mr. Ran- dolph and Mr. Clay. It was an adminlstnition measure, and pressed by all the means known to an administration. It was evidently relied ui)on asameansof acting upon the i)ei)ple — asa popu- lar movement wliich might have the elfect of turning the tide which was then running high against Mr. Adams and Mr. Clay. . . . Now, the chief benefit to be clerived froiii its retrospect — and that indeed is a real one — is a view of the firmness with which was then maintained, by a minority, the old policy of tlie United States, to avoid entangling alliances and interference with tlie affairs of other nations; — and the exjiosition of the ^lonroe doctrine, from one so competent to give it as Mr. Adams." — T. H. Benton, Thirty Yeam' View, eh. 25 (s. 1). Also in : O. F. Tucker, The ^fonroe Doctrine, ch. 3. — C. Schurz, Life of Henry Clay, ch. 11 (v. 1). — International Am. Conference (of 1%%^): liepts. and DiHCumoM, v. 4, Hist. ap]iendix. A. D. 1830-1886. — Revolutions and civil wars. — The New Confederation (1863) of the United States of Colombia. — The Republic of Colombia. — *" New Granada was obliged in 1830 to recognize the disruption of Colombia, which had long been an accom|)lished fact. From this date the three states have a separate history, which is very much of a piece, though Venezuela was for some years preserved from the intestine commotions which have from the beginning distracted New Granada and Ecuador. . . . Mosquera, who had won the election which decided the fate of Bolivar did not long occupy the presidency. . . . Mosquera was soon driven out by General Urdanete, who was now at the head of the conservative or Bolivian party. But after the death of their leader, this party suffered a natural relapse, and Urdanete was overthrown early in 1831. Tlie history of New Granada may be siiid really to commence with the presidency of Bolivar's old rival and companion in arms, Santandcr, who was elected under the constitu- tion of 1832. . . . His presidency . . . was a coni))aratively bright episode: and with its termination in 1830 begins the dark and troubled period which the Granadines emphatically desig- nate by the name of the 'Twelve Years.' The scanty measure of liberalism which Santander had dealt out to the people was now withdrawn. Marquez, his successor, was a sceptic in politics and a man of infirm will. . . . Now began the ascendancy of clericalism, of absolutist oligarchy, and of government by the gallows. This same system continued under President Herran, who was elected in 1841 ; and tlien appeared on the scene, as his chief minister, the famous Dr. Ospina," who brought back the .Jesuits and cur- tailed the constitution. Liberalism again gained ground, electing General Lopez to the presidency m 1849 and once more expelling the Jesuits. In April 1854 a radical revolution overturned the constitution and President Obando was declared dictator. "The conservatives rallied, howevcir, and regained possession of the government before 487 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1830-1886. COLORADO. tlie close of the year. In 1857 Ospina ontorod on tlic prcsidpncy and civil war soon raged tliroiigli- oiil the country. "After n hundred tights the revolution triumphed in July, 1801. . . . Mos- qucra, who wiw now in posacdsion of the Held, was a true pupil of Uoliviir'H, and he thought the time had come for reviving Holivar's plans. . . . In 18(!H Moscpicra's new Federal (Jonstitution was proclaimed. Henceforth each State [of the eight federal States into which the 44 pr'-.vinces of New Granada were divided] became practi- cally independent under its own President; and to mark tlie change the title of the nation was altered. At first it was called the Qranadine Confedcratir)n : but it afterwards took the name of Colombia [the United States of Colombia], ■which Inul formerly been the title of the larger Confedenition under Bolivar. Among the most important facts in recent Colombian history is the independence of the State of Panama, which has become of great importance through the construction of the railway connecting the port of Colon, or Aspinwall, as it was named by the Americans, on the Atlantic, with that of Panama on the Pacific. This railway was opened in IHnS; and in the same year Panama declared itself a sovereign state. The State of Panama, after many years of conservative domination, has now perhaps the most democratic govern- ment in the world. Tlie President is elected for two years only, and is incapable of re-election. Panama has had many revolutions of its own ; nor has the new Federal Constitution solved all the difficulties of the Qranadine government. In 1867 Mosquera was obliged to have recourse to a coup d'etat, and declared himself dictator, but he was soon ofterwards arrested ; a conservative revolution took place ; Mosquera was banished ; and Gutierrez became President. The liberalb, however, came back the next year, under Ponce. Since 1874 [the date of writing being 1879] General Perez has been President of Colombia. — E. J. Payne, Hist, of European Colonien, ch. 16. — "The federal Constitution of 1863 was clearly formed on the model of ihe Constitution of the United States of America. It remained in force until 1886, wlien it was superseded by a law whicli gave the State a centralized organiza- tion and named it the 'Republic of Colombia.' " — Const, of the Republic of Colombia, with Hist. Introd. by B. Moses (Sup, to Annals of Am. Acad, of Pol. and Sac. Science, Jan., 1893). A. D. iSS^-iSpx.— The Revolution of 1885. — The constitution of 1886. — The presidency of Dr. Nunez. — "Cartagena is virtually the centre of political power in Colombia, for it is the resi- dence of President Nuilez, a dictator without the name. Before the revolution of 1885, during which Colon was burned and the Panama Rail- way protected by American marines, tlie States cvjoyed a large measure of home rule. The insurgents who were defeated in that strtjggle were Radicals and advanced Liberals. They were making a stand against centralized govern- ment, and they were overthrown. When the followers of Dr. NuSez were victorious, they transformed the constitutional system of the country. . . . Dr. Nui^cz, who had entered public life as a Radical agitator, swung completely around the circle. As the leader of the National party he became the all^ of Clericalism, and the defender of ecclesiastical privilege. Being a man of unrivalled capacity for directing public affairs and enforcing party discipline, he has established a highly centralized military govern- ment without incurring unpopularity by remain- ing constantly in sight and openly exercising authority. . . . Strong government has not been without its advantages; but the system can hardly be considered either republican or demo- cratic. ... Of all the travesties of popular government which have been witnessed in Spanish America, the political play enacted in BogotA ni.'. Cartagena is the most grotesque. Dr. Nufiez is known os the titular President of the Republic. His practice is to go to the capital at the beginning of the presidential term, and when he has taken the oath of office to remain there a few weeks until all matters of policy and discipline are arranged among his followers. He then retires to his country-seat in Cartagena, leaving the vice-President to bear the burdens of state." — I. N. Ford, Tropical America, ch. 12^ A. D. 1892, — Re-election of President Nunez. — In 1892, Dr. Rafael Nunez was elected Presi- dent for a fourth term, the term of ofllce being six years. — Statesman's Year-hook, 1893. COLONI. See Dedititius. COLONIA AGRIPPINENSIS. — Agrip- pina, the daughter of Germaiiicus and the mother of Nero, founded on the Rhine the ColoniaAgrip- pinensis (modern Cologne) — probably the only colony of Roman veterans ever established under female auspices. The site had been previously occupied by a village of the Ubii. "It is curious that this abnormal colony has, alone, of all its kindred foundations, retained to the present day the name of Colonia." — C. Merivale, Ilist. of the liomanr, ch. 50. COLONIA, URUGUAY. See Aiiokntine Repuhlic: a. D. 1580-1777. COLONIZATION SOCIETY, The Ameri- can. See Slavery, Neoro: A. D. 1816-1847. COLONNA, The. See Rome: 13Tn-14TJi Centuries, and A. D. 1347-1354; also Papacy: A. D. 1294-1348. COLONUS, The. See SLA\-EnY, Medleval : Germany. COLORADO: A. D. 1803-1848.— Acquisi- tion of the eastern part in the Louisiana Pur- chase and the western part from Mexico. See Louisiana: A. D. 1798-1803; and Mexico: A. D. 1848. A. D. 1806-1876.— Early explorations. — Gold discoveries. — Territorial and state or- g^anization. — The first American explorer to penetrate to the mountains of Colorado was Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, sent out with a small party by General Wilkinson, in 1806. He ap- proached within 15 miles of the Rocky Mountain Peak which bears his name. A more extensive official exploration of the country was made in 1819 by Major Stephen H. Long, whose report upon the whole region drained by the Missouri, Arkansas and Platte rivers and their tributaries was unfavorable and discouraging. Fremont's explorations, which touched Colorado, were TT.r.ie in 1843-44. "The only persons encoun- tered in the Rocky mountains by Fremont at this time were the few remaining traders and their former employes, now their colonists, who lived with their Mexican and Indian wives and half- breed children in a primitive manner of life, usually under the protection of some defensive structure called a fort. The first American 488 COLORADO. COMITATUS. families in Colorado wore a pnrt ot the Monnon biittulion of 1840, wlio, witli tlicir wives and cliiliiren, resided at Piiebio from September to tlie spring and summer of tlie following year, when tliey joined tlic >Iornion emigration to Salt Lake. . . . Jleusures wen; taken early in Mareli, 1847, to select locations for two United States forts bc'tween the llissoiiri and the Rocky moun- tains, tlie sites selected being those now occupie<l by Kearney City and Port Ijiramie. ... Up to 18.5!} Colorado's scant population still lived in or near some defensive establishment, and had been decreasing rather tlian increasing for the past decade, owing to the hostility of the Indians." In 1838 the first organized searching or prospecting for gold in the region was begun by a party of Cherokee Indians and whites. Other parties soon followed; the search succeeded; and the Pike's Peak mining region was speedily swarm- ing with eager advcnttirers. In the fall of 1858 two rival towns were laid out on the opposite; sides of Cherry Creek. They were named respectively Auraria and Denver. The struggle for existence between them was bitter, but brief. Auraria succumbed and Denver survived, to liecomc the metropolis of the llountjiins. The first attempt at political organization was tmide at the Auraria settlement, iu November, 18.58, and took the form of a provisional territorial organization, under tlie name of the Territory of Jefifersoii; but the provisional government did not succeed in establishing its autiiority, opposed as it was by conflicting claims to territorial juris- diction on the part of Utah, New Slexico, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota. At length, on the 28th of February, 1861, an act of Congress became law, by which the proposed new territory was duly created, but not bearing the name of Jefferson. " The name of Colorado wasgiventoit at tlu' suggestion of the man selected for its first governor. . . . ' Some,' says Gilpin, 'wanted it called Jefferson, some Arcadia. ... I said the p(!ople have to a great extent named the States after the great rivers of the country . . . and the great feature of that country is the great Colorado river. ' " Remaining in the territorial condition until July 1876, Colorado was then admitted to the Union as a state. — II. H. Bancroft, Hist, of the Pacific Staten, v. 20: Colorado, ch. 2-6. COLOSSEUM, OR COLISEUM, The.— " The Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colosseum, was built by Vespasian and Titus in the lowest part of the valley between the Cwlean and Esquillne Hills, which was then occupied by a large arti- ficial pool for naval fights ('Nauniachia'). . . . The exact date of the commencement of the Colosseum is doubtful, but' it was opened for use in A. D. 80. . . . As built by the Flavian Em- perors the upper galleries (' ma;niani ') wore of wood, and these, as in the case of tlie Circus Maximus, at many times caught fire from light- ning and other causes, and did much damage to the stone-work of the building."— J. II. Middle- ton, Ancient Home «» 188.5, c/i. 10. Also IN: J. II. Parker, Airfiafolor/i/of Jiome, pt. 7. — R. Burn, Home and the (Janipogtui, ch. 9, pt. 2.— See, also, Rome: A. D. 70-96, COLOSSUS OF RHODES. See Rhodes. COLUMB AN CHURCH.The.- The church, or the organization of Christianity, in Scotland, wliieli resulted from the labors of the Irish mis- sionary, Columba, in the sixth century, and ^* 489 which spread from tlie great monastery that he founded on the little island of lona. or la, or Ilil, near the greater Island of iMull. The church of Coluinba, "not only for a time enibrace<l within its fold the whoUiof Scotland north of the Firllis of Forth and Clyde, and was for a ecntury and a half the national church of .Scotland, but was destined to give to the Angles of Northum- bria the sa-'ie form of Clu'istlanity for a period of thirty years. " It represented some differences from the Roman church whi-.'h two centuries of isolation liad produced In tlu; Irish church, fnmi which it sprang.— W. F. Skene, Vellic fkotland, hk. 2, ch. 3. Ai.so I.N : Count de Alontalembert, The Monks of the WiKt, bk. 9 (». ii).— C. F. Madear, Conver- nionof the West: The Clin, ch. 7-10.— See Ciima- tianity: .5tii-9tii ('KNTriiiKs, and .597-^00. COLUMBIA, The District of. See Wash- INOTON (Crrv) : A. I). 1791. A. D. 1850.— Abolition of slave-trade in. See United States ok A.m. : A. 1). is.")i). A. D. 1867. — Extension of suffrage to the Neeroes. See United States ok Am. : A . I). 1867 (Januauy). ♦ COLUMBIA, S. C, The burning of. See United States op A.m. : A. D. 1865 (Fehuuauy — Maiicii: The Cauoi.inas). COLUMBIA, Tenn., Engagement at. See United States OK Am. : A. 1). 1864(NovE.MnEu: Tennessee). COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, The ■World's. See Chicaoo: A. D. 1892-1803. COLUMBIAN ORDER, The. See Tam- many Society. COLUMBUS, 'Voyages of. See America: A. D. 1484-1492; 1492; 1493-1406; 1498-1.505. COM AN A. — Comana, an ancient city of Cap- padocia, on the river Sams (Silioon) was the seat of a priesthood, in the temple of Euyo, or Bel- lona, so venerated, so wealthy and so powerful that the chief priest of Comana counted among the great Asiatic dignitaries in the time of Ca-sar. — G. Long, Decline of the Itoman Rep., v. 5, ch. 22. COMANCHES, The. See American ^Vbo- uioiNEs: SiiosiiONEAN Fa-mily, and Kicwan Family, and Apache Ouour. COMANS, The. See Kipchaks; Patchi- NAKs; Cossacks, and IIunoahy: A. D. 1114- 1301. COMBAT, Judicial. See W.uiEU ok B.\ttle. COMES LITTORIS SAXONICI. See Saxon Shore, Count ok. COMES PALATII. See Palatine Counts. COMITATUS.— COMITES.—GESITHS. — THEGNS. — Comitatus is the name given by Tacitus to a body of warlike conii)anious among the ancient Germans "who attached themselves in the closest manner to the chieftain of their choice. They were in many cases the sons of the nobles who were ambitious of renown or of a perfect education in arms. The princeps provided for them horses, arms, and such rough e(iuipineiit as they wanted. These and plentiful entertainment were accepted instead of wages. In time of war the comites fought for their chief, at once his defenders and the rivals of his jn-owess. ... In the times of forced and unwelcome rest they were thoroughly idle; they cared neither for farming nor for hunting, but siient the time in feasting and in sleep. . . . Like the Frank king,. COMITATUS. COMITIA CENTURIATA. the Anglo-Saxon king seems to linve entered on the full possession of wimt hiid been the right of the eli'i.'tive principcs [to nominates and maintain u eomilatns, to wliieli heeoidd give territory and politieal power]: hut the very prineiple of the 4'oinitatus hud iinilergonu n change from what it was in the time of Tacitus, when it r(Mip|)ears in our historians, and it seems to have had in Kng- hiiid a pecMiliar deveh)pment and a hearing of special irnp(>rtanc(t on the constitution. In Taci- tus the comiti's are the personal following of the priiici^ps; they live in his house, are maintained by his gifts, light for him in the Held. If there is little dilTeren'^e between companions and ser- vants, it is because civilizathm luis not vet intro- <luced voluntary helplessness. . . . Now the king, the perpetiud princeps and representiitive of the ra<'e, conveys to his personal following public dignity and importance. His gesiths and thegns are among the great and wise men of the land. Th(! right of having such dependents is not restricted to liim, but tlie gesith of the eal- 4lorman or bi.shop is simply a retainer, a pupil or i\ ward : the free househohl servants of the ceori are in a certain sense Ins gesitlis also. ]I>'t the gesiths of the king are liis guard and private council ; they muy be endowed by him from the folkland an(' ".'.Imitted by him to the witenage- niot. . . . The Danish husearls of Canute are a late reproduction of wlnit the familia of the Northumbrian kings must have been in the eighth century. . . . The development of the comitjitus into a territorial nobility seems to bo a featun; peculiar to English history. . . . The Lombard gasiud, and tlie Bavarian sindman were originally the .same thing as the Anglo-!Sax(m gesith. But they sank into tlie general mass of vassalage as it grew up in the ninth and tenth centuries. . . . Closely connected with the gesith is the thegii; so closely that it is scarcely possible to see the difference except in the nature of the em- ployment. Tlie tliegii seems to be primarily the warrior gesith ; in this idea Alfred uses the word as translating the ' miles ' of Hede. He is prob- ably the gesith who has a particular military duty in liis master's service. But he also appears lis a landowner. The ceorl who has acquired live hides of land, and a siiecial appointment in the king's hall, with other judicial rights, be- comes tliegn-worthy. . . . And from tills point, the time of Athelstan, the gesitli is lost sight of, except very occasionally; the more important members ot the class having become thegns, and the le.sser sort sinking into the ranks of mere servants to the king. The cla.ss of thegns now widens; on tlie one hand the name is given to all wliopo.ssess the proper quantity of land, whether or no they stand in the old reliitinn to the king; on the other the remains of the ■ • 1 nobility place them.selves in tlie king's service. The name of tliegn covers the wliolc class which after the €on(iuest appears uo'lcr the name of knights, with the same qualirication in land and nearly the same obligations. It also carried so much of nobility as is implied in hereditary privilege. The thegn-born are contrasted with the ceorl- born; and arc perhaps much the same as the gesitlicund. . . . Under the name of thegn are included however various grades of dignity. The ela.ss of king's thegns is distinguished fnmi that of the medial thegns, and from a residuum that falls in rank below the latter. . . . The very name, like that of the gesith, has different senses in different ages and kingdimis; but the original idea of military service runs through all the meanings of thegn, as that of (lersonal associa- tion is traceable in all the applications of gesith." — W. Htubbs, CiiiiMt. Hist, of Eng., ch. 2, »ect. 14 anil di. 6, xcct. Ort-Ori. Al.so IN: T. Hodgkin, Tlidi/ and Jler Invaders, hk. 4. di. 7. — See, also, CofNT AND DliKK. COMITIA CENTURIATA.—" Under the original eonstituti<m of Home, the jiatricians alone . . . enjoyed political rights in the state, but at the .sanu^ time they were forced to bear the whole burden of political duties. In these last were included, for example, the tilling of the king's fields, the construction of pulilic works and buildings . . . ; citizens alone, also, were liable to service in the army. . . . The political burdens, especially those connected with the army, grew heavier, naturally, as tlu! jiower of Home increased, and it was seen to be an injus- tice that one part of the people, and that, too, the smaller part, should alone feel their weight. This led to the first important modification of the Roman constitution, which was made even before the close of the regal period. According to tradition, its author was the king ServiusTul- lius, and its general object was to make nil men who held hind in the state liable to military ser- vice. It thus conferred no ])olitieal rights on tlie plebeians, but assigned to them their sliare of nolitical duties. . . . According to tradition, all 'le freeholders in the city between tlio ages of 17 and 60, with some exceptions, were divided, without distinction as to birth, into five classes ('ela.ssis,' 'a 8ummoniu„ ' 'calo') for service in the infantry according to the size of their estates. Tliose who were excepted served as horsemen. These were selected from among the very richest men in tlie state. . . . (.)f the live classes of in- fantry, the first contained the richest men. . . . The members of tin* first class were recjuired to come to the battle array in complete armor, while less was demanded of the other four. Each class was subdivided into centuries or bodies of a hun- dred men each, for convenience in arranging the army. There were in all 198 centuries. . . . TliLs absolute number and this apportionment were continued, as tlie jiopulation increased and the distribution of wealth altered, until the name century came to have a purely conventional mean- ing, even if it had any other iu the begirning. Henceforth a careful census was taken every fourth year, and all freeholders were made subject to the 'tributum.' The arrangement of the people thus described was primarily made simply for military purposes. . . . Grad- ually, however, this organization came to have political significance, until finally these men, got together for what is the cliief politi- cal duty in a primitive state, enjoyed what political privileges there were. . . . In the end, this ' exercitus ' of Servius Tullius formed anot her popular assembly, the Comitia Centuriata, which supplanted the comitia curiata entirely, except in matters connectf'd with the religion of the family and very soon of i)urely formal signi- ficance. This organization, therefore, became of the highest civil importance, and was continued for civil purposes long after tlie armv was mar- shalled on quite another plan. " — A. "Tighe, Dc- V4:lopment ofllie Roman Const., eh. 4. Also in: W. Iline, Hist, of Jiome, hk. 6, eh. 1. — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiq., ch. 4. 490 COMITIA CURIATA. COMMUNE. COMITIA CURIATA.— " In tlio bopinnlriR, (iny iiicniliiT of any one of tlic rliins which wen; included in the tlircc original Uonian trilics, was a Roman cili/cn. So, too, were his children born in lawful wedlock, an<l iliose who were n<lo|)ted hy liini according to the forms of law. Illegitimate children, on the other hand, were ex- cluded from the nund)er of citizens. These earliest Romans called themselves patricians (patricii, 'children of their fathers'), for some reason about which we cannot he sure. Perhaps it was in order to distinguish tliemselves from their illegitimate kinsmen and from such other people as lived about, having no pretense of l)l()od connection with them, unci who were, there- fore, incapable of contracting lawful marriages, according to the patrician's view of this religious ceremony. The patrcians . . . were grouped togetlier in families, clans and tribes, partly on the basis of blood relationship, but cliietly on the basis of common religious worship. Besides the.se groups, tlierc was still another in the state, the curia, or ' ward,' which stood between tlie clan and the tribe. In the earliest times, tradi- tion said, ten families formed a clan, ten clans a curia and ten curiic a tribe. These n"n'bers, if they ever had any historical existence, could not have sustained themselves for any length of time in tlie case of the clans and families, for such or- ganisms of necessity would increase and decrease quite irregularly. About the natun'of the curia we have practically uo direct information. The organization had become a mere name at an early period in the city's liistory. Whether the mem- bers of a curia thought of themselves as having closer kinship with one another than with mem- bers of other curio) is not clear. We know, how- ever, that the curiae were definite political sub- divisions of the city, perhaps like modern wards, and that each curia had a common religious wor- sliip for its members' participation. Thus much, at any rate, is significant, because it has to do with the form of Rome's primitive popular as- sembly. When tlie king wanted to harangue the people (' populus,' cf. 'populor,' ' to devastate ') ho called them to a ' contio' (compounded of 'co' and ' venio '). But if he wanted to propose to them action which implied a change in the or- ganic law of the state, he summoned them to a comitia (compounded of 'con' and 'eo'). To this the name comitia curiata was given, becaui •> its members voted by curisc. Each curia had one vote, the character of which was determined by a majority of its members, and a majority of the curiiE decided tlie matter for the comitia." — A. Tighe, Development of the Itonuin Const., ch. 3. Ai.soiN: T. Mommscn, JIM. of Home, bk. 1, ch. 5. — P. De Coulanges, The Ancient City, bk. 3, ch. 1, and bk. 4 ch. 1.— See, also, CoMlTlA Cen- Tcm.vTA, and Contiones. COMITIA TRIBUTA, The. See Ro.me: B. C. 4T'.J-471. COMMAGENE, Kingdom of.— A district of northern Syria, between Cilicia and the Euphra- tes, which acquired independence during the dis- orders which broke up the empire of the Seleucida;, and was a separate kingdom during the last century B. C. It was afterwards made a Roman province. Its capital was Samosata. COMMENDATION. See Beneficium. COMMERCIUM. See MuNicii'ruM. COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY, The French Revolutionary. See Fkance: A. D. 1793 (March- .luNE), and (JtrwE- Octo- BEIl). COMMITTEE ON THE CONDUCT OF THE WA"., The. Se(^ I'mted .States ok Am.: A. 1). 1801-1HO'3 (Decemueii— .Maucii: ViniiiNiA). COMMODUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 180- 192. COMMON LAW, English. -"The munici- pal law of England, or tlie rule nf civil conduct prescribed to th(^ inhabitants of lids king<lom, may with sullicient propriety be divided into two kinds; the 'lex non scrip'la,' the unwritten or common law; and the 'lex scripla,' tlu' writ- ten or statute law. The 'lex non scripta,' or unwritten law, inclmles not only general cus- toms, or the commim law properly so called, but also the particular custcmis of certain parts of the kingdom; and likewi.se those particular laws that are by custom observed only in certain courts and jurisdictions. Wlien I call these parts of our law 'leges non scriptic,' I would not be understood as if all those laws were! at present merely oral, or communicated from th(^ former ages to the present solely by word .)i mouth. . . . But, with us at present, the monuments and evidences of our legal customs are contained in the records of the several courts of justice, in books of reports and judicial decisions, and in the treatises of learned sages of the profession, preserved and handed down to us from the times of highest antiijuity. However, I therefore style these parts of our law 'leges non .scriptie,' because their original institution and authority are not set down in writing, as Acts of Parlia- ment are, but they receive their binding power, and the force of "laws, by long and immemorial usage, and by their universal reception through- out the kingdom. " — Sir W. Blackstone, Commen- taries on the Tmws of Eng., int., sect. 3. Also IN: H. S. Maine, Ancient Law, ch. 1. — J. N. Pomeroy, Int. to Municipal Law, sects. 37-42. COMMON LOT, OR COMMON LIFE, Brethren of the. See Bketiiren of the Com- mon Lot. "COMMON SENSE" (Paine's Pamphlet), The influence of. See United States of A.m. : A. D. 1770 (.Januahy — June). COMMONS, The. See Estates, The TllUEE. COMMONS, House of. Sec Pahliamext, The Enoi.ish, and Kniohts of the Shike. COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, Establishment of the. See Engl.\nd: A. U. 1649 (FEniiiTAUY). COMMUNE, The.— The commonalty; the commons. In feudal usage, the term .signified, as defined by Littre, the body of the bourgeois or burghers of a town who had received a charter which gave them rights of self-govern- ment. "In Prance the communal constitution was during this period (12tli century) encouraged, although not very heartily, by Lewis VI., who saw in it one iiK^ans of fettering the action of the barons and bisliojis and securing to himself the support of a strong portion of his iieojile. In some cases the commune of France is, like the guild, a voluntary association, but its: objects are from the first mou distinctly political. In some parts of the kingdom the towns had risen against their lords in the latter half of the eleventh century, and had retained the fruits of 491 COMMUNE. COMPASS. their liiirdwon vict()ri<'H. In others, they pos- flcHsi'd, in tlic rcniuiniug fragments (if tlic Kiirolinf^ian (constitution, Honiu or);iiniHiiti(in tliiit formed a liasis for new lil)crtie8, Tluc great number of eliarters granted in tli(! twelftli century bIiows tliat Uw. policy of encouraging tlio tliird estate was in fuli Hway in tlie royal councils, and the king by ready recognition of the popidar riglit-s gained the afTeclions of the people! to an extent whicli has few parallels in French history. The Frendi charters are in both style and sub- stance very differeni from tlio Knglish. The liberties winch are bestowed arc for the most part the same, exemption from arbitrary tax- ation, therijuhtto local jurisdiction, the privilege of enfranchising the villein wlio has been for a year and a day received within the walls, and the power of eh'cting the otlicers. I5ut whilst all the Knglish charters contain a conlirmation of free and good customs, th" French are filled with an enumeration of bad ones. . . . The English have an ancient local constitution the members of which are the recipients of the new grant, and guilds ()f at least sulllcient anti(iuity to render their confirmation typical of the freedom now guaranteed; French comnuinia is a new boily which, by the action of a sworn confederacy, lias wrung from its oppressors a deliverance from hereditary bondage. . . . The commune lacks too the ancient element of festive religious or mercantile association which is so conspicuous in the hi.story of the guild. The idea of the latter is English, that of the former is French or Gallic. Yet notwitlistanding tliese differences, the substantial identity of the privileges secured by these charters se(,'ins to prove the cxi.stence of much international sympatliy. The ancient liberties of the English were not unintelligible to the townsmen of Nor- mandy; the rising freedom of the German cities roused a corresponding amliition in tlie towns of Flanders; and the struggles of the Italian inun'ciDalities awoke tlie energies of the cities of Provence. All took different ways to win the siuuc liberties. . . . Tlie German liansa may have been derived from England ; the com- muna of London was certainly derived from France. . . . The communa of London, and of those other English towns which in the twelfth century aimed at such a constitution, was the old English guild in a new French garb: it was the ancient association, but directed to tlie attain- ment of municipal rather than mercantile privi- leges." — W. Stubbs, Const. Jlist. of Eiif/., ch. 11. — " Oppression and insurrection were not the sole origin of the communes. . . . Two causes, quite distinct from feudal oppression, viz., Koman traditions and Christian sentiments, had their share in the formation of the communes and in the bcneticial results thereof. The Roman municipal regimen, whicli is described in JI. Quizot's ' Essais sur I'llistoire de Prance ' (1st Essay, pp. 1-44), [also in 'Hist, of Civilization,' V. 3, lect. 2] did not every where perish with the Empire ; it kept its footing in a great number of towns, especially in those of Southern Gaul. " — F. P. Guizot, Popular JIM. of Pranec, ch. 19. Also in: Sir J. Stephen, IjeeU. on the Hint, of France, lect. 5.— See France: A. D. 1070-1135; also, Cuni.\, Municipal, and Guilds of Flan- DKHS. COMMUNE, The Flemish. See Guilds of FIlAHDEUS. COMMUNE OF PARIS, The Revolution- ary, of 1793. See Fuanck: A. I). 1703 (Au- (irsT). The rebellion of the. Sec Fhamch:: A, D, . 1871 (Maucii— May). ♦ COMMUNE, The Russian. See Mm. COMMUNE, The Swiss. See Switzeu- l,A.Ni>; A. 1). 1H4H-U«U0. COMMUNEROS, The. See Spain: A. D. 1814-1H37. COMNENIAN DYNASTY.— The dynasty of Hj'/.antine emperors founded, A. I). 1081, by Alexius Comnenos, and consisting of Alexius I., .John II., Manuel I., AlexiusII., and Androuicus I., who was murdered A. D. 1185. See Con- stantinoplk: A. 1). 1081. COMPAGNACCI, The. See Flouence: A. I). 14!HI-14i)8. COMPASS, Introduction of the Mariner's. — "It is perhaps impossible to ascertain the epoch when the polarity of the magnet was lirst known in Europe. The coinnion opinion which ascribes its discovery to a citizen of Amalfl In the 14lh century, is undoubtedly erroneous. Guiot de Provins, a French jioet who lived about the year 1200, or, at the latest, under St. Louis, describes it in the most une((uiv()cal language. James de Vitry, a bishop in Palestine, before tlie middle ot the 13th century, and Guido Guinizzelli, an Italian poet of tlie same time, are e(iually explicit. The French, as well as Italians, claim the discovery as their own; but whether it were due to either of these nations, or rather learned from their intercourse with the Saracens, is not easily to be ascertained. . . . It is a singu- lar circuinstance, and only to be explained by the obstinacy with which men are apt to reject improvements, that the magnetic needle was not generally adopted in navigation till very long after the discovery of its properties, and even after their peculiar importance had been per- ceived. The writers of the 13th century, who mention the polarity of the needle, mention also its use in navigation; yet Capmany has found no distinct jiroof of its employment till 1403, and does not believe that it was frequently on board ^Mediterranean ships at the latter part of the preceding age. " — II. Hallam, The Middle Ages, eh. 9, pt. 3, with note. — "Both Cliaucer, the English, am' 'Barbour, the Scottish, poet, allude familiarly .^ the compass in the latter part of the 14th century." — G. L. Craik, Hist, of British Commerce, c 1, p. 138: — "AVe have no certain information of the directive tendency of the natural magnet being Icnown eorlicr than the middle or end of the 11th century (in Europe, of course). . . . Tliat it was known at this date an(l its practical value recognized, is shown by & passage from an Icelandic historian, quoted by llanstien in his treatise of Terrestrial Magnetism. In this extract an expedition from Norway to Iceland in the year 868 is described ; and it is stated that three ravens were taken as guides, for, adds the historian, 'in those times seamen had no loadstone in the northern countries.' This history was written about the year A. D. 1068, and the allusion I have quoteil obviously shows that the author was aware of natural magnets liaving been employed as a compass. At the same time it fixes a limit of the discovery in northern countries. We find no mention of artificial magnets being so employed till about a 492 COMPASS. C;ON0O FREE STATE. century Inter." — Sir W. Thompson, quoted hi/ It. F. liiirttm ill Ultima Thiili\ n. 1, p. !11'2. COMPIEGNE : Capture of the Maid of Orleans (1430). Sci' Kh.v.nck. A. I). I ' 'l-tWl. COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDER, The. Sec KNcit.ANi): A. I). IHO.V-IHIW, COMPROMISE, The Crittenden. Sec Uniti:ii Statios (IK Am. : -V. I). IHtio (Deckmuku). COMPROMISE, The Flemish, of 1565. Sic Nktmi-.ui.andm: A. 1). I.")tl2-1.-)(HI. COMPROMISE, The Missouri. See United ST.vri-.HoK Am. : A. 1). 1H1H-1821, COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850, The. Sc(' Umtki) Statkw dk Am. : A. 1). 18.50. COMPROMISE TARIFF OF 1833, The. Sir UnitkdStatkhok Am. : A. I). 1828-18;!:}. COMPURGATION.— Among tho Teutonic and other peoples, in early times, one accused of a crime might clear himself by his own oath, supported by tin; oaths of certain compurgators, who bore witness to his trustworthiness. Sec Wa<ikii i)f Law. COMSTOCK LODE, Discovery of the. 8e(^ Nkvada: A. 1). 18I8-18(!4. COMUM, Battle of (B. C. 196). See Ho.me: IJ. ('. 2i».')-lill. CONCIONES, The Roman. See Co.ntiones, The. CONCON, Battle of (1891). See Chile: A. 1). 1885-1801. CONCORD.— Beginning of the War of the American Revolution. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 177.5 (Ai'Kil,). CONCORDAT OF BOLOGNA, The. See FiiANCK; A. I). 1.51.5-1.51H. CONCORDAT OF NAPOLEON.The. See Fuance: a. I). 1801-1804. CONCORDAT OF 1813, The. See Papacy: A. 1). 1809-1814. CONDE, The first Prince Louis de, and the French wars of religion. Sec Fu^vnce : A. 1). 1 500- 1 .5(!3 and 1 ,503- 1 ,570. CONDE, The Second Prince Louis de (called The Great). — Campaigns in the Thirty Years War, and the war with Spain. See France: A. D. 1642-1043; 1043; Geu.many: A. D. 1640-1045; 1043-1644 In the wars of the Fronde. SeeFiiANCE: A. D. 1047-1648; 1049; 1650-1051; 1051-1053 Campaigns against France in the service of Spain. Sec Fkance : A. I). 1053-1056, and 1655-1658 Last cam- paigns. Sec Netherlands (Holland): A. D. 1672-1674, and 1074-1678. COND^, The House of. See Bouiibon, The House of., CONDE : A. D. 1793.— Siege and capture by the Austrians. See France: A. D. 1793 (■July — December). A. D. 1794.— Recovery by the French. See France: A. I). 1794 (IIarcu— July). CONDORE, OR KONDUR, Battle of (1758). See India: A. I). 1758-1761. CONDOTTIERE.— In the general meaning of tlie word, a conductor or leader; applied specially, in Italian history, to the professional military leaders of the 13th and 14th centuries, who made a business of war very much as a modern contractor makes a business of railroad construction, and who were open to engagement, with the troops at their command, by any prince, or any free city whose offers were satisfactory. CONDRUSI, The. See Belg^. CONESTOGAS, The. See Ameiucan Abo- iimiNEs: Si's^uehannas. CONFEDERACY OF DELOS, OR THE DELIAN. See (iuKECE; li. ('. 478-477, and .Vthe.ns: li. ('. 4(l(;4.54, iiiid after CONFEDERATE STATES OF AM.— Constitution and organization of the govern- ment. See Umtei) .Spates of -Vm: .\. 1). 1861 (Feiuuaryi. CONFEDERATION, Articles of (U. S. of Am.) See United States of Am.; A. I). 1777- 1781. CONFEDERATION, Australian. Sec -ViHTiiALiA: A. 1), 1HH5-1892. CONFEDERATION, The Germanic, of 1814. See Oermany; A. I). 1814-1820 Of 1870. See Germany; A. I). 1870 (Septemheh — I)ECE.MI1ER). CONFEDERATION, The North German. See Germany: A. I). 18(10. CONFEDERATION, The Swiss. See Switzerland. CONFEDERATION OF iHr BRITISH AMERICAN PROVINCES. Sec^ Canada: A. I). 1867. CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, The. See Germany: A. I). 180.5-1806; ISO6 (.January— Auoust); and 1813 (Octoiier— 1)e- CEMRER); also, France: A. I). 1814 (January- March). CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG. See Pai'ACY: A. 1). 15;!0-15;il. CONFLANS, Treaty of. See France: .V. I). 1401-1468. CONFUCIANISM. See Ciiina: Tue Rk- LKIIONS. CONGO FREE STATE, The Founding of the. — "Since Leopold II. 's accession to the throne [of lielgium], his great object has been to secure colonial possessions to B('lgiuiu for her excess of population and prodnctlon. To this end he founded, in (Jctober, 1876, with tlie aid of eminent African e.\plorers, the luternatioual African .iVssociation. Its ooject was to form committees in several countries, with a view to the collection of funds, and to the establishment of a chain of stations across Africa, passing by Lake Tanganyika, to assist future explorers. Accordingly committees were formed, whose presidents wore us follows: in England, the Prince of Wales; in Germany the (Jrown Prince; in Italy the King's brother; in Fnince, M. de Lesseps; and in Belgium, King Leopold. Sums of money were subscribed, and stations were opened from Bagomoyo (just south of Zanzibar) to Lake Tanganyika; but when toward the close of 1877, Stanley reappeared on the Atlantic coast and revealed the immense length of the mar- velous Congo liiver, King Leopold at once turned his attention in that direction. That ho might not put himself forward prematurely, he acted under cover of an association and a committee of exploration, which were in reality formed and entirely supported by the King's energy and by the large sums of money that he lavished upon them. Through this association King Leopold maintained Stanley for five years on the Congo. During this time a road was made from the coast to Stanley Pool, where the navigable portion of the Upper Congo com- mences; and thus was formed the basis of the future empire. During this period Stanley signed no less than four thousand treaties or 493 CONGO FREE STATE. CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY. conordiilori of U-rritory, on which upwnnl of I two thouHiiiHl chicfN hail plitccil their iiiiirkH li I Hi);ii of uiUu'Nioii. At II coNt of niJiii^v laonthH of triiiiHportiilioii, ncccHsitjitliij? the t'Mi|iloyni('iit of thoiisniicis of porters, ll^ht HteamerM wen^ phiced on the upper river whicli was expioreii as far as Htaiiiey Falls, Its nuineroim triliiitaries also were followed up as far as tlie rapiils that inter- rupt their roursi'S. ilany young lielgian olllei rs ami otiier adventiirous e.xplon'rs estaldished themselves on the hanks of tlie Congo and tlie ndjoiniiii,' river, the Kouilio\i, ami founded a series of stations, each oeeupied l)y on(! or two Europeans and by a fi'W soldiers from Zanzibar. In this way the <'ountrj' was insensibly taken possession of in thi^ most jiaeilio manner, witii- out II strnjigie and witli no l)loodslied whatever; for the natives, wlio are of a very gentle dispo- sition, olTered no resistanci Th'; Senate of the United States, wliieli was eailee upon, in 1HH4, to give an opinion on tlie rights of the Afri( an Assoeiation. made a careful e.tamination of the matter, and recognized tlie le.gality of tlie claims nml title deeds submitted to them. A little later, in order to mark the formation of a state, the Congo Assoeiation adopted as its Hag a g<ild star on a blue ground. A French lawyer, M. Delounii', in a very well-written ))ampfilet en- till'd ' Le Droit des Gens dans rAfriipie Eipia- toriale,' has proveil that this proceeding was not only legitimate, but necessary. The Qinbryo state, however, lacked one essential thing, namely, recognition by the civilized powers. It existed only as a private association, or, as a hostile publicist expressed it, ii.s 'a state in shares, indulging in pretensions of sovereignty.' Great difHculties stood in tlie way of realizing this cs.sential condition. Disputes, on tlio one hand with France ami on tlic other with Portu- gal, appeared inevitable. . . . King Leopold did not lose heart. In 1883 ho obtained from the French government an assurance that, wliilo maintaining its rights to the north of Stanley Pool, it would give support to tlie International Association of the Congo. Witli Portugal it seemed very difflcult to come to an understand- ing. . . . Prince Bismarck took part in tlie matter, and in the German Parliament praised highly tlie work of the African Association. In April, 1884, he proposed to Franco to come to an understanding, and to settle all difHculties by general agreement. From this proposition sprang the famous Berlin conference, the re- markable decisions of which we shall mention later. At the same time, before tlie conference opened, Germany signed an agreement with tlio International Association of the Congo, in which sho agreed to vecognizo its flag as that of a state, in exc!;ango for an assurance that her trade should be free, and that Gennan subjects should enjoy all the privileges of the most favored nations. Similar agreements were entered upon with nearly all the other countries of the globe. The delegates of the Association were accepted at the conference on the same footing as tliose of the different states tliiit were represented there, and on February 26, the day on which the act was signed, Bismarck expressed himself as fol- lows: ' The new State of the Congo is destined to be one of the chief .safe-guards of tlie work we have in view, and I sincerely trust that its development will fulfill the noble aspirations of its august founder.' Thus the Congo Inter- nntlonnl Association, hltlierto only a prlviito enterprise, Meenied now to be recognized iis u sovereign state, without having, however, as yet a-ssumed tlie title. Hut where were the limits of its territory, . . , Thanks to the interference of Friincc, after prolonged negotiations an under- standing was arrived at on Febriiarj' IS, 1885, by whicli both parties were satisfied. They agreed that Portugal slioiild take possesslonof tin; •southern bank of tlie Congo, up to its Junction with the little stream Uango, above Nokki, and also of the district o' Kabimla forming a wedge timt extends into the French territory on tlie Atlantic Ocean, Tlie International Congo Asso- ciation — for sucii was still its title — was to liave access to the sea by a strip of land cxti'iiding from Manyiinga (west of Lcopoldville) to the ocean, north of Banana, and comprising in addi- tion to this port, Boma and the important station of Vivi. Tiicse treaties granted tlic association 0:11,28.') sipiiire miles of territory, that is to say, a domain eighty times the size of Belgium, witli more than 7,500 miles of navigable rivers. The limits fixed were, (m the west, the Kuango, an important tributary of I lie Congo; (m tlie soutli, the bourcei of the Zambesi ; on tlie east, tlio Lakes Bangweolo, Moero, and Tanganyika, and a lino pa8.sTng through Lake Albert Edward to the river Ouelle; on tlie north, a line following the fourth degree of latitude to tlie Mobangi River on the French frontier. The whole forms one eleventh part of the African continent. Tlie association became transformed into a state in August 1885, wlien King Leopold, witli the authorization of the Belgian Cliambers, notified tho powers that he should assume the title of Sovereign of the Independent State of tho Congo, tho union of which with Belgium was to be exclusively personal. The Congo is, therefore, not a Belgian colony, but nevertheless the Bel- gian Chambers have recently given valuable aasistance to tlie King's work; firs', in taking, on July 26, 1889, 10,000,000 franr:8' wortli of shares in the railway which is to co.inect the sea- port of Matadi witli the riverpo-.t of Lcopold- ville, on Stanley Pool, and scconJly by granting a loan of 25,0()0,000 francs to the Independent State on August 4, 1890. The King, in a will laid before Parliament, bequeaths oil his Afri- can possessions to the Belgian nation, author- izing the country to take possession of tliem after a lapse of ten years." — E. do Laveleye, The DMifion of Africa { The Forum, Jan., 1891). Also in: II. il. Stanley, 7'!ie Congo, and the Foundinq of its Free t^tdte. CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY, The. — "Philip of Neri, a young Florentine of good birth il.')15-1.593; canonised 1633) ... in 1,548 instituted at Rome tho Society of the Holy Trinity, to minister to the wants of tho pilgrims at Rome. But the operations of his mission gradually extended till they embraced the spiritual welfare of the Roman population at largo, and the reformation of the Itoman clergy in particular. No figure is more serene and more sympathetic to us in the history of tho Catholic reaction than that of this latter-day ' apostle of Rome.' From his assoeiation, which followed the rule of St. Augustine, sprang in 1575 the Congregation of the Onitory ut Rome, famous as the seminary of much that is most admirable in the labours of tho Catholic clergy. " —A. W. Ward, The Counter- Information, p. 30. 494 CONOUEOATION OF THE ORATOHY. coNNAUonr. — "In tlu) V'lir 1*"<V there were iilioveu Iniiiilred CoiiKrexiitloim i)f tlie Onitory of S. I'liilip in £urii|)e iiiiil the KiiHt IntlieH; but Hhiei; the revii- liitiotw of the liiHt wventy years nmny of theite imve eeiiHetl to exist, while, on the eontniry, withhi the litHt twelve years two have been established In KnKlaud."— Mrs. Hope, Life of S. I'hilip Xeri, ch. 24. Also in: 1[. L. H. Lear, PrieMly Life in Friiiii'f, fh. 4. CONGREGATIONALISM. See Indkpen- DKNTS. CONGRESS, Colonial, at Albany. Sec Unitkii SiATKs (IK .Vm. ; A. I). 1754. CONGRESS, Continental, The Firit. Sec I'MTKi) ST.vrios OF A.>i.: A. 1). 1774 (Ski-- TKMiiKii), and (Ski'Tkmiiku— OcTouKU) The Second. See Unitku Statkh ok Am.: A. D. 177.'> (.May— AidUST). CONGRESS, The First Ai "rican. 8eo L'ni'iki) St.m'kh OK Amkuica: A 1(11)0. CONGRESS, The Pan-American. See Umtkd Statks ok A.m. : A. I). l«««-18l)0. CONGRESS, The Stamp Act. Sec United Statks OK Am.: A. I). 1705. CONGRESS OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, The. See Aix-la-Ciiapki-le, The Conokkbu AND Thkatv. CONGRESS OF BERLIN. 8co Tckkh: A. 1). 1H78. CONGRESS OF PANAMA. 8co Colom- iiiAN Statks: A. I). 182(1. CONGRESS OF PARIS. See RiiwiA: A. I). 1854-1850, and Deci.aiiation op Pahim. CONGRESS OF RASTADT, The. See Fuanck: a. I). 1709 (AiMdi,— Sk.i-temhku). CONGRESS OF VERONA, The. S^-e Vkuona, The CIonouesb ok. CONGRESS OF VIENNA. See Vikhma, CoNOItKSS OK. CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.— "The Constitution ereaU'dCoUKrcHK and conferred upon it i)owers of legislation for national purposes, but made no provision as to the method by which these powers should be exercised. In conseciuenco Congress has itself developed a method of tnuisacting its business by means of committees. The Federal Leglslii- ture con.sists of two Houses — the Senate, or Upper and less numerous branch, and tlie House of lU'presentatives, or the Lower and more numerou.s popular branch. The Senate is com- posed of two members from each StJite elected by the State legislatures for a term of six years, one third of wTiom retire every two years. The presiding; officer is the Vice-President. Early iu each session the Senate chooses a President pro tempore, so as to provide for any ab.sence of the Vice-President, whether caused by death, sick- ness, or for other reasons. The House of Repre- sentatives is at present [1801] composed of 332 members and four delegates from the Territories. These delegates, however, have no vote, though they may speak. The House is presided over by a Speaker, elected at the beginning of each [Congress]. A quorum for business is, in either House, a majority. Congress meets every year in the beginning of December. Each Congress lasts two years and holds two sessions — a long and a short session. The long session lasts from December to midsummer [or until the two Houses agree upon an adjournment]. The short session lasts from December, when Congress meets again, until the tlh of .Mjireli. The term of olliee then ixpires ff)r all the inemlM'rs of the House and for one third of the Senators. The long S4'Sslon ends in even years (1880 :inil 1882, et<'.), and the short W'ssion "in odd year.-i (1881 and t8H:i). Extra si'ssions may be eidli d by llii' President for urgent business. In llie eiirly part of the Nov- ember preceding the end of the short session of Congress (leciirs the eleellon of Representatives. Congressmen then elected do not take their seats until thirteen months later, that is, at the re- assembling of Congress in DeeeinlHT of the year following, unU'.ss an extra s<'ssion is called. The Senate frecpiently holds secret, or, as they aro called, executiv<" sessions, lor liii' eonsidefation of treaties and nominations of the President, in which the House of Representatives has no voice. It is then said to sit with closed doors. An immense amount of business must neeessarily bo transacted by n Congress that legislates for nearly 0IMH)O,0()O of people. . . . Lack of time, of course, prevents a consideration of each bill separately by the whole legislature. To provide a means by which each subject may receive investigation and consideration, a plan is used by which the inenil)er8 of both branches of Congress are divided into committees. Each .ommitteo busies itself with u certain class of business, and bills wlien introduced are referred to this or that committee for consideration, according to the subjects to which the bills relate. . . . The Seiitttt^ is now divided between 50 and 00 com- mittees, but the numlK'r varies from session to WHsion. . . . Tlie House of Representatives is organized into (M> committees [appointed by tlio S|M'aker|, niiiging, in their number rf members, from thirt<'en down. . . . "Tbe Committee of Wavs and Means, which regulates customs duties and excise faxes, is by far the most im- |K.>rtant. . . . Congress ordinarily a.ssembles at iKKin and remains in session until 4 or 5 P. M., though towards the end of the term it frequently remains in session until late in the niglit. . . . There is still one feature of Congressional govern- ment which needs explanation, and that is the caucus. A caucurj is the meeting of the members of one party in private, for the discussion of the attitude and line ot policy which members of that party are to take on questions which are expected to arise in the legislative halls. Thus, in Senate caucus, is decided who shall be mem- bers of the various committees. In these meet- ings is frecjuently discussed whether or not the whole party shall vote for or against this or that important bill, and tlius its fate is decided before it has even come up for debate in Congress." — W. W. and W. F. Willoughby, QoH. and Ad- ministration of the U. K (Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies, series ix., nos. 1-2), ch. 9. Also in: W. Wilson, Conyresaional Ootern- 7nent, eh. 2-4.— J. Bryce, T/i€ Am. Common- wealth, pt. 1, ch. 10-21 (c. 1).— A. L. Dawes, How we are Oonerned, ch. 2. — The Federalist, nos. 51- 05.— J. Story, Commentaries on the Const, of the U. 8., bk. 3, ch. 8-31 (r. 2-3). CONL— Sieges (1744 and 1799). SccItaly: A. D. 1744; and Filvnce: A. D. 1799 (Auqobt — Decembeu). CONIBO, The. See American Aborioinks: Andebians. CONNAUGHT, Transplantation of the Irish people into. See Ireland : A. D. 1653. 495 C0NNE(;TI(:1!T 77ic Fimnderi. CONNECTICUT, lfliM-1687. CONNECTICUT: The River and the Name. — "'\'\iv tIrNt iliMCdvcricN inuili'of this |)itrt of Ni'W EiiKliinil wcrr <if Its iiriii('i|iitl river mid the (liic in<iiilowH lyliiK iipini lis bank. Whctlicr tlif Diilcli lit New Nctlicrlanils, or llic pciiplc of New I'lyiixmlh, wcri' the llrsi (llsciivcri'rH of llii' river is mil eerlain. Ilotli the KiikHkIi h'kI the Dutch claiiiiecl to l>e the llrsl dlscovererM, and both purchased luid iiiaih' a Hettleineiit of the lands upon it nearly at the Kaiiie time. . . , From this line river, widcli tlie Iiuiiuns <'all (juonelita- cut, or Connecticut, (in Knulisli the lonj; river) till! colony oriL'inally tooli its name."— II. Trum bull, lli.i iifVonii., ell. 2.— According to Dutch BccounLs, the river was entered by Adriaen Block, a,HCended to latitude 41'' 4H', and named Fresh Ulvcr, in Kill. See Nkw YoilK: A. 1). KIlO-KUl. The Aboriginal inhabitants. Sen Amehicvn AnoiiioiNKs; Ai.ooMjri.vN K.VMii.v. A. D. 1631.— The grant to Lord Say and Sele, and others.— In Kllll, the Karl of War- wick granted to LonI Say and Sele, l>ord llrooUe, Sir Uichard Sallouatull, and others, "tho territory between NarniRan.sctt Hivcr and soutliwest *o- ■wurds New York for 120 miles ami west to the Pucillc Ocean, or, according to the words of Presi- dent Clap of Yule College, ' from Point .ludith to New York, and from theni'c a west line to the South Sea, and if we take Narragansett Ulvcr in Its whole length the tract will extend as far north us Worcester. It comprehends the wliole of \\w. colony of C(>nn(!Cticut and more. This was called the old patent of Connecticut, and had been granted the previous year, lllliO, by the Council of Plymouth [or ('ouncil for New Knglandl to the Earl of Warwick. Yet before Ww English had planted settlements in ConnectiiMit tlie Dutch had purchased of the Pecjuots land where llart- fonl now stands and erected a small trading fort called 'The House of Good Hope.' "—C\ W. Bowen, liiiunthii fi Disimten of Conn., p. lH. — In 16't5, four years after the Connecticut grant, said to have been derived originally from the Council for New England, in 1030, had been transferred by the Earl of Warwick to liord Hay and Seal and others, tlie Council made an attempt, in conni- Tanco with the English court, to nullify all its grants, to regain possession of the territory of New England and to parcel it out by lot among its own memlicrs. In this attempted parcelling, which proved ineffectual, Connecticut fell to tho lot of the Earl of Carlisle, the Duke of Lennox, and the Duke of Hamilton. Modern investiga- tion seems to have found the alleged grant from the Council of Plymouth, or Council for New England, to tlie Earl of Warwick, in 16,10, to bo iiiythical. " No one has ever seen it, or has heard of any one who claims to have seen it. It is not mentioned even ie the grant from War- wick to the Say and Sele patentees in 1631. . . . The deed is a mere quit-claim, which warrants nothing and does not even a,ssert title to the soil transferred. . . . Why the Warwick tran.saction took this peculiar shape, why Warwick trans- ferred, without showing title, a territory which the original owners granted anew to other pat- entees in 163,';, are questions which are beyond conjecture." — A. Johnston, Connecticut, ch. 3. — See New Enoi,and: A. D. 1035. A. D. 1634-1637.— The pioneer settlements. — "In October, 1634, some men of Plymouth, led by William Holmes, sailed up the Connecti- cut river, and, after bnndying thrcatN with a party of Dutch who had built a rude fort on the site of Hartford, passed on and fortltled them selves on the site of Windsor. Next year (lover nor V^aii Twiller siiit a < innpany of seventy men Id drive awiiy tlie.ne ii)'.;ders, but after recon- iioilerltig the situation Ihe Dutchmen thought It best not to make an attack. Tlieir little strong- hold at Hartford remained uninolested by the English, and, in orih'r to secure the eominiinica- lion between this advanced outpost and New .Vinsterdam, Van Twiller decided to builil an- other fort at the moiitli of the river, but this lime the English were befondiand. Humours of Dutch designs may have reached the I'ars of Lord Say and Sele and Lord Hrooke — 'fanatic Brooke, as Scott calls him in ' .Marndon ' — who had obtained from the Council for New England u grant of terrilorv on the shores of Ihe Sound. 'I'liese iiolilemeii chose as their agent the younger .liihn Winthrop, son of the .Massachusetts gover- nor, and tills new-comer arrived upon the sc'cno just in tiiiK! to drive away Van Twiller's vessel and build an English fort which in honour of h'.h two ]mtrons he calle<l 'Say-Brooke.' Had It not been for seeds of discontent already sown in Alassiiehusetts, thc! English hold ujion the (!on- nccticut valley might perhaps have been for u few years confined to these two military outposts at Windsor and Saybrookc;. But there were Jicople In Massachusetts who did not look with favour upon the aristocniti(! and theocratic features of its polity. Tlie provision that none but church-members should vote or hold offlco wius by no means unanimously npproviid. . . . Cotton declared that democracy was no fit government either for church or for common- w(!aUh, and the majority of the ministers agreed with liim. Cliief among those who did not was till! learned and ehxiiient Thomas Hooker, pastor of the church at Newtown. . . . There were many in Newtown wlio took Hooker's view of the matter; and there, as also in Watertown iind Dorchester, which in 1633 took the initiative in framing town governments witli selectmen, a strong disposition was shown to evade tho re- strictions upon the suffrage. While such things were talketl about, in tlie summer of 1633, tho adventurous .lohn Oldham was making his way through the forest and over the mountains into the Connecticut valley, and when he returned to the coast his glowing accounts set some people to thinking. Two years afterward, a few pio- neers from Dorchester pushed through the wil- derness as far as the Plymouth men's fort at Windsor, while a party from Watertown went farther and came to a halt upon the site of Wethersfl(!ld. A larger party, bringing cattle and such goods as they could carry, set out in the autumn and succeeded in reacliing Windsor. ... In the next June, 1636, the Newtown con- gregation, a hundred or more in number, led by their sturdy pastor, and bringing with them 160 head of cattle, made tlie pilgrimage to the Con- necticut valley. Women and children took part in this pleasant summer journey ; Mrs. Hooker, the pastor's wife, being too ill to walk, was carried on a litter. Thus, in the memorable year in which out great university was born, did Cambridge become, in the true Greek sense of a much-abused word, the metropolis or 'mother town' of Hartford. The migration at once be- came strong in numbers. During the past 496 CONNECTICIT, Iflai-1(W7. nr Ml Ill/a- mentnl ttrtUn, coxNEcTiruT, iflnn-ifl30 twolvpmontli It Hcorr' of Nlilps hml liroiiirlit from KiikIi^ixI to MiiMNiu'liUM'ttH iiioro tliitii :t.00<) houIm, imd HO f^rcnt iin iiccrHNloii niitili' fiirtliiT imovc' nicnt cnHy. IIiMikfr's iiD^friiim were soon followed by till' DorclicHlcr iind Wiilrrlowiicoiinri'ttiitloiiK, Hml tty till' next Miiy H(M) iicoplc were llvlii^f Iti Wliiilsor, Iliirtfonl," iiiiil XVfllierHllelil. An wo mill of thi'Mi' iiiovi'inriils, not of indlvlilimlH, hut of orKiinIr roniniuiiitli'K. iiiiitrd In iillrKlniici' to ft rhiirrli niid ItH piiHlor, mid frrvld with the liiHtlrirt of Hi'lfKovi'miiH'iil, we si-cm to si'i' (Irrrk hintory ri'iii'wi'il, liul with ci'iiturli's of Hililrd polltlriil training. l'\)r our ycitr ii lioiird of roiiiiiilHslonrrH from MuHsiicliii.sctt.s K"vi'riiiMl till' iii'W towim, but lit till' riid of timt tliiir thi> towim rliosi' ri'prrHi'iitiitlvi'K and lirlil a Ornrral Court lit llarlf/rd, iind thus llir si'parati' I'xist- ■'ncii of Connrrtlrut \viin bi'jiun. As forSprinj?- tltl,!, ivlil';li WHS Krttli'd iiliout tlir sanii' limi! by n party from lloxbury, it ri'iiiainril for sonu: vi'iirs cioiibtful ti. which statu it l«'loii>ti'd " — J. Viski', The Jle /iiiiiiiir/ii of Afir Kiii/., rh. U. Ai.soin: J. O. I'alfrcy, //(W. '/A'. Hitij., r. 1, fh. 11.— O. L. WalkiT, IIM. nfthe. Fimt Chiirdi ill Ilartford, eh. 4-5. — M. A. Ori'i'ii, Si>riiiiifi<lil, ltt!W-l»H(i, rh. 1. A. D. 1636-1639. — The constitutional evolu- tion. — " It must 111' iiotril that |tlii'| Ni'wtown, Watfrlown, and Dorrhrstrr mif?rations hud not Im'I'Ii alloKethi'r a simplo transfer of individual ftottlors from oiii- rolony to another. In each of these migrations a part of the people was left be- iiind. so that the Mii.ssaehuselts towns did not <!ease to exist. And yet each of them brouf^ht its Mas.saeliu.setts niajristratcs, its ministers (except Watertown), and all the political and ecclesias- tical machinery of the town; and at least one of them (DorclK'Hter) hail hardly changed its struct- ure since its members lirst organized in 16;i() at Dorchester in Kngland. The lirst settlement of Connecticut was thus the migriition of three dis- tinct and individual town organi/atlons out of tho« jurisdiction of Mas.sachiisi'tts and into iib.solute freedom. It was the Massachu.setts town system set ioo.sc in the wilderness. At first the three towns retained even their Mas-sacliusetts names; and it was not until the eighth court meeting, February 21 1030 (7), that it was decided that ' the plantacon nowc called Newtowne slialbe <alled (Si nnmed by the name of Ilartefordc Towne, likewise tlie pluntacon nowe called Wator- towne slialbo called & named Wythersfciijl,' and 'till' pla' tacon called Dorchester slialbe called Windsor.' (Jn the same day the boundaries be- tween the tlirec towns were ' agreed ' upon, and thus the germ of the future State was the agree- ment and union of tlie three towns. .Vccordingly, the siiliseiiuent court meeting at Ilartford, May 1, 1637, for the first time took the name of the ' Qenrall Corte,' and was composed, in addition to the town magistrates wlio had previously held it, of ' comittecs ' of three from each town. So simply and naturally did the migrated town sys- tem evolve, in tliis binal assembly, the .seminal principle of the Senate and House of Represen- tatives of the future State of Connecticut. Tlie Assembly further showed its consciousness of separate existence by declaring ' an offensive warr ag' the Pequoitt,' assigning the proportions of its miniature army and supplies to each town, and ajipointiug a commander. ... So complete are the features of State-hood, that we may fairly assign May 1, 1637, aa the proper birthday of Coiinectlctil. No king, no f'ongroiw, pri'sldeil over llie birth: lis seed was In the towns. ,lan- uary II. lti:iH(U). the little ('ommonuealth formed till' llrsl .Vmerican Constitution at llarlford. .So far as its provisions are concerned, the King, the I'arllami'iit, the I'lymoulh ('oiiiicil. the Warwick gram, the Say and Sele grant . might as well have been lion existent : not one of tliiiii Is min tioiied. . . . This consllnition was not only lln eiirliesi 1, it the longest in coiiliiiuance of .Viiieri- III I documeiilsof the kind, unless we except the Itlioile Island charter. It was not essentially altered by the cliiirler of 1(MI'.>, which was prac- tieiilly a royal eoiillriiiiitiiiii of it; and it was not untiriHlH ihiit the charter, that is the constitu- tion of 1031), was superseded by the presi'iit con- stiliition. Connecticut was us alisolulely a slatj in 1030 as in 1770."— ,V. .lohnsinii, Tlw Uiiitiit of (I Srw Kiiij. Sliili(./ti/iiiit l/i>ii/,iiiM I'liir. Stiiilif.\ 110. II). — The following is the text of those " Fuiidamental Orders" lulopliil by the |)eoplo dwelling on Coniicillciil Itlver, Jamiary 14, 1038(U), which formed the llisl of wrilliii consll- tutions: " Koil.VHMlcil "'> it hath pleased the AUmiglity (tod by Ilie wise ilispositioii of his diuyne p'oiilince so to Dnler and disiiose of tilings that we the Inbubiliints and Itesiilenls of Windsor, lliirleford and Wcllierslield ari' now cohabiting and dwelling in and vppoii the liiver of Conecti'cotte anil the Lands thereunto adioyne- ing; And well knowing where a people are gathered togatlier Wiv word of (tod rcijiiires that to mayntayne the ]>eace and vnioii of such a people there should be an orderly and decent Gouerment eslablislied aceordiiig to Ood, to order and dispose of the airayres of the people at all seasons as occalion sliiill rei[uiri'; doe there- fore assotiate and conioyne our seines to tie as one I'ublike State or Comonwclth ; and doe, for our .seines and our Successors and such as shall be adioyneil to vs att any tyiiie hereafter, enter into Combination and ('oiifederiition togatlier, to mayntayne and p'scarue the liberty iind purity of ilie ffospell of our Lord .lesiis w" we now p'fesse, as al.so the diseiplyne of the (.'hurchcs, w"' according to the truth of the said gospell is now practised amongst vs; As al.so in o' Ciuell AtTiiiri's to lie guided iinil goiieriied according to such Lawes, Kules, Orders and decrees as shall lie made, ordered & decreed, as followeth: — 1. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, tliat there shall be yerely two generall As.seniblies or Courts, tlic on Hie second thiirsduy in Aprill, tlie other the second tluirsday in Sejitcmlier follow- ing; the tirst shall be called the Courte of Elec- tion, wherein shall be yerely Chosen frO tyme to tyme soe many Slagestrats and other publiko Olllcers as shall be found requisitte: Whereof one to be chosen Goueniour for the yeiire ensiieing and vntill another tic clio.sen, iind iioe other Magestmtc to be chosen for more than one y care; p'uided ullwayes there be sixe chosen besids the Gouernour; W bi'ing chosen and sworiie accord- ing to an Oath recorded for that purpose shall liaue power to administer lust ice according to the Lawes here establislied, and for want thereof according to the rule of the word of God; W clioise Bliall be made by all llmt are adinittcd freemen and huue taken the Oath of Fidellity, and doe cohabitte w'in this ■lurisdiction, (liauing beene admitteil Inhabitants by the maior ji't of the Towne wherein tiiey line.) or the mayor p'to of such as shall be then p'seut. 3. It is Ordered, 497 CONNECTICUT, 1636-1630. The Funiln- mental Orders. CONNECTICUT, 1630-1639. sentenced and decreed, thnt tlie Election of the iiforcsaid Mnccstriits shall be on this manner: eucry p'son p'seiit iind (luallitii d for clioyse shall hriiijr in (to the p'soiis deputed to reeeaue the) one single pap' w" the name of him written iu yt whom he desires to hauo Gouernour, and lie that hath the greatest nfiber of papers shall he Gouernor for that yeare. And the rest of the Magestrats or jtiibli'ke OfWcers to be chosen in this manner: The Secretary for the tyme being shall first read the names of all that are to bo put to clioi.se and then shall seuerally nominate tliem di.stinctly, and enery one that would liaue the p'son nominated to be chosen shall bring in one single paper written vppon, and he that would not haiie him chosen shall bring in a blankc: and (tuerv one that hath more written ])ai)ers then blanks shall be a Magistral for that yeare; W' paiiers sha'l be receaiied and told by one or more that shall be then chosen by the court and swf)rne to be faythfull therein: but in ca.so there should not be si.xe chosen as aforesaid, besids the Gouer- nor, out of those W are nominated, then he or they W' hauc the most written pai)'s shall be a Magestrato or >Iagcstrats for the ensueing yeare, to make vp the foresaid nnber. 3. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that the Secretary shall not nominate any p'son, nor shall any p'son be chosen newly into the Magestracy w' was not p'po.vnded in some Generall Courte before, to be nominated the ne.xt Election; and to that end yt shall be lawful! for cell of tlio Townes aforesaid by their deputyes to nominate any two wh" tliey conceauo fitte to be put to election; and the Courte ni'i.y a'l so i.niny more as tliey iiuige requisitt. 4. It is Ordered, sentenced and de- creed that noe p'son be chosen Gouernor abouo once in two yeares, and that the Gouernor be always a meb'.r of some approved congregation, and formerly of the JIagestracy w"in this Juris- diction ; an(l all the Slagestrats Freemen of this Comonweltli: and that no Magestrato or other publiko offlcer sludl execute any p'te of his or their OITlee before they arc seuerally sworne, W' shall be done in the face of the Courte if they be p'sent, and in case of absence by some deputed for that purpose. 5. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that to the aforesaid Courte of Election the seu'all Townes shall send their depu- tyes, and wlien the Elections ' ended tliey may p'ceod in any publike sea; as at other Courts. Also the other Generall Courte in Sep- tember shall be for nuikeing of lawes, and any other publike occation, w' conseriis the good of the Comonweltli. 0. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that the Gou'nor shall, ether by him- selfo or by the secretary, send out sumons to the Constables of eu' Towne for the cauleing of these two standing Courts, on month at lest before their seu'all tyines: And also if tlie Gou'nor and the gretest p'te of the Magestrats see cause vppon any spel.'al. occation to call a generall Courte, they may giiie order to tlie secretary soe to doe w'Mn fowerteene dayes warneing; and if vrgent necessity so require, vjipon a shorter notice, glue- ing sufflcient grownds for y t to the deputyes when they meete, or els bo questioned for tlie same ; And if the Gou'nor and Jilayor p'te of Magestrats shall ether neglect or refuse to call the two Gen- eral! standing Courts or ether of the, as also at other tymes when the occatious of the Comon- weltli n^quire, the Freemen thereof, or the Mayor p'te of them, shall petition to them soe to doe: if then yt be ether denyed or neglected the said Freemen or the Mayor p'te of tlieni shall haue power to giue order to the Constables of tho seuerall Townes to doe the same, and so may meete togather, and cliu.so to tliemselues a JIocl- enitor, and may p'ceetl to do any Acte of power, w"' any other Generall Courte may. 7. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed that after tliere are warrants giuen out for any of the said Gen- erall Courts, tile Constable or Constables of ecli Towne shall forthw" give notice distinctly to the inhabitants of the same, in some I'ublike As- sembly or by goeing or sending frfi liowse to liowse, that at a pla(X' and tyme by him or them lymited and sett, they meet and assemble the seines togathci to elect and chuse certen depu- tyes to be att the Generall Courte then following to agitate the afay res of tlie comonweltli; w' said Deputyes shall bo chosen by all that are admitted Inhabitants in the seu'all Townes and haue taken the oath of tidollity ; p'uided that non be chosen ii Deputy for any Generall Courte w"'' is not a Freeman of tliis Comonweltli. The foresaid deputyes shall be chosen in manner following: euery p'son tliat is p'sent and quallified as before exp'ssed. shall bring the names of such, written in seu'rall papers, as they desire to haue chosen for that Imployment, and these 3 or 4, more or lessc, being the ndber agreed on to be chosen for that tyme, that haue greatest nClber of papers written for tlie shall be deputyes for that Courte; whose names shall be endorsed on the backe side of the warnuit and returned into the Courte, w" the Constable or Constables hand vnto the same. 8. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that Wyndsor, Hartford and AVethersfleld shall liaue power, cell Towne, to send fower of their freemen as deputyes to euery Generall Courte ; and wliatso- euer other Townes shall be hereafter added to this Jurisdiction, they shall send so many depu- tyes as the Courte shall Judge meete, a reason- able p'portion to the nClbei of Freemen that are in the said Townes being to be attended therein ; W deputyes sliall have tho power of the wliole Towne to giue their voats and alowance to all such lawes and orders as may be for the publike good, and unto W the sjvid Townes are to be bownd. 9. It is ordered and decreed, that tlie deputyes thus chosen shall haue power and liberty to appoynt a tyme and a place of meeting togather before any Generall Courte to aduise and consult of all such things as may concerne the good of the publike, as also to examine their owne Elections, whether according to tlie order, and if they or the gretest p'te of them find any election to be illegall they may sc jlud such for p'sent frO their meeting, and returne tlio same and their resous to tlie Courte ; and it yt proue true, the Courte may fyne tlie p'ty or p'tj'"? so intruding and tlie Towne, if they see cause, and giue out a warrant to goe to a newe el'iction in a legall way, either in p'te or in whole. Also the said deputyes shall hauo power to fyne any that shall bo disorderly at their meetings, or f<i not coming in due tyme or place according to ap- poyntment; and tliey may returne the said fynes into the Courte if yt bo refused to be paid, and the tresurer to take notice of yt, and to estreete or levy the same as ho doth other fynes. 10. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that euery Generall Courti ;cept such as through neglecte of the Gou'nor and the greatest p'te of Magestrats the Freemen themselves doe call, shall consist of 498 CONNECTICUT, lCaO-1030. Xew Haven Colouv. CONNECTICUT, 1639. the Qouernor, or some one chosen to moderate the Court, iiud 4 other .Mii^estriits at lest, w" tlie mayor p'te of tlie deputyes of the seuerall Towiiea legally chosen ; aiul in case the Freemen or mayor p'te of the, tlirough neglect or refusall of the Qouernor ami mayor p'te of the mnges- tnits, sliall call a Courte, y' slmll consist of tlie mayor ji'le of Freemen that are p'sent or their deputyes, w" a Mmlerator cliosen by tliu: In W said Oenerall Courts sliall consist the supreme power of the Comonweltli, and tliey only shall haiie power to make laws or rcpeale the, to graunl leuyea, to admitt of Freemen, dispose of lands vndisiiosed of, to seuendl Towncs or p'sons, and also shall haue power to call ether Courte or JIagestrate or any other p'son whatsoeuer into (picstion for any misdemeanour, and may for just causes displace or deale otherwise according to the nature of the ofTence ; and also may dealo in any other matter that concerns the good of this comou welth, excepte election of JIagestrats, W' shall be done by the wliole boddy of Freemen. In w' Courte the Gouernour or Moderator shall haue power to order the Courte to giuc liberty of spech, and silence vnceasonabic and disorderly speakeings, to put all things to voate, and in case the voate be equalltohauc the casting voice. But non of these Courts shall be a<liorned or dis- solued w"out the consent of the maior p'te of the Court. 11. It is ordered, seutence<l and decreed, that when any Qenerall Courte vjjpon the occa- tioiis of the Comonweltli haue agreed vppon any same or somes of mony to be leuycd vppon the seuerall Townes ■w'Mn this Jurisdiction, that a Comittec be chosen to sett out and appoynt w' shall be the p'jjortion of euery Towno to pay of the said leuy, p'vided the Comittees be made vp of an eciimll ntlber out of each Tov .:e. 14"" Jan- uary, 1038, the 11 Orders abouesaid are voted." — Public Itecoi'tls of the Colony of Connecticut, v. 1. A. D. 1637.— The Pequot War. See New Enoland: a. D. 1037. A, D. 1638.— The planting of New Haven Colony. — " In the height of the Hutchinson con- troversy [sc'3 Massachusetts: A. 1). 1636-1038], John Davenport, an eminent nonconformist min- ister from London, had arrived at Boston, and with him a wealthy company, led by two mer- chants, Theophilus Eaton and Edward Hopkins. Alarmed at the new opinions and religious agita- tions of whicli Massachusetts was the seat, not- witlistimding very advantageous offers of settle- ment there, they preferred to establish a separate community of their own, to be forever free from the innovations of error and licentiousness. Eaton and others sent to explore the coast west of tlic Connecticut, selected a place for settle- ment near the head of a spacious bay at Quina- piaek lor Quinnipinck], or, as the Dutch called it, Ucd Hill, where they built a hut and spent the winter. They were joined in the spring t April, 1638] by the rest of their company, and )avenport ijreached his first sermon under the shade of a spreading oak. Presently they entered into what they called a 'plantation covenant,' and a communication being opened with the Intiians, who were but few in that neighborhood, the lands of Quinapiack were purchased, except a sniiill reservation on the east side of the bay, the Indians receiving a few presents and a promise of iirotection. A tract north of the bay, ten miles in one direction and thirteen in the other, was purchased for ten coats , and the colonists proceeded to lay out in sijuarcs the ground-plan of a spacious city, to which tlu-v iirescutly gave the name of New Haven." — H. llildreth, }lt«t. of the U. S.,v. 1, ch. 9. — "They formed their politi- cal as.sociation by what they called a 'plantation covenant,' ' to distinguish it from a church cov- enant, which could not at that time be made.' Ill this coiii])act they resolved, 'that, as in matters that concern the gathering and ordering of a church, .so likewise in all i)ublic olllces which concern civil order, as choice of magis- trates and olUcei's, making and repealing of laws; dividing allotments of iiiluritance, and all tilings of like nature,' they would ' be ordeied tiy the rules which the Scriptures hold forth.' It had no external sanction, and comprehended no acknowledgment of the government of England. The company consisted mostly of Londoners, who at home had been engaged in trade. lu proportion to their numbers, they were the richest of all the iilantations. Like the settlers on Narragansett Bay, they had no other title to their lands than that which they obtained by purchase from the Indians. " — J. O. Palfrey, Hist, of New Kiid., v. 1, ch. 13. Also in: C. H. Levermore, The Itepuhlie of JVefO Ilntcn, ch. 1. A. D. 1639. — The Fundamental Agreement of New Haven. — "In June, ^039, the wliolo body of settlers [at Quinnipiack, tt New Haven] came together to frame a constitution. A tra- dition, seemingly well founded, days that the meeting was held in a large b;ii n. According to the same account, the purpose for which they had met and the principles on which they ought to proceed were set forth by Davenport in a ser- mon. ' Wisdom hath builded her house, sliu hath hewn out seven pillars,' was the text. There is an obvious connection between this an I the subsequent choice of seven of the chief men to lay the foundation of the constitution. . . . Davenport set forth the general system on which the constitution ought to be framed. The two main principles which he laid down were, that Scripture is a perfect and sulBcient rule for the conduct of civil affairs, and that church-member- ship must be a condition of citizenship. In this the colonists were but imitating the example of Massachusetts. . . . After the sermon, live reso- lutions [followed by a sixth, constituting together what was called the ' fundamental agreement ' of New Haven Colony], formally introducing Davenport's proposals, were carried. If a church already existed, it was not considered ' "■■ to form a basis for the state. Accordingly a fresh one was framed by a curiously complicated process. As a first step, twelve men were elected. These twelve were instructed, after a due inter- val for consideration, to choose seven out of their own number, who should serve as a nu- cleus for the church. At the same time an oath was ti'.ken by the settU^rs, which may be looked on as a sort of preliminary and provisional test of citizenship, pledging them to accept the principles laid down by Davenport Sixty-three of the inhabitants took the oath, and their example was soon followed by fifty more. By October, four months after the original meeting, the seven formally established the new common- wealth. They granted the rights of a freeman to all who joined them, and who were recognized members either of the church at New Haven or 499 CONNECTICUT, 1630. The Royal Charter. CONNECTICUT, 1663-1664. of ony other ui)provt'(l diurcli. The fn^emen thus chosen entered into nu agreement to the same effect as the oath already taken. They tlien elected n Governor and four Magistrates, or, as tlicy were for tlie jiresent called, ii Magistrate and four Deputies. . . . Tlic functions of llie Governor and Magistrates were not detined. Indeed, l)Ut one formal resolution was passed as to tlie conslitulion of tlie colony, namely, ' tliat the Word of Ood sliall be tlie only rule attended >uito in ordering the affairs of government.' " — J. A. Doyle, T//e KnuUnh in Am.: The Puritnii ColoniiH, V. 1, e!i. 0. — "Of all the New England colonies, New Haven was most purely a govern- ment hy compact, by social contract. . . . Tlie free i)lauters . . . signed each their names to their voluntary compact, and ordered tliat ' all planters hereafter received in this plantation should submit to the said foiindamentiill agree- ment, and testilie the same l)y subscriliing their names.' It is believed that this is the sole insuinec of the formation of an independent civil government by a general compact wherein all the parties to the agreement were legally required to be actual signers thereof. AVhen tli.i cMiit occurred, Jolm Locke was in his seventh \ ^ iir, and Uousseau was a century away." — C. II. Levermore, I'/ie liijinlilii' i>f JS'tin Ifnren, p. 23. A. D. 1640-1655. — The attempted New Haven colonization on the Delaware. — Fresh quarrels with the Dutch. See New Jeusey: A. I). i04()-lC.j,-). A. D. 1643. — The confederation of the colo- "ies. — The progress and state of New Haven and the River Colony. See New En<il.\ni): A. D. 1643. A. D. 1650. — Settlement of boundaries with the Dutch of New Netherland. See New Youk: a. D. 1050. A. D. 1656-1661. — The persecution of Quakers. See Massachusetts: A. D. 1650- 1001. A. D. 1660-1663. — The beginning of bound- ary conflicts with Rhode Island. See Hiioue Island: A. I). 1000-1003. A. D. 1560-1664. — The protection of the regicides at New Haven. — " Against the colony of New Haven the king had a special grudge. Two of 'the regicide judges, who had sat in the tribunal which condemned his father, escaped to New England in 1060 and were well received there. They wore gentlemen o'' high position. Edward Wlialley was a cousin of Cromwell and Hampden. . . . The other regicide, William Goffe, as a riajnr-general in Cromwell's army, had won such distinction that there were some who pointed to him as the ))ropcr person to succeed the Lord Protector on the death of the latter. He had married Whalley's daughter. Soon after the arrival of these gentlemen, a royal order for their arrest was sent to Boston. . . . The king's detectives hotly pur- sued them tlirough the woodland i)athsofNew England, aud they would soon have been taken but for tlie aid they got from the people. Many are the stories of their hairbreadth escapes. Sometimes they took refuge in a cave on a mountain near New Haven, sometimes they hid in friendly cellars ; and or.ce, being hard put to it, they skulked under a wooden bridge, whilo their pursuers on horselmck galloped by over- head. After lurking about New Ilavcn and Milford for two or threo years, on hearing of the expected arrival of Colonel Nichols and liis com- mission [the royal commission appointed to take possession of the American grant lately made by tlie king to his brother, the Duke of "iorkj, they soughta more secluded hiding place near Hadley, It village lately settled far up the Connecticut river, within tlie jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Here the avengers lost the trail, the pursuit was alviiidoned, and the weary regicides were lucse'ntly forgotten. The people of New Haven had been especially zealous in shielding the fugitives. . . . The colony, moreover, di(l not nllicially recognize the restoration of Charles II. to the throne until that event had been commonly known in New Englmd for more than a year. For these reasons, the wrath of the king was s))ecially roused agiMnst New Haven." — J. Fiske, TIte Jiei/iiiniiif/a of New Enrj., pp. 193-194. At.so in: G. H. Hollister, IIM. of Conn., v, 1, c/i. 11. A. D. 1662-1664.— The Royal Charter and annexation of New Haven to the River Colony. — "The Restoration in England left the New Haven colony under a cloud in the favor of the new government: it had been tardy and un- gracious in its proclamation of Charles II. ; it had been especially remiss in searching for the regicide colonels, Gofle and Wlialley ; and any application for a charter would have come from New Haven with a very ill grace. Connecticut was under no such disabilities; and it had in its Governor, John AVinthrop [tlio younger, son of the first governor of Massachusetts], a man well calculated to win favor with the ne^v King. . . . In March, 1660, the General Court solemnly de- clared its loyalty to Charles II. , sent the Gov- ernor to Englaiui to offer a loyal address to the King and ask him for a charter, and laid aside i'oOO for his exi)enses. Winthrop was successful, and the charter was granted April 20, 1602. The ac(juisition of the charter rai.sed the Connecticut leaders to the seventh heaven of satisfaction. And well it might, for it was a grant of privileges with hardly a limitation. Practically the King had given Winthrop 'carte blanche,' and allowed him to frame the charter to suit himself. It in- corporated the freemen of Connecticut as a ' body corporate and pollitique,' by the name of 'The Governor and Company of the English CoUony of Conectic'ut in New Euglaud in America.' . . . The people were to have all the liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects of the King, as if born within tiie realm. It granted to the Governor and Company all that part of New England south of the Massachusetts line and west of the ' Norroganatt River com- monly called Norroganatt Bay ' to the South Sea, with the ' Islands thereunto adioyneinge. ' ... It is difficult to see more than two jioints in which it [the charter] altered the constitution adopted by the towns in 1039. Tliere were now to be two deputies from each town; and the bounuaries 01 J 1 Commonwealth now embraced the rival colony of New Haven. . . . New Haven did not submit witliout a struggle, for not only her pride of separate existence but the supremacy of her ecclesiastical system was at stake. For three years a succession of diplomatic notes passed between tiie General Court of Connecticut and ' our honored friends of New Haven, Mil- ford, Branford, aud Guilford.' ... In October, 1664, the Connecticut General Court appointed the Nei- Haven magistrates commissioners for 500 CONNECTICUT, 1662-1664. The Hiding of the Charter. CONNECTICUT, 1685-1687. their towns, 'with mftgistraticnll powers,' es- tftblislied till! New Iltivcn local olUcers in tlieir places for tlu! time, and declared oblivion for any past resistance to the laws. In Decenil)er, Milford having already 8\ibmitted, the remnant of the New Haven General Court, representing New Haven, Guilford, and Uranfonl, held its last meeting and voted to submit, ' with a salvo jure of our former rights and claims, as a people who have not yet been Iieard in point of ph-a.' The next year the hiws of New Iliivcn rtere laid aside forever, and her towns sent deputies to the General Court at Hartford. ... In I'lOl the General Court . . . voted that its annual Octo- ber session should thereafter be held at New Haven. This provision of a double capital was incorporated into the constitution of 1818, and continued until in 1873 Hartford was made sole capital." — A. Johnston, The Genesis of a JVeu) Enij. State, pp. 25-38. Also in: B. Trumbull, Hist, of Conn., v. 1, <•//. 18. — Public Records of the Colony of Conn., 1605- 78. A. D. 1664. — Royal irrant to the Duke of York, in conflict with tne charter. See New Youk: a. I). 1664. A. D. 1666. — The New Haven migration to Newark, N.J. See Nkw Jkuskv: A. D. 1664- 10(17. A. D. 1674-1675.— Long Island and the western half of the colony granted to the Duke of York. — In 1674, after the momentary recovery of New York by the Dutch, and its re-surrender to the English, "tlie king issued a new patent for the province, in which he not only in'^luded Long Island, but the territory up to the Connecticut River, which liad been assigned to Connecticut by the royal commis- sioners. The assignment of Long Island was regretted, b. it not resisted; and tlic island which is the natural sea-wall of Connecticut passed, by royal deiTce, to a province whose only natural claim to it was that it barely touched it at one corner. The revival of the duke's claim to a part of tlic mainland was a different matter, and every preparation was made for resistance. In July, 1075, just as Kii. j Philip's war had broken out in Plymoutli, hasty word was sent from the authorities at Ilartfonl to Captain Thomas Bull at .Saybrook that Governor Andros of New York was on his way through the Sound for the purpose, as he avowed, of aiding the people against the Indians. Of the two evils, Connecti- cut rather preferred the Indians. Bull was instructed to inform Andros, if he sliould call at Saybrook, that the colony liad taken all pre- cauMons against the Indians, and to direct liim to tlie actual scene of conllict, l)ut not to permit the landing of any armed soldiers. ' And you are to keep the king's colors standing there, under his majesty's lieutenant, the governor of Connecticut ; and if any other colors be set up there, you arc not to sulfer them to stand. . . . But yo\i are in his majesty's name re(iuired to avoid striking tlie first blow; but if they begin, then you ere to defend yourselves, and do your best to secure his majesty's interest and the I)eace of the wliole colony of Connecticut in our l)ossc8sion. ' Andros came and landed at Say- brook, but confined his proceedings to leading the duke's patent against tlie protest of Bull and the Connecticut representatives. " — A. Johnston, Connecticut, ch. 12.— liept. of liegents of tlie University on the Boundaries of the State of iV..r.,;). 21. Also in; C.W. Bowen, T lie Boundary Disputes of Conn., pp. 70-73. A. D. 1674-1678.— King Philip's War. See New Enol.\m); A. 1). 1671-1675; 1075; 1670- 1078. A. D. 1685-1687.— The hostile ki.ag and the hidden charter.— Sir Edmund Andius in pos- session of the government. — " During tlic latter years of tlie reign of Charles II. the king had become .so recklc-^s of his pledges and his faith that lie did not s( 1 ujile to set the dangerous ex- ample of violating the charters that had been granted \>y the crown. Owing to the friendsliip that the king entertained for Winthrop, we have seen that Coniu'cticut was favored by liim to a degree even after tlie death of that great man. But no sooner had Charles demise<l and the sceptre passed into the liands of his bigoted brother. King James II., than Connecticit was called upon to contend against lier sovereign for liberties that had been alllr'icd to hei by the most solemn muniments known to the i:uv of England. The accession of James II. took place on the 0th day of February 1085, and such was his haste to violate the honor of the crowa that, early in the sunimer of 1685, a quo warranto was issued against the governor and company of Connecticut, citing them to appear before the king, within eij. it days of St. Martiu'.s, to show by wliat right a li tenor thej^ exercised certain powers and privileges." This was quickly fol- lowed by two other writs, conveyed to Hartford by Edward Ilandolph, the implacable enemy of the colonics. "The day of appearance named in them was passed long before the writs were served." Mr. Wiiiting was sent to England as the agent of the colony, to exert such intlu- ences as might be brought to bear against the plainly hostile and unscrupulous intentions of the king; but his errand was f"uitless. "On the 28th of December another writ of quo warranto was served upon tlie governor and company of the colony. This writ bore date the 23d of October, and required tlie defendants to appear before the king ' within eight days of the purifi- cation of the Blessed Virgin.' ... Of cour.se, the day nam^d was not known to the English law, and was therefore no day at all ir- legal con- templation." Already, the other New England colonies had been brought under a iirovisional general government, by comniissioiu^rs, of whom Joseph Dudley was named president. President Dudley "addrcsfied a loiter to the governor and council, advising them to resign the charter into tlie king's hands. Should they do so, he under- took to use his influence in belialf of the colony. Tliey did not deem it advisable to comply with the request. Indeed they lia<l hardly time to do so before the old commission was broken up, and a new one granted, superseding Dudley and naming Sir Edmund Andros governor of New England. Sir Edmund arrived in 15o.ston on tlie 19th of December, 1686, and tlie next (hiy he published his commission and took the govern- ment into his hands. Scarcely had lie establislied liiiHself, when he sent a letter to the governor and company of Connecticut, ac(iuainting them with his appointment, and informing tliem that he was commissioned by the king to receive their charter if they would give it up to him."— 0. H. Hollister, Ilist. of Conn., v. 1, ch. 14.— On 501 CONNECTICUT, 1685-1687. The Keinttated Cluirler. CONNECTICUT, 1689-1701. receipt of the comrminicntion from Andros, "the General Court wiis nt once convened, and l)y its direetion u letter was addressed to the EngUsh Secretary of State, earnestly pleading for the preservation of the jjrivileges that had been granted to them. For the first time they admit- ted the po.ssibility that tlieir peli'ion might be ilenied, and in that case reepiested to be united to iMa-ssachusetts. This was construed by Sir Edmund as a virtual surrender; hut as the days went by he saw that he had mistaken the spirit and purpose of the colony. Andros finally de- cided to go in person to Connecticut. He arrived at Ilartfor 1 the last day of October, attended by a retinue of CO oflicers and soldiers. The Assem- bly, then in session, received liim with every outward mark of respect. After this formal ex- change o' courtesies. Sir Kdmund publicly de- manded Mo charter, and declared tlie colonial government dissolved. Tradition relates that Governor Treat, in cnlm hut earnest words, re- monstrated against this action. . . . The flebate was continued until tlie sha<lows of the early autumnal evening liad fallen. After candles were lighted, the -jovernor and his council seemed to yield ; and the bo.x supposed to contain the char- ter was brought into the room, and placed upon the table. Suddenly the lights were extin- guished. Quiet reigned in the room, and in the dense crowd outside the building. Tiie candles were soon relighted; but the charter had dis- appeared, and after the most diligent search could not be found. The common tradition has been, that it was taken imdcr cover of the dark- ness by Captain Joseph Wadsworth, and hidden by him in the liollow trunk of a venerable and noble oak tree standing near the entrance-gate of Governor AVyllys's mansion. The charter taken by Captain Wadsworth was probably the dupli- cate, and remained safely in his possession for several years. There is reason to believe tliat, some time before the coming of Andros to Hart- ford, the original charter liad been carefully secreted, and the tradition of later times makes it probable that, while the duplicate charter that was tiikcn from the table was hidden elsewhere, the original charter found a safe resting place in the heart of the tree that will always be remem- bered as The Charter Oak. This tree is said to have been preserved by the early settlers at the request of the Indians. 'It hi) s been the guide of our ancestors for centuries,' ihey said, 'as to the time of planting our corn. iVhen the leaves are the size of a mouse's ears, then is the time to put it in the ground.' The record of the Court briefly states that Andros, having been conducted to the governor's seat by the gov- ernor himself, declared that he had been com- missioned by his Majesty to take on him the government of Connecticut. The commission having been read, he said that it was his Majesty's pleasure to make the late governor ami Captain John Allyn members of his council. The secretary handed their common seal to Sir Edmund, and afterwards wrote these words in- closing the recor' : _ ' His Excellency, Sir Ed- mund Andros, Knight, Captain-General and Governor of his Majesty's Territory and Domin- ion in New England, bv order from his JIajesty, King of England, Scotland and Irelaiid, the 81st of October, 1687, took mto his hands the govern- ment of this colony of Connecticut, it being by Lis Majesty annexed to the Massachusetts and other colonics under his Excellency's government. Finis.' Andros soon disclosed a hand of steel beneath the velvet glove of plausible words and fair promis's." — E. B. Sanford, Hist, of Conn., ch. 10. Also in: J. G. Palfrey, Hist, of New En//., bk. ■S, ch. 13 (v. 3).— Sec, also, New Enol.vnd: A. D. 1080, and JIassaciiusetts: 1071-1080. A. D. 1689-1697.— King William's War. See Canada (NewFkance): A. D. 1089-1090; and 1093-1097. A. D. 1689-1701.— The reinstatement of the charter government. — "April, 1089, came at last. The jicople of Boston, at tlie first news of the English Revolution, clapped Andros into custody. Alay 9, tlie old Connecticut authorities (piietly resumed their functions, and called the assembly together for the following month. Willianj and Mary were proclaimed with great fervor. Not a word was said about the dis- appearance or reappearance of the charter; but the charter government was put into full effect again, as if Andros had never interrupted it. An address was sent to the king, asking that the charter he no further interfered with ; but ojier- ations under it went on as before. No decided action was taken by the home government for some years, except that its appointment of the New York governoi-, Fletcher, to the command of the Connecticut militia, implied a decision tliat the Connecticut charter had been super- .seded. Late in 1693, Fitz John Wiuthrop was sent to England as agent to obtain a confirmation of the charter. Ho secured an emphatic legal opinion from Attorney General Somers, backed by those of Treby and Ward, that the charter was entirely valid, Treby's concurrent opinion taking this shape : ' I am of the same opinion, and, as this matter is stilted, there is no ground of doubt.' The basis of the opinion was that the charter had been granted under the great seal ; that it Iiad not been surrendered under the common seal of the colony, nor had any judg- ment of record been entered against it; tliat its operation had merely been interfered with by overpowering force; that the charter therefore remained valid ; and that the peaceable submission of the colony to A'.idros was merely an illegal sus- pension of lawful authority. In other words, the passive attitude of the colonial government had disarmed Andros so far as to stop the legal pro- ceedings necessary to forfeit the charter, and their prompt action, at the critical moment, secured all that could he secured under the cir- cumstances. William was willing enough to retain all possible fruit of James's tyranny, as he sliowed by enforcing the forfeiture of the Massa- chusetts charter ; but the law in this case was too plain, and he ratified the lawyers' opinion in April, 1694. The clip.rter had escaped its enemies at last, and its escape is a monument of one of the advantages of a real democracy. . . . Democracy had done more for Connecticut than class influence had done for Massachusetts " — A. Johnston, Connecticut, ch. 12. — "The decisions which established the rights of Connecticut included Rhode Island. These two common- wealths were the portion of the British empire distinguished above all others by the largest liberty. Each was a nearly peri'ect democracy under the shelter of a monarchy. . . . The crown, by reserving to itself the right of appeal, had still a method of interfering in the internal 502 CONNECTICUT, 1089-1701. The Revolution. CONNECTICUT, 1776. affairs of the two rppiiblica. Both of tliptn wore Included among the colonies in which tlic lords of »~uie advised a complete restonition of tlie preroKiii'ves of the crown. Both wen; niimcd in tlie bdl winch, in April, 1701, was introduced into parliament for the ai)rogation of all Ameri- can clmrters. The journals of the house of lords relate that Connecticut was publicly heard against the measure, and contended tliat its liberties were held by contract in return for services tliat had been performed; that the taking away of so many charters would destroy all contldenco in royal promises, and would afford a precedent dangerous to all the chartered cor- porations of England. Yet the bill was read iv second time, and its i.'rinciple, as applied to colonies, was advocated by the mercantile interest and Ic ' great men ' in England. The impending w with the French postponed the purpose till the accession of the house of Han- over."— G. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. S. (Autlwr't last Tension), pt, 3, ch. 3 (r. 2). A. D. 1690. — The first Colonial Congress. See Unitici) Status of Am. : A. 1). 1G90. A, D. 1702-1711. — Queen Anne's War. See New Enol.\ni>: A. 1). 1702-1710; and Canad.v. (NkwFhanck): A. 1), 1711-1713. A. D, 1744-1748.— King George's War and the taking of Louisbourg. Hci; New Englano : A. 1). 1744; 174r); and 1745-1748. A. D. 1753-1799. — Western territorial claims. — Settlements in the Wyoming Valley. — Con- flicts with the Penn colonists. See Pennsyl- vania: A. I). 17r)3-179i). A. D. 1754. — The Colonial Congress at Albany, and Franklins plan of union. See United States of Am. : A. I). 17i)4. A. D. 1755-1760.— The French and Indian War, and conquest of Canada. See Canada (New France): A. D. 17r)0-17o3; 1755; 1750; 17)0-1757; 1758; 1759; 1700; Nova Scotia: A. D. 1749-1755; 1755; Ohio (Valley): A. D. 1748-1754; 1754; 1755; C.U'e Breton Island: A. I). 1758-1700. A. D. 1760-1765^— The question of taxation by Parliament. — The Sugar Act. — The Stamp Act.— The Stamp Act Congress. See United States OP Am.: A. D. 1700-1775; 1703-1704; 1705; and 1700. A. D. 1765. — The revolt against the Stamp Act. — "The English government understood very well that the colonies were earnestly opposed to the Stamp Act, but they had no thought of the storm of wrath and resistance whicli it would arouse. It was a surprise to many of the leaders of public affairs in America. . . . Governor Fitch and Jared Ingersoll, with other prominent citizens who had done all in their power to oppose the scheme of taxation . . . counsolk"? submission. They mistook the feeling of the people. . . . The clergy were still the leaders of public opinion, and they were united in denunciation of the great wrong. Societies were organized under the name of the Sons of Liberty, the secret purpose of which was to resist the Stamp Act by violent m( sures if necessary. . . . Mr. Ingersoll, who had done all in his power to oppose the bill, after its pas- sage decided to accept the position of stamp agent for Connecticut. Franklin urged him to take the place, and no one doubted his motives in accepting it. The people of Connecticut, however, were not pleased with this action. . . . He was vi.sited l)v a crowd of citizens, who incpiired impatiently if he would resign. " Inger- soll put them off with evasive rei)lies for some time; but tinally there was a gathering of a thousand men on horseback, from Norwich, New Lond(m, Windham, Lebanon and other towns, each armed with a heavy peeled dub, who surrounded tlie obstinate stamp agent at Wethtrsliehl and made him understand that tliey were in deadly earnest. "'The cause is not worth dying for,' said the intrepid man, wlio would never have Hinched had he not felt tluit, after all, this band of earnest men were in the right. A formal resignation was given him to sign. . . . After he had signed his name, tlic crowd cried out, 'Swear to it!' He begged to be excused from taking an oath. ' Then shout Liberty and Property, 'said the now good-natured company. To this he had no objection, and waved his hat enthusiastically as he repeated the words. Having given three cheers, the now hilarious party dined together." Ingersoll was then escorted to Hartford, where he read his resignation publicly at the court-house. — E. B. Sanford, Hist, of Coiuurtifiit, ch. 29. A. D. 1766. — The repeal of the Stamp Act. — The Declaratory Act. See United States ov Am.: a. I). 1700. A. D. 1766-1768.— The Townshend duties.— The Circular Letter of Massachusetts. See United States of A.m. : A. 1). 1700-1707, and 1707-1708. A. D. 1768-1770. — The quartering of troops in Boston. — The " Massacre " and the removal of the troops. See Boston: A. D. 1708, and 1770. A. D. 1769-1784. — The ending of slavery. See Slavery, Neoro: A. I). 1709-1785. A. D. 1770-1773. — Repeal of the Townshend duties except on tea. — Committees of Corres- pondence instituted. — The tea ships and the Boston Tea-party. Sec United States of Am. : A. I>. 1770, and 1773-1773; and Boston: A. 1). 1773. A. D. 1774.— The Boston Port Bill, the Massachusetts Act, and the Quebec Act. — The First Continental Congress. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1774. A. D. 1775. — The beginning of the War of the American Revolution. — Lexington. — Con- cord. — New England in arms and Boston beleagured. — Ticonderoga. — Bunker Hill. — The Second Continental Congress. See United States op Am. : A. I). 1775. A. D. 1776.— Assumes to be a " free, sover- eign and independent State." — " In Jlay, 1770, the people had been formally released from their allegiance to the crown; and in October the general assembly passed an act assuming the functions of a State. The important section of the act was the first, as follows: 'Tliat the ancient form of civil government, contained in the charter from Charles the Second, King of England, and adopted by the people of this State, shall be and remain the civil Constitution of this State, under the sole authority of the people thereof, independent of any king or prince whatever. And that this Republic is, and shall forever be and remain, a free, sovereign and independent State, by the name of the State of Connecticut.' The form of the act speaks what was doubtless always the belief of the people, that their charter derived its vrlidity, not from 603 CONNECTICUT, 1776. CONSTABLE. tbe will of the crown, but from the assent of the people. And ^the curious laiiKuugc of the lust sciitt'iice. in wliich ' tliis Uepublic ' declares itself to be 'u free, sovereign, and independent Slate,' nmy serve to indicate sonietliinj; of the appear- ance wlii'h state sovereignty do\ibtless presented to the Americans of 177(>-80." — A. jolniston, ConnicticHt, eh. 10. — See, also. United Status OK Am. : A. I). 177»-1771). A. D. 1776-1783.— The war and the victory. — Independence achieved. See Lnitkd States OF Am.: a. I). ITT(> to ITm;!. A. D. 1778. — The massacre at the Wyoming settlement. See United States ok Am. : A. \). 1778 (.III i.Y). A. D. 1779. — Tryon's marauding expeditions. See I'mted States OK Am. : A. I). I7i8-1771>. A. D. 1786. — Partial cession of western territorial claims to the United States. — The Western Reserve in Ohio. See United States OK Am. : A. I). 1781-1786; Pennsylvania: A. D. 175:1-1709; and Ohio: A. I). 1786-1790. A. D. 1788.— Ratification of the Federal Constitution. See United States ok Am. : A. 1). 1787-1789. A. D. 1814.— The Hartford Convention. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1814 (De- CEMUEIt). ♦ CONNECTICUT TRACT, The. See New Youk: a. I). 1780-1799. CONNUBIUM. See Municipium. CONON, Pope, A. D. 080-687. CONOYS. See A.MEUICAN AnonionjEs: Al- GONliUIA.N Fa.MII,Y. CONRAD I., King of the East Franks (Germany), (the first of the Saxon line), A. D. 911-919 Conrad II., King of the Romans (King of Germany), A. I). I()i4-1(«9; King of Italy, 1020-10:59 ; King of Burgundy, 10;i2-1039: Emperor, 1027-1039 Conrad III., King of Germany (the first of the Swabian or Hohen- stauffen dynasty), 1137-1152 Conrad IV., King of Germany, 1250-1254. CONSCRIPT FATHERS.— The Roman senators were so called, — "Patres Conscripti." The origin of the designation has been much dis- cussed, and tlie explanation whicli has found most acceptance is this: tliatwhen, at the organi- zation of the Republic, there was a new creation of senators, to till tlie ranks, the new senators were called "conscripti" ("added to the roll") while the older ones were called "patres" ("fathers"), as before. Then the whole senate was addressed as " Patres et Conscripti," which lapsed finally into "Patres-Conscripti." — H. G. Liddell, Ilut. of Home, bk. 1, ch. 4. CONSCRIPTION, The first French. Sec France: A. D. 1798-1799 (August— Apiul). CONSCRIPTION IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1863 (MAiicn). CONSERVATIVE PARTY, The English. — The name "Conservative," to replace that <>•' Tory (sec Enoi.and: A. D. 1680 for the origin (ji the latter) as a party designation, was first in- troiluced in 1831, by Mr. John Wilson Croker, in an article in the Quarterly Review. ' ' It crept slowly into general favour, although some few there were who always held out against it, en- couraged l)y the example of the late leader of tlie party, Lord Beaconsfield, who was not at all likely to extend a welcome to anything which camo with Mr. Croker's mark , upon it."— L. J Jennings. The Croker Pitprm, r. 3, p. 198. CONSILIO DI CREDENZA. See Italy: A. I). 10-.6-1I52. CONSISTORY, The Papal. See CuniA, Papal. CONSISTORY COURTS OF THE BISHOPS.—" Thedutiesot tlieolIlcialsottlie.se courts resembled in theory the duties of the cen- sors under the Roman Republic. In the middle ages, a lofty ellort had been made to overpass llie common linntiitions of government, to intro- duce punishment for sins as well as crimes, and to visit V ith temporal penalties the breach of the moral l.'iw. . . . The adniinistratio.i of such a discipline fell as a matter of course, to the clergy. . . . Thus arose throughout Europe a system of spiritual surveillance over the habits and conduct of every man, extending from tbe cottage to the castle, taking note of all wrong dealing, of all oppression of man by man, of all licentiousness and prolligacy, and representing upon earth, in the principles by which it was guided, the laws of the great tribunal of Almiglity God. Sueli was the origin of the church courts, perhaps the greatest institutions yet devised by man. But to aim at these high ideals is as perilous as it is noble; and weapons which may be safely trusted in the hands of saints become fatal implements of mischief when saints have ceased to wield them. . . . The Consistory Courts had continued into the .sixtceuthcentury with unrestricted juris- diction, although they had been for generations merely perennially flowing fountains, feeding the ecclesiastical exchequer. The moral conduct of every English man and woman remained sub- ject to them. . . . But between the original de- sign and the degenerate counterfeit there was this vital difference, — that the censures were no longer spiritual. Tliey were commuted in var- ious gradations for pecuniary fines, and each offence a.'^ainst morality was rated at its specific mouej' value in the Episcopal tables. Suspen- sion and excommunication remained as ultimate I)enalties ; but they were resorted to only to com- I)el unwilling culprits to accept the alternative. The misdemeanours of which the courts took cognizance were 'offences against chastity,' 'lieresy,'or ' matter sounding thereunto,' 'witch- craft,' 'drunkenness,' 'scandal,' 'defamation,' ' impatient words,' ' broken promises," untruth,' 'absence from church,' ' speaking evil of saints,' 'non-payment of offerings,' and other delin- quencies incapable of legal definition." — J. A. Eroude, Jlist. of EngUiml, ch. 3. CONSPIRACY BILL, The. SeeENoi-AUD: A. I). 1858-1859. CONSTABLE, The.—" The name is derived from the ' conies stabuli ' of the Byzantine court, and appears in the west as early as the days of Gregory of Tours. The duties of the constables of France . . . and those of the constables of Naples . . . are not exactly parallel with [those of J the constables of England. In Naples the con- stable kept the king's sword, commanded tlie army, appointed the quarters, disciplined the troops and distributed the sentinels ; the marshals and all other officers being his subordinates. The "rench office wiis nearly the same. In England, However, the marshal was not subordinate to the constable. Probably tlie English marshals fulfilled the duties which liad been in Normandy discharged by the constables. The marshal fa 504 CONSTABLE. CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 380. more distinctly an ofHcer of tlio court, the con- gtiible one of tlie castle or army. .... Tho con- stable . . . exercised tlie odlce of (luarterinaster- general of the court and army and succeeded to the duties of the Anglo-Saxon stuller." — VV. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of Eiig., cli. 11, sect. 123, ami note. CONSTABLE OF FRANCE.-" No other dignity in Hie world has been held Ijy such a succession of great soldii.'rs as tlio olUce of Con- stable of France. The Constable was originally a mere otUccr of the stables, but his power had increased by tlie suppression of the olllce of Grand Seneschal, and by the time of Philip Augustus he exercised control over all the mili- tary forces of the crown, lie was the gi^ieral in chief of th(! army and the highest military autliority in the Ivingdom. Tho constables had for four centuries been leaders in the wars of France, and they had experienced strange and varied fortunes. Tlu; odice had been bestowed on the son of Simon de Montfort, and he for this lionor had granted to the liing of France his rights over tliose vast domains which had been given his father for his pious con(iuests. [See Ai,ni- QEN8E8: A. D. 1317-1229.] It had been be- stowed on llaoul de Nesle, who fell at Courtrai, where the French nobility sulferi'd its first defeat from Flemish boors; on IJertrand do Quesclin, tlie last of the great warriors, Avhose deeds were .sung with tliose of tho pala.lins of Charlemagne; on Cli.sson, the victor of Kooso- beeii [or Itosebecque] ; on Armagnac, whose name has a bloody preeminence among the leaders of tlie fierce soldiery who ravaged Franco during tlie Englisli wars; on Buchan, whose Scotch valor and fidelity gained him this great trust among a foreign people ; on Uichemont, the companion of Joan Dare; on Saint Pol, the ally of Charles the Bold, the betrayer and tlie victim of Louis XI. ) on the Uuke of Bourbon, who won the battle of Pavia against his sovereign, and led his soldiers to that saelc of liome wliich made the ravages of Qenseric and Alaric seem mild; on Anne of Jlontmorenci, a prominent actor in every great event in France from the battle ef Pavia against Charles V. to that of St. Denis against Coligni; on his son, the companion of Henry IV. in his youth, and his trusted adviser in his age. . . . Tlie sword borne by such men had been bestowed [1631] on Luines, the hero of an assassination, who could not drill a company of infantry; it was now [1633] given to tlie hero of many battles [the Dulcoof Lesdeguiires], and the great offlce was to expire in the hands of a great soldier." — J. B. Perkins, Fra)ice uiuUir Mazarin, v. 1, /). 94. CONSTANCE.The Council of. SeePxPACS': A. D. 1414-1418. CONSTANCE, Peace of (i 183). See Italy: A. D. 1174-1183. CONSTANS I., Roman Emperor, A. D. 337- 850 Constans II., Roman Emperor (East- ern), A. I), 641-668. CONSTANTINA, The taking of (1837). See B,vHU.\r.Y States: A. I). 1830-1846. CONSTANTINE, Pope, A. D. 708-715 Constantme I. (called The Great), Roman Emperor, A. D. 306-337 .The Conversion. SeeRcME: A. D. 333 The Forged Dona- tion of. Sec P.vpACv: A. D. 774 (?) Constan- tine II,, Roman Emperor, A. I). 33V-340 Constantine III., Roman Emperor in the East, 33 505 A. D.fill Constantine IV. (called Pogona- tus), Roman Emperor in the East, .V. 1). t!68- 6H."j Constantine V. (cr.lled Copronymus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 741-77.") Constantine VI., Empemr in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A, I). 780- 797 Constantine VII. (called Porphyrogeni- tus). Emperor in the E-st (Byzantine, or Greek), A. I). 911-i).-)() Constantine VIII. (colleague of Constantine VII.), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 944 Constantine IX., Emperor in the East (Byzan- tine, or Greek), A. 1), 96;i-lil28 Constantine X., Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek),. A. I). 1043-10.")4 Constantine XL, Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). lO.-iO- 1067 Constantine XII., nominal Greek Em- peror in the East, about A, 1), li)71 Con- stantine XIII. (Polxologus), Greek Emperor of Constantinople, A. 1). 144H-14.")3 Con- stantine the Usurper. See I5uit\[\: A. I). 407. CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 330.— Trans- formation of Byzantium. — "Constantine liad for some time contemplated the ereetion of a new capital, The experience of nearly half a. century had confirmed the sagacity of Diocle- tian's selection of a site on the confines of Europe and Asia [Xicomedia] as the whereabouts in which the political centre of gravity of the Empire rested. At one time Constantine thought of adopting the site of ancient Troy, and is said to have actually commenced building a new city there. . . . More prosaic reasons ultimately pre- vailed. Tlie practical genius of Constantine recognized in the town of Byzantium, on the European side of the border line between the two continents, the site best adapted for his new capital. All subsequent ages have applauded his discernment, for experience has endorsed the wisdom of the choice. By land, witli its Asian suburb of Chrysopolis [modern Scutari], it practically spanned the narrow strait and joined Europe and Asia: by sea, it was open on one .side to Spain, Italy, Greece, Africa, Egypt, Syria; on the other to the Euxinc, and .so by the Danube it had easy access to the wliole of that important frontier between the Empire and the barbarians ; and round all the northern coasts of the e"a it took the barbarians in flank. . . . The city was solemnly dedicated witli religious ceremonies on tho 11th of May, 330, and the occasion was cele- brated, after the Roman fasliion, by a great festival, largesses and games in the hippodrome, wliich lasted forty days. The Emperor gave to- tlio city institutions modelled after those of the ancient Rome." — E. L. Cutts, Constiintine the Great, ch. 29. — 'The new walls of Constantine- stretched from the port to the Propontis ... at tlic distance of fifteen stadia from the ancient fortification, and, with the city of Byzantium, they enclosed five of tho seven hills which, to ilie eyes of those who approach Constantinople, appear to rise above each other in beautiful order. About a century after the death of the founder, tlio new buildings . . . already covered the narrow ridge of the sixtli and the broad summit of the seventh hill. . . . The buildings of tho new city were executed by such artificers as tlio reign of Constantine could all'ord; but they were decora ed by the hands of the most celebrated masters of "the ago of Pericles and Alexander. . . . By his commands the cities of Greece andJAsia were despoiled of their most CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 330. CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 088-075. vnlimblo omiimcnts." — E. Oibbon, Dedine and Fnllofthc li'iiiKtn Kiiijiirf, eh. 17. — "Tlin now city WHS mi exiict copy of old Hoint'. ... It wiislnliiibitcd by soiiiitors from Home. Wcaltliy individiml.s from the proviiici's were likowiso conipclU'd to keep up bcnisus lit Constantinople, pensions were conferred upon them, and a rijiht to n c(^rtuin amount of provisions fromtlic public stores was annexed to tlu'se dwellin>?s. Eifflity thousand loaves of bread were distriliuted daily to the inhabitants of Constantinople. . . . The tribute of grain from Egypt wasapproprialeil to supply Constantinople, and that of Africa was left for the consumption of Home." — O. Finlay, Oreere iiiiiler the Ii>man», eh. 2. Also in: ,1. B. Bur}", Iliot. of the later Roman Empire, hk. 1, eh. T) (c. 1). A. D. 363-518.— The Eastern Court from Valens to Anastatius. — Tumults at the capital. See HoMli; A. D. UliH-IiTl* to •lOO-.'ilH. A. D. 378.— Threatened by the Goths. See OoTus: A. I). :(;i)-;i.S'3, A. D. 400. — Popular rising against the Gothic soldiery.^Thdir expulsion from the city. See Uomk: A. I). -lOO-rjlH. A. D. 511-512. — Tumults concerning the Trisagion. — During the reign of Aimstatms, nt Coustaiitiiiojjle, the tierce controversy which bad raged for many years throughout the empire, between the Monopbysitep (who maintained that the divine and the human natures iu Christ were one), and the adherents of the Council of Chalcedon (which declared that Christ po.ss( used two natures in one person), was embittered aitho imperial ca))ital by opposition between the emperor, who favored the iMoiiojjhysites, and the patriarch who was strict in Chalcedonian ortho- doxy. In 511, and again in 512, it gave rise to two alarming riots at Constantinople. On the first occasion, a 3Ionopliysite or Eutychian party "burst into the Chajjel of the Archangel in the Imperial Palace and dared to chant the Te Deum with the addition of the forbidden words, the war-cry of many an Eutychian mob, ' Who wast crucified for us. ' The Trisagiou, as it was called, the thrice-repeated ciy to the Holy One, whicli Isaiph in liis vision lieard uttered by the sera- phim, became, by the addition of these words, as em|)hatic a statement as the Slonophysite party could desire of their favourite tenet that God, not man, breathed out his soul unto death outside the gates of Jerusalem. ... On the next Sunday the Monophysites sang tlie verse which was their war-cry in the great Basilica itself." The riot which ensued was quieted wiih difficulty by the patriarch, to whom the emperor humbled himself. But in the next year, on a fast-day (Nov. 6) the Monophysites gave a similar challenge, singing the Trisagion with the prohibited words added, and "again jjsalmody gave place to blows; men wounded and dyiug lay upon the floor of the church. . . . The orthodox mob streamed from all parts into the great forum. There they swarmed and swayed to and fro all that ilay and all that night, shouting forth, not the greatness of the Ephesian Diana, but ' Holy, Holy, Holy,' without the words ' Who wast cruciticd.' They liewed down the monks, — a minority of their class, — who were on the siile of the imperial creed, and burned their monasteries with Are." After two days of riot, the aged emperor humbled himself to the mob, in the great Circus, offered to abdicate the throne and made peace by promises to respect the decrees of Chalceclon. — T. llodgkin, Itnly (iikd ller IiiFiiders, hk. 4, eh. 10. — See, also, NesTOUIAN A.VD MoNOIMIVSITK. CONTIIOVKIISY. A. D. 532.— The Sedition of Nilca. See CiucuH, Factions ok thk Uom.vn. A. D. 542. — The Plague. See Plaock: A. I). 512-5W. A. D. 553.— General Council. See Tiihke ClI.M'TI'.IlS, 'rili; DlsriTKOK TUB. A. D. 626.— Attacked by the Avars and Persians. Sc(^ Komi:: A. I). .505-02S A. D. 668-675.— First siege by the Sara- cens. — "Forty-six years after the flight of .Ma- homet from Mecca his disciples ajjoeared in arms under the walls of Constantinople. They were animated by a genuine or flctitious saying of tlie prophet, that, to the first army which besieged the city of the Ciesars, their sins were forgiven. . . . I^o sooner had the Caliph Moa- wiyali [the first of the ()mniia<le caliphs, seated at Damascus,] suppres.sed his rivals and estab- lished his throne, than he aspired to expiate the guilt of civil l)lood by the success of this holy expedition; his preparations by sea and land were ade(iuate to the importance of the object; his standard was entrusted to Sophian, a veteran warrior. . . . The Greeks had little to hope, nor had their enemies any reasons of fear, from the courage and vigilauce of the reigning Emperor, who disgraced the name of Constantiiie, and imitated only the inglorious years of his grand- father Heraclius. Without delay or opposition, the naval forces of the Saracens passed through the unguarded channel of the Hellespont, which even now, under the feeble and disorderly gov- ernment of the Turks, is maintained as the natural bulwark of the capital. The Arabian fieet cast anchor and the troops were disembarked near the palace of Hebdomon, seven miles from the city. During many days, from the dawn of light to the evening, the line of c'wault was ex- tended from the golden gate to the Eastern promontory. . . . But the besiegers had formed an insufficient estimate of the strength and re- sources of Constantinople. The solid and lofty walls wt;re guarded by numbers and discipline; the spirit of the Uomans was rekindled by the last danger of their religion and empire; the fugitives from the conquered provinces more successfully renewed the defence of Damascus and Alexandria; and the Saracens were dismayed by the strange and prodigious effects of artificial fire. This firm and effectual resistance diverted their arms to the more easy attempts of plunder- ing the European and Asiatic coastH of the Pro- pontis; and, after keeping the se,\ from the month of April to that of September, on the ai)proach of winter they retreated four scoro miles from the capital, to the isle of Cyzicus, in which they had established their magazine of spoil and provisions. So patient was their per- severence, or so languid were their operations, that they repeated in the six following summers the same attack and retreat, with a gradual abatement of hojie and vigour, till the mischances of shipwreck aud disease, of the sword and ot fire, compelled them to relincjuish the fruitless enterprise. They might bewail the loss, or com- memorate the martyrdom, of 30,000 Moslems who fell in the siege of Constantinople. . . . Tlie event of the siege revived, both in the East and West, the reputation of tlie Roman arms, aud 506 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 668-678. CONSTANTINOPLE, A. I). 007-1048. cast a momcntiirr shade over tlio jrlorics of tlii! Huriiccns. ... A pciico, or truce of tliirty yi'iirs WHS nititled hctwet'ii the two Empire.s; iiiul the Htipiilutiou of nil minimi tribute, llfty horses of ii noble lireed, llfty slaves, iind 3,000 pleees of ({old, deftraded the majesty of the commander of the faithful," — E. Gibbon, Ikdine and Fall of the lliiiiKiii Kininiv, rh. .'53. A. D. 68o.— General Council, l .-e Monotiik- i.iTK CoNruovniisv. A. D. 717-718. — The second siege by the Saracens.—" When Leo [the IsaurianJ was raised to llie I Byzantine] throne [A. I). 717), the empire was threatened with immediate ruin. Six em- perors Inul been dethroneil within the space of twenly-one years. . . . The Hul);arians and .Sclavonians wasted Europe up to the walls of ('(iiislanlinople; the Saracens ravaji^ed the whole of -Vsia .Minor to the shores of the Bosplioru.s. . . . The t'aliph Suleiman, who had seen one private udventurer succeed the other in (juick succession on the imperial throne, deemed the moment favourable for the linal concpiest of the ("hris- liaiis; and, reinforcinj; his brotlier's army [in Asia .Minor], he ordered him to lay siep 1. Con- slanlinople. Tlie Saracen empire ha i now reached its greatest extent. From the banks of the Sihun and the Indus to the shores of the .Vtlantie in Mauretania anil Spain, the order of SuliMinan was implicitly obeyed. . . . The army .Moslcmah led against Constantinople was the tiestappoinied that had ever attacked the (Hiristians: it consisted of 80,000 warriors. The <'alipli announced his intention of takinjr the field in person with additional forc(!s, sliould the capital of the Cliristians oiler a protracted re- sistance to the arms of Islam. The whole expe- ililioii is said to have employed 180,000 men. . . . Moslemali, after capturing Pergamu.s, laurelled to Abydos, where he was joined by the Saiacen fleet. lie then transported his army across the Helle.'ipont, and inarching along the sliore of the Proxontis, invested Leo in his capital both by land aid sea. The strong walls of ('on- .staiitiiioi)le, th' engines of defence witli which Hoinan and Greek art had covered the ramparts, and tlie skill of the Byzantine engineers, rendered ■every attempt to carry the place by assault hope- less, so that the Saracens werecomiielled to trust to the effect of a strict blockade for gaining pos- ses.siiai of the city. . . . The besiegers encamped liefore Constantinople on the 1,5th Avgust 717. Till! Caliph Suleiman died before he was abi:i to send any reinforcements to his brotlier. The winter proved nnusiially severe." Great nuiii- bersof the warriors from tlie south were destroyed by the inclemency of a climate to which they had not become inured; many more died of famiiK! in the Moslem cam]), while the besieged city was plentifully supplied. The whole under- taking was disastrous from its beginning to its close, and, exactly one year from the pitcliing of his camp under the Byzantine walls, "on the 15th of August 718, Moslcmah raised the siege, after ruining one of tlie finest armies the Saracens ever assembled. . . . Few military details con- cerning Leo's defence of Constantinople have been preservi'd, but there can be no doubt that it was one of the most brilliant exploits of a warlike age. . . . The vanity of Gallic writers has magnified tlie success of Charles llartel over a plundering expedition of the Spanish Arabs into a marvellous victory, and attributed the de- liverance of Europe from the Saracen yoke to the valour of the Franks. A veil has been thrown over the talents and courage of Leo, u soldier of fortune, just seated on the imperial throne, who defeated the longplaniieil schemes of conipiest of the Caliphs Welid anil Siileiinun. It is unfortunate tliat we have no Isaiirian litera- ture. . . . The war was langiiiilly carried on for some years and the Saraciiis were gradually expelled from 'iiost of their c(ini|iicsls lieyiind .Mount Tauris,"—0. Kiiilnv. Hint, nf the ifyzan- tine EiiijiiiYfrtim 7H1 ^< IO.')T, e/i. I. A. D. 747".— The Great Plague. See Plaiiue: A. 1). 7^1-748, A. D. 754.— The Iconoclastic Council. See I(i)NiKi..\sric CoNriiovKiisv. A. D. 865.— i~irst attack by the Russians.— "In the year HO."), a nation hitliirln unknown made its first appearance in the history of the world, where it was deslined foact no unimport- ant part. Its entrance into the )ioliliial systi lU of the European nations was marked by an attempt to take Coiislantlnople, a project which it has often revived. . . . In theyearHOJ, Uurik, a Scanilinavian or Varangian chief, arrived at Novgorod, and laid the first foiiiidatioii of the state which has grown into the Uiissiau empire. Tile Russian people, under Varangian doinina- tioii, rapidly increased in jiower, and reduced many of their neighbours to sultmission. . . . From what ])arlii'ular circiimslaiice the Unssians w(!re led to make their daring attack on Cou- stantiiiople is not known. The Einpeior .Michael [HI.] Iiail taken the command of an army to act against tlie Saracens, and Oryphas, admiral of the fleet, acted as governor of the capital during his absence. Before the Emperor had eomnienccd his military operations, a fleet of 200 Uiissian vessels of small size, taking advantage of a favourable wind, suddenly passed through the Bosphorus, and anchored at the mouth of' the Black Kiver in the Propontis, about 18 miles from Constantinople. This Hussian expedition had already phinilered the slioiis of the Black Sea, and from its station within the Bosphorus it ravaged the country about Constantinople, and plundered the Prince's Islands, pillaging the monasteries and slaying the monks as well as the other inhabitants. Tlie Einiieror, inforineil by Oryphas of the attack on his capital hastened to itsdefeiice. . . . Itreipiircd nogreatexertioiisott tlie part of the imperial ollicers to equip a force snillcient to attack and put to flight these invaders; but the horrid cruelty of the bar- barians and the wild daring of their Varangian leaders, made a iirofoiiiid impression on 'he people of Constantinople." — G. Finlay, Hint, of the Byzantine Empire, hk. 1, eh. 'i, met. 'i. A. D. 907-1043. — Repeated attacks by the Russians. — Notwithstaiuliiig an active iuiil in- creasing cominereial intercourse between tliu Greeks and the Hus.siaiis, Constantinople was ex- posed, during the tenth century and part of the eleventh, to repeated attacks from the masterful Varan w and their subjects. In the year t)07, a fleet '10 Hussian vessels or boats swarmed into the irus, and laid waste the shores in the neighlKii nl of Constantinoiile. "It is not improbable that the expedition was undertaken to obtain indemnity for some commercial losses sus- tained by iiniierial negligence, monopoly or oppression. The subjects of the emperor were murdered, and the Russians amused themselves 507 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 907-1048. CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. ISOl-H.W. witli torturing their rnptivpi in tlio moHt Imr- ImrouH MiiiliniT. At IcMKth Leo I VI. | purcliiim'il tlicir rotrt'iit liy- the iiiiynicnt oi a liirKr Kuin of nidiicy. . . . ThcHc lupstililicH were tirtiiiniitcd liy II ciiinnicriiiil trr.ily in lUi." 'I'licrc was jH'nrc under thin trciity until Itll, when a tliiril ntliick (in Constantiniiplo was led by Itfiir, the Hon of Kurik. Diit it ended most disjistrously for the liuHsians ami If;<>r eseaped with only a few l>oats. Tlu^ result was another important treaty, nejr'Hiated in 1)45. In 970 the liy/.antine Empire was more seriously threatened by an iittemiit on the part of the Hussians to subdue the kingdom of Hulfiaria; which would have brought them into the same ilangerous neighbor- hofxl to Constantinople that the Uussia of our own day has labored so hard to reac^h. Itut the ablu soldier .lolui Zunisees happeneil to occupy the Hy/.antitie throne; the Hussian invasion of Bulgaria was repelled and Hulgaria, it.self, was reaiuiexed to the Empire, wliich pushed its boundaries to the Damdw, once more. For more than half a century, Constantinoi)le was tuidis- turbed by the covetous ambition of her Russian fellow Christians. Then they invaded i\u'. IJos- phorua agaiii with a formidable armament; but the expedition was wholly disastrous and they retreated with a loss of 15,()(H) men. "Three years elaps«'d before peace was re-established ; but a treaty was then concluded and th<' trade at Constantinople .placed on the old footing. From tlds period the alliance of the Hussians with the llyzantine Empin! was long tininter- rupted; and as tlu! Greeks became more dceidy imbued with ecclesiastical ])rejudices, and more hostile to the Latin nations, the Eastern Church became, in their eyes, the symbol of their nationality, and the bigoted attachment of tlu^ Uussians to the same religious formalities ob- tained for them from the IJyzantinc' Greeks the appellation of the most Christian nation." — G. Finlay, Jlixt. of the, lii/zdntine Empire, from 710 to 10r)7, hk. 3, (•/(. 3, mrt. 2. A. D. loSi.— Sacked by th? rebel army of Alexius Comnenus. — Alexius Comnenus, the emperor who occupied the Byzantine throne at the time of the First Crusade, and who became historically proininent in that connection, nc(iuircd his crown by a successful rebellion. Ho was collaterally of the family of Lsaac Comnenus, (Isaac I.) who had reigned briefly in 1057-101)9, — he, too, having been, in his im- perial oflicc, tlu; product of a revolution. But the interval of twenty-two years had seen four emperors come and go — two to the grave and two into monastic secUision. It was the last of tliese — Nicophorus III. (Botancitcs) that Alexius displaced, with the support of an army whicli he had previously commanded. One of the gates of the capital was betrayed to him by a German mercenary, and he gained the city almost without a blow. "The old Emperor consented to resign his crown and retire into a monastery. Alexius entered the imperial palace, and the rebel army conmienccd plundering every quarter of the city. Natives and mer- cenaries vied with one another in license and rapine. No class of society was sacred from their lust and avarice, and the inmates of mon- asteries, churches, and palaces were alike plun- dered and insulted. This sack of Constantinople by the Sclavoniaus, Bulgarians, and Greeks in the service of the families of Comnenus, Ducas, and Paleologos, wlio crept treacherously into the city, was a tit prologue to Its sulferings when it was stormed by the Crusa<lcrs in 1304. From this disgraceful coti((U<'8t of Constantinopln by Alexius Comnenus, we must date the dei'ay of its wealth and civic suprennicy, both as a capital and a commercial city. . . . The power which was thus established in rapine terminated about a century later in a bliMxly vengeance intlieted by an itifuriated populace rai tlie last Emperor of tin; Conmenian family, Andronicus I. Const'intinople was taken on the Ist of April, lOHl, and Alexius was crowned in St. Sophia's next day." — G. Finlay, Hint, of the /li/ziinliiie and (treek Kntiiirin, front 710 to 1458, !.k. ;t, rh. 1. A. D. 1204.— Conquest and brutal sack by Crusaders and Venetians. See ('uiisadkh: A. I). 1301-l-'o;(; amlBvzA.snNKEMi'iHK: A. I). 130ii-1304. A. D. 1204-1261.— The Latin Empire and its fall.— Recovery by the Greeks. See I{<>.mama, Till'; E.mi'ihk ok, and Bvzantink Emi-iuk: A. D. 121)4-1205. A. D. 1261.— Great privileges conceded to the Genoese.— Pera and its citadel Galata given up to them. See Gk.noa: A. I>. 1201- 1299. A. D. 1261-1453.— The restored Greek Em- pire.— On the 25tli of .Fidy, A. I). 12(11, Constan- tinople was surpris(;<l and the last Latin emperor expelled by the fortunate arms of Michael Palie- ologus, the Greek usurper at Niciea. (See GltF.KK E.Mi'iKE OF Nic.ka.) Twenty days later AIi(;hae> made his triumphal entry info the aiu'ient capi- tal. "But after the lirst transport of devotion anil pride, he sighed at the dreary prospect of solitude and ruin. The; palace was detlled with smoke an<l dirt and the gross intemperance of the Franks; whole streets liad been consumed by (ire, or were decayed by the injuries of time ; the sacred and profane edilices were stripped of their ornaments; and, as if they were conscious of their approa<;hing exile, the industry of the Latins had been confined to the wcnk of ])illago and destruction. Trade had expired under the ])ressure of anarchy and distress, and the numbers of inhabitants had decreased with the opulence of the city. It was the first care of the Greek monarch to reinstate the" nobles in the palaces of their fathers. . . . He repeopled Constantinople by a liberal invitation to the iirovinces, and the brave 'volunteers' were seated in the capital which had been recovered by their arms. Instead of banishing the factories of the Pi.sans, Vene- tians, and Oenoe.se, the prudent conqueror ac- cepted their oaths of allegiance, encouraged their industry, confirmed their privileges and allowed them to live under the jurisdictiou of their proper magistrates. Of these nations the Pi.sans and Venetians preserved their respective quarters in the city ; but the services and power of the Gen- oese [who had assisted in the recon(iucst of Con- stantinople] deserved at the same time the grati- tude and the jealousy of the Greeks. Their independent colony was first planted at the seaport town of Ileraelea in Thrace. They were speedily recalled, and settled in the exclusive possession of the suburb of Galatji, an advantageous post, in wliich they revived the commerce and insulted the majesty of the Byzantine Empire. Tlie re- covery of Constantinople was ceU^brated as the era of u new Empire. " The new empire thus 508 CONSTANTINOPLE, 1201-1458. CONSTANTINOPLK, 11M8-1355. CHtJtliliHlu'il in till! itiii'iriit Itoniiui ciipiliil of tlit- I'lisl iniuli' some sliow of vijjcpr iit llrst. Micliiirl I'lilii'olojfiis " wrested from llie Friiiiks wverul of the noblest isliuids of the Ar(lii|ielni(o — Les- bos. CliioH, and UIkhIi'S. His lirotlier Coiistiin tine wiM sent toeomnmiid in Malviisiii anil Sparta: and tlie Kastern side of tin Morea, from Ar^'os iind Napoli to ('a|)e Tienanis. was repossessed liy tlie (Ireeks. . . . Hut In llie proseitution of tliese Western eoiniiiests tlie eoiintries beyond tlie Hellespont Were left naki^d to tlie Turks; and tlieir depredations veritl(Ml the proplieey of a dvinij senator, that tho recovery of (Jonstanti- nojile would be the ruin of Asia." Not only was Asia Minor abandoned to the n(-w raee of Tur- kish eon(|Uerors — tlie Ottomans — but those most ttj{j;re.ssi V(? of the proselyte." of Islam wiTe in- vited in the next j;eneration to eross the- Bos- plionis, and to enter Thraei^ as parti.Hans in a Greek civil war. Their footinj; in Kurope oik'c gained, they devoured tlie distracti'd and feidde empire piece by piece, until little remained to It bi^yond tlie capital itself. Lonj; before the latter- fell, the empire was a sliadow and a name. In the very suburbs of Constantinople, the Genoese pcMlesta, at I'era or Gal'ita, had more power tliaii the Greek Kmperor; and the rival Italian traders, of Genoa, Venice and I'isa, foii>;lit tlieir battles under the eyes of tlie Byzantines witli iiidilTer- encu, almost, to the will or wislies, the opposi- tion or the help of tlie latter. " The weight of the Uoimiu Kmpire was scarcely felt in tlie balance of these opulent and powerful repulilie.s. . . . Tlie Uoman Kmpire (I smile in transcriliiii); tlie iiume) miglit soon have sunk into a province of Genoa, if tlie ambition of tlie repiiliiic had not been checked by the ruin of lier freedom and naval power. A long ccmlest of liiO years was determined by the triumph of Venice. . . . Yet tlie spirit of commerce survived that of conquest ; and the c(dony of Pera still awed the capital and navigated tlio Eu.xine, till it was involved by the Turks ill the final servitude of Constantinople itself." — !•;. Gibbon, Decline and Fdll of the liDinmi Kiay.irc, eh. d'i-iV.i. Al-so in: G. Finlay, Jlint. of the ni/nintine and Orcfk Kinpires, bk. 4, ch. 'i. — See, also, Ti'iiKs (TllK Ottcmans): A. 1). 1340-1326; 1320-13r.«; 1360-1389; 1380-1403, &c. A. D. 1348-1355.— Wir with the Genoese.— Alliance with Venice and Aragon. — Joliii (-'aiitaeuzenos, v/lio usurped the tlirone in 1347, "had not reigned a year before! he was involveil in liostilities with tlie Genoese colony of Galata, which liad always coutaine<l many warm par- tisuna of tlic house of Paleologos [dispiaceif by Cantacuzenos]. This factory liad grown into a tiourisliing town, and commanded a largo por- tion of tho Qohlen Horn. During the civil war, the Genoese capitalists liad supplied the regency with money, and tliey now formed ahiiost every biiinchof tlie revenue which tlie imperial govern- ment derived from tlie port. . . . Tlie linancial measures of tlie new emperor reduced their profits. . . . Tho increased industry of tlie Greeks, and tlie jealousy of the Genoese, led to open hostilities. The colonists of Galata com- menced the war in a treaclierous manner, with- out any authority from tlie republic of Genoa (1348). Witli a fleet of only eiglit large and some small galleys they attacked Constantinople while Cantacuzenos was absent from tlie capital, and burned several buildings and the greater iiart of the fleet he was then constructing. The kmpress Irene, who ailministere<l the govern- ment in I he absence of her husband, behaved with great prudeiice and courage and repulsed a bold attack of the GeniM'se. CantaiuzenoH liast<'ned to tlie capital, where he spent the winter in repairing the loss his fleet hiiil sus- tained. As soon as it was ready forai'li<ai, ho engageil the Genoese in llii' port, where hi' hoped that their naval skill would Ite of no avail, and wliert! the mimerical superiority of Ids sliipM would insure him a victory, lie expected, moreover, to gain possession of (ialata itself by an attack on the land side while the (ieiiiM'su were occupied at sea. Tlie cowardly conduct of the Greeks, botli by sea and land, rendered his plans abortive. The greater part of his sliips were taken, and Ids army retrialid without making a serious attack. Kortunalily for Can- tacuzenos, the colonists of (ialata receiveil an order from the Senate of Genoa to conclude peace. . . . Their victory enabled them to obtain favourable terms, and to keep possession of some land they bad seized, and on wliiih tliey soon completed the conHtriiction of a new citadel. The friendly ilisposilioii uianifisted by tlie government of (ienoa induced Cantacuzeniis to send amliassadors to the Senate to demand the restoration of the island of Chios, which liad been cimiinered by a band of Genoese exiles in 134(1. A treaty was concluded, by which the Genoese were to restore the island to the Kmperor of Omstantinople in ten years. . . . But tills treaty was never carried into execution, for llie exiles at Chios set liolli the rei)ublic of (Jenoa and the Greek Kmpire at defiance, anil retained their con(|Uest." Tlie peace with (Jenoa was of short dm 'ion. Cantacuzenos was bent upim oxpell- inn ''" Genoese from Gidata. and as they were now involved in the war with tlie Venetians whidi is known as the war of Calla he hoped to accomplish liis purpose liy joining the latter. "The Genoese liad drawn into their liands tho greater part of the commerce of the Black Sea. The town of Tana or Azof was then a place of great commercial importance, as many of tlie liroductions of India and China found their way to western Kuropo from its wareliouses. The Oeiioeso, in consequence of a quarrel witli the Tartars, had been compelled to suspend their intercourse with Tana, and the Venetians, avail- ing tliemselves of thi^ opportunity, liad extended their trade and increased their prolils. Tlie envy of the Genoese led tliem to obstruct the Viiie- tiun trade and capture Venetian ships, until at lengtli the disputes of the two republics broko out in open war in i;548. In tlie year Vi'A, Cantacuzenos entered into an alliance witli Venice, and joined liis forces to those of tho Venetians, wlio had also concluded an alliance with Peter the Ceremonious, king of Aragon. Nicholas Pisani, one of the ablest ;idmirals of the age, ajipeared before Constantinople witli tho Venetian fleet ; but Ids sliips liad sulTered severely from a storm, and his priiicii)al object was attaini'd wlien he had convoyed tlie merchant- men of Venice safely into tlie Black Sea. Can- tacuzenos, however, had no object but to take Galata: and, expecting to receive important aid from Pisani, he attacked the Genoese colony by sea and land. His a.ssault was defeated in conse<iuenee of the weakness of tlie Greeks and the lake warmness of tho Venetians. Pisani retired 509 CONSTANTINOPLK. t!M8-iaW. CONSTANTINOPLK, 14.W-14H1. toNrgnniont, to cfTrrt II Junction witli tlirfntitlim ticrt ; and l'iiK»nn |><irhi. who liiid iiiii'mui'iI liiin witli II Nii|ii'rinr forir, in icluniinK to (iiiliitit to piiHH the wintiT, Htorincil tlir town of lli'riirlciii on tlic Sen of Miirinorii, where Ciinliieiizi-noH hiiil eolleeteil larp' niiiKa/ini'M of proviHionH, iiiiil citrrieil olT II rich l>iH>ly, with niiiny wealthy Ori'ckH, who were ninipelled to ransom them- wives hy paying larjre siiniH to these eiiplors. Cantaeiixenos wiih now liesieKeil in Conslanti nople, . . . The (ieiioese, iinalile to nnike any InipreMMion on the eity, indeinnilied themselves liy ravaginK the Oreek territory on the lUaek Hca. . . . Karly in the year liri'J, I'isanI returned to Coimtanlinople with the Catalan fleet, under Pon/.io da Santapaee. and a ^reat lialtli- was fought Ixlween the allies and the (lenoese. in full view of Constaiilinople and (iaiiila. The scene of the ronibat Wi.-iolTthe island of I'rote, and it received the iianu- of V'rachophagos from Home sunken rocks, of which the (ieniiese availed themselves ill their manii'uvrcs. The honour of n (hailitful and liloody day rested with tlie OeiKK'se. . . . I'isani soon ((uitled the neiglilxiur- liood of Constanlinopli', and Canlacu/enos, Iniviiijj nothinj; more to hope from tlie Venetian alllaiicc . . . concluded a peace with the rcputi lie of Genoa. In this war he had exposed the weakness of the (Jreek empire, aial the decline of the maritime force of (irecce, to all the states of Kurope. The treaty coiillrmed all the ))revious privileiri'S and encroachments of the colony of (Jalata and other (ienoese eslalilisliments in the Kmpirc." — (!. Kiiilav. Hint, of t/ic lliizniitiin' imtl (link KmiiiriH, 7 Id- 1 in;). Iik. 4. eli. 'i. n<rt. 4.— The retirenieiil of the (Jreeks from the contest did not check the war between Genoa and Venice and the other allies of the latter, which was coiitin\uil until 1!).').'). The Genoese were defeated, August 29, 11)5!), by the Venetians and Catalans, in a (;reat battle foufjht near Lojera, on the northern coast of Harilinia, losing; 41 galleys and 4.")<M) or 5,001) men. They obtained their reveui;!' the ne.\t year, on the 4th of November, when Paganino Doria surprised the Venetian admiral, Pisaiii, at I'orlolongo, opposite the island of Sajiienza, as he was prejairing to gi) into winter-ipiarters. "The Venetians siistaiiie<l not so much a defeat as a total discomliture; 4.')0 were killed; an enormous number of prisoners, loosely calculated at 0,(M)0, and a highly valuable booty' in prizes and stores, were taken." In June, lii'M, the war was ended by a treaty which excluded Venice from all HIack Sea ports except Calfa.— W. C. Ilazlitt, Jlist. of the Vcnctimt Jlepiihlir. ch. 18-19 (/'. !i). Also in: F. A. Parker, The FleeUofthe World, pp. 88-94. A. D. 1453.— Conquest by the Turks.— Mahonu't II., son of Amuratli II. came to the Ottoman throne, at the age of twenty-one, mt 14.J1. "The con(iuest ol Conslanlinople was the tir.st. object on which his thoughts were ti.xed at the opening of his reign. The resolution with which he had formed this purpose expressed itself in his .stern reply to the ambassadors of the Kmperor, olTering him tributi^ if he would renoimeo the project of building a fort on the EuroiH'an shore of the Bosporus, which, at the dis uice of only live miles from the capital, woulil give him the command of the Ulack Sea. lie ordered the envoys to retire, and threatened to fluy ulive any who should dare to briug him a flimilar ineitsage again. The fort was llnished in three inontliH and garrlNoned with 400 JaidzaricH; a tribute was cxacled of all vess4'ls that passed, and war was fornudly declared by the Hultan. CoiiHlantine |Ci.nstantine Palieologus, the last Greek F'.m[ieror| nnide the best preparations In his power for defence; but he could muster only (KM) (Jreek soldiers, " In order to secure aid from tile Pope and the Italians, Constanline united himself with the Koman Church. A few hundred troops were then sent to his assistance; Init, at the most, he had only siici ded in manning tliii many ndles of the city wall with 9,000 men, wlK'n, in April, 14.'>;t, tlie Sultan invested It. The Turkish army was said to number 'J.IO.OOO men, and 420 vessels were counted in the accom- panying licet. A summons to surrender was answered with indignant refusal hy ('onstantine, " who had calmly resolved not lo survive the fall of the city," anil the final assault of the furious Turks was made on the 29th of May, 145!!. The heroic Kmperor was slain among the last defenders of thi^ gate of St. Uomanos, and the janizaries rode over his dead body as I hey charged into tht^ streets of the fallen Koman capital. "The despairing jieople — senators, priests, monks, nuns, hiisbanils, wives and children — sought safely in the church of St. Sophia. A propliecv had been circulated that here the Turks W(]uld be arrested by an angel from heaven, witli a drawn sword; and hillier the miserable mulliliide crowded, in liu! expec- tation of siipcrnalund help. The coni|uei'ors followed, sword in liand, slaughtering those whom they encountered in the street. They broke down the (Iimhs of the church with axes, and, rushing in, commit led every act of atrocity that a frantic thirst for blood and the inllanied passions of demons could .suggest. All the unhappv victims were divided as slaves among the soldiers, without regard to blood or rank, and hurried oft to tlie camp; and the mighty cathedral, so long the glory of the Christian world, .soon presented only traces of the orgies of hell. The other ipiarii'rs of tlii! city were |)lundercd by other divisions of the army. . . . About noon the Sidtan made his triumphal entry by the gate of St. Uomanos, pas.sing by the body of the Kmperor, which lay concealed among the slain. Kntering the church, he ordered a moolah to ascend the bema and announce to the Mussul- mans that St. Sophia was now a mos(iue, con- secrated to the prayers of the true believers. He ordered the body of tlu; Kmperor to be sought, his head to l)e exposed to the jn'ople, and after- wards to be sent as a trophy, to be seen by the (ireeks, in the principal cities of the Ottoman Kmpirc. For three days the city was given up to the indescribable horrors of pillage and the license of the Mussulman soldiery. Forty thousand perished diiring the sack of the city and lifty thi)u.sand wore reduced to slavery." — O. C. Felton, (Ireeee, Ancient ami Modern ; Fourth coii/sc, left. 0. Also in ; G. Finlav. IIi»t. of the Byzantine and Greek Fmpirenfrom 710 to 1453, bk. 4, ch. 3.— E. Gibbon, l)eeline and Full of the Human I'^mpirf, ch. 68. A. D. i453-i<|8i. — The city repopulated and rebuilt. — Creation of the Turkish Stamboul.— " It was neccs.sary for Mohammed II. to rcpeople Constantinople, in order to render it the capital of the Othoinan Empire. The installation of au 510 C'ONHTANTINOI'LE, im!H481. rONSTITUTION: AROKNTINE REI'UHLIC. itrtlindox Piitrinrrli cnlmrd tlic iiiintlH of the Ori'i'kH, mill Miiiiiy w)ii) liiid i'iiii)rmtr(l lirfun' tin- Hii'Ki' Kriiiliially ri'tiiriircl, uiul wrri' iillowcil to cliiiiii 11 poitliiii iif llii'lr pnipiTly. Hut the slow llicrnisc iif piipiiliilliin, riiiiMril by a wilst' iif MruHly mill the liiipr of ;;iiiii, iliil luit siitUfy llir Hilltmi, wliii wiiM ili'trriiilnril to hci' IiIh nipilal iiiH' iif tlir Kf"'!''''**'' I'llli't "f II"' KiiMt, mill Willi kiirw thai It hull fnniu'rly i-m'I'ciIi'iI DmiiaiKMiM, Mai;ilail miil Cairo, in wimiIIIi, ixtriit anil piipil- liilliiii. I'rum MiosI of his siilisi'iiii'iit roni|iU'.MtM Miiliaimiiiil roliipi'ilril thi' wnillh' "Sl o' tlir iu- lialiitaiitN to riiilKratr to ('oiiHtaiiliiiopli', whrri- III' f^ntntcii thrill plots of Imiil to liiiilil tlii'ir liiiiiw'H. . . . Tiirl<K, Ori'i'ks, Scrvlmis, lliilKari- aiis, AllianlmiH, anil I.a/.i's, follownl onr anothrr in ipiirk Hiii'ci'HHioii, anil lon^' lirfori' tlir ciiil of his ri'l^n ('onHtaiiliiiiiiili' wan rrowilrd liy a niuii- iTousanihu'tivr popiilntion, anil pri'scntril ii nioro flourlHliiiiK aspect than it hail iloni'iliiriiiKlhi' prr I'cillii^; ci'iitury. Thi'i'inlHllisliini'nt of hisrajiitcl was also thu ubji'Ct ot tlit' Sultan's atti'iition. . . . MoHipicH, inliiarrlH, fountains ami tonilm, the great obji'cts of arrhltcctiiral niaKnlHccnce among tbo Musaulmuus, wvru coimtructi'd in every quiirtcr nf tlio rlty. . . , The pirtiirf-Hqiie iM'auly of thr StanilKiiil of ihi- prt'srnt day owcn innst of itH artillrlal friitiirrM to tlii' Othoiniin con- i|iiisl. ami wrars a 'I'lirkish aspiTt. 'I'hf Con- slantinoplfof ihi' ity/.anliiic Kiiipiri' illHiipprari'd with the last ii'liis'of thr (Iri'i'k Kinjiin'. Tlio tnivilliT who now ilrsirrs to vli-w llii' vrslljfi'H of a Itv/.aiillni' rapital. and I'Xaniini- tlii' last rcllcH of liv/.antini' arrliilrrtiiri', must conliniii' his travi'ls cast ward to'l rrlii/.ond." — (}. I'Miilay. Hint. of till llii:iiiitiiii' iiiiil llreik h'tii/iirtit. /niiii 710 fo I l."f;i, /./■. 4. i-h. 'i. mrl. 7. A. D. 1807.— Threatened by a British fleet. Hi'i'TruKs; A. 1). IMIkuimo?. CONSTANTlNOPLt , Conference of (1877). SiiTniKs: A. I>. 1M(1|_1H77 CONSTANTIUS I., Roman Emperor, A. 1). !tO.V:iiMl Constantius II., A. 1). ;i:i7 ildl. CONSTITUTION, The battles of the frig- a c. Si'c rvirKi) .Stacks OK Am.: A. 1). IMiJ- 18i:t. ami IMIJ. CONSTITUTION OF ARAGON AND CASTILE (the old monarchy). .See Ciiutkm, TiiK Eahly Upamhii. CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Till! siilijoinid text of the Constitution of the Ai'^'entine Hepiiblie is n translation "from the olUcial edition of 1808," taken from R. Napps work on "The Arj;i'ntine Republic," jirepared for the Central Argentine Commission on the Cen- tenary Exhibition at I'hiladelphia. 1870. Accord- ing to the "Statesman's Year-Book" of 181)3, there have been no moditicatious since 1800; Part I. Article 1. The Argentine Nation adopts the fi'deral-republlcan, and representative form of Ooverument, as established by the present Con- stitution. Art. 2, The Federal Government shall main- tain the Apo.stolic Roman Catholic Faith. Art. 3. The authorities of the Federal Govern- ment shall reside in the city which a special law of Congress may declare the capital of the He- public, subsequently to the cession by one or more of tlie Provincial Legislatures, of the terri- tory about to be federalized. Art. 4. The Federal Government shall ad- minister the expenses of the Nation out of the revenue in the National Treasury, derived from import and export duties ; from the sale and lease of the public lands; from postage; and from such other taxes as the General Congress may equitably and proportionably lay upon the peo- ple; as also, from such loans and credits as may be decreed by it in times of national necessity, or for enterprises of national utility. Art. 5. Each Province shall make a Constitu- tion for itself, according to the republican repre- sentative system, and the principles, declarations and guarantees of this Constitution ; and which shall provide for (secure) Municipal Government, primary education and the administration of jus- tice, tinder these conditions the Federal Govern- ment shall g uarantcc to each Province the exercise and enjoyment of its institutions. Art. 6. The Federal Government shall inter- vene in the Provinces to guarantee the republican form of Ooverniiient, ortorepil foreign invas.on, and also, on application of their constituted au- thorities, shnuld they have been deposed by sedition or by invasion from another Irovince, for the purpose of sustaining or reestablishing them. Art. 7. Full faith shall be given in each Prov- ince to the |)ublii- acts, and judicial proceedings of every other Provinci'; and Congress may by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts and proceedings shall be proved, and the ellect thereof. Art. 8. The citizens of each Province shall bo entitled to all the rights, privileges and immuni- ties, inherent to tlie citizens of all the several Provinces. Tlie reciprocal extradition of crimi- nals between all the Provinces, is obligatory. Art. 9. Throiighoutthe territory of the Nation, no other than the National Custom-lloii,ses shall be al'owed, and they shall be regulated by the tarills sanctioned by Oingress. Art. 10. The circulation of all goods produced or manufactured in the Republic, is free within its borders, as al.so, that of all species of mer- cliaiidise which may be dispatched by the Cus- tom-IIousesof entry. Art. It. Such articles of native or foreign pro- duction, ns well as cattle of every kind, which pass from one Province to another, shall \k free from all transit-duties, und also •he vehicles, vessels or animals, which transport them ; and no tax, let it be what it may, can be henceforward imposed upon them on account of such transit. Art. 12. Vessels bound from one Province to another, shall not be compelled to enter, anchor, or pay transit-duties; nor in any case can prefer- ences be granted to one port .iver another, by any commercial laws or regulations. Art. 13. New Provinces may be admitted into the Nation; but no Province r' ' be erected within the territory of any ot er ovince, or Provinces, nor any Province be "by the junction of various Vrovinces, wituo .he con- 511 CONSTITUTION: AHGENTTNE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE UEPURLIC. sent of tlip legislatures of the Provinces con- cerned, ns well (18 of Conifress. Art. 14. All the inlmliitiints of the Nation slmll enjoy the following rights, iiecordingto the hiws which regiiliUe their exercise: viz., to liihor mid to priu'tice till lawful industry , to trade and navigate; to petition the authorities; to enter, remain in, travel over and leave, Argentine terri- tory; to publish their ideas in the public-press without previous censure; to enjoy and dispose of their pn ,/erty ; to associate for useful pur- poses; to profess freely their religion; to teach and to learn. Art. 15. In the Argentine Nation there arc no slaves; the few which now exist shall be free from the date of the adoption of this Constitu- tion, and a special law shall regulate the indem- nity acknowledged as duo by this declaration. All contracts for the purchase and sale; of jiersons Is a crime, for wliieli those who make them, as well as the notary or functionary wliich author- izes tiiem, shall bo responsible, and the slaves who in any manner whatever may be introduced, shall be free from the sole fact that they tread the territory of tlie Republic. Art. 16, The Argentine Nation does not ad- mit the prerogatives of blood nor of birth; in it, there are no personal privileges or titles of no- bility. All its inhabitants ere equal in presence of the law, and admissible to otiice without other condition tlian that of titness. Equality is the basis of taxation as well as of public-posts. Art. 17. Property is inviolable, and no inhabit- ant of the Nation can be deprived of it, save by virtue of a sentence liased on law. The expropri- ation for public utility must be authorized by law and i)Tevioiisl^- indemnitied. Congress alone shall iinpos'' the contributions mentioned in Art. 4. No personal service shall be exacted save by virtue of law, or of a sentence founded on law. Every author or inventor is the exclusive pro- prietor of his work, invention or discovery, for the term wliich the law accords to him. Tlie con- fiscation of property is henceforward and forever, stricken from the Argentine penal-code. No armed body can make requisitions, nor exact as- sistance of any kind. Art. 18. No inhabitant of the Nation shall suifer punishment without iv previous judgment founded on a law passed previously to the cause of judgment, mr'oe judged by special commissions, or withdrawn from the .Judges designated bj' law before the opening of tlio cause. No one shell be obliged to testify against himself ; nor be arrested, save by virtue of a written order from a competent authority. The defense at law both of the person and his rights, is inviolable. The domicil, private papers and epistolary corre- spondence, are inviolable ; and a law shall deter- mine in what cases, and under wliat imputations, a search-warrant can proceed agaiustand occupy them. Capital punisliinent for political cau.ses us well as every species of torture and whippings, are abolished for eve. The prisons of the Aaiion shall be healthy and clean, for the security, and not for the punishment, of tlie criminals detained in them, and every measure which under pretext of precaution may mortify them more than such -"curity requireft, shall render res'ionsible the i ge who authorizes it. Art. 19. Tnose private actions of men that in nowise offend public order and morality, or in- jure a third party, belong alone to God, and are beyond the authority of tlie inagist- ntes. No in- habitant of the Nation shall be compelled to do what the law does not ordain, nor be deprived of anylliing which it doe.s not prohibit. Art. 20. Within the territory of the Nation, forelgiu'is shall enjoy all the civil rights of citi- zens; they can exercise their industries, com- merce or professions, in accordance with the laws ; own, buy and .sell real-estate; navigate the rivers and coasts; freely profess their religion, and tes- tate anil marry. Tliey shall not be obliged to be- come citizens, nor to ]iay forced contributions. Two yeara i)revious residence in the Nation sliall be required for naturalization, but theauthoritiea can shorttn this term in favour of him who so desires it, under the allegation and proof of ser- vices rendered to the Republic. Art. 21. Every Argentine citizen is obliged to arm himself in defense of his country and of this Constitution, according to tlie laws which Con- gress shall ordain for the purj" c, and the de- crees of the National Exeeutiv For the period of ten years from tlie day on iiicli they nicy have obtained their citizenship, this service shall be voluntary on the part >/f the naturalized. Art. 22. The people shall not deliberate nor govern save by means of their Representatives and Autluu'ities, created by this Constitution. Every armed force or meeting of persons which shallnrrogate to itself tlie rights of the people, and petition in their name, is guilty of sedition. Art. 23. In the event of internal commotion or foreifrn attack which might jilace in jeopardy the piactice of tliis Constitutiou, and the free action of the Autliorities created by it, tlie Prov- ince or territory v.'here such disturbance exists shall be declared in a state of siege, all constitu- tional guarantees beiiiji meantime suspended there. But during sucli suspension the Presi- dent of the Republic cannot condemn nor apply any punishment iicr se. In respect to pereons, his power shall be limited to arresting and re- moving them fnmi one place to another in the Nation, sliould they not jirefev to leave Argen- tine territory. Art. 24. Congress shall establish the reforin of existing laws in all bmnches, as also the trial by ■Jury. Art. 25. The Federal Government shall foment European immigration; and it cannot restrict, limit, nor lay any impost upon, the entry upoa Argentine territory, of such foreigners as come for the purpose of cultivating tlie soil, improving manufactures, and introducing srnd teaeliing the arts and sciences. Art. 26. The lavigation of the interior rivera of tlie Nation is free to all flags, subject only to such regulations as tlie National Authority may dictate. Art. 27. The Federal Government is obliged to strengthen the bonds of peace and commerce with foreign powi^rs, by means of treaties wliich shall be in conformity witli the principles of pub- lic law laid down in this Constitutiou. Art. 28. Tlic principles, riglits and guarantees laid down in the foregoing articles, cannot be altered by any laws intended to regulate their practice. Art. 29. Congress cannot grant to the Execu- tive, nor the p'-ovincial legislatures to the Gov- ernor of Provinces, any "extraordinary faculties," nor the "sum of the public power," nor "re- nunciations or supremacies" by which the lives, 512 CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION ; ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. honor or fortune of tho Argcnthu's slmll he at the mercy of any Government or person wliiit- cver. Acts of this nature sliall be irremediably null and void, nnd shall subject those who frame, vote, or sign them, to the pains and penalties in- curred by those who are infamous traitors to their country. Art. 30. Tills Constitution can be reformed in whole or in part. The necessity for the reform shall be declared by Congress by at least a two- thirds vote; but it can only be accomplished by 11 eiinvcntion called ad hoc. Art. 31. This Constitution, and the laws of tho Nation which shall be made in piusuance there- of, and all treaties made or which shall be made with Foreign Powers, shall be the supreme law of tho land; and the authorities of every Prov- ince shall 1)0 bound thereby, anything in the Con- stitution or laws of any Province to the contrary notwithstanding, excepting in the case of Buenos- Aires, i'l the treaties ratified after tho compact of Nov. 11th, 1859. Art. 32. The Federal Congress .shall not dictate laws restricting the liberty of the press, nor es- tiU)Hsh any federal jurisdiction over it. Art. 33!^ The enumcr.'.tion in this Constitution of certain rights and guarantees, shall not be construed to deny or dispar.ige other rights and guarantees, not enumerated; but which spring from the iirlnciplo of popidar sovereignty, and the republican form of Government. Art. 34. Tho Judges of the Federal courts shall not be Jmlgesof Provincia' tribunals at the same time: nor shall the federal service, civil as well a J militarj', constitute a domicil in the Provini e where it may be exercised, it it be not Imhituaily that of the employe; it being under- stood by this, that all Proviucial public service is optional in the Province where such employe may casually reside. Art. 35. The names which have been s\ic- ce.ssively adopted for the Nation, since tho jjear 1810 up to the present time; viz., tnc United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, Argentine Ro- l)\iblic and Argentine Confederation, shall heuce- forward serve without distinction, ollicially to designate the Government and territoiy of the Provinces, winlst the words Argentine Nation shall be employed in the making and sanction of the laws. Part II.— Section I. Article 36. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress composed of two Chambers, one of National Deputies, and the other of Senators of the Provinces and of the capital. Chapter I. A'-*icle 37. Tho Chamber of Deputies shall he composed of representatives elected directly by the people of the Provinces, for whicli pur- pose each one shall bj considered as a single electori',1 district, and by a simple plundity of votes in the r ''o of one for each 20,000 inhabit- ants, or for a fraction not less than 10,000. Art. 38. Tho deputies for the first Legisla- ture shall be nominated in the following propor- tion: for the Province of Buenos- Aires, twelve; for that of Cordoba, six; for Cat.unarca, three; Corrientes, four, Entre-Rios, two; .Tujui, two; Mondoza, three; Rioja, two; Salta, three; San- tiago, four; Sau Juan, two; 3anta-Fe, two; San Luis, two, and for that of Tucumdu, throe. Art. 39. For the second Legislature' a general census shall be taken, aiid the number of Depu- ties be regulated by it; thereafter, this census shall be decennial. Art. 40 No person shall be a Deputy who shall not liavo attained the age of twenty live years, have been four years in the exercise of citi- zenship, and be a native of the Province which elects hiiu, or a resident of it for the two years immediately preceding. Art. 41. For the first election, the provincial Legislatures shall regulate the method for a direct election of the National Depucies. Con- gress shall pass a genend law for tli(' future. Art. 42. The I)eputies sliall hold their place for four years, and are re-eligible; but the liousc shall be renewed each " 'ennial, by halves; for which purpose 'hose elected to the first Legisla- ture, as soon as the session opens, shall decide by lot who shall leave at the end of the first periodf. Art. 43. In case of vacancy, the (ioverninent of the Province or of the capital, shall call an election for a new memlier. Art. 44. The origination of the tax-laws and those for the recruiting of troops, belongs exclu- sively to the House of Deputies. Art. 45. It has the sole right of impeaching before the Senate, the President, Vice-President, their .Ministers, and the members of the Supreme Court and other inferior Tribunals of the Nation, in suits whicl'. n' '.y be undertaken against them for tho iirip-oper discharge of, or deficiency in, the exeri;ise of their functions; or for common crimes, after having heard them, and declared by a vote of two thirds of tho members present, that there is cause for proceeding against them. Chapter II. Article 46. Tlie Senate shall be composed of two Senators from each Province, chosen by the Legislatures thereof by plurality of vote, and two from the cap'tal elected in the form prescribed for the election of the President of the Nation. Each Senator shall have one vote. Art. 47. No person shall be c Senator who shall not liave attained the age of thirty years, been six years a citizen of the Nation, enjoy an annual rent or iucomi! "f two thousand liara- dollars, and !>•. a native of tho Province which elects him, or a resident of the same for the two years immediately preceding. Art. 48. The Senators sliall enjoy their trust for nine years, and are indefinitely re-eligible; but the Senate shall bo renewed by thirds each . three years, and shall decide by lot, as soon as they lie all re-united, who shall leave at the end of th' • first and .second triennial periods. Art. 49. Tlie Vice-President of the Nation shall be Pre;ident of the Senate; but shall have no vote, e eept in a case of a tie. Art. 50. The Senate shall choose a President pro-tempore who shall preside during the absence if the Vice-President, or v/hen he sliall exer^'se the otliee of President of the Nation. Art. 51. The Senate sliall have sole power to try all impeachments presented by the House of Dei)uties. When sitting for that purpose they shall be uniler oa'.h. When the President of the Nation is tried, the Chief .Justice shall preside. No person shall be convicted without the con- currence of nvo-thirds of the members present Art. 52. Judgment in case of impeachmei' shall not extend farther than to removal r.ji,. 513 CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. ollicc, and diaqunliflcatioii to liold ami enjoy any ollk'c (if honor, trust, or profit under the Nation. But till: party convicted slnill, nevcrtliel('s.s, l)e liable to indictment, trial, judgment and punish- ment acconling to law, before the ordinary tribu- nals. Art. 53. It belongs, moreover, to the Senate, to aulliori/.e (he I'resident to declare martial law in one or n'ore points of the Republic, iu case of foreign aggression. Art. 54. When any scat of a Senator bo va- cant by death, re,signati(;n or other reason, the Gov(!rinneMt to which the vacancy belongs, shall immediately proceed to the election cf ti new member. Chapter III. A.-ticleSS. Both C'liandu'rs .shall meet in ordi- nary session, cvi ry year from tlie 1st 3Iay until the ;i()th September. Tliey can be extraordi- narily eonvolied, or their session be prolonged by the President of the Nation. Art. 56. Each House shall be tlie judge of the elections, returns, and (lualifications of its own members. Neither of them shall enter into session without an absolute majority of its mem- bers; but a smaller luunber may compel al)sent members to attend tiie sessions, in sucli terms and tnider such penal; ies as each llousc may es- tablisli. Art. 57. Both Houses shall begin and close their sessions simultaneously. Neither of tliem whilst in sessions can suspend its meetings for more than three ilays, without the consent of the other. Art. 58. Each IIou.se may make its rules of proceeding, and witli the concurrence of two- thirds punish its members for disorderly behavior in the exercise of their functions, or remove, and even expel them from the House, for physical or moral incapacity occurring after their incorpora- tion; but a majority of one above one half of the members present, shall sulllce to decide ((Ues- tions of voluntary resignation. Art. 59. In the act of thei'- incorporation the Senators and Deputies shall tjike an oath, to properly fu'til their charge, and to act in all things in conformity to the prescriptions of this Constitution. A*!. 60. No member of Congress can be in- dieted, judicially interrogated, or molested for any opinion or discourse which he may have uttered in fulfilment of his Legislative duties. Art. 6l. No Senator or Deputy, during the term for which he may have been elected, shall be arrested, except when taken ' in flagrante' com- mission of some crime wnich merits capital pun- ishment or other degrading sentence ; an account thereof shall be rendered to the Chamber he be- longs to, with a verbal process of the facts. Art. 62. When a complaint in writing be made bef(/re the ordinary courts against any Senator or Deputy, each Chamber can by a two-thirds vote, suspend the accused in his functions and place him at the disposition of the competent judge for trial. Art. 63. Each of the Chambers can cause the Ministers of the Executive to come to their Hall, to give such explanations or information as may be considered convenient. Art. 64. No member of Congress can receive any post oi- commission from the Executive, with- out the previous consent of his respective Cl-am- ber, excepting such as are in the line of jiromo- tion. Art. 65. The regular ecclesiastics cannot be members of Congress, nor can the Governors of Provinces represent the Province which they govern. Art. 66. The Senators and Deputies shall be remunerated for their services, by a compensation to be ascertained liy law. Chapter IV. Article 67. The Congress sliall have power; — 1. To legislate upon the Ciistom-Houses and es- tablish import duties; which, as well as all a])- praiseinents for their collection, shall be uniform throughout the Nation, it being clearly understood that the.se, as well as all other national coii'riltu- tions, can be paid in any money at the just value which may be current in the respective Provinces. Also, to establish export duties. 2. To lay direct taxes for determinate jieriods, whenever the com- mon detense and general welfare require it, which shall be uniform throughout the territory of tlie Nation. I!. To borrow money on the credit of the Nation. 4. To determine t\y; use and sale of the Nati(mal lands. 5. To establish and regulate a National Bank in the<apit;'.l, with branches in the Provinces, and with power to emit bills. 0. To regulate the payment of the home and foreign debts of the Nation. 7. To annui'lly determine the estimates of the National Administration, and approve or reject the ac- counts of expenses. 8. To grant subsidies from the National Treasury to those I'rovinces, whose revenues, according 10 their liudgets, do not suf- fice to cover the ori'inary expenses. 9. To regu- late tlie free navigation of the interior rivers, open such ports as ma.v be considered necessary, create and suppress Custom-llouses, but without suppressing those which existed in each Province at the time of its incorporation. 10. To coin money, regulate the v.ilue thereof and of foreign coin, and adopt a uniform system of weights and measures for the whole Nation. 11. To decree civil, commercial, penal and mining Codes, but such Codes shall have no power to change local i'urisdiction; their application shall bclon to the 'ederal or Provincial courts, in accordance with such things or persons as may come under their respective jurisdiction; especially, general laws embracing the whole Nation, shall be passed upon naturalization and citizenship, subject to the principle of native citizenship; also upon bank- 1 .iptcy, the counterfeiting of current-money and public State documents ; and such laws as may be required for the establishment of trial by Jury. 13. To regulate commerce by laud and sea with foreign nations, and between the Prov- inces. 13. To establish and regulate the general pi.st-ofHces and post-roads of the Nation. 14. To finai'y settie the National boundaries, fix those of tliL Provinces, create new Provinces, and de- termine by a special legislation, the organization ami governments, which such National territories as are beyond the limits assigned lO the Province, should have. 15. To provide for the security of the frontiers; preserve peaceful relations with the Indians, and promote their conversion to Catholicism. 16. To provide all things condu- cive to the prosperity of the country, to the ad- vancement and happiness of the Provinces, and to the increase of enlightenment, decreeing plans for general and university instruction, promoting 514 CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ARGENTIfTE REPUBLIC. industry, immigrfttion, the construction of mil- wftj'S, and navigable canals, the peopling of the National lands, the introduction and cstablisli- ment of now industries, the importation of for- eign capital and the exploration of the interior rivers, liy prot<!ction laws to these ends, and by temporary concessions and stimulating recom- penses. 17. To constitute tribunals interior to the Supreme Court, create and suppress public ollices, fl.v their attributes, grant pensions, decree honors and general amnesties. 18. To accept or reject the resignation of the 1 resident or Vice- I'resident of the Republic, and declare new elec- tions; to make the scrutiny and rectification of tlie same. 10. To ratify or reject the treaties made with other Nations and the Concordats with •he Apostolic See, and regulate the patronage of advowsons throughout the Nation. 20. To admit religious orders witliiu the Nation, other than tliose already existing. 31. To authorize the Executive to declare war and make peace. 22. To grant letters of maripu^ and rei)risal, and to make rules concerning prizes. 23. To tix tlie land and sea forces in tinu^ of peace and war: and to make rules and regulations for the government of said forces. 2-1. To i)rovi(le for calling forth the militia of all, or a part of, the Provinces, to execute the laws of the Nation, suppress insur- rections or repel invasions. To provide for or- ganizing, arming, and disciplining said militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the Nation, reserving to the Provinces respectively, the appointment of the corresponding cliiefs and ollicers, and the au- thority of training the militia according to the discipline prescril.icd by l^ongress. 25. To per- mit the introduction of foreign troops within the territory of the Nation, and the going beyond it of the N. tional foices. 26. To declare martial law in any or various points of the Nation in case of domesJc commotion, and ratify or sus- pend the declaration of martial law made by the executive during the recess. 27. To exercise ex- elusive legislation over the ijrritory of the Na- tional capitjil, and over such other places accjuired by p jrchiisc or cession in any of the Provinces, for the purpose of establislung fcrts, arsenals, warehouses, or other needful nation.vl buildings. 28. To make all laws and regulations which shall be necessary for carrying into execution the fore- going powers, and all others vested by the pres- ent Constitution in the Government of the Ar- gentina.; Nation. Chapter V. Article 68. Laws may originate in cither of the Houses of Congress, by bills presented by their members or by the Executive, excepting those relative to the objects treated of in Art. 44. Art. 69. A bill being approved by -ae House wherein if, originated, shall pass for discussion to the other House. IBeing approved by both, it shall pass to the Executive of the Nation for liia examination; and should it receive his approba- tion he shall publish it as law. Art. 70. Every bill not returned within ten worl 'ag-days by the Executive, shall be taken as approved by him. Art. 71. No bill entirely rejected by one House, can be presented again during thai year. But should it be only amplilied or corrected ay the revising House, it shall return to that wherein it originated ; and if there the additions or cor- rections lie approved by an absolute majority, it shall jiass to the Executive. If the addition* or corrections be rejected, it shall return to the revising House, and if here tliev be again sanc- tioned bv a majority of two-thirds of its mem- bers, it sliall pa.ss to the other House, and it shall not be understood that the said additions and corrections are rejected, unless two-thirds of the members present should so vote. Art. /a. A bill being rejected in whole or in part by the Executive, he shall return it with his objections to the House in which it originated; here it shall be debated again; and if it be con- firmed by a majority of two-thirds, it shall pass again to the revising House. If both Houses should pass it by the Mime majority, it becomes a law, and shall be sent to tlie ftxeeiitive for promulgation. In such ease the votes of both Houses shall be by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons so voting sliali be recorded, as well as the objections of the Executive, and sliall be imnu.liately published in the daily-press. If tl'.e Houses differ upon the objections, the bill cannot be renewed during that year. Art. 73. The following formula shall be used in the pas,sage of the laws: "The (Senate and Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation in Congress assembled, etc. decree, or sanction, with the force of law." Section II.— Chapter I. Article 74. The Executive power of the Na- tion shall be exercised by a citizen, with the title of " President of the Argentine Nation." Art. 75. In case of the sickness, absence from the capital, death, resignation or dismissal of the President, the Executive power shall be exer- cised by the Vice-President of the Nation. In case of the removal, death, resignation, or in- ability of the President and Vice-President of the Nation, Congress will determine which public functionary shall then (111 the Presidency, until the disability be removed or a new President be elected. Art. 76. No person except a natural-born citi- zen or a son of a natural-born citizen brought forth abroad, shall be eligible as Presitlent or Vice-President of the Nation ; he is re(iuired to belong to the Apostolic-Roman-Catholic com- munion, and possess the other qualiflcations re- quired to be elected Senator. Art. 77. The President and Vice-President shall hold office during the ♦erm of six years; and cannot be re-elected except iftcr an interval of an equal period. Art. 78. The President of the Nation shall cease in his functions the very day on which his period of six years expires, and no event what- ever which may have interruiited it, can be a motive for completing it at a later time. Art, 79. The President and Vice-President shall receive a compensation from the National Treasury, which cannot be altered during the Berio<l for which they shall have been elected, luring ihe same period they cannot exercise any other office nor receive any other emolument from the Nation, or any of its Provinces. Art. 80. The President and Vice-President be- fore entering upon the execution of their of^^ces, shall take the following oath administered by the President of the Senate (the first time by the President of the Constituent Congress) in Con- gress assembled: "I (such an one) iwcar by 515 CONSTITUTION: ARQENTINK IlEPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. God our Lord, nnd by these Holy Evangelists, that I will fiiithfiilly and piitriotically execute the olllce of I'ri'sidciit (or Vice-l'rcsidcnt) of the, Ni)tioii, and oliscrvc and cause to be faithfully olwcrvcd, the Constitutidii of the Argentine Na- tion. If 1 should not do so, let God and the Nation indict me." Chapter II. Article 8i. Tlie election of the President and Vice-President of the Nation, .sli;ill he made in the following manner: — Ihe capital and each of tlie Provinces shall by direct vote nominate a boanl of electors, double the number of Depu- ties and Senators which tliey send to (!ongress, with tlio same qualiflcutinns and under the same form as those prescribed for the election of Depu- ties. Deputies or Senators, or o(li(!ers in the pay of the Federal Government cannot be electors. The electors being met in tlie National-capital and in that of their respective Provinces, four months [jrior to tlie conclusion of the term of the out-going President, they shall proceed by signed ballois, to elect a President, and Vice- President, one of winch shall .stiitc the person as Presid(;nt, and the other the person as Vice-Presi- dent, for whom they vote. Two lists shall be made of al! the individuals elected as President, and other two also, of those elected as Vice- President, with tlie number of votes which each may have received. These lists shall be signed by the electors, and shall be remitted closecl and sealed, two of them (one of each kind) to the President of tlu^ Provincial Legislature, and to the President of the Municipality in tlic capital, among whose records they shall remain deposited and closed; the other two shall be .sent to the President of the Senate (the first time to the President of the Constituent Congress). Art. 82. Tlic President of tlie Senate (the first time tiiat of the Constituent Congress) all the lists being received, shall open them in the presence of both Houses. Four members of Congress taken by lot and associated to tlie Secre- taries, shall immediately proceed to count the votes, and to announce the number which may result in favor of each candidate for the Presi- dency and Vice-Presidency of the Nation. Those who have received an absolute majority of all the votes in both cases, shall be immediately pro- claimed President and Vice-President. Art. 83. In case there be no absolute ma- jority, on account of a division of the votes, Con- gress shall elect one of tlie two persons who shall have received tlic highest number of votes. If the first majority should liavc fallen to a single person, and the second to two or more, Congniss shall elect among all the persons who may have obtained the first and second majorities. Art. 84. This election shall bo made by abso- lute plurality of votes, and voting by name. If, on counting the first vote, no absolute majority shall liavft been obtained, a second trial shall be made, limiting the voting to the two per.sons who shall have obtained the greatest number of suffrages at the first trial. In case of an equal number of votes, the operation shall be '•epeated, and should the result be the same, then the Presi- dent of the Senate (the first time that of the Con- stituent Congress) shall decide it. No scrutiny or rectificition of these elections can be made, unless three-fourth parts of all the members of the Congress be present. Art. 85. The election of the President and Vice-President of the Nation, shall be concluded in a single meeting of Ihe Congress, and there- after, the result and the electoral lists shall lie published in the daily press. Chapter I! I. Article 86. The President of 'the Nation has the following attributes: — 1. lie is the supreme chief of the Nation, ond is chargi^l with the general administration of the country. 3. He issues such instructions and regulations as may be necessary for the execution of the laws of the Nation, taking care not to alter their spirit with regul.itive exceptions. 3. lie is the immediate and local chief of the National capital. 4. He particulates in making the laws according to the Constitution; and sanctions and promulgates them. n. He nominates the Judges of Mie Su- preme Court anil of the Inferior Federal tri- bunals, and appoints them by and with the con- sent and advice of the Senate. 0. He has power to pardon or comniiite iienalties against officers subject to Federal jurisdiction, pi\'ceded by a report of tiie proper Tribunal, excepting in case of im]ieaehment by Ihe House of Deputies. 7. Ho grants reUring-pensions, leaves of absence and pawnbrokers' licences, in conformity to the laws of the Nation, c!. He exercises the rights of National Patronage in the presentation of Hishojjs for the catlii'dri.ls, choosing from a ter- nary nomination of the Senate. 0. He grants letters-iiatent or retains the decrees of tlie Coun- cils, the bulls, briefs and rescript.^ of the Holy Roman Pontitf, by and with the consent of the Supreme Court, and must require a law for the same when tliey contain general and permanent dispositions. 10. lie appoints nnd removes Min- isters Plenipotentiary and Charge d'Aflaires, by and with the consent and advice of the Senate ; and himself alone appoints and removes the Min- isters of his Cabinet, the ofticers of the Secretary- ships, Consular Agents, nnd the rest of the em- ployes of the Administration whose nomination is not otherwise ordained by this Constitution. 11. He annually opens the Sessions of Congress, both Houses being united for this purpose in the Senate Chamber, giving an account to Congress on this occasion of the state of the Nation, of the reforms provided by the Constitution, and recommending to its consideration such measures as may be judged necessary and convenient. 13. He prolongs the ordinary meetings of Congress or convokes it in extra session, when a question of progress or aa important interest so re(iuires. 13. He collects the rents of the Nation and de- crees their expenditure in conformity to the law or estimates of the Public expenses. 14. He negotiates and signs those treaties of peace, of commerce, of navigation, of alliance, of bounda- ries and of neutrality, requisite to maintain good relations with foreign powers ; he receives their Ministers and admits tlieir Consuls. 15. Ho is commander in chief of all the sea and land forces of the Nation. 16. He confers, b;,- and v/it' the consent of the Senate, the high military graaes in the army and navy of the Nation ; and by himself on the field of battle. 17. He dis- poses of the land and sea forces, and takes charge of their organization and distribution ac- corditig to the requirements of the Nation. 18. By the authority and approval of Congress, he declares war and grants letters of marcjue and 516 CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. reprisal. 19. By nnd with the consent i)f Iho Sennte, in case of foreign aggression and for a limited time, lie declares niartjal law in oTie or more points of the Nation. In ra.se of internal commotion he has this power oidy when (;ongre.ss is in recess, because it is an attribute which be- longs to this body. Tlu! President exercises it under tlie limitations mentioned in Art. 2ii. 20. lie may require from the chiefs of all the branches and departments of the Administration, and through tlicm from, all other employes, siicli reports as lie may believe necessary, and they lire compelled to give them. 21. He cannot ab- 'Bcnt himself from the capital of the Nation with- out permission of Congress. During the recess ho can only do so without permission on account of important objects of public service. 22. The President sliall have power to till all vacancies tliat may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which ahull expire at the end of their next session. Chapter IV. Article 87. Five Minister-Secretaries; to wit, of tlie Interior; of Foreign Affairs ; of Finance; of Justice, Worslnp and Public Instruction; and of War and the Navy; shall have under tlieir \ charge tlie disi....cli of National affairs, and tliey shall counter-sig. and legalize the acts of the President by means of their signatures, without wliicli requisite they shall not lie efficacious. A law shall determine the respective duties of the Jliiiistens. Art. 88. Each Minister is responsible for tlio acts which ho legalizes, nnd collectively, for those wliich be agrees to with his colleagues. Art. 89. The Ministers cannot determine any- thing whatever, by themselves, except what con- cerns the economical and adniirii'trativc regimen of their respective Departmenvs. Art. 90. As soon as Congress opens, the Jlin- isters shidl present to it a detailed report of the State of tlio Nation, in all that relates to tlieir respective Departments. Art. 91. They cannot be Senators or Deputies without resigning their places as Ministers. Art. 92. The Ministers can assist at the meet- ings of Congress and take part in its debates, but tliey cannot vote. Art. 93. They shall receive for their services a compensntion established by law, which shall not b(! increased or diminished, in favor or ag'iiust, the actual incumbents. Section III.— Chapter I. Article 94. The Judicial Power of tho Nation shall be exercised by a Supremo Court of Justice, and by such other inferior Tribunals as Congress may establish within the dominion of tlie Nation. Art. 95. The President of tlie Nation cannot in any ease whatever, exercise Judicial powers, arrogate to himself any knowledge of pending causes, or reopen tliose which have terminated. Art. 96. The Judges of the Supreme Court and of the lower National-Tribunals, shall keep their places quamdiu so bene gcsserit, and shall receive for their cervices a compensation deter- mined by law, which shall not be diminished in any manner whatever during their continuance in olUce. Art. 97. No one can be a member of the Su- preme Court of Justice, unless he shall have been un attorney at law of the Nation for eight years, an(! shall pos.sess the qualitlcationa required for a Senator. Art. 98. At tlie first installation of the Supreme Court, the individuals appointed .shall take an oath administered l)ytli(^ President of the Nation, to discharge their functions, by the good and legal administration of Justice according to the jue- scripllons of this Constitution. Tliereafter, tho oath shall be taken before the President of the Court itself. Ar.. 99. The Supreme Court shall establish its own internal and economical regulations, and shall appoint its subaltern employes. Chapter II. Article 100. The Judicial power of the Su- ])renie Court and th(! lower National-Tribunals, shall extend to all cases arising under llils Con- stitution, tho laws of the Nation with Ihereserve made in clause 11 of Art. H7, and by treaties with foreign nations; to ail cases afTccting aml)as.-ii- dors, i)ublic Ministers and foreign Consuls; to all eases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to C()ntrover.sies to which tlie Nation slmll be party; to controversies between two or more Provinces; between a Province and the eill/.ens of another; between the citizens of ditferent Provinces; and between a Province or its citi- zens, against a foreign State or citizen. Art. lOI. In these cases the Supreme Court shall exercise an ap|)elate jurisdiction according to such rules aiiil exceptions as Congress may prescribe; but in all ca.ses affecting ambassadors, ministers and foreign consuls, or tiio.se in wliicli a Province shall be a party, it slmll exercise original and exclusive jurisdiction. Art. 102. The trial of all ordinary crimes ex- c(!pt in cases of impiMichment, shall terminate by jury, so soon as this institution be established in the Republic. Tliese trials shall be held in the same Province where tho crimes sliall have bix'u committed, but when not committed within the frontiers of the Nation, but against International Law, Congress shall determine by a siieciai law the place wliero the trial shall take effect. Art. 103. Treason against the Nation shall only consist in levying war against it, or in ad- hering to its enemies, giving them aid and com- fort. Congress shall fix b}' .1 special law the punishment of treason; but it c.innot go beyond the person of the criminal, and no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood to relatives of any grade whatever. Art. 104. Tlie Provinces keep all the powers not delegated by this Constitution to the Federal Government, and those which were exjiressly re- served by special compacts at the time of their incorporation. Art. 105. They create their own local institu- tions and are governed by these. They elect their own Governors, tlieir Legislators ami other Provincial functionaries, without intervention from the Fedc^ral Government. Art. 106. Each Province shall make its own Constitution in conformity witli the dispositions of Art. 5. Art. 107. The Provinces with the consent of Congress can celebrate contr:tcts among them- selves for the purposes of administering justice and promoting economical interests and works of common utility, and a'so, <'an pass protective laws for the purpose with their own resources, of promoting manufactures, immigration, tho 517 CONSTIT'JTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. building of railways ami oniiuls, tlie peopling of their liindH, the introduction and I'stablmhrnent of new industries, the import of foreign-capital and the exploration of their rivers. Art. lo8. The Provinces cannot exercise any powers delegated to the Nation. They cannot ceh'brate compacts of a, political character, nor make laws on conunerce or internal or external navigation ; nor establish Provincial Custom- llouses, nor coin money, nor establish Banks oC omission, williout authority of Congress; nor make civil, commenial, penal or minuig 'otles after Congress shall have sanctioned those pro- vided for in this C'cmstitution; nor pass laws upon citizenship or naturalization; iikruptcy, counterfei; ing money or public State-<locuments ; nor lay toimage dues ; nor arm vessels of war or raise armies, save in the case of foreign invasion, or of a danger so inunineiit that it admits of no <lelay, and then an account thereof must be im- mediately given fo the Federal Government; or name or receive foreign agents; or admit new re- ligious orders. Art. 109. No Province can declare or make war to another Province. Its complaints must be submitted to the Supretnc Court of Justice and be settled by it. Hostilities ile facto arc acts of civtl-war and qualitled as scditio\is and tunuiltu- ous, wliicli the (Jencral Government must repress and s\ifrocate according to law. Art. no. The Prov' al Governors arc the nat\iral agents of the I'ederal Government to catiso the fullllmcnt of tlie laws of the Nation. See Ahoenti.ne HKi-unMc: A. 1). 1880-1801. CONSTITUTION OF THE AUSTRO- HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. Introduced in 1807. See AusTiUA: A. D. 1806-1807. and 1800- 1887. CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. See NKTirEur,.\M)s; A. 1). 18;i()-1884. CONSTITUTION OF BOLIVIA. See Peuu: A. I). 1825-1830, and 1830-1878. CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. Tlie following text of the Constitution of the United States of Brazil, adopted February 94, 1891, is taken from a translation published in Bulletin No. 7 of tlu! B\ireau of American Re- publics, Washington: We, the representatives of the Brazilian peo- ple, >inited in constitutional cmgress, to organize a free and democratic regime, do establish, de- cree and promulgate the following constitution of the Republic of the United States of Bnizil: Article i. T'le Brazilian nation, adopting as a form of government the Federal Republic pro- claimed November 15, 1889, constit\ites itself, by the perpetual and indissoluble union of its for- mer ijrovinces, the United States of Brazil. Art. 2. Eacli of the former provinces shall con- stitute a Stiitc, and the former municipal district shall form the F(!deral District, continuing to bo tlie cai)ital of the Union until the following arti- cle snail be carried into effect. Art. 3. In the center there is allotted as the property of the Union a zone of 14,400 square kilometres, which in due time shall be laid off for the establishment of the future federal capi- tal. Sole paragraph. — After the change of site of the capital, the present Federal District shall constitute a State. Art. 4. The States shall have the right to in- cornorate themselves one with another, sub- divide themselves, dismember themselves to join with others or form new States, witli the consent of the respective local le^'islatures in two Fucces- givc annual sessions and the approval of the national Congress. Art. 5. It shall be the duty of each State to provide, at its own expense, for the necessities of its government and administration ; but the Union shall extend assistance to any State which, in case of public calamity, shall demand it. Art. o. The Federal Government shall not intei - fere in matters pertaining peculiarly to the States, save: (1) To repel foreign invasion, or the inva- sion of one State by another. (2) To maintain the fedenitive republican form of government. (3) To reestablish order and tranquillity in the States at the request of the respective governments. (4) To assure the execution of the laws and fed eral decrees. Art. 7. It is the exclusive prerogative of the Union to deeiee: (1; Duties on imports from for- eign countries. (3) Duties of entry, departure, and stay of vessels ; the coasting trade for national articles being free of duties, as well as for for- eign mercliandise that has already paid an im- port duty. (15) Stamp duties, save the restric- tions impo.sed by article 9, ^ 1, No. 1. (4) Postal and federal telegraphic taxes, i^ 1. The Union alone shall have the power: (1) To establish banks of emission. (3) To create aiu'. maintain custom-houses. 5^ 2. The taxes decreed by tlu; Union shall be uniform forall the States. 8 3. The laws of the Union and the acts and decisions of its authorities shall be executed throughout the country by federal ollieials, except that the en- forcement of the former may be committ' d li.^ the governments of the States, with the consent of the said States. Art. 8. The Federal Government is forbidden to make distinctions and preferences in favor of the ports of an' of the States against those of others. Art. 9. The States alone are competent to de- cree taxes : (1) On the exportation of merchan- dise of their own production. (2) On landed property. (3) On the transmission of property. (4) On industries and professions. § 1. The States also have the exclasive right to decree: (1) Stamp duties on instruments emanating from their respective governments and business of their internal economy. (3) Contributions touch- ing their own telegraphs and postal service. § 2. The products of the other States are exempt from imposid in the State wlience they are ex- ported. § 3. It is lawful for a State to levy duties on imports of foreign goods only when Intended for consumption in its own territory; but it shall, in such case, cover into the federal treasury the amount of duties collected. 8 4. The right is reserved to the State? of establishing telegraph lines between the different points of their own territory, and between these and those of other States not served by federal lines; but 518 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. tlic Union may liikc possession of tlicm when the gciicr.il welfiire shall require. Art. 10. Tlie several States are proliihited from taxing the federal property or reveniu!, or any- thing in the service of tlie Lnion, and vice versa. Art, II. It is forbidden to tlie States, as well as to tlie Unions: (1) To impo.se duties on tlie jiroduc'ts of tiie other States, or of foreign conn- tries, in transit througli tlie territory of any State, or from one State to another, as also on tlie vehicles, whether by land or water, by whicli tliey are transported. (3) To establish, aid, or emliarrass the exercise of religii us worsliip. (3) To enact ex post facto laws. Art. 12. In addition to the sources of revenue set forth in articles 7 and 9, it sliall be lawful for tlic Union, as well as for the States, cumulatively or otlierwise, to create any others whatsoever wliicii may not be in contravention of the terras of articles?, 9, and 11, § 1. Art. 13. The right of the Union and of the States to legislate in regard to railways an<l navi- gation of internal waters shall be regulated by federal law. Sole pdrnr/raph. — Tlie coastwise trade sliall be carried on in national vessels. Art. 14. The land anil naval forces are perma- nent national institutions, intended for the de- fense of the country from foreign attadc and the niiiinteiiance of the laws of the land. Witliin the limits of tlie law, the armed forces are from their nature lield to obedience, caeli raiili to its .superior, and bound to support all constitutional institutions. Art. 15. The legislative, executive, and judi- cial powers arc organs of the national sover- eigntj', harmonious and indepem'.ent among theiiLselves. Art. 16. The legislative power is vested in the national Congress, with the sanction of tlie Presi- dent of tlie Republic. § 1. The national Con- gress is composed of two branches, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, i^ 3- The elections for senators and for deputies shall be held siniul- tiiiieously throughout the country. § 3. No per- son shall be senator and deputy at the same time. Art. 17. The Congress shall assemble in the federal capital on the 3d day of May of each year, unless some other day shall be fixed by law, without being convokeil, and shall continue in session 4 montlis from the date of the opening, and may be prorogued, adjourned, or convoked in extraordinary session. § 1. Tlie Congress .ilone shall have the power to deliberate on the prorogation or extension of its session. §2. Each legislature shall last for 3 years. § 3. The gov- ernor of any State in which tliere shall be a va- cancy in the representation, including the case of resignation, sliall order a new election to be held at once. Art. 18. Tlie Chamber and the Senate shall hold their sessions apart and in public, unless otlierwise resolved by a majority vote, and shall deliberate only when, in cacli of the chambers, there shall be present an absolute majority of its members. SuU jmragraph. — To eacli of the cham- bers sliall belong the right to verify and recog- nize the powers of its members, to clioose its own presiding oHlcers, to organize its internal govem- incut, to regulate the service of its own police rules, and to choose its own secretaries. Art. 19. Tlie deputies and senators can not be held to account for their opinions, expressions, and votes in the discharge of their mandate. I Art. 20. Deputies and senators, from the time of receiving their certitlcati' of election until a new election, can not be arrested or proceeded against criminally without the [lerini.ssion of tlieir respective chambers, except, in the case of a llagrant crime, in wliich liaii is inadmissible. In sueli case, the prosecution being carried to exclu- sive decision, tlie prosecuting aulliorily sliall send the court records to the respective chamber for its decision on tlie iiroseciition of tlie charge, unless the accused shall prefer immediate judg- ment. Art. 21. The members of the two chambers, on taking tlieir .seats, shall taki! a formal obliga- tion, in public session, t' iierform their duties faithfully. Art. 22. During tlie sessions the senators and deputies shall receive an e((ual pecuniary salarj' and mileage, which shall be fixed by Congress at the end of each session for tlie following one. Art. 23. No member of the Congress, from the time if his election, can make contracts witli tlie executive power or receive from it any paid commission or employment. 5; 1. Exceptions to this iirohibition are: (1) Diplomatic missions. (2) C'ommissions or military commands. (3) Ad- vancement in rank and legal iiromotion. ;$ 3. No deputy or senator, however, can accept an apiiointnient for any mission, commission, or command mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 of the ]re- ceding paragraph, witliout the consent of the chamber to wliicli he belongs, when such accept- ance would prevent the exercise of his legisla- tive duties, except iu case of war or .sudi as involve the iKmor iv integrity of tin; nation. Art. 24. No deputy or senator can be jiresi- dent or form part of a directory of any bank, companv, or enterprise whicli enjoys the favors of the Federal Government defined in and by law. Solepardf/rnph. — Nonobservance of the jiro- visions of the fon going article by any deputy or senator shall involve the loss of his .seat. Art. 25. Tiie legislative commission shall be incomiiatible with tlie exercisa of any other func- tions during the sessions. Art. 26. Tlie conditions for eligibility to the national C(jngress are: (1) To be iu possession of tlie riglits of Brazilian citizenship and to lie registered as a voter. (2) For the t'hamber, to have been for more than 4 years a Brazilian citi- zen; and for tlie Senate, for more than li years. This provision does not include those citizens referred to in No. 4, article 09. Art. 27. The Congress shall by special legis- lation declare the cases of electoral incompetency. Art. 28. The Chamber of Deputies shall be composed of tiie reiiresentatives of the people, elected by tlie States and tlie Federal District by direct sulTrage, the representation of the min- ority being guarantied, t^ 1- Tlie number of the deputies shall be fixed by law yi sueii a way as not to exceed one for each 70,000 iiiliabitants, and that there shall not be less than four for each State. S ~- To this end the Federal Gov- ernment sliali at once order a census to Ir- taken of tlie population of the Republic, whicli shall be revi-sed everv 10 years. Art. 29. TotheCliainberbelnngs the initiative in the adjournment of the legislative sessions and in all legislation in regard to taxation, to tlie determination of tiie size of tiie army and navy, in tlie discussion of propositions from the execu- tive power, am.! in tlie decision to proceed or not 519 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. in rliiirjrcH HjcainHt tlic I'rcKidciit of tlic Ucpuhlir under tlio trrriiH r)f article 5i), and aKainitt tlio niini.sti'rs of HtAtc in crimes connected with tlioHo of tli(^ Htti<l President. Art. 30. Tlie .Senate sludl lie composed of citi- zens elifrihie under tlic terms of article 2(1 and more than iW years of age, to the numlier of three senators for each State and three for the Federal District, chosen in the same maimer as the deputies. Art. 31. The mandate of a senator shall con- tinue for years, and one-third of f'lO Seiuito shall he renewed every 3 years, title ])iiragr(iji/i. — A senator elected in place of another shall exercise his mandate during the remainder of the ternt of tlie latter. Alt. 32. The Vice President of the ncpuhlic shall lie the president of the Senate, where he shall vote only in case of tie, and shall he re- jilaced in ease of ahsence or inipeiHmeiit by the vice president of that body. Art. 33. The Senate alone shall have the power to try and sentence the President of the Uepub- lic and the other federal oflleers designiited by the constitution, under the conditions and in the manner which it prescribes. S; 1. The Senate, when sitting as a tribunal of justice, shall be presided over by the jiresidcnt of tlic federal su- preme cotirt. ^ 2. It shall not pass sentence of condemnation unless two-thirds of its members be present. 8 3. It shall not impose other penal- tics tliaii the less of ollicc and prohibition from holding any otiier, without prejudice to the action of ordinary justice against tlie condemned. Art. 34. The national Congress shall have ex- clusive power: (1) To estimiite tlie revenue, and fix the expenditures of the Federal Government annually, and tal<e account of the receipts and ex|K'nditures of each flcaiicial budget. (2) To autliorizc the executive to contract loans and make other operations of credit, (ii) To legislate in regard to the public debt and furnish means for its payment. (4) To coitrol the collection ind disposition of the national revenue. (5) To regulate international commeroe, as well os that of the States with each other and with the Fed- eral District; to establish and regulate the col- lection of customs duties in the ports, create or abolish warehouses of deposit. (6) To legislate in regard to navigation of rivers running through more than one State, or through foic'gn tcrri- ,tory. (7) To determine the weight, vaiUe, in- scription, type, am' denomination of the currency. (8) To create banks of emi.ssion, legislate in re- gard to tills emission and to tax it. (9) To fix the standard of weights and measures. (10) To determine definitely the boundaries of the States between each other, those of the Federal District, and those of the national territory with the ad- joining nations. (11) To authorize the Govern- ment to declare war, if there be no recourse to arbitration or in case of failure of this, and to makepeace. (12) To decide definitively in regard to treaties and cor i^entions with foreign nations. (13) To remove the capital of the Union. (U) To extend aid to the States in the case referred to 'n article 5. (1.5) To legislate in 'cgard to federal postal and telegraph service. (16) To adopt the necessary measures for the protection of the fron- tiers. (17) To fix every year the number of the land and naval forces. (18) To make laws for the organization of the army and navy. (10) To grant or refuse to foreign forces passage through the territory of the country to carry on military operiitioiiH. (2(1) To molilli/e and make use of the national guard or local militia in the cases designated by the Constitution. (21) To declare a state of siege at one or more points in the national territory, in tlie emergency of an attiiek by foreign forces, or internal disturlmnci^ and to approve or suspend the slate of siege proclaimed by the executive power or its responsible agents in llie absence of tlie C'ongress. (22) To reg\ilat(! the conditions and methods of elections for fed- eral otlices throughout the country. (23) To leg- islate upon the civil, crimiial, and (■ominereial laws and legal procedures of the federal judi- ciary. (24) To establisli uniform :<iituralizatioii laws. (25) To create and abolish federal pub- lic ofilccs, to fix the duties of the same, and designate their salaries, (20) To organize t!;^ federal judiciary according to the terms of arti- cle 55 and the succeeding, section 3. (27) To grant iimnesty. (28) To commute and pardon penalties imposed upon federal olUeers for of- fenses arising from their responsibility. (20) To make laws regarding Government lands and mines. (30) To legislate in regard to the munici pal organization of tlie Federal District, as well as to the police, the superior instruction and other services wliicli in the capital may be re- served for tlie Government of the Union. (31) To govern by special legislation tliose points of the territory of tlie Republic needed for the cstablisliment of arsenals, other establishments or institutions for federal uses. (32) To settle cases of extradition between the States. (33) To enact such laws and resolutions as may be neces- sary for the exercise of the powers belonging to the Union. (34) To enact the organic laws neces- sary for the complete execution of the require- ments of tlic Constitution. (35) To prorogue and adjourn its own sessions. Art. 35. It shall belong likewise to the Con- g'ess, but not exclusively : (1) To watch over the Constitution and the laws, and provide for neces- sities of a federal character. (2) To promote in the country the development of literature, the arts, and sciences, together with immigra- tion, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, witliout privileges such as would obstruct the action of tlie local governments. (3) To create institutions of higher instruction and of higli school cducatic n in the States. (4) To provide for high school instruct'on in tlie Federal Dis- trict. Art. 36. Save the exceptions named in article 27, all bills may originate, indilferently, in the Chamber or in the Senate, and may be introduced by any of their members. Art. 37. A bill, after being passed in one of the chambers, shall be submitted to tlie other, and, if tlie latter shall approve the sume, it shall send it to the executive, who, if he approve it, shall sanction and promulgate it. S 1- I^. how- ever, the President of the Republic sliall consider it unconstitutional, or contrarj- to the good of the nation, he shall refuse his sanction to the same witliin 10 working days, countc '. from thiA on which he recjived it (tlie bill), and shall return it, within tiie same period, to the chamber in which it originated, with liis reasons for his re- fusal. 5; 2. Vhc failure of the executive to sig- nify his disapproval within tlie above-named 10 days b.iall be considered as an approval, and in case his sanction be refused after the close of the 520 CONSTITUTION OF HltAZII,. CONHTITUTION OF BUAZIJ.. spssion of tho Congress, tlio I'rcsidont sliall mako public Ills reasons therefor. (5 iJ. The bill sent back to the chamber where it, originated shall be discussed and voted upcin by call of names, and shall be considered as passed if it obtain two-thirds of the votes of tlie members present; and, in this case, it shall be sent to th(f other clianiber, whence, if it receive' the same majority, it shall return, ns a law, to the executive to be formally promulgated. S 4. Tlie sanction and promulgation shall be eft'eeted in the following forms: (1) "The national Congress enacts and t sanction the following law (or resolution)." (3) "The national Congress enacts and I promul- gate the following law (or resolution)." Art. 38. If tli(! law be not promulgated by the President of the Republic within 48 hours, in the cases provided for in SS 3 and 3 of tho preced- ing article, tho president of the Senate, or the vice president, if the former shall not do so in the same space of time, sliall pronuilgate it, making use of tho following formula: " I, presi- dent (or vice president) of the Senate, mako known to whomsoever these presents may come, that the national Congress enacts and promul- gates tho following law (or resolution). " Art. 39. A l)ill from one cliamber, amended in tlio otlier, shall' return to the former, wldeh, if it accept tho amendments, shall send it, clianged to conform with the same, to the executive, g 1. In the contrary case, it sliall go back to tho amend- ing cliamber, where tho alterations shall be con- .iilered as approved, if they receive the vote of two-thirds of t'.io members present; in tlio latter case, the bill sliall return to the chamber where it originated, and there tho amendments can be rejected only by a two-tlards vote. S 2- If tl>e alterations be rejected by such vote, the bill shall he submitted without them to the approval of the executive. Art. 40. Bills finally rejected or not approved, shall not be presented again in the same legisla- tive! session. Art. 41. The executive power shall be exer- ci.sed by the President of tlio United States of Brazil, as elective cliief of the' nation. § 1. Tlio Vice President, elected simultaneously with the President, shall serve in place of the latter in case of impediment and succeed hiln in case of vacancy in tho Presidency. ' In cas(! of im- pedi'nent or vacancy in the \ ice I i isidency, tho following officers, in tho order named, shall be called to the Presidency: Tho vice president of the Senate, tho president of tho Chamber of Deputies, the president of tlie federal supremo court. § 8. The following are the conditions of eligibility to the Presidency or Vice Presidency of tlie Republic: (1) Must be a native of Brazil. (2) Must bo in tho exorcise of politi"al rights. (3) Must be more than 35 years of age. Art. 42. In case of vacancy from any cause in tlie Presidency or Vicj Presidency before tlie ex- piration of tho first 3 years of tlie Presidential term, a new election shall be held. Art. 43. Tlie President shall hoM his office during 4 years, and is not eligible for reflection for tlie fiext succeeding term. S 1. Tlie Vice President who shall fill the Presidency during the last year of the Presidential term shall not be eligible to the Presidency for the next term of that office. § 3. On the same day on which his Presidential term shall cease the Presidout shivll, without fail, cease to exercise the functions of 34 his office, ami the newly elected President sliall at onci^ Kiieceed him. ^ 3. If the latter should be hinderi'il or should fail to do so, the succes slon shall be ell'eeled in accordance \villi jStS 1 and 3 of article 41. ^ 4. The llrsl Presidential term shall expire on Ihi' IHlh of November, 1HI)4. Art. 44. On taking possession of bis iilllce, the President, in a session of the Congress, or, if it be not assembled, before the federal siiprciiui court, shall pronounce' the following alllrmalion: " I promise to maintain tlu' federal Coiistitiitlon and comply witli '.s provisions with perfect loy- alty, to promote .he general welfare of tlu! lie- public, to obse ve its laws, and support the union, intogrit}, and independence of the na- tion." Art. 45. The President and Vice President shall not leave tlie national territory without tho permission of the Congress, under penalty of loss of office. Art. 46. The President and Vice President shall receive tlie salary fixed by the Congress In the preceding Presidential term. Art. 47. The President and Vice President shall be clio.sen by direct sulTrage of tlie nation and an absolute majority of tlio votes, g 1 Tlie election sliall take place on tlie first day of >Liieli In tho last year of the P'-esidential term, and the counting of tlie votes cast at the dilTerent pre- cincts shall at once be made in the respectivo capitals of the States and in the federal capital. Tlie Congress shall make the count at its lirst session of the same year, with any number of members present. § '■^- If """c "f f'ose voted for shall have received an absolute majority, the Congress sliall elect, by a majority of votes of tliose present, one of the two who, in the direct election, shall have received 'he highest number of votes. In case of v tie the older shall be con- sidered elected, g 3. The manner of the election and of the counting of tlie votes shall be regu- lated by ordinary legislation. S i- The relatives, botli by consanguinity and by marriage, in the first and secoiul degrees, of the President and Vice President shall bo ineligible for the offices of President and Vice President, provided the said otBeials art; in office at tlie time of the eh.'C- tion or have left the office even 6 mimtlis before. Art. 48. To the President of the Republic shall beleng the exclusive right to — (1) Sanction,, promulgate, and make public the laws and reso- lutions of the Congress; issue decrees, instruc- tions, and regulations for tlieir f".itliful execu- tion. (3) Choose and dismiss at will the cabinet ofilcers. (3) Exercise or appoint some one to exorcise supreme command over the land and naval forces of the Uniteil Stjites of TJrazil, as well as over the local polic, when called to arms for the internal or externa, defense of the Union. (4) Govern and distribute, under the laws of the Congress, according to the necessities of the Na- tional Government, the lanil and :iaval forces. (15) Dispose of the offices, both military and civil, of a federal character, with the exceptions speci- fied in tho Constitution. (0) Pardon crimes and commute penalties for olTenses subject to federal jurisdiction, save in tlie cases mentioned in arti- cle 34, No. 38, and article 'J3, g 3. (T) Declare war and •'■iike peace, .inder the provisions of article 34, No. 11. (8) Declare war at once in cose of foreign invasion or aggression. (9) Give an annual state:nent to tiui national Congress of the condition of tlie country, with a rccommv;nda- 521 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. CONSTITUTION OF HUAZIL. lion of pri'ssliij; provlHioiiH nnd rcfoniiH, tliroii);ti r. ii.t'HHiiKi', wlilcli lie hIiiiII w-nil to the Hi'crc'tary of tlic Hciiittc on the duy of tlli^ opciiiiii^ of Itio I<'f;isliitlv4' session. (10) Convoke llie ('oni;ress ill e.xtni session. (11) .\|ipoint tli<' feilenil |ii<l|;es when prr)poseil by the supreme court. {I'i) Ap- point tli(^ meniliers of tlie fciieral supreme eimrl iiM(i ministers of tlie dlploiniitie corps, willi llie approvul of tile senate: anil, in tlie absence of the Conj^ress, appoint them in commission until con Hiilereil by the senate, (lit) Appoint the other members of the (liplomatic corps unil consular aKiints. (14) Maintain relations with forel);n states. (15) Declare, ilirectly, or through his responsible! ajjents, a slate of siege at any point of the national territory, in ca.se of for<'f)j;n a>r- ftression or serious internal ilisturbance. (Article fl, No. !); article :U, No. 21 ; ami article 8(1.) (1(1) Set on f(«)t international ne>;otiatiims, celebrate njrreements, conventions, anil treaties, always nd refer<!iidum to tlu^ Coni^ress, nnd npjjrove tho.se ni.idy by the States in conformity witli article (15, Hiibinittii;); Iheni when necessary to the authority of the C'on),'ress. Art. 49. The President of the Republic shall be assisted by the ministers of state (cabinet otll- <:ers), aj;ents of his contldence, who sign the acts and prosido over their respective departments into which the federal administration is divided. Art. 50. TIk! cabinet ministers shall not exer- cise any oilier employment or function of a pid)- lic natiire, be eligible to the Presidency or Vice Presidency of the Union, or be elected deputy or senator. Sale piiraijraph. — Any deputy or sena- tor, who shall accept the position of cabinet minister, shall lose his .seat in the respective cliamlier, and ft new election shall at once be lield, in which lie shall not be voted for. Art. 51. The cabinet ministers shall not appear at the sessions of the Congress, and shall com- municate with that body in writing only or by personal conference with the committees of tlio chambers. The annual report of the ministers shall be aililressed to the Pre.siilent of the Repub- lic, and distributed to all the members of the Congress. Art. S3, The cabinet ministers shall not be responsible to the Congress or to the courts for advice given to the President of the Republic. § 1. They shall be responsible, nevertheless, with respect to their acts, for crimes deflned in tlic law. j5 3. For common crimes and those for which they are responsible they shall be prose- cui.'d and tried by the federal supreme court, ar 1 I'lr those committed jointly with the Presi- dent ot 'he Republic, by the authority competent to judge this latter. Art. S3. The President of the United States of Brazil shall be brought to trial and judgment, after the Chamber of Deputies sliall have decided that he should be tried on tlie charges made against him, in the federal supreme court, in the case of common crimes, nnd in those of responsi- bility, in the Senate. Sole paragraph. — As .soon as it shall be decided to try him on the charges brought, the President shall be suspended in the exercise of the duties of his ollicc. Art. 54. Crimes of responsibility on the part of the President of tlie Republic are such as are directed agnin.st — (1) The political existence of the Union. (2) The (Jonstitution and the form of the Federal Government. (3) The free exercioj of the political powers. (4) The legal enjoyment and exercis<- of political or Individual righti. (5) The intcnial security of thi^ country, (tl) The piirilv of till' administration. (7) The cmmtltu- tioiial keeping and use of the iiiibllc fuiiilH. (K) The tinancial legislation enacted by the ('ongress. ^ I. Tliesi- olTcnsi's shall Ih' di'llncd in a special law, 5; 'i. Another law sliall provide for the chargi'S, the trial, and the |iid.Lrnu'nt. ^ !l. Both these laws sliall be enacted In the tlrst session of the (Irst ('ongres.s. Art. 55. The iiidlciiil power of the Union sliall be lodged in a federal supreme court sitting in the capital of the Republic, and as inaiiv inferior federal courts anil Iribiinals, dislributcil through the country, as llie Congress shall create. Art. S6. The federal Kupreme court shall be composed of tlfteen justices, appointed under tlie provisions of article 4H, No. \'i. from among tlie oldest thirty citizens of well-known knowledge and reputation who may be eligible to the Senate. Art. S7- The federal justices shall hold olllce for life, being removable solely by juiliclal sen- tence. SI- Their salaries shall be llxed by law of the (."(ingress, and can not be diminisheil. ,5 3. The Senate shall try the meiiiliers of the federal supreme court for crimes of responsibility, and this latter the lower federal judges. Art. s8. The federal courts shall choo.si! their presidents from among their own members, and shall organize their respective clerical corps. S 1. In tliese corps the appointment and dis- inissal of the respective clerks, as well as the (III- ing of the judicial otilces in the respective judi- cial districts, shall belong to the presidents of tlie respective^ couits. ij 2. The President of the Republic shall appoint from among tlie members of the federal .supreme court the attorney-general of the Republic, wliose duties sliall be dullned by law. Art. S9- To the federal supreme court shall belong till duty of — (1) Trying and judging by original and exclusive jtiri.sdietion — (a) Tlie President of the Republic for common (Times, and tlio cabinet ministers in the cases specilied in article 53. (h) ,The ministers of tlie diplomatic corps for common crimes and those of respimsi- bility. (c) Cases and disputes between the .States and the Union, or between the States one with another. ('/) Disputes nnd claims between for- eign states and the Union, or between foreign nations and the States, (e) Conilicts between the federal courts one with anotlier, or between these nnd those of the States, as well as those between the courts of one State and those of another. (2) Deciding, on appeal, (iiiestions pronounced upon by the lower federal courts and tribunals, ns well as those mentioned in § 1 of the present article and in article 60. (3) Reviewing the pro- ceedings of flnislied trials, under the jirovisions of article 81. ^ 1. Decisions of State courts in last appeal can be carried to the federal supremo court — (a) AViien the validity or application of the federal laws or l...'aties is called in (juestion and the decisioL - f the St.ite court shall be against the same, (h) "When the validity of laws or acts of the governments of the States in respect to I .e Constitution or of the federal laws is con- tested and the State court shall have decided in favor of the validity of the acts or laws in ques- tio.i. § 3. In tlie cases which involve the appli- cation of the laws of the States, the federal court shall consult the jurisprudence of the local tribu- nals, and vice versa, the State court shall consider 522 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. CONHTITIITION OP nUAZIt,, • hut of till' frdcriil trll)iiimlH wlini llic iiitcrprctn- tloli of till! liiwH of till! I'liiciti Is Involved. Art, 60. It hIiiiII Ih'Ioiik totlir frilrritl roiirtx to di'cldc — (") t'liwH In widcli the iilalntllT or llir (Icfcndant Hlmll rest tti<; case on sonir provision of the federal ConHtitution. (/>) All suits lirouKl>t aKailist the (iovernnient of the I'nion or the na- tional treasury Imscd on constitiitional provisions, on the laws'and regulations of the executive power, or on contracts made with tlie said <}ov- cnunent. (c) Hidts arising from eompeiisations, claims, indemnilication of dama^;es, or any others •vliatsocviT lirouKht by the ((overninenl of the Union against private individuals, and vice versa. (il) MliKations hetwecn a States and the eiti/ens of another, or lictwcen citizens of dilTerent Slates liaving dllTeronces in their laws, (c) Suits be- tween fort'ijfii states and Itra/.ilian citizens. (/) Actions begun by foreigners, and based either on contracts with the Ferlcral Oovernment or on conventions or treaties of the I'liion with other nations. (</) Questions of maritime law and navigation, whether on tlu' sea or on the rivers and lakes of the country. (/() (Questions of inter- national law, whether crindnal or civil. (/) Po- litical crimes. i5 1. ("ongress is forliidden to conunit any part of the federal jurisdiction to the Stale courls. § 3. Heutenccs and orders of tlic federal judges will be ctecuted by federal <>ourt olBcers, and the local police shall assist them when called upon by the same. Art. 61. 'I'he decisions of the State courts or tribunals in matters within their competence shall put an end to the suits and questions, ex- cept as to (1) habeas corpus, or (2) elTccts of a foreigner deceased in cases not provided for bv convention or treaty. In such cases there shall be voluntary recourse to the federal supreme court. Art. 62. The State courts shall not have the power to Intervene In (luestions subnutted to the federal tribunals, or to annul, alter, or suspend the sentences or orders of these latter; and, recip- rocallv, the federal judiciary can not interfere in questions submitted to the State courts, or annul, alter, or suspend their decisions or orders, except In the cases provided in this Constitution. Art. 65. Each State shall be governed by the constitution and laws which it shall adopt, respect l)clng observed for the coustitutional principles of the Union. Art. 64. The unexplored mines and wild lands lying within the States shall belong to these States respectively; and to the Union only as much territory as may be nccessi\ry for the de- fense of the frontiers, for fortiflcationa, nulitary VorKs, and federal railways. Sole paragrnph. — The national properties, not necessary for the service of the Union, shall pass to the domain of the States in whose territory they may be situ- ated. Art. 65. The States shall have the right to — (1) Conclude agreements and conventions among themselves, if such be not of a political character. (Article 48, No. 16.) (2) Exercise in general any and every power or right not deui'ul expressly by the Constitution, or implicitly in its express terms. Art. 66. It is forbidden to the States to— (1) Kefuse to recognize public documents of tlie Union, or of any of t)»e States, of a legislative, arlministiative, or judiciol character. (2) Reject tlie currency or notes issued by banks, which clrculiite by act of the Fcclcral (Jovernmcnt. (II) iMake or (hrlarc war, r)ne with another, or make reprisals. (J) Refuse tlie extradition of criiidiials drmanded by the justice of other .Stall's, or of the Feileral District, in coiifdrmlty with the laws id ('iiiigress wliieli relate to tills subject. (Arllih-ll, No. !t2.) Art. 67. Save the rcslrlctlnns specitled in Ihe Ciinstllution. and the federal laws, the Federal Distrirl shall be governed directly by the iiiuiilci- \n\\ authorillis. Sol,-, jkirdijrdiih. — Kxpenses of a local character in llie lapilal of the Re|>ulillc imist be provided fur i'.\clu><ivcly by the muiiiii- pal aiillioritii's. Art. 68. The States shall orguiiize tlieinselves in such n iiiaimcr as to assure the autonomy of the municipalltii's in ('Very thing that coucema their peculiar interests. Art. 69. The following shall be Ilrazilian 1 ,tl- zcns: (I) Natives of Hrazil. thougli of I'orclgn parentage (father), provided hi- be not in tlie .ser- vice of ills nation. (2) Sons of a Hiazilian falliir, and illegitimate sons of a Brazilian mother, born in foreign parts, if they take up their nsidinei) (domicile) in the republic. (H) Sons of a Ilrazil- ian father who may be in another country in tlie service of the Republic, although tliey do not make their domicile hi Hra/.il. (4) Foreigners, who, being in Hrazil on the l,'5tli of November, 1881), shall not declare, within (1 months from the time when the Cimstitutloii enters into force, their desire to pre,m'rve their original iialionalily. (5) Foreigners who possess property (real estate) in Hrazil and arc married to lirazilian women, or have Hraziliau children, provided they reside in Hrazil, unless they shall declare their iiitention of not changing their nationality. (6) Foreign- ers naturalized lu any other way. Art. 70. Citizens of more than 21 years of age, and registered according to law, shall be electors. 55 1. The following shall not be registered as electors for federal or State elections: (1) Beg- gars. (2) Persons ignorant of the alphabet, (it) Soldiers on pay, except alumni of the military sch'ools of higher instruction. (4) Members of monastic orders, companies, congregations, or communities of whatsoever denomination, who are subject to vows of obedience, rule, or statute, which implies the surrender of individual liberty. ^5 2. Citizens who can not be registered shall not be eligible. Art. 71. The rights of the Hrazilian citizen can be suspended or lust only in the following cases: ^ 1. The rights may be suspended — (<() For physical or monil incapacity, (b) For crimi- nal conviction, during the operation of the .sen- tence. § 2. Tliey may bo lost — (n) By naturali- zation in a foreign country, (h) By acceptance of employment or pension from a foreign power, without permission of tlie federal executive. ^ 3. Tlio means of reacquiring lost riglits of the Bra- zilian citizen shall be specitled by federal law. Art. 72. Tlie Constitution secures 10 Hrazil- ians ami foreigners residing in the country the inviolability of their rights touching individual liberty, and security, and projierty. in tlie fol- lowing terms: § 1.* No person sliall be forced to do, or leave undone, luiything whatever, ex- cei)t by virtue of law. (5 2. Before the law all persons are equal. The Republic does not recog- nize privileges of birth, or titles of nobility, and abolishes all existing honorary orders, with all their prerogatives and decorations, as well as all 523 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. liercditury und coiiciliar titles. § 3. All persons ami ri'li)iiouH profegsions miiy exercise, publicly and freely, the riglit of worship, and may asso- ciate themselves for that purpose, acquire prop- erty, observance being had to the provisions of the common law. t^ 4. The Uepubiic recognizes only the civil marriage, the celebration of which shall lie gratuitou.s. s^ li. The cemeteries shall be secular m character, and be managed by the municipal authorities, being free to all religious st^cts for the exercise of tlieir respective rites as regards their membert, provided they do not oitend public morals or the laws. t$ 6. The in- struction given in the public institutions shall be secular. S 7. No sect or church shall receive ofUcial aid, nor be dependent on, nor connected with, the Government of the Union, or of the States. § 8. AH persons have the right of free association and -usscmbly, without arms; and the police force shall not intxirvene, except to main- tain the public order. <^ 0. Any person wliatso- ever shall have the right to address, by petition, the public powers, deuoimcc abuses of the authori- ties, and appeal to the responsibility of the accused. S 10- I'i time of peace any person may, without pasf port, enter or loavc the terri- tory of the Kepul;lic,witli his fortune and goods, whenever and however he may choose. § 11. The house is the inviolable asylum of the person; no one can enter it at night without tlie consent of the inhabitant, except to aid the victims of a crime or disaster; nor by day, unless in the ca.ses and in the form prescribed by law. g 12. The expression of opinion shall be free, in respect to whatever sabject, tlirough the press or through the tribune, v/ithout subjection to censorship, eacli one bein'j responsible for the abuses he may commit, in tha cases and in the form prescribed by law. Anonymous publications arc forbidden, g 13. Cases of flagrante delicto alone excepted, no arrest shall be made, unless after declara- tion of the charge (save in cases determined by law), and by written order of the competent autiiorities. § 14. No person shall be kept in prison without charge formally made, save- the exceptions mentioned in the law, or talien to prison, or diitained there, if he give bail, in cases where such is lawful. § 15. No person shall bo condemned, except by competent authority, and in virtue of law alrea<ly existing and in the form prescribed by it. § 16. The law shall secure to the accused the fullest defense by all the re- courses and means essential to the sitme, includ- ing the notice of the charge, delivered to the prisoner within 24 hours and signed by the pro- per author ,ty along with the names of the accu- sers and witnesses. §17. The rights of property arc maint lined in all their plenitude, and no disupprop .nation shall be made, er-^ept from ne- cessity or public utility, and indemnity shall, in such caseti, be made beforehan'i. Mines belong to tlic owners of tlie soil, under tl j limitations to be cstiblished by the la'" U encourage the developnent of this branch -^ .adustry. §18. Correspc ndence under seal is in\ lolable. § 19. No penalty shall extend beyond the person of tlie delinquent. § 20. The penalty of the galleys is abolished, as also judicial banishment. § 21. The death penalty is abolished, except in the cases under military law in time of war. g 22. The hiibcas corpus shall always be granted wben the icdividual suffers violence or compulsion, through illegality or abuse of power, or considers himself in imminent danger of the same. § 23. There shall be no privileged tribunal, except in such cases as, from their nature, belong to special courts. § 24. The free exercise of any profes- sion, moral, intellectual, or industrial, is guanm- tied. § 25. Industrial inventions belong to their authors, to whom the law will grant a temporary privilege, or to whom the Congress will give a reasonable premium, w lien it is desirable to make the invention public property. § 26. To authors of literary and artistic works is guarantied tlie exclusive right of reproducing them through the press or by any other mechanical pnxiess, and tlieir heirs shall enjoy the same right during the tipace of time dutermined by the law. § 27. The law shall also secure the riglits of property in trade-marKs. § 28. No Brazilian can be deprived of his civil and political riglits on u'-count of religious belief or duty, nor lie cxt mpted from the performance of any civic duty. 55 29. Those who sliall claim exemption from any i)urden im- posed by tlie laws of the Itepublie on its citizens, on account of religious belief, or who shall accept any foreign decoration or title of nobility, sha'l lose all their political rights. § 30. No tax >{ any kind shall be collected except in virtue of a law authorizing tlie same. § 31. The institutioa of trial by jury is maintained. Art. 73. i'ublic offices, civil or military, are accessible to all Brazilian citizens, always observ- ing the conditions of particular capacity fixed by the law; but the accumulation of remunera- tions is forbidden. Art. 74. Conunissions, offices, and positions not subject to removal are guarantied in all their plenitude. Art. 75. Only such public officials as have be- come infirm in tlie service of the nation shall be retired on paj'. Art. 76. Officers of the army and navy shall lose their commissions only in case of condemna- tion to more than 2 years in prison, pronounced in judgment by the competent tribunals. Art. 77. There shall bo a special court for the trial of military offenses committed by soldiers or marines. § 1. This court shall be composed of a supreme military tribunal, whose members- shall hold their seats for life, and of the councils necessary for the formulation of tlie charge and the judgment of the crimes. §2. The organiza- tion and pov/ers of the supreme military tribunal shall be determined by law. Art. 78. The enumeration of the rights and guaranties expressed in the Constitution docs not exclude other guaranties and rights, not enumer- ated, but resulting from the form of government established and principles settled by said Consti- tution. Art. 79. The citizen vested with the functions- of either of these three federal powers shall not exercise those of another. Art. 80. Any part of the territory of the Union may be declared in state of siege, and the consti- tutional guaranties suspended for a determined period, whenever the security of the Republic so demands in case of foreign aggression or in- testine disturbance. (Article 34, No. 21.) § 1. The power to execute the above provision may, if the Congress be not in session and the country be in imminent peril, be used by the federal executive. (Article 48, No. 15.) § 2. In the cxercis' of this power, during the state of siege, the executive shall be restricted to the following 524 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. CONSTITUTION OF HR \7IL. measures of repression against persons: (1) To tliclr detention in a place not allotted to persons accused of common crimes. (2) To banishment to other parts of the national territory. S 3. As soon as the Congress shall have asfembled, th(,' President of the Republic shall make a report to that body of the exceptional measures which may have been taken. S 4. Tlie authorities who shall have ordered such measures shall be re- sponsible for any abuses that may have been com- mitted. Art. 8i. In criminal cases, trials concluded may be reviewed at any time, in favor of the condemned ])arties, by the federal supreme court, for the purpose of correcting or of confirming tluj sentence. ;? 1. The law shall tletermine the cases and the form of such revision, which may be asked for by the condemned, by any one of the people, or by the attorney-general of the Repub- lic, ex officio. § 2. In such revision the penalties imposed by viie sentence reviewed can not be iu- tTeased. § 3. The provisions of the present ar- ticle are applicable to military trials. Art. 82. Public officers shall be strictly rc- 8)K)nsible for the abuses and omissions that occur in the exercise of the duties of their offices, as well as for the indulgences and negligences for which they do not hold their subordinates re- sponsible. Sole paragraph. — They shall all be bomid by formal obligation, on takmg possession of their offices, to discharge the lawful duties of the same. Art. 83. Until revoked, the laws of the aneien regime shall remain in force, in as far as they are not, explicitly or implicitly, contrary to the system of government established by the Con- stitution, and to the principles laid down in the Biune. Art. 84. The federal government guaranties the payment of the public debt, both internal and foreign. Art. 85. The officers of the line and of the an- nexed classes of tlw navy shall liave the same commissions and advantage as those of the army of corresponding rank. Art. 86. Every Brazilian shall be bound to military service in defense of the country and the Constitution, as provided by the federal laws. Art. 87. The federal army shall be made up of contingents which the states and tlie Federal District are bound to furnish, constituted in con- formity with the annual law regulating the num- ber of the forces. § 1. The general organization of the army shall be determined by a federal law, in accordance with No. 18 of article 34. § 2. The Union shall have charge of the military in- struction of the troops and of the higher military instruction. § 3. Compulsory recruiting for mili- tary purposes is abolished. § 4. The army and navy shall be made up by volunteering without bounties, or, if this means be not sufficient, by lot previously determined. The crews for the navy shall be made up from the naval school, the schools of marine apprentices, and the mer- chant marine, by means of lot. Art. 88. In no case, either directly or indi- rectly, alone or in alliance with another nation, shall the United States of Brazil engage in a war of conquest. Art. 89. A tribunal of accounts shall be insti- tuted for the auditing of the receipt and expense accounts and examining into their legality before their presentation to the Congress. The mem- bers of this tribunal shall be appointed by the President of llie Republic, with the approval of tlie Senate, and can lose their seats only by sen- tence. Art. 90. The Constitution may be amended, at tlie initiative of the national Congress, or of the legislatures of tiie States. S 1- ^^ amendment shiiU be considered as proposed, when, having been presented by one-fourlh, at least, of the members of either house of the Congress, it shall have been accepted in three readings (discussions) by two-tliirds of the votes in both houses of the Congress, or when it slmll have been asked for by two-thirds of the Staies represented, each one by a majority of the votes of its legislature, said votes to be taken in the courst; of 1 year, t^ 2. The proposed amendment shall be considered ajiproved, if, in the following year, after three discussions, it shall have been adopted by a ma- jority of two-thirds of the votes in the two houses of the Congress. § 3. The amendment adopted shall be published with the signatures of the presidents and clerks of the two chambers, and be incorporated into the Constitution as a part of the same. 55 4. No project having a ten- dency to abolish the fedemtive republican form, or the equal representation of the States in the Senate, shall be admitted for consideration in the Congress. Art. 91. This Constitution, after approval, shall be promulgated by the president of the Congress and signed by the members of the same. Temporary Provisions. Article i. After the promulgation of this Con- stitution, the Congress, in joint lussembly, shall choose 'Consecutively, by an absolute majority of votes in the first balloting, and, if no candidate! shall receive such, by a plurality in the second balloting, the President and Vice; President of the United States of Brazil. §1. This election shall be in two distinct ballotings, for the President and Vice President respectively, the ballots for President being taken anl counted, in the first place, and afterwards f( r Vice President. § 2. The President and Vice President, thus elected, shall occupy the Presidency and Vice Presidency of the Republic during the first Presidential term, g 3. For said election there shall be no incompatibilities admitted. § 4. As soon as said election shall be concluded, the Congress shall consider as terminated its mission in joint session and, separating into Chamber and Senate, shall enter upon the exercise of its functions as de- fined by law, on the 15th of June of the present year, and can not in any case be dissolved, g 5. In the first year of the first legislature, among its preparatory measures, the Senate shall designate the first and second third of its members, whose term of office shall cease at the end of the first and second 3-ycar terms, t!, 6. The discrimina- tion shall be made in three lists, corresponding to the three classes, alloting to them the senators of each State and of the Federal District accord- ing to the number of votes received by them respectively, so as to allot to the third for the last 3 years the one receiving the highest number of votes in the Federal District and in each State, and to the otlier two-thirds the remaining two names in the order of the numlier of votes re- ceived by them respectively. §7. In case of tie, the oldest shall be preferred, and if the ages are equal, the choice shall be made by lot. 525 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. Art. 2. The State which, by tlio end of the year 1802, Nhiill not Imvu adopted its constitu- tion, shall, by act of the fedeml legislative power, be placed iinder that of one of the other States, which it shall judge most suitable, until the State tlius subjected to said constitution shall amend it in the manner provided in the same. Art. 3. As fast as the States shall be organized, the Federal Government shall deliver to them the administration of the services which belong to them, and shall settle tin; responsibility of the fedend administration in all that relates to said services and to the payment of the respective officials. Art. 4. While, during the period of organiza- tion of their services, the States shall be engaged in regulating t heir expenses,the Federal Government shall, fortius purpose, open spechd credits to them, under conditions detertnined by the Congress. Art. 5. In llie States which shall become or- ganized the classiflcation of the revenues estab- lished in the C'onstituti<m shall enter into force. Art. 6. In the first appointments for the federal magistracy and for that of the States, the pre- ference shall be given to the justices and magis- trates of the higher courts of the greatest note. Such as are not admitted into the new organiza- tion of the judiciary, and have served 30 years, shall be retired on full pay. Those who have served for less than 30 years shall continue to receive their salaries umil they shall be em- ployed, or retired with pay corresponding to their length of service. The payment of salaries of magistrate 'etired or set aside shall be made by the FeOf ..1 Government. Art. 7. J., 1). Pedrode Alcantara, ex-Emperor of Brnz.i, a pension is granted, to run from the 15th of November, 1889, siitlicient to guaranty him a decent subsisttmce during liis lifetime. The Congress, at its first session, shall fix the amount of said pension. Art. 8. Tlie Federal Government shall acquire for the ni'tion the house in which Dr. Bcujamin Constant Botelho de MagalliAes died, and shall have placed on it a memorial slab in memory of that great patriot, the founder of the Republic. ik)le paragraph. — The widow of the said Dr. Ben- janun Constant shall have, during her lifetime, the usufruct of the said house. \Vu order, then, all the authorities to whom the recognition and execution of this Constitution belongs, to exe- cute it and have it executed and observed faith- fully and fully in all its provision?. Let the same be published and observed throughout the territory of the nation. Hall of the sessions of the National Constitutional Congress, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, in the year 1891, and the third of the Republic. SeeBuAZiL: 1889-1891. CONSTITUTION OF CALIFORNIA.— For an account of the main features of this singular constitution, see Califounia: A. D. 1877-1880. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. A. D. 1774.— The Quebec Act. See Canada : A. D. 1763-1774. A. D. 1791.— The Constitutional Act. See Canada: A. D. 1701. A. D. 1840.— The Union Act, Bee Canada: A. D. 1840-1807. A. D. 1867.— The British North America Act.— The history of t'.:e Confederation of the provinces of British North America, forming the Dominion of Canada, is given briefly under Canada: A. D. 1807. The following is the text of the Act of the Parliament of Great Britain by ■which tho Confederation was formed and its constitution established : An Act for the Union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and the Government thereof; and for purposes connected therewith. aOrn Makcii, 1867. Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their desire to be feuerally united into one Dominion under the Crown of the United King- dom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a con- stitution similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom: And whereas such a Union would conduce to the welfare of the Provinces and pro- mote the interests of the British Empire; And whereas on the establishment of the Union by authority of Parliament it is expedient, not only that the Constitution of the Legislative Authority in the Dominion be provided for, but also that the nature of the Executive Government therem be declored: And whereas it is expedient that provision be made for the eventual admission into the Union of other parts of British North America: Be it therefore enacted ond declared b^ the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the I.irds Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : 1. This Act may be cited as The British North America Act, 1867. 2. The provisions of this Act referring to Iler Majesty the Queen extend also to the heirs and successors of Her Majesty, Jlings and Queens of W\p United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 3. It shall be lawful for the Queen, by and with the advice of Her Majesty's Most Honour- able Privy Council, to declare by Proclamation that, on and after a day therein appointed, not being more than six months after the passing of this Act, the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick shall form and be one Dominion under the name of Canada; and on and after that day those three Provinces shall form and be one Dominion under that name accordingly. 4. The subsequent provisions ^i this Act shall, unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, commence and have effect on and after the Union, that is to say, on and after the day ap- pointed for the Union taking effect in theQw\'n's Proclamation ; and in the same provisions, unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as con- stituted i;uder this Act. 5. Canada shall be divided into four Prov- inces, named Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. 6. The parts of the Province of Canada ''is it exists at the passing of this Act) which for;aerly 526 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. Executive antl Parliament. CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. constituted respectively the Provinces of Upper Ciiiiiulii and Lower Ciinadii sliiill ho. deemed to be fievcrcd, and Kimll fonn two separate I'rovinceH. Tlic part wlncli formerly constituted the Prov- ince of Upper Canada shall constitute tlie Prov- ince of Ontario; and tlie ))Hrt which formcrlv constituted the Province of Lower Canada shall constitute tlie Province of Quebec. 7. The Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick shall liavc the sunie limits as at the passinjf of this Act. 8. In the p;ciieral census of the population of Canada, which is hereby required to be talsen in tlie year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-one, and in every tenth year thereafter, the respective populations of the four Provinces shall be distinguished. O. The Executive Government and authority of and over C anada is hereby declared to con- tinue and be vested in the Queen. 10. The provisions of tliis Act refciring to the Governor General extend and apply to the Governor General for the time being of Canada, or other the Chief Executive Officer cr Ad- ministrator, for tlie time being carrying on tlie Government of Canada on behalf and in the name of the Queen, by whatever title he is designated. 11. There shall be a Council to aid and advise in the Government of Canada, to bo styled the Queen's Privy Council for Canada; and the persons who are to be members of that Council shal. be from time to time chosen and summoned by tlie Governor General and sworn in as Privy Councillors, and members thereof may be from time to time removed by tlio Governor General. 12. Ail powers, authorities, and functions which : nr'er any Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of i,he Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the Legislature of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, are at the Union vested in or exerciseable by the re- spective Governors or Lieutenant Governors of those Provinces, with the advice, or with the advice and consent, of tlie respective Executive Councils thereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, or with any number of members tliereof, or by those Governors or Lieutenant Governors individually, sliall, as far as the same continue in existence and capable of being exercised after the Union in relation to the Gov- ernment of Canada, be vested in and exercise- able by the Governor General, with the advice or with the advice and consent of or in conjunc- tion witli the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, or any members thereof, or by tlie Governor General individually, as the case requires, subject nevertheless (except with respect to such as exit under Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain or of the Parliament of Ihe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) to be abolished or altered by the Parliament of Canada. 13. llie provisions of tliis Act referring to the Governor General in Council shall be construed as referring to tlie Governor General acting by and with the advice of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. 14. It shall be lawful for the Queen, if Her Majesty thinks fit, to authorize the Governor General from time to time to appoint any person or any persons, jointly or severally, to be hia Deputy or Deputies within any part or parts of Canada, and in that capacity to exercise during tlie iilcasiire of the Governor General such of the powers, authorities, and functions of the Gov- ernor General as the Governor General deems it nccf'.ssury and expedient to a.ssign to him or them, sultjcct to any limitations or directions ex- pressed or given by the Queen; but the appoint- ment of such a Deputy or Deputies shall not aiTect the exercise by the Governor General him- self or any power, authority or function. 15. ''"he Command-iu-Chief of the liand and Naval AL.litia, and of all Naval and Milit'S'-y Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the tju<'en. lO. Until the Queen otherwise directs, the reat of Government of Canada sliall be (Jitawa. 17. There shall be one Parliament for Canada, consisting of the Queen, an Upjier House styled tlie Senate, and tlie House of C;oninions. 18. The privileges, immunities, and powers to be held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Senate and by the House of Commons, and by the members thereof respectively, sliall be such aa are from time to time defined by Act of the Parliament of Canada, but so that the same shall never exceed those at the passing of this Act held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons Hovise of Parliament of the I iiited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland anil Ly the members thereof. 13. The Parliament of Canada shall be called together not later than six months after the Union. 20. There shall be a Session of the Parliament of, Canada once at least in every year, so that twelve months shall not intervene between the last sitting of the Parliament in one Session and its first sitting in the next Session. 21. The Senate shall, subject to the pro- visiorsof this Act, consist of seventy-two mem- bers, who shall be styled Senators. 22. In relation to the constitution of the Senate, Canada shall bo deemed to consist of three divisions — 1. Ontario; 2. Quebec; 3. The Maritime Provinces, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ; which tlirce divisions sliall (subject to the provisions of this Act) be equally repre- sented in the Senate as follows: Ontario by twenty-four Senators; QuebC'; by twenty-four Senators; and the Maritime Pre vinces by twenty- four Senators, twelve thereof 'epresenting Nova Scotia, and twelve thereof representing New Brunswick. In the ease of Quebec each of the twenty-four Senotors repres'nting tliat Province shall be appointed for one of the twenty-four Electoral Divisions of Lower Canada specified in Schedule A. to chapter one of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada. 23. The qualification of a Senator sliall be as follows: — Cj He shall be of the full age of thirty years: (2) He shall be eitiicr a natural born subject of the Queen, or a subject of the Queen naturalized by an Act of tlie Parliament of Great Britain, or of tlie Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the Legislature of one of the Provinces of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, before the Union, or of the Parliament of C:inada after the Union: (3) He shall be legally or equitably .seised as of freehold for his own use and benetic of lands or tenements held in free and comnion socage, or seised or possessed for his own use and benefit of m CONHTITUTION OF CANADA. Settatr and Commong. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. lands or teneincnU licld in frunc-allcti or in rot UK', witliin till! Province for wlilcli In- is np- piiiiitc'd, of till' valiiL' of four thousand dollars, over and al)ov(.' all rents, dues, debts, cliarges, inortguK<'s, and ineunil)ranees due or jiayaMe out of or eliarged on or alTeeting tlu; same: (4) His real an<l personal property shall be together worth 1|4,<MH) over antl al)ovc his debts and liabilities: (5) lie shall be resident in the Prov- iniw for which he is ajjpoiiiU'd: ((t) In the case of Quebec he shall have his real property qualitiealion in the Electoral 'Jivjsion for which he is appointed, or shall hr resident in that Division, 24. The Governor General shall from time to time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under the Great Seal of Canada, summon (iiniliticd persons to the Senate ; and, stibject to the jiro- visions of this Act, every person so summoned shall become and be a member of the Senate and 11 Senator. 25. Such iiersons shall be lirst summoned to the Senate as the Queen by warrant under Her Majesty's Uoyal Sign Manual thinks lit to ap- prove, and their names shall be inserted in the Queen's Proclamation of Union. 2((. If at any time on the recommendation of the Governor General the (^uecn thinks lit to direct that three or six members be a(hh'd to the Senate, the Governor General may by sununons to three or six qualified persons (as the case maj' be), representing cqinilly the three divisions of Canada, add to tlie Senate accordingly. 27. In case of such addition being iit any time made the Governor General shall not suiumon any person to the Senate, except on a further like direction liy the Queen on the like recommendation, until each of the three divisions of Canada is represented by twenty -four Senators and no more. 28. 'liie innnbcr of Senators shall not at any time exceed seventy-eight. 29. A Senator shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, hold his place 1 1 the Senate for life. JJO. A Senator may by writing under his hand addressed to the Governor General resign bis place in the Senate, and thereupon ' the same shall be vacant. 31. The place of a Senator shall become vacant in any of the following cases: (1) If for two consecutive Sessions of the Parliament he fails to give his attendance in the Senote : (2) If he takes an oath or makes a declaration or acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or ad- herence to a foreign power, or does an act ■whereby he becomes a subject or citizen, or entitled to the rights or privileges of a subject or citizen of ;: foreign power; (3) If he i° adjudged V-. .jl 'upt or insolvent, or applies for the benefit ol any law relating to insolvent debtors, or be- comes a public defaulter: (4) If he is attnintcd of treason or convicted of felony or of uny in- famous crime: (5) If he ceases to be qualified in respect of ])roperty or of residence; provided, that a Senator shall not be deemed to have ceaseil to be qmilified in respect of residence by reason only of his residing at the seat of the Govern- ment of Canada while holding an office under that Government requiring his presence there. •)2. When a vacancy happens in tlie Senate by resignation, death, or otherwise, the Governor General shall by s\in'mons to u fit and qualified person fill the vacancy. Sii. If any question arises respecting the (|ualitic4»tlon of a Senator or a vacancy In the Senate the same shall be heard and determined by the Senate. JI4. The Governor Gennvl may from time to time, by instrument under the Great Seal of Canada, appoint a Senator to be Speaker of the Senate, and may remove him and appoint another in his stead. U5. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwise provides, the presence of at least fifteen Senators, including the Speaker, shall be necessary to con- stitute a meeting of the Senate for the exercise of its powers. 30. Questions aHsing in the Senate shall bo decided by a majority of voices, and the Speaker shall in all cases have a vote, and when the voices are equal the decision shall be deemed to be in the negative. 37. The House of Commons shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, consist -jf one hundred and eighty-one members, of whom eighty-two shall be elected for Ontario, sixty-flve for Quebec, nineteen for Nova Scotia, and fli'een for New Brunswick. 38. Tlie Governor General shall from IJtic to time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under the Great Seal of Canada, summon and call together the House of Commons. 30. A Senator shall not be capable of being elected or of sitting or voting as a member of the House of Commons. 40. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwise provides, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick shall, for the purposes of the e'ection of members to serve in the House of l^oinmons, be diviih d into Electoral Districts as follows: — (1) Ontario .shall be divided into the Counties, Ridings of Counties, Cities, parts of Cities, and Towns enumerated in the first Schedule to this Act, each whereof shall be an Electoral District, each iuch District as num- bered in that Schedule being entitled to return one member. (3) Quebec shall be divided into sixty-five Electoral Districts, composed of the sixty-five Electoral Divi^'ons into which Lower Canada is at the past _^ of this Act divided under chapter two of the Consolidated Statutes of Canada, chapter seventy-five of the Con- solidated Statutes for Lower Canada, and the Act of the Province of Canada of the twenty- third year of the Queen, chapter one, or ony other Act amending tlie same in force at the Union, so tliat each such Electoral Division shall be for the purposes of this Act an Electoral Dis- trict entitled to return one member. (3) Each of the eighteen Counties of Nova Scotia shall be an Electond District. The County of Halifax shall be entitled to return two members, and each of the other Counties one memi)er. (4) Each of the fourteen Counties into wliicli New Bruns- wick is divided, including ilie City and County of St. Jolm, shall be an Electoral District; the City of St. Jolin shall also be a separate Electoral District. Each of those fifteen Electorol Dis- tricts shall be entitled to return one member. 41. Until the Parliament of Canada other- wise rrovides, all laws in force in the several Provinces at the Union relative to the following matters or any of them, namely, — the quoflifica- tious ami disqualifications of persons to be elected or to sit or vote as members of the House of Assembly or Legislative Assembly in the 528 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. House nf Commons. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. •several Provinces, the voters nt ilcrtions of sueh members, the oaths to be taken by voters, the returning oftlcers, tlieir powers nnd duties, tlic proceedings at elections, tlic periods during wliieh elections may be continued, the trial of controverted elections, and proceedings incident thereto, the vacating of seats of members, and the execution of new writs in case of scatr vacated otlierwise tlian by dissolution, — sliall re spectively apply to elections of members to serve in tlie ifouse of Commons for tlie same several Provinces. Provided tliat, until tlie Parliament of Canada otherwise provides, at any election for a Member of the House of Commons for tlie District of Algoma, in addition to persons qualified by the law of tlu; Province of Canada to vote, every male Britisli subject aged twenty- one years or upwards, being a houseliolder, sliall liave a vote. 42. For the first election of members to serve in the House of Commons tlie Governor General shall er.use writs to be issued by such person, in such form, and addressed to such returning otlicers as he thinlis fit. The person issuing writs under this section shall have the like powers as are possessed at tlie Union by the otficers charged with tlie issuing of writs for the election of members to serve in the respective House of Assembly o. Legislative Assembly of tlie Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, or Nev Brunswick ; and the Returning Officers to whom ■writs are directed under this section shall have the like powers as are possessed at tlio Union by the officers charged witli the returning of writs for the election of members to serve in the same lesiiectivc House of Assembly or Legislative Aissembly. 43. In case a vacancy in the representation in the House of Commons of any Electoral Dis- trict happens before the meeting of the Parlia- ment, or after tlic meeting of the Parliament be- fore provision is made by the Parliament in this behalf, the provisions of the last foregoing section of this Act shall extend and apply to tlic issuing and returning of a writ in respect of such vacant District. 44. The House of Commons on its first as- sembling after a general election shall proceed with all practicable speed to elect one of its members to be Speaker. 45. In case of a vacancy happening in the offlce of Speaker by death, resignation or other- wise, the House of Commons shall witli all practicable speed proceed to elect another of its members to be Speaker. 40. Tlie Speaker shall preside at all meetings of the House of Commons. 47. Until the Parliament of Canada other- wist! provides, in case of the absence for any reason of the Speaker from the chair of tlie House of Commons for a period of forty-eight consecutive hours, the House may elect another of its members to act as Speaker, and the mem- ber so elected shall during tlie continuance of sucli absence of the Speaker have and execute all the powers, privileges, and duties of Speaker. 48. The presence of at least twenty members of tlic House of Commons shall be necessary to constitute a meeting of the House for tlie exercise of its powers, and for that purpose the Speaker shall be reckoned as a member. 49. Questions arising in the House of Com- mons shall be decided by a majority of voices other than that of the Speaker, and when the voices are equal, but not otherwise, tlie Speaker sliall have a vote. 50. Every Hoitse of Commons sliall continue for five years from tlie day of the return of the writs for clioosing the House (subject to be sooner dissolved by the Governor General), and no longer. 61. On the completion of the census in the year one thousand eiglit biiiiilred and seventy- one, and of each subs<'(iu('nt decennial census, the representation of the four Provinces shall bo re-adjusted by such aiithorily. in sucli manner and from such time as tlie Parliament of Canada from time to time provides, suliject and accord- ing to the following rules: — (1) Quebec shall have the fixed number of sixty-five members: (2) There shall be assigned to eacli of the other Provinces such a number of members as will bear the same proportion to the number of its population (ascertained in such census) as tlio number sixty-five bears to the number of the population cf Quebec (so a.scertained) : (3) In the computation of the number of members for a Province a fractional part not exceeding one-half of the whole number requisite for entitling the Province to a member shall be disregarded ; but a fractional part exceeding one-half of that number shall be equivalent to the whole num- ber: (4) On any such re-adju.stment the number of members for a Province sliall not be reiluced unless the proportion which the number of the population of tlie Province bore to the number of the aggregate population of Canada at the then last preceding re-adjustment of the number of members for the Province is ascertained at the then latest census to be diminished by one- twentieth part or upwards: (i5) Such readjust- ment shall not take effect until the termination of the then existing Parliament. 52. The number of members of the House of Commons may be from time to time increased by the Parliament of Canada, provided the pr:>por- tionate representation of tlic Provinces prescribed by this Act is not thereby disturbed. 53. Bills for appropriating any part of the public revenue, or for imposing any tax or im- post, shall originate in the House of Commons. 54. It shall not be lawful for the House of Commons to adopt or pass any vote, resolution, i'ddress, or bill for the appropriation of any part of the public revenue, or of any tax or impost, to any purpose that has not been first recom- mended to that House by mes-snge of the Gov- ernor General in the Session in wliicli such vote, resolution, address, or bill is proposed. 55. Where a bill passed by the Houses of the Parliament is presented to the Governor General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare according to his discretion, but subject to the provisions of tliis Act and to Iler Majesty's instructions, either that he assents thereto in the Queen's name, or that he withholds the Queen's assent, or that he reserves the bill for the sifniflcation of the Queen's pleasure. 50. Where the Governor General assents to a bill in tlie Queen's name, he shall by the first convenient opportunity send an authentic copy of the Act to one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of .jtate, and if the Queen in Council within two years after receipt thereof by the Secretary of State thinks lit to disallow the Act, such disallowance (with a certificate of the Secrc- &29 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. Provimuil (Jovenwientt. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. tary of Suite of tlie <liiy on which the Act wiw recolvwi by him) l)einj5 8ii;niflc(l by tlie QoveriiDr Qoneriil, l)y 8|M('c1i i,: aifSHiii^e to cudi of tlie IIoii.scs of !lie I'arliiimciil, or l)y i)r()cliimiitioii, hIihII annul tl:o Act from luiil lifter tlic liay of such siKniticution. 57. A bill reserved for the signilleation of the Queen's jileasure wliull not have any force unless and until within tw( years from the day on which it was presented to tlie Governor General for the CJuccn'H assent, the Governor General sigtdtlcs, by speech or message to each of *he Houses of the Parliament or by proclamation, that it lias rei'cived the assent of tlie Queen in Council. An entry of every such speech, mes- sage, or proclamation shall be madcin the Journal of eacli Ilou.se, and a duplicate thereof duly at- testtul shall bedelivereil to the proper otUcer to be kept among the Uecords of Cana(la. 08. For eauh Province tliere shall be an ofllccr, styled the Lieutenant Governor, np- fwintei' by the Governor Gt'neral In Council by nstrvnA^'iit under the Great Seal of Canada. BO. A Lieutenant Governor shall liold ollice during the pleasure of the Governor General; but any Lieutenant Governor appointed afte; the commencement of the tirst Session of the Parlia- ment of Canada slmll not be removable within five years from his appointment, except for cause assigned, which shall be communicated to him in writing within one month after the order for his removal is made, and shall be communicated by message to the Senate and to the House of dommons within one week thereafter if the Parliament is then sitting, and if not then within one week after the commencement of the next Session of the Parliament. 00. The salaries of the Lieutenant Governors shall be fixed and provided by the Parliament of Canada. 01. Every Lieutenant Governor shall, before assuming the duties of his otflce, make and sub- scribe before the Governor General, or some person authorized by him, oaths of allegiance and ofllce similar to those taken by the Governor General. 02. The provisions of this Act referring to the Lieutenant Governor extend and apply tn the Lieutenant Governor for the time being of 1 ich Province or otiier the chief executive officer or administrator for the time being carrying on the government of the Province, by whatever title he is designated. on. The Executive Council of Ontario and of Quebec shall be composed of such persons as the Lieutenant Governor from to time thinks fit, und in tlie first instance of the following officers, namely: — The Attorney-General, the Secretary and Registrar of the Province, the Treosurer of the Province, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, and the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public "W orks, with in Quebec the Speaker of the Legis- lative Council and the Solicitor General. 04. The Constitution of the Executive Authority in eacli of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, continue as it exists at the Union until altered under the authority of this Act. Of». All powers, authorities, and functions which under any Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the Legislaturo of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, or Canada, were or are before or at the Uuitm vested in or exerciseable by the respective Gov- ernors or Lieutenant Governors of those Prov- inces, with the advice, or with the advice and consent, of the respective Executive Councila tliereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, or with any number of members thereof, or by those Governors or Lieutenant Governors in- dividually, sliall, us far as the same are capable of being exercised after tlie Union in relation to the Government of Ontario and Quebec, n-spec- tively, be vested in, aiul shall or may ■ ^,x- ercised by the Lieutenant Governor of OiiUirio and Quebec respectively, with the adviu' or with the advice and consent of or in conjunction with the respective Executive Councils, or any members thereof, or by the Lieutenant Governor individually, as the case requires, subject never- theless (except with respect to sucli as exist under Acts of the I'arliamcnt of Great Britain, or of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland), to be atiolished or altered by the respective Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec. 66. The provisions of this Act, referring to the Lieutenant Governor in Council shall be con- strued as refernng to the Lieutenant Governor of the Province acting by and with the advice of the Executive Council thereof. 67. The Governor General in Council may from time to time appoint an administrator to execute the office and functions of Lieutenant Governor during his absence, illness, or other inability. 68. Unless and until the Executive Govern- ment of any Province otherwise directs with re- spect to thot Province, the seats of Government of the Provinces shall be as follows, namely, — of Ontario, the City of Toronto ; of Quebec, the City of Quebec; of Nova Scotia, the City ol. Halifax ; and of New Brunswick, the City of Predericton. 61). There shall be a Legislature for Ontario consisting of the Lieutenant Governor nd of one House, styled the Legislative Assembly of On- tario. 70. The Legislative Assembly of Ontario shall be composed of eighty-two inembor-s, to be elected to represent the eighty-two Electoral Districts set forth in the first Schedule to this- Act. 71. There shall be a Legislature for Quebec consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of two HoiLses, styled the Legislative Council of Quebec • and the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. 73. The Legislative Council of Quebec shall be composed of twenty-four members, to be ap- pointed by the Lieutenant Governor in the Queen's name, by instrument under the Great Seal of Quebec, one being appointed to represent each of the twenty -four Electoral Divisions of Lower Canada in this Act referred to, and each holding office for the term of his life, unless the LegLslature of Quebec otherwise provides under the provisions of this Act. 73. The qualiflcatiuns of the Legislative Councillors of Quebec shall be the same as those of the Senators for Quebec. 74. Tlie place of a Legislative Councillor of Quebec shall become vacant in the cases, ' mutatis mutandis' in which the place of Senator be- comes vacant. 530 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. Provincial Oowmment$. CONSTITUTION OK CANADA. 78. When a vacancy liappenf) In the Legis- lative Council of (Jufl)ec, by resignation, (Iciilli, or otiierwise, tlie Lieutenant Ooveruor, in tlie Queen's niunp, l)y instrument under the Great Heal of Quebec, sl'iall appoint a lit and (luaiilied person to till tlie vacancy. 7tt. If any ([ucstion arises respecting tlic qualilicatiiin of a Le: 'slativo t'ouncilior of Quebec, or a vacancy in tlie Legislative Council of Quebec, tlie same .shall be heard and de- tcrnnned by the Legislative Council. 77. The Lieutenant Qovornor may from time to time, by instrument under the Orc:it Heal of Quebec, appoint a member of the Legislative Council of Quebec to be Speaker tliereof, and may remove liim and appoint another in his stead. 78. Uiitii tlie Legislature of Quebec other- wise jirovides, the presence of at least ten mem ber^ of the Legislative Council, including the Speaker, shall be necessary to constitute a meet- ing for the exercise of its powers. 70. Questions arising in the Legislative Coiincil of Quebec shall be decided by a majority of voices, and the Speaker shall in all cases have a vote, and when the voices are equal the decision shall be deemed to lie in the negatii i. 80. The Legislative Assembly of Quebec shall be composed of sixty -five members, to be elected to represent tlic sixty-five Electoral Divisions or Districts of Lower Canada in this Act referred to, subject to alteration thereof by the Legislature of Quebec: Provided that it shall not be lawful to present to the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec for assent any bill for alter- ing tlie limits of any of the Electoral Divisions or Districts mentioned in the second Schedule to this Act, unless the second and third readings of such bill have been passed in tlie Legislative Assembly with the concurrence of the majority of the members representing all those Electoral Divisions or Districts, and the assent .shau not be given to such bills unless an address has been presented by the Legislative Assembly to the Lieutenant Governor stating that it has been so passed. 81. The Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec respectively shall be called together not later than six months after the Union. 82. Tlie Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and of Quebec shall from time to time, in the Qu 'en's name, by instrument under the Great Seal of the Province, summon and call together the Legis- lative As.scmbly of the Province. 83. Until the Legislature of Ontario or of Quebec otherwise provides, a person accepting or holding in Ontario Oi in Quebec any office, commission, or employment, permanent or temporary, at the nomination of the Lieutenant Governor, to which an annual salary, or any fee, allowance, emolument, or profit of any kind or amount wliatever from the Province is attached, shall not be eligible as a member of the Legisla- tive Assembly of the respective Province, nor shall he sit or vote as such ; but nothing in this section shall make ineligible any person being a member of the Executive Council of the respec- tive Province, or holding any of tlie following offices, that is to say, tlie offices of Attorney- General, Secretary and Registrar of the Province, Treasurer of the Province, Commissioner of Crown Lands, and Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works, and, in Quebec, Solicitor- General, or shall disqualify him to sit or vote in tli(> IIou.se for which he is elected, provided he is elected while holding such olllee, 84. I'litil till- Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec respectively otherwise provi<le. all laws which at the Union are in force in tliost! Prov- i:ices respectively, re'alive io the following matters, or any of tliem. namely,-— the qiialillea- tions and dis(|ualitiiations of persons to bo ;'ectcd or to sit or vote as members of the As- H mblv of Canada, the (|ualilleations or liis- qualilicatioiis of voters, the oatlis to be taken by voters, the Heturning OlUcers, their powers and duties, the proceedings at elections, tlie periods (luring wliicli such elections may be continued, and the trial of controverted erections ami tliu Iiroccedihgs incident thereto, the vacating of the .seats of members and the iss'iiiig and execution of new writs in ease of seats vacated otiierwise than by dissolution, shall resiiectively apply to elections of members to serve in the "respective Legislative Assemblies of Ontario aad Quebec. Provided that until tlie Legislature of Ontario otherwise ))rovides, at anj- election for a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario for the District of Algoma, in addition to persctis quali- fied by the law of the Province of Canada to vote, every male British subject, aged twenty- one years or upwards, being a liouseholdcr, shall have a vote. 85. Every Legislative Assembly of Ontario and every Legislative Assembly of Quebec shall continue for four years from the day of the re- turn of the v.'rits for choosing tlie same (subject nevertheless to either the Legislative Assembly of Ontario or the Legislative Assembly of Quebec being sooner dissolved by the Lieutenant Gov- ernor of the Province), and no longer. 80. There shall be a session of the Legislature of Ontario and of that of (Jucbec once at least in every year, so that twelve months sliall not intervene between the last sitting of the Legisla- ture in each Province in one session and its first sitting in tlic next session. 87. Tlie following provisions of this Act re- specting tlic House of C'ommons of Canada, sliall extend and apply to the Legislative Assemblies of Ontario and Quebec, that is to say, — the pro- visions relating to the election of a Speaker originally and on vacancies, the duties of the Speaker, the absence of the Speaker, the quorum, and the mode ot voting, as if those provisions were here re-enacted and made applicable in terms to each such Legislative Assembly. 88. The constitution of the Legislature of each of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Urunswick shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, continue as it exists at the Union until altered under the authority of this Act ; aii<l the House of Assembly of New Brunswick existing at the passing of this Act sliall, unless sooner dissolved, continue for the period for which it was elected. 89. Each of the Lieutenant Governors of Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia shall cause writs to be issued for the first election of mem- bers of the Legislative Assembly thereof in such form and by such person as he thinks fit, and at such time and addressed to such Heturning Officer as the Governor General directs, and so that the first election of member of Assembly for any Electoral District or any subdivision thereof shall be held at the same time and at the same places as the election for a member to serve in the 531 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. Oistribution at i'oujeri. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. IIouw.' of ComnioDH of Canadii for that Electoral District. OO. Tliu following provlgionii of this Act re- Hix'cting tlic I'lirliiiiuciit of Cniiadii, namely, — till' proviitiiiim ri'liitlrig to apprniiriiilioii and tax biiJH, tlio r('<(>iiiiii('ii(latii<n of MKincy votes, tlie a.HS<'nt to liilin, tlie (ii.sallo«aneo of Acts, and tlie Ki)rni(l<ationof i)iea»un! lu bills reserved, — slial! <'.\tend and apply to the IjCgislatures of the wveral I'rovinees as if tlio.se provisions were here re-enacted and made applicable in terms to the respective Provinces and tlu^ Lejfislatures thereof, with the suhstitution of the Lieutenant Oovernor of th(^ I'rovinco for the Ooveriior iJeneral, of the (Joveruor General for the Queen and for a Secretary of State, of one year for two years, atid of the I'roviiice for Canada. IH. It shall be lawful for the Qiuen, by and with th<' advice and con.sent of the Senate and House of Commons, to make law.s for the peace, order, and good government of Canada, in rela- tion to all matters not coming within the clas.ses of subjects by this A<'t aHslgncd exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces; and for greater certainty, but not so as to restrict the generality of the foregoing terms of this section, It \.i hereby declared that (notwithstanding any- thing in this Act) the exclu.sivc legislati' e authority of the Parliament of Canada exter.ds to all matters coming within the classes of sub- jects next hereinafter enumerat(d, that is to say,— 1. The Public Debt and Property. 3. The regulation of Trade and Commerce. 3. The raising of money by any mode or system of Taxation. 4. The borrowing of motwy on the public credit. 5. Postjil servico. 8. ThoCen.sus and Statistics. 7. Militia, Military and Naval Service, and Defence. 8. The fixing of and pro- viding for the salaries and allowances of civil and other ofllcers of the Government of Canada. 9. IJeacons, Buoys, Lighthouses, and Sable Island. 10. Navigation and Shipping. 11. Quarantine and the establishment and main- tenance of Marine Hospitals. 13. Sea coast and inland Fisheries. 13. Ferries between a Prov- ince and any British or Foreign country, or be- tween two Provinces. 14. Currency and Coin- age. 15. Banking, incorporation of banks, and the issue of paper money. 18. Savings Banks. 17. Weights and Measures. 18. Bills of Ex- change and Promissory Notes. 10. Interest. 20. Legal tender. 31. Bankruptcy and In- solvency. 22. Patents of invention and dis- covery. 23. Copyrights. 24. Indians, and lands reserved for the Indians. 25. Naturaliza- tion and Aliens. 28. Marriage and Divorce. 27. The Criminal Law, except the Constitution of Courts of Criminal Jurisdiction, but includ- ing the Procedure in tJriminal JIatters. 28. The EsUiblishment, Maintenance, and Management of Penitentiaries. 20. Such classes of subjects as are expressly excepted in the enumeration of the classes of subjects by this Act assigned ex- clusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. And any matter coming within any of the class<!s of subjects enumerated in this section shall not be deemed to come within the class of matters of a local or private nature comprised in the enumeration of the classes of subjects by this Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. 02. In each Province the Legislature may ex- clusively make laws in relation to matters coming within the cla.sses of siibjecta next hereinafter enumerated ; that is to say, — 1. The amendment from time to time, notwithstanding anvthing in this Act, of the Constitution of tin.' I'rovlnce, except as regards the oltlci' of Lieutenant Gov- ernor, 2. Direct Taxation within the Province in order to the ndslng of a Ucvenint for Pro- vincial purposes. 1). Tlie borrowing of money on the .sole credit of the Province. 4. The estalilishmeiit and tenure of I'rovincial olllces an<l the n)ipointment and payiiu'nt of Provincial olllccrs. 5. T\u' management and sale of the Puhli(! Lands belonging to the Province and of the timber and wood thereon. 8. The establish- ment, maintenance, and management of public and reformatorv ])ri.sons in and for the Province. 7. Tlie establishment, maintenance, and nianago- ment of hospitals, asylums, charities, and eleemosynary inslitutions in and for the Prov- ince, other than marine hospitals. 8. ^Iiinicipal instituticms in the Province. 0. Shop, sahion,. tavern, auctioneer, and other licenses in order to the niLsing of a revenue for Provincial, loci'l, or municipar purposes. 10. Local works and undertakings other than such as are of the following clas.ses, — a. Lines of steam or otlier ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, and other works and undertakings c<mnecting the Province with any other or others of the Provinces, or ex- tending beyond the limits of the Province: A. Lines of steamships between the Province and any British or foR'ign country, c. Such works as, although wholly situate within the Province, are before or after their execution declared by the Parliament of Canada to be for the general advantage of Canada or for the advantage of two or more of the Provinces. 11. The in- corporation of companies with Provincial objects. 13. The solcmni/ation of marriage in the Prov- ince. 13. Property and civil rights in tlie Province. 14. The administnition of justice in the Province, including the constitution, main- tenance, and organization of Provincial Courts, both of civil and of criminal jurisdiction, and in- cluding procedure in Civil matters in tiiose Courts. 15. The imposition of punishment by flne, penalty, or imiirisonment for enforcing any law of the Province made in relation to any matter coming within any of the classes of sub- jects enumerated in this section. 16. Generally all matters of a merely local or private nature in the Province. 03. In and for each Province the Legislature may exclusively make laws in relation to educa- tion, subject and according to the following provisions: (1) Nothing in any such law shall prejudicially affect any right or privihjge with respect tc denominational schools which any cla.ss of persons have by law in the Province at tlio Union. (2) All the powers, privileges, and duties at tlie Union by law conferred and im- posed in Upper Canada on the separate schools and school trustees of the (Jueen's Roman Catholic subjects shall he and the same are hereby ex- tended to the dissentient schools of the Queen's Protestant and Roman Catholic subjects in Quebec (3) Where in any Province a system of .separate or dissentient schools exists by law at the Union or is thereafter established by the Legislature of the Province, an appeal shall lie to the Governor General in Council from any Act or decision of any Provincial authority affecting any right or privilege of the Protestant 582 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. Judiciary and Mruinr**, CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. or Romftii Catholic minority of tl:i' Qiiwn'n mib- jects In ri'liition to cdvicution: (4) In ciiso iiny auch I'roviucial liiw us from tiin*- to tinii' wcmim to thn Governor UcniTiil in Council rci|iiinii"' for the (Iiic execution of the provUionHof IIiIh M'ctioii la not nimU', or In case any decision of ihe (Jov- emor Oenernl in Council on any appeal under this section Is not dtily executed by tlie proper Provincial iiutliority in tliat behalf, then and in every sucli case, an<l as far only as tin- ciii'um- stances (<f each ca.sc re(iuiri', the Parliament of ('anada may nialio i,:<ie(iial laws for the <lui! execution ot tile iirovisions of this sccMon and of any decision of tiic Oovernor Ocnerul In Council under this section. 94. Notwitlistandlng anytldng in tills Act, the Parliament of Canada may nutke provision for the uniformity of ail or any ot the laws relative to i)roperty anil civil ri.i^hts in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Urunswick, and of tlie procedure of ail or any of tlie Courts in those three Provinces; and from and after tlie passing of any Act in tliat behalf the power of the Parlia- ment of Canada to make laws in riMation to any matter compriseil in any such Act shall, notwith- standing anything in this Act, be unrestricted ; but any Act of the Parliament of Canada mak- ing provision for sudi uniformity shall not have clTect in any Province unless and until it is adopted and enacted as law by the Legislature thereof. 96. In each Province the Legislature may make laws in relation to Agriculture in the Province, and to Immigration into tlic Province ; and it is hereby declared that the Parliament of Canada may from time to time make laws in re- lation to Agriculture in all or any of tlic Prov- inces, and to Immigration into ail or any of the Provinces; and any law of the Legislature of a Province relative to Agriculture or to Immi.'jra- tion sliall have effect in and for the Province as long and as far only as it is not repugnant to any Act of the Parliament of Canada. 96. The Governor General shall appoint the Judges of the Superior, District, and County Courts In each Province, except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Urunswick. 97. Until the laws relative to property and civil riglits in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and the procedure of the Courts in those Provinces, arc made uniform, the Judges of the Courts of those Provinces aiipointed by the Governor General shall be selected from the respective Bars of those Provinces. 98. The Judges of the Courts of Quebec shall bo selected from the Bar of that Province. 99. The Judges of the Superior Courts shall hold office during good behaviour, but shall be removeable by the Governor General on address of the Senate and House of Commons. 100. The salaries, allowances, and pensions of the Judges of the Superior, District, and County Courts (except the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), and of the Admiralty Courts in cases where the Judges thereof are for the time being paid by salary, shall be fixed and provided by the Parliament of Canada. 101. The Parliament of Canada may, not- withstanding any :'iing in this Act, from time to ^ime, provide for the "institution, maintenance, and organization of a general Court of A ppeal for Canada, and for the ratablisliment of any addilioiial Courts for the (H'tlcr adminlMtra'.lou of the Laws of Canada. lOSi. All duties and revenues over which the respeilive Legislatures of Cannda, Nova Sciilia, aii<i New Brunswirk bcfnre and at tho riiion had and have power of appropriation, except Hiicli portions thereof as iire by this Act reserved to tlie respeeliv,' Leirislatures of tho I'roviiiies, or are raised by iIumii in acconlanco with the special powers conri-rred on tliem by this Act, shall form one Con.solidated Kevenuo Fund, to be appropriated for the public service of ('anada in the maimer and subject to tho charges li, this Ac-t provided. 10!l. The Consolidated Uevenue Fund of Canada sliall be perniaiiently charged witli tho costs, charges, and expenses incident to llio collection, management, and receipt thereof, and tho same shall form the lirst charge thereon, siib- je'jt to b(! reviewed and audited in sucli manner as shall be ordered by tlii^ Governor General in Council until the Parliament otherwise provides. 104. The annual interest of the public debts of the sevral ''-ovinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick at tlie Union shall fonn tho second charge on the Co.isolidated Heveniie Fund of Canada. 105. Unless altered by the Parliament of Canada, the salary of the Oovernor General shall be ten thousand pounds sterling money of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, payable out of the Consoliilated Uevenue Fund of Canada, and the same shall form the third charge thereon. lOO. Subject to the several payments by this Act charged on the Consolidated Hevenue Fund of CaiuKla, tlie same shall be appropriated by the Parliament of Canada for the publ'c service. 107. All stocks, cash, banker's bala-""cs, and securities for immey belonging to eacli Province at the time of the Union, except as in tliii Act mentioned, shall be the projierty of Canada, and shall be taken in reduction of the amount of the respective debts of tlie Provinces at the Union. 108. The public works and jiroperty of each Province, enumerated in the third scliedule to this Act, shall be the pro.iierty of Canada. 109. All lands, mines, minerals, and royal- ties belonging to the sevcml Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick at tho Union, and all sums then due or payable for such lands, mines, minerals, or roj-alties, shall belong to the several Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in whicli the same are situate or arise, subject to any trusts existing in respect tliercof, and to any interest other than that of the Province in the same. 1 J O All as.sots connected with such portions of the public debt of each Province • .^ are assumed by that Province sliall belong to that Province. 111. Canada shall be liable for the debts and liabilities of each Province existing at the Union. 112. Ontario and Quebec conjointly shall bo liable 10 Canada for the amount (if any) by which the debt of the Province of Canada ex- ceeds at the Union sixty-two million five hun- dred thousand dollars, and shall be charged with interest at tlie rate of five per centum per annum thereon. 118. The assets enumerated in the fourth Schedule to this Act belonging at the Union to 53a CONHTITITION OF CANADA. fiehtt anil CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. thi! Pmvlncf! (if Cunndit nIiiiII Im' tlif pniporty of Oiitiirio niid CjiK'lx-c ('(iMji>iiitly. I l-l-. NdVii Hcotiii hIiiiII Iio liable to ('iiiiii<lii for llir aiiKiuiit (if luiy) by wlilcli ItH piilill(^ dclit t'Xi'i'i'd.s al tlic I'ldon cii^lit million dollars, and Hhall be cliarKi'il witli liitcrcst at tilt' rate of live per <'('iitiiiii perannutii tliercon. 110. New lininBwick NJiall Ik' liable to ('aiia<la for tli(! amount (if any) by which its ])Mbli(' debt exceedH at the Union Heveii million doilarx, and Hhall be cliarffed with interent at the rate of the ]ier centum per annum therccm. 1 lO. In eaHC the public ilel)t of Nova Scotia .'.iKl New Hnniswick do not at tiic Union am""Mt to elKlit million dollars and Hcven nullioii dollars respect ively, they sliall respectively receive by half-yearly i)aym'<'nts In advance from tlic Oov- enimcnt of (Canada int<'reHt at tlvu per centum per annum on the dilTen'rici! Ijctween the actual amounts of their respective debts and such Htipulateil amotints. 117. The sevend provlnccH shall n^tain all their respective public proix-rty not otherwise disposed of in this Act, subject to the right of Canada to assume any lands or public property required for fortiUeations or for the defence of tlw. country. 118. The following Btims shall be paid yearly by Canada to the s«'veml I'rovlnces for the mipport of their Uovernmcnts and liCgisia- turcs : Ontario, eighty thousand dollars ; QuelK'c, seventy thousand dollars; Nova Scotia, sixty thousiiml dollars; New Itrunswick, lifty th(«i- 8iind (h>llars; [total! two hundred and sixty thousand dollars ; nnd an annual grant in aid of eadi Province shall be made, ecpiul to eighty cents per head, of the population as ascertained by the census if one tlui'isand eight hundred and sixty-one, ami in tlie eas<' of Nova Scotia and New lJrunswi(;k, l)y each subsequent decennial census until tl e population of each of those two Provinces amc. ints to four hundred thousand soids, at which 'ate such grunt shall thereafter remuia. Such gi.nt shall be in full Settlement of all future demands on Ciiuada, and shall be paid half-yearly in advance to each Province; liut the Ooverniiient of Canada shall deduct from such grants, us uguinst uny Province, uU sums chargeable as int,rest on the Public Debt of tliat Province in excess of the sevcnil amounts stipu- lated in this Act. IIO. New Brunswick shall receive by half- yearly payments in advance from Canada, for the periwl of ten years from the Union, an ad- ditional nlidwam'e of sixty-three tiiousuiul dol- lars per a-unim ; but as long as the Public Debt of tiiut Province remains under seven million dollars a deduction equal *o the interest at five per centum per annum on h i li deflciency shall be made from that allowance of sixty-three thousand dollars. 120. All payments to be made under this Act, or in discharge of liabilities created und'-r uny Act of tlie Provinces of (Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick respectively, and assumed by Canada, shall, until the Parliament of Canada otherwiBC directs, be made in such form and manner as may from time to time be ordered by the Governor General in Council. ISil. All articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of any one of tlie Provinces shall, from and after the Union, be admitted free into each of the other Provinces. 122. The Customs an<l Excise I.uwHofeach Province shall, subject to the provisions of this A<t, continue in force until altered by the Par- liament (>r Canada. 1 2.'l. Where Customs duties are, at the Union, leviable on any goods, wares or merchandises in any two Provinces, those gO(Mls, wares and merchandiws may, from and after the Uniim, bo imported from one of those Provinces into the other of them on proof of pavment of the Cus- toms duty leviable thereon In the I'rovuiK- of exportation, and on payment of sucli further amount (if any) of ('■ ioms duty as is leviable thereon in tlie Province of importation. 124. Notlung in this Act shall alTect the right of Ni V Brunswick to levy the lumber dues provided In chapter fifteen, of title three, of the Revised Statul"s of New Brunswick, or in any Act amending i.iat act before or after the Union, and not increasing the amount of suck dues; but the lumber of any of the Provinces other tlian New Brunswick shall not be subjected to such dues. 120. No lands or property belonging to Canada or any Province shall tie liable to taxa- tion. 120. Such portions of the duties and rev- enues (vvcr which the respective Legislatures of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick had before the Union power of appropriation as are by this Act reserved to the i;vi)ective Govern- ments or Legislatures of the Provinces, and all duties (ind revenues raised by tliem in accordance with the special powers conferred uiiou them by this act, shall in each Province form one CJonsoii- dated Uevenuo Fund to be appropriated for the public service of tlie Province. 127. If any person being at the passing of this Act a member of the Legislative Council of Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, to whom a place in the Senate is offered, docs not within thirty days thereafter, by witing under his hand, addressed to the Qover;.or General of the Province of Canada, or to the Lieutenant Governor of Novo Scotia or New Brunswick (as the case may be), accept the same, he shall be deemed to have declined the same ; nnd any per- son who, being at the passing of this Act a mem- ber of the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia or New Brunswick, accepts a place in the Senate, shall thereby vacate his seat in such Legislative Council. 128. Every member of tlie Senate or House of (;ommon8 of Canada shall before taking his seat therein, take and subscribe before the Gov- ernor General or some person authorized by him, and every member of a Legislative Council or Legislative Assembly of any Province shall before taking his scat therein, take and subscrilie before the Lieutenant Governor of the Province, or some person uutliorized by him, the oath of allegiance contoined in tlie flftli Schedule to this Act; and every member of the Senate of Canada and every member of the Legislative Council of Quebec shall also, before taking his seat therein, take and subscribe before the Gov- ernor General, or some person authorized by him, the declaration of quulitication contained in the pame Schedule. 120. Except as otherwise provided by this Act, all laws in force in Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick at the Union, and all courts of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and all legal m^ CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. IMtano and .^uebec. CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. commiBginnH, powers and autliDritioM, iiiul all ottlccrH, Judlciiil, iidmlniNtnitivi', iind ininiHtcrinl, rxiHtiii^ tlicrciti at tliu Uiiidii, hIiuII ((intiiiiK; in Onlurlo, tinclu'c, Novii Scotlii, iiiitl Ni'W llriiim- wick rcHpi'ctivi'ly, tin if IIk^ Union liiiil nol Ihtu miiilc, Hiilijcrt iH'VcrlliclcHH (cxrcpt wllli icwpi'ct to siicli ii.s lire cniiclcd l)y or c.viHl under Acts of the I'lirliiiincnt of Orunl Hritiiin or of IIk^ I'urliii- nicnt of tlic United KinK<ioni of (ireiit llritiiin aud Ireland), to l)i- repealed, alxilislied or altered by tlie Parliament of Canacla, or by tlie Lej^i.sla- ture of tlie reHpeetive I'rovinee, aecordinj? to tlio nutlioritv of the i'jirliament or of that Legisla- ture under thi.s Act. IJIO. Until the Parliament of Canada other- wise provides, all oilleers of the several Provinces having duties to di.scliarge in relation to matters other tlian thoH<! connng within tlu^ cla.s.sc8 of subjects by this Act a.s.signed exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces shall be oilleers of Canada, and shall ecmtinue to discharge the duties of their respective otllces under the same liabilities, responsibilities aud penalties as if the Union liad not been made. 131. Until the Parliament of Canada other- wise provides, the Governor General in (,'ouneil may fnmi time to time appoint such odieers as the Governor General in Council deems neces.sary or proper for the clfectual e.veeution of tins Act. 13^. Tho Parliament and Government of Canadit shall have all iiowerr, necessary or proper for performing the obligations of Canada or of ony Province thereof, us part of the Dritish Empire towards foreign countries, arising under treaties between the Empire ami such foreign countries. 133. Either the English or tlie French lan- guage may be used by any person in the debates of tlie Houses of Parliament of Canada aud of the Houses of the Legislature of Quebec ; and both those languages shall be used in the respect- ive records and journals of tlio.se Houses; and either of those languages may be used by any person or in any pleading or process in or issuing from any Court of Canada established under this Act, and in or from all or any of the Courts of Quebec. The Acts of the Parliament of Canada and of tlio I egislature of Quebec sliall be printed and publislicd in both those languages. 134. Until the Legislature of Ontario or of Quebec otherwise provides, the Lieutenant Governors of Ontario and Quebec may eueli ap- point under the Great Seal of tlu! Province the following officers, to hold oflice during pleasure, that is to say, — tlie Attorney General, the Secre- tary and Itegistrar of the Province, the Treas- urer of the Province, the Commissioner of Crown Lands and the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works, and, in the case of Quebec, the Solicitor General; and may, hy order of the Lieutenant Governor in Council from time to time prescribe the duties of tho.se ofHcers and of the several dei)artments over which they shall preside or to wliich they sliall belong, and of the ofliccrs and clerks thereof; and may also ap- point other and additional officers to liold office during pleasure, and may from time to time prescribe the duties of those officers, and of the several departments over which they shall pre- side or to which they shall belong, and of the officers and clerks thereof. 136. Until the Legislature of Ontario or Quebec otherwise provides, all rights, powers, duticD, functions, rcsponsibilitios or nuthori- ties at the passing of this Act vested in or iin- posed on tlie Attorney General, Solicitor General, Secretary an<l Ueicislrar of tlie Pri>vinee of Can- ada, .Minister of Finance, Commissionerof (,'rown Lands, Commissionerof Pulilic Works, and .Minis- ter of Agriculture and Heceiver General, by any law, statute or ordinance of Upper Canada, JiOWer Canada, or Canada, and not repugnant to tills Act, shall lie vested in or imposed on any officer to be appointed hy the Lieutenant Gov ernor f(i'- lliedisclmrgeof I'liesami'orany of them; and til'! Commissio.icr of Agriculture and Public Works shall iierform (he duties and functions of tlie office of Minister of Agriculture at tlio missing of this Act imposed by the law of the Province of Canada as well as Jiose of the Com- missioner of Public Works. 13«. Until altered by the Lieutenant Gov- ernor in Council, tiie Great Seals of Ontario and Quebec respectively, shall !«■ tlie sami' or of tlie same design, as thost! used in the Provinces of Upper Canada and Lower Carada respectively before their Unicm as tlie Province of Canada. 137. The words "and from thence to the end of the then next ensuing Session of t. >; Leg- islature," or words to the same elfect, used in any temporary Act of tlie Province of Canada not expired liefore tlie Union, shall be construed to extend and applv to the next Session of ar- liament of Canada, if the spbiect matter of tlie Act is within the powers of the same as dellned by this Act, or to tlie next Sessions of the Legis- latures of Ontario and (Juebec resiicctively, if the subject mutter of the Act is within tiie powers of the same 03 defined by this Act. 138. From and after the Uni(m, the v.no of the words ' ' Upper Canada, " instead of ' ' OntJirio, " or "Lower Canada" instead of "Quebec," in aiy deed, writ, process, pleading, document, matter or. thing, shall not invalidate the same. 130. Any Proclamation under the Great Seal of the Province of Canada, issued lH;fore tlie Union to take effect at a time wliicli is subsequent to the Union, whether relating to that Province or to Upper Canada, or to Lower Canada, an<l the several mattera and things therein proclaimed shall be and continue of like force and effect as if the Union had not been made. 140. Any proc ■imation wliich is authorized by anv Act of the Legislature of the Province of Canada to be issued under the Great Seal of the Provime of Canada, whether relating to that Province or to Upper Canada, or to Lower Can- ada, and which is not issued before llie Union, may be issued by the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario or of Quebec, as its subject matter re- quires, under tlie Great Seal thereof; and from and after the issue of such Proclamation the same and the several matters and tilings therein proclaimed shall be and continue of tlie like force and effect in Ontario or Quebec as if the Union had not been made. 141. The Penitentiary of the Province of Canada shall, until the Parliament of Canada otherwise jirovides, be and continue the Peniten- tiary of Ontario and of Quebec. 142. The division and adjustment of the debts, eretlits, liabilities, properties and assets of Upper Canada and Lower Canada shall be re- ferred to the arbitrament of three arbitrators, one chosen by the Government of Ontario, one by the Government of Quebec, and one by the 535 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. SuppUmentarv Actt. CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. Qvivcmmont of Oanadn ; and the selection of the Arbitrato n shull not be niiulc until the Parlia- ment of Canada and the Legislatures of Ontar' i snd Quebec have met; and the arbitrator chosen by the Government of ('auada shall not bo a resident either in Ontario <;r in Quebec. 143. Tlie Governor (ieneral in Council may from time to tiiiw order lliat .sueli ami so many of the records, books, and documents of the Province of Canada as he t.iinks tit shall be ap- propriated and delivered either to Ontario or to Quebec, and the same shall henceforth be the proi)erty of that Province; an<l any copy thereof or extract therefrom, duly certified by the ollicer having charge of the original thereof sliall be admitted as evidence. l^^. The Lieute...u t Govenior of Quel)ec may from time to time, by Proclamation under the Great Seal of tlie Province, to take effect from a day to be appointed therein, constitute townships in those parts of the Province of Quebec in which townships arc not then already censtituted, and fl.x the inet<'s and bounds thereof. 145. Inasmuch as the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New IJninswick have joined in a declaration that the construction of the In- tercolonial Itailway is essential to the consolida- tion of the Union of British Nortli America, and to the assent tlieroto of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and have consequently agreed that provision sliould be mp.de for its Immediate con- struction by the Government of Canada: There- fore, in orcler to give effect to that agreement, it shall be the duty of tho Government and Par- liament of Canada to provide for the commence- ment, within si.x months after the Union, of a railway connecting the liiver St. Lawrence with the City of Halifax in Nova Scotia, and for the construction thereof without intermission, and the completion thereof with all practicable speed. 140. It sliall be lawfid for the Queen, by and with tlie advice of Her JIajesty's Most Honour- able Privy Council, on Addresses from the Houses of the Parliament of Canada, and from tlie Houses of the respective Legislatures of the Colonies or Provinces of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and British Columbia, to admit those Colonies or Provinces, or any of them, into the Union, and on Address from the I'ouscs of the Parliament of Canada to admit iupert's Laud and the North-western TerriU' /, or either of them, into the Union, "■ mC jrins and condi- tions in each case a' .trc in tlic Addresses ex- pressed and as the Queen thinl;s fit to approve, subject to tlie provisions of this Act, and the provisions of any Order in Council in that behalf shall have effect as if they had been enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 147. In case of the admission of Newfound- land and Prince Edwatxl Island, or either of them, eacli shall be entitled to a representation in the Senate of Canada of four members, and (not- withstanding anything in this Act) in case of the admission of Newfoundland the normal num- ber of Senators shall be seventy-six and their maximum number shall be eighty-two; but Prince Edward Island when admitted shall be deemed to be comprised in the third of the three divisions into which Canada is, in relation to the constitution of the Senate, divided by this Act, and accoixlingly, after the admission of Prince Edwaitl Island, whether Newfoundland is ad- mitted or not, the representation of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in the Senate shall, as va- cancies occur, be reduced from twelve to ten members respectively, and the n.'presentation of each of those Provinces shall not be increased at any time Iwyond ten, except under the provi- sions of this Act for the appointment of three or six additional Senators under the direction of the Quet n. A. O. i8?i. — British North America Act, 1871. — An Act respecting the Establishment of Provinces in the Dominion of Canada. [29tu Jdne, 1871.] WiiKUKAS doubts have been entertained re- specting the powers of the Parliament of Canada to establish Provinces in territories admitted, or which may hereafter be admi icd, into the Do- minion of Caniula, n;ul to provide for the repre- sentation of such Provinces in the said Parlia- ment, and it is expedient to remove such doubts, a, id to vest such lowers in the said Parliament: Be it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent ^Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lonls, Spiritual and Temporal, and Com- mons in tlii!-. present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as fiillows: — 1. This Act may be cited for all purposes a» The British North America Act, 1871. 2. T1;l' Parliament of Canada may from time to time .stahlish new Provinces in any territories formir -■■ for the time being part of tlie Dominion of Ca;i.ida, but not included in any Province there')'., and may, at the time of such establish- ment, make provision for the constitution and administraticu of any such Province, and for the passing of laws for the peace, order and goo<l government of such Province, and for its repre- sentation in the said Parliament. 3. The Parliament of Canada may from time to time, with the consent of the Legislature of nny Province of the said Dominion, increase, diminish, cr otherwise alter the limits of such Province, upon such terms and conditions as may be agreed to by the said Legislature, and may, with the like consent, make provision re- specting the effect and operation of any such in- crease or diminution or alteration of territory in relation to any Province affected thereby. 4. The Parliament of Canada may from time to time make provision for the administration, peace, order, and good government of any terri- tory not for the time being included in any Province. 5. The following Acts passed by the said Parliament of CaniuTa, and intituled respectively : "An Act for the temporary government of Rupert's Land and the North- Western Territory when united n-ith Canala;" and "An Act tc> amend and continue the Act thirty-two and thirty- three Victoria, chapter three, and to establish ond provide for the government of the Province of Manitoba," shall be and be deemed to hav& been valid and effectual for all purposes whatso- ever from the date at which they respectively received the assent, in the Queen's name, of the Governor General of the said Dominion of Canada. 6. Except as provided by the third section of this Act, it shall not be competent for the Parlia- ment of Canada to alter the provisions of the last mentionea Act of the said Parliament in so far as it relates to the Province of Manitoba, or of any other Act hereafter establishing new Prov 536 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND. Inces in the said Dominion, sul)ject always to tlie rig'it of tlic Lt'gislaturt' of tlie Province of Manit,)l)a to alter from time to time tlie pro- visions of any law respoctin;; the qualitication of electors and members of the Legislative Assembly, and to malic laws respecting elections In the salil Province. A. D. 1875.— Parliament of Canada Act, '^7S- — A.n Act to remove certain doubts with 1 "ject to the powers of tlie Parliament of C. ada, nnder Section 18 of the British North America Act, 1867. [IOtii July, 1875.] ■■ *''iiEHEA8 by section 18 of The Dritisli North America Act, 1807, it is provided as follows: — "The privileges, inununitics, and powers to bo held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Senate and by tlie House of Commons, an(l by the members thereof respectively, shall be such as are from time to time defined by Act of the Parliament of Canada, bill so that the same shall never exceed those at the passing of this Act licld, eii.jo;?ed, and exercised by the Commons House of PiiVlia- ment of the United Kingdom of Great Hritain and Ireland, and by the members thereof." And whereas doubts have arisen with regard to the power of defining by an Act of tlie Parliament of Canada, in pursuance of the said section, the said privileges, powers or immunities: audit is expedient to remove such doubts: Be it tiiere- fore enacted bv the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by antl with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Com- mons, in tills present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of tlie same, a^ follows: — 1. Section 18 of The British North America Act, 1867, is hereby repealed, without prejudice to anything done under that section, and the following section shall be substitii.ed for tlio section so repealed : — The privileges, immunities, and powers to bo held, enjoyed and exercised by the Senate and by the House of Commons, and by the members thereof respectively, shall be such as are from time to time defined by Act of the Parliament of Canada, but so that any Act of the Parliament of Canada defining sucli privileges, immunities and powers shall not confer any privileges, immunities, or powers ex- ceeding those at the passing of such Act held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons House of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britidn and Ireland, and by the members thereof. 2. Tho Act of the Parliament of Canada passed in the thirty-first year of the reign of her present J.'ajesty, chapter twenty-four, intituled An Act to provide for oaths to witnesses being administered in certain cases for the purposes of either Hoilic of Parliament, shall be deemed to he valid, and to have been valid as from the date at which the royal assent was given thereto by the Governor General of the Dominion of Canada. 3. This Act may be cited as The Parliament of Canada Act, 1875. A. D. 1886.— British North America Act, 1886. — An Act respecting the Kepreseiitation in tlie Parliament of Canada of Territories which for the time being form part of the Dominiou of Canada, but arc not included in any Pri<vinco. [25T1I June, 1886.] WiiEiiEAS it is expedient to empower the Parliament of Canada to provide for the repre- sentation in the Senate and House of Commons, of Canada, or eitlicr of them, of any territory wliicli for tlie time being forms part of the Do- minion of Canada, but is not included in any Province: Be it therefore enact;'d by the Queen s Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of tlie Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in the present Parliament os- sembleil, and by the authority of the same, ao follows: — 1. The Parliament of Canada may from time to time make provision for tlio representation in tlie Senate and House of Commons of Canada, or in either of them, of anj- territories wliieli for the time being form part of the Dominion of Canada, but are not included in any Province thereof. 3. Any Act passed by the Parliament of Canada before tlie passing of this Act for the purpose mentioned m this Act sliall, if not dis- allowed by the Queen, be, and shall be deemed to have been, valid and eflectual from the date at wliich it received the assent, in Her Majesty's name, of tlio Governor- general of Canada. It i» hereliy declared that any Act passed by the Parliament of Canada, whether before or after the passing of this Act, for the purpose men- tioned ill this Act, or in Tlio British North America Act, 1871, has effect, notwithstanding anything in Tlie British North America Act, 1867. and the number of Scnatoi's or the number of Members of the House of Commcms specified in the last-mentioned Act is increased by the num- ber of Senators or of Members, as tlie case may be, provided by any sucli Act of the Parliament of Canada for tlie representation of any provincea or territories of Canada. 3. This Act maybe cited as The British North America Act, 1880. This Act and The British North America Act, 1867, aiiikThe British North America Act, 1871, shall be construed together, and iray bo cited together as The Brills'- North America Acts, 1867 to 1886. CONSTITUTION OF (OR FOR) THE CAROLINAS (Locke's). See Nouth Caro- lina: A. D. 1660-1093. CONSTITUTION OF CHILE. See Chile: A. D. 1833-1884, and 1885-lfeul. CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES. See Athens: B. C. 510-507. CONSTITUTION OF COLOMBIA. See CoLOMniAN States: A. D. 1830-1886, and 1885- 1891. CONSTITUTION OF THE CONFED- ERATE STATES OF AMERICA. See United States of Am. : A. I). 1861 (Febhu- AllV). CONSTITUTION OF CONNECTICUT (1639 — the Fundamental Agreement of New 86 Haven). See Connecticut: A. D. 1686-1030, and 1639. CONSTITUTION OF DENMARK. See Scandinavian States (Denmark— Iceland) : A. D. 1849-1874. CONSTITUTION OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC, or the United Netherlands. See NETiiEnL.\NDs: A. I). 1.584-1585. CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND.—" Our Englii;h Constitution was never maile, in the sense in which tlie Constitutions of many other countries liave been made. There never was any moment when Englislimen drew out their political system in the shape of a formal docu- ment, whether as the carrying out of any abstract political theories or as the imitation of 537 CONHTIVUTION OF ENGLAND. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. the past or prcsont system of nny otlior nation. There arc indeed certain great political docu- ments, eaeli of wliicli forms a landniaric in our [lolitieal lilstory Tliert! is tlie Great Cliarter see Enoi.and: A. D. 12151, tlie Petition of {iKlits[same: /. D. 1025-1628, and 1028], the Hill of Rights [same: A. D. 1080 (October)]. But not one of tliese gave itself out us tlie enactment of anything new. All claimed to set fortli, with new strengtli, it miglit be, and with new clearnes.s, those riglits of Englislunen wliicli were already old. . . . Th(! life and soul of Englisli law hius evr been precedent; we have always held that whatever our fathers once did their stms liave a right to do again." — E. A. Freeman, The Growth of the KiKjUtth Cunstitu- Hon, ch. 2. — " It is, in the first place, necessary to liave a clear understanding of what we mean when wo tallt about 'thelCngli.sh Constitution.' Few terms in our langiuige Iiave been more laxly employed. . . . Still, tlie term, ' the English Constitution' is susceptible of full and accurate explanation : tliougli it may not be easy to set it lucidly forth, witliout first investigating the arcliaeology of our history, rather more deeply than may suit hasty tamers and superficial thinkers. . . . Some furious Jacobins, at the close of tlie l:vst century, used to clamour tliat there was no such thing as tiie Englisli Constitu- tion, because it could not be jjroduced in full written form, lilie that of tlie United States. . . . But an impartial and earnest investigator may still satisfy him.self that England has a constitu- tion, and tliat there is ample cause why she should cherisli it. And by this it is meant that he will recognise and admire, in tlie history, the laws and tlie institutions of England, certain great leading i)rinciples, which have existed from the earliest period of our nationality down to the present time; expanding and adapting themselves to the progress of society and civil- ization, advancing and varying in development, but still essentiall}' the same in substance and spirit. These great primeval and enduring principles are the principles of the English Constitution. And we are not obliged to learn them from imperfect evidences or precarious speculation ; for they are imperishably recorded in the Great Charter, and in Charters and Stat- utes connected with and conflrmafory of Magna Charta [see England: A. D. 1215]. . . . These great primeval and enduring principles of our C(m8t;tution are as follows: The government of the country by an lieredit'iry s vereign, rul- ing with limited powers, and bound to summon an<l consult a parliament of the whole rca'.m, comprising hereditar peers and elective repre- sentatives of the commons. That without the stinction of parliament no Uix of any kind can be imposed; and no law can be made, repealed, or altered. That no man be arbitrarily fined or impri.soned, that no man's property or liberties 1h! impaired, and that no man 'le in any way punished, except after a lawful trial. Trial by jiiry. Tliat justice sliail not be sold or delayeii. These great constitutional principles can all bo I)roved, eitlier by express terms or by fair impli- ciition, from JIagna Carta, and its . . . supple- ment [tlie statute ' Conflrnmtio Cartarum ']. Tlieir vigorous development was aided and attested in many subsequent statutes, especially in the Petition of Rights and the Bill of Rights. . . . Lord Chatham called these three ' The Bible of the English Constitution,' to which appeal is to be made on every grave political question." — E. S. Creasy, liim and Proyresa of the Eng. Const., ch. 1. — "The fact that our con- stitution has to be collected from statutes, from legal decisions, from observation of the course of conduct of the business of politics ; that much of what is written is of a negative sort, stating I what the Crown and its ministers cannot do; that there is no part of it wliicli an omnipotent Parliament may not change at will ; all this is a puzzle not only to foreign jurists who are pre- pared to say, with De Tocqueville, that the English constitution does not exist, but to our- selves who are prepared to maintain that it is a monument, if only we can find it, of political sagacity. Tliose who praise it call it flexible; those who criticise it unstable." — Sir W. R. Anson, The Law and Custom of the Const., pt. 1, p. 85. Also in: W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of Eng. in its Ongin and Develojmient. — H. Hallam, Const. Hist of Eng.: Henry VII. to Geo. //.— T. E. May, Const. Hist, of Eng., 1760-1800.— R. Gneist, Hist, of the Eng. Const. — E. Fiscliel, Tlie Eng. Const.— W. Bagehot, The Eng. Const.— E. Boutmy, The Eng. Const. — See, also, Pah- LiAMBNT, The English, and Cabinet, The English. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 1791. Louis XVI. See Fhance: A. D. 1789-1 toi, an5 1791 (July— Seitembeu). A. D. 1793 (or the Year One).— The Jacobin Constitution. See Fhance: A. D. 1793 (June — OCTOUEU). A. D. 170S (or the Year Three).— The Con- stitution of the Directory. See France: A. D. 1795 (June — Septembeb). A. D. 1799.— The Constitution of the Con- sulate. Sec Fuance: A. D. 1790 (Nove.mbeu— Deuembeu). A. D. 1814.— The Constitution of the Restor- ation. See Fuance: A. D. 1814 (Ai'uir, — June). A. D. 1848.— The Constitution of the Second Republic. See France: A. D. 1848 (Apbil— December). A. D. 1853. — The Constitution of the Second Empire. See France: A. D. 1851-1852. A. D. 1875-1889.— The Constitution of the Third Republic. — The circumstances of tlie framing and adoption in 1875 of the Constitution of the Third Republic will be found narrated under France: A. D. 1871-1870. The follow- ing is the text of the organic law of 1875, with the later amendatory and supplemental enact- ments, down to July 17, 1889, as transli.[ed and edited, with an historical introduction, by Mr. Charles F. A. Currier, and published in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1898. It is repro- duced here with the kind permission of the President of the Academy, Professor Edmund J. James: 588 CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 1875. Law on the Organization of the Pub- lic Powers. February 25. AiiTici.K 1. The k'gislativo power is exer- cised by two assemblies: tlie Chiunljer of Depu- ties ami tliu Senate. Tlie Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal suffrage, luider the condi- tions determined by the electoral lawp* The composition, the method of election, and the powers of the Senate shall be regulated by a special law." Akt. 2. The President of the Republic is chosen by an absolute majority of votes of tlie Senate and Chamber of Deputies united in National Assembly. He is elected for seven years. He is re-eligible. AnT. 3. Tlie President of the Republic has the initiative of the laws, concurrcutly with the members of the two Chambers. He promul- gates the laws wnen they have been voted by the two Chambers; ho looks after and scL'ures their execution. He has the right of pardon; amnesty can be granted by law only. He dis- poses of the armed f(.rce. He appoints to all civil and military positions. He presides over national festivals; envoys and ambassadors of foreign powers are accredited to him. Every act of the President of the Republic must be countersigned by a .Minister. AilT. 4. As vacancies occur on and after the promulgation of the present law, the President of the i{epublic appoints, in the Council of aMinis- ters, the Councilors of State in ordinary service. The Councilors of State thus chosen may bo dis- missed only by decree rendered in the Council of Ministers The Councilors of State chosen by virtue of the law of May 24, 1872, cannot, before the expiration of their powers, be dismissed ex- cept in the manner determined by that law. After the dissolution of the National Assembly, revocation may be pronounced only by resolu- tion of the Senate. Akt. 5. The President of the Republic may, with the advice of the Senate, dissolve the Chamber of Deputies before the legal expiration of its term. [In that case the electoral colleges are summoned for new elections within the space of three months.]' AiiT. 6. The Ministers are jointly and sev- erally (' solidairement') responsible to the Cham- bers for the general policy of the government, and individually for their personal acts. The President of the Republic is responsible in case of high treason only.' AuT. 7. In case of vacancy by death or for any otlier reason, the two Chambers assembled together proceed at once to the election of a new President. In the meantime the Council of Min- isters is invested witli the executive power.' AiiT. 8. The Chambers shall have the right by separate resolutions, t«ken in each by an ab- solute majority of votes, either upon their own Initiative or upon the re(iuest of the President of the Republic, to declare a revision of the Consti- tutional Laws necessary. jVfter each of the two Chambers shall have come to this decision, they shall meet together in National Assembly to pro- ceed with the revision. Tlie acts effecting revision of the constitutional laws, in whole or ' See law of November 80, 187.1, infra. ' See laws of February a4. ami Au^jTiBt S, 1875, infra. • Amended by constitutional law of August 14, 1884, infra. • See Art. 13, law of July 10, 1875, infra. • Bee Arts. 3 and 11, law of July 16, 1876, infra. in part, must be by an absolute majority of the members comiiosmg the National Assembly. [During the continuance, however, of the pow- ers conferred by the law of November 20, 1873, upon Slarshal de MacMahon, this revision can take place only upon the initiative of the Presi- dent of the Republic.]' [AuT. 9. The scat of the Executive Power and of the two Chambers is at Versailles.]' 1875. Law on the Organization of the Senate. February 24. [Ainici.io 1.' The Senate consists of three hun- dred members: Two hundred and twenty-flve elected by the departments and colonics, and seventy-five elected by the National A.ssembiy.l [AuT. 2. The deiiartments of the Seine and Nord elect each live senators. TIk- follow ii.,j departments elect f(mr sc^nators each: Seine- Inferieure, Pas-de-Calais, Giroiidc, Rhone, Fiuis- t(5re, Cotes-du-Nord. The following depart- ments elect three senators each : lioire-hiferieure, Saone-et-Loirc, Ille-et-Vilaine, Seine-et-Oise, Is^re, Puy-dc-D6me, Somme, Houehes-du-Rhone, Aisiie, Loire, Manclie, Maine-et-Loire, Morbihan, Dordogne, Haute-Garonne, Chareute-Inferieure, Calvados, Sarthc, Herault, Rasses-Pyrences, Gard, Aveyron, Vendee, Orne, Oise, "Vosges, Allier. All the other departments elect two senators each. The following elect one senator each: The Territory of Bclfort, the three de- partments of Algena, the four colonies: Jlarti- nique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and the French Indies.] [AiiT. 3. No one can be senator unless he is a French citizen, forty years of age at least, and enjoying civil and political rights.] [Akt. 4. The senators of the departments and colonies are elected by an absolute majority and by ' scrutin de liste', by a college meeting at the capital of the department or colony and composed: (1) of the deputies; (2) of the general councilors; (3) of the urrondissemeut councilors; (4) of delegates elected, one by each municipal council, from among the voters of the com- mune. In the French Indies the members of the colonial council or of the local councils art. substituted for the general councilors, arrondisse- ment councilors and delegates from the munici- pal councils. They vote at the capital of each district.] [Art. 5. The senators chosen by the Assem- bly are elected by ' scrutin de liste ' and by an absolute majority of votes.] [Akt. 6. The senators of the departments and colonies are elected for nine years and re- newable by thirds every three years. At the beginning ol the first session tlie departments shall be divided into three scries containing an equal number of senators each. It shall be determined by lot which series shall be renewed at the expiration of the first and second triennial periotls.] [Akt. 7. The senators elected by the Assem- bly are irremovable. Vacancies by death, by resignation, or for any other reason, shall, within the space of two months, be filled by the Senate itself.] ' Amended by constitutional law of August 14, 18&(, » Repealed by constitutional law of June 21, 1879, infra. ' By the constitutional law of August 14, 1884, it was provided that Articles 1 to 7 of this law should no longer have a constitutlouol character; and they were repealed by the low of December 9, 1884, infra. 539 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OP FIUNCE. AnT. 8. The Heimtc has, concurrently witli tlie Clmnilxir of Deputies, the iiiithitivo and piiHsuig of liiws. Money bills, however, miist first Ih! intrtKluccd iu, and passed by the Chani- Ikt of Deputies. AiiT. 9. The Hrnnto may be constituted a Court of .lustice to jud){e either the President of tlie Republic or the Ministers, and to take coj;- nizancc of attacks made upon tlic safety of tlic State. AuT. 10. Elections to tlie Senate shall tjike place one iiiontli before the time fixed by the National As.sembly for its own dissolution. Tlic Senate sliall organize and enter upon its duties tlie same day that the National Assembly is dissolved. Aht. 11. The present law sholl be promul- gated only after tlie passage of the law on the public powers.' 1875. Law on the Relations of the Public Powers. July 16. AiiTici.K 1. The Senate and the C'haml)er of Deputies shall assemble each year the second Tuesday of January, unless convened earlier by the President of the Republic. The two Cham- bers continue in session at least five months each year. The sessions of eacli begin and end at the same time. [On the Sunday following the opening of the session, public prayers shall be addressed to Ood in the churches and tem- ples, to invoke His aid iu the labors of the Chambers.]' Aht. 2. The President of the Republic pro- nounces the closure of the session. He may con- vene the Chambers in extra session. He must convene them if, during the recess, an absolute majority of the members of each Chamber re- quest it. The President may adjourn the Cham- bers. The adjournment, however, must not exceed one month, nor take place more than twice in the same session. Art. 3. One month at least before the legal expiration of the powers of the President of the Republic, the Chambers must be called together in National Assembly and proceed to tho election of a new President. In default of a summons, this meeting shall take place, as of right, the flfteentli day before the expiration of those powers. In case of the death or resignation of the President of the Republic, the two Cham- bers shall reassemble immediately, as of right. In case tlie Chamber of Deputies, in conse- quence of Article 5 of the law of February 25, 1875, is dissolved at tlie time when the presi- dency of tlie Republic becomes vacant, the electoral colleges shall be convened at once, and the Senate shall reassemble as of right. Akt. 4. Every meeting of cither of the two Chambers w' Ch shall bo held at a time other then the con iium session of both is illegal and void, except tlie case provided for in the pre- ceding article, and tliat when tho Senate meets 08 a court of justice; and in this last case, judi- cial duties alone shall be performed. Art. 5. The sittings of the Senate and of the Chamber of Deputies are public. Nevertheless each Chamber may meet iu secret session, upon the request of a fixed number of its members, determined by the rules. It decides by absolute majority whether tho sitting shall be resumed in public upon the same subject. > i.e., the law of February 25, 1875, aupra. > Repealed by law of August 14, 1684, infra. AliT. 0. Tlu- President of tho Republic com- municates with the Chambers by messages, which are read from tho tribune liy a Minister. The Jlinisters have entrance to both Chamliers, and must bo heani when they request it. They may lie represented, for the tiiscnssion of a specifit; bill, by commissioners designated by decree of tlie President of tho Republic. AuT. 7. The President of the Republic pro- mulgates tho laws within the month following the transmission to tlio Qovemment of tho law finally pas.sed. Ho must promulgate, within three days, laws whoso promulgation shall liavo been declared urgent by an express vote in each Chamber. Within the time fixed for promulga- tion tile President of the Republic may, by a message witli reiuwns assigned, request of the two Chambers a new discussion, which cam ot bo refused. AuT. 8. The President of tho Itopublic nego- tiates and mtitlcs treaties. He communicotes tliem to tho Chambers as soon as the interests and safety of the State permit. Treaties of peoce, and of commerce, treaties wliich involve tho finances of the State, those relating to tlio per- sons and property of French citizens in foreign countries, shall become definitive only after having been voted by the two Chambers. No cession, no exchange, no annexation of territory shall take place except by virtue of a law. Art. 9. The President of the Republic can- not declare war except by the previous assent of the two Chambers. ; Art. 10. Each Chamber is the judge of tho eligibility of its members, and of the legality of their election; it alone can receive tlioir resig- nation. Art. 11. The bureau' of each Chamber is elected each year for the entire session, and for every extra session which may be held before the ordinary session of the following year. When tlio two Chambers moot together as a National Assembly, their bureau consists of the President, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Senate. Art. 12. The President of the Republic may be impcaclied by tho Chamber of Deputies only, and tried by tho Senate only. Tho Ministers may bo impeached by tho Chamber of Deputies for offences committed in the performance of their duties. In this case they are tried by the Senate. Tho Senate may be constituted a court of Justice, by a decree of the President of tlio Republic, issued in tho Council of Ministers, to try all persons accused of attempts upon the safety of the State. If procedure is begun by the ordinary courts, tlic decree convening the Senate may be issued any time before the grant- ing of a discharge. A law shall determine tlie method of procedure for the accusation, trial and judgment' Art. 13. No member of either Chamber shall be prosecuted or held responsible on account of any opinions expressed or votes cast by him in the performance of his duties. Art. 14. No member of either Chamber shall, during the session, be prosecuted or ar- rested for any offence or misdemeanor, except on the authority of the Chamber of which he is a ' Tlie bureau of the Senate consists of a president, four vice-presidents, six secretaries and thrt»e (inestors; the bureau of the Cliamber ot Deputies i.s tlie same, except that there are eight secretaries Instead of six. ' Fixed by law of April 10, 1889. 540 CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. CONSTITUTION OP FRANCK iiiry member, unless ho be cauffht In the very act. The detention or prosecution of ft member of cither CJhnmber is Hiispendcd for the session, nnd for its [the Chamber's] cntin; term, if it de- miinds it. 1879. ^"■'^ Revising; Article 9 of the Con- stitutional Law of February 25, 1 875. I une 2 1 . Article 9 of the conHtitutioniiT law of Febriii 25, 1875, is repealed. 1884. Law Partially Revising the Con- stitutional Laws, August 14. AuTicLK 1. Para>?niph 2 of Article 5 of the constitutionul law of Febr\iary 25, 1875, on the Organization of the Public Powers, is amended us follows: "In that case the electoral colleges meet for new elections within two months, and the Chamber within the ten days following the close of the elections." Art. 2. To Paragraph 3 of Article 8 of the same law of February 25, 1875, is added the fol- lowing: " The Republican form of the Govern- ment cannot be made the subject of a proposed revision. Members of families that have reigned in France are ineligible to the presidency of the Republic." Art. 8. Articles 1 to 7 of the constitutional law of February 24, 1875, on the Organization of the Senate, shall no longer have a constitu- tional character.' Art. 4. Paragraph 3 of Article 1 of the con- stitutional law of July 16, 1875, on the Illation of the Public Powers, is repealed. 1875. Law on the Election of Senators. August 2. Article 1. A decree of the President of the Republic, issued at least six weeks in advance, determines the day for the elections to the Senate, and at the same time that for [the choice of delegates of the municipal councils. There must be an interval of at least one month be- tween the choice of delegates and the election of senators. Art. 2. Each municipal council elects one delegate. The election is without debate, by secret ballot, and by an absolute majority of votes. Aftei two ballots a plurality is sufficient, and in case of an equality of votes, the oldest is declared elected. If the Mayor is not a member of the municipal council, he presides, but shall not vote.' On the same day and in the same way an alternate is elected, who takes the place of the delegate in case of refu.sal or Inability to serve.' The choice of the municipal councils shall not extend to a deputy, a general councilor, or ftn arrondissement councilor.' All communal electors, including the municipal councilors, are eligible without distinction. Art. 3. In the communes where a municipal committee exists, the delegate and alternate shall bo chosen by the old council.' Art. 4. If the delegate was not prenent at the election, the Mayor shall see to it that he is notified within twenty-four hours. He must transmit to the Prefect, within live days, notice of his acceptance. In case of refusal or silence, he is replaced by the alternate, who is then placed upon the list as the delegate of the com- mune.' ' And may therefore be amended by ordinary legisla- tion. See tlie law of December », 1HH4, infra. iJ Amended by Art. 8, law of December 9, 18&4, infra. ' ' ', la\ ' See Art. 4, law of February ^4, 1H75, mpra. * See Art. 8, law of Decemlier 0, 1884, infra. Art. 5. The ofllcial report of the election of thi' delegate and alternate is transmitted at oncu to the Prefect ; it states the ac(!eptance or refusal of tlie delegates and alternates, iw well as the pro- tests raised, by one or more members of the municipal council, against the legality of the election. A copy of this official report is posted on the door of the town hall.' Art. 0. A statement of the results of the election of delegates and alternates is drawn up within a week by the Prefect; this is given to all reiiuesting it, and may be copied and published. Every elector may, at the bureaux of the prefec- ture, obtain information and a copy of the list, by communes, of the municipai councilors of tho department, and, at the bureaux of the sub- prefectures tt copy of the list, by communes, of the municipal councilors of tlio arrondisse- ment. Art. 7. Every communal elector nuiy, within three days, address directly to the Prel"(,'ct a pro- test against the legality of the election. If tho Prefect deems the proceedings illegal, he may request that they be .s'.t uside. Art. 8. Protests concerning the election of the delegate or alternate are decided, subject to an appeal to the Council of State, by the council of the prefecture, and, in tho colonies, by the privy council. A delegate whose election is an- nulled because he docs not satisfy the conditions demanded by law, or on account of informality, is replaced by the alternate. In cose the elec- tion of the delegate and alternate is rendered void, as by the refusal or death of both after their acceptance, new elections are held by the municipal council on a day fixed by an order of the Prefect.' Art. 9. Eight days, at the latest, before the election of senators, the Prefect, and, in the colo- nies, the Director of the Interior, orranges the list of the electors of tho department in alpha- betical order. The list is communicated to all demanding it, and may be copied and published. No elector has more than one vote. Art. 10. The deputies, the members of the general council, or of the arrondissement coun- cils, who have been announced by the returning committees, but whose powers have not been verified, are enrolled upon the list of electors and are allowed to vote. Art. 11. In each of the three departments of Algeria the electoral college is composed : (1) of the deputies ; (2) of tho members of the general councils, of French citizenship ; (3) of delegates elected by the French members of each muni- cipal council from among tho communal electors of French citizenship. Art. 12. The electoral college is presided over by the President of the civil tribunal of the capital of the department or colony. The Presi- dent is assisted by the two oldest and two youngest electors present at the opening of the meeting. The bureau thus constituted chooses a secretary from among the electors. If the President is prevented [from presiding] his place is taken by the Vice-President [of the civil tribunal], and, in his absence, by the oldest justice. Art. 13. The bureau divides the electors in alphabetical order into sections of at least one hundred voters each. It appoints the President 1 See Art. 8, law of December 9, 1884, infra. 641 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. and Inspectors of each of these sections. It decides ttll (luestions iin(i contesti wliioli may arisj! in llu' course of tlio election, witlumt, however, power to depart from I lie decisions rend'-'red by virtue of Article 8 of the present law. AllT. 14. Tli(^ first Imllot licpiiLS iit eljrlit o'clock in the morning and closes at noon. The second Ix'gins at two o'clock and closes at four o'clock. The third, if it takes place, lu-gins at Bis o'clock and doses at eight o'clock. Tlie results of the hallotings are determined by the bureau and announced Ihc same day by the President of the electoral college.' Akt. IT). No one is elected senator on either of the first two ballots \ude8S he receives: (1) an absolute majority of the votes cast ; and (2) a number of votes equal to one-fourth of the total number of electors registered. On the third bal- lot a idurality is sufilcicnt, and, in case of an equality of votes, tlie oldest is elec'ted. Ai'T. 1(1, Political meetings for the nomina- tion (..' senatoi-s may take phu:o confonnably to the rules laid down by the law of June «, 1868' subject to the following conditions : I. These meetings may be held from the date of the elec- tion of delegates up to the day of the election [of senators] inclusive; II. They must be preceded by a declaration made, at latest, the evening before, by seven senatorial electors of the arron- dissement, and indicating the place, the day and the hour the meeting is to take place, and the names, occupation and residence of the candi- dates to be presented; III. The municipal authorities will sec to it that no one is admitted to the meeting unless he is a deputy, general councilor, arrondissement coimcilor, delegate or candidate. The delegate will present, as a means of identification, a certificate from the Mayor of his commune, the candidate a certifi- cate from the otlicial who shall have received the declaration mentioned in the preceding para- graph." AuT. 17. Delegates who take part in all the hallotings shall, if they demand it, receive from the Ptale, upon the presentation of tlieir letter of Bununons, countersigned by the President of the electoral college, a remuneration for traveling expenses, which shall be paid to them upon the same l)a8is and in the same manner as that given to jurors by Articles 35, 00 and following, of the decree of June 18, 1811. A public administra- tive regulation shall determine the metho<l of fixing the amount and the method of payment of this remuneration.' AiiT. 18. Every delegate who, without law- ful reason, shall not take part in M the hal- lotings, or, having been liindered, shall not have given notice to the nlteriiate in sufiicient season, shall, upon the demand of the public prosecutor, be punished by a tine of fifty francs by the civil tribunal of the capital.' The same penalty may bo imposed upon tlie alternate who, after having been notified by letter, telegram, or notice per- sonally delivered in due season, shall not have taken part in the election. AuT. 19. Every attempt at corruption by the employment of means enumerated in Articles 177 and following, of the Penal Code, to influ- ' See Art. 8, law of December 9, 18S1, ivfra. > This law has been superseded by a law of June 80, 1881. • Done by decree of Decemljer !», 1876. * Of the uepartment. cncc the vote of an elector, or to keep him from voting, shall be pnidshed by imiirisonmcnt of from three months to two years, and a fine of from fifty to five hundred fnmcs, or l)y one of the.se twi) penalties alone. Article 40!} of tho Penal C(Mle shall apply to the penalties iinposcd by the present article.' AuT. 20. It is incompatible for a senator to be; I. Councilor of State, Maltre de ReqiiCtes, Prefect or Sub-Prefect, except Prefect of the Seine and Prefect of Police; II. Member of tho courts of appeal ("appel,")' or of the tribunals of first instance, except i)\it)lie prosecutor at tho court of Paris; III. General Paymaster, Special Receiver, official or employe of the central ad- minLstration of the ministries. Akt. 21. The following shall not be elected by the department or the colony included wholly or partially in tlieir jurisdiction, during tlio exer- cise of their duties and during the six months following the cessation of their duties by resig- nation, (lismissal, change of residence, or other cause : I. The First Presidents, Presidents, and members of the courts of appeal ("appel"); II. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Examining Mag- istrates, and menilKTS of the tribunals of first instance; III. The Prefect of Poliiie; Prefects and Suo-Prefects, and Prefectorial General Sec- retaries ; the Governors, Directors of the Interior, and General Secretaries of the Colonies; IV. The Chief Arrondissement Engineers and Chief Arrondis.sem(!nt Road-Surveyors ; V. The School Rectors and Inspectors; VI. The Primary School Inspectors; VII. The Archbishops, Bishops, and Vicars General ; VIII. Tlie officers of all grades of the land and naval force; IX. The Division Commissaries and the ]^Iilitary Deputy Commis- saries ; X. Tho General Paymasters and Special Keceivers of Money ; XI. The Supervisors of Direct and Indirect Taxes, of Registration of Lands and of Posts; XII. The Guardians and Inspectors of Forests. AiiT. 22. A senator elected in several depart- ments, must let his choice be known to the Presi- dent of the senate within ten days following tho verification of tho elections. If a choice is not made in this time, the question is settled by lot in open session. The vacancy shall be filled within one month and by the same electoral bo<ly. The same holds true in case of an in- validated election. Art. 33. If by death or resignation the num- ber of senators of a department is reduced by one -half, the vacancies shall be filled within the space of tliree months, unless the vacancies occur within the twelve months preceding the triennial elections. At the time fixed for tho triennial elections, all vacancies shall be filled which have occurred, whatever their number and date.' [Akt. 24. The election of senators chosen by the National Assembly takes place in public sittirg, by " scrutin do liste," and by an absolute majority of votes, whatever tho number of hal- lotings. Akt. 25. When it is necessary to elect suc- cessors of senators chosen by virtue of Article 7 of the law of February 24, 1875, the Senate pro- ' See Article 8. law of December 9, 1884, infra. ' Franco is divided into twenty-six judicial districtH, in each of which there is a cour d'appel. There are similar courts in Algeria and the colonies. The Cour de Cassa- tion is the supreme court of appeal for all France, Alg:erla and the colonies. 542 CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. c^eds in the manner indicated In ttic preceding nrtlcle]." AuT. 20. Members of the 8eiial(^ receive tlie winie snliiry iih members of the Clmmbcr of Deputies.' AuT. 27. Tliere are applicable to elections to tlie Senate all tlie provisions of tlie electoriil law relatinj(: I. to cases of unworthiness and in- capacity ; II. to offences, prosecutions, and pen- alties; III. to election proceediiips, in all respects not contrary to ihc provisions of tlie present law. Temporary Provisions. AuT. 28. For the (irsl election of members of the Senate, the law which shall determine the date of the dissolution of the National Assembly shall fix, without regard to the intervals estab- lished l)y Article 1, the date on which the municipal councils shall meet for the election of delegates am' die day for the election of Sena- tors. Before the meeting of the municipal councils, the National A.ssj'mbly shall pniceed to the election of those Senators whom it is to choose. AiiT. 20. The provisions of Article 21, by which an interval of six months must elapse between the cessation of duties and election, sliall not apply to officials, except Prefects and Sub-Prefects, whose duties shall have ceosed cither before the promulgation of the present law or within twenty days following. 1875. Law on the Election of Deputies.' November 30. Akticle 1. The deputies shall be chosen by the votei-8 registered: I. upon the lists drawn up in accordance with the law of ,Tuly 7, 1874; II. upon the supplementary list including those who have lived in the commune six months. Regis- tration upon the supplementary list shall take place conformably to the laws and regulations now governing the political electoral lists, by the committees and according to the forms established by Articles 1, 2 and 8 of the law of July 7, 1874. Appeals relating to the formation and revision of either list shall be carried directly before the Civil Chamber of the Court of Appeal (" Cassation"). The elecLoral lists drawn up March 31, 1875, shall serve until March 81, 1876. Art. 2. The soldiers of all ranks and grades, of both the land and naval forces, shall not vot<s when they are with their regiment, at their post or on duty. Those who, on election day, are in private residence, in non-activity or in possession of a regular leave of absence, may vote in the commune on the lists of which they are duly registered. This last provision applies equally to officers on the unattached list or on the re- serve list. Akt. 3. During the electoral period, circulars and platforms ("professions de foi") signed by the candidates, placards and manifestoes signed bjf one or more voters, may, after being deposited with the public prosecutor, be posted and dis- tributed without previous authorization. The distribution of ballots is not subjected to this deposit.' Every public or municipal official is for- bidden to distribute ballots, platforms and circu- ' Articles 24 and 25 repealed by law of December 9, )9K1, infra. • See Article 17, law of November 30, 1875, infra. ' Heo, infra, the laws of June 10, 1885, and February 13, 18811. amending tlie electoral law. • See, however, a law of December 80, 1878, by which deposit is made necessary. lars of randidntes. The provisions of Article 10 of the organic law of August 2, 1875, on the i'lcctions of Senators, shall apply to the elections of deputies. AiiT. 4. Halloting shall continue one day only. The voting occurs at the chief place of the commune; each commune may nevertheless be divided, by order of the Prefect, into as many sections as may Ik- demanded by local cir- cumstances and the numlicr of voters. The second ballot shall take place the second Sunday following the Hiiiiounccnu'nt of the (Irst ballot, according to the provisions of Article (15, of the law of March 15, 1849. AiiT. r>. The method of voting shall l)o ac- cording to the provisions of the organic and regulating decrees of IVbruary 2, 18.52. The ballot is secret. The voting lists used at the elections in each section, signel by the President and Secretary, shall reinnin depo-iited for eight days at the Secretary's office at the town hall, where they shall bo communicated to every voter requesting them. AuT. fl. Every voter is eligible, without any tax ((Palification, at the age of twenty-live years. AiiT. 7. No soldier or sailor forming part of the active forces of hind or sea may, whatever his rank or position, be elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies. This provision applies to soldiers and sailors on the unattached list or in non-activity, but does not extend to officers of the second section of the list of the general staff, nor to tlio.so who, kept in the first section for having been commander-in-chief in the fiehl, have censed to be employed actively, nor to offi- cers who, having privileges acci.iiea m, the re- tired list, are sent to or maintained at their homes while awaiting the settlement of heir pen.sicm. The decision by which the officer shul! I>".ve been permitted to establish his rights on the retired li.st shall become, in this case, irrevocable. The rule laid down in the first paragraph of the present Article shall not apply to the reserve of the active army nor to the territorial army. Akt. 8. Tlie exercise of public duties paid out of the treasury of the State is incompatible with the office of deputy. Consequently every official elected deputy shall be superseded in his duties if, within the eight days following the verification of powers, he has not signified that he does not accept the oflice of deputy. There are excepted from the preceding provisions the duties of Jlinister, Under Secretary of State, Ambassador, Minister Plenipotentiary, Prefect of the Seine, Prefect of Police, First President of the Court of Appeal ("cassation,") First Presi- dent of the Court of Accounts, First President of the Court of Appeal (" appel ") of Paris, Attorney General atthcCourtof Appeal ("cassati(m,") At- torney General at the Court of Accounts, Attorney General at the Court of Appeal ("appel ") of Paris, Archbishop and Bishop, Consistorial Presiding Pastor in consistorial districts whose capital has two or more pastors. Chief Itabbi of the Central C'jnsistory, Chief Rabbi of the Consistory of Paris. AiiT. 9. There are also excepted from tho provisions of Article 8: I. titular professors of chairs which are filled by competition or upon tho nomination of the bodie.'^ where the vacancy oc- curs ; II. persons who have been charged with a temporary mission. All missions continuing more than six months cease to be temporary and are governed by Article 8 above. 543 CONSTITUrnN OF FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. .Vkt. 10. Tin- ofllriiil i)rcHervfH tlic riffhtu wlilcli ho lilts iicqu'ri-d to a ritirliiK pciiHioii, iiiiil limy, ntlvr tlio i^xpirutiou of liis Icriii of olllcc, lio rcHtorcd t" iictive nerv ce. Tlio civil olliciiil wlio, )mvin){ liuil twenty vt' ir»of wrvic'c iit tlie iliitr of tilt' lU'iTplmici! of tfio ilHco of ilcputy, iinil hIiiiII Ik- fifty yciirH of ai[i- iit tlio time of tlie cxpinitioii of tills trriii of ollicc, iimy crtiililixh IiIh nj^litH to itn I'xccptioiiiii rctiriiiji; pciiHioii. Tliig pension shall li(^ regulated aeeordin); to tlie third Para- irniph of Article 13 of the law of June 9, \Hr,;i. If the (.(llcial is restored to active service after the expiration of his term of ulHce, the provisions of Article a, Parasraph 2, and Art'elc i'S of the law of June 0, 185!), shall apply to him. In dllti(^s where tlie rank is distinct from the em- ployment, the olllcial, liy the acceptance of the olBce of (h'puty, loses the emiiloyment and pre- serves the rank only. AiiT. 11. Every deputy appointed or pro- moted to a salaried public position ceases to belonf^ to the Cliamber by the very fact of his acceptance ; but he may be re-electe(l, if tlie ofllce which ho occupies is compatible with tlie olllce of deputy. Dcpuiies who become Ministers or Under-Secretaries of State are not subjected to a re-election. AiiT. 13. There shall not be elected by the arrondissement or tht! colony included wholly or partially in their jurisdiction, during the exercise of their duties or for six months lollowing the expiration of their duties due to resignation, dls- mlasal, change of residence, or any other cause: I. The First-Presidents, Presidents, and mem- bers of the Courts of Appeal ("appel"); II. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Titular Judges, Ex- amining Magistrates, and members of the tribu- nals of first instance; III. The Prefect of Police; the Prefects and General Secretaries of the Prefectures; the Governors, Directors of the In- terior, and General Secretaries of the Colonies; IV. The Chief Arrondissement Engineers and Chief Arrondissement Road-Surveyors; V. The School Rectors and Inspectors; VI. The Primary School Inspectors; VII. The Arch- bishops, Bishops, and Vicars General ; VIII. The General Paymasters and Special Receivers of Money ; IX. The Supervisors of Direct and Indi- rect Taxes, of Registration of Lands, and of Posts; X. The Guardians and Inspectors of For- ests. The Sub-Prefects shall not be elected in any of the arrondissements of the department where they perform their duties. AiiT. 13. Every imperative mandate is null and void. AuT. 14. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by single districts. Each administra- tive arrondissement shall elect one deputy. Ar- rondissements having more than 100,000 inhabit- ants shall elect one deputy in addition for every additional 100,000 inhabitants or fraction of 100,000. Arrondissements of this kind shall be divided into districts whose boundaries shall be es- tablished by law and may be changed only by law. Art. 15. Deputies shall be chosen for four years. The Chamber is renewable integrally. AliT. 16. In case of vacancy by death, resig- nation, or otherwise, a new election shall be held within three months of the date when the vacancy occurred. In case of option,' the viicincy shall be filled within one month. . when a deputy had been elected from two or mu.' oiatriota. AuT. 17. The dcpuiies sliall receive a salary. This salary is regulated by Articles Oil and 07 of tli(^ law of March 15, 1840, and by the provisions of the law of February 1(1, 1873. AiiT. 18. No one is elected on the first ballot unless he receives: (1) an absolute majority of tlie votes cast; (2) a number of votes eipiai to onefourtli of the number of voters registered. On tlie second ballot a plurality is sufilcient. In case of nil equality of votes, the oldest is de- clared elected. Aht. 10. Each department of Algeria electa one dejiuty. Abt. 20. The voters living in Algeria in a place not yet made a commune, shall be regis- tered on the electoral list of the nearest com- mune. When it is necessary to establish electoral districts, eitlier for the purpose of grouping mixed communes in each of which the niimlx;r of voters shall be iiisufilcient, or to bring togetiier voters living in places not formed into communes the decrees for tlxing the seat of these districts shall be issued by tlie Governor-General, upon the report of the Prefect or of the General com- manding the division. Aht. 21. The four colonies to which senators have been assigned by the law of February 34, 1875, on the organization of the Senate, shall choose one deputy each. AuT. 22. Every violation of the prohibitive provisions of Article 3, Paragraph 8, of the present law shall be punished by a fine of from sixteen francs to three hundred francs. Never- theless the criminal courts may apply Article 463 of the Penal Code. The provisions of Arti- cle 6 of tlie law of July 7, 1874, shall apply to the political electoral lists. The decree of Janu- ary 29, 1871, and the laws of April 10, 1871, May 2, 1871, and February 18, 1873, arc re- pealed. Paragraph 11 of Article 15 of the organic decree of February 2, 1858, is also re- pealed, in so far as it refers to tlie law of May 31, 1836, on lotteries, reserving, however, to the courts the right to apply to convicted persons Article 42 of the Penal Code. The provisions of the laws and decrees now in force, with which the present law docs not conflict, shall continue to be applied. Art. 23. The provision of Article 13 of the present law by which an interval of six months must elapse between the expiration of duties and election, shall not apply to olficials, excep!. Pre- fects and Sub-Prefects, whose duties shall have ceased either before the promulgation of the present law or within the twenty days follow- ing it. 1879. Law ReUtine to the Seat of the Executive Power ana of the Chamber; at Paris. July 22. Article 1. The seat of the Executive Power and of the two Chambers is at Paris. Art. 2. The Palace of the Luxemburg avl the Palais-Bourbon are assigned, the first to the use of the Senate, the second to that of the Chamber of Deputies. Nevertheless each of the Chambers is outhorized to choose, in the city of Paris, the palace which it wishes to occupy. Art. 3. The various parts of the palace of Ver- sailles now occupied by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies preserve their arrangements. When- ever, according to Articles 7 and 8 of the law of February 25, 1875, on the organization of the public powers, a meeting of the National Assem- 544 CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. bly tnkr» pliicc, It kIiiiII sit iit VcrsiilllcK, In tlip pri'MPiit liull iif tlu,' ('Iminbi'r nf Dcpiitii-H. WliPiicvpr, uccordliiff to Article of llic liiw of Fel)ruiiry 24, IHTn, on tin; orKimiziilioii of tlic Hciiiitc, iind Articli' I'J of Ilic conHtilnlioiml law of .Inly 10, lN7r>, on tlic ri'liitlotiH of tlu^ iMihlic powers, tlic Semite sliiill be call<'tl upon to con- Btltwte itHclf a ("ourt of Jiistiee, It hIuiU Indieuto the toivn and plaeo wliere It propowH to Hit. AuT. 4. Tlie Senate and CliHinber of DeputieH will Kit at Paris on and after NovenitM'r U next. AnT. a. The PresidentH of the Senate and (Chamber of Depiilles are charged with the duty of securing the external and int"rnal safety df th(^ Chambers over which they preside. To this vnd they have the right to call upon the armed force and every authority whose assistance tli(!y Judge necessary. The demands nniy be act- dressed directly to all odlcers, coninianders, or ofllcials, who arc bound to obey Immediately, under the penalties established by the luvs. The Presidents of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies may delegate to the (|uestors or to one of them their ri^ht of demanding aid. AuT. 6. Petitions to either of the Chnml)ers can be made and presented In writing only. It Is forbidden to present them In person or at the bur. AuT. 7. Every violation of the preceding article, every provocation, by speeches uttered publicly, or by writings, or printed matter, posted or distributed, to a crowd upon the piddic ways, having for an object the discussion, draw- ing up, or carrying to the Chambers or either of them, of petitions, declarations, or addresses — whether or not any results follow such action — shall be punislied by the penalties euumcrated In Paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the law of June 7, 1848. AiiT. 8. The preceding provisions do not diminish the force of the law of June 7, 1848, on riotous assemblies. Aht. 9. Article 463 of the Penal Co<le applies to the offences mentioned in the present law. 1884. Law Am<"i(line the Organic Laws on the Organization of the Senate and the Elections ot Senators. December 9. Abtici-e 1. The Senate consists of three hun- dred members, elected by the departments and the colonics. The present members, without any distinction between senators elected by the National Assembly or the Senate and those •elected by the departments and colonics, main- tain their term of office during the time for ■wldch they have been chosen. Art. 2. The department of the Seine elects ten senators. The deportment of the Nord elects •eight senators. The loUowing departments elect five senators each: C6te8-du-Nord, Finistire, Gironde, Ille-et-Vilaine, Loire, Loire-Infcrieure, Pas-de-Colais, Rhone, Sa6ne-et-Loire, 8eine-In- ferieure. The following departments elect four senators each ; Aisne, Bouche8-du-Rh6ne, Char- cnte - Infcricure, Dordogne, Haute - Garonne, Isdre, Maine-et-Loirc, Manche, Morbihan, Puy- de-D6me, Seine-et-Oise, Somme. The following •departmenta elect throe senators each: Ain, Allier, Ard^che, Ardennes, Aubc, Aude, Avey- ron, Calvados, Charente, Cher, Corrfize, Corse, COte-d'Or, Creuse, lloubs. Drome, Eure, Eure- et-Lolr, Qard, Gers, Herault, Indre, Indre-ct- Loire, Jura, Landes, Loir-et-Cher, Haute-Lolre, Loiret, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Marne, Haute-Mame, Mayenne, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Nidvre, Ol8P,()rne,Ua8He8-Pyrene<'K, HanteSartne, Sarthe, Savoie, ilaute-Savole, Seineet-Mnrne, Deux- SevrcH, Tarn, Var, V'endiV, Vienne, llaute- Vicnne, Vosges, Yonne. The following depart- ments cleft two senators each: nas.srs-Alpes, llautcs-Alpes, AliX'S .Maritinies, Arii^ge, Cantal, l.o/.iyre, llaulcs-Pyrenees, Pvrfinees-Orientaics, Tani-et-Oaronnc, Vanchise. The following elect one senator each; the Territory of Helfort, tho three departments of Algeria, tlie four colonies: iMurtinhiue, Guadeloupe, lii'iudon and Krencli Ii.dles. Aht. 8. In the departnient.s where the num- ber of senators Is increased by the present law, the increase shall take effect as vacancies occur among the life senators. To this end, within eight days after the vacancy occiirs, it shall l>e determined by lot what de])artment shall bo calle<l upon to elec^t a senator. This election shall take place within tliree months of the dc- terminatiim by lot. Furthermore, if the vacancy ocnirs within six months preceding the triennial el ^•ti(m, the vacancy shall be tilled at that election. The term of ofllce in this case shall expire at the siune time as that of the other senators belonging to the same department. AiiT. 4. No one shall l)e a senator unless ho Is a French citizen, forty years of age, at least, and enjoying civil and political right.s. Mem- lH?rs of families that have reigned in France are ineligible to the Senate. Aht. a. The soldiers of the land and naval forces cannot be elected senators. There are excepted from this provision: I. The Marshaln and Admirals of France; II. The general olllcers maiut^dned without limit of age in the tlrst sec- tion of the list of the general staff and not pro- vided with a command ; III. The general olHcc^rs placed in the second section of the list of the general .staff; IV. Soldiers of the land and naval forces who belong either to the reserve of the active ormy or to the territorial army. Aht. 6. Senators are elected by "scrutinde liste," by a college meeting at the capital of the department or colony, and composed: (1) of the Deputies; (2) of the General Councilors; (3) of the Arrondissement Councilors ; (4) of delegates elected from among the voters of the commune, by each Alunicipal Co\incil. Councils composed of ten members shall elect one delegate. Coun- cils composed of twelve members shall elect two delegates. Councils composed of sixteen mem- bers shall elect three delegates. Councils com- posed of twenty-one members shall ehict six delegates. Councils composed of twenty-three members shall elect nine delegates. Councils composed of twenty-seven members shall elect twelve delegates. Councils composed of thirty inemt)ers shall elect fifteen deleg.".tes. Councils composed of thirty-two members shall elect eighteen delegates. Councils compo.sed of thirty-four members shall elect twenty -one dele- gates. Councils composed of thirty -six members or more shall elect twenty-four delegates. The Munlcipol Council of Paris shall elect thirty delegates. In the French Indies the members of the local councils take the place of Arrondisse- ment Councilors. The JIunicipal Council of Pondichery shall elect five delegates. The Municipal Council of Karikal shall elect thrcS delegates. All the other communes shall elect two delpgates each. The balloting takes place at the capital of each district. 545 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF FHANCE. AliT, 7. McmliiTH iif tlic Hcimli' iirr clcrtcd for niiH' yciifH. Tin- Hcniil*' Ix rriii-wi'd cviTy three yeiirit aecortliiiK to llie oriler of tin- prcitcnt M'rieM uf <lL>|mrtnieiitH iiiul eoloiiieii. AiiT. 8. ArtlcleH 'J (imniKriiplm 1 nml 2), U, 4, S, H, 14, 10, lit Hliil Sa of the orKiinle \nw of Au^ilHt 2, 1H7A, on the Klectloim of SetiiilorH lire amuniled iih followH: "Art. 2(imrit>rmiihH 1 itiiil 2). In Riu'h Miiiiicipiil Coiiiiell the election of diOexateH tjikes plaee without debate and liy M'cretlmllot, l)y "wrutindeiiHte" and l)y imalmo- luti! majority of voteH euHl. After two liailotH a plurality \h Hiillleient, ami in eaxe of an e(|uality of vott'H tlie oldcHt in elected. Tlic procedure nnd tnetiiod Ih tlie Haine for tliu election of alter- natcH. OoiincilH having one, two, or thre<^ dele- gatcM to clioose Hliail elect one alternate. Tlione choosiiiff Hix or idne <leieKaleH elect two alter- nalcH. riioMe cliiMMtinK twelve or llfteen dele gat^M elect three alteriiateH. Those cliooHinj; ciKhtcon or twenty -one delegates elect four alter- nates. Those elKKwinx twenty-four deleijates elect live alternates. The Mun'icinai Council of Paris elects ei^lit alternates. 'I lie alterinites take the ])iacu of delegates in ca.se of refusal or inal)ility to serve, in tlie order deterniiiie(l hy the nuinlier of votes received by each of tlicni. Art. 3. In eoinniunes wliere llie duties of a Munici- pal Council are performed by a special delegation organized by virtue of Article 44 of the law of April 5, 1H84, the senatorial delegates and alter- nates shall be chosen by the old council. Art. 4. If the delegates were not pa'sent at the election, notice is given them by the Mayor within twenty-four liours. They must within live <lay8 notify the Prefect of their acceptance. In case of declination or silence they sliall be re- placed by the alternates, who are then placed upon the list as tlie delegates of the commune. Art. 5. The olllcial report of the election of delegates and alternates is transmitted at once to the Prefect. It indicates the acceptance or declination of tlie delegates and alternates, as ■well as the protests made bv one or more mem- bers of the Municipal Council against tlie legality of the election. A copy of this olllcial report Is posted on the door of the t<jwn hall. Art. 8. Protests concerning the election of delegates or alternates arc decided, subject to an appeal to the Council of State, by tlie Council of tlie Prefecture, and, in the colonies, by the Privy Council. Delegates whose election is set aside because they do not satisfy tlie conditions demanded by law, or because of informality, are replaced by the alternates. In case the election of a delegate and of an alternate is rendered void, as by the refusal or death of both after their acceptance, new elections are held by the Munici- pal Council on a day fixed by decree of the Pre- fect. Art. 14. The first ballot begins at eight o'clock In the morning and closes at noon. The second begins at two o'clock and closes at^ four o'clock. The third begins at seven o'clock and closes at ten o'clock. The results of the bal- lotings are determined by the bureau and an- nounced immediately by the President of the electoral follegc. Art. 10. Political meetings for the nomination of senators may be held from the date of the promulgation of the decree sum- moning the electors up to the day of the election inclusive. The declaration prescribed by Article 3 of the law of June 30, 1881, shall be made by two voters, at least. The forms and regulations of this Article, as well as those of Article .1, Nliall be obH<Tved. The members of Parliament elected or electors In the department, the sena- torial electors, delegates and iilternates, and the candidates, or their representatives, may alone be present at these meetlng.H. The municipal authorities will see to it lluit no other person is admitted. Delegates and alternates shall present as a means of Identitlcation a certiflcatu from the Mayor of the commune; candidates or their repn'sentativesa ci'rtiflcate frfim IheoHlelal who sliall have received the declaration men- tioned in Paragraph 3. Art. 10. Kvery attem,.l at corruption or constraint by the employment of means enumerated in Articles 177 and follow- ing of tlie Penal ('(mIc, to Infiuenee the vote of an elector or to keep him from voting, shall bo puni.slic<i by imprisonme.<l of from three montlia to two years, and by a fine of from fifty francs to five hundred francs, or by one of these penal- ties alone. Article 4(13 of the Penal Code is aji- plicable to the penalties provided for by tlw prcm'nt artlch;. Art. 23. Vacancies caused by tlu^ death or resignation of senators shall be filled within three months; moreover, if the vacancy occurs within the six months preceding the ed at th tions." triennial elections, it sliall be filled at those clcc- AuT. 0. There are repealed : (1) Articles 1 to 7 of the law of February 24, 1875, on the organi- zation of tlie Senate ; (2) Articles 24 and 25 of the law of August 2, 1875, on the elections of sena- tors. Temporary Provision. In case a special law on parliamentary incom- patibilities shall not liave been passed at the date of the next senatorial elections. Article 8, of the law of November 30, 1875, shall ajiply to those elections. Every official affected by this provision, who has had twenty years of service and is fifty years of age at the date of Ids ac- ceptance of the olHco [of senator], may establish his right to a proportional retiring pension, which shall be governed by the third paragraph of Article 12, of the law of June 0, 1853. 1885. Law Amending the Electoral Law. June 16, [AkticleI.' The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by " scrutin de listc." Art. 2. Each department elects the number of deputies assigned to it in the table' annexed to the present law, on the basis of one deputy for seventy thousand inhabitants, foreign residents not included. Account shall be taken, never- theless, of every fraction smaller than seventy thousand.' Each department elects at least three deputies. Two deputies are assigned to the territory of Belfort, six to Algeria, and t«n to the colonies, as is indicated by the table. This table can be changed by law only. AuT. 3. The department forms a single elec- toral district.] Art. 4. Members of families that have reigned in France are ineligible to the Chamber of Deputies. Art. 5. No one is elected on the first ballot unless he receives: (1) an absolute majority of ' Articles 1, S and 3 repealed by the law of February 13, 1880, infra. ' Tills table may be found In the Bullethi <les Lois, twelfth series, No. 15,518 ; and In the Journal Offlciel for June 17, 1HK5, p. 8074. > i. «., fractious of less than 70,000 are entitled to a. deputy. 546 CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. CONSTITUTION OF GEUMANY. Ilio votcH ciiHt ; (2) a iuiihImt of viilcii (Miunl to imc-fdurtli of the totiil iiiiinlH'r of voters tckIh- tcn'd. Oil till' m-conil ballot i\ pliimllty Ih Hiif- flciciit. Ill a\M\ of iiii riiuitlity of votJ's, the olili'Ht of the ciinilliljitcH is <l('('liiri'(l elected. AllT. (t. Hiilijeet to tile etiHe of ii ilJHHollltiiin foreseen anil reKiilateil by tlie ConHtitiitlon, tliu general eleitloiiH take plaee wltliin Hixty dav" prceediii); tlie expiration of tlie powers of 'lie Chamber of DeputleH. Aht. 7. Viicunek'H itliall not be llllfd wlik'li oeeiir in tlio hIx inontliH pn-eodlnK tbu renewal of the Clmmber. 1887. Law on Parliamentary Incompati- bilitiei. December a6. Until the piiHHiiKi' of a Hpeeial law on parlia- mentary ineonipatibilitiex, ArticleH H and of tlie law of November HO, 1H75, Hliall apply to senatorial elections. Every olllcial afTected liy this provision who lias hiul twenty years of sef- vlco f "i l» ilfty years of a)?o at "the time of his acci- ■■ ■nee of the otilce [of senator], may estab- lish Ills riRlit.s to a proportional retiring pension, which shall be fjoverned by the third pamgruph of Article 13 <if the law of .June I), IH.W. 1889. Law Re-establishing Single Districts for the Election of Deputies. February 13. Aktici.I'. 1. Articles 1, 3 and !1 of the law of .lune 16, 1HH5, are re^)ealed. Akt. a. Members of the Chamber of Depu- ties are elected by sin);Ie districts. Each ad- ininistrutive arrondissement In the departments, and eaeli municipal arrondissement at I'aris and at Lyons, elects one deputy. Arrondis-sements whose population (^xceeils one hundred thousand inhabitnnts elect an additional deputy for every one hundred thousand or fraction of one hun- dred thousand inhabitants. The arrondissements are in this case divided into di.slrlcts, u table' of which is annexed to the present law and can be changed by a law only. ■ Tills table may be found In the Journal OMciel for Kebniary 14, IHHll, pp. 70 anU following ; and In the Bulle- tin det Loit, twelfth sertea, No. 120,47$. AuT. :). One deputy is aiwiKned to the terri- tory of llelfort, six to Algeria, ami ten to the colonies, as is indicated by the table. Altr. 4. On and after the pi'oiiiul);ation of the presi'ut law, iiiilll llie renewal of tlieChant- iMTof Deputies, vaeiiiieles o<>currili|{ ill the Cham- ber of Deputies shiill not be tilled. 1889. Law on Multiple Candidatures. July AuTK'M': 1. No one may 1m' a caiidldiile In more than one district. Aht. 3. Every citizen who olTers himself or Is offered at tlic^ general or partial elei tions must, by a declaration siKneil or <'oiiiiterslKiied by liiiii- wdf, and duly legalized, make known in what district he means to be a eandidate. This de- claration is deposited, and a jirovisional receipt obUilned therefor, at the Prefecture of the department corcerned, the llflli day, at latest, before the day of election, A delliiilive receipt shall be delivered within twenty-four hours. AuT. it. Every declaration iiiade in violation of Article 1 of the present law is void and not to be received. If declarations are denoslted by the same citizen in more than one district, the earliest in date is alone valid. If they bear thu same date, all are void. AuT. 4. It is forbidden to sign or post pla- cards, to carry or distributee ballots, circulars, or platforms in the interest of a candidate who has not conformed to the reiiulrementsof the present law. AiiT. a. liiillots bearing the name of a citizen whose candidacy Is |)ut forward in violation of the present law shall not be Included in the re- turn of votes. Posters, placards, iilatforms, and ballots posted or distributed to support a candi- dacy in a district where such caiulidacy is con- trary to the law, shall be removed or seized. AiiT. 0. A flue of ten tllou^•an(l fnincs shall be imposed on the candidate violating the pro- visions of the present law, and one of Ave thou- sand francs on all persons acting in violutiou of Article 4 of the present law. CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. I3th-i7th Centuries.— The" Old (Holy Ro- man) Empire. — The Golden Bull. See Qeh- MANv: A. I). lU'.l-ll.W; i:M~-1403; and DiKT, TiiK Qeumanic. A. D. 1815.— The Confederation. See Ger- many: A. D. 1814-1820. A. D. 1871.— The New Empire.— On the 18th day of .January, 1871 ; at Versailles, King William of Prussia assumed the title of German Emperor. On the 16th of April following the Emperor Lssiied a proclamation, by and with the consent of tlio Council of the German Confeder- ation, and of the Imperial Diet, decreeing the adoption of a constitution for the Empire. See Germany: A. D. 1871 (Januauy) and (April). The following is a translation of the text of the Constitution, as transmitted by the American Minister ot Berlin to his Government: His Majesty the King of Prussia, in tlie name of the North German Union, His Majesty the King of Bavaria, His Majesty the King of Wtlrtemberg, His Itoyal Highness the Grand Duke of Hiidcn, and His Royal Highness the Grand Duke of llesse, and by llhine for those parts of the Grand Duchy of Hesse which are situated south of the Main, conclude an eternal alliance for the protection of the territory of the confcderntion, and of the laws of the same, a» well as for the promotion of the welfare of the German people. This confederation shall bear the name of the German Empire, and shall have vl the following constitution. I.— Territory. Article i. The territory of the confederation shall consist of the States of Prussia, with Lunen- burg, Bavaria, Saxony, WUrtcmberg, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Saxe-Weimar, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Sa.\e-Cobnrg- Gotha, Anhalt, Sehwarzburg - Kudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Woldeck, Heuss of the elder branch, Keuss of the younger branch, Schaumburg-Jjippc, Lippe, Lubeck, Bremen, and Hamburg. II.— Legislation of the Empire. Article 2. AVitliin this territory the Empire shall have the right of legislation according to the provisions of this constitution, and the law» 547 CONSTITUTION OF OKHM\NY. CONSTITUTION OK OKHMANY. iif till' Kiiiiilri* Hlmll tiiki* pri'ii'tli'iu'c of iIkim' uf ciicli liiilivliliiiil Htalc. The litwN of III*' Ijiipiri' nIiiiII III' ri'iiili'r<'(l liliuiiiiK I'y liiiixTiiil iiroiliiiiiu tioii, Niicli |iriK'liiiMittiiiii til III' iiuIiIIkIh'iI in ii Jiiiiriiiil ili'vnti'il til I III' |iulillrittliiii of till' liiWM iif till' Kiii|iiri', (Iti'lrliHKi'iu't/.iiliilt.) If no otliiT IMtIoiI nIiiiII III' ilrnlKlliltril ill llii' pilliliHlii'il luw fur it III taki' I'tTrrI, it hIiiiII tiiki' t'lTcct on tlir foiirti'i'Mtli iliiv iiflir till' iliiy of itH pi|lill''iitii>:i 111 till' liiw-jouriial lit. liiTlin. Article 3. TliiTr is imn citl/.i-nHliip for all OiTiiiuny, mill tlic lili/riis or Hiihji'cts of cttcli hUU' of till- fi'iliTittliiii nIiuII li(t tri'iiti'il 111 uvrry iitlicr Ntiili' lliiTiuif If* iiiitivrH, iiiiil Hliitll liuvr till' rl){lil of lH'romin>{ piTiiiiiiirnt rrHlili'iilH, of riirry iugoii IiiinIiii'hm, of lining pulilic otIlcvH, unit iiiiiy iicqulri' itll civil rlKlitx on tliv hiij'ic coniiitiiiim iih thuHo iHirii in tlii' Htiiti', itnil nIiuII hIho liiivi' tlir Hiiiiic iiHii;;!' iiM ri'KorilH livil nm-itiitions iinil tiw. {irutcction of tliu Iiiwh. No drrniim hIiiiII be iinittfd, ill till) (!Xpr('ls<! of this privili'gc, liy tlii! nutliortticH of liiH niitivo Hliiti), or by tlio iiutliori- tlrM of liny otlirr Ktiito of the confi'ik'nition. Till' ri'KiiliilionH K"*''''"iihiK ll»' f'liri' of piiupiTs, unit their luliniwiiiiii into tlii' various purislii'S, ur«.' not Hfli'Ctril by tlii' iirimlplr I'liiiniiiiteil in the llrsi pariigriiph. In llki' iimnncr those treaties Hhali reniiiiii in foree whieh have liee-i coneliideil between the various states of the feileration in relation to the eustinly of persons who are to be bunishei], the care of sick, ami the burial of (leceaseil citizens. With rejjaril to the n'liilering <if iiiliitary service to the various states, the necessary laws will be passed hereafter. All Uerniaiis in foreif^n countries shall have equal claims upon the prutectiou of the Knipire. Article 4. 'Iho fullowiug matters shall be under the suiiervlsloa of the Empire and Its legislature; 1. The privilege of carrying on trade in more than one place; domestic affairs and matters relating to the settlement of natives of one state in the territory of another ; the right of citizenslii|i; the issuing and examination of passports; surveillance of foreigners and of manufactures, together with insurance business, 80 far as these matters are not already provided for by article 8 of this constitution, (in Uavaria, however, exclusive of domestic oSairs and mat- ters relating to the settlement of natives of one state in the territory of another;) and likewise matters relating to colonization and emigration to foreign countries. 2. Legislation oncerning custoiiis duties and commerce, and such imposts as are to be applied to the uses of the Empire. 8. llegulatiou of weights and racf ■,'• of the coinage, together with the eraisaii . funded and unfunded paper monej . 4. Bi.uUing regu- lations in general. 5. Patents for inventions. 0. The protection of literary property. 7. The organization of a general system of protection for Qerman trade in foreign countries ; of Qerman navigation, and of tlie German flag on the high seas; likewise the organization of u general consular representation of the Empire. 8. Hail- way matters, (subject in Bavaria to the provisions of article 40,) and the construction of rac-s of communication by land and water for tlie pur- goses of home defense and of general commerce. Rafting and navigation upon those waters ■which are common to several States, and the condition of such waters, as likewise river and other water dues. 10. Postal and telegraphic affairs ; but in Bavaria and Hungary these shall be subject to the provisiiins of article 53. 11. Iti'giiialions ciiiiri'riiing the exeiniliiin of Judicial Hi'iiti'iii'i'S in civil nialtera, and the fuilllliiirni of ri'i|iiiHitliiim in general. I'i. The aiillu'iitiriitlon of public docuinents. HI. (Jeiieral legiHiiiliiin regarding tlie law of obligalions, criniliial law, I'oinmeri'lal law, and the law of exchange; like- wise JuiHrial pMceedings. 14. The liiiperlal army and navy. ITi. The surveillanre of the mi'ilicid and veterinary |irofeHHions. 10. The pri'ss, tiiwles' unions, Ac. Article 5. The legislative power of the Empire sliall be exereisi'd by the federal (Miiincil and the diet. A majority of the votes of both houses shall be necessary and sulllcieiit for the passage of a law. When a law is proposed in relation to the army or navy, or to the imposts specitled In article '•)!>. the vote of the presldiiig ollleer shall ileeida|| in cas<! of a dllTerence of opinion in the federal council, if said vote shall be in favor of the retention of the existing arrangements. III. — Federal Council. Article 6. The federal council shall consist of the representatives of the states of the confedem- tion, among whom the votes shall be divhied in such a manner that Prussia, including the former votes of Hanover, the electorale of Ilessc, Hol- stein, Nassau, and Frankfort shall have 17 votes; Bavaria, votes; Saxony, 4 votes; WUrtemlx'rg, 4 votes; Baden, II votes; IIes.se, 8 vot«'s; Mecklen- burg-Schwerin, 2 votes; Saxe- Weimar, 1 vote; Mei'klenburg-.Streilt/,, Ivote; Oldenburg, Ivoto; Brunswick, 2 votes; Saxe-Meiningen, 1 vote; Saxe-Altcnburg, 1 vote; Saxe-Coburg-Ootha, 1 vote; Anhalt, T vote; Hchwarzburg-Uudolstadt, 1 vote ; Schwarzburg-8oudershau.sen, 1 vote ; Wal- dcck, Ivote; Heuss, elder branch, 1 vote; lieuss, ■ younger branch, 1 vote ; Schaumburgh-Lliipe, 1 vote; Lippc, 1 vote; Lubeck, 1 vote; Bremen, 1 vote; Hamburgh, 1 vote; total 58 vnies. Each membei of the confederation shall appoint as many delegates to the federal council as it has votes ; the total of the votes of each state shall, however, be cast by only one delegate. Article 7. The federal council shall take liction upon — 1. The measures to lie jiroposed to the diet and the resolutions passed by the same. 2. The general provisions and regulations necessary for the cxccutioo of the laws of the Empire, si) far OS no other provision is made by said laws. 3. The defects which moy be discovered in the execution of the laws of the Empire, or of the provisions r. d regulations heretofore mentioned. Each member of the confederation shall have the right to introduce motions, and it shall be the duty of the presiding officer to submit them for deliberation. Legislative action shall take place by simple majority, with the exceptions of the provisions in articles 5, 87, and 78. Votes not represented or instructed shall not be counted. In the case of a tie, the vote of the presiding officer shall decide. When legislative action upon a subject which does not affect, according to the provisions of this constitution, the whole Empire is taken, the votes of only those states of the confederation shall be counted which shall be interested in the matter in question. Article 8. The federal council shall appoint from its own members permanent committees — 1. On the amy and the fortiflcations. 2. On naval affairs. ? On duties and taxes. 4. On commerce and .-ado. 5. On railroads, post / 548 \Jt^ i^X CONSTITUTION OF aEHMANV. CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. <>ni('('H, mill tc'li'i(miiliH. ft. On the Jiiillcliiry. 7. On itri'oiinlH. In I'ltcli nf (Iicho ciininiltti'cM tlirro hIiiiII Im' ri'prrsintativiH of iit IntHl four Htatrx iif till- <'i)nfi'ili'riilii)n, lirslili' the lirt'Hiilini( ollh'i'r, itnil I'lirli Hiati' Hliail lir rntltlcii to only one voti' in tlir winii'. In llic ciiinniittri' on llii' army anil fortlllrationH Bavaria NJiall liavr a per niiiru'nt rtcat ; tlir rrinalnini; nirniliiTs of It, tin wril itH llii' nirinlirrx of llii' coinrnittiT on naval ulTalrs, hIuiII I>i' a|ipiiinlril tiy the Kniprror : the nicnilirrHof tlir ollirr coniniflli'rH Hliall ln'clrcti'il by tlic fi'iliTitl ciiuncll. TIh'hc comnilttii's Hliall !)(• iii'wly forinril at racli ki'msIoii of tlir fnliral rouiicil, i. <'. , I'auli yrar, when tlii^ rcllrliij? nii'iii- Imth Hliall a^aln bo cliffibli'. Bi'siili'S, tlicrt' Hliall bo appiiintcil ill the federal roiincil a con 'iiitlei! on fori'lKii airairs, over wliieli Bavaria nliali pre- Hiile, to lie eonipimed of tlie plenlpotelitiarieH of llie Kliijfdom.sof Bavaria, Haxony, and WUrteiii- l)er((, and of two plenlpotelitiarieH of the other Htates of till! Knipire, wlio Hliall be elected animally by the federal couneil. ClerkH Hliall be placed at the dinponal of the ooiiiniittees to per- forin the neeoHsary work appertaining thiTcto. Article 9. Kacli ineinbcr of the federal ruiin- cil NJiaii have the right to appear in the diet, and J gbail be heard tlieru at any tliP'i . ..en he Khali ho reijucHt, to represent the viewH of bin govern- ment, even when the same shall not liiivo been adopted by the majority of the couuril. Nobixly shall beat the name time a member of the federal coiiiieii and of the diet. Article 10. The Emperor Hball alTord the cuHtiimary diplnmatio prutcution to the members of tlie federal couneil. IV.— Presidium. Article II. The King of Prussia sliall bo the president of the eonfeireratloii, and shall have the title of Gorman Kmpcror. Tho Emperor shall represent the Empire among nations, declare _l war, and conclude peace in tlie name of the same, enter into alliances and other conventions with foreign countries, accredit embassiidors, and receive them. For a declaration of war in the name of the Empire, the consent of the federal V council Hhall be required, except in case of an attack upon the territory of the confederation or its coasts. So far as treaties with foreign coun- tries refer to matters which, acconling to article 4, are to '■ regulated by the legislature of tho Empir( Jic onsent of the federal council u:iall borer,, i/ed ft their ratification, and the approval > . tue diet sh. 11 bo necessary to render them valid. Article 12. The Emperor shall have the right ■ to convene the federal counci' and the diet, and to open, adjourn, and close them. Article 13. The convocation of the federal council and tho diet shall take place annually, and the federal counci' may be called together for the preparation of business without the diet ; the latter, however, shall not be convoked without the federal council. Article 14. The convocation of tho federal 4 couneil shall take place as soon as demanded by one-third of its members. Article 15. The chancellor of the Empire, who shall be appointed by the Emperor, shall preside V in the federal council, and supervise the conduct of its business. The chancellor of the Empire shall have the right to delegate the power to represent him to any member of the federal couaciL Article 16. The iicroHHary bill.H Hhall bo laid lii'fiiri' llio ilii't in tho name of the Knipenir, in aroordanoo with ll'o rrHoliillons of the fodoral niuiiril, and they nliall Im' roproKonteil in Ilio diet ■* by tiioiiiliorH of the fodrral oDunoil or by H|H'cial ('oiiiiiiJMKiiiiii'rs aiipoiiilod by naid iiiiinill. Article 17. 'ro the Kiiipomr hIiiiII iK'long tliii rJKht to prepare and puIiIIhIi the laws of the Empire. Tlii^ laws and rigiilatloiiH of tho j Empornr Hliall Ih! published in the name of tliii Enijiiri', and reiiiilro for their validity the nlgna- ture of the (•liancolior of the Empire, who thuru- by boeoiiioH roHpiinsilile for tli"ir execution. Article 18. Tho Einporor Hhall appoint tho ollloers of the Empire, roiiuire them to take tliu oath of allegiiinoe, and disiiiiss them when iioeoH- Hary. Oltlcials appointed • 1 an olllio of tlio Empire from one of the staloH of the (•unfodora- tion Hhall enjoy tho same rights to which they wen- entillod in their native Htates by their ollleial position, provided no other legiHlalivo provinion Hhall have been made previoUHly to their entrance into the service of the Empire. Article 19. If Htates of the confederation Hhall not fultlll their coiistilutional duties, pro- ceedings may bo instituted again.st them by mili- tary oxecutiim. This execution sliull be ordered by tho federal council, and enforced by tho Emperor. Vi-Diet. Article 30. The members of the diet shall lie elected by universal suffrage, and by direct secret ballot. Until regulatod by law, which is reserved by section 5 of the election law of May 31, 1869 (Bundesgosotzblatt, 1800, section 146,) 48 dele- gates shall bo elected in IJavaria, 17 in Wtlrtom- berg, 14 in Baden, in llosso, south of tho river . Main, and tlie total number of delegates shall bo ' »83. Article ai. Officials shall not require a leave of absence in order to enter the diet. When a memlior of tho diet accepts a salaried office of the Empire, or a salaried office in one of tho states of the confederation, or accepts any office of tho Empire, or of a state, with \ 'hich a high rank or salary is connected, he sluiL forfeit his seat and vote in tho diet, but may recover his place in the same by a new election. Article 22. The proceedings of the diet siiall be public. Truthful reports of tho proceedings of tlio public sessions of tlio diet shall subject < those making tliem to no responsibility. Article 23. Tho diet shall have the right tc propose laws within tiie jurisdiction of tho ^ Empire, and to refer petitions addressed to it to tlie federal council or tlie chancellor of tho Empire. Article 24. Each legislative period of tho diet siiall last three yours. The diet may be dis- j solved by a resolution of tlio federal council, with the consent of the Emperor. Article 25. In the case of a dissolution of tlio diet, new elections shall take place within a period of 00 days, and the diet siiall reassemble '' witliin a period of 90 days after the dissolution. Article 26. Unless by consent of the diet, un adjournment of that body shall not exceed tho period of 30 daya, and shall not be repeated during the same jession, without such consent. Article 27. The diet sliall examine into tho legality of tho election of its members and decide thereon. It shall regulate the mode of transact- ing business, and its ov/n discipline, by establish- 549 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. ln>,' rules therefor, and elect its president, vice- presidents, iiiid secretaries. Article 28. The diet .slinll pii^ laws by absolute majority. To render the 1 ssage of ^ laws valid, tlie presence of the majority of the legal n\iml)er of members shidl be required. Wlien passing laws which <lo not affect the whole Empire, according to the provisions of this con- stitution, the votes of only those members shall be co>intc<l who shall have been elected in those states of the confederation wliich the laws to be passeil shall affect. Article 29. The members of the diet shall be the representatives of the entire people, and shall not be sul)ject to orders and instructions from their constituents. Article 30. No member of the diet shall at any time suffer legal prosecution on account of his vote, or on account of utterances made while in the jjcrformance of his functions, or be held resi)onsible outside of the diet for his actions. * Article 31. Without the consent of the diet, none of its members shall l)e tried or punished, during the session, for any offense committed, except when arrested in the act of committing the offense, or in the course of the following day. The same rule shall apply in the case of arrests for debt. At the request of the diet, all legal proceedings instituted against one of its mem- bers, and liliewise imprisonment, shall be sus- pended during its session. Article 32. The members of the diet shall J not be allowed to draw any salary, or be compen- sated as such. VI. — Customs and Commerce. Article 33. Germany sliall form a customs and commercial union, having a common frontier for the collection of duties. Such territories as cannot, by reason of their situation, be suitably embraced within the said frontier, shall l)e excluded. It shall be lawful to introduce all articles of commerce of a state of the confedera- tion into any other «ite of the confederation, without paying any duty thereon, except so far as such articles are subject to taxation therein. Article 34. Tlie uanseatic towns, Bremen and Hamburg, shall remain free ports outside of J tiie common boundary of the customs union, retaining for that purpose a district of their own, or of the surrounding territory, until they shall request to be admitted into the said union. Article 35. The Empire shall have the exclu- sive power to legislate concerning everything relating to the customs, the taxation of salt and tobacco manufactured or raised in the territory of the confederation ; concerning the taxation of manufactured brandy and beer, and of sugar and sirup prepared from beets or other domestic pro- ductions. It shall have exclusive power to legis- late concerning the mutual protection of taxes upon articles of consumption levied in the several states of the Empire ; against embezzlement ; as well as concerning the measures which are required, in granting exemption from the pay- ment of duties, for the security of the common customs frontier. iU Bavaria, WUrtemberg, and Baden, the matter of imposing duties on domes- tic brandy and beer is reserved for the legislature of each country. The states of the confederation shall, however, endeavor to bring about uniform legislation regarding the taxation of chese articles. Article 36. The imposing of duties and excises on articles of consumption, and the collec- tion of the same (article 3.'),) is left to each state of the confederation within its own territory, so far as this has been done by each state hirntofo'c. The Emperor shall have the supervision of ttit institution of legal proceedings ijy otlicials of t.ie empire, whom he shall designate as adjuncts to the custom or excise offlces, and boards of direc- tors of the several states, after hearing the committee of the Confederate Council on customs and revenues. Notices given by these otlicials as to defects in the execution of the laws of the Empire (article 35) shall be submitted to the confederate coimcil for action. Article 37. In taking action upon the rules and regulations for the execution of tlie laws of the Empire, (article 35,) the vote of the presiding officer shall decide, whenever he shall pronounce for upholding tlie existing rule or regulation. Article 38. The amounts accruing from cus- toms and otlier revenues designated in article 85 of the latter, so far as they are subject to legis- lation by the diet, shall go to the treasury of the Empire. This amount is made up of the total receipts from the customs and otlier revenues, after deducting therefrom — 1. Tax compensa- tions and reductions in conformity with existing laws or regulations. 2. Reimbursements for taxes unduly imposed. 8. The costs for collec- tion and administration, viz. : a. In the depart- ment of customs, the costs which are required for the protection and collection of customs on the frontiers and in the frontier districts, b. In the department of the duty on salt, the costs whicli are used for the pay of tlie officers charged with collecting and controlling these duties in the salt mines, c. In the department of duties on beet-sugar and tobacco, the compensation which is to be allowed, according to the resolutions of the confederate council, to the several state governments for the costs of tlie collection of these duties, d. Fifteen per cent, of tlic total receipts in the departments of the other duties. The territories situated outside of the common customs frontier shall contribute to the expenses of the Empire by paying an 'aversum,' (a sum of acquittance.) Bavaria, WUrtemberg, and Baden shall not share in the revenues from duties on liquors and beer, which go into the treasury of the Empire, nor in the corresponding portion of the aforesaid ' aversum. ' Article 39. Tlie quarterly statements to be regularly made by the revenue officers of the federal states at the end of every quarter, and the final settlements (to be made at the end of the year, and after the closing of the account- books) of the receipts from customs, wliich have become due in the course of tlie quarter, or during the fiscal year, and the revenues of the treasury of the Empire, according to article 38, shall be arranged by the boards of directors of the federal states, after a previous examination in general summaries in which every duty is to be shown separately ; t'lcsc summaries sliall be transmitted to the fedc'.al committee on accounts. The latter provisional'.y fixes, every three months, taking as a basis th ;se summaries, the amount due to the treasury 01 the Empire from the treas- ury of each state, and it su.-'U inform the federal council and the federal States 01 this act ; furtlier- Kiore, it shall submit to the federal council, aniiually, the final statement of these amounts, with :ts remarks. The federal council shall act upon f-c- fixing of these amounts. 660 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. Article 40. The terms of the customs-union treaty of July 8, 1867, rciuiiin in force, so far ns they have not been altenMl l>y tlie Provisions of this constitution, and as long us they are not alicred iii the manner designated iu articles? and 78. VII. — Railways. Article 41. Hallways, which are considered necessary for the defense of Germany or for pur- poses of general eonuuerce, may be built for the account of tlie Empire by a law of the Emi)ire, i even in opposition to the will of those members of the confederation through whose territory the railroads run, without detracting from the rights of the sovereign of that country ; or private persons may be charged with tlieir construction and receive rights of expropriation. Every ex- isting railway company is bound to permit new railroad lines to be connected with it, at the expense of these latter. All laws granting cxlstiug railway companies the right of injimction against the builtling of parallel or competition lines are hereby abolished throughout the Empire, without detriment to rights already acquired. Such right of injunction can henceforth not be granted in concessions to be given hereafter. Article 42. The governments of the federal states bind themselves, in the interest of general commerce, to have the German railways managed as a uniform net- work, and for this purpose to have the lines constructed and equipped accord- ing to a uniform system. Article 43. Accordingly, as soon as possible, uniform arrangements as to management, shall be made, and especially shall uniform regulations be instituted for the police of the railroads. Tiie Empire shall take care that the administrative olHeers of the railway lines keep the roads alwavs in such a condition us is required for public security, and that they bo equipped with the necessary rolling stock. Article 44. Railway companies arc bound to cstiiblish such passenger trains of suitable velocity as may be required for ordinary travel, and for the establishment of harmonizing sched- ules of travel ; also, to make provision for such freight trains as may be necessary for commercial purposes, and to establish, without extra remun- eration, offices for the d'^ect forwarding of pas- sengers and freight trains, to be transferred, when necessary, from one road to another. Article 45. The Empire shall have control over the tariff of fares. The same shall endeavor j to cause — 1. Uniform regulations to be speedily introduced Ol^ all German railway lines. 2. The tariff to be reduced and made uniform as far as possible, and particularly to cause a reduction of the tariff for the transport of coal, coke, wood, minerals, stone, salt, crude iron, manure, and similar articles, for long distances, as de- manded by the interests of agriculture and industry, and to introduce a one-penny tariff as soon as practicable. Article 46. In case of distress, especially in case of an extraordinary rise in the price of pro- visions, it shall bo the duty of the railway com- panies to adopt temporarily a low special tjiriff, to be fixed by the Emperor, on motion of the competent committee, for the forwarding of grain, flour, vegetables, and potatoes. This tariff shall, however, not be less than the lowest rate for raw produce exisiing on the said line. The foregoing provisions, and those of articles 42 to 4.';, shall not apply to Bavaria. Tlie imperia\ government has, however, the power, also with reganl to Havana, to cstablisli, by way of legislation, uniform rules for the construction and equipment of such railways as may bo of importance for the defense of the country. Article 47. The managers of all railways shall bo required to obey, without hesitation, requisitions made by the authorities of tlio Empire for the use of their roads for the defeuso of Germany. Particularly shall the military and all material of war be forwarded at uniform reduced rates. VIII. — Mails and Telegraphs. Article 48. The; mails and telegraphs shall bo organized and managed as state institutions throughout tlie German Empire. The legislation of the empire in regard to postal and telegniijliic affairs, provided for in article 4, does not extend to those matters whose regulation is left to tlio Inanagerial arrangement, according to the princi- l)les which have controlled the North Gennau administration of mails and telegraphs. Article 49. The receipts of mails and tele- graphs are a joint affoir throughout the Empire. The expenses shall bo paid from the general receipts. The surplus goes into the treasury of the Empire. (Section 12.) Article 50. The Emperor has the supremo suiiervisiou of the administration of mails and telegraiihs. The authorities appointed by him are in duty bound and uuthorizc'd to see that uniformitjr be established and maintained in the organization of the administration and in tlio transaction of business, as al.so in regard to the qualifications of employes. The Fmperor shall have the power to make general administrativo regulation.s, and al.so exclusively to regulate the relations which are to exist between the post and telegraph offices of Germany and those of other countries. It shall be the duty of all officers of the post-office and telegraph department to obey imperial orders. This obligation shall be included in their oath of office. The apiiointnient of superior officers (such as directors, counselors, and superintendents,) as they shall be required for the administration of the mails and telegraphs, in the various districts ; also the appointment of officers of the posts and telegraphs (such as inspectors or comptrollers,) acting for the afore- said authorities in the several districts, in the capacity of supervisors, shall bo made by tho Emperor for the whole territory of the German Empire, and these officers shall take the oaiu ^f fealty to him as a part of their oath of office. The governments of the several states shall be informed in due time, by means of imperial con- firmation and official publication, of the afore- mentioned appointments, so far as they may relate to their territories. Other officers required by the department of mails and telegraphs, as also all olllcers to be employed at the various stations, and for technical purposes, and hence officiating at the actual centers of communica- tion, &c., shall be appointed by the respective governments of the states. Where there is no independent administration of inland mails or telegraphs, the terms of the various treaties are to be enforced. Article 51. In assigning the surplus of the post-office department to the treasury of tlio Empire for general purposes, (article 49,) tlio following proceeding is to be observed in con- 551 CONSTITUTION OF OEUMANY. CONSTITUTION OP OEUMANY. Nidcrotlon of the diffcrcnco which has licretoforo existed in tho clear receipts of tlie post-ofilce departments of tlio several territories, for tho fmrposo of 8<t;viiiiig a suitable e(iualizalion dur- ng tlic period of transition below named. Of the p<ist-ofiice surplus, which accumulated in the several mail districts during the tivo years from IHOl to 1885, nn average yearly surplus shall be computed, and the share which every separate mail district has had in tho surplus resulting therefrom for the whole territory of l!ie Empire shall be fixed upon by a percentage. In :\cconl- ancc with the proportion thus made, the several states shall be credited on the account of their otlier contributions to tlie exvenscs of the empire with their quota accruing from the postal surplus in the Empire, for a period of eiplit years subse- quent to their entrance into the post-oflico department of tho Empire. At the end of tlie 3aid eight years this distinction sliall cease, and any surplus in the post-oflico department sliall go, without division, into tho treasury of the Empire, according to the principle enunciated in article 49. Of the quota of the post-olflce department surpl'is resulting during the afore- mentioned period of eiglit years in favor of the Hanscatic towns, one-half shall every year be placed at the disposal of the Emperor, for the purpose of providing for the establishment of uniform post-offlces in tlie Hanseatic towns. Article 52. The stipulations of the foregoing articles 48 to 51 do not apply to Bavaria and ^ Wilrtemberg. In their stead the following stipu- lation shall be valid for these two states of tho confederation. The Empire alone is authorized to legislate upon the privileges of the post-oflico and telegraph departments, on the legal position of both institutions toward the public, upon the franking privilege and rates of postage, and upon the establishment of rates for telegraphic corres- pondence into Hanseatic towns. Exclusive, however, of managerial arrangements, and the fixing of tariffs for internal communication within Bavaria and WUrtemberg. In the same manner the Empire shall regulate postal and te'^i^raphic communication with foreign coun- tries excepting the immediate communication of Bavaria and WUrtemberg with their neighboring statci, not belonging to the Empire, in regard to which regulation the stipulations in article 49 of the postal treaty of November 33, 1867, remains in force. Bavoria and Wilrtemberg shall not share in the postal and telegraphic receipts which belong to the treasury of the Empire. IX. — Marine and NaTigation. Article 53. The navy of the Empire is a J united one, under the supremo command of tho Emperor. The Emperor is charged with its organization and arrangement, and he shall appoint the officers and officials of the navy, and in his name these and the seamen are to be sworn in. The harbor of Kiel and the harbor of the lade are imperial war harbors. The expendi- tures required for tho establishment and main- tenance of the navy and the institutions connected therewith shall bo defrayed from the treasury of the Empire. All sea-faring men of the Empire, including machinists and hands vni)loycd in ship-building, are exempt from *Tvice in the nrmy, but obliged to serve in the imperial navy. The apportionment of men to supply the wants of the navy shall be made according to the actual sea-'aring population, o? and the quota furnished in accordance herewith by each state shall be credited to the army account. Article 54. The merchant vessels of all states of the confederation shall form :i united com- mercial marine. The Empire sliali 'letermine the process for ascertaining the tonnage of sea-going vesse's, shall regulate the issuing of tonnage- certificates and sea-letters, and shall fix the con- ditions to which a permit for commanding a sea-going vessel shall be subject. The merchant vesseio of all the states of tfie confederation shall bo ail.nitted on an equal footing to the harbors, and to all natural and artificial water- courses of the several states of the confcieration, and shall receive the sumo usage therein. The duties which shall be collectud from sea-going vessels, or levied upon their freights, for the use of naval institutions in the harbors, shall not exceed the amount required for the mointenunce and ordinary repair of these institutions. On all natural water-courses, duties are only to be levied for the use of special estiblishments, which servo for facilitating commercial intercourse, These duties, as well as the duties for navigatin such artificial channels, which are prop v the state, are not to exceed the amount ri red for the maintenance and ordinary repair ui the institutions and establishments. These rules apply to rafting, so far as it is carried on on navigable water-courses. The levying of other or higher duties upon foreign vessels or their freights than those which are paid by the vessels of tho federal states or their freights does not belong to the various states, but to the Empire. Article 55. The flag of the war and merchant navy shall be black, wliite, and red. X. — Consular Affairs. Article 56. The Emperor shall have the supervision of all consular affairs of the German Empire, and he shall appoint consuls, after hear- ing the committee of tho federal council on commerce and trafllc. No new state consulates are to be established within the jurisdiction of the German consuls. German consuls shall perform the functions of state consuls for the states of the confederation not represented in their district. All tho now existing state consulates shall be abolished, as soon as the organization of the German consulates shall be completed, in such a manner that the representation of tho separate interests of all the federal states shall be recog- nized by the federal council as secured by the German consulates. XI. — Milita^ Affairs of the Empire. Article 57. Every German is subject to mili- tary duty, and in the discharge of this duty no substitute can bo accepted. Article 58. The costs and the burden of all the military system of the Empire are to be borne equally by all tho federal states and their subjects, and no privileges or molestations to the several states or classes are admissible. Whore an equal distribution of tho burdens can- not be effected 'in natura' without prejudice to the public welfare, affairs shall be equalized by legislation in accordance with the principles of justice. Article 59. Every German capable of bearing arms shall serve for seven years in the standing army, ordinarily from the end of his twentieth to the beginning of his twenty -eighth year; the first three years in the army of the field, the last y/ 562 CONSTITUTION OF OFRM<VNY. CONSTITUTION OF OEIIMANY. four yciirs in the rewrvo; durinif the i;oxt five years he sliall belong tn the niiiitiit. In those states of theconfederutiiiii in whicli lieretoforo a longer term of service tlian twelve years was req\''.re(l by law, the gradual reduction of tlic ro^^uircd time of service shall take place in such a manner as is compatible with the interests and the war-footing of the army of the Empire. As regards the emigration of men belonging to the reserve, only those provisions shall bo Tn force which apply to the emigration of members of the militia. Article 60. The strength of the German army in time of peace shall be, until the 31st December, 1871, one per cent, of the population of ISGI, and shall be furnished by the several federal states in proportion to their population. In future the strength of the army in time of peace shall bo fl.xcd by legislation. Article 61. After the publication of this con- v/ stitution the full Prussian military sysicin of legislation shall be introduced without delay throughout the Empire, as well the statutes themseh' s as the regulations, instructions, and ordinanc< .-. issued for their execution, explana- tion, or completion; thus, in particular, the military penal code of April 3, 1845; the military orders of the penal court of April 3, 1845; the ordinance concerning the courts of honor of July 20, 1843; the regulations with respect to recruit- ing, time of service, matters relating to the service and subsistence, to the quartering of troops, claims for damages, mobilizing, &c., for times of peace and war. Orders for the attend- ance of tin military upon religious services is, however, excluded. When a uniform organiza- tion of the German army shall have been estab- lished, a comprehensive military law for the Empire shall be submitted to the ''et and the federal council for their action in accordance with the constitution. Article 62. For the purpose of defraying the expenses of the wliole German army, and the lcs*'tutions connected therewith, the sum of 225 (two hundred and twenty-five) thalers shall be placed at the disposal of the Emperor until the 31st of December, 1871, for each man in the army on the peace-footing, according to article 60. (See section 13.) After tlie 31st of Decem- ber, 1871, the payment of these contributions of the several states to tlie imper'' 1 treasury must bo continued. The strength of tlie army in time of peace, which has been temporarily fixed In article 60, shall be taken as a basis for calculuiii.g these amounts until it shall be altered by a law of the Empire. The expenditure of this sum for the whole army of the Empire and its establish- ments shall bo detcnnined by a budget law. In determining the budget of military expenditures, the lawfully established organization of tlie imperial army, in accordance with this constitu- tion, shall be taken as a basis. Article 63. The total land force of the Empire shall form one army, wliicli, in war and in peace, shall be under the command of the Emperor. The regiments, &c., throughout the whole Ger- man army shall bear continuous numbers. The principal colors and the cut of the garments of the Royal Prussian army sliall serve as a pattern for the rest of the army. It is left to commanders of contingent forces to choose the external badges, cockades, &c. It shall be the duty and the right of the Empeior to take care that, ^'^ 553 throughout the German army, all divisions bo kept full and well eijuippod, and that unity be established and maintained in regard to organiza- tion and formation, c<iuipmcnt. and ccmimand in the training of the nion, as well as in tlio qualifi- cation of the olHcers. For thi.s purpose the Eini.-ror shall be authori/.ed to satisfy himself at any tiiiic of tlie condition of the several contin- gents, and to provide remeilics for existing defects. The Knipcror shall determine the strcnglli, com- position, and division of the contingents of th<! imperial army, and also the organization of the militia, and he shall have the right to designate garrisons within the territory of the confedera- tion, as also to call any portion of the army into active service. In order to maintain the neces- sary unity in the care, arming, and eiiuipment of all troops of the Oerinan army, all orders here- after to be issued for the Prussian army shall b(! communicated in due form to the commanders of tlie remaining contingents by tlie committee on tlie army and fortifications, provided for in article 8, No. 1. Article 64. All Gorman troops arc bound implicitly to obey the orders of the Emperor. Tills obligation shall bo included in the oath of allegiance. Tho commander-in-chief of a con- tingent, as well as all oftlcers commanding troopa of more than one contingent, and all commanders of fortresses, shall bo appointed by tlie Emperor. Tho otBcers appointed by tho Emperor shall take the oath of fealty to him. The appointment of generals, or of officers performing the duties of generals, in a contingent force, shall be in each case subject to tho approval of the Emperor. The Emperor has tho right with regard to the transfer of officers, with or without promotion, to positions which are to be filled in the service of tho Empire, bo it in the Prussian army or in other contingents, to select from the officers of all the contingents of the army of the Empire. Article 65. The right to build fpitrcsses witliin tlio territory of tlie Empire shall belong to the Emperor, who, according to section 12, shall ask for the appropriation of the necessary means ^uired for that purpose, if not already includeu in the regular appropriation. Article 66. If not otherwise stipulated, tho princesof the Empire and the senates sliall appoint tlio officers of tlie'r respective contingents, sub- ject to the restriction of article 64. Tliey are tho chiefs of all the troops belonging to their respecti\v- ter'-itories, and are entitled to the honors couneclod thorcwitli. They shall have especially tho right to hold inspections at any time, and receive, besides the regular reports and announcements of changes for publication, timely information of all promotions and appoint- ments concerning their respective contingents. They shall olso have tho right to employ, for police purposes, not only their own troops but all other contingents of the army of tho Empire who are stationed in tlieir respective territories. Article 67. The unexpended portion of the military appropriation shall, under no circum- stances, fall to the share of a single government, but at all times to tho treasury of tlie Empire. Article 68. Tho Emperor sliall have tho power, if the public security of the Empire demands it, to declare martial law in any part thereof, until the publication of a law regulating the grounds, the form of announcement, and tho effects of such a declaration, the provisions of tlio CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. CONSTITUTION OP JAPAN. Prussliin law of June 4, 1851, shall be imbstituti thcri'for. (Liiw.sof 1851, piigc 451.) Addition to section XI. Tliv provi.sion.s coiitiiiiictl in this section slinll KO into <'ffi'ct in Biiviiriii us providod for in tluj treaty of alliaucf of Novt-niber 23, 1870, (Hun- desgt'setzbliitt, 1871, section 0,) under III, section 5, in Wtlrtemberg, as provided for in tlie military convention of \ovenil)er 21-25, 1870, (Bundes- Keset/.blatt, 1870, section 658.) XII. — Finances of the Empire. Article 69. All receipts and expenditures of the ICnipin! .shall be estimated yearly, and included in the tiiiancial estimate. The latter shall be fixed by law before the Ijcginning of the flsi'al year, according to llie following princi- ples: Article 70. The surplus of tlie previous year, as well as the customs duties, the com- mon excise duties, and tlie revenues derived from the postal and telegrupli service, sliall be applied to the defrayal of all general expendi- ture. In so far as these expenditures are not •covered by the receipts, tliey shall be misod, as long as no taxes of the Empire shall have been ■established, by assessing the several states of the Empire according to their population, tlic amount of tin! assessment to be fixed by the Chancellor of the Empire in accordance with the budget agreed ui)on. Article 71. The general expenditure shall be, as a rule, granted for one year; they may, I however, in special cases, be granted for a longer period. During the period of transition fixed in Article 60, the financial estimate, prop- erly classified, of the expenditures of the army shall be laid before tlie federal council and the <iiet for their information. Article 72. An annual report of the expen- diture of all the receipts of the Empire shall be rendered to tlie federal council and the diet, thriiugh the Chancellor of the Empire. Article 73. In cases of extraordinary re- <iuirements, a loan may be contracted in accord- ance witli the laws of the Empire, such loan to be granted by the Empire. Addfition to section XII. Articles 09 and 71 apply to the expenditures for the Bavarian army only according to the pro- visions of the addition to section XI of the treaty ■of November 23, 1870 ; and article 73 only so far as is required to inform the federal council and the diet of tlie assignment to Bavaria of the required sum for the Bavarian army. XIII.— Settlement of Disputes and Modes of Punishment. Article 74. Every attempt against the exist- ■ence, the integrity, the security, or the constitu- tion of the German Empire ; finally, any offense committed against the federal council, tlie diet, a member of the federal council, rr of the •diet, a magistrate or public official of tlie Em- pire, while in the execution of his duty, or with reference to his otllcial positi(m. by word, writ- ing, printing, signs, or caricatures, shall be judicially investigated, and upon conviction punisli('<l ill tlie several states of the Empire, according to the laws tlierein existing, or which shall ht^reafter exist in the same, acconiing to wliicli laws a similar olleiise against any one of the stJites of the Empire, its constitution, legis- lature, members of its legislature, authorities or officials is to be judged. Article 75. For those offenses, specified in Article 7'!, against the German Empire, which, if committed against one of the states of the Em- pire, would be deemed high treason, the superior court of appeals of the three free llanseatic towns at Lubeclc shall be the competent decid- ing tribunal in the first and last resort. More definite provisions as to the competency and the proceedings of the superior court of appeals shall be adopted by tlie Legislature of the Empire. Until the passage of a law of the Empire, the existing competency of tlie courts in the respective states of the Empire, and the provisions relative to the proceedings of those courts, shall remain in force. Article 76. Disputes between tlic different states of the confederation, so far as they are not of a private nature, and tiierefore to be decided by the competent authorities, sliall be settled by tlie federal council, at tlie request of one of the parties. Disputes relating to consti- utional matters in those of the states of the confederation whose constitution contains no provision for tlie settlement of such differences, shall bo adjusted by the federal council, at the request of one of the parties, or, if this cannot be done, they shall be settled by the legislative power of the confederation. Article 77. If in one of the states of tlie confederation justice shall be denied, and no suflicient relief can bo procured by legal meas- ures, it shall be the duty of the federal council to receive substantiated complaints concerning denial or restriction of justice, wliicli are to be judged according to the constitution and the existing laws of the respective states of the confederation, and thereupon to obtain judicial relief from tlie confederate government in the matter which shall have given rise to the com- plaint. XIV. — General Provision. Amendments of the constitution shall be made by legislative enactment. They shall be con- ^ sidered as rejected wlien 14 votes are cast against them in the federal council. The pro- visions of tlie constitution of the Empire, by which fixed rights of individual states of tlie confederation arc established in their relation to the whole, shall only be ino<lifled with the consent of that state of the confcderatioa which is immediately concerned. CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. The following text of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan,, promulgated by the Emperor, February 11, 1880, is from a imniplilct published at Johns Hopkins University on the occasion of a meeting of professors, students and guests, April 17, 1889, to celebrate its promulgation : Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ances- tors, ascended the throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal ; desiring to promote the welfare of, and to give development to the moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved subjects, the very same that have been favoured 554 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. CONSTITUTION OP JAPAN. •with the benevolent cftre and afI<,ctionate vigi- lance of Our Ancestors; and hoping to maintain the prosperity of the Siate, in concert with Our I)eople and with their support, We hereby pro- mulgate, in i)ursu»nce of Our Imperial Rescript of the 14th (lay of tlic lOt'a month of tlie 14th year of Meiji, a fundamental law of State, to exhibit the principles, by which We are to be guided in Our conduct, and to point out to what Our descendants and Our subjects and tlieir de- scendants are forever to conform. The rights of sovereignty of the State, We have inherited from Our Ancestors, and We shall bequeath them to Our descendants. Neither We nor they shall in future fail to wield them, in accordaucc with the provisions of the Constitution hereby granted. We now declare to respect and protect the security of the rights and of the property of Our people, and to secure to them the complete enjoy- ment of the same, within tlio extent of the pro- visions of the present Constitution and of the law. The Imperial Diet shall first be convoked for tlie 23d vear of Meiji, and the time of its opening shall be the date, when the present Con- stitution comes into force. When in the future it may become necessary to amend any of the provisions of the present Constitution, We or Our successors shall assume the initiative right, and submit a project for the same to the Imperial Diet. The Imperial Diet shall pass its vote upon It, according to tlie conditions imposed by the present Constitution, and in no otherwise shall Our descendants or Our subjects be permitted to attempt any alteration thereof. Our Ministers of Stote, on Our behalf, shall be held responsible for tlie carrying out of the present Constitution, and Our present and future subjects shall for- ever assume the duly of allegiance to the present Constitution. [His Imperial Majesty's Sign- Manual.] The 11th day of the 2nd month of the 23nd year of Meij 1. [Countersigned by Ministers. ] Chapter'!. Article I. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal. Article II. The Imperial Throne shall be suc- ceeded to by Imperial male descendants, accord- ing to the provisions of the Imperial House Law. Article III. The Emperor is sacred and in- violable. Article IV. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sov- ereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution. Article V. The Emperor exercises the legis- lative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article VI. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed. Article VII, The Emperor convokes the Im- perial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives. Article VIII. The Emperor, in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities, issues, when the Imperial Diet is not sitting. Imperial Ordinances in the place of law. Such Imperial Ordinances arc to be laid before the Imperial Diet at its next session, and when the Diet does not approve the said Ordinances, the Government shall declari' them to be invalid for the future. Article IX. The Emperor issues, or causes to be issued, the Ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance of the public peace and order, i>n(l for the pro- motion of the welfare of the subjects. But no Ordinance shall In any way alter any of tlie exist- ing laws. Article X. The Emperor determines the or- ganization of the different brunches of tlie ad- ininistration. and tlie salaries of all ( vil and military olllcers, and appoints and dismisses the same. Exceptions especially provided for In the present Constitution or in other laws, shall be in accordance with the respective provisions (bear- ing thereon). Article XI. The Emperor has the supremo command of the Army and Navy. Article XII, The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy. Article XIII. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties. Article XIV. The Emperor proclaims the law of siege. The condltijns and effects of the law of siege shall lie determined by law. Article XV. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders, and other marks of honor. Article XVI. The Emperor orders amnesty, Iiardon, commutation of punishment, and re- habilitation. Article XVII. A Regency shall be Instituted in conformity witli the provisions of the Imperial House Law. The Regent shall exc'lse the powers appertaining to the Emperor in 1 1 is name. Chapter II, Article XVIII. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese subject shall be determined by law. Article XIX. Japanese subjects may, ac- cording to qualifications determined in law or ordinances, be appointed to civil or military offices equally, and may fill any other public offices. Article XX. Japanese subjects are amenable to service in the Army or Navy, according to the provisions of law. Article XXI. Japanese subjects are amenable to the duty of paying taxes, according to the provisions of law. Article XXII. .lapanese subjects shall have the liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits of law. Article XXIII. No Japanese subiect shall be arrested, detained, tried, or punished, unless ac- cording to law. Article XXIV. No Japanese subject shall be deprived of his right of being tried by the judges determined bv law. Article X3tV. Except in the cases provided for in the law, tlie house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent. Article XXVI. Except in the cases mentioned in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. Article XXVII. Tlie right of property of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. Measures necessary to be taken for the public benefit shall be provided for by law. Article XXVIII. Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief. 555 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. CONSTITUTION OP JAPAN. Article XXIX. JiipancBC subjects Hhall, williin I lie liiiiit.4 of liiw, enjoy the liberty of H|)C'('(.'li, writiiii;;, publication, public incotinga, itiidassooiittionH. Article XXX. Jnpiinese subjects nmy present petitions, by i)l)Hcrvin>r tlie proper forms of n- spect, luiil by complying witli the rules si)ccially [jrovided for tlie same. Article XXXI. The provisions cuut4iiQu<l in the present ('liiipter slmll not affect the exerei.se of the powers apiMTtaining to the Emperor in times of war or in eases of a national emergency. Article XXXII. Each and every one of tlie provisions ccmtjiined in the preceding Articles of the present Chapter, that are not in conflict with the laws or the rules and discipline of the Arniy and Navy, shall apply to the olllcers and men of the Army and of tlic Navy. Chapter III. Article XXXIII. The Imperial Diet shall consist of two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Uepresentativcs. Article XXXIV. The House of Peers shall, in accordance with the Ordinance concerning tlie House of Peers, be composed of the members of the Imperial Family, of the orders of nobility, and of those persons who have been nominated thereto by the Emperor. Article XXXV. The House of Representa- tives shall be composed of Jlembers elected by the people accordmg to the provisions of the Law of Ele(!tion. Article XXXVI. No one can at one and the same time be a member of both Houses. Article XXXVII. Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article XXXVIII. Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law submitted to it by the Government, and may respectively initiate pro- jects of law. Article XXXIX. A Bill, which has been re- jected by either the one or the other of the two houses, ihall not be again brought in during the same sesiion. Article XL. Both Houses can make repre- sentations to the Government, as to laws or upon ony other subject. When, however, such repre- sentations are not accepted, they cannot be made a second time during the same session. I Article XLI. The Imperial Diet shall be con- voked every year. Article xLlI. A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three months. In case of necessity, the duration of a session may be pro- longed by Imperial Order. ' Article XLIII. When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary session may be convoked, in addition to the ordinary one. The duration of an extraordinary session shall be determined by Imperial Order. Article XLIV. The opening, closing, pro- longation of session, and prorogation of the Imperial Diet, shall be effected simultaneously for both Houses. In case the House of Repre- sentatives has been ordered to d'ssolve, the House of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued. Article XLV. When the House of Iteprcsen-. tatives has been ordered to dissolve. Members" shall be caused by Imperial Order to be newly elected, and the new House shall be convokeil within five months from the day of dissolu- tion. Article XLVI. No debate can beopcniHl and no vole can be taken in either House of the Im- perial Diet, unl<'.s8 not less than one-third r)f the wh(de number of the mend)ers thereof is present. Article XLVII. Votes shall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the ciuse of a tie vole, tli(' President shall have the casting vote. Article XLVIII. Tlie deliberations of both Iloust's shall be held in public. The delibemtions may, however, upon demand of the Government or by resolution of the House, be held in secret sitting. Article XLIX. Both Houses of the Imperial Diet nuiy respectively present addresses to the Emjieror. Article L. Both Houses may receive petitions presented by subjects. Article LI. Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present Constitution and in the Law of the Houses, rules necessary for the management of their internal afTairs. Article Lll. No member of either House .si. .ill be held responsible outside the respective Houses, for any opinion uttered or for any vote given in the House. When, however, a Member liimself has given publicity to his opinions by public speech, by documents in printing or in writing, or by any other similar means he shall, in the ma'ter, be amenable to the general law. Article y.IIL The members of both Houses shall, during the session, be free from arrest, un- less with the consent of the House, except in cases of flagrant delicts, or of offences connected with a stjite of internal commotion or with a foreign trouble. Article HV. The Ministers of State and the Delegates of the Government may, at any time, take seats and speak in either House. Chapter IV. Article LV. The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to the Emperor, and be responsible for it. All Laws, Imperial Ordinances, and Imperial Rescripts of whatever kind, that relate to the affairs of the State, re- quire the countersignature of a Minister of State. Article LVI. The Privy Council shall, in accordance with the provisions for the organiza- tion of the Privy Council, deliberate upon im- portant matters of State, when they have been consulted by the Emperor. Chapter V. Article LVII. The Judicature shall be exer- cised by the Courts of Law according to law, in the name of the Emperor. The organization of the Courts of Law shall be determined by law. Article LVIII. The judges shall be appointed from among those, who possess proper qualifi- cations according to law. No judge shall be deprived of his position, unless by way of crimi- nal sentence or disciplinary punishment. Rules for disciplinary punishment shall be determined by law. Article LIX. Trials and judgments of a Court shall be conducted publicly. When, how- ever, I'lpro exists any fear that such publicity may bi prejudicial to peace and order, or to the mamtcuance of public morality, the public trial may be suspended by provision of law or by the decision of the Court of Law. Article LX. All matters, that fall within the competency of u special Court, shall be specially, provided for by law. 556 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. CONSTITUTION OF LYCURGU8. Article LXI. No suit nt law, wlilrli rclntcs to riglilH i'll('){c(l to liivvt; Ihtii infringed l)y the legal nieiisiires of the executive iiutliorilies, imd ■wliich shall come within the competency of the Court of Administrative Litigation specially established 1)V law, shall bo .akeu coguizanco of by a Court oi Law. Chapter VI. Article LXII. The imposition of ii new tax or the moditlcation of tlu^ rates (of an existing one) shall be detemiined by law. However, all such administrative fees or other revenue having the nature of compensation shall not fall witliin the category of the above clause. The raising of national loans and the contracting of other lia- bilities to file charge of the National Treasury, except time that are provided in tlio Hudget, shall require tlie consent of the Imperial Diet. Article LXIII, The taxes levied at present shall, in so far as they an not remodelled by new law, lie collected according to the old system. Article LXIV. The expenditure and revenue of the 8ta.>' reciuire the consent of the Imperial Diet by means of an annual Budget. Any and all expenditures overpassing the aiipropriations set forth in the Titles and Paragraphs of the Budget, or that are not provided for in the Bud- get, shall subsequently require the approbation of the Imperial Diet. Article LXV. The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Representatives. Article LxVI. The expenditures of the Im- perial House shall be defrayed every year out of the National Treasury, according to the present fixed amount for the same, and shall not require the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except in case an increase thereof is found necessary. Article LXVII. Those already fixed expen- ditures based by the Constitution upon the pow- ers appertaining to the Emperor, and such ex- ficnditures as may have arisen by the effect of aw, or that appertain to the legal obligations of the Government, shall be neither rejected nor re- duced by the Imperial Diet, without the con- currence of the Government. Article LXVI II. In order to meet special re- quirements, the Government may ask the consent of the Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a Continuing Expenditure Fund, for a previously fixed number of years. Article LXIX. In order to supply deficiencies which are unavoidable, in the Budget, and to meet reciuirements unprovided for In the same, a Hescrvc Fund shall be provided in the Budget. Article LXX. Wlicn the Impcriiil Diet can- rot be convoked, owing to the external or Inter- nal condition of the country, In case of urgent need for the maintenance of piiblic safety, the Government may take all necessary financial measures, by means of an Imperial Ordinance. In the case mentioned in the i)receiling clause, the matter shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet at Its next session, and its approbation shall be obtained thereto. Article LXXI. When the Itnperial Diet hag not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget has not been brought into actual exi.stence, tlie Government shall carry out the Budget of the preceding year. Article LXXII. The final account of the ex- penditures an<l revenue of the State shall t)o verified and confirmed by tlie Board of Audit, and it shall be submitted by the Government to the Imperial Diet, together with tlie report of verificafiim of the said Board. The organization and comix'fcncy of the Board of Audit shall bo determined by law separately. Chapter VII. Article LXXIII. When it has become neces- sary in future to amend the provisions of the present Constitution, a project to that elTect shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet by Imperial Order. In the above case, neitli(!r House can open the debate, imless not less than two-thirds of the whole numlier of Members are present, and no amendment can be passed, unless a ma- jority of not less than two-thirds of the Members present is obtained. Article LXXIV. No modification of the Im- perial House Law shall be required to be sub- mitted to the deliberation of the Imperial Diet. No provision of the present Constitution can be modified by the Imperial House Law. Article LXXV. No modification can be in- troduced into the Constitution, or into the Im- perial House Law, during the time of a Pegency, Article LXXVI. Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations. Ordinances, or by whatever names they may be called, shall, so far as they do not conflict with the present Constitu- tion, continue in force. All existing contracts or orders, that entail obligations upon the Govern- ment, and that are connected with expenditure shall come within the scope of Art. LXVII. CONSTITUTION OF LYCURGUS.— "The constitution of Lykourgos was especially adapted to make heroes, and it made them. To serve his country ond die for her, this was the Spartan's chief ambition. ' Victory or death ! ' was their war-cry; honor, their supreme law. 'That most to be admired in Lykourgos,' says Xenophon, ' is that he was able to make a noble death seem preferable to a dishonored life. This great lawgiver provided for the happiness of the brave man, and devoted the coward to infamy. ... At Sparta men would be ashamed to sit at table with the coward, to touch his weapons or his hand ; in the games neither party will receive him. He has the lowest place at the dances and the dramatic representations. In the street he is pushed aside by younger men. His daughters share in his disgrace; they are excluded from public feasts, and can obtain no husbands. ' " — V. Duruy, Hist, of Greece, v. 1, gect. 3, p. 467. — Mr. Grote remarks upon the "unparalleled stcatli- ness" of the Spartan constitution ascribed to Lycurgus, which was maintained "for four or five successive centuries, in the midst of govern- ments like the Grecian, all of which had under- gone more or less of fluctuation. No consider- able revolution — not even any palpable or formal change — occurred in it from the days of the Messenian war down to those of Agis III. : in spite of the irreparable blow wliich the power and territory of the state sustained from Epamel- nondas and the Thebans, the form ol government nevertheless remained unchanged. It was the only government in Greece which could trace an unbroken peaceable descent from o high antiquity and from its real or supposed founder."— O. Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 6 (». 2). — See Spabta, The Constitution. 557 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. The following trnnHliitcd toxt of tho Constitu- tion of Mexico lHfn)nil)uIlrtiii No. Oof till! liuri'iui of tho Amcricun licpublics, publighcd in July, 1801: Preamble. — In the mime of Oo<l nnd with the mithority of the Mexican people. The represen- tiitivcH of the different Htiites, of tho Uistriet «nd Territories which coniposo tho Hcpubllc of Mexico, culled by tlie Pliin procluimed In Ayutia the 1st of ^Miirch, IHM, nmended In Acapulco the 11th day of tho Bnnio month and year, and by the Bitnimons Issued tho 17th of ()ctol)er, IH.W, to constitute tho nation under the form of a popular, reprosentativo, ('L'niocralic republic, exorcisinfj; the powers witli which they are Invested, comply with tho requin'mentsof tholr hi)i;h oftico, decree- ing tho following political Constitution of the Mexican liepublle, on the Indestructible basis of it8 legitimate independence, proclaimed the 16th of SeptemlH'r, 1810, and completed the 37th of September, 1821. Article l, Tho Mexican people recognize that the rights of man are tho basis and the obiect of social Institutions. Conseouently they (ledare that all the laws and all the authorities of tho coimtry must respect and maintain tho guarantees which tho present Constitution establishes. Art. 3. In tho Uepuh'ic all are born free. Slaves who set fcot upon the national territory recover, by that act alone, tholr liberty, and have a right to the protection of the laws. Art. 3, Instruction is frc'. Tho law shall determine what professions require a diploma for their exercise, and witli what requisites they must be iasued. Art. A. Every man Is free to adopt tho pro-, fossion, industrial pursuit, or occupation which suits him, tho same being useful and honorable, and to avail himself of Its products. Nor shall any one bo hindered in tho exercise of such pro- fession. Industrial pursuit, or occupation, unless by judicial sentence when such exorcise attacks the rights of a third party, or by governmental resolution, dictated in terms which the law marks out, when it offends the rights of society. Art. S. No one shall bo obliged to ^ive per- sonal services without just compensation, and without Ills full consent. Tho state shall not per- mit any contract, pact, or agreement to be carried into elfcct which has for Its object tho diminution, loss, or irrevocable sftcriflce of tho liberty of man, whether It be for tho sike of labor, education, or a religious vow. Thj law, consequently, may not recognize monastic orders, nor may it permit their establishment, whatever may be the de- nomination or object with wliich they claim to bo formed.* Neither may an agreement be per- mitted in which anyone stipulates for his pro- scription or banishment. Art. 6. The expression of ideas shall not be the object of any judicial or lulminlstrativo in- quisition, except in case it attacks morality, the rights of a third party, provokes some crime or misdemeanor, or disturbs public onier. Art. 7. Tho liberty to write and to publish writings on any subject whatsoever is inviolable. No law or authority shall establish previous cen- sure, nor require security from authors or printers, » This sentence was introduced Into the original article September 2S, ISTi, with other less important Amend- ments. nor restrict the lllwrty of the press, which has no other limits than respt^c^t of private life, morality, and the public peace. The crimes whh'h aro committed by means of tho press shall be Judged by tho competent tribunals of tho Federation, or by those of the States, those of the Federal Dis- trict and the Territory of Lower California, in acconlanco with their penal laws.* Art. 8. The riglit of petition, exercised In writing in a peaceful and respectful manner, la inviolable ; but in political matters only citizens of tho Republic may exorcise It. To every peti- tion mup'., be returned a written opinion by tho autho'.iv to whom It may have been addressed, and the li.'ter Is oblig(!d to make the result known to tho peutloner. Art, o. No one may bo deprived of the right peacefully to assemble or unite with others for any lawful obiect whatsoever, but only citizens of the Kepublic may do this in order to take part in the political affairs of tho country. No armed assembly has a right to deliberate. Art. 10. Every man has a right to poss(>ss and carry arms for his security and legitimate de- fence. The law shall designate what arms aro iirobibitoil and the punishment which those shall incur who carry them. Art. II. Every man has a right to enter and to go out of the Republic, to travel through its territory and change his residence, without tho necessity of a letter of security, passport, safe- conduct, or other similar requisite. Tho exercise of this right shall not prejudice tho legitimate faculties of the judicial or administrative au- thority in cases of criminal or civil responsi- billty. Art. 13. There are not, nor shall there be recognized In tho Kepublic, titles of nobility, or prerogatives, or heredltory honors. Only the people, legitimately represented, n ay decree recompenses in honor of those who may have rendered or may render eminent services to the country or to humanity. Art. 13. In the Mexican Republic no one may be judged by special law nor by special tribunals. No person or corporation may have privileges, or enioy emoluments, which are not compensa- tion for a public service and are established by law. Martial law may exist only for crimes and offences wliich have a definite connection with military discipline. The law shall determine with all clearness tho cases included in this ex- ception. Art. 14. No retroactive law shall be enacted. No one may be judged or sentenced except by laws made prior to the act, and exactly applica- ble to it, and by a tribunal which shall have been previously established by law. Art. 15. Treaties shall never be made for tho extradition of political offenders, nor for the ox- tradition of those violators of the public order who may have held In the country where they committed the oflfenco the position of slaves ; nor agreements or treaties in virtue of which may bo altered the guarantees and rights which this Constitution grants to the man and to tho citizen. • This article was amended May IS, 1883, by introducing the last sentence ns a Bubstitutt) for tlie following : " Tho crimes of the press shall be judged by one jury which at- tests the fact and by another which applies the law and designates the punisimieut." 558 CONSTITTTION OF JIEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. Art. i6. No one niiiy be nuilfstcd In Ills per- son, fiiinily, ilomlcile, piiperH mid poHHessiong, except In virtue of iin order written by the com- petent authority, which shull estiilillMh and im- lign the lcK»l cause for the proceedlnf^s. In tho C880 of in tliigrunto dellnto iiny person may ap- prehend the olTender and Ids iicconipllees, pluclng them without delay at tho dlsposnl of the nearest BUthoritles. Art. 17. No one may be arrested for (U^bts of a purely civil cliaracter. No one may exercise violence In order to reclaim Ills riglits. Tlic tri- bunals sliall always be prompt to administer lustice. TUIb sliall be gratuitous, Judicial costs being conseouently abolished. Art. 18, Imprisonment sliall take place only for crimes which deserve corporal punishment. In any stato of tho process in which it shall ap- pear that sucli a punishment might not bo im- posed upon the occused, he shall be set at liberty under bail. In no case shall the imprisonment or detention bo prolonged for default of payment of fees, or of any furnishing of money what- ever. Art. 10. No detention shall exceed the term of three days, unless justified by a writ showing cause of impiisoniucnt and other requisites which the law cstablisheg. Tlic mere lapse of this term shall render responsible tho authority tliat orders or consents to it, and tho agents, ministers, war- dens, or jailors who execute it. Any maltreat- ment in the apprehension or in the confinement of the prisoners, any injury which may be In- flicted without legal ground, any tax or contri- bution in the prisons, is an abuse which tho laws must correct and the authorities severally 1 mish. Art. 20. In every criminal trial the accused shall have the following guarantees : T. That tlic grounds of the proceedings and the name of the accuser, if there shall be one, shall be made known to him. II. That his preparatory declaration sliall bo taken within forty-eight hours, counting from the time he may be placed at the disposol of the judge. III. That he shall be confronted with tlie witnesses who testify against* him. IV. That he shall be furnished with the data which ho requires and which appear in the process, in order to prepare for his defence. V. That he shall bo heard in defence by himself or by coun- sel, or by both, as he may desire. In case he should have no one to defend him, a list of olHcial defenders shall be presented to him, in order that he moy choose one or more who may suit him. Art. 21. The application of penalties properly BO called belongs exclusively to the judicial au- thority. The political or administrative authori- ties may only impose fines, as correction, to tho extent of five hundred dollars, or imprisonment to the extent of one month, in the ca.ses and man- ner which the law shall expressly determine. Art. 22. Punishments by mutilation and in- famy, by branding, fiogging, the bastinado, torturfc of whatever kind, excessive fines, confis- cation of property, or any otlier unusual or extra- ordinary penalties, shall be forever prohibited. Art, 23. In order to obolish the penalty of death, the administrative power is charged to es- tablish, as soon as possible, a penitentiary system. In the meantime tlie penalty of death shall be abolished for political offences, and shall not be extended to other cases than treason during for- eign war, highwoy robbery, arson, parricide, homicide with treachery, premeditation or ad- vantage, to grave ofTenc<'S of the military order, and piracy, which the law shall d<-fine. Art. 24. No criminal proceeding may liave more than three Instaiices. Noone sliall bo tried twice for the same olTence, wlictliiT by the judg- ment he be absolved or conileniiicd. Thi' prac- tice of absolving from the Instance Is abolished. Art. 25. Sealed correspondence which circu- lates by the mails is free Irom all registry. Tho violation of tills guarantee Is an otfeuce which the law Hliall pimish severely. Art. 26, In time of peace no soliller may ite- mund ((iiarters, supplies, or other real or personal service without the consent of the proprietor. In time of war he shall do this only In the manner prescribed by the law. Art. 27. Private property sliall not lie ap- propriated without the consent of tlie owner, ex- cept for the sake of public use, and with previous indemnification. The law sliall determine the au- thority which may make the appropriation and the conditions under which it may bo carried out. No corporation, civil or ecclesiastical, what- ever may be its character, denomination, or ob- ject, shall have legal capacity to acquire in pro- prietorship or administer for itself real estate, with tlie single exception of edifices destined im- mediately and directly to tho service and object of tho institution.* Art. 28. There shall be no monopolies, nor places of any kind for the sale of privileged gooiis, nor prohibitions under titles of protection to in- dustry. There shall bo excepted only those rela- tive to the coining of money, to the mails, and to tho privileges wlilcli, for a limited time, the law may concede to inventors or pcrfectors of some Improvement. Art. 39, In cases of invasion, grave disturb- ance of the public peace, or any other cases what- soever which may place society in great danger or confiict, only tho President of the Republic in concurrence with the Council of Ministers and with the approbation of the Congress of tho Union, and, in the recess thereof, of the permanent depu- tation, may suspend the guarantees established by this Constitution, with the exception of those which assure the life of man ; but such suspen- sion shall be made only for a limited time, by moans of general provisions, and without being limited to a determined person. If the suspension should take place during the session of Congress, this body shall concede the authorizations which it may esteem necessary In order that tho Execu- tive may meet properly the situation. If the suspension should take place during the recess, the permanent deputation shall convoke the Con- gress without delay in order that it may make the authorizations. Art. 30. Me.\ ns are — I. All those bom, within or wlthoi ihe Republic, of Mexican par- ents. II. Foreigners who are naturalized in con- formity with the laws of the Federation. III. Foreigners who acquire real estate in the Republic or have Mexican children ; provided they do not manifest their resolution to preserve their nation- ality. Art. 31. It is an obligation of every Mexican — I. To defend the Independence, the territory, the honor, tho rights and Interests of his country. II. To contribute for the public expenses, as well of the Federation as of the State and municipality * See Article 3 of Additions to the Constitution. 559 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. In which ho rcHldPH, In the proportional nnd f>(iul- tahlc iimiiiH'r wlilcli tho Ihwh w:^y provlilo. Art. 3a. Mi'xiciiiiH Hhiill ',1- prcfcrriKl to for- clKix'm In i'(|iiitl rircuniHt.inccK, for nil cniploy- mvntH, ohiirKcH, orcomn'igHioimof nppointniL'iitby tho iiuthorlllcM, In w'lirh thr ('ondltionof eltlzi'n- ■hip may not Ik* lii'iUponiuililc. l>awN shnll Ih' Ih- giK'd to Improve tjif condition of Mexir'iinlaborr'rH, n^wardhiK tlu'tc who (IJKtlnKiilHh tlicMiwIvcx in any twience ',r art, HtlniiilatiiiK labor, and found- ing practical collrKcs and Mch(K)|g uf arts and tradcH. Art. 33. Foreigners are those who do not So8W"« tho (|iiallttcatlons determined In Article ). They have a right to t\w guarantees estjib- lU'icd by . . . [Articles 1-20] of the present Con- Btltutlon, except that In all cases the Ooveniment hai the right to expel peniicious foreigners. They an under obligation to contrib\itc to tho public expenses In tho manner which tho laws may pro- vlilo, and to obey and respect the institutions, lav, s, and authorities of the country, subjecting the nselves to tho judgments and sentences of tho tribunals, without power to seek other protection thau that which tho laws concede to Mcxicau citii.cns. Art. 34. Citizens of the I{«^publlc arc all those who, having the quality of Mexicans, have also tilt following qualitlcatlons: I. Eighteen years of ago If married, or twenty-one If not married. II. An honest means of livelihood. Art. 35. The prerogatives of tho citizen are — I. To vote at popular elections. II. The privi- lege of being voted for for any ofBcc subject to popular election, and of being selected for any other emi)loyment or commission, having tho qualifications established bv law. III. To asso- ciate to discuss the political affairsof the country. IV. To take up amis In tho army or In the na- tional guard for tho defence of tho Itepubllc and Its Institutions. V. To exorcise In all cases the right of petition. Art. 36. Every citizen of the Republlcis under tho following obligations: I. To bo inscribed on the municipal roll, stating the property which he has, or tho industry, profession, or labor by which he subsists. II. To enlist in the national fuard. III. To vote at popular elections In the istrlct to which he belongs. IV. To discharge the duties of the oftlcesof popular election of the Federation, which In no case shall bo gratuitrfus. Art. 37. The character of citizen Is lost — I. By naturalization in a foreign country. II. By serving officially the government of another coun- try or accepting its decorations, titles, or employ- ments witliout previous permission from the Feileral Congress; excepting literary, scientlflc, and humanitarian titles, which may be accepted freely. Art. 38. The law shall prescribe the cases and the form in which may be lost or suspended the rights of citizenship and the manner in which they may be regained. Art. 39. The national .sovereignty resides es- Boutially and originally in the people. All public power emanates from the people, and is instituted for their iK'neflt. The people have at all times the inalienable right to alter or modify the form of their government. Art. 40. The ^Mexican people voluntorily con- stitute themselves a democratic, federal, repre- sentative republic, composed of States free and soToreign in all that concoms their internal gov- ernment, but united in a fedemtlnn establlNhed according to tho principles of this fundamental law. Art. 41. The people exercise their sovereignty by means of Federid officers incases lielongiug to tlie Federation, and through those of the Hiatog In all that relates to the internal alTalrs of tho Htatcs within tho limits respectively established by this Federal (N>nslltuti(m, and by the special ConHtitntlons of the States, which latter shall la no case contmveno the stljiulatlons of the Fed- eral Compact. Art. 4a. The National Territory compris<'s that of the integral parts of the Federation and that of the adjacent Islands In both oceans. Art. 43. The integral parts of the Federation are : the States of Aguascallcntcs, Collnia, Chia- pas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Querrero, .lallsco, Mexico, MIchoacan, Niu^vo Leon and Coahulla, Oajaca, Puebla, Uueretaro, San Luis Fotosl, HInaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaullpag, Tlascala, Vallo do Mexico, Veracruz, Yucatan, Zacatecas, and the Territory of Lower California. Art. 44. The States of Aguascallentes, Chla- Iias, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Mexico, 'uebla, Quer6taro, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaiillpas, iind tho Territory of Lower California shall pre- serve the limits which they now have. Art. 45. The States of Collma nnd Tlascala shall presi'rve in their new character of States tho limits which they have had as Territories of tho Federation. Art.1^46. The State of the Valley of Mexico shall be formed of tho territory actually compos- ing the Federal District, but the erection into a State shall only have effect when the supremo Federal authontics are removed to another place. Art. 47. Tho State of Nuevo Leon and Coa- hulla shall comprise the territory which has be- longed to the two distinct States of which it ia now formed, excejit the part of the hacienda of Bonanza, which shall be reincorporated in Zacate- cas, on the same terms in which it was before its incorporation in Coahulla. Art. 48. Tho States of Guanajuato, Jalisco, MIchoacan, Oajaca, San Luis Potosi, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatan, and Zucatecos shall recover the extension and limits which they had on the 31st of December, 1852, with the alterations the following Article establishes. Art. 49. The town of Contepec, which has be- longed to Guanajuato, shall bo Incorporoted in MIchoacan. The municipality of Ahualulco, which lias belonged to Zacatecas, shall bo incor- poroted in San Luis Potosi. Tho municipalities of Ojo-Callente and San Francisco do los Adames, which have belonged to San Luis, as well as the towns of Nueva Tlascala and San Andres del Teul, which have belonged to Jalisco, shall be in- corporated in Zacatecas. The department of Tuxpan shall continue to form a part of Vera- cruz. The canton of Huimanguillo, whicji has iK'longed 'o Veracruz, shall be incorporated in Tabasco.* * Besides the twenty-foup States which are mentioned in tliis section there liave be<>n created subsequentiy, ac- cording to executive decrees is.sued in accoruonce with the Constitution, tlie four following : XXV. That of Campeche, separated from Yucatan. XXVI. Tliat of Ci)almlln, separoted from Nuevo Leon. XXVII. Tlmt of Hidalpo, in territory of tlie ancient State of Mexico, which forme<l the second military district. XXVIII. That of MorelOB, in territory also of the ancient State of Mexico, which formed the third military district. 560 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. Art. 50. Tlu! guprcmn power of tlio Fedcmtlon b divided f.i' lis "xerclHu Into leKlHliktivc, execu- tive, and Judlcl.vl. Two or more of tlioKe powers ■linll never be united In one person or eorponitinn, ncr the legislative power bo deposited In one In- dlvlduul. Art. SI. Tlio lejfisliitlvo power of the niillon Is deposited In a K»neriil Congress, which shall he dlvliie.l Into two houses, one of Deputies nnd the oihar o? Honators.* Art. 52. The House of Deputies shall be com- posed ot representatives of the nation, elected In their entire number every two years l)y Moxican citizens. Art. S3- One deputy shall be elected for each forty thousand inhabltapts, or for a fraction which exceeds twenty thoiisivnd. The territory in which the population Is less than that deterndned in this article shall, nevertheless, elect one deputy. Art. 54. Poreachdeputy there shall be elected one alternate. Art. 55. The election for deputies shall bo In- direct in the first degree, and by secret ballot, In the miinner which the law shall prescribe. Art. 56. In onlcr to bo eligible to the position of a d(>puty it is required that the candidate be a Mexican citizen in the enjoyment of his rights; that ho be fully twenty -five years of age on the day of the opening of the session ; that ho bo a resident of tlio State or Territory which makes tho election, and that he bo not an ecclesiastic. Residence is not lost by absence in tho discharge of any public trust bestowed by popular election. Art. 57. The positions of Dep<ity and of Sena- tor are incompatible \»ith any Federal commission or olBce whatsoever for which a salary is received. Art. 58, Tho Deputies and the Senators from the day of their election to the day on which their trust is concluded, may not accept any com- mission or office offered by tlio Federal Execu- tive, for which a salary is received, except with the previous license of the respective house. Tho same requisites are necessary for tho alternates of Deputies and Senators when in the exercise of their functions. A. Tho Senate is composed ot two Senators for each State and two for tho Fed- eral District. The election of Senators shall be indirect in tho first degree. The Legislature of each State shall declare elected the person who shall have obtained the absolute majority of the votes cast, or shall elect from among those who shall have obtained the relative majority in the manner whicli the electoral law shall prescribe. For each Senator there shall be elected an altern- ate. B. Tho Senate shall be renewed one-half every two years. The .'^t notors named in the second place shall go out at the end of the first two years, and thereafter the half who have held longer. C. The same qualifications are required for a Senator as for a Deputy, except that of age, which must be at least thirty years on the day of the opening of the session. Art. 59. The Deputies and Senators are privi- leged from arrest for their opinions manifested in the perfonnancc of their duties, and shall never be liable to be called to account for them. Art. 60. Each house shall judge of the elec- tion of its members, and shall solve the doubts which may arise regarding them. • The original fonn of this article was as follows: " The exercise of the supreme legislative i)ower is vested In one iusembly, which shall be denominated Congress of the Union." Art. 61. The houses niav not open their »<'S- slons nor perform their functions without tho presi'Mce in the Hi^iiate of at least two-thlnls, and In the House of Depullrs of more than one-half of the whole numlxT of their nicmbers, but those present of one or the (ithcr Inxly mUHt meet on the day Indicated by the law ami compel tho attendance of absent mcmberH under penalties whh'h the law shall d('Hignat<'. Art. 6a. The (Nmgress hIiiiII have each year two periixls of ordinary sessions; the first, which may be prorogued for thirty (lays, shall begin on the Iflth of September ami end on the 1.1th of December, and tlie second, which may l)e pro- rogued for fift<'en days, shall Ix^gin the 1st of April ond end the last day of May. Art. 63. At the opciihig of the sessions of the Congress the President of the Union shall bo present and shall pronounce a discourse In which lie shall set forth the state of the country. The President of tho Congress shall reply in general terms. Art. 64. Every resolution of the (Congress shall have the character of a law or decree. The laws and decrees shall bo communicated to the Exeeu- tlvo, signed by the Presidents of both houses and by a Secretary of each of them, and shall be promulgated in this foi in ; " Tho Coiigress of tho United States of Mexico decrees;" (Text of tho law or decree.) Art. 65. The right to Initiate laws or decrees liclongs; I. To tho Presulent of the Union. II. To the Deputies and Senators of the general Con- gress. III. To the Legislatures of the States. Art. 66. Bills pa-sented by tho President of tho Kepublle, by the Legislatures of the States, or by deputations from tho same, shall pass im- mediately to a committee. Those which the Deputies or the Senators may present shall be sub- jected to tho procedure which the rules of debate may prescribe. Art. 67. Every bill which shall be rejected In the house where it originated, before passing to the other house, shall not again be presented dur- ing tho sessions of that year. Art. 68. The second period of sessions shall bo (U -lined, in all preference, to tho examination of and action uppn tho estimates of the following fiscal year, to passing the necessary appropria- tions to cover tlie same, and to the examination of tho accounts of the past year, which the Execu- tive shall present. Art. 69. The lust day but one of the first period of sessions the Executive shall present to the House of Deputies the bill of appropriations for the next year following and the accounts of the preceding year. Both sliall pass to a com- mittee of five Uepre.sentatives appointed on the same day, which shall be under obligation to ex- amine said documents, and present a report on them at the second session of tho second period. Art. 70. Tlie formation of the laws and of tho decrees may begin indiscriminately in cither of tlie two houses, with the exception of bills which treat of loans, taxes, or imposts, or of the re- cruiting of troops, all of which must be discussed first in the House ot Deputies. Art. 71. Every bill, the consideration ot which does not belong exclusively to one of tho houses, shall be discussed successively in both, tho rules ot debate being observed with reference to tlio form, the intervals, and manner of proceeding in discussions and voting. A. A bill having been 561 CONSTITUTION OK MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. itpiimvril in tin- linuM! where It iiritriiiatfil, hIiiiII iiiiNH for ItH (lisciiMtion to Uio otlicr Iiuuhv. If tlic flitter Ixiily hIioiiIiI iipprovit it, it will Ix^ n'liiittcd til till' Kxi>(Mitivi', will), if liu nIiaII hikvii no iili- HcrvnIiiiiiH to iiiitlo', hIiiiII piililiHli it iiii'uciiiatL'ly. li, Hvi'ry liill hIihII liiM'iinsiilt'rcil iiMii|i{ir(>v(^il by till' Kxi'c;utlv(! if not ri'tiiriiril witli olmTViitioiiM to till' hoiiw wlirri' itoriKiiiittrii witlili. trii work- In^ <luv"4, unli'HH iliirinK tlilH term i'oiigrL'HH hIiiiII liiivi- I'lowii or HiiHpcmlcit itH m'HhIoiih, In wliicli riiHo till! ri'tiirii iiiiiNt bu nioilu tlu.' llrHt workInK ility on wliicli it Hlmll inci't. C A bill rcjuctoil wliolly or in piirt by tliu Excciitivu must Ins ru- tiiriird witli IiIm obiM'rviitionii to tlii! Iioiihv wlicru it oriKinitti'ii. It hIiiiII bi'iliMMiHm'il nf^nin by tliix lH)iiy,uiiii if ItKlioiiliI 1)0 coiillrmcil liy imiihHolutu iimjority of voti'H, ItHlmll piixs iiKuinto tlii' otlirr hoiiHv. If by tliin liouM H hIioiiIiI bu Hiuu'tioiit'd with tliu NiiiiK! nmjority, ti'u bill hIiuII bo a liiw or (lorrcc, und Hhallbu retiirui'd to the K-viciitivo for proinii 'Kittion. Thu voting on tli« law or ili'- crco Hliull bu by nninu. I). If nny bill kIiduUI bo rclectud wlioUy In tliu hoiisu in wliii'h it did not orlginiitu, it shall be rutiirnud to that In wliiuh it oriKinatud with thu obHcrvutlon.s which thu 'orinur shall liavu made upon It. If having been uxuminud nnuw it should bu approved by tnu absolulu ma- jority of thu inuml)ur8 present, it shall bu rul urnud to thu housu which rejected it, which shall again take it Into cousidenition, and If it should approve It by thu same majority it shall pass to thu Execu- tive, to bo trciteif in accordancu with division A; but, if it should i-ejuct It, it shall not be jirus :ntcd again until the f'lllowing sessions. E. If i; bill should Ih! rujuetud only m part, or moilitlcd, or receive odditionii by the house of revision, the new discussion in tiio housu where It orlgiDutcd shall treat only of tho rejected part, or of t,ho umendmeuts or additions, without being able to alter In any manner the articles approved. If the additions or amendments niadu by the house of revision should be approved by the absolute ma- jority of the votes present in tho house where it originated, the whole bill shall be passed to the Executive, to be treated In accordance with di- vision A. But if (ho additions or amendments made by tho house of revision should bo rejected by the majority of tho votes In tho house where It originated, they shall be returned to tho former, in order tliut thu ruasons of thu latter may bo taken into consideration ; and if by the absolute majority of the votes present said additions or amendments sholl be rejected In this second re- vision, the bill, in so far as it has been approved by both houses, shall bu passed to tho Executive, to be treated in accordance with division A; but if the house of revision should insist, by the ab- solute majority of tlie votes present, on said ad- ditions or amendments, the whole bill shall not be again presented until the following sessions, unless both houses agree by the absolute majority of their members present that tho law or decree shall bo issued solely with the articles approved, and that tho parts added or o mended shall be re- served to be examined and voted in the following sessions. F. In the interpretation, amendment, or repeal of the laws or decrees, tho rules estab- lished for their formation shall be observed. Q. Both houses shall resido in the same place, and they shall not remove to another without first agreeing to tho removal and on the time and manner of making it, designating the same point for the meeting of both. But if both houses, agreeing to the removal, should dilTcr as to time, manner, or place, the Kxecutivu Hlmll tcriiiinato the illtTeri'iiri' liy chiMmIng one of the iilaiVN In (lUeNtion. Neither hoiiw! Nhali huhih^ikI its im«- Mions for more than three days without thu eou- sent of thu other. 11. When thu general Con- gres;> meets in extra seHsioiiH, It shall oeeupy itself exelusively with the objector objects di'Kignated in till! summons; and if the H|H'<'ial liUKiness Hhall not have iM-en completed on the day on wliicli thu regular sesMion should open, thu extra sessionH shall bo closed nevertlu'leHS, leaving the piiintu pending to be treated of In the regular sessions. The Kxeciitivi! of the Union shall not make ob- servations on the resolul <' ins of the Congress whea this body prorogues itssi'SHionsor exercises func- tions of an electoral body or a jury. Art. 7a. The Congress has power — I. To ad- mit new Htates or Territories Into thu Federal Uniini, incorporating them in thu nation. II. To erect Territories Into Htates when they shall have a population of eighty thousand inhabitants and thu necessr ' elements to providu for their polit- ical existt e. III. To form new Htates within tliu ll.'iilts of those existing, it iH^ing necessary to this end — 1. That the f racthin or fractions which asked to bu ereiaed into a Htuto shall number a population of at least one hundred und twenty thousand Inhabliants. 2. That It shall bu proved before Congress that they have elc'nents sulUcient to provide for their political existence. 8. That the Legislatures of the States, tho territories of which are in question, shall have been hoard on tho expediency or inexpediency of the establish- ment of tho new State, aiii| they shall bo obliged to make their report within six months, counted from tho day on which the commuulcatiou re- lating to it shall have been remitted to tliem. 4. That tho Executive of tho Federation sliall like- wise be heard, who shall send his report within seven days, counted from tho dato on which ho shall havu been asked for it. 5. That the estab- lishment of the new State shall have been voted for by two-thirds of the Deputies and Senators present in their respective houses. 6. That tho resolution of Congress shall have been ratified by the majority of tho Legislatures of tho States, after examining a copy of the procecj'ngs; pro- vided i^iat the Legislatures of the Stat • ^"lioso territory is In question sliall have given , .icir con- sent. 7. If thu Legislatures of the States wiioso territory is in question shall not have given their consent, the ratification mentioned In the preced- ing clause must bo made by two-thirds of the Lcglsktures of the other States. A. The exclu- sive powers of the House of Deputies are — i. To constitute itself an Electoral College in order to exercise the powers whicli tho law may assign to it, in respect to the election of the Constitu- tional President of tho Itepubllc, Magistrates of the Supremo Court, and Senators for the Federal District. 11. To judge and decide upon the res- ignations which the President of the liepubllc or the Magistrates of tho Supreme Court of Jus- tice may make. The same power belongs to it in treating of licenses solicited by the first, iii. To watch over, by means of an mspocting cora- mitteo from its own body, the exact performance of the business of the chief auditorship. iv. To appoint the principal oftlcers and other employes of the same. v. To constitute itself a jury of accusation, for tho high functionaries of whom Article 108 of this Constitution treats, vi. Ta 562 CONSTITUTION OK MKXICO. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. exnmiiio tlic luroiintM which tlio Kxcciitivo iiiiut prt'nciit iiiiiniiilly, to iiiinrDvc tho iiiiiiiiiil I'Ntliiiittii of t'xpciiM'i*, unit to inltiiiti' the taxcH which In itii jiiilKiiu'iit otiKlit to 1)1! (Iccrccil to cover thcMii ex lu'iiHcM. H. Tliu cxcIiihIvo powers of the Heiiiitc lire — t. Tu npprovu tliu treiitIcK ami (liploinntlit C'onvi'iitioiiH which tlie Kxeciilive iiiiiy iiiiike with foreign lioweni. ii. To riilify the iippolntnicntH which the I'rcHlileiit of tlii! I{c|iiil)lie iiiuy iiiukn (if ininiHterH, ilipioiniilic iiKciitH, coimiilM Keneriil, Hiiperlor eiiiployf'H of tlie Tniimiry, colniiclti iiiiil otlicr Hii|ierior otIlcerH of the nittioiial army ami iiitvy, oil the teriim which tlii^ law Hliall provide. III. To authori/.i! the Kxcculivc to penult the de Iiartiiri'of iiatioiiul tr(M)pHheyoml tlie liiiiitxof tlie {epiihllc, the iiiiHwixe of forelKii tr<Hip)t tliroii)(h the national territory, the Htatloii of Hriiiadrotm of other powerH for inori! than u inontli in the waterH i f the Uepulilic. IV. To ^ive ItH coliHenl In order that the Kxecutive may dlHptmu of the national guard oui^ide of their renpectlvo Htates or Torriiories, determining the necesHnry forc(^ V. Todcclare, when the ConNtitiitional h'gUlatlve and executive poweni of a Statu hIuiU have iIIh- appvureil, that the caHu lum arrived for appoint- ing to It a provlHlonal Uovernor, who Hhall call electloiH In conformity with the ConstltiitloDal lawHof the Kuid State. The appointnientof Gov- criior Khali be made by the federal Kxecutive with the approval of the Senate, and in its rc- cesscii with the approval of the Permanent Coni- mi§8l')n. Said functionary Hhall not be elected (.'ouHlltutional Uovernor at the election!) which are had in virtue of the suminonit which he xhall IsHUC. VI. To decide political quetitions which may arise between the i.owers of ii State, when any of them may appear with this purpose in the 8<'nate, or when on account of said (|ue8tions Con- stitutional order shall have l)een interrupted dur- ing a contiict of arms. In this case the Senate sliall dictate its resolution, being subject to the geiicnd Constitution of tlio Kepulilie and to that of the Stftfe. The law sliull regulate the exerci.se of this power and that of the preceding, vii. To constitute itself a jury of judgment in accord- Buco with Article 105 of this Constitution. C. .''lehof the liouses may, without the interven- tion of the other — r Dictate economic resolu- tions .relative to its internal regimen, n. Com- municate within itself, and with the Executive of the Union, by means of committees from its own liody. in. Appoint the employes of its secretaryship, and make the internal regulations for the same. iv. Issue summons for exiraor dlnary elections, with the object of filling the vacancies of their respective members. IV. To regulate definitely the limits of the States, ter- minating the dilTerenccs which may arise between them relative to the demarcation of tlipir respect- ive territories, except when these diflicultieshave a contentious character. V. To change the resi- dence of the supreme powers of the Federation. VI. To establish the internal order of the Federal District and Territories, taking as a basis that the citizens sliall choose by popular election the political, municipal, and judicial authorities, and designating tlie taxes necessary to cover their loail expenditure. VII. To approve the estimates of the Federal expenditure, which the Executive must annually present to it, and to impose the necessary taxes to cover them. VIII. To giv ) rules under which the Executive may make loans on tae credit of the nation ; to approve said loans, And to recognl/.e and nnler the payment of tlin national delit. IX. To eMtiibllNh tarllTs on for- eign coimiierce, and to prevent, liy ineiiim of general laws, onerous riHtrictiotm from being cm- talillHhed with refereiire to the <'onimerce Im!- Iween till' States. X. To ^hiic codes, obligatory throughout the Uepiililic, of inlneHand comnu'rce, ('omprebemllng In this hist banking InstitiitlonM. XI. To cri'iite iiiid HiippreMs public Federal em- ployments and to eHtiiiillHli, iiiigment, or diniiiiish their Hiiliirii'M. Xll. To riitifv the appoliitmeiilH which the Kxi'<'utlve may make of ministers, dip- lomatic aj/cnls, and consuls, of the higher em- ployes of the Tri'asury, of the colnnels and other suiierldr olUcers of the niitlonal army mid navy. XIII. To approve the treaties, coiilr'.''ts, or dip- lomatic conventions which the Kxecutive may make. XIV. To declare war In '. lew of the datit which the i^xecullve may present to it. XV. To regulate the manner in which letters of mariiiio may he issued; to dictate lawsaceonling to which must Im' declared goiKl or bad the pri/.es on sea and land, and to Issue laws relating to nmritinio rights in peace and war. XVI. To permit or deny the ei'tniHce of foreign tnsips into the ter- ritory of Jio Hcpublii , and to consent to the station of s'luadrotisoi other powers for iiiore than a month in the waters of the Uepulilic. XVII. To permit tlie depart urtMif national troops bey mid the limits of the Hepublic* XVIII. To raisu and maintain the army and navy of the Union, and to re).Miliite their organization ami service. XIX. To establish regulations with the purpose of organi/iiig, arming, and disciplining the na- tioniuguard, reserving respectively to the citizens wlio compose it the appointment of the command- ers and ollicers, and to the Stales the power of instructing it in conformity with the disciplina prescribeclby said regulations. XX. To give its consent in order that the Executive may control the national guard outside of its respective Statea and Territories, determining the necessary force. XXI. To dictate laws on natiinilization, coloniza- tion, and citizenship. XXII. To dictate laws on the general means of communication and on the post-otlice and mails. XXIII. To establish mints, lixing tlie conditions of their operation, to deter- mine the value of foreign money, and adopt a general system of weights and nieasuR's. XXI V. To tlx rules to which must be subject the occu- pation and sale of public lands and the price of these lands. XXV. To grant pardons for crimes cognizable by the tribunals of the Federation. XXVI. To grant rewards or recompense for emi- nent services rendered to tlie country or humanity. XXVII. To prorogue for thirty working days the first period of its ordinary sessions. XXVIII. To form rules for its internal regulation, to take the necessary measures to compel the attendance of absent meiabers, and to correct the faults or omissions of those pn^sent. XXIX. To appoint ami remove freely tue employes of its secretary- ship and those of the chief niiditorsliip, which shall be organized in accordance with tlu' jiro- visions of tlie law. XXX. To make al laws which may be necessary and proper to icmlcr effective tlie foregoing powers and all others granted by this Constitution and the authorities of the Union, f • Amended by Section H, Clause III., Article 7S, of the law of the 18th of Novemlier, 1H~4. + See respcctlnK this Artii'le the additions A, B.and C lo Article 7S of the law of the 13th of November, already cited. 568 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. Art. 7j. During the recess of Congress there sliiill be u Permanent Deputation composed of twenty-nine nieml)er8, of wliom fifteen shall be Deputies njid fourteen Senators, appointed by tlielr respective houses tlie evening before the close of the sessions. Art. 74. The attributes of the Permanent Deputation are — I. To give its consent to the U8<! of the national gua d iu the cases mentioned in Article 72. Clause XX. II. To detennino by Itself, or on he jiroposal of the Executive, after hearing him in the first place, the summons of Congres.s, or of one house alone, for extra sessions, the vote of two-thirds of the members present being necessary in botli cases. The summons shall designate the object or objects of the extra sessions. III. To api)rove the appointments which are referred to in Article 8!>, Clause III. IV. To administer tlie oath of olliee to the Presi- dent of trie Republic, and to the Justices of the Supreme Court, in t le cases provided by this Constitution.* V. To report u]ion all the liusi- ness not disposed of, in order that tlie Legislature ■whicli follows may immediately take up such unfinished business. Art. 75. Tlie exercise of the supreme execu- tive power of tlic Union is vested in a single individual, who shall be called "President of the United States of Mexico." Art. 76. The election of President shall be indirect in the first degree and by secret ballot, in such manner as may lie prescribed by the electoral law. Art. 77. To be eligible to the position of President, the candidr.tc must be a Mexican citi- zen by birth, in the exorcise of his rights, be fully thirty-five years old nt the time of tlic elec- tion, not belong to the ecclesiastical order, and reside in the country at the time the election is held. Art. 78. Tlie President shall enter upon the performance of the duties of liis office on the first of December, and shall continue in office four years, being eligible for the Constitutional period immediately following ; but he shall remain in- capable thereafter to occupy the presidency by a new election until four years shall have p-xsscd, •counting from tlio day on which he ceased to perform his functions. Art. 79. In the temporary default of the Presi- dent of the Kepublic, and in tlie vacancy before the installation of the newly-elected President, tlie citizen who may have performed the duties of President or Vice-President of the Senate, or •of the Permanent Commission in the periods of recess, during the month prior to that in which said default may have occurred, shall enter upon the exercise of tlie executive power of tlie Union. A. The President and Vice-President of the Sen- ate and of the Permanent Commission sliall not "be reOlected to tliose otflces until a year after having held them. B. If the period of sessions •of the Senate or of the Permanent Commission sliall begin in tlie second half of a month, the default of the President of the Republic shall be ■covered by the President or Vice-President who may have acted in the Senate or in the Perma- nent Commission during the first half of the said month. C. The Senate and the Permanent Com- mission shall renew, the last day of each month, their Presidents and Vice-Presidents. For these •See the Amendmeat of Septemlwr 25, 1873, Art. 4. offices the Permanent Commission shall elect, alternatively, in one month two Deputies and in the following month two Senators. D. When the office of President of the Republic is vacant, the functionary who shall take it constitutionally as his substitute must issue, within the definite term of fifteen days, tlip s'lmnions t<. proceed to a new election, which slr.ill be held within the term of three mcntho, and in accordance with the provisions of Article 70 of this Constitution. The provisional President shall not be eligible to tlie iiresidency at tlie elections -(vliicli are held to ])ut an end to his provisional term. E. If, on account of death or any other reason, the func- tionaries who, according to this law, should iako the place of the Prcsidentof the Republic, might not be able in any absolute manner to do so, it shall be taken, under predetermined conditions, by the citizen who may have been President or Vice-President of the Senate or the Pennanent Commission in the month prior to that in which they discharged those offices. P. When the office of I'resident of tlie Republic shall become vacant within t'^e last six months of the constitutional period, the functionary who shall take the place of the President shall terminate this period. G. To be eligible to the position of President or Vice-President of the Senate or of the Permanent Commission, one must be a Mexican citizen by birtli. II. If tlie vacancy in tlie office of Presi- dent of the Republic sliould occur when the Senate and Permanent Commission are perform- ing their functions in extra sessions, the Presi- dent of the Commission shall fill the vacancy, under conditions 'ndicated in this r.rticle. I. The Vice-President of the Senate or of the Per- manent Commission shall enter upon the per- formance of the functions whiih ,tliis Article confers upon tliem, in the vacancies of the office of President of tlie Senate or of the Permanent Commission, and in the periods only while the impediment lasts. J. The newly-elected Presi- dent sliall enter upon the discbarge of his duties, at the latest, sixty days after that of the election. In case the House of Deputies shall not be in session, it shall be convened in extnv session, in order to make the computation of votes within the term mentioned. Art. 80. In the vacancy of the office of Presi- dent, the period of the newly-elected President shall be computed from the first of December of the year prior to that of his election, provided he may not have taken possession of his office on the date which Article 78 determines. Art. 81. The office of President of the Union may not be resigned, except for grave cause, ap- proved by Congress, before whom the resignation shall be iircsented. Art. 82. If for any reason the election of Presi- dent shall not have been miule and publislied by the first of December, on which the transfer of the otflce should be made, or the President-elect shall not have been ready to enter upon the dis- charge of his duties, the term of the former Presi- dent shall end nevertheless, and the supreme executive power shall be deposited provisionally in the functionary to whom it belongs according to the provisions of the reformed Article 79 of this Constitution. Art. 83. The President, on taking possession of his office, shall take an oath before Congress, and in its recess before the Permanent Commis- sion, under the following formula: " I swear to 564 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. perform loyally and patnotically the duties of President of the United States of Mexico, accord- ing to the Constitution, and seek in everything for the welfare and prosperity of the Union."* Art. 84. The President may not remove from the place of the residence of the Federal powers, nor lay aside the exercise of liis functions, with- out grave cause, approved by the Congress, and in its recesses by the Permanent Commission. Art. 85. The powers and obligations of the President are the following: I. To promulgate and execute tlio laws passed by the Congress of the Union, providing, in the administrative sphere, for their exact observance. II. To ap- point and remove freely the Secretaries of the Cabinet, to remove the diplomatic agents and superior employds of the Treasury, and to ap- pomt and remove freely the other employes of the Union whose appointment and removal are not otherwise provided for iu the Constitut..yn or in the laws. III. To appoint ministers, diplo- matic agents, consuls-general, with the approval of Congress, and, in its recess, of the Permanent Commission. IV. To appoint, with the iiproval of Congress, the colonels and other superior offi- cers of the national army and navy, and the su- perior employes of the treasury. V. To appoint the other officers of the national army and navy, according to the laws. VI. To control the per- manent armed force by sea and land for the in- ternal security and external defence of the Fed- eration. VIL To control the national guard for the same objects within the limits estamished by Article 73, Clause XX. VIII. To declare war in the name of the United States of Slexico, after the passage of the necessary law by the Congress of the Union. IX. To grant letters of marque, subject to bases fixed by the Congress. X. To direct diplomatic negotiations and make treaties with foreign powers, submitting them for the ratification of the Federal Congress. XI. To re- ceive ministers ond other envoys from foreign powers. XII. To convoke Congress in extra ses- sions when the Permanent Commission sliall con- sent to it. XIII. To furnisli the judicial power with that assistance which may be necessary for the prompt exercise of its functions. XIV. To open all classes of ports, to establish maritime and frontier custom-houses and designate their situation. XV. To grant, in accordance with the laws, pardons to criminals sentenced for crimes within the jurisdiction of the Federal tri- bunals. XVI. To grant exclusive privileges, for a linnted time and according to the proper law, to discoverers, inventors, or perfecters of any branch of industry. Art. 86. For the dispatch of th .■ business of the administrative department of the federation there shall be the number of Secretaries which the Congress may establish by a law, which shall provide for the distribution of business and pre- scribe what shall be in charge of each Secretary. Art. 87. To be a Secretary of the Cabinet it is required that one shall be a Mexican citizen by birth, in the exercise of his rights, and fully twenty-five years old. Art. 88. All the regulations, decrees, and orders of the President must be signed by the Secretary of the Cabinet who is in charge of the depart- ment to which the subject belongs. Without this requisite they shall not be obeyed. * See the Amendments and Additions of September as, 1873. Art. 80. The Secretaries of the Cabinet, as soon as the sessions of the first period shall l)e opened, shall render an account to the Congress of the state of their respective departments. Art. 90. The exercise of tlu; judicial power of the Federation is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice and in the district and circuit courts. Art. 91. The Supreme Court of Justice shall be composed of eleven judges, four supernum- eraries, one fiscal, an<l one attorney-general. Art. 92. Each of the members of the Supreme Court of Justice shall remain in office six years, and his election shall be indirect in the first degree, under conditions established by the electoml law. Art. 93. In order to be elected a member of the Supreme Court of Justice it is necessary that one be learned in tlie science of tlie law in the judgment of the electors, more than tliirty-flve years old, and a Jlexican citizen by l)irtli, in the exercise of his riglits. Art. 94. The meml)crs of the Supreme Court of Justice, on entering upon the exercise of their charge, shall take an oath before Congress, and, in its recesses, before the Permanent Commission, in the following form: "Do yoti swear to per- form loyally and patriotically the charge of Jlag- istrate of the Supreme Court of Justice, wliicli the people have conferred upon you in conformity with the Constitution, seeking m everything the welfare and prosperity of the Union ? * Art, 95. A member of the Supreme Court of Justice may resign his office only for grave cause, approved by the Co 'jress, to whom the resigna- tion shall be preseni -d. In the recesses of the Congress the judgment shall be rendered by the Permanent Commission. Art. 96. The law shall establish and organize the circuit and district courts. Art. 97. It belongs to the Federal tribunals to take cognizance of — I. All controversies which may ariso in regard to the fulfilment and appli- cation of the Federal laws, except in the case in which the application affects only private in- terests ; such a case falls within the competence of the local judges and tribunals of the common order of the States, of the Federal District, and of the Territory of Lower California. II. AH cases pertainiiig to maritime law. III. Those in which the Federation may be a party. IV. Those that may arise between two or more States. V. Those that may arise between a State and one or more citizens of another Stat '. VI. Civil or criminal cases that may arise uader treaties with foreign powers. VII. Cases concerning dip- lomatic agents and consuls. Art. 98. It belongs to the Supreme Court of Justice, in tlie first instance, to take cognizance of controversies wliicli may arise between one State and another, and of those in which the Union may be a party. Art. 99. It belongs also to the Supreme Court of Justice to detennine the questions of jurisdic- tion which may arise between tlie Federal tri- bunals, between tliese and those of the States, or between the courts of one State and those of another. Art. 100. In the other cases comprehended in Article 97, the Supreme Court of Justice shall be a court of appeal or, ratlier, of last resort, accord- ing to the graduation wliicli the law rnay make in the jurisdiction of tiie circuit and district courts. • See Additions to the Constitution, Septem1)er 25, 1873. 565 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. Art. lOl. Tliotribuiuila of the Federation shall decide all {juestions which arise — I. Under laws or acts of whatever authority which violate in- dividual guarantees. II. Under laws or acts of the State autliority which violate or restrain the sovereignty of the States. III. Under laws or acts of the State authority which invade the sphere of t)ic Federal authority. Art. 102. All the judgments which the pre- ceding article mentions shall l)e had on petition of tlie aggrieved party, by means of judicial proceedings and forms which sluill be prescribed i)y law. The sentence shall be always such as to affect private individuals only, limiting itself to defend and protect them in the special case to which the process refers, without making any general declaration respecting the law or act which gave rise to it. Art. 103. The Senators, the Deputies, the mem- bers of the Supremo Court of Jus''.ce, and the Secretaries of the Cabinet are responsible for the common crimes which they may commit dur- ing their terms of olTlce, and for the crimes, mis- demeanors, and negligence into which they may fall in the performance of the duties of said office. The Governors of the States are likewise respon- sible for the infraction of the Constitution and Federal laws. The President of the Republic is also responsible ; but during the term of his office lie may be accused only for the crimes of treason against the country, express violation of the Constitution, attack on the freedom of election, and grave crimes of the common order. The high functionaries of the Federation shall not enjoy any Constitutional privilege for the official crimes, misdemeanors, or negligence into which tlicy may fall in the performance of any employment, office, or public commission which they may have ac- cepted during the periotl for which, in conformity with the law, they shall have been elected. The same shall happen with respect to those common crimes which they may commit during the per- formance of said employment, officf or commis- sion. In order that the cause may be initiated when the high functionary shall have returned to the exercise of his proper functions, proceeding should be undertaken in accordance with the provision of Article 104 of this Constitution. Art. 104. If the crime should be a common one, the House of Representatives, formed into a grand jury, shall declare, by an absolute ma- jority of votes, whether there is or is not ground to procecu against the accused. In the negative case, there shall be no ground for further, pro- ceedings; in the affirmative, the accused shall be, by the said act, deprived of his office, and subjected to the action of the ordinary tribunals. Art. 105. The houses shall take cognizance of official crimes, the House of Deputies as a jury of accusation, the Senators a.s a jury of judgment. The jury of accusation shad have for its object to declare, by an absohite majority of votes, whether the accused is or is not culpable. If the declaration should bo absolutory, the func- tionary shall continue in the exercise of his office ; if it should be condemnatory, he shall be imme- diately deprived of his office, and shall be placed at the disposal of the Senate. The latter, formed into a jury of judgment, and, with the presence of the criminal and of the accuser, if there«hould be one, shall proceed to apply, by an absolute majority of votes, the punishment which the law designates. Art. 106. A judgment of responsibility for official crimes having been pronounced, no favc of pardon may be extended to the offender. Art. 107. The responsibility for official crimes and misdemeanors may be required only during the period in whicli the functionary remains in office, and one year thereafter. Art. 108. With respect to demands of the civ'l onlcr, there sliall be no privilege or immunity for any public functionary. Art. 109. The States shall adopt for their in- ternal regimen the popular, representative, re- publiciui form of government, and may provide in their respective Constitutions for the reelection of the Governors in accordance with what Article 78 provides for the President of the Republic. Art. no. The States may regulate among themselves, by friendly agreements, their re- spective boundaries; but those regulations shall not be carried into effect without the approval of the Congress of the Union. Art. III. The States may not in any case — I. Form alliances, treaties, or coalitions with anotherState, or with foreign powers, excepting the coalition which the frontier States may make for offensive or defensive war against the In- dians. II. Grant letters of murque or reprisal. III. Coin money, or emit paper money or stamped paper. Art. 112. Neither may any State, without the consent of the Congress of the Union: I. Es- tablish tonnage duties, or any port duty, or impose taxes or duties upon importations or ex- portations. II. Have at any time permanent troops or vessels of war. III. Make war by itself on any foreign power except in cases of invasion or of such imminent peril as to admit of no delay. In these cases the State shall give notice immediately to the President of the Re- public. Art. 11^. Each State is under obligation to deliver without delay the criminals of other States to the authority that claims them. Art. 114. The Governors of the States are obliged to publish and cause to be obeyed tlie Federal laws. Art. 1x5. In each State uf the Federation en- tire faith and credit shall be given to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of all the other States. The Congress may, by means of general laws, prescribe the manner of proving said acts, records, and proceedings, and the effect thereof. Art. 116. The powers of the Union are bound to protect the States against all invasion or ex- ternal violence. In case of insurrection or in- ternal disturbance they shall give them like pro- tection, provided the Legislature of the State, or the Executive, if the Legislature is not in session, shall request it. Art. 117. The powers which are not expressly granted by this Constitution to the Federal authorities are understood to be reserved to the States. Art. 118. No person may at the same time hold two Federal elective offices ; but if elected to two, he may choose which of them he will fill. Art, 119. No payment shall be made which is not comprehended in tlie budget or determined by a subsequent law. Art. 120. The President of the Republic, the members of the Supreme Court of Justice, the Deputies, and other public officers of the Federa- 666 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. tion, who aro chosen by popular election, shall receive a compensation for their services, which ghall be determined by law and paid by th(! Fed- eral Treasury. This compensation may not be renounced, and any law wliich augments or di- minishes it shall not have elTect during the period for which a functionary holds the office. Art. 131. Every public ofTlcer, withoat any exception, l)efore taking possession of hii office, shall take an oath to maintain this Constitution and the laws which emanate from it.* Art. 123. In time of peace no military au- thoritj' may exercise more functions than those which have close connection with military disci- pline. There shall be fixed and permanent mili- tary commands only in the castles, fortresses, and magazines which ore immediately under the government of the Union ; or in encampments, barracks, or depots which may be established outside of towns for stationing troops. Art. 123. It belongs exclusively to the Federal authorities to exercise, in matters of religious worship and external discipline, the intervention v.'liich the laws may designate. Art. 124. The States shall not impose any duty for the simple passage of goods in the internal commerce. The Government of the Union alone may tlecree transit duties, but only with respect to 1 reign goods which cross the country by in- ternational or interoceanic lines, without being on the national territory more time than is nec- essary to traverse it and depart to the foreign country. Tliey shall not prohibit, either directly or indirectly, the entrance to their territory, or the departure from it, of any merchandise, ex- cept on police grounds ; nor burden the articles of national production on their departure for a foreign country or for another State. The ex- emptions from duties which they concede shall be general ; they may not be decreed in favor of the products of specified origin. The quota of the import for a given amount of merchandise shall be the same, whatever may have been its origin, and no heavier burden may be assigned to it than that which the similar products of the political entity in which the import is decreed bear. The national merchandise shall not be sub- mitted to definitti route nor to inspection or reg- istry on the ways, nor any fiscal document be demanded for its internal circulation. Nor shall they burden foreign merchandise with a greater quotii than that which may have been permitted them by the Federal law to receive. Art. 125. The forts, military quarters, maga- zines, and other edifices necessary to the govern- ment of the Union shall be under the immediate inspection of the Federal authorities. Art. 126. This Constitution, the laws of the Congress of tl'.e Union which emanate from it, and all the treaties made or which shall be made by the President of the Republic, with the ap- proval of Congress, shall be the supreme law of the whole Union. The judges of each State shall be guided by said Constitution, law, and treaties in spite of provisions to the contrary which may appear in the Constitutions or laws of the States. Art. 127. The present Constitution may be added to or reformed. In order that additions or alterations may become part of the Constitu- tion, it is required that the Congress of the Union, by a vote of two-thirds of tlie members present, shall agree to the alterations or additions, and that these shall be approved by the majority of the Legislatures of the States. The Congress of the Union shall count the votes of the Legislatures and make the declaration that the reforms or additions have been ajiproved. Art. 128. This Constitution shall not lose its force and vigor even if its observance be inter- rupted by a rebellion. In case that by any pub- lic disturbance a government contrary to the principles which it sanctions shall be established, as soon as the peoplii recover their liberty its ob- servance shall be reestablished, and in accordance with it and the laws which shall have been is- sued in virtue of it, shall be judged not only those who shall have figured in the government emanating from the rebellion, but also those who shall have cooperated with it. Additions. Art. 1, The State and the Church are inde- pendent of one another. The Congress may not pass laws establishing or prohibiting any religion. Art. 2. Marriage is a civil contract. This and the other acts relating to the civil state of persons belong to the exclusive jurisdiction of the func- tionaries and authorities of the civil order, within limits provided by the laws, and they shall have the force and validity which the same attribute to them. Art. 3. No religious institution may acquire real estate or capital fixed upon it, with the single exception established in Article 27 of this Con- stitution. Art. 4. The simple promise to dpeak the truth and to comply with the obligations which have been incurred, shall be substituted for the re- ligious oath, with its effects and penalties. CONSTITUTION OF NETHERLANDS KINGDOM. After 1830, this became the King- dom of Holland. See NETUBBLANDa : A. D. 1830-1832, and 1830-1884. CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. "On May 17, 1814, ... a constitution was granted to "Norway. The Fundamental Law of the constitution (GrundlOv), which almost every peasant farmer now-a-days has framed and hung up in the chief room of his house, bears the date the 4th of November 1814. "— C. F. Keary, Nor- way and tfie Norwegians, ch. 13. — The following is the text of the corotii ition as granted in 1814: • See the Additions of September 25, 187S. Title I. Article ■• . The kingdom of Norway is a free, independent, ntUvisible, and inalienable state, united to Sweden -nrler the same king. The form of its governme.- ""s limited, hereditary, and monarchical. 2. The Lutheran evangelical religion shall continue to be the ruling religion of tlie king- dom; those of the inhabitants which profess It 567 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. lire bound to bring up their chiUIrcn in its tenets; J('8uitM iiml monastic orders Hbull not l)u pro- hibited in the liingdom. TIio admission of Jews into tlie Icingdom shall always lie, as formerly, prohibited. Title II. Article 1. Tlic ex""utivc power is declared to bo in the person of tl.e king. 2. The king si.all always profess the evan- gelical Lutlieran religion, which he shall main- tiiin and protect. 3. Tlie jx'rson of the king is sacred : he can neither be Ijlaniod or accused. 4. The Biieccssion is lineal, and collateral, gucli as it is determined l)y the order of succes- sion decrc(!d by the general estates of Sweden, and siinct oned by the king in the Act of the 20tli 8epteml)cr 1810, of which a translation is an- nexed to this Constitution. Of the number of legitimate heirs, is comprehended the child in its mother's womb, which, as soon as it shall be born, after the death of its father, takes the place which is due to liim in the lino of succession. When a Prince, heir of the re-united crowns of Norway and Sweden, shall be born, his name, and the day of his birth shall be announced at the first Storthing, and inscribed in the registers. 5. Should there not be found any prince, a legitimate lieir to the throne, the king can pro- pose his successor at the Storthing of Norway, and at the same time to the states general oi Sweden. As soon as the king shall have made the proposition, the representatives of the two nations shall choose from among them a commit- tee, invested with the right of determining the election, in case the king's proposition should not, by the plurality of voices, be approved of separately Ijy the representatives of each of the countries. The number of members of this com- mittee, shall be composed of an equal number of Norwegians and Swedes, so that the step to fol- low in the election shall be regulated by a law which the king shall propose at the same time to the next Storthing, and the states general of Sweden. They shall draw by lot one out of the committee for its member. • 6. Tlie Storthing* of Norway, and the states general of Sweden shall concert to fix by a law the king's majority ; if they cannot agree, a com- mittee, taken from the representatives of the two nations, shall decide it in the manner established by article 5th, title 2nd. As soon as the king shall have attained the years of majority fixed by the law, he shall publicly declare that he is of age.f 7. When the king comes of age he shall take Into his hands the reins of government, and make the following oath to the Storthing: "I swear, on my soul and conscience, to govern the kingdom of Norwav conformably to its constitution and laws." If the Storthing is not then assembled, this oath shall be deposited in writing in the council, and solemnly repeatr ' by the king at the first Storthing, either vivfi or by writing, by tlie person whom he shi appointed to this effect. 8. The coronation of the - iiall take place when he is of age, in the cathei i . . i of Dronthelm, *The national assembly, or general estates of the king- dom. tA law of the Storthing, 18th July 181B, and sanctioned by the king, doclarpd that the king Is major on arriving •t the age of eighteen years. at the time and with those ceremonies that shall be fixed by liimself. O. The king shall pass some time in Norway yearly, unless this is prevented by urgent cir- cumstances. 10. The king st all exclusively choose a coun- cil of Norwegian.s, citizens, who shall have ot- tained the seventieth year of their age. This council shall be composed at least of a minister of state, and seven otiier members. In like manner the king can create a viceroy or a gov- ernment. The king shall arrange the affairs between the members of the council, in such manner as he shall consider expedient. Besides these ordinary members of council, the king, or in Ills absence the viceroy (or the government jointly with the ordinary members of council)' may on particular occasions, call other Norwe- gians, citizens, to sit there, provided they are not members of the Stortliing. Tlie father and son, or two brotliers, shall not, ot the same time, have a seat in the council. 11. The king sliall appoint a governor of the- kingdom in his absence, and on failure it shall bo governed by the viceroy or a governor, with five at least of the members of council. They shall govern the Kingdom in the name and behalf of the king; and they shall observe inviolably, as much the principles contained in this funda- mental law as those [relative precepts the king shall lay down ic his instructions. They shall make a humble report to the king upon those affairs they have decided. All matters shall be decided by plurality of votes. If the votes happen to be equal, the viceroy or governor, or in their absence the first member of council, shall have two. 12. The prince royal or his eldest son can be viceroy ; but this can only occur when they have attained the majority of the king. In the case of a governor, either a Norwegian or a Swede may be nominoted. The viceroy shall remain in the kingdom, and shall not be allowed to reside in a foreign one beyond three months each year. When tlie king shall be present, the viceroy's functions shall cease. If there is no viceroy, but only a governor, the functions of the latter shall also cease, in which event he is only the first member of council. 13. During the residence of the king in Sweden, ho shall always have near him the minister of stote of Norway, and two of the members of the Norwegian council, when they shall be annually changed. These are charged with similar duties, and the same constitutional responsibility attaches to them as to the sitting council in Norway ; and it is only in their pres- ence that state affairs shall be decided by the king. All pjetitions addressed to the kin^ by Norwegian citizens ought, first, to be transmitted to the Norwegian council, that they may bo duly considered previously to decisions being pro- nounced. In general, no affairs ought U be decided before the council has expressea an opinion, in case it should be met with important objections. The minister of state of Norway ought to report the affairs, and he shall be re- sponsible for expedition in the resolutions which shall iiave been taken. 14. The king shall regulate public worship and its rites, as well as all assemblies that have religion for their object, so that ministers of re- ligion may observe their forms prescribed to them. 668 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. in. The king can give nndiiboliHlioriliDaMcoa wliicli respei't commtTcc, tlio custom-house, mniuifiictures, and police. Tliey slmll not, liow- ever, be contriiry to tlie constitution nor tli(! liiws mlonteil by tlie Stortliing. Tliey sliall liave pro- visional force \intil the next Storthing. 10. Tlie king shall in general regulate the taxes imposed by the Storthing. Tlie public treasurerof Norway shall remain in Norway, and the revenues shall only be employed towards the expenses of Norway. 17. The king shall superintend the manner in wliich the domains and crown property of the stale are employed and governed, in tlie manner lixed l)y the Storthing, and which sliall be most advantageous to the country. 18. The king in council has the right to par- don criminals wlicn the supreme trilmnal has pronounced its oj)inlon. Tlie criminal has tluf choice of receiving pardon from the king or of subniitling to tlie punishment to wliicli he is condemned. In tlie causes which the Odelsthing would have ordered to be carried to tlie Uigsrct, there can be no other pardon but that which shall liberate from a capitid punisliment. 10. The king, after liaving lieard his Norwe- gian council, shall dispose of all the civil, eccle- siastic, and military employments. Those who assist in the functions shall swear obedience and lidelity to the constitution and to the king. Tlie princes of the royal family cannot be invested witli any civil employment; yet tlie prince royal, or his eldest son, may be nominated viceroy. 20. The governor of tlie kingdom, the minis- ter of state, otlier members of council, and those employed in the functions connected with these offices, the envoys and consuls, superior magis- trates, civil and ecclesiastic commanders of regi- ments, and other military bodies, governors of fortresses, and commanders-in-cliicf of ships of war, shall, without previous arrest, bo deposed by the king and his Norwegian council. As to the pension to be granted to tliose employed they sliall be decided by the first Storthing. In the mean time, they shall enjoy two-third parts of their former salary. The others employed can tinly be suspended by the king, and they shall afterwards be brought before the tribunals, but cannot be deposed excepting by order of an arrest, and the king cannot make them change their situations contrary to their will. 21. The king can confer orders of knighthood on whomsoever he chooses, in reward of dis- tinguished services, which shall be published; but he can confer no other rank, with the title, tlmn that which is attached to every employment. An order of knighthood does not liberatd the per- son on whom it is conferred from those duties common to all citizens, and particular titles are not conferred in order to obtain situations in the state. Such persons shall preserve the title and rank attached to those situations which they have occupied. No person can, for the future, obtain personal, mixed, or hereditary privileges. 22. The king elects and dismisses, whenever he thinks proper, all the officers attached to his court. 23. The king is commander-in-chief of all the forces, by sea and land, in tlie kingdom, and these cannot be increased or diminished without the consent of the Storthing. They will not be ceded to the service of ony foreign power, and troops belonging to a foreign power (except 87 auxiliary tnxips in case of a hostile invasion,) cannot enter the country without tlie eimsent of the Stiirthing, During peace, the Norwegian tr(«)ps sliall be stationed in Norwav, and not in Sweden. Notwithstanding tills tlic king may have in Sweden a Norwegian gimid, composed of volunteers, and may for a short time, not ex- ceeding six weeks in a year, nsseiiible troops in the envinms of tlie two countries, for exercising; but in ease tliere are more than it,l)00 men, com- posing the army of one of the two countries, they cannot in time of peace enter the other.* The Norwegian army and gun-boats shall not be em- ployed without the consent of the Storthing. The Norwegian licet shall have dry docks, and during peace its stations and harbours in Nor- way. Ships of war of both countries shall bo supiiiied with the seamen of the other, so long as they shall voluntarily engage to serve. Tho laiulwchr, and other Norwegian forces, which are not calculated among the number of troops of the line, sliall never be employed beyond the frontiers of the kingdom of Norway. 24. Tlie king has the right of assembling troops, commencing war, making peace, coneluil- iiig and dis.solving treaties, semling ministers to, and receiving those of, foreign courts. When ho begins war he ought to adv'ise the council of Norway, consult it, and order it to prepare an address on the state of the kingdom, relative to its finances, and proper means of defence. On this tho king shall convoke the minister of state of Norway, and those of the council of Sweden, at an extraordinary assembly, when he shall ex- plain all those relative circumstances tliat ought to be taken into considemtion ; with a representa- tion of the Norwegian council, and a similar one on tlie part of Sweden, upon the state of the king- dom, sliall then be presented. The king shall then require advice upon tliesc objects; and each shall be inserted in a register, under tlie responsibility imposed by tlic constitution, when the king sliall then adopt that resolution which he judges most proper for tho benefit of the state. 25. On this occasion all the members of coun- cil must be present, if not prevented by some law- ful cause, and no resolution ought to be adopted unless one half of the members are present. In Norwegian affairs, which, according to the fif- teenth article, are decided in Sweden, no resolu- tion shall be taken unless the minister of state of Norway and one of the members of council, or two members, are present. 20. The representations respecting employ- ments, and other important acts, excepting those of a diplomatic and military nature, properly so called, shall be referred to the council by him who is one of the members in tho department charged with it, wlio shall accordingly draw up the resolution adopted in council. 27. If any member of council is prevented from appearing, and referring the affairs which belong to his peculiar department, he shall be re- placed in this office by one of the others appointed to this purpose, either by the king, if personally present, and if not, by liim who has precedence in tlie council, jointly with the other members com- posing it. Sliould several of these be prevented • Tho law of the Storthintt, 5th July 191«, bears, that troops of the line shall be employed beyond the frontiers of the kinKdoin, and llie interpn-tation Kivon by it to that law is, that tnxips of the line shall be employed beyond the frontiers of the two kingdoms. 669 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. from npppnrinjt, so tlmt only one half of the ordi- nary n\nnl>i'r is prewnt, the otiier employed in tlie ollU'cN Hhnll in lilie innnner liave ri^lit to git In rouncil ; und in thnt event it hIiiiII he iifter- wiirds referred to tlio Itinc, who decides if they ought to continue to exercise this olflce. 28. 'I'lie eonneil slmll keep n register of all nfTairs tlmt mny come under its ronsiderntion. Kvery individuul wliosits in it slmll he iit liherty to give his opinion freely, which tlie king is ohligcd to heiir; hut it is reserved to his majesty to ado])t resolutions after he has consulted his own mind. If a incml)er of council finds thnt the king's resolution is contrary to the form of government, the lows of the kingdom, or in- jurious to the state, he shall consider it his duty to opi)ose it, and record his opinion in the register accordingly ; hut he who rcmainb silent slmll be presumed to Imvo agreed with the king, and shall he responsible for it, even in the case of be- ing referrecl to at a future period ; and the Odels- tlung is empowered to bring him before the lligsret. 20. All the orders issued by the king (mili- tary afTairs excepted) shall be eountersigned by tlie Norwegian minister of state. 30. Kesolutions made in absence of the king, by the council in Norway, shall be publicly pro- claimed and signed by the viceroy, or the gov- ernor and council, and countersigned by him who slmll have referred them, and he is further re- ' sponsible for the accuracy and dispatch with the register in which the resolution is entered. 31. All representations relative to the affoirs of this country, as well as writings concerning tliem, must be in the Norwegian language. 32. The heir-apparent to the throne, if a son of the reigning king, bhall have the title of prince royal, the other legitimate heirs to the crown shall be culled ])rinces, and the king's daughters princesses. 33. As soon as the heir shall h:<.ve attained tlie age of eighteen, he shall have a right to sit in council, without, however, having a vote, or any responsibility. 34. No prince of the blood shall marry with- out permission of the king, and in case of con- travention, he shall forfeit his right to tlie crown of Norwaj'. 35. The princes and princesses of the royal family, shall not, so far as respects their persons, he bound to appear before other judges, but be- fore the king or whomsoever he slmll have ap- pointed for that purpose. 30. The minister of state of Norway, as well as the two members of council who are near the king, shall have a seat and deliberative voice in the Swedish council, where objects relative to the t\yo kingdoms shall be treated of. In affairs of this nature the advice of the council ought also to be undcrstooil, unless these require quick dispatch, so as not to allow time. 37. If the king happens to die, and the heir to the throne is under age, the council of Nor- way, and that of Sweden, shall assemble, and mutually call a convocation of the Storthing in Norway and Diet of Sweden. 38. Although the representatives of the two kingdoms should have assembled, and regulated the administration during the king's minority, a council composed of an equal number of Nor- wegian and Swedish members shall govern the kingdoms, and follow their fundamental recipro- cal laws. The minister of state of Norway who sits in this council, shall draw by ballot in order to decide on which of Its members the preference slmll happen to fall. 30. The regulations contained in the two last articles shall he always e(|imlly adopted after the constitution of Sweden. It belongs to the Swed- ish council, in this quality, to he at the head of government. 40. With respect to more particular and neces- sary alTairs that might occur in cases under the three former articles, the king slmll propose to the first Storthing in Norway, and at the first Diet in Sweden, a law having for its basis the principle of a perfect equality existing between the two kingdoms. 41. The election of guardians to be at the head of government during the king's minority, shall be made after the same rules and manner formerly prescribed in tlie second title. Article 5th, concerning the election of an heir to the throne. 42. The individuals who in the cases under the 38th and 89th articles, are at the head of gov- ernment, shall be, the Norwegians at the Storth- ing of Norway, and slmll take the following oatli: "I swear, on my soul and conscience, to govern the kingdom conformably to its constitution and laws;" and the Swedes shall also make a similar oath. If there is not a Storthing or Diet, it shall bo deposited in writing in the council, and after- wards repeated at the first of these when they happen to assemble. 43. As soon as the governments have ceased, they shall be restored to the king, and the Storth- ing. 44. If the Storthing is not convoked, agree- ably to what is expressed in the 38th and 89th articles, the supreme tribunal slmll consider it as an imperious duty, nt the expiration of four weeks, to call a meeting. 45. The charge of the education of the king, in case his father may not have left in writing instructions regarding it, shall be regulated in the manner laid down under the 5th and 4Ist articles. It is held to be an invariable rule, that the king during Ids minority shall learn the Nor-" wegian language. 40. If the masculine line of the royal family is extinct, and there has not been elected a suc- cessor to the throne, the election of a new dynasty shall be proceeded in, and after the man- ner prescribed under the 5tli article. In the mean time tlie executive power shall be exercised agreeably to the 41st article. Title III. Article 1. Legislative power is exercised by the Storthing, which is constituted of two houses, , namely, the Lagthing and Odclsthing. 2. None shall have a right to vote but Nor- wegians, who have attaineil twenty-five years, and resided in the country during five years. 1. Those wlio are exercising, or who have exer- cised functions. 2. Possess land in the country, which has been let for more than five years. 3. Are burgesses of some city, or possess eitlier in it, or some village, a house, or property of the value of at least three liundred bank crowns in silver. 3. There shall be drawn up in cities by the magistrates, and in every parish by the iiubllc authority and the priest, a register of all the iu- 570 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. haliitiints who are voters. They slmll also note in it with(<ut delay, tlioBC changes which may successively take place. Before iM-ing inscribed in the register, every one shall take an oath, be- fore the tribunal, of fidelity to the constitution. 4. Right of voting is suspended in the follow- ing cases: 1. By the accumition of crime before a tribuital ; 3. By not attaining the proper age ; 8. By insolvency or bankruptcy, \nitil creditors have obtained their payment in whole, \inless it can be proved that the former has arisen from tire, or other unforeseen events. a. The riglit of voting is forfeited deliniti vcly : 1. By condenuiation to the lio\ise of correction, slavery, or punishment for defamatory language ; 2. By acceptance of tlie service of a foreign power, witliout the consent of government. 3. By obtaining the right of citizen in a foreign co\ui|ry. 4. By conviction of liaving purchased ancl sold votes, and having voted in more than one electoral assembly. O. The electoral assemblies and districts arc held every three years, and sliall finish before the end of the month of Decemlwr. 7. Electoral assemblies shall be held for the country, at tlic manor-house of the i)ari8h, the church, town-hall, or some other tit place. In the country they shall be directed by the first minister and assistants; and in towns, by magis- trates and slieriffs; election shall be made in tlie onler appointed by the registers. Disputes con- cerning the riglit of voting slnill be decided by the directors of the assembly, from whose judg- ment an appeal may be made to tlie Htorlhing. 8. Before proceeding to the election, tlie con- stitution shall be read with a loud voice in tlic cities, by the first magistrate, and in the country by the curate. O. In cities, an elector shall be chosen by fifty eligibl.' inliabitants. They shall assemble eight days after, in the place ap|)ointed by the magis- trate, and choose, either from amongst themselves, or from others who are eligible in the department of tlieir election, a fourth of their number to sit at tlie Storthing, thai, is after the manner of three to si.x in choosing one ; seven to ten in electing two; eleven to fourteen in choosing three, and fifteen to ■ iglitcen in electing four; which is tlie greatest number permitted to a city to send. If these consist of less than 150 eligible inhabitants, they shall send the electors to the nearest city, to vote conjointly with tlie electors of the former, wlien the two shall only be considered as forining one district.* 10. In each parish in tlie country tlie eligible inliabitants sliall choose in proportion to tlieir number electors in tlie following manner; that is to say, a hundred may clioose one ; two to three liundred, three; and so on in the same propor- tion.! Electors shall assemble a month after, in tlie place appointed by tlie bailiff, and choose, cither from amongst themselves or the others of * A law passed 8tli February 1816, contains this amend- ment. Twenty-five electors and more shall not elect nioro than tliree representatives, which Rlmll be. ad interim, the greatest niimher wliicli tlie baitiwielc can send ; and, consequently, out of which tlie number of representatives in the county, which are sixty-one, shall bo diminished from fifty to fifty-tliree. + If future Storthings discover the number of repre- sentatives of towns from an increOKe of ix>nulation should amount to thirty, the same StorthiiiR stiall have riifht to augment of now the number of representatives of the country, in the manner fixed by the principles of the con- stitution, which shall be held as a rule in future. the liailiwick eligible, a tenth of tlieir own num- ber to sit at the Stortliing, so that five to fourleen may choose one; fifteen to twenty-four may choose two of llieiii; twenty-five to thirty-four, three; thirty-five and lieyond it, four. This istho greatest niimlier. 1 1. The powers contained in tlie 0th and 10th articles shall have their proper force and elTect until ne.\t Storthing. If it is found that the re- presenlatives of cities constitute more or less than one-third of those of the kingdom, the .Storthing, as a rule for the future, shall have right to cliango these powers in sucli a manner that repre.st^uta- fives of tlie cif's may join with those of the country, as one to two; and the total number of reprcsentiifives ought not to be under seventy- five, nor above (me liundred. 12. Those eligible, who are in tlie country, and are prevented from attending by sickness, military service, or otiier proper reasons, can transmit tlieir votes in writing to tho.se who direct tile electoral assemblies, before tlieir terminafion. IJJ. No person can be clios<'ii a representative, unless he is thirty years of age, ami has resided ten years in the country. 14. The members of council, those employed in tlieir offices, ofiicers of the court, and its pen- sioners, sliall not be cliosen as rei)reseiitatives. 15. Individuals chosen to lie representatives, are obliged to accept of tlie election, unless pre- vented by motives considered lawful by the elect- ors, whose judgment may be submitted to tlie decision of tlie Storthing. A person who lias appeared more than once as representative at an ordinary Stortliing, is not obliged to accept of the electiim for tlie ne.\t ordinary Storthing. If legal reasons prevent a representative from apiiearing at tlie Storthing, the person who after him lias most votes shall take his jilace. lO. As soon as representatives have been elected, tliey shall receive a writing in the coun- try from tlie superior magistrate, and in tlie cities from the magistrate, also from all the electors, as a [iroof tliat they have been elected in the man- ner prescribed by tlie constitution. The Storth- ing .shall judge of the legality of this authority. 17. All representatives have a riglit to claim an indemnification in travelling to and returning from tlie Storthing; as well as subsistence dur- ing the period tliey shall have remained tliere. 18. During tlie journey, and return of repre- sentatives, as well as the time tliey may have attended the Storthing, they are exempted from arrest; unless tliey are seized in some flagrant and public act, and out of the Storthing they sliall not be responsible for llie opinions they may liave (leclared in it. Every one is bound to conform himself to the order established in it. lO. Representatives, chosen in tlie manner above declared, compose tlie Storthing of tlic liingdom of Norway. 20. The opening of the Storthing shall lie made tlic first lawful day in tlie month of Febru- ary, every three years, in tlie capital of the king- dom, unless tlie king, in extraordinary circum- stances, by foreign invasion or contagious disease, fixes on some other city of the kingdom. Such change ought tlien to be early annoiineed. 21. In extraordinary cases, the king has the right of a.ssembling the Storthing, witliout re- spect to the ordinary time. The king will then cause to be issued a proclamation, which is to be read in all the principal churches six weeks at 571 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OP NOUWAY. IcHHt pix'vioUB to tb(3 iluy flxf<l fur the asscm- Miiig of iiii'IiiImth of the- Storthing at tlic pluce uji|)ointi'(l. 22. Hticli cxtriiordinary HtortliinK may iMidis- 8olv('(l by till; king wiicn iii- Himll Juilgu tit. 2i). MLMiil>C'rti of till! Stortliiiig Kliall continue ill till) cxtTcisu of tlifir otlico (iiiring tlirce con- wciitivc ycurH, iia inncli during an extraordinary ns any ordinary Stortiiing tliat might bu lieid during tliis time. 24. If an extraordinary Storthing is lieid at a time wiieii tiie ordinary Stortiiing oiiglit to as- geinlile, tile funetion.s of tlie llrHt will cease, as Boon as tlie second Hliall liave met. 2n. The extraordinary Storthing, no more tlian tlie ordinary, can be held if two-thirds of the iiieniliers do not Iiappen to lie present. 2((. As soon as the Stortiiing sliail be orgau- ixed, the l(ing, or the person who sliaii lie ap- pointed by liim for tliat i)urpoBe, sliall open it liy an address, in wliicii lie is to descrilic tlie state of the kingdom, and those ol)jccts to which lie di- rects llie attention of the Storthing. No delilier- ution ouglit to take place in the king's presence. The Storthing sliall choose from its members one- fourth imrt to form tlie I^gthing, and the other tliree-fourths to constitute tlie Odelsthing. Eacli of these houses shall have its private meetings, and nominate its president and secretary. 27. It lielongs to the Storthing, — 1. To make and abolisli laws, cstablisli imposts, taxes, cus- tom-houses, and other public acts, wliich sliall, however, only exist until the 1st of July of that year, when a new Storthing sliall be assembled, unless this last is expressly renewed by them. 3. To make loans, by means of the credit of the state. 3. To watch over the finances of the state. 4. To grant sums necessary for its expenses. 5. To fix the yearly grant for the maintenance of the king and viceroy, and also appendages of tlie royal family ; which ought not, however, to con- sist in landed property. 6. To exhibit the regis- ter of the sitting council in Norway, and all the reports, and public documents (the affairs of military command excepted), and certified copies, or extracts of tlie registers kept by the ministers of state and members of council near the king, or tlie public documents, which shall have been pro- duced. 7. To communicate wliatever treaties the king sliall have concluded in tlic name of the state with foreign powers, excepting secret arti- cles, provided these are not in contradiction with the public articles. 8. To require all individuals to appear before the Storthing on affairs of state, the king and royal family excepted. This is not, however, applicable to the princes of the royal family, as tlioy are invested with other offices than that of viceroy. 9. To examine the lists of pro- visional pensions ; and to make such alterations as shall be judged necessary. 10. To name five revisers, who are annually to examine the oc- counts of tlie state, and publish printed extracts of these, which are to be remitted to the revisers also every year before the Ist of July. 11. To naturalize foreigners. 28. Laws ouglit first to be proposed to the Odelsthing, either by its own members or the government, through one of the members of coun- cil. If the proposition is accepted, it shall be Bent to the Lagthing, who approve or reject it; and in the last case return it accompanied with remarks. These shall be weighed by the Odels- thing, which sets the proposed law aside, or remits it to the Lagthing, with or without alter- ations. Wlii'ii a law shall have lH>en twice pro- posed by the Odelsthing to tlie Lagthing, and tlie latter shall have rejected it a seconirtime, the Storthing shall assemble, when two-thirds of the votes shall ih-cide iipim it. Three days at least ought to pass between each of those clelib- erations. 2W,' When a resolution proposed by the Odels- thing shall bo approved by the Lagthing, or by the Storthing al(mc, a deputation of these two houses to the Storthing shall present it to the king if he is present, and if not, to the viceroy, or Norwegian council, and require it may receive tlie royal sanction. JIG. Sliould the king approve of the n'solution, he subscribes to it, anil from tliat period it is de- I'lared to pass into a public law. If he disap- jiroves lie retiiins it to tlie Odelsthing, declaring that at >liis time he does not give it his stmction. t) 1 . In this event, tlie Storthing, then assem- bled, ouglit to submit the resolution to the king, wlio inav proceed in it in the same manner it the first ordinary Storthing presents again to him the same resolution. But if, after reconsideration, it is still adopted by the two houses of the third ordinary Storthing, and afterwards submitted to tiie king, who gliall have been intreated not to. withhold his sanction to a resolution that the Stortiiing, after tlie most mature deliberations, believes to be useful ; it shall acquire the strength of a law, even should it not receive the king's signature before the closing of the Storthing. 32. The Storthing sliall sit as long as it shall be judged necessary, but not beyond three months, witliout tlie king's permission. When tlie business is finished, or after it has assembled for the time fixed, it is dissolved by the king. Ills Majesty gives, at tlic same time, his sanc- tion to tlie decrees not already decided, either in corroboratinfj or rejecting till i. All those not ex- pressly sanctioned are held to be rejected by him. 33. Laws are to be drawn up in the Norwe- gian language, and (those mentioned in 81st arti- cle excepted) in name of the king, under tiie seal of the kingdom, and in tliese terms: — "We, «&c. Be it known, that there has been submitted to us a decree of the Storthing (of such a date) thus expressed (follows the resolution) ; We have accepted and sanctioned as law the said decree, in giving it our signature, and seal of the king- dom." 34. The king's sanction is not necessary to the- resolutions of the Stortiiing, by which the legis- lative body, — 1. Declares itself organized as the Storthing, according to the constitution. 2. Regulates its internal police. 3. Accepts or re- jects writs of present members. 4. Confirms or rejects judgments relative to disputes respect- ing elections. 5. Naturalizes foreigners. 6. And in sliort, the resolution by which tlie Odels- thing orders some member of council to appear before the tribunals. 35. Tlie Storthing can demand the advice of the supreme tribunal in judicial matters. 30. The Storthing will hold its sittings with open doors, and its acts shall be printed and pub- lished, excepting in cases where a contrary meas- ure shall have been decided by the plurality of votes. 37. Whoever molests the liberty and safety of the Storthing, renders- himself guilty of an act of high treason towards the country. 572 CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. Title IV. Article 1. Tlu^ mi'mlicrM of tlio LiigthiiiK mid supri'tiK! trihiiiial coiiiposiii; tlio Hlgsrct, Ju<lj?o ill tliu tlrat 1111(1 IiiHt limtiiiiri' of the nlfiiira cntcrt'd upmi l)v tlic OdelHtliiiig, either iigiilnst tlic mem- bers of council or siiprcnu' tribiimil for crimes committed in the excr .■ of their ollices, or iigninat the members n Storthing for nets com- mitted by them in ii similar ciipuclty. The presi- dent of the Lngthing has the precedence in the Higsret. 3, The accused can, without declaring his mo- tive for so doing, refuse, even a tliird part of the members of the Rigsret, provided, however, that tlie nuinlierof persons who compose this tr'bunal be not reduced to less than fifteen. 3. The supreme tribunal shall judge in the last instance, and ought not to lie composed of a lesser number than the resident and six assessors. 4. In time of peace the supremo tribunal, with two supc^rior ofllcers appointed by the king, constitutes a tribunal of the second and last re- sort in nil military affairs which respect life, hon- our, and loss of liberty for a time beyond the space of three months. 5. The arrests of the supreme tribunal shall not in any case be called upon to be submitted to revisal. O. No person shall be named member of the supreme tribunal, if he has not attained at least thirty years of age. Title V. Article 1. Employments in the states shall be conferred only on Norwegian citizens, who pro- fess the Evangelical Lutheran religion — have sworn fidelity to the constitution and king, speak the language of the country, and arc, — 1. Eltlier born in the kingdom of parents who were then subjects of the state. 3. Or born in a foreign country, their father and mother being Norwe- gians, and at that period not the subjects of another state. 3. Or, whoon the 17th May, 1814, hod a permanent residence in the kingdom, and did not refuse to take an oath to maintain the independence of Norway, 4. Or who in future shall remain ten years in the kingdom. 5. Or who have been naturalized by the Storthing. Foreigners, however, may be nominated to these otiicial situations in the university and colleges, as well as to those of physicians, and consuls in a foreign country. In order to succeed to an office in the superior tribunal, the person must be thirty years old ; and to fill a place in the in- ferior magistracy, — a judge of the tribunal of first instance, or a public receiver, he must be twenty -five. 2. Norway does not acknowledge herself ow- ing any other debt than that of her own. 3. A new general code, of a civil and criminal nature, shall first be published ; or, if that is im- practicable, at the second ordinary Storthing. Meantime, the laws of the state, as at present ex- isting, shall preserve their effect, since they are not contrary to this fundamental law, or provi- sional ordinances published in the interval. Per- manent taxes shall continue to be levied until next Storthing. 4. No protecting dispensation, letter of respite, or restitutions, shall be granted after the new general code shall be published. 5. No persons can be judged but in conformitv to the law, or be pimished until a tribunal shall have taken cogniznm'e of tin- charj-'es directed agidiiHt them. Torture shall never take place. H. Laws shall have no retroactive efleet. 7. Fees due to otllcers of justice are not to bo comliined with rents payable to the public treas- ury. 8. Arrest ought not to take place excepting in cases and in tlii^ manner llxed by law. Illegal arrests, and unlawful delays, render liim who oceasiims them responsible to tlie person arrested. Government is not authorized to employ military force against the memlKTs of the statt , but un- der the forms preserilied by the laws, unless an assembly which disturbs the public tninquillity does not instantly disperse after the iirticles of the code {'omcrning sedition shall hive been read aloud thrci' times by the civil autliorities. 1>. The liberty of the press sliall lie estab- lished. No person can be punished tor a writ- ing he has ordered to be jirinted or jmblishcd, whatever may lie the contents of it, unless he has, by himself or others, wilfully declared, or prompted others to, disobedience of the laws, contempt for religion, and constitutioiml powers, and resistance to their operations; or has ad- vanced false and defamatory accusations against others. It is permitted to every oiu! to speak freely his opinion on tlie administrution of the state, or on any other object whatever. 10. New and permanent restrictions on the freedom of industry are not to be granted in future to any one. 11. Domiciliary visits are prohibiU^d, except- ing in the cases of criminals. 12. Refuge will not be granted to those who shall be bankrupts. 13. Xo person can In any case forfeit his landed jiioperty, and fortune. 14. If the interest of the state requires thot any one should sacrifice his moveable or immove- able property for the public benefit, he shall be fully indemnified by the public treasury. 15. The capital, as well as the revenues of the domains of tlie church, can bo applied only for the interests of the clergy, and the prosperity of fmblic instruction. The property of benevolent nstitutions shall be employed only for their profit. 10. The right of the power of redemption called Odelsret*, and that of possession, called Afojdesret (father's right), shall exist. Particu- lar regulations, which will render these of util- ity to the states and agriculture, shall be deter- mined by the first or second Storthing. 17. No county, barony, majorat or 'fldel commis"f sliall be created for the future. 18. Every citizen of the state, without re- gard to birth or fortune, shall be equally obliged, during a particular period, to defend his coun- try. J The application of this principle ond its restrictions, as well as the question of ascertain- ing to what point it is of benefit to the country, that this obligation should cease at the age of twenty-five,— shall be abandoned to the decision • In virtue of tho rleht of " Odelaret." mnmbers of a family to wliom certain laads oriKtnally iwrtained, can reclaim and retake [jOBseBsion of tlie Kanie, even atUtr the lapse of centuries, provided these lauds are repreHenta- live of the title of the family; that is, if for every ten years successively they shall have judicially made reser- vation of their right. This custom, injurious perhaps to tlie progress of agriculture, does, however, attach the peasants to their native soil. + Entail. t Every person is obliged to serve from twenty-one to twenty-three, and not after. 673 CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. of thn flrxl onllnnry HUirtlilnK, nftir llicy Hhall have Ih'i'ii illNcliiirKi''! I>y a ('oiiiniiltt'c; in tlic nivautiiiu', viK'iniuH cfTortM hIiiiII pri-mTvi- tlii'ir effoct. lO. Norway shall ri'taiii her own langiiauc, her own tlnaiiccR itiiil coin: inHtltutloiiH whluli ■hall lif (IcU'riiiiniMl npon by lawn. 20. Norway Iiuh the rlnl't '>f Imvlnj? hi-r own flaKof trndi-unil war, wliicliNhall be an union lla^. !il. If (■xprricncc Hhould hIiow llic necessity of clianKiiiK Home imrt of this fundamental law, a proposition to this purpoHi; shall be made to au CONSTITUTION OF PLYMOUTH COLONY (Compact of the Pilgrim Fathers). Ben MAHHAcuuHKri's: A. U. 1U20. I ordinary Storthliif;, published and printed ; and j it oidy pertains to the next ordinary Slorthluff j to decide if the chuuKe proposeil oujitht to In) efTectual or not. Such alteration, however, ouKht iieviT to Ik- contrary to the principles of this fundamental law ; and should only have for its object thoH<* modifications in which particular reftuiations do not alter the spirit of the consti- tution. Two-thirds of the Htorthinj^ outfht to agree upon such a chaiiKe. (.'hrlstiaua, 4th No- vember, 1H14. See .Scandinavian 8tatk8(Nou- WAY): A. D. 1814-1815. CONSTITUTION OF POLAND (The old). .Sec Poland: A. I). inTil, and 1578-1(152. . . . .(of 1791). See P01.ANU: A. D. 1791-1798. CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. The followiuK text of the Constitution granted l)y FrediTick William, King of Prussia, on the Ulst of January, 1850, with subsectucnt altera- tions, is a translation made by Mr. Charles Lowe, and published in the appendix to his Life of Prince IHsniarek, 1885. Wk, Frederick William, &c., hereby proclaim and give to know that, whereas the Constitu- tion of the Prussian State, promulgated by us on the 5lh December, 1848, subject to revision in the ordinary course of legislation, and recog- nised by both Chambers of our Kiugdom, has been submitted to the prescribed revision; we have linuUy established that Constitution in agreement with both Chambers. Now, there- fore, we promulgate, as a fundamental law of the State, as follows: — Article i. — All parts of the Monarchy in its present extent form the Prussian Stat<! Territory. Article a.— The limits of this State Territory can only be altered by law. Article 3. — The Constitution and the laws de- termine under what conditions the quality and tivil rights of a Prussian may be acquired, exer- cised, and forfeited. Article 4. — All Prussians are equal before the , law. Class privileges there are none. Public ■^ olllccs, subject to the conditions imposed by law, are equally accessible to all who are com- petent to hold tlicm. Article 5. — Personal freedom is guaranteed. The forms and conditions under which ony limi- tation thereof, especially arrest, is permissible, will be determined by law. Article 6. — The domicile is inviolable. Intru- sion and sciirch therein, as well as the seizing of letters anil iiapers, are only allowed in legally settled cases. Article 7. — No one may be deprived of his law- ful judge. Exceptional tribunals and extraordi- nary commissions are inadmissible. Article 8. — Punishments can only be threatened or iullicted according to the law. Article 9. — Property is inviolable. Itcan only be taken or curtailed from reasons of jniblic weal *" and expediency, and in return for statutory com- pensation which, in urgent cases at least, shall be fixed beforehond. Article 10.— Civil death and confiscation of property, as punishments, are not possible. Article 11. — Freedom of emigration can only bo limited by the Stale, with reference to military service. Migration fees may not Ixs levied. Article la. — Freedom of religious confession, of meeting In religious societies (Art. 30 and 81), and of tlie common exercise of religion in private and public, is guaranteed. The enjoyment of civil and political rights is independent of re- ligious belief, yet the duties of a citizen or a sub- ject may not be impaired by the exercise of re- ligious liberty. Article 13. — Religious and clerical societies, which have no corporate rights, can only ac(iuire tlio.sc rights by siiecial laws. Article 14. — The Christian religion is taken as the basis of those State institutions which are connected with the exercise of religion — all re- ligious liberty guaranteed by Art. 13 notwith- standing. Article 15.*— The Protestant and Roman Cath- olic Churches, as well as every other religioug society, regulate and administer their own affairs in an independent manner, and remain in posses- sion and enjoyment of the institutions, founda- tions, and moneys intended for their purposes of public worship, education, and charity. Article l6.* — Intercourse between religious societies and their superiors shall be tmobstructed. The making public of Church ordinances is only subject to those restrictions imposed on all other publications. Article 17. — A special law will be passed with respect to Church patronage, and to the conditions on which it may be abolished. Article 18.* — Abolished is the right of nom- inating, proposing, electing, and confirming, in the matter of appointments to eccl'^siastical posts, iu so far as it belongs to the State, and is not based on patronage or special legal titles. Article 19. — Civil marriage will be introduced in accordance with a special law, which shall also regulate the keeping of a civil register. Article 20. — Science and its doctrines are free. Article 21. — The education of youth shall be sufBciently cared for by public schools. Par- ents and their substitutes may not leave their children or wards without that education pre- scribed for the public folk-schools. • Affected by the T k laws of 1875, and by the act of 1887 which repealea .hem. See Qbrhant: A. D. 1873- 1887. 574 CONBTITUTION OP PIIUH8IA. CONSTITUTION OF PRUH8IA. Article aa.— Every oim rIihII Ik- ut liberty to fflvt! liiHtriiction, mill cHluliliHh iiiNtitiitionH fur cloiiiK *<>i proviilluK !>•' nIiiiII Iiuvo kIvi'Ii prixif of IiIh luoriil, H('lfiititl(\ and ticliiilcal cupuclty t(i the Sliitt' iiulliDrillcs coiiccriii'd Article 23. — All piililic itiut privutt! liiHtitti- tloimof nil t'duciitioiuil klml uri: under the super- vIhIiiii of autlioritii'H ui)p<iliited by the Htato. Public teacbertt have tliu rights and duties uf Htatt! HervaiitH. Article 34. — In the eHtubHHhinent of public folk schools,* confessional dillerenccs shall re- ceive thi^ greatest possll)le eonslileratlon. Ke- ll)(lous hiNlrucMon in th<^ folksi 'lools will be superintended by the rellKlous hX'ietles con- cerned. OliarKc of the other (external) atfairs of the folksch(M)l8 belongs to the Parish (Com- mune). WItli the statutory co-operation of the (lommune, the Htate shall appoint teachers In the public folk-st'hools from the number of those (|ua'illed (for such posts). Article ac. — The means forestabllHliIng, inain- lalnliiK, arKl enlarKhiK the public folk-.sehools shall be provided by tlu; (y'ommunes, ubich may, however, be assisted by the State in proven cases of parochial inability. The obligations of third l)ersons — based on special legal titles — remain in force. The State, therefore, gimrantees to teachers in folk-schools a steady income suitable to local circumstances. In public folk-schools education shall be imparted free of charge. Article a6. — A special law will regulate all matters of education. Article 27. — Every Prussian is entitled to ex- press his opinion freely by word, writing, print, or artistic representation. Censorship may not be introduced ; every other restriethm on freedom of the Press will only be Imposed by law. Article 38. — Offences committed by word, writing, print, or artistic representation will be punished in accordance with the general penal code. Article 29. — All Pnissinns are entitled to meet in closed rooms, peacefully and unarmed, with- out previous permission from the authorities. But this provision docs not apply to open-air meetings, which are subject to the law with re- spect to previous permission from the authori- ties. Article 30. — All Prussians have the right to assemble (in societies) for such purposes as do not contravene the penal laws. The law will regu- late, witli special regard to the preservation of public security, the exercise of '.'.le right guaran- teed by this and the preceding orticle. Article 31. — The law shall determine the con- ditions on which corporate rights may be granted or refused. Article 33. — The right of petitioning belongs to all Prussians. Petitions under a collective name are only permitted to authorities and cor- porations. Article 33. — The privacy of letters is inviola- ble. The necessary restrictions of this right, in cases of war and of criminal investigation, will be determined by law. Article 34. — All Prussians are bound to bear arms. The extent and manner of this duty will be fixed by law. Article 35. — The army comprises all sections "■■ dli of the standing army and the Landwehr (terri- Volkschulo" better than by •We cannot translate 'foUc-scbool." torlol forces). In th(< event of war, the King can <'all<iut the l.andsturm In arcon lance with the law. Article 36. — 'I'he armi'd force (of the nation) cull only be I'lnployrd fur the suppression of In- ternal troubles, and the exn iillon of the laws, in the cases and inanner speeilled by statute, and on till' re(|uisili(ii 'I the civil authorities. In the latter respeit 'Xceptlons will have to be deter- mined by law. Article 37.— The military Judiciary of the army Is restricted to penal mattrrs. and will be regii- lateil by law. Provlsloim with ri'gard to mlll- tarv discipline will remain the subject of special orilhianci'S. Article 38.— The armed force (of the nathui) may not deliberate either when on or off duty; nor may it otlierwl.se assemble than when com- manded to do HO. Assemblii'S and meetings of the l.aiidwehr for the purpose of discussing mili- tary institutions, commands and ordinances, are forbidden even when It is not called out. Article 39.— The provisions of .\rts. Ti, (1, 20, ;tO. and ICJ will only apply to the army in so far as they (1(1 not c(mlllct with military laws and rules of discipline. Article 40. — The establishment of feudal ten- ■/ ures is forbidden. The Keiidal Union still exist- ing with respect to surviving llefs shall be dis- solved by law. Article 41. — The provisions of Art, 40 do not apply to Crown tiefs oi* to non-.'itate llefs. Article 43. — Abolished without compensatl(jn, in accordance with special laws passed, are: 1. The exercise or transfer of judicial power con- nected with the posseasion of certain lands, to- gether with the (lues and exemptions iw'cruing from this right ; 3. The obligationsarising from patriarchal jurisdiction, vassalage, and former tax and trading institutions. And with these rights are also abolished the counter-servicesand burdens hitherto therewith connected. Article 43. — The person of the King is Invhila- ble. Article~44. — The King's Ministers are responsi- ble. All Oovernment acts (documentary) of the King reiiuire for their validity the approval of a >Iinister, who thereby assumes responsibility for them. Article 45. — The King alone is invested with executive power, lie appoints and dismisses Ministers. He orders the promulgathm of laws, and Issues the necessary ordinances for their exe- cution. Article 46. — The King is Commander-in-Chief of tlie army. Article 47.— The King fills all posts in the army, as well as in other branches of the State service, in so far us not otherwise ordained by law. Article 48.— The King has the right to declare war and make peace, and to conclude other treaties with foreign governments. The latter require for their validity the assent of the Cham- bers in so far as they are commercial treaties, or impose burden.s on the State, or obligations on its individual subjects. Article 49.— The King has the right to par- don, an(' to mitigate punishment. But in favour • of a Minister condemned for his olficial acts, this right can only be exercised on the motion of that Chamber whence his indictment emanated. Only by special law can the Kmg suppress in- quiries already instituted. 575 CONSTITUTION OF PnUHHIA. CONSTITUTION OP PUUSHIA. Article 50.— Tlic Kliij? nmy ronfcr imlvrn nml other ilUtiiictioim. nut larryiiiK with tliciii iirivi li'Ki'H. Ill' rxcrriiw'M the rlxht of coinuKu In m- fonliiiuT with tlic law. Article sx. — Tht- Khig convoliuM tlii< CIiiiim' iMrN, and Wdhch thrir M'DHinnH. IIi; nmy iliHwilvi' •4 botli lit onci', i>r only oni' iit 11 tinir. In hiicIi 11 ciue, liowvvcr, the I'lectoni niiiHt lie iinhciiiIiIi'iI within u i)(>riiMl of (H) tlnyi, iinil thr ('hitiiibrrs luinnioncil within 11 pi'riod of (M) ilsyfi rcupi'ct' Ivf'ly lifter the iUhhoIiiIIoh. Article 5a.— The KIiik con mljoiim thu Chiini- bcrM. Hut without their luwent thiH iKljouni' iiienl, nmy not exceed the Hpiiee of *) dayB, nor liu repented iluriiiK the Hiinie Hciuiion. Article 53.— Tlie (!rown, ncconllnR to the luWH of the Hoyul Hoiihu, Ih iKireditiiry in the mule lliiu of tliut Ilouac in necordnnco with the law of priinoKen tuns imd UKnutic sueccsHlon Article 54.— Tlie Klnj? iittninH his iniijority on conipletlnft Ids I8th yeiir. In pnsenre of the united I'lmiiiberH he will tiiko the otith to oli- wrve the CoiiHtltutlon of the Monarchy Htciid- fiiHtly uud invioliibly, and to rule in accordnncu with it and the Iuwh. Article 55. — Without the consent of both Chuinbers the Kin)i; cannot also bo ruler of for- I'Ikii rciilius (lielchc). Article 56.— If thu King is u minor, or is otherwise lastingly prevented from ruling him- self, the Hegency will be undertaken by that agnate (Art. 53) who has attained his majority and stands nearest the Crown. Ho has Immediately to convoke the Cliumbcrs, which, in united session, will decide as to the necessity of the Regency. Article S7- —If there be no agnate of age, and if no legal provision has previously been made for such a contingency, the Ministry of Htiite will » convoke the Clminbers, which shall then elect a Hegeut in united session. And imtil the assump- tion of the Hegency by him, the Ministry of State will conduct the Government. Article 58. — The Hcgent will exercise the pow- ers invested in tlie King In the lattcr's name ; and, after institution of the Itegency, he will take an oath before the united Chambers to observe the Constitution of the Monarchy steadfastly and in- violably, and to ride in accordance with it and tb^ laws. Until this oath is taken, the whole M., stry of State for the time being will remoin responsible for all acts of the Government. Article 59. — To the Crown Trust Fund appcr- talug the annuity drawn from the income of the forests and domains. Article 60. — The Ministers, as well as the State ollicials appointctl to represent them, have access 1 to each Clmmbcr, and must at all times be listened to at request. Each Chamber con demand the presence of the Ministers. The Ministers are oidy entitled to \ >>te in one or other of the Cham- bers when membirs of It. Article 61. — On the resolution of a Clmmbcr the Jlinistcrs may be impeached for the crime of infringing the Constitution, of bribery, and of ' treason. The decision of such a case lies with the Supreme Tribunal of the Monarchy sitting in United Senates. As long as two Supreme Trl- bunals co-exist, they shall unite for the above purpose. Further details as to matters of re- sponsibility (criminal) procedure (th'jreupon), and punishracutfi, are reserved for a special law. Article 62. — The legislative power will be ex- ercised in common by the King and by two Chom- IxTH. Kvery law reqiiiri-M the luwcnt of the King 1 and t he two ( 'liainlxTH. Money liills and budget* shall llrst Ih' laid iH'fore the Hecoiid Chaiiiber; and thelatterd. e., budgets) shall either be wholly ap|in>ved by the First Clmniber, or rejectoi alto- gether. Article 63. — In tlie event only of its being urgently nccesHary to maintain public Heeurlty, or deal with on unusual state of dlsln'ss wlien the ('liamlN'rH are not in session, ordlimnees, wliieh do not contravene the ('onstltutlon, may lie issued with the forie of law, on the responsi- bility of the whole Ministry. Hut these must be laid for approval before the Chamlieni at their next meeting. Article 64, — The King, as well as eoeh Cham- lH!r, has the right of proposing laws. Hills that . have been rejected by one of tlu^ ClmmlK'rs, of by th(' King, cannot be re-irtroduced in the same session. Articles 65-<i8.— The First (.'hamb'.'r is formed by royal orainance, which can o;i!y be altered by a law to be Issued with tlie apfi'.ival of the ^ <;iiuuibers. Tlic First (Jhamber is cimiposed of members appointed by the King, \ih\i hen^dlt- ary rl)j[hts, or only for life. Article 69. — The Second Chamber consists of 4!J0 members.* Tli(! electoral districts arc de- terminiMl by law. They may consist of on(! or more C^'lrcfcs (Arrondlssements), or of one or more of the larger towns. Article 70. — Every Prussian who has com- pleted his astli year (1. e., attained his maiority), and is capable of taking part In the elections of the Commune where he is domiciled, is entitled ^ to act as a primary voter (UrwUhlcr). Any one who Is entitled to take part In the election of scverol Communes, can only exercise his right as primary voter in one Commune. Article 71. — For every 250 souls of the popu- lation, one (secondary) elector (Wahlmann) shall be chosen. The primary voters fall into three classes, in proportion to the amount of direct taxes they pay — and in such a manner as tirat each class will represent a third of tlie sum-total of tlie taxes paid by the primary voters. This lum-total is reckoned : — (a) by Parishes, in case the Commune docs not form of itself a primary electoral district, (b) by (Government) Districts (Bezirke), in case the primary electoral district con- sists of several Communes. The first class consists of those primary voters, highest in the scale of taxation, who pay a third of the total. The sec- ond class consists of those primary voters, next highest in the scale, whose taxes wrm a second third of the whole ; and the third doss is made up of the remaining tax-payers (lowest in the scale) who contribute the other tliird of the whole. Each class votes opart, and for a third of the secondary electors. These classes may be divided into several voting sections, noi ■■ of which, how- ever, must include more than 500 primary voters. The secondary voters are electetl in each class from the number of the primary voters in their district, without regard to the classes. Article 72. — The deputies ore elected by the secondary voters. Details will be regulated by an electoral law, which must also make the neces- bory provision for those cities where flour and slaughter duties are levied instead of direct taxes. • Orifrinally S50 only— a number which, In 1881, was increased by 3, for the Principality of Hohentollem, and In 1887 by 80 tor the annexed provinces. 576 CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. Article 73.— The lp«iBlutlvn poriiMl of the Sec- ond (IlminlMT Is (IximI iit llirro yciirs, Article 74.— Elljfllilo iw (Icpiily to tli" Hornnd C'huinliur U every I'rtiHfiiiui who Iiuh completed . bin tliirtloth year, hiis forfeited nonu of his elvll V rIgliiS In eonfMM|iien('o of 11 valid judlcliil tu'ntcnec, ami liofi Ih'I'ii 11 I'mssliui Hulijcct for tlireo yciirs. The president iiiid iiu'iiiherii of the Supreme (.'hnmocr of AcroiinlH euniiot Hit in either llougt; of the Diet (l.andtiiK). Article 75.— After the lupso of n legislative period the C Immbcrs will Im? eleeled uiiew, mid the Hitme in the event of dUiuiliitlon. In both ciwes, prevloiiH members lire ruollgible. Article 76.— Hoth Houses of the Diet of the Moimrrhy shiill be regularly convened by the King In the perhul from the beginning of Novcm- \J b ;r in eiw h year till the middle of the followinf Januiiry, and otherwUo aa often us circumstAnces ""Miuiro. Article 77. — The Chambers will be opened and closed by the Ivliig In person, or liy n Minister appointed by him to do so, at a combined sit- ting of the Cliamberg. Doth Chambers shall be siiniiltaneousiy convened, opened, adjourned, and closed. If one Chamber Is dissolved, the other shall be at the sumo time prorogued. Article 78, — Each ('hamber will examine the credeiitlnls ol Us members, mid decide thereupon. It will regulnt ; its own order of business and dls- clpline by spr ,inl ordinances, nnd elect its presi- dent, vico-pr 'sldents, and olBce-1 carers. Civil scrvonts require no leave of nbserco In order to enter the Chui'iber. If a inembei of the Chamber accepts u salaried offlco of the State, or is pro- moted In the ssrvico of the State to a pi)st Involv- V Ing higher rank or increase of pay, he shall lose his scat and vovc in the Chamber, and can only recover his place in it by '"-election. No one can bo racmber of both Chami> ts. Article 79. — The sittings of both Chambers arc public. On tho motion of its president, 1 of ten members, each Chamber may meet iu Erivate sitting — at which this motion will then ave to be discussed. Article 80. — Neither of the Chambers can pass a resolution unle there be present a majority of the legal number of its members. Each Chamber passes its resolutions by absolute mu- ^ jority of votes, subject to any exceptions that may bo determined by the order of business for elections. Article 81. — Each Chamber lia.^ the separate right of presenting addresses to the King. No one may In person present to the Chai"bers, or to one of tlier.i, a petition or address, Each Chamber can transmit the communications made to it to the Ministers, and demand of them an answer to any grievances thus conveyed. Article 82. — Each Chamber is entitled to ap- point commissions of Inquiry into facts — for its own information. Article 83. — The members of both Chambers are representatives of the whole people. Tlicy vole according to their simple convictions, and are not bound by commissions or instructions. Article 84. — For their votes in the Chamber they can never be called to account, and for the opinions they express therein they can only be V called to account within the Chamber, in virtue of the order of business. No member of a Chamber can, without Hs assent, be had up for «zamiuation, or be arrested during the Parlia- mentary sesNlon for nny penal olTrncc, unlosx ho be taken In the act, or in the course of the fol- lowing day. A Himllar usMent Nhall be iieccsMury In the rase of arrest for debts. All crlinlnal proeeedingH ugainst a member of the (.'hamlier, and all arrests for |ireliniinury examination, or civil arrest, shall be sUHpcndeil iluring thi; I'ar- llamcntarv session on demand from the Cluimber concerneil. Article 85. — The members of the Sc'cond Clhamber shall receive out of the State Treasury 1 travelling expenses and daily feci , according to a '■' statutory scale; and renunciation thereof shall be Inadmissible. Article 86.— Tho judicial power will bo exor- cised in tlie name of the King, by independent tribunals subject to no other authority but that of the law. .lodgment shall be executeil in the nami^ of the King. Article 87.— The judges will be appoinied for life by the King, or In his name. They can only be removed or temporarily suspended from otilce by judicial sentence, and for reasons forestu'ii by the mw. Tempomry suspcjision from olllce (not ensuing on the strength of a law), and Involuntary traimfei to another place, or to the retired list, can only take place from the causes and In tho form meiitioned by law, anil In virtue of a Judicial seutence. Hut these iirovisions do not apply to cases of transfer, renclered necessary by changes in the organisation of the courts or their districts. Article 88 (aboUithed). Artir ' t 89. — The organisation of tho tribunals will oniy bo determined by law. Article 90 — ."o the Juuiciul olBcc oniy thos-' can be appointed who have qualified themselves for It as I rescrilwd by law. Article >n.— Courts for special kinds of affairs, and, in paf.lcular, tribunals for trade and com- merce, shall bo established by statute in those places where 1 icul needs may require them. Tho organisation an I Jurisdiction of such courts, as well us their pr )ccdure and the appointment of their members, the special status of the latter, and the duratl'/n of their office, will be determined by law. Article 9;,. — In Prussia theie shall only bo one supreme tri junal. Article 93. — Tho proceedings of the civil and criminal CO, irts shall be public. But the public may bo excluded by an openly declared resolution of the court, when order or good morals may seem endangered (by their admittance). In otlier casts publicity of proceedings can only be limited by law. Article 94. — In criminal cases the guilt of the accused shall be determined by jurymen, in so far as exceptions are not determined by a law issued witli the previous assent of the Cham- bers. The formation of a jury-court shall bo regulated by a law. Article 95.— By a law issued with the previ- ous assent of the Chambers, there may be estab- lished a special court whereof the jurisdiction shall include the crimes of higli treason, as well as those crimes against the internal and external security of the State, which may be iLssigned to it by law. Article 96. — The competence of the courts and o." the administrative authorities shall be deter- mined by law. Conflicts of authority between tho courts and the administrative authorities shall be settled by a tribunal appointed by law. m CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. CONSTITUTION OF PUU8SIA. Article 07. — A liiw shall determiuo the condi- tions on which public, civil, and military otUcials may Ih; sued for wrongs committed by them in exceeding their functions. But the previous assent of olllcial superiors need not be rc- (luestcd. Article 98. — Tlie special legal status (Rechts- vcrhilltnissc) of State olllcials (including advo- cates and solicitors) not belonging to the judicial class, shall be determined by a law, which, with- out rostricting the Government in the choice of its executive agonta, will grant civil servants proper protection against arbitniry dismissal from their posts or diminution of their pay. Article 99.— All income and expenditure of . the State must be pre-estimated for every year, ■^ and be presented in the Budget, which shall be annually fixed by a law. Article 100. — Taxes and dues for the State Treasury may only bo raised in so far as they shall have been included in the Budget or or- dained by special laws. Article 101. — In the matter of taxes there / must bo no privilege of persons. Existing tax- ^ laws shall be subjected to a revision, and all ^ such privileges abolislied. Article 102.— State and Communal oflicers can only levy dues on the strength of a law. Article 103. — The contracting of loans for the State Treasury can only be effected on the strength of a law ; anil tlie same holds good of guarantees involving a burden to the State. Article 104. — Budget transgressions require subscfiuent approval by the Chambers. The Bud- get will be examined and audited by the Supreme Cliamber of Accounts. The general Budget ac- counts of every year, including tabular stiitistics of the National Debt, shall, with the comments of the Supremo Chamber of Accounts, be laid before the Chambers for the jjurpose of exonerat- ing the Government. A special law will regulate the establishment and functions of the Supreme Chamber of Accounts. Article 105. — The represenlaliim and adminis- tration of the Communes. Arrondissements and Provinces of the Prussian State, will be deter- mined in detail by specibl laws. Article lo6. — Laws and ordinances become binding after having been published in the form prescribed by law. The examination of the valid- ity of properly promulgated Royal ordinances is not witliin the competence of the authorities, but of the Chambers. Article 107. — The Constitution may be altered by ordinary legislative means; and sucli altera- tion sliall merely require the usual absolute ma- iority in both Chambers on two divisions (of the louse), between whioli there must elapse a period of at least twerly-one days. Article 108.— The members of both Chambers, and all State oflieials, shall take the oath of fealty and obedience to tlie King, and swear conscienti- ously to observe the Constitution. The army will not take the oath to the Constitution. Article 109.— Existing ta.xes and dues will continue to be raised ; and all provisions of ex- isting statute-books, single laws, and ordinances, which do not contravene the present Constitution, will remain in force until altered by law. Article no. — All authorities holding appoint- ments in virtue of existing laws will continue their activity pending the issue of organic laws aficctiug them. Article m. — In the event of war or revolu- tion, and pressing danger to public security therefrom ensuing, Articles 5, 0, 7, 27, 28, 20, 'SO, and liO of the Constitution may be suspended for a certain time, and in certain districts — the de- tails to be determined by law. Article 11 a. — Until issue of the law contem- plated in Article 26, educational m'itters will be coutroll(;d by the laws at present in force. Article 113. — Prior to the vevision of the criminal code, a special law will deal with offences committed by word, writing, print, or artistic repriisentation. Article 114 (abulished). Article 115. — Until issue of t"-ie electoral law contemplated in Article 72, the ordinance of 30th Jlay, 184i), touching the return of deputies to the Second Chamber, will remain in force; and with this ordinance is associated the provisional electoral law for elections to the Second Cham- ber in the llohenzollern Principalities of 30th April, 1851. Article 116. — The two supreme tribunals still existing sliall be combined into one — to be or- ganised by a special law. Article 117. — The claims of State oflieials ap- pointed before the promulgation of the Constitu- tion shall be taken into special consideration by the Civil Servant Law. Article 118. — Should changes in the present Constitution be rendered necessary by the Ger- man Federal Constitution to be drawn up on the basis of 'he Draft of 26th May, 1849, such altera- tions will be decreed by the King; and the ordi- nances to this effect loid before tlie Chonibers, at their first meeting. The Chambers will then have to decide whether the changes thus pro- visionally ordained harmonise witli the Federal Constitution of Germany. Article 119. — The Royal oath mentioned in Article 54, as well as the oath prescribed to be taken by both Chambers and all State officials, will have to be tendered immediately after the legislative revision of the present Constitution (Articles 62 and 108). In witness whereof we have hereunto set our signature and seal. Given at Charlottenburg, the 31st January, 1850. (Signed) FniEDUicii Wiliielm. In connection with Article 44 the course of do- mestic and parliamentary politics drew forth the following Declaratory Ifcscr.'pt from the German Emperor and King of Prussia, in 1882: — "The iliflit of the King to conduct the Government and pt-icy of Prussia according to his own discre- tion is limited by the Constitution (of January 81, 1850), but not abolished. The Government acts (documentary) of the King require the counter- signature of a Minister, and, as was also the case before the Constitution was issued, have to be represented by the King's Ministers; but they nevertheless remain Government acts of the King, from whose decisions they result, and who thereby constitutionally expresses his will and pleasure. It is therefore not admissible, and leads to obscura- tion of the constitutional riglits of the King, when their exercise is so spoken of as if lliey emanated from the Ministci-s for the time being responsible for them, and not iroin the King himself. The Constitution of Prussia is the expression of the monarchical traditica of this country, whose de- velopment is based on the living and actual re- 5V8 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. litt ion.s of its Kings to the people. Tliesc relntions, moreover, do not admit of being tnuisferrcd to tlie Ministera appointed bv the King, for they iit- tiicli to the person of tlie King. Their preserva- tion, too, is a political necesisity for Prussia. It i is, tiierefore, my will that both in Prussia and in the Legislative Hodiea of the realm (or R ich), . \/ there may be no doubt left as to my own a nsti- , tutional right and that of my successors to per- sonally conduct the policy of my Government ; and that the theory shall always be gainsaid that the [doctrine of the] inviolability of the person of the King, which has always existed in Prus- i sia, and is enunciated by Article 43 of the Con- | stitution, or the necessity of a responsible coui. signature of my Government acts, deprives then, of the character of Royal and independent deci- sions. It is the duty of my Ministers to support CONSTITUTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec Ro.me: B. C. 31-A. D. 14, and A. I). '384-305. CONSTITUTION OF THE ROMAN RE- PUBLIC. Sec Home: IJ. C. 509, to U. C. 280; also CoMiTi.v Cknturiat.v; Comitlv Cukiat.a.; Consuls, Roman ; Consui.au Tuibunks ; Senate, Roman; Pleoeianb. my constitutional rights by protecting them from doubt and obscuration, and 1 e.\pect thi^ same from all State servants (IJeamten) who have taken to me the olllcial oath. I am far from wishing to impair the freedom of elections, but in the case of those olllcials who are intrusted with the execu- tion of my Government acts, anil may, therefore, in conformity with the disciplinary law forfeit their situations, the duty solemnly undertaken by their oath of service also applies to tli(^ representa- tion by them of the policy of my Government during election times. The faithful performance of this duty I shall thankfully acknowledge, and I expect from all oflicials that, in view of their oath of allegiance, they will refrain from all agi- tation against my Government al.so during elec- tions. — Berlin, "ji\n\niry 4, 1883. — Wiliielm. Von Bih.mauck. To the Ministry of State." CONSTITUTION OF SOLON. See Atiikns: B. C. 504. CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN (1812). See Spain: A. 1). 1814-1827 (1869). See Si-ain; A. D. 1800-1873 (The Early Kingdoms.) Sec Cortes. CONSTITUTION OF SULLA. See Rcmk: B. C. 88-78. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. "Four fundamental lows account for the pres- ent political constitution of Sweden: the law concerning the form of government (regerings- formcn) dated Juno 0, 1801); the law on represen- tation (riksdags-ordningen), June 22, 1860; the order of successiou (successions-orduingen), Sept. 20, 1810; and the law on the liberty of the press (tryckfrihets-fiirordningen), July 10, 1812. The imion with Norway is regulated by the act of union (riks-akten), Aug. 0. 1815. . . . The re- presentation of the nation, since the law of June 22, 1808, rests not as formerly on the division of the nation into four orders, but on election only. Two chambers, having equal authority, compose the diet. The members of the first chamber are elected for n.-j years by the 'landstingen' (spe- cies of provincial assemblies) and by the ' stads- fullmllktigc' (municipal counsellors) of cities which do not sit in the ' landsting. ' " — Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Scienee, v. 3, pp. 834-835. —"The First Chamber consists (1892) of 147 members, or one deputy for every 30,000 of tlic popidatiou. The election of the members takes place by the ' Landstings, ' or provincial repre- sentations, 25 in number, and the municipal cor- porations of the towns, not already represented in the 'Landstings,' Stockholm, GOtebcrg, MalmO and NorrkOping. All members of the First Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and must have possessed for at least three years pre- vious to the election either real property to the taxed value of 80,000 kroner, or 4,444 1., or an annual income of 4,000 kroner, or 223 1. They are elected for the term of nine years, and obtain no payment for their services. The Second Cliam- l)er consists (Autumn 1892) of 228 members, of whom 76 are elected by the towns and 146 by the rural districts, one representative being returned for every 10,000 of the population of towns, one fcr every 'Domeaga,' or rural district, of under 40 000 inhabitants, and two for rural districts of I over 40,000 inhabitants. All natives of Sweden, I aged 21, possessing real property to the taxe(l i value of 1,000 kroner, or 56 1., or farming, for a period of not less than live years, landed property to the taxed value of 0,000 kroner, or 333 1., or paying income tox on an annual in- come of 800 kroner, or 45 1., are electors; and all natives, aged 25, possessing, and having ]ms- sessed at least one year previous to the election, the s^ime qvialifications, may be elected members of the Second Chamber. The number of quuli- fled electors to the Second Chamber in 1890 was i 288,098, or 0.0 of the population; only 110,890, I or 38.5 of the electors actually voted. In the smaller towns and country districts the election may either be direct or indirect, according to the wish of the majority. The election is for the term of three years, and the members obtain salaries for their services, at the rate of 1,200 kroner, or 07 1., for each session of four months, besides travelling expenses. . . . The members of both Chambers are elected by ballot, both in town and country." — Sldtesv.an's Year-book, 1893, ;). 905. — "The IJict, or R!-sdag, assembles every year, in ordinary session, on the 15th of January, or the day following, if the 1.5th is a holiday. It may be convoked in extraordinary session by the king. In case of the decease, absence, or illness of the king, the Diet may be, convoked extraor- dinarily by the Council of State, or even, if this latter neglects to do so, by the tribunals of seer nd instance. The king may dissolve the two cham- bers simultaneously, or one of them alone, dur- ing the ordinary sessions, but the new Diet as- sembles after the three months of the dissolution, and can only be dissolved again four months after resuming its sitting. The king dissolves the extraordinary session when ho deems proper. . . . The Diet divides the right of initiative with the king : tlie consent of the synod is neces- sary for ecclesiastical Laws. . . . Every three 679 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. ypiirs the Diet names a commission of twenty- four members (twelve from eacli cliambor), charged with the duty of electing six persons who are commissioned under the presidency of the Procureur general of the Diet to watch over the liberty of the press." — G. Demombynes, Con- gtitiitiont EvrojmeiuKK, v. 1, pp. 84-00. — The fol- lowing^ is the text of the Constitution as adopted in 180i), the subsequent modifications of which are indicated above: Form of government adopted by the King and the Estates of the Swedish Healm, nt Stockholm, on the 6th of .Time, 1809; together with the Alterations afterwards introduced. We Charles, bv the Grace of God, King of the Swedes, the Goths, and the Vandals, &c. &c. &c. Heir to Norway, I)>ike of Sleswick-Holstein, Stomiam, and Uitmarsen, Count of 01denb\irg ,...d Delnienhorst, &c. &c. &c. make known, that having unlimited conti<lence in the estates of the realm, charged them with drawing up a new form of government, as the perpetual gro\ind- ■work of the prosperity and independence of our common native land, We do hereby perform a dear and pleasing duty in promulgating the fun- damental law (which has been) upon mature de- liberation, framed and adopted by the estates of the realm, and presented inito Us this day, to- gether with their free and unanimous offer of the Swedish crown. Having with deep emotion and an affectionate interest in the prosperity of a nation which lias afforded Us so striking a proof of confidence and attachment, complied with their request. We trust to our endeavors to pro- mote its happiness, as the reciprocal rights and duties of the monarch and the subjects have been marked so distinctly, that, without en- croachment on the sacred nature and power of majesty, the constitutional liberty of the people is protected. We do therefore hereby adopt, sanction, and ratify this form of government, such as it follows here : — We the underwritten representatives of the Swedish realm, counts, barons, bishops, knights, nobles, clergymen, burghers, and peasants, as- sembled at a general Diet, in behalf of ourselves and our brethren at home. Do hereby make known, that, having by the late change of government, to which we, the deputies of the Swedish people, gave our unanimous assent, exercised our rights of drawing up a new and improved constitution, ■we have, in repealing those fundamental laws, which down to this day have been in force more or less ; viz. , — The Form of Government of the 21st of August 1772, the Act of Union and Se- curity, of the 2l8t of February and the 3d of April 1789, the Ordinonce of Diet, of the 24th of January 1617, as well as all those laws, acts, statutes, and resolutions comprehended under the denomination of fundamental laws; — We have Kesolved to adopt for the kingdom of Swe- den and its dependencies the following constitu- tion, which from henceforth shall be the chief fundamental law of the realm, reserving to Our- selves, before the expiration of the present Diet, to consider the other fundamental laws, men- tioned in tlie S.'ith article of this constitution. Article 1. The kingdom of Sweden shall be governed by a king, wlio shall bo hereditary in that order of succession which the estates will further hereafter determine. 2. The king shall profess the pure evangelical faith, such as is contained and declared In the Augsburgian Confession, and explained in the Decree of the Diet at Upsala in the year 1593. 3. The majesty of the king shall be held sacred and inviolable; and his actions shall not be subject to any censure. 4. The king shall govern the realm alone, in the manner determined by this constitution. In certain cases, however, (to be specified) ho shall take the opinion of a council of state, which shall be constituti.'d of vrell-informed, experienced, honest, and generally-esteemed native Swedes, noblemen and commoners, who profess the pure evangelical faith. 5i The council of state shall consist of nine members, viz., the minister of state and justice, who shall always be a member of the king's su- preme court of judicature, the ministtir of state for foreign affairs, six counsellors of state, three of whom at least must have held civ il offices, and the chancellor of the court, or aulic chancellor. The secretaries of state shall have a seat and vote in the council, when they have to report matters there, and in cases that belong to their respective departments. Father and son, or two brothers, shall not be permitted to be constant members of the council of state. O. The secretaries of state shall be four, viz. — One for military affairs; a second for public economy, mining, and all other affairs connected with the civil and interior administration ; a third fr,r tlie finances of the realm, inland and foreign commerce, manufactures, &c. ; and the fourtli, for affairs relating to religion, public education, and charities. 7. All affairs of government shall be laid before the king, and decided in a council of state : those of a ministerial nature, however, ex- cepted, concerning the relations of the realm with foreign powers, and matters of military command, which the king decides in his capacity of commander-in-chief of the land and naval forces. 8. The king can make no decision in matters in which the council of state are to be heard, un- less at least three counsellors of state, and the secretary of state wliom it concerns, or his deputy- secretary, are present. — All the members of the council shall, upon due notice, attend all deliber- ations deemed of importance, and which concern the general administration of the affairs of the kingdom; such as questions for adopting new statutes, repealing or altering those in existence, introducing new institutions in the different branches of the administration, &c. 1). Minutes shall be kept of all matters which shall come before the king in his council of state. The ministers of state, the counsellors of state, the aulic chancellor, and the secretaries of state or deputy -secretaries, shall be peremptorily Iwund to deliver their opinions: it is, however, the pre- rogative of tlie king to decide. Should it, how- ever, unexpectedly occur, that the decisions of the king are evidently contrary to the constitu- tion and the common law of the realm, it shall in that case he the duty of the members of the council of state to make spirited remonstrances against such decision or resolution. Unless a different opinion has been recorded in the min- utes (for then the counsellors present shall be con- sidered as having advised the king to the adopted measuret, the members of the council shall be respousfble for their advices, as enacted in the 106th article. 580 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION OF SMTEDEN. 10. Necessary Informfttions Imving been de- manded and obtainiid fiuir. ••"! proper boards, aiitliorities, and functionaries, tlie atTairs for de- liberation shall be prepared by the secretary of state and eight skilful and impartial men, con- sisting of four nobles and four commoners, in order to their being laid before the king in the council of state. — The secretary, as well as all the other members of this committee (which are nominated by the king) for preparing tlie general aifairs of the kingdom, shall upon all occasions, when so met, deli ver tlieir opinions to the minutes, which shall afterwards be reported to the king and tlie council of state. 11. As to the management of the ministerial affairs, they may be prepared and conducted in the manner wliich appears most 8uital)le to the king. It appertains to the minister for foreign aifairs to lay such mutters before him in the presence of the aulic chancellor, or some other member of the council, if the chancellor cannot attend. In the absence of the minister of state this duty devolves upon the aulic cliancellor, or any other member of the council of state, whom his majesty may appoint. After having ascer- tained the opinions of these otlicial persons en- tered in tlie minutes, and for whieli they shall be responsible, the king shall pronounce his de- cision in their presence. It shall be the duty of the aulic chancellor to keep the minutes on these occasions. The king shall communicate to the council of state the information on these topics as may be necessary, in order that tliey may have a general knowledge even of this branch of the administration. 12. The king can enter into treaties and alli- ances with foreign powers, after having ascer- tained, as enacted in the prpceding article, the opinion of the minister of state for foreign af- fairs, and of the aulic chancellor. 13. When the king is at liberty to commence war, or conclude peace, he shall convoke an ex- traordinarj- council of state; the ministers of state, the counsellors of state, the aulic chancel- lor, and the secretaries of state ; and, after having explained to them the circumstances wliicli re- quire their consideration, lie shall desire their opinions thereon, which each of them shall in- dividually deliver, on the responsibility defined in the 107th article. The king shall thereafter have a ri^lit to adopt the resolutions, or make such decision as may appear to him most bene- ficial for the kingdom. 14. The king sliall have the supreme com- mand of the military forces by sea and land. 15. The king shall decide in all matters of raititary command, in the presence of that min- ister or oHicer to whom he has entrusted the general management tliereof. It shall be the duty of this person to give his opinion, under responsibility, upon the resolutions taken by the kin^, and in case of tlicse being contrary to bis advice, he shall be bound to enter his objections and counsel in the minutes, which the king must confirm by his own signature. Should this min- ister or olflcial person find the resolutions of the king to be of a flniigerous tendency, or founded on mistaken or erroneous principles, he shall ad- vise his majesty to convoke two or more military officers of a superior rank into a council of war. The king shall, however, be at liberty to comply with or to reject this proposition for a council of war; and ii approved of, he may take what no- tice he pleases of the opinions of such council, which shall, however, be entered in tlie minutes. lO. The king shall promote the exercise of justice and riglit, and prevent partiality and in- justice. He shall not deprive any subject of life, honour, liberty, and property, without pre- vious trial and sentence, and in that order which the laws of the country prescribe. He shall not disturb, or cause to be disturbed, the peace of any individual in his house. He shall not banish any from one place to another, nor constrain, or cause to be constrained, tlie conscience of any; but shall protect every one in tlie free exercise of his religion, provideil he does not thereby disturb the tranquillity of society, or occasion public oilence. The king shall cause every one to bo tried' in that court to which he properly belongs. 1 7. The king's prerogative of justice shiill be invested in twelve men, learned in the law, six nobles, and six ccmimoners, who have shown knowledge, experience, and integrity in judicial matters. They shall be styled counsellors of ^ justice, and constitute the king's supreme court of justice. 18. The supreme court of justice shall t)iko cognizance of petitions to the king for cancelling sentences which have obtained legal force, and granting extension of time in lawsuits, when it has been, through some circumstances, forfeited. lO. If information be sought by judges or courts of justice concerning the proper interpre- tation of the law, the explanation thus required shall be given by the said supreme court. 20. In time of peace, all cases referred from the courts martial sliall be decided in the Bupreii court of justice. Two military officers of a su- perior degree, to be nominated by the king, shall, with the responsibility of judges, attend and have a vote in such cases in the supreme court. The number of judges may not, however, exceed eight. In time of war, all such cases shall be tried as enacted by the articles of war. 21. The king, should he think fit to attend, shall have right to two votes in causes decided by the supreme court. All questions concerning explanations of tlie law shall be reported to him, and his suffrages counted, even though he should not have attended the deliberations of the court. 22. Causes of minor importance may be de- cided in the supreme court by five members, or even four, if they are all of one opinion ; but in causes of greater consequence seven counsellors, at least, must attend. More than eight members of the supreme court, or four noblemen aud four commoners, may not be at one time in actiye service. 23. All the decrees of the supreme court of justice shall issue in the king's name, and under his hand and seal. 24. The cases shall bo prepared in tlie "king's inferior court for revision of judiciary affairs," in order to be laid before, or produced in the supreme court. 25. In criminal cases the king has a right to grant pardon, to mitigate capital punishment, and to restore property forfeited to the crown. In applications, however, of this kind, the su- preme court shall be heard, and the king give his decision in the council of slate. 20. When matters of justice are laid before the council of state, the minister of state and justice, and, at least, two counsellors of state, two members of the supreme court, and the chau- 581 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. cfUor of justice shall attend, who must all dpliver their opinions to the minutes, according to the general instruction for tlie members of the coun- cil of state, quoted in the 01st article. 27. The king shall nominate, as chancellor of justice, a j\iri8-consult, an able and impartial man, who has previously Ik Id the oflke of a judge. It shall be his chief duty, as the highest legal offlccr or attr)riiey general of the king, to i,ro8ccute, either personally or through the otli- cers or flscals under him, in all such cases as con- cern the public safety and the rights of the crown, on the kmg's behalf, to superintend the adminis- tration of justice, and to take cognizance of, and correct, errors committed by judges or other legal officers in the discharge of their official duties. 28. The king, in his council of state, has a right to appoint native Swedes to all such offices and places within the kingdom for which the king's commissions are granted. The proper au- thorities shall, however, send in the names of the candidates to be put in nomination for such , employments. The king may, likewise, appoint foreigners of eminent talents to military offices, ■without, however, entrusting to them the com- mand of the fortresses of the realm. In prefer- ments the king shall only consider the merits and the abilities of the candidates, without any regard to their birth. Ministers and counsellors of state and of justice, sccretariesof state, judges, and all other civil officers, must always bo of the pure evangelical faith. 29. The archbishop and bishops shall be elected as formerly, and the king nominates one of the three candidates proposed to him. 30. The king appoints, as formerly, the in- cumbents of rectories in the gift of the crown. As to the consistorial benefices, the parishioners shall be maintained in their usual rightof election. 31. Citizens, who are freemen of towns, shall enjoy their privilege as heretofore, of proposing to the king three candidates for the office of bur- gomaster or mayor, one of whom the king selects. The aldermen and secretaries of the magistracy of Stockholm shall be elected in the same manner. 32. The king appoints envoys to foreign courts and the officers of the embassies, in tlie presence of the minister of state for foreign af- fairs and the aulic chancellor. 33. When offices, for which candidates are proposed, are to be filled up, the members of the council of state shall deliver their opinions on the qualifications and merits of the applicants. They shall also have right to make respectful remon- strances against the nomination of the king re- specting other offices. 34. The new functionaries created by this constitution, viz. — the ministers and counsellors of state and counsellors of justice, shall be paid by the crown, and may not hold any other civil offices. The two ministers of state are the highest functionaries of the realm. The counselloi-s of state shall hold the rank of generals, and the counsellors of justice that of lieutenant-generals. 35. The minister of state for foreign affairs, the counsellors of state, the presidents of the public boards, the grand governor of Stockholm, the deputy governor, and the chief magistrate of police in the city, the aulic chancellor, the chancellor of justice, the secretaries of state, the governors or lord lieutenants of provinces, field marshals, gcncrula and admirals of all de- grees, adjutant generals, adjutant in chief, ad- jutants ot the staff, the governors of fortresses, captain lieutenants, and officers of the king's life guards, colonels of the regiments, and officers second in command in the foot and horse guards, lieutenant-colonels in the brigade of the life regi- ments, chiefs of the artillery of the royal en- gineers, ministers, envoys, and commercial agents with foreign powers, and official persons em- ployed in the king's cabinet for the foreign cor- respondence, and at the embassies, as holding places of tiust, can be removed by the king, when he considers it necessary for tlie benefit of the realm. The king shall, however, signify his determination in the council of state, the mem- bers whereof shall be bound to make respectful remonstrances, if they see it expedient. 36. Judges, and all other oHicial persons, not included in the preceding article, cannot be sus- pended from their situations witliout legal trial, nor be translated or removed to other places, without having themselves applied for these. 37. The king has jiower to confer dignities oa those who have served their country with fidelity, bravery, virtue, and zeal. He may also promote to the order of counts and barons, persons, who by eminent merits have deserved such an honour. Nobility and the dignity of a count and baron, granted from this time, sliall no longer devolve to any other than the individual himself thus created a noble, and after him, to the oldest of his male issue in a direct descending line, and this branch of the family being extinct, to the nearest malt descendant of the ancestor. 38. All despatches and orders emanating from tlie king, excepting such as concern military af- fairs, shall be countersigned by the secretary who has submitted tlienj to the council, and is respon- sible for their being confevmable to the minutes. Should the secretary find any of the decisions made by the king to be contrary to the spirit of the constitution, he shall make his remonstrances respecting the same, in the council of state. Should the king still persist in his determination, it shall then be the duty of the secretary to re- fuse his countersign, and resign his place, which he may not resume until the estates of the realm shall have examined and approved of his con- duct. He shall, however, in the mean time, re- ceive his salary, and all the fees of his office as formerly. 30. If the king wishes to go abroad, he shall communicate his resolution to the council of state, in a full assembly, and take the opinion of all its members, as enacted in the ninth article. Dur- ing the absence of the king he may not interfere with tiie government, or exercise the regal power, which shall be carried on, in his name, by the council of state; the council of stat« cannot, how- ever, confer dignities or create counts, barons, and knights; and oil officers appointed by the council sliall only hold their places ad interim. 40. Should the king be in such a state of health as to be incapable of attending to the af- fairs of the kingdom, the council of state shall conduct the administration, us enacted in the pre- ceding orticle. 41. The lung shall be of age after havingcom- pleted eighteen years. Should the king die be- fore tile heir of the crown has attained this age, the government shall be conducted by the coun- cil of state, acting with regal power and au- thority, iu tue name of the king, until the estates 582 CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. of the realm shnll have appointed a provisional government or regency ; and the council of state is enjoined strictly to conform to the enactments of this constitution. 42. Sliould the melancholy event take place, that the whole royal family became extinct on the male side, the council of state shall exercise the government with regal power and authority, until the estates have chosen another roj-al house, and the new king has taken upon Inniself the government. All occurrences or things having reference to tlie four last articles, shall be deter- mined by the whole council of state and the sec- retaries of state. 43. When the king takes the field of battle, or repairs to distant parts of the kingdom, he shall constitute four of the members of the coun- cil of state to exercise the government in those alTairs which he is pleased to prescribe. 44. No prince of the royal family shall be permitted to marry without liaving obtained the consent of the king, and in the contrary case shall forfeit his right of inheritance to the king- dom, both for himself and descendants. 45. Neither the crown prince, or any other prince of the royal family, shall have any appan- age or civil place. The princes of the blood may, however, bear titles of dukedoms and principali- ties, as heretofore, but without any claims upon those provinces. 46. The kingdom shall remain divided, as licretofore, into governments, under the usual provincial administrations. No governor-general shall, from this time, be appointed within the kingdom. 47. The courts of justice, superior as well as inferior, shall administer justice according to the laws and statutes of the realm. The provincial governors, and all other public functionaries, shall exercise the offices entrusted to them accord- ing to existing regulations; they shall obey the orders of the king, and be responsible to him if any act is done contrary to law. 48. The court of the king is under his own management, and he may at his own pleasure ap- point or discharge all his officers and attendants there. 49. The estates of the realm shall meet every fifth year. In the decree of every Diet the day sliull be fixed for the next meeting of the estates. Tlic king may, however, convoke the estates to un extraordinary Diet before that time. 50. The Diets shall bo held in the capital, ex- cept when the invasion of an enemy, or some other important impediment, may render it dan- gerous for the safety of the representatives. 51. When the king or council convokes the estates, the period for the commencement of the Diet shall be subsequent to the thirtieth, and within the fiftieth day, to reckon from that day when the summons has been proclaimed In the churches of tiie capital. 52. The king names the speakers of the nobles, the burghers and the peasants: the archbishop is, at all times, the constant speaker of the clergy. 53. The estates of the realm shall, immedi- ately after the opening of the Diet, elect the different committees, which are to prepare the af- fairs intended for their consideration. Such com- mittees shall consist in, — a constitutional com- mittee, which shall take cognizance of questions concerning proposed alterations in the fundamen- tal laws, report thereupon to the representatives. and examine the minutes held in the council of state ; — a committee of finances, wliich shall ex- amine and report upon the state and management of the revenues; — a committee of taxation, for regulating tlie taxes; — a committee of the bank for inquiring into the administration of the af- fairs of the national bank ; — a law committee for digesting propositions concerning improvements in tlie civil, criminal, ai.d ecclesiastical laws; — a c-mmittee of public grievances and matters of economy, to attend to the defects in public in- stitutions, suggest alterations, &c. 54. Should the king dc^sirc a special commit- tee for deliberating witli him on sucli matters as do not come witliin the cognizance of any of tlie other committees, and arc to be kept secret, tlio estates shall select it. Tliis committee shall, how- ever, have no riglit to adopt any resolutions, but only to give their opinion on matters referred to them by the king. 55. The representatives of tlie realm shall not discuss any subject in the presence of the king, nor can any other committee than the one men- tioned in the above article hold their delibera- tions before him. 56. General questions started at the meetings or the orders of tlie estates, cannot be immedi- ately discussed or decided, but shall be referred to the proper committees, which are to give tlieir oiiinion thereupon. The jiropositions or report of the committees shall, in tlie first instance, without any alteration or amendment, be referred to the estates at the general meetings of all the onlers. If at these meetings, observations should be made which may prevent the adoption of the proposed measure, these objections shall be com- municated to the committee, in order to its being examined and revised. A proposition thus pre- pared having been again referred to the estates, it shall remain with them to adopt it, with or without alterations, or to reject it altogether. Questions concerning alterations in the funda- mental laws, shall be thus treated: — If the con- stitutional committee approves of the suggestion of one of the representatives, or the committee reports in favour of or against a measure pro- posed by the king, the opinion of the committee shall be referred to the estates, who may discuss the topic, but not come to any resolution during that Diet. — If at the general meetings of the orders no observations are made against the opinion of the committee, flu' question shall be postponed till the Diet f ol I ig, and then be de- cided solely by yes or no, : uacted in the 75th article of the ordinance of 1 liit. — If, on tlie con- trary, objections are urged at the general meet- ings of the orders against the opinion of the committee, these shall be referred back for its re- consideration. If all the orders bo of one opinion, the question shall be postponed for final decision, as enacted above. Should again a particular order differ from the other orders, twenty mem- bers shall be elected from among every order, and added to the cominittee, for adjusting the differ- ences. Tlie question being thus prepared, shall be decided at the following Diet. 67. The ancient right of the Swedish people, of imposing taxes on themselves, shall bo exer- cised by the estates only at a general Diet. 58. The king shall at every Diet lay before the committee of finances the state of the rev. enues in all their branches. Should the crown have obtained subsidies through treaties with for- 583 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. (■\gn powers, these slinll be explnincd in the usual way. AO. The kirifi; shall refer to the decision of this cominittee to determine what the government may recjuire beyond tlie ordinary taxation, to l)e raised by an e.x"traordinary grant. (to. No tJi.vcs of any de.seription whatever can be increased without tlic e.\i)res8 consent of tlie estates. The king may not farm or let on lease the revenues of state, for tlie sake of profit to himself and the crown; nor grant monopolies to private individuals, or torporations. 01. All taxes shall be paid to tlie end of that term for wliicli they have been imposed. Should, however, tlie estates meet before the expiration of that term, new regulations shall take place. 03. Tlie funds required by government hav- ing been ascertained by the committee of tinanccs, it sliall rest with the estates whether to assign proportionate means, and also to determine how the various sums granted shall be appropriated. 03. Besides tlicsc means, two adequate sums shall be voted and set apart for the disposal of the king, after he has conbultcd the council of state, — for the defence of the kingdom, or some other important object; — the other sum to be deposited in the national bank, in case of war, after the king has ascertained the opinion of the council and convened tlie estates. The seal of the order for this latter sum may not be broken, nor the money be paid by the commissioners of the bank, till the summons to Diet sliall have been duly proclaimed in the churches of the capital. 04. Tlie ordinary revenues of the land, as well as the extraordinary grants which may be voted by the estates, shall be at the disposal of the king for the civil list and other spccitled purposes. 05. The above means may not be applied but for the assigned purposes, and the council of state shall be resoonsible if they permit any deviation in tills respect, without entering their remonstrances in the minutes, and pointing out what tlic constitution in this case ordains. OO. The funds of amortissement or national debt, shall remain, as heretofore, under the super- intendence and direction of the estates, who have guaranteed or come under a responsibility for the national debt ; and after having received the report of the committee of finances on the affairs of that establishment, the estates will provide, tlirough a special grant, the requisite means for paying the capital as well as the interest of this debt, in order that the credit of the kingdom may be maintained. 07. The deputy of the king shall not attend the meetings of the directors or commissioners of the funds of amortissement, on any other occasion than when the directors are disposed to take his opinion. 08. The means assigned for paying off the national debt shall not, under any pretence or condition, be appropriated to other purposes. 09. Should the estates, or any particular order, entertain doubts either in allowing the grant proposed by the committee of finances, or as to the participation in the taxes, or tlie prin- ciples of the management of the funils of amor- tissement, these doubts shall be communicated to the committee for their further consideration. — If the committee cannot coincide in the opinions of the estates, or a single order, it shall depute some members to explain circumstances. Should this order still persist in its opinion, the question shall be decided by tlio resolution of throe onlers. If two orders be of one, and the other two of a different opinion, thirty new members of every order shall bo added to the committee — the com- mittee shall then vote conjointly, and not by orders, witli folded liillets, for adopting, or re- jecting, unconditionally the proposition of the committee. 70. Tiie committee of taxation shall at every Diet suggest general principles for dividing tho future taxes, and the amount having been fixed, tlie committee shall also propose how these are to be paid, referring their proposition to the con- sideration and decision of the states. 71. Should a difference of opinion arise be- tween the orders, as to tliese principles and tho mode of applying tliem, and dividing the taxes; or, what hardly can be presumed, any order de- cline participating in tlie proposed taxation, tlio order, which may thus desire some alteration, shall communicate their views to the other repre- sentatives, and suggest in wliat mode tliis altera- tion may be effected without frustrating the general object. The committee of taxation hav- ing again reported thereon to the estates, they, the estates, shall decide the ciucstion at issue. If tliree orders object to the proposition of the com- mittee, it shall be rejected. If, again, three orders oppose the demands of a single order, or if two be of an opinion contrary to that of the other two, the question sliall be referred to the committee of finances, with an additional num- ber of members, as enacted in the above article. If the majority of this committee assent to the proposition of the committee of taxation, in those points concerning which the representatives have disagreed, the proposition shall be considered as the general resolution of the estates. Should ;t, on the contrary, be negatived by a majority of votes, or be rejected by tliree orders, the com- mittee of taxation shall propose other principles for levying and dividing tho taxes. 72. The national bank shall remain, as for- merly, under the superintendence and guarantee of tlio estatco, and the management of directors selected from among all the orders, according to existing regulations. Tlic states alone can issue bank-notes, which are to be recognized as the circulating medium of the realm. 73. No troops, new taxes or imposts, either in money or kind, can be levied without the vol- untary consent of the estates, in the usual order, as aforesaid. 74. The king shall have no right to demand or levy any other aid for carrying on war, than that contribution of provisions which may be necessary for the maintenance of the troops dur- ing their march through a province. These con- tributions shall, however, be immediately paid out of the treasury, according to the fixed price-cur- rent of provisions, with an augmentation of a moiety, according to tills valuation. Such con- tributions may not be demanded for troops which have been quartered in a place, or are employed in military operations, in which case they shall be supplied with provisions from tho magazines. 75. The annual estimation of such rente? as are paid in kind shall be fixed by deputies elected from among all the orders of tlie estates. 70. * 'le king cannot, without the consent of the estates, contract loans within or without the kingdom, nor burthen the land with any new debts. 584 CONSTITUTION OP SWKDEN. CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. 77. He cannot nlso, without the consent of till! t'slttles, vend, plcdj?e, niortgaKf, or in any other way alienutv domuius, farms, forests, purlis, preserve' jf K'i"'e, meadows, pasture-land, fish- eries, and other appurtenances of the crown. These shall be managed acmrding to the instruc- tions of the estates. 78. No part of the kingd.in can be alienated through sale, mortgage, douatidii, or in any other way whatever. to. No alteration can bo effected In the stand- ard value of the coin, either for enhancing or deteriorating it, without the consent of the cstat-'s. 80. The land and naval forces of the realm shall remain on the same footing, till the king and the estates may think proper to introduce some other principles. No regular troops can be raised, without the mutual consent of the king and the estates. 81. This form of government and the other fundamental laws cannot be altered or repealed, without the unanimous consent of the king and the estates Questiono to this effect cannot be brought forward at the meetings of the orders, but must be referred to the constitutional com- mittee, whose province it is to suggest such alter- ations in the fundamental laws, as may be deemed necessary, useful, and practicable. The estates may not decide on such proposed alterations at the same Diet. If all the orders ogree about the a'* -ation, it shall be submitted to tlie king, t;..t.iigh the speakers, for obtaining his royal sanction. After having ascertained the opinion of the council, the king shall take his resolution, and communicate to the estates either his appro- bation or reasons for refusing it. In the event of the king proposing any alteration in the funda- mental laws, he shall, after having taken the opinion of the council, deliver his proposition to the estates, who shall, without discussing it, again r^fer it to the constitutional committee. If the committee coincide in the proposition of the king, the question shall remain till next Diet. If ngam the committee is averse to the proposition of the king, the estates may either reject it im- mediately or adjourn it to the following Diet. In the case of all the orders approving of the proposition, they shall request that a day be ap- pointed to declare their consent in the presence of his majesty, or signify their disapprobation through their speakers. 82. What the estates have thus unanimously resolved and the king sanctioned, concerning alterations in the fundamental laws, or the king has proposed and the estates approved of, shall for the future have the force and effect of a fun- damental law. 83. No explanation of the fundamental laws may be established by any other mode or order, than that prescribed by the two preceding arti- cles. Laws shall bo applied according to their literal sense. 84. When the constitutional committee find no reason for approving of the proposition, made by a representative concerning alterations or ex- planations of the fundamental laws, it shall be the duty of the committee to communicate to him, at his request, their opinion, which the proposer of the resolution ma/ publish, with his own motion, and under the usual responsibility of authors. 85. As fundamental laws of the present form of government, there shall be considered the ordi- 38 58 nance of Diet, the order of succession, and tho act concerning universal liberty of the press. HU. liy the liberty of the press is iinderstoo<l the right of every Swedish subject to publish his writings, without any inipediiiieiit from the gov- ernment, and without being resiHinsible for them, except before a court of justice, or liable to pun- ishment, unless their contents b(' contrary to a clear law, made for the preservation of public peace. The minutes, or protocols, or the pro- ceedings, may be published in any case, except- ing the minutes kept in the council of state and before the king in ministerial affairs, and those matters of military command; nor may tho records of the bank, and the otllce of the funds of amortissement, or national (lel)t, be printed. 87. The estates, together with the king, have the right to make new and repeal old laws. In this view such questions must be proposed at tho general meetings of the orders of the estates, and shall be decided by them, after having taken tho opinion of the law committee, us laid down in tho 56th article. The proposition sliall be sub- mitted, through tho speakers, to the king, who, after having ascertained the opinion of the coun- cil of state and supreme court, shall declfrc mher his royal approbation, or motives for withhold- ing it. Should the king desire to propose any alteration in the laws, he shall, after having con- sulted the council of state and supreme court, refer his proposition, together with their opinion, to the deliberation of the states, who, after hav- ing received the report of the law committee, shall decide on the point. In all such questions the resolution of three orders shall bo considered as. the resolution of the estates of the realm. If two orders are opposed to the other two, the proposi- tion is negatived, and the law is to remain as formerly. 88. The same course, or mode of ])roceeding, shall be observed in explaining tlie civil, criminal, and ecclesiastical laws, as in making these. £x- f)lanations concerning the proper sen.se of the aw given by the supreme court in the name of tho king, in the interval between the Diets, may be rejected by the states, and shall not after- wards be valid, or cited by the courts of judica- ture. 80. At the general meetings of the orders of the estates, questions may be proposed for alter- ing, explaining, repealing, and issuing acts con- cerning public economy; and the principles of public institutions of any kind may be di.scusscd. These questions shall afterwards be referred to tho committee of public grievances and economi- cal affairs, and then be submitted to the decision of the king, in a council of state. When the king is pleased to invite the estates to deliberate with him on questions concerning tlie general administration, the same course shall bo adopted . as is prescribed for questions concerning the laws. 00. During the deliberations of the orders, or tlieir committees, no questions shall be proposed but in the way expressly prescribed by this fun- damental law, concerning either appointing or removing of officers, decisions and resolutions of the government nnil courts of law, and the con- duct of private individuals and corporations. 01. When the king, in such cases as those mentioned in the 30tli article, is absent from the kingdom longer than twelve months, the council shall convoke the estates to a general Diet, and 5 CONSTITUTION OF HWEDBN. CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. caiiRO the Riimnions to \hi pmclnimi><1 within flf- tecn (Inyu from tlic iil«>vi' tini«, In the cliiirchcH of the nipitul, and npfcdlly nftcrwiinlH in tlie otlicr j)artH of tliu Ivitifciloiii. If tlie Iting, after bcini; inforiiu'il tlicri'of, docs not return to tlie kingdom, the estiitcH fthall iidopt Niieh meuHiireH as tliey deem most lienelleial for tlio eountrv. 1>ti. Th(! same sliall he eiiacte(i in case of any disease or ill health of tlie liing, which might ])re- vent him from attending to the affairs of the liingdom for more tlinn twelve months. li.l. When the lieir of the crown, at the de- cca.se of the king, is nniler age, the council of state shall issue siinimons to the representatives to meet. The estates of the realm shall have the riglit, witliout regard to the will of a deceased king concerning the adniinistnition, to appoint one or w^veral giuirdians, to rule in the king's nonie, according to this fuudanieutal law, till the king l)ecome8 of age. 1>4. Should it ever happen that tlie royal family become extinct in the mole line, the council of state shall convene the estates, to elect another royal family to ride comformably to this funda- mental law. 1)5. Should, contrary to expectation, the coun- cil of state fail to convoke the estates, in the cases prescribed by the Olst, 98d, and 04th articles, it shall be the jiositive duty of the directors of the house of nobles, the diopters throughout the kingdom, the magistrates in the capital, and the governors in the provinces, to give public notice thereof, in order that elections of deputies to the Diet may forthwith take place, and the estates assemble to protect their privileges and rights of • he kingdom. Such a Diet shall be opened on the liftieth day from that period when the coun- cil of state had proclaimed the summons in the churches of the capital. OO. The estates shall at every Diet oppoint on ollic(^r, distinguished for integrity and learning in the law, to watch over, as their deputy, the con- duct of the judges and other official men, and who shall, in legal order and at the proper court, arraign those who in the performance of their offices have betrayed negligence and partiality, or else have committed any illegal act. He shall, however, be liable to the some responsibility as the law iirescribes for public prosecutors in general. 97. This deputj- or attorney-general of the estates sha'" j chosen by twelve electors out of cverv order. 08. The electors shall at the same time they choose the said attorney-general, elect a person possessing equal or similiar qinilities to succeed him, in case of his death before the ne.xt Diet. 91). The attorney-general may, whenever he pleases, attend the sessions of all the superior and inferior courts, ond the public offices, and shall have free access to their records and min- utes ; and the king's officers shall be bound to give him every assistance. 100. Tlie attorney-general shall at every Diet present a report of the performance of his office, explaining the state of the administration of jus- tice in the land, noticing tlie defects in the exist- ing laws, and suggesting new improvements. He shall also, at the end of each year, publish a general statement concerning these. 101. Should the supreme court, or any of its members, from interest, partiality, or negligence, judge so wrong that an individual, contrary to law and evidence, did lose or might have lost life. lilierty, honour, or pmperty, thoottorney-general shall be bound, and the chuncellor of justleo authorised, to arraign the guilty, acconling to the laws of the realm, in the court after mentioned. 102. This court is to be denominated the court of justice for the realm, and shall be formed by the president in the superior court of Swea, the presidents of all the pui)lie boards, four senior members of the council of state, the highest com- mander of the troops within the capital, and the commander of the squadron of the fleet stationed at the capital, two of the senior members of the superior court of Swea, and the senior member of all the public boards. Should any of the officers mentioned above decline attending this court, he shall be legally responsible for such a neglect of duty. After trial, the judgment shall be publicly announced : no one can alter such a s<'ntence. The king may, however, 'extend par- don to tlie guilty, but not admitting bim any more into the service of the kingdom. 103. The estates shall at every Diet nominate a jury of twelve members from out of each order, for deciding if the members of the supreme court of justice have deserved to fill their important places, or if any member, without having been legally convicted for the faults mentioned in the above articles, yet ought to be removed from office. 104. The estates shall not resolve themselves into court of justice, nor enter into any special examination of the decrees, verdicts, resolutions of the sujircme court. 105. The constitutional committee shall hove right to demand the minutes of the council of state, except those which concern ministerial or foreign affairs, and matters of military command, which may only be communicated os fur as tlieso have a reference to generally known events, specified by the committee. lOG. Should the committee find from these minutes that any member of the council of state has openly acted against the clear dictates of the constitution, or advised any infringement either of the simic or of the other lows of the realm, or thot lie had omitted to remonstrate against such a violation, or caused ond promoted it by wilfully concealing any informotion, the committee shall order the attorney-general to institute the proper proceedings against tlie guilty. 107. if the constitutional committee should find that any or all the members of the council of state hove not consulted the real interest of the kingdom, or that any of the secretaries of state have not performed his or their official duties with impartiality, activity, and skill, the com- mittee shall report it to the estates, who, if they deem it necessary, may signify to the king their wish of having those removed, who may thus have given dissatisfaction. Questions to this effect may be brouglit forward at the general meetings of the orders, and even be proposed by any of the committees. These cannot, however, be decided until the constitutional committee have delivered their opinion. 108. The estates shall at every Diet appoint six individuals, two of whom must be learned in the law, besides the attorney-general, to watch over the liberty of the jircss. These deputies shall be bound to give their opinion as to tlio legality of publications, if such be requested by the authors. These deputies shall be chosen by six electors out of every order. 586 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. lOO. Diet* may not last longer than tlircc months from the time that the king has informed the representatives of tlio state of the revenues. Should, however, the estates at the expiration of that time not have concluded tlicir deliberations, they may demand the Diet to l)e prolonged for another month, which the king shall not refuse. If again, contrary to expectation, the estjites at the expiration of this term liave not regidatcd tlie civil Ii3t, the king shall dissolve tlie Diet, and taxation continue iu its former state till the next meeting of representatives. 1 lO. No representative shall be responsible for any opinion uttered at meetings of the orders, or of the committees, unless by the express per- mission of at least five-sixths of Ids o'.vn order: nor can a representative be banished from the Diet. Should any individual or body, either civil or militjiry, endeavour to offer violence to the estates, or to any individual representative, or presume to interrupt and disturb their delibera- tions, it shall bi! considered as an act of treason, and it rests with the estates to take legal cogni- zance of such IU/ offence. 111. Should any representative, after having announced himself as such, be insulted, cither at the Diet or )n his way to or from the same, it shall be punished as a violation of the peace of the king. 112. No olllcial person may exercise his offl- cial authority (his authority in that capacity) to Influence the clectionH of deputies to the Diet, under pain of losing his place. 11. 't. Individuals elected for regidatlng thu taxation shall not be responsible for their lawful deeds in tins their capacity. 1 14. The king shall leave the estates in un- disturbed possession of their liberties, liriviieges, ami Immunities. Moditieations which the pros- perity of the reiilm nniy demand can only 1)0 done with the eeneral concurrence and consent of the estates and tlie sanction of the king. Nor can any new i)rivileges be gnuited to one order, without tlie consent of the other, and the sanc- tion of the sovereign. This we have conllrmed by our names and seals, on the sixth day of the month of .June, In the year after the birtli of our Lord one thousand eiglit hundred and nine. On lieliaif of the Nobles, .M. Ankarsvard. On behalf of the Clergy, Jac. Ax. Lindblom. On helialf of the Hurghers, H. N. Schwan. .On be- half of the Peasantry, Lars Olsson, Speakers. The above form of government we have not only acknowledged Ourselves, but do also com- mand all our faithful subjects to obey it ; in con- firmation of which, wo have thereto alllxed our manual signature and the seal of the realm. In the city of our royal residence, Stockholm, on the sixth (lay of the month of June, in the year after the birth of our Lord one thousand eight hun- dred and nine. Cuakles. CONSTITUTION OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION. After the Sondcrbund secession and war of 1847 (see Hwitzehland: A. D. 1803-18'.8), the task of drawing up a Constitution for Uie Con- federacy was confided to a committee ol fourteen members, and the work was finished on the 14th of April, i848. "The project was submitted to the Cantons, and accepted at once by tliirteen and a half; others joined during the summer, and tlie new Constitution was finally promulgated with the assent of all on the 12tli September. Hence arose the seventh and last phase of the Confederation, by the adoption of a Federal Con- stitution for the whole of Switzerland, being the first which was entirely the work of Swiss, with- out any foreign influence, although Its authors had studied that of the United States. ... It was natural that, as in process of time commerce and industry were developed, and as the differ- ences between the legislation of the various Can- tons became more apparent, a revision of the first really Swiss Confederation should be neces; .sary. This was proposed botli in 1871 and 1873| but tlu; partisans of a further centralization, though successful in the Chambers, were defeated upon an appeal to the popular vote on the 12th of May 1872, by a majority of between five and six thousand, and by thirteen Cantons to nine. The question was, however, by no means settled, and in 1874 a new project of revision more ac- ceptable to the partisans of cantonal independ- ence, was adopt<;d by the people, the numbers being 340,199, to 198,013. The Cantons were about two to one in favour of the revision, 14^ declaring for and 7i against it. This Constitu- tion bears date the 29th May, 1874, aud has since been added to and altered in certain particulars." — Sir F. O. Adams and C. D. Cunningliam, The Siciss Confederation, ch. 1. — "Since 1848, . . . Switzerland has been a federal state, consisting of a central authority, the Hund, and 19 entire and six half states, the Cantons; to foreign powers she presents an unitejl front, •while her internal policy allows to each Canton a largo amount of independence. . . . The basis of all legislative division is the Commune or Qemeinde, corresponding in some slight degree to the Eng- lish Parish. The commune in its legislative and administrative aspect or ' Einwohnergemeinde ' is composed of all the inhabitants of a Commune. It is self-governing and has the control of the local police ; it also administers all matters con- nected with pauperism, education, sanitary and funeral regulations, the fire brigade, the mainte- nance of public peace and trusteeships. ... At the head of the Commune is the Gcmeinderath, or Communal Council, whose members are elected from the inhabitants for a fixed, period. It is presided over byan Ammann, or Mayor, or Presi- dent. . . . Above the Commune on the ascending scale comes the Canton. . . . Each of the 19 Cantons and 6 half Cantons is a sovereign state, whose i)rivileges are nevertheless limited by the Federal Constitution, particularly as regards legal and military matters; the Constitution also defines the extent of each Canton, and no portion of a Canton is allowed to secede and join itself to another Canton. . . . Legislative power is in the hands of the ' Volk ' ; in the i)olitical sense of the word the ' Volk ' consists of all the Swiss living in the Canton, who liave passed their 20tli year and are not under disability from crime or bankruptcy. Tlic voting on the part of the people deals mostly with alterations in the can- tonal constitution, treaties, laws, decisions of the 587 CONSTITUTION: 8WITZEULAND. CONSTITUTION : SWITZERLAND. KIret ("ouncll Invnlvlnj? rxpcndlttirpH of Prs. I(N),IMK) luicl iipwuril, itiid otiicr (IcclHinnH wliicli till! Couru'll coiiHidcrH iiilvimkblc to Hiilijvct to (lit imlilic vote, wlilc'li iiIho detcrniincfi tliu adoption of propoHitioiiH for tin; cri'iitioii of new lawH, or the iiltcnitlon or iiliolition of old ouch, when hucIi It pli'blgcltc! 1h dcmundcd by a petition signed by 5,000 voters. . . . The first (Conned (Grosse Itiith) 1.4 th<- hijclieHt politieiil hikI udndnUtrutive pow<'r of ttie ('nnton. It correspondD to the '('lmnil)er ' of other coiintrieH. Every 1,3(K) in- liubitantH of nn eleetorul circuit send one mem- ber. . . . The Kleine Hath or npucial council (corrcHponding to tho ' Ministcrium ' of otiier continental countries) is composed of three mem- bers and has three proxies. It is cliosen Iw the First Council for a period of two years. It su- perintends all cantonal institutions and controls the various public tM)ards. , . . The jiopniations of the 22 Bovoreign (.'antons constitute together tho Hwiss Confederation." — P. Ilauri, Sketch of the Conttitution of Smtterland (in Strickland s The Engadine). The following text of tho Federal Constitution of the 8w Iss Confederation is a translation from parallel French and German texts, by Professor Albert Uushnell Hart, of Harvard College. It oppeared originally in " Old South Leaflets," No. 18, and is now reprinted under permission from Professor Ilart, who has most kindly revised his translation throughout and intnMluced tho later amendments, to July, 1803. In the Name of Almig^hty God. — The Swiss Confederation, desiring to contirm the alliance of the Confederates, to maintain and to jiromoto the unity, strength, and honor of the Swiss nation, has adopted the Federal Constitution following: Chapter i. General Provisions.— Autici.b 1. The peoples of the twenty-two sovereign Can- tons of Switzerland, united by this present alli- ance, viz. : Zurich, Bern, Luzem, Uri, Schwyz, Unlerwaldcn (Upper and Lower), Olarus, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn, Basel (urban and rural), Schaffhausop, Ajipenzell (tho two lUiodes), St. Gallon, Orisons, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, Vaud, Valttis, Ncuchdtel, ond Genevo, form in the r entirety the Swiss Confederation. Akt. 2. The purpose of the Confederation U, to secure the independence of tho country against foreign nations, to maintain peace and order within, to protect the liberty and tho rights of tho Confederates, and to foster their comr.ion welfare. AliT. 3. The Cantons are sovereign, so far as their sovereignty is not limited by the Federal Constitution; and, as such, they exercise all tho rights which are not delegated to the federal government. Art. 4. All Swiss are equal before the law. In Switzerland there are neither iioliticid depend- ents, nor privileges of place, birth, persons, or families. AuT. 5. The Confederation guarantees to tho Cantons their territory, their sovereignty, within the limits fixed by Article 3, their Constitutions, tho libortj; and rights of the people, the consti- tutional riglits of citizens, and the rights and powers which the people have conferred on those in authority. AiiT. 0. The Cantons are bound to ask of the Confederation the guaranty of thoirConstitutions. This guaranty is accorded, provided : (u) that the ConHtitutions contain notldng contrary to thor proviHionN of the Federal ('onstitution. (h) That they assure the exercist' of political riglits, ac- cording to republican forniH, representativf" or dem<H'ratic. (c) Tliat they liav(! lieen ratified by the |>eople, ami may bo amended whenever the majority of all the citizens demand it. AiiT. 7. All H<'parate alliances and all treaties of a iMilitical character lM}tween the (.'anions are forbidden. On tlio other hand the Cantons have the right to make conventions among themselves iiIHHi legislative, administrative or Judicial sub- jects; in all ciiMcs they shall bring such conven- tions to tho uttenticm of tlie federal ofllcials, who are authorized to prevent their execution, if they contain anything contrary to the Confederation, or to the rights of other Cantons. Should such not be the cast-, the covenanting Cantons are authorized to re(iuirc the coilperatlon of the fed- eral otllciuls in carrying out the conventicm. AuT. 8. The Confederation has the sole right of declaring war, of making peace, and of con- cluding alliances and treaties with foreign pow- ers, particularly treaties relating to tariffs and commerce. Akt. 0. By exception the Cantons preserve- the right of concluding treaties with foreign ])owers, respecting tho administration of public l)ronerty, and border and jjolice intercourse ; but such treaties sliall contain nothing contrary to the Confederation or to tho riglits of other Cantons. AuT. 10. Otticial intercourse between Cantons and foreign governments, or their representatives, shall take place through the Federal Council. Nevertheless, the Cantons may correspond di- rectly with the inferior ofllciala and oilicers of a foreign State, in regard to the subjects enu- merated in the preceding article. Akt. 11. No military capitulations shall be made. Art. 12. No members of tho departments of the federal government, civil and military ofll- cials of the Confederation, or federal representa- tives or commissioners, shall receive from any foreign government any pension, salary, title, gift, or decoration. Such persons, already in possession of pensions, titles, or decorations, must renounce tho enjoyment of pensions and the bearing of titles anil decorations during thq^r term of olBco. Nevertheless, inferior olflciala may be authorized by the Federal Council to- continue in the receipt of pensions. No deco- ration or title conferred by a foreign government shall bo borne in tlio federal army. No officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier shall accept such distinction. . Akt. 13. The Confederation has no right to keep up a standing army. No Canton or Half- Canton shall, without tho permission of the federal government keep np a standing force of more than three hundred men; the mounted police [gendarmeriej is not included in this number. Art. 14. In case of differences arising between Cantons, tlio States sliall abstain from violence and from arming themselves; they shall submit to the decision to bo taken upon such differences by the Confederation. Art. 15. In case of sudden danger of foreign attack, tho authorities of the Cantons threatened .shall request the aid of other members of the Confederation and shall Immediotely notify the federal governmeut; tlie subsequent action of 588 CONSTITUTION; SWITZEHLAND. Army find S*ttUcf, CONSTITITION ; iSWITZEIU-ANn. the Inttor »hnll not thi-rrby bo prcrliidod. Tlin CanUinH Hiiiniiinni'il nrr lioiiiid to ^ivc aid. Tlui oxpciiHCH Nliall be Ixirni' by thr ('onrcilcrittion. Km. 1(1. In 'list! (if iiitcrnid di.sturbanrt', or If Ww daiiK<'r Ih tlircatcncd by another Canton, the authorities of i\w Canton tlireatened Hliall givo ininiediato uotin; to the Federal Council, In order that that Ixuly may take tlu^ nieaHun'H necesnary, within the llniltH of Itn power (Art. 103, ^^'i, 10, 11), or may Huniinon the Ke<leral AsHeinbly. In extreme ense.s the authoritieH of the Canton are authorized, while jjivinK imme<ll- nte notiee to the Feilernl (^>uneil, to ask the aid of other Cantons, which are bound to alTord such aid. If the executive of the Canton Is unable to call for aid, the federal a\ithority having the power may, and if the safety of Switzerland is endangered shall. Intervene without requisition. In case of federal intervention, the federal autliorities shall take cure that the provisions of Arlie'o 5 l)0 obsiTved. The expenses shall be l)orne by the Canton asking aid or occasioning federal Intervention, cxcep„ when the Federal Assembly otherwise decides on account of special circumstances. AiiT. 17. In the cases mentioned In Articles 15 and 10, every Canton is bound to afford imdis- turbed passage for the troops. The troops shall immediately bo placed under federal command. AiiT. 18. Every Swiss Is bound to perform military service. Soldiers who lose their lives or sulTer permanent injury to their health, in con- sequence of federal service, are entitled to aid from the Confederation for themselves or their families, In case of need. Each soldier shall receive without expense his first equipment, clothing, and arms. T'-.^ r.:::-.i)on remains in the hands of the soldier, under conditions which sh ill be prescribed by federal legislation. The Con- federation shall enact uniform provisions as to an exemption t^tx. Akt. 19. The federal army is composed: (a) Of the cantonal military corps, (b) Of all Swiss who do not belong to such military corps, but are nevertheless liable to military service. The Confederation exercises control over the nrmy aud the material of war provided by law. In cases of danger, the Confederation lias also the exclusive and direct control of men not included in the federal army, and of all other military resources of the Cantons. The Cantons have authority over the military forces of their terri- tory, so far as this right is not limited by the Federal Constitution or laws. Art. 20. The laws on the organization of the army are passed by the Confederation. The enforcement of military laws in the Cantons is Intrusted to the cantonal olllcials, within limits which shall be fixed by federal legislation, and under the supervision of the Confederation. Mili- tary instruction of every kind pertains to the Confederation. The same applies to the arming of troops. The furnislnng aud maintenance of clothing and equipment is within the power of the Cantons ; but the Cantons shall be credited with tlie expenses therefor, occording to a regu- lation to be established by federal legislation. Art. 21. So far as military reasons do not prevent, bodies of troops shall bo formed out of the soldiers of the same Cantons. The composi- tion of these bodies of troops, the maintenance of their eflfective strength, the appointment and promotion of officers of these bodies of troops. iM'long to the CantonK, Rubject to general pmvl- sions which shall !><■ establiMhed by the Confi'dcnt- tion. AliT. 22. On payment of a reasonable indem- nity, Wu: Confederation has the right lo use or aeouire drill-grounds aud buildings Intended for ndfilary purposes, within the Cantons, together witli the appurtenances thereof. The terms of the Indemidty shall be settled by federal legisla- tion. Aut. 211. Tlie Confederation may construct at its own expense, or may aid by subsidies, pub- lic works which concern Switzerland or a con- siderable part of the country. For this purpose It may expropriate property, on payment of a reasonable indemnity. Further enactments upon this matter shall be made by federal legislation. The Federal Assembly may forbid public works which endanger the ndlltary interests of the (Con- federation. Aut. 24. The Confederation has the right of superintendence over dike and forest police in tlie upper mountain regions. It may c()lip<Tatc in the straightening and embankment of torrents us well as in the afforesting of the districts in whieli they rise. It may prescribe the regulations necessary to assure the maintenance of these works, and the jireservation of existing forests. Aut. 25. The Confederation has power to make legislative enactments for the regulation of the right of fishing and hunting, particularly with a view to the picservation of tlie large game In the mountains, as well as for thi- nrotccticm of birds useful to agriculture and forestry. Art. 20. Legislation upon the construction and operation of railroads is In the province of the Confederation. Aut. 27. The Confederation has the right to establish, besides the existing Polyicchnic HcIkk)!, a Federal University and other Institutions of higher instruction, or to subsidize Institutions of such nature. The Cantons provide for primary instruction, which shall be sutllcient, ami shall be placed exclusively under tho direction of the secular authority. It is compulsory and, in the public schools, free. The public sciiools shall be such that they may be frequented by the ad- herents of all religious sects, without any olTense to their freedom of conscience or of belief. Tlie Confederation shall take the necessary m(Misures against such Cantons as shall not fullill these duties. Art. 28. The customs are In the province of tho Confederation. It may levy export and im- port duties. Art. 29. The collection of the federal cus- toms shall bo regulated according to tlie following principles: 1. Duties on imports: (a) Materials necessary for the manufactures and agriculture of the country sliall be taxed as low as po.ssi- ble. (h) It shall be the same with tlio necessities of life. ((•) Luxuries shall be subjected to the highest duties. Unless there arc imperative reasons to the contrary, these principles shall be observed also iu the conclusion of treaties of commerce with foreign powers. 2. The duties on exports shall also be as low as possible. 3. The customs legislation shall include suitable provisions for the continuance of commercial and market intercourse across the frontier. Tlie above provisions do not prevent the Confedera- tion from making temporary exceptional provi- sions, under extraordinary circumstances. 089 CONSTITUTION: HWIT7EULAND. Outtnmi unii Ktcit. CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. Art. 80, Till' prcKTnU of llmrMiHtonmlH-lonK tu tbo Confcdinitioii. Tin- Indi'iiililty cniM'N whU'h liltlicrto liiiH Ix'fn p.'iiil to ilui Ciiiitnim for tlio rc(I<'m|itioii of <uiHt'„.'<4, for road nnd bridge tnlU, ciihtomii diitiuB nnd olliiT like diii'H. li.v ('X('«{>t!:iM, and on nccouMt of their iMt<'rniitioniil nlpinit roiidH, \\w CiintonNof I'll, Urlhonx, TIcIno, iind ViilitlH rcci'ivR iin iuimiihI ItidcMinlty, wliicli, conHlderlng ull tlic clrciiniKtiinci'H, U tlxcd uh fol- low*: Url, H(),(H)0 friincK. Gnsons, 2(M) (KM) fmnca. TIrIno, 200,(MM) friincn. V.iliiiH, no.OOO fnuicR. Till' Ciinloim of I'rl and TIcIno Hliall re- reive in iiddition, for clcarinf^ the Hriow from tlie Hitint Oottliard road, jin annual ind( ninity of 40,()()0 francs, ho Imi); as that road hIiuII not be ropliiccd l>y ii raiiroaii. AuT. HI. Tlio freedom of trade and of industry is giinranteed tlirouijliout tlie wliolo extent of tlie (/"(mfederatlon. Tlio followintf subjeets are excepted: (ii) The salt and ^{unpowder monopoly, the federal enstoms, import duties on wines and other spiritiioiiH li(|U(irs, and other taxes on eon- sumption expressly permitted by tlie (lonfedera lion, according to article 82. (b) [Added by AiMiuinunt of Dec. 22, 1885.] The manufncturo and fuilu of alcohol, under Article 82 (ii). (c) [AMedby Amendment of Dec. 22, 1885.] Drinking nlaces, and the retail tindu in Rpirituoiis liciuors; i)ut ncvcrtheles.s the Cantons may by legislation subject the business of keeping drinking places, and the retail trade in spirituouH liijuors, to such restrictions as are required for the public welfare. (d) [Originally (b)] Measures of sanitary police against epidemics and cattle diseases. (<■) [Orif/i- nally (r)] Provisions in regard to the exercise of trades nnd manufactures, in regard to taxes im- posed thereon, and in regard to the police of the ruads. Tliese provisions shall not contain any- thing contrary to the principle of freetlom of trn'lo and manufacture. AuT. 83. The Cantons are authori/.ed to col- lect the import duties on wines and other spirit- uous licjuors, provided in Article 81 {</), always luider liie following restrictions: («) The collec- tion of the.se import duties shall in no wise im- pede transportation: commerce shall be ob- structed as little as possible and sliall not be burdened with any otlier dues, (h) If tlie articles imported for consumption are reexported from the Canton, tlie duties paid on importation shall be refunded, witliout further charges, (r) Pro- ducts of Swiss origin shall be less burdened than those of foreign countries. ('/) Tlie existing im- port duties on wines and otlier spirituous liquors of Swiss origin shall not lie incren.sed by tlie Cantons whicli already levy them. .Such duties shall not be establislicd upon such articles by Cantons v.hicli do not at present collect them. (e) The laws and ordinances of tlie Cantons on the collection of import duties .sliall, before their going into effect, be submitted to tlie federal government for apiiroval, in order that it may, if necessary, cause the enforcement of the jire- ccding provisions. All the inijwit duties now leviecl by the Cantons, n.; well as tbo similar duties levied by the Communes, shall cease, witli- out indcmnitv, at the end of the year 1890. Akt. 33 (i";). [Amendment of Da-. 23, 1885.] The Confederation is authorized by legislatiqn to make regulations for tlie manufacture and sale of alcohol. In this legislation those products which are intended for exportation, or which have been subjected to a process excluding them from um> an a tM'venige, shall be Hubjeeted to no tax. DiHtillallon of wlni>, fnilt, and their liy- pr(HliictH, of gentian root, juniper lierries, and similar priNliictH, is not HUbjerl to federal legisla- tion as to manufacture or tax. After till! cesHii- tloii of the import duties on splritiious li(|Uor8, provided for in Article 82 of the ('(iiiNtitution, the trade in litiiiors not distilled shall not be sub- jected by tli<^ Cantons to any special taxes or to other limitations than those necessary for pro- tection against adulterated or noxious beverages. Nevertheless, the powers of the Cantons, dellned in Article 81, are retained over tlie keeping of dri. iking places, nnd the sah^ at retail of (pianti- ties less tlian two liters. The net proceeds re- sulting from taxation on the snle of nil oliol belong to tlie Cantons in whiJi the tax is levied. The net proceeds to tlie Coi.rc"'"':itlon from the In- teninl manufaetunMif alcohol, and the correspond- ing addition to tlie duty on imported alcohol, are divided among nil the {'nntons, in proportion to tlie actual population as ascertaineii from time to time by the next preceding federal census. Out of the receipts therefrom the Cantons must expend not less than one tenth in combating drunkenness in its causes and elTocts. [For ail- ditinniil iirtiele» of this Amendment tee Temporary J'roiisioni, ArtiHe 0, at the eiul of thit Coiutitu- tion.\ Au'i 83. The Cantons may require proofs of <'(>mpeti'ney from tliose mIio desire to practice u liberal profession. Provision shall be made by federal legislation by which sueli persons may obtain certificates of competency which shall bo valid throughout the Confederation. AuT. 34. The Confederation lias power to enact uniform provisions as to the labor of chil- dren in factoiies, and as to the duration of labor llxed for adults tlierein, and as to the protection of workmen against tlie operation of unliealthy and dangerous nianufactures. The transactions of emigration agents and of organizations for insurance, not instituted Viy the State, are sub- ject to federal supervision nnd legislation. AllT. 84 (ii). [Amendment of Dec. 17, 1890.] Tlie (Jonfedemtion sliull by law iirovide for in- surance against sickness nnd accident, with duo regard for existing sick-benefit funds. The Con- federation may require participation therein, <'ither by all persons or by particular classes of the population. AuT. 35. The opening of ■ aming houses is forbidden. Those which now exist sliall be closed Dec. 31, 1877. The concessions which may have been granted or renewed since tlie be- ginning of tile year 1871 are declared invalid. The Confederation may also take necessary measures comterning lotteries. AuT. 86. The posts and telegrai)hs in all Switzerland are controlled by the Confederation. The proceeds of tlie posts and telegraphs belong to the federal treasury. The rates shall, for all linrts of Switzerland, be fixed according to tlie same principle and as fairly as possible. Invio- lable secrecy of letters and telegrams is guaran- teed. Akt. 87. The Confet'eration exercises general oversight over those roads and bridges in the maiutenance of which it is interested. Tlie sums due to the Cantons mentioned in Article 30, on nccount of their international alpine roads, shall be retained by the federal government if such roads are not kept by them in suitable condition. 590 CONSTITUTION: SWlTZKIU.ANf). Ciiiitnthtp. CONSTIl ^ HON : SWITZEUF-AND. Art. 88. The ConfcdcnUioii cxcrdiM'S nil the excluxlvn HkIiIh p<'rtiiliiiMi; tr> ('oinit)(c. .'t Iiih tlif! iMilii rlKlit of coining nioiii'y. Il cMtnliliHluM tlui mouuUiry HyitUaii, itiid may I'liitct provlsioiiH, If nocoHttry, for the rutu of cxclmiiKu of fon-lKn coins. [AnT. 80. (Ahm/iiled hy the nrticle /<>!!■ "'ng it). The ('i)i\fe<lfriitiiin him the, /wircc In iiiu hy liiw general prnrinioiiffur the iimiie (tint redemption qf hank noten. Unt it nhnll not civate any monop- oly for the iiuiie »/' htnk luitet, luir make lueh nii/en a legal tender \ AbT. liu. [Hii/iKlitiite for former Art. no, adopted Oct. 18, 1801. 1 Till! ("oiifcdcmtlon liim tlio exclutilvo power to issiiu bank noti's mid otiior like cuiTt'iicy. Tlio Coiifcdcrutloii miiy I'XcrciHo the excliiHlvu power over tlie Immuo of hank notes throuKi' a National Hank carried on under a Hpcelal (leparlnient of administration : or it. may aHr4lf;u tliu riKlit to a central Joint stock bank hereafter to l)e created, which hIiuII he administered under tlie ('oi)peration and supervision of the Con- federation; hut the yirivileco to take over tlio hank, by paying acomponwitron. shall he rctiiincd. The bank possessed of the exclusive rljjht to issue Dotes shall havu for its cidef function to regulate thi >;irculatiun of muuey in 8wilzcrlaud and to fneilitate cxchanK"'- To the Cantons shall lii^ paid at lea.st two-thirds of the net prollts of tlie banli beyond a reasonable interest or n reason- able <lividend to the stockholders, and the ueces- miry transfers to the reserve fund, Tlio hank anil its branches shall not be subjected to taxa- tion by tliu Cantons. The Confederation shall not niako liank notes and other liko currency legal tender, except in urgent need in time of war. The principal olllcu of the hank and the details of its organization, as well as in general tlio carrying into effect this article, shall bo deter- mined by federal law. AiiT. 40. The Confederation Axes the stand- ard of weights and measures. The Cantons, under the supervision of the Confederation, enforce the laws relating thereto. AliT. 41. The manufacture and the sale of gunpowder throughout Switzerland pertain ex- clusively to the Confederation. Powders used for blasting and not suitable for shooting aro not included in the monopoly. Art. 43. The expenditures of the Confedera- tion are met as follows: (a) Out of the income from federal property. (6) Out of the proceeds of the federal customs levied at the Swiss frontier, (c) Out of the proceeds of the posts and telegraphs, (d) Out of the proceeds of the powder monopoly, (e) Out of half of the gross receipts from the tax on military exemptions levied by the Cantons. (/) Out of the contribu- tions of the Cantons, which shall be determined by federal legislation, with special reference to their wealth and taxable resources. AuT. 43. Every citizen of a Canton is a Swiss citizen. As such he may participate, in the place where he is dondciled, in all federal elections and popular votes, after having duly proven his qualification ns a voter. No person can exercise political rights in more than one Canton. The Swiss settled as a citizen outside his native Canton enjoys in the place where he is domiciled, all the rights of the citizens of the Canton, Including all the rights of the communal citizen. Participation in municipal and cor- porate property, and the right to vote upon purely municipal alTaln*, are rxconted from such rlghtH, unless the Cantun hy legislation has otherwise provided. In riinloiial and coiiimiinal alTairs, he gains the right to Vdte after a risi- deuce of three months. Canlcinal laws relating to the right of Swiss citi/.ens to settle iiutHide lliii (.'antoni in which they were Ixirn, and to vote on communal ({Uestions, are submitted for the approval of the Kederal Coiineil. AuT. 44. No Cantdii shall e.xpe' from its ter- ritory one of its own eiti/.rns, nor deprive him of his rights, whether aciiuireil by birlli nr settle- ment. [Origine (111 rile, | Ke'drni! legislatlim shall tlx the coiKlitiniis upon which foreigners may be naturalized, as well us those upon which a Swiss may give up his cili/.eiisliip in order to obtain natiirall/.atloii in a foreign country. Al'.T. 4r», Every Swiss cilizin has the right 1o settle anywhere in Swiss territory, on condition of submUting a certificate of origin, or a similiir document. By exception, settleiiicnt may be refused to or withdrawn from, those who, in consequi'nee of a penal convielion, are not enti- tled to civil rights. In addition, settlement may be withdrawn from tlio.se who have been repeat- edly punished for serious olleiises, and also from those who permanently come upon the diarge of ]iublic cliarity, and to whom their Commune or Canton of origin, as the case may be, refuses sutllcient succor, after they have Is'en olllcially asked to grant it. In the Cantons where the poor are relieved in their place of residence the perniis.sion to settle, if it relates to citizens of the Canton, may be coupled witli the condition that they shall be able to work, ond that they shall not, in their former domicile in the Canton of origin, have permanently become a charge on public charity. Every expulsion on account of poverty must be approveil by the government of the Canton of domicile, and previously announced to the government of tho Canton of origin. A Canton in which a 8w'.,s est^ibllshcs his domicile may not require security, nor im- pose any special obligations for such establish- ment. In like manner the Communes cannot require from Swiss domiciled in their tcrritr>ry other contributions than those which they require from t'leir own subjects, A federal law shall establish the maximum fee to bo paid the Chancery for a permit to settle. Akt. 40. Persons settled in Switzerland are, as a rule, subjected to the jurisdiction and legis- lation of their domicile, in all that pertains to their personal status and property rights. The Confederation shall hy law make the provisions necessary for the application of this principle and for the prevention of double taxation of a citizen. AnT. 47. A federal law sliall establish the distinction between settlement and temporary residence, and shall at the same time make the regulations to which Swiss temporary residents shall be subjected as to their political rights and their civil rights. Art. 48. A federal law shall provide for the regulation of the expenses of the illness and burial of indigent persons amenable to one Canton, who have fallen ill or died in another Canton. Art. 49. Freedom of conscience and belief is inviolable. No person can be constrained to take part in a religious society, to attend religious in- struction, to perform a religious rite, or to Incur 591 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. BighU. CONSTI'llJTION: SWITZERLAND. fjcnalties of any kind wliutevcr on uccount of re- igious opinion. The person who exercises the parent's or (juardiiin's uutliority lias the right, conformably to the principles above stated, to regulate the religious education of children up to the age of sixteen completed years. The ex- ercise of civil or political rights shall not be abridged by any provisions or conditions what- ever of an ecclesiastical or religious kind. No person shall, on account of a religious belief, relea.se himself from the accomplishment of a civil duty. No person is bound to pay taxes of which the proceeds are specitlcally appropriated to the actual expenses of the worship of a relig- ious body to which he does not belong. The details of the carrying out of this principle are reserved for federal legislation. Art. 50. The free exercise of religious wor- ship is guaranteed within the limits compatible with public order and good morals. The Cantons and the Confederation may take suitable measures for the preservation of public o.der and of peace between the members of different religious bodies, and also against encroachments of ecclesiastical authorities upon the rights of citizens and of the State. Contests in public and private law, which arise out of the formation or the division of re- ligious bodies, may be brought by appeal before the competent federal authorities. No bishopric shall be created upon Swiss t< rritory without the consent of the Confederation. Art. 51. The order of the Jesuits, and the so- cieties affiliated with them, shall not be received into any part of Switzerland ; and all action in church and school is forbidden to its members. This prohibition may be extended also, by feaeral ordinance, to other religious orders, the action of which is dangerous to the state or disturbs the peace between sects. Art. 53. The foundation of new consents or religious orders, and the reSstablishment of those which have been suppressed, are forbidden. Art. 53. The civil status and the keeping of records thereof is subject to the civil authority. The Confederation shall by law enact detailed provisions upon this subject. The control of places of burial is subject to the civil authority. It shall take care that every deceased person may be decently interred. Art. 54. The right of marriage is placed under the protection of the Confederation. No limitation upon marriage shall be based upon sectarian grounds, nor upon the poverty of either of the eontractants, nor on their conduct, nor on any other consideration of good order. A marriage contracted in a Canton or in a foreign country, conformably to the law which is there in force, shall be recognized as valid throughout the Con- federation. By marriage the wife acquires the citizenship of her husband. Children born be- fore the marriage are made legitlma.e by the subsequent marriage of their parents. No tax upon admission or similar tax shall be levied upon either party to a marriage. Art. 55. The freedom of the press is guar- anteed. Nevertheless the Cantons by law enact the measures necessary for the suppression of abuses. Such laws are submitted for the ap- proval of the Federal Council. The Confedera- tion may enact "enalties for the suppression of press otienses r. .ted against it or its authorities. Art. 66. Citizens have the right of forming associations, provided that there be iu the pur- pose of such as-sociations, or iu the means which they emplov. nothing unlawful or dangerous to the state The Cantons by law take the meas- ures necessary for the suppression of abuses. Art. 57. The right of petition is guaranteed. Art, 58. No person shall be deprived of his constitutional judge. Therefore no extraordinary tribuunl shall be established. Ecclesiatical juris- diction is abolished. Art. 59. Suits for personal claims against a solvent debtor having a domicil'i iu Switzerland, must be brought before the judge of his dom- icile; in consequence, his property outside the Canton in which he is domiciled may not be at- tached in suits for personal claims. Neverthe- less, with reference to foreigners, the provisions of international treaties shall not thereby be affected. Imprisonment for debt is abo)ished. Art. 60. All the Cantons are bound to treat the citizens of tue other confederated States like those of their own State iu legislation and in all judical proceedings. Art. 61. Civil judgments definitely pro- nounced in any Canton may be executed any- where in Switzerland. Art. 62. The exit duty on property [traite foraine] is abolished in the Interior of Switzer- land, as well as the right of redemption [droit de retrait] by citizens of one Canton against those of other confederated States. Art. 63. The exit duty on properly is abol- ished as respects foreign countries, provided re- ciprocity be observed. Art. 64. The Confederation has power to make laws : On legal competency. On all legal questions relating to commerce and to trans- actions affecting chattels (law of commercial ob- ligations, including commercial law and law of exchange). On literary and artistic copyright. On the protection of new patterns and forms, and of inventions which are represented in models and are capable of industrial application. [Amendment of Dec. 20, 1887.] On the legal collection of debts and ou bankruptcy. The ad- ministration of justice remains with the Cantons, save as affected by the powers of the Federal Court. [Art. 65. {Abrogated by Amendment of June 20, 1870.) The death penalty is abolisJud ; nevertheless the provisions 0^ military law in time of war shall be <£served. dorporal punishment is abolished.^ Art. 65. [Amendment of June 20, 1819.] No death penalty shall be pronounced for a political crime. Corporal punishment is abolished. Art. 66. The Confederation by law fixes the limits within which a Swiss citizen may be de- nrived of his political rights. Art. 67. The Confederation by law provides for the extradition of accused persons from one Canton to another ; nevertheless, extradition shall not be made obligatory for political offenses and offenses of the press. Art. 68. Measures are taken by federal law for the incorporation of persons without country (Ileimathlosen), and for the prevention of new cases of that nature. Art. 69. Legislation concerning measures of sanitary police against epidemic and cattle dis- eases, causing a common danger, is included in the powers of the Confederation. Art. 70. The Confederation has power to expel from its territory foreigners who endanger the internal or external safety of Switzerland. 592 CONSTITUTION; SWITZERLAND. Federal COUHCU. CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. Chapter II.— Art. 71. Witli the n'serviition of tlio riglita of tlie people and of the (Jiintoiis (Articles 89 nnd 131), tlie supreme nuthoritj' of the Confederation is exercised by the Federal Assembly, [ Assembleo federale ; liundesvcrsamm- lung] which consists of two sections or councils, to wit: (A) The National Council. (B) The Council of States. AUT. 72. The National Council rConseil National ; Nationalrath] is comi)osed of repre- Bcntatives of the Swiss people, chosen in tlie ratio of one member for each 20,000 persons of the total j)opuIation. PYactions of upwards of 10,000 persons arc reckoned as 20,000. Every Canton, and in the divided Cantons every Ila'lf-Cunton, chooses at least one representative. Aht 73. The elections for tlie National Council arc direct. They are held in federal electoral districts, which in no case shall be formed out of parts of different Cantons. AuT. 74. Every Swiss who has completed twenty years of age, and who in addition is not excluded from the rights of a voter by the legis- lation of the Canton in which he is domiciled, has the riglit to vote in elections and popular votes. Nevertheless, the Confederation by law may establish uniform regulations for the exci'-ise of such right. Aht. 75. Every lay Swiss citizen who has the right to vote is eligible for membership in the National Council. AuT. 70. The National Council is chosen for three years, and entirely renewed at oach general election. AliT. 77. Representatives to the Council of States, members of til's Federal Council, and oRlcials appointed by that Council, shall not at the same time be membere of the National Council. AiiT. 78. The National Council chooses out of its own numlicr, for each regular or extraordinary session, a President and a Vice-President. A member who has held the ofllce of President during a regular session is ineligible either as Presiden*, or Vice-President at the next rej,'ular session. The same member may not be Vice- President during two consecutive regular ses- sions. When the votes arc equally divided tlic President has a casting vote; in elections he votes in the same manner as other members. Akt. 79. The members of the National Council receive a compensation out of the federal treasury. Art. 80. The Council of States [Conseil des Etats; Stttnderath] consists of forty-four repre- sentatives of the Cantons. Each Canton af oints two representatives; in tlie divided Cantons, each Half-State chooses one. Art. 81. The members of the National Coun- cil and those of the Federal Council may not be representatives in the Council of States. Art. 82. The Council of States chooses out of Its own number for each regular or extraordinary session a President and a Vice-President. Neither tlie President nor the Vice-President can be chosen from among tlie representatives of the Canton from which the President has been chosen for the regular session next preceding. Repre- sentatives of tlie same Canton cannot occupy the position of Vice-President during two con- secutive regular sessions. W^lien tlie votes are equally divided the President has a casting vote ; In elections he votes in the same manner as the other members. AitT. 83. Representatives in the Council of States receive a compensation from the Cantons. AuT. 84. The National Council and the Coun- cil of States consider all the subjects which the present Constitution places within the com- petence of the Cimfedenition, and which are not assigned to anv' other federal mitliority. AuT. 65. The subjects within tlii^ competence of the two Councils are particularly the t lUow- ing: 1. Laws on the organization of and election of federal authorities. 2. Laws and [ordinances on subjects which by the Constitution are placed within the federal competence. 3. The salary and compensation of members of the federal governing bodies and of the Federal Chancery ; the creation of federal olllccs and the determin- ation of salaries tlierefor. 4. The election of tlio Federal Council, of the Federal Court, and of the Chancellor, and also of the Commander-in-cliief of the federal army. The Confederation may by law a.ssign to the Federal Assembly other powers of election or of confirmation. 5. Alliances and treaties with foreign powers, and also the approval of treaties made by the Cantons between themselves or with foreign jiowers; nevertheless the treaties made by the Cantons shall be brought before the Federal Assembly only in case tlie Federal C'ouncil or another Canton protests. 6. Measures for external safety and also for the maintenance of the independenci; and neutrality of Switzerland; the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace. 7. The guaranty of the Constitution and of the territory of the Cantons ; intervention in consequence of such guaranty ; measures for the internal safety of Switzerland, for the maintenance of peace and order; amnesty and pardon. 8. Measures for the preservation of tlie Constitution, for carrying out the guaranty of the cantonal constitutions, and for fulfilling federal obligations. 9. The power of controlling the federal army. 10. The determination of the annual budget, the audit of public accounts, and federal ordinances author- izing loans. 11. The superintendence of fedenil administration and of federal courts. 12. Pro- tests against the decisions of the Federal Council upon administrative conflicts. (Art. 113.) 13. Conflicts of jurisdiction between federal autliori- tics. 14. The amendment of the federal Con- stitution. Art. 86. The two Councils assemble annually in regular session upon a day to be fixed by the standing orders. They are convened in extra session by the Federal Council upon the reciuest either of one fourth of the members of the National Council, or c f five Cantons. Art. 87. In cithc Council a quorum is a majority of the total number of its members. Art. 88. In the National Council and in the Council of States a majority of those voting is required. Art. 89. Federal laws, enactments, and reso- lutions shall be passed only by the agreement of the two Councils. Federal laws shall be sub- mitted for acceptance or rcj' ction by the people, if the demand is niiuie by 30,000 voters or by eight Cantons. The same principle applies to federal resolutions which have a genen;! application, and which are not of an urgent nature. Art. 90. Tlic Confederation shall by law establish the forms and intervals to be observed in popular votes. 593 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. Federal Council. CONSTITUTION : SWITZKHLAND. Art. 91. Members of either Council vote ■witlidut instnietidns. AuT. 93. Eacli Council takes action separately. But in the ease of the elections specified m Article 8.5, ^ 4, of pardons, or of deciding a con- flict of jiirisdiction (Art. 83, § 13), the two Coun- cils meet in joint session, under the direction of the President of tlic National Council, and a decision is made by the majority ot the members of both Councils present and voting. AuT. OH. Sleastires may originate in either Council, and may be introduced by any of their meml)crs. Tlie Cantons may by correspondence exercise the same right. AiiT. 04. As ar\de, the sittings of the Councils arc public. Akt. d'l. Tile si.preme direction and executive authority of tlie Confederation is exercised by a Federal Council [Conseil federal; IJundesrath], composed of seven members. AuT. 90. Tlie members of the Federal Council are chosen for three years by the Councils in joint session from among all the Swiss citizens eligible to the National Council. But not more than one member of the Fedeiid Coiuicil shall be chosen from the same Canton. The Federal Council is chosen anew after each election of the National Council. Vacancies which occur in the co\irse of the three years are filled at the first ensuing session of the Federal As.sembly, for the remainder of the term of otflce. AiiT. 97. The members of tlie Federal Coun- cil shall not, during their term of otlico, occupy any other ofllcc, either in the service of the Con- federation or in a Canton, or follow any other pursuit, or exercise a profession. Aut. 98. The Federal Council is presided over by the President of the Confederation. There is a Vice-President. The President of the Confederation and tlio Vice-President of the Fei. ' Council arc chosen for one year by the Federal Assembly from among the members of the Council. The retiring President shall not be chosen as President or Vice-President for the year ensuing. The same memlier shall not hold the office of Vice-President during two consecu- tive years. Art. 99. Tlie' President of the Confederation and the other members of the Federal Council receive an annual salary from the federal treasury. Art. 100. A quorum of the Federal Council consists of four members. Art. 101. The members of the Federal Coun- cil have the right to .^peak but not to vote in either house of the Federal Assembly, and also the right to make motions on tlie subject under consideration. Art. 102. The powers and the duties of the Federal Council, within the limits of tliis Con- stitution, are parMcularly the following: 1. it cond'"-'- federal affairs, conformably to the laws and resolutiu^j of the Confederation. 2. It takes care that the Constitution, federal laws and ordinances, und also the provisions of fed- eral concordats, be observetl; upon its own initiative or upon complaint, it takes measures necessary to cause these instruments to be ob- served, unless the consideration of redress be among the subjects which should be brought before the Federal Court, according to Article 113. 3. It takes care that the guarauty of the caQtoLil constitutions be observed. 4. It intro- duces bills or resolutions into the Federal Assembly, and gives its opinion upon the pro- posals submitted to it by the Councils or the Cantons. 3. It executes the laws and resolu- tions of the Conf deration and the judgments of the Federal Cou.t, and also the compromises or decisions in arbitration upon disputes between Cantons. 0. It makes tliose appointments which are not assigned to the Federal Assembly, Fed- end Court, or other authority. 7. It examines tlie treaties made by Cantons witli each other, or with foreign powers, and approves them, if proper. (Art. 85, § 5.) 8. It watclies over the external interests of the Confederation, particu- larly the maintenance of its international rela- tions, and is, in general, intrusted with foreign relations. 9. It watches over the external safety of Switzerlai.d, over tlie maintenance of inde- pendence and neutrality. 10. It watches over the internal safety of the Coiifeden\tion, over the maintenancij of peace and order. 11 In cases of urgency, and when the Federal Assem- bly is not in session, the Federal Council has power to raise the necessary troops and to employ tlicm, with tlie reservation that it shall immecliately summon the Councils if the number of troops exceeds two thousand men, or if they remain in arms more tlian iliree weeks. 12. It administers the military establishn.: r.t of the Confederation, and all other branches of admin- istration committed to the Confederation. 13. It examines such laws and ordinances of tlie Cantons a« must be submitted for its approval ; it exercises supervision over such departments ot the cantonal administration '"s are placed under its control. 14. It administers tlie finances of the Confederation, introduces the budget, and submits accounts of receipts and expenses. 15. It supervises the conduct of all the officials and employees of the fedend administration. 10. It f.ubmivs to the Federal Assembly at each regular session an account of its administration and a report of the condition of the Confederation, internal as well as external, and calls attention to the measures which it deems desirable for the promotion of the general welfare. It also makes spec lal reports when the Federal Assembly or either Council requires it. Art. 103. The business of the Federal Coun- cil is distributed by departments among its members. This distribution has the purpose only of facilitating the examination and despatch of business; decisions emanate from the Federal Council as a single authority. Art. 104. The Federal Council and Its de- partments have power to cad in experts on special subjects. Aut. 105. A Federal Chancery [Chancellcrio federale; Bundeskanzlei], at the head of which is placed the Chancellor of the Confederation, conducts tlie secretary's business for the Federal Assembly and the Federal Council. The Chan- cellor is chosen by the Federal Assembly for the term of three years, at the same time as the Fed- eral Council. The Chancery is under the special supervision of the Federal Council. A federal law shall provide for the organization of the Chancery. Art. 106. There shall be a Federal Court [Tribunal federal; Bundesgericht] for the ad- ministration of j ustice in federal concerns. Tliere shall be, moreover, a jury for criminal cases. (Art. 112.) CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. Frdrrnl Court. CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. AiiT. 107. The mcmliors iind nlterndtra of the Fi'ilcnil Court slmll be chosen by the Federal ^Vs- scmbly, which shall take care that all lliree iia- tioiiiil laugim^^es arc represented therein. A law sliall establisii the organization of the Federal Court and of its section.s. the number of iudges and alternates, their term of otHce, and their salary. Akt. 108. Any Swiss citizen eligible to the National Council may be chosen to the Federal Court. The members of the Federal Assembly and of the Federal Council, and ofHcials appointed by those authorities, shall not at the Siime timi! belong to the F'_'dcral Court. The members of the Federal Court shall not, during their term of olUce, occupy any other olHec, either in the service of tlie Confederation or in a "anton, nor engage in any other pursuit, nor practice a pro- fession. AiiT. 109. Tlie Federal Court orgi\nizes its own Chancery and appoints the offlcii'.is thereof. Akt. 110. The Federal Court has jurisdiction in civil suits: 1. Between the Confederation and the Cantons. 2. Between the Confedera- tion on one i)art and corporations or individuals on the otlier part, when such corporations or individuals are plaintills, and when the amount involved is of a degree of importance to ho determined l)y fedend legislation. 3. Between Cantons. 4. Between Cantons on one part and corporations • individiutls on the other part, when one of the par'ies demands it, and the amount in- volved is of !i degree of importance to be de- tennincd by federal legislation. It further has jurisdiction in suits concerning the status of persons not subjects of any government (heimath- losat), and the conflicts which arise between Com- miuies of difterent Cantons respecting the right of local citizenship. [Droit do cite.] AuT. 111. The Federal Court is bound to give judgment in other cases when both parties agree to abide by its derision, and when the amount involved is of a degree of importance tc be <Ieterinined by federal legislation. AuT. 113. The Federal Court, assisted by a jury to decide upon questions of fact, has crim- inal jurisdiction in: 1. Ca.ses of high treason against the Confederation, of rebellion or violence against federal authorities. 3. Crimes and mis- demeanors ogainst tlie law of nations. 3. Politi- cal crimes and misdemeanors \vK .h are the cause or the result of disturbances ivhich occasion armed federal intervention. 4. Cases against ollicials appointetl by a federal authority, where such authority relegates them to the Federal Court. Art. 113. The Federal Court further has juris- diction: 1. Overconflictsof jurisdiction betiween federal authorities on one part and cantonal au- thorities on the other part. 3. Disputes between Cantons, when such disputes are upon questions of public law. 3. Complaints of violation of the constitutional rights of citizens, and com- plaints of individuals for the violation of con- cordats or treaties. Conflicts of administrative jurisdiction are reserved, and are to be settled in a manner prescribed by federal legislation. In all the fore- mentioned cases the Federal Court shall apply the laws passed by the Federal As- sembly and those resolutions of the Assembly which have a general import. It shall in like iiianner conform to treoties which shall have been ratified by the Federal Assembly. Art. 114. Besides the C!i.ses specified in Arti- cles 110, U3, and 113, the Confederatiop may by law |)la(e other matters within the jurisdiction of the Federal Court; in particular, it may give to that court powers intended to insure the uniform ai)plication of the laws provided for in Article 64. AiiT. ll.">. All that relates to the locati(m of the authorities of the Confederation is a subject for federal legislation. Am". 110. The three principal languages spoken in Switzerland, German, French, and Italian, are national languages of the Confedera- tion. AuT. 117. The oHiclals of tlie Confederation are responsible for their i'onduct in ofilce. A federal law sliall enforce this responsibility. Chapter III. {{Them foiirnrtidfK abrogated by the four arlickn folloiping tliem, 118-123.) Art. 118. Tlie Federal Constitution may at any time lie amended. Art. 110. Amendment is secured through the forms required for passing federal laws. Art. 130. When either Council of the Federal Assemhly passes, a resolution for amendment of the Federal Constitution and the other Council does not agree; or when fifty thousand Swiss voters de- mand amendment, the question whether the Federal Constitution ought to l/e amendetl is, in either ease, submitted to a rote of the Swiss people, voting yes or no. If in cither ease the majority of the Siciss citizens who vote pronounce in the ajfirmatire, there shedl be a new election of both Corumlsfor the purjMisc of preparing amendnienl,-. Art. 121. The amended Federal Constitution shedl be in force when it has been adopted by the miij i'y of Siriss citizens who take part in the vote tliereon and by a majority of the States. In making np a majority if the States the vote of a, Ilalf-Canton is counted as half a rote. The result of tM popular vote in eimh Canton is considered to be the vote of the State. 1 Akt. 118. [Amemi)nentofJul,v 5, 1891.] The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended as a whole or ii: part. Art. 119. [Amemliwntof July r,, iSQl.] Gen- eral revision is secured through the forms re- quired for passing the federal laws. Art. 120. When eitlier Council of the Federal Assembly passes a resolution for general revision and the other Council does not agree ; or when fifty thousand Swiss voters demand general re- vision the question whether there shall be such a revision must, in cither case, be submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss people. If, in either case, the majority of the Swiss citizena who vote on the question pronounce in the afflr- mative, there shall be a new election of both Cou'icils for the purpose of preparing a general revision. Art. 131. [Amendment of July 5, 1891.] Spe- cific amendments may be brought forward either through a Proposition of the People [Volksanre- gung] (Initiative) or by Federal legislation. A. Preposition of the People means a demand sup- ported by fifty thousand Swiss voters, either for suspension, lopeal, or alteration of specified ar- ticles of the Federal Constitution. If by means of the method of Proposition of the People several different subjects are brought forwanl cither for alteration or for incorporation into the Federal Constitution, each one of those separate subjects must be presented in a separate demand 695 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. for n popular vote [Initiiilivbcgolirenl. Tlie <1<;- tntiiul for 11 ])cipiil!ir votu niiiy tiiko tlu; form «!tliL'r of II ri'(iia'st in gciicriil terms, or of ii detliiito (Iritft. If Huch a (iemiiiul be iiiiulu in the form of ii request in general terms and the Councils of the Federal As.sembly agree thereto, the said Councils shall thereupon prepare u specilic amendment of the purport indicated by those asking amendment; and such specitic amendment shall be submitted to the people and to the states for their acceptance or rejection. In case the Councils of the i ederal Assembly do j not agree thereto, the question of specific amend- ment shall then be subjected to the people for a ' popular vote; and in case the majority of the I Swiss voters vote therefor, an amendment of the ! purport indicated by the vote of the people shall then be i)rei)ared by the Federal Assembly. In case the re(iue8t shall take the form of a specific <lraft and the Federal Assembly agree thereto, the draft is then to bo submitted to the people and the States for acceptance or rejection. If the Federal Assembly shall not agree thereto it may either prepare a substitute draft for itself, or it may propose the rejection of the propo- sition. The proposition to reject such substi- tute draft or proposition shall be submitted to the vote of the people and of the States at the same time with the general Proposition of the People. AuT. 122. [Amendmentof July 5. ISOl.] The procedure upon the Proposition of the People and the popular votes concerning amendment of tlie Federal Constitution, shall be regulated in detail by a Federal Law. AuT. 123. [Amendment of Jul)/ 5, ISdl.] The amended FedemI Constitution or the specific amendments proposed, as the case may be, shall be in force when adopted by the majority of the Swi.ss citizens who take part in the vote thereon and by a majority of the Cantons. lu making up the majority of the States tlie vote of a half of each Canton is counted as half a vote. The result of the popular vote in each Cantou is considered to be the vote of the state. Temporary Provisions. Auticle 1. The proceeds of the posts and customs shall be divided upon the present basis, until such time ns the Confederation shall take upon itself the military expenses up to this time borne by the Cantons. Federal legislation shall provide, be- sides, that the loss which may bo occasioned to the finances of certain Cantons by the sum of the charges which result from Articles 20, 30, 36 (§ 2), and 42 (e), shall fall upon such Cantons only gradually, and shall not attain its full effect till after a transition period of some years. Those Cantons which, at the going into effect of Article 20 of the Constitution, have not fulfilled the military obligations which are imposed upon them by the former Constitution, or by federal laws, shall be bound to carry them out at their own e.xijcnse. AiiT. 2. The provisions of the federal laws and of the cantonal conconlats, constitutions or cantonal laws, which are contrary to this Con- stitution, cease to have eifect by the adoption of tlic Constitution or tlie ))ublication of the laws • for which it provides. AuT. 3. The new ])rovisiou8 ndating to the organization and jtirisdiction of tlie Fedend (.'ourt take eifect only after the publication of fedend laws tliercon. AiiT. 4. A tlelay of five years is allowed to Cantons for the establishment of fn-e instruction in primary public eciucation. (Ar . 27.) AiiT. 5. Those persons who p L'tice a liberal profession, ami who, before the publication of the federal law provided for in Article 33, have obtained a certificate of competence from a Can- ton or a joint authority representing several Cantons, may pursue that profession throughout the Confederation. AuT. 6. [Ameiuliiuitt of Bee. 22, 1885. For the rciiiiiinder of this amendment see article 32 ((■().] If a federal law for carrying out Article 32 (li) be passed before the end of 1890, the im- port duties levied on spirituous liquors by the Cantons and Commtines, accortiing to Article 38, cease on the going into effect of such law. If, in such case, the shares of any Canton or Com- mime, out of the sums to be divided, are not sufficient to equal the average annual net pro- ceeds of the ta.\es they have levied on spirituous liquors in tlie years 1880 to 1884 inclusive, the Cantons and Communes affected shall, till the end of 1800, receive the amount of the deficiency out of the amount which is to be divided among the other Cantons ace jrding to population; and the remainder only slmll be divided among such otiier Cantons and Communes, according to popu- lation. The Confederation shall further provide by law that for such Cantons or Communes as may suffer financial loss through the effect of this amendment, such loss shall not come upon them immediately in its full e.xtent, but gradually up to the year 1805. The indemnities thereby made necessary shall be previously taken out of the net proceeds designated in Article 32 (ii), paragraph 4. Thus resolved by the National Council to be submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss j)eople and of the Cantons. Bern, January 81, 1874. Ziegler, President. Sehiess, Secretary. Thus resolved by the Council of States, to be submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss people and of the Cantons. Bern, January 31, 1874. A. Kopp, President. J. -L. Lutscher, Sec- retary. CONSTITUTION OF TEE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. A. D. 1781.— The Articles of Confederation. See Unitkd States of A.m. : A. 1). 1777-1781, and 1783-1787. A. D. 1787-1789, and 1791-1870.— A sketch of tlu! history of tlie framing and adoption of the Federal Constitution of the United States will be found under United States of Am. : A. D. 1787, and 1787-1789. The .'ollowing text of the original instrument, with the subsequent amend- ments to it, is one i)rcpared by Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, and is the result of a careful com- parison witli tiie original manuscripts, preserved in the State Department at Washington. " It is intended to be absolutely exact in word, spelling, capitalization and punctuation. A few headings and paragraph numbers, inserted for convenience of reference, are indicated by brackets. " " Those parts of the Constitution which were temporary in 596 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. Congreu. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. their nature, or which linvo been siiperscdeil or altered by later amendments, are included witliin the signs [ ]." This text, originally j)riuted in the " American History Leaflets," is reprotlueed with Professor Hart's consent. The pumgrajjli- iug has been altered, to economize B|)ace, but it is otherwise exactly reproduced : " We TiiE People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Jus- tice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the genend Wel- fare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and es- tablish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article i. /Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall bo vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives, tkctioii 3 [§ 1.] The House of Representatives shall be com- posed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifl- cations requisite for Electors of the most numer- ous Branch of the State Legislature.* [§2.1 No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-tive Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. [^ 3.] Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, [which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Per- sons. If The actual Enumeration shall be made withm three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; [and until such enu- meration shall be made?, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massa- chusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virgmia ten. North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Glcorgia three. ]t [§ 4.] When vacancies happen in the Represen- tation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.^_[^5.] The House of Representa- tives sluilKpu^iiilieir Speaker and other Officers; and shall liaViTthe sole Power of Impeachment. Sections. [§ 1.] The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. [% 2.] Immediately after they shall be assembled m Consequence of the first Election, thc^y shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of • Modifled by Fourteenth Amendment. t Bupergeded by Fourteentb Amendment. i Temporary clause. [g 7.] Judgment in 11 not extend further the sixth Year, so that one third niuj- t)e chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, orotherwi.se, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointnu-nts until the next Meeting of the Legislature, whicli shall then fill such Vacancies, [t^ 3. | No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citi- zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. [55 4.] The Vice President of tl-e United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless thev be equally divided, [st 5.] Tlie Senate shall chuse their other OlUcers, and al.so a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice Presi- ilent, or when he shall exercise the Ollice of President of the United States. [^ 0.] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Im- peachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Allirmation. AVhen the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall presiile: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. Cases of Impeachment shalf than to removal from Oftice, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor. Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punish- ment, according to Law. tkctioni. [§ 1.] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be pre- scribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. [S 2.] The Congress shall assemble at least once ,in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Mondaj' in Decem- ber, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. tketion 5. [§ 1.] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifi- cations of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance gi absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. [§ 2. ] Each House may detenuine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence A two thirds, expel a ilember. ft^ 3.] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, except- ing such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. [§ 4.] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Con- sent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Housesshall be sitting. Section G. [§ 1.] The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascer- tained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, ex- cept Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attend- ance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; 597 CONSTITUTION: UNITKD STATES. Congrt,%. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. and for nny Speech or Pelmtc in I'itliiT Hoiisc, tliey shall not be ((Uestioiied in iiny other I'liue. [55 «. 1 No Senator or Kcpresentative shall, diir- iii); tlie Time for which he wa.s elected, be ap- pointed to any civil Olliee under the Authoritv of the United States, which shall have been create(l, or the Eniolurnents whereof shall have been in- creas<'d during such time; and no Person holding a7iy OUice under th(^ United States, shall bo a Member of either House during his (,'ontinuance in Olllce. tirtioiil. [g 1.] All Hills for raising Itevenie shall originate in the House of Kepre- sentat.ves; but the Senate may propose or concur with AiT'.;..diiients as on other IJills. f«5 3.J Ever/ Kill winch shall have passed the llouse of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objec- tions to that House in which it shall have origi- nated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Ucconsideration two thirds of that llouse shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and il aiiproved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Navs, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the ,Jour- nal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pre- sented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Keturn, in which Case it shall not be a Law. [§ 3.] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Con- currence of the Senate and House of Representa- tives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representa- tives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The CongreES shall have Power [§ 1.] To lay and col- lect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; [§2.] To bor- row Money on the credit of the United States ; [§ 3.] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; [^ 4.^ To establish an uni- form Rule of Naturahzation, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankrupt<iie8 throughout the United States ; [§5.1 To coin Money, regulate ♦,he Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the standard of Weights and Measures ; [§ 6.] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; [§7.1 To establish Post OfBces and post Roads ; [§ 8. J To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the [exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; [§ 9.] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; [| 10.] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; [§ 11.1 To declare War, grant Letters of Marepus and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; [^ 13.] To raise and sup- port Armies, b\it no Appropriation of iloney to that Use shall bo for a longer Term than two Years; [S 13.] To provide and maintain a Navy ; [^ 14.] To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces; [g 15.] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; [g 10. J To provide for or- ganizing, arming, ancl disci|)lining the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may bo employed in the Service of the United States, reservmg to the States resi)ectively, the Appoint- ment of the OIHccrs, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed l)y Congress; [i; 17.] To exercise ex- clusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles S()uare) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places i)urchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Slaga/.ines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other need- ftd Buildings; — And [S 18.] Tomakeall Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, an(l all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any De- partment or Otllcer thereof. Section 0. [§ 1.] [The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.]* [§ 3.] The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be sus- pended, unless when in Cases of Kebellion or In- vasion the public Safety may require it. [§3.1 No Bill of Attainder ^c ex post facto Law shall be passed. ■)■ [§ 4.] No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. [§ 5.] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. [§ 6.] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. [§ 7.] No Money shall be drawn frcm the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Re- ceipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. [§ 8.] No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind what- ever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State, t Section 10. [g 1.] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Let- ters of Marque and lieprisal ; coi:. Money ; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and • Temporary provisloD. t Extended by the first ei^t Amendments, t Extended by Ninth and Tenth Amendments. 598 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. „ Thf CONSTITUTION: Executive. UNITED STATES. silver Coin n Toruler in Piiynient of Dobts ; pnsa any Bill of AttiiiiukT, ex post fiicto Law, or I.aw impairing the Obli^'ation of Contracts, or grant any Title of N()l)iiity. [tj 2.] No State sliall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or E.\ports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Kxi)orts, shall be for the U.se of tlie Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws sliall be subject to the Kevision and Controul of the Con- gress, [g 3.] No State shall, without the Con- sent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact witli another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in \Var, \mless actually invaded, or in such immi- nent Danger as will not admit of delay.* Article II. Section!. [^ 1.] Tlie executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Oftiee during the Term of four Years, and, to- gether witli the Vice President, ciiosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows [^ 2.] Each State shall appoint, in sucli Manner as the Legis- lature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, e(iunl to the whole Number of Senators and Uepresentatives to wliich the State nniy be en- titled in tlie Congress: but no Senator or Kepre- seutj^tive, or Person liolding an Offlce of Trust or Profit under the United States, sliall be ap- pointed an Elector. [Tlio Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of tlie same State with tliemselves. And they sliall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of tlie Number of Votes for each ; wliicli List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of tlie United States, directed to tlie President of the Senate. The President of the Senate sliall, in the Presence of tlie Senate and House of Re- presentatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person hav- ing tlic greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Jlajority, and iiave an equal Number of Votes, then tlie House of Uopresentatives shall immediately cliiise by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House sliall in like Manner chuse the President. But in cliusing the President, tlie Votes shall be taken by States, tlie Representation from eacli State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a ^Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every (Jase, after tlie Choice of the President, the Person having tlie greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if tliere should re- main two or more who have equal Votes, tlie Senate shall cliuse from them by Ballot the Vice President Jl [§ 3.1 The Congress may deter- mine tlie Time of cliusing tlic Electors, and the Day on which 'ley shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same tliroughout the United •Extended by Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth AmendmentH. t Superseded by Twelfth Amendment. States. [§ 4.] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of till! Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Otllce of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Odlee who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and lieeu fourteen Years a liesident within tlie United States. [Sj 5.] In Case of tlu' Re- moval of the President from Ofilce, or of Ids Deatli, Resignation, or Inability to discliurge the Powers and Duties of tin; .said Ofilce, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the ("ongress may by Law provide for the t)ase of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice Presid<>nt, declaring what OlHcer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. [^ 0.] The President sliall, at stated Times, re- ceive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during tlie Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within tliat Period any other Emolument from the United Stales, or any of tliem. [g7.] Before he enter on the Execu- tion of his Ofilce, he shall take tli(! following Oath or Atllrmation: — " I do solemnly swear (or "afilrni) that I will faithfully execute the Ofilce "of President of tli(' United States, and will to "the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and " defend the Constitution of the United States." /Section 2. [S l.J Tlie President shall be Com- mander in Chief of tlio Armv and Navy of the United States, and of tiie Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of tlie United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal OfBcer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relat- ing to the Duties of their respective Olllces, and lie shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for OlTeuces against tlie United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. [>; 2.] He sliall have Power, by and with iXw. Advice and Consent of tlie Senate, to make Treaties, pro- vided two thirds of tlie Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Ad- vice and Consent of tlie Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- suls, Judges of the suiirenie Court, and all other Onicers of the United States, whose Appoint- ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which sliall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Otiicei-s, as they tliink proi)er, iu the President alone, iu the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. [^ 3.] The Presi- dent sliall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Sen- ate, by granting Commissicms wliich shall expire at the' End of their ne.vt Session. t>ectiou3. He shall from time to time give to tlie Congress In- formation of the State of the Union, and recom- mend to their Ctmsideration such Jleasures as ho shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or eitlier of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, witli Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; lie shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministei-s; he sliall take Care that the Laws be faithfully exe- cuted, and shall Commission all the Ollicers of the United States. Seotion 4. The President, 599 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. Ju,iiciarv. CONSTITUTION : UNITED STATES. Vioo PrcMldont and all civil Ofllcers of tlic Unlk'tl StatcH, Hliall !«■ removed from Ofllce on Impeacliiiient for, and Conviction of, Treason, Hril)ory, or otlier Ingli Crinios anil Misdcmean- orH. Article III. fiection 1. The judicial Power of the United StateH, Hliall Ik; vested in one su- premo Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. Tlie Judf;es, hoth of the supreme and Inferior Courts, sliall liold their Olliccs during go(Ml Iteliaviour, and shall, at slated Times, re- ceive for tiieir Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continunnce In OfHce. .'feWioii 2. [55 1.] The judicial Power 8hall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, tlio Litws of the United States, and Treaties nuide, or which sliull Ik! ma<le, under their Autliority; — to all Cases affecting Amba-ssadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and mari- time Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; — to Contro- versies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State ; * — between Citizens of dilTercnt States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. [S5 2.] In all Cases affecting Ambassa- dors, otlier public Ministers and Consuls, and those in wliiclx a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and tinder such Ucgulations as tiic Congress shall make. [§ 3.] The Trial of nil Crimes, except iu Cases of Impcacliment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been co.nmitted; but when not committed witliiu any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section 3. [§ L] Treason against tlie United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adher- ing to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Com- fort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. [S 2.] The Congress shall have Power to de- clare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attain- der of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Per- son attainted. Article IV. Section 1. Full Faith --.ud Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the JIaimer in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. [§ 1.] The Citi- zens of each State shall be entitled to all Privi- leges and Immunities of Citizens in the several Slat»;st [§ 3.] A Person chrrged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and bo found in anotlier State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. [§ 3.] [No Person held to Service * Limited by Eleventh Amendment, t Extended by Fourteenth Amendment. or LalKiur In one State, tinder the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Kegiilation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be de- livered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.]* Section 3. [j5 1.] New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, with- out the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of tlie Congress. [S 2.1 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Uules and Ucgulations respect- ing the Territory or otlier Property I>clonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitu- tion shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States sliall guar- antee to every State in this Union a llepubiican Form of Government, and shall protect each of tlien> against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. Article V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Conven- tion for proposing Amendments, which. In either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratifled by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that [no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand fight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the flvst and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section oi t'.ie first Article ; andlt that no State, without itii Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suff -age in the Sen- ate. Article VI. [§ 1.] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under tlie Confederation, t [§2.] This Consti- tution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwltlistanding. [§ 3.| The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Ofllccrs, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Goth or Aftlrmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Oflice or public Trust under the United States. Article VII. The Itatificution of the Conven- tions of nine States, sliall be sufBcient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. • &iipersedc<l by Thirteenth Amendment. tTeinporary provision. t Estf Dded by Fourteenth Amendment, Section 4. 600 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. AmendmmU. CONSTITUTION; UNITED STATES. DoNK in Convention by llio UnaniinnuH Con- gont of tilt' SUltt'g present tlu^ Seventeenth Day of September in tlie Yeiir of our Lonl one thou8»U(l Bevcn hundred and Eiglity seven and of tlio Independenec of tlie United States of America tlie Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our names. Qo Wasiiinoton — Presidt and deputy from Virginia. Dklawaub. Qco: Head John Dickinson Gunning Bedford iun Uielmrd Uassett Jaco: Broom New IIa.mi'8iiiue. Jolm Langdon Nicliolas Oilman Massachusetts. Nathaniel Ooriiam Hufus King MAUYIiAND. James Mcllenry Dan of St. Thos. Jenifer Danl Carroll Connecticut. Wm. Saml. Johnson Roger Sherman VmoiNiA. John Blair — James Madison Jr. New Yokk. Alexander Hamilton NouTii Cauomna. Wm. Blount Hichd. Dobbs Spaight Hu Williamson New Jehbey. Wil : Livingston Wm : Patcrson. David Brearley Jona : Dayton South Carolina. J. Uutledge, Charles Pinckney Charles Cotesworth Pierce Butler. Pinckney Pennsylvania. B Franklin Tlios. Fitz Simons Thomas Mifflin Jaa>d Ingcrsoll Robt. Morris James Wilson. Geo. Clymer Qouv Morris Geouoia. William Few Abr Baldwin * ARTICLES in addition to and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legis- latures of the several States, pursuant to the ttfth Article of the original Constitution, f [Article I.] Congress shall make no law re- specting an establisliment of religion, or pro- hibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the riglit of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievunces. [Article II.] A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. [Article III.] No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor ni time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. [Z'HclelV.] The riglit of the people to be Beci. 'icir persons, houses, papers, and effects, again. iisonable searches and seizure?, shall not be vio ed, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or afTlrm- ation, and particularly describing the place to • These signatures have no other legal force than that of attestation. tThis heading appears only in the joint resolution sub- mitting the first ten amendments. ^® 601 be searelicd, and the persons or things to Ih- seized. [Article V.] No persmi shall be held to answer for a capital, or otlierwiw^ infamous crinie, unless on a preHentmeiil or InrMctnient of a Grand Jury, except in eases arising in tlie land or naval forces, or in the Alilitia, when in actual service in time of War or publl<' danger; nor shall any person bo subject for tlu! same olTence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be com- pelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private i)roperly be taken for public use. without just comiiensation. [Article VI.] In all criminal prosecutions the accu.sed shall enjoy the right to u speedy and public tri il, by an imi)artial jury of the State and district wherein tlie crinie shall have been committed, which district shall ha e iM'en pre- viously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted witli the witnesses against liim; to have compulsiory process for obtaining witnes.ses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Coun- sel for his defence. [Article VII.] In suitsat common law, where the value in controvei'sy shall exceed twenty dcllai-s, the right of trial by jury shall be pre- se. ved and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, tlian according to the rules of the common law. [Article VIII.] Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines impo.sed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. [Article Ix.] The enumeration in tlie Con- stitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. [Article X.] The powers not delegated to the United States by tlie Constitution, nor |)rohibitcd by it to the States, are reserved to the States re- spectively, or to tlie people.* [Article XI.] The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prose- cuted against one of tlie United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State, f [Article XII.] The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whim, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in tlieir ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of tlie number of votes for each, wliich lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the Pres' lent of the Senate; — The President of the Sent vC shall, in tlie presence of the Senate and Hoise of Representatives, open all the certificates am' the votes shall th 'ii be counted; — The pel son having tlie greatest number of votes for President, sliall be the President, if such number * Amendments First to Tenth appear to have been in force from Nov. H, 1(91. [^e Vsiteu States or Am.: A. D. 1791.1 t Proclaimed to be in force Jan, 8, 1796. CONSTITUTION : UNITED 8TATE8. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. be a rimjorify of the whole number of RIcctoni itppoiiili'cl ; mill if III) iMTHoii liiivcNiii'li majority, tlit'ii froin tlie porsoiix liitviiiK the lii^lK'Ht niiiiilK'rx not (•Xd'cdin^ three on the lint of thoxe voted for im I'reHidciit, the House of Itepreselita- tiveH Hhall chiHiHc iiiiriieiliately, )iv liallot, the President. Hut in eliooKiiig the President, tlio vot<;.s shall be taken by Hlale.s, tlio representation from each state liavinii; one vote; ii i|Uorum for tills purpose shall consist of a memlMT or mem- bers from two thirds of the slates, and a majority uf all the states shall be necessary tu a choice. And if the House of Itepn^sentatlves shall not clioos*! a President whenever the ri^ht of choice sliall devolve upon tliein, before the fourth day of >Iarch next followinjf, then the VleePresi <lent shall act as President, as in the case of the <leatli or other constitutional disability of the President, — The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-I'resideiit, It such number lie a maiorlty of the whole nuiiiln r of Electors appointed, and if no person have a iiiujority, then from the two higliest numbers ou the list, tlic Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole uiimbcr of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. Uut no iierson constitutionally ineligible to the oHlce of •resident shall be eligible to that of Vice-Presi- dent of the United States.* Article XIII. Section \. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as u punishment for crime whereof the parly shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress sliall liave power to eulorco this article by appropriate legislation.! Article XlV. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United Stiites, and subject to tlio juri.sdiction thereof, are citizensof the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of tlie United Slates; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due jjrocess of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the eipial protec- tion of the laws. Section 3. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States ftccordlnff to their reapoctlvo numl)crn, counting the whole number of persons In each State, ex- cluding Indians not taxed. Miit when the right to vote at any election for the clioice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Heprescntatlves in Congress, the Execu- tive and Judicial otllcers of a Htiite, or the mem- bers of the Ix'gislat lire thereof, Is denied to any of the male Inhabltanls of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United Slates, or in any way abriilged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in tlic proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of mule citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 8. No |)erson shall be a Senator or Uepri'sentative in ('ongres.s, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any ofllco, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an olHcer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial olHcer of any State, to support the Con- stitution of the United St4itcs, shall have engaged 111 insurrection or rebellion again.st the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. Uu* Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove Biicli disability. Section 4. Tlie validity of the public debt of the United Slates, autliorized by law, including debts in- curred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. Hut neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrecti(m or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and clainis slii'.U be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Con- gress shall have power to enforce, by appropri- ate legislation, the jirovisions of this article.* Article XV. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridgetl by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition ofservitude, — SectionZ. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation." — f CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. The following text is taken from Bulletin No. 34 (if the Bureau of tiie American Republics: Article i. The States that the constitution of March 28, lri04, declared independent and united to form tlie Venezuelan Federation, and that on April 27, 1881, were denominated Apure, Boli- var, Barq_uislmeto, Barcelona, Carabobo, Co- jcdes, Cumana, Falcon, Guzman Blanco, Guii- rico, Qimyana, Ouzmiin, Jlaturin, Nueva Esparta, Portuguesa, Tacliini, Trujillo, Yaracuy, Za- inora, and Zulia are constituted into nine grand political bodies, viz : The Slate of Bermudcz, com- |)osed of Barcelona, Cumana, and Maturin; the State of Minmdo, composed of Bolivar, Ouzman ♦ Proclaimed to be In force Sept. 85, 1CM. •(• Proolalnietl to he in force Doc. IH, 1865. [See Untted States of Ah.: A. U. ItiUS (Januaby).] Blanco, Gufirico, and Nueva Esparta ; the State of Carabobo, composed of Carabobo and Nirgua ; the State of Zamorii, composed of Coiedes, Por- tuguesa, and Zumora; the State of Lara, com- posed of Barquisimeto and Yaracuy, except the department of Nirgua ; the Stiito of Los Andes, composed of Guzman, Trujillo, and Tdchira; the State of Bolivar, composed of Guayana and Apure ; the State of Zulia, and also the State of Falcon. And they are thus constituted to continue one only nation, free, sovereign, and independent, under the title of the United States of Venezuela. • Proclaimed to be in force July 88. IffM. [Bee UNmsD States ok Am.: A. D. 18«5-18()6 (Dkcbbbkr— April); 1800 (Ju.NK), and 186ft-1867 (October— March).] t Proclaimed to he In force Mar. 30, 1870, [See United States of Ah.: A. D. 1800-1870.] 602 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. Art. a. Till) IxiundftrloH of tliow! j^ri'iit Htntos an; di'tcrmliu'd by tlioiM! tlint tlio law of Anril 2H, IMO, tliikt iirriMiKi'd tlio liiHt tcrrltoriiil (llvUlon, <lefliKuiit('<l for tlioauclunt provinci-H until it hIiiiII Ik! rcfomit'<l. Art. 3. Tlic l)oiin(liirle» of tho United HtatPH of tlio Vcnc/.ucliin Ki'dcnition iin; llui HiuntMliitt In 1810 bt'loiigt'd to till! old ('iiptiiincydcncnd of VcnfZiiclu. Art. 4. Tho Stiitcs timt urc grouped to^jctluT to form tlic gmnd political IxmIIch will Ix; culled Sections. TlioHu arc ci|ual among tlicmsclvcH ; tho conNtitiitlons proscriliod for their internal organ- ism niiiHt be harmonloiiH with tho foderatlvo principles cHtabiislied by tlic present compact, and tho sovereignty not delegated resides In tlio Stato without any other llmitationN than tliost; that devolve from the eonipromiso of association. Art. 5. These are Venezuelans, viz: tst, All persons that may have been or may bo born on Venezuelan soil, whatever maybe the nationality of their parents; 2d, The children of a Vene- zuelan father or mother that may have been liorn on foreign soil, if they should come to take up their domicile In tho country an<l express the desire to become citizens; 3d, Foreigners that may have obtained naturalization papers; and, 4th, Those born or that shall be born In any of the .Spanish-American republics or in the Spanish Antilles, provided that they may have taken up their residence in tho territory of the liepiibiic and express a willingness to become citizens. Art. 6. Tiioso that take up their residence and acquire nationality in a foreign country do not lose the character of Venezuelans. , Art. 7. Males over twentyono years of ago arc qunlitled Venezuelan citizens, with only the eptions contained in this constitution. Art. 8. All Venezuelans are obliged to serve' the nation according to the prescriptions of the" laws, sacritlcing his property and. his life, If necessary, to defend the country. Art. 9. Venezuelans shall enjoy,' In all ' the States of tho Union, tho rights ami immunities Inherent to their condition as citizens of the Fed- eration, and tlicy shall also have Imposed upon them there the same duties that are required of those that are natives or domiciled there. Art. 10. Foreigners shall enjoy the samo civil riglits as Venezuelans and tho same security in their persons and property. Tliey can only take atlvantage of diplomatic means in accordance with public treaties and in cases when right per-_ mits it. Art. II. The law will determine tho right ap- filicablo to tho condition of foreigners, accord- ng as they may be domiciled or in transit. Art. 13. The States that form the Venezuelan Federation reciprocally recognize their respective autonomies ; they are declared equal in political entity, and preserve, in all its plenitude, tho sovereignty not expressly delegated in this con- stitution. Art. ij. The States of the Venezuelan Feder- ation oblige themselves — Ist, To organize them- selves in accord with the principles of popular, elective, federal, representative, alternative, and responsible goveniment; 2d, To establish tho fundamental regulations of their interior regu- lation and government in entire confonnity with the principles of this constitution; 3d, To defend thcinselves against all violence that threatens the sectional independence or the integrity of the Venezuelan Federation ; 4th, To not alienate to a foreign power any part of tlieir territory, nor to implore its protection, nor to establiHh or cul- tivate political or diplomatic relations with otlier nations, siiiiu' tills last Is reserved to the Federal power; 5tli. To not combine or ally themselves witli another natiim, nor to m-parate themselveii to the prejuillcc of the nationality of Venezuela and her territory; Otli, To cede to tho nation tho territory that may be necessary for tho Federal district; 7tii, To cede to tho Oovernment of tho Federation tho territory necessary for the erec- tion of forts, warehouses, sliipyards, and penl- tentiaries, and for the construction of other editlees indisnensidilo to the general administra- tion ; Htli, To leave to th(! Government of tho Federation the administration of the Amazonaa and Goajira territories and that of tho islanils which pertain to the nation, until it may be con- venient to elevate them to another rank; 9lh, To reserve to the powers of tho Federation all legis- lative or executive jurisdiction cimcerning mari- time, coastwise, and tluvlal navigation, and tlio national roads, considering as such those that exceed the limits of a State and lead to tlii! fron- tiers of others and to tho Federal district; 10th, To not s"')Ject to contributions the prcMliict.s or articles upon which national taxes are Imposed, or those that are by law exempt from tax lieforo they have been offered for consumption; lltli, To not impose contributions on cattle, elTccts, or any class of merchandise in transit for another State, in order that tralUc may bo absolutely free, and that in one section the consumption of others may not be taxed; 12th, To not prohibit the consumption of the products of other States nor to tax their productions with greater general or municipal taxes than those paid on pnxliicts raised In the locality; 13tli, To not establisli inaritime or territorial custom-houses for the col- lection of imports, since there will bo national ones only; 14tli, To recognise the right of each State to dispose of its natural prtMUicts; IStli, I To cede to tho Oovernment of the Federation the administration of mines, public lands, and salt mines, in order that the lirst may be regu- lated by a system of uniform working and that the latter may be applied to tho benetit of tho people ; 16th, To respect the property, arsenals, and forts of the nation; 17tli, To comjily with and cause to be complied witli and executed tho Constitution and laws of tho federation and tlio decrees and orders that the federal power, tho tribunals, and courts may expedite in use of their attributes and legal faculties; 18tli, To give entire faith to and to cause to bo comijlied witli and executed the public acts and juiticial procedures of the other States; 19th, To organ- ize their tribunals and courts for tlic administra- tion of justice in tlie State and to have for all of them the same substantive civil and criminal legislation and tlie same laws of civil and crimi- nal procedure; 20tli, To present judges for tho court of appeals and to submit to the decision of this supreme tribunal of tlie States; 2l8t, To incorporate the extradition of criminals as a political principle in tlieir respective Constitu- tions; 22d, To establisli direct and public suf- frage iu popular elections, making it obligatory and endorsing it in tlie electoral registry. The vote of the suffragist must be cast in full and public session of the respective board; it will be inscribed in the registry books that the 603 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUKLA. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. Inw pn'fH'rilx'H for clrrtlonit, which cim nut )h> RulmtlluU'il ill liny otliir form, iiiiil tint ch'ctor, fur hliiiiM'lf or liy luiotlirr lit liin r('<|iicHt In caiwt (if ini|MMliiiu'nt or tliroiiKh iKnonuit'c, will hI^ii the nicinoruiiiluni ciilrv of IiIh vote, iiiiil without IIiIh r)'i|ulHitr It ciui not lie cliiimcil tliiit In rciility iif iirl mury ciliu'iitionand that of iirtHiiiiil truilcH; 2'ttli, he hiiH voted; 'iM, To eHliililiiili ii HyHleni of To rcHervft to tlic powers of the Fcderiillon the liiWH nnd provlHlons neeeKsitry for the creiitloii, C'oniiorvation, iind ))ro);reHH of freneral hcIiooIn, colIegcH, or iinlverHltiis lU'Kljjned for tin; tench- IliK of thu M'leni'eit; 'iMt, Tu not Impose diitieH upon thi^ national eniployeR, exeept in the i|ual- ity of eitlzenH of theKtale and insoiniieh as these dutleH may not be Inronipatlblu with thu national piililie service ; 2(llh, To funilsh the |)roporlional coDtlnf(cnt that pertains to them to compose tho national piiblie forces in time of peace or war; 27th, To not iiernilt in the Ktates of the Pcdenitlon forced enllstnienis and levies thai liave or may have for their object an attack on liberty or Indeiicmlence or a (listurbiinee of the public order of the Nation, of other Htates, or of nnothiT Nation ; 28th, To jireservo u strict neu- trality in the contentions that may arise in otiier Btates; 20tli, To not declare or carry on war In any case, one Htnte with anolher; Soth, To de- fer and submit to the decision of tlie Congress or the High Federal Court in all the controversies that may arise between two or more Htates when they <'an not, between themselves and by pacific measures, arrive at an agreement. If, for any cause, they may not designate the arbiter to whose decision they may submit, they leave it, in fact, to the High Federal Court; ai.st, To recognize the competency of Congress and of the court of appeals to take cognizance of the causes that, for trea.son to the country or for the Infrac- tion of the Constitution nnd laws of the Fcdern- tlon, may be instituted against those that exer- cise executive authority in the Stat<.'s, it being their duty to Incoriiorato this precciit in their constitutions. In these trials the modes of pro- cedure that tho general laws prescribe will be followed nnd they will be tleclded in consonance w ith those luws ; 22d, To have as the just Income of the States, two-thinls of the total product of the Impost collected as transit tux in nil tlic custom- liouses of the Republic nnd wwo-thirds of that col- lected from mines, public lands, and salt mines administered by the Federal Power and to distrib- ute tills income nmoug all the States of the Fed- eration in proportion to the population of each ; 83d, To reserve to the Federal Power the amount of the third part of the income from transit tax, the production of mines, public lands, and salt mines, to be invested in the improvement of the country ; 34th, To keep far away from the fron- tier those individuals that, through politicnl motives, take refuge in a State, provided that the State interested requests it. Art. 14. The nation guarantees to Venezue- lans: Ist, The inviolal)illty of life, capital pun- ishment being abolished iu spite of any low that establishes it ; 2il, Proj)erty, jv.ith all its attri- butes, riglits and privileges, will only be sub- jected to contributions decreed by legislative authority, to judicial decision, and to be taken for public works after indemnity and condemna- tion; 3d, Tlic inviolability and secrecy of cor- respondence and other private papere ; 4th, The domestic bcartli, that can not be approached ex- cept to nrevi'nt tho perpetration of crime, and thiR itwli must Ix' done in accordance with law: fllh, Persona' lili'Tty, and conseiineiitly(l) forcx'd recruiting for jirnied service is abolished, (2) slav- ery is forever proscribed, (II) slaves that tread the soil of Venezuela arc free, and (4) nobody ts obliged to do that which llie law does not com- mand, nor is impeded from doihg that wliich It does not lirohlbit ; titli, The freedom of tlioiiglit, exiiressed by word or through the iiress, is with- out any restriction to be Mibmitteil to previous censun-. In cases of calumny or Injury or preju- dice to a third party, the aggrieved party sliall have every facility to have Ids complaints Inves- tigated before competent tribunnlH of justico in accoriiance with the common laws; 7tli, The llb- iTty of traveling without passport, to change the domicil, observing the legal formalities, and to depart from and return to the Hepnlilic, carry- ing olf and bringing back his or her property; 8tli, The liberty of industry and conseciuently the proprietorslil|) of discoveries and produc- tions. The law will assign to the proprietors a temporary privilege or the mixle of indemnity In case that the author agrees to Its publication; Oth, The liberty of reunion nnd assembling with- out nrnis, publicly or privately, the nuthorltles being iirohibited from exercising any net of in- spection or coercion; 10th, The liberty of peti- tion, with the right of obtaining action by reso- lution ; jietitlon can be made by any functionary, authority or corporation. If the petition shall be made In the name of various jiersous, the flrst five will respond for the authenticity of the sig- natures and all for the truth of the assertions; 11th, The lilK'rty of suffrage at popular elections without any restriction except to males under eighteen years of age; 12th, The liberty of in- struction w ill bo protected to every extent. The public power is obliged to establish gratuitoua instruction in primary schools, the arts, and trades; IStli, lUiiglous lllierty ; 14th, Individual security, and, therefore (1) no Venezuelan can bo imprisoned or arrested in punishment for debts not founded in fraud or crime ; (2) nor to lie obliged to lodge or quarter soldiers in his house; (3) nor to be judged liy special commissions or tribu- nals, but by his natural judges and by virtue of laws dictated before the commission of the crime or net to bo judged; (4) nor to be imprisoned nor arrested without previous summary iufonnation that a crime meriting corporal punishment has been committed, and a written order from the functionary that orders the imprisonment, stating the cause of arrest, unless tho person may bo caught in the commission of the crime ; (5) nor to be ploced in solitary confinement for any cause ; (6) nor to bo obliged to give evidence, in criminal causes, against himself or his blood re- lations within the fourth degree of consanguinity or against his relations by marriage within tho second degree, or against husband or wife; (7) nor to remain in prison wiien the reasons that caused the imprisonment have been dissipated ; (8) nor tc be sentenced to corporal punishment for more than ten years ; (9) nor to remain de- prived of liis liberty for political reasons when order is reestablished. Art. 15. Equality: in virtue of which (1) all must be judged by the very same laws and sub- ject to equal duty, service and contributions; (2) no titles of nobility, iiereditary honors, and distinctions will be conceded, nor employments 604 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZl'ET.A. CONflTITl'TION OP VfiNEZUELA. or offices llio MilnrloH or pmoliimcnts of wlilrli ('(mtlnup ftflcr tlm t^'nnlimlloii of ncrvic^o; (!l) no other ollW'iiil fiiilututiiiii tliati "citi/.cn " unit "you" will Im! ({Ivcii to cinployc'd atid corporii- tloiiH. The prc'si'iit. ciiiiminitiDii docM not Im- poNc upon till) Htatt'H tlic oliliKatiuM to ucconl other giiiirHiiteeN to their lnliiil)ltiuitH. Art. i6. The InwH In the HtalcM will prescribe peimltleH fortius liifractloiiH of thcHe K»arantees. eHtat)llslilnf; iiiodi'S of i)roee(lur(! to niuKe thetn elTectlve. Art. 17. Those who may issue, sign, or exe- cute, or order executed any decrees, orders, or resolutions that violate or in any manner infrlnj^e upon the j{uarante<>s accorded to Venezuelans are culpable and must be punished according to the law. Every citizen is empowered to IjrinKcliarKcs. Art. 18. Tlie National Lejjislature will l)e com- posed of two clinndK'rs, one of Senators and another of Deputies. Art. 19. The States will determine the mode of election of Deputies. Art. ao. To form tlie (!lmmber of Deputies, each State will name, by |>opular election In ac- cordance with paragraph 'i'i of Article liJ of tills (Jonstitution, on<^ Deputy for each thirty-five thousand inhal)ltants aiuf anotber for an excess not under fifteen tliousand. In tlie same man- nvx it will elect alternates in equal number to the principals. Art. 21. Tlio Deputies will liold olUce for four years, when tliey will 1)0 renewed in their en- tirety. Art. 2a. The prerogatives of tlie clinmber of I)ep\itie8 are: First, to examine the annual ac- count that the President of tlie United States of Venezuela must render; second, to pass a vote of censure of the Ministers of tlic Cabinet, in which event their posis will Ih; vacant; third, to hear charges against the persons in charge of the olHce of the Notional Executive for treason to tile country, for infraction of the constitution, or for ordinary crimes; against tlie ministers and other National eniployfis for infraction of tlio Constitution and laws and for fault in the dis- cliarge of tlieir duties according to article 75 of this constitution and of tiie general laws of the Uepuiilic. This attribute is preventative and neiJier contracts nor dimlnislies those that other authorities have to judge and punish. Art. 23. Wlien a charge is instituted by a Deputy or by any corporation or individual the following rules will be observed : (1) there will he appointed, in secret session, a commission of tiirec deputies; (2) the commission will, within tlirco days, render an opinion, declaring whether or not there is foundation for instituting a cause ; (3) the Chamber will consider tlie information and decide upon tlie cause by the vote of an ol)- soluto majonty of the members present, the accusing Deputy abstaining from voting. _ Art. 24. Tile declaration that there is founda- tion for the cause operates to suspend from office the accused and incapacitates liim for the dis- charge of any public function during the trial. Art. 25. To form this Chamber each State, tlirough its respective legislature, will elect three principal Senators and an "rual number of alternates to supply the vacu hat may oc- cur. Art. 26. To be a Senator it is ^ _ lA that he shall be a Venezuelan by birth anQ .nirty years of age. Art. 37. The ft-nBtom will occupy their po«t« for four vears and lie renewed in their I'ntirety. Art. a&. It Is tlie pn'rogative of tlie Senate to sii' - initiate and decide llie causes Initiated in till' Clianilier of Deputies. Art. ao. If tlie cause may not have been con cluiled (luring tlie seHKlons,"tlie Senate will eon- tinue aHsenililed for this purpose only until the cause is llnislied. Art. 30. The National Legislature will assem- ble on tlie aoth day of Fetiruiiry of each year or IIS soon thereafter as possilile at the capital of the United States without tlie necessity of pre- vious notice. Till' KeHsions will hiHt for seventy days to lie jirohmged until nimly days at the jiKlgiiient of the majority. Art. 31. The Cliamliers will open their bob- sions wltii twothirds of their iiumlier at least; and. In default of tills numl«'r, those present will assemble in preparatory ciinimission anil adopt measures for tlie concurrence of tlic ab- sentees. Art.3a. The sessions having lieen open-d, tliey may lie continued by twotliirds of those tiiat may liave Installed them, provided that the num- bcT be not less than liiilf of all tlie memliers elected. Art. 33. Altliough tlio Chamliers deliberate separately, they may assemble together In the Congress wlien the constitution and laws proviile for It or wlien one of the two Chamtiers may deem it n(!eessary. If tlie Cliamlier that is in- vited sliall agree, it remains to it to fix tlie day and the Iiour of the joint session. Art. 34. Tiie sessions will be public and secret at the will of tlie Chamber. Art. 35. The Chamliers liave the right: (1) to make rules to be observed in tlie sessions and to regulate the detiates; (2) to correct infractors; (!)) to estalilish the police force in tlic hall of ses- sions; (4) to punish or correct spectators who cre- ate disorder ; (.')) to remove the obstacles to the free exercise of their functions : (6) to command tlie execution of tlieir private resolutions ; (7) to judge of the ((uoliHcations of their members and to consider their resignations. Art. 36. One of the Chambers cannot suspend Its sessions nor change its place of meeting with- out the consent of tlie otlier ; in case of disagree- ment tliey will reassemble together and execute that which tiie majority resolves. Art. 37. Tiie exerci.se of any other pulilic func- tion, during tiie sessions, is incompatible with tliose of a Senator or Deputy. The law will specify tlie remunerations that the members of the national Legislature sliall receive for their services. And whenever an increase of said re- munerations is decreed, the law that sanctions it will not begin to be in force until the following period when the Chambers tliat sanctioned it shall have been renewed in their entirety. Art. 38. Tlie Senators and Deputies shall en- joy immunity from tlio 20th day of January of eacli year until thirty days after the close of the sessions and this consists in the suspension of all civil or criminal proceeding, whatever may be its origin or nature ; when any one shall perpetrate an act that merits corporal piinisii- ment the investigation sliall continue until the end of tlie summing up and shall remain in tuis stoto wliile the term of immunity continues. Art. 30. The Congress will be presided • over iPn ■ ■ • - by the President of tlie Senate and tho presiding 605 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. oflBcpr of the Chamber of deputies will act as Vice-President. Art. 40. The members of the Chambers are not n-spousible for tlie opinions tliey expres-s or the discourses tliej' pronounce in session. Art. 41. Senators and deputies that accept of- fice or commission from the National E.xecutivo thereby leave vacant the posts of legislators in the Chamlwrs to which they were elected. Art. 43. Nor can senators and deputies make contracts with the general Govemmcut or con- duct the prosecution of claims of others against it. Art. 43, The National Legislature has the fol- lowing prerogatives: (1) to dissolve the contro- versies that may arise between two or more States; (3) to locate the Federal District in an unpopulated territory not exceeding three miles square, 'vhere will be constructed the capital city of the Republic. This district will be neu- tral territory, and no other elections will be there held than those that ' :iw determines for the locality. The distric; ill be provisionally that which the consvitueni assembly designated or that which the National Legislature may designate; (3) to organize everythmg relating to the custom-houses, whose income will constitute the treasure of the Union until these incomes are supplied from other sources; (4) to dispose in everything relating to the habitation and security of ports and seacoasts; (5) to create and organize the postal service and to fix the charges for transportation of correspondence ; (6) tc form the x.ational Codes in accordance with paidgraph 19, article 13 of this Constitution ; (7) to fix the value, type law, weight, and coinage of national money, and to regulate the admission and circulation of foreign money ; (8) to designate the coat-of-arms and the national flag which will be the same for all the States ; (9) to create, abolish, and fix sala- ries for national offices; (10) to determine every- thing in relation to the national debt; (11) to contract loans upon the credit of the nation; (l!i) to dictate necessary measures to perfect the cen- sus of the current population and the national statistics; (18) to annually fix the armed forces by sea and land and to aictate the army regula- tions ; (14) to decree rules for the formation and substitution of the forces referred to in the pre- ceding clause; (15) to declare war and to require the National Executive to negotiate peace ; (16) to ratify or reject the contracts for national pub- lic works made by the President with the ap- proval of the Federal Courcil, without which requisite they will not be cai'' i into effect; (18) to annually tix the estimates tor public expenses; (19) to promote whatever conduces to the pros- perity of the country and to its advancement in the general knowledge of the arts and sciences; (20) to fix and regulate the national weights and measures; (21) to grant anmesties; (22) to estab- lish, under tlie names of territories, sptjial regu- lations for the government of regions inhabited by unconquered and uncivilized Indians. Such territories will be under the immediate super- vision of tlio Executive of the Union; (23) to establish the motles of procedure and to desig- nate the penalties to be imposed by the Senate in the trials originated in the Chamber of Depu- ties ; (24) to increase the basi j of population for the election of deputies; (25) to permit or refuse the admission of foreigners into the service of the Republic ; (26) to make laws in respect to re- tirements from the military service and army pensions ; (27) to dictate the law of responnibility on the part of all national employes and thosa of the States for infraction of the constitution and the general laws of t'uu Union; (2b) to de- termine the mo<le of conceding military rank or promotion ; (29) to elect the Federal Council pro- vided for in this constitution and to convoke the alternates of the senators and deputies who may have been chosen for it. Art. 44. Besides the preceding enumeration the National Legislature may pass such laws of gen- eral character as may be necessary, but in no case can they be promulgated, much less exe- cuted, if they conflict with this constitution, which defines the prerogatives of the public powers in \ enezuela. Art. 45. The laws and decrees of the National Legislature may be proposed by the members of either chamber, provided that the respective projects are conformed to the rules established for the Parliament of Venezuela. Art. a6. After a project may have been pre- sented, it will be read and considered in order to be admitted ; and if it is, it must undergo three discussions, with an interval of at least one day between each, observing the rules established for debate. Art. 47. The projects approved in the chamber in which they were originated will be passed to the other for the purposes indicated in the preceding article, and if they are not rejected they will be retuiued to the chamber whence they originated, with the amendments they may have under- gone. Art. 48. If the cham'ier of their origin does not agree to the amrndi. ents, it may insist and send Its written reasons to the other. They may "so ussf lie together in Congress and deliber- ate, in ler;)'. commission, over the mo<le of agrpome. but If this can not be reached, the project w. ' bi; of no effect after the chamber of its origin sepi. atcly decides upon the ratification of i'^ iDsistenca. Art. 49. Upon the passing of the projects from cue to the other chamber, the days on which they have been discussed will be stated. Art. so. The law reforming onother law must be fully engrossed and the former law, in all its parts, will be annulled. Art. SI. In the laws this form will be used: "The Congress of the United States of Venezuela decrees." Art. 52. The projects defeated in one legisla- ture cannot be reintroduced except in another. Art. 53. The projects pending in a chamber at the close of the sessions must undergo the same three discussions in succeeding legislatures. Art. S4. Laws are annulled with tlie same for- malities established fo. their sanction. Art. SS- When the ministers of Cnbinet may have sustained, in a chamber, the unconrMtutlon- ality cf a project by word or in writing, and, notwithstanding this, it inay have been sanctioned as law, the National Executive, with the affirma- tive vote of the Federal Council, will suspend its execution and apply to the legislatures of the States, asking their vote in the matter. Art. s6. In case of the foregoing article, each State will represent one vote expressed by the majority of the members of the legislature pres- ent, and the result will bo sent to the High I ed- eral Court in this form: "I confirm" or "I .'e- ject." 606 CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. Art. 57. If a majority of the legislatures of the Bt<ite8 agree ■with the Federal Executive, the Iliffh Federal Court will confirm the suspension, and the Federal Executive himself will render an Bccouni. to the next Congress relative to all that has hcen done in the matter. Art. 58. The laws will not be observed until after being published in the solemn form estab- lished. Art. so. The faculty conceded to sanction n Jaw is not to be delegated. Art. 60. No legislative disposition will have a retroactive effect, except in matters of judicial procedure and that which 'mposes a lighter pen- alty. Art. 61. There will be a Federal Council com- posed of one senator and one deputy for each State and of one more deputy for the Federal District, who will be elected by the Congress each two years from among the respective repre- sentations of the States compo-iing tlie Federation and from that of the Federal District. TJiis election will take place in the first fifteen days of tlie meeting of Congress, in the first and third year of the constitutional period. Art. 62. The Federal Council elects from its members the President of the United States of Venezuela, and in the same manner the person who sliall act in his stead in case of his temporal or per- manent disability during his term. The electic of a pers^v ■ '■ V;" President of the United States or Vcneruc.H who is not a member of the Federal Council, as well as of those who may have to act in his stead in case of Ids temporal or permanent disabili*y, is null of right and void of efficacy. Art. 63. The members of the Federal Council hold office for two vears, the same as the Presi- dent of the United States of Venezuela, whose term is of equal duration; and neither lie nor they can be reelected for the term immediately succeeding, although they may return to occupy their posts as legislators in the chambers to which they belong. Art. 64. The Federal Council resides in the district and exercises the functions prescribed in this constitution. It cannot deliberate with less tunn an absolute majority of all its members; it dictates the intorfci ic^-,alations to be observed in its deliVierations, and annually appoints the person who shall preside over its sessions. Art. 65. The prerogatives of the President of Venezuela are: (1) To appoint and remove the cabinet ministers; (2) to preside over the cabinet, in wliose discussions he will have a vote, and to '"nforra the Council of all the matters that refer ti> the General Administration; (3) to receive and Wv.)como public ministers; (4) to sign the official lettirs to the Sovereigns or Presidents of other cnur. tries; (5) to order the execution of the laws and decrees of the National Legislature, and to take care that they arc complied with and exe- cuted; (6) to promulgate the resolutions and de- crees that may have been jiroposcd and re eived the approbation of the Federal Council, jn con- formity with article 66 of this constitution ; (7) to organize the Federal District and to act there- in as the chief civil an 1 political authority estab- lished by this constitution ; (8) to issue registers of navigation to national vessels; (9) to render an account to Congress, within the first eight (' ya of its annual session, of the cases in which, • ;th the approval of the Federal Council, he my have exercised all or any of the faculties aceo .-ded to him in article 66 of this compact; (10) to dis- charge the other functions that the national laws entrust to him. Art. 66. Besides the foregoing prerogatives, that are personal to the president of the United States of Venezuela, he can, with the deliberate vote of the Federal Council, exercise the follow- ing: (1) To protect the Nation from all exterior attack ; (3) to administer the public lands, mines, and salt mines of the States as their delegate ; (8) to convoke the Nationa. IjCgislat'-re in its regu- lar sessions, and in extraordinary session when the gravity of any subject demands it' (4) to nominate persons for diplomatic positions, con- suls-general, and consuls; those named for the first and second positions must be Venezu- elans by birth ; (5) to direct negotiations and cele- brate all kinds of treaties with other nations, submitting these to the National Legislature; (6) to celebrate contracts of national interest in accordance with the laws and to submit them the legislatures for their approval ; (7) to nomin- ate the employes oi hacienda, wliich nominations are not to be made by any other authority. It is required that these employes shall be Vene- zuelan by birth ; (8) to remove and suspend em- ployes of his own free motion, order.ng them to be tried if there should be cause for it; (9) to declare war in the name of the Republic when Congress shall have decreed it; (10) in the case of foreign war he can, first, demand from the States the assistance necessary for tlie national defense; second, require, in anticipation, the contributions and iiegotiate the loans decreed by the National Legislature ; third, arrest or expel pevsons who pertain to the nation with which war is carried on and who may be opposed to the defense of the country; fourth, to suspend the giiarauties that may be incompatible with the defense of the country, except that of life ; fiftli, to select the place to which the General Power of the Federation may be provisionally translated when there may be grave rea&ons for it; sixth, to bring to trial for treason to the country those Venezuelans who may be, ir any manner, hostile to tlie notional defense; seventh, to issue registers to corsairs and privateers and to prescribe the laws that they must observe in cases of capture; (11) to employ the public force and the powers containcc' in numbers 1, 2, and 5 of the preceding clause with the object of rees- tablishing constitutional order in case of armed insurrection against the institutions of the Nation ; U2) to dispose of the public force for the pur- pose of quelling every anned collision between two or more States, requiring them to lay down their arms and submit their controversies to the arbitration to whicli they arc pledged by num- ber 30, article 14 of this constitution; (13) to direct the war and to appoint tlic person who filiall command tlie army; (14) to organize the national force in time of peace ; (15) to concede general or particular exemptions; (!6) to defend the territory designat'^d for the Federal District when there may be reasons to apprehenc. that it will be invaded by hostile forces. Art. 67. The President of the United States of Venezuela shall have the ministers for his cabinet that the law designates. It will determine their ianctions and duties and will organize their bureaus. Art. 68. To be a minister of the cabinet it is required that the person shall be twenty-five 607 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. years of oge, aVenezuelan by birth or live years of naturahzation. Art. 69. Tlie ministers are the natural and proper organs of the President of tlie United States of Venezuela. All his acts must be sub- scribed by them and witliout such requisite they will not be complied with nor executed by the authorities, employees, or private persons. Art. 70. A", tlie acts of the^ministers must be conformed to this Constituti(m and tlie laws ; their personal responsibility is not saved, althougli they may Jiave the written order of the President. Art. 71. Tlic settlement of all business, except the fiscal affairs of the bureaus, will bo deter- mined in the council of ministers, and their re- sponsibility is collective and consolidated. Art. 72. The ministers, witliin the Ave tirst sessions of each year, will render an account to the Chambers of wliat they may have done or propose to do in their respective branches. Tliey will also render written or verbal reports tliat may be requested of tliem, reserving only that which, in diplomatic affairs, it may not be con- venient to publish. Art. 73. Within the same period, tliey will present to the National Legislature the estimates of public expenditures and the general account of the past year. Art. 74. The ministers have the right to be heard in the Chambers, and are obliged to attend wJicn they may be called upon for information. Art. 75. The ministers are responsible : (1) for treason to th.e country ; (3) for infraction of this Constitution or the Ism's; (3) for malversation of the public funds; (4) for exceeding the estimates in their expenditures; (5) for subornation or bribery in the affairs under their charge or in the nominations for public employees ; (6) for failure in compliance with the decisions of the Federal Council. Art. 76. The High Federal Court will be com- posed of as many j iidges as there may be States of the Federation and with the following quali- ties: (1) A judge must be a Venezuelan by birth; (2) he must be thirty years of age. Art. 77. For the nomination of judfjes of the High Federal Court the Congress wi . convene on the fifteenth day of its regular sessions and wih proceed to group together the representation of each State from which to form a list of as many candidates for principal judges and an equal number of alternates as there may be States of the Federation. The Congress, in the same or following session, will elect one principal and one alternate for each State, selecting them from the respective lists. Art. 78. The law will determine the different functions of tlie judges and other officers of the High Federal Court. Art. 79. The judges and their respective alter- nates will hold olfice for four years. The princi- pals and their alternates in oiiice can not accept during this period any office in the gift of the executive without previous resignation and law- ful acceptance. The infraction of this disposition will be pupished wltli four years of disability to hold public oliice in Venezuela. Art. 80. Tlie matters within the competence of the High Federal Court an : (1) to talie cogni- zance of civil or criminal causes that may be in- stituted against diplomatic officers in those cases permitted by the law of nations; (2) to talie cog- nizance of causes ordered by the President to be instituted against cabinet ministers when they may be accused according to the ca'-cs provided for in this Constitution. In the matter of the necessity of suspension from office, they will re- quest tlie President to that effect and he will com- ply ; (•!) to have jurisdiction of the causes of re- sponsibility instituted against diplomatic agents accredited to another nation for the wrong dis- chiirge of their functions ; (5) to have jurisdiction in civil trials when the nation is defi.'ndant and the law sanctions it; (C) to dissipate the contro- VL-sies ti.at may arise between the officials 01 different States in political order in the matter of jurisdiction or competence; (7) to take cogni- zance of all matters of political nature that the States desire to submit for tlieir consideration; (8) to declare whioli may be the law in force when the national and State laws may be found to con- flict with each otlier; (9) to have jurisdiction in the controversies that may result from contracts or negrtiations celebrated by the president of the federation; (10) to have jurisdiction in causes of imprisonment; (11) to exercise otlier prerogatives provided for by law. Art. 81. The Court of Appeals referred to in paragraph 20, article 13 of this Constitution, is the tribunal rf the states ; it will be composed of as many judges as there are states of the federa- tion, and their terms of office will last for four years. Art. 82. A judge of tlie Court of Appeals must have the following qualitications : (1) he must be an attorney at law in the exercise of his profession, and must have had at least six years practice; (2) he must be a Venezuelan, thirty years of age. Art. 83. Every four years the legislature of each State will form a list of as many attorneys, with the qualifications ex))i 'ssed in tiie preceding article, as there are States, and will remit it, duly certified, to the Federal Council in order that tliis body, from the respective lists, may select a judge for each State in the organization of this high tribunal. Art. 84. After the Federal Council may have received the lists from all the States, it will pro- ceed, in public session, to verify the election; forming thereafter a list of the attorneys not elected, in order that from this general list, which will be published in the official paper, the per- manent vacancies that may occur in the Court of Appeals may be filled by lot. The temporary vacancies will be filled a ocording to law. Art. 85. The Court of Appeals will have the following prerogatives: (1) to take cognizance of criminal causes or those of responsibility that may be instituted against the high functionaries of the different States, applying the laws of the States themselves in matters of resyonsibility, and in case of omission of the promulgation of a law of constitutional precept, it will apply to the cause in question the general laws of the land; (2) to take cognizance and to decide in cases of appeal in tlie form and terms directed by law ; (3) to annually report to the National Legislature the difficulties that stand in tlie way of uniformity in the r .tter of civil or criminal legislation; (4) to dispose of the rivalries that may arise between ♦he officers or functionaries of judicial order in the different States of the federa- tion and amongst those of a single State, pro- vided that the authority to settle them does not exist in the State. 608 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. Art. 86. The National Executive is c::erriscd by tlie Federal Council, tlie President of tlie United States of Venezuela, or tlic person wlio fllla his vacancies, in union witli tlie cabinet niiu- istijrs who are his organs. Tlie President of Venezuela must be a Venezuelan by birth. Art. 87. Tlic functions of National Executive can not be exercised outside of the federal district except in the case provided for in number 5, para- grajjli 10, article 60 of tlie Constitution. When the President, with tlie ajiproval of tlie Council, shall take command of tlie army or absent Iiim- self from the district on account of matters of public interest tliat deinund it, he can not exercise any functions and will be replaced by tlie Federal Council in accordance with article 03 of this Con- stitution. Art. 88. Everything that may not be expressly assigned to the general administration of the na- tion in this Constitution is reserved to the States. Art. 89. Tlie tribunals of justice in the States are independent; the causes originated in them will be concluded in the same States without any other review than that of the Court of Appeals in the eases provided for by law. Art. 90. Every act of Congress and of the National Executive that violates the riglits guar- anteed to tlie States in this Constitution, or tluit attacks their independence, must be declared of no effect by the High Court, provided that a ma- jority of the legislatures demands it. Art. 91. The public national force is divided into naval and land troops, and will be composed of the citizen militia that the States may organize according to law. Art. 92. Tlie force at the disposal of the federa- tion will be organized from citizens of a contin- gent furnislied by each State in proportion to its population, calling to service those citizens that should render it according to tlieir internal laws. Art. 93. In case of war the continger.t can be augmented by bodies of citizen militia up to tlio number of men necessary to till the draft of the National Government. Art. 94. The National Government may change the eommanders of the public force supplied by the States in ilie cases and witli the formalities provided for in the national military law and then their successors will be called for from the States. Art. 95. The military and civil authority can never be exercised by the same person or corpo- ration. Art. 96. The nation, be'ng in possession of the right of ecclesiastical patronage, will exercise it as the law upon the subject may direct. Art. 97. The Government of the Federation will have no other resident employees with juris- diction or authority in the States than those of the States themselves. The officers of hacienda, those of the forces that garrison national for- tresses, arse uals created by law, navy-yards, and habilitated ports, that only have jurisdiction in matters peculiar to their respective offices and witliin the limits of the forts and quarters that thcj command, are excepted; but even these must be subject to tlie general laivs of the Sirite in which they reside. All the elements of wf now existing belong to the National Government ; nevertheless it is not to be understood that the States are prohibited from acquiring those that tliey may need for domestic defense. Art. 98. The National Govcrmient can not station troops nor military otflcers with command in a State, although they may be from that or another State, without permission of the govern- ment of the State in which tlie force is to bo stationed. Art. 99. Neither tlie National Executive nor those; of tlic States can resort to armed interven- tion in the domestic contentions of a State ; it is only permitted to them to tender their good offi- ces to bring about a pacific solution in the case. Art. 100. In case of a permanent or temporary vacancy in the office of Presi<ient of the United States of Venezuela, the States will be immedi- ately informed as to wlio lias supplied the va- cancy. Art. 101. Exportation in Vehezuela is free and no duty can be placed upon it. Art. 102. All usurped authority is without effect and its acts are null. Every order granted for a requisition, direct or indirect, by armed force or by an assemblage of people in subversive attitude is null of right and void of efficacy. Art. 103. The exercise of any function not con- ferred by tlie c. institution or laws is prohibited to every corpora.'iou or autliority. Art. 104. Any citizen may accuse the em- ployees of the nation or tlie States before the chamber of deputies, before their respective su- periors in office, or before tlie authorities desig- nated by law. Art. 105. No payment shall be made from the National Treasury for which Congress lia.s not expressly provided in tlie annual estimate, and tliosc tliat may infringe this rule will be civilly responsible to the National Treasury for the sums they have paid out. In every payment from tlio public Treasury the ordinary expenses will bo preferred to the extraordinary charges. Art. 106. The ollicesof collection and disburse- ment of the national taxes shall be always separ- ate, and the officers of collection may disburse only tlie salaries of their respective employees. Art. 107. When, for any -cason, the estimate of appropriations for a fiscal period liave not been made, that of the immediately preceding periud will continue in force. Art. 108. In time of elections, the public na- tional force or that of tlie States themselves will remain closely quartered during the holding of popular elections. Art. 109. In international treaties of commerce and friendship tiiis clause will be inserted, to wit: " all the disagreements between the contracting parties must be decided witliout an appeal to war, by the decision of a powei or friendly powers." Art. no. No individual can hold more tlian one office within the gift of Congress and tlie National Excutive. The acceptance of any otlier is equivalent to resignation of the first. Officials that are removable will cease to liold office upon accepting the cliar^e of a Senator or Deputy when they are dependents of the National Executive. Art. III. The law will create and designate other national tribunals that may be necessary. Art. 112. National oflieers can not accept gifts, commissions, honors, or emoluments from u for- eign nation without permission from the National Legislature. Art. 113. Armed force can not deliberate ; it is passive and obedient. No armed body can make requisitions nor demand assistance of any kiinl, but from the civil authorities, and in the mode and form prescribed by law. 609 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. CONSUL. Art. 114. Tlie Nation and the Stntt's will pro- mote foreign immigration and eolonizntioa inac- corilancc with their respective laws. Art, ii5. A law will regulate the manner in which national ofllccra, upon taking charge of their posts, shall ta^.c the oath to comply with their duties. Art. 116. The National Executive will negoti- Bte with the Ooveranients of America over treaties of alliance or confedenition. Art. 117. The law of Nations forms a part of the National Legislation ; its dispositions will bo Bpecially in force in cases of civil war, which can bie terniuiated by treaties between the belligerents ■who will have tOTCspect the humanitarian cus- toms of Christians and civilized nations, the guarantee of life being, in every case, inviolable. Art. Ii8. Tliis constitution can be reformed by the National Le^'islaturc if the legislatures of the States desire it, but there shall never be any reform except in the jiarts upon which the ma- jority of the St'ites coincide ; also a reform can be made upon one or more points when two- thirds of the members of the National Legisla- ture, deliberating separately and by the proceed- ings established to sanction the laws, shall accord it; but, in this second case, the amendment voted shall be submitted to the legislaturesof the States, and it will stand sanctioned in the point or points tliat may have been ratified by th"m. Art. no. This constitution will >akv effect from the day of its ofllcial promulgation in each State, and m all public acts and utUcial docu- ments there will be cited the <Iate of the Federation to begin with February 20, 1850, and the date of the law to begin with March 28, 1864. Art. 120. The constitutional period for the ollices of the Qenenil Administration of tlie Ke- public will continue to be computed from Febru- ary 20, 1882, the date on which the reformed constitution took cflfect. Art. 121. For every act of civil and roliticftl life of the States of the Federation, its basis of population is that which is determined in the last census approved by the National Legis- lature. Art. 122. The Federal Constitution of Ajiril 27, 1881 ■ ..pealed. Done in Cameos, in the- Palac . the Federal Legislative Corps, and sealed ith the seal of Congress on the 0th day of Apni, 1801. The 28th year of the Law and the 33rd year of the Federation. (Here follow the signatures of the Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Second Vice-Presidents of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, together with those of the Senators and Deiiuties of the various States, followed by those ( f the President and the ministers of his cabinet.) See Venezu- ela: A. D. 1869-1892. CONSTITUTION OF THE WATAUGA ASSOCIATION (the first Wes'.ern American Commonwealth). See Tennessee : A. I). 1769- 1772. CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.— The " Constitutions of Clarendon" were a series of declarations drawn up by a council which King Henry II. of England convened at Clarendon, near Winchester, in 1164, and which were in- tended to determine the law on various points in dispute between the Crown and the laity, on one side, and the Church on the other. The issues in question were those which brought Henry into collision with Thomas Becket, Archbisliop of Canterbury. The general provisions embodied in the Constitutions of Clarendon "would now be scarcely challenged in the most Catholic country in the world. 1. Duringthe vacancy of any arch- bishopric, bishopric, abbey, or pnory of royal foundation, the estates were tc be in the custody of the Crowu. Elections to these preferments were to be held in the royal chapel, with the assert of the king and council. 2. In every suit to which a clerk was a party, proceedings were to commence before the king's justices, and these justices were to decide wliether the case was to be tried before ft spiritual or a civil court. If it was referred to ft spiritual court, a civil officer was to attend to watch the trial, and if a clerk was found guilty of felony the Ciuuch Msis to tease to ])roteethim. 3. No tenant in-cliief of the king, or olHeer of his household, was to be excommunicated, or his lands laid under an interdict, mitil application liad been first made to the king, or, in liis absence, to the chief justice. 4. Laymen were not to be indicted in a bishop's court, either for perjury or otber similar offence, except in the bishop s pres- ence by a lawful prosecutor and with lawfid ■witnesses. If the accused was of so high rank that no proseciitor would appear, the bishop miglit reciuire the sheriff to call a jury to inijuire into the case. 6. Archbishops, bishoiis, and other great persons were forbidden to leave the realm without the king's permisi ion. 6. Appeals were to be from the archdeacon to the bishop, from the bishop to the archbishop, from the archbishop to the king, and no further; that, by the kings- mandate, the case might be ended in the arch- bishop's court. The last article the king after- wards explained away. It was one of the moi' t essential, but he was unable to maintain i; ; and he was rash, o- he was ill-advised, in raising a si"ond question, on which the pope woidd natu- rally be sensitive, before he had disposed of the first." — J. A. Froude, Life a ml I'imcs of liecket, VP. 31-32.— See England: A. D. 1162-1170. CONSTITUTIONS, Roman Imperial. See C0UPU8 JUUIS C1VILI8. CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY^ The. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1860 (Ai'HiL — November). CONSUL, Roman.— When the Romans had rid themseh 's of their kings and established a republic, or, rather, an aristocratic government, ' ' the civil duties of the king were given to two- magistrates, chosen for a year, who were at first called 'pnetores' or generals, 'judices' or judges, or consules (cf. con ' together' and salio ' to leap ') or ' colleagues. ' In the matter of their power, no violent departure was made from the imperium of the king. The greatest limitation on the consuls was the short period for which they were at the head of the state ; but even here tliey were thought of, by a fiction, as voluntarily abdicating at the expiration of their term, aud as- nominating tlieir successors, although iliey were required to nominate the men who had already been selected in the 'coniitiaecntuiiata.' Another limitation was the result of the dual character of the magistracy. The imperium was not divided between the consuls, but each possessed it in full, as the king had before. When, therefore, they did not agree, the veto of the one prevailed over the proposal of the other, and there wab no 610 CONSUL. CONVOCATION. BCtion." — A. Tiglic, D''telopment of the Roman Const., eh. 4. — "As judges, tlic consuls occupied altoKttlicr tlie plnce of the kings. Tliey decided tlie legal disputes of the citizens either personally or by deputy. Their criminal jurisdiction was pfohably limited to the most important cases. ... In the warlilte stjite of the Komana the military character of the consuls was no doubt most prominent and most important. When the consul led tlie army into the field he possessed tlie unlimited military power of the liings (the imperium). He was entrusted with tlie direction of the war, the distribution of tlie booty, and the first disposal Ci the conquered land. . . . The oldest designation for tlie consuls, therefore, was derived from their military quality, for they wee called imetors, tliat is, commanders. It was, how- ever, precisely in war that the division of power among two colleagues must often have provi d prejudicial . . . and f lie necessity of unity in the direction of affairs was felt to be indispe:' sable. The dietatorsliip served this purpose. By decree of tlie senate one of the consuls could be charged with naming a dictator for six months, and in this officer the full power of the king was re- vived for a limited period. The <lictatorsliip was a formal suspension of the constitution of the republic. . . . Military was substituted for common law, and Rome, (luring the time of tlie dictatorship, was in a state of siege." — W. Ihne, Jligt. of Home, bk. 2, eh. 1, nnd bk. 0, eh. 3-5.— In the later years of the lioman empire, "two consuls were created by the sovereigns of Rome and Constantinople for the sole purpose of giving a date to the year and a festival to the people. But the expenses of this festival, in which the wealthy and the vain aspired to surpass their predecessors, insensibly arose to the eni.-mous sum of four score thousand pounds; tlie wisest senators declined a useless honour which in- volved the certain ruin of their families, and to this nductance I should impute the frequent chasms in tlie last age of the consular Fasti. . . . Tlie succession of consuls tinally ceased in the thirteenth year of Justinian [A. D. 541] whose despotic temper miglit be gnitifled bj the final extiiietion of a title which lulmonished the Romans of their ancient freedom. Yet the annual consulship still lived in tie minds of the people; they fondly expected its speecly restoration . . . ami three centuries elapsed after the death of Justinian before tliat obsolete dignity, which had been suppressed by custom, could be abolished by law. The imperfect mode of dis- tinguishing each year by the name of a magistrate was usefully supplied by tlie date of a permanent era." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 40. — "There were no consuls in 531 ond 532. The Emperor held the office alone in 533, and witli a colleague in 534. Belisarius was sole consul in 535. The two following years, hav- ing no consuls of their own, wc re styled the First and Second after tlie Consulship of Belisarius. John of Cappadocia gave his name to the year 538, and the years 539 and 540 had again consuls, though one only for each year, in 541 Albiuus Biisilius sat in the curule chair, and he was prac- tically the last of the long list of warriors, orators, demagogues, courtiers, which began (in the year 509 B. C.) with tlie names of Lucius Junius Brutus aud Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. All the rest of the years of Justinian, twenty-four in number, were reckoned as Post Consulatum Basilii."— T. ITodgkin, Itahi and Tier Inmdert. hk. ,5, ch. 14.— See, also. Rome: B. C. 509. CONSULAR? TRIBUNES, Roman.- The plebeians of Rome having demanded admissioa fr>r their order to the consulship, a compromise was arranged. B. C. 444, whicli settled that, thereafter, "tlie people should be free to elect either consuls — that is, patricians according to the old law — or in their place other officers under the title of 'military tribunes with consular power,' consisting of patricians and plebeians. ... It is not reported in what respect the official competency of the consular tribunes was to differ from that of tlie consuls. Still, so mucli is plain, that the dilTerence consisted not alone in name. Tlie number of the consular tribunes was in the beginning fixed at three." — W. Ihne, Ilitt. of Rome. Ilk. 2, <•/(. 11. CONSULATE GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE, The. See Fiianck: A. D. 1790 (NoVK.MliKIl — DKCKMnKU). CONTINENTAL ARMY.— "The Con- tinentals " of the American Revolution. See United States of Am. : A. I). 1775 (May — AUOUST). CONTINENTAL CURRENCY, The. See United St.vtes ok Am. : A. 1). 1780 (Januauv — Ami I.). CONTINENTAL SYSTEM OF NAPO- LEON, The. See France : A. I). 1801-1802, and 1800-1810. CONTIONES, OR CONCIOKES.- The eontiones, or condones, at Rome, were assemblies of the people, "less formal than the comitia," held for the mere purpose of discussing public questions, and incapable of pissing any binding resolution. "They could not be calleil together by anybody except the magistrates, neither had every man the liberty of speaking in tliem, of making proposals or of declaring his opinion ; . . . but even in this limited manner public questions could be discussed and the people could be enliglitened. . . . The cu.stom of dis- cussing public questions in tlie eontiones became general after the comitia of the tribes had obtained full legislative competency. " — W. Ihne, IKH. of Rome,''bk. 0, eh. 1. — See, also, Comitia. CUIllATA. CONTRABANDS.— In the early part of the American civil war of 180'-fl.5, the escaped slave* of the Confederates, who came witliin tlie Union lines, were called contrabands. General Butler having supplied the term by dcehiring them to. be ' ' contraband of war. " See United States ov Am. : A. D. 1801 (May). CONTRERAS, Battle of. See Mexico: A. D. 1847 (Maucii— Septemheu). CONVENT. Sec Monakteuy. CONVENTICLE ACT, The. See Eno- i.anp: A. I). 1002-100.-). CONVENTION, The French National, of the great Revolution. See Fkance: A. D. 1792 (Auoust), and 1792 (SEPTEMmcu- Nove.mbeu), to 1795 (OlTOHEU— OECKMnEH). CONVOCATION.— The a.s.scmblies of the clergy in the two ecclesiastical jirovinccs of England arc called the Convocation of Canter- bury and the Convocation of York. The former, which is tlie superior uody, fre(iuently receives thjnameof Convocation, simply. It is consti- tuted upon the model of Parliament, and is, in fact, tlie Parliament of the Church of England. It has two Houses : the upper one consisting of 611 CONVOCATION. CORINTH. the Archbishop nnd his Bislmps; tlie lower one composed of cieiuis, arclidciicoim and proctors, TcprcHcnting tlic inferior dcrffy. 'I'lie Convoca- tion of Yorlt lias Imt one Ilousc. Since 1716 Convocation lias possesscii sligiit powers. CONWAY CABAL, The. See United Statkh OK Am, : A. I). 1777-1778. COOMASSIE, Burning of. See England: A. I>. 1H7;!-1HH(). COPAIC REEDS. Sec nauyriA. COPAN, Ruins of. See A.muhican Aborig- inkm: -Mayas; and .AIk.xico, A.ncient. COPE HAN FA" LY, The. See Ameuican AiioiiKUM'.s: Coi'KiiA.N Family. COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1362.— Taken and pillaged by the Hanseatic League. Sec Sc'an- DiNAViAN Statios: A. I). 101H-i;)l)7. A. D. 1658-1660.— Sieges by Charles X. of Sweden. See Scandlnavian States (Sweden) : A. I). 1044-1697. A. D. 1700.— Surrender to Charles XII. of Sweden. Sec Scandinavian States (Sweden): A. I). 1(J'J7-17U(). A. D. 1801. — Bombardment by the English fleet. See Kuance: A. 1). 1801-1803. A. D. 1807.— Bombardment of the [city by the English. — Seizure of the fleet. See Scan- dinavian St.vtks; A. I). 1807-1810. COPPERHEADS.— During the American Civil War, tlieJDciiuKratic I'arty in the North- ern States "comprised two well-recognized classes: The Anti-War (or Peace) Democrats, coninioul^' called 'Copperlicads,' who sympa- thized with the Rebellion, and opposed the War for the Union ; nnd the War (or Union) Demo- crats, who favored a vigorc^us prosecution of the War for the preservation of the Union." — J. A. Logun, I'he Oreat Coiisjiiracy, jh WIA, foot-note. — See, also. United States ok Am. : A. D. 1864 (OCTOBEU). COPREDY BRIDGE ,|Battle of. See Eng- land: A. D. 1044 (.January — July). COPTS, The.— The descendants of the an- cient Egyptian race, who form to this da^ the laiger part of the population of Egypt. See EoYiT: Ohio IN of the Ancient People. COPTOS.— Destroyed by Diocletian. See Alexanduia: A. D. 296. COR, The. See Epiiau. CORBIE, Spanish capture of (1636). Sen Netiikuiands: a. D. 163S-1638. CORCYRA. See Koukyua. CORDAY, Charlotte, and the assassina- tion of Marat. Sue Fmance: A. D. 1793 (July). CORDELIERS. See Mendicant Ordeks. CORDELIERS, Club of the. SeeFRANCE: A. D. 1700. CORDOVA (Spain): A. D. 711.— Surrender to the Arab-Moors. See Spain: .V D. 711-713. A. D. 756-1031.— The Caliphate at. See Mahometan Conquest and Empiue: A. D. 756- 1031. A. D. 1235.— Capture by the King of Castile. See Spain: A. D. 1212-1338. CORDOVA (Mexico), Treaty of. See Mex- ico: A. n. 1820-1830. CORDYENE. See Goudyknb. COREA. See Couea in Suppbment (vol. 5). COREISH, KOREISH. See Mahometan CONHUEST AND EMPIRE : A. D. 609-633. COREY, Martha and Giles, The execution for witchcraft of. See .Massachusetts: A. 1). 1693. CORFINIUM, CKsar's Capture of. See Rome: H. C. W-i<i. CORFU, Ancient. See Koukvka. A. D. 1216-1880.— Since the fall of the Greek Empire. — Corfu was won liy the Veiietians in the early years of the Latin coiuiuest of the Greek empire (1216), but was presently lost, to come back again into tlie possession of the re- public 170 years later. '' No part of Greece l.as iicen so often cutoff from the Greek body. Under Pvrrhoa and Agathoklfis, no less than under jfichnel Angelos and Roger, it olx'j'ed : n Epeirot or Sicilian master. . . . At la.st, after yet another turn of Sicilian rule, it passed lor 400 years [1380- 1797] to the great conimonwealth ["f Venice]. In our own day Corfu was not added to free Greece till long after the deliverance of Atticii and I'eloponnflsos. But, under so inaiiy changes of foreign masters, tlie island has always re- mained part of Europe and of (Jhristendom. Alone among the Greek lands, Corfu has never passed under barbarian rule. It has seen the Turk only, for one moment, as an invader [see Turks: A. D. 1714^1718], for another moment as a nominal overlord." — E. A. Freeman. His- torii'id Gcog. of Europe, p. 408. — See Ionian Isl- ands: To 1814. ^ CORINIUM.— A Roman city in Britain, on the site of which is the modern city of Cirences- ter. Some of the riclicst mosaic pavements found in England have been uncovered there. — T. Wright. Celt, Roman and Sdxon. ch. 5. CORINTH.— Corinth, the chief city and state, in anc'''nt times, of the narrow isthmus which connecis Peloponnesus witii northern Greece, "owed everything to her situation. Tlie double sea by th \ isthmus, the confluence of the high road of the whole of Hellas, the rocky citadel towering aloft over land and sea, through wliich rushed — or around which flowed — an abundance of springs; all these formed so extraordinary a commixture of advantages, that, if the intercourse with other countries remained urlisturbed, they could not but call forth an important city. As in Argolis, so on the isthmus also, other b(!sides Dorian families had in the days of the migration helped to found the new state. ... By tlie side of the Dorian, five non-Dorian tribes existed in Corinth, attesting the multitude and variety of population, which were kept together as one state by the royal power of the Ileraclidic, sup- ported by the armed force of the Dorians. In the ninth centurv [B. C] the royal power passed into the hands of a branch of the IIcniclidiE de- riv. u^; its descent from Bncchis [one of the earliest of the kings] ; and it was in the extraordinary genius of this royal line that the greatness of the city originated. The Bacchiadie opened the city to the immigration of the industrious settlers who hoped to make their fortunes more speedily than elsewhere at this meeting point of all Greek high- roads of commerce. They cherished and ad- vanced every invention of importance. . . . They took commerce into their ow:\ hands, nnd es- labli-'hed the tramway on the isthmus, along which ships were, on rollers, transitorted from one gulf to the other. . . . They converted the gulf which had hitherto taken its name from risa into the Corinthian, and secured its narrow 612 CORINTH. CORINTH. Inlet by mcnna nf tlio fortified place of Molycrla. . . . Tliey continued tlielr iidviiiice ulong tlio coast and occupied the most Important points on the Achcloua.'— E. Curtiu.s, Ilht. of Greece, bk. 2, ch. 1. B. C. 745-725.— Constitutional Revolution. —End of Monarchy.— The prytanes.— Com- mercial progress. — A vio'eiit contention which arose hetweeu t\vo branches of the HacehUulu! " no doubt gave the nobles of Corinth power and opportunity to end the struggle by a change in the constitution, and by the <liscontniuance of the monarchy; this occurred lu the year 745 B. C, after eight generations of kings. . . . Yet tlie place at tlie 'i-id of die commonwealth was not to be entirely taken away from the ancient royal liousc. A presiding chief (a prytanis), newly elected each year by the whole nobility from tlu; members of the royal race, was henceforward to conduct the government [see Puytanib]. It was a peculiar arrangement which this change intro- duced Into Corinth. We may assume that the sovereignty was transferred to the nobles col- lectively, or to their representative. This repre- sentation seems to have been so regulated that each of the eight tribes sent an equal number of members to the Qerousia, 1. e. the council of elders. . . . Hut the tirst of these eight tribes, to which belonged tlie royal family, was privi- leged. From it was chosen the head of the state, an office for which only a Bacchiad was eligible — that l.s, only a member of the old rryal house, which took the foremost place in the first tribe. This clan of the Bacchiado; is said to have contained 200 men. 'They were numerous and wealthy,' says Strabo. Accordingly the royal house did not exclusively retain the first raiik in the state, but only In conjunction witii the families connected with it by kindred and race. . . . The new constitution of Corinth, the government by nobles, under the dynastic presi- dency of ono family, became n type for other cantons. I', was a Corinthian of the Bacchiadaj who, twenty or thirty years after the intrmluc- tion of the prytanes, regulated the oligarchy of the Thebans and gave them laws (about 725 B. C.) . . . The fall of the monarchy In Corinth at first brought with it disastrous consequences for the power and prestige of the commonwealth. The communities of the Jlegarians — either be- cause the new government made increa.sed de- mands upon them, or because they considered tlieir allegiance had ceased with the cessation of monarchy, and thought the moment was favour- able — deserted Corinth and asserted their free- dom. The five communities on the isthmus united together around the territory of Megara, lying in the plain by the Saronlc Gulf, where the majority of the Doric tribes had settled ; the city of Megara, in the viciiity of two ancient fortresses . . . became the chief centre of the communities, now associated in one common- wealth. . . . The important progress of Corinth under the prytany of the BacchladiB was not due to successes upon the mainland, but in an other sphere. For navigation and commerce no canton in Hellas was more favourably situated. Lying on the neck of the isthmus, it extended from sea to sea, an advantageous position which had Indeed first attracted the Phoenicians thither in ancient times. . . . Corinth, says Thucy- dides, was always from the first a centre of commerce, and abounded in wealth ; for the popu- lation within and without the Pcloponnp.iK.l communicated with each other more In ancient times by land acro.ss the l.sthinim than by sea. But when the Hellenes became more | ractfsed in navigation, the CorinlliiariH with their .ships put down piracy and established nmrlson both siiies; and through lliis inllux of riches Iheir city be- came very powerful."- M. Uimcker, IUkI. of Greece, hk. :i, eli. :i (i\ 2). ^ B. C. 509-506. — Opposition to the desire of Sparta to restore tyranny at Athens. See Atiik.ns: H. (;. ,-|(m ,")(ltl, B. C. 481-479. — Coneress and organized Hellenic union against Persia. .See Oukkck: B. C. 481-ITy. B. C. 458-456.--Alliance with iEgina in un- successful war with Athens and Megara. Seo Gkkixic: B. C. •l.'iH-.l,-))!. B. C. 440. — Opposition to Spartan interfer- ence with Athens in Samos. S<c Atiii-.ns: B. C. 440-4H7. B. C. 435-432.— Quarrel with Korkyra.— In- terference of Athens.— Events leadini; to the Peloponnesian War. Hue Uukkck: B. C. 435- 4;i3. B. C. 432.— Great sea-fight with the Kor- kyrians and Athenians. See (iUKICCK; B. C. 432. B. C. 429-^127.— The Peloponnesian War: sea-fights ana defeats. — Fruitless aid to the Mitylenxans. See Oukkck: B. C. 429-427. B. C. 421.— Opposition to the Peace of Nic- ias. SeeGitEKCE: B. C. 421-418. B. C. 415-413.— Help to Syraruse against the Athenians. See SvitACusE: B. C. 415-413. B. C. 395-387.— Confederacy against Sparta. —The Corinthian War.— Battle on the Ne- mea. — The Peace of Antalcidas. See Oukkce: B. C. 399-387. B. C. 368-365. — Attempt of Epaminondas to surprise the city.— Attempt of the Athenians. See Gueece: B. C. 371-302. B. C. 337. — Congress of Greek states to ac- knowledge the hegemony of Philip of Mace- dr .. See Greece: B. C. 357-330. B. C. 244. — Capture by Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedon. See M.\ceijonia, &c. : B. C. 277-2i4. B. C. 243-146. — In the Achaian League. See Greece: B. C. 280-140. B. C. 146. — Sack by the Romans. See Greece: B. C. 280-140. B. C. 44. — Restoration by Cssar. — "In the desolate land of Greece, Ca;sar, besides other plans, . . . busied himself above al) with tho restoration of Corinth. Not only wds a con- siderable burgess-colony conducted thivher, but a plan was projected for cutting through tho isthmus, so as to avoid the dangerous circum- navigation of tho Peloponnesus and to make the whole traffic between Italy and Asia p.iss through the Corintho-Saronic gulf." — T. Morom- sen. Hist, of Botne, bk. 5, ch. 11. — "Ccesar sent to Corinth a large number of freedmen, and other settlers were afterwards sent by Augustus; but it is certain that many Greeks came to live in the new Corinth, for it became a Greek town. Corinth was a mass of ruins when the new set- tlers came, and while they were removing the rubbish, they grubbed up the burial places,, where they found a great number of earthen figures and bronze urns, which they sold at a high price and filled Rome with them." — 613 CORINTH. CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS. O. Long, DreUnf of thf liimuin JlrjnthUe, «. B, eh. 32. — "Corinth nipiilly row under tlicHC auBplccs, Ix'Ciirne ii ccntrt' of coinmcroc luul art, and took the leud anions tlie rilieH of Kiiropean HcIIuh. Here was estahhshed the M'at of the Roman Kovonii.tcnt of Achaia, and its popidation, though the representations we have received of It are extravagant, undoubtedly exceeded tliat of any Grecian rival." — C. Merivalc, I[i»t. of the lionutiiH. <•/(. 40. A. D. 367.— Ravaged by the Goths. See OoTlls: A. I). 258-207. A. D. 395.— Plundered by the Goths. See (Jotmh: a. I). m5. A. D. 1 146.— Sacked by the Normans of Sicily. — Abduction of silk weavers. See Byzantine E.mpihk: A. D. 1146. A. D. 1445.— Destruction by the Turks.— The fortilications of the isthmus of Corinth were Btonncd and tlic Peloponnesus invaded by Ainurath II. in 1445. "Corinth itself, a city (>iui('tilled by Its anti(iuity, by its gods, by its arts, by the beauty of its women, by its foun- tains, its cypr(!8ses, its very ruins themselves, whence its imrivalled situation had always re- stored it, fell anev/, buried in Its llames, by the hands of Tourakhan, thai ancient and ambitious vizier of Amurath. Its flames were seen from Athens, from yEgina, from Lepanto, from Cy- tlieron, from Piuuus. The inhabitants, as also those of Patras, were ted into slavery in Asia, to the number of 60,000." — A. Lamartinc, Iliat. of Turkey, bk. 11, »ect. 10. A. D. 1463-1464.— Unsuccessful siege by the Venetians. — Fortification of the Isthmus. See Ohekce: a. D. 14r)4-1479. A. D. 1687.— Taken by the Venetians. Sec Ti'UKw: A. D. 1684-1096. A. D. 1822. — Rc'Tolt, siege and capture by the Turks. See Gueece: A. I). 1821-1829. CORINTH, Miss., Siege and Battle. Seo United States of A.m.: A. 1). 1863 (Apuil — May: Tennessee — Mississippi), and (Septem- MEH — OcTOBEii: Mississippi). CORINTH CANAL, The.— "On Sunday [August 6, 1893] tlie canal across the Isthmus of Corinth — [projected by Ca;sar — see Rome: B. C. 45-44] begun by Nero, and completed, nearly 2,000 years later, by a Greek engineer, M. Matsos — wail opened by the King of Greece, wlio steamed through the canal in his yacht, accompanied by a procession consisting of four Greek tx)rpedo- boats and o:her vessels. Including three English men-of-war and an English des- patch-boat. The canal . . . will be practicable for all but the largest vessels." — The Spectator, Aug. 13, 18i)o. CORINTHIAN TALENT. See Talent. CORINTHIAN WAR, The. See Greece: B. C. 399-387. CORIONDI, The. See Ireland, Tribes of Ancient. CORITANI, OR CORITAVL— A British tribe whici- occupied the lower valley of the Trent and its vicinity. See Britain, Celtic Tribes. CORN LAWS (English^ and their repeal. See Tariff Leoislation (Enolvnd): A. D. ISlC 1828; 1830-1839; 1842; and 1845-1846. CORNABII, OR CORNAVII, The.— An ancient British tribe which dwelt near the mouchs of the Dee and the Mersey. Sec Britain, Cel- tic Thiues. CORNWALL, Duchy of.— In the division of the spoils of his nnuiucst of England, William the ('omiueror gave to his brother Robert almost the whole shire of Cornwall, besides other vast estates. " Out of those possessions," savs Mr. Freeman, "arose that great Earldom, an(r after- wanls Duchv, of Cornwall, whi<'h was deemed too powerful to be trusted in the hands of .my but men closely akin to the ro^'al house, and the remains of which have for ages formed the appanage of the heir-apparent to the Crown." — See, al.so, Wales, Prince of. CORNWALLIS, Charles, Lcrd.-In the War of the American Revolution. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1776 (Auoust), (Septem- iiER — NovE.MHER); 1780 (Fehruary — August); 1780-1781; 1781 (January- May); 1781 (May- October) Indian administration. See India: A. D. 1785-1703 Irish administra- tion. See Ireland: A. I). 1798-1800. CORON, Battle of (B. C. 281). See Mace- donia, itc. : B. C. 297-280. CORONADO, Expedition of. See Ameri- can AiioRuiiNKs: Pueblos. CORONATION.—" The royal consecration in its most perfect form inpiu(led both coronn- tion and tmction. The wearing of a crown was a most ancient sign of royalty, into the origin of which it is u"' ' •sa now to inquire ; but the solemn rite of crowning was borrowed from the Old Testament by the Byzantine Cfcsars; the second Theodosius was the first emperor crowned with religious ceremonies in Christian times. The introduction of the rite of anointing is less certainly ascertained. It did not always accom- finny coronatiim. and, although usual with the Btcr emperors i.-i not recorded In the case of the earlier ones." — W. Stubbs, Const, Uist. of E)ij},, eh. 6, sect. 60. CORONATION STONE. See Scotland: 8tii-0tii Centuries; also, Lia Fail. CORONEI A, Battles of (B. C. 447 and B. C. 394). See Greece: B. C. 449-445; and B. C. 399-387 CORPS DE BELGIQUE. See Unitkd Stateh op Aji. : A. I). 1864 (October). CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, The.— "The Corpus Juris Ci villa represents the Roman law in the form which it assumed at the close of the ancient period (a thousand years after the decern viral legislation A the Twelve Tables), and Uirough whicli mainly it has acted upon modern times. It was compded in the Eastern Roman Empire (the Western ceased in 476 A. D.) under the Emperor Justinian, . . . who reigned 537- 565 A. D. The plan of the work, as laid out by [his great law-minister] Tribonian, Included two principal parts, to be made from the constitu- tions of the Roman emperors, and from the treatises of the Roman lawyers. The ' constitu- tiones ' (law-utterance.s) of the emperors consisted of — 1. 'Orationes,' proposals of law, submitted to and adopted by the S ;uate ; 2. ' Edicta,' laws issued directly by the emperor as head of the stntc; 3. 'Mandata,' instructions addressed by the emperor to high ofTicers of law and justice; 4. ' Dccreta, ' decisions given by the emperor in cases brought before him by appeal or otherwise ; 5. ' Rescripta,' answers returned by the emperor when consulted on questions of law by parties in 614 C0UPU8 JURIS CIVILI9. CORSICA. a Bult or by miiRlstrates. . . . Three or (our col- lections IiikI iilreiiily )H>eii iiiiule, in wliieli the most importimt constitutions were selected from llie mass, presented in i. condensed form, and arranged according to tlicir sulHccts. Tlie last ami most elaborate of tlieso collections was the Tliemiosian Co<lo, compiled about a century lM-foru tlio accession of Justinian; it is still in great part extant. . . . Tlie new (-Vxlex Con- stitutioneni, pr 'pared in little more than a year, was publislici in April, 530. The next work was to digest the treatises of the most eminent law writers. Tlilrty-nine were selected, nearly all of whon> lived between 100 H. C. and SW) A. D. Thuir books (2,000 in number) were divided among a body of collaborators (sixteen besides Tribonian), each of whom from the books assigned to liim extracted what he thought proper . . . and putting the extracts (9,000 in all) under an arranged series of heads. . . . The Digest — or Pandects (all-receiving), ns it is also called from the multiplicity of its sources — was issued with authority of law, in December, SiUJ. . . . While the Digest or Pandects forms much tlie largest fraction of the Corpus Juris, its relative value and importance are far more than proportionate to its extent. The Digest is, in fact, the soul of the Corpus. ... To bring the Codex Constitutionem into better conformity with th(! Digest, it was revised in 534 and issued 1^ we now have it in November of tliat year. . . . The Corpus Juris includes also an elemen- tary text-book, tlio Institutiones (founded on the ' iastitutiones ' of Oaius, who flourished about 150). . . . Tlio Institutes, Digjst and Codex were given, as a complete body of law, to the law-scliools at Cons'autiiiople, Home, lierytus, Alexandria, Ciesana, to be studied in their five years' curriculum. In the courts it was to super- sede all earlier authorities. . . . Later statutes of Justinian, arranged in order of time, form the Novels ('novellae constitutione,' most of them in Greek), the hist component of tlie Corpus Juris." — J. Iladley, Int. to Raman I^iw, led. 1. Ai.so in: J. E. Goudsmit, r/ztf J'ltmkcta. CORREGIDOR. See Alcalde. CORSICA: Early history.— " Tlic original inliabitants of Corsica are supposed to have been Ligurians, but at a very early period the people had commercial intercoui-se with Spain, Ionia and Tuscany. Tlie island was subsequently occupied by tlio Carthaginians, who, however, were expelled by the Romans during the first Punic war. A few years later Corsica came under tile dominion of Rome, and tiiatsway was nominally maintained until the (loi^nfall of the Empire. It then fell i: der the dominion of tlie Vandals, and after tlijir expulsion owned suc- cessively tlic rule of tlie Goths, the Saracens and the Pisiins, and finally of the Genoese. It came into the possession of tlie laiter people in the year 1120. Pisii subsequently made several attempts to drive out her rivals, but tliey wore in tlie end void of results. But in 1448, Genoa, having sustained great losses In the constant wars in wliicli she was engaged, was induced to surrender the administration of Corsica and of lier co! ..ies in tlie Lerant to a corporation known as tlie Bhuk of St George. From that time the island was administered by governors appointed by the Bank of St George, almost precisely ii: the manner in which, in i!..igland, up to '851*, the East Indies were administered by an ' imperium In Imperlo.'"— O. B. Malleson, .'^iKtieii from (tenoftf Ilinton). eh. 3. A. D. 1558-1559.— Revolt against the Geno- ese rule, and re-subjection. See Oknoa: .V. 1). 15'J«-1.W1); and Fua.nck: A. I). 1.547- 15.')U. A. D. 1720-1769.— The Struggle for inde- pendence. — Romance of King Theodore. — The Paoiis.— Cession to France.— The ri'volt of 1.5.5H was renewed in 1504, but ended in 1507, upon the death of its leacK r, Hampicro. For the next century and a half, Corsica reniaincci in- active ; "depressed and miserable under renewed Genoese exactiims and tyninnies, but t(K) exhausted to resume hoslilifies. In 1720, how- ever, fighting again broke out, suddenly roused by (me of the many nrivate wrongs then pres.sing upcm tlie lower orders, and the rebellion soon spread over the whole island. It was well organ- ized under two leaders of energy and ability, and was more determined in its measures than ever. . . . Genoa had recourse to the emperor of Germany, from whom she bought several thou- sand mercenaries, who were sent across tlie sea to try tlieirskill upon tliesc unconquerable islwiders. . . . The courage and chivalry of Ids insular foes . . . won for them the regard of the opposing Oenenil Wachtendonk ; and, chiefly through his mediation, a treaty, sujjposed to bo favourable to the islanders, was concluded between Genoa and the Corte legislative assembly in 1733. Wachtendonk remained in tlic island another year to see the treaty carrieil out, and in June, 1734, the German general returned to his own country. . . . Bu' lie had scarcely retired before the treaty was broken. Genoa began anew her system of illegal arrests and attempted r.ssassi nations ; and, once more, the people arose under Ilyacintli Piioli, an obscure native of tlie little village of Morosaglia, but a man of spirit and talent, and a scholar. Under the direction of tills man, and of GialTeri, his colleague, a democratic constitution, in tlie highest degree prudent and practical, was framed for the Corsican jieople. . . . Early in tlie next year occurred a stninge and romantic adventure in tills adventureful country. A man, haiiv^some and well-dressed, surrounded by obse(juious courtiers, and attended by every luxury, landed in tlie island from a vessel well-furnislied with gold, ammunition, and arms. Tliia man was a German adventurer. Baron Theodore von N'ui- hoff, who, after a romantic youth, had suddenly conceived a desire to become king of Corsica. He was a man of great talent and personal fascination, of good judgment, and entiiusiiastic disposition. He iiad fallen in love with the bravery and determination of the Corsicans, uiid longed to head such a nation. ^le had put liiiu- self into communication with the leading island- ers ; and, having really some little influence at the continent4il courts, persuaded them that he had much more. He offered to obtain sucli assistance from foreign potentates, by liis per- suasions, as sliould effectually oust the Genoese ; and, in return, requested tlie crown of Corsica. His genius and his enthusiasm were so great, and his promises so dazzling, that, after some hesi- tation, the pool Corsicans, in their despair, seized upon this last straw; and in Marcii, 1730, Theodore was crowned king. His exertions for tlie good of this country were untiring. He established manufactures and promoted witli all his power art and commerce, at the same time 615 rORHICA. CORTES. timt, with nil till' force of IiIh Ronlufi, ho cnclriivoiirnl to pcrNiuicli' forclffii powcrH to lend their iiHMiHtiuicc to Ijin new Hiii)Je('tN in tlie Meld IIIn Htyle iif living iiieiinwliili' wiih refill and HuiM|)t!ioiiH. . . . TowiirdH tlie coneliision of liiH (irsl y<'iir of sovereignly, Tlieodoro left ("orMlcii on II eonlinenlul tour, willi the avowed object of ImKteninK th(! proiuiHcd Hiiecoiir. In two yeurR he returned, hrlriKinff vvilli him tliree litrgo and m-veriil Hinalier war vessels, handsomely laden witli iiiiuniinilion, ivhicli Imd actuidlvtieen raised bv means of Ids tjth'nts iiinl persuasive faculties, eldetly ainoii);st the Dutch. Hut, meitnwiiile, till! C/'orsleiuis had had oilier iitTairs to which U) attend. France had iiiterfere<l at the re- quest of Oenoa; and nej;otiations were actively going on, whl(!h tlie arrival of the pseudo-king couKl only interrupt. Tiieodore, although now so well attended, found himself unheeded and disregarded; and after a few nionlhs was forced to leave his new kingdom to its fate, and to return to tlu! continent. Five years later, in 174!!, he again returned, again well e(|uipped, this time with Englisli vessels, but willi the same ill success. Convinced now that his cliance was over and his dream of royalty destroynd, Theo- dore returned to Kngland with a sore heart, spending his remaining years in this asylum for dethrcmed kings and ruined adventurers. His tomb may be .seen in Westminster Abbey. For the next tive and twenty years the war continued between Corsica and Oenoa, still fought out on the blootl-deluged plains of the unhappy little island. But the republic of Genoa was now long past her prime, and her energies were fading into senility ; and, had it not been for the evcr- lncrca.sir.g assistance of France, her intn-pid fm's would long ere this have got the better of her. In Jlay, 1708, a treaty was signed between Geno:i and Fmnce, by which the republic ceded her now enfeebled claims on Corsica to lier ally, and left lur long-oppressed victim to flght the contest out with the French troops. During this time, first GafTori, then Pasquale Paoli, were the leaders of the people. GafTori, a man of refinement, and a hero of skill and intrepidity, was murdered in a vendetta in 1753, and in n.W Pasqufile, yotmgest son of the old patriot Hyacinth Paoli, left his position as ofilcer in the Neapolitan service, and landed, by the general desire of his own people, at Aleria, to undertake the command of the Corylcan army. . . . From 1764 to 1708 a truce was concluded between the foes. ... In August, 1768, the truce was to expire; but, before the appointed day bad arrived, an army of 20,000 French suddenly swooped down upon the luckless island. ... It was a hopeless stniggle for Corsica; but the heroism of the uncfiiuntcd people moved all Europe to sympathy. . . . The Corsicans at first got the better of their formidable foe, at the Bridge of Gc), in tlie taking of Borgo, and in other les •"• actions. . . . Meanwhile, the country was being destroyed, and the troops becoming exhausted. . . . The battle of Ponte Nuovo, on the 9th of May, 1769, at once and forever annihilated the Corsican cause. . . . After this victory, the French rapidly gained possession of the whole island, and shortly after- wards tlie struggle was abandoned. ... In the same year, 1709, Napoleon Buonaparte was born in the house out of the Place du Marclie at Ajaccio. 'I was born,' he said himself in a letter to Pnoli, 'the year my ooiintry dle<l."' — G. Fordi?, ,4 Liulifii Tmir in ('omicii, r. 'i. eh. If. Al.KO IN; I'. FIt/.gcrald. Kiui/ii mid Oueenii of (in //our, r/i. 1. — J. tioswell, ,/oiirniil of a Tour to f/ormi'ii. A. D. 1794.— Conquest by the Eng;liih. Bee FnAN(K: A. I). 17»nM.\H( 11— .h;i,v), A. D. 1796.— Evacuated by the Eneliih.— Reoccupied by the French. See tjiANCK: A. 1). 179(1 (SKfTKMIIKH). CORTENUOVA, Battle of (1236). 8co Italy: A. 1). llwt-lWd CORTES, HERNANDO, Conqueit of Mexico by. See Mkxico: A. I). ir)19 to 1581- ma-t. CORTES, The early Spanish.— The old mjnarchical constitutions of Castile and Aragon, — "The earliest instance on record of popular representation in (.'astile occurred at IJurgos, in 11(19; nearly a century aiiteceilent to the celebralcd Leicester parliament. Kach city had but one vote, whatever niiglit be the number of its representatives. A much greater irregu- larity, in regard to tlie number of cities required to send deputies to cortes [tlie name signifying ' court '] on ditl'erent occasion.!, ])revailed in Cas- tile, than had ever existed in England; though, previously to tlie Ifltli century, this floes not seem to liavi^ proceeded from any design of in- fringing on tlie liberties of the people. Tlio nomination of these was originally vested in the householders at large, but was afterwards con- fined to the municipalities, — a most mischievous alteration, whidi subjected their election eventu- ally to the corrupt inlliience of the crown. They assembled in the same chamber wltli the higher orders of tlie nobility and clergy, but or (pies- tions of moment, retireil to deliberate by them- selves. After the transaction of other business, their own petitions were presented to the sover- eign, and his assent gave them the validity of laws. The Castilian commons, by neglecting to make tlieir money grants depend on correspond- ing concessions from the crown, relinquished that powerful check on its operations so bene- ficially exerted In the British parliament, but in vain contended for even there till a much later period than that now under consideration. Whatever miy have been the right of the no- bility and clergy to attend in cortes, their sanc- tion was not deemed essential to the validity of legislative acts; for their presence was not even required in many assemblies of the nation which occurred in the 14th and 15th centuries. The extrnordinary power thus committed to the com- mons was, on the whole, unfavorable to their liberties. It deprived them of the sympathy and cooperation of the great orders of the state, whose authority alone could have enabled them to with- stand the encroachments of arbitrary power, and who, in fact, did eventually desert them in their utmost need. . . . Tlie Aragonese cortes was composed of four branches, or arms; the ricos hombres, or great barons; the lesser nobles, com- prehending the kniglits; the clergy; and the commons. The nobility of every denomination were entitled to a seat in the legislature. The ricos hombres were allowed to appear by proxy, and a similar privilege was enjoyed by baronial heiresses. The number of this body was very limited, twelve of them constituting a quorum. The arm of the ecclesiastics embraced an ample 616 CORTES. C'OUTES. delegation from llie itiferior ivs well an liiglmr cler^.V. It Ih iilllrnied luit to have been n nim- |i(iiieiit(if the niktioiiiil IcKiHliituri' until more Ihiiii It century iukI ii hiilf nfter (he iiilniisHJon r)f IIk^ cominiinH. Indeed, the intlucnei' (if the ehureli was much Ichm HenMilile in Aru)<(iii than in tlie other kinK<l'iii>t<)f tlio I'euinHulii. . . . Tli<! com- inoiiM enjoyed Id^luT cousideriition mid civil privile^fes. For tiiis they were perlmpH some wimt indelili'cl to the example of llieir Cataliin neixhl)(ir«, tlie inlluence of wIiomc demoerallc in- Htitutlons naturally extendeil to other parts of the AragonescnioiLarcliy. The ciiarters of certain cities accorded to tlie InhabitantH privile);cH of nobility, ])articiiiarly that of immunity from taxation; wiiile the maKlMtrates of others were permitted to taki; their seats in the order of liidalKos. From a very early nerlod w find them employed in u!llcc» of i)ublli; trust, and on lmp<irtaiit missions. The epoch of their admis- sion into the national assembly Is traced its far back as HUH, several years earlier than the com- niencement of popular representation iu Castile. Kach city had the rl^ht of sending two or more deputies selected from persons clif^ilde to itr. magistracy; but with the privilege' of only one vote, whatever migiit be the niimbeif of its depu- ties. Any place whic'h had been oiiro represi'iited in cortes might always claim to be so. By a statute of i;)()7, the convocation of the states, which had been annual, was declan^l biennial. The kings, however, paid little regard to this provision, rarely smnmoning them except for some specltic uecessity. The great olllcers of the crown, whatever might be tlieir personal rank, were jealously excluded from their delib- erations. ... It was in the power of any mem- ber to defeat the piLssage of it bill, by opposing to it his veto or dis.sent, formally registered to that effect. lie might even interpose his nega- tive on tlie proceeilinga of the house, and thus put a stop to the prosecution of all further busi- ness during the session. This anomalous privi- lege, transcending even that claimed in tlic Polish diet, must have been too invidious In its exercise, and too pernicious in its conseiiiiences, to have been often resorted to. This may be in- ferred from the fact that it was not formally re- pealed until the reign of Philip II., in UiQ'i. . . , The cortes exercised the highest functions, whether of a deliberative, legislative, or judicial nature. It had a. right to be consulteil on all matters of importance, especially on those of peace and war. No law was valid, no tax could be imposed, without its consent ; and it carefully provided for the application of the revenue to Its destined uses. It determined the succession to the crown, removed obnoxious ministers, re- formed the household and domestic expenditure of the monarch, and exercised the power, in the most unreserved manner, of withholding sup- plies, as well as of resisting what \l regarded as an encroachment on the liberties of the nation. . . . The statute-book affc.rds the moat unequivo- cal evidence of the fidelity with wliich tlie guardians of the realm discharged tlie high trust reposed in tliom, in the numerous enactments it exhibits for tlie security both of person and property. Almost the first page wliich meets the eye in this venerable record contains the General Privilege, the Magna Charta, as it has been well denominated, of Aragon. It was granted by Peter the Qreat to the cortes at Saro- gosaii, In 12mm. It iiiibnteefi a variety of pro- vIhIoiis for till' fair ami open administration of Justice; for ascerlaining tlie legitimate jiowen Intrusted to the cortes; for the security of prop- erty against exactions of the crown ; and for Iho con.servatlon of their legal immiiiiltles to the mu- nlcliial corporations and the dilYerint orders of nobility, . . . The Aragonese, who rightly rc- gardeii the (Jeiieral Privilege as the broadest basis of 'heir liberties, repeatedly procured lis eonllrmation by succeeding sovereigns. . . . The Judicial functions of the cortes have not been siilUeiently noticed by writers. They were ex- ten.sivo In their operation, and gave it the name of the Oenend (lourt."— W. II. Prcscott, lliit. <if the Ileir/n of Ferdinanil itml Jmi/ul/ii, iiitrml., xert. 1-3. — "Castile bore a closer aiialogv to Kng- land In its form of civil polity than l''raiice or even Aragon. Hut the fiei|ueiit di.sordeis of its government and a barbarous state of manners rendered violations of law much more continual and flagrant than they were In Unghind under the Pl.mtagenet dynasty. And besides these practical mi.'ichlefs, there were two essential de- fects in tlic constitution of Casiile, through which perhaps It was ultimately subverted. It wanted tliose two brilliants in the coronet of liritlsh lib- erty, the representation of freeholders among the commons, and trial by jury. The cortes of Cas- tile became a congress of deputies from a few cities, public spirited, indeeil, and intrepid, as we Iliid tliem in bad times, to an eminent degree, but too much limited in number, anil too uncon- nected with the territorial aristocracy, to main- tain a just balance against the crown. . . . Per- haps In no European monarchy except our own was the form of government more interesting than in Antgon, as a fortunate temperament of law and justice witli the royal authority. . . . IJliincas quotes a noble pa.ssiige from the acts of cortes in M")I. 'We have always heard of old time, and it is found by experience, that seeing the great barrenness of this land, and the poverty of the realm, if it were not for tlic liberties thereof, the folk would go hence to live and abide in other realms and lands more fruitful.' This high spirit of freedom had long animated the Aragoncsi' After severid contesi.s witli the crown in the reign of James I., not to go buck t<> earlier times, they compelled Peter III. in 1283 to grant a law called the Oenenil Privilege, the Magna Charta of Aragon, and perhaps a more full and satisfactory basis of civil liberty than our own." They further "established a positive right of maintaining their liberties by arrfis. Tliis was contained in the Privilege of Union granted by Alfonso III. in 1287, after a violent conflict with his subjects ; but which was after- wards so completely abolished, and even eradi- cated from the records of the kingdom, that its precise words have never been recovered. . . . Tliat watchfulness over public liberty which originally belongeil to the aristocracy of ricos iiombres . . . and which was afterwards main- tained by the dangerous Privilege of Union, be- came the duty of a civil magistrate whose ofBce and functions are tlie most pleasing feature in the constitutional history of Arugon. The Jiis- tiza or Justiciary of Aragon has been treated by some writers aa a sort of auonialous magistrate. . . . But I do not perceive that his functions were, in any essential respect, diHereut from those of the chief justice of England, divided. 40 617 CORTES. COSSACKS. from the time of Kdward I., among the judges of the Khig's Bench. . . . All the royal an well 118 territorial judges were bound to apply for liis opinion in case of legal diUicultie.s arising in their courts, which he was to certify within eight days. By suhseciueii. statutes of the same reign it was made penal for any one to obtain letters from the king, impeding the execution of the Justiza's process, and tliey were declared null. Inferior courts were forbidden to proceed in any business after Ills prohibition. . . . There are two parts of his remedial jurisdiction which de- serve special notice. These are tlie processes of juris tirnia, or lirnia del derechio, and of manifes- tation. The former bears some analogy to the writs of ' pone ' and ' certiorari ' in Lngland, through which the Court of King's Bench exer- cises Its right of withdrawing a sidt from the jurisdiction of inferior tribimals. But tlie Ara- gonese juris Hrma was of more extensive ojiera- tion. . . . The process termed manifesUition afforded as ample security for personal liberty as that of juris firmadid for i)roperty. " — H. Ilallam, The Muhlle Ages, ch. 4 (v. 3). — For some account of the loss of the old constitutional liberties of Castile and Aragon, under Charles V. , see Spain : A. D. 1518-152SJ. — " The councils or meetings of the bishops after the reconquest, like the later Councils of Toledo, were always 'jussu regis,' and were attended by counts and masjnates ' ad videndum sine ad audiendum verbum Domini.' But when the ecclesiastical business was ended, it was natural that the lav part of the assem- bly should discuss the alfairs of the kingdom and of the people; and insensibly this after- part of the proceeding j grew as tlie first part diminished in importance. The exact date when the Council merged into the Curia or Cortes is difficult to determine ; Sefior Colmeiro takes the so-named Council of Leon in 1020 as the true starting-point of the latter. The early monarchy of Spain was elective, anu the accla- mation of tlie assembled people (plebs) was at least theoretically necessary to render the king's election valid. 'The presenca of the citizens at the Cortes or Zamor.i, though stated by Sando- val and Morales, is impugned by Sefior Col- meiro; but at the rouncil of Oviedo in 1115 were present bishops of Spain and Portugal ' cum principibus et plebe praedictae regionis,' and these latter also subscribed the Acts. Still, though present and making their influence more and more felt, tliere is no record of a true repre- sentation of cities until Alfonso IX. convoked the Cortes of Leon in 1188, ' cum archiepiscopo, et episcopis, et niagnatibus regni met et cum electis civihus ox singulis civitatibus ' ; from this time the three estates — clergy, nobles, citizens — were always represented in the Cortes of Leon. Unfortunately, the political development of Cas- tillo did not synchronise with that of Leon. In general, that of Castillo was fully half a century later. We pass by ■■* 'nore than doubtful the alleged presence of citizens at Burgos 'n 1169; the 'majores civitatum et villarum at the Cortes of Carrion in ll'' v.' ere not deputies, but the judges or governc of twenty-eight cities. It is not till the unite 1 Cortes of both kingdoms' met at Seville in 1!J50, that we find true repre- sentation in Castillo. tIJastille was always more feudal than Leon. It is in this w!\nt of simul- taneous development, and in the presence of privileged classes, that we find the germ of the evils which eventually destroyed the liberties of Spain. Neither the number of d''r)"ties nor of the cities represented was ever 15:.t i; at Burgos, in 1315, we find 200 deputies (pi vyci.radores) from 100 cities; gradually the number sank till sevcn- 'x'en, and finally twenty-two, ciMes alone were represented. The deputies were chosen from ho municipality either by lot, by rotation, or by election ; they were the mere spokesmen of the city councils, whose mandate was imperative. Their payment was at first by the cities, but, after 1422, by the king; and tliere are constant complaints that the salary was insufficient. Tlie reign of Juan II. (1400-54) was fatal to the liber- ties of Castillo ; the answers to the demands and petitions of the deputies were deferred; and, in fact, if not in form, the law tliat no tax should be levied without consent of the Cortes was con- stantly violated. Still, but for the death of Prince Juan, in 1497, and uie advent of the Austrian dj^nasty with th? possession of the Low Countries, the old liberties might yet have boon recovered. . . . With the Cortes of Toledo, in 1538, ended the meeting of the three estat'. ■; The nobility first, then the clergy, were elimi- nated from the Cortes, leaving only the proctors of the cities to become servile instruments for the purposes of taxation." — W. Webster. Review of Colmeiro' 8 "Cortes de tos Antiguos Ueinoa de Leonyde CMtilla" (Aeadumi/, Aug. IC 1884). CORUNNA, Battle of (1809). See Spaim: A. D. 1808-1809 (August— January). CORUPEDION, Battle of.— A battle fought in western Phrygia, B. C. 281, in wliich Lysim- inachus, one of the disputants for Alexander's empire, wiis defeated by Seleucus, and slain. — C. Thirlwall, IliHt. of Greece, ch. 60. CORVbE. — One of the feudal rights possessed in France (under tlie old regime, before the Uevo- lution) "by the lord of the manor over his sub- jects, by means of which he could employ for his own profit a certain number of their days of labour, or of their oxen and horses. The ' Cor- vee & volonte,' that is to say, at the arbitrary will of the Seigneur, liad been completely abol- ished [before the Revolution] : forced labour had boon for some time past confined to a certain number of days a-year." — A. de Tocqueville, On the State of Society in. France before 1789, note 4 E. (p. 499). CORVUS, The Roman. See Punic War, The Fikst. COS, OR K JS.— One of the islands in the .iEgean callc ' the Sporades, near the Carian coast of Asia Minor. The island was sacred to Asclepius, or Jisculapeus, and was the birth- place of the celebrated physician Hippocrates, as well as of the painter Apelles. It was an iEolian colony, but joined the Dorian confederacy. COSIMO DE' MEDICI, The ascendancy at Florence of. See Florence: A. D. 1483- 1464. COSMOS, COSMIOS, COSMOPOLIS. See De.miiikoi. COSSACKS, The.—" The origin of the Cos- sack tribes is lost in the obscurity of ages ; and many celebrated historians ui'e still divided in opinion as to whence the term Cossack, or rather Kosaque, is properly to be derived. This word, ' indeed, is susceptible of so many etymological explaiii^ Jons, as scarcely to offer for any one of them decided grounds of preference. Every- thing, however, would seem to favour the belief 618 COSSACKS. COTARir. that the word C.)ssark, or Kosntmc, wns in much earlier use iu the vicinity of tlie Caucasus tliiin in the Uliraine. . . . Slierer, in liis 'Annals of Russia Minor,' (La Petite HuskIc,) traces back the origin of the Cossacks to the ninth century ; but he does not support his assertion by any facts clothed with the dignity of historical truth. It appears certain, however, tliat the vast pas- ture lands between the Don and the Dnieper, llie country lying on the soutli of KYow, and trav- ersed by the Dnieper up to the Black Sea, was the principal birthplace of the Cos.sacks. When, in 1243, Batukhan came witli 500,000 men to take possession of the empire wliich fell to his share of tlie vast inheritance left by Tchingis Khan [see Mongols: A. D. 1229-1294], he extir- pated many nations and displaced many others. One portion of the Komans Hying from the horrors of this terrific storm, and arriving on tl>e borders of the Caspian Sea, on the banks of tlie IiYk, (now Ouralsek,) turned to the left, and took refuge between the embouchures of that river, where they dwelt in small numbers, ai>art from their 1 ethren, in a less fertile climate. These were, incontestably, tlie progenitors of the Cos- sacks of the laYk, who are, historically, scarcely impo''tant enough for notice. ... At the approach of this formidable invasion towards the Don, that portion of the Komans located o i the left bank took refuge in tlie marshes, and in the numerous islands formed by that river near its embouchure. Here they found a secure retreat ; and from thence, having, from their new posi- tion, acquired maritime habits and seafaring ex- perience, thej' not only, themselves, resorted to piracy as a means of existence, but likewise eii- listecl in a formidable confederacy, for purposes of rapine and pillage, all the roving and discon- tented tribes in their surrounding neighbour- hood. These latter were very numerous. Tlie Tartars, ever but indifferent seamen, had not the courage to join them in these iiiratical expe- ditions. This division of the Komans is in- dubitably the parent stock of the mwlem Cos- sacks of the Don, by far the most numerous of the Cossack tribes: by amalgamation, however, with whole hosts of Tartar and Calmuck hordes, lawless, desperate, and nomadic as themsel.es, they lost, in some degree, the primitive and deeply marked distinctive character of their race. The Komans of the Dnieper offered no more energetic resistance to the invading hordes of Batukhan than had been shown by tlieir brethren of the Don : they dispersed in various directions, and from this peoplck tiying at the advance of the ferocious Tartar* descended a variety of hordes, who occasionsnjy figure iu history as distinct and independenSkiiations. . . . [They] ultimately found a per.niment resHng-placc in the wild islets of the Dnieper, below the cata- racts, where dwelt already a small number of their ancient compatriots, who had escaped the general destruction of their nation. This spot became the cradle of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, or of the tribes known in after times as the Polish Cossacks. When Quedynun, Grand Duke of Lithuania, after having defeated twelve Russian princes on the banks of the PiCrna, conquered liVow with its dependencies in 1320, the wander- ing tribes scattered over the steppes of the Ukraine owned his allegiance. After the vic- tories of Olgierd, of Vitold, and of Ladislas lagellon, over the Tartars and the Russians, large bodies of Scytiiian militia, known subse- (|uently by the comprehensive denomination of Cossacks, or Kosaques, served under these con- querors: and after the union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Poland, in i:t80, they c(mtinue<l under the dominion of the „'niiid dukes of Lithuania, forming, apparently, an intermedi- ate tribe or caste, superior to the peasuiitry and inferior to the nobles. At a later iieriod, when the Ukraine was annexed to the Polish crown, tliey pas.sed under the protection of the kings of Poland. . . . Although there may, doubtless, exist several species or castes of Cossacks, hnd to wliom Russia in order to impose on Europe, is pleased to give as many different names, yet there never have been, nor will there ever be, properly speaking, more than two principal tribes of the Co.ssack nation, namely the Cos- sacks of the Don, or Don-Cossaeks, and the Cos- .sacks of the Black Sea, known in ancient times as the Polish Cos.sacks, or Zajxirowscy Kozacy. . . . The Cossacks [of the Don] . . . have ren- dered signal service to Russia, which, ever since tlie year 1.549, lias taken them under lier protec- tion, without, however, the existence of any official act, treaty, or stipulation, confirming their .submission to that power. . . . The Don- Co8.sacks enjoy a certain kind of liberty and independence ; they have a hetman, attaman, or chief, nominated by the Emperor of Russia ; and to tills cliief tliey yield an obeilience more or less willing and implicit; in general, th"y are com- manded only by Cossack orticers, who take equal rank in the Russian army. They have a sepa- rate war administration of their own ; although they are compelled to furnish a stated number of recruits wlio serve in a manner for life, inasmuch as they are rarely discharged before attaining !Axty years of age: on the whole, their condition is happier than that of the rest of the Russian •population. They belong to the Greek-Russian church. The existence of this small republic of the Don, in tlic very heart of tlie nust despotic and most extensive empire in the world, appears to constitute a problem, the solution of wiiich is not as yet definitely known, and the ultimate solution of which yet remains to be ascertained." — II. Krasinski, T/ie Cosmtcks of the Ukraine, ch. 1. — Tlie Cossacks of the Ukraine transferred their allegiance from the King of Poland to the Czar of Russia in 1654, after a revolt led by their hetman, Bogdan Khinelnitski, in which they were assisted by the neighboring Tartars, and whicli was ac- companied by terrible scenes ot slaughter and destruction. Sec Poland: A. D. 1648-1054. COSSiEANS, The. See Kos8*:ans. COSTA RICA: A. D. 1502.— Discovery by Columbus. SeeAMEKicA: A. D. 1498-1.505. A. D. 1813-1871.— Independence of Spain. — Brief annexation to Mexico. — The fai'ures of federation, the wars and revolutions of Central America. See Central America : A. D. 1821- 1871. A. D. 1850.— The Clayton Bulwer Treaty and the projected Nicaragua Canal. See Kic- auaoua: A. D. 1850. COSTANOAN FAMILY, The. See Amkiu- CAN AiioiiidiNKS: C08TANOAN Family. COSTER, Laurent, and the invention of printing. See Printing: A. D. 1430-1456. COTARII. See Slavery, Medlkval and Modern; England. 619 COTIION OP CARTHAGE. COTTON MANUFVCTUKK COTHON OF CARTHAGE, The.— " Tlicro were two liindlockccl docks or Imrboiirs, opening the one into the other, uiui botli, it would seem, the work of humun hands. . . . Tlic outer hiirbour WU8 re<'tanguliir, iibout 1,400 feet long and 1,100 broad, and wan appronriiitcd to merchant vessels ; the inner was circular like a drinking cup, whence it was, called the Cothon, and was reserved for ships 'f war. It could not be approached except through the merchant harbour, and the entrance to this last was only 70 feet wide, and could be closed at any time by chains. The war harbour was entirely surroini<led by quays, containing tM^paratc docks for 220 ships. In front of each dock were two Ionic pillars of marble, so that the whole must have presented the appearance of a splendid circular colonnade. Right in the centre of the harbour was an island, the head- quarters of the admiral." — R. B. Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians, ch. 20. COTSETI. See 8i.aveuy, Medieval and Modeun: England. COTTON, Rev. John, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay. See Mas-sachusetts: A.I). 1631-l«;i6. COTTON FAMINE, The. Sec England: A. I). 1801-1865. COTTON-GIN : Eli Whitney's invention and its effects. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1818-1821. COTTON MANUFACTURE : The great inventions in spinning^ and weaving. — ' ' Cotton had been used in the extreme East aud in the ex- treme West from the earliest periods of which we have any record. The Spaniards, on their discovery of America, found the Mexicans clothed in cotton. . . . But though the use of cotton had been known from the earliest ages, both in India and America, no cotton goods were Imported into Europe ; and in the ancient world both rich and poor were clothed in silk, linen, and wool. The industrious floors introduceil cotton into Spain. Many centuries afterwards cotton was imported into Italy, Saxony and the Low Coun- tries. Isolated from the rest of Europe, with little wealth, little industry, and no roads; rent by civil commotions; the English were the last people in Europi to intrt duce the manufacture of cotton goods S^.to their own homes. Towards the close of the 16th century, indeed, cotton gjods were occasionally mentioned in the Statute Book, anil the manufacture of the cottons of Manches- ter was regulated by Acts passed in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Elizabeth. But there seem to be good reasons for conclud- ing that Manchester cottons, in the time of the Tudors, were -woollen goods, and did not consist of cotton at all. More than a century elapsed before any consiucrable trade in cotton attracted the attention of the legislature. The woollen manufacttirers complained that people were dress- ing their children in printed cottons ; and Par- liament was actually persuaded to prohibit the introduction of Indian printed calicoes. Even an Act of Parliament, however, was unable to extinguish the growing taste for Indian cottons. . . . The taste for cotton led to the introduction of calico-printing in London; Parliament in order to encourage the new trade, was induced to sanction the importation of plain cotton cloths from India under a dtity. The demand, which was thus created for calicoes, probably pronioteil their manufacture at home. ... Up to the mid- dle of the last century cotton goods were really never made at all. The so-called cotton manu- factures were a combination of wool or linen and cotton. No EnglishmaD had been able to pro- duce a cotton thread strong enough for the warp. . . . The superior skill of the Indian manufac- turers enabled them to u.sc cotton for a warp ; while clumsy workmanship made the use of cot- tou J a warp unattainable at home. In the n-ii.ale of the 18th century, then, a piece of cot- ton cloth in the true sense of the term, had never been made in England. The so-called cotton goods were all made in the cottages of the weavers. The yarn was carded by hand ; it was spim by hand ; it was worked into cloth by a hand loom. . . . The operation of weaving was, however, much more rapid than that of spinning. The weaver consumed more weft than his ov/n family could supply him with ; and the weavera generally experienced the greatest difficulty in obtiup'ng sullicient yarn. About the middle of the 18th century the ingenuity of two persons, a father and a son, made this difference more apparent. The shuttle had originE lly been thrown by the liand from one end of the loom to the other. John Kay, a native of Bury, by his in- vention of the ny-shultle [patented in 1733], saved the weaver from this labour. . . . liobert Kay, John Kay's son, added the drop-box, by means of which the weaver was able ' ;a use any one of three shuttles, each containing a different coloured weft, without the trouble of taking them from and replacing them in the lathe. ' By means of these inventions the productive power of each weaver was doubled. . . . Carding and roving were both slowly performed. . . . The t;ade was in this humble and primitive state when a series of extraordinary and unparalleled inventions revolutionised the conditions on which cotton had been hitherto prepared. A little more than a century ago John Ilargreaves, a poor weaver in the neighbourhood of Blackburn, was returning home from a long walk, in which he had been purchasing a furthur supply of yarn for his loom. As he entered his cottage, his wife Jenny accidentally upsc^ the spindle which she was using. Ilargreaves noticed that the spindles which were now thrown into an upright positiou, continued to revolve, and that the thread was still spinning in his wife's hand. The idea im- mediately occurred to him that it would be pos- sible to connect a considerable number of up- right spindles with one wheel, and thus multiply the productive power of each spinster. . . . Har- greaves succeeded in keeping his admirable in- vention secret 'ir a time ; but the powers of his machine soon became known. His ignorant neighbours hastily concluded that a machine, which enabled one spinster to do the work of eight, would throw multitudes of persons out of employment. A mob broke into his house and destroyed his machine. Ilargreaves himself had to retire to Nottingham, where, with the friendly assistance of another person, he was able to take out a patent [1770^ for the spinning-jenny, as the machine, in compliment to his industrious wife, was culled. The invention of the spinning-jenny gave a new impulse to the cotton manufacture. But the . . . yarn spun by the jenny, like that which had previously been spun by hand, was neither fine enough nor hard enough to be em- ployed as warp, and linen or woollen threads had consequently to be used fur this purpose. la 620 COTTON MANTr^iCTURE. COUNT AND DUKE. the very ycnr, liowevpr, in which IlnrRrrnvps moved from Bli\cl<l)iirn to Nottinjrlmni, liiRliiml Arltwriglit [wlio begnn life as a Ijiirber's iissistnnt] took out n [iiitent [1709] for liin still more cele- brated mnehine. . . . ' After inunj' years i^.tensc and painful application,' lie invented his mem- orable machine for spinning by rollers; and laid the foundations of the gigantic industry which has done more than any other trade to concen- trate in this country the wealth of the world. . . . He puosed tiie thread over two pairs of rollers, one of which was made to revolve much more rapidly than the other. The thread, after eassiiig the pair revolving slowlv, was drawn ito the requisite tenuity by the rollers revolving at a higher rapidity. By this simple but mem- orable invention Arkwright succeed-'d in pro- ducing thread capable of employment as warp. From the circumstance that the mill at which his machinery was first erected was driven by water power, the machine received the somewhat inappropriate name of the water fnune; the thread spun by it was usually called the water twist. Invention of the spinning-jenny and Jie water frame would have been useless if the old system of hand-carding liad not been superseded by a more eflicient and more rapid process. Just as Arkwright applied rotatory motion to spin- ning, so Lewis Paul introduced revolving cylin- ders for carding cotton. . . . This extraordinary series of inventions placed an almost unlimited supply of yarn at the disposal of the weaver. But. the machinery, which had thus been introduced, was still incapable of providing yarn tit for the finer qualities of cotton cloth. . . . This defect, liowe ver, was removed by t he ingenuity of Samuel Crompton, a young weaver residing near Bolton. Crompton succeeded in combining in one machine the various excellences ' of Arkwright's water frame and Hargreaves' jenny.' Like the former, his machine, which from its nature is liappily C".';ed the mule, ' has a system of ro!''.'rs to re- duce the roving ; and like the latter it has spin- dles without bobbins to give the twist. . . . Tlie effects of Crompton's great invention may be stated epigrammatically. . . . The natives of India could spin a pound of cotton into a thread 119 miles long.' The inglish succeed in spin- ning the same thread to a length of 100 miles. Yarn of the finest quality was at once at the di.- - posal of the weaver. . . . The ingenuity of Har- greaves, Arkwright and Crompton had been exercised to provide the weaver with yarn. . . . The spinster had beaten the weaver. . . . Ed- mund Cartwright, a clergyman residing in Kent, liappencd to be staying at Matlock in the sum- mer of 1784, and to be thrown into the company of some Manchester gentlemen. The conversa- tion turned on Arkwnghl's machinery, and ' one of tilt company observed that, as soon as Ark- wright's patent expired, so many mills would be erected and so much cotton spun that hands would never be found to weave it.' Cartwright replied ' that Arkwright must then set his wits to work to invent a weaving mill.' . . . Within three years he had himself proved that the in- vention was practicable by producing the power- loom. Subsequent in- entors improved the idea which Cartwright had originated, and within flfty years from the date of his memorable visit to Matlock there were not less than 100,000 power- looms i i work in Groat Britain alone. . . . Other inventions, leas generally remembered, were hardly less wonderful or less lieneflcial than these. . . . Scheele, the Swedish philosopher, discovered in 1774 the bleaching properties of chlorine, or oxy muriatic acid. Bertliollet, the French chem- ist, conceived the idea of applying the acid to bleaching cloth. ... In th(^ same year in which AVatt and Henry were introducing" the new acid to the bleacher, Bell, a Scotchman, was laying tlie foundations of a trade in printed calicoes. ' The old method of printing was by blocks of sycamore.'. . . This clumsy process was super- seded by cylinder printing. . . . Surh are the leading inventions, which made Great Britain in less than a century the wealthiest country in the world. "— S. Walpole, Ilist. of Eng. from 1815, V. 1, ch. 1. Also in: R. W. C. Taylor, Iiiti<Hl. to a Hut. of the Factory Syntem, ch. 10. — E. Baines, Iliitt. of the Cotton Manufacture in Oreat Uritain. — A. Ure, The Cotton Maiiiifactureof Oreat Britain. COULMIERS, battle of (1870). Sec Fhance: a. D. 1870-1871. COUNCIL BLUFFS, The Mormons at. Sc ■ MoRMONlBM : A. D. 1840-1848. COUNCIL FOR NEW ENGLAND. See New England: A. D. 1020-102:1; 1021-1031; and 1035. COUWCIL OF BLOOD, The. SeeNKrnKR- LANDS. A. D. 1507. COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, The Athenian. Sen Athens: B. C. 510-507 The French. See France: A. D. 1795 (.June— Sep- tember). COUNCIL OF TEN, The. See Venice: A. D. 1033-1319. COUNCIL OF THE ANCIENTS, The. See France: A. D. 1795 (June — September). COUNCIL, THE PRIVY. See PiiiVi Council. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, General or Ecumenical. — There are seven councils ad- mitted by '.,oth the Greek and Latin cliurclics as a'cumenical (or ecumenical) — that is general, or universal. The Roman Catholics recognize thir- teen more, making twenty in all — as follows: 1. The synod of apostles in Jerusalem. 3. The first Council of Nice, A. T). 325 (see Nic.«a, The First Council). 3. The first Council of Constantinople, A. D. 381. 4. The first Coun- cil of Ephesus, A. D. 431. 5. The Council of Clialcedon, A. D. 451. 0. The second Council of ConstJintinople, A. D. 553. 7. The third Council of Constantinople, A. D. 081. 8. The second Council of Nice, A. D. 787. 9. The fourth Council of Constantinople, A. 1). 809. 10 The first Lateran Council, A. D. 1123. 11. !ne second Lateran Council, A. 1). 1139. 12. The third Lateran Council, A. D. 1179. 13. The fourth Lateran Council. A. P. 1215. 14. The first cecumeiiical synod of Lyon, A. D. 1245. 15. The second oecumenical svnod of Lyon, A. D. 1274. 10. The Synod ofVienne in Gaul, A. D. 1311. 17. The Council of Constance, A. D. 1414 (.see Papacy: A. D. 1414-1418). 18. The Council of Basel, A. D. 1431 (see Papacy: A. D. 1431-1448). 19. The Council of Trent, A. D. 1545 (.see Papacy: A. D. 1537- 1503). 20. The Council of the Vatican, A. I). 1869 (see Papacy: A. I). 1869-1870). COUNT AND DUKE, Roman.— Origin of the titles. — ''The defence of the Roman empire was at length committed [under Constantine and his successors] to eiglit masters-general of the 621 COUNT AND DUKE. COURTRAI. cavalry and infiinfry, I'mlcrlhcir orders tliirty- flvc military coniinaiKlcrs wcri- Mtatioucd in the provinces — tlirce in Hrilnin, six in Gnul, one i'l Hpnin, one in Italy, live on tlie Upper and fotir on the Lower Danube, in Asia eiglit, three in Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of Counts and Dultes, by wliidi tliey -verc properly dis- tinguislied, liave obtained in ni(Hlern languages BO v(!ry different u sense that the tiso of tliem may occa.sion some surjirise. Hut it should be recollected that the second of tliose appellations is only a corni]»tion of the Latin word whidi was indiscriminately applied to any military chief. All tliesc provincial generals were there- fore dukes; but no more llian leu among them were dignified with tlie rank of counts or com- panions, a title of honour, or rather of favour, which had been recently invented in the court of Constantine. A gold belt was the ensign which distinguislicd the office of tlie c(nint8 and dukca." — E. Gibbon, Di'dine and Full of the Jiirmiin Em- pire, eh. 17. — "The Duke and tlie Count of modem Europe — wliat are they but the Generals and f 'ompanions (Duces and Comitcs) of a Roman province? Why or wlien they dianged places, the Duke climbing up into such uiKjuestioned F re-eminence over his former superior tlic Count, know not, nor yet by what procosn it was dis- covered that the latter was the precise equiva- lent of the Scandinavian Jarl."— T. Hotlgkin, Italy ti 11(1 Her InViidern, bk. t, eh. iJ. COUNT OF THE DOMESTICS.— In the organization of the Imperial Household, during the later period of the Roman empire, the olliccrs called Counts of the Domestics "com- manded tlie various divisions of the household troops, known liy the names of Domestic! and Protectores, and thus together replaced tlie Pnetorian Prefect of the earlier days of the Empire. . . . Theoretically, their duties would not greatly differ from those of a Colonel in the Guards." — T. llodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, bk. I, eh. 3. COUNT OF THE SACRED LARGES- SES. — In the later Roman empire, "the Count who had charge of the Sacred (i. e. Imperial) Bounty, should have been by his title simply the Grand Almoner of the Empire. ... In practice, however, the minister who took charge of the Imperial Largesses had to find ways and means for every other form of Imperial expendi- ture. . . . The Count of the Sacred Largesses was therefore in fact the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the Empire." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Inradem, bk. l,ch. 3. COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE. See Saxon Suohe. COUNT PALATINE. See Palatine, Counts. COUNTER-REFORMATION, The. See Papacy: A. D. 1534-1540; 1.537-1563; 1555-1603. COUNTR¥-PARTY, The. See England: A. D. 1672-1673^ COUP D' ETAT OF LOl 3 NAPO- LEON, The. See France: A. D. 1851; and 1851-1852. COUREURS DE BOIS.-'Out of the beaver trade [in the 17th century] rose a huge evil, baneful to the growth and the morals of Canada. All that was most active and vigorous in the colony took to the woods, and escaped from tbe control of intendants, councils and priests, to the savage freedom of the wilderness. Net only were the possible profits great, but, in the pursuit of tliem, there was a fascinating element of adventure and danger. The busn rangers, or courcurs de bois, were to the king an object of horror. They defeated his plans for tlie increase of the poiiulation, and shocked his native instinct of discipline and order. Edict after edict was directed against them; and moru tlian once the colony presented the extraordinary spectacle of the greater part of its young men turned into forest outlaws. . . . We hear of seigniories abandoned ; farms turning again into forests; wives and children left in destitution. The exodus of the courcurs de bois would take at times the character of an organized move- ment. The famous Du Lliut is said to have made a general combination of tlic young men of Canada to follow him into the woods. Their plan was to be absent four years, in order that the edicts against tliem might have time to relent. The intendant Duchesneau reported that 800 men out of a ])opulation of less than 10,000 souls had vanished from sight in the immensity of a boundless wilderness. Whereupon the king ordered that any person going into the woods without a license should be whipped and branded for the first offence, and sent for life to tlie gal- leys for the second. . . . Under such leaders as DuLhut, the coureurs de bois built forts of palisades at various points throughout the West and Northwest. They had a post of this sort at Detroit some time before its pennanent settle- ment, as well as otliers on Lake Superior and in the Valley of the Mississippi. They occupied them as long as it suited their purposes, and tlien abandoned tliein to the next comer. Mich- illimackinac was, however, their chief i.sort. ' — F. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, eh. 17. COURLAND, Christian conquest of. See Livonia: 12Tn-13Tn Centuuies. COURT BARON. See Manokb. COURT CUSTOMARY. See Manors. COURT-LEHT. See Manors, and Sac and See. COURT OF CHANCERY. SccChancel- LOIl. COURT OF COMMON PLEAS. See Curia Regis. COURT OF HIGH COMMISSION. See England: A. D. 1.5.59; and A. D. 1686. COURT OF KING'S BENCH. See Curia Regis. COURT, SUPREME, of the United States. See Supreme Cot:HT. COURTRAI: A. D. 1382.— Pillaged and burned by the French. See Flanders: A. D. 1382. A. D. 1646. — Siege and capture by the French. See Netherlands: A. D. 1045-1646. A. D. 1648. — Taken by the Spaniards. See Netherlands (Spanish Provinces): A. D. 1647-1648. A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. See Netherlands (The Sp.ujish Provinces) : A. D. 1667. A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. See Nether- lands (Holland) : A. D. 1668. A. D. 1670.— Restored to Spain. See Nime- GUEN, The Peace of. COURTRAI, The Battle of.— The battle of Courtrai (July 11, A. D. 1302), in which the 622 COURXnAI. CREMONA. barons and kniglits of France wpri' fearfully Blaiiglitcrcd by the sturdy biirgliers of Flanders, was sometimes called the Day of the Spurs, on account of the great number of gilt spurs wliieh was titken from the bodies of the dead and hung up by the victors in Courtrai cathedral. — G. W. Kitchen, IIM. of Fra'.e. hk. 3, eh. 10, tect. 2.— Bee Fi,.VNUKUs: A. I). 12U0-1304. COURTS OF LOVE. See Piiovence : A.D. llT(»-t207. COUTHON. 2r.<i the French Revolutionary Committee o. Public Safety. See Fuance: A. I). 1703 (.luiTE— OcToiiEii), to 1704 (.July). COUTRAS, Battle of (1587). See Fkance: A. I). 1584-1. WO. COVADONGA, Cave of. See Spain: A. D. 71it-T37. COVENANT, The Halfway. See Boston: A. D. 1057-1OOO. COVENANT, "'he Solemn League and. See En<i[,and: •' J. 1043 (July— Septembeii). COVENANT its.— The name given to the signers and supporters of the Scottish National Covenant (see SrjTLAUD: A. D. 1357, 1581 and 1638) and after^-.ards to all who adhered to the Kirk of GcoUand. The war of Jlontrose witli the Covenanters will be found narrated under Scot- land: A. D. 1644-1645. For the story of the per- secution which they suffered under the restored Stuarts, see Scotland: A. D. 1680-1666; 1660- 1679; 1670; and 1681-1089. COVENANTS, The Scottish. See Scot- land: A. I). 1557-1581; and 1638. COWBOYS.— During the War of the Ameri- can lie volution, "there was a venal and bloody get which hung on the skirts of the British array, well known as Cow-boys. They were plunderers and ruffians by profession, and canic to have their name from their cattle-stealing. Some of the most cruel and disgraceful murders and bar- barities of the war were perpetrated by them. Whenever they were caught they were hung up at once." — C. W. Elliott, The New Eiig. Ilist., v. 2, p. 372. — See, also. United States op A.m.: A. D. 1780 (August — September). COWPENS, Battle of the (1781). See United States of Am. : A. D. 1780-1781. CRACOW : A. D. 1702.— Taken ty Charles Xn. of Sweden. See Scandi.n'avian States (Sweden): A. D. 1701-1707. A. D. 1793-1794. — Occupied by the Russians. — Rising of the citizens. — Surrender and ces- sion to Austria. See Poland: A. D. 1703- 1796. A. D. 1815. — Creation of the Republic. See Vienna, The Congress of. A. D. 1831-1846. — Occupation by the Aus- trians, Russians and Prussians. — Extinction of the Republic. — Annexation to Austria. Sec Austria: A. D. 1815-1846. CRADLE OF LIBERTY. See Fankuil Halt,. CRAFT-GUILDS. See Guilds, Mkdleval. CRAGIE TRACT, The. See New York: A. D. 1786-1799. CRAL.— KRALE.— "The princes of Servia (Ducange, Famil, Dalmaticas, &,c., c. 2-4, 0) were styled ' despots ' in Greek, and Cral in their native idiom (Ducange, Gloss. Gra;c., p. 751). That title, the equivalent of king, appears to be of Sclavonic origin, from whence it has been borrowed by the Hungarians, the modern Greeks, and even by the Turks (Leunelavius. Pandect. Tare, p. 422), wlio reserve the name of Padishah for the Emperor." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jliiiniin Empire, ch. 03, note. — See, also, Balkan and Danuuian States: A. D. 1341- 13.56 (Skuvi.\). CRANNOGES. See Lake Dwellings. CRANNON (KRANNON), Battle of (B. C. 322). Sec (Jukeck: It. C. 323-322. CRAONNE, Battle of. See France: A. D. 1814 (.lANrAUY— MAItlll). CRASSUS AND THE FIRST TRIUM- VIRATE. See Home; B. C. 78-6H, to 57-52. CRATER, Battle of the Petersburg. See Unitkh States ok Am.: \. J). 1864 (.July: VlK(lLMA). CRATERUS, AND THE WARS OF THE DIADOCHI. See Mackdoma: B. C. 323-31(1. CRANGALI IDiE, The. See Hiehoduli. CRAYFORD, Battle of (A. D. 457).— The second battle fought between the Britons and the invading Jutes, under Hengest, for the possession of soutlieastern Britain. See England: A. D. 440-473. CRECY, Battle of (1346). See F. ance: A. D. 1337-1360. CREDIT MOBILIER SCANDAL. — On the meeting of the Congress of tlie United States in December, 1872, attention was called by the Speaker to charges made in the preceding can- vass "that the Vice-President, the Vice-Presi- dent elect, the Secretary of the Treasury, several Senators, the Speaker of the House, and a large number of Representatives had been bribed, durinjj the years 1807 and 1868, by presents of stock in a corporation known as the Cre<lit Mobi- lier [organized to contract for building the Union Pacitic Railroad] to vote and act for the benefit of the Union Pacific Railroad Company. On his motion, an investigating committee was ap- pointed, L. P. Poland, of Vermont, being chair- man. The Poland Committee reported February 18th, 1873, recommending the expulsion of Oakes Ames, of Massachusetts, for ' selling to members of Congress shares of the stock of the Credit Jlobilier below their real value, with intent thereby to influence the votes of such members,' and of James Brooks, of New York, for receiving such stock. The House modified the proposed expulsion into an ' absolute condemnation ' of the conduct of both members." — A. Johnston, Hist, of Am. Polities, pp. 219-220.— /&;>(. of Select Com. (42rf Cong. , 'M seas. , JI. R. rept. no. 77). Also in : J. B. Crawford, Th« Credit Mobilier of Am. CREEKS,— Creek Wars. See American Aborigines: Mcskiiooean Family ; also United States op Am. : A. D. 1813-1814 (August — April), and Florida: A. D. 1816-1818. CREES, The. See American Aborigines: ALGONquiAN Family. CREFELD, Battle of. See Germany: A. D. 17.58. CREMA, Siege of (1159-1160). See Italy: A. D. 1154-1162. CREMONA: The Roman Colony.— Siege by the Gauls. See Rome; B. C. 295-101. A. D. 69.— Destruction by the Flavians. See Rome: A. D. 69. A. D. 1702.— Defeat of the French. See Italy (Savoy and Piedmont): A. D. 1701- 1718. ... 623 CREOLE. CRETE. CREOLE.—" In Europe it Is very common to attach to the trrni (.'rcole the Idea of ft particiilnr coiiiplexion. ThiHisu niiHtakc. The designation (/'reole [in HpaniHli Aniericiin rr/^ions] [jroperly l)c'lon)(s to all the natives of Aniericu horn of parents who have emigniteil from the Old World, DC tlio.se parents Europeans or Africans. There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles. . . . The term Cn'olc is a corruption of the Spanisli word 'criollo,' which is aerived from 'criar,' to create or to foster. The Spaniards apply the term 'criollo' not merely to the human race, but also to animals propagated in the colo- nies, but of pure European blood : thus they have Creole horses, bullocks, poultry, &c. " — J. J. VonTschudi, Tnmlnin Peru, eh. ft, and fool-note. — "The term Creole is commonly applied in books to the native of a Spanish colony descended fn)m European ancestors, while often tlie popidar acceptation conveys the idea of an origin partly African. In fact, its meaning varies in different times and regions, and in Louisiana alone lias, and lias liad, its broad and its close, its earlier and its latiT, significance. For instJince, it did not here llrst belong to the descendants of Spanish, bat of French settlers. But such a meaning implied a certain excellence of origin, and so came early to include any native of Frencli or Spanish descent by either parent, whose pure non-mixture with the slave race entitled liim to social rank. Much later the term was adopted by, not conceded to, tlie natives of European- African, or Creole-African blood, and is still so used among themselves. At length the spirit of commerce availed it.self of the money value of so honored a title, and broadenecf it? meaning to take in any creature or thing of variety or mamifacture peculiar to Louisiana, that might iiecome an object of sale, as Creole ponies, chickens, cows, shoes, eggs, wagons, baskets, cabbages, etc. . . . There are no Englisli, Scotch, Irish, Western, or Yankee Creoles, tliese all Iwing included under the dis- tinctive term 'Americans.'. . . There seems to bo no more serviceable definition of the Creoles of Louisiana or of New Orleans than to say tliey ars ihe French-speaking, native, ruling class." — G. E. Waring, Jr., and G. W Cable, Jlist. and Present Condition of New Orleans (Tenth Census of the r. X, r. 19, p. 218). CREONES, The. See Britain, Celtic Tkibks. CRESCENT, The Order of the.— A Turk- ish Order instituted in 1709 by the reforming sulUtn, Sclim III. Lonl Nelson, after the vic- tory of Aboukir, was the first to receive this decoration. CRESPY IN VALOIS, Treaty of (1544). See Fhance; A. 1). mi'i-\m. CRETAN LABYRINTH. See Labyrinths. CRETE.— "The institutions of the Cretan state show in many points so great a simila.^ty to those of Sparta, that it is not surprising if it seemed to the ancients as though either Crete were a copy of Sparta, or Sparta of Crete. Meanwhile this similarity may be explained, apart from intentional imitation, by the commu- nity of nationality, which, under like conditions, must produce like institutions. For in Crete, as in Laconia, Dorians were the ruling people, who bad subdued the old inhabitants of the island and placed them in a position of subordination. ... It is, however, beyond doubt that settle- ments were made In Crete by the Phoenicians, and that a large portion of the Island was sub- ject to them. In the historical period, it is true, we no longer lind tliem here; wo find, on tho contrary, only a number of Greek states, all moreover Dorian. Each of these consisted of a city with its surrounding district. In whieli no doubt al.so smaller cities In their turn were found standing In a relaticm of subordination to tho principal city. For that each city of the ' ninety- citied'or 'hundred-citied' isle, as Homer calls It, formed also an independent state, will probably not be supposed. As independent states our autlioritles give us reason to recognize about seventeen. The most important of these were in earlier times Cnossus, Qortyn ht Oydonia." — G. SchOmann, Antiq. ofOreeee: Tiu Stale, pt. 8, f/i. 3. — See Asia Minor: The Gueii:k Colonies. B. C. 68-66.— The Roman Conquest. —The Romans came Into collision with the Cretans during their conflict with the Cillcian pirates. The Cretans, degenerate and half piratical them- selves, had formed an alliance with the profes- sional buccaneers, and defeoted, oft Cydonia, a liomiin fleet that had been sent against the latter, B. C. 71. They soon repented of the provoca- tion they had ollered and sent envoys to Rome to buy peace by heavy bribes; but neither the penitence nor the bribes prevailed. Three years passed, however, before the proconsul, Qulntus Jletellus, appeared In Crete (B. C. 08) to exact satisfaction, and two years more were spent in overcoming the stubborn resistance of the island- ers. Tlie taking of Cydonia cost Metellus a bloo<ly battle and a prolonged siege. Cnossus and other towns held out with equal courage. In the end, however, Crete was added to tho conquered dominions of Rome. At the last of the struggle there occurred a conflict of jurisdic- tion between Metellus and Pompey, and their respective forces fought witli one another on tho Cretan soil. — T. Mommsen, Hist, of Home, bk. 5, ch. 4. A. D. 823.— Conquest by the Saracens. — "The reign of Al Ilakem, the Ommiade Caliph of Spain, was disturbed by continual troubles; and some theological disputes having created a violent insurrection in the suburb.^ 'if Cordova, about 15,000 Spanish Arabs were • ompcllod to emigrate in the year 815. The greater part of these desperadoes established themselves at Alexandria, where they soon took an active part in the civil wars of Egypt. The rebellion of Thomas [an olHcer who disputed the Byzantine throne with Michael II.], and the absence of tho naval forces of the Byzantine Empire from the Archipelago, left the island of Crete unpro- tected. The Andalusian Arabs or Alexandria availed themselves of this circumstance to invade the island, and estobllsh a settlement on It, in the year 823. Michael was unable to take any measures for expelling the invaders, and an event soon happened in Egypt which added freatly to the strength of this Saracen colony, he victories of the lieutenants of tho Caliph Almomum compelled the remainder of the Andalusian Arabs to quit Alexandria; so that Abou Ilafs, called by the Greeks Apochaps, joined his countrymen in Crete with forty ships, determined to make the new settlement their permanent home. It is said by tho Byzantine writers that they commenced their conquest of the island by destroying their fleet, and con- 624 CRETE. CROWN OF INDIA. itructing a Btrone fortified cnmp, suirmindofl by an immi'nsn ditcli, from which it received tlie name of Cliandult, now corrupted by tlie western nations into Candiii. . . . Tlio Samcens retninerl posaession of Crete for 135 years. " — O. PIrdny, IlUt. of the nyzantine Empire, from 716 to lO.'iT, bk. 1, eh. 3. — During tlio stay of tliese piratieal Andaliisian Aralis at Alexandria, "they cut in pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the churches and mosiiiies, sold above 0,000 Christian captives, and maintained their station in the cap- ital of Egypt till they were oppressed by the forces ana piosence of Almamon himself." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lioimin Empire, ch. 53. Also in: S. A. Dunham, Hist. ?/ Spain and Portii//nl, hi: 3, ch. 1. A. D. 061-063. — Recovery from the Sara- cens, — "In the subordinate station of great domestic, or general of the East, he [Nicephorus Phocas, afterwards emperor, on the Uyzantine throne], reduced the island of Crete, and extir- pated the nest of pirates who had so long dciicd, with impunity, the majesty of the Empire. . . . Seven months were consumed in the siege of Candia; tlie despair of tlie native Cretans was stimulated by the frequent aid of their brethren of Africa and Spain ; and, after the massy wall and double ditch had been stormed by the Greeks, a hopeless conflict was still maintained in the streets and houses of the city. The whole island was subdued in the capital, and a sub- missive people accepted, without resistance, the baptism of the conqueror." — E. Gibbon, JJecline and Fall of the Itomaii Empire, ch. 53. A. D. 1204-1205. — Acqu'-ed by the Vene- tians. See Byzantine EMriuE : A. D. 1204-1205. A. D. 1645-1669.— The long siege of Can- dia. — Surrender to the Turks. See Turks: A. D. 1645-1689. A. D. ^715.— Complete Expulsion of the Venetians by the Turks. See Turks: A. D. 1714-171«. A. D. 1866-1868.— Unsuccessful revolt.— Struggle for independence. — Turkish conces- sion of the Organic Regulation. Sec Greece: A. D. 1862-1881. » CRETE, Party of the.— Cretois. See France: A. D. 1795 (April). CRIMEA, OR CRIM TARTARY : Early history. See Taurica; also Bosporus, City AND Kingdom. 7th Century. — Conquest and occupation by the Khazars. Sec Khazars. . I2th-I3th Centuries. — Genoese commercial colonies. See Genoa: A. D. 1261-1299. I3th-I4th Centuries. — The khanate to Krim. See MoNOOLs: A. D. 1288-1391. A. D. 1475. — Conquest by the Otloman Turks. See Turks (The Ottomans): A. D. 1451-1481. A. D. 1571.— Expedition of the Khan to Moscow. — The city stormed and sacked. See Russia: A. D. 1569-1571. A, D. 1735-1738. — Russian invasions and fruitless conquests. See Russia: A. D. 1725- 1739. A. D. 1774. — The khanate declared inde- pendent of the Porte. See Turks: A. D. 1768- 1774. A. D. i;f76-i784. — "^he process of acouisition by Russia.— Final ;cognition of Russian sovereignty by the Sultan. See Turks: A. D. 1776-1702. A. D. 1853-1855.— War of Russia with Tur- key and her allies.— Siege of Sebastopol. Bee Uussia: a. D. 1853-18.54, to IH,')4-18.56. CRISIS OF 1837, The. See United Statm ov Am.: a. 1). 1835-1837. CRISIS OF 185/. See Tariff Legislation (Unitki) Htatks): A. D. 1846-1H61. CRISSA.— Crissasan or Sacred War. Sea Dklpiii. CRITTENDEN COMPROMISE, The. See United States OF Am. : A. D. 1800 (Deck.\i- BBR). CROATANS, The. See America: A. D. 1587-1590. CROATIA : 7th Century.— Sclavonic oc- cupation and settlement. See Balkan and Danurian States, 7tii Century (Servia, Cro.vtia, Bosnia, etc.) A. D. 1 102.— Subjection and annexation to Hungary, SeeHuNOARY: A. D. 972-1114. A. D. 1576.— Transferred to the Duke of Styria. — Military colonization. See IIunoart : A. D. 1567-1004. CROI A, Turkish massacre at. See Greece: A. 1). 1454-1479. CROMLECHS. — Rude stone monuments found in many parts o' the British Islands, France, and clsewhero usually formed by three or more huge, rou,";ii, upright stones, with a still larger stone lying natly upon them. In Prance these are called Dolmens. They were formerly thought to be " Druids altars," to which ruition they owe the name Cromlechs ; but it is now very generally concluded by arcbaiologists that they were constructed for burial chambers, and that originally, in most cases, thev were covered with mounds of earth, forming the well known barrows, or grave mounds, or tumuli. — L. Jewett, Orate Mounds. Also in : T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon. — Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, ch. 5. — See, also, Amorites. CROMPTON'S MULE, The invention of. See Cotton Manufactures. CROMWELL, Oliver.— Campaigns and Protectorate. See England: A. 1). lOii to 16.5S-1660; and Ireland: A. D. 1649-1650. CROMWELL, Thomas, and the suppres- sion of the Monasteries. See England: A. D. 1535-1539. CROMWr^LLIAN SETTLEMENT OF IRELAND, '-'ee Ireland: A. D. 1053. CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES. See Eng- land: A. D. 1643 (M.\y). CROSS, The "True."— Its capture by the Persians and recovery by Heraclius. See Uo.mb: a. D. 565-028; and Jerusalem: A. D. 615. CROSS KEYS, Battle of. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1802 (May — June: Vir- ginia). CROTON.— KROTON. See Sybaris. CROTONA, Battle of (A. D. 983). See Italy (Southern): A. D. 800-1010. CROWN, The iron. See Lombardt, Tms Iron Crown op. CROWN OF INDIA, The Order of the.— An order, for women, instituted by Queen Vic- toria in 1878. 625 CROWN POINT. CRUSADES, 1094. CROWN POINT.: A. D. 1727.— Fort built by the French. ^Sl■l• Canada (Nkw Fhance); A. 1>. ITOO-lilir). A. D. 1755.— EiiKliih Expedition against. Sec Canada (New Fiianck): A. 1). 1755 (Hei'- TEMDkll). A. D. 1759. — Abandoned to the English by the French. 8<'C'C!anai)A(Nk\v FiiA.NtK); A. 1). 1750(.Iiii,v— Atoi;»T). A. D. 1775. — Surprise and capture by the Americans. S'ic U.mted ,St.\tk» of Am. : A. D. 1775 (May). « CROWS, OR UPSAROKAS, The. See A.MF,uirAN AnoKiiiiNEs: MioiiAN Family. CRUITHNIGH.-CRUITHNIANS.— The Iri.'th imme of the I'iots iiu(l Seots of ancient Ire- land hikI .Scolhiiid. Bee Scotla.ni): The Puts AND Hl'OTS. CRUSADES : Causes and introductory events. — " Like all the great movements of man- kind, the Crusades must be traced to the coinci- dence of many causes which inlluenced men of various nations and discordant feelings, at the same period of time, to pursue one common end with their whole heart. lU'ligious zeal, tlie fashion of pilgrimages, the spirit of social de- velopment, the energies that lend to colonisation or con(|uest, and commercial relations, only lately extended so widely nstoinlluencu public opinion, all suddenly received a deep wound. Every class of society felt injured and insulted, and unity of action was created as if bv a divine im- pulse. The movement was facilitated bv the circumstance that Europe began to adopt habits of order just at the time when Asia was thrown into a state of anarchy by the invasions of the Seljouk Turks. Groat numbers of pilgrims had always pas.;"d through the Byzantine empire to visit "the holy places in Palestine. We still pos- sess an itinerary of the road from Bordeau.v to Jerusalem, by tlie way of Constantinople, written in the fourth century for the use of pilgrins Though the disturlieil and impoverished st^ite of Europe, after the fall of the Western Empire, diminislied the number of pilgrims, still, even in times of the greatest anarchy, many passed an- nually through the Eastern Empire to Palestine. The improvement which dawned on the western nations during the eleventh century, and the augmented commerce of the Italians, gave addi- tional importance to the pilgrimage to the East. About the year 10C4, during the reign of Con- stantino X. , an army or caravan of seven thou- sand pilgrims passed tlirougli Constantinople, led by the Archbishop of Mentz and four bisliops. They made their way through Asia Minor, wliich was then under the Byzantme government; but in the neiglibourhood of Jerusalem they v/ere at- tacked .by the Bedouins, and only save:! from destruction by the Saracen emir of liti jila, wlio liastened to their assistance. These pilgrims arc reported to liave lost 3,000 of their number, witliout being able to visit cither the Jordan or the Dead Sea. The invasions of the Seljouks [see TuiiKS (Tiie Seljuks): A. D. 1073-1092] mereuscd the disorders in Palestine. ... In the year 1076 the Seljouk Turks took possession of Jerusalem, and immediately commenced harass- ing the pilgrims with unheard-of exactions. The Saracens had in general viewed the pilgrims with favour, as men engaged in fulflUing a pious duty, or pursuing lawful gain with praiseworthy industry, and thev had levied only a ronsonnbl© toll on till! pilgrims, and a nioderate duty on their merchandise . while in consideration of these imposts, thev had established guarils to ])rotect them on the roads by which they ap- proached the holy places. Tli<! Turks, on the contrary, acting Tike mere nonmd.t, uncertain of retaining possession of the city, thought only of gratifying their avarice. They plundered the rich pilgrims and insidted the poor. The relig- ious feelings, of the Christians were irritated, and their commerce ruined; a cry for vengeance aro.se throughout all Europe, and men's minds were fully prepared for an attempt to conquer Palestine, when Peter the Hermit l)egan to preach that it was a sacred <luty to deliver the tomb of Christ from the hands of the InBdels. " — O. Fiiday, Hint of the /li/zttntiiie iiiid Greek Kmpiim, l/k. 3, rh. 2, met. 1. A. D. 1094.— The Council of Clermont.— Pope Urban 11., one of two rival pontifTs then contending for iv ^ni.ion by the Cliurch, en- tered with great eag^/ncss into the movement stirred by Peter the Hermit, and gave it a powerful impidse through his support, while obtaiumg for himself, at the same time, a de- cisive advantage over his coinoetitor, l)y the popularity of the agitation. A great Council was convened at Piacen/.ii, A. I). 1004, and a second at Clermont, in the autumn of ilie same year, to deliberate tipon the action to be taken. The city of Clermont coidd not contain the vast multitude of bishops, clergy and laity which assembled, and an army of many thousands was tented in the surrounding country. To that ex- cited congregation, at a meeting in the great B(iuarc of Clermont, Pope Urban addressed a speech wliich is one of the notable utterances of history. "lie began by detailing the miseries endured by their brethren in the Holy Land; how the jilains of Palestine were desolated by the outrageous heathen, who with the sword and the firebrand carried wailing into the dwel- lings and liaines into the possessions of the faithful: how Cliristian wives and daughters were defiled by pagan lust ; how the altars of the true God were desecrated, and the relics of the saints trodden under foot. ' You,' continued the elo(juent pontiff (and Urban II. was one of the most eloquent men of the day), 'you, who hear me, and who have received the true faith, and been endowed by Go<l with i)ower, and strength, and greatness of soul, — whose ances- tors have been the prop of Christendom, and whose kings have put a barrier against the prog- ress of the infidel. — I call upon you to wipe off these impurities from the face of the earth, and lift your oppressed fellow-Christians from the depths into which they have been trampled.' . . . The warmth of the pontiff communicated itself to the crowd, and the enthusiasm of the people broke out several times ere ho concluded his address. lie went on to portray, not only the spiritual but the temporal advantages that would accrue to those who took up arms in the service of the cross. Palestine was, he said, a land flowing with milk and honey, and precious in the sight of God, as the scene of the grand events which liad saved mankind. That land, he promised, should be divided among them. Moreover, they should have full pardon for all their offences, either against God or man. ' Go, then,' he added, ' in expiation of your sins; and 826 CRU8ADKS. 1004. Prter the Hermit. CRUSADES, 1000-1009. go nmurcd, thiit nftcr thlH world nIiiiII linvc iti the world whicli is to coiik'. ' The ciiljiu'siiism WHS no longer to l)i> ri'stniiiicil, and loud slioiils Interrupted the speaker; the Jieople e.xeluiniinjf as if with one voiee. 'Dieii le veiiltl Dleu le veulti'. . . Tlio news of tids couneil spread to tlie remotest ])arts of Europe in an ineredil)ly sliort space of time. Lonj; before tlie tleetesl liorseman eould liave broufflit 'lie inlelligenee, it was Ivuowu by tlie people in distant provinces; a fact which was considered as notlunji; less than supernatural. Hut the subject was in every- body's mouth, and the mind.s of men were pre- pared for the residt. The enthusiastic mendy as.serted what they wished, and llio event tallied with tlieir i)redic"tion." — (,'. Mackav, Miiiiain af Eitmonlinani Popular Dclunintu : The Cnmuhs, (p. 2). Also in; II. II. Mihnan, Hint, of IjiiUi Chris- tianitji. hk. 7, eh. 6. A. D. lOpA-iOQS.— Peter the Hermit and his appeal. — "About twenty years after the con- quest of Jerusalem by the Turks, the holy sepul- chre was visited by an hermit of the name of Peter, n native of Amiens, in the province of Picardy in Franco. His resentment and symjiathy were ctcited by his own injuries, and tlie oppression of tlie Christian name; lu' mingled his tears with those of tlie patriiircli, and earnestly iii(|uire<l, if no hopes of relief could be entertained from the Greek emperors of the East. The patriarch ex- posed the vices and weakness of the successors of Constantinc. 'I will rou.tc,' exclaimed the hermit, 'the martial nations of Europe in your cause;' and Europe was obedient to tlie call of the hermit. Tlie astonished itatriarcli dismissed him with epistles of credit and complaint, and no sooner did he land at Bari, than I'eter lias- tened to kiss the feet of the Itonian ponlilT. His stature was small, his appearance coiitemptilile; but his eye was keen and lively, and he pos- sessed that vehemence of siieech which seldom fails to impart the persuasion of tlie soul. He was born of a gentleman's family (for we must now adopt a modem idiom), and his military service was under the neighbourii.g counts of Boulogne, the heroes of the first crusade. In- vigorated by the approbation of the pontiff, this zealous missionary traversed, with speed and success, the provinces of Italy and France. His diet was abstemious, his prayers long and fer- vent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed with the other; his head was bare, his feet naked, his meagre body was wrapt in a coarse garment; he bore and dis- played a weighty crucili.'c ; and tlio ass on which he rode was sanctified in the public eye by tlie service of the man of God. He preached to in- numerable crowds in the chiirches, the streets, and the highways. . . . When he painted the sufferings of the natives and ])ilgrims of Pales- tine, every heart was melted to compassion; every breast glowed with indignation, when he challenged the warriors of the ago to defend their brethren and rescue their Saviour: his ignorance of art and language was compensated by figlis and tears, and ejaculations; and Peter supplied the deficiency of reason by loud and frequent appeals to Christ and his Mother, to the saints and angels of paradise, with whom he had personally conversed. Tlie most perfect orator of Athens might have envied the success of his cUxpicnce; the rustic rntliuslast inspired the passions wliich he felt, and Christendom ex- pected with impatience the counsels and decrees of the Kupreiiie pontiff." — K. Gibbon, Dirline and Full of the Itoman Kiii/iire, ch. 58. Al,Hf) IN; .1. C. Uoberlson, llUt. oftht Chrittiari Church. U: (I, ch. 4 (r. 4). A. D. 1096-1099.— The First Great Move- ment. — Tlic lirsl army if Crusaders to s<a out on the long luar.li to .lerusalem was a mob of men, women and children wiiicli had not patience to wait for the organized movement of the military leaders. They gathered in vast numliers on Hie banks of "the Jloselle and the Meuse, in the spring of 1006, witli Peter the Hermit for tlieir cliosc'ii chief. There were nine knights, only, in the swarm, and but few who had horses to ride, or elllcieiit arms to bear, or provisions to Iced upon. Knowing nothing, and therefore fearing notliiiig, tliey niarcheil away, through France, Germany, Hungary and beyond begging food where they could and sulisisi.iig by pillage when it needed. A knight called Walter the Penniless led the van, and Peter followed, witli his second division, by a somewhat different route. Walter escaped seri- ous trouliie until he reached the country of tlie suvagc Ui Igarians. Peter's senseless mob pro- vok ! ihe just wrath of the Hungarians by storming the small city of Semlin and slaying 4,000 of its inhabitants. Tlie route of both was lined with tlie bones of tliou.sa:.i<ls who perished of hunger, of exposure, of disease, and by tlie sworils of Hungarians and Bulgarians. A third and a fourth ]iost of like kind followed in their wake, led by a monk, Gol.schalk, a priest named Volkmar, and a Count Eniicoii. Tliese ternir- ized even more all tlie countries tliroiigh wliich they liassed, — especially where Jews were to be hunted and killed, — and were destroyed in Hungary to almost tliC last man. Peter and Walter reached Constantinople with 100,000 fol- lowers, it is said, even yet, after all who had fallen by the way. Still refusing to wait for the better appointed expeditions that were iu progress, and still appalling ea.stern Christen- dom liy tlieir lawless barbarities, they passed into Asia Jlinor, and their miserable career soon came to an end. Attacking tlic Turks in the city of Nicaia, — which had become the capital of the Seljouk sultan of Itoum, — they were beaten, routed, scattered, slaughtered, until barely 8,000 of the great host escaped. "Of the first Crusaders, " says Oiblion, "300,000 had already perished before a single city was rescued from the infidels, — before their graver and more noble bretliren had completed the preparations of their enterprise." Meantime tlie knights and princes of the crusade had gathered their armies i.ud were now (in the summer of 1006) beginning to move eastward, by different routes. Kot one of t.ic greater sovereigns of Europe had enlisted ?'! the undertaking. The chiefs of one arnia- nient were Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of the Lower Lorraine, or Brabant; liis brothers, Eustace, couLt of Boulogne, and Baldwin; his cousin, Baldwin de Bourg, with Baldwin, count of Ilainaut, Dudon de Contz, and other knights celebrated in tlio "Jerusalem Delivered' of Tiisso. This expedition followed nearly the route of Peter the Hermit, through Hungarj' and Bulgaria, giving hostages for its orderly conduct and winning the good-will of those coun- 627 CRU8ADE8, 1000-lOW. Jrrutalem IHlivtrtd. CRUSADES, 1101-1108. tries, even n.vlili-ncd iw tlicy were liy the fori'- ffiiiiif( nioliN. Aniitlicr larKcr follriwIiiK fri>iii FraiK'(> wiiH It'll by lliiuli, coiiiit of V'cniiiiiuloiH, lirDtlur <>r the kliij{ <>f T'nincc; HoIhtI, duki- of Niirnmiidy, cldcul wm of Williiun llic CoiKHicror; tttfplicn. (ouiit of HIoIh, till- ('oni|iit'r(ir'H Hon In- liiw, iiiid Koliirl, count of KlandcrH. TIii'm.' took the road into Italy, and to Marl, wheiici', after hlirndiiiK the winter, wjdtinK for favorable weather, tliey were tranH|«irted by Hblps to Oreeee, and piirsueil tlieir inareli to Constanti iiople. Tliey were followed by a contlnKent from Moiitliern Italy, under Bolieniond, the Nor- iiinii prince of Tarentuni, son of Itobert OiiiHcard, and uIh knightly coiiHin, Tancre<l. A f.iurth army, gathered In Hoiithern France uy count Kuymond of 'rouloiiHc and HIhIioi) Adliemer, the appointed le^jate and representative of the l>ope, cho§e Htill another route, through Lombardy, Dalmatia and Macedoniji, into Thrace. ()n pnKttiiiK throiif(li the territorieH of the Hyzantinc emperor (Alexius I.), all the crusaders experl- tnccd liix distrust, his dtiplieity, and his cau- tious ill will — which, tmder the circumstances were initural enough. Alexius mana^'cd so well that lie extorted from each of the princes an acknowledfrment of his rlf;hts of sovcreij^nty over the region of their expected coiupiests, with un oath of fealty and honuiKe, and he pushed them across \.\\v. Hosphorus so adroitly that no two had the opportuidty to mute their forces under tlu' walls of Constantinople. Their llrst undertaking in Asia [May and June, A. I). 1U07] was tlic sicf^e of Niciea, and they beleaguered it with an army which (Jibbon believes to have been never excee<led within the compass of a single camp. Here, again, they were mastered by the cunning diplomacy of the Greek emperor. When the sultan of Uoum yielded his capital, he was ])ersuttded to stirrcnder it to Alexius, and the imperial banner protected it from the rage of the discomdted tru.saders. Hut they revenged themselves on the Turk at Dorylieum, where he attacked them during tlieir subseciuent m irch, and where he siifTercd a defeat which ended all tigliting in Asia Minor. Raldwin, brother of Godfrey, now improved Iiis opportunities by stealing awny from the army, with a few liun- <lred knights and men, to make coiuiuests on his own account; with such success that he won the city of Edessa, with a sweep of country around it, and founded a principality which subsisted for half a century. The rest fared on, meeting no opposition from infldcl swonls, but sickening and dying by thousands, from heat and from want of water and food, until they came to Antioch. There, the Turkish emir in command, with a stout garrison of horse and foot, had prepared for a stubborn defence, and he held the besiegers at bay for seven months, while they sturved in their ill-supplied camps. The city was deliv- ered to them by a Ixtnor, at length, but prince Bohemond, the c Ay Tsorman, secured the bene- fit of the treason to himself, and forced his com- patriots to concede to l.dm the sovereignty of Antioch. The sufferings of the crusaders did not end willi the taking of the city. They brought famine and pestilence upon themselves anew by their greedy and sensual indulgence, and they were soon under siege in their own turn, by a great army which the Turks had brought against them. Death and desertion were in rivalry to thin their wasted ranks. The survivors were in gl(M)m and despair, when an opportune miracle occurped to excite them afresh. A lance, which visions an<l apparitions certitled to be tlie very spear that pierced the Kedeemer's side, was foimd buried in a church at Antioch. Under the Htimuius of this amaz- ing <li.scovery they sallied from the town and dispersed the great army of the Turks in utter rout. Htill the ipiarrels of tlie leaders went on, and ten months more were consumed before the remains of tlie Latin army advaiu'ed to .lerusa- lem. It was June, A. I). lOOU, when they saw the Holy City and a.ssalle(l its fornddable walls. Their number wa.i now reduced to 40,000, but tlieir devotion and their ardor rose tr '""nzy, and after a siege of little more than a month they forced an entnmce by storm. Then they spared neither age nor sex until they had killed all who ilenied tlie Savior of mankind — the I'rince of I'eace. — E. Gibbon, DeeUn'-, and Fall of the Human Kmpire, eh. 58. Also in: J. F. Miclmud, Hint, of the Crusades, hk. 1. — W. lk's<int and E. H. I'almer, Jeniiuikm, rh. 0.— (!. Mills, llht. of the Vnimiku, eh. 3-0. — See, also, jKUt'HAl.KM: A. I). lOOlt. A. D. I09ahii44. — The Latin conquests in the east. — The Kingdom of Jerusalem. See Jkih:sai,km: a. D. 1(H)U-I14.1, A. D. II0I-I102.— The after-wave of the first movement. — "The tales of victory brought home by the pilgrinu excited the most extrava- gant expectations in the minds of their auditors, and nothing was deemed ca])able of resisting European valour. The pope called uiionall who had taken the cross to perform their vow, the emperor Henry IV. had the crusade preached, in order to gain favour with the clergy and laitv. Many iirinces now resolved to visit in person the new empire founded In the East. Three great armicj assembled: tlio first In Italy under the archlishop of Milan, and the two counts of Hlam rate; the second in France under Hugh the Great "ind Stephen of IJlois [who had deserted their CO nrades of the first expedition at Antioch, and] wlu.T shame and remorse urged to perform their vow, William, duke of Guienne and count of Poitou, who mortgaged his territory to AVilliam Rufus of England to procure funds, the count of Nevers, the duke of Burgundy, the bishops oi Laon and Soissons; the third in Ger- many, under the bishop of Saltzburg, the aged duke Welf of Bavaria, (,'onrad the master of the horse to tlie emperor, and many other knights and nobles. Ida also, the margravine of Austria, declared her resolution to share tlie toils and dangers of the way, and pay her vows at the tomb of Christ. Vast numbers of women of all ranks accompanied all these armies, — nay, in that of the duke of Guicmie, who was inferior to none in valour, but united to it the qualities of a troubadour and glee-man, there appeared whole troops of young women. The Italian pilgrims were the first to arrive at Constantinople. Tliey set out early in the spring, and took Iheir way through Carinthia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Though the excesses committed by them were great, the emperor gave them a kind reception, and tlic most prudent and friendly advice re- specting their future progress. AVliile they abode at Constantinople, Conrad and the count of Blois, and the duke of Burgundy, arrived, and at Whitsuntide they, all passed over, and encamped at Nicomedia. With ignorant fatu 628 CRU8A.DE8, UOl-llO'J. St. tirrnnrd'i Pnachtny. CRUSADES, 1 147-1 140. Uy, nml ngniiixt nil cxiirricnccd lulviri-, llic new t'rusiulcrs rcBolvcd to ilirrct llicir iniircli Id Hiik- (liid iiikI to overthrow Hit! I'lillpliiilc. The first iMMly which lulvmicccl wii« iiit lo pieces liy Hie Turks on the liaiil<s of the Miilys, iiiid only ii few thousiiiulg, out of more thtiii one hunilreil thou- snnd, lire fiiil.l to hiive niiide their esciipe by des- penile tlighl. The second and third iiniii's were met successively hy the victorious .M<isleiiiH, before they had iidviinced so far, and wen' even mor(! completely i.nnilillated. The latter body contained, according to the chroniclers of tlio time, t.lO.OOO pilgriins, of whom scanelv one thoustinil were saved from slavery or death. The men fell under the swords of the Turks; the women and girls, in great numbers, llnishetl out their days in the liarems of the East. Out of the wreck of the three vast nrmaments a Hieiider column of 10,000 men was got together after some weeks at Antio.h and led to Jerusalem (A. I). 1102). Most of these pcrl.shed in subse- quent battles, and very few ever saw Europe ngnin. "Huchwasthe fruitless tormiiiution of this second great movement of the West, in which perhaps a tliird of a inilliou ot pilgrin.s left their homes, never to revisit them. — T. Keightley, T/ie CnimderK, eh. 3. Ai.so IN: J. F. iMichaud, Hid. of the Cruamles, bk. 4. A. D. 1104-1111.— Conquest of maritimr cities of Syria and Palestine.- "destruction of the Library of Tripoli.— " Tlie pi Dcrity ami the safety of Jerusalem ap|)eared dotuiy connected with the conquest of the maritime cities of Syria and Palestine; it beinj' by them alone that It could receive succour, or establish prompt and easy communications witli the West. The maritime nathms of Europe were interested in seconding, in this instance, the enterprises of the king of Jerusalem. . . . From the period of the tirst crusades, the Pisaus and the Genoese had cor.iitantly sent vessels to the seas of the East ; ■■.ad their fleets had aided the Christians in several expeditions against the Mussuls ans. A Genoese fleet had just arrived in the heot. of Syria wlien Baldwin undertook the siege of PtolemaVs [Acre]. The Genoese were Invited to assist in this con- quest ; but as religion was not the principle to bring tluiin into action, they required, in return for their assistance and their labour, that they should have a third of the booty; they likewise stipulated to have a separate church for them- selves, and a national factory and tribunal in the conquered city. PtolemaVs was besieged by land and sea, and af* jr a bloody resistance of twenty days, the inhabitants and the garrison proposed to surrender, and implored the clemency of the concpierors. The city opened its gates to the Christians, and the inhabitants prepared to de- part, taking with them whatever they deemed most valuable ; but the Genoese, at the sight of such rich booty, paid no respect to the capitula- tion, and massacred without pity a disarmed and defenceless people. ... In consequence of this victory, several ploces which the Egyptians still held on the coasts of Syria fell into the hands of the Christians. " Among those wos the city of Tripoli. " Raymond, Count de St. Gilles and of Thoulouse, one of the companions of Godfrey, after having wandered for a long time about Asia, had died before this place, of which he had oomraenced the siege. In memory of his exploits In the first crusade, 'lie rich territory of Tripoli was created a county, and became the Inheritance of ills family. Tlifs territory was celebrated for its productions. . . . A library established in this city, and celelimted through all the East, con tained Ihe monuments of the ancient llleratiire of the Persians, the Arabians, llie Kgyplians, and Wiv Greeks. A hundred copyists were llieie con- stantly employed in transcribing manuscripts. . . . After the taking of the city, a priest at- laclie<l to Count lleriiard de St. Gilles, entered Ihe room in which were collected avast nuniberof copies of Ihe Koran, and as liedeclar<'il tlci^ library of Tripoli contained only the Impious liooks of .Mahomet, it was given up to the tlames. . . . llihiics, situated on the smiling and fertile shores of Pli(M'iiicia, Sarepta, where St. Jerome saw still in his day the tower of Isaiah; and llerytus, famous in the early days of the chureli for its school of elo(|Uence, shared the fate of Tripoli, and becami! baronies bestowed upon Christian kniglils. After these con(|uests, tlii^ Pisans, tho Genoesi', and several warriors wlio had followed lialdwin in his expeditions, returne<l into Europe; and the king cf .Jerusalem, abaiuloned by theso u.seful allies, was obliged to employ the forces wliieli remaineil in repulsing the inva.sions of the Saracens." — J. F. Micliaud, Hitt. of the Vrusadet, r. 1, U: 5. A, D. 1 147-1 149.— The Second Great Move- ment. — 1. iring tlie reign of Fulk, tlie fourth king of Jerusalem, the Lat'n power in Palestine and its neigliboring territories began to be seri- ously shaken by n vigorous '1 urklsh prince named Zenglil, on whom tho sultan Mahmoud had conferre<l the government of all the country west of the Tigris. It was the first time since the coming of the Christians of the West that the whole strength of Islam in that region had been so nearly gatheretl into one strong hand, to be used against tliem, and they felt the effect speedily, being themselves weakened by many quarrels. In 1143 King Fulk died, leaving tho crown to a young son, Haldwin III., — a boy of thirteen, whose mother governed in his name. Tiie next year Zenghi captured the important city of Edessa, and consternation was produced by his successes. Europe was then .:ppealed to for help against the advancing Turk, and the call froni Jerusalem was taken up by St Ber- nard of Clairvaux, 'he irresistible enthusiast, whose influence accomplished, in his lime, what- ever he willed to have done. Just half a century after Peter the Hermit, St Bernard preaclied a Second Crusa<le, and with almost equal effect, notwithstanding the better knowledge now pos- sessed of all tile hardships and perils of the expedition. Tliis time, royalty took the lead. King Conrad of Germany commanded n great army from that country, and anotlicr host fol- lowed King Louis VII. from France. "Both armies marched down the Danube, to Constanti- nople, in the summer of 1147. At the same moment King Roger [of Naples], with his fleet, attacked, not tho Turks, but the Greek seaport towns of the Slorea. Manuel [the Byzantine emperor] thereupon, convinced that the large armies were designed for the destruction of his empire in the first place, with the greatest exer- tions, got togetiier troops from all his jirovinces, and entered into a half-alliance with the Turks of Asia Minor. The mischief and ill-feeling was increased by the lawless conduct of the Girman hordes; the Greek troops attacked them uioro 629 CRUSADES, 1147-1149. Kichard againit HaUidin. CRUSADES, 1188-1103. than once- whereupon numerous voices were raised in Louis's liL-iidquiirtcrs to dcmnnd open war BKidnsl tlic fiiitldcss Qrc-cks. The liings were fuliy ai^recd not to permit this, but on arrivinj^ in (."onstantinople tiiey completely fell oui, for, wliile houis made no secret of his warm fricn>lsliip for Roger, Conrad ijromised the Emperor of Constantinople to attacli the Nor- mans lis soon as the Crusade should be ended. This was a bad beginning for u united campaign in the East, and moreover, at every step east- ward, new difliculties arose. The German army, broken up into s>'veral detachments, and led without ability or prudence, wius attacked in Asia Jlinor by the Emir of Iconiuin, and cut to pieces, all but a few hundred men. The F-ench, though better appointed, also suffered severe losses in that coui. ry, but contrived nevertheless, to reach Antioch wltli a very considerable force, and from thence niiglit have carried the project which tlie second Ualdwiu had conceived in vain, namely, the defence of the northeastern frontier, upon wliich, especially since Zenki [Zenghi] had made his appearance, the life or death of the Christian states depended. But in vain did Prince Raymond of Antioch try to prevail upon King Louis to take this view, and to attack with- out delay the most formidable of all their adver- saries, Noureddin [son of Zenghi, now dead]. Louis would not hear or do anything till he had seen Jerusalem and prayed at the Holy Sepul- chre. ... In Jerusalem he [King Louis] was welcomed by Queen Melisonde (now regent, during her son's minority, after Fulco's death), with praise and gratitude, because he had not taken part in the distant wars of the Prince of Antiocli, but had reserved his forces for the defence of the holy city of Jerusalem. It was now resolved to lead the army against Damascus, the only Turkish town whose Emir hod always refused to submit to either Zenki or Noureddin. Nevertheless Noureddin instantly collected all his av.iilable forces, to succour the besieged town." But he was spared furtiier exertion by the jealous disagreement of the Christians, who began to take thought as to what should be done with Damascus when they took it. The Svrian barons concluded that they would prefer to leave the city in Turkish hands, uud by treacherous manccuvres they forced king Louis to raise the siege. "The German king, long since tired of hio powerless position, returned home in the autumn of 1148, and Louis, after much pressing, stayed a few months longer, and reached Europe in the following spring. The whole expedition . . . had been wrecked, without honour and without result, by the most wretched pe;rsonal passions, and the most narrow and selfish policy." — H. Von Sybel, Iliat. and Literature of i/ie Cru- lades, ch. 3. — "So ended in utter shame and ignominy the Second Crusade. The event seemed to give the lie to the glowing promises and prophecies of St. Bernard. So vast had been the drain of population to feed this holy war that, in the phrase of an eye-witness, tlie cities and castles were empty, and scarcely one man was left to seven women; and v. '\v it was known that the lathers, the liusbands, the sons, or the brothers of these miserable women would see their earthly homes no more. The cry of anguish charged Bernard with the crime of sending them forth on an errand in which they bad done absolutely nothing and had reaped only wretchedness and disgrace. For a time Bernard hi Tiself was struck dumb : but he soon remem- bered that he had spoken with the uuthority of God and his vicegerent, and that I lie guilt or failure must lie at the door of the pilijrims." — G. W. Cox, T/ie CnimdeH, eh. 5. A. D. 1 187.— The loss of Jerusalem. See Jeuusai,e.m: A. I). 1149-U87. A. D. 1188-1193.— The Third Great Move- ment. — When the news readied Europe that Saladin, the redoubtable new cliampian of Islam had expelled the Christians and the Cross from Jerusalem, polluting once more the j^reclncts of the Holy Sepulchre, the cflect proiluccd was something not easily understood at the present day. If we may believe historians of the time, the pope (Urban III.) died of grief; "Christians forgot all the ills of their own country to weep over Jerusalem. . . . Luxury was banished from cities; injuries were forgotten and alms were given abundantly. Cliristians slept ujion ashes, clothed themselves in haircloth, and expiated their disorderly lives by fasting and mortifica- tion. The clergy set the example ; the morals of the cloister were reformed, and cardinals, con- demning themselves to poverty, promised to re- ])air to the Holy Land, supported on charity by the way. These pious reformations did not last long ; but men's minds were not the less prepared for a new crusade liy them, and all Europe was soon roused by the voice of Gregory VIII., who exhorted the faithful to assume the cross and take up arms." — J. F. iMichaud, Jlist. of the Crusader, bk. 7. — 'The emperor Frederic Barba- rossa and the kings of France and England assumed the cross; and the tanly magnitude of their armaments was anticipated by the moritime states of the Mediterranean and the ocean. The skilful and provident Italians first embarked in the ships of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. They were speedily followed by the most CRger pil- grims of France, Normandy and the Wci^tem Isles. The powerful succour of Flanders, Frise, and Denmark filled near a hundred vessels; and the northern warriors were distinguished in the field by a lofty stature and a ponderous battle- axe. 'Their increasing multitudes could no longer be confined within the walls of Tyre [which the Latins still held], or remain obedient to the voice of Conrad [JIarquis of ]Montferrat, who had taken command of the place and repelled the attacks of Saladin]. '^•ley pitied the misfortunes and revered the dignl ' of Lusignan [the nominal king of Jerusp'^m, lately captive in Saladin's hands], wl'"> .as ...eased from prison, perhaps to divide t j army of the Franks. He proposed the recovery of Ptolemais, or Acre, thirty miles to the south of Tyre ; and the ])lace was first in- vested [July, 1189] by 2,000 horse and 30,000 foot under his nominal command. I shall not expatiate on the story of this memorable siege, which lasted near two years, and consumed, in a narrow space, the forces of Europe and Asia. ... At the sound of the holy trumpet the Moslems of Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and the Ori- ental provinces assembled under the servant of the prophet: his camp was pitched and removed within a few miles of Acre ; and he laboured, night and day, for the relief of his brethren and the annoyance of the Franks. ... In the spring of the second year, the royal fleets of France and England cast anchor in the bay of Acre, and the siege was more vigorously prosecuted by the 680 CRUSADES, 1188-1192. Peacf irUli the Infidel. CRUSADES, 1201-1203. youthful emulation of the two kings, Philip Augustus and KIchnrd Plnntngenet. After every resource hud been tried, and every hope was ex- hausted, tlie defenders of A :re submitted to their fate. . . . By the conquest of Acre the Latin powers acquired a strong town and a convenient harbour ; hut the advantage was most dearly pur- chased. Tlie minister and liistorian of Saladui computes, from tlie report of tlio enemy, that their numbers, at di/Terent periods, amounted to I 600,000 or 600,000; that more than 100,000 Chris- | tians were slain ; tliat a far greater nund)er was lost by disease ov sliipwreck." On the reduc- tion of Acre, king Pliilip Augustus relurned to France, leaving only 500 kniglits and 10,000 men behind him. Meantime, tlie old emperor, Fred- crick Barbarossa, coming by the landward roule, througn the country of tlie Greeks and Asia Minor, witli ii well-tr ined army of 20,000 kniglits and 50,000 men on fo t, had perished by the way, drowned in n little Cilician torrent, and only 5,000 of his troops had reached the camp at Acre. Old as ho was, (he was seventy when he took the cross) Barbarossa miglit have changed the event of the Crusade if lie had reached the scene of conllict; for he had brains with his valor and character with his ferocity, wliicli liicbard Ca'ur de Lion had not. Tlio latter remained another year in the Holy Land: recovered Ciesarea and JafFa; threatened Saladin in Jerusalem seriously, but to no avail; and stirred up more and fiercer quarrels among the Christians tlian had been customary, even on the soil which was sacred to them. In tlie end, a treaty was arranged which displeased tlie more devout on botli sides. "It was stipulated that Jerusalem and the holy sepul- chre should be open, without tribute or vexa- tion, to tlie pilgrimage of the Latin Christians; that, after the demolition of Ascalon, they sliould inclusively possess the sea-coast from Jaffa to Tyre; that the count of Tripoli and the prince of Aiitioch should be comprised in the truce ; and that, during three years and tliree montlis, all hostilities should cease. . . . Rlcliurd embarked for Europe, to seek along captivity and a premature grave; and the space of a few months concluded the life and glories of Saladin." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, eh. 59. — "A halo of false glory surrounds the Third Crusade from the associations which connect it with the lion-hearted king of England. The exploits of Richard I. have stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of chroniclers, have furnished themes for jubilant cu Jgies, and have shed over his life that glamour which cheats even sober-minded men when they read thi story of his prototype Achilleus in the tale of Troy . . . . When we turn from tlie picture to the reali y, we shall see in this Third Crusade an enterpiise in which the fiery zeal which does somethin.t to- wards redeeming the savage brutalities of God- frey aud the first crusaders is displaced by base and sordid greed, by intrigues utterly of the ei rth earthy, bv wanton crimes from which we mijlit well suppose that the sun would hide away its face ; and" in the leaders of this enterprise we shall see men in whom morally there is scarcely a single quality to relieve the monotonous blackness of their infamy; in whom, strategically, a very" little generalship comes to the aid of a blind brute force." — Gf. W. Cox, The Crusades, eh. 7. Also in: Mrs. W. Busk, Mediaeval Popes, Emperors, Kifts and Onuaders, bk. 2, eh. 12, a7id bk. Z,ch. 1-2. .-. . , , : . A D. 1196-1197.— The Fourth Expedition. — A crusading expedition of German barons aud their followers, which wi-r.l to the Holy Land, by way of Italy, in 1100, is generally counted as the Fourth Crusade, though '-'mie writers look upon it as a movement supplementiiry to tlio Third Cru.sade. The Germans, who numbered some 40,000, do not seem t( liiwe been welcomed by the Christians of Pii';s:ine, Tlie latter jire- erred to maintain the state of peace then pre- vailing; but the new crusaueis forced hostilities at once. Saladin was dead ; his brother Saphadin accepted the challenge to warwitli prompt vigor and struck tlie first liard blow, taking Jalfa, with great slaughter, and demolishing its fortifica- tions. But .Sai)lia(lin was presently defeated in a battle fought between Tyre and Sldon, and Jaffa was recovered, together witli other towns and most of the coast. But, a little later, the Germans suffered, in their turn, a most demoral- izing reverse at the castle of Tlioron, whiih they besieged, and weve further disturbed, in the midst of their depression, by news of tlie death of their emperor, Henry VI. A great part of them, thereupon, returned home. Those who re- remained, or many of them, occui)icd Jaffa, wliere they were attacked, a few montlis later, 'ind cut to pieces. — G. \V. Cox, The Crusades, eh. 6. A. D. 1201-1203.— The Fifth Movement. — Treachery of the Venetians. — Conquest of Constantinople. — "Every traveller returning from Syria brouglit a prayer for immediate help from tiie survivors of the Third Crusade. It was necessary to act at once if any portion even of the wreck of the kingdom of Jerusalem were to be saved. Innocent the Third, aud some, at least, of the statesmen of the WdSt were fully alive to the progress which Islam had mudo since the departure of the Western kings. In 1197, however, after five yearsof weary waiting, the time seemed opportune for striking a new blow for Christendom. Saladin, the great Sultan, had died in 1193, and his two sons were already quarreling about the partition of his empire. The contending divisions of the Arab MosIeAs were at this moment each bidding for the sup- port of the Christians of Syria. The other great race of Mahometans which had threatened Europe, the Seljukian Turks, had made a halt in their progress through Asia Minor. . . . Other special circumstances wliich rendered the moment favourable for a new crusade, com- bined with the profound conviction of the states- men of the West of the danger to Christendom from the progress of Islam, urged Western Europe to tiike part in the new enterprise. The reigning Pope, Inncent III., was the great moving spirit of the Fourth Crusade." The popular preacher of the Crusade was found in an Ignorant priest named FulH, of Neuilly, whose success in kindling puulic enthusiasm was almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit. Vast numbers took the cross, with Theobald, count of Champagne, Louis, count of Blois and Char- tres, Simon de Montfort, Walter of Erienne, Baldwin, count of Flanders, Hugh of St. Pol, Geoffrey de Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne and future historian of the Crusade, and many other prominent knights and princes among the leaders. The young count of Champagne was the chosen chief ; but he sickened and died and his place was taken by Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. It was the decisiou of the leaders 631 CRUSADES, 1201-1203. Taking of CotutantinopU. CRUSADES, 1212. thnt the expedition should be directed i}\ the first instance ngiiinst tlie Moslem power in Egypt, and tliat it sliould he conveyed to tlie attack of Egypt by sea. Venice, alone, seemed to hcnhlc to furnish sliips, sailors and supplies for so gn'ut a movement, and a contract with Venice for the servire was concluded in the spring of 1201. But Venice was mercenarv, unscrupulous and treuc'ierous, caring for nothiiig hut commercial gains. Before the crusaders could gather at her port for embarkation, slie had lietrayed them to the Moslems. By a secret treaty with the sultan of Egypt, the fact of which is coming more and more conclusively to light, she had undertaken to frustrate the Crusade, and to receive import- ant commercial privileges at Alexandria as com- pensation for her treachery. AVhen, therefore, in tlie early summer of 1202, the army of the Crusade was collected at Venice to take ship, it encountered difBculties, discouragements and ill- treatments which thickened daily. The number assembled was not equal to expectation. Some had gone by sea from Flanders ; some by other routes. But Venice had provided transport f jr the whole, and inflexibly demanded pay for '»he whole. The money in hand was not equnl to this claim. Thv; suninicr was lost in disputes and attempted compromises. Many of the cru- saders withdrew in disgust and went home. At length, in defiance of the censures of the pope and of the bitter opposition of many leaders and followers of the expedition, there was a bargain struck, by the terms of which the crusaders were to assist the Venetians in taking and plundering the Christian city of Zara, a dreaded commerciiil rival on the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic, be- longing to the king of Hungary, himself one of the promoters of the very crusade which was now to be turned against him. The infamous compact was carried out. Zara was taken, and in the end it was totally destroyed by th*! Venetians. In the meantime, the doomed city was occupied by the crusading army through the winter, while a still more perfidious plot was being formed. Old Dandolo, the blind doge of Venice, was the master spirit of it. He was helped by th<! in- fluence of Philip, one of the two rivals then fighting for the imperial crown In Germany and Italy. Philip had married a daughter of Isaac II. (Angelos), made emperor at Constantinople on the fall of the i j'nasty of Comnenus, and that feeble prince had lately been dethroned by his brother. The son and heir of Isaac, named Alexius, had escaped from Constantinople and had made his way to Philip imploring help. Either Pliilip conceived the idea, or it was sug- gested to him, that the armament of tlie Crusade might be employed to place the young Alexius on the throne of his father. To the v enetians the scheme was more than accepiable. It would frustrate the Crusade, wliicli they had pledged themselves to the sultan of Egypt to accomplisli ; it would satisfy their ill-will towards the By- zantines, and, more important than all else, it would give them an opportunity to secure im- measurable advantages over their rivals in the great trade which Constantinople lieKl at com- mand. The nianiuis of Jlontferrat, commander of the Crusa<ic, hail some grievances of his own and some ambitions of his own, wli'ch made him favorable to the new project, and he was easily won to it. The three influences thus combined — those of Philip, of Daudolo, and of Moutferrat — overcame all opposition. Some who opposed were bribed, some were intimidated, some were deluded by promises, some deserted the r.'\nk8. Pope Innocent remonstnited, appealed and threat- ened in vain. The pilgrim liost, " changed from a crusading army into a filibustering expedition," set sail from Zara in the spring of the year 1203, ond was landed, the following June, iiot on the shores of Egypt or Syria, but under the walls of Constintinople. Its conquest, pillage and brutally destructive treatment of the great city are described in another place. — E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, eh. 8-13. Also in: G. Finlay, J/int. of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, 71«-14r)3. bk. 3, eh. 3.— E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lioman Empire, eh. 59. — See, also, Byzantpne E.\tpinE: A. D. 1203-1204. A. D. 1201-1283.— Against the heathen Scla- Tonians on the Baltic. Sec Livonia: 12Tii-13Tn Centuiues; and Pkussia: 13tii Centuuy. A. D. 1209-1242.— Against the Albigenses. See Albioenses. A. D. 1212.— The Children's Crusade.— "The religious wars fostered and promoted vice ; and the failure of army after army was looked on as a clear manifestation of God's wrath against the sins of the camp. This feeling was roused to its highest pitch when, in the year 1212, certaio priests — Nicolas was the name of one of these mischievous madmen — went about France and Germany calling on the children to perform what the fathers, through their wickedness, had been unable to effect, promising that the sea should be dry to enable them to march across ; that the Saracens would be miraculously stricken with a panic at the sight of them; that God would, through the hands of children only, whose lives were yet pure, work the recovery of the Cross and the Sepulchre. Thousands — it is said fifty thousand — children of both sexes re- sponded to the call. They listened 10 the im- passioned preaching of the monks, believed their lying miracles, their visions, their portents, their references to the Scriptures, and, in spite of all that their parents could do, rushed to take the Cross, boys and girls together, and streamed along the roads which led to Marseilles and Genoa, singing hymns, waving brandies, reply- ing to those who asked whither they were going, ' We go to Jerusalem to deliver the Holy Sepul- chre,' and shouting their rallying cry, 'Lord Jesus, give us back thy Holy Cross. ' They ad- mitted whoever came, provided he took the Cross; the infection spread, and the children could not be restrained from joining them in the towns and villages along their route. Their miserable parents put them in prison; they es- caped; they forbade them to go; the children went in spite of prohibition. They had no money, no provisions, no leaders ; but the charity of the towns they passed through supported them. At their rear streamed the usual tail of cnmp followers. . . . There were two main bodies. One of these directed its way through Germany, across ll'e Alps, to Genoa. On the road they were robbed of all the gifts whicli hud been pre- sented them; they were exposed to heat and want, an 1 very many either died on the march or wandered away from the road and so became lost to sight; when they reached Italy they dis- persed obout the country, seeking food, were stripped by the villagers, and In some cases were reduced to slavery. Only seven thousand out of 682 CRUSADES, 131 >. Traaedu of the Children. CRUSADES, 1216-1229. their Li imbcr arrived (it Ocnon. Ilcrp they stayed for some (hiys. They looked down upon the Med.:errftnean, hoping that Its bright waves woukl divide to let them pass. But tliey did not; tiiero was no miracle wrought in th'Ar favour; a few of noble birtli were received simong the Genoese families, and have given rise to dis- tinguislied houses of Genoa ; among them is the house of Vivaldi. The rest, disappointed aud disheartened, made their way back again, and got liome at length, the girls with the loss of their virtue, tlie boys witli tlic loss of tlieir be- lief, all barefooted and in rags, lauglied at by the to.wns they went through, and wondering why they had ever gone at all. This was the end of the German army. That of the French was not so fortunate, for none of them ever got back again at all. When they arrived at Marseilles, thinned probably by the same causes as those which had dispersed the Germans, they found, like tlioir brethren, that tlie sea did not open a path for them, as had been promised. Perhaps some were disheartened and went home again. B\it fortune appeared to favour them. Tliere were two worthy merchants at Jlarseilles, named Hugh Perrens, and "Villiam Porcus, Iron Ilugli aud Pig William, who traded with the East, and had in port seven ships, in whicli they proposed to convey the children to Palestine. With a noble generosity they offered to take them for nothing, all for love of religion, and out of the pure kindness of tlieir hearts. Of course this offer was accepted with joj', and the seven ves- sels laden with tlie happy little Crusaders, sing- ing their hymns and flying their banners, sailed out from Marseilles, bound for the East, accom- fanied by William tlio Good and Hugh the Pious, t was not known to the children, of course, that the chief trade of these merchants was the lucra- tive business of kidnapping Christian cliildren for the Alexandrian market. It was so, however, and these respectable tradesmen had never be- fore made so splendid a coup. Unfortunately, off tlio Island of St. Peter, they encountered bad weather, and two ships went down with all on board. What must have been the feelings of the pliilanthropists. Pig William and Iron Hugh, at this misfortune? They got, however, five ships safely to Alexandria, and sold all their cargo, the Sultan of Cairo buying forty of the boys, whom he brought up carefully and apart, intending them, doubtless, for his best soldiers.. A dozen refusing to change their faith were martyred. None of the rest ever came back. Nobody in Europe seems to have taken much notice of this extraonlinary episode." — AV. Be- sant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, ch. 18. Also in: J. H. Michaud, Hint, rrfthe Crunculcs, app. 110. 28. — G. Z. Gray, The Children's Cru- sade, A. D. i2i2. — Against the Moors in Spain. See Spain: A. D. 1146-1232. A. D. 1216-1229. — The Sixth Movement. — Frederic II. in Jerusalem. — For six years after the betrayal of the vows of the crusaders of 1202- 1204 — who sacked Constantinople instead of rescuing Jerusalem — the Christians of Palestine were protected by a truce with Saphadin, the brother of Saladin, who had succeeded the latter in power. Hostilities were then rashly provoked by the always foolish Latins, and they soon found themselves reduced to sore straits, calling upon Europe for fresh help. Pope Innocent III. 41 did not scruple to second their appeal. A new crusade was preached with great earnestness, and a general Council of the Church — the Fourth of Lateran — was c(mvened for the stimulation of it. "The Fifth Crusade [or the Sixth, as more commonly numbered], tlie result of tliis resolu- tion, was divided in tlic sequel into tliree mari- time expeditions: tlie tlrst [A. D. 1216] consist- ing principally of Hungarians under their king, Andrew; the second [A. D. 12181 composed of Germans, Italians, French and Kngiisli nobles- and their followers; and the third [A. D. 1228] led by the Emperor Frederic 11. in person. . . . Though the King of Hungary was attended by the flower of a nation which, before its con- version to Cliristianity, had been the scourge and terror of Western Europe, the arms of that monarch, even aided by the junction of numer- ous German crusaders under the dukes of Aus- tria and Bavaria, performed nothing worti:y of notice : and after a single campaign in Palestine, in which the Jlussuhnan territories were ineffect- ually ravaged, tho tickle Andrew deserted the cause and returne.l with his forces to Europe. His defection did not prevent the duke of Aus- tria, with the German crusaders, from remaining, in concert with the King of Jerusalem, his barons, and the knights of tho three religious orders, for tlie defence of Palestine; and, in the follow- ing year, tlie constancy of these faithful cham- pions of tlie Cross was rewarded by the arrival of numerous reinforcements from Germany. . . . It was resolved to change the scene of warfare from the narrow limits of the Syrian shore to the coast of Egypt, . . . and the situation of Damietta, at tlie mouth of the Nile, jiointed out tliat city as the first object of attack." After a. siege of seventeen months, during which both, the besieged and the besiegers sulTered horribly, from famine and from pestilence, Damietta was- taken (A. D. 1219). Nine-tenths of its popula- tion of 80,000 had perished. " Both during tlie siege and after the capture of Damietta, tlie in- vasion of Egypt had tilled the infidels with con- sternation ; and the alarm which was betrayed ia tlieir counsels proved that tlic crusaders, in clioosing that count-y for tlie theatre of opera- tions, had assailed the Mussulman power m its- most vital and vulnerable point. Of the two sons of Saphadin, Coradiniu and Camel, who were now uneasily seated on the thrones of Da- mascus and Cairo, the former, in despair of pre- serving .Jerusalem, had already demolished ita fortifications; and the brothers agreed in re- peatedly offering the cession of tlie lioly city and of all Palestine to the Christians, ujiou Lhe single condition of their evacuating Egypt. Every object whicli had been ineffectually proposed in repeated Crusades, since the fatal battle of Tiberias, might now liave been gloriously ob- tained by the acceptance of these terms, and the King of Jerusalem, the .t'rench and English, leaders, and the Teutonic knights, all eagerly desired to embrace the offer of the Sultana. But the obstinate ambition and cupidity of the sur- viving papal legate. Cardinal Pelagius, of tho Italian cliief tains, and of the kniglits of the other two religious orders, by holding out the rich prospect of the conquest and plunder of Egypt, overruled every wise and temperate argument in the Christian councils, and jiroduced a rejection of all compromise witli the infidels. After a winter of luxurious inaction, the legate led the 633 CRTT8ADE8, 1216-1229. St, Louu In Eui/pt. CRUSADES, 1248-1254. crugndini^ host from Dnmictta townnl Cairo (A. I). 1220)." The expedition wiia lis disiis- troiiH in it8 result as it was imbecile in its leader- sliip. Tlie whole army, caught l)y the rising of the Nile, was placed in so helpless a situation that it was glad to purc^hase escape Ijy the surnmder of Daniielta and the evacuation of Egypt. The retreat of tlie greater part of these crusaders did not end until they had reached home. Pojie Honorius III. (who had succeeded Innocent III. in 1210) strove to shift respousiliility for the failure from liis wretched legate to the Emperor Frederic II.. who had thus far evaded tlie ful- filment of his crusading promises and vows, being occupied in struggles with the papacy. At length, in 1328, JVederic embarked for Palestine witli a small force, pursued l)y the maledictions of the |)ope, who denouncecl him for daring to assume the Cross while under tlie ban of the church, as much as he had denounced him before for neglecting it. But the free- thinking 1 lolieustauiTen cared little, apparently, and went his way, shunned scrupulously by all pious souls, inchuling the knights of Palestine, <?xcept those of the Teutonic order. Witli the help of the latter lie occupied and rcfortified Jafia and succeijded in concluding a treaty with the Sultan whicli restored Jerusalem to the Christians, reserving certain riglits to the Ma- hometans; giving up likewise Bethlehem, Naz- areth and some other places to the Christians, and securing |ieace for ten years. Frederic liad married, a few years before, for his second empress, lolantc, daughter and heiress of the titular k'jg of Jerusalem, Jolm de Brienne. AVith t',0 hand of this princess, he received from her f .dier a solemn transfer of all his riglits to that shadowy throne. lie now claimed those rights, and, entering Jerusalem, witli the Teu- tonic knights (A. 1). 1329), lie crowned himself its king. The patriarch, the Templars and the Hospitallers refused to take part in the ceremony ; the popo denounced Frederic's advantageous trratj^ as soon as lie liad news of it, and all that it gained for the Christians of Palestine was thrown away by tliem as speedily as possible. — Major Procter, Ilist. of the CrustKlen, ch. 5, sect. 3. — "No Crusader, since Godfrey dc Bouillon, had effected so much as Frederick tlie Second. What would he not have obtained, had the Pope, the Patriarcii and the Orders given him their ■ hearty cooperation ? " — T. L. Kington, Uht. of Frederick II., ch. 8. A. b. 1 238- 1 280. — Against the Bogomiles, See Balk.\n and Danuiiian States: 9th-16tu Centuuies (Bosnia, etc.) A. D. i;!42. — The Invasion of Palestine by the Carismians. See Jehusalem: A. D. 1343. A. D. 1248-1254.— The Seventh Movement. — Expedition ofSaint Louis to E^pt. — The Seventh Crusade was undertaken, with little aid from other countries, by the devout and wonder- fully Christian-like young king of France, Louis IX., afterwards canonized, and known ia history as St. Louis. " He carried it out witli a picked army, furnished by tlie feudal chivalry and by the religious and military orders dedicated to the service of the Holy Land. Tlie Isle of Cyprus was the trystiug-'place appointed for all the forces of the expedition. Louis arrived there on the 12th of September, 1248, and reck- oned upon remaining there only a few days ; for it was Egypt that he was in a hurry to reach. The Christian world was at that time of opinion thiit, to deliver the Holy Land, it was necessary first of all to strike a blow at Islamism in Egypt, wlierein its cliief strength resided. But scarcely had tlie crusaders formed a junction in Cyprus, when the vices of the expetiition and the weak- nesses of its chief liegan to be manifest. Louis, unshakable in his religious zeal, was wanting in clear ideas and fixed resolves as to the carrying out of his design. . . . He did not succeed in winning a majority in the council of chiefs over to his opinion as to the necessity for a speedy departure for Egypt ; it was decided to pass the winter in Cyprus. ... At last a start was made from Cyprus in May, 1249, and, in spite of vio- lent gales of wind which dispersed a large num- ber of vessels, they arrived on the 4th of June liefore Damietta. . . . Having become mas- ters of Damietta, St. Louis and the crusaders committed tlie same fault there as in the Isle of Cyprus: they halted there for an indefinite time. They were expecting fresh crusaders; and they spent the time of expectation in (luarieling over the partition of tlie booty taken in the city. Tliey made away with it, they wasted it blindly. . . . Louis saw and deplored these irregulari- ties, without being in a condition to stop them. At length, on the 20th of November, 1249, after more than five months' inactivity at Damietta, the crusaders put themselves once more in motion, with the determination of marching upon Babylon, that outskirt of Cairo, now called Old Cairo, which tlie greater part of them, in tlieir ignorance, mistook for the real Babylon, and where they flattered themselves they would find immense riclies, and avenge the olden suffer- ings of the Hebrew captives. The Mussulmans liad found time to recover from their first fright, and to organize, at all points, a vigorous resist- ance. On the 8tli of February, 1250, a battle took place twenty leagues from Damietta, at Mansourali ('the city of victory'), on tlie right bank of the Nile. . . . The battle-fleld was left that day to thi) crusaders; but they were not allowed to occupy it as conquerors, for, three days afterwanis, on the 11th of February, 1250, the camp of St. Louis was assailed by clouds of Saracens, horse and f'lot, Mamelukes and Bedouins. All surprise liad vanished, tlie Mus- sulmans measured at a glance the numbers of the Christians, and attacked them in full assur- ance of success, whatever lieroism tliey might display ; and the crusaders tliemselves indulged in no more self-illusion, and tliought only of defending tliemselves. Lack of provisions and sickness soon rendered defence almost as impos- sible as attack; every day saw the Cliristian camp more and more encumbered witli the famir stricken, tlie lying, and the dead; and the cessity for retreating became evident." An attempt to negotiate with the enemy failed, because they insisted on tlie surrender of tlio king as liostage, — whicli none would concede. "On the 5th of April, 1250, the crusaders decided upon retreating. This was the most deplorable scene of a deplorable drama ; and at the same time it was, for tlie king, an occasion for displaying, in their mo^t sublime and attractive traits, ail the virtues of the Christian. Whilst sickness and famine were devastating the camp, Louis made himself visitor, pliysician and comforter; and his presence and his words exercised upon the worst cases a searching influ- 634 CUU8ADE8, 1248-1254. St. LohU at I'unU. CRUSADES, 1270-1271. ence. . . . Wlion tho 5tli of April, the di y thicd for the retrent, had come, Loiiia liitiiK'lf was ill and much enfeeblod. IIo was urgwl to go cboani one of the vessels which were to descend the Nile, carrying the wounded and tho most suffering; but he refused absolutely, saying, 'I don't aeparato from my people in the hour of danger.' IIo remained on land, and wlien he had to move forward he fainted away. When Ue came to himself, he was amongst the last to leave the camp. ... At four lcag\ies distance from the canip it had just left, the rear-guard of tho crusaders, harassed by clouds of Saracens, was obliged to halt. Louis could no longer keep on his horse. ' He was put up at a house,' says .loinvillc, 'and laid, almost dead, upon tho lap of a tradeswoman from Paris; and it was believed that he would not last till evening.'" The king, in this condition, with tho whole wreck of his army, — only 10,000 in number remaining to him, — were taken prisoners. Their release from captivity was purchased a month later by the surrender of Damietta and a ran- som-payment of 500,000 livres. They made their way to St. Jean d' Acre, in Palestine, whence many of them returned home. But King Louis, with some of his knights and men- at-arms — how many is not known — stayed yet in the Holy Land for four years, striving and hoping against hope to accomplish something for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and expending "in small works of piety, sympathy, protection, and caro for tho future of tho Christian popula- tion in Asia, his time, his strength, his pecun- iary resources, and tho ardor of a soul which could not remain idly abandoned to sorrowing over great desires unsatisfied." The good and pious but ill-guided king returned to France in the summer of 1254, and was received with great joy. — P. P. Guizot, Popular Hist, of France, ch, 17. Also in : Sire Do Joinville, ^femoirs of Saint Louis, pt. 2. — J. F. Miclmud, Hist, of the Cru- sades, bks. 13-14. A. D. lasa.— The movement of "the Pas- tors."— On the arrival in Fnuice of the news of tho disastrous failure of Saint Louis's expedition to Egypt, there occurred an outbreak of fanati- cism as insensate as tliat of the children's crusade of forty years before. It was said to have originated with a Hungarian named Jacob, who began to proclaim that Christ rejected the great ones of the earth from His service, and that the deliverance of tho Holy City must bo accom- plished by the poor and luunble. "Shepherds left their flocks, labourers laid down the plough, to follow his footsteps. . . . The name of Pastors was given to these village crusaders. ... At length, assembled to the nimiber of more than 100,000, these redoubtable pilgrims left Paris and divided themselves into sevend troops, to repair to the coast, whence they were to embark for tlie East. The city of Orleans, which happened to be in their passage, became the theatre of fright- ful disorders. Tho progress of their enormities at length created serious alarm in the govern- ment and the magistracy; orders were sent to the provinces to pursue and disperse these turbu- lent and seditious bands. Tho most numerous assemblage of the Pastors was fixed to take place at Bourges, where the 'master of Hungary' [Jacob] was to perform miracles and communi- cate the will of Heaven. Their arrival in that city was the signal for murder, fire and plllnge. The irritated people took up arms and marched against these disturbers of the public peace; I hey overtook them between Mortemer and Villeneuvc-sur-le-Cher, where, in spite of their numbers, they were routeil, and received the punishment due to their brigandages. Jacob had Ills head cut off by tho blow of an axe ; many of his companions and disciples met with ileath on the Held of battle, or were consigned to punish- ment; tho remainder took to flight. "—J. P. Jlicliaud, Ifisl. of the Criimtdts, bk. 14. A. D. 1256-1259. — Against Eccelino di Romano. SeeVKUoN.v: A. I). 12:«l-l'25i). A. D. 1270-1271.— The last undertakings. — Saint Louis at Tunis. — Prince Edward in Palestine. — "For seven years after his return to Fmncc, from 12.54 to 1201, Louis seemed to think no more about them [the crusades], and there Is nothing to show that he spoke of them even to his most intimate conhdants; but, in spite of his apparent calmness, he was living, so far as they were concerned, in a continual ferment of imaginatio-^ and internal fever, even flattering himself that some favorable circumstance would call him back to his interrupted work. ... In 1261, Louis held, at Paris, a Parliament, at which, without any talk of a new crusade, measures were taken which revealed an idea of it. . . . In 1203 tho crusade was openly preached. ... All objections, all warnings, all anxieties came to notliing in tho face of Louis's fixed idea and pious passion. He started from Paris on the 16th of March, 1270, a sick man almost already, but with soul content, and probably the only ono without misgiving in the midst of all his com- rades. It was once more at Aigues-Mortes that he went to embark. All was as j'ct dark and undecided as to the plan of tho expedition. . . . Steps wore taken at hap-hazard with full trust in Providence and utter forgetfulness that Provi- dence does not absolve men from foresight. . . . It was only in Sardinia, after four days' halt at Cagliari, that Louis announced to tho chiefs of tlic crusade, assembled aboard liis ship, tho 'Mountjoy,' that ho was making for Tunis, and that their Christian work would commence there. The king of Tunis (as he was then called), Mo- hammed Mostanser, had for some time been talk- ing of his desire to become a Christian, if ho could be efficiently protected against the seditions of his subjects. Louis welcomed with transport the prospect of Mussulman conversions. . . . But on the 17th of July, when tho fleet arrived before Tunis, the admiral, Florent de Varennes, probably without the king's orders, and with that want of reflection which was conspicuous at each step of the enterprise, immediately took possession of tlie harbor and of some Tunisian vessels as prize, and sent word to the king ' that he had only to support him and that tlie dis- embarkation of the troops might be effected with perfect safety.' Thus war was commenced at the very first moment against tho JIussulman prince whom tliere had been promise of seeing before long a Christian. At the end of a fort- night, after some fight between the Tunisians and the crusaders, so much political and military blindness produced its natural consequences. The re-enforcements promised to Louis by his brother Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, had not arrived; provisions were falling short; and tho heats of an African summer were working 635 CRUSADES, 1270-1271. Thellnd. CRUSADES. havoc amongst tliu army witli such rapidity tliiit befori! Ion)? there wiis no time to l)iiry tlie (iead; but tlicy were cost pi'llinell into tlie diteli wliieli surrounded tlie cunip, and tliu uir was tainted thereby. On the 3d of August Louis wiis attaclied by the epidemic fever." On the 25tli of August he died. I lis son and successor, Philip til., lield liis ground l)efore Tunis until November, when lie gladly accepted a payment of money from the Tunisian prince for with- drawing his army. Disaster followed him. A storm destroyed part of his lleet, with 4.000 or 5,000 men, and sunk all the treiisure lie had received from the iMoslenis. On the journey home through Italy his wife met witli an acci- dent which ended her life and that of her prema- turely born child. The young king arrived at Paris, May, 1271, bringing the remains of five of his family for burial at St Denis: his wife, liis ion, his father, his brother, and his brother-in- law, — all victims of the fatal crusade. While France was thus burying the last of her crusad- ers. Prince Edwanl (afterwards King Edward I.) of England, landed in Syria at the head of a few hundred knights and men at arms. Joined by the Templars and Hospitallers, he had an army of 0,000 or 7,000 men. with which he took Naza- reth and made there a blomly sacrifice to the memory of the gi'utle Nazarene. lie did nothing more. Being wounded by an assassin, he ar- ranged a truce with the Sultan of Egypt and returned home. His expedition was the last from Europe which strove with the Moslems for the Holy Land. The Christians of Palestine, who still held Acre and Tyre, Sidon and a few other coast cities, were soon afterwards over whelmed, and the dominion of the Crescent in Syria was undisputed any more by force of arms, though many voices cried vainly against it. The spirit of the Crusades had "expired. — F. P. Quizot, Popular Hist, of France, eh. 17. Also in : J. F. Micbuud, IIM. of the Cnmules, bk. 15. A. D. 1291. — The end of the Christian King- dom of Jerusalem. See Jerusalem: A. D. 1291. A. D. 1299. — The last campaign of the Templars. — "After the fall of Acre [A. D. 1291] the headquarters of the Templars were established at Limisso in the island of Cyprus, and urgent letters were sent to Europe for succour." In 1395, James de Molay, the head of the English province, became Grand JIaster, and soon alter his arrival in Palestine he entered into an alliance with Ghazan Khan, the Slongol ruler of Persia, who had married a Christian princess of Armenia and was not unfriendly to the Christians, as against tlic ]\Iamelukes of Egypt, with whom he was at war. The Mongol Khan invited the Templars to join him in an expedition against the Sultan of Egypt, and they did so in the spring of 1299, at Antioch. "An army of 30,000 men was placed by the Mogul empcor under the command of the Grand Master, and the combined forces moved up the valley of the Orontes towards Damascus. In a great battle fought at Hems, the troops of the sultans of Damascus and Egypt were entirely defeated and pursued with great slaughter until nightfall. Aleppo, Hems, Damascus, and all the principal cities, surrendered to the victorious arras of the Moguls, and the Templars once again entered Jerusalem in triumph, visited the Iloly Sepulchre and celebrated Easter on Mount Zion." The khan sant ambassadors to Europe, offering the possession of Palestine to the Christian powers if they would give him their alliance and sup- port, but none responded to the call. Ghazan Khan fell ill and withdrew from Syria; the Templars retreated to Cyprus once more and their military career, as the champions of the Cross, was at an end. — C. G. Addison, The Knights Templarii, eh. 6. Also in; II. II. Ilowarth, Hist, of the Mongols, pt. 3, eh. 8. Effects and consequences of the Crusades in Europe. — "The principle of the crusades was a savage fanaticism ; and the most import- ant effects were analogous to the cause. Each pilgrim was ambitious to return with bis sacred spoils, the relics of Greece and Palestine, and each relic was preceded and followed by a train of miracles and visions. The belief of the Catholics was corrupted by new legends, their practice by new suiierstitions ; and the establish- ment of the in((uisition, the mendicant orders •A monks and friars, the last abuse of indulgences, and the final progress of idolatry, flowed from the baleful fountain of the holy war. The active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of their reason and religion ; and if the ninth and tenth centuries were the times of darkness, the thirteenth and fourteenth were the age of absurdity and fable. . . . Some philosophers have applauded the propitious influence of these holy wars, which appear to me to have checked rather than forwarded the maturity of Europe." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Pall of the Roman Emjrire, eh. 61. — "The crusades may be con- sidered as material pilgrimages on in enormous scale, and their influence up' n general morality seems to liav. been altogether pernicious. Those who served under the cross would not indeed have lived very virtuously at home; but the confidence in their own merits which the prin- ciple of such expeditions inspired must have aggravated the ferocity and dissoluteness of their ancient habits. Several historians attest the depravation of momls which existed, both among the crusaders and in the states formed out of their conquests." — H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, eh. 9. pt. 1. — " It was not possible for the crusaders to travel through so many countries, and to behold their various customs and insti- tutions, without acquiring information and im- provement. Their views enlarged; their pre- judices wore off; new ideas crowded into their minds; and they must have been sensible, on many occasions, of the rusticity of their own manners when compared with those of a more polished people. . . . Accordingly, we discover, soon after the commencement of the crusades, greater splendour in the courts of princes, greater pomp in public ceremonies, a more refined taste in pleasure and amusements, together with a more romantic spirit of enterprise spreading gradually over Europe ; and to these wild expe- ditions, the effect of superstition and folly, we owe the first gleams of light which tended to dispel barbarism and ignorance. But the bene- ficial consequences of the crusades took place slowly ; their influence upon the state of property, and, consequently, of power, in the different kingdoms of Europe, was more immediate as well as discernible." — W. Robertson, View of the Progress of Soc, in Europe, sect. 1. — "The cra- 636 CRUSADES. Kffeett and CoHieqUi-nces. CRUSADES. Radcs «rfi not, in my mind, eitlior tlip populiir delusions tlmt our cliciip literiitun! liiis dotcrmiticd them to be, nor pi;pnl coiispinieieH ugiiinst kings unci peoples, us they appeiir to tli(! Frotestiint contn)vcrsiiilist ; nor tlie ssivftgo outlireiiks of expiring lmrl)arism, thirsting for bloixl nnd plunder, nor volciudc explosions of religious intolerance. I l)eliev(! them to have been, in their deep sources, and in the minds of their best champions, and in the main tendency of their results, capable of ample justification. They were the first great effort of mediieval life to go beyond the pursint of selfish and isolatt^d nnd>itions; they were the trial-feat of the young world, essaying to use, to the glory of Uod and the benefit of man, the arms of Jts new knighthood. . . . That in the end they were a benefit to the world no one who reads can doubt; and that in their course they brought out a love for all that is heroic in human nature, the love of freedom, the honour of prowess, sympathy with sorrow, perseverance to the last and patient cnduniuee without hope, t!ie chronicles of the age abundantly prove; proving, more- over, that it was by the experience of those times that the forms of those virtues were realized and presented to posti^rity. " — W. Stubbs, Seventeen Lects. on, the Study of Mcdundl nnd Modern Hist., led. 8. — "Though begun imder the name and influence of religious belief, the crusades deprived religious ideas, I shall not say of their legitimate share of influence, but of their exclusive and despotic poH.se.ssion of the human mind. This result, though undoubtedly unforeseen, arose from various causes. The first was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of the scene winch displayed itself to the crusaders; what generally happens to travellers liappened to them. It is mere common-jjlaee to saj', that travelling gives freedom to the mind; that the habit of observing different nations, different manners and different opinions, enlarges the ideas, and disengages tlie judgment from old prejudices. The same thing happened to those nations of travellers who have been called the crusaders; their minds were opened and raised l)y having seen a multitude of different things, by having become acquainted with other manners than ♦heir own. They found tliem- selves also placed in connexion with two states of civilization, not only different from their own, but .nore advanced — the Greek state of society on the one hand, and the Mussulraun on the other. ... It is curious to observe in the chronicles the impression made by the crusaders on the Mussulmans, who regarded them at first as the most brutal, fcocious, and stupid bar- barians they liad ev' seen. The crusaders, on their part, were struck with the riches and elegance of manners which they observed among the Mussulmans. These first impressions were succeeded by frequent relations between the Mussulmans and Christians. These became more extensive and important than is commonly believed. . . . There is another circumstance whicli is worthy of notice. Down to the time of the crusades, the court of Rome, the centre of the Church, had been very little in communi- cation with the lait> , unless through the medium of ecclesiastics ; either legates sent by the court of Rome, or the whole body of the bishops and clergy. There were always some laymen in direct relation with Rome ; but upon the whole, it was by mrnnfi of churf'hmpn tlmt Rome had any communication with the people of difTcn'nt countries. Durinij,' the crusades, on the contrary, Itome became a halting-place for a great portion of the crusaders, either in going or returning. A multitude of laymen were spectators of it;, poHcT an<l its manners, and were able to discover the share which personal interest had in religious disputes. There is no doubt that this newly- acipiired knowledge inspired many minds with a boldness hitherto unknown. When we con- sider the state of the general mind at the termin- ation of the crusiulcs, especially in regard to ecclesiastical matters, we cannot fail to be struck with a singular fact: religious notions underwent no change, and were not replaced by contrary or even diflercnt opinions. Thought, notwithstand- ing, had become more free; religious creeds were not the only subject on which the human mind exercised its faculties ; without abandoning them, it began occasionally to wander from them, and to take other directions. . . . The social state of society had undergone an analogous change. . . . Without entering into the details . . . wo may collect into a few general facts the influence of the crusades on the social state of Europe. They greatly diminished the number of petty fiefs, petty domains, and petty |)roprietors; they concentrated property ^nd power in a smaller number of hands. It is from the time of the crusades that we may observe the forniati<m and growth of great fiefs — the exist- ence of feudal power on a large scale. . . . This was one of the most important results of the crusades. Even in those cases where small proprietors preserved their fiefs, they did not live upon them in such an insulated state as formcrlj'. The possessors of great fiefs became so many centres around which the smaller ones were gathered, and near which obey came to live. During the crusades, small proprietors found it necessary to place themselves in the train of some rich and powerful chief, from whom they received assistance and support. They lived with him, shared his fortune, and passed through the same adventures that he did. When the crusaders returned home, this social spirit, this habit of living in intercourse with superiors continued to subsist, and had its influence on the manners of the age. . . . The exten.sion of the great flefs, and the creation of a number of central points in society, in place of the general dispersion which previously existed, were the two principal effects of the crusades, considered with respect to their influence upon feudali.sm. As to the inhabitants of the towns, a result of the same nature may easily be perceived. The crusades created great civic communities. Petty commerce and petty industry were not sufficient to give rise to communities such as the great cities of Italy and Flanders. It was ci,mmerce on a great scale — maritime commerce, and, especially, the commerce of the East and West, which gave them birth; now it was the crusades which gave to the maritime commerce the greatest impulse it had yet received. On the whole, when we survey the state of society at the end of the crusades, we find that the move- ment tending to dissolution and dispersion, the •jiovement of universal localization (if I may be allowed such an expression), liad ceased, and had been succeeded by a movement in the contrary- direction, a movement of centralization. All 637 CRUSADES. CUBA. thlnff* tended to miitunl apprnximntion ; Rnmll tliliiKH were ahuortx'd In ifrvnt ont'H, or jfiithcrcd round tlicni. Hucli vvuh tlio dircrlion then tiikfu by till! profcrcHH of sodi'ty." — K. Oiii/.r)t, y/iW. i<f <'irilk(itioi>. Irrt. H (r. 1). A. D. 1383.— The Bishop of Norwich's Crusade in Flanders. Sec I'i.andkuh: A. IV i;tH:t. A. D. 1430-1431.— Crusade asrainst the Hus- sites. Hoc Uoiikmia: A, I). 14111-14:14. A. D. 1442-1444.— Christian Europe against the Turks. Si'o Ti'iiKt* (Tiik Ottdmanh): A. I). 14oa-ll.".l. A. D. 1467-1471.— Crusade Instigated by the Pope asrainst George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia. Sec Hoiie.mia; A. I). 14.58-1471. ♦ — - CRYPTEIA, The. Hw KiivrrKiA. CTESIPHON.— 'Tho Parthian nionarclm, like the Mogul sovereigns of Ilindostan, delighted In the pastoral life of their Hcythinn ancestors, and the imperial eanip was fro(iuently pitched in the plain of Ctesiphoii, on the eastern banks of the Tigris, at the distance of only three miles from Heleucia. The innumerable attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to the cotirt, and the little village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into n great city. Under tho reign or Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon and Selcucia. They were received as friends by tho Greek colony ; they attacked as enemies the scat of the Parthian kings; yet both cities ex- perienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of Seleucia, with tho massacre of 300,000 of the inhabitants, tarnished tlie glory of the Roman triumph, Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about tliirty-three years, liad sulllciently recovered its strength to maintain an obstinate siego against the emperor Severus. The city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in person, escaped with precipitation; 100,000 cap- tives and a rich booty rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. Notwithstaniiiug these mif • fortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and 'o Seleucia as oue of the great capitals of tlio Kas'.." — E. Gibbon, Decline aiui Fall of the lioman Um- pire, ch. 8. — In 637 A. D. Ctesiphon passed into the possession of the Saracens. See MAUOMiiTAN Conquest and Empire: A. D. 633-651. Also i;i: G. Rawlinson, Sixth Oreat Oriental Monarch//, ch. 6. — Sec, also, Medain. CUAi'OS, The. See Amehican ABORiarNEs: Pampas TiunKS. CUBA : A. D. 1493-1493.— Discovery by Columbus. See Ameuica: A. U. 14'i2; and 1493-1496. A. D. 151 1. —Spanish conquest and occupa- tion of the island. — "Of the islands, Cuba was the second discovered; but 'ri attempt had beeu made to plant a colony ther,' during Uie lifetime of Columbus; who, indeed, after skirting tho whole extent of its southern coast, died in the conviction tliat it was part of the continent. At length, in 1511, Diego, tiie son and successor of the ' admiral,' who still maintained tlio seat of government in Ilispaniola, finding the mines much exhausted there, proposed to occupy tho neigh- bouring island of Cuba, or Pernandina, as it is called, in compliment to the Spanish mon: ■ ' He prepared a small force for the conquest, w he placed under tUe command of Don Dit^, Vclttgqunz. . . . Velasquez, or rather his lieuten- ant Narvaez, who t<K)k tho o(llc<! on himself of scouring tlio country, in( t with no seriouH oppo- r.ition from the Inliubitanls, who were of the same family wi'ii t\w elTeminate natives of Ilispaniola. " After '.lie coniiucst, Velas(|uez was appointi'd governor, and established his scat of government at St. Jago, on the soulliiast corner of the island. — W. II. Prescott, C'omjitett of Mexico, bk. 3, ch. 1. Also in: Sir A. Helps, Siianith ConqueH in America, bk. 7. A. D. 1514-1851.— Slow development of the island. — Capture of Havana by the English. — Discontent with Spanish rule. — Conspira- cies of revolution.— " Vela.s(jrcz founded nuiny of the towns of tlin island, tin lirst of which was Baracoa, then Bayamo, and in 1514 Trinidad, Santo Espiritu, Puerto Priiicipe; next, in 1515, Santiago do (-'uba, as also, in the same year, tlio town of Halmiia. . . , This peri(Mi (1511-1607)18 particularly interesting 10 the general reader from the fact that in it tlie exploi,.tions of Her- nandez do Cadoba and Grijalva to Darien, Yuca- tan, etc., wcit! inaugurated, — events which had so much to do with the spread of Spanish rule and discovery, paving the way as they did for tlio exploration of Mexico under Hernando Cortes, wlio, in the early history of Cuba, fig- ures largely as tho lieutenant of the Governor Velasquez. ... In 1534, Diego Velasquez died, — his death haflened, it is said, by the troubles brought upon him by his disputes with his insubordinate lieutenant, Cortea. ... In the history of tho improvement of the island, his government will bear favorable comparison with m iny of tho later governments ; and while tliat great evil, slavery, was introduced into tho inland in his time, so also was tiie sugarcane. ... Up to 1588, there seems to bo nothing specially striking in the general history of the island, if we except tho constant attacks with lire and sword of the ' fllibusteros, ' or pirates of all nations, from which most all the sea-coast towns suffered more or less; but in that year there arrived at Santiago dc Cuba a man destined to play an importuut part in the history and discovery of the new world, and named as Provincial Governor of Florida as well .IS of Cuba, — I allude to Hernando do Soto, who brought with him 10 large vessels, prepared and fitted out expressly for the conquest of tho new Spanish territory of Florida. A^tor much care and preparation, this expe- dition started out from the city of Ilabana, tho 13th of May [see Florida: A. D. 1528-1513]. ... In this period, also, was promulgated that order, secured, it is believed, by the noble efforts of Padro Las Casas, prohibiting the enslaving of the aborigines ; while, also, such had become its importance as a town, all vessels directed to and from Mexico were ordered to stop at Havana. In tho period of years that elapsed from 1607 to 1762, the island seems to have been in a perfect state of lethargy, except tho usual changes of its many Governors, and the raids made upon It by pirates, or by more legalized enemies in the form of French and English men-of-war. In this latter year, however, occurred an event of much import, from tho fact that after it, or upon its occurrence, the Government of Spain was led to see tho great importance of Cuba, and particularly Havana, as the 'Key to the New 638 CUBA. CUBA. World,' — thin event wiis the tnklnjf of TTnvnnn by llio EnKHsh. On tlio Otii of June, 1702, tliorc nrrived olT tlio port of Iliivunii lui Knglisli H(|Uitilr(>n of :I2 HliipH nnd frlKutos, willi Homo 'HW tniiisporU, bringing witii tlicin ii force of nciirly 2(),0()U men of all arms, iindcr coniinand of tlic Duku of Albomarle. Tbis forniidabU! arma- ment, tliu larKOtt I'luit America bad ever seen, laid Hiego to tlic clly of Havana, wbose v^flson consisted at that tine of oidy abo\it 2,70>) rcgn- Inrs and the volunteers tbat tool< up arms imme- diately for the defense of tlie place. . . . Tlie garrison, however, made a very gallant and \nn- longed defense, nctwithstanding the sniallness of their numbers, and finally, surrendering, were permitted to inarch out with the honors of war, the Knglish thus coming into possession of the most important defences on the coast, and, Bubseiiuentiy, tnklna; possession of llie town of Matan/.as. Kemain.ng in possession of this por- tion of the Island of Cuba for many months (until July 6, ITflIt), the English, by Importing negro labor to cultivi.te the largo tracts of wihl land, nnd by shipoing largo quantities of European merchandize, gave a start to the trade and trafllc of tho island tliat ]nighed it far on its way to tho state of prosperity it has now reached; but by the trtaty of peace, at Paris, in February, 1768 [see Soven Years War], was restored to Spain the portion of tho island wrested from her by the Er-'lsh. ... In this period (1763-1801) the isir.n. iiado rapid ad- vances in improvement and civilization, many of the Captains-General of this period doing much to improve the towns and the people, beatitify- ing tho streets, erecting b\iildingg, etc. In 170!!, a large emigration toolv place from Florida, and in 179.') the French emigrants from Santo Djiidngo cameon to tlic island in large numbers. . . From 1801. rapid increase in the prosperit; of tl.<! island has taken place. ... At varicus times insurrections, some of them ((uite serio'is in their nature, have shown what tho natura. desire of tho native population is for greater privileges and freedom. . . In 1823, there wi s a society of 'soles,' as it >vas called, formed f jr tho pur- pose of freeing the island, having at its head young D. Francisco Lemus, and lnving for its pretext that the island was about to be sold to England. In 1829, there was ('iscovrred tho conspiracy of tho Black Ivigle, a^ it was called (Aguila Negra), an attempt on ■ho part of the population to obtain their freed jm, seme of tho Mexican settlors in the island being prominent in it. Tlie insurrection, or a' tempt tt one, by the blacks in 1844, was rema' kable for its wide- spread ramiflcAtions among the slaves of tho island, as we'd as its thorcjgh organization, — the intention being to mui dor all the whites on the island. Other mino.' insurrections there were, but it remained for Kixrciso Lopez, with .^ force of some 300 mc. to i.-^ake tlio most im portant attempt [1851], in wbieli he lost his life, to free the island."— S. Hazard, Cuba with Pen and Pencil, pp. 547-550. Also in: M. M. Ballon, Hint, of Cuba, eh. 1-8. —Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of Eng., 1713-1783, ch. 38 {v. 4).— J. Entick, Hist, of the Late War, v. 5, pp. 863-386.— D. Tumbull, Cuba, ck. 22-24. A. D. 1843-1860. — Acquisition coveted by the slave-power in the United States. — At- tempted purchase.— Filibustering schemes. — The Oitend Manifesto.- "When the Spanish colonies ill America brcaiii' inde|M'ndeiit, they abolished slavery. AppnlKihsive that tlie re- publics of Mexico anil ''''. inbia woiilil lio anxious to wrest (,'ulia ii.ii* 7'orto liico from Spain, secure their independence, and intnxiuce into those islanils the idea, if tliey did not estab- lish the fact, of freed<mi, the slave-masters [of the I'nitcd States] at once souglit to guard against what lliey deemed so calamitous an event. . . . Hut after the annexaticm of Texa.s. there was a change of feeling and purpose, and (,'uba, from being an object of dn'ad, became an object of vehement desire. The propagandists, strengtli- encd and emboldened by that signal triumph, now turned their eyes towanis this beautiful ' isle of the sen,' as the theatre of new exploits; and they iletermlned to secure the ' gem of the Antilles ' for the coronet of their great and grow- ing power. During Mr. I'o'k's administration an attempt was niacle to purdiase it, and tho sum of $1(10,000, (MX) was olTered therffor. Hut the offer was promptly declined. AVIiat, however, could not be bought it was determined to steal, and filibustering movements and expeditions be- came tlu^ order of the day. For no sooner was President Taylor inaugurated than he found movements on foot in that direction; and, in August, 1840, he issued a proclamation, atllrm- ing his belief that an 'armed expedition' was being Htled out 'against Cuba or some of tho provinces of Mexico,' and calling upon idl good citizens ' to discountenance and prevent ony such enterpris(;. ' In 1851 an expedition, c<msisting of some 500 men, sailed from Now Orleans under Jjoppz, a Cuban adventurer. But though it effected a landing, it was easily defeated, and Its leader and a few of his followers were executed. Soim afterward, a secret association, styling itself the Order of the Lone Star, was formed in several of the Southern cities, having a similar object in view ; but it attracted little notice and arcomplislied nothing. ... In August, 1854, Pre3ident Pierce instructed Mr. Miircy, l^is Seore- tary of State, to direct Buchanan, Mason and Soul6, ndnisters respectively at fb.e courts of London, Paris and Madrid, to convene in some European city and confer with eacli other in re- gard to the matter of gaining Cuba to the United States. They met accordingly, in October, at Ostend. The results of their (feliberntions wore published in a manifesto, in which the reasons are set forth for the ncquisiticn ; and the declara- tion was made that flic Union could never enjoy repose and security 'as long as Cuba is not em- braced within its boundaries.' But the gmat source of anxiety, the controlling motive, was the apprclicnsion that, unless so annexed, she would 'be Africanized and become a second San Domingo,' thus 'seriously to endanger' the Union. This pape,- attracted great attention and caused much a.stonishment. It was at first re- ceived with incredulity, as if there had been some inistttko or imposition practised. . . . But there was no mistake. ... It was the deliberate utter- ance of the conference, and it received tho in- dorsement of Mr. Pierce and his administration. The Democratic national conventions of 1850 and of 1860 were quite as explicit as were the authors of the Ostend manifesto ' in favor of the acquisi- tion of Cuba.'"— H. Wilson, Hist, of the Rise and Fall of tlie Slave Power in America, v. 2, ch. 47. 639 CUBA. CUMBEIILAND OAP. Aimtn: II. Von nnNt, Cmut. and Pol. IIM. of the U. S., r. 4, f/i. 2. nnd r. (5. r/i. 1.— (J, T. Ourtlii, Liff (if Jamft Hiiehnunn, r. 'i, eh, tl, — M. M. Hnliftu, //(■»<. nfCulHt.fh. a— J. J. liwlic', The Htory of the h\lihuiiter; eh. 8. CUBIT, The.— "Tlu UiikHi of tlip Egyptian fiHtt is . . . Nliriwii to Im' ('i|Uitl to l.Olil LukUhIi foot, or 12. lU iticlu'H (().;i()HII iiD'trc) mid the dibit to 1H.24 KiikHhIi iiiclu'H, or ().4IKI iiictro. TIiIh cubit wiiM idcnticiil witb tlic I'bii'niciiui or Olym- pic cubit, iiftcrwimlH uiloptol In (Inrco. . . . The wcoikI of tlic two Ktfyptliin culiltH wiis tlic royiil cubit, or cubit of McmplilM, of m'vni jialiiiH or twcnty-clj^lit (HxitH. . . . Tim mean Iciigtli of tlic KKvptiiin royal cubit \» . . . aHccrtulncd to Ik- 20.tl7 KniillMh Inches, or 523 mm. . . . There Is much conllict of opinion as to the actual length of the s<'veral ciibltH In us<' by the tiews at dif- ferent peri(«lH; but the fact that Moses always montlons the KKyp'ian nieaaures ... as well as tie Egyptian weights . . . proves that the He- brews origlnallv Hirought their weights and measures from Kgypt. ... In his dissertation on cubits. Sir Isaiu Newton states grounds for his opinion that the sacred cubit of the Jews was equal to 24.7 of our Inches, and that the royal cubit of jMeniiihls was e(iiiivalent to tlvc-si.xths of this sacred Jewish cubit, or 20.0 Inches." — H. W. ('hisholm, On tite Science of Weighing and Mcamiiiif/, eh. 2. CUCUTA, The Convention of. See Colom- iiiAN Htatks: a. 1). 1819-1880. CUFA. Hce nusHOHAH and Kuka. CUICIDH The. Hee Tuatii, Tire. CULDEEb, The.— It used to be set forth by n'llglous historians that the Culdees were an an- cient religious fraternity In Scotland, probably founded by Columba, the saintly Irish missionary of the si.xth century, and having Its principal seat in lon.i; that they "were the lights of Scotland in a dark and superstitious age"; that they struggled for several centuries against the errors and the oppressive jiretenslons of Kome, and that "the strength and vigor of the Refor- mation in Scotland, where the Papal power re- ceived its first and most decisive check, may be traced not indirectly to the faith, the doctrines, and the sjilrit of the ancient Culdees." It was claimed for the Presbyterian Church that its form of church government prevailed among the Culdees, while the supporters of Eplscojiacy found evidences to the contrary. Hut all these views, with all the controversies fomented by them, have been dissipated by modern historical investigation. The facts gathered by Dean Reeves and publi-shed in 1864, in his work on the "Culdeesof the British Islands," supported by the more recent studies of Mr. W. F. Skene, are now generally accepted. Says Mr. Skene, (Celtic .Scotland, bk. 2, ~h. 6) : " It is not till after the ex- pulsion of tilt Joluniban monks from the king- dom of the Picts, in the beginning of the eighth cerlury, that the name of Culdee appears. To Adamnan, ^to Eddi and to Bcde it was totally unknown. ' They knew of no body of clergy who bore this name, and in the whole range of ecclesiastical history there is nothing more utterly destitute of authority than the application of this name to the Columban monks of the sixth and seventh centuries, or more utterly baseless than the fabric which has been raise(l upon that as- sumption." Mr. Skene's conclusion is that the Culdees sprang from an ascetic onlcr called Delcolii' or ()o*l worshlpperH; that in Irish tho name Ix'came Celle l)e, thence corrupted Into ('uldee; that they were hermits, who became in time associated In communities, and wen! finally brought under the canonical rule of the Roman church, aloni; with the secM.lar clergy, CULEUS, The. See Amimioua. CULHUACAN. See Mexico, Ancient: TlIK Tol.TKC KmI'IHK. CULLODEN, Battle of (1746). See Scot- I.AM); A. I), 174.'V-174tl, CULM, OR KULM, Battle of. See Obii- many; a. 1). IHIH (Ai(nisT). CULTURKAMPF, The. See Geiimahy: A. I). lH7!t-lHH7. CUMiE.— CUMiEAN SIBYL. — " Earlier than TM l\. V though we <h> not know the precise era of its coniniencement, tliere existed one solitary Orecian establishment In (be Tyrrhe- nian Sea, — the Campanian Cumii", near Capu MIscnum; which the more common opinion of chronologists suppo.sed to have been founded in lO.TOB. C. and which has even been carried back by some authors to 1 180 B. C . . . Wo may at least feel certain that it is the most ancient' (irecian establishnent In any i)art of It.ily. . . . The (.'ampiinian Cunue — known almosi, ( ntlrely by this its Latin di'slgnatlon — received its name and a portion of its Inhabitants from the ./Eolic KymO In Asia Minor. . . . (Juimc, sl'.uated on the neck of the peninsula which terminates in Cape MIsenum, occupied a lofty and rocky hill overhanging the sea and dlllicult of accesii on tho land side. . . . In the hollow rock under the very walls of the town was situated the cavern of tho prophetic Sibyl, — a parallel and repro<lucfion of the Gergilhian Sibyl, near KymC In iEolis: in the immediate neighborhood, too, sIockI the wild woods and dark lake of Avernus, consecrarcd to the subterranean gods, and offering an estab- lishment of priests, with ceremonies evoking the dead, for purposes of prophecy or for solving doubts and mysteries. It was here that Grecian imagination localized the Cimmerians and tho fable of Odysseus; and the Cumteans derived gains from the numerous visitors to this holy spot, perhaps hardly less than those of the in- habitants of Krissu from the vicinity of Delphi. Of the relations of these Cumicans with the IIol- lenic world generally, we unfortunately know nothing ; but they seem to have been in intimate connection with Rome during the time of tho kings, and especially during that of the last king Tarquin, — forming the intermediate link between the Greek and Latin world, whereby the feelings of the Teukrians and Gergitheans near the MoXxc Kym6 and the legendary stories of Trojan as well as Grecian heroes, — ./Eneas and Odysseus — passed Into the antiquarian imagination of Rome and Latium. The writers of the Augustan ago know CunicD only in its decline, and wondered at the vast extent of its ancient walls, yet remain- ing in their time. But during the two centuries prior to 500 B. C. these walls inclosed a full and thriving population, in the plenitude of pros- perity. —O. Grote, Hist: of O recce, pt. 2, eh. 22. — See, also, Siuvi.s. CUMANS, OR ROMANS, The. See IIun- oauv: A. D. 1114-1301. CUMBERLAND GAP, The capture of. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1863 (Au- gust — SEPTEMJiEK: Tennessee). 640 CUMBRIA. OXJNEIPORM WRITINO. CUMBRIA: The Britith king;dora.— " Tlio nritons (if ('iimlii'iik ix'CMipy a tiilcnihly |jiri;i' ■pikcc on tlii'iniip, hiitavcrvHiniill oik^ in lilHlory ; — their niumU Imvu cntlrt'ly pcriMlird ; — mul nntliiiif( tuitlii'titit; n'MiJiiim ('(inccriiiii;; tlicin, cxicpt a very few paNsni?cs, wliolly coiiNlstinn of incidental noticeit relatliiu; to tlieir siihjertioii anil tlieir misfortunes. Koinance wmilil fiirnl.Hli miU'li niort'; for it was in('uniliriatliat Uliyilere, or Hoderic tlicmnKnilirent. Is therein representecl to have reijfiied, ami Merlin to have proplie.si"(l. Artliur lie'l hia eourt In merry Carlisle; and Pcrcdur, the I'rinee of Sunshine, whrisn name we find amongst the princes of Stnithclyde, Is one of tiu- Krcat hero(;s of the ' Mahinogirin,' or tales of youth, lon;^ preserved by tradition amuDgst tho(,'ynirl. These fantastic personages, however, are of ImporUince In one pouit of view, because they show, what we might otherwise forget — tliat from the Kibble in Lancashire, or thereabouts, up to the Clyde, there existed u dense population composed of Britons, who i)re- Hervc('. their natio ml language and customs, agreeing In nil respects with the Welsh of tlie present day. So that even In the tei. li century, the ancient Britons still Inhabited tlie greater part of the western coast ot the island, however much they had been compi lied to yield to the political supremacy of the Saxon Invaders. The ' Itegnu'n (Jumbrense ' comprehended many dis- tricts, probably governed by petty princes or Rcguli, in subordination to a chief monarch or Pendragon. Heged appears to have been some- where in the vicinity of Annandale. Strathclyde Is of course tiie district or vale of Clydesdale. In this district, or state, was sitiuitcd Alcluyd, or Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, where the British kings usually resided; and the whole Cumbrian kingdom was not infre(|uenlly called Strathclyde, from the ruling or principal .state; just as tlie United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is often designated in common language as 'England,' because England is the portion where the monarch and legislature are found. Many dependencies of the Cumbrian kingdom extended into modem Yorkshire, and Leeds was the frontier town between the Britons and the Angles. . . . The kings of Cumbria became the vassals, or 'men,' of the Anglo-Haxim kings. Eugenius had thus submitted to Athelstane. Of the nature of tl\e obligation I shall speak here- after. The Anglo-Sa.xon kings appear to have been anxious to extend and conlirm their su- premacy; Edmund proceeded against Donald, or Dumhnail, the Scottish King of Cumbria (A. D. 945), witli the most inveterate and implacable Iiostility. . . . Edmund, having thus obtained possession of Cumbria, graiite(i the country to Malcolm, King of the Scots, upon condition, as the chronicles say, of being liis co-operator, both by sea and by land. . . . From this period the right of the Scottish kings or princes to the kingdom of Cumbria, as vassals of the English crown, seems to liavc been fully admitted : and the rights of the Scottish kings to the ' Earldom of Cumberland ' — for such it was afterwards termed — were founded upon Edmund's grant. The Britons of Strathclyde, and Ucged, and Cumbria, gradually melted away into the sur- rounding population; and, losing their language, ceased to be discernible as a separate race, 'i et it is most probable that this process was not wholly completed until a comparatively recent perlfvi." — F. Palgrnve, ITitlon/ of the Anglo- HiTDin, eh. II. — Cumbria and Cambria (Wales), the two states long maintained by the Britoim, agairiHl the Angh's and Saxon.s. iMire, in reality, the sjinie iiaine. Cumbria being the more correct form of It. The earliest development of the so- called WcImIi poetrv seems to have been In Cum- bria rather tlnin inVVnIes. Tallesen and Aneiirin were Cumbrian bards, anci Arthur, if anv his- torical personage Ntaiids behind his I ^ly shadow, was probably a Cunibriau hero. — .f. Itliys, Viitic JIn'liiiii. Also i.>; W. F. Skene, Tht Fimr Aneieiit H'Ki/cn of H'ulm. — See, also, KvMUV, Au'LYDB, and SciVn.ANi); KH'ii-llril Ci;nt(uikh. CUNARD LINE, The foundin«rof the. See Stkam N'.vvioation: On' riiK Ockan. CUNAXA, Battle of (B. C. 401). See Pen- sia: H. C. -toi-liM), CUNEIFORM WRITING.— Theclmracters employed for the written languages of ancient Babylonia and Ass^-ria, have been called cunei- form, from the I,atin cuneiis, a wedge, lieeause the marks composing them are wedge-shaped, All knowledge of lUose cliaract<'rs and of the languages expressed in them had Iicen lost for many centuries, anil its recent recovery is one of the most marvelous achievements of our age. " Travellers had discovered in.scriptions engraved in cuneiform, or, astliey were al.so termed, arrow- headed charaeters, on the ruined monuments of Persepolis and other ancient sites in I'ersia. Some of these monuments were known to have been erected by tlie Achicmenian princes — Darius, the son of Hyslaspes, and his successors — and it was therefore inferred that the inscrlptiims al.so had been carved by order of the same kings. The inscriptions wi^e in three different systems of cuneiform writing; and since the three kinds of inscription were always placed side by side, it was ('vidcnt that they represented different ver- sions of the same text. ... It was clear that the three versions of the Achicmenian inscriptions were addressed to the tliree chief populations of the Persian Enii)ire, and ili it the one which in- variably came first was composed in ancient Per- sian, the language of the sovereign himself. Now this Persian version happened to offer the de- cipherer lessdilliculties tlian the twoothers which accompanied it. The number of distinct charac- ters employed in writing it did not exceed forty, while the words were divided from one another by a slanting wedge. Some of the words con- tained so many characters that it was plain that these latter must denote letters and not syllables, and that conseiiuently tho Persian cuneiform system must have consisted of an alphabet, and not of a syllabary. It was further plain that the inscriptions h.til to be read from left to right, since the ends of all the lines were exactly under- neath one another on the left side, whereas they terminated irregularly on the right. . . . Tlie clue to the decipherment of tlie inscriptions was tiret discovered by the successful gues-s of a Ger- man scholar, Orotefend. Grotefeud noticed that the inscriptions generally began willi three or four words, one of which varied, while the others remained unchanged. The variable word had three forms, though the same form always ap- peared on the same monument. Grotefend, therefore, conjectured that this word represented the name of a king, the words which followed it being royal titles. Working on this conject- 641 /^ CUNEIFORM WHITINO. CURIA. (irc, hi' Identlflrd thit thrro nrnnei with D«rliiii, Xerxes and Artaxcrxrii, iiiid one of the HiipiMmcil titles Willi II 7aiii\ word for "kiiix," which Kiive him a ('onslilrralili' piirt of tlie cunelfurm iil|iliii- bet. lie was followed in the work Uy liiinioiif, IjAHwn aricl .Sir llinry KtiwiiiiHoii, until, tliially, AlHyriaii iiiHoriptioiis were read with " altuimt us miieh I'lTtnliity as a piiueof the Olil TeNtuiiieiit." — A. II. Hiiyce, /Vi'iA Lii/hl from lltt nneient moniinientii, f/i. I. CUNiBERTUS, King of the Lomb*rdi, A. 1). (llM-70<(. CUNIMARE, The. Heo AMKniciU4 Auoiiiu- nir.H: OfcK oil Coco Oiidi'P. CURDS, OR KURDS, The. 8ce CAuntciii, CURFEW-BELL, The.—" E.xeept from Its lafliieiu'c iiiioii the im»f;'»»tl'>n, It would lie honlly worth while to notice the legend of the (•urfewlx'll, so coiiimonly supposed to have been Imposed by Willium [the (/'oixiiicror] upon the English, HSU token <u degradation nnd shivery; but tho 'Hquilludi lontano, die puju 11 giorno piangcr rhu si muorc,' was n iinlviirsal ciistoin of policcthroughoiitthu whole of mediaeval Europe, not unconr.eclt'd with devotional feeling." — Sir F. I'ttlgruve, llitt. of Niirmiindji ami Kmj.. r. !), p. iSiT. — " In the year IKXIlj after King Henry's death [Henry 1. of France' In u Synod held ut Caen by Ihe'Duki^'s uuthorlty [Duke William of Normandy, who beciimo In 100(1 the (.'oniiueror and King of Kiiglandl, and uttended bylSishops, Abbots, and Harons, It was ordered tliat u bell Hhouid bu rung every evening, ut hearing of which prayer should bo olTered, and ull people Bhould get within tlieir houses and shut their doors. Tlds «xUl mixture or piety and police seems to be the origin of the fanious and mis- represented Curfew. Whatever was its object, it was at least not ordained as any special hard- ship on William's English subjects." — E. A. Free- man, //»■«<. of tlie Norman (Jonqueat of Eiig., ch. 13, MCt. 8 (f. 8). CURIA, Ancient Roman. Sec Comiti.v CCKIATA. CURIA, Municipal, of the later Roman cn- pire. — Decuriones. — "It is only necessaiy in this work to describe the geneml type of the municipal organization which existed in the prov- inces of the lioman Empire after the time of Constantine. . . . The proprietors of land 'u the Roman provinces genemlly dwelt in town t and cities, lis a protection against brigands am', miui- stealcrs. Every town had an agricultural dis- trict which formed its territory, and the landed proprietors constituted the municipality. Tne whole local authority was vested in an oligarch- ical senate colled tho Curia, consisting probably of one hundred of the wealthiest lauded proprie- tors lu the city or township. This body elected the municipal authorities and officers, ami filled up vacancies in its own body. It was therefore independent of the proprietors from among whom it was taken, and whose interests it ought to have represented. The Curia — not the body of landed proprietors — formed therefore the Roman municipality. The Curia was used by the imperial government as an instrument of fiscal extortion."— Q. Finlay, Greece under the Uomans, ch. 2, sect. 1. — "When the progress of fiscal tyranny had almost sapped the vigor of society, the decuriones [members of the munici- pal curioe, called, also, curiales] . . . being held Joiutly rctiponBible for the taxation, became the veriest slaves of th<> rmplre. Ttrspontible Jointly f<ir the taxcH, tin y \m rr. I>y the same token, re- NponKllile for their I'lilliii^'iic^ mid theirHucceiiaors; their estates were iiiiide tlie wciiritles of the Im- iicrlal dues; and if any estate was abandoned by Its proprietor, they were conipellcd to (M'cupy ft and meet the Imposts exigible from It. Yet they could not reliiiiiuish their olllces; they could not leave the city except by Kteallh ; they could not enter the army, or tin- pricHthiMid, or any olllce which might relieve them from municipal func- tioiiH. . . . Even the cliil<in'i> of the (Juriul were iidscribed to his functions, and rouhl engugo In no course of life liiconHlstent willi the onerous and Intoh'rable duty. In short, this dignity was so much aliliorred that the lowest plebeian shunned adinlHsion to It, the membeiH of It made tlieiiiselves lioiiilincn, married slave-wotnen, or jcjined the barliaric hordes in order to escape it; and malefactors, .lews and heretics were somo- tiines condemned to it, as an approjirlate penalty for their otrenses." — I*. Oim Aiiriiiit (Iniil. hk. 3, c//. 8. I api)roi wlu, lli 'int. ofr^anee: .\i.Ho I.N: T. H(Klgkiii, Itnlji (imlher Intadert, Ilk. II, (7(. 0. — V. (}ui/,ot, llint. of Cmlitntion, e. 2 (r. 1, Fniinr), Icrt. 3.— .Sec, also HoMK: A. D. illlH-^HTK. CURIA, Papal.— College of Cardinals.— Consistory. — "The C'ourt of Rome, commonly called the lioman (,'uria, consisted of u number of illgnified ecclesiastics who iissist^-d tho Pope in the executive administration. The FontllT's more intimate advisers, or, us wo should say, his privy council, were the College of C'ardinulH [see P.vp.vcv: A. 1). lO.lU], consisting of a certain number of cardinal bi.sliops, cardinal priests, and cardinal deacons. The cardinal deacons, at first seven and afterwards fourteen in number, wero originally ecclesiastics appointed as overseers and guardians of the sick and poor in the dllTercnt districts of Rome. Equal to them In rank were the fifty cardinal priests, as the chief priests of the principal liomuu churches were called ; who, witli the cardinal deacons, formed, in very early times, the presbytery, or senate of the liishop of Home. . . . According to some authorities, cardinal bishops were instituted in tlie 0th cen- tury ; according to otliers not till the llth, when seven bishops of the dioceses nearest to Romo — Ostiu, Porto, Velitriie, Tusculum, Pncncste, Tibur, and the Sabincs — wcw. adopted by tho Pope partly us his assistaiils in the service of the Liiteran, and partly in the general administration of the Church. In process of time, the appoint- ment of such cardinal bishops was extended not oidy to the rest of Italy but ulso to foreign ciiuncries. Though the youngest of the cardinals in point of time, cardinal bishops wero the high- est in rank, and enjoyed tho pre-eminence in tlie (\)llege. 'i'lieir titles were derived from their dioceses. . . . But they were ulso called by their own names. The number of the cardinals was indefinite and varying. The Council of Basle endeavoured to restrict it to 24. But this was not carried out, and Pope Sixtus V. at length fixed the number at 70. Tho Council called the Consistory, which advised with the Pope both in temiwral and ecclesiastical matters, was ordinarily private, and confined to the car- dinals alone ; though on extraordinary occasions, and for solemn purposes of state, as in the audiences of foreign ambassadors, &c., other prelates, and even distinguished laymen, might 642 cunrA. CYHOncrPflKLM. unprar In It."— T. II. Tyor, FTM of MiMkrn KiiroiM', «i. 1, /). IW. CURIA REGIS OP THB NORMAN KINGS.-" Tlu- Ciirlii llcRiH (imil.r tlir Nor- iiijtri KliiK* •>' llnKliiiiil), llic HiipiciiK' trilxinul iif JiKlicjitiirt', of which the KxchciiiKr wiih the hniUK'iiil iK'imrtrnciil or wHsimi, wiix . . . thi> I'oiirt iif the kinff Hllthijt to aihiihihtcr JiiMticr whh the itdvlccof hU <'()iitiH('ll<)rN: thrmc (.'tniii' M-llorg lx'hi)(, III thu whIcMt itcccptatioii, the whole iHidy uf tciinntii-in-i'lilcr, but in tin* iiiori> liiiiltcd iisiiKo, the Kro't otIlccrH nf thu household and HiK'clally appointed judjfi'H. The Kreat j;atlierinKH of the national council may l)u re- yarded as full gcwiions of thi' Curia Heuls, or the Curia \it'nU an a perpetual coiinniltee of tlie national council." — W. Htulilw, I'oiiiit. Hint, nf Hmj., cli. 11, HfCt. 127.— "Not lonj? after the Kinntliiju; of Sla^na ('harta, the Curia I{<'kIh wn>, pcrinaiiently divided into three coinuillteeN o. uuurtii, each taking a certain portion of llie husi. neM: (1) Fiscal matters wen- conllned to llic ExcliC(|iier; ('i) civil disputes, where neither Hie lUnjr's interest nor anv matter savouriiiK of a criminal nalurn were (nvolved, were decided in tliu ('(Miimon Pleas; and (!)) the court of Kind's liencli lelained all 11> vemalninK liusiiu'ss and Hoon ac(|uired the cxciuHlve denomination of tlie nnrient Curia Uej,'ls, Hut the Haine stalf of Judf^es was still retained for all three courts. Willi the chief ju.slieiar at their head. Towards the end of Henry III.'s reign, the three courts received each a distinct statT, anil on tlie abolition by Edward I. of the olllce of chief 1usti<'iar, tlio only remaining bond of union beiiiK severed, they became completely sejianited. Some trace of their ancient unity of orKaiil/.alion always Hurvived, however, in tlie court of Kxclieiiuer Chamber; until at lcii);tli after six centuries of independent existence they were a^aiii united by tlie Judi' ituru Act, 1873. Together wilii the Court of ( ■littiiccry and the Probate, I)lvor('e and Admintlly courts, (hey now form divisions of u con.solidated High Court of Justice, itself a branch of the Supreme (,'ourt of Judicature." — T. P. Taswcli-Laugmead, Eny. Count. Hint., p. 154.— "The Aula Regia, or Curia Hegis . . . ha.s been described in various and at lirst siglit coutmdictorv terms. Thus it lias been called tlio higliest Law Court, the Ministry of the King, u Legislative Assembly, &c. The apparent iu- conslsteney of these (lescriptions vanislies <«i closer inspection, mid throw.s great light on ine- (liieval history. For the Curia Regis possessed every attribute which has been ascribed to it." — A. V. Dicey, rZ/f Privy Vouneil, jit. 1. Also in : R. Queist, Hist, of tite Eng. Count. , eh. 19. CURIALES. See Cimiia, Municipal. CURIOSOLITiE, The. See Venkti ok Westeiin GAfl.. CURTIS, George W., and Civil-Service Reform. See Civil Seiivice Rekoiim i.n the United States. CURULE iEDILES. See Rome: n. C. 404-493. CURULE CHAIR. — In ancient Rome, "certain high olflcos of state conferred upon the hohler the right of using, upon public occasions, an ivory ciinir of iieculiar form. Tliis chair was termed Sella C'urulis. . . . This was somewhat in the form of a modern camp-stool. " — W. Ramsay, ManualofRmnanAntiq., ch. 2an<i4. CURZOLA, Battle of (tao8). flco Genoa: A, I). 1 '.'(1 1-121)1). CUSCO : The Capital of the Incas of Peru. See I'l :i(i:: A. 1), I.Vlll-l.MN. CUSH.— CUSHITES.- '(lemMls, like the Hebrews of lalir dale. Includes under Hie name of Ciish the natliiiiH dwelling to the Snuth, the -Nubiiiiih. Kthiipphins and tribesof South Arabia." — .M. Diincker, Hint. <f .liili,/,iil!/, M: 2, <■//. 1.— See, also, Hamitkm. and Aiiaiu.v. CUSHING, Lieutenant William B.— De- struction of the ram Albemarle. See Tnitei) Statkhok Am. : A. I). IHdl (0( hmikii: Noiitii Cauom.na). CUSTER'S LAST BATTLE. Heo United SrvTKh iiK Am.: .\. 1). 1h;(1. CUSTOMS DUTIES. See Taiiikk. CUSTOMS UNION, The German (Zoll- verein). See Tauikk ; .\. 1). |n:i;i. CUSTOZZA, Battles of (1848 and 1866). SeelTAl.v: A. D. |M|.S-1HII); and |H(IMM(1(I. CUTLER, Manasseh, and the Ordinance of 1787. See NoKTIIWUHT TKIlUITUltY OK THE r. S. : A. I). 17H7. CUYRIRI.The. See A.mkuican Aiiouioinem: (iVJCK OH ('(MO (illoir CYCLADES, The.-SPOKADES, The.- " Among tlie Ionic porlioii of Hellas an- to be reckoned (besides Alliens) KulHca, and the nu inenais gnmp of Islands included between the southernmiist Kubiean pniiiiontory, thu caxterii coast of Peloponnesus, anil the northwestern coa.st of KrOle. Of these islands some are to be considered as eiiillyiiig pniloiigatioiis, in a south easterly direction" of the mountain-system of .\lliea; olliers of that of Kiiliiea: wliile a certain launlier <d' them lie apart from eillier system, and seem refenible to a volcahic ori^'iii. To tlie lirst class belong Keos, Kythnus, Sirlplius. Pliolegau- driis, Sikinus, Oya 119, Syra, Pan>s, and Aniipa- ros; to the second class Andnis, TOnos, Alykonos, I)(''los, Naxos, Amorgos; to the thini class Kimo- Ills, Mil'los, Tliera. These islands pa.s.sed amongst the luicienls by the geiienil name of the Cyclades and the Sporades; the former denominalioii being coniinonly understood to compii.se tliose wliiili imuiedialely siirnmnded the sacred i.sland of DOlos, — the latter being given to those whidi lay more scattered and apart. Hut the names are not appl' . witli uniformity or steadiness even in uiiciei' (in. s: at present, tliu whole group are V y kno n by the title of (H'ciiuh'S. — G. linite. If int. <; ' (iiiici; pi. 2, e/i, 12" CYDONIA, Battles and siege of (B. C. 71- 68). See C ETK; 11. C. (W-liO. CYLON, Conspiracy of. See Athens: B. C. fll2-r.9.-,, CYMBELINE, Kingdom of. See Culciieb- TEII, OllKlIN OK. CYMRY, The. See Kv-Mitv, The. CYNOSARGES AT ATHENS, The. Sec Gymnasia, Giikkk. CYNOSCEPHALiE, Battle of (B. C. 364). — The battle in which IVIopiilas, the Theban patriot, friend and colleague of Epaminondas, was slain. It was fimglil 15. C. 304, in Tiiessaly, near I'liarsalus, on the lieiglits called Cynoscep- Iiala;, or the Dog's Heads, and delivered the Thcssalian cities fnim tlic encroachments of the tyrant of Phcra;.- C. Thirlwall, Hint, of Greece, ch. 40. (B. C. 197). See Greece: B. C. 214-146. (i4a / J CTNOSSEMA. 0YPRU8. CYNOSSEMA, Naval battle of.— Two sue- ccssivo niival bitttlcs foiiglit, one iu -Inly mid the Bccond ill OctolKT, IJ. C. 411, liclwceu ilic Adie- niiiDs 1111(1 the I'uloponiicsiiiii nllk's, in the Ilellt'S- pout, uro jointly ciillcd tlic Battle of Cynosseiiia. The name was taken from the headland called Cynossemn, or the " Dog's Tomh," "ennobled by the legend and the chapel of the Trojan queen Ileciilm." The Atlienians had thi^ advantage in both encounters, csjieeially in the latter one. when they were joined by Aleibiades, with re- enforceiiients, just in time to decide the doubtful fortunes of the day. — E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, hk. 4, eh. 5. Ai-so in: G. Orotc, Hixt. nf Greece, pt. 2, ch. 03. —Sec Ohf.kck; B. C. 411-407. CYNURIANS, The. See Kynuiii.\ks. CYPRUS: Origin of the name. — "The Greek name of the island was derived from the abundance in which it produced the beautiful plant (' Cojdier ' ) which furni.shes the ' al-henna,' coveted throughout the Kast for the yellow dye which it communicates to the nails. It was rich io mines of copjier, which has obtained for it the name by which it is known in the modern lan- guagesof the West." — .1. Kenrick, P/ia'niciii, ch. 4. Early History. — "Tlic lirst authentic record witli regard to (!yprus is an inscription on an Egyptian tombstone of the ITtli century IJ. C, from which it appears that the island was comiuered by Thotlimes III. of Egypt, in whose reign tlio e.xodiis of the Children of Israel is supposed to have taken jilace. Tliis was no doubt anterior to the establishinent of any Greek colo- nies, and ])robal)ly, also, before the PlKrnicians had settled in the island. ... As appears from various inscriptions and other records, Cyprus became subject successivelv to Egypt, as just mentioned, to Assyria, to fcgypt again in 508 B. C, when it was conquered by Amasis, and in 'j25 B. C. to Persia. Jleanwhile the power of the Grec!-s had been increasing. . The civili- zation of the West was about to ssert itself at Marathon and Siilaniis; and Cyprus, being mid- wiiy betw(!en East and West, could not fail to lie involved iu tir coming conflict. On the occa.sion of the Ionic revolt [see Pkhsia: B. C. 521-490] the Greek element in Cyprus sliowed its strength : ttud in 502 IJ. C. the whole island, with tlie single exception of the Pha'nieian town of Amathus, took part with the lonians in renouncing the authority of the Persian king." But in the war wliicli followed, the Persians, aided by the Plue- nicians of the mainland, iccoii((Uei'ed Cyprus, and the Cyprian Greeks were long disheartened. Tliey recovered tlieir courage, however, about 410 B. C. when Evagoras, ft Greek of the royal liou.se of Teuccr. made him.self master of Sidaniis, and finally establislied a general sovereignty over the island — even e.vtending his power to tlie mainland and subjugating Tyre. "Tiie reign of Evagoras is periiaps the most brilliant period In tlie history of Cyprus. Before his deatli, wliicli took place in 374 B. C, he had raised the island from the position of a mere dependency of one or oilier of the great Eav.tcrn monarchies, had gained for it a nlacc among the leading states of Greece, and had solved the (piestion as to which division of the raicient world the Cyprian people should be assigned. Consc(piently when, some forty years later, the power of Persia was sliat teied by Ale.Miuder the Great at the battle of Issus, the kings of the island hastened to oScr him their submisaion as the leader of the Greek race, and sent 120 slii|)s to a.s. 'st him in the siege of Tyre." After Alexander death, Cyprus was disputtd between Antigon..s and Ptolemv. (See MACFiDONi.v: B. C. 310-;i01.) The kino; of Egypt secured llie jirize, and the island reniained under the Greek-Egyptian crown, until it passed, V, itli the rest of the heritage of the Ptoleinys to the Romans. " When the [Homan] empire was iiivided, on the death of Constantine the Great, C^ypriis, like Malta, passed into tlic hands of the Byzantine Emperors. Like Malta, also, it was exposed to frequent attacks from the Araiis: but, although they several times occupied the island and once held it for no less than 100 years, they were always expelled again by the Byzantine Emperors, and never established themselves there as firmly as they did in Malta. Tlie crusades first brought Cyprus into contact with the western nations of modern Europe." — C. P. Lucas, Iliat. Gc(>;i. of liriliKh Colonies, sect. 1, ch. 3. Also in: U. II. Lai'g, Ci/prtia, ch. 1-8. — F. Von Loher, C'l/priis, ch. 13 niul 30.— L. P. Dl Cesnola, Vjiprns ; its itiiciciit cities, if-c. B. C. 58.— Annexed to the Roman Do- minions. — "The annexation of Cyprus was decreed in 090 [B. C. 58] by the iieople [of Home], that is, by the leailers of the democracy, the support given to piracy by tlie Cypriots being alleged as the olliciiil reason why that course should now be adopted. Jlareus Cato, intrusted by his opponents with the execution of tills measure, came to tlie island witliout an army ; but he had no need of one. The king [a brotlier of the king of Egypt] took poison; the inliabitants submitted witliout offering resist- ance to tlieir inevitable fate, and were placed under the governor of Cilicia. " — T. Monimsen, JIi.st. of litmc, bk. 5, ch. 4. A. "D. 117. — Jewish insuriection. — "This rich and ph'usant territory [tlic island of Cyprus] had afforded a refuge to the lews of the contin- ent tlirough three generations of disturbance and alarm, anil the Hebrew race was now [A. D. 117] probably not inferior tliere in number to the native Svrians or Greeks. On the first outburst of a .lewish revolt [againstthe Roman domination, in the last year of tiie reign of Trajan] tlie wliole island fell into tlie hands of the insurgents, and became an arsenal and rallying point for the insurrection, wliicli soon spread over Egypt, (/'yreiu! and Mesopotamia. The leader of the revolt iu Cyprus bore the name of Artemion, but we know no particulars of the war iu this (luarter, except that 340,000 of the native popii- lati(ra is said to Iiave fallen victims to the exter- minating fury of the insurgents. When the rebellion was at last extinguished in blood, the Jews were forbidden tlicnceforth to set foot on the island; and even if driven thither by stress of weather, the penalty of deatli was mercilessly enforced. . . . The .lewish population of Cyre- iiaica outnumbered the natives. . . . The hostility of the .Jews in tliesc parts was less directed against the cntral government and the Roman residents than the native race. ... Of thtse 220,000 arc said to have perished." — C. Merivulc, Ilist. of the Romans, ch. 05. A. D. 1 191. —Conquest by Richard Coeur de Lion. — Founding of the Latin . Kingdom. — Duri;ig the civil strife and confusion of tlie las*, years of the Comuenian dynasty of emperors at Constantinople, one of the members of the family. 644 CYPRUS. CYRENAICA. Isaac Comnenos, secured the Bovcreigntv of Cyprus nnd assumed the title of emperor. With the alliance of tl e king of Sicily, he defeated the Byzantine forces scut against him, and was planted securely, to all appearance, on his newly bidlt throne at the time of the Tliird Crusade. Circumstances at that time (A. D. 1101) gave him a fatal opportunity to provoke the Engli.sh cru- saders. First, lie seized the property and im- prisoned the crews of three Knglish sliips tliat were wrecked on the Cyprian coast. Not satisfied with that violence, he refused slielter from the storm to a vessel which bore Berengaria of Na- varre, the intended wife of King Hichanl. "The kicj of England immediately sailed to Cyprus ; and when Isaac refused to deliver up the ship- wrecked crusaders, and to restore their property, Richard landed his army and commenced a series of operations, which ended in his conquering the whole island, in which he abolished the adminis- trative institutions of the Eastern Empire, en- slaving the Greek race, introducing the feudal system, by which he riveted the chains of a foreign domination, and tlie; -ave it as a present to Guy of Lusignan, the titi-l king of Jerusalem, who became the founiicr c d ''nasty of Frank kings in Cyprus." — O. Pinlay, llut. of the Jlj/znn- tine and Oreek Empires, from 716 to 1453, bk. 8, ell. 3, sect, 1. — Before giving Cyprus to Guy of Lusignan, Richard had sold -ho island to the Templars, and Guy had to pay the knights heavily for the extinguishment of their rights. Richard, therefore, was mther a negotiator than a giver in the transaction. — W. Stubbs, Seventeen Leets. on the Study of Mcdiaval and Modern His- tory, leet. 8. A. D. 1 192-1489. — The kingdom under the house of Lusignan. — "The house of Lusignan inaiiitaineil itself in Cyprus for nearly three cen- turies, during which, although fallen somewhat from the blessedness which had been broken up by Isaac Comnenus, the island seems to have re- tained so much fertility and prosperity as to make its later history very dark by contrast. . . . Guy, we arc told, received Cyprus for life only, and did homage for the island to Richard. As lie already bore the title of king, the question whether he should hold Cyprus as a kingdom does not seem to have arisen. ... On his death, in April, 1194, Richard putting in no claim for the reversion, his brother, Amalric of Lusignan, constable of Palestine, entered on the possession as his heir. . . . Amalric succeeded to the crown of Jerusalem; the crown of Jerusalem, «'hich, after the year 1269, became permanently united with that of Cyprus, was an independent crown, and the king oi' Jerusalem an anointed king : the union of the crowns therefore seems to have pre- cluded any question as to tlie tenure by which the kingdom of Cyprus should be held. . . . The homage then due to Richard, or to the crown of England, ceased at the death of Guy." — W. Stubbs, Seventeen Leets. on the Study of Mediaml and Modern Hist., lect. 8. — See, also, .Tehusaleji: A. D. 1291. A. D. 1291-1310. — The Knights Hospitallers of St. John. See Hospitalleus op St. John : A. D. 1118-1310. A. D. 1489-1570.— A Veoetian dependency. — The last reigning king of Cyprus was James II., a bastard orother of Queen Charlotte, whom he drove from the Cyprint throne in 1464. This king married a Venetian lady, Caterina Comaro, in 1471 and was declared to be " the son-in-law of the Republic." The un.scrupulous republic is said to have poi.soned its sonin-law in order to secure the succes-sion. He died in 1473, and a i,on, uorn afti;r his death, lived but two years. Cyprus was then ruled by the Vem^tians for fifteen years in the name of Caterina, who finally renounced her rights wholly iu favor of the re- public. After 1480, until "its conquest by the Turks, Cyprus was a Venetian dependency, in form as well as in fact, but tributary to the Sultan of Egypt. — W. Stubbs, Seventeen Leets. on the Study (f Medicpval and Modern Hist., leH. 8. A. D. 1570-1571.— Conquest by the Turks. SeeTuuKs: A. I). 1.166-1.')71. A. D. 1821. — Turkish massacre of Chris- tians. SeeGuEECE: A. D. 1821-1839. A. D. 1878. — Control surrendered.by Turkey to England. See Tukks: A. D. 1878, The theatieb ok San Stefano and Beiilin. CYREANS, The. See Peksia: B. C. 401^ 400. CYRENAICA. - CYRENE.— KYRENE. — A city, growing into a kingdom, which was founded at an early day by the Greeks, on that projecting part of "the coast of Libya, or northern Africa, winch lies opposite to Greece. The first settlers were said to liavg been from the little island of Tliera, whose people were bold and enterprising. The site they chose "was of an unusual nature, especially for islanders, and lay several miles away from the sea, the shores of which were devoid of natunil bays for anchor- age. But, with this exception, every advantage was at hand : instead of tlio narrow stony soil of their native land, they found the most fertile corn-flelds, a broad table-land with a healthy at- mosphere and watered by fresh springs; a well- wooded coast-land, uni'.aually well adapted for all the natural products which the Hellenes deemed essential ; while in the background spread mysteriously the desert, a world passing the com prehension of the H'jllenes, out of which the Libyan tribes came to the shore with horses and camels, ^ Itli black slav'js, with apes, parrots and other w 'uderful animals, with dates and rare fruits. . . . An abundant spring of water above the shore was the natural point at which the brown men of the deserts and the mariners assembled. Here ref'ular meetings became customary. The bazaar became a permanent market, and the mai'kct a city which arose on a grand scale, broad and lofty, on two rocky heights, which jut out towards the sea from tlie plateau of the desert. This city was called Cyrene. . . . Largo numbers of population immigrated from Crete, the islands and Pelopoi:ncsus. A large amount of new land was parcelled out, the Libyans were driven back, the landin; place became the port of Apollonia, and the tir.itory occupied by the city itself was largely extended. Cyrene be- came, like Massalia, the starting point of a group of settlements, the centre of a oiuall Greece: Barca and Hespcrides [afterwards called Bere- nice] were her daughters. Gradually a nation grew up, whidi extended itself and its agricul- ture, and contrived to cover a large division of African land with Hellenic culture. This v.as the new era which commenced for Cyrene v.ith the reign of the third king, the Battus who, on account of the marvellously rapid rise of his kingdom, was celebrated as "^the fortunate ' in all 645 CYIIENAICA. DACIA. Hellas. The Battiodn; [the family or dynasty of Battus] were soon regarded as a great power. " — E. (;iirtiii8, Hist. ofOrreee, bk. 2, ch. 8. — Cyrciinicu became subject to Egypt un(ier the Ptolcmys, and was then usually culled Pcntnpolis, from the five cities of Cyrene, ApoUonia, ArsinoO (lor- merly Teuchira), Berenice (formerly Ilesperis, or Hesperides) and PtolcmaTs (the port of Barca). Later it became a province of tlie Roman Em- pire, and linally, passing under Mahometan rule, sank to its present state, as a district, called Barca, of the kingdom of Tripoli. — Cyreno was csnecially famous for the pnxluction of a plant called silphium — supposed to be nssafcetida — on whicli the ancients seem to liave set an extra- ordinary value. This was one of tlie principal sources of the wealtli of Cyrene. — E. H. Bun- bury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., ch. 8, sect. 1, and eh. 12, «a(. 2. B. C. 525. — Tributary to Persia. Sec Egypt : B. C. 525-382. B. C. 322. — Absorbed in the Kingdom of Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus. See Eoyi't : B. C. 323-30. B. C. 97. — Transferred to the Romans by will. — "In tlie middle of this reign [of Ptolemy, called Lathyrus, king of Egypt] died Ptolemy Apion, king of Cvrene. He was the half-brother of Lathyrus and Alexander, and having been made king of Cyrene by liis father EuergetesH., he had there reigned quietly for twenty years. Being between Egypt and Carthage, then called the lioman province of Africa, and having no army which he could lead against the Koman legions, he had placed himself under the guar- dianship of Borne ; he had bought a truce during his lifetime, by making the Roman people his heirs in his will, so that on his death they were to have his kingdom. Cyrene had been part of Egypt for above two hundred years, and was usually governed by a younger son or brother of the king. But on tibe death of Ptolemy Apion, the Roman scnat*", who had latterly been grasp- ing at everything witliin their reacli, claimed his kingdom as tlieir inheritance, and in the flatter- ing language of their decree by which the coun- try was enslaved, they declared Cyrene free." — 8. Sharpe. J/iiit. of Kuypt, eh. 11. A. D. 117. — Jewish insurrection. See Cv- nius: A. D. 117. A. D. 016. — Destroyed by Chosroes. See Eoyi'T: a. I). 616-028. 7th Century. — Mahometan conquest. See Mahometan Conquest : A. D. 647-709. CVRUS, The empire of. Sec Persia: B. C. 549-521. CYRUS THE YOUNGER, The expedi- tion of. See Peusia: B. C. 401-400. CYZICUS : B. C. 411-410, Battles at. See Gueece: B. C. 411-407. B. C. 74.— Siege by Mithridateg. — Cyzicus, which had then become one of the largest and wealthiest cities of Asia Minor, was besieged for an entire year (B. C. 74-73) by Jlithridates in tho third Alilhridatic war. The Roman Consul LucuUus came to the relief of the city and suc- ceeded in gaining a position which blockaded the bosiegers and cut off their supplies. In the end, Mitliridates retreated with a small remnant only, of his great armament, and never recovered from the disaster. — G. Iiong, Decline of the lloman Republic, v. 3, ch. 1. A. D. 267.— Capture by the Goths. See Goths: A. 1). 258-267. CZAR, OR TZAR. See Russia: A. D. 1547. CZARTORISKYS, The, and the fall of Poland. See Poland: A. D. 1763-1773. CZASLAU, OR CHOTUSITZ, Battle of (A. D. 1742). See Austkia: A. D. 1742 (Janu- auy — May). CZEKHS, The, See Bohemia : Its peofle. D. DACHTELFIELD, The. See Saxons: A. D. 772-804. DACIA, The Dacians. — Ancient Dacia em- braced the district north of the Danube between the Theiss and the Dneister. " The Dacians [at the time of Augustus, in the last half century B. C] occupied the whole of what now forms the southern part of Hungary, the Banat and Transylvania. . . . The more prominent part which they henceforth assumed in Roman history ■was probably owing principally to the immediate proximity in which they now found themselves to the Roman frontier. The question of the re- lation in which the Dacians stood to the Qetie, •whom we find in possession of these same coun- tries at an earlier period, was one on which there existed considerable difference of opinion among ancient writers: but tlie prevailing conchision was that they were only different names applied to the same people. Even Strabo, who describes them as distinct, though cognate tribes, states that they spoke the same language. According to his distinction the Qeta> occupied ♦'^ /re easterly regions, adjoining the Euxine, . Die Dacians the western, bordering on the Ger- mans. " — E. H. Bunbury, Uitt. of Amnent Oeog., eh. 20, sect. 1. A. D. 102-106.— Trajan's conquest. — At tho beginning of the second century, when Trajan conquered the Dacians and added their country to the Roman Empire, "they may be considered as occupying tho broad block of land bounded by the Theiss, the Carpathians, the lower Danube or Ist'er, and the Pruth." In his first campaign, A. D. 102, Trajan penetrated the country to the heart of modern Transylvania, and forced the Dacians to give him battle at a place called Tapoe, the site of which is not known. He routed them with much slaughter, as they had been roated at tho same place, TapoB, sixteen years before, in one of the ineffectual campaigns directed by Domitian. They sub- mitted, and Trajan established strong Roman posts in the country ; but he had scarcely reached Rome and celebrated his triumph there, before the Dacians were again in arms. In tho spring of the year 104, Trajan repaired to the lower Danube in person, once more, and entered the Dacian country with an overwhelming force. This time the subjugation was complete, and the Romans established their occupation of tlie coun- try by the founding of colonies and the building of roads. Dacia was now made a Roman prov- ince, nad "the language of the Empire became, 646 DACIA. DALRIADA. and to this day substantially remains, the na- tional tongue of the inlmbitnntB. ... Of the Dnc'an province, the last acquired and the first to be surrendered of the Koman possessions, if we CACcpt some transient occupations, soon to be commumorated, in the East, not many traces nowtxist; but even these may sufflro to mark the moulding power of Ronin:; civilization. . . The accents of the Komar tongue still echo in the valleys of Hungary and Wallachia; the de- scendants of the Dacians at the present day ronudiate the appellation of Wallaclis, or stran- gers, and 8ti'! claim the uame of Komuni. — C. Merivale, Ilitt. of tlie Jicinaiis, ch. 63. A. D. 270.— Given up to the Goths. Sec GoTlis: A. D. 268-370. 4th Century.— Conquest by the Huns. See GoTli8(Vi8iooTHs): A. D. 376, and IIuns: A. D. 433^53. 6th Century.— Occupied by the Avars. See AVAUS. Modem history. See Balkan and Danubian States. * DACOITS. See Dakoits. DACOTAS. See A.MEUICAN ABORiorNEs; Siouan P.\ y, and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. DiEGSAS i AN, Battle of.— Fought, A. D. 603, Ixitween the Northumbrians and the Scots of Dalriada, the army of tlio latter being almost wholly destroyed. DAGOBERT I., King of the Franks (Neus- tria), A. D. 63(M}38; (Austrasia), 633-633; (Burgundy), 638-638 Dagobert II., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. D. 673-678. Dagobert III,, King^of the Franks (Neustria DAHIS, The. See Balkan and Danubian and Burgundy), King ( , A. D. 711-715. States, 14Tii-19Tn CENTuniEs (Seuvia). DAHLGREN, Admiral John A.— Siege of Charleston. See United States ov Am. : A. D. 1863 (July, and August— Decembeh: S. Cauo- lina). DAHLGREN, Ulric— Raid to Richmond. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (Feb- ruauy— Mahcii: Virginia). DAKOITS.— DAKOITEE.—Tlie Dakoits of India, who were suppressed soon after the Thugs, were "robbers by profession, and even by birth." Dakoitee "was established upon a broad basis of hereditary caste, and was for the most part an organic state of society. ' I have alwajjs followed the trade of my ancestors, Dakoitee,' said Lukha, a noted Dakoit, who subsequently became approver. ' JI.v ancestors held this profession before me,' said another, ' and we train boys in the same manner. In my caste if tliere were any honest persons, i. e. , not robbers, they would be turned out.' " The hunt- ing down of the Dakoits was begun in 1838, under the direction of Colonel Sleeinan, who had already hunted down the Thugs. — J. W. Kaye, The Administration of the East India Co. , pt. 3, c!i. 3. DAKOTA, North and South : A. D. 1803.— Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. See Louisiana: A. D. 1798-1803. A. D. 1834-1838. — Partly joined, in succes- sion, to Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa Territories. See Wisconsin: A. D. 1805-1848. A. D. 1889.— Admission to the Union. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1889-1890. 647 DAKOTAS. Sec American Anoninmns; SiorAN Family and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. DALAI LAMA. See Lamas. DALCASSIANS. — The people of North Munster liguie jjrominently under that name in ear'y Ir:;h history. — T. Moore, Jlist. of Inland, r. 3. DALHOUSIE, Lord, The India adminis- tration of. See India: A. D. 1845-1849; .'848- 1856; and 1853. DALMATIA.— "The narrow strip of land on the eastern side of the Iladriatic on which the name of Dalmatia has settle<l down has a history which is strikingly analogous to its scenery. . . . As the cultivation and civilization of the land lies in patches, as harbours and cities alternate with barren hills, so Dalmatia has played a part in history only by fits and starts, "fhis fitful kind of history goes on from the days of Qrcek colonics and Illyrian piracy to the last war between Italy and Austria. But of continuous history, steadily influencing the course of the world s progress, Dalmatia has none to show. " — E. A. F' I'einan, Subject and Neighbour Land* of Venice, ^ p. 85-87. Also in: T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Qttar- nero and htria, eh. 1-3. — See, also, Illyricum OF the Ro.MANS; Salgna ; and Balkan and Danubian States. 6th-7th Centuries : Slavonic occupation. See Slavonic Peoples: 6tii and 7tii Centuries; also, Balkan and Danubian States: 7tii Cen- tury. A. D. 944. — Beginning of Venetian Con- quest. S-'e Venice: A. 1). 810-901. A. D. 1 102. — Conquest by the king of Hun- gary. See Hungary: A. D. 973-1114. 14th Century. — Conquest from the Venetians by Louis the Great of Hunga. Sec Hun- gary: A. D. 1301-1443. i6th Century. — The Uscocks. See Uscockb. A. D. 1694-1696. — Conquests by the Vene- tians. See Turks: A. D. 1684-1606. A. D. 1699. — Cession in great part to Venice by the Turks. See Hungary: 1683-1699. A. D. 1797. — Acquisition by Austria. See France: A. D. 1797 (May— October). A. D. 1805. —Ceded by Austria to the king- dom of Italy. See Germany: A. D. 1805-1806. A. D. 1809. — Incorporated in the Illyrian Provinces of Napoleon. See Germany: A. D. 1809 (July — September). A. D. 1814. — Restored to Austria. — Austria recovered possession of Dalmatia under the ar- rangements of the Congress of Vienna. DALRIADA.—" A district forming tlie north- east corner of Ireland and comprising the north half of the county of Antrim, was called Dal- riada. It appears to have been one of the earliest settlements of the Scots among the Picts of Ulster and to have derived its name from its supposed founder Cairbre, surnamed Kighfhada or Hiada. It lay exactly opposite the peninsula of Kintyre [Scotland] from whence it was separated by a part of the Irish channel of no greater breadth than about fourteen miles ; and from this Irish district the colony of Scots, which was already Christian [fifth century] passed over and settled in Kintyre and in the island of Isla " — establish- ing a Scotch Dalriada. — W. P. Skene, Celtic Scotland, bk. 1, ch. 3. — For some account of the Scotch Dalriada, see SccTi,AND: 7th Century. DAMASCUS. DANTZIC. DAMASCUS, Kingdom of.— The kingdom of I)anui8ciis, or " Aram of Damascus" as it was entillc'il, was formed soon after tliat Syrian region threw olT tlie yoke of dependence wliicli David and Solomon liad imposed upon it. " Hezon, the outhiw, was its founder. Huder, or Hadad, and Himmon, were tliccliief divinities of tlie race, and from tliem the line of its kings derived tlieir names, — Hadnd, Ben-hadad, Hwlad-ezer, Tab- rimnion. — Dean Stanley, LecU. on the Ilist. of the JewUh Church, led. 33. — " Though frequently captured and plundered in succeedmg centuries by Kgypt and Assyria, neither of those nations ■was able to hold it long in sul)jcction because of the other. It was probably a temporary repulse of the Assyrians, under Sfialmaneser II., by the Damascene general Naaman to which reference is made in 2 Kings v. 1 : ' by him the Lord had given deliverance unto Syria.' . . . After the great conquerors of Egypt and Asia, each in liis day, had captured and plundered Damascus, it was taken without resistance by Pannenio for Alexander the Great [B. C. 3381 In it Pompey spent the proudest year of his life, 64 B. C, dis- tril)uting at his pleasure the thrones of the East to the vassals of Borne. Cleopatra liad received tlie city lis a love-gift from Mark Antony, and Tiberius had bestowed it upon Herod the Great, before Aret is of Petra, the father of the princess whom IIerip<l Antipas(livorced for Herodias' sake, and the rule." whose olHcers watched the city to prevent the esuape of Paul, made it, we know not how, a part of his dominions." — W. B, Wright, Ancient Cities, ch. 7. A. '3, 634. — Conquest by the Arabs. See MAMj.MbiAN Conquest: A. D. 638-639. A. D. 661. — Becomes the seat of the Cali- phat'i. See Maho.metan Conquest: A. D. 661. A. D. 763.— The Caliphate transferred to Bag<lad. See Mahometan Conquest: A. D. 763. A. D. 1 148-1217.— Capital of the Atabeg and t:he Ayoubite sultans. Sec Saladin, The Empike ok. A. D. 1401. — Sack and massacre by Timour. See TiMouii. A. D. 1832.— Capture by Mehemed Ali. See Turks: A. D. 1831-1840. DAMASUS II., Pope, A. D. 1048, July to August. DAMIETTA: A. D. 1219-1220.— Siege, capture and surrender, by the Crusaders. Sec Ckubades: a. 1). 1216-1229. A. D. I249-I250.— Capture and loss by Saint Louis. See Cuusades: A. D. 1248-1254. A. D. 1252.— Destruction by the Mamelukes. — "Two years after the deliverance of the king [Saint Louis], and whilst he was still in Pales- tine, the Mamelukes, fearing a fresh invasion of the Fronks, in order to prevent their enemies from taking Damietta and fortifying themselves in that city, entirely destroyed it. Some years after, as their fears were not yet removed, and the second crusade of Louis IX. spread fresh alarms throughout the East, the Egyptians caused immense heaps of stone to be cast into the mouth of the Nile, in order that the Christian fleets might not be able to sail up the river. Since that period a new Damietta has been built at a small distance from the site of the former city." — J. F. Michaud, Hist, of the Ci-usade*, 6A.14. DAMNONIA. See Britain : 6th Centubt. DAMNONII, OR DAMNII, The. ^ee Dumnonii. DAMOISEL. — DAMOISELLE. — DON- ZELLO. — "In medinsval Latin 'domicella' is used for the immarried daugliter of a prince or noble, and 'domicelliis,' contracted from 'dom- nicellus,' the diminutive of 'dominus,' for the s.in. These words are the forerunners of the old French 'dftmoisel ' in the masculine, and 'damoi- sclle ' in tlie feminine gender. Froissart calls Hichard, prince of Wales, son of Edward : ' le jeune damoisil Richart.' In Romance the word is indifferently 'dainoiscl' and 'danzel,' in Ital- ian ' donzello. All of these are evidently titles imder the same notion as that of child and ' enfant,' of whicli the idea belongs to the knights of an earlier period." — R. T. Hanipson, Oriyine* Patriciip, p. 328. DANAID.£, The. See Anaos.- Ahgous. DANCING PLAGUE. See Plaque, A. D. 1374. DANDRIDGE, Engagement at. Sec United States op Am. : A. D. 1803-1864 (Decembeu— ApittL : Tennessee — Mississippi). DANEGELD, The.— "A ta.\ of two shillings on the hide of hiLii, originally levied as tribute to the Danes under Ethelred, but continued [even under the Plantagenets], like the income tax, as a convenient ordinary resource." — W. Stubbs, The Early Plantagenets, p. 53. — See England: A. D. 979-1016. DANELAGH, OR DANELAGA, OR DANELAU.— The district in England held l-y the Danes after their treaty with Alfred the Great, extending south to tlie Thames, the Lea and the Ouse ; north to the Tynt; ; west of the mountain district of Yorkshire, Westmoreland and Cumberland. "Over all this region the traces of their colonization abound in the vil- lages whose names end in by, the Scandinavian equivalent of the English tun or ham." — W. Stubbs, Const. Hist. qfEng., ch. 7, sect. 77.— See, also, England: A. D. 855-880. DANES AS VIKINGS. See, also, Kor- MAN8. — Northmen. In England. See England: A. D. 855-880, 979-1016, and 1016-1042; also Normans: A. D. 787-880. In Ireland. Sec Ireland: Oth-IOth Cen- turies. • DANITES, The. See Mormonism: A. D. 1830-1846. DANTE AND THE FACTIONS OF FLORENCE. See Florence: A. D. 1295- 1300; und 1301-1313. DANTON AND THE FRENCH REVO- LUTION. See France : A. D. 1791 (October), to 1793-1794 (November— .luNE). DANTZIC : In the Hanseatic League. See Hansa Towns. A. D. 1577. — Submission to the king of Po- land. See Poland: A. D. 1574-1590. A. D. 1793. — Acquisition by Prussia. See Poland: A. D. 1793-1790. A. D. 1806-1807.— Siege and capture by the French. See Germany : A. D. 1807 (Pebruakt -June). A. D. 1807.— Declared a free state. See Germany : A. D. 1807 (June— July). A. D. 1813. — Siege and capture by the Al- lies. See Germajjy: A. D. 18113 (October — December). 648- ETAKA. DEBT. DARA,— One of tlio capitals of the Parthian kings, the site of which has not ''?en identifled. DARA, Battle of (A. D. 529). See Pehsia : A. I). 2a(M!27. DARDANIANS OF THE TROAD. See Tkoja; and Asia Minou: Tiik Urekk Colonies; also, Amoiiiteb. DARIEN, The Isthmus of. See Panama. The Scottish colony. See Scotland: A. D. loy.'i-iniM). DARINI, The. See Ikbland, Tribes of EAULY O.LTIC INUAHITANTS. DARIUS, King of Persia, B. C. .'531-486 Darius II., B. C. 42.5-405 Darius III. (Codomannus), B. C. 336-331. DARK AGES, The.— Tlie historical period, so-called, is nearly identical with that more com- monly named the Middle Ages; but its duration may be properly considered as less by a century or two. Prom tlie 5th to the 13th century is a definition of the pcrio<l which most historians would probably accept. See Middlk Ages. DARORIGUM.— Modem Vannes. See Vexeti op Westekn Gaul. DAR-Ul.-ISLAM AND DAR-UL-HARB. — "The Koran divides the world into two portions, the House of Islam, Dar-ul-Islam, and the House of War, Dar-ul-hurb. It has generally been represented by Western writers on the in- stitutes of >Iahometanism and on the habits of JIaliometan nations, tluit the Dar-ul-harb, the House of War, comprises all lands of the mis- believers. . . . There is even a widely-spread idea among superticial talkers and writers that the lioly iiostility, the .Jehad [or Dhihad] of M\issulman8 against non-Mussulmans is not limited to warfare between nation and nation; but that ' it is a part of tlie religion of every Maliometan to kill as many Christians as pos- sible, and that by counting up a certain num- ber killed, tliey think themselves secure of heaven.' But careful historical investigators, and statesmen long practically conversant with Mahometan populations have exposed the fallacy of such charges against those who hold the creed of Islam. ... A country which is under Cliristian rulers, but in which Mahometans are allowed free profession of their faith, and peace- able exercise of their ritual, is not a portion of the House of War, of the Dar-ul-harb ; and there Is no religious duty of warfare, no Jehad, on the part of true Mussulmans against such a state. This has been of late years formally determined by the chief authorities in Mahometan law with respect to British India."— Sir E. S. Creasy, JIut. of the Ottoman Turks, eh. 6. DASTAGERD.— Tlie favorite residence of the last great Persian king and conqueror, Chos- roes (A. D. 590-028), was fixed at Dastagerd, or Artemita, sixty miles north of Ctesiphon, and east of tlie Tigris. His palaces and pleasure grounds were of extraordinary magnificence. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Uoman Em- pire, eh. 46. DASYUS. See India : The aboriginal in- habitants. DAUPHINS OF FRANCE.— DAU- PHINE.— In 1349, Philip VI., or Philip de \'alois, of France, acquired by purchase from Humbert II., count of Vienno, tlie sovereignty of the province of Dauphine. This principality became from that time the appanage of the eldest sons of the kings of France and gave them ''' 649 their pcewHar tinmfi or title of the DniiphioK The title in question had been borne by th? counts of Vieune (in Dauphine), "on account of the dolphin which they carried upon their helmets and on their armorial bearings." — E. De Bonnechose, Jliiit. of France, bk. 2, eh. 'i, foot- note. Also in: E. Smedley, llUt. of France, pt. I, eh. 9.— See, also, Buikuwdy: A. D. 1137-1378. DAVENPORT, John, and the founding of New Haven Colony. See Connecticut: A.I). 1038, and 1039. DAVID, King of Israel and Judah. See Jews: The Kingdoms of Iskaei. ind Judaii, and jEnuRALEM: Conquest, &c David I.,. King of Scotland, A. D. 1124-1153 David II., 1329-1370. DAVIS, Jefferson.— Election to the Presi- dency of the rebellious " Confederate States." See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1861 (Fkb- iiuahy) Flight and capture. See United States op Am. : A. I). 1865 (Ariui .May). DAVOUT, Marshal, Campaigns of. Sec Germany: A. D. 1806 (Octobkk); 1806-1807; 1807 (February — June); also Russia: A. D. 1812; and Germany: A. D. 1813-1813; 18!a (Auoust), (October — December). DAY OF BARRICADES, The. See France: A. D. 1.5H4-1.589. DAY OF DUPES, The. See France: A. D. 1030-10.'}3. DAY OF THE SECTIONS, The. Sec France: A. I). 1795 (October — December). DAYAKS, OR DYAKS, The. See Ma- layan Kace. DEAK, Francis, and the recovery of Hun- garian nationality. See Austria : A. D. 1800- 1867. DEAN FOREST.— The "Royal Forest of Dean," situated in the southwestern angle of the county of Gloucester, Eftgland, between the Severn and tlie Wye, is still so extensive that it covers some 23,000 acres, though much reduced from its original dimensions. Its oaks and its iron mines have played important parts in British history. The latter were worked by the Romans and still give employment to a large number of miners. The former were thought to be so es- sential to the naval power of England that the destruction of the Forest is said to have been one- of the special duties prescribed to the Spanish Armada. — J. C. Brown, Forests of Eng. DEANE, Silas, and the American transact tions with Beaumarchais in France. See United States op Am. : A. I). 1776-1778. DEARBORN, General Henry, and the War of 1812. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1812 (June — October), (Septe.mber — Novem- ber); A. D. 1813 (October — November). DEBRECZIN, Battle of (1849). See Aus- tria: A. D. 1848-1849. DEBT, Laws concerning: Ancient Greek.. — At Athens, in the time of Solon (Otii century, B. C.) the Tlictes — "the cultivating tenants, metayers and small proprietors of the country . . . are exhibited as weighed down by debts and dependence, and driven in large numbers out of a state of freedom into slavery — the whole mass of them (we are told) being in debt to the rich, who were proprietors of the greater part of the soil. They Iiad either borrowed money for their own necessities, or they tilled the lauds of the rich as dependent tenants, pi>y- DEBT. DEBT. Ing a Btlpuliitod portion of the produce, and in thJH capiicity they were largely in arrear. All the calnniitouH ellectH were liere seen of the old harsh law of debtor and creditor — once prevalent in Greece, Italy, Asia, and a large portion of the world — combined with the recognition of slavery as a legitimate status, and of the right of one man to sell himself as wi^ll as that of another man to buy him. Every debtor unable to fulfil his con- tract WHS liable to bo adjudged as the slave of his creditor, until he could find meanseitherof paying it or working it out; and not only ho himself, but his minor sons and unmarried daughters and sisters al.so, whom the law gave him the power of selling. T!ie poor man tluis borrowed upon the security of his body (to translate literally the Greek phrase) and upon that of the persons in his family. So severely had these opiiressive con- tracts been enforced, that many debtors had been reduced from freedom to slavery in Attica itself, — manj- others bad been sold for expor- tation, — and some had oidy hitherto preserved their own freedom by selling their children. ... To their relief Solon's first measure, the memorable Seisachtheia, shaking off of burthens, was directed. The relief which it afforded was complete and immediate. It cancelled at once all those contracts in which the debtor had borrowed on the security either of his person or of his land : it forbade all future loans or con- tracts in wlrfcli the person of the debtor was pled ijed as security: it deprived the creditor in luturo of all power to imprison, or enslave, or extort work from, his debtor, and C(raflned him to an effective judgment at law authorizing the seizure of the property of the latter. It swept off all the numerous mortgage pillars from the landed properties in Attica, leaving the land free from all past claims. It liberated and restored to their full rights all debtors actually in slavery under previous legal adjudication ; and :t even provided the means (we do not know how) of re-purchas- ing in foreign lands, and bringing back to a renewed life of liberty in Attica, many insolvents who had been sold for exportation. And while Solon forbad every Athenian to pledge or sell his own person into slavery, he took a step farther in the same direction by forbidding him to pledge or sell his son, his daughter, or an unmarried sister under his tutelage — excepting only the case ir. which either of the latter might be detected in uncbastity. . . . One thing is never to be forgotten in regard to this measure, combined with the concurrent amendments introduced by Solon in the law — it settled finally the question to wliich it referred. Never again do we hear of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing Athenian tranqviility. The general sentiment which grew up at Athens, under the Solonian money-law and under the democratical govern- ment, was one of high respect for the sanctity of contracts. . . . There can be little doubt that under the Solonian law, which enabled the creditor to seize the property of his debtor, but gave him no power over the person, the system of money-lending assumed a more beneficial character." — G. Groto, Hist, of Oreece, pt. 3, e/i. 11 (v. 8). Ancient Roman.— "The hold of the creditor was on the person of the debtor. The obliga- tion of a debt was a tying up or binding, or bond- age, of the person: the payment was a solu- tion, a loosing or release of the person from that bondage. The property of the debtor was not a pledge for the debt. It could be made bo by speciitl agreement, though in the earliest law only by transferring it at once to the ownership of the creditor. Without such special agree- ment, the creditor whose debtor failed to pay could not touch his property. Even when the debtor had been prosecuted and condemned to pay, if he still failed, the creditor could not touch his property. lie could seize his person — I speak now of the early law, in the first cen- turies of the republic — and after holding him in rigorous confinement for sixty days, with opportunities, however, either to pay himself or get somebody to pav for him, if p.iyment still fulled, he could sell him as a slave, or ]>ut him to death; if there were several creditors, they could cut his bmiy into pieces and divhio it among them. This extreme severity was afterward softened; but tlie principle ninaincd long unchanged, that the hold of the creditor was on the person of the debtor. If the debto"- obstinately and to the last refused to sunen- dcr his property, the creditor could not touch it." — J. Iladley, Intvod. to Jioinan Imw, lect. 10. — "During the first half of the Samnitc war [B. C. 326-304], but in what year is uncertain, there was passed that famous law which pro- hibited personal slavery for debt. No creditor might for the future attach the person of his debtor, but he might only seize his property; and all those whose personal freedom was pledged for their debts (nexi), were released from their liability, if they could swear that they had property enough to meet their creditors demands. It docs not appear that this great aitenition in the law was the work of any tribune, or that it arose out of any general or deliberate desire to soften the severity of the ancient prac- tice. It was occasioned, we are told, by one scandalous instance of abuse of power on the part of a creditor. . . . But although personal slavery for debt was thus done away with, yet the consequences of insolvency were much more serious at Home than they are in modern Europe. He- vhose property had once been made over to his creditors by the praetor's sentence, became, ipso facto, infamous; he lost his tribe, and with it all his political riglits ; and the forfeiture was irrevocable, even though he might afterwards pay his debts to the full ; nor was it oven in the power of the censors to replace him on the roll of citizens. So sacred a thing did credit appear in the eyes of the Romans." — T. Arnold, Ilkt. of liome, ch. 33 {v. 2). In England. — "Debt has been regarded as a crime by primitive society in every part of the world. In Palestine, as in Rome, the creditor had power over tlie person of the debtor, and mis- fortune was commonly treated with a severity which was not always awarded to crime [Levit. XXV., 39-41, and 3 Kings iv., 1]. In this country [England] the same system was grad- ually introduced in Plantagenet times. The creditor, who had been previously entitled to seize the goods, or even the land of the debtor, was at last authorised to siize his person. In one sense, indeed, the English law was, in this respect, more irrational than the cruel code of the Jews, or the awful punishment [death and dismemberment or slavery — Gibbon, ch. 441 which the law of the Twelve Tables reserved for debtors. lu Palestine the creditor was, at 650 DEBT. DEBT. least, entitled Ui the service of the debtor or of Ills cliiUlrcn, und the hIuvu liiul tlie prospect of nil Insolvent Debtor's Relief Act in tlie 8iil)- biUiciil yt'iir. Even tlie law of tlie Twelve Tallies allowed the creditors to sell tlie debtor Into slavery, instead of r sorting to the horrible alternative of partitioniiij; his Ixnly. But in England the creditors had no such choice. They had notliing to do but to throw the debtor Into prison; and by his iiniirisonment deprive them- selves of the only chance of his earning money to pay their deb's. \ law of this kind was intolerable to a commercial people. The debtor laugulslicd lu gaol, the creditor failed to obtain payment of Ills debt. Wlien trmle increased in Tudor times, the wits of legislators were exer- cised In devising some expedient for satisfying tlie creditor without imprisoning the debtor. The Chancellor was authorised to appoint com- niissloncrs empowered to divide the debtor's property among the creditors. By an Act of Anne the debtor who complied with the law was released from further liability, and was prac- tically enabled to commence life anew. In 1820, a debtor was allowed to procure his own banlc- ruptcy; while in 1831, commissioners were ap- pointed to carry out the armngements which had been previously conducted under tlie Court of Chancery. The law of bankruptcy wliich was thus gradually developed by the legislation of three centuries only applied to persons in trade. No one who was not a trader could become a bankrupt ; the onllnary debtor became as a matter of course an insolvent, and passed under the insolvent laws. The statutes, more- over, omitted to give any very plain definition of a trader. The distinction between trader and non-trader which had been gradually drawn by the Courts was not based on any very clear prin- ciple. A person who made bricks on his own estate of his own clay was not a trader ; but a person who bought tlie clay and then made the bricks was a trader. Farmers, again, were exempt from the bankruptcy law ; but farmers who purchased cattle for sale at a profit were liable to it. The possibility, moreover, of a trader being made a bankrupt depended on the size of his business. A petitioning creditor in bankruptcy was required to be a person to whom at least £100 was due; if two persons petitioned, tlieir debts were required to amount to £150; if more tlian two persons petitioned, to £200. A small shopkeeper, therefore, wlio could not hope to obtain credit for £200, £150, or £100, could not become a bankrupt ; he was forced to become an insolvent. The treatment of the insolvent was wholly different from that of tlie bankrupt. The bankruptcy law was founded on the prin- ciple tiiat the goods and not the person of the debtor should be liable for the debt; the insol- vency law enabled the person of the debtor to be seized, but provided no maclilnery for obtaining his goods. ... Up to 1838 the first step in insol- vency was the arrest of tlio debtor. Any person who made a deposition on oath tliat some other person was in debt to him, could obtain bis arrest on what was known as 'mesne process.' The oath might possibly be untrue; the debt might not be due; tiie warrant issued on the sworn deposition as a matter of course. But, in addition to the imprisonment on mesne process, the insolvent could be imprisoned for a furtlier period on what was known as 'final process.' Imprisonment on mesne process was the course whieli llie creditor t(M)k to prevent thellightof the debtor; imprisonment on final process was the punishment which the Court awarded to the crime of debt. Siicli a system woiikl Iiave lieen bad enough If the debtors' prisons had been well managed. The actual eondl.lon of these prisons almost exceeds belief. Dickens, indeed, has made tlie story of a debtor's iiiipris(mment In the Marshalsea familiar to a worlii of readers. . . . The Act of 1813 had done something to mltl- gate the misery which the law occasioned. The ourt which was constituted by It released 50,000 debtors in 13 years. But large numbers of pi^rsons were still detained in pri.son for debt. In 1827 nearly 6,000 persons were committed In Ijondon alone for delit. The Common Law Com- missioners, reporting In 1830, declared that the loud and (,"iieral omplaints of the law of insol- vency were well founded; and Cottenlmm, in 1838, Introduced a bill to abollsli imprisonment for debt, in ad cases. Tlie Lonls were not pre- pared for so complete a remedy ; they declined to abolish Imprisonment on final process, or to exempt from imprisonment on mesne process, persons who owed more than £20, and who were about to leave the country. Cottenhaiii, disap- pointed at tliese amendments, decided on strength- ening his own liands by instituting a fresh in(|uiry. He appointed a commission in 1831), wlilch reported in 1840, and which recommendeil the abolition of imprisonment on final process, and the union of bankruptcy and insolvency. In 1841, in 1842, In 1843, and in 1844 Cottenlmm intr(xluced bills to carry out this report. The bills of 1841, 1843, and 1843 were lost. Tlie bill of 1844 was not much more successful. Brough- am declared that debtors who refused to dis- close their property, who refused to answer questions about it, wlio refused to give it up, or who fraudulentlv made away with It, as well as debtors who had been guilty of gross extrava- gance, deserved Imprisonment. He introduced an alternative bill giving tlio Court discretionary power to Imprison them. The Lords, bewildered by the contrary counsels of two such great law- yers as Cottenham and Brougham, decided on referring botii bills to one Select Committee. The Committee preferred Brougham's bill, amended it, and returned it to the House. This bill became ultimately law. It enabled both private debtors and traders whose debts amounted to less tlian the sums named in tlie Bankruptcy Acts to become bankrupts; and it abolished imprisonment In all coses where the debt did not exceed £20."— S. Wolpole, Hist, of Eng.from 1815, ch. 17 (». 4). In the United States. — "In New York, by the act of April 30, 1831, c. 300, and which went into operation on Marcli 1st, 1833, arrest and imprisonment on civil process at law, and on exe- cution In equity founded upon contract, were abolished. The provision under the act was not to apply to any person who should have been a non-resident of the state for a month preceding (and even this exception was abolished by the act of April 25tli, 1840); nor to proceedings as for a contempt to enforce civil remedies; nor to actions for fines and penalties; nor to suits founded in torts . . . nor on promises to marry ; or for moneys collected by any public officer; or for misconduct or neglect in office, or in any pro- fessional employment. The plaintiff, however, 661 DEBT. DECLARATION OF PARIS. In any »ijlt, or upon any Ju<lgmcnt or docrpc, mny apply U) a ju 'i;e for a warnuit to arrcHt tlio dcf(tn(lant, upon attldavit Htntinf^ a debt or de- mand due, to more than l)5U; and that the de- fendant Is alK)Ut to remove property out of the iuriiwliction of the court, with intent to defraud his creditors; or tliat ho has property or riglits in action which lie fraudulently conceals; or public or corporate stock, money, or evidences of " Ich he unj the plalntllT ; or tliat lie has assigned, or is about debt, which lie unjustly refuses to apply to the payment of the Judgment or decree in favor of to assign or dispose of his property, with intent to def niud Ills creditors ; or has fraudulently con- tracted the debt, or Incurred the obligation re- Bpecting which the suit Is brought If the judge Buall be satisfied, on due examination, of the truth of the charg(!, hi: Is to commit the ilebtor to Jail, unless he complies with certain prescribed conditions or some one of tliem, and which are calculated for the security of the plaintiff's claim. Nor is any execution against the body to be Is- sued on justices' judgments, except in cases essentially the same with those above sttkted. ... By the New York act of 1848, c. 150, the defendant Is liable for Imprisonment as in actions for wrong, if he be sue<l and judgment pass against him In actions on contracts for moneys received by him (and it applies to all male per- sons) in a nduciary character. The legislature of Massacliusetts, In 1834 and 1842, essentially abol- ished arrest and imprisonment for debt, unless on proof that the debtor was about to abscond. As early as 1790, the constitution of Pennsylvania established, as a fundamental principle, that debtors should not be continued in prison after surrender of tlieir estates in the mode to be pre- scribed by law, unless in cases of a strong pre- sumption of fraud. In February, 1819, the leg- islature of that state exempted women from arrest and imprisonment for debt ; and this pro- vision as to women was afterwards applied In New York to all civil actions founded upon con- tract. . . . Females were first exempted from imprisonment for debt in Louisiana and Missis- sippi ; and imprisonment for debt, in all cases free from fraud, is now abolished in each of those states. The commissioners in Pennsylvania, In their report on the Civil Code, in January, 1885, recommended that there be no arrest of the bo<ly of the d' lor on mesne process, without an am- davit of ilie debt, and that the defendant was a non-resident, or about to depart without leaving sufficient property, except in cases of force, fraud, or deceit, verified by affidavit. This sug- gestion was carried into effect bv the act of the legislature of Pennsylvania of July 12th, 1842, en- titled ' An Act to abolish imprisonment for debt, and to punish fraudulent debtors.' In New Hampshire, imprisonment on mesne process and execution for debt existed under certJiin qualifi- cations, until December 23, 1840, when it was abolished by statute, in cases of contract and debts accruing after the first of March, 1841. In Vermont, imprisonment for debt, on contracts made after first January, 1889, is abolished, as to resident citizens, unless there be evidence that they are about to abscond with their property ; so, also, the exception in Mississippi applies to cases of torts, frauds, and meditated conceal- ment, or fraudulent disposition of property." — J. Kent, Commentaries on American Law; td. by 0, W, Holmes, Jr., v. H (foot-note).— •'In many states the Constitution provides (A) that there shall be no Imprisonment for debt: Ind. C. 1, 22; Minn. C. 1, 12; Kan. C. B. Rts. 18; Md. C. 8, 88; N.C. C. 1, 10; Mo. C. 2, 18; Tex. C. 1, 18; Ore. C. 1, 19; Nov. C. 1, 14; 8. C. C. 1, 20; Oa. C. 1, 1, 21; Ala. C. 1,21; Miss. C. 1, 11; Fla. C. Decl'n Rts. 15. (B) That there shall be no Imprisonment for debt (1) In any civil action on mesne or final process, in seven states: O. C. 1, 15; lo. C. 1, 10; Neb. C. 1, 20; Tenn. C. 1, 18^ Ark. C. 2, 10; Cal. C. 1, 15; Ore. C. 1, 15; Ariz. B. Rts. 18. (2) In any action or Judgment founded upon contract, in three states: N.J. C. 1, 17; Mich. C. 0, 83; Wis. C. 1, 18. (C) In six, that there shall be no person imprisoned for debt- in any civil action when he has delivered up his property for the l)enefit of his creditors in the- manner pret ribed by law: Vt. C. 2, 88; R. I. C. 1, 11; Pa. C. 1, 16; 111. C. 2, 12; Ky. C. 13, 19; Col. C. 2, 13. , . . But the above principle* are subject to the following exceptions in the several states respectively: (1) a debtor maybe imprisoned in criminal actions ; Tenn. So (2) for the non-payment of fines or penalties imposed by law: Mo. So (3) generally, in civil or criminal actions, for fraud :Vt., R. 1, N. J., Pa., O., Ind., 111., Mich., lo., Minn., Kan.. Neb., N. C, Ky., Ark., Cal., Ore., Nev., Col., 8. C, Fla., Ariz. And so, in two, the legislature has power to pro- vide for the punishment of fraud and for reach- ing property of the debtor concealed from hi* creditors: Ga. C. 1, 2, 8; La. C. 223. So (4) ab- sconding debtors may be imprisoned : Ore. Or debtors (5) in cases of libel or slander: Nev. (8) In civil cases of tort generally: Cal., Col. (7> In cases of malicious m.schief: Cel. (8) Or of breach of trust: Mich., Ariz. (0) Or of moneys- collected by public officers, or in any professional employment: Mich., Ariz." — F. J. Stimson, .4m. Statute Law : Digest of Const' s and Civil Pxtblie Statutes of all the States and Territories relating to Persons and Property, in force Jan. 1, 1886, art. 8. « DECADI OF THE FRENCH REPUB- LICAN CALENDAR. See Fkance: A. D. 1703 (OcToiiEii). The new republican calendar. DECAMISADOS, The. See Spain: A. D. 1814-1827. DECATUR, Commodore Stephen.— Burn- ing of the "Philadelphia." See Barbaht States: A. D. 1803-1805 In the War of x8i2. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1818- 1813; 1814. DECCAN, The. See India: The Name; and Immiqbation and conquests of thb- DECELIAN WAR, The. See Greece: B. C. 413. DECEMVIRS, The. See Rome: B. C. 451- 449. DECIUS: Roman Emperor. A. D. 249-251. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (American). See United States op Am. : A. D. 1776 (January— June), and (July) ; also, Inde- pendence Hall. DECLARATION OF PARIS, The.— "At the Congress of Paris in 1856, subsequently to the conclusion of the treaty, which ended the Crimean war [see Russia: A. D. 1854-1856], a declaration of principles was signed on April 16th, by the plenipotentiaries of all the powers represented there, which contained four articles; 652 DECLARATION OF PARIS. DEIRA. 'First, PrlvntotTins Ib and rpmninfi nboliitlipd. Scroml, The lU'utraT (lag covers enemies' groxls, with the exception of contrubunil of wiir. Third, N(!Utnil g(X)dH, except of contralxiiid of war, are not liable tn capture under an enemy's Mag. Fourth, Blockades, to he hiniling, must he effective — tliat is to say, maintained hy a force really sufficient t^) prevent access to tlie coast of tlie enemy.' The mlhercnco of other nowers was requestedf to these principles," nnd all Joined In signing It except the United Ste'es, Spain, and Mexico. The objection on the pait of the United States was stated in a circular letter hy Mr. Marcy, then Secretary of Staic, who " maintained tliat the right to resort to privateers Is as incon- testable as any other right appertaining to bel- ligerents; and reasone(l that the effect of the declaration would be to Increase the maritime preijonderance of Great lirltnln and France, with- out even Iwnefiting the general cause of civiliza- tion; while. If public ships retjilned the right of capturing privaK! property, the United States, which had at that time a large mercantile marine and a comnaratively small navy, would be de- prived of all means of retaliation. . . . The Presi- dent proposes, therefore [wrote Mr. Marcy] to add to the first proposition contained in the decla- ration of the Congress of Paris the following words: 'and that the private property of tlie subjects and citizens of a belligerent on the high seas shall be exempted from seizure by public armed vessels of the other belligerent, except It be contraband.'. . . Among the minor states of Europe there was complete unanimity and a general readiness to accept our amendment to the rules"; but England opposed, and the of- fered amendment was subsequently withdrawn. "Events . . . have shown that . . . our refusal to accept the Declaration of Paris hi.s brought the world nearer to the principles which we pro- posed, which became known as the ' Marcy amendment for the abolition of war against pri- vate property on the seas.''' — E. Schuyler, Amencan Diplomacy, ch. 7. Also in : F. Wharton, IHgMt of the Interna- tional law of the U. 8., eh. 17, sect. 342 (». 8).— H. Adams, Historical Essays, ch. 6. — See, also, Pll I V AT EK Rfi. DECLARATION OF RIGHTS. See Eng LAND: A. D. 1689 (Januauv— Februatiy). DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN, French Revolutionary. See France: A. I). 1780 (AiiotisT — OcTonKH). DECLARATORY ACT, The. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1766. DECRETA, Roman imperial. See Corpus Juris Civilis. DECRETALS, The False. See Papacy: A. D. 829-847. DECUMiE. See Vfxtioal. DECUMATES LAND. See Aori Dkcu- MATES, also Alemanni ; and Scevi. DECURIONES. Sec Curia, Municipal, op THE later Roman Empire. DEDITITIUS.— COLONUS.— SERVUS. —"The poor Provincial [of the provinces of the Roman empire at the time of the breaking up In the fifth century] who could not fly to the Goths because his whole property was in land, hunted to despair by the tax-gatherer, would transfer that land to some wealthy neighbour, appar- ently on condition of receiving a small life annuity out of it. He was then called the Dediti- tlus (or Surrenderer) of the new owner, towards whom he sttKul in a position of a Certain degree of dependence. Not yet, how.ver, were his sor- rows or those of his family at an end, for the t4ix-gathcrer still regarded hint as responsible for his land. ... On his death his sons, wlio had utterly lost their paternal Inheritance, and sfill found themselves confronted with the claim for taxes, were obviously without reso\irce. The next stage of the pnJcess acconllngly was that they abdicated the position of free citizens and implored the great man to accept theui as ColonI, a class of labourers, half-free, half-enslaved, who may perhaps with sutllclent accuracy be comiiared to the serfs ' adscrlpti glebie ' of the middle ages. . . . Before long they became mere slaves (Servi) without a shadow of right or claim against their new lonls." — T. Ho<Igkin, Italy and her Invaders, bk. 1, ch. 10.— With the "Increase of great estates and simultaneous in- crease In the number of slaves (so many Goths were made slaves by Claudius [A. D. 268-270], to give one Instance, that there was no', a district wlUiout them), the small proprietors co\d(l no longer maintain the fruitless struggle, and, as a class, wholly disappeared. Some, no doubt, be- came soldiers; others crowded into the already overflowing towns; while others voluntarily re- signed their freedom, attached themselves to the land of some rich proprietor, and became his villeins, or colonl. But this was not the chief means by which this class was formed and in- creased. . . . After a successful war these serfs were given ... to landed proprietors without payment ; and in this way not only was the class of free peasants diminished or altogether de- stroyed — a ha;3pier result — the slave system was directly attacked. The colonl themselves were not slaves. The codes directly dlstiiii,'ulsh them from slaves, and In several imperial constitutions they are called 'iugenui.' They could contract a legal marriaf;e and could hold property. . . . On the other hind, the coloni were like slaves in that they were liable to personal punishment. ... A colonun was indissolubly attached to the land, and could not get quit of the tie, even by enlisting as a soldier. The proprietor could sell him wiUi the estate, but had no power whatever of selling him without it; and if he sold the estate, he was compelled to sell the coloni along with it. . . . The position of these villeins was a very miserable one. . . . These coloni in Gaul, combined together, were joined by the free peasants still left [A. D. 287], whose lot was not less wretched than their own, and forming into numerous bands, spread themselves over the country to pillage and destroy. They were called Uagauela!, from a Celtic word meaning a mob or riotous assembly; and under this name recur often In the course of the next century both in Gaul and Spain."— W. T. Arnold, T/ie Soman System of Provincial Administration, eh. 4. DEEMSTERS. See Manx Kingdom, The. DEFENDERS. See Ireland: A. I). 1784. DEFENESTRATION AT PRAGUE, The. See Bohemia: A. D. 1611-1618. DEFTERDARS. See Sublime Porte. DEICOLiE, The. See Culdees. DEIRA, The kingdom of.— One of the king- doms of the Angles, covering'what is now called the East Riding of Yorkshire, with some terri- tory beyond it. Sometimes it was united with 653 DBIRA. DELAWARE, 1688-1640. thn klnf^dom of B<'nilcla, north of It, to form the greater kingdom of Nortliuin1)riit. Hvu Eno- land: a. I) r)47-«.I!l. DEKARCHIES. 8to Hpaiita: H. C. 404- 4o:i. DEKELEIA.-DEKIiLEIANWAR. H(<. Ghkkck; H. C. 4i;J. DELATION. - DELATORS. — I'lidir Hid empire, tlieru was H'Min lircd iit Home an Infii- mouH claxM of nu-n v. ho lM)ro u certain reitcmbliinee — witli sifrnitlcani. cimtrastH liltewlse — to the aynopliantii of Atliens. Tliev were l<nown an dclatora, and 'Jieir occnpation v/m dehition. "Tlie delator ivas properly one who gave notice to the fiscal olllcen* of moneys that had Iwcome due to the treasury of ihi^ state, or more strictly to the emperor's tlsciiH. " Hut the title was ex- tended to Informers generally, who dragged their fellow-citizens before the trilnmalfl for alleged vlolutl'ins of law. Augustus miule delatiim a profe'islon by attAching rewards to the Informa- tion given against transgressors of his marriage laws. Under the successor of Augustus, the sullen and suspicious Tiberius, delation received its greatest encouragement and di^velopment. 'Aca)rdlng to the spirit of Roman criminal pro- ce<lure, the Informer and the pleader were one and the same person. There was no publk; ac- cuser, . . . but the spy who discovered the delinquency was himself the man to demand of the scnatt', the prwtor or the judge, an oppor- tunity of proving it by his own eloquence and Ingenuity. The otiium of prosecution was thus removed from tlio government to the private delator." — C. Merlvole, Jliit. of t/u Romans, ch. 44.— See, also, Rome: A. D. 14-87. DELAWARE BAY: A. D. 1609.— Dis- covered by Henry Hudson. >See A.hkrica: A. I). 1009. The error perpetuated in its name. — "Al- most every writer on American history that I have met with appears to have taken pains to perpetuate the stereotyped error that ' Lord Dela- warr touched at this bay In his passage to Vir- ginia in 1610.' . . . Lord Dclaworr himself, in his letter of the 7Ui of July, 1610, giving an account of his voyage to Virginia, not only makes no mention of that bay, or of his ap- proaching it, but expressly speaks of his first reaching the American coast on the ' 6th of June, at what time we made land to the southward of our harbor, the Chosiopiock Bay.' The first European who is really known to have entered the bay, after Hudson, was Capt. Samuel Argall [July 1610]. . . . The name of Lord Delawarr, however, seems to have been given to the bay soon afterwanls by the Virginians. " — J. R. Broti- head, Ilitt. of the State of N. Y., v. 1 , apj). , note D. DELAWARE: A. D. 1620-1631.— The Dutch occupancy and first settlement. — The first attempt at settlement on the Delaware was made by the Dutch, who claimed tlie country in right of Hudson's discovery and Mey's explora- tion of the Bay, notwithstanding the broad Eng- lish claim, which covered the whole of it as part of an indefinite Virginia. In 1629, pursuant to the patroon ordlaance of the Dutch West India Company, which opened New Netherland terri- tory to private purchasers, "Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert, both directors of the Amster- dam Chamber, bargained with the natives for the soil from Cape Henlopen to the mouth of DoIaw;irc river ; in July, 1680, this purchnsr of an eslate more than thirty miles long was ratitled at Fort Amsterdam by MInidt [then Governor of New Netherland] and his council. It Is tliu oldest deed for land In Delaware, and comnriHes the water-line of the two southern counties <if that slate. ... A ('ompany was s<K)n forn\ed to colimize the tract acquired by Oodyn and Hloni- maert. The first settlement in Delaware, older than any In Pennsylvania, was undertaken Ity a (!onii)any, of which GcMlyn, Van Rensselaer, Blommaert, the historian De Laet, and a new partner, Davh' Petersen de Vries, were n«'ml)erH. By joint enterprise, In December, 16!M), a ship of 18 guns, commanded by Meter Ileyes, and laden with emigrants, store of seeds, cattle and agricul- tural implements, embarked from the Texel, Sartly to cover the southern shore of Delawara ay with fields of wheat and tobacco, and partly for a whale fishery on the coast. . . . Early In the spring of 1031, the . . . vessel reached its destination, and just within Cape Henlopen, <m Lewes Creek, planted a colony of more than thirty soids. The superintendence of the settle- ment was intrusted to Gillis Ilosset. A little fort was built and well beset with palisades: the arms of Holland were affixed to a pillar; the country receivi'd the name Swaanendael; the water that of Godyn's Bay. The voyage of Heyes was the cradling of astute. That Delaware exists as a separate commonwealth is due to this colony. Accoriling to English rule, occupancy was neces- sary to ccmiplete a title to the wlldenicss; and the Dutch now occupied Delaware. On the 5th of May, Heyes ond Hosset, in behalf of Godyn and Blommaert, made a further purchase from Indian chiefs of the opposite coast of Cape May, for twelve miles on the bay, on the sea, and in tlie interior; and, in June, this sale of a tract twelve miles square was formally attested at Manhat- tan. Animated by the rciuuge of Godyn, tho patroons of 8waanei;iiael fitted out a second ex- pedition under the command of De Vries. But, iwfore he set sail, news was received of the de- struction of the fort, and the murder of its people. Hassct, the commandant, had caused the death of an Indian chief; and the revenge of the sav- ages was not appeased till not one of the emi- grants remained alive. De Vries, on his orrival, found only the ruins of the house and its pali- sades, half consumed by fire, and hero and there the bones of the colonists." — Q. Bancroft, UUt. of the IT. S., pt. 2, ch. 13 (». 1). Ahso IN: J. R. Brodhead, Hist, of the State at N. Y., r,. 1, ch. 7. A. D. 1632. — Embraced in the Maryland erant to Lord Baltimore. Sec Makyland: A. D. 1633. A. D. 163^. — Embraced in the Palatine grant of New Albion. See New Aluion. A. D. 1638-1640. — The planting of the Swedish colony. — "William Usselmx, a dis- tinguished merchant in Stockholm, was the first to propose to the Swedish government a schemo for planting a colony in America. He was a native of Antwerp, and had resided in Spain, Portugal and the Azores, at a time wlien the spirit of foreign adventure pervaded every cloas of society. ... In the year 1624 he proposed to the Swedish monorch, Qustavus Adolphus, a plan for the organization of a trading com- pany, to extend its operations to Asia, Africa, America and Terra Magellanica. . . . Whether 654 DELAWARE, l«88-lft40. DELAWARE, l(M(V-lMfl. Ussclliix Imd pvor l)Opn in Amrrini i<i tmrrrtnln. bill III' IiikI, fxioii uftcr tlip or^'iiiii/.ittioii nf the Diitrli SVi'st Iiiillii (,'ompiiny, si.im' connrctioii witli it, unit by tliix iiiiil oilier iiu'iinN wiih uIiIc to Kivu iiiiipitt infiinimtion In relation to tlie country lK)r(ierin(; on tlu^ Deliiwiire, IIm soil, clinmtc, 1111(1 |ir<Kliu'lions. . . . His plnii unit contract weri) IninHliited into the SwedlNli inn- gunge l>y Scliniiler, tlic royal interpreter, and pulilislied to tlie nation, witli an uddretiH 8tron>{ly appealing iKitli to their piety and tlieir love of gain. Tlie kinjf reconiniended it to tlie States, and nn edict dated at Htoel<liolni, .Inly M, Witt, waB iKHiied by royal authority, in wlileh people of all ranks were invited to encouniue tlie pro- ject and 8upiM)rt the Company. IJooks were opened for subscription to tlii! stock . . . and (iiistavus pledged the royal treasure for its sup- port to tliu amount of 400,(H)0 dollars. . . . Tlie work was ripe for e.\eciitii)n, wlicn tlie (icrinan war ftho Thirty Years War], and afterwards the king 8 deatli, prevented it, and rendered tlu^ fair prospect fruitless. . . . Tlie next iittempt on the part of the Swedes to plant a colony in America was more successful. But there has lieen much difference among liistorians in relation to the fiuriod when that settlement was made. ... It sowing to the preservation, among the Diitcli rcconls at Albany, of an oHicial protest Issued by Kieft, the Governor at New Amsterdam, tliat wo do certainly know the SwedeS were here in the spring of 1038. Peter Minuit, who conduct. d to our sliorc the first Hwedisli colony, liad been Commercial Agent, and Director General of the Dutch West Indio Company, and Governor of the New Netherlands. ... At this time Christina, tlie infant daughter of Qustiivus Adolphus, had ascended the throne of Sweden. . . . Under the direction of O.xenstiern, the celebrated chancellor of Sweden, whoso wisdom and virtue liave shed a glory on the oge in which lie lived, the patent which had been granted in the reign of Oiistavus to the company formed under the influence of Usselinx was renewed, and its privileges extended to the citizens of Germany. Minuit, being now out of employment, and probably deeming him- self injured by the conduct of the Dutch Com- pany [which had displaced him from the gov- ernorship of tlie New Netherlands, tlirougli the influence of the patroons, and appointed Wouter Van Twiller, a clerk, to succeed him], had determined to offer his services to tlie crown of Sweden. . . . Minuit laid before tlie clian- cellor a plon of procedure, urged a settlement on the Delaware, and offered to conduct the enterprise. Oxenstiern represented the case to the queen . . . and Minuit was commissioned to command and direct the expedition." — B. Ferris, Hist, of the Original Settlements vn the Delaware, pt. 1, ch. 2-3. — " Witl. two ships laden with pro- visions and other supplies requisite for the settle- ment of emigrants in a new country, and with fifty colonists, Minuit sailed from Sweden late in 1637, and entered Delaware Bay in April, ^838. He found the country as he had left it, without white inhabitants. Jlinqua Kill, now Wilming- ton, was selected as the place for the tirst settle- ment, where he bought a few acres of land of the natives, landed his colonists and stores, erected a fort, and began a small plantation. He had conducted his enterprise with some secrecy, that he might avoid collision with the Dutch ; but the watchful eyes of their agents soon dis- covered him, and reported his presenon to the direriorat New AniHtenlaiii. Kieft I siicceNsor to Van Twiller] had just arrived, and it became one of his first duties to notify a man who had preceded lilni in ofllce that be was a trespasser and warn liini off. Miiiiiil, knowing that Kieft was powerless to enforic his protest, being with- out troops or money, paid no attention to his missive, and kciit on with his work. ... Ho erected a fort of coiiHiderable strength, named I i^ristina, for flu- Swedish (|ueeii, and garrisoned it with 'J4 soldiers. Understanding the character of the Indians, lie conciliated their sachems by liberal presents and secured llw' trade. In a few montlis he was eiuihleil to loud Ills ships witli peltries and despatch them to ids patrons. . . . Tlie colony had to all appearance a promising future. . . . Within two years, however, their prospects were clouded. Tlie Company had failed to send out another ship with sujipiles and nierchaiidise for the Indian traiU'. i'rovisiona failed, trade fell otT, and sickness began to pre- vail. . . . They resolved to remove to Manhattan, where they could at least have "enough to eat.' On the eve of ' breaking up ' to carry their res- olution into effect, succor came from an un- expected (piarter. Tlie fame of New Sweden, as the colony was called, of its fertile lands and profitable trade, had reached other nations of Kurope. Tn Holland itself a company was formed to esti' blisli a settlement under tlie pat- ronage of the Swedish Company." This Dutch company "freighted o sliip witii colonists and supplies, wliich fortunately arrived when the Swedisli colony was about to be broken up and the country abandoned. The spirits of the Swedes were revived. . . . Their projected re- moval was indefinitely deferred and they con- tinued their work with fresii vigor. The Dutch colonists were located in a Kettlcmeul by tiieni- selves, only a few miles from Fort Christina. Tliey were loyal to the Swedes. ... In the autumn of the same year, 1640, I'eter Hollacnd- arc, who liad been iijipointed deputy governor of the colony, and Moens Kling, arrived from Sweden witli three ships laden with provisions and merchandise for the straitened colonists. They also brought out a considerable company of new emigrants. New Sweden was now well established and prosperous. More lands were bought, and new settlements were made. Peter Minuit died tlie following year." — G. W. Schuy- ler, Colonial New York, v. 1, introd., sect. 2. Also in: I. Acrelius, Hist, of New Sweden (Penn. Hist. Soe. Mem., v. 11) ch. 1. — Docs, rela- tive to Col. Hist. ofN. Y V. 12.— O. B. Keen, New Sweden {Narrative a k/ Critical Hist, of Am., V. 4, ch. 9). — J. F. Jameson, Willem Usselinx (Papers of the Am. Hist. Assn., v. 3, tio. 8). A. D. 1640-1643.— Intrusions of the English from New Haven. See New Jeksey: A. D. 1640-1655. A. D. 1640-1656.— The stmegle between the Swedes and the Dutch and tne final victory of the latter. — "The [Swedish] colony grow to such importance that John Printz, a lieutenant- colonel of cavalry, was sent out in 1642 as gov- ernor, with orders for developing industry and trade. He took pains to command the mouth of the river, although the Dutch had established Fort Nassau on its eastern bank, and the Swedish settlements wore on the western bank exclusively. Collisions arose between the Dutch and the 656 DELAWARE, l(MO-lflfl«. DELAWARE, IflM-lTM. 0Mta| nnil whi'ii tlio rirnii-r put up thn nmii OfuMBtati-H Oi'iiiTiil on tliciompli'tliin of n nur- ohaM of Iniidit from lint IikIIuiim, I'riiitz In ii SaMion oriU'ri'd tlii'ni to tut torn down. Tliu wihIpd K'dnrd in Ntrfn^tli while tlic Dutch Itmt Kround In tlni vicinity. In UMH tlitt Dutch uttt'Miptcd to hulld a triidlriK poNt on thcHchuyl- kill, when they were repulw'd hy force by the HweiU'H. IndlvldiiiilH HeckhiK to erect Iioumch were treated In the Hunie wuy. The Sweden In turn Het up It Htockiide on the diNpuled ground. Dlri'ctor Hluyvewmt found It neccHSiiry in 1(151 to go to confer with I'rint/, with u view to hold- ing the country ugidnMt the iif^greHMlve KngllHli. The Indliiu.s were called Into council una con- tinned the Dutch titli', allowing the 8w(Mleg little more than the Kite of Fort Christina. Fort Cusimir wan erected lower down the river, to protect Dutch IntereatH. The two rulers agreed to be frienclH and allicH, and bo continued for three yearB. Tlit' dlHtrcHH if the Swedinh colony led to appoaU for aid from the honiu country whitlier Uovemor I'rint/. had returned. In 1054 help wiiH given, and a new governor, Jolui Claude Uygingh, marked IiIh coming liy tlic cap- ture of Fort Caaimir, pretending that tlie Dutch AVest India Company authorized tlio act. Tho only revenge tlie Dutch could take wa» the seizure of a HwedlHh vessel wlilch by mistako ran into Manhattan Day. But tliu next year orders came from Holland exposing the fraud of Uyslngh, and directing the expulsion of the Swedes from the South Ulver. A fleet was organized and Director Stuyvesant recovered Fort Caslmir without flrlng a gun. After some parley Fort Christina was also surrendered. Sucli Swedes as would not take the oath of alle- giance to tho Dutch authorities were sent to the home country. Only twenty persons accepted the oath, and of three c'ergymen two were ex- pelled, and the third cscajied like treatment by the sudden outbreak of Indian troubles. In 1656 the States General and Sweden made these transactions matter of international discussion. The Swedes presented a protest against the action of the Dutch, and it was talked over, but the mattt'r was Unally dropped. In the same year tho West India Company sold its Interests on the South HiviT to the city of ' insterdam, and the colony of New Amstel was erected, so that the authority of New Nethorland was extinguished." — E. II. Roberta, Neto Y(n-k, v. 1, ch. 7. Also in : E. Armstrong, Introd. to the Record of Upliind (Iliit. Soc. of J'enn. Memoirs, v. 7). — H. Fcrr; .V.'oi. ^f wV 0, iyl.^l ^knunnentt on the Delawai;, /it. 1, ch. 6-7. — S. Hazard, Annals of Penn., pp. 63-328.— JJ«p<. of the Ainsterdam Chamber of the ^Y. I. Co. {Dors, relative to Col. Hist. <fy. r.,v.\, pp. ,■587-640). A. D, 1664, — Conquest by the English, and annexation to New York.— "Five days after the capitulation of New Amsterdam [surrendered by the Dutch to the English, Aug. 29, 1664— see New York: A. D. 1664] Nlcolls, with Cart- wright and Maverick . . . commissioned their colleague. Sir Robert Carr, to go," with three ships and on adequate militory force, "and re- duce the Delaware settlements. Carr was in- structed to promise the Dutch the possession of all their property and all their present privileges, ' only that they change their masters. ' To the Swedes he was to 'remonstrate their happy return under a monarchical government, and his majesty's giHxl inclination to that nation.' To Lonl licltii ire H olllccni in Maryland, he was to declare that their proprietor's tiretended right to the Delaware being 'a doubtful case,' poHHCH- Hlon would be kept for the king 'till his majesty is Informed and satiHtled otherwise.'. . .Tho Swedes were Himn niaile friends," but the Dutch attempted [()elolM'r| some rcHlstance, and yielded iiiiiv after a couple of broailHldeH from the ships iiiul killed three and wounded ten of their garrl- Hon. "Carr now landed . . . and chilmeil the pillage for hliiiHelf as 'won l)y the sword.' Assiuning an autliority independent of Nlcolls, he claimed to tie the ' sole ami chief conunander and (lispoNer' of all alTalrs 011 the Delaware." Ills acts of mpaclty and violeiu'e, when reported to his fellow ciinunlssloners, at Now York, were condemned and repudiated, am! Nlcolls, tho prcHlding conunisHloP'T, went to tho Delaware In jierson to displace him. "Carr was severely rn- iiuked, and obliged to give up much of his ill- gotten spoil. Nevertheless, lie could not be per- suaded to leave the place for some time. The name of New Amstel was now changed to New (.'ikstie, and an Infantry garrison established tiiere. . . . Captain Jolin Carr was appointed commander of the Delaware, in sulxirdination to tlie government of New York, to whldi it was annexed 'as an appendage'; and tiius iilTairs re- mained for sevenil years." — .1. R. Urixlhead, Jlint. of the StUte ofN. Y., v. 2, ch. 2. A. D. 1673.— The Dutch reconquest. Seo New YoKK A. D. U173. A. D. 1674.— Final recovery by the Engliih. See Nktiikulaniw (Holland): A. I). 1074. A. D. 1674-1760.-10 dispute between the Duke of York and the Proprietary of Maryland. — Grant by the Duke to William Penn. Bee Pennsylvania: A. D. 1682; 1085; and 176O-1707. A. D. 1691-1702.- The practical independ- ence of Penn's " lower counties " acquired. — " In April, 1691, with tho reluctant consent of William Penn, the 'territories,' or 'lower coun- ties,' now known as tho State of Delaware, bo- came for two years a government by themselves under Markham. . . . Tho disturbance by Keith [see Pennsylvania: A. D. 169'J-10!)6] creating questions as to the administration of justice, confirmed tho disposition of the English govcrn- mc"*, t'> subject Pennsylvania to a royal com- missior; and in April 1093, Benjamin Fletcher, appointed governor by Wlliiom and Mi>r', once more united Delaware to Penns^-lvnn'i But Penn, restored to his authority . . IGbl, could not resist the Jealousies which tended so Btrongly to divide the Delaware territories from Pennsyl- vania proper. "In 1708, Pennsylvania convened its legislature apart, and tlie two colonies were never again united. The lower counties became almost an independent republic; for, as they were not included In the charter, the authority of the proprietary over them was by suflcrunce only, and the executive power intrusted to the governor of Pennsylvania was too feeble to re- strain the power of tlieir people. The legisla- ture, tho tribunals, the subordinate executive offlcers of Delaware knew little of external con- trol."— G. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. S. (author's last revision), pt. 3, ch. 3 (v. 2). — The question of J urisdiction over Delaware was inyolved through- out in tho boundary dispute between tho pro- prietaries of Pennsylvania and Maryland. See Pennbtlvasia: A. D. 1685; and 1760-1767. 656 DELAWARE, 17*)-nM. DEL08. A. D. 1760-17M.— The queition of taxation bj Parliament.— The Stamp Act and its re- peal.— The Declaratory Act.— The Pint Con- tinental Congreif. Her I'nitkii St.vtkmiik Am. : A. I). I7«()-Ii7r.; I7flil-17(M; 17«.">; mid I7mi. A. D. 1766-1771.— Opening event* of the Revolution. Hit Unitkd Htatkmdi' Am. ; A.I). 178»l-17«7 t<»1774; ami lk)«TON: A. I). 1768 to 177!«. A. D. 1775.— The beg^innins of the war of the American Revolution,— Lexingfton.— Con- cord.— Action taken on the newi.- Ticon- deroga.- The *i^Ke of Boston. — Bunker Hill. — The Second Continental Congreai. Sec United ^TATKn OK Am. : A. I). 1775. A. D. I? 5.— Purthcr introduction of slaves prohibited. Seo Hlavbhy, Nkoho: A. D. 1776- 1808. A. D. 1776-1783.— The War of Independ- ence. —Peace with Great Britain. Hcu L'.nitki) Statkh ok Am. : A. 1). 177tl to 17M;t. A. D. 1777-1779.— Withholding ratification :he Articles of Confederation. See from the United States ok Am A. 1). 17MI-178«. A. D. 1787.— The adoption and ratification of the Federal Constitution. Sic United States ok Am. : A. 1). 17H7. mid 1787-1789. A. D. 1861 (Aprils— Refusal of troops on the call of President Lincoln. Scu United St.vieh OK Am. : A. I). 1801 (Armi,). DELAWARE RIVER, Washington's pas- sage of the. Sco United States ok A.m. ; A. I). 1776-1777. DELA WARES, The. See Ameiucan Ado- nidiNKs; Dei.awakks. DELPT: Assassination of the Prince of Orange (1584). See Nethkklandh: A. D. 1581- 1584. DELHI: nth Century.- Capture by Mab- moud of Gazna. See Tuuks: A. U. U9U-118. A. D. 1193-1290.— The capital of the Mame- luke or Slave dynasty. See India: A. U. 977- 1290. A. D. 1399.— Sack and massacre by Timour. See TiMot'K. A. D. 1526-1605.— The founding of the Mo- g^l Empire by Babar and Akbar. See India: A. D. lS99-l«05. A. D. 1739.— Sack and massacre by Nadir Shah. See India: A. I). 1002-1748. A. D. 1760-1761.— Taken and plundered by the Mahrattas.- Then by the Afghans.- Col- lapse of the Mogul Empire. See India: A. U. 1747-1701 A. D. i;57.— The Sepoy Mutiny.— Massacre of Europeans.— Explosion of the magazine. — English siege and capture of the city.* See India: A. D. 1857 (May— August) und (June- September). » DELI AN CONFEDERACY. Sec Greece: B. C. 4VS-477; and Athens: IJ. C. 406-454, and .after. DELIAN FESTIVAL. See Delos. DELIUM, Battle of (B. C. 434).— A serious defeat suffered by the Athenians in the Pelopon- nesian War, B. C. 424, at t" 9 hands of the Tlie- bans and other Boeotians. It was consequent upon the seizure by the Athenians of the Boeo- tl.nn temple of Delium — a temple of Apollo — on the sea-coast, about tlve miles from Tanagra, which they fortified and intended to hold. After thp defeat of thn army which was rrttimlnjf from IIiIm exploit, the KnrrlHon left at. l>eliiiiii wiih Im>- Nie)(f<l anil iiiiMtrv ciiptiiri'd. AnmnK the Iwip- liteN who fouKht at Delliim wiih the philimopher ScH'rntrs. Tlio coniinandcr IlippiKTaleH was Hialn.— Thiirydldes, J/iflnri/. hk: i.fi-t. 89 100. Al,»() in : (J. (}role,//M<. (//" Hreece, /it. 2, cA. 53. — S<.e (}kee<E: II. C. 424-l'21. DELOS.— DeliiK, the Niiinllefit ImIhikI of the Kroiip railed the CyelaileM, hut the mii.it Import- ant III the eyei of the lonimi OrcekH, lieiiix their Hiicred iHle, the fiililed lilrlliplace iif A|)ollo and liiiiK the (liief Meat and eenler of IiIh worship. "'I he lIoTiierle Hymn lo .Vpollo jireHents to us tile iHlmid of DOIiiM IIS the ceiitre of a Kreat perl- (Nlieal festival in honour of Apollo, eelehnited by all the cities, Insiilar iin<l eoiitinen'itl, of the lonle name. What the date of this Iiymn Is, we have no means of deterininin^: ThueydldCs quotes it, without hesitation, as thi^ priHluctlon of Homer, and, doubtless, it was In his tinio iiiilverHally accepted as such, — though modern critics concur in n'^arilin); both tliat and tho other hymns us much later than the Iliad ami Odyssey. It cannot probably be later than UiH) B. v. Tho description of the Ionic visitors pre- sented to us III this hymn Is splendid and Impos- ing; the number of their ships, the display of their llnorv, the beauty of their \ 'nnen, tho athletic exhibitions as well as tlii^ matches of soiiK and dance, — all these are represented aa making an iiielTaceablo impression on the spec- tator: 'the assembled lonlans look as If tliey were beyond the reach of old ago or death.' Hiieh was the maji^nltlceucc of which Df'los was tho perimlical theatre, and which called forth tho voices and poetical genius not inerel v of Itinerant liarils, but also of tho Delian maidens in tho tempio of Apollo, during tho century preceding 500 U. C. At that time it was the great centriH festival of tho lonlans In Asia and Europe." — a. Grote, Jliii. of Greece, pt. 3, eh. 12.— During tho war with Persia, Dulos was made the com- mon treasury of the Greeks ; but Athens subse- (luently took tho custody and management of the treasury to herself and reduced Delos to a de|)endency. Tho Island was long th^" seat of an oxtens''.e commerce, and Uelian broh/.e was of note in the arts. B. C. 490.— Spared by the Persians. See e: H. C. 177-' Gueece: H. C. 478-477; and Athens: B. C. 466- Ghkece; U. C. 490. B. C. 477.— The Delian Confederacy. See 454, and after. B. C. 461-454 (?).— Removal of the Confed- erate treasury to Athens. See Athens: B. C. 400-454. B. C. 435-422.— Purifications.— " In the midst -' the losses and turmoil of tlie [Pelopoiinesian] war it had been determined [at Athens] to offer a solemn testimony of homage to Apollo on Delos, [B. C. 425] — a homage doubtless connected with tho complete cessation of tho pestilence, which hiul lasted as long as the fifth year of the war. The solemnity consisted in the renewed consecra- tion of the entire island to the divine Giver of grace ; all the coffins containing human remains being removed from Delos, and Ilhenea appointed to be henceforth the sole burial-place. This solemnity supplemented the act formerly per- formed by the orders of Pisistratus, and it was doubtless in the present instance also intended, by means of a brilliant renewal of the Dclibn 657 /f^ DELOS. DEMIURGI. celebration, to strengthen the power of Athens In the island sen, to give a fest've centre to the Ionic world. . . . llut the mn n purpose was clearly one of morality and religion. It was in- temled to calm and edify the minds of the citi- zens." — E. Curtiiis, Hut. of Oreece, bk. 4, eh. 2. —Three years Inter (B. C. 422) the Athenians found some reason for another purification of Delos which was more radical, consisting in tlie expulsion of all the inhabitants from the island. Tlie unfortunate Delians found an asylum at Adramyttium in Asia, until they were restored to tlieir homes ne.xt year, througli the influence of the Delphic orucle. — Thucydides, Jlistory, b/c. 5, »ect. 1. B. C. 88.— Pontic Massacre.— Early in the first war of Mitliridati>s with the Komans (B. C. 88), Delos, which had been made a free port and had become the emporium of it«uiitn commerce in the east, was seized by u Pontic fleet, and pillaEcd, 20,000 Italians being massacred on tlie island. The treasures of Delos were sent to Athens and the island restored to the Athenian control.— W. Ihne, J/ist. of Home, bk. 7, ch. 17. B. C. 69. — Ravaged by Pirates. — " Almost under the eyes of the fleet of Lucullus, the pirate Athenodorus surprised in OS.') [B. C. 69] the island of Delos, destroyed its far-famed shrines and temples, and carried off the whole population into slavery. " — T. Mommsen, Hist, of Home, bk. 5, rh. 2. Slave Trade under the Romans. — " Th-ace and Sarmatia were the Guinea Coast ol tlio Romans. Tlie entrepot of this trade was Delos, which had been made a free port by Rome after the conquest of Macedonia. Strabo tells us that in one day 10,000 slaves were sold there in open market. Such were the vile uses to whicli was put the Sacred Island, once the treasury of Greece."— H. G. Liddell, Hist, of Rome, bk. 5, ch. 48. ■•■ DELPHI.— KRISSA (CRISSA). - KIRRHA(CIRRHA).— "In those early times when the Homeric Hymn to Apollo was composed the town of Krissa [in Phocis, near Delphi] ap- pears to have been great and powerful, possea« - ing all the broad plain between Parnassus, Kir- phis, and the gulf, to which latter it gave 1*^3 name, — and possessing also, what was a property not less valuable, the adjoining sanctuary of Pytlio itself, which the Hymn identities witli Krissa, not indicating Delphi as a separate place. The Krissieans, doubtless, derived great profits from the number of visitors who came to visit Delphi, both by land and by sea, and Kirrlia was origin- ally only the name for their seaport. Gradually, however, the port appears to liave grown in im- portance at tlie expense of the town ; . . . w hile at the game time the sanctuary of Pytho wjtli its administrators expanded into the town of Delphi, and came to claim an independent existence of Its own. ... In addition to tlie above facts, al- ready sufficient in themselves as seeds of quarrel, we are told that tlie Kirrha;ans abused their posi- tion as masters of the avenue to the temple by sea, and levied exorbitant tolls on the visitors who landed there. . . . Besides sucli offence against the general Grecian public, they had also incurred the enmity of their Phocian neiglibours by outrages upon women, Phocian as well as Argeian, who were returning from the temple. Thus stood the case, apparently, about 595 B. C. , when the Amphiktyonlc meeting interfered . , . to punisli tlie Kirrhieans. After a war of ten years, tlie first Sacred War in Greece, this object was completely aecomplislied, by a joint force of Thessniians under Eurylochus, Sikyonians under Kloisthcncs, and Athenians under Alk- nueon ; the Athenian Solon bein^ the person who originated and enforced, in the Amphiktyonic council, the proposition of interference. Kirrha . . . was destroyed, or left to subsist merely as a landing place : and the whole adjoining plain was consecrated to the Delphian god, whose do- mains thus touched the sea. . . . The fate of Kirrha in this wnr is ascertained : that of Krissa is not 80 cleai , nor do we know whether it was destroyed, or left subsisting in a position of in- feriority with reganl to Delphi. From this time forward, the Delphian community appears 08 substantive and autonomous, exercising in their own riglit the management of the temple ; tliough we sliall find, on more than one occasion, tliat the Pliocians contest tills right. . . . The spoils of Kirrha were employed by the victorious- allies in founding the Pytliian Games. The oc- tennial festival hitlierto celebrated at Delphi in honour of the god, including no other competi- tion except in tlie harp and tlie prean, was ex- panded into comprehensive games on the model of tlie Olympic, witli matches not only of music, but also of gymnastics and chariots, — celebrated, not at Delphi itself, bi- > on the maritime plain near the ruined Kirrha, — and under tlie direct superintendence of tlie Amphiktvons tliemseives. . . . They were celebrated in the latter h.^lf of summer, or first half of every third Olympic year. . . . Nothing was conferred but wreaths of laurel." — G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 3, ch. 28.— See, also, Athens: B. C. 610-586; Pytho; Okaclks op the Greeks; and Amphiktyonic Council. B. C. 357-338.— Seizure by the Phocians. — The Sacred Wars.— Deliverance by Philip of Macedon. — War with Amphissa. See Gubecb : B. C. 357-330. B. C. 379. — Discomfiture of the Gauls. See Gauls: B. C. 280-279. DELPHIC ORACLE, The. See Oracled OF TIIK G keeks. DELPHIC SIBYL, The. See Sibyls. DEMES.— DEMI. See Pifyla; also, Ath- ens: B. C. 510-507. DEMETES, The.— One of the tribes of an- cient AVales. See Britain, Celtic Tkibeb. DEMETRIUS, the Impostor. See Russia: A. D. 1533-1682 Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the wars of the Diadochi. See Mace- donia: B. C. 315-310,310-301; also Greece: B. C. 307-197; and Rhodes: B. C. 305-304. DEMIURGI. — COSMOS. — TAGOS OR TAGUS. — Of the less common titles applied among tlie ancient Greeks to their supreme magistrates, are "Cosmos, or Cosmios and Tagos (signifying Arranger and Commander), the form('r of which we find in Crete, tlie latter in the Thcssalian cities. V/ith the former we may compare the title of Cosmopolis, which waa in use among the Epizephyrian Locrians. A more frequent title is tliat of Demiurgi, a name which seems to imply a constitution no longer oligarchical, but which bestowed certain rights on the Demos. In the time of the Pelopon- ncsian war magistrates of this kind existtd la 658 DEMiunai. DETROIT. Elis (inrt in tlio Arcadian Mantintrn. . . . Tlie title is declared by OnimmiirinMS to linve been commonly used among the Dorians. ... A similar title is tliat of Demuclius, wliicli tlie supreme magistrates of Tliespiic in Bcrotia seem to have borne. . . . The Artyni at Epidaurus and Argos wo have already mentioned." — 0. flchOmann, Antiq. of Oreeci; Tlte titate, pt. 2, ch. 5. DEMOCRATIC. OR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICAN PARTY OFTHE UNITED STATES. Hee Unitkd Status OK Am. : A. D. 1789-1792; 1825-1828; 1845-1840. DEMOSTHENES, the general, at Sphac- teria and at Syracuse. BeoGiiEECE: B. C. 425, and Sykacuse: B. C. 415-413; and Athens: B. C. 415-413 Demosthenes the orator, The Phillipics, and the Death of. 8ee Orbece : B. C. 357-336, 351-348, and 323-322; aud Ath- ens: B. C. 359-338, and 330-322. DfiMOTIC WRITING. See Hiero- OLYPHtCS. DEMUCHUS. See DKMtUROi. DENAIN Battle of (1712). See Nether- lands: A. D. 1710-1712. DENARIUS, The. See As. DENDERMONDE.— Surrender to the Spaniards (1584). Sec Netherlands: A. I). 1584-1585. DENIS, King of Portugal, A. D. 1279-1323. DENMARK. See Scandinavian States. DENNEWITZ,OR JOTERBOGK, Battle of. See Germany: A. D. 1813 (September — OCTOUER). DENNIKCN, Peace of (1531). See Swit- zerland: A. I). 1531-1048. DENVER, The founding of. See Colorado: A. D. 1806-1870. DEORHAM, Battle of.— 1 ought A. D. 577, near Bath, England, between the invading West Saxons and the Britons. The victory of the former gave tlicm possession of the lower valley of the Severn and practically completed the Saxon conquest of England.— J. U. Green, Tlie Makiiir/ of Knf/Uiml, pp. 125-131. DERBEND, Pass of. See .Juroipach. DERBY-DISRAELI MINISTRIES, The. See England: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; and 1808- 1870. DERRY. See Londonderry. DE RUSSY, Fort, Capture of. See United States op Am.: A. I). 1804 (March — May: Louisiana). DESERET, The proposed state of. See Utah: A. D. 1849-1850. DESMONDS, The. See Geraldinks. DESMOULINS, Camille, and the French Revolution. See France: A. D. 1789 (July); 1790; 1792 (August), to 1793-1794 (November- June). DESPOT OF EPIRUS.— "The title of despot, by which they [tlie medireval princes of Epirue] are generally distinguisiied, was a Byzantine honorary distinction, never borne by the earlier members of tlie family until it had been conferred on them by the Greek Emperor." — G. Finiay, Hist, of Greece from Us conquest hy the Crumders, dt. 6, sect. 1.— See Epirus: A. D. 1204-13.50. DESPOTS, Greek. See Tyrants ItU- ian. See Italy : A. D. 1250-1520. DESSAU, Battle of (1626). See Gbrmant: A. D. 1624-1626. DESTRIERS.- PALFREYS.-" A cava. liore or manaturms was accompanied by one ' Uestriero ' or strong war-horse, and one or two, sometimes three, mounted sijuires who led the animal fully caparisoned ; or carried llie helmot, lance and shield of their master: tlieso ' Destrieri' ('rich and great horses ' as Villani calls them), were so named because they were led on the riglit hand witliout any rider, and all readv for mounting: the squire's horses were of an inferior kind called ' Ronzini,' and on the ' Palafreni ' or palfrejs tlie kniglit rode when not in battle." — II. 15. Napier, Florentine History, v. 1, p. 033. DESTROYING ANGELS, OR DAN- ITES. See Mormonism: A. D. 1830-1840. DETROIT : First occupied by the Coureurs de Bois. See Coureurs de Bois. A. D. 1686-1701.— The first French forts.— Cadillac's founding of the city. — At the beginning of the war called "Queen Anne'a War" (1702) "Detroit liad already been cstab- lislied. In June, 1701, la Mothe Cadillac, with a Jesuit father and 100 men, was icnt to con- struct a fort and occupy tlie country ; hence he Is spoUen of as tlic founder of the city. In 1080, a fort [called Fort St. Joseph] had been con- structed to the south of the present city, where Fort Gratiot now stands, but it soon fell into decay and was abandoned. It was not the site selected by Cadillac." — W. Kingsford, Hist, of Cantula, v. 2, p. 408. — "Fort St. Joseph was abandoned in the year 1688. The establishment of Cadillac was destined to a better fate and soon rose to distinguisiied importance among the westerr. outposts of Canada." — P. Parkman, The CoMpirttcy of Pontine, v. 1, p. 213. A. D. 1701-1755.- Importance to the French. See Canada: A. I). 1700-1735. A. D. 17 12. — Siege by the Foxes and Mas- sacre of that tribe. See Canada: A. 1). 1711- 1713. A. n. 1760.— The French settlement when surrendered to the English. — "The French in- habitants here are settled on both siues of the river for about eight miles. When I took pos- session of the country soon after the surren- der of Canada [see Canada: A. D. 1700], they were about 2,500 in number, there being near 500 that bore arms (to whom I administered oatlis of allegiance) and near 300 dwelling houses. Our fort hero is built of stockadoes, is about 25- feet high, and 1,2)0 yards In circumference. . . . The inhabitants raise wheat and other grain In abundance, and have plenty of cattle, but they enrich themselves chiefly by their trade with the Indians, which is here very large and lucrative." — Major R. Rogers, Concise Acet. '>*' /'. Am., p. 168. A. D. 1763. — Pontiac's Siege. SeePoNTiAc's War. A. D. 1775-1783.— Held by the British throughout the War of Independence. Sec United States of Am.: A. D. 1778-1779, Clark's conquest. A. D. 1805. — Made the seat of government of the Territory of Michigan. See Indiana : A. D. 1800-1818. A. D. 1812. — The surrender of General Hull. See United States of Am. ; A. D. 1812 (June — October). A. D 1813.— American recovery. Sc^ United States or Am. : A. D. 1812-1818. 659 DETTINGEN. DIET. DETTINGEN, Battle of (1743). See Aus- tria: A. D. 1743. DEUSDEDIT, Pope, A. D. "15-618. DEUTSCH . Origin of the name. Sec Geii.many: Tub national n/. me. DEUTSCHBROD, Bat.le of (1432). Sec Bohemia: A. D. 1419-1434. DEVA. — One of tlie Ro'nan garrison towns in Britain, on tlie site of wl'icli is modern Cliester, taliing its name from tlic eastra or fortifled station of tlie legions. It was tlie station of the 20tli legion.— T. Mommsen, Uist. of Rome, bk. 8, eh. 5. DEVE-BOYUN, Battle of (1878). See Tduks: a. D. 1877-1878. DEVIL'S CAUSEWAY, The.— The popu- lar name of an old Roman road in England which runs from Silchestcr to London. DEVIL'S HOLE, The ambuscade and massacre K.t. — On the 13tli of September, 1763, during the progress of Pontiac's War, a train of wagons and packhorses, traversing the Niagara portage between Lcwiston and Fort Schlosser, guarded by an escort of 24 soldiers, was ambus- caded by a party of Seneca warriors at the place called the Devil's Hole, three miles below the Niagara cataract. Seventy of the whites were slain, and only three escaped. — P. Parkman, Tlie ConnjnrtKi/ of Pontiae, ch. 21 (». 2). DEVON COMMISSION, The. See Ire- land: A. D. 1843-1848. DEVONSHIRE, in the British age. See Du.MNONII. DE WITT, John, the administration and the murder of. Sec Netherlands: A. D. 16S1- 1660, to 1672-1674. DHIHAD. See Dar-ul-Islam. DIACRII, The. See Athins: B. C. 594. DIADOCHI, The.— The i' 'diate successors of Alexander the Great, win ivided his empire, are sometimes so-called. "Tlie word diadoch! means 'successors,' and is used to include An- tigonus, Ptolemy, Selcucus, Lysimachus, etc. — the actual companions of Alexander." — J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, ch. 5. — See Macedonia: B. C. 323-316. DIAMOND, Battle of the (1795). See Ire- land: A. D. 1795-1796. DIAMOND DISCOVERY IN SOUTH AF R I C A ( 1 867). See QRiquAS. DIAMOND NECKLACE, The affair of the. See France: A. D. 1784-1785. DIASPORA, The.— A name applied to the Jews scattered throughout the Roman world. DIAZ, Porfirto, The Mexican presidency «f. See Mexico: A. D. 1867-1888. DICASTERIA.— The great popular court, or jury, in ancient Athens, called the Helioea, or HeliastO! consisting at one time of six thousand chosen citizens, was divided into ten sections, called Dicasteria. Their places of meeting also bore the same name.— Q. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece: Tlie State, pt. 3, ch. 3.— See Athens: B. C. 44^431. DICKINSON, John, in the American Revo- lution. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1767- 1768; 1774(Septembeii); 1776 (July). DICTATOR, Roman. See Consuls, Roman. DIDIAN LAW, The. See Orcuian, Fan- HiAN, DiDiAN Laws. DIDIER, OR DESIDERIUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 759-774. DIDYMiEUM, The oracle of. Sec Oracles OK THE (}hi;i;kh. DIEDENHOFEN, Battle of (1639). See German v: A. I). 1634-1039. DIEPPE.— Bombardment and destruction by an English fleet. See France: A. D. 1694. DIES ATRI.— Tliedayson which the Romans thought it unlucky to undertake business of importance — for example, the day after the Calends, Nonci and Ides of each month — were called Dies Atri. — W. Ramsay, Manual ofJioman Antiq., ch. 11. DIES FASTI.— Dies Nefasti.— Dies Festi. See Fasti, and Ludi. DIET. — " An assembly, council, . . . Parlia- ment. . . . The peculiar senf ^ of the word un- doubtedly arose from a popular etymology th .t connected it with the Lat. 'dies,' a day, esp. a set day, a day appointed for public business; whence, by extension, a meeting for business, an assembly." — W. W. Skeat, Etymoloijicul diet. The Germanic. — "The annual general coun- cils and special councils of Charles the Great did not long survive him, and neither his descend- ants nor their successors revived them. Tliey were compelled, to be sure, both by custom and by policy to advise with the chief men of the kmgdom liefore taking any important step or doing auythiug that depended for success on their consent and cooperation, but they varied the number of their counsellors and the time, place, and manner of consulting them to suit their own convenience. Great formal assemblies of counsellors summoned from all parts of the realm were termed Imperial Diets (Reichstage) ; small, or local, or informal assemblies of a simi- lar kind were known as Court Diets (Hoftage). Princes and other royal vassals, margraves, pals- graves. Graves, barons, and even royal Dienst- mannen were indiscriminately summoned, but the Diets were in no sense representative bodies until tlie Great Interregnum [see Germany : A. D. 1250-1272] when certain citie„ acquired such influence in public affairs that they were invited to send delegates. The first Diet in which they participated was held at Worms in February, 1255, by King AVilliam of Holland. Most of the cities of the Rhenish League were there repre- sented, and they constituted an important factor of the assembly. The affairs of the church shared attention with temporal affairs in the Dieti until the Popes succeeded in making good their claims to supremacy in spiritual mutters. Thereafter they were altogether left to synods and church councils. . . . Imperial Diets and Court Diets continued to be held at irregular intervals, whenever and wherever it pleased the king to convene them, but Imperial Diets were usually held in Imperial cities. These were not such heterogenous assemblies as formerly, for few royal vassals, except princes, and no royal Dienstmannen whatever were now invited to attend. Graves and barons, and prelates who were not princes, continued to be summoned, but the number and influence of the Graves and barons in the Diets steadily waned. Imperial cities were for many years only occasionally asked to participate, that is to say, only when the king had especial need of their good ofBces, but in the latter half of the 14th century they began to be regularly summoned. Imperial Diets were so frequently held during the Hussite 660 DIET. DINAN. War and thereafter, that it became pretty well settled what persons and wliat cities sliould take part in them, and only ti.'uBu persons and those cities that were entitled to take part in tlicni were regarded as Estates of the realm. In the 15th century they developed into three chambers or colleges, viz., the College of Electors [see Qebmany: a. D. 1125-1153], the College of Princes, Graves, and Barons, usually called the Council of Princes of the Empire (RcichsfUrs- tenrath), and the College of Imperial Cities. Tlie Archbishop of Mentz presided in the Col- lege of Electors, and the Archbishop of Salzburg and the Duke of Austria presided alternately in the Council of Princes of the Empire. Tlic office of presiding in the College of Imperial Cities devolved \ipon the Imperial city in which the Diet sat. The king and members of both the upper Colleges sometimes sent deputies to repre- sent them, instead of attending in person. In 1474 tlie cities adopted a metliod of voting which resulted in a division of their College into two Benches, called the Rhenish Bench and the tiwabian Bench, because the Rhenish cities were conspicuous members of the one, and the Swabian cities conspicuous members of the other. In the Council or Princes, at least, no regard was had to the number of votes cast, but only to the power and influence of the voters, whence a measure might pass the Diet by less than a majority of the votes present. Having passed, it was proclaimed as the law of the realm, upon receiving the king's assent, but was only effective law in so far as the members of the Diet, present or absent, assented to it. . . . Not a single Imperial Diet was summoned between 1613 and 1640. The king held a few Court Diets dur- ing that long interval, consisting either of the Electors alone, or of the Electors and such other Princes of the Empire as he chose to summon. The conditions of membership, and the manner of voting in the College of Electors and the Col- lege of Imperial Cities remained unchanged. . . . The cities long strove in vain to have their votes recognized as of equal weight witli the others, but the two upper Colleges insisted on regarding them as summoned for consultation only, until the Peace of Westphalia settled the matter by declaring that ' a decisive vote (votum decisivum) shall belong to the Free Imperial Cities not less than to the rest of the Estates of the Empire.' Generally, but not always, the sense of each College was expressed by the majority of votes cast. Tlie Peace of West- phalia provided that 'in religious matters and all other business, when the Estates cannot be considered one body (corpus), as •. Iso when the Catholic Estates and. those of tlie Aui^sburg Con- fession go into two parts (in duas partes eun- tibus), a mere amicable agreement shall settle the differences without regard to majority of votes.' When the 'going into parts, (itio in partes) took place each College deliberated in two bodies, the Corpus Catliolicorum and the Corpus Evangelicorum. The king no longer attended the Imperial Diets in person, but sent commissioners instead, and it was now the com- mon practice of members of both the upper Col- leges to send deputies to represent them." — S. E. Turne-, Sketch ^ the Oermanic Constitution, eh. 4, 5, anrf 6. — "The establishment of a perma- nent diet, attended, not by the electors in person, but by their representatives, is one of the most striking peculiarities of Leopold's reign" (Leopold I., 1657-1705). This came about ratlipr aceiilent- ally thau witli intention, as a consequence of the unusual prolongation of the session of a general diet which Rudolph convoked at Hatisbon, soon after his accession to the throne. '"So many new and important objects . . . occurred in tlie course of tlio deliberations that the diet was unusually prolonged, and at last rendered per- petual, as it exists at present, and distinguishes tlie Germanic constitution as the only one of its kind — not only for a certain lengtli of time, as was formerly, and as diets are generally held in other countries, where there are national states ; but the diet of tlie Germanic empire was estab- lished by this event for ever. The diet acquired by tills circumstance an entirely different form. So long as it was only of short duration, it was always expected that tlie emperor, as well as the electors, princes, counts and prelates, if not all, yet the greatest part of them, sliould attend in jierson. ... It is true, it had long been cus- tomary at the diets of Germany, for the states to deliver the' votes occasionally by means of ])k'iiipotentiarics ; but it was then considered only as an exception, wliereas it was now established as a general rule, that all the states should send their plenipotentiaries, and never appear them- selves. . . . The whole diet, therefore, imper- ceptibly acquired tlie form of a congress, con- sisting solely of ministers, similar in a great degree to a congress where several powers send their envoys to treat of peace. In otlier respects, it may be compared to a congress held in the name of several states in perpetual alliance with each other, as in Switzerland, the United Provinces, and as somewhat of a similar nature exists at present in North America; but with this difference, — that in Germany the cjisembly is held under the authority of one common supreme head, and that the members do not appear merely as deputies, or representatives invested with full power by their principals, which is only the case with the imperial cities ; but so that every member of the two superior colleges of the empire is himself an actual sover- eign of a state, who permits his minister to deliver his vote in his name and only accord- ing to his prescription.'" — S. A. Dunham, Ilist. of tlie Oermanic Empire, hk. 3, ch. 3 {v. Z)-— {quot- ing Putter's Historical Development of tlie Oer- manic Const.) — Of the later Diet, of the Germanic Confederation, something may lie learned under Germany: A. D. 1814-1820, end 1848 (March- September). DIFFIDATION, The Right of. See Land- FRIEDE. DIGITI. See Foot, The Roman. DIJON, Battle at. See Bubgundians: A. D. 500. DIJON, Origin of.— Dijon, tlie old capital of the Dukes of Burgundy, was originally a strong camp-city — an " urbs quadrata" — of the Ro- mans, known as the Castrum Divionense. Its walls were 80 feet high, 15 feet thick, and strengthened with 33 towers. — T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, hk. 4, eh. 9. DILEMITES, The. See Mahometan Con- quest: A. D. 815-945. DIMETIA. See Britain : 6th Centoby. DINAN, Battle A (iS97). See Francb: A. D. 1593-1598. 661 DIN ANT. DIRECTORY. DINANT, Destruction of.— In the 15th cen- tury, down to the yeur 1466, Dinant wns a popu- lous and thriving town. It wiih inchidcd in the little state of the prince-hishop of Liege, and •was involved in tlie war of tlie Dulic of Bur- gundy witli Liege, -wliicli ruined hoth Liege and Dinant. " It was inluil)ited bv a race of in- dustrious artisans, preeminent for tlieir sliill in the manufacture of copper. Tlie excellence of their workmanship is attested by existing speci- mens — organ-screens, baptismal fonts, and other ecclesiastical decorations. But the fame of Dinant had been chiefly spread by its produc- tion of more common and useful articles, es- pecially of kitchen utensils, — ' pots and pans and similar wares,' — which, under the name of 'Dinanderie,' were known to housewives throughout Europe." In the course of the war a party of rude young men from Dinant gave deep, unforgivable provocation to the Duke of Burgundy by caricaturing and questioning tlie paternity of his son, the count of Charolais, afterwards Duke Charles the Bold. To avenge this insult nothing less than the destruction of the whole city would satisfy the implacable and ferocious Burgundians. It was taken by the count of Charolais in August, 1466. His first proceeding was to sack the town, in the most thorough and deliberate manner. Then 800 of the more oliuoxious citizens were tied together in pairs and drowned in the Meuse, while others were hanged. This accomplislied, the surviving women, children and priests were expelled from the town and sent empty-handed to Liege, while the men were condemned to slavery, witli the privilege of ransoming tliemselves at a heavy price, if they found anywhere the means. Finally, the torch was applied, Dinant was burned, ond contractors were subsequently em- ployed by the Duke for several months, tc de- molish the ruins and remove the very materials of which the city had been built. — J. F. Kirk, Hut. of Charles the Bold, bk. 1, ch. 8-9. Also in : E. de Monstrelet (Johnes), Chronicles, bk. 3, e?i. 138-189.— Philip de Commines, iMem- oirs, bk. 2, ch. 1. DINWIDDIE COURT HOUSE, Action at. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1865 (Mahch — April: Viuoinia). DIOBOLY, The.— Pericles "was the pro- poser of the law [at Athens] which instituted the ' Dioboly,' or free gift of two obols to each poor citizen, to enable him to pay the entrance-money at the theatre during the Dionysia." — C. W. C. Oman, Hist, of Greece, p. 271. — See Athens: B. C. 435-481. DIOCESES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. — "The civil government of the empire wns dis- tributed [under Constantine and his successors] into thirteen great dioceses, each of which equalled the just measure of a powerful kingdom. The first of these dioceses was subject to the juris- diction of the Count of the East. The place of Augustal Prasfect of Egypt was no longer filled by a Roman knight, but the name was retained. . . . Tlie eleven remaining dioceses — of Asiana, Pontica, and Thrace ; of Macedonia, Dacia and Pannonia, or Western Illyricum; of Italy and Africa; of Gaul, Spain, and Britain — were governed by twelve vicars or vice- proefects. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jioman Empire, ch. 17. — See Pii^aiTOBiAN Pb.*:- FECTB. DIOCLETIAN, Roman Emperor. See Rome: A. I). 284-305 Abdication.— "The ceremony of Ids abdication was performed in a spacious plain about'threc miles from Nicomedia [May 1, A. D. 305]. The Emperor ascended a lofty throne, and, in a speech lull of reason and dignity, declared his intention, both to the people and to the soldiers who were assembled on this extraordinary orjasion. As soon as he had divested hinis'.'if of the purple, he withdrew from the gazing multitude, ami, traversing the city in a covered chariot, proceeded without delay to the favourite retirement [Salona] which he had chosen in his native country of Dalma- tia." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall oft/ie Rinnan. Empire, eh., IS. — See, also, Salona. DIOKLES, Laws of. — A cotle of laws framed at Srracuse, immediately after the Athenian siege, by a commission of ten citizens tlie chief of wliom was one Diokl6s. These laws were extinguished in a few ye.irs by the Dyonisian U'ranny, but revived after a lapse of sixty years. The code is "also said to have been copied in various other Sicilian cities, and to have re- mained in force until the absorption of all Sicily under the dominion of the Romans." — G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 81. DldNYSIA AT ATHENS.— "The four principal Attik Dionysiak festivals were (1) the Dionysia Mikra, the Lesser or Rural Dionysia ; (2) the Dionysia Lenaia ; (8) the Anthesteria ; and (4) tlie Dionysia Megala, the Greater or City Dionysia. The Rural Dionysia, celebrated yearly in the month Posideon (Dec— Jan.) throughout the various townships of Attike, was presided over by the demarch or mayor. The celebration occasioned a kind of rustic carnival, distinguished like almost all Bakchik festivals, by gross intem- perance and licentiousness, and during which slaves enjoyed a temporary freedom, with licence to insult their superiors and beliave in a boister- ous and disorderly manner. It is brought vividly before us in the 'Acharnes' of Aristophanes. . . . The Anthesteria, or Feast of Flowers, cele- brated yearly in the month Anthesterion (Feb. — March), . . . lasted for three days, the first of which was called Pithoigia, or Tap -barrel -day, on which they opened the casks and tried the wine of the previous year. . . . The Dionysia Megala, the Greater or City Dionysia, celebrated yearly in the month Elapbebolion (March — April) was presided over by the Archon Epocymos, so- calltd because the year was registered in his name, and who was first of the nine. The order of the solemnities was as follows: — I. The great public procession. ... II. The chorus of Youths. III. The Komos, or band of Dionysiak revellers, whose ritual is best illustrated in Milton's exqui- site poem. IV. The representation of Comedy and 'Tragedy ; for at Athcnai the stage was re- ligion and the theatre a temple. At tlie time of this great festival the capital was filled with rustics from the country townships, and strangers from all parts of Hellas and the outer world." — R. Brown, Tlie Great Di nak Myth, ch. 6. DIONYSIAN TYP Y AT SYRA- CUSE, The. See Sv : B. C. 397-396, and 344. DIPLAX, The. See i xm. DIPYLUM,The. SeeCEUAMicusop Athen& DIRECTORY, The French. See Fbancb: A. D. 1795 (June— Septembeb) ; (Octobeb — December); 1797 (Septembeb), 662 DISINHERITED BARONS. D0NEL80N. DISINHERITED BARONS, The. See Scotland : A. I). i;f!!3-1333. DISRAELI-DERBY AND BEACONS- FIELD MINISTRIES. Stc England: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1851); 1808-1870; and 187:}-1880. DISRUPTION OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. See !»oti,and: A. D. 1843. DISSENTERS, OR NONCONFORM- ISTS, English : First bodies organized.— Persecutions under Charles II. ana Anne. — Removal of Disabilities. See Eniiland: A. D. 1559-1506; 1602-1005; 1073-1073; 1711-1714; 1827-1828. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SURPLUS, The. Sec United States of Am. : A. D. 188^ 1837. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, The. See WA8iiiN(iroN(CiTY): A. D. 1791. DIVAN, The. Sec Summme Poute. DIVODURUM.— The Gallic name of the city afterwards called Mcdiomatrici — now Metz. DIVONA. — Modern Cahors. Sec Cadurci. DIWANI. Sec India: A. D. 1757-1772. DIX, General John A.: Message to New Orleans. Sec United States op Am. : A. D. 1860-1801 (December— Fedruauy). DIEM, OR JEM, Prince, The Story of. See Turks: A. 1). 1481-1520. DOAB, The English acquisition of the. See India: A. D. 1798-1805. DOBRIN, Knights of the Order of the Brethren of. SeePiiussLA: 13Tn Century. DOBRUDJA, The.— The peninsula formed between the Danube, near its mouth, and the Black Sea. DOBUNI, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons who held a region between the two Avons. See Britain, Celtic Tribes. DOCETISM.— " We note another phase of gnosticism in the doctrine so directly and warmly combated in the epistles of John; wc refer to docetism — that is, the theory which refused to recognize the reality of the human body of Christ." — E. Reuss, Hist, of Chriatian Theology in the Apostolic Age, p. 323. DODONA. See Hellas. DOGE. Sec Venice: A. D. 097-810. DOGGER BANKS, Naval Battle of the (1781). bee Netherlands (Holland): A. D. 1740-1787. DOKIMASIA.— " All magistrates [in ancient Athens] whether elected by cheirotonia or by- lot, were compelled, before entering upon their office, to subject themselves to a Dokimasia, or scrutiny into their fitness for the post." — G. F. Schumann, Antiq. of Greece : The State, pt. 3, ch. 3. DOLICHOCEPHALIC MEN.— A term used in ethnology, signifying "long-headed," as distinguishing one class of skulls among the remains of primitive men, from another class called brachycephalic, or "broad-headed." DOLLINGER, Doctor, and the dogma of Papal Infallibility. See Papacy: A. D. 1869- 1870. DOLMENS. See Cromlechs. DOMESDAY, OR DOOMSDAY BOOK. See England: A. D. 1085-1086. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, The. See Hayti: a. D. 1804-1880. DOMINICANS. See Mendicant Orders; also, Inquisition: A. D. 1203-1525. DOMINION OF CANADA.— DOMINION DAY, See Canada: A. D. 1867. DOMINUS. See Imperator, Final Sioni- FICATION OF THE Uo.MAN TiTLE. DOMITIAN, Roman EmpeiC, A. D, 81-06. DOMITZ, Battle of (1635). See Germany: A. D. 16;M-1639. DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA. See John (Don) of Austria. DON PACIFICO AFFAIR, The. See Enoland: a. D. 1840-1850; and Greece: A. I). 1840-1850. DONALD BANE, King of Scotland, A. D. 109:!-1098 (expelled during part of the period by Duncan II.) DON ATI, The. See Florence: A. 1). 1295- 1300, and 1301-1313. DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. See Papacy: A. I). 774(?). DONATION OF THE COUNTESS MA- TILDA. See Papacy: A. D. 1077-1102. DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAR- LEMAGNE. See Papacy: A. D. 755-774. DONATISTS, The.— "The Donatist contro- versy was not one of doctrine, but of ecclesias- tical discipline; the contested election for the archbishopric of Carthage. Two competitors, Cecilius and Donatus, had been concurrently elected while the church was yet in a depressed state, and Africa subject to the tynmt Maxen- tius [A. D. 300-312]. Scarcely had Constantino subdued that province, when the two rivals referred their dispute to him. Constantine, who still publicly professed paganism, but had shown himself very favourable to the Christians, insti- tuted a careful examination of their respective claims, which lasted from the year 312 to 815, and finally decided in favour of Cecilius. Four hundred African bishops protested against this decision; from that time they were designated by the name of Donatists. ... In compliance with an order of the emperor, solicited by Ceci- lius, the property of the Donatists was seized and transferred to the antagonist body of the clergy. They revenged themselves by pronounc- ing sentence of excommunication against all tho rest of the Christian world. . . . Persecution on one side and fanaticism on the other were per- petuated through three centuries, up to the period of the extinction of Christianity in Africa. The wandering preachers of the Donatist faction had no other means of living than the alms of their flocks. ... As might be expected, they outdid each other in extravagance, and soon gave in to the most frantic ravings : thousands of peas- ants, drunk with the effect of these cxortations, forsook their ploughs and fled to the deserts of Getulia. Their bishops, assuming the title of cap- tains of the saints, put themselves at their head, and they rushed onward, carrying death and deso- lation into the adjacent provinces; they were distinguished by the name of Circumcelliones : Africa was devastated by their ravages." — J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the liotnan Empire, ch. 4. Also in: P. Schaff, Jlist. of the Christian Church, V. 2, ch. 0. DONAUWORTH : A. D. 1632.— Taken by Gustavus Adolphus. Sec Germany: A. D. 1631-1633. A. D. 1704. — Taken by Marlborough. See Germany: A. D. 1704. DONELSON, Fort, Capture of. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1862 (January— Pebbu- aby: Kentucky— Tennessee). 663 DONOAN CHARTER. DORIANS AND I0NIAN8. DONGAN CHARTER, The. Sec New YouK(('iTY); A. I). 1086. DONUM. Sec Taij,a(ik. DONUS I., Pope, A. D. 670-678 Donus II., Pope, A. I). l(74-«7r). DONZELLO. Hcc Damoihkl. DOOMS OF INE, The.—" These laws were rciiublished by King Alfreifaa 'The Dooms of Ine ' wlio fine] cnme to the tlirone in A. D. 688. In tlieir first eliiuse tliey clnim to have been recorded by King Inc witli the counsel and teach- ing of his fatlier Cenrcd and of Hedde, his bishop (wlio was Bishop of Windicster from A. D. 676 to 705) and of Korcenweld, his bishop (who obtained the see of London in 675); and so, if genuine, tliey seem to represent what was settled customary law in Wessex during the last half of the seventh century." — F. Seebolim, ErtglUh Villnne Vinniminity, cli. 4. DOOMSDAY, OR DOMESDAY BOOK. SeeENCii-ANu: A. I). 1085-1086. DOORANEES, OR DURANEES, The. Bee India: A. I). 1747-1761. DORDRECHT, OR DORT, Synod of. See DouT; also, Netiieulands: A. D. 1603-1619. DORIA, Andrew, The deliverance of Genoa by. See Itai-V: A. D. 1527-1529. DORIANS AND lONIANS, The.— "Out of the great Pelaaginn population [see Pelasgi- ANs], which covered Anterior Asia Minor and the whole European peninsular land, a younger people had issued forth separately, which we find from the first divided into two races. These main races we may call, according to the two dialects of the Greek language, the Dorian and tlic Ionian, altliough these names are not gener- ally used until a later period to designate the division of the Hellenic nation. No division of so thorough a bearing could have taken place unless accompanied by an early local separation. We assume that the two races parted company while yet in Asia Minor. One of them settles in the mountain-cantons of Northern Hellas, the other along the Asiatic coast. In the latter the historic movement begins. With the aid of the art of navigation, learnt from the Phccnicians the Asiatic Greeks at an early period spread over the sea; domesticating themselves in lower Egypt, in countries colonized by the Phccnicians, in tlie whole Archipelago, from Crete to Thrace ; and from their original as well as from their subse- quent scats send out numerous settlements to the coast of European Greece, first from the East side, next, after conquering the;r timidity, also taking in the country, beyond Cape Malea from the West. At first they land as pirates and enemies, then proceed to permanent settlements in gulfs and straits of the sea, and by the mouths of rivers, where they unite with the Pelasgian population. The different periods of this colo- nization may be judged of by the forms of divine worship, and by the names under which the maritime tribes were called by the natives. Their nidest appearance is as Carians ; as Leleges their influence is more beneficent and perma- nent." — Dr. E. Curtius, 7/i'«<. 0/ Greece, bk. 1, ch. 2. — In the view of Dr. Curtius, the later migra- tion of Ionian tribes from Southern Greece to the coasts of Asia Minor, — which is an undoubted historic fact, — was really a return "into the home of their ancestors — "tlie ancient home of tlie great Ionic race." Whether that be the true view or not, the movement in question was connected, apparently, with important move- ments among tlie Dorian Greeks in Greece itself. These latter, according to all accounts, and the agreement of all historians, were long settled in Tliessaly, at the foot of Olympus (see Gheeck : The Migrations). It was there that their moral and political developmentrbegan ; there that tliey learned to look at Olympus as tlie home of the go<ls, which all Greeks afterwards learned to do from them. "The service rendered by the Dorian tribe," says Dr. Curtius, "lay in having carried the germs of national culture out of Tliessaly, where the invasion of ruder peoples disturbed and hindered their farther growth, into the land towards the south, where these germs received an unexpectedly new and grand de- velopment. ... A race claiming descent from Heracles united itself in this Thessaliaii coast-dis- trict with the Dorians and established a royal dominion among them. Ever afterwards Herac- lido! and Dorians remained together, but with- out ever forgetting the original distinction be- tween them. In their seats by Olympus the foundations were laid of the peculiarity of the Dorians in political order and social customs ; at the foot oi Olympus was their real home." — The same, bk. 1, ch. 4. — From the neighborhood of Olympus the Dorians moved soutliwards and found another home in "the fertile mountain- recess between Parnassus and ffita, . . . the most ancient Doris known to us by name." Their final movement was into Peloponnesus, which was " the most Important and the most fertile in consequences of all the migrations of Grecian races, and which continued, even to the latest periods to exert its influence upon the Greek character. " Thencef orwards the Dorians were the dominant race in Peloponnesus, and to their chief state, Lacedwmonia, or Sparta, was generally con- ceded the headship of the Hellenic family. This Doric occupation of Peloponnesus, the period of which is supposed to have been about 1100 B. C, no doubt caused the Ionic migration from that part of Greece and colonization of Asia Minor. — C. O. MUller, But. and Antiquities of the Doric race, bk. 1, ch. 8. — The subsequent division o' the Hellenic world between loiiians and Dorians is thus defined by Schomann: "To the lonians belong the inhabitants of Attica, the most im- portant part of the population of Euboca, and the islands of the .£gean included under the common name of Cyclades, as well as the colo- nists both on the Lydian and Carian coasts of Asia Minor and in the two larger islands of Chios and Sanios which lie opposite. To the Dorians within the Peloponnese belong the Spartans, as well as the dominant populations of Argos, Sicyon, Philus, Corinth, Troezene and Epidau- rus, together with the island of .^^ina ; outside the Peloponnese, but nearest to it, were the Megarid, and the small Dorian Tetranolis [also called Pentapolis and Tripolis] near Mount Par- nassus; at a greater distance were tlie majority of the scattered islands and a latge portion of the Carian coasts of Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands, of which Cos and Rhodes were the most important. Finally, the ruling portion of the Cretan population was of Dor- ian/descent." — G. F. SchOmann, Antiquities of Ortece: The State, pt. 1, ch. 1.— See, also, Gkeece: The Miorationb; Asia Minor: The Greek Colonies; HERACLiDiS; Sparta; and 664 DORIS AND DRYOPia. DRESDEN. DORIS AND DRYOPIS.— " The little terri tory [in imciont QrecciO called Doris and Dryo- pis occupied the fiouthern declivity of Mount (Eta, dividing Phokig on the north and northwest from the ./Etnlians, J^niiines and Malians. That which was called Doris in the historical times, and which reached in the times of Herodotus nearly ns far eastward as the Xaliac gulf, is said to liavc formed a part of what had been once called Dryopis ; a territory which had comprised the summit of (Eta as far as the Sperchius, northward, and which had been inhabited by an old Hellenic tribe called Dryopes. The Dorians acquired their settlement in Dryopis by gift from HCniklCs, who, along with the Malians (so ran the legend), had expelled the Dryopes and com- Fielle(i them to flntl for themselves new scats at lermionC, and AsinO, in the Argolic peninsula of Peloponnesus, — at Styraand Karystus in Euba>a, — and in the island of Kythnus; it is only in these five last-mentioned places tliat history recognizes them. The territory of Doris was distributed into four little townships, — -Pindus, or Akyphas, BcEon, Kytinion and Erineon. . . . In itself this tetrapolis is so Insignificant that we shall rarely find occasion to mention it ; but it acquired a factitious consequence by being regarded as the metropolis of the great Dorian cities in Peloponnesus, and receiving on that ground special protection from Sparta." — O. Grote, Hiit. of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 3. Also in; C. O. Mllller, Hist. andAntiq. oftlie Doric Race, bk. 1, ch. 2. — See also, DoniANS and lONIANS. DORMANS, Battle of (1575). See France: A. D. ir)7;i-ir)76. DORN ACH, Battle of (1499). See Switzek- land: a. D. 1306-1499. DORR REBELLION, The. See Rhode Island-. A. D. 1841-1843. DORT, OR DORDRECHT, The Synod of. — " In the low-countries the supreme govern- ment, the states general, interfered [in the Cal- vlnistlc controversy], and in the year 1618 convoked the first and only synod bearing some- thing of the character of a general council that • has been convened by protestants. It assembled at Dort, and continued its sittings from Novem- ber till May following. Its business was to decide the questions at issue between the Calvinists and Armmians; the latter party were also termed remonstrants. James [I.] was requested to send over representatives for the English Church, and chose four divines : — Carlton bishop of Llandalf , Hall dean of Worcester, afterwards bishop suc- cessively of Exeter and Norwich, Davenant afterwards bishop of Salisbury, and Dr. 8. Ward of Cambridge. They were men of learning and moderation. . . . The history of this famous synod is told in various ways. Its decisions were in favour of the doctrines termed Calvinistic, and the remonstrants were expelled from Holland. . . . The majority were even charged by the other party with having bound themselves by an oath before they entered upon business, to con- demn the remonstrants. "—J. B. Marsden, Hist, of Early Piirilang, p. 829.— See Netherlands: A. D. 1603-1619. DORYLAEUM, Battle of (1097). See Cru- sades: A. D. 1096-1099. DOUAI : A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. See Netherlands (The Spanish Provinceb): A. D. mi. 43 665 A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. See Nether- lands (Holland): A. 1). 16(1H. A. D. 1710. — Siege and capture by Marlbor- ough. See Netueklands: A. D. 1710-1712. DOUAI, The Catholic Seminary at. Sco Enoland; A. I), 1.172-1«();(. DOUBLOON. — DOBLON. See Spanish Coins. DOUGHFACES. — The "Missouri Compro- mise," of 1820, in the United States, "was a Northern measure, carried by Northern votes. With some the threats of di-sunion were a suf- ficient influence ; some, whom in the debate Ran- dolph [.Tohn liandolph, of Virginia] called doughfaces, did not need even that. . . . There has been always a singular servility in the char- acter of a portion of the American people. In that class the slaveholder has always found his- Northern servitor. liundolph first gave it a name to live by in the term doughface." — W. C. Bryant and S. II. Gay, IbpularJUist. oftlie IT. S., V. 4, ;)/). 270 ami 294. DOUGLAS, Stephen A., and the doctrine of Squatter Sovereignty. See United States OF A.M. : A. D. 1854 Defeat in Presidential election. See United States op A.m. : A. D. 1860 (ArniL — November). DOURO, Battle of the (1580). See Por- tugal: A. D. 1579-1580 Wellington's pas- sage of the. See Spain : A. D. 1809 (Februart —July). DOVER, Roman Origin of. See Dubris. DOVER, Tenn., Battle at. See United States OF Am. : A. D. 1863 (February — April: Tennessee). DOVER, Treaty of. See England: A. D. 1668-1670. DOWLAH, Surajah, and the English in India. See India: A. D. 1755-1757, and 1757. DRA 3HMA. See Talent. DRACONIAN LAWS. See Athens: B. C. 624. DRAFT RIOTS, The. See New York (City): A. D. 1863. DRAGON.— PENURAGON.— A title some- times given in Welsh poetry to a kin^ or great military leader. Supposed to be derived from the figure f a dragon on their flags, which they borrowed imm the Romans. See Cumbria. DRAGONNADES, The. See Prance: A. D. 1681-1698. DRAKE'S PIRACIES, and his famous voyage. See Amekica: A. D. 1572-1580. DkANGIANS, The. See Sarangians. DRAPIER'S LETTERS, The. See Ire- land: A. D. 1722-1724. DRAVIDIAN RACES. See Turanian Races; also, India: The aboriginal inhabit- ants. DRED SCOTT CASE, The. See United. States op A.m. : A. D. 1857. DREPANA, Naval battle at, B. C. 249. See Punic War, The First. DRESDEN: A. D. 1756.- Capture and oc- cupation by Frederick the Great. See Ger- many: A. D. 1756, A. D. 1759-1760. — Capture by the A strians. —Bombardment by Frederick. See Germany: A. D. 1759 (July— November), and 1760. A. D. 1813.— Occupied by the Prussians and Russians. — Taken by the French. — Invested by the Allies.— Great battle before the city^ DRESDEN. DUBHIS. and victory for Napoleon. — French reverses. — St Cyr'a surrender. Hto Okkmany: A. I). 1H12- l«i:i; IMlIi (Ai'uii.— May); (Auouhi); (Seitkm- BEIl — OCTOIlKIl); lllltl (OCTOIIEII — DKCKMIIKK). DRESDEN, Treaty of. ScoAubthia: A. D. 1744-17-1.'). DREUX, Battle of (1563). 8co France: A. I), \m\-\rm. DROGHEDA, OR TREDAH, Cromwell's massacre at. See Iiiki,am>: A. I>. t(i4U-H!oU. DROITWICH, Origin of. S™ Haling. DROMONES.— A iianie givtri to the light gnllcys of Die liyzaiitiiiu I'liipirc. — K. Oibbon, I>efUi)e iinil Full of the Homaii Empire, ch. 53, DRUIDS.— The pricsthocKl of a religion which ■existed nmong the Celts of Quul and Britain he- fore they were Christianized. " Greelt and Ro- man writers give us very little information on tlds subject and the early Welsh records and poetry none at all. Modern Welsh writers have, however, made up for this want in their genidno literature by inventing an elaborate Druidical system of religion and philosophy which, they pretend, survived the introduction of Christianity and was secretly upheld by the Welsh bards in the Middle Ages. Thi.s Neo-Druidic imposture has found numerous adherents." — AV. K. Suili- •van. Article, " Celtic Literature," Kncijr. Brit. — " Pliny, alluding to the Druids' predilection for groves of oak, tttlds the words: ' lit inde appellati quoquc interpretationc Gneca possint Druidai videri.' . . . Had he possessed knowledge enough •of the Qaulisli language, he would have seen that it supplied an explanation which rendered it needless to have recourse to Greek, namely in the native word * dru,' which we have in ' Druneme- ton,' or tlie sacred Oak-grove, given by Strabo as the name of the place of assembly 01 the Qa- hitians. In fact, one has, if I am not mistaken, been skeptic with regard to tills etymology, not 80 much on phonological grounJs as from lulling •exactly to see how the oak could have given its name to such a famous organization asthcdruidic •one must be admitted to have been. But the parallels just indicated, as showing the import- ance of the sacred tree in the worship of Zeus and the gods representing him among nations ■other than the Greek one, help to throw some light on this point. According to the etymology here oUuded to, the Druids would be the priests of the god associated or identified with the oak ; that is, as we are told, the god who seemed to those who were familiar with the pagan theology -of the Greeks, to stand in the same position in •Gaulish theology that Zeus did in the former. This harmonizes thorouglily with all tliat is known about the Druids." — J. Rhys, Ilibbert Lects., 1886, on Celtic Heathendom, lect. 3, pt. 2. — " Our traditions of the Scottish a 1 Irish Druids «re evidently derived from a time wlien Chris- tianity had long been established. These insular Druids are represented as being little better than -conjurors, and their dignity is as mucli dimin- ished as the power of tlic king is exaggerated. ^ . . He is a Pharaoh or Belshazzar with a troop of wizards at his command; but his Druids are sorcerers and rain-doctors. . . . The Druids of .Strabo's description walked in scarlet and gold brocade and wore golden collars and bracelets; but their doctrines may have been much the same as those of the soothsayers by the Severn, ■the Irish medicine-men or those rustic wizards by the Loire. . . . After the conversion of Ireland was accomplished the Druids disappear from history. Tlieir mystical powers were tmnsferred without much alteration to tlie abbots and bishops who ruled the 'families of the sahits.'" — C. Elton, Origins of Kntjlish Hint. , eh. 10. Also in: Julius Cu;.sar, Udllie War, bk. 0, eh. 13-18.— Strabo, «<■<«/.. bk. 4, ch. 4, »eet. 4-6.— For an account of the final destruction of the Druids, in their last retreat, on the island of Mona, or Anglesey, see Bkitain: A. D. 61. DRUMCLOG, The Covenanters at. See Scotland: A. 1). 1670 (May- .June). DRURY'S BLUFF, Battle of. See United States of Am.: A. D. 1864 (May: Viuoinia) The AiiMY of the James. DRUSUS, Germanic campaigns of. See Oeumany: H. C. 12-0. DRYOPIANS, The.— One of the aboriginal nations of ancient Greece, whose territory was in the valley of the Spercheiis ond extended as far as Parnassus and Thermonylie ; but who were after- wards widely dispersed in many colonies. It is, says C. O. Mtlller, "historically certain that a great part of tlie Dryopians were consecrated os a subject people to the Pythian Apollo (an usage of ancient times, of wliich there are many instances) and that for a long time they served as such." — Hist, and Antiq. of the Doric Jiace, bk. 1, ch. 3. — See, also, Donis; and IIiekodum. DUBARRY, Countess, Ascendancy of. Sec Phance: A. D. 1723-1774. DUBH GALLS. See Ireland: Otii-IOth Centuiuks. DUBIENKA, Battle of (1792). SeePoLAND: A. D. 1791-1703. DUBITZ A : Taken by the Austrians (1787). SeeTuHKS: A. D. 1776-1703. DUBLIN : The Danish Kingdom. Sec Ireland: Oth-IOtii Centuries; also Normans. — Noutumen: 8th-0tii Centuries. A. D. 1014.— The battle of Clontarf and the great defeat of the Danes. See Ireland: A. D. 1014. A. D. 1 170.— Taken by the Norman-English. See Ireland: A. D. 1160-117,'). A. D. 1646-1640.— Sieges in the Civil War. See Ireland: A. D. 1646-1649. A. D. 1750. — The importance of the city. — "In the middle of the 18th century it was In dimensions and population the second city in the empire, containing, according to the most trust- worthy accounts, between 100,000 and 130,000 inhabitants. Like most things in Ireland, it presented vivid contrasts, ana strangers were equally struck with the crowds of beggars, the inferiority of the inns, tlie squalid wretchedness of tlio streets of the old town, and with the noble proportions of the new quarter, and the brilliant and hospitable society that inhabited it. The Liffey was spanned by four bridges, and another on a grander scale was undertaken in 1753. St. Stephen's Green was considered the largest square in Europe. The quoys of Dublin were widely celebrated."— W. E. H. Lecky, Hist. of Eng., 18</t Century, ch. 7 {v. 3). DUBRIS, OR DUBR.^.— The Roman port on tlie eost coast of Britain which is now known as Dover. In Roman times, as now, it was the principal landing-place on the British side of the channel.— T. Wright, Celt, lioman and Saxon, ch. 5. 666 DUOAT. DURHAM. DUCAT, Spanish. 8co SpANitn Coras. DUCES. Sec Count and Dukk. DUDLEY, Thomas, and the colony of Mas- sachusetts Bay. Hoc Mahhaciichktth: A. I). ltl'Jl)-l(i:to. 1111(1 iiftiT. DUFFERIN, Lord.— The Indian Adminis- tration of. Sec India: A. I). Imhd-IHnh. DU GUESCLIN'S CAMPAIGNS. Sec Fuance: A. 1). 11)00- 13H(). DUKE, The Roman.— Origin of the title. Set' ('OI'NT and DlKK. DUKE'S LAWS, The. Sec Nkw Yohk: A. I). 1003. DULGIBINI AND CHASAURI, The.— "Tlii'se pooplo [tribes of thu iiiiciciit Ofrmaiis] rtrnt rositled near the head of the Lippe, mul '' (,'u removed to tlic settlementH of tlie C^lmmnvi iind the Angrevarii, who had expelled the Bructeri." — Tacitus, Oermany, eh. 84, Ojford trans., note. — Sec, also, Saxons. DUMBARTON, Origin of. Sec Ai.clyde. DUMBARTON CASTLE, Capture of (1571). — Dumbarton Castle, held by the party of Mary Queen of Scots, in the civil war which fol- lowed her deposition and detention in England, was captured in 1571, for tlic regent Lennox, by an extraordinary act of daring on the part of one Cunt. Crawford.— P. F. Tytler, Iliat. of Hcoiland, u. 3, c/i. 10. DUMNONIA, OR DAMNONIA, The kingdom of. See England: A. D. 477-527. DUMNONII, The.— "It is ... a remark- able circumsUmcc that the Dumnonii, whom we find in the time of Ptolemy occupying the whole of the southwestern extremity of Britain, includ- ing both Devonshire and Cornwall, and who must therefore have been one of the most powerful na- tions in the island, are never once mentioned in the history of the conquest of the country by the Horn . lis ; nor is their name found in any writer before Ptolemy. . . . The conjecture of Mr. Beale Poste . . . that they were left in nominal independence under a native liing . . . appears tome highly probable." — E. H. Bunbury, JIM. of Ancient Ueog., ch. 23, note B. — There appears to have been a northern branch of the Dumnonii or Damnonii, which held an extensive territory on the Clyde and the Forth. See Britain, Cel- tic Tribes. DUMOURIEZ, Campaigns and treason of. See France: A. D. 1793 (Skitember— Decem- ber); 1702-1798; and 1708 (February— April). DUNBAR, A. D. 1296.— Battle. See Scot- land: A. D. 1200-1305. A. D. X339. — Siege. — The fortress of Dunbar, besieged by the English under the Eurl of Salis- bury in 1330, was successfully defended in the absence of the governor, tlie Earl of March, by ills wife, known afterwards in Scotch history and tradition us "Black Agnes of Dunbar." A. D. 1650.— Battle. See Scotland: A. D. 1650 (September). ♦ DUNCAN I., King of Scotland, A. D. 1033- 1030 Duncan II., A. D. 1094-1005. DUNDALK, Battle of (1318). See Ireland: A. D. 1314-1318. DUNDEE (CLAVERHOUSE) AND THE COVENANTERS. See Scotland: A. D. 1670 (May— June); 1681-1680; and 1689 (July). DUNDEE : A. D. 1645.— Pillaged by Mont- rose. See Scotland: A.L). 1644-1645. A. D. 1651.— Storm and massacre by Monk. See Scotland: A. I). 1051 (August — Septbu- BER). ♦ ■ DUNES, Battle of the (1658). Sec Enq- LAND: A. I). 105.5-16.58. DUNKELD, Battle f. See Scotland: A. I). 1680 (Auouht). DUNKIRK: A. D. 1631. — Unsuccessful siege by the Dutch. See Netiibhlands: A. D. 1031-1633. A. D. 1646. — Siege and capture by the French.— Importance of the port. — Its harbor- age of pirates. See Netherlands: A. 1). 1645- 1040. A. D. 165a.— Recovered by the Spaniards, .See France: A. I). 10,52. A. D. 1658.— Acquired by Cromwell for Eng- land. See England: A. D. 105.V1658; and France: A. D. 105,5-16.58. A. D. 1663.— Sold by Charles II. to France. See England; A. D. 1603. A. D. 1713.— Fortifications and harbor de- stroyed. Sic Utrecht; A. D. 1712-1713. A. D. 1748.— Demolition of fortifications again stipulated. See Aix-la-Cuafelle : The t'ONOREBH. A. D. 1763.— The demolition of fortiuca- tions pledged once more. See Seven Years War: The treaties. A. D. 1793.— Unsuccessful siege by the English. Sec France: A. D. 1703 (July- December); Progress ok the War. DUNMORE, Lord, and the end of royal government in Virginia. See Viroima: A. D. 1775 (June); and 1775-1776. DUNMORE'S WAR. Sec Ohio (Valley): A. D. 1774. DUNNICHEN, Battle of (A. D. 685). See Scotland: 7tii Century. DUPLEIX AND THE FRENCH IN INDIA. See India: A. D. 1743-1752. DUPONT, Admiral Samuel F. — Naval attack on Charleston. Sec United States ok Am.: a. D. 1868 (April: South Carolina). DUPPEL, Siege and capture of (1864). See Germany: A. D. 1861-1866. DUPPELN, Battle of (1848). See Scandi- navian States (Denmark) : A. D. 1848-1862. DUPPLIN MOOR, Battle of (1333). See Scotland: A. D. 1832-1333. DUQUESNE, Fort. See Pittsbuugu. DURA, Treaty of.— The humiliating treaty of peace concluded with 'he Persians, A. D. 363, after the defeat and death of the Roman emperor Julian, by his successor Jovian. — Q Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy ch. 10. DURANEES, OR DOORANEES, Tht See India: A. D. 1747-1761. DURAZZO, Neapolitan dynasty of. See Italy (Southern): A. D. 1343-1389; 1380-1414, and Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. DURBAR, OR DARBAR.— An audience room in the palace of an East Indian prince. Hence applied to a formal audience or levee given by the governor-general of India, or by one of the native princes. — Century Dictionary DURHAM, OR NEVILLE'S CROSS, Battle of (A. D. 1346). See Scotland: A. D. 1833-1370. 667 DURODRIViB. EARTHQUAKE. DUROBRIViC.— A numo givrn to two Roman tuwim in liritiiin, out' of which hiiH been Idcntillcd witlt nuMii'rn i{o<'h(Htcr, thu other with tho town of Ciislor, neiir I'i'tcrhoroiigli. DUROBRIVIAN WARE. 8vu Cahtoii Wahk. DUROCOBRIViE.— An important mnrkot- t^iwn in Itonmn Ilrituin, HU|)poH<'(l to hitvu Iwcn Hitimtrd lit or ni'iir mcHlcru I)nnHtiil)lc. — T. Wri^flit, ('fit, HoiiKin ami Siitdii, eh. 5. DUROTRIGES.— One of tlio tribes of an- cient liritiiin wIiohc liomo wiih in thu modern county of Dorw't. 8co Bkitain, C'ki.ticTiiibkb. DUROVERNUM.— ARomiuitowninUritiiln. Identitlud willi the nuxlcrn Ciinterlmry. I)ur- overnuni was destroyed t)y tlie Jutes in 455. See Knoi.and! a. 1). JIO-IW. DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. Sec East I.ndia Comi'Any, Tmio Dutch. DUTCH GAP CANAL. See Unitkd Stateh OF Am. : A. 1). lHtt4(AuoUBT: Viu(iinia). DUTCH REPUBLIC, The conttitution and declared independence of the. Sec NKTnKni.ANDH: A. I). 1577-1581, and 1584- 15M5. DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY.Seo Nkw Yohk: a, I). 1«21-1(I4«; ami Uiiazii,: A. I). 151()-lfl«l. DOTLINGEN, or TUTTLINGEN, Bat- tle of (1643). See (Ikrmany: A. I). 1048-1044. DYAKS, or DAYAKS, The. See Ma- layan Hack. DYRRHACHIUM: The founding of. See KollKYHA. Provoking cause of the Peloponnesian War. SeeGiiKKtK: U. C. 435-1H2. B. C. 48.— CKsar'a reverse. See Rohb: B. C. 48. A. D. io8i-io8a.— Siege bv Robert Guiscard. SeeBY/.ANTiNK E.MIMIIK: A. I). lO'U-lOH.-), A. D. 1304. — Acquired by the Despot of Epirus. See Eimkls: A. D. 1204-1350. DYRRHACHIUM, Peace of. ScoGheece: B. C. 214-140. DYVED. SeeBiuTAiN: 6tu Centuhy. £. EADMUND, EADWINE, ETC. See Ed- mund, ETC. EALDORMAN. — " Tlie chieftains of the first settlers in our own island boro no higher title than Kaldomian or Hcretoga. . . . The nnmo of Ealdorman is one of a largo class; among a primitive people ago implies command anil command implies age; hence in a somewhat later stage of language the elders arc simply the rulers and the eldest are the highest in rank, without any thought of the number of years which they may really have lived. It is not per- fectly clear in what the authority or dignity of the King exceeded that of the Ealdorman. . . . Even the smallest Kingdom was probably formed by the union of the districts of several Ealdor- nien." — E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, eh. 3, »eet. 1. — "The organisation of the shire was of much the same character as that of the hundred [each shire containing, however, a number of hundreds], but it was ruled by an ealdorman as well as by a gercfa, and in some other respects bore evidence of its previous existence as an in- dependent unity. Its gemot was not only the scir-gemot but the folc-gemot also, the assembly of the people; its cnluonnau commanded not merely the military force of the hundreds, but the lords of the franchises and the church vassals with their men. Its gerefa or sheriff collected the fiscal as well as the local imposts. Its eal- dorman was one of the king's witan. The eal- dorman, the princeps of Tacittis, and princeps, or satrapa, or subregulus of Bede, the dux of the Latin chroniclers and the comes of the Nor- mans, was originally elected in the general as- sembly of the nation. . . . The hereditary prin- ciple appears however in the early days of the kingdom as well as in those of Edward the Con- fessor; in the case of an under-kingdom being annexed to a greater the old royal dynasty seems to have continued to hand down its dele- gated authority from father to son. The under- kings of Hwiccia thus continued to act as eal- dormen under Slercia for a century; and the ealdormanship of the Gyrwas or fen-countrymen seems likewise to have been hereditary. The I title of ealdorman is thus much older than the existing division of shires, nor was it ever the rule for every shire to have an ealdorman to it- self as it had its sheriff. . . . But each shire WHS imder an ealdorman, who sat with the sheriff and bishop in the folkmoot, received a third part of the profits of the jurisdiction, and commanded the military force of the whole di- vision. From the latter character ho derived the name of heretoga, leader of the host (' here '), or dux, which is occasionally given him in char- ters." — W. Stubbs, Oonst. Iliat. of Eng., eh. 6, sects. 48-49. EARL. —"The title of earl had begun to supplant that of ealdorman in the reign of Ethel- red; and the Danish jar!, from whom its tise in this sense was borrowed, seems to liave been more certainly connected by the tie of comitatus with his king than the Anglo-Saxon ealdorman need be supposed to have been. " — W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of Eng., eh. 0, seet. 66. — See, also, EouL and Ealdouman. EARLDOMS, English : Canute's creation. See England: A. D. 1016-1042. The Norman change. Sec Palatike, Tub Enolisii Counties. EARLY, General Tubal, Campaigns in the Shenandoah. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 (May— June: Viiiginia); (July: ViBOf NiA — Maryland) ; (August — October : Virginia); and 1865 (February — March: Vir- ginia). EARTHQUAKE: B. C. 464.— Sparta. See ]\Ie88enian Wau, The Third. A. D. 115. — At Antioch. See Antioch: A. D. 115. A. D. 365. — In the Roman world.— "In the second year of the reign of Vaientinian and Valens [A. D. 365], on the morning of the 2l8t day of July, the greater part of the Roman world was shaken by n violent and destructive earthquake. Tlie impression was communicated to the waters ; the shores of the Mediterranean were left dry by the sudden retreat of the sea. . . . But the tide soon returned with the weight 668 EARTHQUAICK. EBIOJnflM. of an Immrniio and InrdiHlblo drliipo, whlrh wan Hcvert'ly felt on tlio roiiHtH of Hlclly, of Dal- mntln. of Oroc™ and of Kgypt. . . . Tlui city of Ali'xandrlii anniiiilly commciiioratod tlio fatal day on which no.lMH) pcrnonH liad hmt their IIvch in the Inuiidiilion." — K. (}llil>on, Ikeline and Full of the lloniiin Kmpire. r/i. 'in. A. D. 536.— In the reign of Justinian. Hcc Antkh'Ii: a. I). 53(1; also, Hkuytiih. A. D. 1693.— In Jamaica. Hee .Jamaica: A. D. 1093. A. D. 1755.— At Lisbon. Hce Lisbon: A. D. I7r.r.. A. D. i8i3.— In Venezuela. Sec ('olomdian Statkb: a. I). 181 0-1810. EAST AFRICA ASSOCIATIONS, British and German. Hcc Akiuca: A. I). 1H84-1HM0. EAST ANGLIA.— Tho kingdom formed in Britain by that body of the Angles which set lied In tho eastern district now embraced In tli(! coimties of Norfolk and SulTolk (North-folk and Houthfolk). EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Dutch: A. D. 1603. — Its formation and first enter- prises. See NKTirEiii.ANDs: A. I). 1094-1(130. A. D. 1653.— Settlement at Cape of Good Hope. .SeoHouTil Akiuca: A. P. 1486-18()((. A. D. 1790.— Its dissolution. 8eo Fkancf,: A. I). 1790 (SKPTE.MnKK— OCTOIIEU). EAST INDIA COMPANY, The English: A. D. 1600-1703. — Its rise and early under- takings. HcelNDrA: A, I). lfi(IO-17()3, A. D. 1773. — Constitution of the Company changed by the Acts of Lord North. See In- dia: A. D. 1770-1773. A. D. 1813-1833.— Deprived of its monopoly of trade. — Reconstitution of government. See India: A. I). 183;l-18:ia A. D. 1858.— The end of its rule. See In- dia: A. D. 1858. EAST INDIA COMPANY, The French. See India: A. I). 1005-174H. EAST INDIES, Portuguese in the. Sec India: A. D. 1 498-1 r,80. EASTERN CHURCH, The. See Cimis- tianity: a. D. 330-1054. EASTERN EMPIRE, The. Sec Rome: 717-800 ; and Byzantine Empiue. EASTERN QUESTION, The. — "For a number of generations in Europe there has been one question that, carelessly or maliciously touched upon, lias never failed to stimulate strife and discord among the 'nations. Tills is ' the Eastern Question, ' the problem Iiow to settle the disputes, political and religious, in the east of Europe." — H. Murdock, 7 he Reconstruction of Europe, p. 17. — The first occasion in European politics on which the problems of the Ottoman empire received the name of the Eastern Ques- tion seems to have been that connected with the revolt of Mehemet All in 1831 (see Turks: A. D. 1831-1840). M. Guizot, in his " Memoirs," when referring to that complication, employs the term, and remarks: "I say the Eastern (Question, for this was in fact the name given by all the world to tho quarrel between the Sultan Mahmoud, and his subject the Pacha of EiE;ypt, Mehemet Ali. Why was this sounding title applied to a local contest ? Egypt is not the whole Otto- man empire. The Ottoman empire is not the entire Kast. Tho reliellion, even the dlsmembrr- nicnt of a pnivincc, cnnnot coniprlHe the fate of a doveri'lgnly. The great Ktates of Wesleni Kiiropo have alternately lost or aenulred, either by internal diHseiiHinn or war, considerable terri- toricK; yet under tlu^ aspect o thes*! cireiim- Mtaiires no one has H|)(iki'ii of the Western iiuesllcm. Why then has a term never used in the territorial crises of Christian Europe, been considered and admitted to be perfectly natural and legitimate when the Ottoman empire Is In argument? It Is that there Is at present In the Ottoman empire no local or partial question. If a shock is felt in a enriier of the edifice, If a single stone Is detached, the enti'o building appears to be, and Is In fact, n'ady tr fall. . . . 'I he Egyptian <|iieslirm was in 1839 the question of the Ottoman empire Itself. And the (luestion of the Ottoman empire Is In reality the Eastern (lUestion, not only of the European but of tho Asiatic East; for Asia Is now the theatre of the leading ambitions and rivalries of the great powers of Europe; and the Ottoman empire Is the highway, the gate, and the key of Asia." — F. P. Oiiizot, ^femoirH to Illuitrnti the Ilintory of ^fl| Own Time, p. 4, p. 322. — The several occa- sions since 1840 on which the Piastern Questi(m has troubled Europe may be found narrated under the following captions: Ui'shia: A. I). 18:(3-18.54, to 18r)4-185(J; TiiUKs: A. D. 1861- 1H77, 1877-1878, and 1878; also Balkan and Uanuiiian 8t.\te8. — Anumg English writers, the term "tlie Eastern Question" has acquired a larger meaning, whicli takes in <iiiestioiis con- necled with tlio advance of Itussia upim the Afghan and Persian frontiers. — Duke of Argyll, The KiiHtcrn yHc^^i'on.— See Afghanistan : A. D. 1809-1881. EATON, Dorman B., and Civil-Service Reform. Sec CiviL-SEnvicE Uekou.m in the United Ht.\tes. EBBSDORF, OR LUNEBURG HEATH, Battle of. — X great and disastrous battle of the (Jcrmans with tho Danes, or Northmen, fought Feb. 3, 880. Tho Germans were terribly beaten, and nearly all who survived the fight were swept away into captivity and slavery. The slain re- ceived "martyrs 'honours; and their commemora- tion was celebrated in the Sachseu-Iand churelies till comparatively recent times. An unexampled sorrow was created throughout Saxony by this cn- lamlty, whieli, for a time, exhausted the country ; — Scandinavia and Jutland and the Baltic isles resounded with exultation." — Sir F. Palgrave, Hint, of Kontuttidii and England, hk. 1, ch. 4. EBBSFLEET.— The supposed first landing- place in Britain of the Jutes, under Hengest, A. D. 449 or 450, when English history, as Eng- lish, begins. It was also the landing-place, A. D. 597, of Augustine and his fellow missionaries when they entered the island to undertake the conversion of Its new Inhabitjints to Christianity. Ebbsflcet is in the Isle of Tlianet, at the mouth of tlie Thames. See England: 449-473, and 597-685. EBERSBURG, Battle of. See Germany: A. I). IHOO (.Ianuary— June). EBIONISM.— Tho heresy (so branded) of a sect of Jewish Christians, which spread some- what extensively in the second, third and fcmrth centuries. " The characteristic marks of Ebion- ism in all its forms are: degradation of Chris- tianity to thp level of Judaism ; the principle of 669 EniONISM. ECUADOa tlic unlvrrHiil iiiiil |M'r|M'timl viillclity nf tlin Moiuiic liiw; mill cniiiity to tlic iipoNtli- I'aul." Tlio rmniu of tliu KhioiiltcH chiik! froiii ii Ilclin'w woni HlKiilfviriK " i)<M)r."— 1», HclmIT, Hint, of the C/irinliiin ( liiirrh, urmnil jm-HimI, fli. 4, feet. (W. EBLANI, The. Hen Ikki.anu, Tkiiikh ok EAItl.V ('Kl.'lK' INIIAIIITANTH. EBORACUM, OR EBURACUM. — Tlio liiilllitry ciipiUil of Kdinitii liritiiin, and iiftcr- wiinlN (if till! AiikIIiiii kiiiK<l(iniH of Drim iiiiil N<irtliuinliria. In Old KiikHhIi its iiaiiio liccuiiio E(irf(irwl(k, wlicncc, by fiirlliur cornipti<in, rc- gtiltod the imxlcrn KnEmli name York. The city was one of couHidcnihU' HplcniUir in Itonian tiiiicH, contahiing the imperial palaco with many tcinplcH and otiicr InipoHlug buildlngH. tJco Lnulanu: A. I). ir.T-fl:):!. EBURONES, Destruction of the.— The Ebiironcg weri- a strong Oennanic trllio, wlio occupied in CivHar's time Min country Iwtween Li6ffe and Cologne, anil lioBo ancestors were said to iiavo formcil part of tlio great migrant horde of tlio (Mmhrl and Teutones. Under a young chief, Ambiorix, they had taken the lend ID the formidable revolt which occurred among the Ik'lgle tribes, IJ. C. 54-53. C'lesar, when hu hod suppressed the revolt, determined to bring destruction on tlie Kburones, and lio executed his purpose in a singular manner. lie circulated a proclamation through all the neighboring parts of Oaul and Qermnny, declaring the Eburones to be •raltors to Homo and outlaws, and offering them and their ginxls lis common prey to any who would full on them. This drew tho sur- rounding barbarians like vultures to a feast, and the wretched Eburones were mnm hunted out of existence. Their name disappeared from tho annalsof Oaul. — C. Merivale, llitt. oftheRomam, eh. 10. Also in: Ctesar, Oallie War», bk. 5, ch. 85-58; bk. 0, ch. 1-84. — G. Long, Decline of the Jluinan Ilemhlic, f>. 4, ch. 13-14. — See, also, Beix>/B. ECBATANA.— "The Southern Ecbatana or Agbatana, — which the diodes and Persians them- selves knew as Hagmat&n, — was situated, as we learn from Polybius and Diodorus, on a plain at tho foot of Mount Orontes, a llttlo to the cast of the Zagros range. Tho notices of these authors . . . and others, render it as nearly cer- tain as possible that the site was that of the mixlern town of Ilumiulan. . . . The Median capitp' has never yet attracted a sclcntiflc ex- pedition. . . . Tho chief city of northern Media, which bore in later times the names of Qaza, Gazaca, or Canzac^, is thought to have been also called Ecbatana, and to have been occasionally mistaken by tho Greeks for tho southern or real capital." — Q. Kawlinson, Five Qreat Monarchies: Media, ch. 1. ECCELINO, OR EZZELINO DI RO- MANO, The tyranny of, and the crusade against. See Veuona: A. D. 1236-1258. ECCLESIA.— The general legislative assem- bly of citizens in ancient Athens and Sparto. — G. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece: Tlie State, pt. 3. Also in: G. Grote, IIi»t. of Greece, ch. 31. — See Athens: B. C. 445-429. ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL,The. See Papacy: A. D. 1850. ECENI, OR ICENI, The. See Britain: A. D. 61. ECGBERHT, King of Wessex, A. D. 800- 886. ECKMOHL, Battle of. See GBnMANT: A. 1). IMimi.lANUAUY— .IlNK). ECNOMUS, Naval battle of (B. C. 256). Hee I'i'Nic VVaii, Tiik FiiisT. ECORCHEURS, Les.— In the later periixl of the Hundred Veam War, ttft<!r the death of the Maid of Orleans, when the English wero Ixilng driven from France and the authority of the king waHnotyctestabli.slied, lawless violence prevailed widely. "Adventurers spread tliem- si'lves over thi' pmvinees under a name, 'the Hkinnerx,' Ia% Ecorcheurs, which sutllclently lio- tokens the savage nature of their outrages. If wo trace it to oven its mildest derivation, stripping shirts, not skins."— E. Smedloy, Iliit. of trance, pi. 1, eh. 14. ECTHESISOFHERACLIUS. See Mono- TIIBI.ITK (."ONTUdVKKHY. ECU, The order of the. See Bouiidon, Tiik iiousK of. ECUADOR: Aboriginal inhabitants. Seo A.MKItlCAN AllOHlaiNKS: Andehians. The aborig nal kingdom of Quito and its conquest by the Peruvians and the Spaniards. — "(Jf the old Qiiitu nation which inhabited the highlands to tho north and south of tho present capital, nothing is known to tradition but tlio name of its last king, (Qiiitu, after whom hlssub- lecta were probably called. His domains were invaded ana conquered by the nation of the Caras, or C.'arans, who had como by sea in balsas (rafts) from parts unknown. These Caras, or Cantns, oHtjiblished the dynasty of the Scyris at Quit", and extended their conquests to the north and south, until checked by the warlike nation of the Puruhas, who inhabited the present district of Riobamba. ... In the reign of Ilualcopo Duclii- cela, the 18th Scyri, the Peruvian Incas com- menced to extend their conquests to the north, . . . About the middle of tlio 15th century the Inca Tupac Yupanqul, father of Huaynucapac, invaded the dominions of the Scyris, and after many bloody battles and sieges, conqiiered the kingdom of Puruha and returned in triumph to Cuzco. Hualcopo survived his loss but a few years. He is said to have died of grief, and was succeeded by his son Cacha, the 15th and last of the Scyris. Cacha Duchiccia at once set out to recover his paternal dominions. Although of feeble health, he seems to have been a man of (, at energy and intrepidity. He fell upon the garrison which the Inca had left at Mocha, put it to the Bword, and rcoccupied the kingdom of Puruha, where he was received with open arms. He even carried his banners further south, until checked by the Caiiares, tho inhabitants of what is now tho district of Cuenco, who had volun- torlly submitted to the Inca, and now detained the Scyri until Huaynacapac, tho greatest of tho Inca dynasty, came to their rescue.' On tho plain of TiocaJ.18, and again on the plain of Hatuntaqui, grei.\t battles were fought, in both of which the Scyri was beaten, and in the last of which he fell. " On the very field of battle the faithful Caranquis proclaimed Pacha, the daugh- ter of the fallen king, as their Scyri. Huayna- capac now regulated his conduct by policy. Ho ordered the dead king to be buried with all the honors due to royalty, and made offers of mar- riage to young Pacha, by whom he was not re- fused. . . . The issue of the marriage was Ata- huallpa, the last of the native mlers of Peru. ... As prudent and highly politic as the con- 670 ECUADOR EDDAS. (liirt of nunynnrupnr Ih goncmllr r<p >l<d to Imvo lH>i'n, Ml) imi'riiilciit unci iinpolltto WM the iliviHion of tilt- t'liiiiirc whicli he niailo nn 1>ii< ilciith Im'iI, lM'(|iii'iitliin)( IiIh pjitiTiiiil iloiiiinloim to IiIm llrHt lM)rii Jitid uriiloiihUMlly lri;ititiiiiti! son, iliiiuu'ltr, iiikI to Atiiliiiiill|iii the kiii)(iloin of Quito. II(! iiiiKlit liikvu forcHi'i'ii the rvll coiim.'' <)ut'iic('H of HtK'li » purtitlon. Ili.H (lentil tiNik pliico al«mt tli« yeiir 1525. For (Ivu or m-vi'ii yciirit tim hrothurg lived In pciu'c, " Then <|ii<krrelH urime, leiidinK to dvll war, rexultinK in tli<! de- feiitand deutli of lluuiwur. .Vtiiliuiillpa had JuHt IxM-oine niiiMter of the weiikeiied iind Nliitken em- pire of the InciiH, when the inviidliiK HpiinliirdM, under l'i/,iirro, ft II on the d(Hinied litnd iind nindu itM rielieo their own. The (MUKiiieHt of the Hpiin- iunU did not Include the kingdom of Quito iit first, hut was extended to the latter In 151)3 by Bcbastian <lu Kenalea/ar, whom Pi/arro had put In command of thu Port of Han MIkucI. Excited by sto.ies of the riches of (J\dto, and invited by amliasHiidors from the ('aflari.'S, thu old enendi'S of the Quito tribes, Henulcazur, " without orders or permTsslon from Fi/arro . . . left San Miguel, at the head of about 150 men. His second In commatxl vas the monster Juan do Ampudla." The fate of Quito was again dccUIiMl on the ;>laln of Tidcajas, where Itummugui, a i;hief who h.'ul sei/.cd thu vac4tnt throne, made a desperate but vain resistance, lie gained time, however, to remove whatever treasures there may have been at Quito l)cyon<l the reach of Its rapacious con- querors, and " where he bill tlicm Is a secret to Uie present day. . . . Traditions of the great treasures hidden in the moimtains by Rumlflagui are eagerly repeated and believed at Quito. . . . Having removed the gold and killed the Virgins of the Sun, and thus pTaced two objects so eagerly coveted by the Invaders beyond their reach, Kundftagui set lire to the town, and evacuatc(l It with all his troops and followers. It would l>e diftlcult to describe the rage, mortlflcatloa and despair of the Bpanlanis, on 'finding smoking ruins Instead of the treasures which they hod ex- pected. . . . Thousands of innocent Indians were sacrificed to their disappointed cupidity. . . . Every nook and corner of the province was searched ; but only In the sepulchres some little gold was found. ... Of the ancient buildings of Quito no stone was left upon the other, and deep excavations were made under them to search for hidden treasures. Hence there is no vestige left at Quito of its former civilization ; not a ruin, not a wall, not a stone to which the traditions of the past might cling. ... On the 28th of August, 1534, tlie Spanish village of Quito [San Francisco de Quito] was founded."— F. Ilassaurek, Four Yean among Smnuh Aineriama, ch. 16. Also in: W. H. Prescott, Hint, of Cong, of Peru, bk. 3, eh. i (i\ 1). and ch. 9 (p. 2). In the empire of the Incas. See Peru; Tire EMPIRE OP THE Incas. A. D. 1542.— The Audiencia of Quito estab- lished, ^-e AuuiKNci.\s. A. D. 1821-1854. — Emancipation of slaves. See Colombian St.vtes: A. X). 1821-1854 A. D. 1822-1888.— Confederated with New Granada and Venezuela in the Colombian Republic— Dissolution of the Confederacy.— The rule of Flores.— In 1822 " the Province of Quito was incorporated into the Colombian Re- public [see Colombian States: A. D. 1819- 1830], It was now divided into three depart. ments on the Frrneh system: and the southern- miiHtof llies<! received Its name from the Kouutor (Kcuador) which paHses through it. Shortly after V'eiu'/ucla had declared ilHelf indi pend- ent iif the C'oliindiian Uepublic [IN2(I — K4'e, a* alHive], the old ))roviiie(* of Quito did the winu-, and phx'ed its fortuneM In the handn of oni^ of Itolivar's lieutenantx, named Flores. The name of Keuador was now extended to all three depart- ments. Flori'S exercised the chief authority for 15 years. The constitution Ihnited the Pn'sl- deney to four: but Flores made an arrangement with one of his lieutenants called Uoca Fuertc, by whieli they Hucce<'ded each other, the out- going President beeomiuK governor of Ouayu- (|uil. In 18-1<I Flores found himself strong enough to Improve upon this system. He called a convention, which reformed the constitution in a reactionary sense, and named him dlitalor for ten years. In 1845 the lilieral reaction had set '.'. oil over (.'olcmbia; an<l it sckmi becanx' too strong for Flores. Kven his own supporters iH'gnn to fall him, anil he agreed to (|uit the (•oiintry mi iM^ing paid an indemnity of l|ttJ(t,<H)0." During the next 15 years Kcuador was troubletl by the plots and attempts of Flores to regain his lost power. In 1800, with Peruvian help, he succeeded in pkcing one of his party, Dr. Moreno, in the presidency, and he, himself, l)e- caine governor )f Uuayanuil. In August, 1875, Moreno was a." otssinated. — G. .1. Payne, IIM. of Kiiri>)>enii ( doniet, pp. 251-253. — After the a89a88iu..Ll(m o. President Jloreno "the clergy I'ucceeded In seating Dr. Antoi.io Uarrero in Mic pr';sidcntial chair by a peaceful and over- whelming election. . . . Against his govern- ment the lil)eral party made a revolution, and, SeptemlHT 8, 18TU, succeeded in driving 1dm from power, seating In his place Qcneral Vgnacio de Veintemilla, who was one o' Harrero's otlicers, bound to him by many ties. ... He called an obedient convention at Ambato, in 1878, which named him President ad interim, and framed a constitution, thu republicanism of which it Is dif- ficult to find. Under this he was elected Presi- dent for four years, terminating 30th August, 1882, without right of re-election except after on interval of four , irs." — O. E. Church, Hept. on Ecutulor (Henate Ex. Doe. 69, U. R 4^th Cong, , 2d Seaa., v. 3). — President Veintemilla seized power as a Dictator, by a pronunclamento, April 2, 1882 ; but civil war ensued and he was over- thrown in 1883, Senor Jose M. P. C'aamailo was then chosen I'rovisional President, and in February, 1884, lie was elected President . by the Legislative bo<iy. He was succeeded in 1888 by Don Antonio Flores. — Statesman's Year-book, 1889. • ECUMENICAL, OR (ECUMENICAL COUNCIL. — A general or unlversid council of the Christian Churcti. See Councils of tub Church. EDDAS, The.— " The chief depositories of the Norse mytliology are the Elder or Saenuind's Edda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre's Edda (prose). In Icelandic Edda means ' great-grand- mother,' and some think tins appellation refers to the ancient origin of the myths it contains. Otliers connect It with the Indian 'Veda' and the Norse ' vide,' (Swedish 'vela,' to know)." — R. B. Anderson, Norse Mytlwlogy, eh. 7. — "The word Edda la never found at all in any of the 671 EDDAS. EDINBURGH. dialects of tlie Old Northern tongue, nor indeed in any otlicr tongue linown to us. The first time it is met with is in tlie Lay of Itigh, where it is used as a title for grc'at-gran<hnotlier, and from tliis jioem the word is cited (witli other terms from tl:e same souree) in the collection at the end of Scaldscaparmal. How or why Snorri's book on the Poetic Art came to be called Edda ■we have no actual te8tini()ny. . . . Snorri's work, especially the second part of it, Scaldscaparmal, handed down in copies and abridgments through the Middle Ages, was looked on as setting the standard and ideal of poetry. It seems to have kept up indeed the very remembrance of court- poetry, the memory of which, but for it, would otherwise have perished. But though the mcdi- Oival poets do not copy Edda (i. e., Snorri's rules) they constantly allude to it, and we have an un- broken series of phrases from 1340 to 1(540 in which Edda is used as a synonym for the technical laws of the court- metre (a use, it may be observed, entirely contrary to that of our own days). " — G. Vigfusson and P. Y. Powell, Corpus Poeticum Boretile, v. 1, iiitrod., sect. 4. EDESSA (Macedonia). — Edcssa, or ^gie, the ancient INIacedonian capital, "a place of primitive antiquity, according to a Phrygian legend the site of the gardens of JNIidas, at the northern extremity of Mount Bermius, where the Lydias comes forth from the raountainj, . . . jEgoc was the natural capital of the land. With its foundation the history of Macedonia had its beginning ; MgsB is the germ out of which the Macedonian empire grew." — E. Curtius, Hist, of Ch'eece, bk. 7, ch. 1. — See, also, Macedonia. EDESSA (Mesopotamia). SecOsRUCBNE. The Church. See C'uuistianity : A. D. 33- 100, and 100-31'3. The Theological School. See Nkstokianb. A. D. 260.— Battle of. See Pbrsia: A. D. 228-627. A. D. 1097-1 14/!.— The Frank principality.— On the m- of tlie armies of the First Crusade, as tlK.j approached Syria, Baldwin, the able, self- ish and self-willed brother of Godfrey of Bouil- lon, left the main body of the crusaders, with a band of foMowers, and moved ofif eastwards, seeking the prizes of a very worldly ambition, and leaving his devouter comrades to rescue the holy sepulchre without his aid. Good fortune rewardt is enterprise and he secured possession of the i portant city of Edessa. It was governed by a Gri.uk prince, who owed allegiance to the Byzantine emperor, but who paid tribute to the Turks. "It had surrendered to Pouzan, one of the generals of Slalck-shah, in the year 1087, but dur- ing the contests of the Turks and Saracens in the north of Syria it had recovered its independ- ence. Baldwin now sullied the honour of the Franks, by exciting the peojile to murder their governor Theodore, and rebel against the Byzan- tine authority [other historians say that he was * guilty of no inr.re than a passive permission of these acts] ; he then took possession of the place in his own name and founded the Frank prin- cipality of Edcssa, which lasted about 47 years." — G. Finlay, Ilist. of Byzantine and Oreek Em- pires, A. D. 710-1453, bk. 3, ch. 3, sect. 1.— Sec, also, CUU8ADE8 : A. D. 1096-1099, and 1147-1149 ; also, Jekubalem: A. D. 1099-1144. EDGAR, King of Scotland, A. D. 1098-1107. . . . .Edgar, King of Wesseac, A. D. 058-975. EDGECOTE, Battle of. Sec Banboiiy, Batti.k ok. EDGEHILL OR KEYNTON, Battle of. See England: A. D. 1642 (Octoueu — Decem- BEH). EDHEL See Adel. EDHILING, OR iEDHILING, The. See Etheling. EDICT OF NANTES, and its revocation. See Fiiance: A. D. 1598-1.')09. and 1681-1698. EDICT OF RESTITUTION, The. See Gkkmany: a. D. 1637-1629. EDICTS, Roman imperial. Sec Coupua JUUIS C1VILI8. EDINBURGH : Origin of the city. See England: A. 1). 547-633. nth Century. — Made the capital of Scot- land. See Scotland: A. D. 1066-1093. A. D. 1544.— Destroyed by the English. Sec Scotland: A. D. 1544-1548. A. D. 1559-1560.— Seized by the Lords of the Congregation. — The Treaty of July, 1560. See Scotland: A. D. 1558-1500. A. D. 1572-1573.— In the civil war. See Scotland: A. D. 1570-1573. A. D. 1637. — Laud's Liturgy and the tumult at St, Giles'. See Scotland: A. D. 1637. A. D. 1638.— The signing of the National Covenant. See Scotland: A. 1). 1638. A. D. 1650. — Surrender to Cromwell.— Siege and reduction of the Castle. Sec Scotland: A. D. 1650 (SEPTKMnn); and 1651 (August). A. D. 1688. — Rioting and revolution. Sec Scotland: A. D. 1688-1690. A. D. 1707.— The city at the time of the union. — "Edinburgh, though still but a small town, excited the admiration of travellers who were acquainted with the greatest cities of England and the Continent ; nor was their admi- ration entirely due to the singular beauty of its situation. The quaint architecture of the older houses — which sometimes rose to the height of nine, ten or eleven stories — indeed, carried back the mind to very barbarous times; for it was ascribed to the desire of the population to live as near as possible to the protection of the castle. The fllth of the streets in the early years of the ICtli century was indescribable. . . . The new quarter, which now strikes every stranger by its spacious symmetry, was not begun till the latter half of the 18th century, but as early as 1723 an English traveller described the High Street as ' the stateliest street in the world. ' . . . Under the influence of the Kirk the public manners of the town were marked by much decorum and even austerity, but the populace were unusually susceptible of fierce political entliusiasm, and when excited they were extremely formidable. ... A city guard, composed chiefly of fierce Highlanders, armed and disciplined like regular soldiers, and placed under the control of the magistrates, was es- tablished in 1696; and it was not finally abol- ished till the present century. Edinburgh, at the beginning of the 18th century, was more than twice as large as any other Scotch town. Its population at the time of the union slightly exceeded 30,000, while that of Glasgow was not quite 15,000, that of Dundee not quite 10,000, and that of Perth about 7,000. "—W. E. H. Lecky, Uist. of Eng. in tlie Vith Century, ch. 5 (v. 2). 672 EDINBURGH. EDUCATION. A. D. 1736.— The Porteous Riot.— "The cir- cumstances of the Porteous Uiot are faniiliiir wherever the EngUsli tongue is spoken, because tlicy were made tlie dramatic opening of one of ilia finest stories l)y tliat admirable genius who, like Shakespeare in his plays, lias conveyed to plain men more of the spirit and action of the past in noble Action, than they would find in most pro'csst;? chronicles of fact. The early scenes o' the ' Heart of Midlothian ' are an accu- rate account of the transaction which gave so much trouble to Queen Caroline and the min- ister [Walpole]. A smuggler who had excited tlic popular imagination by his daring and his chivalry was sentenced to be hanged ; after his execution the mob pressed forward to cut down his body: Porteous, the captai-. of the City Guard, ordered hiS'mcn to fire, and several per- sons were shot dead: he was tried for murder, convicted, and sentenced, but at the last moment a reprieve arrived from London, to the intense indignation of a crowd athirst for vengeance: four days later, under m. iterious ringleaders who could never afterwards be discovered, fierce throngs suddenly gathered together at nightfall to the beat of drum, broke into the prison, dragged out the unliappy Porteous, and sternly hanged him on a dyer's pole close by the com- mon place of public execution." — J. Morley, Wal}X)le, ch. 0. Also in: J. McCarthy, Hist, of the Four Oeorges, ch. 24 (b. 2). A. D. 1745.— The Young Pretender in the «itT. See Scotland: A. D. 1745-1746. A. D. 1779. — No-Popery riots. See England : A. D. 1778-1780. » EDINGTON, OR ETHANDUN, Battle of <A. D. 878). See Englamd: A. D. 855-880. EDMUND, KinpofWessex.A. D. 040-947. . . . .Edmund Ironside, King of Wessex, A. D. 1016. EDOMITES, OR IDUMEANS, The.— "From a very early period the Edomites were the chief of the nations of Arabia Petnea. Amongst the branches sprung, according to Arab tradition, from the pnmitive Amalikii they correspond to the Arcam, and the poster ty of Esau, after settling amongst them as we have seen, became the dominant family from which the chiefs were chosen. The original habitation of the Edomites was Mount Seir, wliencc they spread over all the country called by the Greeks Qehalene, that is the prolongation of the moun- tains joining on the north the land of Mo into the Valley of Arabah, and the surrounding heights. . . . Saul successfully fought the Edomifs; under David, Joab and Abishai, his generals, completely defeated them, and David placed garrisons in their towns. In their porta of Elath and Eziongeber were built the fieefs sent to India by Iliram and Solomon. . . . After the schism of the ten tribes, the Edomites re- mained dependent on the King of Judah. " — F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient IIi»t. of the East, hk. 7, ch. 4.— See, also, Nabatiieans; Jkws; The Eakly Hebukw IIistouv ; and Amalbkites. EDRED, King of Wessex, A. D. 947-055. EDRISITES, The.— After the revolt of Moorish or Mahometan Spain from the caliphate of Bagdad, the African provinces of tlie Mos- lems assumed independence, and several dynas- ties Iwcame seated — among them t-hat of tlie Edrisites, which founded the city and kingdom of Fez, and which reigned from A. D. 829 to 907. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall oftlieltoman Emp., ch. 52.— See, also, MAnosfETAK Conquest: A. D. 715-750. EDUCATION. Ancient. Egypt. — "In the education of youth [the Egyptians] were particularly strict; and 'they knew,' says Plato, 'that children ought to be early accustomed to such gestures, looks, and motions as are decent and proper; and not to be Buffered either to hear or learn any verses and songs other than those which arc calculated to insiiire them with virtue ; and they consequently took, care that every dance and ode introduced at their feasts or sacrifices should be subject to cer- tain regulations.'"— Sir J. G. Wilkinson, The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, D. 1, p. 321. — "The children were educated ac- cording to their station and their future position in life. They were kept in strict subjection by their parents, and respect to old age was par- ticularly inculcated ; the children o? the priests were educated very tlioroughly in writing of all kinds, hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic, and In the sciences of astronomy, mathematics, etc. The Jewish deliverer Moses was educated after the manner of the priests, and the 'wisdom of the Egyptians' became a proverbial expression among the outside nations, as indicating the utmost limit of liumau knowledge." — E. A. W. Budge, The Dwellers on the Nile, ch. 10.— "On the education of the Egyptians, Diodorus makes the following remarks:- 'The children of the priests are taught two different kinds of writing, — what is called the sacred, and the more general ; and they pay great attention to geometry and arithmetic. For tlie river, changing the appear- ance of the L.,untry very materially every year, is the cause of many and various discussions among neighbouring proprietors about the ex- tent of their property ; and it would be difficult for any person to decide upon their claims with- out geometrical reasoning, founded on actual ob- servation. Of arithmetic they have also frequent need, both in their domestic economy, and in the application of geometrical theorems, besides its utility in the cultivation of astronomical studies; for the orders and motions of tlie stars •^ro ob- served at least as industriously by the Egyptians as by any people whatever; and they keep record of the motions of each for an incredible number of years, the study of this science liaving been, from the remotest times, an object of national ambition with them. . . . But the generality of the common people learn only from their parents or relations tliat which is required for the exer- cise of their peculiar professions, ... a fevr only being taught anything of literature, and those principally the better class of artificers.' Hence it appears they were not confined to any particular rules in the mode of educating their cli ildren, and it depended upon a parent to choose 673 EDUCATION. Ancient. EDUCATION. the degree of instruction he deemed most suit- able to their motlo of life and occupations, as among otlicrcivilise*! nations." — Sir .J. O. Wilkin- 8un, f'/ie Manners and Cuttom* of the Kgyptiant, «. 1, pp. 175-176.— '"Tliere isnotliing lilie being ascribe,' tlie wise sny; 'tlio scribe gets all that is uponearth.'. . . The scribe is simply a man who knows how to read and write, to draw up administrative formulas, and to calculate inter- est. The Instruction which he has received is a necessary complement of his position If lie be- longs to a good family, whilst if he be poor it enables him to obtain a lucrative situation in the administration or at the house of a wealthy per- sonage. There is, therefore, no sacrifice which the smaller folk deem too great, if it enables them to give their sons the ac((uirements which may raise them above the common people, or at least Insure a less miserable fate. It one of them, in Ills infancy, displays any intelligence, they send him, when about six or eight years old, to the district school, where an old peda- gogue teaches Iilm the rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Towards ten or twelve years old, they withdraw him from the care of this lirst teacher and apprentice him to a scribe in some olHce, who undertakes to make him a 'learned scribe.' The child accompanies his master to his office or work-yard, and there passes entire mouths in copying letters, circulars, legal documents, or accounts, which he does not at first understand, but which he faithfully remem- bers. Tiiere ore books for his use fifll of copies taken from well-known authors, which he studies perpetually. If he requires a brief, precise re- port, this Is how Ennana worded one of his : — ' I reached Elephantlao and accomplished my mission. I reviewed the infantry and the chariot soldiers from the temples, as well as the servants and subordinates who are in the hou.ses of Phar- aoh's . . . offlclals. As my journey Is for the Eurpose of making a report in the presence of is Majesty, . . . the course of my business is as rapid as that of the Nile ; you need not, there- fore, feel anxious about me.' There is not a superfluous word. If, on the other hand, a pe- tition in a poetical stylo be required, see how PentoVrIt asked for a holiday. ' My heart has left me, it is travelling and does not know how to return, it sees Memphis and hastens there. Would that I were in Its place. I remain here, busy following my heart, which endeavours to draw me towanls Memphis. I have no work in hand, my heart is tormented. May It please the god Ptah to lead me to Memphis, and do thou grant that I moy be seen walking there. I am at leisure, my heart is watching, my heart Is no longer in my bosom, languor has seized my limbs; my eye '- dim, my ear hardened, my voice feeble,', i:- ' failure of all my strength. I pray thee remcuy all this. ' The pupil copies and recopies, the master inserts forgotten words, corrects the faults of spelling, and draws on the margin the signs or groups unskilfully traced. When the book is duly fluisbed and the appren- tice can write all the formulas from memory, portions of phrases are detached from them, which he must join together, so as to combine new formulas; the master then entrusts him with the composition of a few letters, gradually increasing the number and adding to the ditn- culties. As soon as he has fairly mastered the oniiuary daily routine his education is ended, and an unimportant post is sought for. lie ob- tains it antl then marries, becoming the liead of a family, sometimes before he is twenty years old ; lie has no f urtlier ambition, but is content to vegetate quietly in the obscure circle where fate has thrown him." — Q. Maspero, Life in, Ancient Eyypt and Assyria, eh. 1. — "In the schools, where the poor scribe's child sat on the same bench beside the offspring of the rich, to bo trained in discipline and wise learning, the mas- ters knew how by timely wonls to goad on the lagging diligence of the ambitious scliolars, by holuing out to them the future reward which awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem was stirred to u flame In the youthful breast, and emulation was stimulated among the boys. The clever son of the poor man, too, might hope by his knowledge to climb the ladiicr of the higher o." ' jes, for neither his birth nor position raised any barrier. If only the youth's mental power justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense, the restmiuts of caste did not exist, and neither descent nor family hampered the rising career of the clever. Many a monument consecrated to the memory of some nobleman gone to his long home, who during life had held high rank at the court of Pharaoli, Is decorated with the simple but laudatory inscription, 'His ancestors were unknown people.' It is a satisfaction to avow that the training and instruction of the young interested the Egyptians in tlie highest degree. For they fully recognised in this tlie sole means of cultivating their national life, and of fulfilling the high civilizing mission which Providence seemed to have placed in their hands. But above all things they regarded justice, and virtue had the highest price in their eyes. " — H. Brugsch- Bey, Ui»t. of Egypt under the Pharaohs, v. 1, p. 23. Babylonia and Assyria. — "The primitive Chaldeans were pre-eminently a literary people, and it is by their literary relics, by the scattered contents of their libraries, that we can know and judge them. As befitted tlie inventors of a sys- tem of writing, like the Chinese they set the highest value on education, even though exam- inations may have been unknown among them. Education, however, was widely diffused. . . . Assur-bani-pal's library was open to the use and enjoyment of all his subjects, undthe syllabaries, grammars, lexicons, and reading-books that it contained, show the extent to whicli not only their own language was studied by the Assyrians, but the dead language of ancient Accad as well. It became as fasfiionable to compose in this ex- tinct tongue as it is now-a-days to display one's proficiency in Latin prose, and ' dog-Accadlan ' was perpetrated with as little remorse as ' dog- Latin ' at the present time. One of the Babylon- ion cylinders found by General di Cesnola in the temple-treasure of Kurium, which probably be- longs to the period of Nebuchadnezzar's dynasty, has a legend which endeavours to imitate the Inscriptions of the early Accadian princes; but the very first word, by an unhappy error, be- trays tlie insufficient knowledge of the old lan- guage possessed by Its composer. Besides a knowledge of Accadian, the educated Assyrian was required to hove also a knowledge of Ara- maic, which had now become tlie ' lingua franca ' of trade and diplomacy ; and we find the Rab- shakeh (Rab-saUd), or prime minister, who was m EDUCATION. Ancient. EDUCATION. sent against HcKckiah by Sennacherib, iicquainted with llebrew as well. The grammiticnl and lexical works in the library of Nineveh arc es- pecially interesting, as being the earliestattempts of the kind of which we know, and it is curious to find the Haniiltonian method of learning languages forestalled by the scribes of Assur- br.nipal. In this case, as in all others, the first enquiries into the nature of speech, and the first grammars and dictionaries, were duo to the ne- cessity of comparing two languages together ; it was the Accadian whicli forced the Semitic As- syrian or Babylonian to stiuiy his own tongue. And already in these first efforts tlie main princi- ples of Semitic grammar are laid down clearly and definitely." — A. II. Sayco, Bibyloniaii Litera- ture, pp. 71-73. — "The Babylonians were the Chinese of the ancient world. They were es- sentially a reading and writing people. . . . The books were for the most part written upon clay with a wooden reed or metal stylus, for clay was cheap and plentiful, and easily impressed ivith the wedge-shaped lines of whicli the characters were composed. But besides clay, papyrus and possibly also parcliment were employed as writ- ing materials. . . . The use of clav for writing purposes extended, along with Babylonian cul- ture, to the neighbouring populations of the East. ... It is astonishing how much matter can be compressed into the compass of a single tablet. The cuneiform system of writing allowed the use of many abbreviations — thanks to its ' ideographic ' nature — and the characters were frequently of a very minute size. Indeed, so minute is the writing on many of the Assyrian (as distinguished from the Babylonian) tablets that it is clear not only that the Assyrian scribes and readers must have been decidedly short- sighted, but also that they must have made use of magnifying glasses. We need not be surprised, therefore, to learn that Sir A. H. Layard dis- covered a crystal lens, which had been turned on a lathe, upon the site of the great library of Nineveh. ... To learn the cuneiform syllabary was a task of much time and labour. Tlie stu- dent was accordingly provided with various means of assistance. Tlio characters of the syl- latiary were classified and named; they were further arranged according to a certain order, which partly depended on the number of wedges or lines of which each was composed. Moreover, what we may term dictionaries were compiled. ... To learn the signs, however, with their mul- titudinous phonetic values and ideographic sig- nifications, was not the whole of the labour which the Babylonian boy had to accomplish. The cuneiform system of writing, along with tlio cul- ture which had produced it, had been the inven- tion of the non-Semitic Accado-Sumerian race, from whom it had been borrowed by the Semites. In Semitic hands the syllabary underwent further modifications and additions, but it bore upon it to the lost the stamp of its alien origin. On this account alone, therefore, the Babylonian student who wished to acquire a knowledge of reading and writing was obliged to learn the extinct lan- guage of the older population of the country. There was, however, another reason which even more imperatively obliged him to study the earlier tongue. A large proportion of the an- cient literature, more especially that which re- lated to religious subjects, was written in Accado- Sumerian. Evec the law-cases of earllgr times, which formed precedents for the law of a later age, wore in the same langnace. In fact, Accado- Sumeriun stood in much the same relation to the Semitic Babylonians tliat Latin has stood to tlio modern inliabitants of Europe. . . . Besides Icaniing the syllabary, therefore, the Babylonian boy liacl to learn the extinct language of Accad antl Sumer. . . . The study of foreign tongues naturally brought with it an inquisitiveness about tlic languages of other people, as well as a pas- sion for etymology. . . . But there were other things besides languages which the young stu- dent in the schools of Babylonia and Assyria was called upon to learn. Geography, history, the names and nature of plants, birds, animals, and stones, as well as the_ elements of law and re- ligion, were all objects of instruction. The Brit- ish Museum possesses what may be culled the historical exercise of some Babylonian lad in the age of Nebucl'adne/.zar or Cyrus, consist- ing of a list of the kings belonging to one of the early dynasties, which he hail been required to learn by heart. ... A considerable propor- tion of the inhabitants of Babylonia could read and write. The contract tablets are written in a variety of running hands, some of which are as !)ad as the worst that passes through the mod- ern post. Every legal document required the signatures of a number of witnesses, and most of these were able to write their own names. ... In Assyria, however, education was by no means so widely spread. Apart from the upper and professional classes, including the men of business, it was confined to a special body of men — the public scribes. . . . There was none of that jealous exclusion of women in ancient Babylonia which characterizes tlie East of to- day, and it is jirobable that boys and girls pur- sued their studies at the same schools. The edu- cation of a child must have begun early. " — A. H. Sayce, Social Life among tlie Bahyloniaiis, eh. 3. China. — "It is not, perhaps, generally known that Peking contains an ancient university ; for, though certain buildings connected with it have been frequently described, the institution Itself has been but little noticed. Itgives, indeed, so few signs of life that it is not surprising it should bo overlooked. . . . If a local situation be deemed an essential element of identity, this old university must yield the palm of age to many in Europe, for in its present site it dates, at most, only from the Yuen, or Mongol, dynasty, in the beginning of the fourteenth century. But as an imperial institution, having a fixed organization and def- inite objects, it carries its history, or at least its pedigree, buck to a period far anterior to the founding of the Great Wall. Among the Regu- lations of the House of Chow, which flourished a thousand years before the Christian em, wo meet witli it already in full-blown vigor, and under the identical name which it now bears, that of Kwots- zekien, or 'School for the Sons of the Empire.' It was in its glory before the light of science dawned on Greece, and when Pythagoras and Plato were pumping their secrets from the priests of Heliopolis. And it still exists, but it is only an embodiment of 'life in der.th:' its halls arc tombs, and its officers living mummies. In the latli Book of the Cliowle (see Kites do Tclieou, tra- duction par fidouard Blot), we find the functions cf the heads of the Kwotszekien laid down with a good deal cl minuteness. The presidents were to 675 EDUCATION. Ancient. EDUCATION. admonish tho Emperor of that which 18 good and just, iimi to instruct tlio Sons of tlie State in the 'three constant virtues' and tlic 'three practical duties ' — in other words, to give a course of lec- tures on moral philosophy. The vice-presidents were to reprove the Emperor for his faults (i. e., to jjcrform the duty of oflicial censors) and to dis- cipline 'he Sous of the State in the sciences and arts — viz., in arithmetic, writing, music, arch- <'ry, lu)rsemunship and ritual ceremcuios. . . . The old curriculum is religiously adhered to, but greater latitude is given, as we shall have occa- sion to observe, to tlie term ' Sons of the State. ' In the days of Cliow, this meant the heir-apparent, princes of the blood, and children of the nobility. Under the Tafsing dynasty it signifies men of defective scholarship througliout the provinces, who purchase literari' degrees, and more specific- ally certain indigent students of Peking, wlio are aided by the imperial bounty. Tlie Kwotszc- kicn is located in the northeastern angle of the Tartar city, with a temple of Confucius attached, which is one of the finest in tlie Empire. The main edifice (that of the temple) consists of a sin- gle story of imposing height, with a porcelain roof of tent-like curvature. ... It contains no seats, as all comers are expected to stand or kneel in presence of the Great Teacher. Neither does it boast anything in the way of artistic decpration, nor exhibit any trace of that nentness and taste which wo look for in a sacred place. Perhaps its vast area is designedly left to dust and emptiness, in order that nothing may intervene to disturb the mind in the contemplation of a great name which receives the homage of a nation. ... In an adjacent block or square stands a pavilion known as the 'Imperial Lecture-room,' because it is incumbent on each occupant of the Dragon throne to go there at least once in his life-time to hear a discourse on the nature and responsibilities of liis office. ... A canal spanned by marble bridges encircles the pavilion, and arches of glit- tering porcelain, in excellent repair, adorn the grounds. But neither these nor the pavilion it- self constitutes the chief attraction of the place. Under a long corridor which encloses the entirs space may be seen as many as one hundred and eighty-two columns of massive granite, each in- scribed with a portion of the canonical books. These are the 'Stone Classics' — the entire 'Thir- teen,' which formed the staple of a Cliinese edu- cation, being here enshrined in a material supposed to be imperishable. Among all the Universities in the world, the Kwotszekien is unique in the possession of such a library. This is not, indeed, the only stone library extant — another of equal extent being found at Singanf u, the ancient capi- tal of the Tangs. But, that too, was the property of the Kwotszekien ten centuries ago, when 8in- gan was the seat of empire. The ' School for the Sons of the Empire ' must needs follow the migrations of tlie court ; and that library, costly as It was, being too heavy for transportation, it was thought best to supply its place by the new edition which we have been describing. ... In front of the temple stands a forest of columns of scarcely inferior interest. They are three hundred and twenty in number, and contain the univers- ity roll of "honor, a complete list of all who since the founding of the institution have attained to the dignity of the doctorate. Allow to each an average of two hundred names, and we have an urmy of doctors sixty thousand strong 1 (By the doctorate I mean the third or highest degree.) All these received their investiture at the Kwotsze- kien, and, throwing themselves at the feet of its president, enrolled themselves among the ' Sons of the Empire.' Tiiey were not, however — at least the most of them were not — in any proper sense alumni of the Kwotszekien, having pursued their studies in private, and won their lionors by public competition in the halls of the Civil-serv- ice Examining Board. . . . There is an immense urea occupied by lecture-rooms, examination-halls and lodging-apartments. But the visitor is liable to imagine that i,!iese, too, are consecrated to a monumental use — so rarely is a student or a pro- fessor to be seen among them. Ordinarily they are as desolate as the halls of Baalbec or Pal- myra. In fact, tliis great school for the 'Sons of the Empire ' has long ceased to be a seat of instruction, and degenerated into a mere append- age of the civil-service competitive examinations on which it hangs as a dead weight, corrupting and debasing instead of advancing the standard of national education." — W. A. P. JIartin, The Chinese, ilieir Education, Philosophy and Letters, pp. 85-00. Persia. — "All the best authorities are agreed that great pains were taken by the Persians — or, at any rate, by those of the leading clans — in the education of their sons. During the first five years of his life the boy remained wholly with the women, and was scarcely, if at all, seen by his father. After that time his training com- menced. He was expected to rise before dawn, and to appear at a certain spot, where he was exercised with other boys of his age in running, slinging stones, shooting with tlie bow, and throwing the javelin. At seven he was taught to ride, and soon afterward he was allowed to begin to hunt. The riding included, not only the ordinary management of the horse, but the power of jumping on and off his back when he was at speed, and of shooting with the bow and throwing the javelin with unerring aim, while the horse was still at full gallop. The hunting was conducted by state-oliicers, who aimed at forming by its means in the youths committed to their charge all the qualities needed in war. The boys were made to bear extremes of heat and cold, to perform long marches, to cross rivers without wetting their weapons, to sleep in the open air at night, to be content with a single meal in two days, and to support themselves occasionally on the wild products of the country, acorns, wild pears and the fruit of the terebinth- tree. On days when there was no hunting they passed their mornings in athletic exercises, and contests with the bow or the javelin, after which they dined simply on the plain food mentioned above as that of the men in the early times, and then employed themselves during the afternoon in occupations regarded as not illiberal — for in- stance, in the pursuits of agriculture, planting, digging for roots, and the like, or in the con- struction of arms and hunting implements, such as nets and springes. Hardy and temperate habits being secured by this training, the point of morals on which their preceptors mainly in- sisted was the rigid observance of truth. Of in- tellectual education they had but little. _ It seems to have been no part of the regular training of a Persian youtli that he should learn to read. He was given religious notions and a certain amount of moral knowledge by means of legendary 676 EDUCATION. Ancient. EDUCATION. poems, in which tlie deeds of gods and hcriH'S were set liefore liini by liis teachers, who recited or Sling them in Ids presence, and afterwards re- quired him to repent wliat he lind heard, or, at any 'rate, to give some account of it. This educa- tion continJied for fifteen years, ('onunencing when the boy was five, and terminating wlieu lie readied the age of twenty. Tlie effect of tliis training was to render tlie Persian an excellent soldier and a most accomplished horseman. . . . At fifteen years of age the Persian was con- sidered to have attained to manluxxl, and was enrolled in the ranks of the army, continuing liable to military service from that time till he reached the age of fifty. Those of the highest mnk became the body-guard of the king, and these formed the garrison of the capital. . . . Others, though liable to military service, did not adopt arms as their profession, but attached themselves to the Court and looked to civil em- ployment, as satraps, secretaries, attendants, ushers, judges, inspectors, messengers. . . . For trade and commerce the Persians were wont to express extreme contempt." — Q. Rawlinson, The Mve Oreat Monarchien of the Ancient Eastern World, V. 3, pp. 238-242. — After the death of Cyrus, according to Xenophon, the Persians de- generated, in the education of their youth and otlierwlse. " To educate the youth at the gates of the palace is still the custom," he says; "but the attainment and practice of liorsemanship are extinct, because they do not go where they can gain applause by exhibiting skill in that exercise. Whereas, too, in former times, the boys, hearing causes justly decided there, were considered by that means to learn justice, that custom is alto- gether altered ; for they now sec those gain their causes who offer the highest bribes. Formerly, also, Ijoys were taught the virtues of the various proauctions of the earth, in order that they might use the serviceable, and avoid the noxious ; but now they seem to be taught those particulars that they may do as much harm as possible ; at least there are nowhere so many killed or injured by poison as in that country." — Xenophon, Gyro- padia and Hellenics ; trans, by J. S. Watson and H. Dale, pp. 284-285. Judxa. — "According to the statement of Jo- sephud, Moses had already prescribed ' that boys should learn the most important laws, because that is the best knowledge and the cause of pros- perity.' ' He commanded to instruct children in the elements of knowledge (reading and writ- ing), to teach them to walk according to the laws, and to know the deeds of their forefathers. The latter, that they might imitate them; the former, that growing up with the laws they might not transgress them, nor have the excuse of ignorance.' Josephus repeatedly commends the zeal with which the instruction of the young was carried on. ' We take most pains of all with the instruction of cliildren, and esteem the ob- servance of the laws and the piety corresponding with them the most important ailair of our whole life. ' ' If any one should question one pf us con- cerning the laws, he would more easily repeat all than his own name. Since wo learn them from our first consciousness, we have them, as it were, engraven on our souls ; and a transgression is rare, but the averting of imnishment impossi- ble. ' In like manner does Philo express himself : ' Since the Jews esteem their laws as divine reve- lations, and are instructed iu the knowledge of them from their earliest youth, they bear the image of the law in their souls. ' ... In view of, all this testimony it cannot be doubted, that in the circles of genuine Judaism boys were from their tenderest childhood made acquainted with the demands of the law. That this education in the law was, in the first place, the duty and task of parents is self-evident. But it appears, that even in the age of Christ, care was also taken for tlie instruction of youth by the erec- tion of schools on the part of the community. . . . Tlie later tradition that Joshua ben Gnmla (Jesus the son of Gamaliel) enacted that teachers of boys . . . should bo api)<)inted in evfry jirovince and in every town, and tliat children of the age of six or seven should be brought to them, is by no means incredible. The only Jesus the son of Gamaliel known to history is the high priest of that name, about 03-05 after Christ. ... It must therefore be he who is intended iu the above no- tice. As his measures presuppose a somewhat longer existence of boys' schools, we may with- out hesitation transfer them to the age of Christ, even though not ns a general and established in- stitution. The subject of instruction, as already appears from the above passages of Josephus and Philo, was as gcod as exclusively tl;c law. For only its inculcation in the youthful mind, and not the means of general education, was the aim of all this zeal for the instruction of youth. And indeed the earliest instruction was in the reading and inculcation of the text of scripture. . . . Habitual practice went hand in hand with theoretical instruction. For though children were not actually bound to fulfil the law, they were yet accustomed to it from their youth up." — E. SchUrcr, History of the Jewish People in the time of Jesus Christ, v. 8, pp. 47-50. — In the fourth century B. C. the Council of Sev- enty Elders "instituted regularly appointed readings from the Law ; on every sabbath and on every week day a portion from the Pentateuch was to be read to the assembled congregation. Twice a week, when the country people came up from the villages to market in the neighbour- ing towns, or to appeal at the courts of justice, some verses of the Pentateuch, however few, were read publicly. At first only the learned were allowed to reod, but at last it was looked upon as so great an honour to belong to the readers, that every one attempted or desired to do so. Unfortunately the characters in which the Torah was written were hardly readable. Until that date the text of the Torah had been written in the ancient style with Phieniciaii or old Babylonian characters, which could only be deciphered by practised scribes. . . . From the constant reading of the Law, there arose among the Juda;ans an intellectual activity and vigour, which at last gave a special character to the whole nation. The Torah became their spiritual and intellectual property, and their own inner sanctuary. At this time there sprang up other important institutions, namely, schools, where the young men could stimulate their ar- dour and increase their knowledge of the Law and its teachings. The intellectual leaders of the people continually enjoined on the rising generation, 'Bring up a great many disciples.' And what they enjoined so strenuously they themselves must have assisted to accomplish. One of these religious schools (Beth-Waad) was probably established iu Jerusalem. The teach- 677 EDUCATION. Meat of Plato and AriilotU. EDUCATION. era were cnllcil scribes (soplieriin) or wise men; the disciples, pupils of tlic wise (Tnlniude (.'liii- chiimim). The wise men or scribes hud ii two- fold work; on tlic one hiiiid tlicy bud to cx])litin the Tornh, and on the other, to" make the laws applicuble to eacli individual anu to the commu- nity at large. This supplementary interpreta- tion was called 'explanation' (Midrash); it was not altogether arbitrary, but rested upon certain rules laid down for the proper interpretation of tlic law. The supreme council and the bouses of learning worked together, and one completed the other. A hardly perceptible, but most import- ant movement >yas the result; for the descend- ants of the Juda'ans of that age were endowed with a characteristic, which they might other- wise have claimed as inborn, the talent for re- search and the intellectual penetration, needed for turning and returning words and data, in onlcr to discover some new and hidden mean- ing." — H. Qraetz, Hist, of the Jew«, v. 1, ch. 20. — Schools of the Prophets. — " In his [Samuel's] time we first hear of what in modern phraseology are called the Schools of the Prophets. What- ever be the precis"' meaning of the peculiar word, which now came first into use as the designation of these companies, it is evident that their im- mediate ml'i»i'-,n consisted in uttering religious hymns or songs, accompanied by musical instru- ments — psaltery, tabret, pipe and harp, and cym- bals. In them, as in the few solitary Instancf;<i of their predecessors, the characteristic elemenL was that the silent seer of visions found an articu- late voice, gushing forth in a rhythmical flow, which at once riveted the attention of the hearer. These, or such as these, were the gifts which under Samuel were now organized, if one may say so, into a system." — Dean Stanley, Lecta. on the Hist, of the Jewish Church, led. 18. Greece. — A description of the Athenian educa- tion of the young is given by Plato in one of his dialogues: "Education," he says, "and admoni- tion commence in the first years of childhood, and last to the very end of life. Mother and nurse and father and tutor are quarrelling about the improvement of the child as soon as ever he is able to understand them : he cannot say or do anything without their e^tting forth to him that this is just and that is unjus^; this is honourable, that is dishonourable ; this is holy, that is unholy ; do this and abstain from that. And if be obeys, well and good; if not, he is straightened by threats and blows, like a piece of warped wood. At a later stage they send him to teachers, and enjoin them to see to his manners even more than to his reading and music; and the teachers do as they arc desired. And when the boy has learned his letters and is beginning to uiulerstand what is written, as before he understoi only what was spoken, they put into his bands the works of great poets, which he reads at school ; in these are con- tained many admonitions, and many tales, ond praises, and encomia of ancient famous men, which he is required to learn by heart, in order that he may imitate or emulate them and desire to become like them. Then, again, the teachers of the lyre take similar care that their young dis- ciple is temperate and gets into no mischief; and when they have taught him the use of the lyre, they introduce him to the poems of other excel- lent poets, who are the lyric poets; and these they set to music, and make their harmonies and rhythms quite familiar to the children, in order that they may leorn to be more gentle, and har- monious, an<f rhythmical, and so more fitted for speech and action ; for the life of men in every part has need of harmony and rhythm. Then they send them to the master of gymnastic, in order that their bodies may better minister to the vir- tuous mind, and that the weakness of their bodies may not force them to play the coward in war or on any other occasion. This is what is done by those who have the means, and those who have the means are the rich; their children begin edu- cation soonest and leave off latest. When they have done with masters, the state again compels them to learn the laws, and live after the pattern which they furnish, and not after their own fan- cies; and just as in learning to write, the writing- master first draws lines with a style for the use of the young beginner, and gives him the tablet and makes him follow the lines, so the city draws the laws, which were the invention of good law- givers who were of old times ; these are given to the young man, in order to guide him in liis con- duct whether as ruler or ruled ; and he who trans- gresses them is to be corrected, or, in other words, called to account, which is ii term used not only in your country, but also in many others. Now when there is all this care about virtue private and public, why, Socrates, do you still wonder and doubt whether virtue can be taught?" — Plato, Protagoras (Dialogues; trans, by Joicett, v. 1). — The ideas of Aristotle on the subject are in the following ; " There can be no doubt that children should be taught those useful things which are really necessary, but not all things; for occupa- tions arc divided into liberal and illiberal ; and to young children should be imparted only such kinds of knowledge as will be useful to them without vulgarizing them. And any occupation, art, or science, which makes the body or soul or mind of the freeman less fit for the practice or exercise of virtue, 's vulgar; wherefore we call those arts vulgar which tend to deform the body, and likewise all paid employments, for they ab- sorb and degrade the mind. There are also some liberal arts quite proper for a freeman to acquire, but only in a certain degree, and if he attend to them too closely, in order to obtain perfection in them, the same evil effects will follow. The object also which a man sets before him makes a gR'Ot difference; if he does or learns anything for his own sake or for the sake of his frieuds, or with a view to excellence, the action will not ap- pear illiberal ; but if done for the sake of others, the very same action will lie thought menial and servile. The received subjects of instruction, as I have already remarked, are partly of a liberal and partly of an illiberal character. The custom- ary branches of education are in number four; they are — (1) reading and writing, (2) gymnastic exercises, (3) music, to which is sometimes added (4) drawing. Of these, reading and writing and drawing are regarded as useful for the purposes of life in a variety of ways, and gymnastic exer- cises are thought to infuse courage. Concerning music a doubt may be raised — in our own day most men cultivate it for the sake of pleasure, but originally it was included in education, be- cause nature herself, as has been often said, re- quires that we should be able, not only to work well, but to use leisure well ; for, as I must re- peat once and agi>in, the first principle of all action is leisure. Both are required, but leisure is better than occupation ; and therefore the ques- 678 EDUCATION. Oreek Schootll/e. EDUCATION. Hon mugt be asked In gocnl carnc8t, what ought we to do wlien at leisure ? Clearly we ought not to be amusing ourselves, for then amusement would be the end of life. But if this is in- conceivable, and yet amid serious occupations amuseitient is needed more than at other times (for he who is hard at work has need of rcla.\- ation, and amusement gives relaxation, whereas occupation is always accompanied witli exertion and effort), at suitable timed wc should intrwluce amusements, and they should be our medicines, for tlie emotion which they create in the soul is a relaxation, and from the pleasure we obtain rest. ... It is clear then that there are branches of learning and education whicli we must study with a view to the enjoyment of leisure, and these are to be valued for their own sake ; whereas those kinds of knowledge which are useful in business are to be deemed necessary, and exist for the sake of other things. And therefore our fathers admitted music into education, not on the ground eitlier of its necessity or utility, for it is not necessary, nor indeed useful in the same manner as reading and writing, which are useful in money-making, in tlic management of a hou.se- hold, in the acquisition of knowledge and in political life, nor like drawing, useful for a more correct judgment of the works of artists, nor again like gymnastic, which gives health and strength; for neither of these is to be gained from music. There remains, then, the use of music for intellectual enjoyment in leisure; which appears to have been the reason of its in- troduction, this being one of the ways in which it is thought that a freeman should pass his leisure. . . . We arc now in a position to say that the ancients witness to us; for their opinion may be gathered from the fact tl.at music is one of the received and traditional branches of education. Further, it is clear that children should be in- structed in some useful things, — for example, in reading and writing, — not only for their useful- ness, but also because many other sorts of knowl- edge are acquired through them. With a like view they may be taught drawing, not to pre- vent their making mistakes in their own pur- chases, or in order that they may not be imposed upon in the buying or selling of articles, but rather because it makes them j udges of the beauty of the human form. To be always seeking aft >• the useful does not become free and exalted souls. . . . We reject the professional instruments and also the professional mode of education in music — and by professional we mean that which is adopted in contests, for in this tlie performer practises the art, not for the sake of his own "norovement, but in order to give pleasure, and that of a vulgar sort, to his hearers. For this reason the execu- tion of such music is not the part of a freeman but of a paid performer, and the result is that the performers are vulgarized, for the end at which they aim is bad." — Aristotle, Politics (Jowett's Translation), bk. 8.— "The most striking differ- ence between early Greek education and ours was undoubtedly this : that the physical development of boys was attended to in a special place and by a special master. It was not thouglit sufficient for them to play the chance games of childhood ; they underwent careful bodily training under a very fixed system, which was determined by the athletic contests of after life. . . .When we com- pare what the Greeks afforded to their boys, we find it divided into two contrasted kinds of exer- ci.so : hunting, which was practised by the Spar- tans very keenly, and no doubt also by the Eleans and Arcadians, as may be seen from Xenophor' "Tract on (Hare) Hunting'; and gymnastics, which in the ca.sc of boys were car- ried on in the so-called paliehi ra, a sort of open- air gymnasium (in our sense) U<pt by private in- dividuals as a si)erulation, and lo which the l")y8 were sent, as they were to their ordinary school- master. We find tliat the Spartiiiis, who had ample scope for hunting with dogs in the glens ami coverts of Mount Taygetus, rather despised mere exercises of dexterity in the pala'stra, just as our sportsmen would think very little of spend- ing hours in a gymnasium. But those Greeks who lived in towns "like Athens, and in the midst of a thickly populated and well-cultivated country, could not possibly obtain hunting, and therefore found the most elllcient substitute. Still we find them very far behind the English in their knowl- edge or taste for out-of-door games. . . . The Greeks had no playgrounds beyond the paliestra or gynuiasiimi ; they had no playgrounds in our sense, and thougli a few proverbs speak ul swim- ndng as a universal accomplishment which boys learned, the silence of Gresk literature on the subject makes one very suspicious as to the gen- erality of such training. ... In one point, cer- tainly, the Greeks agreed more with the motlcrn English than with any other civilised nation. They regarded sport as a really serious thing. . . ''^he names applied to the exercising-places inaicate their principal uses. Palxstro means a wrestling place ; gymnasium originally a place for naked exercise, but the word early lost this con- notation and came to mean mere physical train- ing. ... In order to leave home and reach the paliestra safely as well as to return, Greek boys were put under the charge of a pedagogue, in no way to be identified (as it now is) with u schoolmas- ter. . . . I think wc may be justiflcd in asserting that the study of the epic poets, especially of the Iliad and Odyssey, was the earliest intellectual exercise of schoolboys, and, in the case of fairly educated parents, even anticipated the learning of letters. For the latter is never spoken of as part of a mother's or of home education. Reading was not so universal or so necessary as it now is. . . . We may assume that books of Homer were read or recited to growing boys, and that they were encouraged or required to learn them off by heart. This is quite certain to all who estimate justly the enormous influence ascribed to Homer, and the principles assumed by the Greeks to have underlain his work. He was universally con- sidered to be a moral teacher, whose characters were drawn with a moral intent, and for the pur- pose of example or avoidance. . . . Accordingly the Iliad and Odyssey were supposed to contain all that was usei'ul, not only for godliness, but for life. All the arts and sciences were to be de- rived (by interpretation) from these sacred texts. ... In early days, and in jioor towns, tlie place of teaching was not well appointed, nay, even in many places, teaching in the open air prevailed. . . . This was . . . like the old hedge schools of Ireland, and no doubt of Scotland too. They also took advantage, especially in hot weather, of colonnades, or shady corners among public build- ings, as at Winchester the summer term was called cloister-time, from a similar practice, even in that wealthy foundation, of instructing in the cloisters. On the other hand, properly appointed schools in 679 EDUCATION. The Oreek School-room. EDUCATION. rcspcctJiWc towns were furnished with some tnstfl, ami ncponiInK to trnilitional notions. . . . We niiiy 1)0 Hur(! tlmt there were no tables or desks, such furniture bcin(; unusual in Greek houses; it was the universal custom, while rending or writing, to hold the book or roll on the knee — to u« an inconvenient thing to do, but still common in the East. Tliere are some interesting 8<'ntences, given for e.xercise in Oreek and Latin, in the little known ' Intcrprctamenta ' of Dosi- thcus, now edited and e.xpinined by German scholars. The entry of tlie boy is th\is described, in parallel Greek and Latin : ' First I salute the master, who returns my sahite: Good morning, master; good morning, school fellows. Give me my place, my seat, my stool. Sit closer. Move up that way. This is my place, I took it first.' This mixture of politeness and wrangling is amus- ing, and no doubt to be foimd in all ages. It seems that tlie seats were movable. . . . The usual subdivision of education was into three parts; letters, . . . including reading, writing, counting, and learning of tlic poets ; music in the stricter sense, including singing and playing on the lyre; and lastly gymnastic, which included duncmg. ... It is said that at Sparta tlie edu- cation in reading and writing was not tliought necessary, and there liave been long discussions among tlie learned whether the ordinary Spar- tan in classical days was able to read. We find that Aristotle adds a fourth subject to the three above named — drawing, wliich lie tliinks requi- site, like music, to enable the educated man to judge riglitly of works of art. But there is no evidence of a wide diffusion of drawing or paint- ing among the Greeks, as among us. . . . Later on, under the learned influences of Alexandria, and the paid professoriate of Roman days, sub- jects multiplied with tlie decline of mental vigour and spontaneity of the age, and children began to be postered, as tliey now are, with a quantity of subjects, all thought necessary to a proper educr.t;on, and accordingly all imperfectly acquired. This was called the encyclical edu- cation, which is preserved in our Encyclopsedia of knowledge. It included, (1) grammar,(3) rheto- ric, (3) dialectic, (4) arithmetic, (5) music, (6) ge- ometry, (7) astronomy, and these were divided into the earlier Trivium, and the later Quadri- vium."— J. P. Mahaffy, Old Oreek Ediicatton, ch. 3-5. — "Reading was taught with the greatest pains, the utmost care was taken with the in- tonation of the voice, and the articulation of the throat. We have lost the power of distinguish- ing between accent and quantity. The Greeks did not acquire it without long and anxious train- ing of the ear and the vocal organs. This was the duty of the phonascus. Homer was the com- mon study of all Greeks. The Iliad and Odys- see were at once the Bible, the Shakespeare, the Robinson Crusoe, and the Arabian] Nights of the Hellenic race. Long passages and indeed whole books were learnt by heart. The Greek, as a nile, learnt no language but his own. Next to reading and repetition came writing, which was carefully taught. Composition naturally fol- lowed, and the burden of correcting exorcises, wliicli still weighs down the backs of schoolmas- ters, dates from these early times. Closely con- nected with reading and writing is the art of reckoning, and the science of numbers leads us easily to music. Plato considered arithmetic as the best spur to a sleepy and uuinstructed spirit; wo see from the Platonic dialogues how mathe- matical problems employed the mind and thoughts of young Athenians. Many of the more difficult aritlimetical operations were solved by geomet- rical methods, but the Greeks carried the art of teaching numbers to considorabio refinement. Tliey used the abacus, and had an elaborate metliod of finger reckoning, which was service- able up to 10,000. Drawing was the crowning accomplishment to this vestibule of training. By the time the fourteenth year was completed, the Greek boy would have begun to devote himself seriously to the practice of athletics. " — O. Brown- ing, All Introihietinn to the IIi»tory of Ediieational Theories, ch. 1. — "It has sometimes been imagined that in Greece separate edifices were not erected as with us expressly for school -houses, but that both tlie didnskalos and the philosopher taught their pupils in fields, gardens or shady groves. But this was not the common practice, though many schoolmasters appear to have had no other place wherein to assemble their pupils than the portico of a temple or some sheltered corner in the street, where in spite of the din of business and the tlirong of passengers the worship of learn- ing was publiclv performed. . . . But these were the schools of the humbler classes. For the chil- dren of the noble and the opulent spacious structures were raised, and furnished with tables, desks, — for that peculiar species of grammateion whicli resembled the plate cupboard, can have been nothing but a desk, — forms, and whatsoever else their studies required. Mention is made of a school at Chios wliicli contained one hundred and twenty boys, all of whom save one were killed by the falling in of the roof. . . . The apparatus of an ancient school was somewhat complicated: there wore mathematical instruments, globes, maps, and charts of the heavens, together with boards whereon to trace geometrical figures, tab- lots, large and small, of box-wood, fir, or ivory, triangular in fonn, some folding witli two, and others with many leaves ; books too and paper, skins of parchniont, wax for covering the tablets, which, if we may believe Aristophanes, people sometimes ate when they were hungry. To the above were added rulers, reed-pens, pen-cases, pen-knives, pencils, and last, though not least, tho rod which kept thorn to the steady use of all these tilings. At Athens these schools were not pro- vided by the ~*ate. They were private specu- lations, and each master was regulated in his charges by the reputation he had acquired and the fortunes of his pupils. Some appear to have been extremely moderate in their demands. . . . The earliest task to be performed at school was to gain a knowledge of the Greek characters, large and small, to spell next, next to read. ... In teaching tlie art of writing their practice nearly resembled our own. . . . These things were neces- sarily the first step in the first class of studies, which were denominated music, and compre- hended everything connected witli the develope- mcnt of the mind; and they were carried to a certain extent before the second division called gymnastics was commenced. They reversed tho plan commonly adopted among ourselves, for with them poetry preceded prose, a practice which, cooperating with their susceptible temperament, impressed upon the national mind that imagina- tive character for which it was preeminently dis- tinguished. And the poets in whose works they were first initiated were of all the most poetical^ 680 EDUCATION. Spartan Training. EDUCATION. the nuthors of lyrlcnl nnd dithyromblc pieces, Bclcctions from whose verses they cotiimitted to memory, thus actiuiring eiirly a rich tore of sentences and imagery ready to Imj aiianced in nrgiimcntor illustration, to funiish familiar allu- sions or to bo woven into the texture of their style. . . . Among the other branches of knowl- eiigo most necessary to \m studied, and to which they applied themselves nearly from the outset, wtt» arithmetic, without some inkling of which, a man, in I'lato's opinion, could scarcely be a citi- zen at nil. . . . The importance attached to this branch of education, nowhere more apparent tlian in the dialogues of Plato, furnislies one proof tliat tlie Athenians were preeminently men of business, who ;in all their admiration for the good ami beautiful never lost sight of those things which promote the comfort of life, and enable a man effectually to perform his ordinary duties. With tlie same views were geometry and astronomy pursued. . . . Thoiimportanco of music, in the education of tlio Greeks, is generally understood. It wos employed to eiTect several purposes. First, to sooth oud mollify the llerccness of the national character, and iirepare tlie way for the lessrms of the poets, whicli, delivered amid tlio sounding of melodious strings, when the soul was rapt and elevated by harmony, by the excitement of num- bers, by the magic of the sweetest associations, took a firm hold upon the mind, and generally retained it during life. Secondly, it enabled the citizx'ns gracefully to perform their part in the amusements of social life, every person being in his turn called upon at entertainments to sing or play upon the lyre. Thirdly, it was necessary to enable them to join in the sacred choruses, ren- dered frequent by the piety of the state, and for the due performance in old ago of many offices of religion, the sacerdotal character belonging more or less to all the citizens of Athens. Fourthly, as much of the learning of a Greek was r.iartiol and designed to fit him for defending his country, ho required some knowledge of music that on the Held of battle his voice might liarmoniously mingle with those of his coimtrymen, in cliaunt- ing those stirring, impetuous, and terrible melo- dies, called poeans, which preceded the first shock of flght. For some, or all of these reasons, the science of music began to be cultivated among the Hellenes at a perio<l almost beyond the reach even of tradition." — J. A. St. John, T/ie Hellenes, bk. 2, ch. 4. — " In tliinking of Greek education as furnishing a possible model for us moderns, there is one point which it is important to bear in mind : Greek education was intended only for the few, for the wealthy and well-born. Upon all others, upon slaves, barbarians, the working and trading classes, and generally upon all persons spending their lives in pursuit of wcaltli or any private ends whatsoever, it would have seemed to be thrown away. Even well-born women were generally excluded from most of its benefits. The subjects of education were the sons of full citizens, them- selves preparing to bo full citizens, and to e.xor- ciso all the functions of such. Tlie duties of such persons were completely summed up under two heads, duties to tlie family and duties to the State, or, as the Greeks said, (economic and polit- ical duties. The free citizen not only acknowl- edged no other duties besides these, but he looked down upon persons who sought occupation in any other sphere. (Economy and Politics, how- ever, were very comprehensive terms. The for- mer included the tlirec n'hitions of husband Xx> wife, father to children, and iiia.ster to slaves and property ; the latter, three public functions, legis- lative, administrative, and judiciary. All ikcu- patioiiM not included under these six heads the free citizen left to slaves or resident foreigners. .Money-making, in the modern sense, he despised, and, if lie devoted himself to art or philosophy, ho did so only for the benefit of the State. "— T. Davidson, AntMle, hk. 1, eh. 4. — Spartan Train- ing. — "From his birth every Spartan l)elonged to tlie state, which decided . . . whether ho was likelv to prove a useful memlier of the com- munity, and extinguished, the life of the sickly or deformed infant. To the ago of seven how- ever the care of the child was delegated to it* natural guardians, yet not so as to be left wholly to their discretion, but subject to certain estab- lished rules of treatment, whicli guarded against every mischievous indulgence of parental tender- ness. At the end of seven years began a long course of public discipline, which grew constantly more and more severe as the boy approached toward manhood. The education of tlic young was in some degree the business of all the elder citizens; for there was none who did not con- tribute to it, if not by his active interference, at least by his presence and inspection. But it was placed under the especial superintendence of an officer selected from the men of most approved wortli ; and he again chose a number of youtlis, just past the ago of twenty, and who most emi- nently united courage with discretion, to exercise a more immediate command over the classes, inta which the boys were diviiled. The leader of each ela.ss directed the sports and tasks of his young troop, and punished their offences with military rigour, but was himself responsible to his elders for the mode in which he discharged his ofiice. The Spartan education was simple in its objects ; it was not the result of any general view of human nature, or of any attempt to unfold its various capacities: it aimed at training men who were to live in tlio midst of difficulty and danger, and who could only be safe themselves while they held rule over others. The citizen was to bo always ready for the defence of himself and his country, at home ond abroad, and ho was therefore to bo equally fitted to command and to obey. His body, his mind, and his character were formed for this purpose, and for no otiier: and hence the Spartan system, making directly for its main end, and re- jecting all that was foreign to it, attained, within its own sphere, to a perfection wliich it is im- possible not to admire. The young Spartaa was perhaps unable either to read or write : ho scarcely possessed the elements of any of the arts or sciences by which society is enriched or adorned: but he could run, leap, wrestle, hurl the disk, or the javelin, and wield every other weapon, with a vigour and agility, and grace which were no where surpassed. These however were accomplishments to be learnt in every Greek pala;stra: he might find many rivals in all that he could do ; but few could approach him in the firmness with whicli ho was taught to sulfer. Prom the tender age at whicli he left his mother's lap for the public schools, his life was one con- , tinned trial of patience. Coarse and scanty fare, and this occasionally withheld, a light dress, without any change in the depth of winter, a bed of reeds, which lie himself gathered from tho Eurotos, blows exchanged with his comrades, 44 681 EDUCATION. tyrrtich'tvl liUat. EDUCATION. ittrippfi Inflirlcil by IiIh ftovcrnors, iiioro by wiiy of cxcrriHi' I ban of piiiiiHhmcnt, inured him to every form of iHiin unit liiinlgliip. . . . TIk; Muhcm were upproprliitely liononrcil nt Spiirtn witli a Hiuritln- on tlic eve of ii Imttlp, anil the union of tlic Nprar ami tlit; lyre wuh a favourite tiieme witli tlie l/icotiian piM-tH, anil tliime wlio Han^ of Hpjir- tan ( UNloniH. Tliou>;li l)r)Mi In the ilJHi'lplliK^ of tile camp, llie younj? Spartan, like the hiToof tlie lllwl, wag not a HtninKer to muKic anil poetry, lie was tauKlit to RinK. anil to play on the llute and the lyre: 1)ut the Ntrains with which his memorv was Htoreil, and to wiileli hU voire was fornietl, were eitiier Harrcd liyinng, or 1)reathi'il a martial Hpirit; and it was iM'cause they cherislied Hiuii wntimentH that the Ilomerle lays, If not intro- duced l)y Lyeurj?us, were early welcomed at Hparta. ... As these musical exercises were de- signed to cultivate, not so mud an intellectual, as a moral taste; bo it was ; >) nbly less for the sake of sharpening their ingenuity, than uf pro- moting presence of mind, and promptness of decision, that the boys were led into the labit of answering all <|iic8tions proposed to tlicm, with a ready, pointed, sententious brevity, wliieh was a ]>roverl)iai characteristic of Spartan conversa- tion, liut the lessons which were most studi- ously inculcated, more indeed by example than by precept, were those of mcxlesty, obedience, and reverence for age and rank ; for these were the qualities on which, above all others, the stability of the commonwealth reposed. The gait and look of the Spartan youths, as they passed along the streets, observed Xenophon, breathwl modesty and reserve. In the presence of their elders they were bashful as virgins, and silent as statues, save when a question was put to them. ... In trutli, the respect for tlie laws, which rendered the Spartan averse to innovation at home, was little more than anotlier form of that awe with which his early habits inspired him for the magis- trates and tiie aged. With this feeling was in- timately connected that quick and deep sense of slianie, whicli shrank from dishonour as the most dreadful of evils, and enabled him to meet death so calmly, when he saw in it the will of Ins country. —C. Thirl wall. Hut. of Greece, v. 1, ch. 8. — Free-School Ideas in Greece. — ' ' It is a preva- lent opinion tliat common schools, as we now have them, were an American invention. No leg- islation, it is asserted, taxing all in order that all may be taught can be traced back further than to theeorly lawsof Massachusetts. Those who deny this assertion are content with showing something of tlie sort in Scotland and Germany a generation or two before the landing of the Plymouth pil- grims. The truth is, however, that, ns mucli of our sociiil wit is now credited to the ancient Greeks, something of our educational wisdom ought to Ix'. Two centuries ago John Locke, as an able political writer, was invited to draw up a code of fundamental laws for the new colony of Carolina, and in like manner, more than 3,300 years ago, Ciiarondas, a master of a similar type in Magna Gnuciu, was called to a similar task. This was to frame a series of statutes for the gov- ernment of a Greek colony founded about 446 , B. C, in the foot of Italy. This colony was Thurii, and conspicuous among the enactments of Charoudas was the following: ' Charondas made a law unlike those of lawgivers before him, for he enacted that the sons of the citi- zeos should all learn letters (or writing) , . . the city making payment to the teachers. IIo thought tliat \\h' piM)r, not able to pay wages tliems<dve8, would otherwise fall of the best train- ing. IIo counted writing the most important study, and with reason. Tiirough writing, most things in life, and thorn; tlie most useful, are ac- complished — as ballots, epistles, laws, covenants. Who can sutllclently |)raise tliu learning of let- ters t . . . Writing alone preserves the most bril- liant utterances of wise men and tiie oracles of giMis, nay nhilosophy and all culture. All these things it alone hands down to all future genera- tions. Wherefore nature should be viewed as the source of life, but the source of living well we should consider the culture derived from writ- ing. Inasmuch, then, as illiterates are deprived of a great giHxl, (Miarondas came to their liel|), ludging them worthy of public care and outlay. Former legislators had caused the sick to bo at- tended by physicians at the public expense, tliink- ing their boiflcs worthy of cure. lie did more, for lio cured souls atlllctcd with ignorance. Tlio doctors of the body we pray that we may never need, while we would fain abide for ever with tho.se wlio minister to the mind diseased. ' — This extract is from the ' Bibliotheca Historica ' of DiiMiorusSiculus(Uook x. J5 13), who was nourish- ing at tiie birth of Clirist and was the most painstaking chronicler of the Augustiui age. The legislation is worth notice for more than one reason. It rebukes tho self-conceit of those wlio hold that the education of all at the charge of all is an idea born in our own time or coun- try. It has also been strangely unnoticed by historians who ought to have kept it before the people."— 7Vi« Nation, March 24, 1892, pp. 230- 231.— Socrates and the Philosophical Schools. — "Before the rise of pliliosopliy, tho teacher of tho people had been the riinnsode, or public reciter; after thot event ho gradually gives place to the sophist (. . . one who makes wise), or, as he later with more modesty calls himself, tho philosopher (. . . lover of wisdom). Tho history of Greece for centuries is, on its inner side, a history of the struggle between what tho rhap- sixle represents and what the philosopher repre- sents, between popular tradition and common sense on the one hand, and individual opinion and philosophy on the other. The transition from the first to tlic second of these mentol con ■ ditions was accomplished for the world, once f o ■ all, by thcGreeks. — T. Davidson, Aristotle, ftfc 1, ch. 5. — "There is no instance on record of a philosopher wlioso importance as a thinker is ao closely bound up witli the personality of the ir.an as it was in the case of Socrates. . . .His tear hing was not of a kind to be directly imparted and faithfully handed down, but could only be left to propagate itself freely by stirring up others to a similiar self-culture. . . . Tho youth and early manhoml of Socrates fall in the most brilliant period of Grecian liistory. Born during tlie last years of tlie Persian war, he was a near con- temporary of all those great men who adorned the age of Pericles. As a citizen of Atliens he could enjoy the opportunities afforded by a city, wliicli united every means of culture by its un- rivalled fertility of thought. Poverty and low birtii were but slender obstacles in tho Atliens of Pericles. . . . Socrates, no doubt, began life by learning his father's trade, . . . which he prob- ably never practised, and certainly soon gave up. U^a considered it to be his special calling to labour 682 EDUCATION. The tItUotophlcal OehooU. EDUCATION. for tliv moral nnd Intcllvcttml improvement of liliiiwlf mill ollicrs — 11 L'onvlrtion which lie fi'lt 80 Htron^iy tliut it iip|>vurc(l to him iti tliu lixlit of II illvlnL' ri-velatioii. Slorcovcr lie wii.s coii- tiriiirii ill it tiy u DL'lpliic oriicli', wliicii, of coiirsi',, iiiiiHl not l)v reguniod as tiiu ciulsu of, but nttliiT uH III! iiciilitioniil Hupport to his re- forming zt'iil. ... To bo indcpfiiilciit, Ik tried, lllti' till! ()(m1h, to ri»i' HUpi-rior to Ids wiiMl.s; iiiul by I'lirc'fiiiiy pnictlitiMK tu'lf-dt'iiiiil and almti'iiii- oilHiit'SM, 111! was really able to boast that his life WHS more pleasant and more free from troubles thiiii that of the rest of mankind. Tims he was able to devote his wliole [lowers to the serviee of otiiers, witliout asking or tukinj; reward; ami thus ho became ho en;?rossed by his labours for his native city, tliat he rarely passed Its bound- aries or even went outside its Kates. He did not, however, feel himself called upon to take part in the allalrs of the state. . . . An one eonvineed us he was, tiiat care for one's o culture mu.>>t precede care for public busiui ^s, nnd tliat a thorough knowledge of self, together with a deep anil many-sided experience, wasu necessary condition of public activity, must have thought that, to educate Individuals by intluence, was the more pressing need, and have held that he was doing his country a better service by edu- cating able statesmen for it, than by actually discharging a statesman's duties. Accordingly, Socrates never aimed nt being anytliing but a private citizen. . . . Just as little was he desir- ous of being a public teaclier like the Sophists. He not only took no pay, but he gave no me- thodical course. He did not profess to tcacli, but to learn In common with others, not to force his convictions upon them, but to examine theirs ; not to pass tlio truth that came to hand llko a c«la fresh from the mint, but to stir up a desire for truth and virtue, to point out the way to It, to overthrow what was spurious, and to seek out real knowledge. Never weary of talking, ho was on the look out for every opportunity of giving an instructive and moral turn to the con- versation. Day by day ho was about in tho market and public promenades, in sciiools and worksliops, ever ready to converse with friends or strangers, with citizens and foreigners, but always prepared to lead them to higher subjects; and whilst thus in his higher calling serving Ood, ho was persuaded that he was also serving his country in a way tiiat no one else could do. Deeply as he deplored the decline of discipline and education in his native city, ho felt that ho could depend but little on the Sophists, tho moral teachers of his day. The attractive pow- ers of his discourse won for him a circle of admirers, for tho most port consisting of young men of family, drawn to him hy the most varied motives, standing to him in various relations, and coming to him, some for a longer, others for a shorter time. For his own part, ho made it his business not only to educate these friends, but to advise tliem in everything, even in worldly matters. But out of this changing, and in part loosely connected, society, a nucleus was gnuiu- ally formed of decided admirers, — a Socratic school, which we must consider united far less by a common set of doctrines, than by a common love for the person of Socrates." — E. Zeller, Socrates and the Socratic Schools, ch. 3. — "No- where, except in Alliens, do we hear of a philo- sophic body with endowments, legal succession, and tho otlier rights of a rorporntion. This idea, which has never since died out of the world, was due to Plato, who beoiieathed Ills garden and aiipolntmi'iil.'t in the place called after the hero llekadi'iniis, to his followers. Hut he was obligrd to do it in the only form possible at Atlieiis. He made it a religious foiindiitioii, on the basis of a tl.xed worship to the Mii.scs. , . . The lieaii or I'nsident of I'lato's 'Assoiiiition of the Muses,' was tile treasurer and manager of the eoninioii fund, who invited guests to their feasts, to which lai li iiienibcr coiitriliiiliil his sliare. . . . 'i'lic niembers liiid, moreover, a rlgiil to atti'iid lertiires and use the lilirary or scientilio appointnieiits, such as maps, which liclonged to the scliiMil. It was this endowiiicnt on a religious basis wliicli saved the Income and position of I'lato's school for centuries. . . . Tills then Is the (Irst Academy, so often imitatid in ho many lands, and of which our colleges are the direct descendants, . . . The school of I'lato, then gov- erned by Xenocrates, being the bei|iiest of an Athenian citi/en who understoiMl the law, seems never to have been assailed. The schools of Kpicurus and Zeiio were perliaps not yet recog- nised. Hut that of Tlieophrastus, perhaps tlio mo.st crowded, certainly tlie most (iistii ctly pliilo- Macedonian, . . . this was tlio school whlcli was exiled, and which owed its reliabilitation not only to the legal decision of the courts, but .still more to the large views of King Demetrius, who would not tolerate the persecution of opinion. But it was the otiier Demetrius, the philosopher, the pupil of Aristotle, the friend of Tlieophrastus, to whom the school owed most, nnd to whom the world owes most in tlie matter of museums and academies, next after I'lato. For this was the man who took care, d>;r'".'^ Ms Protectorate of Athens in the interest of Casander, to estab- lish a garden and ' peripatos' for the Peripatetic school, now under Tlieophrastus. ... It Is R'- markable that the Stoic school — It too the school of aliens — did not establish a local foundation or succession, but taught in public places, sucli as tho Painted Portico. In tills the Cynical tone of tlio Porch comes out. Hence the succession depended upon the genius of the leader. " — J. P. Mahaff}', (Jreck Life and Thomjht, ch. 7. — An account of the Academy, tho Lyceum, etc., will be found under the caption Ovmnasia. — Univer- sity of Athens. — " Some scholars . . . may doubt If there was anything at Atliens which could answer to tho College Life of mixlern times. In- deed It must bo owned that formal history Is nearlv silent on the subject, tliat ancient writers take little notice of it, and sucli evidences as wo luivo are drawn almost entirely from a scries of inscriptions on the marble tablets, which were covered \nW\ the ruins and tho dust of ages, till one after another came to light in recent days, to add fresh pages to tlie story of the past. Happily they are botli numerous and lengthy, and may be already pieced together in an order which extends for centuries. Tliey are known to Epigrapliic students as the records which deal with tho so-called Ephebi; with tlie youths, tliat is, just passing into nianliood, for whom a spe- cial discipline was iirovided by the State, to fit them for the responsibilities of active life. It was a National system with a many-sided training ; the teachers were members of the Civil Service; the registers were public documents, and, as such, belonged to the Archives of the 683 EDUCATION. Tk* Vnlv*ntly of Alhent. EDUCATION. 8talc Tin; carlltr IniirriplldDH of tliu kt\v» ilutc fn)in till) imtUkI of Miu'cdonlan iiHccmloncy, but In iniii'li I'lirlk-r times tlicn; liiul been forniH of public ilriil iircHcrilK-d for tliv Kplicbi. . . . We mill from it ilin'ri'i-. wliirli, if geniiinr, ilnti-* oven fn)m till' (iiiyH of IVrlrlcs, that the yoiitijf men of (;oH were iiiloweil by h|>i ciiil favour to HJiure the lilmloline of the Atheiiiiin Kpliel)i. Hooli afterwiirim otIierN were itilmitteil on nil hIiIch. Till! iklieiiM who hull giiineil h compelenro iiH nier- chuntH or iw Imiikem, foiinil tlieir hohh welcomeil in the riinlcN of tlie olilcHt familieH of Athens; itronKiTM tliieked thither from iliHtiint countrieH, not only 'roll! the IhIch of (Sreece, luiil from the coiiHlH oi tlie .'Kki'iiii, hut, lis Hellenic culture mode itH way tlirouKh the far Kiwt, Htuilents even of the Hemltle. race were jjlaii to enrol their names upon the ('olletfe registerB, when- wc may still see them with tiie marks of their several nation- iilitles iiinxed. The youiijj men were no longer, like soldiers upon actual service, beginning already the real work of life, and on tliat account, perhaps, the term was shortened from the two years to one; but the old associations lasted on for ages, even in realistic Atliens, which in early politics at least had made so clean a sweep. The outward forms were still preserved, the soldier's drill was still enforced, and though many another feature hwl been added, the whole institution bore upon its face the look rather of a Military College than of a training school for a scholar or a statesman. The C'ollcge year began somewhat later than the opening of tliu civil year, and it was usual for all the students to matriculate togetlier; that is, to enter formally their names upon the registers, ■which were copied afterwards upon the marble tablets, of which largo fragments have survived. ... 'To jiut the gown on,' or, as wo should say, 'to be a gownsman,' was the phrase which stood for being a member of the College ; and the gown, too, was of blail . as commonly among ourselves. Hut I'hilostratus tells us, by the way, thot a change was made from black to white at tho prompting of Ilorodes Atticus, the munificent and learned subieot of the Antonines, wlio woa for many yeors the presiding genius of tho Uni- versity of Athens. The fragment of an inscrip- tion lately found curiously contlrms and supple- ments tho writer's statement. . . . The members of the College aro spoken of as ' friends ' and ' messmates ' ; and it is probable that some form of conventual life prevailed omong'thcm, with- out which the drill and supervision, which are constantly implied in the inscriptions, could scarcely have been enforced by the oflicials. But we know nothing of any public buildings for their use save the gymnasia, which in all Greek towns were the centres of educational routine, and of whicli there were several well known at Athens. . . . The College did not try to monopo- lise tho education of its students. It had, indeed, its own tutors or instructors, but they were kept for humbler drill; it did not even for a long time keep an organist or choirmaster of its own ; it sent its students out for teaching in philosophy and rhetoric and grammar, or, in a word, for all the larger and more liberal studies. Nor did it favour any special set of tenets to tlie exclusion of the rest. It encouraged impartially all the schools of higher thought. . . . The Head of the College held the title of Cosmetes, or of rector. . . . The Rector, appointed only for a year by popular election, was no merolv honorary head, out t<M>k an important part in the real work of cdiicntion. He was sometimes clothed with priestly function' . . . The system of edu- catiini thus deHcrib d was under the control of the governmi'iit throughout. ... It may sur- prise us that our information comes almost en- tin'ly irom the Inscriptions, and that ancient writers are ail nearly silent on tlie subject. . . . Hut there was little to attract the literary circles in arrangements so mi'i'iianical and formal; there was tix) much of outward pageantry, and too little of real character evolved." — W. \V. Capes, Unitertity Life in Aneient At/teim, ch. 1. — J. II. Newman, llitturir.d Sketehfi, ch. 4. — Tho reign of the Emperor Justiniaa " may be Hignalised us the fatal epoch at which several of the noblest institutions of antiquity were aboli.shed. lie shut the schools of Atliens (A. I). Ti'JU), in which an uninterrupted successiim of philosophers, sup- ported by a public stipend, had taught the (h)C- trines of I'lato, Aristotle, Zeiio, and Epicurus, ever since the time of the Antonines. They wen-, it is true, Htill attached to iiaganisni, and even to tlie arts of magic." — J. C. L. dcSismoudi, Fall of the Iti>ma)i Kinjnrt, t. 1, eh. 10. — See Athens: A. I). 520. Alexandria. — "Ptolemy, upon whom, on Alexander's death, devolved the kingdom of Egypt, supi)liea us with tlie first great instance of what may be called the establislimcnt of Let- ters. He and Eumencs may be considered tho first founders of public libraries. . . . A library, however, was only one of two great conceptions brought into execution by the first Ptolemy ; and as the first was the embalming of dead genius, so the second was the endowment of living. . . . Ptolemy, . . . prompted, or at least, encouraged, by the celebrated Demetrius of Plia- lerus, put into execution a plan for the formal endowment of literature and science, Tlic fact indeed of tho possession of an immense librory seemed sulllcient to render Alexandria a Univer- sity ; for what could bo a greater attraction to tlie students of all lands, than the opportunity allortled them of intellectual converse, not only with the living, but witli the dead, with all who had anywhere at any time thrown light upon any subject of inquiry? But Ptolemy deter- mined that his teachers of knowledge should be as stationary and as permanent as his books ; so, resolving to make Alexandria the scat of a ' Stu- dium Qenorale,' he founded a College for its domicile, and endowed that College with ample revenues. Here, I consider, he did more than has been commonly done, till modern times. It requires considerable knowledge of medieval Universities to be entitled to give an opinion ; as regards Germany, for instance, or Poland, or Spain ; but, as far as I have a right to speak, such an endowment has been rare down to the sixteenth century, as well as before Ptolemy. ... To return to tho Alexandrian College. It was called the Sluseum, — a name since appro- priated to another institution connected with the seats of science. . . . There was a quarter of the city so distinct from the rest in Alexandria, that it is sometimes spoken of as a suburb. It was pleasantly situated on the water's edge, and had been set aside for ornamental buildings, and W08 traversed by groves of trees. Here stood the royal palace, here the theatre and amphi- theatre; here the gymnasia and stadium; here 684 EDUCATION. MrhnoU of Alejandrla, EDUCATION. the fftmouH ScriiiMMim. Ami here It wuh, dime upon tlio I'ort, tliiit I'tolcniy placi'd lilit Ijil)rnrv mill C<illrK<^ Ah mlKlit Ih< HiippoKcil, tlit! liuil(I- Inn WHS worthy of IIh piirpimc; ii iiolilu portico Htrotclicd ftloiiK its front, for cxitcIim! or conver- iiation, nnd opi'iicil upon tlic public rooiim de- voted tn diHpiitittloiiH and IcctiircH. A certain niimbf.'r of rrofcHsoni were liKl^cd wltliln tli(! pn-clnctfi, and n handftonie liall, or refectory, waH proviiled for tbo common meal. The I'refect of thu boUHo was a pricgt, whoNe apiiointment lay with tb(^ government. Over the Library n dlff- nlfled person nresldod. ... As to the Profes- HorH, so libertil wiui their maintenance, that n plilloHonher of tht! very a^u of the first founda- tion called th'- place a ' bread basket,' or a ' bird coop'; yet, in gpltu of accidental exceptions, so enreful on the whole was their selection, that even BIX hundred years afterwnnls, Ammianus describes the Museum under the title of ' the last- Ihk abode of distinguished men.' Fhllostratus, too, about a century before, calls it ' a, tablj gathering together celebrated men.'. . . As time went on new Colleges were added lo the original Museum; of which one was a foutida- tlon of tbo Emperor Claudius, and called after hig name. ... A diversity of teaclK^rs secured an abundance of students. ' Hither,' says Cave, 'as to a public emporium of polite literature, congregated, from every ]iart of the world, youthful students, and attended the lectures in Grammar, Uhctoric, P<x!try, Philosophy, Astron- omy, Music, Medicine, and other arts and sci- ences'; and hence proceeded, as it would ap- pear, the great Christinn writers and doctors, Clement, . . . Orlj.'en, Anatolius, and Athana- slus. Ht. Gregory Thaumaturgus, In the third century, may be added; he camo across Asia Minor and Syria from Pontus, an to a place, says, his namesake of Nyssa, ' to which young men' from all parts gathered together, who were ap- plying thcmBclves to nhilosophy.' As to the subjects taught in tlio Museum, Cave has already enumerated the principal ; but he hns not done ju.stico to the peculiar character of the Alexan- drian school. Prom the time that Fclcnce got out of the hands of the pure Greeks, into those of a power which had a tulent for administra- tion, it became less theoretical, and bore more distinctly upon definite and tangible objects. . . . Egyptian AntiquiUcs were investigated, at least by the disciples of the Egyptain Manetho, fragment of whose history ore considered to re- main; while Carthaginian and Etruscan liatl a place in the studies of the Claudian College. The Museum was celebrated, moreover, for its grammarians; the work of Hephirstion 'deMe- tris' still affords matter of though I to a living Professor of Oxford; and Aristarchus, like the Athenian Priscian, has almost become the nick- name for a critic. Yet, eminent as is the Alex andrian school in these deportments of science, its fame rests still more securely upon its pro- ficiency in medicine and mathematics. Among its physicians is tho celebrated Qolen, who -was attracted thither from Pergamus; and we are told by a writer of the fourth century, that In his time the very fact of a physician having studied at Alexandria, was an evidence of his science which superseded further testimonial. As to Mathemotics, it is sufficient to say, that, of four greot ancient names, on whom the mod- cm science Is founded, three came from Alexan- dria. ArchimedcH lnde«'d was n Syracusan ; but the Museum may boast of A|H)lloniuii of Perga, DiophantUM, a native Alexandrian, and Euclid, whose country Is unknown. To thetm Illustri- ous names, nuiy be added, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, to whom astronomy hiis obligations ho consider- able; Pappus; Theon; and Ptolemy, said to b« of PeluHluni, whose O'lelimted Hysteni, call' after him the Ptolemaic, reigned in the scbooU ti'l the time of Copernicus, atid whoso Qeog- laphy, dealln ; with facts, not theories, Is m ri'pute still. Hu<'h was the celebrated ' Htudlum ' or University of Al'xandria; for a while in tho course of the third and fourth centuries. It waa subject to reverses, principally from war. Tho whole of the DrueJiion, the ((uarter of the city in which It was situated, was given to the (lames; and, when llilarhm came to Alexandria, tho holy hennit, wliose : lie of life did not sufTcr him to iiMlge in cities, took up his liMlgment with a few 8ollt4trieH among the ruins of Its edifices. The schools, however, and the library continued; the library waa reserved for the Caliph Omar's famous judgment; as ti. ihe schools, even as late as the twelfth century, the Jew, I.enjamiu of Tiidela, gives us a surprising report of what he found In Alexandria." — J. it. Newman, Jliiitor- tail Skftchen : nine and l^rogreim of Unirerntien, ch. 8. — "In the three centuries which Intervened be- tween Alexander and Augustus, Athens was prePndnently the training scIkk)! f<>r philosophy, Ilhodcs, on tho other hand, as the only Greek state of political importance in which a ca-.eer of grand ond dignified activity was open for tho orator, distinguished Itself In the study of elo- quence, while Alexandria rested its f.imo chiefly on tho excellence of its Instruction In Philology and Medicine. At a subsequent period the last mentioned University obtained even greater celeb- rity as having given birth to a school of philoso- phers who endeavored to combine into a species of theosophic doctrine the mental science of Europe with the more spiritual minded iintl pro- foundly human religions of tlie East. In the third century Alexandria became consplc lous as the headquarters of the Eclectics and NeoPloto- nists."— E. Kirkpatrick, nut'l Development of Superior Iiitt ruction Uiarnard't Am. Journal of Education, v. 24, ;)/). 466-467). Rome. — "If we casta final glance at tho ques- tion of education, we shall fin(i but little tt. say of it, as far as regards the period licfore C;i( cro. In the republican limes the state did not trouble itself about the training of vouth : o few prohibit- ory regulations were laid down, ond the rest left to private Individuals. Thus no public instruc- tion was ^iven; public schools tliere were, but only as private undertakings for the sake of tho children of the rich. All depended on the father ; his personal character and the care taken by the mother in education decided the development of tho child's disposition. Books there were none ; and therefore they could not be put Into the hands of children. A few rugged hymns, such as those of the Salii and Arval brothers, with the songs in Ecscennine verse, sung on festivals and at ban- q>iet«, formed tlie poetical literoture. A child would hear, besides, the dirges, or memorial verses, composed by women In honourof the dead, ond sometimes, too, the public panogvrics pro- nounced on their departed relatives, a distinction accorded to women also from the time of Camll- lus. Whatever was taught a boy by father or 685 EDUCATION. Ancient Roman teaching. EDUCATION. mother, or acquired extemnlly to the house, was cttlculntod to make the Uoinan ' virtus ' appear in his eyes tlie lii)7liest aim of his ambition; tlie term including self-mastery, an unbending lirm- ness of will, with patience, and an iron tenacity of purpose in carrying through whatever was onee acknowledged to be right. The Greek pa- 1( tra and its naked combatants always seemed strange and offensive to Homan eyes. In the republican times the exercises of the gymnasium were but little in fashion; though riihug, swim- ming, and other warlikf> exercises were indus- triously practised, as preparations for the cam- paign. The slave pa-dagogus, assigned to young people to take charge of them, had a higher posi- tion witli the Komans than the Greeks; and was not allowed to let his pupils out of his sight till their twentieth year. The Latin Odyssey of Li vius Andronieus was the scliool-book first in use ; and this and Enniiis were the only two works to create and foster a literary taste before the destruction of Carthage. The freedman Sp. Carvilius was the first to open a school for higlier education. After this the Greek language and literature came Into the circle of studies, and in consequence of tho wars in Sicily, Macedon, and Asia, families of distinction kept slaves who knew Greek. Teachers quickly multiplied, and were either liberti, or their descendants. No free-bom Roman would consent to bo a paid teacher, for that was held to be a degradation. The Greek lan- guage remained throughout the classical one for Romans: they even made their children begin with Homer. As. by the seventh century of the republic, J<;nnius, I'la'utus, Pacuvius, and Terence, had already become old poets, dictations were given to scho.ars from their writings. The inter- pretation of Virgil began under Augustus, and by this time the younger Romans were resorting to Athens, Rhodes, ApoUonia, and Mitylene, in order to make progress in Greek rhetoric and philosophy. As Roman notions were based en- tirely on the practical and the useful, music was neglected as a part of education ; while, as a con- trast, boys were compelled to learn the laws of tho twelve tables by heart. Cicero, who had gone through this discipline with other boys of his time, complains of the practice having begun to bo set aside ; and Scipio .^mUianus deplored, as an evil omen of degeneru 'he sending of boys and girls to the academies . . actors, where they learnt dancing and singing, in company with young women of pleasure. Ic one of these schools were to be found as many as five hundred young persons, all being instructed in postures and motions of the most abandoned kind. . . . On the other hand, the gymnastic exercises, which had once served the young men as a training for war, fell into disuse, having naturally become object- less and burdensome, now that, under Augustus, no more Roman citizens cliose to enlist in the legions. Still slavery was, and continued to be, the foremost cause of the depravation of youth, and of an evil education. ... It was no longer the mothers who educated their own children: they had neither inclination nor capacity for such duty, for mothers of the stamp of Cornelia had disappeared. Immediately on its birth, the child was intrusted to a Greek female slave, with some male slave, often of the worst description, to help her. . . . The young Roman was not educated in the constant companionship of youths of his own age, under equal discipline : surrounded by his father's slaves and parasites, and always accompanied by a slave when he went out, he hardly received imy other impressions tlian such as were calculated to foster conceit, in- dolence, amd pride in him." — .1. J. I. DOllinger, The Gentile and the Jew, v. 2, pp. 279-281.— Higher Education under the Empire. — "De- sides schools of high eminence in Mytilene, Ephe- sus, Smyrna, Sidon, etc., we read that Apollouia enjoyed so high a reiiutation for elocpience and ])olitical science as to be entrusted with the educa- tion of the heir-apparent of the Roman Empire. Antioch was noted for a Aluseum modelled after that of the Egyptian metropolis, and Tarsus boasted of Gynmasia and a University which Strabo does not hesitate to describe as more than rivaling those of Athens and Alexandria. There can be little doubt that the philosophers, rheto- ricians, and grammarians who swarmed in the l)riucelv retinues of the great Roman aristocracy, and whose schools abounded in all tiie most wealthy and populous cities of the empire east and west, were prepared for their several call- ings in some one or other of these institutions. Strabo tells us . . . that Rome was overrun with Alexandrian and Syrian grammarians, and Juvenal describes one of tlie Quirites of tho ancient stamp as emigrating in slieer disgust from a city which from these causes had become thoroughly and utterly Greek. . . . That exter- nal inducements were held out amply sufflcient to prevail upon poor and ambitious men to qualify themselves at some cost for vocations of this description is evident from tlie wealth to which, as we are told, many of them rose from extreme indigence and obscurity. Suetonius, in the still extant fragment of his essay 'de Claris rhetoribus,' after alluding to the immense num- ber of professors and doctors met with in Rome, 'draws attention to the frequency with which in- dividuals who had dist^inguished themselves as teachers of rhetoric had been elevated into the senate, and advanced to tlie higliest dignities of the state. That the profession of a philologist was occasionally at least well remunurated is evident from the facts recorded by the same author in his work 'de Claris grammaticis,' sect. 3. He there mentions that there were at one time upwards of twenty well attended schools devoted to this subject at Rome, and that one fortunate individual, Q. liemmius Palacmon, de- rived four hundred thousand sesterces, or con- siderably above three thousand a year, from instruction in philology alone. Julius Caesar conferred tlie citizensliip, together with large bounties in money, and immunity from public burtliens, on distinguished rhetoricians and phi- lologists, in order to encourage their presence at Rome. . . . That individuals who thus enjoyed an income not greatly below the revenues of an English Bishopric were not, as the name might lead us to imagine, employed in teaching the accidents of grammar, but possessed considerable pretensions to that higher and more tho. ghtful character of the scholar which it has been re- served for modern Europe to exhibit in perfec- tion, is not only in itself highly probable, but supported by the distinctest and most unim- peachable evidence. Seneca tells us that history was amongf' the subjects professed by gram- marians, anc oero regards the most thorough and refined perception of all that pertains to the spirit and individuality of the author as an in- 686 EDUCATION. The Early Middle Ayeit. EDUCATION. dispensable requisite in those who undcrtnko to give instruction in tliis subject. . . . The griun- mntici appear to linve occupied a position very closely analogous to that of the ttacliers of colle- giate schools in England, and the gymnasial pro- fessors in Germany." — E. Kirkpatrick, lliat'l De- velopment of Superior Instruction {JJdrnard's Am. Journal of Education, v. 24, pp. 408-470. Mediaeval. The Chaos of Barbaric Conquest. — "The utter confusion subsequent \ipon the downfall of the Roman Empire and the irruption of the Germanic races was causing, by tlie mere brute force of circumstance, a gradual extinction of scholarship too powerful to be arrested. The teaching of grammar for ecclesiastical purposes was insufllcient to check the inHuenc:e of many causes leading to this overthrow of learning. It was impossible to conmtunicate more than a mere tincture of knowledge to students sepa- rated from the classical tradition, for whom the anteccdcnr history of Home was a dead letter. The meaning of Latin words derived from tlie Greek was lost. . . . Theological notions, gro- tesque and childish beyond description, found their way into etymology and grammar. Tlie three persons of the Trinity were discovered in the verb, and mystic numbers in tlio parts of speech. Thus analytical studies like that of lan- guage came to be regarded as an open lield for the exercise of the mythologising fancy ; and ety- mology was reduced to a system of ingenious punning. . . . Virgil, the only classic who re- tained distinct and living personality, passed from poet to philosopher, from philosopher to Sibyl, from Sibyl to magician, by successive stages of transmutation, as the trutii about him grew more dim and the faculty to apprehend him weakened. Forming the stai)le of education in the schools of the grammarians, and meta- morphosed by the vulgar consciousness into a wizard, he waited on the extreme verge of the da-k ages to take Dante by the hand, and lead him, as the ivpe of human reason, through the realms ot Hell and Purgatory." — J. A. Symonds, lie ismneein Italy: the l{er>iv(dof Learning, ch.'i. ft \\: Ath-Sth Centuries. — "If institutions cou do all, if laws supplied and the means fur- nisliLu to society could do everything, the in- tellectual state of Gaulish civil society at this epoch [4th-5tli centuries] would have been far superior to that of the religious soeietjr. The first, in fact, alone possessed all the institutions proper to second the development of mind, the progress and empire of ideas. Itomau Gaul was covered with large schools. The principal were those of Treves, Bordeaux, Autuu, Toulouse, Poitiers, Lyons, Narbonne, Aries, Marseilles, Vienne, Besan^on, &c. Some were very ancient ; those of Marseilles and of Autun, for example, dated from the first century. They were taught philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence, literature, grammar, astrology, all the sciences of the age. In the greater part of these schools, indeed, they at first taught only rlietoric and grammar; but towards the fourth century, professoia of phi- losophy and law were everywhere introduced. Not only were these schools numerous, and pro- vided with many chairs, but tlie emperors con- tinually took the professors of now measures into favor. Theii interests are, from Constan- tine to Theodosius the younger, the subject of fri'ciucnt imperial constitutions, which sometimes extended, sometinies conHnr".'(l their privileges. . . . After tlie Empire was divi<Ie{l among many ina.stcrs, each of them concerned himself rather more about the prosperity of his states and the public establishments which were in them, i'lieiice arose a momentary amelioration, of which the schools felt the effects, particularly those of Gaul, un<ler the administration of Constantius Clorus, of Julian, and of Gnitian. By the side of the schools were, in gviicral, placed other analogous establishments. Thus, at Treves there was a gnmd library of the imperial iiaiace, con- cerning which no special information lias reached us, but of which we may judge by the details which have reached us concerning that of Con- stantinople. This last had a lilirarian and seven scribes constantly occupied — four for Greek, and three for Latin. Tliey copied both ancient and new works. It is probable that the same institu- tion existed at Treves, and in the great towns of Gaul. (;ivil society, then, was provided with means of instruction and intellectual develop- ment. It was not the same with religious so- ciety. It had at this epoch no institution especi- ally devoted to teaching; it did not receivi from the state any aid to tliij particular aim. Cliris- tiaus, as well as others, could frequent the public schools; but most of the professors were still pajjans. ... It was for a long time in the in- ferior classes, among the people, that Chris- tianity was propagated, especially in the Gauls, and it was tlie suiierior classes which followed the great schools. Jlorcover, it was hardly until the comnienccment of the fourth century that the Christians appeared tiiere, and tlicn but few in number. No other source of study was open to them. The establishments which, a little afterwards, became, in tlie Christian church, the refuge and sanctuary of ii.struetion, the monas- teries, were hardly commenced in the Gauls. It was only after the year 360 that the two first were founded by St. !Martin — one at Liguge, near Poitiers, the other at Marmoutiers, near Tours; and they were devoted rather to religious contemplation than to teaching. Any great school, any special institution devoted to the service and to the progress of intellect, was at that time, therefore, wanting to the Cliristians. . . . All things in the fifth century, attest the decay of the civil schools. The contemporaneous writers, Sidonius ApoUinaris and Mamertius Claudianus, for example, deplore it in every page, saying that the young men no longer studied, that iirofessors were without pupils, that science languished and was being lost. ... It was es- pecially the young men of the superior classes who freijueuted the schools; but these classes . . . were in rapid dissolution. The schools fell with them ; the institutions still existed, but they were void — the soul had quitted the body. The intellectual aspect of Christian society was very different. . . . Institutions began to rise, and to be regulated among the Christians of Gaul. The foundation of the greater portion of the large monasteries of the southern provinces belongs to the first half of the fifth century. . . . The monasteries of the south of Gaul were philosoph- ical schools ot Christianity; it was there that intellectual men meditated, discussed, taught ; it was from thence that new ideas, daring thoughts, heresies, were sent forth. . . . Towards the end of the sixth century, everything is changed: 687 EDDCATION. Irish Schooln of the 8th and loth Centuriet. EDUCATION. there nre no longer civil schools; ecclesiastical schools alone sulisist. Those great municipal scli(x>l8 of TrtSves, of Poitiers, of \'^ienne, of Bor- deaux, lie, have disappeared; in their place have arisen schools called cathednil or episcopal schools, because each cjjiscopal sec had its own. The cathedral school was not always alone ; we find in certain dioceses other schools, of an un- certain nature and origin, wrecks, perhaps, of some ancient civil school, which, in becoming metamorpliosed, had perpetuated itself. . . .The most tlourishing of tlie episcopal schools from the sixtli to the middle of the eighth century were those of: 1. Poitiers. There were many schools in the monasteries of the diocese at Poi- tiers itself, at Ligugc, at Ansion, &c. 8. Paris. 8. Leilans. 4. Bourges. 5. Clermont. There was another school in the town where they taught the Theodosian code; a remarkable cir- cumstance, wliich I do not lind elsewhere. 6. Vienue. 7. Chitlons-sur-Saone. 8. Aries. 9. Gap. The ^lost flourishing of the monastic schools of the same epoch were those of : 1. Luxeuil, in Franche-Comte. 2. Fontenelle, or Saint Van- drille, in Normandy; in which were about HOO students. 3. Sithiu, in Normandy. 4. Siiuit Medard, at Soissons. 5. Lerens. It were easy to extend this list ; but the prosperity of monastic schools was subject to great vicissitudes; they flo'irished under a distinguished abbot, and de- clined \mder his successor. Even in nunneries, study was not neglected; that which Saint Cesaire founded at Aries contained, at the com- mencement of the sixth century, two hundred uuuo, for the most part occupied in copying hooks, sometimes religious books, sometimes, probauly, even the works of the ancients. The metamorphosis of civil schools into ecclesiastical schools was complete. Let us see what was tauglit in them. We shall often find in them the names of sciences formerly professed in the civil schools, rhetoric, lop ■:, grammar, geome- try, astrology, i&c. ; but these were evidently no longer taught except in their relations to the- ology. This is the foundation of the instruction : all was turned into commentary of the Scrip- tures, historical, philosophical, allegorical, moral, commentary. They desired only to form priests ; all studies, whatsoever their nature, were directed towards this result. Sometimes they went even further: they rejected the profane sciences them- selves, wlmtever might be the use made of them. " — P. Guizot, Jliatory of Civilization to the French Revolution, n. 3, lect. 4 and 16. Ireland.— Scotland.— Schools of lona. — Pop- ular accounts represent St. Patrick as "found- ing at least a liundred monasteries, and even tliose who consider that the greater number of the Irish colleges were raised by his followers after his death, admit the fact of his having es- tablished an episcopal monastery and school at Armagh, where he and his clergy carried out the same rule of life that he had seen followed in the churches of Gaul. . . . The school, which formed a portion of the Catliednd establishment, soon rose in importance. Gildas tauglit here for some years before joining St. Cadoe at Llancarvan; and in process of time the number of students, both native and foreign, so increased that the university, as we may justly call it, was divided into three parts, one of which was devoted en- tirely to students of the Anglo-Saxon race. Grants for uie support of the schools were made by the Irish kings in the eighth century ; and all through the troublous times of the ninth and tenth centu- ries, when Ireland was overrun by the Danes, and so many of her simctuaries were given to the flames, the succession of divinity professors at Armagh n^nained unbroken, and has been care- fully traced by Usher. We need not stop to de- termine how many other establishments similar to those of Armagh were really founded in the lifetime of St. Patrick. In any case the rapid extension of the monastic institute in Ireland, and the extraordinary ardour with which the Irish coenobites applied themselves to the culti- vation of letters remain undisputed facts. ' Within a century after the death of St. Patrick,' says Bishop Nicholson, 'the Irish seminaries had so increased that most parts of Europe sent their children to be educated here, and drew thence their bishops and teachers. ' The whole country for miles round Leighlin was denominated the ' land of saints and scholars. ' By the ninth cen- tury Armagh could boast of 7,000 students, and the schools of Casliel, Dindaleathglass, and Lis- more vied with it in renown. This extraordinary multiplication of monastic seminaries and schol- ars may be explained partly by the constant immi- gration of British refugees who brought with them the learning and religious observances of their native cloisters, and partly by that sacred and irresistible impulse which animates a newly converted people to heroic acta of sacrifice. In Ireland the infant church was not, as elsewhere, watered witli the blood of martyrs. . . . The bards, who were to be found in great numbers amon^ the early converts of St. Patrick, had also a considerable share in directing the energies of their countrymen to intellectual labour. They formed the learned class, and on their conversion to Christianity were readily disposed to devote themselves to the culture of sacred letters. . . . It would be impossible, within the limits of a single chapter, to notice even the names of all the Irish seats of learning, or of their most cele- brated teachers, every one of whom has his own legend in whicli sacred and poetic beauties are to be found blended together. One of the earliest monastic schools was that erected by Enda, prince of Orgiel, in that western island called from the wild flowers which even still cover its rocky soil, Aran-of-the-Flowers, a name it afterwards ex- changed for that of Ara-na-naomh, or Aran-of- the-Saints. ... A little later St. Finian founded his great school of Clonard, whence, says Usher, issued forth a stream of saints and doctors, like the Greek warriors from the wooden horse. . . . This desolate wilderness was soon peopled by his disciples, who are said to have numbered 3,000, of wliom the twelve most eminent are often termed the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. . . . Among tliem none were more famous than St. Columba, St. Kieran, and St. Brendan. The first of these is known to every English reader as the founder of lona, una !«..>. "n, the carpenter's son, as he is called, is scarcely less renowned among his own countrymen. ... It was in the year 563 that St. Columba, after founding the monasteries of Doire- Calgaich and Dair-magh in his native land, and incurring the enmity of one of the Irish kings, determined on crossing over into Scotland in order to preach the faith to the Northern Picts. Accompanied by twelve companions, he passed the Channel in a rude wicker boat covered with skins, and landed at Port-ua Currachan, on a spot 688 EDUCATION. Charletnaffne'a School of the Palace. EDUCATION. now marked by a heap of huge conical Htoncs. Conall, king of the Albanian Scots, granted liim the island of I, Hi, or Ai, hitherto occupied by the Druids, and there he erected tlie monastery which, in time, became the motlier of three liun- drcd religious houses. . . . lona, or I-Colum-kil, as it was called by the Irisli, came to be looked on as the chief seat of learning, not only in Britain, but in the whole AVcstern world. ' Tliither, as from a nest,' says Odonellus, playing on the Latin name of the founder, 'thjse sacred doves took their flight to every quarter. ' They studied the classics, the mechanical arts, law, history, and pliysic. They improved tlie arts of hus- bandry and horticulture, supplied tlic rude peo- ple whom they had undertaken to civilise with plouglisliares and other utensils of labour, and tanglit them the use of tlie forge, in the mysteries of wliich every Irish monk wud instructed from his boyhood. They transferred to their new liomes all the learning of Armagh or Clonard. ... In every college of Irisli origin, by whom- soever they were founded or on whatever soil they flourislied, we thus see study blended witli tlie duties of the missionary and the ctcnobite. Tliey were religiius houses, no doubt, in which tlie celebration of the Church office was often kept up without intermission by day and niglit ; but they were also seminaries of learning, wherein sacred and profaao studies were cultivated with equal success. Not only tlicir own monasteries but those of every European country were enriched witli their manuscripts, and the researches of modern bibliopolists arc continually disinterring from German or Italian libraries a Horace, or an Ovid, or a Sat.'ed Codex whoso Irish gloss betrays the hand which traced its delicate letters. " — A. T. Drone, Christian Schools and Scholars, ch. 3. Charlemagne. — "If there ever was a man who by his mere natural endowments soared above othtr men, it was Cliarleraagne. His life, like his stature, was colossal. Time never seemed wanting to him for anytliing that he willed to accomplish, and during his ten years campaign against the Saxons and Lombards, he contrived to get leisure enough to study grammar, and render himself tolcably proficient as a Latin writer in prose and verse. He found his tutors in the cities tliat he conquered. When he be- came master of Pisa, lie gained tlie services of Peter of Pisa, whom he set over llie Palatine school, which had existed even under the Me- rovingian kings, though as yet it was far from en^oymg the fame to which it was afterwards raised by the teaching of Alcuin. He possessed the art of ti rning enemies into friends, and thus drew to his court the famous historian, Paul ^^'^arnefrid, deacon of the Chijrch of Home, who had previously acted as secretary to Didier, king of the Lombards. . . . Another Italian scholar, St. Paulinus, of Aquileja, was coaxed into the service of t)ie Frankisli sovereign after his con- quest of Friuli; I will not say that he was bought, but he was "Ttainly paid for by a large grant of confiscated territory made over by di- ploma to ' the Venerable Paulinus, master of the art of grammar.' But none of tliese learned per- sonages were destined to take so large a part iu that revival of learning which made the glory of Charlemagne's reign, as our own countryman Alcuin. It was in 781, on occasion of the king's second visit to Italy, that the meetinj_'- tcok place at Parma, the result of which was to fix the English scholar at the Prankish court. Having ol)tained the consent of his own bishop and sover- eign to this arrangement, Alcuin came over to France in 782, bringing with him several of the best scholars of York, among whom were Wizo, Fredegis, and Sigulf. Charlemagne received him witli joy, and assigned him three abbeys for the maintenance of himself and his disciples, those namely, of Ferrifires, St. Lupws of Troyes, and St. Josse in Pontliieu. From this time Al- cuin held the first place in the literary society tliat surrounded the Fronkish sovereign, and filled an ofliee the duties of which were as vast as they were various. Three great works at once claimed his attention, the correction of the litur- gical books, the direction of the court academy, and tlie establishment of other pub'ic sclioois throughout the empire. . . . But it wis as head of the Palatine school that Alcuin's inlluencc was cliieliy to be felt in tlie restoration of letters. Charlemagne presented himself as Ills first pupil, together with the three princes, Pepin, Charles, and Louis, his sister Gisla and hiii daughter Richtrude, his councillors Adalard aod Angil- bert, and Eginhard his secretary. Such illus- trious scholars soon found p.enty to imitaie their example, and Alcuin saw liimself called on to lecture daily to a goodly crowd of bishops, nobles, and courtiei-s. The king wished to trans- form liis court into a new Athens preferable to tliat of aiicien; Greece, in so far as the doctrine of Clirist is to ii preferred to that of Plato. All the liberal arts ,,'ere to be taught there, but in such a way as tliat each should bear reference to religion, for this was regarded as tlie final end of of all learning. Grammar was studied in order better to understand tlie Holy Scriptures and to transcribe tliem more correctly ; music, to which much attention was given, was chiefly confined to the ecclesiastical chant ; and it was principally to explain the Fathers and refute errors contrary to the faith that rhetoric and dialectics were studied. 'In short,' says Crevier, 'the thought both of the king and of the scholar who laboured with him was to refer all things to religion, nothing being considered as truly useful which did not bear some relation to tliat end.' At first Alcuin allowed the study of the classic poets, and in his boyhood, as wo know, he had been a greater reader of Virgil than of the Scriptures. . . . Tlie authors whose study Chp lemagne and Alcuin desired to promote, were not so much Virgil and Cicero, as St. Jerome and St. Augus- tine ; and Charlemagne, in his excessive admira- tion of tliose Fathers, gave utterance to the wish that he liad a dozen such men at his court. Tho ' City of God ' was read at tlie royal tabic, and the questions addressed by the court students to their master turned ratlier on the obscurities of Holy Writ than the difficulties of prosody. In one thing, however, they betrayed a classic taste, and that was in their selection of names. The Uoyal Academicians all rejoiced in some literary soubriquet ; Alcuin was Flaccus ; Angilbert, Ho- mer; but Charlemagne himself adopted the more scriptural appellation of David. "The eagerness witli which this extraordinary .nan applied hini- ■•eU to acquire learning for himself, and to ex- tend it throughout his dominions, is truly admir- able, when we remember the enormous labours in which he was constantly engaged." — A. T. Drixne, Chriitian Sc!woLi and Scholars, ch. 5. — See, also, School of tue Palace, CnAKLEMAonE's. 689 EDUCATION. Schools of King Alfred. EDUCATION. England : King Alfred.— King Alfred " gatli- ercil round him ut Ins own rourt the sons of his nol)ility to receive, in conjunction witli his own diildren, ti hetter education than their piirents woidd be aide or willing to give them in their own households. To this assemblage of pupils Asser has attached the name ot school, and a violent controversy once distractCL" the literary world concerning the sense in which the word was to be understood, and whether it was not the iM-'ginning or origin of a learned institution Ktill existing. In speaking of this subject, Asser has taken occasion to enumerate and describe the childreh who were born to Alfred from his wife Elswitha daughter of Ethelred the ' Big,' alder- man of the Gaini. and a noble of great wealth and influence in Jlercia. 'The sons and daugh- ters, ' says Asser, ' which he had by his wife above mentione 1, were Etheltlcd the eldest, after whom Clime Edward, then Ethelgiva, thenEthelswitha, and Ethehverd, besides those who died in their infancy, one of whom was Edmund. Ethelfled, when she arrived at a marriageable age, was tuiited to Ethelred, earl of Mercia; Ethelgiva was dedicated to God, and submitted to the rules of a monastic life; Ethehverd, the youngest, by the Divine counsels and admirable prudence of the king, was consigned to the schools of learning, where, with the children of almost all the no- bility of the country, and many also who were not noble, he prospered under the diligent care of his teachers. Books in both languages, namely, in Latin and Saxon, were read in the school. They also learned to write; so that, before they were of an age to practise manly arts, namely hunting and such other pursuits as beflt hoble- ineii, they became studious and clever in the lib- erul arts. Edward and Ethelswitha wjre bred up in the king's court, and received great atten- tion from their servants and nurses; nay, they continue to this day, with the love of all about them, and shew affability, and even gentleness, towarda all, both foreigners and natives, and art in complete subjection to their father ; nor, among their other studies which appertain to this life and are fit for noble youths, are they suffered to l)ass their time idly and unprofltably, without learning the liberal arts; for they have carefully learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially the Saxon Poems, and are continually In the habit of making use of books.' The schools of learning, to which Asser alludes in this passage, as formed for the use of the king's children and the sons of his nobles, are again mentioned else- where by the same author, as ' the school which he had studiously collected together, consisting of many of the nobility of his own nation : ' and in a third passage, Asser speaks of the ' sons of the nobility w-ho were bred up in the royal house- hold.' It 13 clear, then, from these expressions, that the king's exertions tospread learning among his nobles and to educate his own children, were of a most active and personal nature, unconnected with any institutions of a more public character : the school was kept in his own liousehold, and not in a public sea"^ of learning. We may per- haps adduce fhesc expressions of Asser as militat- ing against the notion, that an University or Public Semina.-y of Learning existed in the days of Alfred. Though it is most probable that the several monasteries, and other societies of monks and churchmen, would employ a portion of their idle time in tuachiL'g youth, and prosecuting their own studies ; yet there is no proof that an author- ized scat of learning, such as the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge, existed in England, until many hundred years after the time of Alfred." — J. A. Giles, JAfe and Times of Alfred the Great, ch. 'il. Saracenic and Moorish learning. — "Even as early as the tenth century, persons having a taste for learning and for elegant amenities found their way into Spain from all adjoining countries; a practice in subsequent years still more indulged in, when it became illustrated by the brilliant suc- cess of Gilbert, who . . . passed from the Infidel University of Cordova to the papacy of Rome. The khalifs of the West carrie(i out the precepts of Ali, the fourth successor of Mohammed, in the patronage of literature. They established libra- ries in all their chief towns ; it is said that not fewer than seventy were in existence. To every mosque was attached a public school, in which the children of the poor were taught to read and write, and iu.structed in the precepts of the Koran. For those in easier circiimstanccs there were acad- emies, usually arranged in twenty-live or thirty apartments, each calculated for accommodating four students ; the academy being presided over by a recior. In Cordova, Granada, and other great cities, there were universities frequently under the superintendence of Jews ; the Moham- medan maxim being that the real learning of a man is of more public importance than any par- ticular religious opinions he may entertain. In this they followed the example of the Asiatic khalif, ifaroun Alraschid, who actually conferred the superintendence of his scliools on John Masue, a Nestorian Christian. The Alohammedan liber- ality was in striking contrast with the intolerance of Europe. ... In the universities some of the professors of polite literature gave lectures on Arabic classical works; others taught rhetoric or composition, or mathematics, or astronomy. From these institutions many of the practices ob- served in our colleges were derived. They held Commencements, at which poems were read and orations delivered in presence of the public. They had also, in addition to these schools of gen-, eral learning, professional ones, particularly for medicine. With a pride perhaps not altogether inexcusable, the Arabians boasted of their lan- guage as being the most perfect spoken by man. ... It is not then surprising that, in the Arabian schools, great attention was paid to the study of language, and that so many celebrated grammar- ians were produced. By these scholars, diction- aries, similar to those now in use, were composed ; their copiousness is indicated by the circumstance that one of them consisted of sixty volumes, the definition of each word being illustrated or sus- tained by quotations from Arab authors of ac- knowledged repute. They had also lexicons of Greek, Latin, Hebrew ; and cyclopedias such as the Historical Dictionary or Sciences of Mo- hammed Ibn Abdallah, of Granada." — .1. W. Draper, Hut. of the Intellectual Developi lent of Europe, v. 3, ch. ii. — "The Saracenic king.' formed libraries of unparalleled size and number. That of Hakem amounted to 600,000 volumes, of which 44 were employed in the mere catalogue. Up- wards of 70 public libraries were establLshed in his dominions. 100,000 volumes v, ere numbered in the library of Cairo, and were freely lent to the studious citizen. 'The taste of the sovereign communicated itself to the subject, and a private 690 EDUCATION. fichoolmen and Scholastici$ni. EDUCATION. doctor (loclnrcd tlmt hla books were suftloient to loml 4(X) cnmcls. Nor were the Saracens less at- tentive to the foundation of scliools and colleges. Eighty of twC latter institutions adorned Conlova in tlin reign of Hakem; in the tifteenth century iifty w>..- scattered over the city and plain of Granada. "SOO.OOO dinars (abo\it .£100,000 ster- ling) were expended on the foundation of a single college at Baghdad. It was endowed with an annual revenue of 15,000 dinars, and was attended by 0,000 students. Tlie princes of the house of Onieya honoured the Spanish academies by their presence and studies, and competed, not without success, for the prizes of learning. Numerous schools for the purpose of elementary instruction were founded by a long series of monarchs. . . . in tliis manncL .le Arabians, within two centuries, constructed ■ ' apparatus for mental imiirovc- nient which i..Jierto had not been equalled save in Alexandria, and to which the Church, after ruling the intellect of J^urope for more than five hundred years, could offer no parallel." — The In- tellertiial Uetiml of the Middle Ayes ()VesUninster lieriew, JdiiiKui/, 1876). Scholasticism. — Schoolmen. — In the later times of tlie Roman empire, "the loss of the dig- nity of political freedom, the want of the cheer- fulness of advancing prosperity, ami thesubstitit- tion of the less philosophical structure of the Latin language for the delicate intellectual meclianism of the Greek, fixed and augmented the prevalent feebleness and barrenness of intellect. Jlen for- got, or feared, to consult nature, to seek for new truths, to do what the great dlscovcrere of other times nad done; they were content to consult libraries, to study and defend old opinions, to talk of what great geniuses had .said. Tliey so\ight their philosophy in accredited treatises, and dared not question such doctrines as they t».ere found. . . . In the mean time the Christian religion had become the leading subject of men's thoughts; and divines had put forward its claims to be, not merely the guide of men's lives, and the means of reconciling them to their heavenly Master, but also to be a Philosophy in the widest sense in whicli the term had been used ; — a con- sistent speculative view of man's condition and nature, and of the world in which he is placed. ... It was held, without any regulating prin- ciple, tliat the philosophy whicli had been be- queathed to the world by the great geniuses of heathen antiquity, and the philosophy which was deduced from, and implied by, the Revelations made by God to man, must bo identical; and, therefore, that Theology is the only true philoso- phy. . . . This view was confirmed by the opmion which prevailed, concerning the nature of philosophical truth; a view supported by the theory of Plato, the practice of Aristotle, and the general prope^isities of the human mind ; I mean the opinion that all science may be obtained by the use of reasoning alone;— that by analyzing and combining the notions wliicli common lan- guage brings before us, we may learn all that we can know. Thus Logic came to inclu 'e the whole of Science; and accordingly this i».oelard expressly maintained. . . . Thus a Universal Science was established, with the authority of a Religious Creed. Its universality rested on er- roneous views of tlie relation of words and truth ; its pretensions as a science were admitted by the servile temper of men's intellects; and its re- ligious authori;y was assigned it, by making all truth part of religion. And as Religion claimed assent witliin herown jurisdiction un<ler the most solenui and imperative sanctions. Philosophy sliaii'd in her imperial iiower, and dis.sent from their doctrines was no longer blameless or allow- able. Error became wicked, dissent becamo heresy; to reject the received liuman doctrines, was nearly the same as to doubt the Divine declarations. The Scholastic Philosophy claimed the as-sent of all believers. The external form, the details, an<l the text of this Pliilosophy, were taken, in a great measure, from Aristotle ; though, in the spirit, llie geia^al notions, and the style of interpretation, Plato and the Platonists liad no inconsiderable share. ... It does not belong to our purpose to consider cither the theological or the metaphysical doctrines which form so large a portion of the treatises of the schoolmen. Per- haps it may hereafter appear, that some light is thrown on some of the (|ueNtions which have oc- cupied metaphysicians in all ages, by that exam- ination of the liistoryof the Progressive Sciences in which we are now engaged; but till we are able to analyze the leading controvei'sies of this kind, it would be of little service to speak of tlicm in detail. It may be noticed, however, that many of the most prominent of them refer to the great qviestion, ' What is the relation between actual tilings and general terms T Perhaps in modern times, the actual things would be niorj commonly taken as the point to start from ; and men would begin by considering how classes and universals are obtained from individuals. But the .sclioolmen, founding their speculations on the received modes of considering such subjects, to which both Aristotle and Plato had con- tributed, travelled in the opposite direction, and endeavored to discover liov.' individuals were de- duced from genr.'ra and species ; — what wiw ' the Principle of Individuation.' This was variously stated by dilTerent reasoners. Thus Bonaventura solves the difliculty by the aid of the Aristotelian distinction of Matter and Form. Tlie individual derives from the Form the property of being something, and from the Matter the ])roperty of being tliat particular tiling. Duns Scotus, the great adversary of Thomas A((uinas in tlieology, placed the principle of Individuation in ' a cer- tain determining positive entity, ' which his school called Hfpcceity or 'thisness.' 'Thus an in- dividual man is Peter, because his humanity is combined with Petrcity. ' Tlic force of abstract terms is a curious question, and some remarkable experiments in their use had been made by the Latin Aristotelians before this time. In the same way in which we talk of the quantity and quality of a thing, they spoke of its 'quiddity.' AVe may consider the reign of mere disputation as fully established at tlie time of which we arc now speaking [tlie Middle Ages] ; and the only kind of philosophy lieneeforth studied was one m which no sound physical science had or could have a place." — W. Wliewell, Hist, of the Iiuluctite Sciences, hk. 4, eh. 4 (f. 1). — "Scholasticism was pliilosophy in the .service of established and ac- cepted theological (l<K;trines. . . . More p;ir- ticularly. Scholasticism was the reproduction of ancient philosophy under the control of ecclesi- astical doctrine. . . . The name of Scholastics (doctores scholastici) which was given to the teachers of the septem lit)erales artes [seven liberal arts] (grammiir, dialectic, rhetoric, in tlie Tri- vium; arithmetic, geometry, music and astron- 691 EDUCATION. RUtnf Vniwnilit*. EDUCATION. omy, In the Oiindrivium), or nt leant some of them, in the Clolster-Hehools founded l)y Cliiirle- mngnc, as also to teachers of theology, was after- wards given to all who occupied tlieniselves with the Bcienc(!s, and especially with philosophy. . . . Johannes Sc'otus, or Erigena[nintli century] is the earliest noteworthy ;.ihilosoplier of tlie Scliolastic ix'Hod. Ho was of Scottish nation- ality, but was i)robably born and brought up in Ireland. At the call of Charles the Baltl ho emi- grated to France." — F. Ueberweg, Hint, of Phi- liimphu, V. 1, pp. 35.'>-484. — "Scholasticism, nt the Inst, from the prodigious mental activity which it kept up, became a t^icit universal insurrection against authority : it was the swelling of tlie ocean before the storm. ... It was n sign of n grent nwakening of the human mind when theo- loginns tliought it both their duty and tlieir privilege to philosophize. There was n vnst wnste of intellectual labor, but still it was intel- lectual labor, and, as we shall see, it was not in the end tinf ruitf ul. " — C. J. Stille, Stiidien in Mediiv- tal Jlittor!/, ch. 13. — "Scholasticism hnd its hour of glory, its erudite d( ctors, its elotjuent pro- fessors, chief among whom was Abelnrd (1079- 1142). ... A.t n time when printing did not ex- ist, when manuscript copies were rare, a teaclier who combined knowledge with the gift of speech wns n phenomenon of incomparable interest, and students Hocked from nil parts of Europe to take advantage of his lectures. Abelard is the most brilliant representative of the scholastic peda- gogy, with an original and personal tendency towards the emancipation of the mind. 'It, is ridiculous,' he said, 'to preach to others what we cnn neither make them understand nor under- stand ourselves.' With more boldness than Saint Anselm, he applied dialectics to theology, and attempted to reason out the grounds of his faith. The seven liberal arts constituted what may be called the secondary instruction of the Jliddle Age, such as was given in the claustral or con- ventual schools, and later, in the universities. The liberal nrts wore distributed into two courses of study, known as the ' trivium ' and the ' quad- rivium.' The 'trivium' comprised grammar (Latin grammar, of course), dialectics, or logic, and rhetoric ; and the ' quadrivium,' music, anth- metic, geometry, nnd astronomy. It is important to note the fact that this programme contains only abstract and formal studies, — no real nnd concrete studies. The sciences which tcacli us to know man and the world, such as history, ethics, the physical and natural sciences, were omitted and unknown, save perhaps in a few con- vents of the Benedictines. Nothing which can truly educate man, and develop his faculties as a whole, enlists the attention of the Sliddle Age. From a couree of study tlius limited there might •come skillful roasoners and men formidable 'n argument, but never fully developed men. The methods employed in the ecclesiastical schools of the Middle Ago were in accord with tlie spirit of the times, when men were not concerned about liberty and intellectual freedom ; nnd when they thought more about the teaching or dogmas than about the tmining of the Intelligence. The teachers recited or read their lectures, and the pupils learned by heart. The discipline was harsh. Corrupt human nature was distrusted. In 1863, pupils were forbidden the use of benches and chairs, on the pretext that such high sents were an encouragement to pride. For securing obedience, corporal chastisements were used and abused. The rod is in fasldou in the fifteenth as it was in the fourteenth century. 'Tliere is no other dilfcrcnce,' says an historian, 'except that the rods in the fifteenth century are twice as long as those in the fourteenth.' " — O. Compayre, The Hint. <if l\(liiflo!iy ; traim. by W. II. Payne, ch. 4. Universities, Their Rise. — Abelard. — "Up to the eiul of the eleventh century the instruction was, speaking generally, and allowing for transi- tory periods of revival, and for a few excep- tional schools, a shrunken survival of the old ' trivium et quadrivium.' The lessons, when not di(^tated .ind lea'-nt by heart from notes, were got lip from bald epitomes. Alltliat was taught, more- over, wau tauglitsolely with a view to ' pious uses.' Criticism did not exist; the free spirit of specu- lation could not, of course, exist. ... As we approach the jieriod which saw the birth of those institutions known as Studia Publica or Qener- alia, and ere long to bo known as ' universities," we have to extend our vision and recognize tlio circumstances of the time, and those changes in the social condition of Europe which made great central schools possible — schools to bo frequented not merely by the young ecclesiastic, but by lay- men. Among other cau.ses wliich led to the dif- fusion of a demand for education among the laity, wns, I think, the institution or reorganization of municipalities. It was about the end of the eleventh century that the civic Communes (Com- munia) began to seek and obtain, from royal and other authorities, charters of incorporation con- stituting their internal government and confer- ring certain freedoms and privileges as against tlie encroachment of lay and ecclesiastical feudal barons. . . . About the same time, nnd sonie- wlint prior to this, trade guilds had been formed in many cities for mutual protection, the advanco- ment of commerce, and the internal regulation of the various crafts. There immediately followed a desire for schools in the more importiuit com- mercial towns. In Italy such schools arose in Bologna, Milan, Brescia, and Florence; and in Germany they arose in Lttbeck, Ham'mrg, Bres- lau, Nordhausen, Stettin, Leipsic, and NUrn- berg. The distinctive characteristic of tliese city schools was, that thoy do not seem to have been under the direct control of the Church, or to have been always taught by priests; fur- ther, that the native tongue (German or Italian, as tlie case might be) was taught. Reading, writing, and a little arithmetic seem to have formed the staple of the instruction. The cus- tom of dictating, writing down, and then learn- ing by heart what was written — universal in tlie schools of the preceding centuries — was, of course, still followed in these burgh schools. This custom was almost inevitable. . . . The in- crensed communicntion with Africa nnd the Enst through the Crusades had introtluced men to a standard of learning among the Arabs, unknown in i'urope. Outside the school, the order of chiv- alry had introduced a now and higher ethical spirit than had been known in the previous cen- turies. Civic communities and trade guilds were forming themselves and seeking cliarters of in- rporation. Above all, the Crusades, by stimu- ing the ardour nnd exciting the intellects of men, hnd unsettled old convention by bringing men of nil ranks within the sacred circle of a com- mon enthusiasm, and into contact with foreign civilizations. The desire for a higher education. 692 EDUCATION. The injluetice of Aoelard. EDUCATION. and tho impulse to moro profound Investigation, tlmt clinmclcrizeii tlio beginning iimi course of tlic tweiftli century, wus tlius only ii part of u widespread movement, political and moral. . . . While tlio Romano-Hellenic schools had long dis- appeared, tliero still existed, in many towns, episcopal schools of a high class, many of whieli might bo regarded as continuations of the old Imperial provincial inatitutions. ... In Bologna and Paris, Rheims and Naples, it was so. The arts curriculum jirofe.ssed in these centres was, for the time and state of knowledge, good. Tliese schools, indeed, had never quite lost the fresh impulse given by Charlemagne and his successors. . . . Accordlngtomy view of educational history, tho great ' studia publica ' or ' generalia ' arose out of them. The v were themselves, in a narrow sense, already 'studia publica.' . . . Looking, first, to the germ out of which tho universities grew, I think we must say that the universities may be regarded as a natural development of the cathe- dral and monastery schools; but if wo seek for an external motive force urging men to undertake the more profound and independent study of the liberal arts, we can find it only in the Saracenic schools of Bagdad, Babylon, Alexandria, and Cordova. ... To fix precisely the date of the rise of the first specialized schools or universities is impossible, for tlie simple reason tliat they were not founded. . . . The simplest account of the new university origins is the most correct. It would appear that certain active-minded men of marked eminence liegan to give instruction in medical subjects ot Salerno, and in law at Bo- logna, in a spirit and manner not previously attempted, to youths who had left tlie monastery and cathedral schools, and who desired to equip tliemselves for professional life. Pupils flocked to tliem ; and the more able of these students, finding that tliere was a public demand for this kiglicr specialized instruction, remained at head- quarters, and themselves became teachers or doctors. The Church did not found universities any moro tlian it founded the order of chivalry. They were founded by a concurrence (not wholly fortuitous) of able men who had something they wished to teach, and of youtlis who desired to learn. None the less were the acquiescence and protection of Cliurch and State necessary in those days for tlio fostering of these infant seminaries. ... Of tho three great schools whicli we have named, there is sufflcient ground for believing that the first to reach such a development as to entitle it to the name of a studium generalo or university was tho ' Schola Salernitana,' although it never was a imiversity, technically specking." — 8. 8. Laurie, liise and Early Constitution of Uni- versities, lect. 6-7. — "Ideas, till this time scat- tered, or watched over in the various ecclesiastical schools, began to converge to a common centre. The great name of University was recognised in the capital of Prance, at the moment that the French tongue had become almost universiii. The conquests of the Normans, and the first cru- sade, had spread its powerfully philosopliic idiom in every direction, to England, to Sicily, and to Jerusalem. This circums'.mco alone invested France, central Prance, Paris, with an immense at- tractive power. By degrees, Parisian Frencii be- came a proverb. Feudalism liad found its political centre in the royai city ; and this city was about to become the capital of human thought. The be- ginner of this revolutiou was not a priest, but a handsome young n\an of brilliant talents, ami- able and of noble family. None wrote love verses, like his, in the vulgar tongue; he sang them, too. Besides, his erudition was extraordl- narv for that day. lie ahme, of his time, knew both Greek imd llebnjw. May be, he had studied ut tho .Jewish scliools (the.'o were many in tho South), or under the rabbins of Troyes, Vitry, or of Orleans. There were then in Paris twi) leading schools- the old Episcopal school of tlio parvis Notre Dame, and that of St. OeneviiVe, on the hill, where shone William of Champeaux. Abelard joined his pupils, submitted to him his doubts, puzzled him, laughed at him, and closed his mouth. IIo would have served Anselm of Luon the same, had not tho professor, being a bishop, expelled him from his diocese. In this fashion this knight-errant of logic went on, un- horsing tho most celebrated champions. He him- self declared that he had only renounced tilt and tourney through his passion for intellectual com- bats. Henceforward, victorious and witliout a rival, ho taught at Paris and Melun, the residence of Louis-io-Qros, and the lords flocked to hear him; anxious to encourage ono of themselves, who had discomfited tlio priests on their own grouiKl, and had silenced the ablest clerks. Abel- ard's wonderful success is easily explained. All the lore and learning wliich had been smothered under the heavy, dogmatical forms of clerical instruction, and hidden in the rude Latin of tho middle age, suddenly appeared arrayed in tho simple elegance of antiquity, so that men seemed for the first time to hear and recognise a human voice. The daring youth simplified and explained everything ; pniseiiting philosophy in a familiar form, and bringing it home to men's bosoms. ^ He liardly suffered the oi)scuro or supernatu- ral to rest on the hardest mysteries of faith. It seemed as if till then the Church had lisped and stammered ; wliile Abelard spoke. All was made smooth and easy. He treated religion courte- ously and handled her gently, but she melted away in his hands. Nothing embarrassed the fluent speaker: ho reduced religion to philoso- phy, and morality to humanity. 'Crime,' lie said, 'consists not in the act, but in the inten- tion.' It followed, that there was no such thing as sins of habit or of ignorance — 'They wlio crucified Jesus, not knowing him to have been the Saviour, were guilty of no sin.' What is original sin? — 'Less a sin, than a punishment.' But then, wherefore the redemption and tho pas- .sion, if there was no sin ? — ' It was an act of pure love. God desired to substitute the law of love for that of fear. ' " — .1. Jlichelet, History of France, v. 1, bk. 4, ch. 4. — " It is difficult, by a mere peru- sal of Abelard's works, to understand the effect he produced upon his liearers by the force of his argumentation, whether studied or improvised, and by the ardor and animation of liis eloquence, and the grace and attractiveness of his person. But tlie testimony of his contemporaries is unani- mous; even liis adversaries tliemselves render justice to his liigh oratorical qualities. No one ever reasoned with moro subtlety, or handled the dialectic tool with more address; and assuredly, something of these qualities is to bo found in the writings lie 1. is l"ft us. But the intense life, the enthusiastic ardo. whicli enlivened liis discourses, tlio beauty of his face, and the cliarra of his voice cannot be imparted by cold manuscripts. Iloloiso, whose name is inseparably linked with 693 EDUCATION. lAitin fAinfjHtifif uml Learning. EDUCATION. that of licr tinfortunnto husband, and whom ChnrlcH lie ItCmiiHiit dtx's not hesitate to {'iill ' th{! first of women ' ; who, In any case, wiis a superior person of her time; Heloise, who loved Al)elard with 'an immmlerate love,' and who, under the veil of a ' religieuse ' and throughout the practice of devotional duties, remaincu faitliful to him imtil death: Heloise said to him in her famo\is letter of llUfl: ' Thou hast two thinj^s especially ■which coidd instantly win tliee the liearts of all women : the charm thou knowest how to impart to thy voice in speaking and singing.' E.xternal gifts combined with intellectual (juaiitics to make of Aheljird an incomparable seducer of minds and liearts. Add to tlds an astonishing memory, a knowledge as profound as was compatible with the resources of his time, and a vast erudition which caused Ids contemporaries to consider him a nuister of universal knowledge. . . . How can one be astonished tliat with sucli qualities Abel- ard gained an extraordinary ascendency over his age; that, having become tlie intellectual ruler and, as it were, the dictator of the thought of the twelfth centurj', he should have succeeded in attracting to his cliair and in retaining around it thousands of young men ; the first germ of those assemblages of students who were to constitute the universities several years later ? ... It is not alone by the outward success of his scholastic apostolate that Abelanl merits consideration as tlie precursor of the modern spirit and the pro- moter of the foundation of tlie universities; it is also by his doctrine, or at least by his method. ... No one claims that Abelarcf was the tlrst ■who, in the Middle /. gcs, had introiluced dialect- ics into theology, reason into authority. In the ninth century, Scotus Erigena had already said : 'Authority is derived from reason.' Scholasti- ^ cism, which is nothing but logic enlightening theology, an effort of reason to demonstrate dogma, had begun before Abclard ; but it was he who gave movement and life to the method by lending it his power and his renown." — Q. Com- payre, Abelard, pi. 1, eh. 2-3. Latin Language. — "Qreek was an unknown tongue : only a very few of tlie Latin classics re- ceived a perfunctory attention: Bocthius was preferred to Cicero, and the Moral Sentences ascribed to Cato to either. Rules couched in barbarous Latin verse were committed to mem- orj'. Aristotle was known only in incorrect Latin translations, which many of the taught, and some of the teachers probably, supposed to be the originals. Matters were not mended when the student, having passed tlirougl. the preliminary course of arts, advanced to the SDudy of the sciences. Theology meant an acquaint- ance with the ' Sentences ' of Peter Lombard, or, in other cases, with the 'Summa' of Thomas Aquinas; in medicine, Galen was an authority from which there was no appeal. On every side the student was fenced round by traditions and prejudices, through which it was impossible to break. In truth, he had no means of knowing that there was a wider and fairer world beyond. Till tlie elassicid revival came, every decade made the yoke of prescription heavier, and each generation of students, therefore, a feebler copy of the last." — C. Beard, Martin Luther and the Iteformation, ch. 3. — "What at first had been everywhere a Greek became in Western Europe a Latin religion. The discipline of Rome main- tained the body of doctrine which the thought of Greece had defined. A new I^atin vcrtjlnn, super- seding alike the venerable Qreek translation of the Old Testament and the original words of Evangelists and Apostles, became the received text of Holy Scripture. Tlie Latin Fathers ac- (|uired an autliority scarcely less binding. The ritual, lessons, and hymns of the Church were Latin. Ecclesiastics transacted the Imsincss of civil depart ment8re(|Uiring education. Libraries were armories of the Church : grammar was part of her drill. The humblest scholar was enlisted in her .service: she recruited her ranks by found- ing Latin schools. ' Education in tlio rudiments of Latin,' says Hallani, 'was imparted to a greater number of individuals tlian at present ; ' and, as they had more use for it tlian at present, it was longer retained. If a boy of i.umble birtli had a taste' for letters, or if a boy of high birth had a distaste for arms, the first step was to learn Latin. Ills foot was then on tlie ladder. He might ri.sc by tlie good ofHces of his family to a bishopric, or to tlie papacy itself by merit and tlie grace of God. Latin enabled a Greek from Tarsus (Theodore) to liecome the founder of learning in the Englisli church ; and a Vorksliire- man (Alciiin) to organize tlic schools of Charle- magne. Without Ijatin, our Englisli Winfrid (St. Boniface) could not have been apostle of Germany and reformer of the Frankisli Church ; or the German Albert, master at Paris of Thomas Aquinas; or Nicholas Breaksiicare, Pope of Rome. With it, Western Christendom was one vast field of labor: calls for self-sacriflcc, or offers of promotion, might come from north or south, from east or west. Thus in tlie Jliddle Ages Latin was made the groundwork of educa- tion; not for the beauty of its classical litera- ture, nor because the study of a dead language was the '>est mental gymnastic, or the only means of acquiring a masterly free<lom in tlie use of living tongues, but because it was the language of educated men throughout West- ern Europe, employed for public business, litera- ture, pliilosophy, and science; above all, in Go I's providence, essential to tlie unity, and therefore enforced by tlie authority of, the West- em Church." — C. 8. Parker, Essay on tJie His- tory of Classical Education (quoted in Dr. Jlen^y Barnard's " Letters, Essays and Tlioughts on Studies and Conduct," p. 467). France. — "The countries of western Europe, leavened, all of them, by the one spirit of the feudal and catholie Middle Age, formed in some sense one community, and were more associated than they have been since the feudal ,md catiiolic unity of the Middle Age has disappearod and given place to the divided and various life of modern Europe. In the medireval community France held the first place. It is now well known that to place in the i5tli century the revival of intellectual life and the re-establishment of civ- ilisation, and to treat the period between the 5th century, when ancient civilisation was ruined by the barbarians, and the 15th, when the life and intellect of this civilisation reappeared and transformed the world, aa one ciiaos, is a mistake. The chaos ends about the 10th century ; in the 11th there truly comes the first re-establishment of civilisation, the first revival of intellectual life ; the principal centre of this revival is France, its chief monuments of literature are in the French language, its chief monuments of art are the French cathedrals. This revival fills the 12th and 694 EDUCATION. The Vnlvrrilly of l\xri; EDUCATION. 13th centuries with its activity nnd witli its worlis ; all this tlnio France lias the lead ; In the 14th cen- tury the lead passes to Italy; but now comes the coiuniencenient of a wholly new period, the period of the Henaissance properly so culled, tho beginning of modern European life, the (easing of tlie life of the feudal and catholic Middle Age. Tlie anterior and less glorious I'enaissiuice, the Iienais.sancc witliin the limits of the Middle Age itself, a revival wlilch came to a stop and could not successfully devclono itself, but wideh has yet left i)rofound traces in our spirit and our liter- ature, — this revival belongs chietly to France. France, then, may well serve as a typical country %vherein to trace tho mediieval growth of intel- lect and learning; above all she may so stand for ns, whose connection with her In the Middle Age, owing to our Norman kings and the currency of her language among our cultivated class, was so peculiarly close; so close that the literary and Intellectual development of tho two co\uitries at that time interndngles, and no important event can happen in that of the one without straight- way allecting and interesting that of the other. . . . With the hostility of the long Fr2H.t>. Wars of Edward tho Tlnrd comes the estraugement, never afterwards diminishing but always increas- ing." — M. Arnold, Schoolt and Uideenitiea on the Continent, eh. 1. — University of Paris. — "Tho name of Abelard recalls tho European celebrity and immense intellectual ferment of this school [of Paris] in the 12tli century. But it was in tlie first year of the following century, the 13th, that it received a charter from Philip Augustus, and thenceforth the iiumo of University of Paris takes the place of tliat of School of Paris. F'orty-nino years later was founded University College, ().\- lord, tlie oldest college of tho oldest English Uni- versity. Four nations composed the University of Paris, — the nation of Franco, tho nation oi Picardy, the ni\tion of Normandy, and (signal mark of the clcso intercourse wliich then existed between Franco and us! ) the nation of England. The four nations united formed tho faculty of arts. The faculty of theology was created in 1257, that of law in 1271, that of medicine in 1274. Tlieology, law, and medicine liad each their Dean ; arts Iiad four Procurators, one for each of the four nations composing this faculty. Arts elected the rector of the University, and had possession of the University chest and archives. Th'! pro- eminence of the Faculty of Arts indicates, ai.' in- deed docs the very development of the Univer- sity, an idea, gradually strengthening itself, of a lay instruction to be no longer absorbed in the- ology, but separable from it. Tho growth of a lay and modern spirit in society, the prepon- derance of tho crown over the papacy, of the civil over tho ecclesiastical power, is the great feature of French history in tlio 14th century, and to this century belongs tho liiglicst develop- ment of the University. . . . The importance of the University in the 13th and 14th centuries was extraordinary. Jlen's minds were possessed with a wonderful zeal for knowledge, or what was then thought knowledge, and the University of Paris was tlic great fount from wliicli this knowl- edge issued. Tlie University and those depend- ing on it made at this time, it is said, actually a third of the population of Paris ; when tho Uni- versity went on a solemn occasion in procession to Saint Denis, the head of tlie procession, it is said, had reached St. Denis before the end of it had left its starting pla^'c in Paris. It had im- munities from taxation, it had Jurisdiction of its own, and its ini'inbcrs claime^l 'o lie e.veiiipt from that of the jirovost of Paris; the kings of Franco strongly favoured the Univei-sily, and leaned to its Hide when the municipal and academical authorities wer<^ in conllict; if at any time the University thought itself serioi dy aggrieved, it had recourse to a measure win 'h threw I'aris into dismay, — 't shut up its siliools and sus- pended its lectures. ■ In a liody of this kind tho dlscii)line could not be strict, and the colleges were created to supply centres of di.sciplini' which the University in itself, — an apparatus merely of teachei's and lecturerooms, — did not provide. The 14th century is the time when, one after another, with wonderful rapidity, the French col- leges appeared. Navarre, Montaigu, Ilarcourt, names so famlliiir in tlie school annals of France, date from the (list ipiarter of the 14th century. The College of Navarre was founded by tho (|ueeii of Philip the Fair, in 1304; tho College of Montaigu, where Erasmus, Rabelais, and Igna- tius Ijoyola were in their time students, was founded in 1314 by two members of the family of Montaigu, one of tliem Arciibishop of Houen. The majority of these colleges were founded by magnates of the church, and designed to main- tain a certain number of bursars, or scholars, during tlieir university course. . . . Along with the University of Paris there existed in Franco, in tlio 14th century, the Universities of Orleans, Angers, Toulouse, and .Montpelller. Orleans was tho great French school for the study of the civil law. . . . The civil law was studiously kept away from the University of Paris, for fear it sliould drive out other studies, and especially the study of theology ; so late as the year 1079 thero was no chair of Itoman or even of Frencli law in the University of Paris. Tlie strongtii of this University was concentrated on theology and arts, and its celebrity arose from the multitude of students whicli in tlicse branches of instruction it attracted." — M. Arnold, SchimU and UnUxr- sities on the Continent, eh. 1. — The Sorbonne. — The University of Paris acquired the name of "the Sorbonne" "from Robert of Sorbon, aulic cliaplain of St. Louis, who established one of the 63 colleges of the University. . . . The name of Sorbonne was first applied to tlie theological fac'ilty only ; but at length the whole University received this designation." — J. Alzog, Manual of Univerml Church lliatory, v. 9, p. 2i, footnote. — The Nations. — "The precise date of the or- ganization at Paris of the four Nations which maintui.ied themselves there until the latest days of tlie university escapes the most minute re- search. Neitlier for the Nations nor for tho Fac- ulties was tliere any sudden blossoming, but rather a slow evolution, an insensible preparation for a definite condition. Already at tho close of the twelfth century there is mention in contem- porary documents of the various provinces of the s<)iool of Paris. Tlie Nations are mentioned inti lis of Gregory IX. (1231) and of Inno- cent M.j). In 1245, they already elect their atteno,. 'lo beadles. In 1349, the existence of the lo, Nations — France, Picardy, Nor- mandy, and England — is proved by their quar- rels over the election of a rector. . . . Until the definitive constitution of tho Faculties, that is, until 1270 or 1280, tlio four Nations included the totality of students and masters. After tho 695 EDUCATION. Htudy of Homan I jaw. EDUCATION. formntion lA thr FiuMiltlts, tlio four Nations comprised only llio iiirnilHtrH of tlie Fiicuity of Arts iiiul tliose stuilvnls of otiu'r Fiu'iiltivs wlio \\w\ not yvt ()l)tiiiii('il tli(> griuic of Uaclielor of Arts. Tlio tliri'o superior Fiieiilties, Theology, Medicine, mid liUw, Imd notliing in common thcnceforwiird witli tlie Nations. ... At Uo- logna, us at I'arls, tliu Nations wcro constituted In tli(^ eiirly years of tlio tlilrtecnth century, but under a slightly different form. There the studeiiLs were grouped in two distinct associa- tions, the Ultramonlanes and tliu Citramontanus, the foreigners and tlic Italians, who formed two universities, the Transalpine and tlio Cisalpine, each with ita chiefs, who were not styled procu- rators but counsellors ; the first was composed of eighteen Nations ond the second of seventeen. At I'lidua twenty-two Nations were enumerated. Montpellicr hiul onlv three in 1339, — the Cat«- laus, the Uurgundlans, the l'roven(,'als; each Bub-divided, however, into numerous groups. Orleans had ten: France, Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne, Plcardy, Normandy, Toiiraine, Quyanne, and Scotland ; Poitiers had four: France, Aquitaine, Touraine, and Uerry; Prague had four also, in imitation of I'arls; Lerula had twelve, in Imitation of Uologna, etc. But whetlicr more or less numerous, and what- ever their special organization, the Nations in all the universities bore witness to that need of asso- ciation which la one of the characteristics of the Middle Ages. . . One of the consequences of their organization was to prevent the blending and fusion of races, and to maintain the distinc- tion of provinces and nationalities among the pupils of the same university." — 0. Compayre, Ahdanl, pt. 2, rh. 3. Italy: Revived Study of Roman Law. — "It is known that Justinian established in Home a school of law, sinular to those of Constantinople and Berytus. When liome ceased to be subject to Byzantine rule, this law-school seems to have been transferred to Ravenna, wlierc it continued to keep alive the knowledge of the Justinian sys- tem. That system continued to be known and used, from century to century, in a tradition never wholly iatcrruptcd, especially in the free cities of Northern Italy. It seems even to have Eenetrated beyond Italy into Southern Prance, ut it was destined to have, at the beginning of the twelfth century, a very extraordinary revival. This revival was i)art of a general movement of the European mind which makes its appearance at that epoch. The darkness which settled down on the world, at the time of the barbarian inva- sions, had its midnight In the ninth and tenth centuries. In the eleventh, signs of progress and improvement begin to show themselves, becom- ing more distinct towards its close, when the period of the Crusades was opening upon Europe. Just at this time we find a famous school of law established in Bologna, and frequented by multi- tudes of pupils, not only from all parts of Italy, but from Germany, France, and other countries. The basis of all its instruction was the Corpus Juris Civilis [see Coiirus Junis Civilis]. Its teachers, who constitute a series of distinguished jurists extending over a century and a half, de- voted themselves to the work of expounding the text and elucidating the principles of the Corpus Juris, and especially the Digest. From the form in which they recorded and handed down the re- sults of their studies, they have obtained the name of glossators. On their copies of the Cor- pus Juris they wcro accustomed to write glosses, 1. e., brief marginal explanations and remarks. Thest- glos.ses came at length to be an Imnuaiso literature. . . . Here, then. In this school of tho glossators, ut Bologna, in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries, the awakened mind of Europu was brought to recognize the value of the Corpus Juris, the almost inexhaustible treasure of jur- istic principles, nrecepts, conceptions, reasonings, stored up in it.' — Jus. lladley, Intnxl. to Hoimiii L:ve, led. 2. — University of Bologna. — " In tho twelfth century the law seli<M)lof the University of Bologna eclipsed all others in Europe. Tho two great branches of legal study in tho middle ai.>e8, tlie Roman law and the canon law, began in the teaching of Iriierius and Gratian at liologna in the tirst half of the twelftli centurj. At the beginning of this century the name ot university tlrst replaces that of school; and it is said that tlie groat university degree, that of doctor, was tlrst instituted at Bologna, and that the ceremony for conferring it wiis ilevised there. From Bo- logna tho degree and its ceremonial travelled to Paris. A bull of Pope Ilonorius, in 1220, says that the study of ' bonio litcne ' had at that time made the city of Bologna famous throughout tho world. Twelve thousand students from all parts of Europe are said to have been congregated there at once. The dilTercnt nations liad their colleges, and of colleges ut Bologna there were fourteen. These were founded and endowed by the liberal- ity of private persons; tho university professors, the source of attraction to this multitude of stu- dents, were puiil by the municipality, who found their reward in tlio fume, business, and import- ance brought to their town by the university. The municipalities of the great cities of northern and central Italy were not slow in following tho example of Bologna; in tho thirteenth century Padua, Mmlena, Piacenza, Purmu, Ferrara, had each its university. Frederick II. founded that of Naples in 1224; in tlie fourteenth century were added those of Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, and Turin. Colleges of examiners, or, as wo should say, boards, were created by Papal bull to examine in tlicologv, and by imperial decree to examine in law and medicine. It was in these studies of law and medicine tluit the Italian universities were chiefly distinguished." — M. Arnold, Schools and Universities on the Continent, ch. 0. — "The Bologna school of jurisprudence was several times threatened with total extinction. In the repeated difflculties with the city the students would march out of the town, bound bv a solemn oath not to return ; and if a compromise was to be effected, a papal dispensation from that oath must first be obtained. Generally on such oc- casions, the privileges of the university were ro- afflrmed and often enlarged. In other cases, a quarrel between tho pope and the city, and the ban placed over the latter, obliged the students to leave ; and then the city often planned and furthered tho removal of the university. King Frederic II., in 1220, during the war against Bologna, dissolved the school of jurisprudence, which seems to have been not at all affected thereby, and he formally recalled that ordinance in the following year. Originally tho only school in Bologna was the school of jurisprudence, and in connection witli it alone a university could be formed. . . . Subsequently eminent teachers of medicine and tlie liberal arts appeared, and their 696 EDUCATION. tftdlmvl rtnttan Univrrtititt. EDUCATION. puptls, too, nought to form n unlvcniily and to cliooMi tlivir own roctor. Ah liitu n.t 1205 tliiH iti- noviition w«H (llnputcd by the jurists iiiul Inter- dicted by the elty, so that tlicy had to connect thomsclves with the university of Jurisprudence. Hut a fuw years later wo tind them already In possession again of a few sectors, and In IHltl their right was formally recognl/.ed In a com- ])romlgu between the university of Jurisprudence and the city. The students called themsflves ' philosophi et mcdici ' or ' physici ' ; also l)y the common name of ' artistic.' Finally a school of theology, founded by pope Innocent VI., was added in the second half of the 14th century; it was placed under the bishop, and organized In imitation of the 8cIi(k>I at I'arls, so that It was a ' universitns magistrorum,' not ' scholarium.' As, however, by this arrangement the students of theology ir. the theological university had no civil privileges of tlieir own, they were con- sidered individually as belonging to the 'artistie. ' From this time liologna had four iiniversilieH, two of Jurisprudence, the one of medicine and fihllosophy, and the theological, the first two laving no connection with the others, forming a unit, and therefore fre(piently designated as one university." — F. C. 8a\'eny, The Unirentilien of the .\[i(Uile A<je» (Hdriiiird'a A}ii. Journal of Edii- cation, V. 22, pp. 278-270).— Other Universities. — "Tlic oklest and most fre(|uente(l university in Italy, that of Hologna, is represented as hav- ing flourished in tlie twelfth century. Its pros- perity in early times depended greatly on the personal conduct of the principal profcs.sor8, who, when tlicy were not satisfied with their entertain- ment, were in tlie habit of seceding with their pupils to other cities. Thus high schools were opened from time to time in Modena, I{cggio, and clsowhere by teachers who broke the oaths that bound them to reslile in Hologna, ond fixed their centro of education in a rival town. To make such temporary changes was not dilllcult in an ago when what wc have to call an university, consisted of masters and scholars, witho\it col- lege buildings, without libraries, without endow- ments, and without scientific ajmaratus. The tcchnlcol name for such institutions seems to have been 'studium scholarium,' Italianised into ' studio ' or ' studio pubblico.' Among the more permanent results of thjso secessions may bo mentioned the cstabllsliment of the high school at Viconza by trauslation from Bologna in 1204, and the opening of a school at Arczzo under bimilar circumstances In 131.'); the great Univer- sity of Padua first saw the light in consequence of political discords forcing the professors to quit Bologna for .a season. The first half of the thir- teenth century witnessed the foundation of these ' studi ' in considerable numbers. Tluit of Ver- celll was opened in 1228, the municipality pro- viding two certiflcd copyists for the convenience of students who might wish to purchase text- books. In 1224 tlio Emperor Frederick II., to whom the south of Italy owed a precocious em- inence in literature, established the University of Naples by an Imperial diploma. With a view to rendering it the chief seat of learning in his dominions, he forbade the subjects of the Regno to frequent other schools, and suppressed the University of Bologna by letters general. There- upon Bologna Joined the Lombard League, de- fied tlie Emperor, and refused to close the schools, which numbered at that period about ten thou- ^^ 697 ■and students of various nationalities. In 1227 Frederick revoked Ills edict, and Mologna n>- niaincti thcnceforwanl unmolested. I'olltlcal an(( internal vIclsNitudcH, alTectlng all the Italian uni- versities at this period, interrupted lh(! proB pcrity of that of Naples. In th(! middle of thu thirteenth century Salenio proved a dangerous rival. . . . An important group of 'studi pub- blicl ' owed their origin to Papal or Imperial char- ters in the first hall of the fourteenth century. Thii' of Perugia was founded in l:l()7 by a liull of Clement V. That of Homo dated from IHOII, In which year Honiface VIII. gave it a constl tution by a special edict; but the tnuislation of tlu' I'apal Bee to Avignon caused it to fall into iircmaturc decadence. Tho University of Pisa had already existed for some years, when It re- ceived a charter in 184!l from Clement VI. That of Florence whs first founded In IMl. . . . Tho subjects taught in tho high schools were Canon and (,'ivll Law, Medicine, and TlK'ology. Tlieso faculties, important for the iirofussional educa- tion of the public, formed the staple of tho a('a<lemical curriciiluin. Cliairs of Khetorlc, Phi- losophy, and Astronomy were added according Uf occasion, the last sometimes including the study of Judicial astrology. If wo en(iuiro how the humanists or professors of classic literature were related to tho universities, wc find that, at first at any rate, they always occupied as<'con(l rank. The permanent teaching remained In tho hands of jurists, wlio enjoyed life engagements at a high rate of pay, while the Latinistsand Orecians could only aspire to the temporary occupation of the Chair of Hhetorlc, with salaries considerably lower than tiioso of lawyers or physicians." — J. A. Symonds, Henainmincc in Italy : the Jlevival of lyfai inij, ch. 8. — "Few of tho Italian universi- ties iw themselves in their full vigour till tho thirteenth and fourteentli centuries, when tho in- crease of wealth rendered a more systematic caro for education possible. At first there were gen- erally three sorts of professorships — ono for civil law, another for canonical law, the third for medi- cine; in course of time professorships of rhetoric, of philosophy, and of astronomy were added, tho lastcommonh', though not always, identical with astrology. The salaries varied greatly in dilTcr- cnt cases. Sometimes a capital sum was paid down. Witli tho spread of culture competition became so active that tho difTerent universities tried to entice away distinguished tcacliers from ono another, under wliicli circumstances Hologna is said to have sometimes devoted the half of its public income (20,000 ducats) to tho university. Tlie api)ointmcnt3 were as a rule made only for a certain time, sometimes for only half a year, so that the teachers were forced to lead a wander- ing life, like actors. Appointments for life were, however, not unknown. ... Of the chairs which have been mentioned, that of rhetoric was es- pecially sought by the humanist; yet it depended only on his familiarity with tho matterof ancient learning wliether or no ho could aspire to those of law, medicine, pliilosophy, or astronomy. The inward conditions of the science of the day were as variable as tho outward conditions of tlie teacher. Certain jurists and pliyslcians received by far tho largest salaries of all, tlie former chiefly as consulting lawyers for tlie suits and claims of the sUite which employed them. . . . Personal intercourse between tlie teachers and the taught, public disputations, the constant use EDUCATION. Mulhrvnl nrrman Unlvertilif. EDUCATION. of Liilln iinil iiftrii of OrL'i'k, the frr(|iu'iit rhnnKcit of li'ctiii'i'rs 1111(1 the M^itrclly of ImkiUh, k<^v<! tliii itiiilii'H of llijit tliMu u colour wlilcli wi> citiinot ri'pri'Hi'iil to ourm'lvi'H without t'lTort. Tlicri! wcri) Liitlii Ht'liiHils ill every town of tliu leiiNt Import- luice, not by iiiiy iiieitiiH merely lis prepuriilorv to IiIkIkt ecliieiition, but keeitiiKe, next to reiidtni;. writliifi;, anil iiritlimelli', the knowledge of Lutlii wan II nriessity; mill lifter liiitin eaiiie lo^le. It U to Ih' noleil piirtieiiliuly that these hcIiooIh tlid not )le|ien<I on I lie C'hiireii, 1ml on the miinieipal- ity;Homuof them, too, were merely priviite en- terprises. Tills Hchool system, direeteil liy u few tlislinKnisheil humiinists, not only attained H re- markahle perfection of orKaidsiition, hut became an iiiHtnimeiitof hixlier education in tlie miHlern (M!iiseof the plirnst'." — J. Uurckhiirdt, 'J7ie Civiti- iiitian of the I'lriml of the liiiKiiiisnncc in Italy, ». 1, /)/. «, (•/(. 5. Germany.— Prag^ue and its OiTsprinjr. — •• Tlia earliest university in Uermany was that of J'raxue. It was in 184M, under the Kmperor Charles IV., when the taste for letters had re- vived so slirnally in Kurope, when England niav be said to hiive possessed her two old universi- ties iilready for three centuries, Paris her 8or- boime already for four, that tliis university was erected as the llrstof Uennim Universities. Tlie idea originated in the mind of the Emneror, who was educated In Paris, at the universitv of tliiit town, and was eagerly taken up by the towns- peojile of that ancient and wealthy city, for tliey foresaw that allliienee would shower upon them If they could induce a numerous crowd of stu- dents to lloek together within their walls. But the Pope and tlie Einijcror took nu active part in favouring and autiiori/ing tlic institution, they wilhngTv grunted to it wide privileges, und made it entirely independent of Church und State. The teaching of the professors, and the studies of the students, were submitt4?d to no control whatever. After the miKlel of the Uni- versity of Paris, they divided themselves Into different faculties, ami made four such divisions — one for divinity, another for medical science, a tliird for law, und a fourth for philosophy. The last order comprised those who tuught and learned the line arts und the sciences, which two departments were separate ut Sorbonne.* All the German universities have preserved this outwurd constitution, and in this, us in many other cir- cumstances, the precedent of Prague has liud a prevuiling intluenee on her younger sister insti- tutions. The same thing nioy be said jjarticu- larly of the disciplinary tone of the university. In other countries, universities sprang from rigid clerical and monastic institutions, or bore a more or less ecclesiastical character which imposed upon thera certain more retired liabits, and a severer kind of discipline. Prague took from the beginning a course widely different. The students, who were partly Germans, partly of Slavonian blood, enjoyed a boundless liberty. They lodged in the houses of the townsjjeople, and by their riclies, their mental superiority, ond their number (they are recorded to have been as many us twenty thousand in tlie year 1400), became the undisputed masters of the city. The professors and the inhabitants of Prague, far from checking them, rather protected the prerogatives of the student";, for they found out thut ^I their prosperity depended on them. . . . Not two generations had passed since the erec- tliiii of nn institution thus conNlltuteil, iM'fom lliiHS and .li'i'iime of i'ragtU! iH'gan to teach the iH'ceHsity of ail entire ri'tLrmalion of the Churcli. Tlie plienonieiion is chiiruclcrlKtic of the bold spirit of ln(|uiry that must liiive grown up ut the new University. However, the iiolltlciil coiimc. iiiiences tliut atliiided the ))roniulgaliiiii of siiili iloctrines led iilnioHt In llie di.Hsolutlon of tlm University itself. Por, the German part of the students broke up, in <'oniH'i|Uenre of repnitid und serious (|UurrelH that hud taken place with the lioheniian iinil Slavonic party, und went lo I.eip/.lg, where Hlraightwiiy a new and purely Geriimn Univeinllv wiis erected. While Prague became the seal of a protracted and sanguinary war, a great niimlH'r of Universities rtm; into exlHtcnce around it. and attracted the crowds that hud formerly Hoiked to the lioheniian cupi- t4tl. It upiieureii us if Germany, tliough it liiid received the impuiHe from abroad, would leave all other countriis iK'hiiid itself in tlie erection and promotion of these learned institutions, for nil the districts of the land vied witli eucli other in creating tinivei'silies. Thus arose tliose of Uostoek, Ingolstiidt, Vienna, Ileldellicrg, Co- logne, Krfurt, Tuhingen, Greifswulde, Trives, JMuyence and Billes — schools which have partly dlsuppeured again during the political utornis of subsequent ages. The beginning of the six- teenth century udded to them one at Frunkfort on the Oder, and another, the most illustrious of all, Wittenlierg. Everyone who is ncquainted with the history and origin of tlie Heformation, knows what an important part the latter of these universities took in the weighty transactions of those times. . . . AVittenberg remained by no means the only cliami)ion of Protestantism. At Marburg, Jeuu, KOnigsberg, and Helmstadt, universities of a iirofessedly Protestant character were erected. 1 liese schools became the cnidio and nurseries of the Heformation." — 7'he Univer- sities of Oermany {D'ibtin University Mnyazine, v. 4(5, p:\ 83-S5). — "The German universities of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were founded in the following order; Prague, 1348; Vienna, 1388; Erfurt, 131)2; Leipsic, 1409; Hostock, 141U; Greifswuld, 1450; Freiburg, 1457; IngolsUult, 1472; Tubingen, 1477; and Mayence, 1477. Thus, it will be seen that they were established in quick succession — nn unmistakable proof of the growing scientitlc interest of tlie age." — F. V. N. Painter, Ilist. of Education, ch. 3, sect, 5 (k). Netherlands. — " Tradition reports that a school had . . . been founded at Utrecht, by some zeal- ous missionary, in the time of Charles Martel, at which his son Pepin received his education. However this may have been, the renown of the Utreclit School of St. Martin is of very ancient date. . . . During the invasion by the Nonnans, this scliool at Utrecht whs suppressed, but was reGstnblislied in 017, and regained its former re- nown. The Emperor, Henry tlie Fowler, placed here his three sons, Otto, Henry and Bruno, to be educated, of whom tlie lust become afterward archbishop of Cologne and archduke of Lottring- en, and was noted for his extraordinary learn- ing and friendship for the poet Prudentius. At the beginning of the 13tli century, Utrecht pos- sessed no less than five flourishing schools, sev- eral of which had each a 'rector' in addition to tlie priests who had the general control. At about tlie same time, several convents became distinguished as educational institutions, especi- 698 EDUCATION. Vnlvtrrtlln. EDUCATION. ftlly thono of Esmnnd, NymwcRrn. Mlddli'lmrif, In /t'lilaiiil. ami Ailiiwort, iicnr ()r(liiiri>;i'ri In llollllllll, HH in liclKilllll, ill Itllllltillll to tiK'HrlllllllH timt WITH nttiu'licd to tlio cittlicilriilM, cDnvcntH, and cliaptiTH. tlicri! wcriM'Ntaltlinlii'd In tliiToiirsc iif tliu IWL'Iflli century, l«y tlii' mure wcallliy conuiiuuitlcH, piililic wIiooIh CHpiclally iliHlKncd for tliu inHtruction of tlie citl/rnH and laity. It Ih alHo wortliy of noticu tliat tlio autliorlly to open Hucli Hcliooln wax nlwnyH derived from llie coiintH — by whom It was eonferred, KometiineH upon tliH I'lties 08 an OHpi'clu'. j -'"<<. .^re, and aometlmoH u|H)n merely private perMonii uh ii marl( of particidur favor. The Jurisdiction of the feudal lords was the same lien: as In Bel- gium; but while in the latter country, with tlic exception perliaps of the elementary schools in wmio of the cities, the rl^htof supervision ('Very- where devolved upon the chapters, instruction In these public schools of Holland was wholly withdrawn from the clerj^y, and they were made essentially secular In their character. The privi- lege uf thus establishing hc1i(h)Is was conferred upon some of the cities at the following dates: Dort, bv Count Floris V., A. I). TJIM); the Hague, i;V>a — "l.evden, 11)24— and I^)tterdam In VKH, by Wllllaiii III.; Delft and Amsterdam, in l:m, bV William IV. ; l.eyden again, IK.IT — llaarlein, llV/ — Allimar, i;)U8 — lloorn, la.W .md lilOO — th( Hague, IHOU — Schiedam and Ondewater, l;)l)4 — and Kolterdam, in U03, bv Albert of liavaria. These scIkhjIs, adils Stallaert, on the authority of Duihlingh, were generally stvled 'Scliool en Schryl'ambacht,' '8ch(M)le en Kos- teru,' (school and writing olflces, scIkkjIs and clerks' liouses,) and the ' Bchoolmljsters' (sch(X)l- masters) were looked upon us professional men or craftsmen — as was the case also In Uelgluin, where they formed distinct giiiMs and frater- nities. These public schools of Holland were divided into ' large ' and ' small ' schools, (groote en bijschoolen,) Latin being taught in the first division. The institution at Zwolle, attained spe- cial notoriety in *he fourteenth century, under the direction of the celebrated .lohan C'ele. Ac- cording to Thomas i\ Kempis and Ten Uus.sche, its pu|)ils numbered about a thousand, gathered from Holland, Belgium, and the principal pro- vinces of Germany." — PiMic liiittruetiim in Hul- land (llnrnard'K Am. Jminitilof Kdiiention, v. 14). England. — Early Oxford.— "The University of O.xford did not spring into being in any par- ticular year, or at the bidding of any particular founder: it was not established by any formal charter of incorporation. Taking its rise in a small and obscure association of teachers and learners, it developed spontaneously into a large and importunt body, long before its existence was recognised by prince or by prelate. There were certainly schools at Oxford in tlie reign of Henry I., but tlie previous history of the place does not throw much light on their origin, or explain the causes of tlieir popularity. The town seems to have jjrown up under the shadow of u nunnery, which is said to have lieen founded by St. Frideswyde as far back as the eighth century. Its authentic annals, however, begin with tlie year 913, when it was occupied and annexed by Edward the Elder, King of the West Saxons. . . . Oxford was considereil a place of great strategical importance in the eleventh cen- tury. Its ])08ition on tlie borders of Mercia and "Wessex rendered it also purticulurly conveuieat for parley* lirtween Englishmen and Dnnrt. and for great national aHsemlilleH. . . . Itetalning for a while its rank as oiu' of tlie chli'f centres of political life in the south of England, and us a HUltaldi^ meeting place for parliaments and synisls, Oxford became thenceforward more and more distinctively known as a seat of learning and a iiuhmtv of clerks. Thi' scIhnOs whh'h ex- isted at Oxford iH'fore tin' reign of King .lolin, are so rnddom and so brietly noticed in contem- porary records, that it woulil Ih' dlllieult to show iiow they develop< I into a great unlveiHity, If It were not for Hie analogy of kindred liiHtltutionH in otiier countrle.^. Tliere can be little doubt, however, tiiat the idea of a iiidversity, the sys- tems of degrees and faculties, and the nomen- clature of till' chief academical ollleers, were alike lmporte<l Into England from alinmil. . . . Ill the I'lirliesl and broacU'st sense of the term, a university had no necessary coiinevioii with sihools or literature, bcliig merely a comniuiiity of Individuals bound togi'ther by some more or less acknowledged tie. Uegardcd collectively in tills light, the Inhabitants of any nartlciilar town might Ih' said to constitute a university, and in point of fact the Comnionalty of the townsmen of Oxford was sometimes descrllK'd as a uiilver- sity In formal documents of the niiddli' ages. The term was, however, specially applied to the whole liocly of iiersous freciuenling the schools of a large stiidlum. Ultimately it came to be employed in a technical sense as synony- mous with studlum, todenote the institution Itself. This last use of the term seems to lie of English origin, for the University of Oxfonl is mentioned as such in writs and ordinances of the years 1238, 1240, and 12.W, whereas the greater seat of learn- ing on the banks of the Seine was, until the year 12(t;j, styled 'the University of the Masters,' or 'Hie Un'iverslty of the Scli<ilars,' of Paris. The .sy.stem of academical degrees dates from the second half of tlu^ twelftli century." — II. C. M. Lyte. A Ilinturn uf the Unieeniti/ of Oxford, eh. 1. — " In the early Oxford ... of the twelfth and most of the thirteenth centuries, colleges with tlieir statutes were unknown. 'The University was the only corporation of the learned, and she struggled into existence after hard tights with the town, the .lews, tiie Friars, the Pajial courts. The history of tlie University l)egins with the thirt,enth century. She may be sai<l to have come into being as soon as slie possessed common funds and rents, as sewn as tines were assigned, or iK'ncfttctions contributed to the maintenance of scholars. Now the first recorded fine is the pay- ment of fifty-two shillings by the townsmen of Oxford as jjart of thecomijensationforthe hang- ing of certain clerks. In the year 1214 the Papal Legate, in a letter to his 'beloved sons in Christ, the burg 'sses of Oxford,' bade them ex- cuse the 'scholars studying in Oxford' half the rent of their halls, or hospltia, for the space of ten years. The burghers were also to do pen- ance, and to fea.sttlie jioorer students once a-year; but the important point is, that they had to pay that large yearly fine ' projiter Buspendium deri- corum' — all for the hangin;' of tlie clerks. Twenty-six years after this (Ijcision of the Le- gate, Robert Orosstestc, the great Bishop of Lincoln, organized tlie payment "■'•' distribution of the fine, and founded the fir he cliesls, the cliest of St. Frideswyde. '. ■ ' ?st8 were a kind of Mout de Picte, and i^ id them 699 EDUCATION. Oxford in the Middle Aget. EDUCATION. ■was nt first the favourite form of benefaction. Money was left in tlii.s or that chest, from which students and n'.asters would borrow, (m the se- curity of pledj^es, which were generally books, '.;ups, dagf^ers, and so forth. Now, in this alfair of 121 1 we have a strange pas.'jiigo of liistory, which hai)pily illustrates the growtli of the Uni- versity. Th(! beginning of the whole nitair was the quarrel with the town, winch in 1209, liad hanged two clerks, 'in contempt of clerical lib- erty.' The .iiatter was taken up by the Legate — \n those bad years of King John, the Pope's viceroy in England — and out of the liumiliation of the town the University gained money, privi- leges, and halls at low rental. These were pre- cisely the things that the University wanteii. About these matters there was a constant strife, in which tlie Kings as a rule, took part witli the University. . . . Thus gradually the Universitv got the command of the police, obtained i)nvi- leges whicli enslaved the city, and became mas- ters where they had once been despised, starve- ling scholars. . . . The result, in tlie long run, was that the University received from Edward III. 'a most large charier, contaii'lng many lib- erties, some that they had before, and other.s that he had taken away from the town.' Thus Edward granted to the University ' the custody of tlie assize of breitd, wine, and ale,' the super- vising of measures ano weights, the f ie power of clearing the strcetf of the town ar i suburbs. Moreover, the Mayor and the chi . Burghers werccondcmned yearly to a. sort o. - .blicpenance and humiliation on St. Scholastica's Day. Thus, by the middle of the fourteenth century, the strife of Town and Gown had ended in the complete victory of tliL latter." — A Lang, Oxford, ch. 2. — "To mark off the Middle Age from the Mortem Period of the University is certainly very diftl- cult. Indeed the earlier times do not form a homogeneous whole, but appear perpetually shifting and preparing for a new state. The main transition however was undoubtedly about llie middle of the fourteenth century; and the Keformation, a remarkable crisis, did but con- firm what had been in progress for more than ^ century and a half: so that tlie Middle Age of the University contained the thirteenth century, and barely the former half of the fourteenth. . . . There is no question, that during this Middle Age the English Universities were dis- tinguished far more than ever afterwards by energy and variety of intellect. Later times cannot produce a concentration of men eminent in all the learning and science of the ago, such as Oxford and Cambridge then poured forth, mightily influencing the intellectual develope- meut of all Western Christendom. Thur names indeed may warn us against an undiscriminating disparagement of the Monasteries, as ' hotbeds of ignorance and stupidity' ; when to many of those worthies were monks of the Benedictine, Fran- ciscan, Dominican, Carmelite, or reformed Au- gustinian order. But in consequence of ciiis sur- jiassing celebrity, Oxford became the focus of a prodigious congregation of students, to which iiotliing afterwanis bore comparison. The same was i)robably true of Cambridge in relative pro- ■nortion. ... A tolerably well uuthenticated . count, attacked of late by und..e scjpticism, fixes [tlie number of] those of Oxford at thirty thousand, in the luiddle of the thirteenth century. The want indeed of contemporary evidcuce must make us cautious of yielding absolute be- lief to this: in fact we have no document on this matter even as old as the Ueformation. . . . Not only did the Church and the new orders of Monks draw great numbers thillier, but the Universities themselves were vast High Schools, comprising boys and even children. It is not extravagant, if Cambridge was not y(^t in great repute, to imagine fifteen thousand students of all ages at Oxford, and as many more attendants. Nor was it at all difficult to accommodate them in the lowii, when Oxford contained three hundred Halls and Inns: and as several students dwelt in one room, and were not careful for luxury, each building en an average might easily hold one hundred persons. The style of Architecture was of the simplest and cheapest kind, and might have been easily run up on a sudden demand: and a rich flat country, with abundant water carriage, needed ii;)t ^o want provisions. That the numbers were vast, is implirri iiy the highly respectable evidence whicli ^> have, that as many as three thousand niigr d from Oxford on the riots of 1209; although i ue Chronicler ex- pressly states that not all joined in the secession. Ill the reign of Henry III. the reduced numbers are reckoned at fifteen thousand. After the middle of the fourteenth century, tbej' were still as many as from three to four thousand; and after the Ueformation they mount again to five thousand. On the whole therefore the computa- tion of thirty thousand, as the maximuiii, may seem, if not positively true, yet the nearest approximation which we can expect. 0/ Cam- bridge we know no more tlian that the numbers were much lower than at Oxford. . . . Wliilc in the general, there was a substantial identity be- tween the scholastic leaning of Oxford and of Paris, yet Oxford was niore eager in following positive science : — and this, although such studies were disparaged by the Church, and therefore by the public. Indeed originally the Church had been on the opposite side; but the speculative tendency of the times liad carried her over, so that speculation and theology went hand in hand. In the middle of the thirteentli century we may name Robert Grosseteste and John Basingstock, as cultivating physical science, and (more re- markable still) the Franciscan Roger Bacon: a man ivhom the vulgar held to be equal to Mer- lin and Michael Scott m a magician, and whom posterity ranks by the noblest spirits of the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries, in all branches of positive science, — except theolopy . A biography of Roger Bacoa should surely be ' -ittenl Unfor- tunately, we k-ow nothing as to the influence of these men on their times, nor can we even learn whether the University itself was at all interested in their studies. . . . Wo have ... a strange testimony to the interest which in the beginning of tho fourteenth century the mass of the stu- dents took in the speculation of their elde.s; for the street rows were carried on under the banners of Nominalists and Realists. . . . The coarse and ferocious manners iirevalent in the Univer- sities of tho JUddIc Ages arc every where in singular contrast to thair intellectual pretensions: but the Universities of the Continent were peace- ful, decorous, dignif.^J, — compared with those of England. The storms which were elsewhere occasional, were at Oxford the permanent atnios- Sliere. For nearly two centuries our 'Poster lother ' of Oxford lived in a din of uuiiterrupled 700 EDUCATION. Cambridge in the Middle Ayei. EDUCATION. furio\i8 wiirfiirc; nation against nation, stliool against school, faculty agi.inst faculty. Halls, and finally Colleges, came forward as combatants ; and the University, as a whole, against tlie Town; or against, the Bishop of Lincoln ; or against the Archbishop of Canterbury. Nor was Cambridge much less pugnacious." — V. A. lluber, Tlic Kitij- IMi Uiiicersilies, v. 1, rli. 3. — Cambridge. — " Various facts and circuniHtanccs . . . lend probahility to the belief that, long before the time when we have certain 'evidence of th(i exist- ence of Cambridge as a univer.sity, the work of instruction was there going on. The Cambori- tum of the Roman period, the Grantebrycgr of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Orentebrige of Domesday, must always have been a place of sonic importance. It was tlie meeting-place of two great Konian roads, — Akeinan ■'street, running east and west, and the Via Devana, traversing the north and the south. . . . Coiitined at first to the rising ground on the left bank of the river, it numbered at the time of the Norman Conquest as many as four hundred houses, of which twenty- seven were jnilled down to make way for the castle erected by William the Conciueror. . . . Under the castle walls, with the view, it would seem, of making some atonement for many a deed of violence and wror.g, the Nornnin slierilT, Picot by name, founded the Church of St. Giles, and instituted in connection witli it a small body of secular canons. . . . Tiie year 1113 was marked by the occurrence of an event of consid- erable importance in connection with the subse- ijuent hibtory of the university. The canons of St. C iles, attended by a lo"gi; concourse of the clcrg ' and laity, crossed the river, and took up their iibodc in a nev and spacious priory at Barn- well. . . . Tlie prioy at Barnwell, whi^.lialway- ranked among the wealthiest of the Cambridge foundations, seems from tlie first to have been closely associated with the university ; and the earliest university c.\liibitions were those founded by William de Kilkenny, bishop of Ely from 1254 to 1257, for two students of divinity, who were to receive annually ihe sum ot two marks from the priory. In the year 1133 was foimdcd the nunnery of St. Rhadegund, whioh, in the reign of Henry VII., was ei.nverted into Jesus College; and in 1135 a hospital of Augustinian canons, dedicated to St. .lohn the Evangelist, was founded by Henry Frost, a burgess of the town. ... It ^^ as ... a very important foun- dation, inasmuch as it not only becanie by con- version in the si.vtee.tli century the College of St. John the Evangelist, but was also . . . tlie foundation of which Peterhou.se, the earliest Cambridge college, may be said to liave been in a certain sense the offshoot. ... In the year 1299 there broke out at Paris a feud of more than ordinary gravity between the students and the citizens. Large numbers of the former mi- grated to the English sliores; and Cand)ridge, from its proximity to tlie eastern coast, and as the centre where Prince Louis, but a few years before, had raised the royal standard, seems to have attracted the great majority. . . . The university of Cambridge, like tliat of Oxford, was modelled mainly on the university of Paris Its constitution was conscqii"ntly oligarchic rather than d^'inocratic, the government being entirely in the hands of the teacliing body, while the bachelors and undcrgruluates had no share in the passing of new laws and regulations," — J B. JIullinger, .^1 IIMorjinf the Unirerritynf Cam- hi-iihjc, (•/(. 1-2. — "The earliest existing college at Cambridge is St. Peter's, generally called Peterhouse, liistoricallv founded A. I). 1257, in the rel/'n of Henry IIL The Universities are known merely by their situation; as Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, St. Andrews'; but each ciillcge has a na.ne, according to the taste of its founder or first members, 'riicse names may bo divided into two clas.ses, those named from the founder, as Pembroke, Clare, Oonville and Caius (this had two founders, the restorer bein;^ Dr. Kaye, who Latinized his name into Caiu.s, always pronounced Keys), King's (from King Henry VI.), — (Jueens' (from the queens both of Henry yi. and Edward IV.), Sidney Sussex, and Down- ing; — and those namti. for beatified persons and objects of w'Tsliip, — St. Peter's, St. John's, St. Catharine's, St. .'^lary Magdalene, Corpus Christi, ICniinanuel, Jesus Christ's, Trinity and Trinity Hall. The apparent impiety of these names, wliieli in one case of an ancient name now change.l, was absolutely revolting, entirely passes off witli a few days' use. St. Catliarine's soon becomes Cats, and St. Jlary Magdalene is always called .Maudlin. You readily admit the superiority of Trinity over Corpus ale; go to see a friend who lives on Christ's iiicce ; and iiear with regret, that in the boat races Emmanuel has been bumped by Jesus; an epithet being probably prefixed to tin last name. t"l'"sc names of course were given in monkish ■.iiics, — Trinity by Henry VIII., but all the colleges except one were founded before the reign of James I. . . . The seventeen col- leges . . . are distinct corporations. Their foun- dations, resources, buildings, governing authori- ties an<l students, are entirely separate from each other. Nor has any one college the least control in any other. The plan, however, is much the same in all. The presiding autliority is iu most cases called the Master, or speaking more gener- ally, the Head ; while the net proceeds of oil the college funds — for the vast wealth supposed to belong to the University really is in the hands of tlie separate colleges — are distributed among certain of tlie graduates, called Fellows, who wi'h the Head constitute the corporation. These corporations give board nnd lodging on various tenns to such tiudents as choose to enter the col- lege and comply with its rules, in order to re- ceive its assistance in obtaining the honors of the University ; and caeli college offers its own pe- culiar iiulucements to students. . . . The whole body of the colleges, taken together, constitutes the University. ^W those who after residing se 'cn years ot some college, have taken the de- gree ot JIaster of Arts, or a higher one, and keep their name on tlie college lists by a small poy- ment, vote at the University elections for mem- bers )f Parliament and all other officers, and manage its aitairs. . . . The colleges, at certain intervals, present such students as comply with their conditions to University authorities fo- .na- triculation, for certain examinations, and for the reception of degrees ; and until one receives the degree of JIaster of Arts, he must remain a mem- ber of some college, not necessaiily one and the same, to hold I'liy University privileges. After tliisstajve, lie may, under certain conditions, break up all his college connections, and yet remain ii the University. " — W. Everett, On the dun., led , Spain and Portugal. — "Salamanca was for. I- e^d in the 13th century, and received Its s'...'i..es 701 EDUCATION. Ideas of Rabelais. EDUCATION. In the year 1422, out of which was devulop"'! the followiug constitution. Thu rector, witli eiglit 'consiliurii,' all students, who could appoint tlieir 8Ucct'S.s<)r», administered tiic university. The (locators render the oalli of obedience to the rector. The ' domscholaster ' is the proper judge of tlic seh(H)l ; but he swears obedience to the rector. A baclielor of law must have studied six years, and after live years more he could become licen- tiate. Ip filling a paid teachership, the doctor was chosi'n next in age of those holding the diploma, unless a great majority of the scholars objected, in which cas<' the rector and council decided. This liberal constitution for the scholars is in harmony with the code of Alphonzo X., soon after 1250, in which the liberty of instruction was made a geneml principle of law. This constitution con- tinued in Salamanca into the 17th century, for Ketes speaks of ;i disputation which the rector held at that time under his presidency. Alcala university was established by cardinal Xiraenes, In 1510, for the promotion of the study of the- ology and philosophy, for which reason it con- tained a faculty of canon, but not of civil law. The center of the university was the college of St. TIdefons, consisting of thirty-three prebendaries, who could be teachers or scholars, since for ad- mission were required only poverty, the age of twenty, and the comf.etiou of the course of the preparatory colleges. These thirty-three mem- bers elected annually a rector and three council- ors, who controlled the entire university. Sala- ried teachers were elected, not by the rector and council alone, but by all the students. It had wide reputation. AVhen visited by Francis I., while a prisoner of Spain, lie was welcomed by 11,000 students. Tlie Coimbra university, in Portugal, leceived statutes in 1309, from king Dionysuis, with a constitution similar to those just mentioned." — F. C. Savigny, The Unireni- ties of the Middle Affes {IJarnard a Am. Journul of Education, v. 22, ;). 334). Renaissance. "Modem education begins (vith the Renais- sance. The educational methods that we the* begin to discern will doubtless not be developed and perfected till a later period ; the new doc- trines will pass into practice only gradually, and with th" general progress of the times. But from the sixteenth century education is in possession of its essential principles. . . . The men of the sixteenth century having renewed with classical anti(iuity an intercourse that had been too long interrupted, it was natural that they should pro- pose to the young the study of the Greeks and the Romans. What is called secondary instruc- tion really dates from the sixteenth century. The crude works of the Sliddle Ago are suc- ceeded by the elegant compositions of Athens and Rome, henceforth niacle accessible to all through the art of printing ; and, with the read- ing of the ancient authors,there reappear through the fruitful effect of imitation, their qualities of correctness in thought, of literary taste, and of elegance in form. In France, as in Italy, the national tongues, moulded, and, as it were, con- secrated by writers of genius, become the instru- ments of an intellectual propaganda. Artistic taste, revived by the rich products of a race of incomparable artists, gives an extension to the horizon of life, and creates a new class of emo- tions. Finally, the Protestant Itefonu develops individual thouglit and free iiuiuirj-, an<l ot the same time, by its success, it impo8<;8 still greater elTorts on the Catholic Church. This is not say- ing that everything is faultless in the educational efforts of the sixteenth century. First, as Is natural for innovators, the thought of the teach- ers of thill period is marked by enthusiasm ratlier than by precision. They are more zealous in pointing out the end to be attained, than exact in determining the means to be employed. Be- sides, some of them are content to emancipate the mind, but forget to give it proper direction. Finally, others make a wrong use of the ancients; thev arc too much preoccupied with the form ami the puriiy of language ; they fall into Cice- roinania, and it is not their fault if a new super- stition, that of rhetoric, does not succeed the old superstition, thct of the Syllogism." — Q. Corn- pay re. The Hint, of Ped(i(jori!i,ch. 5 (ncct. 92-93). Rabelais' Gargrantua. — Rabelais' description of the imaginary education of Gargantua gives us the educational ideas of a man of genius in the 16th century: "Gargantua, "ho writes, "awaked, then, about four o'clock in the morning. Whilst they were rubbing him, there was read unto him some chapter of the Iloly Scripture aloud and clearly, with a pronunciation fit for the matter, and hereunto was appointed a young page born in Basclie, named Anagnostes. According to the purpose and argument of tliat lesson, he often- times gave himself to revere, adore, pray, and send up his supplications to that goo<l God whoso word did show His majesty and marvellous judg- ments. Then his master fcpoated what had been read, expounding un.o him the ?nost obscure and dilHcult points. They then considered the face of the sky, if it was such as they had observed it th" night before, and into what signs the sun was entering, as also the moon for that day. This done, he was appareled, combed, curled, trimmed and perfumed, during which time they repeated to him the lessons of the day before. He himself said them by heart, and upon them grounded practical cases concerning the estate of man, which he would prosecute sometimes two or three hours, but ordinarily they ceased as soon as ho was fully clothed. 'Then for tlirs , good hours there was reading. This done, they went forth, still conferring of the substance of the reading, and disported themselves at ball, tennis, or the 'pile trigone,' gallantly exercising their bodies, as before they had done their minds. All their play was but in liberty, for they left off when they pleased, and that was commonly when they did sweiit, or were otherwise wearv. Then were they very well dried and rubbeJ, shifted their shirts, and walking soberly, went to see if dinnei was ready. Whilst they stayed for that, they did clearly and eloquently recite some sen- tences that *hey had retained of the lecture. In the mean time blaster Appetite came, and then very orderly sat they down at table. At the be- ginning of the meal there was read some pliMisant liistory of ancient prowess, until h had taken his wino. Then, if they thought good, they con- tinued reading, or began to discourse merrily to- gether; speaking tirst of the virtue, propriety, elUcacy, and nature of all that was served in at that table; of bread, of wine, of water, of salt, of flesh, flsli, fruits, herbs, roots, and of their dressing. By means whereof. In learned in a little time all the passages that on these subjects are to he found in Pliny, Atheua'us, Dloscorides, 702 EDUCATION. Kennissnnre in Ciennany. EDUCATION. Julius, Pollux, Galen, Porphyrins, Oppimi, Poly- bius, Heliwlorus, Aristotle, (Kliiiii, mid others. "Whilst they talked of these things, many times, to be the more certain, they caused the very hooks to be brought to the table, and so well and perfectly did he in his memory retain the things above sidd, that in that time there was not a physician that knew half so mueh as he did. Afterwards tlicy conferred of the lessons rend in the morning, and ending their repast with some conserve of quince, h(! wai'.ed his hands and eyes with fair fresli water, and gave thanks imto God in some fine canticle, made in pniise of the divine bounty and niuuificcnco. This done, they brought in cards, not to play, but to learn a thousand pretty tricks ami new inventions, which were all grounded upon arithmetic. By this means he fell in love with that numerical science, and every day after dinner and supper he pas.se(l liis time in it as pleasantly as he was wont to do at cards and dice. . . . After this they recreated themselves with singing musically, "in four or five parts, or upon a set theme, as it best pleased them. In matter of musical instruments, he learned to play the lute, the spinet, the harp, the German tlute, the flute with nine holes, the violin, and the sackbut. This hour thus spent, he be- t(K)k himself to his piincipal study for three hours together, or more, as well to repeat his matutinal lectures as to proceed in the book wherein he was, ns also to write handsome.;', to draw ond form the antique and Honian letters. This being done, they went out of their house, and with them a young gentleman of Touraine, named Gymnast, who taught the art of riding. Changing then his clothes, he moimted on any kind of horse, which he made to bound in the air, to i'lmp the J itch, to leap tlie palisade, and to turn short in a ring botli to the right and left hand. . . . The time being thus bestowed, and himself rubbed, cleansed, and refreshed with other clotlies, they returned fair and softly ; and Iiassing through certain mc dows, or otlier grassy ])laces, behtld the trees and piants, comparing the'-i witli what is written of them in the books of the ancients, such as Theophrsistus, Dioscori- des, Marinus. Pliny, Nicander, Maccr, and Galen, and carried home to the house great hand fids of them, whereof a young page called iUuzotomos had charge — together witli hoes, picks, spuds, pruning-knives, and other instruments requisite for herborising. Being come to tlieir lodging, whilst oupper was making ready, they repealed certain passages of tliat which had been rend, and then sat down at table. . . . During that repast was continued the lesson read at dinner as long as they thought gowl : tlie rest was spent in go(S discourse, learned and profltiible. After that they had giv -n thanks, they set aernselves to sing musically, and play upon liarmonious in- struments, or nt those pretty sports made with cards, dice or cups, — tlius made merry till it was time to go to bed ; and sometimes they would go iiake visits unto learned men, or to such as had been travellers in strange countries. At full nigl •■ they went into the most open place of the house to see the face of the sky, and there beheld the comets, if nny were, ns likewise the figures, situations, aspects, oppositions, and conjunctions of the stars. Then with his mmt^T did he briefly recapitulate, aft<;r the manner of the Pythagor- eans, tliat which he liad read, seen, learned, done, and understood in the whole course of that day. Then they prayed unto God the Creator, falling down before llim, and stn^ngthening their faith towards Him, and glorifying Ilim for His l)ound- less bounty; and, giving thanks unto Him for the time that was past, they recommended them- selves to His divine clemency for the future. AV'hich being done, they entered upon their re- jiose. " — W. Besant, Headings in Uabelain, pp. Germany. — "The schools of France and Italy owed litth^ to the great mmlern movement of the Itenaissance. In both these countries that move- ment operated, in l)oth it produced mighty re- sults; but of the ollicial establishments for in- struction it did not get hold. In Italy the media' val routine in those establishments at first opposed a passive resistance to it; presently came ihe Catholic reaction, and sedulously shut it out from them. In France the Uenaisrance did not become a power in the State, and the routine of the schools suflleed to exclude the new inrtuence till it took for itself other chan- nels than the schools. But in Germany the Benaissaneo became a power in the State ; allied with the Heforniation, where the Reformation triumphed in German countries the Renaissance triumphed witli it, and entered with it, into the public sclicK)l3. Melancthon and Erasmus were not merely enemies and snbverters of the domin- ion of the Church of Rome, they were eminent humanists; and with the great but single excep- tion of Lutlicr, the chief German reformers were all of them diatinguished friends of the new classical learning, as well as of Protestantism. The Romish party was in Gennan countries the ignorant party also, the party untouched by the humanities and by culture. Perhaps one reason why in England our schools have not had the life and growth of the schools of Germany and Holland is to be found in the separation, with us, of the po^ver of the Reformation and the power of the Renaissance. With us, too, the keformation triumphed and got possession of our schools; but our leading refonners were not at the same time, like those of Germany, the na- tion's leading spiiits in intellect and culture. In Germany the best spirits of the nation were then the reformers; in England our best spirits, — Shakspeare, Bacon, Spenser, — were men of the Renaissance, not men of the Reformation, and our reformers were men of the second order. The Reformation, tlierefore, otetting hold of the schools in England was a very t'ilTerent force, a force far inferior in light, resources, and pros- pects, to the Reformation getting hold of the schools in Germany. But in Germany, n'?ver- theless, as Protestant orthodoxy grew petrified like Catholic orthodoxy, and as, in consequence, Protestantism flagged and lost the powerful im- ])iilse with wh'ch it started, the school flagged also, and in the middle of the last century the classical teaching of Germany, in spite of a few honourable names like Gesner's, Erncsti's, and Heyne'3, seems to liave lost all the spirit and power of the lOtli century humanists, to hav;: been sinkins, into a mere church appendage, and fast becoming torpid. A theological student, making his livelihood by teaching till he io\\\i\ get appointed to a parish, was the usual .school- master. 'The schools will never be better,' said their gveat renovator, Friedrich August Wolf, the well-kn wn critic of Homer, ' so long at the 8ch(X)l- masti- . are theologians by profession. A theoiog- 703 EDUCATION. Reformation niul Kducaiion. EDUCATION. Iriil course in n university, witli its sninttoring of <;Ias8i('S, is about ns good a prcjia ration for a classi- <«l master as a course of feiulal law would be.' Wolf's coming to llalle in ITHH, invited l)y Von Zedlitz, the minister for ])ul)lie worship tinder Frcderieli the Great, a sovereign whose civil ])ri)- jects and labours were not less acti vu and remark- able than his military, marlis an era from which the classical schools of (iermany, reviving the dor- mant sparli planted in them by the Hennissance, awoke to a w.w life." — ,M. Arnold, Schools and UniTcrsities on the Continent, rh. 14. — It is sur- pri.sing to learn "how much was left untaught. In the sixteenth century, in the schools. Geog- raphy and history were entirely omitted in every scheme of instruction, mathematics played but a subordinate part, while not a thouglit was be- stowed either upon natural phiUxsophy or natural history Every moment and every effort were given to the classical languages, chielly to the Latin. But we should be overhasty, should we conclude, witliout further inquiry, tliat these branches, tliu .. .'glected in the .scliools, were tliere- fore every where luitaught. Perhaps they were reserved for the university alone, and there, too, for the professors of the pliilosophical faculty, as is the case even at the present day witli natu- ral philo.sophy and natural history; nay, logic, which was a regular scliool study in tlie six- tcenth century, is, in our day, widely cultivated at the university. We must, therefore, in order to form a, just judgment upon the range of sub- jects taught in the sixtecntli century, as well as upon the methods of instruction, lirst cast a glance at the state of the universities of that period, especially in the philosophical faculties. A prominent source of information on this point is to be found in the statutes of the University of Wittenberg, revised by Melancthon, in the year 1545. The tlieological faculty appears, by these statutes, to have consisted of four profes- sors, who read lectures on tlie Old and New Testaments, — chietiy on the Psalms, Genesis, Isaiali, the Gospel of John, end the Epistle to the Romans. They also taught dogmatics, com-, menting upon the Nicene jreed and Augustine's book, ' De spiritu et litera.' The Wittenberg lecture schedide for the year 1561, is to tlie same efifcct; only we have here, besides exegesis and dogmatics, catechetics likewise. According to the statutes, the philosophical faculty was com- posed of ten professors. The lirst was to read upon logic and rhetoric ; the second, upon phys- ics, and the second book of Pliny's natural his- tory ; the third, upon arithmetic and the ' Sphere ' of John de Sacro Busto ; the fourth, upon Euclid, the 'TheoriiB Planetarum' of Burbach, and Ptolemy's 'Almagest'; the fiftn and sixth, upon the Latin poets and Cicero • tlie seventh, who was the ' Pedagogus,' explained to the younger class, Latin Grnii..nar, Linacer 'de emendata structuia L'ltini sermonis,' Terence, and .some of Plautus; the eiglith, who was the 'Physicus,' explained Aristotle's ' Physics and Diostujrides ' ; the nintii gave instruction in Hebrew; and tlie tenth re- viewed thi; Greek Graniinar, read lectures on Greek Classics at intervals, also on one of St. Paul's Epistles, and, at tlie same time, on ethics. . . . Thus the philoso])liical faculty ajipears to have been the most fully .^presented at Wit- tenberg, as it included ten professors, while the theological had but four, the* medical but three. . . We have a . . . criterion by which to judge of the limited nature of the studies of that peri(xl, as compared with the wide field which they cover at the present day, in the then almost total lack of academical apparatus and (Miuipinents. The only exception was to be found in tlie case of libraries; but, liow meager and insudlcient all collections of books must have been at that time, when books were few in num- ber and very costly, will ajipear from the fiiiKl, for example, which was assigned to the Witten- berg library; it yielded annually but one hun- dred gulden, (about $03,) witli which, ' for tlio profit of the university and chiefly of the poorer students therein, the library may be adorned and enriched with books in all the faculties and in every art, as well in the Hebrew and Greek tongues.' Of other apparatus, such as collec- tions in natural history, anatomical museums, botanical gardens, and the like, we find no men- tion ; and the less, inasmuch as there was no need of them in elucidation of sucli lectures as the professors ordinarily gave. When Paul Eber, the theologian, read lectures upon anat- omy, he made no use of dis.sectiou. " — K. von Haiimer, UniverHtief in the Sixteenth Century (Barnard's Am. Journal of Education, v. 5, pp. 535-540).— Luther and the Schools.— " Luther . . . felt that, to streugt.ieu the Reformation, it was requisite to work on the young, to improve the schools, and to propagi'te throughout Chris- tendom the knowledge necessary for a profound study of the holy Scriptures. 'Tiiis, accordingly, was one of the objects of his life. lie saw it in particular at the period which we have reached, and wrote to the councillors of all the cities o.' Germany, calling upon them to found Christian schools. 'Dear sirs,' said he, 'we annually ex- pend so much money on arquebuses, roads, and dikes; why should we not spend a little to give one or two schoolmasters to our poor childrent God stands at the door, and knocks ; blessed are we if we open to him. Now the word of God abounds. O my dear Germans, buy, buy, while the market is open before your houses. . . . Busy yourselves with the children,' continues Luther, .stilladdressingthemagistrates; 'fomiany parents are lilte ostriches; they are hardened to- wards their little ones, and satisfied with having laid tlie egg, they care nothing for it afterwards. The prosperity of a city does not consist merely in heaping up great treasures, in building strong walls, in erecting splendid mansions, in possess- ing glittering arms. If madmen fall upon it, its ruin will only be the greater. '.;'lie true wealth of a city, its safety, and its strength, is to have many learned, serious, worthy, well-educated citizens. And whom must we blame because there are so few at present, except you magis- trates, who have allowed our youth to grow up like trees in a forest? ' Luther jjiirticiilarly in- sisted on tlie necessity of studying literature and languages: ' What use is there, it may be asked, in learning Latin, Greek, and Hebrew? We can read the Bible very well in German. Without languages,' replies hu, 'we could not have re- ceived the gospel. . . . Languages are the scab- bard that c^iiitains the sword of the Spirit ; tliey are the casket that guards the jewels ; they arc the vessel that holds the wine; and as the gospel says, they are the baskets in whieli the loaves and fishes arc kept to feed the multitude. If we neglect the languages, we shall not only eventu- ally lose the gospel, but be unable to speak or 704 EDUCATION. trethren of the Common Lot. EDUCATION. write In Latin or in Qorniiui. No sooner did luou cease to cultivate tlicni tlinn Cliristendoni de- clined, even until it foil under the power of the pope. IJut now that languaKe.s are again honored, they shed such light that all the world is aston- ished, and every one is forced to acknowledge that our gospel is almost us pure as that of the apos- tles themselves. In former times the holy fathers were fre((uently mistaken, bei';iu.se they were ignorant of languages. ... If the languages had not made me positive us to the meaning of the word, I might have been a pious monk, and quietly preached the truth in llie obscurity of tlie cloister; but I should have left the pope, the sophists, and their antichristian empire still un- shaken." — J. II. Merle d'Aubigne, JfiKt. of the lieforiiuitioii of the 10</t Century, hk. 10, ch. 0(i'. !!). — Lutlier, in his appeal to tlie municipal magis- trates of Germany, calls for the organization of common schools to be supported at public cost. "Finally, he give° his thought to the means of re- cruiting the teaching service. ' Since the greatest ■evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we must not wait till they come forward of themselves ; we must take the trouble to educate them and pre- pare them.' To this end Luther keeps the best of the pup"" boys and girls, for a longer time in school; g ves them special instructors, and •opens libraries for their use. In liis thouglit he never distinguislies women teacliers from men ieachers; he wants schools for girls as well as for boys. Only, not to biirden parents and <liven children from their daily lubor, he re- quires but little time for seliool duties. . . . ' My opinion is [he says] tliat we must send the ■boys to school one or two hours a dav , and have tliem learn a trade at home for the rest of the time. It is desirable that th'jse two occupations march side by side.'. . . JjUther gives the lirst jilace to the teaching of religion : ' Is it not reason- able that every Christian sho\dd know the Gospel at the age of nine or ten?' Then come the lan- guages, not, as might be hoped, the mother tongue, but the learned languages, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Luiher had not yet been sufliciently Tid of the old spirit to comprehend that the language of the people ought to bo the basis of universal instruction. He loft to Comenius tlie glory of making the linal separation of the primary school from the Latin school. . . . Physical exercises are not forgotten in Luther's pedagogical regulations. But I'e attaches an especial importance to singing. ' Unless a school- master know how to sing, I think him of no ac- count.' ' Music,' he says again, ' is a half disci- pline which makes men more indulgent and niore mild. ' At tlie same time that he extends the programme of studies, Luther introduces u new spirit into methods. He wishes more lib- erty and more joy in the school. ' Solomon,' he says, ' is u truly royal schoolmaster. He does not, like the monks, forbid the young tc go into the world and be happy. Even as Anselm said : " A young man turned aside Trom the world is like a young tree made to grow in a vase. " The monks have imprisoned young men like birds in their cage, it is dangerous to isolate the young. ' ... Do not let ourselves imagine, however, that Luther at once exercised a decisive influence on the current educatioiuof his day, A few schools were founded, called writing schools; but the Thirty Years' War, and other events, interruiited the niovemeut of which Luther has the honor of i.aving been the originator. ... In the first half of the seventeenth century, Paticii, a German, and Comenius, u Slave, were, with very diller- ent degrees of merit, the heirs of the educational thought of Luther. With something of the eharlatan and the demagogue, Uatich devoted his life to propagating a novel art of teaching, wliich he called didactics, and to wliich he at- tributed marvels. He pretended, by his method of languages, to teach Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, in six montlis. But nevertheless, out of many strange perfonnai'.ces and lofty promises, there i.ssue some thoughts of practical value. The tirst merit ol Uatich was to give the mother tongue, the German language, the precedence over the ancient languages." — G. Compavre, Ttu: Hint. ofl'c(Uifjoffi/.'ch. « (sect. 130-134). Netherlands. — " When learning began to re- vive after the long sleep of the Middle Ages, Italy experienced the first impulse. Next camo Germany and t he conti{;uous provinces of the Low Countries. The force of the movement in these regions is .shown by an event of groat import- ance, not always noticed by historians. In 1400, tliere was established at Deventer, in the north- eastern iirovince of the Netherlands, an associa- tion or brotherliood, usually called Brethren of the Life in Common [s('e Bii'vninuN op the C0M.M0N Lot]. In their strict lives, partial com- munity of goods, iiulustry in manual labor, fer- vent devotion, and tendency to mj'stieism, they bore some resemblance to the modern Jloravians. But they wore strikingly distinguished from the members of tliis sect by their earnest cultivation of knowledge, which was encouraged among them- selves and promoted among others by schools, both for primary and advanced education. In 1430, the Brethren had established forty-flve branches, and by 1400 more than thrice that number. They wore scattered through different parts of Germany and the Low Countries, each with its school subordinate to tlie head college at Deventer. It was in these schools, in the middle of the fifteenth century, that a few Ger- mans and Netherlanders were, as Hallam says, roused to acquire that extensive knowledge of the ancient languages which Italy as yet exclu- sively possessed. Their names should never be omitted in any remombra jce of the revival of letters ; for great was their influence upon sub- sequent times. Chief among these men were Wessels, of Groningon, 'one of those who con- tributed most steadily to tlie purification of re- ligion ' ; Ilegius of Deventer, under whom Eras- mus obtained his early education, and who probably was the first man to print Greek north of the Alps; Dringeberg, who founded a good school in Alsace; and Longius. who presided over one at JIunster. Thanks to tlic influence of tlicse pioneers in learning, education had made great progress among the Netherlanders by the middle of the sixteenth century. . . . We have the testimony of the Italian Guicciardini to the fact tliat before tlie outbrealc of tlie war with Spain oven tlie peasants in Holland could road and write well. As the war went on, the people showed their determination tliat in this matter there should be no retrogression. In the first Synod of Dort, held in 1574, tlie clergy expressed their opinion upon the subject by passing a reso- lution or ordinance which, among otllor things, directed ' the servants of the Church' to obtain from the magistrates in every locality a pcnnis- 705 EDUCATION. The Univertity of Leytlen, EDUCATION. sion for the Appointment of schoolmnsterg, und (in (irdcr for tlicir eompenwitlon iis in tlic past. B«'f()rt' many yciirs Imd eliipscd tlie civil uiitliori- tics l)('j;iiii to establish a general Bchool sy:item for the country In 1582, the Estati's of Friea- Iiind decreed tiiiit the iidialiitants of towns and villaKes snonld, within tlio Bpaeo of six weeits, provide good and able Uefornied scliooiniastors, und those wlio neglected so to do would be com- pelled to accept the instructors appointed for tliem. This seems to have been the beginnln" of the supervision of education by tin; State, a system which soon spread over tlio whole repub- lic. In these schools, however, alth ii;li they were fostered by tlio State, the teachei ^ seem, in the main, to have been paid by their pupils. But ns years went on, a change came al)out in this [tart of the system. It jirobably was aided by the noteworthy letter which Jolin of Nassau, the oldest brother of William the Silent, the noble veteian who lived luitil 1000, wrote to his son Lewis William, Stadtholder of Friesland. In this letter, wliich is wortliy of a place on tlie walls of every sclioolhouse in America, the gal- lant young Btadt-holdcr is instructed to ui ge on the States-General 'that they, according to the example of the pope and Jesuits, shouUl cstablisli free schools, where children of (luality as well as of poor families, for a very small sum, could bo well and christianly educated and brouglil up. This would be the greatest and most useful work, anil the liigliest service that you could ever accomplisli for God and Christianity, and especially for the Netherlands themselves. . . . In sui.ima, one may jeer at this as popisli tricli- ery, and undervalue it as ono will: there still remains in tlic work an inexpressible benefit. Soldiers and patriots thus educated, with a true knowledge of God and a Cl'ristian conscience, item, churches and schoo s, good libraries, books, und printing-presses, arc better tlian all armies, arsenals, armories, munitions, alliances, and trea- ties that can be hai! ■ r imagimd in the world.' Such were the worda ii v/Iiich the Patriarch of the Nass-tus urged upon liis countrymen a com- mon-school system. In liiOO, when the Pilgrim Fathers took up their residence in Leyden, tlie school hail become the common property of the people, and was paid for among other municipal expenses. It was a land of schools supported by the St8.to — a land, dc cording to Motl.'y, ' where every child went to school, where almost every individual inhabitant could write and read, where even the middle classes were proficient in mathematics and the claasics, and could speak two or more modern languages. ' Does any reader now ask whence the settlers of Plymouth, who came directly from Holland, and the other set- tlers of New England whose Puritan brethren were to be found in thousands throughout the Dutch Hcpublic, derived their ideas of schools first directid, and then impported by the State." — Leyden University. — To commemorate the de- liverance of Leyden from the Spanish siege in 1574 (see Netherlands; A. D. 1573-1574), "and as a reward fur the heroism of the citizens, the Prince of Orange, with the consent of the Es- tates of the provinrj, founded tlie University of Leyden. Still, the figment of allegiance^ re- mained; the people were only fighting for their constitutional rights, and so were doing tlieirduty to the sovereign. Hence the charter of the uni- versity ran in the name of Philip, who was credited with its foundation, as a reward to his subjects for their reliellion against his evil eoiin- sellors and servants, 'especially in consideration of the dilTereiiees of religion, and the great bur- dens and hardships Iiorno by the citizens of our city of Leyden during the war with sucli faith- fulness.' Motley calls this 'ponderous irony,' but tlie Hollanders were able lawyers and in- tended to build on n legal basis. This event marks an epocli in the intellectual history of Holland and of the world. . . . The new univer- sity was opened in 1575, and from the outset, took the highest rank. "■ aking, a few years ago, of its famous senaie chamlier, Niebulir called it 'the nio.st memorable room of Europe in the history of learning.' The first curator was John Van der Does, who had been military commandant of the city during the siege, lie was of u distinguished family, but was still more distinguislied for his learning, his poetical genius, and his valor. Endowed with ample funds, tlio university largely owed its marked pre-eminence to the intelligent foresiglit und wise munificence of its curators. Tliey sought out and obtained tlio most distinguislied scholars of all nations, and to this end spared neither iiuius nor expense. Diplomatic negotiation and even princely mediation were often culled in for the ucquisition of a professor. Hence it was said tliat it surpassed all the universities of Europe in the number of its scliolars of renown. These scholars wer.! treated witli princely honors. . . . Tlio 'mech.nicais'of Holland, as Elizabeth called them, may not have paid the aeeustomed wor- sliip to rank, but to genius and learning they were always willing to do homage. Space would fail for even a brief account of the great men, foreign and native, who illuminated Leyden with tlieir presence. . . . But it was not alone in scholursiiip and in scientific researcli that the University of Leyden gave an impetus to modem thought. Theological disputes were developed there at times, little tempests wliicli threatened destruction to the institution, but they were of short duration. Tlie right of conscience was always r"spected, and in tlie main the right of full and public discussion. . . . When it was settled that dissenters could not be educated in the English universities, th^y fiocked to Leyden in great numbers, making tliat city, next to Edinburgli, their cliief resort. Eleven years after the opening of tlie University of Leyden, tlie Estates of democratic Friesland, amid the din of war, founded the University of Franekcr, an institution wliicli was to become famous us the hiine of Arminius. . . . Both of these uni- VI isities were iierpetuuliy endowed with the proceeds of the ecclesiastical property wliicli liad been confiscated during tlie progress of the war." — D. Campbell, The Puritan in IloUaml, Eng- land, and AmeriM, eh. 3, 20, and 3. England. — "In contemplating the events of the fifteenth anil sixteenth centuries, in their in- fluence on Englisli civilisation, we are reminded once more of tlie futility of certain modern aspirations. No amount of University Commis- sions, nor of well-meant reforms, will change the nature of Englislimeu. It is impossible, by distributions of University prizes i>nd professor- ships, to attract into tlie career of letters that proportion of industry and ingenuity -^hich, in Germany for example, is devoted to the scho- lastic life Politics, trade, law, snort, religion. 706 EDUCATION. rnhlanil St. I'aul'H School. EDUCATION. will claim their own in Knglnnd, just (is they ili(i lit the Uevivnl of Letters, The illustrious cen- tury wliich Italy cnii)l()ye(l in unburyinj?, appro- priating, and enjoying' the treasures of Greek literature and art, our fathers gave, in Kngland, U> dynastic and constitutional sciuabhles, and to religious broils. The Henaissanee in England, and chiefly in O.xford, was like a hitter ami changeful spring. Th"re was an liour of genial warmth, there breathed a wind from the south, in the lifetime of Chaucer; then came frosts and storms; again the brief sunshine of court favour shone on iiteratviro for a wliile, wlien Henry VIII, encouraged study, and Wolsey and Fox- founded Cliri-st (;hureli and Corpus Chrisli Col- lege, once more the had days of religious strife returned, and the promise of learning was de- stroyed. Thus the chief result of the awakening tliought of the fourteenth century in England was not ft lively delight in literature, but the ap- pearance of the Lollards. The intensely ])rac- tical genius of our race turned, not to letters, but to (luestiona about tlie soul and its future, about i)roperty and its distribution. The Lol- lards were put down in O.xford; 'the tares were weeded out' by the House of Lancaster, and in the process the germs of free tliought, of origin- ality, and of a rational education, were de- stroyed. 'Wyclevism did domineer among us,' Bays Wood ; and, in fact, the intellect of the Uni- versity was absorbed, like the intellect of France during tlie lieut of tlie Jansenist controversy, in defending or assailing '267 damned conclusions,' drawn from the books of Wyclife. Tlic Uinver- sity ' lost many of her children thrjugh the pro- fession of Wyclevism.'" — A. Lang, Oxford, ch. 3. — Colet and St. Paul's School.— Dr. John Colet, appointed Dean of St. Paul's in 1505, "resolved, whilst living and in health, to devote his patri- monj' to tlie foundation of a school in St. Paul's Churchyard, wherein 153 children, without any restriction as to nation or country, who could already read and write, and were of 'good parts and capacities,' should receive a sound Cliristian education. The 'Latin adulterate, which igno- rant blind fools brought into this world,' poison- ing thereby ' the oid Latin speecli, and the very Roman tongue used in the time of Tully and Sallust, aiul Virgil and Terence, and learned by St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and St. Augustine,' — all that 'abusion which the later blind world brought in, and which niiiy rather be called Blotteraturu than Literature, ' — should be ' utter- ly abanished and excluded ' oat of this school. The children should be taught good litemture, both Latin and Greek, ' such authors that have with wisdom joined pure chaste eloiiuence' — 'specially Christian authors who wrote their wisdom in clean and chaste Latin, whether in prose or verse ; for,' said Colet, ' my intent is by this school specially to increase knowledge, and worshipping of God and Our Lord Jesus Christ, and good Christian life and manners in the chil- dren.'. . . Tiie building consisted of one large room, divided into an upper and lower school by a curtain, which could be drawn at pleasure, and the charge of the two schools devolved upon a high-master and a sub-master respectively. The forms were arranged so as each to seat si,\- teen boys, and were provided each with a raised desk, at which the head-boy sat as president. The building also embraced an entrance-porch and a little chapel for divine service. Dwelling- houses were erected, adjoining the school, for the residence of tlie two masters; and for their support, Colet obtained, in the spring of 1510, a royal license to transfer to the Wardens and Guild of .Mercers in London, real jiroperty to the value (if t,'.")3 per annum (('(|uivalerit to at least £530 of jiresent money). Of tli';* the head-master was to receive as his .salary £35 (say t'350) and tli(! under-master t'lH (say £180) per annum. Three or four years after, Colet niaih; provision for a chaplain to conduet divine service in the chapel, and to instruct the children in the Cate- chism, the Articles of the faith, and XXw. Teu (,'ommandmeiits, — in Luglish; and ultimately, before his death, he appears to have iiicreaseil the amount of the whole endowment to £1'J3 (say £1,'JOO) per annum. So that it may lie con- sidered, roughly, that the wholi^ endownieiit, in- eluding the buildings, cannot have rejiresented ft less sum than £30,000 or £40,000 of present money. And if Colet thus sacriticed so much of his private fortune to secure a liberal (and it must be conceded Ills was a liberal) provision for tlie remuneration of the masters wlioslio\dd edu- cate his 153 boys, he must surely have had deeply at heart the welfare of the "boys themselves. And, in truth, it was so. Colet was like a father to his sclioolboys. ... It was not to be expected that he should find the school- books of the old grammarians in any way adapt- ed to his i)urpo.se. So at once ho set his learned friends to work to provide him with new ones. The lirst thing wanted was a Latin Grammar for beginners, i.inaere undertook to provide this want, and wrote with great pains and labour, a work in six books, whicli afterwards came into general use. But when Colet saw it, at the risk of displeasing his friend, he put it altogether aside. It was too long and too learned for his 'little beginners.' So ho con- densed within the eompa.ss of ft few pages two little treatises, an 'Accidence' and a 'Syntax,' in the preface to the first of which occur the gentle words quoted above. These little books, after receiving additions from the hands of Eras- mus, Lilly, and others, flnally became generally adopted and known as Lilly s Gramma'-. This rejection of his Grammar seems to have h:on a sore point witli Liiiacre, but Erasmus told Colet not to be too much concerned about it. . . . Erasmus, in the same letter in which he spoke of Linacre's rejected Grammar . . . put on paper Ills notions of what a sehoolmaster ought to be, ond the best method of teaching boys, which ho fancied Colet might not altogether approve, as he was wont somewhat more to despise rheto- ric than Erasmus did. He stated his opinion that — ' In order that tlie te.ieher might be thor- oi'.ghly up to his work, he shouU' not merely bo a master of one particular branch of study. He should himself have travelled through the whole circle of knowledge. In philosophy lie should have studied Plato and Aristotle, Theophrastus and Plotinus; in Theology the Sacred Scriptures, and after them Origeu, Chrysostom, ami Basil among the Greek fathers, and Amtirose and Je- rome among the Latin fathers; amon.g the poets, Ilomei and Ovid; in geography, which is very important in the study of history, Pomponius Mela, Ptolemy, Pliny, Strabo. He should know what ancient names of rivers, mountains, coun- tries, cities, answer to the modern ones ; and the same of trees, animals, instruments, clothes, and 707 BDUCATFON. The Jetult TeacKert. EDUCATrON. Kcms, Willi rcffiird to wliicli It Is incrt'dlldp liow rgnoriiiil I'vcn ('iliicittcil nun iiir. lie Hhould take jiDto of little factH iiboiil ajfrieultiiri', arcliite(!t- ure. luilitary and niliiiary arts. iiicntiDiicd by <II(Ti;r('iil autliors. lie should lie ul)lo to Iriiec the orijfifi of words, their ffradiial eorruptioii in the laM^iiaKes of ('onstantiiiople, Italy, Spain, and Franee. Nothing Hliould l)e beneath his ob- Hervation whieh eiin illustrate history or the ineaninfj of tlie poets. But you will say what u loud you are puttini? on the back of the poor teacher! Ittsso; but I burden Ine one to relieve the many. I want the teaeher to have traversed the wliole range of knowledge, that it may spare eaeh of his sejiolars doing it. A dili- gent and thoroughly competent master might give boys a fair i)rolleiency in both Latin and Greek, in a shorter time and with less labour than the common run of pedagogues take to teach their babble.' On receipt of this . . . C'olet wroto to Erasmus: . . . ' " What I I shall not ap- prove!" So you say! What is tlierc of Eras- imis's that I do not approve?'" — V. Seebohni, T/w. Oj[f(»'il Hc/oniicru, cli. 0. — Ascham and "The Scholemaster." — Roger Ascham, thi^ friend of Lady Jane Grey and the tutor of CJueen Elizabeth, was born in 151.'), and died in IHOS. " It was partly with the view to the instruction of his own children, that he commenced the ' Scholo-mastcr,' the work by which he is most and best known, to which ho did not live to set the last hand. He communicated the design and import of the book in a letter to Sturmius, in which he states, that not being able to leave his sons a largo fortune, ho was resolved to provide them with a preceptor, not one to bo hired for a groat sum of money, but marked out at homo with a homely pen. In the same letter he gives Ills reasons for employing the English language, the capabilities of which ho clearly perceived 4ind candidly acknowledged, a high virtue for a man of that age, who perhaps could have writ- ten Latin to his own satisfartion much more easily than his native tongue. But though the benelit of his own offspring might be his ulti- mate object, the immediate occasion of the work was a conversation at Cecil's, at which Sir Uicli- .ard Sackville expressed great indignation at the severities practiced at Eton and other great schools, so that boys actually ran ivwa," for fear of merciless flagellation. This led to the general subject of school discipline, and the defects in the then established modes of tuition. Ascham ■coinciding with the sentiments of the company, .and proceeding to explain his own views of im- provement, Sackville requested 'dm to commit his opinions to paper and the 'Schole-master' was the result. It was not published till IGTO. . . . We . . . quote a few pass.iges, which throw light upon the author's good sense and good nature. To nil violent coercion, and extreme punishment, he was decidedly opposed : — ' I do agree,' says he, 'wHhall good school-masters in all these points, to liavo children brought to good pcrfcctness in learning, to all lionesty in man- ners; to have all faults rightly amended, and every vice severely corrected, but for the order and way that leadeth rightly to these points, we somewhat dilfcr. ' ' Love is better than fear, gentleness than beating, to bring up a child rightly in learning.' 'I do assure you there is no sucli whetstone to sharpen a good wit, and encourage a will to learning, as is praise. ' . . . 'The scholar is <'ommonly boat for the nniking, when the master were more worthy to be beat for the n\ending, or rather marring, of the same; the mn.slcr many times being a.s ignorant as the child what to say iiroiicrly and litly to the nnit- ler.'. . . 'This will I say, that even the wi.sest of your great beaters do as oft punLsh nature as they do correct faults. Yea many times the bet- ter nature is the sorer punished. For if one by quickness of wit take his l('s.soii readily, another by hardness of wit taketh it not so speedily; the first is always commenile<l, the other is com- monly pimishcd, wiicn a wise schoolmaster shouhl rather discreetly consider the right dispo- sition of both their natures, and not so nuich weigh what either of tliem is able to do, as what cither of them is likely to do hereafter. For this I know, not only by reading of books in my study, but also by experience of life abroad in tho world, that those which be connucmly the wisest, the best learned, and best men also, when they bo old, were never commonly tho ([uickest of wit wlien they were young. Quick wits commonly be apt to take, unaiit to keep. Some are more quick to laiter speedily than bo able to pierc(! far, even like imto oversharp tools, whoso edges be very soon turned. ' " — H. Cole- ridge, liiofiritphid Boreitlh, pji. 328-330. Jesuit Teaching and Schools.— " The educa- tion of youth is set forth in the Formula of Ap- I)roval granted by Paul III. in l'>W," to the phins of Ignatius Loyola for the foundation of the So- ciety of Jesu.s, "as tho fir.st duty embraced by the new Institute. . . . Although the new re- ligious were not at once able to begin the es- tablishment of colleges, yot the plan of those afterwards founded, was gradually ripening in tho sagacious mind of St. Ignatius, wlio looked to these institutions us calculated to oppose the surest bulwarks against the progress of heresy. The first regular college of tho Society was that established at Gandia in l.')46, through the zeal of St. Francis Borgia, third General of the Society; and tho regulations by which it was governed, and which were embodied in the con- stitutions, were oxtendcil to all the Jesuit col- leges afterwards founded. Tho studies were to include theology, both positive and scholastic, ns well as grammar, poetry, rhetoric, and philoso- phy. The course of philosophy was to last three years, that of theology four; and tho Professors of Philosophy .vr're enjoined to treat their sub- ject in such a way as to dispose the mind for the study of theology, instead of setting up faith and reason in ojiposition to one another. The theology of St. Thomas, and the philosoi.hy of Aristotle, wero to be followed, except on those points where tne teaching of the latter was op- posed to tho Catholic faith." — A. T. Driuie, 0km- tian ScIwoIh (iml Sc/wlnis, p. 708. — " As early as the middleof the sixteenth century . . . [tho Society of Jesus] had several colleges in France, particu- larly those of Billom, Mauriac, Itodez, Tournon, •md Pamiers. In 1561 it secured a footing in Paris, notwithstanding tlie resista.'ce of the Par- liament, of tl university, and of tlie bishops themselves. A 4uindred years later it counted nearly fourteen thousand jjupils in the province of Paris alone. The college of Clermont, in 1051, enrolled more than two thousand young men. Tho mi.ldle and higher ch'sses assured to the col- leges of the society au ever- increasing member- ship. At the end of tho seventeenth century. 708 KDUCATION. Schnoln in mnttprn EDUCATION. Ilic Jesuits rould Inscribe on tlie roll of lionor of I heir rlass<'S ii liiiiiilred illiiKtrious imtiies, amoii){ others those of ('oii(h')aiul Liixeniboiir);, Flechier lUiil IJossuet, LamoiKiion ami Si'gwier, l)eseartes, Coriieille. iiiiil MolifTc. In 1710 t'ley controlled «lx hundred and twelve collegcf and a lar^e number of universities. They were the real masters of education, and they niaintaiiie<l this educational supremacy till tin; end of tln^ elgli- tei'uth century. Voltaire wild of thesis teachers: ' The Fatherg tauplit me nothlnji,' hut Latin and nonsense.' But from the seventeenth century, opinions are divided, and the encondums of Bacon and Di'seartes must he ollset by the Heverc judgment of Leibnitz. ' In the matter of educa- tion,' says this great phllosoi)hcr, 'the Jesuits have remained lielow mediocrity.' Directly to the contrary, Ba<'on liad written": ' As to what- ever relates to the instnietion of the young, we must consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there can be nothing that Is better done.' . . . A per- manent and chnractorlstlc feature of the educa- tional policy of the Jesuits Is, that, during the whole course of their history, tlu:_, liavc; delib- erately neglected and disdained primary instruc- tion. The enrtli is covered with their Latin col- leges; and wherever they have been able, they have put their luind.s on the Institutions for uni- versity education ; l)ut in no instance liave they foimded a primary school. Even in their estab- 1! ihmcnt for secondary instruction, they entrust .he lower classes to teachers who do not belong to their order, and reserve to tliemselvcs the direction of the higher classes." — G. Compayre, lli»t. of Peilaiioiiji, pp. 141-143.— See, also, Jesu- its: A. D. 1540-l,'),')e.— "The Jesuits owed their success partly to the very narrow task which they set tliemielves, little beyond the teaching of Latin style, and portly to the careful training which tliey gave tlicir students, a training whicli often degenerated into mere mechanical exercise. But the mainspring of their inliuence -.^us tiie manner in wliicli they worked the dangerous force of emulation. Those pupils wlio were most distinguislied at the end of each mortli received the rank of prretor, censor, and decurion. The class was divided into two iiarts, called Romans and Carthaginians, Greeks and Trojans. The students sat oppo.site each mi Wn master in the middle, tlic walls were huiij. Alth swords, spears and shields winch the contending parties carried off in triumph as the prize of victory, 'riicse pupils' contests wasted a great deal of time The Jesuits established public school fes- tivals, at which tlie pupils might be exhibited, and the parents flattered. They made their own .school books, in which the requirements of good teaching were not so important as th. religious objects of the order. They preferred extracts to ^^hole authors; if they could not prune the classics to their fancy they would not read them at all. What judgment are we to pass on the Jesuit teaching as a whole V It deserves praise on two accounts. First, it maintained the (.'ignity of literf ture in an age whicli was too liable to be influem od by considei'ations of practical utility. It maintained the study of Greek in France at a higher level than the University, and resisted the assaults of ignorant parents on the fortress; of Hellenism. Secondly, it seriously set itself to understand the nature and character of the indi- vidual pupil, and to suit the manner of education to the mind that was to receive it. Whatever may have 1 n the motives of Jesuits in gaining the iilTections, and securing the devotion of the chlldn'ii under their charge; whether their de- sire was to develop thi' individuality which they probed, or to destroy it in its germ, and plant u new nature in its place; it must lie admitted that the loving care which they spent upon their charge was a new departure in education, and has become a Jiart of every reasonable sy.sleiu since tlwir time. Here our praise must end. . . . They aniiisi .i the mind instead of strength- ening it. They occupied in frlvolilics such as Latin verses thI years wiiich they feared might otherwise! be g.v<'ii to reasoning and the ae(iui- sltlon of solid knowledge. . . . ('elelirated as the Jesuit schools have been, thev have owed much moTv to ihe fashion which (llled them with promising scholars, than to their own excellence In dealing with their material. . . . They have never stood the test of modern criticism. They have no place in a rational system of modem education." — <). Browning, Iiitroit. to the Hist. of Ktlui'ntiDiKil Thmricn, eh. 8. Modern : European Countries. Austria. — " The annual approprle.tlona passed l)y Parliament allow t' e minister of public in- struction §8,1)07,774 for all kinds of public edu- cational institutions, elementary and secondary schools, universities, technical and art schools, mui.eums, and philanthropic institutions. Gen- erality, this principle is adhered ^obv the state, to subsidize the highest institutions of learning most liberally, to share the cost of maintaining second- ary schools with church and communiiy, and to leave the burden of maintidning elementary schools almost entirely tj tlie local or communal authorities. ... In tl.e Austrian pulilic schools no distinctions are made with the pupils os re- gards their religious confessions. The schools are open to all, and are therefore common schools in the sense in which that term is employt^d with us. In Prussia it is the policy of the Govern- ment to seporate the pupils of different religious c(mfessions in . . . elementary, but not to sepa- rate them in secondary schools. In Austria and Hungary, special teachers of religion for the elementary and secondary schools are employed; in Prussi;. this is done only in secondary schools, while religion is taught by the secular teachers in elementary schools. This is a very vital dif- ference, and shows how much nearer the Austrian schools have come to our ideal of a common school." — U. 8. Comm'r of Education, Jieport, 1889-00, ;;;;. 405-460. Belgium. — "The treaty of Paris, of March 30, 1814, lixed the bouiularic of the Netherlands, and united Holland and Belgium. In these new circumstances, the system of public instruction became the subject of much difllculty betwejn the Calvinlsts of the northern provinces and the Catholics of the southern. The government therefore undertook itself to manage the organi- zation of the system of instruction in its three grades. . . . ^\filliam I. desired U> free the Bel- gians from French intluencc, and with this object adopted the injudieious measure of attempting to force t! . Dutch language upon them. He also endeavored to familiarize tliem with Protestant ideas, and to thi i end determined to get the care of religious instruction exclusively into the hands of the state. But the clergy were energetic in asserting their rights ; the boldness of the Belgian 709 EDUCATION. Knglnnd. EDUCATION. ilt'imllcH to the Htttti'H'Ocncnil InrrciiHcil daily; iiikI tliu |)riij('('t for ii HyHtciii of piiMic itriil pri- viitit liistnictiiiii whii'li wiiH liiiil iN'fori' tilt' Hccdiid (lianibcToii the iHtli Noveiiilicr, IMiO, wuh very unfiivoritbly ivci'ivi'd I>y tlu; CiitlKillis. The j{i)V(rnnu'nl vrry hoiiorubly coiifcoHcd ItMiTrorhy rcpt'iiliiiK the ohnoxiouH (ifdiniincc.iof IH2n. Itul It wi'.H too late, and tlie HclKiaii prDvliicf!* wen? loHt to llolliiiid. On the I'Jth Octoliir, IH:|(), llic provisory Hovrriimnit ripcalcd all laws rcstrift- !ni{ the frt'cdoiii of liiHtriKtloii, anil tlic present KyHtem, In whirli lllierty of InHtrnction and K<>^'' ernnientjd aid and supervision are recd;;ni7.ed, loniinenced." — I'uhlic Jiinlnirlion in Jiilf/iiim {lilt run rd'H Aiu. Journal of KdiicutiDn, r. 8, pji. 5«2-rjH:t). Denmark. — "Denmark Ims long been noted tor the exeellence of her schools. . . . The perfection aiul extension of the system of popular instruction date from the beKlnnin^; of the eighteenth cen- tury, when HIshop Thestrup, of Aalberg, caused parish schools to be establlslied In (.'opei'hagen anil when King Frederick IV. (10mi-173()) had 2 10 school houses b\dlt. . . . Christian VI. (ITIiO- 1710), . . . ordained in 1739 the establishment of common or parish schools In every town and In every larger village. The branches of instruction were to be religion, reading, writing, and nrlth- nietlc. No one was to be allowed to teach unless he hiul shown himself i|ualltled to the satisfaction of the clergynnm of the parish. . . . JIany dltll- cultics, however (especially the objections of the landed proprietors, who jiad their own schools on their estates), hindered the free development of the common school system, and it was not \uilll 1814 that II new and more favorable era was Inaugurated by the law of July 21) of that year. According to this law the general control of the schools Is in the hands of a minister of public in- struction and subordinate superintendents for the several departments of the kingdom." — Ediica- tiun in Denmark (If. S. Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information, 1877, 7iO. 2), pp. 40-41. — ".With a population In 1800 of 2,18.'i,1.57, the pupils enrollecl In city and rural schools in Den- mark numbered 231, U40, or about 10 per cent, of the population receiving the foundation of an educatioa. In 1881 the iUiterntes to 100 recruits numbered 0.80; in Sweden at that date the per cent, was 0.39." — U. 8. Comin'r of Education, Iltport, 1889-90, p. 523. England: Oxford and Cambridee. — "Oxford and v'ttmbridge, as establishments for education, consist of two parts — of the University proper, and of tuT Colleges. The former, original and essential, is founded, controlled, and privileged by public authority, for the advantage of the nation. The latter, accessory and contingent, are created, regulated, and endowed by private munificence, for the Interest of certain favored individuals. Time was, when the Colleges did not exist, and the University was there ; and were the Colleges again abolished, the University woidd remain entire. The former, founded solely for educa- tion, exists only as it accomplishes the end of its institution; the latter, founded principally for aliment and habitation, would still exist, were all education abandoned within their walls. The University, as a national establishment, is neces- sarily open to the lieges in general ; the Colleges, as private institutions, might universally do, a? some have actually done — close their gates upon al., except their foundation membeis. The Uni- versitieH and ("olleges are thuH neither Identical, nor vicarious of eacli other. If the Unlversily ciases to perform its functions. It ceases to exist; and the privileges accorded by the nation to the system of public I'dueation legally orgiu>l/eil in the Inlversitv, can not, without the consent of tlie nation — far Iihs without the coiisent of the acailendcal legislatiire — be lawfully transferred to the system of private? ediuatlon iireeiirioUNly organized In the Colleges, and over wlileh neither the (State nor the I'niversity havi! any control. They have, however, been unlawfully usurped. Through the suspension of the University, and the usurpation of its functions and privileges by the Colleglal bodies, there has arisen the second of two svsteins, diametrically opposite to each other. — The one, in wliicli the Lnlverslty was paramount, is ancient and statutory ; the other, in which the Colleges have th(! ascendant, Is recent and Illegal. — In the former, all was subservient to publli^ utility, and the interests of science; in the latter, all Is sacrificed to private monopoly, and to the <onveiilerue of the teacher. ... In the orlgliml constitution of Oxford, as In that of all the older Uidversltles of the Uarlslan model, the business of instruction was not cimflded to a spechil body of privileged professors. The Uni- versity was governed, the L niversity wasrfaught, by the graduates at large. I'rofessor, Master, Doctor, were orlgimdly synonymous. Every graduate had aneijual right of teaching publicly in the University the subjects competent to his faculty, and to the rank ot his degree ; nay, every graduate inc\irred the obligation of teaching inibllcly, for a certain period, the subjects of his factdty, for such was the condition involved In the grant of the degree Itself." — Sir AVm. Ham- ilton, JHscumticnn on Philoitophy and Literature, etc.: Kiluration, ch. 4. England : The " Great Public Schools."— What is a I'Ubllc school in England? "The qtustkm is one of considerable dilllculty. To some extent, however, the answer has been fur- nished by the Royal Commission appointed in 1801 to imiulre Into the nature and application of the endowments and revenues, and into the ad- ministration and management of certain specified colleges and schools commonly known as the Public Schools Commission. >ilnc are named In the Queen's letter of appointment, viz., Eton, AVinchester, AVestminster, the Charterhouse, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Uugby, and Shrewsbury. The reasons probably which sug- gested this selection were, that the nine named foundations had in the course of centuries emerged from the nia.ss of endowed grammar-schools, and had made for themselves a position which justi- fied their being placed in a distinct category, and classed as ' puolle schools.' It will be seen as we proceed that all these nine have certain features in common, distinguishing them from the ordi- nary griunmar-schools v "uch exist in almost every country town In En eland. JIany of these latter are now waking up to the requirements of the new time and following the example of their morr "Uustrious sisters. The most notable exam- |)lc8 of this icvival are such schools as those a'„ Sherborne, QIggleswIck, and Tunbrldge Wells, which, while remodelling themselves on the lines lal(l down by the Public Schools Commissioners, are to some extent providing a training more adapted to the means and requirements of our middle classes in the nineteenth century than can 710 EDUCATION. IV orrai Kngliik blic ScIumI: EDUCATION. he found at nny of tin- iiiiir iniblic hcIidoIs. Hut twenty yt-arH ii)(<i the inovniii'iit wlilcli Iiiih Hirirc mini)' Hucli iiHtiiniHiiiiiK pro^rrHH wiim witrct'ly frit ill i)iih't country pliiccK like thcMc, itnd tlii> old cndowrncnlM wcri' iillowt'd to run to wiiHtc in ii fiislilon whirh is now Hciirci'ly cri'dlhlc. 'I'lic Hiiini' lni|)ul)M! widcli Iiiih put new lifu into tint ondowc(l ^■'■""■■■■'■''IW'IiooIh tliroiiKliout KiiKlimd Iiiih worltcil even more renuirkalily in another direction. Tlu! V^lctorian ane liidH fair to rival the Klixaliethun in tliu niinilier and importance of till' new hcIiooIh which it Iiiih fouiiiled and will hand on to the eomiuK generation. Marlborough, ■Ilaileylmry, rppinKliani, Uossall. Clifton, Chel- tenham, liadley, Malvern, and Wellington Col- lege, aru nine M'IiooIh whicli have taken their place in tliu llrnt rank. ... In ordei', then, to get clear Ideas on the general ((uestioii, we mUHt keep these three classes of schools In mind — the nine old foundations recognized in the tlrst in- stance by the Hoyal Commission of IMftl; the old foundations wlii<'h have reiiialned local grammar schools until within tlie liiNl few years, but are now enlarging tlieir bounds, conforming more or les.s to the public-school system, and becoming national inHtitutioim; and, histly, the miHlern founilati(ms w'.iich started from tint first as public schools, professing to adapt themselves to the new circumstances and rei)uirementH of modern English life. Tlie public schools of Knglanil fall under one or other of these categorii's. . . . Wet may now turn to the historie side of the (pics- tion, dealing first, oh is due to their importance, with the nine schools of our first category. The oldest, and in some respects most famous of these, is Winchester School, or, as it was named by its founder William of Wykeham, the (.'ollego of St. Mary of Winchester, founded in 1382. Its constitution still retains nuicli of the impress left on it by the great liishop of the greatest I'lan- tagcnet King, live centuries ago. Toward the end of the fourteenth century Oxford was already the center of English education, but from the want of grummar-schools boys went \\p by hun- dreds untaught in the simiilest rudiments of learning, aiul wlien there lived in private hostels or lodging-houses, in a vast throng, under no discipline, and exposed to many hiirdships and temptations. In view of this state of things, Wil- liam of Wykeham founded his grammar-scliool at Winchester and his college at Oxford, binding the two together, so that the school miglit send up properly trained scliolars to the university, where they would be received at New College, in a suitable academical home, which sliotdd in its turn furnish governors and masters for the scliool. . . . Next in date comes the royal foun- dation of Eton, or ' The Collegit of the Hlessed Mary of Eton, near Windsor." It was founded by Henry VI., A. D. 1446, upon the model of Winchester, with a collegiate establishment of a provost, ten fellows (reduced to seven in the reign of Edward IV.), seventy scliolars, and ten chap- lains (now reduced to two, who are called ' con- ducts '), and a head and lower master, ten lay clerks, and twelve choristers. Tlie provost and fellows are the governing body, who appoint the head master. . . . Around this center the great school, numbering now a thousand boys, lias gathered, the college, however, still retaining its own separate organization atid traditions. Be- sides the splendid buildings and playing-fields at Eton, the college holds real property of the yearly value of upward of catMHM), and forty livlngn ranging from tItKf to i;i,i.'<M)of yeaily value. .. . The whool next In date stands out in Hharp con- trast to Winchest4'r and Eton. It Is St. I'ltul's S<'liool, founded by Dean Colet. . . . Shrews- bury ScliiHil, which follows next In order of Neniority, claims a royal foundation, but is in reality iliit true child of the town's folk. The dissolution of the inonasterieH ilestroyed also tliii Nemlnarli's attached to manv of them, to the great liilurv of popular education. This wiiH sped- ally the case in Shropshire, so in I.Wl Uiv ballilTs, burgi'sscH, and inhabitants of Slirewsbiiry and the tielgliborhood petitioned Edward VI. for a grant of some portion of the estates of the dis- solved collegiate churches for the purpime of founding a free school. The King consented, and granted to the petitioners the approprii''e<l titlies of several livings and a charter, but diitd before the sclioid was organi/.ctd. It was in abey- ance during Mary's reign, but opened in the fourth year of Elizabeth, ITittS, by Thonias Aston. . . .We have now reached the great croup of Klizabclhan schools, to which iiideed Shrews- bury may also be Hiiid to belong, as it was nut opened until tint (Eileen had been three years on tli(t throne. Tint two metropolitan schools of Westminster and Merchant Taylors' were in fact founded in lHHi), two years befont the opening of Shrewsbury. Westminster as a royal foundation must take precedence, it is a grammar-school attached by the Queen to the collegiate churith of St. I'eter, commonly called Westminster Ab- bey, and founded for the fR'C education of forty scholars in I<atin, Oreek, and Hebrew. The Queen, witli characteristic tiiriftiness, provided no endowment for her hcIio(j1, leaving the cost of maintenance as a (tliarge on the gitneral revenjes of the dean and chapter, which in<leed were, then as now, fully competent to sustain the burden. . . . iMerchant Taylors', the other metropolitan scliool founded in 1500, owes its origin to Sir Tliomas White, a member of the Court of Assist- ants of the company, and founder of St. John's College, Oxford. It was probably ids iiromise to connect the s(tliool with his college which in- duced the Company to undertake tlie task. . . . Sir Thomas While redeemed his promise by en- dowing the .school with thirty-seven fellowships at St. John's College. . . . Kugby, or the free school of Lawrence SherilT, follows next in order, having been founded in \!M1 by Lawrence Sheriir, grocer, and citizen of London. His ' intent' (as the document expres.sing his wishes is called) de- clares that his lands in Uugby and Hrownsover, and his ' tliird of a jiasture-ground in Oray's Inn Fields, called Conduit Close,' shall be applied to maintain a free grammar school for the children of Hugby and Hrownsover, and the iilaccs adjoin- ing, and four poor almsmen of the same parishes. These estates, after providing u fair schoolliouso and residences for the master and al.nsmen, at first produced a rental of only £24 13s. 4d. In due time, however. Conduit Close became a part of central Jjoiidon, and Uugby School the owner of eight acres of houses in and about the present Lamb's Conduit Street. The income of the whole trust property amounts now to about £0,000, of which £235 is expended on the maintenance of the twelve almsmen. . . . Hurrow School was rounded in 1571, four years later than Uugby, by John Lyon, a yeoiiian of the jiarish. He was owner of certain sinall estates iu and about Ilur- 711 EDUCATION. Fagging in English Schooh. EDUCATION. row nnd Barnct, nnd of others at Paddington and Kilburn. All these lie devoted to public pur- poses, but unfortunuttly gave the former for the perpetual education of the children and youth of tlie parish, and the latter for the maintenance and repair of the highways from Harrow and Edge- ware to London. The present yearly revenue of the school estates is barely over £1,000, while that of the highway trust is nearly £4,000. But, though the poorest in endowments, Harrow, from its nearness to London, and consequent attrac- tions for the classes who spend a largo portion of their year in the metropolis either in attendance in Parliament, or for pleasure, has become the rival of Eton as a fashionable school. . . . Last on the list of the nine schools comes the Charter- house (tho Whitefriai-s of Thackeray's novels). It may bo fairly classed witli the Elizabethan schools, though actually founded in 1609, after the accession of James I. In that year a substan- tial yeoman, Thomas Sutton by name, purchased from Lord Sullolk the lately dissolved Charter- liouse, by Smithtield, and obtained letters patent empowering him to found a hospital and school on the old site." — T. Hughes, 17ie Public Schmih of England (N. Am. Rev. , April, 1870). — Fagging. — " In rougher days it was found, that in large schools the stronger and larger boys reduced tho smaller and weaker to the condition of Helots. Here the authorities stepped in, and despairing of eradicating tlie evil, took the power which mere strength had won, and conferred it upon the seniors of the school — the members, that is, of the highest form or forms. As in those days, promotion was pretty much a matter of rotation, every one who remained his full time at the school, was pretty sure to reach in time the domin- ant class, and the humblest lag looked forward to the day when he would ioin the ranks of the ruling aristocracy. Meantime lie was no longer at the beck of any stronger or ruder classfellow. His ' master ' was in theory, and often in practice, his best protector: he imposed upon him very likely what may be called menial offices — made him carry home his 'Musa;' — field for him at cricket — brush his coat; If we are to believe school myths and traditions, black his shoes, and even take the chill oil his sheets. The boy, how- ever, caw tho son of a Howard or a Percy simi- larly employed by his side, and in cheerfuUv submitting to an ancient custom, he was but fol- lowing out the tendencies of the age and class to which he belonged. . . . The mere abolition of the right of fagging, vague and undefined as were the duties attaclicd to it, would have been a loss rather than a gain to the oppressed as a class. It would merely have substituted for the existing law, imperfect and anomalous as that law might be, the licence of brute force and the dominion of boyish truculence. . . . Such was, more or less, the state ot things when he to whom English education owes so incalculable a debt, was placed at the head of Uugby School. ... It was hoped that he who braved the anger of his order by his pamphlet on Church Reform — at whose bold and uncompromising language bishops stood aghast and courtly nobles remon- strated in vain — would make short work of ancient saws and medieval traditions — that a revolution in school life was at hand. And they were not mistaken. . . . What he did was to seize on the really valuable part of the existing system — to inspire it with that ne^v life, and those loflior purposes, without which mere in- stitution.s, grwit or small, must, sooner or later, wither away and perish. His: first step was tc effect an important change in the actual niaclun- ery of the school — one which, in itself, amounted to a revolution. The highest form in tho school was no longer open to all whom a routine pro- motion might raise in course of time u its level. Industry and talent as tested by careful eximina- tions (in the additional labour of which he him- self bore the heaviest burden), were the only qualifications rcfognised. The new-modelled ' sixth form ' were told, that the privileges and powers which tlieir predecessors Iiad enjoyed for ages were not to be wrested from them ; but that they were to be lield for the common good, as the badges and instruments of duties and respon- sibilities, such as any one with less confidence in those whom he addressed would have hesitated to impose. They were told plainly that with- out their co-operation then; was no hope of ke< .lin^ in check the evils inherent in a society of boys. Tyranny, falsehood, drin'fing, party- spirit, coarseness, selfishness — the evil spirits that infest schools — these they heard Sunday after Sunday put in their true light by a majes- tic voice and a manly presence, with words, ac- cents, and manner which would live in their mem- ory for years; but they were warned that, to exorcise such spirits, something more was needed than the watclif ulness of masters and the energy of their chief. Tliey themselves must use their large powers, entrusted to them in recc ignition of the principle, or rather of the fact, that in a large society of boys some must of necessity hold sway, to keep down, in themselves and those about them, principles and practices which are ever ready, like hideous weeds, to choke the growth of all that is fair and noble iu such institutions. Dr. Arnold persevered in spite of opposition, obloquy, and misrepresentation. . . . But ho firmly established his system, and his successors, men differing in training and temperament from himself and from each other, have agreed In cor- dially sustaining it. His pupils and theirs, men in very different walks of life, filling honourable posts at tho universities and public schools, or ruling the millions of India, or working among the blind and toiling multitudes of our great towns, feel daily how much of their usefulness and power they owe to the sense of high trust and high duty which they imbibed at school." — Our Public SeJiools — Their Discipline ami In- tlruction (Vraaer's Magazine, v. 1, pp. 407-409). England: A. D. 1699-1870.— The rise of Elementary Schools. — "The recognition by the English State of i*a paramount duty in aiding tho work of nationul education is scarcely more than a generation old. Tho recognition of the further and far more extensive work of supplementing by State aid, or by State agency, all deficiencies in tlie supply of schools, dates only thirteen years back [to 1870] ; while the equally pressing duty of enforcing, by a universal law, tho use of the opportunities of education thus supplied, is a matter almost of yesterday. The State has only slowly stepped into its proper place ; more slowly in the case of England than in the case of any other of the leading European nations. ... In 1699 the Society for the Propagation of Chris- tian Knowledge was founded, and by it various schools were established throughout the country. In 1782 Robert Kaikcs established his first Sun- 712 EDUCATION. EnglM "^lemenlary K'.ucation. EDUCATION. day school, and in a few yenrs the Union, of wliich lie was the foumlor, had under its control schools scattered all over the rouiilrv. IJiit the most extensive efforts made foi popular educa- tion were those of Andrew Bell and Joseph Lan- caster towards the close of the eighteenth cen- tury. . . . They misconceived iind mi.sj>idged the extent of the work that had to be accom- plished. They became slaves to their ay.stem — that which was called the Jlonitorial system . . . and tiy elevating it to undue importance they did miich to discredit the very worli in which they were engaged. . . . Amongst the Noncon- formist followers of Lancaster there aro.se the British and Foreign School Society; wliile by those of Bell there was established, on the siile representing the Church, the National Society. The former became the recognised agcjcy of the Dissenters, the latter of the Church ; and through one or other of these channels State aid, when it first began to flow, was obliged to take its course. ... In 1803 the first Sir Hobert Peel jiassed a Bill which restricted children's labour in factories, and require i that reading, writing, and nrith- metic should be taught to them during a jiart of each day. This was the beginning of tlie factory legislation. ... In 1807 Mr. Whitebread intro- duced a Bill for the establishment of parochial schools throi'gh the agency of local vestries, who were empowered to draw on the rates for tlie purpose. The House of Commons accepted the Bill, but it was thrown out in the House of Lords. . . . Tl'e movement for a State recogni- tion of education was pressed more vigorously when the fears and troubles of European war were clearing away. It was in 1810 that Brougliam obtained his Select Conunittco for Inquiring into the Education of the Poor in the Metropolis. . . . l!i 1820 Brougham introduced, ou the basis of his previous inquiries, ar Education Bill. . . . By this Bill the issue between the contending parties) in the State, which was henceforward destined to be the chief stumbliug-block in the way of a State education, was placed on a clear and well-defined basis. . . . The Church was alarmed at anything which seemed to trench upon what she natundly thought to be her appointi.'d task. The Dissenters dreaded what might atld to the impregnability of the Church's strong- holds. . . . When the beginning was actually made it came ... as an ahnost unnoticed pro- posal of the Executive. In 1832 the sura of £20,000 for public education was placed in the estimates ; it was passed by the Committee of Sup- ply ; and the first step was taken on that course from which the State has never since drawn back. No legislation was necessary. . . . Tlie next great step was taken in 1830, when the annual vote was increased from £20,000 to £30,000, and when a special department was created to super- vise the work. Hitherto grants had been ad- ministered by the Treasury to meet a certain amount of local exertion, and in general reliance upon vague assurances as to niaintenai.ce of the schools by local promoters. . . . The conditions which were soon found to be necessary as secu- rities, either for continuance or for efficiency, were not yet insisted upon. To do this it was necessary to have a Department specially devoted to tills work ; and the means adopted for creating such a Department was one which had the ad- vantage of requiring no Act of Parliament. By an Order in Couucil a Spcniul Committee of the 46 I'rivy Council was established, and, in connec- tion with this Committee, a special staff of ofll- cers was engaged. The same year saw the ap- pointment of the first inspectors of schools. It was thus that the Education Department was constituted. The plan which the advisers of the Qovrrnment in this new attempt had most at heart was that of a Normal Training College for teachers. . . . But it was surrounded with so much matter for dispute, gathered during a generation of contention, that the proposal all but wrecked the Government of I^ord Melbourne. Tlie C;iiurch objected to the scheme. ... In the year 1844, after five years of the new adminstra- tion, it was possible to form some estimate, not only of the solid work accomplisheil, but of the prospects of the immediate future. . . . Between 1839 and 1844, under the action of the Committee of Council, £170,000 of Imperial funds had been distributed to meet £430,000 from li;c.".l resources. In all, therefore, about one million had been spv-'nt in little more than ten years. AVhat solid good had this accomplished '1 . . . According to a careful and elaborate report in the year 1845, only ,xbout one in six, even of the cliildrcn at school, was found able to read the Scriptures with anv ease. Even for these the power of reading often left them when they tried a secular book. Of reading with intelligence there was hardly any ; and about one-half of the children who came to school left, it was calculated, un- able to read. Only about one child in four had mastered, even in the most mechanical way, the art of writing. As regards arithmetic, not two> per cent, of the children had advanced as far as the- rule of three. . . . The teaching of the schools was in the hands of men who had scarcely any training, and who had often turned to tlio work because all other work had turned away from them. Under them it was conducted upon that monitorial system which was the inheritance from Dr. Bell, the rival of Lancaster. The pupils were set to teach one another. . . . The inquiries- of the Committee of Council thus gave the death- blow, in public estimation, to the once higlily- vaunted monitorial system. But how was it to- be replaced V The model of a better state of things was found in the Dutch schools. There a selected number of the older pupils, who in- tended to enter upon the profession of teachers, weie apprenticed, when they had reached the age of thirteen, to the teacher. . . . After their apprenticeship they passed to a Training College . . . Accordingly, a new and important start was- made by the Department on the 25th of August 1846, . . . In 1851 twenty-five Training Colleges had been established; and these liad a sure sup- ply of qualified recruits in the 0,000 pupil teach- ers who were by that time being trained to the work. . . . The ten years between 1842 and 1853 saw the Parliamentary grant raised from £40 000' to £160,000 a year, with the certainty of a still further increase as the augmentation grants to- teachers and the stipends to pupil teachers grew in number. Nearly 3,800 scliools had been built with Parliamentary aid, providing accommoda- tion for no less tlian 540,000 children. The State had contributed towards this more than £400,000; and a total expenditure had been incurred in pio- vidingschoolsof more than £1,000,000. . . . But the system was as yet only tentati ve ; and a mass of thorny religious questions had to be faced before» a really uatioual system could be established. 713 EDUCATION. Englith Education Acl of I87U. EDUCATION. . . . All parties became convinced that the lirst step was to inquire into the merits and defects of the existing system, and on the basis of sound information to plan some method of advance. Under this impression it was that the Commis- sion on Public Education, of which the Duke of Newcastle was chairman, was appointed in 1858. " The result of the (Jomniission of 1858 was a re- vision of the educational Code which the Com- mittee of the I'rivy Council had formulated. The New Code proved unsatLsfactory in its work- ing, and every year showed more plainly the ne- cessity of a fully organized system of national education. ' ' Out of the discussions there arose two societies, which fairly expressed two different views. . . . The first of these was the Education League, started at Uirmingham in 1869. ... Its boKis, sliortly stated, was that of a compulsory syiw'm of school provisioi' by local authorities through means of local rates; the schools so pro- vided to be at once free and imsectarian. . . . In this i)rogramme the point which raised most opposition was the unsectarian teacliing. It was chieUy to counteract this part of the League's objects that there was formed the Education Union, which urged a universal system based upon the o) ! lines. . . . By common consent the time for a settlement was now come. Some guarantee must be taken that the whole edifice should nit crumble to pieces; that for local agen- cies there shoidd be substituted local authorities ; and that the State should be s\ipplied with some machinery whereby the gaps in the work might be supplied. It was in this ])osition of opinion that Ml'. Forster, as Vice-President, introduced his Education Bill in 1870. . . . The measure passed the House of Lords without any material alteration ; and finally became Law on the 0th of August 1870." — H. Craik, T/ie State in its Rela- tion to Education. — The schools to which the provisions of the Act of 1870 extends, and the regulations under which such schools are to be conducted, are defined in the Act as follows: "Every elementary school which is conducted in accordance with the following regulations shall be a public elementary school within the meaning of this Act; and every public element- ary school shall be conducted in accordance with the following rcgulati' as (a copy of which regu- lations shall b-, conspicuously put up in every such school); namely (1.) It shall not be re- quired, as a condition of any child being admitted into or continuing in the school, that he shall at- tend or abstain from attending any Sunday school, or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observance or any instruction in religious subjects in the school or elsewhere, from which observance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the school on any day exclusively set apart for re- ligious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs: (3.) The time or times dur- ing which any religioufi observance is prac- tised or instruction in religious subjects is giveii at any meeting of the school shall be either at the beginning or at the end or at the beginning and tlie end of such meeting, and shall be in- serted in a time-table to be approved by the Education Department, and to be kept perma- nently and conspicuously allixed in every school- room ; and any scholar may be witlidrawn by his parent from such observance or instruction with- out forfeiting any of the other benctlta of the school: (3.) The school shall be open at all times to the inspection of any of II't Majesty's inspectors, so, however, that it sl'.all be no ])art of the duties of such inspector to inquire into any instruction in religious subjects given at such school, or to examine any scholar therein in religious knowledge or in any religious sub ject or book: (4.) The school shall be con- ducted in accordance with the conditions re(iuirc(l to be fulfllled by an elementary school in order to obtain an aniunil parliamentary grant." — J. II. Higg, Natiomil Education, app. A. — "The new Act retained existing inspected schools, . . . it also did away with all denominational classifi- cations of schools and with denominational in- spection, treating all inspected schools as equally belonging to a national system of schools and under national inspection, the distinctions as to inspectors and their provintes being henceforth purely geographical. But the new Act no longer required that public elementary schools estab- lished by voluntary agency_ and under voluntary management should have in them any religious character or element whatever, whether as be- longing to a Christian Church or denomination, or as connected with a Christian pliilanthropiu society, or as providing for the reading of the Scriptures in the school. It was left open to any party or any person to cstablisli purely volrn- tary schools if they thought fit. But, further- more, the Act made provision for an entirely new class of schools, to be establislied and (in part) supported out of local rates, to be governed by locally -elected School Boards, and to have just such and so much religious instruction given m them as the goverr.ing boards might think proper, at times preceding or following the pre- scribed secular school hours, and under the jjro- tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, as in the case of voluntary schools, with this restric- tion only, that in these schools no catechism or denominational religious formulary of any sort was to be taught. The mode of electing mem- bers to the School Be irds was to be by what is called the cumulative vote — that is, each elector was to hove as many votes as there were candi- dates, and these votes he could give all to one, or else distribute among the candidates as ho liked; and all ratepayers were to be electors. . . . The new law . . . made a clear separation, in one respect, between voluntary and Board schools. Both were to stand equally in relation to the National Education Department, under the Privy Council ; but the voluntary schools were to have nothing to do with local rates or rate aid, nok Local Boards to have any control over voluntary schools." — J. II. Rigg, National Education, ch. 10. — "To sum up . . . in few words what may be set down as the chief char- acteristics of our English system of Elementary Education, I should say (1) flret, that whilst about 30 per cent, of our school accommodation is under tlie control of school boards, the cost of maintenance being borne in jiart by local rates as well as by the Parliamentary grant, fully 70 per cent, is still in the hands of voluntary school- managers, whose subscriptions take the place of the rates levied by school boards. (2) In case a deficiency in school accommodation is reported in any school district, the Education Department have the power to require that due provision shall be mode for the same within a limited time ; 7i4 EDUCATION. Free Schoola in England. EDUCATION. the 'screw ' to bo applied to wilful ilefaulters iri a voluntary school district being tlie tlireut of a board, and in a school board district the super- cession of the existing board by a new board, noniiuated by the Department, and reniunei..te{i out of the local rates. (3) Attendance is enforced everywhere by l)ye-law8, worlced either by the schiiol lioard or by the School Attendance Com- mittee: and although 'hese local authorities are often very rennss in discharging their duties, and the magistrates not seldom culpably lenient in dealing with cases brought before them, there are plenty of districts in which regularity of school attendance has been improved fully 10 per cent, in the past two or tl ree years. . . . (-1) The present provision for teachers, and the means in existence for keeping up the supply, are emi- nently satisfactory. Besides a large but some- what diminishing body of apprenticed jiupil teachers, there is a very considerable and rapidly increasing number of duly qualified assistants, and at their liead a large array of certiticated teachers, whoso ranks are being replenished, chieliy from the Training Colleges, at the rate of about 2,000 a year. (5) The whole of the work done is examined and judged every year by in- spectors and inspectoro' assistants organised in districts each superintended by a senior inspector — the total co?t of this inspection for the present year being estimated at about Jil.TO.OOO." — Kev. H. Roe, The Eng. Syntem of Elementary Eliica- Hon l^lnteniiatiomil Health Exhibition, London, 1884: Conference on Education, sect. A). — "The result of the work of the Education Department is causing a social revolution in England. If the character of the teaching is too mechanical, if the chief aim of the teacher is to earn as much money as possible for Ids managers, it must be remembered that tins cannot bo done without at least giving the pupil the ability to read and write. Of course the schools are not nearly so good as the f riencis of true education wish. JIuch remains to be done. . . . Free education will shortly be an accomplished fact; the partial ab- sorption of tlie voluntary schools by the School Boards will necessarily follow, and further facili- tate the abolition of what have been the cause of so much evil — result examinations, ai:d 'grant payments.' 'Write "Grant factory" on three- fourths of our schools,' said au educator to me. . . . The schools are known as (1) Voluntary Schools, which have been built, and are partly supported by voluntary subscriptions. These are under denominational control. (3) Board Schools: viz., schools built and supported by money raised by local taxation, and controlled by elected Schoo'. Boards. Out of 4,088,000 pupils in the elementary schools, 3,1.54,000 are in the schools known as Voluntary, provided by, and under the control of the Church of England ; 1,780,000 are in Board Schools; 330,000 attend schools under the British School Society, or other undenominational control; 348,000 are in Roman Catholic schools; and 174,000 belong to Wesleyau schools. The schools here spoken of correspond more nearly tliau any other in England to the Public School of the United States and Australia ; but are in many respects very different, chietiy from the fact that they are provided expressly for the poor, and in many cases are attended by no other class." — W. C. 3i " ■ " <A. 8. 3rasby, Teaching in Three Continents, England : A. D. 1891. — Attainment of Free Education. — In 1801, a bill pas.sed Parliament wliich aims at making the elementary schools of the country free from the payment of fees. Tho bill as explained in the House of Commons, "proposed to give a grant of 10s. per head to cat^h scholar in average attendance between live and fourteen years of age, and as regarded such children schools would either become wholly free, or W(mld continue to charge a fee reduced by the amount of the grant, according as the fee at i)resent charged did or did not exceed 10s. When a school had become free it would remain free, or when a fee was charged, tlio fee woid.l remain unaltered unless a change waj re(iuired for tlie educational benelit of the locality ; and under this arrangement he believed that two- thirds of the elementary schools in England ind \Vales would become free. There would be no standard limitations, but the grant W'uld be re- stricted to schools where the compulsory power came in, and us to the younger cldldren, it was proposed tliat in no case should the fee charged exceed 3d." In a speech made at Birnnngham on the free educati(m bill, Mr. Chamberlain dis- cussed tho oppi jition to it made by those wlio wished to destroy the denominational schools, luid who .bjected to their participation in thu proposed extension of public support. "To de- stroy denonnnatignal schoola, " he said, "was now an impossibility, and nothing was more astonish- ing than the progress they had made since tho Eilucation Act of 1870. He liad thought, ho said, they would die out with the estjiblishment of Boanl schools, but he had been mistaken, for in the last twenty-three years they had doubled their accommodation, and more than doubled their subscription list. At the present time they supi)lied ucco.-".mo<lation for two-thirds of tho children of England and Wales That being tho case, to destroy voluntary schools — t sujjply their places with Board schools, as tue Daily News cheerfully suggested — would he to in- volve a capital expenditure of £50,000,000, and £5,000,000 extra yearly in rates. But whethei voluntary or denominational schools were good or had, their continued existence had nothing to do with tho question o'' free education, and ought to bo kept quitj distinct from it. To make schools free was not to give one oenny extra to any denominational eudowmenl. At the present time the fee was a tax, and if tho parents did not i)ay fees they were brought be- fore the magistrates, and if they still did not pay they might be sent to gaol. The only thing tho Government proposed to do was not to alter the tax but to alter the incidence. The same amount would be collected; it would bo paid by tho same people, but it would be collected from the whole nation out of the general taxation." Tho bill was passed by the Commons Jidy 8, and by the Lords on the 34th of the same month. The free education proposals of the Government are sfud to have been generally accepted through- out the country by both Board and Voluntary scliools. — Annual Itegister, 1801, pp. 128 and 97, and j)t. 2, /) 51. France: A. D. 1565-1802.— The Jesuits.— Port Roy£ 1.— The Revolution. — Napoleon. — "The Jesuits invaded the province long ruled by the University alone. By that adroit man- agement of men for which tliey have alwaj . been eminent, and by tho more liberal spirit of 715 EDUCATION. Fnmee, EDUCATION. tbeir mcthiKlH, tlicy ouUlid in popularity Ihfir aupuriitinuiitcd riviil. Their timt bcIiooI at PuHh was establlslifd in 156.'), and in 1768, two years before tlieir dissolution, tliey had eighty-six col- loj'cs in France. They were followed by the Port Royalists, the Benedictines, the Oratorians. The Port IJoyal schools [sec Pout Royal], from which perhaps u powerful nitluence upon educa- tion might have been looked for, restricted this influence by limiting very closely the number of tbeir pupils. Meanwhile the main funds and endowments fo.' public education in France were in the University's bands, and its administration of these was as inelTective as its teaching. . . . The Univeisity bad originally, as sources of revenue, the Post OfBce and tlie Jlessagerles, or Oflice of Public Conveyance; it hud long since been obliged to abandon the Post Office to Government, when in 1719 it gave up to the same authority the privilege of the M'^ssageries, receiving in return from the State a yearly revenue of 150,000 livres. For this payment, moreover, it undertook the obligation of making the instruction in all its principal colleges gra- tuito s. Paid or gratuitous, however, its in- struction was quite inadequate to the wants of the time, and when the Jesuits were expelled from France in 1764, their establishments closed, and their services os teachers lost, the void that was left was strikingly apparent, and public attention began to lie drawrf to it. It is well known bow liousseau among writers, and Tur- got among statesmen, busied themselves with schemes of education; but the interest in the subject must have reached the whole body of the community, for the instructions of all three orders of the States General in 1780 are unani- mous in demanding the reform of education, and its establishment on a proper footing. Then came the Revolution, and the work of reform soon went swimmingly enough, so far as the abolition of the old schools was concerned. In 1791 the colleges were all placed under the con- trol of the administrative authorities ; in 1793 the jurisdiction of the University was abolished; in 1793 the property of tlie colleges was ordered to be sold, the proceeds to be taken by the State ; in September of the same year the suppression of all the great public schools and of all the Uni- versity faculties was pronounced. For the work of reconstruction Condorcet's memorable plan had in 1792 been submitted to the Committee of Public Instruction appointed by the Legislative Assembly. This plan proposed a secondary school for every 4,000 inhabitants; for each depart- ment, a departmental institute, or higher school ; nine lycees, schools carrying their studies yet higher than the departmental institute, for the whole of France; and to crown the edifice, a National Society of Sciences and Arts, corre- sponding in the main with the present institute of France. The whole expense of national in- struction was to be borne by the Stite, and this expense was estimated at 39,000,0 " of francs. But 1793 and 1793 were years of lurious agita- tion, when it was easier to destroy than to baild. Condorcet perished with the Girondists, and the reconstruction of public education difl not begin till after the fall of Robespierre. The decrees of the Convention for establishing the Normal School, the Polytechnic, the School of Mines, and the ecoles centrales, and then Daunou's law in 1795, bore, however, many traces of Condor- cet's design. Daunou's law established primary schools, central schools, special schools, and at the liead of all the Institute of France, this last a nu niorable and enduring creation, with which the .)ld French Academy became incorporated. By Daunou's law, also, freedom was given to private persons to open schools. The new legis- lation bad many defects. . . . The country, too was not ytt settled enough for its education to organise itself successfully. The Normal School speedily broke down; the central schools were established slowly and with dilliculty; in the course of the four years of the Directory there were nominally instituted ninety-one of tliese schools, but they never really worked. More was accomplished by private schools, to whicli full freedom was given by tlie new legislation, at the same time that an ample and o|)en field lay before them. They could not, however, suf- fice for the work, and education was one of the matters for which Napoleon, when he became Consul, had to provide. Fourcroy's law, in 1803, took as the basis of its school-system secondary schools, whetlier established iiy the communes or by private individuals; the Government un- dertook to aid these schools by grants for build- ings, for scholarships, and for gratuities to the masters; it prescribed Latin, French, geography, history, ancl mathematics as the instruction to be given in them. They were placed under the superintendence of the prefects. To continue and complete the secondary schools were insti- tuted the lyceums; here the instruction was to be Greek and Latin, rhetoric, logic, literature, moral philosophy, and the elements of the math- ematical and physical sciences. The pupils were to lie of four kinds: boursiers naf' naux, scliclars nominated to scholarships by the State ; pupils from tlie secondary schools, admitted as free scliolars by competition; paying boarders, and paying day-scl.olars." — M. Arnold, ikhool» and UitivcrHtien on, the Continent, cIi. 1. France : A. D. 1833-1889. — The present Sys- tem of Public lastruction, — "The question of the education of _'outli is one of those in which the struggle between the Catholic Church and the civil power has been, and still is, hottest. It is also one of those in which France, which for a long time had remained far in tlie rear, has made most efforts, and achieved most progress in these latter years. . . . Napoleon I. conceived educa- tion as a means of disciplining minds and wills and moulding them into conformity witli the po- litical system which he had put in force ; accord- ingly he gave the University the monopoly of public education. Apart from the offlcial system of teaching, no competition was allowed except that specially authorised, regulated, r.nd con- trolled by the State itself. Religious instruction found a place in the oflicial programmes, and membei's of the clergy were even called on to supply it, but this instruction itself, and these priests themselves, were under the authority of the State. Hence two results : on the one hand the speedy impoverishment of University educa- tion, ... on the other hand, the incessant agita- tion of all those who were prevented by the special organisation given to the University from expounding tlieir ideas or the faith that was ia them from the professorial chair. This agita- tion was begun and carried on by the Catholic Church itself, as soon as it felt more at liberty to let Its ambitions be discerned. On this point the 716 EDUCATION. The Frmeh School Synlem. EDUCATION. Church met with the support of a pood luimhor of Liberals, nnd it is in a prcat monsure to its in- itiiitive thiit lire due tlio three importiint laws of 183!i 1850, nnd 1875, wliicli have respectively given to France freedom of primary e<lucation, of secondary education, and finally that of higher education; which have given, that is to say, the right to every one, un.ier certain conditions of capacity and character, to open ririvate schools in competition with *he three orders of public schools. But the Church did not stop there. Hardly had it insured liberty to its educational institutions — a liberty by wldch all citizens might profit alilte, but of which its own strong organisation and powerful resources enabled it more easily to ;iikc advantage — hardly was this result obtained than the Church tried to lay hands on the University itself, nnd to make its doctrines p,>™r".o'int there. . . . Tlieuce arose a movement liostib to the enterprises of the Church, wliich lias /und expression since 1880 in a series of law, lich excluded her little by little from the pcjiions eho had won, nnd only left to her, as to all Jther citizens, the liberty to teach apart from and concurrently witli, the State. The righi. to confer degrees has been given bacl' to the Statu alone; the privilege of till '!cttci'of obedience ' has been nbolished; re- ligious teaching has been excluded from the primary schools; and after having 'laicized,' as the French phrase is, the curriculum, the effort was persistently made to ' laicize ' the staff. . . . From the University point of view, the territory of France is divided into seventeen ncndemies, the chief towns of which are Paris, Douui, Caen, Rennes, Poitiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Mont- pellier, Aix, Grenoble, Chnmbery, Lyons, Besan- con, Nancy, Dijon, Clermont, and Algiers. Each academy has a rector at its head, who, under the authority of the Minister of Public Instruction, is charged with the material admin- istration of higher and secondary education, and with the methods of primary instruction in his district. The administration of this last belongs to the prefect of each department, assisted by an academy-inspector. In each of these three suc- cessive stages — department, academy, and central administration — is placed a council, possessing administrative and disciplinary powers. The Departmental Council of Public Instruction, which comprises six oflicials . . . forms a disci- plinary council for primary education, either public or free (i. e. , State or private). This coun- cil sees to the application of programmes, lays down rules, and appoints one or more delegates in each canton to superintend primary schools. Tlie Academic Council . . . performs similar functions with regard to secondary and higher education. The Higher Council of Public In- struction sits at Pans. It comprises forty-four elected representatives of the three educational orders, nine University officials, and four ' free ' schoolmasters appointed by the Jlinister, and is the disciplinary court of appeal for the two pre- ceding councils. . . . Such is the framework, administrative as well as judicial, in which edu- cation, whether public or free, lives and moves. . . . Since 1882 Primary Education has been compulsory for all children of both sexes, from the age of six to the end of the thirteenth year, unless before reaching the latter age they have been able to pass an examination, and to gain the certificate of primary studies. To satisfy the law, the child's name must he entered at a pub- lic or private school; he may, however, continue to receive instruction iit home, but in this case, after he has reached the age of eight, he must be examined c'very rear before; a State board. . . . At the age of thlrt<'en the child is set free from further teaching, whatever may lie the results of the education he has received. ... In imblic schools the course of instruction does not include, as wo liavo said, religious teaching ; hut one day in the week the scliool must take a holiday, to allow parents to provide such teaching for their children, if they wish to do so. The school building cannot be used for that purpose. In private schools religious instruction may be given, but this is optional. The programme of primary education includes: moral and civic in- struction; reading, writing, French, geography and history (particularly those of France); gen- eral notions of law and science ; the elements of drawing, modelling, and music; and gj'ninastics. No person of either sex can become a teacher, either public or private, unless he possesst^s the ' certificate of capacity for primary instruction ' given by a State board. For the future — put- ting aside certain temporary arrangements — no member of a religious community will be eligible for the post of master in a public school. . . . As a general rule, every commune is comiielled to maintain a public school, and, if it has more than 500 inhabitants, a second school for girls .inly. . . . The sum total of the State's expenses for primary education in 1887 is as high as eighty- five million francs (,£3,400,000), and that without mentioning grants for school buildings, whereas in 1877 the sum total was only twelve millions (£480,000). . . . From 1877 to 1880, the number of public schools rose from 61,000 to 00,500; that of the pupils from 4,200,000 to 4,500,000, with 08,600 masters and mistres.ses; that of train- ing schools for male teachers from 79 to 89, of training schools for female teachers from 18 to 77, with 5,400 pupils (3,500 of them women), and 1,200 masters. As to the results a single fact will suffice. In these ten years, before the gen- erations newly called to military service have been able to profit fully by the new state of things, the proportion of illiterate recruits (which is annually made out directly after the lots are drawn) has already fallen from 15 to 11 per cent." — A. Lebon and P. Pelet, Prance as it is, ch. 5. — " In 1873, after the dreadful disaster of the war, Monsieur Thiers, President of the Gouvemement de la Defense Nationale, and Monsieur Jules Simon, Minister of Public Instruction, felt that what was most important for tlie nation was a new system of public instruction, and they set themselves the task of determining the basis on which this new system was to be established. In September, 1883, Slonsieur Jules Simon issued a memorable circular calling the attention of all the most distinguished leaders of thought to some proposed plans. He did not long remain in power, but in his retirement he wrote a book en- titled: ' Refornic de I'Enseignement Secondaire.' Monsieur Breal, who was commissioned to visit the schools of Germany, soon after publisiied another book which aroused new enthusiasm in France. . . . From that day a complete educa- tional reform was decided on. In 1872 wq had at the Ministere de I'lnstruction Publique three distinguished men: Monsieur Dumont for the Enseignement Superieur, one from whom we nr EDUCATION. Irifh National SchooU. EDUCATION. hoped much nnd wlioae onrly denth we luwl to mourn in 1H84 ; Monsieur Zi''V()rt for tlie Enseignc- nient Sceondairc, wlio nlsodicd ore tlie good seed wliicli lie Imd sown had Hpning up nnd borne fruit (1HH7); imd Monsieur Huisson to wlioso wis- dom, zeiil, nnd energy we owe most of tlie work of tiie Enseignement I'rimnire. At tlieir side, of maturer years than tliey, stood Monsieur Gre- ard, |{<'Ctour de I'Academie de Paris. . . . All the (■ducutionists of t!io first French Revolution had insisted on the solidarity of the three orders of education; maintaining thr: li was not pos- sible to separate one from another, nnd that tlierc ought to be a close correspondence between tlicm. This principle lies at the root of the whole sys- tem of French national instruction. Having es- trvblished this principle, the four leaders called upon all classes ,)f teachers to work with them, and professors wlio liad devoted their life to the promotion of superior instruction brought their experience nnd their powers of organization to bear upon schools for all classes, from the richest to the poorest. . . . But to reform and to recon- struct a system of instruction is not asm»!l task. It is not easy to change at once the old methods, to give "x new spirit to the masters, to i jach those who think that what had been sufflcient for them need not be alteied and is sufflcient forever. However, we must say that as soon as the French teachers heard of the great changes which were about to take place, they were all anxious to rise to the demands made on them, and were eager for advice and help. Lectures on pedagogy and psychology were given to them by the highest professors of philosophy, and these lessons were so much appreciated that the attention of the University of France was called to the necessity for creating at the Sorbonne a special course of lectures on pedagogy. Eleven hundred masters nnd mistresses attended them the first year that they were inaugurated ; from that time till now their number has always been increasing. Now we have at the Sorbonne n Chaire Magistralo and Conferences for the training of masters and pro- fessors; and the faculties at Livons, Bordeaux, Nancy, nnd Montpellier have followed the ex- ample given at the Sorbonne, Paris. ... In 1878, the Museo Pedagogique was founded; in 1882, began the publication of the Revue P&ia- gogique and the Revue Internationale de I'En- seignement. Four large volumes of the Diction- nalre de Pedagogic, each containing about 3,000 closely printed pages, have also come out under the editorship of Monsieur Buisson, all the work of zealous teachers and educationists. In 1879 normal schools were opened. Then in 1880 pri- mary schools, and in 1882 we may say that the Ecoles Matcrnelles and the Ecolcs Enfantines were created, so different are they from the infant schools or the Salles d'Asile; in 1883 a new ex- amination was established for the Profcssorat and the Direction des Ecoles Normales, as well as for the inspectors of primary Instruction; and in July, 1889, the law about public and private teaching was promulgated, perhaps one of the most important that has ever been passed by the Republic." — Mme. Th. Armagnnc, The JElduca- tional lienaissaiice of France {Education, Sept., 1890). France : A. D. 1890-1891.— Statistics.— The whole number of pupils registered in the pri- mary, elementary and superior schools, public and private, of France and Algiers (excluding the I of National Education 718 "ecoles matcrnelles ") for the school-year 1890- 91, was 5,593,883; of which 4,:!84,905 were in public schoo.H (it. 700,801, •'laVriue," nnd 024,304 "congreganiste ), and 1,208,978 in private schools (151,413 "latques,"and 1,057,500 "con- greganiste"). Of 36,484 communes, 85,503 pos- sessed n public school, and 875 were joined for school purposes with another commune. The male teachers employed in the elementary and superior public schools numbered 28,057; fenmlo teachers, 24,273; total 52,930.— Ministilrc de I'ln- struction publique, Renivie des Mats de situation dp I' enseignement primair^ j»>ur i'annee seolaire 1890-1891. Ireland. — "The present system of National Education in Irclancl was founded in 1831. In this year grants of public money for the education of the poor were entru.sted to the lord-lieutenant in order that they might be applied to the ed.ica- tion of the people. Thin education was to bo given to children of every religious belief, and to be superintended by commissioners ai)pointed for the purpose. The great principh; on which the system was founded was that of ' united secular nnd separate religious instruction. ' No child should be required to attend any religious instruction which should be contrary to the wishes of his or her parents or guardians. Times were to be set apart during which chil- dren were to have such religious instruction as their parents might think proper. It wns to 1)0 the duty of the Commissioners to see that theso principles were carried out and not infringed on in nny way. They had also power to give or refuse money to those who applied for aid to build schools. Schools are 'vested' and 'non- vested.' Vested schools arc those built by the Board of National Education ; non-vested schools are the ordinary schools, and are managed by those who built them. If a committee of per- sons build a school, it is looked on by the Board as the 'patron.' If a landowner or private per- son builds a school, he is regarded as the patron if he has no committee. The patron, whether landlord or committee, liaa power to appoint or dismiss a manager, who corresponds with the Board. The manager is also responsible for the due or thorough observance of tli ■ laws and rules. Teachers are paid by him ah. r he certi- fies that the laws have been kept, and gives the attendance for each quarter. When an indi- vidual is patron, he may appoint himself mana- ger, and thus fill both ofBc's. . . . The teac'icrs are paid by salaries nnd by results fees. The Boards of Guardians have power to contribute to these results fees. Some unions do so nnd are called 'contributory.' School managers in Ire- land are nearly nlwnys clerics of sonie denomina- tion. There nre sometimes, but very rarely, lay managers, . . . From the census returns of 1881 it appears that but fifty-nine per cent, of the people of Ireland ore able to read and write. Tlie greater number of national schools through- out Ireland are what are called 'unmixed,' that is, attended by ciiildren of one denomination only. The rest of the schools are called ' mixed, ' that is, attended by children of different forms of religion. The percentage of schools that show a ' mixed ' attendance tends to become smaller each year. . . . There are also twenty- nine 'model' schools in different parts of Ireland. These Bchool8_aro managed directly by the Board . . According to the EDUCATION. Pnutia. EDUCATION. n'port of the CoiiinilssioncrH of National Eilucu- tioii for 1890, the ' pcrci'iitagc^ of avcra);(' atti'iic' Hiicit to tlio avcraKO iiiiiiiIht of childrpii on the rolls of tlio 8(!lKH)ls was Imt nO.O,' and the per rx'ntaKC of school attcndanci! to the csliniatcd population of hcIiooI agci in Ireland woiild he IcHS than r>0. Dilfcrent reasons niiftlil be given for tills small pereentagi^ of attendant •. The chief reasons are, first, ntten<!ancc at school not being compulsory, and next, education not being free. . . . The pence paid for school fees in Ire- land may seem, to many people, a small matter. Hut in a cotintry like Ireland, where little money circulates, and a numbei of the (Hople are very poor, school pence arc often not easily found every week. In 1890, i:l01,.V)0 48. and 8(1. was paid in . i;ho(il fees, l)einir an average of 4s. md. ])er unit of average attendance." — the IHkIi l\<mint\ III/ II (liiiirdinn of tlw Pmir, eJi. 8. Norway. — "In 1730 the Hchools throughout the country were reguhited by a royal ordinance, but this paid so little regard to the economical and physical condition of Xorway that it had to be altered and niodilied as early as 1741. Comiiul- 8ory instruction, however, had thus been adopted, securing to every child in the country instruction in the C'liristian doctrine and in reading, and this coercion was retained in all later laws. . . . Many portions of the coimtry are intersected by higli mountains and deep lionls, so that a small population is Hcattered over a surface of several miles. In such localities the law has established 'ambulatory schools,' whose teachers travel from one farm to another, living with the differ- ent peasants. Although this kind of instruction has often been most incomplete nd the teachers very mediocre, still educational coercion has everywhere been in force, and Christian instruc- tion everywhere provided for the children. These 'ambulatory schools' formerly existed in large numben, but with the increase of wealth and population, and the growing interest taken in e<lucation, their number has gradually dimin- ished, and that of fixed circle-schools augmented in the sume proportion. ' — U. Qade, liep ' on the Eilucntioiial System of Xorway ( IT. S. Bureau of Miuaition, Circulars of Information, July, 1871). — " School attendance is compulsory for at least 12 we'^ks each year for all children in the coun- try districts from 8 years of age to confirmation, and from 7 years to confirmation in the towns. Acconiing to the law of 1889, which in a meas- ure only emphasizes preceding laws, each school is to have the necessary furnishings and all indispensable school material. The Norwegians are so intent upon giving instruction to all chil- dren that in case of poverty of the parents the authorities furnish text-books and the necessary clothing, so that school privileges may be ac- corded to all of school age."— U. 8. Comm'i' of Education, Report, 1889-90, p. 013. Prussia: A. D. 1809. — Education and the liberation movement. — " The most important era in the liistory of public instruction in Prussia, as well as in other parts of Germany, opens with the efforts put forth by the king and people, to rescue the kingdom from the yoke of Napoleon in 1809. In that year the array was remodeled and every citizen converted into a soldier; landed property- was declared free of feudal service ; restrictions on freedom of trade were abolished, and the whole state was reorganized. Great reliance was placed on infusing a German & rlt into the people by 7 giving them freer access to improved Institutions of education fn^m the common school to the uni- versity. Under the councils of llanlenberg, Ilumb'ildt, Htein, Altenstein, these riforms aial improvements were projected, carried on, and perfected in less than a single generation. The movement in tichalf of popular schools com- mence<l by inviting ('. A. ZcIUt, of Wirtemberg, to Prussia. Z(!ller was ,. young theologian, who had studied under Pestalo/zi in Hwitzerlaial, and was thoroughly imbued with the method and spirit of his master. On his return he had con- vened the school feac^hers of Wirtemberg in barns, for want of better accommiMlations being allowed him, and inspired them with a zeal for Pesta- lo/./.i's methods, and for i better education of the whole people. On removing to Pru.ssia he first took charge of the seminary at Koenigsberg, soon after founded the seminary at Karalene, and went about into different pi-oviaces meeting .vith teachers, holding conferences, visiting schools, and inspiring school olllcers with the right spirit. The next step taken was to send a numl)er of young men, mostly theologians, to Pestalozzi's institution at IlTerten, to acquire his method, and on their return to place them in new, or reorgan- izeil teachers' seminaries. To these new agiuits in school improvement were joined a large body of zealous teachers, and patriotic and enlightened citizens, who, in ways and methods of their own, labored incessantly to confirm the Pru.ssian state, by forming new organs for ;,,., internal life, and new means of protection f . .im foreign foes. "They l)roved themselves truly educators of the people. Although the government thus not only encour- aged, but directly aided in the introduction of the methods of Pestalozzi into the public schools of Prussia, still the school board in the different provinces sustained and encouraged those who approved and taught on different systems. . . . Music, which was one of Pestalozzi's grei.t m- struments of culture, was made the vehicle of patriotic songs, and through them the heart of all Germany was moved to bitter hatred of the conqueror who had desolated her fields and homes, and humbled the pride of her monarchy. All these efforts for the improvement of element- ary education, accompanied by expensive modi- fications in the establishments of secondary and superior education, were made when the treasu.'-y was impovLrished, and taxes the most exorbitant in amount were levied on every province and commune of the kingdom." — II. Barnard, Na- tioiml Education in Europe, pp. 83-84. — For this notable educational work begun in Prussia in 1809, and which gave a new character to the na- tion, "the Providentia- man appeared in Hum- boldt, as great a master of the science and art of education as Scharnhori'. was a master of the organisation of war. Not only was he himself, OS a scholar and an investigator, on a level with the very first of his age, not only had he lived with precisely those masters of literature, Schil- ler and Goethe, who were most deliberate in their self-culture, and have therefore left behind most instruction on the higher parts of education, but he had been specially intimate with F. A. Wolf. It is not generally known in England that Wolf was not merely the greatest philologer but also tlie greatest teacher and educationist of his time. . . . Formed by such teachers, and supported by a more intense belief in ctilture than almost any man of his time, Humboldt began bis work in 19 EDUCATION. Uumbolttt'ii uxtrk 111 I'nutta. EDUCATION. April, 1800, III primiiry I'ductitlou Fich'.o Imtl iilrcfttly poiiitc'il •() I'c'Htiifn/.zl iiH tlie Iw'st Kuidc, ()ii(! of timt rcforiniTH iliariplcH, C. A. Zcllrr, >viiHHiimiii(ino<l to Kniilf^BlxT^ to foiiiiil n norniiil M'hiH)!, wliiU; tlic reformer hiiiiHi'If. in liiii w(M>l(ly educat.'iiniil journiil, flii-iTPil fiilli'a l'ru8.sia liy lii-s piini'gyric, imd wroto I'litliiiHiiiRtirally to Nicolo- viiiH pronouiK.'ing liirn ntul liit> friends tlio xiilt imd lenven of tlie eiirtli tlmt w()\dd soon leiivcn tlie whole miws. It is relat<'d tlmt in the many ditllcultiea which Zeller uot unnnturnlly had to contend with, the Kind's genuine benevolence, interest in practical improvement, and stn>ng family feeling, were of decisive use. . . . The reform of the Gymnasia was also highly success- ful. Hllvern here was among the most active of those who worked uniler Humboldt's direction. In deference to the auth ity of Wolf the classics preserved their traditional position of lionour, and ])articului importance was attached to Greek. . . . But it was on the highest department of education that Humlxildt left his murk mo.st visibly. He founded the University of Berlin; he gave to Europe a new seat of learning, which has ever since stood on an equality with the very greatest of those of which Europe boasted before. We are not. indeed to suppose that the Idea of such a University sprang up for the first time at this moment, or in the bnun of Humboldt. Among all the loiises which befell Prussia by the Peace of Tilsit none was felt more bitterly tlian the loss of the University of Hulle, where Wolf himself liad made his fame. Immediately after tiio blow fell, two of the Professors of Holle made their way to Memel and laid before the King a proposal to establish a HIgli School at Berlin. This was on August 22nd, 1807. . . . On September 4tli came an Order of Cabinet, in which It was declared to be one of the most im- fortjint objects to compensate the loss of Halle, t was added that neitlier of the two Universities which remained to Prussia, those of Kftnigsberg and Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, could be made to supply the place of Halle, KOnigsberg being too remote from the seat of Government and Frank- furt not sufflciently provided with means. At Berlin a University could best, and at least ex pense, be established. Accordingly all funds which Imd hitherto gone to Halle were to go for the future to Berlin, and assurances were to be given to the expelled Professors which might prevent their talents being lost to the country. A University ia not founded in a day, and accoid- Ingly while Stein held office the design did not pass beyond the stage of discussion. . . . Hum- boldt scut in his Report on May 13, 1809, and on August 16th followed the Order of Cabinet as- signing to the new University, along with the Academies of Science and Art, an annual dota- tion of 150,000 thalers, and the Palace of Prince Henry as Its residence. During the rest of his term of office Humboldt was occupied in negotia- tions with eminent men of science oil over Ger- many, whose services he hoped to procure. He was certainly not unsuccessful. He secured Flchte for Philosophy ; Schleiermacher, De Wette, and Marheiaeke for Theology; Savigny and Schmalz for Jurisprudence; Priediilnder, Kohl- rausch, Hufoland, and Reil for Medicine ; Wolf, Buttmann, BiJekh, Helndorf, and Spalding for the Study of Antiquity ; Niebuhr and RUhs for History ; Trallcs for Mathematics (Gauss refused the Invitation). The University was opened at Michaelmas of 1810, and as tiio first result of It the first volume of Ni'-biihr's lioman History, opening so vast a field of historical speculation, was pulili.shcd In 1811. . . . Altogether in tlmt periiMi of Uennan history the relations of litera ture, or rather culture In general, to politics are remarkable and exceptional. There had been a niostextraordinary intellectual movement, n great outpouring of genius, and yet this had taken plate not, as according to some current tlKuirics It ought to iiave done, in the bosom of political iilierty, l)ut in a country where liberty was un- known. And as it was uot the cITect, so the ne\/ literature did not seem disposed to become the cause, of liljcrty. Not only was It careless of in- ternal liberty, but it was actually indilTerent to national Independence. The golden ago of Oer- iiian literature Is the very period when Germany was cimquered by France. . . . So far literature and culture seemed u doubtful lieneflt, and might almost bo compared to some pernicious drug, which sliould have the power to make men for- get their country and llieir duties. Not un- reasonably did Priedrif:h Perthes console himself for the disasters o' Geniiany by reflecting that at least they had broug.'il to tui end 'the paper time,' the fool's paradise of a life inai'o up of nothing more substantial than literat'irc. In Humboldt's reform wo have the compensation for all Lhis. Here while on the .mo hand we see the grand spectacle of a nation in the last extremity refusing to part with the treasures of its higher life, on the other hand tlmt higher life is no longer unnaturally divorced from political life. It is prized as one of the bulwarks of the State, as a kind of spiritual weapon by wlilch the enemy may be resisted. And in the new and public-spirited generation of tiiinkcrs, of wliich Flchte and Schleiermacher were the principal representa- tives, culture returns to politics the honour that has been done to it. . . . In Humboldt and his great achievements of 1809, 1810, meet and are reconciled the two views of life whicli found their most extreme representatives in Goethe and Stein." — J. II. Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, pt. 0, ch. 3 (v. 2). Prussia: A. D. 1874.— The Educational Ad- ministration. — ' ' There is no organic scliool-law In Prussia, . . . though sketches and projects of such a law have more than once been prepared. But at present tlie public control of the higher schools is exercised througlj administrative orders and instructions, like the minutes of our Com- mittee of Council on Education. But the admin- istrative authority has m Prussia a very dilTerent basis for its operations from th'it which it has in England, and a much firmer one. It lias for its basis these articles of the AUgemelne Landrecht, or common law of Prussia, whicli was drawn up in writing in Frederick the Great's reign, and promulgated in 1794, in the reign of bis suc- cessor: — 'Schools and universities are State in- stitutions, having for their object the instruction of youth in useful and scientific knowledge. Such establishments are to be Instituted only with the State's previous knowledge and consent. All public schools and public establishments of education are under the State's supervision, and must at all times submit themselves to its exam- inations and inspections. Whenever tlie ap- pointment of teachers is not by virtue of the foundation or of a special privilege vested In certain persons or corporations, it belongs to the 720 EDUCATION. Thr PnuuUm ftcHool Sytlem. EDUCATION. fltatc. ■'?vpn whrrn tlin Imi.iodlnto HupcrvlRloii of such Hcliools mill tlio itppiiiiitmcnt of tlicir tctu'luTH Ih coinniitU'i) to rortiiin private pcrsonH orcorporiitioiis. new tcncliersrnnnotbcappniiitcd, mill important cliangcs in tlio conHtitutloii iinil toitcliiiii; of tliB Hcliool ruiinot bo adoplpil witli- out the previous liiiowlcilf^o or consi'iit of tlie provliu.iiil .Hcliool iiiillioritics. Tlie tcaclicrs in till,' gyniniLsiuniH and otlii-r liif^ltcr sclioolg liavo tlie chiiriii'tcr of Slate functionaries.'. . . It \v.)uld lie a ndstake to supiiose that the State in Prussia hIiowb a graspinR and eenlralising spirit in dealing with education; on the contrary, it makes the administration of It as local as it possibly can ; but it takes care tliat education sliall not be left to the chapter of accidents. . . . Prussia is now divided into eight provinces, and these eight provinces arc again divided into twji.ty-si.x gov- ernmental districts, or Hi'glerungen. There Is a Provincial School Hoard (Provinzial-Sehulcol- k'gium) in the chief town of each of the eight provinces, and a Oovcrnniental District Hoard in that of each of the twenty -six Hegierungen. In general, the State's relations with the liiglier <'lass of secondary schools are exercised through the Provincial Board ; its relations with the lower class of them, and with the primary schools, through tlie District Board. In Herlin, the re- lations with these also are managed by the Pro- vincial Board. A Provinzial-Schulcollegium has for its president the High President of the pro- vince; for Its director the vice-president of that governmental district which hapjiens to have for its centre the provincial capita'. The Board has two or three other members, of whom, in general, one is a Catholic and one is a Protestant; ami one is always a man practically conversant with school matters. The District Board lias in the provincial capitals the same president and director as the Provincial Board ; in the other centres of Rcgierungen It has for its president the Presi- dent of the Kegierung, and three or four mem- bers selected on the same principle as the mem- bers of the Provincial Board. The provincial State autliority, therefore, is, in general, for gymnasiums, the larger progymnasiums, and Kealschulen of the first rank, the Provincial School Board; for the smaller progymnasiums, liealschulen of the second rank, the higher Burgher Schools, and the primary schools of all kinds, the Governmental District Board. Both boards are in continual communication with tho Educational Minister at Berlin. . . . Besides the central and provincial administration there is a local or municipal administration for schools that arc not Crown patronage schools. ... In most towns the local authority forschoolsof municipal patronage is the town magistracy, assisted by a Stadtschulrath; sometimes tlie local authority is a Curatoriumor Schulcommission." — M. Arnold, Higher Schools and Univenitics in Germany, ch. 3. — " The secondary school dllTers from the ele- mentary schools by a course of instruction going beyond the immediate demands of every-day life ; from the special school, by the more gen- eral character of the courses of instruction ; from the university, by its preparatory character. It has the special aim to give that sound basis of scientific and literary education which enables a man to participate in solving the higher prob- lems of life in church, state, and society. In accordance with their historical development, two directions can be clearly traced, viz., the gymnasium and the real-school: the former com- prising gymnasl'i and pro-gymnasia; and the lat- ter real-sehoolsof the first class, realseliools of the W'cond class, and higher burgher-schiHils." — IUhI. of Seeomlnry In»trurtii>n in (lernumy (U. S. Hit- reau of Eduaition. CircuUirf of Informntinn, 1N74, 110. 3), i>. 41. — "The name gymnasium came in'.o use as early as the sixteenth century. Tin miiiistfrlal (lecreeof the lUtliof November, 1813, ordered that all learned school institutions, such as lyceums, pedagogiums, coUegiu.iiis, Latin scliiMils, etc., should lii'ar the name- gymnasium. A gymnasium is and lias long been a classical school." — U. S. Comm'r of Education, lieixtrt, 18S0-U0, ;). 318. Ai.si) in: V. Cousin, Report on the »tate of jiii/>lii\iiiiitriii'ti'iii ill I'nimn. Prussia : A. D. 1885-1889.— The Elementary School-System. — " '1 lu^ New Yorker, anxious for a high degree of perfection in the elementary schools of his State, must be struck forcibly by the f(,llcwing merits of the Elementary School System c '. Prussia. . . . 1. Compulsory education laws, necessitating a full and regular attendance of the children of school age. 2. OIHclal courses of study fixing the work to be accomplished In each of the different grades of schools. Uni- formity is thus secured in the work done in all schools of the same class. 3. Definite i|uallfiea- tlons and expirience in teaching for eligibility to the olBce of school commissioner. 4. Provi- sions elevating teaching to the dignity of a pro- fession and making the tenure of oince secure. 5. Trained teachers in rural as well as city districts and a school year of at least forty weeks. 0. General supervision of instruction for children of school age In private schools and families, including the qualifications of instruct- ors. . . . Every Prussian child between the ages of 6 and 14 must, except in cases of severe ill- ness or other extraordinary cause, be present at every session of the school he attends. The lists of the children of school age, in charge of the local police (in rural districts the Burgermeister), are kept so carefully that it is impossible to es- cape the provisions of the compulsorj education laws, as much so as it is to evade the military service Dispensations amounting to more than four weeks in the school year are never given to children under 13 years of age, and to them only when sickness In the family or other unusual cause make it advisable. ... In order to under- stand the qualifications required of school com- missioners (Kreisschulinspektoren) in Prussia, let us review brlefiy the requirements of male teachers. 1. Eleiiientary schools. It may be stated at the outset that almost all the male ele- mentary school teachers are normal school gradu- ates. 'To insure similarity in triiinlng and a thorough knowledge of character, few foreigners and few beside normal school (ScliuUehrer-Seml- nar) graduates are admitted to the male teaching force. From to 14 the wonld-be teacher has at- tended, let us suppose, an elementary school. He must then absolve the three years' course laid down for the preparatory schools. ... He is now ready for the normal school. At the close of a three years' course at the normal school be is ad- mitted to the first teachers' examination. If suc- cessful, he must next practice as candidate or assistant teacher not less than two years and not more than five years before his admission to the final test. ... If a teacher fails to pass the ex- V21 KUUCATION. Prwuinn Hekool UtatUUct. EDUCATION. Kminntlon within flvo yunm, Im in dropped. 3. Middle m'IkkiIh. For tciu'litTR of lower elHRM>8 the Hiiiiie n'cmlrotneiilH with Ihe addition of nl)il!ty to teiu'li ii foreiKii tongue, or iiiitiiriil hiHtory in ItH hrondest Heiiite, mid tli(! iittuiiiiiient of the murk ' kimhI ' in till Hulijeets lit the tiniil exainiiiiitiun. . . . For higher eliuweH, ii Hpeeliil cxatnlniition provided for middle scliooi teiieheni. , . . There In really no jtriuiiition between ele- mentary mid nilddli! schools. The iiitter merely ({o on somewhat further with elementiiry school Work, inlrodiiiiiiK rreneli, fiiitiii mid English. !). IIIkIi Kchiiols (liealschiilcii, lieiilgvinnaslen, Pro^fymnasieu and Oyrnimtiien). All high school teachers, except those engaged in tceliiiical d-' partnient^s, must first almolve the nine years' gvmnaMlal course, whi(!h commences at the^losc o( the third school year. Next comes the uni- versity course of three or four years. The can- didate h now ready for t!ie Htiito examination. The Huhjects for this State examination . . . are divided into four classes: 1. The ancient lan- guages and Cierman; 2. Matheniaticsand natural sciences; i). History and geography ; 4. Keligion and llclirew. At the close of one year's practice to test teaching capacity he receives a second certificate ami Is thereupon engaged provision- nlly. . . . The school coiiiniissioners . . . are cither former regular high school teachers, gen- eral doctors of iihiiosophy or more rarely theo- logians, or former normal school teachers. All must have had practical experience in teaching. . . . The work to be accompilslied in each Prus- sian elementary school is definitely laid down by law. Each school is not a law unto itself as to what shall be done and when and how this is to be done. I have learned by practical ex- perience tliat the work in ungraded schools com- pares most favorably witli that of graded schools." — J. U. Parsons, Jr., Prussian tiklwola through American eyes, ch. 1, sect. 5-10. — Prus- sian elementary schools are now free. " In this respect Prussia has passed through three stiiges. Under the first elementary schools were entirely self-supporting; under the second they received State aid, but were still largely self-supporting; under the third. Laws of 1888 and 1889, element- ory schools were made free and the State pays a larger proportion of the cost of maintenance. Districts must pay for repairs, new buildings and cost of heating. If unwilling to provide proper accommodations for the children of school age, they can be forced by the government to do so. Poor districts may receive special govern- ment aid to meet such expenses. . . . The direct aim of the laws of June 14, 1888, and March 31, 1889, was to lighten the burden of local taxation for sc:hool8 for children of school age. These laws have had a beneficial effect in increasing slightly the wages of teachers. Teachers' sala- ries are still quite small in Prussia, particularly In the case of females. Allowances are generally made for house-rent and fuel. Teachers in rural districts are provided with a house and garden. Their salaries are often not much more than half those paid city teachers of the same grade, and yet, as regards professional training and char- acter of work, they are fully equal to city teachers. . . . The average annual salary re- ceived by teachers in Prussia ia 1886 was $287.50. Tlie average for the same ye-v in New York was $409.37. The Prussian teacher, however, re- ceived fuel and dwelling free, in addition to hi.j regular salary. ... In 1R85 the population of Prussia wiiH 28,;i|H,470, ami the total cost of public education per caput was 1^1.7717. Drs. Hchncidcraiid Petcrsllie of llcrllii, In ' PriMissischu Ktatislik 101,'pulillslii'd in 1HH9, reckon the total cost for IM88, excluding army and navy schools, at 1|1.5(), li>3,H.17. ... Ill PriiKsia. (!lemcntAry in- struction Is the first c(msidcralion. The resolu- tion adopted by the nationiil asHt^mbly (I.andtag) December 23, 1870, Is a good illustration of this. It was at the very crisis of tlie I'Vanco-Oerman war, yet the Landtag called on the government to increase the mimhcrof normal schools and the capacity of those already existing, and 'thus to put an end to tlie practice of filllnfj up teacliers' vacancies by iippoiiiting inupialiflcd individ- uals.'" — J. U. Parsons, Jr., Pntssinn Schoolt Ihrouffh American eyes, ch. 1, sect. 15-17. — "Througliout Prussia tlicre is now one scliool- room and one teacher to 440 inhabitants and 78.8 children actually attending school. This shows that there are far too few teachers. Hut the gov- ernment and the cities have n'ci'iitly devoted con- siderable sums to the establishment of new places for ti'iichers, so that, in the) ear 1881, there were 10,000 more teachers working in the public 8eh(Kils than in 1873. The salaries of the teachers were also rai.sed. The average payment in the country is 054 marks, in the cities 1,430 marks. ... The expen.-ie of maintaining tlie Prussiau national schools amounts aiiiiuully to about 103,- 000,000 of marks, 43,000,000 of which are paid by the ciities. One hundred and ten colleges for the training of teachers are now engaged in the education of male and female instructors, with an attendance of 0,893 pupils; that is, there is one pupil to every 2,758 inliabitauts. In the case of tile female teacliers only, a considerable degree of assistance is rendered by private insti- tutions. . . . The intermediary schools estab- lished i 1 1872, and recently converted into the higher citizen schools, form a transition from the natic -lal schools to the higlier schools. These teach reli,_ion, German, Frencli, English, history and geogi, phy, arithmetic and mathematics, natural history and physics, writing, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. Tiio course embroccs six years without Latin, with the privilege of one year's service in the army instead of three. Complemenairy to the national school is the flnisliiug school. There are a large number in Prussia, namely, 1,261 with 08,766 pupils; 617 •with 10,395 in the country, and 644 with 58,371 in the cities. Of tliese 644,343 are obligatory by local statutes, 303 are optional. Since the law of 1878 special care has been devoted to the com- pulsory education of orphaned children. . . . The prepanitory instruction of female teachers leaves much to be desired. " — P. Kirchner, Coii- temporary Educational Tlwught in Prussia (Edu- cational Rev., May, 1891). — " About 25 per cent, of all the teachers in public middle schools are women, hence . . . women hold ])ositions in these schools more frequently than in tlit lower, the purely elementary, schools of the kingdom. The greatest ratio of women teachers in Prussia is found in private middle schools, where 3,433 of 3.136 (ornearly 80 percent.) are women. ... In all the public schools of Prussia (elementary, mid- dle, and secondary) only 10,600 women teachers were employed [1887], or lij- per cent, of all the teachers in the kingdom. . . . Before the public schools of the kingdom bad the care and close 722 EDUCATION. ItnilllMh SrhooU anil I'niitrraittes. EDUCATION. wipervlsion on iln |mrt of llio MnU' wlilcli tlii'y linvi' n<iw, iimny niori^ prlviiti^ scliooltt were In exlHlt'iictt tliiiii lit pri'W'iit. During tlio IunI '.Ti years tlic nriviitc scIiooIh Imvc not iticrcamMl in numbers, l)Ut pi'r(rplil)ly decreased." — U. H. Comm'r of Educulion, Uemrt, lHHU-00, pp. 887- 280. Russia. — "After serfdom Inid lieen aliolislu^d, llie Kmperor Alexancier II. saw tliat tlie indis- nensalde eonsecpiem e of tlds great reform must lie a tlioroiigli reorga.ily.ation of pulili(" Instruc- tion. In IMtll II connnlltee was appointed to draw up tlie plan of a law. In IWia .M. Taneef Hulimitted to till' Kmperor a '(ieiieral plan for the (irKani;/:ation of popular education,' wliieli contained some verv excellent |)oints. The re- sult was the General Hegulations of 1H04, which are still in force. . . . The ditliciillicH which a complete rcori?ani/.atiou of popular education meets In Hussia are enoimous. They aro prin- cipally caused liy the manner in wliicli the in- habitants live, scatleivd over a large extent of country, and by their extreme poverty. . . . The density of population is so small that there are only 1!).0 inliabitants to one sipiare kilometer ('il Hipiarc kiioineters to 1 squuri! mile), iubtcnd of OU as in France. Under these circumstances only the children from the center hamlet anil those living nearest to it could atttnd school regularly, especially during the winter-months. The rcmaimler of the inhabitan. would pay their dues without having any 1 'elit, whicli would necessarily foster discontent. As Prince Qagariu says, 'It has, therefore, not been pos- sible to make education in Hussia compulsory, . ns in Germany, nor even to enforce the establish - ment of a school in each community.' It is doubtless impossible at present to introduce into Uussia the eibuational systems of the western countries." — E. do Lavelaye, ProffriM of Kiliint- Hon in RiiHuia (U. K Bureau nf Kdumtion, Cir- culitr.1 of Iiiformniion, 1875, no. 3), pp. ;H-33. Scotland. — "The existing system of education in Scotland is an outcome of causes deeply in- volved in the political and religious history of the country. . . . This system was preceded by a complicated variety of educational agencies, of which the chief were parish schools, fo'.Mu'ed upon a statute of 1040, which was revived ;. li made operative in 1008. Parish and burgh schools, supported by local funds and by tuition fees, made up the'public pr(> vision fo • education. In addition tliere were schools partly maintained by parliamentary grents, mission and sessional schools maintain"'.! by the Established Church and the Free Church, and other parochial and private schools. Parish and burgh schools carried in- struction to the level of the universities, which were easily accessible to all clas.sc9. The date of the passage of the ' Scotch Education Act ' (1872) was opportune for the organization of these vari- ous agencies into a system maintained by the combined actiim of the Government and local authorities. In framing the Scotch act care was taken, as in framing the English act two years before, to guard the rights of the Government with respect to funds appropriated from the public treasury. At the same time equal care was shown for the preservation of the Scotch ideal. Tliis was a broad and comprehensive ideal, embracing the different grades of scho- lastic work. . . . This ideal ditferentiates the Bcotch act from the English act passed two years befori'. The latter related to elementary schools exclusively; the former has a wider NCMpe, providing the foiindatiniis of a :ivstem of gradeil Ncbools correlated to the universities which lie beyond its province. With respect Ut tlie interests of the Government, the two nets .ire substantially the same. . . . For the geniTal direction of the system a Scotch educational de- partment was created, composed, like the Elig- lisli department, of lords of the y.r'wy rouncil, and having the same president. . . . The act ordered every parent to seeiire the Instruction of bis children betweeeii tlu^ ages of .'i and 13, or until a lertitU'itte of exemption should be se- (!ured. Parents failing in t his oliligation are sub- ject to prosecution and penalty by line or imprison- ment. The compulsory provision extends to blind children. I'arocliial or burghal authori- ties were autliorized to pay the tuition fees of those children whose jiarents eoiilil not meet tho expenditure, a piovision rendered unnecessary by the recent remission of all fees. The Scotch act, by a sweeping >lause, made compulsory at- tendance uuiversiil ; the English act left the mat- ter of compulsion to local iimiuigerM. A stibse- qilent lilt (1878) llxeil the standiird of exemption in Scotland at the lifth [grade, or year of study], which pupils should pa.ss at 11 years of age. In 1883, the upper limit of compulsory attend- ance in Sc tianil was raised to 14 years. . . . The universities of Seotland have been more in- timately related to the lifeoi the common peoplo than those of any other country. In this re- spect, even more if possible than in their consti- tution, they present a marked contrast to the English universities. To their denioeiatic spirit may be traced many of the characteristics wliicli dilferentiale the S(«tch people iind policies from those of England. To their widespread inllii- ence, to tho ambitions which they awakened, and the opportunities which they brought within the reach of the whole body of Scottisli youth is due, in largo measure, the independent and hon- orable |)art that Scotland has played in the history of the United Kingdom. This popular character of the universities has been fostered by the curric- ulum of the common schools, by the easy passage from the schools tothehiglier institutions; by the inexpensive mode of student life in the university towns, and by the great number of scholarship funds available for the poor. These conditions, however, have not been without their disadvan- tages. Of these, the chief are tho low entrance standards and the consetpient forcing of iirejiara- tory instruction upon the university professors. ... As a result of long-continued clTorts a Scotch universities act was passed in 1889. This act provided for the reorganization of the four universities; for the elevation of their standards; the enrichment of their curricula, and the in- crease of their resources. . . . The Scotch uni- versities have taken part in the popular move- ments of the last decade. They maintain local examinations for svcimdary schools and students. St. Andrews has ))een particularly active in pro- moting the higlur education of women, having instittltcd the special degree of L. L. A. (lady literate in arts). Edinburgh also grants a certifi- cate in arts to women. Aberdeen has recently appointed a lecturer on education, following thus the precedent set by Edinburgh and St. Andrews. The four universities are united in a scheme of university exteusita." — U. S. Com- 723 EDUCATION. SwedUh and Swim SchooU. EDUCATION. missioncr of Kducation, Report, 1889-90, v. \,pp. 188-207. Sweden. — "Sweden liiis two nnciont niul fo- nious univt'reitics — Upsain niid Lund. That of Lund is in tlio south piirt of tlio l<ingdoin, und wlit'u founded was on Danisli territory. The in- come from its estiites is iiljout 170,000 rix-clollars (|HO,itir)) per annum. It also receives yearly aid from tlie slate. In 1807 it had 75 profen .ors and tutors, and 400 students. Upsala is the larger university, located at the old town of that name — the ancient capital of Sweden — an hour and a half hj rail north of Glockholm. It has 100 pro- fessors and tutors, and 1,449 students, an increase of 131 over the year 1809. . . . This university had its heginning as an institution of leurnin,'^ as far back as 1350. In 1438 it had one academic professorship, and >a8 dedicated as an univer- sity in 1477. Its principal endowment was by Gustavus Adolphus in 1024, when he donated to it all of the estate in lands that he possessed, amounting in all to 800 farms. " — C. C. Andrews, Jicpt. (in t/ie Educational tSystem of Sireden {IT. «V. liureau of Education, Circulars of Information, July, 1871). Switzerland. — "The influence of the Refor- mation, and, in tlie following age, of the Jesuit reaction, gave to Switzerland, as to Germany, its original and fundamental means and agencies of national education, and impressed also upon the population a habit of dutiful regard for schools and learning. It was not, however, till forty years ago tliat the modem education of Swit- zerland was organized. 'The great develop- ment of pt'blic education in Switzerland,' to quote Mr. Kay, 'dates from 1832, after the over- throw of the old oligarchical forms of cantonal government and the establishment of the present democratic forms.' Zurich, Lausanne, and Ge- neva take the lead in Switzerland as centres of educational influence. The canton in which the work of educational reform began was Zurich. . . . The instrument of the reform, rather the revolution, was Seherr, a trained school-teacher from WUrtemberg, a teacher, in particular, of deaf mutes to speak articulately. This man in- itiated in Zurich the new scheme and work of education, and founded the first Training Col- le,(;e. He was looked upon by the oligarchs, partly feudalists, and partly manufacturers, as a dangerous revolutionist, and was exiled from Zurich. But now a monument to his memory adorns the city. The work which he begun could not be suppressed or arrested. Zurich has ever since taken the lead in education among the cantons of Switzerland. Derived originally from Germany, the system Is substantially identical with that of Germany. . . . The principles and methods arc substantially olike throughout. There arc, tirst, the communal schools — these of course in largest number — one to every village, even for every small hamlet, provided and mam- tained, wholly or chiefly, by the commune; there arc burgher schools in towns, including element- ary, real, and superior schools, supported by the towns ; there arc cantonal schools — gymna- sia and iudustriul or technical schools — sup- ported by the State, that is, by the canton. There 18 often a Cantonal University. There is of course a Cantonal Training School or College, and there are institutes of various kinds. The Cantonal Universities, however, are on a .small and economical scale ; as yet there is no Federal University. School life in Switzerland is very long, from six to fourteen o.' fifteen, and for all who are to follow a profession, from fifteen to twenty-two." — J. IL Rigg, National Education, ch. 4. Modern : Asiatic Countries. China. " Every step 'n the process of teach- ing is fixed by unalterable usaj-'e. So much is tills the case, that in describing one school I de- scribe all, and in tracing the steps of one studenf I point out the course of all; for in China there are no new methods or short roads. In other countries, u teacher, even in the primary course, finds room for tact and originality. In tiioso who dislike study, a love of it is to be inspired by making ' knowledge pleasant to the taste ' ; and the dull apprehension is to be awakened by striking and apt illustrations. ... In China there is nothing of this. The land of uniformity, all processes in arts and letters are as much fixed by universal custom as is the cut of their gar- ments or the mode of wearing their hair. The pupils all tread the path trodden by their an- cestors of a thousand years ago, nor lias it grown smoother by the attrition of so many feet. The undergraduate course may be divided into three stages, in each of which there are two lead- ing studies: In the first the occupations of the student are committing to memory (not reading) the canonical books and writing an infinitude of diversely formeii characters, as u manual exer- cise. In the second, they are the translation of his text books (i. e., reading), and lessons in com- position. In tlie third, they are belles lettres and the composition of essays. Nothing could be more dreary than the labors of the first stage. . . . Eventhestimulusof companionship in study is usually denied, the advantages resulting from the formation of classes being us little appreciated as those of other labor saving macliinery. Eacii pupil reads and writes alone, the penalty for fad- ure being so many blows with the ferule or kneel- ing for so many minutes on the rough brick pave- ment which serves for a floor. At this period fear is the strongest motive addressed to the mind of the scholar. . . . This arctic winter of mo- notonous toil once passed, a more auspicious sea- son dawns on the youthful understanding. The key of the cabala which he has been so long and so blindly acquiring is put into Ills hands. He is initiated in the translation an<'. expositiop of those sacred books which he liad previo ' ly stored away in his memory. . . . The light ,owever is let in but sparingly, as it wer'' I'n igh chinks and rifts in the long dar! passage. A simple character here and there 'j, explained, and then, it may be after the lapse of a year or two, the Cjacher proceeds to the explication of entire sen- tences. Now for the first time the mind of the student begins to take in the thoughts of those he has been taught to regard as the oracles of wisdom. . . . The value of this exercise can hardly be overestimated. When judiciously cm- ployed it does for the Chinese what translation into and out of the dead languages of the west docs for us. It calls into play memory, judg- ment, taste, and gives him a command of his own vernacular which, it is safe to assert, he would never acquire in any other way. . . . The first step in composition is tlie yoking together of double characters. The second is the reduplica- tion of these binary compounds and the construc- 724 EDUCATION. in China. EDUCATION. tion of parallels — nn idea which runs bo com- pletely through the whole of Chinese literature that the niindof the student requires to bo im- bued with it at the very outset. Tills is the way he begii.s: The teacher writes, ' vind blows,' the pupil adds, 'rainfalls'; the teacher writes, 'rivers are long,' the pupil adds, 'seas are deep,' or ' mountains are high, ' &c. Prom the slmplo sub- ject and predicate, which in their rude grammar they describe as ' dead ' and ' living ' characters, the teacher conducts his pupil to more complex forms, iu which qualifying words and phrases are introduced. lie gives us a model some such phra.so as ' The Emperor's grace is vast as heaven and earth, ' and the lad matches it by ' The Sov- ereign's favor is profound as lake ancl sea. ' These couplets often contain two propositions in each member, accompanied by all the usual modifying terms; and so exact is 'he symmetry reciuired by the rules of the art tli \t not only must noun, verb, adjective, and particle respond to each other with scrupulous exactness, but the very tones of the characters are adjusted to each other with the precision of music. Begun with the tirst strokes of his untaught pencil, the stu- dent, whatever Ills proficiency, never gets beyond the construction of parallels. Wlicn ho becomes a member of the institute or a minister of the imperial cabinet, at classic festivals and social entertainments, the composition of impromptu couplets, formed on the old model, constitutes a favorite pastime. Reflecting a poetic image from every syllable, or concealing the keen point of a cutting epigram, they afford a line vehicle for sallies of wit ; and poetical contests such as that of Meliba^us and Mennlcas are in Chino matters of daily occurrence. If a present is to be given, on the occasion of a marriage, a birth-day, or any other remarkable occasion, nothing is deemed so elegant or acceptable as a pair of scrolls inscribed with a complimentary distich. When the novice is Bufflciently exercised in the ' parallels ' for the idea of symmetry to have become an instinct, ho is permitted to advance to other species of com- position which afford freer scope for his facul- ties. Such are the 'shotiah,' in which u bingle thought is expanded in simple language, the ' lun, the formal discussion of a subject more or less extended, and epistles addressed to imaginary persons and adapted to all conceivable circum- stances. In these last, the forms of the 'com- plete letter writer ' are copied with too much servility ; but in the other two, substance ^leing deemed of more consequence than form, the new fledged thought is permitted to essay its powers and to expatiate with but little restraint. In the third stage, composition is the leading object, reading being wholly subsidiary. It takes ftr the most part the artificial form of verse, and of a kind of prose called ' wen-chang,' which is, i.' possible, still more artificial. The reading re- quired embraces mainly rhetorical models and sundry anthologies. History is studied, but only that of China, and that only in compcnds; not for its lesson? of wisdom, but for the sake of the allusions with which it enables a writer to em- bellish classic essays. The same may be said of other studies ; knowledge and mental discipline are at a discount and style at a ))remium. The goal of the long course, the flower and fruit of the whole system, is the ' wen-chang ' ; for this alone can insure success in the public examina- tions for the civil service, in which students be- gin to ad< enturc soon after entering on the third stage of their preparatory course. . . . We hear it asserted that ' education is universal in China; even ctxilies are taught to read and write.' In one sense this is true, but not as we understand the terms ■ reading and writing. ' In the alpha- betical vernaculars of the west, the ability to rc'id and write implies the ability to express one's th ght.s by the pen and to grasp the thoughts of ( 'lers when so expressed. In (-'hinese, and espo 'lally in the classical or book language, it imi)l (!s nothing of the sort. A shopkeeijer may be uliie to write the numbers and keep accounts without being able to write anvthmg elste; and a lad who has attended school for sevenvl years will pronounce the characters of an ordinary book with faultless precision, yet not compre- hend the meaning of a single sentence. Of those who can read understandingly (and nothing else ought to be colled reading), the proportion is greater in towns than in rural districts. I'<ut striking an average, it does not, according to iny observation, exceed one in twenty for the male sex and one in ten thousand for the female. " The literary examinations, "coming down from the past, witli the accretions of many centuries, . . . have expanded into a system whose machinery is as complex as its proportions are enoniuus. Its ramifications extend to every district of the empire ; and it commands the services of district magistrates, prefects, and other civil function- aries up to governors and viceroys. These are all auxiliary to the regular offlcers of the literary corporation. In each district there are two resi- dent examiners, with the title of professor, whose duty it is to keep a register of all competing students and to exercise them from tine to time in order to stimulate their efforts and keep them in preparation for the higher examinations in which degrees are conferreil. In each province there is one chancellor or superintendent of in- struction, who holds ofllce for three years, and is required to visit every district and hold the cus- tomary examinations within that time, conferring the first degree on a certain percentage of the candidates. There are, moreover, two special ex- aminers for each province, generally members of the Ilanlin, deputed from the oipitul to conduct the great triennial examination and confer the second degree. The regular degrees are three: 1st. 'Siu-tsai' or ' Budding talent. ' 2d. ' Ku- jin' or 'Deserving of promotion.' 3d. 'Tsin- shi 'or 'Fit for office.' "To which may be added, as a fourth degree, the Ilanlin, or member of the 'Forest of Pencils.' . . . The first degree only is conferred by the provincial chancellor, and the happy recipients, fifteen or twenty in each de- partment, or 1 per cent, of the candidates, are decorated with the insignia of rank and admitted to the ground floor of the nine storied pagoda. The trial for the second degree .s held in the capi- tal of each province, by special commissioners, once in three years. It consists of three sessions of three days eacli, making nine days of almost continuous exertion — a strain to the mental and p*'VDical powers, to which the infirm and aged frequently succumb. In addition to composition in prose and verse, the candidate is required to show his acquaintance with history, (the history of China,) philosophy, criticism, and various branches of archicology. Again 1 per cent, is decorated ; but it is not until the more fortunate among them succeed iu passing the metropolitan m EDUCATION. College of William and Mary. EDUCATION. triennial timt the meed of civil office is certainly hcstowcd. They are not, however, assign "d to their respective offices until they ImvL gone through two special examinations within the palace and in the presence! of the emperor. On this occasion the highest on the list is honored with the title of 'dniang yiien' or 'laureate,' a dis- tinction Ko great that in the last reign it was not thought unlicfltting the daughter of a 'chvang yuen ' to he raised to the position of consort of the Son of Heaven. A score of the best are ad- mitted to memtiership in the Academy, two or three score are attached to it as pupils or proba- tioners, and the rest drafted off to official posts in the capital or in the provinces, the humblest of which is supposed to compensate the occupant for a life of penury and toil." — Rev. W. A. P. Martin, liept. on the System of Public Instruction in China (If. S. liureau of Edtication, Circulars of Information, 1877, no. 1). Also in : W. A. P. Martin, The Chinese: their Eihiniliiin, <fr. Japan. — From the fourth to the eighth cen- turies of tlie Christian era, "after the conquest of Corea by the .Iai)anese emperor Jigo Kogo, came letters, writing, books, literature, religion, etliics, politics, medicine, arts, science, agriculture, man»i- factures, and the varied appliances of civiliza- tion; and with these entered thousands of immigrants from Corea and China. Under the intellectual influence of Buddliism — the power- ful and aggressive faith tliat had already led captive the half of Asia — of the Confucian ethics and philosophy, and Chinese literature, the hori- zon of tlie Japanese mind was immensely broad- ened. ... In the time of tlie European 'dark ages' the Japanese were enjoying what, in com- parison, was a high state of civilization. . . . Under the old regime of the Sho-guns, all foreign ideas and influences were systematically excluded, and the isolation of Japan from tlie rest of the world was made the supreme policy of th? govern- ment. Profound peace lasted from the begin- ning of the seventeenth century to 1868. During this time, schools and colleges, literature and learning, flourished. It was the period of sclio- lastic, not of creative, intellectual activity. The basis of education was Chinese. What we con- sider the means of education, reading and writing, were to tliem the ends. Of claasifled science there was little or n ne. Mathematics was con- sidered as fit only for merchants and shop-keep- ers. No foreign languages were studied, and tlieir acquisition was forbidden. . . . There was no department of education, though universities were established at Kioto and Yedo, large schools in the daimio's capitals, and innumerable private schools all over the country. Nine-tenths of the people could read and write. Books were very numerous and cheap. Circulating li ararics existed in every city and town. Literary clubs and associations for mutual improvement were com- mon even in country villages. Nevertheless, in comparison with the ideal systems and practice of the progressive men of New Japan, the old style was as different from the present as the training of an English youth in mediaeval times is from that of a London or Oxford student of the present day. Although an attempt to meet some of the educational necessities arising from the altered conditions of the national life were made under the Sho-gun's regime, yet the first attempt at systematic work in the large cities was made under the Mikado's government, and the idea of a new national plan of education is the'rs only. In 1871 the Aloin Bu Sho, or department of edu- caticm, was formed, of wliich the high counselor Oki, a man of indomitable vigor and persjsvcr- ance, was made head. . . . According to the scheme of national education promulgated in 1872, the empire is divided into eight Dai Gaku Ku, (Daigakku,) or great educational divisions. In each of these there is to be a university, nor- mal 8clio(/1. schools of foreign languages, high schools, and primary schools. The total number of schools will number, it is expected, over. '55,000. Only in the higlicr schools is a foreign language to l.e tauglit. In the lower sciiools the Japanese learning and elemciiuiry science translated or adopted from European or American text-books are to be taught, llie general system of instruc- tion, methods, d'scipline, school-aids, furniture, architecture, are to be largely adopted from foreign models, and are now to a great extent in vogue tlirougliout the countrj-." — VV. E. Griffls, Education in Japan ( U. 8. Bureau if Education, Circulars of Information, 1875, no. 3). Modern : America. A. D. 1610-1819.— Virginia. — College of William and Mary. — "In 1(11!) — one year before tlie Pilgrim Fatlicrs came to the land named New England by Captain John Smith — Sir Edwin Sandys, president of the Virginia Company in old England, moved tie grant of ten thousand acres of land for the estublishraent of a univer- sity at Henrico. The proposed grant, whicli was duly made, included one tliousand acres for an Indian college ; the remainder was to be ' the foundation of a seminary of learning for tlio English.' The very same year the bishops of England, at the suggestion of the King, raised the sum of fifteen hundred pounds for the en- couragement of Indian Education. . . . Tenants were sent over to occupy the university lands, and Mr. George Thorpe, a gentleman of His Majesty's Privy Chamber, came over to be the superintendent of the university itself. This first beginning of philanthropy toward the Indians and of educational foundations for the Indians in America was suspended by reason of the Indian massacre, in the spring of 1623, when Mr. Tliorpe and three hundred and forty settlers, including tenants of the university, were cut off by an in- surrection of savages. It was only two years after this terrible catastrophe that the idea of a university in Virginia was revived. Experience with treacherous Indians suggested that the insti- tution should be erected upon a secluded shel- tered site — an island in the Susiiuthanna River. . . . Tlie plan was broken off by tlie death of its chief advocate and promoter, Mr. Edward Palmer. But the idea of a university for Virginia was not lost. ... In 1660, tlie colonial Assembly of Virginia took into their own hands tlie project of founding educational institutions within their border?. The motive of the Virginians was pre- cisely the same as that of the great and general Court of Massachusetts, when it established Harvard College, and grammar schools to fit youth ' for ye university.' The Virginians voted ' that for the advance of learning, education of youth, supply of the ministry, and promotion of piety, there be land taken upon purchases for a college and free schoole, and that there be, with as much speede as may be convenient, houseing 726 EDUCATTON. Sotton Latin •School. EDUCATION. erected t' ?reon for cntertninment of students and schollers. ' It was also voted in 1B60 that the vari- ous coff'Tnissioners of county courts talie subscrip- tions on court days for tlie benefit of the college, and that the commissioners send orders througli- out their respective^ counties to the vestrymen oi all the parishes for the purpose of raising mo.iey from such inhabitjiiits as ' have not already sub- scribed. ' It appears from tlie record of this legis- lation in Ilening's Statutes of Virginia that already in 1660, 'His Majestio'sQovemour, Council of State, and Burgesses of the present grand Assembly have severally 8Ul)scribed severalT con- ridemble sumes of money and quantityes of to- bacco,' to be paid upon demand after a place had been provided and built upon for educational purposes. A petition was also recommended to Sir William Berekley, then governo' of Virginia, that the King be petitioned for letters patent authorizing collections from ' well disposed peo- ple in England for the erecting of colledges and schoolcs in this countrye.' This action of the Virginians in 1680 ought to be taken as much better evidence of an early regard for education in that colony than the well-known saying of Governor Berkeley would seem to indicate. In reply to an inquiry by the lords commissioners of trades and plantations respecting the progress of learning in the colony of Virgmia, Berkeley said, ' I thank God there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these hun- dred years. ' Tliis answer by a crusty old governor has been quoted perhaps too often as an index of the real sentiments of colonial Virginia toward the cause of education. Not only is the tone of popular legislation entirely opposed to the cur- rent view, but Berkeley's own acts should modify our judgment of his words. He actually sub- scribed, with other gentlemen of the colony, for 'a Coliedge'of students of the liberal arts and sciences. ' Undoubtedly Sir William did not be- lieve in popular education as it is now under- stood. If he had done so, he would have been much in advance of his time. . . . Some writers would have us believe that the college was actually planted as early as 1661, but this is highly improbable. Early educational enact- ments in Virginia were like many of those early towns — on paper only. And j^et the Virginians really meant to have both towns and a college. In 1688-'89, twenty -five hundred pounds were subscribed by a few wealthy gentlemen in the colony and by their mereliant friends in England toward the endowment of the higlier education. In 1691 the colonial Assembly sent the Rev. James Blair, the commissary or representative of the Bishop of London, back to England to secure a charter for the proposed college. Virginia's agent went straight to Queen JIary and explained the educational ambition of her colony in America. The Queen favored the idea of a college, and William wisely concurred. Tlie royal pair agreed to allow two thousand pounds out of tlie quit- rents of Virginia toward building the college. . . . The English Government concluded to give not only £3,000 in money, but also 20,000 acres of land, witli a tax of one penny on every pound of tobacco exported from Maryland and Virginia, together with all fees and jirolits arising from the oflice of surveyor-general, which were to be controlled by the president and faculty of the college. They were authorized to appoint special surveyors for the counties whenever the governor and his council thought it necessary. These privileges, granted by charter in 161(3, were of great signitieance in the economic liistory of Virginia. They brought the entire land system of the colony into the hands of a collegiate land ollicc. Even iifter the Kevolution, oiK^-sixth of the fees to all iiublic surveyors continued to bo paid into the college treasury down to the year 1810, when this custom was abolished." — if. B. Adams, T/ie College of Willidtn and yfary (Uircu- Inrn of Jnf'irmdtion of Vie Iliirenii of Education, 18H7, no. 1). A. D. 1635. — Massachusetts. — Boston Latin School.— "The Public Latin School of Boston enjoys the distinction of being the oldest exist- ing school within the bounds of the United States. It was founded in the spring of 1635, thus ante- dating Harvard College, and has been in continu- ous existence ever since, with the interruption of a few months, during the siege of Boston, 1775-1776." The two hundred and fiftieth .\n- nivcrsary of the founding of the school was cele- brated April 28, 1885, on which occasion the Rev. Phillips Brooks, D, D., delivered an address from which the following passages are taken: "The colony under Winthrnp arrived in the Ara- bella and founded Boston in 1630. On the 4th of September, 1633, the QrifHn brought .lolin Cotton from the Lincolnshire Boston, full of pious spirit and wise plans for the new colony •,vith whicli he had cast in his lot. It has been suggested that possibly we owe to John Cotton the first suggestion of the first town-school. . . . However this may be, here is the town record of the 13th of the second month, 1635. It is for- ever memorable, for it is the first chapter of our Book of Genesis, the very cradle of all our race: 'At a general meeting upon publique notice . . . it was then generally agreed upon that our brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become scholemaster, for the teaching and nour- tcring of children among us. ' It was two hun- dred and fifty years ago today [April 23, 1885] just nineteen years after the day when William Shakespeare died, just seventy-one years after the day when he was born. How simple that sliort record is, and how unconscious that sliort view is of the future which is wrapped up in it! Fiftj'-nine thousand children who crowd the Bos- ton public scliools to-day — and who can count what thousands yet unborn ? — are to be heard crying out for life in the drj", quaint words of that old vote. By it the first educational insti- tution, which was to have continuous existence in America, and in it the public school system of the land, came into being. Philemon Pormort, the first teacher of the Latin School, is hardly more than a mere shadow of a name. It is not even clear that ho ever actually taught the school at all. A few yeara later, with Mr. Wheel- wright, after tlie Hutchinson excitement, he di'j- appears into the northern woods, and is one of the founders of Exeter, in Ne>v Hampshire. There are rumors that he came back to Boston and died here, but it is all very uncertain. . . . The name ' free scliool ' in those days seems to have been used to characterize an institution which should not be restricted to any class of children, and wliicli should not be dependent on the fluctuating attendance of scholars for its sup- port. It looked forward to ultimate endowment, like the schools of England. The town set apart the rent of Ueer Island, and some of the other 727 EDUCATION. Harvard ColUge. EDUCATION. islands in tlio Imrbor, for its lielp. All tho great cit'-.ens, OovonK r Wintlirop, Governor Vftne, Mr. Bellin);liiuii, and the rest, made generous oontributionH to it. But it called, also, for sup- port from tliosM' who sent their children to it, and who were atile to pay sometliing; and it was only of the Indian children that it was distinctly pro- vide:! that they shoukl be ' tauglit gratia. ' It was older than any of the schools which, in a few j'ears, ({rew up thick around it. The same f)ower whicl! made it spring out of the soil was D all the rich ground on which these colonists, unlike any otlier colonists wliich the world has ever seen, had set their feet. Roxbury had its school under the Apostle Eliot in 1645. Cam- bridge was already provided before 1643. Charles- town did not wait later than 1036. Salem and Ipswicii were, both of them, read> in 1637. Ply- mouth did not begin its system of put)lic instruc- tion till 1663. It was in 1647 that the General Court enacted that resolve which is tho great charter of free education in our Commonwealth in whose preamble and ordinance stand tlie im- mortal words: ' That learning may not be buried in the grave of our fathers, in church and Com- monwcaltli, the Lord assisting our endeavors, it is therefore ordered that every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased tliem to the number of fifty householders, shall then fortliwith appoint oae within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and read.' There can bo no doubt, then, of our priority. But mere priority is no great thing. Tile real interest of tlic beginning of the school is the large idea and scale on which it started. It taught tlie children, little Indians and all, to read and w'ite. But tliere seems every reason to suppo! J that it taught also the Latin tongue, and all t'lat then was deemed the higher knowl- edge. It was the town's only school till 1682." — The Oldest School in America, pp. 5-24. A. D. 1636. — Massachusetts.— Harvard Col- lege. — " The first settlers in New England, recog- nizing the importance of a liighcr education than could !)(• given in the common schools, began at once the founding of a university. Tlie avowed object of this university was the training of young men for the ministry. Nothing could show clearer the spirit of these early colonists. Tiioiigh loss than four thousand in number, and scattered along the shores of Massachusetts Bay in si.xtcen liamlets, they were, nevertlieless, able to engage in such an enterprise before adequate provision had been made for food, raiment, shel- ter, a civil government, or divine worship ; at a time when soil and climate had disappointed them, and their affairs were in a most critical condition ; for, not only were they called to face famine, disease, and deatli, but the mother coun- try and the surrounding savage tribes were threatening them witli war. ... It was near the close of 1636, a little more than six years after the landing of tlie Puritans, when tliis first step was taken by the General Court of the Massa- chusetts Colony. At this assembly, presided over by Sir Henry Vane, governor of the colony, the General Court agreed to give £400 (a munifi- cent sum for the time) towards the founding of u school or college, but left the question of its location and building to be determined by tlie Court that was to sit in September of the follow- ing year. Tliis, it is said, was the first assembly 'in wliich the people by their representatives ever gave their own money to found a place of education.' At tho next Court it was decided to locate the college at Newtown, or ' the New Towne,' and twelve of tho principal magistrates and ministers were chosen to carry out this de- sign. A few months later, they changed the name of the town to Cambridge, not only to tell their posterity whence they came, but also, as Quincy aptly says, to indicate ' the higli destiny to wliich they intended the institution should aspire.' Another year, however, passed before the College was organized. Tlie impulse given to It then was due to aid whicli came from so un- expected a quarter that it must have seemed to the devout men of New England as a clear indi- cation of the divine favor. Tlie Rev. John Har- vard, a Non-conformist minister, was graduated, in 1635, from tlie Puritan college of Emmanuel, at Cambridge, England, and came, two years later, to America and settled in Charlestown, where he immediately took a prominent part in town affairs. His contemporaries gave him the title of reverend, and he is said to liave olHciated occasionally in Cliarlestown as ' minister of God's word.' One has recently said of him that ho was 'beloved and honored, a well-trained and acnomplished scholar of the type then esteemed,' and that in the brief period of Ids life in America — scarcely more than a year — ho cemented more closely friendshiiJS that had been begun in earlier years. Tlie project of a college was then on- grossing the thought of these early friends ond doubtless he also became greatly interested in it. Tlius it happened that, when his health failed, through his own love of learning and tlirough sympathy with the project of his daily asso- ciates, he determined to bequeath one-half of his estate, probably about £800, besides his excellent library of three hundred and twenty volumes, towards the endowment of the college. This be- quest rendered possible the immediate organiza- tion of tlio college, which went into operation 'on tlio footing of the ancient institutions of Europe,' and, out of gratitude to Harvard, tlie General Court voted that the new institution should bear his name." — G. G. Bush, Harvard, pp. 12-15. Also in: J. Quincy, Uist. of Harvard Uni- venity. — S. A. Eliot, Sketch oj the History of Harvard College. A. D. 1642-1732. — New Eneland and New York. — Early Common Schools. — "New Eng- land early adopted, and has, with a single ex- cention, constantly maintained the principle that tho public should provide for tlie instruction of ail the youth. That which elsewhere, as will be found, was left to local provision, as in New York; or to charity, as in Pennsylvania; or -to parental interest, as in Virginia, was in most parts of N . England early secured by law. . . . The act oi 1643 in Massachusetts, whose pro- visions were adopted in most of the adjacent colonies, was admirable as a first legislative school law. It was watchful of the neglect of parents, and looked well after the ignorant and the in- digent. But it ncitlier made schooling free, nor imposed a penalty for its neglect. . . . Scliools were largely maintained by rates, were f'ee only to the necessitous, and in not a few of tho less populous districts closed altogetlier or never opened. This led, five years later, to more strin- gent l-^gislation. ... As suggesting the general scope Lud tenor of the law, tJie following extract 728 EDUCATION. Pftimtylvania. EDUCATION. Ig mndc ... ' It is therefore ordered by tliis Court and authority tliereof thnt every townsLip within tlii.s jcriwliction, iifter the Lord liatli in- creased them to tlie number of fifty houseliolih'rs, sliall tlien fortliwitli appoint one witliin tlieir town to teiieli all such children as shall resort to him, to writ(! and read; whose wages shall hi; paid, either by the parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the mi.jor part of those who order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; provided that those who send their children be not oppressed by paying much more than they can have 1 hem taught for in the adjoining towns. And it is further ordered that where any town shall increase to the number of one hundred families or house-holders, they shall set up a grammar-school, the master thereof being able to instruct youtlis so far as they may be fitted for the university ; and if any town neglect the per- formance hereof, above one year, then every such town shall pay five pounds per annum to the ne.xt such school, till they shall perform this order. ' . . . Three years after the law just cited Con- necticut passed a very similar one. ... In Rhode Island there was no attempt at a school system prior to the efforts of John Howland about 1790. There were schools in both Providence and Newport; but the colony was small (with a population of less than ten thousand in 1700), broken into feeble settlements, and offering little opportunity for organization. ... It is claimed that, at the surrender of the Dutch in New York (1064), so general was the educational spirit, almost every town in the colony had its regular school and more or less permanent teachers. After the occupation of the province by the Eng- lish, little attention was given to education. . . . Thirteen years after the surrender, a Latin school was opened in the city; but the first serious at- tempt to provide regular schooling was in the work of the ' Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ' (1704) in the founding of Trinity School. The society kept up an efllcient organization, for many years, and at the opening of the Revolu- tion had established and chiefly supported more than twenty schools in the colony. About 1733, also, there was established in >few York city a school after the plan of the Boston Latin School, free as that was free, and which became, accord- ing to eminent authority, the germ of the later King's (now Columbia) College."— R. G. Boone, Bklucation in the United States, cli. 3. A. D. 1683-1770.— Pennsylvania.— Origin of the University of Pennsylvania.— "Education had not been over-looked in the policy of Penn. In his Frame of Government we read: 'The governor and provincial council shall erect and order all public scliools, and encourage and re- ward tlie authors of useful sciences and ]a\idable inventions, in the said province. . . . And . . . a committee of manners, education apd arts, that all wicked and scandalous living may be pre- vented, and that youth may be successively trained up in virtue and useful knowledge and arts.' The first movement to establish an educa- tional institution of a higli grade was in the action of the Executive Council which proposed, November 17, 1683, 'That Care be Taken about the Learning and Instruction of Youth, to wit : A School of Arts and Sciences.' It was not un- til 1689, however, that the 'Public Grammar School ' was set up in Philadelphia. This insti- 47 tution, founded upon the English idea of a 'free scliool,' was formally chartered in 1697 as tlio ' William Penn Charter School,' It was intended as th(^ liead of a system of sclools for all, rather than a single school for a select few, an idea which tlio founders of the Charitable School, fifty years later, had also in mind — an idea which was never carried out in the history of either institution. The failure of Penn's scheme of government, and the turmoil during the early part of the eighteenth century arising from the confiicts between different political parties, for a time influenced very decidedly educational zeal in the province. The gov,.nment, which at the outset had taken such high ground on the sub- ject, ceased to exert itself in bclialf of educa- tion, and the several religious denominations and the people themselves in neighborhood organiza- tions took up the burden and planted schools as best they could throughout the growing colony. . . . Feeling the importance for some provision to supplement the education then given in the established schools, Benjamin Franlklin as early as 1743 drew up a proposal for establishing an academy. . . . IIo secured the assistance of a number of friends, many of them members of the famous Junto, and then published his pam- phlet entitled ' Proposals Relating to the Educa- tion of Youth in Pennsylvania.' . . . On all sides the paper met with great favor and generous support. The result was the organization of a board of trustees, consisting of 24 of those who had subscribed to the scheme of the Academy, with Franklin as president. This body immedi- ately set about to realize the object of the pamphlet, and nourished by subscriptions, lot- teries, and gifts the Academy was placed in a flourishing condition. . . . The Academy com- prised three schools, the Latin, the English, and the mathematical, over each of which wiis placed a master, one of whom was the rector of the insti- tution. . . . The English School was neglected. The other schools were favored, especially the Latin School. In the eyes of Franklin and many of the supporters of the Academy, the EnglLsh School was the one of chief importance. What we would call a 'star^'ing out' process was be- gun by wliich the English School was kept in a weak condition, most of the funds going to the Latin School. . . . The success of the Academy was so gratifying to all interested in it that it was determined to apply for a charter. This was granted to the trustees by Thomas and Richard Penn, the proprietors, on July 13, 1753. Desirous at the same time of enlarging the course of instruction, the trustees elected Mr. William Smith teacher of logic, rhetoric, natural and moral philosophy. Air. Smith accepted the posi- tion and entered upon his duties at the Academy in May, 1754. The history of the institution from this date, whether known as the Academy or the College, to 1779 is the history of the life of William Smith."— J. L. Stewart, Hist. Sketch of the Universitji of Pennsylvania (U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1803, no. 2; Benj. Franklin and the ITniv.; ch. 4). A. D. 1701-1717.— Connecticut. — Yale Col- lege. — "For sixty years the only school for higlier education in New England had been Ilar- vanl College, at Cambridge. The people, and especially the clergy, of Connecticut naturally desired the benefit of a similar establishment nearer home. The three ministers of New Haven, 729 EDUCATION. Yale and Columbia. EDUCATION. Milfonl, iintl Uninford first moved In tlio cnter- prittc. Ti'M niiiiisU'rs, iiiui: of tliem bciii;.; f^rndu- atfs of Iliirvanl College, iiu't nt Hratiford U""!] and made a coiitributiori from their libraries of about forty volumes in folio ' for the founding of a codege. ' Other douatious presently came in. An Act of Incorporation was grantedf by the General Court. It created a body of trustees, not to be more than eleven in number nor fewer than seven, all to be elerji^ynieu and at least forty years of age. The Court endowed the College with an annual grant, subject to be discontinued at i)lea8ure, of one hundred and twenty pounds in ' ('ountry pay,' — equivalent to si.xty pounds sterling. The College might liold property ' not exceeding the value of five hundred pounds per annum'; its students were exempted from the payment of ta.\es and from military service; and the Governor and his Council gave a formal ap- proval of its application to the citizens for pecu- niary aid. . . . The first President was Abraham Pierson, minister of Killingworth, at wldch place he continued to reside, thougli the designated scat of the College was at Saybrook. Eight stu- dents were adnnttcd, and arranged in classes. At each of tlie first two annual commencements one person, at the third three persons, received the degree of Bachelor of Arts. President Pier- son was succeeded, at his death, by Mr. Andrew, minister at Jlilford, to which place the elder pu- pils were accordingly transferred, while the rest went to Saybrooli, where two tutors had been provided to assist their studies. . . . For nearly twenty years the College of Connecticut . . . continued to be an unsatisfactory experiment. Wlnle the rector taught some youth at Milford, and two tutors had other pujjils at Saybrook, and the few scores of books which had been olitidned for a library were divided between tlie two places, there was small prospect of the results for which institutions of learning arc treated. Notwithstanding the general agree- ment that whatever facilities for the higher edu- cation could be commanded should be brought together and combined, the choice of the place was embarrassed by various considerations. . . . Saybrook, AVethersfleld, Hartford, and New Ha- ven competed with each other for the preference, offering such contributions as they were able towards the erection of a college building. The offer from New Haven, larger than that of any other town, was seven hundred pounds sterling. The plan of fixing the College there, promoted by the great influence of Governor Baltonstall, was adopted by the trustees; and with money obtained by private gifts, and two hundred and fifty pounds accruing from a sale of land given by the General Assembly, a building was begun [1717], which finally cost a thousand pounds sterling. . . . The Assembly gave tlie College a hundred pounds. Jeremiah Dumnier sent from England a substantial present of books. Gov- ernor Saltonstall contributeil fifty pounds ster- ling, and the same sum was presented by Jahleel Brenton, of Newport, in Rhode Island. But the chief patronage came from Eliliu Yale, — a native of New Haven, but long resident in the East Indies, where he had been Governor of Fort St. George. He was now a citizen of London, and Governor of the East India Company. His contributions, continued through seven" years, amounted to some four hundred pounds sterling; and he was understood to have made arrange- ments for a further bounty of five hundred pounds, which, however, through unfortunate accidents, never came to its destination. The province made a grant of forty pounds annually for seven years." — J. G. Palfrey, Jlist. of New J'Jiif/Uiiid, hk. 4, ch. 11, andbk. ."5, ch. 4 (p. 4). A. D. 1746-1787.— New York.— King's Col- lege, now Columbia College. — "The establish- ment of a college in the city of New York was many years in agitation before the design was carriedinto effect. At length, under an act of Assembly passed in December, 1746, and other similar acts which followed, moneys were raised by public lottery 'for the encouragement of learning and towards the founding a college' within the colony. These moneys were, in No- vember, 17.51, vested in trustees. . . . The trus- tees, in November, 1753, inviteil Dr. Samuel Johnson, of Connecticut, to be President of the intended college. Dr. Johnson consequently re- moved to New York in the month of April fol- lowing^, and in July, 1754, commenced the in- struction of a class of students in u room of the si ''ool-house belonging to Trinity Church ; but he would not absolutely accept the presidency until after the passing of the charter. • This took place on the 31st of October in the same year, 1754; from wliieh period the existence of tlie college is properly to be dated. The Governors of the college, named in the charter, are the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the first Lord Commissioner for Trade anil Plantations, both empowered to act by proxies; the Lieutenant-governor of the prov- ince, and several other public oftlccrs; together with the rector of Trinity Church, the senior min- ister of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, the ministers of the German Lutheran Church, of the French Church, of the Presbyterian Congre- gation, ond the President of the college, all ex officio, and twenty-four of the principal gentle- men of the city. The college was to be known by the name of King's ColTcgc. Previously to the passing of the charter, a parcel of ground to the westward of Broadway, bounded by Barclay, Church, and Murray streets and the Hudson River, had been destined by the vestry of Trinity Church as a site for the college edifice; and, ac- cordingly, after the charter was granted, a grant of the land was made on the 13th of May, 1755. . . . The part of the land thus granted by "Trinity Church, not occupied for college purposes, was leased, and became a very valuable endowment to the college. The sources whence the funds of the institution were derived, besides the pro- ceeds of the lotteries above mentioned, were the voluntary contributions of private individuals in this country, and sums obtained by agents who were subsequently sent to England and France. In May, 1760, the college buildings begar. to be occupied. In 1763 a grammar school was estab- lished. In March, 1763, Dr. Johnson resigned the presidency, and the Rev. Dr. My les Cooper, of Ox- ford, who had previously been appointed Profes- sor of Moral Philosophy and assistant to the President, was elected in his place. ... In con- sequence of the dispute between this and the par- ent country. Dr. Cooperrcturned to England, and the Rev. Benjamin Moore was appointed praeses l)ro tempore during the absence of Dr. Cooper, who, however, did not return. On the breaking out of the Revolutionary War 'he bu.siiiess of the college was almost entirely broken up, and it was not until after the return of peace that its 730 EDUCATION. Nattnnal Ijand-grantt fflV SchtMltl. EDUCATION. affaire were again rpguliirly attrndod to. In May, 1784, the college, upon its own application, was erected into a viniversity; its corporaic title was changed from King's College to Columbia College, and it was |)lace(l under the control of a board termed Hegenis of the University. . . . The college continued under that government until April, 1787, when the Legislature of the State restored it to its original position under the present name of Columbia College. ... At the same time a new body was created, called by the same name, 'The Regents of the University,' under which all the seminaries of learning men- tioned in the act creating it were placed by the legislature. This body still exists under its original name." — Cobdiihia Colleije Ilandbouk, pp. 5-9. A. D. 1776-1880. — New England and New ■york. — State School Systems. — "It was not until over thirty years after the close of the war of 1776 that a regular system of schools at the public expense was established. New Kngland lioasted with pride of being the first in educa- tion, as she had been in war. Her example was oloselj' followed by the other States. In New York, in 1805, many gentlemen of prominence associated for the purpose ut establishing a free school in New York City for the education of the children of persons in indigent circumstances, and who di<l not belong to, or were not provided for by, any religious society. These public- spirited gentlemen i)resented a memorial to the Legislature, setting fortli the benefits that would resiilt to society from educating such children, and that it would enable tliem more elTectually to accomplish the objects of their institution if the schools were incorporated. The bill of in- corporation was passed April 9, 1805. This was the nucleus from which the present system of public schools started into existence. Later on, in the year 1808, we find from annual printed reports tliat two free schools were opened and were in working order. ... It was the inten- tion of the founders of these schools — among whom tlie names of De Witt Clinton, Ferdinand de Peyster, John Murray, and Leonard Bleecker stand prominent as officers — to avoid the teacli- ings of any religious society; but there were among the people many who thought that .suffl dent care was noi being bestowed upon relig- ious instruction : to plea.se these malcontents the literary studies of the pupils were suspended one afternoon in every week, and an association of fifty ladies of 'distinguished consideration in society ' met on this day and examined the chil- dren in their respective catechisms. ... To read, write, and know arithmetic in its first branches correctly, was the extent of the educational ad- vantages which tlie founders of the free-school system deemed necessary for the accomplish- ment of their purposes. "—A. H. Rhine, The Early Free Scltoola of Am. (Popular Science Montldy, March, 1880). A. D. 1785-1880.— The United States.— Land-erants for Schools.— " The question of the cntlowracnt of educational institutions by the Government in aid of the cause of education seems to liave met no serious opposition in the Congress of the Confederation, ind no member raised his voice against this vitjd and essential provision relating to it in the ordinance of May 20, 1785, ' for ascertaming the mode of disposing of lands In the Western Territory.' This provided : 'There shall be reserved the lot No. Ifl of pvory town- ship for the maintenance of public schools within said township.' This was an endowment of (140 acres of land (on(! section of land, one mile sipiare) in a township 6 miles B(iiiare, for the support and maintenance of pu1)lic schools ' within said township.' The manner of establishnuni of public schools thereunder, or by whom, was not mentioned. It was a reservation by the Ignited States, and advanced and established a principle which finally dedlcatpd one thirty-sixth part of all public lands of the United States, with cer- tain exceptions as to mineral, &c., to the cause of education liy public schools. . . . In th<' Con- tinental Congress, July IM, 1787, according to onler, the ordinance for the government of the 'Territory of the United States northwest of the river Ohio ' came on, was read a third time, and pas.sed [seeNonTiiwESTTKUiiiTonY: A. I). 1787J. It c(mtaine(l tl'c following: 'Art. 3. Religion, morality, and nnowledgc' being necessary to goml government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.' Tlie provision of the ordinance of May 20, I7H5, relating to the reservation of the sixteenth section in every townsliip of public land, was the inception of the present rule of reservation of certain sections of land for school purposes. The endowment was the subject of much legislation in the years following. The •luestioii was raised that there was no rea.son why the United States should not organize, control, and manage these public schools so endowed. The reservations of lands were made by sur- veyors and duly returned. This jiollcy at once met with enthusiastic approval from the i)ublic, a:id was tacitly inc()ri)orateil into the American system as one of its fundamental organic ideas. Whether the jiiiblic schools thus endowed by the United States were to bo under national or State control remained a question, and the lands were held in reservation merely until after the admis- sion of the State of Ohio in 1802. ... To each organized Territory, after 1803, was and now is reserved the sixteenth section (until after the Oregon Territory act reserved the thirty-sixth as well) for school purposes, which reservation is carried irto grant and confirmation by the terms of the act of admission of the Territory or State into the Union ; the State then becoming a trus- tee for school purposes. These grants of land were made; from the public domain, and to States only which were known as public-land States. Twelve States, from March 3, 1803, known as public-land States, leceived the allowance of the ' sixteenth section to August 14, 1848. . . . Con- 1 gress, June 13, 1813, and May 26, 18'24, by the acts ordering the survey of certain towns and villages in Missouri, reserved for the support of schools in the towns and villages named, pro- vided that the whole amount reserved should not exceed one-twentieth part of the whole lands in- cluded in tlie general survey of such town or village. These lots were reserved and sold for the benefit of the scliools. Saint Louis received a large fund from this source. ... In the act for the organization of the Territory of Oregon, August 14, 1848, Senator Stephen A. Douglas inserted an additional grant for school purposes of the thirty-sixtli section in each township, with indemnity for all public-land States thereafter to be admitted, making the reservation for school purposes the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections, 731 EDUCATION. state School FuniU. EDUCATION. or l,2fiO iipn's In oncli township of hIx miles iM}tiiin' n'Horvcd In public-land States iind Terri- tories, and ronflrmed by grant in terms in tho net of admission of such State or Territory into the Union. From March 18, 1H53, to June 80, 18t«t, s<'ven HIates have l)cen admitted into tho Union liuvlnf^ a grant of the sixteenth and thirty- sixth sections, and the same area has been re- served in eight Territories." — T. Donaldson, Tfie J'flilir DoiiKiiii, cli. 13. A. D. 1789.— The United States.— " The Coi)stituti(m of the United States nuikes no pro- vision for tlie education of the people; and in tho Convention that framed it, I believe the subject was not even mentioned. A motion to insert a cla\ise providing for tho establishment of a na- tional university was voted down. I believe it is also the fact, that tlie Constitutions of oidy three of the thirteen original Htates made tho obligation to maintain a system of Freo Schools a part of their fundamental law." — It. Mann, I,frt'ii unci Aiuiiiiil llip'tn tin Kiliiciition, Itet. 5. A. D. I793' — Massachusetts, — Williams Cotleee. — "Williams College, at Wllllamstown, BerlisTiire County, Mass., was cliartered in 1703. The town and tlie college were named in h<mor of Col. K))hraim AVilllams, who had command of the forts in the Iloosac Valley, and was killed in a battle with the French and Indians, Sep- tember 8, 17r)5. Uy his will he established a freo school in tho township which was to bear his name. The most advanced students of tills free school became the ilrst collece class, num- bering 4, and received the regular degree of bachelor of arts in the autumn of 1705. Tho small amount left by the will of Colonel Wil- liams was carefully managed for 80 years by the execiitors, and tliey then obtained permission from the State legislature to carry out tho bo- novolent purposes of tho tesUitor. Tho fund for building was increased by individual subscrip- tions, and by the avails of a lottery, whicli the general court granted for that jiurpose. The building which is now known as West College was then erected for the use of the free school and was lluished in 1700. . . . Tho 'ree school was opened in 1701, with Rev. Ebenezer Fitch, a graduate of Yale College, as preceptor, and 5Ir. John Lester as assistant. . . . The success of the school was so great that the next year the trustees asked tho legislature to incorporate tho school into a college. This was done, and a grant of $4,000 was made from tho State treasury for the purchase of books and philosophical aj)- paratus. Tho college was put under the care of 12 trustees, who elected Preceptor Fitch the first president of the college. "— E. B. Parsons ( U. S. Bureau of Edvcation, Circular of Information, 1891, 710. 6.' Ilitt. of Jligher Education in Mass., ch. 0). A. D. 179S-1867.— The United States.— State School Funds. — "Connecticut took the lead in the creation of a permanent fund for tho support of schools. The district known as tho Western Reserve, In Northern Chm, had been secured to her in th'j adjustment of her claims to lands confirmed to her by tho charter of King Charles II. Tbo Legislature of the State, in 1705, passed an f.ct directing tho sale of all the land embraced in the Reserve, and setting apart tho avails as a yerpetual fund for tho maintenance of common schools. The amount realized was about $1,120,000. . . . New Yoii was the next State to rstablish a common srhnol fund for the aid and maintenance of schools in the several scIkkiI districts of the State. Tho other Northern Slates except New Hampshire, Vermont, I'eimsvivania, ami one or two others, hn-.o establish'''! «!;;illar funds. ... In all the .lew States the 500,000 acres, given by act of Congres", on their adndssion into tho Union, for '.'lie support of schools, have been sacredly set apart for that purpose, and generally otlier lands iK'longing to the States have been added to tho fund. . . . Prior to the war the Slave States had made attempts to establish plans for popular education, but with results of an unsatisfactory character. In Virginia a school system was In force for the education of the children of indi- gent white jiersons. In North Carolina a largo school fund, exceeding two millions of dollars, had been set apart for tlio maintenance of schools. In all of these Stales common schools had been Introduced, but tliey did not llourish as In the North and West. . . . There was not the saiuo po|)ulation of small and independent fanners, whose families could be united into a school dis- trict. . . . A more serious obstacle was the slave Iiopulation, coniititutlng one-third of the whole, and in some of the Stjites more than half, whom it was thought dangerous to educate." — V. M. Rice, Sficcinl Jlfjxirt on the Present State of Edu- cation, 1807, pp. 10-23. A. D. 1804-1837. — Michigan. — The Uni- versity. — "In 1804, wlien MicTiigan was organ- ized as a Territorv, Congress granted a township of land for a seminary of learning, and tho unf- versltv to be established in 1817 was to be in accordance with this grant. Tlio Territorial government conimitted the interests of higher education to tlie care of the Oovernor and the Judges, and it '., suppose 'd that through the ex- ertions of lion. A. U. Wooilward, then presiding Judge of tlie Supreme Court of the Territory of Michigan, that the act establishing o university was framed. A portion of tills most curiousdocu- nient of the early history of Michigan will be given. It is entitled 'An act to establish the Catholeplstemiad or University Jlichiganla. ' ' Be it enacted by tlie Governor and Judges of the Territory of Allchigan, That there shall bo in the said Territory a catliolei)i8temiad or university denominated tho Catholeplstemiad or University Michigania. The Catholeplstemiad or University of Michigania sliall be composed of thirteen didaxum or professorships; first, a didaxia or professorsliip catholepistemla, or universal sci- ence, tho dictator or professor of which shall be president of the institution ; second, a didaxia or professorship of anthropoglassica, or literature emb.-icing all of tho epistomum or sciences rela- tive to language; third, a didaxia or professor- ship of mathomatica or mathematics; fourth, a didaxia or professorship of physiognostica or natural history, etc' The act thus continues through tho whole range of the ' thirteen di- daxum'; the remaining nine are as follows: Natural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, med- ical sciences, economical sciences, ethical sci- ences, military sciences, historical sciences, and intellectual. The university was to bo under the control of the professors and president, who wore to be appointed by the Governor, while the institution was to be the center and controlling "ower of the educational system of the State, was to bo supported by taxation by an in- 732 EDUCATION. k'leh Igan . — \fiuunchuiitll§. —Canada, EDUCATION. cirnnc fif the nmniint of tnxrs nlrondy lev' f|, liy Ifl piT runt. AIho power wiw jrivt -i to riiiHc mniicy for the mipport of the iiiiivcrHlty liy mvaiis of lottcrlcH. This renmrkiibk' ilociiinrtit wikH not without it8 intlui'nco hi Hhiipin^ thti public Hcli(M)l policy of Mi('liif;;iin, hut it wiis many yt'iirs iM'forc tlu! Htatu »pi)roximat('(l it.s It'arnrcf provisions. Iinpnirti('»l>l(^ as this cdii- (iiUional plan appears for a lutndful of peonlr- in thu w(mh1» of Mlchifran, it served as a foiuida ion upon whicli to huild. The olllcers and Jireside-.t were duly appointed, and the work or the now university began at once. At llrst tlie university app<'anMl as a seluwil hoard, to estal)li.sh and maintain primary schools which they held under tiieir charge. I'lien foUoweil a course of study for cliiHsical acndendes, and flnnlly, in October, 1817, an net was passed establishing a college in the city of Detroit called 'The First College of Miehigania.' . . . The people contributed liber- ally to these early scliools, the sum of three thousand flollars lieing subscribed at the begin- ning. . . . An act was passed on the 30th of April, 1821, l)y the Governor and Judges estab- lishing a university in Detroit to take the place of thu catholeplstemiad and to be callecl the 'University of Michigan.' In its charter nearly all the powers of the former institution wero substantially conllrme<l, except the provision for tjixes an<l lotteries. . . . The second corporation, known as the ' University of AMchigan,' carried on the work of education alrei. ■ begun from 18'31 to the third organization, ir. 18!)7. The education was very limited, consisting in one classical academy at Detroit, and part of the time a Lancastcnan school. The boards of edu- cation kept up and transmitted the imiversity Idea to such an extent that It may be said truly and legally that there was on'! University of Michigan, which passed through three successive stages of development marked by the dates 1817, 1831, and 1837," at which time it was removed to Ann Arbor.— F. W. Blnckmar, Federal and State Aid to Higher Edveation {If. S. Bureau of miuMtion, Circular of Information, 1890, no. 1), pp. 230-!i41. Also in : E. M. Farrand, Hist, of the Uniter- gity of Michigan.— K. Ten Brook, American State Unirermlien. A. D. 1818-1821. — Massachusetts.— Amherst College. — "Amherst College originated in a strong desire on the part of the people of Jlassa- chusetts to have a college near the central part of the State, where the students shoidd le free from the temptations of a large city, where the expenses of an education should not be beyond the means of those who had but little money, and where the moral p.nd religious influences should be of a decidedly Christian character. ... The ministers of Franklin County, at a meeting held in Sholburnc May 18, 1815, expressed it as their opinion that a literary institution of high order ought to be established in Hampshire County, and that the town of Amherst appeared to them to be the most eligible place for it. Their early efforts for a literary institution in Hampshire County resulted in tlietirst place in the establish- ment of an academy in Amherst, which was in- corporated in the year 1816. ... In the year 1818 a constitution was adopted by the trustees of Amherst Academy, for the raismg and man- agement of a fund of at least $.50,000, for the classical education of indigent young men of iiiety and talents for the Christian minlstrv. . . . I'his charity fund may he said to lie the basis of Amherst College, for thougli it was rais»'d by tlio trustees of Andierst Academy it was really in- tended to be the foimdation of a college, and has always been a part of the permanent funds of Amherst College, kept sacrcclly from .11 other funds for the specitle object foi "valtli it was given. . . . This was for nniny yi rs the only permanent fund of Amherst College, a' id without this it would have seemed impossible at one time to preserve the very existence of the college. 80 Amherst College grewoutof Andierst Academy, and was built permanently on the charity fund raised by the t.ustees of that academy. . . . Al- though the harity fund of l|l.')(),IKIO had been re- ceived in 1J18, It was not till 1820 that the re- cipient felt justirted in going forward to erect l)uildlngs for acollege In .Vndierst. Klforts weru made for the removal of Williams College from WlllianiKtown to Hampshire Countv, and to have the charity f\uid used in connection with that college ; and, if that were done, it was not certain that Amherst could be regarded as tlie best loca- tion for the college. Hut the legislature of .Ma.ssa- chuselts decided tliat Williams College cotild not be removed from Williamstown, and nothing re- mained but for the friends of 'he new instltiUion to go on with their plans for locating it at .Viu- herst. . . . This llrst college editlce was ready for occupation and dedicated on the 18th of Hep- teniber, 1821. In the mmith of May, 1821, Hcv. Zephaniah Swift Moore, I). I)., was tuiaruinously elected by the trustees of Amherst Academy president of the new institution." — T. R Field [IT. S. Jill reiiil of Education, Circular of Informa- tion, 1801, no. 0; Ilist. of Higher Education, in, M<m.), ch. :i. A. D. 1837.— Massachusetts.— Horace Mann and the State System. — " When .Masmichu.setts, in 1837, created a Board of Education, then wero first united into a somewhat related whole the more or less excellent but varied and independ- ent organizations, and a beginning made for a State system. It was this massing of forces, and the hearty co-operation ho initiated, in whicli tlio work of Horace Mann showed its matchless greatness. ' Ilarely,' it has been said, 'have great ability, unselli.sh devotion, and l)rillinnt success, been so united in the course of a single life.' A successful lawyer, a member of the State Legiolature, and with but limited experi- ence as a teacher, he has left his impress upon the educational sentiments of, not only New England, but the United States." — U. G. Boone, Education in the U. S. , ;;. 103. A. D. 1 840-1886.— The United States.— Pro- portion of College Students. — " It is estimated that in 1840 the proportion of college students to the entire population in tlio United Stales was 1 to 1,540; in 1800, 1 to 3,013; in 1870, 1 to 3,546; in 1880, 1 to 1,840; and in 1886, 1 to about 1,400. Estimating all our combined efforts in favor of higher education, we fall far short of some of the countries of the Old World."— F. W. Blackmar, Federal and State Aid to Iligher Education in the IT. S. (U. 8. Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information, 1890, no. 1), p. 30. A. D. 1844-1876.— Canada.— Ontario School System. — "From the earliest Kettiement of On- tario, schools were established as tlie wants of the inhabitants required. The Legislature soon recognized the needs of the country, and made 733 EDUCATION. Lnndi/mnli fur Imitulriitt Uoltrymt. KDUOATION. KniiitH of land iinil mnncy In itiil >if clcnicntiiry, M^i'iindiiry, iiiiil NupiTinrrduciitioM. HtiilutcH went uuHM'il from tinii' to IIimi- for the purpoHcof open- HiK Ncliools to lut'i't the ilciniinil!! of^ tlic pcopltv Tlu! spiifMcly Hcltlcd condition of tlif Province dt'liiyed for I'l wldiw tlic orKuni/.ittion of llic ny»- tt'ni. It wuH not until IHM tl it tlie clcnu^ntiiry rcIidoIh were put on it roniprclii'tiHlvc! biiHis. In that your till' Krv. KKfrton Hycrson, lA,. !)., wiis appointed Chief .Superintendent of KitiK'iilion, and lli(( report wliicli he prewnted to tliC! House of Assembly Hketcheil in an able manner the main features of the Hvstem of whieh he wan the dis- tin>;uished founder, and of whieh he continued for thirty-three yearn to Im^ the elHcient adndnis- trator. In 1H70 theoMlceof chief Huperintendeiit was abolished, and the Hchools of the Province placed under the control of a iiKMuberof the (Jov- ernmeiit with the title of Minister of Kdiicutlon. . . . The system of education in Ontario may be said to coniil)ine the best features of tlie systei.is of several countries. To tlie Old World it Is in- debted for a liir^'e measure of its Htability, uni- fonnlty and centralization; to the older setlleil parts of the N(nv World for lis popidar nature, fta lle.xibility and itsdemo(!ralie principles which have given, wherever desiralih', local control and Individual responsiljillty. Fmiii the Statu of New York we lmv(^ borrowed tlie machinery of our school ; from AIasv.,ichusetts the principle of lo(^al taxation; from Ireland our first series of text books; from Scotland the cooperation of parents with the teacher, in upholding his authority; from Germany the sy>ttem of Normal Schools and the Kindergarten iiid from the United States generally the iiondeuoininatlonal character of elementary, secondary, and university education. Ontario may claim to have some features of her system that are lari;ely liei own. Among tliein may be mentioned: a division of state and muni- cipal authority on a judicious basis; clear lines separating tlie function of the University from thai of the High Schools, and the function of the High Schools from that of the Public or element- ary schools; a uniform course of study; all High and Public Schools in the hands of professionally trained teachers ; no person eligible to the posi- tion of Inspector who does not hold the highest grade of a teacher's certificate, and who has not Eld years of experience as a teacher; inspectors removal '.0 if inelBcient, but not subject to re- moval by popular vot<3; the examinations of teachers under Provincial instead of local control ; the acceptance of a common matriculation ex- amination for admission to the Universities and to the learned professions; a uniform series of text books for the whole Province; the almost en- tire obsence of party politics in the manner in ■which school boards, inspectors and teachers dis- charge thinr dutip : the system national instead of sectarian, but fording under constitutional guarantees and limitations protection to lioman atholic and Protestant Separate Schools and de- nominational Universities." — J. Millar, Educa- tional System of the Province of Oniano. A. D. 1862.— The United States.— Land- grant for industrial Colleges. — " Next to the Ordinance of 1787, the Congressional grant of 1862 Id the most important educational enactment in America. ... By this gift forty-eight col- leges and universities have received aid, at least to the extent of the Congressional grant; thirty- three of these, at least, have been called into ex- istence by means of this act. In thirteen Htateii the proceeds <if the land scrip were devoted to institutions already In exlHteiice. The amount recelverl from the sales of land scrip from twenty- four of thes<! HtJitcH aggregates the sum of (Hi),- 9i)0,4r>(l, with land remaining unsold estimiiU'd at nearly two millions of dollars. Thes<- sumo InBtitiitions have recelveil State endowmentn amounting to over eight ndllion dollani. Tlio origin of this gift must he sought In Kk'hI com- munities. In this country all Ideas of national education have arisen from t host; States that havo felt the nec.l of hx'al Institutions for the eduiui- tlon of youth. In certain sections of the Unhm, particularly l!ie North and West, where agri- culture was one of the chief industries, it was felt that the old ela.ssiciil schools were not broad enough to cover all the wants of education repre- sented by growing Industries. There was con- sequently a revulsion from these schools toward the industrial and practicid side; of education. Evidences of tliis movement are seen in the at- tempts In dilTerent States to found agricultural, technical, and industrial sch(H)ls. ThcKc iileaa found their way into(.'ongre.ss, and a bill was in- troduced In 1838, which provided for the endow- ment of colleges for the teaching of agriculture and the mechanical arts. The bill was introdvK'cd by Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Vermont; it was po-ssed by a small majority, and was vetoed by President liuchiinan. In 1802 tlu; bill was again presented with slight changes, pa.sscd and signed, and l)ecame a law July 3, 1802. ... It stipu- lated to grunt to each State thirty thousand acres of land for each Senator and lleprcsentative iu Congress to which the States were respectively entiued by the census of 18fl0, for the purpose of endowing ' at least one college where the leml- ing object shall be, without excluding other scl- entitlc and classical studies, and including mili- tary tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the Legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes In the several pursuits and professions of life.' . . . From this proposition all sorts of schools sprang up, according to the local conception of the law and local demands. It was thought by some that boys were to Iw taught agriculture by working on a farm, and purely agricultural schools were founded with the mechanical arts attached. In other States classical schools of the stereotyped order were established, with more or less science ; and, again, the endowment in others was devoted to scien- tific deportments. The instruction of the farm and the teaching of pure agriculture have not succeeded In general, while the sclumls that have mode prominent those studies relating to agri- culture and the mechanic arts, upon tne whole, have succeeded best. ... In several Instances the managers of the land scrip have understcod that by this provision the State could not locate the land within the borders of another State, but its ossignees could thus locate lands, not more than one million acres in any one State. i3v con- sidering this question, the New York land scrip was bought by Ezra Cornell, and located by him for the college in valuable lands in the State of Wisconsin, and thus the fund war augmented. However, the majority of the Stfites sold their land at a sacrifice, frequently for less than half 734 EDUCATION. t'urnell L'nivtrtity. EDUCATION. ItH viilnc. Thrro wiw n hill In tlio Innil iiiiirki>t during tlii' Civil Wiir. iiiiil this ciiumc, toffclluT will) tlic liu'k (if iitti'iiticiii ill iimiiy KliitcN, HiiiTi flci'd tln> liitt of till! Fi'dcrnl OovcniiiuMit. Tlw Biili-H nulled nil the wny fri)iii llfly <<'IiI.h to hcvcii cJollitrM (XT iicrc, iih the uviTiit^c pricK for ciicli Btiitc."--F. W. Hliukiimr, Fnlnul mnl SlntrAitl til Ilii/lier Kiliinitiiiu (('. 1^. Ilinriin nf Kduentian, I'irciihirii iif liifiiniiiilinn, IHIMI, im. 1), /)//. 47-41). A. D. i863-i886.-New York.-Cornell Uni- versity.— " On the Mccoiid of .Iiily. IHflJ, . . . [I'i'CKidciit Liiicolnl Mi^ricd llic iicf of con^^rt'SH. (loniitiii); |)ulili'- liiiids for tlii! CHtitblisluiU'iit of collt'ffcH of ji);ri('ultiiri' and iMcc^hanitMirts. Tills net liiid lict'ii liitrcxluri'd Into coii^trcsH by the lloii. .luHtIn S. Morrill. . . . Tiii! .Morrill net provided for a doiiiUioii of piililk^ liiiid to the Beveriil Htiites, eiieli Ktiite to ree<'lve tliirty thou- wind iieres for eiirli seniitor mid representative it Bent to eoTi^ress. IStiites not eorilalninK witiiin their own borders public land Rubleet to Hale at private entry received land scrip instead. Hut this land scrip the recipient states were not al- lowed to locate within tlie limits of any other statu or of any tcriitory of the United Htates. The act laconically directed 'said scrip t<>ln'sold bv said states. ' Tlitj proceeds of the sale, w liether of land or scrip, in each state were to form a per- petual fund. ... In the execution of this trust the State of New York was hampered by great and almost insuperable obstacles. For Its dis- tributive sliure It received land scrip to the amount of nine hundred and ninety tliousand acres. The niunificcncu of the endowment awak- ened the cupidity of a multitude of clamorous and strangly unexpected claimants. ... If the princely aoniain granted to the State of New York by congR'ss was not divided and frittered away, we owe it in great measure to the fore- sight, the energy, and the splendid courage of a few generous spirits in the legislature of whom none commanded greater respect or exercised more Influence tlnio Senator Andrew Dickson White, the gentleman who afterwards became first president of Coniell University. . . . But the all-compelling force which prevented the dispersion and dissipation of the bounty of con- gress was the generous heart of K/.ra Cornell. While rival institutions clamored for n division of die 'spoils,' and political tricksters played their base and desperate game, tills man thought only of the highest good of tlie State of New York, which he loved with the ardor of a patriot and was yet to serve with the heroism of a martyr. . . . When the legislature of the State of New York was called upon to make some disposition of the congressional grant, Ezra Cornell sat in the senate. . . . Of his minor legislative achieve- ments I shall not speak. One act, however, has made his name as immortal as the state it glorified. By a gift of half a million dollars (a vast sum in 1805, the last year of the war I) he rescued for the higher education of New York the undivided grant of congress ; and with the united endow- ments he induced the legislature to establish, not moicly a college of applied science but a great modern university — ' an institution,' according to his own admirable definition, ' where any person can find instruction in any study. ' It was a high and daring aspiration to crown the educational system of our imperial state with an organ of universal knowledge, a nursery of every science and of all scholarship, an instrument of liberal 1 culture and of practical utility to all claMw's of our people, Tills WHS, however, tlie end; and to Ke<'iii'e it V./.m Cornell added to Ids original gift new donations of land, of buildings, ami of money. . . . Hut one danger threatened this latest birth of time. Tlie act (d coiigresH doniiting land scrip reipiired tlie states to sell it. The markets were immediately glut led. Prices fell. New York was selling at an average price of llfty cents an acre. Hit priiirely doiiiain would bring at this rate less than half a million diillars! \V the Hplendiii diinatinn to issiiit in such disiistei l If it could be held till the war was over, till im- migration opened up the Northwest, it would Iw worth live times live hundred thousand dollars! So at least thought one far seeing man in tlio Slate of New York. And tliis man of foresight had the heart to conceive, the wisdom to device, and tli(^ courage to execute — hi' alone in all the states — a plan for saving to bis state the future value of tiie lands donated by congress, K/.ra Cornell made that wonderful and dramatic con- tract with tlu' Slate of New Y'orkl lie bound liimself to purchase at the rate of si.\ty ci'iits per acre the entire riglit of the cnmniotiweaitli to the scrip, still unsold', and with the scrip, tlius pur- chased bv him as an individual lie agreed to select anil locate the lands it represented, to pay the taxes, to guard against trespassis and defend from fires, to the end tliat within twenty years wlieu values had appreciated lie inigiit "sell the land and turn into the treasury of the State of New Y'ork for the suiiport of Cornell University the entire net proceeils of the enterprise. Within a few years K/.ra Cornell had located over half a million acres of superior pitie land in tliu Northwestern states, principally in Wisconsin. Under bonds to tlie State of New Y'ork to do the state's work he had spent about iJOOO.OOO of his own cash to carry out the trust committed to him by the state, when, alas. In the crisis of 1874, fortune and credit sank exhausted and death came to free the martyr-iiatrlot from his bonds. The seven years that followed were the dark- est in our history. . . . Kzra Cornell was our founder; Henry W. Sage followed him as wise masterbuilder. The edillees, < hairs and libraries which bear the name of ' Sage ' witness to [his] later gifts: but though these now aggregate the princely sum of $1,250,000, [his] management of the university lands has been [his] greatest achievement. Prom tliesi! lands, with which the generosity and foresight of Ezra Cornell endowed the university, there have been netted under [Mr. Sage's] administration, not far short of $4,000,- 000, with over 100,000 acres still to s<,'ll. Ezra Cornell's contract with the state was for twenty years. It exiiired August 4, 1880, wlien a ten years' extension was griuited by the state. The trust will be closed in laiXi," — .1. Q. Schurmau, Addresn (it litniK/iirdlion to tlie I'remlency of Cor- nell Uiiiversiti/.'yor. 11, 1893. A. D. 1866-1869.— The United States.— Bureau of Education. — "Educators, political economists, and stiitesmen felt the need of some central agency by which the general educational statistics of tile country coiilu be collected, pre- served, condensed, and properly arranged for tlistribution. This need found expression finally In the action taken at a convention of the super- intendence department of the National Educa- tional Association, held at Washington February, 1866, when it was resolved to petition Congress 35 EDUCATION. L'ntvrriili). KI)U('ATION. In favor of a NntlonnI niiri'iiii of Kdiirat'.on. . . . The mcinorinl wnti prciw'iiti'il in tin- lloiim' of I{('|ircMcriliillv«'n liv Ociicritl (ItirtU'ld, Ki'lirimry 14, IHtMt, Willi a liill' for tin cHtiililiiiliiiiciit of it Niilioiiiil lliiri'iiii on I'HM'iitiiilly tlic IhimIs tlir M'liixil Hii|M'riiit('iiilt'iitj* liiiil iirii|Mm'(l. Ii<itli bill iiikI iiK'iiiiiriiil Were rcfrrn'il to ii I'oniiiiltti't' of •even iiu'IiiIhth. . . . 'riic bill wiih ri'|Mirti'(l Imck fruni the ('(inirnittct-, uitli iiti lunriiiliiicnt in the lintiin' of It Hiilmlltiitc, prdviiliiiK fi>r tin- crcutiiiii of It ili'iiitrtiiK'iit of I'liiiciition iiiHtcitil of tiic Imrcitii oriKiniilly projioiu'ii. Tliimitltori'd, it wiih poHwil liy It viitt' of nearly two to iiiu!. In tlio Ht'iialc it w'ltH ri'fiTrt'd to the ('oniinitlt'c on tlie ■liliiii'lary . . . who the foliiiwiiiK wintrr re- ported it without aniendment and with a reeoin- mendation tiiiit It pavH, which it did on tliu liitof March, IHfIT, receivinK on the next day tlio ap- proval of tlK! President. Hy the act of July 'iH, 18flH, wlilch toolt elfect June 30, IHfll), the De- partment of Kducation witH alioliMii'd, and an Otilee of Kdueittiiiii in tlie Department of the Interior wuh eNtaiiliHiied, witli tlie Kiime oliJeetH and dutlcH. . . . Tliu act of Marcli 2, 1807, . . . cstnbilHhed an ai<ency ' for the piirpogu of eol- Icetinx Htich HtatiHtiea and factH as Hhall bIiow tliu condilit.n and pro^ressof ediieatiim in the iieverai StiiteH and Terr tories, iind of dilTiisinK sueh Information rcHpeetinu; tlie organization and manaifcinent of Heliool systeniH and methiHlM of tcachniff as shall aid the people of the United States in tlio establishment and miiintenuuce of cfllcient school systems and otherwise promote the cause of education.' It will be perceived that the chief duty of the ofllce under tlic law is to act as an educational cxchauKe. Exercising and seeking to exercise no control wnatcver over its thousands of correspondents, the olllco occu- pies a position as the recipient of voluntary informati(m which is unique." — C. Warren, An- tiren to In</iiirie» about the ['. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, eh. 2-3. A. D. 1867.— New York.— Public Schools made entirely free. — Tlic public schools of tlie State of New York were not entirely free until 1867. In his report to the Legislature made in February of that year, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Hon. Victor M. Hice, said : "The greatest defect In our scluxil system Is, as I have urged in previous reports, the continuance of the rate bill system. Our common schools can never reach their highest degree of usefulness until they sliall have been made entirely free ... To meet this public demand, to confer UDon the children of the State the blessings of free education, a bill has already been introduced into your honorable body. . . . The main features of the bill are the provisions to raise, by State tax, a sum about equal to that raised in the districts by rate bills, ond to abolish the rate bill system ; to facilitate the erection and repair of scliool houses." The bill referred to was passed at the same session of the Legislature, and in his next succeeding report. Superintendent Hiee gave the following account of the law and its immediate effects: "While the genenil structure of the school law was not disturbed, a material inodifl- cation was made by tlie Act (chap. 406, Laws of 1867), which took effect on the first day of October of the same year, ond which, among other things, provided for the abolishment of rote- bills, and for increased local and .State taxation for school purposes. This was primarily u change In the manner of miiiint; the requUitn funds; not an aliMiliite increase of the aggregiile aiiuiunt 10 be nilHcd. It involved niid eneoiiraKcil siirh in- creaMC, so far as the inlmbilanls in the Keveral HcliiMil diHtr!rts Nhoiiid authori/.c it, by HuliHlltut- ing taxatiiiii exrIiiHlvely on property, for a mixi'd aHM'HNiiiciil which, in part, wa.s a lux on attend- aiK'i'. 'I'liiiM relieved of an old impcdimcnl, and supplied with additional power and larger ni- Hources, the cause of public instruction, during tlie last flHcal year, has wrought results uii<'(|uaie<i in all tlie past. . . . The etfeia of this amend- ment has not l)een confined to tlie llnaiiclal policy thereby iiiaiigurated. It is dlHliiicliy traceitblu in lengtlieiied terms of school, in it larger and more uniform atleiidaiice, and in more liberal ex- penditures for Hclioiil buildings and appliances," — Hupt. of Pub. Instruction of the State of N. Y., yl;i;i«(i/ liti>ort, 1861), /»/'• ^>-^. A. D. 1867.— Marylind.— lohnt Hopkins University.—" Hy tlie will of .IoIiii.h Hopkins, a inercliant of Hall imore, the sum of |7, (KX), (KM) was dt.'Voted to tlie endowment of it university [char- tered in 1807] and a hospiuil, l|i;l,r)UO,UUU being ajipropriati'd to each. . . . To tlie bequest no biinlensome conditions were attitciied. . . . Just what tills new university was to lie proved a very serious i|iiestion to tlie trustees. The con- ditions of Mr. Hopkins's bequest left the deter- mination of this matter open. ... A careful in- vestigation led the trustees to believe that there was a growing demand for opportunities to study beyond tlie ordinary courses of it college or a scientific school, particularly in tliose lirauclies of l'.'aming not included in the schools of law, medicine and theology. Strong evidence of this demand was affordeif by the iucreasing attend- ance of American students upon tlio lectures of the Qernian universities, as well as by the num- ber of students who were enrolling themselves at Harvard and Yale for the post-graduate coursi'S. It was therefore determiued that the Johns Hop- kins should be primarily a university, witli ad- vanced courses of lectures and fully equipped laboratories; that the courses should be volun- tary, and the teaching not limited to class in- struction. The foundation is both old and now. In so far as each feature is borrowed from some older university, where it has been fairly tried and tested, it is old, but at the same time* this ])articular combination of separate features hua here been made for the first time. ... In the ordinary college course, If a young man hap- pens to be deficient In mathematics, for example, lie is eitlier forced to lose any advantage he may possess in Oreek or Latin, or else is obliged to take a position in mathcni: tics for which he is unprepared. In the college department of the Johns Hopkins, this disadvantage does not exist; the classifying is specific for each study. The student iris also the privilege of pushing forward in any one study as rapidly as lie can with ad- vantage ; or, on the other luiLd, in case of illness or of unavoidable interruption, of prolonging the time devoted to the course, so that no part of it shall be omitted. As the studies are elective, It is possible to follow the usual college course if one desires. Seven different courses of study are indicated, any of which leads to the Bacca- laureate degree, thus enabling the student to direct and specialize his work. 'The some standard of matriculation and the same severity of exam- inations are maiutuiued in all these courses. A 736 EDUCATION. IVatodi Mumfii Ail ltd. EDUCATION. atildont liM tlin prIvllrKO nf oxtonillnff liU Htiiily beyouil tliu n'^iiliir ('Ijihn work, nixl lie will lie crLilltvd with all hucIi priva.o mid DiiuUld iitudy, if hU (.'xainlncni nru MitlHllcd ot liU thnrdiiKlincMH anil iicriiriu'y."— H. H. llvrrivk, •T/ix .Miim Hoii- kiiu UninrnUii (SfHhner'ii Mmil/ili/. !>"'. 1M7U). A. D. 1867-1891.— The United' SUtei.— The Peabody Education Fund.— "Tliu It'ttor iiii- noiiiii'liitr and cri'iitliiK tlio I'catiiHJy I'lidnwiiK^iit wiiH dalcii Ki'liriiury 7, 1M(I7. In that IcttiT, iiftiT ri'fi'rrlMH Id tlio raviiKi'M of llio linu war, tlin foiiudcr of tliu TriiNt Miid: 'I fcid iiioHt dci-ply tlint It Ih tliu duty and |>rivilc>Kr of lliu iiioru fnvoiin'ii and wraltliy pcirtlons of our nnllon to axxlHt thoHu wild are Ichh fortunatu. ' llu tlirn addu(i: 'I g\\u onu nilllion of dollari) for tliu «ncouraguni('nt and promotion of intclli'ctiial, nionil, and indimtrlul vdiioatlon anion i( tliu young of tliu niort! dcHtllutu portions of tlii! Houtliurn and HoulliwcHturn StatuH of tliu Union.' On tliu <lay following, tun of tliu Trustcun Huluctud by lilm liuld a pruliininary inoutliiK in Wasliington. Tliuir llrst liiislnuiut niuctliiK ^vax liuld in thu city «f Nuw York, tliu lUtli of March followin)?, at which a Kcnural jilan was adoptuci and an i.K'-nt appointed. Mr. I'caliody ruturnud to his natlvu country aKiiin in 18(S9, anil on thu 1st ilav of July, at u Hpuclni mcutlng of thu Trustees held at Newport, added a second million to the cash capital of thu fund. . . . According to thu (hi- nor's directions, the principal must remain intact for thirty years. The TrusK'es are not author- ized to expend any part of it, nor yet to add to it any part of thu accruing interest. The man- ner of using thu interest, us well as the linal dis- tribution of the principal, was left entirely to thu discretion of a sulf-purpetuatlng body of Trustees. Those first appointed liiul, however, thu rare advantage of futi consultation witli tliu founder of tlie Trust whilu liu still lived, and their plans received his cordial and emphatic ap- proljation. . . The pressing need of the pres- ent seemed to be in the department of iirimary education for the masses, and so they determined to make appropriations only for thu assistance of public free schools. Thu money is not given as A charity to thu piKir. It would be entirely in- adequate to furnish any ellectual relief If dis- tributed equall.'' nmong all those wlio need It, and would, moreover, if thus widely dissipated, I)ro<luce no permanent results. But the cstab- isbment of good public schools provides for the education of all cliildren, whether rich or poor, and initiates a system which no .State has ever abandoned after a fair trial. So It seemed to the donor as well as to his Trustees, that the greatest good of tlio greatest number would be mo»e effectually and more certainly attained by this mode of distribution than by any other. No effort is made to distribute according to popu- lation. It was Jlr. Peabody's wish that tliose States which had suffered most from the ravages of war should be assisted first. " — Am. Educational Vyeloixcdiu, 1875, piK 22-t-22.5.— The report made by the treasurer of the Fund in 1890, allowed a principal sum invested to tl>o amount of |2, 075, 175, 23, yielding an income that year of |97,818. In the annual report of tlie U. 8. Commissioner of Education made Feb. 1, 1891, he says: "It would appear to the student of education in the Southern States that tiie practical wisdom in the administration of the Peabody Fund and the fruitful results that have followed It could not bo mirpAMod In the hUtnrj of cndowmenls. " — l'r<ifffiliitij» nf Ihi' Trntlrti of tl- IS;iIhhIii FMuniHon h'linil, IMH7-1H02. A. D. i484-i89i. -California.— Lcland Stan- ford Junior Univeriity. — "Thu founding at I'alo Alio of 'a uiilvcrHlty for lioth sexi'S, with the ('oUegcH, iu;Iiih)Ih, wniinarluH of li'iirning, mu- chanical iimtltutes. miiHi'uiiiH, galleries of art, and all other things necussiiry and appropriate to a iiniverslty of high degree.' was drterniined upon by the lion. Leliiiid Stanford and .lano Lathrop Htaiiford In IHHt. In .March of the year following thu Legislature of Callfoniia pikSNcd an Art providing Utr the iidmlniHtratlun of trust funds in connection with Institutions of learning. November l-i, 1885. thu (Jraiit of K)ndowinent was publicly made, in acrordiinci' with this \ct, and on thu sami- day tin- Hoard of TruKli'cs ncid its llrst nii'eting in San Francl.Hco The work of constnictloii was at oiicu iM'giiti, and the corner- stonu laid .May 11, 1887. The I'nlvcrslty was formally opened to students October 1. 1891. Tliu Idea of thu university, In the words of Its founders, 'came directly and largely from our son and only child, Leiund, and In the belief that had he been spared to advise oh to the dis- position of our estate, ho would have desired tlio di^volion of a large portion there to this piir- pos*'. we will that for all time d conie thu Insti- tution hereby founded sliall bear his name, and sliall be known as The Leland Stanford Junior University.' Thu object of the University, as stated in its Charter, is 'to (piallfy stuilents Tor personal success and direct usefulness in life'; and its purposes, ' to promote the public wel- fare by exercising an Inliuenc'o in iM^half of humanity and civilization, teaelilng thu blessings of liberty regulated by law, and inculcating lovo and reverence for the great principles of govern- ment as derived from the inaliciialilu rights of man to llfu, lilicrty. and the pursuit of happi- ness.' Tiie Univei'sity is located on tlie Palo Alto cstatu in tlio Santa Clara valley, tliirtv- threc miles southeast of San Francisco, on tho Coast Division of tliu Southern Pacitic liidlway. The estate consists of over ei^lit thousand acres, partly lowland and partly rising into tho foot- hills of the Santa Cruz range. On thu grounds la the residence of tho Founders, and an extensive and beautiful arboretum containing a very great variety of "hrubs and tret s. The property con- veyed *- uii University, in addition to tho P do Alto f !.ito, V insists of tho Vina estate, in Teba- , ... •-^ounty, o. fifty-five thousiuul acres, of wliicli about four tlic 'sand acres are planted in vines, and the Grldley estate, in Butto County, of twenty-two tiiousand acres, devoted mainly to tho raising of wheat. . . . 'The founders ot tlio Leland Stanford Junior University say: 'As a further assurance that tho endowment will bo ample to establish and maintidn a university of the highest grade, we have, by bust will and tes- tament, devised to you and your successors additional property. We have done this as a security against the uncertainty of lite and in the hope that during our lives tho full endowmeut may go to you.' Tiie aggregate of the domain thus dedicated to the founding of the University, is over eighty-five thousand acres, or more than one hundred and thirty -three square miles, among the 'lest improved and most valuable lands in tho State." — Leland Stanford Junior University, Circulars of Infornuition, nvs, 6 aiul 1-2. 737 EDUCATION. United State* Cenmu StatiMtict. jiDUCATION. A. L. 1887-1889.— Massachusetts.— Clark University. — "(-'lurli University wiis founded fat Worcester] by ... a nuuve of Worcester County, Miissaeliusetts. It Wiis 'not tlie outcome of ft freak of impulse, or of a smiden wave of gen- erosity, or of tlie uutural desire to perpetuate in a worlliy way one's ancistiiil iianie. To compre- hend tlie genesis of tlu; enlel-prisc we must go bacli along the traelt of Mr. Cliirk's personal his- tory 20 years at least. For us long ago as that, the idea came home with Utrvu to his mind that all civilized communities are in the hands of ex- perts. . . Looking around at the facilities ob- tainabh; in this country for the prosecution of original research, he was struck with the meager- ness and the inadeiiuacy. Colleges and profes- sional schools we have in abundance, but there appeared to be no one grand inclusive institution, unsaddled by an academic department, where students might pursue as far as possible their in- vestigation of any and every branch of science. . . . jMr. Clark went abroad and spent eight years visiting the institutions of learning in almost every country of Europe. He studied into their history and observed their present working.' ... It is his strong and expressed de- sire that the highest possible academic standards be here forever maintained; that special oppor- timities and inducements be offered to research ; that to this end the instructors be not overbur- dened with teacliing or examinations. . . . } charter was granted early in 1887. Land and other property that had been before secured by the founder was transferred to the board, and the erection of a central building was begun. In the spring of 1888 Q. Stanley Hall, then a pro- fessor at the Johns Hopkins University, was in- vited to the presidency. . . . The plans of the uni''.'r»ity had so far progressed that work was begun :n October, 1889, In mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology." — O. G. Bush Ilist. of Higlier Education in Mass. ( IT. S. P'rcutP of Education, Circular of Information, P'.'^U no. 6), ch. 18 A. D. i88j)-i892. — Illinois.— Chicago Univer- sity. — "At Its Annual Meeting in May, 1880, the Board of the .\mcrican Baptist Education So- ciety resolveO to take inunediate steps toward the founding of a well-equipped college in the city of Chicago. At the same tiniR John D. Rockefeller made a subscription of |000,000 and this sum was increased during the succeeding year by about $600,000 more in subscriptions repre- senting more than two thousand persons. Three months after the completion of this subscription, Mr. Rockefeller made an additional proffer of 11,000,000. The site of the University consists of three blocks of ground — about two thousand feet long and three hundred and sixty-two feet wide, lying between the two South Parks of Chicago, and fronting on the Midway Plaisunee, which is itself a park connecting the other two. One-half of this site is a gift of Marshall Field of Chicago, and tlie other half has been pur- chased ut a cost of §133,500. At the first meet- ing of the Board after it had become an incorpo- rated botiy. Professor William R. Harper, of Yale University, was unanimously elected Presi- dent of the University. ... It has been decided that the University will begin the work of in- struction on the first day of October, 1892. . . . The work of the University shall be arranged under three general divisions, viz.. The Univer- sity Proper, The Univcrsity-Extcnsiot Work, The University Publication Work." — University of Chicago, Official liulletin no. 1, Jan., 1801. A. D. 1890.— Jkiited States.— C<. ^us Sta- tistics, — The following statistics of eil nation in the United States are from the returns gathered for the Eleventh Census, 1800. In these statis- tics the states and territories are classed in five great geogniphical divisions, defined as follows: North Atlantic Division, embracing the New England States, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; South Atlantic Division, embrac- ing the States of the eastern coast, from Dela- ware to Florida, together with the District of Columbia; North Central Division, embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, lowo, Missouri, Nortli and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas; South Central Division, embracing Kentucky, Tennessee, Ala- bama, Alississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma; Western DivLsion, unbracing all the remaining States and Territories. The total taxation for public schools in the United States, as reported by this census, was $103,164,706; of which $37,010,786 was raised in the North At- lantic Division, $5,678,474 in the South Atlantic Division, $47,033,143 in the North Central Divi- sion, $5,608,563 in the South Central Division, and $0,134,833 in the Western Division. From funds and rents there were raised for school pur- poses a total of $25,694,449 in the United States at large, of whicli $8,273,147 was raised in the North Atlantic Division, $2,307,05Hn the South Atlantic Division, $8,433,593 in the North Cen- tral Division, $3,730,158 in the South Central Division, and $3, 961, .500 in theWestern Division. The total of all " ordinary " receipts for school support in the United States was $139,619,440, of which $49,201,316 were in the North Atlantic Division, $8,685,233 in the South Atlantic Divi- sion, $61,108,263 in the North Centnd Division, $10,294,621 in the South Central Division, and $10,330,117 in the Western Division. The total "ordinary expenditures" were $138,786,393 in the whole United States; being $47,625,548 in the North Atlantic Division. $8,630,711 in the South Atlantic Division, $63,815,531 in the North Central Division, $0,800,050 in the South Central Division, ond §0,854,544 in the Western Division. For teachers' wages there was a total expendi- ture of $88,705,003, $38,067,821 being in the North Atlantic Division, $6,400,063 in the South Atlantic Division, $30,886,831 in the North Cen- tral Division, §8,300,509 in the South Central Division, and §6,101, '768 in theWestern Division. The total expenditure for Libraries and Appara- tus was §1,667,787, three- fourtlis of which was in the North Atlantic and North Central Divi- sions. The expenditure reported for construction and care of buildings, was §34,324,793, of whicli §10,687,114 was in the Nortli Atlantic Division, §884,277 was in the South Atlpntic Division, $0,869,489 in the North Central Division, $770,- 257 in the South Central Division, and §3,013,65* in the Western Division. Reported estimates of the value of buildings -.nd other school property are incomplete, but §27,892,831 are given for Massachusetts, §41,636,735 for New York, $35,- 435,413 for Pennsylvania, $33,631,549 for Ohio, $36,814,480 for Illinois, and these are the States that stand highest in the column. The apparent enrollment in Public Schools for the census year, reported to July, 1891, was us follows: North 738 EDUCATION. John Antoa Comeniiu. EDUCATION. Atlantic Division, 3,124,417; Soutli Atlantic Divisioc, l,7r)H,2S.'i; Xcirtli CVntriil Division, 5,083,182; South Central Division, '.',;!:! I, (i!)4; Western Divi.sion, r)2l),2«0; Total fur llie Inilcd States, 12,760,864, being 20.aU per cent, of the population, against IM 84 per cent, in 1880. The reported enrollment in Private Schools at the same time was: North Atlantic Division, 10«,17!i; South Atlantic Division, 165,253; Norlli Central Division, 187,827; South Central Division, 200,202; Western Division, 54,740; Total for the United States, 804,204. The reported enroll- ment in Parocliial Schools was: North Atlantic Division, 311,684; South Atlantic Division, 80,860; North Central Division, 398,585; South Central Division, 41,115; Western Division, 17,349; Total for the United States, 799,602. Of this total, 026,496 were enrolled in Catholic and 151,651 in Lutheran Parochial Seliools; leaving only 21,455 in the schools of all other dtnomina- tioas. Total enrollment reported in all schools 14,373,670. The colored public school enroll- ment in the Southern States was 1,288,229 in 1890, against 797,286 in 1880,— an increase of more than 61 per cent. The enrollment of whites was 3,358,527, against 2,301,804,— an increase of nearly 46 per cent. The appro 'inate number of Public School-houses in the United States, for the census year 1890 is given at 219,092, being 42,940 in the North Atlantic Divi-ion, 32,142 in the South Atlantic Division, 07,166 in the North Central Division, 38,962 in the South Central Division, 8,773 in the Western Division. The largest number reported is 14,214 in Pennsyl- vania, Of 6,408 school-houses in Virginia 4,568 are for white, and 1,840 for colored children; in North Carolina, 8,073 white and 1,820 colored. The above statistics are taken in part from the Compendium of the Eleventh Census, published in 1804, and partly from tables courteously fur- nished from the Census Bureau in advance of their publication. Modern : Reforms and Movements. A. 'D. 1638-1671. — Comenius. — "To know Comenius [born in Moravia, 1592] and the part he played in the seventeenth century, to appre- ciate this grand educational character, it would be necessary to begin by relating his life ; his mis- fortunes; his journeys to England [1638], where Parliament invoked his aid; to Sweden [1642], ■where the Chancellor Oxenstiern employed him to write manuals of instruction ; especially his re- lentless industry, his courage through exile, and the long persecutions he suffered as a member of the sect of dissenters, the Jloravian Brethren; and the schools he founded at Fulneek, in Bo- hemia, at Lissa and at Patak, in Poland." — G. Compayre, T/ielliat. oj' Pedagogy, ch. {sect. 137). — "Comenius's inspinng motive, like that of all leading educationalists, was social regenemtion. He believed that this could be accomplished through the school. He lived under the hallucin- ation that by a proper arrangement of the sub- ject-matter of instruction, and by a sound method, a certain community of thought and intertsta would be established among tlio young, which T"ould result in social harmony and political 8ettit:nent. He believed that men could be manu- factured. . . . The educational spirit of the Re- formers, the conviction that all — even the hum- blest — must be taught to know God, and Jesus Christ whom he has sent, was inherited by Come- nius in its completeness. In this way, and in tills way only, could the ills of Europe be reme- died, and the progress of humanity assured. While, tlierofore, he sums up the edurational aim under the threefold heads of Knowledge, Virtue, and I'iety or Godlines.s, he in truth has mainly in view the last two. Kno\vle(lj;e is of value only in so far as it forms the only sound basis, in the eyes of a Protestant theologian, of virtue and godliness. We have to train for a liereafter. . . . By knowledge Comenius meant knowledge of nature and of man's relation to nature. It is this important characteristic of Comenius's eiliua- tional system that reveals the direct intluenre of Bacon and his school. . . . It is in the department of Metho<l, however, that we recognise the chief contribution of Comenius to education. The mere attempt to systematise was a great advance. In seeking, however, for foundations on which to erect a coherent system, he had to content him- self with tirst principles which were vague and imscientiflc. ... In the department of knowl- edge, that is to say, knowledge of the outer world, Comenius rested his method on the scho- lastic maxim, ' Nihil est in intellectu quod non p HIS fuerit in sensii.' This maxim he enriched with the Baconian induction, coniiirchended by him only in a general way. . . . From the sim- ple to the complex, from the particular to the general, the concn^te before the abstract, and all, step by step, and even by insensible degrees, — these were among his leading principles of method. But the most important of all his prin- ciples was derived from the scholastic maxim quoted above. As all is from sense, let the thing to be known bo itself presented to the senses, and let every sense be engaged in tlie perut'ption of it. When it is impo.ssible, from the natore of the case, to present the object itself, place a vivid picture of it before the pup:!. The mere enumeration of tliese few prin- ciples, even if we drop out of view all his other contributions to method and school-management, will satisfy any man familiar with all the more recent treatises on Education, that Comenius, even after giving his precursors tlieir due, is to be regarded as the true founder of mod- ern Method, and that he anticipates Pestalozzi and all of the same school. . . . Finally, Come- nius's views as to the innor organisation of a school were original, and have proved themselves in all essential respects correct. The same may be said of his scheme for the organisation of a State-system — a scheme which is substantially, mutatis mutandis, at this moment embodied in the highly-developed system of Germany. Whea we consider, tlien, that Comenius lirst "formally and fully developed educational method, that he introduced important reforms into the teaching of languages, that he introduced into scIuhjIs the study of Nature, that he advocated witli intelli- gence, and not on purely pentimental grounds, a. milder discipline, we are justified in assigning to him a high, if not the highott, place among modern educational writers." — S. S. Laurie, Jolin A)nos Comenius, pp. 217-226. A. D. 1681-1878.— The Christian Brothers. — "Any description of popular education in Europe would be incomplete, which should not give prominence to the Institute of the Christian Brothers — or the Brothers of the Christian Doc- trine — including in that term the earliest pro- fessional school for the training of teachers in 739 EDUCATION. The Chriatian Brothert. EDUCATION. Europe; one of the most remarkable body of tciK^liers devoted exclusively and without pay to the education of the children of the poor that the world has ever seen. . . . The Institute was established as a professional school in 1081, and to Abbe John Baptist dc la Salle, be'.ongs the high honor not only of founding it, but of so in- fusing into its early organization his own pro- found conviction of the Christ-like character of its mission among the poor, that it has retained for nearly two centuries the form and spirit of its origin. This devoted Christian teacher was born at Rheims on the 30th of April, 1651. . . . lie was early distinguished for his scholarly at- tainments and maturity of character ; and at the age of seventeen, before he had completed his full course of theological study, he was ap- pointed Canon in the Cathedral church of Rheims. From the first, he became interested in the edu- cation of the young, and especially of the poor, as the most direct way of leading them to a Christian life; — and with this view before he •was twenty-one years old, he assumed the direc- tion of two charities, devoted to female educa- tion. From watching the operation of these schools, conducted by teachers without profes- sional training, without plan end without mutual sympathy and aid, he conce'.ved the design of bringing the teachers of this class of schools from the neighboring parishes into a community for tlieir moral and professional improvement. For this purpose, he invited them first to meet, and then to lodge at his house, and afterwards, about the year 1681, lie purchased a house for their special accommodation. Here, out of school hours and during their holydays, they spent their time in the practice of religious duties, and in mutual conferences on the work in which they were engaged. About this period, a large number of free schools for the poor were established in the neighboring towns; and applications were constantly made to the Abbe for teachers formed under his training, care, and influence. To meet this demand, and makd himself more di- rectly useful in the field of Chiisiian education, he resigned his benefice, that he might give his whole attention to the work. To close the dis- tance between himself, having a high social posi- tion and competence from his father's estate, and the poor schoolmasters to whom he was con- stantly preaching an unreserved consecration of themselves to their vocation — he not only re- signed his canonry, with its social and pecuniary advantages, but distributed his patrimony, in a period of scarcity, in relieving the necessities of the poor, and in providing for the education of their children. He thus placed himself on a footing of equality — as to occupation, manner of life, and entire dependence on the charity of others — with the schoolmasters of the poor. The annals of education or religion show but few such examples of practical self-denial, and entire consecration to a sense of duty. . . . Hav- ing completed his act of resignation and self- imposed poverty, he assembled his teachers, an- nounced to them what he had done, and sung with them a Te Deura. After a retreat — a period set apart to prayer and fasting — contin- ued for seventeen days, they devoted themselv"' to the consideration of the best course to gi unit/, efficiency, and permanence to their plans of Christian education for the poor. They assun.ed the name of ' The Brothers of the Christian Doc- 740 trine,' as expresssive of their vocation — which by usage came to be abbreviated into ' Christian Brothers. ' They took on themselves vows of pov- erty, celibacy, and obedience for three years. They prescribed to themselves the most frugal fare, to , be provided in turns by each other. Thev adopted at that time some rules of behavior, which have since been incorporated into tlie fundamental rules of tlie order. ... In 1702 the first step was taken to establish an Institute at Rome, un- der the mission of one of the brothers, Gabriel Drolin, who after years of poverty, was made conductor of one of the charitable schools founded by Pope Clement XI. This school be- came afterwards the foundation of the house which the brothers have had in Rome since the pontiflcote of Benedict XIII., who conferred on the institute the constitution of a religious order. In 1703, under the pecuniary aid of M. Chateau Blanc, and the countenance of the archbishop, M. de Qontery, a school was opened at Avignon. ... In 1789, the National Assembly prohibited vows to be made in communities; and in 1700, suppressed all religious societies; and in 1791, the institute was dispersed. At that date there were one hundred and twenty houses, and over one thousand brothers, actively engaged in the duties of the school room, 'fhe continuity of the society was secured by the houses established in Italy, to which many of the brothers fled. ... In 1801, on the conclusion of a Concordat between the Pope and the government, the so- ciety was revived in France by the opening of a school at Lyons; and in 1815, they resumed their habit, and opened a novitiate, the mem- bers of which were exempt from military ser- vice. At the organization of the university in 1808, the institute was legally reorganized, and from that time has increased in numbers and usefulness. ... In 1843, there were 390 houses (of which 326 were in France), with 3,030 broth- ers, and 585 novices. There were 642 schools with 163,700 cliildren, besides evening schools with 7,800 adults in attendance, and tliree re- formatory schools with 2,000 convicts under in- instruction." — Henry Barnard, National Educa- tion in Europe, pp. 435-441. — "In 1878 their numbers had increased to 11,640; they had 1,249 establishments, and the number of their scholars was 890,607."— Mrs. R. F. Wilson, The Chn»- tian Brothers, their Origin and Work, ch. 31. A. D. 1762. — Rousseau, — "Rousseau, who had educated himself, and very badly at that, was impressed with the dangers of tlie education of his day. A mother having asked his advice, betook up the pen to write it; and, little by little, his counsels grew into a book, a large work, a pedagogic romance [' Emile ']. This romance, when it appeared in 1762, created a great noise and a great scandal. The Archbishop of Paris, Christophe de Beaumont, saw in it a dangerous, mischievous work, and gave himself the trouble of writing a long encyclical letter in order to point out the book to the reprobation of the faith- ful. This document of twenty -seven chapters is a formal refutation of the theories advanced in 'Emile.' ... In those days, such a condemna- tion was a serious matter; its consequences to an utlior might be terrible. Rousseau had barely time to flee. His arrest was decreed by the par- liament of Paris, and his book was burned by the executioner. ... As a fugitive, Rousseau did not find a safe retreat even in his own coun- EDUCATION. Routteau and Pettatotzi. EDUCATION. try. He was obliged to lenvo CJeneva, where liis book was also condemned, and Berne, where he had soright refuge, but whence lie was driven by intolerai-nc. lie owed it to thr, protection of Lord Keith, fw'.vrnor of Ncufchf.tcl, a principality be- longing, to tlie King of Pr\i.ssia, that he lived for some tiino in peace in the little town of Motiers in the Val de Travcrs. . . . The renown of tlie book, condemned by so hfgh an authority, was Immense. Scandal, by attracting public atten- tion to it, did it good service. What was most serious and most suggestive tn it was not, per- haps seized upon ; but the ' craze ' of wliich it wa.s the object had, notwithstanding, good re- sults. Slotliers were won over, and resolved to nurse their own infants ; great lords be'^an to learn handicrafts, like Rousseau's imaginary pupil; physical exercises came into fashion ; the spirit of innovation w»s forcing itself a way. . . . Three men above all the rest are noted ior hav- ing popularized the pedagogic nictliod of Rous- seau, and for having been inspired 11 their labors by '6mile.' These were Basedow, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. Basedow, a German theologian, had devoted himself entirdy to dogmatic controversy, until the reading of ' Emile ' had the effect of en- larging his men' horizon, and of revealing to him his true voc 11. . . . Pestalozzi of Zurich, one of the foreniu.^l educators of modern times, ali.0 found liij whole life transformed by the reading of 'Emile,' which awoke in him the genius of a reformer. . . . The most distinguished among his disciples and continuators is Froebel, the founder of those primary schools . . . known by the name of ' kindergartens,' and the author of highly esteemed pedagogic works. These various attempts, these new and ingenious pro- cesses which, step by step, have made their way among us, and are beginning to make their workings felt, even in institutions most stoutly opposed to progress, are all traceable to Rous- seau's 'femile.'. . . It is true that 'Emile' contains pages that have outlived their day, many odd precepts, many false ideas, many dis- putable and destructive theories; but at the same time we find in it so many sagacious observations, such upright counsels, suitable even to modern times, so lofty an ideal, that, in spite of every- thing, we cannot read and study it without profit. . . . There is absolutely nothing practica- ble in his [Rousseau's] system. It consists in iso- lating a child from the rest of the world ; in creat- ing expressly for him a tutor, who is a phoenix among his kind; in depriving him of father, mother, brothers, and sisters, his companions In study; in surrounding him witli a perpetual charlatanism, under the pretext of following na- ture ; and in showing him only through the veil of a factitious atmosphere the society in which he is to live. And, nevertheless, at each step it is sound reason by which we are met; by an as- tonishing paradox, this whimsicality is full of good sense ; this dream overflows with realities ; this improbable and chimerical romance contains the substance and the marrow of a rational and truly modern treatise on pedagogy. Sometimes we must read between the lines, add what ex- perience has taught us since that day, transpose into an atmosphere of open democracy those pages, written under the old order of things, but even then quivering with the new world which they were bringing to light, and for which they prepared tho way. Reading ' Emile ' in the light of modern prejudices, we can see in it more than the autlior wittingly put into it; but not more than logic and tlie instinct of genius set down there. To unfold the powers of cliildren indue proportion totlieirage; not to transcend tlieir ability; to arouse in tliem the sense of the observer aiid of tlie ))i()necr; to make them dis- coverers rather than imitators: to teach them ac- countability to themselves and not slavish de- pendence upon the words of others ; to a<ldress ourselves more to the will tlian to cu.stom, to the reason rather than to tho memory; to substitute for verbal recitations lessons alumt things; to lead to theory by way of art ; to assign to physi- cal movements and exercises a prominent place, from the earliest hours of life up to perfect ma- turity ; such are the principles scattered broad- cast in this book, and forming a happy coun- terpoise to the oddities of which Rousseau was perhaps most proud." — J. Steeg, Introduction to Rotisseau's 'Emile.' A. D. 1798-1827.— Pestalozzi.— In Switzer- land, up to tlie end of the eighteenth century, the state of priumry instruction was very bad. "The teachers w- i' gathered up at hazard; their pay was wretched ; in general they had no lo<lgings of their own, and they were obliged to hire tliem- selves out for domestic service among the well- off inhabitants of the villages, in order to find food and lodging among them. A mean spirit of caste still dominated instruction, and the poor remained sunk in ignorance. It was in the very midst of this wretched and unpropitious state of affairs that there appeared, towards the end of the eighteenth century, the most celebrated of modern educators. . . . Born at Zurich in 1746, Pestalozzi died at Brugg in Argovia in 1837. This unfortunate great man always felt the effects of the sentimental and unpracticr' education given him by his mother, who was lett 3, widow with three children in 1751. He early .'ormed the habit of feeling and of being touched with emotion, rather than of reasoning and of reflect- ing The laughing-stock of his companions, who made sport of his awkwardness, the little scholar of Zurich accustomed himself to live alone and to become a dreamer. Later, towards 1760, the student of the academy distinguished himself by his political enthusiasm and his revolutionary daring. At that early period ho had conceived a profound feeling for the miseries and the needs of the people, and he already proposed as the purpose of his life the healing of the diseases of society. At the same time there was developed in him an irresistible taste for a simple, frugal, and almost ascetic life. To restrain his desires had become tho essential rule of his conduct, and, to put it in practice, he forced himself to sleep on a plank, and to subsist on bread and vegetables." — G. Compayre, The Hist, of Pedagogy, ch. 18. — "In spite . . . of Pestalozzi's patent disqualifications in many respects for the task he undertook ; in spite of his ignorance of even common subjects (for he spoke, read, wrote, and cyphered badly, and knew next to nothing of classics or science) ; in spite of his want of worldly wisdom, of any compre- hensive and exact knowledge of men and of things ; in spite of his being merely an elementary teacher, — through the force of his all-jonquering love, the nobility of his heart, tho resistless energy of his enthusiasm, his firm grasp of few first principles, his eloquent exi)osition of them in worus, his resolute mau'f jstation of them in 741 EDUCATION. Peataloati. EDUCATION. deeds, — lie stands forth among cducationnl re- forMKTHus tlie iniin wlio.se influenee on educiition ia wider, deeper, more penetrating, timn tliat of all tlie rest — tlie |)ropliet and tlie sovereign of the(' iiiiiin in wliicli lie lived and laboured. . . . It w:i.s lute in life — lie wii.s (ifty-two years of age — Ijcforc Pestalozzi bceame a practical school- master. He had even begun to despair of ever finding the career in wliieli he might attempt to realize tlie thee es over wliicli his loving heart and teeming biuin had been brooding from liis earl'"Mt youtli. ... At flfty-two years of age, tliei we find Pestalozzi utterly unac(\uainle(l with the science and tlie art of education, and very scantily furnished even with elementary knowl- edge, undertal^ing at StJinz, in the canton of UuttTwalden, the charge of eighty children, whom the events of war had rendered homeless and destitute. . . . The house in which the eighty children were assembled to be boarded, lo<lged, and taught, was an old tumble-down Ursulino convent, scarcely habitable, ond desti- tute of all the conveniences of life. The only apartment suitable for a schoolroom was alioiit twenty-four feet square, furnished with a few desks and forms ; and into this were crowded the wretched children, noisy, dirty, diseased, and ignorant, witli the manners and habits of bar- barians. Pestaloi'.zi's only helper in the manage- ment of the institution was an old woman, who cooked the footl and swept the rooms ; so that he was, as he tells us hjmself, not only the teaclier, but the paymaster, man-servant, and almost the housemaid of the children. . . . ' My wishes [he writes] were now accomplished I felt convinced that my heart would change the condition of my children as speedily as the spriagtide sun reani- mates the earth frozen by the winter. Nor,' he adds, ' was I mistaken. Before tlie springtide sun melted away the snow from our mountains, you could no longer recognise the same children.' . . . 'I was obliged,' he says, 'unceasingly to be everything to mjf children. I was alone with them from morning to night. It was from my hand they received whatever could bo of service both to their bodies and minds. All succour, all consolation, all instruction came to tliem immedi- ately from myself. Their hands were in my hand; my eyes were fixed on tlieirs, my tears mingled with theirs, my smiles encountered theirs, my soup was their soup, my drink was their drink. I had around me neither family, 1 .lends, nor servants ; I had only them. I was with them when they were in health, by their side when they were ill. I slept in their midst. I was tlie last to go to bed, the first to rise in the morning. When we were in bed I used to pray with them and talk to them till they went to sleep. They wished me to do so. ' . . . 'I knew,' he says, ' no system, no method, no art but that which rested on the simple consequences of tlie firm belief of the children in my love towards them. I wished to know no other.'. . . Gradually . . . Pestalozzi advanced to the main principles of his system of moral education. . . . He says: — ' Nature develops all the human faculties by practice, and their growth depends on their exer- cise. ' ' The circle of knowledge commences close around a man, and thence extends concentrically.' ' Force not the faculties of children into the remote paths of knowledge, until they have gained strength by exercise on tlungs that are near them. ' ' There is m Nature an order and march of de- velopment. If you disturb or interfere with it, you mar the jicaee and harmony of the mind. And this you do, if, before you liave formed tlie mind by the progressive knowledge of the reali- ties of life, you fling it into the labyrinth of words, and make them the basis of develoiiiiient.' 'Tlie artificial march of tlie ordinary schmil, an- ticipating the order of Nature, which proceeds without an.\iety and without haste, inverts this order by iiiacing words first, and thus secures a deceitful appearance of success at the expense of natural and safe develoiiment. ' In these few sentences we recognise all that is most charac- teristic in the educational principles of Pesta- lozzi. ... To set the intellectual machinery in motion — to make it work, and keep it working ; that was the sole object at wliit'h he aimed ; of all the rest he took little account. ... He re- lied upon a principle which must be insisted on as cardinal and essential in education. He secured the thorough interest of his pupils in the lesson, and mainly through their own direct share in it. . . . Observation, . . . according to Pestalozzi (and Bacon had said the same thing before him), is the absolute basis of all knowledge, and is therefore the prime agent in elementary educa- tion. It is around this theory, as a centre of gravity, that Pestalozzi's system revolves." — J. Paj'iie, Lect's on the Hist, of Education, leet. 9. — " During the short period, not more than a year, which Pestalozzi spent among the chil- dren at Stanz, he settled the main features of the Pestalozzian system. Sickness broke out among the children, and the wear and tear was too great even for Pestalozzi. He would probably have sunk under his efforts if the French, pressed by the Austrians, had not entered Stanz, in January, 1799, and taken part of the Ursuline Convent for a military hospital. Pestalozzi was, therefore, obliged to break up the school, and he himself went to a medicinal spring on the Gumi- gel in the Canton Bern. ... Ho came down from the Gurnigel, and began to teach in the primary schools (i. e., schools for children from four to eight years old) of Burgdorf, the second town in the Canton. Here the director was jeal- ous of him, and he met with much opposition. ... In less than a year Pestalozzi left this school in bad health, and joined KrQsi in opening a new school in Burgdorf Castle, for which he after- ward (1803) obtained Government aid. Here he was assisted in carrying out his system by Krllsi, Tobler, and BIuss. He now embodied the re- sults of his experience in a work which has ob- tained great celebrity — ' How Gertrude Teaches he" Children ' [also published in England under the title of 'Leonard and Gertrude ]. In 1803 Pestalozzi, for once in his life a successful and popular man, was elected a member of a deputa- tion sent by the Swiss people to Paris. On the restoration of the Cantons in 1804, the Castle of Burgdorf was again occupied by one of the chief magistrates, and Pestalozzi and his establishment were moved to the Monastery of Buchsee. Here the teachers gave the principal direction to an- other, the since celebrated Fellenburg, ' not with- out my consent,' says Pestalozzi, 'but to my profound mortification.' He therefore soon ac- cepted an invitation from the inhabitants of Yverdun to open an institution there, and within a twelvemonth he was followed by his old assist- ants, who had found government by Fellenburg less to their taste than no-government by Pesta- 742 EDUCATION. Th« Higher Educa- tion of Women. EDUCATION. Inzzi. The Yverdun Institute lind soon a world- wide repiitntion. Pcstiilozzlan tciichcrs went from it to Mndrid, to NiipleH, to St. I'etersburg. Kings and ])liilosopliers joined in doing it lionor. But, 08 I'estalozzi liiinsidf lius tcstille(i, tlieso pniiscs were but iis a laurel-wreatli encircling a skull. The life of the Pestalozzian institutions had l)een the love wliich tlie old man had infused into all the members, teachers as well as cliil- dren; but this life was wanting at Yverdun. Tlie establishment was much too largo to bo car- rictl on successfully without more method and discipline than Pestalozzi, remarkable, as ho himself says, for liis ' imrivnlled incapacity to govern,' was master of. Tlie assistants began each to take his own line, and even tho outward show of unity was soon at an end. . . . Thus tho sun went down in clouds, an<l tho old man, when he died at the ago of eighty, in 1837, liad seen tho apparent failure of all Ins toils. lie had not, however, failed in reality. It lias been said of him that his true fortuiu' was to educate ideas, not children, and when twenty years later the centenary of his birth was celebrated by school- masters, not only in his native country, but throughout Oermany, it was found that Pesta- lozzian ideas had been sown, and were bearing fruit, over the jrrcater part of central Europe." — F{. II. Quick, Ensay» on Educational Ueformen, ch. 8. A. D. 1804-1891. — Co-education and the Higher Education of Women in the United States. — " When to a few daring minds the con- viction came that education was a right of per- sonality rather than of sex, and when there was added to this growing sentiment tho pressing de- mand for educated women as teachers and as leaders in philanthropy, the simplest means of equipping women with the needful preparation was found in the existing schools and colleges. ... In nearly every State west of the Allcgha- nies, ' Universities had been founded by the voluntary tax of the whole jiopulation. Con- nected with all the more powerful religious de- nominations were schools and colleges which called upon theiradherents for gifts and students. These democratic institutions had tlie vigor of youth, and were ambitious and struggling. 'Why,' asked the practical men of affairs who controlled them, 'should not our daughters go on with our sons from the public scliools to the university which we are sacrificing to equip and maintain? ' It is not strange that with this and much more practical reasoning of a similar kind, co-education was established in some colleges at their beginning, in others after debate, and by a radical change in policy. When once the chiv- alrous desire was aroused to give girls as good an education as their brothers, Western men car- ried out the principle unflinchingly. From tho kindergarten to the preparation for the doctorate of philosophy, educational opportunities are now practically alike for men and women. The total number of colleges of arts and sciences empow- ered by law to give degrees, reporting to Wash- ington in 1888, was three hundred and eighty- nine. Of these, twoliundrcd and thirty-seven, or nearly two-thirds, were co-educational. Among them are nearly all the State universities, and nearly all the colleges under the patronage of the rt-otestant sects. Hitherto I have spoken as if co-education were a Western movement; and In the West it certainly has had greater currency than elsewhere. Rut it originated, at least no far as concerns superior secondary ; .'aining, in Ma8.sachusotts, Hra<lford Academy, chartered in 1804, is the oldest incorporated institution in tlut country to which boys and girls were from tho first atlmitted ; but it closed its deiiartment for Itoys in 181t(t, tliree years a'ter ihe foundation of coeducational Oberlin, and in tho very year when Mount Ilolyoke wisopened by Mary Lyon, in the large hope of (h)ing for young women what Harvard had been founded 10 do for young men just two hundred years before. Ipswicli and Abbot Academies in Massachu.setts had already been chartered to educate girls idono. It has been the dominant sentiment in the Ka.st that boys and girls should be educated separately. The older, more generously endowed, more con- servativt! seats of learning, inheriting the com- jdicat ions of the dormitory systinn, have remained closed to women. ... In the short pericMl of the twenty years after the war the four women's colleges which are the richest in endowments and students of any in the world were founded and set in motion. These colleges — Vassar, opened in 1805, Wellesley and Smith in 1875, and Bryn Mawrin 1885 — have received in gifts of every kind about $8,000,000, and are educating nearly two thousand students. For the whole country the Commissioner of Education reports two hun- dred and seven institutions for the superior in- struction of women, with more than twenty-livo thousand students. But these resources proved inadequate. There came an increasing demand, especially from teachers, for education of all sorts. ... In an attempt to meet a demand of this sort the Harvard Annex began twelve years ago [in 1870] to provide a few women with in- struction from members of the Harvard faculty. . . . Barnard College in New York is an annex of Columbia only in a sense, for not all her in- struction is given by Columbia's teaching force, though Columbia will confer degrees upon her graduates. The new woman's college at Cleve- land sustains temporarily the same relations to Adelbert College, though to a still greater extent she provides independent instruction." — A. F. Palmer, Review of the Higher Education of Women, {Woman and the Jlir/her Edtication, pp. 105-127).— " The Cleveland College for Women, Cleveland, Ohio, was first opened for instruction in 1888 as a department of Western Iteserve Uni- versity. At the same time the trustees of the university decided to receive no more women into Adelbert College. That the success of the now school might be assured, the faculty of Adelbert College generously offered their services for a term of years as instructors. During the first year twenty-three young women were ad- mitted, but two of wliom were in the n^gular courses. During 1889-90 the number of students increased to thirty-eight. ... In 1887 Evelyn College, an institution for women, was opened at Princeton, N. J. Its location at this place gives tho institution very great advantages, inas- much as tho use of the libraries and museums of the College of New Jersey, popularly known as Princeton College, are granted to the students." — U. 8. Comm'r of Education, Rejiort, 1889-90, V. 2, p. 744.— "The latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education contains over two hundred institutions for tho superior educa- tion of women. Tiio list includes colleges and seminaries entitled to confer degrees, and a few 743 EDUCATION. TVoehel and the Kindergarttn. EDUCATION. Bcminnries, whoso work Is of equal merit, whicli do not jiive dcgreos. Of these more than two luindred iastitutions for tlie education of women exclusively, only 47 arc situated within fwestern states]. ... Of these 47, but 30 are chartered witli authority to confer degrees. . . . The ex- tent tt) whicli the higher education of wojnen is in the West idcntiSed with co-education, can be seen by comparing tlie two statements above given. Of the total 213 higher institutions re- ceiving women, and of the total 195 such institu- tions which confer the regular degrees in arts, science, and letters, upon their graduates, 165 are co-educational. . . . Among colleges character- ized from birth by a liberal ana progressive spirit niay be mentioned 'The Cincinnati Wes- leyan Woman's College.' This institution was f bartered in 1843, and claims to l)e ' the first lib- eral collegiate institution in the world for the exclusive education of women.' . . . The West is committed to co-education, excepting only the Homan Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Protest- ant Episcopal sects, — which are not yet, as sects, committed to the collegiate education of women at all, — and the Presbyterian sect, wliose support, in the West, of 14 co-educational col- leges against 4 for the separate education of young men, almost commits it to the co-educa- tional idea. ... In 1853, Antiocli College was opened at Yellow Springs, O. It was tlie first endeavor in tlie West to found a college under Christian h\it non-sectarian auspices. Its presi- dent, Horace Mann, wrote of it: 'Antioch is now the only flrst-class college in all the West that is reolfy an unsectarian institution.' . . . Antioch was from the first avowedly co-cduca- tionul." — M. W. Sewall, Education of Women in the Weatern States (\Vo»uin's Work in Am., pp. 01-70). — "Most people would probably be ready to say that except for the newly founded Woman's College in Baltimore and Tu'.ane Uni- versity [State university of Louisiana], the col- legiate education of women does not exist in the South. But as matter of fact, there are no less than one hundred and fifty institutions in the South which are authorized by the Legislatures of their respective States to confer tlic regular college degrees upon women. Of these, forty- one are co-educational, eighty-eight are for women alone, and twenty-one are for colored persons of Hotli sexes. The bureau of education makes no attempt to go behind the verdict of the State Legislatures, but on looking over the catalogues of all these institutions it is, as miglit have been expected, easy to see that the great majority of them are not in any degree colleges, in the or- dinary sense of the word. Not a single one of the so-called female colleges presents a real col- lege course, and many of the co-educational col- leges are colleges only in name." — C. L. Franklin, Education of Wome.i. in tlie Southern States (Woman's Work in Am., pp. 93-94). A. D. 1816-1892.— Froebel and the Kinder- garten. — "Froebel (Friedrich Wilhelra August) was born April 31, 1783, at Oberweissbach, in tlie principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. His mother died when he was so young that he never even remembered her ; and lie was left to the care of an ignorant maid-of-all-work, who simply provided for his bodily wants. . . . Not until he was ten years of age did he receive the slightest regular instruction. He was then sent to school, to an uncle who lived in the neighbor- hood. ... He pronounced the boy to be Idle (which, from his point of view, was quite true) and lazy (wliicli certainly was not true) — a boy, in short, that you could do nothing with. . . . It was necessary for liim to oarn his bread, and we next find him a sort of apprentice to a woodd- man in the gn-at Thuringian forest. Here, as he afterward tells us, he lived some years in cordial intercourse with nature and matliQmatics, learn- ing even tlien, though unconsciously, from the teaching he received, how to teach others. . . . In 1801 he went to the University of Jena, where he attended lectures on natural history, physics, and mathematics ; but, as ho tells us, gained lit- tle from them. . . . This . . . was put an end to by the failure of means to stay at the Univer- sity. For the next few years ho tried variou" occupations. . . . While engaged in an orchi- tcct's offlce at Frankfort, he formed an acquaint- ance with the Rector of the Model School, a man named Qruner. Qriiner saw the capabilities of Froebel, and detected alsa his entire want of in- terest in the work that he was doing ; and one day suddenly said to him :' ' Give up your archi- tect's business ; you will do nothing at it. Be a teacher. We want one now in the school ; you shall have the place. ' This was the turning point in Froebel's life. He accepted the engagement, began work at once, and tells us that the first time he found himself in the midst of a class of 30 or 40 boys, he felt that he was in the element that he had missed so long — 'the flsli was in the water.' He was inexpressibly happy. ... In a calmer mood he severely questioned liimseK as to the means by which he was to satisfy the de- mands of his new position. About this time ho met with some of Pestalozzi's writings, which so deeply impressed him that ho determined to go to Yverduu and study Pestiilozzi on the spot. He accomplished his purpose, ond lived and worked for two yeors with Pestalozzi. His ex- perience at Yverdun impressed him with the conviction that the science of education had still to draw out from Pestalozzi's system those fun- damental principles which Pestalozzi himself did not comp--' hend. 'And therefore,' says Schmidt, ' this genial disciple of Pestalozzi supplemented his system by advancing from the point which Pestalozzi had reached through pressure from without, to the innermost conception of man, and arriving at tlie thought of the true develop- ment and culture of mankind. ' . . . His educa- tional career commenced November IStli, 1816, in Qreisheim, a little village near Stadt-Ilm, in Thuringia ; but in 1817, when his Pestalozzian friend, Middendorf, joined him . . . the school was transferred to the beautiful village of Keil- hau, near Kudolstadt, which may be considered 08 his chief starting-place. . . . Langenthal, an- other Pestalozzian, associated himself with them, and they commenced building a house. The number of pupils rose to twelve in 1818. Then the daughter of war-counselor Hoffmon of Ber- lin, from enthusiasm for Froebel's educational ideas, became his wife. She had a considerable dowry, which, together with the accession of Prcebei's elder brother, increased the funds and welfare of the school. In 1831 he was invited by the composer, Schnyder von Wartensee, to erect a similar garden on his estate, near the lake of Sempach, in the canton Luzern. It was done. Froebel changed his residence the next year, from Eeilhau to Switzerland. In 1834 the government 744 EDUCATION. The Kindergarten. EDUCATION. of Bern invited liim to arrango a training course for tt'iicliers In Burgdorf. In ISJi") lie l)ccame principiil of tlio orphiin asylum in Hurgdorf, but in 1886 ho and his wife wished to return to Oct- many. There he was active in Berlin, Kcilhau, Blankenburg, Dresden, LielwnBtcin in Thiiringia, Hamburg, (1840,) and Maricnthal, near Liebcn- stein, wliero ho lived until his decease in 1852, among tlie yoimg ladies, whom ho trained as nurses for the kindergarten, and the little chil- dren who attended his school. " — II. Barnard, erf. IMpera on FroebeVii Kindergarten; Memoir. — "The child thinks only through symbols. In other words, it explains all it sees not by tlie recorded experience of others, as does an adult, but by marshaling and comparing its own concept or symbol of what it has itself seen. Its sole ac- tivity is play. ' The school l)eKlns with teach- ing tlie conventionalities of intelligonce. Frocbel would have the younger children receive a sym- bolic education in plays, games, and occupations which symbolize the primitive arts of man.' For this purpose, the child is led tlirougji a series of primitive occupations in plaiting, weaving, and modeling, through games and dances, whlcli bring into play all the social relations, and through songs and the simple use of number, form and language. The 'gifts' all play their manifold purpose, inspiring the child, awakening its in- terest, leading tlie individual along tlic juvtli the race has trod, and teacliing social self-control. The system has its palpable dangers. The bet- ter and more intricate the tool, the more skill needed in its safe use. . . . The kindergarten re(niircs trained hands. With trivial teachers its methods may easily degenerate into mere amusement, and tliwart all tendency to attention, application, or industry. Valuable as it is in its lilnts for the care and development of children, its gay round needs to be ballasted witli the pur- pose and theory uppermost in Froebel's mind when he opened his first school in a German peasant village, down whose main street a brook tumbled, and tlirough whoso lanes the halberdier still walked by night and sang the hours. It is idle to suppose that Froobel founded a perfect system, or to insist on all tlie details of the pro- fessional kindcrgartner's creed. Hero as else- where, and aforetime, it has taken only forty years from the founder's death for faith to de- generate into religion and sect. But tlie central purpose he had in view must be steadily main- tained. He souglit his ends through play, and not through work. It is as dangerous for this method to harden into an approach to the pri- mary school OS it is for it to soften into a riot of misrule, and lax observance of order. . . . Swit- zerland, then the only republic in Europe, was tho first country to adopt Froebel's method, though in some Swiss towns the kindergarten is still supported by private associations. France, another republic, has more children beginning school under an adaptation of Froebel than all the rest of the world put togctiier. It was Froo- bol's own opinion that ' the spirit of American nationality was the only one in the world with wliich his method was in complete harmony, and to which its legitimate institutions would present no baniers.' Tho figures given below of tho growtli of tho kindergarten in this country are tho best possible proof of the trutli of Froebel's prescient assertion. ... In 1870 tliere were in this country only five kindergarten schools, and 48 ^^ in 1873 the National Education Association at Its Boston meeting appointed a rommittoo which reported a year later recommending tlie system. Between 1870 and 1878, experimental klnder- gart(!ns were established in Boston, Cleveland, and St. Louis, public attention was enlisted by the ellortB of Jliss Elizabeth Palmer Peabmly, tho most Important worker in tlio early history of the kindergarten in this country, ana the system began a rapid growtli. Taking private and pub- lic kindergartens togetlier, the advance of the system has displayed this most rapi<i progress: 187.^ 1R80 18SS J801-? SclKHils 0,5 233 418 1,001 Teachers 210 534 903 2,243 Pupils 2,800 8,871 18,780 50,42a Dow'n to 1880, these figures, outside of St. Louis, relate almost altogether to private schools. By 1885 tho publii kindergartens were not over a fifth in number nf tho schools, and held not over a fourth of tho pui)lls. In the figures last given in tills taliie there are 724 private kindergartens witli 1,517 teachers and 29,S07 pupils, and 377 public kindergartens with 725 teaclicrs and 21,06ft pupils, so that the latter have now 27 per cent, of tlio schools, 33 per cent, of tho teachers, and 43 per cent, of the pupils. . . . Yet great os is this advance, the kindergarten as yet plays but an infinitesimal part in our educational system as a whole. ... Of tho sixteen American cities with a population of over 200,000 in 1800, only four- Philadelphia, Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis — have incorporated the kindergarten on any largo scale in tlieir public-school systems. Four more — New York, Chicago, Brooklyn, and Buf- falo — have kindergarten associations organized to introduce tho new method as a part of free public education. "—T. Williams, The Kinder- garten Movement (The Centuri/, Jan., 1808). A. D. 1865-1883.— The Higher Education of Women in England. — Tlie movement in Eng- land to secure a higher education for women dates from 1865, "In that year a Royal Com- mission was appointed to inquire into and report on tlie endowed grommar schools of England and Wales, and on what is called ' secondary ' education generally. Several ladies who were already alive to the deficiencies in the education of their own sex, memorialized this Commission to extend tlie scope of its inquiry to girls' schools, and the Commission taking what wa» then thought quite a bold step, consented to do so. . . . One of the points brought out was the absence of any institutions doing for women what the universities did for men, and the consec^uent difticulty in which women stood of obtaiumg tlio highest kind of education — a difllculty which told on girls' schools by making it hard for them to procure thoroughly competent mistresses. Tills led in the course of the next year or two — tho report of the Com- mission having been published in 1808 — to the establishment of a college for women, which wa» first placed at Hitcliin, a town on tho Great Northern Railway, between London and Cam- bridge, and in a little while, when money had been collected sufilcient for the erection of build- ings, this college was finally settled at Girton, a spot about two miles from Cambridge, whence it takes the name of Girton College. Its pur- pose was to provide for women the same teach- ing in the same subjects as men receive in Cam- bridge University, and the teachers were nearly 45 EDUCATION. Kducnilon of Women In Kngltind. EDUCATION. all of tlicm profcgnors or tutors there, incii in miiiu' ciiHcs of liJKli cinliK'MW. Mciiiiwlillt', in CaiiibriilKc Itst'lf, ii syHtein of day chiHHi'.s fur wonii'n, tauKlit l)y Univi-rHity teachers, had Ix-en freatwl, at tlrHt an an experiment for one year only. When wveral years had patwM'd, when the niiinlKT Httendini; had InereaHed. and it wa8 found tlial women came to lodj^o in Camhridjto in order to protlt by tlicso lectures, a house wa.s hired in which to receive them, and ultimately a <!ompany was formed and a huildinf; erected u little way out of Cambridge, under the name of Newnliam Hall, to which tlio lectures, now mainly designed for tliesc students coming from ft distance, were attaclied. Thus, at about the same time, though from somcwliat different ori- gins, Oirton and Nownham came into being an<l begun their course of friendly rivalry. Hoth have greatly developed since tlien. Tlieir build- ings liavo b(!en repeatedly enlarged. Tiieir num- Ix'rs have risen steadily. ... In Oirton tlie cliarge for lodging, board and instruction isJtlOO per annum, in Newnliam a little less. The life in botli is very similar, a lady bei!ig placed at the head as resident principal, while the alTairs are managed bv a conuidttce including botli men and women. 'I'iio lec:tures are delivered partly by Cainl)ridge men, professors in tlie University, or tutors or lecturers in some of the colleges, partly by ladies, who, having once been students tlicmselves, have como bacli as teacliera. Tlicse lectures cover all tlic subjects re<iuired in the degree examinations of the University ; an<l al- though students are not obliged to enter them- selves for lho.se examinations, they are encour- aged to do so, and do mostly set the examinations before them as their goal. Originally the Uni- versity took no olllciftl notice of the women stu- <lents, and their being examined by the regular degree examiners of the University was a matter of pure favor on the part of those gentlemen. ... At last, however, somo examiners came Into olllce (for the examiners are changed every two years) who disapproved of this informal ex- amination of the women candidates, and accord- ingly a proposal was made to the University tliat it shouhl formally authorize and impose on the exam crs the function heretofore discharged by thei.i ui their individual capacity. This pro- posal, after some discussion and opposition, was carried, so that imw women may enter both for the honor cxan nuttions and the pass examina- tions for the University degree as a matter of right. Their names do not appear in the oltlcial lists oraong those of the men, but separately; they are, however, tested by the same question papers and judged by the same standard. . . . Some Oxford graduates and their Triends, stimu- lated by the success of Oirton and Newnliam, have founded two similar institutions in Oxford, one of which. Episcopalian and indeed High Church in its proclivities, is called Lady Mar- garet Hall, while the other, in compliment to the late Mrs. Somerville, has been given the title of Somerville Hall. These establishments are conducted on much the same Hues as the two Cambridge colleges. ... In the large towns where new colleges have been lately fouuded or courses of lectures established, such as Manches- ter, Liverpool, and Leeds, steps are usually taken to provide lectures for women. . . . What is called among you the question of co-education has come up very little in England. All the Icrlures given inside the walls of the four Eng- lish collegi'H I liave mentioned arc, of couriu-, given to women only, the colleges being jUNt as exclusively places for wonii i as Trinity and St. John's are places for men. ... At this moment tlie principal of one of the two halls of wlildi Newnliam consists is a daughter of the Prime Minister [Miss Helen Oladstonej, while her pre- dece8.>M)r was a niece of the Marquis of Halisbury. Tlie principal of Oirton is a niece of the late Lord Lawrence, tln! famous Ooveruor-Ocneral of India. Of the students a fair proportion belong to the wealthy clas.seM, while a somewhat larger proportion mean to take teacliing as their profes- sion. " — I'liM/nnn of Fiiiitde KUuaition in Kiir/. (Ntt- tioii, July f), 18s;l). — See, also, above, Scotland. A. D. 1865-1886.— Industrial Education in the United State.—" In 18(ir),J(.lin Hoyntoiiof TempU'ttm, Mas.s., gave |1()0,00<) for the endow- ment and perpetual support of a Free Institute for tlie youth of Worcester County, Mass. lie thus explained his objects: 'The aim of tills school shall ever be the instruction of youth in those brandies of education not usually tauglit in tlie public sc1i(k)Is, which are essi^ntial and best adapted to train the young for practical life'; especially sm^h as were intending to lie mechanics, or manufacturers, or farmers. In furtlierance of this object, ten months later, in 18(i0, Idiabod Washburn of Worcester gave |25,- 000, and later (^'50,000 more to erect, equip, and endow a macliine-shop which should accom- modate twenty appa'ntices and a suitable number of skilled workmen to instruct them and to carry on the shop as a commercial establishment. The apprentices were to be taught 'iie use of tools in working woixl and nielals, and to be otherwise instructed, much us was customary fifty years ago for boys learning a trade. The Worcester Free Institute was opened for students in No- vember, 1808, as a technical sciiool of about col- lege grade ; and the use of the shops and sliop instruction was limited to those students in the course of mechanical engineering. Thus did tlio Worcester School under the leadership of Prest. C. O. Tliompson incorporate tool-instruction and shop-practice into the training of mechanical engineers. ... In the same year, 1868, Victor Delia- Vos introduced into the Imperial Technical (engineering) School at Moscow the Russian method of class-instruction in the use of tools. . . . The great value of the work of Delia- Vos lay in the discoverjf of the true method of tool- instruction, for without his discovery the later steps would have been imnossiblc. In 1870, under the direction of Pro', liobiuson and Prest. J. M. Gregory of the University of Illinois, 1 wood-working shop was odded to the appliances for the course in architecture, and an iron-work- ing shop to the course in mechanical engineering in that institution. In 1871, the Stevens Insti- tute of Hobokcn, N. J., munificently endowed by Edwin A. Stevens, as a school of mechanical engineering, fitted up a series of shops for the use of its students. The next step forward was taken by Washington University m St. Louis in providing for all its engineering students sys- tematic instruction in both wood and metals. la 1872, a lorge shop in the Polytechnic School was equipped with work-benches, two lathes, a forge, a gear-cutter and full sets of carpenters', ma- chinists', and forging tools. . . . Thus far had we progressed when the Philadelphia Exposition 746 EDUCATION. Industrlat Kducatton. EDUCATION. of 1876 vion oppno<l. Nnno of uh know niiytliln^; of the Moscow gcliool, or of Hit! oiiii in Ilolivniiii in which the UuhhIiiii method hud heen adoptetl In 1874. ... In his report of 1H70, Piest. J. D. Kiinklo, of the Mitss. Institute of Technology, giivc a full exposition of the theory and prnctictrof tool Instruction of Delia- Vos as exhibited ut the Philadelphia Exposition, and he recoinnieiided that without delav the course in nieehanlcal engineering at the Institute he eoinpleled by the addition of a series of Instruction Hln-ps. Tlio suggestion was acte<l on, anil in the spring of 1877 a class of inechnnlcal engineering students was given Instruction In cliipping and tiling. . . . The St. Louis Manual Training Hcliool was established .June 6, 1870. It embodied hopes hrag cherished and plans long formed. For the tlrst llmo In America the age of adnils.sion to school-shops was reduced to fourteen years as a minimum, and a very genend three-years' course of study was organized. The ordinance by which the school was established 8i)eclUed Its objects in very general terms: — ' Its objects shall be In- Htruction in mathematics, drawing, and the Eng- lish branches of a hlgh-schonl course, and In- struction and practice in the use of tools. The tool-Instruction, as at prewnt contemplated, shall include carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-mak- ing. Iron clipping niul tiling, forge-work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character, as it may bo deemed advisable to add to the fore- going from time to time. The students will divide their working hours, as nearly as possible, equally between mental and manual exercises.' . . . The Ualtimoro Manual Training School, a public school, on the same footing as the high school, was opened In 1883. The Cliicago Alanual Training School, established as an incorpjrated school by the Commercial Club of that city, was opened m January, 1884. . . . Manual training was Int roduced into the high school of Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in 1884. The 'Scott Manual Train- ing School ' was organized as a part of the high school of Toledo in 1884. . . . Manual training was introduced into the College (high school) of the City of New York in 1884. The Philadelphia Manual Training School, a public high school, was opened in September, 1885. The Omaha high school introduced manual trolning in 1885. . . . Dr. Adier's ^'>'orklngnlan'8 Schoof for poor children has for several years taught manual training to the very lowest grades. . . . The Cleveland Manual Training School was incorpo- rated in 1885, and opened In connection with the city high school, In 1886. New Haven, which had for 3omc time encouraged the use of tools by the pupils of several of its grammar schools, in Sep- tember, 1888, opened a regular shop and fur- nished systematic instruction in tool-work. The school board of Chicago added manual training to the course of the ' West Side High School ' in September, 1880."— C. 51. Woodward, The Manual Training School, eh. 1. — "Concerning the manual-training school there are two widely different views. The one insists that it shall teach no trade, but the rudiments of all of them; the other that the j)articular industries may properly be held to maintain schools to recruit their own ranks. The first wotild teach the use of the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the square, the chisel, and the file; claiming that ' the graduate from such a course at the end of three years Is within from one to three months of knowing <piite as thoroughly as an apprentice who had served seven years any one of the twenty trades to which he may cniM)se to turn.' Of this class are, Ijcsiiles most of those alreaily named, the llaish Manual Training Hchiml of Denver; thatof Tidane University, New Orleans; the Felix Adh'r's Worklngman's School, of New York City; and the S(thool of Manual Technol- ogy, Vanderbllt University, Nashville. Among schools of the seconil class are some interesting Institutions. 'I'hey Incluih^ the numerous general and special trade-schools for boys, instructiim in the manifold phases of domestic economy for girls, and the yet small but rapidly growing class of industries open alike to both. 8ev.mg Is taught in public or private schmils in Baltimore, IJostcm, Cincinnati, Chicago, New York, Phila- delphia, Providence, St. Louis, and about a dozen other cities, besides in a number of special in- stitutions. Cooking-schools are no longer a novelty in half as many of tlie larger cities, since their introduction into New York city in 1876. Printing may be learned in the Kansas Agricul- tural College; Cooper Union, New York; (Urard College, Pliiladelphia, and elsewhere. Tel(!g- raphy, stenography, wood-engraving, various kinds of smithing, and carpentry, have, espctcially the last two, numerous representatives. The New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction of children in the work of the household, is an in- teresting modltlcatlon of the Kindergarten along the industrial line. For young ladies, the Eliza- beth Aull Seminary, Lexinjjton, Missouri, is a school of home-work, in which '.ire practically taught the mysteries of the kitchen and laundry,' and upon whose graduates is conferred the degree of ' Mistress of Home- Work. ' The Lasell Semin- ary at Auburndale, Ma.ssachusetts, also has recently (1885) undertaken a similar but more comprehensive experinient, including lessons and lectures in anatomy and physiology, with hypieno and sanitation, the principles of common law by an eminent attorney, instructiim and practice in the arts of domestic life, the principles of dress, artistic house-furnishing, healthy homes, and cooking. Of training-schools for nurses there are thirty-one. ... Of schools of a different character still, there have been or are the Carriage Builder's Apprenticeship School, New York; those of Hoe & Co., printing-press manufac- turers; and Tiffany & Co., jewelers; and the Tailors' ' Trades School ' recently established and flourishing in Baltimore, besides the Penn.sy 1 vania Railroad novitiate system, at Altoona ; in which particular trades or guilds or corporations have sought to provide themselves with a distinct and specially trained class Of artisans. The latest and In some respects the most interesting experi- ment of the kind Is that of the ' Baltimore and Ohio Railroad service ' at Mt. Clare, Baltimore. It was inaugurated in 1885, apprentices being selected from ajipllcauts by competitive examina- tion." — R. G. Boone, Education in. t/ie United States, ch. 13. A. D. 1873-1889. — University Extension in England. — "The University Extension Move- ment, which has now been before the country eighteen years, has revealed the existence of a real need lor larger opportunities of higher edu- cation amongst the middle and working classes. From the time of its inauguration in 1873 by the University of Cambridge, owing mainly to the m EDUCATION. Vnivenily RtlenMon. EDUCATION. rnthniilnRtiR ndvocnry and bUUI in practirnl iif- fuirH of Mr. JiinicH Htimrt (iit tliut tiniu Fellow luiil I,c<'turt'r of Trinity Coiligf), down to the prcHcnliliiy, when Hit.' principle liiwlifi'niiccTnIrd tiy iill the rnlvfrHiticM In Grcitt Hritiiin iind l)y iMiMU' In c'oiintrli'M Ix'yond Mie hciih, the movement 1ms Hliown nmrvellous vltii.'iiy luid ijowci of lui- juHtment lo cliiinKin); eonditioim. From a Hnmll lieKinniiiK in three lownn in the IMidliuulH, It hiiH grown until tlie eentrex in connection with the various liraiiches are to Ik! numlwred liy iiundreds and tlie Htudeiits liy lens of thousands. Thesuc- cesHattalned by Cainhridjfe in tlie llrst three years led, In lH7(i, to tlie formation of the London Boelety for tlie Extension of University Teaeh- \nn, for the I'xpresi purpose (,f carrying on simi- lar work wltliiu the metropolitan area, lu 1H78 the Unlvrsity of Oxford undertook to make Binillar arran),'enients for Lectures, but after a year or two, they were for the time abandoned. Bubsetiuently in 1,885 the Oxford work was re- vived and ha8 since been carried on w'th vigour and success. The University of Durliam is in- Boclated with (Jambridge In this work In the iiortli- castof England, while courses of Lectures on the Extension plan luivc been given for several years in connection with Victoria University In centres around Manchester. Two or three years ago the four Scottish Universities united In fonning a like scheme for Scotland, while at the close of 1880 a Society for the Extension of Unlveisitv Teaching was formed in the north of Ireland. Finully the movement has spread to Greater Brit- ain and the United States, and there arc signs that work on similar lines is about to be estab- lished in various countries on the continent of Europe." — K. D. Roberts, Eighteen years of Uni- versity Ekteusion, ch. 1. — "One of the chief char- acteristics of the system Is the method of teach- ing adopted in connection with it. A working man at one of the centres in the north of England ■who had attended the lectures for several terms, described tlie metliod as follows In a paper read by him at a meeting : — ' Any town or village which is i)repared to provide an audience, and pay the necessary fees, can secure a course of twelve lectures on any subject taught in the Uni- versity, liy a lecturer who has been educated at the University, and who is specially fitted for lecturing work. A syllabus of the course Is printed and put into the hands of students. This syllabus is a great help to persons not accustomed to note-taking. Questions are given on each lecture, and written answers can be sent in by any one, irrespective of age or sex. All the lec- tures, except the first, are preceded by a class, wliich lasts about an hour. In tills class the stu- dents and the lecturer talk over the previous lec- ture. The written answers are returned with such corrections as the lecturer deems necessary. At the end of the courje an examination is held and certificates are awarded to the successful can- didates. These lectures are called University Ex- tension Lectures. ' Another definition which has been given is this: — 'Advanced systematic teach- ing for the people, without distinction of rank, sex, or age, given by means of lectures, classes, and written papers during a connected course, conducted by men " who believe in their work, and intend to do it," teachers who connect the country with the University by manner, method, and information.'" — R. D. Roberts, Tlie Univer- tity Exteimon Scheme, pp. 6-7. A. D. 1887-1893.— University Extension in the United States. — " 'I'lic first conscious at- tempts to introduce English University Extension methods into this country were made in 1887, by individuals connected with the .lolins Hopkins University. Tlie subje(^t was first publicly pre- sented to the Anierlcan Library Association at their inei'tiiig upon one of the Thousand Islands In September, 1887. The idea was lieartlly ap- proved," aiui the first result of tlie suggestion was a course of lectures on ccoiKmiic (piestiong given In one of the lecture-rooms of the UiilTalo Library the following winter liy Dr. Edward VV. Itemis. The next winter " Dr. Heniis repeated his course on 'Economic Questions of the Day' In Canton, Ohio. . . . The Cantim experiment was followed in February, 1889, by another course-, conducted by Dr. IJemis, In connection with the I'ulilic Library at St. Louis. . . .About the time when these various experiments were being tried in St. Louis, Canton, and RulTalo, in- dividual mwnbers of Johns llojikins University were attempting to introduce Lniverslty Exten- sion methods in connection with local lectures In the city of Baltimore. . . , The Idea of Univer- sity Extension in connection with Chautauqua was conceived by Dr. J. II. Vincent during a visit to England, in 1880, when he saw the English lecture system in practical operation and his own methods of encouraginjf home reading In grow- ing favor with university men. The tlrst defin- ite Anierlcan plan, showing at once the aims, methods, cost, and history, of University Exten- sion lectures, was drawn up at Chautauqua by the writer of this article in the early summer of 1888. . . . Contemporary with the development of Chautauqua College and University Extension was the plan of Mr. Seth T. Stewart, of Brooklyn, New York, for ' University and School Exten- sion.' . . . Several public meetings were held In New York in 1880-00 for tlio promotion of Uni- versity and School Extension. . . . One of the most gratifying recent experiments in University Extension in America lias been lu the city of Philadelphia under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension of University Teach- ing. At various local centres Mr. Richard G. Moulton, one of the most experienced lecturers from Cambridge, England, lectured for ten weeks in the winter and spring of 1801 to large and en- thusiastic audiences. AH the essential features of English University Extension were method- ically and persistently carried out. . . . The American field for University Extension is too vast for the missionary labors of ony one society or organization. . . . The most significant sign of the times with regard to University Extension in America is the recent appropriation of the sum of $10,000 for this very object by the New York legislature. The money is to be expended under the direction of the Regents of the University of the State of New York. . . . The intention of the New York act is simply to provide the neces- sary means for organizing a State system of University Extension . . . and to render such general assistance and co-operation as localities may require." — H. B. Adams, University Exten- sion in America (Forum, July, 1891). — On the opening, in 1893, of the Chicago University, munificently endowed by Mr. John D. Rocke- feller, of Cleveland, University Extension was made one of the three grand divisions of its organization. 748 EDWARD. EOYIT. EDWARD, King of PortunI, A. I) 1 J.'W- 14:(H Edward, called the Confeitor, Kinor of EtiKlancL A. I). lO^tli-KMl.t Edward, called tlie Elder, King; of Wetiex, A I) IIOI- U25 Edward, called the Martyr, King of Westex, A. I>. UTn Edward I., King of England, A. I). 1274-l!«t7 Edward II., King of England, A. I). I:i07-ll)a7 Edward III., King of England, A. I). I!)i7-i:t77 Edward TV., King of England (first king of the House of York), A. I). ll(U-UH!t Edward V., titular King of England, A. I). 14H!I (from April I), wlicii liTs fiillicr, Kdwiird IV., (lied, until .Mine 'i'i, wlii'H ho Ih l)('li('V('<l to Imvo liccii niiinlcrcd in thn Tower by roninmnd of his uncle, llic UNurpcr, Uichurd III.) Edward VI., King of England, A. I). LW-l.TO). EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1755.— Built by the New England troops. iJcc Canada : A. I). 1755 (.Ski'temueii). A. D. 1777.— Abandoned to the British. Sec Tnitku Statkhok Am. : A. I). 1777 (July — (tlTollKIt). EDWIG, Kingof Wessex, A. D. O.VV-O.U EDWIN.KingofNorthumbria,A. I).017-«3a EGESTA. Sic SviiAdHK: H. ('. 41.')-418j mid Skii.v: H. C. •KMMO.'i. EGFRITH, King of Northumbria, A. D. «70-(IH.'). EGINA.-EGINETANS. ,s<.. .Koin v. EGMONT, Count, and the struggle in the Netherlands. Sec Nktiikhi.andh: A. I). 1.1(1^- l.')(ltl. and I.VKl-l.VlM. EGNATIAN WAY, The.-A Ronnn roiid couHtructcd froiu .\|)iilloiiiii on the A<lriiitic to tile Hliori's of tli(^ llclicttpont; llnully curried to Hy/.iuilluin. EGRA : A. D. 1647.— Siege and capture by the Swedes. See Ueumany: A. U. 10-l(J-I(J4a. EGYPT. Its Names. — "E;;ypt is designated in the old InscriptionH, as well as in the hooks of the Inter (.'liristiun E>?yntians, by n word wldcli sinnilli's 'the black land,' and which is read in the lilgyp- tian language Kern, or Kami.* The ancients had early remarked that the cultivable land of Egypt was distinguished by its dark and almost black colour. . . . The neighbouring region of the Arabian desert bore the name of Tesher, or the red land. . . . The Egyptians designated themselves simply as ' the people of the black land,' and . . . the inscriptions, so far as we know, have handed down to us no other appel- lation. ... A real enigma is propo.sed to us in the derivation and meaning of the curious proper name, by which the foreign peoples of Asia, each in its own dialect, were accustomed to designate Egypt. The Hebrews gave the land the name ofjyiizraim; the Assyrians Muzur; the Persians, Mudmyn. \Vc may feel a.ssured that at the basis of all these designations there lies an original form which consisted of the three letters M-z-r, all explanations of which have been as yet unsuccessful. Although I intend here- after to consider more particularly the deriva- tion of tills puzzling name, which is still pre- starved at the present day in the Arabic appellation Jlisr, I will here premise the icmark that this name was originally applied only to a certain definite part of Egypt, in the east of the Delta, which, according to the monuments, was covered and defended by many 'zor,' or fortresses, and was hence called in Egyptian Mazor (that is, fortified)."— II. Brugsch-Bev, Ilist. of Egypt un- der the Pliaraohs, ch. 2. — "fcrugsch explains the name Egypt by ' lia-ka-ptah,' I. e. ' the precinct of Ptah. As Ptah was more especially the god of Memphis, tills name would have come from Memphis." — M. Duncker, Ilist. of Antiquity, bk. 1, ch. 1, note. — "The last use of Kem died out In the form Chemi in Coptic, the descendant of the classical language, which ceased to be spoken a century ago. It survives among us m the terms 'chemistry' and 'olchemy,' sciences thought to be of Egyptian origin. "—U. 8. Poole, Cities of Egypt, int. Its Historical Antiquity.— The lists of Egyp- tian kings which have been found "agree m presenting the name of Mena [or Mencs] as that of the first Pharaoh of Egypt, and as such ho is unhesitatingly accepted, iillliougli no contein- poniry monumental record of the fact has yet been discovered. According to Manetlio, the age of Menu dates b.ick to a period of .^,004 years before the Christian era, a di'.te which is nearly ecjunl to 7,()()0 years from the present day. Brugsch favours a sommvhat less interval, namely, 44.'i5 B. (,'. ; others place it as low as 2700 B. C, whilst Birch and Chabas a''opt a medium date, namely 4000 B. ('., which is equivalent to 6000 years backward from the existing time. These extreme variations are chiefly referable to the dilllculty of ascertaining the precise length of each individual reign, and especially to the occasional contemporaneous reign of two or more kings, and sometimes the existence of two or more dynasties in dillerent parts of the empire. . . . Lieblein gives full credit to the chronology of Manetlio [a priest of Heliopolis, who wrote about 260 B. C], as re- corded by tlic historian Africanus, as likewise did the distinguislied Marictte, and differs very Utile from the standard adopted by Birch, llo assigns to Mena, as the pioneer of the first monarchy, a date in round numbers of 81)00. years." — E. "Wilson, The Et/i/pt of the Pfi»t, eh. 1. — "As to the era . . . when the first Pharaoh mounted the throne, the German Egyptologers have attempted to tlx it at the (' Ilowlng <'pocli8: Boeckh, B. C. .5703; Unger, ,)013; Brugsch, 4455; Lauth, 4157; Lepsius, 3893; Bunsen, 3633. The difference between the two extreme points of the series is amazingly great, for its number of years amounts to no less than 2079. . . . The calculations in question are based on the extracts already often mentioned from a work by the Egyptian priest Manetho on the history of Egypt. That learned mon had then at his com- mand the annals of his country's history, which were preserved in tlie temples, and from them, the best and most accurate sources, he derived the materials for his work, composed in the Greek language, on the history of the ancient Egyptian Dynasties. His book, which is now lost, contained a general review of the kings of the land, divided into Thirty Dynasties, arranged ■ Kamit in tbe editlnu of 1801. Ud EGYPT 7k« Aneiml Pntft*, EOYPT. In tho nrdrr nf thoir naini-H, with fhr IrnstliH of tlii-ir ri-i){iiH. 1)11(1 tli(' total iluratloii of ciirli ilyiuiHty. 'IIioiikIi tliU inviiluuliU! 'vork wim little known iinci rcrtalnly but llttli; rcKunlcil liy till' liUtorliiim of till' olil chtMMlcal a^c, large ex- tniclH were niBile from It by Monii' of the eecle- HJiutlcal wrIliTH. In prcMcsMof time the copvlHtM, eltlier by error or dcHJunedly, eorrnpti'U the nanu'M anil tho niimberM, ami thuH we only pofwM'HH at the preM-nt tliiy the riiiim InntRnd of theeonipli't(^ builillnK. The truth of theorlKlniil, unil the autlientlelty of ItH HourceH were tIrHt proved by tlie deeiiiherinK of thu Egyptian writings. And thux the Manethonian IIhI Nerved, and Nlill Hervi'H, as a guide for aHHignIng to the royal numeH read on tlie monumentH their pliuu'H In tho DyuaHth'H." — H. HrugHch-Hey, Hint, of fi/ypt uiiilfi- Ihti I'/iiinto/in, rh. 4. — Bee, al»o, Manktiki, [,iwt ok. Origin of the ancient people. — "The Egyp- tiauH, together with Home other nations, form, as It would m'em, a third branch of that [tho Cau- caHlan] rare, namely, the family (•alle(r ("UHlille, which Im distiriguiHlicd by Hpecial characterH from the Pelaxgian and tho Semilic fiimilioH. What- ever rel-itlonH may bu found always to exist between these great races of mankind, thus much may bo regarded us certjiln, that tho ciiidio .f the Egyptian people must be sought in the in- terior of l\\v Asiatic quarter of tho world. In the earliest ages of liumnnity, far lieyond ull his- torical reini'inbrance, tho Egy|)tians, for reasons unknown lo ti.s, left tho soil uf their primeval home, tiM)k tticir way towards tho setting sun, and finally crossed that bridge uf nations, tho Isthmus of Hiiez, to llnd a new fatherland on the favoured banks of tho holy Nile. Comparative phih)logy, in its turn, gives powerful support to this hypothesis. The Egyptiin language . . . shows in no way any trace of it derivation and descent from the African famil cs of 8i)eech. On tho contrary, the primitive roots and tho essential elements of tho Egyptian grammar foint to such an intimate connection with the ndo-Qernianic and Semitic languages that it is almost inipossible to mistake the close relations which formerly prevailed between tho Egyptians and the races called Indo-Oermanif and Semitic." — II. Hrugsch-Uey, Jfint. of Egypt under the P/uinit/in, ell. 1. — "It has been maintained by some tliat tlie immigration was from the south, the Egyptians having been a colony from Ethi- opia which gradually descended the Nile and established itsi If in tho middle and lower portions of the vallev; id this theory can plead in its favour, both a positive statement of Diodorus, and tlie fact, which is quite certoin, of an ethnic connection t)i'tween the Egyptians and some of the tribes wlio now occupy Abyssinia (the ancient Ethiopia). But modern research has shown quite unmistakably that the movement of the Egyptians was in the opposite direction. . . . We must look, then, rather to Syria or Arabia than to Etiiiopia as the cradle of the Egyptian nation. At the same time we must admit that they were not mere Syrians or Arabs, but had, from the remotest time whereto we can go back, distinct characteristics, whereby they have o good claim to be considered as a separate race." — Q. Kawlinson, JIM. of Ancient Egypt, ch. 3. — " So far as our knowledge reaches, the northern edge of Africa, like the valley of the Nile as far as the marshes at the foot of the Abyssinian hills, was inhabited by nation* who In rotoiir, language, and cimtoms were sharply ilistln- guished from the iii'gro. These imtions belniig to the whites: llieir langiiageH were most clost'ly allied to the Semitic. From this, and from their physical peculiarities, the coiicIiihImii has been drawn that these nations at Hiiine time migrated from Asia to ihe soil of Africa. They formed a vast family, whose dialects still continue In the language of the HitImts. Assisted by the favouralile conditions of their land, the trilM) which Ki'tllcd on the Lo'.ver Nile quickly left their kiimmcii far liehind. Indeed the latter hardly rose above a pastoral life. The descend- lints of these old inliiil)itaiits of the valley of tho Nile, in spite of the immci'oiis layers which tho course of centuries has subs<'<|uently laid upon the soil of the land, slill form the larger part of tho population of Egypt, and the ancient lan- guage Is preserved In the diulecl of the Copts." — M. Diinckcr, llinl. <f Aiitiijiiily, hk. 1, ch. 1. The Old Empire and the Middle Empire. — The following are the Kgyptiiin Dynasties, from the lirst Pharaoh. Mciia, to the epoch of the I lyksos, or Shepherd kings, with 'he dates and iieriisls assigned to each by nnigsch: Tho First I)yna8ty; of Thinis: B. ('. 44(M)-4100. — Tho Second; of Thinis: 4l8a-4()()0, — The Third; of Memphis: 3»68-a70fl. —The Fourth; of Mem- phis: ;n!l!l-3fl0(). — The Fifth, of Elephantine: MflO-aaaa. —The sixth; of Memphis: 3300-8()«6. — Tho Seventh to the Eleventh (a confused and obscure period): .1088-2500. — The Twelfth; of Thebes: 2466-22B6.--n. Brugsch-Bey, Ilint. of Egypt under the I'haraoht, npp. A. — "The direct descendants of Meiies [or Mcnal form the First Dynasty, which, according to nianetho, reigned 258 yeaifl. No monninent contemporary with thesa princes has come down to us. . . . Tho Second Dynasty, to which Manetho essigns nlno kings, lasted 302 years. It was also originally from This [or Thiiii.s], and probably related to the First. . . . "When this family had becomo extinct, a Dynasty, originally from Memphis, seized the throne, forming tlio Third, and to it a duration of 214 years is attributed. . . . With the Fourth Dynasty, Memphite like the Third, and which reigned 284 years, history becomes clearer and monuments more numerous. This was tho age of the three Great Pyramids, built by the three kings, Kliufu (the Cheops of Herod- otus), Shafra (Chcfren), and Slenkara (Mycerl- nus). . . . The Fifth Dynasty came originally from Elephantine, at the southern extremity of Upper Egypt, and there possibly tho kings gen- erally resided, though at tho same time Memphis was not deprived of its importance. . . . On the dcatli of the last king of the Fifth Dynasty, a new family, of Meinphitic origin according to Manetho, came to the throne. . . . Primitive art attained its highest point under the Sixth Dy- nasty. . . . But, from the time of the civil commotions in which Neit-aker [the Nitocris of Herodotus] perished, Egyptian ci\'ilization under- went a sudden and iinaccountablri eclipse. From the end of the Sixth Dynasty te the commence- ment of the Eleventl', Manetho reckons 430 years, and for this whole period the inouuments arc ab- solutely silent. Egypt seems then to have disap- fieared from the rank of nations; and when this ong slumber ended, civilization commenced a new career, entirely independent of the past. . . . Thus ends that period of nineteen centuries, 750 EcaiT. ?*«• titi^phrrti KinQt. E<»YPT. whirli modem Hcliolnm know m the Old Empire . . . Tlii'lii'H (lid iKit rxihl ill the dayN iif llii' uloiy of the Old Kmpirr. Tile lioly city of AllK'll N<'<-iim to liiivr liccri foiiiidrd during till! IM'riod of nniircliy mid olwciirity, NiircccdliiK, hh w« Imvii Hitid, to'tlii' Hlxtli Dyiiiisty. Hcru wiw l\w lilrtlipliici' of tliiit rt'iii'wi'd clv'lli/.ittloii, tlnit nt'w moiiiircliy, wi! iirc acciiNtoiiu'd to mil tlio Middle Kiiiplrc, tilt! middin nnf in fiu't of iincii-nt Knypt — It middle iijfi' imtcrlor to the ciirlicMt »K''» "f I'll otIiiT lilnlory. From TlirlicH ciiiiu) the hIx kliiKH of the Klcvnitli DyiiiiHty. . . . We iiKitiii (|Uiite tlie exeelleiit remiirkH of Si, Miirlette: ' When, with the Klevenlli DyiiiiHty, we see K^ypt' iiwiike from her Umit Hliiiiilier, nil old triidltloiiH iippeitr to he forKottiMi; tlii! iiroper namcH iiHcd In iiiieieiit fiimillcH, the titliii of fiiiie- tloimrieM, the Ktyle of wrlliii«, imd even the religion — iill wem new. 'I'liiti, Klepluiiitine, iind MeiiiphiM, lire ii'! I.).i,""> the fiivoiiriti! riipitiilM. Thelies for the tlint ti.">o hcooincH the Hciit of Boven'i)(n power. KgyPt, mon^over, hiiH lost ii conHldenilili! portion of her territory, iiiid the iiiithority of her le;;llliniite klnjfH hiirdly exti'iidH lieyond the limited diHtriet of the Tlu^liiiid. The Study of the moiiiimenlH conflrnm thcHv ^''tH^riii vIcwb; tliey iiro rude, prindlivo, BometinieM conrso; iind when wi! look iit them wo miiy well believe timt Knyjit, under the ICloveiith Dyniistv, ngiiin ><'i.4Hed through ii period of infiiney, iiH tifie hud iilri'iidy done under the Tliird DyniiHty.' A dynasty probably related to, and ori>{inally from til J Hume place iw these llrst Theban prineeH huc- cecded tlu^m. . . . This Twelfth Dynasty relj;ned for 213 years, and its epoch was one of pros- perity, of iieace at home and kIoHous achle.'e- m(!iits nbroiid. . . . Although the history of the Twelfth Dynasty is clear and well known, illus- trated by numerous monuments, there Is, never- theless, no i)orlod ia the annals of Egypt more obscure thun the one closing with the Thirteenth Dynasty, it is one long series of revolutions, troubles, and internal dissensions, closed by a terrible catastrophe, the greatest and most last- ing recorded in Egyptian history, which a second time Interrupted the march of civilization on the banks of the Nile, and for a while struck Egypt from the list of nations."— F. Lenormant and E. Chevttllior, Manual of Ancient Ilitt. of the East, bk. 8, ch. 1-2. Also in: C. C. J. Bunscn, Egypt't Place in Uninerml IIi»t., v. 2. — See, also, Memphis, and TiiKiiEs, EoYrr. The Hyksot<, or Shepherd-Kines.— Accord- ing to the Muiieihouian account whicli the Jewish historian Josephus has preserved to us by tran- scribing it, the Egyptian Netherlands were at a certain time overspread by a wild and rough people, which came from the countries of the east, overcame the native kings who dwelt there, and took possession of the whole country, -with- out tinding any great opposition on the part of the Egyptians. They were colled Hyksos, which Joiiephus interpreted as meaning Shepherd-kings, "llyk," he explained, meant King, in the holy language, and "sos," in the dialect of the people, signified Shepherd. But Dr. Brugsch identifies "sos" with the name "Shasu " which the old Egyptians gave to the Bedouins, whose name became e(iuivalcnt to Shepherds. Hence Dr. Brugsch inclines to the ancient opinion transmitted by Josephus, that the llyksos were Arabs or Bed- ouins — the Shasu of the Egyptian records, who liuiig on the northeaNtrrn frontier of Egypt from the mintt ani'li'iir tliiies aed were always preiuiing Into the roiintry, at every opportunity. Hut many objretions agaiiiNt this view are ralMHl and IheililTen'iit theories iidviinced to arcouiil for tlio llyksoM aril (|uite niimeroim. ('1111011 Itiiwllnsim says: "The Kgyiitlaim of the time of lleriMlotiui Hcrm to have cotmidered that they were I'hlUs- tiiies. MiHlernH have reganled them im Canaan- lli'H, Syrians, lllttites. It is an nvoiiiiinre rather than a solution of the illMlrulty to say that they were 'a I'ollei'tlon of all the noiiiad liordcH of Arabia and Syria' [I/cnorniant], since (here must have bii'ii a lUrectliig hiiiid. . . . On the whole, Iherefore. wo lean to tin- belief that tho so-ealled llyksos or Shepherds were llittltes." — O. Itiiw- llnsoii, Hinl. (if Aiirifiil Ki/i/iil. rh. 10. — "It is m,diilalne(l on good authority that the llyksos, or Shepherd- Kings, hud Hcciired possession of tho eastern frontier of Lower Egypt liiimediiilely after the elose of the Twelfth hyniisly; that at this time the Thirteenth and the Fourteenth Dy niisth'.s l'l>l'<'r legitimate, the oMier the illegltimiite line; but h Dy- niisth'S ruled (•ontemiioraneously, the former In I'pjier, the latter in Lower Egypt; one was the authors are not in accord as to their right of [irlority. It is supposi'd that, while Egypt claimed the Thirteeiilh Dynasty us her own, the llyksos usurped the mastery over thi' Four- teenth Dynasty, and governed through the agency of its kings, treating them meanwhile as vas- sal chiefs. These local kings had cities from which they were unable to esea|H', and were de- prived of an army of defence. Such was tho state of tho country for IHl years, when tho Fourteentli Dynasty died out", and when tho Fifteenth Dynasty, constituted of six siiccessivo llyksos kings, took tho reins of (^ovemment into their own hands. Liebleln, whose views wo aro now endeavouring to express, a.ssigns as the date of tho invasion of the llyksos 3108 years B. C. ... It is not improbable that the well-known journey of Abraham to Egypt was made during the early period of the reign of tho Shepherd- Kings; whilst tho visit of Joseph occurred near the close of their power." — E. Wilson, The '.i/ypt of the Past, eh. 5. — " ' Tho Shejiberds possessed thcmselvcsof Egypt by violence,' wrliesMarlette- Bey, 'but tho civilization which they Immedi- ately adopted on their conquest was rather Egyptian than Asiatic, and tho discoveries of Avaris (San) prove that they did not even banish from their temples tho go<lH of tho oncient Egyp- tian 1 ntlieon.' In fact the first shepberd-klng, Solatis himself, employed an Egyptian artist to inscribe . . . his title on tho statue of a former legitimate Pharaoh. 'They did not disturb tho civilization more than tho Persians or tho Greeks, but "imply accepted the higher one they had conquered.' So our rever;d scholar Dr. Birch has summed up the matter; and Prof. Maspero bus very happily described 't thus: 'The popu- lar hatred loaded them with 'gnominious epithets, and treated them as accursed, plngue-stricken, leprous. Yet they allowed themselves very quickly to be domesticated. . . . Once admitted to tho school of Egypt, the barbarians progressed quickly in the civilized life. The Pharaonic court reapijcarcd around those shepherd-kings, with all its pomp and all its following of func- tionaries great and small. The royiii stylo and title of Cheoiis and tho Ameneinhas were fitted to tho outlandish names of Jaunes and Apapi. 751 EGYPT. The New Empire. EGYPT, B. C. 1700-1400. The Egyptian religion, without being offlcinlly adopted, was toluruted, and tlic religion of tho Canuanites underwent gome nuxiifleat ion to avoid liurtiug beyond measure tlie 8unpeptil)il ty of tlio worsliipper.s of Osiris.' " — 11. O. ToniliinH. Studies on the J'iiiii'K <;/' Ahnt/iitiii, ch. 8. — In a late Italian work ("Oil liykHds ") by Ut. C. A. de C'ara, " liy puts together all that la nscertained in regard to them [the Ilykaos], criticises the theories that have been jiropounded on tlieir behalf, and sug- gests a theory of his own. Nothing tliat has been published on the siibject seems to have es- caped his notice. . . . Ills own view is that the Hyksos rcprestinted a confederacy of various Asiatic tribes, under the ieaderslnp of the north- ern Syrians. That their ruling class came from this part of tlie world seems to me clear from tho name of their supreme god Butekh, who occupied among them the position of the Semitic Baal." — A. II. Sayce, The Ilykum (Academy, Sept. 20, 1890). — " Historical research concerning the history of the Hyksos may be summed up as follows: — I. A certain mimtier of non-Egyptian kings of foreign origin," belonging to the nation of the Menti, ruled for a long time in the eastern portion of the Delta. II. These chose as their capitals the cities of Zoan and Avaris, and provided them with strong fortitieations. III. They arloiited not only the manners and customs of the Egyptians, but also their ofHcial language and writin,;, and tlie order of their court was arranged on Egyptian models. IV. They were patrons of art, and Egyptian artists erected, after the ancient models, monu- ments in honour of these usurpers, in whoso statues they were obliged to reproduce the Hyk- sos physiognomy, the peculiar arrangement of the beard and head-dress, as well as otlier variations of their costume. V. They honored Sutekh, the son of Nut, as the supreme god of their newly acquired coimtry, with the surname Nub, "the golden.' He was the origin of all that is evil and perverse in the visible and invisible world, the opponent of good and the enemy of light. In tho cities of Zoan and Avaris, splendid temples were constructed in honour of this god, and other monuments raised, especially Sphinxes, carved out of stone from Syene. VI. In all probability one of them was the founder of a new era, which most likely began witli the first year of his reign. Down to the time of the second Ramses, four hundred years had elapsed of this iec!<oning whicli was acknowledged even by tV.r: Egyptians. VII. The Egyptians were indebtcii to thieir con- tact with thenj for much useful knowledge. In particular their artistic vievs were expanded and new forms .uid shapes, notably that of the winged sphinx, were introduced, the Semitic origin of which is obvious at a glance. . . . The inscrip- tions on the monuments designate that foreign people who once ruled in Egypt by the name of Men or Menti. On the walls of the temple of Kdffl it is stated that ' the inhabitants of the land of Asher are called Menti. "... In the different languages, . . . and in the diflferent periods of history, the following names are synonymous: Syria, Rutennu of the East, Asher, and Menti." — ' ' Since, on the basis of the most recent and best in- vestigations in the province of ancient Egyptian chronology, we reckon the year 1350 B. C. as a mean computation for the reign of Ramses, tlie reign of the Hyksos king. Nub, and probably its beginning, falls in the year 1750 B. C. , that is, 400 years before Ramses 11. Although we are com- pletely in the dark as to the place King Nul) oc- cupied in the succession of the kindred princes of Ills house, yet the number mentioned is important, as an approximate eijoch for the stay of the foreign kings in Egj'pt. According to the statement hi the Bible, the H' jrews from the immigration of Jacob into Egypt until the Exodus reiraiuL J 430 years in that land. Since the Exodus from Egypt took place in the time of Meneptah II., the son of Ramses II. — the Pharaoh ( ,f the oppression — the year B. C. 1300 maybe an approximate date. If we add to this 430 years, as expressing tho total duration of the sojourn of the Hebrews in Egypt, we arrive at the year 1730 B. C. as tho ai)proximate date for the immigration of Jacob into Egypt, and for the time of the otHcial career of Joseph at the court of Pharaoh. In other words, the time of Josepli (1730 B. C.) must have fallen in the pericxl of the Hyksos domination, about tlie reign of the above-mentioned prince Nub (1750 B. C)."— H. Brugsch-Bey, Eijypt under the Pharaohs [edition of 1891, hy }f. Divdrick), pp. 106-109, and 130. — See Jews: The Cuildren of IsiiAEii IN Egypt. Also in: F. C. H. Wendel, Hist, of Eijypt, ch. 4. About B. C. 1700-1400. — The New Empire. — The Eighteenth Dynasty. — "The dominion of the Hyksos by necessity gave rise to profound internal divisions, alike in the different princely families and in the native populi" 1 ;on itself. Fac- tions became rampant in various districts, and reached the highest point in the hostile feeling of the inhabitants of Patoris or the South country against the people of Patomit or North country, who were much mixed with foreign blood. . . . From *his condition of divided power and of mutual jealousy the foreign rulers obtained their advantage and their chief strength, until King Aahmes made himself supreme. — II. Brugsch- Bey, Egypt vnder the Pharaohs {edition of 1891, by M. Brdiinck). — "The duration of the reign of this first Pharaoh of the New Empire was twenty-five years. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep I. and the, latter by his sou Thothmes I. "The reign of 'Thothmes I. . . . derives its chief dis- tinct'on from the fact that, at this period of their history, tlie Egyptians for the first time carried tlieir arms deep into Asia, overrunning Syria, and even invading Mesopotamia, or the tract between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Hitherto the furthest point reached in this direction had lieen Sharulien in Southern Palestine. . . . Syria was hitherto almost an undiscovered region to tlie powerful people which nurturing its strength in the Nile valley, had remained content with its own natural limits and scarcely grasped at any conquests. A time was now come when this comparative quietude and absence of ambition were about to cease. Provoked by the attack made upon her from the side of Asia, and smart- ing from the wounds inflicted upon her pride and prosperity by the Hyksos during the period of tlieir rule, Egypt now set herself to retaliate, and for thr'ie centuries continued at intervals to potlr her armies into the Eastern concinent, and to carry firo and sword over the extensive and populous regions which lay between tho Medi- terranean and the Zagros mountain range. There is some uncertainty as to the extent of her con- quests; but no reasonable doubt can be enter- tained that for d space of three hundred years Egypt was the most powerful and the most 752 EGYPT, 13, C. 1700-1400. Tlie Tell Aiiiarna Tablet: EGYIT, D. C. 1500-1400. aggressive state tliat tlie world contained, and held a dominion that 1ms as much right to be called un ' Empire ' us the Assyrian, tlic Habylo- nian or the Persian. While Babylonia, ruled by Arab conquerors, declined in strength, ami As- syria proper wiw merely struggling into inde- pendence, Egypt put forth her arm and grasped the fairest regions of the earth's surface." The imn'.ediate successor of Thothmcs I. was his son, Thothmes II., who reigned in association with a sister of masculine character, queen Ilatusu. The strong-minded queen, moreover, jjrolonged her reign after the death of this elder brother, until a younger brother, Thothmes III. displaced her. Tiie Third Thothmes was the greatest of Egyptian conquerors and kings. lie carried his arms beyond the Euphrates, winning a memo- rable victory at Megiddo over the confederated kings of the Syrian and Mesopotamian countries, lie left to his son (Amenhotep II.) "a dominion extending about 1,100 miles from north to .soutli, and (in places) 450 miles from west to east." lie was a great builder, likewise, and "has left the impress of his presence in Egypt more widely than almost any other of her kmgs, while at the same time he ha? supplied to the great capitals of the modern world their most striking Egyp- tian raonaments. " The larger of the obelisks now standing in Rome and Constantinople, as well as those at London and New York were all of them produced in the reign of this magnilicent Plia- raoh. The two obelisks last named stood origin- ally, and for fourteen centuries at the front of the great temple of the sun, in Heliopolis. They were reivioved b7 the Roman Emperor, Augus- tus, B. C. 5!3, to Alexandria, where they took in time the nome of Cleopatra's Needles, — although Cleopatra harl no part iu their long history. After nineteen centuries more f rest, these strangely coveted monuments were again dis- turbed, and transported into lands which their builder knew not of. The later kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty seem to have, none of them, fiossessed tlie energy and character of Thothmes II. The line ended about 1400 B. C. with IIo- remheb, who left no heirs. — G. Rawlinson, Hist, of Ancient Egypt, eh. 20. Also in: H. Brugsch-Bey, Eff!/pt under the Phanwhs, ch. 18. — U. II. Qorringe, Egyptian Obelisks. About B. C. isoo«i4oo.— The Tell el-Amarna Tablets.— Correspondence of the Egyptian kings with Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine. — " Tlie discovery made in 1887 by a peasant woman of Middle Egypt may be described as the most important of all contributions to the early political history of Western Asia. We have become possessed of a ■correspondence, dating from the flfteenth century B. C, which was carried on during the reigns of three Egyptian kings, with the rulers of Babvlon, Assyria, Armenia, Asia Slinor, Syria, and Pales- tine, duriug a period of great activity, when revolutions which affected the whole history of the east shore lauds of the Mediterranean were in progress; and we And in these tablets a con- temporary picture of the civilisation of the age. . . . The Tell Amarna tablets represent a litera- ture equal in bulk to about half the Pentateuch, and concerned almost exclusively with political aflfairs. They are clay tablets, varying from two inches to a foot in length, with a few as large as eighteen inchjjs, covered with cuneiform writing generjilly on both sides, and often on the edges as well. The peasantry unearthed nearly the complete collection, including some 320 pieces in all; and explorers afterwards digging on the site have added only a few additionm fragments. The greater number were bought for the Berlin Mu.seum, while eighty-two were accjuired for England, and the rest remain cither in the Boulak JIuseum at Cairo, or, in a few instances, in the Imniis of private collectors. . . . Tell Amarna (apparently 'tlie mound of the tumuli') is an im- portant ruined .site on the east bank of the Nile, about a hundred and lifty miles in a straight line south of Cairo. Its Egyptian name is said to have been Khu cn-aten, 'Glory of the Sun-disk.'" — The Tell Antarnd Tablets (Edinburgh licv., July, 1893).— " The collection of Cuneiform Tablets re- cently found [1887] at Tell el-Amarna iu Upper Egypt, consistcil of about three hundred and twenty documents, or portions of documents. The Britisli Museum possesses eighty-two . the Berlin Museum has one hundred and sixty, a large number being fragments; the Gizeh Mu- seum has sixty ; and a few are in the hands of private persons. ... In color the Tabiets vary from a light to a dark dust tint, and from a llesh- color to dark brick-red. The nature of the clay of which they uio made sometimes indicates the countries from which they come. The size of the Tablets in tlie British Jluseum varies from 8 J inches x4J in. to 2^ in. \\\\ in. ; the longest text contoins 08 lines, the shortest 10. . . . The greater number are rectangular, and a few are oval ; and they differ in shape from any other cuneiform documents known to us. . . . The writing . . . resembles to a certain extent the Neo-Babylonian, i. e., the simplification of the writing of the first Babylonian Empire used com- monly in Babylonia and Assyria for about seven centurie.4 B. C. It possesses, however, character- istics different from those of any other style of cuneiform writing of any period now known to exist ; and nearly every tablet contains forms of characters which have hitherto been thought pe- culiar to the Ninevite or Assyrian style of writing. But, compared with tlie neat, careful hand cm- ployed in the official documents drawn up for the kings of Assyria, it is somewhat coarse and care- less, and suggests tlie work of unskilled scribes. One and the same hand, however, appears in tab- lets which come from the same person ond tlic same place. On some of the largo tablets the writing is bold and free ; on some of the small ones the char- acters are confused and cramped, and are groups of strokes rather than wedges. Tlie spelling ... is often careless, and in some instances syl- lables have been omitted. At present it is not possible to say whether the irrcgula ■ spel'''ag is duo to the ignorance of the scribe or i,o aialectic peculiarities. . . . The Semitic dialect in which these letters are written is Assyrian, and is, in some important details, closely related to the Hebrew of the Old Testament. . . . The docu- ments were most probably written between the years B. C. 1500 to 1450. . . . They give an in- sight into the nature of the political relations wliicli existed between the kings of Western Asia and tlie kings of Egypt, and prove that an impor- tant trade existed between the two countries from very early times. ... A large number of the present tablets are addressed to ' the Kingof Egypt,' either Amenophis III. or Amenophis TV. Nearly all of them consist of reports of disastt.s 753 EGYPT, B. C. 1300-1400. The Tell Amama Tablets. EGYPT, B. C. 1500-1400. to the Egyptian power and of successful intrigues against it, coupled by urgent entreaties for lielp, pointing to a condition ol distraction and wcaii- ncss in Egypt. . . . Tlic most grapldc (leitills of tlie disorganized condition, and of tlie lival fac- tions, of tlio Egyptian dependencies lyir.g on tlie coastline of Phoenicia and Northern i'alestine, are to be gathered from a perusal jf the dis- patches of tli(! governors of the eitie.', of Byblos, Beyrut and Tyre." — T/ie Tell il-Ai uirna Tahleta in the liriti»h ^fuseum, iiitrod. — " fn the present eXixUi of cuneiform research I believe it to be im- possible to give a translation of the Tell el- Aniarna texts which would entirely satisfy the expert or general reader. No two scholars would agree as to any interpretation which might be placed upon certJiin rare grammatical forms and unknown words in the Babylonian text, and any literal translation ii; a inoclern language would not be understood by the general reader on ac- count of the involved style and endless repetition of phrases common to a Semitic idiom and dialect. About the general meaning of the contents of the greater number of the letters there can be no doubt whatever, and it is therefore possible to make a summary of the contents of each letter, which should, as a rule, satisfy the general reader, and at the same time form a guide to the beginner in cuneiform. Summaries of the contents of the Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum have been published in 'The Tell el-Amarna Tab- lets in the British Museum, with autotype fac- similes, ' printed by orderof the Trustees, London, 1893, and it is hoped that the transliteration, given in the followmg pages may form a useful supplement to that work. . . . No. 1. A Letter from. Egypt — Amenophis III. to Kallimma (?) Sin, K;ng of Karaduniyash, referring to his pro- Sosed Marriage with Sukharti,'the daurtiter of [allimn.a-Sin, and containing the draft i com- mercial vreaty, and an allusion to disap- Ecarance ot certain chariots and horses. No. 2. etters from Babylonia — Burraburiynsh, King of Karaduriyash, to Amenophis IV., referring to the f riend.ihip which hart existed between their respective fathers, and the help which had been rendered to tho King of Egypt by Burraburiyash himself; tho rixeipt of two manahs of gold is acknowledged i\nd a petition is made for more. No. 3. Burraburiyash, King of Karaduniyash to Amenophis IV., complaining that the Egyp- tian messenge.'S had vLsited his country thrice without bringi.ag gifts, and that they withheld some of the gold which had been sent to him from Egypt ; Burraburiyash announces the des- patch of a gift of lapis-lazuli for the Egyp- tian princess who was his son's wife. . . . No. 80. Letter from Abl-milki, governor of Tyre, to the King of Egypt, reporting that he believes Zim- rida will not be able to stir up disaffection in the city of Sidon, although .'le has caused much hos- tility against Tyre. Ho asks for help to protect th3 city, and for water to drink and wood to burn, and he sends with his messenger Ili-milki five talents of copper and other gifts for the King of Egypt. He reports that til's King of D.inuna is dead and that his brother reigns in his stead; one half of the city of Ugarit has been destroyed by Are; the soldiers of the Khaf.ti have departed; Itagamapairi, governor of Ked>38h, and Aziiu are fighting against Namyawiza. If the King of Egypt will but send a few troops, a!l will be well with Tyre, , . . No. 48. Letter from the gov- ernor of a town in Syria to tlio King of Egypt, reporting that the rebels ha\i' asserted their In- dependence; that Biridashwi has stirred up re- bellion in the city of Inu-Amma; that its people have captured chariots in the city of Aslitnrti: that the kings of the cities of Buzruna and Kha- lunni have made a league with Biridashwi to slay Namyawiza (who, having taken refuge in Damascus and being attacked by Arzawiya, de- clared himself to bo a vas.sal of Egypt); that Arzawiya went to the city of Gizza and after- wards captured the city of Shaddu ; that Itak- kama ravaged the country of Gizza; and that Arzawiya and Biridashwi have wasted the coun- try of Abitu. No. 44. Continuation (?) of a letter to the King of Egypt, reporting that, owing to the hostilities of Abd-Ashirta, Klutya, an official, was unable to send ships to tlie cojntry of Amurri, as he had promised. The ships from Arvad which the writer has in his charge, lack their full complement of men for war service, and he urges the king to make use of tlie ships and crews which he has had with him in Egypt. The writer of the letter also urges the King of Egypt to appoint an Egyptian ollicial over the naval affairs of Sidon, Beyrut and Arvad, and to seize Abd-Ashirta and put him under restraint to prevent him obstructing the manning of tlie ships of war. . . . No. 58. Letter from the gov- ernor of a district in Palestine (?) to the governors of neighbouring states in tlie land of Canaan, in- forming them that he is about to send his mes- senger Akiya on a mission to the King of Egypt, and to place himself and every tiling that he has at his disposal. Akiya will go to Egypt by the way of Canaan, and the writer of this letter sug- gests that any gifts they may have to send to Egypt should be carried by him, for Akiya is a thoroughly trustworthy man." — C. Bezold, Ori- ental diplomacy : Being che tramliterated text of the Cuneiform Despatches, preface. — Under the title of "The Story of a 'Tell,'" Mr. W. M> Flinders Petrie, the successful excavator and ex- plorer of Egyptian antiquities, gave a le' ',ure in London, in June, 1893, in which he described the work and the results of an excavation then in progress under his direction on the supposed site of Lachish, at a point where the maritime plain of Philistia rises to the mountains of Juda;a, on the route from Egypt into Asia. The chairman who introduced Mr. Petrie defined the word ' ' Tell " as follows : "A Tell is a mound of earth showiig by the presence of broken pot- tery or worked stone that it is the site of a ruined city or village. In England when a house falls down or is pulled down the materials are usually worth the expense of removing for use in some new building. But in Egypt common liouses have for thousands of years been built of sun-dried bricks, in Palestine of rough rubble walling, which, on falling, produces many chips, with thick flat roofs of plaster. It is thus often less trouble to get new than to use old material ; the sites of towns grow in height, and depres- sions are filled up." The mound excavated by Air. Petrie is known as Tell el Ilcsy. After he left the work it was carried on by Mr. Bliss, and Mr. Petrie in his lecture says- "The last news is that Mr. Bliss has found the long looked for prize, a cuneiform tablet. . . . From the charac- ter of the writing, which is the same as on the tablets written in Palestine in 1400 B. C, to the Egyptian king at Tel el Amarna, we have a close 754 EGYPT, B. C. 1520-1400. Pharaohs who oppressed Israel. EGYPT, B. C. 1800-670. agreement regarding the chronology of tlic town. Further, it mcntiona Zimridu us ii governor, and this same man appears as g^wrnor of Lacliisli on tlie tablets found at Tel el Amarnn. Wo have thus at last picked up the other end of the broken chain of correspondence between Pales- tine and Egypt, of which one part was so unex- pectedly found in Egypt a few years ago on the tablets at Tel el Amnrna ; and we may hope now to recover the Palestinian part of this intercourse and so establish the pre-Israelite history of the land."— W. M. F. Petrie, The Story of a •' Tell" (The City and the Land, lect. 6). — See, also, Palestine. Also in: C. R. Conder, The Tell Amama Tablets, translated. About B. C. 1400-1200.— The first of the Ramesides. — The Pharaohs of the Oppres- sion and the Exodus. — " Under the Nineteenth Dynasty, which ncquircd the throne after the death of Har-em-IIebi [or Ilor-cm-hcb] the for- tune of Egypt maintained to some extent its ascendancy; but, though the reigns of some war- lilvo lungs throw a briglit light on this epoch, the shade of approaching trouble already darkens the horizon." Hamses I. and his son, or son-in- law, Seti I. , were involved in troublesome wars with the rising power of the Hittites, in Syria, and witli the Sliasu of the Arabian desert. Seti was also at war with the Libyans, who then made their first appearance in Egyptian liistory. His son liamses II., the Sosostris of the Greeks, who reigned for sixty-scVen years, in the fotu'- teenth century B. C, has always been the most famous of the Egyptian kings, and, by modern discovery, has been made the moat interesting of them to the Christian world. He was a busy and boastful warrior, who accomplished no im- portant conquests; but "among the Pharaohs he is the builder ' par excellence. ' It is almost impossible to find in Egypt a ruin or an ancient mound, without reading his name.". . . It was to these works, probably, that the Israelites then in Egypt were forced to contribute their labor; for the Pharaoh of the oppression is Identified, by most scholars of the present day, with tins building and boasting Sesostris. — F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier, Mamial of the Ancient Hist, of tlie East, bk. 3, ch. 3.— "The extreme length of the reign of Ramses was, as in other histories, the cause of subsequent weak- ness and disaster. His successor was an aged son, Jlenptah, who had to meet the diflliculties which were easily overcome by the youth of his energetic father. Tlie Libyans and their maritime allies broke the long tranquillity of Egypt by a fomiidable invasion aL d temporary conquest of the north-west. Tlie power of the monarchy was thus shaken, and the old king was not tlie leader to restore it. His obscure reign was followed by others even obscurer, and the Nineteentli Dynasty ended in complete an- archy, which reached its height when a Syrian chief, in what manner we know not, gained the rule of the whole country. It is to the reign of Menptah that Egyptian tradition assigned the Exodus, and modern research has come to a general agreement that this is its true place iu Egyptian history. . . . Unfortunately we do not know th ; duration of the oppression of the Israel- ites, nor the condition of Lower Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty, which, according to the hypothesis here adopted, corresponds to a great part of the Hebrew sojourn. It is, bow- ever, clear from the Bible that the oppression did not begin till after the period of Joseph's contemporaries, an<l had loatcd eighty years be- fore tlie Exodus. It seems almost certain that this was the actual beginning of the oppresaion, for it is very improbable that two se|)arato Pharaohs arc inteniied by the ' new king which knew not Joseph ' and the builder of Uanieses, or, in other words, Ramses II., and the time from the acceaaion of Rumaes II. to the end of Menptah's reign can have little exceeded the eighty years of Scripture between the birth of Mosea and the Exodua. ... If the adjuatment of Hebrew ond Egyptian history for the oppres- sion, as stated above, be acccpteti, Ramses II. was probably the first, and certainly tlie great oppressor. His character suits this theory ; he was an undoubted autocrat who . . . covered Egypt and Lower Nubia with vast structures that could only have been produced by slave-labor on the largest scale." — R. S. Poole, Ancient Egypt (Contcmih lien.. Mar., 1879). Also in: H. Brugsch-Bcy, Egypt Under the Pharaohs, ch. 14. —H. G. Tomkins, Life and I'imcs of Joseph. — See, also: Jews: The Chil- dren OK ISUAEL in EoYPT. About B. C. 1300.— Exodus of the Israelites. See Jews: The Route ok the Exoduh. About B. C. 1200-670.— The decline of the empire of the Pharaohs. — From the aii:\rchy in winch the Nineteenth Dynasty came to its end, order woa presently restored by the seating in power of a new family, which claimed to be of the Rameside stock. The second of its kings, who called himaelf Ranisea III. and who is believed to be tlie Rhampainitus of the Greeks, appears to have been one of the ablest of the monarclis of his line. The security and prosper- ity of Egypt were recovereci under liia reign and he left it in a state which does not acem to have promised tlie rapid decay which ensued. " It Is ditlicult to underetand and account for the suddenness and completeness of the collapse. . . . The hieratic chiefs, the high priests of the god Amnion at Thebes, gradually increased in power, usurped one after another the preroga- tives of the Pharaohs, by degrees reduced their authority to a shadow, and ended with an open assumption not only of the functions, but of the very insignia of royalty. A space of nearly two centuries elapsed, however, before this change was complete. Ten princes of the name of Ramses, and one called Meri-Tum, all of them connected by blood with the great Rameside house, bore the royal title and occupied the royal palace, in the apace between B. C. 1280 and B. C. 1100. Egyptian history during this period is almost wholly a blank. No military expeditions are conducted — no great buildings are reared — art almost disappears — literature holds her tongue. " Then came the dynasty of the priest-kings, founded by Her-IIor. which lield the throne for more tlian a century and was contemporary in its latter years witli David and Solomon. The Twenty-Second Dynasty which succeeded had its capital at Bubastis and is con- cluded by Dr. Brugscli to have been a line of Assyrian kings, representing an invasion and conquest of Egyjit by NImrod, the great king of A;syria. Other Egyptologists disagree with Dr. Brugscli in this, and Prof. Rawlinson, the his- torian of Assyria, flnd^ ob'ections to the hypothe- 755 EGYPT, B. C. 12^-670. Oreefc. at NaucratU. EGYPT, B. C. 670-525. sis from his own point of view. Tbe prominent nionarc'li of tliis dynasty was tlie Slicslionk of Biblical history, who she'.tered Jeroboam, in- vaded Palestine and plundered Jerusiiiem. Before this dynasty came to an end it had lost the sovereignty of Elgypt at large, and its Pha- raohs contended with various rivals and invaders. Among the hitter, power grew in the hands of a nice of Ethiopians, wlio hud risen to importiince at Napata, on the Upper Nile, and wlio extended their power, at last, over the whole of Egypt. The Ethiopian domination was maintainecf for two-thirds of a century, until the great wave of Assyrian conquest broke upon Egypt in 673 B. C. and swept over it, driving tlie Ethiopians back to Napata and JleroG. — G. Kawlinson, Hist, of Ancient Kgi/pt, eh. 25. Ai-BO IN: il. Brugsch-Bey, Effffpt under the Pharaohs, ch. 15-18.— E. Wilson, Egypt of the Past, ch. 8. — See, also, Ethioi-ia. B. C. 670-525. — Assyrian conquest and re- stored independence. — The Twenty-sixth Dy- nasty. — The Greeks at Naucratis. — Although Syria and Palestine had then been sulTering for more than a century from the conquering arms of the Assyrians, it was not until 670 B. C, ac- cording to Prof. Rawlinson, that Esarhaddou passed the boundaries of Egypt and made him- self master of that country. His father Senna- cherib, had attempted tlie invasion thirty years before, at the time of his siege of Jerusalem, and had recoiled before some mysterious calamity ■which impelled him to a sudden retreat. The son avenged his father's failure. The Ethiopian masters of Egypt were expelled ond the Assyrian took their place. He " broke up the country into twenty governments, appointing in each town a ruler who bore the title of king, but placing all the others to a certain extent under the authority of the prince who reigned at Memphis. This •was Neco, the father of Psammetichus (Psama- tik I.) — a native Egyptian of whom we have some mention both in Herodotus and in the frag- ments of Manetho. The remaining rulers were likewise, for the most part, native Egyptians." These arrangements were soon broken up by the expelled Ethiopian king, Tirhakah, who rallied his forces and swept the Assyrian kinglets out of the country ; but Asshur-bani-pal, son and suc- cessor of Esarhaddon, made his appearance with an army in 668 or 667 B. C. and Tirhakah fled before him. Again and again this occurred, and for twenty years Egypt was torn between t)ie Assyrians and the Ethiopians, in their struggle for the possession of her. At length, out of the chaos produced by these conflicts tliere emerged a native ruler — the Psammetichus mentioned above — who subjugated his fellow princes and established a new Egyptian monarchy, which defended itself with success against Assyria and Ethiopia, alike. The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, of Sais, founded by Psammetichus, is suspected to have been of Libyan descent. It ruled Egypt until tlie Persian conquest, and brought a greot new influence to bear on the country and people, by the introduction of Greek soldiers and traders. It was under this dynasty that the Greek city of Naucratis was founded, on the Canobic brancli of the Nile. — G. Rawlinson, The Five Oreat Mon- archies; Assyria, ch. 9. — The site of Naucratis, near the Canobic branch of the Nile, was de- termined by excavations which Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie began m 1884, and from which much has been learned of the history of the city ond of early relations between the Egyptians and tlie Greeks. It is concluded that the settlement of Naucratis dates from about 660 B. (;.— not long after the beginning of the reign of Psanimitichus — and that its Greek founders be- came the allies of that monarch and his succes- sors against tlieir enemies. "All are agreed that before the reign of Psani'.iiitichusand the found- ing of Naucratis, Egypt was a sealed book to the Greeks. It is likely that the Phoenicians, who were from time to time the subjects of the Pharaohs, were admitted, where all is like the Greeks were excluded. We have indi jd positive evidence that the Egyptians did not wish strange countries to learn their art, for in a treaty be- tween them and the Hittites it is stipulated that neitlier country shall harbour fugitive artists from the otlior. But however the fact may be accounted for, it is an undoubted fact that long before Psammitichus threw Egypt open to the foreigner, the Phoenicians had studied in tlio school of Egyptian art, and learned to copy all sorts of handiwork procured from the valley of the Nile. . . . According to Herodotus and Dio- dorus, the favour shown to tlie Greeks by the King was the cause of a great revolt of the native Egyptian troops, who left the frontier-fortresses, and marched south beyond Elephantine, where they settled, resisting all the entreaties of Psam- mitichus, who naturally deplored the loss of the mainstay of his dominions, and developed into the race of the Sebridae. Wiedemann, however, rejects the whole story as unhistorical, and cer- tainly, if we clo.sely consider it, it contains great inherent improbabilities. . . . Psammitichus died in B. C. 610, and was succeeded by his son Necho, who was his equal in enterprise and vigour. This King paid great attention to the fleet of Egypt, and Greek shipwrights were set to work on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas to build triremes for the State navy. A fleet of his ships, we are told, succeeded in sail- ing round Africa, a very great feat for the age. The King even attempted the task, of which the completion was reserved for the Persian Darius, the Ptolemie-s, and Trajan, of making a canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Herod- otus says that, after sacrificing the lives of 120,000 men to the labour and heat of the task, he gave it up, in consequence of the warning of an oracle that he was toiling only for the barbu rians. . . . Nccho, like his father, must needs try the edge of his new weapon, the Ionian mer- cenaries, on Asia. At first he was successful. Josiah, King of Judah, came out against him, but was slain, and his army dispersed. Greek valour carried Necho as far as the Euphrates. . . . But Nebuchadnezzar, son of the King of Babylon, marched against the invaders, and de- feated them in a great battle near Carchemish. His father's death recalled him to Babylon, and Egypt was for the moment saved from counter- invasion by the stubborn resistance offered to the Babylonian arms by Jehoiakim, K' of Judah, a resistance fatal to the Jewish i ir Jerusa- lem was captured after a long s d most of the inhabitants carried into capti Of Psam- mitichus II., who succeeded Net, ue should know but little were it not for the archaeological record. Herodotus only says that he attacked Ethiopia, and died after a reign of six years. But of the expedition thus summarily recorded 766 EGYPT, B. C. 670-585. F*rtlan Conquett. EGYPT, B. C. 825-332. wc Imvo a lasting and memorable result in the well-known iuscriptlons written by Hhodinns and other Greek mercenaries on the legs of the colossi at Abu Simbel in Nubia, which record how certain of them came thither in the reign of Psammiticlms, pushing up the river in boats as far as it was navigable, that is, perhaps, up to the second cataract. . . . Apries, the Ilophra of the Bible, was the next king. The early part of his reign was marked by successful warfare against the Phoenicians and the peoples of Syria; but, like his predecessor, ho was unable to maintain a footing in Asia in the face of the powerful and warlike Nebuchadnezzar. The hostility which prevailed between Egypt and Babylon at tliis time caused King Apries to open a refuge for those Jews who fled from the persecution of Nebuchadnezzar. He assigned to their leaders, among whom were the daughters of the King of Judali, a palace of his own at Daphnae, 'Pharaoh's house at Tahpanhcs,' as it is called by Jeremiah. That prophet was among tlie fugitives, and uttered in the palace a notable prophecy (.\liii. 0) tliat King Nebuchadnezzar should come and spread his conquering tent over the pavement before it. Formerly it was sup- posed that this prophecy remained unfulfilled, but this opinion has to bo abandoned. Recently- discovered Egyptian and Babylonian inscriptions prove that Nebuchadnezzar conquereil Egypt as far as Syene. . . . The fall of Apries was brought about by his ingratitude to tlie Greeks, and his contempt for the lives of his own sub- jects. He had formed the project of bringing under his sway the Greek cities of the Cyrenaica. . . . Apries cfespatched against Cyrene a large force ; but the Cyreneans bravely defended them- selves, and as the Egyptians on this occasion marched without their Greek allies, they were entirely defeated, and most of them perislied by the sword, or in the deserts which separate Cy- rene from Egypt. The defeated troops, and their countrymen who remained behind in gar- rison in Egypt, imputed the disaster to treachery on the part of Apries. . . . They revolted, and chose as their leader Amasis, a man of experience and daring. But Apries, though deserted by his subjects, hoped still to maintain his throne by Greek aid. At the head of 30,000 lonians and Carians he marched against Amasis. At Mo- memphis a battle took place between the rival kings and between the rival nations; but the numbers of the Egyptians prevailed over the arms and discipline of the mercenaries, and Apries was defeated and captured by his rival, who, however, allowed 1dm for some years to retain the name of joint-king. It is tlie best possible proof of the solidity of Greek influence in Egypt at this time that Amasis, tliough set on the throne by the native army after a victory over the Greek mercenaries, yet did not expel these latter from Egypt, but, on the contrary, raised them to higher favour than before. . . . In the delightful dawn of connected European history we see Amasis uS a wise and wealtliy prince, ruling in Egypt at the time when Poly- crates was tyrant of Bamos ; and when Croesus of Lydia, the richest king of his time, was be- ginning to be alarmed by the rapid expansion of the Persian power under Cyrus. ... In the days of Psammitichus III. , the son of Amasis, the storm which had overshadowed Asia broke upon Egypt. One of the leaders of the Greek mercenaries in Egypt named Phancs. a native of Halieamassus, maile Ids way to Uie Persian Court, and persuaded Cambysi'S, who, according to the story, had received from Ainnsis one of those affronts which have so often produced wars between despots, to invade Egypt in full force. " — P. Gardner, A'cu) C/uipttrn in Greek Ilintorij, ch. 7. Also in: W. M. P. Petrie, I^'aukmtig. — See, also, Naukuatis. B. C. Sa«-332. — Persian conquest and sov- ereignty.— Tlie kings of the Twenty-Si.xtli or Saite Dynasty maintained tlie independence of Egypt for nearly a century and a half, and even revived its military glories briefly, by Necho'a eplienieral conquests m Syria and his overthrow of Josiah king of Judah. In the meantime, As- syria and IJabyffinia had fallen and tlie Persian power raised up by Cyrus had taken their place. In his own time, Cyrus did not finish a plan of conqiiest which included Egypt ; his son Cam- byses took up the task. "It appears that four years were consumed by the Persian monarch in his preparations for his Egyptian expedition. It was not until B. C. 525 that he entered Egypt at the head of his troops and fought the great "battle which decided the fate of the country. The struggle was long and bloody [see PunsiA : B. C. 549-521]. Psammenitus, who had succeeded his father Amasis, had tlie services, not only of his Egyptian subjects, but of a large body of mer- cenaries besides, Greeks aud Carians. ... In spite of tlieir courage and fanaticism, the Egyp- tian army was completely defeated. . . . The conquest of Egypt was followed bv the submis- sion of the neighbouring tribes. . . . Even the Greeks of the more remote Barca and Cyrene sent gifts to the conqueror and consented to be- come his tributaries." But Cambyses wasted 50,000 men in a disastrous expedition through the Libyan desert to Ammou, aud he retreated from Ethiopia with loss and shame. An at- tempted rising of the Egyptians, before he had quitted their country, was cruslied with merci- less severity. The deities, the temples and the priests of Egypt were treated with insult and contempt and the spirit of the people seems to have been entirely broken. "Egypt became now for a full generation the obsequious slave of Persia, and gave no more trouble to her subju- gator than the weakest, or the most contented, of the provinces." — Geo. Rawlinsou, The Five Oreat Monarchies : Persia, eh. 7. — "The Persian kings, from Cambyses to Darius II. Notlius, are enrolled as the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty of Man- etlio. The ensuing revolts [see Athens: B. C. 460-449] are recogtized in the Twenty-Eighth (Saite) Dynasty, consisting only of Amyrtoius, who restored the independence of Egypt (B. C. 414-408), and the Twenty-Ninth (Menae8ian)and Thirtieth (Sebeniiyte) Dynasties (about B. C. 408- 353), of whose intricate history we need only here say that they ruled with great prosperity and have left beautiful monuments of art. The last king of independent Egypt was Nectanebo II., who succumbed to the invasion of Artaxer- xes Ochus, and fled to Ethiopia (B. C. 353). Tlie last three kings of Persia, Ochus, Arses, and Darius Codomannus, form the Thirty-Fii'sl: Dynasty of JIanetho, ending with the submis- sion of Egypt to Alexander the Great (B. C. 332)."— P. Smith, Ancient Hist, of tlie East (Stu- dents'), ch. 8. Also in : 8. Sharpe, Hist, of Egypt, ch. 5. 757 EGYPT, B. C. 888. Kingdom of the liolemie: EGYPT, B. C. 323-80. B. C. 333.— Alexander's conquest. — "In tho Biiiniiicr of 8!t2 [uftcr tliR Hic^c iind dcRtruction of Tyrt" — Hcc Tyuk: H. C'. 333, and Macedonia, &c. : B. C. 3!)4-3iJO] Alexander set forward on his ninrch toward Kjfyjtt, accompanied by tlio fleet, widcli lie liad placed under tlio orders of Ileplia'Htion." But, lieiiig detained on tlie way geveral niontlis l)y tlic siege of Qaza, it was not liefore l)eccMil)er tliat lie entered Egypt. "He might Biifely reckon not merely on an easy con- quest, but on an ardent reception, from a people who l)urnt to shake off the Persian tyranny. . . . Mazacea [the Persian commander] inmself, as soon as he lieanl of the battle of Issus, became aware that all resistance to Ale.xander would bo useless, and met lijin with 1. voluntary submis- sion. At Pelusium he found the fleet, and, hav- ing left a garrison in the fortress, ordered it to proceed up the Nile as far as JMemphis, while he marched across the desert. Here he conciliated tlie Egyptians by the honours which ho paid to all their gods, especially to Apis, who had been so cruelly insulted by the Persian invaders. ... Ho then embarked, and'dropt down tlie western or Canobic arm of the river to Cano- bus, to survey the extremity of the Delta on tliat side, nnd having sailed round tho lake Mareotis, landed on the narrow belt of low ground which parts it from the sea, and is sheltered from tho violence of the northern gales ... by a long ridge of rock, then separated from the main land by a channel, nearly a mile (seven Blades) broad and forming tho isle of Pharos. On this site stood tho village of Racotis, where the ancient kings of Egypt had stationed a permanent guard to protect this entrance of their dominions from adventurers. . . . Alexander's keen eye was immediately struck by the advantages of this position for a city, which should become a great emporium of commerce, and a link between the East and the West. . . . He immediotely gave orders for the beginning of the work, him- self traced the outline, which was suggested by the natural features of the ground itself, and marked the site of some of the principal build- ings, squares, palaces and temples" (see Alex- andria: B. C. 332). Alexander remained in Egypt until the spring of 331, arranging tho occupation and administration of the country. "The system which he established served in some points as a model for the policy of Rome under the Emperors. " Before quitting the country he made a toilsome marcli along the coast, west- ward, and thence, far into the desert, to visit tho famous oracle of Ammon. — C. Thirlwall, Hut. of Greece, ch. 50. B. C. 323-30.— The kingdom of the Ptolemies. — In the division of the empire of Alexan<ler the Great between his generals, when he died, Ptolemy Lagus — reputed to be a natural son of Alexander's father Philip — chose Egypt (see Macedonia: B. C. 323-316), with a modesty which proved to be wise. In all the provinces of the Macedonian conquest, it was the country most easily to be held as an inde- pendent state, by reason of the sea and desert •which separated it from the rest of the world. It resulted from the prudence of Ptolemy that he founded a kingdom which lasted longer and enjoyed more security and prosperity than any- other among the monarchies of the Diadochi. He was king of Egypt, in fact, for seventeen years before, in SOT, B. C, he ventured to aH8tim<' the name (see Macedonia: B. C. 310- 301), .Meantime, he had added to his dominion the little Greek state of Cvrene, on the African coast with Phrenicia, .ludiea, Crele-Syria, and tho island of Cyprus. Tlieso latter became dis- puted territory, fought over for two centuries, between tlie Ptoleiiiies and the Selcucids, some- times dominated by the one and sometimes by the other (see Sbleucid^: B. C. 281-224, and 224-187). At its greatest extent, tho dominion of tho Ptolemies, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of I'tolemy Lagus, included largo parts of Asia Jlinor and many of the Greek islands. Egypt and Cyreue they held, with little disturb- ance, until Rome absorbed them. Notwith- standing the vices which the family of Ptolemy developed, luid which were as rank of their kind us history can show, Egypt under their rule appears to have been one of the most prosperous countries of tlie time. In Alexandria, they more tiian realized the dream of its Macedonian pro- jector. They made it not only the wealthiest city of tlieir day, but the greatest seat of learn- ing, — tl-o successor of Athens as tho capital of Greek civilization in the ancient world. — S. Sharpc, Hist, of E'jypt, ch. 7-12.— The first Ptolemy abdicated in favor of his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 284 B. C, and died in the second year following. See Macedonia: B. C 297-380.—" Although the political constitution of Egypt was not greatiy altered when the land fell into Greek hands, yet in other respects great changes took place. 'The mere fact that Egypt took its place among a family of Hellenistic nations, instead of claiming as of old a proud isolation, must have had a great effect on the trade, the manufactures, and the customs of the country. To begin with trade. Under the native kings Egypt had scarcely any external trade, and trade could scarcely spring up during the wars with Persia. But under the Ptolemies, intercourse between Egypt and Sicily, Syria or Greece, would naturally and necessarily advance rapidly. Egypt produced manufactured goods which were everywhere in demand ; fine linen, ivory, porcelain, notably that papyrus which Egypt alone produced, and which was necessary to the growing trade in manuscripts. Artificial barriers being once removed, enterprising traders of Corinth and Tarentum, Ephesus and Rhodes, would naturally seek these goods in Egypt, bringing in return whatever of most attroctive their own countries had to offer. It seems probable that the subjects of the Ptolemies seldom or never had the couroge to soil direct down the Red Sea to India. In Roman times this voyage became not unusual, but at an earlier time the Indian trade was principally In the hands of the Arabs of Yemen nnd of the Persian Gulf. Nevertheless the commerce of Egypt under the Ptolemies spread eastwards aa well as westwards. The important towns of ArsinotJ and Berenice arose on tho Red Sea as emporia of the Arabian trade. And as alwiys happens when Egypt is in vigorous hands, the limits of Egj'ptian rule and commerce were pushed further and further up the Nile. The influx into Alexandria and Memphis of a crowd of Greek architects, artists, and artizans, could not fail to produce movement in that stream of art which had in Egypt long remained all but stagnant. ... If we may trust the somewhat over-coloured and flighty panegyrics which have 758 EGYPT, B. C. 828-80. Under the Komatu. EQYPT, A. D. 12.10-1817. onmfi down to us, the mntorifil progress of Egypt under Ptolemy Pliilndclpliiis wiis most wondor- ful. Wu reud, though wp cimnot for a moment trust the figures of Appian, that in his reign Egypt jiossessed iin nrmy of 200,000 foot soldiers and 40,(K)0 horsemen, !iOO elephants and 2,000 chariots of war. Tlu; fleet at the same period is said to liave ineludcd 1,.500 hirge ve.ssels, some of them with twenty or thirty lianks of oars. Allowing for exaggenition, we must sui)poso that Egypt was tlien more powerful than it had been since the days of Kameses. " — P. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek IliKtory, ch. 7. — See, also, Alexandiua: B. C. 282-246"; and Education, Anciknt: Alkxanduia. B. C. 80-48.— Strife among the Ptolemies.— Roman pretensions, — Tlio tlironc of Egypt being disputed, H. C. 80, between Cleopatra Here- nice, who had seized it, and her step-son, Ptolemy Alexander, tlien in Rome, the latter l)rit)ed the Romans to support his claims l)y malting a will in which he named the Roman Republic as his heir. The Senate, thereat, sent him to Alexandria with orders that Berenice sliould marry him and that they should reign jointly, as liing and queen. The order wos obeyed. Tlie foully mated pair were wedded, and, nineteen days afterwards, the young king procured the deatli of his queen. The crime provoked an insurrection in wliich Ptolemy Alexander waa slain by his own guard. Tlds ended tlie legitimate lino of the Ptolemies ; but an illegitimate i)rince, usually called Auletes, or "the piper," was put on the throne, and he succeeded in holding it for twenty-four years. Tlie claim of the Romans, under the will of Ptolemy Alexander, seems to have been kept in abeyance by the bribes wliich Auletes employed with liberatitv among the senatorial leaders. In 58 B. C. a rising at Alexandria drove Auletes from llie throne; in 54 B. C. he bought the sup- port of Gabinius, Roman pro-consul in Syria, who reinstated him. lie died in 51 B. C. leav- ing by will his kingdom to his elder daughter, Cleopatra, and his elder son, Ptolemy, who, ac- cording to the abominable custom of the Ptolemies, were to marry one another and reign together. The Roman people, by the terms of the will were made its executors. When, therefore, Ciesar, coming to Alexandria, three years afterwards, found the will of Auletes set at nought, Ptolemy occupying the throne, alone, and Cleopatra struggling against him, he had some ground for a pretension of right to interfere. — 8. Sharpc, Hist. ^ Egypt, eh. 11. B. C. 48-47. — Civil war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy.— Intervention of Cxsar. — The rising against him. — The Romans besieged in Alexandria. — Their ruthless victory. Seo ALEXANDiiiA: B. C. 48-47. B. C. 30. — Organized as a Roman province. — After the battle of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, Egypt was reduced by Octavius to the rank of a Roman province ond the dynasty of the Ptolemies extinguished. But Octavius "had no intention of giving to the senate the rich domain which he tore from its native rulers. lie would not sow in a foreign soil the seeds of independ- ence which he was intent upon crushing nearer home. ... In due time he persuaded the senate and people to establish it as a principle, that Egypt should never be placed under the adminis- tration of any man of superior rank to the eques- tLioD, and that no senator should be allowed even to vi.sit it, without express perniis.sion from the supreme authority." — ('. Merivale, Hist, of the Uomitns, eh. 20. A. D. 100-500. — Roman and Christian. See Ai.kxandiua: B. V. 4H-.17 to A. I). 4i;Ml.'); luid CiimsTiANlTV: A. I). :ti»-l(M), and 1(M)-312. A. D. 296.— Revolt crushed by Diocletian. See Al.KXANnniA: A. D. 2ml. A. D. 6i6-6a8. — Conquest by Chosroes, the Persian. — The career of eoncpiest pursued by ChosriH's, the last Persian eoncpieror, extended even to Egypt, and beyond it. "Egypt itself, the only provinee whirli had been exempt sinco the time of Oioeleliaii from foreign and d.)mestic war, was again subdued l)y tlie successors of Cyrus. Pelusium, the key of that impervious eoimtry, was surprise<l by the cavalry of the Persians; they passed with impunity the innum- erable channels of the Deltiv, and explored the long valley of the Nile from the pyramids of Jlemphis to the confines of ^^ithiopia. Alexandria might have been ndievcd by a naval force, but the archbishop and the pnrfeet embarked for Cyprus; and Chosroes entered the second city of the empire, which still preserved a wealthy rem- nant of industry and commerce. His western tropliy was erected, not on the walls of Carthage, but in the neighbourhood of Tripoli : tlie Greek colonies of Cyrene were finally extirpated." By the peace concluded in 628, after the death of Chosroes, all of his conquests were restored to the empire and the cities of Syria and Egypt evocuated by their Persian garrisons. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the {Ionian Empire, ch. 46. — See Pehbia : A. D. 228-027. A. D. 640-646. — Moslem conquest. Sec Ma- hometan Conquest: A. 1). 040-646. A. D. 967-1171. — Under the Fatimite Ca- liphs. See Mahometan Conquest: A. I). 008- 1171. A. D. I. '68- 1 250.— Under the Atabeg and Ayoubite sultans. See Sai-adin, The em;-ikk OK. A. D. 1218-1220.— Invasion by the Fifth Crusade. See Crusades: A. I). 1216-1220. A. D. 1249- 1 250.— Th. crusading invasion by Saint Louis of France. See Crusades: A. D. 1248-12.54. A. D. i2So-i';i7. — The Mameluke Sultans. — The MameluUi . were a militfiry bcxiy created by Saladin. "The word means slave (literally ' the possessed '), and . . . they were brought in youth from nortliern countries to serve in the South. Saladin himself was a Kurd, and long before his accession to power, Turkish and Kurdish mer- cenaries were employed by the Caliphs of Bagdad and Coiro, as the Pope employs Swiss. . . . Sub- sequently, however, Circassia became the coun- try which most largely furnished this class of troops. Their apprenticeship was a long and laborious one ; they were taught, first of all, to read the Koran and to write ; then followed lanccexer- cise, during which time nobody was allowed to speak to them. At first they either resided in the castle, or were exercised living under tents; but after the time of Sultan Barkouk they were allowed to live in the town [Cairo], and the quar- ter now occupied by the Jews was at that time devoted to the Circassian Mamelukes. After this period they neglected their religious ond warlike exercises, and became degenerate and corrupt. . . . The dynasty of Saladin . . . was of no duration, and ended in 648 A. H., or 1250 759 EGYPT, 1250-1517. Thr Mamelukri. EGYPT, 1803-1811. of tlio riiristinn crii. Tlicn bcgdn tlio so-cnllpd Biilirilc Sultiins, In coiifMMiiicticc of t\w Miimc- Inkrsdf tlic Hultaii Ncfijm-rd-din Imviiif; lodircil in Hrxlidi, llio Island in llic Nile (liiilir-cn-MI). Tlif intrl;;ucr of llif period was Slicgcrcd-dur, tliL' widow of tli(^ nioniircli, wlio married one of tlieMuinelulies, M(M'z-e(iilin-ail)el{cl-Turroniany, wlio'lH'caine llie tirnt of tlicHC Haliritc HtdtanH, nnd was Idmself murd'Ted in tlie Castle of Cairo tliroiigli this woman. . . . Tlieirsubseeiuent his- tory, iintil the conquest of Kgypt by Sultan Bel'ini in l.ll?, presi'nis nothing but a scries of aets of lust, murder and rapine. Ho rapidly did they e.\pel each other from power, that the average reign of each did not exceed five or si.x years. . . . The 'lieeting purple' of the decline and fall of the Uomaii Empire is the spectacle which these Mameluke Dynasties constantly i)re- Bcnt. " — A. A. Paton, 7/i«<. nf the. Kfjupliaii lier'Au- tion, V. 1, eh. 3-5. A. D. 1516-1517. — Overthrow of the Mame- luke Sultans.— Ottoman conquest by Sultan Selim. Kee TiiuKs: A. 1). 1481-1,V.J0. A. D. 1798-1799.— The French conquest and occupation by Bonaparte. See Fkanck: A. 1). 1798 (May— AuoiisT), nnd 1708-17U9 (August— August). A, D. 1798-1799. — Bonaparte's organization of government. — His victory at Aboulcir. — His return to France. See Fhanck: A. I). 1798- 1799 (August — August), nnd 1799 (Novemukk). A. D. 1800. — Discontent and discourage- ment of the French. — The repudiated Treaty of El Arish. — Turkish defeat at Heliopolis. — Revolt crushed at Cairo. — Assassination of Klfcber. See Fiiance: A. D. 1800 (.Januaiiy— June). A. D. 1801-1802.— Expulsion of the French by the English. — Restoration of the province to Turkey. Sec Fhanck: A. D. 1801-1803. A. D. 1803-1811.— The rise of Mohammad 'Aly (or Mehemet Ali) to power. — His treach- erous destruction of the Mamelukes. — "It ■was during the French occupation that Moham- mad 'Aly [or Mehemet Ali] came on the scene. He was born in 1708 at the Albanian port of Kaballa, and by the patronage of the governor was sent to Egypt in 1801 with the contingent of troops furnished by Kaballa to the Ottoman army then operating with the English against the French, lie rapidly rose to the command of the Amaut or Albanian section of the Turltish army, and soon found himself an important factor in the confused political position which followed the departure of the British army. The Memluk Beys had not been restored to their former posts as provincial governors, and were consequently ripe for revolt against the Porte ; but their party was weakened by the rivalry of its two leaders, El-Elfy and El-Bardisy, .vho divided their followers into two liostile camps. On the other hand, the Turkish Pasha appointed by the Porte had not yet gained a firm grip of the country, nnd was perpetually apprehensive of a recall to Constantinople. Alohammad 'Aly at the head of his Albanians was an importJint ally for either side to secure, and he fully ap- preciated his position. He played off one party against the other, the Pasha against the Beys, so successfully, that he not only weakened both sides, but made the people of Cairo, who were disgusted with the anarchy of Memluk and Turk alike, his Arm friends; and at last suffered him- self, with becoming hesitation, to 1)0 pcrstinded by the entreaty of the pippuliicc to become |180,')] their ruler, and thus stepped to the supreme l)owpr in the curious guise of the people's friend. A fearful time followed Mohammad 'Aly's elec- tion— for such it was — to the governorship of Egynt. TlieTurkish Pasha, Khurshid, held the cita<lel, and Mohammad 'Alv, energetically aided by the peo]>le of Cairo, ]nU\ siege to it. From the minaret of the mosi|U(! of Sidtan Hasan, and from the heights of Mukiitlam, the besiegers poured their tire into the cita<lel, anil Khurshid replii (I with an indiscriminate cannonade upon the city. The tiring went on for weeks (pausing on Fridays), till a messenger arrived from Con- stantinople bringing the contlrmatiou of tho popidar vote, in the form of a tirman, apiioint- mg Mohammad 'Aly governor of Egypt. Khur- shid shortly afterwards retired, and tlie soldiery amused theiiLselves in the approved Turkish and (even worse) Aloanian fashion by making havoc of the houses of the citizens. Mohammad 'Aly now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt, but beyond the walls of Cairo his authority was everywhere disputed by the Beys. . . . An at- tempt was made to ensnare certain of the Beys, who were encamped north of the metropolis. On the 17th of AugiKst, 180.5, the dam of tho cunal of Cairo was to be cut, and some chiefs of Mohammad 'Aly's party wrote infornung them that he wouhl go forth early on that morning with most of his trwjps to witness the ceremony, inviting them to enter and seize the city, and, to deceive them, stipidating for n certain sum of money as a reward. Tlie dam, however, was cut early in the preceding idght, without any ceremony. On the following morning these Beys, with their Mcinluks, a very numerous body, broke open the gate of tho suburb El- Ilosey-niych, nud gained admittance into tho city. . . . They marched along the principal street for some distance, with kettle-drums be- hind each company, and were received with ap- parent joy by tho citizens. At tho mosque called tho Asurafiyeh they separated, one party pro- ceeding to the Azhar and the liouses of certjiin shoykhs, and the other party continuing along tho main street, and through the gate called Bab-Zuweyleh, where they turned up towards the citadel. Here they were fired on bv some soldiers from the houses; and with this signal a terrible massacre commenced. Falling back towards their companions, they found the by- streets closed; and in that part of the main thoroughfare called Beyn-el-Kasreyn, they were suddenly placed between two fires. Thus shut up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the collegiate mosque of tho Barkukiyeh, while the remainder fought their way through their enemies, and escaped over the city wall with the loss of their liorses. Two Memluks had in the meantime succeeded, by great exertions, in giving the alarm to their comrades in the quar- ter of the Azhar, who escaped by the eastern, gate called Bab-el-Ghureyyib. A horrible fate awaited those who had shut themselves up in the Barktikiych. Having begged for quarter and surrendered, they were immediately stripped nearly naked, and about fifty were slaughtered on the spot; and about the same number were dragged away. . . . The wretched captives were then chained and left in the court of the Pasha's house ; and on the following morning the heads 760 EGYPT, 1803-1811. Utkrmel AU, ami n/ttr. EGYPT, 1840-1860. of tliclr coiiinKlcs, wlio hud jhtIkIioiI Die day Ix'fori', wcri! Hkinncd mid HtulTi'd with Htniw hi' foro tlit'ir t-ycH. One Hey iind two othvr nit'ii jmld their riuisoiii, and wire released : tlie rest, witlioiit exception, were tortured, and put to (leutli in tlie course of tlic ensulnjt nijilit. . . . Tlie Heys were dishearteiieii liy tids revolting Imtcliery, and most of tlieni retired to llie upper country. Urjred l)y Knjiiand, or more prolmliiy liy tlie promise of a lirilie from Ei-Klfy, tlu' I'orte liegan a leisurely interference in favour of tlie Meiiiluks; but the failure of Ei-Elfy's treasur)', and a Imndsoinc bribe from Mohammad 'Aly, soon changed the Sultan's views, and the Turkish (leet muled away. . . . An attempt of the English Government to restore the Memluks by the action of a force of ,'5,000 men under General Eraser ended in disaster and humiliation, and tlie citizens of Cairo hod tlie Kiitisfnction of ficeinj? the heads of Englishmen exposed on stakes in tho Ezl)ckiyeh. Mohammad 'Aly now adopted a more conciliatory policy towards the Memluks, gr.intcd them land, and encouraged them to return to Cairo. Tlie clemency was only a.S8umcd in order to prepare the way for the act of consummate treachery which llnally ni)roote<l the Meinluk power. . . . Early in the year 1811, tho preparations for an cxi)edilion against tlie Wohhabis in Arabia being comiiiete, all the Memluk Beys then in ('airo were invited to tho ceremony of investing Mohammad 'Aly's favouritL' son, Tusun, with a pelis.sc and tlie command of the army. As on the former occa- sion, the unfortunate Memluks fell into the snare. On the 1st of March, Sliahin Hey and the other chiefs (one only excepted) rcpaireii with their retinues to the citadel, and were courteously received by the Pasha. Having taken coffee, they formed in procession, and, preceded and followed by the Pasha's troops, slowly descended Ihe steep ; .! narrow road leading to the great gate of the liuidel ; but as soon as the Memluks arrived at the gate it was suddenly closed before them. The last of tliose who made their exit before tho gate was shut were Albanians under Salih Kiish. To those troops their chief now made known the Piisha's orders to massacre all the Memluks within the citadel ; therefore hav- ing returned by another way, they gained the summit of the walls and houses, that hem in the roail in which the Memluks were, and some stationed themselves upon the eminences of tho rock through wliich that road is partly cut. Thus securely placed, they commenced a heavy flre on tlieir defenceless victims, and immediately tho troops who closed the procession, and who had tho advantage of higher ground, followed their example. . . . 470 Memluks entered the citadel, and of these very few, if any, eseared. One of these is said to have been a Bey. Ac-ord- ing to some, lie leaped his horse from tli'j ram- parts, and alighted uninjured, though tl.e horse was killed by the fall. Others say tliat he was prevented from joining his comrade.'',, and dis- covered the treachery while waiting without tho gate. He fled and made his way to 5yria. This massacre was the signal for an Indiscriminate slaughter of tho Memluks throiighout Egypt, orders to this effect being tnui'.mitted to every governor; and in Cairo itself, (he houses of the Beys were given over to the soldiery, who slaughtered all their adherents, treatoci their women in the most shameless maimer, and sacked *» 761 their dwellings. . . . The last of his rivals Ix-ing- now destroyed, Mohammad '.\ly was free to organise the adininistnition of the country, and to engage in expeiiitions abroad." — 8. "ijiine- Poole, Kr/z/pt, cli. 8. Also in : A. A. Paton. Ili»t. of the Kf/i/iitimt lirrdtiitiiiii, r. 2. A. D. 1807.— Occupation of Alexandria by the Ertg^lish. — Disastrous failtii of their ex- pediti'jn. Sec Tikks; A. 1). Isi ■ IHOT. A. 1). 1831-1840.— Rebellion of Mehemet All. — Successes ag;ainst the Turks. — Intervention of the Western Powers.— Egypt made an he- redit«ry Pashalik. See TiiUKs: A. 1). 1831- 1840. A. D. 1840-1869.— Mehemet Ali and his suc- C'ssars.— The khedives.— The openine of the ^ue . Canal.— " By the treaty of 1840 lietweer. the I orte and the European Powers, . . . l)i» title <(i Egypt having been . . . alllrmed . . . .Mehemet All devoted himself during the <iext seven years to the social and material inii/rove- ment of the country, with an aggregate ()f re- sults which has lixed his jilace in history as the 'Peter the Great' of Egypt. Indee.l, except some additions and further reforms irade during the reign of his reputed grandson, Ijinail Pasha, the whole administrative system uj) till less tlia.: ten years ago, was, in tlic main, his work; and notwillistaiiiling many adnitted defects, it was at his death incomparably the most civilised and etlicieut of then existing Mussulman Govern- ments. In 1848, this great satrap, then verging on bis eightieth year, was .ittaeked by a mental mahidr, induced, as it wr.s said, bv a potion ad- ministered in mistaken kindness by one of his own daughters, and tlx- government was taken over by his adopted s<m, Ibraiiim Pasha, the hero of Koniali an, I Nezib. lie lingered till August 1840, but Ibrahim had already pre- deceased him; ar.d Abbas, a son of the latter, succeeded to the viceregal throne. Though born and bred in Egypt, Abbas was a Turk of the worst type — 'gnorant, cowardly, sensual, fanatic, and opposed to reforms of every sort. Thus his feeble reign of less than six years was, in almost everything, a period of retrogression. On a night i.i .July, 1854, he was strangled in his sleep bj' a C'juple of his own slaves, — acting, it was vario'.isly said, on a secret order from Constanti- nople, or at the behest of one of his wives. To Al'Uas succeeded Said, the third son of Mehemet t>.l\, an amiable and liberal-minded i)rince who retrieved mucli of the mischief done by his pre- decessor, but lacked the vigorous intelligence and force of character required to carry on the great work begun by his father. His reign will be chiefly memorable for the concession and com- mencement of the Suez Canol, tho colossal work which, while benefiting the trade of the world, has cost so much to Egypt. Said died in Janu- ary 1863, and was succeeded by his nephew Ismail Pasha, the second son of Ibrahim. As most of the leading incidents of this Prince's reign, as also the chief features of his character, arc still fresh in the public memory, I need merely recall a few of the more salient of both. Amongst tlic former, history will give the first place to his creation of tho huge public debt which forms tlie main element of a problem that still confronts Europe. But, for this the same impartial judge will at least equally blame the financial pandcrers who ministered to his ex- EGYPT, 1840-1869. Conqvnl of Ihe Soudan. EGYPT, 1870-1888. tnivii(fiiiu<', with cxorliitiint protlt tothcmm'lvrfi, but lit ruiiiiiiiH ('(Hit to Kfrvpt. On tlii! other IihikI, itiH liiit hlHtorical jiiHt1(!(' toHiiy that IhiiiuII )ll<l iiiiich for the iiiiitcriiil pro^roHMof the couiitry. Ill' adiU'd iiiori' than 1,(MH) to thu 'iW) mih'H of niilwuy in cxiHtciui' at th(! dciith of Said. He ({really hn|iroved the lrri>,'atl()n, and »o increased the culllvahle area of thu countiy; niultiplied the primary KchoolH, and enroiiraged native in- duMtricH. For so much, at least, history will j,'ivc him credit. As meinorahle. tlioiif^li less meritorious, were tlie mMK'if'l''<'''t fetes with whh'li, in IHOU, lie opened the Huez Canal, the f^reat worl( which Kn^dand had ho long opposed, hut through which — as if hy the irony of his- tory — the tlrst ship that passed flew the Knglisli (lag, and to the present truffle of which we eon- triliule more tlian eighty per cent In personal character, Ismail was of exceptional intelligence, but cruel, crafty, and untrustworthy both in politics anil in his private relations. ... It may lie mentioned tliat Ismail Pasha was the first of tliese Otioman Viceroys who horo. the title of ' Khedive,' which is a I'erso-Arabic designation oignifying ranii a shade less than regal. This he obtained in 1867 by heavy biilies to the Sultan and his eiiief ministers, as he had the year before by Hbiiilar means ousted his brother and uncle from the succession, and secured it for his own eldest son, — in virtue of which the latter now [1890] nominally reigns." — .]. C. M'Coau, £ff!/pt (Natiiiniil lAfe <iitd Tnouijht, leet. 18). — The same, Kmijit iiiiilir hiiKiH, rli. 1-4. A. D. 1870-1883.— Conquest of the Soudan. — Measures for the suppression of the slave- trade. — The government of General Gordon. — Advent of the Mahdi and beginning of his revolt. — In 1870, Ismail Pasha "made an appeal for Kuropean assistanee to strengthen him in com- pletuig the conquest of Central Africa. [Sir Saniuell Baker was acconlingly placed in com- mand of 1,200 men, stippliecl with c.innon and steam-boats, and received the title of Governour- Qenernl of the provinces which ho was com- mis.s!oned to sulxiuc. Having elected to make Gondokoro the seat of his government, he changed its name to Isniailin. lie was not long in bringing the Bari to submission, and then, advancing southwards, he came to the districts of Uullle and Faliko, a healthy region endowed by nature with fertile valleys and irrigated by litnpid streams, but for years past converted into a sort of hell upon earth by the slave-huuters who had made it their headtpiarters. From these pests Baker de- livered the locality, and having by his tjict and energy overcome the distrust of the native rulers, he established over their territory a certain num- ber of small military settlements. . . . Baker re- turned to Europe flattering him,self witli the delusion that he had put an end to the scourge of slave dealing. • It was true that variovis slave- dealers' dens on the Upper Nile had been destroyed, a number of outlaws had been shot, and a few thoustrnd miserable slaves had been set at liberty ; but beyond that nothing had been accomplished ; no sooner had the liberator turned his back than the odious trafflc recom- menced with more vigour than before through the region south of Gondokoro. This, however, was only one of the slave-hunting districts, and by no means the worst. . . . Under European compulsion . . . the Khedive Ismail undertook to promote measures to put a stop to the scandal. 762 He entered into various convention 1 with Eng- land on the subject ; and in order to lorivlnce the PowerH of the sincerity of his iiilentli)ns, lie c(m- sented to put the ci|uatiirial provinces under the aihninlHtration of an Kuropean )lllcer, who should be coiiunissloncd to carry on he work of repression, coniiueHt and organisation that had been comnienccil by Baker. Ilisclioici' fell upon a man of exceptional ability, 1 brilliant offlcer trained at W(«)lwi('h, who had alreiidy gained high renown in Cliina, not only for military talent, but for his adroitness and skill In ne- gotiation and di|)l(>inacy. This was Colonel Gor- don, familiarly known as 'Chinese Gordon,' who was now to add fresh lustre to his name in Kgypt as Gordon Pasha. Gonhm was appointed Governour-General of tiie Soudaii in Ui74. With him were a.ssociatid ChailliVLong, an Anu'ricau ollleer, who was cliief of liisstalT; th^' German, Dr. Einin Ellendi, medical ollleer to Ihe expedi- tion; Meutcnant»Cliipi)en(lall and AValson; Ocssl and Kemp, engineers. . . . Tlienceforward thu territories, of which so little had hitherto been known, became tlie continual scene of military movements and scientific excurshms. . . . Thu Soudan was so far conciuered as to be held by about a dozen military outposts stationed id(mg the Nile from Lake No to Lakes Albert and loni- him. ... In 1870 Gordon went back to Cairo. Nevertlieles.s, although ho was wearied with thu continual stri'gglo of the past two years, worn down by the leessimt labours of intcrmil organi- sation and geographical investigations, disheart- ened, too, by tlio jealousies, rivalries, and in- trigues of all around him, and by the ill feeling of the very people whom the Khedive's Govern- ment had sent to support him, he consented to return again to his po.st; this time with the titlu of Governour-General of the Soudan, Darfur, and the Equatorial Provinces. At tlie beginning of 1877 he t(X)k possession of tho Oovernnient palaco at Khartoum. . . . Egyptian authority, allied with Euro|)eun civilisation, appeared now at length to b(! taking some hold on the various districts, and the Cairo Government might begin to look forward to a time when it could reckon on some reward for its labours and sacrifices. The area of the new Egyptian Scndan had now become immense. Geographically, its centre in- cluded the entire valley of the Nile proi)cr, from Berber to the great hilies ; on tho cas., were such portions of the valleys of the Blue Nile and At- ))ara as lay outside Abyssinia ; and on the west were the districts watered b\' the Babr-el-Ghazal, and the Bahr-cl-Arab, rii^ht away to the confines of Wadai. . . . Uufo; tunately in 1870 Ismail Pasha was deposed, and, to the grievous loss of the Soudan, Gori'.ou was recalled. As the im- mediate consequence, the country fell back into the hands of 'lurkish pashas; apathy, disorder, carelessness, and ill feeling rcajipeared at Khar- toum, and tlie Arab slave-dealers, who had for a period been kept under by Baker, Gessi, and Gordon, came once more to tlic front. ... It was I{aouf Pasha who, in 1879, succeeded Gordon as Governour-General. lie had three Europeans as his subordinates — Emiu Bey, wlio before Gor- don left, had been placed in churf,c of the province of the equator; Lupton Bey, an Englishman, who had followed Oessi as Qovernour on the Bahr-el- Ghazal; iind Slatin Bey, an Austrian, in com- mand of JJarfur. Ilaouf had barely been two years at Khartoum when the Mahdi appeared on BOYPT, 1870-1888. Tht Uahdt EGYPT, 187(J-1883. tlio urcnp. Proniptr<loltlior by porsoniil nmWtUm orl)V religious liiitrcd, tlii' lilciiof pliiyliiK tlic piirt of ' Mithill ' hud Ix'i-ii lU'tcil upon liv iimny iiii Ami) fnnutic liM'u Maiii)i|. Hucli iiii Mvu, at lui curly age, hail taki'ii poMwssloii of a certain Hoiui.iiicsc of low birth, a imtlvc of Dongola, by name Mo- hninmcd Ahmed. Hcforu openly lutpirhiK to the rAle of Iho regenerator of iHlani he had tilled Heveral subordinate cngagenK'ntti, notably one under Dr. Pencv, the French Hurgeon-gcneral In the Houdan, wlio died in IHfll. Sliortiy after- wards lie received adndttuncu into tlie powerful order of the Glieluni ilervlslieH, and then com- menced his HchcmeH for stirring up a revolution in defence of his creed. His proceedings did not fail to attract the attention of Uessi I'asha, who had him arrested at Hliekka and imprisoned for live months. Under the government of I{aouf he t(X)k up his al>ode upon the small island of Abba, on liie Nile above Khartoum, where he gained a considerable notoriety by the austerity of his life and by the fervr)ur of his devotions, tlius grudually gainnig a high ri^putation for sanctity. Not(mly olTcrinjfs but followers streamed in from every (pnirtcr. lie became fich as well as power- ful. . . . Waiting till Ma v 18H1, he tliena.s.sume(l Unit a propitious time hud arrived for the reuilsa- tlou of Ills plans, and accordingly hud himself publicly ])rocluimed as ' Mahdi, inviting every fakir and every religious leader of Islam to ccmie and join him at Abba. . . . Convinced that it was impolitic to tolerate any longer the revolutionary intrigues of siieli an adventurer at the very gates of Khartoum, Huouf Pasha resolved to rid the country of Jloliuinmed and to send him to Cairo for triul, An expedition was accordingly des- patched to the island of Abba, but unfortunately the means employed were inadequate to the tusk. Only a sMiail body of black sohliers were sent to arrest the agitator in his (juartcrs, and they, in- spire^i no doubt by a vague und superstitious dreud of a man who represented himself as the mes- senger of Allah, wavered and actwl with inde- cision. Before their oftlcers could rally them to energy, the )Iahdi, with a fierce train of follow- ers, knife in hand, rushed upon them, and killing many, ))Ut the rest to flight ; then, seeing that a renewed assault was likely to be made, he with- drew the insurgent band into a retreat of safety amongst the mountains of Soutiiern Kordofaii. Henceforth revolt was openly declared. Such was the condition of things in August 1881. Chase was given, but every effort to secure the person of the pretended prophet was baffled. A further attempt was made to arrest him by the Mudir of Fiishoda with tJM men, only to be at- tended witli a still more melancholy result. After tt desperate struggle the iludir lay stretched upon the ground, his soldiers murdered all around him. One single ofllcer, with a few struggling cavalry, escaped the massacre, and returned to report the fatal nev/s. The reverse caused an absolute panic in Khartoum, an intense excitement spreading throughout the Soudan. . . . Meantime the Malidi's prestige was ever on tlie increase, and he soon felt sufllciently strong to assume the offen- sive. Ills troops overran Kordofan and Sennar, advancing on the one hand to the town of Sennar, wiiicli they set on fire, and on the other to El- Obeid, which they placed in a state of siege. In tlic following July a fresh and more powerful ex- pedition, this time numbering 6,000 men, under ',he command of Yusauf Pasha, left Fashoda and made towanls the Malidi's headiiuartera. Tt mot with no better fate than the expeditions that had ScmelM'fore. . . . And thenit was tliat the KngliNli 'overnment, dlHcerning danger for Kgypt In this insurrection of Islam, set to work to act for the Khedive. It told olT 1 1,000 men, and placed them under the communil of Hicks I'asha, ai .)tllccr in the Kgyptian service who hud mude the Aliyssln- iun campaign. At the end of l)ecenit«'r 18H'i this expcditmn embarked at Suez for Suakln, crossed the desert, reached the Nili^ at Herber. and after much endurance on the way, arrived at Khar- toum. Iiefori' this, Kl-()beid had fallen into tlio Malidi's power, and there he had taken up his lieu(l(|imrters. Some trilling udvantages were gained by Hicks, but having entered Koi<lofun with till' design of retaking Kl-Obciil, he was, on the.'ith of November I88;t, hemmed In umongst the Kasgil pussi'S, und ufter three diiys' heroic (Iglitiiig, his urniy of iiboiit 10,000 men was overpowered by a force live' or six times their superior in numbers, und completely extermin- ated. Hicks I'uslia himself, his Kiiropeaii staff, and many Kgypthm olllcers of high rank, were among the dead, and forty-two guns fell into tlio hands of the enemy. Again, not a man was left to curry the fatal tidings to Kliartoiini. Uel)ellion conlinued to spread. After being agitated for months, the population of tlio Eastern Soudan al.so niuile a rising. Osmun Dignu, the foremost of the Mulidi's lieutenunts, occupied the roud between Suukin and Herber, and siirrouniled ,Sinkut und Tokar; then, having destroyed, one after another, two Egyptian columns that had been despatched for the relief of tlieso towns, he llnully cut oil tlio communi- cation between Kiiartoum and tlio Hed Sea. The tide of insurrection by this timo had risen so high that it threatened not only 'o over- throw the Khedive's authority in tho Soudan, but to become the source or serious |K'ril to Egypt itself." — A. J. Wauters, Stanley's Emin Patliii Ejr-))editinn, ch. 1-2. Also in: Maj. U. F. Wingatc, MaMii»m and the Egyptian SuiUm, bk. 1-4.— Col. Sir. W. P. Butler, Charles Oeovi/e Gordon, ch. 5-6. — A. E. Hake, IVie titury of Chinese Gordon, eh. 10-1 ,'>. A. D. 1875-1882.— Bankruptcy of the state. — English and French control of finances. — Native hostility to the foreigners. — Rebel- lion, led by Arabi. — English bombardment of Alexandria. — "The facilities given by foreign money-lenders encouraged extravagance and os- tentation on tho part of the sovereign and tho ruling classes, while mismanagement and cor- rupt practices were common among oiflcials, so tliat the public debt rose in 1875 to ninety-one millions, and in January, 1881, to ninety-eight millions. . . . The European capitalists obtained for their money nominally six to nine per cent. , but really not less tlian eight to ten percent., as the bonds were issued at low rates. . . . Theinter- eston tliese borrowed miilionswaspunctuallypaid up to the end of 1875, when the Khedive found that ho could not satisfy his creditors, and tlio British government interfered in his favour. Mr. Cave was sent to examine into Egyptian finances, and ho reported that loans at twelve and thirteen per cent, were being agreed to and renewed at twenty-five per cent., and that sorncmeasure of consolidation was necessary. The two western Powers now took the matter in hand, but they thereby recognized the whole of those usurious 763 EOVPT, 187(V-188a. Arnhi't Ktvoll. KOYIT, l875-18Ha. demandii. Tlie ilebt, although under their onn- tnil, itnil llicn'forc iMTun*il, wiui nut rciliiml liy thr iiiiioiinl iilrcitily pnld i iirciiiiuiim tn rlHk. Hot witH tlir ntti> III iiitcrcHl diiiiiniNlii'd to luiniC' tbiott iiioro tu'iirly upproiu'hiiiK Hi*^ rittc pityidilc on KnKliHh i'oiihdIh, which was thn'(^ per (-cnt. A trnninal uiidrr thi! Jurihdii'tioii of united Eiiropctwi ittid tmtivc JudgcH wiih uIho ('Htnl)liiilu-d In K^ypt to di<ci<l(! complikintH of forciKiicrH •K»inHt nittivrR, nnd viiT vrrwi. In May, IH70, thlH tril)unal ifiivv ludKinciit tliat tlic income of till' Klicdive iHmall, from IdH private landed nniperty, eoidd \m: iippropriatcd to pay tlie ercil- ItorH <if tliu Htate, and an execution wan ])ut into the Viceregal palace, Kr Kamleli, near Alex- andria. Tlie Khedivi^ pninounecd tlie Judgment Invalid, and the triliiinal ccam'd to act. Two conunisHioners vvero now again Mcnt to report on Kgyntian (InanceH — M. .loubert, tlie director of the I'arin Hank, for France, and Mr. Ooschen, a former udnlKler, for Kneland. Th-ne gentlemen propoHcd to liuiid over the control the flnanccH to two Kiiropeans, depriving tlii^ Htate of all Independence and governing power. The Khe- dive, in order to rcHlHt thcHu demandH, convoked Hort of I'arllamcnt in order to maki; an appeal to the people. From this I'arllament was after- wari's developed the Assembly of Notables, and the National iiarty, now so often spoken of. In 1HT7 a Kuropean commission of control over Kgyptiaii llnance was named. . . . Nubar Pasha was made I'rime minister in 1H7H; tli«! control of the tlnances was entrusted to Mr. Wilson, an Knglishnian; nnd lat4;r, the French controller, M. do liligniisres, entered the (,'ablnet. Better order was ihus restored to the finances, liothschiid's new loan of eight and a half millions was issued at seventy-three, and therefore brought in from six to eight per cent. nett. . . . But to be able to pay the en ditors their full interest, economy had t'> be iutruduce<l into the national expendi- ture. To do this, clumsy arrangements were made, and the injustice shown in carrying them out embittered many classes of the population, nnd laid tin; foimdations of a fanatical hatred of race against race. ... In consc(iuence of all this, the majority of the notables, many ulemas, oflicers, and higher oflicials among the Egyptians, formed themselves into a National party, with the object of resisting the oppressive govern- ment of the foreigner. They were joined by the great mass of the discharged soldiers aiul sub- ordimite ollicia''*, not to mention many others. At the end of tebruary, 1870, a revolt broke out in Cairo. Nubar, hated by the Nation xl party, ■was dismissed by the Khedive Ismail, wlio in- stalled his son Tewtik as Prime minister. In conseciuence of this, the coupons duo in April were not paid till the beginning of Jlay, and the western Powers demanded the reinstatement of Nubar. Tliat Tewtik on this occasion retired nnd sided with the foreigners is the chief cause of his present [1882] unpopularity in Egypt. Ismail, however, now dismis.scd Wdson and l)e Blignieres, and a Cabinet was formed, consisting chiefly of native Egyptians, with Slierif Pasha as Prime minister. Slicrif now raised for tlie lii-st tiini- the cry of which wo have since heard so much, and which was inscribed by Arabi on his banner^, 'Egypt for the Egyptians.' Tho western Powers retorted by a menacing naval demonstration, and demanded of the Sultan the deposition of the Khedive. In June, 1879, this demand wim Agreed to. Iimnil went into exile, and his place was tilled by Mahomed Tewllk. . . . The new Klie<live, with apathetic weak- nesfi, yiehled the n'constructlon of his mlnlHtry and theorgani/ationof Ids lliiaiices to the weslern Powers. Mr. Baring and M. de Blignii^reH, aw commisHionerM of tlie control, aided tiy olllcials named by Holhschild to watch over his iirivato interests, now ruled the land. They ilevotttd forty live millions (about sixteen shillings per head on th(> entire population) to the payment of interest. The people were embiltereif by tho distrust shown towards them, and the further reduction of the army from fifty to fifteen thousand men threw a hirge number out of employment. . . . Many acts of military insub- ordination iH'curred, nnd at last, on the 8th of NovenilMT, 1881, the gn'iit military revolt broke out in ('airo. . . . Alinied Arabi, colonel of tho 4th regiment, now llrst canii! into juiliHc notice, Heveral regiments, lieaded by their olllcers, ojienly rebelled against the orders of tlio Khedive, who was compelled to reci.ll llio nationalist, .Sherif Pasha, and to refer the further demands of the rebels for the increase of tho army, and for a constitutio: to the Hultan. Sherif Pasha, however, did noi, long enjoy tho contldenci^ of the National Egy|)tian party, at wlios<' head Arabi now stood, winning every day more reputation nnd inlluence. The army, in wliich li(! permitted great laxity of discipline, was entirely devoted to him. ... A pretended plot of Circassian olllcers against his life he dex- terously used to increase his popularity. . . . Twenty-six oflicers were condemned to death by court-martial, but the Khedive, at the instance of tlie western Powers, conunuted tho sentence, and they were banished to Constanlinople. This leniency was stigmatizeil by the National party as treachery to tlie country, and tin; (,'liamber of Notables retorted by naming Arabi commander- in-cliief of tho army and Prime minister witliout asking tlie Cimsent of the Khedive. Tlio ('liam- bcr 8(xm afterwards came into conflict wifli tho foreign comptrollers. . . . This ended i'l Do Bligni^res resigning his post, nnd in the J!ay of tho present year (1882) the consuls ov the European Powers declared that a fleet of EngHL't and French ironclads would appear before Alex- andria, to demand tlio disbanding of the army and the j •nishment of its lendei's. The thrent wns realizev., nnd, in spite of protests from tho Sultan, a fleet of English and French irom^lada entered tho harbour of Alexandria. Tlie Khe- dive, at tho advice of his ministers and the chiefs of tho National party, appealed to tho Sultan. . . . The popular hatred of foreigners now became more and more apparent, antl be- gan to assume threatening dimensions. . . . On tlie 30th of May, Arabi announced that a des- patch from the Sultan had reached him, prom- ising the deposition of Tewtik in favour <)f his uncle Ilalim Pasha. ... On tho 3rd of June, Dervish Pa.slia, a man of energy notwithstanding his years, had sailed from Constantinople. . . . His object was to pacify Egypt and to reconcile Tewflk and Arabi Pasha. . . . Since the ptibll- cation of the despatch purporting to proclaim Ilalim Pasha as KUedive, Arabi had done noth- ing towards dethroning the actual ruler. But on the 2nd of June he began to strengthen the fortifications of Alexandria with earthworks. . . . Tho British admiral protested, and tho 764 EOYIT, 1875-1882. ttintibiiittmrnt n/ Alejandria. KfJYPT, I883-I88it. Siilliin, on till! rcmonHtriiiici'M of ItritiHli iliplo iiiiicy, fiirliiul till' ('iiiilliiiiiitliiii of till' works. . . . KcrioiiH iliMliirliiiiu'i'M look plurc In Ali'X iinilria on till) lltli. 'I'lic ihiIIvk niblili' liivi.ili'il till' Kiiropi'iin iiuiirtcr, pliiiiiliTi'd tin- Hlioim, tiinl h1(!W miiny forol^niTH. . . . 'riioiiKli IIiimIIhIui'Ii' iiiH'i'.'* wcri! not rciirwi'il, ii ({I'lirral riiilKnilioii of fori'ljfiH'rti wiiH till' n'tiuU. ... On llir "J'Jnil u roininiiution, coiiHUtinf; of niiu' iiiitivrH iiiiil ninr Kuropvana , , . Iii'gun to try tlio riiiKli'uili'rM of tlio riot. . . . Hut cvi'ntM wito liiirryluK on towiinU wiir. Till! workH iit Ali'Xiinimii wrn' n'roinincnccd, luiil tlii! fortilli'iitiimx iiriiii'il with lii'iivy ifMax. Till! KngliHli iiiliiiiriil rrcrivi'il iii- furniittion that tin; I'litninro to tliu Imrlioiir wouhl III! Iilorki'il by Hiiiikun Htori-NliipH, anil tliix, ho ilccliiri'il, woiilii 1)1! iin art of oprn war. A foin- plrli' sL'liinif for the ilrstriiclion of tin- Sui'Z canal wiih iiIho iliHrovi'ri'il. . . . Thu KiiKliiih, on thfir Hitli', now liof^un to niukr, hoHtili! ilriiioiistra- tioim; unil Anilii, wliili! rcpiiiliatinK wiuliko iliti'ntioiiH, ili'dart'ii liinisi'lf rraily for rcHislaiia!. . . . On till! ^7lli the Kn);liHh vicc-iHiiiHul ailviHi'il his ft'lloW't.'oiiiitrynu>n to loavti Aluxaniiria, uml on till! Ilrd of .Inly, iKiorillii)? to tin: 'Timi'S,' tlio arniii>?i'nii!iitH for var wrri; coiiipli'ti'. . , . Finally, iiH a rcconuaiiiNaiicL' on tho Utii hIiowi'iI that tliu fortH WLTU Htill lii'ing Htri!nKthi!ni!d, hi; [tliu KnKli.ih adiiiiral| informed the ftoveriior of Alex- andria, /ultiiar I'aHlia, that unlL'-sx the forts liad been previously evaluated and surrendered to tiie Kn^lish, he iuteniliil to loinnience tiie boni- liardnient at four the next morning. ... As the French government were unable to take part in any active ineasure.i (a grant for that purpose having been refused by the National Assembly), tho greater part of their licet, under Admiral Conrad, left Alexandria for Port Said. The ironcliuls of other nations, more tlian fifty in number, anchored outside the harl«)ur of Alex- andria. . . . On the evening of the lOlli of .luly . . . and at daybreak on the nth, the . . . iron- clads tix)k up the positions assigned to them. There was a gentle breeze from the east, and the weather was dear. At 0.30 a. ni. all the ships were cleared for action. At seven the admiral signalled to tho Alexandra to Are a shell into Fort Ada. . . . Tho first siiot tired from tho Alex- audni was immediately replied to liy the Egyp- tians ; whereupon the ships of tho whole fleet and the Egyptian forts and batteries opened lire, and the engagement became general. ... At 8.1i0 Fort Marsa-ellvanat was blown up by shells from the Invincible and Monarcli, and by nine o'clock tho Temeraire, Monarcli, and Penelope had gilenced most of the guns in Fort Meks, although four iletied every effort from their protected sit- uation. By 11.45 Forts Marabout and Adjomi had ceased firing, and a landing party of seamen and marines was dosputclied, under cover of tlie Uittern's guns, to spike and blow up the guns in tlie forts. At 1.30 a shell from tlie Superb burst in the chief powder magazine of Fort Ada and blow it up. By four o'clock all tho guns of Fort Pharos, and lialf an hour later those of Fort Meks, were disabled, and at 5.30 tlie admiral ordered tlie firing to cease. Tlie ships were reiieutedly struck and sustained some damage. . . . Tlie Eng- lish casualties were five killed and twenty-eight wounded, a comparatively small loss. The Egyp- tian loss is not known. ... At 1 p. m. on the 12th of July, the white flag was hoisted by the Egyp- tians. Admiral tsoymour demanded, as a prelimi imry nieasurc. the Hurrriiiirr of the fort* com- iiiiiiiiling the I'litranri' to the harlMiiir, and the dc- goliatliiliHon this po<" were fruitlcHHly protraiU'it fur some liourM. As night apiiroai lied llie city wiih Ki'i'ii to be on tiri' in many places, and the tranies were Npreading in all dlret'tloiiM. Thi! Kngliiili now iH'rame aware that the whlU'Mag had nieri'ly iH-en used as means to gain lime for a liasty I'vaciialliiii of Alexandria by Ariilil and his army. Hailors and niarines were now laiideil, and slilpH of other nations sent drtaehnients on Klmre to tiroteet llieir countrymen. Hut it wastiHilatu; Hedouiiis, convicts, and ill iliselplined Hohlieni had plundered and burnt tile Kiiropean quarter, killed many foreigners, and a Keiiter's telegram of the 14tli Hiiid, 'Alexandria Is completely de- stroyed.'"— II. Vogt, T/w h'l/yiilian Han/ 1882, pp. a-3a. Ai.Hi) IN. ,r. C. McCoau, Kiji/i'l umkr Imutil, eh. 8-10. — ('. Uoyle, The Kt/j/iitiu u (Mmikiij/iui, r. 1, •,.. 1-20.— AViffiiv* and I'lmhiu. — V. F. Ooixlrich, Ilfpt. oil. Jliitinh MUitni-y and Natnl Oi>eratii>ii> in K'/i/iil, \Wi, pt. I. A. D. 1883-1883.— The masMcre and de- struction in Alexandria. -DecUr::d rebellion of Arabi.— Its suppression by the English. — Banishment of Arabi.— Engrlish occupation. — The city of Alexandria had become " such u Beetle of pillage, massacre, and wanton destruc- tiim as to make tlie vorld sliudder. It was the old tale of horrors. 1 louses were plundered and burned; the Europe .11 (iiiarter, including the stately buildings sur ounding the Great Siiuare of Meheiiiel All, was Harked and left a heap of smoldering ruins; and more than two IhoUNanil Europeans, for the most part Levantines, were massacred with all the cruelty of oriental fanati- cism. This was on tlie afternoon of tho 12th. It was the second masNacro that had occurred under tho very eyes of the British fleet. Tho admiral's fidlure to prevent it has , een called unfortunate by some and criminal by others. It seems to have been wholly witliout excuse. . . . The blue-jackets were landed on the 13th, and cleared the way before them witli a Galling gun. The next day, more ships having arrived, a surtieiont forco was landed to take iiossession of the entire city. Tho khi i vo was escorted back to Uas-elTin from liamieli, and given a strong guard. Summary justice was dealt out to all hostile Arabs who had been captured in tho city. In sliort, English intervention was fol- lowed by Eiiglisli occupation. Tlie bombardment of Alexandria liad defined clearly the respect- ive positions of Arabi and the khodive toward Egypt and tho Egyptian people. . . . Tli«' kliedive was not only weak in the eyes of his people, but he was regarded as tlie tool of Eng- land. . . . From the moment tho first shot was tired upon Alexandria .Vrabi was tlio real ruler of tho lieopie. . . . The conference at Con- stantinople was stirred by tho news of tho Ixim- bardment of Alexandria. It presented a note to tlio Porte, July 15, requesting the dispatch of Turkish troops to restore tlio status quo in Egypt. But the sultan had no idea of taking the part of tlie Cliri.stian in wliat all Islam re- garded as a conte.' t between tho Moslem and tho unbeliever. . . . In Egypt, tlie khedivo had been prevailed upon, after sonic demur, to proclaim Arabi a rebel and discharge him from his cabinet. Arabi had issued a counter- iirociamation, on tlie some day, doclaring Towtik a traitor to his peoplu 65 EGYPT, 1882-1883. ne English Campaiyn. EGYPT, 1883-1883. nnil his religion. Having received the new8 of the liliediveH prfxjiimalion, Lord Diifferin, the Britisli umbassiulor iit ConBtnntinople, iinnouneed to tlie conference tliiit KngliUKl was about to Bend an expedition to Kfiypt to suppres-s tlie rel)elIion and to restore tlie aiitliority of tlie kiredive. Tliereupon the sultan declared that lie had decided to send a Turkish expedition. Lord Dulferiii feigned to accept the sultan's co- operation, but demanded that the Porte, as a lircliminary .step, should declare Arabi a rebel. Again the sultan was confronted with the dan- ger of incurring the wrath of the Moslem world. He could not dec^lare Arabi a rebel. ... In his desp(Tatioii lie sent a force of 3,000 men to !Su(ia bay with orders to hold themselves in readiness to enter Egypt at a moment's notice. ... In the meantime, however, the English expedition had arrived in Egypt and was pro- cee<ling to crush the rebellion, regardless of the diidoniatic delays and bickerings at Constanti- nople, ... It was not until the 15tli of August that Sir Garnet \Vt)lseley arrived with his force in Egypt. Tlie English at that time held only two points, Alexandria and Suez, while the en- tire Egyptian interior, as well as Port Said and Ismailia, were held 'ly Arabi, whose force, it was estimated, now OMOunted to about 70,000 men, of whom :\\, least 50,000 were regulars. Th(' objective point of General AVolseley's ex- pedition to crush Arabi was, of course, the city of Oairo. Th-^rc were two ways of approaching that city, one from Alexantlria, through the Delta, and the other from the Suez canal. There were many objections to the former route. . . . The Suez canal was supposed to be neutral water. . . . But England felt n.j obligation to recognize any neutrality, . . acting upon the principle, which is doubtless sound, that ' the neutrality of any cana! joining the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans will be maintained, if at all, by the nation which can place and keep tlie strongest ships at each extremity.' In other ■words. General Wolseley decided to enter Cairo by way of the Suez canal and Ismailia. But he kept his plan a profound secret. Admiral Sey- mour alone knew his purpose. ... On the 19th, the transports moved eastward from Alexandria, as if to attack Abukir; but under the cover of darkiiess the.t niiilit, they were escorted on to Port Said, whei 'ley learned that the entire canal, owing t the preconcerted action of Admiral Scymou:, was in the hands of the British. On tlie Slst, the troops met Sir Henry McPherson's Indian contingent at Ismailia. Two days were now consumed in rest and prepara- tion. Tlio Egyptians cut off the water supply, ■which came from the Delta by the Sweet Water canal, by damming the canal. A sortie to secure possession of the dam ■was therefore deemed necessary, and was successfully made on the 84th. Further advances were made, and on the 26th, Kassassin, a stati-jn of some importance on the caual and railway, was occupied. Here the British force was obliged to delay for two weeks, while organizing a hospital and a transport ser- vice. This gave Arabi opportunitv to concen- trate his forces at Zagazig and 'Tel-el-Kcbir. But he knew it was for his interest to strike at once before the British transports could come up with the advance. He therefore made two attempts, one on August 28, and the other on September 9, to regain the position lost at Kas- sassin. But he failed in both, though inflicting .some loss upon his opponents. On the 12tli of September ))reparations were made by General Wolseley for a decisive battle. He had become convinced from daily reconuoissiuice and from the view obtaineil in the engagement of Septem- ber 9, that the fortifications at Telel-Kebir were both extensive and formidable. ... It was therefore deciiled to make the approach under cover of darkness. . . . At 1.30 on the morning of the llith General Wolseley gave the onler for the advance, his force consisting of about 11,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalrymen, and sixty fleld-guns. They had only the stars to guide them, but so aceiirately was the movement conducted that the leading brigades of each division reacliiMl the enemy's outposts within two minutes of each other. ' The enemy (says General Wolseley^ were completely surpri.sed, and it was not until one or two of their advanced sentries flrcfl their rifles that they realized our close proximity to their ■ivorks. ' . . . The intrenclinients were not carried without a severe struggle. The Egyp- tians fought with a desperate courage and hundreds of them were bayoneted at their posts. . . . But what could the rank mid tile accom- plish when 'each ollicer knew that he would run, but hoped his neighbor would stay.' At the first shot Arabi and his second in command took horse and galloped to Belbeis, where they caught a train for Cairo. Slost of the other olricers, as the reports of killed and woimded show, did the same. The Egyptians (ired their tirst shot at 4.55 A. M., and at 0.45 the English had pos- session of Arabi's headquarters and the canal bridge. The British loss was 57 killed, 880 wounded, and 22 missing. The Egyptian army left about 2,000 dead in the fortitications. . . . A proof of the completeness of the success was the entire dissipation of Arabi's army. Groups of soldiers, it is true, were scattered to different parts of Egypt ; but the army organization was completely broken up with the battle of Tel-el- Kebir. . . . ' Major-Qeneral Lowe was ordered to push on with all possible speed to Cairo. . , . General Lowe [reached] the gi'eat barracks of Abbassieh, just outside of C.;i"o, at 4.45 P. M., on the 14tli instant. The cavalry marched sixty- five miles in these two days. ... A message was sent to Arabi Pasha through the prefect of the city, calling upon him to surrender forth- with, which he did uncondii-'onally.' . . . Before leaving England. Wolseley had predicted that he would enter Cairo on tlie 16th of September; but with still a day to sp,are the feat was accom- plished, and Arabi's rebellion was completely crushed. England now stood alone. Victory had been won without the aid of Prance or the intervention of Turkey. In Constantinople ne- gotiations regarding iTurkish expeditions were still pending when Lord Dufferin received the news of Wolseley's success, and announced to the Porte that there was now no need of a 'Turkish force in Egypt, as the war was ended. France at once prepared to resume her share in the control ; but Eugland, having borne the sole burden of tl'.e war, did not propose now to share the influence her success had given her. And It was for the interest of Egypt that she should not. . . . England's first duty, after quiet was assured, was to send away all the British troops except a force of obout 11,000 men, which it was deemed advisable to retain in Egypt until 766 EGYPT, 1883-1883. Oeneral Gordon at Khario\tm. EGYPT, 1884-1885. the klicdivc'g mithnrity was placed on n safe footing tlirougliout tlio land. . . . Wliat sliould be done with Arahi was tlie (jucation of para- mount interest, wlicn once tlic khedive's aiitlior- Ity was rc-estJiblished and recognized. Tcwflk and his ministers, if left to tliemselves, wouhl «n(iii08tional)ly liavo taken his life. . . . But England was determined that Arnbi should have a fair trial. . . It was decided that the rebel leaders should appear before a military tribunal, and they were given English counsel to plead their cause. . . . The trial was a farce. Every- thing was ' cut and dried ' beforehand. It -./as arranged that Arabi was to plead guilty to re- bellion, that be was forthwith to bo condemned to death by the cpurt, and tliat the khedivo was inuncfiiately to commute the sentence to perpetual exile. In fact, the necessary jiapers ■were drawn up and signed before the court met for Arabi's trial on December 3. . . . On the 26th of December Arabi and his six com- panions . . . upon whom the same sentence had been passed, left Cairo for the Islaud of Ceylon, there to spend their life of perpetual exile. . . Lord Dullerin . . . had been sent from Con- Btantinoplc to Cairo, early in November, with the special mission of bringing order out of governmental chaos. In two months he had prepared a scheme of legislative reorganization. This was, however, somewhat altered ; so that it ■was not until May, 1883, that the plan in its improved form was occepted by the decree of the khedive. The new constitution provided for three clas-ses of assemblies: the 'Legislative Council,' the ' General Assembly,' ond the ' Pro- vincial Councils,' of which there were to be fourteen, one for each province. . . . Every Egyptian man, over twenty years of age, was to ■vote (by ballot) for an ' elector-delegate ' from the village in the neighborhowl of which he lived, and the 'electors-delegate' from all the villages in a province were to form the constitu- ency that should elect the provincial council. . . . The scheme for reorganization was carried forward to the extent of electing the 'electors- delegate' in September; but by that time Egypt was again in a state of such disquietude that tlis British advisers of the khedive considered it un- wise to put the new institutions into operation. In place of legislative council and general assem- bly, the khedive appointed a council of state, consisting of eleven Egvptians, two Annenians, and ten Europeans. 'The reforms were set aside for the time being in view of impending troubles and dangers in the Sudan."— J. E. Bowen, T/ie Conflict of Edst and West in, Egypt, eh. 5-6. Also in : Col. J. F. Maurice, Military Hist, of the Campaign of 1883 in Egypt. — C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, v. 1, ch. 22-44. A. D. 1884-1885. — General Gordon's Mission to Khartoum. — The town beleaguered by the Mahdists. — English rescue expedition. — The energy that was too late. — "The abandonment of tlie Soudan being decided upon, the British Government confided to General Gordon the task of extricating the Egyptian garrisons scattered throughout the country. . . . Gordon's original instructions were dated the 18th January, 1884. He was to proceed at once to Egypt, to report on the military situation in the Soudan, and on the measures which it might be advisable to take for the security of the Egyptian garrisons and for the safety of the European population in Khar- toum. . , . Hewas to be accompanied by Colonel Stewart. . . . Gordon's final instructions were given him by the Egyptian Government in a firman appointing him Governor-General. . . . Gordon arrived at Khartoum on the 18tli Febru- ary. . . . While Gordon was scndini; almost daily expressions of his view as to the o:dy way of carrying out the policy of eventual evacuation, it was also becoming clear to him that he would very soon be cu» oft' from the rest of Egypt. His first remark on this subject was to express 'the conviction that I shall be caught in Khartoum ' ; and he wrote, — ' Even if I was mean enough to escape I have no power to do so. ' The accuracy of this forecast was speedily demonstratecl. Within a few days communications with Khar- toum were interrupted, and although subse- (piently restored for a time, the rising of the riparian tribes, rendered the receipt and despatch of messages exceedingly uncertain. . . . Long before the summer of 1884, it was evident that the position of Gordon at Khartoum had become so critical, that if he were to be rescued at all, it could only be by the despatch of a British force. . . . Early in May, war preparations were com- menced in England, and on the 10th of the month the military authorities in Cairo received instruc- tions to prepare for the despatch in October of an expedition for the relief of the Soudanese capital. 12,000 camels wore ordered to be purchased and held in readiness for a forward march in the autumn. On the 16th May a half-battalion of English troops was moved up the Nile to Wady Haifa. A few weeks later some other positions on the Nile were occupied by portions of the Army of Occupation. Naval officers were also sent up the river to examine and report upon the cataracts and other impediments to navigation. Still it was not till the 5th August that Mr. Glad- stone rose in the House of Commons tc move a vote of credit of £300,000 to enable the Govern- ment to undertake operations for the relief of Gordon. ... It was agreed that there were but two routes by which Khartoum could be ap- proached by an expedition. One by way of the Nile, and the other via Souakim and Berber. . . . The Nile route having been decided on, prepara- tions on a large srOe were begun. ... It was at first arranged that not more than 5,000 men should form the Expedition, but later on the number was raised to 7,000. . . . The instruc- tions given to Lord Wolseley stated that the primary object of the Expedition was to bring away Gordon and Stewart from Khartoum ; and when that purpose should be effected, no further offensive operations of any kind were to be under- taken." — C. Koyle, The Egyptian Campaigns, 1883-1885, V. 2, ch. 12-18.— "First, it was said that our troops would be before the gates of Kliartoum on January 14th; next it was the mid- dle of February ; and then the time stretched out to the middle of March. . . . Lord Wolseley offered a hundred pounds to the regiment cover- ing the distance from Sarras to Debbeh most ex- peditiously and with least damage to boats. . . . He also dispatched Sir Herbert Stewart on the immortal march to Gakdul. Stewart's force, composed principally of the Mounted Infantry and Camel Corps, and led by a troop of the 19tli Hussars, acting as scouts — numbering about 1,100 in all — set out from Korti on December 80th. its destination was about 100 miles from headqu irters, and about 80 from the Nile at 767 EGYPT, 1884-1885. ELBA. Slicndy. The onterpriso, dinicultanddcspcrateas it wiis', WHS iicliieved witli pcTf(!ct 8ucct'S.s. . . . On lli(^ 17th Januury Sir llerbfrt Stowiirf enKiiged tlu! ciieniy on thi^ roiul to Mctcnineh, iind after de- feating some 10,000 Arabs — eollected from Ber- l)cr, Metenmeli, and Omdurman — pushed for- ward to the Abii Klea Wells. His tactics were much tlie same as those of General Graliani at Eltelt, and those of the Mahdi's men — of attacli- ing wljcn thirst and fatigue liad well-nigli pros- trated the force — were at all points similar to those adopted against Hicks. Our losses were 05 uon-coniMUssioned oilicers and men killed and 85 wounded, with 9 olHeers killed — among them Colonel Uurnaby — and 9 wounded. Stewart at once pushed on "for Metemneh and the Nile. He left the Wells ou the 18th Jan. to occupy Metem- ueh, if possible, but, failing that, to make for the Kile and entrench liimsclf . After a night's march, some five miles south of Metemneh, the column found itself in presence of an enemy said to have been about 18,000 strong. Stewart halted and formed a zareba under a deadly Are. He himself was mortally hurt in the groin, and Sir. Cameron, of the Standard, and Mr. Herbert, of the Morning Post, were killed. The zareba completed, the column advanced in square, and the Arabs, profit- ing by Abu Klea, moved forward in echelon, apparently with the purpose of charging. At thirty yards or so they were brought to bay, so terrific was the lire from the square, ond so splen- didly served was Norton's artillery. For two hours the battle raged ; and then the Arabs, ' mown down \n heaps, ' gave way. Meantime Sir Charles Wilson had made (> dash for the Nile, where he foimd steamers and reinforcements from Gordon, and the laconic messige, ' All right at Khartoum. Can hold out for yeirs.'. . . In the joy at the good news, none had .itoppcd to consiuer the true meaning of the message, ' All right. Can hokl out for j'ears,' for noni was aware that nearly two months before Gordon had said lie had just provisions enough for 40 days, and that what lie really meant was that hi had come to his last biscuit. The message — \'hich was written for the enemy — was dated I)e;. 29, luid Sir Charles Wilson would reach Khartoum on Jan. 28, just a month after its despatch. . . . The public, care- fully kept in ignonmce . . . and hopeful be- yond their wont, were simply stupefied to hear, on Feb. 5, that Khartoum was in the hands of the Alahdi and Gordon captured or dead. " — A. E. Hake, I'/te Stmy of Chinene Gordon, v. 2, eh. 10. Also in; H. M. Stanley, I/i. Darkest Africa, ch. 1.— Col. H. E. Colvile, llu't. of the tiumlan Campaign. — Col. C. W. Wilson, From Korti to Khartoum.— Col Sir W. F. Butler, The Cam- jMtiyn of the Cataracts. — W. M. Pimblett, The Story of *M Soudan War. — Gen. C. G. Gordon, Journals at Khartoum. — II. W. Gordon, Events in the Life of Charles George Gord'»i , ch. 14-20. A. D. 1893. — The reigning khv°dive. — Mo- hamed Tewtik died in January, 1898 and was succeeded by his son Abbas, born in 1874. — Statesman's Year-book, 1893. EGYPTIAN EDUCATION. See Educa- tion, Anxient. EGYPTIAN TALENT. See Talent. EIDGENOSSEN.— The German word Eid- genossen, signifying "confederates," is often used in a special sense, historically, as applied to the members of the Swiss Confederation, — see Switzerland: The Three Forest Cantons. The name of tlie Huguenots is believed by some writers to be a corruption of the same term. EIGHT SAINTS OF WAR, The. See Florence: A. D. 1375-1378. EIKON BASILIKE, The. See England: A. D. 1649 (February). EION, Siege and capture of (B. C. 470). See Athens: B. C. 470-400. EIRE. See Ireland: The Name. EKKLESIA. See Ecclesia. EKOWE, Defence of (1879). See South Africa: A. D. 1877-1879. ELAGABALUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 218-233. EL AM. — " Genesis calls a tribe dwelling on the Lower Tigris, between the river and the mountains of Iran, the Elamites, the oldest son of Shem. Among the Greeks the land of the Elamites was known as Kissia [Cissia], and after- wards as Susiana, from the name of the capital. It was also called Ely inuis." — M. Dimcker, Hist, of Antiquity, hk. 3, ch. 1.— About 2300 B. C. Ciialdea, or Babylonia, was overwhelmed by an Elamite invasion — an invasion recorded by king .\sshurbanipal, and which is stated to have laid waste the land of Accad and desecrated its tem- ples. " Nor was this a passing inroad or raid of booty-seeking mountaineers. It was a real con- quest. Khudur-Nankhimdi and his successors remained in Southeru Chaldea. . . . This is the first time wc meet authentic monumental records of a country which was destined througli the next sixteen centuries to be in continual contact, mostly hostile, witli both Babylonia and her ucrtlicrn rival, Assyria, until its final annihilation ly the latter [B. C. 049, under Asshurbanipal, the Sar- dauapulusof the Greeks, who reduced the w.'iole country to a wilderness]. Its capital was Shusian (afterwards pronounced by foreigners Susa), ai'd its own original name Shushinak. Its people wei 'j of Turanian stock, its language was nearly akin tc that of Shumir and Accad. . . . Elam, the name under which the country is best known, botli from the Bible and later monuments, is a Tura- nian word, which means, like 'Accad,' 'High- lands.' . . . One of Khudur-Nankhundi's next successors, Khudur-Lagamar, was not content with the addition of Chaldea to his kingdom of Elam. He had the ambition of a born conqueror, and the generalship of one. The Chap. xiv. of Genesis — which calls him Chedorlaomer — is the only document we have descriptive of this king's warlike career, and a very striking picture it gives of it. . . . Khudur-Lagamar. . . lived, ac- cording to the most probable calculations, about 2200 B. C."— Z. A. Ilagozin, Story of Chaldea, ch. 4. — It is among the discoveries of recent times, derived from the records in clay tmcarthed in Babylonia, that Cyrus the Great was originally king of Elam, and acquired Persia, as lie ac- quired his later dominions, by conquest. — See Persia, B. C. 549-531. — See, also, Babylonia. EL ARISH, Treaty of. See France: A. D. 1800 (January — June). ELBA: A. D. 1735.— Ceded to Spain by Austria. See Franck: A. I). 1733-1735. A. D. 1802. — Annexation Co France. Sec France : A. D. 1802 (August— September). A. D. 1814.— Napoleon in exile. See France : A. D. 1814(MARcn— April), and (April— June). 768 APPENDICES. APPENDIX A. NoTKB TO Ethnoquai'iiical Map, Placed at tiik Beoinntno of this Volcmb. TO THE eye of modern sclinlnrship "Inn- guiige " forms the basis of every ethnic dis- tinction. Pliysical and exterior features lilfc tlie stature, the color of tlie skin, tlie diversity of habits and customs, tlie distinctions which once formed in ereat part the l)asis of etlmic research have all m our own day been relegated to a subordinate place. The "language" test is of course subject to very serious limitations. The intermingling of diff'-rent peoples, more general to be sure in our own day than in jjast ages, lias nevertheless been sutHciently ^reat in every age to make the trac- ing of linguistic forms a task of great dilHculty. In special eases where both the civilization and language of one people have become lost in that of another the test must of course fail utterly. With all these restrictions however the adop- tion of the linguistic methotl by modern criticism has been practically universal. Its defence, if it requires any, is ai)parent. It is the only method of ethnic study the deductions of which, where successful at all, approach anything like certainty. The points wherein linguistic criticism has failed have been freely admitted ; on the other hand the facts which it has established arc unassailable by aiiv other school of criticism. Taking language then as the only tangible working basis the subject resolves itself from the start into a two-fold division : the debatable and the certaii'. It is the purpose to indicate in the course of these notes, what is merely conjecture and what may be safely accepted as fact. The ethnology of Europe, studied on this basis, has for its central feature the Indo-Oennanic (Tiulo-Europeun) or Aryan nice. The distinction between the races clearly Aryan an<l those doubt- ful or non-Aryan forms the primary division of the subject. As the map is intended to deal only with the Europe of the present, a historical dis- tinction must be made at the outset between the doubtful or non-Aryan peoples who preceded the Aryans a'ld the non-Aryan peoples who have ap- peared in Europe in comparatively recent times. The simple formula, jvi-Ari/an, Aryan, non- Aryan, affords the key to the historical develop- ment of European ethnology. PRE-ARYAN PEOPLES. Of the presumably pre-Aryan peoples of western Europe the Iberians occupy easily the first place. The seat of this people at the dawn of history was in Spain and southern France ; their ethnol- ogy belongs entirely to the realm of conjecture. They arc of much darker complexion than the Aryans and their racial characteristic is conserva- tism even to stubbornness, which places them in marked contrast to their immediate Aryan neigh- bors, the volatile Celts. Among the speculations concerning the origin of the Iberians a plausible one is that of Dr. Bwlichon, who assigns to them an African origin making them, indeed, cognate with the moderu Berbers (see R. H. Patterson's " Ethnology of Europe "in "Lectures on History and Art'). This generalization is made to include also the liretons of the north west. It is clear however that the population of iiKMlern Brittany is purely Celtic: made up largelv from the immigrations from the British Isles during the liftli century. To the stubbornness with which the Iberians resisted every foreign aggression and refused intermingling with surrounding races is due the survival to the present day of their descendants, the liatqncs. The mountain ranges of northern Spain, the Cantabrians and Eastern Pyrenees have formed the very donjon-keep of this people in every age. Ilere the Vantnbri successfully resisted the Roman arms for mere tliiv.i a century after the subjugation of the remainder of Spain, the final conquest not occurring until the last years of Augustus. While the Iherian race as a whole has become lost in the greater mass of Celtic and Latin intruders, it has remained almost pure in this quarter. The present seat of the liasffiies is in the Spanish provinces of Viseaya, Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Navarre and in the French department of Basses Pyrenees. The Inrninns of Ireland, now lost in the Celtic population, and the Lii/urians along the shores of the Genoese gulf, later absorbed by the Romans, both belong likewise to this pre-Aryan class.' (Mixlern re- search concerning tliese pre-Aryan peoples has in large part taken its inspiration from the " Untersuchungen " of Humboldt, whose view concerning the connefction between the Basques and Iberians is substantially the one stated.) Another early non-Aryan race now extinct were the Etrmains of Itjily. Their origin was manifestly diiferent from that of the pre-Aryan peoples just mentioned. By many they have been regarded as a branch of the great Ural- Alt4iic family. This again is conjecture. ARYAN PEOPLES. In beginning the survey of the Aryan peoples it is necessary to mention the principal divisions of the race. As generally enumerated there are seven of these, viz., the iiinakrit (Hindoo), Zfnd (Persian), Greek, Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Slaric. To ihese may be added two others not definitely classilled, the Albanian and the Lit/i- iianian. These bear the closest affinity respect- ively to the Latin and the Slavic. Speculation concerning the origin of the Arvans need not concern us. It belongs as yet entirely to the arena of controversy. The vital question which divides the opposing schools is coiicrn- ing their European or Asiatic origin. Of the numerous writers on this subject the two who perhaps afford the reader of English the best view of the opposing opinions are, on the Asiatic side. Dr. Max MUller (Lectures on the Science of Language); on the other, Prof. A. H. Sayce (In- troduction to the Science of I,anguage). APPENDIX A. APPENDIX A. Of the divisions of tlie Arjiiii nice above enu- incmted tlm llrst two do not ap|)t'ur in KuropL'nu ctlinolojfy. Of the otliiT l)ruiicli(-», tin; Ijttin, Oermnuie iiiid Kliiric form liy greiit oddstlie bidk uf till* Kiiropcaii )iopiilatioii. THE LATIN BRANCH. Tlic hi<in comitrics arc France, .Si)ain, Portu- gal, Italy and lie Icrrilory north of the Dainibe, between the Dniester and the Tlii'iss. In the strictest ellinic sense however tUt" term Latin can l)e applieil only to Italv and then only to the <!entral part. As Italy lirst appears in Idstory it is inhabited l)v a number of (lilferent races: tlie Iii;ii/i/i(iiiii and (hiintriuiiinA iXw soiitli who were thrown in direct contact witli tin' (3reek settlers; the I'lti/iriiiiiH, Sdhiiuti, Liitiiin, i'o/wiViM and 0»- cans in the centre; the h'trimcdiiii ou tlie west sliore north of the Tiber; while in the north we lind the Gnuh in the valley of tlio Po, with tlie JAguriiins and Vinetiani respectively on the west and east coasts. Of this motley collection the central group bore a close alfluity to the Latin, yet all alike receiveil the Latin .stamp with the growinj; power of Uome. The etlmic comple-xiea of Italy thus formed was hi'.rdly moditied b; the great Germanic in- vasions which followcii V. ith the fall of the West- liomun Km|)ire. Tlda observation applies with more or less trutli to all the Latin countries, the Germanic conipierors becoming everywliere merged and llni'lly lo.st in the greater mass of tlie conquered. Only in Loinbardy wliere a more enduring Ger- manic kingdom existed for over two centuries (508-774), lias the Germanic made any impression, and tiiis indeed a sliglit one, on tlic distinctly Latin character of tlie Italian peninsula. Ill Spain an interval between tiie Iberian jieriod and the Roman conquest appears to have existed, during which the population is best described as Uelt-Iberian. Upon this population the Latin stain]) was placed by the long and toilsome, but for that reason more tliorougli, Roman conquest. Tlie ethnic chameter of Spain thus formed lias passed witliout material cliange through the ordeal both of Germanic and Saracenic conquest. The Qothic kingdom of Spain (418-714) and the ISuevic kingdom of nortliern Portugal (400-584) Lave left behind them scarcely a trace. The eiTectsof the great Mohammedan invasion cannot be dismissed so liglitly. Conquered entirely by the Arabs and Jloors in 714, the entire country was not freed from the in- vader for nearly eight centuries. In tlie south (Granada) where the Moors clung longest their intluence has been greatest. Here their im- press on the pure Aryan stock has nevi been effaced. The opening plirase of Caesar's Gallic war, " all Gaul is divided into three parts," states a fact as truly etiinic iis it is geographical or his- torical. In the south (Aquitania) we find the Celtic blending with the Iberian ; in the north- east the Cimbrian Dclgae, the last comers of the Celtic family, are strongly marked by the char- acteristics of tlie Germans; while in tlie vast central territory the people " calling themselves Galli " are of pure Celtic race. This brief state-, nient of Cae.sar, allowing for the subsequent in- flux of the German, is no mean description of the ethnic divisions of France as they exist at the present day, and is an evidence of the remarkable continuity of ethnological as opposed to mere politic^ai (conditions. The four and a half centuries of Roman rule ])Iaccd the Latin .stamp on the (!alli(! nation, a l>repanition for the most deterinined siege of Germanic race intluence which any Latin nation was fated to undergo. In Italy and Spain the exotic kingdoms wore quickly overthrown; the Fninkinh kingdom in nortliern Gaul was in strictness never overtlirowu at all. In addition we soon have in the extreme north a second Germanic element in tlie Hcandinaviau Kiinitnn. Over all these oiit.side elements, how- ever, the Latin intluence eventually triumphed. AVIiile the Franks have imposed their name upon tile natives, the latter have imposed tlieir language and civilization on tlie invaders. The result of this clashing of influences is seen, however, in the present linguistic divi.sion of the old Gallic lands. The Wiw running east and west through the centre of Franci; marks tlie division between the JtYenrh and the J'roreii(((l dialects, the laiiijiied'oil and the laiif/iied'oe. It is south of this line '.ii the country of the IcnfjueiVoc that the Latin or Romance influence reigns most ubsoluto in the native speecli. In the northeast, on the other hand, in the Wal- loon provinces of IkOgium, we have, as witli the Ik'lgae of classic timi'S, the near approach of the Gallic to the Germanic stems. Our sirvey of the Latin peoples must close with a short notice of its outlying members in tlie Ralkan and Danubian lands. The Albanians (Skipetan) and the liounmns ( V lacks or Wallaclis) represent as nearly as ethnology can determine tlie ancient populations respectively of Illyricum and Tlirace. The ethnology of the Albanians is entirely uncertain. Their present location, con- siderably to tiie soutl' of their supposed pristine seat in Illyricum, indicates some southern migra- tion of the race. Tliis migration occurred at an entirely unknown time, though it is generally believed to have been contemporary with the great southward movement of the Slavic races in the seventli century. The Albanian migrations of the time penetrated Attica, Aetolia and the entire Peloponnesus; with the Slavs and Vlaelis they formed indeed a great part of the ])opulution of Greece during the Middle Ages. While the Slavic stems have since been merged in the native Greek population, and the Vlae/is have almost entirely disappeared from these southern lands, the Albanians in Greece have shown a greater tenacity. Their part in later Greek history has been a prominent one and they form to-day a great part of the popu- lation of Attica and Argolis. Tlie liounmns or Vliichs, the supposed native population of Thrace, arc more closely identified tliau the Albanians with the otiier Latin peoples. They occupy at present the vast country north of the Danube, their boundary extending on the east to the Dniester, on the west almost to the Tlieiss. Historically these people form a perplexing yet interesting study. The tlieory once general that they represented a continuous Latin civiliza- tion north of the Danube, connecting the classic Dacia by an unbroken cliain to the i)resent, has now been generally abandoned. (See Roesler's "Uomilnische Studien" or Frcemau's "Hist. Geog. of Europe," p. 435.) , U APPEXDIX A. APPENDIX A. The present gcnjrrnphicnl locution of the Vliich ?ieople8 is prol)iil)ly the result of a inij^rution rom tlio 'I linieian IiukIh south of the Uuuube, whicli occurred for uiii'X|)liunt'(i ciiuscs iii tli(! twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Tlie kernel of the race at the present day is the separate state of Koumania; in the Kast and West they ccnie under the respective rules of Uussia aii(l Hun- gary. In mediaeval times the part played by them south of the JJalkans was an important one, and to this day they still linger in considerable num- bers on either side of the range of Pindus. (For a short dissertation on tlie Vlach peoples, see Finlay, "Hist, of Greece," vol. 3, pp. 234-330.) THE GERIVIANIC BRANCH. The Oernuinie nations of modern Europe are Enyland, Germany, lloUaiul, Deiiinnrk, Noritny and Sweden. The Germanic races also form the major part of the population of Switzerland, the Cis-Leithan division of tlie Austrian Empire, and appear in isolated settlements througliout Hungary and liussia. Of the earlier Germanic iiatioiia v.lio overthrew the Roman Empire of the West scarcely a trace remains. The population of the liritish Isles at the dawn of history furnishes a close parallel to tliat of Oaul. The pre-Aryan loernians (the possible Iberians of the British Isles) had been forced back into the recesses of Scotland and Ireland ; next to them came the Celts, like those of Gaul, in two divisions, the Ouidels or Oiids and the Britonn. In Britain, contrary to the usual rule, the Roman domination did not give tlio perpetual Latiu stamp to the island; it is in fact the only country save the Paiinonian and Rliaetian lands south of the upper Danube, once a Roman po.ssession, where tlie Germanic element has since gained a complete mastery. The inviision of the Germanic races, the Anf/les, Snj-ons and Jiitai, from the sixth to the eighth centuries, were practically wars of extermination. Tlie Celtic race is to-day represented on the British Isles only in Wales and tlie western portions of Scotland and Ireland. The invasions of tlie Danes, and later the Xorman conquest, bringing with them only slight infu- sions of kindred Germanic nations, have produced in England no marked niodittcation of tlie Saxon stock. The German Empire, with the smaller adjoin- ing realms, Holland and Switzerland and the Austrian provinces of Austria, Styria, C'arinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol, contain tlie great mass of the Germanic peoples of the continent. During the confusion following tlie overthrow of the West-Roman Empire the Germanic jieoples were grouped much further westward than they are at present ; the eastward reaction involving the dispossession of the Slavic peoples on the Elbe and Oder, has been going on ever since the days of Charlemagne. Germany like France possesses a linguistic division, Low German (Nieder-De.utsclie) being generally spoken in the lands north of the cross line, Ilir/li German (Iloch-Dcittuche) from whicli the written language is derived, to the south of it. Holland uses the Flcmixh, a form of the Nieder-Dcutschc ; Belgium is about equally divided between the Flemish aiu\ llu' Walloon. Switzerland, tliough predominantly German, is encroached upon by the French in the western cantons, wliile in the soiitlieast is used the Italian and a form allied to the same, the Romance speech of the Hhaelian (Tyrolese) Alps. This form also prevails in Friiili and some mountainous p ..(s of northern Italy, The present population of the Qcrrniin Empire is almost exclusively Germanic, the exceptions being tlie Slavic I'oles of I'osen, I'omerellen, southeastern Pru.ssia and eastern Silesia, the remnant of the Wends of Lusatia and thi French element in the recently aeciuired Imperial lands of Alsace and Lorraine. Beyond the Empire we find a German |)opulation in the Austrian terri- tories already noted, in tlie border lands of Bo- hemia, and in isolated settlem.'iits further east. The great settlement in the SiebeiibUrgen was made by German emigrants in the eleventh cen- turv and similar settlements dot the map both of llungaryand Russia. On tlie Volga indeed exists the greatest of tliem all. Denmark, Norway and Sweden are iieojiled by the Scandinarian branch of the Germanic race. Only in the extreme north <lo we lind another and non-Aryan race, the iMpps. On the other liaud a remnant of the Swedes stilt retain a precarious hold on the coast line of their former possession, tlic Russian Finland. THE SLAVIC BRANCH. The Slavs, though the last of the Aryan na- tions to appear in history, form numerically by far the "-eatest branch of the Indo-European family. . ..eir present number in Eurojjc is com- liuted at nearly one hundred million souls. At the time of the great migrations they extended over nearly all modern Germany ; their slow dispossession by the Germanic jieojiles, beginning in the eighth century, has already been noticed. In the course of this dispossession the mo4t westerly Slavic group, the Polabie, between the Elbe and the Oder, were merged in the German, and, barring the remnant of Wends in Lusatia (the Sorabi or Nortlierii Serbs), have dis- appeared entirely from ethnic geography. The great Slavic nation of tlie present day is Russia, but the great number of Slavic peoples who are not Russian and the considerable Rus- sian population which is not Slavic renders im- possible the study of this race on strictly national Mnes. The Slavic peoples are separated, jiartly by geographical conditions, into three great divisions : the Eastern, the Western and the Snithern. The greatest of these divisions, the Eastern, lies entirely within the boundaries of the Ru.ssian Empire. The sub-divisions of the Eastern group are as follows: The Great liussia ns occu- pying the vast inland territorj' and numbering alone between forty and tifty niillioiis, the Little Jliissians inliabiting the entire soutli of Russia from Poland to the Caspian, and tlie W/iite Jiiissiiins, the least numerous of this division, in Smolensk, Wilna, and Minsk, the west provinces bordering on the Lithuanians and Poles. The West Slaric group, omitting names of peoples now extinct, are the Poles, Slovaks, Czechs and the remnants of the Lusatian Wends. Tlie I'oks, excepting those already mentioned as within the German empire, and tlu! Austriaii J'oles of Cnicow, are all uikU r the domination of Rus- sia. Under tlu! sovereignty of Austria an; the Slovaks, Moravians and Czechs of Boheniia, the latter the must westerly as well us historically the m APPENDIX A. APPENDIX A. oldcRt of (lin surviving Slavic peoples, Imvlng nppciiri'd in their present seats in the lust yeiirs of the fifth century. In connection with this West Slavic group we should also refer to the lAthuiiniant whose his- tory, despite the racial difTerence, is so closely allied with that of Poland. Their present loca- tion in tlie UusKian provinces of Kowno, Kurland and Livland has been i)ractically the same since tlie dawn of history. Tlie Siiith Slarie peoples were isolate<l from their norlhern kinsmen by th" great Finno-Tatar invasions. The invasion of Europe by the Avars in the sixth century clove like a wedge the two great divisions of the .Slavic nice, the southernmost being forced upon the confines of the Eastlloman Em- pire. Tliough less imposing as conquests than the Oermanic invasions of the Western Empire, the racial importance of these Slovic movements is far greater since they constitute. In connection witli the hXmui-Tatar invasions which caused them, the most important and clearly defined series of ethnic changes which Europe has ex- perienced during the Ciiristian Era. During the sixth and seventh centuries these Slavic emi- grants spread over almost the entire Balkan peninsula, including Epirus and the Pelopon- nesus. In Greece they afterwards disappeared us H separate people, but in tlic region between the Danube, the Save and tlic Balkans thev imme<li- ntcly developed separate states (Servia in 041, Bulgaria in 078). As they exist nt present they may be clussed in three divisions. The liul- garians, so called from the tHiino-Tatar people whom they absorbed while accepting their name, occupy the district included in the separate state of Bulgaria and Eastern Itouinelia, with a considerable territory to the south of it in Mace- donia and Thrace. It was this lust named ter- ritory or one very nearly corresponding to it that was actually ';eded to Bulgaria by the peace of San Stcfano though she tmfortunately lost it by the subseij'.'.ent compromise eflected at the Congress of Berlin. Tlic srcond divi- sion includes the Servians, Montencgmiit, Bos- nians and Vroatians, the last two under Austrian control; the third and smallest are the Slov- enes of Curniola, likewise under Austrian sover- eignty. (Schufarik's " Slawisciie Alterthllmcr " is the greatest single authority on the early history and also comparative ethnology of the Slavs.) The territory occupied by the Greek speaking people is clearly shown on the accompanying map. As in all history, it is tlie coast lands where they seem to have formed the strongest hold. In free Greece Itself and in the Turkish territories immediately adjoining, the Oreek pop- ulation overwhelmingly preponderates. Nevertheless there is still a considerable Al- banian element in Attica ond Argolis, a Vlach element In Epirus while the 7\t)-k himself still ling' ^ in certain quarters of Thessaly. All these arc icninunts left over from the successive migra- tions of the Jliddle Ages. The SUim, who also figured most prominently in these migrations, have disappeared in Greece as a distinct race. The question as to the degree of Slavic admixture among the modern Greeks is however another fruitful source of ethnic controversy. The gen- eral features of the question are most compactly stated in Finlay, vol. 4, pp. 1-37. NON-ARYAN PEOPLES. The Non-Aryan peoples on the soil of modern Europe, excepting the ^pir* and also pr.ibably ex- cepting those already placed ir; tlu unsolved class of pre-Aryan, all belong to the Muuo-Tatar or Ural- Altaic U\n\i\y , and all, poss'.bly excepting tlie Finns, date their arrival in Europe fnmi com- paratively recent and historic times. The four principal divisions of this race, Uie Ugrir, Finnic, Turkic and Mongolie, all have their European representatives. Of tlie first the only representatives are the Hungarians (.Vagi/ars). The rift between the North and South Slavic peoples oiiened by the Jluns in the liftli century, reo])ened and enlarged by the Avars In tlic s'x'tli, was finally occupied by their kinsmen the Magyars in the ninth. The receding of this wa' e of Asiatic Invasion left the Magyars in utter isolation among their Aryan neighbors. It follows us a natural consequence that they have been the only one of the Ural- Altaic peoples lo accept the religion I'.nd civiliza- tion of tlie Wc'st. Since the conversirm of their king St. Steiihen In the year 1000, tlieirgeogruphl- cal position has not altered. lioughly speaking, it comprkes the western half of Hungary, with an outlying branch in tlie Carpathians. More closely allied to the Magyars than to their more immediate neighbors of the same race are the Mnnie stems of the extreme north. Stretch- ing originally over nearly the whole northern lir.lf of Scandinavia and Russia they have been A_radually displaced, in tlio one case by their Germanic, in the other by their Slavic neighbors. Their present representatives are the E/ists and Tschudes of Elistland, the Finns and Karclians of Finland, the Tscheremissians of the upper Volga, the Siryenians In the basin of the Petcliora and the Lajips in northern Scandinavia and along the shores of the Arctic ocean. East of the Lapjys, also bordering the Arctic ocean, lie the Sarnojedcs, a people forming a dis- tinct branch of the Ural-Altaic family though most closely allied to the Finnic peoples. The great division of the Ural-Altaic family known Indifferently as Tatar {Tartar) or Turk, has, like the Aryan Slavs, through the accidents of historical geography rather than race diverg- ence been separated into two great divisions : the northern or Russian division commonly com- prised under the sped*'" name of Tartar; and the southern, the 2wk. These are the latest additions to the Euroiiean family of races. The Mongol- Tartar invasion of Russia occurred as late as the thirteenth century, while the Turks did not gain tlieir first foothold in Europe through the gates of Gallipoll until 1353. The bulk of the Turks of the present day are congregated in Asia-Minor. Barring the Armenians, the Oeorgians of the northeast, the Greeks of the seacoast and the scattered Circassians, the whole jienlnsula is sub- stantially Turkisii. In Europe proper the Turks as a distinct people never cut a great figure. Even In the grandest days of Osmanli conquest they were always outnumbered by the conquered nations whose land they occupied, and with the decline of their power this numerical inferiority has become more and more marked. At the present day there are very few portions of the Balkan penin- sula where the Turkish population actually pre- IV APPENDIX A. APPENDIX A. dominatCB; their general dlstrllmtlon is clenrly shown on the niiip. The Tartim or liuimidii 7'inkn represent the sIftingH of the Asiatic inviisiona of tlie tliirtet h century. Tlieir numlier Ims been steadily liwindlinji; until tliey now count scarcely three nijllions, a mere handful in the mass of their former Hliivic subjects. Tlie survivors are scattered in irregular and Isolated groups over the south and east. Promi- nent among them are the t'rim T<ut<ua, the kin- dred NogiUit of the west shores of the Caspian, tho Kirg/iin of tlie nortli shore and L'ral valley, and the IhiDlikira between th(^ upper Ural and the Volga, with an isolated branch of Tartars in the vuUcy of the Aruxes south of tho Cau- casus. The great Asiatic irruption of the thirteenth century has been commonly known as tlie Jlougol Invasion. Such it was in leadership, though the residuum whicli it has left behind in Euroi)ean Russia proves that the rank and ttle were mostly Tartars. One Mongol people however, the Kal- mueks, did make their way into Europe and still exist in the steppes between the lower Don and the lower Volga. The ethnology of tho Caucasian iieoples is the most difficult part of the entire subject. On the steppes of the Black and Caspian seas up to the very linntof the Caucasus we have two races between whom the ethnic distinction is clearly defined, the JIongol-Tartar and the Slav. J^ntcr- ing the Caucasus however we find a vast number of races differing alike from these und from each other. To enumerate all the different divisions of these races, whoso ethnology is so very uncertain, would he u,»eless. Omiiped in three general divisions however they are as follows: the soralled Cir- fiiHKiaiiii who formerly occupied the whole wr'stern Caucasus with the adjoining lllack sea coast but who, since the Uu.ssian coiKpiest of 1H(W, have for the most part emigrated to dilTerent quarters of th(! Turkish Empire; llie LfiujIiianH, under which general name are inelu<!ed tlie motley crowd of peoples inliabiting tlic eastern ( 'aucasus ; and the (li(iri/iiin», the supposed descendants of the ancient y/yc/V/HO of the Caucasus, who inhabit the soutliern slope, ineluding all t he Tillis province and the Trape/untine 'aiids on the southeast coast of the Hlack sea. The Tartam arc liardlv found in the Caucasus though tliey reappear fiiimediiitily soutli of it in tlie lower basin of the Kura and the Araxes. Here al.so appear the various /w «('<(« stems of tho Asiatic Aryans, tho Anneniant, tho Pertiani and the Kiirdn. U. II. Latham's works on "European J^thno- logy " are the best general authority in Eng- lish. Of more recent German guides, mai) and otherwise, the following an^ noteworthy lias- tain's " Ethnologisches Hilderbuch," "Das I5e- stilndige in den Jlenscheiirassen," " Allgemciiio QrundzUge der Ethnologie," Kiepert's "Ethno- graphische Uebersichtskarte des Eiiropilischeu Orients," Menke's "Europa nach seiiieu Ethno- logischen Verhllltnissen in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhundert," Hittich's "Ethnograpliie des euro- pilischen Kusslaud," Sax's " Etlinographischo Karte der europilischen Turkei," IJerghaus's " Ethnographische Karte vom Osterreichiseheu Kaiserstaat, " Wendt's " Bilder Atlas der Lilnder undV<')lkerkunde,"Andree'3 "Allgemeiuer Hand- atlas (Ethnographischen Karten), " Gerland's ' 'At- las der Ethnographic. "—A. C. Reiley. APPENDIX B. NoTKii TO Foim Mapo op tiik Dai.kan PKNtNfiri.A. (TwELiPTn TO THR FiFTKimTn Crntort.) ri^IIEUE oxlstd to'dny <ipon thn mnp of Kuropc 1_ IK) Hcrtion \vlios(( historlcnl gcojiiriiphy lins ii greater present Interest timn the I)iinul)liin, BalkHii hikI Leviiiitiiu! states. It is these atid the Austrn-IIiingarian lands immediatelv adjoining which liave formed one of tlie jjrcat fuleniins for those national nioveinents which constitute the prime feature of the hiatorieal geograpliy of tlio present age. Uiion tiie pres<!nt map of Kuropo in tliis (piarter we cliscover a number of separate and di ninutlve national entities, the Iloumaiiian, Iht' iriiin, .Sit- viaii and .}f<intenff/rin, tlic Greek and AUxinin ii , all struggling desperately to establish them- selves on the debris of the crumbling Turkisli Empire. Wliat the issue will be of these numerous and mutually conflicting struggles for separate na- tional e-xistenco It is out of our province to fore- cast. It is only intended in thi.s map series to throw all possible liglit on tlieir true character from tlie lessons and analogies of tlie past. At first siglit the period treated in tlie four Levantine maps (from tlio last of the twelfth to the middle of tlie fifteenth century) must appear the most intri- cate and tlio most obscure in tlio entire Iiistory of this region. The most intricate it certainly is, and possilily tlio most oliscure, though tlio ob- scurity arises largely from neglect. Its impor- tance, however, arises from tlie fact tliat it is tlie only past period of Levantine history which pre- sents a clear analogy to the jiresent, not alone in its purely tninsitionary character, but also from the several national movements wliicli during this time wore diligently at work. During the Itoman and the earlier Byzantine perio<ls, wliicli from tlieir continuity may be taken as one, any special tendency was of course stifled under the preponderant fulo of a single great empire. Tlie same was equally true at a later time, when all of these regions passed under tlie rule of the Turk. These four maps treat of that most interesting period intervening between tlio crumbling of the Byzantine power and the Turk- isli conciuest. Tliat in our own day tlie crumb- ling in turn of the Turkish power has repeated, in Its general fea;ures, the same liistorical situa- tion, is the point upon which tlic interest must inevitaldy centre. What the outcome will be in modern times forms tlie most interesting of political studies. Whether the native nices of the Daiuilio, the Balkans and the southern peninsula are to work out their full national development, either feder- ately or independently, or whether they are des- tined to pass again, as is threatened, under the domination of another and greater empire, is ono of the most important of tlie questions which agitates the mind of the modern European states- man. Tliat the latter outcome is now the less likely is due to the great unfolding of separate national spirit which marks so strongly the age ill wliich we live. The reason wliv the previous age treated in this map series ended in nothing lietter tlian foreign and iMohammedan con(|uest m'ay perhaiis be sought in tlu,' imperfect develop- ment of this same national spirit. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. Tlio first map (Asia Minor and the Balkans near the close of the twelfth century) is intended to show till! geographical situation as it exist<;d immediately prior to tlii! dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire. TIk^ Hyzantiiie PImniro of .Ills period is in itself an important study. It must bo regarded more as the ofTsprIng than the direct continuation of the great East-lioman Empire of Arcadlus and Justinian; for with the centuries which had intervened the great changes in polity, internal geography, external neighbors and lastly the continual geographical contraction, present us witli an entirely new series of rela- tions. It is this geograpliieal contraction which concerns us most vitally, for witli it tlio frontiers of the empire conforpi more and more closely to tho ethnic limits of tlie Oreik nation. Tlie later Byzantine Empire was, therefore, easentially a Greek Empire, and as such it ap- pcials most vividly to the national consciousness of tho Greek of our own time. The restoration of this empire, with tho little kingdom of free Greece as tho nucleus, is the vision wliicli in- spires tlie more aggrcssivi^ and venturesome school of modern Greek politicians. In tlio twelfth century the bulk of Asia Minor had been wrested from tlio Byzantine Empire by tlie Turku, but it was tho Crusaders, not the Turks, who overthrew the first empire. In ono view tliis fact is fortunate, otherwise tlicro would have been no transition period whoso study would bo productive of such fruitful re- sults. Owing to the artful policy of tlio Comnenian emperors, the Byzantine Empire actually prof- iled liy tlie early crusades and was enabled through them to recover a considera' Ic part of Asia Alinor from tlie Turk*. Tliis apparent success, liowever, was only the prelude to final disaster. Isolated from western Christendom by the schism, tho Greeks were an object of suspicion and liatred to tlic Latin Crusaders and it only required a sliglit abatement of the original crusading spirit for tlieir warlike ardor to be diverted from Jerusalem to '^'onstantinoplo. Cyprus was torn away from the Greek Empire and created a separate kingdom under Latin rule, in 1191. Finally, the so-called Fourth Crusade, controlled liy Venetian intrigue, ended in tho complete dismemberment of the Bvzantine Empire (1204). Tliis nefarious enterprise forms a dark spot in history: it also usliors in the greatest period of geographical intricacy in Levantine annals. The VI APPENDIX B. API'KNDIX B. f(i'(iKrii|iliy wliicli iniiiicillatcly rcHtilti'il fniiii it H iiiitilircctly hIkiwii in IIiIm l,<'viuiliii« iiiiip MiTii'H, hii' cull Im' Mi'cn on tin* K<'>i<!riil iiiii|i of K\iro|i<i iil. tliu oncniiiK of IIk? thirteenth century. Hrlelly ltatc<l, it n'prcNcnted tlie eHtiil)iiHlinienl of it frii^- mcutiiry luiil liiHj ilnteil I^iitin Knijiiro in tiie phico of the former (irecit Kinpiru of ConHtnnti- nopl(>. Known IM tlie i,utin KpipinMif Konmniii, this new creiitloii inciuded tlie, Kinpln^ of (!on- gtnntinopio proper anil itH feiuliil liepeniiencieH, till! kin||;ilotn of TheMHiilonicii, the ducliy of Vtliens, and tlin principality of Aclnila. Vhreo orpluui (Ireik Hiates survived tlie fall of the parent power: in Kurope, the dcHpotat of KpiriiH, and In Asia, tliu einpires of N'icwa and Trehlzond. TIk^ Latin Htntcsuf the East ure scarcely worthy the lilstorian'H notice. 'I'liey have no place what- ever in till! natural developinent, either political or Kcograpliicai, of the Levantino HtatcM. They were not only forced by foreij^n lanci upon an unwilling; population, but were -^11111 » fcudal- isniH, establiHlied arnon^ a, people to whom tlie feudal idea was unintelliglblo and barbarous. Like their prototypes, tiio C'rusudinj; states of Syria, they resembleil artittcial encroachments upon the sea, standing foi a time, but with the ordinary course of nature the ocean reclaims Its own. Even the weak little (livtk states were strong In comparison mhI immediately began to recover ground at their expense. The kingdimi of Tlies- salonica was overthrown by the despot of Epiriis in 1222; the Latin Empire of Constantinople it- self fell before the Greek Emperor of Niciea In 12HI ; while the lust of the barons of the princi- pality of Acliala submitted to the IJy/.antine despots of the Moreii In 1430. The duchy of Athens alone of uU these Litiii states survived long enough to full at last before the Turkinh conquest. The Levantine posses- sions won by Venice at this and later times were destined, partly from their insular or maritime location, and partly from the greater vitullty of trade relations, to enjoy u somewhat longer life. To t}ie NicKun emperors of the house of Pa- leoiogus belongs the achievement of having re- stored the Byzantine Empire In the eventot 1201. The expression Restored IJyzantine Emjiire has been employed, since it bus the sanction of usage, though a complete restoration never occurred. The geography of the l{estored Empire as shown on the second map (1265 A. I).) fails to include the greater part of what wi; may term the cradle of the Greek race . The only subsequent exten- sion was over the balance of the Jlorea. In every other qtiarter the frontiers of the Uestored Empire soon began to recede until It included only the city of Constjintlnople and an ever de- creasing portion of Thrace. With the commence- ment of the fourteenth century the Tiirkn, hav- ing thrown olt the Mongol-Tartar dominion, begun under the hou.se of Usmanlls their tiiml career of coiuiuest. This, of course, was the be- ginning of tlie end. Their first foothold In Europe was gulncd In ia53, but over a century was destined to elapse before the completion of tlieir sovereignty In all the lands south of the J)unube. There remains, therefore, a considera- ble period during which whatever separate na- tional tendencies existed had full opportunity to work. «» . Vii THE PIRBT AND SKCOND BULQARIAN KINQDOM8. It was this iign which saw not only the lilgli- est point in the national greatness of llulgaria and SiTvIa, but also witnessed the evolution of the \Vullaeliian principalities in the lands north of till! Danube. The separate stntcH of nulgnria and Servia, iKirn in the seventli century of the great south- ward migralion of the Slnrie peoples, had in after times risen or falii'ii aecordlng to the strength or weakness of the liyzuntine Empire, liiiignrip, liiid hitlierto shown tlte greatest power. At sev- eral dillerent perliKis, notjibly under Himeon (i-H'A- U27), and again under Hamuel (U7U-IUU), It de- veloped a strength which fairly overawed Iho Empire Itself. These Sturic stales hud, however, iK-en subjected by the Hyziiiitlne Empirii In the first liulf of the eleventh century, and, though Bervla enjoyed iinotlier |)eriod of Independenco (1040-114M), it was not until ilie llnul crumbling of the Hy/.antine Empire, the preincnitionof tho event of 1204, that tlieir expansion recommences. The Wallachian, or Second Uulgarian kingdom, which came into existence in 1IH7 in the lands between the lialkuim and the Danube, has been the subject of an ethnic discussion which need not deluin us. Thut it was not purely Sin 'ic ig wellestablislied, for tlie great and singular revival of the VUiflt or lloiimnn peoples iiiid tlieir inovo- ment from the lands south of llaemiis to their present seats north of the DiuiiiIk', which Is one of the great features of this age, had already begun. (The country between the Danube and the Halkans, the seat of the Second MulgariuQ kingdom, uppeurs as Aspro or White-Wallachia In some Hy/antine writings. Ho also north of the Danube the later Jloldavia and Great v, alluchla are known res])ectively as ^I.iv..^ [Uiack] and Ilungarowallachia. Still the fact of a continuous liouman civilizution north of the Danube Is not established. The theory of a great northward m )vement of the \'l(ie/i peoples is tlie one now f;cueially accepted and isably uiivocated in Hoes- er's " Uomilnisehe Studieii.") At tile present day this movement has been so long completed that scurcely the trace of a Vltteh population remains in tlic lands south of the Danube. These emigrants uppear, as It wore, in passing, to have shared with the native Bulgari- ans In the creation of tills Second Bulgarian kingdom. This realm achieved a momentary greatness under its rulers of the liouse of Asuii. The dismemberment of tlie Byzantine Empire in 1204 enabled them to make great encroachments to the south, and it .seemed for 11 time that to the Bulgarian, not tiie Greek, would full the task of overthrowing the Latin Empire of lioumania (see general ii'.ap of Europe at the opening of the thirteentli century). With tho reCstublisbment, however, of the Greek Empire of Constantinople, in 1261, the Bulgarian kingdom began to lose much of Its importance, and its power wius finally broken in 1285 by the Mongols. SERVIA. In the following century it was the turn of Servia to enjoy u period of prei'minent greatness. The latter kingdom hail recovered its uidepend- ence under the house of Nemanja in 1183. Under the great giant coniiueror Stephen Dushan (1321-13,')5) it enjoyed u period of greater power than has ever before or since fallen to the AIM'ENDIX H APPENDIX n lot (if n KinKli' Hitlkiui Ktiili'. Thi' lU-ntnrfd By- zniilinc Knipiri' hiiil HUMtiiini'd im iicniiniii'iit Iiihh from iUi: iii'ri(Hl of li\ilK»riuii Kri'iitiicHH: it wiih by tlit> MiitldcM HiTviiin ((iniiiicKt. Unit It wim (!<'- privi'il forever of iieitrlv nil ItN Kiir('|ieitii poHM'H- slunM (iH-e Halkiiii map ill) A lly/.iintlne reliction niittlit liiive collie under other condltloim, liiit already iiiio'lier iiiid ^renter eiiciny wih ut her KittcH. ' DiihIiiiu died In t;!,').'); and ulreiidy, in l;t.W, two yearn Iiefore, thi' Turk at (iailipoli had made IiIh entrance into Kiirope. From this time every ChrlHtlan Hlati' of the KaHt HU'W Hicadlly weaker until liidfraria, Herviii, thedreek Knipire, ftnd llnallv even Hungary, had puuiicd under the TurkUlt dominlor THE VLACHS. Pnsainii; on from thcHe Slavic pvoplcx, nnother nutional innnlfeHtatlon of the );reateHt importance l)eloii){lnK to thiit perio<l, one which, unlike the Greek and Slavic, may iii> wild In one NciiHe to llttve orl^'lnated in the perloti, wim that of the Vliii'lm. TIiIh /.iilin population, which ethnolo- ffjsts liave attempted to Identify with the ancient Thnieidim, was, previouH to the twelftli century, acuttered in irrei;ular groupH throuj^iout the en- tire lialkan |)eiiiiisula. During the twelfth cen- tury their great northward migration began. A single result of this movement lias already hecii nutlc( d in the rise of the Second ISiilgarlau king- dom. South of the Danube, however, their inllu- ciicu was transitory. It was north of the river that the evoliitionof the two principalities, Great Wallacliiii (liouinania) and Muldavia, und the growth of a \'li(rh population in tlie Transyl- vanian lands of Kastern lluugary, has yielded the etlinic and in great part the political "gcograpliy of the present day. The process of this (^volution may be under- stood from a com|)arallve study of the four Balkan maps. Upon the first imip the Vuimiiii- aim, a Finno-Tiitur peojile, who lu the twelfth century liiwl displaced a kindred race, the J'<itzi:i- ak» or Petaeheiugs, occupy the whole country between t!ic Danube and the Transylvanian Alps. These were in turn swept forever from llie map of Europe b^' the Jlongols (1224). With the re- ceding of this exterminating wave of Asiatic con- quest the great wilderness was thrown open to now (k'ttlers. The settlements of the Vliicha north of the Danube and east of the Aliitu became the priucipality of Great Wallachiu, the nucleus of the nuxlern Uoumania. West of tlie Aluta the district of Little Wallachiu was Inaorporated for a long period, as the bauat of Severin, in the Hungarian kingdom. Finally, the i)rlncij)ulity of Moldavia came into existence in 1341, m land previously won by the Hungarians from the Mongols, between the Dniester and the Carpathians. Both the princi- [)allties of Great Wallachiu and Moldavia were in the fourteenth century dependencies of Hungary. The grasp of Hungary was loosened, however, towards the close of the century and after, a perioil of shifting dependence, now on lluugary, now on Turkey, and for a time, in the case of Moldavia, on I'oland, we come to the period of permanent Turkish supremacy. With the presence and influence of the Vlachs south of the Balkans, during this period, we are less interested, since their subsequent disappear- ance lias removed the subject from any direct connection with modern politics. The only quar- ter where they still linger and where this In- lluence h'd to the founding of an Indept'iident Htiile, was In the country cast of the range of I'In- duH, theOniit Widlachiaof the lly/iuitines. Ilcru the prliK ipiility of Wallaclilan Thessaly appeared as an oIThIkhiI of the Greek despotat of Eplrus in 12:1)) (see map II). Thirl state r"'alned Its indepeniient existenco until VM)H, when itwiiHdlvided between the Cata- lan dukes of Athens and the Byzautiuo Empire, ALBANIANS. The SkiiKUim ( Allxiniii im) during this periml a|)pear to liavi! lieen tlie slowest to grasp out for 11 separate national existence. The southern sec- tion of Albania formed, after the fall of Constan- tinople, a part of the d.'spotat of Eplriis, and whatever Independence existed In the norlhern section was lost in the revival, first of the By/an- tine, then. In tlie ensuing century, of the Servian power. Ii was not until 1444 tliatiicerlHlii George Castriot. known to the Turks us Iskanderi iieg, or Scanderbeg, created 11 Christian princiiiality in till! mountain fa.stnesses of Albania. This little realm stretched along the Adriatic from Biitrinto almost to Antivari, embracing, fur- ther inland, Kroja and the basin of the Drill (see map IV). It was not until after Scundcrbeg's death that (Ottoman control was contlrned over this spirited Albanian population. THE TURKISH CONQUEST. The reign of Molia iiiiied II. (14.J1-1481) wit- nessed the final conquest of the entire country south of the Danube and the Save. The extent of the Turkish Empire at bis accession is siiowu on map IV. The acquisitions of territory during Ills reign included in Asia Minor the old Greek Empire of Trebizond (1401) and the Turkish dy- nasty of Kaniman; in Europe, Constantinople, whose fall brought the Byzantine Empire to a close in 14r)3, the duchy of Atliens (1456), the despotats of Patras and Misithra (14(iO). Servhi (1458), Bosnia (1403), Albania (1408), Epirus and Acarnauia, the continental dominion of the Counts of Cephalonia (1470), and Herzegovina (1481). In the mountainous district immediately soutii of Herzegovina, the principality of Alontenegro, situated in lauds which had formed the soiithern part of the flrst Servian kingdom, alone pre- served its independence, even at the height of the Turkish domination. Tlio dironicle of Turkisli history tliereafter re- cords only conquest after comiuest. The islands of the iligean were many of them won during Mohammed's own reign, the acquisition of tlie re- mainder ensued shortly after. Venice was liunted step by step out of all her Levantine possessions save the I<mian Islands; the superiority over the Crim Tartiu-s, Wallachia, Sloldavia and Jedlsan followed, tinully, the defeat at Mohacs (1520), and the subsequent internal anarchy left nearly aP Hungary at the mercy of the Ottoman con- ^ queror. The geographical homogeneity thus restored by the Turkisli con(iuest was not again disturbed until the present century. The repetition of al- mo.st the same conditions in our own time, though with the process reversed, has been referred to in the sketch of Balkan geography of tlie present day. The extreme importance of the period just described, for the purposes of minute bistoncal VIU APPENDIX B. annlniry, will Iw uppitront at nnco whorovor com- piiriwHi Ih iitlcinpUMl. Till' tliirtt'cnlli, fourU'i'iitli, luxl llftccntli ecu- turii's wiT(! of courMc pcriiHU of fur uri'iitcr ^i-o- gniplilciil liitrlLiicy. hut tlui purpow! lias Imtm rutluT to iiii.'lciili: tlir iiuturi'of tliLs liitrlciicy tlmii to (Ii'mtHh' it ill (Icliill. TIk! prliiclpiil fciiturc, nnmi'ly, tin- iiiitloiial inovemciitH, wlicrc'vcr lliry Imvi! iimiilfcstiMl tlicmsi'lvi's, Imvi! Iiccii morr ciircfullv dwelt ut)oii. Tlio olijcct has bccii.Hlm- ply to Hlic'w tliut till! four Hcpiiriilc imtloiml move- meiitH. tlu! Greek, tlio Slaric, tlio lioitman, iiiiil till) Al/Mtiiiaii, wlilcli limy !)(• MiiUl to Imvn cri'iitcd tlio prvHoiit Loviiiitiiu! problem, were all present, mill In tho cuso of the two lust iiiuy even be sukl APPENDIX B. to Imve liitd tlieir luceptlou, lu the period Ju«» triiversed. Ill the present century the unfoliliiiK of nil- tlon.il spirit hiis lieen so much ((reiiter and fur- reiirlilnjt thiit ii dllTerent oulcoine iiiiiy be looked for. It is HullUlent for the present thiit the in- cipient existence of these sikiilo niovcnients liita been shown to Imve existeil In ii previous uk'\ Tlie best ((eiicriil text luithorlty in Kii)fllsh for the Kcogrivpliy )f Ibis period is (leorKi^ Kliiliiy'n " History of (Jreece," vols. III. and IV. ; a nioro exhaustive jtuido in (Jeriimn is llopf's " (}u- Hcliichle (Jriecheniuncls. " For the purely jfeo- Krapbical worlis see the ge.:eral bibilogruphy of historical geography. —A. C. llcllcy. IX APPENDIX C. Notes to thk Map op the Balkan PENrasuLA. (Piiesent Century.) rriHE prcsont century has been a remarkable I one for tlie settlement of great polltii;al and geographical questions. These tpiestions re- solve themselves into two great classes, which Indicate the political forces of the present ago, — the first, represented in the growth of demo- cratic thought, and the second arising from the awakening of national spirit. The first of these concerns Instorical geography only incidentally, but the second Imp already done mrch to recon- struct the political geography of our time. RECENT NATIONAL IhlOVEMENTS. Within a little over thirty years it has changed the map of central Europe from a medley of small states into a vuiited Italy and a united Germany ; it has also led to a reconstruction of the Austro-llungarian Empire, In Italy, Ger- many and Austria-Hungary, the national ques- tions may, however, be regarded as settled; and if, in the case of Austria-Hungary, owing to exactly reverse conditions, the settlement has been a tentative one, it has at least removed the question from the more immediate concern of the present. In a diiTerent quarter of Europe, how- ever, the rise of me national movements has led to a question, infinitely more complicated than the others, and which, so ."ar from being settled, is becoming ever more pressing year by year. This reference is to the great Balkan problem. That this question has been delayed in its solution for over four centuries, is due, no doubt, to tlie conquests of the Turk, and it is still com- plicated by his presence. In the notes to the four previous Balkan maps (1191— 1451), attention was especially directed to the national move- ments, so far as they had opportunity to develop themselves during this period. These move- ments, feeble in their character, were all smoth- ered by the Turkish conquest. With tlip ''ecline of this power in the present century th' Tces once more have opportunity for reappearanv.^. In this regard the history of the Balkans during the nineteenth century is simply the history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries read back- wards. The Turkish Empire had suflered terrible re- verses during the eighteenth century. Hungary (1099), the Crim Tartars (1774), Bukovina (1777), Jedisan (1792), Bessarabia and Eastern Moldavia (1813) were a'.' successively wrested from the Ottomans, while Egypt on one side and Moldavia and Wallachia on another recovered practical autonomy, the one under the restored rule of the Mamelukes (1766), the other under native hospo- dars. the SERVIAN AND GREEK REVOLTS. All of these losses, though greatly weakening the Ottoman power, did not destroy its geographi- cal integrity. It was with the Servian revolt of 1804 that the series of events pointing to the actual disruption of the Turkish Empire may be said to have begun. The first period of dissolu- tion was measured by the reign of Mahmoud II. (1808-1839), at once the greatest and the most un- fortunate of all the later Turkish sultans. Servia, first under Kara Gcorg, then under Miloscli Obrenovitch, the founder of the present dynasty, maintained a struggle which led to the recogni- tion of Servian local autonomy in 1817. The second step in the process of dissolution was the tragic Greek revolution (1831-1828). The Sultan, after a terrible war of extermination, had practi- cally reduced Greece to subjection, when all hia work was undone by the interventioj of the groat powers. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the com- bined squadrons of England, France and Russia at Navarin, October 20, 1827, and in the campaign of the ensuing year the Moscovite arms for the first time in history penetrated south of the Balkans. The treaty of Adrianople, between Russia and Turkey (September 14, 1829), gave to the Czar the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia. By the treaty of London earlier in this year Greece was macfe autonomous under the suzerainty of the Sultan, and the protocol of March 23, 1829, drew her northern frontier in a line between the gulfs of Arta and Volo. The titular sovereignty of the Sultan over Greece was onnulled later in the year at the peace of Adrianople, though the northern boundary of the Hellenic kingdom was tlien curtailed to a line drawn from the mouth of the Achelous to the gulf of Lamia. With the accession of the Bavarian king Otho, in 1833, after the failure of the republic the northern boundary was again adjusted, returning to about the limits laid down in the Slarch protocol of 1829. Greece then remained for over fifty years bounded on the north by Mount Othrys, the Pin- dus range and the gulf of Arta. In 1883, on the accession of the Danish king George I. , the Ionian Isles, which had been under English administra- tion since the Napoleonic wars, were ceded to the Greek kingdom, and in Jlay, 1881, almost the last change in European geography to the present day was accomplished in the cession, by the Sul- tan, of Thcssaly and a small part of Epirus. The agitation in 1886 for a further extension of Greek tevritory was unsuccessful. THE TREATY OF UNKIAR SKELESSI. A series of still greater reverses brought the reign of the Sultan Mahmoud to a close. 1 he chief of these were the defeats sustained at the hands of his rebellious vassal Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, a man who takes rank even be- fore the Sultan himself as the greatest figure in the Mohammedan world during the present cen- tury. The immediate issue of this struggle was the practical independence of Egypt, where the descendants of Mehemet still rule, their title hav- ing been changed in 18' " from viceroy to that of kliedive. An event inc._ :ntal to the strife be- tween Mehemet Ali nnd the 3ultan is of far X APPENDIX C. APPENDIX C. f renter importance in tlio liiatorjr of European iirkcy. Mulimoiul in liis distress loolicd for aid to the great powers, and tlie tinnl issue of tlie rival interests struggling at Constantinople was the memorable treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July, 18i53) by which the Sultan resigned himself com- pletely to the interests of liis former implacable foe, the Czar of Russia. In outward appearance this treaty was an offensive and defensive alli- ance; in practical results it gave the Moscovite, in exchange for armed assistance, when needed, the practical control of the Dardanelles. It is no extravagance of statement to say that this treaty forms absolutely the liigh watermark of Russian predominance in the alfairs of the Lc^vant. Dur- ing the subsequent sixty years, this influence, taken as a whole, strange paradox as it may seem, has rather receded than advanced. The utter prostration of the Turkish Empire on the death of Mahmoud (1830) compelled Russia to recede from the conditions of Unkiar Skelessi while a concert of the European jjowers imder- took tlie task of rehabilitating the ])rostrate power; the Crimean war (1854-1855) struck a more damaging blow at the Russian power, and the events of 1878, though they again shattered the Turkish Empire, did not, as will be shown, lead to corresponding return of the Czar's ascendency. THE CRIMEAN WAR AND TREATY OP PARIS. The Crimean War was brought on by the at- tempt of the Czar to dictate concerning the in- ternal affairs of the Ottoman Empire — a policy whicli culminated in tlio occupation of Jloldavia and Wallachia (1853). All Europe became ar- rayed against Russia on this question.r- Prussia and Austria in tacit opposition, while England, France, and afterwards Piedmont, urifted into war with the northern power. I5y the treaty of Paris (1850), which terminated the sanguinary struggle, the Danube, closed since the peace of Adrianople (1820), was reopened; the southern part of nes.sanibia was taken from Russia and added to the principality of Moldavia ; the treaty powers renounced all right to interfere in the internal affairs of the Porte ; and, lastly, the Black Sea, V.ich twenty years before, by the treaty of Un'.^ar Skelessi, had become a private Russian po id, was swept of the Russian fleets and converted into a neutral sea. The latter condition however was abrogated by the powers (March 13, 1871). Despite the defeat of Russia, the settlement effected at the congress of Paris was but tenta- tive. The most that the allied powers could pos- sibly have hoped for, was so far to cripple Russia as to render her no longer a menace to the Otto- man Empire. They succeeded only in so far as to defer the recurrence of a Turkish crisis for another twenty years. The chief event of importance during this in- terval was the birth of the united l{oumania. In 1857 tlie representative councils of both Moldavia and Wallachia voted for their union under this name. This personal union was accomplished bv the choice of a common ruler, John Cuza (1850), whose election was confirmed by a new conference at Paris in 1801. A single ministry and single assembly were formed ac Bucharest in 1P83. Prince Karl of Ilolienzollcrn-Sigmaringen was elected hospodar in 1866, and finally crowned as king in 1881. THE REVIVED EASTERN QUESTION OF 1875-78. The Eastern ciuestion was reopened with all its perplexities in the Herzegoviniannnd Bosnian revolt of August, 1875. These provinces, almost iMit olt from the Turkish Empire bv Montenegro and Servia, occupied a position which rendered their subjugation almost a hopeless task. Preparations were already under way for a settlement by joint action of the powers, when a wave of fanatical fury sweeping over the (Jtto- man Empire ren<lered all these t fforts abortive. Another Christian insurrection in Bulgaria was supiires.scd in a series of wholesale and atrocious massacres. Servia and Montenegro in a ferment declared war on Turkey (.luly 2, 1870). The Turkish arms, however, were easily victorious, and Russia only saved the Servian capital bv com- Iielling an arniistice (October 30). A conference of the representatives of the powers was then held at Constantinople in a final effort to arrange for a reorganization of the Empire, which should im^lude the granting of autonomy to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria. These conditions, thougli subsequently embodied in a general ulti- matum, the London protocol of March 31, 1877, were rejected by the Porte, and Russia, wlio haa determined to proceed alone in the event of this rejection, injinediately declared war (April 24). Into this war, owing to the horror excited in England by tlic Bulgarian massacres, and the altered policy of France, the Turk was compelled to go without allies, and thus unassisted his de- feat was assured. Then followed the sanguinary campaigns in Bulgaria, the memories of whicn arc still recent and unobscured. Plevna, the central point of the Turkish lesistance, fell on December 10th; Adrianople was occupied by the Russians on January 20th, 1878; and on January 31st, an armistice was granted. Great Britain now seemed roused to a sense of the danger to herself in tlio Russian approach to Constantinople, and public opinion at last per- mitted Lord Beaconsficld to send a fleet to the Bosporus. By the Russo-Turkish peace of San Stephano (March 3, 187H) Turkey recognized the complete independence of Servia, Roumania and Monte- negro, while Bulgaria became what Servia and Roumania had just cea.sed to be, an autonomous lirincipality under nominal Turkish sovereignty. Russia received the Dobrutcha in Europe, which was to be given liy tlie Czar to Roumania in ex- change for the portion of Bessarabia lost in 1856. Servia and Montenegro received accessions of territory, the latter securing Antivari on the coast, but the greatest geographical change was the frontier assigned to the new Bulgaria, which was to include all the territory bounded by an irregular line lieginning at Jlldia on the Black Sea and running north of Adrianople, and, in addition, a vast realm in Jlacedonia, bounded on the west only by Albania, approaching Salon- ica, and touching the uEgeon on either side of the Chalcidico. It was evident that the terms of tins treaty in- volved the interests of other powers, especially of Great Britain. An ultimate settlement which involved as parties only the conciueror and con- quered was therefore impossible. A general congress of the Powers was seen to be the only solvent of the difflculty ; but before such a con- gress was possible it was necessary for Great XI Al'PENDlX C. APPENDIX C. Rritnin nnd Russia to find at least a tangible basis of negotiation for tlie adjustment of tlieir dilliTcnces. By tlie secret agreement of May 30tli, Russia agreed to abandon the disp\ifed points — cliief among tliese the creation of a Bulgarian seaboard on the ^gean — and the eon>;res8 of Berlin then assenililcd (June 13 — July 13, 1878). ARRANGEMENTS OF THE TREATY OF BERLIN. Great Britain was represented at the congress by tlie Marquis of Salisbury and the premier, the Karl of Beaconstleld. The treaty of Berlin modilied the conditions of Han Stephano by re- ducing the Ilussiau acquisitions in Asia Minor and also by curtailing the cessions of territory to Servia ancf Montenegro. A recommendation was also made to the Porte to cede Thessaly and a part of Epirus to Greece, i transfer which was accomplished in 1881. A more important pro- vision was the transfer of the administrative con- trol of tlie provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria. This cession was the oiitcome of the secret agreement between Russia and Austria at Reichstadt, in July of the previous year, by which the former had secured from her rival a free hand in tlie Turkish war. These districts were at once occupied by Austria, despite tlie resistance of the Mohammedan pop.ulatlon, and the sanjak of Novibazar, the military occupa- tion of which was agreed to by the Porte, was also entered by Austrian troops in September of the following year. England secured as her share of the spoil the control of the island of Cy- prus. The j^.uutcst work accomplished at Berlin, however, was the complete readjustment of the boundaries of the new Bulgarian principality. This result was aohieved tlirough the agency of Great Britain. Tlie great Bulgarian domain, which by the treaty of San Stephano would have conformed almost to the limits of the Bulgarian Empire of the tenth century, 'vas, vith the e.\- ception of a small western strip iiicludiug the capital, Sotla, puslied entirely uortli of the Bal- kans. This new principality was to enjoy local autonomy ; and immediately south of the Balkans was formed a new province, Eastern Roumelia, also with local autonomy, although under the military authority of the Sultan. The result of the Berlin Congress was the ap- parent triumpli of the BeaconsHeld policy. It is doubtful, however, if the idea of this triumph has been fully sustained by the course of subse- quent events. The idea of Beaconstleld appears to have been that the new Bulgaria could not be- come other than a virtual dependency of Russia, and that iu curtailing its boundaries he was checking by so much the growth of Russian in- fluence. If he could have foreseen, however, the unexpected spirit with which the Bulgarians have defended their autonomy, not from Turkish but from Russian aggression, it is doubtful if he woultl have lent himself with such vigor lo that portion of his policy which had for its result the weakening of this "bufTer" state. The deter- mination to resist Russian aggression in the Bal- kans continues to form the purpose of English politicians of nearly all schools; but the idea that this policy is best served by maintaining the in- tegrity of the Ottoman Empire in Europe has been steadily losing adherents since Beaconsfleld's day. The one event of importance in Balkan his- tory since 1878 has served well to Illustrate this fact. LATER CHANGES. In September, 1885, the revolt of Eastern Uou- molia partially undid the work of the Berlin treaty. After the usual negotiations between the Powers, Miu question at issue was settled by a conference of ambassadors at Constantinople in November, by which Eastern Roumelia was placed under tlie rule of the Bulgarian prince as vassal of the Sultan. This result was achieved through the agency of England, and against the opposition of Russia and other continental powers. England and Russia had in fact exchanged poli- cies since 1878, now that the real temper of the Bulgarian people was more generally under- stood. The governments of Greece and Servia, alarmed at the predominance thus given to Bulgaria among the libarated states, sought similar com- pensation, but were both foiled. Servia, which sought this direct from Bulgaria, was worsted in a short war (Nov. — Dec. 1885), and Greece was cliecked in her aspiration for further territorial aggrandizement at the expense of Tur- key by the combined blockade of the Powers in til- spring of 1886. Since then, no geographical change has taken place in the old lands of European Turkey. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria was forced to abdi- cate by Russian intrigue iu September 1886; but under his successor, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe- Coburg (crowned in 1887), and his able minister Stambouloff, Bulgaria has successfully preserved its autonomy. THE PRESENT-DAY PROBLEM. A general statement of the Balkan problem ;is it exists to-day may be briefly given. The nou- Turkish populations of European Turkey, for the most part Christian, are divided ethnically into four groups: the Itoumam or Vliichs, the Qreeks, the Albaniuiis and the Slavs. The pro- cess of liberation, as it has proceeded during the present century, has given among these people the following separate states. The Vlachs are represented in the present kingdom of Roumania ruled by a Hohenzollern prince ; tlie Greeks are represented in the little kingdom of Greece ruled by a prince of the house of Denmark; while the Slaea are represented by three autonomous realms: Bulgaria under Ferdinand of Suxe-Co- burg, Servia under the native' dynasty of Obreno- vitch, and the little princijiality of ilontenegro, the only one of all which had never yielded to Turkish supremacy, under the Pctrovic house, which is likewise native. The Albanians alone of the four races, owing in part, pchaps, to their more or less general ac- ceptance of Mohammedanism, have not as yet made a determined effort for separate national existence. To these peoplf- under any normal process of development, oelongs I'.e inheritance of the Turkish Empire in Euroiie. The time has long passed when any such procuss can be effectu- ally hindered on the Turkish side. It will bo hindered, if at all, either by the aggredsive and rival ambitions of their two great neighbors, Austria and Russia, or by the mutual jealousies and opposing claims of the peoples themselves. The unfortunate part which these jealousies are likely to play in the history of the future XU APPENDIX C. APPENDIX C. was dimly foreshadowed in the events of 1885. It is indeed these rival aspirations, rather than the eollapse of the Turkish power, which .vre most likely to afford Russia and even Austria 'he op- portunity for territorial extension over the l^dkan 1 mds. A confederation, or even u tacit uiider- Btandiug between the Balkan states, would do much to provide ajjainst this danger; but the idea of a confederation, though often suggested and even planned, belongs at present only to the realm of jiossibilities. On tlie one hand Servia, menaced by the proximity of Austria, leans ui)on liussian support; on the other, Bulgaria, under exactly reverse conditions, yields to the influence of Austria. It will be seen at once that these arc unfavorable conditions on which to build up any federative action. If at the next crisis, how- ever, the liberated states are fated to act inde- pendently, it will be seen at once thai, Greece and Bulgaria possess the better chance. Not only arc they the most remote from any of the great powers, but they alone pu.::sess i geography which is entirely open on the Turkisli side. Moreover, what is of still greater conseiiuence, it is they wlio, from an ethnic standpoint, have the most legitimate interest in the still unliberated popidation of European Turkey. The unliberated Girck population predominates in southern Mace- donia, the Chalciiliau 7-"iiinsula and along almost the entire seaboard, ooth of Thrace and Asia Jlinor; on the other hand tlic ethnographical limits of the Jiulijunuii people conform almost exactly to the boundaries of Bulgaria as provided for at San Stephano. The creation of a political Bulgaria to correspond to the ethnic Bulgaria was indeed thp purpose of the Russian government in 1878, though with the repetition of the same conditions it would hardly be its jjurpose again. Barring, therefore, the AUmniatis of the west, who as yet hi've asserted no clearly defined na- tional claim, the Grcekaixnd tlie Ih Ir/ariaiuaTc the logical heirs to what remains of European Turkey. These observations are not intended as a fore- cast; they merely indicate wliat would bo an in- evitable outcome, were the questiim permitted a natural settlement. Concerning the Turku themselves a popular fallacy has ever been to consider their destiny as a whole. But here again an important division of the subject intrudes itself. In Asia Minor, where the Turkish population overwhelmingly preponderates, tlie question of theirdestiny, barring the ever threatened Russian iiiterference, ought not to arouse great concern in the present. Bui in European Turkey the utter lack of tliis predominance seems to deprive file Ottoman of his onlv legitimate title. The Turl:ii(h population in Thrace and the Balkans nevei did in fact constitute a majority; am' with its comnuial decline, measured indeed by tie de- cline of ;he Ottoman Empire itself, the greitest of all obsl,'cii's to an eciuitablt and final settle- ment has bL"n removed. (See the ethnic ma'.) of Europe at tin jjiesent day.) The historic-l geography of the Balkars dur- ing the present entury is not so intricate that it may not be undt. -stood even from the current literature of the su'iject. The b.'st purely geo- graphical authority is E, llertslet's "Jlap o.' Europe by Treaty." ».>f text works A. C. Fyffc's "History of Jloilern E, 'rope," and J. II. Rose's "A Century of Contineniil History " afford ex- cellent general vievi- ?. The facts concerning the settlement of the ii- ' northcn boundary of free Greece are given in 1 mlay's " iTistory of "Greece," Vol. VII. Of excelleiit'works 'lealing more or less directly with present Baikal, politics there is hardly an end. It is necessary to mention but a few : E. de Laveleye's "The Balkan Peninsula, " E. A. Freeman's "The Ottoman Power in Europe," the Duke of Argyll's "The Eastern Question," and James Baker's "Turkey." See also the general bibliography of historical jecj- raphy. — A. C. Reiley. Xlll APPENDIX D. N0TK8 TO THE DEVEIaJPMKNT MaP OP ChUIBTIANITY. THE subject matter contained in this mop is of a cimracter so distinct from tliat of the otlicr maps of this series tlint the reader must expect a coi responding modification in the method of treatment. The use of historical maps is confined, for the most part, to the statement of purely political conditions. This is in fact almost the only field which ad- mits of exact portrayal, within the limits of his- torical Icnowledge, by this method. Any other phase of human life, whether religious or social, which concerns tlic belief or the thought of the people rather than the exact extent of their race or tlieir government, must remain, so far as the limitations of cartography is concerned, compar- atively intangible. Again, it should be noted that, even in tlie map treatment of a subject as comparatively ex- act as political geography, it Is one condition of exactness that this treatment should bo specific in its relation to a date, or at least to a limited period. The map which treats a subject in its historical development has the undoubted merit of greater comprehensiveness; but this advantage cannot be gained without a certain loss of relation and proportion. Between the "development" map and the "date" map there is this difference: In the one, the whole subject passes before the eye in a sort of moving panorama, the salient points evident, but with their relation to external facts often obscured : in tlic other, the subject stands still at one particular point and permits itself to be pliotographed. A progressive series of such photographs, each forming a perfect picture by Itself, yet each showing the clear relation with what precedes and follows, affords the metliod which all must regard as the most logical and the most exact. But from the very intangible nature of the subject treated in this map, the date method, with its demand for exactness, be- comes impracticable. These observations are necessary in explaining the limitations of cartog- raphy in dealing with a subject of this nature. The notes that follow are intended as a simple elucidation of tlie plan of treatment. The central feature in the early development of Christianity is soon stated. The new faith spread by churches from city to city until it be- came the religion of the Roman Empire ; after- wards this spread was continued from people to people until it became tlie religion of Europe. The statement of the general fact in this crude and untempered form might i~ an ordinary case provoke criticism, and its Invariable historic truth with reference to the second period be open to some question ; but witliin the limits of map presentation it is substantially accurate. It forms, indeed, the key upon wh!.;U the entire map is constructed. THE ANTE'NICENE CHURCHES. During the first three centuries of the Christian era, up to the Conslantinian or Nicene period, there is no country, state or province which can be safely described as Cliristian ; yet as early as the second century there is hardly a portion of the Empire which docs not number some Chris- tians in its population. The subject of the his- torical geography of the Christian cliurch during the ante-Niceno period is confined, tlierefore, to the locating of these Christian bodies wherever they are to be found. On this portion of the subject the map makes its own statement. It is possible merely to elucidate this statement, with the suggestion, in addition, of a few points which the map does not and cannot contain. Concerning the ante-Nicene churches there is only one division attempted. This division, into the " Apostolic " and " post- Apostolic," concerns merely the period of their foundation. Concern- ing the churches founded in the Apostolic period (SS-IOO), our knowledge io practically limited to the facts culled from tne Acts, the Epistles and the Apocalypse. Tlie churches of the post- Apos- tolic period afford a mucli wider field for re- search, although the materials for study bearing upon them are almost as inadequate. According to the estimate of the late Prof. R. D. Hitchcock, there were in the Roman Empire at the close of the persecutions about 1,800 churclies, 1,000 in the East and 800 in the West. Of this total, the cities in which churclies have been definitely located number only 525. They are distributed as follows: Europe 188, Asia 214, Africa 123 (see v. I, p. 443). Through the labors of Prof. Henry AV. liulbert, the locations of these 535 cities, so far as established, have been cast in available cartograpliic form. It is much to be regretted that, despite the sanc- tion of the author, it has been found impossible, owing to the limitations of space, to locate all of these cities in the present map. The attempt has been limited therefore to the placing of only the more prominent cities, or those whose loca- tion is subject to the least dispute. The Apostolic and post- Apostolic churches, as they appear upon the map, are distinguished by underlines in separate colors. A special feature has been the insertion of double underlines to mark the greater centres of diffusion, so far as their special activity in this respect can be safely assumed. In this class ./e have as centres in Apostolic times Jerusalem, Antioch, Epiitsus, Philippi, Thessaloniea and Oorinth ; in post- Apostolic times, when the widening of the field necessitates special and limited notices, we may name Alexaiidna, Edessa, Rome and CartM^e. Tlie city of Rome contains a Christian co:n- munity in Apostolic times, but its activity as a great diffusion centre, prior to early post-Apos- tolic times, is a point of considerable historical XIV APPENDIX D. controversy. In this respect it occupies a pecu- liar position, wliicli is suggested by the special underlines in the map. CONVERriON OP THB EMPIRE. The above metliod of treatment carries us in safety up to tlie accession in tlie West of the first Christian Emperor(311). Tlie attempt, how- ever. ♦• ,,,.."'"! the same method beyond tliat P'- lod would involve us at once in insurmount- able ditllcultics. Tlie exact time of the advent of the Christian- Roman world it is indeed impossible to define with precision. The Empire after tlic time of Constiintine was predominantly Christian, yet paganism still lingered in formidable tliough declining strength. A map of religious designed to explam this pc-' )d, even witli unlimited his- torical material, c aid hardly be executed by any system, for tlic i. ult could be little better than a chaos, the fragments of the old religion every- where disappearing or blending witli tlie new. The further treatment of the growtli of Ciiris- tianity by cities or churches is now impossible ; for tlie rapid increase of tlie latter has carried tlio subject into details and intricacies where it can- not be followed : on the other hand, to describe the Roman world in the fourth century as a Christian world would be taking an unwarranted liberty with the plain facts of history. The last feeble remnants of paganism were in fact burned away in tlie fierce heat of tlie bar- baric invasions of the fifth century. After that time we can safely designate the former limits of the Roman Empire as the Christian world. From this point we can resume tbj subject of church expansion by the "second method" indicated at the head of this article. But concerning the transition period of tlie fourth and fifth centuries, from tlie time Christianity is predominant in tiie Roma'i world until it becomes the sole religion of the Roman world, both methods fail us and the map can tell us practically nothing. BARBARIANS OF THE INVASION. Another source of intricacy occurring at this point should not escape notice. It was in the fourth century that Christianity began its spread among the barbarian Teutonic nations nortli of the Danube. The Goths, located on the Danube, between the Theiss and the Euxine, were con- verted to Christianity, in the form known as Arianism, by the missionary bishop UlpliilaE, and the faitli extended in the succeeding century to many other confederations of the Germanic race. This fact represented, for a time, the Christiani- zation, whole or partial, of some peoples beyond the borders of the Empire. With the migrations of the fifth and sixth centuries, however, these converts, without exception, carried their new faith with them uto the Empire, and tlieir de- serted homes, left open to new and pagan set- tlers, simply became the field for the renewed missionary effort of a later age. It is a liistorical fact, from a cartographic standpoint a fortunate one, that, with all the geo^rapliic oscillation? if this period between Cliristianity and paganism, the Christian world finally emerged with iti boun- daries conforming, with only a few exceptions, to the former frontiers of the Roman Empire. Whether or not this is a historical accident it nevertheless gives technical accuracy from the geographic standpoint to the statement that APPENDIX D. Christianity first made the conquest of the Roman world ; from thence it went out to com- plete the conquest of Europe. CONVERSION OP EUROPE. With the view, as afforded on the map, of the extent of Christianity at the commencement of the sevcntli century, we have entered definitely upon the "second method." Indeed, in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, where the Celtic cliurch lias already put forth its missionary effort, the method has, in point of date, been anticipated ; but this fact need cause no confusion in treat- ment. Henceforth the spread of Christianity is ' noted as it made its way from "people to peo- ple." At tliis point, however, occurs the great- est intongibility of the subject. The dates given under each country represent, as stated in the key to tlie map, "tlie approximate periods of conversion. " It is not to be inferred, however, that Christianity was completely unknown in any of these countries prior to tlie periods given, or tliat the work of conversion was in each case en- tirely completed witliiu tlie time specified. But it is an absolute necessity to give some definite- ness to tliese " periods of conversion"; to assign Willi all distinctness possible tlie time when each laiiil passed from tlic list of pagan to the list of Christian nations. Tlie dates marking the limits to tliese periods are perliaps chosen by an arbitrary metliod. Tlie basis of their selection, however, has been almost invariably some salient point, first in the introduction anil finally in tlie general accept- ance of the Christian faith. In order that the reader may possess the easy means of indepen- dent opinion or critical judgment, the explanation is appended of the dates thus used, concerning wliieh a question miglit legitimately arise. Goths. — Converted to Arian, Gnristianity by UlpMlas, 341-381. — These dates cover the period of the ministry of Ulphilns, whose efforts resulted in the conversion of tlie great body of the Danu- bian Gotlis. He received his ordination and en- tered upon his work in 341, and died at Con- stantinople in 381. (SeeC. A. A. Scott's "Ulflliis.") Suevi, Burgundians and Lombard.*). — These people, like the Goths, passed from paganism tlirough the medium of Arian Christianity to final Orthodoxy. Concerning tlie first process, it is possible to establish notliing, save that these Teutonic peoples appeared in the Empire in the fiftli eentur}' as professors of the Arian faith. Tlie exact time of tlio acceptance of tliis faith is of less conse(iuence. The second transition from Arianism to (Jrthodoxv occurred at a different time in eaeli case. The Suevi embraced the Catholic faith in 550; the Visigoths, through theii Catholic king Reccarcd, were brought within the church at tlie tliird council of Toledo (589). Further north tlie Burgundiaus embraced Catholi- cism through their king Sigisinond in 017, and, finally, the Lombards, the last of the Arians, accepted Orthodoxy in tlie beginning of the seventh century. The Vandals, another Arian German nation of this period, figured in Africa in . the fourth century. Tliey were destroyed, however, by the arras of Belisarius in 534, and their cnrly disappearance renders unnecessary their representation on tlie present map. Franks. — Ohristiaiiity introduced in 498. — This is the date of the historic conversion of Clovis and his warriors on the battlefield of XV APPENDIX D. APPENDIX D. Tolblac. The Franks were tlio first of the Ger- manic peoples to puss, ns a nation, to orthodoxy (lireot from paganism, and tlieir conversion, as we liave seen, was soon followed by tlie progress from Arianism to Orthodoxy of the other Ger- manic nations within the borders of the Empire. Ireland. — Christianuy intmliieed hy Patrick, 440-493. — St. Patrick entered upon his mission- ary work in Ireland in 440; he died on the scene of his lalKirs in 403. This period witnessed the conversion of the bulk of tlie Irish nation. Picts, — Christianity introduetd from Ireland by (hlumba, 563-507. — These dates cover the ' period of St. C'olinnba's ministry. Tlic work of St. Ninian, the "apostle of the Lowlands" in the previous century, left very few enduring re- sults. The period from 503, the date of the founding of the famous Celtic monastery of lona, to the death of Columba in 597, witnessed, however, the conversion of the great mass of the Pictish nation. Strathdyde. — Christianity introduced by Ken- tigern, 550-003. — These dates, like the two pre- ceding, cover the i)eriod of tlie ministry of a single .nan, Kentigern, the "apostle i)f Stratli- clyde." The date marking the commcncemoiit of^Kentigern's labois is approximate. He died in 003. England. — The Celtic church had been up- rooteclin England by the Anglo-Saxon invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries. While its mis- sionary efforts were now being expended on Scot- land, Strathclydc, and Cornwall, its pristine scat had thus fallen away to complete paganism. The Christianization of England was the work of the seventh century, and in this work the Celtic church, though expending great effort, was an- ticipated and ultimately outstripped by the chiirch of Rome. Kent. — Christianity introduced by Augustine, 597-004. — These dates cover the ministry of St. Augustine, the apostle of Kent. Tliis was the first foothold gained by the Roman church on the soil of Britain. Northumbria.— 627-051.— Edwin (Eadwine), king of Nortliumbria, received baptism from the Kentish inissionarv Paulinus on Easter Eve, 627. Tlie process of conversion was continued by the Celtic missionary, Aidin, who died in 651. The Christianity of Nortliumbria had begun before the latter date, however, to influence the surrounding states. East An^lia.— 630-647.— East Angliahad one Christian kmg prior to this period ; but it was only with the accession of Sigebert (630) that great progress was made in the conversion of the people. The reign of kin^ Anna witnesses the practical completion of this work. In 047 the cffortt of this sovereign led to the baptism of Cenwaleh, king of the West Saxons. Wessex.— 634-048. — The conversion of the West Saxons was begun by the missionary Biri- nus in 634. The year 648 witnessed the restora- tion of the Christian king Cenwaleh. Mercia. — 054-070. — Jlereia was one of the last of the great English kingdoms to accept the faith. Their king, Penda, was indeed the most formid- able foe the church encountered in the British Isles. The conversion of Penda's son Pcada ad- mitted the gospel to the Middle Angles, who accepted Christianity in 053. The East Saxons embraced the faith at about the same time. Fi- nally in 054 the defeat and death of Penda at the hand of Oswy, the Christian king of Northiim- bria, opened "the doors of Mercia as well. The conversion of the realm was practically accom- plif lied during the next few years. Su98ex.—681.— The leaders of the South Sax- ons received baptism at the hands of the apos- tle Wilfred in 681. Sussex was the last retn^at of paganism on the English mainland, and five years later the conversion of the inliabitante of the Isle of Wight completed the spread of Chris- tianity over every portion of the Britisli Isles. Frisians. — Christianity introduced bi/ Willi- hrord, 690-739.— The .vork of St. Willibrord among the Frisians vis one of many manifes- tations of the missicna'.y activity of the Cel- tic church. Willibroi.l introduced Christianity among these people during the years of his min- istry, but to judge by the sub.sequent martyrdom of Boniface in Priesland (755) the work of con- version was not fully completed in all quarters until a later time. Mission Field of Boniface.— 722-755.— The object of the map is not merely to locate the mission field of the great " apo.stleof Germany," but also to give the location and date of the vari- ous bishoprics which owed their foundation to his missionary efforts. Saxons.— 787-805.— Of all the nations con- verted to Christianity up to this time the Saxons were the first conquest of the sword. The two most powerful Saxon chiefs were baptized in 787; but it was not until their complete defeat and subjugation by Charlemagne in 805 that the work of conversion showed a degree of complete- ness. AVith the Christianization of the Saxons the cordon of the church was completed around the Germanic nations. Moravia. — Christianity introduced by Cyrillus and Methodius, 863-000.— St. Cyrillus, the "a])os- tle of the Slavs," entered upon his mission in Moravia in 803. The political Moravia of the ninth centrry, under Rastislav and Sviatopluk, exceeded greatly the limits of the modern ])rov- ince; but the missionary labor of the brothers Cyrillus and Methodius seems to have produced its principrd results in the modern Moravian ter- ritory, as indicated on the map. Methodius, the survivor of the brothers, died about 900. In the tenth century Moravia figures as Christian. Czechs.— 880-1039.— The door to Bohemia was first opened from Moravia in tlie time of Sviatopluk. The reactions in favor of pagan- ism were, however, unusually prolonged and violent. Severus, Archbishop of Prague, finally succeeded in enforcing the various rules of the Christian cultus (1039). Poles.— 966-1034.— The Polish duke Mieczy- slav was baptized in 966. Mieezyslav II. died in 1034. These dates cover the active missionary time when, indeed, the efforts of the clergy were backed by the strong arm of the sovereign. Poland did not, however, become completely Christian u; il a somewhat later period. Bulgaria. —863-900. — The Bulgarian prince Bogoris was baptized in 803. Again, as in so many other cases, the faith v.-as compelled to pass to the people through the medium of the sover- eign. The ' >ud date is arbitrary, although Bulgaria ap]!' . is definitely as a Christian coun- try at the commencement of the tenth century. Magyars. — 950-1050. — Missionaries were ad- mitted mto the territory of the magyars in 950. XVI APPENDIX D. APPENDIX D. The coronntion of Kt. Stcphi'ii, the " npostolic klnjf," (KKM)) iniirkfd the real triiiiiipli of Cliris- tiiiiiity ill llunjtiiry. A nuinbcr of piigiin ri'iic- tioiis occurred, however, in tlie eleventh century, so that it is impossible to iilace the conversion of the Magyars nt uii earlier date than the last one assigned. Russians.— 088-1015.— The Russian grand- duke Vladimir was baptized on the occasion of his marriage to the princess Anne, sister of the Byzantine Emperor, in 1)88. liefon; his death in lOlT) Cliri.stianity had through his elTorts become the accepted religion of his people. Danes. — C'oiuvrtnl /i)/ Aimgar andhinnurreiuiors, 827-1035. — The Danes had been visited by mis- sionaries ]irior to the ninth century, but their work had left no permanent result. The arrival of Ausgar, the "apostle of the North" (837), marks the real beginning of tlic period of con- version. This period in Denmark was an un- usually long one. It was not fully complete until the nign of Canute the Great (1010-103,")). Swedes (Gothia). — Chrutinnitji iiitvoduced by Aimi/iir mill /lis successors, 829-1000. — Ausgar nuulc his iirst visit to Sweden in 820, two years after his arrival in Denmark. The period of conversion, as in Denmark, was a long one; but by the year 1000 the southern section, Gothia or Qotliland, had become Christian. The conversion of the northern Swedes ■was not completed for another century. Norwegians. — 935-1030.— The jieriod of cou- vcrsion in Norway began willi the reign of the Christian king Ilakon the Good. The faith made slow progres.s, however, until the reign of Olaf Trygveson, wlio ascended the tlirone near tlie end of the tenth century. The work of conversion was completed in tlio reign of Olaf the Saint (101-1-1030). Pomeranians. — Christianity introducalhy Otho of Jldiiihay, 112-1-1128.— The attempt of the Poles to convert the Pomeranians by the sword i)rior to these dates had proven unavailing, and mission- aries had been driven from the country. Witliin the short sjiacc of four years, howcvej, Otho of Bamberg succeeded in bringing the great mass of the people within tlie pale of the church. Abotrites.— 1125-1103.— The conversion of these people was clearly the work of the sword. It was accomplished within the time specified by Albert the Hear, first margrave of Brandenburg, and Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. The last heathen king became the first Christian duke of Jlecklenburg in 1 162. Further south the kindred Wend nations between the Elbe and tlie Oder had been the oliiect of German effort, both mission- ary and military, for over two centuries, but had generally come within the church before this time. Lives and Prussians. — Christianity introduced by the Sieord Brothers, 1203-1286, a »rfJi( the Teu- tonic Knights, 1330-1289. — These conversions, the work of the transplanted military or<lers of Pal- estine, were direct conquests of the sword, and as such possess a defiuitenesswliich is so unfortu- nately lacking in so many other cases. So much for the character and the purpose of the dates which appear on this map. In the em- ployment of the colors, tlie periods covered are longer, and as a cons(:qucnce the general results are somewhat more d jfinite. Tlie use of a color system directly over a date system is intended to afford an immediate though general view. From this to the special aspects presented by the date features is a simple step in the development of the subject. Another feature of the map which may not es<'ape notice is the different systems used, re- spectively, in the lioman and Mediieval periinl for tlie spelling of urban names, A develop- ment map covering a long period of history can- not be entirely free from anachronisms of this nature; but a method has nevertheless been fol- lowed in tlie spelling of these place names: — to give in each case the spelling current at the period of conversion. Tlie fact that tlie labors of the Christian missionaries were contined mostly to the Roman world in the Roman period, and did not extend to non-Roman lands until the Middle Ages, enables us to limit our spelling of civic names to a double system. Tlic cities of the Roman and of the Jledia'val piriinl are shown on the map and in tlie key in two different styles of type. Only in the cases of cities like Rome, Con.stanliiKiple and Aiitioch, where the current form has the absolute sanction of usage even for classic limes, has there been any devia- ti(m from the strict line of this metliod. In conclusion, the general features of the sub- ject present themsches as follows: Had the ad- vance of Christianity, like Moliiuiimedanism, been by conquest, had tlie bounds of the Chris- tian faith been thus rendered ever conterminous with the limits of a jieople or an empire, then, indeed, the subject of churcli expansion would possess a tangibility and coherency concerning wliich exact statcinint would be possible. The historical geography of the Cliristian church would then partake of some of the iirecision of I)olitical division. Hut tlie non-political element in tlie Cliri.stian cultus deprives us, in the study of the subject, of tliis invaluable aid. At a later time, when the conquests of the soul were backed by the strong arm of power, and when the new faith, as often happened, passed to the people from the sovereign, a measure of this ex- actness is perhaps po.ssible. We have witnessed an indication of these ten- dencies in many casi's, us we approaclied the termination of the iieriod covered by this ma]). But tlie fact remains that the fundanieutal char- acter of the Cliri.stian faith precludes, in the main, the possibility of its growth being meas- ured by the rules which govern ordinary politi- cal expansion. This being then a subject on which dcflnite- ness is well nigh impossible, it has been treated by a method correspondingly elastic. A work- ing basis for the study of the subject is, how- ever, afforded by tliis system. Tliis basis se- cured, the student may then systematically pursue his theme. BIBLIOGRAPHY. T}ie historical geography of the Christian church, if studied only within narrow limits, can be culled from the pages of general church history. All of these accounts, however, are brief — those in the smaller histories extremely so. If studied thus, the reader will derive the most help from Neauder's "History of the Christian Religion and Church," vol. I. pp. 68-86, vol. II, pp. 1-84, 93-129; Sclmff's "History of the Chris- tian Church," vol. I, pp. 22-1-408, vol. II, pp. 13-84, vol. Ill, pp. 10-71, vol. IV, pp. 17-142, and Moeller's "History of the Christian Church." XVll APPENDIX I). These works mny be supplemented by a vast' number of Ijooks trciitini? of special phases of church history, though the number in English dealing specillcaljy with geographical expansion is very small. The most recent, dealing with tlio ante Niceno gcrio<l, is Hamsey's "Church in the Itoman Impire before A. I). 170," to wliich tlie same autlior's "Historical Geography of Asia Minor" forms a most indispcnsibk- prelude. KiUeriiig tliu mediajval period, the best gen- eral guides are the little books of O. F. Mac- lear, entitled respectively the conversion of tlie Celts, Knglish, Continental Teutons, Northmen and Slavs. These works may be supplemented by Thomas Smith's "Modiiuval Missions,", and for special subjects by G. T. Stokes' "Ireland and the Celtic Church," W. P. Skene's "Celtic Scotland" (vol. II), and 8. Baring Gould's "The Churcli in Germany." The texts of the "Councils as contained in Ilar- dum, Labbe, and Mansi are indispensible orig- inal aids in the study of cluirch geography. Of German Works, J. E. T. Wiitsch's "Atlas Bacer, 'and the same author's "Church Geogra- phy and Statistics," translated by John Leitch, have long remained the standard guides for a study of the historical geography of the church. APPENDIX D. The Atlas Bacer, containing five large plates ig the only pure atlas guide to the subject. The " Church Geogniphy and Statistics," being an ec- clesiastical work, dwells with great fuhie-ssim the Internal facts of church geography, but the out- ward expansion, barring tlie early growtli of the church, IS not so concisely treated. For tlie bis- tory of mediicval missions the reader will be better served elsewhere. To the reader using German C. G. niumliardt's "Die Missionsgeschichtc der Kirche ('hristi" (3 vols., 1828-1837), and a later work, "Ilandbuch der Missionsgescliiclite und Mission.sgeograpliie" (3 vols., 1863), may bo noted. •' For modern missions there is a very full litera- ture. Comprehensive works on this subject are Grundemann's "Allgemeino Missions Atlas" JJurkliardt and Grundemann's "Les Missions JJiVangehques " (4 vols.), and in English the " En- cyclopicdia of Missions." Several articles in the "EncyclopiBdiaof Missions" should not escape notice. Among tlicni are " Mediicvnl Missions," and the "Historical Geography of Missions," the latter by Dr Henry W. Hulbert. The writer is glad at this point to return his tlianks to Dr. Hulbert for the valued aid extended in the loca- A °^°',.''^? Church of the ante-Nicene period.— A. C. Reilej, XVIU APPENDIX E. ThK FoLLOWINO NoTKB and COIHIKCTIONB to MaTTKII KeLATINO to AmEHICAN AllOKIOINKS (pp. 76-108) HAVE BEEN KINDLY MADE DT MAJOH J. W. PoWELL AND Mn. .1. OWKN DOKSEY, OP THE QuilEAU ov Ethnolooy. Adal.— This tribp, formerly classed us a dls- Unct fiiiiiily — fill) Adniziiii — is now regiirded by tlic Biircuu of Etlmology as but a part ot the Caddoan or Pawnee. Apache Group. — ludiaii.s of ilifTercnt families ore here mentioned together: (A) the C'o- manches, etc., of the Shoshonean Family; (H) the Ai)acliC8 (including tlie C'hirieagiiia, or Chiri caliua, Coyoteros, etc., but excluding the Tejiias who are llifloan) of the Athapascan Family, the Navajos of the same family ; and (C) the Yuman Fomily, including tlie Cusninos, who are U' ' Apache (Atliapascan stock). Athapascan Family. — Not an exact synonym of "Chippewyans, Tinneh and Sarcees." Tlie whole family is sometimes known as Tinneh, though that api)cllatioii is more frequently lim- ited to part of tlie Northern group, the Chippe- wyans. The Sarcees arc an olfshoot of the Beaver tribe, which latter form part of one of the subdivisions of the Northern group of the Athaiiascan Family. The Sarcees are now with the IJlackfeet. Atsinas (Caddoes). — The Atsinas are not a Caddoan people, but they are Algoncpiian, as are the Bluekfeet (Sik-sik-a). The Atsinas are the "Fall Iniliiins," " Minnetarees of the Plains," or "Qros Ventres of the Plains," as distinguished from the Ilidatsa, who are sometimes called the "Minnetarees of thu Ilissouri," "Gros Ventres of the Missouri." Blackfeet or SiVsikas. — The Sarcee are a Tinneli or Athapascan tribe, but tliey are not the Tinneh (see above). The "Atsina" are not a Caddo tribe (see above). Cherokees. — These people are now included in the Iroquoian Family. Sec Powell, in Semnth Annual liept.. Bureau, of Ethnolofjn, p. 79. Flatheads (Salishan Family).— The "Chera- kis," though included among the Flatheads by Force, are of the Iroquoian Family. The "Chi- cachas" or Cliickasaws, aio not Salishan, but Muskliogean. See Powell, tkeenth Ait mud Rept., Bureau nf Ethnology, p. 03. The Totiris of Force, are the Tutelos, a tribe of the Siouan Family. See Powell, Seiviith Annual liept. , Bureau of Ethnol- ogy, p. 116. The Cathlamalis, Killmucks (i. e., Tillamooks), Clatsops, Chinooks and Cliilts are of the Cliinookau Family. Sec Powell, Seventh Annual liept.. Bureau of Ethnolnqy, pp. 0.5, 60. Gros Ventres (Minnetaree ; Hidatsa).— There are two di.stinct tribes which are often con- founded, both being known as the Gros Ventres or Minnetarees. 1. The Atsina or Fall Indians, an Algonquiau tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the Plains," or the "Minnetarees of the Plains." 3. The Hidatsa, a Siouan tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the Missouri," or the "Minnetarees of the Missouri." The former, the Atsina, liave been wrongly styled " Caddoes" on p. 81. Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Gros Ventres. — Often conftiuiidcd with the Atsina, who belong to the Algompiian Family, the Illdatsii being a tribe of the Siouan Family. The Hidatsa have been called Gros Ventr s, "Big Paunches," but this niekname could have no reference to any personal i)eculiarities of the Hidatsa. It seems to have originated in a (luarrel between some Indians over the big paunch ot a bullalo, result- ing in I iie scparaticm of the people into the present tribes of HidaLsiis and Absarokas or Crows, the latter ot whom now cull the Ilidatsa, "Kl-kha- tsa," from ki-klia, a paunch. Hupas. — They belong to the Athapascan Family : the reference to the Jlodocs is mislead- ing. Iroquois Tribes of the South.— "Tlie Meher- rins or Tuteioes." — The.se were not identical, the Tutelos being a Siouan tribe, the Meherrius being now identilied witli the Susquehannocks. Kenai or Blood Indians. — The Kenai are an Athnpascan jieople inhabiting the shores of Cook's Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula, Southern Alaska; while the Blood Indians are a division of the Blackfeet (Siksika), an Algonquiuu tribe, in Montana. Kusan Family. — The villages of this family were on Coos Uiver and Bay, and on both sides of Coquillo Kiver, near tlie mouth. See Powell, Seventh Annual liept.. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 89. Also in: J. Owen Dorsey, The Qentile Sys- tem of the Siletz Tribes, in Jour. Amer. Fulk-Lore, July— Sept., 1890,;). 231. Minnetarees. See above, Atsina ond Hi- datsa. Modocs (Klamaths) and their California and Oregon neighbors. — The Klamaths and Modocs are ot the I.utiiamiau Family; the Sliastusof the Sastean ; the Pit Hiver Indians ot tlie Palaihni- han; the Eurocs of the Weitspekan ; the Cahrocs of the Quoratean; the Iloopahs, Tolewas, and the lower Rogue liiver Indians of the Athapas- can; tli(! upper i{ogue liiver Indians of the Ta- kilman. Muskhogean Family. — The Biloxl tribe Is not Muskhogean but Siouan. See Dorsey (James Owen), " The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana," re- printed from V. 42, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Madison meeting, 1893. Natchitoches. — A tribe of the Caddoan Family. — Dorsey (J. Owen), MS. in the Bureau of Eth- nology, 188'..' Also in ; 1 Seventh Anmcal liept. , Bureau of Ethnology, j, Pueblos. — "Tli:. /.uni was Cibola it is need- less to attempt to prove any further." — A. P. Bandelier, Journal of Am. Eth. and Arch., v. 3, p. 19, 1893. Rogue River Indians. — This includes tribes of various families: the upper Rogue River In- XIX APPENDIX E. APPENDIX E. (linns bring the Tftkolma, who are nulji^nrd to n Hni'ciiil raiiiilv, the Tnkilnmn; nml the lower UoKiie UivcT IndiiinH, whoiiri' Athu|mHi'nn trilM'H. 8<'e DorHi'V (J. Owen), "The. Urntile Syttem of the Silftz Trilien," iii.hiur. AiiifV. thlk-lA>rf, July —Sipt., WW, pp. 22H, 2:!2-2:W. Santeet. — Two (liviNioiigof the Hlounn Fiiniily are known hy thin nnnic: 1. The I mii-ya-ti or DwcllerB on Knlfu Lake, MinneHOta, iaentlcal with the Mdewakantonwan Dakota. These fig- ured in the Minnesota outbreak of 1808. The Rurvivora are in Knox Cftunty, Nel>ra8ka, on what was once the Santeo reservation, ond near Flandreau, 8oiitli Dakota. 2. The Hantces of South Carolina were part of tlic Catawba con- federacy. The Bauteo river is named after them. Sarcee. — These aro not all of the TInneh, nor are tliey really Blackfect, though living with them. The Sarcecg are an ofTshoot of the Beaver Indians, a tribe of one of the divisions of the Northern group of the Atliapascan Family. Siouan Family.— All the tribes of tids family do nut speak the Bioux language, as is wrongly 8lnte<l on p. 1U3. Those wlio speak the " Sioux " language aro the Dakota proper, nicknamed Sioux, and tlio Assinilwin. There are, or iiave been, nine otlier groups of Indians in this fandly : to the Cegiha or Dlicgiha group iMjiong the Oma- has, Ponkas, Oaages, Kansas or Kaws, and Kwa- pas or Quapars; to the Tcliiwcre group belong the lowas, Otos, and Missouris; tlie Winnebago or Ilociiangara constitute anotlier group; the fifth group consists of tlio survivors of the Man- dan nation ; to tlic sixtli group belong the Hidatsa and the Absarokas or Crows ; tlie Tuteloa, Ke- yuiiwees, Aconeechls, etc.constituted the seventh group; the tribes of tlie Catawba confederacy, the eighth ; the Biloxis, the ninth ; and certain Virginia tril)cs tlie tenth group. The Winne- bagos call rnselves Ilochungnra, orFirstSpeech (not " Trout Nation"), they are not called lloroje ("'flsh-eatcra") by the Omuhas, but Ilu-tnn-ga, nig Voices, a mlKlranslation of Ilociiangara. The Dakotas pniper sometimes speak of tliem- Kclvcs as the "O-cheli shako-win," or the Seven Couneil-flres. Their Algi)n(|uian focsealled them Nadowe-ssiwak, the Snake-like ones, from nadowe, a snake; this was corrupted hy the Canadian French to Nodoue8Hl(mx, of which the la. t syllable 1." Sioux. TIio seven primary divi- sions of the Dakota aro as follow: Mdewakan- tonwan, VVakhpekiite, Sisitonwan or Sisscton, Wakhpetonwan or Warpcton, Ihanktonwan or Yankton, Ihanktonwunna or Yanktnnnai, and Titoiiwaii or Teton. The Sheyennes or Cheyennes, mentioned in connection with the Sioux by Gallatin and Carver, are an Algoi",iuian people. Gallatin styles the " Mandanes" a Mlnnetarco tribe; but as has lust been stated, the survivors of the Mandan nation, a people that formerly inliabitcd many villages (uc(^ording to Dr. W'nshington Matthews and others) belong to a distinct group of the Siouan Family, and the Hidatsa (inciudhu'' tlio Amakhami or "Annahawas" of Gallatin) an. I the Absaroka, Upsaroka or Crows constitute the sixth group of that family. The "Quappas or Arkansas of Gallatin are tlie Kwapas or Qiiapaws of recent times. The Osages call themselves, not " Wau- sasho," but Wa-sha-she. Takilman Family. — "The Takilma formerly dwelt in villages along upper Hogue Hiver, Oregon, all the latter, with one exception, being on the south side, from Illinois Hiver on the soutliwcst, to Deep Itock, which was nearer the head of the stream. They arc now included among the 'Hogue River Indians,' and tliev reside on tlio Silctz Keservatioii, Tillamoofe County, Oregon, where Dorscy found them in 1884." — Powell, Seventh Annual liept.. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 121. — They call themselves, Ta-kel- raa. — Dorsey. — Dorsey had their chief make a map showing the locations of all their viUagcB. XX APPENDIX F. BIBLIOGEAPITY. The Betteu LiTEBATunE of Histouy in thi: Enolihh Laxuuaue on Subjects Named Below. In the /ollnwinti Cln—ififd Lint, the date nf thx flrtt anpeanincv nf rnrli oim nmimi) lln- iMer teitrkn U given In jHirpii(/i<'»r», if iiHirrtalned. The perioil covered oy thi' ii atated III bracket$, wi'ficii iiieniMira. iiiiii other wurLi limited in time. AMERICA. (DISCOVERY.— EXPLORATION.- SETTLEMENT. AUCILEOLOOY.- ETHNOLOGY.) GENERAL. BANCROFT, GEOROE. Hlntory of the United States of Am., pt. 1. tAiithor'8 last revision.) New York; D. Appleton & Co. lt»«-6. v. BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE. Hlhtory of the I'oclflc mates of N. Am.: Central Am., v. WJ; Mexico, v. 1-i!. San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Co. imi-ii. BANVARD, Kev. JOSEPH. Novelties of the now world. Boston: Oould & Lincoln. 1851. BELKNAP, JEREMY. Ami-ricnn l)loKrapliy,v.l. (1794-8.) New York: Ilorper & Bros. 3 v. BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. Notes of Americana. CBuUetlns, v. S, pp. aitt-aOO.) BROWNELL, HENRY. North and South America Illus- tratuil, from Its first tllsoovery. Hartford: Hurl- but, Kellogg A Co. IHOO. 8v. BRYANT, WM. CULLEN, oiid SIDNEY H. OaY. Popu- larhlstoryof theU. S.,v. 1. New York; Scrlbner, Armstrong & Co. 1870-<». 4 v. BUMP, C. W. nibliographles of America. Baltimore. 189S. (.lohiiH Hopkins University studies In histori- cal and political science, 10th series, nos. lU-U, app.) CARVER, ELVIRA, and MARA L. PRATT. Our father- land. [Juvenile.] Boston: Educational Pub. Co. IWK). V. 1-. FI8KE, JOHN. The discovery of America: with some account of ancient Am. and the Spanish conquest. Boston; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 18ie, a v. GORDON, THOMAS F. History of Am., v. I-S; con- taining the history of the Spanish discoveries jirior to l.'WU. Philadelphia. 1 ?ai. a v. HAKLUYT, RICHARD, c«'.'. Divers vovages touching the discovery of /, merica and the Islands adja- cent (l.Vt!); with notes by John W. Jones. Lon- don: Httkluyt Soc. 1850. HAKRI8SE, HENRY. The discovery of N. Am.: a criti- cal, documentary, and historic Investigation. London; H. Stevens & Son. 181W. HIGGINSON, THOS. WENTWORTH. A book of Ameri- can explorers. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1877. Larger history of the U. 8. of Am., ch. 1-5. New York: Harper & Bros. 188(1. HOLMES, .\BIEL. The annals of Am.. 1493-1820 (180,'S); ad ed. Cambridge; Hilliard & Brown. 1829. 2 v. HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER voN. Cosmos (1845-58), trans, by E. C. Ott<), pt. S, sect. (v. S). London; H. Bohn. 1847-58. 6 v. Bros. 1850-. 5 v. New Y^ork; Harper & KERR, ROBERT, ed. fieneral history and collection of voyages and travels (18ll-18i4). v. 1-0. Edln- hurgh; W. Blackwood. 18 v. KINGSLEY, CHAULKS. The flrat discovery of Am. (I>x;t'8 delivered In Am. In lKr4. Uiiidon; Long- mans, Oreen & Co. 18715. Pldludelphia; Porter & Coates. 1H75.) LODGE, H.C. Gravler's DC)Couvert«del".\.m6rlque. CN. Am. Kev., 119: 100. 1874.) .MACOREOOR. JOHN. Progress In America. Ix)ndon: Whittaker & Co. 1847. 2 v. MACKENZIE, ROBERT. America; a hUtory. Ixindon: Nelson & Sons. 1882. MAVOR, WM. Historical account of the most celebrated voyages, v. 1 and 17. Ijoiidon: 1790-7. 20 v. PALFREY, .1 UN O. History of New England, v. 1, ch. 2. li ,n: Little, Brown & Co. 1858-90. PAY^NE, EDWARD JOHN. History of the new world called America. (Jxfurd: Clarendon I'ress. 1892-. v. 1-. NewYork: MacmllloniS: Co. 1892-. v. 1-. PINKERTON, JOHN, cd. General collection of the best and most Inttirestlng voyages and travels, v. 14. Liomlon; Longman. 1808-14. 17 v. ROBERTSON, W1LLIA5I. History of America (1777-98). (Works, V. f>-H. Oxford: Tuiboys & Wheeler. 182.V) SCAIFE, WALTER B. .America, its geogranhionl his- tory, 1492-1892. (Johns Hopkins University studies In historical and political science, extra v. i;i.) Baltimore. I8U2. SNOWDEN, RICH.VRD. History of North and South Am., from Its discovery to the death of Gen. Washington. (1800.) Philadelphia; B. Warner. 8 v. STEVENS, HI.'NRY. Historical and geographical notes on the earliest discoveries In Am., 14.W-1530. I.011- don; Henry Stevens. 1809. New Haven: Ameri- can Journal of Science. 1809. WILLSON, MARCIUS. American history. New York: Mark H. Newman &. Co. 1847. WINSOR, JUSTIN. Ilarrisse's Discovery of N. Am. (Nation, 55; 244, 2(M.i ed. Narrative and critical history of Am. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1880. 8 v. Y^ATES, JOHN V. N., and MOULTON, JOS. W. History of the state of New York, v. 1, pt. 1. New York: A. T. Goodrich. lt$M-fl. 2 v. PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. ANDERSON, RASMUS B. America not discovered by Columbus. Chicago; S. C. Griggs & Co. 1874. BEAMISH, NORTH LUDLOW. The discovery of Am. bv the Northmen In the 10th century. London: T. & W. Boone. 1841. BOWEN, Rev. BENJ. F. America discovered by the Welsh In 1170, A. D. Philadelphia: J. B. Uppln- COttiCo. 1876. DALL, W, H. Alleged early Chinese voyages to Am. (Science, 8; 402. 1880.) DAVIS, ASAHEL. Discovery of Am. by the Northmen. Rochester; D. Hoyt. 1839. DE COSTA, Rev. BENJ. FRANKLIN, ed. The pre- Ctolumbian discovery of Am. by the Northmen, Illustrated by translations from the Icelandic sagas. Albany: Joel Munsell. 1868. XXI APPKNDIX F. APPENDIX P. PIMAK, J. I,. De fVmla'it rm.Coliim»il«n (1l««i»«ry of Am. (N. Am. Kcv ,«lini: '4IA. miU.) lUHCOVKUY ItF AMKItICA IIY TIIK NDKTIIMKN. rAllunll)' .Miinllilv. M: 'JKU. 1HH4 ) im noiH, il H. Iilil thi< N.irm. (lli«Mv,.r Am.r (Maff. of Am. lllHlc.iy, SJT: IKlll. IHW, ) EI.I.IOTT, CIIAItl.KS W. Till" Sfw KnKlnnd liWory, <'h. I. .Ni'W Yrirk; I'liaii. HcrlliniT. 1W7. a v. KVKUr.TT. Kr>\VAUI). Dlwov.TV ..f Am. l>y tli« Ni.rtli- miMi. (N. Am. I<«v., 'Ifl: nil. IHHH.) FISKK, JOHN. How AmiTli'ik cvimo lo b« illacovxred. (llai'|»'r'H MaK.,M: III. INMI.) HICKHNHON. TltoMAH W. Tlii- vlxit of the Vlklnsa. (lliii|MT» Mii«.. (W: M5. INW,) HOUHFIIUD, KUKN NOIITON. Tlii. prol.Iom <if tli.< Noiiliiiic-ii. ('iiiiil>rlilK<': J. WIIhoii \ Hon. IHM). LKdENDHiirni.K AM. ((Dnililll Mft({., '.il: Wi. IHT:).) LELASK. <IIAIU.F.S (lODKUKY. Tin- nntc-Nnrmi iIIm- covcnTHiir Am. (ContlMi-ntnl Monlhly, I: HMI.htll. m» I FumkiiK: IT llu' ill»<'iivi'ry <>f Am. Iiy Clilm'iKi Uml- (IIiIhI lirli'HiM In Hill Mil ciMitiiry. uimlin: Trllli- ncr. IHT.1. Now York: .1. \V. Hmilnn. IKW. M*cLKAN, .1. r. Pn'Coliiiiililiui illiMMvery of Am. (AiiiL-i'lt-un Autl(|iiarlun, 14. IHtu ) MAJOH, HICIIAKI) HFNHY. Tlii- llfn of prlncn Ilnnry of rorliitral. Hiiniiiiiii'il llii' imvlgntor, ami ItH ni- HiillN. I/iniloii: A. AhIii'I',^ I'o. INIIH. On tliti voviiKi'M of the Vi'iu'llan lirothnra Zono. (MiiHii. Illsi. Soi'. I'nuwdlMKH, IHT:) T.V) 7V«iM. (irifi t'tl. VnyaK''** of tlin Vt'm*tlaii hrotlion*. NIcoIA anil Antonio /cno, to tlio iiortlii*rii hpoh, In till' I'ltli I'rntiiry. I.,iiii(lon: llakliiyt S<h'. IKT:). ONDEUDONK, .1. I.. Pn-Colimililan clIwovorli'H of Am. (Natliiiial giinrt. Iti'v., :i.<l: 1. (.HTII.) I'lLON, M. U. VIsilHof EiimiK'ans to Am In tlm iOtli ami nth L'i'ntiirli'H. (Piitli'r'H Am. Monthly, 5: lK).i. IK75.) RANKIN(i,.I<)IIN. lIlHtorleal rcwarclirHontliiu-oniiiWHt of IVni, Moxhro, t'tc, In thii l.1tli rrntiiry, by tin* ModkoIh. London: Longman. ]K.'r. REFVEH, ARTIHm MIDDt.ETON Thnflmllnnof WIno land tliii Kooil. l.omlon: lli-nry Frowili-. IMWi KOI'FX, A. K. Fjii'ly i-xploratlimii of Am., n-al and Ini AKlnary. (KnKliHh Illntorlcal Ki>v.. »: ;X. 1(447) HllonT. JOHN T. ClaliiM to thn dlHoovcry of Am. (dalazy, «): mill. IMT.t.) HI.dVFTEIl, Kd'. EnMITNI) F. TIip dlwoviTV of .Mil. hy thn Nortlimtin, IIKV 101.%; n dlHOoiinMnicllv('ii*d Imi- forv lh(i Now HampHhhii HlHtorlral Hinli'ty, Apr. M. IHNN. ril. VoyoKi'ti of tliii NorlhmiMi to Am.; InolndlnK ••xtrai'ln from thr li'i'lanilli! lUtKaH In nn Fiik. Iraiinlatlon hy N. I.. Il<>aiiili<li. opinion of I'rof. Until, i-ti'. Hiwton: I'rlnri' Soc. mr". SMITH, JOHHl'A TOI'I.MIN. Tim dlm-ovpry of Am. hy tliii Northiiii'ii In tlio loth ri'iittiry: coniprlHlntf traiiKlalloiiK <>f all tlin mont liii|>ortniii orlKliial narrativi'H ilWHI). ltd i-d. l/mdoii: Win. H. Orr * Co. mw. HOIJTHEY. ItOIlEHT. Mndm? nH0.11. Umdon: I^ong- iimiiM. Ikmton: HoiiKhton, .MllHln & Co. HTEPHENH, THOH. Mmlm'; an i-wtay on the diacov- ery of Am. hy Miid(H> np Owen (Iwyni'ild In the IDth cimtury. Iximlon: IxinKiiiunii, (Ini-ii & Co. iwn. 8TOIIM, (IJSTAV. Ht idli'H on thn Vinpland voynRHi. CoiH'iiliaKi'ii: Thii'li'. IHNU. VININd, EDWAIin r. An InKlorloiw ColiimhiiH; or, I'vl- di-n'o that llwiil Shan ami a party of Miiddhliit iiionkH from Art^haiiiHlan dlHirovrri'd Anifrlcii In tliK .Ith t'l'iitiiry. Ni'W York: I>. Appli'loii .t Co. I(«0. VOYAflE8 TO VINLAND. THE; from tho aasa of Erlo thori-d. IloHtim: I). C. Heath & Co, (Uld Mouth iHalli'tH. KtMiiiral Ki-rli'it, No. .41.) WATHON, I'AITI, II. nililloxraphy of tim pr«(^oliimhlnn ' ■ Mbr ' ■ ■■ — IHMl.) lilxcovi'rIi'H of Am. ( Library Journal, II: tl7. WINHOR, JUSTIN. Amerli;a prt'flKiin'd; an nddnws at llurvaiil, Oct. iil, IHW, CambrldKU. 1HU3. COLUMBUS. APAM8, CHARLFi* KENDALL. Christopher Columhiis, hlH life anil work. (" Makers of Ameriea."; New York: Dexld. Menil .t Co. mrj. Some recent dlKOoverleHOoneernlnK ColumbuK. (Mag, of Am. History, ar: HI". IHUa.J ADAM9, HEUnERT R., and HENRY WOf>I). CohmibUH and hlx discovery of America. (Johns Hopkins University stu<lleH in historical and political nclcnce, 10th series, Noa. 10-11.) Ualtliiiore, Oct.— Nov., IH«i!. BLIND, K. Tlio forcninncrs of Cohimbiis. (New Rev., 7: ;M0. LlvliiK Age, UW: :Vr<r. IHW.) CASTELAR, EMILIO. Christopher Columbus. (Century, aa: 1S3-1)S1. IW)-'.) COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER. Journal, MOaJ); and doc"s relatlni; to the voyoKes of John (and Sebas- tian! Cal«>t and (laspar Corto Real; trans, by C. R. ^larkham. Iy.>n(lou: HakluylSoc. lHt):i. The letter on Hie discovery of America; a facsimile of tho pictorial e<l.,witha new and literal trans. I'rlnte<I by the Ixmox Library. New York. mri. Lett<'r to flabriel Sanchez, UWJ. Hnston: 1). C. Heath & Co. (Old Soutli leatlets, general series. No. :«.) Select letters, witli other original doeuitients; trans, and ed. I)y R. It. Major. London: Hakluyt Soc. 1W7. Writings descriptive of the discovery and occupation of the new world; e<l. i)y Paul Leicester Ford. New York: C. L. Webster & Co. lSfl2 COLUMBUS, FERDINAND. Tlie discovery of America; from the life of Columbus. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. (Old Soutli leatlets, general series, No, 29.) ELTON. CHARLES. The career of Columbus. New York: Cassell Publishing Co. 180S. GOODRICH, AARON. History of the character and achievements of tiie so-called Christopher Colum- bus, New York; D. Appleton & Co. IW4. HKLl'S, .Sir ARTHUR, fDoMI P. Thomas. Llfeof Colnm- hiis. 1/iiiilon: Uell A: |)alily. IHAO. IRVIN(j1, WAHHIN'ITON. Life anil voyages of Chrlsto- iiher Coluiiitu.silNaHi; to which are added those of his companions (18.11). New York: II. P. Putnam. .Sv. LOIiaUFJi, ROSELLY' db. Life of Christopher Colum- bus, from Spanish and Italian documents; coiiip. from tho Fr. by J. J, Barry, Boston: P. Dona- hoe. IHTO. MACKIE, CIIAS. PAITL 'I'he last voyages of the Ad- miral of tile Ocean Sea, as related by himself and his companions. Chicago: A. C. McClurg .*t Co. MACKINTOSH, J. The discovery of America by Colum- bus and the origin of tho N. Am. Iiidlans. Ti>- ronto. ISW. .MARKHA5I, CLEMENTS R. Life of Christopher Co- lumbus. Uimlon: (leo. Plilllp & Son. IRUa. MAUKY', M. An examination of the elalnjsof Columbus. (Ilarjier's Mag., «: -iiX^M. 1871.) OBER, FREDERICK A. In the wake of Columbus; ad- ventures of thespet:ial commissioner sent by the World's Coiumbian Exposition to the West Indies. Boston: I). I.»throp Co. 181W. SEELY'E, ELIZABETH EUOLESTON. The story of Co- lumbus; witli lntro<l. by Edward Egglestoii. New York; I). Appleton & (;o. 181)3. SPALDING, J. L. Columbus. (Catholic World, 6fi: 1. 1808.) TARDUCCI. FRANCESCO. The life of CJhristopher Co- > lumbus; trans, from the It. by H. F. Brownson. Detroit: II. F. Brownson. 1800. 2 v. ^VINSOR, JUSTIN. Christopher Columbus, and how he received and impurt^'d the spirit of discovery. Boston: Hougliton, Minilii & Co. IHUl. Columbiana. (Nation, M: ai>7. 1801.) POST-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. ARBER, EDWARD, eil. The llrst three Englisli books on America (yi511)-^15,">5 A. I).; being cliielly trans., compilations, &c., by Richard Eden, from the writings of Hetro Martire, Sebastian MUnster, Sebastian CalMt, Bimiingliam. ISR^. ASHER, G. M.. erf. Henry Hudson the navigator: origi- nal documents in whicli his career Is recorded. London: Ilakliiyi. Soc. 1860. RIDDLE. RICHARD. Jlemoir of Sebastian Cabot. Phila^ delphla: Corey & Leo. 1831. BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. Amcrlco in the lOlh cen- tury (biljliogl note in Bulletins, v. 8. pp. 188-141). Early English explorations in America (bibllog'l note in Bulletins, v. 8, pp. S41-344). Early explorations in America (bibliog'l note In Bulle- tins, V. 3, pp. 103-106). XXll APPENDIX F. APPENDIX F BREVOORT, J ('. ViTrn»nniithi'im»lK«torIfmm rt-pnrt | •if till- Am. (li>iiKra|ilil<'ul Hot-, cif N. V. for llfr:i| ' Voyngi-HdlKiS 1(1111 1; Initw. Mrw Yiirk IHT4. CHAMPl.AIN.HAMrKI. nit. Iiy Chiw. 1'. oilM. Ii'illwltli iiiniiolr l>y Iv K, Klaf- liT. ItciHldii: I'rliii'i' HmUMy. imth Hs). ;t v. Da VUIKH. I). I'. Kxtmi'iH fniin iln- vnt.itri'H; tr. tram n iMili'li Ilia. In Ihi' liillnili'liililn l.ilimry, liy lir. II TriKiHi. (Cull Kiif ilii- N. V. Ill«t. HiH\, 1*1 wrli-H, V. I. Ni'w Yiirk. IK4I.) VoyaitcH friiiii llollniul In Am., I(VW IIVI-I; Ir. liy II. ('. Miii'iiliv. (('iiII'h iir the N. Y. lllat. H4k.-., M wrivii, r. Jt Ni'w Viirk. 1HR7. ( FI8KE, JOHN. Tlir roiimmv nf IlicSpnnliili ami Fri-nuli fX|iliin-rH. (Iliii'in in MuK.,IVt: 4.18. imtt,., FOItcr,, M. K. Kdiiii' oIisitviiIIiiiih im tlm Ii'IIith of AiiM-rl^i> Vt>H|iiii*rl (thill;, ('iiii-lnii.ill; liiibt, Cliirki! * Cci. IHW. HAKLUYT, RICIIAIlli. f.(. Tlic prlnolpnl niivlKUlioim, vov(iK*'H. (riinii|iifHuiul illiHNiVfrlfHof Ihi* KtiKllHh nntlnii iLVtUi: iil. hy h'.. liolilHinlil. v. 1',' 1.1. Kdlii- Imi'Kli: K. & II. (IoIiIhiiiIiI. Iknu mi. HKKIINSON, TIIOMAH W. Tlic iild KiirIIhIi nciiiiii'ii. (lliir|MTn Mii|{.,IW: aiT. IHKl ) The H|mnl«li iIIwuvitith. (IlurpiT'H Man., Ill: 7-11. HUDSON, IIKNRV. Wvith voyniji'H anJ nortlHTii illii- oot'tTifH. ( l^iirt'liOH hin pHifrlmcri, V. H, ('nll'M of tlm N. Y, IllHl. Hoc, V. 1. .Sew York. IHll.) JUET, RODEUT. Kjttmct frimilhi- loiirnulof IlicvnyaKO of tli« llnlfMooii, IIiMiry IhidMoii, iiinKliT, IIKW. (C'ollH of thi! N. V. lllKt. Hoc, M wrleM, v. 1. New York. IWl.) KOHL, .1. (I. lIlHtory of Iho illdcovery of MoIiik: with uii 111)11. on tht* voynKt'Hof tho C'niHitH. (roH'Hof lliit Miiiiii' Hint. t4oc, tM M'rlcH, %' 1. rortlnml: IWHI,) LESTER, ('. EDWARDS, ni.'l A. K( )STEH, IJfo anil voy- aK**H of Aiiierlcim \'..'hpuoluH. Ni^w York: HaktT & SlmIIiiut. 1N4(I. NtCHOLt>«, .1. E. R<-markahl<- lir-. ailvi'iiliir< nn<l dla- rovi'rlfn of KpImhIIuii CuImiI. I.0111I011: H^iinimon l/iM', H<in ,it Mamlon. IhoU. I'ARKMAN, KKANCIS I'lon.i'ra of Kraiiw In III.- Ni'W World. ll<Mlon: l.llllf. Ilrouii.v Co. IH«.\ I'AYNE. KliWAI<|i,l.\MKH. VoyaK''" oftlii- KII/alH-llian acniix'ii to ,\iiii'rli-ii: I'l orl»(liial luirrullvi-H from till- I'olli'i'llon of lliikliiyl. London: I'Iioh. do la Uno *('■!. IWW, RKAt>,.l(illN MKItKIHTII. ./>'. lllxlorlinl lininlry i-on- I'l'inliiKlli'iiry ilndwin. Alliany: .1. Miiiwll. IWKI. HANTAUKM. roii'oiiiif. lli'iK-airlu-n ri'B|HTllii)f AinerU'im Vt'HiMK-liiHniMl IiIh ' oviih'cH (IH.|'j); irniiH. liy K. V. Clilfdi'. lloKlon: C.(V I.illlcV. .Ilia. Ilronn. IKVI. STANLEY ('K AI.DKIil.KY. I.in;l. The Ural voyiik-o round tho world, liy >liik{i'llnn: truiia. from tlit« aiT'ta of I'iKafi-lla and oiliir ronti-niiairary writi'ra; wlili doi'mni'iila, iioira, I'tf. Ijiiidon: Hakliiyt Km-. IH7I. TARPUCCI, FItANCESCd. ,|i,lin and Hi'lmallnn C.itiot, hloK. notli'M, Willi iliHMimi'nlH; (rana. from i)ii< It. liy lli'nry K. Hrovvnaoii. Hi'trolt: II. 1'. llrowii- son. imn. TOWLE. (lEOKOK M. Maici'llan. Iloaton: l^ee & Bhitp- ard. IHNU. VERItA/ANO, .lOlIN nr.. Tin- niatlonof. iCoiraof the N Y', Iliat. Hoc, V. 1. Nrw York. IMIl.i Tlio aanit': a new Iranalatlon, liy >l. H- CofHwell, (Coiraof til" N. Y. Illat. Hia'., '.'(I wrli-a, v. 1. Xt'vr York. IMI.i Voyui^f, lfW4. (I )ld Hoiuli li>all*'ta, j,'t*in*ral acrli'a, No. 17.1 Itoaton: I>. C. lli'alli ,S: Co. VESrUCCI, AMEIIIOO. Airount of lila (list voyntfc; Iftti'rto Iter HialiMlnl. (did Hoiilli IrallHa, k<'"- oral aerli'a, No. 'M.) iloaton: H. C. Itfalli ,V I'o. The firat four voytiKi'a; rcprinti'd In faraliullo and t rana. from the ran' 'triKlnal t><l. (I.Vi.V<h. Lon- don: IkTnard yiiarllili, IWil. VOVAOESOF THE C.\II(>TS, THE. I'roiii Hakliiyf* *' I'rlnrlpal luivlKationa." Itoaton: Ii. C. Heatii & Co. (.oldSoiilli Icalli'la, Kriirral aiTli-a, No. 37.) SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION. ANDAGOY'A, I'AKCUAL inc. Narratlvo of tlii' prowwd- InKaof I'l'drarlaa Duvlla |IM4 l.MI| ; liana, and i-d. by C. U. Markhani. Uinilon: Ilakliiyt Hoc HtHi. BANDEIJEH, ADtH.l'' F. A. Ulacovcry of New Mexico |C'llHila| l)V Fray Marcoa of NIzza. ( Slag, of Wi'St- em lllatory, 4: ilSll. IHWl.) BENZONI. UIUOLAMO. lllatory of tlio new world, hIicwIdk Ilia travels in Ainerl'.'a, l.Ml-l.ViH; trana. and I'd. by W. H. Hniytli. Ixjndon: Hakluyt Hoc 1857. BLACKMAR. FRANK W. Kpanlali Inatitiiliona of tbo Houtbwcat. Ualtlmori'. IHIIl. (.lolma Hopkina Unlvfralty atudk'H in liiat. and i)ol. aeienct'. Extra V. 10.) CHARLEVOIX, Fnther F. P. X. nit. Hiatory of Para- Kiiiiy (17.W); Itrnna. from the Fr.J. I/jndon: L. Davia. I711U. a v. CHEVAHEH, MICHEL. Mexico, ancient and mmlem; trana. by T. Alpaaa. London: J. Maxwell & Co. 1864. i V. . CTEZA I>E LEON, PEDRO de. Travels, A. D. l.VH .W, contained In the Aral and second iiorta of hia Chronicle of Peru (1M.S-); trans, ami ed. by C. R. Murklmm. London: Hakluyt See IHM-W. CLAVIOEKO, Ahbe I). FRANCFXCOSAVERIO. History of Slexico, collected from Spanish and Mexican liiatorlana, from mas. and ancient iialntinKs of the Indians; trana. from thu It by Chaa. CuUen. Phllttdclpliltt: Thos. Dobson. 1804. 3 v. CORTEZ, IIEUNANDO. Despatches odiIresaiHl to the emjieror Charles V. liiirlng the con(|iiest: trans. from the Span, with inlr<Hl. and notes by Oeo. Folaom. New Y'ork: Wiley & Putnam. 184;). DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL. Memoirs, contnlninR a true and full account of the diacovcry and con- ?iie8t of Mexico and New Spain (l(l;£!); trans, rom the S|)an. by .lohn I. Lockhart. London: J. Hatchard&Son. 1844. 2 v. 'JI8C0VERY' and conquest of Terra Florida, by Don Fer- nando de Solo; written by a Kentleman of Elvas (1IV57), and trana. out of Portuguese by Richard Hakluyt; ed. by W. B. Rye. London: Hakluyt Soc IHOl. FANCOURT, CHAS. ST. J. History of Yucatan. Lon- don: J. Murray. 18M. HELPS, .Sir ARTHUR. Life of Hernando Cortes. Lon- don: Bell & Son. 1871. a v. , Life of Ijis Cosas. London: Bell & Son. 180H. Life of Pizarro. London: Bell & Son. 1869. ^^ xxiii IIELI'S, .Sir ARTHUR. The Spanish coninieat In America. Lohdiin: Parker it Hon. (IK/hOI.) New York: HarisT & Bros. 1H(17. 4 v. IHV'INO, THEOliOHK. History of Do Soto's conquest of Florida U8M). New York: U. P. Putnani'n Sons. MARKHAM, CLEMENTS H. HIatorv ol Peru, eh. 1-4. Chicago: C. H. Herccl & Co. imrj. ed, ami trnnji. lii'|Mirta on the discovery of Peru. London: Hakluyt Soc 1872. MAYER, BRANTZ. Mexico, Aztec Spanish and repiib- licau.hk.l. Hartford: H.Drake & Co. 18,',l. av. PRE8COTT, WILLIAJI H. History of the conquest of Mexico (IH4.1): ed. by J. F. Kirk. Pliiladelphlit: J. B. Lippincott & Co. » v. History of the conipiest of Peru (1847); cd. by J. F". Kirk. Philadelphia: J. II. Lippincott & Co. 2 v. RAYNAL, Ahbil A philosophical and lailltlcal history of the settlements ond trade of the Europeans hi the east and west Indies (177(1); trans, from the Ir. by .1. O. Justaiiiond. Ixindon. 1788. 8 v. RIVERO, M. E., niirl THCHUDI, J. J. vox. Penivlan an- tiquities: trans from the Span, by F. L. Hawks, New York: CJ. P. initnaiii & Co. IN.').!. SIMPSON, J. H. Coronado'H inarch In search of the •'K«!ven cities of Cibola." Washington. 1871. SOUS, Don ANTfJNIO db HisUiry of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards (1IIH4); trans, from the Span, by T. T^iwnsend, rev. and corr. by N. Hook. London: T. Woodwurcl. 17;W. 2 v. SOUTHEY', ROBERT. History of Brazil, \. 1. Lonihin: Longman. 1810-11). .i v. SOUTHEY, THOMAS. Chronological history of the West Indies, V. 1. London: Longman. 1827. S v. TOWLE, OEOROEJI. Pizarro. Boston: Li!e & Shepard. 1879. TY'LOR, EDWARD B. Anahunc; or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and inodern. London: I..oiig- man. Oreen & Co. 1801 . WASHBURN. CIIAS. A. History of Paraguay, cli. 1-4. Boston: Le<? & Shepard. 1871. 2 v. WATSON, ROBERT O. The Siianiah and Poi tuguese In S. .\nierioa during the colonial period, v. 1. Lou- don: TrUbncr&Co. 18W. 2 v. WILSON. ROBERT A. A new hlstorv of the er , "of ftlexico. in wliicli Los Casaa' deimnciatli ..-. o le iwpiilar historians of that war are v. c Philmlclphia: Jas. Challen 4 Son. 1859. APPENDIX F. APPENDIX F. ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIZATION. ACREUUS, ISRAEL. History of New Sweden. (Meni- olra of the Pennsylvanio HUt. Sec., v. 11. Phila- delphia. 1870.) ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS. Three epIsodeB of Maasa- I'liUHPtlH hixtory. llostnii: Houghton, Mlflliii & Co. 1<«W. 2v. BAYUES, FRANCIS. IIlBtorieol memoir of the colony of New Plymouth (1830;. Bo8ton: Wlggin & Lunt. 1808. 2v. BEVERLEY, ROBERT. History of Virginia (1705). Rich- mond: J W. Randolph. 18,5,'i. DOZMAN, JOHN L. HUl / of Maryland, IKH-IOOO. Itultlmore: Lucos & Deaver. 1H.S7 (introd. 1811.) Halllinorc: Jolm Murphy & Co. HRADFOUl), WILLIAM. History of Plymouth Planta- tion. (Coll'H of the MaHS. Illst. Soc, 4th Heries, v. 8. Boston. 185(1.) BRIDdEH, GEOUCiE W. Annals of Jamaica, v. 1. Lon- don: .1. Murray. \Ki7. ii v. BRODHEAU JOHN R., vd. Documents relatiuK to the colonial history of the state of New York. Al- bany. 18,V)-87. 14 V. History of the state of New York, v. 1. New York: Ilariwr & Bros. lisa. S v. BROWN, ALEXANDER, ed. Tlie genesis of the U. 8. [a collection of historical mss. and tracts, with notes, ctc.|. Boston: Houghton, Miniin & Co. 1690. 2v. BROWN, WILUAJI HAND, ed. Archives of Maryland. Baltimore. 1888-. BURKE, ED.MUND. An account of the European settle- ments In America. London: R. & J. Dodsley. 1757. av. BURY, ^i.^c•olm^ Exodus of the western nations. Lon- don: Kichard Bentley. 18(15. Sv. CAMPBELL, CHARLES. Introduction to the history of the colony and ancient dominion of Virginia. Richmoncf: B. B. Minor. 1847. The saiiif, tlistory of tlie colony and ancient doiiiin'in of Virginia. Philadelphia; J. B. Lipplncott & c CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS. The Puritan in Holland, Eng- land and America. New York: Harper & Bros. lSi«. av. CARROLL, B. R., ed. Historical collections of South Carolina. New York: Harper & Bros. 181)0. 3 v. CHARLEVOIX, FaWif I PIERRE F. X. de. History and general description of New France (1744); trans., with notes, by John O. Shea. New York: J. O. Shea. 180U-7a. v. CHEEVEU, GEORGE B., ed. Journal .of the Pilgrluis at I'lynioutli in I(HO. New York: J. Wiley. 1848. D.VLTON, HENRY G. History of British Guiana, ch. 3. London: Longmans. 18.'>5. a v. DOUGLASS, WILLIAM. Sunmiary, liistorical and po- litiiol. of the British settlements in N. Am. Lon- don: U.Baldwin. 1755. a v. DOYLE, JOHN A. The American colonies (Arnold prize es.say). Ijoiulon: Rivingtons. IhOU. The English in .Vni.; Virginia, Maryland and IheCaro- llnas(188ai. The I^ritan colonies (18K7), 8 V. Lon- don: Longmans, Green & Co. New Y'ork: Henry Holt & Co. DRAKE, SAMI'EL ADA5IS. The making of New Eng- land, 158."M(U3, New York; Chas. Scribner'sSons. li-8(l. The making of Virginia and the middle colonies. New York: Chas. Scribner'sSons. 1803. DRAKE, SAMUEL G. History and antiquities of Boston, 1(WO-1770 Boston; L. Steve, s. 185(1. EDWARDS. BRYAN. History, civil and commercial, of the British colonies in the West Indies. [Caribs, etc.] London: J. Stockdale. 17'.>3-1801. :iv. FERRIS. UENJ. History of the original settlements on the Delaware. Wilmington: Wikou & HeaM. 1840. FISHER, GEORGE P. The colonial era (Am. Hist, se- ries). Ne / York: Chas. ScrlbniT's Sons. 18!»a. FISKE, JOHN. The beginnings of New England. Bos- ton; Ilougliton, .Mimiii & Co. 1889. FORCE, PETER, ed. Tracts and other papers relating pi inci|mlly to the origin, settlement and progress of the cofonks in N. Am. Washmgtou. lH;)U-47. 4v. jAYARRE, CIF'RLES. History of Louisiana; the French doi ition (1851-4). New York: Wm. J. Widdleton. . 167. GOODWIN JOHN A. The pilgrim republic. Boston: Ticknor & Co. 1868. GRAHAMt. JAMES. History of the rise and progress of the United States of N. A. till lOSd, v. I. I>on- don; Longman. 1837. a. v. The same, enlarged |to 177(11 and amended fed. by Josiah Quincy, and published imder the title of " Hi8t(^ry of the United States"]. Philadelphia: Lea & Bianchard. 1840. HAWKS, FRANCIS L. History of North Carolina [to 173«J (18.57-UO). Fayettevlile: Hale & Son. -J v. HIGGINSON, THOMAS W. The French Voyageurs. (Harper's Mag., 00: 505. 1883.) HUBBARD, Ret). %Vn-LIAM. General history of New England, to 1080 (1816). (Coil's of the Mass. Hist. Soc., 2d series, v. 5-6. Boston. 1848.) HUTCHINSON, THOMAS. History of the colony [and province] of Massachusetts- Bay [to 17491. Bos- ton: T. & J. Fleet. 1704-7. 3 v. LAMFRECHTSEN, N. C. Short description of the dis- covery and subsequent history oi^ the New Nether- lands (181, S); [irons, from the Dutch). (Coll'sot the N. Y. Hist. Soc., 8d series, v. 1. New Y'ork. 1841.) LODGE, HENRY CABOT. Short history of the English colonies In America. New York; Harper & I'-.s. 1881. MARSHALL, JOHN. History of the colonies plan I by the English on the continent of Noi*th Ani'/rica, Philadelphia: A. Small. 1834. MOORE, N. Pilgrims and Puritans : the story of the planting of Plymouth and Boston. Boston: Ginn & Co. 1888. MOUBT, O'^-OROE. Relation, or journal of theplanlatlon at Plymouth (1833); with introd. and notes by H. M. Dexter. Boston: J. K. Wiggin, ISUJ. ■ EILL, EDWARD D. English colonization of Am. diir- Ing the 17th century. London: Strahan & Co. 1871. History of the Virginia Company of London. Albany; J. Munsell. )"■'!'. Virginia vetusta [suppiement to above]. Albany: J Munsell's Sons. 1885. O'CALLAGHAN, E. B. Register of New Netherlaud, lOaii-1074. Albany: J. Munsell. 18(15. PALFREY, JOHN G. History of New Eng'and during the Stuart dynasty. Boston: Little, llrown Jt Co. 1858-18(M. 3 V. PRINCE, THOMAS. Chronological history of New Eng- land [to 1033] (1730-55). .Boston: Cununings, Hil- liard <a Co. 1830. SAINSBURY, W. N., ed. 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