SSBHC 
 
 tTMNOLOCICAL 
 MAP OF MODERN EUROPE 
 ! iiii'LMn'AN ii':<n>i.K.s 
 
 BASOUCS '_2 
 
 AinAN I'KOIM.KS. 
 
 CELTS 
 VATJN BRANCH 
 
 fRENCH ; J SPANIAROS 
 
 PORTUGUESE | IIAIIANS 
 
 RAETIAN 
 
 ROUMA NSORVLACWS 
 ALBANIANS 
 
 j GERMANIC BRANCH ^ZZZ 
 
 GERMANS 
 
 ' SCANDINAVIANS 
 I ANGLO-SAXONS 
 I SLAVIC BRANCH 
 
 jGREAT RUSSIANS 
 ' I 'lITiLE RUSSIANS 
 WHITfc rtuSCIANS 
 (POLES- - 
 
 ^C^ECHS SLOVAKSANO WENOST 
 BULGARIANS — 
 I.SERVIANS ETC 
 SLOVENES 
 
 URAL ALTAIC OR RMNO-TATAR B UMS 
 
 MAGYARS - ~ 
 
 FINNICPEOPLES 
 
 TURKS 4HB TARTARS 
 KALMUCKS 
 

 HISTORY 
 FOR READY REFERENCE 
 
 FROM THE BEST 
 HISTORIANS, BIOGRAPHERS, AND SPECIALISTS 
 
 THEIK OWN WORDS IN A COMPLETE 
 
 SYSTEM OF HISTORY 
 
 FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS, 
 
 AND REPRESENTING FOR BOTH READERS AND STUDENTS THE BETTER AND 
 
 NEWER LITERATURE OF HISTORY IN THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 JiNrLARNED 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS HISTORICAL MAPS FROM ORIGINAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY 
 
 ALAN C. REILEY 
 
 IN FIVE VOLUMES 
 
 VOLUME I-A TO ELBA 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, ILASS. . 
 
 THE C. A. NICHOLS CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 MDCCCXCV 
 
JAN 24 1974 
 
 COPTKKIHT. 1803, 
 
 BY J. N. LAKNED. 
 
 The Kiveritie Pteu, Cambridgr, Mais., V. 8. A- 
 I'riDled hy U. 0. Uougbton •& Compuiy. 
 
PEEFACB. 
 
 n~^IIIS work has two aims : to represent and exhibit the better Literature 
 of History in the English language, and to give it an organized body 
 — a system — adapted to the greatest convenience in any use, whether for 
 reference, or for reading, for teacher, student, or casual inquirer. 
 
 The entire contents of the work, with slight exceptions readily distin- 
 guished, have been carefully culled from some thousands of books, — embrac- 
 ing the whole range (in the English language) of standard historical writing, 
 both general and special : the biography, the institutional and constitutional 
 studies, the social investigations, the archeological researches, tno ecclesi- 
 astical and religious discussions, and all other important tributaries to the 
 great and swelling main stream of historical knowledge. It has been 
 culled as one might pick choice fruits, careful to choose the perfect and the 
 ripe, where such are found, and careful to keep their Havor unimpaired. 
 The flavor of the Literature of History, in its best examples, and the ripe 
 quality of its latest and best thought, are faithfully preserved in what aims 
 to be the garner of a fair selection from its fruits. 
 
 History as written by those, on one hand, who have depicted its scenes 
 most vividly, and by those, on the other hand, who have searched its facts, 
 weighed its evidences, and pondered its meanings most critically and deeply, 
 is given in their own words. If commoner narratives are sometimes quoted, 
 their use enters but slightly into the consii Action of the work. The whole 
 matter is presented under an arrangement which imparts distinctness to its 
 topics, while showing them in their sequence and in all their large relations, 
 both national and international. 
 
 For every subject, a history more complete, I think, in the broad meaning 
 of "History," is supplied by this mode than could possibly be produced 
 on the plan of dry synopsis which is common to encyclopedic works. It 
 holds the charm and interest of many styles of excellence in writing, and it 
 is read in a tuear light which shines directly from the pens thai; Lave made 
 History luminous by their interpretations. 
 
 Behind the Literature of History, which can be called so in the liner 
 sense, lies a great body of the Documents of History, which are unattractive 
 to the casual reader, but which even he must sometimes have an urgent wish 
 to consult. Full and carefully chosen texts of a large number of the most 
 famous and important of such documents — charters, edicts, proclamations, 
 petitions, covenants, legislative acts and ordinances, and the constitutions of 
 
many countries — have been accordingly introduced and are easily to be 
 found. 
 
 The arrangement of matter in the work is primarily alphabetical, and 
 secondarily chronological. The whole is thoroughly indexed, and the index 
 is incorporated with the body of th? text, in the same alphabetical and 
 chninological order. 
 
 Events which touch several countries or places are treated fully but once, 
 in the connection which shows their antec ;dents and consequences best, and 
 the reader is guided to that ampler discussion by references from each cap- 
 tion under which it may be sought. Economies of this character bring into 
 the comi)ass of live volumes a body of History that would need twice the 
 number, at least, for equal fulness on the monographic plan of encyclopedic 
 works. 
 
 Of my own, the only original writing introduced is in a general sketch of 
 the history oi Europe, and in what I have called the '^'^ Logical Outlines''^ of a 
 number of national histories, which are printed in colors to distinguish the 
 influences that have been dominant in them, But the extensive boiTowing 
 which the work represent.s has not been done in an unlicensed way. I have 
 felt warranted, by common custom, in using moderate extracts without per- 
 mit. But for everything beyond these, in my selections from books now 
 in print and on sale, whether under copyrigl.it or deprived of copyright, I 
 have sought the consent of those, authors or publishers, or both, to w'lom 
 the right of consent or denial appears to belong. In nearly all cases I 
 have received the most generous and friendly responses to my request, and 
 count among my valued possessions the great volume of kindly letters of 
 l)ermission which have come to me from authors and publishers in Great 
 Britain and America. A more specific acknowledgment of these favox-s will 
 be appended to this preface. 
 
 The authors of books have other rights beyond their rights of property, 
 to which respect has been paid. No liberties have been taken with the text 
 of their writingc, except to abridge by omissions, which are indicated by 
 the customary signs. Occasional interpolations are marked by enclosure 
 in brackets. Abridgnumt by paraphrasing has only been resorted to when 
 unavoidable, and is shown by the interruption of quotation marks. In the 
 matter of different spellings, it has been more difficult to preserve for each 
 writer his own. As a rule this is done, in names, and in the divergences 
 between English and American orthography ; but, since muck of the matter 
 quoted has been taken from American editions of English books, and since 
 both copyists and printers have worked under the habit of American spell- 
 ings, the rule may not have governed with strict consistency throughout. 
 
 J. N. L. 
 
 The Buffalo Libraey, ..: „-_:-: -v~^..-^.~^,.: -— k 
 
 Buffalo, N. T., December, 1893. , , . , . :. ; ..■: \ <: 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 IN MY preface I have acknowledged in general terms the courtesy and liberality of authors and 
 publishers, by whose permission I liuve used much of the matter quoted in this work. I tliink 
 it now proper to male the acknowledgment more specific by naming those persons and publishing 
 houses to whom I am in debt for such kind permissions. They are as follows : 
 
 . AUTnons. 
 
 Prof. Evelyn Abbott; President Charles Kendall Adams; Prof. Herbert B. Adams; Prof. Joseph II. Alien; Sir Wil- 
 liam Anson, Lort.; Rev. Henry M. Baird; Jlr. Hubert Howo Bancroft; Hon. S. O. \V. Benjamin; 3Ir. Walter Besant; 
 Prof. Albert S. Bolles; John 0. Boiirinot, F. S. S.; Mr. Henry Bradley; Kev. James Franclf Bright; Daniel Q. Brlnton, 
 M. D.; Prof. William Hand Browne; Prof. Qeorgo Brycc; Kt. Hon. James Bryco, M. P.; J. B. Bury, M. A.; Jlr, Lueien 
 Carr; Gen. Henry B. Cirrington; Mr. Jo'm I). Champlin, Jr.; Mr. Charles Corleton Collin; Hon. Thomas M. Cooley; 
 Prof. Hen-y Coppte; Rev, Sir George W. Cox, Bart.; Oen, Jaccb Dolson C'o.t; Mrs. Co.k (for "Three Decades of Federal 
 Lcglslati'.u," by the late Hon, Samuel S. Cox): Prof. Thomas F. L'rune; Rt. Rev. Mandell Creighton, Bishop of Peter- 
 borough; Hon, J, L". M. Curry; Hon. George Ticknor Curtis; Prof. Robert K. Douglas; J. A. Doyle, M. A.; Mr. Samuel 
 Adams Drake; Sir Mounti\tuart E. Grant-Duff; Hon. Sir Charles Oaven Duffy; Mr. Charles Henry Eden; Mr. Henry 
 Sutherland Edwards; Orrin Leslie Elliott, Ph. D.; Mr. Loyali Farrngut; The Ven. Frederic William Farrar, Archdeacon 
 of Westminster; Prof. George Park Fisher; Prof. John Fiske; Mr. Wm. E. l^jster; Prof. WMIiam Wardo Punier; Prof. 
 EdTard A. Freeman; Prof. J,\mes Anthony Froude; Mr. James Gairdner; -Vrthur Gilman, M. A.; Mr. Parke Godwin; 
 Mrs. M. E. Gordon (for the " History of the Campaigns of the Army of Va. under Gen. Pope,'' by the late Geu, George 
 H. Gordon); Rev. Sobine Baring-Gould; Mr. Ulysses S. Grant, Jr. (for the "Peisonal Memoirs "of the late Gen. Grant); 
 Mrs. John Richard Green (tor her own writings and for those of the late John Richard Green; ; >Villiam Greswell, M. B. ; 
 Mnj. Arthur Grifflths; Frederic Horrison, M. A.; Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart; Mr. William Heaton; Col. Thomas Went- 
 worth Higginson; Prof. B. A. Hinsdale; Miss Margaret L. Hooper (for the writings of the Ulte Mr. George Hooper) ; Kev. 
 Robert F. Horton; Prof. James K. Hosmer; C!ol. Henry M. Ilozier; Rev, iVilliam Hunt; Sir William Wilson Hunter; 
 Prof. Edmund James; Mr. Rosslter Johnson; Mr. John Foster Kirk; The Very Rev. George William Kitchin, Dean of 
 Winchester; Col. Thos. W. Knox; Mr. J. S. Landon; Hon. Emily Lawless; William E. H. Lecky, LL. D., D. C. L.; Mrs. 
 Margaret Levi (for the " History of British Commerce," by the late Dr. Leone Levi); Prof. Charlton T. Lewis; The 
 Very Rev. Henry George Liddell, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge; Richard Lodge, M. A.; 
 Rev. W. J. Lottie; Mrs. Mary 8. Long (for the " Life of General Robert E. Jjoe," by the late Gen. A. L. Ix)ng); Mrs. 
 Helen Lossiug (for the writiugs of the late Benson J. Lossing); Charles Lowe, M. A.; Charles P. Lucas, B. A.; Justin 
 McCarthy, M. P.; Prof, John Bach McMaster; Hon. Edward .McPherson, Prof. John P. MahalTy; Capt, Alfred T. Mahan, 
 U. S, N.; Col. George B. Malleson; Clements R. Markham, C. B., F, R. S.; Prof. David Mas.son; The Very Rev. Cliarles 
 Merivale, Dean of Ely; Prof. John Henry Middleton; Mr. J. 0. Cotton Jlinehin; William R. Morflll, M. A.; Rt. Hon. John 
 Morley, JI. P.; 5Ir. John T. Morse, Jr.; Sh- Wllliaiii Muir; Mr. Harold JIurdock; Rev. Arthur Howard Noll; Miss Kate 
 Xorgate; C. W. C. Oman, M. A, ; Mr. John C. Palfrey (for " History of New England," by the late John Gorham Pal- 
 frey); Francis Parkman, LL. D. ; Edward James Payne, M. A.; Charles Henry Pearson, M. A.; Mr, James Breck Per- 
 kins; Jlrs. Marj- E. Phelan (for the " History of Tennessee," by the late James Phelan); Col. George E. Pond; Reginald 
 L. Poole, Ph. D.; Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole; William F. Poole, LL. D.; MaJ. John W. Powell; Mr. John W. I>robyn; Prof. 
 John Clark Ridpath; Hon. Ellis H. Roberts; Hon. Theodore Roosevelt; Mr. John Codman Ropes; J. H. Rose, M. A.; 
 Prof. Joslah Royce; Rev. Philip Schaff; James Schouler, LL, D.; Hon. Carl Schurz; Mr. Eben Qreenough Scott; Prof. 
 J. R. Seeley; Prof. Nathaniel Southgate Shaler; Mr. Edward .Uorse Shepard; Col. M. V. Sheridan (for the "Personal 
 Memoh^"of the late Gen. Sheridan) ; Mr. P. T. Sherman (fur he "Memoirs" of the late Gen. Sherman); Samuel 
 Smiles, LL. D.; Prof. Goldwin Smith; Prof. James Russell Soley; Mr, Edward Stanwood; Leslie Stephen, M. A,; H. 
 Morse Stephens, M. A. ; Mr. Simon Sterne; Charles J. stilKS, LL. D. ; Sir John Strachey ; Rt. Rev. William Stubbs, Bishop 
 of Peterborough; Prof. William Graham Sumner; Prof. Frank William Taussig; Mr. William Roscoe Thayer; lYof. 
 Robert H. Thurs.ton; Mr. Telemachus T. Timayenis; Henry D. Traill, D. C. L.; Gen. R. de Trobrland; Mr. Bayard 
 Tuckerman; Samuel Epes Turner, Ph. D.; Prof. Herbert Tuttle; Prof. Armlnius Vomb6ry; Mr. Henri Van Laun; Gen. 
 Francis A.Walker; Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace; Spencer Walpole, LL. D. ; Alexander Stewart Webb. LL. D.; Mr. J. 
 Talboys Wheeler; Mr. Arthur Silva White; Sir Monier Monier-WiUiams; Justin Winsor, LL. D.; Rev. Frederick C. 
 Woodhouse; John Yeats, LL. D.; Miss Charlotte M. Yonge. 
 
 PUnUSIIEHS. 
 
 London : Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co.; Asher & Co.; George Bell & Sons; Richard Bentley & Son; Bickers & Sons; 
 A. & C. Black; Cassell & Co. ; Chapman & Hall; Chatto & V.indus; Tlios. De La Rue & Co. ; H. Grevel ,t Co. ; Griffltji, 
 Farran&Co.; William Heinemann; Hodder & Stoughton ; Sampson Low, Marston&Co.; Macmillan & Co.; Methuen 
 & Co.; John Murray; John C. Nimmo; Kegan Paul, Trench, TrUbner & Co.; George Philip & Son; The Religious Tract 
 Society; George Routledge & Sons; Seeley & Co.; Smith, Elder & Co.; Society lor the Promotion of Christian 
 Knowledge; Edward Stanford; Stevens & Hoynes; Henry Stevens ■£ Son; Elliot Stock; Swan Sonnenschehi & Co.; The 
 Times ; T. Fisher Unwin ; Ward, Lock, Bowden & Co. ; Frederick Warae & Co ; Williams & Norgote. 
 
 New York: Messrs. D. Appleton & Co.; Armstrong & Co.; A. S. Barnes & Co.; The Century Co.; T. Y. Crowell & 
 Co.; Derby & Miller; Dick & Fitzgerald; Dodd, Mea<l&Co,; Harper & Brothers; Henry Holt & Co.; Townsend Mac- 
 Coun; a. P. Putm.r-'« "^ons; Anson D. F. Randolph & Co.; D. J. Sadler & Co.; Charles Soribner's Sons; Charles L. 
 Webster & Co. 
 
Edinburgh : Mi-mre. William Hiackwowl & Song; W. & R. Chambers; David Douglas; Thomas Nelsun & Sons; W. 
 P. Nlmnin; Hay & Mitchell; The Seottiuh Reformation Society. 
 
 mUuleli'hia : Mesara. L. II, Evci ts & Co. ; J. B. Llppiucott Company; Oldach & Co. ; Porter & Coaics. 
 
 Boston : Messrs. Estcs * Lauriat; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Uttle, Brown & Co. ; D. liOthrop Company; Roberta 
 Brothers. 
 
 DxAUn : Messrs. James Duffy & Co. ; Hodges, Figgis & Co. ; J. J, Lalor. 
 
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 Cincinniili : Messrs. It<il>ert Clarke & Co.; Jones Hrolhers Publishing Co. 
 
 llarlfortl. Conn.: MessrR. < >. 1). Ciwe A: Co. ; 8. S. Si:ranton & Co. 
 
 Albany; Messrs. Ji>e! MunselTs Sons. 
 
 Cambridge, Eng.: The University l*re«8. 
 
 Norwich, Conn.: The Henry 1)111 Publishing Co. 
 
 Oxford : Tlie Clarendon Press. 
 
 Providence. R. I.: Messrs. J. A. •& R. A. Reld. 
 
 A list of books quoted from will bo given in the final volume. 
 
 I am greatly Indebted to lue remarkable kindness of a number of eminent historical scholars, 
 who have critically c.vamined the proof slieets of important articles and improved them by their 
 suggestions. My debt to Miss Ellen M. Chandler, for assistance given me in many ways, is 
 more than I can describe. 
 
 In my publisliiug arrangements I have been most fortunate, and I owe the good fortune very 
 largely to a number of friends, among whom it is just that I should name Mr. Henry A. Richmond, 
 Mr. George E. Matthews, and Mr. John CI. Milburn. There is no feature of these arraugements so 
 satisfactory to me as that which p.aces the publication of my book in the hands of the Company of 
 which Mr. Charles A. Nichols, of Springfield, Massachusetts, is the head. 
 
 I think myself fortunate, too, in the association of my work with that of Mr. Alan C. Reiley, 
 from whose original studies and drawings the greater part of the historical maps in these volumes 
 bnvo been produced. 
 
 J. K. Larnbd. 
 
LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS. 
 
 Ethnographic map of Moflern Europe Preceding the title-page. 
 
 Map of American Discovery and Settlement, To follow ])age 48 
 
 Plftn of Athens, and Harbors of Athens On page 145 
 
 Plan of Athenian house On page 163 
 
 Four development maps of Austria To follow page 196 
 
 Ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary On page 107 
 
 Four development maps of Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula, To follow page 242 
 
 Map of the Balkan and Danubian States, showing changes during the present 
 
 century, On page 244 
 
 Map of Burgundy under Charles the Bold To follow page 332 
 
 Development map showing the diffusion of Christianity, To follow page 432 
 
 LOGICAL OUTLINES, IN COLORS. 
 
 Athenian and Greek history To follow page 144 
 
 Austrian history To follow page 198 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 The Seventeenth Century: First half ami second half To follow page 208 
 
 To the Peloponuesian War, and Fourth and Third Centuries, B. C To follow page 166 
 
 APPENDICES TO VOLUME l. 
 
 A. Notes to Ethnographic map ; by Mr. A. C. Reiley. 
 
 B. Notes to four maps of Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula ; by the same. 
 
 C. Notes to map of the Balkan Peninsula in the pref t century; by the same. 
 
 D. Notes to map showing the diffusion of Christia \ ; by the same. 
 
 E. Notes on the American Aborigines; by Major J. W. Powell and Mr. J. Owen Dorsey, of the 
 
 U. S. Bureau of Ethnology. 
 
 F. Bibliography of America (Discovery, Exploration, Settlement, Archseology, and Ethnology), 
 
 and of Austria. 
 
HISTOEY FOE EEADY EEFEEENCE. 
 
 A. C. Ante Christum ; used sometimes 
 Instead of tlie more familiar abbreviation, B. C. 
 —Before Clirist. 
 
 A. D. Anno Domini ; Tlie Year of Our Lord. 
 See Eba, Chbistian. 
 
 A. E. I. O. U. — "The famous device of Aus- 
 tria, A. E. I. O. U., was first used by Frederic 
 III. [1440-1493], who adopted it on his plate, 
 books, and buildings. These initials stand for 
 ' Austriae Est Imperaro Orbl Univcrso ' ; or, in 
 German, 'AUes Erdreich 1st Osterreich Unter- 
 than ' : a bold assumption for a man who ■ vas not 
 safe in an inch of his dominions." — H. Hallam, 
 The Middle Ages, v. 2, p. 89, foot-note. 
 
 A. H. Anno Hejirae. See Era, Mahome- 
 tan. 
 
 A. M. "Anno Mundi ;" the Year of the 
 World, or the year from the beginning of the 
 world, according to the formerly accepted chro- 
 nological reckoning of Archbishop Usher and 
 others. 
 
 A. U. C, OR U. C. "Ab urbe condita," 
 from the founding of the city; or "Anno urbis 
 Conditae," the year from tne founding of the 
 city; the Year of Rome. See Rome: B. C. 753. 
 
 AACHEN. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 AARAU, Peace of (17x2). See Switzerlakd : 
 A. D. 1052-1789. 
 
 KBJE, Oracle of. See Oracles of the 
 
 ABBAS I. (called The Great). Shah of Per- 
 sia; A. D. 1582-1027.... Abba's IL, A. D. 
 1641-1006. . . .Abbas III., A. D. 1732-1730. 
 
 ABBASSIDES, The rise, decline and fall of 
 the. See Mahomktan Conquest, &c. : A. D. 
 716-750; 763; and 815-945; also Bagdad: A. D. 
 1258. 
 
 ABBEY.— ABBOT.— ABBESS. See Mon- 
 astery. 
 
 ABDALLEES, The. See Indla: A. D. 
 1747-1701. 
 
 ABDALMELIK, Caliph, A. D. 084-705. 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER, The War of the 
 French in Algiers with. See Barbary States : 
 A. D. 1830-1840. 
 
 ABDICATIONS. Alexander, Prince of 
 Bulgaria. See Bulgaria: A. D. 1878-1880. 
 
 Amadeo of Spain. See Spain: A. D. 
 
 1806-1878 Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. 
 
 of Spain. See Spain: A. D. 1807-1808 
 
 Charles V. EmoRror. S^i Germany: A. D. 
 
 1662-1501, and Netherlands: A. D. 1655 
 
 Charles X.King of France. See France: 
 
 K. D. 1815-1830 Charles Albert, King of 
 
 Saiainia. See Italy: A. D. 1848-1849 
 
 Christina, Regent of Spain. See Spain : A. D. 
 
 1833-1840 Christina, Queen of Sweden. 
 
 See Scandinavian States (Swe-dkn): A. D. 
 
 1644-1007 Diocletian, Emperor. See Rome : 
 
 A. D. 284-a05. . . .Ferdinand, Emperor of Aus- 
 tria. See Austria: A. D. 1848-1840. Louis 
 
 Bonaparte, King of Holland. See Nbtoer- 
 
 landb: A. D. 1806-1810 Louis Philippe 
 
 See Fbahce: A. D. 1841-1848 Milan, King 
 
 of Serria. See Servia: A. D. 1882-1889 
 
 Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil, and King of 
 Portugal. See Portugal: A. D. 1824-1889, 
 
 and Brazil: A. D. 1825-1805 Ptolemy I. of 
 
 Egypt. See Macedonu, &c. : B. C. 297-280. 
 . . . .Victor Emanuel I. See Italy: A. D. 1820- 
 
 1821 William L, King of Holland. See 
 
 Netherlands: A. D. 1830-1884. 
 
 ABDUL-AZIZ, Turkish Sultan, A. D. 
 1801-1876. 
 
 ABDUL-HAMID, Turkish Sultan, A D. 
 1774-1789. . . . Abdul-Hamid II., 1876-. 
 
 ABDUL-MEDJID, Turkish Sultan, A. D. 
 1839-1861. 
 
 ABEL, King of Denmark, A. D. 1250- 
 1252. 
 
 ABENCERRAGES, The. See Spain : A. D. 
 1238-1273, and 1476-1492. 
 
 ABENSBURG, Battle oi. See Germany: 
 A. D. 1809 (January-June). 
 
 ABERCROMBIE'S CAMPAIGN IN 
 AMERICA. See Canada (New France): A. 
 D. 1758. 
 
 ABERDEEN MINISTRY, The. See 
 England: A. D. 1851-1852, and 1855. 
 
 ABIPONES, The. See American Aborigi- 
 nes: Pampas Tribes. 
 
 ABJURATION OF HENRY IV. See 
 France: A. D. 1591-1593. 
 
 ABNAKIS, The. See American Aborigi- 
 nes: Aloonkin Family. 
 
 ABO, Treaty of (1743). See Russia: A. D. 
 1740-1703. 
 
 ABOLITIONISM IN AMERICA, The 
 Rise of. See Slavery, Negro: A. D. 1828- 
 1883; and 1840-1847. 
 
 ABORIGINES, AMERICAN. See Ameri- 
 can Aborigines. 
 
 ABOUKIR, Naval B.\ittle of (or Battle of 
 the Nile). See France. A. D. 1798 (May- 
 August) Land-battle of (1799). See 
 
 France: A. D. 1708-1799 (August- August). 
 
 ABRAHAM, The Plains of. That part of 
 the high plateau of Quebec on wLJcL the mem- 
 oraole victory of Wolfe was won, September 13, 
 1759. The plain was so called "from Abraham 
 Martin, a pilot known as Maltre Abraham, who 
 had owned a piece of land here in the early times 
 of the colony." — P. Parkman, Montcalm and 
 Wolfe, «. 2, p. 289.— For an account of the battle 
 which gave distinction to the Plains of Abraham, 
 see Canada (New France): A. D. 1750, (Junk 
 — September). 
 
 ABSENTEEISM IN IRELAND.— In Ire- 
 land, "the owners of about oue-lialf the land do 
 not live on or near their estates, while the owners 
 of about one fourth do not live in the country. 
 . . . Absenteeism is an old evil, and in very 
 early times received attention from the govem- 
 Lient. . . . Some of the disadvantages to the 
 community arising 'rom the absence of the more 
 wealthy and intolligent classes are apparent to 
 every one. Unless the landlord is utterly pov- 
 erty-stricken or very unenterprising, 'there is 
 
ABSENTEEISM IN IRELAND. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 a great dcitl more going on ' wlicii lie is in the 
 country. ... I un> convinced t!mt absenteeism 
 is a great di.sailvantage to tlie country and the 
 people. ... It is too nuich to attribute to it all 
 the evils that have been set down to its charge. 
 It is, however, an important consideration that 
 the people regard it as a grievance; and think 
 the twenty-live or thirty millions of dollars paid 
 every year to these landlords, who are rarely or 
 never in Irelaud, is a tax grievous to be borne." 
 — I). H. King, The Irinh Quentiiiii, pp. 5-11. 
 
 ABSOROKOS, OR CROWS. The. See 
 A.MKUKWN AnoitniiNi:s: Siotjan Family. 
 
 ABU-BEKR, Caliph, A. I). 033-034. 
 
 ABU KLE A, Battle of (1885). See Egypt: 
 A. 1). 1H84-IHH5. 
 
 ABUL ABBAS, Caliph, A. D. 750-754. 
 
 ABUNA OF ABYSSINIA. — "Since the 
 days of Frumentius [who introd\iced Christianity 
 into Abyssinia in the 4th century] every ortho- 
 dox Primate of Abyssinia has been consecrated 
 by the Coptic Patriarch of the church of Alex- 
 andria, and has borne the title of Abuna" — or 
 Abuna Salama, "Father of Peace." — II. M. 
 Ilozier, "J7ie Jlritish Krpcditioii to Abyssinia, 
 
 ^'aBURY, or AVE3URY.— STONE- 
 HENGE.— CARNAC— "Tl:o numerous cir- 
 cles of stone or of earth in Uritain and Ireland, 
 varying in diameter from 30 or 40 feet up to 
 1,200, are to be viewed as temples stiinding in 
 the closest possible relation to tne btirial-places 
 of the dead. Tlio most imposing group of re- 
 mains of this kind in this country [England] is 
 that of Avcbury [Aburv], near Devizes, in 
 Wiltshire, referred by Sir John Lubbock to a 
 late stage in the Neolithic or 10 the beginning of 
 the bronze period. It consists of a large circle 
 of unworkeil upright stoucs 1,200 feet in diame- 
 ter, surround':d by a fosse, which in turn is also 
 surrounded by a rampart of earth. Inside arc the 
 remains of two concentric circles of stone, and 
 from the two entrances in the rampart proceeded 
 long avenues Hanked by stones, one leading to 
 Beckliami)ton, and the other to West Kennett, 
 where it formerly ended in another double circle. 
 Between them rises Silbury Hill, the largest 
 artilieial mound in Great Britain, no less than 130 
 feet in height. This group of remains was at 
 one time seeoiid to none, 'but unfortunately for 
 us [says Sir John Lubbock] the pretty little 
 village of Avcbury [Abury], like some beautiful 
 parasite, has grown up at the expense and in the 
 midst of the ancient temple, and out of 050 great 
 stones, not above twenty are still standing. In 
 spite of this it is still to be classed among the 
 finest ruins in Europe. The famous temple of 
 Stonehenge on So'isbury Plain is probably of a 
 later date th;in Avebury, since not only are some 
 of the stones used in its construction worked, but 
 the surrounding barrows arc more ?laborate than 
 those in the neighbourhood of the latter. It con- 
 sisted of a circle 100 feet in diameter, of large 
 upright blocks of sarsen stone, 12 feet 7 inches 
 high, bearing 'niposts dovetjiiled into each other, 
 so as to form ,v continuous architrave. Nine 
 feet within this was a circle of small foreign 
 stones . . . and wifhin this five great trilithons 
 ol sursen stone, for.-aing a horse-shoe; then a 
 licise-shoe of foreign stones, eight feet high, an(l 
 in the centre a slab of miceceous rndstone called 
 the altar-stone. ... At a distauce of 100 feet 
 from the outer line a small ramp, with a ditcli 
 
 outside, formed the outer circle, 300 feet in 
 diameter, which cus a low barrow and Includes 
 another, nd therefore is evidentlj- of later date 
 than some of the barrows of the district. "-=-W. B. 
 Dawkins, Jiarli/Man in Britain, c/i. 10. — "Stone- 
 henge . . . may, i think, be regarded as a monu- 
 ment of the Bronze Age, though apparently it 
 was not all erected at one time, the inner circle of 
 small, unwrought, blue stones being probably 
 older than the rest ; as regards Abury, since tlii! 
 stones are all in their natural condition, while 
 those of Stonehenge arc roughly hewn, it seems 
 reasonable to conclude that Abury is the older 
 of the two, and belongs either to the close of the 
 Stone Age, or to the commencement of that of 
 Bronze. Both Abury and Stonehenge were, I 
 believe, used as temples. Many of the stone 
 circles, however, have been proved to be burial 
 places. In fact, a complete burial place may be 
 described as a dolmen, covered by a tumulus„ 
 and surrounded by a stone circle. Often, how- 
 ever, we have only the tumulus, sometimes only 
 the dolmen, and sometimes again only the stone 
 circle. The celebrated monument of Carnac, in 
 Brittany, consists of eleven rows of unhewn 
 stones, which differ greatly both ;i size and 
 height, the largest being 23 feet above ground, 
 while some are quite small. It appears that the 
 avenues originally extended for several miles, but 
 at present they are very imperfect, the stones hav- 
 ing been cleared away in places for agricultural 
 improvements. At present, therefore, there are 
 several detached portions, which, however, hav& 
 the same general direction, and appear to have 
 been connected together. . . . Most of the great 
 tumuli in Brittany probably belong to the Stone 
 Age, and I am therefore disposed to regard Car- 
 nac as having been erected during Jie same 
 period." — Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Timei, 
 eh. 5. 
 
 ABYDOS. — An ancient city on the Asiatic 
 side of tlu' Hellespont, mentioned in the Iliad as 
 one of the towns that were in alliance with the 
 Trojans. Originally Thracian, as is supposed, it 
 became a colony of Miletus, and passed at 
 different times under Persian, Athenian, Lace- 
 diBmonian and Macedonian rule. Its site was at 
 the narrowest point of the Hellespont — the scene 
 of the ancient romantic story of Hero and 
 Leondcr — nearly opposite to the town of Sestus. 
 It was in the near neighborhood of Abydos that 
 Xerxes built his bridge of boats; at Abydos, 
 Alcibiades and the Athenians won an important 
 victory over the Peloponnesians. See Greece: 
 B. C. 480, and 411-407. 
 
 ABYDCS, Tablet of.— One of the most valu- 
 able records of Egyptian history, found in the 
 ruins of Abydos and now preserved in the 
 British Museum. It gives a list of kings whom 
 liamscs II. selected from among his ancestors to 
 pay homage to. The tablet was much mutilated 
 when found, but another copy more perfect has 
 been unearthed by M. Marlette, which supplies 
 nearly all the names lacking on the first. — F. 
 Lenormaut, Manual of Ancient Hist, of the Ea»t, 
 V. 1, bk. 8. 
 
 ABYSSINIA : Embraced in ancienr. Ethio- 
 pia. See Ethiopia. 
 
 Fourth Century. — Conversion to Christi- 
 anity. — "What'iver may have been the effect 
 proifuccd in bis native country by the conver- 
 sion of Queen Candace's treasurer, recorded in 
 the Acts of the Apostles [ch, YIII.], it would 
 
ABYSSIXIA, FOURTH CENTURY. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 15Tn-10TH CENTURIES. 
 
 ftppoar to linve been transitory ; andtheEtbio- 
 piiiii or Abyssiniiin church owes its origin to an 
 expedition made early in tlie fonrtli century by 
 Meropius, a philosop'lier of Tyre, lor the pur- 
 pose of scientilic inijuiry. On liis voyage liomc- 
 ■wards. lie and liis companions were attaclied at 
 a phice where tliey liad landed in search of 
 water, and all were massacred except two 
 youths, ./Edesius and Frumontius, the relatives 
 and pui)ils of Meropius. These were carried to 
 the king of the country, who advanced iEdesius 
 to be liis cup-bearer, and Frumontius to be his 
 cecretary and treasurer. On the death of the 
 king, who left a boy as his heir, the two 
 strangers, at the request of the widowed queen, 
 acted as regents of the kingdom until the prince 
 came of age. yEdesius then returned to Tyre, 
 where he became a presJiyter. Frumentius, 
 who, with the help of such Christian traders as 
 visited the country, had already introduced the 
 Christian doctrine and worship into Abyssinia, 
 repaired to Alexandria, related his story to 
 Atlianasius, and . . . Atlianasius . . . con- 
 secrated him to the bishoprick of Axum [the 
 capital of the Abyssinain kingdom]. The church 
 thus foimded continues to this day subject to the 
 see of Alexandria." — J. C. Robertson, flift. of the 
 ClirUiiitii, Church, bk. 3, ch. 0. 
 
 6th to i6th Centuries. — Wars in Arabia. — 
 Struggle with the Mahometans. — Isolation 
 from the Christian world, — "The fate of the 
 Christian cliurch among the Homerites in Arabia 
 Felix afforded an opportunity for the Abyssin- 
 ians, under the reigns of the Emperors Just'n 
 and Justinian, to show their zeal in behalf of the 
 cause of the Christians. Tlie prince of that 
 Arabian population, Dunaan, or Dsunovas, was 
 a zealous adherent of Judaism; and, under pre- 
 text of avenging the oppressions which his 
 fellow-believers were obliged to suffer in the 
 Roman empire, he caused the Christian mer- 
 chants v.ho came from that quarter and visited 
 Arabia lor the purposes of trade, or passed 
 through the country to Abyssinia, to be mur- 
 dered. Elesbaan, the Christian king of Abys- 
 sinia, made this a cause for declaring war on the 
 Arabian prince. Ho conquered Dsunovas, de- 
 prived him of the government, and set up a 
 Christiai;, by the name of Abraham, ns king in 
 his stead. But at the death of the latter, which 
 happened soon after, Dsunovas again made him- 
 self master of the throne ; and it was a natural 
 consequence of what he had suffered, that he 
 now became a fiercer nnd more crufi persecutor 
 than he was before. . . . Upon this, Elesbaan 
 interfered once mort-, under the reign of the 
 emperor Justinian, who stimulated him to the 
 undertaking. He made a second expedition 
 lo Arabia Felix, and was again victorious. 
 Dsunovas lost his life in the war; the Abys- 
 sinian prince put an end to the ancient, in- 
 dependent empire of the Homerites, and estab- 
 lished a new government favourable to the 
 Christians."— A. Neander, General History of the 
 Christian licligion and Church, second period, 
 sect. 1. — "In the year 593, as nearly as can be 
 C(dculated from the dates given by the native 
 writers, the Persians, whose power seems to 
 have kept pace with the decline of the Roman 
 empire, sent a great force against the Abyssin- 
 ians, possessed themselves onco more of Arabia, 
 acquired a naval superiority in the gulf, and 
 secured the principal ports on either side of it. 
 
 It is uncertain how long these conquerors re- 
 tained their acquisition; but, in all pre' ability 
 their ascendancy gave way to Jie rising gre.it- 
 ness of the Jlahometan power; winch soon 
 afterwards overwhelmed all the nations ron- 
 tigtious to Arabia, spread to the remotest parts 
 of the East, and even penetrated the African 
 deserts from Egypt to the Congo. Meanwhile 
 Abyssinia, though within two hundred miles of 
 the walls of Jfecca, remained unconqiiered and 
 true to the Christian faith; presenting a mor- 
 tifying and galling object to the more zealous 
 followers of the Prophet. On this accoiuit, 
 implacable and incessant wars ravaged her terri- 
 tories. . . . She lost her commerce, saw her conse- 
 quence annihilated, her capital threatened, and the 
 richest of her provinces laid waste. . . . There 
 is reoson to apprehend that she miist shortly 
 have sunk under the pressure of repeated in- 
 vasions, had not the Portuguese arrived [in the 
 iOtb century] at a seasonable moment to aid 
 her endeavours rgainst the Jloslem chiefs." — M. 
 Russell, Nubia and ^-iiji/ssinin, ch. 3. — "When 
 Nubia, which intervenes between Egypt and 
 Abyssinia, ceased to be a Christiiui country, 
 owing to the destruction of its church by the 
 ^Mahometans, the Al)yssinian church was cut off 
 from communication with the rest of Christen- 
 dom. . . . They [tho Abyssinians] remain an 
 almost unique specimen of a semi-barbarous 
 Christian people. Their worship is strangely 
 mixed with Jewish customs."— H. F. Tozer, The 
 Church and the Eastern Empire, ch. 5. 
 
 Fifteenth-Nineteenth Cer-turies. — European 
 Attempts at Intercourse. — Intrusion of the 
 Gallas. — Intestine conflicts. — "About the mid- 
 dle of tlie 15th century, Abyssinia car.ie in con- 
 tact with AVestern Europe. An Abyssinian con- 
 vent WIS endowed at Rome, and legates were 
 sent from the Abyssinian convent at Jerusalem 
 to the council of Florence. These adhered to 
 the Greek schism. But from tliat time the 
 Church of Rome made an impress upon Ethiopia. 
 . . . Prince Henry of Portugal . . . next opened 
 up communication witli Europe. He hoped to 
 open up a route from the West to the East coast 
 of Africa [see Poktuoal; A. D. 1415-1460], 
 by which the East Indies might be reached with- 
 out touching MahometJin territory. During his 
 efforts to discover sucli a passage to India, and 
 to destroy the revenues derived by the Moors 
 from the spice trade, be sent an ambassador 
 named Covillan to the Court of Shoa. Covillan 
 was not suffered to return by Alexander, the 
 then Negoos [or Negus, or Nagash — tho title of 
 the Abyssinian sovereign]. He married nobly, 
 and acquired rich possessions in the country. He 
 kept up correspondence with Portugal, and urged 
 Prince Henry to diligently continue his efforts to 
 discover the Southern passage to the East. In 
 1498 the Portuguese effected the circuit of Africa. 
 The Turks shortly afterwards extended their con- 
 quests towards India, where they were bauikcd by 
 the Portuguese, but they established a post and a 
 toll at Zcyla, on the African coast. From here 
 they hampered and threatened to destroy the 
 trade of Abyssinia," antl soon, in alliance with 
 the Mahometan tribes of the coost, invaded the 
 country. ' ' They were defeated by the Negoos 
 David, and at tho same time tho Turkish town of 
 Zeyla was stormed and burned by a Portuguese 
 fleet." .Considerable intimacy of friendly rela- 
 tions was maintained for some time between the 
 
ABYSSINIA, 15Tn-10TII CENTURIES. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 1854-1880. 
 
 Abys.sinians and tlio Portugui.'sc, who (i.ssi.stcd in 
 defending tlicin iigiiinst tlio Turks. "In the 
 middle of the Hith ccntiirv ...» migration of 
 Oallas camr fnnii the Souti. and swept up to and 
 over tlie eimlines of Abyssinia. Men of ligliter 
 ooiiiplexi(m and fairer sl<in tlian most Africans, 
 they were Pagan in religion :;nd savages in cus- 
 toms. Notwitlistanding frecjuent efforts to dis- 
 lodge tliem, tliey diave (irmly established them- 
 .selves. A large colony has planted itself on the 
 baiiUs of the Upper Takkazie, tlie Jidda and the 
 Hashilo. Since their establishment here they 
 have for tlie most part embraced the creed of 
 Mahomet. The province of Slioa is but an out- 
 lier of Cliristian Aby.s.sinia, separated completely 
 from co-religionist districts by these Galla 
 bands. About the same time the Turks took a 
 firm hold of Massowah and of the lowland by 
 the coast, -"vhich had hitherto been ruled by the 
 Abyssinian Bahar Nagash. Islainism and heath- 
 enism surrounded Abyssinia, where the lamp of 
 Christianity faintly glimmered amidst dark 
 superstition in the deep recesses of rugged val- 
 leys." In 1)558 a Jesuit mission arrived in the 
 country and estjiblished itself at Fremona. ' ' For 
 nearly a century FrcmoLa existed, and its super- 
 iors were the trusted advisors of the Ethiopian 
 throne. . . . But the same fate which fell upon 
 the company of Jesus in more civilized lands, 
 pursued it m the wilds of Africa. The Jesuit 
 missionaries were universally popular with the 
 Negoos, but the prejudice of the people refused 
 to recognise the benefits which llowed from Fre- 
 L'.ona." Persecution befell the fathew, and two 
 of them won the crown of martyrdom. The 
 Negoos, Facilidas, "sent for a Coptic Abuna 
 [ecclesiastical primate] from Alexandria, and con- 
 cluded a treaty with the Turkish governors of 
 Massowah and Souakin to prevent the passage of 
 Europeans into his dominions. Some Capuchin 
 preachers, who attempted to evade this treaty 
 and enter Abyssinia, met witli cruel deaths. 
 Facilidas thus completed the work of the Turks 
 and the Gallaa, and shut Abyssinia out from 
 European influence and civilization. . . . After 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits, Abyssinia was torn 
 by internal feuds and constantly harassed by the 
 encrocchments of and wars with the Gallas. 
 Anarchy and confusion ruled supreme. Towns 
 and villages were burnt down, and the inhabi- 
 tants sold into slavery. . . . Towards the middle 
 of the 18th century the Gallas appear to have 
 •ncreased considerably in power. In the intes- 
 tine quarrels of Abyssinia their alliance was 
 courted by each side, and in their couniiy politi- 
 cal refugees obtained a secure asylum." During 
 the early years of the present century, the cam- 
 jjaigns m Egypt attracted English attention to 
 the Red Sea. "In 1804 Lord Valeutia, the 
 Viceroy of India, sent his Secretary, Mr. Salt, 
 into Abyssinia;" but Mr. Salt was unable to 
 penetrate beyond Tigre. In 1810 he attempted 
 a second mission and again failed. It was not 
 until 1848 that English attempts to open diplo- 
 matic and commercial relations with Abyssinia 
 became successful. Mr. Plowden was appointed 
 consular agent, and negotiated a treaty of com- 
 merce with Ras Ali, the ruling Galla chief." — 
 H. M. Hozier, The British Expedition to Aby»- 
 linia, Introd. 
 
 A. D. 185^-1889.— Advent of KinrTheodore. 
 — His English captives and the Expedition 
 which released th^m. — "Consul Plowden had 
 
 been residing six years at Massowah when he 
 heard that the Prince to whom he had been ac- 
 credited, Ras Ali, had been defeated and de- 
 throned by an adventurer, whose name, a few 
 years before, had been unknown outside the 
 boundaries of his native province. This was 
 Lij Kfisa, better known by his adopted name of 
 Theodore. He was born of an old family, in 
 the mountainous region of Kwara, where the 
 land begins to slope downwards towards the 
 Blue Nile, and educated in a convent, where he 
 learned to read, and acquired a considerable knowl- 
 edge of the Scriptures. Kftsa's convent life was 
 suddenly put an end to, when one of those ma- 
 rauding Galla bands, whose ravages are the 
 curse of Abyssinia, attacked and plundered the 
 monastery. From that time he himself took to 
 the life of a freebooter. . . . Adventurers flocked 
 to his standard ; his power continually increased ; 
 and in 1854 he defeated Ras Ali in a pitched bat- 
 tle, and made himself master of central Abys- 
 sinia." In 1855 he overthrew the ruler of Tigr6. 
 "He now resolved to assume a title coramen- 
 surate with the wide extent of his dominion. In 
 the church of Derczgye he had himself crowned 
 by the Abuna as King of the Kings of Ethiopia, 
 taking the name of Theodore, because an ancient 
 tradition declared that a great monarch would 
 some day arise in Abyssinia." Mr. Plowden now 
 visited the new monarch, was impressed with 
 admiration of his talents and character, and be- 
 came his counsellor and friend. But in 1860 the 
 English consul lost his life, while on a journey, 
 and Theodore, embittered by several mis- 
 fortunes, began to give rein to a savage temper. 
 "The British Government, on hearing of the 
 death of Plowden, immediately replaced him at 
 Massowah by the appointment of Captain Cam- 
 eron. " The new Consul was well received, and 
 was entrusted by the Abyssinian King with a 
 letter addressed to the Queen of England, solicit- 
 ing her friendship. The letter, duly despatched 
 to its destination, was pigeon-holed in the Foreign 
 Offlce at London, and no reply to it was ever 
 made. Insulted and enraged by this treatment, 
 and by other evidences of the indifference of the 
 British Government to nis overtures, King Theo- 
 dore, in January, 1864, seized and imprisoned 
 Consul Cameron with all his suite. About 
 the same time he was still further offended by 
 certain passages in a book on Abyssinia that had 
 been published by a missionary named Stem. 
 Stem and a fellow missionary, Rosenthal with 
 the latter's ^ife, were lodged in prison, and sub- 
 jected to flogging and torture. The first step 
 taken by the British Government, when news of 
 Consul Cameron's imprisonment reached Eng- 
 land, was to send out a regular mission to Abys- 
 sinia, bearing a letter signed by the Queen, de- 
 manding the release of the Captives. The mission, 
 headed by a Syrian named Rassam, made its way 
 to the King's presence in January, 1866. Theo- 
 dore seemed to be placated by the Queen's epistle 
 and promised freedom to his prisoners. But soon 
 his moody mind became flllcd with suspicions as 
 to the genuineness of Rassam's credentials from 
 the Queen, and as to the designs and intentions of 
 all the foreigners who were in his power. He was 
 drinking heavily at the time, and the result of 
 his "drunken cogitations was a determination to 
 detain the mission — at any rate until by their 
 means he should have obtained a supply of skilled 
 artisans and machinery from England." Mr. 
 
ABYSSINIA, 1854-1889. 
 
 ACH.«AN CITIES. 
 
 Rnssam and his companions were accordingly I 
 put into conflnement, as Captain Cnmoron had 
 been. But tliey were allowed to send a mes- 
 senger to England, making tlieir situation Ijnown, 
 and conveying the demand of King Theodore 
 lliat a man be sent to hinl "wlio can maiie can- 
 nons and muskets. " The demand was actually 
 'complied -with. Six skilled artisans and a civd 
 engineer were sent out, together with a quantity 
 of machinery and otlier presents, in the hope that 
 they would procure the release of the unfortunate 
 captives at Magdala. Almost a year was wasted 
 in these futile proceedings, and it was not until 
 Beptemlicr, 1867, that an expedition consisting of 
 4,000 British and 8,000 native troops, under Gen- 
 eral Sir Robert Napier, was sent from India to 
 bring the insensate barbarian to terms. It landed 
 in Annesley Bay, and, overcoming cmormous 
 difBcultics with regard to water, food-supplies 
 and tiansportation, was ready, about the middle 
 of January, 1868, to start upon its march to the 
 fortress of Magdala, where Theodore's prisoners 
 were confined. The distance was 400 miles, and 
 several high ranges of mountains liad to bo passed 
 to reach the interior table-land. The invading 
 army mot with no resistance until it reached the 
 Valley of the Beshilo, when it was attacked 
 (April 10) on the plain of Aroge or Arogi, by 
 the whole force which Tlieodore was able to 
 muster, numbering a few thousands, only, of 
 poorly armed men. The battle was simply a 
 rapid slaughtering of the barbaric assailants, and 
 when tUey fled, leaving 700 or800 dead and 1,500 
 wounded on the field, the Abyssinian King had 
 no power of resistance left. He offered at once 
 to make peace, surrendering all the captives in 
 his hands; but Sir Robert Napier required an 
 unconditional submission, with a view to displac- 
 ing hira from the throne, in accordance with 
 the wish and expectation which he had found to 
 be general in the country. Theotlore refused 
 these t<;rms, and when (April 13) Magdala was 
 bombarded and stormed by the British troops — 
 slight resistance being made — he shot himself at 
 the moment of their entrance to the place. The 
 sovereignty he had successfully concentrated in 
 himself for a time was again divided. Between 
 April and June the English army was entirely 
 withdrawn, and " Abyssinia was Be.iled up again 
 from intercourse with the outer world." — Qtii- 
 lell'a Illunlratcd Ilht. of Eny., v. 9, ch. 28.— "The 
 task of permanently uniting Abyssinia, in which 
 Theodore failed, proved equally impracticable to 
 John, who came to the front, in the first instance, 
 as an ally of the British, and afterwards suc- 
 ceeded to the sovereignty. By his fall (10th 
 March, 1889) in the unhappy war against the 
 Dervishes or Moslem zealots of the Soudan, the 
 path was cleared for Jlenilek of Shoa, who en- 
 joyed the support of Italy. The establishment 
 of the Italians on the Red Sea littnrid . . . 
 promises a new era for Abyssinia. "—T. NOldeke, 
 ISketchcs from Eastern Hint., ch. 9. 
 
 Also in II. A. Stern, The Captive Missionary. 
 —II. M. Stanley, Coomassie and Magdala, pt. 2. 
 - — ♦— — 
 
 ACABA, the Pledges of. See Mahometan 
 Conquest : A. D. 600-0:(2. 
 
 ACADEMY, The Athenian.— " The Aca- 
 demia, a public garden in the neighbourhood of 
 Athens, was the favourite resort of Plato, and 
 gave its name to the school \, ,iich Iw. founded. 
 I'his garden was plant<'d with lofty plane-trees. 
 
 and adorned with temples and statues ; a gentle 
 stream rolled through it." — G. H. Lewes, Biog. 
 Jlist. of Philosophy, Qth Ejweh. — The masters of 
 the great schools of philosopy at Athens "chose 
 for their lectures and discussions the public 
 buildings which were called gymnasia, of which 
 there were several in different quarters of the city. 
 They could only use them by the sufferance of 
 the State, which had built them chiefly for 
 bodily exercises and athletic feats. . . . Before 
 long several of the schools drew themselves 
 apart in s])ccial buildings, and even took their 
 most familiar names, such as the Lyceum and 
 the Academy, from the gynmasia in which they 
 made themselves at home. Gradually we find 
 the traces of some material provisions, which 
 helped to define and to perpetuate the different 
 sects. Plato had a little garden, close by the 
 sacred Eleusinian Way, in the shady groves of 
 the Academy, which he bought, says Plutarch, 
 for some 3,000 drachma;. There lived also his 
 successors, Xenocratcs and Polemon. . . . Aris- 
 totle, as we know, in later life had taught in the 
 Lyceum, in the rich grounds near the Ilissus, 
 and there lie probably possessed the house and 
 garden which after his death came into the hands 
 of his successor, Theophrastus. " — W. W. Capes, 
 University life in Ancient Athens, pp. 81-33. — 
 For a description of the Academy, the Lyceum, 
 and other gymnasia of Athens, see Gysinasia 
 GitEEK. — Concerning the suppression of the 
 Academy, see Athens: A. D. 539. 
 
 ACADIA. See Nova Scotia. 
 
 ACADIANS, The, and the British Gov- 
 ernment. — Their expulsion. See Nova Scotia : 
 A. D. 1713-1730; 1749-1755, and 1755. 
 
 ACARNANIANS. Bee Akarn.vnianb. 
 
 ACAWOIOS, The. See Ameuican Abori- 
 gines: Caribs and tiieiu Kindred. 
 
 ACCAD.— ACCADIANS. See Babylonia, 
 Primitive. 
 
 ACCOLADE.— "The concluding sign of 
 being dubbed or adopted into the order of 
 knighthood was a slight blow given by the lord 
 to the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the 
 part of the body, the neck, whereon it was 
 struck. . . . Many writers have imagined that 
 the accolade was the last blow which the sol- 
 dier might receive with impunity : but this in- 
 terpretation is not correct, for the squire was as 
 jealous of his honour as the knight. The origin 
 of the accolade it is irapos.sible to trace, but it 
 was clearly considered symbolical of the religious 
 and moral duties of knighthood, and was the 
 only ceremony used when knights were made in 
 places (the field of battle, for instance), where 
 time and circumstances did not allow of many 
 ceremonies." — C. Mills, Hist, of Chivalry, v. 1, 
 ;). 53, and foot-iiote. 
 
 ACHiEAN CITIES, LeaguR of the.— This, 
 which is not to be confounded with the " Achaian 
 League " of Pcloponiie.us, was an early League 
 of the Greek settlements in southern Italy, or 
 Magna Grari, It was " composed of the towns 
 of Siris, Pandosia, Metabus or Metajiontum, 
 Sybaris with its offsets Posidonia and Laus, 
 Croton, Caulonia, Temesa, Tcrina and Pyxiis. 
 . . . The language of Polybius regarding the 
 Achtean symmachy in the Peloponnesus may be 
 applied also to these Italian Achinins ; ' not only 
 dill they live in federal and friendly communion, 
 but they made use of tlie same laws, and the 
 same weights, measures and coins, as well as of 
 
ACII^AN CITIES. 
 
 ACHKIDA. 
 
 the same mngistriitcs, counrillnrs mid judges.' " 
 — T. Momiiiscn, Hint, of Itome, bk. 1, ch. 10. 
 
 ACHiEAN LEAGUE. Sec Guekce: B. C. 
 280-146. 
 
 ACHiEMENIDS, The.— TIic family or dy- 
 nastic name (in its Ureel< form) of tlie kings of 
 the Persian Enijjire founded by Cyrus, derived 
 from an ancestor, Acliipmcnos, wlio was probably 
 a cliief of tlie Persian tribe of tlic Pasargada>. 
 "In tlie inscription of Rehistun, King Darius 
 Bays: 'From old time wc were kings; eight of 
 my family linve been kings, I nm the ninth; 
 from very ancient times we liave been kings.' 
 He enumerates liis ancestors: 'My father was 
 Vista^pa, the father of Vista9pa was Arsama; 
 the father of Arsama was Ariyaramna, the father 
 of Ariyaramna was Khaispis, the father of Khais- 
 pis was Ilakhamauis; lience we are called Ilak- 
 hamanisiya(Acha>menids). ' In these words Darius 
 gives the tree of his own family up to Khaispis; 
 this was the younger branch of the Aclite- 
 mcnids. Teispes, the son of Achaemenes, had 
 two sons; the elder was Cambyses (Kambujiya) 
 the younger Ariamnes; the son of Cambysea was 
 Cyrus (Kurus), the son of Cyrus was Cambyses 
 II. Hence Darius could indeed maintain that 
 eight princes of his family had preceded him ; 
 but it was not correct to maintain that they liad 
 been kings before him and that ho was the ninth 
 king. " — M. Duncker, Ilut. of Antiquity, v. 5, 
 bk. 8, ell. 3. 
 
 Also in O. Rawlinson, Family of th' Acfus- 
 menidm, app. to bk. 7 of Herodotus. — See, also, 
 
 PeUBIA, ANCffiNT. 
 
 ACHAIA. — " Crossing the river Larissus, and 
 pursuing the northern coast of Peloponnesus 
 south of the Corinthian Gulf, the traveller would 
 pass into Achaia — a name which designated the 
 narrow strip of level land, and the projecting 
 spurs and declivities between that gulf and the 
 northernmost mountains of the peninsula. . . . 
 Achaean cities — twelve in number at least. If not 
 more — divided this long strip of land amongst 
 them, from the mouth of the Larissus and the 
 northwestern Capo Ara.xus on one side, to the 
 western boundary of the Bikyon territory on the 
 other. According to the accounts of the ancient 
 legends and the belief of Herodotus, this terri- 
 tory had been once occupied by Ionian Inhabit- 
 ants, whom the Achaeans had e.xpcUed." — G. 
 Grote, IlUt. of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 4 (c. 2).— After 
 the Roman conquest and the suppression of the 
 Achaian League, the name Acliaia was given to 
 the Roman province then organized, wliich 
 embraced all Greece south of Macedonia and 
 Epirus.— See Guefxe: B. C. 280-140.— "In the 
 Homeric poems, where . . . the 'Hellenes' 
 only appear in one district of Soutliern Tliessaly, 
 the name Achivans is employed by jircference 
 as a general appelation for the whole race. But 
 the Achieans we niav term, without hesitation, 
 a Pclasgian people, in so far, that is, as wo use 
 this name merely as the opposite of tho terra 
 'Hellenes,' wliich prevailed at a later t'nie, 
 although it is true tliat the Hellenes thems.lves 
 wore nothing more than a particular branch of 
 the Pclasgian stock. . . . [The name of the] 
 Achreans, after it had dropped its earlier and 
 more universal application, was preserved as the 
 special name of a population dwelling in the 
 north dt the Peloponneso and the south of 
 Tliessaly." — G. F. SchCmann, Antiq. of Greece: 
 Tlie Stale, Int. — "The ancients regarded them 
 
 [the Achtcansl as a branch of the .^olians, viith 
 whom they afterwards reunited into one national 
 bod V, i. e. , not as an originally distinct nationality 
 or mdependent branch of tho Greek people. 
 Accordingly, we hear npitlier of an Acha;an lan- 
 guage nor of Achffian art. A manifest and decided 
 influence of the maritime Greeks, wherever the 
 Aclia>ans appear, is common to the latter with 
 the yEolians. Achirans are everywhere settled 
 on tho coast, and are always regarded as jiar- 
 ticularly near relations of tho lonians. . . . 1 he 
 Achoeans appear scattered about in localities on 
 the coast of the iEgean so remote from one 
 another, that it is impossible to consider all bear- 
 ing this name as fragments of a people originally 
 united in one social community; nor do they 
 in fact anywhere appear, properly speaking, 
 as a popular body, as the main stock of tho 
 population, but rather as eminent families, from 
 which spring heroes ; hence tho use of tho expres- 
 sion ' Sons of tho Achreans ' to indicate noble de- 
 scent." — E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, bk. 1, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in M. Duncker, Hist, of Greece, bk. 1, ch. 
 2, and bk. 2, ch. 2. — See, also, Achaia, and 
 Greece : The Miohatioss. 
 
 A. D. 1205-1387. — Mediaeval Principality. 
 — Among tho conquests of the French and 
 Lombard Crusaders in Greece, after tho taking of 
 Constantinople, was that of a major part of the 
 Peloponnesus — then beginning to be called the 
 Morea — by William do Champlitte, a French 
 Itnight, assisted by GeflErey de Villehardouin, 
 tho younger — nephew and namesake of the 
 Marshal of Cliampagno, who was chronicler of 
 the conquest of the Empire of the East. William 
 de Champlitte was invested with this Principality 
 of Achaia, or of tlie Morea, as it is variously 
 stj'led. Qcflrcy Villehardouin represented him 
 in the government, as his "bailly,"for a time, 
 and finally succeeded in supplanting him. Half 
 a century later the Greeks, who had recovered 
 Constantinople, reduced the territory of the 
 Principality of Achaia to about half the penin- 
 sula, and a destructive war was waged between 
 the two races. Subsequently the Principality, 
 became a fief of the crown of Naples and Sicily, 
 and underwent many changes of possession 
 until the title was in confusion and dispute 
 between the houses of Anjou, Aragon and 
 Savoy. Before it was engulfed finally in the 
 Empire of the Turks, it was ruined by their 
 piracies and ravages. — O. Finlay, Hist, of Greece 
 jFrom its Conquest by the Crusaders, ch. 8. 
 
 ACHMET I., Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1003- 
 1017. . . . Achmet II., 1691-1005. . . . Achme* III., 
 1703-1730. 
 
 ACHRADINA.— A part of tho nncLnt city 
 of Syracuse, Sicily, known as the " outer city, 
 occupying the peninsula north of Ortygia, the 
 island, which was the " inner city." 
 
 ACHRIDA, Kingdom of.— After the death of 
 John Zimisces wlio had reunited Bulgaria to the 
 Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians wore roused 
 to a struggle for the recovery of their independ- 
 ence, under the lead of four brothers of a noble 
 familv all of whom soon perished save one, 
 nan.od Samuel. Samuel proved to be so vigor- 
 ous and able a soldier and had so much success 
 that ho assumed presently the title of king. His 
 authority was established over the greater part 
 of Bulgaria, and extended into Macedonia, 
 Epirus and Illyria. He established his capital 
 
ACHRIDA. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT. 
 
 at Achrida (modern Ochrida, in Albania), wliich 
 gave its name to liis liingdom. Tlie suppression 
 of tliis new Bulgarian monarchy occupied the 
 Byzantine Emperor, Basil II., in wars from 981 
 until 1018, wlien its last strongholds, including 
 the city of Achrida, were surrendered to him.— 
 O. Finlay, Ilitt. of the Byzantine Empire from 
 716 to 1057, hk. 2, ch. 3, sect. 3. 
 
 ACKERMAN, Convention of (1826). See 
 Turks: A. D. 1826-1829. 
 
 ACOLAHUS, The. See Mexico, Ancient: 
 The Toi.tkc EMrmi;. 
 
 ACOLYTH, The. Sec Varangian or War- 
 Djo Guard. 
 
 ACRABA, Battle of, A. D. 633.— After the 
 death of Mahomet, his successor, Abu Bekr, had 
 to deal witli several serious revolts, the most 
 threatening of which was niised by one Mosei- 
 lama, who had pretended, even in the life-time of 
 the Prophet, to a rival mission of religion. The 
 decisive battle between the followers of Mosei- 
 lama and those of Mahomet was fought at Acraba, 
 near Yemama. The pretender was slain and few 
 ■of his army escaped. — Sir W. Muir, Annals of 
 the Early Caliphate, ch. 7. 
 
 ACRABATTENE, Battle of.— A sanguinary 
 defeat of the Idiimcans or Edomites by the Jews 
 under Judas Maccabajus, B. C. 164. — Josephus, 
 Antig. of the Jews, bk. 13, ch. 8. 
 
 ACRAGAS. See Aorioentum. 
 
 ACRE (St. Jean d'Acre, or Ptolemais) : A. 
 O. 1 104. — Conquest, Pillage and Massacre by 
 the Crusaders and Genoese. See Crusades: 
 A. D. 1104-1111. 
 
 A. D. 1 187.— Taken from the Christians by 
 Saladin. See .Jerusalem: A. D. 1149-1187. 
 
 A. D. 1 1 89-119 1. — The great siege and recon- 
 quest by the Crusaders. Sec Crusades: A. D. 
 1188-1103. r 
 
 A. D. 1256-1257.— Quarrels and battles be- 
 tween the Genoese and Venetians. See 
 Venice: A. D. 1256-1357. 
 
 A. D. 1291.— The Final triumph of the 
 Moslems. See Jerubalesi: A. D. 1291. 
 
 i8th Century.— Restored to Importance by 
 Sheik Daher.— "Acre, or St. Jean d'Acre, 
 celebrated under this name in the history of 
 the Crusades, and in antiquity known by the 
 •name of Ptolemais, had, by the middle of the 
 18th century, been almost entirely forsaken, 
 when SUcik T^iher, the Arab rebel, restored its 
 commerce and navigation. Tliis able prince, 
 whoso sway comprehended the whole of ancient 
 Galilee, was succeeded by tlic infamous tyrant, 
 Djezzar-Pasha, who fortified Acre, and adorned 
 it with a mosque, enriched with columns of 
 antique marble, collected from all the neighbour- 
 ing cities."— M. Malte-Brun, System of Univ. 
 Oeog., bk. 28 {v. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1790.— Unsuccessful Siege by Bona- 
 parte. See France : A. D. 1798-1799 (August 
 — August). 
 
 A. D. 1831-1840.- Siege and Capture by 
 Mehemed Ali.— Recovery for the Sultan by the 
 Western Powers. Sec Turks: A. D. 1831-1840. 
 
 ACROCERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. 
 
 See KoRKViiA. 
 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS, The.-" A 
 
 road which, by running zigzag up the slope was 
 rendered practicable for chariots, led from the 
 lower city to the Acropolis, on the edge of the 
 platform of which stood the Propylaea, erected 
 
 by the architect Mne.sicles in five years, during 
 the administration of Pericles. ... On entering 
 through the gates of the Propylica a scene of 
 unparalled grandeur and l)ciiiity burst upon the 
 eye. No trace of human dwellings anywhere 
 appeared, but on all sides temples of more or less 
 elevation, of Pentclic marble, beautiful in design 
 and exquisitely delicate in execution, sparkled 
 lilce piles of alaba.ster in the .sun. On the left 
 stood the Erectheion, or fane of Athena Polias; 
 to the right, that matchless edilicc known as the 
 Ilecatompcdon of old, but to later ages as the 
 Parthenon. Other buildings, nllhoh to the eye 
 of an Athenim, lay grouped around idesc ma.ster 
 structures, and, in tlie open spaces lictwcen, in 
 whatever direction the spectator mighi 'lok, ap- 
 peared statues, some remarkable for tlic.i- dimen- 
 sions, others for their beauty, and all for the 
 legendary sanctity which si-.rrounded them. No 
 city of the ancient or modern world ever rivalled 
 Athens in the riches of art. Our best filled mu- 
 seums, thougli teeming witli her spoils, are poor 
 collections of fragments compared with that 
 assemblage of gods and heroes which peopled the 
 Ac-opolis, tlie genuine Olympos of the arts." — 
 J. A. St. John, The Hellenes, bk. 1, ch. 4.— 
 "Nothing in ancient Greece or Italy could be 
 compared witli the Acropolis of Athens, in its 
 combination of beauty and grandeur, surrounded 
 as it was by temples and theatres among its 
 rocks, and encircled by a city abounding with 
 monuments, some of which rivalled those of the 
 Acropolis. Its platform formed one great 
 sanctuary, partitioned only bv the boundaries of 
 the . . . sacred portions. We cannot, there- 
 fore, admit the suggestion of Chandler, that, in 
 addition to the temples and other monuments on 
 the summit, there were houses divided into regu- 
 lar streets. Tliis would not have been consonant 
 either with the customs or the good taste of the 
 Athenians. When the people of Attica crowded 
 into Athens at the beginning of the Peloponne- 
 sianwar, and religious prejudices gave way, in 
 every po.ssible case, to the necessities of the occa- 
 sion, even then the Acropolis remained unin- 
 habited. . . . Tlie western end of the Acropolis, 
 which furnished llie only access to the summit of 
 the hill, w.as one hundred and sixty eight feet in 
 breadth, an opening so narrow that it appeared 
 practicable to the artists of Pericles to fill up the 
 space with a single building which should serve 
 tlie purpose of a gateway to the citadel, as well 
 as of a suitable entrance to that glorious dis- 
 play of architecture and sculpture which was 
 witliin tlie inclosure. This work [the Propy- 
 Ia;a], the greatest production of civil archi- 
 tecture in Atliens, wliich rivalled the Parthenon 
 in felicity of execution, surpassed it in bold- 
 ness and originality of design. ... It may be 
 defined as a wall pierced with five doors, be- 
 fore which on both sides were Doric hexastyle 
 porticoes." — W. M. Leake, Tojiography of Athens, 
 sect. 8. — See, also, Attica. 
 
 ACT OF ABJURATION, The. See Neth- 
 erlands: A. D. 1577-1581. 
 
 ACT OF MEDIATION, The. Sec Swit- 
 zerland: A. D. 180i!-1848. 
 
 ACT OF SECURITY. See Scotland: A. 
 D. 1703-1704. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT (English). See 
 Enql.\nd: a. D. 1701. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT (Irish). See 
 Ireland: A. D. 1660-1665. 
 
ACT RESCISSORY. 
 
 ADULLAM1TE8. 
 
 ACT RESCISSORY. See Scotlajjd; A. 
 I). ifl«n-l«00. 
 
 ACTIUM : B. C. 4^4.— Naval Battle of the 
 Greeks.— A defeat inllictcd upon the Corinthians 
 by the C'orcyriuns, in the contest over Epidaninus 
 wliich was the prelude to the Peloponnesian 
 War.— E. Curtius, Hint, of O recce, bk. 4, ch. 1. 
 
 B. C. 31.— The Victory of Octavius. See 
 Homk: H. C. 31. 
 
 ACTS OF SUPREMACY. See Sui-re- 
 MACY, Acts of; and England: A. D. 1527- 
 1534 ; and 1559. 
 
 ACTS OF UNIFORMITY. See England: 
 A. U. 1559 and 1003-1065. 
 
 ACULCO, Battle of (1810). See Mexico: 
 A. 1). 1810-1810. 
 
 ACZ, Battle of (1849), See Austria, A. D. 
 1848-1849. 
 
 ADALOALDUS, King of the] Lombards, 
 A. D. 616-620. 
 
 ADAMS, John, in the American Revolu- 
 tion. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1774 
 CMay— June); 1774 (September); 1775 (May- 
 August); 1776 (January— June), 1776 (July). 
 .... In diplomatic service. See United States 
 ofAm. : A. D. 1783{.VriiiL); 1792 (September— 
 November) Presidential election and ad- 
 ministration. See United States op Am., 
 A. D. 1790-1801. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy. — Negotiation of the 
 Treaty of Ghent. See United States of Am., 
 A. D. 1814 (December). ,. .Presidential elec- 
 tion and administration. Sec United States 
 OF Am., a. D. 1824-1829. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, in and after the American 
 Revolution. See United States of A.m. : 
 A.D. 1772-1773; 1774 (September) ; 1775 (May); 
 1787-1780. 
 
 ADDA, Battle of the (A. D. 490). See 
 Rome: A. D. 488-526. 
 
 AD DECIMUS, Battle of (A. D. 533). See 
 Vandals: A. D. 533-534. 
 
 ADEL. — ADALING. — ATHEL. — "The 
 homestead of the original settler, his house, 
 farm-buildings and enclosure, ' the toft and croft, ' 
 with the share of arable and appurtenant common 
 rights, bore among the northern nations [early 
 Teutonic] the name of Odal, or Edhel ; the primi- 
 tive mother village was an Athclby, or Athel- 
 ham; the owner was an Athelbonde: the same 
 word Add or Athcl signified also nobility of 
 descent, and an Adaling was a nobleman. Prim- 
 itive nobility and primitive landownership thus 
 bore the same name. " — W. Stubbs, Comt. Uist. of 
 Eng., ch. 3, sect. 24. — See, also, Alod, and 
 Ethel. 
 
 ADELAIDE, The founding and naming of. 
 See Australia: A. D. 1800-1840. 
 
 ADELANTADOS.— ADELANTAMIEN- 
 TOS. — " Adeluntumientos was an early term 
 for gubernatorial districts [in Spanish Amer- 
 ica, the governors bearing the title of Adelanta- 
 dosl, generally of undefined limits, to be ex- 
 tended by further conquests." — II. II. Bancroft, 
 IIi.it. of the Pacific States, v. (.V&rtVo, v. 3), 
 ;;. 520. 
 
 ADEODATUS II., Pope, A. D. 672-670. 
 
 ADIABENE. — A name which came to bo ap- 
 plied anciently to the tract of country east of the 
 middle Tigris, embracing what was originally 
 the proper territory of Assyria, together with 
 Arbelitis. Under the Parthian monarchy it 
 formed a tributary kingdom, much disputed 
 
 between Parthia and Armenia. It was seized 
 several times by the Romans, but never perma- 
 nently held. — O. Ituwlinson, tlixth Oreat Oriental 
 Monarchy, p. 140. 
 
 ADIRONDACKS, The. See American 
 AuoRKiiNES: Adirondackb. 
 
 AOIS, Battle of (B. C. 256). See Pumio 
 War, The First. 
 
 ADITES, The.— "The Cushites, the first In- 
 habitants of Arabia, uro known in the national 
 traditions by the name of Adites, from their 
 progenitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of 
 Ham." — F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient Hist., 
 bk. 7, ch. 3. — See Arabia: The ancient suc- 
 cession and fusion of races. 
 
 ADJUTAT0R« See England: A. D. 1647 
 (April — August). 
 
 ADLIYAH, The. See Islam. 
 
 ADOLPH (of Nassau), King of Germany, 
 A. D. 1291-1298. 
 
 ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, King of 
 Sweden, A. D. 1751-1771. 
 
 ADOPTIONISM. — A doctrine, condemned 
 as heretical in the eighth century, which taught 
 that "Christ, as to his human nature, was not 
 truly the Son of God, but only His son by adop- 
 tion. " The dogma is also known as the Felician 
 heresy, from a Spanish bishop, Felix, who was 
 prominent among its supporters. Charlemagne 
 took active measures to suppress the heresy. — J. I. 
 Mombert, Uist. of Charles the Oreat, bk. 2, eh. 18. 
 
 ADRIA, Proposed Kingdom of. See Italy: 
 A. D. 1343-1389, 
 
 ADRIAN VI., Pope, A. D. 1622-1528. 
 
 ADRI ANOPLE. — HADRIANOPLE. —A 
 city in Thrace founded by the Emperor Hadrian 
 and designated by his name. It was the scene 
 of Constantine's victory over Licinius in A. D. 
 323 (se%RoME: A. D. 805-323), and of the de- 
 feat and death of Valens in battle with the 
 Goths (see Goths (Visigoths) ; A. D. 878). In 
 1361 it became for some years the capital of the 
 Turks in Europe (see Turks: A. D. 1360-1389). 
 It was occupied by the Russians in 1829, and 
 again in 1878 (sec Turks: A. D. 1826-1820, and 
 A. D. 1877-1878), and gave its name to the 
 Treaty negotiated in 1829 between Russia and 
 the Porte (see Greece: A. D. 1821-1829). 
 
 ADRIATIC, The Wedding of the. See 
 Venice: A. D. 1177, and 14th Century. 
 
 ADRUMETUM. See Carthage, The Do- 
 minion OF. 
 
 ADUATUCI, The. See Belq^. 
 
 ADULLAM, Cave of.— When David had 
 been cast out by the Philistines, among whom he 
 sought refuge from the enmity of Saul, "his 
 first retreat was the Cave of AduUam, probably 
 the large cavern not far from Be'.hlehem, now 
 called Khureitun. From its vicinity to Bethle- 
 hem, he was joined there by his whole family, 
 now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's 
 fury. . . . Besides these were outlaws from 
 every part, including doubtless some of the 
 original Canaanites — of whom the name of one 
 at least has been preserved, Ahimclech the 
 Hittite. In the vast columnar halls and arched 
 chambers of this subterranean palace, all who 
 had any grudge against the existing system 
 gathered round the hero of the coming age." — 
 Dean Stanley, Lect's on the Hist, of the Jemtih 
 Church, lect. 23. 
 
 ADULLAMITES, The. Sec Enol.and: A. 
 D. 1865-1868. ,. - ^. . . 
 
AD WALTON MOOI{. 
 
 ^OLIANS. 
 
 ADWALTON MOOR, Battle of (A. D. 
 
 1643).— This was a battle fought near Bradforrl, 
 June 29, 1643, in the great English Civil War. 
 The Parliamentary forces, under Lord Fairfax, 
 were routed by the Koyalists, under Newcastle. 
 — C. R. Markhara, Life of the Oreat Lord Fair- 
 fix, eh. 11. 
 
 .£AKIDS (^adds).— The supposed de- 
 scendants of the demi-god ^akus, whose grand- 
 son was Achilles. (See Myumidons.) Miltiades, 
 the hero of Marathon, and Pyrrhus, the warrior 
 King of Epirus, were among those claiming to 
 belong to the royal race of ^akids. 
 
 iEDHILIWG. See Ethel. 
 
 >EDILES, Roman. See Rome: B. C. 49-1-493. 
 
 iEDUI.-ARVERNI.— ALLOBROGES.— 
 "The two most powerful nations in Gallia were 
 the ^dui [or Hsedui] and the Arverni. The .^dui 
 occupied that part which lies between the upper 
 valley of the Loire and the Saone, which river was 
 part of the boundary between them and the 
 Scquani. The Loire separated the iEdui from 
 the Bituriges, whose chief town was Avaricum 
 on the site of Bourges. At this time [B. C. 121] 
 the Arverni, tlie rivals of the .^dui, were seek- 
 ing the supremacy in Gallia. The Arverni occu- 
 pied the mountamous country of Auvergne in 
 the centre of France and the fertile valley of the 
 Elavor (Allier) nearly as far as the junction of the 
 Allier and the Loire. . . . They were on friendly 
 terms with the Allobroge::, a powerful nation east 
 of the Rhone, who occupied the country between 
 the Rhone and the Isara (Isfire). ... In order to 
 break the rorr.iidable combination of the Arverni 
 and the Allobroges, the Romans made use of the 
 ^dui, who were the enemies both of the Allo- 
 broges and the Arverni. ... A treaty was made 
 either at this time or somewhat earlier between 
 the .^dui and the Roman senate, who conferred 
 on their new Gallic friends the honourable ti*le of 
 brothers and kinsmen. This fraternizing was a 
 piece of political cant which the Romans prac- 
 ticed when it was useful." — G. Long, Decline of 
 the Roman liepublic, v. 1, eh. 21. — See, also, 
 Gaiii.8. 
 
 .£G.£. See Edessa (Macedonia). 
 
 yEGATIAN ISLES, Naval Battle of the 
 (B. C. 241). See Punic Wau, The Fiust. 
 
 iEGEAN, The.— "The iEgean, or White 
 Seo, ... as distinguished from the Euxinc." 
 — E. a. Freeman, Ilistorical Oeog. of Europe, p. 
 413, and foot-note. 
 
 iEGIALEA. — iEGIALEANS.— The orig- 
 inal name of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, 
 and its Inhabitants. See Greece : The Mioua- 
 Ti:.»is. 
 
 «GIKOREIS. SeePiiTL/E. 
 
 .^GINA.— A small rocky island in the Sar- 
 onic gulf, between Attica and Argolis. First 
 colonized by Achaans it was afterwards occu- 
 pied by Dorians (seo Greece: The Migrations) 
 and was unfriendly to Athens. During the 
 sixth century B. C. it rose to great power and 
 commercial importance, and became for it time 
 the most brilliant center of Greek art. At the 
 period of the Persian war, ^gina was " tlie 
 first maritime power in Greece." But the 
 -lEginetans were at that time engaged in war 
 with Athens, as the allies of Thebes, and rather 
 than forego tlielr enmity, they offered submission 
 to the Persian king. The Athenians thereupon 
 appealed to Sparta, as the liead of Greece, to 
 Interfere, and the ^ginetans were compelled to 
 
 8 
 
 five hostages to Athens for their fidelity to the 
 lellenie cause. (See Guekce: B. C. 493-491.) 
 They purged themselves to a great extent of 
 their intended treason by the extraordinaiy valor 
 with which they fought at Saloniis. But the 
 sudden pre-eminence to wliich Athens rose cast 
 a bligliting shadow upon ^Igina, and in 429 B. C. 
 it lost its independence, the Athenians taking 
 possession of tlicir discomfited rival. — C. Thirl- 
 wall, Hist, of Greece, r. 1, ch. 14. 
 
 Also in G. Orotc, lliat. of Greece, pt. 2, r. 4, 
 ch. 38.— See, also, Athens: B. C. 489-480. 
 
 B. C. 458-456.— Alliance with Corinth in 
 war with Athens and Megara. — Defeat and 
 subjugation. See Gukece: B. (!. 4.')H-156. 
 
 B. C. 431.— Expulsion of the lEginetans 
 from their island by the Athenians. — Their 
 settlement at Thyrea. See Greece: B. C. 
 431-429. 
 
 B. C. 210.— Desolation by the Romans. — 
 The first appearance of the Uonians in Greece, 
 when they entered the country as the ollies of 
 the .iEtolians, was signalized by the barbarous 
 destruction of .(Egina. The city having been 
 taken, B. C. 210, its entire population was reduced 
 to slavery by the Romans and the lund and 
 buildings of the city were sold to Attains, king 
 of Pergamus.— E. A. Freeman, Hist, of FederM 
 Govt., ch. 8, sect. 2. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 iEGINETAN TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 iEGITIUM, Battle of (B. C. 436).— A re- 
 verse experienced by tlie Athenian General, 
 Demosthenes, in his invasion of .^tolia, during 
 the Peloponnesian War. — Thucydides, Historff, 
 bk. 3, sect. 97. 
 
 .£GOSPOTAMI (Aigospotamoi), Battle of. 
 See Greece: B. C. 405. 
 
 yGLFRED. See Alfred. 
 
 .£LIA CAPITOLINA.— The new name 
 
 fiven to Jerusalem by Hadrian. See Jews: 
 .. D. 130-134. 
 
 .fiLIAN AND FUFIAN LAWS, The.— 
 " The yElian and Fuflan laws (leges yElia and 
 Fufla) the age of which unfortunately we can- 
 not accurately determine . . . enacted that a 
 popular assembly [at Rome] might bo dissolved, 
 or, in other words, the acceptance of any pro- 
 posed law prevented, if a magistrate announced 
 to the president of tlie assembly that it was his 
 intention to choose the same time for watching 
 the heavens. Such an announcement (obnunti- 
 atio) was held to bo a sufllcient cause for inter- 
 rupting an assembly." — AV. Ihne, Ilist. of Rome, 
 bk. 6, ch. 10. 
 
 .(EMILIAN WAY, The.— "M. .Emilius 
 licpidus, Consul for the year 180 B. C. . . . con- 
 ! i-ucted the great road which bore his name, 
 t he ^milian Way led from Ariminum through 
 the new colony of Bononia to Placentia, being a 
 continuation of the Flaminian Way, or great 
 north road, made by C. Flaminius in 220 B, C. 
 from Rome to Ariminum. At the same epoch, 
 Flaminius the son, being the colleague of Lepi- 
 dus, made a branch road from Bononia across 
 the Appcnines to Arrctium." — IL G. Liddell, 
 Hist, of Home, bk. 5, cti. 41. 
 
 iEMILIANUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 253. 
 
 iEOLIANS, The.— "The collective stock of 
 Greek nationalities falls, according to the view of 
 those ancient writers who laboured most to 
 obtain an exact knowledge of ethnographic 
 relationships, into three main divisions, ^olians. 
 
^OLIANS. 
 
 iETOLIAN LEAGUE. 
 
 Dorians and Inniuns. . . . All thcotlier inliabit- 
 iintrt of Greece (not Dorians unii lonians] and of 
 till! iHluuds included in it, are comprised under 
 thecommon niunc of /Kolians — a name unknown 
 as yet to Houier, und wliich was iicontestnbly 
 applied to u t^rvai diversity of peoples, amon); 
 which it is certain that no such homogeneity of 
 race is to be assumed as existed among the loni- 
 ans and Dorians. Among the two former races, 
 though even these were scarcely in any quarter 
 completely unmixed, there was incontestably 
 to be found a single original stock, to which 
 others had merely been attached, and as it were 
 engrafted, whereas, among the i)eoples assigned 
 to the .Eolians, no such original stock is recog- 
 nizable, but on the contrary, as great a diiTer- 
 cuce is found between the several members 
 of this race as bctw en Dorians and lonians, 
 and of tlie so-called .Eolians, some stood nearer 
 to the former, others to the latter. ... A 
 thorough and careful investigation might well 
 lead to the conclusion that the Greek people 
 was divided not into three, Ijut into two main 
 races, one of which wo may call Ionian, theotlier 
 Dorian, while of the so-called vEolians some, 
 and probably the greater number, belonged to 
 *ie former, the rest to the latter."— G. F. SchO- 
 man, Antii]. of Orcece : The State, pt. 1, eh. 2. — 
 In Greek myth., .lEolus, the fancied progenitor 
 of the yEolians, apijcrs as one of the three sons 
 of Ilellen. "vEolus is represented as having 
 reigned in Thessaly: liis seven sons were Kre- 
 theus, Sisyphus, Atham&s, Salmoueus, Dcion, 
 Magnes and Perieres : his live daughters, Canace, 
 Alcyone, Peisidike, C'alyce and Perniede. The 
 fables of this race seem to be distii'guisbed by a 
 constant introduction of the God Poseidon, as 
 well as by an unusual prevalence of liaughty and 
 
 Ercsumptuous attributes tmong the Jiolid 
 croes, leading them to affront the gods by pre- 
 tences of equality, and sometimes even by defi- 
 ance." — G. Grote, Hist, of Grace, pt. 1, ch. 6. 
 — See, also, Tiie8s.\lv, Dorians and Ignians, 
 and Asia JIinou: The Greek Colonies. 
 
 .^QUIANS, The. ScoOscans; alsoLAi'iCM; 
 and KcME ; B. C. 45b. 
 
 iERARIANS. — Romu.n citiixns who had no 
 political rights. Sec Cf.S8o:i8, Roman. 
 
 iERARIUM, The. See 1<. -sous. 
 
 iESOPUS INDIANS. See Amebic.vn Abo- 
 BiQiNEs: Ai.(»)nqi;ian Family. 
 
 .ffiSTII, or iESTYI, The.— " At tiiis point 
 [beyond the SuionesJ the Suevlc Sea [the Baltic], 
 on its eastern shore, washes the tribes of the 
 .^stii, whose rites and fashions and styles of 
 dress are tUose of the Suevi, while their language 
 is more Ike the British. They worship the 
 mother of the gods and wear as a religious sym- 
 bol the de\ >ce of a wild boar. . . . They often 
 use clubs, iron weapons but seldom. They are 
 more patient in cultivating corn and other pro- 
 duce than might be expected from the general 
 indolence of the Germans. But they also search 
 the deep and aro the only people who gather 
 amber, which they call glcsura." — "The ^Estii 
 occupied that part of Prussia which is to the 
 north-east of the Vistula. . . . The name still 
 survives in the form Estonia." — Tacitus, Ger- 
 many, trans, by Church and Brodribb, with 
 note. — See, also, Prussian Language, The 
 
 OLD. 
 
 .^SYMNETjE, An.— Among the Greeks, 
 an expedient "which seems to have been tried 
 
 not unfrcquently in early times, for preserving 
 or restoring tranquility, was to invest an indi- 
 vidual witli absolute jjower, imder a peculiar 
 title, which soon became obsolete: that of 
 a's^mneta;. At Cunia, indeed, and in other cities, | 
 this was the title of an ordinary magistracy, prob- 
 ably of that whicli succeeded the hereditary mon- 
 archy; but when applied to an extraordinary 
 odlce, it was equivalent to the title of jjrotector 
 or dictator." — C. Thirlwall, Hut. of Greece, ch. 
 10. 
 
 iETHEL.— iETHELIKG. 8co Rtuel, and 
 Adel. 
 
 iETHELBERT, iETHEi-^RITH, ETC. 
 See Etiiki.iiekt, etc. 
 
 iETOLIA.— iETOLIANS. — ".i:tolia, the 
 country of Diomed, though famous in the early 
 times, fell back during the migratory period 
 almost into a savage condition, probably through 
 the influx into it of an Illyrian population which 
 became only partially Hellenizecl. The nation 
 was divided into numerous tribes, among which 
 the most iinportant were the Apodoti, the Ophi- 
 oneis, the Eurytanes and the Agrirans. There 
 were scarcely any cities, village life being pre- 
 ferred universally. ... It waS not till the wars 
 which arose among Alexander's successors that 
 the ./Etolians formed a real political union, and 
 became an important power in Greece." — Q. 
 Rawlinson, Manual of Ancient Jlist., bk. 8. — See 
 also, Akarnanians, and Greece: Tiik Miora- v 
 
 TIONB. 
 
 iETOLIAN LEAGUE, The.— "The Acha- 
 
 ian and the iEtolian Leagues, had their constitu- 
 tions been written down in the sluqie of a formal 
 document, would have presented but few vori- 
 cties of importance. The same general fonn of 
 government prevailed in both ; each was federal, 
 each was democratic; each had its popular as- 
 sembly, its smaller Senate, its general with large 
 powers at the head of all. The differences be- 
 tween the two are merely those differences of 
 detail which will always arise between any two 
 political systems of which neither is slavishly 
 copied from the other. ... If therefore federal 
 states or democratic states, or aristocratic states, 
 were nccessarilj' weak or strong, peaceful or 
 aggressive, honest or dishonest, we shculd see 
 Achaia and .lEtolia both exhibiting the same 
 moral characteristics. But history tells another ' 
 tale. The political conduct of the Achaian 
 League, with some mistakes and some faults, is, j 
 on the whole, highly Iionourable. The political ' 
 conduct of the .lEtolian League is, throughout ^ 
 the century in which we know it best [last half 
 of third and first half of second century B. C.] 
 almost ahyays simply infamous. . . . The coun- ',, 
 scls of the .iEtolian League were throughout di- -■'. 
 rccted to mere plunder, or, at most, to selfish 
 political aggrandisement. " — E. A. Freeman, Jliat. 
 of Federal Govt., ch. 0. — The plundering aggres- t 
 liious of the iEtolians involved them in continual I 
 '.var with their Greek kindred and neighbours, "^ 
 and they did not scruple to seek foreign aid. It ; 
 ^vas through their agcncj' that the Romans were ;' 
 first brought into Greece, and it was by their -r 
 instrumentality that Antiochus fought his battle >■ 
 vi'ith Korae on the sacrcdest of all Hellenic soil. 
 In the end, B. C. 189, the League was stripped 
 I'y the Romans of even its nominal independence 
 and sank into a contemptible servitude. — E. A. 
 Freeman, The name, ch. 7-9. 
 Also in C. Thirlwall. Hist, of Greece, ch. 63-66. 
 
 10 
 
AFGHANISTAN, J. C. 880. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 1803-1888. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN: B. C. 330.— Conauest 
 by Alexander the Great.— Founding of Herat 
 and Candahar. Sec Mackdonta, J;c. : U. ('. 
 830-»2a; niid India: B. C. 827-312. 
 
 B. C. 301-346.— In the Syrin Empire. Sec 
 Sbleucid^-; nnd Mackdonia, Ac . 810-301 nml 
 after. 
 
 A. D. 990-1183.— The Ghaznevide Empire. 
 Sco Turks: A. D. 000-1183; niul India: A. D. 
 077-1200. 
 
 A. D. 13th Century.— Conquests of j n, .iS- 
 Khan. Sec M(.soolh: A. I). lir)3-12-,'V ; nml 
 India: A. D. 077-1200. 
 
 A. D. 1380-1386.— Conquest by Timour. 
 See Ti.MOUU. 
 
 A. D. 1504.— Conquest by Babar. See In- 
 dia: A. I). 1309-1005. 
 
 A. D. 1723. — Mahmoud's conquest of Persia. 
 ScoPkhsia: A. I>. 1409-1887. 
 
 A. D. 1737-1738.— Conquest by Nadir Shah. 
 See India: A. I). 1002-1748. 
 
 A. D. 1747-1761.— The Empire of the Door- 
 anie, Ahmed Abdallee. — His Conquests in 
 India. Sec India. A. D. 1717-1701. 
 
 A. D. 1803-1838.— Shah Soojah and Dost 
 Mahomed.— English interference.-" Sliiih Soo- 
 jiih-ool 3Ioolk, u grandson of the illustrious 
 Ahmed Shuh, reigned in Afglmuistnn from 1803 
 till 1800. His youth had been full of trouble 
 nnd vicissitude. He hud been a wnnderer, on 
 the verge of starvation, a pedlar, nnd a bun- 
 dit, who raised money by plundering caravans. 
 His courage wns lightly reputed, nnd it was 
 ns a mere creature of circumstance that lie 
 reached the throne. His reign was perturbed, 
 and in 1809 he was a fugitive and nn e.xile. 
 Uunject Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjaub, 
 defrauded liim of tlie famous Koli-i-noor, which 
 is now tlie most precious of the crown jewels of 
 England, and plundered and impri.soned the 
 fallen man. Shall Sooiali at length escaped 
 from Lahore. After further misfortunes he 
 at length reached tlie British frontier station of 
 Loodinnah, and in 1816 became a pensioner of 
 the Ea.st India Company. After the downfall of 
 Siiah Soojah, Afghanistan fnr many years wns a 
 prey "to anarchv. At Icngtli in 1820, Dost Ma- 
 iionied succeeded in making himself supreme at 
 Cabul, nnd this mnsterful man thenceforward 
 held swuy \intil his death in 1803, uninterrupt- 
 edly save during the three years of the British 
 occupation. Dost jVIahonied wns neither kith nor 
 kin to the legitimate dynasty which he displaced. 
 Ilis father Poyudnh Khun was an able statesman 
 and gallant soldier. He left twenty-one sons, of 
 whom Futteh Klian was the eldest, and Dost 
 Mahomed one of the youngest. . . . Throughout 
 his long reign Dost JIahomed was a strong and 
 wise rider. His youth had been neglected and 
 dissolute. His education was defective, and he 
 had been addicted to wine. Once seated on the 
 throne, the reformation of our Henry V. was not 
 more thorough than was that of Dost Mahomed. 
 He taught himself to read and write, studied the 
 Koran, became scrupulously abstemious, assidu- 
 ousin ■(fairs, no longer truculent, but courteous. 
 . . . ThcTs was a tine rugged honesty in his 
 nature, and a streak of genuine chivalry; not- 
 withstanding the despite lie suffered at our 
 liands, he had a real regard for the English, 
 and his loyalty to us was broken only by his 
 armed support of the Siklis in the second 
 Punjaub war. The fallen Shah Soojah, from 
 
 hisa.sylum in Loo<linnnli, wascontiniin'Iy intrigu- 
 ing for his restoration. His schemes were long 
 inoperative, and it was not until 1H32 that cer- 
 tain arrangements w«'re entered into between 
 him and the JMahuraja Uunject Singh. To nn 
 application on Shuh Soojnh's part for counte- 
 nance and pecuniary aid, the Anglo-Indian Oov- 
 ernmcnt replied that to afford liim assistance 
 would be Inconsistent with the policy of neutral- 
 ity which the Government hiid imposed onilself; 
 l)ut it unwisely contributed linancially toward 
 his undertaking by granting him four months' 
 pension in ailvance. Si.xtcen thousand rupees 
 formed a scant war fund willi which to attempt 
 the recovery of a Ihnme, but the Khali started on 
 his errand in Fel)riiary, 1833. After a success- 
 ful contest with the Aineersof Scinde, he mnrched 
 on Candahar, and besieged that fortress. Cauda- 
 liar was in e.vtremity when Dost >Iahomed, 
 hurrying from Cabul, relieved it, nnd joining 
 forces with its defenders, he defeated and routed 
 Shah Soojnh, who lied precipitately, leaving be- 
 hind him his artillery and camp equipage. Dur- 
 ing the Dost's absence in tlie south, Runjeet 
 Singh's troops crossed the Attock, occupied the 
 Afghan province of Peshawui", and drove the 
 Afghans into the Kiiyber Pass. No subsequent 
 efforts on Dosi, Mahomed's jiart availed to expel 
 the Sikhs from Peshawur, and suspicious of 
 British connivance with Runjeet Singh's success- 
 ful aggression, he took into consideration the 
 policy of fortifying himself by a counter alliance 
 with Persia. As for Shah Soojah, he had crept 
 back to his refuge ntLoodianah. Lord Auckland 
 succeeded Lord William Bentinck as Qovcriior- 
 Genera' of India in March, 1830. In reply to 
 Dost Jlaliomed's letter of congratulation, his 
 lordship wrote: 'You are aware that it is not 
 the practice of tlie Briti.sh Government to inter- 
 fere with the affairs of other independent States;' 
 nn abstention whicli Lord Auckland was soon to 
 violate. He had brought from England the feel- 
 ing of disquietude in regard to the designs of 
 Persia and Russia which tlio communications of 
 our envoy in Persia had fostered in the Home 
 Government, but it would appear that he was 
 wholly undecided what lino of action to pursue. 
 'Swayed,' says Duraiid, 'by tlie vague appre- 
 hensions of a remote danger entertained by 
 others ratlier than him.self,* he despatched to 
 Afghanistan Ca])tain Burnes on a nominally 
 commercial mission, wliicli, in fact, was one of 
 political discovery, but without definite instruc- 
 tions. Burnes, an able but rasli nnd ambitious 
 man, reached Cabul in September, 1837; two 
 months before th Persian army began tlie siege 
 of Herat. . . . The Dost m.ide no concealment 
 to Burnes of liis approaches to Persia and Rus- 
 sia, in despair of British good olllccs, and being 
 hungry for assistance from any source to meet 
 tlie encroachments of the Siklip, ho professed 
 himself ready to abandon his negotiations with 
 tlie vestern powers if he were given reason to 
 expect countenance and assistance at tlie hands 
 of the Anglo-Indian Government. . . . Tlie situ- 
 ation of Burm^s in relation to the Dost was pres- 
 ently complicated by the arrival at Cabul of a 
 Russian officer claiming to be nn envoy from the 
 Czar, whose credentials, however, were regarded 
 as dubious, and who, if tliat circumstance has 
 tlie least weight, wns on his return to Russia ut- 
 terly repudiated by Count Ncsselrode. The 
 Dost took small account of this emissary, con- 
 
 n 
 
AFOIIANIHTAN, 1808-1888. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 18!W-1842. 
 
 tinning to niutiin^ HiirncH Hint lie cared for no 
 connection except nitli tlie Knjtllsli, and Hunics 
 profeHHcd to liis (i.)vernnient his fullest con- 
 lldence in tlie Hlncerily of tliow- declarations. 
 Hill tlie tone of Lord A\ickliinds reply, ad<lreg8ed 
 to the Dost, was so dletatoriul und supercilious 
 us to indicate the writer's intention that it should 
 give olTence. It had that efTect, and Humes' 
 nii.sslon at once hecanie hopeless. . . . The Uus- 
 sian envoy, who was profuse in his promises of 
 everylhlni; whi<li the Dost was most anxious to 
 obtain, was received into favour and treated with 
 distiiicliou, and on his return journey he efTectcd 
 a treaty with the Candahar chiefs which was 
 presently ratified by the Hus.sian minister at the 
 Persian "t'ourt. Ihirncs, fallen Into discredit at 
 C;at>ul, (pntted that place in August 1838. He 
 had not been discreet, Init it was not his indis- 
 <'rction that l)rouKht about the failure of his 
 mission. A nefarious transactimi, which Kayu 
 denounces witli the passion of a just indignation, 
 connects itself with Humes' negotiations with 
 the Dost ; his oflleial correspondence was imscru- 
 puloiisly mutilated and garbled in the published 
 lllue Hook witii delil)erate purpose to deceive 
 the British inibllc. Humes had failed beciuse, 
 since he bad (juitted India for Cabul, Lord 
 Auckland's jjolicy had gradually altered. Lord 
 Auckland bad landed in India in tlic character 
 of a man of jicace. Tlnit, so late aa .'ipril 1837, 
 lie had no design of obstructing tlie existing 
 situation in Afgliani.staii is proved by his writ- 
 ten statement of that date, thai ' the liritish 
 (lovernment had resolved decidedly to discourage 
 the proseiMition by the ex-king iSliah Soojah-ool- 
 Moolk, so long as he may renvdn under our pro- 
 tection, of further schemes of liostility against 
 the chiefs now in power in Cabul and Candahar.' 
 Yet, in the following June, he concluded a treaty 
 which sent Shah Soojah to Cabul, escorted liy 
 Hritisli baj-onets. Of this inconsistency no ex- 
 planation presents itself. It was a far cry from 
 our frontier on the '.iutlcj to Herat in the con- 
 fines of Central Asl't — a distance of more tlian 
 1,200 miles, over some of the most arduous 
 marching ground in the known world. . . . 
 Lord William B'.'iitinck, Lord Auckland's prede- 
 cessor, denounjcd the project as an act of in- 
 credible folly. Slaniuis Wellesley regarded 
 ' this wild expedition into a distant region of 
 rocks and dcerts, of sands and ice and snow,' as 
 an act of inf itualiou. Tlie Duke of Wellington 
 pronounced with prophetic sagacity, tliat the 
 consequence of once crossing the Indus to settle 
 a govenrment in Afghanistan would be a peren- 
 niui march into tliat country."— A. Forbes, The 
 Afghan Wars, ch. 1. 
 
 Also in: J. P. Ferricr, Hut. of the Afghans, 
 eh. 10-20.— Jlohan Lai, Life of Amir Dost Mo- 
 hammed Khan, v. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1838-1842. — English invasion, and 
 restoration of Soojah Dowlah.— The revolt at 
 Cabul. — Horrors of the British retreat.— 
 Destruction of the entire army, save one man, 
 only.— Sale's defence of Jellalabad.— "To ap- 
 proach Afghanistan it was necessary to secure 
 the friondshii) of the Sikhs, who were, indeed, 
 ready enough to join against their old enemies; 
 and a threefold treaty was contracted between 
 Runiect Singh, the Lnglish, and Shah Soojah 
 for the restoration of tlie banished house. 'The 
 expedition — which according to tlie original 
 intention was to have been carried out chiefly 
 
 by means of troops in the pay r>f Slioh 
 Soojali and tlie Hikhs — rapidly grew into 
 an Knglish invasion of .Vfgnanist in. A 
 considrralile force was gathered on the Sikh 
 frontier from Bengal ; a second army, under 
 OeniTal Keane, was to come up from Ivurrachee 
 through HiiKili. Both of these armies, and the 
 triHips of Shah Soojah, were to enter the high- 
 lands of Afglianist:in by the liolan Pass. As 
 the Sikhs would not willingly allow the free 
 passage of our troops throiigli their country, an 
 additional burden was laid upon the armies, — 
 the independent Ameers of Sindh had to bo 
 coerced. At lengtli, with much trouble from 
 the diftlcuities of the country and the loss of the 
 commissariat animals, the forces were all col- 
 lected under the command of Kcane beyond the 
 passes. The want of food permitted of no delay ; 
 the army pushed on to C'andahar. Shah Hoojali 
 was declared Monarch of the southern Princi- 
 pality. Thence the troops moved rapidly on- 
 wanls towards the more iniiKirtant and ditlicult 
 conquest of Cabul. Ghuznee, a fortress of 
 great strength, lay in the way. In their hasty 
 movements the Knglish had left their battering 
 train behind, but the gates of the fortress were 
 blown in with gunpowder, and by a brilliant 
 feat of arms the fortress was stomied. Nor did 
 the English army encounter any important 
 resistance subsc()uently. Dost Moliamcd found 
 his followers deserting him, and withdrew north- 
 wards into the mountains of the Hindoo Koosh. 
 With all the splendour that could be collected. 
 Shah Soojah was brought back to his throne in 
 the Bala Hissar, the fortress Palace of Cabul. 
 . . . For the moment the policy seemed thor- 
 oughly successful. The English Ministry could 
 feel that a fresh check had been placed upon its 
 Hussian rival, and no one dreamt of tlic terrible 
 retribution that was in store for the unjust vio- 
 lence done to the feelings of a people. . . . 
 Dost Moliamcd thought it prudent to surrender 
 himself to the English envoy, Sir William Mac- 
 naghten, and to withdraw with his family to the 
 English provinces of Iliudostan [November, 
 1840]. He was tliere well received and treutJid 
 with liberality; for, as both the Governor- 
 General and his chief adviser Macnaghten felt, he 
 had not in fact in any way ollended us, but had 
 fallen a victim to our policy. It was in the full 
 belief that their policy in India hod been crowned 
 witii pemianent success that the Whig Ministers 
 withdrew from oftice, leaving their successors 
 to encounter tlic terrible results to wliicli it led. 
 For while the Englisli offlcials were blindly con- 
 gratulating themselves upon the happy comple- 
 tion of their enterprise, to an observant eve 
 signs of approaching difflculty were on all sicfes 
 visible. . . . The removal of the 'itrong rule of 
 the Barrukzyes opened a door for undeflaed 
 hopes to many of the other families and tribes. 
 The whole country was full of intrigues and of 
 diplomatic bargaining, carried on by the Eng- 
 lish political agents with the various chiefs 
 and leaders. But they soon found that the 
 hopes excited by these negotiations were illu- 
 sory. The allowances for which they had bar- 
 gained were reduced, for the English envoy 
 began to be disquieted at the vast expenses of 
 the Government. They did not find that they 
 derived any advantages from the establishment 
 of the new puppet King, Soojah Dowlah; and 
 every Mahomedan, even the very king himself. 
 
 12 
 
AFUIIAN18TAK, 1838-1842. 
 
 AFOnANISTiV>, 1838-1843. 
 
 felt (Usprnccd at the predominance of the Eng- 
 lUli Inlhlils. Hut as no actual Insurrection 
 brolti! out, Macnaglitcn, a niun ot sanguino 
 temperament and anxious to ImjIIcvo wliat ho 
 wislied, in spite of unini8tal<al)Ie warnings as to 
 the real feeling of tlio people, clung witli 
 almost angry veliemence to the persuasion that all 
 was going well, and tliat the new King had a real 
 hold upon the people's affection. So completely 
 had he deceived hims<;lf on this point, tliat ho 
 had decided to send back a portion of the Kng- 
 llsh army, under General Sale, into Ilindostan. 
 He even intended to accompany it himself to 
 enjoy the peaceful post of Governor of Bombay, 
 with whicli his successful policy had been 
 rewarded, llis place was to bo taken by Sir 
 Alexander Humes, whose view of the t -^ubled 
 condition of tlic country underlying the com- 
 parative calm of the surface was much truer 
 than that of Macnaghten, but who, perhaps 
 from that very fact, was far less popular among 
 the ciiiefs. The army whicli was to remain at 
 Candahar was under tlie command of General 
 Nott, an oble and decided if somewhat irascible 
 man. But General Elphinstone, tlio commander 
 of the troops at Cabul, was of quite a different 
 stamp. lie was much respected and liked for 
 his honourpblo clmracter and ..jiol qualiticH, 
 but was advanced in years, a confirmed invalid, 
 and wliolly wanting in the vigour and decision 
 which his critical position was likely to require. 
 The fool's paradise with which the English 
 Envoy had surrounded himself was rudely 
 destroyed. He had persuaded himself that the 
 frequently recurring disturbances, and especially 
 the insurrection of the Qhilzyes between Cabul 
 and Jcllfllabad, were mere local outbreaks. But 
 In fact a great conspiracy was on foot in which 
 the chiefs of nearly everv Important tribe in the 
 country were implicated. On the evening of 
 the 1st of November [1841] a meeting of the 
 chiefs was held, and It was decided that an 
 immediate attack should be made on the house 
 of Sir Alexander Burnes. Tlie following morn- 
 ing an angry crowd of assailants stormed the 
 houses of Sir Alexander Humes and Captain 
 Johnson, murdering the inmates, and rifling the 
 treasure-chests belonging to Soojah Dowlali's 
 army. Soon the whole city was in wild insur- 
 rection. The evidence is nearly irresistible that 
 a little deci' ' ^n and rapidity of action on the 
 part of tb" .nil ary would have at once cru.^ lied 
 the outb ' ak. "'ut although the attack on 
 Burn'"' blouse wd • known, no troops were sent 
 to ;: s assistance. Indeed, that unbroken course 
 of folly,and mismanagement which marked the 
 conduct of our military affairs throughout this 
 crisis had already begun. Instead of occupying 
 the fortress of the Bala Hissar, where the army 
 would have been in comparative security, 
 Elphinstone had placed his troops In canton- 
 ments far too extensive to be properly defended, 
 Furrounded by an entrenchment of the most 
 insignificant character, commanded on almost 
 all sides by higher ground. To complete the 
 unfitness of the position, the commissariat 
 supplies were not stored within the canton- 
 ments, but were placed in an isolated fort at 
 some little distance. An ill-sustained and futile 
 assault was made upon the town on the 3d of 
 Kovember, but from that time onwards the 
 British troops lay with incomprehensible supine- 
 ness awaiting their fate in their defenceless 
 
 position. Tlio commis-sariat fort soon fell into 
 till) hands of the enemy and rendered their situ- 
 ation still more deplorable. Some flushes of 
 liravery now and tlien lighted up the sombre 
 scene of helpless misfortune, and Berved to show 
 that destruction miglit oven yet have been 
 averted I'v a little firmness. . . . Hut the com- 
 mander had already begun to despair, and before 
 many days had jias.sed he was thinking of mak- 
 ing terms with the en<'my. iMaenughten had no 
 course open to him under such circumstances 
 but to adopt the suggestion of the general, and 
 attempt as well us he could by bribes, cajolery, 
 and intrigue, to divide the ''hiefs and secure a 
 safe retreat for the English. Akbar Khan, tlio 
 son of Dost Jlohamed, though not present at the 
 beginning of the insurrection, had arrived from 
 the northern mountains, an;', at once as.sertcd a 
 predominant influence in the insurgent councils. 
 With him and with the other insurgent cliic.'fs 
 Macnaghten entered into an arrrangement by 
 wliich ho promised to withdraw the English 
 entirely from the country if a safe pas.sago were 
 secured for the army through the passes. . . . 
 While ostensibly treating with the Barrukzyo 
 chiefs, he intrigued on all sides with the rival 
 tribes. His double dealing was taken advantage 
 of by Akbar Khan, ile sent ni'jssengers to Mac- 
 naghten proposing that the English should make 
 a separate treaty with himself and support him 
 with their troops in an as.sault upon some of his 
 rivals. The proposition was a mere trap, and 
 the envoy fell into it. Ordering troops to be 
 got ready, he hurried to a meeting with Akbar 
 to complete the arrangement. There he found 
 hiniself in the presence of the brother and rela- 
 tives of the very men against whom he was 
 plotting, and was seized and murdered by 
 Akbur's own hand [December 23]. Still the 
 General thought of nothing but surrender. The 
 negotiations were entrusted to Major Pottingcr. 
 The terms of the chiefs gradually rose, and at 
 length with much confusion the wretched army 
 marched out of the cantonmenis [January 6, 
 1843], leaving beliind nearly all tho cannon and 
 superfluous military stores. An A'ghan escort 
 to secure the safety of the troops or, ihoir peril- 
 ous journey had been promised, but vhe promise 
 was not kept. The horrors of the retreat form 
 one of the darkest passages in English militarv' 
 history. In bitter cold and snow, which took 
 all life out of the wretched Sepoys, without 
 proper clothing or shelter, and hampered by a 
 disorderly mass of thousands of camp-followers, 
 the army entered the terrible defiles which lie 
 between Cabul and Jellalabad. Whether Akbar 
 Khan could, had he wished it, have restrained 
 his fanatical followers is uncertain. As a fict 
 the retiring crowd — it can scarcely be called an 
 army — was a mere unresisting prey to the 
 assaults of the mountaineers. Constant com- 
 munication was kept up with Akbar; on the 
 third day all the ladies and children with the 
 married men were placed in his hands, and 
 finally even the two generals gave themselves up 
 as hostages, always in the hope that the rem- 
 nant of the army might be allowed to escape. " — 
 J. P. Bright, Hist, of Sngland, v. 4, pp. 01-66.— 
 "Then the march of the army, without a gen- 
 eral, went on agf.in. Soon it became the story 
 of a general without an army ; before very long 
 there was neither general nor army. It is idle to 
 lengthen a tale of mere horrors. The strag- 
 
 18 
 
AFGHANISTAN, 1838-1849. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1842-1869. 
 
 gling rcm.:ant of an army enterfid the Jugdulluk 
 Pass — a dark, steep, narrow, ascending patli 
 between crags. The miserable toilers found 
 that the fanatical, implacable tribes had barri- 
 caded the pass. All was over. The army of 
 Cabul was tinally extinguished In that barri- 
 caded pass. It was a trap; the British were 
 taken in it. A few mere fugitives escaped from 
 the scene of actual slaughter, and were on the 
 rof.d to Jellalabad, where Sale and his little 
 army were holding their own. When they were 
 within sixteen miles of Jellalabad the number 
 was reduced to six. Of these six five were 
 killed by straggling marauders on the way. 
 One man alone reached Jellalabad to tell the 
 tale. Literally one man, Dr. Brydon, came to 
 Jellalabad [Ja"nuary 13] out of a moving host 
 which had numbered in all some 10,000 'when it 
 set out on its march. The curious eye will 
 search through history or fiction in vain for 
 any picture more thrilling with the suggestions 
 of an awful catastrophe than that of this solitary 
 survivor, faint and reeling on his jaded horse, 
 as he appeared under the walls of Jellalabad, to 
 bear the tidings of our Thermopylae of pain and 
 shame. This is the crisis of the story. With 
 this at least the worst of the pain and shamo 
 were destined to end. Dho rest is all, so far 
 as we are concerned, reaction and recovery. 
 Our successes are common enough ; we may tell 
 their tale briefly in this instance. The garrison at 
 Jellalabad had received before Dr. Brydon's ar- 
 rival an intimation that they were to go out and 
 march toward India in accordance with the terms 
 of the treaty extorto'' ^rom Elphinstone at Cabul. 
 They very properly declined to bo bound by a 
 treaty which, as Qeueral Sale rightly conjec- 
 tured, had been 'forced from our envoy and 
 military commander with the knives at their 
 throats. ' General Sale's determination was clefir 
 and simple. ' I propose to hold this place on 
 the part of Government until I receive its order 
 to the contrarir.' This resolve of Sale's Tvas 
 really the turning point of the history. Sale 
 held Jellalabad ; Nolt was ut Candahar. Akbar 
 Khan besieged Jellalabad. Nature seemed to 
 have declared herself emphatically on his side, 
 for a succession of earthquake shocks shattered 
 the walls of the place, and produced more 
 terrible destruction than the most formidable 
 guns of modern warfare could have done. But 
 the garrison held out fearlessly; they restored 
 the parapets, re-established every battery, re- 
 trenched the whole of the gates and built up all 
 the breaches. They resisted everv attempt of 
 Akbar Khan to advance upon their works, and 
 at length, when it became certain that General 
 Pollock was forcing the Khyber Pass to come 
 to their relief, they determined to attack Akbar 
 Khan's army; they issued boldly out of their 
 forts, forced a battle on the Afghan chief, and 
 completely defeat-xl him. Before Pollock, hav- 
 ing gallantly fought his way through the 
 Khyber Pass, had reached Jellalabad [April 16] 
 the beleaguering army had been entirely defeated 
 and t"",persed. . . . Jleanwhile the unfortunate 
 Shah doojah, whom we had restored with so 
 much pomp of announcement to the throne of 
 his ancestors, was dead. He was assassinated 
 in Cabul, siwn n^ter the departure of the British, 
 . . . and hk bot'y, fltripped of its royal robes ond 
 its many jewels, was flung into a ditch."— J. 
 McCarthy, /fiat, ofourmen Timet, v. 1, cA. 1i. 
 
 Also m J. W. Kayc, JSst. of the War in 
 Afgfianislaii. — Q. R. Gleig, Sales Brigade in 
 Afghanistan. — Lat y Sale, Jownal of the Disas- 
 ters in Afghanistan. — Mohan Lai, Life of Dost 
 Mohammed, ch. 15-18 {v. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1842-1869.— The Btitish return to 
 Cabul, — Restoration of Dost Mahomed. — It 
 was not till September that General Pollock 
 ' ' could obtain permission from the Governor-Gen- 
 eral, Lord Ellenborough, to advance against 
 Cabul, though both he and Nott were bummg to 
 do so. When Pollock did advance, he found the 
 enemy posted at Jugdulluck, the scene of the 
 massacre. ' Here, ' says one writer, ' the skeletons 
 lay so thick that they had to be cleared away to 
 allow the guns to pass. The savage grandaur of 
 the scene rendered it a fitting place uir the deed 
 of blood which had been enacted under its horrid 
 shade, never yet pierced in some places by sun- 
 light. The road was strewn for two miles with 
 mouldering skeletons like a charnel house.' Now 
 the enemy found they had to deal with other 
 men, under other leaders, for, putting their 
 whole energy into the work, the British troops 
 scaled the heights and steep ascents, and defeated 
 the enemy in their strongholds on all s'des. 
 After one more severe fight with Akbar K.mn, 
 and all the force he could collect, the enemy 
 were beaten, and driven from their mountains, 
 and the force marched quietly into Cab .1. 
 Nott, on his side, started from Candahar on the 
 7th of August, and, after fighting several small 
 battles with the enemy, ho captured Ghuzni, 
 where Palmer and his garrison had been de- ' 
 stroyed. From Ghuzni General Nott brought 
 away, by command of Lord Ellenborough, the 
 gates of Somnauth [said to have been taken 
 from the Hindu temple of Somnauth by Mah- 
 moud of Ghazni, the first Mohammedan in- 
 vader of India, in 10241, which formed the sub- 
 ject of the celebrated 'Proclamation of the 
 Gates,' as it was called. This proclamation, 
 issued by Lord Ellenborough, brought upon him 
 endless ridicule, and it was indeed at first con- 
 sidered to be a satire of his enemies, in imitation 
 of Napoleon's address from the Pyramids; the 
 Duke of Wellington called it "The Song of 
 Triumph.' . . . "This proclamation, put forth 
 with so much flourishing of trumpets and ado, 
 was really an insult to those whom it professed 
 to praise, it was an insult to tht Mohammedans 
 under our rule, for their power v as gone, it was 
 also an insult to the Hindoos, for their temple of 
 Somnauth was in ruins. Tliese celebrated gates, 
 which are believed to bo imitations of the original 
 gates, are now lying neglected and wojm-eaten, 
 in the back part of a small museum at Agra. 
 But to return. General Nott, having captured 
 Ghuzni and defeated Sultan Jan, pushed on to 
 Cabul, where he arrived on the 17th of Septem- 
 ber, and met Pollock. The English prisoners 
 (amongst whom were Brigadier Shelton and 
 Lady Sale), who had been captured at the time 
 of the massacre, were brought, or found their 
 own wav, to General Pollock's camp. General 
 Elphinst jne had died during his captivity. It 
 was not now considered necessary to take any 
 further steps; the bazaar in Cabul was de- 
 stroyed, and on tnc 12th of October Pollock and 
 Nott turned their faces southwards, and began 
 their march into India by the Khyber route. 
 The Afghans in captivity were sent hack, and 
 the Governor-General received the troops at 
 
 14 
 
AFGHANISTAN. 1842-1869. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881. 
 
 Fcrozcpoor. Thus ended the Afghan war of 
 1838-4a. . . . The war bcins over, we with- 
 drew our forces into India, leaving tlio son of 
 Shah Soojah, Fatlii Jung, wlio had escaped from 
 Cabul wlien his father was murdered, as king of 
 tlio country, a position tli.it he was unable to 
 maintain long, being very shortly afterwards 
 assassinated. In 1842 Dost Mahomed, the ruler 
 whom we had deposed, and who had been living 
 at our expense in India, returned to Cabul and 
 losumed his former position as king of the coun- 
 try, still bearing ill-will towards us, which he 
 showed on several occasions, notabljr during the 
 Sikh war, when he sent a body of his horsemen 
 '0 Ught for the Sikhs, and ho himself marched 
 an army through tlic Khyber to Peshawur to 
 assist our enemies. However, the occupation of 
 the Punjab forced upon Dost Mahomed the 
 necessity of being on friendly terms with his 
 novt-erful neighbour; he therefore concluded a 
 friendly treaty with us in 1854, hoping thereby 
 that our power would bo used to prevent the in- 
 trigues of Persia against his kingdom. This 
 hope was shortly after realized, for la 1856 we 
 (leclared war against Persia, an event which was 
 greatly to the advantage of Dost JIahomcd, as 
 it prevented Persian encroachments upon his 
 territory. This war lasted but a short time, for 
 early in 1857 an agreement was signed between 
 England and Persia, by which the latter re- 
 nounced all claims over Herat and Afghanistan. 
 Herat, however, still remained independent of 
 Afghanistan, until 1803, when Dost Mnhoro~l 
 attacked and took the town, thus uniting the 
 whole kingdom, including Candahar and Afghan 
 Turkestan, under his rule. This was almost the 
 last act of the Ameer's life, for a few days after 
 taking Herat he died. By his will ho dirc"t'!d 
 that Shere All, one of his sons, sboald surccd 
 him as Ameer of Afghanistan. The new J: i cer 
 immediately wrote to the Goveruor-Oenciai of 
 India, Lord Elgin, in a friendly tone, o •■)■ Ing 
 that his succession might be ack.iowledged. 
 Lord Elgin, however, as the comi7"-'acen; _ it of 
 the Liberal policy of 'masterly inactfvity' 
 neglected to answer the letter, c, neglect niiich 
 cannot but be deeply regretted, c^ Shero All was 
 at all events the do facto ruler of the country, 
 and even had he been ber.ten by any other rival 
 for the throne, it would have been time enough 
 to acknowledge that rival rs soon as he was 
 really ruler of the country. When six months 
 later a cold acknowledgement of the letter was 
 given by Sir 'WiUiani Donison, and when a re- 
 quest that the Ameer made for 6,000 muskets 
 had been refused by Lord Lawrence, the Ameer 
 concluded that the disposition of England 
 towards him was not that of a friend ; particu- 
 larly as, when later on < wo of his brothers re- 
 volted against him, o;u.u of them was told by 
 the Government that he would bo acknowledged 
 for that part of the country v/hich ho brought 
 under his power. However, after various 
 changes in fortune, in 186U Shere AH finally 
 defeated his two brothers Afzool and Azim, 
 together witli Afzool 's son, Abdurrahman."— P. 
 F. Walker, Afgl<;nutan, pp. 4.^-51. 
 
 Also in J. W. Kayo. Hist, of the War in 
 ^\fghanutan.—Or. B. Malleson, Hist, of Afghan- 
 istan, ch. 11. 
 
 A. D. 1869-1881.— The second war with 
 the English and its causes.— The period of 
 disturbance in Afghanistan, during the struggle 
 
 of Shere AH witli his brother.^, coincided with 
 the vice royalty of Lord Lawrence in India. 
 The policy of Lord Lawrence, " sometimes 
 slightingly spoken of as masterly inactivity, 
 consisted m holding entirely aloof from tlie dynas- 
 tic quarrels of the Afglians . . . and in attempt- 
 ing to cultivate the friendship of tlie Ameer bv 
 gifts of money and arms, while^ carefully avoid- 
 ing topics of offence. . . . Lord Lawrence was 
 himself unable to meet the Ameer, but his suc- 
 cessor, Lord Mayo, had an interview with him 
 at Umballah in 1869. ; . . LOrd Mayo adhered 
 to the policy of his prnlecessor. He refused to 
 enter into any close alliance, he refused to pledge 
 himself to support any dynr. ;y. But on the 
 other hand he promised that he would not 
 press for the admission of any English offlcors ns 
 Residents in Afglianistan. The return expected 
 by England for this attitude of friendly non-in- 
 terference was that every other foreign state, 
 and especially Russia, should bo forbidden to 
 mix either directly or indirectly with the affairs 
 of the country in which our interests were so 
 closely involved. . . . But a different view was 
 held by another school of Indian politicians, and 
 was supported by men of such eminence as Sir 
 Bartle Frere and Sir Henry Rawlinson. Their 
 view was known as tlie Sindh Policy as con- 
 trasted with that of the Punjab. It appeared 
 to them desiriiblo that English agents should be 
 established at C^uetta, Candahar, and Herat, if 
 not at Cabul itself, to keep the Indian Govern- 
 ment completely informed of the affairs of 
 Afghanistan, and to maintain English influence- 
 in the country. In 1874, upon tlie Recession of 
 the Conservative ^Ministry, Sir Bartle Frere pro- 
 duced a memorandum in >vhii;h this policy was 
 ably maintained. ... A Viceroy whoso views 
 were more in accordance with those of the 
 Government, and who was likely to bo a more 
 readv instrument in [its] hands, was found in 
 Lord Lytton, who went to India intrusted with 
 the duty of giving effect to the new policy He 
 was instructed ... to continue payments of 
 money, to recognise the permanence of the 
 existing dynasty, and to give a pledge of 
 material support in case of unniovoked foreign 
 aggression, but to insist on the acceptance of an 
 English Resident at certain places in Afghanistan 
 in exchange for these advantages. . . . Lord 
 Lawrence and those who thought with him in 
 England prophesied from the first the disastrous 
 results which v, ould arise from vho alieuation of 
 the Afghana. . . . The suggestion of Lord 
 Lytton that an English Commission should go 
 to Cabul to discuss matters of common interest 
 to the two Governments, was calculated . . . 
 to excite feelings alreody somewhat unfriendly 
 to England. He [Shere All] rejected the 
 mission, and formulated his grievances. . . . 
 Lord Lytton waived for a time the despatch of 
 the mission, and consented to a meeting between 
 the Minister of tlie Ameer and Sir Lewis Pelly 
 at Peshawur. . . . The English Commissioner 
 was instructed to declare that the one indispen- 
 sable condition of the Treaty was the admission 
 of an English reproscnfativo within the limits of 
 Afghanistan. The almost piteous request on 
 tl'.e part of the Afghans for the relaxation of 
 this demand proved unavailing, and the sudden 
 death of the .i^incer's envoy formed a good 
 excuse for breaking off the negotiation. Lord 
 Lytton treated the Ameer as incorrigible, gave 
 
 16 
 
AFGHANISTAN, 1869-1881. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 1869-1881. 
 
 him to undcrstaud that the English -would pro- 
 ceed to secure their frontier without further rcfcr- 
 cnco to him, and wiDidrew his native agent 
 from Cul)iil. While the relations between tlio 
 two countries were in tliis uncomfortable con- 
 dition, information reached India that a Russian 
 inis.sion liad been received at Cabul. It was just 
 at thi.s time that tlie action of the Home Govern- 
 ment seemed to' be tending rapidly towards a 
 war veith Russia. ... As the despatch of a 
 mission from Russia was contrary to the 
 engagements of that country, and its reception 
 under existing circumstances" wore an unfriendly 
 aspect, Lord Lytton saw his way with some 
 plausible justification to demand the reception 
 at Cabul of an English embassy. He notified 
 his intention to the Ameer, but without waiting 
 for an answer selected Sir Neville Chamberlain 
 as his envQy, and sent him forward with an 
 escort of more than 1,000 men, too large, as it 
 was observed, for peace, too small for war. As 
 a matter of course the mission was not admitted. 
 . . . An outcry was raised l)oth in England and in 
 India. . . . Troops were hastily collected upon 
 the Indian frontier; and a curious light was 
 thrown on what had been done by the assertion 
 of the Premier at the Guildhall banquet that 
 the object in view was tlie formation of a ' scien- 
 tific frontier;' in other words, throwing aside all 
 former pretences, he declared that the policy 
 of England was to make use of the opportunity 
 offered for direct territorial aggression. ... As 
 had been foreseen by all parties from the first, 
 the English armies were entirely successful in 
 their first advance [November, 1878]. ... By 
 the close of December Jellalabad was in the 
 hands of Browne, the Shutargardan Pass had 
 been surmounted by Roberts, and in January 
 Stewart established himself in Candahar. When 
 the resistance of his army proved ineffectual, 
 Shere All had taken to flight, only to die. His 
 refractory son Yakoob Khan was drawn from 
 his prison and assumed the reins of government 
 as regent. . . . Yakoob readily granted the 
 English demands, consenting to place his foreign 
 relations under British control, und to accept 
 British agencies. With considerably more 
 reluctance, he allowed what was required for the 
 rectification of the frontier to pass into English 
 hands. Ho received in exchange a promise of 
 support by the British Government, and an 
 annual subsidy of £00,000. On the conclusion 
 of the treaty the troops in the Jellalabad Valley 
 withdrew within the new frontier, and Yakoob 
 Khan wac left to establish his authority as best 
 ho could at Cabul, whither In July Cavagnari 
 with an escort of twenty -six troopers and eighty 
 infantry betook himsrlf. Then was enacted 
 again the sad story which preluded the first 
 Afghan war. All the parts and scenes in the 
 drama repeated thomsclves with curious 
 uniformity— the English Resident with his 
 little garrison trusting blindly to his capacity 
 for influencing the Afghan mind, the puppet 
 king, without the power to make himself 
 respected, irritated by the constant presence of 
 the Resident, the chiefs mutually distrustful and 
 at one in nothing save their hatred of English 
 interference, the people seething with anger 
 against the infidel foreigner, a wild outbrealc 
 which the Ameer, even had he wished it, could 
 not control, an attack upon the Residency and 
 the complete destruction [Sept., 1870] after a 
 
 gallant but futile resistance of the Resident and 
 his entire esccr.'. Fortunately tlie extreme 
 disaster of tlie previous war was avoided. The 
 English troops which were withdrawn from the 
 country were still witliin reach. . . . About the 
 24th of September, three weeks after the out- 
 break, the Cabul field force under General 
 Roberts was able to move. On the 5th of Octo- 
 ber it forced its way into tlie Logar Valley at 
 Charassiab, ond on the 12th General Roberts 
 was able to make his formal entry into the city 
 of Cabul. . . . The Ameer was deposed, martial 
 law was established, the disarmament of the peo- 
 ple required under pain of death, and the 
 country scoured to bring in for punishment 
 those chiefly implicated in the late outbreak. 
 While thus engaged in carrying out his work of 
 retribution, the wave of ' Insurrection closed 
 behind the English general, communication 
 throtigh tlie Kuram Valley was cut off, and he 
 was left to pass the winter with an army of 
 some 8,000 men connected with India only by 
 the Kybur Pass. ... A new and formidable 
 personage . . . now made liis appearance on 
 the scene. This was Abduraliman, tlie nephew 
 and rival of tlie late Shero All, wlio upon the 
 defeat of his pretensions 1 sought refuge in 
 Turkestan, and was supji d to be supported 
 by the friendship of Russia. The expected 
 attack did not take place, constant reinforce- 
 ments had raised the Cabul army to 80,000, and 
 rendered it too strong to be assai]ed. ... It 
 was thought desirable to break up Afghanistan 
 into a northern and southern province. . . . The 
 policy thus declared was carried out. A cer- 
 tain Shore Ali, a cousin of the late Ameer of 
 the same name, was appointed Wall or Gover- 
 nor of Candahar. In the north signs were 
 visible that the only possible successor to the 
 throne of Cabul would be Abdurahtnan. . . . The 
 Bengal army under General Stewart was to 
 march northwards, and, suppressing on the way 
 the Ghuznee insurgents, was to join the Cabul 
 army in a sort of triumphant return to Peshawur. 
 The first part of the programme was carried out. 
 . . . The second part of the plan was fated to 
 be interrupted by a serious disaster which 
 rendered it for a while uncertain whether the 
 withdrawal of the troops from Afghanistan was 
 possible. , . . Ayoob hod always expressed his 
 disopproval of his brother's friendsliip for the 
 English, and had constantly refused to accept 
 tlioTr overtures. Though little was known 
 about him, rumours were afloat that he intended 
 to advance upon Ghuznee, and join the insur- 
 
 fents there. At length about the middle of 
 une [1880] his army started. . . . But before 
 the end of June Farah had been reached and it 
 seemed plain that Candahar would be assaulted. 
 . . . General Burrows found it necessary to fall 
 bock to a ridge some forty-five miles from 
 Candahar called Kush-y-Nakhud. There is a 
 pass called Maiwand to the north of the high- 
 road to Candahar, by which on army avoiding 
 the position on the ridge might advance upon 
 the city. On the 27th of July the Afghan 
 troops were seen moving in the direction of this 
 pass. In his attempt to stop them with his 
 small force, numbering about 2,500 men, Gen- 
 eral Burrows was disastrously defeated. With 
 difficulty and with the loss of seven guns, about 
 half the English troops returned to Candahar. 
 General Primrose, who was in command, had no 
 
 M 
 
AFGHANISTAN, 1S69-18SI. 
 
 AFRICA, 1834-1891. 
 
 dioicc but to strengtlicn the place, submit to an 
 investment, and wait till he should be rescued. 
 
 . . The troops at Cabul were ou the point of 
 ■witlulrawins when the news of tlie disaster 
 reached them. It was at once decided that tins 
 picli of tlie army under General IJoberts sliould 
 push forward to the beleaguered city, while Gen- 
 eral Stewart with the remainder should carry 
 out the intended withdrawal. . . . With about 
 10,000 lijrliting men and 8,000 camp followers 
 General Hoberts brought to a successful issue 
 his remarlvable enterprise, . . . falling upon 
 the army of tlie Ameer and entirely dispersing 
 it a sliort distance outside the city All those at 
 all inclined to the forward policy clamoured for 
 the maintenance of a liritish force in ( Jandahar. 
 15ut the Government lirndy and decisively 
 refused to consent to anything approuching to 
 a permanent occupation. . . . The struggle 
 between Abdurahiuan and Ayoob conlinu(!d for 
 a while, and until it was over the Kngli.sh 
 troops remained at Quotta. But when Abdurah- 
 man had lH!en several times victorious over his 
 rival aiiu in October [1881] occui)ied Herat, it 
 was thought safe to complete the evacuation, 
 leaving Abduiahman for the time at least gen- 
 erally "accepted as Ameer. "--J. F. Bright, Hist, 
 of Eng., period 4, P2>. 534-544. 
 
 Also in A. Forbes, T/ie Afghan Wnn, pt. 2.— 
 Duke of Argyll, I'/ie Afghan Question from 1841 
 to 1878.— G. B. Malleson, The liusso-Afghan 
 Question. 
 
 AFRICA: The name as anciently applied. 
 See LuiYANs. 
 
 The Roman Province. — "Territorial sov- 
 ereignty over the whole of North Africa had 
 <loubtless already been claimed o> the part of 
 
 , the IJoman Hepublic, perhaps as a portion of 
 the Carthaginian inheritance, perhaps because 
 ' our sea ' early became one of the fundamental 
 ideas of the Uoman commonwealth; and, in so 
 
 ■ !:','■, all its coasts were regarded by the Homans 
 even of the developed republic as their true pro- 
 perty. Nor had this claim of Home ever been 
 properly contested by the larger .states of North 
 Africa after the destruction of Carthage. . . . 
 The arrangements which the emperors made 
 were carried out qinte after the same way in the 
 territory of the dependent princes as in the 
 immediate territory of Koine ; it was the Roman 
 government that regulated the boimdaries in all 
 North Africa, and constituted Roman com- 
 munities at its discretion, in the kingdom of 
 Mauretania no less than in tlie province of 
 Numidia. We cannot therefore speak, in the 
 strict sense, ot a Roman subjugation of North 
 Africa. The Romans did not conquer it like the 
 Pluenicians or the French ; but they ruled over 
 Numidia as over Mauretania, first as suzerains, 
 then as succes.sors of the native govin-nments. 
 ... As for the previous rulers, so also doubtless 
 for Roman civilization there was to b(i found a 
 limit to the .south, but hardly so for the Roman 
 territorial sujiremacy. There is never mention 
 of any formal extension or taking back of the 
 frontier in Africa. . . . The former territory of 
 Curtilage and the larger part of the earlier king- 
 dom of Numidia, united with it by the dictator 
 Ciusar, or, as they also called it, the old and new 
 Africa, formed until the end of the reign of 
 Tiberius tlie province of that name [Africa], 
 which extended from the boundary of Cyrano to 
 
 tin: river Ampsagi , cmbra'ini' the modem state 
 of Tripoli, as well as Tunif and the French prov- 
 ince of Constantine. . . . Mauretania was not 
 a heritage like Africa and Numidia. . . . Tlie 
 Romans can .scarcely ha ^ <• taken over the Empire 
 of llie Maurctanian kings in quite the same ex- 
 tent as these pos.sessed it; but . . . probably the 
 whole south as far as the great desert passed as 
 imperial land."— T. Momnisen, Hist, of Uoiiu; W-. 
 8, (•/(. 13. — Sec, also, Cahtiiaqe, Nu.mi1)IA, and 
 
 CviiKNK. 
 
 The Medieval City. See Bakbahy States: 
 A. I). 1513-1500, 
 
 Moslem conquest and Moslem States in the 
 North. SecJlAiloMfyrAN CoMjtl'.sT, Ac. : A. D. 
 (UO-040; 647-709, and 908-1171; al.so Haimiauv 
 Statics; EgyI'T: A. 1). 1~'50-1517, and after; and 
 
 StDAN. 
 
 Portuguese Exploration of the Atlantic 
 Coast. — The rounding of the Cape. See Poii- 
 Tt<iAi,: \. 1). 1415-1400, and 14113-1498. 
 
 Dutch and English Colonization. See South 
 Akuica. 
 
 A. D. 1787-1807.- Settlement of Sierra 
 Leone. See SiinutA f.Ko.Ni:. 
 
 A. D. 1820-1822. — The founding of Liberia. 
 See Slavkhv, Nkoiio: A. 1). 1810-1847. 
 
 A. D. 1884-1891. — Partition of the interior 
 between European Powers. — "The partition 
 of Africa may be .said to date from the Berlin 
 Conference of 1884-85 [.see Congo Fuek State]. 
 Prior to that Conference the question of inland 
 boundaries was scarcely considered. . . . The 
 founding of the Congo Independent State was 
 probably the most important result of the Con- 
 ference. . . . Two months after the Conference 
 had concluded its labours, Great Britain and Ger- 
 many had a serious dispute in regard lo their re- 
 spective spheres of influence on the Gulf of 
 Guinea. . . . The co:npromise . . . arrived at 
 placed the Mission Station of Victoria within the 
 German sphere of influence." The fnmticr be- 
 tween tlK vo spheres of iulhience ou the Bight 
 of Biafrii was subsequently delined by a line 
 drawn, in 1880, from the coast to Yola, ou the 
 Benue. The Royal Niger Company, constituted 
 by a royal charter, 'was given iiilndnistralive 
 powers over territories covered by its treaties. 
 The regions llicreby placed under British pro- 
 tection . . . apart from the Oil Rivers District, 
 which is directly administered by the Crown, 
 embrace the coastal lands between Lagos and the 
 northern frontier of Caiuarons, tlie Lower Niger 
 (including territories of Sokoto, Gandu and 
 Borgo), and the Benue from Tola to its con- 
 fluence." By a Protocol signed December 24, 
 1885, Germany and France "defined their re- 
 spective spheres of influence and action on the 
 Bight of Biafra. and also ou the Slave (,'oast and 
 in Senegambia." This " fixed the inland exten- 
 rion of the Germairsphere of influence (Camarons) 
 at 15° E. longitude, Greenwich. ... At present 
 it allows the French Congo territories to expand 
 along the western bank of the Jl'baugi . . . pro- 
 vided no other tributary of the M'bangi-Congo is 
 found to the west, in which case, according to 
 the Berlin Treaty of 1884-85, the conventional 
 basin of the Congo would gain an extension." 
 On the 12tli of May, 1886, FriHice and Portugal 
 signed a convention by which Franco "secured 
 the exclusive control of both banks of the Casa- 
 nianza (in Senegambia), and the Portuguese 
 frontier in the south was advanced approximately 
 
 17 
 
APHICA, 1884-1891. 
 
 AFRICA, 1884-1891. 
 
 to the southern limit of the bn.siii 
 On the CoiiKo, Portugal rctnincd ili^ 
 
 the Casini. 
 Miissnbi dis- 
 trict, to wliioli Fniiice luul liiid claim, but both 
 banks of the Loaugo were left to France. " lu 
 18M4 three representatives of the Society for 
 German Colonization — Dr. Peters, Dr. JUhlke, 
 and ( 'ount Pfeil — (luietlv concluded treaties with 
 the chiefs of Useguha, Ukami, Nguru, and U.sa- 
 gara, by which those territories were conveyed 
 to the Society in ([uestion. "Dr. Peters . . . 
 armed with his treaties, returned to Berlin in 
 February, 1HH5. On the 27th February, the day 
 following the signature of the General Actof the 
 Berlin (,'onference, an Imperial Schutzbrief, or 
 Cliarter of Protection, secured to the Society for 
 German Coloni/.fition the territories . . . ac- 
 ciuired for them tlirough Dr. Peters' treaties : in 
 other words, a German Protectorate was ])ro- 
 elalmed. When it became known that Germany 
 had seized ujion the Zanzibar mainland, the in- 
 dignation in colonial circles knew no bounds. 
 . . . Prior to 1384, thi; continental lands facing 
 Zanzil)ar were almost e.\clusivcly under British 
 inlUienee. The principal traders were British 
 subjects, and the Sultan's Government was ad- 
 ministered imdcr the advice of the British Resi- 
 dent. The entire region between the Coast and 
 the Lakes was regarded as being under the nomi- 
 nal suzerainty of the Sultan. . . . Still, Great 
 Britain had no territorial claims on the dominions 
 of the Sultan." The S.iltan formally jirotested 
 and Great Britain championcil his cause ; but to no 
 elTect. In tlie end the Sultan of Zanzibar yielded 
 the German Protectorate over t he four iidand prov- 
 inces and over Vitu, and the British and German 
 Governments arranged questions between them, 
 provisionally, by the Anglo-German Convention 
 of 1880, which was afterwards superseded by 
 the more dctinite Convention of July 1890, which 
 will be spoken of below. In April 1087, the 
 rights of the .Society for German Colonization 
 were transferred to the German East Africa As- 
 sociation, with Dr. Peters at its heail. The Brit- 
 ish East Africa Company took over' concessions 
 that had been granted by the Sultan of Zanzibar 
 to Sir William Maekinnon, and received a roj-al 
 charter in September, 1888. In South-west Af- 
 rica, "an enterprising Bremen merchant, Herr 
 Hideritz. and subseciuently the German Consul- 
 Oi|neral, Dr. Kachtigal, concluded a series of po- 
 litical and conunereial treaties with native chiefs, 
 whereby a claim was instituted over .lUigra 
 Pecpiefla, and over vast districts in the Interior 
 between the Orange River and Cape Frio. . . . 
 It was useless for the Cape colonists to protest. 
 On the 13th October 1884 Germany formally 
 notified to the Powers her Protectorate over 
 South- West Africa. . . . On !trd August 1885 the 
 German Colonial Company for South- West Af- 
 rica was founded, and . . . received the Im- 
 perial sanction for its incorporation. But in 
 August 1880 a new Association was formed — 
 the German West-Africa Company — and the ad- 
 ministration of its territories was placed under an 
 Imperial Connnissioner. . . . TL^ intrusion of 
 Germany into South-West Africa acted as a check 
 upon, no less than a spur to, the extension of 
 British inlluenee northwards to the Zambezi 
 Another obstacle to this extension arose from the 
 Boer insurrection." The Transvaal, with in- 
 creased independence had adopted the title of 
 South African Republic. "Zulu-land, having lost 
 its independence, was partitioned : a third of its 
 
 territories, over which a republic had been pro- 
 claimed, was absorbed (October 1887) by the 
 Transvaid ; the remainder was added (14th May 
 1887) to the British possessions. Amatonga-land 
 was in 1888 also taken under British protection. 
 By a convention witli the South African Repub- 
 lic, Britain acquired in 1884 the Crown colony 
 of Bechuana-land ; and in the early part of 1885 
 a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the 
 remaining portion of Bechuana-land. " Further- 
 more, "a British Protectorate was instituted 
 [1885] over the country bounded by the Zambezi 
 m the north, the Britisli pos,sessions in the south, 
 ' the Portuguese province of Sofala' in the east, 
 and the 2flth degree of east longitude in the west. 
 It was at this juncture that Mr. Cecil Rhodes 
 came forward, and, having obtained certain con- 
 cessions from Lobengula, founded the British 
 South Africa C'omi)any. ... On the 29th Oc- 
 tober 1889, the British South Africa Company 
 was granted a royal charter. It was declared in 
 this cliarter that ' the principal Held of the opera- 
 tions of the Briti.sh South African Company shall 
 be the region of South Africa lying immediatelj' 
 to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to 
 the north and west of the South African Repub- 
 lic, and to the west of tlii' Portuguese domin- ' 
 ions.'" No northern limit was given, and the 
 other boundaries were vaguely delined. The 
 position of Swazi-land was definitely settled in 
 1890 by an arrangement between Great Britain 
 and the South African Republic, which provides 
 for the continued independcnceof Swazi-land and 
 a joint control over the white seitler.s. A British 
 Protectorate was proclaimed over Nyassa-land 
 and the Shire Highlands in 1889-90. To return 
 now to the proceedings of other Powers in Africa: 
 "Italy took formal possession, in July 1882, of 
 the bay and territory of Assab. The Italian, 
 coast-line on the Red Sea was extended from Ras 
 ICasar (18" 2' N. Lat.) to the southern boundary 
 of Raheita, towards Obok. During 1889, shortly 
 after the death of King Johannes, Keren and* 
 Asmara were occupied by Italian troops. Mene- 
 lik of Shoa, who succeeded to the throne of 
 Abyssinia after subjugating all the Abyssinian 
 provinces, except Tigre, dispatched an embassy 
 to King Humbert, the result of which was that 
 the new Negus acknowledged (29th September, 
 1889) the Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, 
 and its sovereignty over the territories of JMas-" 
 sawa, Keren and Asmara." By the Protocols 
 of 24th March and ISth April, 1891, Italy and 
 Great Britain define their respective Spheres of 
 Influence in East Africa. " But since tlien Italy 
 has practically withdrawn from her position. 
 Slie has absolutely no hold over Abyssinia. . . . 
 Italy has also succeeded in establishing herself 
 on the Soniiil Coast." By treaties concluded in 
 1889, ' ' the coastal lands between Capo Warslieikh 
 (about 2° 30' N. lat.), and Cape Bedwin (8° 
 it' N. lat. ) — a distance of 4/50 miles — were placed 
 under Italian protection. Italy subsequently ex- 
 tended (1890) her Protectorate over the Soma) 
 Coast to the Jub river. . . . The British Pro- 
 tectorate on tlie Sonial Coast facing Aden, now 
 extends from the Italian frontier at Ras Hafiin 
 to Ras Jibutc (43° 15' E. long.). . . . The activ- 
 ity of France in litr Senegambian province, , . . 
 during the last hundred years . . . has tinally 
 resulted in a considerable expansion of her terri- 
 tory. . . . The French have established a claim 
 over the country interveuing between our Gold 
 
 18 
 
AFRICA, 1884-1891. 
 
 AGELA. 
 
 Coast Colony and Libi'ria. A more precise ile- 
 liniiliition oi' tlie frontier lietweeu Sierra Leoue 
 ■and Liberia resulted from tlie treaties sipned at 
 Monrovia on tlie lltli of November, 188". In 1888 
 Portujfal witbdrew all riglits over Deliome. . . . 
 I{ecently, a French sphere of influence has been 
 instituted over tlut whole of the Saharan rej;ions 
 between Algeria and Senegambia. . . . Declara- 
 tions were e.xchanged (■"Hh August 1800) between 
 [France and Great Britain] with the following 
 R'sults: Fninee became a consenting party to the 
 Anglo-Germau Convention of 1st July 1890. (3.) 
 Great Britain recognised a Frer.ch sphere of in- 
 fluenec over Madagascar. . . . And (3) Great Brit- 
 ain recognised the si)lierc of inlluenceof France to 
 the south of her ^Mediterranean possessions, up to 
 a line from Say on the Niger to liarrua on Lake 
 Tsad, drawn in sucli a manner as to comprise in 
 the sphere of action of the British Niger Corn- 
 puny all tliat fairly belongs to the kingdom of 
 Bokoto.'" The Anglo-German Convention of 
 July, 1890, already referred to, established by its 
 main provisions the following delinitions of ter- 
 ritory: "The Anglo-German frontier in East 
 Africa, which, by the Convention of 1880, endeil 
 at a point on tlie eastern shore of the Victoria 
 Nyaii/.u was continued on tlu; Siime latitude across 
 the lake to the eonlines of the Congo Independent 
 State; but, on the western side of the lake, this 
 frontier '.\ as, if necessary, to be detlectcd to the 
 south, ill order to include -Mount M'fumbiro within 
 tile lirilisli sphere. . . . Treaties in that district 
 were made oft behalf of the British East Africa 
 Company bv Mr. Stanle\ . on liis return (May 
 1889) from the relief of 'Eniin Paslia. . . . (2") 
 The southern boundary of the German sphere of 
 Intluence in East Africa was recognised as that 
 originally drawn to a point on the eastern shore- 
 of Lake Nyassa, whence it was continued by the 
 eastern, northern, and western shores of the lake 
 to the northern bank of the mouth of the Kiver 
 Songwe. From this iioint the Anglo-German 
 frontier was continued to Lake Tanganika, in 
 such a manner as to leave the Stevenson Itoail 
 within the British sphere. (3.) The Northern 
 frontier of British East Africa was defined by 
 the Jiib River and the conterminous boundary of 
 the Italian sphere of inlluenee in Galla-land and 
 Abyssinia up to the confines of Egypt; in the 
 west, by the Congo StatB and the Congo-Nile 
 waterslu^d. (4.) Gennauy withdrew, in favor of 
 Britain, her Protectorate over Vitu and her claims 
 to all territories on the mainland to the north of 
 the River Tana, as also over the islands of Patta 
 and JIanda. (5.) In South- West Africa, the 
 Anglo-German frontier, originally fixed up to 23 
 south latitude, was conflrmc'd; but from this 
 point the boundary-line was drawn in such a man- 
 ner eastward and northward as to give Germany 
 free access to the Zambezi by the Cliobe River. 
 (6.) The Auglo-Germmi frontier between Togo 
 and Gold Coast Colony was fixed, and that be- 
 tween the Camaroiis and the British Niger T(!r- 
 ritorics was provisionally adjusted. (7.) The 
 Free-trade zone, defined by the Act of Berlin 
 (1885) was recognised as appUcable to the present 
 arrangement between Britain and Germany. (8.) 
 A British Protectm-atc was recognised over tlu! 
 dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the 
 British coastal zone and over the islands of Zau- 
 zilvir and Pemba. Britain, however, underlooU 
 to use her infiuence to secure (what have sinei 
 been acquired) corresponding advantages for 
 
 Germany within the German coastal zone and 
 over the island of -Mafia. Finally (9), the i.ilaiid 
 of Heligoland, in the North Se-, was ceded by 
 Britain to Germany." By a treaty concluded in 
 June, 1891, between Great Britain and Portugal, 
 " Great Britain acquired a broad central sphere 
 of infiuence for tlie exjiansion of her possessions 
 in South Africa northward to and bt'yond the 
 ZamViczi, along a path which provides for the iin- 
 interriii)ted passage of British goods and British 
 enterprise, up to the conflneA of the Congo In- 
 dependent State and German East Africa. . . . 
 Portugal, on tin," East Coast secured the Lower 
 Zambezi fn m Zuinbo, and the Lower Shire from 
 the Ruo Confiuencc, the entire Hinterland of 
 Mosamliique up to Lake Nyassa and the Ilinter- 
 laiid of Sofala to the confines of the South African 
 Republic and the JIatabcle kingdom. On the 
 West Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinter- 
 land behind her provinces in Lower Guinea, up 
 to the confines of the Congo Independent State, 
 and the ujiper course of the Zambezi. ... On 
 ilay 3.jtli 1891 a Convention was signed at Lis- 
 bon, which has put an end to the dispute between 
 Portugal and the Congo Independent State as to 
 the possession of Lunda. Rouglily speaking, the 
 country was eijually divided between the dispu- 
 tants. . . . Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations 
 with Germany and Portugal, very wisely upheld 
 the principle of frec-traile which was laid down 
 by the Act of Berlin, 1885, in regard to the free 
 transit of goods through territories in wl h two 
 or more powers are indirectly interested. — A. S. 
 ^Vliite, T/w Development of Afncu, Hccond EiL, 
 lici\, 1893. 
 
 Also in; J. S. Keltic, The Partitioii of Af- 
 rim, eh. 13-23. — See, also, Soutu Africa, and 
 
 Uo.VND.V. 
 
 The inhabiting races. — The indigenous races 
 of Africa are considered to be four in number, 
 namely: the Negroes proper, who occupy a cen- 
 tral zone, stretching from the Atlantic to the 
 Egy])tian Sudan, and who comprise aa enormous 
 number of diverse tribes ; the Fulahs (with whom 
 the Nubians arc associated) settled mainly lie- 
 tweeu Lake Chad and the Niger; the Bautus, 
 wlio occupy the whole South, except its extrem- 
 ity, and the Hottentots who are in that extreme 
 southern region. Some anthropologists includQ 
 with the Hottentots the Bosjesmans or Bushmen. 
 The Kafirs and Becliuanas are Bantu tribes. The 
 North and Northeast are occupied by Samitic and 
 Ilamitic races, the latter including Abyssinians 
 and Gulltis. — A. II. Keane, The African liaces 
 (Utaiiford's ComjKiidium: Africa, app.). 
 
 Also IN; R. Brown, The liaces of Manki ml, v. 
 3-3. — R. N. Chist, Sketcliofthe Modern Languages 
 of Af rial. — See, also, South Afiuc.\. 
 
 AGA MOHAMMED KHAN. Shah of Per- 
 sia, A. I). 1795-1797. 
 
 AGADE. See B.vuvloni.v: The E.^uly 
 (C!i.\li)i;ax) Monauchy. 
 
 AGAPETUS II., Pope, A. D. 948-956. 
 
 AGAS. See Suulimi-; Poiitk. 
 
 AGATHO, Pope, A. I). «78-(i83. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, The tyranny of. See 
 SvuACi:si;; B. C. 317-289. 
 
 AGE OF STONE.— AGE OF BRONZE, 
 &c. See Sto.ni-; Aoi:. 
 
 AGELA.— AGELATAS.— The youths and 
 young men of ancient Crete were publicly 
 
 19 
 
AOELA.. 
 
 AGRI DECUMATES. 
 
 tmincdnnd disripliiied in divisions or cnmpnnics, 
 (Midi of wliicli WHS (idled an Af,'(lii, and ils 
 lender or director the AKelalas. — G. fSchOihaiin, 
 Auli(/. of (Ira,;:: The Slat/:, pt. 3, eh. 2. 
 
 AGEMA, The.— Tho royid tscort of Alex- 
 ander the (Jreiil. 
 
 AGEN, Origin of. See Nn'roiiuKir'.s. 
 
 AGENDICUM OR AGEDINCUM. See 
 Si;nom;s. 
 
 AGER PUBLICUS.— "Rome was always 
 making fresli aci/uisitions of territory in her 
 ( arly liistory. . . . J^arge traets of country lie- 
 caino lioinan laud, the [iroperty of the lioinaii 
 state, or public domain (ager puhlieiis), as the 
 Honuins calleil it. The condition of this land, 
 th(! use to which it was aj)plii a, and the dis- 
 putes which it eaiiBcd hct ween thi^ two orders at 
 Komo, are auionj; the most curious and perplex- 
 ing qtieslions in Uoman liistor_>. . . . That part 
 of newly-ac(iuired territory which was neither 
 sold nor given remained piililic property, and it 
 was occupied, according to the Roman term, by 
 private jirrsons, in wl.os(' hands it was a I'os- 
 scssio. llygintis and SIculus Flaccus represent 
 this occupation as being made without any 
 order. Every Roman took what he, coidd, and 
 more than lie could uso prolitably. . . . "W'c 
 .shoidd be more inclined to believe that this 
 public land was occupied imder some rcgida- 
 tions, in order to prevent disputes; but if i:ucli 
 regulations exist(,'d we know nothing abotit 
 them. There was no stirvey made of the public 
 land which was from time to time acipiired, but 
 there were certainly gener.al boundaries fixed for 
 the purpose of determining what had becom(^ 
 public property. The lands which were sold 
 and given W( ro of necessity surveyed and fixed 
 by boundaries. . . . Tliere is no direct evidence 
 that any payments tj the stale were originally 
 made by the Possessors. It is certain, however, 
 that at some early time such pnymeiits were 
 made, or, at least, were due to tlie slate." — G. 
 Long. Iki-Unc of the Jii>maii IkpuhUc, eh. 11. 
 
 AGGER. See Castu.v. 
 
 AGGRAVIADOS, The. See Spain: A. D. 
 1814-1827. 
 
 AGHA MOHAMMED KHAN, Shah of 
 Persia, A. D. 17<J5-i;97. 
 
 AGHLABITE DYNASTY. See I^Uuome- 
 TAN C(iN(iUKST AND E.vi'iiu:: A. I). 715-75'J. 
 
 AGHRIM, OR AUGHRIM, Battle of (A. 
 D. itai\ Seelmci.ANi): A. 1). lOSO-KJPl. 
 
 AGILULPHUS, King of the Lombards. 
 A. D. 59I)-61G. 
 
 AGINCOURT, Battle of (1415). See 
 FllANTi:; \. I), 141,V 
 
 AGINNUM.— Modern Agen. See NiTio- 
 
 BHKIKS. 
 
 AGNADEL, Battle of (1509). See Venice : 
 A. 1). 1508-ir)il!t. 
 
 AGNATL— AGNATIC. See Gens, Roman. 
 
 AGNIERS, The. See American Ahouioi- 
 NEs: A (J- .US. 
 
 ■AGC ,, The. — Tlio public discipline en- 
 force ancient Sparta; the ordinances nttri 
 bute ijycurgus, for the training of the youn; 
 and ' . (he regulating of the lives of (atizens. — 
 O. SchOmaim, Antiq. of Qretce ; The State, pt. 3, 
 ch. 1. 
 
 AGORA, The.— The market-place of an ancient 
 Greek citv was, also, the centre of its political 
 life. "Like the gymnasium, and even earlier 
 tlun this, it grew into architectural splendour 
 
 with the incr(!asing culture of the Greeks. In 
 maritime cities it generally lay near tlic sea; in 
 inland ;daces at the foot of the bill wliicli carried 
 the old feudal castle. IJeing the oldest part of 
 the city, it naturally became tlie focus not only 
 of commercial, but also of religious and political 
 life. Here even in Homer's time tlie citizens 
 as.senil)le(l in consultation, for which purpose it 
 was supplied with seats; here were the oldest 
 sanctuaries; here were celebrated the first fes- 
 tive games; here centred tin! roads on which tlio 
 interconimunicatioii, both religious and commer- 
 cial, with neigliliouring cities and states was car- 
 ried on; from here 8tart(;d tlu! processions which 
 continually jjassed lietween holy places of kin- 
 dred origin, tho'igli locally separated. Although 
 originallj' all public transactions were carried on 
 in these market-places, special local arrange- 
 ments for contracting public business soon 
 became n(?ccs.sary in large citi(!S. At Athens, for 
 instance, tlie gently rising ground of tlie Pliilo- 
 pappos hill, calle(i Pnyx, touching the Agora, 
 was used for jjolitical consultations, while most 
 likely, aliout the time of the Pisistratide.s, the 
 market of Iverameikos, the oldest seat of Attic 
 industry (lying between tlie f(jot of tlie Akropo- 
 lis, the Areopagos and the hill of Theseus), 
 became the agom proper, 1. e., the centre of 
 Athenian commerce. . . . TIic description by 
 Vitruvius of an agora evidently refers to the 
 splendid struetures of post-Alexandrine times. 
 According to iiiin it was (juadraiigular in size 
 [? shape] and surrounded by wide cToublc colon- 
 ades. The numerous columns carried architraves 
 of common stone or of marble, and on the roofs of 
 the poi ticoes were galleries for walking jnirposes. 
 Tills, of course, does not apply to all market- 
 places, even of later date ; but, upon the whole, 
 the remaining specimens agree w itli the deserip- 
 tiou of Vitruvius." — E. Guhl and W. Koner, 
 Life of the Greeks and Ihmans, tr. by Ilueffer, pt. 
 1, sect. 2(5. — In the Homeric time, the general 
 assembly of freemen was called the Agora. — G. 
 Grote, Ilist. of Greece, i)t. 1, ch. 20. 
 
 AGR.^1, The. See AituiNANiANs. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAW^S, Roman.—" Great mis- 
 takes formerly prevailed on the nature of the 
 Roman laws familiarly termed Agrarian. It 
 was supposed that by tliese laws all land was 
 declared common prifperty, and that at certain 
 intervals of time the state resumed possession 
 and made a fresh distribution to all citizens, 
 ricli and poor. It is needless to make any 
 remarks on the nature and conse(iucnces of such 
 a law ; suiiieient it will be to say, what is now 
 known to all, that at Rome such laws never 
 existed, never were thought of. The lands 
 wliicli were to be distributed by Agrarian laws 
 were not private property, but the property of 
 the state. They were, originally, those public 
 lands which had been the domain of the kings, 
 and which were increased wlienever any city 
 or people was conquered by the Romans ; because 
 it was an Italian practice to conliscate the lands 
 of the conquered, in whole or in part." — II. G. 
 Liddell, Jlt'st. of Home. bk. 3, ch. 8.— See RoiiE: 
 B. C. 376, and'B. 0. 133-121. 
 
 AGRI DECUMATES, The.— "Between the 
 Rhine and the Upper Danube there intervenes a 
 triangular tract of land, the apex of which 
 touches the confines of Switzerland at Basel; 
 thus separating, as with an enormous wedge, 
 the provinces of Gaul and Vindelicia, and pre- 
 
 JO 
 
AGRI UECUMATES. 
 
 AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE. 
 
 senling at its base uo uutural line of defence 
 from one river to tlie other. Tliis tract was, 
 however, oceupied, for the most part, by forests, 
 and if it broke tlie lino of tlielJoman defences, it 
 might at least lie considen^d imjienetrablc to an 
 enemy. Abandoned by tlie warlike and preda- 
 tory tribes of Germany, it was seized l)y wander- 
 ing immigrants fromfjaul, many of tliem Roman 
 adventurers, before whom tlie original inhabit- 
 ants, tlie Marcomaiini, or men of the frontier, 
 seem to have retreated eastward beyond the 
 Ilercynian forest. The intruders claimed or 
 solicited Roman i)rotection, and offered in return 
 n tribute from tlic produce of the soil, wheiice 
 the district itself came to bo known by the title 
 of the Agri Decumates, or Tithed Laud. It was 
 not, howevrr, ofllcially connected with any 
 province of I lie Empire, nor was any attempt 
 made to provide for its permanent security, till 
 a period much later than that on which we are 
 now engaged [the periol of Augustus]." — C. 
 Merivale, Hist, of the linimna, ch. 3(1. — "Wur- 
 teinburg, Badeu and IlohcnzoUern coincide 
 with the Agri Decumates of the Roman writers." 
 — R. G. Latham, Klhiuioim of Europe, ch. 8. — 
 See, also, Ali:5i.\nm, and Sukvi. 
 
 AGRICOLA'S CAMPAIGNS IN BRI- 
 TAIN. See Bhit.un: A. D. 78-84. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM. — Acragas, or Agrigentum, 
 one of the youngest of the Greek colonies in 
 Sicily, founded about B. C. 582 by the older col- 
 ony of Qela, became one of the largest and most 
 splendid cities of the age, in the fifth century 
 B. C, as is testified by its ruins to this day. 
 It was the scene of the notorious tyranny of 
 Phalaris, as well as that of Theron. Agrigen- 
 tum was destroyed by the Carthagenians, B. C. 
 405, and rebuilt by Tiiiioleon, but never recovered 
 its former importance and grandeur. — E. Cur- 
 tius. Hist, of Greece, hk. 4, ch. 3. —See, also, 
 PnAL.Miis, BiiAZEN Bui.i, OP. — Agrigentum was 
 destroyed by the Carthagenians in 400 B. C. 
 See SrciLT : B. 0. 409-405.— Rebuilt by Timo- 
 Icon^ it was the scene of a great defeat of the 
 Carthagenians by the Romans, in 262 B. C. See 
 Punic Wah, The Fikst. 
 
 AGRIPPINA AND HER SON NERO. 
 See H0.ME: A. D. 47-54, and 54-04. 
 
 AHMED KHEL, Battle of (i88o). See 
 Afoii.\m8t.\n : A. 1). 1800-1881. 
 
 AIGINA. See .•Eoix.\. 
 
 AIGOSPOTAMOI, Battle of. See GnuECE: 
 B. C. 405. 
 
 AIGUILLON, Siege of.— A notable siege in 
 the "Hundred Years' War," A. D. 1346. An 
 English garrison under the famous knight. Sir 
 Walter JIanny, held the great fortress of Aiguil- 
 lon, near the conlluonce of the Garonne and the 
 Lot, against a formidable French army. —J. 
 Froissart, Chronicka, ■». 1, bk. 1, ch. 120. 
 
 AIX, Origin of. See S.vlyeb. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE : The Capital of 
 Charlemagne.— The favorite residence and one 
 of th(' two capitals of Charlemagne was tlie city 
 which the Germans call Aachen and the French 
 have named Aix-lu-Chapclle. ' ' He ravished the 
 rums of the ancient world to restore the monu- 
 mental arts. A new iioiiie arose in the depths 
 u-} ioKRts of Austrasia — palaces, gates, 
 bridges, baths, galleries, theatres, churches,— for 
 the erection of which the mosaics and marbles of 
 Italy were laid under tribute, and workmen sum- 
 moned from all parts of Europe. It was there 
 
 that an extensive library was gathered, thero 
 that the school of the iiiilace was made perma- 
 nent, there that foreign envoys were pompously 
 welcomed, there that the monarch pcifeeled his 
 ])lans for the introduction of Roinnn letters and 
 the improvement of music." — P. Godwin, IIi.it. 
 of Frruicc: A}irii nt Gaul. hk. 4,ch. 17. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of (A. D, 
 803). See Vi;m( !■;: A. D. 007-810. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaty of (A. D. 
 
 1668). See NETirERLANDS (IIOIXAND): A. 1). 
 
 1GG3. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, The Congress and 
 Treaty which ended the War of the Austrian 
 Succession (1748). — The AVnr of the Austrian 
 Su(?eession, which raged in Europe, and on the 
 ocean, and in India and America, from 1740 to 
 1748 (see Ai:sii:ia: A. D. 1718-1738, 1740- 
 1741, and after), was brought to an end in the 
 latter year by a Congress of all the belligerents 
 which met at Ai.x-ia-Chapelle, in April, and 
 which concluded its labors on the 18tli of Octo- 
 ber following. "The intlueace of England and 
 Holland . . . forced the peace upon Austria and 
 Sardinia, though both were bitterly aggrieved by 
 its con^'itions. France agreed to restore every 
 coiiquesb she had made during the war, to aban- 
 don the cause of the Stuarts, nnd e.\[)el the Pre- 
 tender from her soil ; to demolish, in accordance 
 with earlier treaties, the fortilications of Dunkirk 
 on the side of the sea, while retaining those on 
 the side of the land, and to retire from the con- 
 quest without acfiuiring any fresh territory or 
 any pecuniary compensation. England in like 
 manner restored the few coiupiests she had made, 
 and submitted to the somewhat humiliating con- 
 dition of sending ho.stagcs to Paris as a security 
 for the restoration of Cape Breton. . . . The dis- 
 puted boundary between Canada and Nova 
 Scotia, which had been a source of constant diffl- 
 culty witli France, was left altogether undeflned. 
 The Assiento treaty for trade with the Spanish 
 colonies was conlirmcd for the four years it had 
 still to run; but no real comi)eusation was 
 obtained for a war expenditure which is said to 
 have exceeded sixty-four millions, and which 
 had raised tlio funded and unfunded debt to 
 more than seventy-eight millions. Of the other 
 Powers, Holland, Genoa, and the little state of 
 Jlodena retained their territory ns before the war, 
 and Genoa remained mistress of the Duchy of 
 Finale, which had been ceiled to the king of 
 Sardinia by the Treaty of Worms, and which it 
 had been a main object of his later policy to 
 secure. Austria oblaincxl a recognition of the 
 election of the Emperor, a general guarantee of 
 the Pragmatic Sanction, and the restoration of 
 everything she had lost in the Xether'ands, but 
 she gained no additional territory. She was 
 compelled to confirm the cession of Silesia and 
 Glatz to Prussia, to abandon her Italian con- 
 quests, and even to cede a considerable ])art of 
 her former Italian dominions. To the bitter 
 indignation of Slaria Theresa, the Duchies of 
 Parma, Placentia and Guastella passed to Don 
 Philip of Spain, to revert, however, to their 
 former possessors if Don Philip mounted the 
 Spanish throne, or died witliout male issue. The 
 King of Sardinia al.so obtjiined from Austria the 
 territorial cessions enumerated In the Treaty 
 of Worms [see Italy: A. D. 1743], with the 
 important exceptions of Placentia, which passed 
 to Don Philip, and of Finale, which remained 
 
 21 
 
AIX-LA-CIIAI'ELLK. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 with tlio OriKK'se. For tlio Inss of tlicso ho 
 oblaimd no coiiiiicnsulioii. Kri(i('ri(k [tlic Orciit, 
 of I'russm] obtiiimd n Kciiural (^imraiitie for llio 
 possession of his nciwly iicciuired territory, uiiil ti 
 long list of old treaties was formally couiirnicd. 
 Thus small were I he chaiiiics elleeted in Kuropo 
 bv HO much bloodshed and treaehery, by nearly 
 nuio years of wasteful nnil desolalinjj war. The 
 desiftn of the disnicmberm<nt of Austria had 
 failed, but no vexed questions liad been set at 
 
 rest Of all the andjitious i)rojects that had 
 
 been conceived durinir the war, tliatof Frederiek 
 alone was substantiallv realized." — W. K. II. 
 Leeky, Hist. i<f Ku^. Wt/i Cntun/, eh. 3.— "Thus 
 ended the War of the Austrian succession. In 
 its orijrin and its motives one of the most wicked 
 of all the many conllicts which ambition and 
 perfidy have iiruvoked in Eurojje, it excites u 
 peculiarly mournfid interest by tlio pross in- 
 equality in the rewards and i)enalties which for- 
 tune assigned to the leading actors. Prussia, 
 Spain an(l Sardinia were all endowed out of the 
 estates of tlie house of llapsbnrg. But the 
 electoral house of Bavaria, the most sincere and 
 the nio.sl deserving of all the claimants to that 
 vast inheritance, not only received no increase of 
 territory, but even nearly lo.st its own patri- 
 monial possessions. . . . The most trying prol)- 
 lem is still that offered by the misfortunes of the 
 Queen of Hungary [Maria Theresa]. . . . The 
 verdict of history, as expressed by the public 
 opiidon, and by the vast majority of writers, in 
 every country except Prussia, upholds the 
 justice of the queen's cause and condemns the 
 coalition that w-.s formed against her." — II. 
 Tuttle, Hint, ofi'nigsia, 1745-1756, ch. 2. 
 
 Also in W. Kiissell, Ilist. nf Modern Europe, 
 pt. 2, letter m.—\f. Coxe, llht. of the Uoim of 
 AuKtria, eh. 108 (v. 3). — See, also. New Eso- 
 I,.\nd: a. D. 1745-1718. 
 
 See 
 
 AIZNADIN, Battle of (A. D. 634). 
 Maiiomktax C(in(}ui:st : A. 1). 632-03(5. 
 AKARNANIAN LEAGUE, The.—" Of the 
 
 Akariianian League, formed by one of the least 
 important, but at the same time one of the most 
 estimable peoples in Greece . . . our knowl- 
 edge is only fragmentary. The boundaries of 
 Akarnania fluctuated, biit wc always tind the 
 people spoken of as a political whole. . . . 
 Thucydidcs speaks, by implication at least, of 
 the Akarnanian Lengue as an institution of old 
 standing in his time. The Akarnanians had, in 
 early times, occupied the liill of Olpai ns a place 
 for judicial proc(?edings common to the whole 
 nation. Tlius the supreme court of the Akar- 
 nanian Union held its sittings, not in n town, but 
 in a mountain fortress. But in Thucydidcs' 
 own time Stratos had attained its i)ositi<m as the 
 greatest city of Akarnania, and probably the 
 federal assemblies were already held there. . . . 
 Of the constitution of the League we know but 
 little. Ambassadors were sent by the federal 
 body, and probably, just as in the Aehaian 
 League, it would have been held to be a breacli 
 of tlio federal tie if any single city had entered 
 on diplomatic intercourse witli other powers. As 
 in Achaia, too, there stood at the head of the 
 licague a General with high authority. . . . 
 The existence of coins bearing the name of the 
 whole Akanianian nation shows that there was 
 unity enough to admit of a federal coinage, 
 though coins of i)articular cities also occur." — 
 
 E. A. Freeman, ninf. of FnUrnl Onr.t., ch. 4, 
 «tW. 1. 
 
 AKARNANIANS ( Acarnanians). — The 
 Akarnanians form<d "a link of transition" . 
 between the ancient Greeks and tlieir barbarous • 
 or noii-llellenie neighbours in the Epirus and 
 beyond. "They oecui)ied tlie territory between 
 tliu river A(!hil(n'ls, the Ionian sea and the 
 Amlirakian gulf: they wi'ie Greeks and 
 admitted as such to contend at the Pan- Hellenic 
 games, yet thej were also closely connected 
 with tlio Amphiloehi and Agru;i, who were not 
 Greek.s. lu manners, sentiments and intelli- 
 gence, they wer(! half- Ilelleiiic and half-Epirotic, 
 — like till! JOtoliaus and the Ozolian Lokrians. 
 Even down to the time of Thucyditlcs, these 
 nations were subdivided into numerous petty 
 coinmunilies, lived in unfortified villages, were 
 fieiiuently in the habit of plun.lering each other, 
 and never permitted thein.selvea to be unarmed. 
 . . . Notwithstanding this stato of disunion and 
 insecurity, however, the Akarnanians main- 
 tained a loose political league among themselves. 
 . . . The Akarnanians appear to have produced 
 many prophets. They traced up their mythical 
 ancestry, as well as that of their neighbours the 
 Am])hiiochians, to the most renowned prophetic 
 family among the Grecian heroes, — Amphiaraus, 
 with "his sons Alkina'on and Anipllochus: Akar- 
 nan, the eponymous hero of the nation, and 
 other eponymous heroes of the separate towns, 
 were supposed to be the sons of Alkma'on. They 
 are sjioken of, together with the .lEtolians, as 
 mere rude shepherds, by the lyric poet Alkman, 
 and so they seem to linve continued with little 
 alteration until tho beginning of the Pelopon- 
 ncsian war, when we hear of them, for the flrst^ 
 lime, as allies of Athens and as bitter onemies' 
 of the Corinthian colonies on their coast. The 
 contact of those colonies, liowever, and the large 
 spread of .\karnaniau accessible coast, could not 
 fail to produce sonic effect in socializing and im- 
 proving the iioople. And it is probable that this 
 effect would liavo been more sensibly felt, had 
 not tho Akarnanians been kept back by the 
 fatal neighbourhood of tho ..Etolians, with whom 
 they were in perpetual feud, — a people the most 
 unprincipled and unimprovable of all who bore 
 tho Hellenic name, and whose habitual faithless- 
 ness stood in marked contra.st with the rectitude 
 and steadfastness of the Akarnanian character." 
 — G. Grotc, IIM. of Grcca-., pt. 2, ch. 24. 
 
 AKBAR (called The Great), Moghul 
 Emperor or Padischah of India, A. D. 1556- 
 1C05. 
 
 AKHALZIKH, Siege and capture of (1828). 
 SeeTiiiKS: A. 1). 182()-]8','!). 
 
 AKKAD.— AKKADIANS. See Bauylonia. 
 PitiMrnvK. 
 
 AKKARON. See t iiilistines. 
 
 AKROKERAUNIAN PROMONTORY. 
 See KonKVKA. 
 
 ALABA^TA : The Aboriginal Inhabitants. 
 See Ameuic.vn Aboukiinks: Ai'alachkb; 
 ]\h:sKiiooi:E Fa.milv ; CniiiioKioKs. 
 
 A. D. 1539-1542. — Traversed by Hernando 
 deSoto, hieeFLouiDA: A. D. 1528-1542. 
 
 A. D. 1629.— Embraced in the Carolina 
 grant to Sir Robert Heath. See AwiiUlCA: 
 A. 1). 1629. 
 
 A. D. 1663.— Embraced in the Carolina 
 ?rant to Monk, Shaftesbury, and others. See 
 NoiiTU Cauolina : A. D. 1663-1070. 
 
 00 
 
jU.AUxVAIA. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 A. D. 1702-171 1. — French occupation and 
 first settlement.— The founding of Mobile. 
 
 8(c l.oiisiAN.v; A. 1). KtiW-lTl-'. 
 
 A. D. 1732. — Mostly embraced in the new 
 province of Georgia. Sii(ii;(>ii(;iA: A. 1). 17;i','- 
 1T;!!I. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Cession and delivery to Great 
 Britain.— Partly embraced in West Florida. 
 Sec Skvkn Ykaus' Wau; unci I'i.okida: A. 1). 
 17(i:i; ami Xoiniiwr.sT Tkukitouy: A. D. ITIi:!. 
 
 A. D. 1779-1781.— Reconquest of West 
 Florida by the Spaniards. Sec Fi.ouipa: A. 1). 
 1771I-1781. 
 
 A. D. 1783.— Mostly covered by the English ' 
 cession to the United States. Sec U.nitki) | 
 .SiATKs OF A.M. : A. 1). 1783 (Si.i'ri;Mi!i;K). \ 
 
 A. D. 1783-1787.— Partly in dispute with 
 Spain. Sci- Ki.okida: A. 1). 1783-1787. 
 
 A. D. 1 798-1 804.— All but the West Florida 
 District embraced in Mississippi Territory. 
 SeoMississii'iM: A. 1). 1798-1804. 
 
 A, D. 1803. — Portion acquired by the Louis- 
 iana purchase. Si'('Loi:isiANA: A. 1). 1798-180:). 
 
 A." D. 1813. — Possession of Mobile and 
 West Florida taken from the Spaniards. Sec 
 Flohipa: a. D. 1810-1813. 
 
 A. D. 1813-1814.— The Creek War. Soe 
 U.\iTi;i) Statks ok Am.: A. I). 1813-18U 
 (Ai'(irsT--Aviiii.). 
 
 A. D. 1817-1819. — Organized as a Territory. 
 — Constituted a State, and admitted to the 
 Union. — "15y nu act of Coiigre.s.s dated >Iarch 1, 
 1817, Mississippi Territory wasilividwl. Another 
 act, bearing the date JIarcli 3, thereafter, organ- 
 ized the western [? eastern] portion iiiLo a Terri- 
 tory, to be known as Alabama, and with the 
 boundaiics as tliey now e.xist. . . . 15y an act 
 approved March 2, 1819, congress ar.tlicrlzed the 
 inhabitants of the Territory of Alabaniii to form 
 a slate constitution, 'and that said Territory, 
 when formed into a State, .shall be admitted into 
 the Union upon the .same footing as the original 
 States.' . . . The joint resolution of congress 
 admitting Alabama into the L^niou was approved 
 by President ^Monroe, December 14, 1819."— W. 
 lirewer, Ahthaiiui, ch. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1861 (January). — Secession from the 
 Union. See Unitkd Statks of Am. : A. I). 1801 
 (Januauv — Feuulauy). 
 
 A. D. 1862.— General Mitchell's Expedition. 
 See United Statics of Am. : A. I). 18Ca (Ai'hil 
 —.May: Alaiiama). 
 
 A. D. 1864 (August;.— The Battle of Mobile 
 Bay.— Capture ofConfederate forts and fleet. 
 See United States OF Am. : A. D. 18G4:(Auoust: 
 Alabama). 
 
 A. D. 1865 (March— April).- -The Fall of 
 Mobile.— Wilson's Raid.— End of the Rebel- 
 lion. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1805 
 (Ai'iiiL- May). 
 
 A. D. 1865-1868. — Reconstruction. See 
 United States of Am. : A. 1). 1805 (5Iay— 
 July), to 1808-1870. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS, The: A. D. 186:- 
 1862.— In their Origin.— The Earlier Con- 
 federate cruisers.— Precursors of the Ala- 
 ba.na.— The commissiouiug of jirivateers, and 
 of mmv. ofllcially commanded eruisei-s, in the 
 American civil war, by the government t)f the 
 Southern Confedcmcy, was begun etirly in the 
 progress of the movement of rebellion, pur- 
 suant to u proclamation issued by JelTei-sou 
 
 Davis on the 17tli »f .Vpril, 1801, " Before the 
 clo.se of .Jul}', 1801, more than 20 of those <lepre- 
 dators were alloal, and had capttircd iiiilli(iii.s 
 of property belonging to Anieri(:in citizens. The 
 most f<iriiii(hil)le and notorious of tlie sea-going 
 ships of this character, were the Nashvilli', Cap- 
 tiiin U. IS. I'cgrani, a Virginian, wlio had ab.-m- 
 (loned liis Hag, and the Sumlcr [a regularly 
 commis.sioni'd war vessel]. Captain Itaph.iel 
 Semmes. The former was a side-wleMl steamer, 
 carried a crew of eighty men, and was armed 
 with two long 12-poini<lcr rilled cannon. Her 
 career was short, but (juile sneeessfiil, .She was 
 linally destroyed by the .Moniaiik,' Captain Wor- 
 (len, in the Ogeecliee HIver. The career of the 
 Sumter, which had been a Xew Orleans aad 
 Havana pac'ket steamer named Manpiis de Jla- 
 bana, was also short, but much more active and 
 destructive. She had 11 cnw of si.\ty-live men 
 and twenty-live marines, and was heavily armed. 
 She ran the blockade at the mouth of the Jllssis- 
 sippi HIver on the 3lHh of .)une. and w:is pur- 
 sued some distance by the Brooklyn. Slie ran 
 among the'VVest India islands and on the Spanish 
 Main, and soon made i)rizes of many vess<dH 
 bearing the American tlag. She was every- 
 where received in Briti.^h Colonial jxirls with 
 great favor, and was nllorded every lacllity for 
 her piratical oi)erallons. She became the terror 
 of tlio American merdiant service, and every- 
 where eluded Xatioiud vessels of war sent out 
 in pursuit of her. At length she cro.ssed the 
 ocean, and at the close of 1801 was conipelleil to 
 seek sindter under British guns at Gibraltar, where 
 sho was watelied by the Tuscarora. Early in 
 the year 1802 .she was sold, and thus ended her 
 piratical career. Encouraged by the practical 
 friendship of the British evinced for these cor- 
 sairs, aiul the substantial aid they were receiving 
 from British subjects in various ways, especially 
 through bloska(le-runncrs, the conspirators de- 
 termined to i)rocure from tho.se friends some 
 ))owerful ])iratical craft, and made arrangements 
 for the i)urcliase and construction of vessels for 
 tliat purpose. j\Ir. Laird, a sliip-buililcr at Liver- 
 pool and member of the British I'arliamout, was 
 the largest contra(!tor in the business, and, in de- 
 fiance of every obstacle, succeeded in getting 
 pirate ships to sea. The first of these ships that 
 went to sea was th<i Oreto, ostensibly built for ti 
 house in Palermo, Sicily. Mr. Adams, the 
 American minister in London, was so well satis- 
 fied from information received that she was de- 
 signed for the Confederates, that ho called the 
 attention of the British government to the matter 
 so early as the 18th of February, 1802. But 
 notlung eflfective was done, and slin was com- 
 pleted and allowed to depart from British waters. 
 She went first to >s :iu, and on the 4th of Sep- 
 tember suddenly . leared ol? ^Mobile harbor, 
 flying the British Hag and pennants. The block- 
 ading squadron there was in charge of Com- 
 mander ticorgo II. Preble, who had been .specially 
 instructed liot to give offense to foreign nations 
 while enforcing the bh)ckv.de. He believed th<! 
 Orclo to be a British vessel, and while deliberat- 
 ing a lew minutes as to what he should do, she 
 passed out of range of his guns, anu eiiiered the 
 harbor with a rich freight. For his s'jeniing 
 remissness Commander Preble was suinniarily 
 dismi.ssed from the service \ ithout a hear- 
 ing — an act which subse(iuent events seemed 
 to show was cruel injustice. Late in December 
 
 28 
 
ALAHAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 ALAUiUIA CLAIMS. 
 
 tlin Oroto csciiiicd from Moliilf, fully amied for 
 a pinilical criiLsc, iiiidcr the ((lUim.uMl of John 
 Ncwland .Malllt, . . . Tlic niiiiicof lli(r Ort'to was 
 (■lmiii,'(il to tliiit of Florida. "— B. .1. Lo8.siii>f, 
 IHM li'Kik of the Ciril War, r. 3, cli. 21. — Flic 
 falo of tlu: Florida is related below— A. I). 1802- 
 1805. — H. Seiiimes, .\f<iiiiiint of Sirricc Ajhat, 
 eh. 0-20. 
 
 Ai.HO IN J. Davis, A'lw^ miil Full <tf the Con- 
 ftdfnite. Cliin riiiiKiil, c/i. ;l()-31 (r. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1862-1864.— The Alabama, her career 
 and her fate.— " The .Vialiiiina [tlic! seeoiid 
 cruiser built in Kn},'hnid for th<^ Confedcratesl 
 ... is thus described by Seiiiines, her com- 
 mnnd(r: 'She was of about UdO tons burden, 
 2;«) feet in h UKth, ;i2 feet in breadth, 20 feet in 
 dei)th, and drew, when provisioned and coaled 
 for cruise, IT) feet of wjili'r. She was barkcn- 
 tinc-ri^ired, with lonj; lower musts, which 
 enabled her to carry lar{;e fon,' and aft Hails, as 
 iibs and try -sails. . . . ller cnjxine was of ifOO 
 liorse-power, and she had attached an apparatus 
 for condensinj; from the vapor of sea-water nil 
 the fresh water that her crew might require. 
 . .. Ilerarnianientconsisted of eight guns.'. . . 
 The Alabama was built and, from <he out.set, 
 was 'intended for 11 Confederate vessel of war.' 
 The contract for her construction was 'signed 
 by Cai)tnin IJuUoek on the on(^ i)art and Messrs. 
 Laird on the other.'. . . On the blth of May 
 [1802] she was launched under the name of the 
 290. ller otliccrs were in Kugland awaiting her 
 completion, and wera paid their .salaries 
 'monthly, about the first of theiiionlli, at Fraser, 
 Trcnhohn & Co.'s oftiee in Liveri)ool.' The pur- 
 pose for which this vessel was being constructed 
 was notorious in Liverpool. Before she was 
 launched she became an object of Kus])iciou with 
 the Consul of I lie I'nited States at that port, and 
 she was the s\il)ject of constant correspondence 
 on his part with his Government und with Mr. 
 Adams. . . . Karly in the history of this cruiser 
 the jxjint was taken by the British authorities — 
 a point maintained throughout the struggle — 
 that they woidd originate notiiing themselves 
 for the iiiainlenancu and performaive of their 
 international duties, and that they ^WJuId listen 
 to no representations from the olUcrials of the 
 United States which did not furnish technical 
 evidence for a criminal iiroseciition under the 
 Foreign Enlistment Act, ... At last Mr. Dud- 
 ley [tlic Consul of the United Stales at Liver- 
 pool] succeeded in tlnding the desired proof. On 
 the 31st day of July, he laid it in the form of 
 affidavits before the Collector at Ijiverjiool in 
 compliance with the intimations which Mr. 
 Adams hail received from Karl Uussell. These 
 affidavits were on the same day transmitted by 
 the Collector to the Board of Customs at London, 
 with a rccpie.st for instructions by telegrajili. as 
 the ship ai)i)eared to be ready for sea and nught 
 leave any hour. . . . It . . . apiiears that not- 
 withstanding this official infornnition from the 
 Collector, the ]iapers wore not considered by the 
 law advisers tmtil the 28th, and that the case 
 appeared to them to be so clear that they gave 
 their advice upim it that evening. Under these 
 circumstances, the delay of eight days after the 
 21st iu the order for the detention of the ves.^el 
 was, in the opinion of the United States, gross 
 negligence on the part of Her j^Iajesty's Govern- 
 ment. On the 29tli the SecretJiry of the Com- 
 mission of the Customs received a telegram from 
 
 Liverpool saying that ' the vessel 200 came out 
 of dock last night, and left the port this morn- 
 ing.' . . . After leaving the dock she 'pro- 
 ceeded slowly down tlie Alersey.' Both the 
 Lairds were on board, und also Bullock. . . . 
 The '290 slowly steamed on to Aloelfra Bay, on 
 the coast of Anglesey, where sIk' ren>aine(l 'all 
 that night, all Uu: next day, and the ne.\t night.' 
 No clTort was made to sei/.e her. . . . When the 
 Alabama left Moelfra Bay he ■ crew nund)ered 
 abo\it 90 men. She ran part way down the Irish 
 C'liannel. then round the north (H)ast of Ireland, 
 only sto|)ping near the Giant's Causeway. She 
 then made for Terceira, on(? of the Azores, 
 which she reached on the 10th of Aiigu.st. Ou 
 isth of A\igust, while she was at Terceira, a 
 .sail was observed nndiihg for the anchorage. It 
 juoved to be the 'Agrippina of London, Cap- 
 tain McQueen, having on board si.\ guns, with 
 ammimition, coals, stores, &c. , for the Alabama.' 
 Preparation.s were immediately made to transfer 
 this imjiortant cargo. On the afternoon of the 
 20tb, while em])Ioyed discharging the bark, the 
 screw-steamer Bahama, Captain Te.ssier (the 
 same that had taken the armament to the Florida, 
 whoso insurgent ownei'ship and character were 
 well known in Liverpool), arrived, ' having on 
 board Commander Raphael Semmes and ollicers 
 of the Confederate States steamer Sumter.' 
 There were also taken from this steamer two 82- 
 ]iounders and some stores, which occupied all 
 the remainder of that day and a part of the next. 
 The 22d and 2'M of August were taken up in 
 transferring coal from the Agrippina to the 
 Alabama. It was not until Sunday (the 24th) 
 that the insurgents' Hag was hoisted. Bullock 
 and tho.se who were not going in the 290 went 
 back to the Bahama, and the Alabama, now fli-st 
 known luidcr that name, went off with '20 offi- 
 cers and 85 men.'" — I'/ic Case of the United Statcn 
 III fore the Trilmnal of Arhitnition at Geneva (42rf 
 Cong., 2d Sens., Senate Ki: Doe., No. 31, pp. 
 140-151). — The Alabama "arrived at Porto 
 Praya on the 19th August. Shortly thereafter 
 Capt. Baphaol Semmes assumed command. 
 Hoisting the Confederate Hag, she cruised and 
 captured seveiiil vessels in the vicinity of Flores. 
 Cruising to the westward, and making several 
 captures, she approached within 200 miles of 
 New York ; thence going southward, arrived, on 
 the 18th November, at Port Koyal, Mai'tinique. 
 On the night of the 19th she escaped from the 
 harbour and the Federal steamer San .Jacinto, 
 and ou the 20th November was at Blancpnila. 
 On the 7th December she captured the steamer 
 Ariel in the passage between Cuba and St. 
 Domingo. On January 11th, 1863, she sunk the 
 Federal gimboat Ilatteras olT Galveston, and on 
 Die 30th arrived at Jamaica. Cruising to the 
 eastward, and making many captures, she 
 arrived on the 10th April, at Fernando de 
 Noronha, and ou the 11th May at Bahia, when!, 
 on th'j 13th, she was joined by the Confederate 
 steamer Georgia. Cruising near the lino, thence 
 southward towards the Cape of Good Hope, 
 numerous captures were made. On the 29tli 
 Jtily she anchored iu Saldanha Bay, South 
 Africa, and near there on the 5lh August, was 
 joined by the Confederate bark Tuscaloosa, Com- 
 mander "Low. In September, 1803, she was at 
 St. Simon's Bay, and in October was iu the 
 Straits of Sunda, and up to January 20, 1804, 
 cruised iu the Bay of Bengal and viciuity, visit- 
 
 24 
 
ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 Inc SiiiKiiiwirc. iiiul niakinff a iiumlior of very 
 viilimlilo cupturcs, iiicliiditiK tli(' IIif,'liliinil<'r, 
 Bimorn, I't^. From tiiis point h\h: rruisi'd on her 
 hnmewiiril iMck via ('ai)o of (Jood llopo, ciip- 
 tiiriiiR till' tiiirk Tycooiv iinil ship UocUingliiini, 
 and arrived at C'liurbour),', Franco, in June, 1804, 
 >vlicrc she rcpalri'd. A FciU-ral steamer, tlie 
 Keursurgo, was lyinR "ft the harl)our. ('apt. 
 Senimes ir.i;,'lit easily liavo evaded thi?) enemy; 
 the biisiics.s of his vclsel was that of a privateer; 
 and hiT vidue to the »,o;.''e(lenicy was out of all 
 comparison with :>, sinjjle vessel of the enemy. 
 . . . Hi^t Capt. Semnies had been twitted with 
 tho name of 'pirat<^;' and h(3 was easily per- 
 suaded to attempt an 'clat for f'O Southern 
 Confederacy bv a naval tl;;ht ■within siKbt of the 
 French eoa'st, "wineli contest, it was calculated, 
 would prove the Alabama a legitimate war ves- 
 sel, and ijive such an exhibition of Confederate 
 belliseren<;y as nossibly to revive the question 
 of ' recognition in Paris and London. These 
 were the secret motives of the gnitnitous lijlht 
 with which ('apt. Semmes obli,t,'ed tho enemy 
 oil the port of Cherbourg. The Alabama car- 
 ried one 7-inch Ulakely rifled gun, one 8-inch 
 smooth-bore pivot gun, and six ;!2-pounders, 
 smooth-bore, in broadside; the Kear^argo carried 
 four broadside Sa-poimders, two 11-inch and one 
 28-pound rifle. The two vessels were thus 
 about equal in match an<l armament; and their 
 tonnage was about the same." — E. A. Pollard, 
 Tlic Lost C/iiini', p. .549. — (Japtain Winslow, com- 
 manding the United States Steamer Kearsargc, 
 in a report to the Secretary of the Navy 
 written on the afternoon of the day of his battle 
 with the Alabama, Jimo 19, 1864, said: "I have 
 the honor to inform the department that the day 
 subsequent to the arrival of tho ICearsnrge ofT 
 this port, on the 34th [14th] instant, I received 
 a note from Captain Scmnies, begging that the 
 Kearsarge would not depart, as lie intended to 
 fight her, and wovild delay her but a d-'.y or 
 two. According to this notice, die AlaLaina 
 left the port of Cherbourg this morning at about 
 half past nine o'clock. At tweiit)' minutes past 
 ten A. M., wo discovered her steering towards 
 us. Fearing the qtiestion of jurisdiction might 
 arise, we steamed to sea until a distance of sis. 
 or seven miles was attained from the Cherbourg 
 break-water, when wo roimded to and com- 
 menced steaming for the Alabama. As we 
 approached her, within about 1,200 yards, she 
 opened lire, we receiving two or three broad- 
 sides before a shot was returned. The action 
 continued, tho respective steamers making a cir- 
 cle round and round at a disi nee of about 900 
 yards from each other. At the e.xpiraticm of an 
 hour the Alabama struck, going down in about 
 twenty minutes afterward, carrying many per- 
 sons with iK'r." In a report two days later, 
 Captain Winslow gave the following i)afticulars: 
 "Toward tho close of the action between the 
 Alabama and tliis vessel, all available sail was 
 made on the former for tho purpose of again reach- 
 ing Cherbourg. When the object was apparent, 
 tho Kearsarge was steered across the bow of the 
 Alabama for a raking fire; but before reaching 
 this point the Alabama struck. Uncertain 
 whether Captain Semmes was not using some 
 ruse, the Kearsarge was stopped. It was seen, 
 shortly afterward, that tho Alabama was lower- 
 ing her boats, and an officer came alongside in 
 one of them to say that they had surrendered, 
 
 and were fnnt BinkinfC, and begging that lioat^i 
 wouhl be despatched immediately for saving 
 life. Tho two boats not disabU-d wem at once 
 lowered, and i;s it was apparent the Alabama 
 was settling, this ollleer was permitted to leave 
 in his boat to airord assistance. An Fnglish 
 yacht, tho Deerhoiind, hail ai>pr>)aclied near tho 
 Kearsargo at this time, wiien I hailed and 
 begged the! commander to run down to tho 
 .Vlatinma, as she was fast sinking, anil wo had 
 but two boats, and assist in picking up the men. 
 He answered afllrmativel)', and steamed toward 
 the Alabama, but tho latter .sank almost 
 immediately. Tho Deerhound, however, .sent 
 lier boats and was actively engaged, aided by 
 several others which hail como from shore. 
 These boats were busy in bringing the wounded 
 and others to the Kearsarge; whom wo were 
 trying to make as 'omfortablo as possible, when 
 it was reported to mo that the Deerhound was 
 moving olT. I could not believe tliat the com- 
 mander of that vessel could bo guilty of so dis- 
 graceful an act n" t.i' . ig our prisoners off, and 
 therefore took no mans to prevent it, but con- 
 tinued to keep our boats at v>'ork rescuing the 
 men in the water. I am sorry to say that I was 
 mistaken. Tho Deerhound maile olT with 
 Captain Semmes and others*, and also tho very 
 officer who had come on board to surrender." — 
 In a still later report (Captain Winslow gave the 
 following facts: "The lire of tho Ahibama, 
 although it is stated she discharged 370 or more 
 shell and shot, was not of .serious damage to tlie 
 Kearsargo. Soino 13 or 14 of these had taken 
 etrect in and about tho hull, and 10 or 17 about 
 the masts and rigging. Tlie casualties were 
 small, only three persons having been wounded. 
 . . . The lire of tho Kearsargo, although only 
 173 projectiles had been discliarged, according 
 to tlie prisoners' accounts, was terriUc. One 
 shot alone had killed and wounded 18 men, rnd 
 disfiblcd a gun. Another had entered tho coal- 
 buakcrs, exploding, and completely blocking up 
 the engine room; and Captain Semmes states 
 that shot and f hell had taken effect ir the sides 
 of his vessel, tearing largo holes by explosion, 
 and his ni^n wero evcrywlierc knocked down." — 
 licbcUioit, Itcmrd, v. 9, lip. 231-225. 
 
 Ar.so IN J. U. Soley, The Blockade and the 
 Cruisers {Tho Knny in the C'iril War, n. 1), ch. 7. 
 —J. R. Soley, J, JIcI. Kell and J. M. Browne, 
 The Coiifcderuto Cruisers (liatllcs and Leaders, 
 V. 8). — U. Semmes, Memoirs of Service Afloat, 
 ch. 29-55.— ,1. I). Bullock, Secret Serr:ce of the 
 Confederate Slates in Europe, 1\ 1, ch. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1862-1865. — Other Confederate cruis- 
 ers. — "A score of other Confederate cruisers 
 roamed tho seas, to prey upon United States 
 commerce, but none of them became quite so 
 famous as the Sumter and the Alabama. They in- 
 cluded tho Shenandoah, which made 38 captures, 
 the Florida, which made 30, tho Tallahassee, 
 which made 27, the Tacouy, which mado 15, atul 
 the Georgia, which made 10. The Florida was 
 captured in the harbor of Baliia, Brazil, in 
 October, 18C4, by a United States man-of-war 
 [the Waehusett, commander Collin.s], in violation 
 of the neutrality of tho port. For this the 
 United States Government apologized to Brazil 
 and ordered the restomtion of the Florida to the 
 harbor where she was captured. But in Hamp- 
 ton Hoads she met with an accident and sank. It 
 was generally believed that tho api)aR'i:t aeci- 
 
 2& 
 
ALAUAMA CLAIMS 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 (k'lit WiiH CDiitrivcil witli the connivance, it not 
 by direct itrdcr, of the (lovcrnnicnt. .Slost of 
 these cruisers were built in Hrilisli Kliiiiyanls. " — 
 H. .loliiison, Slinrt JliKt. (if till' W'lir of S'lVuxiiiii, 
 eh. SI. — Tile liisl of tlie (lest rovers of Aniericiin 
 coiiuneree,llieSlicnaiuloah,«iisa liritisli niereliaiit 
 sliip — llie Sea King — built for the Hointiay 
 lra(h', l)Ut pureha.si'il by the Confccleratc! ag- nt, 
 Captain HullocU, armed willi .six K""». a»J <'"ni- 
 missioned (October, IHIi.")) under her new nanie. 
 In June, IHf!.", Ili(t Slienandonh, after a voyaire 
 lo Australia, in tlie course of wliicli slio destroyed 
 ado/en luercliant sldps, made lier appearance in 
 the Northern Si.i, near lldiring Strait, wliere 
 .slic tell in witli tlie New Hcdford wlialini; licet. 
 "In th(^ course of one week, from tlie 'ilst to 
 tlio '.IHtli. twenty-live winders were captured, of 
 which lour were ransome<l, and the retuaiiniiir 
 21 were burned. The loss on these 31 whalers 
 was estiiaated at tipwardsof ij:!, 000,000, and con- 
 sidering that it oecurreil . . . two months after 
 the Confederacy had virtually pas.scd out of ex- 
 istence, it may be characterized ;is the most use- 
 less net of hostility that o<curr(Ml during the 
 whole "var." The captain of the Shenandoah 
 had ne\v.H on the 2:td of thu fall of Uichmond; 
 yet after that time ho dtstroyed 15 vessels. On 
 his way southward he received iuformation, 
 August 2d, of the linal collapse of the Con- 
 federacy. He then sailed for Liverpool, and 
 surrendered his vcwel to the liritish Government, 
 which (li.'livcrcd her to the L'nited States. — ,1. U. 
 Solcy, Tlifi (.'i>ifalin(tr Cndmrn {liiitth-K and 
 I^otlm, V. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1862-1869. — Definition of the indemnity 
 claims of the United States against Great 
 Britain. — First stages of the Negotiation. 
 — The rejected Johnson-Clarendon Treaty. 
 — "A review of the history of the negotiations 
 between the two Governments jirior to the corrc- 
 .si)ondenco between BirEdward Thornton and Mr. 
 Fish, will show . . . what was intended by these 
 words, ' geiierically known us the Alabama 
 Claims,' used on each side in that correspondence. 
 The correspondence betwec^n the two Govermcnts 
 was opened by Mr. Adams on the 20th of Novem- 
 ber,1862 (less than four months after the escape of 
 the Alabama), in a note to Earl Russell, written 
 under instructions from the Government of the 
 United States. In this note Mr. Adams sub- 
 mitted evidence of tlie acts of the Alabama, and 
 stated : ' I have the honor to inform Your Lord- 
 ship of the directions which I have received 
 from my Government to solicit redress for the 
 nationaland private injuries thus sustained.'. . . 
 Lord UiisscU met this notice on the 19th of 
 December, 1862, by a denial of any liability for 
 any injuries growing out of the acts of the Ala- 
 bama. ... As new losses from time to time 
 were suffered by individuals during the war, 
 they were brought to the notice of Her JIujcsty's 
 Government, and were lodged with the national 
 and individual claims already preferred; but 
 arguincutative discussion on the issues involved 
 was by common consent deferred. . . . The 
 fact that the first claim preferred grew out of 
 the acts of the Alabama explains how it was 
 that all the claims growing out of the acts 
 of all the vessels came to be 'geuerically 
 known as the Alabama claims.' On the 7th of 
 April, 1865, the war being virtually over, Mr. 
 Adams renewed the discussion. He transmitted 
 to Earl Ivusaell an ollicial report showing the 
 
 number and tonnage of Vnierlcun vcssoU tnms- 
 fcrred to the Urltish V.\k, during tlie war. He 
 said: 'The l'nited Stales (omnuTce'ls nipidly 
 v.'iinshiug from .he face of the ocean, and that of 
 Great lirit.iiii is mc'tiplyiiig in nearly the same 
 ratio.' 'This pn ecs* is going on by rea.son of the 
 action of Hritish sul)jects in cooperation with 
 einis.iarieH of the insurgents, w ho have supplied 
 from the ports vf He" Majesty's Kin.gdoin lUl the 
 materials, such u . vessels, arnuiment, supplies, 
 anil men, indi.-ip 'is i|>le to the effective prosecu- 
 tion if this ic: ult oil the ocean.' . . . lie stated 
 that he 'was under tlie painful necessity of 
 aiiii(mr..ing that his Government cannot avoid 
 entailing upon the Government of (Jreat Britain 
 the responsibility for this daiiiagc. ' Lord Bus- 
 sell . . . said in repiv, 'lean never admit that 
 the <lutics of Grciit Britain toward the United 
 States are to be measured by the losses which 
 t\w trade and commerce of the United States 
 have sustained. . . . Beferring to the offer of 
 arbitraticm, madoouthe2Utliday of October, 1803, 
 Lord Bussell, in the same note, said: 'Her 
 ^'aiesty's Government mu.st dediiK! cither to 
 ike reparation and conipensatiou for the cap- 
 aires made by the Alabama, or to refer the 
 question to any foreign State.' This terminated 
 the first stage of the n'gotiations between the 
 two Governments. . . . In the summer of 1860 a 
 change of MinLstry took place in England, and 
 Lord Stanley became Secretary of State for For- 
 eign Affairs in the place or Lord Clarendon. 
 He took an early opportunity to give on intima- 
 tion in the House of Commons that, should the 
 rejected claims be revived, the new Cabinet was 
 not prepared to say what answer might be given 
 them; in other words, that, should nu oppor- 
 t'.inily be offered, Lord Russell's refusal might 
 possibly be reconsidered. Mr. Seward met these 
 overtures by instructing Jlr Adams, on the 27th 
 of August, 1800, ' to call Lord Stanley's attention 
 in tt rcspeeiful but earnest manner,' to 'a suiii- 
 niary of claims of citizens of the United States, 
 for damages which were suffered by tUem 
 during the period of the civil war,' and 
 to say that the Government of the United 
 States, while it thus insists tpou these par- 
 ticular claims, is neither desirous nor willing 
 to assume an attitude unkind and uncon- 
 ciliatory toward Great Britain. . . . Lord Stan- 
 ley mot this overture by a communication to Sir 
 Frederick Bruce, in which he denied the liability 
 of Great Britain, and assented to a reference, 
 ' provided that a fitting Arbitrator can be found, 
 and that nu agrecnncut can be come to as to the 
 points to which the arbitration shall apply.' . . . 
 As the first result of these negotiations, a con- 
 vention known as the Stanley-Johnson convention 
 was signed at London 011 the 10th of November, 
 1868. It proved to be unacceptable to the Gov- 
 ernment of the United States. Negotiations 
 were ot once resumed, and resulted on the 14th 
 of January, 1809, iu the Treaty known as the 
 Johnson-Clarendon convention [having been 
 negotiated by Jlr. Beverdy Johnson, who had 
 succeeded Mr. Adams as United States Minister 
 to Great Britain]. This latter convention pro- 
 vided for the organization of a mixed commi Aon 
 with jurisdiction over 'all claims on the part of 
 citizens of the United States upon the Govern- 
 ment of Her Britannic ]\Iajesty, including the 
 so-called Alabama claims, and all claims on the 
 part of subjects of Her Britannic Majesty upon 
 
 26 
 
ALAHAMA CLAmS. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAlMa. 
 
 •ho GDVcrnmcnt of tlio Unlu^d Htntca wliicli iimy 
 Imvu birti presented In eltlier K"Vi'riiiiient for 
 its illterIll>^iliull witli tin- cjllier since the 'Jfltli 
 July, IHo;), and wliieli yet remain iinsellled,' " 
 The Johnsont'lariiKloirirealy, when suliinilted 
 ti) thi' Sen:ite, was rejeeled liy tlial liody, in 
 April, "bieaiise, altlioUKh it made jirovision for 
 the |mrt of tlie Alahiima elaitns wliieli consisted 
 (if claims for individual losses, the provision for 
 the more exti'nsive national losses was not witis- 
 faetory to the Senate."— 77/c .l)v/»w</(< >if l/w 
 I' II Hot Stiifili lUiireirAl to tlic Triliilliill <;/' Alhi- 
 tniti'iii (It (h'lierii, June 1."), WTi. Dirinhn 111, 
 mrt. i. 
 
 A. D. 1869-1871. — Renewed Negotiations. 
 — Appointment and meeting of the Joint 
 High Commission.— The action of the Senate 
 in rejeclini; the .lohnson-C'larendon treaty was 
 taken in April, IHItO, a few weeks after Presi- 
 dent (Jnint entered upon his olllee. At this tini(i 
 " the condition of Kurope was sneh as to induce the 
 British .Ministers In take into consideration the 
 foreign relations of Great Britain; and, as Lord 
 Granville, the British Minister of Foreign AITairs, 
 has himself stated in the House of Lo.ds, they 
 «iw caii.se to look with solicitude' on the uneasy 
 relations of the British Govennnent with the 
 United States, and the inc()nveiiien<e thereof in 
 case of possible complications in Europe. Thu.s 
 impelled, the Govennnent dispatched to Wash- 
 ington a gentleman who enjoyed the contidenoe 
 of both Cabinets, Sir John Itose, to ascertain 
 whether overttircs for reoi)ening negotiations 
 would be received by the President in spirit and 
 terms acceptable to Great liritain. . . . Sir John 
 Rose found the United States disposed to meet 
 with perfect correspondenc e of good-will the ad- 
 vances of the British Government. Accordingly, 
 on the 20th of January, 1H71, the British Gov- 
 ernment, through Sir "Edward Thornton, finally 
 proi)o.sed to the AmiTican Government the ap- 
 pointment of a joint High Commission to hold its 
 sessions at AVashington, and there devise means 
 to settle the various pending ([uestions between 
 the two Governments alTecting the British pos- 
 sessions in North America. To this overture Mr. 
 Fish replied that the President woidd with 
 pleasure appoint, as invited, Comnnssioner.s on 
 the part of the Unite' States, provided the 
 deliberations of the Commissioners .should bo 
 extended to other differences, — that is to say, 
 to include the difTerences growing out of incidents 
 of the late Civil AVur. . . . The British Gov- 
 ernment promptly accepted this proposal for 
 enlarging the sphere of the negotiation." The 
 joint High Commission was speedily constituted, 
 as proposed, by appointment of the two govern- 
 ments, and the promptittidc of proceeding was 
 suca liiat the British commissioners landed at 
 New York in twenty-seven days after Sir Edward 
 Thornton's suggestion of January 20tli was made. 
 They sailed without waiting for tlieir commis- 
 sions, which were forwarded to them by special 
 messenger. The High Commission was made 
 u?> as follows: "On the part of the United 
 .States were five j)ersons,— Hamilton Fish, Robert 
 V. Sehenck, Samuel Kelson, Ebenezer Rockwood 
 Hoar, and George II, Williams,— cnunently fit 
 representatives of the diplomacy, the bench, the 
 bar, and the legislature of the United States: on 
 the part of Great Britain, Earl Dc Grey» and 
 Kipon, President of the Queen's Council; Sir 
 S'afford Northcote, Ex-Ministcrand actual Mcm- 
 
 Iht of the Ilousaj of Commons; Sir Edward 
 Thorntr)!!, the universally respected Briti.sli Min- 
 ister at WashiuLrton; Sir John | \.\ .Macdonald, 
 the able and eioi|Ucnt I'render of the Canadiiiu 
 Do'uiiuon; :.nd, in revival of the good old time, 
 when h'arning was "((ual to iuiy other tilh^ ni 
 ]iid)lic honor, the Universities in the person of 
 I'rofessor .Aionlaguc Bernard. ... In the facc^ 
 of many dillicullies, the Comndssioners, on IIk 
 yih of Nlay, IHTl, completed a treaty [known as 
 (he Treaty of Washington], which receivcil Ihe 
 prompt approval of their respective (Jovern- 
 menls. " — C. Cushing, 'I'/w 'J'ruiti/ of Wun/iiiiy- 
 l"ii, PI'. 18-20, (I ml U-l;!. 
 
 .Vi,s(> I.N A. I.ai.g, /Jt'i-. Littin, and Diaricii 
 iif Sir Sliiffiinl Miirtlici/te, Fimt Karl nf Iililin/tiij/i, 
 ch. Vi(>\ S)._A. Badeau, (Iniiitin ihnr. <•/(. '25. 
 
 A. D. 1871.— The Treaty of Washington.— 
 The treaty signed at AVashington on the Mth day 
 of May, 18*1, and the ratilicalions of which 
 were exchanged at I.ond in on tlw^ 17th da • <if the 
 following June, .set forth its i)rineipal agreeineui. 
 in the llrst two articles as follows: "Whereas 
 dilferenecs have arisen between the Govennnent 
 of the United States and the Government of Her 
 Brittanic Majesty, and still e.\i:t, growing out of 
 thii acts committed by the Rcvcriil vessels which 
 have given r'se to tiio claims ^''''nerically known 
 as the 'Alabama Claims;' and whereas Her 
 Britannic Majesty has authorized Her High Com- 
 missioners and Plcinpotcntiaries to express in a 
 friendly spirit, the regret felt by Iler Majesty's 
 Government for the cpcape, imder wliatever cir- 
 cumstances, of tlic -Mabaina and other vessels 
 from British ])orts, anil for the depredations com- 
 mitted by tlio.se v'>.:iL'ls: Now, in order to 
 reniove and ;Kljust all complaints and claims on 
 the part of tiie United States and to provide for 
 the speedy settlement of such claims which are 
 not admitted by Ilcr Britannic Majesty's Gov- 
 ernment, the high conf eting parties agree that 
 all the said claims, grjwing out of acts com- 
 mitted by the aforcsai(. vessels, and generically 
 known as the ' Alabama Clfdms,' shall be referred 
 to a tribunal of arbitration to be composed of 
 live Arbitrators, to be api)ointcd in the following 
 manner, that is to sav: One shall be named by 
 the President of the United States; one .shall lie 
 named by Her Britannic Majesty; Ilis Majesty 
 the King of Italy shall be requested to name one ; 
 the I'resident oi' the Swiss Confederation sliall 
 be retjuested to name one; and His Majesty the 
 Emperor of Brazil shall be requested to name 
 one. . . . The Arbitrators shall meet at Geneva, 
 in Switzerland, at the earliest convenient day 
 after they shall have been named, and shall pro- 
 ceed impartially and carefully to examine and 
 decide all questions that shall be laid before them 
 on the part of the Governments of the United 
 States and Her Britannic Majesty resiieclively. 
 All questions co.isidered by the tribunal, includ- 
 ing tlic final award, shall be decided by a majority 
 of all the Arbitrators. Each of the high con- 
 tracting jiarties shall also name one person to 
 attend tlu! trilmnal as its Agent to represent it 
 generally in all matters connected with the .uhl- 
 tiation." Articles it, 4 and 5 of the treaty specify 
 the mode in which each iiarty shall submit its 
 case. Article declares that, "In deciding tlic 
 matters submitted to the Arbitrators, they shall 
 be governed by the following three rules, which 
 are agreed upon by the high contracting parties 
 as rules to be taken as applicable to the case, and 
 
 27 
 
A1.ABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 by such principles of international law not incon- 
 sistKiit tiR'n'witli as tlic Arliitmtors shall deter- 
 mine to have heen iipiilicuhlu to the case: A 
 neutral Oovermncnl is IiohikI — l''irst, to use due 
 dili;;iMKe to prevent the littnisr out, arming, or 
 erpiippiiij,'. within its jurisdietion, of any vessel 
 Avhieli it has reiison.ible ground to believe is 
 intendrd to cruise or to carry on war against 
 a Power with wliieli it is at peace; and also to 
 use like diligence to prevent the departure from 
 its ju.'sdiction of any vessel intended to cruise 
 or carry t)n war as above, such vessel having 
 been specially adapted, in whole or in part, 
 within such jurisdiction, to waiiike use. Sec- 
 ondly, not to jiermit or suffer either belligerent to 
 malte use of its ports ur waters as the base of 
 naval openitions against the other, or for the 
 purpose of the renewal or augnientation of mili- 
 tary supplies or arms, or tlic recruitment of men. 
 Thirdly to e.xcrcise duo diligence in its jwn 
 ports and ^vaters. and, a3 to all persons within 
 its ju'isdiciiou, to jjrevcnt any violation of the 
 foregoing obligations an<l duties. Ilcr Britannic 
 Majesty has commanded her High C'mnnis- 
 sioners and Plenipotentiaries to declare that Her 
 Majesty's Government cannot assent to the fore- 
 going rules as a statement of principles of inter- 
 national law which were in force at the time 
 when the claims mentioned in Article 1 arose, 
 hut that Her JIajesty's Government, in order to 
 cvin<'c its desire of strengtliening tin; friendly 
 relations betw ?n tlie two countries and of 
 making satisfactory provision for the future, 
 agrees that in deciding the questions between 
 the two countries arising out of those claims, the 
 Arbitrators should assume that Her JIajesty's 
 Government had undertaken to act upon the 
 principles set forth in these rules. And the 
 high "ontracting parties agree to observe these 
 nile s between themselves in future, and to 
 bring them to the knowledge of other maritime 
 powers, and to invite them to accede to them." 
 Articles 7 to 17, inclusive, relate to the procedure 
 of the tribunal of arbitration, and provide for 
 the determination of claims, by assessors anil 
 commissioners, in ca.se the Arbitrators should 
 llnd any liability on tlie part of Great Britain 
 and should not award a sum in gross to be paid 
 in Bcttlenicnt thereof. Articles 18 to 25 relate to 
 the Fisheries. By Article 18 it is agreed that in 
 addition to the liberty secured to American lish- 
 crmen by the convention of 1818, "of taking, 
 curing and drying lisli on certain coasts of the 
 British North Aiiiericaii colonies therein defined, 
 the inhabitants of the United States shall have, 
 in common with the subjects of Her Britannic 
 Majesty, the liberty for [a i)eiiiid of ten years, 
 and two years further after noliee given by 
 cither party of its wish to terminate the arrange- 
 ment] ... to take lish of every kind, except 
 shell fish, on the sea-coasls and shores, and in 
 the hays, harbours and creeks, of the provinces 
 of Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 
 and the colony of Prince Edward's Island, and 
 of the several islands thereunto adjacent, with- 
 out being restricted lO any distance from the 
 shore, with permission to land upon the said 
 coasts and shores and islands, and also upon the 
 Magdalen Islands, for the purpose of drying 
 their ni'ts and curing their tlsh; provided ihat, 
 in 80 doing, they do not interfere with the rights 
 of private property, or with British lishernun, 
 in the peaceable use of any part of the said 
 
 coa.sts in their occupancy for the same purpose. 
 It is understood that the above-niButioned liberty 
 applies solely to the sea-lishery, and that the 
 salmon and shad tisheries, and all other lisheries 
 in rivers and the mouths of rivers, are hereby 
 reserved exclusively for British fishermen." 
 Article 19 secures to British subjects the corre- 
 .sponding rights of fishing, &c., <m the eastern 
 sea-coasts i!!:;'i shores of the United States nortli 
 of ilie 39th parallel of nortli latitude. Article 20 
 ! icservcs from these stipulations the places that 
 were reserved from the common right of fishing 
 under the first article of the treaty of June 5, 
 1854. Article 21 provides for the reciprocal 
 admission of fisli and fish oil into each country 
 from the other, free of duty (excepting fish of 
 the inland lakes and fish preserved in oil). 
 Article 22 provides that, "Inasmuch as it is 
 asserted by tlu; Government of Her Britannic 
 Majesty that the privileges accorded to the 
 citizens of the United States under Article 
 XVIII of this treaty are of greater value than 
 those accorded by Articles XIX and XXI of this 
 treaty to the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, 
 and this assertion is not admitted by the Gov- 
 ernment of the United States, it is further 
 agreed that C'omnussioners shall be appointed 
 to determine . . . the amount of any compensa- 
 tion which in their opinion, ought to be jiaid by 
 the Government of the United States to the Gov- 
 ernment cf Her Britannic JIajesty." Article 23 
 provides for the appointment of such Commis- 
 sioners, one by the President of the United 
 States, one by Her Britannic JIajesty, and the 
 third by the President and Her JIajesty con- 
 jointly; or, failing of agreement within three 
 months, the third Commissioner to he named by 
 tlie Austrian Minister at London. The Coinir.':i- 
 sioncrs to meet at Halifax, and their procedure 
 to be as prescribed and regulated by Articles 24 
 and 25. Articles 20 to 31 define certain recipro- 
 cal privileges accorded bj' each government to 
 the subjects of the other, including the naviga- 
 tion of the St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine and 
 Stikine Rivers, Lak(! JlicUigan, and the Wclland, 
 St. Lawrence and St. Clair Flats canals ; and the 
 transportation of goods in bond through the 
 territory of one country into the other witliout 
 Iiayment of duties. Article 32 extends the pro- 
 visions of Articles 18 to 25 of the treaty to New- 
 foundland if all parties concerued enact the 
 necessary laws, but not otherwise. Article 33 
 limits the duration of Articles 18 to 25 and Arti- 
 cle 30, to ten years from the date of their going 
 into eitect, antl "further until the expiration of 
 two years after either of the two high contract- 
 ing parties shall have given notice to the i^ier 
 of its wi.sh to terminate the same." The rcflnin- 
 ing articles of the treaty provide for submitting 
 to the arbitration of the Emperor of Germany 
 vhe Northwestern water-boundary question (in 
 the channel between Vancouver's Island and the 
 conthient) — to complete the settlement of North- 
 western boundary disputes. — I'lratirs and Con- 
 ri'itdona heticccii the U. S. and other I'oiccrs (ed. of 
 1889), pp. 478-493. 
 
 Also in C. Cushing, The I'irafi/ of Wa.ihiii;/- 
 ton, app. 
 
 A. D. 1871-1872.— The Tribunal of Arbi- 
 tration at Geneva, and its Award. — " 'I'he ap- 
 pointment of Arbitrators took place in due 
 course, and with the ready good-will of the three 
 neutral governments. The L^iited States up- 
 
 28 
 
ALABAMA CLAIMS. 
 
 ALANS. 
 
 pointed Mr. Charles Francis Adams; Great 
 Uritiiin appointed Sir Al(^\ande^ Cocliburn; tlie 
 Kini; of Italy named Count Frederic Sclopis; 
 the President of tlii^ Swiss Confederation, Mr. 
 .lacol) StitmpHi : and the Emperor of Urazil, the 
 Baron d'ltajuba. Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis was 
 appointed Agent of the United States, and Lord 
 Tentcrden of Great Britain. The Tribunal was 
 organized for the rccepticm of the case of each 
 parly, and held its first conference [at Geneva, 
 .Switzerland] on the IHth of December, 1871," 
 Count Selopii being eho-sen to preside. "The 
 printed Case of the United States, with accom- 
 jianying documents, was tiled by Mr. Bancroft 
 Davis, and the printed Case of Great Britain, 
 with documents, ■ by Lord Tenterde* The 
 Tribunal made regulation for the tiling of the 
 respective Counter-Cases on or l)eforo the 15th 
 day of April next ensuing, as required by *ho 
 Treaty; and for the (uinvening of a spiicial meet- 
 ing of the Tribunal, if occasion should require; 
 and then, at a second meeting, on the next day, 
 they adjourned imtil tlie 15th of June next ensu- 
 ing, subject to a prior call by the Secretary, if 
 there should be oceabion." The sessions of the 
 Tribunal were resumed on the luth of June, 
 1872, according to the adjouriunent, and were 
 c(mtiuned \mtii the 14th of Si^ptomber following, 
 when the decision and award were announced, 
 and were signed by all the Arbitrators except 
 the British representative'. Sir Alexander Cock- 
 burn, who dissented. It was found by the 
 Tribunal that the British Government had 
 "failed to use due diligence in tlie performance 
 of its neutral obligations" with respect to the 
 cruisers Alabama and Florida, and the several 
 tenders of those vessels; and also with respect 
 to tlu! Shenandoah after her departure from Mel- 
 bourne, Feb. 18, 1805, but n<it before that date. 
 With respect to the Georgia, tlie Sumter, the 
 Nashville, the Tallahassee and the Chickainauga, 
 it was the linding of 'he Tribunal that Great 
 Britain had not failed to perform the duties of a 
 neutral power. So far as relates to the vessels 
 called the Sallie, the Jelferson Davis, the 3Iusic, 
 the Boston, and the V. II. Joy, it was the deci- 
 sion of the Tribunal tliat they ought to be 
 excluded from consideration for want of evi- 
 dence. "So far as relates to the particulars of 
 the indemnity claimed by the United States, tlie 
 costs of ijiirsuit of Confederate cruisers " are 
 declared to be "not, in the judgment of the 
 Tribunal, properly distinguishable from the gen- 
 eraj expiuises ot the war carried on by the 
 United States," and "there is no ground for 
 awarding to the United States any sun li- way 
 of indemnity un i^r this head." A s.uillai- deci- 
 sion put aside the whole consideration of claims 
 for " prospective eai:>i!igs." Finally, the award 
 was rendered in the following language; 
 "Whereas, in order to arrive at an equitable 
 compensation for the damages which have been 
 sustained, it is necessary to sot aside all double 
 ( laiins for the same losses, and all claims for 
 'gross freights ' so far as they cxeccid ' net f rcigli ts ;' 
 and whereas it is just anil reasonable to allow 
 interest at a reasonable rate ; and whereas, in nc- 
 eordance with the spirit and letter of the Treaty 
 of Washington, it is preferable to adopt the 
 form of adjudication of a siiiu in gross, rather 
 than to refer the subject of compensation l'>.r 
 further discussion and deliberation to a IJoard of 
 Assessors, as provided by Article X of the said 
 
 Treaty: The Tribunal, making use of the au- 
 thority conferred tipon it by Article VII of the 
 said Treaiy, by a majority of four voices to one, 
 awards to the United States the sum of fifteen 
 millions live hundred thousand Dollars in gold 
 as the indemnity to lie paid by Great Britain to 
 the L'nited States for the satisfaction of all the 
 claims referred to the consideration of the Tri- 
 bunal, conformably to the provisions contained 
 in Article VII of the aforesaid Treaty." It 
 should be stated that the so-called "indirect 
 claims " of the United States, for consequential 
 losses and damagiw, growing out of the enr:our- 
 agement of the Sotithern Uebillion, the prolong- 
 ation of the war, iV'c., were dropped from con- 
 sideration at the outset of the session of the Tri- 
 bunal, in June, tlie Arbitrators agreeing then in 
 a statement of opinion to the cfTeet that "these 
 claims do not constitute, upon the principles of 
 internatioual law applicable to such cases, good 
 foundation for an award of compensation or 
 computation of damages between nations. " This 
 declaration was aecejited by the United States a8 
 deci.sive of the question, and the hearing pro- 
 ceeded accordingly. — C. Gushing, The IVcaty oj 
 Wdshinni'iii. 
 
 Also i.\ F. Wharton, Digest of the Interna- 
 tional Law of the If. .S. , ch. 21 {v. A). 
 
 ALACA3, OR TOLOSO, Battle of (1212). 
 See Almohauls. and Sr.MN: A. D. 114G-1233. 
 
 ALADSHA, Battles of (1877). See Tuuks: 
 A. D. 1877-1878. 
 
 ALAMANCE, Battle of (1771). See Noktii 
 C.vitoMN.v: A. 1). 17G0-1771. 
 
 ALAMANNI. See Ai,i:M.\NNr. 
 
 ALAMO, The massacre of the (1836). See 
 Texas; A. D. 1821-1830. 
 
 ALAMOOT, OR ALAMOUT, The castle 
 of. — The stronghoUl of the "Old Man of the 
 ^Mountain," or Sheikh of tlie terrible order of the 
 Assassins, in northern Persia. Its uaino signifies 
 ' ' the Eagle's nest, " or ' ' the Vulture's nest. ' See 
 Assassins. 
 
 ALANS, OR ALANI, The.— "The Alani 
 are lirsl mentioned by I)iony.sius tlie geographer 
 (B. C. 30-10) who joins them with the Daci and 
 the Tauri, and again places them between the 
 latter and the Agatliyrsi. A similar po.sition (in 
 the south of Russia in Europe, the modem 
 Ukraine) is assigned to them by Pliny and 
 .loseplius. Seneca places them f urth 'i "vest ujjon 
 the Ister. Ptolemy lias two bodies of Alani, one 
 in tlie position above described, the other in 
 Scythia within the Iniaus, north and partly cast 
 of the Caspian. It must liave been from these 
 last, the successors, and, according to some, the 
 descendants of the ancient Jlassagetie, that the 
 Alani came who attacked Pacorus and Tiridates 
 [in .Media and Armenia, A. D. 75]. . . . Tlie 
 result seems to ha\e been that the invaders, after 
 ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at 
 their pleasure, carrie(( oil a vast number of 
 l)risoners and an enormous booty into t.ieir own 
 country." — G. liawlinson, Si.rth Great O.-iintal 
 Monarchy, ch. 17. — E. II. Bunbury, llint. of 
 Ancient Gcn;i., ch. 6, note II.—" The first of thia 
 I the Tartar] race known to the Romans were 
 the Alani. In the fourth century they pitched 
 tlieir tents in the couutry between tliu Volga and 
 'le Tanais. ot an equal distance from the Black 
 Sea and the Caspian."— J. C. L. Sismoudi, Fali 
 of the lioman Enqnre, ch. 3. 
 
 29 
 
ALANS. 
 
 ALBA. 
 
 A. D. 376. — Conquest by the Huns. Sco 
 
 OOTHH (ViKKiOTlIf): A. I). JiTO. 
 
 A. D. 406-409. — Final Invasion of Gaul. 
 See (}Ai;i.: A. 1). 40(!-40y, 
 
 A. D. 409-414.— Settlement in Spain. Hcc 
 Spain: A. 1). 409-414. 
 
 A. D. 429.— With the Vandals in Africa. 
 Sei^ Vandals: A. I). 429-4:ii(. 
 
 A. D. 451.— At the Battle of Chalons. See 
 lIu.Ns: A. 1). 451. 
 
 ALARCOS, Battle of (A. D. 1195). Sec 
 Ai.MoHAnr.s. 
 
 ALARIC'S RAVAGES IN GREECE 
 AND CONQUEST OF ROME. Ste Goriis: 
 A. 1). :«<"): 4(l(l-4(»:j, and Hdmk: A. D. 4US-H0. 
 ALARODIANS. - IBERIANS. - COL- 
 CHIANS.— "The Aliirodiiuis of IlorodoHis, 
 joined with (hi; Siipeires . . . are almost cer- 
 tainly the inhabitants of Armenia, whoso Semitic 
 name was Urarda, or Ararat. ' Alarud,' indeed, 
 is a mc-e variant form of 'Ararud,' the 1 and r 
 being undistinguisliable in the old Persian, and 
 ' Ararud ' serves deterniinately to connect the 
 Ararat of Scripture with the Urardi>, or Urartlia 
 of the Inscriptions. . . . The name of Ararat is 
 constantly used in Srrliiture, but always to de- 
 note a country rather iliui a particular moun- 
 tain. . . . 'I'lii' connexion . . . of Urania with 
 the Babylonian tribe of Akkad is iirovcd by the 
 application in the inscriptions of the ethnic title 
 of Burbur (?) to the Armenian king . . . ; but 
 there is nothing to jjrove whether the Burbur (jr 
 Akkad of Babylonia descended in a very remote 
 age from the mountains to colonize the plains, 
 or whether the Urardians were refugeesof a later 
 period driven northward by the growing power 
 of the Semites. The former supposition, how- 
 ever, id most in ccmforniily with Scriptiu'e, 
 and incidentally with the tenor of the inscrip- 
 tions." — II. C. lljiwlinson, llint. of Ilcrmlotim, 
 bk. 7, app. 3. — "The broad and rich valley of 
 the Kur, which corresnonds closely with the 
 modern Russian provmcc of Georgia, was 
 [anciently] in the'possessionof a people called by 
 Herodottis Sa'peires or Sapeires, whom we may 
 identify with the Iberians of later writers. Ad- 
 joining tipon them towards the sotitli, probably 
 In the country about J>ivan, and so in the 
 neighbourhood of Ararat, were the Alarodians, 
 whose nam J must be connected with that of the 
 great mountain. On the other side of the 
 Sapcirian country, in the tracts now known as 
 Mingrelia and Iiiicritia, regions of a wonderful 
 beauty and fertility, were the Colchians, — de- 
 pendi'iits, but not exactly subjects, of Persia." — 
 Q. Hawlinsou, Five (ircat Monarchies: I'cnia, 
 eh. 1. 
 
 ALASKA: A. D. 1867.— Purchase by the 
 United States. — As early as 185!) there were uu- 
 ollicialconinuniidilions between the Uussian and 
 American govfnuncntj*, on the subject of the 
 sale of Alaska iiy the former to the latter, llus- 
 sia was more than w illing to part with a piece of 
 territory wliich. site found dillicully in defending, 
 In war; and the interests connected with liic 
 llsheries and the fur-trado in the north-west 
 Were disposed to proi.'iote the transfer. In 
 March, 1807, defliiil^' negotiations on the subject 
 were opened by th" Uus.siau minister at AVash- 
 ington, and on the 'i'M of that month he received 
 from Secretary Seward an offer, subject to the 
 President's approval, of $7,200,000, on cuuditioQ 
 
 that the cession be " free and imencumbered by 
 any reservations, privileges, franci.isca, grants, 
 or possessions by any associated companies, 
 whether corporate or incorporate, Uussian, or 
 any other." "Two days later an answer was 
 returned, stating that the minister believed him- 
 self authorized to accept these terms. On the 
 29th tiual instructions were received by cable 
 from St. Petersburg. On the same day a note 
 v/as addressed by tlic minister to the secretary of 
 .state, informing him that the tsar consentc(l to 
 the cession of Russian America for the stipu- 
 lated sum of $7,200,000 in gold. At four 
 o'clock the ne.xt morning the treaty was signed by 
 the two parties without further pliras!. or negoti- 
 ation, in May the treaty was ratified, and on 
 .Tune 20, 1867, the usual proclamation was issued 
 by the president of the United States." On the 
 18th of October, 1807, the formal transfer of the 
 territory was made, at Sitka, General Rousseau 
 taking possession in the name of the Govern- 
 ment of the United States. — II. H. Bancroft, 
 JliKt. of tJio Pacific States, 1: 28, ch. 28. 
 
 Ai.so IN W. H. Dall, Alaska and il« Iksourees. 
 pt. 2, ch. 2. — For some account of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants, see Amkuiian Abokigines: Es- 
 KiMAiAN Family and Atiiai'Ascan Family. 
 
 ALATOONA, Battle of. See Uxnion States 
 OK Am.: a. 1). 1864 (Septe.mbeu — Octoiikk: 
 Geouoia). 
 
 ALBA. --Alban Mount. — "Cantons . . . 
 having tLi>ir iciul, vous in rome .stronghold, and 
 including a >;ertain number of clansiiips, form 
 the primitive political unities with which Italian 
 history begins. At what period, and to what 
 extent, inch cantons were formed in Latiiim, 
 cannot be determined with precision ; nor is it u 
 matter of special historical interest. The 
 isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold 
 of Latium, which offered to settlers the most 
 wholesome air, the freshest springs, and the 
 most secin'o position, would doubtless be first 
 occupied by the new comers. Here accord- 
 ingly, along the narrow plateau above Palaz- 
 zuola, between the Alban lake (Logo di Castcllo) 
 and the Alban mount (Monte Cavo) extended 
 the town of Aiba, which was universally 
 regarded as the primitive seat of the Latin 
 stock, and the mother-city of Rome, as well as 
 of all the other OliJ Latin communities. Here, 
 too, on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin 
 canton-centres of Lanir'ium, Aricia, and Tus- 
 culura. . . . All these cantons were in primiti ire 
 times politically soveroii5n, and c&cn of them 
 was governed by its prince with the co-opera- 
 tion of the council of elders and the assembly of 
 warriors. Nevertheless the feeling of fellov/ 
 ship based on community of descent ond of 
 language not only jicrvaded the whole of them, 
 but manifested itself in an important religious 
 and political institution — the perpetual league 
 of the collective Latin cantons. The presidency 
 belonged originally, according to the tmiversal 
 Italian as well as ilelleuic usage, to that cautim 
 within who.se bounds lay the meeting- place of 
 the league; in this case it was the canton of 
 Alba. . . . The communities entitled to partici- 
 pate in tliu league were in the beginning thirty. 
 . . . The rendezvous of this tmitm was, like the 
 Pambtcotia and tlie I'anionia among the Bimilar 
 confederacies of the Greeks, the ' Latin festival ' 
 (feriic Lutiiue) at which, on the Mount of Alba, 
 upon a day annually appointed by the chief 
 
 30 
 
ALBA. 
 
 ALUEKUNl 
 
 magistrate foi the purpose, an ox was offered in 
 sacrifice by tlie iisseniblcd Latin stocli to the 
 ' Latin god ' (Jupiter Latiaris)."— T. Jlommsen, 
 Hint, of Rome, lik. 1, ch. 3. 
 
 Ai.so IN Sir W. Gell, Tojy'ti. of Rome, v. 1. 
 
 ALBA DE TORMES, Battle of. Sec 
 
 Si-ain: a. I). IHO'J (AUOI.ST— XOVEMIIEK). 
 
 ALBAIS, The. See Amehican Anouioi- 
 NEs: Pampas Tkiiies. 
 ALBAN, Kingdom of. See Albion; also, 
 
 Scori.ANU; 8TH-itTII Centhuieb. 
 
 ALBANI, The. See Britain, Tbibes of 
 VvA.nv. 
 
 ALBANIANS: Ancient. See Epibus and 
 
 ll.I.YUIANS, 
 
 Medisval. — "From tlie .scttlcnicnt of the 
 Servian Sclavonians witliin the bounds of tlie 
 empire [during the reign of Ilcraelius, first half 
 of tlie seventh century], we may . . . venture to 
 date the earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or 
 Albanian nice on the Hellenic jjopulation. The 
 .Mbanians or Arnauts, who are now called b;, 
 tliemselves Skiptars, are supjiosed to be rem>uns 
 of I lie great Thracian race wliicli, under various 
 names, and more jiiirtieularly as Pa'.oniuns, 
 Eiiirots and Macedcmiaiis, take lin impo' lant part 
 in early Grecian history. Xo distinct Iraceof the 
 period at which tlicj' began to be ro-proprietors 
 of Greece with the Hellenic race can be fo\nid 
 in history. ... It se(>ms very dilTicult to tract! 
 back the history of the Grcjk nation without 
 suspecting that" the germs jf their modern con- 
 dition, like lho.se of the!; neighbours, are to be 
 souglit in the singular events which occurred in 
 the reign of Ilcraelius ■' — G. Finlay, Greece Vmhr 
 the Romans, ch. 4, f.ct. 0. 
 
 A. D. I443-Iij67. — Scanderbeg's War with 
 the Turks. — "John Caslriot. Lord of Emal- 
 thia (tlie in.K.ern district of Moghlene) [in 
 Epiru.^ or .Albania] had submitted, like the 
 other petty despots of those regions, to Amurath 
 early in his reign, and had ])laced his four sous 
 in tlio Sultan's liands as hostages for his fidelity. 
 Tb-.ce of them died young. The fourth, whose 
 name was George, pleased the Sultan by his 
 beauty, strength and intelligence. Amurath 
 caused him to be brought up iu the Mahometan 
 creed; and, when lie was only eighteen, con- 
 ferred on him the government of one of the 
 Sanjaks of the empire. The young Albanian 
 proved his courage and skill iu many exploits 
 under .Vmurath's eye, and received from him the 
 name of Iskanderbeg, the lord Alexander. 
 When John Castriot died, Amunith took pos- 
 session of liis priiicipaliti(^s and kept the son con- 
 stantly employed in distant wars. Scanderbcg 
 brooded over this injury ; and when the Turkish 
 armies were routed by Huiiyades in the cam- 
 paign of 1143, Scandefbegdeiermined to escajje 
 from their side and assume forcible possession of 
 his patrimonv. lie suddenly entered the tent 
 of the Sultans chief secretary, and forced that 
 functionary, witli tlie poniard at his throat, to 
 write and seal a formal order to the Turkish 
 commander of the strong city of (.'roia, in 
 Albania, to deliver that place and the adjatuMit 
 territory to Scanderbcg, as the Sultan's viceroy. 
 He then stabbed the secretary and hastened to 
 Croia. whore his strategem gained him instant 
 adi'iittanee and submission. He now publicly 
 abjured the Mahometan f .Hh, and declared his 
 intention of defending the creed of his fore- 
 fathers, and restoriut" the independence of his 
 
 native land. Tlie Christian population tlockcii 
 readily to his banner and the Turks -.vere mas- 
 sacred witliout mercy. For nearly twenty-five 
 years Scanderbcg contended a<:ainst all the 
 jiower of the Ottomans, though, directed by the 
 skill of Amurath and his successor Mahomet, 
 the conqueror of Constantinople." — Sir E. 8. 
 Crcasj', Hint, of the Otioinan Tiirkx, ch. 4. — 
 " Scanderbcg died a fugitive at Lissus on the 
 Venetian territory [ V. D. 1467J. His sepulchre 
 was soon violated by the Turkish contjuerors; 
 but the janizaries, who wore his bones enchased 
 in a bracelet, declared by this superstitious 
 amulet their involuntary reverence for his 
 valour. . . . His infant son was saved from the 
 national shipwreck; the Castiiots were invested 
 with a, Neapolitan (lukod;)m, and their blood 
 continues to How in the noblest families of the 
 ralm." — E. Gibbon, Decline und Full of tlm 
 Roman Empire, ch. B7. 
 
 Also in A. Lamarline, Hist, of Turkey, bk. 11, 
 sect. 11-25. 
 
 A. D. 1694-1696. — Conquests by the Vene- 
 tians. SeoTuuKs: A. I). lOS-t-ieUG. 
 
 ALBANY, N. Y. : A. D. 1623.— The first 
 Settlement. — In 1614, the year after the first 
 Dutch traders had estallished their openitions on 
 Manhattan Island, they built a trading house, 
 which they called Fort Nassau, on Castle Island, 
 in tlie Hudson lUver, a little below the site of 
 the present city of Albany. Three years later 
 this small fort was carried away by a llood and 
 the island abandoned. In 1023 a more impoitant 
 fortification, namcil Fort Orange, was erected on 
 the site afterwards covered by tlio business part 
 of Albany. That year, "about eighteen families 
 settled themselves at Fort Orange, under Adriaen 
 Joris, who 'staid with them all \?inter,' after 
 sending his sliipliome to Holland in charge of his 
 son. As soon as the colonists had built them- 
 selves ' some huts of bark ' around the fort, the 
 Mahikanders or River Indians [.Mohegans], the 
 3Iohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the 
 Cayugas, and the Senccas, with the Mahawawa 
 or Ottawawa Indians, 'came and made covenants 
 of friendship . . . and desired that they might 
 come and have a constant free trade with them, 
 which was concluded upon.'" — J. II. Brodhead, 
 Uist. of tlte State of JV. I'., r. 1, pp. 55 and 151. 
 
 A. D. 1630. — Embraced in the land-purchase 
 of Patroon Van Rensselaer. See New Yohk: 
 A. IX 1021-llil(>. 
 
 A. D. 1664. — Occupied and named by the 
 English. SeeNEwYouK: A. 1). 10(!4, 
 
 A. D. 1673. — Again occupied by the Dutch. 
 See New Youk: A. I). lOTIJ. 
 
 A. D. 1754. — The Colonial Congress and its 
 plans of Union. Sec rxiTKi) States ok .Vm. : 
 A. 1). ITol. ^ 
 
 ALBANY AND SCHENECTADY RAIL- 
 ROAD OPENING. Sec Stea.m Locomotion 
 O.N Land. 
 
 ALBANY REGENCY, The. See New 
 Youk; A. 1). lyja 
 
 ALBEMARLE, The Ram, and her de- 
 struction. See United States ok Am.: A, 1). 
 1H(>4 (.Vi'Uii, — ;May: Nobtii Cauolina), and 
 (Octouku: N. Cauomna). 
 
 ALBERONI f^--"' , ine Spanish Min- 
 istry of. See «i>ain: A. 1). 1713-1725; and 
 Italy: A. D. 1715-1735. 
 
 81 
 
ALUEUT. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, 
 
 ALBERT, King of Sweden, A. D. 1385-1388. 
 ....Albert, riector of Brandenburg, A. I). 
 147()-14H(!.... Albert I., Duke of Austria and 
 King of Germany, A. J). 1298-1308. .. .Albert 
 II., Duke of Austria, King of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, A. D. 1437-1440; King of Germany, 
 A. I). 1438-1440. 
 
 ALBERTA, The District of Sec Noinii- 
 \vi;ht 'ri:uitiT<)uiKS of (;an.\1)a. 
 
 ALBERTINE LINE OF SAXONY. See 
 Sa\(i.\y: a. 1). 1180-1553. 
 
 ALBICI, The.— A Gullic tribe which occu- 
 ])ii(l the hills above 51iissiliii (Marseilles) and 
 will) are (leserihed as a savage people even in 
 I'le time of C'lesar, when they helped the IMassil- 
 iots to defend their city against him. — G. Long, 
 V<cliiii' nf t/ic lioninii Ihpiiblie, r. 5, rh. 4. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, OR ALBIGEOIS, The. 
 — " Nothing is more curions in Christian history 
 tlian the vitality of the Manieheau opinions. 
 That wild, half poetie, half rationalistic theory 
 of Christianity, . . . appears almost suddeidy 
 in the 12th <'entury, in living, almost irvesist- 
 ible power, lirst in its intermediate settlement 
 in lliilgaria, and on the bcjrders of the Greek 
 Empire, then in Italy, in France, in Ger- 
 many, in the remoter West, at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees. . . . The <hief seat of these opinions 
 was the south of France. Innocent III., on his 
 accession, found not only these daring insur- 
 gents scattered in the cities of Italy, even, as it 
 were, at his own gates (among hiii first acts 
 was to sidxhio the I'aterines of Vilerbo), he 
 found a whole province, a realm, in some re- 
 spects the richest and noblest of his spiritual do- 
 main, absolutely dissevered from his Emp' ■, 
 in almost universal revolt from Latin ChrLstian- 
 ity. ... In no [other] Euroitean country had 
 the clergy (jp entirely, or it should seem so de- 
 servedly, forfeited its nuthoritj'. In none had 
 the Church more ab.solutely ceased to perform 
 its proper functions." — II. II. Jlilman, llist. of 
 L<itiii Ohristianity, hk. 9, ch. 8. — "By mere 
 chance, the sects scattered in South France 
 received the common name of Albigenses, from 
 one of the districts where the agents of the 
 church who came to combat them found them 
 mostly to abound, — the dist-ict around the 
 town of Alba, or Alby; and by this conmiou 
 name they were well known from the commence- 
 ment of the thirteenth century. Under this 
 general denomination parties ct dillerent tonetu 
 were cimiprcheuded together, but the Catharlsts 
 seem to have constituted a pred uniuant element 
 uraong the people thus designated." — A. Nean- 
 dcr, Gen. liiat. of the ChrMan licl. and Ch., 
 Ml pi:r., iU)\ 3, acrt. 4, fit. 13. — " Of the sectaries 
 who sluired the errors of Gnostiiatni and iMani- 
 chrcism and opposed the Catholic Church and 
 her hierarchy, the Albigenses were the most 
 thorough and radical. Their errors were, in- 
 deed, pa.'tly Gnostic and partly JIanichivan, 
 but the latter was the more prominent and 
 fully developed. Tliey received their name 
 from a district of 1 ruedoe, inhabited by the 
 Albigeois and ki" ling the town of Albi. 
 
 They are called i and Patarini in the acts 
 
 of the Couiuiil i rs (A. D. 11G3), and in 
 
 those of the third Ln m, Publiciani (i. e., Pauli- 
 ciani). Like the Cathaii, they also held that the 
 evil spirit created all visible things."— J. Alzog, 
 Manual of Unie. (!li. Jlint., jKriod 3, efxich 2, 
 pt. 1, ch. 3, sect. 238.— "The imputations of 
 
 irreligion, heresy, and shameless debauchery, 
 whicli have been cast with so much bittternoss 
 on the Albigenses by their persecutors, and 
 which have been so zealously denied by their 
 apologists, are probably not ill founded, if the 
 word Albigi^nses be employed as synonymous 
 with tl J words Provengaux or Languedocians; 
 for they were ajiparenlly a race among whom 
 the hallowed charities of domestics life, and the 
 reverence due to divine ordinances and the hom- 
 age due to divine truth, were often impaired, 
 and not seldom extlngulUied, by ribald jests, by 
 infidel scollings, and by heart-hardening inii)uri- 
 ties. Like other voluptuaries, the Provenyaux 
 (as their remaining literature attests) were ac- 
 customed to find matter for merriment in vices 
 which would have moved wise men to tears. 
 Hut if by the word Albigenses be meant the 
 Vaudois, or those followers (or associates) of 
 Peter AVahlo who revived the doctrines against 
 which the Church of Home directed her censures, 
 then the accusation of dissoluteness of maimers 
 may be safely rejected as altogether calunmious, 
 anil the charge of heresy may be considered, if 
 not as entirely tinfoimded, yet as u cruel and 
 injurious exaggeration." — Sir J. Stephen, Lccta. 
 on the llint. of France, Icct. 7. 
 
 Ai.BO IN L. JIariotti, Fm Dolciiio and his 
 Tiniis. — See, also, P((uliciinin, anil Vathariats. 
 
 A. D. 1209. — The First Crusade. — Pope 
 "Innocent III., in organizing the persecution of 
 the iJatiiarins [or CatharistsJ, the Patarins, and 
 the Pauvres de Lyons, exercised a spirit, and 
 displayed a genius similar to tho.so which had 
 already elevated him to almost universal domin- 
 ion; which had enabled him to dictate at once to 
 Italy and to Germany; to c mtrol the kings of 
 France, of Spain, and of England; to overthrow 
 the Greek Empire, and to substitute in its stead 
 a Latin dynastv at Con.-tantiuoplc. In the zeal 
 of the Cistercian Ordci', and of their Abbot, 
 Arnaud Amalric; in the tiery and unwearied 
 (^reaching of the first Inquisitor, the Spanish 
 iMissiouary, Dominic ; in the remorseless activity 
 of Foulquet, Bishop of Toulouse ; and above uU, 
 in the strong and tinpitjing arm of Simon de 
 Montfort, Earl of Ijcicester, Innocent found ready 
 instruments for his purpose. Thus aided, he ex- 
 communicated Kaymond of Toulouse [A. D. 
 1207], as Chief of tlic Heretics, and he ijromised 
 lemission of sins, and all the privileges wliich 
 had hitherto been exclusively conferred on ad- 
 venturers in Palestine, to the champions who 
 should enroll themselves as Cru.saders in the far 
 more easy enterprise of a Holy War against the 
 Albigenses. In the lirst invasion of his territories 
 [A. 1). 1209], Kaymoud VI. gave way before the 
 terrors excited by the 800,00(> fanatics who pre- 
 cii)itated themselves on Languedoc; and loudly 
 declaring his personal freedom from heresy, he 
 surrendered his chief castles, underwent a humili- 
 ating penaiice, and took the cross against his own 
 subjects. The brave resistance of his nephew 
 IJaymond Uoger, Viscount of Bezii)res, deserved 
 but did not obtain sueeess. When the crusaders 
 surrounded his capital, which was occupied by a 
 mixed population of the two Ueligions, a ques- 
 tion was raised how, in the approaching sack, the 
 Catholics should bo distinguished from the Ilerc- 
 tics. ' Kill them all,' was the ferocious reply of 
 Amalric; 'the Lord will easily know His own.' 
 In compliance with this advice, not one human 
 being within the walls was permitted to survive; 
 
 83 
 
ALBIGENSE8. 
 
 ALI3IGEN8E8. 
 
 and the tale of slaughter has been variously 
 estimated, bv those who have perhaps exagger- 
 ated the mmibei-s, at (iO.OOO, but even in the ex- 
 tenuiitiug desputeh, whicli tlio Abbot himself 
 nd<lresscd to llie Poi)e, at not fewer than 15,000. 
 Riiyinond Uoirer was not iucliulcd iu this fearful 
 inassiv re, ai»l lie repulsed two altaeks upon Car- 
 cassonne, before a treacherous bivach of faith 
 placed him at tiic disposal of de Montfort, by 
 whom h(! was i)oisoned after a sliort imprison- 
 ment. Tlio removal of that yoimg and gallant 
 Prince •■vas indeed most important to the ulterior 
 project of liis capt(n-, who aimed at permanent 
 establislnnent iu tlie South. Tiic familv of do 
 Montfort liail ranla'd among the nobles of France 
 for more tliau two centuries; and it is traced by 
 some writers tlirougli au illegitimate channel 
 even to the throne: but tlie possessions of Simon 
 himself were scanty; necessity had compelled 
 him to sell the Coiinty of Evrcux to Plnlippo 
 Auguste ; and the English Earldom of Leicester 
 whicli he inherited 'naternally, and the Lordship 
 of a Castle about ten leagues distant from Paris, 
 formed the whole of his revenues." — E. Smedley, 
 Ilist. of France, eh. 4. 
 
 Ai.so IN J. C. L. de Sismondi, Hist, of the 
 Vrusddes ay'st the Albif/cnsci, eh. 1. — H. II. Mil- 
 man, Hint, of Ddin Vhnntianity, bk. 0, eh. 8. — 
 .1. Alzog, Man. of Unicerm' Chureh Hist., period 
 2, eiwch 3, pt. 1, eii. 3. — See, also, Inquisition: 
 A. D. 1203-1535. 
 
 A. D. I2I0-I2I3,— The Second Crusade. — 
 " The comiuest of tlie Viscounty of Bezicrs liad 
 rather inllamcd than satiated tlio cupidity of D ! 
 Montfort and the fanaticism of Amalric [legate 
 of the Pope] and of the monks of Citeaux. 
 Raymond, Count of Toulouse, still possessed the 
 fairest part of Languedoc, and was still sus- 
 pected or accused of affording shelter, if not 
 countenance, to his heretical subjects. . . . The 
 unhappy Kaymond \.-as . . . ag;iin excommuni- 
 cated from tlie Cliriatian Church, and his domin- 
 ions offered a? a reward to the champions who 
 should e.\ecute her sentence against him. To 
 earn that reward Do Jlontfort, at the head of a 
 new host of Crusaders, attracted by the promiso 
 of earthly sjioils and of heavenly blessedness, 
 once more inarched through the devoted land 
 [A. D. 1310], and with him advanced Amalric. 
 At <:<\c\\ suci!es.sive conquest, slaughter, rapine, 
 and woes such as may not bo described tracked 
 and polluted their steps. Heretics, or tliose sus- 
 pected of heresy, wherever they were found, 
 were compelled by the legate to ascend vast piles 
 of burning I'agots' . . . At length the Crusaders 
 rcachedandlaidsiegetotliecityofToulou.se. . . . 
 Throwiu'' liimself into the place, l{)iymond . . . 
 succeeded in repulsing Do Montfort and Amal- 
 ric. It was. however, but a temiiorary respite, 
 and the ;)relii(le to a fearful destruction. From 
 beyond the I'ynuices, at tlie head of 1,000 
 knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to the 
 rescue of Kaymond, his kinsman, and of the 
 counts of Foix and of Comminges, and of the 
 Viscount of Beam, his vassals; and their united 
 forces came into communication with each other 
 at Muret, a little town which is about three 
 leagues distant from Toulouse. There, also on 
 the 13lh of September [A. D. 1313], at the head 
 of the champions of the Cross, and attended by 
 Seven bishops, appeared Simon de Montfort in 
 full militaiy array. The battle which followed 
 was tierce, short and decisive. . . . Don Pedro 
 
 3 
 
 was numbered with the slain. His army, de 
 prived of his cominand, broke and dispersed, 
 ami the whole of the infantry of Kaymond and 
 his allies were eitlier put to the sword, or swept 
 away by the current of the Garonne. Toulouse 
 immediately surrendered, and the whole of the 
 dominions of Uaymond submitted to the cou- 
 querors. At a council subsequently held at 
 Jlontpcllier, com|)osed of the arclibisho])s and 
 twenty-eight bishops, Do Montfort was unani- 
 mously acknowledged as prince of the tief and 
 city of Toulouse, and of tlie other counties con- 
 quered by tlio Crusaders under his command." — 
 Sir J. Stephen, Lcct's on the Hist, of France, 
 Icet. 7. 
 
 Ai.po IN J. C. L. de Sismondi, Hist, of Crusadea 
 iif/'st the Alhi'jciiscs, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1217-1229. — The Renewed Crusades. 
 — Dissolution of the County of Toulouse. — 
 Pacification of Languedoc. — "The cruel spirit 
 of De Mimtfort would not allow him to rest 
 quiet in his new Empire. Violence and perse- 
 cution marked his rule ; he sought to destroy the 
 Proven(;al population by the s'vord or the stake, 
 nor could he bring himself to tolerate the liber- 
 ties of the citizens of Toulouse. In 1317 the 
 Toulousans again revolted, and war once more 
 broke out betwixt Count Raymond and Simon 
 do Montfort. Tiic latter formed the siege of the 
 capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, 
 when a stone from one of the walls struck liiiu 
 and put an end to his existence. . . . Amaury 
 de Jlontfort, son of Simon, offered to cede to tlio 
 king all his rights in Languedoc, which he was 
 unable to defeud against the old house of Tou- 
 louse. Philip [.ViigiLstiis] hesitated to accept 
 the Important cession, and left the rival houses 
 to the continuance of a struggle carried feebly on 
 by either side." King Philip died iu 1323 and 
 was succeeded by u son, Louis VIII., who had 
 none of his father's reluctance to join in the 
 grasping persecution of tlie unfortunate people 
 of the south. Amaury de Montfort had been 
 fairly driven out of old Simon de Jlontfort's con- 
 quests, and he now sold them to King Louis for 
 the olUce of constable of France. "A new cru- 
 sade was preached against tlie Albigenses; and 
 Louis marched towards Languedoc at the head 
 of a formidable army in the spring of tlie year 
 1320. The town of Avignon hiul proferrcd to 
 the crusaders the facilities of crossing the Rliono 
 under her walls, but refused entry within them 
 to such a host. Louis having ariivod at Avig- 
 non, insisted oa passing through the town : tlio 
 Avignonais .shut their gates, and defied the mon- 
 arcli, who instanily forni'-d the siege. One of 
 the rich municipalities of tiie soiitli was almost a 
 match for the king of France. He was kept three 
 months under its walls; his army a prey to fam- 
 ine, to disease and to the assaults of a brave garri- 
 son. The crusaders lost 30,000 men. The people 
 of Avignon at length submitted, but on no dis- 
 honourable terms. This was the only resistance 
 tliat Louis experienced in Languedoc. . . . All 
 submitted. Louis retired from his facile con- 
 quest; he himself, and the e.'iiefs of his army 
 stricken by an epideniy which had prevailed in 
 the conquered regions. The monarch's feeble 
 frame .could not resist it; he expired at Montpen- 
 aier. in Auvergne, in November, 1326." Louis 
 
 VIII. was succeeded by his young son, Louis 
 
 IX. (Saint Louis), then a boy, under the regency 
 of his energetic and capable mother, Blanche of 
 
 88 
 
ALBIGENSES. 
 
 ALCANTARA. 
 
 Castile. " The termination of the war with the 
 Alljigenses, and the paciflcation, or it might bo 
 called the aaiuisition, of Laiigucdoc, was tlio 
 chief aet of Queen Blanche's regency. Louis 
 VIIL had overrun the country without resistance 
 in liis last campaign ; still, at his departure, Ray- 
 mond VL again appearecl, collected soldiers and 
 continued to struggle against the royal lieuten- 
 ant. For upward of two years he maintained 
 himself; the attention of Blanche being occupied 
 by the league of the barons against her. The 
 successes of Raymond VIL, accomiianied by 
 cruelties, awalicned the vindictive zeal of the 
 pojjc. Liuiguedoc was threatened with another 
 crusade; Raymond was willing to treat, and 
 make considerable cessions, in order to avoid 
 such extremities. In April, 1229, a treaty was 
 signed: in it the rights of De Mont fort were 
 passed over. About two-thirds of the domains 
 of the count of I'oulouse were ceded to the king 
 of France; the remainder was to fall, after 
 Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne, who 
 by the same treaty was to marry one of the royal 
 princes: heirs failing them, it was to revert to 
 the crown [wliicli it did in 1271]. On tliesc 
 terms, with the liumiliating addition of a public 
 penance. Raymond VIL once more was allowed 
 peaceable possession of Toulouse, and of the 
 part of his domains reserved to him, Alplionse, 
 brother of Louis IX., married Jeanne of Tou- 
 lou.se soon after, and took the title of count of 
 Poitiers; that province being ceded ♦.) him in 
 apanage. Robert, another brother, was made 
 count of Artois at the Siuiio time. Lo 'is himself 
 married JIargaret,tlie eldcstdaughterof Raymond 
 Bcrenger, ccnmt of Provence." — E. E. Crowe, 
 Hist, of France, v. 1, ch. 2-3. — "Tlie struggle 
 ended ina vast increase of tlie power of the French 
 crown, at the expense alilic of the house of Tou- 
 louse and of the house of Aragon. The domin- 
 ions of the count of To\ilouse were divided. A 
 number of liefs, Boziers, Narbonno, Niines, Albi, 
 and some other districts were at once aimcxed to 
 the crown. The capital itself and its county 
 passed to the crown flfty years later. . . . The 
 name of Toulouse, except as the name of the 
 city itself, now passed away, and the new ac- 
 quisitions of Fran('e came in the end to be known 
 by the name of the tongue which was connnon 
 to tliem with A(iuitaiue and Imperial Burgundy 
 [Provence]. Under the name of Languedoo 
 they became one of the greatest and most valu- 
 able provinces of the French kingdom." — E. A. 
 Freeman, Hint. Qeog. of Kiinipe, ch. 9. 
 
 The brutality and destructiveness of the 
 Crusades. — "The Church ot the Albigenses 
 had been drowned in blood. These supposed 
 heretics had been swept away from the soil of 
 France. The rest of the Languedocian peoi)lc 
 had been overwhelmed with calamity, slaughter, 
 and devastation. Tlie estimates transmitted to 
 ns of the inimbers of the invaders and of the 
 slain are such as almost surpass belief. AVe can 
 neither verify nor correct t'.icm; but we cer- 
 tainly know that, during a long succession of 
 years, Langtiedoc had been invaded by armies 
 more ntuncrous than had ever before been 
 brought togetlier in Eurojiean warfare since 
 the fall of tlie Roman empire. 'VVe know that 
 these hosts were composed of num inllamed by 
 bigotry and unrestrained by discipline; that they 
 Inid neither military pay nor magazines; that 
 they provided for all their wants by the sword. 
 
 living at the expense of the country, and seizing 
 at their pleasure both the harvests of the peas- 
 ants and the merchandise of the citizens. More 
 than three-fourths of the landed proprietors had 
 been despoiled of their flefs and castles! In 
 hundreds of villages, every inhabitant had been 
 massacred. . . . Since the sack of Rome by the 
 Vandals, the European world had never mourned 
 over a national disaster so wide in its extent or 
 so fearful in its character." — Sir J. Stephen, 
 Lects. on the Hist, of France, led. 7. 
 
 ALBION. — "The most ancient name known 
 to have been given to this island [Britain] is 
 that of Albion. . . . There is, however, another 
 allusion to Britain which seems to carry us much 
 further back, though it has usually been ill 
 understood. It occurs in the story of the labours 
 of Hercules, who, after securing the cows of 
 Geryon, comes from Spain to Liguria, where he 
 is attacked by two giants, whom he kills before 
 making his way to Italy. Now, according to 
 Pomponius 3Iela, the names of the giimts were 
 Albiona and Bergyon, which one may, without 
 much hesitation, restore to the forms of Albion 
 and Iberion, representing, undoubtedly, Britain 
 and Ireland, the position of wliicli in the sea 
 is most appropriately symbolized by the story 
 making tliem sons of Neptune or the sea-god. 
 . . . Even in tlie time of Pliny, Albion, as the 
 name of the island, had fallen out of use with 
 Latin authors; but not so with the Greeks, or 
 with the Celts themselves, at any rate those of 
 the Goidelic branch; for they are probably right 
 who suiipose that we have but the same word 
 in the Irish and Scotch Gwlic Alba, genitive 
 Alban, the kingdom of Alban or Scotland beyond 
 the Forth. AJbion would be a form of the name 
 according to tlio Brythonic pronunciation of it. 
 ... It would thus appear that the name Albion 
 is one that has retreated to a corner of the island, 
 to the whole of which it once applied." — J. 
 Rhys, Cdtia Britain, ch. 6. 
 
 Also in E. Guest, Orirjiuca Ctllicae, ch. 1. — 
 See ScoTLANU: 8Tir-9Tii cicNTiiiiKS. 
 
 ALBIS, The. — The ancient name of the river 
 Elbe. 
 
 ALBOIN, King of the Lombards, A. D. 
 560-57;!. 
 
 ALCALDE, — ALGUAZIL.—CORREGI- 
 DOR. — "The word alcalde is from the Arabic 
 ' al cadi,' the judge or governor. . . . Alcalde 
 mayor signities a judge, learned in the law, who 
 exercises [in Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil 
 and criminal, in a town or district." In the 
 Spanish colonies the Alcalde mayor was the chief 
 judge. "Irving (Columbus, ii. 331) writes er- 
 roneously alguazil mayor, evidently confounding 
 the two offices. . . . An alguacil mayor, was a 
 chief constable or high shcrill." " Corregidor, 
 a magistrate having civil and criminal jurisdic- 
 tion in the first instance ( 'nisi priiis') and gub- 
 ernatorial inspection in the iiolitica! and_ eco- 
 nomical government in all the towns of the district 
 assigned to him." — II. II. Bancroft, Hist, of tlie 
 Pacific States, r. 1, pp. 297 and 2i)0, foot-notes. 
 
 ALCANIZ, Battle of. See Spain: A. D. 
 1809 (Fekuuauy — Jl'NE). 
 
 ALCANTARA, Battle of ths (1580). See 
 PouTt'dAi,; A. D. ir)75)-1580. 
 
 ALCANTARA, Knights of.— "Towards 
 the close of Alfonso's reign [Alfonso VIII. of 
 Castile and Leon, who called himself ' the Em- 
 
 34 
 
ALCANTARA. 
 
 ALEMANNI, A. D. 250. 
 
 pcror,' A. D. 1120-1157], may be assigned the 
 origin of the miliUiry order of Alcantara. Two 
 cavaliers of Salamanai, don Suero and don 
 Gomez, left that city with tlic design of choos- 
 ing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, 
 whence they could not only arrest the continual 
 Incursions of the floors, but make hostile irrup- 
 tions th'Mnselves into the territories of tlie misbe- 
 lievers. I'roceeding along the banks of the 
 Coalcs, tliey fell in with a hermit, Amando by 
 name, who encoura. ^d thera in their patriotic 
 design and recomnit dcil the neighbouring her- 
 mitage of St. Juliar 5 an excellent site for a 
 fortress. Having examined and approved the 
 situation, they applied to the bishop of Sala- 
 manca for permission to occupy the place: that 
 permission was readily granted : witli his assist- 
 ance, and that of tlio hermit Amando, the two 
 cavaliers erected a castle aroimd the hermitage. 
 They were now joined by other nobles and by 
 more adventurers, all eager to acquire fame and 
 wealth in this life, glory in the next. Hence the 
 foundation of an order which, under the name, 
 first, of St. Julian, and subsequently of Alcan- 
 tara, rendered good service alike to king and 
 clmrcli." — S. A. Dunham, Ilist. of Spain and 
 Portugal, bk. 3, sert. 3, ch. 1, dir. 3. 
 
 ALCAZAR, OR " THE THREE KINGS," 
 Battle of (1578 or 1579). Sec Mauocco: The 
 
 AllAU CONCJUKST AND SINCE. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, The career of. Sec 
 
 Gkkece: B. C. 421-418, and 411-407; and 
 Athens: B. C. 415, and 413-411. 
 
 ALCLYDE. — Uhydderch, a Cumbrian prince 
 of the sixth century who was the victor in a 
 civil conflict, " fixed his hcadi'jarters on a rock 
 in the Clyde, called in the Welsh Alclud [pre- 
 viously a Koman town known as Theodosia], 
 whence it was known to the English for a time 
 as Alclyde; but the Goidels called it Dunbret- 
 tan, or the fortress of the Brythons, which has 
 prevailed in the slightly modified form of Dum- 
 barton. . . . Alclyde was more than once de- 
 stroyed by the Northm'-n."— .J. Rhys, Celtic 
 Britain, ch. 4. — See, also, Cumbuia. 
 
 ALCMi^ONIDS, The curse and banish- 
 men*-. of the. See Athens: B. C. 613-505. 
 
 AICOLEA, Battle of (1868). See Spain: 
 A. I). 1860-lN, !. 
 
 ALDIE, Battle of. See United States ok 
 Am.: a. D. 1803 (June — July: Pennsvi,- 
 vania). 
 
 ALDINE press. The. See Pkintino 
 AND THE Press: A. D. 1400-1515. 
 
 ALEMANNIA: The Mediaval Duchy. 
 See Germany: A. D. 813-002. 
 
 ALEMANNI, OR ALAMANNI: A. D. 
 2I3'— Origin and first appearance.— " Under 
 Antoninus, the Son of Severus, a new and more 
 severe war once more {' I). 213) broke out in 
 Ractia. This also was v.aged against the Chatti ; 
 but by their side a second people is named, 
 which we liero meet for the first time — the 
 Alanianni. Whence they came, we known not. 
 According to a Roman writing a little later, they 
 were a contlux of mi.xed elements; the appella- 
 tion also seems to point to a league of conununi- 
 ties, as well as the fact that, afterwards, the 
 dillcrent tribes comprehended under this name 
 stand forth — more than is the case among the 
 other great Germanic peoples — in their separate 
 cliaracter, and the Juthungi, the Lentienses, and 
 other Alamannic peoples not seldom act inde- 
 
 pendently. But that it is not the Germans of 
 this region who liere emerge, allied uniier the 
 new name and strengthened by the alliance, is 
 shown as well by the naming of the Alainanni 
 along side of the Cliatti, as by the nifntion of 
 tlie unwonted skilfidness of the Alamanni in 
 equestrian combat. On the contniry, it was 
 certainly, in the main, hordes coming on from 
 the East that lent new strength to the almost 
 extinguished German resistance on the Rhine; it 
 is not improbable that the powerful Semnones, 
 in earlier times dwelling on tlie middle Elbe, of 
 whom there is no further mention after the end 
 of the second century, furnished a strong con- 
 tingent to the Alamanni." — T. Mommsen, Ilist. 
 ofllnine, bk. 8, ch. 4. — "The stJindard quotation 
 respecting the derivation of the name from 
 'al'— 'all ' and m-n— 'man', so that the word 
 (.somewhat exceptionably) denotes 'men of all 
 sorts,' is from Agathias, who quotes Asinius 
 Quadratus. . . . Notwithstanding tills, I think 
 it is an open question, whetlicr the name may 
 not liave been applied by the truer and more 
 unequivocal Germans of Suabia and Francouia, 
 to certain less definitely Germanic allies from 
 Wurtemberg and Baden, — parts of the Decu- 
 inates Agri — parts which may have supplied a 
 Gallic, a Gallo-Ronian, or even a Slavonic ele- 
 ment to the confederacy ; in which case, a name 
 so German as to have given the present French 
 and Italian name for Germany, may, originally, 
 liave applied to a population other than Ger- 
 manic. I know the apparently paradoxical elc- 
 nicuts in this view ; but I also know that, in the 
 way of etymology, it is quite as safe to trans- 
 late ' all ' by ' alii ' as by ' omnes': and I cannot 
 help thinking tliat the ' al- ' in Ale-maniii is tlie 
 ' al- ' in ' alir-arto '(a foreigner or man of another 
 sort), ' eli-benzo ' (an alien), and 'ali-laiid ' (cap- 
 tivity in foreign land). — Grimm, ii. 628. — Recli- 
 saltcrth, p. 350. And still more satislied am I 
 that the ' al- ' in Al-cmauni is the ' al- ' in Al- 
 satia='el-sass'=''ali-satz '='foreign settlement.' 
 In other words, the prefix in question is more 
 probably the 'al-'iii 'else', thr.n the 'al-'in 
 ' all.' Little, however, of iirportance turns 
 on tills. The locality of the Alcmannl was the 
 parts about the Limes Romanu/. a boundary 
 which, in the time of Alexanuer Severus, 
 Niebuhr thinks they first broke tlirougli. Hence 
 they were the Marchmcn of the frontier, who- 
 ever those Marchmcu were. Other such March- 
 men were the Sucvi; unless, indeed, we con- 
 sider tlio two names as synonymous. Zeuss ad- 
 mits that, between the Siievi of Suabia, and the 
 Alomanni, no tiuigible dilTerence can bo found." 
 
 — R. G. LaHian, The Cermania of Tacitus; 
 EjnlegomeiM, sect. 11. 
 
 Also in T. Smilli, Arniiniu.i, pt. 3, ch. 1. — 
 See, also, Suevi, and Bav.mhans. 
 A. D. 259. — Invasion of Gaul and Italy. 
 
 — The Alcnianni, "hovering on the frontiers 
 of the Empire . . . increased the ge leral dis- 
 order tliat ensued after the death of Dccius. 
 Tliey inflicted severe wounds on the rich 
 provinCi!8 of Gaul; they were the first who 
 rcraovf ;d the veil that covered the feeble majesty 
 of Iti.ly. A numerous body of the Alemanni 
 penetrated across the Danube and through the 
 RhieJan Alps into the jilains of Lombardy, ad- 
 vanced as far as Ravenna and displayed the vic- 
 torious banners of barbarians almost in sight 
 of Rome [A. D. 25U]. The insult anil the danger 
 
 86 
 
ALEMANNI, A. D. 250. 
 
 ALEMANNI, A. D. 547. 
 
 rekindled in tlic scniite somi; sparks of their 
 ancient virtue. IJotli tlie Emperors were en- 
 gaged i!i far di.slant wars — Viileriuu in the 
 Eiist and ( jiulienus on tlie Kliinc " 'I'lic senators, 
 however, sii<<eeded in eonl'ronlinf; tlie iindaeions 
 invaders with a force wliich checked their ad- 
 vance, and they "retired into Germany laden 
 with spoil." — E. Ciihhon, Decline ami Fall of the 
 liomaii Kiiijiire, eh. 10. 
 
 A. D. 270. — Invasion of Italy. — Italy was 
 invaded liy the AUinanni, for th(! second time, 
 in the riijin of Anrelian, A. I). 270. They rav- 
 a;^ed the provinces from the Dannhu to the Po, 
 and were retrealin;;, laden with sjjoils, when the 
 vigorous Emperor intcrcepteil thera, on the 
 banks of the former river. Half the host was 
 permitted to cross the Danube; the other half 
 was surprised and surrounded. IJut the.se last, 
 unable to regain their own country, broke 
 through the Roman lines at their rear and sped 
 into Italy again, si>readiiig havoc as they went. 
 It was only after three great battles. — one near 
 Placentia, in which the Homans were almost 
 beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Has- 
 drubal was defeated), and a third near Pavia, — 
 that the Germanic invaders were destroyed. — 
 E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jloina/i Em- 
 pire, eh. 11. 
 
 A. D. 355-361. — Repulse by Julian. See 
 Gaii,: a. 1). 355-301. 
 
 A. D. 365-367. — Invasion of Gaul. — The 
 Alemanni invaded Gaul in!i(55, committing wide- 
 spread ravages and carrying away into the for- 
 ests of Germany great spoil and many captives. 
 The next winter they crossed the lihine, again, 
 in still greater numbers, defeated the Roman 
 forces ami captured the standards of the Heru- 
 liau and Hatavian au.\iliaries. But Valeutiniau 
 was now Emperor, and he adopted energetic 
 measures. Ills lieutenant Jovimis overcame the 
 invaders in a great battle fought near Chalons 
 and drove them back to their own side of the 
 river boundary. Two years later, the Emperor, 
 himself, jjassed the Rhine and inllicted a memo- 
 nible chastisement on the Aleniaimi. At tho 
 same time he strengtliened the frontier defences, 
 and, by dii)lomatic arts, fomented qmirrels be- 
 tween tlu^ Alemanni and their neighbors, the 
 Burgundians, whicli weakemKl both. — E. Gib- 
 bon. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 
 ch. 25. 
 
 A. D. 378.— Defeat by Gratian. — On learn- 
 ing that the young Emperor Gratinu was pre- 
 paring to lead the military force of Gaul and the 
 West to the help of his uncle and colleague, 
 Valens, against tho Goths, the Alemanni swarmed 
 across the Rhino into Gaul. Gratian instantly 
 recalled the legions that were marching to Pan- 
 uonia and encountered tlu Gerinan invaders in a 
 great battle fought near Ar'gentaria (moiU'rn 
 t^olmar) in the month of May, A. D. 378. The 
 Alemanni were routed with such slaughter that no 
 more than 5,000 out of -10,000 to 70,000, are said 
 to have escaped. Gratian afterwards crossed the 
 Rhine and humbled his troublesome neighbors 
 in their own country. — E. Gibbon, Decline and 
 Fall of the Jioman Empire, ch. 20. 
 
 A. "D. 496 -504.— Overthrow by the Franks. 
 —"In the year 490 A. D. the Salians [Salian 
 Franks] began that career of conquest which 
 they followed up with scarcely any intermission 
 until the death of their warrior king. The 
 Aiemaoni, extending tUcmsclvcs from their origi- 
 
 nal seats on the right 1 .ikof the Rhine, between 
 the Main and the Danube, had pushed forward 
 into (lermanica Prima, where they came into 
 collision with tlie Prankish sid)jects of King 
 Sigebert of Cologne. Clovis tlcw to the assist- 
 ance of his kinsman and defeated the Alemanni 
 in a great battle in tho neighl)ourhood of Zlll- 
 pich [called, conimoidy, the battle of Tolbiacl. 
 lie then cslablislied a considerable ninnber of his 
 Franks in the territory of the Alemaimi, tlie 
 traces of whose residence are found in the names 
 of Franconia and Frankfort." — \V. C. Perry, 
 2' he Franks, ch. 2. — " Clovis had been intending 
 to cross the Rhine, but the ho.sts of the Alamamii \' 
 came upon him, as it seems, unexpectedly and : 
 forced a battle on the left bank of the river. He 
 seemed to be overmatched, and the horror of an 
 impending ilefeat overshadowed the Prankish ' 
 king. Tlien, in his despair, he bethought him- " 
 self of the God of (,'lotilda [his queen, a Biirguu- 
 diau Christian princess, of the orthodox Oi 
 Catholic faith]. Riiising his eyes to heaven, ho 
 said: 'Oh Jesus Christ, whom Clotilda declares 
 to be the Son of the living God, who art said to 
 give help to those who a/e in trouble and who 
 trust in Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succour! I 
 have called on my gods and they are far from 
 my help. If Thou wilt deliver me from mine 
 enemies, I will believe in Thee, and be baptised 
 in Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden change 
 was seen in the fortunes of tlie Franks. The 
 Alamanni began to waver, they turned, they 
 fled. Their king, according to one account was 
 slain; and the nation seems to have accejited 
 Clovis as its over-lord." The following Christ- 
 mas day Clovis was baptised at Reims and 3,000 
 of his warriors followed the royal example. " In 
 the early years of the new century, probably 
 about 5')3 or 504, Clovis was again at war with 
 his old enemies, the Alamanni. .... . Clovis ■ 
 
 moved his army into their territories and won a , 
 victory much more decisive, though less famous ; 
 than that of 406. Tliis time tlie angry king ' 
 wo\ild make no such easj' terms as he had done 
 before. From 'heir pleasant dwellings by the 
 :Main and the Ncckar, from all the valley of tho 
 Middle Rhine, the terrilied Alamanni were 
 forced to tle(^ Their place was taken by Prank- 
 ish settlers, from whom all this district received ■ 
 in the Middle Ages the name of the Duchy of 
 Francia, or, at a rather later date, that of the 
 Circle of Franconia. The Alamanni, with their 
 wives and children, a broken and disi>i'ile(l ho.st, 
 moved southward t(j the sliores of the Lake of 
 Constance and entered the old Roman province of 
 Rhictia. Here they were on what was held to 
 be, in a sense, Italian ground; and the arm of 
 Theodoric, as ruler of Italy, as successor to the 
 Emperors of tho West, was stretched forth to 
 protect them. . . . Eastern Switzerland, West- 
 ern Tyrol, Southern Baden and Wttrtomberg and 
 Southwestern I'.ivaria ])robably formed this new 
 Alaniannis, which will figure in later history as 
 tho ' Diicatus Alamanniie, ' or the Circle of Swabia. 
 — T. Iloflgkin, Italy and Ilcr Inradcrs. hk. 4, eh. 9. « 
 
 Also TN P. Godwin, Hint, of Fr/incc: Ancient 
 Gmd, hk. 3, eh. 11.— See, also, Suevi: A. D. 
 460-500; and Fuankb: A. D. 481-511. 
 
 A. D. 528-729. -^Struggles against the 
 Frank Dominion. See Geumany: A. D. 481- 
 708. 
 
 A. D. 547.— Final subjection to the Franks. 
 See Bavaui.v: A. D. 547. 
 
 36 
 
ALKPPO. 
 
 ALEXANDHIA, B. C. 283-240. 
 
 ALEPPO: A. D. 638-969.— I'likcn liy tlio 
 Arab followers ol' .Maluiiiu t in l!;iX, this tity was 
 rwDViTcil bv the ]Jvziiiiliii(N in ;"'.ll. Sco IJtzan- 
 TiNK KMiMiii;: A. D. UOii-lO'j:.. 
 
 A. D. 1260.— Destruction by the Mongols. 
 — Tlif JIonKols, miiliT Ivliiil:i u, or llouhifioii, 
 brother of Maiifru Khun, liir rj; overrun Mrso- 
 polauiia and cxtingiiislicd lli Talipliate at Hair- 
 dad, crossi'd the Kupliratcs in tlif spriuj; of 1200 
 and advanced to Aieppo. Tlie city was taken 
 after a siege of seven days and fiiven up for live 
 days to pillage and slaughter. "When the 
 carnage ceased, the streets were cumbered with 
 corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and 
 children were sold as slaves. The walls of 
 Alepjjo were i.izcil, its mosques destroyed, and 
 its gardens ra\aged." Damasois submitted and 
 was spared. Kliulagu was meditating, it is said, 
 the conquest of Jerusalem, when news of the 
 death of the Great Khan ealleil him to the East. 
 —II. n. Iloworth, Jlint. of (he Mongols, pp. 209- 
 211. 
 
 A. D. 1401. — Sack and Massacre by Timour. 
 See TiMoiii. 
 
 ALESIA, Siege of, by Caesar. See Gaul: 
 B. ('. ns-ut. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA: The creation of the city 
 (1168). See Italy: A. D. 1174-1183. 
 ALEUTS, The. See American Abo.uoi- 
 
 NES: KSKIMO. 
 
 ALEXANDER the Great, B. C. 334-323- 
 — Conquests and Empire. SeeMACKUONiA, iVe., 
 B. C. :i34-;«0, and after. . . .Alexander, King of 
 
 Poland, A. D. irjOl-loUT Alexander, Prince 
 
 of Bulgaria. — Abduction and Abdication. Sec 
 BiuiAUiA: A. IJ. 1878-1886. .. .Alexander 1., 
 Czar of Russia, A. D. 1801-1823. . . .Alexan- 
 der I., King of Scotland, A. D, 1107-1124. . . . 
 
 Alexander II., Pope, A. D. 1001-1073 
 
 Alexander II., Czar of Russia, A. D. 185.5- 
 
 1881 Alexander II., King of Scotland, 
 
 A. 1). 1214-1249. . . .Alexander III., Pope, A. D. 
 1159-1181.... Alexander III., Czar of Russia, 
 A. D. 1881—. . . .Alexander III., King of Scot- 
 land, A. D. 1349-1280. . . Alexander IV., Pope, 
 A. D. 13,54-1261. . . .Alexander V., Pope, A. D. 
 1409-1410 (elected by the Council of Pisa).... 
 Alexander VI., Pope, A. D. 1492-1503 Alex- 
 ander VII., Pope, A. D. 1655-1007 Alex- 
 ander VIII., Pope, A. D. 1089-1091.... Alex- 
 ander Severus, Roman Emperor, A. D. 222-2:35. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 332.— The Found- 
 ing of the City.— ""Wlien Alexander reached 
 the Egyptian military station at the little 
 town or village of llhakotis, he saw with 
 the quick eye of a great commander how- 
 to turn this petty settlement into a great 
 city, and to make its roadstead, out of which 
 ships could be blown by a change of wind, 
 into a double harbour roomy enough to 
 shelter tie navies of the world. All tlmt was 
 needed wm to join the island bv a mole to the 
 continent. The site was admiriibly secure and 
 convenien'„, a narrow strip of land "between the 
 Jlediterranean and the great inland Lake Mare- 
 otls. The whole northern side faced the two 
 harbours, which were bounded east and west by 
 the mole, and beyond by the long, narrow rocky 
 island of Pharos, stretching parallel with the 
 coast. On the south was the inland port of Lake 
 Mareotis. The length of the citv was more than 
 three mdes, the breadth more than three-quarters 
 of a mUe; the mole was above three-quarters of 
 
 a mile long and lix hundred feet broad; its 
 breadth is now doiililed, owing to the silling up 
 of the sand. Minlern Alexandria until lately 
 only occupied t'.ic .nole, and was a great town in 
 a corner of the space which Alexander, with 
 large provision for the future, measured out. 
 Tiie form of the new city was ruled by tliat of 
 the sile, but the fancy of Alexander designed it 
 in Ihc shape of a Maeeclonian cloak or ddaniy.a, 
 such as a national hero wears on the (!oiiis of i'.ic 
 kings of Maei'don, his ancestors. TIk^ situation 
 is excellent for commerce. Alexandria, with tlic 
 best Egyptian harbour on the Mediteiraneau, 
 and the inland port coiuiected with the Nile 
 streams and canals, was the natural emporium 
 of the Indian trade. Port Said is su|)erior now, 
 because of its graud artificial port and the 
 advantage for steamships of an unbroken sea- 
 .oute."— R. S. Poole, Cities of H'jmit, ch. \%— 
 See, also, MACiiDO.NiA, &c. : B. C. 3:14-330 ; and 
 Egypt: B. V. 333. 
 
 Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 282- 
 246. — Greatness and splendor of the City. — 
 Its Commerce. — Its Libraries. — Its Museum. 
 — Its Schools. — I'lolcmy Philadelphus, son 
 of Ptolemy Soter, succeeded to tlic ihrone of 
 Egypt in 283 B. C. when his father retired from 
 it in his favor, and reigned until 240 B. C. 
 "Alexandria, founded by the great conqueror, 
 increased and beautilied by Ptolemy Sotcr, was 
 now far the greatest city of Alexander's Empire. 
 It was the first of those new foundations which 
 are a marked feature in Hellenism; there were 
 many others of great size and importance — 
 above all, Antioch, then Seleueia on the Tigris, 
 then Nieomedia, Niea;a, Apamea, which lasted; 
 besides such as Lysimacheia, Antigoueia, and 
 others, whicli early disappeared. . . . Alexan- 
 dria was the model for all the rest. The inter- 
 section of two great principal thoroughfares, 
 adorned with colonnades for the footways, formed 
 the centre point, the omphalos of the city. The 
 other streets were at right angles with these 
 thoroughfares, so that the whole place was quite 
 regular. Counting its old part, Khakotis, which 
 was still the habitation of native Egyptians, 
 Alexandria had live quarters, one at least devoted 
 to Jews who had originally settled there in great 
 numbers. The mixed popidation there of Mace- 
 donians, Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians gave a 
 peculiarly complex and variable character to the 
 population. Let us not forget the vast number 
 of strangers from all parts of the world whom 
 trade and politics brought there. It was the 
 great mart where the wealt h of Europe and of Asia 
 changed hands. Alexander had opcnetl the sea- 
 \vay by exploring the coasts of Me(lia and Persia. 
 Caravans from the heail of the Persian Gulf, and 
 ships on the Red Sea, brought all the wonders of 
 Ceylon and China, as well as of Further India, to 
 Alexandria. There, too, the wealth of Spain and 
 Gaul, the produce of Italy and Macedonia, the 
 amber of the Baltic and tiie salt tisli of Pontus, 
 the silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the 
 timber of Macedonia and Crete, the pottery and 
 oil of Greece — a thousand imports from all the 
 Mediterranean — came to be cxchauged for the 
 spices of Arabia, the splendid birds and embroi- 
 deries of India and Ceylon, the gold and ivory of 
 Africa, the antelopes, "the apes, the leopards, the 
 elephants of tropical climes. Hence the enormous 
 wealth of the Lagidic, for in addition to the mar- 
 vellous fertility and great population — it is said 
 
 87 
 
ALEXANDRIA, U. C. 283-240. 
 
 ALEXANDKIA. U. C. 282-240. 
 
 Ui Imvf Imiii seven millions — of Ejjypt, they 
 miide Jill the prollt.s of thi^^ enormous earrying 
 tnitle. We hh'o u t'ood ideii of whiil the sphu- 
 (lour.s of tile eapiliil were by the very full uc<dunt 
 preserved to us by Athenieus of the (f rent feast 
 which inaugurated tlie reiirn of I'liilaih'lphus. 
 . . . All this seems idle pomp, and the doiii;; of 
 an idle sybarite. I'hiladelphiis wasanythin;; but 
 that. ... It was be who opened tip ilie Kj;yp- 
 tian trade with Italy, and made I'uteoli tlie Kreat 
 port for ships from Ale.vandria, which it remained 
 for ceiituries. It was he who explored Ktliiopia 
 and the southern parts of Africa, and brou^jht 
 back not only the curious fauna to his zooIo;,'ieal 
 jfardcns, but the (ii>>t knowledjrc of the Tio^do- 
 dytes for men of scil•ne(^ The cultivation of 
 .science aial of letters too was so remarkably olio 
 of his pursuits that the pro.i;res8 of the Alexan- 
 dria of his day forms an epoch in the world's 
 history, and we mu.st separate his University and 
 its professors from this siininiary, and devote to 
 them a .sepanite section. . . . The history of the 
 orf;ani7.iilioii of the University and its stall is 
 covered with almost impinetrable mist. For the 
 Mus(!um and Library were in the strictest sense 
 what we should now call an University, and one, 
 too, of the Oxford type, where learned men were 
 invited to take Fellowshijis, and spend their 
 leiirned leisun; close to ob.servatories in scienc<'. 
 and a jrreat library of books. Like the mediiev al 
 universities, tliisendowineutof research naturally 
 turned into an eiiLriiie for teaching, as all who 
 desired knowledge Hocked to such a centre, and 
 persuaded the Fcllcw to become a Tutor. The 
 model came from Athens. There the schools, 
 bogiiiiiing with the Academy of Plato, had a 
 fixed iiropertv — u home witli its surrounding 
 pardon, and in order to make this foundation 
 Sure, it was made a shrine where the Muses were 
 worshipped, and where the head of the school, or 
 a priest appointed, performed stated sacriticcs. 
 This, then, being hehl in trust by the successors 
 of the donor, who bccpiealhcd it, to them, was a 
 propc.Tty which it would have b<jon sacrilegious 
 to invade, and so the title Musflum arose for a 
 school of learning. Demetrius the Phalercaii, the 
 friend and protector of Theophrastus, brought 
 this idea with him to Alexandria, when his name- 
 sake drove him into exile [see GllKixii: B. C. 
 307-197] and it was no doubt his advice to the 
 tli-st Ptolemy which originated the great foun- 
 dation, though Philadelphus, who again exiled 
 Demetrius, gets the credit of it. TIk^ pupil of 
 Aristotle nioriMiver impressed on the king the 
 necessity of storing up in one central repository 
 all that the world knew or could produce, in 
 order to ascertain tlio laws of things from a pro- 
 per analysis of detail. Hence was founded not 
 only the great library, which in those days had a 
 thousand times the value a great library has now, 
 but also observatories, zoological gardens, col- 
 lections of exotic plants, and of other new and 
 strange things brought by exploring expeditions 
 from the furthest regions of Arabia aiul Africa. 
 This library and museum jjroved indited a home 
 for the Muses, and about it a most brilliant group 
 of students in literature and science was formed. 
 The successive librarians were Zenodotus, the 
 grammarian or critic; Callimachus, to wliose 
 poems we shall presently return; Erato.sthenes, 
 the astronomer, who originated the jirocess by 
 which the size of the earth is determined to-day ; 
 Appolionius the Rhodian, disciple and enemy of 
 
 Callimachus ; Aristoplianesof nyzantiuin, foundr 
 of a school of jihilological criticism; and Arip' .- 
 elms of Samos, ri'putcd to have been the grei.icst 
 Clitic of ancii'iit times. Tlie study of the text of 
 Homer was the chief labour of Zenodotus, Aris- 
 tophanes, and Arislarchus. and it was Aristar- 
 clius who mainly tixed the form in which the 
 Iliad and Odys.scy remain to this day. . . . The 
 vast collections of the library and niii'-eiini 
 actually (U'ti'rmined the whole chamcter of the 
 literature of Alexandria. One word sums it all 
 up — erudition, wlatlier in philosophy, in criti- 
 cism, in .science, even in ])oetry. Strange to say, 
 they neglected not only oratory, for which there 
 was no scope, but history, and this we may attri- 
 bute to the fact that history before Alexander had 
 no charms for Hellenism. Mythical Uik, on the 
 other hand, stnuige uses and curious words, were 
 departments of research dear to them. In science 
 tlicy did great things, so did they in geography. 
 . . . Hut were they original in nothing? Did 
 tlicy add nothing of theif own to the splendid 
 record of Greek literature? In the next gener- 
 ation came the art of criticism, which Ari.star- 
 cliiis dcvelo|)ed into a real science, and of that 
 we may speak in its place; but even in this 
 generation we may claim for them the credit of 
 three original, or nearly original, developments 
 in literature — the pastoral idyll, as wo have it 
 in Theocritus; tlie elegy, as we have it in the 
 Homau imitatoi-s of Philetas and Callimachus; 
 and the romance, or love story, the parent of our 
 modiM-n novels. All these hiul early prototypes 
 in the folk songs of Sicily, in the love songs of 
 >Iinincrmus and of Antiniachus, in the tales of 
 ^Miletus, but still the revival was fairly to be 
 called original. Of these the pastoral idyll was 
 far tlie mo.st remarkable, and laid hold iijion the 
 world for ever." — J. P. Mahally, 'J'/u: IStory oj 
 Alfxandev'K Empire, ch. 13-14. — "There were two 
 Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, the 
 larger one in the quarter called the Uruchium, 
 and the smaller one, named 'the daughter,' in 
 the Serapeuin, wliicli was sittiated in the quarter 
 called Uhacotis. The former was totally 
 destroyed in the conllagration of the Bruehium 
 during Ciesar's Alexandrian War [see below: 
 B. C. 48-47]; but the latter, which was of great 
 value. ^remained uninjured (see Matter, lluloire 
 de I'Eeok (l'Ale.niii(lne, fol. 1, p. 133«f7., 237 
 seq.) It is not stated by any ancient writer 
 where the collection of Pergamus [sec Pehoa- 
 Mf.M] was placed, which Antony gave to Cleo- 
 patra (Plutarch, Anton., c. 58); but it is most 
 probable that it was deposited in the Brucliium, 
 as that quarter of the city was now without a 
 libnuy, and tlu^ queen was anxious to repair the 
 ravages occasioned by the civil war. If this 
 siip])osition is (-orrect, two Alexandrian libraries 
 continued to exist after the time of Ciesar, and 
 this is rendered still more probable by the fact 
 that during the lirst three centuries of the Chris- 
 tian era the Bruehium was still the literary 
 quarter of Alexandria. But a great change took 
 place in the time of Aurelian. This Ilinperor, in 
 suppressing the revolt of Firmus in Egypt, A. 
 D. 273 [see below: A. D. 273] is said to have 
 destroyed the Bruehium ; and though this state- 
 ment is hardly to be taken literally, the Bruehium 
 ceased from this time to be included within the 
 walls of A xandria, and was regarded only as o 
 suburb of tne city. Whether the great library 
 in the Bruehium with the museum and its other 
 
 38 
 
ALEXANDUIA, n. C. 282-240. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. A. ». 273. 
 
 literary establlslimoiits, pcrisliod at this time, we 
 do not know; but the Serapciini for llie next 
 ceiiMiry talies its i)la(c as tlic literary (|iiarter of 
 Alexiindria, and l)e(onics tlie eliief library 
 In the city. Hence later writers erroneously 
 speak of tlie Serapeum as if it liad Ih . n from the 
 iH't^inninK the iircnt Alexandrian library. . . . 
 Gibbon seems to think that the whole of the 
 Serapi'um was (le3trovi'<l [A. D. :!'<», by order of 
 the Kmperor Theodosius— see below |; but this 
 was not the ease It would a|)pearlliat it was 
 only the sanctuary of tin; frod that was 
 levelled with the jrround, and that the library, 
 the halls and other buildinj^s in the consecrated 
 ground reniaiiHMl standing; lonj; afterwun's." — E. 
 Gibbon, Ihdine and FM of the Human t.'mpiie, 
 c/i. 28. yiilishy Dr. William N/;»7//.— Concern- 
 ing the rei)ute(l final destruction of the Librny 
 by the Moslems, see below: A. 1). (lU-tiKi, 
 
 Also in O. Delepierre, llintorieal l)i(lu-iiUii:<, 
 eh. 3.— S. Sharpe, IUkI. of Erjupt, ch. 7, Hand 12. 
 — See, also, Xi;o1'I..\t<inus. 
 
 B. C. 48-47.— Cffisar and Cleopatra.— The 
 Rising against the Romans.— The Siege. — 
 Destruction of the great Library.— Roman 
 victory. — Krom the battle held of I'liarwdia (see 
 Uo.ME : B. 0. 48) I'cmipeius lied to Alexaudri.i 
 in Egypt, and was treacherously murdered as he 
 stepped on shore. Csesar arrived a f(!\v days 
 afterwards, in close pursuit, and shed 1ear,s, it is 
 said, on being shown bis rival's mangled head, 
 lie had brought scarcely more than 3,000 of his 
 soldiers with him, and he foiuid Egypt in a tur- 
 bulent state of civil war. The throne was in 
 dispute between children of the late king, 
 I'tolemipus Auletes. Clei;patra, the elder daugh- 
 ter, and Ptolemojus, a son, were at war with 
 one another, and ArsinoC, a younger ilaughter, 
 was ready to put forward claims (sec Egypt: 
 B. C. 80-48). Notwith.standing the insignifi- 
 cance of his force, Ca'sar did not hesitate to as- 
 sume to occupy Alexandria and to adjudicate the 
 dispute. But the fascinations of Cleopatra 
 (then twenty years of age) soon made him her 
 partisan, and her scarcely disguised lover. This 
 aggravated the Irritation which was ca\ised in 
 Alexandria by the presence of Cicsar's troops, 
 and a furious rising of the city was provoked. 
 He fortilied himself in the great palace, which 
 he had taken possession of, and which com- 
 manded the causeway to the island. Pharos, 
 thereby commanding the port. Destroj-ing a 
 large part of the city in that neighborhood, he 
 made his position exceedingly strong. At the 
 same time he seized and burned the royal fleet, 
 and th\is caiiscd a contlagratitm in which tiic 
 greater of the two priceless libraries of Alex- 
 andria — the library of the JDiseum — was, much 
 of it, consumed. [See above: B. C. 282-246.] 
 By such measures Cajsar withstood, for 
 several months, a siege conducted on the part of 
 the Alexandrians with great determination and 
 animosity. It was not until March, B. C. 47, 
 that he was relieved from his dangerous situa- 
 tion, by the arrival of a faithful ally, in the per- 
 son of Mithridates, king of Persamus, who led 
 an army into Egvpt, reduced "Pclusium, and 
 crossed the Nile " at the head of the Delta. 
 Ptolemajus advanced with his troops to meet this 
 new invader and was followed and overtaken by 
 Cttsar. In the battle which tlion occurred the 
 Egyptian army was utterly routed and Ptole- 
 msus perished in the Nile. Cleopatra was then 
 
 married, after the Egyptian fashion, to a 
 
 younger brother, i',n<l cslai)lished on the thnme, 
 while .Vrsinor was sent a prisoner to Kome. — 
 A. Ilirtius, Tht Aluaitdrian War. 
 
 .Vi,S(» IN G. Long, DiiiiiiK of l/u- Rumait He- 
 )iuhli<: r. T). ,•//. 26.— C. Meri'vale, lliot. of Oui 
 llomaiiH, Hi. 18,— S. S!) rpe, IHkI. of K/iz/it. ch. 12. 
 
 A. D. 116.— Dest.-ct-'on of the Jews. See 
 .I|.;ws: A. I). 110. 
 
 A. D. 215. — Massacre by Caracalla. — 
 "Caracalla was the conunon ciiiiny of iniinkind. 
 He left the capital (and he never iclurned to it) 
 abo\it a year after the nun'der of Gcla [A. 1). 
 213]. Tile rest of his reign [four vears| was 
 spent in the .several provinces of liu' Empire, 
 partii'ularly those of the E:ist, and every jirov- 
 iiice was, by turns, the scene of his rapine and 
 cniclty. . . . In the midst of (leace, and upon 
 the slightest ])rovo(iition. he issued his commands 
 at Alexandria, Egypt |A. 1). 215], for a general 
 mas.sacre. From a secure' post in tli(; temple of 
 Serajiis, he viewed and din'cted the slaughter of 
 m;iny thousand citizens, as w<'ll as strangers, 
 without distinguishing eillier tlii^ number or the 
 crime of the sulTcrcr.s. " — E. Gibbon, Dirline aiid 
 Fall of the Iloman Fiiijiire, rh. 0. 
 
 A. b. 260-272.— Tumults of the Third Cen- 
 tury. — "Th(; peophi of Alexandri!i, a various 
 mixture of nations, united the vanity and incon- 
 stancy of the Greeks wiUi the superslilioii and 
 obstinacy of the Egyptians. Tlu; most trilling 
 occasion, a transient; "scarcity of ilesli or lentils, 
 the neglect of un accustomed salutation, u mis- 
 take of precedency in the public baths, or even 
 a religious dispute, were at any time sulHcicnt 
 to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, 
 whoso resentments were furious and implacable. 
 After the captivity of Valerian [the Homan V.m- 
 jjcror, made pri.soner by Sapor, king of Persia, 
 A. I). 200] and the insolence of his son had re- 
 laxed the authority of the laws, the Alexandrians 
 abandoned themselves to the ungoverncd rage of 
 their pas.sions, and tlieir unhappy country was 
 the theatre of a civil war, wliich continued (with 
 a few short and s,ispicious truces) above twelve 
 years. AU intercourse was cut off between the 
 several quarters of the atllicted city, every street 
 was polluted with blood, every building ol 
 strength converted into a citadel; nor did the 
 tumult subside till a ccaisiderablo part of Alex- 
 andria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious 
 and magnificent district of Bruchion, with its 
 [lahvces and museum, the residence of the kings 
 and philosophers of Egyjitr, is described, above a 
 century afterwards, as already reduced to its 
 present state of dreary solitude." — E. Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall of the Human F/n/n're, ch. 10. 
 
 A. D. 273. — Destruction of the Bruchium by 
 Aurelian. — After subduing Palmyra and Us 
 (Jueeii Zenobia, A. D. 273, the Emperor Aure- 
 lian was called into Egypt to pot down a re- 
 bellion there, headed by one Firnius, a friend 
 and ally of the Palmyreno ciueeii. EIrnuis had 
 great wealth, derived from trade, and from the 
 paper-manufacture of Egypt, which was mostly 
 in his hands, lie was defeated and put to death. 
 "To Aurelian's war against Firiuus, or to that 
 of Probus a little before in Egypt, may be re- 
 ferred the destruction of Bruchium, a great 
 quarter of Alexandria, whicli according to Am- 
 mianus Jiarcellinus, was ruined imder Aurelian 
 and remained deserted e'.ern:^; ■. "—.I. B. L. Cre- 
 vier, Jlist. of the Jioin-in Emperuis, bk. 27. 
 
 39 
 
AI-KXAXDUIA, A. I). 200. 
 
 AI.EXANDniA, A. I). 6-»l-«46. 
 
 A. D. 296. —Siege by Diocletian.— A jrciieral 
 rcvcplt of the Ariir.iii |iiiiviii(i s of llic Hdiimii 
 Kiupirc (KTiirrid A. 1). -IMi. Tlie l)uibiin>u.< 
 triliih i)f Ktli' )|>iii and the (h'scrt wero hroufflit 
 Into iilllmicc Willi till' proviiuiiils of Egypt, 
 (Jyri'iiaicu, CiUlliu^'o aixi Muiiritunia, aiuj the 
 tlaiiio of war was uiiiviTsal. Both the (.'iiipcrors 
 of Ihc: tiiiiL', Diocletian and Maxiniiau, were 
 cidlcd to the Alrican Held. " Diocldiau, on Ids 
 side, opened the (iiinpai>;n in Kjfyi't liy tlie 
 liltfje of Alexandria, cut olfthe acpiediicts which 
 conveyed the waters of the Nile ii'to every (jnar- 
 tei '>f that innnense city, and, rendering his 
 camp impregnable to the sidlies of the besieged 
 multituih', lie jnished his reiterated attacks with 
 caution and vigor. After a siege of eight 
 monlliB, Ah'Xandria, wasted by the sword and 
 by lire, implored tlii^ cleinency of the coiKiiieror, 
 but i(. experienced the full extenlof his severity. 
 Many thousands of the citizens perished in a pro- 
 miscuous slaugliler, and there were few obnox- 
 ious persons in Egypt who escaped a sentence 
 eillier of death or at least of exile. The fate of 
 Husiris and of Coptos was still more melancholy 
 than that of Alexandria; tliose proud cities . . . 
 were utterly destroyed." — E. Uibbon, Decline 
 and Full 11/ t/ie liomtiit Kiiijiirc, ch. 18. 
 
 A. D. 365. —Great Earthquake. See Eaiith- 
 (jtAiii; IN riiii l{oMA.\ Woiii.D: A. 1). iJlio. 
 
 A. O. 389. — Destruction of the Serapeum. 
 — " After tlie cilicta of Tlieodosius had severely 
 jirohibited the sacrilices of the pagans, they were 
 still tolirated in the city and temple of Serapis. 
 . . . The archepiscopal throne of Alexandria 
 was lilled by Theophilus, the perpetual enemy 
 of peace and virtue; u bold, bad man, whose 
 hands were alternately polutcd with gold and 
 with blood. His pious indignation >va8 excited 
 by the honours of Serapis. . . . The votaries of 
 Serapis, whose strengtli and numbers were much 
 inferior to tlio.se of their antagonists, rose in 
 arms [A. D. 381)] at the instigation of the philo- 
 sopher Olympius, who exhorted them to die in 
 the defence of tlic altars of the gods. These 
 pagan fanatics fortified themselves in the temple, 
 or rather fortress, of Herapis; repelled the be- 
 siegers by daring sallies and a resolute defence ; 
 and, by the inhuman cruelties which they exer- 
 cised on their Christian prisoners, obtained the 
 last consolation of despair. The efforts of the 
 prudent magistrate were usefully exerted for the 
 establishment of a, truce till the answer of Tlieo- 
 dosius should determine the fate of Serapis." 
 The judgment of the emperor condemned the 
 great temple to destruction and it was reduced 
 fo a heap of ruins. "Tlie valuable library of 
 Alexandria was pillaged or destroyed ; and, near 
 twenty years afterwards, the appearance of the 
 empty shelves excited the regret and indignation 
 of every spectator whose mind was not totally 
 darkened by religious prejudice." — E. Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall of tlie Iloniun Empire, ch. 28. — 
 Gibbon's statement as to the destruction of the 
 great library in the Serapeum is called in ques- 
 tion by his learned annotator. Dr. Smith. See 
 above: B. C. 282-246. 
 
 A. D. 413-415.— The Patriarch Cyril and 
 his Mobs. — "His voice [that .if C^ril, Patri- 
 arch of Alexandria, A. 1). 413—144] inflamed or 
 appeased the passions of the multitude: his com- 
 mands were blindly obeyed by his mnnerous and 
 fanatic parabolani, familiarized in tlieir daily 
 office with scenes of death ; and the priefects of 
 
 Egypt we "e a^ved or provoked bv the temporal 
 poiVer of hese Christian pontilVs. Ardent in 
 ilic iiroseculion of heresy, Cyril auspiciously 
 opened his reign by oppressing the Js'ovatiaus, 
 the most innocent and harmless of the sectaries. 
 . . . The toleration, and even the i)rivilege8 of 
 the Jews, who had multiplii'd to the number of 
 40,01)0, weri! se(Mired bv the laws of the Ciesars 
 and I'toleinies, and a long prescription of 7(M) 
 years since the I'oiindation of Alexandria. With- 
 out any legal senlenee, without any royal man- 
 date, tfie patriarch, at the dawn of day, led a 
 seditious nudiitude to the attack of tlie syna- 
 KOgiics. Unarmed and unprepared, the .Tows were 
 incaiialile of resi.itanee; their houses of Jirayer 
 weri' levelled with th groun<I, and the episcojml 
 warrior, after rewarding his troops with the 
 plunder of their goods, expelled from the city 
 tli<' remnant of the misbelieving nation. Per- 
 hajis he might pleai' the in.solencc^ of their 
 prosperity, and their iteadly liatred of the Cliris- 
 tiai:s, whose blood tliey had recently shed in a 
 malicious or accidental tumult. Such erinies 
 would have deserved Uw. animadversions of the 
 magistrate; but in this promiscuous outrage the 
 innocent were confoundec. with the guilty." — 
 E. Gibbon. D<rline mid Fidl of t/ie liniiiiiii Km- 
 pire, cli. 47. — " liefore long the adherents of the 
 archbishop were guilty of a more atrocious and 
 unprovoked erinie, of the guilt of which a deep 
 suspicion attadied to Cyril. All Alexandria 
 respected, honoured, took prid'' in the celebrated 
 Ilypatia. She was a ivoman of extraordinary 
 learning; in her was centred the lingering knowl- 
 edges of that Alexandrian Platonism cultivated 
 by Plotinus and his school. Her beauty was 
 equal to her learning; her modesty commended 
 both. . . . Ilypatia lived in great intimacy with 
 the pra'fcct Orestes; the only charge whiisjiered 
 against her was that 'she encouraged him m his 
 hostility to tlie patriarch. . . . Some of Cyril's 
 ferocious partisans seized this woman, dragged 
 her from her chariot, ind with the most revolt- 
 ing indecency tort her clothes off and then rent 
 her limb from hmb." — H. H. Milinan, Ui»t. oj 
 Latin Chrisliin.'ti/, bk. 2. r!> 3 
 
 Also in C. Idngsley, iii/patia. 
 
 A. D. 616. — Taken by Chosroes. Sec 
 Egypt: A. D. 610-628. 
 
 A. D. 641-646. — The Moslem Conquest. — 
 The prec'"!; «' I'e of events in the Moslem con- 
 qiic'it of Egj pi, by Amru, lieutenant of the 
 Caliph Omar, is uncertain. Sir Wm. Muir fixes 
 i.,e flret surrender of Alexandria to Amru in 
 A. D. 041. After thut it was reoccupied by the 
 Byzantines either once or twice, on occasions of 
 neglect by the Arabs, as they pursued their con- 
 quests elsewhere. 'The probability seems to be 
 that this occurred only once, in 646. It seems 
 also probable, as remarked by Sir W. Muir, that 
 tlie two sieges on the taking and retaking of the 
 city — 641 and 646 — have been much confused in 
 the scanty accounts which liave come down to us. 
 On the first occasion Alexandria would appear to 
 have been generously treated; while, on the 
 second, it suffered pillage and its fortifications 
 were destroyed. IIow far there is_ truth in the 
 commonly accepted story of the deliberate burn- 
 ing of the great Alexandrian Library — or so much 
 of it as had escaped destruction at tlic hands 
 of Poman generals and Christian patriarchs — is 
 a question still in dispute. Gibbon discredited 
 the story, and Sir William Muir, the latest of 
 
 40 
 
A'.EXANniUA. A. D. n41-«40. 
 
 ALLOBUOGES. 
 
 students in Mnhonictnn history, declines even the 
 menliiin of it in liis namitivc of ilic cdninicit of 
 E)fypt. Hut otiicr liistoriiiiis nf repute niaintnin 
 tlif"i)riil)ul)le iiccuriicy of t lie tale told l)y Aliul- 
 pliarajrus— tliat ('alll)li Omar ordered tlip de- 
 stnutidii of tlie IJhrary, on tlie ground tliat, 
 if tlie hciolts in it ajjn'ed witli the Ivoran they 
 were useless, if they disagreed witli it they were 
 pornieiou8.— 8i'e Mahometan Conqi'est: A. D. 
 64(1-640. 
 
 A. D. 815-823.— Occupied by piratical Sar- 
 acens from Spam. 8ee CUKTI,: A. 1). M'j;(. 
 
 A. D. 1798.— Captured by the French under 
 Bonaparte. See Kuanck: A. 1). 170H (Mav — 
 
 AfllfHT). 
 
 A. D. i8oi-t8o2. — Battle of French and 
 English. — Restoration to the Turks. See 
 FliANCK: A. I). 1H(M-|H((2. 
 
 A. D. 1807.— Surrendered to the English. — 
 The brief occupation and humiliating capitu- 
 lation See PiiiKs: A. 1). 1S(MI-1S(I7. 
 
 A. U. 1840.— Bombardment by the English. 
 SeeTlliKs: A. D. Is;il-1H.',0. 
 
 A. D. 1882.— Bombardment by the English 
 fleet. — Massacre of Europeans. — Destruction. 
 SecEoYi'T; A. I). IHT.VISHS, and 1HH2-18H;!. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, LA., The Burning of. 
 See iNiTKi) StatksopAm. : A. I). 1H04 (.March 
 — .May: Lodisia.sa 
 
 ALEXANDRIA VA., A. D. i86i (May).— 
 Occupation by Uni'/n troops.— Murder of Col- 
 onel Ellsworth, tiee I'.mtkd Statks op A.m. : 
 A. I), mn (.May: VmoiNi.\). 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 ALEXIS, Czar of Russia, A. D. 164r>-1670. 
 
 ALEXIUS I. (Comnenus), Emperor in the 
 East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 1081-1118. 
 ....Alexius II. (Comnenus), Emperor in 
 the East (Byzantine, or Greek), V. I). 1181- 
 1183 — Alexius III. (Angelus), Emperor 
 in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. D. 1195- 
 l'.JO;j — Alexius IV. (Angelus), Emperor in 
 the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. i). 120^- 
 
 1204 Alexius V. (Dncas), Emperor in 
 
 the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 1204. 
 
 ALFONSO I., King of Aragon and Navarre, 
 A. U. 1104-1134. . . .Alfo so I., King of Castile, 
 A. D. ]0;2-1100; and VI. of Leon, A. I). 1065- 
 llOi). ...Alfonso I., King of Leon and the 
 
 Asturias, or Oviedo, A. 1). 730-757 Alfonso 
 
 I., King of Portugal, A. 1). 1112-1185.... 
 Alfonso I., King of Sicily, A. D. 1416-1458. . . . 
 Alfonso II., King of Aragon, A D. 1163-1196. 
 ....Alfonso II., King of Castile, A. D. 1126- 
 1157 — Alfonso II., King of Leon and th3 
 Asturias, or Oviedo, A. U. 791-842. . . .Alfonso 
 
 II., Kmg of Naples, A. L). 1494-1495 
 
 Alfonso II., King of Portugal, A. D. 1211- 
 1223... Alfonso III., King of Aragon, A. D. 
 1285-1291. . . Alfonso III.,TCing of Castile, A. 
 D. 1158-1214... Alfonso III., King of Leon 
 and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. I). 806-910. . . 
 Alfonso III., King of Portugal, A. D. 1244- 
 1279.... Alfonso IV., King ofAtaeon, A. D 
 1327-1336 ...Alfonso lV.,^King ofLeon and 
 the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. 1). 925-930.. 
 
 ,0-?""° iX- ^^°^ °^ Portugal, A. D. 1323- 
 l^ol . . .Alfonso v., Kiag of Aragon and I. of 
 ^.'fi'';'.-^^- D- 1«6-1458; I. of Naples. A. D. 
 .443-1408. ...Alfonso V., King of Leon and 
 »ir ■'^st""as, or Oviedo, A. D. 999-1027 
 Alfonso v., King of Portugal, A. D. 1438-1481' 
 
 Alfonso VI., King of Portugal, A. D. 
 
 1656-ltm7. . . .Alfonso VII., King of Leon, A. 
 D. 1109-1126 .. Alfonso VIII., King of Leon, 
 A. D. 1126-1157. . . A'fonso IX., King of Leon, 
 A. I). 1188-1230. Alfonso X., King of Leon 
 and Castile, A. I). 12. .'-12M4 . Alfonso XI., 
 King of Leon and Castile, .\. I». 1312-1350.... 
 Alfonso XII., King of Spain, A. I). 1874- 
 1885. 
 
 ALFORD, Battle of (A. D. 1645). See 
 ScoTt.ANi): .V. 1>. 1644 lai.'i. 
 
 ALFRED, called the Great, King of 
 Wessex, \. .'> HTl 901. 
 
 ALGIEr'S AND ALGERIA,— ' The term 
 Algiers literally s'jfiiilie.s 'the Island,' and was 
 derived from the ori^'iiial construction of its 
 harbour, one side of which was separated from 
 the land. "—M. HuHsell, /fiKt. of th,' llnrlxin/ 
 Slatcg, p, 314. — For history, see Bahiiauv 
 Statks. 
 
 ALGIHED, The.— The term by which a 
 war is jiroclainied among the Malinnietans to bo 
 a Holy War. 
 
 ALGONKINS, OR ALGONQUINS, The. 
 See .\mi;ui('an .Vdouiciinks: Ai.oonkin Family. 
 
 ALGUAZIL. See Alcalde. 
 
 ALHAMA, The taking of See Spain: A. D. 
 1476- 1492, 
 
 ALHAMBRA, The building of the. See 
 Spain: A. I). 1238-1273. 
 
 ALI, Caliph, A. I). 6.55-(i61. 
 
 ALIA, Battle of the (B. C. 300). See Rome: 
 n. ('. 390-347. 
 
 ALIBAMl i, OR ALIBAMONS, The. 
 See Amf.iiican Aiiou'cinks ; Miskiiooee 
 Family. 
 
 ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS, The. 
 See Unitkii Status of Am: A. D. 1798. 
 
 ALIGARH, Battle of (1803). See India: 
 A. U. 1798-1805. 
 
 ALIWAL, Battle of (1846). See India: 
 A I). 1845-1849. 
 
 ALJUBAROTA, Battle of (1385). See 
 Poutuoal: a. D. 1383-1385, and Spain: A. D 
 1368-1479. 
 
 ALKMAAR, Siege by the Spaniards and 
 successful defense (1573). See Netiieklands: 
 A. I). 1573-1574. 
 
 ALKMAR, Battle of SccFuance: A. D. 
 1799 (Septemheii — Octoder). 
 
 "ALL THE TALENTS," The Ministry 
 of. SeoEsoLANi): A. I). 1801-1806, and 1806- 
 1812. 
 
 ALLEGHANS, The. See American Abo- 
 rigines: Allecilvns. 
 
 ALLEMAGNE. — The French name for 
 Germany, derived from the conl'ederaiion of the 
 Alemanni. See Alemaxki: A. D. 213. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, and the Green Mountain 
 Boys. Sec Vermont. A. 1). 1749-1774... 
 And the Capture of Fort T'conderoga. See 
 United States ok Am. : A. D. 1775 (.May). 
 
 ALLERHEIM, Bs.ttle of (or Second battle 
 of Nordlingen, — 1645.) See Germany: A. I). 
 1640-1645. 
 
 ALLERTON, Isaac, and the Plymouth 
 Colony. See MAf.SACiiu.sKTTs (I'ly.moith): A. 
 D. 1623-1629, and after. 
 
 ALLIANCE, The Farmers'. See United 
 States of Am. • j\. O. 1877-1891. 
 
 ALLuBROGEIS, Conquest of the. — The 
 AUobrogcs (see i-Bdui ; also Gails) having 
 sheltered the ehiela of the Sniyes, when the lat- 
 
 41 
 
 ..u*- 
 
ALLOBHOQES. 
 
 ALOD. 
 
 *CT succumbod to the Romans, and having I 
 refused to lU•li^•(!^ them up, the proconsul Cii. ! 
 I)oniiti\iH marched liis army toward their coun- 
 try, U. C. I'Jl. The Allobroi-'cs advanced to 
 meet him and were defeated at Vindalium, near 
 the jimction of tlie Sorgues willi the Hlione. and 
 not far from Avignon, having 20,000 men sluiti 
 and 'ii,W)i) talien prisoners. The Arverni, wl\o 
 were the allies of the Allobroges, then took tho ' 
 tiehl, crossing the C'evennes mountains and the j 
 liver Hhonc with a vast host, to attack the snuiU i 
 Koman army of IIO.OOO men, which had passed | 
 under the couunand of Q. Fahius Maxinuis 
 vKMiiManus. <»n the Sih of August, B. ('. 121, 
 the (iaulish horde encountered the legions of 
 Home, at a point near the junction of the Isere 
 and the Uhoue, and were routed with such enor- 
 mous slaughter that 150,000 are said to have 
 been slain or drowned. This battle settled the 
 fate of the Allobroges, who surrendered to Home 
 without further struggle: but the Arverni were 
 not pursued. The liiial con(iuest of that people 
 was reserved for Oitsar. — G. lAmg, ,Utctine of 
 the lidiiiaii Ucpubhc, c. 1, ch. 21. 
 ALMA, Battle of the. See Russi.\: A D. 
 
 1854 (St-.1>TF.MIU-.K) 
 
 ALMAGROS AND PIZARROS, The 
 quarrel of the. See I'ljir: A. 1). 15:!:!-1548. 
 
 ALMANZA, Battle of (A. D. 1707). See 
 Spain: A. 1). 1707. 
 
 ALMENARA, Battle of (A. D. 1710). See 
 Spain: A. 1). 1707-1710. 
 
 ALMOHADES, The. — Tho empire of the 
 Almoravides, in Morocco and Spain, which 
 originated in a Moslem missionary m vcmont, 
 was overturned in the middle of the twelfth cen- 
 tury by a movement of somewhat similar nature. 
 The agitating cause of tho revolution was a re- 
 ligious teacher named Jfahomet ben Abdallah, 
 who ro.ie in the leign of All (succes.sor to the 
 j^rcat Almoravido prince, Joseph), who gained 
 the odor of sanctitv at Morocco and who took 
 the title of Al Meli'di, or El Jlahdi, the Leader, 
 "giving himself out for the person whom inanj' 
 Midiomelaiis expect under that title. As before, 
 the sect grew into an army, and the army grew 
 into an empire. The new dynasty were calli'd 
 Almohades from Al Melidi, and l)y his ajipoint- 
 ment a certain Abdelmumen was elected Caliph 
 and Commander of the Faithful. Under his 
 vigorous guidance the new kingdom rapidly 
 grew, till the Almohades ol)tained (jiuto tho 
 upper hand in Afri<'a, and in 1140 they too 
 pas.sed into Spain. Under AbiU Imuincn and his 
 successors, .Joseph and .b'col) Alman.siir, tlii^ Al- 
 mohades entirely supplanted the Almoravides, 
 and became more formidable foes than they had 
 been to the rising Christian powers. .Tacoh Al- 
 niansor won in 11U5 the terrible batth; of Alarcos 
 against Alfonso of Castile, and carried his con- 
 quests deep into that kingdom. Ilis faiin' spread 
 through tile whole Moslem world. . , . With 
 Jacob .Umansor pcrislieil the glory of the Almo- 
 ha<les. His successor, Mahomet, lost in 1211 
 [June 10) the great batth' of Alacab or Tolosa 
 against -Mfon.so, and that day may be said to 
 liavi' decided tlic fate of Malmmelauism in Sjiaiu. 
 The Alinohade dynasty gr.idually declined. . . . 
 Tiie Almohades, like the Oinmiails anil the Al- 
 moravides, v.iiiish from history amidst a scene of 
 contusion the details of which it were hopeless to 
 attempt to rememl.vr." — E. A. Freeman, Uint. 
 ami Vom/utnts of the tiiracenn, het. 5. 
 
 Also in II. Coppfie, Conquent of Spain by the 
 Arah-Moorii, bk. 8, ch. 4.— Sec, uiso, Spain . A. D. 
 1140-1233. 
 
 ALMONACID, Battle of. See Spain: A. 
 
 1). 180!) (AllUST— NoVK.MIlKli). 
 
 ALMORAVIDES, The.— During the con- 
 fusions of the nth century in the Jtosicin world, 
 a missionary from Kairwan — one Abdallah — 
 preaching the faith of Lslaiii to a wild tribe in 
 Western North .Vfrica, created a religious move- 
 ment which "naturally led to a political one." 
 " The tribe now called themselves Almoravides, 
 or more properly Morabethah, which appears to 
 mean followers of tho Marabout or religious 
 teacher Abdallah does not appear to have Inm- 
 self claimed more than a religious authority, 
 but their princes Zachariah anil Abu Bekr 
 were comi)letely guided by his coun.sels. After 
 liis death Abu Bekr founded in 1070 the city 
 of Morocco. There he left ns his lieutenant 
 his cousin JoseiJh, who grew so powerful 
 that Abu Bekr, by a wonderful exercise of 
 moderation, abdicated in his favour, to avoid 
 a probable civil war. This Joseph, when he had 
 become lord of most jiart of Western Africa, 
 was requested, or caused himself to be requested, 
 to assume the title of Emir al Momcnin, Com- 
 mander of the Faithful. As a loyal subject of 
 the Caliph of Bagdad, he shrank from such sacri- 
 legious usurpation, but he did not scruple to 
 style liim.self Emir Al Muslemin, Commander of 
 the Moslems. . . . The Almoraviile.Ioseph passed 
 over into Spain, like another Tarik; he van- 
 quished Alfonso [the Christian prince of the 
 rising kingdom of (^astile] at Zalacca [Oct. 23, 
 A. D. 1080] and then converted the greater por- 
 tion of Mahometan Spain into an appendage to 
 his own kingdom of Morocco. The chief jior- 
 tion to escape was the kingdom of Zaragossa, 
 the great out-post of the Saracens in north- 
 eastern Spain. . . . The great cities of Andalu- 
 sia were all brought under a degrading submis- 
 sion to the Alinoravidcs. Their dynasty how- 
 ever was not of long duration, and it fell in turn 
 [A. D. 1147] before one whose origin was stiik- 
 mgly similar to their own" [the Almohades]. — 
 E. A. Freeman, Hist, fid Conquests of the Sira- 
 cens, Uct. 5. 
 
 Also in II. Coppee, Conquest of Spain hi/ the 
 Arab-Moors, hk. 8, ch. 2 and 4. — See, al90,'PouTU- 
 oal: Eakly HiSTOiiY. 
 
 ALOD.— ALODIAL.— " It may be ques- 
 tioned whether any etymological connexion ex- 
 ists between the words odal and alod, but their 
 signilication ap])lied lO land is the same: the alod 
 is the hereditary e.itate derived from primitive 
 occupation; for which the owner owes no service 
 except the personal obligation to ajipear in the 
 hostanilin the council. . . . The land held in full 
 ownership might be either an ethel, an inherited 
 or otherwise acipiired portion of original allot- 
 ment; or an estate created by legal process out 
 of public land. Both these are includeil in the 
 more common term alod; but the former looks 
 for its evidence in the iiedigrce of its owner or 
 in the witness of the community, while the lat- 
 ter can produce the charter or book by which 
 it is created, and i called boclanil. As tho 
 priinitive allnlments gradually lost their liis- 
 lorieal clmractir, as the primitive modes of 
 liansfer became obsolete, and the use of written 
 records took their place, the ethel is lost sight of 
 in the bookland. All the land that is not so ac- 
 
 42 
 
A.LOD. 
 
 AMALFI. 
 
 counted for is folcliind, or public land."— W. 
 Stubbs, Oimsf. Hist, of Eng., eh. 3, strt. 24, aiid 
 ch. 5, ncct. 30. — "Alodiai lands are conimonly 
 opposed to beneficiary or feudal ; tlie loruier Ijc- 
 ing strictly proprietary, while tlie latter depended 
 upon a superior. In tliis sense the word is of 
 continual recurrence in anciimt histories, laws 
 and instruments. It .sonietim-js, however, bears 
 tlio sense of inlicritance. . . . Hence, in tlio 
 charters of the c'.eventli century, hereditary flcfs 
 arc frequently termed alodia." — I'l. Ilallam, Mid- 
 dle Ages, ch. 'i, pt. 1, note. 
 
 Also in J. M. Kemble, The S(t.wi!S in England, 
 bk. 1, c7i. 11.— Sec, also, Foi.cland. 
 
 ALP ARSLAN, Seljouk Turkish Sultan, 
 A. I>. 10()3-1073. 
 
 ALPHONSO. See Alfonso. 
 
 ALSACE.— ALSATIA: The Name. See 
 ALliM.\NM: A. 1). 213. 
 
 A. D. 843-870.— Included in the Kingdom of 
 Lorraine. See Lohkaink: A. I). 843-H70. 
 
 loth Century. — Joined to the Empire. See 
 LouKAixi;: A. D. <Jll-i)80. 
 
 loth Century.^ Origin of the House of 
 Hapsburg. See ArsTULx: A. D. 1240-1283. 
 
 A. D. 1525. -Revolt of the Peasants. See 
 Geilmany: a. D. 1524-ir.2r). 
 
 A. D. 1621-1622. — Invasions by Mansfeld 
 and his predatory army. See CJfumanv: A. D. 
 
 ieai-).623. 
 
 A. D. 1636-1639. — Invasion and conquest by 
 Duke Bernhard of Weimar. — Richelie-j's ap- 
 
 Sropriation of the conquest for France. Sec 
 ■eumany: A. D. 1034-1039. 
 
 A. D. 1648. — Cession to Frrnce in the 
 Peace of Westphalia. See Geu.many: A. D. 
 1048. 
 
 A. D. 1659. — Renunciation of the claims of 
 the King of Spain. See Fhance : A. D. 1059- 
 1001. 
 
 A. D. 1674-1678.— Ravaged in the Cam- 
 paigns of Turenne and Conde. See Netiteh- 
 LANDS (Holland): A. D. 1074-1078. 
 
 A. D. 1679-1681.— Complete Absorbtion in 
 France. — Assumption of entire Sovereignty by 
 Louis XIV.— Encro. hments of the Chamber 
 of Reannexation.— Seizure of Strasburg. — 
 Overthrow of its independence as an Imperis,! 
 City. See Fkancp;: A. D. 1079-1081. 
 
 A. D. 1744.— Invasion by the Austrians. 
 See Austkia: A. I). 1743-1744. 
 
 A. D. 1871.— Ceded to the German Empire 
 by France. See Fu.\nce: A. D. 1871 (J^vncauy 
 —May). 
 
 1871-1879.— Organization of government as 
 a German Imperial Province. See Germany: 
 A. D. 1871-1879. 
 
 ALTA CALIFORNIA-Upper California. 
 See Calikohnl\: A. 1). ir)43-1781. 
 
 ALTENHEIM, Battle of (A. D. 1675). 
 See .Netiieulands (1Ioll.\nd): A. I). 1674- 
 
 ALTSNHOVEN, Battle of (1793). See 
 Fiiance: a. 1). 1793(FEimcAUY-Ai-im,) 
 
 ALTHING, The. Sec TiiiNd; also, Non- 
 MANS— Noutilmen: A. D. 800-1100; and Scan- 
 dinavian States (Denmark— Iceland): A. D. 
 1849--1H74. 
 
 ALTIS The. See Olymi-io Festival. 
 
 <w„ J??^^^^^' ^'■''^ BuANDENUuua: A. D. 
 114« 11S2. 
 
 ALTONA: A. D. 1713.— Eurned by the 
 Swedes. See Scandinavian STArE8(SwEDEN): 
 A. D. 1707-1718. 
 
 ALTOPASCIO, Battle 01(1325). See Italy: 
 A. D. 1813-1330. 
 
 ALVA IN THE NETHERLANDS. See 
 Nethep.., NDS: A. D. 1506-1508 to 1573-1574. 
 
 AMADEO, King of Spain, A. 1). 1871-1873. 
 
 AMAHUACA, The. See Amehican Abou- 
 IQINES: Andesians. 
 
 AMALASONTHA, Queen of the Ostro- 
 goths. Se'iKoME: A. I). 535-553. 
 
 "MALaKITES, The.— "Tlie Amalekites 
 weio usualh' regarded as a branch of tlie 
 Edomites or 'Red-slvins'. Amaiek, lilic Kenaz, 
 the lather of the Kenizzites or ' Hunters,' was 
 the grand.son of Esau (Gen. 30: 12, 10). He thus 
 belonged to the group of nations, — Edomites, 
 Ammonites, and Moabitcs, — wlio s^ood in a 
 relation of clo.se kinsliij) I0 Israel. But tliey liad 
 preceded the Israelites in dispossessing tlie older 
 inhabitants of the land, and establisliiiig tliem- 
 selves in th' ir place. The Edomites liad partly 
 d<'stroycd, partly amalgamated the Horites of 
 Mount Seir (Deut. 3: 12)'; the 3Ioabites had done 
 the same to tlie Jjinim, * a i)eople great and manj', 
 and tall as the Aiiakim' (Dent. 2: 10), while tlie 
 Ammonites Uad e.xtirjjated and succeeded to the 
 Hepliaim or 'Giants,' who in tliat part of the 
 country were termed Zam/.unuuim (Ueut. 3: 30; 
 Gen. 14: 5). Edoin however stood m a closer 
 relation to Israel tlian its two more northerly 
 neighbours. . . . Seiiarate from the Edomites or 
 Amalekites were tlie Kenites or wandering 
 'smiths.' They formed an important Guild in 
 an age when the art of metallurgy was conlined 
 to a few. In the time of Saul -ve lie;ir of tliein 
 as camping among the Amalekites (I. Sam. 15: 0.) 
 . . . The Kenites . . . did uot constitute a race, 
 or even a trilie. They were, at most, a caste. 
 But they had originally come, like the Israelites 
 or the Edomites, from tliose barreu regions of 
 Nortiiern Arabia wliich were peopled by the 
 Jlenti of tlie Egyptian inscriptions. Racially, 
 tlierefore, we may regard them as allied to the 
 descendants of Abraham. While tlie Kenites 
 and Amalekites were thus Semitic in tlieir origin, 
 tlie Ilivites or 'Villagers' are specially asso- 
 •^iated witli Amorites." — A. II. Sayce, iJaa* of 
 the Old Test, ch. 0. 
 
 Also in II. Ewald, Hist, of Inrael, bk. 1, sect. 
 4. — See, also, Auahia. 
 
 AMALFI. — " It was the singula' fate of this 
 city to liave tilled up the interval between two 
 periods of civilization, in neither of which she 
 was ilestined to be distiuguislied. Scarcely 
 known before the end of tlie si.\tli century, 
 Anialtl ran a brilliant career, as a free and trad- 
 ing republic [see Uo.me: A. D. 554-800], which 
 was chocked by the arms of a conqueror in the 
 middle of the twelftli. . . . 'I'liere must be, I 
 suspect, some exaggeration about the commerce 
 and opulence of Amalli, in the only age when 
 she pos.sessed any at all." — II. JIallam, The 
 Middle Ages, ch. 0, pt. 1, teith note. — " Amalfl 
 and Atrani lie close togetlier in two . . . 
 ravines, the mountains almo.st arching over thoni, 
 and the sea washing tlieir very house-walls. 
 ... It is uot easy to imagine the time wlien 
 Amalli and Atrani were one town, with docks 
 and anscnals and harbourage for their associated 
 tleets, and when these little communities were 
 second in importance to no naval power of 
 
 43 
 
AMALFI. 
 
 AMAZONS HIVEli. 
 
 C'hristiiin Eiiropr. The Hyziiiilinf Empire lost 
 ils liolil on Ittily (luring the' ci;:)!!!! century; iind 
 after this liini'tlic liislory of Caliibriii is niiiinly 
 concerned witli the republics of Niii)les and 
 Amalli. their conflict with the Lombard dukes 
 of Henevento, their opposition to the Saracens, 
 and tlieir linal subjugation by llie Xorman 
 coni|ueror8 of Sicily. Hetween the year S'M 
 A. I)., when Ainnlli' freed itself from the con- 
 trol of Naples and the yoke of 15enevento, and 
 the year 11:11, when Ho^er of Il.nnteville incor- 
 porated the re|iul)lic in his kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies, this city was the foremost naval ami 
 connnercial jKU't of Italy. The burghers of 
 Amalii elected their own doge; founded the 
 Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the 
 knightly order of S. .lohn ; gave their name 
 ♦f the richest (juarler in Palermo; and owned 
 trading establishments or factories in all the chief 
 cities of the Eevant. Their gold coinage of 
 'tari' formed the standard of currency before the 
 Florentines had stamped the lily and S. John upon 
 the Tuscan Uoriu. Their shipi)iug regulations 
 supplied Europe with a code of maritime laws. 
 Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark 
 ages, prized and conned a famous copy of the 
 Pandects of Justinian, and their seamen deserved 
 the fame of having tirst used, if they did not 
 actually invent, the compass. . . . The republic 
 had grown and nourished on the decay of the 
 Greek Empire. When the hard-handed race of 
 llauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and 
 Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy [sec 
 Italy (Southern): A. 1). KIOO-IODO], these 
 adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalii. But 
 it was not tlieir interest to extinguish the state. 
 On the contrary, they relied for assistance upon 
 the navies and the armies of the little common- 
 wealth. Xew powers had meanwhile arisen in 
 the North of Italy, who were jealous of rivalry 
 upon the open seas; and wlien the Neapolitans 
 resisted ICiiig Hoger in 1185, they called I'isa to 
 their aid, and sent her fleet to destroy Amalti. 
 The ships of AmalQ were on guard with Hoger's 
 navy in the Hay of Naples. The armed citizens 
 were, under Roger's orders, at Avcrsa. Jlean- 
 while the lioine of the republic lav defenceless on 
 its mountain-girdled seaboard. 'I'lie Pisans sailed 
 into the harbour, sacked the city and carried oil 
 the famous Pandects of Justinian as a trophy. 
 Two years later they returned, to complete the 
 work of devastation. Amalii never recovered 
 from the injuries and the humiliation of these two 
 attacks. It was ever thus that the Italians, like 
 the children of the dragon's teeth which Cadmus 
 sowed, consumed each other." — J. A. Symonds, 
 Ski'tcKes <tml Studicit in lUilt/. pp. 2-4. 
 
 AMALINGS, OR AIVIALS.— The royal 
 race of the ancient Ostraifoths, as the Halthi or 
 IJalthings were of the Visigoths, both claiming a 
 descent from the gods. 
 
 AMAZIGH, The. See Liuyans. 
 
 AMAZONS.— " 'I'lie Amazons, daughters of 
 Ares and llarmonia, are both early cn'ations, and 
 frei|uent reproductions, of the ancient eiiic. . . . 
 .\ nation of courageous, hardy and indefatigable 
 women, dwelling apart from men. permiitins 
 only a short tiinponiry intercourse for the pur- 
 pose of renovating their numbers, and burning 
 out their right brea.st with ir vii^w of enabling 
 thciii.sclves to draw the bow freely, — this was at 
 once a general type stimulating to the fancy of 
 the poet, and u theme eminently popular with 
 
 his hearers. Nor was it at all repugnant to the 
 faith of the latter — who hail no recorded facts 
 to guide them, and no other standard of credi- 
 bility as to the past except such poetical narra- 
 tives themselves — to conceive communities of 
 Amazons as having actually existed in anterior 
 time. Accordingly we Iind these warlike females 
 constantly reappearing in the ancient poems, and 
 universally accepted as past realities. In the 
 Iliad, when rriaiii wishes to illustrate emphatic- 
 ally the most numerous host in which he ever 
 found himself included, he tells us that it was 
 assembled in Phrygia, on the banks of the Sau- 
 garius, for the purpose of resi.stiiig the formida- 
 ble Amazons. When Hellero])hon is to be em- 
 ployed on a deadly and iierilous undertaking, by 
 those who indirectly wish to procure liis death, 
 he is despatched against the Amazons. . . . The 
 ,\rgoiiautic heroes tind tlu' Amazons on the river 
 ThermOdon in their expedition along the south- 
 ern coast of the Euxine. To the same spot 
 llerakles goes to attack them, in the performance 
 of the ninth labour imposed upon him by Eurys- 
 theus, for the |)urpose of ])rocuiing the girdle of 
 t he Amazonian iiueen, Ilippoly te ; and we arc told 
 that they hail not yet recovered from the losses 
 sustained in this severe aggression when Theseus 
 also assaulted and defeated them, carrying off 
 their (lueen AntiopO. This injury they avenged 
 by invading Attica . . . and penetrated even 
 into Athens itself; where the final battle, hard- 
 fought and at one time doubtful, by which ThO- 
 seus crushed them, was fcnight — in the very 
 heart of the city. Attic antiijuaries contidently 
 pointed out the exact ijosition of the two con- 
 tending armies. . . . No porticm of the ante-his- 
 torical epic appears to have been more (leeply 
 worked into the national mind of Greece than 
 this invasion and defeat of the Amazons. . . . 
 Their ])roper territory was asserted to be the town 
 and plain of Themiskyra, near the Grecian colony 
 of Amisus, on the river Thermodon [northern 
 Asia ,AIinor], a region called after their name by 
 Homan historians and geographers. . . . Some 
 authors jilaced the:r. i:; Libya or Ethiopia." — 
 O. Grote, IIM. of (Ireece, pt. 1, c/i. 11. 
 
 AMAZONS RIVER, Discovery and Nam- 
 ing of the. — The mouth of the great river of 
 South America was discovered in liiOO by Pin- 
 zon, or Pinv'cm (see A.\ieiiica; A. D. 1409-1500), 
 who called it ' Santa Maria de )a Mar Dulce ' 
 (Saint Mary of the Fresh-AVater Sea). "Tills 
 was the first name given to the river, except tliat 
 older and better one of the Indians, 'Parana,' 
 the Sea; afterwards it was Maraiion and Uio das 
 Amazonas, from the female warriors that were 
 supposed to live near its banks. . , . After Pin- 
 ion's time, there were others who saw the fresh- 
 water sea, but no one was hardy enough to 
 ve.;ture into it. The honor of ils real discovery 
 was reserved for Francisco de Orellana ; and he 
 explored it, not from the east, but from the 
 '.vest, in one of the most daring voyages that was 
 ever recorded. It was accident rather than 
 design that led him to it. After . . . Pizarro 
 had coiKiucred Pi'ru, he sent his brother Gon- 
 zaio, with ;t40 Spanish soldiers, and 4,000 
 Indians, to explore the great forest east of Quito, 
 ' where there were cinnamon trees' The expe- 
 dition started late in 15i!0, and it was two year.=i 
 before the starved and ragged survivors returned 
 to Quito. Ill the course of their wanderings they 
 had struck the river Coco; buiUliug here a brig- 
 
 44 
 
AMAZONS RIVEU. 
 
 AMEIXAL, 
 
 antine, they followed down the current, a part of 
 thoin ill the vessel, a part on shore. After a 
 while they met some Indians, who tolil them of 
 a rich country ten days' journey beyond — a 
 country of gold, and with plenty of provisions. 
 Gonzalo placed.Orellami in eoinniand of the biig- 
 antine, and ordered liini, witli oO sokliers, to go 
 on to this gold-ltuul, and reti rn with a load of 
 provision.s. Orellana arrived iit the month of 
 the C'oei) in three days, but found no provisiims; 
 'and he considered that if he should return with 
 this news to Pizarro, he would not reach him in 
 a year, on account of thr strong current, and 
 that if he remained where he was, he would be 
 of no use to the one or to the other. Not know- 
 ing how long Gonzalo I'izarro would take to 
 reach the place, without consulting any one he 
 set sail and prosecuted his voyage onwaril, 
 intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach Spain, and 
 obtain that govcriunent for himself.' Down the 
 Nai>o and the Amazons, for seven months, these 
 Spaniards floated to the Atlantic. At times they 
 suffered terribly from hunger: 'There was 
 nothing to eat but the skins which formed their 
 girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled 
 with a few herbs.' When they did get food 
 they were often obliged to tight hard for it ; and 
 again they were attacked by thousands of naked 
 Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish 
 vessel. At some Indian villages, however, they 
 were kindly received and well fed, so they could 
 rest while 'luilding a new and stronger vessel. 
 . . . Onthe26thof August, 1541, Orellana and his 
 men sailed out to the blue water ' without either 
 pilot, compass, or anything u.seful for naviga- 
 tion; nor did they know what direction they 
 should take' Foilowing the coast, they passed 
 inside of the i.sland of Trinidad, and so at length 
 reached Cubagua in September. From the king 
 of Spain OreUana received a grant of the land 
 he had discovered ; but he died while returning 
 to it, and his company was dispei-sed. ''l was 
 not a very reliable account of the river tlui* was 
 given by Orellana and his chronicler, Padre C'ar- 
 bajal. So Ilerren, tells their story of the warrior 
 females, and very properly adds: 'Every reader 
 may believe as much as he likes.'" — II. II. 
 Sinitn, Brazit, the Amazons, ami the Oiaat, eh. 1. 
 —In eh. 18 of this same work "The Amazon 
 Myth" is discussed at length, with the re|)orts 
 and opinions of numerous travellers, both early 
 anil recent, eonjerning it. — Mr. Southey had so 
 nu»;h respect for the memory of Orellana that 
 he made an effort to restore that bohl but un])rin- 
 cipled discoverer's name to the great rivi'r. " He 
 discarded Maranon, as having too much resem- 
 blanei' to Maianliam, and Amazon, as l)eing 
 founded upon liclion and at the same time ineoii- 
 veiiient. ^Sccordlngly, in his ina]), and in all his 
 references to the great river he (U^uominates it 
 Orellana. This decision of the poet-laureate of 
 <!real Britain has not i)rovi(l authoritative in 
 Brazil. O Aniazonas is the imiversal appellation 
 of the great river among those who lloat upon its 
 waters and who live upon its banks. . . . Pani, 
 the aboriginal name of this river, was more 
 appropriate than any other. It siirnities 'the 
 father of waters.' . .' . The origin of tlie name 
 and mystery eoncerinng the fcnnih; warriors, I 
 think, has been solved within the last few yciirs 
 by the intn'pid Mr. AVallace. . . . Mr. Wallace, 
 I think, shows conclusively that Friar Caspar 
 [Carbajttl] uud his conipunlons saw Indian male 
 
 j warriors who were attired in habiliments such a.s 
 ; Europeans would attribute to women. . , . I 
 am strongly of the oiiinion tlnit the story of the 
 Annizons has arisen from these feminine-looking 
 [ warriors encountered by the early voyagers." — 
 I J. C. Fletchei- and I). P. Kidder, Brazil "and the 
 i ]iraziUan», ch. 27. 
 
 Ai.so IN A. \K. Wallace, Traveli on the Ama- 
 zon and Hill Nci/ro, ch. 17. — R. Southey, nint. nj 
 \ Jhuizit. ch. 4 ('•.' 1). 
 
 AMAZULUS, OR ZULUS.— The Zulu 
 War. See Soi:tii Afuicv: TiiI': AHoiiioiXAi, 
 I.Nii.vnnwNTs; and the same: A. 1). 1877-187S). 
 
 AMBACTI.— "The Celtic aristocracy [of 
 Gaul] . . . developed the system of retainers, 
 that is, the privilege of th: .'lobility to surrotmd 
 themselves with a muuber of hired mounted ser- 
 vants — the ambacti as they were called — and 
 thereby to form a state within a slate; and, 
 resting on the sui)port of these troops of their 
 own, they deflcd tlie legal authorities and the 
 connnon levy and practically broke uji the com- 
 monwealth. . . . 'rius remarkable word [am- 
 bacti] miist have been in use as early as the 
 sixth century of Rome among the Celts in the 
 valley of the Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, 
 however, but also German, the root of our 
 'Amt,' as indeed the retainer-system itself is 
 common to the Celts and the Germans. It would 
 be of great historical importance to ascertain 
 whether the word — and therefore the thing — 
 came to the Celts from the Germans or to the 
 G(;rmans from the Celts. If, as is usually sup- 
 posed, the word is originally German and pri- 
 marily signitied the servant standing in battle 
 'against the back' ('and '-—against, 'bak'= 
 baek^ of his master, this is not wholly irrecon- 
 cilable with the singularly early occurrence of 
 the word among the Celts. . . . It is . . . prob- 
 able that the Celts, in Italy as in Gaul, em- 
 l)loyed Germans chiefly as those hired servants- 
 at-arnis. The 'Swiss guard' would therefore in 
 that case be .some thousands of years older than 
 peojde suppose." — T. >Iommsen, lli.it. of Rome, 
 bk. 5, ch. 7, and foot-note. 
 
 AMBARRI, The.— A small tribe in Gaul 
 which occupied anciently a district between the 
 Saone, the Rhone and the Ain. — Napoleon III., 
 Hint, of Vmmr, bk. 3, eh. 3, note. 
 
 AMBIANI, The. See Bei.o.k. 
 
 AMBITUS. — liribery at elections was termed 
 ambitus among the Romans, and many unavail- 
 ing laws were enacted to check it. — W. Ramsay, 
 .Manual of llonian, .ititir/., ch. 0. 
 
 AMBl'VARETI, The.— A tribe in ancient 
 Gaul which occupied the left bardcof theMeuse, 
 to the south of the marsh of Peel. — Napoleon 
 III., ITiKt.,of Cicmir, bk. 3, ch. 2, note. 
 
 AMBLEVE, Battle of (716.) See Fhanks 
 (Mkuovimii.\n IOmi'ikk): .V. 1). r)ll-7.")2. 
 
 AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tumult of. See 
 FitANci:: A. 1). irM!)-t.-,r.l. 
 
 AMBOISE, Edict of. See Fu.vnce: A. D. 
 
 i.-)iii(-i.-)tia 
 
 AMBO'VNA, Massacre of. 3ee Indi.v: A. 
 1). 11)00-1702. 
 
 AMBRACIA (Ambrakja). See Koukyh.\. 
 
 AMBRONES, The. See CiMuiu and Teu- 
 ■ro.NKs: H. C. li:{-102. 
 
 AMBROSIAN CHURCH. — AMBRO- 
 SIAN CHANT. Sec Milan: A. I). :i7l-:i!)T. 
 
 AMEIXAL, OR ESTREMOS, Battle of 
 (1663). .See Poiituoal: A. D. 10;)7-1(WH. 
 
 46 
 
-^ 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 FrehUtoric, 
 
 AilERlCA. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 The Name. See below: A. D. 1500-1514. 
 
 Prehistoric. — " Widely scattered throughout 
 the United States, from sea to sea, artiticial 
 mounds are discovered, which may be enumer- 
 ated by tlie thousands or hundreds of thousands. 
 They vary ^'reatly in size; some arc so small that 
 a half-dozen laborers with shovels might con- 
 struct one of them in a day, while others cover 
 ,icres and are scores of feet in height. These 
 mounds were observed by the earliest explorers 
 and pioneers of the country. They did not 
 attract preat attention, however, until the 
 science of areha'ology demanded their investiga- 
 tion. Then they were assumed to furnisli evi- 
 dence of a race of people older than the Indian 
 tribes. Pseud-arehii'ologists descanted on the 
 Moiuid-builders that once inhabited the land, 
 and they told of swarming populations who had 
 reached a high condition of culture, erecting 
 temples, practicing orts in the metals, and using 
 hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the 
 theme of many an essay on the wonders of 
 ancient civilization. The research of the past 
 ten or fifteen years has put this subject in a 
 proper light. First, the am als of the Colum- 
 bian epoch have been carelully studied, and it 
 is found that some of the mounds have been con- 
 structed in historical time, while early explorers 
 and settlers found many actually used by 
 tribes of Xorth American Indians; so we know 
 that many of them were buildeys of mounds. 
 Again, hundreds and thou-sands of these mounds 
 have been carefully examined, and the works of 
 art found therein have been collected and assem- 
 bled in museums. At the same time, the works 
 of art of the Indian tribes, as they were pro- 
 duced before modification by European cidture, 
 have been assembled in the same musuems, and 
 the two classes of collections have been carefully 
 compared. All this has been done with the 
 greatest painstaking, and the ]\Iound builder's 
 arts and the Indian's arts are found to be sub- 
 stantially identical. No fragment of evidi^ncc 
 remains to support the ligment of theory that 
 there was an ancient race of Moiuid-builders 
 superior in culture to the North American 
 Indians. . . . That some of these mounds were 
 built and used in modern times is proved in 
 another way. They often contain articles mani- 
 festly made by white men, such as glass beads 
 and copper ornaments. ... So it chances that 
 to-day unskilled aicha'ologi.sts are collecting 
 many beautiful things in copper, stone, and 
 shell which were made by white men and traded 
 to the Indians. Now, souk; of these things are 
 fotmd in the mounds; and bird Jiipes. elephant 
 pipes, banner stones, copper sjiear heads and 
 knives, and maehine-inade wampiun are col- 
 lected in (|uantities and sold at high prices to 
 wealthy aniatcuni. . . . The study of these 
 mounds, historically and arelueologieally, proves 
 that th' y were used for a variety of purposes. 
 Some were for sepulture, and such are the most 
 common and widely scattered. Others were 
 used a.s artiticial hills on which to build com- 
 munal houses. . . . Some of the very large 
 mounds were sites of large communal houses in 
 which entire tribes dwelt. There is still a third 
 clnsj . . . constructed as places for public 
 assi'mbly. . . . But to explain the mounds and 
 their uses wouhl expand this article into a book. 
 
 It is enough to say that the Mound-builders were 
 the Indian tri'oes discovered by white men. It 
 may well be that some of the mounds were 
 erected by ♦ribes extinct when Columbus first 
 .saw these" shores, but they were kindred in cul- 
 ture to the peoples that still existed. In the 
 southwestern portion of the United States, con- 
 ditions of aridity prevail. Forests nre few and 
 arc found only at great heights. . . . The tribes 
 lived in the plains and valleys below, while the 
 highlands were their hunting grounds. The 
 arid lands below were often naked of vegetation ; 
 and the ledges and clilTs that stand athwart the 
 lands, and the canyon walls that inclose the 
 streams, were everywhere quarries of loose rock, 
 lying in blocks ready to the builder's hand. 
 Jlcnce these people learned to build their 
 dwellings of stone; and they had large com- 
 mimal houses, even larger than the structures of 
 woml made by the tribes of the ea.st and north. 
 Many of these stone pueblos are still occupied, 
 but the ruins are scattered wide over a region of 
 country embracing a little of California and 
 Nevada, much of Utah, most of Colorado, the 
 whole of New Slexico nnd Arizona, and far 
 southward toward the Isthmus. . . . No ruin 
 has been discovered where evidences of a higher 
 cidture are foimd than exists in modern times at 
 Zuni, Oraibi, or Laguniv. The earliest may have 
 been built thousands of years ago, but they were 
 built by the ancestors of existing tribes and 
 their congeners. A careful study of these ruins, 
 made during the last twenty years, abundantly 
 demonstrates that the pueblo culture began with 
 rude structures of stone and brush, and gradu- 
 ally leveloped, until at the time of the explora- 
 tion of the country by the Spaniards, beginning 
 about 1540, it had reached its highest phase. 
 Zufii [in New SIcxico] has been built since, and 
 it is among the largest and best villages ever 
 established within the territory of the United 
 States without tlie aid of ideas derived from 
 civilized men." AVit'i regard to the ruins of 
 dwellings found sheltered in the craters of extinct 
 volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or other- 
 wise contrived, the conclusion to which all recent 
 archa!ological study tends is the same. "All 
 the stone pueblo ruins, all the clay ruins, all the 
 cliff dwellings, all the crater villages, all the 
 cavate chambers, and all the ttifa-block houses 
 are fully accounted for without resort to hypothet- 
 ical peoples inhabiting the coimtry anterior to 
 the Indian tribes. . . . Pre-Columbian culture 
 was indigenous; it began at the lowest stage of 
 savagery and developed to the highest, and was 
 in many places passing into barbarism when the 
 good queen sold her jewels." — Major J. W. 
 Powell, PrehiMorie Man in America; in " The 
 Forum," January, 1890. — "The writer believes 
 . . . that the majority of American archiEolo- 
 gists now sees no sufflcient reason for sujiposing 
 that any mysterious superior race has ever lived 
 in any portion of our continent. They And no 
 areha;ological evidence proving tliat at the time 
 of its discovery any tribe had reached a stage 
 of culture that can properly be called civiliza- 
 tion. Even if we accept the exaggerated state- 
 1 ments of the Spanish conquerors, the most intelli 
 gent and advanced peoples found here were 
 only 8«!mi-borbaiians, in the stage of transition 
 from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no 
 
 4(5 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 Showing the more Important of tho Journevt 
 of Discovery and Early Settlements. 
 
 REFCRENCr 70 J0URNEV9. 
 
 Cilumbus ■. — ■ — — -. . . . 
 
 J'lspttrtjift -.—,_.-.-,.,_,-.,_,_,. 
 
 Jo7in Gibot — + -r + ■«. 
 
 Miilbua 
 
 Pnnce tie Lcvn ^~—.^^.^— 
 
 Ojider I ( - t I I I ■ 
 
 I>e Solo ++++|.++++++>.++^ , 
 
 Oivnuiao — I — I (._ ,^j_^ ^ 
 
 Cha hijda 1 n __ 
 
 Ln:iftf(r "- ■ 
 
 JitUlSUn T1 T M IIITTTITriTn 
 
 Bala of SUIula MtW*. 
 
 >eo mo o 
 
 ]}^'' too- xU^iub 
 
"Miy ■-' 
 
 ..I i;:'''^ ' 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 Hortt Ditcovery. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 written language, or what can properly be 
 styled nu alphabet, and not yet having even 
 learned tlic use of beasts of burden." — II. W. 
 Ilaynes, Prehistoric Archaoloatj of X. Am. (o. 1, 
 c/i.'O, of " Xurratirc and Critical Hixt. of Am."). 
 — "It may be premised . . . that llic Spanish 
 adventiu'ers who thronged to the New World 
 after its lUscovery found the same nco of Red 
 Indians in the West India Islands, in Central 
 and South Anieriea, in Florida and in Jloxieo. 
 In their mode of life and means of subsisteuco, 
 in their weapons, arts, usages and customs, iu 
 their instituticns, and in their mental and physi- 
 cal characteristics, they were the same jieople in 
 ditfereut stages of advancement. . . . Tlierewas 
 ndtlicr a political society, nor a state, nor any 
 civilization in America wlieu it was discovered; 
 and, excluding the Eskimos, but one race of 
 Indians, the Red Race." — L. II. Morgan, Houses 
 and lloHsc-Ufe of the American Aburiyiiies : (Om- 
 tributioiistoX. A. Ethnology, v. 5.), ch. 10. — "We 
 have in this country tlie conclusive evidence of 
 tlie existence of man before the time of the 
 glaciers, and from tlio primitive conditions of 
 tliat time, he has lived here and developed, 
 through stages whicli correspond in many par- 
 ticulars to the Homeric ago of Greece." — F. W. 
 Pimiani, Ilejyt. I'eubody Museum of Areha'oloyi/, 
 IHSO. 
 
 Al.so IN L. Carr, The Mounds of the Mississippi 
 Vidlei/. — C. Tliomas, Burial Mounds of the 
 Northern Sections of the U. 8.: Annual Rept. of 
 the Bureau of Ethnology, 188U-84.— JIarquis de 
 Nadaillac, Prehistoric America. — J. Fiske, llie 
 Viscocery of America, ch. 1. — See, aluo, JIexico; 
 i^Kiii;; and Ameuican AnoiiioiNios: Aixkguans, 
 C'l] ::uoKi;i;s, and Mayas. 
 
 loth-iith Centuries. — Supposed Discover- 
 ies by the Northmen. — The fact that tlie Nortli- 
 men knew of the existence of the Western Con- 
 tinent prior to the age of Columbus, was promi- 
 nenlly brought l)efore the people of this country 
 '" the year 18;J7, when the Royal Society of 
 
 in 
 
 Korthern Antiquaries at Copenhagen publislied 
 tlieir work on the Antiquities of North America, 
 tmder tile editorial supervision of the great Ice- 
 lanilie scholar. Professor Rafn. But we are not 
 to suppose that the first general account of these 
 voyages was th(,n given, for it has always been 
 known that the history (jf certain early voyages 
 to America by the Norllunen were i)rescrved in 
 the libraries of Denmark and Iceland. . . . Yet, 
 owing to tlie fact that tlie Icelandic language, 
 thougli simple in construction and easy of acqui- 
 sition, was a Icingne not understood by scholars, 
 the subject lias until recent years been sulfered to 
 lie in tlie background, and permitted, through 
 n want of interest, to share in a measure the 
 treatment meted out to vague ami uncertain re- 
 ports. ... It now remains to give; the reader 
 some general accuuiit of the contents of the nar- 
 ratives which relate more or less to llie discovery 
 of the western continent. . . The lirst extracts 
 given are very brief. Thev are taken from the 
 'Landanama Book," and re,.ite to the report iu 
 general circulation, wliich indicated one Gunni- 
 b<>rn as the discoverer of Greenland, an event 
 winch has been lixed at the vear STli. . . . The 
 next narrative relates to the rediscovery of 
 Greenland by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in 983 
 who there |)assed three vears in exile, and after- 
 wards returned to Iceland. About the year 'JSB 
 he brought out to Greenland a considerable colony 
 
 4 
 
 of settlers, who fixed their abode at Brattahlid, 
 in Ericsflord. Then follow two versions of 
 the voyage of Biarne Heriulfson, who, in the 
 same year, 980, when sailing for Greenland, was 
 driven away during a storm, and saw u new 
 land at the southward, which he did not visit. 
 Next is given tliree accounts of the voyage of 
 Leif, son of Eric the Red, who iu the year 1000 
 sailed from Brattahlid to find the land which 
 Biarne saw. Two of these accounts are hardly 
 more than notices of the voyage, but the third is 
 of considerable length, and details the successes 
 of Leif, who found and explored this new land, 
 where he spent the winter, returning to Green- 
 land the following spring [having named diilcr- 
 ent regions which he visited Ilelluland, Mark- 
 laud and Yinland, mo latter name indicative of 
 tlie linding of graiics]. After this follows the 
 voyage oi' Thorvald Ericson, brother of Leif, 
 who sailed to Viiilaiid from Oreeiiland, which 
 was the point of departure in all these voyages. 
 This expedition was begun in 1003, and it cost 
 him his life, as an 'urow from one of the natives 
 pierced his side, causing death. Tliorstein, hia 
 brotlier, went to seek Viuland, with the inten- 
 tion of bringing homo his body, but failed in the 
 attempt. The most distinguislied explorer was 
 Thortinn Karlsefne, the lloiieful, an Icelander 
 whose genealogy runs biick in the old Northern 
 annals, through Danisli, Swedish, and even 
 Scotch and Irish ancestors, some of wliom were 
 of royal blootl. In the year 1000 ho went to 
 Greenland, where he met Gudrid, widow of 
 Tliorstein, whom ho married. Aci;oir.panied by 
 his wife, who urged him to the undertaking, ho 
 sailed to Viuland in the spring of 1007, with 
 thi'ce vessels and 100 men, where he remained 
 three years. Here his son Snorro was born. He 
 afterwards became the founder of a great family 
 in Iceland, which gave the island several of its 
 first bishops. Thorlinn finally left Viuland be- 
 cause he found it dillicult to sustain himself 
 against the attacks of the uatives. The next to 
 undertake a voyage was a wicked woman named 
 Freydis, a sister to Leif Ericson, wlio went to 
 Viuland in 1011, where she lived fo • a time with 
 lit • two ships, iu the same places occupied by 
 Leif and Thorlinn. Before she returned, she 
 caused the crew of one ship to be cruelly mur- 
 dered, assisting in the butchery with her own 
 liands. After this we have what are called the 
 Minor Narratives, which are not essential." — B. 
 F. Do Costa, Prc-Uolundjan Discovery of Am. , Gen- 
 eral Introd. — By those who accept fully the 
 claims made for tlie Northmen, as discoverers of 
 tlie American continent iu tlie vojages believed 
 to be authentically narrated in these sagas, the 
 Helluland of Leif is commonly identilied with 
 Newfouiidlaud, Marklaiid witliNova Scotia, and 
 Viuland witli various jiarls of New England. 
 !Massaeluisetts Bay, Cape Cod, Nantucket Island, 
 Martha's Vineyard, Buzzard's Bay, Narragan- 
 selt Bay, iMount Hope Bay, Long Island Soiuid, 
 and New York Bay arc umong the localities 
 supposed to be recognized in tlie Nors(? nami- 
 tives, or marked by some tnices of the presence 
 of the Viking explorers. Prof. Gustav Storm, 
 the most recent of the Scandinavian investiga- 
 tors of this suliieet, llnds the Ilelluland of the 
 sagas in Labrador or Northern Newfoundland, 
 Markland in Newfoundland, and Vinlaiid iu 
 Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island. — G. Storm, 
 Htudies of tlie Vinehind Voyages. — "The only dis- 
 
 47 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 Columbian 
 Ditcovery. 
 
 AMERICA, 1484-1492. 
 
 credit wlikli has boon thrown upon tlie story of the 
 Vinliind vnyut'is. in the oycs cithir of scliohir.s or 
 of the general |ml)lic, lias arisen from t lie eager cre- 
 dulity with which inirenioiis aiili(iiiariau.s have 
 now and then tried to jirove more than facts will 
 warrant. . . . Ar<lia'lo!,'ieal remains of the North- 
 men abound in Greenland, all the way froir Im- 
 martinek to near Cajie Farewell; the existence 
 of one such relic on the North American con- 
 tinent has never yet been proved. Not a single 
 veslij;eof the Nor.hmen's presence here, at all 
 wortliy of credeiu e, has ever been found. . . . 
 The most convincing proof that the Northmen 
 nc -er founded ii colony in America, south of 
 Uavis Strait, is furni.shed by the total absence of 
 horses, cattle and other domestic animals from 
 the soil of North America until they were 
 brought hither by the Spanish, French and 
 English settlers." — J. Fiske, T/ie DiKcoviri/ of 
 America, ch. 2. — " \Vliat Leif and Karlsefnc 
 knew they experienced," wi-itos I'rof. Justin 
 Winsyr, "and what the sagas tell 'is they 
 underwent, must have just the dilference be- 
 tween a crisp narrative of personal adventure 
 and the oft-repeated and embellished story of a 
 fireside narrator, since the traditions of the 
 Norse voyages ■were not put in the shape of 
 records till about two centuries had elapsed, and 
 wo have no earlier inanuscrii)t of such a record 
 than one made nearly two hundred years later 
 still. ... A blending of history and myth 
 prompts Horn to say that 'sonicof the saga? 
 were doubtless originally based on facts, but the 
 telling and retelling have changed them into 
 pure myths.' The unsympathetic stranger soes 
 this in stories that the patriotic Scandinavians 
 are over-anxious to make appear as genuine 
 chronicles. . . . The weight of probability is in 
 favor of a Northman descent upon the coast of 
 the American mainland at some point, or at 
 several, somewhere to the south of Greenland; 
 but the evidence is hardly that which attaches to 
 well established historical records. . . . There is 
 not a single item of all the evidence thus ad- 
 vanced from time to time which can he said to 
 connect by archaiological traces the presence of 
 the Northmen on the soil of North America 
 south of Uavis' Straits." Of other imagined 
 pre-Columban discoveries of America, by tlie 
 Welsh, bjr the Arabs, by the Basques, &c., the 
 possibilities and i)robabilities are critically dis- 
 cussed by Prof. Wiusor in the same connectiou. 
 — J. Winsor, Karmtiec and Vn'lical Hist, of 
 Am., V. 1, eh. 2, and Critical Xulcs to the same. 
 
 Also in Bryant and Gay, Pojnilnr Hist, of the 
 U. S., ch. 3.— E. P. Slaftcr, Ed. Voyages of the 
 Northmen to Am. (Pnnee Soc, 1877). — The same. 
 Discovery of Am. by the Northmen (N. U. llist. 
 Sue., 1888). — N. L. Beamish, Discover!/ of Am. by 
 the Northmen, — A. J. Weisc, Discoveries of Am., 
 ch. 1. 
 
 . A. D. 148A-1492.— The great project of 
 Columbus, and the sources of its inspiration. 
 — His seven years' suit at the Spanish Court. 
 — His departure from Palos. — " All attempts 
 to diniinisli the glory of Columbus' achievement 
 by proving a previous discovery whose results 
 were known to him have signally failed. . . . 
 Columbus originated no new theory respecting 
 the earth's form or size, though it popular idea 
 has always prevailed, notwithstanding the state- 
 ments of" the best writers to the contrary, that 
 he is entitled to the glory of the theory lis well 
 
 as to that of the execution of the project. He 
 was not in advance of his age, entertained no 
 new theories, believed no more than did Prince 
 Henry, his predecessor, or ToscancUi, his C(m- 
 temjiorary; nor was he the first to conceive the 
 jwssibility of reaching the east by sailing west. 
 lie was however the first to act in accordance 
 with existing beliefs. The Northmen in their 
 voyages had entertained no ideas of a New 
 World, or of an Asia to the West. To knowl- 
 edge of theoretical geography, Columbus added 
 the skill of a iiractical navigator, and the iron 
 will to overcome obstacles. He sailed west, 
 reached Asia as ho believed, and proved old 
 theories correct. There seem to be two unde- 
 cided points in that matter, neither of which can 
 ever be settled. First, did his experience in the 
 Portuguese voyages, the perusal of sonic old 
 author, or a hint from one of the few men 
 ac(iuainted with old traditions, first suggest to 
 Columbus his project ? . . . Second, to wlnt ex- 
 tent did his voyage to the north [made in 1477, 
 jjrobably with an English merchantman from 
 Bristol, in which voyage he is believed to liav» 
 visited Iceland] influence his plan ? There is no 
 evidence, but a strong probability, that he heaixl 
 in that voyage of the existence of land in the 
 west. . . . Still, his visit to the north was in 
 14r7, several years after the first formation of 
 his plau, and any information gained at the time 
 could only have been confirmatory rather than 
 suggestive." — II. H. Bancroft, lli.it. of tin 
 Pacific States, v. 1, summary app. to ch. 1. — "Of 
 the works of learned men, that which, according 
 to Ferdinand Columbus, had most weight with 
 his father, was the ' Cosmographia ' of Cardinal 
 Aliaco. Columbus was also confirmed in his 
 views of the existence of a western passage to 
 the Indies by Paulo Toscanelli, the Florentine 
 philosopher, to whom much credit is due for the 
 encouragement he afforded to the enterprise. 
 That the notices, however, of western lands were 
 not such as to have much weight with other 
 men, is sufficiently proved by the difllculty 
 which Columbus had in contending with adverse 
 geographers and men of science in general, of 
 whom he says he never was able to convince any 
 one. After a new world had been discovered, 
 many scattered indications were then found \ja 
 have foreshown it. One thing which cannot be 
 denied to Columbus is that he worked out hi» 
 own idea himself. ... Ho first applied himself 
 to his countrymen, the Genoese, who would have 
 nothing to say to bis scheme. He then tried the 
 Portuguese, who listened to what he had to say, 
 but with bad faith sought to anticipate him by 
 sending out a caravel with instructions founded 
 upon his plan. . . . Columbus, disgusted at the 
 treatment he had received from the Portuguese 
 Court, quitted Lisbon, and, after visiting Genoa, 
 as it appears, went to see what favour he could 
 meet with in Spain, arriving at Palos in the year 
 1485." The story of the long suit of Columbus 
 at the Court of Ferdinand anil Isabella; of his 
 discouragement and departure, with Intent to 
 go to France; of his recall by command of 
 Queen Isabella; of the tedious hearings and 
 negotiations that now took place; of the lofty 
 demands adhered to by the confident Ctenoese, 
 who required "to be made an admiral at once, 
 to be appointed viceroy of the countries he 
 should discover, and to have an eighth of the 
 profits of tlie expedition;" of bis second rebuff. 
 
 48 
 
AMERICA, 1484-1492. 
 
 Cotitmbinn 
 Vucovtry. 
 
 AMERICA, 1492. 
 
 nis s(^coiiil (Icparture for Frmuc, iincl second re- 
 cull by IsiilR'llii, who liniilly put her hciirt into 
 the enterpriso and iirrsimdcil her more skeptical 
 consort to us.scnt to it — the story of those seven 
 years of the strufit'le of Columlms to olitiiiii 
 "means for his voyane is fiiiniliar to all readers. 
 "The ngreenu'iit" belnecn Coluinhiis and their 
 Catholic highnesses was signed at Santa F6 on 
 the nth of April, 1492; and Columbus went to 
 I'alos to make preparation for his voyage, l)car- 
 ing with him an order that the two ves.sels wliieh 
 that city fnrnislied annually to tlie crown for 
 three months slioidd be placed at his disposal. 
 . . . The Pinzons, rich men and skilful nniriners 
 of Palos, joined in I lie undertaking, subscribing 
 an eighth' of the expenses; and thus, by these 
 united e.\ertions, three vessels were manned with 
 90 mariners, and provisioned for a year. At 
 length all tlic preparations were complete, and 
 on a Friday (not inauspicious in tliis case), the 
 'iid of August, 1492, after they had all confessed 
 mill received the sacrament, "tliey set stiil fnm 
 the bar of Salte.s, making for tlie Canary 
 Islands."— Sir A. Helps, T/t<i Spanish Conqua'- 
 ill America, bk. 2, eh. 1. 
 
 Also in J. AVinsor, Chrintopher Columbus, ch. 
 5-9, lui'l 20. 
 
 A. D. 1492.— The First Voyage of Colum- 
 bus. — Discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and 
 Hayti. — Tlie tliree vessels of Columbus were 
 called the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the 
 Nina. "All had forecastles and high poops, 
 but the 'Santa Maria' was the only one that 
 was decked amidships, and she was called ft ' nao ' 
 or ship. Tlie other two were caravelas, a 
 class of small vessels built for speed. The 
 'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices 
 in the letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 130 
 tons, like a modern coasting schooner, and she 
 carried 70 men, much crowded. Her sails were 
 11 foresail and a foretopsail, a sprit-sail, a main- 
 sail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a niizzen, 
 and a boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on 
 the poop. The ' Pinta ' and ' Nifia ' only liad 
 square sails on the foremast and lateen sails on 
 the main and mizzcn. The former wns 50 tons, 
 the latter 40 tons, with crews of 20 men each. 
 On Friday, the 3d of August, the three little 
 vessels left the haven of Pulos, and this memor- 
 able voyage was commenced. . . . The expedi- 
 tion proceeded to the Canary Islands, where the 
 rig of the ' Pinta ' was altered. Her lateen sails 
 were not adapted for running before the wind, 
 and she was therefore fitted with square sails, 
 like the ' Santa JIaria. ' Repairs were completed, 
 the vessels were filled up with wood and water 
 at Gomcra, and the expedition took its final de- 
 parture from the island of Qomera, one of the 
 Canaries, on September 6th, 1492. . . . Colum- 
 bus had chosen his route most happily, and with 
 that fortunate prevision which often "waits upon 
 genius. From Gomeni, by a course a little 
 south of west, he would run down the trades 
 to the Bahama Islands. From the parallel of 
 about 30° N. nearly to the equator there is 
 a zone of perpetual winds — namely, the 
 north-cast trade winds — always moving" in the 
 same direction, as steadily as" the current of a 
 river, except where they are turned aside by 
 local causes, so that the ships of Columbus were 
 steadily carried to their destination by a 
 law of nature which, in due time, revealed 
 itself to that close observer of her secrets. 'The 
 
 constancy of the wind was one cause of alarm 
 
 among the crews, for they tiegan to murmur 
 that tlie provi.sotis would all be exhausted if they 
 had to beat against these unceasing winds on 
 the return voyage. The next event which excited 
 alarm among the pilots was the discovery that 
 the compa.sses had more than a point of easterly 
 variation. . . . This was observed on the 17th 
 of September, and about 300 miles westward of 
 the meridian of the Azores, when the ships had 
 been eleven days at sea. Soon afterwards the voy- 
 agers found themselves surroun<led by ma.sses of 
 seaweed, in what is called the Sargasso Sea, anci 
 this again aroused their fears. Tliey thought 
 that the ships would g(!t entangled in the beds 
 of weed and become immovable, and that the 
 beds marked the limit of navigation. The cause 
 of this accumulation is well known now. 
 If bits ot cork are put into a ba.sin of water, 
 and a circular motion given to it, all the corks 
 will be found crowding together towards the 
 centre if the pool where there is the least motion. 
 The Atlantic Ocean is just such a basin, the 
 Gulf Stream is the wliirl, and the Sargasso Sea 
 is in the centre. There Columbus found it, and 
 there it has remained to this day, moving up 
 aud down and changing its position according to 
 seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its 
 mean position. ... As day after day passed, 
 and there was no sign of land, the crews became 
 turbulent and mutinous. Columbus encouraged 
 them with liopes of reward, while he told them 
 plainly that he had come to discover India, and 
 that, with the help of God, he would persevere 
 until he found it. At lengtli, on the 11th of Oc- 
 ; tober, towards ten at night, Columbus was on 
 the poop and saw a light. ... At two next 
 morning, land was distinctly seen. . . . The 
 island, called by the natives Guanahani, and by 
 Columbus San Salvador, has now been ascertained 
 to be Watling Island, one of the Bahamas, 
 14 miles long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake 
 in the centre, in 24° 10' 30" north latitude. . . . 
 The difference of latitude between (Jomera and 
 Watling Island is 235 miles. Course, W. 5° S. j 
 distance 8,114 miles; average distance made 
 good daily, 85' ; voyage 35 days. . . . After dis- 
 covering several smaller islands the fleet came 
 in sight of Cuba on the 27th October, and ex- 
 plored part of the northern coast. Columbus 
 believed it to be Cipanjjo, tlie island placed on 
 the chart of Toscanelh, between Europe and 
 Asia. . . . Crossing the channel between Cuba and 
 St. Domingo [or Hayti], they anchored in the 
 harbour of St. Nicholas Jlole on December 4th. 
 The natives came with presents and the coun- 
 try was enchanting. Columbus . . named the 
 island 'Espaiiola' [or Ilispaniola]. But with all 
 this peaceful beauty around him he was on the eve 
 of disaster." The Santa !Maria was drifted by 
 a strong current upon a sand bank and hopelessly 
 wrecked. "It was now necessary to leave a 
 small colony on the island. ... A fort was 
 built and named 'La Navidad,' 39 men remain- 
 ing behind .supplied with stores and provisions," 
 and on Friday, Jan. 4, 1493, Columbus began 
 his liomeward voyage. Weathering a danger- 
 ous gale, which lasted several days, his little 
 vessels reached the Azores Feb. 17," and arrived 
 at Palos Marcli 15, bearing their marvellous 
 news. — C. li. Markliam, The Sea Fathct-s, ch. 3. — 
 The same. Life of Columbus, ch. 5. — The statement 
 above that the island of the Bahamas on whicli 
 
 49 
 
W?<" 
 
 AMERICA, 14U3. 
 
 Papal Orant. 
 
 AMERICA, 1493-1490. 
 
 Columbus first landcil. nml wliidi ha cnllpd Sun 
 Hill viiilor, " liiiH now been asciTtiiincd to be Watling 
 Island " Horms liardlv justilkd. Tlio (nicstion be- 
 tween ^\ atlin^' Islan'd, San Salvador or Cat Island, 
 Humana, or Attwoixl'sCav, Mari)?anna, theGnmd 
 Turk, and others is still in disjiule. Profes- 
 sor Justin Winsor says "the wel),'ht of modern 
 testimony seems to favor Watlini;'s Island;" 
 but at tlie .same timt; he thinks it, " (iroliable that 
 men will never (luile agree which of the lialia- 
 mas it was upon wliich tlie.se startled imd cxid- 
 tunt Europeans llrst stepped. "—J. AVinsor, C/n/V 
 tap/nr Oil II mil II n, ch. 9. —The same, JViirnilieo mill 
 Critical Hint, of Am., r. 2, c/i. 1, note li.— 
 Professor John Fiske, says: "All that can be 
 positively asserted of Guanahani is that it was 
 one of t he Ilahnmas ; there has been endless diseus- 
 siou as to which one, and the i|uestioii isnotea.sy 
 to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Gustavus 
 Fo.x, of the United States A'avy, is on the whole 
 best supported. Captiiin Fox maintains that 
 the true Guanahani was the little Island now 
 known as Samana or Attwood's Cay.'' — J. Fisko, 
 Tlie IJiacoci'i-if of Ameriea, ch. 5 (/'. 1). 
 
 Also in U. H. Coimtand Geoiktio buncy, liipt., 
 18^*0, iipii. 18. 
 
 A. D. 1493. — Papal grant of the New 
 World to Spain.— " Spain was iit lliis time 
 coni'.eeted witli tlio Pope about a most momen- 
 tous matter. Tlie Genoese, Cristoforo Colombo, 
 arrived at the Spanish court in March, 140:i, 
 with tlie astoundin;: news of tlio discovery of 
 a new continent. . . . Ferdinand and Isabella 
 thought it wise to secure a title to all thiitmight 
 ensue from their new discovery. The Pojie, ns 
 Viearof Clirist, was held to have authoni;-' to 
 dispose of lands inliabited hy the hcatlien; and 
 liv papal IJtdls the discoveries of PortULfal 
 afoni^ the African coast liad been secured. The 
 Portuguese showed signs of urgingclaims tothe 
 New \\'orld, as being already couveyeil to them 
 by 'the papal grants previously issued in their 
 favour. To remove all cause of dispute, the 
 8i)ani.sh moiuirchs at once had recourse to Alex- 
 ander VI., wlio issued two Bulls on May 4 and 5 
 [149;t] to determine therespeetive right.-'of Spain 
 and Portugal. In tlie lirst, the Poi)o granted to 
 the Spanish moiiarclis ami their heirs all lands' 
 discovered or hereafter to be discovered in the 
 western ocean. In the second, he delined his 
 grant to mean all lands that might he discovered 
 west and soutli of an iiiiagiimry line, drawn from 
 the North to tlie South I'ole, at the distau -e of a 
 hundred leagues westward of the Azores and 
 Cape do Verd Islands. In the light of our pres- 
 ent knowledge wo are umazed at this simple 
 means of disposing of a vast extent of the earth's 
 surface." L nder the Pope's stupendous patent, 
 Spain was able to claim every part of the American 
 Continent except tla; Brazilian coast. — M. Crei'^ii- 
 ton, Hist, of the PuiHicy during (he Bcforma- 
 (ion, bk. 5, ch. 6 (c. 3). 
 
 Also IN E. G. Bourne, Tlic Deinarcntion Lineof 
 Pope. Alexander VT. {Yale Rex., May, 1892).— J. 
 Piske, The Discovery of America, ch. 6 (f. 1). — J. 
 Gordon, The Hulls distributing Amerieet (Am. fyic. 
 of Ch. Hist., T. 4).— See, also, below: A. I). 1494. 
 A. D. 1493-1496. — The Second Voyage of 
 Columbus. — Discovery of Jamaica ana the 
 Caribbeer.. — .Subjugation of Hispaniola. — 
 "The departure of Columbus on his second 
 voyajru of discovery presented a brilliant con- 
 trast to Ms gloomy embarkation at Pulos. On 
 
 the 2.5th of September [149!t], at the dawn of day, 
 the bay of Cadiz was whitened by his licet. 
 There were three largo ships of heavy Imrden 
 and fourteen caravels. . . . Before sunrise the 
 whole tleet was under way." Arrived at the 
 Canaries on the 1st of October, Columbus 
 ])urchascd there calves, goats, sheep, hog.s, and 
 fowls, with whidi to stock the island of 
 Hispaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons, 
 hergamots, melons, nud various orchard fruits, 
 which were thus lirst introduced into tlie islands 
 of tho west from the Ilesperides or Fortunate 
 Islands of the Old AVorld." It was not until the 
 i;!th of October that tho fleet left the Canaries, 
 niid it arrived among the islands since called the 
 Lesser Antilles or Caribbees, on the I'vcning of 
 Nov. 3 Sailing through this archipelago, dis- 
 covering tlie larger island of Porto Rico (m the 
 way, ('olundius reached the eastern extremity 
 of ilispauiola or Ilayti on tlie 2M of November, 
 and arrived on tlic 2Tth at La Navidad, where 
 he had left a garriscni ten months before. Ho 
 found nothing but ruin, silence and the marks 
 of death, and learned, after much inquiry, that 
 his unfortunate men, losing all disciidine after 
 his dejiarture, had provoked the natives by rajia- 
 city and licentiousness until the latter rose against 
 them and destroyed them. Abandoning the 
 scene of this disaster, Columbus found an 
 excellent harbor ten leagues east of Jlonte 
 Christ! and there ho began tho founding of a 
 city which I'.e named Isabella. " Isabella at the 
 present day is (piite overgrown willi forests, in 
 the midst of which arc still to be seen, partly 
 standing, the pillars of tlie church, some remains 
 of the king's storehouses, and part of the resi- 
 dence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone." 
 ■\Vhi'.e the foundations of tlie new city were 
 being laid, Columbus sent back part of his sliiiis 
 to Spain, and undertook an exploration of the 
 interior of the island — the n-.ountains of Ciliao 
 — where abundance of gold was promised. Some 
 gold washings were funnd — far too scanty to 
 satisfy the expectations 01 'be Sjianiards; and, as 
 want and sickness soon made their ajipearance 
 at Isabella, discontent was rife and mutiny afoot 
 before tho year Inul ended. In April, 1494, 
 Columbus set sail w' di three caravels to revisit the 
 coast of Cuba, for a moro extended exploration 
 than he had atteiupted on the lirst discovery. ' ' He 
 supposed it to be a cont ineiit, and the extreme end 
 of Asia, and if so, by following its shores in the 
 proposed direction he must eventually arrive 
 at Calliaj and those other rich and commercial, 
 thoug'i semi-barbarous countries, described by 
 Manlevillc and Marco Polo." Reports of gold 
 le^l him southward from Cuba until he discovered 
 i lie island which ho called Santiago, but which 
 has kept its native name, Jamaica, signifying the 
 Island of Springs. Disappointed in the Bcarcli for 
 gold, he soon returned from Jamaica to Cuba 
 and sailed along its southern coast to very near 
 the western extremity, confirming himself and 
 his followers in the belief that they skirted the 
 shores of Asia and might follow them to the Red 
 Sea, if their ships and stores were equal to so 
 long a voyage. "Two or three days' further 
 sail would have carried Columbus round the 
 extremity of Cuba; would have dispelled his 
 illusion, and might have given an entirely differ- 
 ent course to his subsequent discoveries. In his 
 present conviction he lived and died; believing 
 to his last hour that Cuba was tho extremity of 
 
 50 
 
AMERICA, 1403-1400. 
 
 CabtiVi 
 Vitcoverie: 
 
 AilERICA, 1407. 
 
 the Asiatic continent." Returning eastward, lie 
 visileil .Tiiniaiea again and ijurposed some furtlicr 
 exploration of tlio Caribbeo Islands, when liis 
 toils and anxieties ovcreatne him. " lie fell into 
 a deep lethargy, resembling deiitli itself. His 
 erew, alarmed at this profound torpor, feared 
 that death was really at Imnd. They abandoned, 
 therefore, nil further ])r().se<ution of the voyage; 
 and sl)reading their .sails to the cast wind so 
 lirevalent in those seas, bore Cohmibus back, in 
 a state of eoniiilctc insensibility, to the harlior 
 of Isabella,"— Sept. 4. Reeoverinp: conscious- 
 ness, the iidmiial was rejoiced to find his 
 brother IJartholonicw, from whom bo had b?en 
 Bcpiiratcd for y('iirs, and who had been sent out 
 to him from Spain, in command of tliree slnps. 
 Otherwi.se there was little to give jileasurc to 
 Colimdius when he returned to IsaliLHa. His 
 followers were again disorganized, again at war 
 with the natives, whom they plundered and 
 licentiously abused, and a mischief making 
 prie-st hiul goiio back to Sjiaiii, along with 
 certain intriguing otlicers, to make complaints 
 and set enmities astir at the court. Involvc^d in 
 war, Columbus prosecuted it relcntle.s.sly, 
 reduced the island to submission and the 
 natives to servitude and nusery by heavy 
 exactions. In JIarcli 1400 he returned to Sjjain, 
 to defind bim.self again.st tlic machinations of 
 his enemies, transferring the government of 
 Ilispaniola to his brother Bartholomew. — AV. 
 Irving, JJfe and VotjngcH of Ciilurnhns, bk. 0-8 
 (!). 1-2). 
 
 Also in II. II. Baiicroft, IliKt. of the Pdrifie 
 States, V. 1, eh. 3. — J. Winsor, ChriM'iphcr 
 Columbus, ch. 12-14. 
 
 A. D. 1494. — The Treaty c» fordesillas. — 
 Amended Partition of the New World between 
 Spain and Portugal. — "When speaking or writ- 
 ing of the con(piest of America, it is generally 
 belirved that the only title upon which were 
 basid the con(iuests of Spain and Portugal was 
 the famous V;\\k\\ IJidl of partition of the Ocean, 
 of 1493. Few modern authors take into consid- 
 eration that this Bull was amended, upon the pe- 
 tition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of 
 Tordesilhus], signed by both powers in 1494, 
 augmenting the portion assigned to the Portu- 
 guese in the partition made between them of the 
 Continent of America. Tlie aie of mcriiliaii fixed 
 by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise, 
 owing to the ignorance of the age, to so many 
 diplomatic congresses and interminable contro- 
 versies, may now be traced l)y any student of 
 elementary mathematics. Tins line . . . runs 
 along the meridian of 47° 32' 00" west of Green- 
 wicli. . . . The name I!ra/,il, or ' tierra del Bra- 
 zil,' at that time [the middle of the ICth century] 
 referred oidy to the i)art of tlie continent pro- 
 ducing the dye wood so-called. Nearly two 
 centuries Inter tlie Portuguese advanced toward 
 the South, and the name Brazil then covered the 
 new posses-sions they were acquiring."— L. L. 
 Dominguez, Iniroil. to " The Coiiquaitofthe River 
 Plate " (IIaki:yt Soc. Pubs. No. 81). 
 
 A. D. 1497,— Discovery of the North Ameri- 
 can Continent by John Cabot.— "The achieve- 
 ment of Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth 
 of which the germ may have existed in the 
 imngiuatiou of every thoughtfid mariner, won 
 [in En'gland] the admiration which lielonged to 
 genius that seemed more divine than human; 
 und • there was great talk of it in all tlie court of 
 
 Ilcnry VII.' A fteling of disappointment re- 
 mained, that a series of dis-asters had ilefeated 
 tlie wisli of the illustrious Genoese to make his 
 voyage of essay uiulir tlie Hag of England. It 
 was, therefore, not dilUciilt for John t'abot, a 
 denizen of Venice, residing at Bristol, to interest 
 that politic king in plans for discovery. On the 
 Sthof March, i 190, be obtained under the grdit 
 seal a commi.ssioii empowering himsi'lf and ';.is 
 three sons, or either of them, their lieirs, or their 
 de|nities, to sail into the eastern, western, or 
 northern sea with a licet of five sliips, at their 
 own expense, in search of islands, jirovinccs, or 
 regions hitherto unseen by Christian people; to 
 alllv tlio banners of Kngland on city, island, or 
 continent; and, as vassals of the English crown, 
 to possess and occupy the territories that might 
 bo found. It was further stipulated in this ' most 
 ancient American State jiaper of England,' that 
 the iiatentees should be strictly liound, on every 
 return, to land at the port of Bristol, and to p.ay 
 to the king one-liftli part of their gains; wliilo 
 the exduilvo right of frennenting all tin; coun- 
 tries tlint might be found was reserved to them 
 and to their assigns, without limit of time. 
 Under this patent, which, at the first diie(ttiou of 
 English enterprise towanl America, embodied tlio 
 worst features of monoi)oly and commercial 
 restriction, .lolin Cabot, taking with him his son 
 Seb.astian, embarked in quest of new i.slands and 
 a passage to Asia liy the imrth-wcst. After sail- 
 ing prosperously, as be reported, for 701) leagues, 
 on the 24th day of .lune, early in \U<: inori ' g, 
 almost fourteen months before C'olumbiis on his 
 third voyage came in sight of the main, and 
 more tlian two years before Amerigo Vespucci 
 sailed west of the Canaries, ho discovered the 
 western continent, probalily in the latitude of 
 about .'50° degrees, among the dismal clilTs of 
 Labrador. lie ran along the coast for many 
 leagues, it is said even for 300, and landed on 
 what ho considered to be the territory of the 
 Grand Cham. But he encountered no human 
 bein^, although there were marks that the region 
 was inhabited. Ho planted on the hind a largo 
 cross with the flag of England, and, from alfec- 
 tion for the republic of Venice, he added the ban- 
 ner of ,St. Mi.rk, which lia<l never been borno so 
 far before. On his homeward voyage he saw on 
 his right liand two islands, which for want of 
 provisionsi he couUl not stop to explore. After 
 an absence of three months the great discoverer 
 re-entered Bristol harbor, where due honors 
 awaited him. The king gave him money, and 
 encouraged him to continue his career. The ])eo- 
 ple called him the great admiral; he dressed in 
 silk; and the English, and even Venetians who 
 chanced to bo at Bristol, ran after him with such 
 zeal that he could enlist for a new voyage as 
 many as lie pleased. ... On the third' day of 
 the month of February next after his return, 
 'John Kaboto, Venecian,' accordingly obt.ained 
 a power to take up sh'ps for another voyage, at 
 the rates fixed for those employed in the service 
 of the king, and once more to set sail with as 
 many companions as would go with him of their 
 own will. With this license every trace of John 
 Cabot disappears. lie may liaVc died before 
 the summer; but no one knows certainly the 
 time or the place of his end, and it has not even 
 been ascertained in what country this tinder of a 
 continent first saw the light.'"' — G. Bancroft, 
 Uiat. of the U. S. of Am. (Author's last Revision), 
 
 61 
 
AMEUICA, 1407 
 
 Amrrirtit 
 I'cfpuciiu. 
 
 AMEUICA, 1407-140a. 
 
 pt. 1, <•//. 1. — In tlio ("ritic;il Kssiiy npppnflod to 
 A dmpliT (in llio voyiit'cH of tlu' ('alidts, in tin" 
 Aarniliretiiiil Ciilirnl Hint. >>/ Am., there i.t ])iili- 
 )islie(i, for tlu- lirsl time, iiii Kii(;lisli Iriinslalidn 
 of II (liHi)iit(li frnm l{)iinicin(l(Mle honeinii, envoy 
 of the I)nkn of .Milan to Ileniy VII., written 
 Aug 24, 1107, iukI giving iin luconnt of the voy- 
 age from which '.Master John Caliolo," 'a Veiii'- 
 tiiin fellow,' liiul just reliirneil. This paper was 
 hrouu'ht to light in \»>>'>. from the State Archives 
 of Milan. lieferring to the dispatch, and to n 
 li'tter, also ((uoted, from the ' Venetian Calen- 
 dars,' written Aug. 'J:t, 1407, hy Lorenzo Pas- 
 qiialigo, ft merchant in I.oM<lon, to his hrotliors in 
 Venice, Mr. ( liarlcs Doane says: " These lettei-s 
 are siilUcient lo show that North America was 
 discovered by .I<ihn Caliot, the name of Seli.istian 
 l)cing nowhere mentioned in tliein, and that the 
 discovery was made in 1407. The jilace which 
 ho lirst sighted is given on the map of 1")44 
 [a map of tSttbastian Catiot, disc(iverc<l in Ger- 
 many in 184;ij as the north i)art of Cap(! IJreton 
 Island, on which is inscribed ' prima ticrra vista,' 
 whieli was reac bed, according to the Legend, on 
 the 2Uh of June. Pasi[naligo. the only one who 
 mentions it, says he coasted liOl) leagues. Mr. 
 lirevoort, who "accepts the statement, thinks ho 
 made the ])eriphi.s of the (Jnlf of St. L.iwreiice, 
 passing out at the Straits of Ifellc Isle, and thence 
 home. . . . The extensive sailing nj) and down 
 the coast deseril)ed by elironiclcrs from conversa- 
 tions with Sebastiail Cabot many years afle"'- 
 wnrds, though apparently told as occurring on 
 the voyage of discovery — as on'.v one voyage is 
 over mentioned — must have taken jilace on a 
 later voyage." — C. Dcane, Nurrnl i re. unil Criti- 
 cal I/i.'.t, of Am., V. 3, (7i. 1, Vfil. /v'mk.v. 
 
 Also IN IJ. IJiddle, Manoir of Selxiniian Cabot, 
 rh. 1-8. 
 
 A. D. 14971498. — The first Voyage of 
 Americus Vespucius. — Misunderstandings 
 and diiputes concerning it. — Vindication of 
 the Florentine navigator. — His exploration 
 of 4,000 miles of continental coast. — "Our 
 information conccriung Anu'ricus Vespucius, 
 from tlie early part of tlu' year 140G tuitil after 
 his return from the Portuguese to the Spi.nish 
 service in the latter part of l.ltM, rests primarily 
 upon his two famous letters; llie one addressed 
 to his old patron Lorenzo di Pier France.sco de.' 
 Medici (a cousin of Lorenzo llw^ .Magiii(icent)aMd 
 ■written in .March or Ai>ril, ITiO;!, giving an ac- 
 count of his third voyage; tlie other addressed 
 to his old school-fellow Piero Sodcrini [tlien 
 Gonfidoni(*rc of Florence] and dated from Lisbon, 
 September 4, l.'iiM, giving a brief account of 
 four voyages winch he had made under various 
 commanders in the capacity of astronomer or 
 
 fjilot. These letters . . . became siieedily jjopu- 
 ar, and many editions were published, more 
 csi)erially in Prance, Germany, and Italy. . . . 
 The letter to Sodcrini gives an account of foiu- 
 voyages in which the writer took part, the tiist 
 two In the service of Spain, the other two in the 
 service of Portugal. 'I'lu^ lirst expedition .sailed 
 from Cadiz :\Iay 10, 1407, and returned October 
 1"), 1408, after having exphned a coast so long 
 as to seem unquestionably that of 11 continent. 
 This voyage, as we shall see, was concerned 
 with parts of Anu'Hca not visited again until 
 1518 and l.'in. It discovered nothing that was 
 calculated to invest it with mucli importance in 
 Spain, though it by no means passed without 
 
 notice there, ns has often been wrongly asserted. 
 Outside of S|)ain it c.imc to attract more atten- 
 tion, but in an unfortunate way, for a slight but 
 very .serious crri>r in proof-reading or editing, in 
 the most important of the Latin veisions, caused 
 it after a wliilo to be practically idenlitlcd witli 
 the second voyagr', made two years later. This 
 <'onfusion eventually led to most outrageous 
 imputations upon the goo<l name of Americus, 
 which it has been left for the present centtiry to 
 remove. Tlie second v<iyag(^ of Vespucius was 
 that in which he aecom])anied Alonso de Ojeda 
 and Juan de la Costa, from May 20, 140iJ, to 
 June, l.-)00. They explored the northern coast 
 of South America from some point on what we 
 would now call the north coast of Praz.il, ns far 
 as the Pearl Coast visited by Columbus in the 
 piccciling year; and ti ( y went beyond, as far as 
 the tJiilf of Maracaibo. Hire the siiuadroii 
 seems to have liecoine divided, Ojeda going over 
 to llispaniola in September, while VespiU'itis 
 remained cruising till February. ... It is cer- 
 tainly much to be regretted that in the narrative 
 of his tirst expedition, Vespucius did not hajipen 
 to mention tlio name of the chief commauder. 
 . . . However ... he was writing not for us, 
 but for his friend, and he told Soderini only what 
 he thought would interest him. ... Of the 
 letter to SiMlcrini the version which has played 
 the most important part in history is the Latin 
 one tirst pulilishcd at the jiress of the little 
 college at Saint-Die in Lorraine, April 2,5 (vij 
 Kl'JMaij), l.W?. . . . It was translated, not from 
 an original text, but from an intermediate French 
 version, which is lost. Of hitc years, however, 
 we have detected, in an excessively rare Italian 
 text, the original fi'(un which the famous Lor- 
 raine version was ultimately derived. ... If 
 now wc compare this ]uinutive text with the 
 Latin of the Lorraine version of l.')07, we observe 
 that, in the latter, one proper name — the Indian 
 name of a jdace visited by Americus on his lirst 
 voyage — has been altered. In the original it is 
 'Lariab;' in the Latin it has become 'Parias.' 
 Tills looks like an instance ot injudicious editing 
 on the part of the Latin translator, although, of 
 course, it may be a case of careless proof-reading. 
 Lariab is n (picer-looking word. It is no woiuler 
 tliiit ft schohir in his stuily among the mountains 
 of Lorraine could make iiotliing of it. If lie liad 
 happened to lie acquainted with the language ui 
 the llua.stccas, who dwelt at that time about tlie 
 river Paiiuco — licrceanddreadc ' enemies of their 
 southern neighbours tlu; Aztecs — ho would 
 have known that names of placys in that region 
 were apt to end in ftb. . . . But fts sucli facts 
 were quite beyond our worthy translator's ken, 
 we cannot much biame him if he felt that such 
 a word as Lariab needed doctoiing. Parias 
 (Paria) was known to be the native name of a, 
 region on the western shores of the Atlantic, and 
 so Lariab becnme Parias. As the distance from 
 the one place to the other is more than two thou- 
 sand miles, this little eraendiition shifted the 
 scene of the first voyage beyond nil recognition, 
 and cast the whole' subject into an outer dark- 
 ness where there has been much groaning and 
 gnashing of teeth, A nother curious circumstance 
 came in to conlirm this error. On his first voy- 
 age, shortly before arriving at Lariab, Vesi)u- 
 cius saw an Indian town liuil'. over the water, 
 'like Venice.' He counted 44 large wooden 
 houses, 'like barracks,' supported ou liuge tree- 
 
 52 
 
AMERICA, 1497-1408. 
 
 AmerirUH 
 Vespuctiu, 
 
 AMEUICA, 1407 'iS. 
 
 trunk!) onil commuiilciitiii)? with ciicli other by 
 liri(lf,'i'S thiit foiihl bi'drawii \ip in cunc of (lander. 
 Tliis inav well liuvc l)tcii a villajri' of comiiiuiial 
 li()ii!*fs of tlic Clionlals on llio coast of Tabasco; 
 but suili viila){cs were aftcrwarils seen on tlic 
 (iulf of Alani<ail)o. ami one of tlicni was calicd 
 Venezuela, or ' l.ittic^ Venice,' a name Hinco 
 sprea-! over n territory nearly twice as larjje as 
 !• riine('. ISo t'le anipliil)iou3 town descrilu'il l)y 
 Vespucliis was incoiit ineutly nioveil to Muracaibo, 
 as if vliere could be only one such place, as if 
 tliat style of defensive l)uildinj,' had not l)een 
 coiuinon enough in many i.j;'''' "'»' i" many )>arts 
 cf the earth, from ancient Switzeiiand to modern 
 iSiaiu. . . . Tlius ill spite bf the latitudes and 
 lonu'ituiles distinctly stated by Vespuclus in his 
 letter, did Lariab and the little wooden Venice 
 get shifted from tlie Gulf of Jlexieo to the 
 northern coast of South America. Now there is 
 no question that Vespucius in Ids second voyage, 
 with Ojeda for captain, did .sail elong that coast, 
 visiting the gulfs of I'aria luid JIaracaibo. This 
 was in the sumnuT of 14i)!», one year after a. 
 part of the same coast had Uen visited by Col- 
 luubus. Hence in u later period, long after the 
 actors in tliesc scenes had been gathered unto 
 their fatliers, luid when people had begun to 
 wonder how tlie Xew World could ever have 
 <(inie to be called America instead of Columbia, 
 it was suggested that the first voyage described 
 by Vespucitis must bu merely a clumsy and fic- 
 titious duplicate of tlie second, and that, he 
 invented it-aud thrust it back from 1499 to 1407, 
 in order tliat he might be accredited with ' the 
 discovery of the continent' one year in advance 
 of Ills friend Columbus. It was assumed that he 
 must have written his letter to Soderini with the 
 liase intention of supidauting liis frieii<l, and that 
 tlie shabby device was successful. This expla- 
 nation seemed so simple and intelligible that it 
 became (piile generally adopted, and it held its 
 ground until tlie subject began to be critically 
 studied, and Alexander von Humboldt showeil, 
 about sixty years ago, that the first naming of 
 America occurred in no such way as had been 
 supposed. As* soon as we refrain from j)roject- 
 iug our modern knowledge of geography into the 
 past, as soon as w<! pause to consider how these 
 great events eppeared to the actors themselves, 
 the absurdity of this accusation against Ameri- 
 cus becomes evident. We are told that he falsely 
 pretended to have visited Paria and JIaracaibo 
 in 1497, in order to claim jiriority over Colum- 
 bus in the di-,eoverv of 'the continent.' AVliat 
 continent V Wljeu Vespucius wrote tliat letter to 
 tioderiiii, neither he nor an) body else suspected 
 that what we now call America had been dis- 
 covered. The only continent ot which there 
 could lie any question, so far as supplanting 
 Columlms was coucerucd, was Asia, liut in 
 lo04 Columbus was generally supposed to have 
 discovered the continent of Asia, by his new 
 route, in 1492. ... It was M. Varnlmgen who 
 lirst turned inquiry on this subject in the right 
 direction. . . . Having taken a correct start by 
 simply following the words of Vespucius him- 
 self, from a primitive text, without reference to 
 any iireconceived theories or traditions, JI. Varn- 
 hagea liuds " tliat Amcricus in his first voyage 
 made land on the northern coast of Honduras; 
 " that he sjiiled annind Yucatun, and found his 
 aquatic village ot communal houses, his little 
 w ooden Venice, on the shore of Tabasco. Thence, 
 
 &' 
 
 after a flglit with tlie natives in which a few 
 tawny prisoners were ca|)tiired and carried on 
 board the caravels, Vespuciu.s seems to have 
 taken a straight course to the Huasteca country 
 by Tanipieo, witliout toucliing at points in the 
 region subject or tributary to tlie Aztec eoiifed- 
 criiey. This Tampico country was what Vespii- 
 ( understood to be called Lariab. He again 
 ives llie latitiuh^ delinitt'ly and correctly as '-It" 
 and he mentions a few interesting eircum- 
 stances. He saw the natives roasting a diMid- 
 fiilly ugly animal," of whidi he gives what 
 seems to be "an excellent description of the 
 iguana, the flesh of which is to this day an ini- 
 ])ortant article of food in tropical Anieriea. . . . 
 After leaving tills country of Lariab the ships 
 kept still to the northwest for a short distance, 
 and then followed the windings of the coast 
 for 870 leagues. . . . After traversing the 870 
 leagues of crooked coast, the slii|is found them- 
 selves 'in the liiiest harbour in the world' Iwliich 
 M. Varnhageii supposed, at tirst, to have been 
 in Chesapeake Hay, but afterwards reached coii- 
 clusi(ms pointing to the neighbourhood of Capo 
 Canaveral, on the Florida coast]. It was in .June, 
 1498, tliirtecn months since tlicy had started from 
 Hpaiii. . . . Tliey spent seven-and-thirty days in 
 this unrivalled harbour, i)reparing for llie homo 
 voyage, and found the natives very hospitable. 
 These red men courted the aid of tlie white 
 strangers," in an attack which they wished to 
 make upon a fierce race of cannibals, who inhab- 
 ited certain islands some dislat>ee out to sea. 
 The Spaniards agreed to the expedition, and 
 .saileil late in August, t.iking seven of the friendly 
 Indians for guii'.es. "After a week's voyage 
 they fell in with tlie islands, sonic peopled, others 
 uninhabited, evidently the Uermudas, (ibO miles 
 from Cape Ilatteras as the crow flies. Tlio 
 k;|)aiiiards landed on an island called Iti, and had 
 u brisk fight," resulting in the capture of more 
 than 'JOO prisoners. Seven of tliese were g' ,en 
 to the Indian guides, who paddled home with 
 tliem. " ' AV'c also [wrote Vespucius] set sail 
 for Spain, with !J22 prisoners, slaves; and arrived 
 in llie iiort of Cadiz on the lolli day of October, 
 1498, where we were well received and sold our 
 slaves.'. . . The obscurity in wliicli lliis voy- 
 age has so long been enveloped is due chiefly to 
 the fact tliat it was not followed up fill many 
 years had elapsed, and the reason for this iieg!i'ct 
 inipres.se8 upon us forcibly the imiiossibility of 
 understanding the history of the l)iscovery of 
 Anieric." unless we bear in mind all the attend- 
 ant ('ireumstances. One might at first suppose 
 that a voyage which revealed some 4,000 miles of 
 the coast ot North America would have attracted 
 much attention in Spain and have become alto- 
 gether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such 
 an 'argumcul, however, loses sight of tlie tact 
 that these early vovagers were not trying to 'dis- 
 cover America.' 'hiere was nothing to astonish 
 them in the existence ot 4,000 miles of coast 
 line on tliis side of the Atlantic. To their minds 
 it was simply the coast ot Asia, about which 
 they knew nothing except from JIarco Polo, and 
 the natural effect of such a voyage as this 
 would bo simi)ly to throw discredit upon that 
 traveller." — J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, 
 ch. 7 (i). 2). 
 
 Also in : C. E. Lester and A. Foster, Life and 
 Voyages of Americas Vespucius, pt. 1, ch. 7. — J. 
 Winsor, Christopher Columbus, ch. 15. 
 
 63 
 
AMERICA, 1498. 
 
 Sebastian 
 Cabot. 
 
 AMERICA, 1498-ir)05. 
 
 A. D. 1498.— Voyage and Discoveries of 
 Sebastian Cabot.— The ground of English 
 claims in the New World.— "Tlic sun of .lolm 
 C'liliot, Scliastian, is not mcntiiini'd in this piilcnt 
 [issued 1)V Henry VII., Feb. 3, 1 tOHj, as he had 
 Wa ill that (if I-lflti. Yet ho alone protited by 
 it. For the father is not again nienliniied in con- 
 iiettion with tiie voyaire. . . . .Seliastian was 
 now, if Humboldt's "suiipositlon is true tliat he 
 was born in 1477, a young num of about 20 or 21 
 years of age. And iis he lii.d become prolieienl 
 in astronomy and nnthematies, and liail gained 
 naval exiwricMce in the voyage he had made in 
 company with liis father; and as he knew better 
 than any one else hi^ father's views, and .iLso the 
 position of the newly discovered n.'gioiis, he may 
 •low have well appeared to Henry as a lit person 
 for till! conimand of another expedition to the 
 northwest. Two slii|)S, manne(i with M) marin- 
 ers and volunteers, were ready for him "aily in 
 the spring of 1498; and he sailed witli thcni from 
 Hristol. proliably in the beginning of tin! month 
 of May. We have no certain information regard- 
 ing his route. 15ut he appears to 'lave directed 
 his course again to the country which he had 
 seen the year before on the voyage with his 
 father, our [ircsent Labmdor. lie .sailed along 
 the coast of this country so far north that, even 
 in the month of July, he encountered much ice. 
 Observing at the same time, to his great dis- 
 pleasure, that the coast was trending to the east, 
 lie resolved to give up a fiirtlier ailvance to the 
 north, and returned in a southern direction. At 
 Kcwfoiindland, he prob.ibly came to anchor in 
 8onu! jiort. a. id refreshed his men, and retittcd his 
 Vfsselsaflertheir Arctic harilshiiis. . . . He prob- 
 ably was the lirst lishernianon the banksorshores 
 of Newfoundland, which through him became 
 famous ill Kuropi!. (^ailing from Newfoundland 
 southwest, he kept the .oast in view as inueli as 
 ])ossible, on his right side, 'always with the intent 
 to lind a jiassage and open water to India.' . . . 
 After having ioiinded Capo Cod, he niu:jt have 
 felt fresh hope. He saw a coast runni.ig to the 
 west, mid ojieii water before him in that direc- 
 tion. It is Iherefi re nearly lertain that he en- 
 tered soniewliat that broad .;ulf, in the interior 
 corner of which lies the harlioi' of New York. 
 . . . From a statement cont.iined in the work of 
 I'eler Martyr it appears . . . certain that Cabot 
 landed on some jilaces of the coast along which 
 he sailed. This author, relating .1 conversation 
 which he had with his friend Cabot, on the sub- 
 ject of his voyage of 1498, .'.ays that Cabot told 
 liiin ' he bad found on most of the places copper or 
 brass among the aborigines.' . . . From another 
 authority we learn that lu! captured some of these 
 aborigines and brought them to England, when! 
 they lived and were seen a few years afte. his 
 return by the English chronicler, iJobert Fabyan. 
 It is not stated at what iilace he captu'cd those 
 Indians ; but it was not customaiy with the navi- 
 gators of that time to take on lioan! the Ind'ans 
 until near the time iif their leaving the country. 
 Cabot's Indians, thi'refore, w^'re iiroliably cap- 
 tured on .»ome shore south of New York harlior. 
 . . . The soulhern terminus of his voyag(! is 
 Iirotty well ascertained. He himself informed 
 his friend Peter Martyr, that he went as far 
 south I's iibi u! '•". latitude of the Strait of Gib- 
 riiUivr, that is ,, say, about 30^ north latitude, 
 which is r.eur that "of Cape llatteras. . . . On 
 their ri'turn from the'r lirst voyage of 1497, 
 
 the Crtliots believed that they Imil iliscovered 
 jiortions of Asia and so pro{!lainie(l it. But the 
 more extensive discoveries of the second voyage 
 corrected the views of Sebastian, ind revealed to 
 him nothing but a wild and barbarous coast, 
 stretching through iiO degrees of latitude, from 
 071° to M°. The discovery of this impassable 
 barrier across his passage to Cathay, as lie often 
 complained, was a sore displeasure to him. In- 
 stead of the rich possessions of China, which he 
 hoped to reach, he was arrested by a New found 
 land, .savage and uncultivated. A spirited Ger- 
 man author. Dr. G. M. Asher, in his life of Henry 
 Hudson, published in London in 181)0, observes: 
 ' The disjileasure of Cabot involves the scientific 
 discovery of a new world. He was the first to 
 recognize that a new and unknown continent 
 was lying, as one vast barrier, between Western 
 Eurojic and Eas'ern Asia. "... AVhen Cabot made 
 proposals in the following year, 1499, for another 
 expedition to the same regions, he was supported 
 neither by tlie king nor the merchants. For sev- 
 eral years tlit! scheme for the discovery of a 
 north-western route to Cathay was not much 
 favored in England. Nevertheless, the voyt'.gc 
 of this gifted and enterprising youth along the 
 entire coast of the present United States, nay 
 along the whole extent of that great continent, 
 in which now the English race and language pre- 
 vail and nourish, has always been considered as 
 the true beginning, the foundation and c(nner- 
 sto;ie, of all the English claims and possessions 
 in the northern half of America." — ^'J. G. Kohl, 
 JHiil. of tho Discireery of M<ii,.t; ch. 4. 
 
 Also i.n: U. Biddle, Memoir of iSchaMian Cabot, 
 ch. 1-10.— J. F. Nicholls, Life of Sebastian Cabot, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1498-1505.- The Third and Fourth 
 Voyages cf Columbus. — Discovery of Trini- 
 dad, the northern coast of S. America, the 
 shores of Central America and Panama. — 
 When Columbus reached Spain in June, 1490, 
 "Ferdinand and Isabella received him kindly, 
 gave him new honors and promised him other 
 outlits. Enthusiasm, however, had died out and 
 delays took place. The reports of the returning 
 ships did not correspond with the jiictures of 
 ^larco I'olo, and the newfound world was 
 thought to be a very poor India after all. Most 
 people were of this mind; though Columbus was 
 not disheartened, and the public treasury was 
 re;.dily opened for a third voyage. Coronel 
 sailed early in 1498 with two ships, and Colum- 
 bus followed with si.x, embarking at San Lucas 
 on the SOtli of JIay. He now discovered Trini- 
 dad (July iU), which he named either from its 
 three peaks, or from the Holy Trinity; struck 
 the northern coast of South America, and skirted 
 what was later known as the I'earl coast, going 
 as far as the Island of Margarita. He wondered 
 at the roaring fresh waters which tiic Oronoco 
 pours into the Gulf of Pearls, as he called it, and 
 he half believed that its e.\uberant tide came 
 from the ter-estrial paradise. Ho touched tho 
 so 't hern coast of I lay ti on the IlOth of August. 
 Here already his colonists bad established a for- 
 tified post, and fninuled the town of Santo 
 Domingo. Hi^' brother Bartholomew had ruled 
 energetically during the Admiral's absence. 1ml 
 ho had not prev<nti'd a revolt, which was headed 
 by Uoldan. Columbus on his arrival found the 
 insurgents still defiant, but he was able after 11 
 while to reconcile them, and he even succeeded 
 
 54 
 
AMERICA, 1498-1505. 
 
 iMst Voi/tiijes 
 of Columbus. 
 
 AMERICA, 1490-1500. 
 
 in nttachinR Hcildan wnrmly to liis interests. 
 Columbus' iibst'ncu from Spain, however, left his 
 good niime witliout sponsoi-s; and to satisfy 
 detractors, a new commissioner was sent over 
 with enlarged powers, even with autlioritv to 
 supersede Columbus in general conunand. if 
 necessary. This emissary \vas Francisco de Bo- 
 biulilla, "who arrived nt Siinto Domingo with two 
 caravels on the 2;id of August, 1.500, tinding 
 Diego in eonnnand, liis brother, the Admiral, 
 being alisetit. An issue was at once made. 
 Diego refused to accede to the commissioner's 
 orders till t'olumlnis returned to juilge the case 
 himself; so Hobadilla assinned charge of the 
 crown ])roperty violently, tooli po.ssessiim of tlie 
 Admiral's house, and wiien Columbus returned, 
 he with his l)rotlier was arrested and put in iron.s. 
 In this condition tlie prisoners were placed on 
 shipboard, and sailed for Spain. The captain of 
 the sliip olT. .'I'd to remove the manacles: but 
 Colum!)US would not permit it, being determined 
 to land in Sjiain bound as he was; and .so lie did. 
 The effect of his degradation was to his advant- 
 age; sovereigns and |)eople were sliocked at tlie 
 sight; and Ferdinand and Isabella hastened to 
 malie amends by receiving him with renewed 
 favor. It was soon apparent that evcrytliing 
 reasonatjle would be granted him l)y the mon- 
 arclis, and that he coidd have all he miglit wisli 
 short of receiving a new lea.sc of power in tlie 
 islands, which the sovereigns were deterinined 
 to see paeilled at least before Columbus should 
 again assume governmentof them. Tlie Admiral 
 had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy 
 Seimlchro from tlie Inlidel; but the monarch's 
 did not accede to his wisli to undertake it.. Dis- 
 appointed in tins, he proposed a new voyage; 
 and getting tlie royal countenance for this 
 scheme, he was supplied with four vessels of 
 from fifty to seventy tons each. ... He sailed 
 from Cadiz, May 9, 1503, accompanied by his 
 brotlier Bartholomew and his son Fernando. 
 The vessels reached San Domingo June '.21). 
 Bobudilla, whose rule of a year and a half had 
 been an unhappy one, had g"iveii place to Nicho- 
 las de Ovaiido; and the licet whicli brought the 
 new governor— with Maldonado, Las Casas and 
 otliers — now lay in the harbor waiting to receive 
 Bobudilla for the return voyage. Columbus had 
 been instructed to avoid llispaniola; but now 
 tliat one of his vessels leaked, and he mrded to 
 make repairs, he .sent a boat ashore, asking per- 
 mission to enter the harbor. He was refused, 
 though a storm was impending. He sheltered 
 his vessels as bi's', he ('(add, and rode out the 
 gale. The lleet which hail on board Bobudilla 
 and Roldan, with their ill-gotten gains, was 
 wrecked, and these enemies of (kilumlms were 
 di-owned. The Admiral found a small harbor 
 where he could make his repairs; and then, ,iuly 
 14, .sailed westward to tiiul, as he supposeil, 
 the richer portions of India. . . A landing was 
 made on the coast of Honduras, August 14. 
 Three days later the explorers landed again 
 fifteen leagues farther east, and took po.ssession 
 of the country for Spain. Still east they went; 
 nnd, in gratitude for safety after a haig storm, 
 they named a cape which thev rounded, Oracias 
 a Dios— a name still preserved at the point 
 wliere the coast of Honduras begins to trend 
 southward. Columbus was now lying ill on 
 his bed, placed on ileck, and was half the time 
 ill revery. Still the vessels coasted south," 
 
 along nnd beyond the shores of Costa Rica ; then 
 turned with the bend of the coast to the north- 
 ea.st, until they reached Porto Bello. as we call 
 it, where they found houses and orchards, and 
 pa.ssed on ' to the farthest spot of Bastiilas' 
 explorini:, who had, in 1.501, sailed westward 
 along the nortliern coast of South America." 
 There turning back, Columbus altem|(ted to 
 found a colony at Veragna, on the Costa Hica 
 coast, where signs of gohl were tempting. But 
 the gold proved scanty, the natives hostile, and, 
 the Admiral, withdrawing his colony, siiiletl 
 away. "He abandoned one worm-eaten caravel 
 at Porto Bello, and, re.'iching .b.maica, beached 
 two otiicrs. A year of disappointment, grief, 
 nnd want followed. Columbus clung to his 
 wrecked vessels. His crew alternately mutinied 
 at his side, and roved about the island. 
 Ovando, at His]ianiola, heard of his str.iils, but 
 only tardily and scantily re!ic\ed him. Tiie dis- 
 contented werelinally huniblnl; and .some ships, 
 despatched by the Admiral's agent in Santo 
 Domingo, at last readied him and brought him 
 and his companions to that i)lace, where Oviindo 
 reccivi-d him with ostentatiinis kindness, lodging 
 I'im in his liouso till Ci>lumbus departed for 
 Spain, Sept. 1'-.', 1.504." Arriving in Spain iu 
 Xovember, disheartened., broken with disease, 
 neglected, it was not until the following Jlay 
 that he had strength c'.iough to goto tiie court at 
 Segovia, and then only to be coldly received by 
 King Ferdinand — Isabella being dead. "While 
 .still hope was deferred, the inlirmitics of age and 
 a life of hardships brouglit ('olumbus to his end; 
 and on Ascension Day, the iiOlli of May, 1500, he 
 died, with his sou Diego and a few devoted 
 friends b^' his bedside." — ,1. Winsor, y((rntticc 
 <inil Criliriil llixt. of \i»., r. ii, eh. 1, 
 
 Also in: H. II. 'Bancroft, Ifixt. <>f the. Pticific 
 Sliiti's, V. 1, eh. 3 iiKil 4. — W. Irving, Life ami 
 [oi/cti/en of (''iliimhiis, M: 10-18 (c. 'i). 
 
 A. D. 1499-1500.— The Voyage-! and Dis- 
 coveries of Ojeda and Pinzon.— The Second 
 Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. — Oiii' of the 
 most daring and resolute of the adventurei's who 
 accomiianied Columbus on his second voyage 
 (in 149;!) was Alon/.o de Ojeda. Ojeda (luarrelled 
 with the .Vilmiral and returiic('. to Spain in 1498. 
 Soon afterwards, "he was provided by the 
 Bishop Fonseea, Columbus' enemy, with a 
 fragment of the map which the Admiral had 
 sent to Ferdinand and Lsabella, showing the dis- 
 coveries which he had iiiade in livi last voyage. 
 Y 'til this assistance Ojv-da .set sail for Siailh 
 America, accompanied by the p'lot, .Tuau de la 
 Cosa, who had accompanied C ilumlms in his 
 first great voyage in 149i, and if whom Colum- 
 bus complained that, ' bein;' a clever man, he 
 went ntiout saying tliat he knew more than he 
 did,' and also by Amerigo Vespucci. They set 
 sail oil the 20th of Jlay, 1499, with four vessels, 
 and after a pa.s.sage of 21 days came in sight of 
 the continent, 200 leagues east of the Oronoco. 
 At the end of .Iiine, they landed on tin shores of 
 Surinam, in si.\ degrees of ncntli latitude, and 
 proceeding west saw the mouths of the Kssei|uibo 
 and Oronoco. Passing the Boca del Drago of 
 Trinidad, tliey coasted westward till ttiey reached 
 the Capo de la Vela in Granada. It was in this 
 voyage that was discovered the Gulf to which 
 Ojeda gave the name of Venezuela, or Little 
 Venice, on account of the cabins built on piles 
 over the water, a mode of life which brought to 
 
 55 
 
AMKUICA, 1499-1500. 
 
 Third I'oyagit 
 of I'espuciua. 
 
 AMERICA, ISOO-inu. 
 
 his mind tlic wnter-city of tlie Adriiitic. From 
 till' AiiuTicuii loast (Jji.'ilii went to tlie Caril>l)('<' 
 islaiiils, mill on llir! Oili of Scptcmhcr iva(lii<l 
 Ya;;uimi), in llispaniola. where lie raised a 
 revolt iicainst llie aiulinrily of Coluiiibiis. His 
 
 i>laiis, however, were friislraled hy IJoldau and 
 Cseobar, the delegates of Coliiniliiis, and he was 
 <'omi)elled to withdraw from the island, ^)n the 
 filh of i''el)niary, 1")00, he returned, earrying 
 with him to lacliz an e.xtraordinary inimher of 
 slaves, from wliieli he realized an enormous .sum 
 of money. At the beginning of December, llit!', 
 the same year in which Ojecla .set sail on his last 
 voyage, another eoinpanioii of Columbus, iu his 
 (list voyage, Vieent- Yafiez I'iuzon, sailed from 
 I'alos, was the first to cro3.s the line on the 
 American si<le of the Atlantic, and on the 20th 
 of .January, l.'itH), discovered Cape St. Augustine, 
 to which ii(' gave the name of Calio ,Santa Maria 
 de la Consolaeion, whence returning northward 
 lie followed the westerly trending coast, and so 
 discovered the mouth of the Amazon, which he 
 named I'aricura. Within a month after his de- 
 parture from I'alos, he was followed from the 
 Banie [lort and on the same route by Diego de 
 Lepe, who was the lirst to discover, at the mouth 
 of the Oronoeo, by means of a closed vessel, 
 wlii( h oidy opened when it reached the bottom 
 of the water, that, at a depth of eight fathoms 
 and a half, the two lowest fathoms were salt 
 water, but all above was fresh. Lepe also made 
 the observation that licyond Cajie .St. Augustine, 
 which he doubled, as well as I'inzon, the coast 
 of Brazil trended .south-west." — H. II. Major, 
 J.iff iif I'n'iicc lli'iin/ (if J'orl'ir/iil, c/i. 19. 
 
 Al.so in: W Irving, Life and Vnyaijcs of 
 C'lliiiiihii.t, r. ;i, ell. l-JJ. 
 
 A. D, 1500.— Voyages of the Cortereals 
 to the far North, and of Bastidas to the 
 Isthmus of Darien. — "The Portuguese did not 
 overlook the north while making their imiiortant 
 discoveries to the south. Two vessels, probably 
 in the spring of l.'jOU, were sent out under 
 Uaspar C'orlereal. No journal <ir chart of the 
 voyage is now in existence, hence lillle is known 
 of its object or results. Still nioie dim is a 
 previous voyage ascribed by Conleiro to .Jorto 
 Vaz Cortereal, father of Gasiiar. . . . Touelii'ig 
 lit the Azores, Oaspar Cortereal, jiossibly I'olkiw- 
 ing Cabot's charts, struck the coast of Newfound- 
 land north of Cape Hace, and sailing north 
 di.seovered a land which he called Terra Verde, 
 perhaps Greenland, but was .stopped by ice at a 
 river which be named Hio X'.'vado, wlmse loca- 
 tion is unknown. Cortereal returned to Lisbon 
 before the end of VM). . . . In Oelober of this 
 same year itiMlrigo de Bastidas sailed from Cadiz 
 with two vessels. Touching tlu! shores nf South 
 America near Isla Verde, which lies bet ween 
 (iuadalupe and the main I.md, he followed the 
 coast westward to K' Uelrete, or jierliaps Nombre 
 de Dios on the Isthmus of Darii n, in about 9=' 
 30' north lun, !e. Keturning '.le was wrecked 
 on Lspauol.i toward the end of l.")01, and reached 
 Cadi/, in S<'ptember, l.'iO'.V This being the lirst 
 nuthciitic voyage by Eur'.peans to the territory 
 herein deliiicd iw llie I'acilic States, sucli inci- 
 dents as are known will be given hereafter." — 
 II. 11. Bancroft, iJinl. if the Pncifif SIhUd, v. 1, p. 
 111!. — " \Vc have Las Cas.is's authority for say- 
 ing that BastiihuS was a humane man toward the 
 Indians. Indcjd, he ufterwurds hist his iife by 
 tlds liupmuity; for, when govuri'.or of Suutii 
 
 Martha, not consenting to harass the Indians, be 
 .so alienated his men that a conspiracy was 
 formed against him, and he was murdered in his 
 bed. The renowned Vasco Nui'iez [de Balboa] 
 was in this e.xpedi'iou, anil the knowledge he 
 gained there had the greatest inlluence on the 
 fortunes of his varied and eventful life." — Sir 
 A. Helps, Sjuiiiix/i ('oiii/iiint ill Am., hk. 5, ch. 1. 
 
 Also i.n: .1. G. Kohl, Hint, of llie iJis.oeern if 
 }fiiiiie, ch. •). — H. Biddle, .Veiiwir of tilxistiiiii 
 Cii/x/t, bk. 'i, rh. ;!-.'). — See, also, Newkound- 
 i..\nd: a. 1). l.Wl-1.5r8. 
 
 A. D. 1500-1514.— Voyage of Cabral. — The 
 Third Voyage of Americus Vespucius. — Ex- 
 ploration of the Brazilian coast for the King 
 of Portugal. — Curious evolution of the conti- 
 nental name ".America." — " Alfairs now be- 
 came curiously complicated. King Lmanuel of 
 I'ortugal intrusted to Tedro Alvarez de Cabral 
 the command of a fleet for Hindustan, to loUow 
 uj) the work of Gama and establish a Porlu- 
 guese centre of trade on the .Malabar coast. 
 This licet of 13 vessels, carrying about 1,300 
 men, sailed from Lisbon March 9, l.WO. After 
 passing the Cape Verde Lslauds, JIa.cl'. 2~, I'l r 
 some reason not clearly known, whether driven 
 by .stormy weather or seeking to avoid the calms 
 that were apt to be troublesome on t!"' Guinea 
 coast, Cabral took a somewhat mori Avesterly 
 cour^;? than he realized, and on Ajiril 22, after a 
 weary jirogrcss averging less than 00 miles per 
 day, he found himself on the coast of Brazil not 
 far beyond *lie limit reached liy Lepe. . . . 
 Approaching it iu l'ucIi a way Cabral felt sure 
 that this coast must fail to the east of the papal 
 meridian. Accordingly on May day, a* I'orto 
 Seguro in latitude 10° liO' S., he took li.rmal 
 ]iiis.se.ssion of the country for I'oritigal, and .s;'iit 
 Caspar de Lenios in one of his sliijis back t.' 
 Lisbon with the news. On May 22 Cabral 
 'veiglied anchor and stood for tiie (.'ape of Good 
 Hope. , . . Cabral called the land he had found 
 Vera Cruz, a name which ]iresenlly became Santa 
 Cruz; but when Lenios arrived in J.,is!)on with 
 the news he had with him some gorgeous jiaro- 
 (picls, and ani'ing the earliest names on ol ' maps 
 of tliv; Jirazilian coast we liiid ' liimd of I'aro- 
 (lUets'and 'Land of the Holy Cro.ss.' The lainl 
 lay oliviously so far to the east that Spain '.'ould 
 not deny that at last there was something for 
 I'ortugal out in the 'ocean sea.' ^luch interest 
 was felt at Lisbon. King Eniamiel began to 
 prepare an e.vpcdition for exploring this new 
 coast, and wished to .secure the services of some 
 eminent jiilot and cosmographei familiar with 
 the western waters. Overtures were made to 
 Americus, a fact which jiroves that he hail 
 already won a high reputation. The overtures 
 were accepted, for what reason we do not know, 
 and .soon after his re! urn from the voyage with 
 Ojeda, iirobably in the autumn of ITiOO, Ameri- 
 cus passed from the service of Spain into that of 
 Portugal. . . . On May 11, l.'iOl, Vespuciu.s, 
 who was evidently iirincipal pilot and guiding 
 spirit in this voyage under unknown skies, set sail 
 from J-isbon w itli three caravels. It is not (piite 
 clearwho was chief captain, butSI.Varnhngenlias 
 found reasons for believing that it was u certain 
 Don Nuno Manuel. The tlrst halt was made on 
 the African coast at Capo Verdo, the lirslf week 
 iu.]uue. . . . After 07 days of 'the vilest weather 
 ever seen by man ' they reach(!d the coast of 
 Brazil in latitude about 5° S., on the evcuiug 
 
 56 
 
AMERICA, 1500-t514. 
 
 Namincj of 
 America. 
 
 AMERICA, 1500-1514. 
 
 of the Ifith of August, tlie festival-day of San 
 Koque, wliose name was accordingly given to 
 the cape before wliicli they drojiped anclior. 
 From tliis point they slowly followed the coast to 
 the soiilliward, ftopiiing now and then to exam- 
 ine the country. . . . It was not until All Saints 
 day, tlie lirst cf November, tliat they reael'ed 
 the bay ii; latitude VP S., whicli is still known 
 by the name wlii('h they gave it, Hahiade Todos 
 Santos. On New Year's ciay, 150',', tliey arrived 
 at llie noble bay wlierc 54 years later the chief 
 city of Ura/.il was founded. They would seem 
 to "have nnst.aken it for tlie mouth of another 
 huge river, like some tliat had already been seen 
 in this strange world; for they called it Kio de 
 Janeiro ( Uiver of .lamiary). Thence by February 
 15 they had passeilCapeSanta JIaria, when they 
 left the coast and took a southeasterly course out 
 into the ocean. Amerieus gives no satisfactory 
 reason for tins change of direction. . . . I'er- 
 hai)S he may have looked into tlie inoutli of the 
 river La I'lata, which is a bay more tl .in a hun- 
 dred miles wide; and the sudden westward 
 trend of the shore may have led him I ) suppose 
 that lie had reached the end of the continent. 
 At any rate, he was now in longitude more than 
 twenty degrees west of the meridian of Capo 
 San Koipie, and theref<ire uiuiuestionably out of 
 Portuguese waters. Clearly there was no use in 
 going on and diseovc iig lands which could 
 belong only to Spain. This may account, I 
 think, for the change of direction." The voyage 
 southeastwardly was ])ursued until the little 
 fleet had reached the icy ami rocky coast of the 
 island of South Georgia, in latiliide 54° S. It 
 was tlien decided to turn homeward. " Ves- 
 pucius . . . headed s.raiglit N. N. K. through 
 the huge ocean, fur Sierra Leone, and the dis- 
 tance of more than l,OU() miles was made — with 
 wonderful atfuracy, though V'espucius says 
 nothing ;ibout that — in 33 days. . . . Thence, 
 after some further delay, to Lisbon, where they 
 arrived on the 7th of September, 1.J03. . . . 
 
 Vmong all the voyages made during that event- 
 ful period there was none that as a teat of navi- 
 gativn su-pa.ssed this third of Vespucius, and 
 there was none, except the first of Columbus, 
 that outranked it in iiistorical importance. For 
 it was not only a voyage into the remo'est 
 stretches of the Sea of Darkness, but it vas 
 prei'miiiently an incursion into the antipodal 
 world of the Southern hemisphere. ... A 
 coast of continental e.\tcnt, beginning so near 
 the meridian of tlie Cape Verde i.slands and run- 
 ning southwesterly to latitude 35° S, ;;nd per- 
 haps beyond, did not (it into anybody's scheme 
 of things. ... It was land unknown to the 
 ancients, and Vespucius was right in saying that 
 he had beheld there things "by the thousand 
 which I'liny had never r.ientioned. It was not 
 strange that he should call it a 'New World,' 
 and ill meeting with this phrase, on tliis first 
 occasion in which it appears in any document 
 with reference to any part of what we now call 
 Anicrica, the reader must be careful not to clothe 
 it witli tlui meaning whicli it wears in our mod- 
 ern eyes. In using tliu expression ' New Worhl ' 
 
 Vespucius was not tliinking of the Florida coast 
 which he had visited on a former voyage, nor of 
 the 'islands of Isidia' discovered by Columbus 
 nor even of the Pearl Coa.st which he had fol- 
 lowed after tlie Adiuiml in exploring. The 
 expression occurs iu lus letter to Lorenzo 
 
 do'Medici, written from Lisbon in March or April, 
 1.503, relating solely to this third voyage. The 
 letter begins as follows: ' I have formerly writ- 
 ten to you at sullicient length about my return 
 from those new countries which in the siiijis and 
 at the expense and command of the most gracious 
 King of Portugal we have .sought and found. 
 It is proper to call them a new world.' Observe 
 that it is only the new countries visited on this 
 third voyage, the countries from Cape San 
 I{o(iue southward, that Vespuci. r thinks it 
 projier to call a new world, and here is liis reason 
 for .so calling them: ' Sinc(^ among our ancestors 
 tliere was no knowledge of them, and to all who 
 hear of the affair it is most novel. For it tran- 
 scends the ideas of the ancients, since nio:,[ of 
 tliem say that beyond the eiiuator to the south 
 there is no continent, but only the .sea which 
 ihey calleil the Allantit, and if any of them 
 asserted the existence of a ( (iiitinent there, they 
 found many reasons for refusing to consider it a 
 habitable country, liut this last voyage of mine 
 has i)roved that this opinion of tlieirs was 
 cr.'oneous and in every way contrary to the 
 facis. ' . . . This exi)ression ' Novus .Mundiia,' 
 thus occurring in a private letter, liad a remark- 
 able career. Early in .Tune, 1.5((3, about the time 
 when Amerieus wasstarting on his fourth voyage, 
 Lorenzo died. By the lieginning of 1.5()4, a 
 l-atin version of the letter [translated by (iiovanni 
 Gioeondo] was printed and pulilished. with the 
 title ' jMundus Novus.'. . . The littl" four- 
 leaved tract, ' Mundus Novus,' turned lUit to 
 be the great liteniry success of the day. JI. 
 Harisse has described at least eleven Latin edi- 
 tions ])robabl)' pubiislied in the course of 1.504, 
 and by 1500 not less than eight editions of Ger- 
 man vc:rsions had liecn i.ssued. Intense curiosity 
 was aiou.sed by this aiiiiounce-nciit (d' tin' exis- 
 tence of a populous hind beyond Ihe equator and 
 unknown (could such a filing be possible) to the 
 ancients," — wlio did know something, at least, 
 about the eastern parts of the Asiatic continent 
 whicli Columbus was supposed to have reached. 
 The "Novus .Mundus," so named, began soon to 
 be represented on maps and globes, generally a.s 
 a great island or iiuasi-continent lying on and 
 below the cciuator. "Europe, Asi.a and Africa 
 were the three i)arls of the earth (lu'cviously 
 known], and so this opposite region, hitherto 
 Unknown, but mentioned liy Mela and indicated 
 by Ptolemy, was the Fourth P.irt. We can now 
 begin to undersland the intense and wildly 
 atisorbing interest with which jieoph! read the 
 brief story of the third voyage of Vespucius, 
 and wc can .see that in the nature of that interest 
 tlierc was nothing calculated to bring it into com- 
 parison with l\w. work of Columbus. Tlie two 
 navigators were not regarded as rivals in doing 
 the same tiling, but as men who had done two 
 very dilfereiit things; and logivecredittoone was 
 by no means e(|uivaleiit to withholding credit 
 from .the other." In 1507, .Martin Waldsee- 
 mlUler, profes,sor of geograiihy at Saint-Die, 
 published a small treatise entitled "('osmo- 
 graphie Introduetio," witli that second of the two 
 known letters of Vespucius — the (iiw. addressed 
 to SoderinI, of which an account is given abovo 
 (A. I). 1407-1498)— appemled to it. "In this 
 rare book occurs the first suggestion of tlie name 
 America. After having trei.led of the division 
 of the earth's inhabited surface info three parts 
 — Europe, Asia, and Africa — WuldsecinUller 
 
 01 
 
AMERICA, irm-ir>U. 
 
 AMERICA, 1.509-1511. 
 
 speaks of tlic discovery of a Fourtli Pnrt," and 
 Hiiys: '■ ' WhcrcfDre I "do not sec wliat is riglilly 
 toliiiidcT us from callini; it Ann'rige or AiiicTiia, 
 i. 0., the land of Amcricu;*, after its discc)verer 
 Aincrlcuii, a man of sai^'aeioiis mind, since liotli 
 Kuriipe and Asia liave got tlieir names from 
 wiiincn.' . . . Siicli were tlie winged words Imt 
 for wliieli, as .\I. IIariss(; reminds us. tlie western 
 liemispliere ndglit liave come to lie linown as 
 Atlantis, or llesperides. or Santa Cruz, or Xew 
 India, or perhaps Columbia. ... In about a 
 (piarter of a century the first stage in the devel- 
 opnieiU of the naming of America liaci been 
 completed. That stage consisted of live distinct 
 steps; 1. Americus called the regions visited by 
 him liiyond the iMiiuitor ' a new^world ' beeau.se 
 they were unknown to the ancients; 2. Giocondo 
 maile this striking phrase '-Mundus Novus' iato 
 a title for his translation of the letter. . . ; 3. 
 the name Mundus Novus got placeil upon sev- 
 eral maps as an e(iuivalent fur Terra .Sanctiu 
 Crucis, or what we call lira/il; t. the sugges- 
 tion was made that .Mundus Novus was the 
 Fourth I'art of the earth, and miglit jiroperly be 
 named America after its discoverer; o, the name 
 America thus got placed ujKjn several maps [the 
 first, so far lis known, being a map ascribed to 
 liconaiilo da Vinci and ]uiblished about 1,511, 
 and the second a globe made in 1.51.5 by .lohanu 
 Sehouer, at Niireud)erg| as an e((uivalent feu- 
 what we call Brazil, and sometimes came to 
 stand alone as an e(iuivalent for what we call 
 •South America, but still sigiiitied only a part of 
 the dry land beycaid the Atlantic to which 
 Columbus iiad led the way. . . . Tliis wider 
 meaning (of South America] became all the 
 more lirndy established as its narrower meaning 
 was usnrpeil by the name lirazil. Tliree cen- 
 turies before tlu' time of ( 'olnnd)Us the red 
 dye wood called brazil-wood was an article of 
 conuneree, under that .«anie name, in Italy and 
 Spain. It was one of the valuable things 
 brought from the East, and when the Portu- 
 guese fo\uid the same dye-wood abiuulaut in 
 thos<' tropical forests that had seemed so beauti- 
 fid ;<) V'espucius, the name lirazil soou became 
 fastened upon the country and helped to .set 
 free the name America fron\ its local associa- 
 tions." Wlicn, in time, and by slow degrees, 
 the great fact was learned, that all the lands 
 found lieyond the Atlantic by Columbus and 
 his successors, formed iiarl of one continental 
 system, and were all to be embraced in the con- 
 ception of a New World, the name which had 
 become synonymous with Xew World was then 
 naturally" extended to the whole. The evolu- 
 tionary iirocess of the naming of the western 
 he;uis|iliere as a whole was thus n)ade complete 
 in 1.511, by Mer-ator, who spread the name 
 America in lar.g<' letters upon a globe which he 
 constructed that year, so that part of itappeiired 
 upon the northern and part upon the southern 
 continent. — J. Fislse, The Dhcoccry of j. merica, 
 c!i. 1 (i\ 2). 
 
 Also in: AV. B. Scnife, Amcricn : Its (leoi/raph- 
 t'l-iil llii^toni, sect. 4.— U. II. -Mii.jor, Ufe of 
 Pi-inct Jlciirt/ of Portiir/nl, eh. 10. —,J. Winsor, 
 Ji'ii'ratire mid Vntiatl Hint, of Am., v. 2, cli. 2, 
 notes.— 1\. 11. Haucroft, Uist. of the Bteifie Stntes, 
 r. 1, /(/>• lli)-H2, mid 123-12,5. 
 
 A. D. 1501-1504.— Portuguese, Norman and 
 Breton fishermen on the Newfoundland Banks. 
 See Nkwfolndi,.\nu; A. 1). 1.501-1578. 
 
 A. D. 1502.— The Second Voyage of Ojeda. 
 
 — The first voyage of AUjuzo de Ojeda, from 
 which he returned to Spain i' June 1.500, was 
 profitable to nothing but his reputation as a bold 
 and eiUerpri.sing explorer. Uy way of reward, 
 he was given "a grant of laud in llispauiola, 
 and likewise tlu- government of Coquibacoa, 
 which place he had discovered [and which he had 
 called Venezuela]. He wasauthorized to titouta 
 number of ships at his own expense and to pros- 
 ecute discoveries on the coast of Terra Firma. 
 . . . With foiu- vessels, Ojeda .set sail for the 
 Canaries, in 1.503, and thence luoceeded to the 
 Gulf of Paria, from which locality he found his 
 way to Co(nnl)acoa. Not liking this poor 
 country, he sailed on to the " .v of Honda, 
 where he determined to found ' is settlement, 
 which was, however, destined be of short 
 duration. Provisions very soon became scarce; 
 and one of his iiartncrs, who ha<l been sent to 
 procure supplies from .Jamaica, failed to return 
 until t)jeda's followers were almost in a state of 
 mutiny. The result was that the whole colony 
 set .sail for Ilispainola, taking the governor with 
 them in chains. All that Ojeda gained by his 
 expedition was tliat he at leiiglh came oil wimier 
 in a lawsuit, the costs of wiiicli, however, left 
 him a ruined man." — H. G. Watson, .Spmiis/i itial 
 I'orliir/iie.ie S. Am., M: 1, eh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1503-1504.— The Fourth Voyage of 
 Americus Vespucius. — First Settlement in 
 Brazil. — In .June, 1.5o;i, "Amerigo sailed again 
 from Lisbon, with si.x .ships. The object of this 
 voyage was to di.scover a certain island called 
 Melclia, which was supposed to lie west of Cali- 
 cut, and to be as famous a mart in the commerce 
 of the Indian world as Cadiz was in Kurope. 
 Tliey made the Cape do Verds, and then, con- 
 trary to the judgment of Vespucci and of all the 
 tleet, the Cominaudei ])ersisted in standing for 
 Serra Leoa." The Commander's ship was lost, 
 and Vespucci, with oue vessel, only, reached the 
 coast of the Xew World, llnding a p(at which 
 is thought to have been Pahia. Here " tliey 
 waited above two months in vain expectation of 
 being joined by the rest of the squadron. Having 
 lost all hope of ihis they coasted on for 2(i0 
 leagues to the Southward, and there took port 
 agiun in 18° S. ;!5' W. of the meridian of Lis- 
 bon. Here they reuiidned live nuinths, upon 
 good terms with tlie natives, with whom some 
 of the jiarty i)euetrated forty leagues into the 
 interior; and Ikm-c they erected a fort, in which 
 they left 24 men who had been saved from the 
 Commander's ship. They gave them 12 guns, 
 besides other arms, and provisions for six 
 mouths; then loaded with bra/.il [wood], sailed 
 homeward and returned in safety. . . . The 
 honour, therefore, of having formed i!.e first 
 settlement in this country is due to Amerigo 
 Vespucci. It does uot appear tliat any further 
 attention was as this time paid to it. . . . Put 
 the cargo of brazil which Vespucci had brought 
 home tempted private adventurers, who wero ! 
 content with peaceful gains, to trade thither for | 
 that valuable wooii; and this trade became so i,-, 
 well known, that in consecpicnce the (oast and | 
 the whole country obtained the name of IJrazil, ^ 
 notwithstanding the holier appellation [Santa 
 Cruz] which Cabral had given It." — R. Southey, 
 Jlist. of linnil, r. 1, eh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1509-151 1.— The Expeditions of 
 Ojeda and Nicueaa to the Isthmus.— The Set- 
 
 68 
 
AMERICA, 1509-1511. 
 
 Settlement at 
 Darien. 
 
 AMERICA, 1509-1511. 
 
 tlement at Darien. — "For several years after 
 his ruinous, thougli siircessful lawsuit, we lo.se 
 all traees of Almizo (le Ojeda, excepting that we 
 are told he nintle anotlier voyage to Coquiliacoii 
 [Venezuela], in 1505. No record remains of this 
 exiH'dition, which seems to have been equally 
 unprolitablo with tlie preceding, for we lind 
 him, in l.")US, in tlie island of Hispaniola as poor 
 in purse, though as jiroud in spirit, as ever. . . . 
 About this lime tlie cupidity of King Ferdinand 
 w;is greatly excited by the "accounts by Colum- 
 bus of thegold mines"of Veragua, in which the 
 adnural fancied he had discovered the Aurca 
 Chersonesus of the ancients, whence King Solo- 
 mon jiroeured the gold used in building the tem- 
 ple of Jerusalem. S'-b.sequent voyagers had 
 corroborated the opini' of Columbus as to the 
 general riches of the cc of Terra Firma; King 
 Ferdinand resolved, therefore, to found regular 
 colonies along that coast, and to place the whole 
 under some capable commander." Ojeda was 
 recommended for this post, but found a conii)eti- 
 tor in one of the gentlemen of the Spanish court, 
 Diego de Xicuesa. "King Feriinand avoided 
 the dilemma by favoring both; not indeed by 
 furnishing them with ships and mor.ey, but bj' 
 granting patents and dignities, which copt noth- 
 ing, and might bring rich returns. lie divided 
 that part of the continent which lies along the 
 Isthmus of Darien into two provinces, tlie 
 boundary line running through the Gulf of 
 Uraba. The eastern part, extending to Capo do 
 la Vela, was called New Andalusia, and the gov- 
 ernment of it given to Ojeda. The otlier to the 
 west [called Castilladcl Oro], including Veragua, 
 and reacliing to Cape Gracias ft IJios, was as- 
 signed to Nicuesa. The island of Jamaica was 
 given to the two governors in connnon, as a place 
 whence to draw supplies of provision.s." Slender 
 means for the equipment of Ojeda's expedition 
 Were supplied by tlic veteran jiilot, Juan de la 
 Cosa, who accompanied him as his lieutenant. 
 Nicuesa was more amply provided. The rival 
 armaments arrived at San Domingo about the 
 same time (in 1509), and much quarreling be- 
 tween the two conunandcrs ensued. Ojeda 
 found a notary in San Domingo, Martin Fer- 
 nandez de Enciso, who had niouc}' which he con- 
 sented to invest in the enterprise, and who prom- 
 iswl to follow him with an additional sliip-load of 
 retruits and supiilies. Under this an'angemeut 
 Ojeda made ready to sail in advance of his com- 
 petitor, embarking Nov. 10, 1509. Among those 
 who sailed with iiim was Francisco Pizarro, tlie 
 future loiKiueror of Peru. Ojeda, by his energy, 
 gained time enough to nearly ruin li'is expedition 
 before Xieuesa reached the" scciK'; for, having 
 landed at Carlhagena, he made war upon the na- 
 tives, pursued lliem rcckles.sly into the iiiteri(U'of 
 the country, with 70 men, and was overwhelmed 
 by the desperate savages, escaping with only one 
 companion from their poisoned urrows. His 
 faithful friend, the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was 
 among the slain, at.d Oiedahimself, hilling in the 
 forest, was nearly d:. id of hunger and exposure 
 when found and rescued by a sei'rcliing pnrrv 
 from his ships. At this juncture the licet of Ni- 
 ! iiesa made its appearance. Jealousies were for- 
 gotten in a common rage against the natives and 
 the two expeditions were joined in an attack on 
 the Indian villages which spared nothing. Nicu- 
 esa thon proceeded to Veragua, while Ojeda 
 founded a town, which he called Sau Sebastian, 
 
 nt the oa.st end of the Gulf of Uralia. Incessantly 
 hara.ssed bj- the natives, terrilicd by the effects of 
 the jjoLson which these used in their warfare, and 
 threatened with starvation by the rapid exhaustion 
 of its supplies, the settlement lost courage and 
 hoi)e. Enciso and his promised ship were waited 
 for in vain. At length there came a vessel which 
 certain piratical adventurers at Hispaniola had 
 stolen, and which brought some welcome pro- 
 visions, e.igcrly bouglit at an exorbitant price. 
 Ojeda, half recovered from a jjoisoned wound, 
 wliieh he had treated heroically with red-hot 
 plates of iron, engaged the pirates to convey him 
 to Hispaniola, for tlio procuring of suiJidies. 
 The voyage was a disastrous one, resulting in 
 shipwreck on the coast of Cuba and a month of 
 desijcrate wandering in the morasses of the island. 
 Ojeda survived all these perils and sull'ering.s, 
 made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to 
 San Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had 
 sailed for the colony long before, with abundant 
 supplies, but could Icaru nothing more. Nor 
 could he obtain for himself any means of return- 
 ing to San Sebastian, or of di.spatehing relief to 
 the place. Sick, penniless and disheartened, he 
 went into a convent and died. Meantime the 
 despairing colonists at San Sebastian waited until 
 death had made them few enough to be all taken 
 on board of the two little brigantines which were 
 left to them ; then they sailed away, Pizarro in 
 command. One of the brigantines soon went 
 down in a squall; the other made its way to llie 
 harbor of Carlhagena, where it found the tardy 
 Enciso, searching for his colony. Enciso, under 
 his commission, now took conmiand, and insistetl 
 upon going to San Sebasiian. There the old ex- 
 periences were soon renewed, and even Enciso 
 was ready to abandon the deadly place. The 
 latter had brought with him a needy cavalier, 
 Vasco Nunez de Balboa — so needy that ho 
 smuggled himself on board EucLso's ship in a 
 cask to escape his creditors. Vasco Nunez, wlio 
 had coasted this region with ISastidas, in 1500, 
 now advised a removal of tlie colony to Darien, 
 on the opposite coast of the Gulf of "Uraba. His 
 advice, which was followed, proved good, and 
 the hopes of the settlers were raised; butEneiso's 
 modes of government proved irksome to them. 
 Then Balboa called atte'ition to the fact that, 
 when they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, they passcil 
 out of the territory covered by the patent to 
 Ojeda, uiiil(>r which Eu;mso was commissioned, 
 and into that granted to Nieuesa. On this sug- 
 gestion Enciso was promi)tly depo.sed and two 
 alcahlcs were elected, Balboa being one. While 
 events in one corner of Nieuesa's domain wero 
 thus establishing a colony for that ambitious gov- 
 ernor, he himself, at the other extremitv of it, 
 was faring badly. He had sulTered hardships, 
 separation from most of his command and long 
 abandonment on a desolate coast; had rejoined 
 his followers after great sufferinir, only to suller 
 yet more in their company, until less than one 
 hundred remained of liie "TOO who sailed with 
 liiin a few months before. The selllement at 
 Veragua had been deserted, and another, named 
 Nombre de Dios undertaken, with no improve- 
 ment of circuinstinces. In tliis situation ho was 
 rejoiced, at last, by the arrival of one of his lieu- 
 tenants, Rodrigo tie Colmenares, who came with 
 supplies. Colmenares brought tidings, moreover, 
 of the prosperous colony at Darien, which he had 
 discovered on his way, with an invitation to 
 
 39 
 
AMERICA, 1509-1511. 
 
 nincot'rrjf nf 
 the I'aciflc. 
 
 AMEUICA, 1513-1517 
 
 Nicucsa to cniiu.' nml iissiimo the novprnnu'nt of it. 
 IIu acccptfii IIh; iiivilaliiiii with <liliL,!.t; but, 
 alii.s! tilt! comimniity at Diirk'H liiul rcpi'iitcil i>f 
 it licforc! he niulictl lli"m, and tlicy refused 
 to receive liini wlieii ho arrived. Permit led linally 
 to land, lie was seized Ijy a treaelierous iwi'ly 
 aiiuiii)^ tlio colniii.si.s— to wlioiii Ualboa is said 
 to liave opiiosed all the resistaiiee in liis power — 
 was put on lioard of an old and crazy lirigaiiline, 
 Willi seventeen of liis friends, and eonipelled to 
 talv(! an oath that lie would siul straight to Spain. 
 "'I'he frail li.irk set sail on the tinst of Mareli, 
 1511, and steered aeross the Caril)bcaii Sea for the 
 island of Ilispaniola, but was i.ever seen or heard 
 of more." — W. \r\\iii;, Life and Vui/dyis of Coliim- 
 bu,i fintl hiti (,oinjianiifn:t, v. 3. 
 
 Ai.st) I.N- H. H. Haneroft, Jfist. of the Pacific 
 StiitiK, V. \,ch, C. 
 
 A. D. 151 1. — Tha Spanish conquest and oc- 
 cupation of Cuba. See C,'i;iia: A. 1). 1511. 
 
 A. D. 1512. — The Voyage of Ponce de Leon 
 in quest of the Fountain of Youth, and his 
 Discovery of Florida. — "Whatever may have 
 been the Southernmost point reached by Cabot 
 in coasting Aineriea on his return, it is certain 
 that he did not hmd in Florida, and that the 
 honour of first exploring that country is due to 
 tluan Ponco de Leon. This cavalier, who was 
 governor of Puerto Kieo, induced by the vague 
 traditions circulated by the natives of the West 
 Indies, that thiic was a, country in the north 
 possessing a fountain whose waters restored the 
 aged to youth, made it an object of his ambition 
 to be the first to discover this marvellous region. 
 With this view, he resigned the governorship, 
 and set sail with three caravels on the 3d of 
 March 1512. Steering N. J N., he came upon a 
 country covered with flowers and verdure; and 
 as the ilay of his discovery hapjicned to bo 
 Palm Sunday, called by the Spaniards ' Pasqiia 
 Florida,' he gave it the name of Florida from this 
 cireumstanee. He landed on the 2d of A])ril, and 
 took i)ossession of the coinitry in the name of 
 the king of Ca.stile. The warlike people of the 
 coast of Cautio (a name given by the Indians to 
 all the coimtry lying between Cape Cifiaveral 
 and the southern point of Florida) soon, how- 
 ever, cotni)elled him to retreat, and he pursued 
 his exploration of the coast as far as 30° 8' north 
 latitude, and on the 8th of May doubled Cape 
 Cailaveral. Then retracing his course to Puerto 
 Kico, in the hope of flndiug the island of liimini, 
 which he believed to be the Land of Youth, and 
 described by the Indians as ojiposito to Florida, 
 he di^icovered the liahamas, and some other 
 islands, jireviously uidiuown. Bad weathercom- 
 pelling him to ptit into the isle of Guanima to 
 repair damages, he despatched one of his cara- 
 vels, tinder the orders of Jaun Perez de Ortubia 
 ami of the pilot Anton de Alamiuos, to gain in- 
 formation respecting '.iie desired l.iiul, which he 
 had as yet been totally unable to discover. He 
 returueil to Puerto Uieo on the 21st of Sejitem- 
 lier; a few days afterwards, Ortubia arrived also 
 with news of Uimini. Heieiiorted that ho had 
 e.\|)lored the i.slaiid, — which he described as 
 large, well wooded, and watered by numerous 
 'reams, — but ho had failed in discovering the 
 
 iiutain. Oviedo places IJiinini at 40 leagues 
 west of the island of Bahama. Thus all the ad- 
 vantages which Ponce de Leon promised himself 
 from tills voyage turned to the (irolit of geogra- 
 phy : the title of ' Adelantado of Bimiui and 
 
 Florida,' whieh was conferred upon him, was 
 purely honorary; but the route taken by him in 
 order to return to Puerto Hico, showed the advan- 
 tage of making the homeward voyage to Spain by 
 the Bahama Channel." — W. B. Uye, lutrod. t<: 
 " Discorevy niid CoiKjtiesl of Tcvra Flonila, hy » 
 yentkman of Elvm" (Uakluyt Soc, 1851). 
 
 Also IN G. H. Fairbanks, Hint. ofFloriila, ch. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1513-1517.— The discovery of the 
 Pacific by Vasco Nuflez de Balboa. — Pedra- 
 rias D'.vila on the Isthmus. — Willi Enci.so de- 
 posed from authority and Nicuesa sent adrift, 
 Vasco Nunez do Ba.'boa seems to have easily 
 held the lead iu aifairs at Darien, though not 
 without much opposition ; for faction and turbu- 
 lence were rife. Enciso was permitted to carrj 
 his grievances and complaints to Spain, but Bal- 
 boa's colleague, Zamudio, went with him, and 
 another comrade proceeded to Hispauiola, both 
 of them well-furnished with gold. For the quest 
 of gold had succeeded at last. The Darien ad- 
 venturers had found considerable quantities in 
 the possession of the surrounding natives, and 
 were gathering it with greedy hands. Balboa 
 had the prudence to establish friendly relations 
 with one of the most important of the neigh- 
 boring caciques, whose comely daughter he wed- 
 ded — according to the easy customs of the 
 country — and whose ally he became in wars with 
 the other caciques. By gift and tribute, therefore 
 as well as by plunder, he harvested more gold 
 than any be ro him had found since the ransack- 
 ing of the New World began. But what they 
 obtained seemed little compared with the treas- 
 ures reported to them as existing beyond the 
 near mountains and toward the south. One In- 
 dian youth, sou of a friendly cacique, particu- 
 larly excited their imaginations by the tale which 
 ho told of another great sea, not far to the west, 
 on the southward-stretching shores of which 
 were countries that teemed with every kind of 
 w ealtli. lie told them, however, that they would 
 need a thousand men to fight their way to this 
 Sea. Balboa gave such credence to the story 
 that ho sent envoys to Spain to .solicit forces from 
 the king for an adequate expci'ition across the 
 mountains. Tliey sailed in October, 1513, but 
 did not arrive in Spain until the following May. 
 They found Balboa in much disfavorat the court. 
 Enciso and the friends of the unfortunate Nic- 
 uesa had unitedly ruined him by their complaints, 
 and the king had caused criminal proceedings 
 against him to be commenced, ileantimc, some 
 inkling of these hostilities had reached Balboa, 
 himself, conveyed by a vessel which bore to him, 
 at the same time, a commission as captain-gen- 
 eral from the authorities in Ilispaniola. He now 
 resolved to become the discoverer of the ocean 
 which his Indian friends described, and of the 
 rich lamb bordering it, before his enemies could 
 interfere with him. "Accordingly, early in Sep- 
 tember, 1513, ho set out on his renowned expe- 
 dition for finding Uio other sea,' accoinpauicd 
 by 100 men w ell armed, and by dogs, which were 
 of more avail than men, and by Indian slaves 
 to carry the burdens. Ho went by sea to the ter- 
 ritory of his father-in-law. King Careta, by whom 
 he was well received, and accoinpanieil by whose 
 Indians he moved on into Ponc.ha's territory." 
 (Juieting the fears of this cacique, ho jiassed his 
 country without lighting. The next chief encoun- 
 tered, named Quaro(iua, attempted resii''ince, 
 but was routed, with a great slaughter 0! his 
 
 60 
 
AMERICA, 1513-1517. 
 
 FinrUtig o/ 
 Mexico. 
 
 AMERICA, 1517-1518. 
 
 people, and Bnlhoa puslicd on. "On the 25th 
 of September, 151:), he cnnio iienr to tlie top of a 
 mountain from whenee the South Sen wii.s visi- 
 ble. Tlio distance from Ponclm's cliief town to 
 this poh't was forty leagues, reelioncd tlien six 
 (lays journey; but Vasco Nunez aud his men 
 took twenty-five days to aee()mi)lisli it, as they 
 suffered much from" tlie roughness of the ways 
 and from the want of provisions. ,V little before 
 Vnsco Nuflez reached the height, Quarcqua's In- 
 dians informed him of his near apiiroacli to tlio 
 sea. It was a sigl\t in beholding which, for tlie 
 first time, any man would wish to be alone. 
 Vasco Nuiiez bade his men sit down while ho 
 ascended, and then, in solitude, looked down 
 upon the vast Pacific — the first man of the Old 
 World, so far as wo know, who had done so. 
 Falling on his knees, ho gave thanks to God for 
 the favour .shown to him in hi-: being permitted 
 to discover the Sea of the South. Tiicn with his 
 hand be beckoned to his men to come up. When 
 they had come, both he and they knelt down and 
 poured forth their thanks to God. lie tlien ad- 
 <lressed them. . . . Having , . . addressed his 
 men, Vasco Xuiicz jiroceeded to take formal 
 possession, on behalf of the kings of Castile, of 
 the sea and of all that was in it; and in order to 
 make memorials of the event, ho cut down trees, 
 formed cnxsses, and heaped up stones. IIi^ also 
 inscribed the names of ihe monaichs of Castile 
 upon great trees in the vicinity." Afterwards, 
 when he had descended the western slope and 
 found the shore, " he entered tiie sea np to his 
 thighs, having his sword on, and with his shield 
 in liis hand ; then he called the l)y-stan<iers to 
 witness how he touched witli his person and took 
 jiossession of this sea for the kings of Castile, anil 
 declared tliat he woidd defenif the possession of 
 it against all comers. After this, Vasco Nunez 
 made friends in the usual manner, first conquer- 
 ing and tlien negotiating with " the several chiefs 
 or caciqties whoso territories came in his way. 
 He explored the Gulf of San Miguel, finding 
 much wealth of pearls in the region, and re- 
 turned to Darien by a route which crossed the 
 isthmus considerably farther to the north, reach- 
 ing his colony on the 29th of January, 1514, hav- 
 ing been absent nearly five months. " lli.s men 
 at Darien received him with exultation, and }ie 
 lost no time in sending his news, ' sucli sigr.il 
 and new news,' ... to the King of Spain, nc- 
 companying it with rich presenis. His letter, 
 which gave a del ailed account of his journey, 
 and which, for its length, was compared by 
 Peter JIartyr to the celebrated letter that came 
 to the senate from Tiberius, contained in every 
 page thanks to God that he liad escaped from 
 such great dangers and labours. Both the letter 
 and the presents were intrusted to a man named 
 Arbolanche, who depr -ted from Darien about the 
 beginning of March, t514. . . . Vasco Nunez's 
 messenger, Arbolanche, leacliod the court of 
 Spain toolatn for his master's interests." Tlio 
 hitter Imd already been superseded in the Gov- 
 ernor.shin, and his successor was on the way to 
 take his authority from him. The new gover- 
 nor was one Pedraria.s Do Aviln, or Davila, ns 
 the n.imo is sometimes written;— an envious and 
 inalignant eld man, under whoso rule on the 
 isthmus the destructive energy of Spanish con- 
 quest rose to its meanest and most heartless and 
 brainless development. Conspicuously exposed 
 as lie was to the jealousy and hatred of Pedra- 
 
 rias, Vasco Nuflez was probably doomed to ruin, 
 in some form, from IIk^ first. At one time, in 
 1510, there seemed to be a proini.se for him of 
 alliance with his all-powerful enemy, by a mar- 
 riage with one of the governor's daughters, and 
 he received the comiiiaiid of an expedition which 
 again crossed the isllimus, carrying ships, and 
 began the exploration of the Pacific. Hut cir- 
 eiimstanCt'S soon arose whicli ga\e Pedrarias an 
 opportunity to accu.se the exiilore.'of trea.soniiblc 
 designs and to accomplish his arrest — Francisco 
 Pizarro being tlic otiicer fitly charged with the 
 execution of the governor's warrant. Brought 
 in chains to Aria, Vasi'o Nunez was suiiiinarily 
 tried, found guilty and led forth to swift death, 
 laying his head iijion the block (.V. D. 1517). 
 "Thus perished Viisco Nunez de Balboa, in the 
 forty-second year of his age, tlie man who, since 
 the time of Columbus, had shown the most states- 
 manlike and wariiorliko powers in that part of 
 the world, but whose career only too much re- 
 sembles that of Ojeda, Nicuesa, and the other un- 
 fortunate commaiiikrs who devastated those 
 beautiful regions of the earth." — Sir A. Helps, 
 Spaninh Conquest in Am., bk. 6 (p. 1). — "If I 
 have npplietf strong terms of denunciation to 
 Pcdraias Davila, it is because ho unquestionably 
 deserves it. lie is by far the worst man who 
 came oflicially to the Now World during its 
 early government. In this all authorities agree. 
 And all agree that Vasco Nunez was not deserv- 
 ing of death."— II. H. Bancroft, IlUt. offhcPcusi- 
 fic StaUs, V. 1, ch. 8-12 (foot-note, p. 458). 
 
 Ai.so IN AV. Ir.'ing, Life and Voyages of Col- 
 unibiis and ?ii,i Companinn.i, v. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1515.- Discovery of La Plata by 
 Juan de Solis. See Pakaih ay: A. I). 151,")- 
 1557. 
 
 A. D. 1517-1518.— The Spaniards find 
 Mexico. — "An hidalgo of Cuba, named Her- 
 nandez de Cordova, sailed with three vessels on 
 an expedition to one of the neighbouring 
 Bahama Islands, in quest of Indian slaves (Feb. 
 8, 1517). Ho encountered a succession of heavy 
 gales whicli drove him far out of his course, and 
 at tlie end of three weeks he found himself on a 
 strange and unknown coast. On lauding and 
 asking the name of the country, he was answered 
 by the natives 'Tectelan,' meaning 'I do not 
 understand you,' but which tlio Spaniards, mis- 
 interpreting into the name of the place, easily 
 corrupted into Yucatan. Some writers give a 
 dllTerent ct_>mology. . . . Bernal Diaz says the 
 word came from the vegetable ' yuca ' and ' tale,' 
 the name for a hillock ia which it Is planted. 
 . . . !M. Waldeck finds a much more plausible 
 derivation in the Indian word ' Oiiyouckatan,' 
 •listen to what they say.'. . , Cordova had 
 landed on the north-eastern end of the peninsula, 
 at CapoCatoche. He was astonished at the size 
 and solid materials of the buildings constructed 
 of stone and lime, so different from the frail 
 tenements of reeds and rushes which formed the 
 habitations of the islanders. He was .struck, 
 also, v.ith the higher cultivation of the soil, aiul 
 with the ilelicate texture of the cotton garments 
 and gold ornaments of the natives. Everything 
 indicated a civilization far superior to anything 
 he had before witnessed in the New 'World. He 
 saw the evidence of a different race, moreover, 
 in the warlike spirit of the people. . . . Where- 
 ever they lunded they were met with the most 
 deadly hostility. Cordova liimself, in one of his- 
 
 61 
 
AMERICA, 1517-1518. 
 
 I'liliage of 
 Muyellan. 
 
 A^IEIUCA, Ijl9-lj.i4. 
 
 gkinni.shcs ".vitli the Iiiiliiiiis, received more tliiiu 
 11 dozen woliiiils, and (iiit- only of his piirty 
 escaped unliurt. At leiij^ili, wlien he liad 
 coasted llie peninsula as far us C'anipeachy, lie 
 returned to Cuba, wliieli he reached ufler an 
 absi'nce of several inontlis. . . . TIk- reports he 
 had hrouirht hack of the country, and, still more, 
 the spi'ciiMens <if curiously wrought ;:old, con- 
 vinced Velasijuez [L''overnor of Cuba] of the ini- 
 porlance of this discovery, and ho orepared 
 with all despat<h to avail I'imself of it. lie 
 aceor(lin),dy litted j)Ut a little scpiadron of four 
 vcssils lor the newly discovered lands, and 
 I)laced it under the coininaiid of his nei)he\v, 
 .Juan de Grijalva, a man on whose jirobity, 
 prudence, and attachincnt to himself lie kianv 
 lie could rely. The licet left the jiort of St. Jai^o 
 de Cuba, May 1, 1.'518. . . . Grijalva soon 
 passed over to tlic continent and coasted the 
 peninsula, touchin:^ at the same places us his 
 predecessor. Kver3'where ho vas struck, like 
 liiin, with the e\ideiices of a hiiflier civilization, 
 espe<nally in the architecture; as ho well might 
 he, since this was the region of those extraordi- 
 nary remains which have bcconio recently the 
 subject of so inucli speculation. IIo was aston- 
 ished, also, at the si.irlit of larjic stone crosses, 
 evidently objects of worship, which he mot with 
 in various ] daces, ^{eiiiiiidcd by these circum- 
 stances of his own country, ho gave the penin- 
 sula the name Xew Spain, a naiiio since ap- 
 propriated to a much wiiler i-xteiit of territory. 
 AVherever Grijalva landed, he experienced the 
 same unfriendly reception as Cordova, though 
 ho sulTered less, being better i)ri'pared to meet 
 it." He suecieded, however, at last, in opening 
 a friendly cont'ercnce and tralUn with one of tho 
 chiefs, on the l{io do Tabasco, and " had the 
 satisfaction of receiving, for a few worihhss 
 toys JK .1 trinkets, a rich treasure of jewels, gold 
 ornaments and vessels, of the r'.ost fantastic 
 forms and workini.nsliip. Grijalva now tliought 
 that in ' his successful trallic — successful beyond 
 his most sang'-ilne cxiK'Ctations — he had accom- 
 plished the chief object of his mission." He 
 therefore dis])atclicd Alvarado, one of his cap- 
 tains, to Velas(iuez, with the treasure acquired, 
 and continued his voyage along the coast, as far 
 as the ])roviiue of Pauuco, returning to Cuba at 
 the enil of about six months from bis departure. 
 "On reaching the Island, he was surprised to 
 learn that unotlier and more formidable arma- 
 ment had !)een tilted out to follow up his own 
 discoveries, and to lind orders at tho same time 
 from the go\'eriior, couched in no very courieous 
 langmiLre. to repair at once to St. ,Iago, He was 
 received by that personage, not merely with cold- 
 ness, but with reproaches, for having neglected 
 .so fair an opportunity of establishing a colony in 
 the country lie had "visited." — W. II. I'roscott, 
 Ctiiiijiiixt "f Mtxifii, Ilk. 'J, i-h. 1. 
 
 Al.so IN: C. St. J. I'ancourt. Hut. of Yiimtnn, 
 ch. l-i. — Heriial Diaz tiel Castillo, Memoirs, v. 1, 
 eh. 2- lit. 
 
 A. D. 1519-1524.— The Spanish Conquest of 
 Mexico, Sec ,Mk\ico: .V. 1). i.")l!t-l.V.'4. 
 
 A. D. 1519-152,,.— The Voyage of Magellan 
 and Sebastian del Cano. — The Nevy World 
 passed and the Earth circumnavigated. — The 
 Congress at Badajos. — Fernando Magellan, or 
 -Magalhaes, was "a disalfected Portuguese gen- 
 tleman w ho had served his country for live years 
 iu tho Indies under Albuquerque, and uuderiituod 
 
 well the secrets of tho Eastern trade. Iu 1517, 
 conjointly with his geographical and astronomi- 
 cal friend, Kuy Falorio, another unrequited Por- 
 tuguese, he otferod his services to the Simnlsli 
 court. At the same time these two friends pro- 
 jiosed, not only to prove that the Moluccas were | 
 within the Spanish lines of demarkation, but to I 
 discover a jiassago thither dilTerent from that 
 used bv the Portuguese. Their schemes were 
 listened to, adojited and carried out. Tho Straits 
 of Magellan were discovered, the broad Soulii 
 Sea was crossed, tho Ladrones and the Phil- 
 l!l)iiies were iiis])ected, the Jloluceas wore passed 
 through, tho Ci.pe of Good Hope was doubled 
 on the homeward voyage, and the globe was 
 circuinnavigati'd, all 'in' less than thri'o years, 
 from 1.J19 tfp 1,")*2. JIagellan lost his life, and 
 only one of his live ships roturneil [under Sebiii- 
 tian del Cano] to tell the marvelous story. The; 
 magnitude of the enterprise was etiualled only 
 by the magnitude of tho results. The globe for 
 the Urst time began to assume its true character 
 and size iu tho minds of men, and the minds of 
 men began soon to grasp and utilize tho results 
 of this circumnavigation for the enlargement of 
 trade and commerce, and for tho benetit of geog- 
 raphy, astronomy, mathematics, and the other 
 sciences. This wonderful story, is it not told in 
 a thousand books ? , , . The Portuguese in India 
 and the Spiceries, as well as at homo, now seeing 
 the inevitable conflict approaching, were thur- 
 ouglily aroused to the im])ortaiice of inaintaiuiiig 
 their righl.s. They openly asserted them, and 
 Iironounced this trade with the Moluccas by the 
 Spanish an encroachment ou their prior discov- 
 eries and possession, as well as a violation of the 
 Papal Compact of 1494, and preiiared theiuselves 
 energetically for defense aud olTense. Ou the 
 oilier hand, the Spaniards as openly declared 
 that jMagellan's licet carried the first Christians 
 to tho Moluccas and by friendly imercourso wiili 
 the kings of those islands, reduced tlieni to Chris- 
 tian subjection and brought back letters and 
 tribute to Ca!sar. Hence these kings and their 
 people came under tho protection of Charles Y. 
 llesides this, the Spaniards claimed that the 
 Moluccas were within the Spanish half, and were 
 therefore doubly theirs. . . . I'datters thus wax- 
 ing hot. King John of Portugal begged Charles 
 V. to delay (lispatching his new fleet until the 
 disputed points could bo discussed and settled. 
 Charles, who boasted that ho had rather bo right 
 than rich, consented, and tho ships were sinid. 
 These two Christian princes, who owned all the 
 newly discovered and to be discovered parts of 
 the whole world between them by deed of gift 
 of tho Pope, agreed to meet in Congress at 
 Badajos by their representatives, to discuss and 
 settle all matters in ilisputo about the division of 
 their patrimony, and to dotiue and stake out 
 their lands and waters, both parties agroeiiiL' to 
 abide by the decision of the Congress. Accord- 
 ingly, iu the early spring of 1,524, up wont to 
 this little border town four-and-tweuty wise 
 men, or thereabouts, chosen by each prime. 
 Thev comprised the tirst judges, lawyers, mathe- 
 maticians, astronomers, cosmogiapliers, naviga- 
 tors and pilots of tho land, among wlio.se names 
 were many honored now as then — such as Fer- 
 nando Columbus, Sebastian (Jabot, Estovan 
 Gomez, Diego lUbero, etc. . . . Tho debates and 
 proceedings of this Congress, as reported by Peter 
 Martyr, Oviedo, uud Goiuura, are very amusing. 
 
 62 
 
AMERICA, 1519-1534. 
 
 Voyages of 
 Verrdzano. 
 
 AMERICxV, 1523-1524. 
 
 hut no rpgu!iir joint decision could bo ronchod, 
 tlie Portuguose dcclininj; to subscrilx' to the ver- 
 dict of tlio Spmiiiirds, inasmucli iis it deprived 
 tliem of tlio .^lollU■Cll8. So eiieh pnrty pulilislicd 
 nnd proelainicd its own decision after tlie Con- 
 gress brolio up in eonfusion on the last day of 
 May, l")3t. It was, however, tacitly understood 
 that the Moluccas fell to Spain, wliile IJrazil, to 
 the extent of two hundred leagues from Cape 
 St. Augustine, fell to tlie Portuguese. . . . 
 However, much good resulted from this tirst 
 geographical Congress. The extent and breadth 
 of the Pacific were appreciated, anil tlie inlluence 
 of the Congress was soon after seen in the greatly 
 improved maps, globe<, and charts." — H. .Ste- 
 vens, //['«<. aixl (ieog. Notes, U.-jS-ISSO. — "For 
 three months and twenty days he [.Mngellanl 
 sailed ou the Pacific and never saw inhabited 
 land. He was compelled by famine to strip olt 
 the pieces of skin and leather wherewith his 
 rigging was here and there bound, to soak them 
 in the sea nnd then soften thera with warm 
 water, so as to make a wretched food; to cat the 
 sweepings of the sliip and other loathsome mat- 
 ter; to drink water gone putrid by keeping; nnd 
 yet he resolutely held on his course, though lii.s 
 men were dying daily. ... In the whole his- 
 tory of human undertakings there is nothing that 
 exceeds, if indeed there is anything that cciuals, 
 this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus 
 dwindles away in comparison. It is a display ot 
 superhuman courage, superhuman persever- 
 ance." — J. W. Draper, Iliat. of the Intellectual 
 Derclnpmcnt of Europe, c!i, 16. — "The voyage [of 
 Magellan] . . . was doubtless the greatest feat 
 ot navigation that has ever been performed, and 
 nothing can he imagined that would surpass 
 it e.vcept a journey to some other planet. It has 
 not the uni(|ue historic position of the first voy- 
 age of Columbus, which brought together two 
 streams of human life that had been di.sjoined 
 .since the Glacial Period. But nr, an nchieve- 
 moiil in ocean navigation that voyage of Colum- 
 bus sinks into insignificance by the side of it, 
 and when the earth was n second time encom- 
 passed by the greatest English sailor of his age, 
 tlie advance in knowledge, as well as the ditt'cr- 
 ent route chosen, had much reduced the difli- 
 culty of the performance When we consider 
 the frailness ot the ships, the immeasurable ex- 
 tent of the unknown, the mutinies that were 
 prevented or quelled, nnd 'ho hardships that 
 were endureil, we can have no hesit.ition in 
 Speaking of Alagellan as the prince of naviga- 
 tors." — J. Fiske, T/ie Discovery of America, ch, 7 
 (V. 2). 
 
 Also in Lord Stanley of Alderlev, The First 
 Voyage round the Worlil (Ihkliiyt S>c., 1874). — 
 U. Kerr, Collection of Voi/(i(/c.i. v. 10. 
 
 A. D. 1519-1525.— The Voyages of Garay 
 and Ayllon.— Discovery of the mouth of the 
 Mississippi.— Exploration of the Carolina 
 Coast. — In l.")19, Prancisco do Garay, governor 
 of .laniaica, ' ' • had been one of the companions 
 of Columhii liis second voyage, having 
 
 heard of the ss and beauty of Yucatan, 
 
 "at his own cU.i: .sent out four ships well 
 equipped, nnd with -ood pilots, under the com- 
 mand ot Alvarez Alonso do Pineda. His pro- 
 fessed object was to search for some strait, west 
 of Florida, which was not yet certainly known 
 to form a part of the co'ntinent. The strait 
 having boon sought for in vain, his ships turned 
 
 toward the west. 
 
 tho 
 
 attentively exnmining 
 ports, rivers, inhabitants, and everything efse 
 
 fy exnmmi 
 
 , , , . (1 everythii „ 
 
 that seemed worthy of remark; and especially 
 noticing the vast volume of wa'er brought down 
 by one very large stream. At last they came 
 upon the track of Cortes near Vera Cruz. . . . 
 The can'fully <lrawn map of the jiilots showed 
 di.stinetly tlie Mississippi, which, in this earliest 
 authentic trace of its outlet, bears the name of 
 the Espiritu Santo. . . . Hut Garay thought not 
 of the Jlississippi and its valley: he coveted 
 necesa to the wealth of Jlexico; and, in \r>i'i, 
 lost fortune and life ingloriously in a dispute 
 with Cortes for the governinei.t of the country 
 on the river Painico. A voyage 'or slaves 
 brought the Spaniards in l.-iSO still farther to tho 
 north. A coniiiany ot seven, of whom tho most 
 distinguished was Lucas V'asquez do Ayllon, 
 fitted out two slave ships from St. Dominc-o, in 
 quest ot laborers for their i>lantations nnd mines. 
 From 'C Bahama Islamls they passed to the coiist 
 of South Carolina, whicli was called Chicora. 
 The Combahee river received tho nrine of 
 Jordfin; tho name of St. Helena, whose day is 
 the 18th of August, was given to a cape, but 
 now belongs to tho sound." Luring a largo 
 number of, tho confiding natives on board their 
 ships the adventurers treacherously set sail with 
 them ; but jne of tho vessels foundered at sea, 
 and most 01 th. 'japtives on tho other sickened 
 and died. Vasipiez d3 Ayllon was rewarded for 
 his treacherous exploit hy being authorize 1 and 
 appointed to make the coiiqaest of Chicora. 
 "For this bolder enterprise the undertaker 
 wasted his fortune in preparatiors; in 1525 his 
 largest ship was stranded in the river Jordan; 
 many of his men were killed by the natives; uiul 
 he himself escaped only to suffer from the con- 
 sciousness of having done nothing worthy of 
 honor. Yet it may be that ships, sailing under 
 his nuthority, made the discovery of the Chesa- 
 peake and named it tlio bay of St. Miiry; and 
 perhaps even entered the bay of Delaware, which, 
 in Spanish geographv, was called St. Christo- 
 pher's. "—G. Bancroft, Jlist. of the U. S., pt. 1, 
 ch. 2. 
 
 Also in II. 11. Bancroft, Hist, of the Pacifie 
 States, r. 4, ch, 11, ami v. 5, eh. G-7. — W. G. 
 Simms, Ilist.of S. (jirolina, bk: 1, ch. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1523-1524. — The Voyages of Verra- 
 zano. — First undertakings of France in the 
 New Vw orld. — "IL is constantly admitted in our 
 history that our kings paid no attention to Amer- 
 ica before the year 1523. Then Francis I., wisli- 
 iiig to excite tho emulation of his subjects in 
 li'^'.-.rd to navigation and comnnrce, as he had 
 already so successfully in regara i. the sciences 
 I lid fine arts, ordered .John Verazani, who was in 
 his service, to go and explore the New Lands, 
 which began to bo much talked of in France. 
 . . . Verazani was accordingly sent, in 1.52.1, with 
 four ships to discover North America ; but our 
 historians have not spoken of his first expedition, 
 and wo shouU' bo in ignorance of it now, luul 
 not Itainusio /reserved in his great collection a 
 letter of Vera, ani himself, addi 'ssed to Francis 1. 
 and dated D 'ppe, .July 8, 1524. In it ho sup- 
 poses the ki.ig already informed of tho success 
 and details of the voyage, so that ho contents 
 himself with stating that he sailed from Dieppe 
 in four vessels, which he had safely brought back 
 to that port. In January, 1524, he sailed with 
 two shljis, the Dauphine and the Normande, to 
 
 63 
 
AMERICA, 1523-1524. 
 
 Viscovery of 
 I-etru. 
 
 AilElUCA, 1524-152S. 
 
 cruise against the Spiiuiiirds. Towards the close 
 of the siiine your, (ir larly in tlii' next, lie nijiiiii 
 flltwl out the Duupliiiii', on which, einbiirking 
 with 50 Mien iiml provisions for ei^ht niontlis, lie 
 first Kiiiled to tlie isliuul of MiKlcini." — Fiilhcr 
 (,'hiirlevoi.x, JM. of Stw Frauee (I runs. Iii/ J. (I. 
 Slu,i). bk. 1.— "On the 17lli of .lanuiiry, 1.524. he 
 [V'critiziiiio] parted from the 'Islas dosiertas.'a 
 well-known little group of islands near Jladeira, 
 and sailed at first westward, running in 25 days 
 500 leafiues, with a light and pleasant easterly 
 breeze, nlonjf the norlliern liorder of the trade 
 winds, in aliout 30^ N. His track was conse- 
 quently nearly like tliat of I'oUiinbus on his liist 
 voyage. On the 1 1th of February he met ' with 
 as violent u liiirritnne as any ship ever en- 
 countered.' But he weathered "it, and pursued 
 his voyage to the west, ' with a little deviation 
 to the north;' when, after having sailed 2-1 days 
 and 400 leagues, he descried a new country which, 
 as he suppoHi'd, had never before been seen 
 either by modern or ancient navigators. The 
 country was very Inw. From the above des- 
 cription it is evident that Verrazauo came in 
 siglil of the east coast of the United States about 
 the lOlli of .March, 1.524. He places his land-fall 
 in 31° X., whicli is the latitude of Cape Fear." 
 lie tirst sailed southward, for about 50 leagues, 
 ho states, looking for a harbor and finding none. 
 lie then turned northward. "I infer that V^'iia- 
 zano saw little of the coa.st of South Carolina 
 and notliing of that of Georgia, and that in these 
 regions he can, at most, be called the discoverer 
 only of the coast of North Carolina. ... lie 
 rounded Capo llattcras, and at a distance of about 
 50 leagues came io another shore, where ho an- 
 chored and sp nt several days. . . . This was 
 the second principal landing-place of Veriazano. 
 If wo reckon 50 leagues from Capo Ilatteras, it 
 would fall scanewhere upon tlie east coast of Del- 
 aware, in latitude 38° N., where, by some 
 authors, it is tliouglit to have been. But if, as 
 appears most likely, Verrazano reckoned his dis- 
 tance here, as he iliil in other cases, from his last 
 anchoring, and not from Cape Ilatteras, we must 
 look for his second landing somewhere south of 
 the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and near the en- 
 trance to Albemarle Sound. And this better 
 agrees with the 'sail of 100 leagues' which Ver- 
 razano says he made from his second to his third 
 landing-place, in New York Bay. . . . lie found 
 at this third lauding station an excellent berth, 
 where he came to anchor, well-protected from 
 the winds, . . . and from ■which he ascended 
 the river in his boat into the interior. He foun(l 
 the shores very thickly settled, and as he passed 
 up half a league further, ho discovered a most 
 beautiful lake ... of three leagues in circum- 
 ference. Here, more than 30 canoes came to him 
 witli a multitude of people, who seemed very 
 friendly. . . . This description contains several 
 accounts whicli make it still more clear that the 
 Bay of New York was the scene of these occur- 
 rences." — Verrazano'a anchorage having been at 
 Gravesend Bay, the river which ho entered being 
 the Narrows, and the lake he found being the 
 Inner Harbor. From New York Bay Verrazano 
 s!iiled eastward, along the southern shore of 
 Long Island, and following the New England 
 coast, touching at or describing points which are 
 identified with Narragansett Bay and Newport, 
 Block Island or Martha's Vineyard, and Ports- 
 mouth. His coasting voyage was pursued as far 
 
 a.s SO"' N., from which point he sailed homeward. 
 "He entered the [xjrl of Dieppe early in July, 
 1524. His whole exploring expedition, from 
 Madeira and back, had accordingly lasted but 
 tiveand ah.ilf months." — .1. O. Kohl, llht. of the 
 Diiteuvenj af Muiius (Me. Hint. Soc. Coll., 2d Series, 
 V. 1), eh. 8. 
 
 Also i.n O. Dexter, Cortcreal, Verrazano, tie. 
 {Xdrnitire and Critical Hist, of Am., v. 4, ch. 1). 
 — Ilclatioii of Verrazano (A'. }"". lliat. Sue. Coll., 
 r. 1, and A'! S., v. 1). — J. C. hrt-vooTt, Verrazano 
 the A'ariyator. 
 
 A. D. 1524-1528. — The Explorations of 
 Pizarro and Discovery of Peru. — "Tlie Soiitli 
 Sea having lieeu di.seovercd, and the inhabitants 
 of Tierra Finne having been conquered and 
 pacified, the Governor Pedrarias de Avila 
 founded and settled the cities of Panama and of 
 Nata, and the town of Nombre do Dios. At this 
 time the Captain Francisco Pizarro, son of the 
 Captain Gonzalo Pizarro, u knight of the city of 
 Truxillo, was living in the city of Panama; 
 possessing his house, bis farm and his Indians, 
 as one of the principal people of the land, which 
 indeed lie always was, having distinguished him- 
 self in the conquest and settling, and in the 
 service of his Majesty. Being at rest and in re- 
 pose, but full of zeal to continue his labours 
 and to perform other more distinguished services 
 for the royal crown, he .sought permission from 
 Pedrarias to discover that coast of the South 
 Sea to the eastward. He spent a large part of 
 his fortune on a good ship which ho built, and 
 on necessary supplies for the voyage, and he set 
 out from the city of Panama on the 14th day of 
 the in<mth of November, in the year 1524. lie 
 had 112 Spaniards in his company, besides some 
 Indian servants. He commenced a voyage in 
 which they suffered many hardships, the season 
 being winter and impropitious. " From this 
 unsuccessful voyage, during which many of his 
 men died of hunger and disease, and in tlie 
 course of which ho found no country that 
 tempted his cupidity or his ambition, Pizarro re- 
 turned after some months to "the laud of 
 Panama, landing at an Indian village near the 
 island of Pearls, called Chuehaina. Thence he 
 sent the shii) to Panama, for she had become un- 
 sea worthy by reason of the teredo; and all that 
 had befallen was reported to Pedrarias, while 
 the Captain remained behind to refresh himself 
 aud his companions. When the ship arrived at 
 Panama it was found that, a few days before, 
 the Captain Diego de Almagro had sailed in 
 search of the Captain Pizarro, his companion, 
 with another ship and 70 men." Almagro and 
 his party followed the coast until they came to 
 a great river, which they called San Juan [a few 
 miles north of the port of Buenaventura, in New 
 Granada]. . . . They there found signs of gold, 
 but there being no traces of the Captain Pizarro, 
 the Captain Almagro returned to Chucharaa, 
 where he found his comrade. They agreed that 
 the Captain Almagro should go to Panama, re- 
 pair the ships, collect more men to continue the 
 enterprise, and defray the expenses, which 
 amounted to more than 10,000 castellanos. At 
 Panama much obstruction was caused by 
 Pedrarias and others, who said that the voyage 
 should not be persisted in, and that his Majesty 
 would uot be served by it. The Captain Alma- 
 gro, with the authority given him by his com- 
 rade, was very constant in prosecuting the work 
 
 04 
 
AMEIUCA, 1534-1528. 
 
 Cnrtier in Ihe 
 at. Lawrence. 
 
 AMEllICV, 1534-1535. 
 
 he liiid commenced, iiiid . . . Pedraria8 was 
 forceil to allow him to eiignse men. lie set out 
 from Pannmii wllli 110 men; and went to tlio 
 I'lace where Pi/.arro waited with nnollier 50 of 
 the llrst 110 who sailed with him, and of llie 70 
 wlio accompanied Almagro when lie went in 
 search. The other 130 were dead. Tlu^ two 
 cajitains, in their two hliips, sailed witli UiO men, 
 anil coasted along the land. When they thought 
 they saw signs of lial)italions, they went on 
 slioVe in three canoes tliey had with tiiem, rowed 
 by 1(0 men, and so they sought for provisions. 
 Tliey continued to sail in this way for three 
 years, sulfering great hardships from hunger 
 and cold. The greater part of the crews died of 
 hunger, insomucli that there were not 50 surviv- 
 ing, ami during all tliose three years they dis- 
 covered no good land. All was swamp and in- 
 imdated country, without inhabitants. The 
 good coimtry they <liscovere(l was as far as the 
 river San .Inan, where the Captain Pi/.arro re- 
 mained with the few survivors, sending a cap- 
 tain with the smaller ship to discover some good 
 land further along the coast. He sent the other 
 ship, with the Captain Diego de Almagro to 
 Panama to get more men." At the end of 70 
 days, the cxjiloring ship came l)ack with good 
 reports, and with specimens of gold, silver and 
 cloths, found in a country further south. "As 
 soon as the Captain Almagro arriveil from 
 Panama with a ship laden with men and horses, 
 the two shii)s, with their conuuanders and all 
 their peo])le, set out from the river San .Inan, to 
 go to that newly-discovered land. But the 
 navigation was dilllcult: they were detained so 
 long that the provisions were exhausted, and the 
 people were obliged to go on shore iu search of 
 supplies. lie ships reached the bay of San 
 Mateo, and M)me villages to which the Spaniards 
 gave the name of Santiago. Next they came to 
 the villages of Tacamez [Atacames, on the coast 
 of modern Kcnador], on the sea coast further 
 on. These villages were seen by the Christians 
 to bo largo and well peoi)led: and when 90 
 Spaniards had advanccil a league bcj'ond the 
 villages of Tacamez, more than 10,000 Indian 
 warriors enconntereil them ; but seeing that the 
 Christians intended no evil, and did not wish to 
 take their goods, but rather to treat them peace- 
 fully, with much love, the Indians desisted Irom 
 war. In this laud there were abundant supplies, 
 and tlie people led well-ordered lives, the vil- 
 lages having their streets and squares. One 
 village liad more than 2,000 houses, and others 
 were smaller. It seemed to the captains and to 
 the other Spaniards that nothing could be done 
 in that lard by reason of the smallncss of their 
 luunbera, which rendered them uuablu to cope 
 with the Indians. So they agreed to load the 
 ships with the supplies to be found in the 
 villages, imd to return to an island called Gallo, 
 where they would be safe until the ships arrived 
 at Panama with the news of what liad been dis- 
 covered, and to apply to the Governor for more 
 men, in order that the Captains might bo able to 
 continue their undertaking, and conquer tlic 
 land. Captain Almagro went in the Rhips. 
 Many persons had written to the Governor 
 entreating him to order the crews to return to 
 Panama, saying that it was impossible to endure 
 more hardships than they had suffered during 
 the lust three years. The Governor ordered that 
 all those who wished to go to Panama might do 
 
 80, wliile tliose who desired to continue the <lis- 
 coveries were at liht rty to remain. Sixteen men 
 stayed with Pi/.arro, and all the rest went back 
 in the ships to Panama. The Captain Pizarro 
 was on that island.for live' months, when oiu) of 
 the ships returned, iu which he continued the 
 discoveries for a hundred leagues further down 
 the coast. They found many villages anil great 
 riches; and they brought away more specimens 
 of gold, silver, and ('lotlis than had been foiuul 
 before, which were presented by the natives. 
 The Captain returned becau.se the time graiUed 
 by the governor had expired, anil the last day 
 of the jieriod had been rc;iclieil wlit n he entered 
 the port of Panama. The two Captains were so 
 ruined that they could no longer prosecute their 
 undertaking. . . . The Captain Francisco Pi/.arro 
 was only able to borrow a little more than l.lKJO 
 <astellanos anioi.g his friends, with which sum 
 he went to Ca.stile, and gave an account to his 
 Majesty of the great and signal services he had 
 l)erformed." — V. de Xeres (Sec. of Pi/.arro), Ac- 
 fiiKiil iif ihc I'mriiii-i' I'f Ciuco ; ti: and ctl. hi/ G. 
 Ji. MarklutmAlliildiiu't S/c, 1872). 
 
 Also in: W. II. Prcseott, JfUt. of the. Conquett 
 ofl'a-n, bk. 3, cli. 2-4 (<■. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1525. — 'Ihe Voyage of Gomez. Sec 
 Canao.v (Nkw Fii.vNiK): Tui; N.\mks. 
 
 A. D. 1526-1531. — Voyage of Sebastian 
 Cabot and attempted colonization of La Plata. 
 See P.vii.voiAv: A. D. 1515-1. "i.")7. 
 
 A. D. 1528-1542. — The Florida Expeditions 
 of Narvaezand Hernando de Soto. — Discovery 
 of the Mississippi. See Plouida: A. D, 1528- 
 1542. 
 
 A. D. 1531-1533. — Pizarro's Conquest of 
 Peru, See Pi;ni : A. I). 1.52«-1.5;J1, and 1.5:!1- 
 1533. 
 
 A. D. 1533. — Spanish Conquest of the King- 
 dom of Quito. See EciADoit. 
 
 A. D. 1534-1535.— Exploration of the St. 
 Lawrence to Montreal by Jacques Cartier. — 
 "At last, ten years after [the voyages of Verra- 
 zano], Philip Cliabot, Admiral of France, induced 
 the king [Francis I.] to resume the project of 
 founding a French colony in the Xew World 
 whence the Si)aniards daily drew such great 
 wealth ; and he i)resented to him a Captain of St. 
 JIalo, by name Jacijues Cartier, wliose merit lie 
 knew, and whom that prince accepteil. Cartier 
 having received his instructions, left St. Malo tho 
 2d of April, 1534, with two ships of 00 tons and 
 123 men. He steered west, inclining slightly 
 north, and liad such fair winds that, on the 10th 
 of Jlay, he niad(! Cape Bonavista, in Newfound- 
 land, at 46'^ north. Cartier found the land there 
 still covered witli snow, and the shore fringed 
 with ice, so that lie could not or dared not stop. 
 He ran down six degrees south-southeast, and 
 entered a port to whicli he gave the name of St. 
 Catharine. Thence he turned back north. . . , 
 After making almost the circuit of Newfound- 
 land, though without being able to satisfy him- 
 self that it was an island, he took a southerly 
 course, crossed the gulf, approached the conti- 
 nent, and entered a very deep bay, where ho 
 si'ffered greatly from heat, whence he called 
 it Chaleurs Baj'. He was charmed with the 
 beauty of 'ho country, and well pleased with tho 
 Indians that he met and with whom ho ex- 
 changed some goods for furs. ... On leaving 
 this bay, Cartier visited a good part of the coasts 
 around the gulf, and took possession of the couu- 
 
AMKIUCA, l.VU-ir.3r). 
 
 Canada. 
 
 AMEIUCA, IMl-lOOU. 
 
 try In the iiiimc of llir must Cliiistimi kinp, as 
 ViTii/iiiii had <Iiini' in all llii' places wliciv he 
 liinilcil. Ill- sit sail au'airi mi the l-ltli of August 
 U) rctmii 111 Kraniv, aial rcachi'd St. Malo safely 
 on tlii^ .')th of Bi'plcnihcr. . . . On the report 
 wliiih he iiia(l(! of liis voyage, the cotirt eoii- 
 clndeil that it would he useful to Kraiice to have 
 a set I lenient in that part of America; tmt no one 
 lool< this affair more to heart than the Vice- 
 Atlmiial (Miarlrsde.Mony, Sieiirde la Mailleniye. 
 This iiolile olitaineil u new commission for Car- 
 tier, more ample than the first, and fravc him 
 three ships well cc|uipped. This licet was ready 
 about llie middle of .May, and {'artier . . . cm- 
 barkiil on Wednesday the lOth." Ilis tlin'O 
 vessels were se|)ariited by violent storms, hut 
 found one anotlKT, near the close of .Inly, in the 
 gulf which was their appointed place of rendez- 
 vous. "On the 1st of All trust had w eat lier drove 
 hllii to take refuge in the port of St. Nicholas, at 
 the mouth of the river on the north. Here Car- 
 tier planted a cross, with thi'arnisof France, and 
 remained until the 7tli. This port is almost the 
 only spot ill Canada that 1ms kept the name 
 given hy Ciirtier. . . . On the 10th the three 
 vessels re-entered the ;;ulf. and in honor of the 
 saint whose feast is cekhnited on that day. Car- 
 tier f:ave the jjulf the name of St. Lawrence; or 
 ratlur he gave it to a bay lyinj; between Anti- 
 costi Island and the north shore, whence it ex- 
 tended to the whole i;ult of which this bay is 
 Imrt; and because the river, bi-fore that called 
 {iver of Canada, empties into the same gulf, it 
 insensibly aci|uircd tlie name of St. Lawrenee, 
 which it still bears. . . . The three vessels . . . 
 aseciKled the liver, and on the 1st of September 
 they entereil the river Sagucnay. Cartier merely 
 rcconnoilered the mouth of this river, and . . . 
 hastene<l to seek a port where his vessels might 
 winter in safety. Eight leagues above I.sle au.v 
 C'oudres he found another much larger and hand- 
 somer island, all co.crcd with trees and vines. 
 He called it liacchus Island, but the name has 
 been changed to Isle d'Orlean.s. The author of 
 1li(^ relation to this voya<^e, printed under the 
 mime of Cartier, preti mis that only here the 
 country tiegins to be called Canada, liiit he is 
 surely mistaken; for it is certain that from the 
 earliest times the Indians gave this name to the 
 whole eouiiliy along the river <m both sides, from 
 its mouth to the Sagiien.iy. From Bacchus 
 Island, Cartier proceeded to "a little river which 
 i.s ten leagues off. and comes f'om the north; he 
 called it I{ivii^re de SleCroi.x, because In: entered 
 it on the l-llli of September (Feast of the K.xalta- 
 tion of the Holy Cross); but it is now commonly 
 called Iliviere de JaecpK's Cartier. The day after 
 his arrival he received a visit from an Indian 
 chief named Domiacona, whom the author of the 
 relation of that voyage styles Lord of Canada. 
 Cartier treated with this cjiief l>y means of two 
 ludii.ns whom he had taken to France the year 
 before, and who knew a little French. They 
 informcil Domiacona that the strangers wished 
 to go to Ilochelaga, which seemed to trouble him. 
 Ilochelaga was a' pretty large town, situated on 
 an island now km -n under the name of I.sland of 
 Montreal. Cartier had heard much of it, and 
 was loth to return to France without seeing it. 
 Tlic rea.son why this voyage troubled Donnacona 
 was that the lieople of "ilochelaga were of a dif- 
 ferent nation fiom his, and that he wished to 
 prolit exclusively by the advautivges which he 
 
 hoped to derive from the slay of the French in 
 his countrv." Proceeding with one vessel to 
 Lake St. I'ierrc, atid thence in two boats. Car 
 tier reached HiKhelaga Oct. 'J. "The shape of 
 the town was round, and tlii'ee rows of palisades 
 inclosed in it about 50 tunnel shaped cabins, each 
 over OO paces long and 14 or 15 wide. It was 
 entered by a single gate, above which, as well 
 as along the first palisade, ran a kind of gallery, 
 reached by ladders, and well provided with 
 Iiieces of rock and pebbles for the defence of the 
 lilace. The inhabitants of the town sjioke the 
 Huron language. They received the Frcncli 
 very well. . . . Cartier visited the niountain at 
 the foot of which the town lay, and gave it the 
 name >f Mont Hoyal, which has beccaiie that of 
 the wliole Island [Montreal]. From it he dis- 
 covered a great extent of country, the night of 
 which charmed him. . . . He left Ilochelaga on 
 the fltli of October, and on the 11th arrived at 
 Sainte Croi.x." AVintering at this place, when' 
 his crews siilTered terribly from the cold and 
 from scurvy, he returned to France the following 
 spring. " Some authors . . . pretend that Car- 
 tier, disgusted with Canada, dissuaded tlie king, 
 his master, from further thoughts of it ; and 
 Cliamjilain seems to have been of that opinion. 
 I5ut this does not agree with what Cartier him- 
 self says in Iiis memoirs. . . . Cartier in vain 
 extolled the country which ho bad di.seovered. 
 His small returns, and the wretched condition to 
 which his men hud been reduced by cold and 
 scurvy, persuaded most that it wotdd never be 
 of any use to France. Great stress was laid on 
 the fact that he nowhere saw any appearance of 
 mines; and then, even more than now, a strange 
 land which produced neither gokl nor silver was 
 reckoned as nothing." — Father Cliarlevoi.x, Jlixt. 
 (if ycin Fraiire (Inins. In/ J. 0. Shea), hk._\. 
 
 Also in: H. Kerr, Otiteml Call, of ]oi)iu/ei>, ]>t. 
 2, Ilk: 3, f//. 12 (r. 0).— F. X. Oarneau, Jlist. of 
 Ciiiiiiilii, r. 1, fli. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1535-1540. — Introduction of Printing 
 in Mexico. See I'ltiNTiMi, ttc. : A. 1). l.");!."!- 
 1700. 
 
 A. D. 1535-1550. — Spanish Conquests in 
 Chile. See Cltil.i-:: A. 1). 1450-1724. 
 
 A. D. 1536-1538. — Spanish Conquests of 
 New Granada. See CoLo.MurAN Statks: A. 1). 
 ir,;ni-ir.il. 
 
 A. D. 1541-1603. — Jacques Cartier's last 
 Voyage.— Abortive attempts at French Colo- 
 nization in Canada. — "Jean Francois de la 
 Hoiiue, lord of Hoberval, a gentleman of Picardy, 
 was the most earnest and energetic of tho.se who 
 desired to colonize the hinds discovered by 
 Jac([ues Cartier. . . The title and authority 
 of lieutenant-general was conferred upon him; 
 his rule to extend over Canada, IIoc/iela;ca, 
 Saguenay, Newfoundland, IViIe Isle, Carpon, 
 Labrador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos, with 
 the delegated rights and powers of tiio Crown. 
 This patent was dated the 15th of January, 
 1.540. Jacques Cartier was named second iu 
 command. . . . Jacques Cartier sailed on the 
 28d of May, 1541, having provisioned his tieet 
 for two years." He remained on the St. Ltiw- 
 rence until the following June, seeking vainly 
 for the fabled wealth of the land of Saguenay, 
 finding tlie Indians strongly inclined to a 
 treacherous lio8lilit,v, and sulfering severe 
 hardsliips during tiic winter. Entirely dis- 
 couraged and disgusted, lie abandoned his under- 
 
 66 
 
AMERICA, iMi-inoa 
 
 Hairkim and 
 
 the HUltv Tfilite. 
 
 AMERICA, 1S62-1507. 
 
 taklriR curly in the Riinimcr of IMO, mid siiilcd 
 for Iionic. Ill the roiid of St. John's, Ncwfoiiiiil- 
 huicl, Ciirticr met his tiirdy cliitf, Hoherviil, just 
 coniinj,' to join him; but no pcrKUasion could 
 induce the disiippoinlcd explorer to turn ))iick. 
 "To iivoid the cliiinee of ;in open rupture with 
 Roherviil, the lieulenant silently weijihed iinelior 
 (iuriuf; the ninlit, and made all sail for France. 
 Tills in^florious withdrawal from the enterprise 
 paraly/.ed Rohcrval's power, and deferred the 
 per..ianent settlement of (iinada for generations 
 iIk'II unhorn. Jacques Cartier died soon after 
 his return to Europe." Roherval proceeded to 
 Canada, built ii fort at Ste Croi.\, four lea^nes 
 west of Orleans, sent back two of his three ships 
 to Eranee, and remained through the winter 
 with liis colony, havini; a troubled lime. There 
 is no certain accr)nnt of the endini; of tli(! enter- 
 prise, but it ended in failure. For half a cen- 
 tury afterwards there was little attemjjt made 
 by the French to eiiloni/e any jiart of New 
 France, though the French tisheries on the New- 
 foundlaiHl Uaiik and in the Gulf of St. Eawrcnec 
 were steadily growini; in activity and import- 
 ance. " When, after tifty years of civil strife, the 
 strong and wi.se sway of Henry IV. restoreil 
 rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery 
 again aro.se. Tin; Mar(iuis de la Hoche, a Breton 
 gentleman, obtained from the king, in l.'iiJB, a 
 patent granting the same powers that l{ol)erval 
 iind posses.se(l. " Hut La Roche's undertaking 
 proved more disaslrou.s than Roberval's had been. 
 Yet. there lia<l been enough of successful fur- 
 trading opened to stimulate enterprise, despite 
 tliese misfortunes. "Private uilventurers,unpro- 
 tected by any special privilege, began to barter 
 for the rich peltrii'S of the Canadian hunters. 
 A wealthy inerehant of St. ^lalo, named Pont- 
 grave, was the boldest and most successful of 
 these traders; lie made several voyages to Ta- 
 (loussae, at the mouth of the Sagueiiay, bringing 
 bat'k each time u rich cargo of rare and valuable 
 furs." In 1000, Pontgravu efTected a partner- 
 ship with one Chauvin, a naval captain, vvlio 
 obtained a patent from the king giving him a 
 monopoly of the trade; but Chauvin died in 1J03 
 witlumt having succeeded in ostablisliing even a 
 trading post at Tiidoussac. Dc Chattc, or De 
 Chastes, governor of Dieppe, succeeded to llie 
 privileges ol Chauvin, an<l founded a company 
 of merchants at Rouen [1003] to undertake the 
 development of the resources of Can.ida. It was 
 under the auspices of this company that Samuel 
 Cliamplain, the founder of New France, came 
 upon the scene.— E. Warburton, The Conquest of 
 CaiMila, i\ 1, ch. 3-3. 
 
 Also in : F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in, 
 the Xetiy World: Champlain, c' , 1-2. 
 
 A. D. 1562-1567.— The slave trading Voy- 
 ages of John Hawkins.— Beginnings of Eng- 
 lish Enterprise in the New World.— "Tlic 
 history of English America begins with the 
 three slave-trading voyages of John Hawkins, 
 luade in the years l-'JOS, 1.564, and 1507. Noth- 
 ing that Englishmen had done in connection 
 with America, previously to those vov.iges, had 
 any result worth recording, England had 
 known the New World nearly seventy j ears, for 
 John Cabot reached it shortly after its d" Ty 
 by Columbus; ami, as the tidings of >ie is- 
 covery spread, many English .'idventurc 
 crossed the Atlantic to the A merican coast, 
 as years passed, and the cxe'.'teraent of ncvelty 
 
 subsided, the English voyages to America had 
 become fewer and fewer, and at length ceased 
 altogether. It is easy to account for this. 
 There was no opening for con'(uest or plunder, 
 for the Tudors were at i)eace with tlie Spanish 
 sovereigns: and there could be no territorial 
 occupation, for the Papal title ;)f S|iain and 
 Portugal to the whole of the new continent 
 could not be disputed by CiitlMlie England. 
 No trade worth having existed wi»h the natives; 
 and Spain and Portugal kept the trade with 
 their own settlers ill their own hands. ... As 
 the plantalicms in America grew and multiplied, 
 the demand for negroes rapidly increased. The 
 Spaniards h.id no African .settlements, but the 
 Portuguese had many, and, with the aid of 
 French and English adventurers, 'hey procured 
 from these settlements slaves enough to supply 
 both themselves and the Siianiiirds. Hut tho 
 Brazilian plantations grew so fast, about the 
 middle of the century, that they absorbed the 
 entire supiily, and the Spanish ( 'onisl.s knew 
 not where to look for negroes. 'I penury of 
 slaves in llie Spanish Indies hcciu e known to 
 the English and French captains w bo frei|uented 
 the Guinea coast; and John Hawkins, who had 
 been engaged from boyhood in the trade with 
 Spain and the Canaries, resolved in l.'iO'J to (ako 
 a cargo of negro slaves to Hispiuiiola. The 
 little squadron with which he executed this 
 project was the lirst English scjuadron which 
 navigated the AVest Indian seas. This voyage 
 opened those .seas to the English. Englaml had 
 not yet broken with Spain and tlie law excluding 
 English vessels from trading with th(i Sjianisli 
 colonists was not strictly enforced. The trade 
 was profitable, and Hawkins found no dilliculty 
 in disiiosing of his cargo to great advantage. A 
 meagre note . . . from the pen of Hakliiyt con- 
 tains .ill that is known of the first American 
 voyage of Hawkins. In its details it must have 
 (closely resembled the second voyage. In tho 
 first voyage, Jiowever, Hawkins had no occasioa 
 to carry his wares further than three ports on 
 the northern side of Ilisiianiola. Thesi! jiorts, 
 far ■:,\\i f from San Domingo, the capital, were 
 already well known to the French smugglers. He 
 did not venture into the Caribbean Sea; and 
 having loaded his ships with their return cargo, 
 he made the best of his way back. In his 
 second voj'agc ... he entered the Caribbean 
 Sea, still keeping, however, at a safe distance 
 from San Domingo, and sold his slaves on the 
 mainland. This voyage was on a much larger 
 scale. . . . Having sold his slaves in the conti- 
 nental ports [South American], and loaded his 
 vessels with hides and other goods bought with 
 the produce, Hawkins determined to strike out a 
 new patli and sail home with the Gulf-stream, 
 which would carry him northwards past the 
 shores of Florida. Sparke's narrative . . . 
 proves that at every jjoint in these expeditions the 
 Engnsliman was following in tho track of the 
 French. He had French pilots and seamen on 
 board, and there is little doubt that one at least 
 of these had already been with Laudonniere in 
 Florida. The French seamen guided him to 
 Laudonniere's settlement, where his arrival was 
 nwX oi)portune. Thev then pointed him the 
 way by the coast of North America, then uni- 
 versally know in tho mass as New France, to 
 Newfoundland, and thence, with the prevail- 
 ing westerly winds, to Europe, This was tho 
 
 m 
 
AMERICA, \rm\rM7 
 
 Drake's 
 Viiyaijea. 
 
 AMERICA, 1572-1,'580. 
 
 pioneer voyngf made l)y Euglislimcn nloiiR 
 coasts nftcrwiirils famous ia liistory tliroujili 
 English (oloni/.atiou. . . . The extremely iiit'i- 
 estiiii? narrative . . . given . . . from tlie ]i mi 
 of Jolm Sparlve, one of Ilawliins' i;ent'.,'men 
 companions . . . contains tlie (irst information 
 conecrnini; America and its natives wlilcli avs 
 puhlislied in ICngland by an English eye-wit- 
 ness." Hawkins planned a thiid voyage in 
 l.^Ofl, but the remonstrances of the Spanish king 
 caused him to he sfopjied Iiy the English court. 
 He sent out his ships, ho "ver, and they came 
 iKrnie in due time richly freighted, — from what 
 source is not known. "In another year's time 
 the aspect of things liad changed." England 
 was venturing into war with Spain, "and Haw- 
 kins was now able to execute his plans without 
 restraint, lie founded a permanent fortified 
 factory mi the Guinea cna-^t. where negroes 
 might" be collected all the V' round. Tlience 
 lie sailed for tlie West li ■ a third time. 
 Young Francis Drake sailiii with him in com- 
 niuiid of the '.Judith,' a small vessel of lifty 
 tons." The voyage )ia.! a pro'^ixTous beginning 
 and a disastrous ending. After disposing of 
 most of their slaves, they were driven by storm.4 
 to take refuge in the Mexican liort of Vera 
 Cruz, and tliere they were attacked liy a Spanish 
 1!< et. Dral* in the ".Tudith"lind I'lawkiiis in 
 .iiother small vessel escajied. iiut ll,:' latter 
 was overcrowded with men ami oliliged to ])ut 
 hr"' of them ashore on the ..Mexican coimt. The 
 majority of those lift on board, as well as a 
 majority iif Drake's crew, died on the voyage 
 liome, and it was a miseniblt remnant that 
 landed in Kngland, in .lamiary, 15(50. — E. J. 
 Payne, Vnymja nf the Eliznhctlian Sumen to 
 Am., cli. 1. 
 
 Also in: The llmrkinn Voi/iif/eii; ed. by C. 1{. 
 Marhhitm {Iln/dni/t Sic, A". 57). — R. Southey, 
 Lici/i iif tht Jlritixh Ailiiiinilx. i\ '.i. 
 
 A. b. 1572-1580. — The Piratical Adventures 
 of Drake and his Er.rompassinf; of the World. 
 — "Erancis Drake, the iirst of the Kiiglish I,uc- 
 caneers, was one of the twelve childrvn of Ed- 
 ward Drake of Tavistock, in Devonslnri , a 
 staunch I'rotestant, who had lied his native 
 place to avoid ])ersecutioii, and had then become 
 a ship's chaplain Drake, like Colun'.bus, had 
 been a seaman by profession from boyhood ; and 
 . . . had served as a young man, in conniiand 
 of the .ludith, under Hawkins. . . . Haw- 
 kins had conlined himself to smu-gling: Drake 
 advanced from this to piracy. This practice 
 was authorizt . liy law in the luitUUe ages for 
 the purpose of recoverii.g debt.s or damag"S 
 from the sulrjeets of another natiim. Tlej Eng- 
 lish, esjiec. Uy those of the west country, were 
 the most forinidable pirates in the woiid ; and 
 the whole nation was by this time roused a^ liust 
 Sp.iiii, in coiisetiuunce of the ruthless war waged 
 against I'rotestani^sn, in the Netherlands by 
 Philip II. Drake liad accouuLs of his own to 
 settle with the Spaniards. Tlunigli Elizabeth 
 had not declared for the revolted States, ami 
 imrsued a shifting policy, her interests and 
 theirs were identical; and it was with a view 
 of cutting oil those supjilies of gold and silver 
 from Aniericii which enabled Philip to bribe 
 politicians and pay soldiers, in pursuit of his 
 jiolicy of aggression, that the famous voyage 
 was autl) irized by English statesmen. Drake 
 had receutlv mailc more thuu one successful 
 
 voyage of plunder to the Araericnn const." In 
 .July, 1573, he surprised tlie Spanish town of 
 Nonibre do Dios, which was tl'.e shipping port 
 on the northern side of the Isthmus f(n' the 
 treasures of Peru. His men made their way 
 into the royal treasure-hou.sc. where they laid 
 hands on a" heap of liar-silver, 70 feet hmg, 10 
 wide, and 10 high; but Drake himself hail re- 
 ceiveil a wound which comixdlcd the pirates to 
 retreat with no very large part of the splendid 
 booty. In the winter of 1578, with the help of 
 the runaway slaves on the Isthmus, known as 
 Cimarroiics, he crossed the Isthnuis, looked on 
 the Pacific ocan, approached witiiin .=iglit of 
 the city of Panama, and .va\ laid a transportatiou 
 party conveying gold to ^sombre de Dios; but 
 was disappointed of his pn^y by the excited con- 
 duct of some of his men. When he saw, on this 
 occasion, the great ocean be^-ond th" Isthnuis, 
 "Drake then and there resolved to lie the 
 pioneer of England in the Pacific; and on this 
 resolution he solemnly besought tlie blessing of 
 God. Nearly four years elajised before it was 
 executed; for it was not until November, 1577, 
 that Drake embarked on his famous voyage, in 
 the cour.se of which he proposed to plunder Pern 
 itself. The Pcruviiin ports were unfortified. 
 The Spaniards knew them to be by nature abso- 
 lutely secured from attack on tlu! north; and 
 they never dreamed that the English jiirates 
 would lie daring enough to pas>, the terrible 
 straits of Magellan ami I'tli'^'k them fnim the 
 south. Such was the pla 1 of Drake; and it was 
 executed with complete success." He sailed 
 from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, with a fleet of 
 four >cssels. and a pinnace, but lost one of the 
 si" ! afiei- had cnteri'd the Pacific, in a storm 
 which dro !iim .southward, and which made 
 him the di.s. verev of Cape Horn. Another of 
 his shi;is, seji ■ ed fnim the s(|iiadrou, returned 
 '■ mie, and a thud, while alteni|iting to do the 
 same,, '.las lost in the river Plate. Drake, in his 
 own vessel, the Golden Hind, procee(h'd to the 
 Per'iviaii coasts, where he cruised until he had 
 taken and iilundercd a score of Sjianish ships. 
 " r.aden with a rich booty <if Peruvian treasure 
 he <leeined it unsafe to return by the way tiii'.t ho 
 came. He therefore resolved to strik(! acro.ss the 
 Paiific, and for this purjiose maih' the latitude 
 in which this voyage was usually peri'.>rmed by 
 the Slianisli government vessels which sailed 
 annually from Acainiico to the Philippi.ies. 
 Drake thus reached the coast of California, 
 where the Indiars, delighted beyond ineasur ■ by 
 presents of clothing and trinkets, invited hiin to 
 remain and rule over them. Drake took pos- 
 session of th(! country in the name <if the (Jueeii, 
 and refitted liis vessel in preparation for the 
 unknown perils of the Pacific. The place where 
 he landed must have been cither the great nay 
 of San Praucisco [per contra., see C".\i iKonM.v; 
 A. I). 1840-1847] or the small 1 y of Bodega, 
 which Mes a few leagues furtlicr north. The 
 greai seaman had already coasted five degrees 
 more to the northward before finding u suitable 
 liarlionr. He bel':ved him.self to be the first 
 European who had coasted these shores; but it 
 is now well knov.n that Spanish exj>h)rers hiul 
 preceded him. Drake's circunuiavigatioii of 
 the globe was thus no deliberate feat of seaman- 
 ship, but the necessary residt of circumstances. 
 The voyage mad*' in nnae than oik' way a grcit 
 epoch 'in English nautical history," Dniko 
 
 68 
 
AMERICA, 1572-1580. 
 
 Raicujtt'tt 
 First Colony. 
 
 AMERICA, 1584-1586. 
 
 reached Plvninuth on Ins return Sept. 20, 1.580. 
 
 E, J. Pavno, Voi/d'jcs of the ElizaMluiii Seamen, 
 
 pp. 141-143. 
 
 Also in F. t'letclicr, The World Bncompaf-ird 
 buSirF. Drake (Ifiihliiyt Soe., 1854).— J. Barrow, 
 Lift of Drake.— 11 Southey, Lives of British 
 AditiiniKi, r. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1580.— The final founding of the City 
 of Buenos Ayreb. ^^(■e AiuiKNTiNii HicrLULic: 
 A. 1). l.-|SO-17T7. 
 
 A. D. 15S3.— The Expedition of Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert. — Formal possession taken of 
 Newfoundland. — In 1578, Hirlliiniiihrey Gill.ort, 
 an Englisli gentleman, of Devonshire, whoso 
 younger half-hrothcr was t'-n more famous Sir 
 "Walter Rjilcigh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth 
 a charter cinpowering him, for the ne.tt six 
 years, to discover "such remote heathen and 
 barbarous! lands, not actually possessed by any 
 Christian ))rinee or people,'' as he might be 
 shrewd or fortu,.ata enough to find, and to oc- 
 cupy the same as their proprietor. Gilbert's first 
 expedition was attempted the next year, with 
 Sir Waller Raleigh associated in it; but misfor- 
 tunes drove back the adventurers to port, and 
 Spanish intrigue jircvented their sailing again. 
 " In June, 1583, Gilbert sailed from Cawsand Bay 
 with live vessels, with the general intention of 
 discovering and colonizing tlie northern i)arfs of 
 America. It w"r '.„ lirst colonizing exiiedition 
 which left tie s'atires of Great Britain; and the 
 narr.itive of the expedition by Hayes, who com- 
 laanded one of Gilhert's vessel;,, forms the first 
 pngo in the ?.i.':*.,..> of English colonization. 
 Gill .'rt did no more than go through the empty 
 fii'-.. of taking possession of the Island of Kew- 
 fc.iilland, to which the ICnglish name formerly 
 apjilied to the continent in general . . . was 
 now restricted. . . . Gilbeit dallied here too 
 long. When he set sail to cross the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence and take possession of Cajie Breton 
 and Xovii ,Seotia the season was too far advanced ; 
 one of his largest ships went (l.)wn witlif all on 
 1 'i;u(l, including the Hungarian scholar Par- 
 nienius, •vho had come out as the historian of 
 tlic expedition; the stores were exhausted and 
 the crews dispirit"'!, anu Gilbert resolved ou 
 sailing home, intending to return an<l prosecute 
 his discover!' i the next spring. Ou the home 
 voyage the little vessel in which he was sailing 
 foundered; and the pioneer of English coloniza- 
 tion found a watery grave. . . . Gilbert was a 
 man of courage, piety, ami learning. He was, 
 howevu", an indilTerent seaman, and quite in- 
 competei.t for the ta.sk of colonization to which 
 he had set his hand. The misfortunes of his ex- 
 pedition induced Aniadiu and Barlow, who fol- 
 lowed in hs steps, to abandon the northward 
 voyage ana sail to the shores intended to be oc- 
 cupied by the easier but more circuitous route of 
 the Canaries and the W.'st Indies." — E. J. 
 Payne, Voyiges of the EliMliethan Seamen, pp. 
 173-174.— "On Monday, the 9th of September, 
 in the afternoon, the frigate [the 'Squirrel '] was 
 near cast away, oppressed by waves, yet nt that 
 time recovered ; and giving fcrth signs of joy, 
 the general, .sitting abaft with a book in liis 
 hand, crieil out to us in the ' Hind ' (so oft as we 
 did approach within hearing), ' We are as near 
 to heaven by sea as by land,' reiterating the same 
 speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute )•• 
 Je;!U8 Christ, as I can testify be was. On the 
 same Monday night, about twelve o'clock, or not 
 
 long after, the frigate being ahead of tis in the 
 'Golden Hind,' siuhlenly her lights were out, 
 whereof as it were in a moment we Icwt the 
 sight, and withal our watch cried the General was 
 ctist away, which was too true; for in that 
 moment the frigate was devoured and swallowed 
 up by the sea. Yet sidl we looked out all that 
 night and ever after, until we arrived upon the 
 coast of England. ... In great torment of 
 weather and peril of drowning it pleased jod to 
 .send safe home the 'Golden Hind,' which arrived 
 in Falmouth on the 22d of September, being 
 Sunday.' — E. Hayes, A lie part of the Voi/age l/i/ 
 Sir Ilumphrey Oilbcrt {repriried in Payne's 
 Yoyages). 
 
 Also in E. Edwards, Life of liahigh, v. 1, eh. 
 5. — H. Ilakluyt, Principal yaci'jations; cd. by 
 E. Ooldmiiid, r. 12. 
 
 A. D. 1584-1586.— Raleigh's First Coloriiz- 
 irg attempts and failures. — "The task in 
 which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken 
 by one better qualilicd to carry it out. If any 
 Englishman in that age seemed to be marked out 
 as the fo'under of a colonial empire, it was 
 Raleigh. Like Gilbert, he had studied books; 
 like Drake he could ride men. . . . The associa- 
 tions of his youth, and the training of his early 
 manhood, fitted him to sympathize with the aims 
 of .3 half-brother Gilbert, and there is little 
 reason to doubt that Raleigh had a share in his 
 undertaking and his failure. In 1584 he obtained a 
 patent precisely similar to Gilbert'.s. His first step 
 showed the thoughtful an<l well-planned .system 
 rn which he began his task. Two ships were 
 .-icnt out, iv.i with any idea of settleiiu ut, but to 
 examine and report ujion the country. Their 
 commanders were Arthur Barlow and Philip 
 Amidas. To the former we owe tlie cxiant 
 record of the voyage: the name of the latter 
 would suggest that ho was a foreigner. Whether 
 by chance or design, tlicy took a more .southerly 
 course than anj' of their predecessors. On tli? 
 2d of July the presence of shallow water, and a 
 smell of sweet flowiTs, warned them that land 
 was near. The promise thus given was amply 
 fnlliUed upon their approach. The sight before 
 them was far diirerent from that which had met 
 the eyes of Iloro and Gilbert. Instead of the 
 bleak coast of Newfoundland, Barlow and 
 Amidas looked upon a .scene which might recall 
 the softness of tlie ^lediterranean. . . . Coasting 
 along tor about 120 mile.s, the voyagers reached 
 an inlet and with some dilliculty entered. Tluy 
 then solemnly took po.<-^ession of the land in tho 
 Queen's name, and then delivercil it over to 
 Raleigh according to his patent. They soon dis- 
 covered that tho land upon whii '> they had 
 touched was an island about 20 miles long, and 
 not above six broad, named, as they afterwards 
 learnt, R(;auoke. Beyond, separating them from 
 the mainland, lay an eiiclo.sed sea, studded with 
 more than a hundred fertile and well-wooded 
 islets." Tho Indians jiroved friendl;, , and were 
 described by Bar'ow as being " iiioiit gentle, lov- 
 ing and faithful, void of all guile and treasiai, 
 and such iis live after the iiianner of the golden 
 age." "The report which the voyagers took 
 homo spoke as favourably of the land it.self as of 
 
 i inhitbitants. . . . With them tliey brought 
 
 ' vo of tho savages, named Wanchcse and Mau- 
 
 eo. A probal'le tradition tells us that the queen 
 
 herself named tho country Virginia, and that 
 
 linleigh's knighthood was the reward and ac- 
 
 60 
 
AMEKICA, 1584-1580. 
 
 iMst Colony 
 of lioanoke. 
 
 AMERICA, 1587-1590. 
 
 kn()wle(lf,'incnt of liis success. On the strength 
 of this report l{iileif;h at once made preparations 
 for a settlement. A lleet of seven sliips was pro- 
 vided for the eonveyanee of 108 settlers. Tlie 
 fleet was under the c<iniman(l of Sir Kicliard 
 (iienville, wlio was to establish the settlement 
 unil leave it imder the char.L'o of Ralph Lane. 
 . . . On the yili of April [l'>S'>] the eniiirrants 
 set sail." For some reason not well explained, 
 the lleet made n eireuil to the West Indies, and 
 loitered for live weeks at the island of St. John's 
 and at llispauiola, reaehini^ Virginia in the last 
 days of .June. IJinirrels between the two com- 
 manders. Grenville and I.ane, had already begun, 
 and both seemed equally ready to provoke the 
 enmity of the natives. In August, after explor- 
 ing some sixty miles of the coast, Grenville re- 
 turned to England, promising to come back the 
 next spring with new colonists and stores. The 
 stltlemenl, thus left to the care of Lane, was 
 established "at the north-east corner of the island 
 of Roanoke, whence the .settlers ccmld conunand 
 the strait. There, even now, choked by vines 
 and \m(lerwood, and here and there broken by 
 the crumbling remains of an earthen bastion, 
 may be traced the outlines of the ditch which 
 enclosed the camp, some forty yards square, the 
 home (>f the first English settlers in the .Xew 
 AVorld. Of the doings of the settlers during the 
 winter nothing is reconhnl, but by the next 
 spring their prospects looked gloomv. The In- 
 dians were no longer friends. . . . The settlers, 
 unable to make fishing weirs, and without seed 
 corn, were entirely d; i.ciiiVjnt on the Indians for 
 their daily fcXHl. Under the.e circumstances, 
 one would have supposed that Ijane would have 
 best emiiloyed himself in guarding the .settle- 
 I'^ent and impioving ils condition, lie, however, 
 thought otherwise, and ai)plied himself to the 
 ta.sk of exploring the neighbouring territory." 
 But a wide combination of hoslih Indian tribes 
 had been formed against the English, and their 
 situation became fronulay to day more imperilled. 
 At the beginning of June, l.')bfl, Lane fought a 
 hold battle with the savages and routed them; 
 but no sign of Grenville appeared ami the pros- 
 pect looked hopeless. Ju.st at this juncuire, a 
 great English lleet, sailing homewards from a 
 piratical expedition to the Spanish JIain, luuler 
 tlic famous Captain Drake, came to anchor at 
 Roanoke and olfered succor to the disheartened 
 colonists. With one voice they petitioned to be 
 taken to England, and Drake received the whc 'e 
 party on board his ships. "The help of which 
 the colonists had desjiaired was in reality elo.se 
 nt hand. Scarcely had Drake's lleet left tlio coast 
 when a ship well furnished bv Raleigh with need- 
 ful supplies, reached Virginia, and "after search- 
 ing forthedeiiarted settlers returned toKiio;l,i„(l. 
 Ai. nit a for'-iight later Grenville himself arrived 
 with 'hree sliip.s. lie spent some time in the 
 coiuurj exploring, seardiingfor the settlers, and 
 at last, unwilling to lo.se iiosscssion of the coun- 
 try, lamled fifteen men atKoanoke veil supplied 
 for two years, and then set sail for Emiland, 
 nlnndering the A/ores, ainl doing much damage 
 to the Spaniards."—,). A. Doyle, T/ir Eiif/linh ui 
 Aiiuiioi : \'irtiiiii(i, (fr., eh. ■{.—" It seems to l)j 
 generally admitted that, when Lane and hiscom- 
 pany went back to England, they carried with 
 them tobacco as one of the product.: of the coun- 
 try, wha'h they presented to Ral igh, as the 
 planter of the colony, uud by hhn it was brought 
 
 into use in England, and gradually in other 
 European countries. The autliorities are not en- 
 tirely agreed upon this point. Josselyn says: 
 "I'obaceo lirst brought into England by Sir Joh!i 
 Hawkins, but lirst brought into use by Sir 
 Walter Kawleigh many years after.' Again ho 
 says : " Xow (say some) Yobacco was first brought 
 into England by >lr. Ralph Lane, out of Virginia. 
 Others will l.ave Tobacco to be first brought into 
 England from I'eru, by Sir Francis Drake's 
 iMari lers.' "amdeii fixes its introduction into 
 England by Ralph Lane and the men brought 
 back with him in the ships of Drake, lie says: 
 'And these men which were brought back ivere 
 the lirst that I know of, which brought into 
 England that Indian plant which tliey call To- 
 bacco and Xieotia, and use it against crudities, 
 being taught it by the Indians.' Certainly from 
 that time it began to be in great requ( si, and to 
 be sold at a high rate. . . . Among the 108 men 
 left in the colony with Ralph Lane in 1585 was 
 Air. Thomas Ilariot, a man of a strongly mathe- 
 matical and i-cienlilic turn, whose services in this 
 connection were greatly valued. He remained 
 there an entire year, aiid went back to England 
 in 1580. He wrote out 'i full account of his ob- 
 servations in tlie Xew World." — I. N. Tarbox, 
 Sir Walter lliileigh and his Colony (Prince Hoc, 
 1884). 
 
 Also in T. Harlot, Driff and true Rejwt (lie- 
 jnintcd in, aljovc-namcd Prince, Soc. Publication). — 
 F. L. Hawks, Hint, of N. Carolina, v. 1 (contain- 
 iiifj reprints of Lane's Account, Ilariot'a Rcjwrt, 
 lie. — Original Doc's ed. by E. E. Hale (Arelia- 
 ol<ir/ia Americana, v. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1587-1590. —-The Lost Colony of 
 Roanoke. — End of the Virginia Llndertak- 
 ings of Sir Walter Raleigh. - " Ualeigl., undis- 
 mayed by lo.sses, determined to plant an agricul- 
 tural state; to send emigrants with their wives 
 and families, who should make their homes in 
 the Xew World; and, that life and i)roperty 
 might bo secured, in •January, 1587, he granted a 
 charter for the settlement, and a municipal 
 government for the city of 'Raleigh.' John 
 AVhitc was ni)pointed its governor; and to him, 
 with eleven assistants, tfie administration of the 
 colony was intrusted. Transpoit ships were 
 l)re]iared at the expense of the proprietary; 
 '(Juecn Elizabeth, the godmother of Virginia,' 
 deelined contributing 'to its education.' Em- 
 barking in April, in July t'ley arrived on the 
 coast of North C'arolina; they were saved from 
 the dangers of Cape Fear; and, passing Cape 
 Hatteras, they hastened to the i ,le of Roanoke, 
 to search for the handful of men whom Gren- 
 ville had left there as n garrison. They found 
 the tenements deserted and overgrown with 
 weeds; human bones lay scattered on t''c field 
 where wild deer were reposing. The fort was 
 in ruins. Xo vestige of surviving life appeared. 
 The instructions of Raleigh had designated the 
 place for the new settlement on the bay of 
 Cliesapeaki. Rut Feri audo, the naval ollicer, 
 eager to renew a profitable trallic in the West 
 Iialies, refu.sed his assistance in exploring the 
 coast, and While was compelled to remain on 
 Roanoke. ... It was th<Me that in Jidy the 
 foundat'ons of the city of l{aleigli were laid." 
 Rut the colony was doomed to disaster from the 
 beginning, being quickly involved in warfare 
 with the surro, Hiding natives. "With the re- 
 turning sliip White embarked for England, un- 
 
 
 
AJrERICA, 1587-1590. 
 
 Xea England. 
 
 AMERICA, 1603-1005. 
 
 der the excuse of interceding for rc-cnforcements 
 and supplies. Yet. on the 18th of August, nine 
 days previous to his dopaituie, liis daugliter 
 Eleanor Dare, the wife of one of the as.sistants, 
 gave l)irlh to a female cliiUl, the first olVsprinir 
 of Englisli parents on the soil of the United 
 States. The infant was named from the place 
 of its hirtli. The colcmy, now compose<l of 81) 
 men, 17 women, and two children, whose names 
 are all preserved, might reasonably hope for the 
 speedj' return of the governor, as ho left with 
 them his daughter and his grandchild, Virginia 
 Dare. The farther hi.story of this plantation 
 is involved in gloomy uncertainty. The inhabit- 
 ants of 'the city of Ualeigli,' thcrcmigrants from 
 England and the first-born of America, await(!d 
 death in tbe land of ihcir ado])tion. For, when 
 White reached England, ho found its attention 
 absorl)od by the threats of an invasion frjm 
 Spain. . . . Yet Raleigh, whose i)atriotism did 
 not diminish his generosity, found means, in April 
 1.588, to despatch White with supplies in two ves- 
 sels, But the comjjany, desiring a gainful voy- 
 age rather than a safe one, ran in chase of prizes, 
 till one of them fell in with men of war from 
 Udchelle, and, after a l)loody fight, w.as bo'irded 
 and rificd. Uotli ships were comjielled to rctiun 
 to Kngland. The delay was fatal: the English 
 kiugdoni and the Protestant refonnatiou were in 
 ''anger; nor cotdd tin; pocrr colonists of Roanoke 
 be again remembered till aft jr the discomlituroof 
 the lnvincil)le Armada. Even then Sir Walter 
 Ridcigh, who had already incurred a fruitless 
 expense of £40,000, found his impaired fortune 
 insullicicnt for further attempts at colonizing 
 Virginia. He therel'ore used tlio privilege of his 
 patent to endow a company of merchants and ad- 
 venturers with large concessions. Among the 
 men who thus obtained an assignment of tlic pro- 
 prietary's rights in Virginia is found the name of 
 Richard Ilakluyt; it connects tlie first efforts of 
 England in North (^arolina with the linal coloniza- 
 tion of Virginia. Tlic coloiusts at Roanoke had 
 emigrated with a charter; the instrument of 
 Mareli, 1589, was not an assignment of Raleigh's 
 patent, 'lut the extension of a grant, already lield 
 under its sanction by increasing the number to 
 whom the rights of that charter belonged. More 
 than another year elapsed before White could 
 return to seardi I'or Ids colony and his daughter; 
 and then the island of Roanoke was a desert. 
 An inscription on the bark of a tree p >intcd to 
 C'roatan; but the season of llie year and tni> dan- 
 gers fnau storms were pleaded "as an excuse for 
 nu inuneili ite return. TIk; conjecture has been 
 hazarded that the deserted colony, neglected by 
 their own countrymen, were hospitably adopted 
 into Uie tribe [the C'roatansJ of Hatteras Indians. 
 Raleigh long cherished the hope of discovering 
 some vestiges of tlieir ex-slence, and sent at his 
 own charge, and, it is said, at live several limes. 
 to search for his liege men. Hut imagination 
 reeeivcd no helj) in its attempts to trace thi! fate 
 of (he colony of I'.oanoke."— O. Bancroft, Jli.it. «/' 
 1/,^ U. K. pt. 1, eh. 5 (i). 1).— "The Croatans ot 
 to-day claim descent from the lo.st colony 
 Their habits, disposition and mental characteris- 
 tics show tiaces both of savage ami civilized 
 ancestors. Their language is the English of :!00 
 years ago, and their names are in many cases 
 tlie same as those i)orne by the original ciilonists. 
 No other theory of their origin has been ad- 
 vanced."— S. li. Weeks, The Lost Colony of 
 
 Roanoke (Am. Hist. Ass'n Papers, v. 5, ;)/. 4). — ■ 
 "This last expedition [of W^hite, searching for 
 liis lost colony I was not despatched b_\' Raleigh, 
 but by his successors in t!ie American patent. 
 Anil our history is now to take leave of that 
 illustrious nii.n, witli whose -schemes and enter- 
 liriscs it ceases to have any further connexion. 
 The ardour of his mind was not exhausted, ))ut 
 diverted by r. nudtiplicity of new and not less 
 arduous inidertakings. . . . Desirous, at tin; 
 sani'j time, that a project which he had carried 
 so far should not be entirely abandoned, and 
 hoping that the spirit of conunerce woidd pre- 
 serve an intercourse with Virginia lliat might 
 lernunati' in a colonial establishment, he con- 
 sented t" assign his patent to Sir Thoiras Smith, 
 and a company of merchants in London, who 
 uiidertook to establish and maintain a trallic 
 between England and Virginia. ... It ap- 
 peared very soon tliat Raleigh had transferred 
 liis patent to liands very dilferent from his own. 
 . . . Satisfied with a pa!tr_,- trafiic carried on 
 by a few small vessels, they n.ade no attempt to 
 take possession of the country: and at the jieriod 
 of Elizabeth's death, not a single Englislimnn 
 was settled in yVmerica." — J. Grah;iine, Hist, of 
 the llise and Pvoi/ reus of the U. S. of N. Am. till 
 1088, (7/. 1. 
 
 Ai.so IN \\. Stith, Hist, of 17,., hh: 1. — F. L. 
 I ILiwks, Hist, of X. a. r. 1, X'.i. 7-8. 
 
 A. D. 1602-1605.— The Voyages of Gosnold, 
 Pring, and Weymouth.— The First English- 
 men in New England. — Barlbolomew Gosnold 
 was a WestorEngland mariner who had served 
 in the expeditions of Sir Walter Raleigh to the 
 Virginia coast. Under his commaiuC in the 
 sjuing of lliO'i, " with the consent of Sir Waller 
 lialeigh, and at the cost, among others, of Henry 
 Wriolliesley, Earl of Southampton, the accom- 
 plished patron of Shakespeare, a small vessel, 
 called the Concord, was equipped for expli^ration 
 in 'the north part of Virginia,' witli a view to 
 the establishment of a colony. At tills lime, in 
 the last year of I ho Tudor dynasty, and nineteeu 
 years after the fatal termination of Gilbert's 
 cnlerprise, t'lcrc was no European inhabitant of 
 North America, except those of Spanish birth in 
 Florida, and some twenty or thirty French, the 
 miserable relics of two frustrated attempts to 
 scllle what they called New France. Gosnold 
 sailed from Falmouth with a comjmny of thirty- 
 two persons, of whom eight were seamen, and 
 twenty were to become planters. Taking a 
 straight course across the Atlantic, instead of the 
 indirect course by the Canaries and the West 
 Indies which had iieen 'lithcrto pursued in 
 voyages to Virginia, at the end of seven weeks 
 he saw land in iMassachusetts Ray. probably near 
 what is now Salini Harbor. Here a boat came 
 olT, of Hasiiue build, manned by eight natives, 
 of whom two or three were dres.sed in Europeaii 
 clollics, indicating the presence of earlier foreign 
 vovagers in these waters. Next he stood to the 
 southward, and his ".n'-v took great (|iiaiitilics of 
 codlisii liy a bead lai..., . d by him for that 
 rea.son C^pe Cod, the uiunc, .vliich it retains. 
 Gosnold, Rrereton, and three others, went on 
 si >re, the lirst Englishmen who are known to 
 have set foot upon the soil of Massachusetts. 
 . . . Sounding Ids way cautiously along, tirst 
 in .1 soullu'ily, and llicn in a westerly direction, 
 and urobably pa.ssing to the south of Nantucket, 
 Gosnold next landed on a small island, now 
 
 71 
 
AMERICA, 1002-1605. 
 
 Jimiaon'H 
 ExjftoraUuns. 
 
 AMERICA, 1C09. 
 
 culled No Mail's I.aiiil. Tn this lie giive tlio 
 liiinit! of Martlia's Vineyard, since transferred to 
 tlic lurirer island fiirtlu- north. . . . South of 
 liuzzard's Bay, and separated on the south by 
 the Vineyard Sound from Martlia's Viueyard, is 
 scattered tlie group denoted on modern maps as 
 tlie Elizabeth Islands. The .soiithwestcrnmost 
 of tlie.se, now known by the Indian name 
 of Cuttyliunk, was denominated by Gosnold 
 Elizabeth Island. . . . Here Gosnold found a 
 liond two mile.s in eircumference, separated from 
 the .sea on one side by a beach thirty yards wide, 
 and enclosing 'a rocky islet, containing near an 
 acre of ground, full of wood and rubbish.' This 
 islet was lixed ujinn for a. settlement. In three 
 weeks, while a part of tlie company were absent 
 on a trailing expedition to the mainland, the rest 
 dug and stoned a cellar, prepared timber and 
 built a house, which tliey fortilied with palisades, 
 and thatched willi sedge. Proceeding to make 
 an inventory of their provisions, they found that, 
 litter supplying the vessel, which was to take 
 twelve men on the return voyage, there would 
 be a sulliciency for only six weeks for the 
 twenty men who would remain. A dispute 
 arose upon the question whether the pariy to be 
 left behind would receive i> share in the proceeds 
 of the cargo of cedav, sassi fras, furs, and other 
 commodities which liad been collected. A small 
 parly, going out in riuest of sliell-fisli, was 
 attackeil by some Indiiins. 'With men having 
 already, it is likely, little stuniach for such 
 cheerless work, these cii'cuiiistances easily led to 
 the decision to abandon for the present the 
 Ki-heme of a settlement, and in the following 
 mouth the adventurers sailed for England, and, 
 after a voyage of five weeks, arrived at Exiiiouth. 
 . . . The c.vpeditiou of Gosnold was preguunt 
 with consequences, though their development 
 was slow. The accounts of the hitherto iiiiknowu 
 country, whitli were circulated by his company 
 on their return, excited an earnest interest." 
 The next year (April, 1003), JIartin Pring or 
 Prynne was sent out, by several merchants of 
 Bristol, with two small vessels, seeking cargoes 
 of .sassafras, which had ac(iiiire<l fi high value on 
 account of suiiposed mcdiciral virtues. Pring 
 coasted fnan -Maine to Martha's Vineyard, 
 Secured his desired cargoes, and pave a gooil 
 account of the country. Two years later (.Marc'.i, 
 100.")), Lord Southampton and Lord Wardoiir 
 sent n vessel commanded by George Weymouth 
 to reconnoitre the same coast with an eye to 
 settlements. Wevmouth ascended either the 
 Kennebec or the I'euobscot river some 30 or 00 
 miles and kidnapped live natives. "Except for 
 this, and for some addition to the knowleilge of 
 the local geoirraphv, the vovage was fruitless. " 
 — I. (i. Palfri'y, j'/iKt. of A'.' Kii;/., r. 1, ,/(. 2. 
 
 Also in M(Im. Hist. Sic. Coll., 'M Sriea, v. 8 
 (1843). — 1. McKeeii, On the Voyiir/e of Uco. M'ey- 
 month (Miiinr lli.it. '-or. toll., v. .')). 
 
 A. D. 1603-1608.— The First French Settle- 
 ments in Acadia. See ('AN.\i).\ (Ni;w EllA.Ni i:); 
 A. 1). UiO:i-l(;u.""), and IfiOO-KKW. 
 
 A. D. 1607.— The founding of the English 
 Colony of Virginia, and the failure in Maine. 
 See ViU(;i.NJ.\: A. I). lOlM.-KiUT, and after; and 
 M.mnk: a. 1). 1007-lOOS. 
 
 A. D. 1607-1608.— The First Voyages of 
 Henry Hudson.— "The lirsl recorded voyage 
 made l>y Henry Hudson was u.ndertak"-! . ." . 
 for the Muscovy or Russia Company [o( Eng- 
 
 land]. Departing fn 11 Grave.seiid the first of 
 May, 1007, with tl.. intention of sailing straight 
 across the north pole, bv the north of what Is 
 now called Greenland, ifudson fount! that this 
 land stretched further to the eastward than he 
 had anliciiiated, and that a wall of ice, along 
 which he coasted, extended from Greenland to 
 Spitzbergen. Forced to reliiuiuish the hope of 
 finding a passage in th<; latter vicinity, he once 
 more atteiujitcd the entrance of Davi.s' Straits by 
 the north of Greenland. Tliii design was also 
 friist.ated and he apiiarcutly renewed the at- 
 tempt in a lower latitude and nearer (Greenland 
 on his homeward voyage, lu this cruise Hudson 
 attained a higher degree of latitude than any 
 previous navigator. . . . He reached England on 
 his return on the loth September of that vear 
 [1007]. . . . Ou the 22d of April, 1008, Henry 
 Hudson luenceu his second recorded voyage 
 for tl .Liiscovy or Russia Company, with the 
 design f Minding a Jiassage to tlie East Indies 
 by tlie norlh-east.'^' . . . On the 3d of June, 1C08, 
 liud.sou li;;d reached the most northern point of 
 Isorway, and on the lltli was in latitude 7u' 24', 
 between S|utzbergeu and Kova Zeinbla. " Fail- 
 ing to pass to the north-east beyond Nova 
 Zenibla, he returned to England in August. — J. 
 JI. Read, Jr., Jli.it. Inquiry Conccniing Jlcnry 
 Ihuimn, pp. 133-133. 
 
 Also in G. M. Ashcr, Henry lludnon, the 
 Kai-i'jdtordhihlinit .S/i'., 1800). 
 
 A. D. 1608-1616.— Champlain's Explora- 
 tions in the Valley of th? St. Lawrence and 
 the Great Lakes. See C.vnap.v (New Fhaxc:;^; 
 A. IJ. KiDS-lOU, and lOU-1010. 
 
 A. D. 1609. — Hudson's Voyage of Discovery 
 for the Dutch. — "The failure of two expedi- 
 tions daunted the eiuerpriso of Hudson's em- 
 ployers [the Muscovy Company, in England], 
 tlie3' could not daiinl the couiiigc of the great 
 navigator, who was destined to become the rival 
 of Sniilli and of Chani|)lain. He longed co tempt 
 once more the dangers of the northern seas ; and, 
 repairing to Holland, he offered, in the service of 
 the Duteli East India Comjiany, tocxpkiie the icy 
 wastes in search of the coveted passage. The 
 voyage of Smith to Virginia stimulated desire; 
 the Zcidaiiders, fearing the loss of treasure, ob- 
 iccted ; but, by the inlluehco of Balthazar 
 Mouclieron, the directors for Amsterdam re- 
 solved on equipping a small vessel of discovery; 
 and, on the 4tli day of April, 1000, the ' ( 'rescent ' 
 [or ' Half-Moon, ns the name of the little ship 
 is more commonly translated], commanded by 
 lliulson, and maimed by a mixed crew ol Eng- 
 lishmen and Hollanders, his son being of the 
 number, set sail for the north-western passagn. 
 JIasses of ice impeded the navigation towards 
 NovaZembla; Hudson, who had examined the 
 maps (d' Jolin ."^mitli of Virginia, turned to die 
 west; and passing beycmd Greenlund and New- 
 foundland, and running down the coast of 
 Acadia, ho anchored, probably, in the mouth of 
 the Penou.scct. Then, following the track of 
 (iosuold, ho came u] on the jironiontory of Cape 
 Cod, and. believing himself its first discovorer, 
 gave it the name <d' New Holland. Long after- 
 wards, it was claimed ns the north-eastern bwiud- 
 ary of Now Netherlands. From the sands of 
 Cape Cod, he steered u southerly course till he 
 vas opposite the entrance into the bay of Vir- 
 ginia, whore Hudson remembered that his couu- 
 trymcn were planted. Then turning again to 
 
 72 
 
AMERICA, 1009. 
 
 Captain 
 John Smith. 
 
 AMERICA, 1014-1015. 
 
 tho north, he discovered the Delaware Bay, c.v- 
 amincd its currents and its soundings, and, with- 
 out going on sliorc, toolc note of the aspect of 
 tlie country. On tlie 3d day of Scptemljcr, 
 almost at llio time when Champlain was invad- 
 ing Xew York from tho nortli, less tlian live 
 nnnths after tlio truce witli Spain, which gave 
 tho Netherlands a diplomatic existence as a 
 state, tho 'Crescent' ancliored within Sandy 
 JIooIj, and from tho ueigliboring shores, that 
 were crowned with 'goodly oaljcs,' attracted 
 frequent, visiu from the natives. After a weeii's 
 delay, Hudson sailed tliro.igh tho Xarrows, and 
 at the mouth of tho river ancliored in a liarI)or 
 which was pmnounceil to bo very good for all 
 winds. . . . Ton days were employed i:i explor- 
 ing the river; the first of Europeans, Iludsim 
 went sounding his way above t'x Highlands, 
 till at last tlio ' Crescent ' had sailed some miles 
 beyond the city of Hudson, and a boat had ad- 
 vanced a little beyond Alljany. Frequent inter- 
 course was held with the astonished natives [and 
 two batlles fought with them]. . . . Having 
 completed his discovery, Hudson descended the 
 stream to which time iias given his name, and on 
 the -Itli day of Octolier, about tho season of tlie 
 return of John Smitli to England, lie set sail for 
 Eurojio. ... A hapjiy return voyage brought 
 tlio 'Crescent' iuto liartniouth. Hudson for- 
 warded to his Dutch employers a brilliant ac- 
 count of his discoveries; but ho never revisited 
 the lands which he eulogized: and th«; Dutcli 
 East-India Company refused to search further for 
 the north-western jiassage." — Ct. Bancroft, Jlint. 
 of the U. S., ch. 1.5 {orpt. 2, ch. VZ of " Authur\' 
 iMst Rcciniiin"). 
 
 Also i.v II. R. Clf.vki.and, Life of Ifeiin/ 
 Ihidmn (Lib. of Am. Bio;/., v. 10), ch. 3-4. — R. 
 Juet, Joantiil of IIiulioiCii Voyage (X. Y. Hint. 
 Soc. C'o/l., Second /fi-rics, v. 1). — J. V. N. Yates 
 and J. W. Jloullon, Jlist. of the State of JV. 1' 
 pt. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1610-1.614. — The Dutch occupation 
 of New Netherland, and Block's coasting 
 exploration. See New Yokk: A. 1). 1010- 
 1014. 
 
 A. D. 1614-1615.— The Voyages of Capt. 
 John Smith to North Virginia. -The Naming 
 of the country New England. — "From the 
 time of Ciipt. Smith's departure from Virginia 
 [see ViuGixrA: A. I). 1007-1010], till the year 
 1014, there is a chasm in his biographv. . . . 
 In 1014, proliably by his advice and at liis sug- 
 gestion, an expedilinn was fitted out by soiiic 
 London incrcliants, in tiie e.xpense of which ho 
 also- shared, for tlie jiurposes of trade and dis- 
 covery ill New England, or, as it was then called. 
 North Virginia. ... In March, 1014, ho set sail 
 from London with two ships, one commanded 
 by himself, and the otlier liy Captain Thomas 
 Hunt. Tliey arrived, April 30tli, at the island 
 of Manhegiii, on the coast of Maine, where tliey 
 built seven boats. The purposes for which thev 
 were sent were to capture whales and to search 
 for mines of gold or copper, which were said to 
 be there, and, if these failed, to inalvc uf) a canro 
 of fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indi- 
 cations, and they found whale-tisliiiig a 'costly 
 conclusion;' for, altliough tlvy saw many, anil 
 chased tliem too, tliey succeeded in tjilting" none. 
 They thus lost the best part ot tlie fishing season ; 
 but, after giving -ip their gigantic gaiiio, they 
 ddigeiitly employed the months of July and 
 
 7 
 
 August in taking and curing codfish, an humble, 
 but more lain prey. Willie tlio crew were 
 tlius enipldwd. Captain Smitli, with eight men 
 in a small boat, surveyed and examined the 
 whole coast, from Penobscot to Capo Cod, traf- 
 ficking with tlic Indians for furs, and twice 
 lighting with tliem, and taking such ob.serva- 
 tions of tlie prominent points as enabled him to 
 coiLsiruct a map of tlio country'. Ho then sailed 
 for England, where ho arrived in August, 
 within six monllis after his departure. He left 
 Captain Hunt beliind him, witli orders to dispose 
 ot his cargo of tisli in Spain. L'nfortunately, 
 Hunt was a sordid .'ind unprincipled inisereant, 
 who resolved to make his countrynieu odious to 
 the Indians, ami thus jirevent the establislmient 
 of a permanent colony, which would diminish 
 tlie la.'ge gains he aiul a few others derived by 
 monopolizing a lucrative traOic. For this pur- 
 pose, having ilecoyed '~4 of the natives on board 
 his ship, ho carried them off and sold them as 
 slaves in the port of Malaga. . . . Ca|itain 
 Smitli, upon his return, presentc'd his map of 
 the country between Penoliseot and Cape Cod to 
 Prineo Charles (.afterwards Cliarlcs I.), with a 
 reipiest that he would substitute others, instead 
 of tlio 'barbarous names' which had been given 
 to particular places. Smith himself gave to tho 
 country the name of New England, as he 
 expressly states, and not Prince Charles, as is 
 commonly suppos<'d. . . . The first port into 
 which Captain Smith put on his return to Eng- 
 land was Plymoutli. There ho related his 
 adventures to some of bis friends, 'who,' he 
 says, 'as I supposed, were interested in the ilead 
 patent of this unregarded country.' Tho Ply- 
 moutli Company of _ad venturers to North Vir- 
 ginia, by nattering' hopes and large promises, 
 induced him to engage his services to them." 
 Accordingly in 3!arcli, 101.5, ho sailed from 
 Plymoutli, witli two vessels under bis command, 
 bearing 10 settlers, besides tlieir crew. A storm 
 dismasted Smitli's ship and Irovo her back to 
 Plymuutli. "His consort, commanded by 
 Thomas Dermcr, meanwhilo proceeded on her 
 voyage, and returned with a profitublo cargo in 
 August; but the object, which was to elfect a 
 ])ermanont settlement, was frustrated. Captain 
 Smitii's vessel was probably found to bo so 
 much shattered as to render it inexpedient to 
 repair her; for we lind that he set sail a second 
 time from Plymouth, on the 21lli of June, in a 
 small bark of 00 tor.s, manned by 30 men, and 
 carrying with him tlio same 10 settlors he had 
 taken before. But an evil destiny seemed co 
 hang over this enterprise, and to make the voy- 
 age a succession of disastera and disappoint- 
 ments." It ended in Smith's capture by a pirat- 
 ical French fleet and his deteiilioii for some 
 months, until he made a daring escape in a small 
 boat. "Whilo ho had been detained on board 
 tlio French pirate, in order, as he says, 'to keep 
 my jierplcxed thougii.s from too miich medita- 
 tion of my miserable e.itate,' ho employed liim- 
 S(df in writing a uariali\e of Ids two voyages to • 
 New England, and an account of tho country. 
 This was publislied in a (luarlo form in June, 
 1010. . . . Captain Smilh's work on New England 
 was the first ;o recomniend that country as 11 
 place of settlement. "—Ct. S. llillard. Life of 
 Cant. John Smith (ch. 14-15). 
 
 Also in Capt. John Smith, Description of K 
 Eng. 
 
 \S 
 
AMERICA, IfilO. 
 
 77k Buceaneert. 
 
 AJIEHICA, 1639-1700. 
 
 A. D. 1619.— Introduction of negro slavery 
 
 into Virginia. Scr Vihhima; A. D. Ifili). 
 
 A. D. 1620.— The Planting of the Pilgrim 
 Colony at Plymouth, and the Chartering of 
 the Council for New England. Sec .Mass.v- 
 t lllM/ns (I'l.YMorTll t'or.oNY): .V. I). Ki'JO; iiiul 
 Ni;rt- Hscil..\M>: \. I). 1I1',MI-1 ()!>;!. 
 
 A. D. 1620.— Formation of the Government 
 of Rio de La Plata. Sue Auoentink Kk- 
 I'l 111,1.-: \. 1). !.■)«()- 1777. 
 
 A. D. 1621.— Conflicting claims of England 
 and France on the *'orth-eastern coast. — 
 Naming and graiiti: of Nova Scotia. Set' 
 Nkw Kx.u.and: A. D. l(>'il-l(i:!l. 
 
 A. D. 1629. — The Carolina grant to Sir 
 Robert Heath.— " Sir Kdlxit Heath, lUtonioy- 
 jiiiicnil ti) Charlrs I., obtiiincd a prant of the 
 laiiils liftwciii the Mbtlli [;!()tli Vl dogrep of nortli 
 latitude to the river St. Matlieo. His charter 
 bears date of October 5, Ki'^iO. . . . Tlu^ tenure 
 is declared lo be as ample as any bisliop of 
 l>urliaiii I Palatine], in the Uiiiudom of England, 
 ever held mid enjoyed, or ought or could of right 
 have held and enjoyed. Sir Kobert, his heirs 
 und a.ssigiis, are conslitiiteil the true and absolute 
 lords and proprietors, and the country is erected 
 into a province by the name of Carolina |or 
 Car(ilaiia|, and the islands are to be called the 
 Carolina islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right 
 some time aflcr to the earl of .Vrundel, Tliis 
 nobleman, it is said, planted several |iarts of his 
 aciiui.sitiou. but his iitlein|it to coloni/e was 
 checked by the war with Scotland, and after- 
 wards the civil war. Lord Maltravers. who soon 
 lifter, on his father's death, became carl of 
 Arundel and Sussex . . . made no attempt to 
 avail himself of the grant. . . . Sir Koliert. 
 Heath's grant of land, to the soulliwanl of 
 Virginia, perhaps the most extensive pos.session 
 ever owned by an individual, remained for a 
 long time almost aksolutely waste and unculti- 
 vated. . This v.ist extent of territory occui)ied all 
 the country between the libtli and IWth degrees 
 of northern latitude, which embraces the pres- 
 ent states of Xorth and South Carolina, Georgia, 
 [Alabama |, Tennessee, !Mi.ssissip])i, and, with 
 very little exceptions, the whole slate of 
 Louisiana, and the territory of East and West 
 Florida, a considerable part of the state of 
 Missouri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, 
 Chiulmha itc. The grantee had taken pos,ses- 
 sion of Un\ country, soim after he had obtained 
 his title, whieli he afterwards had conveyed lo 
 the earl of Arundel. Henry lord .Maltravers ap 
 pears lo have obtained ;«>me aid from the prov- 
 ince of Virginia in IIWO, at the desire of (;iiarlcs 
 I., for the settlement of Carolana, and the coun- 
 try had since become the property of a Dr. Cox ; 
 yel. at this time, there were two ]Miiiits (mly in 
 which incipient English setllemenis could be 
 discerned; the one on the northern .-liore of 
 Albemarle Soimd and the streams that How into 
 it. The population of it was ve:y thin, and the 
 greatest portion of it was on tlu' liorth-east bank 
 of Chowan river. The settlers had come from 
 that part of Virginia now known as the County 
 of Nansemond. . . . They had been joined by a 
 number of (Quakers and other sectaries, whom 
 the spirit of intolerance had driven from New 
 England, and some emignxiits from Bermudas. 
 . . . The other settlement 01 the English was at 
 ihe mouth of Cape Tear river; . . . those who 
 composed it liml come thither from New England 
 
 in lOoO. Their attention was confined to rearing 
 cattle. Tl cannot now be ascertained whether 
 the assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the 
 charter under which it was held, nor whether it 
 was considered as having become vacated or 
 obsolete by non-user, or by any other means." — 
 F. X. JIartin, IIM. of A\ Cnroliiw, r. 1, eh. 5 
 and 7. 
 
 A. D. 1629.— The Royal Charter to the Gov- 
 ernor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. 
 Sec MASsAciiusKTrs: A. 1). I(i23-l(;21), The 
 
 DOUC'IIESTKII CoMTANY. 
 
 A. D. 1629-1631. — The Dutch occupation of 
 the Delaware. See Uki.awaue: A. I). 10'.29- 
 lOiil. 
 
 A. D. 1629-1632. — English Conquest and 
 brief occupation of New France. See Canada 
 (Nf.wFuanik): a. I). 11128 -KWi, 
 
 A. D. 1632.— The Charter to Lord Balti- 
 more and the founding of Maryland. .S'e 
 3Iakvi,anii; A. 1). IftW. and A, 1). I(i;i;!-lfi;i7. 
 
 A. D. 1638. — The planting of a Swedish 
 Colony on the Delaware. Sec Delaware: 
 A. 1). 10;iS-l(ilO. 
 
 A. D. 1639-1700. — The Buccaneers and their 
 piratical warfare with Spain. — "The ITth 
 century gave birth to a class of rovers wholly 
 distinct Irom any of their jiredecessors in the 
 annals of the world, dill'.'iing as widely in their 
 plans, org:;nization and exploits as in the princi- 
 ples tliat governed their acti ns. . . . After the 
 native iniiabilants of Haiti had been exterini- 
 iiated, and the Spaniards liad sailed farther west, 
 a few adventurous men from Normandy settled 
 on the shores of the island, for the purpose of 
 hunting th(i wild bulls and hogs wliicli roamed 
 at w'll through the forests. The small island of 
 Tort igas was their market; thither they repaired 
 with heir salted and smoked meat, their hides, 
 Ac, ih'd disposed of them in exchange for pow- 
 der, le.'d, u!h1 other necessaries. The places 
 where ihese semi-wild hunters jircpared the 
 slaughtered carcases were called 'boucans,' and 
 they themselveij beeaine known as IJuccaneers. 
 Probably the world has never before or since wit- 
 iies.se(lsuclian extraordinary association as tlieira. 
 Unburdened by women-folk or cliil('''en, these 
 men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each 
 other services, and having entire community of 
 property — a condition termed by them niatclot- 
 nge, from the word 'matelot,' by which they 
 addressed one another. ... A man on joining 
 the fraternity completely merged his identity. 
 Each memlier received a nickname, and no at- 
 temi>t was ever made to in((uire into his antece- 
 dents. When one of their number married, ho 
 ceased to be iv buccaiiecr, having forfeited his 
 ineinber.ship by so civilized a proceeding. He 
 might cont.niie lo dwell on the coast, and to 
 hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'matelot' — 
 as a Benedick he had degenerated to a ' colonist.' 
 . . . Uncouth and lawless though the bucca- 
 neers were, the sinister signilication now attach- 
 ing to their name would never have been merited 
 had it not been for the unreasoning jealousy of 
 the Spaniards. Tlie hunters were actually a 
 source of (irolit to that nation, yet from an in- 
 sane antipathy to strangers the dominant race 
 resolved op exterminating the settlers, i'.ttacked 
 whilst dispersed in pursuance of their avjcations, 
 the latter fell easy victims; many of tnem were 
 wantonly massacred, others dragged in'.o slavery, 
 . . . Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the 
 
 74 
 
AMERICA, 1639-1700. 
 
 AMEUICA, 1713. 
 
 brethren of the coast' united their scattered 
 forces, and a war of horiible n'prisals com- 
 nienee'd. Fresli Iroojis arrived from fSpain, wliilst 
 tlie ranlis of tlie huecaneers were filled by adven- 
 turers of all nations, nlhired by love of pliuider, 
 and lired with indi^'iiation at the cruelties of the 
 aggressors. . . . Tlic Spaniards, utter'y failing 
 to oust their opponents, hit upon a new ex- 
 pedient, so short-sighted th.it it reUects but little 
 ered't on their statesmanship. This w:is the 
 externunation of the .'lorned cattle, by which the 
 biieeaneers derived their means of subsistence; ii 
 L'cneral slaughter took place, an<l the breed was 
 almost extirpated. . . . The pulled up arrogance 
 of th(! Spaniard was curbed by no prudential 
 consideration; calling upon every saint ia his 
 calendar, and raining curses on the heretical 
 bnceaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate 
 occupation, and created wilfully a set of desper- 
 ate enemies, who harassed the colonial trade of 
 an empire already betraying signs of feeldencss 
 with tiie pertiui city of" wolves, and who oidy 
 desisted when her commerce had been reduced 
 to insignilicaneo. . . . Devoured by an undying 
 liatred of their assailants, the buccaneers de- 
 veloped into a new association — the freebooters." 
 — f. II. Eden, Tin Wcxt Indits, ch. 3.— "The 
 moiiarclis both of England and Franca, but 
 espeeiallv the former, connived at and even en- 
 courageil the freebooters [a name which thi! 
 pronunciation of Freni'h sailors transformed 
 into ' llibnstiers,' while that corruption became 
 Aiiirlicized in its turn and produced the word 
 tililnistersl, whose services coidd be obtained in 
 time of war, and whose actions could be dis- 
 avowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, 
 tilibuster, and sea-rover, were for the most part 
 at leisure to liinit wild cattle, and to pillage and 
 massacre the Spaniarils wherever tliey foiuid an 
 opportunity. When not on some marauding ex- 
 pedition, they followed the ehiuse." The ))iratical 
 biieeaneers were first organized under a leader 
 in Hiiii), the islet of Tor'uga being their favorite 
 rendezvous. " So rapid was tlie growth of their 
 .selllenieats that in 1041 we lind governors ap- 
 lioiiited, and at San Ohristobal a governor-general 
 named Ue Poincy, in charge of the French 
 lilibuslers in the Indies. I>uring that year 
 Tortuga was garrisoned by Frencli troops, and 
 the Englisli were driven out, both from that islet 
 and from Santo Domingo, securing harboraae 
 elsewhere in the islands, Xevertlieless corsairs 
 of botli nations often made common cause. . . . 
 In [li;,j 1 1 Tortuga was again recaptured by the 
 Spai iards, but in 1000 fell once niin'e into the 
 ham's of the French; and in their coiujuest of 
 .Ta-.iaica in 10,').') the JSritish troops were re(!n- 
 I'orceil by a large party of buccaneers." The 
 tirst of the more famous buccaneers, and ap- 
 |iarenlly the most ferocious among them all, was 
 a Frenchman called Francois L'Olonnois, who 
 harried the coa,st of Central .Vmerica between 
 1000-100.5 with six ships and 700 men. At the 
 same time another buccaneer named ^lansvelt, 
 was rising in fame, and with him, as second in 
 comniaiid, a Welshman, Henry Morgan, who be- 
 came the most notorious of all. In 1008, Jlorgan 
 attaeUed and captured the strong town of I'ortu- 
 bello, on the Isthmus, committing indescriliable 
 atrocities. In 1071 he crossed the Isthmus, 
 defeated the Spaniards in battle and gained 
 pos.sessiim of the great and wealthy citv of 
 Panama — the largest and richest in the New 
 
 World, rontainiiig at the time !}0,000 inhabitants. 
 The city was pillaged, fired and totally destroyed. 
 'I'lic exploits of this nillian and the stolen riches 
 wliich he carried home to England soon after- 
 ward, gained the honors of liiiightliood for him, 
 from tiie worthy hands of Charles II. In lOHO, 
 the buccaneers under one Coxon again crossed 
 ;he Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been 
 considerably rebuilt, and captured tlu le a 
 Spanish fieet of four ships, in which they 
 launched themselves upon the Pacific. From 
 that tlmetiicir iiliindcring operations v.erc chielly 
 dircctiMl against the Pacific coast. Towards the 
 close of the 17th century, the war l)ctwecii Eng- 
 land and France, and the Iloiirbon alliance of 
 Spain with France, brouglit about the .liscour 
 ngement, the decline and finally the extinction 
 of the buccaneer organization. — II, II. Bancroft, 
 llUt. of the Pacific l<tat':s: Central Am., v. 2, ch. 
 2C-?0. 
 
 Also IN W. Thornbury, The liitceaneers. — A. 
 O. Exquenielin, 7//i<. of the Ihiccamcrs. — J. 
 IJuniey, Hist, of the Buccmicra of Am. — See, 
 also, J.vMAic.v: A. D. 10,'-.,5-1790. 
 
 A. D. 1655.— Submission of the Swedes on 
 the Delaware to the Dutch. See Dklawauk: 
 A. 1). 10-;0-10r)0. 
 
 A. D. 1663. — The grant of the Carolinas to 
 Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others. 
 See XoiiTii Cauoi.ina: A, I). 100;!-1070. 
 
 A. D. 1664. — English conquest of New 
 Nethorland. Sec Nuw Youk: A. D. 1004. 
 
 A. D. 1673. — The Dutch reconquest of New 
 Netherlana. Sic New Yoiui: A. I). 107:i. 
 
 A. D. 1673-1682. — Discovery and explora- 
 tion of the Mississippi, by Marquette and 
 La Sa'Ie.— Louisiana named and possessed 
 by the French. See Canada (Niiw Fhanck); 
 A. I). 1034-107;{. and 100U-10S7. 
 
 A. D. 1674. — Final surrender cf New Neth- 
 erland to the English. See 2S'etiieki.a>:us 
 (lI(>i,i..\.ND): A. n. 1071. 
 
 A. D. 1681.— The proprietary grant to Wil- 
 liam Penn. See Pi;xnsvi,vama: A. I). 1081. 
 
 A. D. 1680-1697.— The first Inter-Colonial 
 War: Kini William's War (The war of the 
 League of Augsburg). See Canada (Ni;w 
 FUANCE): A. D. 1080-1690; 10yj-lGU7; also, 
 3S'i;wKoiNDi,AN"D: A. D. 1094-1097. 
 
 A. D. 1690. — The first Colonial Congress. 
 See I'Nnia) Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1090; alsi , 
 Canada (Ni;w FiiANCK): A. I). 1089-1090. 
 
 A. D. 1698-1712. — The French colonization 
 of Louisiana. — Broad claims of France to the 
 whole Valley of the Mississippi. See Loiisi- 
 ana: a. 1). 1098-171^. 
 
 A. D. 1700-1735. — The Spread of French 
 occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on 
 the Lakes. 8ee Canada (New Fuance): A. D. 
 17(M)-17:i.-). 
 
 A. D. 1702. — Union of the two Jerseys as a 
 royal province. Sec New Jehsev: A. I). 1088- 
 
 I7;i8. 
 
 A. D. 1702-1713.— The Second Inter-Co- 
 lonial War: Queen Anr.c's War (The War of 
 the Spai.ish Suc(:es<=:an\ — Final acquisition of 
 No/a Scotia by the F.nrlish. Sec New Enu- 
 i.and: A. I). 17();3-1710; Cus'ada (New Fk^vnce): 
 A. I). 1711-1713. 
 
 A. D. 1713.— Division of territory between 
 England and France by the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 See Canada (New Fiiance) • A. I). 1711- 
 1713. 
 
 70 
 
AMERICA, A. D. 1729. 
 
 AMEUICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 A. D. 1729.— End of the proprietary gov- 
 ernment in North Carolina. See Noktii 
 
 L'Aiioi.iNA: A. 1). l(iMS-17~".t. 
 
 A. D. 1732.— The colonization of Georgia 
 by General Oglethrope. Sic (ii.oUdiA: A. 1). 
 I7;t.>- ;-:!!». 
 
 A D. 1744-1748.— The Third Inter-Colon- 
 ial War: King George s War (The War of 
 the Austrian Succession). See New Enoi.and: 
 A I) 1711; 171."); iiml 17iri-17-(S. 
 
 A. D. 1748-1760. — Unsettled boundary dis- 
 putes of England and France. — The fourth and 
 last inter-colonial var, calUd the French and 
 Indian War (The Seven Years War of Europe). 
 — English Conquest of Canada. Sio Canada 
 (Ni:\v FuA.NCE): A. D. 175l>-17r);i; 17()0: Nova 
 Scotia: A. D. 1741)-17.w; 1755, (Jiiio (Valley): 
 A. D. 1718-1751; 175-1; 1755; Cai-e Breton 
 iM.A.NU: A. D. 1758-1700. 
 
 A D. 1749. — Introduction of negro slavery 
 into Georgia. See CrKouciA; \. 1). 17135-174!). 
 
 A. D. 1750-1753. — Dissensions among the 
 English Colonies on the eve of the great 
 French War. Seo U.mted .Srvncs ot' A.M.: 
 A. 1). 175i)-175;l. 
 
 A. D 1754. — The Colonial Congress at 
 Albany.— Franklin s P'.an of Union. See 
 L'.MTKii Stati;s oi' A.M.: A. T). 1751. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— The Peace of Paris.— Canada, 
 Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana 
 east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) 
 
 ceded by France to Great Britain. — West of 
 the Mississippi and Ne'w Orleans to Spain.— 
 Florida by Spain to Great Britain. See Sevks 
 Ykahs \\\n. 
 A. D. 1763-1764.— Pontiac's War. See Pou- 
 
 TIAC'S WaU. 
 
 A. D. 1763-1766, — Growing discontent of 
 the English Colonies. — The question of taxa- 
 tion. — The Stamp Act and its repeal. Sec 
 United Stati-.s of Am. : A I). 1700-177.5, to 1700. 
 
 A. D. 1766-1769. — Spanish occupation of 
 New Orleans and Western Louisiana, and the 
 revolt against it, .See Louisiana : A. i). 17(i(j- 
 170.H, iiud 1700. 
 
 A. D. 1775-1783.— Independence of the Eng- 
 lish colonies achieved. See United States ok 
 A.M. : \ I). 1775 (.Vi'iiii.) to 1783 (SEi'TEMincii). 
 
 A. D. 1776.— Erection of the Spanish Vice- 
 royalty of Buenos Ayres. See Auoentine 
 Reithi.ic: a. I). 1580-1777 
 
 A. D. 1810-1816.— Revolt, independence and 
 Confederation of the Argentine Provinces, 
 Se(! AiuiK.NTiNE Uei-uhlic: a. I). 1800-18:30. 
 
 A. D. 1818. — Chilean independence achieved. 
 See Chile: A. D. 1810-1818. 
 
 A. D. 1820-1821. — Independence Acquired 
 by Mexico and the Central American States. 
 See Me.vico: A. D. 18-'0-1820, uiul Centual 
 Ameuka: a. D. 1821-1871. 
 
 A. D. 1824. — Peruvian independence won at 
 Ayacucho. SecPKUU: A. D. 1820-1820. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 Linguistic Classification. — In the Seventh 
 Annual Report of the l!\ire:m of Ktiinnloiry (for 
 18S.5-80, jHililislu'tlin USJU), :\Iiijor ,1. W. I'cWell, 
 the Dirii torof the Bureau, has'iriveii aelassilica- 
 tion of the lani^uajjes of the North Ameriean nbo- 
 riTJne.s based Ujicntlie most recent investigations. 
 Tlie followiiigisalist of families of speech, orlin- 
 tCulstic, stocks, which are deliiied and named: 
 "Adaizan [identilled since the publication of 
 this list as being but i)art of the Caddoan stock]. 
 
 — Algonimian, — Athapascan. — Attacajian. — 
 BeotluiUau. — Caddoan.— Cliimakuan.— Chimari- 
 liaii. — Cliinnnesyan. — Cliiiiookan.— Chitimachan. 
 — Chumaslian. — Coaliuiltcean. — Copelian. — Cos- 
 tanoan. — Eskiman;in. — Esselenian. — Iroquoian. — 
 Kalapooiiui.— .'varaniiawaii. — Kcrcsaii. — Kiowan. 
 — - Kituanahan. — Koluschan. — Kulaiiapaii. — 
 Xusiiii. — I.utujimian. — ;\Iariposan. — ^loquclum- 
 iiaii. — -Arusklioireau. — Natclician. — Palailmihan. 
 
 — I'imaii. — Pujiinaii.— Quoratean.— Salinui. — 
 Salislian. — Sastean. — Shaliap*iaii. — Slioshoncuu. 
 — Siouan.— Slii'.la.iretaii.— 'rakilmaii.--Tarioan. — 
 Timu(|iianan.—Toiiikaii.— Tonka wan.— Uchean. 
 
 — \\'aiilat|)uan.— "WaUeslian. — Washoan. — AVeit- 
 spckan. — Wislioskan. — Vokonan. — Yauan. — 
 Yiikian. — Ynman. — Zunian. " — Tliese families 
 are severally defined in the summary of in 
 formation given below, and the rcla'tioiis to 
 tliem of all tribes liaving any historical impor- 
 f.ince are shown by cross-references and ollicr- 
 ^yise; but many other groupings and associa 
 tions, and many tribal names not scientificall,' 
 recognizcl, are likewise exliil)ited here, for the 
 reason that they have a signifiv.ince in history 
 and are the subjects of frequent allusion in 
 litcri'ture, 
 
 Abipones. See below : Pampas Tkibks. 
 
 Abnakis, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.— 
 
 '•The Abnakis wire called Taranteens l)y the 
 English, and Owcn.igungas by the New Y'orkers. 
 . . . We must admit that a, large jjortion of the 
 North American Indians were called Abnakis, 
 if not by themselves, at least by others. Tliis 
 word Abnaki is found spelt Abenaques, Abenaki, 
 Wapanacbki, and 'NVabenakies by diftereut; writ- 
 ers of various nations, each adopting the manner 
 of spelling according to the rules of pronunci- 
 ation of their resp.ective native languages. . . . 
 The word generidly received is spelled thus, 
 Abnaki, but it should be 'Waubanaghi,' front 
 the Indian word ' waubnnbau,' desiguating the 
 people of the Aurora Borealis, or in general, of 
 the plate where the sky commences to appear 
 white at the breaking of the day. ... It has 
 been diflicult for different writers to determine 
 tlie miml)er of nations 'T tribes comprehended 
 under this word Abnaki. It being a general 
 word, by itself designates tlie people of the east 
 or noiUieast. . . . ^,V'e find that the word Abu.aki 
 was applied iu general, more or less, to all the 
 Indians of the East, by persons who were nut 
 much acquainted with the aborigines of the 
 country. On the contrary, the rnrly writers and 
 otliers well aciiuainted witli the natives of New 
 Prance and Acadin, and the Indians themselves, 
 by Abnakis alwavs pointed out a particular 
 nation existing noi;li-westahd south of the Ken- 
 nebec river, and they ne\er designated any 
 other people of liie Atlantic shore, from Cape 
 JIatteras to Newfoundland. . . . The Abnakis 
 had five great villages, two amongst the French 
 colonies, which must be the village of St. 
 .loseph or Sillery, and that of St. Francis de 
 Sales, both iu Canada, three on the head waters. 
 
 70 
 
AMERICAN ABORiaiXES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 or nlonR three rivers, between Acmliii and New 
 Kngliuui. Those three rivers are tliu Kennebec, 
 tlie Androseoggin, and tlie Saco. . . . Tlio na- 
 tion of the Alinaliis Ix-ar evident niarlts of hav- 
 ing lueii an original peoi)lo in tluir name, man- 
 ners, and iangiiage. Tliey sliow a liind of eivil- 
 'zation which must be the etfeet of anti(iuity, 
 and of a past tlourislnng age."— E. Vetroniilc, 
 , The Ahnaki IiuUiins(M<tine Hist. Soe. Call., v. C).— 
 See, also, below: Al.(iON'(i:r.\N F.\mily.— For 
 some account of the war^ of the Abnakis, with 
 the New England colon'os, see C'.\nad.v (Nkw 
 Fu.\XCK); A. I). 1089 1000, and 1092-1097; 
 New England: A. l>. 1075 (.July— Sbpt.); 
 1702-1710, 1711-17l:.i; and Nova Scotia: A. I). 
 17i:!-17;iO. 
 
 Absarokas, Upsarokas, or Crows. See 
 below: Sioi;an Family. 
 
 Acawoios. See below: C'Anins and tiieih 
 
 KlNI>TlI-.D. 
 
 Acolhuas. See JIexico. A. D. 132o-1503. 
 
 Adais.*- -These Indiiiiis were a "tribe who, ac- 
 cordi.ig to Dr. Sibley, lived al)out the year 1800 
 near the old Spanish fort or mis.sion of Adaize, 
 'about 40 miles from Xiilrliitoelies. below the 
 Yattassees, on a lake eallcil Lac Mac don, which 
 communicates with the division )f Red River 
 that passes by Bayou Fierre ' [Lewis and Cliirke]. 
 A vocabulary of about 250 words is all that re- 
 mains to us of their language, which aecoiiling 
 to the collector. Dr. Sibley, 'dilVers from all 
 others, and is so dilllcult to speak or \niderstand 
 that no nation can speak ten words of it. ... A 
 recent comparison of this vocabulary by Mr. 
 Oatschet. with several Caddoan dialects, has led 
 to the discovery that a consicU-rable percentage 
 of tlie Adi'ii words have a more or kss remote 
 allirity with Caddoan, and he regards it as a 
 Caddoan dialect." — J. W. Foivell, Scrciilh An. 
 Urjinrt, Bureau of KthiwUMiy, pp. •l.)-40. — See 
 preceding ])age. 
 
 Adirondacks. — "This is a terra bestowed by 
 the Iroquois, in deris'on, on the tribes who 
 appear, at an early day, to have descended the 
 Utawas river, and occupied the left banks of 
 the St. Lawrence, above the present site of 
 tjuebec, about the close of the loth century. It 
 is said to signify men who eat trees, iu allusiou 
 to their using the bark of certain trees for food, 
 when reduced to straits, iu their war e.xcurs, us. 
 The French, who entered the St, Livwreuco from 
 the gulf, called the same people Algonciuius — 
 a generic appellation, which has been long 
 employed and come into universal use, among 
 historians and philologists. According to early 
 accounts, the Adirondacks had preceded the 
 Iroquois in arts and attainment "."—11. II. 
 Schoolcraft, Kotes on the Iroquois, Ji. 5.— See, 
 also, below: luoquois Confedeuacy: Tueh; 
 CoNQUiisra, &c. 
 
 iEsopus Indians. See below: Aloonquian 
 Family. 
 
 Agniers.— Among several names which the 
 Mohawks (see below: Iiioquois) bore in early 
 colonial history was that of the Agniers.— F. 
 Parkrann, llie Connpiraey of Pontiac. r. 1, ji. 9, 
 foot- note. 
 
 Albaias. See below: Pampas Tuibes. 
 
 Aleuts. See below; Eski.mauan Family. 
 
 Algonquian(Algonkin) Family.—" About the 
 
 period 1500-1000, those related tribes whom wo 
 
 nov know by the name ol Algonkins ^\erc at ihe 
 
 height of their prosperity. They occupied the 
 
 • See Note, Appendix E. 
 
 Atlantic coast from the Savannah rivron the south 
 to the strait of Belle Isle on the north. . The 
 dialects of all these were related, and evidently at 
 some distant day hud been derived from the same 
 primitive tongue. Which of thciu had preserved 
 the ancient forms most closely, it may be prema- 
 ture to decide positively, but tin; tendency of 
 modern studies has been to assign that place to 
 the Cree — the northernmost of idl. We camiot 
 erect a genealogical tree of the.se dialects. . . . 
 We may, howi'vcr, group them in such a manner 
 as roughly to indicate their relationship. This 
 I do" — in tlie following list: "Cree. — Uld 
 ■Vlgonkin. — ilontagnais. — Cliipeway, Ottawa, 
 I'oltawattomie, .Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankisliaw, 
 Kaskaskia, Menominee, Sue. Fo.\. Kikapoo. — 
 Sheslmtapoosh, SecolTeo, Jlicmac, -Melisceet, 
 Etchcmin, Abnaki. — Mohegan, Massachusetts, 
 Shawnee, Miiisi, Uiiami, Unalachtigo [the lust 
 three named forming, together, the nation of the 
 Lenape or Dclaware.s], Nanlicoke, Powhatan, 
 Pampticoke. — Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, .Shey- 
 enne. . . . All the Algoukin nations who dwelt 
 north of the Potomac, on the east shore of 
 Chesapeake Bay, and iu the basins of the Dela- 
 ware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship 
 and an identical origin, and were at times united 
 into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the 
 western and southern tribes they were col- 
 lectively known as Wapanaclikik — • those of the 
 eastern region' — which in the form Abnaki is 
 now conlined to the remnant of a tribe in ^Maine. 
 . . . The members of the confederacy were the 
 Mohegans(.Mahicanni) of the Hudson, who occu- 
 pied the valley of that river to the falls above 
 the site of Albany, the various New >Iersey 
 tribes, the Delawares proper on the Delaware 
 river and its branches, including the .Aliiisi or 
 Monseys, among tlio mountains, the Nn?iticokes, 
 between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, and 
 the small tribe called Canal, Kanawhas or 
 Ganawese, whose towns were on tributaries of 
 the Potomac and Patuxent. . . . Linguistically, 
 the MohcgiMis were more closely allied to the 
 tribes of New England than to those of the 
 Delaware Valley. Evidently, most of the tribes 
 of Massachusetts and Connecticut were compara- 
 tively recent offshoots of 'he parent .steiu on the 
 Hudson, supposing the course of migration had 
 been eastward. . . . The Nanticokes occupied 
 the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the 
 ocean, except its southern extremity, which ap- 
 pears to have been under the control of the 
 Powhaten tribe of Virginia." — D. G. Brinton, 
 The lj:nnpc and their Lerjenils, ch. 1-2. — " Jlolie- 
 gaiis, Munsees, jManhattans, ^Iet^iacs, and other 
 alhliated tribes and bauds of Algonduia lineage, 
 inhabited the banks of the Hudson and ihe 
 islands, bay and.seaboardof New York, including 
 Long Islanil, during the early penods of the rise 
 of the Iroipiois Confederacy. . . . The Jlohegans 
 finally retired over the Highlands east of them 
 into tlie valley of the llousator.i-. The JIunsccs 
 and Nanticokes retired to the Delaware river and 
 reunited with their kindred, the Lenapees, or 
 modern Delawares. The ^Manhattans, and 
 numerous other bands and sub-tribes, nielted 
 awiiy under Ihe intluence of licpior and died in 
 their tracks." — II. R. Schoolcraft, yuttitonthe 
 Iror/'i'iin, ch. 5. — " On the basis of a dilTcrence 
 in (lialeci, that portion of the Alg(m(iuin Indians 
 wnieh dweit in New England has been classed in 
 two divisions, one consisting of those who in- 
 
 77 
 
AMEHICAX \noIUGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 hatiilcci wliiit is now the Slate of Miiinc, nearly 
 up toils ueslein bonier the oiIkt corisistiiii; of 
 the r<'st of tiu' native population. The .Maine 
 Indians may have heen some l.'i.lMK) in niiinlHi', 
 or sotnewhat less than a thinlof tlienalive popu- 
 lation of New Hn!,'laiiil That portion of llieni 
 \vlioflw<'lt furthest, lowarilstheeasl were known 
 1)V the name of Ktclehemins. The Abenacjuis. 
 inebiiliriir the Tarratiiies, hunleil on both sidesof 
 the I'eiiobseot, ami westwanl as far as the Sai'o, 
 if not ipiile to the I'lscilaipia. The tribes fou ml 
 in tile rest ot New Knirlaml weri! ile-ii^'iiateil by 
 II greater variety of names. The lioiiu.' ot the 
 Peiiaeook or I'awtuekel Indians was in the 
 Koiillieast eorni'V of what is now New Ilainpshire 
 and the eonliguous re,u;ioii of .Massaehuselts. 
 Next dwelt the Massaeliusetts tribe, alonj; the 
 bay of that name. Then wen^ found sueei'ssively 
 the I'okanokets, or Wampanoags, in the south- 
 easterly refiioii of Massachusetts, and by IJuz- 
 zard's and Narraiiansetl nays;th<^ Narrajransetts, 
 with a tributary raee called Nyanties in what is 
 now the western part of the State of RIkhIo 
 I.sland; the I'eipiots, betweiai the NarraLmnsett.s 
 and the river formerly called the Pecpiot River, 
 now the Thames; ami t lie Muli(^;?aus, spreading 
 themselves beyond the River t'ouneetieut. In 
 the central region of Massachusetts were the 
 Nipiuucks, or >iipiiets; and along Cape Cod were 
 the Nausets, who ap])eared to have owed some 
 fealty to thi; PoUanokets, The New England 
 Indians exhibited an inferior type of humanity. 
 . . . Though lleet and agile when excited "to 
 some occasional elTort, they were found to be in- 
 capable of continuous labor. Heavy and 
 lihli'gmalii', they scarcely wept or smiled." — 
 J. <i. I'all'rev, Oiiiij)fnili'iii.i Hint, of N. J'Jii'/., 
 bk. 1, <•//. a (/•. 1).— "The vMvy of the 
 ' ('ahohatatea,' or Mauritius River [i. c., the 
 Hudson River, as now iiamiMl| at the time Hud- 
 son lirst iscended its waters, was inliabitc^d, 
 chielly, by two aboriginal races of Algoiuiuin 
 lineage, afterwards known among the English 
 colonists by the generic names of Moheguns 
 iind Mincees. The Dutch generally called 
 'ho Mohcgans, Mahicans; and the Mincees, 
 Sauhikans, These two tribes were subdivided 
 into numerous minor bamls, each of which 
 liad a distiiu^tive name. The tribes on the 
 east side of the river were generally .^[ohe- 
 gaus; those on the west side, Mincees. They 
 were hereditary enemies. . . . Long Island, or 
 'Sewau-liacky,' was occupied by thcsavage tribe 
 of Metowacks, which wassubdivided into various 
 clans. . . . StJiten Island, on thi' ojiposite side 
 of the bay, was inhabited by the ^lonatons. . . . 
 Inland, to the west, lived the ]{aritaus and the 
 Hackinsaeks; while the regions in Itie vicinity of 
 the well-kiK wu ' llighland.s,' south of Sandy 
 Hook, were i.ihabited by i; band or sub-tribe 
 called the Nevesincks or Navisiuks. . . . To the 
 south and west, covering the centre of New 
 Jersey, were the Aqnuniachukesuml the Stanke- 
 kans; while the Niwiey of the Delaware, north- 
 ward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by 
 yaricais tribes of the Eeiiapc race. . . . The 
 isla (I of the ^lanhattans " was occupied by the 
 tribe which received that name (see M.vxii.wi'AN). 
 Ou the shores of the river, above, dwelt the 
 Tuppans, the Wecki[uaesgeeks, the Siut Sings, 
 "whose chief village was named Cssin-Sing, 'or 
 ' the Rlace of Stones, ' " the Rachami, the Waoriii- 
 ucks, the Wappiugers, and the \Varouawaukongs. 
 
 "Further north, an<l occupying the present 
 counliesof Ulster and fJreene, were the jliiKpni 
 elans of .Minnesineks, Nanticokes, Mincees, anil 
 Hilawares. These clans had i)resse(l onwanl 
 fiiiin the upper valley of the Delaware. . . . They 
 were generally known among the Dutch as the 
 .Esopus Indians."— J. It. lirodhead. J/int. of 
 the State of .\. )'., r. 1, <■/(. '•i7^"'Y\\i' area for- 
 im^rly occupied by tlie Algonquian family w;h 
 more ex;"'isive than that ot any other linguistic 
 stock in Nor'h America, their territory reaching 
 from I.abiiido • 'othe Rocky .Mountains, and from 
 Churchill River of Hudson Hay as far south at 
 least us Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In 
 the easter.i part of this territory was an area 
 occupied liy Iroquoiau tribes, surrounded on 
 •dmost all sides by their Algonquian neighbors. 
 On the south the Algonquian tribes were Imr- 
 dered by tlio.se of Irixiuoianand Siouan (Catawba) 
 stock, on the southwest and west by the ^lusk- 
 hogean and Siouan tribes, and ou the northwest 
 by the Kitunahan and the great Athapaseun 
 families, while along the coast of Labrador and 
 the eastern shore of Hudson Hay they caine in 
 contact with the Eskimo, who were gradually 
 retreating before them to the north. In New'- 
 foundland they encountered tliv Ueothukan 
 family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portion 
 of the Shawnee at some early period had sep- 
 arated from the main body of the tribe in central 
 Tennessee and i)Ushed tiieir way down to the 
 .Savannah River in South Carolina, where, known 
 as Savannahs, they carried on destructive v 'irs 
 with the surrounding tribes until about the be- 
 ginning of the 18lh century they were tinally 
 driven out and joined the Delaware in the north. 
 Soon afterwards the rest of the tribe was expellej 
 by the Cherokee and Chicasa, who thencefor- 
 ward claimed all the country stretching north to 
 the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, 
 two allied tribes ot this stock, bad l)ecome sej)- 
 arated from their kindred on the north and had 
 forceil tlieir way through hostile tribes across the 
 .Missouri to the IJlack Hills country of South 
 Dakota, and more recently into Wyoming and 
 Colorado, thus forming the advance guard of 
 the Algonquian stock in that direction, having 
 the Siouan tribes behind them and those of the 
 Slioshonean family in front. [The following arc 
 thej principal tribes: Abnaki, Algonquin, Ara- 
 l)aho, Clieyenne, Jonoy, Cree, Delaware, Po.v, 
 Illinois, Kickapoo, Mahican, Massachuset, Me- 
 nominee, Miami, Jlicniae, ilohegau, Montagnais, 
 Mo'ilauk, ^.Munsee, Nanticoke, Narragauset, 
 Nauset, Nipmuc, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Pamlico, Pen- 
 nacook, Pequot, Piaukishaw, Pottawotomi, Pow- 
 hatan, Sac, Shawnee, Siksika, '\Vami>anoag, 
 Wappinger. The present number of the Algon- 
 (Uiiaii stock isaboutSJ.j, 000, of whom abouttW^OOO 
 are in Canada and the remaimler iuthe United 
 States." — J. W. I'owiiW, iicvcuth Annual licport, 
 Bureau of Ethiiolor/r/, pj). 47-48. 
 
 Also in J. W. Do Forest, Hist, of the Indians 
 of Vonnecticut. — A. Gallatin, Synojmis of the 
 Indian lYilieii ( Arcka'olur/ia Anteriaiiut, v. i), 
 iutro., sect. 2.— S. Q. Drake, Aboriginal liaees of 
 N. Am., bk. 2-8. — See, also, below: Del.vwauics; 
 
 lIotUK.^NS; SlIAWANESt ; SUStJUISIIANXAS; O.IIll- 
 
 WAs; Illinois.— For the Indian wars of New 
 England, see Niiw Kngland: A. D. 1037 (The 
 PKiiL'OT W'Aii): A. D. 1074-1675 to 107«-l(i78 
 (Ivixu Philip's Wau). — See, also, Pontiac's 
 Wau. 
 
 78 
 
AMEHICAX ABOUIOIXES. 
 
 AMKUICAX . noHIOINES. 
 
 Alibamus, or Alabamas. Sci' Ih'Idw: >Ir.<K- 
 iKMMAN Family. 
 Alleghans, or Allegewi, or Talligewi.— 
 
 '■Tlic iiMcst tiilic of llic Unilcil Slates, i)f wliicli 
 llicrr is iidistiiiil tniditidii, Hire the AUcKlmiis. 
 'I'lic term is iiii-pcliiiitcil ill the |iriiiii|iiil cimiiidf 
 iiiDUiilaiiis travcrsinir the coiiiitiy. Tliis trilie, at 
 all iiiiliiiui' prriocl, liail the .seat i)f their power 
 iu tlie ')lii(> Valley ami its eoiilliieiit slieiiiiis. 
 wliicli \V( le tile sites of their niiiiK'lous towiH 
 Mini villaires. Tliey appear (irii^inally li> have 
 liiirne the name of Alii, or Alle.i;. and hence the 
 Miiiiies of Talli.\'e\vi anil Allei;e\vi. (Trans. Am. 
 I'lii. Hoc, vol. 1.) I!y addiii;,' to the nidieal of 
 this word the jiartiele 'haiiy 'or 'gliany,' iiieaniiiir 
 river, they ile.scril)ed the jjrineipal scene of their 
 residence— namely, the Allcgliaii_v, or Uiver of 
 tli<> Alli'L'iians, liow called Ohio. The word 
 Ohio is of Iroiiuois origin, and of a far later 
 period; li;iviiiir hecii bestowed by them after 
 their eoiU|iiest of the country, in alliance with 
 tile Lenapees, or ancient Delawares. (Phi. 
 Trans.) The term was aoplied to the entire 
 river, from its conlliieiice with the Mississippi, 
 t> its oriirin in the liroad spurs of the Alle- 
 irliaiiics, ill New York and I'ennsylvania. . . . 
 There are evidences of antii(iio labors in the 
 alluvial i)laius and valleys of the Scioto, !Miami, 
 and Muskingum, the Wabash, Ka.skaskia,(.'ahokia, 
 and Illinois, denoting that the aneie'it Alleglmns, 
 and their allies and confederates, ci;ltivated the 
 soil, and were semi-agriculturists. These evi- 
 dences have been t.'accd, at late periods, to the 
 fertile table-lands of Indiana and Michigan. 
 The tribes lived in lixed towns, cultivating 
 exti'nsive fields of the zca-iii:ii/.e ; and also, as 
 deiiote<I by recent discoveries, . . . of some 
 species of beans, vines, and esculents. They 
 were, in truth, the ukjuiiI buihlers." — II. ij. 
 .Selioolcraft, Infunniitioit ■/■iKjHcliiir/ the Iiuliitn 
 'J'ribis, jit. 5, ]). i;W. — This conclusion, to which 
 Mr. bchoolcraft had arrived, tliat the ancient 
 Alleghans or Tallegwi were the mound builders 
 of llie Ohio Valley is being sustained by later 
 investigators, and seems to have become an 
 accepted opinion amimg those of highest 
 authority. The Alleghans, moreover, are being 
 ideiitilied with the Cherokecs of later tinu.'s, in 
 whom their race, once suppo-sed to be extinct, 
 has apparently survived; while the fact, long 
 suspected, that the Cherokee language is of the 
 Iro.iuois family is being proved by the latest 
 studies. According to Indian tradition, the 
 Alleghans were driven from their ancient scats, 
 long ago, by a combination against them of the 
 I.eniipe (Delawares) and the Mengwo (Iroquois). 
 The route of their migrations is being traced by 
 the character of the mounds which they built, 
 and of the remains gathered from the iiiounds. 
 "The general movement [of retreat before the 
 Iroipiois and Lenape] . . . must have been 
 southward, . . . and the exit of the Ohio iiiound- 
 Imilders was, iu all probability, up the Kaimwah 
 Valley on the samej Hue that the Chetokees 
 appear to have followed in reaching then- 
 historical locality. ... If the hypothesis here 
 advanced be correct, it is apparent that the 
 Cliurokees eutered the imiuediate valley of the 
 >Iississippi from the northwest, striking it iu the 
 region of Iowa."— C. Thoiuus, The Pmljkm of the 
 Ohio Moumh (Bureau of Ethiiologi/, 1880). 
 
 Also in The same. Burial Mouiuh of the 
 
 Sorlhcrn Sections of the If. *'. {Fifth An. liept. 
 
 C 
 
 of the Bureiiu of /■Jihiioloi/i). 18*1-84).-.!. Ilecke- 
 welder, Arct. of the Indinn ydlions. eh. 1. — 
 See, below: Clli;ii()KKKS. and Iiioyrols C'oNKKU- 
 KiiA(v; also .VMi;iit( A. I'nioiiisiniiic. 
 
 Amahuacas. See below : .\ni>i;sl\ns. 
 
 Andastes. See below: StsijficiiANNAii. 
 
 Andesians. — "The term Andesians or An- 
 tesiaiis. is used with geographical rather than 
 ethnologie.-d limits, and embrai'es a nuniber of 
 tribes. First of these are the C'ofau in Kipiador, 
 east of Chimbora/o. They fought valiaiitly 
 against the Spaniards, and in limes past killell 
 many of the missionaries .sent among them. 
 Xow they are greatly reduced and have become 
 more gentle. The lluamalioya are their near 
 neighbors. The .Hvara, west of the river I'as- 
 taca, are a warlike trilic. who, po.ssibly through 
 a mi.xture of Spanish blood, have a Kuropeau 
 cast of couutciiancc and a beard. The half 
 Christian Napoortiuijo audtheir peaceful neigh- 
 bors, the Zaporo, live on the IJio Xapo. The 
 Yameo, living on the lower Chambiva and cross- 
 ing the Maranon, wandering as far as Saryacu, 
 have a clearer complexion. The Facamora and 
 the Yuguarziaigo live on the .Maranon, where it 
 leaves its northerly <'ours(,' and bends toward the 
 cast. The Cochiijuima live on the lower Vavari: 
 the JIayonina, or Uarbudo, oii the usiddle l.'cayali 
 beside the Caiiipo and Cocliibo, the most terrible 
 of South Americau Indians; they dwell in tliu 
 woods between the Tapiche and the .Maranon, 
 and like the Jivaro have a heard. The Fano, who 
 formerly dwelt in the territory of I.alaguiia, but 
 who now live in villages on the upper L'cayali, 
 are Christians. . . . Their language is the prin- 
 cipal one on the river, and it is shared by seven 
 other tribes called collectively by the mission- 
 aries Jlanioto or ilayuo. . . . AVithiu the woods 
 on the right bank live the Amahuaca and Sha- 
 caya. On the north lliev join the Hemo, a pow- 
 erful tribe who arc distinguished from all the 
 others by the custom of tattooing. Outside this 
 Fano linguistic grouj) stand the Canipa, Campo, 
 or Antis on the east slope of the Feruvian (,'or- 
 dilleiaat the source of the Rio 15eni and its tribu- 
 taries. The Choutiuiuiros, or Firu, now occupy 
 almost entirely the bank of the L'cayali below the 
 Pachilia. The Mojos or JIoxos live in the Bolivian 
 provii.ce of JIoxos with the small tribes of the 
 Baurc, Itonair.a, Facaguara. A number of 
 smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian group 
 need not bo enumerated. The late Frofessor 
 James Orton described the Indian tribes of the 
 territory between Quito ami the river Aniazou. 
 The Najio approach the typ(> of the Quichua. 
 . . . Among all the Indians of the "roviucia del 
 Orieute, tlio tribe of .Jivaro is one or the largest. 
 These people are divided into a great number of 
 sub-tribes. All of these speak the dear musical 
 Jivaro language. They are muscular, active 
 men. . . . The Morona are cannibals in the full 
 .sen.se of the word. . . . The Campo, still very 
 little known, is perhaps the largest Indian tribe 
 iu Eastern Fern, and, according to .some, is 
 reliited to the Inca race, or at least with th"ir 
 successors. Thoy are said to be cannibals, 
 though James Orton does not think this po.ssiblc. 
 . . . T'lc nearest neighbors of the Campo are the 
 Chontakiro, or (Jhontaciuiro, or Chomiuiro, called 
 also Firu, who, accoriling to Paul Marcoy, are 
 said to be of the same origin with the Campo, 
 but the language is wholly dilTercnt. . . .Among 
 the Fano people are the wild Couibo ; they arc 
 
 79 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 the most interesting, but are jinssing into extinc- 
 tifin." — The StaiiiUtrd Nulural llintorji (./. S. 
 KiiKjuley. «1.), V. 6, ?//<. 227-231. 
 
 Apache Group.*-rM(Ur llic ficiienil iminc of 
 the .Vpiiihcs ' I incluiU' nil llic savaire tribes 
 roMiiiiii}; iIiioulIi New ^Mexico, the iiortli-wcstcrii 
 |i(irliiiii of 'IVxas, a small part of uorthcni 
 Mexico, and ,Vri/.ona. . . . Owing to their rov- 
 ing proelivilji'S anil incessant raiils they are leil 
 lirst in oik! direction and then in another. In 
 general terms they may he said to range about 
 as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni. 
 consisting of three tribes, the C'onianches projK'r, 
 the Vamparacks, anil Tenawas, inhabiting 
 northern Texas, easlorii Chihualiiia, Xuevo Leon, 
 ('■lahiiila, Duraiigo, and portions^ of .south- 
 western N'ew .Mexico, by language iiUied to the 
 (Shoshone family ; the Apaches, who call them- 
 selves iShis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' 
 and whose tribal divisions are the t'liiricaguis, 
 ('oyotero.s, Faraoncs, (Jilenos. Lipanes, l.laii- 
 eros, .Mescaleros, .Mimbrenos, Natages, I'elones, 
 I'iiialenos. Tejuas, Tontos, aial Va(|Ueros, 
 roaming over New .Mexico, Arizona, North- 
 western Texas, Chihuahua and Sonora, and 
 who are allied by language to the great 
 Tinneh family; the Navajos, or Tenuai, 'men,' 
 US tliey designate themselves, having linguistic 
 allinities with the .\j)ache naliim, with which 
 they are .>ionulimes classed, living in and around 
 the Sierra de los .Mimbres; the .Mojaves. occupy- 
 ing both b.uiksof the Colorado in .\lojave Valley ; 
 the llualapais, near the head-waters of Bill 
 Williams Fork; tiie Yunias, un the east bank of 
 the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio 
 Gila; the Cosninos, who, like the llualapais, are 
 sonietinu'S included in the Apache nation, rang- 
 ing through the MogoUon >Iounlains; and tlic 
 Yampais, between Bill Williams Fork and the 
 Rio llassayampa. . . . The Ai)ache coimtry is 
 prol)ably the most desert of all. ... In both 
 mountain and desert the lierce, rapacious Apache, 
 inured from childhood to hunger and thirst, and 
 heat and cold, finds safe retreat. . . The 
 I'ueblos . . . are nothing but partially recliiimed 
 Apaches or Comanches." — II. 11. Baiier-if!, 
 ydtii-f UiiCiK of til)', I'licific Stdtin. v. 1, ell. 5. — 
 Dr. Brinton jirefers the name Yuma for the 
 whole of the Apache Group, conlining the name 
 Apache (that being the Yiuna word for "light- 
 ing men") to the one tribe so called. "It has 
 also been .allcd the Katchan or Cuchan stock." 
 — 1). G. I'rinton, I'lie Aiiitrienii Iture., p. lOU. — 
 See, also, below: Aiii.\rAs< an Family. 
 
 Apalaches. — " Among the aboriginal tribes of 
 the I'nited States perhaps noi.e is n "e enig- 
 malicul than the A]iala( lies. They are mentioned 
 as an important nation by many of the early 
 French and Spaiush travellers and historians, 
 their name is presi'rved by a bay and river on 
 the shores of the Gulf of Jlexico, and by the 
 great eastern coast range of mountains, and has 
 been apjilied by ethnologists to a family of cog- 
 nate nations that iound their hunting grounds 
 from the jMississippi to the Atlantic and from the 
 Ohio river to the Florida Keys; vet, strange to 
 .say, their own race and jilace have been but 
 guessed at." The derivation of the name of the 
 Ajialaches "has been ii 'iiiU'Slio vexata' anuing 
 Inilianologists. " We must " consider it an in- 
 dication of ancient coniH'ct ions with thesmitheru 
 contlnenf, and in itself u pure Carib word 
 'Apiilicho' iu the Tumuuaca dialect of the 
 
 * Bee Note, Appendix E. fiA 
 
 Qiiaranay Stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,' 
 and llie earliest apf)lication of the name in the 
 northern continent was as the title of the chief 
 of a country, 'I'liomme par excellence,' and 
 hence, like " very many other Indian tribes 
 (.Vpaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjects 
 assumed by eminence the ])roud appcllatiim of 
 'The .Men'.' . . We have . . . found that 
 though no general migration took place from the 
 continent .southward, nor from the islands north- 
 ward, yet there was a considerable intercoune 
 in both directions; that not only the natives of 
 the greater and lesser Antilles and Y'ucat;in, but 
 also numlars of the Guaranay stem of the 
 southirn continent, the Caribs proper, cros.sed 
 the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on 
 the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their 
 cii.stoms and languaco became to a certain extent 
 grafted ujjon those of the early possessors of the 
 soil; and to this foreign langimge the name 
 Apalache behmgs. As previously .stated, it was 
 used as a generic title, apjilied to a confederation 
 of nvmy nations at one time luulcr the domina- 
 tion of one chief, whose jiower probably ex- 
 tended from the Alleghany mountains on the 
 north to the .shore of the Gulf; that it included 
 tribes speaking a tongue closely akin to the 
 Choktah is evident from the fraginents we have 
 remaining. . . The location of the tribe in 
 after vears is very uncertain Dumont jilaced 
 them m the northern part of what is now Ala- 
 bama and Georgia, near the mountains that bear 
 their name. That a portion of them did live in 
 lliis vicinity is corroborated by the historians of 
 South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 
 1703, found them 'between the liead-waters of 
 the Savaimah and Altamaha.' , . . According to 
 all the Spanish atithorities, on the other hand, 
 they dwelt iu the region of country between the 
 Suwannee and Aiipalachicola rivers — vet must 
 not be confounded with the Apalachicoios. . . 
 They certainly had a large and prosperous town 
 iu this viciniiy, said to contain 1,000 warriors. 
 ... I am inclined to believe that these were 
 dilTerent branches of the same confederacy. . . . 
 In the beginning of the 18th century they 
 sufTered much from the devastations of the Eng- 
 lish, French and Creeks. . . . About the time 
 Spain regained jiossessiou of the soil, they 
 migrated to the West and settled on the Bayou 
 Rapide of Red River, Here they had a village 
 numbering about 50 souls." — I). Q. Brinton, 
 Notes on the Floridiaii Peninsula, eh. 2. — See, 
 also, below : Muskiiookan Family. 
 Apelousas. Sl'cTe.kas: The Aboriginal in- 
 
 ItAIllTANTS. 
 
 Araicu. See below : Glck on Coco Gitour. 
 Arapahoes. See above: Aloonql'Ian Family. 
 Araucanians. See Ciiilk. 
 Arawaks, or Arauacas. See below: Cauihb 
 AND Tiiiiin IvinnuiiiJ. 
 A.icunas. See below: Caiuub and tueiu 
 
 KiNIUKI). 
 
 Arikaras. 
 Family. 
 
 Arkansas. See below: Siouan Family. 
 
 Assiniboins, See below: Sioi:an Fa-Mily. 
 
 Athapascan Family.-— Chippewyans.— Tin- 
 neh. — Sarceesf — "This name [Athapascans 
 or Athabascans] has been api)lied to a class of 
 tribes who are situated north of the groat 
 Churchill river, and north of the source of the 
 fork of the Saskat<'hawine, extending westward 
 
 See below ^ Pawnke (Caddoan) 
 
AMERICAN ABOniGINES. 
 
 AMEKICAK ABORIGINES. 
 
 till within about 150 miles of the Pacific Ocean. 
 . . . The inline is tlerived. arbitrarily, from 
 Lake Athabasca, wliich is now more generally 
 called the Lake of the Hills. Surrounding 
 this lake extends the tribe of the Chii)pcwyans, 
 a people so-called by the Kenistenoa ami Chip- 
 pewas, because lliey were found to be clothed, 
 in some i)rimary encounter, in tlie scanty garlj 
 of the fisher's skin. . . . AV'e arc informed liy 
 Mackenzie that the territory occujtied by the 
 Chippewyans extends between the parallels 
 of 00° and 05° north and longitiides from 
 100° to 110° west." — II. K. Schoolcraft, In- 
 furmation liesjk'ctiiif/ the IntUan I'rihcn, jit, 5, 
 p. 173. — "The Tinneli may be divided into four 
 great families of nations, namely, the Chippe- 
 wyans, or Athabascas, living between Hudson 
 Ray and the Koeky Jlountains; the Tacullies, or 
 Cairiers, of New Caledonia or North-western 
 Britisli America; the Kutchins, occupying both 
 banks of the Upper Yukon and itu Iribntiu-ies. 
 from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and 
 the Kenai, inhabiting the interior from (he lower 
 Yukon to Copiier River." — II. II. Bancroft, 
 T/w, Kdtiix Rues of the Pacific States, eh. 2. — 
 " Tlie Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent 
 region may be divided into two groups . . . . 1. 
 Tinneh — Chippewyans of authors. . . . Father 
 retilol diseusses tlie terms Atliabaskans, Chip- 
 pewayans, Montngnais, and Tinneh as applied 
 to this group of Indians. . . . This great family 
 includes a large number of American tribes ex- 
 tending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie 
 south to the borders of ^lexico. The Apaches 
 and Navajos belong to it, and the family seem* 
 to intersect the continent of North America in a 
 norti erly and southerly (direction, principally 
 along the Hanks of the Rocky Moimtains. . . 
 The designation [Tinneh] proposed by Messrs. 
 Ross and Gibbs lias been accepted by most 
 modern ethnologists. ... 3. T'linkets," which 
 familv includes the Yakutats and other groups. 
 — W.'II. Dall, Trilics of the Extreme Korthwcst 
 (Contributions to X. Am. Kthiwtoi,;/, i: 1). — 
 "Wlierever found, tlie members of this groii]) 
 present a certain family resemblance. In ap- 
 l)earance they are tall and strong, the forehead 
 low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes 
 slightly oblique, the nose prominent but wide 
 toward the base, tlie mouth large, tlu^ hands and 
 feet small. Their strength and endurance are 
 often phenouienal, but in the North, at lea.u. 
 their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. 
 Intellectually they r.mk below most of their 
 neiglibors, and nowhere do tlu!V appear as fos- 
 terers of the germs of civili/.ation AVherc, as 
 among the Navajos, we find them having .some 
 repute for the nieehanieal arts, it turns out that 
 this is owing to having captured and adopted the 
 menibersof more gifted tribes. . . . Agriculture 
 was not iiractised either in the north or souiii, 
 the only exception being the Navajos, and with 
 tliera the insi)iralion came fn.n otiier slocks. 
 . . . The mo.st cultured of their bands were the 
 Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'large 
 cornfields,' from their extensive agriculture. 
 When the Spaniards first met them in 1541 they 
 Were tillers of tlu^s<iil, erected large granaries for 
 their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial 
 water courses or aceijuias, and lived iii substan- 
 tial dwellings, i)artly underground; but they had 
 not then learned the art of weavi.ig the eelo 
 brated 'Niivujo bliuikcts,' that being u later 
 
 acquisition of their arti.sans." — 1). G. Brinton, 
 The Aiiicricaii Uoce, pp. 09-72. — Sec, above, 
 APACiii; Gitot'p, and Blackkkkt. 
 
 Atsinas (Caddoes).* See Inflow: Blackfket. 
 
 Attacapan P'amily. — "Derivation Prom a 
 Choctaw word meaning 'man-eater.' Little is 
 known of the tril)e, the language of whicli forms 
 the basis of the present family. The sole know- 
 ledge possessed by Gallatin was deiivc^d from a 
 vocabulary and soiiu- scanty information fur- 
 nished by Dr. .John Sibley, who collected his ma- 
 terial in the year 1805. Gallatin states that the 
 tribe was recluci d to 50 men. . . . Jlr. Gatschet 
 collected some 3.000 words and a considerable 
 body of text. Ilis vocabulary dilVers considtr- 
 ably from the one furnished by Dr. Sibley and 
 published by Gallatin . . . The above material 
 seems to show that the Attaca|)a language is dis- 
 tinct fnmi ali others, except po.ssibly the Chiti- 
 maclian," — .1. W. Powell, Seccnth Annual lit port, 
 liurKVi of Ethiioloim, p. 57. 
 
 Aymaras. See Pehu. 
 
 Aztecs See below: Mayas; also Mexico: 
 A. D. 1335-1503 ; and Aztec and Maya Pictuue 
 Writing. 
 
 Bakairi. See below: Cakids. 
 
 Balchttas. See below : Pampas Tkiuks. 
 
 Bannacks, Seeljelow: Suosiionean Family. 
 
 Barbudo. See aiiove: Amjksians. 
 
 Bare. See b> low Gi:ck oil Coco Guoup. 
 
 Baure. See aliove : Amdesians. 
 
 Beothukan Family. — Tlie Beothuk were a 
 tribe, now extinct, which is believed to have 
 oecupiiid the whole of Newfoundland at the tirao 
 of its dis;><)very. What is known of the language 
 of the Beothuk indicates no relationship to any 
 other Ameiiean tongue — J. W. Powell, Scvcntl- 
 Annual liept. of the liurtau of Ethnolor/y, p. I'i . 
 
 Biloxis. See below: SioUA.x Fa.mh.v. 
 
 Blackfeet, or Siksikas.— ' Tlu^ trilie that w uu- 
 ilered the furthest from the primitive home of the 
 stock [the Alg(aiquian| were the Blackfeet, or 
 Sisika, which word Iris this signilieatiou, It is 
 (1l rived from their earlier habitat in the valley of 
 llie Red river of the north, where the soil was 
 dark and blackened their moccasins. Their 
 bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegan 
 Indians. Half a century ago they were at the 
 h^ iui of a eonfi'deracy wliieh embraced these and 
 also the Sarcee (Tiiine) and the Atsina (Cuddo) 
 nations, and numbered about 30,000 souls. They 
 have an interesting mythology and an unusual 
 knowledge of the constellatiims. " — D. G. Briu- 
 ton. The Aiaeriam llace, p. 79. — See above: 
 AuiONijiiiAN Fa.mily; and. below: Flatiieads. 
 
 Blood, or Kenai Indians. See above : Black- 
 1'-i;et. 
 
 Botocudos. Seebelov/: Tupi. — Guauani. — 
 
 Tui'UYAS. 
 
 Brule'. Se(! below : Sioian Famii-v. 
 Caddoan Family. See below. Pawnee (Cad- 
 KoA.N) Family; see, also, Texas: Tiiic Ahohio- 
 
 INAL InIIAIUTANTS. 
 
 Cakchiquels. See below: Quiches, and 
 Mayas. 
 
 Calusa. See below: Tu.MLquANAN Family. 
 
 Cambas, or Campo, or Campa. See above: 
 Andkkians; also, I'ximvia: AnomoiNAL In- 
 
 IIAIUTANTS. 
 
 Cattares. See Ecuadok. 
 Canas. See Peuu. 
 
 Canichatias. Sec Bolivia: Abohiuinal In- 
 uajhtantb. 
 
 * Oee Note, Appendix L. 
 
 81 
 
AMKKICAN AKOmOIXES 
 
 AMKRICAN ABOHIGINES. 
 
 Caniengas. Si.'u below; luoiiiois C'onfkd- 
 i;iiA<v. 
 
 Cariay. Spc below: GrcK oil Coco Giiovp. 
 
 Caribs and their Kindred. — "Tlio -niirlikf 
 iitul Miiyicliliiiir clianiclrr (if tlicso pcopli', so 
 dillcri'iit from tl!;it of thi'pusilliiniiuoiis niilioiis 
 nrouiiil llicm, iiiiil tlio wide scopi! of their enter- 
 prises iiml w,.:iileriii!rs, like those of the noninil 
 tribes of the OM World, entitle them to (lis- 
 tin.;:iii--he(l iitteiition. . . . The trnilitionul lu- 
 (?onnls of their oriirin, tlionirh of course extremely 
 viigiio, are yet eapuble of being veriflctl to a 
 preat deirree by treojrraidiical facts, and open one 
 of the rich veins of cnrioiis iiKjiiiry and specula- 
 tion which abound in the Xew World. They 
 are said to havenii);rated from the remote valleys 
 emb(>some(l in the Analaehian niotuiiains. The 
 earliest accomits we have of them rei)resent them 
 with weapons in their hands, continually en- 
 gaged in wars, winniiif: their way and shift- 
 in!: their abode, tuitil, in I'.iO course of timi;, they 
 found themselves at the extremity of Florida. 
 Uere, abandoning the northern continent, they 
 passed over to tlio Lueayos [Bahamas], and 
 thence gradually, in the jirocess of years, from 
 island to island of that vast verdant eh.ain, which 
 links, ns it were, the end of Florida to the coast 
 of Paria, on the southern continent. The archi- 
 pelago extending from Porto Hico to Tobago 
 WM their stronghold, and the island of Guada- 
 loupe in a manner their citadel. Hence they 
 maile their expeditions, and .spread the terror of 
 their name through all the surrounding countries. 
 Swarms of them landed upon the southern con- 
 tinent, and overran .some parts of terra firma. 
 Traces of them have been (lis(H)Vered far in the 
 interior of that vast cotintry ilnough which Hows 
 the (Iroonoko. The Huteh found colonies of 
 them on the banks of the Iliouteka, which emp- 
 ties into the Surinam; along the Ksquibi, the 
 Maroni, and other iiv(rs of Guayana; and in the 
 coiuitry watered by t)ie windings of the Cay- 
 eime " — AV I'n ;'g, Life nml Voyiujea of Coliim- 
 bii.% W- 0, rh. 3 (B. 1). — "To this account [sub- 
 stantially as given above] of the origin of the 
 Insular C'liaraibes, the generality of historians 
 have given their assent; nut there are d(nib*,s 
 uttending it that ar_ n(5t easily solved. If [mey 
 n''grii'.(i fr(, II Florida, the imperfeet state anil 
 natural C(nirsi' of their navagation induce a be- 
 lief that traces of them would have been found 
 on those islands which are near to the Florida 
 shore; yet the natives of the Bahamas, when dis- 
 coveretl by Columbus, were evidently a similar 
 people to those of Ilispaniola. Besides, it is 
 Kufllciently knuwn that there existed anciently 
 manv numerous and powerful tribesof Charailx'S 
 on the southern peninsula, extending from the 
 river Oronoko to Es.seiiuebe, and throughout the 
 whole province of Surinam, even to Brazil, some 
 of which still maintain their independency. . . . 
 I incline therefore to the opinion of Jlartyr, and 
 conclude that the islanders were rather a colony 
 fron\ the Charaibes of South America, than from 
 any nation of the North. Hochefort admits that 
 tlifir own traditions referred constantly to Gui- 
 ana." — B. Edwards, JJigl, of lint. t'olonUiiin the 
 W.Indie>,bk. 1, ch. 2.— "The Carabisc-e, Cara- 
 beesi, Charaibes, Caribs, or Galibis, originally 
 ix-cunied [in Guiana] the principal rivers, but as 
 the Dutch encroached upon their possessions 
 they retired inlniul, ami are now daily dwind- 
 ling away. According to Mr llillhoiise, they 
 
 could formerly uuister nearly l.OfK) fighting men, 
 but are now [1^.55] scarcely able to raise a. tenth 
 part of that number. . . . The smaller islands 
 of the Caribbean Sea were formerly thickly 
 ])opulated by this tribe, but now not a trace of 
 tliem remains " — 11. O. Dalton, Hist, of British 
 (liiidiin, V. 1, rh. 1. — E. F. iin Thurn, Avtoiifj 
 the Indians of (iniuiKi, ch. C. — "H(;cent ro- 
 ,';'arcbes have shown that the original home of 
 the stock was south of the Amazon, and prob- 
 ably in the highlands at the head of the Tapajoz 
 river. A tribe, the Bakairi, is still resident 
 there, v.hoso language is a ptire and archaic 
 form of the Carib tongue." — D. G. Brinton, J{a- 
 ct'.i (1 11(1 Peoples, p. 208. — "Belated to the Caribs 
 stand a long li.st of small tribes . . . all inhabit- 
 ants of the great primeval forest in and near 
 Guiana. The)' may have characteristic dilTeren- 
 ccs, but uoiKi worthy of mention are known. In • 
 bixlily appearance, according to all accounts, 
 these relative's of the Caribs are '".autifid. In 
 (Jeorgetown the Artuiacas [or Arawaks] are cele- 
 brated for their beauty. They are slender and 
 graceful, and their features handsome and regu- 
 lar, the face having a Grecian profile, and the 
 skin being of a reddish cast. A little farther in- 
 land we lind the Macushi [or JMaeusis], with a 
 lighter complexion and a Hoinan nose. These 
 two types are repeated in other tribes, except in 
 the Taruini, who are decidedly ugly. In mental 
 characteristics great similarity prevails." — The 
 Stiuidard Xntnrtil Jli.itnrji (J. S. Kin'jsley, ri!.),p. 
 'i'M. — "The Arawaks occupied on the continent 
 the area of the modern Guiana, between the 
 Corentyn and llu; Pomeroori rivers, and at one 
 time all the West Indian Islands. From some of 
 them they were early driven 'jy the Caribs, and 
 within 40 years of the date of Columbus' first 
 voyage the Spanish had exterminated nearly all 
 on the islands. Their course of migration had 
 been from the interior of Brazil northward; their 
 di»tant relations are still to be found between the 
 headwaters of the Paraguay ;ind Schiugu rivers." 
 — n. G. Brinton, l!(tces nml Peoples, p. '..'OS-aOO.— 
 "Th(^ Kapohn (Acawoios, Waikas, Ac) claim 
 kindred with the Caribs. . . . The Acawoios, 
 thoigh resolute and determined, are less hasty 
 and impetuous than the Caribs. . . . According 
 to their tradition, one of their hordes removed 
 [to the Upper Demerera] . . . from the Jlasa- 
 runi. The I'arawianas, who originally dwelt on 
 the Demerera, having been exterminated by the 
 continual incursions of the Caribs, the AVaika- 
 .Vcawoios occupied their vacant territory. . . . 
 The JIacusis . . . are supposed l)y some to have 
 formerly inhabited the baidcs of the Orinoco. 
 ... As they are industrious and unwarlike, the/ 
 have been the prey of every savage tribe around 
 them. Tlie Wapisianas an^ sujjposed to have 
 driven them nortlnvard and taken possession of 
 their country. The Brazilians, as well as the 
 Caribs, Acawoios, &e., have long been in the 
 habit of enslaving them. . . . The Arecunas 
 have been accustomed to descend from the 
 higher lands and attack the Macusis. . . . This 
 tribe is said to have formerly dwelt on the banks 
 of the Uaupes or Ucayiui, a tributary of the Rio 
 Negro, . . The Warnus appear to have been 
 the moiit ancient inliabitants of the land Very 
 little, however, can be gleaned from them re- 
 specting their early history. . . . The Tivitivaa, 
 mentioned by Italeigh, were ])robably a branch 
 of the Warnus, whom he calls Qnarawetes."— 
 
 18 
 
AMERICAN ABOHIOINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 ^V, II. Bn'tt, Indian Tribes of Ginaiin, jit. 3, ch. 
 
 Caripuna. Soo brlow: Guck ou Coco Gltorp. 
 
 Cat Nation, or Eries. Scobtloxv: llimixs, 
 &i'., 1111(1 luoiiioiH Co.m'kukhacy: Tiikiu Cox- 
 (jrKsTs. itc. 
 
 Catawbas, or Kataba. Sec bilow: Siouan 
 Family; nlso, TiMUiiiANAS. 
 
 Cayugas. Seo below: Ikoquois Conpedek- 
 
 A( V. 
 
 Chancas. Seo PEur. 
 
 Chapas, or Chapanecs. See below: Zapo- 
 
 tW^, KTC. 
 
 Cherokees. — "The Cherokee tribe has lon.ij 
 been a puzzling factor to students of ethnology 
 ami N'orth Aiiierieau languages. Whether to bo 
 considered an abnormal offshoot from one of the 
 well-known Indian stocks or families of North 
 America, or the renuiant of some tin(lct<;rmiiied 
 or almost extinct family which has merged into 
 another, appear to be questions yet unsettled." 
 — C. Thomas, Jiurinl MduiuIs of the Nortltcrn Sec- 
 tions of the U. S. (Fifth Annual Rtpt. of the 
 Bureau of Ethnolorji/. 1883-4).— Facts which 
 tend to identify tlio Cherokees with the ancient 
 "mound-builders" of the Ohio Valley — the Al- 
 leghans or Tallipewi of Indian tradition — are 
 set forth by Prof. Thomas in a later paper, on 
 the l^obleni of the Ohio Mounds, published by 
 the Bureau of Ethnology in 1889 [seo above: 
 Ali.koh.vxs] and in a little book published in 
 1890, entitled "The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian 
 Times." "Tlio Cherokee nation has jirobably 
 occupied a more prominent place in the affairs 
 and history of what is now the United States of 
 America, since the date of the early European 
 settlements, than any other tribe, nation, or con- 
 federacy of Indians, unless it bo possible to ex- 
 cept the powerful and warlike lea,guo of the 
 Iroquois or Six Nations of New York. It is al- 
 most certain that tlicy were visited at a very 
 early period [l")4(l] folli>wing the discovery of the 
 American continent Ijy that daring and enthusi- 
 astic Spaniard, Fernando do Soto. ... At the 
 time of the English settlement of the Caroliiias 
 tlie Clierokees occupied a diversified and well- 
 watered regio'i of country of large extent upon 
 the waters of tlio Catawba, Broad, Saluda, Keo- 
 wee, Tugaloo, Savannah, and Coosa rivers on 
 the cast and south, and several tributaries of the 
 Tennessee on the north and west. ... In sub- 
 sequent years, through frequent and long con- 
 tinued conllicts with the ever advancing white 
 settlements, and tliu succcs.sivo treaties whereby 
 the Cherokees gradually yielded portions of their 
 % domain, the location and names of their towns 
 were continually changing un'il tin; final removal 
 of the nation [1H36-1839] west of the Mi.ssis.sippi. 
 . . . This removal turned the Cherokees back iu 
 the calendar of progress and civilization at least 
 a (piarter of a century. The hardships and ex- 
 posures of the journey, couple<l with the fevers 
 and malaria of a radically different climate, cost 
 the lives of pcrhai)s 10 per cent, of their total 
 popidatijn Tlie animosities and turbulence 
 horn of the treaty of 1HI15 not only occasioned 
 the loss of many lives, but rendered property in- 
 secure, and in consequence diiniuished the zeal 
 and industry of the entire ccmimunity in its ac- 
 cumulation- A brief period of comparative 
 (puct, however, was again characterized by an 
 advance toward u higher civilizutiou. Fi.e 
 years after their removal we find from the re- 
 •See Note. Appendix E. gn 
 
 port of their agent that they are again on the 
 increa.se in population. . . . With the exception 
 of occasional drawl)acks — the res\ilt of civil 
 feuds — the j)rogress of the nation in ediualion, 
 industry and civilization o ntinued mil II the 
 outbreak of the rebellion. At this period, from 
 the best attainable information, the Cherokees 
 numbered 21,(K)0 souls. The events of the war 
 brought to them more of desolation and ruin 
 than nerhaps to any other community. Raided 
 and .sacked altcrnatel3', not only by the Confed- 
 erates and Union forces, but by tlic vindictive 
 ferocity and hate of their own factional divis- 
 ions, their cotuitry became a blackened and deso- 
 late waste. . . . The war over, and the work of 
 reconstruction '. ommenced, found them number- 
 ing 14,000 inqioverished, heart-broken, and 
 revengeful people. , . . To-d.iy their country is 
 more jjrosperous than ever. They number 
 22,000, a greater iiopulatlon than they have had 
 at any previous period, except jicrhaiis just 
 prior to the date of the treaty of 183.1, when 
 those east added to those west of the Jllssi.ssippi 
 are stated to have aggregated nearly 25,000 peo- 
 ple. To-day they have 2,300 scholars attend- 
 ing 75 schools, established and supported by 
 themselves at an aiinind expense to the nation of 
 nearly $100,000. To-day, 13,000 of their jieoplo 
 can read and 18,000" can speak the Eng- 
 lish language. To-day, 5,000 brick, frame and 
 log-houses are occupied by them, and they have 
 04 churches witli a memliersliip of several thou- 
 sand. They cultivate 100,000 acres of land and 
 have an additional 150,000 fenced. . . . Tliej' 
 have a constitutional form of gov< rnment predi- 
 catcu iipon that of the United States. As a ride 
 their laws are wi.se and benelicent and are en- 
 forced with strictness and justice. . . . The 
 present Cherokee population is of a compo-.ltc 
 character. Kenuiants of other nations or tribes 
 [Delawarcs, Shawnees, Creeks, Natchez] have 
 from time to time been ai.sorbedand admitted to 
 full participation in the beneli'sof Cherokee citi- 
 zenshii)." — C. C. Koycc, The Cherokee Nation of 
 IniUaiis {Fifth Annua/. Jiipt. of the Bureau of 
 E/hnoloy//, 1883-84).— This elaborate paper by 
 Mr. Uoyce is a narrative- in detail of the ollicial 
 relations of the Cherokees with the colonial and 
 federal governments, from their first treaty with 
 South Carolina, in 1721, down to the treaty of 
 April 27, 1808 —"As early as 1798 Barton com- 
 pared the Cheroki language with that of the 
 lro(piois and stated his helief that there was a 
 connection between them. . . . Mr. Hale was 
 the llrst to give formal expression to his belief in 
 tlie allinity of the Cheroki to Iriapiois. Recently 
 ext 'usive Cheroki vocabularies have come into 
 possession of the Bureau of Ethnologv, and a 
 caieful comparisini of them wi'h ample Irorpiois 
 material has been made by Mr Hewitt. The re- 
 sult is con'incing iiroof of the relationship of 
 the two languages. — J. W. Powell, Sirenth An- 
 nual Uepl. <f the Bureau of Fthnolot/y, p. 77.* 
 
 Also i;; S. G. Drake, The Alxiriginal Ilaees of 
 X Am., bk. 4, eh. 13-10.— See, above: Ai.r.K- 
 (iiiANs. — See, also, for an account of the Che- 
 rokee War of 1759-1701, South Cakolina: A. D 
 1759-1701; and for "I^rd Dunmore's War," 
 Oiiio(Vaixey). a n 1774. 
 
 Cheyennes, or Sheyennes. Sec above- At,- 
 ooN(iiiAN Family 
 
 Chibchas. — The most northerly group of the 
 tribes of the Andes "are \\w Cundinaiiiiiieu of 
 
AMERICAN AnOHIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 the tnMfi lands of PojTota. At tlic time of tlic 
 coM(|iicst I lie walcrslu'd of tlic Mag<lal('na was 
 rx'cupicil hy the Cliihclia. or, as tlicy witc iiilli'd 
 l)y tile Siianiards, Muyscas. At that liint! tlio 
 Cliil)clia wi'Ti: tlio most iKiwcrful of all tlio 
 autoclitlionoiis trilns, liad a loii^ liisfory lichiiid 
 thrill, were well alvaiKcd I iward (■ivilizaticiii, 
 to which iMiiiicioiis aiiti<)iiilics l.car witness. 
 The (^liihrha of to-day no loni;cr speak tin; wcU- 
 dcvclopcd and musical Iani;uac:(' of their forc- 
 fallieis. It hecaiiie exlinct iiliiiilt 17i!0, and it 
 cm now only he inferred Ironi cxistiiii; diiiKcIs 
 of il ; these arc the laiif^uaj^cs of the Turiero, a 
 trill" dwclliiii; north of Ro.i^ota, and of the Itoco 
 Indians wlio live in tlu; nci^^hhorliooil of the 
 cclehrated Emerald mines of Mu/.o. " — T/w Hldii- 
 rhird .\'tttiiriil i/ixlori/ (J. S. Kiiiff.ilfi/, erf.) v. 0, p. 
 SI."). — "As potters and goldsmiths they [the 
 Chihcha] ranked among the tincst on the conti- 
 nent." — I). U. nrinlon, limciaml PtoplcH, p. 273. 
 — Sec, also, Colo-Mbian St.\tes: A. D. 151!0- 
 17:11. 
 
 Chicasas. See hehuv: Mi'sivIiogean Family; 
 also. I.oiisiANX: A. I). 17li)-1750. 
 
 Chichimecs. See >!i;xi(i): A. ■*). 132.")-l.-,()2. 
 
 Chimakuan Family. — "The Cliimakiini arc 
 said to liavi' hecn formerly one of the largest and 
 most powerful tribes of Paget Sound. Their 
 warlike habits early tended to diminish their num- 
 bers, and when visited by Gibbs in IH.-ii ihey 
 counted only about 70 individuals. This small 
 remnant occuiiied some \h small lodges on Port 
 Towns 'nd liay," — J. W. Powell, Sfteulh AiininU 
 Hcji'trt, liid'Cdii iif KthiKiliigji, p. 03. 
 
 Chimarikan Family. — "According to Powers, 
 this f.imily was reprcsi'iited, so f:vr as known, by 
 two tribes in Califnrni.i, one the ('liinnil-a-kw(', 
 living on New River, a branch of tli(^ Trinity, 
 the other the C'liiniariko, residing upon the Trin- 
 ity itself from Itnrnt Rincli up to tlie mouth of 
 N'orlli Pork, California. The two tribes are .said 
 to have been as numerous formerly as the Ilujia, 
 by whom they wen overcome and nearly exter- 
 minated. Upon the arrival of tlii' Ameriians 
 only 3.") of the Ohimalakwc were left." — .1. W. 
 Powell, Sii nth Annual Ueport, Bureau of Eth- 
 noljit/!/, p, 03. 
 
 Chinantecs. See below: ZAroTlX's, etc. 
 
 Chiriookan Family. — "The bank.s of the Col- 
 umbia, from the Grand Dalles to it.= nioutli. belong 
 to the two braneliesof theTsinfik [or CliinookJ 
 nation, whicii meet in the neighborhood of the 
 Kowlit/. River, and of vhieli an almost nominal 
 remnant is left. . . . T\u; position of the TsinQk 
 previous to their depopulation was, as at once 
 appc irs, most important, oce",i]iying both sides of 
 the great artery <.f Oregon for a distance of 300 
 miles, they |)ossesscd the principal Hiorouglifarc 
 between the interior aial the ocean, boniidless 
 resources of provisions 01 various kinds, and facil- 
 ities for trade almost une(piallcd on the Paci- 
 fic." — G. Giblw, 'J'n'l.,:f of ir<.«/ ]\'(m/iiii</l()n and 
 X. II' OiYi/nn (Contn'li. to X. A. Kthndhuj)/, v. 1), 
 ;). 1<U. — .See, also, below: Fi. vtiiicads. 
 
 Chippewas. See below ; 0,iiiiwas; and 
 above: Ai.iio .(jfiAN Family. 
 
 Chippewyans. See below : Athapascan 
 Famii.v. 
 
 Choctaws. See below: MtsKiionEAN Family. 
 
 Chontals and Popoloflas.-" According to 
 the census of IHHI) there were Id, (I'M) Indians in 
 Mexico belonging (o the Familia Choiilixl. No 
 such family exists. I'he word 'chontulli ' in thu 
 
 Nahuatl langua-^e rx'ans simply 'stranger,' and 
 was applied !•; '.; ■ Xaliuas to any ])eop!e other 
 tiiaii their own. According to the Mexican 
 statistics, the Chontals arc fouinl in the states of 
 Mexico, PiK'lila, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tabasco, 
 Guatemala and Nicaragua. A siiniliar term is 
 'popoloca,' which in Nahuatl means acoar.se 
 fellow, one s|)eaking badly, that is, broken 
 Nahuatl. The Popolocas liavc^ also hecn erected 
 into an ethnic entity by some etiinographers, 
 with as little justice as the Chontallis. They 
 ar<' stated to have lived in the provinces of 
 Puebla, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan and 
 (iuatemala." — I). G. Rrinton, The Anwrivnn 
 li'vv. pp. Uti-lTia. 
 
 Chontaquiros. Sec above: Anuksians. 
 
 Chumashan Family. — " i)erivation: From 
 Chuniash, the name of the Santa Rosa Islanders. 
 The several dialects of this family Inivu long 
 been known under the group or fiimily name, 
 'Santa Barbara," which seems first to have been 
 used in a comprehensive sense by Latham iu 
 18.50, who incliKled under it three languages, viz. : 
 Santa Rarbara, Santa Inez, and Sau Lii's Obispo. 
 The term has no siiecial pertinenco as a family 
 designation, except from the fact that the Santa 
 ISarliara Mission, around which one of the dia- 
 lects of the family was spok(Mi, is perhaps more 
 widely known than any of the others." — J. W. 
 Powell, ti'mnth Annual Iteport, Bureau of Etli- 
 nnlmiji, p. 67. 
 
 Cliff-dwellers. See Amehioa: PnEiiisTonic. 
 
 Coahuiltecan Family. — "Derivation: From 
 the name of the ^Mexican State Coahiiila. This 
 family appears to have included numer us tribes 
 in southwestern Texas and iu Mexico. ... A 
 few Indians still survive who speak (me of Iha 
 dialects of this family, and in 188(> .Mr. Gatschet 
 collected vocabularies of two tribes, the Come- 
 crudo and Cotoname, who live on the Rio Grande, 
 at J, as Prictas, State of Tamaulipas." — J. W. 
 Powell, Sunth Annual liept , Bureau of Eth- 
 noliii/j/, p. 08. 
 
 Coajiro, or Guajira. — "An exceptional posi- 
 tion is taken, in many respects, by the Coajiro, 
 or Guajii'a, who live on the peninsula of the 
 same name on the northwestern boundary of 
 Venezuela. Bounded on all siiles by so-called 
 civilized [)eoples, this Indian tribe is known to 
 have maintained its indcpcnileiice, and acquired 
 the well-deserved reputation for cruelty, a tribe 
 which, in many respects, can be classed with the 
 A])aclies and t'oinanchcs of New Mexico, the 
 Aiaucani.uis of Chili, and the Guaycara and 
 Giiaraiii on the Parana. The Coajiro are mostly 
 large, with chestnut-brown complexion and 
 black, sleek hair. While all the other eoast 
 tribes have adojited the Spanish language, the 
 Coajiro lii!"e preserved their own speech. They 
 are the especial foes of the other peoples. No 
 one is given entrance into their land, and they 
 live with their neighbors, the Venezuelans, in 
 constant hostilities. They have fine horses, 
 which they ki tv how to ride excellently. . . . 
 They have m;. _; rous herds of cattle. . . . They 
 follow agriculture a little." — 7'he Standard AV;(- 
 ural Ifistorn (J. S. KinijHky, «/.), r. fl, p. 243. 
 
 Cochibo. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Cochiquima. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Coco Group, See below: QiicK oil Coco 
 
 (iH"ll". 
 
 Coconooiis. Sec below: Mauipohan Family. 
 Cofan, See above; Andbhianh. 
 
 84 
 
AMEIUCAX A;'J0KIGINE8. 
 
 AMKUICAN AI10UIGINE8. 
 
 ColUs. Sco Pkuu. 
 
 Comanohe^^. Scf .jclow: Siiosiionean Fam- 
 ily, aud Klu,.AN Famii-y; mid iibovu: Al'Afllli 
 Giioi r. 
 
 Conestogas. See below: Sl'squeiiannas. 
 
 Conibo. .See above: Andkhians. | 
 
 Conoys. See above: Aiaioscjuian Family. | 
 
 Copehan Family. — "The territory of the Cope- | 
 liiiri fiiiiiily is bouiiiled on the north by Mount ■ 
 Sli:ist;i and I lie territory of the Sustean and Lutu- 
 ;iiuian families, on tlie east l)y the territory of 
 the Paluihnihan, Yanan, and Punjunaii families, 
 and on the south by the bays of San Pablo and 
 Suisiiii and the lower waters of the Sacramento." ! 
 — J. W. Powell, Scirnth Ann mil liept., Bureau of 
 Ethii(>liiii!i, j). (ii). 
 
 Costanoan Family. — "Derivation: From tho 
 Spanish eostano, ' eo.islinen. ' Under this group 
 name Latham included live tr s . . . wliieli 
 were luuler the supervision of t" iission Dolores. 
 . . . The territory of tlie Cos .noan family ex- 
 tends from the Golden Gate to a point near the 
 .southern end of Jlonterey Hay. . . . The surviv- 
 ing Indians of the once populous tribes of this 
 family are now scattered over several counties 
 and probably tlo not number, uU told, over iiO 
 individuals, as was ascertained by Mr. Ilenshaw 
 iu 1MS8. Most of these are to be found near the 
 towns of Santa Cruz ami Monterey." — J. W. 
 Powell, Sei^enth Annual litpt., Bureau, of Eth- 
 iiuliKjii, p. 71 . 
 
 Creek Confederacy. — Creek Wars. See 
 below: MusiiiiouiiAN Family; also United 
 States of Am.: A. D. 1813-1814 (August— 
 Ai'Uil); andFLOuiDA: A. D. 1810-1818. 
 
 Crees. See above : Aloo.nquiax Family. 
 
 Cr- \tdns. See America: A. D. 1587-1590. 
 
 Crows (Upsarokas, or Absarokas). See 
 below: SiouAN Family. 
 
 Cuatos. See below: Pampas TitiuES. 
 
 Cunimare. See below: Guck oil Coco 
 Giioci'. 
 
 Cuyriri or Kiriri. See beiow : Guck ou Coco 
 Giioii'. 
 
 Dakotas, or Dacotahs, or Dahcotas. See 
 below : SiouA.N Family and Pawnee (Cauuoan) 
 Family. 
 
 Delawares, or Lenape. — "The proper name 
 of the Delaware Indians was and is Leniipu (ii as 
 in father, e as a in mate). . . . The Lenape 
 were divided into three sub-tribes: — 1. Tiie 
 .Miiisi, Mouseys, Montheys, Munsees, or Jlini- 
 .siiiks. 2. The Unami or Wonameys. i3. The 
 I'nalachtigo. No explanation of these designa- 
 tions will be found in Ileckowelder or tho older 
 writers. From investigations among living Dela- 
 wares, carried out at my request by Mr. Horatio 
 Hale, it is evident that they are wholly geo- 
 grapiiical, and refer to the location of these sub- 
 tribes on the Delaware river. . . . The Jlinsi 
 liv(Hl in the moiintainous region at tho head 
 waters of the Delaware, above the Forks or 
 junction of iIk- Lehigh river, . . . The Uuamis' 
 territory on the right bank of the Delaware river 
 e.xtended from the Lehigh Valley southward. It. 
 was with them tuid their soiuheru neighbors, th(! 
 I'nalachtigcs, that Pitnn dealt for the land ceded 
 to him in the Indian deed of 1082. The Minsis 
 did not take part in the transaction, and It was 
 not until t7:i7 that tlu^ Colonial authorities treated 
 directly with the latter for the cession of their 
 territory. The Uualaehtigo or Turkey totciin had 
 its principal .seat ou the aiUueuts of the Delaware 
 
 near where Wilmington now stands." — D. O. 
 Brinton, The Lenajte and Their Ixi/ends, eh. 3. 
 — "At the . . . time when William Penn landed 
 in Pennsylvania, the Delawares had been subju- 
 gated and madi! women by the Five Nations. It 
 is well known that, according to that Indian mode 
 of expression, the Delawares were henceforth 
 prohibited from making war, and placed under 
 the sovereignty of the conquerors, who did not 
 even allow sales of land, in the actual itossession 
 of the Delawares, to be valid widiout their appro- 
 b:iti(jn. AVMlliani Penn, his descendants, and the 
 Stale of Pennsylvania, accordingly, alwiiys i)ur- 
 chased the right of po.s.session from the Delawares, 
 and that of Sovereignty from the Five NatioiLs. 
 . . . The use of arms, though from very differ- 
 ent causes, was equally pro.hibited to the Dela- 
 wares and to the Quakers. Thus the coloniza- 
 tion of Pennsylvania ami of West New .Jersey by 
 the I5riti.sh, comniene(Ml under tl:>' most favorable 
 auspices. Peace and the utmost harmony i)rc- 
 viuled for more thai si.xty ye.'irs betweci the 
 whites and the Indians; for the.se were for the 
 first time treated, not only justly, but kindly, by 
 tho colonists. Hut, however gradually and 
 peaceably their lands might have been purchased, 
 tho Delawares found themselvi^s at last in the.same 
 situation as all the other Indians, without lauds 
 of their own, and therefore without means of 
 suljsistcnce. They were compelled to seek 
 refuge on the waters of the Su.s(iuelianna, as 
 tenants at will, ou lands belonging to their hated 
 conquerors, the Five Nations. Kven there and 
 on the Juniata they were encroached upon. . . . 
 Under those circumstapces, many of the Dela- 
 wares determined to remove west of tho Alle- 
 ghany Jlounlains, and, about the j'ear 1740-50, 
 obtained from their ancient allies and uncles, the 
 Wyandots, the grant of a derelict tract of land 
 lying principally <iu the Muskingum. The great 
 body of the nation was still attached to Peunsyl- 
 vaiiia. But the grounds of complaint increased. 
 The Delawares were encouraged by tho western 
 tribes, and by the French, to shako off tho yoke 
 of the Six Nations, and to join iu the war against 
 their allies, tho British. Tlie iro;itier settlements 
 of Pennsylvania were accordi'igly attacked both 
 by the Delawares and the bl.:iwnoes. And, 
 although peace was made with vliem at Easton in 
 in 1758, and the coucjucst of (;au.i.la put an end 
 to the general war, both tho Sliawuoes and Dela- 
 ware , removed altogether iu 170^j beyond the 
 Alleghany Mountains. ; . . The years 1705-1795 
 are the true period of the i« •."cr and importance 
 of the Delawares. United with the Shawiiocs, 
 who were settled on the Scioto, they sustained 
 during the Seven Years' War the declining power 
 of France, and arrested for some years the pro- 
 gress of the Briti.sh and American arms. 
 Although a portion of the nation adhered to the 
 Amerieans during the War of Independence, the 
 main body, together with all the western nations 
 made common cause with the British. And, 
 after the short truce which followerl the treaty of 
 17o*!t, they were again at the head of the western 
 confederacy in tiieir last struggle for indepen- 
 dence. Placed by their geographical situation in 
 the front of battle, they were, during those 
 three wars, the aggressors, and, to the last 
 moment, the most active and formidable enemies 
 of America. The decisive victory of General 
 Wayne (1794), dissolved the confederacy ; and the 
 Delawares were tho greatest sufferers by the 
 
 85 
 
AMEUICAN AUORIOINES. 
 
 a:«eiuc'ax aboijigines. 
 
 trciity of (irc'cnvillp of IT!)")." After this, the 
 ^rrciitrr |iait (if the Dclaniircs were si'ttU'd on 
 White I{iver, liidiaim, "till tlieyear 1819, when 
 they linnlly ceiled llieir clai.n to tlic United 
 Slates. TlVisc residing there were tlien reilueed 
 to alHiut H0() souls. A nuniher . . . liad pre 
 vioiisly removed to Cnnadii ; nnd it is dillicult to 
 aseerti'iin IIk' situation or numhers of the residue 
 at tills time [IWitl]. 'I'liose «lio have lately 
 removed west of the Mississippi are. In an esti- 
 mate of the War Department, eom|iuted at 4lK> 
 soids. Former einijtratlons to that (|uarter liad 
 however 'aken ida<e, and several snnill dispersed 
 hands are, it is l)elleve<l, tniited witli the f^eneeas 
 anil some other trihes." — A. Gallatin, Si/iioiisik of 
 till' liiiliiiii 'J'filiiii (.[rf/(ii(ili)f/i(i Aiiirrieiiini, c. 2), 
 iiitroil.. Kii't. "J. — See, ahovc: Al.(i<>X(jl'IAN F.\M- 
 u.v; helow: Sii.wanksic, and P.wvnki-: (C.M)- 
 
 IMl.VN) K.\MII.V. — Also, I'oNTIAC's 'W.Ml; r.MTKl) 
 
 Htati:sok Am. : A. I). ]T(i.")-17fl8; and Mohavian 
 1{iiktiiui;n; nnd, for an aeeount of "Lord Dun- 
 niore's War, " see Ohio (\'ai-i.i;y); A D. 1?74. 
 
 Eries. See l)elow- lIinioNs, &c, and Iiio- 
 tiiois C'oNFi-;Di;uAev: TiiKiu Conijuests, &c. 
 
 Eslcimauan Family. — "Save a slight inter- 
 nii.'cture of European settlers, the Eskimo are 
 tlie onlylnhabltanlsof the shores of Arctic Amer- 
 ie.i, and of both sides of D.vvis Strait and Haf- 
 fin Hay, iucludlii); Greenland, as well as n tract 
 of about 400 niile.s on the Bchring Strait coast 
 of Asia. Southward they extend ns fur as about 
 no' N. L. on the eastern side, (ilP on the west- 
 ern side of America, and from ri.>° to 00^ on 
 the shores of Hudson Hay. Only on the west 
 the Eskimo near their frontier arc interrupted 
 (m two small spots of the coa.st by the Indians, 
 named Kennayans and Ugalenzes, who have 
 there advanced to the scasliore for the sake of 
 Ashing. These coasts ot Arctic America, of 
 course, also comiirlse all the surrounding islands. 
 Of these, the Aleutian Islands form an excep- 
 tional group; the inhabitants of these on the one 
 hand (listiuctly dillering from the coast people 
 hero mentioned, while on the other they show a 
 closer relationship to the Eskimo than any other 
 nation. The Aleutians, therefore, may be cou- 
 sidereil as only an abnormal branch of the 
 Eskimo nation. ... As regards their northern 
 limils, the Eskimo ]ieople, or at least remains of 
 their habitations, have been found nearly as far 
 north as any Arctic explorers have hitherto 
 advanced; and very possibly bands of them may 
 live still farther to the north, ns yet iiuite 
 unknown to lis. ... On comparing the Eskimo 
 with the neighbouring nations, their physical 
 complexion certaiidy seems to point at an 
 Asiatic origin; hut, as far as we know, the 
 latest investigations have also shown a tran- 
 sitional link to exist between the Eskimo nnd 
 the otliT American nations, which would suf- 
 liciently indicate the possibility of a common 
 origin from the same continent As to their 
 mode of life, the Eskimo decidedly resemble 
 their American neighbours. . . . With regard to 
 their language, the Eskimo also appear nkin to 
 the American nations in regard to its decidedly 
 polysynthetic structure. Here, liowever, on the 
 other hand, we meet with some very remarkable 
 similarities between the Eskimo idiom and the 
 language of Siberia, belonging to the Altaic or 
 Finnish group. . . . According to the Sagas of 
 the Icelanders, they were already met with on 
 the east coast of Gwenlaud about the year lOOO, 
 
 • Bee Note, Appendix E. |^ 
 
 mill almost at the .same time on the east const of 
 the American continent. . . . Between the years 
 1000 and i;(0(l they do not seem to have occupied 
 the land south of 05^ N. L. on the west const of 
 Greenland, where the Scandinavian colonies 
 were then situated. But the colonists seem 
 to have been aware of their existence in 
 higher latitudes, and to have lived in fear of an 
 attack by them, since, in the year 1206, an 
 expedition was sent out for the purpose of 
 exploring the abodes of the Skrajlings, as they 
 were called bv the colonists. . . . About the 
 year 14.)0, the last accounts were received from 
 the colonies, and the way to Greenland was 
 entirely forgotten in the mother country. . . . 
 The features of the natives in the Southern pnrt 
 of Greenland indicate a mixed descent from the 
 Scanilinavians and Eskimo, the former, how- 
 ever, not having left the slightest sign ot any 
 inlluence on the nationality or culture of the 
 present natives. In the year 138.5, OroeMland was 
 discovered anew by John Davis, and found 
 inhabited exclusively by Eskimo." — II. Rink, 
 J'dli'H ami Tiutditions of the Bukimo, iutrod. atuC 
 eh. 0. — The same, 'I'/ie. Enkiino tribes. — "In 1809, 
 I proposed for tlie Aleuts and people of Innuit 
 stock collectively the term Oiarians, as indicative 
 of their coastwise distribution, and as supplying 
 the need of a general term to designate a. very 
 welldefiucd race. . . . The Orarians are divided 
 into two well-marked groups, namely the 
 Innuits, comjirising all the so-called Eskimo and 
 Tnskis, and the Aleuts. "— W. II. Doll, Tribes of 
 the Extreme Nurthiccst (Ointrib. to N. A. Eth- 
 iiitlof/!/, i: 1\ pt. 1. 
 
 Esselenian Family. — "The present family 
 was iiiduded by Latham in the heterogeneous 
 group called by him Salinas. . . . The term 
 Salinan [is now] restricted to the San Antonio 
 and San Miguel languages, leaving the present 
 family . . . [to he] called Esselenian, from the 
 name of the single tribe Esseleu, of which it is 
 (•omposed. . . . The tribe or tribes composing 
 this family occupied a narrow strip ot the C'ah- 
 fornia coast from .Monterey Bay south to the 
 vicinity of the Santa Lucia Mountain, a distance 
 of about 50 miles." — J. W. Powell, iieveiith Aii- 
 iiiKil liipt.. liiinau of Ethnoloffj/, pp. 75-70. 
 
 Etchemins. See above : Ai.oo.NCiUiAN Family. 
 
 Eurocs, or Yuroks. See below: Modocs, &c. 
 
 Five Nations. Sec below: luoijuois Con- 
 Fi;i)i:UA(Y, 
 
 Flatheads (Salishan Family).^" The name 
 Flathead was commonly given to the Choctaws, 
 though, says Du Pratz, lie .saw no reason why 
 they should bo so distinguished, when the prac- 
 tice of llattening the head was so general. And 
 in the enumeration just cited [Documentary Hist, 
 of N. Y., v. 1, p. 24] the ne.\t paragrai)h ... is: 
 ' The Flathi'ads, Cherakis, Cliicachas, and Totiris 
 are included under the n,>ine of 'Flatheads by the 
 Iroquois." — M. F. Force, Some Edrly yutices of 
 the Iiuliaiis of Ohio, p. 32. — "The Salish . . . 
 are distinctively known as Flatheads, though 
 the custom of deforming the cranium is not 
 confined tolhcin." — D. O. Brinton, The Ameri- 
 ciin liiiec, p. 107. — "In . . . early times the 
 hunters and trappers could not discover why 
 the Blackfeet and Flatheads [of Montana] re- 
 ceived their respective designation.s, for the 
 feet of the former are no more inclined to sable 
 than any other part of the body, while the heads 
 of the latter possess their fair proportion of 
 
AMEIUCAN ABOUiaiNES. 
 
 AMEHK'AX AHOUIGIXES. 
 
 nitumlity. Imk'i'd it is only below the falls and 
 ra|)iils tlmt roal Flathcads appear, and at the 
 niiiiitli (if the Columbia that they llourish most 
 siipernaturally. The tribes who pnieliee thi- 
 eiistdin of tlattcniiii; the head, and who lived at 
 the mouth of the Columbia, dilfered little from 
 caeh other in laws, manners or euslonis, and were 
 composed of the Cathlamahs, Killmueks, Clat- 
 sops, Chinooks and Chilts. The abominalile 
 CMstiim of flattening their heads prevails amoni^ 
 lliem all."— P. Honiin, JM. Skcteh of the. Fliit- 
 Imitl Iiidiou Kiitioii, j). IT. — In >lajor Powell's 
 linguistic classification, the " Sulishan Familv " 
 (Flathead) is given a distinct jilace.— J. \V. 
 Powell, tltnnt/t AniiiKil liept. of the Biimin of 
 Elhuoloijy. p. 103. 
 
 Fox Indians. See above: Ai.ooNQfiAN 
 F.\Mii.y, and below, S.\cs Ac. — For an account 
 of the massacre of Fox Indiansat Detroit in 1713, 
 see Can.\da (New Fhance): A. I). 1T11-I7i;i. 
 —For nn account of the Black Ilawk War, see 
 Illinois: A. D. 1833. 
 
 Fuegians. See below: P.\TA0ONiANg. 
 
 Gausarapos or Guuchies. Sec below: Pam- 
 pas TltlllKS. 
 
 Ges Tribes. Sec below: Ttin. — Qiiauani. — 
 Tltuyas. 
 
 Gros Ventres (Minnetaree ; Hidatsa).* Sec 
 below: HiDATSA; also, above: Ai.uoNquiAN 
 Family. 
 
 Guaicarus. Sec below : Pampas Tkiues. 
 
 Guajira. Sec above: Coa,iii(o. 
 
 Guanas. Sec below: Pampas TitiisEs. 
 
 Guarani. Sec below : Ti pi. 
 
 Guayanas. Sec below : Pampas Tkiiieb. 
 
 Guck or Coco Group. — An extensive linguistic 
 gn>i pof tribes in Brazil, on and north of the Ama- 
 zon, extending as far as the Orinoco, has been 
 called the Guek, or Coco group. ' There is no 
 common name for the group, that here used 
 meaning a father's brother, ii very inijiortant iier- 
 soiiage in these tribes. The Gu. k group em- 
 braces a large number of tribes. . . . We need 
 enumerate but few. The Cuyriri or Kiri:' (also 
 known as Sabaja, Pimenteifas, etc.), number 
 aDout 3,000. Some of them are half civilized, 
 some are wild, and, without restraint, wander 
 ahmU, csiK'cially in the mountains in the Prov. 
 iiice of Pernambuco. The Araicu live on tin 
 lower Amazon and the Toeantins. Xext come 
 the .Manaos, who have a prospect of nuiintaining 
 tli< mselves longer than most tribes. With them 
 i.s connected the legend of the golden lord who 
 washed dm gold dust from his limbs in a lake 
 [see Ya. DouiDo]. . . . The Uirina, Bare, and 
 C'ariay live on tlie Hio Negro, the Cunimare on 
 the .hirua, the JIaranha on the .lutay. AVhethcr 
 the Chamicoco on the right bank of the Paraguay, 
 belong to the Guck is uncertiun. Among the 
 trilies which, though very much mixed, are still 
 to be enumerated with the Guek, are the Tecuna 
 and the Passe. In language the Teeunas show 
 many similarities to the Ges; they live on the 
 «e>lc'rn borders of Brazil, and extend in Ecpiador 
 tci ihe Pasta(,'a. Among them occur iieculiar 
 niiisnues which strongly recall those found on 
 the northwest coast of North America. ... In 
 the same district belong the Uaupe, who are no- 
 ticeable from the fact that they live in barracks, 
 indeed the only tribe in South America in which 
 this cust(mi appears. The communistic houses 
 »f the Uaupc are called ' malloca ; ' they arc build- 
 ings of about 130 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 30 
 
 hiirh, in which live a band of about 100 persons 
 in 13 families, each of the latter, however, in it.s 
 own room. . . . Finally, complex tribes of the 
 most ditl'ercnt nalionality are comprehended 
 under names which indicate oidy a eonmion w:iy 
 of life, but are also incorrectly used as elhno- 
 giaphic names. These are I'aripuna, .Alura, and 
 .Miranlia, all of whom live in the neighborhood 
 of the Madeira Hiver. Of the Caripuna or 
 tIailn-Avri (both terms sigiufy ' watermen'), who 
 are mixed with (^uieliua blood, it is related that 
 they not only ate human llesh, but even cured it 
 for preservation. . . . Formerly the .Miira . . . 
 were greatly fean'd; this once powerful and 
 populous tribe, however, was almost entirely 
 destroyed at the end of the last centiuy by the 
 Jluiidruco; the remnant is scattered. . . . The 
 JIurn arc the gypsies among the Indians on the 
 Amaz(m; and by all the other tribes they are 
 regarded with a certain degree of contempt as 
 ])ariahs. . . . Much to be feared, even among the 
 Indians, are also the Jliranha (i. e., rovers, vaga- 
 bonds), a still populous tribe on the right bank 
 of the Japura, who seem to know nothing but 
 war, robbery, murder, and man hunting." — 
 2'he SUtmliinl yoturnl llhtory (J. S. Kingsley, 
 ed.), V. 6, pp. 245-348. 
 
 Also in F Keller, The Ammon and Madeira 
 Rivers, eh ^aiidli. — II. W. Bates, A Niituralist 
 on the Hirer Amaions, eh. 7-13. 
 
 Guuchies. See below: Pampas TninF.s. 
 
 Haclcinsacks. See above : Aloonc^uian 
 Family. 
 
 Haidas. See below: Sicittaof.tan Family. 
 
 Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Grosventres?— 
 "The llidat.sa, ^Miniiotaree, or Grosventre In- 
 dians, are one of the three tribes which iit pres- 
 ent inhabit the permanent village at Fort Ber- 
 thold, Dakota T( rrilory, and hunt on the waters 
 of the Upper Missnuri and Yellowstone Rivers 
 in .Northwestern Dakota and Eastern .Montana. 
 The history of this tribe is . . . intimately C(m- 
 iiceted with that of the iioliticallv allied tribes of 
 the Aricarccs and Maudans." The name, Gros- 
 ventres, was given to Ihe j.eople of this tribe 
 " by the early French and Canadian adventurers. 
 The same name was applieil also to a tribe, 
 tottdly distinct from these in language and 
 (>rigin, which lives some hundreds of miles west 
 of Fort Bert hold; and the two nations are now 
 distinguished from one another as Grosvcntres of 
 the Missouri and Grosventres of the Prairie. . . . 
 Edward Unifreville, who traded on the Saskatche- 
 wan Kiver from 1784 to 1787, . . . remarks: 
 . . . ' They [the Canadian French] call them 
 Grosventres, or Big-Bellies; and without any 
 reason, as they are as comely and as well made 
 as any tribe whatever.'. . . In thc^ work.s of 
 many travellers they are culled Minnctarees, a 
 name which is spelled in various ways. , . . 
 This, although a Hidatsa word, is the name ap- 
 plied to them, not by themselves, but by the 
 JIandans; it signifies 'to cross the water,' 
 or ' they crossed the w.'iter. '. . . Hidatsa was 
 the name of the village on Knife Hiver 
 farthest fror the Missouri, the village of 
 those whom .jcwis and C'larke ccmsidered the 
 Minnetarees proper." It is the name "now gen- 
 erally used by this peop'" to designate them- 
 selves." — W. Matthews, .thnogriiphji and Phil- 
 ology of the Ilidatna Indiana, pt. 1-3 (U. S. 
 Gcolofj, and Geo;/. 8nrvey, /■'. V ITayden, Min. 
 Pub., Ko. 7).— Sec also, below: biouA.N Family. 
 
 * See Note, Appendix E. 
 
 87 
 
AMEUICAN AB(^rUGINE9. 
 
 AMERICAN AHOUIGINES. 
 
 Hitchitis. S«! Mow: Muskhooean Family. 
 
 Horikans.— Xorlli iif tlic M((hcKaiii<. who oc 
 ciipii'il llii' rust liiinU lit' till' liiiilsdri Hivcr 
 opposilc Alliiiiiy, iinil covcriiii,' the picsciil conn- 
 tics (if ('iiliiinliiii mill Wriissclacr, dwelt tlio Al- 
 >;i)iikiii liilii' of Horikans, "wjinsc liiiiitin}; 
 ({riiiimU appi'ur to Imvi; cxtcMilrd from the 
 watt'is of llic Coiilircticut, across llio Orccii 
 Mountains, to the borili is of thai licaiillfiil lake 
 liianicil Ijikc (Jci)rj;c hy the too loyal Sir Wil- 
 liam .I:iliiisonl which "tnifjht now well hear 
 their sonorous name." — J, H, Urodheiid, Hint. 
 of th, Sl.it, „f .V, )',, /). 77. 
 
 Huamaboya. See ahove; Andksians. 
 
 Huancas. See l'i;m'. 
 
 Huastecs. See hclow: Mayas. 
 
 Huecos, or Wacos. See helow: Pawnee 
 (Cadiida.n) Family. 
 
 Humas, or Oumas, See helow: Mubkuo- 
 <ikan Family. 
 
 Hupas.* See helow: MoDiiis, A;( . 
 
 Hurons, or Wyandots. — Neutral Nation. — 
 Eries. — "The peninsula helweeu the Lakes 
 Huron, Erie, and Ontario was occupied hy two 
 (listiuut peoples, s|)eaking dialects of the Iro- 
 <iui)is lonRUe. The Hiu'onsor Wyandots, includ- 
 ing the trihe called hy the French the Dionondii- 
 dies, or Tohaeco Nation, dwelt among the 
 forests which hordcred the eastern shores of the 
 fresh water sea to which they liavu left their 
 name; wliile the Neutral Nation, so called from 
 their neutrality in the war between the llurons 
 and the Five Nations, inh;il)ited tlie northern 
 wliores of Lake Eric, and even extended their 
 oastern Hank acro.ss the strait of Niagara. The 
 population of the Hurons has been variou.sly 
 staled at from lO.OItO to aO,000 souls, but proba- 
 bly did not exceed the former estimate. The 
 Franciscans and the .Jesuits were early among 
 them, and from their descriptions it is apparent 
 that, in legends, and superstitions, manners and 
 lialiits, religious observances and .social customs, 
 they were closely a.ssimilatcd to tlicir brethren 
 of the Five Nations. . . . Like the Five Nations, 
 the Wyandot, were in .some measure an agricul- 
 tural people; they bartered the surplus products 
 of their maize llelds to surrounding tribes, 
 usually receiving fish in exchange; and this 
 trafllc was so considerable that the Jesuits .styled 
 their country the Granary of the Algonipiins. 
 Their jirosperity wis rudely broken hy the hos- 
 tilities of the Five Is itions; for though the con- 
 tli' ting p::rtie3 were not ill matched in point of 
 ii.nnhers, yet the united counsels and ferocious 
 energies of the confederacy swept all before 
 them. Ill the year Kifl), in the depth of winter, 
 their warriors invaded the country of the Wyan- 
 dots. stormed their largest villages, and involved 
 all within in indiscriminate .slaughter. The sur- 
 vivors tied in panic terror, luid the whole nation 
 was breken and dispersed. Some found refuge 
 among t!ie Fri'iieh of Canada, where, at the 
 village of l.,orette, near Quebec, their descendants 
 still remain; others were incorporated with tlieir 
 comiuerors, wliile others again tied northward, 
 beyond Lake Superior, and sought an asylum 
 among the ••vastcs which bordered on tins uortli- 
 eastcru lauds of tlie Dahcotjih. Driven back hy 
 those fierce bi>o«-h\mters, they ne.xt estjiblished 
 themselves about the outlet of Lake Superior, 
 and the shores; and islands in the uortliern parts of 
 Lake Huron. Tlience, about the year 1880, they 
 descended to Detroit, where they formed u per- 
 
 * See Note, Appeudix K. 3g 
 
 innnent settlement, and where, by tlieir superior 
 valor, capacity and address, lliey soon acquired 
 an ascendancy over the surrounding Algoni|uins. 
 The ruin o' 'le Neutral Nation followed close 
 on that of tin .I'yandots, to whom, according to 
 .Jesuit authority, they bore -.i:: e.xact resemblance 
 in character and manners. The Seneeas soju 
 found means to i)ick a iiuairel with them; they 
 were assailed by all the strength of the in.satiablc 
 confederacy, and within a few years their 
 destruction as a nation was complete." — F. 
 I'arkman, ?'A(i (''i/mjiimri/ nf l'<iiif/iii;ch. I. — The 
 same, T/ic Ji«iiitn in So, h Aiiti'ficti, eh. I. — 
 ■'Thellrst in this locality [namely, the western 
 extremity of the Stiite of New York, on and 
 around the site of the city of Buffalo], of whom 
 history makes mention, were the Attiouandar- 
 onk, or Neutral Nation, called Kahkwas by 
 the Seneeas. Tliey had tlieir council-tires along 
 "he Niagara, hut iirincipally on its western side. 
 Their hunting grounds extended from the Gen- 
 esee nearly to the eastern shores of Lake Huron, 
 embracing a wide and important territory. . . . 
 They are first mentioned hy Champlaiu during 
 liis winter visit to the Hurons in 1015 . . . but 
 ho was unable to visit tlieir f-rritory. . . . Tlie 
 peace which this peculiar people had so long 
 maintained with the Iroqu lis was destined to be 
 broken. Some jealousies uid collisions occurred 
 in 1(U7, which culminated in open war in 1650. 
 One of tlie vilhiges of the N:utral Nation, nearest 
 the Seneeas and not far from the site of our city 
 [BulTalo], was captured in the autumn of the 
 latter year, and another the eusuiug spring. So 
 well-directed au'' energetic were the blows of 
 the Irocpiois, that tirj total d-jstruction of the 
 Neutral Nation was speedily accomplished. . . . 
 The survivors were adopteil by their connuerors. 
 ... A long period intervened between the 
 destruction of the Neutral Nation and the per- 
 manent occupation of their country by the Sen- 
 eeas," — which latter event occurred after the 
 expulsion of the Seneeas from the Genesee 
 Valley, hy the expedition under General Sulli- 
 van, "in 1779, during the Hevolutiouarv War. 
 "Tliey never, as a nation, resumed th.'ir ancient 
 seats along the Genesee, but sought and found a 
 new home ou the secluded banks and among the 
 basswood forests of the I)6-syo-wrt, or Buffalo 
 Creek, whence they had driven the Neutral 
 Nation 130 years before. ... It has been as- 
 sumed hy many writers that the Kahkwas and 
 Eries were identical. This is not so. The latter, 
 according to the most reliable authorities, lived 
 .south of the western extremity of Lake Erie 
 until they were destroyed by the Iroquois in 
 1055. The Kahkwas "were exterminated by 
 them as early as 1051. Ou Coronelli's map, 
 published in 1CW8, one of the villages of the 
 latter, called ' Kahouagoga, a destroyed nation," 
 is located at or near the site of Buffalo." — O. II. 
 Marshall, The yiiKjuni Frontier, pp. 5-8, unci ' 
 foot-note. — "Westward of the Neutrals, along 
 the Southeastern shores of Lake Erie, and stretch- 
 ing as far east as the Genesee river, lay the 
 country of tlie Eries, or, as they were denomi- 
 nated "by the Jesuits, ' Jja Nation Chat,' or Cat 
 Nation, who were also a member of the Hurou- 
 Iro(iuois family. The name of the beautiful 
 lake (m whose margin our city [Buffalo] was 
 cradled is tleir most enduring monument, as 
 Lake Huron js that of the generic stock. They 
 were called Jiu Cat Nation either because that 
 
AMEHICAN AIJOUIGIXES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 inlcri'stlnp but mischievous nniinnl, tlm raccoon, 
 wliirli th(^ holy fiitlicrs rrroiR'i^.isly chisscd in 
 till' Iclinc f,'<'"><i Wiis the tolcin of tlirir k'lidiiiif 
 <l!m. or sc])t, or in consniiicnci' of the iilmndiincc 
 of that iiianiniul whhin tluir territory. " — \V. ('. 
 liryaiit, Intinxtinn Airliitflnijiciil Slmliai i,i tiiiil 
 iihiiil hiiffohi, p. li.— Mr. Schook'inft cither 
 iduntilit's or confwsfs the Erics and tin; Xcntral 
 Nation.— II. U. Sclioolcnifl, SMc/i „f t/w. Hist. 
 of l/ii' Andeiit Erim (liifuniiution IIcijm ct i ny (In: 
 tmUun Tri.i'H, }it. 4, ;;. 197). 
 
 Also in J. G. Shea, Inqiiirieii Itaijwcliii;/ t/if 
 Uf yfiitnil Xation (miiu; pt. 4, ;;, 204).— 1). 
 Wilson, The IIiiivii-InKjiKu'n of (Minida (Tniim. 
 I!,j!/,i/ S(m: of Caiimhi, 1884).— I'. I). Chirko, 
 {Jriijin (tiid fnitlitioitiil Iliat. of tlw Wi/aiiUdtlcK. 
 — \V. Ketchuni, Jlixt. of Jliiffiilo, v. 1, r/i. 1-3.— 
 N. li. Crai;,', 77«,' (Jhkii Time, c. 1, ;;. 225.— Sue 
 Ik'Iow: Iiiocjuois Co.nkedkuacv; also, Can.\d.v 
 (Nkw PliANXE): A. I) 1008-1011; 1011-1010; 
 lfl;t4-l«52; 1040-1700.— See, nlso, 1'onti.vc's 
 Waii, and for an aecount of "Lord Uunniorc's 
 War,". see Ohio (Vali.iov): A. I). 1774. 
 
 Illinois and Miamis. — "Passing the country 
 of the Lcnapo and tlio Shawanoes, and dcstend- 
 ing the Oliio, tlio traveler would have found its 
 valley cliieth' occupied by two iu;tious, tile 
 I'ianiis or Twighnvees, ou the Wabasli and its 
 Iraneliijs, and the Illinois, who dwelt in the 
 ucigldjorhood of the river to which they have 
 given their name, while jiortious of them ex- 
 tended beyond the Jlississippi. Though never 
 subjugated, as were the Lenape, both the 
 Jliainis and the Illinois were reduced to the last 
 c.vtreniity by the n^peated attacks of the Five 
 Nations; and the Illinoi.s, iu particular, suffered 
 so inueli by these and other wars, that the popu- 
 lation of ten or twelve thousand, ascribed to 
 them by the early French writers, had dwindled, 
 during the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, to a few small villages." — F. Parkman, 
 CoitujiifMi/ of Pontiuc, eh. 1. — See, also, above: 
 Aloomji'ian Family; and below: Sacs, Ac; 
 also C'AXADA (New Fu.unce): A. D. 1009-1087. 
 
 Incas, or Yncas. See Peuu. 
 
 Innuits. See above : Eskimauan. 
 
 lowas. See below : Siol'an Family, and Paw- 
 ni;k. (Caouoan) Family. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy.— Iroquoian Family. 
 — " At the outset of tlie 10th Century, when the 
 live tribes or nations of the Inxiuois confederacy 
 first became known to EurOjK^an explorers, tliey 
 were found occupying the \ alleys and uplands 
 of northern New York, in that picturesque and 
 fruitful region whicli stretches westward from 
 the head-waters of the Hudson to the Genesee. 
 The .Mohawks, or Caniciigas — as they sliould 
 properly be called — po.sse.sscd the :Mohawk Hiver, 
 and ccjvered Lake George and Lake Chamiilain 
 witli their flotillas of large canoes, managed with 
 the boldness and skill which, hereditary iu their 
 descendants, make them still tliebest boatmen of 
 the North American rivers. West of the Canien- 
 gas the Oneidas held the small river and lake which 
 liear tlieir name. . , . AVest of the Oneidas, the 
 imperious Onondagas, the central and, iu some re- 
 spects, the ruling nation of the League, possessed 
 the two lakes of Onondaga and Skaneateles, to- 
 gether with the common outlet of this inland lake 
 system, the Oswego River to its issue into Lake 
 Ontario. Still proceeding westward, the lines of 
 trail and river led to the long and winding stretch 
 of Lake Cayuga, about which were clustc'red the 
 
 towns of the people who gave their name to the 
 l;ike ; and beyond Ihein, over the wide e.vpan.se 
 i>f hills and dales surrounding Lakes Seneca and 
 Caiiandaigua. were scattered the populous vil- 
 lages of the Senecas. more correctly called Sonon- 
 ti>wanas, or Mountaineers. SiU'h were the iinmes 
 and abodes of the alliid nations, members of the 
 far-famed Kanonhiomii, or Leni;ue of I'nileil 
 Households, who were destined to become for a 
 time the most notable and powerful community 
 among the native tribes of North America. The 
 region whicli has been described was not, however, 
 Iheorigiiial seat of those nations. They belonged 
 to that linguistic family which is known to ethnol- 
 ogists as the Huron-Iroi[uois stock. This stock 
 comprised the Ilurons or Wyandots, the Atli- 
 wandaronks or Netitral Nation, the lr<M[Uois, the 
 Erics, the AndastesorCo.iestogas, the Tusearoras 
 and some smaller bunds. The tribes of this family 
 occupied a long irregular area of inland tern- 
 lory, stretching from Canada to North Carolina. 
 The northern nation.s went all clusK'red about 
 the great lakes; the southern bands held the fer- 
 tile valleys bordering the headwaters of the 
 rivers which flowed from the Allegheny moun- 
 tains. The hmguages of all these tribes showed 
 a close allinity. . . . The evidence of language, 
 so far as it has yet been examined, seems to show 
 that the Huron elans were the older menroers of 
 the group; and the clear and i)ositive traditions 
 of all the surviving tribes, Ilurons, Iroijuois, and 
 Tusearora, i)oint to the lower St. Lawrcnc(! as 
 the earliest known abode of their stock. Hero 
 the first explorer, Cartic'r, found Indians of this 
 stock at Iloclielag.. and Stadacone, now the sites 
 of Montreal and (Quebec. ... As their numbers 
 increased, dissensions arose The bi'e swarmed, 
 and band after band moved off to the west and 
 south. As they spread they encountered |)eoplo 
 of other .stocks, with whom they had freiiucnt 
 wars. Their most constant and most dreaded 
 enemies were the tribes of the Algonkiu family, 
 a fierce and restless people (jf northeru origin, 
 who everywhere surrounded them. At one 
 period, however, if the concurrent traditions of 
 both Iro(juois and Algonkins can be believed, 
 these contending races for a time stayed their 
 strife, an<l unilid their forces iu an alliance 
 against a common and formidable foe This foe 
 was the nation, or perhaps the confederacy, of 
 the Alligewi or Talligewi, the .semi-civilized 
 ' .Mound-builders' of the Ohio Valley, who have 
 left their nanu! to the Allegheny river and moun- 
 tains, and wliosi^ vast earthworks are .still, after 
 half-a-centtiry of study, the perjilexity of arclue- 
 ologists. A desperate warfare ensued, which 
 lasted about a hundred years, and ended in the 
 c<miplete overthrow and destruction, or expul- 
 sion, of the Alligewi. The survivors of the con- 
 ([Uered peoi)le fled southward. . . . Tlic time 
 which has elapsed since the overthrow of the 
 Alligewi is variously estimated. The most prob- 
 able conjecture places it at a period about a 
 thousiind years before the present day. It was 
 ajiparently soon after their expulsion that the 
 tribes of the Huron-Irocjuois and the Algonkiu 
 stocks scattered themselves over the wide region 
 south of the Great Lakes, thus left open to their 
 occupancy." — II. Hale, Jiitrud. to Iroquois Book 
 of Jlites. — After the coining of the Europeans 
 into the New World, the French were the first to 
 be involved in hostilities with the IrcKpiois, and 
 their early wars with them produced a hatred 
 
 §9 
 
AMKI'.ICA.N AHOltlOlNKS. 
 
 AMKUICAN AIJOIUOINES. 
 
 wlii( li couUl ncv'-r lie ('.\lin>;ui.sli<(l. IIiiii- the 
 Ellt:liHli were ii'lc to win the alliiincc i>( ,, c Five 
 Niilions, wlicii llicy slriiL't-'lid with Kniiicc! for 
 the riuislcry nf llic' Xoitli Aincricaii ((intiiu'iit, 
 ntiil the V cmid their victory to lh:it iilliaiuo, proh- 
 ably, more than to any oilier single eaiise. Enir- 
 lanil still rdaiiKd thu raitlit'iil rriiiiil>hi|) and 
 alliance of the Iro(|Uoi-; wlicti she came to a 
 HtriiifL'le with her own colonies, and all the tribes 
 except the Oik iilas were in arms ajiainst tlii' 
 Americans in the Uevolulion.iry War. " With 
 the restoration of piiKc the political transactions 
 of till! Leajjiie were substantially closed. This 
 was, in cflect, the termination of their political 
 existence. The jurisdiction of the Tniteil States 
 was extended over tlu'ir anciiiil territories, and 
 from that time forth they became dependent 
 nations. Durinnthe jiro^fress of the Hevobition. 
 the .Molmwks abandoned tlicir country and re- 
 moved to Canada, llnally establishing themselves 
 partly upon Orand Hiver, in thu Xia.nara penin- 
 sula, and jiartly near Kingston, where they now 
 reside upon two reservations secured to them by 
 tlie IJritish govermnent. . . , The Jiolicy of the 
 State of New York [toward the Irocpiois nations] 
 wasever justand humane. Although llieircoiin- 
 Iry, with the exception of that of the O.ieidas, 
 might have been considered as forfeited by tlie 
 event of the Hevolution, yet the govermnent 
 never enforced the rights ()f coiupiest, l)ut ex- 
 tinguished the Indian title to the country by 
 purchase, and treaty stipulations. A jiortion of 
 the Oneida nation [who had sold their lands to 
 the State, from timt to time, excepting one small 
 reservation] emigrated to a reservation on the 
 river Thamesin Canada, where about 40()()f them 
 now [IH'ilJ reside. Another and a larger band 
 removed to tJreeii Hay, in Wisconsin, where they 
 still make their homes to the number of 700. 
 But 11 small part of the ii .lion have remained 
 aroimd the seat of their an' lent coimcil-lire . . . 
 near Oneida Castle, in thi, coiiniy of Oneida." 
 The Onondagas "still r'iaiii their bcautifid and 
 secluded valley of On.vndaga, with sudicieut ter- 
 ritory for their comfortable maintenance. About 
 150 biKmdagas now reside with the Senecas; 
 another party are established on Grand Kiver, in 
 Canada, anil a few have removed to the west. 
 . . . In the brief space of twelve years after the 
 lirst house of the white man was erected in Cay- 
 uga county (17.Si)) the whole mition [of the Cay- 
 ugas) was uprooted and gone. In 1705, they 
 reded, by treaty, all their lands to the State, with 
 the exception of one reservati(m, which they fin- 
 ally abandoned aoout tlic vear 1800. A portion 
 of them removed to Green i5ay, another to Grand 
 River, and still another, and a iinicli larger band, 
 settled at Sandusky, in Ohio, from w hence they 
 were removed by goverument, ii few years since, 
 hito the Indian territory, west of the ilissis.sippi. 
 About 120 still reside among the Senecas, in west- 
 ern New York. . . . The Tiisearoras, after re- 
 moving from the Oneida territory, tinally located 
 near the Niagara river, in the vicinity o'f Lewis- 
 ton, on a tract given to them by the Senecas. 
 . . . The residue of the Senecas are now shut up 
 within three small rcsirvations, the Tonawanda, 
 the Cattaraugus and the Alleguuy, which, united, 
 would not cover the area of <me of the lesser 
 comitiea of the State." — L. II. Morgan, The 
 Lfitijitc of the Ir'ii/iioia, hk. 1, ch. 1. — "The In- 
 dians of the State of New Y'ork number about 
 5,000, and occupy lands to the estimated extent 
 
 peopl( 
 Indiai 
 
 f H7,OT7 acres. With few exceptions, thoe 
 ire the direct clescendants of the native 
 ians, who otu i' possessed and controlled tlit' 
 soil of the entire State." — liijit. of Sjucidl Com. 
 Ifi Inrmtiiiiilc tin' Indiiiu I'rolilcm of the State of 
 y. y.. 1HH9.— II. If. Schoolcraft, y'oti^on the Iro- 
 i/Koin. — F. I'arkman, 'J'hc ('oiiKj)iiiii\i/ if J'^mtinr, 
 i-h. 1. — C. Coldcn, llUt. <// the Fire ludidii, An- 
 tioiiK. — J. Fiskc, Diaeoeerji (f Ainerieii, eh. 1. — In 
 1715 the Five Nations of the Inxiuois Con- 
 federacy became Six Nations, by the admission 
 of tlie'l"u.scaroras, from N. Carolina. — See below: 
 Inovirois Tiiim-:s ov Tin-: Sotrit. — On the 
 relationship between the Iro((Uois and the Cher- 
 okees, see above: Ciii;i!(i]C1':ks. 
 
 Iroquois Confedciacy. — Their Name. — " Tlie 
 origin and proper meaning of the wurd Iroquois 
 are doubtful. All that can be said with cer- 
 tainty is that Ihcexplanation given by Charlevoix 
 cannot possibly be correct. The niime of 
 Ir(i((uois, he says, is purely French, and lias 
 been formed from the term 'hiro,' 'I have 
 spoken,' a word by which these Indians close all 
 their speeches, aial 'koue,' which, when long 
 drawn out, is a cry of sorrow, and when briefly 
 utt<'red is an exclamation of .joy. . . . Hut . . . 
 Cham|)lain had learned the name from his 
 Indian allies before he or any other Frenchman, 
 so far as is known, had ever seen an Iryijuois. 
 It is i)robable that the origin of the word is to 
 besought ill the Huron hiiiguage: yet, as this 
 is similar to the Iroipiois tongue, an attemiit 
 may be made to liiid a solution in the latter. 
 According toUruyas, the word ' garokwa ' meant 
 a pipe, and also a piece of tobacco, — and, in its 
 verbal form, to smoke. This word is found, 
 somewhat disguised by aspirates, in the Book of 
 Hites, — denighroghkwayen, — ' Ictus two .smoke 
 togetlicr.'. . . In the indeterminate form the 
 verb becomes ' ierokwa,' which is certainly very 
 near to Iroquois. It might be rendered ' they who 
 smoke,' or "they who u.se to>acco,'or, bVietiy, 
 'the Tobacco People. ' This naiie, the Tobacco 
 Nation ('Nation du Petim ') whj given by the 
 French, and ^robablj' also by the ...''ronkhs, to 
 one of the Il'ion tribes, the TionontaKJ, noted 
 for the excellent tobacco wliich they raised and 
 sold. The Iroipiois were eiiually well known 
 for their cultivatiim of this plant, of which they 
 had a choice variety. " — II. Hale, Ivo(juoi.i Book 
 if Rites, <ij)p. , note A. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy. — Their conquests 
 and wide dominion. — "The luojcct of a 
 League [among the 'Five Nations' of the Iro- 
 ([UoLsJ originated with the Onondagas, among 
 whom it was lirst suggested, as a means to 
 enable them more ellectually to resist the i)res- 
 siire of contiguous nations. The epoch of its 
 establi.shiiieiil cannot now be decisively ascer- 
 tained; although the circumstances attending its 
 formation are still iireserved by tradition with 
 great minuteness. These traditions all refer to 
 the northern shore of the Onondaga lake, as the 
 pla.e where the Iroquois chiefs assembled in 
 gereral congress, to agree upon the terms and 
 principles of the compact. . . . After the forma- 
 tion of the League, the Irociiiois rose rapidly in 
 power and influence. , . . With the lirst con- 
 sciousness of rising power, they turned their 
 longcherished resentment upon the Adiron- 
 dacks, who had oppressed them in their infancy 
 as a nation, and had expelled them from their 
 country, in the lirst struggle for the ascendancy. 
 
 90 
 
AMEIilCAX ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMEHICAX ABORIGIXES. 
 
 i 171 
 
 ... At the cm of French discovery (15!!.")), tlie 
 hitler iiiilioii [the Adiroiidiieksl iippeiir to hav<' 
 lii'cii dispossessed of their original conntry, and 
 ilriveu down the St. Lawrence as far as (i"ue))ee. 
 ... A new era commenced witli tlie Iro(jiiois 
 iipDii tlie e.stalilislmieut of tlie Dutch tradiug- 
 pii>l at Orange, now Alliaiiy, in 1015. . . . 
 I'ljciidly relations were established between the 
 In.tpiois '.ind the Dutch, wiiieh continued witli- 
 (piit internipt'on until the latter surrendered 
 llieir pos.sessioiis ujioii the Hudson to tlie Eng- 
 lish ill 1004. During tiiis period a trade sprang 
 up between tlie'ii in furs, wliica the Iroipiois ex- 
 eliaiiged for European falir,.-,, but more efi- 
 iicciidly for lirearnis, in ilie use of which they 
 iieic afterwards destined to become so expert. 
 Tile J'.iiglish, in turn, cultivated tlu^ saim^ re'.a- 
 tidiis of friendship. . . . With the iiosse.ssion of 
 lii'earnis coninienced not oiilv the rapid eleva- 
 tiiai, but absolute .supr'inat of the Iroipuiis 
 over other Indian nations. In V'AS, they tx- 
 liclled the Xeiiter Nation i'rom the Niagara pen- 
 insula and established a ]ierinanent settlement at 
 the Mioiilh of that river. They nearly exlerniin- 
 uted, in KmIJ, the Erics, who occupied the south 
 siile of Lake Erie, and from thence east to the 
 Ucnesee, and thus possessed them.selves of the 
 wli(]|e area of western New York, and the nortli- 
 eia jtart of (Jliio. About the year 1070, after 
 tliiy had Ihially completed the dispersion and 
 siilijugation of the AdirondaeUs and llurons, 
 tliey ticcpiired pos.session of the whole country 
 between lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and of 
 till iiorlli bank of the St. Lawrence, to the 
 moiilli of the Ottawa river, near ^Montreal. . . . 
 Thi'V also made constant inioads upon the Ne^w 
 Kiiulaiid Indians. . . . In 1080, the Senecas with 
 (iili) warriors invaded the country of the Illinois, 
 upiiii tlie borders of the iMississippi, while La 
 Salle was among the latter. ... At various 
 times, both before and after this period, the Iro- 
 (jUois turned their warfare against the Cherokees 
 upon the Tennessee, and the Catawbas in South 
 C'anilina. . . . For about a century, from the 
 year lUtlU to the year 1700, the Iroc;\iois were in- 
 volved in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At 
 the elo.se of this period, they hacl subdued and held 
 in maninal subjection all the iiriiieipal Indian na- 
 tions occupying the territories wliich are now 
 eiiibraeed in the states of New York, Delaware, 
 JIaiyland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the north- 
 ern and western parts of Virginia, '^hio, Kcn- 
 tucUy, Northern Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, 
 ilicliigan, a portion of the New England States, 
 and the iirincipal i)art of Upper Canada. Over 
 these nations, the haughty and imperious Iro- 
 tjuois exercised a constant supervision. If any of 
 them became involved in domestic difflculties, a 
 delegation of chiefs went among them and re- 
 stored traiKpiillity, prescribing at the same time 
 their fulure conduct." — L. II. Jlorgan, League of 
 t/ic Iiwjuoin, bk. 1, (•/(. 1. — "Their [the Iroquois's] 
 war-parties roamed over half America, and their 
 iianif was a terror from the Atlantii; to the Mis- 
 .sissippi ; but when we ask the numerical strength 
 of the dreaded confederacy, when we discover 
 that, in the days of their greatest triumphs, 
 their united cantons could not have mustered 
 4,000 warriors, we stand amazed at the folly and 
 dissension which left so vast a region the i)rey 
 of a handful of bold marauders. Of the cities 
 and villages now so thickly scattered over the 
 lost domain of the Iroquois, a, single one might 
 
 • See Note, Appendix E. 91 
 
 boast a more numerous ])opulati<m than all the 
 live unilcil tribes. " — F. I'arknian, The Connjiir- 
 itejl (if I'liidiar. i-li. 1. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1608-1700. 
 — Thtir wars with the French. See (.'.vnad.v 
 (Ni;w Fu.\N(e;): A. D. 1008-1011; 1011-1010; 
 1034-1052; 1040-1700; 1006. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy : A. D. 1648-1649. — 
 Their destruction of the Hurons and the 
 Jesuit Missions. See ('.\.nai).k (Ni;\v Fii.VNCE): 
 A, I). V'l !4-105-' ; also, above, HluoNs, 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy : A. D. 1684-1744.— 
 Surrenders and conveyances to the English. 
 See Ni;v,- Voiti;: A. D. KiSl, and 17-'(i; ViK 
 (;ima: a. D. 1744; Ohio (Vai.i.kv): A. D. 1748- 
 1754; UxiTKi) Status of A.m. : A. 1). 1705-1708. 
 
 Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1778-1779. — 
 Their part in the War of the American Revo- 
 lution. See U.NiTKi) States oi' Amkuica; A. 1). 
 1778 (.luNi;— NovK.Mwsn) and (July); and 1770 
 
 (AliasT — SEPTKMnLli). 
 
 Iroquois Tribes of the South * "The 
 s(Hitliern Iroipiois tribes occupied Ch nvan Hiver 
 audits tributary streams. 'I'hey wire bounded 
 on the east by tlie mo.st southerly Le'.ape tribes, 
 who were in iiossession of the \ .w country along 
 the sea shores, and those of Albemarle ami 
 Pamlico Sounds. Toward.s the south and the 
 west they extended beyond the river Neiise. 
 They appear te have been known in Virginia, in 
 early times, under i'.ie 'ime of Monaeans, as far 
 north as Jaincs Pivi r. . . . Lawson, in his 
 account of the North Cirolina Indians, enumer- 
 ates the Chowans, tm, Meherrins, and the Not- 
 toways, as having together 05 warriors in the vcar 
 1708. But the .Melierrins or Tuteloes anil the 
 Nottoways inhabited respectively the two rivers 
 of that name, and were principally seated in 
 Virginia. We have but indistinct notices of the 
 Tulcloes. ... It appears by Beverly that the 
 Nottoways had preserved their independence 
 and their'mimbers later Uian the Powhataiis, and 
 that, at the end of the 17th century, they had 
 still 130 warriors. They do not appear to have 
 migrated from their original seats in a body. In 
 the year 18'i0, they are said to have been reduced 
 to 37 souls, aud were stili in possession of 7,000 
 acres in Southamp'iou county, Virgiuin, which 
 had been at au early date reserved for them. 
 . . . The Ttiscaroras were by far the most 
 l)owerful uatiou in North Carolina, aud occupied 
 all the residue of the territory in that colony, 
 which has been described as inhabited by 
 Iroquois tribes. Their principal seats in 1708 
 were 0.1 the Nei'se aud the Taw o» Tar rivers, 
 and according to Lawson they had 1,200 warriors 
 in fifteen towns." lu 1711 the Tuscaroras 
 attacked the English colonists, massacring 130 
 in a single day, aud a tierce war ensued. "In 
 the autumn of 1712, all the inhabitants south and 
 southwest of ChowiMi Uiver were obliged to live 
 iu forts; and the Tuscaroras expected assistance 
 from the Five Nations. This coidd not have 
 been given without involving the confederacy in 
 a war with Great Britain; and the Tuscaroras 
 were left to their own resources. A force, con- 
 sisting chiefly of southern Indians under the 
 command of Colonel Jloore, was again sent by 
 the government of South Carolina to assist the 
 nortliern Colonies. He besieged and took a fort 
 of the Tuscaroras. . . . Of 800 prisoners 000 
 were given up to the Southern Indians, who 
 carried them to South Carolina to sell them us 
 
AMKKICAN ABOUIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 8l:ivc8. The Eastern Tuscnroriis, who<" principal 
 town •as on the Taw, twenty miles above 
 Washinni m, irnniediiitely made (lenee, an<l a 
 portion was settled a few years after north of 
 the Koanoke, near Windsor, where they con- 
 tinued till the year 180:?. But the great body of 
 tlie nation removed in lTll-15 to the Five 
 Nations, was reeeiveil as the Sixtli, and has since 
 sliared their fate."— A. (iallatin. ,Si/ni>piiiii of the 
 Jmlidii 7'nV«a (Airtutohirjia Americana, t. 2), 
 iiilroil., Kt'ct. 'I. 
 
 Also in .1. W. Moore, IfM. of N. Carolina, 
 r. 1, ch. 13. — See, also, above: luoquois Cos- 
 Fi;iii;n.\cy. 
 
 ItOCOS. See above: (,'lltllcnAS. 
 
 Itonamos, or Itonomos. See above: Andk- 
 glANs; also Bolivia: Auoiiloi.VAL lN'iiAHlT.\yT8. 
 
 Jivara, or Jivaro. See above: Andksianh. 
 
 kah-kwas. See above: lIiiioNs. Ac. 
 
 Kalapooian Family.—" Under this family 
 name Scolder ((laces two trdies, the Kalapooian, 
 iiihabitiii},' ' the fertile Willamat jilains' and the 
 Yamkallie, who live 'more in tlie interior, 
 towards the sources of the Willamat River.' . . . 
 The tribes of the Kalapooian family iidiabited 
 the valley of Willamette River, UreROn, above 
 the falls.'' — 1. \V. To well, lien nth Annual liept., 
 UidUitii (if Elhidiliiii,,, p. 81. 
 
 Kanawhas, or Ganawese. See above: 
 Aloo.mji IAN Tamily. 
 
 Kansas, or Kaws, See below : SiouAX. 
 
 Kapohn. See aliove: Cakmis and tiii:iu 
 
 KlNDHKIV 
 
 Karankawan Family.— "The Karaid<awa for- 
 merly dwell iii)on the Te.\an coast, accordinj; to 
 Sililey, ujion an island or jKninsida in the Bay of 
 St. Beriiaid (.Matairorda Bay). . . . In 1884 Mr. 
 Gatschet found aTonkaweat Fort Gritlin, Texas, 
 who chimed to have formerly lived among the 
 Karankawa. From hima vocabulary of twenty- 
 live terms was obtained, which was all of the 
 language he remembered. The vocabulary . . . 
 such as it is, represents all of the language that is 
 e.\tant. Judged by this vocabidary the language 
 seems to bo distinct not only from the Attakapa 
 but from all others." — .1. W. Powell, He.vcnth 
 Annual Utpor.t, lluiraii of Ethnoliijn, p. 80. 
 
 Karoks, or Cahrocs. See below : Modocs. 
 
 Kaskaskias. See ubovc: Algonquian Fam- 
 ily. 
 
 Kaus, or Kwokwocd. See below: Kuban 
 Famil.v. 
 
 Kaws, or Kansas. See below : SIOUAN. 
 
 Kenai, or Blood Indians,* See above: Black- 
 
 KHET. 
 
 Keresan Family. — "The . . . pueblos of 
 Iv'eresan stock . . . are situated in New ilexieo 
 on the upper Kio Grande, on several of its small 
 western atUuents, and on the Jcmez and San 
 Jo.su, which also are tributaries of the Rio 
 Grande." — J. W, Powell, tkMnth Annual Rept., 
 lluri.iu of ElhnoUnjji, p. 8^. — See Pueblo. 
 
 Kikapoos. See above: Ai,(ioN(jiiiAN Family, 
 and below: Sacs. Ari., and Pawnee (Caddoan) 
 Family. 
 
 Kiowan Family, — "Derivation: From the 
 Kiowa word K6-i, plural Ko-igu, meaning 
 ' Kayowe man.' The Comanche term kiiyowG 
 means 'rat.' The author who llrsl formally 
 separated this family appears to hav(' been 
 Turner. . . . Ttirner, upon '.he strength of a 
 vocabulary furnisluHl by Lieut. Whipple, dis- 
 iitiuts froiii the opinion expressed by Pike and 
 
 others to the effect that the language is of the 
 same stock as the Comanche, and. while admitting 
 that its relationship to Comanche is greater than 
 to any other family, thinks that the likeness is 
 merely the result of long intercommunication. 
 His opinion that it is entirely <listinct from any 
 other language has been indorsed by Buscli- 
 mann and other authorities. The family is rep- 
 resented by the Kiowa tribe. So intimately 
 associated with the Comanelies have the Kiowa 
 been since known to history that it is not easy to 
 determine their ])ristine home. . . . Pope deli- 
 nitely locates the Kiowa in the valley of the 
 Upper Arkansas, and of its tributary, the Purga- 
 tory (Las Animas) River. This is in .substantial 
 accord with the statements of other writers of 
 about the same period. Schermerhorn (1812) 
 pl;u:es the Kiowa on the Jic;ids of the Arkansas 
 and Platte. Earlier still they appear upon tlie 
 headwaters of the Platte.' — J. W. Powell, 
 Sfirnth Annual licjurl, ISnreaa of Ethnologi/, p. 
 84. 
 
 Kiriri, Cuyriri. See above: Guck ou 
 Coco GitoiTr. 
 
 Kitunahan Family. — "This family was based 
 upon a tribe variously termed Kitunaha, Kutenay, 
 Cootenai, or Flatbow, living on the Kootenay 
 River, a branch of tlie Columbia in Oregon." — 
 J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Itept., Bureau of 
 Kthnoloijij, p. 85. 
 
 Klamaths. See below : JIoDOca. 
 
 Koluschan Family. — " Derivation: From the 
 Aleut word kolosh, or more properly, kalu;;a, 
 meaning 'dish,' the allusion being to the dish- 
 shaped lip ornaments. This family was based 
 by Gallatin upon the Koluschcn tribe (the 
 Tshinkitani of .'Marchand), ' who inhabit the 
 islands and the [Pacilie] coast from the COth to 
 the 55tli degree of north latitude.'" — J. W. 
 Powell, Seccnth Annual Rept, Ditrcau of Eth- 
 nology, p. 80. 
 
 kulanapan Family. — "The main territory 
 of the Kuhmapan family is bounded on tlie 
 west by the Pacilie Ocean, on the east by the 
 Yukiau and C!opehan territories, on the north by 
 the watershed of the Russian River, and on the 
 south by a line drawn from Bodega Head to the 
 south'vest corner of the Yukian territory, near 
 Santa Rosa, Sonoma County, California. "—J. W. 
 Powell, Seventh Annual Rept., Bureau of Eth- 
 nolofj!/, p. 88, 
 
 Kusan Family."*—" The ' Kaus or Kwokwoos' 
 tribe is merely mentioned by Hale as living on a 
 river of tlie sanK! name between the Unnjua and 
 the Clamet." — J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual 
 Rept., Hurcau of JJthnoloffi/, p. 89. 
 
 Kwokwoos. See above : Kusan Family. 
 
 Lenape. See above: Delawahes. 
 
 Machicuis. Sec below : Pampas Tuibes. 
 
 Macushi, See above: Caiiibb and theiu 
 
 KiNDUED. 
 
 Manaos. See above: GucK ou Coco QuoUP. 
 
 Mandans, or Mandanes. See below : Biouan 
 Family, 
 
 Manhattans. See above : Alooncjuian Fam- 
 ily, and, also, Manhattan Island. 
 
 Manioto, or Mayno. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Mapochins. See Chile: A. D. 1450-1724. 
 
 Maranha. See above: Guck oh Coco 
 Guotii". 
 
 Maricopas, See below : Pueblos. 
 
 Mariposan Family. — " Derivation: A Spanish 
 word meuuiug ' buttcrlly,' applied tu a county iu 
 
 * See Note, Appendix E. 
 
 93 
 
AMERICAN ABOUIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABOUIGINES. 
 
 Ciiliforiiia iiiid siibspquciitly taken for the family 
 name. Lntliiini mentions tlio reMiniints of three 
 (lislinet bunds of the C^oconooii, eaeli with its 
 own lanfinage, in the north of Mariposa County. 
 Tliese are classed together under the above 
 name. More recently the tribes speaking 
 lanjiuages allied to the CoeonTin have been 
 treated of under the family name Yokut. As, 
 however, the stock was established by liathamon 
 a sound basis, his name is here restored." — J. \V. 
 I'owell, ty.Fcnth Annual Jlept,, Burcm of Eth- 
 
 ""/",'/.'/. ;'■ fO- 
 
 Mascoutins, or Mascontens. See below: 
 8a(S, iV:('. 
 
 Massachusetts. ' See abo\e; Ai.gonquian 
 Family. 
 
 Mataguayas. See Bolivia: Ahoiugixal in- 
 
 HAIllTANrS. 
 
 Mayas. — "In his second voyage, Columb\is 
 heard vague rumors of a mainland westward 
 from Jamaica and Cuba, at a distance of ten days' 
 journey in a canoe. . . . During his fourth voy- 
 age (ir)()3-4), when he was exploring the Gulf 
 southwest from Cuba, he picked \ip a canoe 
 laden with cotton clothing variously dyed. The 
 natives in it gave him to understand that tOey 
 were merchants, and came from a land called 
 Maia. This is the lirst mention in history of the 
 territory now called Yucatan, and of the race of 
 the .Mayas; for although a i)rovince of similar 
 name was found in the we.stern extremity of the 
 island of Cuba, the similarity was accidental, as 
 the evidence is conclusive that no colony of the 
 Mayas was found on the Antilles. . . . Maya 
 was the patrial name of the natives of Yucatan. 
 It was the proper name of the northern portion 
 of the peninsula. No single province bore it at 
 the date of the Conquest, and probably it had 
 been handed down as a generic term from the 
 period, about a century before, when this whole 
 district ^,■as united under one government. . . . 
 Whatev^.r the primitive meaning and lirst appli- 
 cation of the name Maya, it is now \ised to signify 
 speeilieally the aborigines of Yucatan. In a more 
 extended sense, in the expression ' the Maya 
 family,' it is understood to embrace all tribes, 
 wherever found, who speak related dialects pre- 
 sumably derived from the .same ancient stock as 
 the Maya proper. . . . The total number of 
 Indians ;)f pure blood speaking the JIaya proper 
 may be estimated as nearly or (iuitc2()t),000, most 
 of them in the political limits of the department 
 of Vueatan; to these should be added nearly 
 100,000 of mixed blood, or of European descent, 
 who use the t(mgue in daily life. For it forms 
 one of the rare examples of American languages 
 possessing vitality enough not only to maintain 
 its groimd, but actuu.iy to force itself on Euro- 
 pean settlers and supplant their naiive speech. 
 . . . The Mayas did no' claim to be autoch- 
 thones. Their legends referred to their arrival 
 by llie sea from the East, in remote times, under 
 the leadersliip of Itzamna, their hero-god, and 
 also to a less numerous immigration from the 
 West, which was coimected with the history of 
 another liero-g(«i, Kukul V&n. The lirst of these 
 appears to be wholly mythical. . . . The second 
 tradition deserves more attention from the his- 
 torian. ... It cannot bo denied that the JIayas, 
 the Kiehes [or Qui'dies] and the Cakchiquels, in 
 their most venerable traditions, claimed to have 
 migrated from tlie north or west from some part 
 of the prc80Dt country of Mexico. These tra- 
 
 ditions receive additional importance from tiic 
 presence on the shores of the Jlexiean Gulf, on 
 the waters of the river Panuco, north of Vera 
 (^ruz, of a pronnnent branch of the Maya family, 
 the lluastecs. The idea suggests itself that 
 these were the rear-gmu'd of a great migration of 
 the Maya family from the north toward the 
 south. Support is given to this by tli> dialect, 
 wliich is most closely akin to that of the . ^endals 
 of Taba.sco, the nearest Maya race totlu- outhof 
 them, and also by very ancient traditions of the 
 Aztecs. It is noteworthy that these t wo partially 
 civilized races, the .Mayas and the Aztecs, 
 though dilfering radically in language, had 
 legends which claimed a comnuinity of origin in 
 some indelinitely remote past. We find these on 
 the Maya si<le narrated in the sacred book of the 
 Kiehes, the Poiiol Vuh. in tlie Cakcbiipiel 
 'Records of Tecjian Atillan,' and in various 
 l)urc .Maya .sources. . . . Theannalsof the Aztecs 
 contain i'reiiiient allusions to the lluastecs." — D. 
 G. Brinton, The .^fdi/ii dhn/iiiclen, introd. — 
 " Closely cnvc^loped in the dense forests of Chia- 
 pas, Gautemala, Yucatan, and Honduras, tho 
 ruins of several anc'.ent cities have been discov- 
 ered, which are far superior in extent and mng- 
 nillcence to any seen in Az*ec territory, and of 
 which a delailed description may be found in the 
 fointh volume of this work. .Most of tluse cities 
 were abandoned and more or less unknown at the 
 time of the [Spanish] Con<(Uest. They bear 
 hieroglyiihic iuscrii)lions apparently identical in 
 character; in other respects they resend)le each 
 other more than they resemble the Azt 'c ruins — 
 or even other and apparently later works in 
 Guatennda and Honduras. All these remains 
 bear evident marks of great antiquity. ... I 
 deem the groimds sullieient . . . lor accepting 
 this Ceutr.il American civilizati<in of the past as a 
 fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient race, 
 but to the direct ancestors of the Jieoples still 
 occupvlng the country with the Spaniards, and 
 applying to it the name JIaya as that of the lan- 
 guage which has claims as strong as any to lie 
 considered the mother tcmgue of the linginstic 
 fanuly mentioned. . . . There are no data by 
 which to lix the period of the original JMaya 
 empire, or its downfall or breaking up into rival 
 factions by civil and foreign wars. The cities of 
 Yucatan, as is clearly shown by Jlr. Stephens, 
 were, many of them, oceupit<l by the des'jcnd- 
 ants of the biulders <lown t'^ the conquest, and 
 contain some renmaritsof woc^l-work still in good 
 preservation, although some of the structures 
 appear to be built on the ruins of others of a 
 somewhat dilTerent type. Palenque and Cojian, 
 on the contrary, have no traces of wood or other 
 perishable material, and were . iinhabited and 
 probably unknown in the Kit'i ceutury. The 
 loss of the key to what nv ■ have lieen an 
 advanced system of hieroglyphics, wliile the 
 spoken language survive<l, is also an indication 
 of great antiquity, conllrmed by the fact that the 
 tiuiche structures of Gmitemala differed materi- 
 ally from those of the more ancient epoch. It is 
 not likely that the .Maya empire in its integrity 
 contintncl later than tlie ;!(i or 4th century, 
 although its cities may have been inhabited much 
 later, and I should tix the epoch of its highest 
 power at a date i)receding rather than following 
 the Christian era. "—II. H. Bancroft, A'<(^'(v Uaet* 
 of the "tiHJic t<tates, v. 2, ch. 'i; v. 4, ch. 8-0/ «. 
 5, rA. 11-13. 
 
 98 
 
AMERICAN ABOKIGIXES. 
 
 AMEHICAN AB0HIG1NE9. 
 
 Also ix Marquis dp Nnclaillac, PnhiMorle 
 Aiiiericii. rh. (1-7. — .1. J.. Stephens, IncuUitts of 
 Trdiiiia YnntUni; tiitd 'J'nirH in Ci ntriilAmtrica, 
 ilr. — 13. y\. \i)riii;iii, UainhUs in Yiimtiiii. — 
 D. Cliariiay, Anricut Citim of the Nfir M'oHd. — 
 Sec, also, ".Mexico: Ancient, and Aztec A^•D 
 
 M.W.V I'lCTniE-WuITINd. 
 
 Mayoruna, or Barbudo. See above : Ande- 
 
 SI.\NS. 
 
 Menominees. Seeabove: Aloonqcian Fam- 
 ily, ami Sa( s, Arc. 
 
 Mctoacs. Sec above: Ai.oonquian Family. 
 
 Miamis, orTwightwees. Sec above: Aloon- 
 tji lA.N Family, Ii.i.i.nois, and Sacs, Ac. 
 
 Micmacs. See above: Ai.c,<iN(iriAX Family. 
 
 Mingoes. — " The name of .Minjro, or ^lenirwe. 
 by vliieli Ihe Iroquois were known to the Dela- 
 w'ares and Ihe oilier southern Algonkin.s, is said 
 to bo a eoiitraetion ot Ihe Leiiape word ' ^la- 
 hoiigwi,' ineaninjr the 'Peopli! of the Sprinjjs.' 
 The Iroquois po.sses.sed the head-waters of Ihe 
 rivers wliieh lloweil throufih the eountry of the 
 Delawares." — II. Hale, 'I'lie. Ir>i(jiii>ia Ihok of 
 Jiitis. iipiK, Holt' .1. 
 
 Minneconjou. See below: SiofAN Family. 
 
 Minnetarees.* See above: IIid.vtsa; and 
 below; SiotAN Family. 
 
 Minquas. See below: Scscjcehanxas; and 
 above: Ai.o(iN(;riAN Family. 
 
 Minsis, Munsees, or Minisinks. See above: 
 Di;i.AWAiii:s, and Ai iioNtjcjAN Favii.y. 
 
 Miranha. See above: GccK ok CocoGitour. 
 
 Missouris. See below: Siovan Family. 
 
 T^ixes. See below: Zapotecs, etc. 
 
 Mixtccs. See below : Zatotecs. etc. 
 
 Mocovis. .Sec below : Pami'\s TluuEs, 
 
 Modocs (Klamaths) , and their California 
 ..d Oregon neighbors.— "The piineipal tribes 
 oecujiviiig Ibis region [of Northern California i 
 from l{o,i;ue Uiver on the uorlh to the Eel Hiver. i 
 south] are Ihe Klamaths, who live on the head • 
 waters of llie river and on the shores of the hxkv. { 
 of that name; the Modocs, on Lower Klamath 
 Lake and aloni; Lost Kiver; the Sha.stas, to the I 
 south-west of the Lakes; the Pitt Hiver Indians; 
 the Kuroes, on the Klamath Hiver between 
 AVeitspek and the coast; the Cahroes, on the 
 Klamath Hiver from a short distance above the 
 junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Moun- 
 tains; the Iloopahs [or llupas, a tribe of the 
 AthaDafcau Family] in Hoopali Vallev on I' e 
 Trinity near its junction with the Klamatu; 
 nunu'rous tribes on the coast from Kel liiver and 
 Humboldt Bay north, such as the Weeyols, 
 Wallies, Tolewabs, etc., and the Hoguc Kiver 
 Indians, on and about the river of that name. 
 The Northern Califoriuans are in every way 
 superior to the ecniiiil and southern tribes." — 
 H. H. Bancroft. I'/if \,ilirc Rdct's <if the Pacific 
 /S/ij^.", r, 1, (7/. 4. — "On the Klamath there live 
 lliic<' distinct tribes, called the Yiirok, Ka-rok, 
 and -Alo-dok, which names are said to mean, 
 respect iv<'ly, 'down the river,' 'up the river,' 
 and ' head" of the river.' . . . The Karok are 
 probably the llnest tribe in California. . . . 
 lloopa Valley, on the Lower Trinity, is the 
 home of [the Hii-pi'i]. Ne.\t after the" Ka-rok 
 they are Ihe line.st race in all that re;;ion, and 
 they ev(>n excel them in their stateeraft, and in 
 the sinjinlar influence, or jierhaps brute force, 
 which llicy exercise over the vicinal tribes. 
 They ail' the Homans of Northern California in 
 their valor and tlieir wide-reaching dominions; 
 
 • See Note, Appendix E. 94 
 
 they arc the French in the extended diffusion of 
 their languaiie." TheModoks, "on the whol<> 
 . . . are ratlier a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily 
 good-nature(l race, but treacherous nt bottoni, 
 sullen when anirered, notorious for keeping 
 Punic faith. But their bravery nobody can 
 impeach or deny; their heroic and long defense 
 of tlieir stronghold against the appliances of 
 modern civilized warfare, including that arm so 
 awful to savages — the artillery — was almost 
 the onlv feature that lent respectability to their 
 wretched tragedy of the Lava Beds [1873]."— S. 
 Powers, Trilies of California (Coiitribiiiioihi t:i 
 X. A. Ethnology, r. 3), ch. 1, 7, ami 27.— "The 
 home of the Klamath tribe of soulhwcsteru 
 Oregon lies upon the eastern slope of the south- 
 ern extremity of the Cascade Bange, and very 
 nearly coincides with what we may call the 
 I'.ead waters of the Klamath Hiver, the main 
 course of which lies in Northern California. 
 . . . The main seat of the Jlodoc peojile was the 
 valley of Lost Hiver, the shores of 'I'lile and of 
 Little Klamath Lake. . . . The two main bodies 
 forming the Klamath ])eople are (1) the Klamath 
 Lake Indians; (2) the Jlodoc Indian.s. TI;o 
 Klamath Lake Indians number more than twice 
 as many as the Modoc Indians. They speak the 
 northern dialect ami form the nortlieru chief- 
 taincy. . . . The Klamath people possess no 
 historic traditions going further back in time 
 than a century, for the simple reason that there 
 Wiis a .strict law prohibiting the mention of the 
 person or acts of a deceased individual by using 
 liis name. . . . Our present knowledge does not 
 allow us to connect the Klamath language 
 gem .ilogically with any of the other languages 
 compared, but ... it stands as a linguistic 
 family for it.self."— .v. S. Gatschet, The Klamath 
 Iiitliiins (Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, r. 2, 
 jit. 1). — In Major Powell's linguistic classiBca- 
 lion, the Klamath and Modoc dialects are em- 
 braced in a fa.nily called tbe Lutuamian Family, 
 derived from a Pit Biver word signifying 
 "hike;" the Yuroks in a family called the 
 AVeitspekan; and the Pit Biver Indian dialects 
 are provisionally set ajiart in a distinct family 
 named the Palaihnihan F"amily. — J. AV. Powell, 
 S'ccnth Annual Jfcport, Bureau of Ethnolof/ii, pp. 
 89 and 97. 
 
 Mohaves (Mojaves). See above: Apacue 
 Giioip. 
 
 Mohawks. See .ibove: 
 
 FEDEltACV 
 
 Mohegans, or Mahicans. 
 ooN(jiiAN Family; and below: 
 uians; also. New EnolaNd: 
 
 Montagnats. See above : 
 
 Ihckjuois Con- 
 
 See above: \h- 
 Stockhhidoi; In- 
 A. I). 1037. 
 Aloonquian Fam- 
 ily; and Athapascan Fa.mily. 
 
 Montauks. See above: Aloonquian Family. 
 
 Moque.jmnan Family. — "Derivation: From 
 the river and hill of the same name in Calaveras 
 County, California. ... It was not until IH'iO 
 that the distinctness of the linguistic family was 
 fully set forth by Latham. Under the head of 
 Jloqueluniiie, this author gathers several vocabu- 
 laries representing ditfcrent languages and dia- 
 lects of the same stock. These are the Talatui 
 ot Hale, the Tuol-.imno from Schoo'craft, the 
 Sonoma dialects us represented by the Tshoko- 
 yem vocabulary, the Choeiiyem and Youkiousmo 
 iialernostcrs, and the Olanientke of Kostro- 
 mitonov in Biler's Beitrllge. . . . The Moipie- 
 luinnuu family occupies the territory buuuded 
 
AMEIUCAN ABOKIGINES. 
 
 AMEUI' aN aborigines. 
 
 on the north by the Cosumne River, on tlie south 
 tiy the Fresno River, on tlie O'lst by thb Sierru 
 Nevada, and on tlie west b: the San Joaquin 
 River, witli tlio exception 'of a strip on the cast 
 l)ank occupied by tlie Cliolovonc. A part of 
 tliis family occiiines also a territory boiuided on 
 the south by San Francisco Bay. "—J. W. Powell, 
 Sircnth Annual liipt., Bureau of Ethnology, pj). 
 92-93. 
 
 Moquis. See below: Pueblos. 
 
 Moroiia. See above: Andehians. 
 
 Moxos, or Mojos. See above: Andesians; 
 alsii, Hoi.ivi.v: AiiouiriiNALlxii.vuiT.vsT8. 
 
 Mundrucu. See below : Tupl 
 
 Munsees. S"e above: Delaw.vues, and Al- 
 fioN(iii AN Family; also Manhattan Island. 
 
 Mura. See above: GrcK on Coco Guorp. 
 
 Muskhogean, or Maskoki Family. — "Amoni; 
 till' vaiicius nationalities of the Gulf territories 
 tlieMrskoki family of tribes occupied a central 
 and eonunanding position. Not only the large 
 extent of tciTitory held by them, but also their 
 numbers, tlieir prowess in war, and a certain 
 (legiec of mental culture and self-esteem made 
 of the JIaskoki one of the most important groups 
 in Indian history. From their ethnologic con- 
 dition of later times, wo infer that these tribes 
 have extended for many centuries back in time 
 fn)m the Atlantic to tlie Mississippi and beyond 
 tliat river, and from tlie Apalachian ridge to the 
 Gidf of Mexico. 'With sliort intermissions they 
 kept up warfare with all the circumjacent Indian 
 comnr.mities, and also among each other. . . . 
 The irresolute and egotistic policy of these tribes 
 often caused serious dilUculties to the govern- 
 ment of the English and French colonies, and 
 some of them constantly wavered in their adlie- 
 .sion between the French and the English cause. 
 The American government overcame their ojipo- 
 sition easily whenever a coiitlict presented itself 
 (the Seminole War forms anexn|ition), becau.se, 
 like all the Indians, they nevi r knew how to 
 unite against a common foe. The two main 
 branches of the stock, the Creek and the Cha'hta 
 [or C'lioetaw] Indians, were constantly at war, 
 and the remembrance of their deadly conflicts 
 has now jiassed to their descendants in the form 
 of folk lore. . . . The only characteristic by 
 which a subdivision of the family can be at- 
 tempted, is that of language. Following their 
 juicient topographic location from cast to west, 
 we obtain the following .synopsis: First branch, 
 or Maskoki proper; The Creek, ilaskokalgi or 
 Maskoki proper, settled on Coosa, Tiillapoo.sn, 
 Upper and Middle Chatahuchi river.s. From 
 these branched olf by segmentation the Creek 
 portion of the Seiiiinoles, of the Yiimassi and of 
 the little Yamaeraw community. Second, or 
 Apalachian branch: This southca.stern division, 
 wiiich may be called also 'a parte potiori' the 
 Iliuhiti connection, anciently comprised the 
 trilie.'j on the Lower Chatahuchi river, and, casi, 
 from there, the extinct Apalaehl, the Slikasuki, 
 an 1 the llitchiti portion of the Seniinolcs, Yii- 
 massi and Yamacraws. Third, or Alibanui 
 branch, comprised the Alibamu villages on the 
 river of that name ; to them belonged the ICoas- 
 siti and Witnmka on Coosa river, its northern 
 ntllueiit. Fourth, Western or Cha'htii [Choctaw] 
 branch; From the main peoi)le, the Cha'hta, 
 set, d in the middle portions of the State of Mis- 
 sissippi, the CIdcasa, Paseagoula, Biloxi, Iluma, 
 and other tribes once became separated through 
 
 segmentation. Tlie strongest evidence for n com- 
 munity of origin of the JIaskoki tribes is fur- 
 nished by the fact that their dialects belong to 
 one linguistic family. . . . Maskoki, Maskogi, 
 isti IMaskoki, designates a single person of the 
 Creek tribe, and forms, as a colh^ctive plural, 
 Maskokiilgi, the Creek conununity, the Creek 
 people, the Creek Indians. English authors write 
 this naini^ Muscogee. Muskhogee, and its plural 
 Muscogulgee. Tlie first syllable, as pronounced 
 by the Creek Indians, contains a clear short a. 
 . . . The accent is usually laid on the mid- 
 dle syllable: Maskoki. JInskogi. None of tliq 
 tribes are able to explain the name from their 
 own language. . . . Why did the English colo- 
 nists call them Creek Indliins? Because, when 
 the English traders entered tlie JIaskoki country 
 from Charleston or Savannah, they hiid to cross 
 a number of streams or creeks, especially between 
 the Chatahuchi and Savannah rivers. Gallatin 
 thought it iirobable that the inhabitants of the 
 country adjacent to Savannah river were called 
 Creeks from an early time. ... In the southern 
 part of the Cha'hta territory several tribes, repre- 
 sented to be of Cha'hta lineage, iippenr as dis- 
 tinct from the main body, and are always men- 
 tioned separately. The French colonists, la 
 whose annals they ligure extensively, call them 
 Mobilians, Tohonies, I'a.scogoulas, liiloxis, Mou- 
 goulachas, Bayogoulas and Ilunuis (Ouiiias). 
 They have all disappeared in our eiioch, witli tiie 
 exception of the Biloxi [.Major Powell, in the 
 Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnol- 
 ogy, places t!ic Biloxi in the Siouan Family],*of 
 whom scattered remnauls live in tlie fcn-ests of 
 Loui-siana, south of the Red I'iver." — A. S. Gats- 
 cliet, ,1 Mif/ndi'in L(!/cn(l<'ft/(C Crii klntltiiim, r. 1, 
 pt. 1. — " Tlio I'chees and the Natches, who are 
 both incorporated in the piuskhogec or Creek] 
 confederacy, speak two (iistinct languages alto- 
 gether dilTerent from tlie Muskhogee. The Nat- 
 ches, a residue of the well-known nation of that 
 name, came from the banks of the Mississipjii, and 
 joined the Creeks less than one hundred years ago. 
 The original seiits of the Ucliees were east of the 
 Coosa and iirobably of tlie Chatalioochee; and 
 they consider themselves as the most ancient in- 
 habitants of the country. They may have been 
 the same nation which is called Apalaclies in the 
 accounts (^f De Soto's expedition. . . . The four 
 great Southern nations, according to tlie estimates 
 of the War Department . . . consist now [1830] 
 of 67,000 souls, viz.: The Cherokees, lo.OOO; the 
 Choctaws (18,500), the Chioa.sas (5,500), 24,000; 
 the Mu.skhogees, Seminoles, and llitchittees, 
 20,000; the tjchees, Alibamons, Coosadas, and 
 Natches, 2,000. The territory west of tlic; Mis- 
 sissippi, given or offered to them by the United 
 States in exchange for tlieir lands east of that 
 river, contains 4b,(M)0,000 acres, exclusively o" 
 what may be alhttted to the Chicasas." — A. Gal- 
 latin, tlyiioimD of (he Indian Trihes (Arcluvolorjia 
 A : ■ i'nna, v. 2), wet. iJ. — See below: Seminoles. 
 !./U.".quito, or Mosquito Indians. — "That por- 
 tion of Honduras known as the Musiiuito Coast 
 derived its name, not from the abundance of 
 those troublesome inscct.s, but from a native 
 tribe who at the discovery occupied the shore 
 near Blewfield Lagiwin. 'I'hey are an intelligent 
 people, short in stature, unusually dark in color, 
 with finely cut features, and small straight noses 
 — not at all negroid, except where there has 
 been an admixture o^ blood. They number 
 
 •See Note, Appendix E. 
 
 95 
 
AMKIUCAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 alxmt 0,0(10, ii:iriy of whcini liiiv(^ bucn partly 
 civili/,i'(i l>v llie i-liorls of iiiissioniiries, who liuve 
 rt'il'.iceil the hiiiKiniKi! to writing' anil ])iil)lislio(l 
 1e it 11 ii umber -.f works. The Tmii,'las arc onu 
 of the Bilb-trilics of the Musiiiiitos." — 1). G. 
 Briiiton, I'/w Aint rimn Itnce, p. 163. — Sec, also, 
 Nicakaoua: ^ 1)., 18r,0. 
 Nahuas. See Mkxico, Anxient: Jiie Maya 
 
 AND .N A 111' A PkOI'I.KS. 
 
 Nanticokes. See above : Au)o.N(iUiAN Fam- 
 
 TI.V. 
 
 Napo. See above: Anuksians. 
 
 Narragansetts. See above: .Vuionijitian 
 Family; also JtiioDi: Island: A. I). lOIiO; ami 
 Ni;\v Enoi.axi): A. I). 1037; 1074-1075; 167r); 
 and 107«-l(i78. 
 
 Natchesan Family. — When tli' Freneh first 
 entered the lower .Mississippi valley, they found 
 the Natchez |Na'htelii] o(cu!)yin)^ a region 
 of country lliat now .surrotinds the city 
 which bears their nante. "By the persevere 
 hig curiosity of Gallatin, it is established 
 that the Natchez were distinguished from 
 the tribes around them less by their customs 
 and the degree of their civilization limn by their 
 language, which, as far as comparisons have 
 bi'eu instituted, has no etymological allinity with 
 any other whatever. Here again the imagina- 
 tion too readily invents theories; and the tradi- 
 tion has been widely received that the dominion 
 of the Natchez once extended even to the 
 Wabash. History knows them o:''y ns a feeble 
 and inconsiderable nation, who in iMe 18th 
 century attached themselves to the confed-^racy 
 ol the Creeks."— O. Bancroft, Hint, of the U. S. 
 (Aiithor'n last lYi'.), V. 2, p. 07. — '■ Chateaubriand, 
 in his charming romances, and some of the early 
 French writers, who often drew upon their fancy 
 for their facts, have thrown an interest around 
 the Natchez, as a semi-civilized and noble race, 
 that lias i)assed into history. We find no traces 
 of civilization in their architecture, or in their 
 social life and customs. Their religiim was 
 brutal and bloody, indicating an Aztec origin. 
 They were perlldious and cruel, an<l if they were 
 at nil superior to the neighboring tribes it was 
 probably due to the district they occupied — the 
 most beautiful, lieallhy and productive in the 
 valley of the Jlississippi — and the inllucnce of 
 its attractions in subslituling permanent for 
 temporary occupation. The residence of lla^ 
 grand chief was merely ii spacious cabin, of one 
 apartment, with a mat of ba.sket work for his 
 bed and a log for his pillow. . . . Their govern- 
 ment was an absolute despotisi.i. The supreme 
 chief was master of their labor, their proi)crty, 
 and their lives. . . . The Natchez consisted c.\- 
 clusively of two classes — the Blooil Royal and 
 its connexions and the common people, the 
 Mich-i-iniolii-(iuipe, or Stinkards. The two 
 classes understood each other, but spoke a dif- 
 ferent dialect. Tlieir customs of war, their 
 treatment of prisoners, their ceremonies of 
 marriage, their feasts and fasts, their sorceries 
 and witchcraft, dilfered very little from other 
 savages. Father Charlevoix, who visited Nat- 
 chez in 1731, sjiw no evidences of civilization. 
 Their villages consisted of a lew cabins, or rather 
 ovens, without windows ai:J rm)fed with uiat- 
 tiug. The house of the Sun was larger, 
 piastered with mud, and a narrow bench for a 
 seat and bed. No other furniture in the mansion 
 of tins grand digultary„w ho has been described 
 
 by imaginative writers as the peer of Monte- 
 zuma!" — J. F. II. Claiborne, J/(W»«'/);)i, c. 1, f/i. 
 4. — In 1739, the Natchez, maddened by insolent 
 oppressions, plannefl and executed u general 
 niassacr'! of the French within their territory. 
 As a consetpience, the tribe was virtually ex- 
 terminated within the following two years. — C. 
 Gay.irre, l.nuininim, itx Colmiial Hint, and 
 limniutre, Udmriisjift. '3 luul 5, — "The Na'htchi, 
 according to fiallatin, a residue of the well- 
 k'own nation nf that name, came from the 
 bi.nks of the Mississippi, and joined the Creek 
 less than one iiundred years ago. The seashore 
 from .Mobile to the llississippi was then in- 
 habited by several small tribes, of which the 
 Na'htchi was the principal. Before 1730 the 
 tribe lived in the vicinity of Natchez, Jlis.s., 
 along St. Catherine Creek. After their disper- 
 sion by the French in 1730 most of tlie remainder 
 joined the Chicasa and tifterwards the Upper 
 Creek. They are now in Creeli and Cherokee 
 Nations, Indian Territory. The linguistic rela- 
 ticms of the language spoken by the Taensa tribe 
 have long been in doubt, and it is possible they 
 will ever remain so." — J. W. Powell, Seventh 
 Annual liept., 'iiimin af Ethiiolofiij, p. 90. — See 
 Louisiana: A. I). 1719-1750. — See, also, above: 
 Mt.'SKiiouEAN Family. 
 
 Natchitoches.* See Texas: The Aboihginal 
 Iniiaiutants. 
 
 N^usets. See above: Aloonquian Family. 
 Navajo3. See above: Atiiai-ascax F.vmily, 
 and Ai'ACiiK Oiioup. 
 
 Neutral Nation. See above : Hurgns, &c. ; 
 and litoijLois Confeukuacy: Tiieik Co.S'- 
 (jlTESTS, in:. 
 
 Nez Perces, or Sahaptins. — "Tlie Sahaptins 
 or Nez Perces [the Shahaptian Family in iMajor 
 Powell's classilication] , w i ih t heir alii liated t ribes, 
 occupied the middle and upper valley of the 
 Columbia and its atilueuts, and also the passes of 
 the mountains. They were in contiguity with 
 the Shoshones and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus 
 holding an important i)osition, intermediate be- 
 tween the eastern and the Pacitic tribes. Hav- 
 ing the commercial instinct of the latter, they 
 made good use of it." — D. G. Brinton, Tht 
 American, Itace, p. 107. 
 
 Also in .1. W. Powell, Seivnth Annual llept. 
 of the liureuit. of Ethnoloi/)/, p. 100. 
 
 Niniquiquilas. See below: Pampas Tuides. 
 
 Nipmucs, or Nipnets. See abo' e : Aloon- 
 
 ijuiAN Family ; also, New Englanp: A. D. 1074- 
 
 1075; 1075; and 1070-1078 (Ki.no I'liiLip's WAii). 
 
 Nootkas. See belov/: W..kabhan Family. 
 
 Nottoways. Sec above: liiO(iUoi8 Tuibes 
 
 Ol.' THE South. 
 
 Nyantics. See above : Aloonciitian F.vmily. 
 Ogalalas. Sec below; Siouan Family. 
 Ojibwas, or Chtppei^as. — "Tlie < ibways, 
 with their kindred, the Pottawattaiuus, and 
 their friends the Ottawas, — the latter of whom 
 were fugitives from the eastward, whence they 
 Iiad lied from the wrath of the Iroquois, — were 
 banded into a sort of confederacy. Tlicy were 
 closelj' allied in blood, language, manners ami 
 character. The Oj ibways, by far the most 
 numerous of the three, occupied the Lisiu of 
 Lake Superior, and extensive luljiicent rcigious. 
 In llieir boundaries, the career of Iroquois 
 coiuiuest found at length n check. I'he fugitive 
 Wyandols sought refuge iu tlie Ojibwiiy hunt- 
 lug grounds; uud tradition lelutcs that," at the 
 
 •See Mote, AppeudU E. 
 
 96 
 
AMKRICAN ABOUIGINE8. 
 
 AMERICAN ABOmCJIJiES. 
 
 outlet of Lake Superior, an Iroquois war-party 
 ouce L'ucountcrcd a disastrous repulse. lu their 
 iikhIc of life, they were far inorc rude than tin; 
 Iro(|Uois, or even the southern Aljronquin 
 tribes." — F. Parknian, Conspirncy of Po/iliac, 
 ch. 1. — "The name of the tribe ni)peiirs to he 
 recent. It is not met with in the older writers. 
 The French, who were the earliest to meet them, 
 in their tribal seat at the falls or Saidt de Ste 
 >Iarie, named them Saulteur, from this circum- 
 stance. Jl'Kenzie tises the term ' Jibway,' as the 
 equivalent of this term, in his voyages. They 
 are referred to, with littlo dilTerenco in the 
 orthdgraphv, in General Washington's report, in 
 17.")4, of his trip to Lc liieuf, on Lake Erie; 
 hut are first recognized, among our treaty-tribes, 
 in the general treaty of Greenville, of 1794, in 
 which, with the Otiawas they ceded tlie island 
 of jlichilimackinac, and certain dependencies, 
 conceded by them at former peritMls to the 
 French. . . . The Chippewas arc conceded, by 
 writers on American philology ... to speak 
 one of the i)urest forms of the Algonquin." — 
 II. U. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the 
 llist.. Condition and Proapscts of the Indian 
 Tribes, pt. 5, p. 142. 
 
 Also in G. Copway, The Ojibicai/ Nation. — 
 J. O. Kohl, Kitchi-gami. — See, also, Pontiac's 
 \V.\u; and above: AliOONQUi an Family. 
 
 Omahas. See below: Siouan Family, and 
 Pawnek (Caddoan) Family. 
 
 Oneidas. Sec above: luotjuois Confedeb- 
 
 ACV. 
 
 Onondagas. See above: luoquois Confed- 
 
 KUACY. 
 
 Orejones. See below: Pampas Tkibes. 
 
 Osages. See below: Siouan Family, and 
 PAwMit: (Caddoan) Family. 
 
 Otoes, or Ottoes. See below : Siouan Family, 
 and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. 
 
 Otomis. — "According to Aztec tradition, the 
 Otomis were the earliest owners of the soil of 
 Central 3Ie.\ico. Their language was at the 
 conquest one of the most widely distributed of 
 any in this portion of the continent. Its central 
 regions were the States of Queretaro and Guan- 
 ajuato. . . . The Otomis are below the average 
 sUiture, of dark color, the skull markedly dolicho- 
 cephalic, tilt no.se short uud flattened, the eyits 
 slightly oblique." — 1). 0. Urinton, The Ameri- 
 can ]{:uv, p. i;!.1. 
 
 Ottawas. See above: Algonquian Family, 
 uud Ojibwas. — See, also, Pontiac's War. 
 
 Pacaguara. See above : Andesians. 
 
 Pacamora. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Pamlicoes. See above: Alcioncjuian Fa.mIly. 
 
 Pampas Tribes. — "The chief tribe of the 
 Pampas Indians was entitled Querandis by the 
 Spaniards, al'.hough tlu^y called themselves Pe- 
 Imelches [or Puclts — that is, the Eastern]. Vari- 
 ous segments of tlu'se, under different names, 
 occupied the immense tract of ground, bet\V(uii 
 the river Parana and the republic of Chili. The 
 C^uerandis . . . were the great opponents to 
 Bettlemcnt of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres. 
 . . . The Ancas or Aracaunos Indians [see 
 C'hile] resided on tlie west of tlie Pampas near 
 Chili, and from time to time assisted the CJueran- 
 ilis in transporting stolen cattle acniss the Cor- 
 ililleras. The southern part of the Patniias was 
 occupied by the Balehitas, Uhilehes, Telmel- 
 tlits, and others, all of whom were brunches of 
 the original CjuelcUus horde. The Guuraui In- 
 
 dians were the most famous of the South Ameri- 
 eiiii races. . . . Of the (luayauas lion let hen; were 
 several tribes — independent of each other, and 
 speaking diiferent idioms, although having the 
 same title of race. Their territory extended 
 fr<im the river Guarai, one of the aflluents into 
 the Uruguay, for many leagues nortlivards, 
 and stretched over to tiie I'arana opjwsite the 
 city of Corpus Clnisti. They were some of the 
 most vigorous o|)poiients of the Spanish invaders. 
 . . . Tlie Xalicurgas Indians, who lived up to 
 near 21° S. hit. were reput<'d to dwell in caves, 
 to be vcrv limited in number, and to go entirely 
 naked. 'I hcCiau.sarapos, or (iuuchies dwelt in the 
 marshy districts near wlieic the river Gausarapo, 
 or Guuchie, h;is its soiiice. This stream enters 
 from the cast into the Paraguay at 11)'^ 10' ^0" 3. 
 lilt. . . . The Cuatos lived inside of a lake to 
 the west of the river Paraguay, and constituted 
 a very small tribe. . . . The Orejones dwelt on 
 the eastern brows of the mountains of Santa 
 Lucia or San Fernando — close to the western 
 side of Paraguay river. . . . Another tribe, the 
 Niniqui(iuilas, had likewise the names of Potre- 
 ros, Siinanos, Barccnos, anil Lathanos. They 
 occupied a forest which began at about 10'^ S. 
 hit., some leagues baekward from the river Para- 
 guay, and separated the Oraii Chaco from the 
 province of Los Chiquitos in Peru. . . . The 
 Guanas Indians were divided into eight separate 
 segments, for each of whieli there was a particu- 
 lar and diiferent name. They lived between 20° 
 and 22° of S. hit. in the Gran (Jliiico to the west of 
 Paraguay, and they were not known to the Span- 
 iards till the latter crossed the last-named river 
 in l(i7!5. . . . The Albaias and Payagiias Indians 
 . . . in former times, were the chief tribes of the 
 Paraguay territory. . . . The Albaias were 
 styleil Machieuis and Enimgas by otiier authors. 
 At the time of the Spaniards' arrival here, the 
 Albaias occupied the Gran Chaco side of the 
 river Paraguay from 20° to 22° S. hit. Here 
 they entered into a treaty ollensive and defen- 
 sive with the I'ayaguas. . . . The joined forces 
 of Albaias and Pavuguas had managed to extend 
 their territory in 10715 down to 24° 7' S. on the 
 eastern side of Paraguay river. . . . The Al- 
 baias were a very tall and muscular race of 
 l)eople. . . . The Payagu- Indians, before and 
 up to, as well as after, m; jjcriod of the eiai- 
 quest, were sailors, and ilomim^ered over the 
 river Paraguay. . . .Tiie Guaiearus lived lai the 
 Chaco side of Paraguay river and subsisted en- 
 tirely by hunting. From the barbarous cu.stom 
 which their winiien had of inducing abortion to 
 avoid the jiain m' troiibli; of child-bearing, they 
 became exterminated socm after the conquest. 
 . . . The Tobas, who have also the titles of 
 Nateciet and Yncanabaite, wvtv among the best 
 fighters of the Indians. They occupy the Gran 
 Chaco, cliielly on the banks of the river Verniejo, 
 and between that and tlie Pileoniayo. Of these 
 there arc some remains in tlu; i)reseiit day. . . . 
 The Jlocovis are likewise still to be founil in the 
 Chaco. . . . Tlie Abipones, who were also styled 
 Ecusgina and Quiubanabuite, lived in the Chaco, 
 so h)w down as 28° south. This was the tribe 
 with whom the Jesuits incorporated, when they 
 erected the city of San Genminio, in the Gran 
 Chaco, and nearly opposite Goya, in 1741^." — T. 
 J. Hutchiusim, 1% Parana, cii. 8-7.— "The Abi- 
 pones inhabit [in the 18th century] the i>rovince 
 Chaco, the centre of all Paraguay ; they have no 
 
 97 
 
A.MKKICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 fixed .'ihodcs, III)!' any bouiKliirii'S. cxirpt what 
 f<'ar of tlicir iiciiflilKjurs lias cstalilislud. Tlicy 
 roam cxtciisivi'ly in every direction, wlienever 
 the oiiporluiuly of iitl.iekinj: their enemies, or 
 tlie necessilv of avoiding them renders a journey 
 advisable. 1"he norlhern sliore of the I{io (Jrande 
 or Berniejo, wliieli the Indians call Inatf'. was 
 their native land in the last century |lhe 17th]. 
 Thence they removed, to avoid the war carried 
 ou apiinst Cliaeo hy the Spaniards . . . and, 
 migratiii!; towards tli<^ south, took I'.o.ssession of 
 n vallev formerly held by the CalchtKiuis. . . . 
 From what rcfrion their ancestors came there is 
 uo room for conjecture. " — M. Dobrizholler, Arrt. 
 ofllieAliipri/itD, r. 2, r/i. 1. — "The Abipoiies aro 
 iu general above the middle stature, and of a 
 robust constitution. In stimmer tiiey fjo (juite 
 naked; but in winter cover themselves with 
 skins. . . . They paint themselves all over with 
 dilferent colotirs."— Fathe. Charlevoix, Hint, of 
 I'liriif/iKii/, bk. 7 (r. 1). 
 
 Also in The Shimlonl Kuturiil Iliittory {J. S. 
 Kin'iKkii. eti.), v. ^, pji. 'SM-'H't'i. — See, also, below: 
 Ti Ti.— Giah.vxi. 
 
 Pampticokes. See above: Algonijui.kn 
 
 F.\MII.V. 
 
 Pano. See above: Andkshns, 
 
 Papagos. See below: Pi.M.vx F.\Mii,Y, and 
 Pi-K.m.os. 
 
 Parawianas. See above: C.\hib8 and tueiu 
 KiM)iii;i>. 
 
 Pascogoulas. See above: Muskhooean 
 
 F.VMII.Y. 
 
 Pass£. See above: GrcK ou Coco GitofP. 
 
 Patagonians and Fuegians. — " The Patago- 
 nians call themselves Chonek or T/oiieca, or 
 Inaken (men, people), and by their Pampeaii 
 neighbors are referred to asTelimdChe, southern- 
 ers. They do not, however, l)elong to the Au- 
 canian stock, nor do they resemble tlie I'ampcaus 
 physically. They are celebrated for their stature, 
 many of them reaching from six to six feet four 
 inches in height, and built iu luoportion. In 
 color tliev are a reddish brown, and have aipiiline 
 noses and good foreheads. They lare little for a 
 sedentarv life, and ronm the coast as far north as 
 the Rio \egro. . . . Ou the inho.spitahle shores 
 of Tierra del Fncgo there ilwell three nations of 
 diverse stock, hut ou about the same jtlane of 
 culture. One of these is the Yahgans. or Vajioos, 
 on the Ikagle (!anal; the second is theOuas or 
 Aonik, to the north and east of these; and the 
 third the Aliculufs, to the north ami west. . . . 
 The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker 
 of Paris, that the Fuegians represent the oldest 
 type or variety of the American race. Ho be- 
 lieves that at one time this type occupied the 
 whole of South America south of the Amazon, 
 and that the Tapuyasof Brazil and the Fuegians 
 are its surviving meuibers. This interesting 
 theory deiiiiinds still further evidence before it 
 can be accepted."— U. G. Brinton, I'/ic Ameticnn 
 liwv. pp. ;j'>7-332. 
 
 Pawnee Family (named "Caddoan" l)y 
 Major I'owelll.— " I'lie Pawnee Family, Ihougii 
 some of its branches have long been known, 
 is perhaps in history and language cme of tlie 
 least understood of "the important tribes of the 
 West, In lK)th respects it seems to constitute 
 n distinct group. During recent years its 
 extreme northern and southern branches have 
 evinced a tendency to blend with surrounding 
 stocks; but the central branch constituting the 
 
 98 
 
 Pawnee proper, maintains still in its advanced 
 decadence a bohl line of demarcation between 
 itsilf and all adjacent tribes. The members of 
 the family are : The Pawnees, the Arikaras, the 
 Caddos, the lluecos or Wacos, the Keechies, the 
 Tawaccmies, and the Pawnee Picts or Wichitas. 
 The last five may be designated as the Southern 
 or Red Hivcr branches. At the date of the Louis- 
 iana |)urclias(' the Caddos were living about 4(1 
 miles northwest of where Shreveport now stands. 
 Five years earlier their residence was upon Clear 
 Lake," in what is now Caddo Parish, This spot 
 tliev claimed was the i)lace of their nativity, and 
 t!icirresidencefrom time immemorial, . . . They 
 have a tradition that they are the jiarent stock, 
 from which all the sou them branches liave sprung, 
 and to some extent this claim has been recog- 
 nized. . . . The live [southern] bands are now 
 all gathereil upon a reserve .secured for them in 
 the Indian Territory by the Go\crument. . . . 
 In many respects, their method of building 
 lodges, their equestrianism, and certain social 
 and tribal usages, they (juite closely resemble the 
 Pawnees. Their connection, however, with the 
 Pawnee family, not fill recently ii vcr mentioned, 
 ismaiidy a matter of vague coiijecture. . . . The 
 name I'awnee is most probably derived from ' pii- 
 rlk-I,' a horn; and seems to have been once used 
 by the Pawnees themselves to designate their 
 peculiar scalp-lock. From the fact that this was 
 the most noticeable feature iu their costume, the 
 name came naturally to be the denominative term 
 of the tribe. The word iu this use once ])robably 
 em))raccd the Wichitas (i. e., Pawnee Picts) and 
 the Arikaras. . . . The true Pawnee territory 
 till as late as I*j;( may l)e described as extending 
 from the Niobrara soiith to the Arkansas. They 
 freciuently hunted considerably beyond the Ar- 
 kansas; tradition says as far as the Canadian. 
 ... On the east they claimed to the Missouri, 
 though in eastern Nebraska, by a sort of tacit 
 permit, the Otoes, Poncas, and Omalias along 
 that ,stream oecui)ied lands extending as far west 
 as till' Elkhorn, In Kansas, also, ea.st of the Big 
 Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct con- 
 trol, as several remnants of tribes, the Wyandots, 
 Delawares, Kickai)oos, and lowas, had been .set- 
 tled there and wi'ic living under the guardian- 
 shi]) of the I'liited States. . . . On the west their 
 grounds were marked by no ntitural l)ouudary, 
 but iiuij- perhaps be described by a line drawn 
 from the mouth of Snake River on the Niobniru 
 southwest to the North Platte, thence south to 
 the Arkansiis. . . . It is not to be supposed, how- 
 ever, that they held altogether undisturbed pos- 
 session of this territory. On the north they were 
 incessantly harassed by various liands of the Da- 
 kotas, while upon the south the Osages, Conian- 
 ches, Clieyeimes, Arapahoes and Kiowas (the last 
 three originally northern tribes) were eciually re- 
 lentless in their hostility. . . . In 183;J the Paw- 
 nees surrendered to the" United States their cbim 
 upon all the above described territory lying south 
 of the I'latte. In 1858 all their remaiiiing terri- 
 tory was ceded, except a reserve 30 miles long 
 and 15 wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, 
 its ea.stcrn limit beginning at Beaver Creek. In 
 1874 they sold this tract and removed to a reserve 
 secured for them by the Government in the In- 
 dian ';'erritory, between the Arkansas and Cimar- 
 ron at their junction."— J. B. Dunbar, T/ie 
 Pdinie4 Indiam(Mag. of Am. HM., April, 1880, 
 V. 4). 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 Ai,so IX O. B. Grinnell, Pawnee ILro Stnriai. 
 — I). O. Briiiton, Tite American liaiv, j'p. U.')-!)7. 
 —.1. W. Powell, iktenth An. liept. of the Burmu 
 of Ethnolofiji, ]). 50. — Soo, nlso, ubovc: Adais utid 
 
 Bl.ACKFEKT. 
 
 Payag^as. Scealiovi-: Pampas Thibes. 
 
 Penuelches, or Puelts. Sco ubovo: Pampas 
 TiiiiiKs, 
 
 Penacooks, or Pawtucket Indians. Sec 
 aliiivi': Ai.ooNijiiAN Family. 
 
 Peorias. Si'c above : Ai.uonquian Family. 
 
 Pequots. St'o above: Algonijiian Family; 
 and below: Shawanese; also, New Enolanu: 
 A. D. 1037. 
 
 Piankishaws. Sec above: Algonquian Fam- 
 ily, and .Sacs, itc. 
 
 Piegans. See above: Blackfeet. 
 
 Piman Family. — "Only a small portion of the 
 territory oeenpied by this family is ineluded 
 williin the United States, the greater portion 
 bciii): in Mexieo, where it e.xtends to the Gulf of 
 Calit'ornia. The family is rejiresented in the 
 IJiiled States by three tribes, Pima alta, 
 Sobaipuri, and Papajro. The former liavc lived 
 for at least two centuries with the Maricopa on 
 the Gila Hiver about ItiO miles from the moutiL 
 The Sobai))uri oeenpied the Santa Cruz and San 
 IVdro Rivers, tributaries of the Gila, but are no 
 longer known. The Papago territory is much 
 more e.xtensive and extends to the south across 
 the border." — J. W. Powell, iScctnt/i Annual 
 Kept., Ihiirau of Etluwlugy, pp. 98-09. — See 
 below: PrKliLOS. 
 
 Pimenteiras. See above: Guck or Coco 
 Gitori', 
 
 Piru. See above : Anuicsiaxs. 
 
 Pit River Indians. See above; Modoc8(Kla- 
 
 SLVTUS), &c. 
 
 Piutes. See below: Siiosiioxean Family. 
 
 Pokanokets, or Wampanoa^s. See above: 
 Aloo-s^i IAN Family; also, ><kw P^xviLA.M): 
 A. I). 1074-1075; 1075; 1070-1078 (Kino Philips 
 Wau). 
 
 Ponkas, or Puncas. See below: Sioi:ax 
 Family: andabove: Pawnee(Caudoan)Family. 
 
 Popolocas. See above: Chont.\L8. 
 
 Pottawatomies, See above: Aloonqui.vn 
 Family, Ojibwas, and Sacs, &c. 
 
 Powhatan Confederacy. — "At the time of 
 the first settlement by the Euroiieans, it has 
 been estimated that there were not more than 
 2(1,000 Indians within the limits of the State of 
 Virginia. Within a circuit of 00 miles from 
 Jamestown, Captain Smitli says there were 
 about 5,000 souls, and of these scarce 1,500 were 
 warriors. The wliole territory between the 
 mountains and the sea was occupied by more 
 than 40 tribes, 30 of w'lom were united in a con- 
 federacy under Powhatan, whose (hmiinions, 
 hereditary and acquired by conquest, comprised 
 llie whole coimtry between the rivers .lames and 
 Potomac, and extended into the interior as far as 
 the falls of the principal rivers. Campbell, in 
 his History of Virginin, states the number of 
 Powhatan's sul lects to have been 8,000. Pow- 
 hatan was a remaikable man; a sort of savage 
 Napoleon, who, by the force of his character and 
 the superiority of his talents, had raised himself 
 from the rank of a petty chieftain to something 
 of imperial dignity uid power, lie had two 
 places of abcKle, one called Powhatan, where 
 Uiihmond now stands, and the other at VV'erowo- 
 comueo, on the north side of York River, within 
 
 the present county of Gloucester. . . , Besides 
 the large confederacy of which Powhatan was 
 the chief, there were two others, with which 
 that was often at war. One of these, called the 
 -MaiHiahoaes, con.sisted of eight tribes, and occu- 
 pied till! country between the Rappahannoc 
 and York rivers; the other, consisting of (ive 
 tribes, was called the Monacans, and was settled 
 lietween York and .lames r.vers above the Falls. 
 There were also, iu a<ldition to these, many scat- 
 tering and independent tribes." — G. S. llillard, 
 /■'/'■ ofCiipt. Jofiii '^niilh {/.i/zniri/ of Am. J>i"f/.), 
 c/t. 4. —"The Engi.sh invested sivage life witii 
 all the dignity of European courts. Powhatan 
 was styled 'King,' or 'Emperor,' hi-; |irin(ipal 
 warriors were lords of the kingdom, his wives 
 were queens, his daughter was a 'princess,' 
 and his cabins were his various se:its of resi- 
 dence. ... In his younger days Powhatan had 
 been a great warriia-. llerediiarily, In' was the 
 chief or werowance of cigiit tribes; through con- 
 questliisdominicaisbad beenextended. . . . The 
 name of his nation and the Indian appellation of 
 the James Hiver was Powhatan, lie himself 
 pos.sessed several names." — K. Eggleston and 
 L. E. Seelye, I'ocahinitn.'i. cli. 3. 
 
 Also in Capt. John Smith, Dmcripiion of 17/- 
 giuiit, and General llintorie of \'a. (Arber'i 
 reprint of Works, pp. 05 and 300). — See, also, 
 above: Ai.ooxgiiAX Fa.mily. 
 
 Puans. See below: Siouan Family. 
 
 Pueblos. — "The non-iumiadie semi-civilized 
 town and agricultural peoples of New Mexico 
 and Arizona ... I call the Pueblos, or Towns- 
 people, from pueblo, town, iioitulation, jicople, 
 a name given by the Spaniards to siicli inhabi- 
 tants of this region as were found, when first 
 discovered, permanently locateil in comiiaratively 
 well-built towns. Strictly spetdiing, the term 
 Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along 
 the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and its 
 tributaries between latitudes 34"^ 45' and 30° 
 30', and although the name is employed as a 
 general appellation for this division, it will be 
 used, for the most iiart, only in its narrower and 
 popular sense. In this division, besides the 
 before mentioned Pueblos projjer, are embraced 
 the Moquis, or villagers of eastern Arizona, and 
 the non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower 
 Gila river, — the Pimas, ilaricopas, Papagos, 
 and cognate tribes. The country of the Towns- 
 people, if we may credit Lieutenant Simpson, 
 is one of ' almo.st universal barrenness,' yet inter- 
 spersed with fertile sj.ots ; that of the agricultural 
 nations, though dry, is more generally pro- 
 ductive. The fame of this so-called civilization 
 reached Mexie } at an early day . . . in exagger- 
 ated rumors i,f great cities to the north, which 
 prompted the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 
 1530, of Coronado in 1540, and of Espejo in 1580 
 [1.583]. These adventurers visited the north in 
 quest of the fabulous kingdoms of tjuivira, 
 Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great 
 riches were said to exist. The name of (Juivira 
 was afterwards api)lied by them to one or more 
 of the pueblo cities. The name Cibola, from 
 'Cibolo,' ^lexican bull, 'bos bison,' or wild ox of 
 New Mexico, where the Spaiuards first encoun- 
 tered butf.do, was given to seven of the towns 
 which were afterwards known as the ':ieven 
 Cities of (;ibola. But most of the villages known 
 at the present day were mentiofied in the reports 
 01 the early expeditious by their present names. 
 
 99 
 
AMERICAN AHOUIOINES. 
 
 AMEHICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 . . . Tlic towns (if the I'lii'blos arc csscntiiilly 
 imi(|ii(', mid iin; the doiiiiimnt fcuturc of tlicsi' 
 iiborijiirml.s. Some of tlii'iu iiro sitiiiitol in 
 viilli'js, others on mesas; somctiMies tlicy are 
 planted on eh'viitions ahnostinacocssiljlc, reached 
 only by arthieial Kra<lcs. or by steps cut hi tlie 
 solid KK'k. Some of the towns are of an ellipti- 
 cal shaiie, while others are square, a town helm,' 
 frecpiently hut a block of bnildinps. Thus a 
 I'ueblo consists of one or more scpnires, each 
 enclosed by three or fonr l>uil(lini;sof from 300 to 
 400 fi.et in leiiKlli, and about bit) feet in width 
 at the base, and from two to seven stories of 
 from eight to nine feet each in hei),'ht. . . . The 
 stories are built in a series of ^'radations or re- 
 treatini,' surfaces, deereasiiif; In size as they rise, 
 thus forming a succession of terraces. In some 
 of the towns tlie.se terraces are on both sides of 
 the buildim,'; in others they face only towards 
 the outside; while again in others they are on 
 the inside. These terraces are about six feet 
 wide, and extend around the three or four sides 
 of the S(iuare, forming a walk for the occupants 
 of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the 
 Story beneath; so witli tin' stories above. As 
 there is no inner communication with one another, 
 the only means of mounting to them is by ladders 
 which stand at convenient distances along the 
 several rows of terraces, and tli<'y ma\' be drawn 
 up at pleasure, thus cutting olf all unwelcome 
 intrusion, The outside walls of one or more of 
 the lower stories are entirely solid, having no 
 openings of any kind, with the exception of, in 
 some towns, a few loopholes. ... To enter the 
 rooms on the ground floor from the out.side, one 
 must mount the ladder to the tirst balcony or 
 terrace, then desci'iid through a trap door in the 
 tloor by another laiUler on the inside, . . . The 
 several stories of these huge structures are 
 divided into multitudinous ciimpartnicnts of 
 greater or less size, wliicli are apportioned to the 
 several families of the tril)l^" — 11. II. Uancroft, 
 Kdtiri- ItiieiHdf thf Pufifie Stdtfn, r. 1, r/i. 5. — 
 "There can be no doubt that Cibola is to be 
 looked for in Xcw Mexico. . . . We cannot . . . 
 refuse to adopt the views of General .Simp.son 
 and of Mr. \V. \V. II. Davis, and to look at the 
 pueblo of ZuiSl as occupying, if not the actual 
 site, at least one of the sites within the tribal 
 area of the. Seven CUties of Cibola. Xor can we 
 refuse to identify Tusayan with the Moqui dis- 
 trict, and Acuco witli Acoma." — A. F. Ban- 
 (lelier, Hint. Introil. to Stiidicji among t?ie Sedentari/ 
 ImliitiiK (if K. Me.vicn (Papers of the Arc/i(Toloi/. 
 Inst, if Am.: Am. fleries, r. 1). 
 
 Ai.so IX ,1. II. Simpson, T/ic Maivh of Coro- 
 nado. — L. H. Alorgaii, llouses and House-life of 
 the Am. Aborigines (Contributions to JV' Am. 
 Ethnologi/, r. 4), eh. 6. — P. H. Gushing, Mi/ 
 Adcenturcs in Ziini (Century, v. 3-J). — The same, 
 Fhurth Annual liept. of the liureaii of EthtMlom/ 
 (1883-83). yi/). 478-180.— F. W. Blackiiiar, Spanish 
 Institutions of the Southitest, eh. 10. — See, also, 
 AMtniic.t, Phkiiistouic, and above: Piman 
 Family, and Krrksan Family. 
 
 Pujunan Family. — "The following tribes 
 were placed i.i this group by Latham :"Pujuni, 
 Secumne, Tsamak of Hale, and the Cuslina of 
 Sch(X)lcraft. The name adopted for the family 
 is the name of a tribe given by Hale. This was 
 one of the two races into which, ii))on the infor- 
 mation of Captain Sutter 'as derived by Mr. 
 Dana, all the Sacramento tribes wore believed to 
 
 be divi<led. ' These races resembled one another 
 in every respect but language. ' . . . The tribes 
 of this family liave been carefully studied by 
 Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all 
 we know of their distribution. They occupied 
 the eastern bank of the Sacramento in California, 
 beginning soiik! 80 or 100 miles from its mouth, 
 and extended northward to within a short dis- 
 tance of Pit River."—.!, W. Powell, Seeenth 
 Annual Ilept., Hureaii of Kthnologi), pp. 90-100. 
 
 Puncas, or Ponkas. See below: Siouan 
 Family; and above; Pawnee (Cauuoan) 
 Fa.mily. 
 
 Purumancians. See Chile: A. I). 1450- 
 17124. 
 
 Quapaws. See below : Srou.w Family. 
 
 Quelches. See above: PA.\ri'AHTiiinKs. 
 
 Querandis, or Pehuelches, or Puelts. See 
 above: Pami-as TuiiiKs. 
 
 Quiches. — Cakchiquels.— " (Jf the ancient 
 races of America, those which approached the 
 nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dia- 
 lects of a tongue, which from its principal mem- 
 bers lias been called the Maya-Quiche linguistic 
 stock. Even to-day, it is estimated that half a 
 million persons use these dialects. They are 
 scattered over Yucatan, Ouatemala, and the ad^a- 
 <'ent territory, and one branch formerly occupied 
 the hot lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico, north 
 of Vera Cruz. The ijo-callcd ' metropolitan 'dia- , 
 lects are those spoken relatively near the city of 
 Guatemala, and include the Cakchiquel, the 
 (Juichc, the Pokonchi and the Tzutuhill. They 
 are quite closely allied, and are luutuaKy intelli- 
 gible, resembling each other about as much as did 
 ill ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic an<l Doric dia- 
 lects. . . . The civilization of these people was 
 such that they used various mnemonic signs, 
 approaching our nlpliabet, to record and recall 
 their mythologj' and history. Fragments, more 
 or less complete, of tliese traditions have been 
 lireserved. The most notable of them i:i the 
 national legend of the Quiches of Guatemala, the 
 so-called Popol Vuh. It was written at an un- 
 known date in the Quiche dialect, by a native 
 who was familiar with the ancient records." — D. 
 G. Brinton, Essaj/s of an, Americanist, p. 104. 
 
 Also in The same, ^lH«a/s «/</i« Cakchiquels. 
 — II. II. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific 
 States, eh. 11. — See, also, above: Mayas. 
 
 Quichuas. See Pehtj. 
 
 Quijo. See above : Andesians. 
 
 Quoratean Family . — ' ' The tribes occupy both 
 banks of the lower Klamath from a range of 
 hills a little above Happy Camp to the jutictiou 
 of the Trinity, and the Salmon River from its 
 mouth to its sources. On the north, Quoratean 
 tribes extended to the Athapascan territory near 
 the Oregon line." — .1. W. Powell, Seventh Annual 
 Rept., liureau, of Ethnology, p. 101. 
 
 Rapid Indians. — A name applied by various 
 writers to the Arapalioes, and other tribes. 
 
 Raritans. See above: ALGON<iUiAN F.uiily. 
 
 Remo. See above : Andesians. 
 
 Rogue River Indians.* See above: MoDOCS, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Rucanas. See Peuu. 
 
 Sabaja. See above: Guck ok Coco Guoi!i'. 
 
 Sacs (Sauks), Foxes, etc.— "The Sauks or 
 Saukies (White Clay), and Fo.\es or Outagamies, 
 so called by the Europeans and Algonkius, but 
 whose true name is Musquakkiuk (Red Clay), are 
 in fact but one nation. Tlr <;h missionaries 
 
 •See Note, Appendix & 
 
 100 
 
AMERICAN AB01UGINE8. 
 
 AMERICAN AQORIGINES. 
 
 on coming first in contact with them, in the year 
 lB6r), lit once found tlmt they spoke the same lan- 
 jiuiige, and that it dillered from the Alf;onl<in, 
 tlioujili belonging to tlie same stock ; and also that 
 tills liingiiage was common to the Klckapoos, 
 and to those Indians they called Maskontcns. This 
 last nation, if it ever "had an existence as a dis- 
 tinct tribe, has entirely disa])peared. But we are 
 informed by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft cor- 
 roborates the fact, that the word ' Jlasconteiick ' 
 means a country without woods, a prairie. The 
 name Mascontons was therefore used to designate 
 ' prairie Indians.' And it appears tliat they con- 
 sisted principally of Sauks and Klckapoos, with 
 an occasional mixt\ire of Pntowotamies and 
 Miamis, who probably came there to hunt the 
 Uuflalo. The country a.ssigned to those ^'ascon- 
 teus lay south of the Fox River of LaU Michi- 
 gan and west of Illinois River. . . . When first 
 discovered, the Sauks and Foxes had f' ■iv seats 
 toward the southern extremity of Greei Hay, on 
 Fox River, and generally farther east than the 
 country wli'Ch they lately occupied. . . . By the 
 tre.ity of 1801, the Sauks and Fo.xes ceded to the 
 United States all their lands east of . . . the 
 Mississippi. . . . The Kickapoos by various 
 treaties, 1809 to 1819, have also ceded all the'> 
 lands to the United States. They claimed all the 
 coiu'try between the Illinois River and the 
 \Val)ash, north of the parallel of latitude jjassing 
 by the mouth of the Illinois and south of the 
 Kankakee^ River. . . . The territory claimed by 
 the .Miamis and Fiankishaws may be generally 
 stated as having been bounded east wardly by the 
 .Maumeo River of Lake Erie, and to have in- 
 cluded all the country drained by the Wabash. 
 The I'iankishaws occupied the country border- 
 ing on the Ohio." — A. Gallatin, tSyitopsis of the 
 IiuUan Tribes {Arelueologia Aineriaiiut, r. 2), 
 introil., sect. 2. — The Mascontens, or Mascoutins, 
 " seldom appear alone, but almost always in 
 connection with their kindred, the Ottagamies or 
 Foxes and the Kickapoos, and like them bear a 
 character for treachery and deceit. The three 
 tribes may have in earlier days formed the Fire- 
 Xation [of the early French writers], but, as 
 Gallatin observes in the Archreologia Americana, 
 it is very doubtful whether the Mascoutins were 
 ever a distinct tribe. If this be so, and there is 
 no reason to reject it, the disappearance of the 
 name will not be strange." — J.> G. Shea, linef 
 Hescarches Uespectiiif/ the Mascoutins (Schoolcraft's 
 Information Respecting Indian Tribes, pt. 4, p. 
 245).— See above, Algonqiii.\n F.\mii,y. — For an 
 account of the Blofk Hawk War see Illinois, 
 A. 1). 1832. 
 
 Sahaptins. See above : Nez Pkuies. 
 
 Salinan Family. — This name is given by 
 JIajor Powell to the San Antonio and San Sliguel 
 dialects spoken by two tribes on the Salinas 
 River, Monterey County, California. — J. W. 
 Powell, Seventh Annual lieport, Bureau, of Eth- 
 noloijji, p. 101. — See Esselenian Family. 
 
 Saiishan Family. Scj above : Flatheaus. 
 
 Sanhikans, or Mincees. See above: Aloon- 
 QLiAX Family. 
 
 Sans Arcs. See below: Siou.vn Family. 
 
 Santees.* See below : Siouan F^vmily. 
 
 Sarcce (Tinneh).* See above : Blackfeet. 
 
 Sastean Family. — "The single tribe upon the 
 language of which Hale based his name was 
 located by him to the southwest of the Lutuami 
 or Klamath tribes. . . . The former territory of 
 
 •See Note, Appendix E. . \0\ 
 
 the Sastean family is the region drained by the 
 Klamath River and its tributaries from the 
 western base of the Cascade range to the point 
 where tin? Klamath Hows through tlu^ ridge of 
 hills east of Happy Cami), which forms the 
 boundary between th" Sastean and the (Juoratean 
 families. In ad'lition to this region of the Kla- 
 math, the Shasta extended over the Si.skiyou 
 raiiire northward as far as Ashland, Oregon." — 
 .f. \\. Powell, S lenth Annual Iie]it., Bureau of 
 Etlinolofiy, /), lOti. 
 Savannahs. See above: Aloonquian Family. 
 Seminoles.— "The term 'semanole,' or ' isti 
 Simanole,' signitles 'separatish' ot 'runaway,' 
 and as a tribal name ])oints to the Indians who 
 left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek settle- 
 ments, for Florida, to live, Inint, and lish there 
 in independence. The term does not mean ' wild,' 
 'savage,' as freciuently stated; if ajiplied now in 
 this sense to animals, it is l)eeause of its original 
 meaning, 'what has become a runaway.'. . . 
 The Seminoles of modern times are a ])eoplo 
 compounded of the following elements: separa- 
 tists from the Lower Creek and Hitchiti towns; 
 renuiants of tribes partly civilized by the 
 Spaniards; Yanui.ssi Indians, and sonu' negroes. 
 . . . The Seminoles were always regarded us a 
 sort of otitcasts by the Creek tribes from which 
 they had seceded, and no doubt there were 
 reasons for this. . . . These Indians showed, like 
 the Creeks, hostile intentions towards the thirteen 
 states during and after the Revolution, and con- 
 jointly with the Upper (.'reeks on Tallapoos;i 
 river concluded a treaty of frien<lship with the 
 Sp'.niards at Pensacola ui Jlay, 1784. Although 
 imder Spanish control, the Seminoles entered into 
 hostilities with the Americans in 1793 and 181'2. 
 In the latter year Payne niiko [' King Payne'] 
 was killed in a battle at Alachua, and his brother, 
 the infiuential Bowlegs, died soon after. These 
 unruly tribes surprised and massacred American 
 settlers on the Satilla river, Georgia, in 1817, and 
 another confiict began, which terminated in the 
 ' destruction of the Mikasuki and Suwanec river 
 ; towns of the Seminoles by General Jackson, in 
 ! April, 1818. [See Flohida: A. I). 1810-1818.] 
 After the cession of Florida, and its incorporation 
 into the American Union (1819), the Seminoles gave 
 u p all their territory by the treaty of Fort Moultrie, 
 Sept. 18th, 1823, receiving in exchange goods and 
 annuities. When tlie government concluded to 
 move these Indians west of the Jlississippi river, 
 a treaty of a conditional character was con- 
 cluded with them at Payui;'s landing, iu 1832. 
 The larger portion were removed, but the more 
 stubborn p:»rt dissented, and thus gave origin to 
 one of the gravest conllicts which ever occurred 
 between Indians and whites. The Seminole war 
 begun with the massacre of Major Dade's com- 
 mand near Wahoo swamp, December 28th, 1835, 
 and coutiinied with unabated fury for five years, 
 entailing an immense expenditure of money aiuj 
 lives. [See Flouida: A. D. 1835-1843.] A 
 number of Creek warriors joined the hostile 
 Seminoles in 1838. A census of the Seminoles 
 taken iu 1823 gave a population of 3,899, with 
 800 negroes belonging to them. The population 
 of the Seminoles in the Indian Territory amounted 
 to 2,087 iu 1881. . . . There are some Seminoles 
 now in Miixico, who went there with their negro 
 slaves." — A. S. Gatschet, ^1 iligrution legend of 
 the Creek Indians, c. 1, pt. 1, sect. 2. — " Ever since 
 the first settlement of th>.ie Indians in Florida 
 
AMERICAN AUG UIG INKS. 
 
 AMEUICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 tlit'V liiivc been cngngpil in n strife with tlie 
 wliitcs. ... In tlic iiimnifiioiH jn(lf;nu'nt of 
 unprcjudiccil writers, tlie whites liiive ever l)een 
 in tlie wroiiK- " — I*. G. IJrintoii, Nutcn on the 
 FloriiUiiii I'minmilii, p. MH— " Tliero were in 
 Florldii, Oelober 1, 1880, of tlie Indiana com- 
 iiionlv known ii.s Seminole, 308, Tliey coosti- 
 tilled' ;(7 families, livini,' in 33 eamps, which were 
 jratliered into five widely separated groups or 
 settlements. . . . This people our Goveriiinent 
 1ms never been able to conciliate or to conquer. 
 . . . Tlie .Seminole have always lived within our 
 borders as aliens. Il is only of late years, and 
 tliriiUL'li natural iiecessilies", that any friendly 
 intereoiirso of white man and Indian has been 
 secured. . . . The liidians have appropriated for 
 their service souk; of tlie products of European 
 civilization, such as weaiions, implements, 
 domestic utensils, fabrics for clotliini,', itc. 
 Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which 
 they received long ago from the teaching of 
 Hpanish niissionari(?s, and, in the southern settle- 
 ments, excepting some few Spanish words, the 
 Seminole have accepted and appropriated prac- 
 tically nothing from the white man." — C. Mac- 
 Cauley, The f>emiHi>lc IiitHdiiii of Florhhi (Fifth 
 An. Ikpt. of the Jiiire/iu of Ethnology, 1883-84), 
 intn/tl. null ch. 4. 
 
 Also in ,J. T. Sprague, I'he Fhrida War. — 
 8. G. Drake. The A/Hin'f/iiuil liiicesof N. Am., hk. 
 4, ell. 0-31. — See, also, above: Muskuooean 
 F.\.\iii.v. 
 
 Senecas; their name. — "How this name 
 originated is a ' ve.xata (lUiestio' among Indo- 
 antiiiuariaiis and etymologists. The least i)lausi- 
 blo .supjiositiou is, that the name has any 
 reference to the moralist Seneca. Some hav 
 supposed il to be a corruption of the Dutch term 
 for Vermillion, cinebar, or cinnabar, under the 
 a.ssumption that the Senecas, being the most 
 warlike of the Five Nations, u.scd tliat pigment 
 more than the others, and thus gave origin to 
 the name. This hypothesis is suiiported by no 
 authority. . . . The name ' Sennecas ' first 
 appears on a Dutch map of 1010, and again on 
 .lean de Laet's map of 1033. ... It is claimed 
 by some that the word may be derived from 
 'Siuiieko.'c,' the Algoniiuin name of a i:ibe of 
 Indians spoken )f in Wassenaer's Histoiy of 
 Europe, on the iiuthority of Peter Barentz, who 
 traded with them about the year 1020. . . . 
 Without assuming to solve the mystery, the 
 writer contents himself with giving some data 
 wliieh may possibly aid others in arriving at a 
 reliable conclusion. [Here follows a discussion 
 of the various forms of name by which the 
 S(!iiecas designated themselves and were known 
 to til-- Hurous, from whom the Jesuits first 
 heard of them.] By dropping the neuter pre- 
 li.'k O, the national title became 'Nan-do-wah- 
 gaali, ' or ' The great hill people,' as now used by 
 the Senecas. ... If the name Seneca can legiti- 
 mately be derived from the Seneca word ' Nan-do- 
 wah-gaair. . . it can only be done by prelixing 
 'Son,' as was the custom of the Jesuits, and 
 dropping all unnecessary letters. It would then 
 form the word ' Son-non-do-wa-ga,' the first two 
 and last syllables of which, if the French sounds 
 of the letters are given, are almost identical in 
 pronunciation with Seneca. The chief dilllculty, 
 however, would be iu the disposal of the two 
 superliuous syllables. They may have been 
 dropped in the process of contraction so common 
 
 in the composition of Indian words — a result 
 which would be (juite likely to occur to a Seneca 
 name, in its transmissicm through two other 
 languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The 
 foregoing (pieries and suggestions are thrown 
 out for what they are worth, in the absence of 
 any more reliable theory." — O. II. Marshall, 
 J/tHtori-ntWi-itiii;/.'), p. 231. — See above: Ikoqiiois 
 Co.NFKDKUACV, and HuHoNS, ice. — See, also, I'ox- 
 Ti.vc's Wak, and for an accouit of Sullivan's ex- 
 [ledition against the Senecas, see United States 
 uv Am.; a. D. 1779 (AudUsT — Sei'te.mheh). 
 
 Shacaya. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Shahaptian Family. Sec above: Nez 
 1'eiu i';s. 
 
 Shastas. See above: Sastean Family. 
 
 Shawanese, Shawnees, or Shawanoes. — 
 "Adjacent to the Lenape [or Delawares — see 
 above], and associated with them in some of the 
 mo.st notable pas.sagea of their history, dwelt the 
 Shawanoes, the Chaouunons of the French, a 
 tribe of bold, roving, and adventurous spirit. 
 Their eccentric waiidering.s, their sudden appear- 
 ances and disappearances, perplex Iheantiipiary, 
 and defy research; but from various scattered 
 notices, we may gather that at an early period 
 they occupied the valley of the Ohio ; that, be- 
 coming embroiled with the Five Nations, they 
 shared the defeat of the Andastes, and about the 
 year 1073 tied to escape destruction. Some found 
 an asylum in the country of the Lenape, where 
 they lived tenants at will of the Five Nations; 
 others .>ouglit refuge in the Carolinas and 
 Florida, wlierc, true to their native instincts, 
 they soon came to blows with the owners of the 
 soil. Again, turning northwards, they formed 
 new settlements in the vallej' of the Ohio, where 
 they were now sullered to dwell in iicace, and 
 where, at a later period, they were joined by 
 such of their brethren as had found refuge 
 among the Lenape." — F. Parkman, The Cun- 
 itpiraey of Pontine, ch. 1. — "The Shawnees were 
 not found originally in Ohio, but migrated there 
 after 17.jO. They were called Chaouanons by 
 the French and Shawanoe;; by the English. The 
 English name .Shawano changed to Shawanee, 
 and recently to Shawnee, Chaouanou and 
 Shawano are obviously attempts to represent the 
 same sound by the orthograply of the two re- 
 spective languages. . . . Jludi industry has 
 been used by recent writers, especially by Dr. 
 Brintou, to trace this nomadic trite to its original 
 home; but I think without success. . . . We 
 first find the Shawano in actual history about the 
 year 1000, and living along the Cumberland river, 
 or the Cumberland and Tennessee. Among the 
 conjectures as to theirearlier history, the greatest 
 probability lies for the present with the earliest 
 account — the account given by Perrot, and ap- 
 parently obtained by him from the Sh.'iwanoes 
 themselves, about the year 1080 — tlu.t they 
 formerly lived by the lower lakes, and were 
 <lriven thence by the Five Nations." — W. F. 
 Force, Some Edrly Nuticca of the Indians of Ohio. 
 — "Tlieir [the Shawnee's] dialect is more akin 
 to the Mohegan than to the Delaware, ai.'d 
 when, in 1093, they lirst appeared in the arei: 
 of the Eastern Algonkin Confederacy, they 
 can. " as the friends and relatives of the former. 
 They were divided into foitr bands " — Piqua, 
 liroperly Pikoweu, ^lequachake, Kiscapokoke, 
 Chilicotlie. "Of these, that which settled in 
 Pennsylvania ■•"'as the Pikoweu, who occupied 
 
 102 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 ami giive their imme to tlio Pcqvm vnllcv in Laii- 
 (lister county. Ai'cordinjr to ancient Moliogan 
 tradition, tlic Now Knj^land PcchkhIm were nicin- 
 licrs of tlii.s l)and." — I). O. Hrinton, Th<; Ijeiiniie 
 iiiiil Ihiir L<r/iii>li>. e/i. 2. — Tlic same, The H hair- 
 iices ami thiir Mii/rntiniiii {Ilint. Mitfi., v. U), 
 IHOO).— "TlieSliawanese, wliose vllla.i;es were on 
 tlie western bank [of llic Sus(iuelianna] came 
 iiili) the valley [of \Vyomin!;| from tlieir former 
 localities, at tli(^ 'forks of tlie Delaware' (the 
 jimction of the Delaware and Lchiftli, at Eastoii), 
 to which point tiiey had been induced at some 
 remote period to eini^'ratc from llieir earlier 
 home, near the mouth of the river Wabasli, in 
 tlie 'Ohio re^tion,' upon tlie invitation of the 
 Delawares. Tliis was Iii<lian diplomacy, for the 
 Delawares wen; desirous (not being upon llie 
 most friendly terms willi tiu! Jlinitos, or .Si.\ 
 Nations) to aceuniulale a force against tliose 
 powerful neighbors. But, as might be expected, 
 they (lid not long live in peace with their new 
 allies. . . . The Sliawaiics(; [about IT.").'), or soon 
 after] were driven out of the valley by their 
 more powerful neighbors, the Delawares, and 
 the contlict which resulted in their letiving it 
 grew out of, or was precipitated by, a very 
 trilling incident. While the warriors of the 
 Delawares were engaged iii)on the mountains in a 
 hunting expedition, a number of 8(iua\vs or female 
 Indians from Mauglnvauwame were gather- 
 ing wild fruits along the margin of tin; river 
 below the town, where tli(;y foiind a number of 
 Shawanese scpiaws and their children, who Had 
 crossed tlic river in their canoes upon (lie same 
 Imsiness. A child belonging to the .Shawanese 
 having taken a large gra.ssliopper, a (piarrel arose 
 among the children for the possession of it, in 
 which their mothers soon took part. . . . The 
 quarrel became general. . . . Upon the return 
 of the warriors both trilies prepared for battle. 
 . . . The Shawanese . . . were not able to sus- 
 tain the conflict, and, after the loss of about half 
 tlieir tribe, the remainder were forced to lice to 
 their own side of the river, shortly after which 
 they abandoned their town and removed to the 
 Ohio." This war between the Delawares mid 
 Shawanese has been called the Grasshopper War. 
 — L. H. Miner, The Valley of Wyoming, p. 33.— 
 Sec, also, above, Ai.(ion(juian Famit.y, and Dela- 
 WAiiEs. — See, also, Pontiac's Waii; United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1765-1708; and (for an 
 account of "Lc"d Dunnioro's War") see Ohio 
 (Valley); A. I). 1774. 
 
 Sheepeaters (Tukuarika). See below; Suo- 
 8IIONEAN Family. 
 
 Sheyennes. See above ; Aloonqcian Family. 
 
 Shoshonean Family. — "This important 
 family occupied a large jiart of th(! great interior 
 basin of the United States. Upon the north 
 Shoshonean tribes extended far into Oregon, 
 meeting Shaliaptian territory on about the 44th 
 Iiarallel or along the Blue ^lountains. Upon the 
 northeast the eastern limits of the pristine habi- 
 tat of the Shoshonean tribes are unknown. The 
 narrative of Lewis and Clarke contains the 
 explicit statement that the Sho.shoni bands en- 
 countered upon the Jefferson River, whose sum- 
 mer home was upon the head waters of the 
 Columbia, formerly lived within their own 
 recollection in the plains to the east of the Rocky 
 Mountains, whence they w(!re driven to their 
 niomitain retreats by the Jliunetaree (AtsiiuO, 
 who had obtained tirearms. . . . Later a divi- 
 
 •See Note. Appendix E 
 
 sion of the Bannock held the (Inest portion of 
 Southwestern Montana, whence apparently tli(>y 
 were being pushed westward across the moun- 
 tains by Blackfcet. Upon the east the Tukuarika 
 or Shet-peatcrs held the Yellow.stone Park 
 country, where they were bordered by thcSioiian 
 territory, while tlie Washiiki occupied soiilli- 
 wcstern Wyoming, Nearly the ciiliic nioun- 
 lai:ious part of Cohirado was held by the several 
 ..'ids of tin; Ule, the eastern and .southeastern 
 parts of the Stale being held respectively by tlio 
 Arapaho and Cheyenne (.Vlgoii(|uian), and the 
 I\aiow(; (Kiowan), To the soutlica.sl the Ute 
 couiK.y iiiciiided the northern drainage of the 
 San .luan, extending farther cast a short dis- 
 tance into New .Mexico. Tlii; Coniancln; divi- 
 sion of llie family extended farther cast than any 
 other. . . . Bourgi'iiiont found a Comaniho 
 tribe on the upper KaiLsas River in 1724. Accord- 
 ing to Pike the Comanche territory bordered 
 the Kaiowo on the north, the former occupying 
 the head waters of the Upper Red River, Arkan- 
 sas and Rio Grande. IIow far to the southward 
 Shoshonean tribes extended at this early period 
 is not known, thmigii the (evidence tends tosliow 
 that they raided tar down int'> Texas, to the terri- 
 tory tliey have occupied in more recent years, 
 viz., the extensive ])laiiis from the Rocky iU^un- 
 tains eastwiird into Indian Territory and Texaa 
 to about 'J7°. Upon the .soutli Shoshonean teiri- 
 tory was limited generally by the Colorado 
 River . . . while the Tusayan (.Moki) had es- 
 tablished their seven i)iieblos ... to the east of 
 the Colorado Chiciuito. In the southwest Sho- 
 shonean tribes had pushed across C.ilifornia, oc- 
 cupying a wide band of country to the Pacitic." 
 — .1. W. Powell, iHi-iittli Aiiiiiiiil Jiijit., It'iiritu 
 of Ktliiiiiluini, pji. 109-110.— "The Pah Utes oc- 
 cupy the greater jiart of Nevada, and extend 
 southward. . . . The Pi Utes or Piutes inhabit 
 AV'estern Utah, from Oregon to New Jlexico. 
 . . . The Gosh Utes [Gosuitcs] inhabit the coun- 
 try west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to the 
 Pah Utes."— H. II. Bancroft, yutirc liactK of 
 the Pacific States, o. 1, ch. 4. 
 
 Siksikas, or Sisikas. See above ; Blackpeet. 
 
 Siouan Family.— Sioux.*— " The mitions 
 wliidi speak the Sioux language may be con- 
 sidered, in reference both to their respective 
 dialects and to tlieir geographical jiosition, as 
 consisting of four 8ub(livisions, viz., the Winne- 
 bagoes; the Sioux proper and the Assiniboius; 
 the Minetaro group; and the Csagesand other 
 southern kindred tribes. The Winnebagocs, so 
 called by the Algonkins, but called Puans and 
 also Otcliagras by the French, and Horoje (' fish- 
 eaters ') by the Omahaws and other southern 
 tribes, call themselves Ilochungonih, or the 
 ' Trout ' nation. The Green Bay of Lake Michi- 
 gan derives its French name from theirs (Baye 
 dcs Puans). . . . According to the W^ar Depart- 
 ment they amount [1830] to 4,000 souls, and ap- 
 pear tociiltivatethesoil to a considerable degree. 
 Their jirincipal scats nre on the Fox River of 
 Lake Michigan, and towards the heads of the 
 Rock River of the Jlississippi. ... The Sioii." 
 proper, or Naudowessics, names given to ihtin 
 by the Algonkins and the French, call thcms'jlvcs 
 Dahcotns, and .sometimes 'Ocliente Shakoans,' 
 or the Seven Fires, and are divided into seven 
 bands or tribes, closely connected together, btit 
 apparently independent of each other. Th(;y do 
 not appear to have been known to the French 
 
 108 
 
AMEUICAN AHOUIUINES. 
 
 AMERICAN AUOUI0INE.S. 
 
 iH'fiirr llic yi'iir HW, . . . 'I'lii' four moat luHtfrii 
 trllMs of tlic DalKotiis lire known liy tlic niinic 
 of the Mi'nili'walikiintoan, iir '(icns dii Ltic,' 
 Wulikpiitoiin anil Walikpakot.ian, or ' I'coiiU- 
 of llic LravcM,' and Sisiloans. . . . Tlic tlirco 
 westerly Iriliis, the Valiktoni' tlie Yanktonans, 
 iind tlie'Tetonn, wander tietwecM tlii' Mississippi 
 uikI tl (• .Missouri. . . . Tlie Assinil)i)ins (Stono 
 Iiidiiiiis), as tliey lire <'alled liy the Al>,'()iikins, 
 are a Dalicota tribe separated from tlie rest of 
 the natidii. anil on that aceoinit called llnha or 
 Hehels,' liy the oIIkt Sioux. They are said to 
 have niadepart i)rii,Mrnilly of the Yauktons. . . . 
 Aiiiitlier trilie. called Sliey'''ii>c>* <ir t 'heyennes, 
 were at no very remote period seatcil on the left 
 bank of the Ued Kiver of Lake Wiiniipek. . . . 
 ("arver reckons them as one of the Sioux tribes; 
 and .Mackenzie iid'orins us that they were driven 
 away by the Sioux. They now [IHifllJ live on 
 the lieailwaters of the river Sheyeniie, a south- 
 western tributary of the .Missouri. ... I have 
 been, liowever, assuri'd by a well-informed person 
 who trades with them that Ihey speak a distinct 
 luliKtlage, for which there is no Kuropean inter- 
 preter. . . . Till' .Minetares(Minetareeaiid .Miiie- 
 taries) consist of three tribes, speaking three 
 dilXerent languaKcs, which belonj; to ii common 
 stock. Its lilUiiities with the Daheota arc but 
 remote, but have appeared sulllcient to entitle 
 them to be considered as of the same family. 
 Two of thus*' tribes, the Mandaiies, whosiMUim- 
 bor does not exceed 1,500, and the stationary 
 Minetares, .imoimtinH: to ;i,()00 souls, includini; 
 those called Amialmwas, cultivate the soil, and 
 live in villages situated on or near tlie Jlissouri, 
 between 17' and -18° north latitude. . . . Tlie 
 third .Miiieture tribe, is that known by the name 
 of the ('row or Upsaroka [or Absarokii] nation, 
 probably the Keehcetsas of Ijcwis and t'larke. 
 They are an erratic tribe, who hunt south of the 
 Mis.souri, between the Little Missouri and the 
 southea.sterii branches of the Yellowstone Kiver. 
 . . . The southern Sioux consist of eight tribes, 
 s|)eakiiig four, or at most live, kindred dialects. 
 Their territory originally extended along the 
 Mississippi, from lielow the mouth of the 
 Arkansas to the forty -tirst degree of north lati- 
 tude. . . . Their hunting grounds extend as far 
 west as the Stony Mountains; but they all culti- 
 viite the soil, and the most westerly village on 
 the Missouri is in about 100° west longitude. 
 The three most westerly tribes are the Quappas 
 or Arkansns, at the iiiuutli of the river of that 
 name, and the Usages and Kansas, who inhabited 
 the country sotith of tlu^ Missouri and of the 
 river Kansas. . . . The Osages, properly Wiiu- 
 saslie, were more numerous and powerful than 
 any of the neighbouring tribes, and perpetually 
 at war with all the other Indians, without ex- 
 cepting the Kmsas, wlio speak the same dialect 
 ■with themselves. They were originally divided 
 Into Great and Little b.sages; but about forty 
 years ago almost one-half of the mition, known 
 by the name of f'haneers, or Clermont's Hand, 
 separated from tlie rest, and removed to the 
 river Arkansa. The villages of those several 
 subdivisions are now [1830] on the headwaters 
 of tile river Osage, and of the Verdigris, a 
 northern tributary stream of the Arkansa. They 
 amount to about 5,1)00 souls, and have ceded a 
 portion of their lands to the United States, re- 
 serving to themselves a territory on the Arkansa. 
 south of 38° north latitude, extending from 95° 
 
 to 100' west longitude, on a breadth of 45 to SO 
 miles. The territory allotted to the Cherokees, 
 the Creeks and the ChiH-taws lies south of that of 
 the Osage, . . . The Kansas, who have always 
 lived on the river of that name, have been at 
 peace with the Osage for the last thirty years, 
 and intermarry with tlicm. Tliev amount to 
 1,500 souls, and occupy a tract of about !t, 000,000 
 acres. . . . The live other tribes of this sub- 
 division are the lov.ays, or I'ahoja (Grey Snow), 
 the Missouris or Xeijehe, the Ottoes, or Wali- 
 tootahtah, tlu^ Omahaws, or Malms, and the 
 I'uncas. . . . All the nations speaking languages 
 Ix'longing to the Great Sioux Family may . . . 
 lie computed at more than 50,000 souls." — A., 
 (Jallatin, Sjimijms of tin- liitlinit Trihm (Arc/ueo 
 liiijiii Ami'ricitnii, i\ 'i), mrt. -t. — "Owing to tli<^ 
 fact that ' Sioux ' is a word of reproach and 
 means snake or enemy, the term has been dis- 
 carded by many later writers as a family dcsigua- 
 lioii, and ' Dakota,' which sigiiitles friend or 
 ally, has been employed in its stead. The 
 two won's are, however, by no means prop- 
 erly synonymous. The term ' Sioux ' was used 
 by Gullatin in a comprehensive or family 
 sense and was applied to all the tribes collec- 
 tively known to him to speak kindred dialects of 
 a widespread language. It is in this sense only, 
 as applied to the linguistic family, that the term 
 is here employed. The term ' Daheota' (Dakota) 
 was correctly applied by (ialliitin to the Dakota 
 tribes proper as distinguished from the other 
 members of the linguistic family who are not 
 Dakotas in a tribal sense. The u.se of the term 
 with this signiticatioii should lie perpetuated. 
 It is only recently that a delinite decision has 
 been reached respecting the relationship of the 
 Catawba and Woccoii, the latter an extinct tribe 
 known to have been linguistically related to the 
 Catawba. Gallatin thought that he was able to 
 discern some allinities of the Catawban language 
 with 'Muskhogec and even with Choctaw,' 
 though these were not suflicient to induce him to 
 class tliem together. Mr. Gat.scliet was the tlrst 
 to call attention to the presence in the Catawba 
 language of a considen'.ble number of words 
 having a Siouan allinity. Kccently Mr. Dorsey 
 has made a critical examination of all the 
 Catawba linguistic material available, which has 
 been materially increased by the labors of Jlr. 
 Gatschet, and the result seems to justify its in- 
 clusion as one of the dialects of the widespread 
 Siouan family." The principal tribes in the 
 Siouan Family named by ^lajor Powell are the 
 Dakota (including Santeo Sis.seton, AYahix'tou, 
 Yankton, Yanktonnais, Teton, — the latter em- 
 bracing Brule, Sans Arcs, Blackfeet, ^Minnecon- 
 jou. Two Kettles, Ogalala, Uucpapa), Assinaboin, 
 Omaha, Poiica, Kaw, O.sage, (juapaw, Iowa, 
 Otoe, Missouri, Winnebago, Mandan, Gros Ven- 
 tres, Crow, Tutelo, IMloxi (see Muskiiooean 
 Fa.mii,y), Catawba and Woccou. — J. W. Powell, 
 Nereuth Annual liept. of the Bureau of Ethnotoiiij. 
 p. 113. 
 
 Ai-.so IN ,1. O. Dorsey, Migrations of Siouan 
 Triht'K (Aimrimn Xaturaliet. r. 20, March). — 
 The sniue, Ililoxi Indians of Ijntisiana (V.-P. 
 aMn.s.'i A. A. A. S., 1803), — Sec, above: Hidatsa. 
 
 Sissetons. See above Siouan Familv. 
 
 Six Nations. See above: Iuo<juoi8 CoN- 
 
 FEDEIIACV, 
 
 Skittagetan Family. — "A family designa- 
 tion . , , retained for the tribes of the Queen 
 
 104 
 
AMEUICAN AUOUiaiNES. 
 
 AMEIUCAN ABOIUGINES. 
 
 Clmrldttc ArcliipflftKo which have usually bpi'u 
 <iiI1(m1 llaiilii. Krotii n ((iinimrisoii of lUv V(«iil)U- 
 hirics (if the llaidii laii.i;iiaf;c with otliiTs of lliu 
 luiKlihoriiitr Kcilusclmii family, Dr. Krariz Hoas 
 is iiiclinc<l to cDiisiiU'rlliat tliclwoaro jjiniclically 
 nlalcd. Till! two laiiKuaf;cs |)os.s<'ss a consider- 
 alile number of words in common, l)Ut a more 
 lliiiroufrh investigation is requi-ile for tlie settle- 
 iiicnt of the <niestion." — .1. W. I'owell, Seent/i 
 Aiitiuiil Hi'/it., Ihiinni of h'thimliif/!/, j). I'JO. 
 
 Snakes. Seealiove: Shohiionkan Family. 
 
 Stockbrid^e Indiana. — '■The Htoekbridfiu In- 
 dians \veaM)nKinally a part of tli(! Ilousatannuck 
 Tril)e (.Moliegans], "to whom the l,cjj;islature of 
 Massachusetts granlc(l or secured a township 
 Jaflerward called .Sum kliridijej in the vear 17!iO. 
 Tlieir number was increased by Waijpinjjers and 
 .Moliikanders, and perha])s also by Indians be- 
 loniiinf; to several other trilieit, both of N'ew 
 Ijiirland and New York. Since their removal to 
 .New Slockbridfre and Hrotlierlon, in tlie w<'Stcrn 
 parts of Xew York, tJie^ hav(^ been joined bv 
 .Miilu'irans and other Iialians from Ea.st Connecti- 
 cut, and even from Rhode Islanil and Lon^ 
 I'-laml." — A. (iallalin, Synojm.i nf Inilidn Trilim 
 (Arclufologin. AmtrimiKi, r. '2), p. 115. 
 
 Also in A. Holmes, AuimUdf Am., 1730 (c. 2). 
 
 — S. Ct. Drake, Aborit/iiitil Uiiivn, p. 15. 
 Susquehannas, or Andastes, or Conestogas. 
 
 — "Duleh and Swedisli writers speak of a tribe 
 called .Min(iiiiis; . . . the French in Canada . . . 
 make freipient allusions to the Gandastojrues 
 (more brietlv Andastes), a tribe friendly to their 
 allies, tlu' lliirons, and jturdy enemies of the 
 Irixpiois; later still Pennsylvania writers speak 
 of tlie Conestojias, the tribe to which Lojfan be- 
 loiijred, and the trilic which peri.shed at the 
 haiiils of the Fa.xton boys. Although Gallatin 
 in liis map, followed by Bancroft, i)lace(l the 
 Andastes near Lake Erie, my researches led me 
 to correct this, and ideutify the Husiiuehannas, 
 Mimpia, Anda.stes or OandastoKUos, and Cones- 
 liinas as being all the same tribe, the first name 
 beiiii; apparently an appellation given them by 
 the Virginia tribes; the second that given them 
 liy the AlgoiKiuins on the Delaware ; while Gan- 
 dastogue as the French, or Concstoga as the 
 English wrote it, was their own tribal name, 
 meaning cabin-pole men, Nutio Perticarum, 
 from 'Anda.sta,' a cabin-pole. . . . Prior to 1(500 
 the Siis(|uehaunas and the Mohawks . . . came 
 iiihi ciillision, and the Susquehannas nearly ex- 
 tciiiiiiiated the Jlohawks in a war which lasted 
 ten years." In 16-47 they offered their aid to the 
 Iluroiis against the Iroiiuois, having 1,300 war- 
 riors trained to the use of lire-arms by three 
 Swedish soldiers; but the propo.sed alliance 
 failed. During the third quarter of the 17th 
 century they seem to have been in almost con- 
 tinuous war with the Five Nations, until, in 
 1075, they were completely overthrown. A 
 party of about 100 retreated into Maryland 
 aud became involved there in a war with the 
 eiilonists and were destroyed. "The rest of 
 tlie tribe, after making overtures to Lord Balti- 
 more, submitted to the Five Nations, and 
 were allowed to retaiu their ancient grounds. 
 When Pennsylvania was settled, they became 
 known as Conestogas, aud were always friendly 
 to the colonists of Penn, as they ha<l been to the 
 Dutch and Swedes. In 1701 Canoodagtoh, their 
 king, made a treaty with Penn, aud in the docu- 
 ment they are styled Miuquas, Conestogas, or 
 
 Susqueii.mni.^.. They appear as a tribe In a 
 treaty in 174'2, but were dwindling away. In 
 1703 the feeble remnant of the tribe begamc in- 
 volved i;, the frencral suspicion entertained by 
 the colonists against the red men, arising out of 
 nia.ssacres on the borders. To escape danger the 
 l>oor creatures t(«)k refuge in Lancaster jail, and 
 Ui'Tv they were idl butchered bylhePa.xton boy.s, 
 who burst into the jilace. Pafkman, in his Con- 
 spiracy of I'ontiac, p. 414, details the sad story. 
 The last interest of lliis unfortunate tribe centres 
 in Logan, tlie friend of the white man, whoso 
 spec(^h is so familiar to all, that we must regret 
 that it has not sustained the historical scrutiny of 
 Hrantz Mayer (7'(l/((/l(/y'H^' ,■ </;• /xv/k/i <tii<l('<ipt. ^ 
 Michiid Ciraiii), Mun/tiiitil 'lint. .Sl/c, ^flll/, 1051; 
 aiul Sro. Allxiiiy, 1H07). Logan was a Cones- 
 toga, in other wonls a Sus(|uelianna. " — J. G. 
 Shea, Sotf 40 to Guifr/i: Atnop'ii V/mnietir nf the 
 I'rorince of Mit ri/lti ml (lloinia'a liiliUntliecii Aiutri- 
 eitiKi, 5). — See, also, above: IlKHii'oii Conkku- 
 i:uA(V. 
 Tachies. See Te.\as: The auukkiinai. in- 
 
 IIAUITANTS AND THE NAME. 
 
 Tacullies. See below: Athapascan F.'.mily, 
 
 Taensas. See Natchesan Family. 
 
 Takilman Family.*— " This name was pro- 
 posed by y\v. (Jatschet for a distinct language 
 spoken on the coast of Oregon about the lower 
 Kogiie Hiver." — J. W. Powell, Stcinth Aiiiiiud 
 Jii'/it., liiiiiiiuof Ethiiohiiji/, p. li\. 
 
 Talligewi. See above: Ai.i.eohans. 
 
 Tafioan Family. —"The tribes of this family 
 in the United States resided exclusively u|>on the 
 lUo Grande and its tributary valleys from about 
 33Mo about 30". "—.1. W.Powelf, S, eaith Aii- 
 iiiiiil Hcpt., liiinaii of Kthiioluijn, p. 122. 
 
 Tappans. See above: Aloonijiuan Family. 
 
 Taranteens or Tarratines. See above : Au- 
 
 NAKIS;also, ALOONyl.lAN Fa.mily. 
 
 Tarascans. — " The Tarascaus, so called from 
 Taras, the name of a tribal god, had the reputa- 
 I Ion of being the tallest and handsomest pcojilu 
 of Mexico. They were the inhabitants of the 
 present State of Michoacan, west of the valley of 
 Mexico. According to tlieir oldest traditions, or 
 perhaps those of their neighbors, they had mi- 
 grated from the north in company with, or about 
 tlie same time as, the Aztecs. For some 300 
 years before the coneiuest they had been a seden- 
 tary, semi-civilized people, maintaining their in- 
 dependence, and progressing steadily in culture. 
 When first encountered by the Spaniards they 
 were quite equal and in some respects ahead : 
 the Nahuas. ... In their costume the Taru.,j08 
 liiffered coiisiderabl v from their neighbors. Tlie 
 feather garments which they manufactured sur- 
 passed all others iu durability and beauty. Cot- 
 ton was, however, the usual materinl " — D. G. 
 Brintou, Tlie American Jiace, p. 130. 
 
 Tarumi. See above: CAiiiBii anutueik Kln- 
 
 DllED. 
 
 Tecuna. See above : GucK on Coco O'loup. 
 
 Tehusl Che. See above: Pataoonians. 
 
 Telmelches. See above : Pampas Tiudes. 
 
 Tequestas. See below: Tlmuquaxan Family. 
 
 Tetons. See above : Siouan Family. 
 
 Teutecas, or Tenez. See below : Zapotecs, 
 etc. 
 
 Timuquanan Family. — The Tequestas. — 
 " Beginning at the southeast, we first meet the 
 historic Timucua family, the tribes of which are 
 extinct at the present time. ... In the 10th 
 
 •See Note, AppenUbc E. 
 
 105 
 
AMKKICAX ABOUIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 CPiittirv the Timuciia ii:!i:i'iit<!(l the norllicrii 
 nixl iiii(l(ll<' portiim <if llic pcninstilii of Floridii. 
 1111(1 allliough tlifir cxiK t limits to the north 
 nn? uiiknonn, tlioy hold a portion of Florida 
 liord(:rinf( on Ocofgia, and s<-nic u{ tlio coast 
 islands in tlic Atlantic, ocean. . . . The people 
 received il.snaine from one of their villages called 
 Tiniagoa. . . . Tlie naiiK; mean.; ' lunl,' ' ruler,' 
 'master' ('atiiiuica,' waited upon, 'niuea,' by 
 servants, 'ali'i, and tlie people's name i.s writ- 
 ten Atimuea early in the 18lh century. . . . The 
 langiiaKC'i spolieii by tlie (alusa and by the peo- 
 ple ne.\t in order, tlie Te((iiesta, are unknown to 
 us. . . . The Caliisa held the southwestern e,\- 
 treniity of Florida, and their tribal name is left 
 recorded in Calusahntchi, a riversouth of Tampa 
 bay. . . . Of the Tecpicsta people on tlie .south- 
 eastern end of the ]ieiiinsula we know still less 
 than of the ('aliis,a Indians. Tliere was a tradi- 
 tion thai they were the same people which ! ':\ 
 the Iliihama oi Lucayo Islands. " — A. S. ai- 
 Kchet, ,1 Miyrntioii Liijend <'f the Creek Indirtim, 
 r. 1. pt. 1. 
 
 Tinneh. Sei? above ; Atiiap.vscan Family. 
 
 Tivitivas. See above: ("Aiiiii and tiieik 
 KiMirtKi). 
 
 Tlascalans. .^eo JIexico ; A. 1). 1519 (Junb 
 — Ocroiiicii). 
 
 T'linkets. See above: Atiiai'Ascan Fa.mily. 
 
 Tobacco Nation. See above: 1Ii:hons; and 
 
 InoiJfOIH CONKKIIICU.VCV: TllEIlt NAME. 
 
 Tobas. See above: Pampas TitiiiEP. 
 
 Toltecs. See ^Ikxicd, Ancient. 
 
 Tonikan Family. — "The Tonika arc known 
 to have occupied tliri'C localities: First, on the 
 Lower Ya/.oo River (ITOO) ; second, east shore of 
 Mississippi River (about 1T04); third, in Avoy- 
 elles Parish, Louisiana (181T). Near Marksville, 
 the county seat of that parish, about twenty-live 
 are now liviiis- ' — '. W. Powell, Seeenth Annual 
 lie/it., lliirain nf Ethmihtgii, p. Vi'). 
 
 "Tonka wan Family. — "The Tonkawa were a 
 iniirratory |ieople and a coUiivies ucntiuni, whose 
 earliest haliitat is unknown. Their lirst inen- 
 tion occurs in ITllI; at that time and ever since 
 they roamed in the western and southern parts 
 of what is now Texas. " — .1. W. Powell, tictenth 
 Anniiiil liept., liiiraii of Et/inoloi///, p. ViG. 
 
 Tontos. See above : Apache Group. 
 
 T'^romonos. See Bolivia: Aikihioinal in- 
 
 IIAlin'ANTS, 
 
 Totonacos. — "The lirst natives whom Cortes 
 met on landing in Jlexico were the Totonacos. 
 They ""cupied the territory of Totonicapau, now 
 includ , in the State of Vi'ra Cruz. According 
 to traditions of their own, they had resided there 
 800 years, most of which time they were inde- 
 pendent, though a few generations before the 
 arrival of the Spaniards tliey had been subjected 
 by the arms of the .Montezumas. . . . Sahagun 
 descrilies tlicm as almost white in color, tlieir 
 heads artilicially deformed, but their features 
 regular and handsome. Robes of cotton be.inli- 
 fully dyed served thimi for garments, and their 
 feet were covered with sandals. . . . These 
 people were highly civilized. Cempoalla, their 
 ojipilal city, was situate about live miles from the 
 sea, at the juiH ti;;;; 'if two streams. Its houses 
 were of brick and mortar, and each was sur- 
 rounded by a small gartlen, at the foot of which 
 a .stream of fresh water was conducted. . . . 
 The atliiiities of the Totonacos arc dittlcult to 
 make out. . . . Their language has many words 
 
 from JIaya roots, but it has also many more 
 from the Nahiiall." — I). G. Urinton, 1" he Ameri- 
 can liaee, p. KiO. 
 
 Tukuarika. See above : Siiosiionean F.vmily. 
 
 Tupi. — Guarani. — Tupuyas. — "The first In- 
 dians with whom the Portuguese came iu con- 
 tact, on the discovery of Brazil, called themselves 
 Tupinama, a term derived by Barnhagen from 
 Ttipl anil .Alba, .something like warrior or noble- 
 man; by ^lartiiis from Tupi and Ananiba (rela- 
 tive) with the signification 'belonging to the 
 Tupi tribe.' Tlie.sc Tupi dwell on the east coast of 
 Brazil, and with their language the Portuguese 
 were soon familiar. It was found especially ser- 
 viceable as a means of communication with other 
 tribes, and this led the Jesuits later to develoji it as 
 much as possible, and introduce it as a uni'.ersal 
 language of intercourse with the Savages. Thus 
 the ' lingua geral Brasilica' aro.se, which must bo 
 regarded as a Tupi with a Portuguese pronun- 
 ciation. The result was a suriirising one, for it 
 really succeeded in forming, for the tribes of 
 Brazil, divided in language, a universal means 
 of communication. Without doubt the wide ex- 
 tent of the Tujii was very favorable, especially 
 since on this side of the Andes, as far as the 
 Caribbean Sea, the continent of South America 
 was overrun witli Tupi hordes. . . . Von ilar- 
 tius has endeavored to trace their various migra- 
 tions and abodes, by which they have acquired 
 a sort of ubiijuity in tropical South America. 
 . . . This history . . . leads to the supposi- 
 tion that, had the discovery been delayed ii few 
 centuries, the Tupi might have become the lords 
 of eastern South America, and have spread a 
 higher culture over that region. The Tupi 
 family inny bo divided, according to their 
 lixed abodes, into the southern, northern, 
 eastern, western, and central Tupi; all these are 
 again divided into a. num' er of smaller tribes. 
 The southern Tupi are usually called Guarani 
 (warriors), a n:unc which the Jesuits lirst in- 
 troduced. \l cannot be determined from which 
 direction they came. The gr"atest number arc 
 in Paraguay and the Argentine province of Cor- 
 rientes. The Jesuits brought tliem to a very 
 high degree of civilization. Tlie casteru Tupi, 
 the real Tupinamba, an; scattered along the At- 
 lantic coast from St. Catherimi Island to the 
 mouth of the Amazon. They are a very weak 
 tribe. They say tliey came from the south and 
 west. The northern Tupi are .a weak and widely 
 scattered remnant of a large tribe, and are now 
 in the province of Para, on iho island of Marujo, 
 and along both banks of the Amazon. ... It 
 is somewhat doubtful if this peaceable tribe arc 
 really Tupi. . . . The central Tupi live in 
 several free hordes between the Tocantins and 
 Madeira. . . . Cutting oft' the heads of enemies is 
 in vogue among them. . . . The Mundrucu are 
 especially the head-hunting tribe. The western 
 Tupi all live in Bolivia. 'I'liey are the only ones 
 who came in contact with the Inca empire, and 
 their character and nianners show the inlluence 
 of this. Some are a picture of idyllic gayety 
 and patriarchal mildness." — The StuntJard J\'nt 
 iir.il Jfixt. {J. S. Kin<id<'!i,ed.) c. (!, yi;). 248-240. 
 — "In freiiuciit contiguity with the Tupis was 
 another stock, also widely dispersed tlirough 
 Brazil, called tlii^ Tupuyas, of whom the Boto- 
 cudos in eastern Brazil are the most iirominent 
 tribe. To them also belong the Ges nations, 
 south of tlie lower Amazon, and others. They 
 
 Km 
 
AMERICAN ABOUIGINES. 
 
 AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 are on a low grade of culture, going quite 
 naked, not cultivating the soil, igiioriint of pot- 
 tirv, and with jjoorly made canoes. They are 
 doiiehoceplialic. and nuist have inhabited the 
 countrvalong time." — D. G. Brinton, liacta and 
 Piojihs. lip. 209-2T0. 
 
 Turiero. See above : Ciiidchab. 
 
 Tuscaroras. See above: luoQtrois CoNi'ED- 
 Ei!A( V, and Ihocjiois Thiuks or thk Soith. 
 
 Tuteloes. See above: SiouAN Family. 
 
 Twightwees, or Miamis. Seo above: Illi- 
 Kois. 
 
 Tvyo Kettles. See above: SiofAN Family. 
 
 Uaupe. See above : Gi:cK ou Coco Gkoup. 
 
 Uchean Family. — " The pristine homes c' the 
 Ymlii are not now traceable with any degree of 
 certainly. The Yuchi are supposed to have 
 been visited by l)e Soto during liis memorable 
 niiueli, and the town of Colitaeliiqui chronicled 
 by liim, is believed by many investigators to 
 liiive stood at Silver iJlulf, on the left bank of 
 the Savannah, about 25 miles below Augusta. 
 If, as is supposed bj' some authorities, Cotita- 
 clii(iui was a Yuchi town, this would locate the 
 Yiiclii in a section which, when first known to the 
 whites, was occupied by the Shawnee. Later 
 the Yuchi appear to have lived somewhat farther 
 down the Savaimah." — J. W. Powell, Scteiith 
 Ahiiudl Jiept., JJitnau of Ethiiohffi/, p. 120. 
 
 Uhilches. See above : Pami'As Thibes. 
 
 Uirina. See above: Guck ou Coco Gkocp. 
 
 Uncpapas. Sll- above: Souan Family. 
 
 Upsarokas, or Absarokas, or Crows. See 
 aliove: Siou'AN y . ui.i 
 
 Utahs. Si'tr i.hove: Siiosiionean Family. 
 
 WabenaLit.= '^rAbnakis. See above : Abna- 
 liis. 
 
 Wacos, or Huicos. See above: Pawnee 
 (Cahdoan) F.xMily. 
 
 Wahpctons Seeatiovi.: SiouAN Family'. 
 
 Waiilatpiiaii Family. — "Hale establiahcd 
 this family an,i ;;laced under it the CailloiLX or 
 CaMisi or A\ illetpoos, and the Molele. Their 
 lu'ail(niart.:!!i as indicated by Hale are the upper 
 liart of ;iie Walla AValla River and the country 
 about Mo'.iits Hood and Vancouver." — J. AV. 
 Powell, Seventh AuMtc! Report, Bureau of 
 Elhiiol'if/!/, ]), 127. 
 
 Waikas. See above: Cauibs and their 
 KiNi)iii;i). 
 
 Wakashan Family.— " The above family 
 nanio was based ui)on a vocabidary of the 
 Widiash Indians, who, according to Gallatin, 
 ' inhaliit the island on ^\hich NootUa Sound is 
 situated.'. . . The term ' Wakash ' for this 
 groui) of languajjcs has since been generally 
 ignored, and in Its place Nootka or Nootka- 
 C'oliunbian has been adopted. . . . Though by 
 no means as appropriate a designation as could 
 be found, it seems clear that for tlie so-called 
 Wakasli, Newittee, and other r'died languages 
 usually assembled under the Nootka family, the 
 term Wakash of 1830 has i)riority a'ld must be 
 retained." — J. "W. Powell, t<ei-enih Annual lie- 
 ixnl. IhimiH of Ethnolnrjji, pp. 129- 130. 
 
 Wampanoags, or Pokanoketi. See above: 
 
 PoKANOKETS. 
 
 Waplsianas. See above : Cauibs Ai-,":> tueik 
 
 KlMUil'.I). 
 
 Wappingers. Seo above : Aloonqclan Fam- 
 ily, 
 Waraus. Seeubove: Caiubs and their Kin- 
 
 DllKU. 
 
 Washakis. .'^ee above: Siioshoxean Family. 
 
 Washoan Family. — "This family is repre- 
 .senti d by a single well known tribe, whose range 
 extended from Reno, ou the line of the Central 
 I'aeili'; Railroad, to the lower end of Carson 
 Valley." — J. W. Powell, Strenth Annual Re- 
 port, liuveitu of Ethiiulofjji, p. 731. 
 
 Wichitas, "or Pawnee Picts. Sec above: 
 Pawnee (Cadmoan) Family. 
 
 Winnebagoes. See above: Siouan Family. 
 
 Wishoskan Family.— "This is a small and 
 obscure lingui.stic family !ind little is known cim- 
 cerning the dialects composing it or of the tribes 
 which speak it. . . . The area occupied by the 
 tribes speaking dialects of this language was the 
 coast frcmi a little below the nioulh of Eel Ri\ er 
 to a little north of JIad River, including I'.ar- 
 ticularly the country alioiit Humboldt IJay." — 
 J. W. Powell, Sienth Annual Repurr, liuraiuof 
 Etlni'il'iiji/, p. 133. 
 
 Witumkas. See above: Muskiiooean Fam- 
 ily. 
 
 Woccons. See above: Siouan Fa.mily'. 
 
 WyandotS. See above: IIuuoNS. 
 
 Yamasis and Yamacraws. S ? above: 
 
 Ml'SKIKKJEAN FaJ M Y. 
 
 Yamco. See alove:" Andesians. 
 
 Yanan Family. — "The eastern boundary of 
 the Yanan territorv is formed by a range 
 of moiatains a livile west of Lassen Butto 
 and terminating near Pit River; the northern 
 boundary by a line ruiming from northeast to 
 southwest, passing near the northern side of 
 Round Moimtain, three miles from Pit River. 
 The western boundary from Redding southward 
 is on an average 10 miles to the east of the 
 Sacramento. North of Redding it averages 
 double that distance or about 20 miles." — .1. W. 
 Pl VLdl, Hfeiit/i Annual Rejtort, Bureau of 
 Ethnology, p. 13.j. 
 
 Yanktons and Yanktonnais. Sec above: 
 SioiAN Family. 
 
 Yncas, or incas. Sve Peru. 
 
 Yuchi. Sic above: Uciiean FamiLY. 
 
 Yuguarzongo. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Yukian Family. — " Round Valley, California, 
 sub.seciuently made a reservation to receive the 
 Yuki and other tril)es, was formerly the chief 
 seat of the tribes of tlie family, but they also 
 extended across the mountains to the coa.st. " — J. 
 W. Powell, l<ei('iith Annual Rejx/rt, Bureau of 
 Elhnohy;/, o. VM. 
 
 Yuman Family. — " The center of distribution 
 of the tribes of lliis family is generally con- 
 sidered to be the lower Colorado and Gila 
 Valleys." — J. W. Powell, S-Centh Annual Re- 
 ]>ort. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 137. — See above: 
 Apache Group. 
 
 Yuncas. See Peru. 
 
 Yuroks or Eurocs. See above: Modocs, &c. 
 
 Zaporo. See above: Andesians. 
 
 Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Zoques, Mixes, etc. — 
 "The greater part of Gaxaca [Mexico] aial the 
 neighboring regions are still occupied bv the 
 Zapytees, who call themselves Uidjaza. 'riieru 
 are now about 205,000 of them, about 50,000 of 
 whom speak nothing but their lative tongue. lu 
 ancient times they constituted a i)owerful 
 independent state, the citizens of whicli seem to 
 have been quite as highly civilized as any mem- 
 ber of the Aztec family. They were agricul- 
 tural ami sedentjiry, living in vilhiges and 
 cuustructiug buildiugs of stone uud murtar. Tho 
 
 im 
 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 AMMON. 
 
 most rcmiirkiiblc, but by no mcuns tho only, 
 8|M!cim('nH of Uivsc still icnmining arc the ruins 
 of Alitla. . . . Tlie Mixtccs adjoined tlio 
 Ziipotocs to the west, extending along the coast 
 of the Pueilio to about the present port of 
 Acapulco. In eulturo they were equal to the 
 ZajHitees. . . . The inountain regions of the 
 istlimusof Tehuantepeeand the adjacent portions 
 of lh( stales of Chiapas an<l Oaxaea are the 
 habitats of tlie Zoques, Mixes, and allied tribes. 
 The early historians draw a terrible picture of 
 their valor, savagery and cannibalism, which 
 reads more like talesto deter the Si)aniards I'nim 
 approaching their domains than truthful 
 accounts. However this may be, they have 
 been for hundreds of years a peaceful, ignorant, 
 timid i)art of the population, homely, lazy and 
 drunken. . . . The faint traditions of these 
 peoples jiointed to the South for their origin. 
 . . . The Chinantecs inluibitcd Chinantla, which 
 is a part of the slate of Oaxaea. . . . The 
 Chinantecs had been reduced by the Aztecs and 
 severely oppressed by them. Hence they 
 weleonied the Spaniards as deliverers, . . . Other 
 names by which thev are mentioned are Tenez 
 and Teutccas. ... In si>eaking of the province 
 of Chiapas the historian 'Ilerrera informs us that 
 it derived its name from the pueblo so-called, 
 "whose inhabitants were the most remarkable in 
 New Spain for their traits and inclinations.' 
 They had early accpiired the art of horsemanship, 
 they were skillful in all kinds of music, excellent 
 p.iinters, carried on a variety of arts, and were 
 withal very courteous to each other. One tra- 
 dition was that they had reached Chiai)us from 
 Nicaragua. ... Hut the more authentic legend 
 of the Ciiapas or Chapanecs, us Ihey were pro- 
 perly called from their totemie bird the Chapa, 
 the red macaw, recited that the whole stock 
 moved down from a northern latitude, following 
 down the I'acilic coast until they came to 
 Soconusco, wheri^ they divided, one part enter- 
 ing the mountains of Chiapas, the other pro- 
 ceeding on to Nicaragim." — D. G. Sriuton, 
 T/ie Aiiifricon Jiiire, pp. IIO-MO. 
 
 Ai,s<) IN A. Uandelier, Itcpt. of Arducologieal 
 Tour in .\f(xic:>. 
 
 Zoques. — See.nbove: Z.VfOTECS, ETC. 
 
 ZuBian Family. — " Derivation: From the 
 ("ochili term ^Uunyi, .said to mean 'the people of 
 the long nails,' referring to the surgeons (tf Zuili 
 who always wear some of their nails very long 
 (Cushing)!"— ,1. AV. Powell, Scanth Xnuual 
 Jkjiort, Buriiiu of KlhtioUyii, p. 138, — See, 
 above, Pueblos; also, Amehicv: Prehistoric. 
 
 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. See Uniti;i) 
 St.\ti:s ok Am. : A. 1). IHliO (Nove.mher— Ue- 
 rEMiu;ii), and after.— Statistics of. Sec same: 
 A. 1). IHO.") (M.w). 
 
 AMERICAN KNIGHTS, Order of. See 
 Unhei) ST.\ri;s 01' Am,; A. I). 1801 (October). 
 
 AMERICAN PARTY, The. Sec United 
 St.vtes OF Am. : A. I). \Kvi. 
 
 AMERICAN SYSTEM, The. Seo Tariff 
 Ia:(iisi..\Tio.s (United Stateb): A. D. 181(1- 
 18'J1, 
 
 AMHERST, Lord, The Indian Adminis- 
 tration ol. See India; A. I). lH;>:j-lH3;i. 
 
 AMHERST'S CAMPAIGNS IN AMER- 
 ICA. See Canada (New FranceV A. D. 17.58 
 to 1700. 
 
 AMICITI^, Sec Guilds of Fi„.vders. 
 
 AMIDA, Sieges of. — The ancient city of 
 Ainida, now Diarbekr, on the right bank of the 
 Upper Tigris was thrice taken by the Persians 
 from the Romans, in the course of the long wars 
 between the two nations. In the lirst instance, 
 A. D. !i59, it fel' after a terrible siege of seventy- 
 three day.s, conducted by I he Persian king Sapor 
 in pcr.son, and was given uj) to pillage and 
 sla'ighter. the Roman commanders crucilied and 
 the few stirviving inhabitants dragged to Persia 
 as slaves. The town was then abandoned by the 
 Persians, repeopled by the Romans and re<'overed 
 its prosperity and strength, only to pass through 
 a similar experience again in 502 A. U. , when it 
 was besieged for eighty days by the Persian king 
 Kobad, carried by storm, and most of its inhabit- 
 ants slaughtered or enslaved. A century later, 
 A. D. 005, Cliosroes took Amida once more, but 
 .vith less violence. — G. lijiwliuson, tkvcnth Gnat 
 Oriental Monarehi/, eh. 9, 19 and 34. — See, also, 
 Persia: A. D. 226-027. 
 
 AMIENS. — Origin of name. See IJelo.e. 
 
 A. D. 1597. — Surprise by the Spaniards. — 
 Recovery by Henry IV. See France: A. D. 
 1593-1598. 
 
 A. D. 1870. — Taken by the Germans. See 
 France: A. I). 1870-1871. 
 
 AMIENS, The Mise of. Sec Oxkord, Pro- 
 visions ok. 
 
 AMIENS, Treaty of (1527).— Negotiated by 
 Cardinal Wolsey, between Henry VIII. of Eng- 
 land and Francis 1. of France, establishing an 
 alliance against the Em])eror, Charles V. Tlu; 
 treaty was scaled and sworn to in the cathedral 
 church at Amiens, Aug. 18, 1527. — J. S. Brewer, 
 lieiiiii if llcnrii VIII., r. 2, cli. 'id and '28. 
 
 AMIENS, Treaty of (1801). See France: 
 A. 1). 1801-1802. 
 
 AMIN AL, Caliph, A. U. 809-813. 
 
 AMIR. — Au Arabian title, signifying chief or 
 ruler. 
 
 AMISIA, The.— The iineient name of the 
 river Ems. 
 
 AMISUS, Siege of.— The siege of Amisus by 
 LucuUus was one of the important operations of 
 the Third Mithridatic war. The city was 
 on the coast of the Black Sea, between 
 the rivers Ilalys and Lycus; it is repre- 
 sented in .site by the modern town of Sam- 
 soon. Amisus, whidi was besieged in 73 B. C. 
 held out until th(! following year. Tyninnio the 
 grammarian was among the i)risoners taken and 
 sent to Rome. — G. Long, iJtdinc of the lionuiii, 
 liejuihlic, r. 3. ch. 1 and 2. 
 
 AMMANN.— This is the title of the Mayor or 
 President of the Swiss C'omiuunal Council or 
 Gemeinderath. Sec Switzeki.and: A. D. 1848- 
 1890. 
 
 AMMON, The Temple and Oracle of.— The 
 Ammonium or Oasis ot Anniion, in the Libyan 
 desert, which was visitiid by Alexander the Great, 
 has been identitied with the oasis now known as 
 the Oasis of Si wall. "The Oasis of Siwah w.as 
 (irst visited and described by Browne in 1792; 
 and its identity with that of Amnion fully estab- 
 lished by Major Uenncll (' Geog. of Herodotus,' 
 pp. 577-591). . . . The site of the celebrated 
 temple and oracle of Amnion was first discovered 
 by Air. Hamilton in ISr'' 'Its famous orach; 
 was frequently visited _, jiccks from Cyrene, 
 us well as irom other jwrts of the Hellenic world, 
 and it vied in reputation with those of Delphi 
 
 108 
 
AMMON. 
 
 ASIPIIIKTYONIC COUNCIL. 
 
 and Dmlona." — E. II. Biinbury, IliM. of Ar.cicnt 
 (hog., eh. H, scet. 1, nndch. 12, ncrt. 1, and lutte E. 
 — An expedition of 50,000 men sent by Cambyses 
 to Ammon, B. (). 525, is snid to liave perished in 
 tlic desert, to tlie last man. See Eoypt; B. C". 
 52.")-;?;i2. 
 
 AMMONITES, Tiie.— Aceording to tlic iiar- 
 nitive in Gene.sis .\i.\ ; !30-;i9, tlie Ammonites 
 were de.scended from Ben-Ammi, son of Lot's 
 second daugliter, as tlie Jloabites came from 
 Moab, the eldest daughter's son. The two people 
 are much as.sociated in Biblical history. "It is 
 Imrd to avoid the conclusion that, while Moab 
 was the settled and civilized half of tl>o nation of 
 Lot, the Bene Ammon formed its predatory and 
 IJedouin section." — G. Grove, Diet, of the Bible. — 
 See Jews: Tin; Eauia' IIubuew IIi'stohy; also, 
 
 MoAltlTES. 
 
 AMMONITI, OR AMMONIZIONI, The. 
 
 See Florence: A. D. 1358. 
 
 AMORIAN DYNASTY, The. See Byzan- 
 tiNB E.MPIBE: A. D. 820-1057. 
 
 AMORIAN WAR, The. —The Byzantine 
 Emperor, Theophilus, in war with the Saracens, 
 took and destroyed, with peculiar animosity, the 
 town of Zapetra or Sozopetra, in Syria, which 
 hapjiencd to be the birthplace of the reigning 
 caliph, Motassem, son of llaroun Alraschid. The 
 calii)h had condescended to intercede for the place, 
 and his enemy's conduct was personally insult- 
 ing to him, as well as atrociously inhumane. To 
 avenge the outrage he invaded Asia Jlinor, A. D. 
 838, at the head of an enormous army, with the 
 special purpose of destroying the birthplace of 
 Theoiihilus. The unfortunate town which suf- 
 fered that distinction was Amorium in Phrygia, 
 — whence the ensuing war was called the Amorian 
 War. Attempting to defend Amorium in the 
 fleld, the Byzantines were hopelessly defeated, 
 am', the doomed city was left to its fate. It made 
 an heroic resistance for tifty-live days, and the 
 siege is .said to have cost the caliph 70,000 men. 
 But he entered the place at last with a merciless 
 Bword, and left a heap of ruins for the inoiniment 
 of his riivenge. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of 
 the lloman Empire, eh. 52. 
 
 Ai.so IN G. Finlay, If int. of the Byzantine Em- 
 pire, from 716 to 1057, b/c. 1, eh. 3, sect. 2. 
 
 AMORITES, The. — "The Ilittites and 
 Ainorites were . . . mingled together in the 
 mountains of Palestine like the two races wliidi 
 etiniologists tell us go to form the modern Kelt. 
 But the Egyj^tian monuments teat'h ua that they 
 were of very dilTerent origin and character. The 
 Ilittites were a people with yellow skins and 
 ' Jlongoloid ' features, whose receding foreheads, 
 oblicpie eyes, and protruding upper jaws, are rep- 
 resented as faithfully on their own monuments 
 as they are on those of Egypt, so that we cannot 
 accuse the Egpytian artists of caricatiu'ing their 
 enemies. If the Egyptians have made the Ilit- 
 tites ugly, it was because they were so in reality. 
 The Ainorites, on the contrary, were a tall antl 
 handsome i)eople. They are depicted with 
 white skins, blue eyes, anil reddish hair, all the 
 chiiraeteristics, in fact, of the white race. Mr. 
 Petrie points out their resemblance to the Dar- 
 diniians of Asia Minor, who form an intcr- 
 nieiliale link between the white-skinned tribes of 
 the Greek seas and the fair-complexioned Libyans 
 of Northern Africa. The latter are still found in 
 large immbers in the mountainous regions which 
 stretch eastward from Morocco, and are usually 
 
 known among the French under the name of 
 Kabyles. The traveller who first meets with 
 them in Algeria cannot fail to be struck by their 
 likeness to a certain part of tlie population in the 
 British I.sles. Their clear-white freckled skins, 
 their blue eyes, their golden-red hair and tall 
 stature, remind him of the fair Kelts of an Irish 
 village ; and when we find that their skulls, which 
 are of the so-called <loliclioeephalie or ' long- 
 headed ' type, are the same a.s the skulls discov- 
 ered in the i)rehisloric cromlechs of the country 
 they still inhabit, we may conclude that tliey 
 represent the modern descendants of the white- 
 skinned Libyans of the Egpytian monuments. 
 In Palestine also we still come across representa- 
 tives of a fair-coniplexio..ed blue-eyed race, in 
 whom we may see the descendants of the ancient 
 Ainorites, just as we see in the Kabyles the des- 
 cendants of the ancient Libyans. We know that 
 the Am()rite type continued "to exist in Judah long 
 after the Israelitish coniiuest of Canaan. The 
 eai>tives taken from the southern cities of Judah 
 bv Shishak in the time of Helioboam, and de- 
 picted by him upon the walls of the great temple 
 of Karnak, are people of Ainorite origin. Their 
 'rcnilar profile of sub-aquiline cast,' as Mr. 
 Tc ins describes it, their liigh cheek-bones and 
 ni:i A expression, are the features of the Amor- 
 ites, and not of the .lews. Tallness of stature 
 has always been a distinguishing chanicteristie of 
 the white race. I lence it was that the Anakim, 
 the Ainorite inhabitants of Hebron, seemed to 
 the Hebrew spies to be as giants, while they 
 themselves were but 'as grasshoppers' by the 
 side of them (Num. xiii: 33). After'the Israel- 
 itish invasion remnants of the Anakim were left 
 in Gaza and Gath and Ashkelon (Josh. xi:33), 
 and in the time of David, Goliath of Gath and his 
 gigantic family were objects of dread to their 
 neighbors (3 Sam. xxi: 15-22). It is clear, then, 
 that the Ainorites of Canaan belonged to the 
 same white race as the Libyans of Northern Af- 
 rica, and like them preferred the mountains to 
 the hot plains and valleys below. The Libyans 
 themselves belonged to a race which can be 
 traced through the peninsula of Spain and the 
 western side of France into the British Isles. 
 Now it is curious that wherever this particular 
 branch of the white race lias <'xlen(led it has been 
 accompanied by a particular form of cromlech, 
 or sei)ulcliral chamber built of large uncut stones. 
 . . . It has been necessary tQ enter at this length 
 into what has been discovered concerning the 
 Ainorites by recent reseai'ch, in order to show 
 how carefully they should bf distinguished fnmi 
 the Ilittites with whom they afterwards inter- 
 mingled. They must have been in possession of 
 Palestine long before the Ilittites arrived there. 
 Tliev extended over a much wider area. " — A. H. 
 Sayce, The Ilittiten, eh. 1. 
 
 AMPHIKTYONIC COUNCIL. — "An 
 Amphiktyonic, or, more correctly, an Ampliik- 
 tionic, body was an assembly of tlic tribes who 
 dwelt around any famous temple, gathered to- 
 gether to manage the alTaiis of that temple. 
 Tliere were other Amphiktyonic Assemblies in 
 Greece [besides that of DelphiJ, amongst which 
 that of the isle of Kalaureia, olT the coast of 
 Argolis, was a body of some celebrity. The 
 Anipliiktyons of Delphi obtained greater import- 
 ance than any other Ainphiktyons only because 
 of the greater importance of the Delphic 
 sanctuary, and beeau.se it incidentally hap- 
 
 109 
 
AMl'lIIKTVONIC COU>XIL. 
 
 AMSTERDAM. 
 
 pencil tliiit tlie frrciitcr part of tlie Greek nil- 
 tinii hail some kind of reprcsentiitiDU among 
 tliiMii. llut that body could not be looked 
 upon as a perfert representation of the Greek 
 nation whieli, to postpone othi bjections to its 
 ooMslii".',i.in, f'Mind no place fi r m) lariie a fnic- 
 tion of the llillenic body as the Arkadians. 
 Slill the Ainph ktyons of" Delphi undoubtedly 
 came nearer than aiiv other existing body to the 
 iliaracterof a j:eni''al repri'sentation of all G' eece. 
 It is iherefore easy to und'Tstand how the .elig- 
 imis functions of such a body might incidentally 
 avxume a political character. . . Once or twice 
 lliiii, in the course of Greciiiii history, we do 
 linil the Amphiklyonic body acting with real 
 ilignity in the name of united Greicr. . . . 
 Though the list of member, of the Council is 
 given with some slight variations by ditTerent 
 authors, all agree in making the constituent 
 inemlM'rs of the union tribes and not cities. The 
 representatives of the Ionic and Doric races sat 
 and voted as single meml)i'rs, side by side with 
 the representatives of petty peoples like the 
 MagnOsians and I'hthiotic Achaians. When the 
 <'ouncil was first formed. Dorians and lonians 
 were doubtless mere tribes of northern Greece, 
 and the prodigious (h'velopment of the Doric and 
 Ionic races in after times made no dilTerence in 
 its constitution. . . . Tlie Ami)hiktyonic Coun- 
 cil was not e.xactlv a diplomatic congres.s, but it 
 was nuieh more l!ke a diplomatic congress than 
 it was like the governing assembly of any com- 
 monwealth, kingdom, or federation. The I'yla- 
 goroi and llieromnOmones were not e.vactly 
 Ambassadors, btit they were nuich more like 
 Ambassadors than they were like meml)ers of a 
 British Parliament or even an American Congress. 
 . . . The nearest apjiroach to the Amphik- 
 lyonic Council ill modern times would be if the 
 College of Cardinals were to consist of members 
 chosen by the several Homaii Catholic nations of 
 Kiirope and America." — E. A. Freeman, llht. of 
 
 Fllkriil ISnrf.. r. I, ,•/(. li. 
 
 AMPHILOCHIANS, The. See Ak.vun.v- 
 
 KI.\NS. 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS.— This town in Macedonia, 
 occupying an important situation on the eastern 
 bank of the river SIrymon, just below a small 
 lake into which it widen.s near its mouth, was 
 originally called "The Nine Ways." and was the 
 scene of a horrible human sacrilicc made by 
 Xerxes on his nnirch into Greece. — Thirlwall, 
 Hint, iif On'icc, rh. \'i. — 't was subsequently 
 taken by the Athenians, h. C. 437, and made 
 it capital city by them [see Atiiicxs: li. C. 
 44()-4;i7|. dominating the surrounding district, its 
 name being changed to Ampliipolis. During the 
 I'clopomiesian War (H. C. 424), the able Laecdiu- 
 monian general, Brasidas, led a small army into 
 Macedonia and succeeded in capturing Atnphi- 
 polls, which caused great dismay and discourage- 
 ment at Athens. Thucydides, the historian, was 
 one of the generals held responsible for the dis- 
 aster and he was driven as aconseiinence into the 
 fortunate e. lie which produced the composition 
 of his history. Two years later the Athenian 
 demagogue-leader, Cleon, took conunaud of an 
 expedition sent to recover Ampliipolis and 
 other points in Macedonia and Thrace. It was 
 disastrously beaten and Cleon was killed, but 
 Brasidas fell likewise in the battle. Whether 
 Athens suflFered more from licr defeat than 
 Sparta from her victory is u question. — Thucy- 
 
 dides, Hutory, hk. 4, itect. 103-135, bk. 5, seet. 1-11. 
 — Sec, also, Atiikns: B. C. 460-454, and Gkkkck: 
 B. C 424-4'.il. — Ampliipolis was taken bv Philip 
 of Macedon, B. C. ;i.").S. — Sec Ghekce: 15. C. 
 ;t5<J-:i.-.8. 
 
 AMPHISSA, Siege and Capture by Philip 
 of Macedon (B. C. 339-338). See Gueece: 
 B, c. :i.^)7-:!:!(). 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES, Roman. — "There 
 was hardly a town in the [HomaiiJ empire which 
 had not an ampliitheatre large enough to contain 
 vast multitudes of spectators. The savage ex- 
 citement of gladiatorial combats .seems to have 
 been almost necessary to the Hoiuan legionaries 
 in their short intervals of inaction, and was the 
 first recreation for which they provided in the 
 places where they were stationed. . . . Gladia- 
 torial coml)ats were held from early times in the 
 Forum, and wild beasts huntcil in the Circus; 
 hut until Curio built his celebrated double 
 theatri' of wood, which could be made into au 
 amphitheatre by turning the two semi-circular 
 portions face to face, we have no record of any 
 special building in the peculiar form afterwards 
 adopted. It may have been, therefore, that 
 Curio's mechanical contrivance first suggested 
 the elliptical shape. ... As specimens of archi- 
 tecture, the ampliitheatrcs are more remarkable 
 for the mechanical skill and admir.ible adaptation 
 to their purpose disi)layeil in them, than for any 
 beauty of shape or decoration. The liugest 
 of all, the Coliseum, was ill-proportioned and 
 uni)leasing in its lines when entire." — 1{. Burn, 
 liiiiiii (Uitl tin' (^impii'iitii, intn/d. 
 
 AMPHORA.— MODIUS. — " The [Roman] 
 unit of capacity was the Amplioru or (Jua- 
 drantal. which contained a cubic foot . . . equal 
 to r>.(W7 imperial gallons, or 5 gallons, 3 quarts, 
 1 i>int, 3 gills, nearly. The Amphora was the 
 unit I'lir both liquid and dry measures, but the 
 latter was generally referred to the Modius, 
 which contained one-third of an Amphora. . . . 
 The Culeus was eipial to 30 AmplionB. " — W. 
 Ramsav, Murmalof limitiin Antiii.. eh. 13. 
 
 AMklTSAR. See Sikhs. 
 
 AMSTERDAM : The rise of the city,— 
 "In 13().') a low and prolitless marsh upon the 
 coast of Holland, not far from the coiitines of 
 Utrecht, had been |)arlially drained by a dam 
 rai.scd upon the hitherto s(|iiandered stream of 
 the Amstel. Xear this ilani a few huts were 
 tenanted by poor men who earned a scanty live- 
 lihood by tishiiig in the Zuyder Sea; but so 
 uninviting seemeil that barren and desolate spot, 
 that a century^ later Amstel-dam was still au 
 obscure seafaring town, or rather hamlet. Its 
 subsequent progress was luon' rapid. The spirit 
 of the land was stirring withih it, and every por- 
 tion of it thrilled with new energy ami life. 
 Some of the fugitive artizaiis from Flanders saw 
 in the thriving village safety and peace, and 
 added what wealth they had, and, what was 
 better, their manufacturing intelligence anil 
 skill, to the humble handet's store. Amsteldaia 
 ■was early admitted to the fellowship of the 
 Ilanse League; and, in 1343, having outgrowa 
 its primary limits, required to be enlarged. Fur 
 this nn expensive process, that of driving piles 
 into thfc swampy plain, was necessary; and ii 
 this circumstance, no doubt, it is owing that the 
 date of each successive enlargement has been so 
 nccumtely rcconied." — W. T, McCullugh, Lulus- 
 trial Uiatory of Three Nations, ml, 2, c7i. 9. 
 
 10 
 
AMT. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 AMT -AMTER. See PjANDINAVian 
 States iinmauk — Iceland): A. D. 1840- 
 1874: aiKi die siimL-(NouwAY): A. I). 1814-1813. 
 
 AMURATH I., Turkish Sultan, A. I). 1350- 
 1389....Amurath II., A. 1). 1431-1451.... 
 Amurath III., A. 1). 1574-1595. .. .Araurath 
 IV., A. 1). 1623-1040. 
 
 AMYCLiE, The Silence of.— Amvclic was 
 the chief city of Laconiu while that district of 
 Peloponnesus was occupied by the Achreans, 
 before the Doric invusiou and before the rise of 
 Sparta. It maintained its independence against 
 the Doric Spartans for a long periotl, but suc- 
 cumbed at length under circumstjinccs which 
 gave rise to a proverbial saying among the 
 Greeks concerning "the silence of Amvcla'." 
 " Tlie peace of AmycUu, wo are told, had been 
 so often disturbed by false alarms of the 
 eucniy's approach, thnt at length a law was 
 passeil forbidding such reports, and the silent 
 city was taken by surprise." — C. Thirlwall, 
 JftKt. of (Irfcce, ch. 7. 
 
 AMYTHAONIDiE, The. See Auoos.— An- 
 
 OOIJS. 
 
 AN, The City of. See Ok. 
 ANABAPTISTS OF MONSTER. - 
 
 "MUnster is a town in Westphalia, the seat of a 
 bishop, walled round, with a noble cathedral and 
 niiuiy churches; but there is one peculiarity 
 al)()ut !Mllnster that distinguishes it from all 
 othiT old German towns; it has not one old 
 church spire in it. Once it had a great many. 
 How comes it that it now has none? In Mtlnster 
 lived a draper, KuipperdoUing by name, who 
 was much e.\cited over the doctrines of Luther, 
 and he gathered many people in his house, and 
 spoke to them bitter words against Ihe Pope, the 
 bishoi)s, and the clergy. The bishop at this 
 time was Francis of Waldcck, a man much in- 
 clined himself to Lutheranism ; indeed, later, ho 
 proposed to s>ip;iress Catholicism in the diocese, 
 as he wanted to seize on it and appropriate it as 
 a possession to his family. Moreover, in 1544, 
 lie joineil the Protestant princes in a league 
 against the Catholics; but ho did not want things 
 to move too fust, lest he should not be able to se- 
 cure the wealthy See as personal property. 
 Knipperdolling got a young ])ri(;st, named Uott- 
 maini, to preach in one of the churches against 
 the errors of Catliolicism, and he was u man of 
 such tiery elo(iuence that he stirred up a mob 
 which rushed through the town, wrecking the 
 churches. The mob became daily more daring 
 and threatening. They drove the priests out of 
 the town, and some of the wealthy citizens fled, 
 not knowing what woidd follow. The bishop 
 would have yielded to all the religious innova- 
 tions if the rioters had not threatened his tem- 
 poral position and revenue. In 1538 the pastor, 
 Rottniaun, began to preach against the baptism 
 of infants. Luther wrote to him remonstrating, 
 but in vain. The bishop was not in the town ; 
 he was at Slinden, of whicli See ho was bishop as 
 well. Finding that the town was in the hands 
 of Knipperdolling and Uottmann, who were con- 
 flseating the goods of the churches, and exclud- 
 ing those who would not agree with their opin- 
 ions, the bishop advanced to the i)lace at the 
 head of some soldiers. Mllnster closed its gates 
 against him. Negotiations were entered "into ; 
 the Landgrave of Hesse was called in as paciflca- 
 tor, and articles of agreement were drawn up 
 and signed. Some of the churches were given 
 
 8 
 
 to the Lutherans, but the Cathedral was reserved 
 for the Catholics, and the Lutherans were for- 
 bidden to molest the latter, and disturb their re- 
 ligious services. The news of the conversion of 
 the city of MUnster to the gospel spread, and 
 strangers came to it from all parts. Among 
 these was a tailor of Leyden, called John Uockel- 
 son. Uottmann now threw up his Lutheranism 
 and proclaimed himself opposed to many of the 
 doctrines which Luther still retained. Amongst 
 other things he rejected was infant baptism. 
 This created a split among the reformed in ilUns- 
 ter, and the disorders broke out afresh. The 
 niob now fell on the cathedral and drove the 
 Catholics from it, and would not permit them to 
 worship in it. They also invade(l the Lutheran 
 churches, and filled them with uproar. On the 
 evening of January 28, 1534, the Anabaptists 
 stretched chains across the streets, assembled in 
 armed bands, closed the gates and placed senti- 
 nels in all directions. 'VVlien day dawned there 
 appeared suddeidy two men dressed like Proph- 
 ets, with long ragged beards and flowing man- 
 tles, staff in hand, who ])aced through the streets 
 solemnly in the midst of the crowd, who bowed 
 before them and saluted them us Enoch and 
 Elias. These men were John Bockelson, the 
 tiiilor, and one John Mattheson, head of the Ana- 
 baptists of Holland. Knipperdolling at once as- 
 sociated himself with them, and shortly tho 
 place was a scene of the wildest ecstacies. Jlcn 
 and women ran about the streets screaming and 
 leaping, and crying out that they saw visions of 
 angels with swords drawn urging them on to tho 
 extermination of Lutherans and Catholics alike. 
 . . . A great number of citizens were <lriven out, 
 on a bitter day, when the land was covered with 
 snow. Those who lagged were beaten; those 
 who were sick were carried to the market-place 
 and re-baptized by Uottmann. . . . This was too 
 nmch to be borne. The bishop raised a:; army 
 and marched against the city. Tlius began a 
 siege which was to last sixteen montlis, during 
 which a multitude of untrained fanatics, com- 
 manded by n Dutch tailor, held out against a 
 numerous and well-armed force. Thenceforth 
 tho city was ruled by divine revelations, or 
 rather, by the crazes of the diseased brains of 
 the prophets. One day they declared that all 
 the otllcers and nuigislrates were to be turned 
 out of their oflices, and men nominated by them- 
 selves were to take their i)laces; another day 
 Mattheson said it was revealed to him that 
 every book in the town except the Bible was to 
 be destroyed ; accordingly all the archives and 
 libraries were collected in tho market-place and 
 burnt. Then it was revealed to him that all the 
 spires were to bo pulled down; so the church 
 towers were reduced to stumiis, from which the 
 enemy could be watched and '■•hence cumiou 
 could play on them. On(! day he declared ho 
 had been onlered by Heaven to go forth, with 
 promise of victory, against the besieg rs. He 
 dashed forth at the head of a large '■ . but was 
 surrounded and he and his banu .. dn. The 
 death of Mattheson struck dismay into tho 
 hearts of tho Anabajitists, but John Bockelson 
 took advantage of tho moment to establish him- 
 self as head. Ho declared that it was revealed 
 to him that Mattheson had been killed because he 
 had disobeyed the heavenly cmnnutud, which 
 was to go forth with few. Instead of that ho 
 had gone with many. Bockelson said ho had 
 
 111 
 
ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 ANX'IIORITES. 
 
 bcc-n orderrd in vision to marry MnUlieson's 
 widow and a.ssunio Ills place. It was further re- 
 vealed to liini that .MUnster was to he the 
 lieavenly Zion, llie capital of the eartli, and he 
 wa.s lo be kinf? over it. . . . Then he had an- 
 other revelation that every man was to have ns 
 many wives u.s lie lilied, and lie gave himself 
 si.xteen wives. This was too outrageous for 
 some to enilure, anil a plot was formed against 
 liiiii oy II lilacksiiiith and about 200 of the more 
 respe 'table citizens, but it was frustrated and 
 led 'T the .siezure of the conspiratoi-s and the 
 e.\ecution of ii number of them. ... At last, 
 on midsummer eve, I.WO, after a siege of sixteen 
 niontlis, the city was taken. Several of tlie 
 citizens, unable longer to endure the tyranny, 
 erueltv and abominations committed by the king, 
 lielpeA the soldiers of the prinobishop to climb 
 the walls, open the pates, and surprise tlie city. 
 A desperate hand to-linnd tight ensued; the 
 streets run with blood. John Hockel.son. instead 
 of lending his people, hid himself, but was 
 cauglit. So was Knipperdolling. When the 
 I)laee was in his lianu: ■ ':e iirince-bishop entered. 
 John of licyden and lvri!pi)erdolliiig were cruelly 
 tortiiri-;, their tlesli plucked oil with red-hot 
 pincers, and then a dagger was thrust into tlieir 
 hearts. Finally, their bodies were hung in iron 
 cages to the towerof a church in .Mlliister. Thus 
 ended this hideous drama, which produced an 
 indescribable ctfec't throughout Germany. JlUns- 
 ttr, after this, in s|)ite of the desire of the prinee- 
 bisliop to estalilish Liitherauism, reverted to 
 C'atholi(Msm, and remains Catholic to this day." 
 — S. Hariiig-Uould, The tStury of Oermaivj, eh. 
 30. 
 
 Ai.so t.\ the same. Historic Otldilies iiiul Strange 
 Jiiviitu, 2(1 tScrien. — L. von Itanke, Hist. / t/ie 
 ReforiiMtioii ill OeriiHtni/, hk. (t, ch. 9 (c. 3). — C. 
 Beard, The Reformation (Ilibttert Lefts., 1883), 
 lirl. (\. 
 
 ANAHUAC. — "The word Anahuac signifies 
 'near tlie water.' It was, probably, first applied 
 to the country around the lakes in the Mexican 
 VaUey, and gradually exteiidcil to the remoter 
 regions occupied by the Aztecs, and the other 
 semi-civilized races. Or, possibly, the name 
 may have been intended, as Veytia suggests 
 (Hist. Aiiti<i., lib. 1, cap. 1), to denote the laud 
 between the waters of tlie Atlantic and Pacific." 
 — W. II. Pre.scott, Oinqucstnf Mt\rico,hk. 1, ch. 1, 
 note 11.— See Mkxico: A. D. 13^5-1502. 
 
 ANAKIM, The. See IIokjtes, and A.Mou- 
 
 ITICS. 
 
 ANAKTORIUM. See Kouiivit.^. 
 
 ANAPA: A. D. 1828.— Siege and Capture. 
 — Cession to Russia. Sec TuiiKs: A. D. 1820- 
 182!». 
 
 ANARCHISTS.— "The anarchists are . . . 
 a small but determined bund. . . . Although 
 their prograinme may be found almost word for 
 word in I'loudhon, they prolV'ss to follow more 
 closely Bakounine, the liussian nihilist, who sep- 
 iirale<l himself from Marx and the Iiiteruatioiials, 
 and formed secret societies in Spain, Switzerland, 
 France, and eiscwhere, and thus propagated 
 nihilistic views; for anarchy and niliilism are 
 pretty much one and the same thing when 
 nihilism is uuderslowl in tlie older, stricter 
 sense, which docs not include, as it does 
 iu a larger and more modern sense, 
 those who are simply political and constitutional 
 a'tormers. Like princu Krupotkinu, Bakouuiue 
 
 came of an old and prominent Russian family; 
 like him, ho revolted agaiimt the cruelties and 
 injustices he saw about him; like him, he de- 
 spaired of peaceful reform, and eonclndcd that no 
 great improvement could bo exiiected until all 
 our present political, economic, and social insti- 
 tutions were so thoroughly demolisheil that of the 
 old structure not one stone should be left on 
 another. Out of the ruins a regenerated world 
 might arise. We must bo purged as by fire. 
 liiUe all anarchists and true nihilists, he "was a 
 thorough pessimist, as far as our present manner 
 of life was concerned. Ueaction against conser- 
 vatism carried him very far. lie wished to 
 abolish private property, state, and inheritanr- , 
 Equality is to be carried so far that all must '.car 
 the same kind of clothing, no dilferenr-. being 
 made even for sex. Religion is an ..:,v,iration of 
 the brain, and slioidd be abolished. Fire, dyna- 
 mite, and assassination are approved of by at 
 least a large number of the party. They arc 
 brave men, and fight for tlieir faith with the 
 devotion of martyrs. Imprisonment and death 
 are counted but as rewards. . . . Forty-seven 
 anarchists signed a declanitfon of principles, 
 which was read by one of their number at their 
 trial at Lyons. . . . ' Wo wish liberty [they 
 declared] and we believe its existence incom- 
 patible with the existence of any power what- 
 soever, i'hatever its origin and form — whether 
 it bo selected or imposoii, monarchical or repub- 
 lican — whether inspired by divine riglit or by 
 popular right, by anointment or universal suff- 
 rage. . . . The best governments arc the worst. 
 The substitution, in a word, iu human relations, of 
 free contract perpetually revisablc and dissoluble, 
 is our ideal.' "—H. T. Ely, French untl (/crman 
 Sorialisni in MoUern Times, ch. 8. — "In anarchism 
 we have the extreme antithesis of socialism and 
 communism. The socialist desires so to extend 
 the sphere of the state that it shall embrace all 
 the more important concerns of life. The com- 
 munist, at least of the older school, would make 
 the sway of authority and tl.e routine wliicli fol- 
 lows therefrom universal. The anarcliist, on the 
 other lianil, would banish all forms of authority 
 and have <mly a system of the most perfect lib- 
 erly. The anarciiist is an extreme individual- 
 ist. . , . Anarchism, as a social theory, was first 
 elaborately formulated by Proudhon. In the 
 first part of his work, 'What is Property '^ ho 
 brielly stated the doctrine and gave it the name 
 'anarchy,' absence of amasterorsovcreign. . . . 
 About Vi years before Proudhon published his 
 views, Josiali Warren reached similar conclusions 
 in America," — II, L, Osgood, Scientijic Anarch- 
 ism (I'd. L^ci. Quart., Mar., 1889), pp. 1-3. — See, 
 also. Nihilism. 
 
 ANARCHISTS, The Chicago. See Cm- 
 CAOo: A. 1). lW(i-l887. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., Roman Emperor (East- 
 ern.) A. I). i\n-r,iS Anastasius II., A. I). 
 
 713-710. 
 
 ANASTASIUS III., Pope, A. D. 911-91!) 
 Anastasius IV., Pope., A. L), 1153-1154. 
 
 ANATOLIA. Sec Asi.v MiNOU. 
 
 ANCALITES, The.— A tribe of ancient 
 Britons whose home was near the Thames, 
 
 ANCASTER, Origin of. See Caubenn^, 
 
 ANCHORITES.— HERMITS.— " The fer- 
 tile and peaceable lowlands of England . , . 
 offered few spots sutUcicntly wild and lonely for 
 the habitation of a hermit; those, therefore, 
 
 112 
 
ANCHORITES. 
 
 ANGLES AND JUTES. 
 
 who wished to retire from the world into a more 
 strirt and solitary life than that which the men- 
 iistory afforded were in the habit of immuring 
 themselves, as anchorites, or in old Eu{;lish 
 'Ankers,' in little cells of stone, built usually 
 apiinst the vwW of a church. There is notliing 
 new under the sun; and similar anchorites might 
 have been seen in Egypt, oOO years before the 
 time of St. Antony, immured in cells in the 
 temples of Isis or Serapis. It is only recently 
 timt antiquaries have discovered how common 
 tliis practice was in England, and how frequently 
 the traces of these cells are to be found about our 
 parish churches." — C. Kingsloy, T/ir, Hermits, 
 ]}. S'2'.l — The term anchorites is applied, gener- 
 ally, to all religious ascetics who lived in solitary 
 cells. — .1. Hingham, Aniiq. oftlie Chnstian Oh., 
 Ilk. 7, (•/(. 1, Ki'ct. 4. — " Tlie essential difference 
 between an anker or anchorite and a hermit 
 appears t'> have been that, whereas the former 
 I)assed his whole life shut up in a cell, the latter, 
 although lending indeed a solitary life, wandered 
 aboutat libert; ." — U. K. Sharpe, Int. to "C'alen- 
 (liir of Wills ill Hie Court of Hunting, Loiulon," 
 
 ANCIENT REGIME.— The political and 
 social system in France that was destroyed by 
 the Hevolution of 1789 is commonly referred to 
 asthe "ancien regime." Some writers translate 
 this in the literal English form — "the ancient 
 regime;" others render it more appropriately, 
 perhaps, the "old regime." Its special applica- 
 tion is to tlie state of things described under 
 Fii.\nce: a. D. 1789. 
 
 ANCIENTS, The Council of the. See 
 Fhance: A.I). 1795 (June — Septkmbeu). 
 
 ANCRUM, Battle of. — A success obtained 
 by the Scots over an English force making an 
 incursion into the border districts of their country 
 A. 1). 1.544.— J. H. Burton, Jlist. of Scotland, c/i. 
 3.5 (('. 3). 
 
 ANDALUSIA : The name.— "The Vandals, 
 . . . tliough they passed altogether out of 
 Spain, have left their name to this day in its 
 southern part, under the form of Andalusia, a 
 name which, under the Saracen conquerors, 
 spread itself over the whole peninsula." — E. A. 
 Ireeman, Historical Gcog. of liurope, ch. 4, sect. 3. 
 —See, also: Vand.\i,s: A. I). 428. — Roughly 
 speaking, Andalusia represents the country 
 known to the ancients, first, as Tartessus, and, 
 later, as Turdetania. 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDERS, The. See 
 Iniiia: The Ahouioinal Inhahitants. 
 
 ANDASTES, The. See Amehican Anoni- 
 
 OINKS: St'SCJlTKIIAKNAS. 
 
 ANDECAVI.— The ancient name of the city 
 of Angers, France, and of the tribe which occu- 
 pied that region. See Veneti ok Westeun 
 Qai:i,. 
 
 ANDERIDA. — ANDERIDA SYLVA.— 
 ANDREDSWALD.— A great forest which an- 
 ciently stretched across Surrey, Susse.\ and into 
 Kent (southeastern England) was called Anderida 
 Sylva by the Romans and Andredswald by the 
 Saxons. It coincided nearly with the tract of 
 Cfumtry called in mwli ni times the Weald of 
 Kent, to which it gave ii • name of the Wald or 
 Weald. On the southern coast-border of the 
 Anderida Sylva the Romans established tlu; im- 
 portant fortress and port of Anderida, which has 
 been identifled with motlern Pevensey Here 
 tlie Komauo-Britous made an obstinate stand 
 
 against the Saxons, in the fifth century, and An- 
 derida was only taken by .Elle after a long siege. 
 In the worils of the Chronicle, the Saxons "slew 
 all that were therein, nor was there henceforth 
 one Briton left."— J. R. Green, The Makimj of 
 Unij., ch. 1. 
 
 Ai,8o IN T. Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 
 ch. .">. 
 
 ANDERSON, Major Robert.— Defense of 
 Fort Sumter. See Umtkd St.vtknof Am., .\. D. 
 1860(l)ECEMEii.:u): 18(U (Maucii— Aphii,). 
 
 ANDERSONVILLE PRISON-PENS. See 
 Prisons ani} Puison-I'k.ns, Confedkuatk. 
 
 ANDES, OR ANDI, OR ANDECAVI, 
 The. See Vkneti of Western Gaul. 
 
 ANDESIANS, The. See Ajierican Aboki- 
 GiNES ; Andesians. 
 
 ANDR^, Major John, The Capture and 
 execution of. See United St.\te8 of Am., 
 A. I). 1780 (August- September). 
 
 ANDREW I., King of Hungary, A. D. 
 1046-1000.... Andrew II., King of Hungary, 
 A. I). 1204-1235.... Andrew IIL, King of 
 Hungary, A. D. 1290-1301. 
 
 ANDRONICUS I., Emperor in the East 
 
 (Byzantine or Greek), A. U. 1183-1185 
 
 Andronicus II. (Palsologus), Greek Emperor 
 of Constantinople, A. 1). 1282-1328 An- 
 dronicus III. (Palaeologus), A. D. 1328-1341. 
 
 ANDROS, Governor, New England and 
 New York under. See New England: A. D. 
 1086; .Massachusetts: A. D. 1671-1680; and 
 1086-1689; New York: A. D. 1688; and Con- 
 necticut: A. D. 1685-1687. 
 
 ANDROS, Battle of (B. C. 407). See 
 Greece: B. C. 411-407. 
 
 ANGELIQUE, La Mire. See Port Rotal 
 AND THE Janhenisth; A. 1). 1002-1660. 
 
 ANGERS, Origin of. See Veneti of West- 
 eun Gaul. 
 
 ANGEVIN KINGS AND ANGEVIN EM- 
 PIRE. See England: A. D. 1151-1189. 
 
 ANGHIARI, Battle 01(1425). See Italy: 
 A. I). 1412-1447. 
 
 ANGLES AND JUTES, The.— The men- 
 tion of the Angles by Tacitus is in the following 
 passage: " Next [to the Larigobardi] come the 
 Reudigni, the Aviones, ilie Anglii, the Varini, 
 the Eudoses, the Suardones, and Nuithones, who 
 are fenced in by rivers or forests. None of these 
 tribes have anj^ notinvortliy feature, except their 
 common worship of Ertha, or mother-Earth, and 
 their belief thai she interposes in human affairs, 
 and visits the nations in her car. In an island of 
 the ocean there is a sacred grove, and within it 
 a eonsecrateil chariot, covered over with a gar- 
 ment. Only one priest is permitted to touch it. 
 He can perceive the presence of the goddess in 
 this sacred recess, and walks by her side with 
 the utmost rev(?renco as she is drawn along by 
 heifers. It is a season of rejoicing, and festivity 
 reigns wherever she deigns to go and be receivecl. 
 They do not go to battle or wear arms ; every 
 weapon is under lock ; peace and quiet are wel- 
 comed only at these limes, till the goddess, weary 
 of human intercourse, is at length restored by 
 the same priest to her temple. Afterwards the 
 ear, the vestments, and, it you like to believe it, 
 the divinity lier,self, are purilied in a seerei- lake. 
 Slaves perform the rite, who are instantly swal- 
 lowed up by its waters. Hence arises a myster- 
 ious terror and a jiious ignorance concerning the 
 nature of that which is seen only by men doomed 
 
 118 
 
ANGLES AND JUTES. 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 to die. This limncli indccfl of the Supvl stretches 
 into ihcrcmotiT rc),'lon.sof GtTmaiiy."— Tacitiis, 
 (ieriiuuiii; Iraim. hi/ Vhurch mid Jinxlrihb, ch. 40. 
 
 — "In (Idsc noiiilibDuHuMxl witli the Hiixons in 
 tlip riiiddliMif th(' fourth icntury were tlic Angli, 
 It trihe whose origin is niore uncertain and tlie 
 iipplicutidn of wliose name is still more n matter 
 of (lucstion. If the name belongs, in the pages 
 of tlie several geonniphers, to the same nation, 
 it was situated in the time of Tarituseast of the 
 Elbe: in the time of I'lolemv it was found on 
 the middle Elbe, betweon the 'I'hurinKians to the 
 south and the Varini to the north; and at a, later 
 period it was forced, perhaps by the growth of 
 the Thuringian power, into tlie neck of the ('im- 
 bric ))eniiisula. It may, however, be reasonably 
 doubted whether this "hypothesis is sound, and 
 It is by no means clear whether, if it be so, the 
 Angli were not eoimected more closely with the 
 Thuringians than with the Haxons. To the north 
 of the Angli, after they had readied their Schles- 
 wig home, were the Jules, of whose early his- 
 tory- we know nothing, e.tcept their claims to be 
 regarded as kinsmen of the Goths and theclo.se 
 similarity between tlieir descendants and the 
 neighbour Frisians." — \V. Stubb.s, Coniit. Hist, 
 of Enf/., V. 1, rli. 3. — " Important as are the An- 
 gles, it is not too much to say that they are only 
 known through tlieir relations to us of England, 
 their descendants; indeed, without this paramount 
 fact, they would be liable to be confused with 
 the Frisians, with the Old Saxons, and with even 
 Slavonians. Tliis is chiefly because there is no 
 satisfactory trace or fragment of the Angles of 
 Germany witliin Germany; whilst the notices of 
 the otiier writers of antinuity tell us as little as 
 the one we tind in Tacitus. And this notice is 
 not only liricf but complicated. ... I still think 
 that the Angli of Tacitus were — 1: Tlie Angles 
 of England; 'i: Occiiiiaiits of the nortliern parts 
 of Hanover; :$: At least in the time of Tacitus; 
 4: And that to the exclusion of any territory in 
 Holsteiii, which was Frisian to tlie west, and 
 Slavonic to the east. Still the question is one of 
 great magnitude and numerous complications." 
 
 — U. G. Latham, 7'Af Germany of Taeitua; Epil- 
 egomena. sect. 49. 
 
 Also in J. .>I, Lappeuberg, IUst f Enr/. under 
 the AngUi-Siixon Iiiiif/n, r. 1, pp. ,s!)-95. — See, 
 also, Avio.NES, and Saxons. — The conquests and 
 settlements of tlie Jutes and the Angles in Brit- 
 Bin are deseribed under Enolajjd: A. D. nil- 
 473. and r)47-0:!:». 
 
 ANGLESEA, Ancient. See Mona, Monapia, 
 and NoKMANs; Htii-!)tii Centuuiks. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON.— A term which may be 
 considered as a compound of Angle and Saxon, 
 the names of the two principal Teutonic tribes 
 which took )ios.session of Britain and formed the 
 Engli.sh nation by their ultimate union. As thus 
 regarded and used to designate the race, th? 
 language and tlie institutions which resulted from 
 that union, it is only objectionable, perhaps, as 
 being siiiktOuous, because English is the ac- 
 cepted name of the people of England and all 
 pertaining to them. But the term Anglo-Saxon 
 has also been more iiarticularly employed to 
 designate the Early English people and their 
 language, before the Norman Conquest, as 
 though they we.-c Anglo-Saxon at that period 
 and became English afterwards. Modern his- 
 torians are protesting strongly against this use of 
 the term. Mr. Freeman (Norman Conquest, v. 
 
 1, note A), says: "The name by which our 
 forefatliers really knew themselves and by which 
 thev were known to other nations was Engli.sh 
 and no other. 'Angli,' 'Engle,' 'Angel cya,' 
 ' Engli.sc' are the true names by which the Teu- 
 tons of Britain knew themselves a,fid their lan- 
 guage. ... As a chronological term, iVnglo- 
 Saxon is equally objectionable with Saxon. The 
 'Anglo-Saxon period,' as far as there ever was 
 one, is going on still. I speak therefore of our 
 forefathers, not as 'Saxon.s,'or even ns 'Anglo 
 Saxons,' but as they spoke of themselves, 
 as Englislimen — 'Angli,' 'Engle,' — 'Angel 
 cyn.'" — Sec, also, Saxons, and Angles and 
 Jutes. 
 
 ANGLON, Battle of.— Fought in Armenia, 
 A. I). WH, betw. '1 tlie Uop- .wsund the Persians, 
 with disaster to tiie lurmer. — G. Ilawliusou, 
 Seventh Great Oriental Moudreh)/, eh. 20. 
 
 ANGORA, Battle of (1402). See Ti.mohb- 
 also, Tl'Iiks: A. D. 13H!(-I403. 
 
 ANGOSTURA, OR BUENA VISTA, 
 Battle of. See Mexico: A. I). 1840-1847. 
 
 ANGRIVARII, The.— The Angrivarii were 
 one of the tribes of ancient Germany. Their 
 settlements "were to the west of the Weser 
 (Visurgis) in the neighbourhood of Minden and 
 Herford, and tlius coincide to some extent with 
 Westphalia. Tlieir territory was the scene of 
 Varus' defeat. It has been thought that the 
 name of this tribe is preserved in that of the town 
 Engern." — A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, 
 Tdfitiin'a Germany, notes. — See, also, Bkucteki. 
 
 ANL— Storming of the Turks (1064). See 
 TuuKs: A. D. 1003-1073. 
 
 ANILLEROS, The. See Spain: A. D. 
 1814-1837. 
 
 ANJOU : Creation of the County.— Origin 
 of the Plantagenets. — "It was the policy of 
 this unfairly depreciated sovereign [Charles the 
 Bald, grandson of Charlemagne, who received 
 in the dismemberment of the Carlovingian Empire 
 the Neustrian part, out of which was developed the 
 modern kingdom of France, and who reigned from 
 840 to 877], to recruit the failing ranks ot the false 
 and degenerate Frankish aristocracy, by calling 
 up to his jieerage the wise, the able, the honest 
 and the bold of ignoble birth. . . . lie sought 
 to surround himself with new men, the men 
 without ancestry; and the earliest historian of 
 the Houiie of Anjou both describes this system 
 i.'id affords the most splendid example of the 
 'lueory adopted by the king. Pre-eminent 
 amongst these parvenus was Torquatus or Tor- 
 tulfus, an Armorican peasant, a very rustic, a 
 backwoodsman, who lived by hunting and such 
 like occupations, almost in solitude, cultivating 
 his 'quillets,' his 'cueillettes,' of land, and driv- 
 ing his own oxen, harnessed to his plough. Tor- 
 quatus entered or was invited into the service of 
 Charles-le-Chauve, and rose high in his sover- 
 eign's contidimce : a jirudent, a bold, and a good 
 man. Charles appointed him Forester of the 
 forest called 'the Blackbird's Nest,' the 'nid du 
 merle,' a pleasant name, not the less pleasant for 
 its familiarity. This happened during the con- 
 flicts with the Northmen. Torquatus served 
 Charles strenuously in the wars, and obtained 
 great authority. 'Tertullus, son of Torquatus, 
 inherited his father's energies, quick and acute, 
 patieift. of fatigue, ambitious and aspiring; he 
 became the liegeman of Charles; and his mar- 
 riage with Petronilla the King's cousin. Count 
 
 114 
 
ANJOU. 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 Hugh the Abbot's daughter, introduced him 
 into the very circle of tlie royal fainily. Chil- 
 tciiii Limdon and other benefices in the Gastinois 
 were acquired by him, possibly as the laly's 
 dowry. Seneschal also was Tertullus of the 
 same ample Gustinois territory. Ingelgcr, son 
 of Tertullus and Petronilla, appears as the first 
 hereditary Count of Anjou Outre-Maine, — Mar- 
 quis, Consul or Count of Anjou, — for all these 
 titles are assigned to him. ^et the ploughman 
 Tonpiatus must be reckoned as the primary 
 Plaiitiigenet: the rustic Tonpiatus founded that 
 brilliant family." — Sir P. Palgrave, Ilist. uf Nor- 
 mdinlyaml Enyldnd, bk. 1. ch. 3. 
 
 Ai.so IN K. Norgate, England undtr the An- 
 geriii Kin<jK, c. 1, ch. 2. 
 
 A. D. 987-1129.— The greatest of the old 
 Counts.— " Pule Nerra, Pidc the Black [A. D. 
 987-1040] is the greatest of the Angevins, tlio 
 first in wliom we can trace that marked type of 
 character which their house was to preserve 
 with a fatal constancy through two hundred 
 
 {rears. lie was without natural affection. In 
 lis youth he burned a wife at the stake, and 
 legend told how he led her to her doom decked 
 out iu his gayest attire. In his old age Iks 
 waged his l)itterest war ^igainst his son, and 
 exacted from him when vanquished a humilia- 
 tion which men reserved for the deadliest of 
 their foes. ' You are conquered, you are con- 
 quered!' shouted the old man in lierce exulta- 
 tion, as Qeoffry, bridled and saddled like a beast 
 of l)urden, crawled for pardon to his father's 
 feet. . . . But neither the wrath of Heaven nor 
 the curses of men broke witli a single mishap 
 the fifty years of his success. At his accession 
 Anjou was the least important of the greater 
 provinces of Prance. At his death it stood, if 
 not iu extent, at least in real power, first among 
 them all. . . . His overthrow of Brittimy on the 
 field of Concjuereux was followed by the gradual 
 absorption of Southern Touraine. . . . His great 
 victory at Pontlevoi crushed the rival house of 
 BIoLs; the seizure of Saumur completed his con- 
 quests in the South, while Northern Touraine 
 was won bit by bit till only Tours resisted the 
 Angevin. The treacherous seizure of its Count, 
 Herbert Wake-dog, left Maine at his mercy ere 
 the old man beqiunithed his unfinished work to 
 his sou. As a warrior, Geoffry Martel was 
 hardly inferior to his father. A decisive over- 
 throw wrested Tours from the Count of Blois; a 
 second left Poitou at his mercy ; and the seizure 
 of I,e JIans brought him to the Norni;m border. 
 Here . . . his advance was cheeknl by the 
 genius of William the Concpieror, and with liis 
 death the greatness of Anjou seemed for the 
 tiin(! to have come to an end. Stripped of JIaine 
 by the Normans, and weakened by internal dis- 
 sensions, the weak and profligate administration 
 of Pule Rechin left Anjou powerless against its 
 riv.ils along the Seine. It woke to fresh energy 
 with the accession of his son. Pule of Jerusalem. 
 . . . Pule was the one enemy whom Henry the 
 First really feared. It was to disarm his restless 
 hostility timt the King yielded to his son, Geof- 
 fry llie Handsome, the hand of his daughter 
 Miitilda."— .1. U. Green, A Short History of tlie 
 Eiinlisk Pmph\ ch. 2, gcct. 7. 
 
 At.so IN K. Norgate, England under the Ange- 
 rin Kings, r. 1, e/i. 2-4. 
 
 A. D. 1154. — The Counts become Kings of 
 England. See Enol.a.nd : A. 1). 1104-1189. 
 
 A. D. 1204. — Wrested from the English 
 King John. See Pk.v.nck: A. D. llHO-1224! 
 
 A. D. 1206-1442. — English attempts to re-- 
 cover the county. — The Third and Fourth 
 Housesof Anjou.— Creation of the Dukedom. 
 — King .lohn, of England, did not voluntarily 
 submit to the sentence of the peers of Prance 
 which pronounced his forfeiture of the fiefs of 
 Anjou and Maine, "since he invaded and had 
 po.ssession of Angers again in 1200, when, Goth- 
 like, he demolished its ancient walls. He lost it in 
 the following year, an' . . . made no further 
 attempt upon it until l£i3. In that year, having 
 collected a powerful army, he landed at Hochelle, 
 and actually occupied Angers, without striking 
 a blow. But . . . the year 1214 beheUl him 
 once more in retreat from Anjou, never to reap- 
 pear there, since lie died on the 19th of October, 
 1'316. In the person of King John ended what is 
 called the ' Second H(nise of Anjou. ' In 1204, 
 after the confiscations of John's Prench pos.se8- 
 sions, Philip Augustus estublislie<l hereditary 
 senesclials in that part of Prance, the first of 
 whom was the tutor of the nnfortunate Young 
 Arthur [of Brittany], named William des Iloches, 
 who was in fact Count in all except the name, 
 over Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, owing alle- 
 giance only to the crown of Prance. The Sene- 
 schal, William des Uoches, died in 1222. His 
 son-in-law, Amaury de Craon, succeeded him," 
 but was soon afterwards taken prisoner during a 
 war in Brittanv and incarcerated. Ilcnry 111. 
 of Englaml still claimed the title of Count of 
 Anjou, and in 1230 he "disembarked a consid- 
 erable army at St. Malo, in tlie view of re-con- 
 quering Anjou, and the other forfeited possessions 
 of his crown. Louis IX., then only fifteen years 
 old . . . advanced to the attack of the allies; but 
 in the following year a peace was concluded, the 
 jirovincD of Guienne having been coded to the 
 Englisli crown. In 1241, Louis gave the counties 
 of Poitou and Auvergne to his brother Alphonso ; 
 and, in the year 1246, he invested his brother 
 Charles, Count of Provence, with the counties of 
 Anjou and Maine, thereby annulling the nmk 
 and title of Seneschal, and instituting the Thinl 
 House of Anjou. Charles I., the founder of the 
 proud fortunes of this Third House, was ambi- 
 tious iu character, and events long favoured his 
 ambition. Count of Provence, through the in- 
 heritance of his consort, had not long been 
 invested with Anjou and JIaine, ere he was in- 
 vited to tlie conquest of Sicily [see It.vi.y 
 (SouTiiEitN): A. D. 1250-1268].'' The Third 
 House of Anjou ended in the person of John, 
 wlio became King of Prance in Vd~)0. In 1356 
 lie invested his son Louis with Anjou and Maine, 
 and in 1360 the latter was created the first Duke 
 of Anjou. The Pourtli House of Anjou, which 
 began with this first Duke, came to an end two 
 generations later with Uene, or Hegnier, — the 
 "good King Uene" of history and story, wliose 
 kingdom was for the most part a name, and who 
 is best known to English rcadeii, perhaps, as 
 the father of Margaret of Anjou, tiiu stout- 
 hearted queen of Henry VI. On the death of 
 his father, Louis, the second duke, Kene becamt 
 by his father's will Count of Guise, his elder 
 brother, Louis, inheriting the dukedom. In 
 1434 flic brother died without issue and Rene 
 succeeded him in Anjou, Maine and Provence. 
 He had already become Duke of Bar, as the 
 adopted heir of his great-uncle, the cardinal- 
 
 115 
 
ANJOU. 
 
 ANTILLES. 
 
 dukp, mill Duke of Lomiinc (ICid), l)y ilcsignn- 
 tion of llii- lull' Duki-. wUnst- dini^rlilcr Ik; Imd 
 nmrrird. In 1 t:t.") I"' received fmiii tjiicpii 
 Joaiinii i>f Naples the cli)iil>tfid lei.'iiiy of tliat 
 di.slriieted Uiniriloni, wliicli she liiiil previously 
 Ijequiallied lirsf, to Alphonso of Arai^oii, and 
 nflerwards — revokiriirllial testainc'iit — to Uene's 
 brother, Louis of Aiijou. Kin;; Hone enjoyed 
 the titli' liurinf; liislife-linii', and the aetual king- 
 dom for a brief pcrliHl ; liiil in 1 t-t'J lie was ex- 
 pelled from Naples 1>V ids eoniiietitor Alphonso 
 (see Italy: A. P. 141^-1447). —M. A. Ilook- 
 lium, Ufe mill Tiiikh <>/ Sfnryiiret of Anjoi/, 
 
 introd. and eh. 1-2. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ANJOU, The Englit.i House of. See Eno- 
 l,AM): A. I). II.M-IIN'.I. 
 
 ANJOU, The Neapolitan House of: A. D. 
 1266.— Conquest of the Kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies. See Italy: A. 1>. l','."i(i-r,'(lH. 
 
 A. D. 1282. Loss of Sicily. — Retention of 
 Naples. See Italy: A. D. l',>H-,>-i;!()(), 
 
 A. D. 1310-1382. — Possession of the Hun- 
 garian throne. See llrMiAUY: .V, D. i:!01-144a. 
 
 A. D. 1370-1384.— Acquisition and loss of 
 the crown of Poland. See I'm, and: .V. I). 
 i:t:i;i-ir)7->. 
 
 A. D. 1381-1384. — Claims of Louis of Anjou. 
 —His expedition to Italy and his death. See 
 Italy: A. I). i34:i-i;W'J. 
 
 A. D. 1386-1399.— Renewed contest for 
 Naples.— Defeat of Louis II. by Ladislas. 
 See Italy: A, D. i;iHO-1414. 
 
 A. D. 1423-1442. — Renewed contest for the 
 crown of Naples.— Defeat by Alfonso of Ara- 
 gon and Sicily. See Ital/: A. 1). 1412-1447. 
 
 ANKENDORFF, Battle of. See Geu.«any: 
 
 A. I). 1S07 (FEUUtAUY- .IlNK). 
 
 ANKERS. See ANriioitiTKS. 
 
 ANNA, Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1780- 
 1740. 
 
 ANNALES MAXIM I, The. See Fasti. 
 
 ANNAM: A. D. 1882-1885.— War with 
 France. — French protectorate accepted. See 
 France: A. I). Ists-IHSU. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS ROYAL, NOVA SCOTIA: 
 Change of name from Port Royal (1710). See 
 NkwEnoland: A. D. r't2-1710. 
 
 ANNATES, OR FIRST-FRUITS.— " A 
 pmetico had existed for some hundreds of years, 
 in all the chiir.-:hes of Europe, that bishops and 
 archbishops, on presentation to their sees, should 
 transmit to the poji' on receiving their bulls of 
 investment, one .\ r's income from their new- 
 preferments. It w. IS called the iiayment of An- 
 nates, or tirst-fruits, and had originated in the 
 time of the crusades, as a means of providing a 
 fund for the holy wars. Once established it had 
 settled into custom, and was one of the cliic^f 
 resources of the iiapal revenue." — .1. A. Froudc. 
 Jlistory of Kii{/tiuitl, eh. 4. — " Tlie claim [by the 
 pope] to the tirst-fruits of bishoprics and other 
 promotions was apparently first made in England 
 by Alexander IV. in 12."i(S, for live years; it was 
 renewed by Clement V. in 1306, to "last for two 
 years; and it was in a measure successful. By 
 .lolin XXII. it was claimed throughout Christen- 
 dom for three years, and met with universal 
 resistiuice. . . . Stoutly contested as it was in 
 the Council of Constance, and frequently made 
 the subject of debate in parliament and council 
 the dumuud must have buuu rugulurly complied 
 
 with."— W. Slubbs, Ciiiint. Hint, of Kiig.,eh. 19, 
 met. 7IH — See, also, t)l KKN .V.NNK's Boi'.NTY. 
 
 ANNE, Queen of England, A, I). 1T02-1714. 
 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA, Queen-regent of 
 France. .Sei'FiiA.NtK: A. I). 11142-1048, to 1651- 
 lOriii. 
 
 ANNE BOLEYN, Marriage, trial and 
 execution of. SecMvSdLASU: A. I). 1527-l.5;i4, 
 and l.");itM."(4;i. 
 
 ANSAR, The. See Maho.metan Conquest: 
 A. 1). ()(l!»-0:!2. 
 
 ANSIBARII,The. SeeFuASUs: Ouioix. &c. 
 
 ANSPACH, Creation of the Margravate. 
 See Okkmanv: i;tTir ('KSTiiiv. .. .Separation 
 from the Electorate of Brandenburg. See 
 IJuANDK.NniiKi: A. I). 1417-1040. 
 
 ANTALCIDAS, Peace of (B. C. 387). See 
 Oiikkck: H. C. :i)H)-«87, 
 
 ANTES, The. See Slavonic Peoples. 
 
 ANTESIGNANI, The.—" In each cohort [of 
 the Honiiin legion, in Ciesur's time] a, certain 
 niimlHT of the best men, probably about one- 
 fourth of the whole detacbment, was as.signed as 
 11 guard to the standard, from whence thi^y 
 derived tlieir name of Antesignani." — ('. Mcn- 
 vale. Hint, iifthe Jioiiiiinn, ch. 1"). 
 
 ANTHE'MIUS, Roman Emperor (Western), 
 
 A. I). 407-472. 
 
 ANTHESTERIA, The. Sec Dionysia at 
 Athens. 
 
 ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. See Tar- 
 IKK l,i:<iisLATioN (England): A. I). 18.S6-1839, 
 and 1845-1846. 
 
 ANTI-FEDERALISTS. See United 
 States OF Am. : A. 1). 1789-17«3. 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, American. See 
 New Vouk: A. I). 182fl-18;!2. 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, Mexican. See 
 Mexico: A. D. 1832-1828. 
 
 ANTI-RENTERS.— ANTI-RENT WAR. 
 See LiviNosTON Manor. 
 
 ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENTS. See 
 Slavery, Neoro. 
 
 ANTIETAM, OR SHARPSBURG, Battle 
 of. See United States of Am. : A. I). 1803 
 (Septemiier: Maryland). 
 
 ANTIGONE A. See JUntinea: B. C. 222. 
 
 ANTIGONID KINGS, The. See Greece: 
 
 B. C. 307-197, 
 
 ANTIGONUS, and the wars of the Dia- 
 dochi. See Macedonia: B. C. 333-316; 315- 
 310; 310-301. 
 
 ANTIGONUS GONATUS, The wars of. 
 See Macedonia: B. C. 377-344. 
 
 ANTILLES.— ANVILIA.—" Familiar as i.s 
 the name of the Antilles, few are aware of the 
 antiquity of the word ; while its precise signifi- 
 cance sets etymology at defiance. Common con- 
 sent identified the Antilia of legend with the 
 Isle of the Seven Cities. In the year 734, says 
 the story, the Arabs having conquered most of 
 the Spanish peninsula, a number of Christian 
 emignints, under the. direction of seven holy 
 bishops, among thein the archbishop of Oporto, 
 .sailed westward with all that they had, and 
 reached an island where they founded seven 
 towns. Arab geographers speak of an Atlantic 
 island called in Arabic El-tennyn, or Al-tin (Isle 
 of Serpents), a name which may possibly have 
 become by corruption Antilia. , . . The seven 
 bishojis were believed in the 16th century to be 
 still represented by their successors, and to pre- 
 ■ "" " Most 
 
 side over a numerous and wealthy people. Most 
 
 116 
 
ANTH.LKS. 
 
 ANTUUSTIONES. 
 
 pooernplicrs of llio 15lli rciitiiry believed in tlio 
 cxisleiue of Antiliii. Il was ifpiosciitcd as IviTiy; 
 wi'st of till' Azores. ... As soon as it bci nine 
 linowii in Europe llial ('(iluiiil)nH liaii (iiscoveiiil 
 II large island, Kspafiola was at onee identilied 
 witli Antilia, . . . and the name . . . lias ever 
 sinee been iipi>lied generally lo llie AVest Indian 
 islands." — K. J. J'a.vne, J/inl. of the Aiw \\'i/ilil 
 odUil Ainiriai, r. I, j>. 08.— See, also, West 
 
 ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSY IN 
 PURITAN MASSACHUSETTS. Sec Mas- 
 ^.\(iiisi;ith: A. 1). UWd-ltlJiH. 
 
 ANTIOCH : Founding of the City. See 
 Hi;i.i;iiil).K; and iMAei;iK)M.\, itc. : 15. C. 310- 
 301. 
 
 A. D. 36-400. — The Christian Church. See 
 CiiitisriANrrv, Eaulv. 
 
 A. D. 115. — Great Earthquake. — "Early in 
 tlie year 115, aceording to the mostexaet eliron- 
 ology, . . . the splendid capital of Syria was 
 visileil by an eartlupiake, one of the 'iiost disas- 
 trous apparently of all tbo similar inllictioiis 
 from wliieh that luekless city lia.s periodically 
 sulfered. . . . The calamity was enhanced by 
 the presence of unusual crowds from all the cities 
 of tlie east, assend)led to pay lionmge to the 
 Emperor [Trajan], or to take part iu his expe- 
 dition [of conquest in the cast]. Among 
 the victims were many Iloinans of distinction. 
 . . . Trajan, himself, only escaped by creeping 
 through a window." — C. Merivule, Jlint. of the 
 Romans, ch. C.5. 
 
 A. D. 260. — Surprise, massacre and ' pillage 
 by Sapor, King of Persia. See I'khsia: A. 1). 
 220-0^7. 
 
 A. D. 526. — Destruction by Earthquake. — 
 During the reign of .)u.stinian (A. 1). 518-505) the 
 cities of the liomaii Empire " were overwhelmed 
 by earthquakes more frequent than at any other 
 period of history. Antiocb, the metro])olis of 
 Asia, was entirely destroyed, on the 20tb of 
 May, 536, at the very tiiiie when the inhabitants 
 of the adjacent country were assembled to cele- 
 brate the festival of the Ascension; and it is 
 allirmed that 250,000 persons were crushed bv 
 the fall of Its sumiJtuous edifices." — J. C. L. (fc 
 Sismondi, Fall of the, lioinaii Empire, eh. 10. 
 
 Also in : E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
 Human Empire, eJi. 43. 
 
 A. D. 540. — Stormed, pillaged and burned 
 by Chosroes, the Persian King. See Peusia : 
 A. 1). 220-027. 
 
 A. D. 638. — Surrender to the Arabs. See 
 Mahometan Conquest: A. D. 632-030. 
 
 A. D. 969. — Recapture by the Byzantines.— 
 After linving renuiined 328 years in the jiossession 
 of the Saracens, Autioeli was retaken in the winter 
 of A. D. 969 by the Byzantine Emperor, Nieepho- 
 rus Pliokas, and became again a Qliristian 
 city. Three years later the Moslems made a 
 great effort to recover the city, but were defeated, 
 The Byzantine arms were at this time highly 
 successful in the never ending Saracen war, and 
 John Zimiskes, successor of Nicephorus Phokas, 
 marched triumphantly to the Tigris and threat- 
 ened even Bagdad. But most of the cimquests 
 thus made in Syria and Jlesopotamia were not 
 lasting.— G. Vm\a\, IHkI. of the liyzaiitim: Em- 
 pire, A. 1). 710-1007, M-. 2, eh. 2.— See Byzan- 
 tine E.mi-iue. A. D. 063-1025. 
 
 A. D. 1097-1098. — Siege and capture by the 
 Crusaders. Sec Ckuijauiss: A. D. 1000-1009. 
 
 A. D. 1099-1 144.— Principality. Sec Jeru- 
 salem: A. r,>. looo-iiii. 
 
 A. D. 1268.- Extinction of the Latin Prin- 
 cipality. — Total destruction of the city. — An- 
 tiocb fell, before the arms of Bibars, the Sultan 
 of Egpyt and Syria, and tlie Latin principalily 
 was bloodily extingviislied, in 1208. "The lirsl 
 seat of the CInislian name was dispeopled by 
 the slaughter of Mvenleiii, and the captivity 
 of one hundred, thousand of her inliabilaiits. " 
 This fate befell Antioch only twenty three years 
 before the last vestige of the eoiKiuests of the 
 crusaders was obliterated at Acre — E. Gibbon, 
 J)ifliiie and Fall if the Human Empire, ch. 50. — 
 "The sultan lialteil for sevi rai weeks in the 
 l)lain, and permitted his soldi,'rs t(j hold a large 
 market, or fair, for the sale of their iiooly. This 
 market was attended by Jews and jiedlars from 
 all parts of the East. . . , 'It was,' savstlie Gadi 
 Mohieddin, "a fearful and lie:irt-ren(iing sight. 
 Even the hard stones were soltened witli grief.' 
 lie tells us that the captives were so numerous 
 that a fine heartv boy might be |)ur(hased for 
 twelve ])ieees of silver, and a little girl for live. 
 When the work of i)illage ha 1 been completed, 
 when all the ornaments and decorations bad been 
 carried away from the churdies, and the lend 
 torn from the roofs, Antioch was fired Jn dif- 
 ferent places, amid the loud thrilling shouts of 
 'Allah Acbar,' 'God is Victorious.' The itreat 
 diurehes of St. Paul and St. Peter burnt witli 
 terrific fury for many days, and tlu^ vast end 
 venerable citv was left witbo'it u habitation and 
 without an inhabitant." — 0. G. Addison, l\'ie 
 Knif/hts Templars, eh. 0. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS SOTER AND ANTIO- 
 CHUS THE GREAT. See Seleucii).*;, The: 
 B. C, 281-224, and 224-187. 
 
 ANTIPATER, and the wars of the Dia- 
 dochi. See Macedonia: B. C. 323-316. 
 
 ANTIUM. — " Antium, once a flourishing city 
 of the Volsci, and afterwards of the liomans, 
 their conquerors, is at iiresent reduced to a small 
 number of inhabitants. Originally it was with- 
 out u iiort ; the harbour of the Antiates having 
 been the ncighbouriug indentation in the coast of 
 Ceno, now Nettuno, distant more than a nule to 
 the eastward. . . . The piracies of the ancient 
 Antiates all proceeded from Geno, or Cerio, where 
 they bad 22 long ships. These Nuraicius took; 
 . . . some were taken to Bome and their rostra 
 suspended in triumph in tlie Forum. ... It 
 [Antium] was reckoned 2C0 stadia, or about 82 
 miles, from Ostia." — Sir W. Qell, Topog. of Rome, 
 r. 1. 
 
 ANTIUM, Naval Battle of (1378). See 
 Venice: A. 1). 1378-1370. 
 
 ANTIVESTiEUM. See li;;iTAiN, Tuujes 
 OP Celtic. 
 
 ANTOINE DE BOURBON, King of Na- 
 varre, A. ]). 15.'")5-1557. 
 
 ANTONINES, The. See Uo.me: A. D. 138- 
 180. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, Roman 
 Emperor, A. I). 101-18(). 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman Emperor, 
 A. I). 138-101. 
 
 ANTONY, Mark, and the Second Triumvi- 
 rate. See Home: B. C. 44 to 31. 
 
 ANTRUSTIONES.— In the Salic law, of 
 the Franks, there is no trace of any recognized 
 order of uobility, "Wc meet, however, with 
 
 117 
 
ANTUrSTIONEH. 
 
 APOLLONIA IN ILLYHIA. 
 
 froiii ollici'H poliliciil anil jiiilii'iiil, or from a J 
 
 pimitioii alH>ut till' ners) f llic kiiiK. Aiiiomk j 
 
 llii'w tlic AiilriiNlloni's, who wcri' iti conslaiit, i 
 attriiilaiHC ii|miii tlic kiti);, played a ciinsplciuiMs i 
 part. . . . AiitnisliiPiics :in(f ConvivH- IJiyis 
 [Udtnans who liclil thr Haiiic |Mwitli)nl tire Uw. 
 pri'ilrri'ssiintof the VuHxi Doniliiici of later times, [ 
 anil like these were lioiitiil to the kiiiK '>>' at! is- | 
 iHiial iiath of personal and per|Mtual servi .• 
 I'liev fornied part, as it \v<'re, of the kiiiv H 
 family, and were expected to resi<le in the jialaci, 
 where Ihey superintended the various depart 
 meiits of the rovid household."— VV. C. I'crry, 
 7'A,' FniiikK. r/i. '|(». 
 
 ANTWERP: The name of the City.— Its 
 commercial greatness in the i6th centuiy. — 
 "The city was so ancient that its jrenealoj^isi :, 
 with ridiculous j;"'^'''.'*'. ascended to a perii«l 
 two centuries before the Trojan war, and dis- 
 covered a giant, rejoicing in the classii^ name of 
 AiitlKonus, estalilisiiiMl on the Seheld. Tliis 
 patriarch exacted one half the merchandise of all 
 navigat/irs who passed his castle, and was ac- 
 customed to amputate and cast into the river tlic 
 rijfht hands of i'iohi who infringed this simple 
 tariff. Tliiis '11 l-werpen,' hand-throwing, i)e- 
 cninc Antwerp, and hence, two hands, in the 
 PKcufchunn of the city, were ever held up in 
 heraldic attestation of the truth. The giant was, 
 in his turn, thrown into the Hcheld by a hero, 
 named Hralio, from whose exjiloils Urahant de- 
 rived its name. . . . Ilut for these antiipiarian 
 researches a simjiler derivation of the name 
 would seem 'an t' werf," 'on the wharf.' It had 
 now [iu the lirst half of the 18th century | be- 
 come the principal entrepot and exchange of 
 Kuropc . . . the commercial capital of the world. 
 . . . Venice, Niiremburg, Augsburg, Bruges, 
 wore sinking, but Antwerp, with its deep anil 
 convenient river, stretched its arm to the ocean 
 and caught the golden prize, n.s it fell from its 
 sister cities' grasp. . . . No city, except Paris, 
 surpas.sed it in population, nono approached It 
 in conuncrcial s|)lendor." — J. L. Motley, T/ie 
 Rim of the Dutch IltiniMic. Hint, /iiti-nil./nirt. Vi. 
 
 A. D. 1313.— Made the Staple for English 
 trade. See fSiwfi.K. 
 
 A. D. 1566. — Riot of the Image-breakers in 
 the Churches. .See Nktukiu.a.nds: A. 1). 1500- 
 1508. 
 
 A. D. 1576.— The Spanish Fury. See Nktii- 
 KiiLANDs: A. I). l.')7.'i-1.577. 
 
 A. D. 1577.— Deli\erance of the city from 
 its Spanish garrison.— Demolition of the Cita- 
 del. See Nktiikui.ands; A. 1). ir)77-l.Wl. 
 
 A. D. 1583. — Treacherous attempt of the 
 Duke of Anjou.— The French Fury. See Ni. . 1 
 Klii.ANiis: A. I). l.lHl-l.'iSl. 
 
 A. D. 1584-1585.— Siege and reduction by 
 Alejiander Farnese, Duke of Parma.— The 
 downfall of prosperity. See NETiiKuiiAUDs: 
 A. I). loS-l-l.Wo. 
 
 A. D. 1648.— Sacrificed to Amsterdam in 
 the Treaty of Miinster.— Closing of the 
 Scheldt. See Nktiikiu.ands: A. I). 10(0-1018. 
 
 A. D. 1706.— Surrendered to Marlborough 
 and the Allies. See Xkthkui.ands: A. 1). 1700- 
 1707. 
 
 A. D. 1746-1748.— Taken by the French and 
 restored to Austria. See Nktiikiilands: A. D. 
 1740-1747; ami Aix-i.a-Cu.u'el!.::: The Con- 
 
 UltCSii, 
 
 A. O. 1832.— Siege of the Citadel by the 
 French.- Expulsion of the Dutch garrison. 
 Jk'p Nktukulands: A. D. IWJO-lsaS. 
 
 APACHES, The. See Amkiiican Anonio- 
 
 im;s .\i'\< hk Omu 1". and .Vtiiai'ahcan Family. 
 APALACHES, The. See Amekican Aim)R- 
 
 khm.h: .\|'ai,a( iiks. 
 
 APAMEA.— .\pamca. a city founded by 
 Melcucus Nicator on the Kuphrates, the site lif 
 ^^hicli is occupied by the miMlern town of Bir, 
 had become, in Sirabo's time (near the beginning 
 )f the Christian Era) one of the principal centers 
 of Asiatic trade, st'cond only to Kphesus. Thap- 
 sacus. the former customary crossing-place of 
 the Kuphrates. had ceased to be so, and the pas- 
 sage was made at .Vpamea. A place on the 
 opposite bank of the river was called Zeugma, or 
 "the bridge." Bir "is still the usual place at 
 which travellers proceeding from Antioch or 
 .\leppo towards Bagdad cross the Kuphrates." — 
 K. 11. Buuburv. J/ixt. of Aucifiit Ueog.,ch. 22, 
 met. 1 (i\ 'i. /»;)."238 nnil HH). 
 
 APANAGE. See Aitanaoe. 
 
 APATURIA, The.— An anniud family festi- 
 val of th(^ Atheinans. celebrate<l for three' days 
 In the early part of the month of October 
 (Pyaiu'i).sion). "This was the characteristic 
 festival of the Ionic race; handed down from a 
 period anterior to the constitution of Kleisthenes, 
 and to the ten new trit)es each containing soniany 
 demes, and bringing together the citizens in 
 their |)rimitive unions of family, gens, phratry, 
 etc., the aggregate of which had originally con- 
 stituted the four Ionic tribes, now superannuated. 
 At the Apaturia, the family ceremonies were 
 gone th'-ough ; marriages were enrolled, acts of 
 adoption were promulgated and certified, the 
 names of youthful citizens first entered on the 
 gentile aiuf phratric roll ; sacrltlces were jointly 
 celebratcil by these family a.s.semblage3 to Zeus 
 Phratrius, AthCnO, and other deities, accompanied 
 with much festivity and enjovment."— G. Orote, 
 IliM. of (/rcfcc, pt. 3, c/i. 64 (i\ 7). 
 
 APELLA, The. See Spauta: The Con- 
 stitution, iiC. 
 
 APELOUSAS, The. See Texas: The abo- 
 
 IIIC.INAI. ImIAIIITANTS. 
 
 APHEK, Battle of. — A great victory won by 
 Ahab, king of Israel over Benhadad, king of 
 Damascus.— I. Ewald, Jlist. of Inritci, bk. 4, 
 »ect. 1. 
 
 APODECT.(E, The. — "When Aristotle 
 speaks of the ollicers of government to whom 
 the public revenues were delivered, who kept 
 them and distributed them to the several admin- 
 istrative departments, these arc called, he adds, 
 apodectic and treasurers. }:i Athens tlie 
 apodectic were ten in number, in accordance with 
 the nuwber of the tribes. They were appointed 
 by lot. . . . They had in their possession the 
 lists of the debtors ol tlie itjite, rccived the 
 money which was paid in. r. , istered nii account 
 of it and noted the amount iii ^rrear, and in the 
 council house in the presence of the council, 
 erased the names of the debtors who had paid 
 the demands against them from the list, and 
 deposited this again in the arclnves. Finally, 
 they, together with the council, apportioned the 
 sums received."— A. Boeekh. Public Ikommy of 
 Atheim (ti: hif Lamb), bk. 3. (•/(. 4. 
 
 APOLLONIA IN ILLYRIA, The Found- 
 ing of. See KouKYBA. 
 
 118 
 
AP08TA8I()N. 
 
 AQUITAINE. 
 
 APOSTASION, Scr Poif.t.k. 
 AHOSTOLin MAJESTY: Origin of the 
 
 Title. Sec Hum \itv: A. 1), 1173-1114. 
 
 APPANAGE. — "The term iippiiniipr (Icnolcs 
 till' provision nmdc! lor tlii! youiiK<'r cliildrcii of 
 II kliij? of Fniiicp. This alwiiyf consisted of 
 lands iind feudal superiorities held of the crown 
 liy the tenure of peenigc. It is evident tlmt this 
 iisiice, lis it produced ii now olnss of iiowerful 
 fcudatiirics, wiis hostile to the iiiterests iind policy 
 of the sovereii^n, imd retarded the suhjuj;ation 
 (if Uu: ancient aristocracy. Hut in usiijie coeval 
 with tiie monarchy was not to he aiiro^aled, and 
 llic scarcity of money rendered it ih\possil)le to 
 provide for the younger branches oi' the royal 
 family by any other means. It was i"stnnned 
 howeverns far as circumstances wouhl i.ermit." 
 —II. Ilallam, T/ie MiiUllc Aijik. eh. 1, ;),' 2.— 
 "From the wordi' ' ad ' and ' panis,' meaning that 
 it was to i)rovi(h' hrciid for the person w lio heli." it. 
 .V portion of ai)pana;te was now given to each if 
 the king's younger sons, which descended to lii.< 
 direct heirs. b\it in default of Wwm reverted to the 
 crown." — T. Wright, UtHt. of France, v, 1, p. 
 30H, iwh. 
 
 APPIAN WAY, The -Appius Claudius, 
 culled the IJiind, who ■ .s censor at Home 
 from WVi to 30H B. C [sec Uo.mk: B. C. 312], con- 
 structed during tliat »im,^ "the Appian road, the 
 i|uci'ii of roads, because I'le Lntui road, passing 
 by Tusculum, and thnugh the country of the 
 Ilcrnicuns, was so much cndangeved, and ha<l 
 not yet been (putc recovered by the Homans: 
 the Appian road, passing by Ternuina, Fund' 
 and Moia, to Capua, was intended to be a shorter 
 and safer one. . . . The Appian road, even if 
 Apjiius did carry it as far a;i Capua, was not 
 c.xecnicd by him with that splendour for which 
 we still admire it in those parts vhich have not 
 been destroyed intentionally: the ( lo.sely joined 
 polygons of basalt, which tlimisands of years 
 have not been able to displace, are of a some- 
 what later origin. Appius commenced the road 
 bcciiuse there was actual need for it; in the year 
 A. r. \'u [B. C. 297] pepcrino, and simie years 
 later basalt (silex) was first used for paving 
 roads, and, at the beginning, only on the small 
 distance from the Porta Capena to the temple of 
 JIars, as we ai'e distinctly told by Livy. lioads j 
 constructed according to artistic prinein'es had 
 previously existed." — B. O. Niebuhr, lA;cts. on 
 the Hint, of Rome, leet. 4.5. 
 
 Also in: Sir W. Gell, Tojwg. of Rome, v. 1. — 
 II. I!. Lid.lell, Hint, of Home. v. 1, p. 2,51. 
 
 APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, Lee's 
 Surrender at. 8ee Unitki) States ov Am. : 
 A. 1). 180.") (Ai'hil: Viugini.\). 
 
 APULEIAN LAW. See JIa.tf.stas. 
 
 APULIA: A. D. 1042-1 127.— Norman con- 
 quest and Dukedom. — Union with Sicily. 
 See Italy (Soi^tiikiin): A. I>. 1000-1090, aud 
 1081-1 1!)4. 
 
 APULIANS, The. Sec SAunn.:8; also, Sam- 
 NiTi;s. 
 
 AQU/E SEXTIiE. See Salves. 
 
 AQUiE SEXTIiE, Battle of. Soo Cimbui 
 and I'lu-TONEs; B, C. 113-102. 
 
 AQUiE SOLIS.— The Roman name of the 
 long famous watering-place known in modern 
 England as the city of Batli. It was splendidly 
 adorued in liomau times with temples and other 
 edilices. — T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saiw, 
 ch. 0. 
 
 AQUIDAY, OR AQUETNET.— The native 
 name of Bliodi' Island. Sec liiiuDB Island: 
 A. 1). 1«:IH-1((40. 
 
 AQUILA, Battle of (1434). Sec Italy: 
 A. I>. 1412-1447. 
 
 AQUILEIA.— A(|uileia, at the time of the 
 destruction of that city by the Iluns, A. I). 453, 
 was, "both as a fortress and a conimercial 
 emporiuiii, second to none in Northern Italy. It 
 was situ lU'd at the norlhernmost point of the 
 gulf of iladria, about twenty miles northwest of 
 Trieste, and the placi- where it once sIcmmI is now 
 in tlu! Austrian donuiiions, just over the border 
 which separates tliem from the kingdom of 
 Italy. In the year 181 B. ('. a Honian colony 
 had been sent to Ibis far corner of Ilaly to serve 
 as an outpost against some intrusive I rilies, called 
 by the vagne name of Uauls. . . . Pos.sessing a 
 good harbour, with which it was connected by a 
 navigable river, A(iuileia gradually became the 
 chief entrepot for the commerce iietween Italy 
 and what are now the Illyriau j)iovinces of 
 Austria." — T. Ilodgkin, Italy and J/er Invaders, 
 bk. 3, eh. 4. 
 
 A. D. 238.— Siege by Maximin. See Roue: 
 A. I). 23.S. 
 
 A. D. 388.— Overthrow of Maximus by The- 
 odosius. See Ho.mi:: A. I). \\Vi-\\W,. 
 
 A D. 452.— Destruction by the Huns, See 
 IIiN.i: A. 1). 452; also, Vknre: A. I). 452. 
 
 AQUITAINE : The ancient tribes.— The 
 
 Homan coiKpiest of Aciuilania was achieved, B. ( . 
 5(1. by oi.e of Ciesar's lieutenants, t.'ie Younger 
 Crii.ssus, who first brought the people called 
 the Sotiatcs to submi.ssiim and then defeated 
 their combiiied neiglibors in a murderous battle, 
 where three fourths of them are said to ha.'o 
 been slain, '."'he tribes which then submitted 
 "wore the Taibelli, Bigerriones, I'reciani, Vo- 
 iHtiS, Tarusates Elusates, Garitcs, Ausci, Gnr- 
 umni, Sihuzates and Cocosjites. "The Tarbelli 
 were in the lowe." basin of the Adour. Their 
 chief place was on 'he site of the hot springs of 
 I)ax. The iiigcrriones ap|)ear in the name 
 Bigorre. The chief place of the Elusates was 
 Elusa, Eause; and the iownof Audi on the river 
 Gers preserves the mune of the Ausci. The 
 names Oarites, if the name is genuine, and Oar- 
 unini contain the same >^lement. Gar, as the 
 river Garumna [Garonne] and the Gers. It is 
 stated by Walckenaer that the inhabitants of tlie 
 south'Tn part of Les Landes arc still called 
 Cousiots. Cocosa, Caus.sinue, i.s twenty-four 
 miles from Dax on the road from Dax to Bor- 
 deaux." — G. Long, Decline of t'>e Roman Re- 
 public, V. 4, ch. (5. — "Before the arrival of the 
 brachyccpiinlic Ligurian race. ti\0' Iberians 
 ranged over the greater ])art of Francs. ... If, 
 as seems probable, we may identify ti\em ; Illi 
 tliG Aquitani, ','nc of the three races wl<fch oc- 
 cupied Gaul in liie time of Cicsar, they must have 
 retreated to the leighbourhood of the Pyrenees 
 before the beginning of the historic perio<l." — 
 I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, ch. 2, sect. 5. 
 In Csesar's time. See Gaul described by 
 
 C.KSAll. 
 
 Settlement of the Visigoths. See Goths 
 (VisiiioTiis): A. D. 4 '0-1 19. 
 
 A. D. 567. — Diviaed bstween the Merovin- 
 gian Kings. See FuANKS: A. I). 511-752. 
 
 A. D. 681-768.— The independent Dukes 
 and their subjugation. — "The old Homan 
 
AQUITAINE, A. D. 081-768. 
 
 AquiUmia, in the first division of tlie spoils of 
 the Kinpirc, had fallen to the Visigoths, who 
 conqtiered it without inneh trotd)le. In the 
 struiiple between tlieni and the Merovinjrians, it 
 of coyrse passed to tlie vietorious party. Uut 
 the (piarrels. so fiercely eontested between llie 
 dilTereiil nii .•nl)ers of tlie Fniiik nioiiareliy, pre- 
 vented tiieiii from retainiiiL' a distant possession 
 williin (heir grasp; and at this period |6>h1-718, 
 whi'n llic Mayors of the I'alacc, Pepin and Carl, 
 well' giitheriilg tlie reins of government over 
 the three kingdoms — Austrasia, Neustria and 
 isiirgimdy — into their hands], Kudo, the duke 
 of Aqiiitiiine, was really an independent prince. 
 The population had never lost its Itomnn char- 
 ncter; it was, in fact, by far the most Romanized 
 in the whole of Gaul. " Hut it had also received 
 H new element in the Vascones or Gascons [see 
 BAsqtiKsJ, a tribe of I'yrenean mountaineers, who 
 descending from their mouutain.s, advanced to- 
 wards the north until their progress was checked 
 by tlie broad waters of the Garonne. At this 
 time, however, thev obeyed Etido. "This duke 
 of Aquitaine, Kudo, idlied himself with the 
 Neustrians against the ambitious Austrasian 
 Mayor, Carl Martel, and shared with them the 
 crushing defeat at Soi.ssons, A. I). 718, which 
 establislied the Hammerer's power. Eudo 
 aeknowledged allegiance and was allowed to 
 retain his dukedom. Hut, half-a-centurj after- 
 wards, Carl's son, Pepin, who had puslied the 
 ' faineant ' Merovingians from the Frank throne 
 and sealed himself upon it, fought a nine years' 
 war with the then duke of Aquitaine, to establish 
 his sovereignty. "The war, which lasted nine 
 years [700-768], was signali/.ed by frightful 
 ravages and destruction of life upon both sides, 
 until, at last, the Pranks became masters of 
 Berri, Auvergne. and the Limousin, with their 
 
 ()rincipal cities. 'Die able and gallant Guaifer 
 or Waifer] was assassinaied by his own sub- 
 jects, and Pepin had the satisfaction of finally 
 uniting the granci-duchy of Aquitaine to the 
 monareliv of the Franks." — J. Q. Sheppard, 
 Fallofllome, leet. 8. 
 
 Also in: P. Godwin, Hist, of France: Ancient 
 Gaul, eh. 14-15.— W. II. Perry, The Franks, ch. 
 6-0. 
 
 A. D. 732. — Ravaged by the Moslems. 
 See M.MioMKT.VN Conqi'Kst: A. I). 715-733. 
 
 A. D. 781. — Erected into a separate king- 
 dom by Charlemagne. — In tlie year 781 Chatle- 
 magiie erected Italy and A(iuitai"ne into separate 
 kingdoms, placing his two infant sons, Pepin 
 and Ludwig or Louis on their respective thrones. 
 "The kingdom of Aquitaine embraced Vasconia 
 [Oascony], Septimania, A(|uitaine proper (that 
 IS, the country between the Garonne and the 
 Loire) and the "county, suUscfiuently the duchy, 
 of Toulouse. Nominally a kingdom, Aqtiitaiiie 
 was i« reality a province, entirely dependent on 
 the central or ])ersoiml government of Charles. 
 . . . The nominal designations of king and 
 kingdom might gratify the feelings of the 
 Aquitanians, but it was a scheme contrived for 
 holding them in a state i.f absolute dependence 
 and subordination." — J. I. 3Iombert, Jlist. of 
 ChiirhK l/i, <;n',il. bk. 2, ch. 11. 
 
 A. D. 843. --In the division of Charle- 
 magne's Empire. See Fhanck: A. I). 843. 
 
 A. D. 884-1 TSi.— The end of the nominal 
 kingdom.— The disputed Ducal Title.— "Car 
 Ionian [who died 884], son of Louis the Staiu- 
 
 AQUITAINE, A. D. 1187-1152. 
 
 merer, was the last of the Carlovingians who bore 
 the title of king of Aciuitaine. This vast slate 
 ceased from this time to constitute a kin,^(lom. 
 It had for a lengthened period been divided 
 between powerful families, the most illustrious 
 of wh'cli are those of the Counts of Toulou.se, 
 founded in the ninth century by Fredelon, the 
 Counts of Poitiers, the Counts of Auvergne, the 
 ManpiLses of Septimania or Gothia, and the Dukes 
 of Gascouy. King Eudes had given William the 
 Pius, Count of Auvergne, the investiture of the 
 duchy of Aquitaine. On the extinction of that 
 family in 928, tlie Counts of Toulouse and tl-.^se 
 of Poitou disputed the prerogatives and their 
 quarrel stained the .south with blood for a long 
 time. At length the C'ounts of Poitou acquireii 
 the title of Duke i of Aquitaine or Guyenne [or 
 Guieunc, — supplied to be a corruption of the 
 name of Aquitaine, which came into use during 
 the Middle Ages], which remained in their house 
 up to the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with 
 Henry Plantagenet I. [Henry II.], King of 
 England (1151)." — E. De Honneclio.se, Hist. <f 
 France, bk. 2, rh. 3, foot-note. — "The duchy 
 Aquitiiine, or Guyenne, as held bv Eleanor's 
 predecessors, consisted, roughly speaking, of the 
 territory between the Loire and the Garonne. 
 More exactly, it was bounded on the north by 
 Anjou and Touraiue, on the east by Berry and 
 Auvergne, on the south-east by the (Juercy or 
 t!ounty of Culiors, and on the south-west by 
 Gascoiiy, which had been tinited with it for the 
 last hundred years. The old Karolingian king- 
 dom of Aquitania had been of far greater extent; 
 it had, in fact, included the whole country 
 between the Loire, the Pyrenees, the Rhone and 
 the ocean. Over all this vast territory the Counts 
 of Poitou asserted a theoretical '•laim of over- 
 lordship by virtue of their ducal title ; they had, 
 however, a formidable rival in the house of the 
 Counts of Toulouse." — K. Norgate, England 
 •under the Angevin Kings, v. 1, ch. 10. — Sec, also, 
 T0ULOU8K: IOtii and IItii Ckntl'hiks. 
 
 A. D. 1137-1152. — Transferred by mar- 
 riage from the crown of Francs to the crown 
 of England.— In 1137, "the last of the old line of 
 the dukes of Aquitaine — Williini IX., son of 
 the gay crusader and troubadou .■ whom the Red 
 King had hoped to succeed — cNed on a pilgrim- 
 age at Compostella. Ills only sou was already 
 dead, and before setting out for his pilgrimage 
 he did what a greater personage had done ten 
 years beforr : witl- the consent of his barons, he 
 left the wiiole of his dominions to his daughter. 
 Morcovci, he bequeathed the girl herself as wife 
 to the young king Louis [VII.] of France. This 
 marriage more than doubled the strength of the 
 French crown. It gave to Louis absolute pos 
 session of all western Aquitaine, or Guyenne as 
 it was now beginning to be called ; that is the 
 counties of Poitou and Gascony, with the im- 
 mediate overlordship of the whole district lying 
 between the Loire and the Pyrenees, the Rhone 
 and the ocean: — a territory live or six times as 
 large as his own royal domain and over wliicli 
 his predecessors had never been able to assert 
 more than the merest shadow of a nominal superi- 
 ority." In 1152 Louis obtained a divorce fn-m 
 Eleanor, surrendering all the great territory 
 which she had added to his dominions, rather 
 than maintain an unhappy union. The same 
 year the gay duchess was wedded to Henry Plan- 
 tagenet, then Uuku of Normandy, afterwards 
 
 120 
 
AQUITAIXE, A. D. 1137-1152. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Henry 11. King of England. By this marriage 
 Aquitaine beoaine joined to tlio crown of England 
 and rtMnained 80 for tliree liundrcd years. — K. 
 iS'orgatc. Eii'ilnnd under the Amictin Kings, v. 1, 
 c/i. 8. 
 
 i2th Century. — The state of the southern 
 parts. See Phovknck: A. I). 1179-1-.2()7. 
 
 A. D. 1360-1453. — Full sovereignty pos- 
 sessed by the English Kings. — The final con- 
 quest and union with France. — " li" the i^'.nce 
 of iketigiiy [sec Ku.\nck: A.I). 13S7-i;)«()] Ed- 
 ward III. resigned his cl linis on the crown of 
 France ; but he was recogniix-d in return as inde- 
 pendent Prince of Aquitaine, without anv hom- 
 age or superiority being reserved to the t'rench 
 monarch. When Aquitaine therefore was con- 
 quered by France, partly in the 14th, fully in 
 the 15th century [.see Fuanck: A. D. 1431-1453], 
 it was not the ' reunion ' of a forfeited flef, but 
 the absorption of a distinct and sovereign state. 
 The feelings of Aquitaine itself seem to have 
 been divided. The nobles to a great extent, 
 though far from iiniversally, preferred the French 
 cimuexion. It better fell in with their notions 
 of chivalry, feudal dependency, and the like; 
 the privileges too which French law conferred 
 on noble birth would make their real interests 
 lie that way. But the great cities and, we have 
 reason to believe, the mass of the people, also, 
 clave faithfully to their ancient Dukes ; and they 
 liad good reason to do so. The English Kings, 
 both by habit and by interest, naturally pro- 
 tected the mimicipal liberties of Bourdeaux and 
 Bayonne, and exposed no jjart of their subjects 
 to the horrors of French taxation and general 
 oppression." — E. A. Freeman, 77ie Fi-anks and 
 the Oauls (Ilistoricdl Ekmi/s, \st iknes, No. 7). 
 
 AQUITANI, The. See Ibeihans, The 
 Wkstkhn, 
 
 ARABIA.— ARABS : The Name.— "There 
 can be no doubt that the name of the Arabs was 
 . . . given from their living at tlie westernmost 
 part of Asia; and their own word 'Gharb,' the 
 ' West,' is another form of the original Semitic 
 name Arab." — O. Kawlinson, Xoti-s to Herodotus, 
 V. a, p. 71. 
 
 The ancient succession and fusion of Races. 
 — "The population of Arabia, after long cen- 
 turies, more esiiecially after the propagation and 
 triumph of Islamism. became uniform through- 
 out the peninsula. . . . But it was not always 
 thu.s. It was very slowly and gradually that the 
 inhabitants of the various parts of Arabia were 
 fused into one race. . . . Several distinct races 
 successively immigrated into the peninsula and 
 remained separate for many ages. Their dis- 
 tinctive characteristics, their mamjers and their 
 civilisation prove that these nations wen; not all 
 of one blood. Up to the time of Mahomet, 
 several different languages were spoken in 
 Arabia, and it was the introduction of Islamism 
 alone that gave predominence to that one 
 ainon_gst them now called Arabic. The few 
 Arabian historians deserving of the name, who 
 have used any discernment in collecting the 
 traditions of their country, Ibn Khaldoun. for 
 example, distinguish three successive popida- 
 tions in the peninsula. They divide these primi- 
 tive, secondary, and tertiary Arabs into three 
 divisions, called Ariba, MolarVba, and Mostareba. 
 . . . The Ariba were the first and most ancient 
 inhubituuts of Arabia. They consisted prin- 
 
 cipally of two great nations, the Adites, sprung 
 from Ham, and the Amalikaof tlie race of Aram, 
 descendants of Slicm, mixed with nations of 
 secondary importance, the Thamudites of the 
 race of Ham. and the i)eople of the Tasm, and 
 .ladis, of the family of Aram. The Motari'ba 
 were tribes sprung from Joktan, scm of Eber, 
 always in Arabian tradition called Kalilan. The 
 Mostareba of more modern origin were Isinael- 
 itish tribes. . . . The Cu.shites, the first in- 
 habitants of Arabia, are known in the national 
 traditions by the name of Ailites, from their pro- 
 genitor, who is called Ad, the grandson of Ham. 
 All the accounts given of them by Arab his- 
 torians are but fanciful legends. ... In the 
 midst of all the fabulous traits with which these 
 legends abound, we may perceive the remem- 
 brance of a powc'rful empire founded by the 
 Cushites in very early ages, apparently including 
 the whole of Arabia Felix, and not only Yemen 
 l)roper. We also find traces of a wealthy nation, 
 constructors of great buildings, with an advanced 
 civilisation analogous to that of (^'lialduea, pro- 
 fessing a religion similar to the Babylonian; a 
 nation, in short, with whom material progress 
 was allied to great moral depravity and obscene 
 rites. ... It was about eighteen centuries be- 
 fore our era that the .loktanites entered Southern 
 Arabia. . . . According to all appearances, the 
 invasion, like all events of a similar nature, was 
 accomplished only by force. . . . After this in- 
 vasion, the Cushite element of the population, 
 being still the most numerous, and possessing 
 great su])eriority in knowledge and civilisation 
 over the Joktanites, who were still almost in the 
 no";iadic state, soon recovered the moral and 
 material suprennicy, and political dominion. A 
 new empire was formed in which the power still 
 bek)nged to the Sal pans of the raw of C^ush. 
 . . . liittle by little the new nation of Ad was 
 formed. The centre of its jiower was the country 
 of Sheba proper, where, according to the tenth 
 chapter of Genesis, there was no primitive Jok- 
 tanite tribe, although in all the neighbouring 
 provinces llicy were already settled. . . . It was 
 during the tirst centuries of the second Adite 
 empire that Yemen was temi)orarily sul)jected 
 by the Egyptians, who called it the land of Pun. 
 . . . Conquered during the minority of Tliothmes 
 III., and the regency of the Princess Ilatasu, 
 Yemen appears to have been lost by the Egyp- 
 tians in the troublous times at the close of the 
 eighteenth dynasty. Ramses II. recovered it 
 almost immediately after be a.scended the throne, 
 and it was not till tlie time of the cfTeniinate 
 kings of the twentieth dyna.sty, that this splendid 
 ornament of Egyptian power was finally lost. 
 . . . The conquest of the land of Pun under 
 Hatasu is related in the elegant bsis-reliefs of the 
 temple of Deir-el-Bahari, at Tliebes, published by 
 M. Duemichen. . . . The bas-reliefs of the 
 temple of Deir-el-Uahari afford undoulited proofs 
 of the existence of conimeree between India and 
 Yemen at the time of the Egyptian expedition 
 under Hatasu. It was this commerce, much 
 more than the fertility of its own soil an<l lis 
 natural productions, that made Southern Arabia 
 one of the richest countries in the world. . . . 
 For a long time it was carried on by land only, 
 by means of caravans crossing Arabii; for the 
 navigation of the Red Sea, much more difiiculi 
 and dangerous than that of the Indian Ocean, 
 was not attempted till some centuries later. . . . 
 
 121 
 
ARABIA. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 The cnravnns of myrrli, incense, nnd balm cross- 
 ing Arabia towards tlio land of Canaan arc men- 
 tioned in llie Bible, in the history' of josepli, 
 wliirli l)elonj?s to a period very near to the first 
 eslal)lishnient of the C'anaani'.es in Syria. As 
 8oon as coniniercial towns arose in I'lurnicia, we 
 find, as the prophet Kzek el said, 'The iiier- 
 cliants of Hliel)a and Raamah, tliey were thy 
 merchants: they oecui)ied in tliy fairs with chief 
 of all spices, and witli all ])recioiis stones and 
 gold.'. . . A great number of I'litenieian mer- 
 chants, attracted bytliis trade, established them- 
 selves in Yemen, lladramaiit, Oman, and 
 Bahrein. Plui'nieian faelories wen; also eslal)- 
 lished at several places on tlie Persian Gulf, 
 Binonest otliers in the islands of Tylos and 
 Arvad, formerly occupied by their ancestors. 
 . . . This commerce, extremely Hourisliing dur- 
 ing the nineteenth dynasty, seiMns, together with 
 the Egyptian dominion in Yemen, to have ceased 
 under the feeble and inactive successors of 
 . I{jimscs III. . . . Nearly two centuries passed 
 Bway, whin Hiram and Solomon despatched 
 ves.scls down tlie Red Sea. . . . The vessels of 
 the two monarehs were not content with doing 
 lneri;ly what had once before lieen done under 
 the Egyptians of the nineleenlli dynasty, namely, 
 fetching from the ports of Yemen the merelian- 
 dise collected there from India. They were 
 much holder, and tlieir enterprise was rewarded 
 with success. I'roliting by tlie regularitv of the 
 m<msoons, they fetclieit tlie jiroducts of India at 
 first hand, from the very place of tlieir shiiirncnt 
 in the ports of tlie land of Opliir, or Abhira. 
 These distant voyages were repeated with suc- 
 cess as long a;i Solomon reigned. The veasels 
 going to Ophir necessarily touched at the ports 
 of Yemen to take in provisions and await 
 favourable winds. Tlius tlie renown of the two 
 allied kings, jiarticularly of tlio power of 
 Soloiuon, was spread in the land of the Adites. 
 Tliis was tlie cause of tlie journey made by the 
 queen of Sheba to Jerusalem to sec Solomon. 
 . . . The sea voyages to Ophir, and even to 
 Yemen, ceased at the death of Solomon. The 
 separation of the ten tribes, and tlie revolutions 
 that simultaneously took place at Tyre, rendered 
 any such expeditions impracticable. . . . The 
 empire of tlie second Adites lasted ten centuries, 
 during wliieh the Joktanite tribes, multiplying 
 in eacli generation, lived amongst the Cushitc 
 Saba'ans. . . . The assimilation of the Joktanites 
 to the Cushites was so complete that the revolu- 
 tion which gave political supremacy to the 
 descendants of .loktan over those of (iiish pro- 
 duced no sensible change in the civilisation of 
 Y'emen. But although using the same language, 
 the two elemeiils of the population of Southern 
 Arabia were still iiuite distiiu't from each otlier, 
 and antagonistic in their interests. . . . Both 
 were called Sabiraiis, but the Bible always care- 
 fully distinguishes them by a ditTerent "orthog- 
 raphy. . . . Tlie majority of the Saluean Cush- 
 ites, however, especially tin superior castes, 
 refused to submit to tiio Joktanite yoke. A 
 separation, therefore, took place, giving rise to 
 tlie Arab proverb, 'divided as the Sabieans,' nnd 
 tlie mass of the Adites emigrated to another 
 country. According to M. Caussin de Perceval, 
 the passage of the Sabieans into Abyssinia is to 
 be attributeil to the coi!se(|Uences of the revolu- 
 tion that established Jolitaiiite supremacy in 
 Yemen. . . . The dute of tlsc passage of the 
 
 SabcDans from Arabia into Abyssinia is much more 
 dillicult to prove than the fact of their having 
 done so. . . . Y'arub, the conqueror of the 
 Adites, and founder of the new monarchy of Jok- 
 tanite Arabs, v as sacceeded on the throne by 
 his son, Yashdjob, a weak and feeble prince, of 
 whom nothing is recorded, but that he allowed 
 the chiefs of t .le various provinces of his states 
 to make the'viselves independent. Abd Shems, 
 surnamed S'.ieba, son of "^'ashdjob, recovered the 
 power his predecessors had lost. . . . Abd Shems 
 had several children, the most celebrated being 
 Ilimyer and Kahlan, who left a numerous pos- 
 terity. From th(!se two personages were de- 
 scended the greater part of the Y'emcnito tribes, 
 wlio still existed at the time of the rise of Islam- 
 isin. The Ilimyarites seem to have settled in 
 the towns, whilst the Knhlanites inhabited tlie 
 country and the deserts of Y'emen. . . . This is 
 the substance of all the information given by 
 the Arab historians." — F. Lcnormant and E. 
 Chevalier, Manual of Ancient Hist, of the East, 
 hk. 1, eh. 1-3 (r. 3). 
 
 Sabaeans, The. — "For some time past it has 
 been known that the Himyaritic inscriptions fall 
 into two groups, distinguished from one another 
 by phonological and grammatical differences. 
 One of the dialects is philologically older than the 
 other, containing fuller and more primitive gram- 
 matical forms. Th(! hiscriptions in this dialect 
 belong to a kingdom the capital of which was 
 at JIa'in, and which represents the country of 
 tli(! ilina'ans of the ancients. The inscriptions 
 ill the other dialect were engraved by the princes 
 and people; of Sabii, the Sheba of the Old Testa- 
 ment, the Sabieans of classical geography. The 
 Sabican kingdom lasted to the time of Moham- 
 med, when it was destroyed by the advancing 
 forces of Islam. Its rulers for several genera- 
 tions had been cop crts to Judaism, and had been 
 engaged in ali constant warfare with the 
 
 Ethiopic kingd ,i of Axum, which was backed 
 by tlie iiillueucc and subsidies of Rome and 
 Byzantium. Dr. Glascr seeks to show that the 
 founders of this Ethiopic kingdom were the 
 Ilabasa, or Abyssinians, who migrated from 
 Ilimyar to Africa in the second or lirst century 
 B. C. ; when we first hear of them in the inscrip- 
 ti(ms they are still the inhabitants of Korthern 
 Y'emen and Malirah. !More than once the Axum- 
 ites made themselves masters of Southern Arabia. 
 About A. I). 300, they occupied its ports and 
 islands, and from SoO to 378 even the S.ibu'an 
 kingdom was tributary to them. Their last suc- 
 cesses were gained in ."iS.l, when, with By/.amine 
 help, they coiKpiered the whole of Y'emen. But 
 the Saba'an kingdom, in spite of its temporary 
 subjection to. Ethioiiia, had long been a formid- 
 able State. Jewish colonies settled in it, and one 
 of its princes became a convert to the Jewish 
 faith. His successors gradually extended their 
 dominion as far as Ormuz, and after the success- 
 ful revolt from Axum in 378, brought not only 
 the wliol(! of the southern coast under their 
 sway, but the western coast as well, as far north 
 as .Mekka. Jewisli infiuence made itself felt in 
 the future birthplace of Mohamiiu>d. and thus 
 introiluced those ideas and beliefs xvliich subse- 
 (pK'ntly had so profound an elTect upon the birth 
 of Islam. The Byzantines and Axumites en- 
 deavoured to counteract the ini'iience of Judai.sm 
 by means of Christian colonies -.nd pro.selytism. 
 Tlie result was a conflict between Sabft and its 
 
 122 
 
ARABIA. 
 
 AUAVISCI. 
 
 assailants, which toolc tlic form of a conflict 
 between the members of tlie two religions. A 
 violent persecution wns directed against the 
 Christians of Yemen, avenged by the Ethiopian 
 conquest of the coimtry and the removal of its 
 capital to San'a. The "intervention of Persia in 
 the struggle was soon followed by the appear- 
 ance of jlohammedanism upon the scene, and 
 ,k'\v. Christian, and Parsi were alike overwhelmed 
 by tlie (lowing tide of the new creed. The epi- 
 gVai)hic evidence makes it clear that the origin 
 of the kingdom of Sabit went back to a distant 
 date. Dr. Glaser traces its history from the time 
 when its princes were still but Makarib, or 
 'Priests,' like Jethro, the Priest of Midian, 
 through the ages when they were 'kings of 
 Saba,' and later still ' kings of Saba and Kaidiin,' 
 to the days wh( i they claimed imperial suprcMu- 
 acy over all the principalitiesof Southern Arabia. 
 It was in this later period that they dated their 
 inscriptions by an era, whicli, as llalevy first dis- 
 covered, corresi)ond9 to ll.T B. C. One of the 
 kings of Saba is mentioned in an inscription of 
 the Assyrian king Sargon (B. C. 71ij), and Dr. 
 Glaser believes that lie has found liis name 
 in a ' Ilimyaritic ' te-xt. AVhen the last pri"st, 
 Samah'ali Darrahh, became king of Sab(i, we do 
 not yet know, but the age must be sulliciently 
 remote, if the kingdom of Sabil already existed 
 wlien the Queen of Sheba came from Ophir to 
 visit Solomon. The visit need no longer cause 
 astonishment, notwithstanding the long journey 
 by land wliich lay between Palestine and tlie 
 south of Arabia. ... As we have seen, the in- 
 scriplious of JIa'in set before us a dialect of more 
 primitive character than that of SabS. Hitherto 
 it had been supposed, however, that the two 
 dialects were spoken contemporaneously, and 
 tliat the ^Mimean and Sabaan kingdoms existed 
 side by side. But geograpliy offered didiculties 
 in the way of such a belief, since the seats of 
 Jliniean power were embeiUlcd in the midst of 
 tlie Saba>an kingdom, much as the fragments of 
 ''romarty are embedded in the midst of other 
 eounti("s. Dr. Glaser has now made it clear that 
 the old supposition was incorrect, and that the 
 Jliniean kingdom preceded the rise of Sabit. We 
 can MOW understand why it is that neither in 
 the Old Testament nor in the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions ilo we hear of any princes of JIa'in, and 
 that though the classical wrii ts are acquainted 
 with the Mimcan people they know nothing of a 
 Miiuean kingdom. The 5Iina'an kingdom, in 
 fact, with its culture and moniinients, tlie relics 
 of whirh still survive, must have flourished in 
 the giey dawn of history, at an cpoi^h at which, 
 as we have hitherto iniiigined, Arabia was the 
 home only of nomad barbarism. And yet in tliis 
 remote age alphabetic writing was already known 
 and liractiscd, the alphabet being a moditieation of 
 the Phoenician written vertically and not horizon- 
 tally. To what an early date are we referred for 
 the origin of the Pluenieian alphabet itself I The 
 Mimcan Kingdom must have had a long exist- 
 ence. The names of tliirty-tliree of its kings are 
 already known to us. ... A power which 
 reached to the borders of Palestine must nec-es- 
 surily have come into contact with the great 
 monarchies of the ancient world. The army of 
 MMua Gallus was doubtless not the first which 
 had sought to gain po8.se88ion of the cities and 
 spic(>-garden8 of the sf >utli. One such invasion is 
 alluded to in an lu8cri|)tion which was copied by 
 
 JI. llalevy. . . . But the epigraphy of ancient 
 Arabia is still in its infancy. The inscriptions 
 already knc .vii to us re])resent but a small pro- 
 portion of tho.se that are yet to be discovered. 
 . . . The dark jiast of the Arabian peninsula has 
 been suddenly lighte<l up, and we find that long 
 before the days of Slohammed it was a land of 
 culture and literature, a scat of powerful king- 
 doms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail 
 to have exercised an influence upon the general 
 history of the world." — A. II. Sayce, Ancient 
 Arnhia (Contcmp. Her., Dec., 1H89). 
 
 6th Century. — Partial conquest by the Abys- 
 sinians. See Ahvssim.v: Grii to IOtu Cen- 
 
 TUniKS. 
 
 A. D. 609-432. — Mahomet's conquest. See 
 Mahometan Co.N(jukst : A. D. G0!)-Cy2. 
 
 A. D. 1517.— Brought under the Turkish 
 sovereignty. See Timiks: A. D. 1481-1530. 
 
 ARABS, Conquests of the. See MAHOStETAN 
 Conquest. 
 
 ARACAN, English acquisition of. See 
 India: A. 1). 183;i-1838. 
 
 ARACHOTI, The.— A people who dwelt an- 
 ciently in the Valley of the Arghandab, or Ur- 
 gundab, in eastern Afghanistan. Herodotus gave 
 tliein the tribal name of "Paclycs," and the 
 modern Afghans, who call themselves "Pashtuu" 
 and "Pakhtun," signifying "mountaineers," are 
 probably derived from tliem. — M. Dunckcr, 77i's<. 
 of Anliqvitjl, bk. 7, eli. 1. 
 
 ARAGON : A. D. 1035-1258.— Rise of the 
 kingdom. See Spain: A. D. 10;rj-1258. 
 
 A. D. 1 133. — Beginning of popular repre- 
 sentation in the Cortes. — The Monarchical con- 
 stitution. See CoitTKS, The Eaui.y Si'amsii. 
 
 A. D. 1218-1238.— The first oath of alle- 
 giance to the king. — Conquest of Balearic 
 Islands. — Subjugation of Valencia. See Spain : 
 A. D. 1212-1338. 
 
 A. D. 1410-1475.— The Castilian dynasty. 
 — Marriage of rerdinand with Isabella of 
 Castile. See Spai.n: A. 1>. KSOH-l 179. 
 
 A. D. 1516.— The crown united with that 
 of Castile by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See 
 Spain; A. I). 14<J()-1517. 
 
 ARAICU, The. See Ameuican Aboiiioines: 
 GucK on Coco Guoip. 
 
 ARAM.— ARAM NAHARAIM. — ARAM 
 ZOBAH.— ARAM^ANS. See Semites; also, 
 Semitic LANorAuEs. 
 
 ARAMBEC. See Nouumbepa. 
 
 ARAPAHOES, The. See .Vmeiucan Auo- 
 uioiNEs: AicoNcjriAN Family, and Pawnee 
 (Caddoan) Family. 
 
 ARAR, The. — The .;m;ieiit name of the river 
 Saone, in France. 
 
 ARARAT. — URARDA. See Alarodians. 
 
 ARATOS, and the Achaian League. Sec 
 Gueece: B. C. 28()-14((. 
 
 ARAUCANIANS, The. See ('iiii.E. 
 
 ARAUSIO. — A Uoir.'in colony was founded 
 by Augustus at Ara'isio, \v!:ich is rejiresented in 
 niinie and site by the modern town of Omnge, in 
 the department vt Vaucluse, France, 18 miles 
 north of Avignon. — P. Goodwin, IlUt. of France: 
 Anc. Gaul, bk. i. rh. 5. 
 
 ARAUSIO, Battle of (B. C. 105). Sco Cim- 
 uni and TEiroNEs: B. C. 113-103. 
 
 ARAVISCI AND OSI, The. — "Whether 
 . . . the Aruviscl migrated into Pannonia from 
 
 1 L'.'J 
 
ARAVISCI. 
 
 AKEOPAGUS. 
 
 the Osi, a German race, or whether the Osi came 
 from the Anivisei into Germany, as both nations 
 still retain the same language, institutions and 
 customs, is a doubtful matter."— "The locality 
 of the Aravisei was the extreme north-eastern 
 part of the province of Pannonia, and would 
 thus stretch from Vii'nnn (Vindobona), eastwards 
 to Kaab (Arrabo), taking in a portion of the 
 south-west of Hungary. . . . The Osi seem to 
 have dwelt near the sources of the Oder and the 
 Vistula. Thev would thus have occupied a 
 part of Galliciii."— Tacitus, Gevwamj, trans, hy 
 lltiirch initl llroiln'hh, iritli r/eoi/. iwtm. 
 
 ARAWAKS, OR ARAUACAS, T'-e. See 
 Amiciiuan .VnoKKiiNKs: C',\Knis. 
 
 ARAXES, The,— This name seems to have 
 been applied to a number of Asiatic streams in 
 ancient times, but is connected most prominently 
 with an Armenian river, now called tlie Aras, 
 whicli Hows into the Caspian. 
 
 AREAS, Battle of.— One of the battles of the 
 I{(im,ins with the Persians in which the for- 
 mer sulTered defeat. Fought A. I). 581. — G. 
 Kawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, 
 i-h. '.>•>. 
 
 ARBELA, or GAUGAMELA, Battle of 
 (B. C. 331). See Mackuoni.v: 15. C. 3y4-;i30. 
 
 ARCADIA.— The central district of Pelo- 
 ponnesus, tile great soutliern peninsula of Greece 
 — a district surrounded by a singular mountiiin 
 circle. " From the circle of mountains which 
 has been jiointed out, all the rivers of any note 
 take their rise, and from it all the mountainous 
 nuiges diverge, which form the many headlands 
 and points of Pelopormesus. The interior part 
 of the country, however, has only one opening 
 towards the western sea. through whicii all its 
 waters (low united in the Alplieus. The pecu- 
 liar character of this inland tract is also in- 
 creased by llie circumstance of its being inter- 
 sected by some lower secondary chains of hills, 
 which compel the waters of the valleys nearest 
 I0 the great chains either to form lakes, or to 
 seek a vent by subterraneous passages. Hence it is 
 that in the luountainous district in the northeast of 
 Peloponnesus many streams disappear and again 
 emerge from the earth. This region is Arcadia ; 
 u coin, ry consisting of ridges of hills and ele- 
 vated jilains, and of deep and narrow valleys, 
 with streams flowing througli channels formed 
 by prei'ipilous rocks; u country so manifestly 
 separated by nature from the rest of Pelopon- 
 nesus that, although not ])olitically united, it was 
 always considered in the light of a single com- 
 mimity. Its climate v, as extremely cold; the at- 
 mosphere dense, particularly in the mountains to 
 the north : the ell'ect which this had on the char- 
 acter and dispositions of tlie inhabitants has been 
 described in a masterly manner by Polvbius, 
 himself a native of Arcadia." — C. O. JtlMler, 
 Ilint. iinti Antiij. iif t/ic Doric Race, bk. 1, eh. 4. — 
 "The later Uomaii jioets were wont to speak of 
 Arcadia as a smiling land, where gras.sy vales, 
 watered liy gentle and pellucid streams, were 
 inhabited by a race of primitive and pictures{|ue 
 shepherds and shepherdesses, who divided their 
 time between tending their lh)cks and making 
 love to one another in the most tender an<l roman- 
 tic fashi<m. This idyllic conception of the 
 country and the people is not to be traced in the 
 old Hellenic poet.s, who were better acquainted 
 with the actmil fac'ts of the case. The Arcadians 
 w-'^re sulHciuntly primitive, but there was very 
 
 little that was graceful or picturesque about their 
 land or their li\'es." — C. II. Hanson, The iMnd 
 of Greece, pp. H81-;)82. 
 
 B. C. 371-362. — The union of Arcadian 
 tovyns. — Restoration of Mantineia.— Building 
 of Megalopolis. — Alliance with Thebes.— 
 Wars with Sparta and Elis. — Disunion.— 
 Battle of Mantineia. See Gueece: B. C. 371, 
 and 371-3(W. 
 
 B. C. 338. — Territories restored by Philip of 
 Macedon. See Gueece: B. C. 3.')7-336. 
 
 B. C. 243-146. — In the Achaian League. 
 See Gueece: B. V,. 280-140. 
 
 ARCADIUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), 
 A. 1). 30.5-408. 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO, Th. Dukes of the. See 
 Naxos: The >Iedi/evai. Uukedo.m. 
 
 ARCHON. See Atifens: Fro.m the Dorian 
 
 MldllATION TO B. C. 083, 
 
 ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, Battle of. See 
 France: a. D. 1814 (Januauy — Makch). 
 
 ARCOLA, Battle of (1796). See France: 
 A. 1). 1700-1797 (OcTOiiEii— April). 
 
 ARCOT: a. D. 1751.— Capture and defence 
 by Clive. S"e India: A. D. 1743-1753. 
 
 A. D. 1780.— Siege and capture by Hyder 
 Ali. See India: A P. 1780-1783. 
 
 ARDEN, Forest of. — The largest forest in 
 early Britain, which covered the greater part of 
 modern Warwickshire and " of which Shakes- 
 peare's Ardcn became the dwindled representa- 
 tive." — J. U. Green, Tlie Making of England, 
 ch. 7. 
 
 ARDENNES, Forest of.— "In Cussar's 
 time there were in [Gaul] very extensive forests, 
 the largest of which was the Arduenna (Arden- 
 nes), which extended from the banks of the lower 
 Uhine probably as far as the shores of the North 
 Sea. " — G. Long, Decline of the lioman Republic, 
 V. 3, ch. 22. — "Ardennes is the name of one of 
 the northern French depaitments which contains 
 a part of the forest Ardemics. Another part is 
 in Luxemburg and Belgium. The old Celtic 
 name exists in En,-laud in the Arden of War- 
 wickshire." — The name. T. 4, ch. 14. 
 
 ARDRI, OR ARDRIGH, The. See Toath. 
 
 ARDSHIR, OR ARTAXERXES, Found- 
 ing of the Sassanian monarchy by. Sec P£U- 
 bia: B. C. 1.j()-A. 1). 320. 
 
 ARECOMICI, The. See Voi.cjb. 
 
 ARECUNAS, The. Sec American Abo- 
 rigines: C'ARIBS and TIIEIII KiNDRiJD. 
 
 AREIOS. See Aria. 
 
 ARELATE: The ancient name of Aries. — 
 
 The territory covered by the old kingdom of 
 Aries is sometimes called the Arelate. See Bur- 
 gundy: A. 1). 1137-1378, and Salves. 
 
 ARENGO, The. See San Marino, The 
 UEi'inii.io OK. 
 
 AREOPAGUS, The. — " Whoever [in an- 
 cient Athens] was susiiec :'d of having b'.ood 
 upon his hands had to abstain from approaching 
 the common altars of the land. Accordingly, 
 for the purpose of judgments ci, oerning the 
 guilt of blood, ehoic:e had been .lade of the 
 barren, rocky height which lies opposite the 
 ascent to the citadel. It was dedicated to Arcs, 
 who was said to have been the first who was ever 
 iiidged here for the guilt of blood ; and to thi^ 
 Erinyes, the dark powere of the guilt-stained 
 conscience. Here, instead of a single judge, a 
 
 124 
 
AUE0PAGU8. 
 
 AnOENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 college of twelve men of proved integrity eoii- 
 iliiclcd the trial. If the iiccuspd hud iin e(|U!il 
 miiiiher of votes for and against him, he was 
 acciuitted. The eourt on the hill of Ares is one 
 of the most ancient institiilions of Athens, and 
 none aehieved for the eity an earlier or more 
 widely -spread recognition." — B. (Jurlius, ///V. 
 of Urcecf, bk. 2, cfi. 2. — "The A eopagiis, or, 
 as it was interpreted hy an ancient legend. 
 >hirs' Hill, was an eminence on the westi'rn 
 sid(^ of the Acropolis, which from tlm(! immemo- 
 rial had heen the seat of a highly revered court 
 (if criminal iustice. It took cognizance of 
 charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning 
 •uid arson. Its forms and modes of ])roceediiig 
 were pecidiarly rigid and solenui. It was hel<[ 
 in the open air, perhaps that the judges might 
 not he polluted by .sitting under the same roof 
 witli the criminals. . . . The venerable character 
 of the court seems to have determined Solon to 
 apply it to another purpo.se ; and, without mak- 
 ing any change in its original jurisdiction, to 
 erect it into a siii)renie council, inve.ited with a 
 superintending and controlling authority, whicli 
 extended over every part of the social .sj-stem. 
 He constituted it the guardian of the public 
 morals and religion, to keep watch over the edu- 
 cation and conductor the citizens, and to protect 
 tlic State from the disgrace or pollution of wan- 
 tomiess and profanene.ss. Ho armed it with ex- 
 traordinary I'/Owers of interfering in pressing 
 emergencies, to avert any sudden and inuninent 
 danger which threatened the public safety. The 
 nature of its functions rendered it scarcely pos- 
 sible precisely to define their limits; and Solon 
 probal)ly thought it best to let them remain in 
 that obscurity which ■ agnifies whatever is in- 
 distinct. ... It was tilled with archons who 
 had discharged their odice with ;ipproved lidelit v, 
 and they hold their seats for life. "— -C!. Tliirlwail, 
 Hint, of Greece, j'. 1, eh. 11. — Tlicso enlarged 
 functions of the Areopagus were witlidrawn 
 from it in the tinu! of Pericles, through the 
 agency of Ephialtes, but wore restored, about 
 B. (;. 40(), after the overthrow of the Thirty.— 
 "Some of the writers of antiijuity ascribed the 
 first establishment of the senate of Areopagus 
 to Solon. . . . But there can be little doubt that 
 this is a mistake, and that the senati: of Are- 
 opagus is a primordial iustituticm of immemorial 
 niiti(piity, thougli its constitution as well iis its 
 functions underwent nuuiy elianges. It stocwl at 
 first alone iis a permanent aiul collegiate au- 
 tliiirity, originally by the side of the kings and 
 afterwards by the side of the archons: it would 
 then of course be known by the title of Tlu! 
 Beule, — the .senate, or c( meil; its distinctive 
 title 'senate of Areopagus,' borrowed from the 
 place where its sittings were held, would not be 
 bestowed until the formation by ' Solon of tlu- 
 second senate, or council, from which there wiis 
 need to di.scriminato it." — O. Orote, Jlint. of 
 Oreei-e, pt. 3. e/i. 10 (r. !)).— Hoc, also, Athens: 
 B. (;. 477-4(13, and 4fi«-4r)4. 
 
 ARETHUSA, Fountain of. See Syiiacuse. 
 
 AREVAC/E, The.— One of the tribes of the! 
 
 Itiherians in ancient Spain. Their chief town. 
 
 miantia, was the stronghold of C'eltiberian re- 
 
 lanc(! to the lioman conipiest. See Numan- 
 
 \N Wah. 
 
 ARGADEIS, The. See Phyl.b. 
 
 ARGAUM, Battle of (1803). See India: 
 A. D. 1798-iaor). 
 
 ARGENTARIA, Battle of (A. D. 378). Sec 
 A 1,1; .MANN I: A. I). :i7H. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC : Aboriginal 
 inhabitants. See Amkuican Anouiiii.Nics: Ti;i'i. 
 
 — (il'AUANI. 
 
 A. D. 1515-1557.— Discovery, exploration 
 and early settlement on La Plata. — First 
 founding of Buenos Ayres. Sec Pauauiay: 
 A. 1>. l.")l.-.-I.-Mr. 
 
 A. D. 1580-1777.— The final founding of the 
 City of Buenos Ayres.— Conflicts of Spain and 
 Portugal on the Plata.— Creation of the 
 Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. — "lu the year 
 l.l.SO the foundations of a lasting eity were "laid 
 at Buenos Ayres by I)e Garay on the same .situa- 
 tion as had twice previously been cho.sen — 
 namely, by Mendoza, and byCabeza de Vaca, 
 respectively. The same lea(ler had before this 
 founded the settlement of Saute Feonthe Parana. 
 The site selected for the future cajjital of 
 the Pampas is iiroliably one of the worst ever 
 chosen for a city . . . has probably the worst 
 harbour in the world for a large commercial 
 town. . . . Notwithstanding the inconvenience 
 of its harbour, Buenos Ayres soon became the 
 chief conunercial entrepot of the ValU^y of the 
 Plata. The settlement was not efTected without 
 some .severe fighting between He Oaray's force 
 and the (Jiierandies. The latter, liowever, were 
 elTeetmdly {|uelled. . . . The Spaniards were 
 now nominally masters of the; Bio de La Plata, 
 but they had still to apprehend hostilities on the 
 part of the natives between their few and far- 
 distant settlements [concerning which see Paii.\- 
 ouav: a. I). ir)l,5-l,>j7J. Of this liability De 
 Oaray himself was to form a lamentable example. 
 On his passage back to A.suncion, having inca\!- 
 tiously landed to sleep near the ruin.s of the old 
 fort of San Espiritu, he was surprised by a party 
 of natives and murdered, with all his compani- 
 ons. The death of this brave Biscayan was 
 mourned as a great loss by the entire colony. 
 The importance of the cities founded by him was 
 .soon apparent; ar.d in 1030 all the settlements 
 south of the conlluence of the rivers Parana and 
 Paraguay were formed into a separate, indepen- 
 dent government, >mder the name of Hio de La 
 Plata, of whicli Buenos Ayres w.is declared the 
 capital. This city likewise became the .seat of 
 a bishopric. . . . The merchants of Seville, who 
 had obtained n monopoly of tlu; supply of Jlexieo 
 and Peru, regarded with much jealousy the 
 prospect of a new opening for the South Ameri- 
 can trade by way of La Plata," and procured re- 
 strictions ui)on it which were rela.xed in UllH .so 
 far as to permit the sending of two ves.selsof 100 
 tons each every year to Spain, but subject to a 
 duly of TiO per cent. " Under this miserable 
 commercial legislation Buenos Ayres continued 
 to languish for the first century of its existence. 
 In 1715, after tlie treaty of Utrecht, tlui English 
 . . . obtained the 'asiento' or contract for sup- 
 plying Spanish colonies in America with African 
 slaves, in virtue of which they had permission to 
 form an establishment at Buenos Ayres, and to 
 send thither annually four ships with 1,300 
 negroes, the value of which they mightexport in 
 produce of the country. They were strictly for- 
 bidden to introduce other gfM-ds than those 
 neces.sary for their own establishments; but 
 under the temptation of gain on the one side and 
 of demand 011 the other, the asiento ships natur- 
 ally became the means of transacting a consider- 
 
 125 
 
AHGENTINE I{p:PUnLIC, 1580-1777. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1806-1820. 
 
 able contmliiiiul tniile. . . . Tho English were 
 nut the only sinui;glcrs in the river Flute. By 
 till' treaty (if Utrecht, the Portuguese hml obtained 
 tlie in)|)"ortaiit settlement of Colonia [the lirst 
 wttleinent of the Banda Oriental —or ' Eastern 
 Border' — afterwards called Uruguay] directly 
 facing Buenos Ayres. . . . The Portuguese, . . . 
 not contented with the posses-sion of CJolonia . . . 
 commenced a mon; important settlement near 
 Monte Video. From this place they were 
 dislodged by Zavala [Governor of Buenos Ayres], 
 who, by order of his government, proceeded to 
 est.-iblisli .-iettleinents at that place and at Maldo- 
 niido. Under the above-detailed circumstances 
 of contention . . . was founded the healthy and 
 agreeable city of :Monte Video. . . . The mevi- 
 table consequence of this state of things was fresh 
 antagonism between the two countries, winch it 
 was sought to put an end to by a treaty between 
 the two nations concluded in IT.IO. One of the 
 articles stipulated that Portugal should cede to 
 (Spain all of her establishments on the eastern 
 bank of the Plata; in return for which she was 
 to receive the seven missuinary towns [known as 
 tho 'Seven Reductions'] on tlie Uruguay. But 
 . . . the inhabitants of thi' .Missions naturally 
 rebelled against the idea of being handed over to 
 a people known to them only by their slave-deal- 
 ing atrocities. . . . The result was that when 
 a, 000 natives had been slaughtered [in the war 
 known as the War of the Seven Reduction.s] and 
 their settlements reduced to ruins, the Portuguese 
 repudiated the conii)act, as they could no longer 
 receive their c(iuivalent, and tliey .still tiiereforo 
 retained (Colonia. When hostilities were re- 
 newed in 1763, the governor of Buenos Ayres 
 succeeded in possessing himself of Colonia; but 
 in the following year it was restored to the Por- 
 tuguese, who continu;!d in ])Ossession until 1777, 
 when it was detinitely ceded to Spain. The con- 
 tinual encroachments of the I'orluguese in the 
 Rio de La Plata, and the impunity with which 
 the contraband trade was carried on, together 
 with the (piestions to which it constantly gave 
 rise with foreign governments, had long shown 
 the necessity for a change in tlie government of 
 that colony'; for it was still under the supciinten- i 
 deuce of the Viceroy of Peru, residing at Lima, ! 
 3,000 miles distant. The Spanish authorities 
 accordingly resolved to give fresh force to their 
 representatives in the Rio de La Plata; and in ! 
 1770 they took the important resolution to sever 
 the connection between the provinces of La Plata | 
 and the Viceroyalty of Peru. The former were 
 now erected into a new Viceroyalty, the capital ! 
 of which was Buenos Ayres. . . . 'I'o this Vice- ' 
 royalty was apixiinled Don Pedro Cevallos. a 
 former governor of Buenos Ayres. . . . The first 
 act of Cevallos was to take possession of the island 
 of St. Kathcrine, the most important Portuguese 
 possession on the coast of Brazil. Proceeding 
 thence to the Plate, ho razed the fortifications of 
 Coloiuu to tho grotmd, and drove the Portuguese 
 from tlie neighbourhood. In October of the fol- 
 lowing year, 1777, n treaty of peace was signed 
 at St. Ildefonso, between Queen Maria of Portu- 
 gal and Charles III. of Spain, by virtue of which 
 St. Katherine's was restored to the latter country, 
 whilst Portugal withdrew from the Banda Orien- 
 tal or Uruguay, and relinquished all jiretensions 
 to tho right of navigating the Rio do La Plata 
 and its atluientsbt-yond its own frontier line. . . . 
 The Viceroyalty of Buunos Ayres was sub-divided 
 
 into the provinces of — (1.) Buenos Ayres, the 
 capital of which was the city of that name, and 
 winch comprised the Spanish possessions that 
 now form the Republic of Uruguay, as well 
 as the Argentine provinces of Buenos Ayres, 
 Santa Fe, Eutre Rios, and Corrientes; (2.) Para- 
 guay, the capital of which was Asuncion, and 
 which comprised what is now the Republic of 
 Paraguay; (!i.) Tucuman, the capital of which 
 was St. lago del Estero, and which included 
 what are to-day the Argentine provinces r f Coi- 
 dova, TiKUiinan, St. lago, Salta, Catamarca, 
 Rioja, and Jujuy; (4.) Las Cliarcas or Poto.si, 
 the capital of which was La Plata, and which 
 now forms the Republic of Bolivia; and (5.) 
 Chiquito or Cuyo, the capital of which was Men- 
 doza, and in wliich were comprehended the pre- 
 sent Argentine provinces of St. Luiz, Mendoza, 
 and St. Juan." — R. G. Watson, Spnniah and Por- 
 tuguese South Amerini, v. 2, cli. 13-14. 
 
 Also in: E. J. Payne, Iliatori/ of European 
 CoUmies, eh. 17.— S. H. Wilcocke, Hint, of tlie 
 Vieeroiialtji of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 A. i). 1806-1820. — The English invasion. — 
 The Revolution. — Independence achieved ■ - 
 Confederation of the Provinces of the P' te 
 River and its dissolution. — "Tlie trade of Jie 
 J'lato River had enormously increased since the 
 sub.stitution of register ships for the annual 
 tlotilla, and the erection of Buenos Ayres into a 
 viceroyalty in 1778; but it was not until the war 
 of 1797 that the English became aware of its real 
 extent. The British cruisers had enough to do 
 to maintain tlie blockade : and when tho English 
 learned that millions of hides were rotting in tlic 
 warehouses of Jlonte Video and Buenos Ayres, 
 tliey concluded that the people would soon see that 
 their interests would be best served by submis- 
 sion to tlie great naval power. The peace put 
 an end to these ideas; but Pitt's favourite pro- 
 ject for destroying Spanish influence in South 
 America by the English arms was revived and 
 put in execution soon after tlie opening of the 
 second European war in 1803. In 1800 ... ho 
 sent a squadron to the Plato River, which offered 
 tho best point of attack to the British fleet, and 
 the road to the most promising of the Spanish 
 colonies. The English, under General Bores- 
 ford, though few in number, soon took Buenos 
 Ayres, for tho Spaniards, terriried at tlie sight 
 of Britisli troops, surrendered without knowing 
 how insignificant tho invading force really was. 
 When they found this out, tliey mustcrecl cour- 
 age to attack Beresford in the citadel ; and tlie 
 English commander was obliged to evacuate the 
 l)lace. The English soon afterwards took pos- 
 session of Monte Video, on the other side of tlie 
 river. Hero they vero joined by another squa- 
 dron, who were under orders, after reducing 
 Buenos Ayres, to sail round the Horn, to take 
 Valparaiso, and estnblisli posts across the conti- 
 nent connecting tliat city with Buenos Ayres, 
 thus executing the long-cherished plan of Lord 
 Anson. Buenos Ayres was therefore invested a 
 second time. But the English land forces were 
 too few for their tusk. The Spaniards spread all 
 round the city strong breastworks of oxhides, 
 and collected all their forces for its defence. 
 Buenos Ayres was stormed by the Englisli at 
 two points on the 5tli of July, 1807; but they 
 were tinable to hold their ground against the 
 unceasing flro of tho Bpaniards, who were 
 greatly superior in numbers, and the next day 
 
 126 
 
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1806-1820. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1819-1874. 
 
 tlioy cnpitu'iitcd, ami iigrt'cil to evncimto tlip 
 province within two iiioiitlis. Tlio EiiKlisli liiul 
 iiimirined tlint tlic; colonists would rpudily flock 
 to their standard, and throw oir tho yoke of 
 Spain. This was a great mistake; and it needed 
 the events of 1808 to lead the Spanisli (colonists 
 to their independence. ... In 1810, when it 
 came to be known that the French armies had 
 crossed the .Sierra Morena, and that Sjtain was a 
 conquered country, the colonists would no 
 longer submit to the shadowy authority of the 
 colonial olliccrs, and elected a "junta of their own 
 to carry on the Government. Most of the troops 
 in the colony went over to the cau.se of inde- 
 pendence, and easily overcame the feeble resist- 
 ance that was made by those who remaincHl 
 faithful to the regencj' in the engagement of Las 
 I'iedras. The leaders of the revolution were the 
 advocate Castclli and General Belgrano; and 
 imder their guidance scarcely any obstacle 
 stopped its jirogrcss. They even sent their 
 armies at once into Upper Peru and the Banda 
 Oriental, and their privateers carried the Inde- 
 jiendcnt flag to the coasts of the Pacific; but 
 these successes were accompanied by a total 
 anarchy in the Argentine capital and ])rovinces. 
 TUv. most intelligent and capable men had gone 
 off to fight for liberty elsewhere; and even if 
 they had remained it would have been no easy 
 task to establish a new governntont over the 
 scattered and half-civilized population of this 
 vast country. . . , The (irst result of indepen- 
 dence was the formation of a not very intelligent 
 party of cou itry proprietors, who knew notliing 
 of the mystei'es of politics, and were not ill- 
 content with the existing order of things. The 
 business of the old viceroyal government was 
 delegated to a supreme Director; but this func- 
 tionary was little more than titular. How 
 limited the aspirations of the Argentines at first 
 were may be gathered from the instructions with 
 which Belgrano and Rivadavia wore sent to 
 liurope in 1814. They were to go to England, 
 and ask for an English protectorate ; if possible 
 under an English prince. They were next to 
 try the same plan in France, Austria, and Rus- 
 sia, and lastly in Spain it.self : and if Spain still 
 refused, were to offer to renew the subjection of 
 the colony, on condition of certain specified con- 
 cessions being made. This was indeed a strange 
 contrast to tlie lofty aspirations of the Colom- 
 bians. On arrivingat Rio, 'he Argentine dele- 
 gates were assured by the English minister. 
 Lord Strangford, that, as things were, no Euro- 
 l)ean power would do anything for them: nor 
 did they succeed bettor in 8i)ain itself. Mean- 
 while the government of the Buc!M)s Ayres 
 junta was powerless outside tlie town, and the 
 country was fast lapsing into tlie utmost dis- 
 order and confusion. At lengtli, when Govern- 
 ment could hardly be said to exist at all, a 
 general c<mgress of the provinces of the Plate 
 Hiver assembled at Tucuman in 1810. It was 
 resolved that all the states should unite in a con- 
 federati<)n to be called the United Provinces of 
 the Plate River: and u constitution Wiis elabor- 
 ated, in imitation of the famous one of the 
 United States, providing lor two legislative 
 <'liiunbcrs and a president. . . . Tlie influence of 
 the capital, of which all the other provinces 
 were keenly jealous, predominated iit the con- 
 gress; and "Puyrredou, an active Buenos Ayres 
 politiciuu, was made supreme Director of tho 
 
 Confederation. The j)eopl<' of Buenos Ayres 
 thought their city destined to exercise over" the 
 rural provinces a "similar influence to.that which 
 Athens, under similar circumstances, had exer- 
 cised in Greece; and able Buenos Avreans like 
 Puyrredon, San Martin, and Rivadavia, now be- 
 ciime the leaders of the unitary partv. The 
 powerful ])rovincials, represented by sudi men as 
 Lopez and tjuiroga, soon found out that the Fed- 
 eral sclieine meant th<' supremacy of Buenos 
 Ayres, anil a political change which would deprive 
 t hem of most of their influence. The Federal .sys- 
 tem, Iheiefore, could not be expected to last very 
 long: and it did in fact collapse after four years. 
 Artigas led the revolt in the Banda Oriental 
 (n;)W Uruguay], and the Hiverene Provinces so(m 
 followed the example. For a long time the 
 provinces were practically under the authority 
 of their local chiefs, the only semblance of politi- 
 cal life being confined to Buenos Ayres itself." — 
 E. J. Payne, Jfist. of Kiimpean Colonien, ch. 17. 
 
 Also in: M. G. Mulhall, Tlie Eimlish in 8. 
 America, cJi. 10-13, and 10-18. — J. Miller, Mem- 
 oirs of Ocneral Miller, ch. 3 (r. 1).— T. J. Page, 
 La Plata, the Argentine Confederation and Para- 
 ijnny, ch. 31. 
 
 A. D. 1819-1874. — Anarchy, civil war, despot- 
 ism. — The Ion? struggle for order and Con- 
 federation. — "A new Congress met in 1819 and 
 made a Constitution for the country, which was 
 never adopted by all the Provinces. Pueyrredon 
 resigned, and on June lOtli, 1819, Jose Rondeau 
 was elected, who, however, was in no condition 
 to pacify the civil war which had broken out 
 during the government of his predecessors. At 
 the commencement of 1830, the last 'Director 
 General ' was overthrown ; the municipality of 
 the city of Buenos- Aires seized the government; 
 the Confederation was declared dissolved, and 
 eacli of its Provinces received liberty to organize 
 itself as it pleased. This was anarchy ollicially 
 Iiroclaimed. After the fall in the siune year of 
 some military chiefs who had seized the power, 
 Gen. ilartin Rodriguez was named Governor 
 of Buenos- Aires, and he succeeded in establish- 
 ing some little order in this chaos. He chose 
 M. J. Garcia and Bernardo Rivadavia — one of 
 tlie most enlightened Argentines of his times — 
 as his Ministers. This administration did a j.-rcat 
 deal of good by exchanging conventions of 
 friendship and commerce, and entering into 
 (!■; lomatic relations with foreign nations. At the 
 end of his term General Las Ileras — 9th May, 
 1824 — took charge of the government, and 
 called a Constituent Assembly of all the Pro- 
 vinces, which met at Buenos-Aires, December 
 lOtli, and elected Bernn rdo Rivadavia President of 
 the newly Confederated Republic on the 7tli Feb- 
 ruary, 1835. This excellent Argentine, however, 
 found no assistance in the Congress. No under- 
 standing could be come toon the form or the test 
 of the Constitution, nor yet ujion the place of 
 residence for the national Oovernnient. Whilst 
 Rivadavia desired a centralized Constitution — 
 called here ' unintarian ' — and that the citv of 
 Buenos- Aires should be declared capital of the 
 Republic, the majority of Congress held a dif- 
 ferent opinion, and this divergence caused the 
 resignation of the President on the liih July, 1827. 
 After this event, the attempt to 'stablisli a Con- 
 federation whicli would include all the Pro- 
 vinces was considered as defeated, and each 
 Province went on its own way, whilst Buenos- 
 
 127 
 
ARGENTINE HEPUBLIC, 1810-1874. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, 1880-1891. 
 
 Aires clfrtcd Maiiufl Dorrogo, the chief of the 
 federal partv, for its Governor. He was 
 Ininiffiirau'il on the l.'ilh August, 1837, and at 
 once miilerlook to organize a new Confederation 
 of the I'rovhices, opening relations to this end 
 with the (Joverniniiil of Ccirdoh.i, the most 
 important I'roviriee of the interior. He suc- 
 ceeded in reCslahlishing repose in the interior, 
 nnd was instrumental in preserving a general 
 peace, even lieyond the limits of his young 
 country. Tlie Emperor of Hrazil did not wish 
 to acknowledge the rights of the United Pro- 
 vinces over the Cisplaline jirovince. or I5an<la 
 Orii'ntal |now Uruguayl. He wished to annex 
 it lo his empire, and de(Jared war to the Argen- 
 tine ISepuhlie on the 10th of December. 1820. 
 An army was soon organized by the latter, under 
 the com'miuid of General Alvear, winch on the 
 20th of February, 1827, gained a complete 
 victory over the Brazilian forces — twice their 
 number — at the i)lains of Ituzaingo, iu the 
 Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul. 
 The navy <,)f the Argentines also triumphed on 
 several occasions, so that when England offered 
 her intervention, Brazil renounced all claim to 
 the territory of Uruguay by the convention of 
 the 27th August, 1828, and the two parties 
 ugreeil to recognize and to maintain the neutrality 
 and independence of that country. Dorrego, 
 however, had but few sympathies in the army, 
 and a short time after liis return from Brazil, the 
 soldiers wider Laviille rebelled and forced him 
 to lly to the countrv on the 1st December of the 
 same year. There he found aid from the Com- 
 mander General of the country districts, Juan 
 Manuel Rosas, and formed a small battalion with 
 the intention of marching on the city of Buenos- 
 Aires. But Lavalle triumphed, took liim 
 prisoner, and shot him without trial on the 18tli 
 December. . . . Not only did the whole interior 
 of the province of Bnenos-Aires rise against 
 Lavalle, under the direction of Rosas, but also a 
 large part of other Provinces considered this 
 event as a declaration of war, and the National 
 Congress, then assembled at Santa-Fe, declared 
 Lavnlle's government illegal. The two parties 
 fought with real fury, but in 1829, after nn inter- 
 view between Rosas and Lavalle, a temporary 
 reconciliation was effected. . . . The legislature 
 of Buenos-Aires, which had been convoked on 
 account of the reconciliation between Luvallc nnd 
 Rosas, elected the latter as Governor of the Pro- 
 vince, on December 0th, 1839, and accorded to 
 him extraordinary powers. . . . During this the 
 first period of his government he did not appear 
 in his true nature, and at its conclusion he 
 refused a reelection and retired to the country. 
 General Juan 1{. Balearce was then — 17th 
 December, 1832— named Governor, but could 
 only maintain himself some eleven months: 
 Viamont succeeded him, also for a short time 
 only. Now the moment had come for Rosas. 
 He accepted the almost unlimited Dictator.ship 
 wliicli was offered to liim on the 7th March, 183.5, 
 and reigned in a liorrible maimer, like a mad- 
 man, until his fall. Several times the attempt 
 was made to deliver Buenos-Aires from his 
 terrible yoke, and above all tlie devoted nnd 
 valiant efforts of General Lavalle deserve to be 
 mentioned; but all was in vain; Rosas remained 
 unshaken. Finally, General Justo Jose De 
 Urquiza, Governor of the province of Kntre- 
 Rios, iu alliauce with the province of Corrientes 
 
 and the Em])ire of Brazil, rose r.gain.st the 
 Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of 
 Uruguay, and the city of Monte-Video — the 
 a.sylum of the ailversafies of Rosas — from the 
 army which besieged it, and tliereafter pa.ssing 
 the great river Parana, with a relatively large 
 army, he completely defeated Rosas at Monte- 
 Caseros, near Buenos- Aires, on the 3rd February, 
 1853. I)nring the same day, Rosas sought ami 
 received the f rotection of nn English war- 
 vessel which was in the road of Buenos-Aires, in 
 which he went to England, where he still [IH70] ' 
 resides. Meantime Uniuiza took charge of the 
 Goverimient of the United Provinces, imder the 
 title of 'Provisional Director,' and called a 
 general meeting of tlio Governors at San Nicolas, 
 a frontier village on the north of the i)rovince of 
 Buenos-Aires. This assemblage continued him 
 in his temporary power, and called a National 
 Congress which met at 8anta-Fe and made a 
 National Constitution under date of S.ltli yiny, 
 18.53. By virtue of this Constitution the Con- 
 gress met again tlie following year at Parana, a 
 cit}' of Entre-Rios, which had been made the 
 capital, and on the 5th May, elected General 
 Unjuiza the first President of the Argentine Con- 
 federation. . . . The important province of 
 Buenos- Aires, liowever, liad taken no piirt in the 
 deliberations of the Congress. Previously, on 
 the 11th September 1852, a revolution against 
 Urquiza, or rather against the Provincial 
 Government in alliance with him, had taken 
 place and caused a temporary separation of the 
 Province from the Republic. Several efforts to 
 pacify the disputes utterly failed, nnd a battle 
 took " place at Cepeda in Santa-Fe, wherein 
 Urquiza, who commanded the provincial troops, 
 was victorious, although his success led to no 
 definite result. A short time after, the two 
 armies met again at Pavou — near the site of 
 the former battle — nnd Buenos-Aires won the 
 day. This secured the unity of the Republic 
 of which the victorious General Bartolome 
 Mitre was elected President for six years 
 from October, 1802. At the same time the 
 National Goverm.'ent was transferred from 
 Parana to Buenos-Alres, and the latter was 
 declared the temporary capital of the Nation. 
 The Republic owes much to the Government of 
 Mitre, and it is probable that he would have done 
 more good, if war had not broken out with 
 P .raguay, in 1805 [see Pau.uiuav]. The Argen- 
 tines took part in it as one of the three allied 
 States against the Dictator of Paraguay, Fran- 
 cisco Solano Lopez. On the 12th October, 1808, 
 Domingo Faustino Sarmiento succeeded Gen. 
 Alitre in the Presidency. . . . The 12tli October, 
 1874, Dr. Nicolas Avellaueda succeeded him in 
 the Government." — R. Napp, T/w Arf/cntine 
 licpuhlic, ch. 3. 
 
 Ai.soin: D. P. Sarmiento, Life in tt e Argentine 
 Republicin the Days of the J'l/nints. — J. A. King, 
 Tirenti/'fitur ycarx in the Aiy/entine Republic. 
 
 A. C! 1880-1891. — The Constitution and its 
 working. — Governmental corruption. — The 
 Revolution of 1890, and the financial collapse. 
 — "The Argentine constitutional system in its 
 (.utward form corresponds closely to that of the 
 United States. . . . But the inward grace of 
 enlightened public opinion is lacking, and 
 political practice falls below the level of a self- 
 governing democracy. Congress enacts laws, 
 but the Presidei . as" commaudcr-iu-chief of the 
 
 128 
 
ARGENTINE UEPUBLIC, 1880-1891. 
 
 AUGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. 
 
 array, and as tho head of a civil service depend- 
 ent "upon Ills will and cajirice, possesses abso- 
 lute aiilliority in adniinistratinn. Tlie country 
 is jj;()veriied by executive decrees ratlier tlian by 
 constitutional laws. Elections are carried l)y 
 military pressure and nianipulalion of tlio civil 
 service. . . . President Uoca [who succeeded 
 Avellaneda in 1880J virtuallv nonnnated, and 
 elected his brother-in-law, .Juarez Celnian, as 
 liis successor. President Juarez set his heart 
 upon controlling tho succession in the interest of 
 one of his relatives, a prominent olHcial ; l)Ut was 
 forced to retire before ho could carry out Ids 
 purpose. . . . Nothing iu tho Argentine sur- 
 prised me more than the boldness and freedom 
 witli which the press attacked the government 
 of the day and exposed its corruption. . . . The 
 government paid no lieed to these attacks. 
 Ministers did not trotible themselves to repel 
 charges affecting their integrity. . . . This 
 wliolesome criticism from an independent press 
 had one important effect. It gave direction to 
 public opinion in tlie capital, and involved tho 
 organization of tlio Union Civica. If tlio coun- 
 try liiid not been on the verge of a financial 
 revulsion, there miglit not have been tho revolt 
 against tlie .Juarez administration in July, 1800 ; 
 hut with ruin and disaster confronting them, 
 men turned against the President whose incom- 
 petence and venality would have been condoned 
 if the times had been good. The Union Civica 
 was founded when the government was charged 
 with maladministration in sanctioning an iliegal 
 issueof $40,000,000of papermoney. . . .The gov- 
 ernment was suddenly confronted with an armed 
 coalition of the best battalions of the army, the 
 entire navy.and the Union Civica. The manifesto 
 Issued by the Ucvolutionary Junta was a terrible 
 arraignment of the political crimes of the Juarez 
 Government. . . . The revolution opened with 
 every prospect of success. It failed from tlie 
 incapacity of the leaders to co-operate harmo- 
 niously. On July 19, 1890, tlic defection of the 
 army was discovered. On July 20 the revolt 
 broke out. For four days there was blooilshed 
 without definite plan or purpose. No deter- 
 mined attack wa.s made upon the government 
 palace. Tho fleet opened a fantastic bombard- 
 ment upon tho suburbs. There was inexplicable 
 mismanagement of tlie insurgent forces, and on 
 July 29 an ignominious surrender to the govern- 
 ment with a proclamation of general amnesty. 
 General Roca remained behind tho scenes, appar- 
 ently master of the situation, wliile President 
 Juarez, had fled to a place of refuge on the 
 Uosario railway, and two factions of the array 
 were playing at cross purposes, and the police 
 and the volunteers of the Union Civica were 
 shooting women and cliildrcn in the streets. 
 Another week of hopeless confusion passed, and 
 General Roca announced the resignation of 
 President Juarez and the succession of vice- 
 President Pellegrini. Tlieu the city was illumi- 
 nated, and for three days there was a pande- 
 monium of popular rejoicing over a victory which 
 nobody except General Uoca understood. . . . 
 In Juno, 1891, tho deplorable state of Argentine 
 finance was revealed in a luminous statement 
 made by President Pellegrini. . . . All business 
 interests were stagnant. Immigration had been 
 diverted to Brazil. ... All industries wore 
 prostrated except politics, and the pernicious 
 activity displayed by factious was an evil augury 
 
 for the return of prosperity. . . . During thirty 
 vears the country has trebled its population, its 
 increase bein'^ relatively much more rapid than 
 that of the United Statesdiiring tlie .siime period. 
 The estimate of the present iiopulation [1893] is 
 4,()0(),0()0 in place of 1,100,000 in 18r)7. . . . 
 Disiist rolls as tlie results of political government 
 aiKl^liiiancial disorder have been in the Argen- 
 tine, its ultimate recovery by slow stages is 
 probable. It has a magniiicent railway system, 
 an industrious working population recruitetl 
 from Europe, and nearly all the material appli- 
 ances for prtigress. " — I. N. Ford, Tropical 
 America, ch. 0. — See Constitution, AiKiEXTiNE. 
 
 A. D. 1892.— Presidential Election.— Dr. 
 Luis Saenz-Pena, former Cliief Justice of tho 
 Supreme Court, and reputed to lie a .nan of 
 great integrity and ability, was chosen Presi- 
 dent, and inaugurated October 12, 1893. 
 » 
 
 ARGINUSAE, Battle of. See Giieece: 
 B. C;. 400. 
 
 ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, The.— 
 "The ship Arg</ was tho theme of many songs 
 during the oldest periods of the Grecian Epic, 
 even earlier than the Odyssey. The king ^-EOtOs, 
 from whom she is departing, the liero Jason, who 
 commands her, and the goddess HOrC, who 
 watches over him, enabling tho Argo to traverse 
 distances and to escape dangers which no ship 
 had ever before encountered, are all circum- 
 stances briefly glanced ut by Odysseus in his nar- 
 rative to Alkinous. . . . Jason, commanded by 
 Polias to depart in quest of the golden fleece be- 
 longing to the speaking ram which had carried 
 away Phryxus and HellO, was encouraged by the 
 oracle to invite the noblest youth of Greece to his 
 aid, and flfty of the most distinguished amongst 
 them obeyed the call. HflraklOs, TliOseus, 
 Telamon and PGIeus, Kastor and PoUu.x, Idas 
 and Lynkeus — Zfltes and Kalais, the winged 
 sons of Boreas — Mcleager, Ampliiaraus, KPph- 
 eus, LaertOs, Autolykus, Men-etius, Aktor, Er- 
 ginus EuphCmus, Aukieus, Pa-as, Periklvnienus, 
 Augeas, Eurytus, AdmOtus, Akastus, ICieneiis. 
 Euryalus, POneleos and LCitus, Askalaphus and 
 lalmonus, were among them. . . . Since so many 
 able men have treated it as an undisputed 
 reality, and even made it the pivot of systematic 
 chronological calculations, I may liere repeat the 
 opinion long ago expressed by Ileyno, and even 
 indicated by Burmann, that the process of dis- 
 secting tho story, in search of a basis of fact, is 
 one altogether fruitless." — G. Grote, Ilisl. of 
 Orccce, i\ 1, pt. 1, ch. VS. — "In the rich cluster 
 of myths which surround the captain of the 
 Argo "and his follows are preserved to us the 
 whole life and doings of the Greek maritime 
 tribes, which gradually united all the coasts witli 
 one another, and attracted Hellenes dwelling in 
 the most different seats into the sphere of tlieir 
 activity. . . . The Argo was said to liave 
 weighed anchor from a variety of ports — from 
 lolcus in Tliessaly, from Antlied<m and Sipliie in 
 Ba'otia: the home of Jason liiinself was on 
 Mount Pelion by the sea, and again on Lemnos 
 and in Corinth;" a clear proof of how liomo- 
 geneous were the influences running on various 
 coasts. However, the myths of the Argo were 
 developed in the greatest completeness on the 
 Pagasean gulf, in the seats of tlie Miiiyi ; and 
 they are the first with whom a perceptible move- 
 ment of the Pelasgian tribes beyond the sea — in 
 
 129 
 
AIJOONAUTK; EXI'KDITION. 
 
 AUGOS. 
 
 other words, a Greek history in Europe — bo- 
 
 aiivi "— E. ("iirtius, JIM. <'f (Irnr,-. hk. 1. fh. 2-3. 
 
 ARGOS.-ARGOLIS.-ARGIVES.— ' No 
 
 iliHlricl (if (lr<'Oio coiitaiiH so dciisc a succession 
 of powerful eiludels in ii narrow spiiee as Argo- 
 lis [tlie eastern peninsular proje<'tl()n of the 
 Pelopoiuiesiis], Lofty liarlssa, apparentl_>' de- 
 slgned liy nature as the eentre of the distrKil, is 
 Bureeeded hy Myeenie, deep in the recess of 
 the land; nt "the foot of th(^ mountain lies .Mideu, 
 8t the brink of tlie sea-eoiist Tiryns; and lastly, 
 nt a farther distani'e of half ivn hour's march, 
 Nauplia, with its liarbour. This succession of 
 ancient fastnesses, whose iiich'structilile struc- 
 ture of stone we admire to this day [see Sehlic- 
 muiin's ' Mycout' and ' Tiri/ioi'] is clear evi- 
 dence of mighty conllicts wliidi agitate<l tlio 
 earliest days of Ar^os; and proves that in this 
 one plain of Inachus S(!Veral principalities must 
 have arisen hy the side of one another, each 
 l)Uttlng Its coiilldence in the walls of its (citadel ; 
 some, iiceording to their position, maintaining 
 iin intercourse witli other lands by sea, others 
 rather a connection with the inland country. 
 The evidence i)reserved hy lhes<^ monuments is 
 borne out by that of the mytlis, according to 
 which the dominion of Danaus is divided among 
 his successors. Exiled Pnetus is brought home 
 to Argos by Lyc^ian banils, with whose help he 
 builds the coast-fortress of Tiryns, where he 
 holds swiiy as the first and mightiest in the hind. 
 . . . The other line of the Danaidic Is also in- 
 timately connected witli Lyeia ; for Perseus . . . 
 [wlio] on Ins return from the East founds iMycenoB, 
 as the new n'gal seat of the united kingdom of 
 Argos, is himself essentially a Lycian hero of 
 light, belonging to tlie religion of Apollo. . . . 
 Finnlly, Heracles liimself is connected with the 
 family of the Perseidte, as a prince born on tlio 
 Tirynthian fastness. . . . During these divisions 
 in tlio house of Danaus, and tlie misfortunes be- 
 falling that of Prietus, foreign families ac(iuire 
 influence and d(miinion in Argos: these are of 
 tlie race of .Eolus, and originally belong to the 
 harbour-country of the western coast of Pelo- 
 ponnesus — the Amythaonida;. . . . While the 
 dominion of the Argive land was thus sub- 
 divided, and the native warrior nobility subse- 
 quently exhausted itself in savage internal feuds, 
 a new royal house succeeded in grasping the 
 supremo power and giving an entirely now im- 
 portance to the country. This house was that 
 of the Tantalidie [or Pei.oi'ips, which skc], 
 united with tlie forces of Achican population. 
 . . . The residue of fact is, that the ancient dy- 
 nasty, connected by descent with. Lyeia, was 
 overthrown by the house which derived its 
 origin from Lydia. . . . The poetic myths, ab- 
 horring long rows of names, monti.in three prin- 
 ces as ruling here in succession, one leaving the 
 sceptre of Pelops to the other, viz., Atreus, Tliy- 
 estes and Agamemnon. Mycenie is the chief 
 seat of their rule, which is not restricted to the 
 district of Argos. " — E. Curtius, JIM. of Oreere, 
 bk. 1, ch. 3. — After the Doric invasion of the 
 Peloponnesus (see Gueeck: TiiI': Miouationk; 
 also, D<)i(i.\N8 AND loNiANs), Argos appears in 
 Greek history as a Doric state, originally the 
 foremost one in power and intliieneo, but humili- 
 ated after long years of rivalry by her Spartan 
 neighbours, " Argos never forgot that she had 
 once been the chief power in the peninsula, and 
 her feeling towards Sparta was that of a jealous 
 
 but impotent competitor. By what steps the 
 decliiii! other power had taken place, we are un- 
 able to make out, nor can we trace the succes- 
 sion of her kings subseijuent to Pheidon [Htli 
 century H. t'. ]. '. . . The title [of king] existed 
 (tliougli iiroliably witli verv limited functions) 
 at the time of tlie Persian War [H. V. 4()(M7!)|. 
 . . . There is some ground for presuming that 
 the king of Argos was even at that time a Iler- 
 akleid — since the Sparl -ns olTered to him a 
 third ])art of tlie comniaiid of the llelleni(^ force, 
 conjointly with their own two king.s. The con- 
 (piest of Thyreates by the Spartans [about 547 
 B. C] deprived the Argeians of a valuable por- 
 tion of their I'eri(ekis, or dependent territory. 
 But Orneie and the remaining portion of Kynu- 
 ria still continued to belong to them: tlie plain 
 round their city was very productive; and, ex- 
 cept Sparta, then; was no other power in Pelo- 
 ponnesus superior to them. Mykenie and Tiryns, 
 nevertheless, seem both to have been indepen- 
 dent states at the time of the Persian War, since 
 both sent contingents to the battle of Plata'a, 
 at a time whe« Argos held aloof and rather 
 favoured the Persians." — G. Grote, Jlist. of 
 (lirm; pt. 3, eli. 8 (». 2). 
 
 B. C, 406-421. — Calamitous War with 
 Sparta. — Non-action in the Persian War. — 
 Slow recovery of the crippled State. — "One 
 of the heaviest blows which Argos ever sustained 
 at the hand of her traditional foe befell her about 
 496 B. C, six years before the first Persian in- 
 vasion of Greece. A war with Sparta having 
 broken out, Clcomenes, the Lacedoemonian king, 
 succeeded in landing a large army, in vessels he 
 had extorted from the .lEjjinetans, at Nauplia, 
 and ravaged the Argive territory. The Argeians 
 mustered all their forces to resist lilm, and the 
 two armies encamped opposite each other near 
 Tiryns. Cleomenes, however, contrived to at- 
 tack the Argeians nt a moment when they were 
 unprepared, making use, if HerodotuL is to be 
 credited, of a stratagem which proves the ex- 
 treme incapacity of the opposing generals, and 
 completely routed them. The Argeians took 
 refuge in a sacred grove, to which the remorse- 
 less Spartans set lire, and so destroyed almost 
 the whole of them. No fewer than 6,000 of the 
 citizens of Argos perished on this disastrous day. 
 Cleomenes might have captured the city itself; 
 but he was, or affected to be, hindered by un- 
 favourable omens, and drew off his troops. The 
 lo.ss sustained by Argos was so severe as to re- 
 duce her for some years to a condition of great 
 weakness; but this was at the time a fortunate 
 circumstance for tlie Hellenic cause, inasmuch as 
 it enabled the Laccdsemonians to devote their 
 whole energies to the work of resistance to the 
 Persian invasion without fear of enemies at home. 
 In this great work Argos took no part, on the 
 occasion of either the first or second attempt of 
 the Persian kings to bring Hellas under their 
 dominion. Indeed, the city was strongly sus- 
 pected of ' medising ' tendencies. In the period 
 following the final overthrow of the Persians, 
 while Aniens was pursuing the splendid career 
 of aggrandisement and conquest that made her 
 the foremost state in Qrt?ece, and while the Lace- 
 diBinonians were paralyzed by the revolt of the 
 Messeuians, Argos regained strength and in- 
 fluence, whicli she at once employed and in- 
 creased by the harsh policy ... of dc^popula- 
 tiug Mycena; and Tiryns, while she compelled 
 
 130 
 
AUGOS. 
 
 
 
 AHIANISM. 
 
 Kcvpral other scmi-indepcmlent places in tlic Ar- 
 (ioliii ti> acknowledge her .sii|)rema(y. Duriiij; 
 the lirst elevn y<'ars of tlu? Pclopoiniesian war, 
 down to the peace of N'ieias (4Jl 11. C), Ari;oM 
 held aloof from all partici|)ation in the stniKK'e, 
 adding to her wealth and perfecting her nulitary 
 organization. Ah to her domestic conditions and 
 political system, little is known; but it is certain 
 that the governnfcnt, unlike that of other Oorian 
 Btates, was democratic in its character, though 
 then' was in the city a strong oligarchic and 
 philo-Laconian party, which was destined to e.\- 
 ercise a decisive inlluenceatuu important crisis." 
 — C II. llan.son, Tlie hind of Greece, ch. 10. 
 
 Ai-so IN: O. Orote, llist. of Oreeco, pt. 2, eh. 30 
 (c. 4). 
 
 B. C. 421-418. — League formed against 
 Sparta. — Outbreak of War. — Defeat at Man- 
 tinea. — Revolution in the Oligarchical and 
 Spartan interest. See CiuKixi;: IS. (', 4.;i-tlM. 
 
 B. C. 395-387.— Confederacy against Sparta. 
 — The Corinthian War. — Peace of Antalcidas. 
 SeeUiiEicK: IJ. C. *Jl)-;{87. 
 
 B. C. 371. — Mob outbreak and massacre of 
 chief citizens. See Oukkck: B. C. ;i71-;ili>'. 
 
 B. C. 338.— Territories restored by Philip of 
 Macedon. See (JiiKixi;: 15. (;. ;J.")7-;j3(i. 
 
 B. C. 271. — Repulse and death of Pyrrhus, 
 king of Epirus. See ^I.vckdo.nia: B. C'. 277- 
 2-14. 
 
 B. C. 229. — Liberated from Macedonian con- 
 trol. SeeGltliKCK: B. t!. 280-140. 
 
 A. D. 267. — Ravaged by the Goths. See 
 GoTiis: A. 1). 258-207. 
 
 A. D. 395.— Plundered by the Goths. See 
 Gorim: A. 1). 31)5. 
 
 A. D. 1463. — Taken by the Turks, retaken 
 by the Venetians. See Giiiibxic: A. 1). 1454- 
 147'J. 
 
 A. D. 1686.— Taken by the Venetians. See 
 TuuKs: A. U. 1084-1090. 
 
 ARGYRASPIDES, The.— " lie [Alexander 
 the Great] then marclied into India, that he 
 might have his empire bounded by the ocean, 
 and the extreme parts of tlie East. That the 
 equipments of his army might be suitable to the 
 glory of the Expedition, he mounted the trap- 
 pings of the horses and tlie arms of the soldiers 
 with silver, and called a body of his men, from 
 having silver shields, Argyraspides." — Justin, 
 Ilistori/ (trans, by J. IS. Wntson), bk. 12, ch. 7. 
 
 Also in: C. Thirl wall, Hist, of Greece, ch. 58. 
 —See, also, Macedonia: B. C. 323-316. 
 
 ARGYRE. See Ciikvsk. 
 
 ARI A.— ARE lOS.— ARE I ANS.— The nilmo 
 by which the Ilerirud and its valley, the district 
 of modern Herat, was known to the ancient 
 Greeks. Its inhabitants were known as the Arei- 
 ans.— M. Duncker, lUst. of Anliq., bk. 7, ch. 1. 
 
 ARIANA. — " Strabo uses the name Ariana 
 for the land of all the nation.s of Iran, except 
 that of the Medes and Persians, i. e. , for the 
 whole eastern half of Iran" — Afghanistan and 
 Bcloochistan. — M. Duncker, llist. of Antiquity, 
 V. 5, bk. 7, ch. 1. 
 
 ARIANJSM.— ARIANS.— Prom the second 
 century of its existence, the Christian church 
 was divided by bitter controversies touching the 
 mystery of the Trinity. "The word Trinity is 
 found neither in the Holy Scriptures nor in the 
 writings of the first Christians ; but it had been 
 employed from the beginning of the •>coud cen- 
 
 t\iry, when a more metupliysical turn had been 
 
 given to the nunds of men. and theologians Inul 
 begiui to allcnipt to .plain the divine nature. 
 . . . The Eouiidc ol the new ridlgion, the 
 Being who lia<l brought upon earth a divine 
 light, was he God, was ho man. was ho of an in- 
 termediate nature, and, thouf.'h superior to all 
 other creati'd beings, yet him.self created ? This 
 latter opinion waslielll by Alius, an Alexandrian 
 priest, who niaintain('<l it in a series of learned 
 controversial works tietwecn the yars 318 and 
 325. As soon as the discussion had (pillled the 
 walls of the .schools, and been taken up by the 
 people, mutual accusiitions of the gravest kind 
 took the jilace of metaphysical subtleties. The 
 orthodox party reproached the Arians with 
 blaspheming the deity hiinsclf, by refusing to 
 acknowledge hlin in tiie person of Christ. The 
 Arians accused the orthodo.v of violating the 
 liiiidamenlal law of religion, by rendering to the 
 creature the worship due only to tlu! Creator. 
 ... It was dillicult to decide which numbered 
 the largest body of followers; but the ardent en- 
 tliusiastic spirits, the jiopulace in all the great 
 cities (and especially at Alexandria) tlie women, 
 and the newly-founded order of tlie monks of 
 the desert . . . were almost without exception 
 partisans of the faith which has since been de- 
 clared orthodox. . . . Constantine thought tliia 
 (piestion of dogma might be decided by an as- 
 sembly of the whole church. Iii the year 325, 
 ho convoked the couru-il of Nice [see Nlc.KA, 
 Council oi'-l, at which 300 bishops pronounced 
 in favour ot the equality of the Son with the 
 Father, or the doctrine generally regarded as 
 orthodox, and condemned the Arians to exile 
 and their books to the llames. " — J. C. L. de Sis- 
 mondi. Fall of the liomim J'Juijiire, ch. 4. — ' Tho 
 victorious faction [at the Council of Nice] . . . 
 anxiously .sought for some irreconcilable mark 
 of distinction, the rejection of which might in- 
 volve the Arians in tlie guilt and consequences 
 of heresy. A letter was publicly read and igno- 
 miniously torn, in which their patron. Eusebius 
 of Xicomedia, ingeniously confessed that the ad- 
 mi-ssion of the hoinoousion, or consubstantial, a 
 wortl already familiar to the Platonists, was in- 
 compatible with the principles of their theo- 
 logical system. The fortunate opportunity was 
 eagerly embraced. . . . The consulistanliality 
 of the Father and the Son Wiis established by the 
 Council of Nice, and has been unanimously re- 
 ceived as a fundaineulal article of the Christian 
 faith by the consent of the Greek, the Latin, the 
 Oriental and the Protestant churches." Not- 
 withstanding the decision of the Council of 
 Nice against it, the lieresj' of Ariiis continued to 
 gain ground in the East. Even the Emperor 
 C/'onstantino became friendly to it, and the sons 
 of Constantine, witli some of the later emperors 
 who followed them on the eastern throne, wero 
 ardent Arians in belief. The Homoousians, or 
 orthodox, were subjected to persecution, which 
 was directed with special bitterness against their 
 great leader, Athaiiasius, the famous bishop of 
 Alexandria. But Arianism was weakened by 
 hair-splitting distinctions, which resulted in 
 many diverging creeds. "The sect which as- 
 serted the doctrine of a 'similar substance' was 
 the I.' -it numerous, at least in the provinces of 
 Asia. . . . The Greek word which was chosen 
 to express this mysterious resemblance bears so 
 close on affinity to tho orthodox symbol, that the 
 
 131 
 
AlUANISM. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 priifiini- iif every iiffe Imvc deriilcd tlie furious 
 (KiiilcHtH wlili'h the ililTcriiKc nf ii single diph- 
 tliDiiif exiilcil lielwcen llie IIomiMJiisiiitis iind th(^ 
 lloiiuiioiisiuiiM." The l-aliii (liurehes of the 
 WeKt, with Home at their liead, remained (,'<•»• 
 erallv (Inn in tlie ortliodoxy of the Ilonioousian 
 rreed lint tlie (lollis. wlio liad reeeived 
 tlieir Christianity from tlie Kast, tinctured with 
 Arianisni. earrii'd that heresy westward, anil 
 spread it amoiiir tlieir Imrlmriaii iieiL'libiirs — 
 Vandals, Hiirfjiindiansand Sueves — through the 
 inlliiiiiee of the (lotliie Hible of Ultiliis, which 
 lie and his missionary successors bore to the Teu- 
 tonic iieopies. " TIu! Vandals and Ostrogoths 
 persevered in the professhm of Arianisni till the 
 tinal ruin [A. I). ^<-V-i and SWJ of the kingdoms 
 wliicli they had founded in Africii and Italy. 
 Tin- biirbariaiis of Gaul submitted FA. 1). 5071 
 to the orthodox dominion of the t ranks; and 
 Spain was restored toi'ie C'atholii^ Church by 
 the voluntary conversion of the Visigoths [A. I). 
 r>Hi)]." — E. Oibbon, JJtdiiie and Fall <if tin: 
 ILtiima Kmpiiv, '•li. 21 mitl 87. — TheiMlosius 
 formally proclaimed his adhesion to Trinitarian 
 orthoilo.xy by his celebrated edic't of A. O. 380, 
 and coinman'ded its acceptance in the Kastern 
 Kmpire. Sue UoMK: A. D. 379-aU,).— A. Nc- 
 iindiir, (nil. J fiat, of Uhrist. Rd. ami Ch., trans, 
 by Torn/, i: 2. Htrl. 4. 
 
 Alsoin; J. Alzog, Maniinl nf Univ. Ch. Hint., 
 sect. UO-114.— W. G. T. Shedd, Jlist. of Cliiint. 
 Doctrine, bk. 3. — J. II. Newman, Ariam of the 
 Foiiiih Century. — A. P. Stanley, Lecta. on the 
 Hint, of the East. Ch., lects. 3-7.— J. A. Dorner, 
 Jlinl. of the Derelopmeiit of the Doctrine of the 
 Person of Christ, din. 1 (p. 2).— See, also, GoTiis: 
 A. D. 341-381; Fiiasks: A. 1). 481-511; also, 
 GoTiis (Visigoths): A. I). 507-509. 
 
 ARICA, Battle of (i88o). See Cuile: A. D. 
 183;(-1HH4. 
 
 ARICIA, Battle of.— A victory won by the 
 Romans over the Aunincians, U. C. 497, which 
 8iimniarily ended a war that the latter had de- 
 clared against the former. — Livv, Hist, of Rome, 
 bk. 2. ch. 20. 
 
 ARICIAN GROVE, The.— The sacred grove 
 at .Vricia (one of the towns of old Latium, near 
 Alba Louga) was the center and meeting-place 
 of nn early league among the Latin peoples, 
 about which little is known. — W. Ihnc, llisi. of 
 lionie, bk. 2, ch. 8.— Sir. W. Gell, Toixy. of Row:. 
 V. 1. — "On the northern shore of the lake Wjt 
 Nemi] right under the precipitous cliffs on which 
 the mmlern village of Nemi is perched, stood Iht 
 sacred grove and sanctuary of Diana Ncmoreus.,,, 
 or Diana of the Wood. . . . The site was ex- 
 cavated ill 1885 by Sir John Saville Lumley, 
 English ambassivdor at Home. For a geneml 
 description of the site and excavations, sei the 
 Atheiiieum, lOth October, 1885. For details of 
 the tinds see ' IJuUetino dell ' Instituto di Corris- 
 poudenza Archcologica,' 1885. . . . The lake 
 and the grove were sometimes known as the lake 
 and grove of Aricia. But the town of Aricia 
 (the modern La Uiccia) was situated about three 
 miles off, at the foot of the Alban Mount. . . . 
 According to one story, the worship of Diana at 
 Nemi was instituted by Orestes, who, after 
 killing Tlioas, Kinjj of the Tauric Chersonese 
 (the Crimea), lied with his sister to It^ily, bring- 
 ing with him the image of the Tauric Diana. 
 . . . Within the sanctuary at Nemi grew a cer- 
 tain tree, of which uo branch might be broken. 
 
 Only a runaway slave was allowed to break off, 
 if lie could, one of its boiiglis. Success in thu 
 attempt entitled him to light the priest in single 
 conilmt, and if lie slew him lie rcigiu'd in his 
 stead with the title of King of tlic^ Wood (I{ex 
 Neniorciisis). Tradition averred that the fateful 
 branch was that Golden IJoigh which, at the 
 Sibyls bidding. .Kiieas plucked before he 
 essayed the perilous journey to the world of the 
 dead. . . . This rule of succession by the sword 
 was observed down to imperial times; for 
 aniongst his other freaks Caligula, thinking that 
 the priest of Nemi had held olllce too long, 
 hired a more stalwart riitllan to slay him." — J. 
 G. Fra/er. The (rolilen Umi/h, ch. 1, sect. 1. 
 
 ARICONIUM.— A town of Himian Ilritaiu 
 which appeals to have been the principal mart 
 of till! iron manufacturing industry in the Forest 
 of Dean. — T. Wright, IVie Celt, the Itoman and 
 the Siuon, ji. 101. 
 
 ARII, The. Sei' Lyoians. 
 
 ARIKARAS, The. See Amehican Abori- 
 (Ji.SK.s: I'awx (Caddoan) Family. 
 
 ARIMINUlvi. — The Hoiiian cohmy, planted 
 in the third ccntiry H. C, which grew into the 
 niodcrii city of liimini. See Ko.Mi;: H. C. 295- 
 191. — When Ciesar entered Italy as an invader, 
 crossing the frontier of Cisalpine Gaul — the 
 Kiibicon — his first movement was to occupy 
 Ariminum. He halted there for two or three 
 weeks, making his preparations for the civil war 
 which he had now entered upon and waiting for 
 till! two legions that he had ordered from Gaul. 
 — C. Merivale, Ili.it. of the Itomiuis, ch. '4. 
 
 ARIOVALDUS, King of the Lombards, 
 A. D. 020-038. 
 
 ARISTEIDES, Ascendancy of. See Ath- 
 ens: B. C. 477-4(!2. 
 
 ARISTOCRACY.- OLIGARCHY.— 
 " Aristocracy signifies the rule of the best men. 
 If, however, this epithet is referred to an absoluto 
 ideal standard of excellence, it is manifest that 
 an aristocratical government is a mere abstract 
 notion, which has nothing in history, or in nature, 
 to correspond to it. But if wo content ourselves 
 with t.iking the same terms in a relative sense, 
 . . . aristocracy . . . will bo that form of gov- 
 ernment in which the ruling few are distin- 
 guished from the multitude by illustrious birth, 
 hereditary wealth, and personal merit. . . . 
 AVhenever such aclmnge took place in the char- 
 acter or the relative position of the ruling body, 
 that it no longer commanded tho respec -if its 
 subjects, but found itself opposed to then,, and 
 compelled to direct its measures chiefly to tho 
 preservation of its power, it ceased to be, in tlio 
 Greek sense an aristocracy ; it became a faction, 
 an oligarchy." — C. Thirl wall, Uist. of Greece, 
 ch. 10. 
 
 ARISTOMNEAN WAR. Sec Messeniaw 
 Wahs, Fihst and Second. 
 
 ARIZONA: The Name. — "Arizona, proba- 
 bly Arizonac in its original form, was the native 
 and probably Pima name of the place — of a 
 hill, valley, stream, or some other local feature 
 — just south of the modern boundary, in tlio 
 mountains still so called, on the headwaters of 
 the stream flowing past Saric, where the famous 
 Planchas do Plat-a mine was discovered in tlie 
 middle of the 18tli century, the name being first 
 known to Spaniards in that connection and being 
 a])plied to the mining camp or real de minas. 
 The aboriginal meaning of the term is not 
 
 132 
 
ARIZONA. 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 known, though from llio conimnn oocurn'nrc in 
 this region of tlui prolix 'iiri,' tlic riM)t 'son,' imd 
 tlio terniiuiition 'or,' tlic dcriviilion ought not to 
 csciipu till! ri'wiircli of i\ conipotont Htiulcnl. 
 iSucli guesscH UH iiro extant, founiivd on tin; niitivi; 
 tongiR'M, olTcr only tlic Imri'st pos.sil)llUy of a 
 iwrliai nnd iicciciontid accuracy; wliilo similar 
 derivations from tlio Spunisii arc extremely 
 alisurd. . . . Tlic name slioidd properly he writ- 
 ten and pronounced Arisona, as our Knglisli 
 •sound of the z docs not occur in Spanisli." — 
 H. II. Uancroft, JIi»t. of the IMeific States, v. 13, 
 p. 520. 
 Aboriginal Inhabitants. Sco Amekic.vn 
 
 .VlloUKM.NKS: PlKIll-DS, Al'ACIIE Qiiori', Siio- 
 
 HUoNK.vN Family, ano Utaiis. 
 
 A. D. 1848.— Partial acquisition from Mex- 
 ico. See .^IKXI(■(): A. I). IMW. 
 
 A. D. 1853.— Purchase by the United States 
 of the southern part from Mexico.— The Gads- 
 den Treaty.— "On nccemlier 80, MTti, James 
 (ladsdeii, L iiitod States minister to Mexico, con- 
 cluded II treaty by which the boundary line was 
 moveil southward so as to give the United States, 
 for a monetary consideration of S10,000,0(M), all of 
 niiidern Arizoim south of the Gila, an elTort so 
 to lix tlie line as to include a port on the gulf 
 being unsuccessful. . . . On the face of the 
 matter this Gadsden treaty was a tolerably satis- 
 fiictory settlement of a boundary dis|)ut(', mi<l a 
 purchase by the United States of a route for 
 II southern railroad to California." — II. II. Ban- 
 croft, Hist, of the Piicifc States, v. 13, ch. 30. 
 
 ARKANSAS, The. Sco Ameiiican Ano- 
 KUiiNKs: SioiiAN Family. 
 
 ARKANSAS: A. D. 1542— Entered by Her- 
 nando de Soto. See Floiuda: A. I). 1538- 
 1543. 
 
 A, D. 1803. — Embraced in the Louisiana 
 Purchase. See Louisiana: A. I). 17iW-lH03. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1836.— Detached from Missouri. 
 —Organized as a Territory. — Admitted as a 
 State. — " Preparatory to tlic assumption of 
 .state government, the limits of the Missouri 
 Territory were restricted on the south by the 
 pamllel of 30^ 30' north. The restriction was 
 made by an act of Congress, approved March 3, 
 1819, entitled nn 'Act establishing a separate 
 territorial government in the southern portion of 
 the Mis-sourl Territory. ' The portion thus sep- 
 arated was subsequently organized into the 
 second grade of territorial government, and 
 Colonel James Miller, a meritorious and distin- 
 guished officer of the Northwestern army, was 
 appointed first governor. This territory was 
 known os the Arkansas Territory, and, at the 
 period of its first organization, contained an 
 aggregate of nearly 14,000 inhabitants. Its 
 limits comprised all the territory on the west side 
 of tlie Mississippi between tlio parallels 33'' and 
 30° 30'. or between the northern limit of Loui- 
 siana and the southern boundary of the State of 
 Missouri. On tl»e west it extended indeflnitely 
 to the >Iexican territories, at least 550 miles. 
 The Post of Arkansas was made the seat of the 
 new government. Tho population of this exten- 
 sive territory for several years was comprised 
 chietly in the settlements upon the tributaries of 
 White River and the St. Francis ; upon the Mis- 
 sissippi, between New Madrid and Point Chicot; 
 and upon both sides of the Arkansas River, 
 within 100 miles of its mouth, but especially in 
 
 tho vicinity of tho Post of Arkansas. ... So 
 fei'ble was the attraction in this remote region 
 for the active, industrious, and wclldlsposed 
 liortion of the western pioneers, that the Arkan- 
 sas Territory, in 1830, ten years after its organi- 
 zation, had ac(iuired an aggregate of only 30,388 
 souls, including 4,. 570 slaves. . . . The western 
 half of the territory had been erected, in 1834, 
 into a separate district, to be reserved for tho 
 future residence of the Indian trilies, and to bo 
 known as the Indian Territory. From tills time 
 the tiilo of emigration began to set more actively 
 into Arkan.sas, as well as into otlier portions of 
 the southwest. . . . The territory increased rap- 
 idly for several years, and the census of 1835 
 gave the whole number of inhabitants at .58,134 
 souls, including 9,((;10 slaves. Thus the Arkan- 
 sas Territory in the last five years had doubled 
 its population. . . . The people, through tho 
 General Assembly, made application to Congress 
 f(jr authority to establish a regular form of state 
 government. The assent of (Congress was not 
 withheld, and a Convention was authorized to 
 meet at Little Rock on the first day of January, 
 1830, for the purpose of forming and adopting a 
 State Constitution. Tlio same was approved by 
 Congress, and on the 13tli of Juno following tho 
 State of Arkansas was admitted into the Fedeml 
 Uiii(m as an independent state, and was, in point 
 of time and order, the twenty-fifth in the con- 
 federacy. . . . Like the Jlissouri Territory, 
 Arkansas had been a slaveholding country from 
 the earliest French colonies. Of course, the 
 institution of negro slavery, with proper checks 
 and limits, was sustained by the new Constitu- 
 tion." — J. W. Monette, Disrocery and Settlement 
 if the VaUei/ of the Misaimppi, bk. 5, ch. 17 (». 
 3). — See, also, United States op Am. : A. D. 
 1818-1831. 
 
 A. D. i86i (March). — Secession voted down. 
 See United St.\tes op A.m. : A. U. lUOl (.Mahcii 
 
 — Al'IlIL). 
 
 A. D. i86i (April).— Governor Rector's reply 
 to President Lincoln's call for troops. See 
 United St.vtes ok Am. : A. D. 1801 (Ai'Uii.). 
 
 A. D. 1862 (January — March). — Advance of 
 National forces into the State.— Battle of Pea 
 Ridge. See United States of Asi. : A. D. 
 1863(.Ianuary — March : Missouui— Aiwansas). 
 
 A. D. 1862 (July— September).— Progress of 
 the Civil War. See United States ok Am. : 
 A. U. 1803 (July — Septe.miieu: JIissouui — 
 Arkansas). 
 
 A. D.i862(December).— The Battle of Prairie 
 Grove. See Unitei> States ok Am. : A. D. 
 1803 (Septemueu — Dece-Muei;: Missouri — 
 Arkansas). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (January). — The capture of 
 Arkansas Post from the Confederates. Seo 
 United .States op Am. : A. D. 1803 (January: 
 Arkansas). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (July).— The defence of Helena. 
 See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1803 (July: 
 On the Mississippi). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (August— October).— The break- 
 ing of Confederate authority. — Occupation of 
 Little Rock by National forces. Seo United 
 States ok Am. : A. I). 1803 (Auuust — October: 
 Arkansas — Missouri). 
 
 A. D. 1864 (March— October).— Last im- 
 portant operations of the War.-^Price's Raid. 
 Seo United States ok A.m. : A. I). 1804 (iLutcu 
 —October: A«k.\N8A8— Missouri). 
 
 133 
 
ARKANSAS. 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 A. D. i86^.— First steps toward Reconstruc- 
 tion. Sec I NiTKi) StatI'.s of a.m. : A. I). 1803- 
 IMft-t (DKCK.Miir.u— .Iii.y). 
 
 A. D. 1865-1868.— Reconstruction com- 
 pleted. Sco L'.MTKn St.vtesof Am. : A. D. 186.'5 
 (May— Jni,Y). to 1808-1870. 
 
 ARKITES, The.— A Cnnannite tribe who 
 oriiipicd llic pliiin ncirtli of [/olianon. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT'S SPINNING MACHINE, 
 OR WATER-FRAME, The invention of. 
 Sec CoiTDN .\I.\.m;k,\(TUUK. 
 
 ARLES: Origin. Sec Sai.yeb. 
 
 A. D. 411. — Double siege. Soe Rritai.n: 
 A. i). 107. 
 
 A. D. 425. — Besieged by the Goths. Sec 
 
 (foTHH (Vlsl'dDTlIf): \. 1). 41!>-t.")l. 
 
 A. D. 508-510.— Siege by the Franks.— After 
 
 lh(^ overthrow of the V'lsif,'()thic kiiiKilom of 
 Toulouse, A. I). .507, by tho victory of Clovls, 
 kiiiK of till! Franks, at, Voclail, near Poitiers. 
 •' tln^ preat city of Aries, once the Roman capital 
 of (iaul, rnaintaincil a gallant (lefenee against 
 the united Franks ami l{iirj:un(liaus, anil saved 
 for peneralions tlie Visiirotliic rule in Provence 
 and .southern riauiriiedoc. (Jf tlio siege, which 
 lasted aitparently from .lOS to ."dO, we have some 
 gnipliic (letails intliclifeof St. (Jicsarius. Bishop 
 of Aries, written by his disciples." The city 
 was relieved in .510 bv an O.strogothic army, sent 
 by king ThcDdoric of Italy, after a great battle 
 in which ;!0,0(H) Franks "were reporle<l to be 
 slain. "The result of llie battle of Aries w\s to 
 put TheiMlorie, in secure pos.se.-ision of all Pro- 
 vence and of so much of Jyanguedoc as was 
 needful to ensure liis access to Spain" — where 
 the Ostrogolhic king, as guardian of his infant 
 grandson, Amalaric, was taking (arc of the Visi- 
 gotliie kuigdoni. — T. ilodgkin, Jtali/ ami llci- In- 
 milrnt. Iik\ 4, eh. !). 
 
 A. D. 933.— Formation of the kingdom. See 
 BiiKirNov: A. I). 8i:i-!i;i;i. 
 
 A. D. 1032-1378. — The breaking up of the 
 kingdom and its gradual absorption in France. 
 S"o litnotNDV: A. I). 10;t'.2. and ll'.iT-l:!7.S. 
 
 1092-1207. — The gay court of Provence. 
 See PuovKNCi;: A. 1). !)l;!-l()!)2. and llTO-ieO'. 
 
 ARMADA, The Spanish. Sec Enol.\nd: 
 A. 1). l.")SS. 
 ARMAGEDDON. See .AlF.(iim)o. 
 ARMAGH, St. Patrick's School at. S 
 
 IllEI,.\Nl): .-)lll to Hill ('KNTfUlKS. 
 
 ARMAGNAC, The counts of. oeo FnANC : 
 A. I). i;!L'7. 
 
 ARMAGNACS. Soe France: A. D. 1380- 
 141.'). and 141.V14H). 
 
 ARMENIA. — •• .Vlmos* immediately to the 
 west of the Caspian there rises a high tableland 
 diversilled by mountains, which .stretches oast- 
 ward for more than eighteen degrees, between 
 the 3(th and 41st parallels. This iiighland may 
 properly be regarded as n contimiation of the 
 great Iranean jilali'au, with which it is connected 
 at its .southeastern corner. Ii comprises a por- 
 tion of the modern Persia, the whole of Armenia, 
 and most of Asia Minor. Its principal moiui- 
 tjjjn ranges ari' latitudinal, or from west to cast, 
 only th(" minor ones taking the opposite or lon- 
 gitudinal direction. . . , The heart of the moim- 
 tain-region, the tract extending from the district 
 of ICrivan on the east to the tipper course of the 
 Kizil-Irmnk river and the vicinity .of Sivas upon 
 
 the west, wa.s, r.s it still is, Armenia. Amidst 
 these natural fastnesses, in a country of lofty 
 ridges, deep and narrow valleys, nninerous niid 
 copious streams, and occiusional broad plains — a 
 country of rich jiasture grounds, productive 
 orcharJls, and abundant harvests — this interest- 
 ing people has maintained itself almost ini- 
 changed from the time of the early Persian 
 kings to the present day. Armenia was one of 
 the fnost valuable portions of the Persian empire, 
 furnishing, as it did, besides stone and timlier, 
 and several most important minerals, an annual 
 supply of 20,000 excellent horses to the stud of the 
 Persian king." — O. I{iiwlinson. Fire (iriiit Moii- 
 nirhim: Penia, ch. 1. — Before the Persians es- 
 tablished their sovereignty over the country, "it 
 seems certain that from one (piarter or another 
 Armenia h.id been Arianized: tlie old Turanian 
 character bad passed away from it; immigrants 
 had Hocked in and a new people had been formed 
 — the real Armenians of later times, and indeed 
 of the present day." Submitting to Alexander, 
 on the overthrow of the Persian momirchy, Ar- 
 menia feP afterwards under the yoke of the Se- 
 leucidic, but gained independence about I'JO 
 IJ. (!., or earlier. Under the inlluenco of Parthia, 
 a branch of the ParlhiiMi royal family, the Arsa- 
 cids, was sul)se(|ucntly placed on the throne and 
 a dynasty established which reigned for nearly 
 six liundrcd years. Tin; fourth of these kinijs, 
 Tigrancs. who occui>ic<l the throne in the earlier 
 part of tlie last cent.tiry B. f'., pl.iced Armenia 
 in the front rank of "Asiatic kingdoms and in 
 powerful rivalry with Paifhi.i. Its subsequent 
 history is one of many wars and invasions and 
 much bulTcling between Uomaiis, Parthians, 
 Persians, and their successors in the conflicts of 
 the eastern world. The part of Armenia west 
 of the Euphrates was called by the Romans Ar- 
 menia Minor. For a short period after the revolt 
 from the Seleticid monarchy, it formed a dis- 
 tinct king(lom called Sophene. — G. llawlinson, 
 8i.r)h itnd Si-ivnt/i (Irrat Oneiitnl .VoimirliitK. 
 
 B. C. 69-68.— War vyith the Romans.— Great 
 defeat at Tigranocerta. — Submission to Rome. 
 Sec Uome: B. C. 78-<!H. and 0'J-H;i. 
 
 A. D. 115-117. — Annexed to the Roman 
 Empire by Trajan and restored to independ- 
 ence by Hadrian. See Komi:: A. I). !)t)-i;i8. 
 
 A. D. 422 (?).— Persian Con(iuest. — Becomes 
 the satrapy of Persarmenia. Sen Persia: 
 A. D. 'J'-'fi-OJT. 
 
 A. D. 1016-1073. — Conquest and devastation 
 by the Seljuk Turks. Sec Tiuks (Sei.iuks): 
 A. I). 1()04-10(!H. and 1003-107!!. 
 
 I2th-I4th Centuries. — The Mediaeval Chris- 
 tian Kingdom.— " The last decade of the 12th 
 century saw the establishment of two small 
 Christian kingdoms in the Levant, which long 
 outlived all other reliefs of the Crusades except 
 the military orders; and which, with very little 
 help from the West, sustained a hazardous ex- 
 istence in complete contrast with almost every- 
 thing around them. The kingdoms of Cyprus 
 and Armenia have a history very closely inter 
 twined, but their origin and most of their cir- 
 cumstances were very difTereiit. By Armenia as 
 a kingdom is meant little more than the ancient 
 Cilicia, the land between Taurus and the sea, 
 from the frontier of the principality of Antioch, 
 eastwaril, to Kelendcris or Palii-opolis, a little 
 beyond Heleucia; this tcrrittiry, which was com- 
 puted to contain 10 ilays' journey in length, 
 
 134 
 
ARMENIA. 
 
 ARNyEANS. 
 
 measured from fonr miles of Antioch, by two in 
 brciidtli, was separated from the Greater Ar- 
 menia, wliich before the period on wliich we arc 
 now employed had fallen \inder the away of thu 
 Seljuks, by the ridges of Taurus. The popula- 
 tion was composed largely of the sweepings of 
 Asia Jlinor, Christian tribes which Iiad taken 
 refuge in the mountains. Their religion was 
 partly Greek, partly Armenian. . . . Their 
 ridel's were )>rinces descended from the house of 
 llu! Bagratidie, who had governed the Greater 
 Armenia as kings from the year 885 to the reign 
 of ConstJintino of Monomaehus, and had then 
 merged their hazardous independence in the mass 
 of till! Greek Empire. After the seizure of 
 Asia -Minor by the Seljuks, the few of the Bagra- 
 tidie who had retained possession of the moun- 
 tain fastnesses of Cilieia or the strongholds 
 of Mesopotamia, acted as independent lords, 
 showing little respect for By/.antium save where 
 there was something to be gained. . . . Kupin of 
 the Mountain was prince! [of Cilieia] at the; time of 
 the capture of Jerusalem by .Saladin; he died in 
 1189, and his successor, Leo, or Li vim, after hav- 
 ing successfully courted the favour of pope and 
 emperoi , was recognised as king of Armenia by 
 the emperor Henry V'l., and was crowned by 
 Conrad of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of jMainz, in 
 lli)8." The dynasty ended with Leo IV., whose 
 " whole reign was a continued struggle against 
 the .Moslems," and who was assassinated 
 about i;U3. "The live remaining kings of Ar- 
 menia sprang from a branch of the (^vpriot house 
 of Lusignan [see Cvpius: A. D. 1 1 92-1 48!) | and 
 were little more than Latin exiles in the midst of 
 several strange populations all alike hostile." — 
 W. Stubbs, tAfts. on the Stiitli/ nf Mtddeiiti <iiid 
 Moihni Jlint.. Icr/.S. 
 
 A. D. 1623-1635. — Subjugatedby Persia and 
 regained by the Turks. !See Tuiiivs: A. 1). 
 l(i'->;!-l((10. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH, The.— The church 
 of the Armenians is "the oldest of all national 
 churches. They were converted by St. (Gregory, 
 called ' The Illuminator,' who was a relative of 
 Dcrtad or Tiridates, their ])riuce, and had been 
 forced to leave the country at the same time with 
 him, and settled at Ca'.sarcia in ('api docia, 
 where he was initiated into the Christian faith. 
 When they returned, both prince and people em- 
 braced the Gospel through the preaching of 
 Gregory, A. D. 27(1, and t litis presented the Hrst 
 instance of an entire nation becoming Christian. 
 ... By an accident they were unrepresented at 
 [the C'ouncil of] Chalcedon [A. D. 451], and, 
 owing to the poverty of their languagr in words 
 serviceable for the purposes of thei logy, they 
 had at that time but one wonl for Xature and 
 Person, In conseiiuence of which they misunder- 
 stood the decision of that council [that Christ 
 posses.sed two natures, divine and human, in one 
 I'erson] with sulllclent clearness. ... It was 
 not mitll cighly-four years had elapsed that they 
 finally adopted Eutychlanism [the doctrine that 
 the divinity is the sole nature m Christ], and an 
 analhenia was pronounced on the Chalcedonian 
 decrees (530)." — II. F. Tozer, The Church and 
 thf, Kcutern Rmpiiv, fh. 5. — "The religion of 
 Armenia could not derive much glory 'rom the 
 learning or the power of its inhabitants. The 
 royalty expired with the origin of their schism; 
 and their Chrlst'un kings, who arose and fell in 
 
 the 13th century on the confines of Cilieia, were 
 the clients of the Latins and the vassals of the 
 Turkish sultan of Iconium. The helpless nation 
 has seldom been permitted to enjoy the tran- 
 quility of servitude. From the earliest period 
 to the present hour, Armenia has been the thcf>tre 
 of perpetual war; the lands between Tauris and 
 Erivan were dispeopled by the cruel policy of the 
 S'-piiis; and myriads of Christian families were 
 transplanted, to perish or to propagate In the dis- 
 *aiit provinces of Persia. Under the roil of 
 oppression, the zeal of the Armenians is fervent 
 and intrepid; they have often preferred the 
 crown of martyrdom to the white turban of 5Ia- 
 hornet; they devoutlv hate the error and idola- 
 iry of the Greeks." — fe. Gibbon, Decline and Fcdl 
 of the llmnun Empire, ch. 47. 
 ■ ARMINIANISM. SeeNETiiEULANDS: A. D. 
 
 lOtm-Kiut. 
 
 ARMINIUS, The Deliverance of Germany 
 
 by. See (ii.itM.\.\v: 15. C. 8-A. 1). 11. 
 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Origin of.—" As 
 to armorial bearings, there is no doubt that em- 
 blems .somewhat similar have been immemorially 
 used both in war and peace. The shields of an- 
 cient warriors, and devices upon coins or seals, 
 bear no distant rcseniblanee to modern blazonry. 
 Hut the general Introduetlon of such bearings, as 
 hereditary distinctions, h!is been sometimes at- 
 tributed to tournaments, wherein the champions 
 were distinguished by fanciful devices; some- 
 times to the crusades, where 11 niultltudi' of iill 
 nations and languages stood in need of .some vis- 
 ible token to denote the liaiuurs of their respec- 
 tive chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of her- 
 aldry point to both these sources and have been 
 borrowed in jiart from each. Hereditary arms 
 were jjcrhaps scarcely used by private families 
 before the beginning of the thirteenth century. 
 From that time, however, thev became very gen- 
 eral. '— It. Ilallam, The Middle Ayes, eh. 3, pt. 2. 
 
 ARMORICA. — The peninsular projection of 
 the coast of Gaul between the moulhs of the 
 Seine and the Loire, embracing modern IJrltlany, 
 and a great part of Xormanily, was known to 
 the Komaiis as Arniorira. The most important 
 of the Armoilcan tribes in Ciesar's time was that 
 of the Vcnetl. " In the fourth and tifth centu- 
 ries, the northern coast from the Loire to the 
 frontier of the Netherlands was called ' Trnctus 
 Arenioricus,' or Aremorica, which in Celtic sig- 
 iillies 'maritime country.' The commotions of 
 the third century, which continued to incr-'aso 
 during the fourth and liftli, repeatedly drove 
 the Uoinans from that country. French antlqua- 
 ries imagine that it was a regularly constituted 
 (lalllc republic, of which CUilovIs had the protec- 
 torate, but this Is wrong." — B. G. Niebuhr, /jedn. 
 on Ancient Ethnor/raphi/ ami Gcor/., v. 2, i>. .'tl8. 
 
 Also i.n: E. il. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient 
 Geiir/., r. 3, ;;. 235. — See, also, Vicnkti op AVest- 
 HUN (l.vt'T,, and IiiEiirAKS, Tmo Westehn. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, General John, and the New- 
 burgh Addresses. See Unitei) Sr.\Ti,s of .Vm. ; 
 
 A. I). 1782-178;! Secretary of War.— Plan 
 
 of descent on Montreal. See Unitkd States 
 OF Am. : X. '). 1813 (OfTouEU- Xovkmheii). 
 
 ARMY, The Legal Creation of the British. 
 See .MvTiNV Acts. 
 
 ARMY PURCHASE, Abolition of. See 
 Enhi.am): A. D. 1871. 
 
 ARN.(EANS, The. See Gueixe: The M"- 
 
 GIIATIONS. 
 
 136 
 
ARNAULD. 
 
 ARTHUR. 
 
 ARNAULD, Jacqueline Marie, and the 
 Monastery of Port Royal. Sec I'oitT Hoyai. 
 aiM tli..lANsi:NisTs: A. I). UiOi-KHK). 
 
 ARNAUTS, The. Soc Ai.iunians, .Medle- 
 
 ARNAY-LE-DUC, Battle of (1570). See 
 FiiANiK: A. I). IJ(i:!-l.')70. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, and the American 
 Revolution. Sec; C'a.nada: A. D. 177.3-1770; 
 ttiirl I'mikd States ok Am. : A. D. 177.'; (May); 
 1777 (.Ii'i.Y— ()( roiiKH); 1781) (.Vuoust— Skptem- 
 BEK); 17H0-1781; 1781 (.Ianu.\uy— M.w); 1781 
 (.May — OcToiiKii). 
 
 ARNOLD OF BRESCIA, The Republic 
 of. Sec U.iMK: A. 1). 1 U.")-!!."!,"). 
 
 ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED, at the 
 Battle of Sempach. Set- Switzkulani): A. 1). 
 i;!8((-i;»88. 
 
 ARNULF, King of the East Franks 
 (Germany), A. 1). 888-89!); King of Italy and 
 Emperor, A. D. 801-8!)!), 
 
 AROGI, Battle of (l868). Sec Auyssima: 
 A. 1) 18"i4-188!(. 
 
 ARPAD, Dynasty of. Soe Hungarians : 
 IlAVAdES IN KfiioPE; and IIuNOAKV: A. D. 972- 
 IIU; 1114-iaOl. 
 
 ARPAD, Siege of.— Conducted hy tlio 
 Assyrian Ci)i'.(iU('ror 'rif^liith-l'ilcser, benniniii!; 
 IJ. 0. 743 i>iid liisliuLt Iwii years. The fall of the 
 city brout^htwith it the submission of all north- 
 ern Svria. — .V. II. Savee, A.iKi/ri(i, eh. 3. 
 
 ARQUES, Battles at (1589). See Fkance: 
 A. 1). i:)8!)-ir.!)o. 
 
 ARRABIATI, The. See Fi,oiie.\ce: A. D. 
 14!l()-l 1!IS. 
 
 ARRAPACHITIS. See Jews: The Eaki.y 
 
 HkIIHKW lllSTOUV. 
 
 ARRAPAHOES, The. See Ameuic.vn Abo 
 rioines; Ai,ii().N(iiiAN Family. 
 
 ARRAS: Origin. See Bei.o.e. 
 ' A. D. 1583. — Submission to Spain. See 
 Netiikiii.ands: A. D. 1.584-l")8r). 
 
 A. D. 1654. — Unsuccessful Siege by the 
 Spaniards under Condi. See France: A. 1). 
 1653-1((.')6. 
 
 — ♦ 
 
 ARRAS, Treaties of (1415 and 1435)- See 
 FuAMi;:.V. 1). I!i8()-14ir), ami 14;il-14.V}. 
 
 ARRETIUM, Battle of (B. C. 285). See 
 Uomk: H. C. 3!).-)-lill. 
 
 ARROW HEADED WRITING. See Cu- 
 neikoum WurriNu. 
 
 ARSACIDiE, The.— The dynasty of Par- 
 thian kinns were so culled, from the founder of 
 the line, Arsaces, who led the revolt of Parthia 
 from the nile of the Syrian Seleucidiu and raist'd 
 lnms«df to the throne. Accordiii)^ to some 
 unciont writers Arsaces was 11 Ilactrlan; i-.ccord- 
 ing to others a Scythian. — O. Kawlinson, tSixt/i 
 Oreat Oriindtl MoiKtrfhy, ch. 3. 
 
 ARSEN.— In oni; of' the earlier raids of the 
 Beljuklan Turks into Armeina, in the eU^venlli 
 rentnry the city of Arsen was destroyed. "It 
 had long been the great city of Ea.stern Asia 
 Minor, the centre of Asiatic trade, the depot for 
 merchandise transmittcMl overland from Persia 
 and India to the Ea.stern Ki'",.irc and Europe 
 generally. It was full of v.irehouses beli>ngini,' 
 to .Vrmenians and Syrians md is said to have 
 contained 800 churches ami 300.000 people. 
 Having failed to capture the citv, Togrul's 
 genenil succeeded in burning it. 'f he tlestruc- 
 Uon of so much woultk struck iv fatal blow at 
 
 1 
 
 Armenian commerce."— E. Pears, The FaU of 
 CoiiKtiintiniiplc, fh. 2. 
 
 ARSENE, Lake. — An ancient name of llie 
 Lake of Van, which is also called Thopitis by 
 Stnibo.— E. II. Bunbury, Uist. of Ancient Oeog., 
 ch. 33, iiret. 1. 
 
 ART ABA, The. See Ephah. 
 
 ARTAXATA.— The ancient capital of 
 Armenia, said to have been built under the 
 superintendence of Hannibal, while a refugee in 
 Armenia. At a later time it was called Neronia, 
 in honor of the Roman Emperor Nero. 
 
 ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS, King of 
 
 Persia, U. C. 40.')-43.'i Artaxerxes Mne- 
 
 mon, King of Persia, IJ. C. 40.5-3.59 
 
 Artaxerxes Ochus, King of Persia, B. C. 3.59- 
 
 338 Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, Founder of the 
 
 Sassanian monarchy. Sec Peusi.-.: B. C. 150- 
 
 A. 1). 330. 
 
 ARTEMISIUM, Seafightsat. SccGreece: 
 
 B. C. 480. 
 
 ARTEMITA. See Dastaoerd. 
 
 ARTEVELD, Jacques and Philip Van; 
 Their rise and fall in Ghent. Sec Fi.andeus: 
 A. 1). 1335-1337, to 1383. 
 
 ARTHUR, King, and the Knights of the 
 Round Table. — "On the dillicult question, 
 whether there was a historical Arthur or not, 
 ... a word or two must now be devoted . . . ; 
 and here one has to notice in the first place that 
 Welsh literature never calls Arthur a gwledig or 
 lirince but emperor, and it may be inferred that his 
 liistorical position, in case he had such a position, 
 was that of one lilling, after the departure of the 
 Romans, the olUce which under them was that of 
 the Comes Britanniiu or Count of Britain. The 
 officer so called had a roving commission to 
 defend the Province wherever his presence 
 might be called for. The other military 
 captains here were the Du.x Britaimiarum, who 
 had charge of the forces in the north and 
 especially on the Wall, and the Comes Littoris 
 Saxonici [Count of the Saxon Shore], who was 
 entrusted with the defence of the south-iNistern 
 coast of the island. The successors of both these; 
 captains seem to have been odlcd in Welsh 
 gwledigs or princes. So Arth\ir'« suggested 
 position as Comes Britamiiai would be in a sense 
 superior to theirs, which harmtmizes with his 
 bemg called emperor and not gwledig. The 
 Welsh have borrowed the Latin title of imper- 
 alor, 'emperor,' and made it into 'amherawdyr,' 
 later 'andierawdwr,' so it is not imi)ossible, that 
 when the Roman impenitor ceased to have 
 anything more to say to this country, the title 
 was given to the highest officer in the island, 
 namely the Comes Britanniiu, and that in the 
 words 'Yr Amherawdyr Arthur,' 'the Emperor 
 Arthur,' we have a renmaut oi" our insular history. 
 If this view !;<: correct, it might be regarded m; 
 something more than an accident that Arthur's 
 l)osition relatively to that of the other Brylhonic 
 princes of his time is exactly given by >renniiis, 
 or whoever it was that wrote the Ilistoria 
 Brittonum ascribed to him: there Arthur 
 is represented lighting in c(mipany with the 
 kings of the Brythons in defence of their 
 conunon couidry, he being their leader in war. 
 If, as has sometimes been argued, the tnide i>f 
 Maglocuinis or .Muelgwn, whom the latter is 
 accused by Oilda of having slain and supcraeded. 
 was no other than Arthur, it would supply one 
 reason why that writer called Macljjwu 'insu- 
 
ARTHUR. 
 
 ARYANS. 
 
 laris dra'.'o,' 'the dmgon or wiir-captiiin of the 
 isliiiid,' 1111(1 why i,hu latter iiiid his successors 
 after lam were called hy the Welsh not gwledigs 
 but kings, though their great ancestor Cuueda 
 was only a gwledig. On tlio other hand the 
 way in which Oildas alludes to th(! uncle of 
 Maelgwn without even giving his name, would 
 sceni to suggest that in his estimation at least ho 
 was no more illustrious than his predecessors in 
 the position which ho held, whatever that may 
 have hcen. How then did Arthur become famous 
 above them, and how came lie to be the subject 
 of so much story and romance 1 I'lie answer, in 
 short, which one has to give to this hard (juestion 
 must be to the ellect, that besides a historic 
 Arthur there was a Brythonic divinity named 
 Arthur, after whom the man may have been 
 called, or with whose name his, in case it was of 
 a dilferent origin, may have become identical in 
 sound owing to an accident of speech ; for both 
 explanations are possible, as we shall attempt to 
 show later. Leaving aside for a while the man 
 Arthur, and assuming the existence of a god of 
 that name, let us see what could be made of him. 
 Mythologically speaking ho would probably 
 have to be regarded as a Culture Hero; for, a 
 model king and the institutor of the Knighthood 
 of the Round Table, ho is represented as the 
 leader of cxpeiUtions to the isles of Hades, and as 
 one who stood in somewhat the saiiK! kind of 
 relation to Qwalchmei as Gwydion did to ILeii. 
 It is needless hen; to dwell on the character 
 usually given to Arthur as a ruler: he with his 
 knights around him may be compared to Con- 
 chobar, in the midst of the Champions of Emain 
 JIacha, or Woden among tlie Anses at Valhalla, 
 while Arthur's Knights arc called those of the 
 Round Table, around which they are described 
 pitting; and it would be interesting to under- 
 stand the signification of the term Round Table. 
 On the wliole it is the table, probably, and not 
 its roundness that is th'j fact to which to call 
 attention, as it possibly means that Arthur's 
 court was the lirst early court where those 
 present sat at a table at all in Britain. No such 
 tiling as a common table tigiires at Conchobar's 
 court or any other described in the old !cgc;ids 
 of Ireland, and the same applies, we believe, to 
 those of the old Norsemen. Tlie attribution to 
 Arthur of the first use of a common table would 
 lit ill well with the character of a Culture Hero 
 which we have ventured to as-^ribc to him, and 
 it derives countonance from the pretended history 
 of the Round Table: for the Arthurian legend 
 traces it back to Artliur's father, Uthr Bendragon, 
 in whom we have under one of Ids many names 
 the king of Hades, the realm whence all culture 
 wiis fabled to have been derived. In a wider 
 sense the Round Table jiossibly signified plenty 
 or abundance, and might be compared with the 
 table of the Ethiopians, at which Zeus and the 
 other gods of Greek irythology used to feast 
 from time to time." — J. Rhys, Stiiilien in the 
 Arthnn'iiii fjer/eiid, ch. 1. — See, also CuMimiA. 
 
 ARTHUR, Chester A.— Election to Vice- 
 Presidency. — Succession to the Presidency. 
 See Inithd ST.vriis ok Am. : A. D. IBSO and 
 1881. 
 
 ARTI OF FLORENCE. See Fi.oiiknce: 
 
 A. D. li.io-ian:). 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 
 
 (American). See Unitku States of Am. : 
 A. D. 1777-1781, aud 178»-1787. 
 
 ARTICLES OF HENRY, The. See Po- 
 land: A. I). Vu'A. 
 
 ARTOIS, The House of. Seo Bourbon, 
 TiiK llorsK OF. 
 
 ARTOIS : A. D. 1529.— Pretensions of the 
 King of France to Suzerainty resigned. .Sco 
 iTAi.v: A. 1). l.-)2T-l.J2!). 
 
 ARTYNI. .See Dkmiluoi. 
 
 ARVADITES, The. — The Canaanite in- 
 habitants of the i.slaud of Aradus, or Arvad, 
 and who also held territory on the main land. — 
 F. Lenorniaut, Miiiiial of Ancient JIM., bk. 6, 
 c/i. 1. 
 
 ARVERNI, The. See JEdvi; also, Gauls, 
 and Ai.i.oiiKooEs. 
 
 ARX, The. See Capitoline Hill; also 
 Gens, Roman. 
 
 ARXAMUS, Battle of.— One of the defeats 
 sustained bv the Romans in their wai-s with the 
 Persians. Battle fought A. 1). COS.— G. Raw- 
 linson, Serenth Gnat Orieittal Moimrehi), eh. 24. 
 
 ARYANS.— ARYAS.—" This family (which 
 is sometimes called Japhetic, or descendants of 
 Japhet) includes the Hindus aud Persians among 
 Asiatic nations, and almost all the peoples of 
 Europe. It may seem strange that we English 
 should be related not only to the Germans aud 
 Dutch and Scandinavians, but to the Russians, 
 French, Spanish, Romans and Greeks as well; 
 stranger still that we can claim kinship with 
 such distant peoples as the Persians and Hindus. 
 . . . What seems actually to have been the ease 
 is this: In distant ages, somewhere about the 
 rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, and on the north of 
 that mountainous range called the Hindoo- Koosh, 
 dwelt the ancestors of all the nations we have 
 enumerated, forming at this time a single and 
 united jieople, simple and primitive in their way 
 of life, but yet having enough of a common na- 
 tional life to preserve a common language. They 
 called themselves Aryas or Aryans, a word 
 which, in its very earliest sense, seems to have 
 meant those who move upwards, or straight; 
 and hence, probably, came tostaml for the noble 
 race as compared with other races on whom, of 
 course, they would look down. ... As their 
 numbers increased, tlie:4paco wherein they dwelt 
 became too small for them who had out of one 
 formed many dilTerent peoples. Then began a 
 series of migrations, in which the collection of 
 tribes who spoke one language and formed one 
 Jieople started oH to si'ck their fortune in new 
 lands. . . . First among them, in all probability, 
 started the Kelts or (!elts, who, travelling 
 jierhaps to the South of the Caspian and the 
 North of the Black Sea, found their way to 
 Europe and spread far on to the extreme West. 
 . . . Another of the great families who left the 
 Aryan home was the Pelasgic or the Griico- 
 Italic. These, journeying along first South- 
 wards and then to the West, passed through 
 Asia Minor, on to the countries of Greece 
 and Italy, and in time separated into those 
 two groat peoples, the Greeks (or Hellenes, as 
 they came to call themselves), and the Romans. 
 . . . Next we come to two other great families 
 of nations who seem to have taken the same 
 route at first, and perhaps began their travels 
 together as the Greeks and Romans did. These 
 are the Teutons and the Slaves. . . . The word 
 Slave comes fromSlowan, which in old Slavonian 
 meant to speak, and was given by theSlavonhms 
 to themaulveH as the people who could Hpeak iu 
 
 187 
 
ARYANS 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 opposition to otlirr nations wliom, rs tliey were 
 not alilc to understand tlicm, tiny were jileased 
 to consider as diitnl). The (in'ok woni liarliaroi 
 (whence onr l)arl)arlans) aros-' in obedience to a 
 iilie prejudice, oidy from an imitation of l)al)t)ling 
 sncli as is niadcliy sayinj? ■ liar lwrl)ar.' " — 
 ('. F, Keary, Ihurn 'if Jfi!'tiin/. eh. 4. — Tlie aljove 
 pass-ige sets fortli tlio older theory of an Aryan 
 family of nations as well as of languages in its 
 nn(|nidilie(l form. lis later modifications are in- 
 dicated in the following: " Tlie discovery of 
 Sanscrit and the furtlier discovery to which it 
 led. that the l.inguiiges now variously known as 
 Aryan, Aryanic, Indo-Kuropcan, Indo-Uennanic, 
 IniloCellic and Japhetic are closely akin to oni^ 
 another, spread a spell over the world of thought 
 which cannot 1)0 said to have yet wholly passed 
 away. It was hastily argued from the kinship 
 of their languages to the kinship of the nations 
 thals|)oke ilicni. . . . The (piestion then arises 
 as to the Inane of the ' holetlinos.' or parent 
 Irihe, before its dispersion and during the pro- 
 ethnic period, at a tin'.e when as yet there was 
 neither Greek nor Hindoo, neither Celt nor 
 Teutiai, but oidy an undifTercnliated Aryan. 
 Of course, the answer at lirst was — wlierc 
 coulil it have been but in the East. And at 
 length the glottologist f()un<l It necessary to 
 shift tlie cradle of the Aryan race to the 
 nciglibourhood of the Oxns and the .laxartes, so 
 as to place it somewhere between the Caspian 
 Sea and the Himalayas. Then Doctor Latliam 
 boldly raised his voice against tin; Asiatic theory 
 altogether, and staicd that ho regarded the at- 
 tempt to d"duce the Aryans from Asia as resem- 
 ■. Mag an attempt to derive! the reptiles of this 
 roimtry from those of Iscland. Afterwards 
 Uenfey argued, from the presence in the vocabu- 
 lary ccanmon to the Aryan languages of words 
 for bear ami wolf, for birch an(l beech, and tlio 
 absence! of certain others, such as those for lion, 
 tig(T and palm, that the original home of the 
 Aryans n\ust have been within the tempernte 
 zcMie in Europe. ... As might be expected in 
 the case of such a dilHcult (piestion, those who 
 are inclined to l)elieve in Iho European origin of 
 the Aryans are by no means agreed among them- 
 selves as to the spot to bo lixed upon. Latham 
 placed it east, or .south-east of Litliuania, in Po- 
 dolia, or Volhynia; Henfcy had in view adistricfc 
 above the Hlack Sea and not far from the Cas- 
 pian ; Pcschel lixed on the slopes of the Caucaans; 
 (,"\mo on the great plain of Central EurojK'; 
 Fligior on the wMithern part of Russia; POsche 
 on the tract between the Niemen and the I)niei)er ; 
 L. (leiger on central and western Oermanv; an<l 
 I'enka on Scandinavia." — J. Rhys, litre fhforics 
 (ill Xew Priiuvton liev., Jan., 1888). — " Aryan, in 
 scientific language, is iitterly inapplicable to race. 
 It means language, and nothing but lan!.'uage; 
 ■ and, if we speak of Aryan race at all, we should 
 know that it means no more than x + Aryan 
 speech. ... 1 have declared again and again 
 that if I say Aryas, I mean neithi'r blood iior 
 bones, nor hair nor skull; 1 mean simply those 
 who speak ati Aryan language. The same ap- 
 plies to Hindus, Greeks, Komans, Germans, 
 Celts and Slaves. ... In that sense, and in that 
 sense only, do I say that even the blackest Hin- 
 dus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech 
 an 1 thought than the fairest Scandinavians. . . . 
 If an answer must be giveti as to the place where 
 our Aryan unccsturg dwelt before Uieirseparutiuu, 
 
 138 
 
 whether in large swarms of millions, or in a f-.-w 
 scattered tents and huts, I should still say, as I 
 said forty years ago, •Somewhere in Asia,' and 
 no more." — F. Max .Mliller, ISiog. of Wonls mid 
 Hiniie of the Ai'iidn, ch. 0. — The theories which 
 dispute the Asiatic origin of the Aryans arc 
 strongly jircsented l)y Canon Taylor in The 
 Orifjin. of the Arijinu, by G. II. Rendall, in The 
 .('i-ii(Ue of the An/(iM, and by Dr. O. Sclirader in 
 PiehiHtorie Antiquities of the Aryan Peoplen. 
 — See, also. India: Tiik ABOuiyiNAL iNiiAniT- 
 AN'Ts, and Tub Im.miguation and C->NCiUEST8 
 ov THE AiiVAs. 
 
 AS.— LIBRA.— DENARIUS.— SESTER- 
 TIUS. — "The term As [.imong the Uonian.sJ 
 and the words which denote its divisions, were 
 not confined to weight alone, but were applied 
 to measures of length and capacity also, and in 
 general to any ol)jcct which could bo regarded as 
 ccaisiiting of twelve equal ])arts. Thus they 
 were commonly Tised to denote shares into which 
 an inheritance was divided." As a unit of 
 weight the As, or Libra, "occupied the same 
 ])osition in the Roman system as tlio i)ound does 
 in our own. According to the most accurate 
 researches, the As was 0(|ual to about Hi oz. 
 avoirdupois, or .7375 of an avoirdupois pound." 
 It " was divided into 1') eq.ial l)arts called uiicia', 
 and I he uncia w;is divided into 24 oijual parts 
 called .scrupula:" "The As, regarded as a coin 
 [of copi)er| originally weighed, as the name im- 
 plies, one pound, and the smaller cojiper coins 
 those fractions of the pound denoted by their 
 names. Hy degrees, however, the weight of the 
 As, regarded as a coin, was greatly dimini.shed. 
 We are told that, about the commencement of 
 the first Punic war, it had fallen from 13 ounces 
 to 3 ounces; in the early part of the second 
 Punic war (B. C. 217), it was roduc-i to one 
 ounci!; and not long afterwards, by a Lex 
 Papiria, it was fixed at half-an-ouncc, wliicl. re- 
 mained the standard ever after." The silver 
 coins of lioi'K! were the Denarius, equivalent 
 (after 317 B. C.) to 10 Asses; the tiuinarius and 
 the Sestertius, which became, respectively, one 
 half and one fourth of the Denarius in value. 
 The Sestertius, at the cIo.se of the Republic, is 
 estimated to have been equivalent in value to 
 two pence sterling of English money. The 
 coinage was debased under the Empire. Tlie 
 princii)al gold coin of the Empire was the De- 
 narius Aureus, which passed for 2o silver De- 
 narii. — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiq., 
 ch. 13, 
 
 ASCALON, Battle of (A. D. 1099). See 
 .Ieuisai.km: a. D. 101)9-1 144. 
 
 ASCANIENS, The. See llKANDENBDlta ; 
 
 A, 1), !)38-1143. 
 
 ASCULUM, Battle of (B. C. 279). See 
 Romk: li, C. 383-37.), 
 ASCULUM, Massacre at. See Ro.me: 
 
 B, C, it()-8S. 
 
 ASHANTEE WAR, The (1874). Sec Eng- 
 land: A, 1). ..•T:',-!880. 
 
 ASHBURION TREATY, The. See 
 Uniti;i> STArK! oi' Am, : A. D. 1842. 
 
 ASHDOD. See PniMSTiNEs. 
 
 ASHRAF, Shah of Persia, A. D. 1725- 
 1730, 
 
 ASHTI,'Battleof(l8i8). See India: A. D. 
 181(1-1819. 
 
 ASIA : The Name. — "There are grounds for 
 believing Europe and Asia to have originally 
 
ASIA. 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 signified 'the west ' ami 'the east ' respectively. 
 IJoth iire Semitic terms, aiid i)r()l)rtl)ly passed to 
 the Greeks from the Pluenieiaiis. . . . The 
 (treeks lirst apjilied the title [Asia] to that i)or- 
 tion of tlie eastern coiitiueiit wliich lay nearest 
 to tlicin, and witli which they hecaine lirst ac- 
 quainted — the coast of Asia Minor opposite th(^ 
 C'ydades; whence they extended it as their 
 knowledge grew. Still it had always a special 
 application to the country about Kphesus." — G. 
 Kawlinson, .V'^.i ti> JlermliitxH. v. 3, /). 33. 
 
 ASIA: The Roman Province (so called). — 
 "As ori,i;;inally coiisliluted, it corresponded to the 
 doniiiiions of tlie kings of Pergamus . . . left 
 bv tlie will of Attains III. to the Roman people 
 (li. ('. 133). ... It included the whole of Mysia 
 and Lydia, with ^liolis, Ionia and Caria, except 
 a small i)art which was subject to Rliodes, and 
 the greater i)art, if not the whole, of Plirygia. 
 A portion of the last region, however, was de- 
 tached from it." — E. II. Uunbury, llUt. of Ancient 
 CIcof/., eh. 20, Kcct. 1. 
 
 ASIA, Central. — Mongol Conquest. See 
 
 M0N(!«)I,S. 
 
 Turkish Conquest. See Tuuks. 
 
 Russian Conquests. Sec Russia: A. I). 
 
 1859-1870, and 1809-1881. 
 
 ASIA MINOR.— "The name of Asia Minor, so 
 familiar to the student of ancient geography, was 
 not in use either among Greek or Roman writers 
 imtil a very late period. Orosius, who wrote in 
 the fifth centmy after the Christian era, is the 
 first extant writer who employs the term in its 
 modern sense." — E. H. B>inbury, //j«<. of An- 
 cient Qcorj., ch. 7, sect. 3. — The aame Anatolia, 
 which is of Greek origin, synonymous with 
 "The Levant," signifying " The Sunrise," came 
 into use among the Byzantines, about the 10th 
 century, uud wag adopted by their successors, 
 the Turks. 
 
 Earlier Kingdoms and People. See Piikyui- 
 ASSANi) Mysians.— Lydians. — Cauians. — Lyci- 
 
 AN8. — BiTHY'NrANS.— PONTUS (CAPPADOCIA). — 
 
 Pai'Iilaoonians. — Thcia. 
 
 The Greek Colonies. — "The tumult which 
 had been caused by the irruption of the Thes- 
 protians into Thessaly and the tlisplacement of 
 the population of Greece [sec Oiikicce: Tub 
 MidiiATioN, &c.] di<l not subside within the lim- 
 its of the peninsula. From the north and the 
 south those inhabitants who were unable to muin- 
 tidn their groimd against the incur.si(ms of the 
 Thessjdians, Arnaeans, or Dorians, and iireferred 
 exile to submission, sought new homes in the is- 
 laiKls of the Aegean and on the western coast of 
 Asia Minor. The migrations continued for sev- 
 eral gtuierations. Wlien at length tliey came to 
 uu end, and the Anatolian coast from .Vlouut Ida 
 to the Triopian headland, with the adjacent 
 Islands, was in the possession of tlie Greeks, three 
 great dlvisioiis or tribes were di.stinguislied in 
 the new settlements: Dorians, lonians, and 
 Aeolians. In spite of the i)resenco of .some alien 
 elements, the Dorians and lonians of Asia Minor 
 were tlie same tribes as th(^ Dorians and lonians 
 of Greece. The Aeolians, on the oilier hand, 
 were a composite tribe, as their name implies. 
 ... Of thes<,' three divisions the .Veolians lay 
 farthest to the north. The precise limits of their 
 territory were dilfereutly fixed by different au- 
 thorities. . . . The Aedlic citU's fell into two 
 groups: a norlhem, of which Lesbos was tin; 
 centre, and a southern, composed of the cities in 
 
 the immediate neighbourhood of the Hennus, 
 and foundeil from Cyme. . . . The northern 
 group indudeil the islandsofTenedos and Lesbos. 
 In the latter there were originally six cities: 
 Methyiniia, Mytilene, Pyrrlia, Eresus, Ari.sba, 
 and .\iiti.ssa, but Arisba was subsequently con- 
 (picred and enslaved by Mytilene. . . . The sec- 
 ond great stream of migratiim proceeded from 
 Athens [after the death of Codrus — see Athens: 
 
 Fno.M TlIK DoUlAX MlliltATION TO B. C. 083 — 
 
 according to Greek tradition, the younger sons 
 of Codrus leading these Ionian colonists across 
 the Aegean, first to the Carian city of Miletus — 
 see JIii.i;ti:s, — which they captured, and then to 
 the coiKiuest of Ephesus and the island <"f Samos]. 
 . . . The colonies sjjread until a (lodccaiK)lis was 
 established, similar to the union wliich the 
 lonians had founded in their old settlements on 
 the northern shore of Peloponnesus. In some 
 cities the Ionian population formed a minority. 
 . . . The coloni.sation of Ionia was undoubtedly, 
 in the main, an achievement of emigrants from 
 Attica, but it was not accomplished by a .single 
 family, or in the space of one life-time. . . . The 
 two most famous of the Ionian cities were Mi- 
 letus and Ephesus. The first was a Carian city 
 previously known as Anactoria. . . . Ephesus 
 wns originally in the li.inds of the Lelegcs and 
 the Lydians, who were driven out by the lonians 
 under Androclus. The ancient stmctuary of the 
 tutelary goddess of the place was transformed 
 by the Greeks into r. temple of Artemis, who 
 was here worshipped as the goddess of birth and 
 productivity in accordance with Oriental rather 
 than Hellenic ideas." The remaining Ionic cities 
 and islands were Myus (named from the mos- 
 quitoes which infested it, and which finally 
 drove the colony to abandon it), Priene, Ery- 
 thrao, Clazomi'me, Teos, Phocaea, Colophon, 
 Lebedus, Samos and Chios. "Chios was first 
 inhabited by Cretans . . . and subsequently by 
 Cariaus. ... Of the manner in which Chios be- 
 came connected with the lonians the Chians could 
 give no clear account. . . . The southern part 
 of the Anatolian coast, and the southern-most 
 islands in the Aegean were colonised by the 
 Dorians, who wrested them from the Phoenician 
 or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is tlie 
 most important. . . . Crete was one of the old- 
 est centres of civilisation in the Aegean [see 
 ('iiETE ]. . . . The Dorian colony in Rhodes, 
 like that in Crete, w;is ascribed to the band which 
 left Argos under the command of Althaemenes. 
 . . . (ither islands colonised by the Dorians were 
 Tliera, . . . Melos, . . . Carpathus, Calvdnae, 
 Nisyrus, and Cos. . . . Prom the islands, the 
 Dorians spread to the mainland. The penin.stda 
 of Cnidiis was perhaps the first settlement. . . . 
 llalicarnassus was founded from Troezen, and 
 the loniim element must luive been considerable. 
 ... Of tlu! Dorian cities, six united in the com- 
 mon worship of Apollo on the headland of Tri- 
 opium. These were Lindus, lalysiis, and Ca- 
 inirus in Rhodes, Cos, and, on the mainland, 
 llalicarnassus and Cnidus. . . . The territory 
 which the Aeolians acquired is (h'scribed by 
 Herodotus as more fertile than that occupied by 
 the lonians. but of a less excellent climate. It 
 was inhabited by a number of tribes, among 
 which th-j Troes or Tcueri were the chief. . . . 
 In Homer the inhabitants of the city of the Troad 
 are Dardani or Thk'S, and the name Teiicri does 
 not occur. In historical times the Oerglthes, 
 
 13!) 
 
ASIA MINOR 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 who dwelt in the town of the same name . . . 
 nca' Ijimpsacus, and also fornKul thp subject 
 p-,,nihiti(iii of Miletus, were the only remnants of 
 '.his once famous nation. Hut their f(jrmer great- 
 ness was attested liy the Homeric poems, and the 
 o<rurrenee of tlie name (terpithiens at various 
 plaees in the Troad [see Tno.l\]. To this trilie 
 belonu'ed the Troy of tlie (Jreeian epic, tlie .site 
 of whieii, so far as it represents any liistorieal 
 city, is fi.xed at Ili.ssarlik. In the' Iliad the 
 Trojan empire extends from the Aesepus to tlie 
 Caieus; it was divided — or, at least, later his- 
 torians speak of it as divided — into principali 
 ties which recognised Priam as their chief. Hut 
 tlie Homeric descriptions of tlie city and its emi- 
 nence are not to lie taken as historically true. 
 Whatcer the power and civilisation of the 
 ancient stronghold exhumed by Dr. Schliemann 
 may have been, it was neccs,siiry for the epic 
 poet to represent Priam and his nation as a dan- 
 gerous rival in wealth and arms to the preat 
 kings of Mycenae and Sparta. . . . The .radi- 
 tional dates fix these colonics [of the Grjeks in 
 Asia Minor] in the generations which followed 
 tlie Trojan war. . . . We may suppose that the 
 colonisation of the Aegean and of Asia Jlinor by 
 the Greeks was coincident with the expulsion of 
 tlic Phoenicians. Tlie greatest extension of the 
 Phoenician power in the Aegean seems to fall in 
 the 15tli century B. C. From the 13th it wa^ 
 gradually <.n the decline, and the Greeks were 
 enabled "to secure the trade for themselves. . . . 
 By 1100 B. C. Asia Minor may have been in the 
 hands of the Greeks, though the Phoenicians 
 still maintained tliemselves in Rhodes and 
 Cyjirus. But all attempts at chronology are 
 illusory." — E. Abbott, Hint, of Greece, c/i. 4(r. 1). 
 Ai.boin: E. C'urtius. Jfiat. of Greece, bk. 2, c/i. 
 8 (c. 1).— G. Grote, Hist, of Greecf, pt. 2, ch. 
 18-15. — J. A. Cramer, Oeog. aiulJIist. Description 
 of Asia Minor, sect. 6 (v. 1). — See, also, Miletus, 
 
 f*IIOt'*ANB. 
 
 B. C. 724-539. — Prosperity of the Greek 
 Colonies. — Their Submission to Croesus, King 
 of Lydia, and their conquest and annexation 
 to the Persian Empire. — "The Grecian colonics 
 on the coast of Asia early rose to wealth by means 
 of trade and manufactures. Though wc have not 
 the means of tracing their commerce, we know that 
 it was considerable, with the mother country, 
 with Italy, and at length Spain, with PhtEnicia 
 ond the interior of Asia, whence the prcxluctions 
 of India passed to Greece. The Milesians, who 
 had line woolen manufactures, extended their 
 commerce to the Euxine, on all sides of which 
 they founde<l factories, and exchanged their 
 manufactures and other gorKl.s with the Scythians 
 and the neighbouring peoples, for slaves, wool, 
 raw hides, bees-wax. flax, hemp, pitch, etc. 
 Tliere is even rea.son to suppose that, by means 
 of caravans, their traders tiartered their wares 
 not far from tlie conflncaof China [see Miletus]. 
 . . . But while they were aii^anoing in wealth 
 and prosperity, a powerful monarchy formed its<;lf 
 in Lv<lia, of which the capital was Sordes. a city 
 at the foot of Mount Tm</liM." Gyges, the first 
 of the Mermnad dvnasty of Lydian kings (see 
 Lydians). w hose reign is STjpposerl to have l»;gun 
 aliout B. C. 7^4, " tuniH his arms against tlie 
 Ionian cities on the con.st. I)uring a century and 
 a half the efforts of tlie Lydian monarchs to re- 
 duce these states were unavailing. At length 
 (01. 55) [B. U. 56»J the celebrated Crcesus 
 
 I mounted the throne of Lydia, and he made all 
 Asia this side of the River Ilalys (Lycia and 
 I Cilicia excepted) acknowledge "his dominion. 
 Tiie Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian cities of tlie 
 coast all i)aid him tribute; but, according to the 
 usual rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled 
 not witli their political institutions, and they 
 might deem themselves fortunate in being insured 
 against war by the payment of an annual sum of 
 money. Crcesus, moreover, cultivated the friend- 
 ship of the European Greeks," But Cra'sus was 
 overthrown, B. C. 554, by the conquering Cyrus 
 and his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed lip in 
 the great Persian empire then taking form [see 
 Pehsia: B. C. 540-5;; 1]. Cyrus, during his war 
 with Cra'sus, had i, led to entice the lonians 
 away from the latte)' and win tliem to an alliance 
 witli himself. But they incurred his resentment 
 by refusing. "They and tlie vEolians now sent 
 arnbassadors, praying to be received to submis- 
 sion on the same terms as those on which they 
 had obeyed the Lydian monarch ; but the Mile- 
 .sians alone found favour: the rest had to prepare 
 fur war. They repaired the walls of their towns, 
 ami sent to Sparta for aid. Aid, however, was 
 refused; but Cyrus, being called away by the 
 war with Babyiui,, iieglectcd them for the pres- 
 ent. Three years afterwards (01. 59, 2), Ilarpa- 
 gus, who had saved Cyrus in his infancy from 
 his grandfather Astyagcs, came as governor of 
 Lydia. He instantly prepared to reduce the 
 cities of the coast. Town after town submitted. 
 The Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to 
 Abdcra in Thrace; the Phoca'ans, getting on 
 shipboard, and vowing never to return, sailed for 
 Cor.sica, and being tliere harassed by the Car- 
 thagenians and Tyrrhenians, they went to 
 Rhegion in Italy, anil at length founded Massalia 
 (Marseilles) on the coast of Gaul. The Grecian 
 colonies thus became a part of the Persian em- 
 pire." — T. Keightley, Jliat. of Greece, pt. 1, ch. U. 
 
 Also in : Ilerodotus, Hist. , tr. and ed. by O. 
 RaiclinsoH, bk. 1, and app. — M. Duncker, Hist, 
 of Antiquilu, bk. 8, ch. 0-7 (». 6). 
 
 B. C. 501-493. — The Ionian revolt and its 
 suppression. See Peksia ; H. C. 521-19B. 
 
 B. C. 479. — Athens assumes the protection 
 of Ionia. See Athens: B. C. 479-478. 
 
 B. C. 477. — Formation of Confederacy of 
 Delos. See Greece: B. C. 478-477. 
 
 B. C. 413. — Tribute again demanded from 
 the Greeks by the Persian King. — Conspiracy 
 against Athens. See Greece: B. C. 413. 
 
 B. C. 413-412.— Revolt of the Greek cities 
 from Athens. — Intrigues of Alcibiades. See 
 Greece: B. C. 418-412. 
 
 B. C. 412. — Re-submission to Persia. See 
 Persia ; B. C. 486-405. 
 
 B. C. 401-400.— Expedition of Cyrus the 
 Younger, and Retrf^.-it of the Ten Thousand. 
 See Persia: B. C. I 400. 
 
 B. C. 399-387.— Spartan war with Persia 
 in behalf of the Greek cities. — Their aban- 
 donment by the Peace of Antalcidas. See 
 GiiEKCE: B. C. 80(l-;!87. 
 
 B. C. 334. — Conquest by Alexander the 
 Great. Sec Macedonia: B. C. 8;!4-:530. 
 
 B. C. 301. — Mostly annexed to the Thracian 
 Kingdom of Lysimachus. See Macedonia, 
 &c. : H. C, 310-301. 
 
 B. C. 281-224.— Battle-ground of the war- 
 ring monarchies of Syria and Egfypt. — 
 Changes of masters. See Seleucidj::. 
 
 140 
 
ASIA MINOR. 
 
 ASSASSINS. 
 
 B. C. 191. — First Entrance of the Romans. 
 — Their defeat of Antiochus the Great. — 
 Their expansion of the kingdom of Perga- 
 mum and the Republic of Rhodes. Sw Sklku- 
 HD.i'.: IS, C. 224-1^7. 
 
 B. C. 120-65. — Mithrtdates and his king- 
 dom. — Massacre of Italians. — Futile revolt 
 from Rome. — Complete Roman Conquest. Sec 
 JIiTimiDATic AVaus; also Home: B. C. 78-C8, 
 unci (ii)-0;j, 
 
 A. D. 292. — Diocletian's seat of Empire es- 
 tablished at Nicomedia. Soo Homk: A. D. 
 28l-:i()ri. 
 
 A. D. 602-628.— Persian invasions. — Deliv- 
 erance by Heraclius. Set' Home: A. D. .lOri- 
 628. 
 
 A. D. 1063-1092. — Conquest and ruin by the 
 Seljuk Turks. See Tuuks (Seljuks): A. D. 
 l()(i;t-1073; and 1073-;093. 
 
 A. D. 1097-1 149.— Wars of the Crusaders. 
 See Crusades: A. D. l()!l«-1009; and 1147-1149. 
 
 A. D. 1204-1261. — The Empire of Nicaea 
 and the Empire of Trebizond, Sec Guekk 
 Emi'iiie ok Nic.ea. 
 
 ASIENTO, OR ASSIENTO, The. See 
 Si..\\i:uy: A. D. 1698-i.Vtt; Dtueciit: A. D. 
 1713-1714; Aix-la-Chapeli.e, The Congress 
 of; England: A. D. 1739-1741; and Geouoia: 
 A. n. 1738-1743. 
 
 ASKELON. See Philistines. 
 
 ASKLEPIADS.— "Throughout all the his- 
 torical ages [of Greece] the descendants cf 
 Asklepius [or Esculapius] were numerous and 
 widely diffused. The many families or t!;entcs 
 called Asklfipiads, who devoted themselves to 
 the study and practice of medicine, and who 
 princi])rtlly dwelt near the temples of AsklOpius, 
 whither sick and suffering men came to obtain 
 relief — all recognized the god, not merely as the 
 object of their common worship, but also as their 
 actual ])rogenitor." — G. Grote, Iliat. of Orccee, 
 pt. 1, r//. 9. 
 
 ASMONE ANS, The. See Jews: B. C. 166- 
 4(1. 
 
 ASOPIA. See Sicyon. 
 
 ASOV. See Azof. 
 
 ASPADAN.— The ancient name of which 
 that of Ispahan is a corrupted form. — G. 
 Kawliiison, /'\'ct< Great Mi>nnrchies: ^f<^(li(t, ch. 1. 
 
 ASPERN - ESSLINGEN (OR THE 
 MARCHFELD), Battle of. See Germany: 
 A. i), 1809 (.Ianuauy— June). 
 
 ASPIS, The. See Phalanx. 
 
 ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at 
 (1862). See Italy: A. D. 18(i2-18ti0. 
 
 ASSAM, English Acquisition of. Sec 
 India: A. I). 1823-1833. 
 
 ASSANDUN, Battle of.— Tlio sixth and 
 last l)attle, A. 1). lOlti, between Edmund Iron- 
 siilos, the English King, and his Danish rival, 
 Ciiut, or Canute, for tlic Crown of England. 
 Tlie English were terribly defeated and the 
 flower of their nobility perished on the field. 
 Tlie result was a division of the kingdom ; but 
 Edmund soon died, or was killed. Ashington, 
 in Essex, was the battlegrouml. See Eniiland: 
 A. 1). 979-101(1. 
 
 ASSASSINATIONS, Notable.— Abbas, 
 Pasha of Egypt. See Eoypt: A. 1). 1840-1809. 
 
 Alexander II. of Russia. See Russia: 
 
 A. I). 1879-1881.... Beatoun, Cardinal. See 
 Bcotla^d: a. D. 1040 Becket, Thomas. 
 
 ScoEnoland: A. D. 1163-1170 Buckingham. 
 
 See E.NOLAND: A. I). 1028. . . .Cssar. Sec RiiMr;: 
 li. V. 44... Capo d'Istrea, Count, President 
 
 of Greece. See (iuKi:(i:: A. 1). 1830-1802 
 
 Cavendish, Lord Frederick, and Burke, Mr. 
 
 See luKLAXD: A. I>. 18,S2 Concini. See 
 
 ruANCK; A. 1). 1010-1019.... Danilo, Prince of 
 
 Montenegro (i860). See .Mo.ntenkcuo 
 
 Darnley. See Scotland: A. D. 1501-1.108 
 
 Francis of Guise. SeeFuANCK: A. I). 1500-1503. 
 
 Garfield, President. See U.nitkd States 
 
 OK Am, : A, 1). IH.si Gustavus III. of Sweden, 
 
 See Scandinavian States (Sweden): A. U. 
 1720-1792. .. .Henry of Guise. See France: 
 A. D. 1584-1589. . . . Henry III. of France. See 
 France: A. I). 1584-1589. .. .Henry IV. of 
 
 France. See France: A. D. 1.599-1000 
 
 Hipparchus. See Athens: B. C. 500-510 
 
 John, Duke of Burgundy. See France: A. D. 
 1415-1419.... Kleber, General. See France; 
 
 A. D. 1800 (January— June) Kotzebue. 
 
 See Germ.\ny: A. D. 1817-1820 Lincoln, 
 
 President. See United States ok Am. : A. D. 
 
 1805 (April 14tii) Marat. See Pr-^nce: 
 
 A. I). 1793 (July). . . .Mayo, Lord. Sec India: 
 
 A. D. 1802-1870 . . .Murray, The Regent. See 
 
 Scotland: A. D. 1501-1508 Omar, Caliph. 
 
 See Maho.metan Conquest, &c. : A. I). GOl .... 
 Paul, Czar of Russia. See Russia: A.I). 1801. 
 
 Perceval, Spencer. See England: A. D. 
 
 1803-1812.... Peter III. See Russia: A. D. 
 1761-1703 ... Philip of Macedon. See Greece: 
 
 B. C. 357-330... Prim, General (1870). See 
 Spain: A. I). 1800-1873. .. .Rizzio. See Scot- 
 land: A. D. 1.501-1568 Rossi, Count. See 
 
 Italy: A. D. 1848-1840. . . .Wallenstein (1634). 
 See Germany: A. D. 1032-1034. .. .William 
 the Silent. See Netherlands: A. 1). 1581- 
 
 1584 Witt, John and Cornelius de. See 
 
 Netherlands: A. D. 1072-1074. 
 
 ASSASSINS, The.— "I must here speak 
 with the brevity which my limits prescribe of 
 that wond(!rful brotherhood of the Assassins, 
 wliicli during the 12th and 13th centuries spread 
 sucli terror through nil Asia, Mussulman and 
 (Mirlslian. Their deeds sliould be .studied in 
 Von Hammer's history of tlieir order, of whiih 
 however there is an excellent analysis in Taylor's 
 History of Jlohammedanism. The word Assassin, 
 it must be remembered, in its ordinary signitiea- 
 tiou, is derived from this order, ah>i not the re- 
 verse. The Assassins were not so called because- 
 they were murderers, but murderers are called 
 assiissins because the Assassins were iiiurderei-s. 
 The origin of the word Assassiu has been much 
 disputed by oriental scholars; but its application 
 is sulliciently written upon the Asiatic history ol 
 the 13th century. The As.sassins were not, strictly 
 siieaking, a dynasty, but rather nn order, like the 
 Templars; only the otlice of Grand-Master, liUo 
 the Calipliate, became hereditary. They were 
 originally a branch of the Egyptian Isliniaelitea 
 [see Mahom1':tan Conquest:" A. D. 908-1171] 
 and at first professed the principles of that sect 
 But there can be no doubt thai their inner doc- 
 trine became at last a mere negation of all religion 
 and all morality. ' To believe nothing and to 
 dare everything ' was the summary of their 
 twiching. Tlieir c;cotcric principle, addressed to 
 the non-initiated members of the onler, was 
 simple blind obedience to tlio will of their su 
 I)eriors. If tlie Assassin Wiis ordered to take oil 
 u Caliph or u Sultuu by the dagger or the bowl. 
 
 141 
 
ASSASSINS. 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 the clccil wnMilonr; if lie was onlcrod to throw 
 liiiiisi'lf from the niiii|)iirts, tlif deed was done 
 !ikrwis<'. . . . Tlicir founder was I Iiissan Sabali, 
 who, ill lOitO, shortly licfore the death of Malek 
 Hhah, Nelze<l the caslU' of Alamout — the Vul- 
 ture's nest — ill northern I'ersla. wlienee tliey ex- 
 tended their ixwse-isions over a wliol(! <'liain of 
 inountaiii fortresses in that roiintiy and in Syria. 
 The (iiand-Masler was tlie Slieili'liiil-Jelial, tlie 
 fainoiis Old Mat. of tlie .Moiiiitaiii, at wliose name 
 Eiiri>|)e and A^ia shuddered." — E. A. Freeman, 
 Hist. II ml Ciimiiieiiln of the Suniei'iin, led. A. — " In 
 Ilie Katitniiic Kliallf of Egypt, lliey [tlie 
 Assassins, or IsimiUiens of Syria and Persia] he- 
 lield an inearnate deity. To kill his enemies, in 
 will. .ever way they best eoiild, was nn nelion, 
 the' merit of whieh eould not he disputed, and 
 the reward for which was certain." Hasan 
 Hatiali, the founder of the ()r(h'r, died nt Ala- 
 mout A. 1>. 11-t. " From the day he entered 
 Alamul until that of his death — ii period of 
 thirty-live years — \w never emerge 1, but upon 
 two occasions, from the seclusion oi his house. 
 Pitiless and inscrutable as Destiny, he watched 
 tile troutiled world (>f Oriental politics, himself 
 invisible, and whenever he perceived a formida- 
 ble foe, caused a dagger to be driven into his 
 heart." It was not until more than a ccntuiy 
 after the death of its founder that the fearful 
 organization of the Assassins was extinguished 
 (A. 1). 12.")T) by tlie aime flood of Mongol inva- 
 sion which swept Uagdad and the Caliphate out 
 of existence. — K. 1). Osborii, hhtm viukr the 
 Khalifn of Jliiffdml, pt. ;J, c/i. 3.— W. (.'. Taylor, 
 Jlint. of }fi>hiiinme.iianisin iind its Secln, ch. 9. — 
 The Assassins were rooted out from all their 
 strongholds in Kuhistan and the neighboring re 
 gion, and were practieidlv exterminated, in 1357, 
 by the Jlongols under Khulagu, or Houlngou, 
 brother of AI()ngu Khan, the great sovcl'eign of 
 the Mongol Empire, then reigning. Alamut, 
 the Vulture's Xest, was demolishet'. — II. H. 
 lloworth. Hint, of the ^f<>llf/o!s, ]mH 1, n. 193; itnil 
 part ;i, /(/). 91-1(K— See li.\(il)Al): A.'l). 1258. 
 
 ASSAYE, Battle of (1803). See India: A. D. 
 1798-1805. 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE NOTABLES IN 
 TRANCE (1787). See Fiianck: A. 1). 1774- 
 1788. 
 
 ASSENISIPIA, The proposed State of. 
 See NonTiiwKST Ticuiiitohv of tiik United 
 St.\tks OK Am. : A. 1). 1784. 
 
 ASSIDEANS, The. See Ciiasidi.m, The. 
 
 ASSIENTO, The. See Asiento. 
 
 ASSIGNATS. See France: A. 1). 1789- 
 1791; 1794-1795 (Jui.v — Apiiti,); 1795 (OcTo- 
 BEIl — 1)k(i:mi.i-.ui. 
 
 ASSINARUS, Athenian defeat and sur- 
 render at the. See Sykacuse; U. C. 41.5-413. 
 
 ASSINIBOIA. Sec NonTirwEBT Teiiri- 
 TOHii;s OK Canada. 
 
 ASSINIBOINS, The. Sec American Auo- 
 HiiiiNKs: SiofAN Family. 
 
 ASSIZE, The Bloody. See England: 
 
 A. I). 1085 (SKfTICMUKH). 
 
 ASSIZE OF BREAD A'^'D ALE. — The 
 Assize of Hread and .Vie wa*^ m English ordi- 
 iiaiiee or enactment, dating back to the time of 
 Henry III. in the 13tli century, which fixed the 
 price of those coniinodities by a scale regulated 
 according to the market prices <if wheat, bailey 
 and oats. "The .Vssi/.e of bread was re-enacted 
 so lately as the beginning of the last century and 
 
 was only abolished in Londcm and its neighbour 
 1io(nI about thirty years ago" — that is, early in 
 the present century. — O. L. Craik, Jlitl. of 
 Ihitinh Comiiifnv, 1: 1, ;). 137. 
 
 ASSIZE OF CLARENDON, The. See 
 Enoi.and: A. D. Il<i2-1 17(». 
 
 ASSIZE OF JERUSALEM, The.— " No 
 sooner liad Oodfrey of Itoiiilliin |elc<'lcd King of 
 Jerusalem, after the taking of the Holy City bv 
 tlie t'rusiulcrs. A. I). lt)99| accepted the otllee o'f 
 supreme magistrate than lie solicited the public 
 and private advice of the Latin pilgrims who 
 were the best skilled in the statutes and customs 
 of Europe. From these materials, with the 
 counsel and approbation of the Piitriareh and 
 U.roiis, of the clergy and laity, Godfrey coni- 
 ])Osed the Assise of .lerusaleni, a |)recious moriu- 
 iiient of feudal jurisprudence. The new code, 
 attested by the seals of the King, the Patriarch, 
 and the Viscount of .leru.saleiu, was deposited 
 ii. the holy sepulchre, enriched with the iiu- 
 proveiueiitsof succeeding times, and respectfully 
 consulted asoften as any doubtful nueslion aro.se 
 in the tribunals of Palestine. With the king- 
 dom and city all was lost; the fragment.? of the 
 written law were preserved by jealous tradition 
 and variable practice till the middle of the 
 thirteenth century. The code was restored by 
 the pen of John d'Ibelin, Count of Jaffa, one of 
 the principal feudatories; and the final revision 
 was accomplislied in the year thirteen hundred 
 and sixty-nine, for the use of the Latin kingdom 
 of Cyprus."— E. Giblion, Decline u ml Full of the 
 liomiin Empire, eh. 58. 
 
 ASSIZES. — "The formal edicts known under 
 the name of Assizes, the Assizes of Clarendon 
 and Northampton, the Assize of Arms, the 
 Assize of the Forest, and the Assizes of Measures, 
 are the only relics of the legislative wcrk of the 
 period [reign of Henry II. in England]. These 
 edicts are chiefly composed of new regulations 
 for the enforcement of royal justice. ... In 
 this respect they strongly resemble the capitu- 
 laries of the Frank Kings, or, to go farther back, 
 the edicts of the lioman jinutors. . . . The 
 term Assize, which comes into use in tliis mean- 
 ing about the middle of the twelfth centuiy, 
 both on the continent and in EngUind, appears 
 to be the proper Norman name for such edicts. 
 ... In the ' Assize of Jerusalem ' it simply 
 means a law; and the same in Henry's legisla- 
 tion. Secondarily, it moans a form of trial 
 established by the" particular law, ns the Great 
 A.ssize, the As.size of Mort d'Ancester; and 
 thirdly the court held to hold such trials, in 
 which sense it is commonly used at the present 
 dav."— W. Stubbs, Comt. Hint. ofEn(j.,ch. 13. 
 
 ASSUR. See AssviitA. 
 
 ASSYRIA. — For matter relating to Assyrian 
 history, the reader is referred to the caption 
 Semites, under which it will be given. The sub- 
 ject is deferred to that i)nrt of this work which 
 will go later into print, for the reason that every 
 month is adding to the knowledge of the students 
 of ancient oriental history and clearing away dis- 
 puted (pitstions. It is quite possible that the 
 time between the i)ubli(?ation of our first volume 
 and our fourth or lifth may inakc important ad- 
 di'ions to the scanty literature of the suliject in 
 Fuglish. Modern exaivation on the sites of the 
 ancient cities in the East, bringing to light large 
 dirary collections of inscribed clay tablets,— 
 tacred and historical writings, otHcial records, 
 
 141 
 
ASSYRIA 
 
 ASTY. 
 
 business contrncts and mnny vnrictics of inscrip- 
 tions, — Imvc iilmost revolutionized tlic study of 
 ancient liistorj' and tlic views of antiquity derived 
 from it. "M. Botta, wlio was appointoil Frencli 
 consul at Mosul in 1842, was tlic first to com- 
 mence excavations on the sites of the buried 
 cities of Assyria, and to liim is due the honour of 
 the first discovery of her long lost palaces. M. 
 ijotta commenced liis labours at Kouyunjili, the 
 large mound oppo.site JIosul, but he found hcie 
 very little to compensate for his laliours. New 
 nt t1ie time to excavations, he does not appear to 
 have worked in tlie best manner; JI. Hotta at 
 Kouyunjik contented him.self with sinking pits 
 in the mound, and on the.sc proving unproduc- 
 tive abandoning tliein. While M. IJotta was ex- 
 cavating at Kouyunjik, liis attention was called 
 to the mounds of Khorsabad by a native of the 
 village on that site ; and he sent a party of work- 
 men to the spot to commimco excavation. In a 
 few days liis perseverance was rewarded by the 
 discovery of some sculptures, after which, aban- 
 doning the work at Kouyunjik, he transferred 
 his establishment to Khorsabad and thoroughly 
 explored that site. . . . The palace which >i. 
 Botta had discovered . . . is one of the most per- 
 fect Assyrian buildings yet explored, and forms 
 nn excellent exanii)Ic of Assyrian architecture, 
 Beside the palace on the mound of Khorsabad, 
 M. Botta also opened the remains of a temple, 
 and a grand porch decorated by six winged bulls. 
 . . . The operations of M. Botta were brought 
 to a clo.sc in 184.'), and a splendid collection of 
 sculptures and other antiquities, the fruits of his 
 labours, arrived !n Paris in 1^40 and was de- 
 posited in the Louvre. Afterwards the French 
 Government appointed JI. Place consul at JIosul, 
 and he continued some of the excavations of his 
 predecessor. . . . 3Ir. Layard, whose attention 
 was early turned in this direction, visited the 
 country in 1840, and afterwards took a great in- 
 terest in the excavations of jM. Botta. At length, 
 in 1845, Layard was enablc'd through the assis- 
 tance of Sir Stratford Canning to commence exca- 
 vations in Assyria himself. On the 8tli of Novem- 
 ber he started from Mosul, and descended th(! 
 Tigris to Kimioud. . . . Mr. Layard has described 
 in ills works with great minuteness his successive 
 excavations, and the remarkable and interesting 
 discoveries lie made. . . . After making tliese 
 discoveries in Assyria, Mr. Lavard visited Baby- 
 lonia, and opened trenches in several of the 
 mounds there. On the return of 5Ir. I.,ayard to 
 England, excavations were continued in the 
 Euphrates valley under the superintendence of 
 Colonel (now Sir Henry) Bawlinson. Under his 
 directions, Jlr. llormiizd Uassam, Mr. Loftus, 
 and Mr. Taylor excavated various sites and made 
 uumerous discoveries, the British JIuseum receiv- 
 ing tlic best of the monuments. The materials 
 collected in the national museums of France and 
 England, and the numerous inscriptions pub- 
 lished, attracted tiie attention of the learned, and 
 very soon considerable light was thrown on the 
 history, language, manners, and customs of an- 
 cient Assyria and Babylonia." — O. Smitli, As- 
 tyrian Viseoreriea, ch. 1. — "One of the most im- 
 portant results of Sir A. IL Layard's explorations 
 at Xineve'i was the discovery of the ruined 
 library of tlie ancient city, now buried under the 
 mounds of Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets 
 belonging to this library not only furnished the 
 student with au immense mass of literary matter, 
 10 
 
 but also witli direct aids towards a knowledge of 
 the Assyrian syllabary and language. Among 
 the literature reprcsciHed in the library ot Kou- 
 yunjik were lists of characters, with their various 
 phonetic and ideographic ni tnings, tables of 
 synonymes, and catalogues of ih(^ names of plants 
 and animals. This, however, was not all. The 
 inventors of the cuneiform system of writing had 
 been a people wlio ])roceded the Semites in the 
 occupation of Babylonia, and who sjioke an ag- 
 glutinative language utterly diflerent from that 
 of their Semitic succe.s.sors. These Accadiaiis, 
 as they are usually termed, left behind them a 
 considerable amount of literature, whicli was 
 highly prized by the Semitic Babylonians and As- 
 syrians. A large i)ortion of the Jsinevite tablets, 
 accordingl3', consists of interlinear or parallel 
 translations from Accadian into Assyrian, as avcU 
 as of reading books, dictionaries, and grammars, 
 in which the Accadian original is placed by the 
 side of its Assyrian equivalent. . . . The bilingual 
 texts have not only enabled scholars to recover 
 the long-forgotten Accadian language ; they have 
 also been of the greatest possible assistance to 
 them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian dic- 
 tionary il.self. The three expeditions conducted 
 by Jlr. George Smith [1873-1870], as well as the 
 later ones of Mr. llormuzd Hassam, have added 
 largely to the stock of tablets from ICouyunjik 
 originally acquired for the British Museum by 
 Sir A. II. Layard, and have also brought to light 
 a few other tablets from the libraries of Baby- 
 lonia." — A. II. Sayce, Fresh Liyht from ths An- 
 cient Monuments, ch. 1. 
 
 Ai-soin:G Uawliiison, Firedrcnt Monarchies: 
 The Second Moniirehi/, ch. 0. — M. Duncker, Hist. 
 ofAntir/iiili/, /j/cs3-4. — Geo. Smith, Ancient Hist, 
 from the Monuments: Assi/ria. — Sec, also, Bauy- 
 i,oNi,\ and Skmiths. 
 
 ASSYRIA, Eponym Canon of. — "Just as 
 there were archoiis at Athens and consuls at 
 Home wlio were elected annually, so among the 
 As.syrians there was a custom of electing one 
 man to be over the year, whom they called 
 'liniu,' or 'eponym.' . . . Babylonian and 
 Assyrian documents were more generally dated 
 by the names of these eponyms than by that of 
 the reigning King. ... In 1862 Sir Henry 
 Hawlinson discovered the fragment of the 
 eponym canon of Assyria. It was one of the 
 grandest and most important discoveries ever 
 made, for it has decided definitely a great many 
 lioints which otiierwisc could never have been 
 cleared up. Fragments of seven copies of this 
 canon were found, and from these the chronology 
 of Assyria has been definitely settled from B. C. 
 1330 to about IJ. C. G30."— E. A. AV. Budge, 
 li((hi/lj)niiin Life ninl Hislori/, ch. 3, 
 
 ASTOLF, King of the Lombards, A. D. 
 74i)-7r)!), 
 
 ASTRAKHAN : The Khanate, See Mon- 
 gols: A, 1), l',>;iS-13i}l. 
 
 A. D. 1569.— Russian repulse of the Turks. 
 See Hissi.v: A. I), l.')09-l.'i71. 
 
 ASTURIANS, The. See C.VNTAnui.VNS. 
 
 ASTURIAS: Resistance to the Moorish 
 Conquest. SccSi-ain: A, 1). 713-737. 
 
 ASTY, OR ASTU, The.— The ancient city 
 of Athens i)roi)er, as distinguished from its con- 
 nected harbors, was called the Asty, or Asm. 
 — .1. A. St. .lohn. The Hellenes, bk. 1, ch. 4. 
 
 Ai-so IN : W. M. Leake, Toimjraphy-of Athens, 
 sect. 10.— See, also, Atukns: Aueia, «&c. 
 
 143 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 ASTYNOMI.— CiTtiiiii police offlrinls in nn- 
 <iciil .\ I Inns, tin in immbi'r. "Tlicy were 
 cliargwl with all tliiit licloiiftH tn street siiiier- 
 visioii, c. i!., liic cli'iiiisln^ of tlio slrectM. fur 
 
 wliicli purpose ll oprolojri, or street-sweepers, 
 
 were iinilertlieir orders; tlie seeiiriiigof moriililv 
 1111(1 decent lieliiivioiir ill tlie streets."— (I. I<\ 
 .Seliiimiiiiii. .Xiitiij. iifilirerr : Tin Stiilr, ]it. I!. r!i. ',\. 
 
 ASUNCION : A. D. 1537.— The founding 
 of the city. See I'xuMirw: .V. I), l.")!.")-!.")"!?. 
 
 ATABEGS, ATTABEGS, OR ATTA- 
 BECKS.— ■• Kroiii the ileeMiie of the dynasty of 
 .Seljooli to the eoiic|iiest of I'ersiii l)y Iliilakoo 
 Ivhaii, the son of Clien^diis, 11 iK'ri(Hl of more 
 than a century, tlial country wii.s distracted hy 
 the contests "of petty princes, or jtoveriiors, 
 called Att«t)ej;s, wlio, taliins iidvaiitaffe of tliu 
 weakness of tlie last Seljookiaii moiiarelis, and 
 of the distractions wliich followed their tinal 
 extinction, estnttlislied their authority over some 
 of the finest jirovinces of the Empire. Many of 
 these petty dynasties ac(piired such a local fame 
 U8. to this day, gives an importjiiice to their 
 memory with the inhahitaiits of the countries 
 over which they ruled. . . . Tlie word Atta- 
 beg is Turkish; it is a compound word of 'atta,' 
 muster, or tutor, and 'beg,' lord; and signilies a 
 governor, or tutor, of a lord or prince." — Sir J. 
 
 Malcolm, Uht. nf Persia, r. 1. rh. 0. — "It is true 
 that the Atabciis appear but a short space as 
 actors on the stage of Kastern history; but these 
 •tutors of princes' occupy n position neillier 
 insignitie.-int nor unimportant in ihe course of 
 events which occurred in Syria and Persia at the 
 time they nourished." — W". 11. .Alorlcy, Preface 
 tn Mirkiidiiil's //int. of the Alabeka. — See, also, 
 
 S.M.ADIN. TlIK K.MI'IUK OK. 
 
 ATAHUALPA, The Inca. Sec Peru; 
 A. I) l.VU-1."):!:!. 
 
 ATELIERS NATIONAUX OF 1848, AT 
 PARIS. See Fkanck; A. I). 18-18 (Pkiihi;.\iiy 
 —.May), ami (.\im:ii.— I)K(l-:Miti-;u), 
 
 ATHABASCA, The District of. See Nouth- 
 WKsr TKiturroKtKs of ('a.sad.v. 
 
 ATHABASCANS, The. See American 
 Aiioiii(ii..i-:s; Atiiai'ascan Family. 
 
 ATHALAYAS. See .Saudinia, The Island: 
 
 NAMK AND KAIil.V IlISTOKY. 
 
 ATHEL.-ATHELING.— ATHEL- 
 BONDE. See .Vdki,. 
 
 ATHENRY, Ba'tle of.— The most desperate 
 battle fought by the Iiish in resisting the Eng- 
 lish coiKpiest of Ireland. They were terribly 
 slaught-ered and the chivalry of Connaught was 
 crushed. The battle occurred Aug. 10, A. D. 
 1316.— >[. Haverty, Hist, of Ireland, p. 283. 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 The Preeminence of Athens. — " When we 
 speak of Greece we think tirst of Athens. . . . 
 To citizens and to strangers by means of epic 
 recitations and dramatic siiectacles, she presented 
 an idealised image of life itself. She was the 
 home of new ideas, the mother-city from which 
 poetry, ehxiuence, and philosophy spread to 
 distant lands. While the chief dialects of Greece 
 survive, each not as a mere dialect but as the 
 language of literature, — a thing unKnown in the 
 history of any other people, — the Attic idiom, 
 in which ttie characteristic elements of other 
 dialects met and were blended, has become to 
 us, as it did to the ancients, the very typo of 
 Hellenic speech. Athens was not only the ' capi- 
 tal of Greece. ' the ' school of Greece ; ' it deserves 
 the name applied to it in an epitaph 011 Euripides: 
 'liis country is Athens, Greece of Greece.' The 
 rays of the Greek genius here foimd a centre and 
 a focus." — S. H. Butcher, Soiiu; Asjxets nf the 
 Greek Oenins, pp. 38-30. — "Our interest in an- 
 cient history, it inaj' be said, lies not in detai?s 
 but in large masses. It matters little how early 
 the Arcaclians acquired a political \inity or what 
 Nabis did toMycenic; that which interests us is 
 the constitution of Athens, the repulse of Persia, 
 the brief bloom of Thebes. Life is not so long 
 that we can spend oiir days over the unimportant 
 fates of uninteresting tribes and towns." 
 
 Area and Population. — "Tln^ entire circuit 
 of the Asty [the lower city, or Athens proper]. 
 Long Walls and maritime city, taken as one In- 
 closure, is equal to alxnil 17 Engli.sh mile.s. or 
 148 stades, This is very dilterent from the 300 
 stades which Dion Chry.sostoin .states to liave 
 been the circumference of the same walls, an 
 estimate exceeding by more than 20 stades even 
 the sum of the peripheries of the Asty and 
 Peiraic tnwns, according to the numbers of 
 Thucydidcs. . . . Uonie was circular, Syracuse 
 
 triangular, and Athens consisted of two circular 
 cities, joined by a street of four miles in length, 
 — a figure, the superficies of which was not more 
 than tlie fourth part of that of a city of an equal 
 circumference, in a circular fornL Hence, when 
 to Rome within the walls were added suburbs 
 of c(jual extent, its population was greater tlian 
 that of all Attica. That of Athens, although 
 the most populous city in Greece, was probably 
 never greater than 300,' lOO." — W. M. Leake, 
 Topoyraph)/ of At/iens, sect. 10. 
 
 Ionian Origin. See Dorians and Ionians. 
 
 The Beginning of the city-state. — How 
 Attica was absorbed in its capital. — " In the 
 days of Cecrops and the first kings [see Attica] 
 down to the reign of Theseus, Attica was divided 
 into communes, having their own town-halls and 
 magistrates. Except in case of alarm the whole 
 people did not a.s8emble in council under the 
 king, but administered their own affairs, and ad- 
 visetl- together in their several townships. Some 
 of them at times even went to war with him, as 
 the Eleu.sinians under Eumolpus with Erectheiis. 
 But when Theseus came to the throne, he, being 
 a powerful as well as a wise ruler, among other 
 improvements in the administration of the coun- 
 try, dissolved the councils and separate govern- 
 ments, and united all the inhabitants of Attica in 
 the present city, establishing one council and 
 town-hall. They continued to live on their own 
 lands, but he compelled them to resort to Athens 
 as their metropolis, and henceforward they were 
 all inscribed in the roll of her citizens. A great 
 city thus arose which was handed down by The- 
 seus to his descendants, and from his day to this 
 the Athenians have regularly celebrated the na- 
 tional festival of tlie Synoecia, or ' union of the 
 communes ' in honour of the goddess Athene. 
 Before his time, what is now the Acropolis and 
 the ground lying under it to the soutli was the 
 
 144 
 
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PLAN OF ATHENS. 
 From -Mythology and MonumenU of Ancient Athem^' by Jane E. Harrison and Margaret de G. Verrall. 
 
 IIAHIIOHS OK ATHENS. 
 
 146 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 624. 
 
 city. Miiny reasons may bo urjrod in proof of 
 this slatciiv'tit."— Tlmcydidfs, llintory (Joicctt's 
 traiiK.). Ilk: i. Kirl 1."). 
 
 Ai.w) I.N: .M. Diiiirlicr, IIi»t. of Oreeee, hk. 3, eh. 
 7 (r. 'i). 
 
 From the Dorian Migration to B. C. 683.— 
 End of kingship and institution of the 
 Archons. — At tlic cihiiIi nf llio Itin'otiaii ;ind 
 |)i)ri.iii iiii:;i:itions (m'c (iKKKiK: Thk Mlc.U.v- 
 Tio.Ns), Attica was lloodi'il by fiisritivos. lK>th 
 fniiii till' iiiirtli and from llie Pt'loponnesus. 
 "But thi' bidlv of the refuirt'fs passtd on to 
 .Vsia. and built up tho litios of louia. . . . 
 Wlicii the swarms of cinisrriiuts dcari'd i>ff. lUid 
 Alliens is aiiaiii disccrnablo, the crown luis piLsstd 
 from the old royal house of the Oecropidiie to a 
 family of exiles from Peloponnesus. ... A 
 generation later the Dorian invasion, which had 
 overwhelmed Coriiitli and torn away Mesr.irtj 
 from the .\ttic dominion, swept up to the very 
 gates of Athens. An oracle dechmnl that the 
 city would never fall if its ruler perishe<l by the 
 haiid of the invaders: therefore Kin; t'odrus 
 disj;\iis('d himself as a peasant, set out "" r the 
 Dorian <an\p. struck down the lirst man he met, 
 and was himself slain by the second. The inva- 
 sion failed, and the .Vthenians, to perpetuate the 
 memory of their monarch's patriotism, would 
 not allow tilt title of 'king' to be borne by the 
 descendants who succeeded him on the throne, 
 but chaniieil the name to 'arclion,' or 'ruler.' 
 . . . These legends evidently cover .scmie ob.scure 
 changes in tiie internal history of Attica." — 
 0. W. 0. Oman, ///V. of (Inw. ch. 11. — "After 
 the death of (.'odrus the nobles, taking advan- 
 tage, perhajjs, of the opportunity alforded by 
 till' dispute between his sons, are Si.M t., have 
 abolished the title of king, and to have suJisti- 
 tuted for it that of Arclion. This change, how- 
 ever, seems to have been important, rather as it 
 indicated the new, precarious tenure by which 
 the royal power was held, than as it immediately 
 affected the nature of the olHce. It was, indeed, 
 still held for life; and Medon, the son of Codrus, 
 ti-ansmitted it lohispo.sterity. . . . .\fter twelve 
 reigns, ending with that of .VIcma'on [B. ('. 
 7.')3], the duration of the ollice was limited to 
 ten years; and through the guilt or calamity of 
 llippomenes, the fourth decennial arclion, the 
 house of Medim was deprived of its privilege, 
 and thc! suiireme magistracy was thrown open 
 to the whole body of nobles. This change was 
 speedily followeii by one much more important. 
 . . . Tlie duration of the archonship was again 
 reduced to a single year [B. C!. (18;)] ; and, at the 
 same lime, its branclu^s were severed and dis- 
 tributed among nine new magistrates. Among 
 these, the first in rank retained the distinguish- 
 ing title of the Arclion. and the year was marked 
 by his naiiii'. lie n'prescnted the majesty of the 
 stitte, and exercised a peculiar jurisilielion — that 
 which had belonged to the king as the conumm 
 parent of his people, the jiroteclor of families, 
 the guardian of orphans and heiresses, and of 
 the general rights of inheritance. For the 
 scu'ond arclion tlie title of king Ibasileus], if it 
 had been laid aside, was n^vived, as the fune- 
 tic:is a.ssigned to him were tlio.se most associated 
 with ancient recollections. He represented the 
 kinji- as the high-priest of his people; he regu- 
 hitec' the celebration of the mysteries and the 
 most Holemn festivals; decided all cuu.ses which 
 affected thc interests of religion. , . . The third 
 
 archon bore the title of Polemarcli, and filled 
 the idace of the king as the leader of his people 
 in war, and the guardian who watched over its 
 securitv in time of peace. . . . The r(unaining 
 six I'.rclions received the common title of tliesmo- 
 thetes, which literally signifies legislators, and 
 was jirobably ap|died to them as the judges 
 who determined tlie great variety of cau.ses 
 which did not fall under the cognizance of their 
 colleagues; because, in the absence of a written 
 ciHle. those wiio declare and interpret the laws 
 'may be properly said to make them." — C. Thirl- 
 wail. llinl. (if (frccre, eh. 11. — "We are in no 
 condition to determine the civil classification and 
 political constitution of Attica, even at tin' 
 period of the Archonship of ivreon, 083 B, C, 
 when aullientic Athenian chronology first com- 
 mences, much less can we ijrclend to any knowl- 
 edge of the anterior centuries. . . . All the 
 information which we jiosscss respecting that 
 old polity is derived from authors wdio lived 
 after all or most of these great <haiiges [by 
 Solon, and later] — and who, finding no records, 
 nor anything belter than current legends, ex- 
 plained the foretime as well as the)' could by 
 guesses more or less ingcniinis, generally at- 
 tached to the dominant "egen-hiry names." — 
 G. Grote, Hint, nf Oreeee, pt. 2, '/. 10. 
 
 Also in; G. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of O recce : 
 The Stfite. pt. 3, eh. 3.— SI. Duncker, in.-<t. of 
 Greece, bk. :t, eh. 7 (r. 2). 
 
 B. C. 624, — ^Under the Draconian Legisla- 
 tion.— " Drako was the first lli;'smotlict, who 
 was called upon to set down his thesmoi [ta'di- 
 naiices and decisions] in Avriling, and thus to in- 
 vest them essentially with a character of more or 
 less generality. In the later and better-known 
 times of Athenian law, we find these archons de- 
 prived in great measure of their powers of judg- 
 ing and deciding, and restricted to tlie task of 
 lii'st hearing of parties and collecting the evi- 
 dence, next, of introducing the matter for trial 
 into the apiuopriate dikastery, over which they 
 presided. Oi j;inally, there was no separation of 
 powers; the iiiclions both judged and adminis- 
 lere(l. . . , All of these functionaries belonged 
 to the Eupalrids, and all of them dotilitless acted 
 more or less in the narrow interest of their order; 
 moreover, there was ample room for favouritism 
 in the way of (connivance as well as antipathy on 
 the part of i\w. archons. That such was decid- 
 edly the ease, and that discontent began to be 
 serious, we may infer from the duty imposed on 
 the thesmothet Drako, B. C, 024, to put in writ- 
 ing the Ihesmoi or ordinances, so tliat they miglit 
 \w 'shown publicly' and known beforehand. 
 He did not meddle with the political constitution, 
 and in his ordinances Aristotle llnds little wortliy 
 of remark except the extreme severity of the 
 punishments awarded: petty thefts, or even 
 proved idleness of life, being visited with death 
 or disfranchisement. But we are not to construe 
 this remark as demonstrating any special inhu- 
 manity in the character of Drako, who was not 
 invested with the la.ge power which Solon ...- 
 lerwards enjoyed, and cannot be innigined to 
 have imposed upon the community severe laws 
 of his own invention. . . . The general spirit of 
 l)enal legislation had become so much milder, 
 during the two centuries which followed, that 
 these old ordinances appeared to Aristotle intol- 
 erably rigorous." — G. Qrote, Hi«t, of Oreeee, pt, 
 3, e/i. 10 (c. 3), 
 
 146 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 013-595. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 594. 
 
 . B. C. 612-595. — Conspiracy of Cylon. — 
 Banishment of the Alcinaeonids. — The tiist at- 
 teinpt 111 Athens to dvcnuni thu oligiirchical 
 governiiR'iit iinil estahlish a inTsonal tyranny 
 was made, B. C. 012, by Cylon (Kyh)ii), a 
 patrician, son-inlaw of the tyrant of Jlegari, 
 ■ttiio was cncouragcil and helped in hi ■. undw- 
 takini; by the latter. The conspiraey failed 
 miserably. The partisans of Cylon, blockaded 
 in the aerojiolis, were forced to surrender; but 
 they ])laced themselves unthM' the protection of 
 tlie" jjoddes.s Minerva and were jjromi.sed their 
 lives. Jlore elfectually to retain the protection of 
 the goddess until their escape was eirected, they' 
 attached a cord to her altar and helil it in their 
 hands as they passed out through the midst of 
 their enemies. Unhappily the cord broke, and 
 the archon Megades at once declan^d that the 
 safeguard of Minerva was withdrawn from them, 
 whereupon they were massacred without mercy, 
 even thougli they tied to the neighboring altars 
 and clung to them. The treachery and l)a(l faith 
 of this cruel deed does not seem to have dis- 
 turl)ed the Athenian people, but the sacrilege 
 involved in it caused horror and fear when they 
 bad had time to reflect upon it. Megacles and 
 his whole family — the Alcmieonids as they 
 were called, from the name of one of their an- 
 cestors — were held accountable for the affront 
 to the gods and wei'e considered i)olluted and 
 accursed. Every public calamity was ascribc^d 
 to their sin, and at length, after a solenm trial, 
 they were banislied from the city (about 590 or 
 695 B. C), while the dead of the fanuly were 
 disinterred and cast out. The ; ,''.ations of this 
 affair cvercised an important influence on the 
 course of c\ents, which opened the way for 
 Solon and his constitutional reforms. — C. Thirl- 
 wall, Hist, of Greece, eh. 11. 
 
 Also in: G. Grote, Hint, of Civree, pt. 2, eli. 10. 
 
 B. C. 610-586. — Struggle vyith Megara for 
 Salamis.— Cirrhaean or First Sacred War. — 
 " The petty state of Megara, which, since the 
 earlier ages, had, from the dependent of Athens, 
 grown up to the <lignity of her rival, taking ad- 
 vantage of the internal dissensions in the latter 
 city, succeeded in vresting from the Athenian 
 government the isle of Salairis. It .vas not, how- 
 ever, without bitter aiid repeated struggles that 
 Athens at last s\ibmitled to the surrender of the 
 isle. But, after signal losses and defeats, as 
 nothing is ever more odious to the multitude 
 than \nisuccessful war, so the popular feeling 
 was such as to induce the government to enact a 
 decree by which it was forbidden, upon pain of 
 death, to propo.sc reasserting the Athen' ^n claims. 
 . . . Many of the younger portion of the com- 
 munity, pining at the dishonour of .:eir ciun- 
 try, and eager for enterprise, were secretly in- 
 clined to countenance any stratagem 'hat might 
 induce the reversal of the decree. At this time 
 there went a rei)ort through the city that a man 
 of distinguished birth . . . had incurred the con- 
 Bceniting misfortune of insanity. Suddenly this 
 person appeared in the market place, wearing tlu^ 
 peetdiar badge [a cap] that distinguislied the 
 si(rk. . . . Asc(!nding the stone from which the 
 heralds made their proclamations, he began to re- 
 cite aloud a poem upon the loss of Salamis, boldly 
 reproving the cowardice of the people, and in- 
 citing tlKMU again to war. His supposed insanity 
 protected him from tlu^ law — his rank, reputa- 
 tion, and the circuuistauce of his being himself a 
 
 native of Salamis, conspired to give to his exhor- 
 tation :\ i>owerful effect, and the friends he had 
 secured to back his attempt loudly proclaimed 
 their applauding sympathy witli the spirit of the 
 address. The name of the pretended madman 
 was Solon, son of E.xecestides, the descendant of 
 Codrus. . . . The stratagem and the elociuence 
 of Sohm jiroduced its natural elfect upon his 
 spirited and excitable audience, and the public 
 enthusiasm permitted the oligarclucal g ivern- 
 inent to i)ropo.se and effect the repeal of the law. 
 An expedition was dtjcreed and planned, and 
 Solon was invested with its command. It was 
 l)ut a l)rief struggle to recover the little i.sland of 
 Salamis. . . . But the lirave and resolute Mega- 
 rians were not men to be disheartened liy a sin- 
 gle rever.se; they pei'sisted in the contest — losses 
 were sustained on either side, and at length both 
 states agreed to refer 'iieir several claims on the 
 sovereignty of the island to the decision of Spartan 
 arliiters. And this appeal from arms to arl)it ra- 
 tion is a proof how much throughout Greece Iiad 
 extended that spirit of civilisation which is but 
 an extension of the sense of justice. . . . The 
 arbitration of the innpires in favour of Athens 
 only suspended hostilities; and the Megarlansdid 
 not cease to watch (and shortly afterwards they 
 found) a fltting occasion to regain a sett lenient .so 
 templlngto thelrambltion. The credit acquired 
 by Sol '■■ in this expediticm was shortly after- 
 wards greatly increased In the estimation of 
 Greece. In tlu! Bay of Corinth was situated a, 
 town called Ciirha, Inliabited by a tierce and 
 ftwless race, who, after devastating the sacred 
 territories of Delphi, sacrilegiously besieged the 
 city Hself, in the desire to possess themselves of 
 the treasures which the piety of Greece had ac- 
 cunuilated in the Temple of Apollo. Solon ap- 
 peared at the Amiihictyonic council, represented 
 the sacrilege of the CMrrlueans, and jiersuaded 
 file Greeks to arm in defence of the altars of their 
 tutelary god [B. C 595 1. Cllsthenes, the tyrant 
 of Sicyon, was sent as commander-in-chief against 
 the Cirrhicans; aiid (according to Plutarcli) the 
 records of Delphi inform us that Alcnueon was 
 the leadcu' of the Atlienians. The war [known 
 as the First Sacred War] was not very successful 
 at the ousel , the oracle of Aiiollo was consulted, 
 and the answer makes one of the mcst amusing 
 anecdotes of i)riestcraft. The Iieslegers were in- 
 formed by the god that the place would not bo 
 reduced until the waves of the C!irrliican Sea 
 washed tlie territories of Delphi. The reply jjcr- 
 plexed the army; but the superior sagacity of 
 Solon was not slow in discovering that the holy 
 intention of the oracle was to appropriate the 
 lands of the CIrrluuans to the prolil of the tem- 
 ple. Ho therefore advised the besiegers to at- 
 tack and to conquer Cirrha, and to dedicate its 
 whole territory to the service of the ,god. The 
 advice was adopted — Cirrha was taken [B. (!. 
 5W)1 ; it became thenceforth the arsenal of Delphi, 
 and the insulted deity had the satisfaction of 
 seeing the sacred lands washed by the waves of 
 the Cirrhican Sea. . . . 'i'lie Pythian games com- 
 menced, or were revived, in celel)ration of this 
 victory of the Pythian god." — Sir E. Bulwer 
 Lytlon, Athens: Its lUso and ]<\ill, bk. 3, cA. 1. — 
 See, also, Dloi.lMir. 
 
 B. C. 594.— The Constitution of Solon.— 
 The Council of Four H..ndred. — " Sohm, 
 ArclionOl. 4fl,l, was chosen midlator. Eqiiitv 
 ami moderation are described by the ancients us 
 
 14; 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 594. 
 
 Constitution 
 of Solon. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 594. 
 
 f ho rhjirnrtrristips nt his mind ; ho dotorminofl to 
 iiliiilisli thr privilcircs of purticular oIhsmcs, iind 
 1lii> luliilrary piiwcr of olllcrrs, and to render all 
 the parlieipiit'^rs iti eivil and i)iiliti('ai freedom 
 equal ill tlie eye of tlie law. at the same time 
 rn.suring to every cue the integrity of those 
 ri/,ditn to whieh lil.i r"al merits entitled him; on 
 the other hand, he was far from contemplating ii 
 total subversion of e.xlsting regulations. . . . 
 Whatever was excellent in prescription was in- 
 corporated with the new laws and thereliy 
 stamped .ifresh; liut prescription as such, with 
 the e.vception of some unwritten religious ordin- 
 ances of the Euniolpids, was deprived of force. 
 The law was destined to bo the sole centre, 
 whence every member of the political community 
 was to derive n fixed rule of conduct." — W. 
 Wachsmuth, Hintonrdl Antiqnitirit of the, (ri'eeks, 
 xrt. 4fi (r. 1). — "The factions, to allay the reviv- 
 ing animosities of which was Solon's immediate 
 object, had, at that time, formed parties corn - 
 spomling to the geographical division of the 
 country, which we have already adverted to; 
 the Pediiei, or inhabitants of the lowlands, in- 
 sisted on a strict oligarchy; the Parali, on the 
 coast, who, did v c not tind the Alcmaeonid 
 Megaeles at their head, might be considered the 
 wealthier portion of the people, wished for a 
 mixed constitution; buttheDiacrii orliyperncrii 
 [of the inoinitainous district] formed the great 
 majority, who, in their impoverished state, 
 looked "for relief only from a total revolution. 
 Solon might, had he so chosen, have made him- 
 self tyrant by heading this populace: but he 
 preferred acting as mediator, and with this view 
 caused himself to be elected archon, B. C. 594, 
 as being an Eupatrid of the house ... of 
 Codru.s," — C. F. Hermann, Manual of the Political 
 Antiquities of Oreere, ch. 5, seet. 106. — "The 
 chief power was vested in the collective people ; 
 I)ut in oilier that it might be exercised with ad- 
 vantage it was necessary that they should be 
 endowed with common rights of citizeiwhip. 
 Solon elTected this by raising the lower class 
 from its degradation, and by subjecting to legal 
 control those who had till now formed the 
 governing order, as well as by rendering the 
 liberty of both dependent upon the law. . . . 
 This change was brought about by two ordin- 
 ances, whicli must not be regarded as mere 
 remedies for the abu-ses of that period, but as the 
 permanent basis of free and legal citizenship. 
 Tlie one was the Seisachtheia; this was enacted 
 by Solon to afford relief to oppressed debtors, 
 by reducing tin ' debts in amount, and by rais- 
 ing the value of money in the payment of interest 
 nnd principal; at the same time he abrogated 
 the former rigorous law of debt by wliirli the 
 freeman might be reduced to servitu'de, and thus 
 secured to him the unmolested possession of his 
 legal riglits. ... A second ordinance enjoined, 
 that their full and entire rights sliould be restored 
 to all citizens who had incurred Atimia, except 
 to absolute criminals. This was not only 
 destined to heal the wounds wdiicli had beeii 
 caused by the previous dissensions, but as till 
 that t;me the law of del-t hail been able to re- 
 duce cilizens to .\timia, and thc^ majority of the 
 Aliinoi jioinlcd out by Solon were slaves for 
 debt, that declaration stood in close connection 
 witli the Seisachtheia, and had the effect of a 
 proclamation from tiie state of its intention to 
 guarantee the validity of the new ciiizenship. 
 
 1 
 
 . . . The right of nntttrnlization was granted by 
 Solon to deserving aliens, when 6,000 citizens 
 decl.ired theinselves ill favour of tlie measure, 
 but these new citizens were likewise deficient in 
 a few of the privileges of citizenship. . . . The 
 statement tliat Solon received a great many 
 foreigners as citizens, and -very ariizan that 
 presented himself, appears highly improbable, 
 as Solon was the first legislator who systemati- 
 cally regulated the ocndition of the Meta^ci. 
 Tlie Meta'ci . . . probably took the place of 
 the former Demiurgi; their position was oiie of 
 sufferance, but the protection of tlie laws was 
 guaranteed them. . . . The servile order, ex 
 cliLsively consisting of purchased aliens and their 
 descendants, did not, as a body, stand in direct 
 relation with the state ; individual slaves became 
 the property of individual citizens, but a certain 
 number were employed by the state as clerks, 
 etc., and were abandoned to the arbitrary 
 pleasure of their oppressive taskmasters. . . . 
 Those who were manumitted stood upon tha 
 footing of MetoBci ; the citizens who enfranchised 
 tliem becoming their Prostata;. . . , Upon at- 
 taining the age of puberty, tlie sons of citizens 
 entered public life under the name of Ephebi. 
 The state gave them two years for the full 
 development of their youthful strength. . . . 
 Upon the expiration of the second, and accord- 
 ing to the most authentic accounts, in their 
 eighteenth year, they received the shield and spear 
 in the popular assembly, complete armour being 
 given to the sons of those wlio liad fallen in 
 battle, and in the temple of Agraulos took the 
 oath of young citizens, the chief obligations of 
 which concerned the defence of their country, 
 and then for the space of one or two years per- 
 formed military service in the Attic border 
 fortresses under the name of Peripoli. T'le cere- 
 mony of arming them was followed by enrol- 
 ment in the book which contained the names 
 of those who had attained majority; this era- 
 powered the young citizen to manage his own 
 fortune, preside over a household, enter the 
 popular assembly, and speak. When he asserted 
 the last right, viz., the Iscgoria, Parrhesia, ho 
 was deiioi.'iinated Rhetor, and this appellation 
 denoted thvi difTerenco between him and the 
 silent member of the assembly, the Idiotes. 
 . . . Upon attaiiMng his 80th year, the citizen 
 might assert his superior rights ; he was qualified 
 for a membe" of the sworn tribunal entitled 
 Heliica. . . . The word Ileliast does not merely 
 signify a judge; but the citizen who has fully 
 attained maturity. . . . The juitges of the courts 
 of the DiiDtctic and Epheta;, which existed without 
 the circle of the ordinary tribunals, were required 
 to be still older men than the Hellasts, viz. , 50 or 
 60 years of age. Solon appointed gradations In 
 the rights of citizenship, according to the con- 
 ditions of a census in reference to olHces of state. 
 . . . Upon f'e principle of a conditional equality 
 of rights, wiiich assigns to every one os much as 
 he deserves, and which is highly characteristic 
 of Solon's policy in general, he instituted four 
 clas.ses according to a valuation; these were the 
 Pentacosiomedimni [whose land yielded 500 
 measures of wheat or oil], the Ilippcis [horse- 
 men], tlie ZengitiB [owners of a yoke of mules], 
 and the Tlietes [or laborers]. The valuation, 
 however, only affected that portion of capital 
 from which contributions to the stJite-burthens 
 were i'eo'.ired, consequently, according to 
 
 48 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 594. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 510-507. 
 
 Biickli, a taxable capital. . . . The Thotos, the 
 last of these classes, were not rcRularly sum- 
 moned to perform military service, but only 
 exercised the civic riglit as members of the as- 
 sembly and the law-courts: . . . the highest class 
 exclusively supplied the superior olHees, such as 
 the archouship, and through this the council of 
 the Areopagus. ... In lieu of the former coun- 
 cil of administration, of which no memorial has 
 been preserved, Solon instituted a Council of 
 four hundred citizens tjiken from the first three 
 classes, 100 from every Phyle, of which no 
 person under 30 years of age could be a member. 
 The appointments were renewed animally; the 
 candidates underwent an examination, and such 
 as were deemed eligible drew lots. " — W. AVachs- 
 muth. Historical Antiquities of the Greeks, sect. 
 46-i7 (a. 1). 
 
 Also in; G. F. Schiimann, Antig. of Greece: The 
 8iate, pt. 3, ch. 3, sect. 4.— E. Abbott, Hist, of 
 Greece, pt. 11, ch. 3. — G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, 
 eh. 11. — Plutarch, Solon. — Aristotle, Onthe Const, 
 of Athens (tr. by E. Poste), ch. 5-13. — See, also, 
 AuEoi'AGUS, PitYTANES, Hei.i^.\, and Debt. 
 
 B. C. 560-510.— The tyranny of the Pisis- 
 tratidz. — "The constitution which he [Solon] 
 framed was found to be insufficient even in his 
 own life-time. . . . The poor citizens were still 
 poor, in spite of the Seisachtheia and the reform 
 of the constitution. At the same time the ad- 
 mission of the lowest class in the scale of prop- 
 erty to the rights of Athenian citizenship, and 
 the authority given to the General As.sembly, 
 had thrown a power into the hands of the masses 
 which filled the more conservative citizens with 
 resentment and alarm. And so the old party qtnir- 
 rels, which had divided Attica before the reforms 
 of Solon, reappeared after them with even greater 
 violence. The men of the plain were led by 
 Miltiades, a grandson of the tyrant of Corinth, 
 and Lycurgus, the son of Aristolaidas; tlie men 
 of the shore by Megacles, the Alcmu.'onid, who 
 had recently strengthened the position of his 
 family by his marriage with Agariste, the 
 <laughter of Clisthenes of Sicyon. At the head 
 of tlie mountaineers stood Pisistratus, a descend- 
 ant of the royal stock of Nestor, who . . . had 
 greatly distinguished himself in the Salaminian 
 war. As he possessed property in the neighbor- 
 hood of Marathon, Pisistratus may have been 
 intimately known to the inhabitants of the 
 adjacent hills. . . . Solon watched the failure of 
 his hopes with the deepest distress. He en- 
 deavoured to recall the leaders of the contend- 
 ing parties to a sense of their duty to the 
 country, and to soothe the bitterness of their 
 followers. With a true instinct lie regarded 
 Pisistratus as by far the most dangerous of the 
 three. Pisistratus was an approveil general, and 
 the faction which he led was composed of poor 
 men v/ho had nothing to lose. . . . Pisistratus 
 met tne vehement expressions of Solon by driv- 
 ing W(mu(led into the 7uark.vt-place. The 
 people's friend had suffered in the jicople's 
 cause; his life was in danger. The incident 
 roused the Athenians to an unusual exercise of 
 political power. Without any previous dis- 
 cussion in the Co\uicil, a decree was passed by 
 the peo[)le allowing Pisistratus tosiirround bins- 
 self with a body-guard of fifty men, and to arm 
 them with clubs. TliUi- ])rotecte(l, he tlu'ew oil' 
 all disguises, and established himself in the 
 Acropolis us tyrant of Athens [U. C. 500]. . . . 
 
 Herodotus tells us that Pisisiratus was a just 
 and moderate ruler. He did not alter the laws 
 or remove the existing forms of government. 
 The Council was still elected, the Assembly 
 c mtinued to meet, though it is improbable that 
 either the one or the other was allowed to extend 
 its functions beyond dimiestic aifairs. The 
 archons still continued to be the executive magis- 
 trates of the city, and cases of nuirder were 
 tried, as of old, at the Areopagus. The tyrant 
 contented himself with occupying the Acropolis 
 with his troops and securing important posts in 
 the administration for his family or his adherents. '•■ 
 Twice, liowever, Pisistratus was driven from 
 l)ower by the combination of his oi.ponents, and 
 into exile, for four years in the tirst instance and 
 for ten years in the last ; but Athens was compelled 
 to p" ept him for a ruler in the end. "Pisistratus 
 ren- ined in undisturbed possession of the throne 
 till us death in 527 B. C. He was succeeded 
 by liis eldest son Hippias,with whom Hipparchus 
 and Thessalus, his younger sons, were associ- 
 ated in the government." But those younger 
 tyrants soon made themselves intolerably hate- 
 ftil, and a conspiracy formed against them by 
 Harmodius and Aristogeiton was successf\d in 
 taking the life of Hipparchus. Four years later, 
 in 510 B. C, with the help of Delphi and Sparta, 
 Hippias was driven from the city. Clisthenes, 
 at the head of the exiled Alcma;onids, was the 
 master-spirit of the revolution, and it was under 
 his guidance that the Athenian democratic con- 
 stitution was reorganized. — E. Abbott, Hist, of 
 Gj-eece, v. 1, ch. 15. 
 
 Ai.so IN : G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, ch. 11 and'iO. 
 
 B. C. 510-507. — The constitution of Cleis- 
 thenes. — Advance of democracy. — "The ex- 
 pulsion of the Pisistratids left the democratieal 
 party, which had first raised them to power, 
 without a leader. The Alcma-onids had always 
 been considered as its adversaries, though they 
 were no less opposed to the faction of the 
 nobles, which seems at this time to have been 
 headed by Isagoras. . . . Cleisthenes found him- 
 self, as his party had always been, unable to 
 cope with it; he resolved, therefore, to shift his 
 ground, and to attach himself to that popular 
 cause which Pisistratus had used as the stepping 
 stone of his ambition. His aims, however, were 
 not confined to a temporary advantage over his 
 rivals ; he planned an important (change in the 
 constitution, which should forever break the 
 power of his whole order, by dissolving some of 
 the main links by which their sway was secured^ 
 For this purpose, having gained the confidence 
 of the commonalty and obtained the sanction of 
 the Deljihic oracle, he abolished the four ancient 
 tribes, and made a fresh geographical division 
 of Af, ica into ten new tribes, each of whi(}h 
 bore a name derived from some Attic hero. The 
 ten tribes were sulxlivided into districts of 
 various extent, called denies, each containing a 
 town or village. . . . Cleisthenes appears to 
 have preserved the ancient phratries; but as 
 they were now left insulated by the abolition 
 of the tribes to which they bclrnged, they lost 
 all political importance. . . . Ck sthenes at the 
 same time increased the stnugth of the com- 
 monalty by making a great many new citizens, 
 and he is .said to have cnfrancliised not only 
 aliens — and tliesi! both resiiieuts and ailvi'uturers 
 from abroad — but slaves. . . . The whole 
 frame of the state was reorganized to corresiioud 
 
 U!) 
 
ATIIKNS, B. C. 510-507. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 501-490. 
 
 with tlic new division of the country. The 
 Bcniile (if the Four Hundred wns increased to 
 Five Hundred, tiiat tifty niiglit l)e drawn from 
 fiieli trihc. and llie rotation of tlie presidency 
 wa.s ad.ipled to tliis change, the (Ifly councillors 
 of each irilic filling that ollice for thirty-five or 
 thirty-six days in .sncee.s.sion, and nine coun- 
 cillors heing elected one from each of the other 
 trihes to preside at the (.'ouncil lual the Assenihly 
 of (he I'lnplc, which was now called regidarly 
 four times in the month, certain business being 
 a.s.signed to each meeting. The Heliica was also 
 (listriliutcd into ten courts: and the same division 
 henceforth |)revailed in most of the public 
 oflices. though the number of the archons re- 
 maine<l unchang<'d. To Clei.sthenes also is 
 iLScribed the formal institution of the ostracism. 
 . . . These changes, and the intlnence they 
 ne(piired for their author, reduced the party of 
 Isagoras to utter weakness, and they saw no 
 prospect of maintaining themselves but by 
 foreign aid." Isagoras, accordingly, applied for 
 help to Ch'omenes, one of the kings of Sparta, 
 who had already interfered in Athenian affairs 
 by assi-sting at the expulsion of the Pisistratidie, 
 C'leomenes responded by coming to Athens with 
 ft small force |B. C 508], which snfliced to over- 
 awe the peoi)le, and, as.stiming dictatorial 
 authority, he established Isiigoras in power, v, ith 
 un attenlpted rearrangement of the government. 
 "He began by banishing 700 fiimilies designated 
 by I.sagoras, and then proceeded to suppress the 
 Council of the Five Hundred, and to lodge the 
 government in the hands of Three Hundred of 
 liis friend's partisans. When, however, the 
 couiu'illors resisted this attempt, the peoi)le took 
 heart, and, Cleomenes and Isagoras having 
 occupied the citadel, ro.se in a body and besieged 
 tJiein there. As they were not jirepared to 
 sustain a siege, they capitulated on the third 
 day: C'leomenes and Isagoras were permitted 
 to depart with the Lac^ediemonian troops, but 
 they were compelled to aliandon their adherents 
 to the mercy of their enemies. All were i)Ut to 
 death, and Cleisthenes and the 700 banished 
 families returned triumphantly to Athens." 
 Cleomenes soon afterwards raisi'd a force with 
 which to subdue Athens and restore Isagoras. 
 Thi^ Athenians in their alarm sent an embassy to 
 Hardis to solicit the iirotectiou of the Persians. 
 Forttnuitely, nothing came of it, and Cleomenes 
 was .so in\ich opposed in his jiroject, by the 
 Corinthians and other allies of .Sparta, that he 
 Lad to give it up. — C. Thirlwall, lliit. of Greecf, 
 U. 11. 
 
 Also in: Q. Grotc, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, eh. 31. 
 — K. Abbott, Hint, of Oreeec, clt. 15.— Aristotle 
 on the CoiiKl. of Al/ieiiit {ti: hy E. PoHte),ch. 20-22. 
 
 B. C. 509^506.— Hostile undertakings of 
 Kleomenes and Sparta. — Help solicited fron" 
 the Persian king. — Subjection refused. — Fail- 
 ure of Spartan schemes to restore tyranny. — 
 Protest of the Corinthians. — Successful war 
 with Thebes and Chalcis.— " Witli Sparta it 
 was obvious that the Athenians now liad a 
 deadly (luarrel, and on the other side they knew 
 that Hippias was seeking to precipitate on them 
 tile po\ier of the Persian king. It seemc<l 
 therefore to be a matter of stern necessity to 
 anticipate the intrigues of their baui.sbed tyrant; 
 and the Athenians accordingly sent ambassadors 
 to Sardeis to make an indci)emleiit alliance with 
 the rersiau despot. The envoys, on being 
 
 brought info the presence of Artapherncs, the 
 Satrap of Lydia, were told that Dareios would 
 admit them to an alliance if they woidd give 
 him earth and water, — in other words, if they 
 wouhl acknowledge themselves his slaves. To 
 this demand of absolute subjection the envoys 
 gave an ns.scnt which was indignantly repmli- 
 ated by the whole body of Atlieniau citizens. 
 . . . Foiled for the time in his efforts, Kleo- 
 menes was not cast down. Kegardiiig the Kleis- 
 thenian constitution as n personal insult to him- 
 self, he was resolved that Isagoras should be 
 despot of Athen.s. Summoning the allies of 
 Sparta [including the IJu'Otian League headed 
 by Thebes, and the people of Chalci, in Eiibiea], 
 he led them as far us Eleusis, Vi miles only 
 from Athens, without informing them of the 
 purpose of (he campaign. He Iiad no sooner 
 confessed it than the Corinthians, declaring that 
 they had been brought away from home on an 
 unrighteous errand, went back, followed by the 
 other Spartan King, Demaratos, the son of Aris- 
 ton; and this conflict of opinion broke up the 
 rest of the army. This discomfiture of their 
 enemy seemed to inspire fresh strength into the 
 Athenians, wao won a series of victories over 
 the Boiotians and Euboians" — ccmipletely over- 
 throwing the latter — tlie Chalcidians — taking 
 possession of their city, and making it a peculiar 
 colony and dependency of Athens. — See Klek- 
 uciis. The anger of Kleomenes "ou being dis- 
 comfited at Eleusis by the defection of his own 
 allies was heightened by indignation at the dis- 
 covery that in driving out his friend Hippias he 
 bad been simply the tool of Kleisthenes and of 
 the Delphian priestess whom Kleisthenes had 
 bribed. It was now clear to him and to bis 
 coimtrynu'ii that the Athenians would not 
 ac(|uiesce in the predominance of Sparta, and 
 that if they retained their freedom, the power 
 of Athens would soon be equal to their own. 
 Their only sjifety lay, therefore, in providing 
 the Athenians with a tyrant. An invitation 
 was, therefore, sent to Hii)pias at Sigeion, to 
 attend a congress of the allies at Sparta, who 
 were sunnnoned to meet on the arrival of the 
 exiled despot." The ai)pointe(l congress was 
 held, and the Spartans besought their allies to 
 aid them in bumbling the Athenian Democracy, 
 with the object of restoring Hippias to power. 
 But again the Corinthians protested, bluntly 
 suggesting that if the Spartans thought tyranny 
 a good thing they might first try it for them- 
 selves. Hippias, speaking in his own behalf, 
 attempted to convince them that the time was 
 coming "in which they would And the Atiie- 
 niaiis a thorn in their side. For the present lis 
 e.xhortatations were thrown away. The allies 
 jirotcsted unanimously against all attempts to 
 interfere with the internal administration of any 
 Hellenic city ; and the banished tyrant went 
 back disappointed to Sigeion." — G. W. Co.\, 
 The Givekn mid the PeniaiiK, ch. 4. 
 
 Also in : G. Qrote, UUt. of Greece, pt. 3, ch. 
 31 (r. 4). 
 
 B. C. 501-490.— Aid to lonians ag.-' t Per- 
 sia..— Provocation of King Darius. — 1. wrath 
 and attempted vengeance. — The first Persian 
 invasions. — Battle of Marathon. — "It is un- 
 ileniable thai the extension of the Pcrsiin do- 
 minion over Asia Minor, Syria, and Egy uaive 
 a violent check to the onward movement 01 t.reek 
 life. On the other hand, it seemed us if the great 
 
 160 
 
ATHENS, IJ. C. 501-400. 
 
 Persian 
 War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 501-490. 
 
 ontcrprise of Diirius Hj'Stnspia ngainst the Scy- 
 thians ought to have uuitcd thi; Ori'cks and I'cr- 
 siiiiis. It WHS of a pk'(:c' with tliu geiit-ral policy 
 of Uariiis tliat, after defeating .so many other ail- 
 versaries, lie undertook to prevent for all suc- 
 ceeding time a repetition of those inroads with 
 which, some centuries before, the Scythians had 
 visited Asia and the civilized world. lie l)0s- 
 sessed authority enougli to unites the diiVcrent 
 nations which obeyed Ins sceptre in a iircat cam- 
 paign against the Scythians. . . . The Greeks 
 were his best idlies in his campaign ; tliey built 
 him tlic bridge by which he crossed the Bosporus, 
 and also the bridge of boats over the Danube 
 by whi .h he made his invasion into the enemy's 
 territory. The result was not one which could 
 properly be called unfortunate; yet it was cer- 
 taiidy of a very doubtful character. . . . A great 
 region, in which they had already obtained very 
 considerable intluence, was closed to them once 
 more. The I'ersian army brought the popula- 
 tions upon the Strymon, many in number and 
 individually weak, under the dominion of Persia; 
 and even Amyntas, the king of Makedonia, one 
 of a race of rulers of Greek origin, was compelled 
 to do homage to the Great King. Thus t!ie 
 movement which had thrust hack the Greeks 
 from Egypt and Asia Minor made advances even 
 into the regions of Europe which bordered upon 
 Northern llellas. It was an almost inevitable 
 conse([uenceof this that the Greeks were menaced 
 and straitened even in their proper home. A 
 pretext and opportunity for an attack upon the 
 Greek islands was presentid to the Persians by 
 the (juestions at issue between the populations of 
 the cities and the tyrants. . . The instnunent 
 by whom the crisis was brought about was not 
 a person of any great iiuportance. It is not al- 
 ways great natures, or natures strong in the con- 
 sciousness of their own powers, that bring on 
 such conflicts; this is sometimes the work of 
 those flexible characters which, being at the 
 point of contact between the opposing forces, 
 pass from one side to the other. Such a charac- 
 ter was Aristagoras of Miletus. . . . ^lorally 
 contemptible, but gifted intellectually with a 
 range of ideas of unlimited extent, Aristagoras 
 made for himself an imperishable name by being 
 the first to entertain the thought of a collective 
 opposition to the Persians on the part of all the 
 Greeks, even contemplating the po.ssibility of 
 waginga g.eataudsuccessfuloltensivo wuiupon 
 them. ... He announced in Miletus his own 
 resignation of power and the restoration to the 
 peoi)le of their old lews. ... A general over- 
 throw of tyranny ensued [B. C. 50lJ, involving 
 a revolt froiu Persia, and Slrategi were every- 
 where appointeil. The supreme power iu the 
 cities was based upon a gooil understanding 
 between the holders of power and the Persians; 
 the fact that one of these rulers found the uii- 
 tliority of the Persians intolerable was the signal 
 fur a tunversal revolt. Aristagoras himself vol- 
 untarily renounced the tyranny, the other tyrants 
 were compelled to take the same course; and 
 thus the cities, iLssuming at the same lime ademo- 
 cnitic organization, came into hostility with 
 Persia. . . . The cities and islands wliich had 
 so often been for(;cd to submission could not hope 
 t^) resist the Persians by theirown unaided ellorts. 
 Even Aristagoras could not have expectiil so 
 much. . . . He visited I,akediunion, the strong- 
 est of the Greek powers, iu person, and en- 
 
 deavored to carry her with him in hi.s pl.ins. . . . 
 Uejected by Sparta, Aristagoras betcHtk himself 
 to Athens. . . . The Athenians granted Arista- 
 goras twenty ships, to which the Eretrians, from 
 friendship to .Miletus, added live more. The 
 coiu'age of the lonians was thus revived, and an 
 attack upon the Persian domiidon commenced, 
 directed, not indeed against Su.sa, but against 
 Sardis, in their immediate neighborhood, the capi- 
 tal of the satrapy which imposed on them their 
 heaviest burdens. . . . By the burning of Sardis, 
 in which a sanctuary of Kybele had been de- 
 stroyed, the Syrian nations had been outraged in 
 the pers(m of their gods. We know that it was 
 part of the system of the Persians to take the 
 gods of 11 coiintry under their i)rote(tion. Nor 
 would the great king who thought himself ap- 
 liointed to l)e master of the world fail to resent 
 an invasion of his dominions as an instdt calling 
 for revenge. The hostile attciupts of the lonians 
 made no great impression upon him, but he 
 asked who were the Athenians, of whose share 
 in tlie campaign he had been informed. They 
 were foreigners, of whose power 'he king had 
 scarcely heard. . . . The enterprise of Arista- 
 goras had meanwhile caused general conuuotion. 
 He had by far the larger part of Cyprus, to- 
 gether with the Carians, on his .side. All the 
 country near the Piopontis and the Hellespont 
 was iu revolt. The Persians were compelled to 
 make it tlieir first ccmeern to suppress this insur- 
 recticm, a task whir:h, if attempted by sea, did 
 not promise to be an easy one. In their lirst en- 
 counter with the Phuuiicians the lonians had the 
 advantage. AV'hen, however, the forces of the 
 great empire were assembled, the insurrection 
 was everywhere put down. ... It nuist be 
 reckoned among the conse(iuences of the battle 
 of Lade, by which tlu' combination against the 
 Persian empire had been annihilated, that King 
 Darius, not content with having consolidated his 
 dominion in Ionia, once more resumed the plan 
 of pushing forward into Eurojic, of which his 
 enterprise against the Scythians formed part. 
 With the execution of this ])rojeet he commis- 
 sioned one of the principal persons of the empire 
 and the court, . . . Mardonius by name, whom 
 lie luiitcd to his faitiily by marrying him to his 
 daughter. . , . This general cro.ssed the Helles- 
 pont with a large army, his fleet always accom- 
 panying him along the .shore whilst he pushed 
 on by the mainland. He once more subihied 
 Makedonia, probably the districts which had not 
 yet, like the ;\Iaked(mian king, been brought into 
 subjection, and gave out that his aim wu3 
 directed against Eretria and Athens, the enenue.s 
 of the king. ... In the stormy waters near 
 Mount Athos, which have always made the navi- 
 gation of the ^Egean dillicult, his licet sullered 
 ship-wreck. But without naval supports he could 
 not hope to gain possession of an island and a 
 maritime town situated on a promcmtory. Even 
 by land ho encountered resistance, so that ho 
 found it advisable to postpone the further execu- 
 tion of his undertakings to another time. ... In 
 order to subdue the recalcitrants, especially 
 Athens an<l Eretria, another attempt was organ- 
 ized without delay. Liider two generals, one of 
 whom, Datis, wasaMede, the other, Artai)herues, 
 the son of the satraji of Sardis of the same name, 
 and brother of the Dirius who was in alliance 
 with Ilippias, a maritime expedition was under- 
 take! .'or the imme<liate subjugation of the 
 
 151 
 
ATIIKNS, B. C. 501-400. 
 
 Prraian 
 li'ar. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 480-480. 
 
 Islnnils mid the inaritimodi.'^trirts, Tt wns tintdo- 
 sijfiK'ii fiir open hostility aiiaiiist tlic Orcclis in 
 Ktiicnil. . . . Tlicir (li'.siffii wii.s to iitiiizi- tlic ill- 
 tei-nal ilis.scn.si()ii.t of (Jnccc in coiiiiiicrinf; the 
 principal ciiciiiics upon wlioin llic (Jrcat Kiiij; 
 liitd .swi.rii v<'ni;can(c, and presenting tlieiii as 
 captives at Ids i'eet. Tlie project Huccceded in 
 till' case of Krcliia. In spiKiof u brave resisl- 
 jinco il fdl by treacliery into tlieir hands, and 
 they could aviiii;<' the sacrilege coninilltcd at 
 Hurdis liy pluiKlering and <levastating Grcciiin 
 simrtuarfes. They expected now to be able to 
 ovctiiower Athens also without iiiucli trouble. 
 . . . Il was a circiuustance of great value to the 
 Athenians that there was a man amongst them 
 who w IS familiar with the Persian tactics. This 
 was Miiilades, the .son of Kiiiion. . . . Although 
 a Thnich :i jirince, he had neviT ceased to be a 
 C'ti/.en of .Vlhcns. Here he was iiiipeaclied for 
 having helil a tyranny, but was ac(iuitted and 
 cho.seu strategiis" for the democracy could not 
 reject a man who was so admirably (jualilie.l to 
 be at tlieir head in the interchange of hostilities 
 with Persia. Miltiades was c(mducting his own 
 personal (luariel in undertakinjj the defence of 
 Attica. The force of the Persians was indeed 
 incomparably the larger, but the plains of Mara- 
 thon, on which they were drawn up, prevented 
 tlieir proper deployment, and they saw with as- 
 tonishment the Athenian lioplites displaying a 
 front as extended as their own. These troops 
 now rushed upon them with an impetus which 
 grew swifter at every moment. The Persians 
 easily sueeeeded in breaking through the centre 
 of the Athenian army; but that was of no 
 moment, for the strength of the onset lay in the 
 two wings, where now began a haii<l-to-liand 
 tight. The Persian sword, formidable elsewhere, 
 was not adapted to do good service against tlie 
 bronze armor and the spear of the Hellenes. On 
 both Hanks the Athenians obtained the advan- 
 tage, and now attacked the Persian centre, which 
 was not able to withstand the onslaught of men 
 whose natural vigor was lieighteued liy gymnastic 
 training. The Persians, to their misfortune, had 
 calculated upon desertion in the ranks of their 
 opponents; foiled in this hope, they retreated to 
 the shore and to their ships. Herodotus in- 
 timates that the Persians liad secret intelligence 
 with a party in Athens, and took their course 
 round the promontory of Sunium toward the city, 
 in the hope of surprising it. But when they 
 came to anchor the Athenians had arrived also, 
 and they saw themselves once more confronted 
 bv the victors of Marathon." — L. von Uanke, 
 tTniKriKil Jlistor//, eh. 6. 
 
 Ai.so IX : Herodotus, History, hk. 6. — V. Duruy, 
 Hist, of Greece, eh. 16 (». 2). — See, also, Peiisia: 
 B. C. r/)l-l<)3, and Gui.:ece: B. C. 493-401, and 
 400. 
 
 B, C. 489-480. — Condemnation and death 
 of Miltiades. — The iEginetan war. — Naval 
 power created by Themistocles. — "The vic- 
 tory of -Marathon was chietly due to Miltiades; 
 it was he who brought on the engagement, and 
 he was chief in command on the day when the 
 battle was fought. Such a brilliant success 
 greatly im|)roved his position in the city, and 
 excited in his enemies a still deeper hatred. 
 Kvor on the watch for an opportunity to inill 
 down their rival, it was not long before they 
 found one. Soon after liis victory, Miltiades 
 caiue befoa- the Athenians with a request that a 
 
 .scptadrnn nf 70 Ships miffht bo placcil at his dis- 
 posiil. The purpo.se for which lie rc(Hiired then 
 III' would not disclose, though iik'dging his word 
 that the expedition woiikl add largely to the 
 wealth and prosperity of the city. The re(|ucst 
 being granted, he sailed wilii the .ships to Piirns, 
 an island which at this time was subject to 
 Persia. From the Parians he demanded 100 
 talents, and when they refused to pay he block- 
 aded the city. So vigorous and succ«'.ssful was 
 tlic resistance offered that, after a long delay, 
 -Miltiades, himself dangerously wounded, was 
 compelled to return liome. His enemies, with 
 Xaiithippus at their head, at once attacked him 
 for ini.scimduct in the enterprise. . . . Miltiades 
 was unable to rcjily in jicrson ; he was carried 
 into court, wliile his friends pleaded his cause. 
 The sentence was given against him, but the 
 penalty was reduced from death to a tine of .W 
 talents. So large a sum was more than even 
 Miltiades could pay; he was thrown into prison 
 as a public debtor, where he smm died from the 
 mortification of his wound. . . . His condemna- 
 tion was one in a long scries of similar punish- 
 ments. The Athenians never learnt to be just 
 to those who served them, or to di.stinguish be- 
 tween treachery and errors of judgment. . . . 
 AVe have very little information about, the state 
 of Athens immediately after the battle of Mara- 
 thon. So far as we can tell, for the chronology 
 is most uncertain, she was now engaged in a war 
 with -iEgina. . . . Meanwhile, a man was rising 
 to power, who may be said to have created the 
 history of Athens for the rest of the century, — 
 Tliemistocles, the son of Neodes. ... On the 
 very day of Marathon, Themistocles had proba- 
 bly made up his mind that the Persians would 
 visit Greece again. What was to keep them 
 away, so long as they vore masters of the 
 ^gean? . . . With an insight almost incredi- 
 ble he perceived that the Athenians could be- 
 come a maritime nation ; that Athens possesses 
 harbours largs enough to receive an enormous 
 fleet, and capable of being strongly fortified; 
 that in possession of a fleet she could not only 
 secure her own safety, but st^ind forth as a rival 
 power to Sparta. But how could Themistocles 
 induce the Athenians to abandon the line in 
 which they had been so successful for a mode of 
 warfare in which even Miltiades had failed? 
 After the fall of the great general, the conduct 
 of affairs was in the hands of Xanthippus . . . 
 and Aristides. . . . They were by no means 
 prepared for the change which Themistocles was 
 meditating. This is more especially true of 
 -/•Lrisiidcs. He had been a friend of Clisthenes; 
 he was known as an admirer of Spa-tan customs. 
 ... Ho had been second in command at Mara- 
 thon, and was now the most eminent general at 
 Athens. From him Themistocles could only ex- 
 pect the most resolute opposition. Xauthijipus 
 and Aristides could reckon on the support of old 
 traditions and great connections. Themistocles 
 had no support of the kind. He had to make 
 his party, . . . Conscious of their own posi- 
 tion, Aristides and Xanthiiipiis looked with con- 
 tempt upon the knot of men who began to 
 gather round their unmannerly and uncultivated 
 loader. And they might, i)orliaps, have inain- 
 lainod their position if it had not boci for the 
 yE.ginetan war. That unlucky struggle had be- 
 gun, soon after the reforms of Clisthenes, with 
 an unprovoked attack of the /Eginctans 011 tliu 
 
 152 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 489-480. 
 
 I*ernian 
 trar. 
 
 atiip:ns, b. c. 480-479. 
 
 mast of Attica (500 B. C), [^Kgiim being allied 
 with Thebes in tlie wiir mentioned above — B.C. 
 509-5001. It was renewed when tin; .Kginetans 
 gave earth and water to tlie heralds of Darius in 
 491, and thoiigli suspended at the time of the 
 Persian invasion, it brolie out again witli re- 
 newed ferocity soon afterwards. The jEginelans 
 had the stronger Ueet, and defeated the Athenian 
 sliips. "8ucli e.\p(!rionees naturally caused a 
 change in the minds of the Athenians. ... It 
 was clear that the old arrangements fo- tlie navy 
 were unite iiiade((nate to the task which was 
 now reciuired of them. Vet the leaders of the 
 state made no proposals." Themistoeles now 
 "came forward publicly with proposals of naval 
 reform, and, as he expected, he drew \ipoii him- 
 self the strenuous oi)position of Aristides. . . . 
 It was clear that uotliing decisive could bo done 
 in the iEginctaii war unless the proposals of 
 Themistoeles were carried ; it was equally clear 
 tliat they never would be carried while Aristides 
 and Xauthippus were at hand to oppose them. 
 Under these circumstances recourse was had to 
 the safety-valve of the constitution. Ostracism 
 was p'"opo8ed and accepted ; and in this manner, 
 by 483 B, C, Themistoeles had got rid of both of 
 Ins rivals in the city. Ho was now master of 
 the situation. The only obstacle to the reali- 
 zation of his plans was the expense involved in 
 building ships. And this he was able to meet 
 by a happy accident, which brought into the 
 treasury at this time a large surplus from the 
 silver mines from Laurium. ... By the sum- 
 mer of 480, the Athenians . . . were able to 
 launoli 180 vessels, besides providing 20 for the 
 use of the Chalcidcans of Euboea. ... At the 
 same time Themistoeles set about the fortiflca- 
 tion of the PeiriEus. . . . Could he have carried 
 the Athenians with him, lie would have made the 
 Peinuus the capital of the country, in order that 
 tlie sliips and the city might be in close connec- 
 tion. But for this the people were not pro- 
 pared." — E. Abbott, Pericles and Vie Oolden Age 
 of Athetu, ch. 2. 
 
 Also IN: Plutarch, Arintides. — ThemiKtocles. 
 
 B. C. 481-479.— Congress at Corinth.— Or- 
 ganized Hellenic Union, under the headship 
 of Sparta. See Giiekce: B. C. 481-479. 
 
 B. C. 480-470. — The second Persian inva- 
 sion. — Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, 
 Platxa. — Abandonment of the City. — "The 
 last days of Darius were clouded by the disaster 
 of ilarathon; 'that battle formed the turning 
 point of his good fortune,' and it would seem 
 that the news of it led to several insurrections, 
 particularly that of I5gyi)t ; but they were soon 
 put down. Davius died (Olyrap. "73, 3), and 
 Xer.xes, who succeeded him, was p.e vented from 
 taliing rev<,vige on the Athenians liy the revolt of 
 Egypt, which engaged his attention during the 
 first years of his reign. But ho completely con- 
 •luered the insurgents after they had maintained 
 themselves about four or tive years; and he then 
 made prepanuions for that vengeance on Athens 
 for which his barbarian pride was longing. The 
 account of the three years' preparations of 
 Xerxes, how he assembled his army in Asia 
 Jlin >r, how he made a bridge across the Helles- 
 pont, how he cut a canal through the isthmus of 
 Jlount Athos to jirevcnt his fleet being destroyed 
 by .storms — all this is known to every one who 
 has read Herodotus. History is here so much in- 
 terwoven with ijoetry, that they can no longer 
 
 be separated. . . . The Greeks awaited the at- 
 tack 'Olyrnp. 75. 1), 'but they were not agreed 
 among Uiemselves. The Argives from hatriMl of 
 Sparta joinecl the Persians, and the miserable 
 Boeotians likewise supported them. The olliers 
 kept together ojily from nercssity; and without 
 the noble spirit of the .Vtheiiians Greece would 
 have been lost, and that from the most paltry 
 circumstaiiees. \ dispute arose as to who was 
 to be honoured' with the r.upreme command : the 
 Athenians gave way to all, for llieii- only desire 
 was to .save Greece. Had the Persians moved on 
 rapidly, they would have met with no resistance, 
 but thy proceeded slowly, ..nd matters turned 
 out dilferently. ' A Greek arm v was encamped 
 at Tenipe, at the entrance of 'I'hessaly, and at 
 tlrst determined on defeniling Thessaly. But 
 they must have seen that they could 1"; entirely 
 surrounded from Upper Thessaly; and when 
 they thus discovered the impossibility of stop- 
 ping the Persians, they retreated. The narrative 
 now contains one inconceivable circum.stauco 
 after another. ... It is inconceivable that, as 
 the Greeks did make a stand at Tliermopylae, no 
 one else took his position tlu'-n except King 
 Leonidas and his Spartans, '■ ' icluding even 
 the Lacedaemonians, forthi r...ined at home! 
 Only 1,000 Phociaus occu,,.jd the heights, 
 though that people might surely have furnished 
 10,000 men; 400 of the Boeotians were iiosted in 
 the rear, as a sort of hostages, as Herodotus re- 
 marks, and 700 Tliespians. Whore were all the 
 rest of the Greeks 'if . . . Countless hosts are in- 
 vading Greece ; the Greeks want to defend them- 
 selves, and are making active preparations at 
 sea ; but on land hundreds of thousands are met 
 by a small biuid of Peloponnesians, 700 Thes- 
 pians, 400 Thebans as hostages, and 1,000 Pho- 
 ciaus, stationed on the heights I A pass is occu- 
 pied, but only that one, and the others are left 
 unguarded. . . . All this is quite unintelligible; 
 it would almost appear as if there had been an 
 intention to sacrifice Leonidas and his men; but 
 we oarnot suppose this. These circumstances 
 alone suggest to us, that the numbers of the 
 Porsi'in army cannot have been as great as they 
 are described; but even if we reduce them to an 
 immense extent, it still remains inconceivable 
 why they were not opposed by greater numbers 
 of the "Greeks, for as afterwards they ven- 
 tured to attack the Persians in the open field, it 
 was certainly much more natural to oppose them 
 while inarching across the iiil's. But however 
 this may be, it is an undo.ibted fact, that Leoni- 
 das and his Spartans fell in the contest, of which 
 we may form a conception from the (lescriptiou 
 of Herodotus, when after a resistance of three 
 days they were surrounded by the Persians. A 
 few of the Spartans escaped on very excusable 
 groumls, but they were so generally despised, 
 that their life became unendurable, and they 
 iliade away with themselves. This is certainly 
 historical. . . . After the victory of Thermopylae 
 all Hellas lay open before the Persians, and they 
 now advanced towards Athens, a distance which 
 they could march in a few days. Tliebes opened 
 her gates, and joyfully admitted them from 
 hatred of Athens. ' lleantime a portion of the 
 army appeared before Delphi. It is almost ia- 
 couceivable that the Persians did not succeed in 
 taking the temple. . . . The miracles by which 
 the temple is said to have been saved, are re- 
 peated in tlio same manner tluring the attack of 
 
 153 
 
ATIIKNS, 11. C. 480-479. 
 
 Prrnian 
 War. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 470-478. 
 
 tlicOmilfl. But tliptpmplonf I)f]plii wasrertninly 
 mil pliiTiclcrcil.' . . . 'riicciiy of .Vtlwti.sli!i(l inthc 
 ini;iiilimr l"'iii .iIpiiiiiIoikmI l)y all tin- pcopli'; tlu! 
 (iilcnci'lcss li.ul takiri rcfuK'i' liitlicsmiill isliiim .' 
 Hiiliiiiiis, i)r 111' 'I'hii'/.cii, •and all tlic Athenians 
 uipiibic of bciirin;,' arms cinliarkcd in the tlct't.' 
 . . . The Persians thus took Alliens witlioutany 
 resistance. . . . Durini? the same days on wliicli 
 tlie battli'of Thermopylae was foUijht, the Greek 
 fleet was ensraired in two indecisive hnt ijlorious 
 li.illles near the proniontorv of Artemisium. ' In 
 a third IIk' Persians jjaineii tlie upper liand. and 
 wlien the (ireeUsat the siiini' time heard of the 
 defeat at ThiMinopylae, they withdrew, and 
 (loul)lini; Cipe Suninm sjiiled towards Salamis,' 
 (}i)il sent tlien\ a storm whereby the Persians in 
 their pursuit sulTeredsliipwreik. . . . While tlio 
 (ireek tleet was stationed in the channel between 
 the island of Salainis anil Attica, towards Pi- 
 nieeus. discord broke out atnom; tli(^ Greeks. Tlie 
 Peloponnesians thout;lit only of themselves; 
 they had fortilied the Isthmus"; tlierc they weru 
 a.ssemblcil, and there they wanted to olTer resist- 
 ance to the Persians. In their folly they forgot, 
 that if tlie enemy with his superior lleet, should 
 turn ay.insl Peloponnesus, they mii^lit land 
 wherever llicy liked. . . . HulThemistoeli^s now 
 declared, that all the hopes of the Athenians 
 were directed towards the recovery of their own 
 city; that, if tlu^ Peloponnesians should saerifico 
 them, and, thinkinu; of themselves onlv, should 
 abandon Attica to tin barbarians, the Athenians 
 would nolbesocbildisb astosiKTilice themselves 
 for them, but would take their women and chil- 
 dren on board their ships, and sail far away from 
 the Persians to the island of Sardinia, or some 
 other place where (Jreek colonies were estab- 
 lished; that there they would settle as a free 
 people, and abandon Peloponnesus to its fate; 
 and that IIkm. iht! peninsula would soon be in the 
 hands of the enemy. This frightened the Pelo- 
 ponnesians, and they resolved to stan I by Athens. 
 It is evident that, throughout that ii , Themis- 
 toeles had to struggle with the most intolerable 
 dilllculties, which the allies phiced in his way, as 
 well as with their jealousy, meanness, ami inso- 
 lence. 'The rudeness of the .Spartans and Cor- 
 inthians is nowhere more strongly contrasted with 
 the letlnement of the Athenians, than on that 
 occasion.' lint aftiT he had tried everything, 
 and oven'ome by every possible means a hundred 
 dilfercnt dillicullies, lie yet saw, that he could 
 not rely on the iiersevcraiice of the Peloponne- 
 sians, and that tliey would turn to the Isthmus 
 as soon as Xerxes should proceed in that direc- 
 tion. He accordingly induced tlu; Persian king, 
 by a false message, to surround the Greek tleet, 
 for the purpose of cutting off the retreat of the 
 Peloponnesians. He declared himself ready to 
 deliver the whole of the Greek lleet into his 
 Imnds. This device was ((uitcto the mind of the 
 Persians; Xer.xes believed him, and followed his 
 advice. When Theinistocles was thus sure of 
 the Peloponnesians, the ever-memorable battle of 
 Salamis commeneo<l, which is as certainly histori- 
 cal as that of Cannae, orany moderu battle, ' what- 
 ever the numbers may be.' The battle ])roeeeded 
 somewhat in the manner of the battle of Leipzig: 
 wlien the issue was decided, a portion of tho.,e wiio 
 ought to have joined their countrymen before, 
 made common cause with the Greeks. . . . Their 
 iieocssioii increased the victory of the Greeks. . . . 
 Curtuiu as the battle of Salamis is, all the uccouuts 
 
 of what took place after it, are very doubtful. 
 This much is certain, that Xerxes returned, 
 'leaving u portion of his army under Mardonius 
 in Greece;' . . . Winter was now approaching, 
 ,Mid ."ilardonius withdrciw from ravaged Attica, 
 taking up his wint('r-([uarters |)artly in Thessaly 
 and partly in Hoi'oiia. . . . The probability is, 
 that the Alheniiiris remained the wintei- in 
 Salamis in sheds, or under the open sky. .Mar- 
 donius olfered to restore to them Attica unin- 
 jured, so far as it liad not already been devas- 
 tated, if they would c()nclude peace with him. 
 They iiiight at that time have obtained any 
 terms they pleased, if they had abandoned 
 tlu' common cause of the Greeks ; and the Per- 
 sians would have kept the peace; for when they 
 concluded treaties they ob.served them: they 
 were not faithless barbarians. But on this occa- 
 sion again, we see the Athenian people in all 
 its greatness and excellence; it scorned such a 
 peace, and preferred the good of the Pelopon- 
 nesians. . . , Mardonius now again advanced 
 towards Athens; the Spartans, who ought to 
 have proceeded towards Cithaeron, had not ar- 
 rived, and thus lie again took possession of 
 Attica and ravaged it completely. At length, 
 however (Olymp. 75, 3), the Athenians prevailed 
 upon the Peloponnesians to leave the Isthmus, 
 and they grailually advanced towards Bocotia. 
 There the battle of Plataeac was fought. . . . 
 In regard to the accounts of this battle, it is his- 
 torically certain tliat it was completely won by 
 the Greeks, and that the remnants of the Persian 
 army retreated without being vigorously pur- 
 sued. It must have reached Asia, but it tiien 
 ilisappears. It is also historically certain, that 
 Pausanias was the commander of the allied 
 army of the Greeks. . . . After their victory, 
 the Greeks advanced towards Thebes. In ac- 
 cordance with a vow which they had made 
 before the war, Thebes ought to have been de- 
 stroyed by the Greeks. But their opinions were 
 divided. . . . On the same day on which the 
 battle of Plataeae was fought, the allied Greeks 
 gained as complete a victory at sea. . . . After 
 this victory of .Mycale, the Ionian cities revolted 
 against the Persians. " — B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures 
 on Ancient Ilintor//, v. 1, leets. 37 and 38. 
 
 Al-so IS: Herodotus, History; trans, and ed. 
 hij II. Rawlinson, bk. 7 (o. 4). — Plutarch, The- 
 niittocles. — G. W. Cox, Tlie Greeks and Persians 
 
 B. C. 479-478. — Protection of Ionia assumed. 
 — Siege and capture of Sestus. — Rebuilding 
 and enlargement of the city and its walls. — 
 Interference of Sparta foiled by Themistocles. 
 — "The advantages obtained by tlie Hellenes [in 
 their war with Persia] came upon tlieni so unex- 
 pectedly as to And them totally unprepared, 
 and accordingly embarrassed by their own vic- 
 tories. What was to be done with Ionia t 
 Was the wliole country to be admitted into 
 the Hellenic confederation '! Too great a re- 
 sponsibility would, in the opinion of tlie Pelopon- 
 nesians, be incurred by sucii a step. . . . It would 
 be better to sacritice the country, and establish 
 the lonians in settlements in other parts, at 
 the expense of those who hail favoured the 
 Medes, i. e., of the Argives, Bicotians, Locri- 
 ans, and Thessaliaus. . . . The Athenians, on 
 the other hand, espoused the cause of the cities. 
 . . . Ionia ought to be a bulwark against the 
 Barbarians, and to belong to the Hellenes. . . . 
 The Athenians found a, support in the feeUng 
 
 1M 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 479-478. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 477-462. 
 
 prevalent nmon^ tlie loiiiuus, who wore nuturully 
 opitostd to any lorcutil scttlciiu'iit. Ai< onliiiffly, 
 ill tliL- llrst iiisliinci,', Samos, Lesbos, I'liios, iiiiil 
 n mimlicr of other i.slund-towiis, were luhuiltcd 
 into the confederntioii . . . and a new llelhi.s 
 was formed, u Greel< empire coniprehending both 
 sides of tlie sea. Considerations of eaution made 
 it necessary, above all, to secure the pas.snge 
 from Asia to Europe; for it was universally be- 
 lieved that the bridge over cite IIellesi)ont was 
 cither still in existence or hud been restored. 
 Wlien it was found to have been destroyed, the 
 Pelopoiiuesians urged the termination of "the cam- 
 paign. . . . The Atlienians, on the other hand, 
 declared theinselves resolved . . . not to leave 
 nalinislied what they had begun. Sestus, tlie 
 strongest fortress on the Hellespont, ought not 
 to be left in the hands of the enemy; an attack 
 on it ought to be ri.sked without delay, before 
 the city had jlrepared for a siege. Tliey allowed 
 the Peloponnesians to take their departure, and 
 under the command of Xanthippus united with 
 the sliips of tlio loniaiis and nellespontians for 
 tlie purpose of new tiiidertakings. " Tlie I'crsians 
 in iSestus resisted obstinately, enduring a long 
 siege, but were forced to surrender at last. 
 " Jlcanwliile, the main point consisted in the 
 Atlienians having remained alone in the field, in 
 tlieir having fraternized with the lonians as one 
 naval power, and having after such successes 
 attained to a confidence in victory, to which no 
 enterprise any lonjjer seemed either too distant 
 or too dilllcult. Already they reijarded their city 
 as the centre of the coast-lands of Greece. But 
 what was the condition of this city of Athens 
 itself V A few fragments of the ancient city wall, 
 a few scattered houses, which had served the Per- 
 sian cominanders as their quarters, were yet 
 standing ; the rest n-as ashes and ruins. After 
 the battle of Platieie the inhabitants had returned 
 from Salamis, Trtezene, andvEgina; not even the 
 fleet and its crews were at hand to afford them 
 assistance. They endeavoured to make shift as 
 best they could, to pass through the trials of the 
 winter. As soon as the spring arrived, the res- 
 toration of tlie city was commenced with all 
 possible activity. . . . But even now it was not 
 the comforts of domesticity wliicli occupied their 
 thoughts, but, above all, the city as a whole and 
 its security. To Theraistocles, the founder of 
 the port-town, public confidence was in this 
 matter properly accorded." It was not possible 
 "to carry out a new and regular phm for the 
 city ; but it was resolved to extend its circum- 
 ference beyond the circle of the ancient walls, 
 . . . so as to be able, in case of a future siege, 
 to offer a retreat to the country-population with- 
 in the capital itself. . . . But the Athenians 
 were not even to be permitted to build their 
 walls undisturbed; for, as soon as their grand 
 plan of operations became known, the envy and 
 insidious jealousy of tlieir neighbours broke out 
 afresh. . . . The Peloponnesian states, above all 
 -Egina and Corinth, hastened to direct the atten- 
 tion of Sparta to tlie situation of affairs. . . . 
 As at Sparta city walls were objected to on 
 principle, and as no doubts prevailed with regard 
 to the fact that a well-fortified town was impreg- 
 nable to tlie military art of the Peloponnesians, it 
 was actually resolved at any price to prevent the 
 building of the walls in Attica. " But, for shame's 
 sake, the interference undertaken by Sparta was 
 put upon the ground that in the event of a future 
 
 invasion of tlie country, only the iieninsula could 
 be successfully d( fended ; that central Oreece 
 wouM necessarily be abandoiii'd to the eiieniy ; 
 and that every fortiliecUcity in it would furnish 
 Iiim a dangerous base. " At such a irisis craft 
 aloiii! could be of avail. When IIk! Spartans 
 made their imperious demand at Athens, Tluniis- 
 todes ordered the Immediate cessation of build- 
 ing operations, and witli assumed sul)mis.sive- 
 ne.ss, promised to present liiniself at Sparta, in 
 order to pursue further negotiations in pers(m. 
 On his arrival there, he allowed one day after 
 the otlier to go by, pretending to be waiting for 
 bis fellow envoys." In the meantiine, all Athens 
 was toiling night ami day at the walls, and time 
 enough was gained by the audacious duplicity 
 of Tiieniistocles to build them to a safe lieight 
 for defence. " The enemies of Athens saw that 
 their design bad been foiled, and were forced to 
 l)iit the best face upon their discomfiture. They 
 now gave out that they had intended nothing be- 
 vond good advice." — E. Curtius, lliat. of Greece, 
 U. a, eh. 3 ()'. 2). 
 
 Also in G. W. Cox, Hint, of Greece, bl: 3, ch. 
 7-8 (c. 1-3). 
 
 B. C. 478-477. — Alienation of the Asiatic 
 Greeks from iJparta. — Formation of the Con- 
 federacy of Delos. — The founding of Athenian 
 Empire. See GuEiicii: B. C. 4T8-477. 
 
 B. C. 477-462. — Constitutional gains for the 
 democracy. — Ascendency of Aristeides.— De- 
 clining popularity and ostracism of Themis- 
 tokles.— The sustentation of the commons. — 
 The stripping of power from the Areopagus. 
 — At the time when the Confederacy of D(do8 
 was formed, "the Persians still held not only 
 the important posts of Eion on the Strymon and 
 Doriskus in Thrace, but also several other posts 
 in that country which are not specified to Ui: 
 ^Ve may thus understand why the Greek cities on 
 and near the Chalkidic peninsula . . . were not 
 less anxious to seek protection in the bosom of 
 the new confederacy than the Dorian islands of 
 Rhodes ond Cos, the Ionic islands of Samos and 
 Chios, the .lEolic Lesbos and Tenedos, or con- 
 tinental towns such as Miletus and Byzantium. 
 . . . Some sort of union, organised and obli- 
 gatory upon each city, was indispensable to the 
 safety of all. Indeed, even with that aid, at the 
 time when the Confederacy of Delos was first 
 formed, it was by no means certain the Asiatic 
 enemy would be effectually kept out, especially as 
 the Persians were strong not merely from their 
 own force, but also from the aid of internal 
 parties in many of the Grecian states — traitors 
 within, as well as exiles without. Among these 
 traitors, the first in rank as well as the most 
 formidable, was the Spartan Pausauias." 
 Pau.sanias, whose treasonable intrigues with the 
 Persian king began at Byzantium (See Gueece: 
 B. C. 478-477) was convicted some nine or ten 
 years later, and suffered a terrible fate, being 
 shut within a temple to which he had fled, and 
 starved. " His treasonable projects implicated 
 and brought to disgrace a man far greater than 
 himself — the Athenian Themistoklcs. . . . The 
 charge [against Theinistokles] of collusion with 
 the Persians connects itself with tlie previous 
 movement of political parties. . . . The rivalry 
 of Theniistokles and Aristeides had been greatly 
 appeased by the invasion of Xerxes, which had 
 imposed upon both the peremptory necessity of 
 
 155 
 
ATIIKXH. B. C. 477-462. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 477-402. 
 
 rooporntion nffiiinRt n common enemy. And 
 ii|)|»irentlv it wiim not reKUMicil diiriiiu' llic limes 
 wliicli iiiiiiicilialely niKceiilid tl;c niiirii (if lliit 
 AtlienianH In their CDiiiitiry: lit li i«t we Iieiir of 
 liotli 111 1 llective servici' iiliil in prominent posts, 
 Tlieinistoltles stamls forward as tlie (Minlriver of 
 tlie city walls and iireldleet of I'eiraeiis: Aris- 
 teidis Is eominaiMler of t lie licet and lirst orKuiiiser 
 of the ConfediTaey of Delos. .Moreover we seem 
 to deteet n rhaiijfe in the elmraeler of the latter. 
 lie liail ceased to lie the champion of Atlienian 
 old f.isliioiied landed Interest, ajiainst 'I'lieniis- 
 lokhs as the oriu'inator of the maritime iniio- 
 vationH. Those iniioviitions had now, sinccMlie 
 buttle of Salamis, t)e<otne an established fact, 
 . . . FroM- henceforth llie lleet is endeared to 
 every man as tlie Km" ' force, olTcnsive and 
 defensive, of the Ktate. in which character all 
 the political leaders af;ree in iicceptin>; it. . . . 
 The triremes, and the men who manned tlieiii, 
 taken collectively, were now the delermiiiintr 
 element in the state, .Moreover, the men who 
 maimed them bad just retnrned from Salamis, 
 fresli from a Hceiie of trial and danifer, and from 
 n harvest of victory, wliuh had efimdizcd for the 
 moment all .\thcniaimas siilTerers, as combatants, 
 and a.s patriots, . . , The political chaiiKC 
 arising from hence in Athens was not less 
 important than the military. 'The maritime 
 multitude, authors of the victory of Salamis." 
 aii<l instruments of the new vocation at Atlu'iis 
 as hiMid of the Delian Confederacy, appear now 
 ascendunt in the political constitution also; not 
 in any w;iy as a sep.irate or privileged cliisg, but 
 R8 leavcniiiR the whole mass, strengthening the 
 democrat i<al sentiment, and protesting against 
 all recognised political inequalities. . . . Early 
 after tlu' return to Attica, the Kleistheuian 
 constitution was enlnrgp<l as respects cligiliility 
 to tlio magistracy. According to that consti- 
 tution, the fourth or last class on the Solonian 
 census, including the considerable majority of 
 freem(!n, were not admissible to ofTlccs of state, 
 though they possessed votes in common with 
 the rest; no person was eligible to be a magis- 
 trate unless he belonged to one of the tlin^e 
 high(!r classes. This restriction was now annulled 
 and eligibility extended to all the citizens. We 
 may appreciate the strength of feeling with 
 which such reform was demanded when we find 
 that it was proposed by Aristeides. . . . The 
 popularity thus ensured to him, probably heigh- 
 tened by some regret for his previous ostracism, 
 was calculated to acquire permanence from his 
 stniightforward and incorruptible character, now 
 brought into strong relief by his function as 
 assessor to tlie new Delian Confederacy. On 
 the other hand, the ascendency of Themistokles, 
 ;hough so often exalted by his unrivalled politi- 
 cal genius and daring, as well as by the signal 
 value of liis pulilic recommendations, was as 
 often overthrown liy his duplicity of means and 
 unprincipled thirst' for money. New political 
 opponents sprung up against him, men syiiqia- 
 thising with Aristeides. ... Of these the chief 
 were Kimon [Cimon], (son of Miltiadcs), and 
 Alkmicon." In 471 B. C. Themistokles was sent 
 into exile by a vote of ostracism, and retired to 
 Argos. Five years later he was accused of 
 ccmiplicity in the treasonable intrigues of 
 Pausanias, and (led to the court of the Persian 
 king, where he spent the remainder of his days. 
 " Aristeides died about three or four years after 
 
 the ostracism of Themistokles." — d. Orote, Iliiif. 
 nfaniri; /il. 2. rfi. 44 (c. .'i),— The constitutional 
 I tfcctsof the Persian war, anil the political situa- 
 tion of Athens immediatciv after the war, are 
 represented somcwliat dilTereiitly from the 
 account above, in the liitr-ly discovered work on 
 the Constitution of .\thcns which is attributed to 
 Aristolh', The following is (|U<>tcd from one of 
 the tran.slationsof the latter; " After the jMedinn 
 war the council of .\icopai,'US [.See AiiK<)r.\(ifs] 
 recovered Ktrength and ruled the state, not that 
 any law conferred the liegi'iiKiny on them, Imt 
 iMratise the aristocratic party had the credit of 
 the victory at Halamis. For when tlu! generals 
 had despaired of the country and procl;iimed a 
 sauve (pii pent, the Areopagus raised funds, 
 gave every man eight drachmas (tis, Cd.) and 
 induced them to man the ships. In consc(|uenco 
 of this public service th(^ Ecclesia yielded the 
 nscendency to the Areoiiagus, and public afTuirs 
 were admirably ailministered during the follow- 
 ing epoch For they accjuired the art of war, 
 inad(! their name honoured throughout the 
 Hellenic vyorld, and pos.ses.sed them.scdves of the 
 sovereignty of the sea witli the consent of 
 l.akedaimon. At this time the leaders of the 
 commons were Aristeides. son of Lusimachos, 
 and Themistokles, son of Xeokles ; the latter 
 s'udious of the arts of war, tlic former reputed 
 eminent in statesmanship and honest beyond 
 his contemporaries; wdiich characters made their 
 countrymen cmpi ly the one as a general, the 
 other "as a councillor. The rcluiilding of the 
 walls of Athens w'as their joint work, though 
 they were otherwise at feuil. The detachment 
 of the lonians from Persia and the formation of 
 an alliance with Sparta were due to the counsels 
 of Ari.steides, who seized the opportunity 
 afforded by the discredit cast on the Lakonians 
 by the ccmduct of Pau.sanias. He too originally 
 apportioned, two years after the battle of 
 Salamis, in the archonship (of Timosthenes 
 (478 B. C), the contribution to be paid by the 
 islanders. . . . Subsequently, when lofty 
 thoughts filled every bosom and wealth was 
 accumulating, Aristeides advised them to 
 administer the liegemony with their own 
 bands, to leave their country occupations and 
 fix their domicile in the city. Sustcntation, he 
 jiromised, would be provided for all, eitlier as 
 soldiers or sailors in active service, or as troops 
 in garrison or as public servants ; and then they 
 could ii^rease the vigour of their imperial sway. 
 They followed his advice, and, taking the rule 
 into their own bands, reduced their allies to the 
 position of va.ssal8, except the Chians, Lesbians, 
 and Samians, whom they kept as satellites of 
 their power, and permitted to retain their own 
 constitutions and to rule their own dependencies: 
 and they provided for tlieir own sustcntation by 
 the method which Aristeides indicated; for in 
 the end the public revenues, the taxes and the 
 tributes of the allies gave maintenance to more 
 than 20,000. There were 0,000 dicasts or jurors, 
 1,000 archers, 1,200 cavalry, 500 senators, 500 
 .';<)ldier3 of the dockyard garrison, ."jOcity guards, 
 700 home magistrates, 700 foreign magistrates, 
 2,.50O heavy armed soldiers (this was their num- 
 ber at the beginning of the Pcloponnesian war), 
 4,000 sailors manning 20 guardships, 2,000 
 sailors appointed by lot, manning 20 tribute- 
 collecting ships, and in addition to these the 
 Prutancion, the orphans, the gaolers ; and all 
 
 156 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 477-468. 
 
 ATHENS, n. C. 4fl6-«84. 
 
 those persons wcro maintnlncd at the expense of 
 the iiiUinnitl trciisiiry. The sustciitiition of tlii' 
 commons whh thus Kciurcd. Tlic 17 yciirs which 
 followed tlic .Mi'iliiiii war were ahout Ihc ])criiMl 
 (liiriiii; which llic country continued under the 
 usccndency of the Areopajjus, though its aristo- 
 criilic features were K''a''"""y on the wane. 
 When tho masses had grown more and more 
 preponderani, Kphialtes, son of Soidionides, 
 nputeil ineorniptihle in his loyalty to deinoi'- 
 nicy, hcc-aine leader of the conmions, and began 
 to attack the Areopagus. First, ho put to 
 death many of its meintiers, l)y impeaching them 
 of olTences connnitted in their administration. 
 Afterwards in tl\e archonship of Konon (ttiS 
 H. ('.)he despoiled tho council itself of all its 
 more recently HC(iuired attributes, which were 
 the keystone of tl'O existing constitution, and 
 (liatributod them aiaong the Senate of noo, the 
 Kcclesia, and the c(.urts of law. In this work 
 he had the co-operation of Themistokles, who 
 was himself an Areopagite, l)ut expecting to bo 
 impeached for trcaso.'iahfo correspondenee with 
 Persia. . . . EpIiialte.H and Themistokles kept 
 accusing the Areopagus before tho .Senate of 
 500, and again l)efore tho commons, till linally 
 thoy stripped it of all its principal fiuictions. 
 The assassination of Kphialtes by the instru- 
 mentality of Aristodikos of Tanagra followed 
 not long after. Such were tho circumstances of 
 till! overthrow of the Areopagus. After this 
 the degradation of the constitution proceeded 
 without intermission from the eagerness of 
 politicians to win pop\dar favour; and at the 
 same time there happened to be no organizer of 
 tho aristocratic party, whose head, Kimon, the 
 son of Miltiades, was too young for some years 
 to enter political life; besides which their ranks 
 were much devastated by ■(var. Expeditionary 
 forces were recruited by conscription; and as 
 the generals had no military experience and 
 owed their appointment to the reputation of 
 their ancestors, each expedition entailed the 
 sacrifice of 3,000 or 8,000 lives, cliietly of the 
 noblest sons of Athens, whether belonging to the 
 wealthy classes or to the commons. " — Aristotle, 
 On the VoHStitution of Athens {tr. by E. Poste.) 
 eh. 23-26. — On the above. Dr. Abbott comments 
 as follows: "So much of this account as refers 
 to Thomistodes may be at once dismissed as un- 
 liistorical. ... If the evidence of Thucydides 
 is to count for anytliing, it is quite certain that 
 Tliomistocles finally left Greece for Persia about 
 406 B. C. . . . Plutarch says not a word about 
 Themistocles. But the remainder of the account 
 [of the attack on the Areopagus] is supported 
 by all our outhoritics — if indeed it is not merely 
 repeated by them." — E. Abbott, Hist, of Greece, 
 pt. 3, eh. 11, seet. 5. 
 
 Also in .T. P. MnhafTy, Problems in Oreek 
 History p. 96.— Plutarch, Themistocles. 
 
 Sec, also, below: B. 0. 406-454. 
 
 B. C. 470-466. — Continued war against the 
 Persians. — Cimon's victories at the Euryme- 
 don. — Revolt ard subjugation o.f Naxos. — 
 "Under the guidance of Alliens, tlin war against 
 the Persians was continued. C'im.m [Kimon] 
 sailed with a fleet to the coast of Thrace, and 
 laid siege to Eion on the Strymon [H. C. 470]. 
 The Persian garrison made a gallant defence; 
 and finally Boges, the governor, rather than 
 surrender," cast all his gold and silver into tho 
 river; and, having raised a huge pile of wood, 
 
 slew his wives, children and slaves, and laid 
 their bodies on it: then setting tire to it, he Mung 
 himself into tliellames: the garrison surrendered 
 al discretion. Doriscus was attacked in vain, 
 but all thf other I'ersian garrisons in Europe 
 were ri'ilu((d. (iinon then, as executor of an 
 Ainpliielyoiiic decree, tiinieil his arms against 
 lli(! (liralic Dulopiansof the l><leof Siyros, whom 
 he expelled, and tilled the ishinil with Atlieniiiii 
 colonists. On this occasion he sought and fiiund 
 (as was supposed) the bones of the hero Theseus, 
 who had died in this island HOO years before; and 
 he broiiglil them in his "ii'!? ♦'ireme to Athens. — 
 an act which gained him grea' favour >vith the 
 people By this time, some o'" the confederates 
 were grown weary tif war, and began to murmur 
 at the toils and expense to which it put them. 
 The people of Naxos were the first who pnsi- 
 tiv<'ly refused to contribute any longer; but the 
 Athenians, who had tasted of the sweets of com- 
 mand, would not now permit the exercise of free 
 will to their allies, C'iiiion appeared (Ol. 78,3) 
 IB. ('. 4(i(l| with a large lleet before Xaxos; the 
 Naxians defended themselves with vigour, but 
 were at length forced to submit; and tho 
 Athenians had tho hardihood to reduce tlieni to 
 the conditiim of subjects to Athens — an ex- 
 ample which thoy soon followed in other cases. 
 . . . After the reduction of Naxos, Cimon sailed 
 over to tho coast of Asia, and learning that tho 
 Persian generals lia<l asncmblod a large fieet and 
 army in Pamphylia, ho collected a licet of 200 
 triremes at Cnidos, with which he proceeded to 
 the coast of that country, and laid siege to the 
 city of Phaselis, which, though Greek, obeyed 
 th(! Persian mcmarcli. Having rediieed it to 
 submission, he resolved to proceed and attack 
 the Persian fleet and army, which he learned 
 were lying at tho river Eurymedon. On his 
 arrival, the Persian fieet, of 3.50 triremes, fear- 
 ing at first to fight till 80 Phoenician vessels, 
 which they were expecting, should come up, 
 kept in the rivr; but finding that the Greeks 
 were preparing to attack, thoy put out to sea 
 and engaged ;!iem. The action did not continue 
 long: the I}arharians fled to the land; 200 ships 
 fell into the hands of the victors, and several 
 were destroyed. Without a moment's delay, 
 Cimon disembarked his men, and led them 
 against the land forces: the resistance of the 
 Persians was obstinate for some time, but at last 
 they turned and fled, leaving their camp a prey 
 to the conquerors ; and Cimon had thus the rare 
 glory of having gained two important victoriea 
 in the one day. Hearing then that the 80 Phoe- 
 nician vessels were at Hydros, in tho Isle of 
 Cyprus, he immediately sailed thither and took 
 or destroyed the whole of them. The victory 
 on the Eurymedon may be regarded as the 
 termination of the conflict between Greece and 
 Persia. The year after it (01. 78,4) [B. C. 465], 
 Xerxes was as.sassinated, and the usual confusion 
 took place in the court of Susa." — T. Keightley, 
 Hist, of Greece, pt. 1, «•/(. 13. 
 
 Also in W. W. Lloyd, The Age nf Pericles, eh. 
 27 (». 1). 
 
 See also Pf.rsia : B. (.'. 486-405. 
 
 B. C. 466-454. — Leadership in the Deliaa 
 confederacy changed to sovereignty. — Revolt 
 and subjugation of Thasos. — Help to Sparta 
 and its ungracious requital. — Fall and exile 
 of Cimon. — Rise of Pericles and the demo- 
 cratic anti-Spartan policy.— Removal of the 
 
 157 
 
 ■-^ 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 460-454. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 466^54. 
 
 federal treasury from Delos. — Building the 
 Long Walls. — " It wiisnow evident to tlie whole 
 boily of tlie allied of Athena Unit l)y joinin;; the 
 league they had provided themselves witli a 
 mistress rather tlian a leader. . . . Two years 
 nfter tlie reduefion of Naxos another powerful 
 island-state broke out into rebellion nfjainst 
 the supreinaey of Athens. The people of 
 'I'hasos had from very early times ;■ isessod 
 territory on the mainland of Thrace ojiposito 
 to their island. I!y holdinir tliis coast-slip 
 they enirriiss"il the trade of the Valley of the 
 .Sliymoii. a I held the rich gold mines of 
 Mount Pangaeiis. But the Athenians, after tlie 
 capture of EVon, set thomsolves to develop that 
 port as the commercial centre of Thrace. . . . 
 A spot called 'The Nine Ways,' • ■ . where 
 that great rivir lir.st begins to broaden out into 
 its e.stuary, but can still be spanned by a bridge, 
 was the "chosen site of a fortress to secure the 
 hold of Athens on the land. But the native 
 Thraeian trilies banded themselves together, and 
 fell upim the invaders with such despention that 
 . . . the Athenian armies were defeated. ... It 
 was probably tlie discouragement which this 
 defeat caused at .Vthens that enibolilened Tliasos 
 to declare her secession from th(! Confederacy of 
 Delos. She wished to save her Thraeian trade, 
 before Athens could make another attempt to 
 divert it from her. Tlie Thasiaiis did not rely 
 on their own resources alone; they "nlistcd the 
 Thracians and Macedonians of the mainland, 
 and sent to Sparta to endeavour to induce the 
 ephc s to deelare war on Athens." Tlic Spar- 
 tans were well disposed to take up the cause of 
 tlie Thasians; but at tliat moment they .vere 
 overwhelmed l)y the cdaniily of the frightful 
 Earthquake of 404, instantly followed by the 
 rising of the lldots and the third Messenian 
 war (See Mkssf.xian War, Ti k TiiiitD). "The 
 Islnnd-statt^ was therefore left to its own re- 
 sources; and these were so considerable that she 
 held out against the force of tlie Athenian con- 
 federacy for two whole vcurs. . . . She was 
 obliged at last to surrender to Cimon [B. C. 
 403], whose army had long been lying before 
 her walls. Like Na.\os, she was punished ".ir 
 her defection by the loss of her warlleet and 
 her fortiticati-,.s, and the iniiiosition of a line of 
 many talents. Still more galling must hav ■ been 
 the loss of her trade with Thrace, which now 
 passed entirely Into Athenian hands. . . . The 
 Spartans were still engaged in a desperate .strn;';- 
 gie with their revolted subjects when the siegcof 
 Thasos came to an end. C'inion, who was now at 
 the height of his reputation and jiower, saw 
 with distress the troubles of the city he so much 
 admired. lie set himself to persuade the Athe- 
 nians that they ought to forego old grudges, 
 and.' .t from destruetlon tlie state wliieh had 
 shared with them the glory of the Persian war. 
 . . . ills pleading was bitter.y opposed by the 
 nnti-Siiartan jiarty at Athens, headed by two 
 8tatesn> 'n, Ephliiltfs and Pericles, who had 
 already come into notice as antagonists of 
 Cimon. '.lut the more g<'nerous and unwise 
 policy prevail'Hl, and 4,000 huplitcs were sent 
 to the aid ..i Sparta [B. C. 'W]. This army 
 was pursued by misfortune; it i. jS so unsi'-^eess- 
 ful in altaeking Ithonie that the Spartans 
 attributed it; f'ailun' to 111 will rather than ill 
 luck. They, therefore, begun to treat their 
 allies '.rith marked discourtesy, and at last sent 
 
 them home without a word of thanks, merely 
 stating that their services could be of no further 
 use I Sec Messenian Wau, Tiik Tnruol. This 
 rudeness and ingratitude fully justilied the 
 anti-Spartan party at Athens. . . . Cimon was 
 now no longer able to deal with the policy of 
 the state as he cho.se, and the conduct of alfairs 
 began to pass into the hands of men whose for- 
 eign and domestic policy were alike ojijiosed to 
 all his views. Ephialtes and Pericles proceeded 
 to form alliances abroad with all the states 
 whicli were ill disposed toward Sparta, and at 
 homo to commence a revision of the constilution. 
 They were detciinined to carry out to its fur- 
 thest logical development the democratic ten- 
 dency which Cleistlienes had 'ntroduced into 
 the Athenian polity. Of Ephialtes, the son of 
 Sophonides, comparatively little is known. But 
 Pericles . . . was the son of Xanthippus, the 
 accuser of !Miltiades in 480, B. C, and the victor 
 of Mycale and Sestos; while, on his mother's 
 siilo, he came of the blood of the Alcmaeonidae. 
 Pericles was staid, self-contained, and haughty — 
 a strange thief for the pojiular party. But his 
 relationship to ('lei.stlicnes, and the enmity wliieh 
 existed lietween his house and that of Cimon, 
 urged him to espouse the cause of democracy. 
 . . . While Cimon had Greece in his mind, Peii- 
 cles could only think of Athens, and the temper 
 of the times was favourable to the narrower 
 policy. . . . The first aim which Pericles and 
 Ephialtes set before themselves w.^ ; the cutting 
 down of the power of the Areopagus [See above: 
 B. C. 477 -40x;]. That body had since the Per- 
 sian war bi'como the stronghold of the Conserva- 
 tive and jihilo-Laconian jiarty. . . . Ephialtes 
 took the lead in the attack on the Areopagus. 
 He ehiise a moment when Cimon was away at 
 sea, bent on assisting a rebellion against the 
 Great King wliieh had broken out in Egypt. 
 After a vic'ent struggle, he succeeded in carry- 
 ing a law which dejirived the Areopagus of its 
 ancient censorial power, and rcilueed it to a mere 
 court to try honiieide^ . . . When Cimon came 
 home from Egypt he was wildly enraged. . . . 
 Hecourse was had to the lest of ostracism. It 
 decided against Cimon, who therefore went into 
 banishment [B. C. 459]. But this wrong against 
 the greatest general of Athens was, not long 
 after, avenged by an over-zealous and unscrupu- 
 lous frieml. Ephialtes was slain by assassins in 
 his own house. . . . The immediate result of 
 this murder was to leave Pericles in sole and 
 undivided command of the democratic party. 
 The foreign policy of Pericles soon began »o 
 involve Athens in troubles at home. He con- 
 cluded alliances with Argos and Thessaly, both 
 states at variance with Sjiarta, and thereby made 
 a collision with the liacijdn'inonian confederacy 
 inevitable He gave still more direct offence to 
 Corinth, one of the most powerful members of 
 that confederacy, by con'^'I,.diiig a clo.se alliance 
 with Megara. ... in iioeolia, loo, he stirred up 
 enmity, by giving an active support to the demo- 
 cratic party in tliat country. These provoca- 
 tions made a war inevitable. In 458 B. C. the 
 storm burst. ... At the moment of the out- 
 break of the t''-st important naval war wdiich .she 
 had to wage with a Greek enemy since the 
 formation of her I'mpire, Athens look two ini- 
 liorlant steps. The lir.st was destined to guard 
 against the risk of misfortunes by sea; it eou- 
 sisied in the transference from Delos to Athena 
 
 158 
 
ATIIliNS, B. C. 466-454. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 460-449. 
 
 [dated by different authorities between 401 and 
 454 B. C] of the eeutnil treasury of t''" "onfed- 
 enicy. ... It was not long before !lic Atiie- 
 uiaiis came to regard the treasury as their own, 
 and to draw upon it for jiurely Attic needs, 
 whicli liad no connection with tlie welfare of tlie 
 otlier -onfederate.s. . . . Tlie second important 
 event c the year 458 B. C. was the commence- 
 ment of the famous ' Lons; Walls ' of Athens 
 [See Long AVali.s]. . . . When they were fin- 
 ished Alliens, Peirajus, and Phaleriini, formed 
 the angles of a vast fortilied triangle, while t)ie 
 space between them, a considerable expanse of 
 open country, c(mld be utilized as a i)lace of 
 refuge for the iioiiulatiou of Attica, and even for 
 their tlocks and herds."— C. W. C. Oman, Hut. 
 of Greece, cli. ;2;i-24. 
 
 Also i.n E. Abbott, Pmdea and the Oolden Aqe 
 of Athens, ch. 5-0.— U. Thirhvall, Hut. of race, 
 ch. 17 (i: 3).— Plutarch, Cimon; Periclen. 
 
 B. C. 46o-449.^Disastrous expedition to 
 Egypt. — Attaclcs on the Peloponnesian Coast. 
 —Recall of Cimon. — His last enterprise 
 against the Persians. — The disputed Peace of 
 Cimon or Callias. — Five years truce with 
 Sparta. — " hianis, king of some of the Libyan 
 tribes on the western border of Egyjit, had 
 e.xcited an insurrection there against the Persians 
 [about 460 B. C], and his authority was acknowl- 
 edged throughout the greater part of the coun- 
 try. Artaxer.xes sent his brother Achicmenes 
 with a great army to (juell this reli' ilioii. Au 
 Athenian armament of 200 galleys v as lying at 
 the time oil Cyprus, and Inarus sent to obtain 
 its assistance. The Athenian commanders, 
 whethiT following thei"- own discretion, or after 
 orders reccivi from ' le. quitted Cyprus, and 
 having joined with tin surgents, enabled them 
 to (U'feat Acha'mewes, n o fell in the battle by 
 the hand of Inari's. Tii./ then sriled up the 
 Nile to Jre:',,yhis, where a body of Persians, and 
 some Egyptians, v, ho still adhered to their cause 
 were in jiossessiou of one quarter of the city, 
 callc 1 While (.astle. The rest was subject "to 
 Inar is, and there the Athenians stationed them- 
 selv( s, and besieged the Persians. . . . Artax- 
 erxci sent a Persian, named Jlegabazus, to 
 Spar.a, with a sum of money, to be em|)loyed in 
 bribing the principal Spartans to u.se their inllu- 
 eiice, so as to engage their countrymen in an 
 expedition ag".inst Attica. Megabazus did not 
 find the leading Spartans unwilling to receive 
 his money; but they seem to have heen unable 
 to render him the service for >vhich it was otTerrd. 
 Ithomc still held out: and Sparta had probably 
 not yet suniciently either recovered her strength 
 or restored internal tranquility, to ver'ure on the 
 proposed invasion. Some rumoui's of this negotia- 
 tion may have reached Athens, and have (piiek- 
 end the energy with which Pericles now urged 
 the completion of the long walls. . . . But 
 amonir his opponents tliere \va.". a faction i...(> 
 viewed the progress of this great work in a 
 dill'ereut light from Cinicm. and saw in it, not the 
 means of securing the indei>endence of Athens, 
 hut a bulwark of the hated cunimonalty. They 
 too would have gla<lly seen an invadiBg army in 
 Attica, which might' assist them in destroy iug 
 the work and its authors." 'I'his jiarty was 
 iiecnse<l of sympathy with the Spartan expedi- 
 tion which came to the help of Doris against the 
 Phoriaus in 457 IJ. V., and which defeated the 
 Athenians al Tanagra (See OiiKiiCE ; U. C. 458- 
 
 ' (4.')0). In 455, " the Spartans were reminded that 
 they were also liable to be attacked at home. 
 An Atheniar. arinanient of 50 galleys, and, if we 
 may trust Diodoru.s, with 4,000 heavy armed 
 trocps on board, sailed round Peloponnessus 
 under Tolmides, burnt the Spartan ai-senal at 
 Gythium, took a town named Chalcis belonging 
 to the Corinthians, and defeated the Sicy<nians, 
 who attemiited to oppose the landing of the 
 troops. But the most important advantage 
 gained in the expedition was the capture of 
 Naiipactus, which belonged tolhe (Jzolian Locri- 
 ans, and now fell into the hands of the Athenians 
 at a very seasonalile juncture. The tliirtl Mes- 
 seiiian war had just come to a clo.se. The brave 
 defenders of Ithoine had obtained honourable 
 terms. . . . The besieged were permitted to (piit 
 Pelojionnesus with their families, on condition 
 of being detained in slavery if they ever returned. 
 Tolmides now setth^d the honieles-s wantl-r^r.'' in 
 Naupaetus. . . . But these successes were 
 counterbalanced by a revei-se which befid the 
 arms of Athens this stiineyear in another quarter. 
 After the defeat of Achiemens, Artaxerxes, 
 disappointed in his hopes of assistance from 
 Sparta, . . . raised a great army, which he 
 placed under the command of an abler general, 
 Megabyzus, son of Zopyriis. Megabyzus 
 defeated the insurgents and their allie" ^a 
 forced the (.ireeks to evacuate Meinphii ead to 
 take refuge in au island of the Nile, named 
 Prosopitis, vvhicli contained .i town called Byblus, 
 where Le hesiegi-d tlieiu 'or 18 month". At 
 length he resorted to the contiivance of turning 
 the stream. . . . The Gri">'': galleys were all 
 left aground, and were lire' by the Athenians 
 themselves, that they might not fall into the 
 enemy's hands. The Persians then marched into 
 the island over tlie ilry bed of the river: the 
 Egyptians in disir. ly abandoned their allies, who 
 were overpowered by i.-imbera and almost all 
 destroyed. . . . Inarus himself Wiis betrayed into 
 the hands of the Pei-sians and put to death. . . . 
 I'^gypt . . . was again redu(;e(l un''er the Per- 
 sian yoke, except a part of the lielt.a, where 
 another pietender, named Aniyrtaais, w'l>o 
 assumed the title of king . . . maintained him- 
 self for several years against the power of the 
 I'ersian monarchy. But the misfortune of the 
 Athenians did not eiul with the destruction of 
 the great tleet and arinv which had been first 
 emp.oyetl in the war. I'hey had sent a sipiadron 
 of 50 galleys to the relief of their country- 
 men, which, arriving liefore the i-ews of the 
 recent disj'.ster hiul reached them, entered the 
 IMendesian branch of the Nile. They vere here 
 surprised by a combined attack of th'; Persian 
 land force and a Phoenician tleet, ami but few 
 escarwl to bear the nioiinitul tidings to Athens. 
 Yet jven after tlii> calamity we 'ind the Atlieni- 
 ians, not suing for peace, but bent on extending 
 their power, and aunuyiiig iheir enemies." 
 Early in 454 they sent an expedition into Thcs- 
 saly," to restore a ruU'r named Ore.stes, who had 
 been driven out. "Hut the superiority of the 
 Tliessiilians in cavalry cheeked all their opera- 
 tions in the liefl; they failed in an attempt upon 
 Pharsalus, and were at length forced t) retire 
 without having accomplished any of their ends. 
 It was perlaps to soothe the public disappoint- 
 ment that Pericles shortly afterwards embarked 
 at Pegic with 1,000 men, and, coasting the 
 south side of the Corinthiau gulf made u 
 
 159 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 460-449. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-431. 
 
 descent on 'he territory o' Sicyon, iiiul routed 
 tlie Hieyon fo. 'c ■:<;nt to oppose liisliinding. He 
 tlien . . . laiil siege to the town of (Eniadte. 
 . . . Tliis iittcinpt, however, proved unsuccess- 
 ful ; and tlie general result of the campaign 
 seems not to liave been on the whole advantage- 
 ous or encouraging. ... It se( ms to have been 
 not long after the events whicli have been just 
 related that Cimon was recalled from his exile; 
 and the de, ree for that purpose was moved by 
 I'erides himself; — a fact which seems to inti- 
 mate that some change had taken place in the 
 relations or the temper of parlies at Athens. 
 . . . The three years next following Cimon's 
 return, as we have tlxcd its date [B. C. 454 or 
 453|, passed, happily for his contemporaries, 
 without affording any matter for the hi.storian ; 
 and tins pause was followed by a five years' 
 truce [with Sparta], in the course of which 
 Cimon embarked in his last expedition, and 
 died near the scene of his ancient glory. The 
 pretender Amyrtocus had solicited succour from 
 the Athenians. . . . Cimon was appointed to the 
 connnand of a fleet of 200 galleys, with which he 
 sailed to Cyprus, and sent a s,;uadron of GO to 
 the assiiitance of Amyrtieus, while he himself 
 with the rest laid siege to Citiura. Hero ho 
 was carried off by illness, or the consequences 
 of a wound ; and the armament was soon after 
 comptlled, by want of provisions, to raise the 
 siege. But Cymon's spirit still animated his 
 countrymen, who, when they had sailed away 
 with his remains, fell in with a great fleet of 
 Phoenician ai.d Cilician galleys, near the 
 Cyprian Salamis, and, having completely de- 
 feated them, followed up their naval victory 
 with anotl'er which they gained on shore, either 
 over the troops which had landed from the 
 enemy's ships, or over a land force by which 
 they were supiiorted. After this they were 
 joined by the sq\nidron which had been sent to 
 Egypt, and which returned, it would nppear, 
 without having achieved any material object, 
 and all sailed liomc (B. C. 449). In aftor-timea 
 Cimon's military renown was enhanced by the 
 report of u peace [sometimes called tho Peace of 
 Cirion, and sometimes tlie Peace of Callias], 
 which his victories had compelled the Persian 
 king to conclude on terms most humi'iating to 
 the monarchy. Within les.-s than a century after 
 his death it was, it not conunonly believed, con- 
 fidently asserted, that by this treaty, negotiated, 
 as it was sui>posed, by Callias, son of llipponi- 
 ci)!!, the lersians had agreed to iibandon at '.oast 
 the military occupation of Asia Minor, to the 
 distance of three days journey on foot, or one on 
 horseback, from tlu! coast, or, according to 
 another account, the whole peninsula west of the 
 Halys. and to ab.stain fr.im passing the mouth of 
 the Bospliorus and tlio Chelidonian islands, on the 
 coast of Lycia, or the town of Phaselis, into the 
 Western Se;i. The mere silence of 'rhMey(lid('S(m 
 so important a transaction would be enough to 
 render the whole account extreinelv suspicious." 
 — O. Thirlwall, Itixt. ,>f Gi-ai-e, fli.'ll (r. 'A). Sir. 
 Qroteaccepts the Peace of Cimcm as an historical 
 fact; I'rof. (^urtius rejects it.--'}. Grote, lll.it. of 
 (Iviiir. lit. a, eh. 45 (c. 5).— E. C'urtius, Illi>t. oj 
 (Vn-MV. Ilk: :i, -■//. 2(;'. 2). 
 
 B. C. 458-456.— War for Megara with Cor- 
 inth and iCgma. — Victories of Myronidcs. — 
 Siege and conquest of /Egina. — Collision with 
 the Spartans in Boeotia. — Defeat at Tanagra. 
 
 —Overthrow of the Thebans.— Recovered As- 
 cendency. See GuEECK : B. C. 4.'58-456. 
 
 B. C. 449-445.— Hostile revolution in Boeo- 
 tia.— Defeat at Coroneia. — Revolt of Eubcea 
 and Megara.— The thirty years' truce. — Ter- 
 ritorial losses.-Spartan recognition of the 
 Delian Confederacy. See Greece : B. C. 449- 
 44.1. 
 
 B. C. 445-431.— Supremacy of Pericles and 
 thp popular arts by which he attained it. — 
 The splendor of Athens and grandeur of the 
 Athenian Empire under bis rule. — "The con- 
 clusion of peace left the Athenians to their con- 
 federacy and their internal politics. . . . After 
 the death of Cimon the oligarchical party at 
 Athens had been led by Thucydides. the son of 
 Melcsias, a man of higli character and a kinsman 
 of Cimon. . . . Hitherto the members had sat 
 here or there in the assembly as they p'cased ; 
 now they were combined into a single body, and 
 sat in a special place. Such a consolidation was 
 doubtless needed if the party was to hold its own 
 against Pericles, who was rapidly carrying 
 all before him. For years past he li.td provided 
 a subsistence for many of the poorer citizens by 
 meia'.s of his numerous colonies — no fewer than 
 .'i.O.jO Athenians must have been sent out to the 
 ' deruchies ' in the interval between 453 B. C. and 
 444 B. C. The new system of juries [See Dic\- 
 stkiiia] had also been established on the fall of the 
 Areopagus, and the jurymen v^ere paid — a second 
 source of income to the poor. Suc'h measures 
 were beyond anything that the private liberp.lity 
 of Cimon — splendid as it was — could achieve; 
 and on Cimon's death no otiier aristocrat came 
 forward to aid his party with 111" purse. Peri- 
 cles did not stop hero. Since the cessation of 
 the war with Persia tliere had been fewer drafts 
 on the public purse, and the contributions of the 
 allies were accumulating in the public treasury. 
 A .scrupidous man would have regarded the 
 surplus as the money of the allies. . . . Pericles 
 took another view. He plainly told the Atheni- 
 ans that so long as the city fulfilled the contract 
 made with the allied cities, and kept Persian 
 vessels from their shores, the surplus was at the 
 disposal of Athens. Acting on this principle, he 
 devoted a part of it to the embellishment of the 
 city. AVith the aid of Pheidias, tlu; sculptor, and 
 Ictinus, the architec^t, a new temple began to 
 rise on the Acropolis in honour of .Vthena — the 
 celebrated Parthenon or ' Virgin's Chamber ' 
 [See P.vhtiikxon]. . . . Other public buildings 
 were also begun about this time. Athens was 
 in fact a vast workshoj), in which employment 
 was found for a great luimbcr of citi/ens. Nor 
 was this all. . . . For eight m' utlis of the year 
 flO ships were kept at sea with ere -s on b'-ard, 
 in order that there might be an ampu- sui)ply of 
 practical seamen. . . . Tluisby director indirect 
 meAns l^ericles made the state the payma.ster of 
 a vast number of citizens, and the slate was 
 liraetically himself, with these paid citizens at 
 ills back.' At the same time tbir public festivals 
 of the city were cidergcd and adoriied with new 
 splendour.^ . . That all might attend the thea- 
 tre in which the plavs were acted, I'cricles ])ro- 
 vided that every citizen should receive from the 
 state a sumsulticient to pay the charge deinand( il 
 from the spectators by the lessee [See Ivioliol.vj. 
 We may look on these mcr.sures as the arts of a 
 demagogue. . . . Jr we may say that Pericles 
 
 160 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 445-431. 
 
 Age of 
 I'vricles. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. 
 
 was ftble to gratify his pnaaion for (irt at the ex- 
 pense of tlie Atliciiians ami tlioir allies. Nuitlicr 
 of tliese views is altogetlier untenable; and botli 
 are far from including tlio wiiole truth. Pericles 
 . . . was, if we please to say it, a demagogue 
 and a connois.'Jeur. But lie was somctliing more. 
 Liioliing at tlie wiiole evidence before us witli 
 impartial eyes, we cannot refuse to acliiiowledgc 
 tliat lie clicrislied aspirations worthy of a great 
 statesman. He sincere' v desired that every 
 Atlienian sliould owe to liis city tlie biossing of 
 an education in all that was beautiful, and tlie 
 opportunity ot a happy and useful life. . . . 
 Tlie oligarchs determined to pull down Pericles, 
 if if were possible. . . . They proposed, in tlie 
 winter of 445 B. C, that there slioulil bo an 
 ostracism in the city. The people agreed, and 
 tlie usual arrangements were made. But when 
 the <iay came for <lecision, in the spring of 444 
 B. C, tlie sentence fell, not on Pericles, but on 
 Thucydides. The sentence left no doubt about 
 the feeling of tlic Atlienian people, and it was 
 hcceptod as final. Thucydides disappeared from 
 Athciis, and for the next tifteeii years Pericles 
 was master of the city. . . . While Alliens was 
 active, organizing her confedi racy and securing 
 her communication with the nortli, tlie Pelo- 
 ponnesians had allowed tlie years to pass in 
 apathy and inattention. At length they awoke 
 to a sense of the situation. It was clear that 
 Athens had abandoned all idea of war with Per- 
 sia, and that the confederacy of Delos was trans- 
 formed into i.n Athenian empire, of wliose forces 
 the great city was absolutely mistress. And 
 meanwliilc in ^isible greatness Athens had be- 
 come far the first city in Greece. " — E. Abbott, 
 Pericles, eh. 10-11. — "A rapid glance will f.i'tlicc 
 to show the eminence which Athens had atiained 
 over the other states of Greece. She was the 
 Jiead of the Ionian League — tlie mistress of the 
 Grecian seas; with Sparta, the sole rival that 
 could cope with her armies and arrest he am- 
 bition, she had obtained a peace; Corinth was 
 humbled — .iEgina ruined— Megara had shrunk 
 into lier dependency and garrison. I'lie states 
 of hjcotia had received their very constitution 
 from the hands of an Athenian general — the 
 d<'rnocracies planted by Atiiens served to make 
 liberty itself subservient to lier will, and involved 
 in her siifety. She had remedied the sterility of 
 her own soil by securing the rich pastures of the 
 neiglibouring Eub(na. She had added tlie ^old 
 of Tha.sos to the silver of Laurion, and eslab- 
 li.shed a footing in Thessaly which was at onc'> a 
 fortress against the Asiatic arms and a mart for 
 Asiatic commerce. Tlie fairest lands of the 
 opposite coast — the most powerful islandsof the 
 Grecian seas — amtributed to Iier treasury, or 
 were almost legally subjected to her revenge. 
 ... In all Greece, Myronides was perhaps the 
 ablest general — Pericles . . . was undoubtedly 
 the mo.st hiffhlv educated, cautious and com- 
 manding statesman. ... In actual p >s.session of 
 the tribute of her allies, Athens acquired a new 
 ri.Ltht to its colk'Pti(m and its management, and 
 while she devoted .some of the treasures to the 
 maintenance of her strength, slie began early to 
 uphold the prerogative ot a]>propriaaug a part 
 to the enhancement of her splendour. ... It 
 was now [about H. C. 444J resolved to make 
 Alliens also the scat and centre of the judicial 
 nulJKirity. The subject-allies were compelled, 
 it not ou minor, at least on all important cases. 
 
 to resort to Athenian courts of law for justice. 
 And thus Athens became, as it were, the metropo- 
 lis of the allies. . . . Before the Persian war, 
 and even scarcely before the time ot Cimon, 
 Athens cannot be said to have eclipsed her 
 neighbours in the arts and sciences. She be- 
 came the centre and capital of the most polished 
 communities ot Greece, and she drew into .i focus 
 all the Grecian intellect; she obtained from her 
 dependents iie wealth to administer the arts, 
 whicli universal tralllc and intercourse taught 
 her to appreciate ; and thus the Odeoii, and the 
 Parthenon, and the Propyliea aro.se. During the 
 same administration, the iortifications were com- 
 pleted, and u third wall, iiarallel and near to that 
 uniting Piricus witli Athens, consummated the 
 w<>rks of Themistocles and Cimon, and preserved 
 the c<mimuuicution between the twofold city, 
 even should the outer walls fall into the hands 
 of an enemy." — E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, Athens: 
 Its Rise and Fall, bk. 4, ch. 5, bk. 5, eh. 2. 
 
 Ai.so FN: W. W. Lloyd, The Aije of Pericles, 
 — Plutarch, Pericles. 
 
 B. C. 445-429.— The Agfe of Pericles : Art. 
 — "The Greeks . . . were industrious, commer- 
 cial, sensitive to physical and moral beauty, 
 eager for discussion and controversy ; they were 
 proud of their humanity, and happy in the pos- 
 session of their poets, their hi-storians, their ora- 
 tors and artists. It is siugul.ir, in the history of 
 nations, to meet with a people distinguished at 
 once by mercantile ai)titude, and by an ex(iuisite 
 feeling and sympathy for works of art ; to see 
 the vanity of wealth compatible with a nice dis- 
 cernment for the true jirinciples of taste; to be- 
 iiold a nation, inconstant in ideas, Inconceivably 
 t/c''.le in prejudices, worshipping a man one day 
 and proscribing him the next, yet at the sumo 
 time progressing with unheard-of rapidity ; within 
 tl.e space of a few years traversing all systems ot 
 phihisophy, all forms of government, laying the 
 foundationa )f a'.l sciences, making war (m all its 
 neighbors, yet, \i\ the midst ot this chaos ot 
 ideas, systems, ind pass'ons, developing art 
 steadily and with -aim intelligence, giving to it 
 novelty, origiiialit}', and beauty, while preserv- 
 ing it pure fnmi the aberrations and caprices ot 
 wliat w(! now call f^ishion. At llie time of tlie 
 battle of Salainis, 480 B. C, Athens had been 
 destroyed, its territory ravaged, an<l the Athen- 
 ians had nothing left but their ships; yet so 
 great was the activity of this commercial but 
 artistic people, that, only twenty years after- 
 wards, they had built the Parthenon." — E. E. 
 Violletle-Duc, Discourses on Architecture, p. G5. 
 
 B. C. 445-429.— The A^e of Pericles: Do- 
 mes',:ic life. — The Athenian house. — "For any 
 oni: coming from Asii it seemed as if in centering 
 Athens lie was ccmiing into an ant's nest. Pos- 
 sessing, at the epoch of its greatest power, tlio 
 three ports of Munychia, Phalerum and the Pi- 
 ra'us, it covered a district whose circumfen'nco 
 measured two hundred stadia (twenty-four ndles). 
 But it was around the Acropolis that the houses 
 were crowded together and the population 
 always in activity. The'e wagons were passing 
 to and fro, tilled with merchandise from the 
 ports or conveying it thitiier. The streets and 
 public places in which people passed their lives 
 presented a busy and noisy scene. Strangers, 
 who came to buy or to sell, were continually en- 
 tering or leaving the shops and places of manu- 
 facture, and slaves were carrying messages or 
 
 101 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. 
 
 A an of 
 
 PcricltfH. 
 
 ATHENS, n. C. 445-431*. 
 
 biinicns. Women ns well ns n.pii wfi-c to be 
 wen in tlicstncts, irdinjjlo the markets, the public 
 
 fumes 1111(1 the meetillJr^ of cDrporiite bodies, 
 'roiii the earliest hours of the day larjre numbers 
 of peasants ini.!j;lit be seen brin^rini; in veijetables, 
 fruit 1111(1 ixmltry. and crying their wares in the 
 streets. Houses of .he liij;lier class occupied the 
 second zone; they generally posses.sed ti garden 
 and .soinetimes outbuildings of considerable ex- 
 tent. Around them were to be seen clients and 
 parasites, wailing for the hour when the master 
 should make his appearance; and whiling away 
 the time discussing the news of tlie day, repeat- 
 ing tile rumours, true or false, that were current 
 in the city; getting the slaves to talk, and laugh- 
 ing among themselves at. the strangers that hap- 
 pened to be passing, or addressing them with a 
 view to make fun of their accent, garb or 
 dress. The house of (Jhremyliis, recently built 
 in that second zone, was a subject of rennirk fir 
 all the idlers. Chremylus, who had lately be- 
 come we.ilthy by means ot coininerce, and of 
 certain transactions of more or h'ss creditable 
 character in the colonies, was an object of envy 
 and crilicism to most people, and of admiration 
 for some who did justice to Iiis intelligence and 
 energy. He enjoyed a certain degree of in- 
 liueiice in the jiublic a.sseinblics — thanks to his 
 liberality; while he took care to secure the good 
 graces of the arelions and to enrich the temples. 
 
 PLAN OP ATHENIAN HOUSE. 
 
 We have [in the accompanying fi,J;iirc] tlie 
 ground-plan of the residence 'of this Athenian 
 citizen. The entrance x opciis on the public 
 road. The site is bonnded on cither side by 
 narn)w streets. This entranci x opens on the 
 court (), w'licli is surroiiiided hy porticos. At 
 A is the porter',) lodge, and at U the rooms for 
 tlie slaves, with kitchen iit C and latrincH at a. 
 
 From this first court, in the centre of which is a 
 small fountain with a basin which receives the 
 ra'n water, the pas.sage I) leads into the inner 
 c( urt K, which is larger and is likewise sur- 
 rouiide(l by iiorticos. At G is the reception room, 
 at H the strong room f(n' valuables, and at S the 
 private altar. At F is a large storeroom contain- 
 ing provisions and wine; and at I the small din- 
 ing room (tricliiiium); the cookiiig-romn for the 
 family being at .1 with latrines at b. The large 
 tricliiiiu.n is at K. The passage in admits to the 
 gyiiieceum, containing the bedrooms P along the 
 portico >I, a common room for the women, with 
 its small enclosed garden, and clo.sets at c. The 
 (liiarters for visitors are entered by the passage 
 t, and consist of bedrooms V, a portico T, a 
 small garden and closets f. At d is an opening 
 into tlie lane for the servants, when reiiiiired. 
 The gardens extend in llie direction Z. This 
 house is situated on the slopes of the bill wlii<;h 
 to the soutli-wesi looks towards the Acropolis; 
 thus it is sheltered from the violent winds wliich 
 sometimes blow from this (piarter. From the 
 large diiiing-liall and from the terrace L, which 
 adjoins it, there i a charming ]irospeet; for, 
 aliove the trees of the garden is seen the city 
 overlooked by the Acropolis, and towards the 
 left the bill of the Areopagus. From this terrace 
 L there is a descent to the garden by about 
 twelve steps. The positi(m was chosen with a 
 view to protection against the sun's heat and the 
 troublesome winds. From the porticro of the 
 gynieceum arc .seen the hills extending towards 
 the north, covered with lunises surrounded 1)}' 
 olive-trees; and in the background Jlouiit I'eii- 
 telicus. ... In tlie dwelling of Cbrcinyliis the 
 vari(nis deparlmeiils were arranged at tiie pio- 
 l)rictor's discretion, and the architect only con- 
 formed to his instructions. Thus the front jiart 
 of the house is assigned to the external relations 
 of the owner. In this court O assemble the 
 agents or factors who come to give an account of 
 tile commissions they have executed, or to le- 
 cciv<^ orders. If the master wishes to speak to 
 any of them, ho takes him into bis reception 
 room; his bedchamber being at I{, he can easily 
 repair to that reception-room or to the gynieceum 
 reserved for the women and younger (children. 
 U he entertains friends, they have their separate 
 apartments, which are shut oil, not being in 
 coinmimiciition with the first court except 
 through the jiassage t. All that part of the habi- 
 tation which is beyond the wide entrance-hall 1) 
 is consecrated to douK'.stic life; and only the inti- 
 mat.; friends of the family are admitted into tlie 
 second court; 'or example, if they are invited to 
 a baiKpict, — which is held in the great hall K. 
 The master usually takes his meals with his wife 
 and (>ne or two members of his family who live 
 in the house, in the smaller room 1, tlie coiuiies 
 of which will hold six iier.sons; w hen'iis lifteeii 
 guests can be accommodated on the couches of 
 the great ball Iv. Chrcmylus liaa spared nothing 
 to render his bouse one of the most sumptuous 
 in the city. Tlie columns of I'cntclicap marble 
 support architraves ol wood, surmouiit('d by 
 friezes and cornices overlaid with stucco and 
 ornamented with delicate painting. Every- 
 where the walls are coaled with line smootli 
 plas'. c, adorned with paintings; and the ceilings 
 are of limber artistically wrought and coloured." 
 — 10. Viollet-le-Diic, T/ie Jlabitationn of Man m 
 all Ayen, ch. 17. 
 
 162 
 
ATHENS, B. C, 445-429. 
 
 Age of 
 Pericles. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-439. 
 
 B. C, 445-429. — The Age of Pericles : Law 
 and its Administration. — Contrast with the 
 Romans. — "It is icmiukiililc . . . tliat the 
 'ciiuality ' of liiws 1)11 -.vliidi thu G .-I'k (k'luocv 
 nicies prided themselves — tliiit, ei. ality which, 
 ill the beiiutifiil drinkiii!; song oi Oallistriitus, 
 Harmodius and Aristogilon arc said to have 
 given to Athens — had little in common with 
 the ' equity ' of the Romans. The lirst was an 
 e(i\ial administration of civil laws among the 
 citizens, however limited the class of citizens 
 might be; the List implied the ai)plical)ility jf a 
 law, which was not civil law, to a class which 
 (lid not necessirily consist of citizens. The tiret 
 exclnded a despot; the last included foreigners, 
 and for some purposes slaves. . . . There arc 
 two special dangers to which law, and society 
 which is hold togethi '"• law, appear to bo 
 lial)le in their infancv ,,.e of them is tiiat law 
 may he too rapidly veloped. This occairred 
 with the codes of the more progressive Greek 
 communities, which disembarrassed them.selves 
 with astonishing facility from cumbrous forms 
 of procedure and needless terms of art, and .soon 
 ceased to attach any superstitious value to rigid 
 rules and prescriptions. It was not for the 
 ultimate advantage of mankind that they did so, 
 though tlie immediate benelit conferred on their 
 citizens may have been considerabh;. One of 
 tliL rarest qualities of national character is the 
 capa(aly for applying and working out the law, 
 iis such, at tno cost of constant miscarri.iges of 
 abstract justice, without at the same time losing 
 the hope or the wish that law may bo conformed 
 to a higher idea'. The Greek intellect, with all 
 its nobility and elasticity, was quite unable to 
 conline itself within the strait waistcoat of a 
 legal formula; and, if we may judge them by 
 the popular courts of Athens, of whose working 
 wo ))ossess accurate knowledge, the Greek 
 1ril)unalo exhibited the strongest tendency to 
 confound law and fact. Tlie remains of the 
 Orators and • foren.sic commonplaces pre- 
 served by Aristoile in his Treatise on lUietoric, 
 show that questions of pure law were constantly 
 argued on every consideration which could 
 jiossibly influence the mind of the judges. No 
 durable system of juri.sprudonco could be pro- 
 duced in this way. A community which never 
 hesitated to relax rules of written law whenever 
 they stood in the way of an ideally perfect 
 decision on the facts of particular cases, would 
 only, if it, bequoathod any body of judicial 
 principles to posterity, bequeath one consisting 
 of the ideas of right and wrong wliicli happened 
 to be prevalent at the time. Suih jurispru- 
 dence would contain no framework to which the 
 more advanced conceptions of subseciuent ages 
 could be fltt(>d. It would amount at best to a 
 philosophy, marked with the imperfections of 
 the civili.sation under which it grew up. . . . 
 The other liability to which the infancy of 
 society is e\i)()sed has pievenfed or am^sted the 
 prog-.vss of far the greater part of mankind. 
 The rigidit;- of primitive law, arising chielly 
 from ils earlier association and MentiUcalion 
 with religion, lias chained (hiwn the ma.ss of the 
 human race to those views of life and conduct 
 which they entertained at the tiino when their 
 usage;; were first consolidated into a systematic 
 form. There were one or two races e.vempted 
 by a marvellous fate from this calamity, a-id 
 grafts from these stocks have fertili.se<l"a few 
 
 m idem societies ; but it is .still tnic that, orcr the 
 larger part of the world, the perfection of law 
 lias always been considered as consisting in 
 iulhereiice to the ground plan supposed to liavc 
 lieen marked out by llie original legislator. If 
 intelle(;t has in such cases been exercised on 
 jnrisiiriidence. it has uniformly jirided it.self on 
 tlie subtle pervi'i'sity of tlie conclusions it could 
 build on imcient texts without discoverable 
 departuH! from their literal tenour. I know no 
 reason why the law of the Uomans should be 
 superior to the. laws of the Hindoos, unless the 
 theory of Natural Law had given it a type of 
 excellence diircrent from the usual one." — II. S. 
 Maine, Anrient Litic, rh. IS—}. — "Uut both the 
 Greek and \\\i'. English trial by jury were at one 
 time the great political .safeguard against state 
 oiipression anil injustice; and, owing to this 
 origin, free nations become so attiiched to it that 
 they are blind to its defects. And just as 
 Ireland would now benefit beyond conception 
 by the abolition of tlie jury .system, so the 
 secured Athenian (or any other) democracy 
 would have thriven Vietter had its laws been 
 administered by courts of skilled judges. For 
 these l.irge bodies of average citizens, who. by 
 the way, were not like our jurymen, unwilling 
 occupants of the juiybo.x, but who made it a 
 paid business and an amusement, did not regard 
 the letter of the law. They allowed actions 
 barred by the reasonable limits of time; they 
 allowed arguments totally besidc! the question, 
 though this too was illegal, for there was no 
 competent judge to draw the line; they allowed 
 hearsay evidence, though that too was against 
 the law; indeed the evidence produced in most 
 of the speeches is of the loosest aiul ])oorest kind. 
 Worse than all, there were no proper records 
 kept of their d.jcisions, and witnesses were called 
 in to swear wli'it had been the past decisions of 
 a jury sitting in the t-ime city, and under the 
 same procedure. This is the more remarkable, 
 as there were state archives, in which the 
 decrees of the popular assembly were kept. . . . 
 There is a most extraordinary speccli of Lysias 
 against a man called Nichomachus, who was 
 appointed to transcribe the laws of .Solon in four 
 months, but who kept them in his i)o.sses.sion for 
 six years, and is accusetl of having so falsified 
 thorn as to have substituted himself for Solon. 
 Henco there can have been no recognized dupli- 
 cate extant, or 'jucli a thing could not be 
 attempted. So again, in the Trapeziticus of 
 Isocrates, it is mentioned as a well known fact, 
 that a certain I'ythodorus was convicted of 
 tampering with state-documents, signed and 
 sealed by the magistrates, and deposited in the 
 Acropolis. All tliese things meet us in every 
 turn in the court speeches of the Attic oratora. 
 We are amazed at seeing relationships proved in 
 will cases by a man coming in and swearing that 
 such a man's father had told him tiiat his 
 brother was niarrie<l to such a woman, of such a 
 house. We find the most libellous charges 
 brought against opponents on matters totally 
 beside the qiiestion at issue, and cvi'U formal 
 evidence of general bad character admitted. 
 We find some speakers in consequence treating 
 the jury with a .sort of mingled deference and 
 contempt wliicli is amusing. 'On the former 
 trial of this case,' they say, ' my opponent man- 
 aged to tell you many well devised lies; of 
 courao you were deceived, how could it he other- 
 
 163 
 
ATHENS, 13. C. 445-429. 
 
 Aue nf 
 iVn'f/ejf. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. 
 
 wise, find ynii m.idp n false decision ;' or else, 
 • You were so puzzled tliiit you fjol at variiiuce 
 witli one aiiollicr, you voted at six<'s and seven.s, 
 ami liy a small iiiajoiily you cai'ie to an absurd 
 de<lsj()n.' 'Hut 1 lliinli yiiu know well,' .says 
 Isoerat<'S, 'tliat the <lly lias often repented so 
 liitlerlv <'i'e this for decisiims made in passion 
 and williout eviilenee. as to desire after no loni; 
 interval to punish those who misled it. and to 
 wisli those who ha<l been ealumniated were mor(! 
 than restored to their former prosperity. 
 Keepini; these fai s l)efor<' y(«i, you ought not 
 to be hasty in believing the prosecutors, nor to 
 hear the defendants witli interruption and ill 
 temper. For it is a .shame to have the character 
 of lieini,' the j;entlesl and most humane of the 
 Greeks in other respects, and yet to act ('ontrary 
 to this reputation in the trials which take place 
 here. It is a .shame that iu other cities, when a 
 human life is at stake, a consideral)Ic majority 
 of votes is re(iuired for conviction, but that 
 nmoMg yo\i those iu danger do not even got an 
 equal chance with their false accu.sers. You 
 swear indeed once a y<'ar that you will attend to 
 bolli plaiiitilT and defendant, but in the interval 
 oiily kee|) your oath so far as to accept what- 
 ever the accusers .say, Iiut you sometimes will 
 not let those who are trying to refute them utter 
 <'ven a single word. Y'ou think those cities 
 iininhabitable, in which citizens are executed 
 without trial, and forget that those who do not 
 give both sides a fair hearing are doing the very 
 same thing.'" — .T. K MahalTv, >i-)nal Life in 
 Grar,'. ,-h. VA. 
 
 B. C. 445-429. — The Age of Pericles : Poli- 
 tical life. — The democracy. — "The real life of 
 Athens lasted at tlie most for 200 years: and yet 
 there are moments in which all that we have 
 won by the toils of so many generations seems as 
 it it would be felt to be but a small thing beside 
 a single liour of Perikles, The Democracy of 
 Athens was in truth the noblest fruit of tliat self- 
 developing ])ower of the Greek mind which 
 worked every possession of the conunon heritago 
 into some new and more brilliant sliap", but 
 which learned nothing, notliing of all that formed 
 its real life and its real glory, from the Barba- 
 rians of the outer world. Men tell us that Greece 
 learned this or that mechanical invention from 
 PluiMiieia or Egyi)l or Assyria Be it so; but 
 stand in the Pny.x; listen to the contending ora- 
 tors; li I eii to the ambassadors of distant cities; 
 listen to each side as it is fairly hearkened to, ancl 
 see the matter in hand decided by the peaceful 
 vote of thousiuids — here r' least of a truth is 
 something which Athens dnl not learn from any 
 Assyrian despot or from any Egyptiiin priest. 
 And we, chil'lren of the conunon stock, sharers in 
 the common heritage, as we see man, Aryan man, 
 in the full growth of his noblest type, we may 
 feel a thrill as we think that KleLsthenCs and 
 PeriklOs were, after all, men of our own blood — 
 as we think that the institutions which grew up 
 under their hands and the institutions under 
 which we ourselves are living are alike branches 
 sprung from one stock, portions of one inluii- 
 tance in which Athens and England have an 
 equal right. In the Athenian Denn'iraey we see 
 a i)opular constitution taking the form which was 
 natural for such a constitution to take when it 
 was able to run its natural course in' a common- 
 wealth which consisted only of a single city. 
 Wherever the Assembly really remains, in truth 
 
 ns well as in name, an Assembly of the whole 
 people in tlieiri)wn jH-rsons, it nnisl in its own 
 nature be sovereign. It must, in the nature of 
 things, delegate more or less of power to magis- 
 trates and generals; but such power will be sim- 
 ply delegated. Their antliority will be a mere 
 trust from the sovereign l)ody, and to that sov- 
 ereign body they will be responsible for its exer- 
 cise. That is to say, one of the original elements 
 of the State, the King or chief, now represented 
 by the elective magistracy, will h)se its indepen- 
 dent jwwers, and will sink i to a body vho have 
 only to carry out the will of the sovereign Assem- 
 bly. So witli anoth' of the original elements, 
 the Council. Tills b.ly too loses its inde|)endent 
 b(Mng; it has no ruling or checking power; it be- 
 comes a mere (-'onunitlee of the Assembly, chosen 
 or appointed by lot to jiut measures into sliape 
 for more easy discussion in the sovereign body. 
 As society becomes more advanced and comi)li- 
 cated, the judicial power cjin no longer be exer- 
 cised by the Assembly itself, while it would bo 
 against every democratic instinct to leave it in 
 tlie arbitrary power of individual magistrates. 
 Other Committees of the Assembly, .Juries on a 
 gigantic scale, with a presiding magistrate as 
 chairman rather than as Judge, are therefore set 
 apart to decide causes and to sit in judgment on 
 oifenders. Such is pure Democracy, the govern- 
 ment of the whole people and not of a part of it 
 only, as carried out in its full perfection in a 
 single city. It is a form ol government which 
 works up" the faculties of man to a higher pitch 
 than any other; it is the form of government 
 which gives the freest scope to the inborn genius 
 of the whole community and of every member of 
 it. Its weak point is that it works up the facul- 
 ties of man to a ])itcli so high that it can hardly 
 be lasting, that its ordinary life needs an enthusi- 
 asm, a devotion too highly strung to be likely to 
 live through many generations. Athens in the 
 days of her glory, tiie Athens of PeriklOs, was 
 truly ' the roof und crown of things; ' her democ- 
 racy raised a greater number of human beings to 
 a higher level than any government before or 
 since; it gave freer play than any government 
 before or since to the ])ersonaI gifts of the fore- 
 most of mankind. But against the few years of 
 Athenian glory we must set the long ages of 
 Athenian decline. Against the city wlu^e Peri- 
 klOs was General we must set the city where 
 Hadrian was Archon. On the Assemblies of 
 other Grecian cities it is hardly needful to dwell. 
 Our knowledge of their practical working is 
 slight. We have one picture of a debate in the 
 popular Assembly of Sparta, an Assembly none 
 the less popular in its internal constitution be- 
 1 :iuse it was the assembly of what, as regarded 
 I lie excluded classes of the State, was a narrow 
 oligarchy. We see that there, as might be looked 
 for, the chiefs of the State, the Kings, and yei. 
 more the Epliors, spoke with a degree of otllcial, 
 as distinguished from personal, authority which 
 fell to tlie lot of no man m the Assembly ot 
 Athens. PeriklCs reigned supreme, not because 
 he was one of Ten Generals, but because he was 
 PeriklOs. ... In the Ekklfisia which listened to 
 PiniklOs and DflmosthenOs we feel almost as much 
 at hmnc as in an institution of our own land and 
 our own times. At least we ought to feel iit 
 home there; for we have the full materials for 
 calling up the political life of Athens in all its 
 fullness, and within our own times one of the 
 
 164 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 445-429. 
 
 Age of 
 PeriHfi. 
 
 ATIIEXS, R. C. 445-439. 
 
 j^rpiitpst minds of our own or of any iiije 1ms given 
 its full strength to clear away llie mists of error 
 awl ealuiniiy which so long shrouilcd the parent 
 state of justice anil freedom. Among tlie eon- 
 temporarii'S and countrymen of Mr. (Jrote it is 
 shame indeed if men fail to see in tlie great De- 
 mocracy the first .stati' which taught manliind 
 tliat tliu voice of persuasion could l)e stronger 
 than a despot's will, the lirsl which taught that 
 disputes could be settled by a free debate and a 
 free vote which in other lands could have been 
 decided only by the banishment or nnissacre of 
 the weaker side. ... It must be constantly 
 borne in mind fhat the true dill'erence between 
 an aristocmtic and a democratic government, as 
 those words were tmderstood in the politics of old 
 Greece, lies in this. In the Democracy all citi- 
 zens, all who enjoy civil rights, enjoy also pSliti- 
 eal rights. In the aristocracy political rights 
 belong to only a part of those who enjoy civil 
 rights. Hut, in eitlier case, the highest authority 
 of the State is the general Assembly of the whole 
 nding body, wheilier tliat riding body be the 
 whole jteopleor only a part of it. . . . The slaves 
 and strangers who were shut out at Athens were, 
 according to Greek ideas, no Athenians; but 
 every Athenian liad his place in the sovereign 
 assembly of Athens, while every Corinthian had 
 not his' place in the sovereign assembly of 
 Corinth. But the aristocratic and the democratic 
 commonwealth both agreed in placing the final 
 authority of the State in the general Assemtily of 
 all who enjoy the highest franchise. . . . The 
 people, of its own will, placed at its head men of 
 the same class ns those who in the earlier state of 
 tilings had ruled it against its will. Perikles, 
 Nikias, Alkibiades, were men widely difTering 
 in character, widely dirturing in their relations to 
 the popular governmen' IJut all alike were 
 men of ancient birth, w'lo, as men of ancient 
 birth, found their way, i Imost as a matter of 
 course, to those liigli places of the State to which 
 Ivleon found his way only by a strange freak of 
 fortune. At Rome we find quite another story. 
 There, no less than at Athens, the moral influence 
 of nobility survived its legal privileges; but, 
 more than this, the legal privileges of the elder 
 nobility were never whoUy.swept away, and the 
 inherent feeling of respect for illustrious birth 
 called into being a younger nobility by its side. 
 At Athens one stage of reform placed a distinc- 
 tion of wealth instead of a distinction of birth: 
 another stage swept away the distinction of 
 wealth also. But the reform, at each of its 
 stages, was general: it affected uU otliees alike, 
 save those sacred oflices which still remained the 
 special heritage of certain sacred families. . . . 
 In an aristocratic commonwealth there is no room 
 for I'eriklOj ; there is i. > -ooin for the people that 
 hearkened to PeriklOs ; but in men of the second 
 order, skilful co.iservative administrators, men 
 able to work the system which they find estab- 
 lished, no form of government is so fertile. . . . 
 But overywhea' we learn the same les.son, the 
 inconsistency of commonw(!altlis which boast 
 themselves of their own freedom and cKalt them- 
 selves at the cost of the freedom of others." — 
 E. A. Freeman, C'omjkirative Politkn, Urt. 5-0. — 
 "DGincs was himself King, Minister, and I'aiiia- 
 iiictit. He had liib smaller otiicials to carry out 
 the necessary details of public business, but he 
 wus most undoubtedly his own First Lord of the 
 Treasury, his rjwn Foreign Secretary, his own 
 
 Secretary f'lr the Colonics. Hi.> himself kept up 
 a personal correspoiulenci^ both with foreign 
 ])oteiitates and witli Ills own ollicers on foreign 
 service; the 'despatches' of Nikius and tli(! 
 ' notes ' of I'hilip were alike addressed to no ofU- 
 cer slun't of the .sovereign himself ; ho gave per- 
 sonal audience to I lie aiiil)assadors of otiier. states, 
 and el )tlicd his own witli just .so great or so 
 small a share as lie deemcMl good of his own 
 Ixnindless authority. He had no need to entrust 
 the care of his tlioiisan<l dependencies to ihe niys- 
 terious working of a Foreign Ollice; he himself 
 sat in judgnvnt upon Mitylenaiaii rcbi'ls; he him 
 self settled the allotmeiuOf lands at Chalkis or 
 Ampliipoli.s; he decreed hy his own wisdom what 
 <luties should be levied at the Sound of Byzau- 
 lion; he even ventured on a task of which two- 
 aiid-twenty ages have not lessened the dilliculty, 
 and undertook, without the help of a Lord 
 High Commissioner, to ailjust the relations and 
 compose the seditions even of Korkyra and Za- 
 kyntlios. He was his own Lord HIltIi Cliai eellor, 
 his own Lonl Primate, his own Commaiiiier-in- 
 Chief. He listened to the arguments of Kleon 
 on behalf of a measure, and to the arguments of 
 Xikias against it, and he ended by bidding 
 Nikias to go and carry out the proposal which 
 he had denounced as extravagant or unjust. He 
 listened with approval to his own ' e.\i)lanations; ' 
 he passed votes of confidence in bis own policy; 
 he advised himself to give his own royal assent 
 to the bills which he had himself passed, with- 
 out tlie form of a second or third reading, or tlie 
 vain ceremony of moving that the Prytancis do 
 leave their chairs. . . . We susjieet that the 
 average Athenian citizen wa.s, in ])olitical intelli- 
 gence, above the average English Member of 
 Parliament. It was this concentration of all 
 power in an aggregate of which <^very citizen 
 formed a part, which is the distinguishing char- 
 acteristic of true Greek democracy. Florence 
 had nothing like it; there; h.is been nothing like 
 it in the modern world: the few |)ure democra- 
 cies which have lingered on to our own day 
 have never had such mightv (luestions laid la^fore 
 them, and have never luul siich statesmen and 
 orators to lead them. The great Den.ocracy has 
 ..ad no fellow: but the political les.sons which it 
 teaches are none the less lessons for all time and 
 for every land and people." — E. ^. Freeman, 
 Historical Enmyii(v. 2) .• The Aiheniiiii Denwenicy. 
 "The individual freedom wliich was enjoyed at 
 Athens and which is extolled lij' Pericles was 
 plainly an exception to the common usage of 
 Greece, and is so regarded in tl e Funeral Speech. 
 The word 'freedom, 'it .shoulu be remembered, 
 boro an ambiguous meaning It denoted on the 
 one hand political iiidepeiidence, — theexerci.se 
 of .sovereign power by the State and of political 
 rights by the citi.;ens. In this .sense every Greek 
 citizen could claim it as his birthright. Even 
 the Spartans could tell the Persian Hydarnes tliat 
 he had not, like them, tasted of freedom, and did 
 not know whether it was sweet or not. But the 
 word also denoted personal and social liberty, — 
 freedom from the excessive restraints of law, the 
 absence of a tyrannous public opinion and of in- 
 tolerance between man and in.ui. Pericles claims 
 for Athens ' freedom' in this double sense. But 
 fr;edoin so far as it implies the absence of legal 
 i' .terference in ihe private concerns of life was 
 l-.ut little known except at Athens." — S. II. 
 Butcher, Some Aspects of Oreek Oeiuns, pp. 
 
 165 
 
ATUENS, 15. C. U5-4'i9. 
 
 Ayr «/ 
 
 ATHENS, IJ. C. 440-t37. 
 
 70-71,_> 'To Athens . . , we look ... for (in 
 unswcr to the iiiicslioii, Wlmt iIdi'H liis'ory ti'acli 
 in I(m;iiI(1 Io IIh- vIiIiK! of a piiri'ly ilciinxTatic 
 (joviTiii'iciit ? And here wo iimy vaffly say tlial, 
 under fiiv(mrd)li' ciriMini ■tanccs, tlicrc is no form 
 of i;ovcrnnii'iit which, whili; it lusts, has such a 
 virtue to irive scope to a vigorous crowlh and 
 lu.xuri.int fniilni,'e of various inanliooil as a pure 
 donocracy. . . . Hut it does not follow tliat, 
 thouijli in tliis re;;aril it has not been surpassed 
 by any oIlK'r form of ;iovernmenl, it is therefore 
 absolutely the besi of all forms of government. 
 . . . Neither, on the other hand, doe.s it follow 
 from the shortnc'^sof the l)ri!;ht reiifii of Athenian 
 (leinocracy — not ore than :)!)() years from C'lis- 
 theiies to the Macedonians — that all ('eniocraeies 
 all! short-lived, and must piiy, like dissipated 
 young gentlemen, with premaiurt! decay for the 
 feverish abuse of their vital loiee. Po.ssil)le no 
 <Ioid)t it is, lliat if the i)o\ver of what we may 
 (•nil a sort of Athenian Secotid Chamber, the 
 Areiopagus, ii.stead of being weakened as it was 
 by Arislides and I'erieles, had been built up ac- 
 cording to the idea of -Kschylus and the intelli- 
 gent iiristo(!rats of his day, such a body, armed, 
 like our House of I^ords, with an cfTectivo nega- 
 tive on all outbiu'sts of p(.pular rashness, might 
 have i revented the anil)ition of tlie Athenians 
 from!iunchiiigon that famous .Syraciisan expedi- 
 tion which e.xhaustcd their force and maimed 
 their action for the future. IJutthe lesson taught 
 by the short-lived glory of Athens, and its sub- 
 jugation under the rough foot of the astute JIace- 
 donian, is not that democracies, under tlie influ- 
 ence of fa('tion. and, it may be, not free from 
 venality, will sell their liberties to ii strong neigh- 
 bour — for a'i;tocraticPoland did this in a much 
 more blushless way than democratic Greece — 
 but that any loose aggregate of independent 
 .States, given more to quarrel amongst themselves 
 than to unite agaiitst a common enemy, whether 
 democratic, or aristocratic, or monarchical in 
 their form of government, canu,)t in the long run 
 maintain their groimd agaiiLst the tirm i)olicy and 
 the well-inasscd force of a strong monarchy. 
 Athens was blotted out from the map of free 
 peoples at Chieronea, not because the Athenian 
 people had too nuich freedom, but becau.se the 
 Greek States had too little unity. They were 
 used by I'hilip e.xiictly in the same way that 
 Napoleon uised the German States at the com- 
 mcnceiuent of the i)resent century." — J. S. 
 Ulackie. W/ml docx Ilintorn Tench f pp. 28-31.— 
 "In Herodotus you have the beginning of the 
 age of discussion. . . . The discourses on democ- 
 racy, aristocracy, and monarchy, which he puts 
 into the mouth of the Persi m conspirators when 
 the monarchy was vacant, have Justly been called 
 absiml, as speeches supposed to have been spoken 
 by tho.se persons. No Asiatic ever thought of 
 such things. Vou might as well imagine Saul 
 or David speaking them as those to whom Hero- 
 dotus attributes them. Tliey are Grcjk speeches, 
 fidl of free Greek discussions, and suggested by 
 the exiierience, already cimsideiable, of the 
 Greeks in the results of discussion. Tlic age of 
 debate is liegimiing, and even Herodotus, the least 
 of a wrangler of any man, and the most of a 
 sweet and simple narrator, fell the etTect. When 
 we come to Thucydides, the results of discussion 
 are iis fidl as they have ever been; his light is 
 pure, 'dry light.' ffee from tlu; 'humours' of 
 liabit, aiul purged from consecrated u.iage. As 
 
 Orotc's history often roads like a report to Parlia- 
 ment, so half Thucydides reads like a speech, or 
 materials for a speech, in the Athenian Assembly." 
 — \V. Hagehol, I'/i;/.v'ft< and I'nUticH. iip. 170-171. 
 B. C. 440-437,— New settlements of Kler- 
 ouchoi. — The foundings of Amphipolis. — 
 Revolt and subjugation of Samos. — ' 'l"he 
 great aim of Perikles was to strengthen tlie 
 power of Athens over the whole area occupied 
 by her confederacy. The establishment of 
 settlers or Klerouehoi [see Kl.niliciis], who re- 
 taiiie(' their rights ■,.•* Athenian citizens, had 
 answered so well in the I.,elantian plain of 
 Kiiboia that it was obviously gdod policy to ex- 
 tend the system. The territory of Hestiaia in 
 the north of Kiiboia and the islands of rjcnmos, 
 Imbros, and Skyros, were thus occupied; and 
 Perikles himself led a body of settlers to the 
 Thrakian Chersonesos where he repaired the old 
 wall at the neck of the peninsula, and even to 
 Sinope whii'h now became a member of the 
 .Vtheniaii alliance. A generation had passed 
 from the time when Athens lost ID.OOO citizens 
 in the attempt to i'ouii'' a colony at the mouth of 
 the Strymon. The task was now undertaken 
 successfully by llagnon, and the city came into 
 existence winch was to be the cause of disa.slcr 
 to the historian Thucydides and to witness the 
 death of Urasidas and of Kleim [see Ampiii- 
 I'oi.is]. . . . Two years before the founding of 
 Amphipolis, Samos revolted from Athens. . . . 
 In this revolt of Samos the overt action comes 
 from the oligarchs who had seized upon tlie 
 Ionian town of Priene, and defeated the Mile- 
 sians who opposed them. The latter appealed to 
 the Athenians, and received not only their aid 
 but that of the Samian demo.s. The latter now 
 became the rtiling body in the island, lifty men 
 luid fifty boys being taken from the oligarchic 
 families and placed as hostages in Leinnos, which, 
 as wc have seen, was now wholly occupied by 
 Athenian Klerouehoi. But the Samian exiles 
 (for many had fled rather than live under a 
 democracy) entered into covenant with Pis- 
 .soutimes, tin Sardian satrap, crossed over to 
 Samos and seized the chief men of the demos, 
 then falling on Lemnos succeeded in stealing 
 away the ho.stages; and, having handed over to 
 Pissouthnes the Athenian garrison at Samos, 
 made ready for lai expedition against Miletos. 
 The tidings th".!, Byzantion had joined in this 
 last revolt left to the Athenians no room to doubt 
 tlie gravity of the crisis. A fleet of sixty ships 
 was (lispatclied to Samos under Perikles ana 
 nine other generals, of whom the poet Sophoklos 
 is said to have been one. Of these sliips sixteen 
 wore sent, some to gatlicr the allies, others to 
 watch for the Pheniciiin fleet which they be- 
 lieved to be olT the Karian coast advancing to 
 tlie aid of the Samian oligarchs. With the re- 
 mainder ■ ikies did not hesitate to engage the 
 Samian fleet of seventy .ships which he encoun- 
 tered (m its return from Miletos off the island of 
 Tragia. The Athenians gained the day : and 
 Samos was blockaded by land ai;,l .sea. But no 
 sooner li:id Perikles sailed with sixty sliips to 
 meet the Plienician fleet, than the Samians, mak- 
 ing a vigorous sally, broke the lines of the be- 
 siegers and for fourteen days remained masters 
 of the .sea. The return of Perikles changed th.; 
 face of things. Soon after the resumption of 
 the siege the arrival of sixty fresh sliip-> from 
 Athens under live Slrutcgoi in two detavhmeiits, 
 
 166 
 
TO THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAE. 
 
 CONTEMPOHAXI'.OUS EVENTS. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 770. Beginning of the Olympiads. 
 
 7liH. The foiMulinK of Homo.* 
 
 745. First war bi-twccn Sparta and Jft'ssenia. 
 
 734. Koundins of Symcuso l)y Orcclvs from (lorintli. 
 
 722. Ovcrtliniw of tlic liingdom of Israt-l l)y tlic Assyrians.— Captivity of the Ten Tribes. 
 
 085. The second war between Messenia and Sparta. 
 
 024. Supposed dale of tlie legislation of Draco, at Athens.* 
 
 012. (Jonspiracy of Cylon at Athens. 
 
 <J08. Accession of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylonia. 
 
 (too. Destruction of Nineveh and overthrow of tlie Assyrian empire by the Medes.* 
 
 508. Invasion of Palestine by Nebucliadnezzar. 
 
 504. The Constitution of Solon adcpted at Athens. 
 
 58G. Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. — End of the kingdom of Judah and exile of 
 the remnant of the people to Babylon. 
 
 5(iO. Tyranny of Pislstralus established nt Athens. 
 
 641). Overtlirow of tho Median nionarcliy by Cyrus, and founding of the Persian. 
 
 54((. Overthrow of Crccsus and the liingdom of Lydia by Cyrus, Iting of Persia. 
 
 538. Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. 
 
 520. Dcatii of Cyrus and accession of Cambyses, to the tlirone of Persia. 
 
 525. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses king of Persia. — Birth of /Eschylus (d. 456). 
 
 52 1 . Accession of Darius 1., king of Persia. 
 
 510. Invasion of Scytliia by Darius, king of Persia.* 
 
 510. E.\pulsion of tlie Pisistratids from Athens. 
 
 500. Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome.* — Founding of the Republic (Roman chronology). 
 
 508. Political reorganization of Atliens by Cleisthenes. 
 
 500. Rising of tlie Greek colonies in Ionia, against the Persians. 
 
 403. League of the Romans and La' ins. 
 
 492. First secession of tlie Roman '.'lebs. — (Creation of tiie Trilmnesof the People. 
 
 400. First Persian expedition against Greece. — Tlieir defeat at Marathon. 
 
 480. Condemnation and death of Jliltiades at Athens.* 
 
 480. Accession of Xer.xes to the throne of Persia. 
 
 480. Second Persian invasion of Greece. — Tliermopylic— .Vrteniisium. — Salamis. — Retreat of 
 Xerxes. — Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. — Battle of Ilimerii. — Birth of Euripides.* 
 
 470. Battles of Platwa and >Iycalo and end of tlie Persian invasion of Greece. 
 
 478. Beginning of tlie tyranny of Hieron at Syracuse. 
 
 477. Formation of the Confederacy of Dclos, under Athens. 
 
 4GG. Naval victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Eurymedon. — Outbreak of the Plague 
 at Rome. — Revolt of Naxos from the Delian Confederacy. — Fall of tlio tyrants at Syracuse. 
 
 464. (livat earthquake at Sparta. — Rising of the Helots; beginning of third Messenian War. 
 
 458. Commencement of the Long Walls of Athens. 
 
 457. Beginning of war of Corinth, Sparta, and /Egina with Athens. — Battle of Tanagra. 
 
 450. End of war against Athens. — Framing of the Twelve Tables of the Roman Law. — The 
 Decemvirs nt Rome. — Birth of Alcibiades* (d. 404). 
 
 447. Defeat of ihe Athenians by the Bu'otians at Coronen. 
 
 445. Conclusion of the Thirty Years Peace between Ath. ns :md Sparta and their allies. — 
 Ascendancy of Pericles at Atliens. — Peac? of Callias between Greece anil Persia. — Birth of Xenophon.* 
 
 444. Creation of Consular Tribunes at Rome. — Exile of Thucydides from Athens. 
 
 432. Complaints iigainst Athens. — Peloponnesiau Congress at Sparta. — Revolt of Potidoea. 
 
 431. Beginning of the Peloponnesiau War. — Invasion of Attica. 
 
 43(). Second invasion of Attica. — Tlie Plague at Athens. 
 
 421>. Death of Pericles at Athens. -Capture of Polidtua.— Birth of Plato (d. 347). 
 
 42 T. Destruction of Platiea by the Peloponnesians. — Massacre at Corcyra. 
 
 425. Surrender of Spartans to the Athenians at Sphacteriu. — Accession of Xerxes II., king of 
 Persia. 
 
 421. Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta, ending first periou of Peloponnesian War. 
 
 415. Expedition of tlie Athenians against Syracuse. — Mutilation of the Hernia; at Athens.— 
 Accusation and flight of Alcibiades. 
 
 41.3. Disaster to the Athenians before Syacuse. — Renewal of the Peloponnesian War. 
 
 411. Oligarchical revolution at Athens.— The Pour Hundred and their fall. — Recall of 
 Alcil)i!i('5s. 
 
 409. Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. 
 
 400. Victory of the Athenians over the Peloponnesians in the battle of Arginuste. — Execution 
 of the geuerals at Athens. 
 
 405. Defeat of the Athenians at Aigospotamoi. — Successful revolt of the Egyptians agaiust 
 tlie Persians, and independence established. 
 
 404. Pall of Athens.— End of the Peloponnesian War. 
 
 400. Retreat of the Ten Thousand under Xenophon.— Birth of Timoleon* (C. 337). 
 
 * Uncertain date. 
 
FOUBTH AND THIRD CENTURIES, B. C. 
 
 CONTKMPOHANEOU8 EVENTS. 
 
 n. c. 
 
 .'«»». CJondomnntion iind (Inath of Socrfttcs at Athens.— War of Sparta with Persia. 
 
 :iUti. l.ciiBiii- of Orcck citifs iiBiilnst Spartu. — Tlie CoriiilliiuD War. . 
 
 .'«)<>. Kofiif (lestroycil l>y tlio (iiiuls. 
 
 J187. I'caci! of Atitiilciilas betwoca tlieOrecits and Persians. 
 
 :tH4. Kirth of Aristotle (d. 323). 
 
 :iHii. Hctrayal of 'i'licbes to Sparta.— War of SyraciLso witli CorthaRe. 
 
 ;J7J». Overthrow of the Olvnthiaii League by Hparl a— Deliverance of Tliebes. 
 
 JIT I. I)(!feat of Sparta at Leuctra.— Aseeiidancy of Thebes.— Arcadian Union. 
 
 SW7. Adoption of the liicinian l^awH at Uonie. 
 
 !U(2. Victory and deatli of 10paiiiiiioii<la9 at .Mantinea. 
 
 iifiU. Accession of I'hilip to the throne of jMacedonin. 
 
 JW>7. Oiitlireak of the Ten Years SacrccI War in Oreecc. 
 
 itnU. Hiirninf; of the Temple of Diana at lOphesus.— llirth of Alexander the Great (d. 828). 
 
 iir»it. l'"inal conqnest of Egypt l>y the I'ersians. 
 
 ;i5iJ. Interfereni'e of I'liilip of "iMaeedonia in tlie Oreelt Sacred War.— First PInlippic of 
 Demosthenes. 
 
 J{4t'). Deliverance of Syracuse l.y Tiinoleoii.— First Samnite War in Italy. 
 
 <<<'{8. IjcaRue of Greek cities aijiiiiiHl I'liiMp of iMaccdonia. — tlis victory at ClioiroDea. — His 
 Uoinination established. — Subjugation of the I..aliiis by lionic. 
 
 3t'{((, Assjissination of Philip of iMaceiloniu, and accession of Alexander the Oreat. 
 
 mm. Itevolt of Thebes. — Alexander's desi ruction of the city. 
 
 3;i4. Alexander's expedition against I'ersia. — His victory at the Qranicus. 
 
 !{:if{. Alexander's victory over the IVrsians at Issu.s. 
 
 3!{i2. Alcxander'.s .sieges of Tyre and (Ja/.a, conipiest of Egypt and founding of Alexandria. 
 
 3IJ1. Alexander's vic'tory at Arbela. — Overthrow of the I'i'rsian empire. 
 
 32U. Alexander in India. — Defeat of Porus. — Beginning of second Sainnitc War in Itidy. 
 
 sua. Death of Alexander the Oreat at Babylon. — Partition of his dominion among the 
 generals. — Revolt in Greece. — The Lainiaii War. 
 
 i)2t2. Subjugation of Athens by the Maccdo'dans. — Death of Demosthenes. 
 
 !)til. Beginning of the War.) of the Succtessors of Alexander. — Founding of the kingdom of 
 the Ptolemies in Egypt. — Defeat of tin; Itomans by the Samnites at the Caudinc Forks. 
 
 317> Execution of Phocion at AtlK^iis. 
 
 307. Athens under the rule of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 300. I{oyal titles assumed by Aniigonus (as king of Asia), Ptolemy, iu Egypt, Seleucus 
 Nicator, in Syria, Lysimachus, in Thrace, and t'as.sander. in Macedonia. 
 
 305. Siege of lihodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 301. Battle of Ipsus. ^Overthrow and death of Antigonus. 
 2f***. Beginning of third Sannnte War. 
 
 2f>o. Romap defeat of Uw Gauls at Seiitinuni. 
 
 287. Birth of Archin<edes* (d. 212). 
 
 280. Adoption of the Hortensian Laws at Home. 
 
 280. Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. — Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. — Rise 
 of the Achaian licague. 
 
 278. Pyrrlnis iu Sicily, in war against Cartilage. 
 
 275. Defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum. 
 
 204, Beginning of tlie first Punic War between Rome and Carthage. 
 203. Athens captured by Antigonus Gonatus. 
 
 255. Defeat and capture of Uegulus in Africa. 
 
 250. Founding of the kingdom of Parthia by Arsaccs.* 
 
 241. End of the first Punic W.'r.—Ri)iiian compiest of Sicily. — Revolt of the Carthaginian 
 meri-enaries. 
 
 227. War of Sparta with the Acliaia:-. League. 
 
 222. Roman conquest jf Cisalpine Gaul coinpleted. 
 
 221. Battle of Sellasia. — Sparta crushed by the king of Macedonia. 
 
 213. Beginning of tlie second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. — Hannibal iu 
 I tap. 
 
 217. Hannibal's defeat of the Romans at the Trasimene Lake.— Cuele-Syria and Palestine ceded 
 to Egypt by Antiochus the Great. 
 
 210. Great defeat of tlie Romans by Hannibal at Cannu!. 
 
 214. Beginning of war between Rome and Macedonia. 
 212. Siege and reduction of Syracuse by the Romans. 
 21 1. Hannibal at the Roman gates. 
 
 207. Defeat of Ilasdrubal on the Metaurus. 
 
 205. End of first i\Iaccdonian War. 
 
 202. Scipio's decisive victory at Zaina, in Africa, ending the second Punic War. 
 
 201. Subjection of the Jews to the Seleucid inonarchy. 
 
 200. Roman declaration of war against the king of Stacedouia. 
 
 * Uncertain date. 
 
ATHENS, H. C. 440-487. 
 
 Pt'toinmiietian 
 War. 
 
 ATIIKNH, H. C. 4;J1. 
 
 with thirty from Clilos and Lcsboa, (hiinp(Ml tlio 
 tncrgy of tlic Hiiiiiiiin ()li;{iirclis; mid nn iiiisur:- 
 rcssful I'fTort at sea \,'as followcil liy llieir sub- 
 mission in tin; niiitli launtli after the. iicginniti!; 
 of tlio revolt, tlie lerms t)ein>,' tliiil tliey slioulil 
 r,i/.(^ tlieir walls, i^ivo hostages, surreniler their 
 sliips, and pay llie ('.xpensesof the war. Follow- 
 injr their example, the Byzantines also made 
 Mieir pence witli Allien*. The Pheiii<'iaii llee( 
 never came. . . . The Athenians escaped at the 
 Bamo time a far j];reater <lani;er nearer home. 
 Till! Samians, lik(! the men of Tliasos. had ap- 
 plied for aid to the Spartans, who, no longer 
 pressed by llie Helot war, summoned a congress 
 of their allies to discuss tac^ (pieslion. For tlie 
 tnice which had still tlveaiul-twenty years to 
 run Sparta chared nolliing. but she encountered 
 an opposition from the (\)riiiiliiaii.s which per- 
 haps sIkmiow .scarcely expeclwl. . . . Tlic Spar- 
 tans wvvii eompeiled to give way; and there can 
 be no doubt that when some years later the 
 Corinthians claimed the gratitude of the Athen- 
 ians for tills de(!ision, they took credit for an act 
 of good .service singularly opportune. Had 
 they voted as Sparta wished, Athens might by 
 the extension of revolt amongst her allied cities 
 liave lieen reduced now to tlie condition to whicli, 
 in cor..se(juencc perhajis of this respite, she was 
 not brouglit until the lifetime of a generation 
 had lieen s|)ent in desperate warfare." — G. W. 
 Cox, /[int. (if (Irei'd-, III,: :!, rli. 1 (r. 2). 
 
 B. C. 431. — ^Beginning of the Peloponnesian 
 War.— Its Causes.— "In 15. C. 431 tlie war 
 ))roke out between Alliens and the Peloponnesian 
 League, which, after twenty-seven years, ended 
 in tlio ruin of the Athenian empire. It began 
 through a iiuarrel betweiMi Corinth and Keriiyra, 
 in wliicli Athens assisted Kerkyra. A congress 
 was lield at Sparta ; Corinth and other States 
 complained of the conduct of Alliens, and war 
 was decided on. The real cause of the war was 
 tliat Sparta and its allies were jealous of the 
 great power that Athens had gained [see 
 Oueece: B. C. 43,>4iJ3 and 433-431]. A fnr 
 greater number of Greek States were engaged in 
 this war tlian had ever been engaged in a single 
 undertaking Iwfore. States that had taken no 
 part in the Persian war were now fighting on 
 one side or the other. Sparta was an oligarchy, 
 and the friend of tlic nobles everywhere; 
 Athens was a democracy, and tlu friend of the 
 coininon people ; so tliat the war was to some 
 extent a struggle bctweeen tiiese classes all over 
 Greece, and often '.vithin the same city walls 
 the nobles and the people attacked one another, 
 tlie nobles being for Sparta and the jieople for 
 .Vtliens. On tlie side of Sparta, when the war 
 began, there was all Peloponnesus except Argos 
 and Aehx'a, and I'lso the oligarcliical Boeotian 
 League under Thebes besides Pliokis, Lokris, 
 and otiier States west of them. They were very 
 strong by land, but the Corintliiaus alone had a 
 good tieet. Later on we shall see the powerful 
 State of Syracuse witli its navy, acting witli 
 Sparta. On the side of Atliens there were almost 
 all the .,^Ogieau islands, and a great number 
 of the ..'EgiBan coast towns as well as Ker- 
 kyra and certain States in tlie west of Greece. 
 I'iic Athenians had also made alliance with 
 Sitalkes, tlie barbarian king of the interior of 
 Thrace. Athens was far stronger by sea than 
 Sparta, but had not such a strong land army. 
 On the other hand it luul a large treasure, and a 
 
 system of taxes, while the Spartan Fieague hud 
 little or no money."— C. A. PyfTe, lli»l. <if 
 Orcii'e, illiHlorfi I'riinirK), p. 84. — TIk? Ionian 
 cities, called "allies" of .Vtliens, were subjects in 
 reality, and held in subjection by tyrannieni 
 measures which made the yoke odious, as i» 
 plainly explained by Xenoplion, wlu) says : 
 "Some person might say, Ihat it is a great 
 support to the Athenians "that their allies should 
 be in a condition to contribute money to them. 
 To the plebeians, how(!ver, it seems to lie of 
 mueli greater advantages that every individual of 
 the Athenians should get some of the property 
 of the allies, and that tli<> allies themselves should 
 have only so much as to I'nabh; tlicm to live and 
 to till the ground, so that they may not be in a 
 condition to form conspiracies. The people of 
 Atliens seem also to have acted injudiciously in 
 this respect, that they oblige their allies to malie 
 voyages to Atliens for the decision of their law- 
 suits. But the Athenians consider onlv, on the 
 other hand, what benelils to the state of Athens 
 are attendant on this practice; in the first place 
 they receive their dues throughout the year from 
 the prytaneia; in the next place, they manage 
 the governnu'nt of the alliecl states while sitting 
 at home, and without sending out ships; they 
 also support suitors of the lower orders, and 
 ruin tliose of an opposite character in their 
 courts of law; but if eacli state had its own 
 courts, they would, as being liostile to the Athe- 
 nians, bo the ruin of those who were most 
 favourable to the peo|)le of Atliens. In addition 
 to these advantages, the Athenian people have 
 the following jirotits from the courts of justice 
 for the allies being at Athens; first of all the 
 duty of the liundrcdtli on what is landed at the 
 Peirteeus affords a greater revenue to the city; 
 next, whoever has a lodging-house makes more 
 money by it, as well as whoever has catths or 
 .slaves for hire; and tlie heralds, too, are benetited 
 by the visits of tliu allies to the city. Besides, if 
 the allies did not come to Atliens for law, they 
 would honour only such of the Atlienians as 
 were sent over the sea to them, as generals, and 
 captains of vessels, and ambas.sadors ; but now 
 every individual of the allies is obliged to 
 flatter the people of Athens, knowing tliat on 
 going to Athens In; must gain or lose ids cause 
 according to the decision, not of other judges, 
 but of the people, as is the law of Atliens; and 
 he is compelled, too, to u.se supplication before 
 the court, and, as any one of the people enters, 
 to take him by tlio hand. By these means the 
 allies are in conseciuence rendered much more 
 the slaves of the Athenian people." — Xenoplion, 
 Oil the Atlumitiii (roivr /intent {.)fiiir/r IVoi'kn, 
 trail.', bji Hen. J. S. Watmn), p. 33.). — The revolt 
 of these coerced and hostile "allies," upon the 
 outbreak of iiie P(dcponnesian War, was inevi- 
 table. — The prominent events of tlio Peloponne- 
 sian war, ill whicli most of the Greek States 
 were 'uvolved. arc proiierly narrated in their 
 connection witli Greek history at large (see 
 Qukkce: B. C. 431-439, and after). In this 
 place it will only be necessary to take account 
 of the consequences of tlie war as they alfected 
 the remarkable city and people wliose superiority 
 had occiisioned it by cliallenging and sonicwliat 
 offensively provoking the jealousy of tlKsir 
 neighbors. 
 
 B. C. 431. — Peloponnesian invasions of 
 Attica. — Siege of Athens. — ' While the Pelo- 
 
 ie7 
 
ATlIENa, 13. C. 431. 
 
 Funeral Oration 
 of Per idea. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 430. 
 
 ponncsinns woro Rntlierinsr nt thn Isthmus, 
 and Vivn' still on their wiiy, but befon; tliey 
 MiUTcd Attica, I'cridcs, the son of Xantliippus, 
 who was one of tlic ten Athcniiin goiU'nils, . . . 
 r<'|)Ciit<Ml (to tlir Athenians] his previous advice; 
 they must pri'pan^ for war and bring their prop- 
 erty from the counlry into the city; they nuist 
 defend thc'lr walls but not go out to battle; they 
 should also eipiip for service the lieet in which 
 lay their strength. . . . The citizens were per- 
 suaded. an(' brought into the city their children 
 an<l wivi'S, their hou.sehold gO(Kls, and even lIk; 
 wood-Work of tlieir houses, which they took 
 down. Their tlocks and bea.sts of bunU'n they 
 conveyed to Kidioca and the adjacent islands. 
 The removal of tlu^ inhabitants was painful; for 
 the Athenians had always been accustomed to 
 resid(! in the country. Such a life had been 
 characteristic of thcin more than of any other 
 Hellenic people, from very early times. . . . 
 When they came to Athens, only a few of them 
 had liouses or could lind homes among friends 
 or kindred. The majority took up their abode; 
 in the vacant spaces of the city, and in tlie tem- 
 ples and shrines of heroes. . . . Many also estab- 
 lished themselves in the turrets of the walls, or 
 in any other place which they could lind; for 
 the city could not contain them when they first 
 came in. I5ut afterwards they divided among 
 them the Long Walls and the greater |)art of the 
 Piraeus. At the same time the Atlieniar ] ap- 
 plied themselves vigorously to the war, sununon- 
 ing their allies, and [n-eparing an expedition of 
 IIH) ships against the Peloponuese. While they 
 were thus engaged, the Peloponnesian army was 
 advancing: it arrived first of all at Oenoe," wliero 
 Arcliidamus, the Spartan king, wasted much 
 time in a fruitless siege and assault. "At last 
 they marcheci on. aiKl about the eightieth day 
 after the entry of tlie Thebans into Plataea, in 
 the middle of the siunmer, when the corn was 
 in fidl car, invaded Attica. . . . Tliey encamped 
 anil ravaged, first of all, Elcusis and the plain 
 of Thria. ... At Acharnae they encamped, and 
 remained there a considerable time, ravaging the 
 country." It was the expectation of Arcliidamus 
 that the Athenians would be [irovoked to come 
 out and meet him in the open field ; and that, 
 iiidcecl, tliey were eager to do; but the prudence 
 of their great leader held them back. "The peo- 
 ple were furious with Pericles, and, forgetting 
 all his previous warnings, they abused him for 
 not leading them to battle." But he was vindi- 
 cated by tile result. "The Peloponncsians re- 
 mained in Attica as long as their provisiims lasted, 
 and then, taking a new route, retired through 
 Boeotia. ... On their return to Peloponnesus 
 the troops dispersed to their several cities." 
 Meantime the Athenian and allied fleets were 
 ra iging the Peloponnesian coast. "In the same 
 summer [B. C. 4!U] the Athenians expelled the 
 Aeginetausand their families from Aegina, alleg- 
 ing that they had been the niain cause of the 
 war. . . . The Lacedaemonians gave the Aegine- 
 tan exiles the town of Thyrea to occupy and the 
 adjoining country to cultivate. . . . About the 
 end of the summer the entire Athenian force, 
 including the metics, invaded the territory of 
 Megara. . . . After ravaging the greater part 
 of the country tliey retired. They repeated the 
 invasi(m. .sometimes with cavalry, sometimes with 
 the whole Athenian army, every year during the 
 war until Nisaoa was taken [B. C. 424]." — Thucy- 
 
 dides, nhtoti/; trnn». by 77. Jowett, bk. 3, tect. 
 VA-'.n {i: 1). 
 
 B. C. 430. — The funeral oration of Pericles. — 
 During the winter of the year B. C. 431-430, "in 
 accordanee with an ol<l national custom, tlie 
 funeral of those who first fell in this war was cele- 
 brated by the Athenians at the public charge. 
 The ceremony is as follows : Three days before 
 the celebration they erect a tent in which the 
 bones of the dead are laid out, and every one 
 brings to his own cleu'' any offering which he 
 l)leases. At the time of the funeral the bones 
 are place<l in chests of cypress wood, which are 
 conveyed on llcar.ses; there is one chest for each 
 tribe. They also carry a single empty litter 
 dei'ked with ,•! pall for all whose bodies are miss- 
 ing, and cannot be recovered after the battle. 
 The procession is accompanied by any one who 
 chooses, whether citizen or stranger, and the 
 female relatives of the deceased are present at 
 the place of interment and make lamentation. 
 The public sepulchre is situated in the most beau- 
 tiful spot outside the walls; there they always 
 bury those who fall in war; only after the battle 
 of Marathon the dead, in recognition of their 
 lire-eminent valour, were interred on the field. 
 When the remains liave been laid in the earth, 
 some man of known ability and higli reputation, 
 clio.sen by the city, delivers a suitable oration 
 overtheni; after which the people depart. Such 
 is the manner of interment ; and the ceremony 
 was repeated from time to time throughout the 
 war. Over those who were the tirat buried 
 Pericles was chosen to speak. At the fitting 
 monuMit he advanced from the .sepulchre to a 
 lofty stage, which had been erected in order th.it 
 he might bo heard as far as possible by the mul- 
 titude, and .-ipoke as follows: — 'Most of those 
 who have spoken here before me have coiu- 
 lueuded the lawgiver who added this oration to 
 our other funeral customs ; it seemed to them a 
 worthy thing that such an honour should be given 
 at their burial to the dead who have fallen on 
 the field of battle. But I should have preferred 
 that, when men's deeds have been brave, they 
 shouUl be honoured in deed only, and with such 
 an honour as this jiublic funeral, which you are 
 now witnessing. Then the reputation of many 
 would not have been imperilled on the eloquence 
 or want of eloquence of one, and their virtues 
 believed or not as he spoke well or ill. For it is 
 dilHcult to say neither too little nor too much; 
 and even moderation is apt not to give the im- 
 pression of truthfulness. The friend of the dead 
 who knows the facts is likely to think that the 
 words of the speaker fall short of his knowledge 
 and of his wishes ; another who is not so well, in- 
 formed, when he hears of anything which sur- 
 passes his own powers, will be envious and will 
 suspect exaggciation. Mankind are tolerant of 
 the praisesof others so long as each hearer thinks 
 that he can do as well or nearly as well himself, 
 but, when the speaker rises above him, jealousy 
 is aroused and he begins to be incredulous. How- 
 ever, since our ancestors have set the seal of their 
 approval upon the practice, I must obey, and to 
 the utmost of my power shall endeavour to 
 satisfy the wishes and beliefs of all who hear me. 
 I will speak first of our ancestors, for it is right 
 and becoming that now, when we are lamenting 
 the dead, a tribute should be paid to their inem- 
 ory. There has never been a time when they 
 did not inhabit this land, which by their valour 
 
 168 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 430. 
 
 Funeral Oration 
 of PericUm. 
 
 ATHENS, I). C. 430. 
 
 tlie.v liavp Imndoil down from generation to gon- 
 iTatiou, iiiiil wo liav(! received from tliem a free 
 state. But if tliey were wortliy of ]>rai.se, still 
 more were our fatliers wlio added to tlieir inheri- 
 tance, and after many a struggle transmitte '. to 
 us their sons this great empire. And we our- 
 selves assembled here to-day, who are still most 
 of us in the vigour of life, have chiefly done the 
 work of improvement, and have richly endowed 
 our city Willi all things, so that she is sulHcient 
 for herself Ijoth in jieaoe and war. Of the mili- 
 tary e.vploits Ijy whieli our various possessions 
 were ac(iuired, or of the energy with which W(! 
 or our fatlars drive l)aelc tlie tide of war, Hel- 
 lenic or Barliarian, I will not spealc; for the tale 
 would be l(mg and is familiar to you. But l)e- 
 fore I i)raise the dead, I should lilio to point out 
 l)y what principles of action we rose to power, 
 and under what institutions and through what 
 manner of life our empire became great. For I 
 conceive, that such thoughts are not unsuited to 
 the occasion, and that this numerous a.snembly 
 of citizens and strangers may protitably listen to 
 them. Our form of government does not enter 
 into rivalry with the instit' tions of others. We 
 do not copy our neighbours, but are an example 
 to them. It is true that we are called a democ- 
 racy, for the administration is in the hand ' of 
 the many and not of the few. But while the law 
 secures equal justice to all alike in their private 
 disputes, the claim of e.vcelleneo is also recog- 
 nised; and when a citizen is in any way distin- 
 guished, he is preferred to the public service, 
 not as a matter of privilege, but as the reward 
 of merit. Neither is poverty a bar, but a man 
 may benefit his country whatever bo the obscur- 
 ity of his condition. There is no exclusivencss 
 in our public life, and in our private intercourse 
 we aie not suspicious of one anotlier, nor angry 
 with our neighbour if he docs what he likes ; we 
 do not put on sour looks at him which, tliough 
 harmless, are not pleasant. While we are '.hus 
 unconstrained in our private intercourse, a spirit 
 of reverence jiervades our public acts ; we are pre- 
 vented from doing wrong by respect for author- 
 ity and for the laws, having an especial regard 
 to those which are ordained for the protection of 
 the injured as well as to those unwritten laws 
 wliich bring upon the transgressor of them tlie 
 reprobation of the general sentiment. And we 
 have not forgotten to provide for our weary 
 spirits many relaxations from toil ; we have regu- 
 lar games and sacrifices throughout the year; 
 at home tlio style of our life is refined ; and the 
 delight which we daily feel in all these things 
 helps to banish melancholy. Because of tlie 
 greatness of our city the fruits of tlie whole 
 earth flow in upon us; so that we enjoy the 
 goods of other countries as freely as of our own. 
 Then, again, our military training is in many 
 respects superior to that of our adversaries. Our 
 city is tlirown open to the world, and we never 
 expel a forjjigner or prevent him from seeing or 
 learning anything of whicii the secret if revealed 
 to an enemy might profit him. We rely not upon 
 management or trickery, but upon our own liearts 
 and hands. And in the matter of education, 
 whereas they from early youth are always under- 
 going laborious exercises which are to make them 
 brave, we live at e.ase, and yet are equally ready 
 to face the Lacedaemonians come into Attica not 
 by tliemsclves, but witli their whole confederacy 
 following ; we go alone into a neighbour's country ; 
 
 and although our opponents are fighting for their 
 homes and we on a foreign soil we liav(! seldom 
 any dilHculty in overcoming them. Our enemies 
 have never yet felt our uiiiteil strength; the care 
 of a navy divides our attention, and on land we 
 are ol)liged to send ourt wn citi/.eiis everywhere. 
 But tliey, if they tr 'ot and defeat a part of our 
 army, are as proud as it they had routed us all, 
 and when defeated they pretend to have been 
 v.uiquished by us all. If then wo prefer to meet 
 danger with a light heart but without laborious 
 training, and with a courage which is gained by 
 habit and not enforced by law, are we not greatly 
 the gainers V Since we ilo not anticipate the pain, 
 although, when the hour come", we can be us 
 brave as those who never m'Io- .hemselves to 
 rest; and thus too our city is eq ,.;iy admirable 
 in peace and in war. For we are lovers of the 
 bi'autiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cul- 
 t; > ite the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth 
 we employ, not for talk and ostimtation, but 
 when there is a real use for it. To avow iiov- 
 erty with us is no disgrace; the true disgrace is 
 in iloing nothing to avoid it. An Atlienian citi- 
 zen does not neglect the state because he takes 
 care of his own household; and tivnx those of us 
 who are (Migaged in business have a very fair 
 idea of politics. Wo alone regard a man who 
 takes no interest in public alTairs, not as a harm- 
 less, but as J. useless character; and if few of us 
 are originators, we are all sound jrdges of a 
 policy. The great impediment to action is, in 
 our opinion, not discu.ssion, but the want of that 
 knowledge whicli is gained by discussion pre- 
 paratory to action. For we have a peculiar power 
 of thinking before we act and of acting too, 
 whereas otiier man are courageous from ignorance 
 but hesitate upon retlection. And they are surely 
 to be esteemed the bravest spirits who, having 
 tlie clearest sense both of the pains and pleasures 
 of life, do not on that account shrink from dan- 
 ger. In doing good, again, we are unlike others ; 
 we make our friends by conferring, not by re- 
 ceiving favours. Now he who ■ outers a favour 
 is the firmer friend, because he would fain by 
 kindness keep alive the memory of an obligation; 
 but the recipientis colder in his feelings, because 
 he knows that in requiting another's generosity 
 he will not bo winning gratitude but only paying 
 a debt. Wo alone do good to our neighbours not 
 upon a calculation of interest, but in the confi- 
 dence of freedom end in a frank and fearless 
 spirit. To sum up; I say that Atliens is the 
 school of Hellas, and that the individual Athe- 
 nian in Ills own person seems to have the power 
 of adapting himself to the most varied forms of 
 action witti the utmost versatility and grace. 
 This is no passing and idle word, but truth and 
 fact ; and tlie assertion is verified by tlio position 
 tc whicli these qualities have rai.sed the state. 
 For in the hour of trial Athens alone among her 
 contemporaries is superior to the report of her. 
 No enemy who comes against her is indignant at 
 the reverses which he sustains at the hands of 
 such a city ; no subject complains that his mas- 
 ters are unworthy of him. And we shall as- 
 suredly not be without witnesses; there are 
 mighty monuments of our power which will 
 make us the wonder of this and of succeeding 
 ages; we shall not need the praises of Homer or 
 of any other panegyrist whose poetry may please 
 for the moment, althougli his representation of 
 the facts will not bear the light of day. For wo 
 
 169 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 430. 
 
 i>*unfirnl Orntion 
 of Pericles. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 480. 
 
 have rompcllrd pvcry Ifintl anrt pvery SPd to open 
 a piltJi for our valour, iind liiivc everywhere 
 planted eleriiiil inenioriiils of our friemlsliip and 
 of our <'r'niitv. Su('li is the eily for \vlios(^ sake 
 tliesi' men nolily fou(.;lil and died; lliey could not 
 iH'ar the thouuhl tliat slie niii;lit Ite talten from 
 them ; and ev<'ry one of um who .survive should 
 gladly toil on her behalf. I have dwelt upon the 
 greatness of Athens because I want to show you 
 that we are contending for a higher ])ri/.e than 
 tho.se who enjoy none of these privileges, and to 
 cstalilisli by manifest proof the merit of these 
 men whom I am now commemorating. Their 
 loftiest i>raise has been already spoken. For in 
 magnifying the city I have magnitied them, and 
 men like them whose virtues made her glorious. 
 Arid of how few Hellenes can it be said as of 
 them, that their deeds when weighed in the 
 balance have been found equal to their fame! 
 Melhinks that ii death such as theirs has been 
 gives tli(! true measure of a man's worth; it may 
 be the lirst r<!velation of his virtues, but is at any 
 rate their tiiial seal. For even those who come 
 short in other ways may justly plead the valour 
 with which they have fo;ight for their coimtry ; 
 they have blotted out the evil with the good, and 
 have benelited the state more by their public 
 services than they have injured her by their pri- 
 vate actions. None of these men were enervated 
 by wi.'alth or hesitated to resign the pleasures of 
 life; none of them put off the evil day in the 
 hope, natural to poverty, that a man, though 
 poor, may one day become rich. But, deeming 
 that the punishment of their enemies was sweeter 
 than any of these things, and that they could fall 
 in no nobler cause, they determined at the haxiird 
 of tlieir lives to be honourably avenged, and to 
 leave the rest. They resigned to hope their un- 
 known chance of happiness ; but in the face of 
 death they resolved to rely upon themselves 
 alone. And when the moment came they were 
 minded to resist and suffer, rather than to liy 
 and sjive their lives; they ran away from the 
 word of dishonour, but on the battle-field their 
 feet stood fast, and in an instant, at the height of 
 their fortime, they passed away from the scene, 
 not of their fear, but of their glory. Such was 
 tli . end of these men ; they were worthy of Athens, 
 and the living need not desirj to liave a more 
 heroic spirit althoug''. they may pray for a less 
 fatal issue. The value of such a spirit is not to 
 be expressed in words. Any one candiscour.se to 
 you for ever about the advantages of a brave de- 
 fence which you know already. But instead of 
 listiming to him I woidd have you day by day 
 fl.K your eyes upon the greatness of Athens, until 
 you become tilled with the love of her; and when 
 you are injpressed by the spectncle of her glory 
 rctl(!ct that this empire has been acquireil by 
 men who knew their duty and had the courage 
 to do it ; who in the hour of conliict liad the fear 
 of dishonour always present to them, and who, 
 if ever they failed in an enterprizc, would not 
 allow tlieir virtues to be lost to their country, 
 but freely gave their lives to her as the fairest 
 olfering which tliev could present at her feast. 
 The saeriliee which they collectively made was 
 individually repaid to them; for they received 
 again each one for himself a praise which grows 
 not old, and the noblest of all sepulchres — I speak 
 not of that in which their remains are laid, but 
 of tlnit in which their glory survives, and is pro- 
 claimed always and on every tittiug occasion 
 
 both in word and deed. For the whole earth is 
 the sepulch.e of famous men; not only are they 
 <!ommemorat(!d by columns and inscriptions in 
 their own country, but in foreign lands there 
 ilwellsalsoan unwritten memorial of them, graven 
 not on stone but in the hearts of men. iMake 
 them your e.xamphis, and esteeming courage to 
 be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not 
 weigii too nicely the perils of wn-. The un- 
 fortunate who has no hope of a cliange for the 
 better has less reason to throw away his life than 
 the prosperous who, if he survive, is always 
 liable to a change for the worse, and to whom 
 any accidental fall makes the most serious dif- 
 ference. To a man of spirit, cowardice and dis- 
 aster coming together are far more bitter tliau 
 death striking him unperceivod at a time when 
 he is full of courage and animated by tlie gen- 
 eral liope. Wherefore I do not now commiserate 
 the parents of the dead who stand here; I would 
 rather comfort them. You know that your life 
 has been passed iimid manifold vici.ssitudes; and 
 that tliey riiay be deemed fortunate who have 
 gained most honour, whether an honourable death 
 like theirs, or an honourable sorrow like yours, 
 and whose days have been so ordered that the 
 term of tlieir liapiiincss is likcwi.se the term of 
 their life. I know how hard it is to make you 
 feel this, when the good fortune of 'Others will 
 too often remind you of the gladness which once 
 lightened your Iiearts. And sorrow is felt at the 
 want of those blessings, not which a man never 
 knew, but which were a part of his life before 
 they were taken from him. Some of you are of 
 an age at wliicli they may hope to have other 
 children, and they ought to bear their sorrow 
 better; not only will the children who may here- 
 after be born make them forget their own lost 
 ones, but the city will be doubly a gainer. She 
 will not be left desolate, and she will be safer. 
 For a man's counsel cannot have equal weight 
 or worth, when he alone has no chiUlren to risk 
 in the general danger. To those of you who 
 have pas.sed their prime I say; "Congratulate 
 yourselves that you have been happy during the 
 greater part of ytmr days ; remember that your 
 life of sorrow will 'lot last long, and be comforted 
 by the glory of tho.se who are gone. For the 
 love of honour alone is ever young, and not 
 riches, as some say, but honour is the delight of 
 men when they are old and useless. " To you who 
 a.x! the sons and brothers of the departed, I see 
 that the struggle to emulate them will be an 
 arduous one. For all men praise the dead, and, 
 however pre-eminent your virtue may be, hardly 
 will you be thought, I do not say to equal, but 
 even to approach t'-em. The living have their 
 rivals and detractors but when a man is out of 
 the way, the honour rud good-will which he re- 
 ceives is unalloyed. And, if I am to speak of 
 womanly virtues to those of you wlio will hence- 
 forth be widows, let me sum them up in one 
 short admonition: To a woman not to show 
 more weakness than is natural to her sex is a great 
 glory, and not to be talked about for good or for 
 evil among men. I have paid the required tribute, 
 iu obedience to the law, making use of such lil- 
 ting words as I bad. The tribute of deeds has 
 been paid in part ; for the dead have been honour 
 ably interred, and it remains only that their 
 children should be maintained at the public charge 
 until they are grownup: this is the solid prize 
 with which, as with a garland, Athens crowns 
 
 170 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 430. 
 
 The Plague. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 429-421. 
 
 licr sons living and duad, after a struggle like 
 iheirs. For where tlio rewards of virtue are 
 greatest, tliere tlie noblest eitizens are enlisted in 
 tlie serviee of tlie stale. And now, wlien you 
 luueduly lamented, every on(^ Ids own dead, you 
 may depart.' .Sueli was I lie order of tlie funeral 
 eeleljrated in tliis winter, with the end of wiiieli 
 ended the first yciir of the I'elopoiiiiesian War." 
 — Tliueydides, Jlixton/, tnin/i. In/ li. Jiiirctt, v. 1, 
 l,k. 2, md. :«-47. 
 
 B. C. 430-429. — The Plague in the city.— 
 Death of Pericles. — Capture of Potidaea. — 
 "As soon as the summer returiieil [H. ('. 4;il)J 
 tlie Ptloponne.sians . . . invaded Attiea, whc: 
 tliey estal)lislie(l themselves and ravaged tlie 
 conn' y. Tiiey had not been tliere many days 
 when tlie plagui broke out at Athens for tiie 
 lirst time. . . . The disease is said to liave be- 
 gun south of Eirypt in ^'Ethiopia; thenco it de- 
 scended into Egypt and Libya, and after spread- 
 ing over tile greater part of the Persian Empire, 
 iiiddenly f"ll upon Athens. It lirst attacked the 
 iiihabilauts of the I'iranis, and it was sujiposcd 
 lliat the Peloponnesians liad poisoned the cis- 
 terns, no conduits having as yet been made 
 there It afte. wards reached the ujiper city, 
 and then the mortality became far gn^ater. As 
 to its i)robab'" origin or the causes which miglit 
 or could lia\e produced such a disturbance of 
 nature, every man, whetlier a ])liysician or not, 
 will give liis own opinion. But I shall deserit)e 
 its actual course, and the symptoms by whicli 
 any one who knows them beforehand may recog- 
 nize the disorder should it ever reappear. For I 
 was myself attacked, and witnessed the sulTer- 
 ings of others. The season was admitted to 
 have been remarkably free from ordinary sick- 
 ness; and if anybody was already ill of any other 
 disease, it was absorbe<I in this. JIany who 
 were in perfect health, all in a moment, and 
 without any apparent .eason, wre seized with 
 violent heats in tlie head and with redness and 
 inllammation of the eyea. Internally the throat 
 and tongue were quickly sulfused with blood 
 and the breath became unnatural and fetid. 
 Tliere followed sneezing and hoarseness; in a 
 short time the disorder, accompanied by a vio- 
 lent cough, reached tlie chest; then fastening 
 lower down, it would movt the stomacli and 
 bring on all the vomits of bile to which physi- 
 cians have ever given names; and they were 
 very distressing. . . . Tlic Ijody L.>.ternally was 
 not so very hot to the touch, nor yet pale; it was 
 a livid colour inclining to red, and breaking out 
 in pustules and ulcers. Bui the internal fever 
 Aasiiiteii.se. . . . The disorder wliieh had origi- 
 nally .se'tled in the head passed gradually 
 through the whole body, and, f a person got 
 over th? worst, would often seize the extremi- 
 ties and leave its mark, attacking the privy 
 parts and the lingers and toes: and some ese:ipeil 
 witli the loss of these, some with the loss of tlieir 
 eyes. . . . The crowding of the i)eoi)le out of 
 the country into the city aggravated the mi.sery; 
 and tlie newly-arrived suffered most. . . . The 
 mortality among them was dreadful and the}' 
 perished in wild disorder. Tlie (U^ad lay as they 
 liad died, one upon another, while others harilly 
 alive wallowed in the streets and crawled about 
 every fountain craving for water. The temples 
 In which they lodged wore full of tlie corpses of 
 those who died in them; for the violence of the 
 calamity was such that men, not knowing where 
 
 to turn, grew reckless of all law, human and 
 divine. . . . Tlie pleasure of the moment and 
 any sort of thing which conduced to it took the 
 ])laee both of lainour and of expediency. No 
 fear of God or law of ni;in dclerrcd a <riiiiinal." 
 Territieil by the idau'ue, when they learned of it, 
 tlie Pel ipoiiiu'sians retreated from Attica, after 
 ravaging it for forty days; but, in the mean- 
 time, their own coasts liad been ravaged, as be- 
 fore, l)y tlie Athenian lleet. And now, being caco 
 more relieved from the presence of the enemy, 
 tliough still gri(!Voii.sly alUicted liy the plague, 
 tl'.e Atheiii.ins turned upon I'ericles with co'n- 
 l)laints ami reproaches, and imposed a tine upon 
 liim. They also sent envoys to .Sparta, with 
 I)eai proposals wiiieh received no encourage- 
 ineiK. But Pericles spoke calmly and wisely to 
 the people, and they acknowledged llieir sense 
 of depend nee upon him l>y re-electing him gen- 
 eral and committing again "all their alfairs to 
 his charge." But lie was stricken next year 
 with the ])lague, and, lingering for some weeks 
 in bi )ken Inuillh, he died in the summer of 429 
 B. C. By his d'Htli tlie republic was given over 
 to striving dem.igogues and factions, at just the 
 time when a capable brain and hand were needed 
 in its government ino^t. The war went on, 
 acquiring more ferocity of temper with every 
 campaign. It was especially emliittered in the 
 course of the second summer by the execution, 
 at Athens, of several Lacedaemonian envoys 
 who were caiitiired while on their way to solicit 
 help from the Persian king. One of these un- 
 fortunate envoys was Aristeus, who liad organ- 
 ized the defence of Potidaea. That city was still 
 holding out against the Atheniaiis, who block- 
 aded it obstinately, although their troops suf- 
 fered frighifully from the plague. But in the 
 winter of 430-429 B. C. they sueeumbeil to star- 
 vation and surrendered tliei'' town, being per- 
 mitted to depart in search of a new home. 
 Potidaea was then peopled anew, with colonists. 
 ^Tliueydides, Histori/, ti: by Jowdt, bk. 2, sect. 
 8-1 J. 
 
 Also xn: E. Abbott, Perklca and tlie Golden 
 Age of AtJions, eh. IS-I,--..— W. W. Lloyd, The 
 A;/e of Pericles, eh. G4 (c. 2).— L. Wliibley, Politi- 
 eitl Parties in Athens during the Pehponncsian 
 War. — W. Wachsmuth, Ili.it. Antiquities of the 
 (iri;/c.i. .lais. 02-04 (r. 3). 
 
 B. C. 429-421.— After Pericles. — The rise of 
 the Demagogues. — "When Periels rose to 
 ])ower it would have been possible to frame a 
 Pan-llellenic union, in wliich Sparta and Athens 
 would have beiai die leading states; and such a 
 dualism wiuld have been the best guarantee for 
 the riglits of the smaller cities. AVliee he died 
 there was 110 policy left but v.ar with Sparta, 
 .ind conquest in tli(! West. And not only so, but 
 there was no politician who could adjust the 
 relations of domestic war and foreign conquest. 
 Tlie Athenians ])assed frorri one to the other, as 
 they were addressed by Cleon or Alcibiatles. 
 yVa cannot wonder tliat the men who lived in 
 those days of trouble spoke bitterly of Pericle-s, 
 holding him accountable for the miseries which 
 fell upon Athens. Other statesmen had be- 
 queathed good laws, as Solon and Clisthenes, or 
 the memory of great achievements, as Themisto- 
 cles or Citnon, but the only changes which 
 Pericles liad introduced W(!rc thought, not with- 
 out rciuson, to be elianges for the worse ; and be 
 left his countrv involved iu a ruinous war." — E. 
 
 in 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 429-421. 
 
 nine of the 
 Demagogues. 
 
 ATHENS, U. C. 424-406. 
 
 Abbott, Pericleji and tlic OoUlen Age of Atlienii, 
 j)/). 'M'i-',Wi. — "Tli(' nionil clmnfif wliieli had 
 . . . bcfiillcn thr Attic comimiiiity hud, it is 
 true, even iluriiii; th(^ lifetime of Pericles, iimiil- 
 festcd itself by means of .siillleieiitly clear pre- 
 monitory sipiis; but Pericles Imd, not withstand- 
 ing, up to the days of his last illness, leniained 
 the centre of the state; the people had ajfainand 
 again returned to him, and by subordinating 
 themselves to the personal authority of Pericles 
 had succeeded in recovering the demeanor which 
 betitted them. Hut now tlie voice was hushed, 
 which liad been able Ic sway the unndy citizens, 
 even again.st their will. No other authority was 
 in existence — no aristocracy, no ollicial class, no 
 board of experienced statesmen — nothing, in 
 fact, to which the citizens miglit have looked for 
 guidance and control. The multitude had re- 
 covered absolute independence, and in propor- 
 tion a.s, in the interval, readiness of speech and 
 sophistic v(!rsatility had spread in Athens, the 
 number ha<l increased of those who now put 
 themselves forward as popular speakers and 
 lea<lers. But as, among all these, none was 
 capable of leading the multitude after the fashion 
 of Pericles, •• notlier method of lca<ling the people, 
 another kind of demagogy, sprung into existence. 
 Pericles stood above the multitude. . . . Ills 
 successors were obligc<l to adopt other means ; 
 in order to" ac(iuire inlluence, they took ndvnn- 
 tnge not so much of the strong as of the weak 
 points in the character of the citizens, and 
 achieved popularity by flattering their inclina- 
 tions, auil endeavoring to satisfy the cravings of 
 their baser nature. . . . Now for the first time, 
 men hidonging to the lower class of citizens 
 thrust themselves forward to play a part in 
 politics, — men of the trading and artisan class, 
 the culture and wealth of which had so vigor- 
 ously increased at Athens. . . . The ofBce of 
 general frequently became a post of martyrdom ; 
 and the bravest men felt that the prospect of 
 being called to accovmt as to their campaigns by 
 cowardly demagogues, before a capricious mul- 
 titude, disturbed the straightforward joyousness 
 of their activity, and threw obstacles in the way 
 of their successes. . . . On the orators' tribune 
 the contrast was more striking. Here the first 
 prominent successor of Pericles was n certain 
 Eucrates, a rude and uneducated man, wlio was 
 ridiculed on the —imic stage as the 'boar' or 
 'bear of Melite' (the name of the district to 
 which he belonged), a dealer in tow and mill- 
 owner, who only for a short space of time took 
 tlio lead in the popular as.sembly. His place was 
 taken by Ly sides, who had actiuired wealtli by 
 tho cattle-trade. ... It was not until after 
 Lysicles, that tho demagogues attained to power 
 who had first made themselves a name by their op- 
 positi<m against Pericles,and, among tliem,Cleon 
 was tho first who was able to maintain hisauthority 
 for a longer period of fime; .so that it is in his pro- 
 ceedings during tlie ensuing years of the war 
 that the whole character of the new demagogy 
 first thoroughly manifests itself." — E. C' rtius. 
 History of Greece, v. ii, ch. 3. — "Tlic cha' .tors 
 of tho militiiry commander and the political 
 leader were gradually separated. Tho first 
 gcrni'' of this division wo find in the days of 
 Kimon and PerikiiS.s. Kimon was no mean poli- 
 tician; but his real genius clearly called him to 
 warfare witli the Barbarian. PoriklOs was an 
 uble and successful general; but in him the 
 
 military character wa.' quite sulionlinnte to tliat 
 of the political I'lwfer It was a wise com- 
 promise wliich ^ ciiiiisted Kimon with the de- 
 fence of the .state abroad and PeriklOs with its 
 muaagetnent at liome. After PeriklCs the separa- 
 tion widened. We nowhere hear of DOmos- 
 tlienPs and Phormion as political leaders; and 
 even in Nikias the political is subordinate to the 
 military character. Kleon, on tho other hand, 
 was a politician but not a soldier. But the old 
 notion of combining military and pol'tical i)osi 
 tion was not quite lost. It was still deemed that 
 h(^ who propo.sed a warlike expedition should 
 himself, if it were needful, be able to conduct it. 
 Kleon in an evil hour was tempted to take on 
 himself military functions; ho was force<l into 
 connnand against SphaktOria ; by tho able and 
 h)yal help of DflmosthonCs he accjuitted himself 
 with honour. But his head was turned by suc- 
 cess; he iispircd to independent command; he 
 measured himself against tho mighty Brasidas; 
 ind the fatal battle of Amphipolis was tho result. 
 It now became clear that the I)omagogue and the 
 General must commonly bo two distinct persons. 
 Tlie versatile genius of AlkibiadOs again united 
 the two cliaracters ; but ho left no successor. 
 . . . A Demagogue then was simply an influ- 
 ential speaker of popular politics. DOmosthenfis is 
 commonly distinguished as an orator, while 
 Kleon is branded as a Demagogue; but tho 
 position of tho ono was the same as the position 
 of tho other. The only (juostion is as to tho 
 wisdom and honesty of the advice given either 
 by Kleon or by D6mostlienf5s. " — E. A. Freeman, 
 JliHtorknl Essays, 2dser.,pp. 138-140. 
 
 B. C. 429-427. — Fate of Plataea.— Phormio's 
 Victories. — Revolt of Lesbos. — Siege of Mity- 
 lene. — Cleon's bloody decree and its reversal. 
 See Greece : B. C. 4'29-127. 
 
 B. C. 425. — Seizure of Pylus by Demos- 
 thenes, the general. — Spartans entrapped and 
 captured at Sphacteria. — Peace pleaded for 
 and refused. See Queece: U. C. 43.'). 
 
 B. C. 424-406. — Socrates as soldier and 
 citizen. — The trial of ths Generals. — " Socrates 
 was born very shortly before the year 469 B. C. 
 His father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor, his 
 mother, Pha;narete, a midwife. Nothing lefi- 
 nito is known of his moral and intellectual 
 development. There is no speciflc record of 
 him at all until he served at the siege of Potidica 
 (433 B. C.-429 B. C.) when lie was nearly forty 
 years old. All that we can say is that his youtii 
 and manhood were passed in the most S])len(liil 
 period of Athenian or Greek history. ... As a 
 boy ho received the usual Athenian liberal edu- 
 cation, in music and gymnastic, an education, 
 tliat is to say, mental and physical. He was 
 fond of quoting from the existing Greek lit'Mii- 
 ture, and he seems to have boon familiar with it, 
 especially with Homer. Ho is represented by 
 Xenophon as repeating Prodicus' fable of the 
 choice of Heracles at length. He says that he 
 was in tlie habit of studying witli his friends 
 ' the treasures which tlio wise men of old have 
 left us in their books:' coUection.s, that is, of 
 the short and pithy sayings of the seven sages, 
 such as 'know thyself; a saying, it may be 
 noticed, which lay at the root of his wliole 
 teaching. And ho had some knowledge of 
 mathematics, and of science, as it existed in 
 those days. He understood something of 
 astronomy and of advanced geometry; and he 
 
 172 
 
ATHENS, H. C. 424-400. 
 
 Sorrntffi n» Soldier 
 and Citizen. 
 
 ATIIKN8, B. C. 421. 
 
 was PcqiminJcd with cortnin, at any rate, of the 
 tlico'.ics of Ills i)U'ilect'ssorw iii iiliilosopliy, the 
 ]"iysiail or C.'osmicii' pliilosoplitTs, such as 
 llcraclitusund Piirnu'iiiilos, and, espi'cially, with 
 tliose of Anaxairoras. But tliero is no trust wort liy 
 pvideuce whicli I'nahles us to jro licyond the 
 bare fact tliat In: had sudi kuowli'd^tc . . . All 
 tlien tliat we can say of the lirst forty years of 
 Socrates' life consists of general statements like 
 these. During these years there is no specific 
 record of hii7i. Between 4;J3 H. C:. and 429 B. C;. 
 he served as a common soldier at the siege of 
 Potidiua, nn Athenian ilependency which had 
 revolted, and surpassed every one in his powers 
 of enduring hunger, thirst, and cold, and all the 
 hardships of a severe Thracian winter. At this 
 siege we liear of him for the lirst time in con- 
 nection witli Alcibiades, whose life he saved in a 
 skirmish, and to whom lie eagerly relinciuished 
 the prize of -'alour. In 431 B. C. the Pelopon- 
 licsian W"' nroke out, and in 424 B. C. the 
 Athenian. were disastrously defeated and 
 routed by the Tliebans at the battle of Deliuni. 
 Socrates and Laches were among the fuw who 
 (lid not yield to panic. They retreated together 
 steadily, and the resolute bearing of Socrates 
 was conspicuous to friend and foe alike. Had 
 all the Athenians behaved as he did, says 
 Laches, in the dialogue of that name, the defeat 
 would have been a victory. Socrates fought 
 bravely a third time at the battle of Amphipolis 
 [422 B. C] against the Peloponnesian Torces, in 
 which the commander.:; on both sides, Cleon and 
 Brasidas, were killed : but there is no record of 
 liis specific services on that occasion. About the 
 .same time that Socrates was displaying con- 
 spicuous courage in the cause of Atliens at 
 Delium and Amphipolis, Aristophanes was hold- 
 i!ig him up to hatred, contempt, and ridicule in 
 the comedy of the Clouds [B. C. 423]. . . . The 
 Clouds is his protest against tlic Immorality of 
 free thought and the Sophists. He cliosc 
 Socrates for his central figure, chieliy, no doubt, 
 on acco uit of Socrates' well-known and stninge 
 l)ersonal appearance. The grotesciue \igliness, 
 and Hat nose, and prominent eyes, ami Silenns- 
 like face, and shabby dress, might be seen every 
 (lay in the streets, and were familiar to every 
 Athenian. Aristophanes cared little — probably 
 he did not take the trouble to find out — that 
 Socrates' whole life was spent in flgliting against 
 the Sophists. It was enough for him tliat 
 .Socrates did not accept the traditional beliefs, 
 and was a good centre-piece for a comedy. . . . 
 Tile Clouds, it is needless to say, is a gross and 
 absurd libel from beginning to end: but 
 Aristophanes hit tlic popular conception. The 
 charges whicli he made in 423 B. C. stuck to 
 Socrates to the end of his life. They are exactly 
 the charges made Ijy popular prejudice, against 
 wliieh Socrates defends himself in the first ten 
 chapters of the Apology, and whicli he says have 
 been so long ' in the air. ' He formulates them 
 as follows: ' Socrates is an evil doer who busies 
 himself with investigating things beneath the 
 eartli and in the sky, and \vlio makes the worse 
 appear the better reason, and who teaches others 
 these same things.'. . . For sixteen years after 
 the battle of Amphipolis we hear nothing of 
 Socrates. The next events in his life, of which 
 there is a specific record, are those narrated by 
 himself in the twentieth chapter of the Apology. 
 They illustrate, as he meant them to illustrate, 
 
 r 
 
 his invincible moral courage. ... In 40fl B. C. 
 the Athenian lleet defeated the Lacedn'inonians 
 at the battle of Argimisa', so called from some 
 small islands olT the south-east point of Lesbos. 
 After the battle the Athenian commanders 
 omitted to recover the bodies of their dciid, and 
 to save the living from olT their disableil 
 enemies. The Athenians at home, on hearing of 
 this, were furious. The due performance of 
 funeral rites was a very sacred duty with the 
 Greeks; and many citizens mourned "for friends 
 and relatives who had been left to drown. The 
 commanders were immediately recalled, and an 
 assemlily was held in which they were accused 
 of neglect of duty. Tliey defended themselves 
 by saying that they had ordered certain inferior 
 olUcers (amongst others, their accuser Tliera- 
 menes) to perform the duty, but that a storm 
 had come on which had rendered the perform- 
 ance impossible. The debate was adjourned, 
 and it was resolved that the Senate shouUl 
 decide in what way the command' rs should be 
 tried. The Senate resolved tl\iit the Athenian 
 j)eople, having heard tlie accusation and the 
 defence, should proceed to vote forthwith for 
 the acquittal or condemnation of the eight com- 
 manders collectively. The resolution was 
 grossly unjust, and it was illegal. It substi- 
 tuted a popular vote for a fair and formal trial. 
 . . . Socniles was at that time a member of the 
 Senate, the only ollice that he ever filled. The 
 Senate was coinpcjsed of five hundred citizens, 
 elected by lot, fifty from each of the ten tribes, 
 and holding ofllce for one year. The members 
 of each tribe held the Prytany, that is, were 
 responsible for the conduct of business, for 
 thi.ty-fivo days at a time, and ten out of the 
 fifty were proedri or presidents every seven days 
 in succession. Every bill or motion was exam- 
 ined by the proedri before it was sulmiitted to 
 the Assembly, to see if it were in accordance 
 with law ; if it was not, it was (luashed : one of 
 the proedri presided over the Senate and the As- 
 semlily each day, and for one day only : he was 
 called the Epistates: it was his duty to put the 
 (piestion to the vote. In short he was the 
 speaker. ... On the day on which it was pro- 
 posed to take a collective vote on the ac((uittal 
 or condemnation of the eight commanders, 
 Socrates was Epistates. Tlie propo.siil was, as 
 we have seen, illegal: but the people were 
 furious against the accused, and it was a very 
 jiopular one. Some of the proedri opposed it 
 before it was submitted to the Assembly, on tlic 
 ground of its illegality; but they were" silenced 
 by threats and subsided. Socrates alone refused 
 to give way. lie would not put a question 
 which he knew to be illegal, to the vote. 
 Threats of suspension a-id arrest, the clamour of 
 an angry people, the fear of imprisonment or 
 dcatli, could not move liim. . . . But his 
 authority lasted only for a day ; the proceedings 
 were adjourned, a more i)liant Epistates suc- 
 ceeded him, and the generals wore condemned 
 and executed. " — F. . I. Church, Intrmi to Trial 
 and Detlth of Somites, pp. 9-23. — See, also, 
 GilEKCE: B. C. 406. 
 
 B. C. 421. — End of the first period of the 
 Peloponnesian War. — The Peace of Nicias. — 
 " The first stage of the Peloponnesian war came 
 to an end just ten years after the invasion of 
 Attica by Archidamus in 431 B. C. Its results 
 hiid been almost purely negative; a vast quan- 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 421. 
 
 Siritian 
 Kxpfdition, 
 
 ATIIRNS, n. C. 415. 
 
 tUy of blofKl mid troftsuro hud been wo.stod 
 on each sidi), but In no great purpose. Thi,' 
 AUicniaii naval power was unimpaired, ii'id the 
 confederacy nf Delos, lliDUirl. sliiikcii b, tlie 
 suece.ssful revolt of Anipliipolis anil the T jiice- 
 ward towns, was still left siibsistiii!;. On the 
 other liaiid. the attempts of Athens to aeeom- 
 plish aiiytliiiii; on land had entirely failed, anil 
 the defensive pulley of I'erieli'S had been so far 
 jiistilied. Well would it have been for Athens 
 if her eiti/.i as had taken the h^ssoii to heart, and 
 conti'iili'd tl.emselves with having escaped .so 
 easily from the greatest war they had ever 
 known." — C. SV. (,'. (Jiuan, Jfi.il. of Uneee, p. 
 341. — "Thr! tr^Mity called .since ancient times the 
 Pi ,.ec of AiciiLS . . . put an end to the war be- 
 tween the 1 wo Greek confederations of states, 
 after it had lasted for rather more than ten 
 years, vi/,., fro, a the attack of the Huiotians 
 upon Plala'ie. ()1. l.\.\xvii, ' (beginning of 
 April 1!. (.'. 4:!1) to Ol. l.\x\..\. H (towards the 
 uuddle of April H. ('. 4','1). ''"lie war was for 
 this reason known under the name of the 
 Ten Years' War, while the Poloponnesians 
 called it the Attii' War. Its end constilutod 
 a triumph for Athens; for all the plans of 
 the enemies who had attacked her had come to 
 naught ;. 'Sparta had been unable to fullil a sin- 
 gle one of the i)romises with which she had 
 entered upon the war, and was ultimately forced 
 to acknowledgi! the domiiuon of Atheiis in its 
 whole extent, — notwithstanding all the mistakes 
 and ndsgivings, notwithstanding all the calami- 
 ties attributable, or not, to the Athenians them- 
 .•ielves; the' resources of otTence and defence 
 which the city owed to Pericles had therefore 
 ])roved their excellence, and all the fury of her 
 opponeiUs had wasted itself against her in vain. 
 S..arta herself was s.itistied with the advantages 
 which the jieace offered to her own city and citi- 
 zens; but great was the discontent among her 
 confederates, i)articularly among the secondary 
 .states, who had originally occasioned the war 
 and obliged Sparta to take l)art in it. Even 
 after the conclusion of the ])eace, it was imi)os- 
 sible to iniluce Thebi's and Corinth to accede to 
 it. The result of the war to Sparta was there- 
 fore the dissolution of t'.'e confeder.tion at whose 
 head she had begun the war; she felt herself 
 thereby placed in so dangerously isolated a posi- 
 tion, that she was obliged to fall back upon 
 Athens in self-defence against her own confeder- 
 ates. Aci:ordingly the Peace of Xicias was in 
 the course of the same year converted iiUo a lifty 
 years' alliance, under the terms of which Sparta 
 and Athens contracted the obligation of mutual 
 assistance against any hostile attack." — E. Cur- 
 tius, I/i>sl. of Grcfce, Ik. 4, c/t 3 {o. 3).- — See, also, 
 Gheece: B. C. 4'J-l-l'il. 
 
 B. C. A21-418. — New combinations. — Con- 
 flicting; alliances with Sparta and the Argive 
 Confederacy. — Rising influence of Alcibiades. 
 — War m Argos and Arcadia.- -Battle of Man- 
 tinea. See GlUiKCE: 15. ('. 4ei-llS. 
 
 B. C. 416. — Siege and conquest of Melos. — 
 Massacre of the inhabitants. See Giieece: 
 IJ. I'. 110. 
 
 B. C. 415. — The expedition against Syra- 
 cuse.— Mutilation of the Hermae (Hermai). — 
 A ((uarrel having broken out in Sicily, between 
 the ci ies of Segesta and .Selinous. "the latter 
 obtained aid from Syracuse. Upon this, Segesta, 
 httviug vainly sought help from Carthago, ap- 
 
 I pealed to Athens, where the exiled Sicili. ins were 
 ruinerous. Alkibiades liad been one of the nio.st 
 ; urgent for the attack upon .Melos, and he did not 
 I lose the present opportunity to incite the Athen- 
 i ians to an enterprise of much greater importaiici'. 
 
 j and where he hoped to be in command \ll 
 
 men's minds were tilled with iimbitious hopes. 
 Everywhere, says I'liilarcli, were to be seen 
 young men in the gymnasia, old men in work- 
 shops and public places of meeting, drawing tho 
 map of Sicily, talking about the sea that sur- 
 rounds it, tlie goodness of its harbors, its jiosi- 
 tion opposite Africa. Established there, it would 
 1)e ea.sy to cross over and subjugate t'arthage, 
 and extend their sway as far as the Pillars of 
 Hercules. The rich diet not approve of this rash- 
 ness, but feared if they opposed it tliat the op- 
 posite faction would aecu'.e them of wishing to 
 avoid the service and costs of arming galleys, 
 Nikias had more courage; even after the Athen- 
 ians had apMointed him general, with Alkibiades 
 and Lamachos, lie spoke i)ublicly against the 
 enterprise, showed the imprudence of going in 
 search of new subjects when those they already 
 had were at the moment in a state of revolt, as in 
 (.'halkidike, or only waited for a di-saster to break 
 the chain which bound them to Athens. He 
 ended by reproaching Alkibiades for jdunging 
 the republic, to gratify his iiersonal ambition, 
 into a foreign war of tiic greatest danger. . . . 
 One of the demagogues, however, replied that 
 he would put an end to all this hesitation, and he 
 ])roposed and si cured the pas-sage of a decree 
 giving the generals full jiower to use all the 
 resources of the city in preparing for the expedi- 
 tion (March 24, 415 li. ('.) Nikias was com- 
 pletely in the right. 'I'lie eviiedition to Sicily 
 was impolitic and foolish. In the ^Ega'an Se.", 
 lay the empire of Athens, and there only it could 
 lie, within reach, do. e at liand. Every aciiuisition 
 westward of the Peloponnesos was a source of 
 weakness. Syracuse, even if coniiuered, would 
 not long remain subject. Whatever might be 
 the result of the expedition, it was sure to be 
 di.sastrous in the end. . . . An event which took 
 place shortly before the departure of the lieet 
 (8-9 June) threw terror into the city: one morn- 
 ing the hermai throughout the city were seen to 
 have been mutilated. . . . 'These Henna;, or 
 half-statues of the god llermfts, were bl'"ksof 
 marble about the height of the human ,,Mire. 
 The upper part was cut into a head, face, neck 
 and bust; tho lower i)art was left as a quad- 
 rangnlar pillar, broad at the base, without ar'us, 
 body, or legs, but with the significant mark of 
 the male sex in front. They were distributed in 
 great numbers throughout Athens, and always 
 in the most cousiiicuous situations; standing he- 
 side tho outer doors of i)rivate houses as veil as 
 of temples, uear the most frequented porticos, at 
 the intersection of cross ways, in the public 
 agora. . . . The religious feelings of the Greeks 
 considered the god to be planted or domiciled 
 where his statue stood, so that the companion- 
 ship, sympathy, and guardianship of Hennas 
 became a.ssociated wliii most of the manifesta- 
 tions of conjunct life at Athens, — politinil. 
 social, commercial, or gymuiistie. ' . . . To all 
 ])ious minds the city seeiued menaced with great 
 misfortunes uide.ss the anger of Heaven should 
 be appeased by a suHicient expiation. While 
 Alkibiades hail many partisans, he had also vio- 
 lent enemies. Not long before this time Hyper- 
 
 174 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 415. 
 
 Sicilinn 
 Kxpedition. 
 
 ATHEr^S, B. C. 415-418. 
 
 bolos, a contemptible man, had almost liucceedcd 
 In obtaining; his banishment ; and he had cacapod 
 this danger only by uniting his party with that 
 of Nikias, and causing the demagogue himself to 
 sulTcr ostracism^ The affair of the hernial ap- 
 peared to his adversaries a favourable occasion 
 to repeat the attempt made by Ilyperbolos, and 
 we have good reason to believe m a political 
 machination, seeing this same populace applaud, 
 a few months later, ihc impious audacity of 
 Aristophanes in his comedy of The Birds. An 
 inquiry was set on foot and certain mctoikoi and 
 slaves, without making any de|)03ition as to the 
 hermai, recalled to mind that before this time 
 8<)me of these statues had been broken by young 
 men after a niglit of carousal and intoxication, 
 thus indirectly attacking Alkibiadcs. Others in 
 set terras accused him of having at a banquet 
 parodied the Eleusinian Mysteries; and men took, 
 advantage of the superstitious terrors of the peo- 
 ple to awake their political an.\ieties. It was re- 
 peated that the breakers of sacred statues, the 
 profaners of mysteries, would respect the gov- 
 ernment even less than they had respected the 
 gods, and it was whispered tliat not one of these 
 crimes had been committed without the partici- 
 pation of Alkibiades; and in proof of tills men 
 spoke of the truly aristocratic license of his 
 life. Was he indeed the author of this sacri- 
 legious freak? To believe him capable of it 
 would not bo to calumniate him. Or, on the 
 other hand, wiis it a sclicme planned to do him 
 injury? Although proofs are lacking, it is cer- 
 tain that among the rich, upon whom rested the 
 heavy burden of thr naval expenses, a plot had 
 been formed to destroy the power of Alkibiades, 
 and perhaps to prevent the sailing of the fleet. 
 The demagogue- who had intoxicated tlie peo 
 pie with hope, vVmc for the expedition; but the 
 popularity of Alkibiades was obnoxious to them : 
 a compromise was made between the two fac- 
 tions, as is often done in times when public 
 morality is enfeebled, and Alitibiades found him- 
 self thteatcncd on all sides. . . . Urging as a 
 pretext the dangers of delay In sending off the 
 expedition, they obtained a decree that Alkibiades 
 should embark at once, and that the question of 
 his guilt or innocence should be postponed until 
 after his return. It was now the mitldle of 
 summer. The day appointed for departure, the 
 whole city, citizens ;, nd foreigners, went out to 
 Pciraieus at daybreak. ... At tliat moment the 
 view was clearer as to the doubts and dangers, 
 and also the distance of the expedition ; but all 
 eyes were drawn to the immense preparations 
 that had been made, and contidenco and pride 
 consoled those who were about to jjort. " — V. Du- 
 ruy, Iliat. of the Orcek People, ch. 25, si:ct. 3 (c. 3). 
 
 Also in: Thucydides, History, bk. 0, sect. 37-38. 
 — Q. \V. Cox, The Athenian, Empire, ch. 5. — G. 
 Qrote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, ch. rtS (o. 7). 
 
 B. C. 415-413. — Fatal end of the expedition 
 against Syracuse. — ' ' AlkibiadSs was called back 
 to Athens, to take his trial on a charge of im- 
 piety. . . . He did not go back to Athens for 
 his trial, but escaped to Peloponn6sos, where we 
 shall hear from him again. Meanwhile the com- 
 tLanil of the Athenian force in Sicily was left 
 pruuiically in the hands of Nikias. I w Nikias 
 could always act well when he did ^ct; but it 
 was very hard to make hira act; above all on an 
 errand which he hated. One might say that 
 Syracuse was saved through the delays of Nikias. 
 
 He now went off to petty expediticms in the 
 west of Sicily, under cover of settling matters at 
 Segesta. . . . Thi^ Syracusan'j by this time (luito 
 despised the invaders.' Their horsemen rode up 
 to the camp of the Athenians at KatanC, and 
 asked them if they had come into Sicily merely 
 to sit down there as colonists. . . . The wuiter 
 (B. C. 415-414) waschielly spent on both sides in 
 sending embassies to and fro to gain allies. 
 Nikias also sent home to Athens, .skiiig for 
 horsemen and iiumey, and the people, without a 
 word of rebuke, voted him all that ho asked. . . . 
 But the most important embassy of all was that 
 whicli the Syraciisans sent to Corinth and Sparta. 
 Corinth zealously took up the cause of her 
 colony and pleaded for Syracu.se at Sparta. And 
 at Sparta Corinth and Syracuse found a helper in 
 the banished Athenian AlkibiadCs, who was now 
 doing all that he coulil against Athens. ... lie 
 tolil the Spartans to occupy a fortress in Attica, 
 which they soon afterwards did, and a great deal 
 came of it. But he also told them to give vigor- 
 ous help to Syracuse, and above all things to 
 send a Spartan commander. The mere name of 
 Sparta went for a great deal in those days; but 
 no man could have been better chosen than the 
 Spartan who was sent. Ht was Gylippos, the 
 deliverer of Syracuse. He was more like an 
 Athenian than a Spartan, quick and ready of 
 resource, which few Spartans were. . . . And 
 now at last, when the spring came (414) Nikia , 
 was driven to do something. . . . The Athenians 
 . . . occupied all that part of the hill which lay 
 outside the walls of Syracuse. Tliey were 
 joined by their horsemen, Greek and Sikel, and 
 after nearly a year, the siege of Syracuse really 
 began. The object of the Athenians now was 
 to build a wall across the hill and to carry it 
 down to the sea ou both sides. Syracuse would 
 thus be hemmed in. The object of the Syra- 
 cusans was to build a cross-wall of their own, 
 which should hinder the Athenian wall from 
 reaching the two points it aimed at. This they 
 tried more than once ; but in vain. There were 
 several lights on the hill, and at last there was a 
 fight of more importance on the lower ground 
 by the Great Harbour. . . . The Syracusans 
 were defeated, as far as lighting went; but they 
 gained far more than tliey lost. For Lamachos 
 was killed, and with him all vigour passed away 
 from the Athenian camp. At the same moment 
 the Athenian fleet sailed into the Great Harbour, 
 and a Syracusan attack on the Athenian works 
 on the hill was defeated. Nikias remaiued in 
 command of the invaders; but he was grievously 
 sick, and for once in his life his head seems to 
 have been turned by success. He finished the 
 wall on the south side; but he HLglected to 
 finish it on the north side also, so that Syracuse 
 was not really hemmed in. But the hearts of 
 the Syracusans sank. ... It wab at this darkest 
 moment of all thot deliveranc "ime. ... A 
 Corinthian ship, under its cap. i Gongylos, 
 sailed into the Little Harbour. He brought the 
 news that other ships were on their way from 
 PeloponnOsos to the help of Syracuse, and, yet 
 more, that a Spartan general was actually in 
 Sicily, getting together a land force for the same 
 end. As soon as the good news was heard, there 
 was no more talk of surrender. . . . And one 
 day the Athenian camp was startled bjr the ap- 
 pearance of a Lacedajinouian herald, offering them 
 a truce of five days, that they might get them 
 
 175 
 
ATHENS, H C. 415-413. 
 
 Siiilliin 
 Eximlition. 
 
 ATIIKNS. B. C. 413-418. 
 
 out of Slrlly with huff iiml bitfCfrnKC Oylippns 
 wiis now on the liill. He of roiirsc did not ex- 
 prct Hint tlic -Vllii'Ti' iirniy W(ml(i rciilly «o 
 iiwiiy in tlvi' days. Hut it wiis ii (^rciit tliinir to 
 sliow lH)tli I" tin- iM'sicKcrs unci tollii^ .Hyrucusiins 
 timt till' deliverer liiiil eonie. iind timt deiiverunee 
 wiH iieiti'i'iinK. Nil<iii,s hiul Iteptsiieli Imd wiitcli 
 thiit (tyiippos and liis triMips li;id come up the 
 lii)l iinii tile Syriu'usims iuwl come out luid met 
 liicm, without his ItnowledKo. Tlie Spiirtiin, as 
 ii mutter of course, tiKilc tlii^ command of tlie 
 wlwile force; he olfcreil Imtlle to tlu^ Atlieniiins, 
 wliicli tliey refused; lie tiien entered the city. 
 Tlie vc^ry next day li(^ liegan to carry out liis 
 Hclieme. Tills was to build ii group of forts 
 near the western end of th(! hill, and to join them 
 to the city by a wall runniiif? east and west, 
 which would hinder the Athenians from ever 
 linishing their wall to the north. Each side 
 went on building, and some small actions took 
 place. . . . Another winter (IJ. I,. 414-413) now 
 cumo on, and with it much sendin;; of envoys. 
 Oylippos went about Sicily collecting fresh 
 troops. . . . Moanwhilo Xikias wrote a letter to 
 the Athenian people. . . . This letter came at a 
 time when the Laccdiemonian alliance had de- 
 termined to renew the war with Athens, and 
 when they were making t^verytliing ready for an 
 invasion of Attica. To miu\ out a new force to 
 Sicily was simple madness. We hear nothing 
 oi the delmt<« in the Athenian assembly, whether 
 any one argued against going on with the Sicilian 
 war, and whether any demagogue laid any 
 blame on Nikias. But the assembly voted that 
 a new force equal to the tirst should be sent out 
 under DflmosthenCs, the best soldier in Athens, 
 and Eurymi ion. . . . Meanwhile the Syracus- 
 ans were strengthened by help both in Sicily and 
 fi )m PeloponnCsos. Their main object now was 
 to strike a blow at the fleet of Nikias before the 
 new force came. ... It had been just when the 
 Syracusaus were most downcast that they were 
 cheered by the coming of the Corinthians and of 
 Gylippos. And just now that their spirits 
 were highest, they were dashed again by the 
 the coming of DflmosthenCs and Eurymcdou. A 
 fleet as great as the first, seventy-five ships, car- 
 rying 5,000 heavy-armed and [a crowd of light 
 troops of every kind, sailed into the Groat Har- 
 bour witli all warlike pomp. The Pclopoui'e- 
 sians were already in Attica ; they had planted a 
 Peloponnesian garrison there, which brouglit 
 Athens to great straits; but the fleet was sent 
 out to Syracuse all the same. DSmosthenCs knew 
 what to do as well as Lamachos liad known. He 
 saw that there was nothing to be done but to try 
 one great blow, and, if that failed, to take the 
 fleet home again. . . . The attack was at first 
 successful, and the Athenians took two of the 
 Syracusan forts. But tlie Thespian allies of 
 Syracuse stood tlieir ground, and drove tlie as- 
 sailants back. Utter confusion followed. . . . 
 The last chance was now lost, and DCmostheu6s 
 was eager to go liome. But Nikias would stay 
 on. . . . When sickne.ss grew in the camp, 
 when fresh help from Sicily and v'lie great body 
 of the allies from Peloponnflsos came into Syra- 
 cuse, ho at last agreed to go. Just at tliat 
 moment the moon was eclipsed. . . . Nikias 
 consulted his .soothsayers, and he gave out that 
 they must stay twciity-niue days, another full 
 n'volution of tlie moon. This resolve wai the 
 destruction of the Ixaieging army. ... It was 
 
 felt onlMith sides that all would turn on one more 
 flght by sea, the Athenians striving to get out 
 of the liarlxmr, and the Syracusans stnving to 
 keep them in it. The .Synicusiins now blocked 
 up the mouth of th<^ harlHiur by miniring 
 vessels across it. Tlie Athenians left llieir 
 position on thi! hill, a sign that the siege was- 
 ovr'r. and brought their whole force down to the 
 shore. It was no tinu^ now for- any skillful 
 manoeuvres; the chief thing was to make the sea- 
 fight as much as might be like a lanil-tight. a 
 strange need for Athenians. . . . The last, fight 
 now began, 110 Athenian ships against 80 of the 
 Syra(!usans and their allies. Never before did 
 so many ships meet in so small a siiacc. . . . 
 The light was long and confu.sed; at last the 
 Athenians gave way and fled to the shore. The 
 battle and the invasion were over. Syracuse was 
 not only saved ; she had begun to take vengeance 
 on her enemies. . . . The Athenians waited one 
 day, and then set out. hoping to make their way 
 to .some safe place among the friendly Sikels in 
 the inland country. The sick hud to lie left be- 
 hind. . . . On the sixth (hiy, after frightful toil, 
 they determined to cliange their course. . . . 
 They set out in two divisions, that of Nikias 
 going first. Mucli better order was kept in the 
 front division and by the time Nikias reached the 
 river, DOmosthenfls was six miles beliird. . . . 
 In the morning a Syracusan force came up with 
 the frightful news that the whole division of 
 DOmosthenCs were prisoners. . . . The Athenians 
 tried in vain to escape in the night. The next 
 morning they set out, harassed as before, and 
 driven wild by intolerable thirst. They at last 
 reached the river Assinaros, which runs by the 
 present town of Nolo. Tliere was the end. . . . 
 The Athenians were so maddened by thirst that, 
 though men were falling under darts and the 
 water was getting mudJy and bloody, they 
 thought of nothing but drinking. . . . No 
 furtlier terms were made; most of the horse- 
 men contrived to cut their way out; the rest 
 were made prisoners. Most of them were 
 embezzled by Syracusans as their private 
 slaves; but about 7,000 men out of the two divi- 
 sions were led prisoners into Syracuse. Tliey 
 were shut up in the stone-quarries, with nO' 
 furtlier heed than to give each man daily half a 
 slave's allowance of food and drink. Many died ; 
 many were sold ; some escaped, or were set free ; 
 the rest were after a while taken out of the quar- 
 ries and set to work. Tlie generals had made no 
 terms for themselves. HennokratCs wished tO' 
 keep tliem as hostages against future Athenian 
 attempts against Sicily. Gylippos wished tO' 
 take tliem in triumpli to Sparta. The Corinth- 
 ians were for putting them to death ; and so it 
 was done. ... So ended the Athenian invasion 
 of Sicily, the greatest attempt ever made by 
 Greeks against Qreelcs, and that which came to- 
 the most utter failure." — E. A. Freeman, The 
 Story of Sicily, pp. 117-137. 
 
 Also in: Thucydides, History; trans, by B. 
 Jowett, bk. 6-7 (v. 1). — See, also, Sykacuse: 
 B. C. 415-413. 
 
 B, C. 4[I3-4I2.— Consequences of the Sicilian 
 Expedition. — Spartan alliance with the Per- 
 sians. — Plotting of Alcibiades. — The Decelian 
 War. — "At Athens, where, even before this, 
 every one hiul been in the most anxious suspense, 
 the news of the loss of the expedition produced 
 a consternation, which was certainly greater than 
 
 176 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 418-412. 
 
 ATHENS, H. C. 413-411. 
 
 that at limiHi nftor llic buttle of Cimniic, or thiit 
 iu our own (lays, iift(!r tin; Imttlc of .Icna. . . . 
 'A' li isl 4(),(Am> (■ili/.cMS, allies and ulaves, had 
 perished; and anions them there may easily hav(^ 
 been lO.OOO Athenian rilizens, most of whom be- 
 lonj^ed to the wealthier and hij;her classes. The 
 flower of the Athenian people was destroyed, as 
 at the time of the |)laij;ue. It is iinpossibhf to say 
 what amount of public property may have beeii 
 lost; the whole licet was jforif. The eoiise- 
 qtlcnces of the disaster soon slii'Wed tliemselvc-'. 
 It was to be foreseen that Chios, whieli had loni; 
 been wavering, and whose disposition could not 
 be trust<'d, would avail itself of this moment to 
 revolt; ami the cities in Asia, from whidi Athens 
 derived her lar;^e revenues, were expected to do 
 the siuue. It was, iu fact, to be foreseen, that 
 the four islands of L(«bos, Chios, Sainos, e.nd 
 Rhodes, wcyuld instantly revolt. The Spartan". 
 were established at Decelea, iu Attica itself, and 
 thence ravaKc<l the country far and wide: so that 
 it was impossible to venture to go to the coast 
 without a stroni; escort. .\lthou,i;h there were 
 many districts in which no Spartan was seen from 
 one year's end to the other, yet there was no 
 safety anywhere, except in fortified places, 'and 
 the Athenians were constantly obliiied to guard 
 the walls of their city; and this state of things 
 ba^ already been going on for the last twelve 
 mouths.' In this fearful situation, the Athenian 
 people showed the same flrmuess lus the Komans 
 after the battle of Cannae. Had they but had 
 one great man among them, to whom ihe state 
 could have been entrusted, even more might.per- 
 haps have been done ; but it is astonishing that, 
 although there was no such man, and although 
 the leading men were only second or third-rate 
 persons, yet so many useful arrangements were 
 made to meet the necessities of the case. . . . The 
 most unfortunate circumstance for the Atbcaiaus 
 was, that Alclbiudes, now an enemy of his 
 country, was living among the Spartans; for he 
 Introduced into the undertakings of the Spartans 
 the very element which before they hud been 
 altogether deficient in, namely energy and elasti- 
 city : he urged them on to undertakings, and in- 
 duced them now to send a fleet to Ionia. . . . 
 Erythrae, Tecs, and Jlilctus, one after another, 
 revolted to the Peloponnesians, who now con- 
 cluded treaties with 'Tissaphernes iu the name of 
 the king of Persia — Darius was then king — and 
 in bis own name as satrap ; and iu this manner 
 they sacrificed to bim the Asiatic Greeks. . . . 
 The Athenians were an object of antipathy and 
 implacable hatred to the Persians ; they had never 
 doubted that the Athenians were their real oppo- 
 nents iu Greece, and were afraid of tbem; but 
 they did not fear the Spartans. They knew that 
 the Athenians would take from them not only 
 the islands, but the towns on the main land, anil 
 were in great fear of their maritime power. 
 Hence they joined the Spartans; and the latter 
 Avere not ashamed of negotiating a treaty of sub- 
 sidies with the Persians, in which Tissaphernes, 
 in the king's name, promised the assistance of the 
 Phoenician fleet ; and large subsidies, as pay for 
 the army. ... In return for this, they re- 
 nounced, in the name of the Qret '«, all claims to 
 independence for the Greek cities in Asia." — 
 B. C. Niebubr, Ijfctiircs on Ancient Iliston/, b. 2, 
 lects. 53 and 54.— See, also, Gueece: D. C. 413- 
 412. 
 Also in; G. Grote, Ilist. of Qreece, eh. CI (». 7). 
 
 B. C. 413-412. — Revolt of Chios, Miletus, 
 Lesbos and Rhodes from Athens. — Revolu- 
 tion of Samos. .See (lliKt;(i;; 11. C. lilt. 
 
 B. C. 413-411.— The Probuti. — Intrigues of 
 Alcibtades.— Conspiracy against the Consti- 
 tution. — The Four Hundred and the Five 
 Thousand. — InuncMliately after tlx; dreadful 
 calamity at Syracuse became known, "extraor- 
 dinary measures were adopted by the peo|)le; a 
 number of cili/.ens of advanced age were formed 
 into a deliberative and executive lioily under the 
 name of I'robuli, and empowered to fit out a 
 fleet. Whether this laid the foundation for oli- 
 garchical machinations or not, those aged men 
 were unable to bring back men's minds to their 
 former course; tlie prosecution of tin- H<'rmo- 
 copidie had been most mischievous in its results; 
 various secret associations had sprung up and 
 conspired to reap advantage to themselves from 
 the distress and embarra.Hsmeiit of the stat(s Ibo 
 indignation caused by the infuriated excesses of 
 tlie people <luring that trial, po.ssibly here, as 
 ' fre((uently happened in other Grecian states, 
 determined the more icspectable members of the 
 community to guard against the recurn'uce of 
 .similar scenes iu future, by the establishment of 
 an aristocracy. I^astly, the watchful malice of 
 Alcibiades, who was tlie implacable enemy of 
 that ])opulace, tn whose blind fury he had been 
 sacrificed, battled all attempts to restore confi- 
 dence ami tran((uillity, and there is nodoubt that, 
 whilst he kept up a corresijondence with his par- 
 tisans at home, ho did everything iu his power 
 to increase the i)erplexity and distr'^ss of bis 
 native city from without, in order that ho might 
 be recjilled to provide for its safety and defence. 
 A favourable opportunity for the execution of 
 bis plans presented itself m the fifth year of his 
 exile, 01. (t2. 1; 411. B. C. ; as ho had incurred 
 the suspicion of the Spartjius, and stood high iu 
 the favour of Tissaphernes, the Athenians 
 thought that his intercession might enable them 
 to obtain assistance fn.in the Persian king. The 
 people in Athens were headed by one of liis most 
 inveterate enemies, Androcles; and be well knew 
 that all attempts to cfTect his return would bo 
 fruitless, until this man and the other demago- 
 fjues were removed. Hence Alcibiades entered 
 into negotiations with the commanders of tho 
 Athenian fleet at Samos, respecting the estab- 
 lishment of an oligarchical constitution, not from 
 any attachment to that form of government in 
 itself, but solelv witli the view of promoting his 
 own ends. /'hrynicbus and Pisander were 
 equally insincere in their co-operation with Alci- 
 biades. . . . Their plan was that the latter 
 should reconcile tho people to the change in tho 
 constitution which he wished to effect, by pro- 
 mising to obtain them the assistance of the great 
 king; but they alono resolved to reap the 
 benefit of his exertions. Pisander took upon 
 himself to manage the Athenian ])opulace. It 
 was in truth no slight undertaking to attempt to 
 overthrow a democracy of a hundred and twenty 
 years' standing, and of intense develoDment; biit 
 most of the able bodied citizens were absent with 
 the fleet, whilst such as were still in tho city 
 were confoimded by the imminence of the danger 
 from without; on tho other hand, the prospect of 
 succour from the Persian king doubtless had 
 some weight with them, and they possibly felt 
 some symptoms of returning affection for their 
 former favourite Alcibiades. Nevc-tbeless, Pisan- 
 
 177 
 
ATHENS. D. C. 41 1-111. 
 
 Kilil of Ihr 
 
 ATHENS. B. C. 404^03. 
 
 (lor and IiIh urcnnipllcog mnp'.iyocl cmft mid per- 
 'illy til lU't'oi'iplisli tlii'iril ii^im; tlir pi'opir wiTi; 
 nut jH'rHiiiiilril or riiiiviiicnl, liiit ('iitriiplii'il into 
 coinplianri' willi tlii'ir iiiriiHiirvs. I'ixaiiili.'r 
 giiiiii'il iiviT til his piirpi Hit till- uIhivi' natucil rliilis, 
 mill iiiilncil till' pi'iiplii ti> HiMiil liiiii witli trii 
 pk'iiipDti'iitiiirii's Id till! navy at Sanio.H. In tlin 
 miMin tinii' ilir n'st. of \\w nmspirators prosi-rnti'il 
 till- worl< i>f ri'iniMli'llinn llii' conHtitution." — VV. 
 WiK'lisnmtli, ///W. AntiiiiiitiiK "f the <lreek», v. 3, 
 pp. "J.VJ -','"1."). — I'lii' priipli', or an iissi'mlily cleviTly 
 nmili' up anil niiinipiilati'il tn rrpri'Hr'a th.: 
 pi'iipio, wiTr iniliireil to viiti; all tliu powcrn of 
 KDViTinni'iit Into till) ImiiilH of a cuiincil of Foil. 
 Hnnilrril, of wliirli counril tluM'itixrns appointuil 
 only (Ivo mi'inlttTH. Tlioso tlvo oliosi; nlnoty- 
 flvu moro, to niaku ono liunilrcil, anil uacli of that 
 linnilrril then chose thri'ii colleatjues. The con- 
 gpiralors thus iMsily niailo up the Four llun- 
 druil to tlii'ir likinu;, from tlirirown rankH. This 
 counril was to oiiivi'iu; an assembly of Five 
 Thousand citizens, whenever it saw tit to do so. 
 But when news of this constitutional cliangn 
 renehed the army at Samos, where the Athenian 
 henili)uarters for the iDiiian war were llxed, the 
 citizen soldiers refused to submit to it — repudi- 
 ated it altiijfi'tlier — and orfjanized themselves as 
 ail independent state. The rulinjj spirit umonjj 
 them was Thrasvhulus, iiiid his inlliience bi'ou,t,'ht 
 about a reconciiiation with Alcibiades, then an 
 exile slieltered at the Persian court. Ali-ibiades 
 was recalled by the army and placed nt its head. 
 Presently a reaction at Athens ensued, after the 
 oligarchical i)urty liiid given signs of treasonable 
 communication witli Hparta, and in .lunc the 
 people assembled in the Pny.x and reas.sertcd 
 their sovereignty. " Tlie (Jouncii wa.'i deposed, 
 and the supremo sovereignty of the .state 
 restored to the people — not, however, to the 
 entire mu'titiide; for the principle was retained 
 of reserving full civic rights to a committee of 
 men of .i certain amount of property; and. as 
 the li:.i8 of the Five Tliousand had never been 
 drawn up, it was decreed, in order that the 
 desired end might be speedily reached, to follow 
 the precedent cf similar institutions in otlier 
 states and to constitute all Athenians able to 
 furnish them.selves with a complete military 
 equipment from tlieir own resources, fuUcitizens, 
 •with the rights of voting and participating in the 
 government. Tims the name of the Five Thou- 
 sand had now become a very inaccurate designa- 
 tion; but it was retained, because men had in 
 the last few months become habituated to it. At 
 the same time, the abolition of ])ay for civic 
 otHces and functions was decreed, not merely as 
 a temporary measure, but as a fundamental 
 principle of the new cominonwcalth. which the 
 citizens were bound by a solemn oath to main- 
 tain. This reform was. upon the whole, a wise 
 combi;'ation of aristocracy and democracy ; and, 
 accordiiik; to the opinion of Thucydides, the best 
 constitution wliicli the Athenians had hitherto 
 possessed. Oh the motion of Critias, the recall 
 of Alcibiades was decreed about the same time ; 
 and a deputation was despatched to Samos, to 
 accomplish the union between army and city." — 
 E, Curtius, Iliiit. of OroM, bk. 4, ch. 5.— Most of 
 the leaders of the Pour linndred tied to the Spar- 
 tan camp at Dccelia. 1 wo were taken, tried 
 and executed. — Thucydides. llinton/, bk. 8, sect. 
 48-97.— See, also, GnKKCE: \S. C. 413-413. 
 Also in : V. Duruy, HiH. of Greece, ch. 36 {v. 3). 
 
 B. C. 41 1-407.— Victories at Cvnossema and 
 Abydos.— Exploits of Alcibiades. —His tri- 
 umphal return. — His appointment to com- 
 mand. —His second deposition and exile. 
 Si'eOnr.Krt-:: li. t'. 111-4(17. 
 
 B. C. 406.— The Peloponnesian War: 
 Battle and victorr of Arginusae.— Condem- 
 nation and exc :ution of the Generals. .See 
 OltKKii;: U. (.'. KMt; and above: H. (,'. 431-100. 
 
 B. C. 405. — The Peloponnesian War: 
 Decisive defeat at Aigospotamoi. .See (iukkck: 
 B. ('. 4(»."). 
 
 B. C. 404. -The Surrender to Lysander. — 
 After the battle i.f .Kgosiiotami (August, B. C. 
 40.')). which destroyed their navy, and cut off 
 nearly all HUiiplies to the city by sea, as the 
 tlimrtiins at I)ccelea had long cut off suppllcf 
 u|)on the land side, the Athenians had no hope. 
 They waited in terror and despair for their 
 enemies to close in upon them. The latter were 
 in no haste, for they were sure of their prey. 
 Lysander, the victor at yEgospotaini, cunio 
 leisurely from the Hellespont, receiving on his 
 way the Hiirieniler of the cities subject or allied 
 to Athens, and placing Spartan harinosts and 
 garrisons in them, with the local oligarchs 
 established uniformly in power. About Novem- 
 ber he reachi'd the Saronic gulf and blockaded 
 the Athenian liarbor of Pineus, while an o^-er- 
 whclming Pi'lupoimesian land force, undir the 
 Lacedicmonian king Pausaiiias, arrived .simul- 
 tjineoudly in Attica and encami)eil at the gates of 
 the city. The Athenians had no longer any power 
 except the power to endure, and that they exer- 
 cised foi more tlian three months, mainly resisting 
 the demand that their Long Walls — the walls 
 which protected the connictiiiii of the city with 
 its harbors — sliould be thrown down. Hut when 
 famine had thinned the ranks of the citizens and 
 broken the spirit of the survivors, th-y gave up. 
 "There was still 1, high-spirited minority who 
 entered their protest and preferred death by 
 famine to such i ..' !i|)])ortable disgrace. The 
 large majority. In. vever, acceptcil them [the 
 terms] and the aecc/tance was iiiaile known to 
 Lysander. It was on tl'.e Kith day of the Attic 
 month Miinychion, — iiuout the middle or end of 
 March, — that this vict'>rious en uimnder sailed 
 into tlie Peinuus, twenty-seven years, almost 
 exactly, after the surprise of Platiea by the 
 Thebans, which op' ned the Peloponnesian War. 
 Along with him came the Athenian exiles, 
 several of whom appear to have lieeu serving 
 with his army ami assisting him with their coun- 
 sel. "— O. Grote, Hint, of Greeee, pt. 3. cli. fl.'j (p. 8). 
 — The Long Walls and the fortiflcations of 
 Pineus were demolished, and then followed the 
 organization of an oligarchical government ut 
 Atlieiis. resulting in the reign of terror under 
 " The Thirty."— E. Curtius, lliat. of Greece, bk. 4, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 Also in: Xenophon, Hellenics, bk. 2. ch. 2.— 
 Plutarch, Lymmler. 
 
 B. C. 404-403.— The tyranny of the Thirty. 
 — The Year of Anarchy. — la the summer of 
 B. C. 404. following the siege and surrender of 
 Athens, and the humiliating close of the long 
 Peloponnesian War, the returned leaders of the 
 oligarchical party, who had been in exile, suc- 
 ceeded with theiielp of their Spartan friends, in 
 overthrowing the democratic constitution of the 
 city and establishing themselves in power. The 
 revolution was accomplished at a public assem- 
 
 .1^8 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 4)4-403. 
 
 ATHENS, n, C; 3r,0-338. 
 
 My of citizens, in the prcsoncii of LyHnmlor, flic 
 victorious Lnrnlirmoniiiii ik ininil, wliosc llirt 
 In tlin IMrnMis liiy rriuiy to su'^iort Ills di iiiiinds. 
 " In tliUiissctnlily, Driicontid is, iiHcoimilrcl upon 
 wlioni rcpcriti'd sentences li.id been passed, 
 broujilit forward II motion, proposinft the transfer 
 of till' K"verninent Into tlie liands of Thirty per- 
 sons; and Tlierainenes supported lliis i)roposal 
 wliieli ill' declared to e> press the wishes of 
 Hparta. Kvon now, tliesi speeches produced a 
 storm of indignation; after all the acts of vio- 
 lence wliich Athens had nnderifonc, she yet con- 
 tained men outspoken ciiou;.;h to venture to 
 (lefen<i the constitution, and to appeal to tho 
 fact iiiat the eapitidtuion siuictloned by both 
 parties contained no [irovNioTi as to the Internal 
 nlTairs of Alliens, Hut, Jwr^uipon, Fiysander 
 himself came forward and spoke to the citizens 
 without reserve, like oiw who was their absolute 
 master. , . . ll^- such means the motion of I)ra- 
 contiius was passed; bntonly a small inimlier of 
 unpatriotic and cowardly citizens rai.scd their 
 liands in token of assent. All (letter patriots 
 contrived to avoid participation in this vote. 
 Next, ten members of the government wen; 
 chosen liy ('ritias and his collea);ues [tlu^ ('ritias 
 of Plato's Dialogues, pupil of Socrates, and now 
 the violent and lilooil-thirsty leader of the ami- 
 democratic revolutionj, ten l.y Theramenes, the 
 contldential friend qf Lysander, and tinally ten 
 out of the, assembled multitude, probably by a 
 free vote; and this boanlof Thirty was hereupon 
 established as the supreme government authority 
 by a resolution of the assembly jiresent. Most 
 of the members of the new government had 
 formerly been among the Four Hundred, and 
 had therefore long pursued a common cour.se of 
 action." The Thirty Tyrants .so placed in power 
 were masters of Athens for i'iglit months, and 
 executed their will without conscience or mercy, 
 having a garrison of Spartan soldiers in tlie 
 Acropolis to support them. They were also sus- 
 tjiined by a picked body of citizens, "tiie Three 
 Thousand," who bore arms while other citizens 
 were stripped of every weapon. liaigc numbers 
 of the more jiatriotic and high-spii '.id Vtlienians 
 had escaped from their unfortunate city ami had 
 taken refuge, chlclly at Thebes, the old enemy 
 of Athens, but now sympathetic in her distress. 
 At Thebes these exiles organized themselves 
 under Thrasybulus and Anytus, and determined 
 to expel the tyrants and to recover their homes. 
 They first SLized a strong post at Phyle, hi 
 Attica, where they gained in numbers rapidly, 
 and from which point they were able in a few 
 weeks to advance and occupy the Piricus. 
 When the troops of The Thirty came out to 
 attack them, they drew back to the adjacent 
 height of Jluiiychia and there fought a battle 
 which deliverecl their city from the Tyrants. 
 Critias, the master-spirit of the usurpation, was 
 slain; the more violent of his colleagues took 
 refuge at Eleusis, and Athens, for a time, 
 remained under the government of a new oligar- 
 chical Board of Ten ; while Thrasybulus and the 
 democratic liberators maintained tlicir headquar- 
 ters at Munychia. All parties waited the action 
 of Sparta. Lysander, tlie Spartan general, 
 marched an army into Attica to restore the 
 tyranny which was of his own creating ; but one 
 of the two Spartan kings, Pausanias, intervened, 
 assumed the command in his own person, and 
 appliwl his efforts to the arranging of peace 
 
 between the .Vtlicnian parlies. The ri'sult was a 
 restoration of the deinoeralie constitulion of the 
 Attic stale, with sonic' imporlaiit reforms. Sev- 
 eral of The Thirty were put lodeath, — treacher- 
 ously, it was said, — but an amnesty was extended 
 to all their partisans. TIk? year in wliiili they 
 and The Ti'n controlled affairs was termed ill the 
 ollleial annals of the city yie Year of Anarchy, 
 and its magistrates were tt«l recognized. — k. 
 Curtius, Jlint. (if OiYar, bk. 4,,r/i. ."t, ainlbk. 5, 
 
 <•/<. 1. ; 
 
 Ai.so i\: Xenophon, JfellenirMk, 2, r/i. !l-l. — 
 C. Sankey, T/n: .S/xi/Vn/t and T/ief!ii^ Siijiriimi- 
 cii'». ch. 3-H 
 
 B. C. 395-387.— Coni'ederacT against Sparta. 
 
 — Alliance with Persia. — The Corinthian 
 War. — Conon's rebuilding of the Long Walls. 
 
 — Athenian independence restorea, — The 
 Peace of Antalcidas. See Oiikkci;: U, (J. liDO- 
 ;W7. 
 
 B. C. 378-371.— Brief alliance with Thebes 
 against Sparta. See (iiiKWi;: It. (', \iT.)-'Xi\. 
 
 B. C. 378-337.- The New Confederacy and 
 the Social \Var. — Upon the liibcratiim of Thebes 
 and the sign, that began to ap[)ear of tlie decline 
 of Spartan p > wer- -during the year of the arclion- 
 ship oi Nausiiii('us, 15. C 378-7, which was made 
 meuK.rable at AtluiH by various movements of 
 •loliticai regeneration, — the organization of a new 
 Confederacy was undi'rtaken, analagous to tliu 
 Confederacy of Delos, formed a century before. 
 Athens was to be, " not the ruling capitiil, but 
 only the directing city :n possession of the pri- 
 macy, the seat of the iVderal council. . . . Calli- 
 stratus was in a scr ' the Aristides of the new 
 confederation and doubtless did much to bring 
 about an agreement; it was likewi.so his work 
 that, in place of the ' tributes ' of odious memory, 
 the payments iieces.sary to the existence of the 
 confe(h'ration were introduced under the gentler 
 name of 'contributions. ' . . . Amicable relations 
 were resumed with the Cyclades, Hliodes and 
 Perinthiis; in otlier words, the ancient union of 
 navies was at once reiuiwcd upon a large scale 
 and in a wide extent. Even sucli states ioined 
 it as liad hitherto never stoinl in confederate re- 
 lations with Atlicns, above all Thebes." — E. Cur- 
 tius, llisl. 0/ Greece, bk. 0, ch. 1. — This second 
 confederacy renewed much of the prosperity and 
 induence of Athens for ;v brief period of about 
 twenty years. But in 3.'»7 B. C, four imiiortant 
 members of the Confederacy, namely, Chios, Cos, 
 Rhodes, and Byzantium leagued themselves in 
 revolt, with the aid of jMausoliis, prince at Carta, 
 and an inglorious war ensued, known as the 
 Social War, which lasted tliree years. Athens 
 was forced at last to assentto the secession of the 
 four revolted cities and to recognize their inde- 
 pendence, which greatly impaired her prestige 
 and power, just at tlic time wlien she w .^ called 
 upon to resist the cncroaclimenis of Philip of 
 Macedonia. — C. Thirl wall, JUkI of Oreece. eh. 43. 
 
 B. C. 370-362.— Alliance with Sparta against 
 Thebes.— Battle of Mantinea. See Gkkece: 
 B. C. 371-303. 
 
 B. C. 359-338.- The collision with Philip of 
 Macedon. — The Policy of Demosthenes and 
 Policy of Phocion. — " A new period opens with 
 the growth of the Macedonian power under 
 Philip (3.59-330 B. C.) We are here chiefly con- 
 cerned ti) notice the effect on the City-Statc [of 
 Athens], not only of the strength and policy of 
 this new power, but also of the efforts of the 
 
 179 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 350-338. 
 
 Demnnthenen 
 and !dacedon. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 336-323. 
 
 Greeks tliem.selves to counteract it. At tlie time 
 of I'liilip's accession the so-ciilletl Tliebiin 
 suprcmiicv Im<l just i)racticiilly fn(Ie<l with the 
 deal li of kiiainiiioiKlas. Tlicrc was now ii l<iri(l 
 of balance of i)ower lietweeri llie tliree leadiiii; 
 States, .Sjjarla, Alliens, and Tiielies, no one of 
 whicli was ;,'really stronger than Ww others; and 
 such a l)alance could easily l)e worked upon h}' 
 any grei.t power from without. Thus when 
 Macedoii came into the rniiLre of Greek polities, 
 under a man of ^r^t diplotnatie ns well as niili 
 tary capacity, who, like a (,'/arof to-day, wislied 
 to secure a tlrin footinij on the seaboard of the 
 .^i^ean [see GliKlxK; W. ('. ariO-iriH], she found 
 her work comparatively easy. The stronj? im- 
 perial policy of Philip foun(f no rei)l antagonist 
 except at Athens. W(Mik as she was, and 
 straitened by the break-ui) of her new con- 
 federacy, Athens coidd stil. produce mi^n of 
 great talent and energy; but she was hampered 
 by divided couu.sels. Two Athenians of tliis 
 ])eriod seem to represent the eurn^nts of Greek 
 political thought, now running in two different 
 directions. bemosthenes represents the cause 
 of the City-State in this age, of a uni(m, that is, 
 of perfectly free Hellenic cities against the com- 
 mon enemy. Phocion represents the feeling, 
 which seems to liave liecn long growing up 
 am.ing thinking men at Athens, that the City- 
 Stato was no longer what it had l)een, and could 
 no longer stand li.\ itself; that what was needed 
 was a general Hellenic peace, and possibly even 
 an arbiter from without, an arbiter not wholly 
 un-Hcllenic like the Persian, yet one who might 
 succeed in stilling the fatal jealousies of the 
 leading States. . . . The efforts of Demosthenes 
 to c;heck Philip fall into two periods divided by 
 the peace of Philoerates in 346 B. C. In the 
 first of these he is acting chiefly with Athens 
 alone ; Philip is to him not so much the common 
 enemy of Greece ns the dangerous rival of 
 Athens in the north. His whole mind was given 
 to the internal reform of Athens so as to 
 strengthen her afe'ainst Philip. In her relation 
 to other Greek States he perhaps hardly saw 
 beyond a balance of power. . . . After 346 his 
 Athenian feeling scema to become more dis- 
 tinctly Hellenic. But what could even such a 
 man as Demosthenes do with the Hellas of that 
 day ? He coidd not force on the Greeks a real 
 anil pernianent union; ho could but urge new 
 allianc'js. His strength was spent in embassies 
 witi, this object, embassies too often futile. No 
 alliance could save Greece from the Macedonian 
 power, as subsequent events plainly showed. 
 What was needed was a real federal tmion be- 
 tween the leading States, with a strong central 
 controlling force; and Demosthenes' policy was 
 hopeless just because Athens could never be the 
 centre of such a union, nor could any other city. 
 Demosthenes is thus the last, and in some re- 
 spects the most heroic cliampion of the old Greek 
 instinct for autonomy. He is tlie true child of 
 the City-State, but the child of its old ago and 
 dcca'pitude. He still believes in Athens, and it 
 is on Athens that all his hopes are based. He 
 looks on Philip as one who must inevitably be 
 the foe alike of Athens ;iiid of Greece. He 
 seems to think that he can be beaten off as Xer.xes 
 was, and to f(,rget that even Xer.\es almost 
 triumphed over the divisions of the Greek States, 
 and that Pliilip is a nearer, a more prominent, 
 and a far less barbarian foo. . . . Phocion was 
 
 tlic somewhat odd exponent of the practical side 
 of a school of thought which had been gaining 
 strength in Creece for some lime past. Tliis 
 school was now brought into prominence by the 
 risi' of Macedon, and came to liave a marked in- 
 fliu'uce on the history of the City-State. It 
 began with the philo.sophers, and with the idea 
 that the iihilosoplier may belong to the worhl as 
 well as to a |)articidar city. . . . Athens was far 
 more open to criticism now than in the days of 
 Pericles; and a cynical dislike betrays itself in 
 the l{epublic for the jxiliticiiuis of the day and 
 their tricks, and a longing for a strong govern- 
 ment of reason. . . . Aristotle took the facts of 
 city life as they were and showed how they 
 might be made the most of. . . . To him Mace- 
 don was assuredly not wholly barbarian; and 
 war to the death with her kings could not have 
 been to him as natura! or desirable ns it seemed 
 to Demosthenes. And tbough he has nothing to 
 tell us of .Macedon, we can hardly avoid the con- 
 clusion that his desire was for peace and interral 
 reform, even if it mcto under the guarantCij of 
 the ni/rthern i)ower. ... Of this philosophical 
 view of Greek politics Phocion was in a manner 
 the political exponent. But his policy was too 
 much n negative one; it might almost be called 
 one of iadifferentism, like the feeling of Lessing 
 and Goethe in Germany's most momc^ntous 
 period So far ns we know, Phocion never pro- 
 posed nn nlliance of a durable kind, either 
 Athenian or Hellenic, with JIacedon; he was 
 content to be a purely restraining intluence. 
 Athens had been constantly at war since 433; 
 lier own resources were of ilio weakest; tliere 
 was little military skill to be found in lier, no 
 reserve force, much talk, but little solid courage. 
 Athens was vulnerable at various points, and 
 could not possibly defend more than one at a 
 time, therefore Phocion despaired of war, and 
 the event proved him right. Tlie faithfulness 
 of the Athenians towards him is a proof that 
 they also instinctively felt that he was right. 
 But he was wanting on the practical and creative 
 side, and never really dominated either Athens, 
 Greece, or Pliilip. ... A policy of resistance 
 found the City-State too weak to defend itself; a 
 policy of inaction would land it in a Macedonian 
 empire which would still further weaken its re- 
 maining vitality. « The first policy, that of 
 Demosthenes, did actually result in disaster and 
 the presence of Macedonian garrisons in Greek 
 cities. The second policy then took its place, 
 and initiated a new era for Greece. After the 
 fatal battle of Chajronea (338 B. C.) Philip 
 assumed the position of leader of the Qreelc 
 cities."— W. W. Fowler, The City-State of thi 
 Orceks and Romans, ch. 10. — See, also, Greece: 
 357-336. 
 
 B. C. 340. — Alliance with Byzenttum against 
 Philip of Macedon. See Gueecb: B. C. 340. 
 
 B. C. 336-322.— End of the Struggle with 
 the Macedonians. — Fall of Democracy. — 
 Death of Demosthenes. — Athenian decline. — 
 "An unexpected incident changes the whole 
 aspect of things. Philip falls the victim of 
 assassination ; and a youth, who as yet is but lit- 
 tle known, is his successor. Immediately 
 Demosthenes institutes a second alliance of 
 the Greeks; but Alexander suddenly appears be- 
 fore Thebes; the terrible vengeance which he 
 here takes, instantly destroys the league ; Demos- 
 thenes, Lycurgus, and several of their support 
 
 180 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 330-323. 
 
 Afacedonian 
 Hupiemacy. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 336-323. 
 
 crs, arc required to 1m; lielivercd up ; but Dcmndes 
 is nt tlmt time able to seUle the (lilUculty luul to 
 appease the kiii.i;. His strength was therefore 
 enfeebled as Alexander departed for Asia; he 
 begins to raise his head once more when Sparta 
 attempts to throw olT the yoke; but under Anti- 
 pater he is overpowered. Yet it was about this 
 very time that by the mr it celebrated of his dis- 
 courses be gained the victory over the most elo- 
 ([uent of bis adverec ries ; and /Ksehines was 
 forced to dc^part from Athens. But this seems 
 only to have the uior ; embittered bis enemies, 
 the leaders of the 51: cedoniau jiarty; and they 
 soon found an opporttuiity of preparing his 
 do\v;ifall. When Hirpaliis, a fugitive from the 
 army of Alexander, came with bis treasures to 
 Athens, and the (lU'jb'ion arose, whether he eotdd 
 be permitted to reniaia there, Demosthenes was 
 accused of having been corrupted by his 
 money, at least to be silent. This was sulllcient 
 to procure the imposition of a line; and as this 
 was not paid, he was thrown into |)rison. From 
 thence he succeeded in escaping; but to the man 
 who lived only for his country, e.xilo was no less 
 an evil than imi)risonment. lie resided for the 
 most i)art in iEgina and at Tnezen, from whence 
 he looked with moist eyes toward the neigh- 
 bouring Attica. Suddenly and unexpectedly a 
 new ray of liglit broke through the clouds. 
 Tidings were brought, that Alexander was dead. 
 The moment of deliverance seemed at band; the 
 excitement pervaded every Grecian state; the 
 ambassadors of the Athenians i)assed through 
 the cities; Demosthenes joined himself to tlij 
 number and exerted all liis ehxiueuce and jjower 
 to luiitc them against Macedonia. In requital 
 for such services, the people decreed bis return ; 
 and years of sufferings were at last followed by 
 a day of exalted compensation. A galley was 
 sent to .lEgiua to bring back the advocate of 
 liberty, ... It was a momentary glimpse of 
 the sun, which still d-irker clouds were soon to 
 conceal. Autipater and Craterus were victori- 
 ous; and with them the Macedonian parly in 
 Athens; Demosthenes and bis friends were num- 
 bered among the accused, and at the instigation 
 of Demades w^re condemned to die. . . . De- 
 mosthenes had 'escaped to the island Calauria 
 in the vicinity ol Troczen; and took refuge in 
 the temple of N( ptuue. It was to no purpose 
 that Archias, tlu satellite of Autipater, urged 
 him to surrender himself un<ler promise of par- 
 don. He pretended be wished to write some- 
 thing; bit the (juill, and swallowed the poison 
 contained in it." — A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections 
 on the Politics of Ancient Greece, trniu. by O, 
 Rincrofl, pp. 278-280. — Sec, also, on the "Lamian 
 War," the suppression of Democracy at Athens, 
 and the expulsion of poor citizens, Gukece: B. C. 
 323-323.— "With the decline of political indc- 
 r Mideuce, . . . the mental powers of the nation 
 received a fatal blow. No longer knit together 
 by a powerful esprit de corps, the Greeks lost the 
 habit of working for the conunon weal ; and, for 
 the most i)art, gave themselves up to the petty 
 interests of home life and their own personal 
 troubles. Even the better disposed were too 
 nuich oceu])ied in opposing the low tone and 
 corruption of the times, to be able to devote 
 themselves, in tlieir moments of relaxation, to a 
 free and speculative consideration of things. 
 Wliat could be expected in such an age, but that 
 philosophy would take a decidedly practical 
 
 turn, if indeed it were .studied at all ? And yet 
 such were the politir.u antecedents of the Stoic 
 and Epicurean sj stems of philosophy. . . . 
 Stoic apathy. Epicurean self-satisfaction, and 
 SceiJtic imperturbability, were the (loctrines 
 which responded to the political helplessness of 
 the age. They were the <loctrines, too, which 
 met with the most general acceptance. The 
 same politica! "'clplessuess imxluced the sinking 
 of national di:- ctions in the feeling of a com- 
 mon humanity, ind the separation of morals 
 from politics wh.ch characterise the philosophy 
 of the Alexand'ian and Roman pcricxl. The 
 barriers between nations, together with national 
 independence, bad been swept away. East and 
 West, Greeks and barbarians, were united in 
 large empires, being thus thrown together, and 
 brought into close contact on every possible 
 point. Philosophy might teach that all men 
 wer? of one blood, that all were e(iually citizens 
 of one empire, that morality rested on the rela- 
 tion of man to bis fellow men, independently of 
 nationalities and of .social ranks; but in so doing 
 she was orly explicitly stating truths which had 
 been already realised in part, and which were in 
 l)art corollaries from the existing state of so- 
 ciety." — E. Zcller, The Utoics, Kpicurcana, and 
 Sceptics, pp. 10-18. — "What we have said con- 
 cernmg the evidence of comedy about the age of 
 the fli'st Diadochi amounts to this: Menander 
 and bis successors — they lasted barely two gen- 
 erations — printed in a few stereotypes a small 
 and very worthless society at Athens. There 
 wos no doubt a .similar set of people at Corinth, 
 at Thebes, possibly even in the city of Lycur- 
 gus. These people, idle, for the most part rich, 
 and in good society, si)ent their earlier years in 
 debauchery, and their later in sentimental reflec- 
 tions and regrets. They had no serious object 
 in life, and regarded the complications of a love 
 affair as more interesting than the rise and fall 
 of kingdoms or the gain and loss of a nation's 
 liberty. They were like the people of our day 
 who spend all their time reading novels from the 
 libraries, and who can tolerate these eternal 
 variations in twaddle not only without disgust 
 but with interest. They were surroimded with 
 slaves, on the whole more intelligent and inter- 
 esting, for in the first place slaves were bound 
 to exercise their brains, and in the second they 
 had a great object — liberty — to give them a 
 keen pursuit in life. The relations of the sexes 
 in this set or poition of society were bad, owing 
 to tl want of education in the women, and the 
 want of earnestness in the men. As a natural 
 consequence a class was foui;il, apart from 
 household slaves, who took ad' iint;ige of these 
 defects, and, bringing culture i fascinate un- 
 principled men, establisheil those relations 
 which brought estrangements, if not ruin, into 
 the home life of the day." — ,1. P. Mahaffy, O eek 
 Life and Thoxujht, pp. 123-124. — "The amount 
 of Persian wealth poured into Greece by the 
 accidents of the conqvicst, not by its own indus- 
 tries, must have produced a revolution in prices 
 not since equalled except by the inllux of the 
 gold of the Aztecs and Incasinto Spain. I have 
 already pointed out how this change nuist have 
 l)ressed upon poor people in Greece who did not 
 share in the jilunder. The price of even neces- 
 sary and simple things must have often risen 
 beyond their means. For the udventurcre 
 brought home large fortunes, and the traders 
 
 181 
 
ATHENS, B. C. 330-322. 
 
 Expnnninn nf 
 IletlenUm. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 330-323. 
 
 nml purveyors of 1 111 armies made Ihem; and with 
 thcoe Kasleiii forliinrs nuist liave come in tlie 
 tnste for all tlie superior eomforls and luxuries 
 wliieli lliey found among llii; I'ersian jtraTidees. 
 Not only "llie appointments of the tahle, in tlie 
 way of plate and pottery, hut llie very tastes and 
 flavours of (Ireek cookery must have protiled 
 by comparison with the knowledge of the Kast. 
 So also the furniture, especially in carpets and 
 hangings, must have copied Persian fashion, 
 just as we still alTect oriental stulTs and designs. 
 It was not to he e.\pected that the example of so 
 many regal courts and so much royal ceremony 
 shoidd not alTect those in contact with them. 
 These infhienecs were not only shown in the 
 vulgar ' braggart captain,' who came to show oil 
 Ills sudden wealth in impudent extnivagance 
 among his old townspeople, but in the ordinary 
 life of ridi young men. So I imagine the personal 
 appointments of Alcibir.des, which WL'ro the talk 
 of Greece in his day, would have appeared poor 
 mid mean beside those of Aratus, or of the gen- 
 eration which preceded liim. Pictures and 
 Btatues began to ndorn private houses, and not 
 temples and public buildings only — a change 
 beginning to show itself in Dcmosthcnes's day, 
 but coming in like a torrent with the opening of 
 Greece to the Eastern world. It was noticed 
 that Pliocion's house at Athens was modest in 
 size and furnituie. but even this was relieved 
 from sliabbiness by the ((uaint wall decoration 
 of shining i)lates of bronze — n fashion dating 
 from prehistoric times, but still admired for its 
 very anti<iuity." — .1. P. Malialfy, Oriek lAfe, mul 
 Thoui/ht, [iji. KW-IOO. — "The modern historians 
 of Greece are much divided on the ipiestiou 
 where a history of Hellas ought to end. C'ur- 
 tius stops with the battle of Cliaeroneia and the 
 prostnitiou of Athens before the advancing 
 power of Alacedon. Grote narrates the cain- 
 paigns of A,exander, but stops short at the con- 
 clusion of the Lamiau War, when Greece had in 
 vain tried to shake olT the supremacy of his gen- 
 erals. Thirhvall brings his narrative down to 
 the time of Mummiiis, the melancholy sack of 
 Corinth and the constitution of Achaia as a, 
 Roman province. Of these divergent views we 
 regard tliat of the German historian as the most 
 correct. . . . The historic sense of Grote did not 
 exclude prejudices, and in this case he was 
 probably led astray by political bias. At the 
 close of his ninety-sixth chap' -r, after mentiim- 
 ing the embassies sent by the degenerate Athe- 
 nians to King Ptoleiny, King Lysimachus, and 
 Antipater, he throws ilown his pen in disgust, 
 'and with sadness and humiliation brings his nar- 
 rative to a close.' Athens was no longer free and 
 no longer dignified, and so Jlr. Grote will have 
 done with Greece at the very moinent when the 
 new Comedy was at its height, when the 
 Museum was founded at Alexandria, when ..le 
 plays of Euripides were acted at Hahylon and 
 Cabul, and every Greek soldier of fortune car- 
 ried a, diadem in his baggage. Surely the his- 
 torian of Greece ought either to have stopped 
 wlien the iron hand of Philip of .Macedon put an 
 end to the liberties and the ixilitical wranglings 
 of Hellas, or else persevered to the time when 
 Home and Parthia crushed Greek power between 
 them, like a ship between two icebergs. No 
 doiilit his reply would be, that he declinetl to 
 regard the triumph abroad of Macedonian arms 
 as a continuation of the history of Hellus. . . . 
 
 The truth is, that the history of Greece consistx 
 of two parts, in every respect contrasted one 
 with the other. The tll-st recounts the stories of 
 the Persian and I'eloponncsian wars, and ends 
 with the destruction of Thebes and the subjuga- 
 lion of Athens and Sparta. The Hellas of which 
 it speaks is a cluster of autonomous cities in the 
 Peloponnesus, the Islands, and Northern Greece, 
 logetlier with their colonies scaltered over the 
 coasts of Italy, Sicily, Thrace, the Black Sea, 
 Asia Minor, and Africa. These cities care only 
 to be independent, or at most to lord it over one 
 another. Their political in.stitiitions, their re- 
 ligious ceremonies, their customs, arc civic and 
 local. Language, commerce, a common Pan- 
 theon, and a common art and poetry are the tics 
 that bind them together. In its second jiliase, 
 Greek history begins with the expedition of 
 Alexander. It reveals to us the Greek as every- 
 where lord of the barbarian, as founding king- 
 doms and federal systems, as the instructor of 
 all mankind in art and science, and the spreader 
 of civil and civilized life over the known world. 
 In tlie first period of her history Greece is form- 
 ing herself, in her second she is educating the 
 world. We will venture to borrow from the 
 Germans a convenient expression, and call the 
 history of independent Greece the history of 
 Hellas, that of imperial Greece the history of 
 Hellenism. . . . The Athens of Pericles was 
 dictator among the cities which had joined her 
 alliance. Corinth, Sparta, Thebes, were each 
 the political head of a group of towns, but none 
 of tile throe admitted these latter to an equal 
 share in their councils, or a<lopted their political 
 views. Even in the Olynthian League, the 
 city of Olynthus occupied a position quite 
 superior to that of the other cities. But the 
 Greek cities had not tried the experiment of an 
 alliance on ccpial terms. This was now at- 
 tempted by some of the leading cities of the 
 Peloponnese, and the result was the Achaean 
 League, whose history sheds a lustre on the last 
 (lays of independent Greece, and whose generals 
 will bear comparison with the statesmen of any 
 Greek Hepnblic [see Gukkcf:: B. C. 280-146 J. 
 . . . On tiie field of Sellasia the glorious hopes 
 of Cleomenes were wrecked, and the recently 
 reformed Sparta was handed over to a succession 
 of bloodthirsty tyrants, never again to emerge 
 from obscurity. But to the Achneans themselves 
 the interference of Macedon was little le.ss fatal. 
 Henceforth a Macedonian garrison occupied 
 Corinth, which had been one of the chief cities 
 of the League; and King Anligonus Doson was 
 the recognized arbiter in all disputes of the 
 Peloponncsian Greeks. ... In Northern Greece 
 a strange contrast iiresented itself. The historic 
 races of the Athenians anil Boeotians liuiguished 
 in peace, obscurity, and luxury. With them 
 every day saw something added to the" enjoy- 
 ments and elegancies of life, and every day 
 politics drifted more and more into the back- 
 ground. On the other hand, the rude semi-Greeks 
 of the West, Aetoliaus, Acarnaiiians, and Epi- 
 rotes, to whose manhood the repulse of the Gauls 
 was mainly due, came to the front and .showed 
 the bold spirit of Greeks divorced from the finer 
 factilties of tlie race. The Acarnaniaus formed 
 a league somewhat on the plan of the Achaean. 
 But they were overshadowed by their neighbors 
 the Aetoliaus, whose union was of a ditferent 
 character. It was tho first time that there had 
 
 182 
 
ATHENS, B. (J. 336-323. 
 
 ATHENS, B. C. 200. 
 
 been formed in Hellas ii stiito framed in order to 
 prey upim its neighbours, ... In the course of 
 the' Pcloponnesian \V ~.r Greek relijjion beijan to 
 lose its hold on the Greelis. This was ])artly the 
 work of c sophists and pliilosopliers, who 
 sousiht more lofly and moral views of Deity 
 tlian were furnished by llie tales of popular 
 mythology. iStill morn it resulted from growing 
 materialism among the people, who saw more 
 and more of their immediate and physieal needs, 
 and less and less of the underlving spiritual 
 elements in life. But thougli plulosophy and 
 luaterialisni had made tlio n.'ligion of Hellas paler 
 and feeliler, they had not altered its nature or 
 expanded it. It still remained esseiUially 
 national, almost triltal. When, therefore, Greeks 
 and Macedonians suddeidy found themselves 
 masters of the nations of tlie East, and in close 
 contact witli a hundred forms of religion, an 
 extraordinary and rapid change took jilaee in 
 their religious ideas. In religion, as in other 
 matters, Egypt set to the worhl the example of 
 prompt fusion of the ideas of Greeks and 
 natives. . . . Into Greece i)roi)cr, in ntturn for 
 her population wliidi flowed out, there llowed 
 in a crowd of foreign deities. Isis was especially 
 welcomed at Athens, where she fot. id many 
 votaries. In every cult the more mysterious 
 elements were made more of, and the brighter 
 and more materialistic side passed by. Old 
 statues which liad fallen somewhat into con- 
 tempt in the days of Pheidias and PraxiteU^s 
 were restored to their places and received ex- 
 treme venemtion, not as beautiful, but as old 
 and strange. On the coins of the previous 
 period the representations of deities had been 
 always the best that the die-cutter could frame, 
 taking as his models tlu; finest contemporary 
 sculpture; but henceforth wo often find them 
 strange, uncouth figures, remnants of a jioriod 
 of struggling early art, like the Aj)ollo at 
 Aniyclae, or the Hera of Saiiios. ... In the iii- 
 tellectiml life of Athens there was still left 
 vitality enough to formulate the two most com- 
 plete expressions of the ethical ideas of the 
 times, the doctrines of the Stoics and the Epi- 
 cureans, towards one or tlic other of which all 
 educated minds from tliat day to this have been 
 drawn. No doubt our knowledge of these doc- 
 trines, being largely drawn from the Latin 
 writers and their Greek contemporaries, is some- 
 what coloured and unjust. With the Uomans a 
 system of philosophy was considered mainly in 
 its bearing upon conduct, whence tlio etl.ical 
 elements in Stoicism and Epicurcaiiism have 
 been by their Uoman adherents so thrust iiitr 
 the foreground, that we have almost lost siglit 
 of the intellectual elements, which can have had 
 little less importance in the eyes of the Greeks. 
 Notwithstanding, the rise of the two philosophies 
 must bo held to mark a new era in the history 
 of thought, an era when the importance of con- 
 duct was for the first time recognized by the 
 Greeks. It is often observed that the ancient 
 Greeks were more modern than our own an- 
 cestors of the Middle Ages. But it is less 
 generally recognized how far more modern than 
 the Greeks of Pericles were the Greeks of Aratus. 
 In very many respects the age of Hellenism and 
 our own age present remarkable similarity. In 
 botli there appears a sudden increase in the 
 power over material nature, arising alike from 
 the greater accessibility of all parts of the world 
 
 and from the rapid development of the sciences 
 which act upon tlie physical forces of the world. 
 In both this spread of science and power acts 
 upon religion with a dissolving and, if we may 
 so speak, centrifugal force, driving ,s(niie men to 
 take refuge in tiu' most conservative forms of 
 faith, sop.e to fly to new creedsand superstitions, 
 some to drift into unmeasured scepticism. In 
 botli the facility of moving from place to place, 
 and finding a distant liome. tenils to dissolve the 
 closeness of civic and family life, and to make 
 the individual rallier than the family or th(^ city 
 tlie unit of social life. And in the family re- 
 lations, in the character of individuals, iii the 
 state of iiiorali'y. in tlie condition of art, wo 
 find at both periods similar results from the 
 similar causes we have mentioned. " — P. Gardner, 
 JVrin Ch(i}it(rK in Ora-k JiMori/, rh. 1,5. 
 
 B. C. 317-316.— -Siege by Polysperchon.— 
 Democracy restored.— Execution of Phocion. 
 —Demetrius of Phaleron at the head of the 
 government. See (tm;i'.('i;: Ii, ('. iWl-:!!'.;, 
 
 B.C. 307-i97.--Under Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 and the Antigonids. See Gkkkck : B. V. 307- 
 V.)7. 
 
 B. C. 288-263. — Twenty years of Indepen- 
 dence. — Siege and subjugation by Antigonus 
 Gonatas. — \vheii Denietrius Poliorcetes lost the 
 .Macedonian tlirone, 15. ('. 288, his fickle Atlienian 
 subjects and late worshippers rose against his 
 autiiority, drove his garrisons from tlie .Museum 
 and the Pirieus and abolished the priesthood 
 they had consecrated to him. Demetrius 
 gathered an army from some quarter and laid 
 siege to the city, but without success. The 
 Atlienians went so far as to invite Pyrrhus, the 
 warrior king of Epinis, to assist them against 
 him. Pyrriius came and Denietrius retired. 
 Tlio dangerous ally contented himself with a 
 visit to the Acropolis as a worsliijiiier, and left 
 Athens in pos.sessioii, undisturbed, of her fieslily 
 gained freedom. It was enjoyed after a fashion 
 for twer.iy years, at tlie end of wliicli jicriod, 
 B. C. 288, Antigonus Gonatas. the son of Deme- 
 trius, having regained the .Macedonian crown, 
 reasserted his claim on Atliens, and the city was 
 once more besieged. Tlie Lacediomoniaiis mid 
 Ptolemy of Egypt both gave some inclfectiial 
 aid to tlic Athenians, and the siege, interrupteil 
 on several occasions, was iirolonged until B. C. 
 203, when Antigonus took i)os.se8sion of tlie 
 Acropolis, tlie fortified ^Iiiscum and the Piiwiis 
 as a master (see Macedoni.v, ifce. : B. C. 277-244). 
 Tills was sometimes called the Chremonidean 
 AVar, from the name of a jiatriotic Atlienian who 
 took the ino.st prominent part in tlie long defence 
 of his city. — C. Tliirlwnll, ITiit of Oirccc, eh. 01. 
 
 B. €.'229. — Liberation by the Achaian 
 League. See Oukeck: B. C. 280-140. 
 
 B. C. 200. — Vandalism of the second Mace- 
 donian Philip.— In the year B, C. 200 the Mace- 
 donian king, Philip, made an attempt to surprise 
 Athens an . iailed. "He then encamped in tlie 
 outskirts, mvX proceeded to wreak his vengeance 
 on the Athenians, as he bad indulged it at 
 Tlierinus and Pcrgamus. He destroyed or de- 
 faced all the inonuments of religion and of art, 
 all the sacred and pleasant places which adorned 
 the suburbs. The Academy, the Lyceum, and 
 Cynosarges, with their temples, schools, groves 
 anil gai'dena, were all wasted with fire. Not 
 oven the * pulchres were spared." — C. Thirlwall, 
 Hist, of Greece, ch. 04. 
 
 183 
 
ATHENS, y. C. 197-A. D. 138. 
 
 Planting of 
 Christ iauity. 
 
 ATHENS, A. D. 54 (?). 
 
 B, C. 197-A. D. 138.— Under Roman rule. 
 
 — " \tlicns . . . '.ii'onls the (lisliciirlcuiiii; pic- 
 ture (if u coiiimoMwciiltli |miii|)<'recl by llio su- 
 pri'iiic power, uiiil tlimncially u.s well as iiionilly 
 ruined. Hy rights it ought to have found itself 
 in 11 llourisliin); condition. . . . No cily of iin- 
 tiquity elsewhere ])os.sessed u domain of its own, 
 such .IS was Attica, of about 700 s(|Uare miles. 
 . . . Hut even beyond Attica they retained what 
 they i)<)s.ses.se<l, as well after the Milhridatic 
 War. bv favour of Sulla, as after the Pharsalian 
 battle. In' which tliey had taken the side of Pom 
 peius. by the favoiir of Ca'sar; — he asked them 
 only how often tliey would still ruin themselves 
 and trust to be saved by the renown of their an- 
 cestors. To the city there still belonged not 
 merely the territory, formerly jiossessed by 
 Haliartus, in lJo(rolia. but also on theii own 
 coast Salaniis. tlie old startinjr-point oi their 
 dominion of the sen, and in the Thraciim Sea the 
 lucrative islands Scyros, Leinnos, and Imbros, as , 
 well as Delos in the AejT('an. . . . Of the fur- 
 ther jiraiils, which they had the skill to draw by 
 flattery from Antoninus, Autfiistus. a;j;ainst 
 whom they had taken iiart, took from them cer- 
 taiidy Aegina irul Erctria in Kuboea, but they 
 were allowed to retain the smaller islands of the 
 Thracian Sea. . . . Hadrian, moreover, gave to 
 them the best i)art of the great island of (,'ephal- 
 lenia in the loiuan Sea. It was only by the 
 Emperor Severns, who bore them no goinl will, 
 that a portion of these extraneous posses.si(Mis 
 was withdraw, from them. Hadrian further 
 granted to the Atln-.-'ians the delivery of a cer- 
 tain (juantity of grain i;t the expense of the em- 
 pire, and by the e.xtcu.sion of this pri"ilege, 
 hitherto reserved for the capital, acknowledged 
 Athens, as it were, as another metropolis. Not 
 less was the bli.ssful institute of alimentary en- 
 dowments, which Italy had enjoyed since Trajan's 
 time, extended by Hadrian to Alliens, and the 
 capital requisite for this purpose certainly pre- 
 sented to the Athenians from his purse. . . . 
 Yet the community was in constant distress. " — 
 T. Mommsen, Tlist. of Jioine, hk. 8, <•//. 7. 
 
 Also IN: J. P. Mahaffy, The Greek World under 
 liomiiH Sway. — See, also, Greece: B. C. 146- 
 A. D. 180. 
 
 B. C. 87-86.— Siege and capture by Sulla.— 
 Massacre of citizens. — Pillage and depopula- 
 tion. — Lasting injuries. — The early successes of 
 Jlithridates ot Pontu.s, in his .savage war with 
 the liomans, included a general rising in his 
 favor among the Greeks [see Mitiiuidatic 
 AVaus], suijported by the fleets of the Pontic 
 king and by a strong invading army. Athens 
 and the I'irreus were the strongholds of the 
 Greek revolt, and at Athens nn adventurer named 
 Aristion, bringing from Mithridates a body-guard 
 of 2,000 soldiers, made himself tyrant of the city. 
 A year pa.ssed before Rome, distracted by the 
 beginnings of civil war, could effectively niter- 
 fere. Then Sulla cnnie (B. C. 87) and laid siege 
 to the Piricus, where the principal Pontic force 
 was hxlged, while he shut up Athens by blockade. 
 In the following March, Athens was starved to 
 such weakness that the Hoinans entered almost 
 unopposed and killed and plundered with no 
 mercy ; but the buildings of the city suffered 
 little h.irm at their hands. The siege of the 
 Pincus was carried on for scnne weeks longer, 
 until Sulhi had driven the Pontic forces from 
 every part except Munychia, and that they evacu- 
 
 ated in no long time. — W. lime, I/iKt. of liuiiu; 
 hk. 7, eh. 17. — "Athens was . . . taken by 
 assault. . . . The majority of the citizens was 
 slain; the carnage was so fearfully great as to 
 become memorable even in that age of bloodshed ; 
 the private movable property was seized by th(! 
 soldiery, and Sylla assumed some merit to him- 
 .self for not committing the ritlcd houses to the 
 llames. . . . The fate of the Pincus, >vhich he 
 utterly destroyed, was more severe than that of 
 Athens. From Svila's campaign in Greece the 
 commencement ot the ruin and depopulation of 
 the country is to be dated. The destruction of 
 property caused by his ravages in Attica was so 
 great that Athens from that time lost its commer- 
 cial as well as its political importance. The 
 race of Athenian citizens was almo.st extirpated, 
 and a new population, composed of a heterogene- 
 ous mass 01 settlers, received the riglitof citizen- 
 ship." — G. Finlay, Greere under the liomunn. eh. 1. 
 A. D. 54 (?).-^The Visit of St. Paul.— Plant- 
 ing of Christianity. — " When the .lews of Thes- 
 salonica had knowledge that the word of God 
 was ])roclaimed of Paul at Berca also, they came 
 thither likewise, stirring up and troubling the mul- 
 titude. And then immediately the brethren sent 
 forth Paul to go as far as to the sea: and Silas 
 and Timoth'Mis abode there still. But they that 
 conducted Paul brought him as far as Athens; 
 and receiving a commandment unto Silas and 
 Tiniotheus that they .should come to him with all 
 speed, they departed. Now while Paul waited 
 for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked 
 within him, as he beheld the city full of idols. 
 So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews, 
 and the devout persons, and in the market place 
 every day with them that met with him. And 
 certain also of the Epicurean anil Stoic philoso- 
 phers encotmtered him. And some said, what 
 would this babbler say ? other some. He scemeth 
 to be a setter forth of strange gods: because lie 
 preached Jesus and the resurrection. And they 
 took hold of liiin, and brought him unto the 
 Areojiagus, saying. May we know what this new 
 teaching is, which is spoken by thee ? For tliou 
 bringest certain strange things to our eare: we 
 would know therefore what these things mean. 
 (Now all the Athenians and the strangers sojourn- 
 ing there spent their time in nothing else, but 
 either to tell or to hear some new tliinj'.) And 
 Paul stood in the midstof the Areopagus, and said. 
 Ye men ot Athens, in all things I perceive that 
 ye are somewhat superstitious. For as I passed 
 along and observed the objects of your worship, 
 I found also p.n altar with this inscrijition, ' To 
 an Unkno .T. God.' What therefore ye woi'sliip 
 in ignorance', this set I forth unto you. . . . Now 
 when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, 
 some mocked ; but otlujrs said. We will hear tlieo 
 concerning this yet again. Thus Paul went out 
 from among them Howbeit certain men clave 
 unto him, and bel^ ved: among whom also was 
 Dionysius the Areopagite, and a woman named 
 Damaris, and others with tliein." — Acta of the 
 AjKstles, lievised Version, ch. 17. — "Consider the 
 ditticultics which must have beset the planting 
 of tlie Church in Athens. If the burning zeal of 
 the great Apostle ever permitted him to feel 
 diffldenco in addressing an assembly, he may well 
 have felt it when Ik addressed on Mars' Hill for 
 the Ih'st time an Athenian crowd. No doubt the 
 Athens of his time was in her tlecay, inferior iu 
 opulence and grandeur to many younger cities. 
 
 184 
 
ATHENS, A. D. 54 (?), 
 
 ATHENS, A. D. 530. 
 
 Yet even to a Jew, provided lie hud r^cei''e(l some 
 educiitioiml impressions l>ey(md the fiinatieitl 
 sliibboletlis of Plmrisaism, tliere was mueli in 
 tliat wouderfiil centre of intellijience to slialte liis 
 most inveterati^ prejudices and inspire liini witli 
 unwilling respect. Shorn indeed of her political 
 greatness, deprived even of her philosophical 
 supremacy, she still shone with a hrilliant after- 
 glow of tusthetic and intellectual i)restige. Her 
 monuments Hashed on the visitor numiories 
 recent enough to dazzle his imagination. Her 
 schools claimed and obtained even from Emperors 
 the homage due to her uni()ue past. Uecognis 
 iug her as the true nurse of Hellenism and the 
 chief missionary of human refinement, the best 
 spirits of the age held her worthy of admiring 
 love not iinmi.xed with awe. As the seat of the 
 most brilliant and popular university, young 
 men of talent and position (locked to her from 
 every quarter, studied for a time within her colon- 
 nades, and carried thence the recollection of a 
 culture which was not always deep, not always 
 erudite, but was always and genuinely Attic. 
 To subject to tlie criticism of this people a 
 doctrine professing to come direct from God, a 
 religion and not a philosophy, depending not on 
 argument but on revelation, was a task of which 
 the difflculties might seem insuperable. When 
 we consider what the Athenian character was, 
 this language will not seem exaggerated. Keen, 
 subtle, capricious, satirical, sated with ideas, 
 eager for uo\'elty, yet with the eagerness of 
 amused frivolity, not of the truth-seeker: critical 
 by instinct, exquisitely sensitive to the ridiculous 
 or tlie absurd, disputatious, ready to listen, yet 
 impatient of all that was not wit, satistied with 
 everything in life except its shortness, and there- 
 fore hiding all references to this unwelcome fact 
 under a veil of complacent eupliemism — where 
 could a more uncongenial soil be found for the 
 seed of the Gospel ? ... To an Athenian the 
 Jew was not so much an object of hatred (as to 
 the Roman), nor even of contempt (as to the rest 
 of mankind), as of absolute indifference. He was 
 simply ignored. To the eclectic philosophy 
 which now dominated the schools of Athens, 
 Judaism alone among all human opinions was as 
 if non-existent. That Athenians should be con- 
 vinced by the philosophy of a Jew would be a 
 proposition expressible in words but wholly des- 
 titute of meanirg. On the other hand, the Jew 
 was not altogether uninfluenced by Greek 
 thought. Wide apart as the two minds were, the 
 Hebraic proved not insensible to the charm of the 
 Hellenic; witness the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
 witness Philo, witness the intrusion of Greek 
 methods of interpretation even into the text-books 
 of Uabbinism. And it was Athens, as the quin- 
 tessence of Hellas, Athens as represented by 
 Socrates, and still more by Plato, which had 
 gained this subtle power. And just as Judiea 
 alone among all the Jewish communities retained 
 its exclusiveness wholly unimpaired by Hellen- 
 ism, so Athens, more than any Pagan capital, 
 was likely to ignore or repel a faith coming in 
 the garb of Judaism. And yet within less than 
 a century we find this faith so well establislied 
 there as to yield to the Church the good fruits of 
 inarlyrdom in the person of its bishop, and of 
 able defences in tht; person of three of its teachers. 
 The early and th'.' later fortunes of the Athenian 
 C'liurch are buried in oblivicm; it comes but for 
 a brief period bcforo the scene of liistory. But 
 
 the UP''.ying interest of that one dramatic moment 
 when Paul proclaimed a bodily resurrection to 
 the authors of the conception ot a spiritual im- 
 mortality, will always cause us to linger \,ith a 
 strange sympathy over every relic of the Chris- 
 tianity ot Athens."— (;. T. ('ruttwell, A Literary 
 llixtiiry of Eurty Chn'iilianili/, r. 1, h/c. 3, rh. 4. 
 
 Also IN: W. ,J. Conylx-are and J. 8. Howson, 
 Life anil Mtem of St. Paul. v. 1, rh. 10.— P. C. 
 Baur, Paul, pt. 1, ch. 7 (r l). — On the in.scrip- 
 tion, see E. de Pressense, T/ie Earlji Yearn of 
 CfiriKtiaiiifi/ : The Apontolie Era, hk. 3, eh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 125-134.— The V70rks of Hadrian.— 
 The Emperor Iliiilrian interested himself greatly 
 in th(.' venerable decaying capital of the Greeks, 
 which he visited, or resided in, for considerable 
 pericMis, several times, between A. 1). 135 and 
 134. These visits were made important to the 
 city by tlie great works of rebuilding which ho 
 undertook and supervised. Large parts of the 
 city are thought to have been reconstructed by 
 him, "in tlie open and luxuriousstyleof Antioch 
 and Epliesus. " One ((uarter came to bo called 
 " Hadrianapolis," as though he had created it. 
 Several new temples were erecte<l at his com- 
 mand; but the greatest of the works of Hadrian 
 at Athens was the completing of the vast national 
 temple, the Olympieum, the beginning of which 
 dated back to the age of Pisistnitus, and which 
 Augustus had put his hand to without finishing. 
 — C. llerivale. Hint, of the llomanK, e/t, 00. 
 
 A. D. 267.— Capture of, by the Goths. See 
 GoTiis: A. D. 2.'58-307. 
 
 A. D. 305. — Surrender to Alaric and the 
 Goths. — Wlien the Goths under Alaric invaded 
 and ravaged Greece, A. D. 395, Athens was sur- 
 rendered to them, on terms which saved the city 
 from being plundered. "The fact that the 
 depredations of Alaric hardly exceeded the ordi- 
 nary license of a rebellious general, is . . . per- 
 fectly established. The public buildings and 
 monuments of ancient splendour sulfered no 
 wanton destruction from his visit ; but there can 
 be no doubt that Alaric and his troops levied 
 heavy contributions on the city and its inhabit- 
 ants. — G. Finlay, Greece under the liomans, ch.2, 
 sect. 8. 
 
 Also in; E. Gibbon, Decline ami Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, ch. 30. — See, also, Goths: A. D. 
 395, .i.L.^nic'8 Invasion of Greece. 
 
 / ., D. 529. — Suppression of the Schools by 
 Justinian. — " The Attic schools of rhetoric and 
 philosophy maintained their superior reputation 
 from tlie Peloponnesian War to the reign of Jus- 
 tinian. Athens, though situate in a barren soil, 
 possessed a pure air, a free navigation, and the 
 monuments of ancient art. That sacred retire- 
 ment was seldom disturbed by the business of 
 trade or government ; and the last of the Athen- 
 ians were distinguished by their lively wit, the 
 purity of their taste and language, their social 
 manners, and some traces, at least in discourse, 
 of the magnanimity of their fathers. In the 
 suburbs of the city, the Academy of the Pla- 
 tonists, the Lycajuin of the Peripatetics, the 
 Portico of the Stoics and the Garden of the Epi- 
 cureans were planted with trees nnd decorated 
 with statues; and the philosophers, instead of 
 being immured in a cloister, delivered their in- 
 structions in spacious and pleasant walks, which, 
 at different hours, were consecrated to the exer- 
 cises of tlie mind and body. The genius of the 
 founders stilllived in those venerable seats. . , . 
 
 185 
 
ATHENS, A. D. 539. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 The schools of Atheng were protected by the 
 wisest and most virtuous of tlie iionmii ])rinces. 
 . Some vestige of royul l)()unty miiy Ik; found 
 under tliv; suecessors of Constantine. . . . The 
 golden chain, as it was fondly styled, of the Pla- 
 tonic succession, continued ... to tin- edict of 
 Jiislinian fA. I). n'JO] whicli imposed a per- 
 petual silence on the schools of Athens, and 
 excited the gri'.'f and indignation of the few re- 
 maining votJiries of Greek science and supersti- 
 tion." — E. Oiblion, Decline itnil Fiillaf the Itomdii 
 Kinpire, eh. Ait. 
 
 A. D. 1205. — The founding of the Latin 
 Dukedom. — "The portion of Oreec^e lying to the 
 south of the kingdom of Haloniki was divided by 
 the Crusaders [after their conquest of Constan- 
 tinople, A. I). 1204 — see IJvzantink E.mpike: 
 A. I). 120;t-12()4J amcmg several great feudatories 
 of th(' Empire of Itomania. . . . Tho lords of 
 Boudop'tza, Saliraa, Ncgropont, and Athens aru 
 alone mentio.ied as existing to the north of tho 
 isthmus of Corinth, and the history of the petty 
 sover(!igns of Athens can alone be traced in any 
 detail. . . . Otho de la Uoche, a Burgundian 
 nol)leinan, who had distinguished himself (hiring 
 the siege of ('onslantinojile, marched southward 
 with the army of Boniface the king-marquis, and 
 gained possession of Athens in 120.1. Thebes 
 and Athens had probably fallen to his share in 
 the partition of the Empire, but it is possible that 
 the king of Saloniki may have found means to 
 increase his portion, in order to induce him to do 
 homage to the ('rown of Saloniki for this addi- 
 tion. At all events, it appears that Otho de la 
 Koehc did liomage to Boniface, either as his im- 
 mediate superior, or as viceroy for the Emperor 
 of Uomania. . . . Though the Byzantine aristoc- 
 racy and dignified clergy were severe sufferers 
 by the transference of tho government into the 
 hands of the Franks, the middle classes long en- 
 joyed peace and security. . . . Tho social civili- 
 zation of tho inhabitants, and their ample com- 
 mand of tho necessaries and many of the luxuries 
 of life, wore in those days as much superior to 
 the condition of the citizens of Paris and London 
 as they are now inferior. . . . The city was large 
 and wealthy, the country thickly covered with 
 villages, of which the ruins may still be traced 
 in spots affording no indications of Hellenic sites. 
 . . . Tho trade of Atlicns was considerable, and 
 the luxury of the Athenian ducal court was cele- 
 brated in all the regions of the West where chiv- 
 alry nourished. " — G. Finlay, Hist, of Oreece from 
 its Conquest by the Crusaders, ch. 7. 
 
 Also in: C. C. Felton, Qreeee, Ancient and 
 Modcrv Wi Course, kct. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1311-1456. — Under the Catalans and 
 the Florentines. See Catalan Ouand Com- 
 pany. 
 
 A. D. 1456, — The Turks in possession. — 
 
 Athens was not occupied by the Turiis until 
 three years after the concjuest of Constantinople 
 (see C'oNSTANTiNopi.K: A. I). 14r)l)). In the mean- 
 time the reign of the Florentine dukes of the 
 house of Acciaioli came to a tragical close. The 
 last of the dukes. Maurice Acciaioli died, leaving 
 a yoiuig son and a young widow, the latter re- 
 nowned for her beauty and her talents. Tho 
 duchess, whom the will of her husband had made 
 regent, married a comely Venetian named Pal- 
 merio, who waswiid to have pois(med his wiH' in 
 order to be free to accept her hand. Thereupon 
 a nephew of the late duke, named Franco, stirred 
 up insurrections at Athens and lied to Constanti- 
 nople to complain to tho sultan, Mahomet II. 
 "The sultan, glad of all pretexts that coloured 
 his armed intervention in the affairs of these prin- 
 cipalities, ordered Omar, son of Tourakhan, chief 
 of the permanent army of tho Peloponnesus, to 
 take possession of Athens, to dethrone tho 
 duchess anu *o confine her sons in his prisons 
 of tho citadel of Megara. " This was done; 
 but Palmerio, the duchess's husband, made 
 bis way to the sultan and interceded in her be- 
 half. " Mahomet, by the advice of his viziers, 
 feigned to listen eciually to the complaints of 
 Palmerio, and to march to reestablish tho legiti- 
 mate sovereignty. But already Franco, en- 
 tering Megara under the nusi)iccs of the Otto- 
 man.s, had strangled both tho duchess and her 
 sou. Mahomet, advancing in turn to punish him 
 for his vengeance, expelled Franco from Athens 
 on entering it, and gave liim, in compensation, 
 tho inferior ami dependent principality of Thebes, 
 in Bocotia. Tho sultan, as lettered as ho was 
 warlike, evinced no less pride and admiration 
 than Sylla at the sight of the monumer.cs of 
 Athens. ' What gratitude,' exclaimed he before 
 the Parthenon and the temjdoof Theseus, 'do not 
 religion and the Empire owe to the son of Tour- 
 aklian, who has made them a present of these 
 spoils of the genius of tho Greeks. '" — A. Lamar- 
 tine, Hist, of Turkey, bk. 13, sect. 10-13. 
 
 A. D. 1466. — Capture and plundering^ by the 
 Venetians. See Greece : A. D. 14.')4-1479. 
 
 A. D. 1687. — Siege, bombardment and 
 capture by the Venetians. — Destructive ex- 
 plosion in the Parthenon. See Turks: A. 1). 
 1684-1696. 
 
 A. D. 1821-1829. — The Greek revolution and 
 war of independence. — Capture by the Turks. 
 See Greece: A. D. 1831-1829. 
 
 ATHERTON gag, The. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1836. 
 
 ATHLONE, Siege of (A. D. 1691). See 
 Iueland: a. 1). 1689-1691. 
 
 ATHRAVAS. See Maqians. 
 
 ATIMIA.— Tlio penalty of Atlmia, under 
 ancient Athenian law, was tho loss of civic 
 rights. — Q. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece : The 
 State, pt. 3. ch. 3. 
 
 ATIMUCA, The. See American Abo- 
 
 RKIINES: TiMtTCUA. 
 
 ATLANTA : A. D. 1864 (May— September). 
 — Sherman's advance to the city. — Its siege 
 and capture. See United States of Am. : A. D. 
 (864 (.May: GEOiiaLA); and (May — Septeubek: 
 Georgia). 
 
 A. D. 1864 (September). — Exclusive military 
 occupation of the city. — Removal of inhabit- 
 ants. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 
 (September — Octoher : Georgia). 
 
 A. D. 1864 (November). — Destruction of the 
 city. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 
 (November — December : Georgia). 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN: The name.— The 
 Atlantic Ocean is mentioned by that name in a 
 single passage of Herodotus; "hut it is clear, 
 from the incidental way in which it [the name] 
 is here introduced, that it was one well known in 
 his day." — E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., 
 ch. 7, sect. 1, iwte. — For a sketch of tlie history of 
 the modern use of the name, see Pacific Ojean. 
 
 186 
 
ATREBATES. 
 
 .TTICA. 
 
 ATREBATES, The.— This nnmc wns liorno 
 by H Irilx' i" iiinii'iit Hclj^irdaul, which occupiccl 
 modern Arlois and part of Krcncli Flanders, and, 
 also, by a tribe or group of tribi's in Hrilain, 
 which dwelt in a region between the Tluunes 
 and the Severn. The latter was probably a 
 colony from the former. Sec Beloa;; also 
 IJiiiTAiN, Cki.tic TniUEs. 
 
 ATROPATENE. — MEDIA ATROPA- 
 TENE. — " Atr()i)atene, aH a naniefor the Alpine 
 land in the northwest of Iran (now AderlK'ijan), 
 came into use in the time of tlie Greek Empire 
 [Alexander's] ; at any rate we cannot tra(.'o it 
 earlier. 'Athrapaiti means 'lord of lire;' 
 'Athrapata,' 'one protected by Are ; ' in the re- 
 mote mountains of this district the old flre- 
 worship was ])rcservc<l with peculiar zeal under 
 the Seleucids. " — M. 1)\\ncker, Jlist. of Aiitir/niti/, 
 bk. 7, (h. 4. — Atropatenc "comprises the entire 
 basin of Lake Lrumiycb, together with the 
 country intervening between that basin and the 
 high moimtain cliain which curves roimd the 
 southwestern corner of the Caspian." — G. Raw- 
 linson, I<Hve Oreat Moiinivldcn : Media, ch. 1. — 
 Atropatenc was "named in honour of the satrap 
 Atropates, who bad declared liimself king after 
 Alexander's death." — J. P. JIahally, Story of 
 Alexiiniler'a Empire, ch. 13. 
 
 ATSINAS. Sec Amehican Aborigines: 
 
 Bl.ACKKKKT. 
 
 ATTABEGS. Sec Atatieos. 
 ATTACAPAN FAMILY, The. SeeAMEiii- 
 
 CAN AuDHKilNKS: AtTACAI'AN FAMILY. 
 
 ATTAMAN, or HETMAN. Sec Cossacks. 
 
 ATTECOTTI, The. See Otadeni; also, 
 Bnn'AiN, Celtic 'riuiiES. 
 
 ATTIC SALT. — Thyme was a favorite con- 
 diment among the ancient Greeks, "which 
 tlirove nowhere else so well as in Attica, Even 
 salt was seasoned with thyme. Attic salt, liow- 
 ever, is famed rather in the figurative tliau in 
 the literal sense, and did not form an article of 
 trade." — G. F. SchOmaun, Aiitiq. of Greece: J'/ie 
 Sl,ct,\ pi. 3, ch. 3. 
 
 ATTIC TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 ATTIC WAR, The. See Ten Yeahs' 
 Wau. 
 
 ATTICA. — "It forms a rocky peninsula, 
 separated from the mainland by trackless moun- 
 tains, and jutting so far out into the Eastern 
 Sea that it lay out of the path of the tribes 
 moving from north to south. Hence the 
 migratory pa.ssages which agitated the whole of 
 Hellas left Attica untouclicd, and for this reason 
 Attic history is not divided into such marked 
 epochs as that of Peloponnesus; it possesses a 
 superior unity, and presents an uninterrupted 
 development of conditions of life native in their 
 origin to the land. ... On the other 'laud 
 Attica was perfectly adapted by natu.e for 
 receiving immigrants from the sea. For the 
 whole country, as its name indicates, coirsists of 
 coast-land; and the coast abounds in harbours, 
 and on account of the depth of water in the 
 roads is everywhere accessible ; while the best of 
 its i)laius open towards the coast and invite the 
 mariner to land. The first liiudings by which 
 the monotonous conditions of the age of the 
 Pelasgians were interrupted where those of the 
 Phoenicians, who domesticated the wor'ship of 
 Aphrodite, as well as that of the Tyrian Jlelcar 
 on the coasts. Afterwards the tribes of the 
 sUores of Asia Minor came across; in the first 
 
 place the Carians, who intr(«lnrcd the worship 
 of llic Carian Zeus and Posiilon. and were fol- 
 lowed by ('rctans, I,y<'ians, Dardanians and Old 
 lonians. Tlie population became mixed. . . . 
 Tins first epoch of the national history the 
 ancients connected with the name of Cccrops. 
 It forms the transitiim from the life of rural dis- 
 tricts and villages to that of a slate. Attica lias 
 become a land with twelve citadels, in each of 
 which dwells a chieftain or king, who has his 
 domains, his suite, and his sul)jects. Every 
 twelfth is a state i)y itself, with its separate 
 |)ublic hall and common hearth. If under these 
 circumstances a cimuntm national hi.story was to 
 be attained to, one of the twelve towns, dis- 
 tinguished by special advantages of situation, 
 would have to become tlie capital. And to such 
 a position undeniable advantages entitled the 
 city whose ?• at was in the plain of the Cephisus. 
 . . . Into the centre of the entire plain advances 
 from the direction of Hymettus a group of rocky 
 heiglits, among them an entirely separate and 
 mighty block which, with tlio cxcepticm of a 
 narrow access from the west, offers on all sides 
 vertically precipitous walls, surmounted by a 
 broad level sufiiciently roomy to afford si)ace for 
 the sanctuaries of the national gods and the 
 habitations of the naticmal rulers. It seems as if 
 nature hud designedly placed this rock in this 
 l)()sition as the ruling castle and tlic centre of the 
 national history. This is the Acropolis of Athens, 
 among the twelve castles of the land tliat which 
 was preeminently named after the national king 
 Cecrops. ... So far from being sulliciently 
 luxuriant to allow even the idle to find easy 
 means of sustenance, the Attic soil was stony, 
 devoid of a sufflcient supply of water, and for 
 the most part only adapted to the cultivation 
 of barley; everywhere . . . lal)our and a regu- 
 lated industry were needed. But this labour was 
 not unremunerative. Whatever orchard and 
 garden fruits prospered were peculiarly delicate 
 and agreeable to the taste ; the mountain-herbs 
 were nowhere more odourous than on Hymettus; 
 and the sea aboimdcd with fish. The mountains, 
 not only by the beauty of their form invest the 
 whole sc(;nery with a certain nobility, but in their 
 depths lay an abundance of the most excellent 
 building-stime and silver ore; in the lowlands 
 was to be found the best kind of clay for pur- 
 poses of manufacture. The materials existed for 
 all arts and handicrafts; and finally Attica 
 rejoiced in wliat the ancients wei wise enough 
 to recognize as a special favour of Heaven, a dry 
 and tiimsparent atmosphere, by its peculiar 
 clearness productive of bodily freshness, health 
 and elasticity, while it sharpened the senses, dis- 
 posed the soul to cheerfulness and aroused and 
 animated the powera of the mind. Sucli were 
 the institutions of the land which was developing 
 the germs of its peculiar history at the time 
 when the [Dorian] migrations were agitating the 
 whole mainland. Though Attica was not her- 
 self overrun by hostile multitudes, yet about the 
 same time she admitted manifold accessions of 
 foreign population in smaller groups. By this 
 means she enjoyed all the advantages of an 
 invigorating impulse without exposing herself 
 to the evils of a violent revolution. . . . The 
 immigrauts who domesticated themselves in 
 Attica were . . . ohieUy families of superior 
 eminence, so that Attica gained not only in 
 numbers of population, but also la materials of 
 
 187 
 
ATTICA. 
 
 AUGURS. 
 
 OUHOfaof rvpry (l('H('ri|itii)ii."— K. Curtlus, IIM. 
 tfOfteu, bk. 3, <•/!. 3. 
 
 Al.HO in: .1. r. L<Kklmrl. Attica and Athens. — 
 8(!c. iilsd. ,\riiKN«: TiiK I1k.<iinnin(i. 
 
 ATTILA'S CONQUESTS AND EM- 
 PIRE. S(c Hi Ns. 
 
 ATTIOUANDARONK, The. See Amkui- 
 v.\s .Viiouiimnkm: III uons, &c. 
 
 ATTYADiE, The.— The tli-st dynasty of tlio 
 kinuH of Lyilia, claiiiicil to Ik; spnm;; froin 
 Attvs, son of Ui(! K'xl Manes. — M. Ountkcr, 
 Ui^i of A itiiiuilii. hk. 4, ell. 17. 
 
 AUJBAINE, The rieht of. — "A prcrogntivo 
 t)y wliicli \\\v Kings of France claiincd tlio prop- 
 erty of foreigners wlio (iicil in tlieir liingdoni 
 witliout lieirig naturalized." It was suppressed 
 l)y ('oll)ert, in tlie reign of Louis XIV. — J. A. 
 Hiamiui, llUt. nf Pol. hhinomi/ in Euroj)e, p. 
 28.1. 
 
 AUCH: Orifirin of the name. See Aquitaine: 
 
 TlIK .\N(Ii;ST TlllUKS. 
 
 AUCKLAND, Lord, The Indian Adminis- 
 tration of. See Imjia: A. I). 1W!0-1«-15, 
 
 AUDENARDE. .See Orni.NAiinE. 
 
 AUDIENCIAS.— "For more tlian two cen- 
 turies and 11 lialf tlie wiiole of Soiitli America, 
 except iini/.il, .s<'ttled down under tlio colonial 
 government of Spain, and during the greater 
 part of that time tliis vast territory was under 
 the rule of the Viceroys of Peru residing at 
 Limn. Tlie impossibility of conducting an elll- 
 cient administration from such a centre ... at 
 once became apparent. Court.s of justice called 
 Audiuncias were, therefore, established in the 
 distJtnt provinces, and their presidents, sometimes 
 with the title of captains-general, had charge of 
 the executive under the orders of the Viceroys. 
 The Atidiencia of Charcas (tlie mo<lern Bolivia) 
 was established in 1550. Chile was ruled by 
 captains-general, and an Audicncia was estab- 
 lished at Santiago in 1508. In Now Grenada the 
 president of tlie Audicncia, created in 15U4, was 
 also captain-general. The Audicncia of Quito, 
 also with its president as captain-general, dated 
 from 1542; and Venezuela was under a captain- 
 general." — C. U. Markham, Colonial Hist, of 
 S. Am. {Narrative and Critical Hist, of Am., v. 
 8, p. 29.-)). 
 
 AUERSTADT, Battle of. See Geumany: 
 A. I). 18()6 (OcTonEU). 
 
 AUGEREAU, Marshal, Campaigns of. Sec 
 France: A. D. 1797 (SEPrEMUEu) ; Gekmanv: 
 A. D. 1806 (OcTOBEK); Spain: A. D. 1809 
 (FEimuAHY — June); and Russia: A. D. 1813 
 (June — Septembeii); 1813 (August), (Octo- 
 BEn), (OcToiiEK — Deckmhek). 
 
 AUGHRIM, OR AGHRIM, Battle of (A. D. 
 1691). See Ireland: A. D. l«89-169i. 
 
 AUGSBURG: Origin. See Auousta Vi>'- 
 
 DEMCOKUM. 
 
 A. D. 955.— Great defeat of the Hungarians. 
 See HuNdAiiiANS: A. I). 934-955. 
 
 A. D. 1530. — Sitting of the Diet.— Signing 
 and reading of the Protestant Confession of 
 Faith. — The Imperial Decree condemning the 
 Protestants. .See Papacy: A. D. 1530-1531. 
 
 A. D. 1555.— The Religious Peace con- 
 cluded. .Se<' Gkumany: A. n. 1.5.52-1.501. 
 
 A. D. 1646. — Unsuccessful siege by Swedes 
 and French. See Geumany; A. I). 1046-1648. 
 
 A. D. 1686-1697.— The League and the 
 War of the League. Sec Geumany : A. D. 
 1086; and FiiANCE: A. U. 1689-1690, and afUir. 
 
 A. D. 1703.— Taken by the French. See 
 Geumany: .V. I). 1703. 
 
 A. D. 1801-1803.— One of six free cities 
 which survived the Peace of Luneville. .Seo 
 (iKilMANV: .\. I». 1.S()1-;h()3, 
 
 A. D. 1806. — Loss of municipal freedom. — 
 Absorption in the kingdom of Bavaria. Seo 
 (Jeumany: A. I). 180.5-1806. 
 
 AUGURS. — PONTIFICES. ~ FETIA- 
 
 LES.—" There was . . . enough of priest lioml 
 and of i)riests in Ronie. Tho.si', however, who had 
 business with a god resorted to the god, and not 
 to the priest. ICvery suppliant and inquirer ad- 
 dressed himself directly to the divinity • . . ; 
 no intervention of a i)ricst was allowed to con- 
 ceal or to obscure this original and simple rela- 
 tion. But it was no easy matter to hold con- 
 verse with a god. The god had his own way of 
 speaking, wliich was intelligible onlv to those 
 ac(|uaiiited with it; but one who did rightly 
 understand it knew not only how to ascertain, 
 but also how to manage, the will of the ginl, ami 
 even in case of need to overreach or to constrain 
 him. It was natural, therefore, that the wor- 
 shipper of the god should regularly consult such 
 men of skill and listen to tlieir advice; and 
 thence arose the corporations or colleges of men 
 spocially skilled in religious lore, a thoroughly 
 national Italian institution, which had a far 
 more important iiitltience on political develop- 
 ment than the individual priests or priesthoods. 
 These coHeges have been often, but erroneously, 
 confounded with tlie priesthoixls. Tho prie.st- 
 IkkmIs wore churged with the worship of a specific 
 divinity. . . . Under the Roman constitution 
 and that of tho Latin communities iu general 
 there were originally but two such colleges: 
 that of the augurs and that of the pontitices. 
 The six augurs were skilled in interpreting tho 
 language of the gods from tho (light of birds; 
 an art which was prosecuted with great earnest- 
 ness and reduced to a ciuasi-scientiflc system. 
 The five 'bridge buildere' (pontifices) tlerived 
 their name from their function, as sacred as it 
 was politically important, of conducting tlie 
 buildnig and demolition of the bridge over the 
 Tiber. Tliey were the Roman engineers, who 
 undorstowl the mystery of measures and num- 
 bers; whence there devolved upon them also the 
 duties of managing the calendar of the state, of 
 proclaiming to the people the time of new and 
 full moon am' the days of festivals, and of see- 
 ing that every religious and eveiy judicial act 
 took jilace on the right day. . . . Thus they ac- 
 (juired (althou;;h not probably to the full extent 
 till after the abolition of the monarchy) the gen- 
 eral oversight of Roman worship and of what- 
 ever was connected with it. [The president of 
 their college was called the Pontifex JIaxiinus.] 
 . . . They themselves described tho sum of tlieir 
 knowledge as ' tho science of things divine and 
 human.' ... By the side of these two oldest 
 and most eminent cm-porations of men versed in 
 spiritual lore may be to some extent ranked tiie 
 college of tho twenty state-heralds (fotiales, of 
 uncertain derivation) destined as a living reiKisi- 
 tory to preserve traditionally tho remorabrauce 
 of the treaties concluded with neighboring com- 
 munities, to pronounce an authoritative opiuiun 
 on alleged infractions of treatyrights, and in 
 case of need to demand satisfaction and declare 
 
 MommsuD, Uist. of Borne, bk. 1, eh 12 
 
 188 
 
AUGURS. 
 
 AUSPICES. 
 
 At,ho in: E. Giilil niiil W. Konpr, Life of the 
 (Greeks niul llomdim, lud. 103. — Sou, ii\no, Ai'h- 
 pirK«. and FKxrM.KH. 
 
 AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. SteTiifevKH, 
 
 OllKlIN <1K. 
 
 AUGUSTA VEROMANDUORUM.— Mod- 
 
 <Tii St. {iiictitiii. Si'c |{ki.(i.k. 
 
 AUGUSTA VINDELICORUM. — " Au- 
 gusta Viii(l('li((iriiin is the iiii«lirii Aiij?sl)ur(f, 
 foiiiidcd, it. miiy 1m' suppowd, idumt tlic yciir 710 
 [U. C. 14) lifter tiu' comiucst of Hliii'tiii l)y Driiaus. 
 . . . Tliu ItincniricM ivprcwiit, it ii.s llin ccntrt' of 
 tlip roiul.s from Vrroim, .'^irmium, iiiid Trcviri." 
 — (!. iMcrividc, Hint, of the lliimans, ch. 'M, 
 note. 
 
 AUGUSTODUNUM. — Tlio Emperor Aii- 
 flHstus clmiiiii'd 1li(! immcof Hibriu'tc in (tiiul to 
 Auj!;iisto(iuniim, v 'li tiniu lins corniptt'd, sinco 
 to .\utiiii. 
 
 AUGUSTONEMETUM. 8co GKunoviA of 
 
 Till'. .\IIVK11NI. 
 
 AUGUSTUS.- AUGUSTA: The Title.- 
 
 " OdaviiiM [sc(! UoMi;: \\. V. ;U-14| liad warily 
 (iccliiii'd any of tlio recoj^nizpd designations ol 
 sovereipn ndc. Antoniiis lind abolisiied tlio dic- 
 latorsliip; lii.s Kiucessor respected the acelama- 
 tions witli wliieh tlu! people liud greeted this di;- 
 eree. Tlu^ voiees wliicli had saluted (Jiesar witli 
 the title of kinij were peremptorily eoinmanded 
 to bo duml). Yet Oetavius was fully awar(! of 
 tlie infiuence wliicli attached to distinctive titles 
 of honour. While lie scnipiilotisly renouiued 
 the names upon wliieh the lireath of human jeal 
 ousy had liiown, he conceived tlio subtler poli<T 
 of ereatin;^ another forliimself, wliieli borrowing; 
 its original splendour from his own charaeter, 
 siiouhl reflect upon him an untarnished lustre. 
 . . . The epithet Augustus . . . ha<l never lieen 
 borne by any man before. . . . But tlie adjunet. 
 though never given to a man, had been applied 
 to things most noble, most venerable and most 
 (iiviue. The rites of the gofls were called august, 
 the temples were august; the word itself was de- 
 rived from the holy auguries by which the divine 
 will was revealed; it was connected with tlio 
 favour and nutliority of Jove himself. . . . The 
 illustrious title was bestowed upon the heir of 
 the Cicsarian Empire in tlie middle of the month 
 of January, 737 [B. C. 27], and thenceforth it is 
 by the name of Augustus that he is recognized 
 in Roman history." — C. Merivale, Hint, of the 
 liomans, ch. 30. — " AVhen Octavianus liatl firmly 
 establislied his power and was now left without 
 8 rival, the Senute, being desirous of distinguish- 
 ing him by some peculiar and emphatic title, de- 
 creed, in B. C. 37, tliat ho should be styled Au- 
 gustus, an epithet properly applicable to some 
 object demanding respect and veneration beyond 
 what is bestowed upon hi'.man tliinga. . . . This 
 being an honorary appellation ... it would, as 
 a matter of course, have been transmitted by in 
 heritance to his immediate descendants. . . . 
 Claudius, although he could not be regarded as 
 a descendant of Octavianus, assumed on his ac- 
 cession the title of Augustus, and his example 
 was followed by all succeeding rulers . . . who 
 communicated the title of Augusta to their con- 
 sorts." — W. Ramsay, Manual of liomaii Antiq., 
 (h. 5.— See. also, Rome: B. C. 31-A. 1). 14. 
 AULA REGIA, The. See Cuuia Regis op 
 
 THE NOHMAN KiNOS. 
 
 AULDEARN, Battle of (A. D. 1645). Sc.? 
 Scotlakd; a. D. 1644-1645. 
 
 ^^ 189 
 
 AULERCI, The.— The Aulorrl were an ex- 
 tensive nation in luirient Oaul which (x'cupied 
 the country frum I be lower course of the .Seine to 
 the .Mayenne. It was sulHlivided into threo 
 great tribes — tli(^ Aulerc-i Cenomauni, Aulercl 
 Diablinles and Aulerei Kburoviees. — Napoleon 
 J II., l/iKt. of ('ii'«,i,: M: ;t, ch. a. 
 
 AULIC council, The. See Geilmanv: 
 a. I). MiCl-l.THt. 
 
 AUMALE Battle of (159a). See Fhance; 
 A. I). I.'.»l-|.ji).t. 
 
 AUNEAU, Battle of (1587). See Fhance: 
 A. I), l."iM4-l.'iH!t. 
 
 AURANGZEB, Moghul Emperor, or Padis- 
 chah of India, A. I), U(.">H-1707. 
 
 AURAV, Battle of (1365). See Biuttany: 
 
 A. I). i;ui-i;ttr>. 
 
 AURELIAN, Roman Emperor. A. I). 270- 
 27.->, 
 
 AURELIAN ROAD, The.— One of tlie great 
 Roninii roads of aiiti(niilv, whicli ran from Home 
 to I'isa and Luna. — T. .Momniseii, J/iiit. <f Home, 
 Ilk: 4,ch. 11. 
 
 AURELIO, King of Leon and the Asturias, 
 or Oviedo, A. I). 7(IH-774. 
 
 AURUNCANS, The. See Aubonians; also 
 
 OSCANH. 
 
 AUSCI, The. See Aquitaine, the ancient 
 
 TllIllKS, 
 
 AUSGLEICH, The. See Austiha: A. J). 
 lH<i(i-lH(lT, 
 
 AUSONIANS, OR AURUNCANS, The.— 
 A tribe of the ancient Volscians, wlio dwelt in 
 the lower valley of the Liris, and who are said 
 to have been exterminated by tlu^ Romans, B. C. 
 314.— W. Ihne, Hist, of Jiome, bk. 3, ch. 10.— 
 See, also, Oscans. 
 
 AUSPICES, Takingr the.— "Th" Romans, 
 in the earlier ages of their history, never entered 
 upon any important buainess wliatsoever, 
 whether public or private, without endeavouring, 
 by means of divination, to ascertain the will of 
 the gmis in reference to the undertal<ing. , . . 
 Tills operation was termed 'suniere auspicia;' 
 ond if the omens proved unfavourable the busi- 
 ness was abandoned or deferred. . . . No meet- 
 ing of the Couiitia Curiiita nor of the Comitia 
 Centuriata could be held unless tlie auspices had 
 been previously taken. ... As far us public 
 proceedings were concerned, no private in- 
 dividual, even among the patricians, had tho 
 right of taking auspices. This duty devolved 
 upon the supremo magistrate alone. ... In an 
 army this power belonged exclusively to the 
 commander-in-chief; and hence all achievements 
 were sad to be performed under his auspices, 
 even although he were not present. . . . The 
 objects observed in taking these auspices were 
 birds, tlie class of animals from which the word 
 is derived ('Auspicium ab ave spicienda '). Of 
 tliese, some were believed to give indications by 
 their flight . . . others by their notes or cries 
 . . . wliile a third class consisted of cliickens. 
 Cpulli ') kept in cages. Wlien it was desired to 
 obtain an omen from those lait, food was placed 
 before them, and the manner in which tliey com- 
 ported themselves was closely watclied. . . . The 
 manner of taking tlio auspices previous to the 
 Comitia was as follows: — The magistrate who 
 was to presido at tlie assembly arose .inmediately 
 after midniglit on the day for wliicli it Imd been 
 summoned, and called upon an augur to assist 
 him. . , . With his aid a region of the sky and 
 
AU8PICB». 
 
 AUHTUALIA. 1601-1800. 
 
 n (tpncn of f;roiii)(l, within which the imspirrs 
 wiTc oliHcrvnl, wen- iimrkcil (iiit l>v thi,' (livinin^ 
 BtutT ('liliius')<if Ihc iiiiKur. . . . 1'hiH opL'nttioii 
 wuH pcrforiiiril with tliv );ri'itti'Ht can'. ... In 
 iniii(in)f the ncrcHsary olwcrvations, tlif l)r('si(li,'nt 
 wax Kuiil''! ftilirclv l»y tliu aii;;ui', wlio ri'p()rli'<l 
 to liini tlic iTHiiU." — \V. Kuiuauy, Manual of 
 Jiuni. Aiitiij., eh. 4. 
 
 A1.W1 in: \V. llinc, y/iX. of Itome, U: 6, eh. 13. 
 — Hcc. ulsci. Al'fiiu. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, Battle of. Sec Pkance: 
 A. I). IH(I."m.Mmi« II — Dkckmiikh). 
 
 AUSTIN, Stephen F., and the settlement 
 of Texas. Sir Tkxah: A. D. IMI'.I-IKI.-). 
 
 AUSTIN CANONS, OR CANONS OF 
 ST. AUGUSTINE. -■•Alioul tlic michllc of 
 the tllli ('('iitiiry iin atli'inpt liad been mad*' to 
 redress I lie balance between the regular and 
 secular elerfjy. and restore to the latter the inllii- 
 enee and eoiiHidi'ration in spiritual matters whieli 
 they had, partly by their own fault, already to a 
 great extent lost. Some earnest and ihouKhtful 
 epirits, distressed at once by tlii^ abuse of monastic 
 priviicffes and by the general decay of eccleshisti- 
 cal order, sou^rht to elTecla reform by the estiibllsh- 
 ment of a stricter and belter orpinlzed diseipliiiG 
 in those cathedral and other churches which 
 were Ber\ed by coileftes of secular ])rie8t8. . . . 
 Towards the becinninjf of tlie twelfth century 
 the attempts at canonical reform issueil in the 
 f( in of what was virtually a new relif,'ious 
 order, that of the Augustinians, or Oanons 
 l{e;;ular of the iirder of S. Au)?ustiiie. Like the 
 monks and unlike the secular canons, from whom 
 they were eiu'efully distin>fnislied, Ihev ha<l not 
 only their table and dwelling but all things in 
 common, and were bouml v a vow to the obser- 
 vance of their rule, frrouiKied upon a i)assaj;e in 
 one of the letters of that s'"<'at father of the Latin 
 Church from whom they took their name. Tlieir 
 Hcheme was a compnmiiso between the old- 
 fashioned system of canons and timt of the mon- 
 Miitie confraternities: but a couipromise leaning 
 strongly towards the monastic side. . . . The 
 Austin <anons. as tiiey were commonly called, 
 made their way across the channel in Henry's 
 reign." — K. Xorgate, Enrjland nntkr the Aixjnciii 
 Jkiiif/n, r. 1, eh. 1. 
 
 Also in: E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Outractem of 
 the MiiUllf A'leit. rh. 3. 
 
 AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1601-1800. — Dis- 
 covery and early exploration. — The founding 
 of the penal colonies at Sydney and Norfolk 
 Island. — "Australia has had no Columbus. It 
 is even doubtful if the llrst navigators who 
 reached her shores .set out with any idea of dis- 
 covering a great south land. At all events, it 
 would seem, their ncliievemonts were so little 
 esteemed by themselves and their countrymen 
 that no means were taken to i)rcscrve their 
 names in connexion with their discoveries. 
 Holland hmg had the credit of bringing to light 
 the existence of that island-continent, which until 
 recent yeai-s was best known by her name. In 
 1801, however, Mr. JIajor, to whom we are 
 indebted for more recent research upon the sub- 
 ject, i)roduccd evidence which appeared to 
 demonstrate tliat the Portuguese had reached the 
 shores of Australia in 1001, live years before the 
 Dutch yacht Duyphen, or Dove, — the earliest 
 vessel whose name has been handed down, — 
 sighted, about March, 1000, what is believed to 
 liave been the coast near Cape York. Mr. Major, 
 
 In a lenmed paper read before the Sooioty of 
 Anti(|uaries in 1H72, indicated the probability 
 that tlie Ili-st discovery was made 'in or lieforo 
 the year 1531.' The dates of two of the six 
 maps from widch Mr. Major derives his Infor- 
 mation are 1531 and 154'i. The latter clearly 
 indicates Australia, which is calledJa vela Grande. 
 New Zealand is also mai'kcd." — F. P. Lnbllllere, 
 Kivh) IHkI. of the Ciilonji of Vielni-ia, eh. 1. — In 
 1000, Di' Quiros, a Spanish navigator, sailing from 
 Peru, acro.ss tlie Pacille, ii'iiched a shore which 
 stretched so far that he look it to bo a continent, 
 "lie called the place ' Tierra Australls dc 
 Kspiritu Hanto,' that Is ' Southern Land of the 
 Holy Spirit.' It is now known tliat this was 
 not "really a continent, but merely one of the 
 New lle'.rldes Islands, and more than a thou.sand 
 miles away from the mainland. ... In after 
 vears, the name he had invented was ilivlded 
 into two (larts: the island he had really dis- 
 covered being called Espiritu Santo, while the 
 continent he thought he had di.seovered was 
 called Terra Australls. This last name was 
 shortened by another discoverer — Flinders — to 
 the iiresent "term Australia." After the visit to 
 tlic Australian coast of the small Dutch ship, the 
 " Dove," it was touched, during the next twenty 
 years, by a number of ve».sels of the siinio 
 "nationality. "In 1023 a Dutch ship, the 
 ' Leeuwiii,' or 'Lioness,' sailed along the south- 
 ern coast, and its name was given to the south- 
 west cape of Australia. ... In 1028 General 
 Carpenter sailed completely round the large 
 Gulf to the north, which has taken its name 
 from this circumstance. Thus, by degrees, all 
 the northern and western, together with part of 
 the Boutliern shores, came to 1^ roughly explored, 
 and the Dutch even had some idea of colonizing 
 tills continent. , , . During the next fourteen 
 yi'ars we hear no mon; of voyages to Atislralia; 
 but in 1013 Antony Van Diemen, the Governor 
 of the Dutch possessions in tlie East Indies, scat 
 out his f-icnd Abel Jansen Tasman, with i vo 
 ships, to make discoveries in the South Seas." 
 Tasman discovered the island which ho called 
 Van DicMuen's Land, but which has since been 
 named in his own honor — Tasmania. "This 
 he did not know to be an i.sland ; ho drew it on 
 his maps as if it were a peninsula belonging to the 
 mainland of Australia." In 1090, the famous 
 buccane(!r, William Daini)ier, was given the com- 
 mand of a vessel sent out to tlio southern seas, 
 and ho explored about 000 miles of tho north- 
 western coast of Australia; but the description 
 which lie gave of the country did not encourage 
 the adventurous to seek fortinie in it. " We hear 
 of no further explorations in >*;iis part of the 
 world until nearly a century utter; and, even 
 then, no one thought of sei ding out ships 
 specially for the i)urposo. But 'u tlio year 1770 
 a series of important discoveries verc indircctly 
 brought about. The Royal Society of Loiulon, 
 calculating that the planet Venus would cross 
 the disc of tlie sun in 1709, persuaded the 
 English Qovornmeut to send out an expedition to 
 tlie Pacific Ocean for the purpose of making 
 observations on this event which would enable 
 astronomers to calculate the distance of tho earth 
 from the sun. A small vessel, the ' Endeavour,' 
 was chosen ; astronomers with their instruments 
 embarked, and the whole placed under tho charge 
 of " the renowned sailor, Captain James Cook. 
 Tho astronomical purposes of the expedition 
 
 190 
 
AUSTHALIA. 1601-1800. 
 
 AUSTHALIA. 1800-1840. 
 
 wore siitlsfiictnrily iirc'ompUslicd iit Otnlicltr, nnd 
 Citptuiii C.'(ii)k llii'ii priici'ciird to iiii cxploriitlDii 
 of till' shores iif Ni'W Zcalimd and Austriilia. 
 llaviiiff entfrrd ii lino bay on llir soiillicastciii 
 coa.st of Australia, "he cxainiiiad tlw coiinlry 
 for 11 few miles lidatid, and two of Ids Keientille 
 frii-nds — Sir .losepli Hanks anil Dr. Solander — 
 inades|)lendid colleetlotis of botanical specimens. 
 From this circiunslancc the place was called 
 IJotany Hay. and Its two head-lands received th(' 
 names of Cape Itanks and Cape Solaniler. It 
 was here that Captain Cook . . . look imssession 
 of tile couiilry on behalf of Ills lirilannie 
 Majesty, givlni; it the name " New Soulli 
 Wales,^ on account ol the resemblance of its 
 coasts to the southern shoresof Wales. Shortly 
 after they had set sail from Holany Hay theV 
 ol)serv'ed a small opening In tlie land, but Cook 
 did not slay to examine it. merely marUini; It on 
 his chart as Port .lackson. In honour of his friend 
 Sir Georgi' Jackson. . . . Tlie reports brou?;lit 
 home by Captain Cook completely changed the 
 beliefs current in those days with re.a;ard to 
 Auslraliii. ... It so happened that, shortly 
 after Cook's return, tlu^ KiiKlisli nation had to 
 (leal with n /^real dilllcidt.y in regard to its 
 criminal population. In 1770 tlie United Slates 
 declared their Independence, and the IOn:;lisli 
 then founil they could no lonj^er send their con- 
 victs over to Virgiiua, as they had formerly done. 
 In a short time the gaols of England were 
 crowded with felons. It became neces.sa.y to 
 select 11 new place of transportation: and, just as 
 this (UHlcuIly arose. Captain Cook's voyages 
 called attention to a land in every way suited for 
 such a i)urpose. botli by reason of its ferlility 
 and of its great distance. Vi.scuunt Sydney, tlieie- 
 fore, determine<l to send out a party to Botany 
 Bav, lu order to found a convict settlement there ; 
 and in May, 1787, a fleet was ready to sail." 
 After a voyage of eight months the lleet arrived 
 at Botany Baj', in January. 1788. The watew 
 of the Bay were found to bo too shallow for a 
 proper harbour, and Captain Phillip, the 
 appoinl.ed Governor of the settlement, set out, 
 with three boats, to search for something better. 
 "As he pa.ssed along the coast he turned to 
 cxa'iilne the opening which Captain Cook had 
 called Port Jackson, and soon found himself in a 
 winding channel of water, with great clilTs 
 frowning overhead. All at once a magnificent 
 prospect opened on his eyes. A harbour, which 
 is, perhap.s, the most beautiful and perfect in the 
 worlil, stretched before him far to the west, till 
 it was lost <m the distant horizon. It seemed a 
 vast maze of winding waters, dotted hero and 
 there with lovely islets. . . . Captain Phillip 
 selected, as the pinco most suitable to the settle- 
 ment, u small inlet, which, in honour of the 
 Minister of State, ho called Sydney Covo. It 
 was so deep as to allow vessels to approach 
 within a yard or two of tlie shore." Great 
 dilficulties and sufferings attended the founding 
 of tlie penal settlement, and many died of actual 
 starvation as well as of (lisease ; but in twelve years 
 the population had liseu to between (),000 and 
 7,000 persons. Meantime a branch colony had 
 been established on Norfolk Island. In 1793 
 Governor Phillip, broken in health, had resigned, 
 and in 1795 he had been succeeded by Governor 
 Hunter. "AVheu Governor Hunter arrived, in 
 1795, he brought with him, on board his ship, 
 tlie 'Keliance;' a young surgeon, George Bass, 
 
 and a mhlshipman called Matthew Kllnder*. 
 They Were young men of the most admirable 
 character. . . . Within a month after their 
 arrival Ihcy purchased a small boat about eight 
 feet in lengtii. which Ihcy christened the 'Tom 
 Thumb.' Hs crew consisteil of Ibemselvcs and a 
 boy to assist." In this small craft they began a 
 survey of the coast, usefully charllng many 
 miles of it. Soon afterwards, ('}eorg(^ Ha.ss, In an 
 open whale boat, pursued his exploralions south- 
 wards, to till! region now called Victoria, and 
 through tlii^ straits which bear his name, lliiis 
 discovering llie fact that Van Dlemcn's l.and, or 
 Tasmania, is an Island, n<il a peninsula. In 
 1708, Bass and Klindcrs, again associated and 
 furnislie<l with a small sloop, sailed round and 
 surveyed the entire coast of Van Diemens Land. 
 Bass now went to .South America and Ihere dis- 
 appeared. Flinders was commissioned by Ihu 
 Hntisli (iovernment In 181)1) to make jincxtcnslvo 
 survey of the Austndiaii coasts, and did so. 
 Kelurning to England with his maps, lie was 
 laUcii iirlsoner on tlie way by tlu! French and 
 held in captivity for six years, wliilu tlie fruits 
 of his labor were stolen. lU: died a few years 
 after being rehiased. — A. and G. Sutherland, 
 Ifint. 'f AuntrdliK, eh. 1-3. 
 
 Also in: G. W. Uusden, Jlint. of Auatralin, eh. 
 l-:i ((', 1). 
 
 A. D. 1800-1840.— Beginning of the Pros- 
 perity of New South Wales.— Introduction of 
 sheep-farming. — The founding of Victoria and 
 South Australia. — " For tweiily years and more 
 no one at homo gwvo a thought to New South 
 Wales, or 'Botany Bay,' as it was still erron- 
 eously called, unless in vague horror and com- 
 passion for the poor creatures who lived there in 
 exile and starvation. The only civilizing cle- 
 ment in the place was the incsenco of a devoted 
 c:lergyman named Johnson, who liad voluntarily 
 aecompaiiie<l the llrst batch of convicts. . . . 
 Colonel Lachlan JIacquarie entered on tlie ollico 
 of governor in 1810, and ruled the settlement for 
 twelve yeai-s. His administration was the tli-st 
 turning point In its history. . . . Alaciiuarie saw 
 tliat llie best and cheapest way of ruling llie 
 convicts was to make them freemen as soon as 
 possible. Before his time, the governors had 
 looked on the convicts as slaves, to be worked 
 for the profit of tlio government and of the free- 
 settlers. ]Mac<iuarie did all ho could to elevate 
 the class of emancipists, and to encourage the 
 convicts to persevere in sober industry in the 
 hope of cno day ac<iulring a respectable position. 
 He beiran to di.5toptinuo the government farms, 
 and to employ the cuvicts in road-making, so as 
 to extend the colony m all directions. When ho 
 came to Sydney, the country more than u day's 
 ride from the town was (iiiito unknown. I'lio 
 growth of the settlement was stopped on tlio 
 west by a range called the Blue .Mountains, 
 which before his time no one had succeeded in 
 cro.sslng. But in 1813, there came a drought 
 upon the colony: the cattle, on which everything 
 depended, wore tmable to find food. jNIacciuaric 
 surmised that there in>:st bo plenty of pasture oa 
 the plains above tho Bli'o 'T';j:itains: he sent an 
 exploring party, tellinr, them that a pass must 
 be_ discovered. In a few months, not only was 
 this task accomplished, and the vast and fertile 
 pastures of Bathurst reached, but a road 130 
 miles long was made, couuectiug them with Syd- 
 ney, The Lachlan and 3lac(xuarie rivers wore 
 
 191 
 
AUSTIIAMA. 1800-1840. 
 
 AL'STIiALlA, 1800-1840. 
 
 Kil nut to till' wrHt (if tlit^ tthw MoiiiitalnN. 
 IcHthlll, colli WIIH follllll 111 llll' lllolltll llf till' 
 
 HnntiT rlviT, liml tlir Hclllctlirlil ilt NcwniHlIc 
 fiiriiii'il. . . . Wlii'ii il iMTiuiir known lliiil the 
 |M'nitl w'ttlrnicnt wiiM ){rii(liially iHTiiniiti); ii frri- 
 I'olonv, itnil tliiit Sydney luiil ItM |io|iiilitlliin wrrc 
 riipliny clmnKinK tliclr cliiiriu'tcr. I'nirliili ami 
 Hi'iiii'li |M'o|>lt' HiHni Im'||ioii);IiI tliriu of cini 
 ^'nitiiiji; to the new country. .\iiici|iiiirii' rcliirnnl 
 lionic in \Hi-i, lca>inu New Sonlli WalcH four 
 tiini'MiiH |)<i|iiiloiis, anil twenty llnirs as larKe a.s 
 when lie went out, ami ininy years in aiivanec of 
 wiiat II iiil);iit liave lieen uniler a less iilile anil 
 «'Mer;fetie (governor. 'I'lie discovery of tlie line 
 pastures iH'yond tlie lllue .Mountains Hcttled the 
 destiny of "the colonv. The s4'tlltTS came up 
 tliitlier with their IIis'Kh lon>; iK'fore .Maei|narle's 
 road was linisiied: and II liirned out tiiat tlie 
 downs of Australia were llie liest shecp-wallvs in 
 tiie world. Till' sheep thrives biiti'r there, and 
 prixliiees liner and inorealiundaiil wool, than any- 
 where else, .loliii .Maearlliiir. a lieiilenant In llie 
 New South Wales corps, had spent several years 
 In ^illd^ inn the elTect, of tlie Anstraliiin clliniile 
 upon the sheep; and he rli;litly Hiirniised that 
 the stii|ile of the colony would Ih- its line wool. 
 In 1M(K(, he went to Knulaiid and procured some 
 pure Spanish merini) sheep from the Hock of 
 (JeorKi! III. . . . The I'rivy Council listened to 
 his wool projects, and he received a lar^^n grant, 
 (if land. .Mai artliur had found out tlie true way 
 to Australian prosjierily. When tliu jfrcat up- 
 land pastures were discovered, the nierino lireed 
 was well estuhlisheil hi tile colony; and the 
 glieepowners, wiihoui waiting for grants, spread 
 Willi tliiir Hocks over ininiense tracts of (ouiitry. 
 This was Ihu lieginniiii; of what is called sipiat- 
 tiiig. The tKiualters aficrwaids jiaid a ipiit rent 
 to llie goveriimenl and thus ;fot their runs, as 
 tli'7 called the great districts where they pas- 
 tured tlieir llocks, to n certain extent secured to 
 tliein. . . . Hundreds upon hundreils of si|uare 
 miles of the great Aiistialian downs wen; now 
 explored and stocked with sheep lor the Knglish 
 woolniarket. ... It was in llie ijnie of .Mai - 
 quarie's successor. Sir Tiioinas lirisliane, that the 
 prospects of Ne^v Simtli Wales liecame generally 
 known in England. Five emi.'^rants, eacli bring- 
 ing more or less capital with him, now iioiired 
 In; lUiil the deinand for labour became enormous. 
 At (li'st the penal seltleinents were renewed as 
 depots for the supply of lalhiiir, and it was even 
 proposed that the convicts slimilil be sold bv auc- 
 tion on tlieir arrival ; but in tiiC end the iiilliix of 
 free labourers entirely altered the iiuestion. In 
 Brisbane's time, and tliat of his successor. Sir 
 Kalph Darling, wages fell and work becanio 
 scarce in England; and English working men 
 now turned their attention to Australia, llitlierlo 
 the people had lieen either convicts or free set- 
 tlers of more or less wealth, and 1,'ilween these 
 classes there was great bitterness of feeling, eaeli, 
 naturally enough, thinking that the colony ex- 
 isted for tlieir own exclusive benetlt. Tlie free 
 labourers who now poured in greatly contributed 
 iu course of time to fusing tlie population into 
 one. In Brisbane's time, trial by jury and a free 
 jiress were intriKliiced. The linest jiastui-ea in 
 Australia, the Darling Downs near Morcton Hay, 
 T/ere discovered and settled [1825]. The rivers 
 which pour into jMoreton Bay were explored: 
 one of them was named the Brisbane, and a few 
 miles from its luoulU the town uf the same uume 
 
 WA8 founded, nrlsbane U i.ow tlio ranltal of tlio 
 colony of (jiieeiisland : and olier explorallonH In 
 Ills time led to the foundallon if ii m-coiiiI liide- 
 penileiil colony. Tin; Macipiaric was traced Im'- 
 voiid the marshes, In which il w;.s Hiipposed to 
 lime itself, and named the Darling: i.nd the Miir- 
 niy river was dlHi'ovcrcd ||N21»|, '1 'le tracing 
 out of the iMiirray river by the ailvnlurous 
 traveller Stiirl, led to u colony on the slti which 
 he iiained South Australia. In DarlingK :iini'. 
 tlie Swan Hlver Colony, now called Westiin 
 .Vustra!ia, was cominenced. Darling . . . 
 was till' tirst to sell the land at a sniall 
 fixed price, on tlie system adopted in America. 
 , . . Darling returned to England in 1N:||; 
 and the six-years ailminisirathin of his kuc- 
 cessor, .Sir Kichanl Ilmirke, marks a fresh 
 turning point In Australian history. In his 
 time the ciiliiny threw olT two great olTsliools. 
 Tort I'liillip, on wliicli now stands the great city 
 of .Melbourne, had been discovered in IHO'J, and 
 in the !<ext year the government sent hillier u 
 convict ciiiony. This did not prosper, and ilis 
 line site was neglected for thirty years. Winn 
 the sudden rise of New South Wales began, the 
 squatters began to settle to the west and north of 
 Port I'liillip; and the government at once sent 
 an exploring parly, who reported most favour 
 ably of the conntry around. In IH^IO, Governor 
 iloiirke founileil a .settlement in tills new land, 
 which had been called, from its ricli promise, 
 Australia Felix: and iindi'r bis directions the 
 site of a capital was laid out. to be called Mel- 
 bourne, In honourof the English Prime .Minister, 
 This was in IMIJT, so that the beginning of the 
 colony (•oriesponds nearly witli that of Queen 
 Vietoria's reign; a circumstance wliich after 
 wards led to its being lianied Victoria. Fiirtlier 
 west still, a second new colony arose about this 
 time on the site discovered bv Slurt in 1820. 
 This was called South Australia, and tlic tirst 
 governor arrived tlierc at the end of Hie year 
 lH;tlt. The intended capital was naineil Ade- 
 laide, in honour of the (Jiieen of William IV. 
 Botli Hie new colonies were commenced on a neiv 
 system, called from its inventor the Waketield 
 system, but the founders of Soutli Australia 
 were able to carry it out most efrectually. be- 
 cause they were (piite independent of tlie experi- 
 ence and the prejudices of the Sydney govern- 
 ment. Mr. Waketield was an ingenious man 
 and a clever writer. . . . His notion was that 
 tlie new colonies ought to be made ' fairly to 
 repiesent English society.' His ])lan was to ar- 
 rest tlie strong democratic tendencies of the new 
 coininMiity, and to reprinluce in Australia the 
 strciig distinction of classes wliii li was found in 
 England. He wii-ited the land sold as dear as 
 possible, so that labourers might not bcconie 
 landowners: and the produce of the land was 
 to be ai)i)lie,l in templing labourers to emigrate 
 with the prospect of belter \vagcs than they got 
 at home. A Company was easily formed to carry 
 out these ideas in South Australia. . . . Like 
 the seltlemeut of Carolina as framed by Locke 
 and Somers, it was really a plan for getting the 
 advantages of the colony into the hands of the 
 non-labouring clas.scs: and by the natural laws 
 of ])olitical economy, it failed everywhere. 
 Adelaide bccjiine the sctene of an Australian 
 'bubble.' The laud -jobbers and money-lenders 
 made fortunes: but the people who emigrated, 
 mostly belonging to the middle aod upper 
 
 192 
 
AU8TUALIA, JS00-1H40. 
 
 AUWTHAIJA, 1830-183.'.. 
 
 clnNxrH, found tli<t Hclirnin i<i )h <» :'eluiiinn, 
 bind nipldly pohk In vitliio, iinti iim rii|>ldlv Hiink; 
 unci liitH f(ir which lh« i'nil;;ninl.i Inid 11111.1 hlfth 
 prIrrH ttfciunc jihnost wciilMisM Tni! ln'oiiircrs 
 t'nilKnitcd cIscwlH'ri-, anil mi dlit th(mu of the 
 lapl'JiliNlH will) hud unylhint; Icl't. . . Thu dc 
 prc^iiin of South AuHtriiliu, Iiowcmt, wii.i li\it 
 trinporury. It containH the licst corn land In tho 
 whole iHliinil : iin<l hcnco it of coui'mc hoou Iic- 
 caiui! tlu^ cliicf Hourci! of the food Huppiv of tlic 
 nel>?lil)ourinK colonicH, bi'sjdcs cxporiln,: liir>;n 
 (pnintitlcH of corn to Kn^ljind. It contiiiis ricli 
 inincM of copper, iind produces lar^u (|Uiiiititiei< 
 of wool." — k. J. I'uyue, Ui»l. uf li!iin>iiean Colo- 
 iiifii, eh. 12. 
 Al.m) IN: O. W. Uusilen, Jfint. uf Aiiiilnilii,. 
 
 r. 1-a. 
 
 A.D. 1830-1855.— Prog;ress of the Port Phillip 
 District. — Its Separation from New South 
 Wales nnd erection into the colonyof Victoria. 
 —Discovery of Cold. — Constitutional organiza- 
 ♦ ion of the colony. — " In H:il> Hie population of 
 I'crt I'hillli) amounted to nearly (l.UOK, and wmi 
 heln^ rapidly uuitnieuted from without. The 
 Hheep i.< th(! dlHtrlct exceeded half a million, Jind 
 cf cattlu .>nd horscH the nuinliers wen^ in pro- 
 poiiion <'(ii.-dly lari^e. The place was daily 
 t'rowin.i; in Inii ortanee. The Home Government 
 theref(n'e decided 'o send an olliccr, with the title 
 of Superintendent, ^i take charge of the district, 
 but to act under the Uovernor of New South 
 Wales, (,'harles Joseph la Trobe, Ksi|., wits ap- 
 pointed to this olllce. . . . He arrived at Mel- 
 bourne on the liOth Septeml)er, 1*JD. Soon after 
 this all classes of the new commi:uily appear to 
 have bccomo affected by a mania for . oeculation. 
 ... As is nlways the case when sp^'iuilation 
 takes the place of steady industry, the I'eees- 
 miries of life became fabulously dear. ')f 
 money there was but little, in consideration 01 
 the amount of bu.slness done, and large transac- 
 tions were effected by meansof paper and credit. 
 From hiKhe.st to lowest, all lived extniva^'antly. 
 . . . Such II slate of things could not last for- 
 ever. In 1842, by which time the population 
 had increased to 24, 000, tho crash came. . . . 
 From this depression the colony slowly recovered, 
 and a sounder business system took the jilace of 
 the speculative one. . . . All this time, however, 
 the colony was 11 dependency of New South 
 Wales, and .1 strong feeling had gained ground 
 that it suffered in consc(|U('nce. ... A ci-y was 
 raised for separation. The demand was. as a 
 matter of course, resisted by New Sotith Wales. 
 Ir^t ns the agitation was carried on with increased 
 "••tivity, :* was at last yielded to l)y the Home 
 : jtliorities. The vessel bearing the intelligence 
 arri ed on the 11th November, 1850. The news 
 Boon spread, and great was the satisfaction of 
 the colonists. Uejo'eings were kept up in Mc! 
 bourne for five consecutive days. . . . Before, 
 however, the sepanition could be IcL^ally accom- 
 l^'ished, it was necessary that an Act should bo 
 passed in New South Wales to settle (Ictails. . . . 
 The recjuisite forms were at length given effect 
 to, and, on the Ist July, 1851, a day which l>as 
 ever since been scrupulously observed ns a public 
 holiday, it was proclaimed that the Port Phillip 
 tlistriet of New South Wales had been erected 
 into a separate colony to be called Victoria, after 
 the name of Her Most Gracious Majesty. At 
 the same time the Superintendent, Mr. C. J. 
 La Trobe, was raised to the rank of Lieutenant- 
 
 Oovcrnor. At the commencement of the year of 
 Ncparatiiin the population >>f Port Phillip num- 
 iH'rcd TO.IKMI, the sheep ll.(NNl.OIK>, the cattlii 
 !IMO,000. . . . In a little morethan a inoii;!i iifier 
 llie cstablUhinent of VIcliiria as an Independent 
 colony, it lns'amc? generally known that rich 
 ileposlls of gold existed witldn its iMinlcrs. . . . 
 The discovery of gold ... In New South 
 Wales, l)y Hargri'aveH, in February, IH.'il, caused 
 numiiers lo endgrale In that colony. This being 
 considered detrimental to the Interests of 
 Victoria, a public meeling was held in .Melbourno 
 on the Ulh of June, at which a "gold -discovery 
 committee' wasappolnteil. which was authorized 
 to offer rewards to any that shoulil discover gr)l(| 
 in rcnunierative (]uantiti<'s wllhin tin* colony. 
 The colonists wen; already on the alert. At tho 
 lime this meeting was held, several parlies wero 
 
 lUt searching for, and some had already found 
 g.>ld. The ' rcelous inelal was llrst discovered 
 at v'lunes, then In the, Varra ranges at Anderson'H 
 C'reck iion after at lluidnyong and Hallarat, 
 shortly afterwards at Mount Alexan<ler, and 
 eventually ul Ikn(!';;o Thedeposits were found 
 to be rlclwr and to extend over a wider area than 
 any which had been discovered in New South 
 Wales. Their fame soon spread to Ww adjacent 
 coloides. and iboiisands hastened to the spot. 
 . . . When I be news reached home, crowds of 
 endgrants from the l'nile<l Klngilon> hurried to 
 our shores. Inhabitants of other Kuropean 
 countricsi|ulcklv joined In the rush. Americans 
 from the Atlantic. States were not long In follow- 
 ing. Stalwart Californlaiu" left their own gold- 
 yielding rocks and placers to try llieir fortunes 
 at the Southern Kldoraihi. Last of all, swarms 
 of Chinese arrived, eager to unile In the general 
 scramble for wealth. . . . The Important posi- 
 tion which the Auslralian colonies had obtained 
 In eonseipienc<! of the discovfry of gold, and tho 
 i.'Hiix of |)opulation conscMpient thereon, was tho 
 occasion of the Imperial Uoveniment determin- 
 ing in tho latter end of 18.52 that each colony 
 should be iMviled to frame such a (.'onstitution 
 for Its govern. nent as its representatives might 
 deem best suited lo its own peculiar circum- 
 stances. The ConsilMition framed in Vit'toriu, 
 and afterwards approve.! by the Hritish I'arlia- 
 ment, was avowedly bused upon that of tho 
 United Kingdom. It providei'. for the establish- 
 ment of two Houses of Legis' .;. i- with power 
 to make laws, subject to the , -i.sen, if the Crown 
 as represented generallv ' the Gov 'rnor of tlio 
 colony; the Legislati\ Council, or Ui),.er House, 
 to consist of 30, and the Legislative Assembly, 
 or Lower House, to consist of (50 members. 
 JMembers of both Houses to bo elective and to 
 l)ossess property <nialilication.s. Electors of both 
 Ilouses to jiossess either property or professional 
 (jualificrttions [the iiroperlyqualilicationof mcm- 
 beisand electors of tho Lower House has sinco 
 been abolishedl. . . . The Upper House not to 
 bo dissolved, but live members to retire every 
 two years, and to be ejigible for ro election. The 
 L(»wer House to bo dissolved e\ery five yc.irs 
 [sinco reduced to three], or oftener, at the dis- 
 cretion of the Governor. Certain officers of tho 
 Government, four at least of whom should 
 havo seats in Purliumeut, to be deeme.l ' Ke- 
 tnonsiblo Ministers." . . . This Constitution was 
 liidclaimod iu Victoria on the 23d November, 
 18;.5."— H. H. Hayter, Mtei on the Colony of 
 
 Vici'iHa, eh. 1. 
 
 193 
 
AUSTRALIA, 1830-1855. 
 
 nderatUm. 
 
 AUSTKALIA, 1890. 
 
 Al,(to IN; I'. P. Lal)ilIiorc, Kiirli/ IIi»t. of the, 
 Coliinn of Virloriii. r. 2. — \V. WcstKurtli, Fint 
 IVi'iili/ YtiirH <if till' f'oloiii/ of Vii-tiin'ii. 
 
 A. D. 1859. — Separation of the Moreton Bay 
 District from New South Wales. —Its erection 
 into the colony of Queensland. — " Until Dcccni- 
 bfr, IM.")!), Ilic iiortliwcsl portion of tJR' Fifth 
 Continent was kno'.vn lis tliu .Moreton Buy dislriel, 
 anil l>elon.i,'('il to the colony of Now South Wales; 
 hut nt that date it had grown so largo that it. was 
 crecte 1 into a .separate and independent colony, 
 under the nanu^ of Queensland. It lies hctween 
 lat. 10^ -J;)' S. and 2«^S., and long. 138^ and 1.530 
 E., bounded on the north by Torres Straits; on the 
 north-east by the ('oral Sea; on the east by the 
 South Paeilie ; on the south by New South wales 
 and South Australia; on the west by South 
 Australia and the Northern Territory ; and on the 
 northwest by the Gulf of Carpentaria. It 
 covers an area . . . twenty times as large as 
 Ireland, twenty-three tii s as large as Scotland, 
 and eleven times the i i^nt of England. . . . 
 Numerous good harbours are found, many of 
 which form tlie outlets of navigable rivers. The 
 principal of these [is] Moreton Hay, at the head 
 of which stands IJrisbane, the capital of the 
 colony. . . . The mineral wealth of Queensland 
 is very great, and every year sees it more fully 
 developed. . . . Until the year 1807, when the 
 Gympie field was discovered, gold mining as an 
 industry was hardly known." — C. II. Eden, The 
 Fifth CmliiKHt, eh. 10. 
 
 A. D. 1885-1892. — Proposed Federation of 
 the Colonies. — "It has been a common saying 
 in Australia tliat our fellow countrymen in that 
 part of the world did not recognise the term 
 'Australian;' each recognised only his own 
 colony and the empire. But the advocates of 
 combination for certain common purposes 
 achieved a great steji forward in the formation of 
 ft ' Federal Council' in 188.'). It was to be only a 
 ' Council,' its decisions having no force over any 
 colony unless accepted afterwards by the colonial 
 Legislature. Victoria. Queenslancl, Tasmania, 
 and West Australia ioi.ieil. New South Wales, 
 South A.istralia, and New Zealand standing out. 
 and, so constituted, it met twice. The results of 
 the deliberations were not un.satisfactorj', and the 
 opinion that the move was in the right direction 
 rapidly grew. In February of 1800 a Federation 
 Conference, not private but reiiresentative of the 
 different Governments, was called at Jlelbourne. 
 It adopted an address to the Queen declaring the 
 opinion of the conference to be that the best 
 interests of tlie A\istralian colonies rerjuire the 
 early formation of a union under the Crown into 
 one Government, both legislative and executive. 
 Events proceed quickly in (Jolonial History. In 
 the course of 1800 the hesitation of New South 
 AVales was finally overconu^ powerful factors 
 being the weakening of the Free Trade position 
 at tlie election of 1890, the report of General 
 Edwards on the Defences, and the difflculties 
 about C;hinese immigration. A Convention 
 accordingly assembled at Sy<liiey in March, 1891, 
 which agreed upon a Constitution to be recom- 
 mended to the several Colonies." — A. Caldecolt, 
 Fii'/linh Oiloniziitiou and Eini>ive, eh. 7, scet. 2, — 
 "On Monday, March 2nd, 1891, the National 
 Australasian Conventiini met at the Parliament 
 House, Sydney, New South Wales, and was 
 attended by seven representatives from each 
 Colony, except New Zealand, which only sent 
 
 three. Sir Henry Parkcs (New Soiith Wales) 
 was elected President of the Convention, and Sir 
 Samuel GriHith (Queensland), Vice-President. A 
 series of resolutions, in' ved by Sir Henry Parkas, 
 occupied the attention of tlie Convention for 
 several days. Tliesc resolutions set forth the 
 ])rinciples upon which the Federal Government 
 shoiilil be established, which were to the effect 
 that the powers and privilegesof existing Colonics 
 should be kei)t intact, except in cases wliero 
 surrender would be necessary iu order to form a 
 Federal Government; that intercolonial trade 
 and intercourse should be free; that power to 
 impose Customs duties should rest with the Fed- 
 eral Government and Parliament; and that the 
 naval and military defence of Australia should 
 be entrusted to the Federal Forces under one 
 coinmaiul. The resolutions then went on to 
 approve of a. Federal Constitution which should 
 establish a Federal Parliament to consist of a 
 Senate and u IIou.se of Keprcsentatives; that a 
 Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, 
 to he a High Court ot Appeal for Australia, 
 should be established; and that a Federal Exe- 
 cutive, cimsisting of a Governor-General, with 
 respon.sible advisers, should be constituted. 
 These resolutions were discussed at great length, 
 and eventually were ndoi)tcd. The resolutions 
 were then referred to three Committees chosen 
 from the delegates, one to consider (/'onstitutional 
 Machinery and the distribution of powers and 
 functions ; one to deal with matters relating to 
 Finance, Taxation, and Trade Regulations; and 
 the other to consider the ((ucstion of the estab- 
 lishment of a Federal Judiciary. A draft Bill, to 
 constitute the ' Commonwealth of Australia,' was 
 brought up by the Ui-st mentioned of these Com- 
 mittees, and after full consideration was 1 .opted 
 by the Convention, and it was agreed iiiat the 
 Bill should be ])resented to each of the Austra- 
 lian P vliaments for approval and adoption. On 
 Thursday, April 0th. the Convention closed its 
 proceedings. The Bill to provide for the Feder- 
 ation of the Australasian colonies entitled ' A Bill 
 to constitute a Commonwealth of Australia,' 
 which was drafted by the National Australasian 
 Convention, has been introduced into the Parlia- 
 ments of most of the colonies of the groi'p, and 
 is still (October, 1802), under consideration. In 
 Victoria it has passed the Lower House with 
 some amendments." — Statesniaii'g Year-book, 
 1893, ;*. 308. 
 
 A. D. 1890.— New South Wales and Vic- 
 toria. — "New South Wales bears to Victoria a 
 certain statistical resemblance. The two colonies 
 have [1800] about the same population, and, 
 roughly speaking, about the same revenues, ex- 
 penditure, debt and trade. In each, a great capital 
 'inWevlti in one neighbourhood more than a third of 
 the total population. . . . But . . . considerable 
 differences lie behind and are likely to develop in 
 the future. New South Wales, in the opinion of 
 her enemies, is less enterprising than Victoria, 
 and has less of the go-ahead spirit which distin- 
 guishes the Melbourne |)eople. On the other 
 hand she possesses a larger tei'ritory, abundant 
 supplies of coal, and willh ve probably, in con- 
 sequence, a greater future. Although New 
 South Wales is thix'c and a half times as large as 
 Victoria, and has the area of the German Empire 
 and Italy combined, slie is of course much 
 smaller than the three other but as yet less impor- 
 tant colonies of the Australian coatiucut [namely 
 
 194 
 
AUSTRALIA, 1800. 
 
 AUSTRASIA. 
 
 Qiiecnslnnd, South Australi:i iinil Wostorn Aus- 
 tralia |. As tlio country was in a larijc ilcgicc 
 soltlfd by assisted cmigrntits, of whom some- 
 thing liliC lialf altogether have been Irish, while 
 the English section was li rgcly composed of 
 Chartists, . . . tlie legislation of New South 
 Wales has natiirully shown signs of its origin. 
 Manhooil sulfrage was carried in 1858; the abo 
 lition of iH'ir.i >genitnre in 1862; safe and easy 
 transfer of land thro\igh the machinery of the 
 Torrens Act in the same year; and also the 
 abolition of state aid to religion. A public .sys- 
 tem of education was introduced, with other 
 measures of democratic legislation. . . . Public 
 education, which in Victoria is free, is still paid 
 for by fees in N^w South Wales, though children 
 going to or returning from school arc allowed to 
 travel free by railway. In gencial it may be said 
 that New Soutli Wales legislation in recent times 
 has not been so bold as tlic legislation of Victoria. 
 . . . The land of New South AVales has to a 
 large extent come into the hands of wealthy per- 
 sons who are becoming a territorial aristocracy. 
 This has been the effect tir.stly of grants and of 
 squatting legislation, then of the perversion of 
 the Act^ of 1801 [for ' Free Selection l)cforc 
 Survey '] to the use of those against whon \'^ had 
 been aimed, and finally of natural tau.ses — soil, 
 climate and the lack of water. . . . The traces of 
 the convict element in New South Wales 'mve 
 become very slight in the national character. 
 The prevailmg cheerfulness, running into flcklc- 
 ness and frivolity, with a great deal more 
 vivacity than exists in England, does not sug- 
 gest in the least the intermixture of convict 
 blood. It is a natural creation of the climate, 
 and of the full and varied life led by colonists 
 in a young country. ... A population of an 
 e.\ccllent typo has swallowcil up not only the 
 convict element, but also the unstable and 
 thriftless element ship|)ed by friends in Ilrit- 
 ftin to Sydney or to ]\Ielbourne. The ne'er- 
 do-weels were either somewhat above the aver- 
 age in brains, as was often the case with those 
 who recovered themselves and started life 
 afresh, or people who drank themselves to 
 death and disap))eared and left no descendants. 
 The convicts were also of various classes; some 
 of them were men in whom crime was the 
 outcome of restless energy, as, for instance, in 
 many of those transported for treason and for 
 manslaughter; while some were jieople of 
 average morality ruined through companions, 
 wives, or sudden temptation, and some persons 
 of an essentially depraved and criminal life. 
 The better classes of convicts, in a new countiy, 
 away from their old companions and old tempta- 
 tions, turned over a new leaf, and their abilities 
 and their strong vitality, which in some cases 
 had wrought their ruin m the old world, foimd 
 healthful scope in subduing to man a now one. 
 Crime in their cases was an accident, and would 
 not be tran'smitted to tlie children they left be- 
 hind then. On the otlier hand, the genuine 
 criminal'., and also tlie drunken ne"er-do-wcels, 
 left no children. Drink and vice among the 
 'assigred servants' class of convicts, and an 
 absence ''f all facilities for marriage, worked 
 them off the r.-.?o of the earth, and those who had 
 not been killed before the gold discovery generally 
 drank themselves to death upon the diggings. " — 
 Sir 0. W. Dilke, Probkim of Greaier Jirilain, 
 pt. 2, ch. 3. 
 
 AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA, OR 
 NEUSTRASIA.— •• It iseonjeclured by Luden, 
 with great probability, that the Uipuarians wto 
 originally called the ' Ea.stcrn ' people to distiu- 
 giush them ""roMi the Salian Franks who lived to 
 the West. IJut when the old home < f the con- 
 (picrors on the right bank of the llliinc was 
 united with their iiew settlements in Gaul, the 
 latter, as it woidd seem, were called Neustria or 
 Neustrasia (New Lands); while the term Aus- 
 Irasia came to denote the original seats of the 
 Franks, on what we now call the German bank 
 of the Rhine. The most important di'Tcrence 
 between them (a (iiirer<'nce so great as to lead to 
 their pc-rmancnt sepai-.ition into the kingdoms of 
 France and Germany by the treaty of Verdun) 
 was this: that in Xeustria the Frankish element 
 was ([Uickly absorbed by the nia.ss of Gallo- 
 Romanism by which it was surrounded; while 
 in Austrasia, which included the ancient seals of 
 the Frankish conijucrors, the German element 
 was wholly predimiinant. The import of the 
 word Austrasia (Austria, Austritrancia) is very 
 fluctuating. In its widest sense it was used to 
 denote all the countries ineorporate<l into the 
 Frankish Empire, or even held in subjection to 
 it, in which the German language and poi)ulatioa 
 prevailed; in this accept;ition it included there- 
 fore the territorv of the Alemanni, Bavarians, 
 Tburingians, and even that of the Saxons and 
 Frises. In its more common and projicr sense it 
 meant that part of the territory of the Franks 
 themselves which was not included in Neustria. 
 It was s\d)divided into Upper Austrasia on tho 
 JfoscUc, and Lower Austrasia on the Rhine and 
 Jleuse. Neustria (or, in the fulness of tho 
 monkish Latinity, Neustrasia) was bounded on 
 the north by the ocean, on the south by the Loire, 
 and on the southwest [southeast?] towards Hur- 
 gundy by a line which, beginning below Gien on 
 the Loire, ran tiirough the rivers Loing and Yoinie, 
 not far from their sources, and iiassing north 
 of Auxerre and south of Troyes, joined the 
 river Aube above Arcis." — AV. C. Perry, The 
 Fraiik.i, ch. 3. — "The northeastern part of 
 Gaul, along the Rhine, together with a slice of 
 ancient Germany, was already distinguished, as 
 we have seen, by tlic name of the Eastern King- 
 dom, or Oster-rike, Latinized into Austrasia. It 
 embraced the region first occupied by the Ri- 
 puarian Franks, and where they still lived the 
 most compactly and in the greatest number. . . . 
 This was, in the estimation of the Franks, the 
 kingdom by eminence, while the rest of tho 
 north of Gaul was simply not it — ' ne-oster- 
 rike,' or Neustria. A line drawn from the 
 mouth of the Scheldt to Cambrai, and thenco 
 across the JIarno at Chateau-Thierry to the 
 Aube of Bar-sur-Aube, would have separated 
 the one from tho other, Neustria comprising all 
 the northwest of Gaul, between tho Loire and 
 the ocean, with the excepfion ot Brittany. 
 This had been the first possession of tho Salian 
 Franks in Gaul. ... To .iUcli an extent had 
 they been absorbed and influenced by the Roman 
 elements of the population, that the Austrasians 
 scarcely considered them Franks, while they, in 
 their turn, regarded the Austrasians as tho 
 merest untutored barbarians. " — P. Godwin, ITist. 
 of France: Ancient Qavl, bk. 3, ch. 13, tnith note. 
 
 Also in: E. A. Freeman, Hist. Geog. of Europe, 
 ch. 5, sect. .'5. — See, also, Fiianks (JIekovixgian 
 Empire): A. D. 511-753. 
 
 195 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 The Name.— " The nnnie of Austria, Ocstpr- 
 reioli — O.St ricli lis our forcfiithcrs wrote it — is, 
 miluriilly enough, n comnioii name for tlie east- 
 ern part of any kini;<loMi. Tlie Franltisli Iviiig- 
 doiM of tlie ^Merwings had its Austria ; tlie Italian 
 kingdom of the Lombards had its Austria also. 
 \Ve are half inclined to wonder that the name was 
 never given in our own island either to Essex or 
 to KastAnglia. But, while the other Austrias 
 have passeil away, the Oesterreich, the Austria, 
 the Eastern mark, of the German kingdom, its 
 defence against tlic Magyar invader, has lived 
 on to our own times. It has not only lived on, 
 but it has become one of the chief European 
 powers. And it lias become so by a process to 
 which it would be hard to find a parallel." — 
 E. A. Freeman, The Ilistuneal Qeoijraphy of 
 Burape, v. 1, ch. 8, p. 305. 
 
 The birthplace. — "On the disputed frontier, 
 in the /one of jierpetual conflict, were formed 
 and developed the two states which, in turn, 
 ■were to dominate over Germany, namely, Aus- 
 tria and Prussia. Both were born in the midst 
 of the enemy. The cradle of Austria was the 
 Eastern march, cstablislied by Cliarlcinagne on 
 tlie Danube, beyond Bavaria, at I'w: very gate 
 through which have passed so many i.ivaders 
 from the Orient. . . . The cradle of I'russia was 
 the march of Brandenburg, between the Elbe 
 and the Oder, in the region of the e.xterminated 
 Slavs." — E. Lavissc, General View of the Poliii- 
 cal Ilintory of EurojK, ch. 3, sect. 13. 
 
 The Singularity of Austrian history. — A 
 power which is not a national power. — "It is 
 by no means an easy task to tell the story of the 
 various lauds which have at different times 
 come under the dominion of Austrian princes, 
 the story of each land by itself, and the story of 
 tliera all in relation to the common power. A 
 continuous narrative is impossible. . . . Much 
 mischief has been done by one small fashion of 
 nKHlern speech. It has within my memory he- 
 come usual to personifj' nations and j)owers on 
 the smallest occasions in a way which was for- 
 merly done only in language more or less solemn, 
 rhetorical or jioetical. We now talk every mo- 
 ment of England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, 
 as if they were persons. And as long as it is 
 only England, France, Germany, Russia, oi* Italy 
 of which we talk in this way, no practical harm 
 is done; the thing is a mere question of style. 
 For those are all national powers. . . . But 
 when we go on to talk in this way of 'Austria,' 
 of 'Turkey," direct harm is done; thought is 
 confused, and facts are misrepresented. ... 1 
 have seen the words 'Austrian national honour ; ' 
 I have come across jieople who believed that 
 'Austria ' was one Jand inhabited by ' Austriaus,' 
 and that ' Austriaus ' spoke the ' Austrian ' lan- 
 guage. All such jihrases are misapplied. It is 
 to be presumed that in all of them 'Austria' 
 means something more than the true Austria, 
 the archduchy; what is commonly meant by 
 them is the whole dominions of the sovereign of 
 Austria. People fancy that the inhabitants of 
 those dominions have a common lieing, a com- 
 mon interest, like that of the people of England, 
 France, or Italy. . . . There is no Austrian 
 language, no Austrian nation; therefore there 
 can be no such tl'.iag as 'Austrian national hon- 
 our.' Nor can thi re be an 'Austrian policy' in 
 
 tlie same sense in which there is an Engli.sh or a 
 French policy, that is, a policy in which the 
 English or French government carries out the 
 will of the Engli.sh or French nation. . . . Such 
 ))hiases as 'Austrian interests,' 'Austrian policy,' 
 and the like, do not mean the interests or the 
 l)olicy of any land or nation at all. They simply 
 mean the interests and pol'cy i, f a particular rul- 
 ing family, which may often be the same as the 
 interests and wishes of particular parts of their 
 dominions, but which can never represent any 
 common interest or common wish on the part 
 of the whole. . . . We must ever remember 
 that the dominions of the House of Austria are 
 simply a collection of kingdoms, duchies, etc., 
 brought together Ijy various accidental causes, 
 but which have nothing really in common, no 
 common speech, no common feeling, no common 
 interest. In one case only, that of the Magyars 
 in Hungary, does tlie House of Austria rule over 
 a whole nation ; the other kingdoms, duchies, etc. , 
 are only parts of nations, liaving no tie to one 
 another, but having the closest ties to other 
 parts of their several nations which lie close to 
 them, but whicli are uniler other governments. 
 The only bond among them all is that a series of 
 marriages, wars, treaties, and so forth, liave 
 given them a common sovereign. The same 
 jierson is king of Hungary, Archduke of Austria, 
 C(iuut of Tyrol, Lord of Trieste, and a liundred 
 other things. 'Tliat is all. . . . The growth and 
 ihe abiding dominion of the House of Austria is 
 one of the most remarkable pluenomena in Euro- 
 pean liistory. Powers of the same kind have 
 arisen twice before ; but in both cases they were 
 very short-lived, wliile the power of the House 
 of Austria has lasted for several centuries. The 
 power of the House of Anjou in the twelftli cen- 
 tury, the power of the House of Burgundy in 
 the fifteenth century, were powere of exactly the 
 same kind. They too were collections of scraps, 
 with no natural connexion, brought together by 
 the accidents of warfare, marriage, or diplomacy. 
 Now why is it that both these powers broke in 
 pieces almost at once, after the reigns of two 
 princes in each case, while the power of the House 
 of Austria has lasted so long? Two causes suggest 
 themselves. One is the long connexion between 
 the House of Austria and tlie Roman Empire 
 and kingdom of Germany. So many Austrian 
 Ijrinces were elected Emperoi-s as to make the 
 Austrian House seem something great and im- 
 perial in itself. I believe that this cause liaa 
 done a good deal towards the result; but I be- 
 lieve that another cause has done yet more. This 
 is tliat, though the Austrian power is not a 
 national power, there is, as has been already no- 
 ticed, a nation within it. AVliile it contains only 
 scraps of other nations, it contains the whole of 
 the Magyar nation. It thus gets something of 
 the strength of a national power. •. . . The 
 kingdom of Hungary is an ancient kingilom, 
 with known boundaries which have changed sin- 
 gularly little for several centuries; and its con- 
 nexion with the archduchy of Austria and the 
 kingdom of Bolieinia is now of long standing. 
 Anything beyond this is modem and shifting. 
 The so-'"-"ed 'empire of Austria' dates only 
 from , iiir 1804. This is one of the simplest 
 matte. o . ti.'e world, but one which is constantly 
 forgc'.teu. ... A smaller point on which con- 
 
 19B 
 
mmtmHTmoeccoi/THmiii 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 AUSTRIA, A. D. 80,')-1240, 
 
 fusion also provnils is tliis. All the mombcrs of 
 tliu House of Austria arc ronimonly spoken of 
 as arclulukes and arcliduelicsses. I feel sure that 
 many people, if aslied the meaning of the word 
 nrrhdukc. woiild say that it was the title of the 
 children of the 'P^niperor of Austria,' as grand- 
 duke is used in Russia, and prinei! in most 
 countries. In truth, nrrhduke is the title of the 
 sovereign of Austria. He has not given it iip; 
 for he calls himself Archduke of Austria still, 
 though he calls himself 'Emperor of Austria' as 
 well. But hy Gerninn custom, the chihlren of a 
 duke or count arc all called dukes and counts 
 for ever and ever. In this way the Prince of 
 Wales is called 'Duke of Saxony,' and in the 
 same way all the children of an Archduke of 
 Austria are archdukes and archduchesses. For- 
 mally and historically ftlicn, the taking of an 
 liercilitary imperial title hy the Archduke of 
 Austria in 1804, and the keeping of it after the 
 
 growth, apes in whioh the idea of right, as em- 
 hodicd in law, was the leading idea of states- 
 men, and the idea of rights justified or Justillahle 
 hy the letter of law, was a profound intluenco 
 with politician .... The house of Austria . . . 
 lays thus the foimdation of that empire whicli is 
 to he one of the great forces of the next age; not 
 hy fra\id, not l)y violenee, hut here hy a politic 
 marriage, here by a well advocated inheritance, 
 here by a claim on an imperial fief forfeited or 
 escheated: honestly where the letter of the law 
 is in her favour, hy chicanery it may he here 
 and there, but that a chicanery that wears a spe- 
 cious garb of right. The imperial idea was Init 
 a small intluence comoared with the super- 
 structure of right, inheritance, and suzerainty, 
 that legal instincts and a general aecpiieseenee in 
 legal forms liad raised upon it." — W. Stubbs, 
 Seventeen [jcctures on the Stm^i/ of Medieval and 
 Modern IHntory, pp. 209-210. 
 
 "V 
 
 T 
 
 (' 
 
 6 A X O N Y__^ i^ p „ ^j S S , ^V^ 
 
 V A R 
 
 ^^M'f^ "*'"S"» IV/-> <_ )— ,„y- ■■ •C., '■•% 
 
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 ^.S 1 O V I! 11 O (*' X. 
 
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 '^<^r^ 
 
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 -./■■ 
 
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 Cro^atl,,,,^ 
 
 (■. <f ROUMANIANS ■.■*■/„ V 
 
 V^'jnifolTHUKs 
 
 R O U M A N I A 
 
 '''1<S« _*'» 
 
 \ ' 
 
 jv> B O S N I A.»\ 
 
 > rk I 8 E R V I A 
 
 SSh -^ — \ • 
 
 fe|^»N"eomA^->. \ ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAP OF 
 
 ^^^' / -v V ATJSTRIA- 
 
 « o N T>.._ •^'^ HUNGARY 
 
 N E a R o ^^'— 
 
 '. NOTE; Tht aliaded parts denote tfia 
 \ distribution of the Germans, 
 
 prince who took it had ceased in 1806 to be King 
 of Germany and Roman Emperor-elect, was a 
 sheer and shameless imposture. But it is an im- 
 posture which has thoroughly well served its 
 ends." — E. A. Freeman. Prefnee to rAy/er'sJIiatory 
 of Austro-IIungary. — "Medieval History is a 
 history of rights and wrongs; modern History 
 as contrasted with medieval divides itself into 
 two portions ; the tirst a history of jiowers, forces, 
 and dynasties; the second, a history in which 
 
 leas take the place of both rights and forces. 
 
 . . Austria may be regarded as representing 
 ilie more ancient form of right. . . . The middle 
 ages proper, the centuries from tlic year 1000 to 
 the year 1500, from the Emperor llcnry II. to 
 the Emperor Slaxitniliau, were ages of legal 
 
 The Races. — "The ethnical elements of the 
 population are as follows (1890 for Austria and 
 1880 for Huufary) on the basis of language : — 
 Austria (1890): German 8,461,580; Boliemian, 
 Moravian and Slovak 5,472,871; Polish 3,719,- 
 232; Ruthenian 3,105,221; Slovene 1,176,672; 
 Servian and Croatian 644,920; Italian and Latin 
 675,305; Roumanian 209,110; Magyar 8,139. 
 Hungary (1880): German 1,972,115; Bohemian, 
 Moravian and Slovak 1,893,800; Ruthenian 
 360,051; Slovene 86,401; Servian and Croatian 
 2,3,59,708; Roumanian 2,423,387; Magyar 
 6,478,711; Gipsies 82.2.56; Others 83,940.''— 
 Statesman's Vear-lJook. 1893 ; ed. bi/ J. S. Keltic. 
 
 A. D. 80S-1246. — The Rise of the Margrav- 
 iate, and the creation of the Duchy„ under the 
 
 197 
 
AUSTRIA. A. D. 80(5-1246. 
 
 finhrnberg 
 Itf/naily. 
 
 AUSTRIA, A. D. 805-1246. 
 
 Babenbergs.— Chaneingr relations to Bavaria. 
 — End of the Babenberg Dynasty.—" Austria, 
 as Is wi'll known, is Init llic li.'ilin funii of tlie 
 OrrinaiiOcstcrrcicli, lli('l<iiij.'iloiii of tliccast [an; 
 aliovc: Ai :sriiASiA|. Tliis cclcliralcd liistrirical 
 naiiic a|)|>i'ars for tli(< first linu^ in 000, in a docu 
 incnl signed liy tlio onipcrorOtto 111. (' in rcjiiono 
 vulKari iioniiiic Ostcrnclii'). Tlic land to wliicli 
 it is tlicrc applied was rri'al<'d a iiiarfli afti'r tlie 
 (IcslrnclioM of tli(' Avar iMiipiro [80,")], and was 
 frovcriK'il lilu- all I ho other (Jerinan niarclies. 
 Politically it wasdividcd into two inari^raviates; 
 that of Friuli, in(lii(lin!.f Friuli properly so called. 
 Lower Paniionia to IIk^ south of the Dravo, Car- 
 inthia, Istria, and the iiilerior of Dalnialia — tlio 
 sea-coast havinj; been ceded to the Eastern eni- 
 lieror ; — the eastern niariiraviate comprising 
 Lower Pannonia to the nortli of the Drave, 
 Upper I'atnionia, and the Ostniark properly so 
 called. The Oslniark inehided the TraUMKau to 
 the east of the Kniis, which was coniplelelv Ger- 
 man, and the Griin/.vittigau. . . . Tlieearly his- 
 tory of these countries lacks the unity of interest 
 which the fate of a dynasty or a nation jjives to 
 those of the Majryar and the t'hekh. They form 
 but a port ion of the Gernian kin.ij;don'i,and have no 
 strongly marked life of their own. The inarch, 
 with its varying frontier, had not oven a geograph- 
 ical unity. In 870, it was enlarged by the ad- 
 dition of IJavaria; in 800, it lost I'annonia, which 
 was given to Hracislav, the Croat prince, in re- 
 turn for his help against tlie JIagyars, and in 
 0;!7. it was destroyed and absorbed by tlio ^lag- 
 yars, who e.vtendod their frontier to the river 
 Enns. After tlic battle of Lcchfehl or Augsburg 
 (9,>1), Germany and Italy being no longer exposed 
 to llnugarian invasions, the march was rocon- 
 stituted"!!!!!! f.rantod to the margrave IJurkhard, 
 the brother-in-law of Henry of liavaria. Leopokl 
 of IJabenborg succeeded him (97.'!), and witli him 
 begins the dynasty of 15abenberg, which ruled 
 the country (hu'ing the time of the Promyslidcs 
 [in Bohemia] and the house of Arpad [in Hun- 
 gary]. The IJaboiibergs derived their name from 
 the castle of Habonborg, built by Henry, mar- 
 grave of Nordgau, in honor of his wife, Baba, 
 sister of Ilonry the Fowler. It reappears in tlie 
 name of the town o' Bamberg, which now forms 
 part of the 1 ig .om o/ Bavaria. . . . Though 
 not of right au li jreditary ofllco, the margraviate 
 soon 'lecame so, and remained in the family of 
 the Babenbergs the niniili was so important a 
 part of the cm )ire thin no do. '^t. the emperor 
 was glnd to mi te the defence of this exposed 
 district the especial interest of one family. . . . 
 The marriages of the Babenbergs were fortunate ; 
 in 1138 the brother of Leopold [Fourth of that 
 name in the Jlargraviate] Conrad of Hohen- 
 staufen, Duke of Franconia, was made emperor. 
 It was now that the struggle began between the 
 house of Ilohenstaufen and the great house of 
 ■\Velf [or Guelf: See Guki,fs and Guiiiklines] 
 whose reprcsenttitivo was Henry the Proud, Duke 
 of Sa.xony and Bavaria. Henry was defeated in 
 the unequal strife, and was i^laced inidcr the ban 
 of the Empire, wlnle the duchy of Sa.vony was 
 nwaiiieil to Albert the Bear of lirandonbtirg, and 
 the duchy of Bavaria fell to tho share of Leopold 
 IV. (1138). Henry the Proud died in tlie follow- 
 ing year, leaving behind him a son under age, 
 who was known later on as Ileury the Lion. His 
 uncle Welf would not submit to the forfeiture by 
 his house of their old domiuious, and marched 
 
 against Tjcopold torccon(iupr Bavaria, but bown» 
 defeated by Conrad at tlie buttle of Weinsbcrg 
 (ll-tD). Leopold <lied shortly after this victory, 
 and was succeeded both in the <luchy of Bavaria 
 and in the margraviate of Austria by his brother, 
 Henry II." Henry II. endeavored to strengthen 
 himself in Bavaria by marrying the widow of 
 Henry tlie Proud, and by extorting from her son, 
 Ilonry the Lion, a renunciation of the lalter'.s 
 rights. But Henry the Lion afterwards repudi- 
 ated his renunciation, and in tb'iO the German 
 diet decided that Bavaria should bo restored to 
 him. Henry of Austria was wisely persuaded 
 to yield to the decision, anil Bavaria was given 
 tip. " He lost nothing by this unwilling act of 
 disinterestedness, for he secured from the emperor 
 considerable compensation. From tlii.s time for- 
 ward, Austria, which had been largely increased 
 by the addition of the greater part of the lands 
 lying between tlie Enns and the Inn, was re- 
 moved from its almost nominal subjection to 
 Bavaria and became a .separate duchy [Henry II. 
 being the lirst hereditary Duke of Aiistria]. Aii 
 imperial edict, dated the Ststof September, ll.ICi, 
 declares the new duchy hereditary even in the 
 foinale line, and authorizes the dukes to absent 
 themselves from all diets except those whidi were 
 held in Bavarian territory. It also permits them, 
 in case of a tlireatoned o.vtinction of theirdynasty. 
 to proiiose a successor. . . . Henry II. was one 
 of the founders of Vienna. He constructed a 
 fortress there, and, in order to civili/.e the sur- 
 rouiKling country, sent for some Scotch monks, 
 of whom there were many at this time in Ger- 
 many." In 1177 Heni'v II. was succeeded by 
 Leopold v., called tho Virtuous. " In his reign 
 the duchy of Austria gained Styria, an iir;/ortant 
 addition to its territory. This province was in- 
 habited by Slovenes and Germans, and took its 
 name from the castle of Steyor, built in 080 by 
 Otokar III., cotmt of the Trungau. In 1050, it 
 was created a iiiargraviate, and in 1150 it was 
 enlarged by the addition of the counties of Maii- 
 bor (Marburg) and Cilly. In 1180, Otokar VI. 
 of Styria (1104-1192)obtained the hereditary title 
 of duke from the Emperor in return for his help 
 against Henry the Lion." Dying without cliil- 
 dreii, Otokar made Leopold of Austria bis heir. 
 " Styria was annexed to Austria in 1192, and has 
 remained so ever since. . . . Leopold V. is the 
 first of the Austrian ]irinces whose name is known 
 in Western Europe. He joined the third crusade, " 
 and quarrelled with Richard Coeur de Lion at 
 the siege of St. Jean d' Acrc. Afterwards, when 
 Ricliard, returning liomo by the Adriatic, at- 
 temiited to pass through Austrian territory in- 
 cognito, Leopold revenged himself by seizing 
 and imprisoning the English king, finally selling 
 his royal captive to a still meaner Emperor for 
 20,000 marks. Leopold VI. who succeeded to 
 the Austrian duchy in 1198, did much for the 
 commerce of his country. ' ' He made Vienna tlie 
 staple tovn, and lent a sum of 30,000 marks of 
 silver to the city to enable it to increase its trade. 
 He adorned it with mauy new buildings, among 
 tliom the None Burg." His son, called Frederick 
 the Fighter (1230-1346) was the last of theBaben- 
 berg dynasty. His hand was against all his 
 neighbors, including the Emperor Frederick IL. 
 and their liands were against him. He pcrislied 
 in June, 1240, on the banks of the Leitlia, while 
 at war with the Hungarians. — L. Lcgcr, Ilist. of 
 Austvo-IIuiujary, ch. 9. 
 
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AUHTUIA, rjw-iaw. 
 
 fiinttihth «/ 
 Ihitttbu 
 
 uii)tbury. 
 
 AU8TUI.V, 12lrt-13b}. 
 
 A1.H0 IN: E. F. IlcndtTH-m, SUd Ifinl. Duft. nf 
 the Miiltlle Ai/m. Iik. 'i, no. 7. 
 
 A. D. I346-I383.— Rodolph of Hapiburs 
 and the acquisition of the Duchy for his 
 family. — "'Inr House nf Au-itriit Dwcs its origin 
 and povviT to Hliinloljili of IIa|)Hliui'i;li, Hoii of 
 Albert IV. cdunt of lla|>HlMirt,'li. Tlio AuHtiiiui 
 KciicaloKists. who have taken inclefatli;aiil(! but 
 luelTcetuul pahiK to trace his Illustrious ilesi'etit 
 from thu Koniaiis, carry It with Krcat pniliahlllty 
 to Ktlilco, (luku of Alstu'i', III the sevi'iilh century, 
 aM<l uui|UL'stlonalily to (iuntraui \\u'. Itleh, count 
 of Alsacu 1111(1 Ilrls^^au. who llourislied in the 
 tenth." A Kf""!^"" <'f Ountniin. Werner hy 
 name, " bucaniu bl.sliop of iStrasburjih, anil ou an 
 enilneiicu above Winillsch, built the castle of 
 Ilapsbur^h [' llabichtHbur!,'' 'the castle of vul- 
 tures' 1, which becanu! the residence of the future 
 counts, and gave a new title to the descendants 
 of Ountram. . . . The successors of Werner In- 
 creased their fai'iily Inheritance by marrlai;es, 
 donations from the Emperoi-s, and by becoming 
 prefects, advocates, or administrators of the 
 neljfhbourlng abbeys, towns, or districts, and his 
 gri grandsim, Albert III., was possessor of no 
 ill .siderablu territories in Suabia, Alsace, and 
 that part of Switxurlaiid which is now called the 
 Argau, and held tin; landgnivlate of Upper 
 ^visace. Ills son, Uhodolp'i, received from the 
 Kinperur, in addition to his paternal inheritance, 
 the town and district of Lauffenburgh. an im- 
 perial city on tile Uliine. lie aci|uirv(l also a 
 considerable acces-siou of lerritrry by obtalniiii; 
 the advocacy of Uri, Scliwdtz, and Under- 
 walden, whoso natives laid the foundation of the 
 Helvetic Confederacy, by their union against the 
 oppressions of feudal tyranny." — W. Co.se, IIM. 
 vf the IldiiHe of Aimtrid, ch. 1. — "(Jn the death 
 (if Hodolpli In 1233 his estates were divided 
 between Ids sons Albert IV. and Uixlolph II. ; 
 the former receiving the landgravlute of L'pper 
 Al.saee. and the county of Hapsburg, togetlicr 
 with the patrimonial castle ; the latter, the coun- 
 ties Hlieinfelden and LautTenburg, and some 
 other territories. Albert espoused Iledwige, 
 daughter of Ulric, count of Kybiirg; and from 
 this union sprang the great UiKlolph, who was 
 burn on the Ist of Aiay 1218, and was pre- 
 sented at the baptismal font by tlie Emperor 
 Frederic II. On the death of his father Albert 
 in 1340, Rodolph succeeded to his estates ; but 
 the greater portion of these were in the hands of 
 his paternal iincle, Rodolph of Laullenburg; 
 and all lie could call his own lay within sight of 
 the great Imll of his castle. . . . Ills disposition 
 was waywanl and restless, and drew him into 
 repeated contests with his neighbours and rela- 
 tions. ... In a ([uarrel with the Bishop of 
 Basic, Rodolph led his troops against that city, 
 and burnt a convent in the sidiurbs, for which 
 he was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV. 
 He then entered the service of Ottocar II. King 
 of Bohemia, imder whom he served, in company 
 with the Teutonic Knights, in his wars against 
 the Prussian pagans; and afterwards against 
 Bela IV. King of Hungary." The surprising 
 election, in 1373, of tids little known count of 
 Hapsburg, to be King of tlie Romans, with the 
 substance if not the title of the imperial dignitj 
 which that ckctioa carried with it, was due to a 
 singular frieuu'ship which he had acquired some 
 fourteen years before. When Archbishop Wer- 
 ner, Elector of Meatz, was on his way to Rome 
 
 In 12.'D. to receive the pallium, he " \\n% enrnrtod 
 across till' Alps bv RiHlolph of llapsliurg, and 
 under Ills proteelfiiii seeurecl from ihe robliers 
 who beset the pass<'S, Channed with the allii- 
 blllty and frankness of his protector, (he Arcli- 
 bishop conceived a slroint regard for Uodolph;" 
 and when. In 1272, iifli r the nieat Interregnum 
 Isee Okum.vnv: A. 1) f.VV)-12?'.;|, the (iermanic 
 Electors found dlllleiillv In choosing an Em- 
 peror, the Elector of .\|eiit/, reeemmendeil his 
 i'rieiid III' Hapsburg as a camlldale. "The 
 Electors an- described by a contemporary as 
 desiring an Empemr but detesting bis jMiwer. 
 The comparative' lowliness of the Count of 
 Hapsburg recoinmeniled lilm as one from whom 
 their aiithorltv stood in little jeopardy ; but the 
 cliiims of tlK^Klngof Holienil;i were vigorously 
 urged; and it was at length agreed to decide the 
 election by the voice of the Duki^ of llavarla. 
 Eewis without hesitation noiniiiaied Roilolph. 
 . . . 'V\w early days of Rodolph's reign wero 
 diKlurbed by the contumacy of Ottocar, King of 
 Itohemla. ^Phat Prince . . . persisted in refus- 
 ing to acknowledge the Count of Hapsburg as 
 his soveridgn. Possessed of the diitchles of 
 Austria, Styria, Carnlola and Carinthia, he ndght 
 rely upon his own resources; and lie was forli- 
 lied in his resistance by the alliance of Henry, 
 Duke of I<ower Bavaria. But the very posses- 
 sion of these four great fiefs was suttlcient to 
 draw down the envy and distrust of the other 
 Qerman Princes. To all these territories, in- 
 deed, the title of f)ttocar was sulllciently dis- 
 putable. On the death of Frederic II. fifth 
 duke of Austria [and last of the Babenberg 
 dynasty] In 124(1, tliat dutcliy, together with 
 Sty I la and Carniola, was claimed bv his nieco 
 Oertrude and his sister Margaret. IJy i. mar- 
 riage with the latter, and a victory over Bela IV. 
 King of Hungary, whose uncle married Uer- 
 triide, Ottocar obtained po.ssession of Austria 
 and Styria; and in virtue of a purchase from 
 Ulric, I)nko of Carinthia and Carniola, he pos- 
 sessed himself of those dutchies on Ulric's death 
 in 1269, in detiaiice of tlie claims of Pliillp, 
 brother of the late Duke. Against so ))owerful 
 a rival the Princes a.ssembled at Augsburg 
 readily voted succours to Rodolph; and Ottocar 
 having refused to surrender the Austrian domin- 
 ions, and even hanged the heralds who wero 
 sent to pronounce tlie coiise(iueiit sentence of 
 Iiroscription, Rodolph with his accustomed 
 l)romptitnde took tlic field [1276], and con- 
 founded his enemy by a rapid march upon 
 Austria. In his way he surprised and van- 
 quished the reljel Duke of Bavaria, whom ho 
 compelled to join his fortes; he besieged and 
 reduced to the last extremity the city of Vienna; 
 and had already i)repared a bridge of boats to 
 cross the Danube and invade Bohemia, when 
 Ottocar arrested his progress by a message of 
 submission. The terms agr';ed upon were 
 severely humiliating to the i)roi.ul soul of (Jtto- 
 car," and he was so<m in revolt i!gain, with the 
 support of the Duke of Bavaiia. Roilolpli 
 marched against him, and a desperat;! battle was 
 fought at Marschfeld, August 26, 1278. in which 
 Ottocar, deserted at a critical moment, by the 
 Moravian trooi)s, was defeated and slain. " The 
 total loss of the Bohemians on that falnl day 
 amounted to more than 14,000 men. In the 
 lirst moments of his triumph, Rodolph designed 
 to appropriate the domiuious of his dcceused 
 
 199 
 
AUSTRIA, 1246-1883. 
 
 AUSTKIA, 1201-1319. 
 
 oncniy. But liis avidity was restrained by tlio 
 I'riiices of tlie Empire, wlio interposed ou belialt 
 (if the son of Oltociir; and Wcnceslaua was per- 
 iiiitled to ri'liiiii liolieniia and Moravia. Tlie 
 projected union of liie two families was now 
 reneweci: Judilli of llapsburg was alllauced to 
 tlie young King of Boliemia; wliose sister Agnes 
 was marrle(i to Hodolpli, youngest son of tlie 
 King of the Homaus." lu 1283, Rodolpb, 
 "after satisfying tlie several claimants to those 
 territories by various cessions of lands . . . ob- 
 tained the consent of a Diet held at Augsburg to 
 •he settlement of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, 
 upon his two surviving sons; who were accord- 
 ingly jointly invested with those dutchics with 
 great pomp and solemnity ; and they are r t this 
 hour enjoyed by the descendants of Rodo ph of 
 llapsburg!"— Sir R. Comyn, Uiat. of the Western 
 Empire, ch. 14. 
 
 Also i.v : .1. Planta, Jfi.st. of the Helvetic Confed- 
 eracy, bk. 1. ch. Tt (i\ 1). 
 
 A. D. 1282-1315. — Relations of the House of 
 Hapsburg to the Swiss Forest Cantons. — 
 The Tell Legend.— The Battle of Morgarten. 
 See SwiTZEUi.ANi): Thk Tiikke FouKsf Can- 
 tons. 
 
 A. D. 1390. — Beginning of Hapsburg designs 
 upon the crown of Hungary. Sei' Iuxoakv: 
 A. I). Illl-i:i01, 
 
 A. D. 1291-1349. — Loss and recovery of the 
 imperial crown. — Liberation of Switzerland. 
 — Conflict between Fredericic and Lewis of 
 Bavaria. — The imperial crown lost once more. 
 — Itiidolf of llapsburg desired the title of King 
 of the Romans for his sou. "But tlie electors 
 already fo\ind that the new house of Austria was 
 becoming too iiowerfui, and they refused. Ou 
 Iiis death, in fact, in 1291, a prince from another 
 family, poor and obscure, Adolf of Nassau, was 
 elected after an interregnum of ten mouths. His 
 reign of si.\ years is marked by two events; ho 
 sold himself to P^dward I. in 1291, against Philip 
 the Fair, for 100,000 pounds sterling, and used 
 the money in an attempt to obtain in Tlmringia 
 a principality for liis family as Rudolf liad done 
 in Austria. The electors were displeased and 
 chose Albert of Austria to succeed him, who 
 conquered and liillcd his adversary at Gollhcim, 
 near Worms (1298). Tlie ten years reign of the 
 new king of the Romans showed that he was 
 very ambitious for liis family, which be -vislied 
 to establi.sh ou the throne of Bohemi'i wlierj the 
 Slavonic dynasty had lately died o.it, and also in 
 Tlmringia and ^Meissen, wliere he lost a battle. 
 He was also bent upon extei'fling his riglits, even 
 unjiistly— 'u Alsace and Switzerland — and it 
 proved an unfortunate venture for liim. For, 
 ou the one hand, he roused the three Swiss can- 
 tons of Uri, Scbweitz, and Unterwalden to 
 revolt; on the other hand, be roused the wrath 
 of his ncpliew .lohu of Swabia, wliom he 
 defrauded of his inlieritanco (domains in Switzer- 
 land, Swabia. and Alsace). As he was crossing 
 tlie Reuss, .lolin thrust him through with his 
 sword (i;i08). The assassin escjiped. One of 
 AUierl's daughters, Agnes, dowager queen of 
 Hungary, had more than a thousand innocent 
 people killed to avenge the death of her father. 
 The greater part of the present Switzerland had 
 been originally included in tlie Kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy, and was ceded to the empire, together 
 with that kingdom, in 103U. A feudal nobility, 
 lay and ecclesiastic, had gained a firm footing 
 
 there. Nevertheless, by tlie 12th century the 
 cities had ri.sen to some Importance. Znri<'li, 
 Basel, Bern, and Freiburg had an extensive com- 
 merce and obtained municipal privileges. 'I'hree 
 little canton.s, far in the heart of the Swiss moun- 
 tains, jireserved more than all the others their in- 
 domitable spirit of independence. When Ai.jcrt 
 of Austria became Emperor [King?] be arro- 
 gantly tried toencroach up(m their independence. 
 Three heroic mountaineers, Wi.rner StaiifTacher, 
 Arnold of ^lelchthal, and Walter FiU'st. each 
 witli ten chosen f..ends, conspired together at 
 RlUli, to throw olf the yoke. The tyranny of 
 the Austrian bailill Oesslcr, and William Tell's 
 well-aimed arrow, if tradition is to bo believed, 
 gave the signal for the insurrection [see Swit- 
 zerland: The Three Forest Cantons]. 
 Albert's violent death left to Leopold, his suc- 
 cessor in the duchy of Austria, the care of 
 repressing the rebellion. lie failed and was 
 completely defeated ot Jlortgorten (1315). That 
 was Switzerland's field of Mai .Uhon. . . . Wlien 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg was chosen by the electors, 
 it was because of his poverty and weakness. At 
 his deatli accordingly they did not give their 
 votes for his son Albert. . . . Albert, however, 
 succeeded in overthrowing his rival. But ou his 
 death they were firm in their decision not to 
 give tlie crown for a third time to the new and 
 ambitious house of Hapsburg. They likewise 
 refused, for similar reasons, to accept Cliarles of 
 Valois, brother of Philip the F'ir, whom the 
 latter tried to place on the imperial throne, in 
 order tliat he might indirectly rule over Ger- 
 many. They supported the Couut of Luxem- 
 burg, who became Henry VII. By choosing em- 
 perors ['ingsV] wlio were poor, theeleotors placed 
 them vinder the temi)tation of enriching them- 
 selves at the expense of the empire. Adolf 
 failed, it is true, in Thuringia, but Rudolf 
 gained Austria l)y victory; Henry succeeded in 
 Boliemia bj- means of miu'riage, and Bohemia 
 was wortli more than Austria at that time 
 beeatiso, besides Moravia, it was made to cover 
 Silesia and a jiart of Lusatia (Oberlausitz). 
 Henry's son, John of Luxemburg, married the 
 lieires i to that royal crown. As for Henry him- 
 self lie remained as poor as before. He had a 
 vigorous, restless spirit, and went to try bis for- 
 tunes on his own account bej'ond the Alps. . . . 
 He was seriously threatening Naples, when ho 
 died cither from some sickness or from being poi- 
 soned by a Dominican in partaking of the host 
 (1313). A year's interregnum followed ; then two 
 emperors [kings Vj at once : Lewis of Bavaria and 
 Frederick the Fair, son of tlie Emperor Albert. 
 After eight years of war, Lewis gained his i)oint 
 by the victory of Mlihldorf (1322V which deliv- 
 ered Frederick into his liauds. Ho kept him in 
 captivity for three years, and at the end of that 
 time became reconciled witli him, and they were 
 on such good terms that both boro the title of 
 King and governed in conunon. Tlie fear 
 inspired in Lewis bv France and the Holy See 
 dictated tliis singular agreement. Henry VII. 
 had revived tlie policy of interference by the 
 f Jermau emperors in the affairs of Italy, and had 
 kindled again the quarrel with the Papacy 
 which had long appeared extinguished. Lewis 
 IV. did tlie same. . . . AVliilo Boniface VIH. 
 was making war on Philip the Fair, Albert 
 allied himself with him; when, on the other 
 hand, the Papacy was reduced to the state of a 
 
 200 
 
AUSTRIA, 1291-1349. 
 
 Acquisition of 
 Tyrol. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1330-1304. 
 
 servile nuxilinry to France, tlic Emperor returned 
 to liis former lio.stility. When ex-communicated 
 by I'ope Jolin XXII., wlio wislied to give tlie 
 empire to tlie king of France, Clinrles IV., 
 Lewis IV. made use of tlie same weapons. . . . 
 Tired of a crown loaded with anxieties, Lewis 
 of Bavaria was Anally about to submit to the 
 Pope and al dieate, wlien the electors perceived 
 the necessity of supporting their Emperor and of 
 fiiiiiii'.Hy releasing the supremo power from 
 foreign dependency which brought the whole 
 nation to shame. That was the object of the 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Frankfort, pronounced in 
 1338 by tlie Diet, on the report of the electors. 
 . . . The king of France and Pope Clement VI., 
 whose claims were directly alTected by this 
 declaration, set up against Lewis IV. Charles of 
 Luxemburg, son of John the Blind, who became 
 king of Bohemia in 1340, when his father had 
 been killed lighting on tlie French side at the 
 battle of Crecy. Lewis died the following year. 
 He had gained possession of Brandenburg and 
 the Tyrol for his house, but it was unable to 
 retain possession of them. The latter county 
 reverted to the house of Austria in 1303. The 
 electors most hostile to the French i)arty tried to 
 put up, as a rival candidate to Charles of Lux- 
 emburg, Edward III., king of England, who 
 refused the empire; then they offered it to a 
 brave knight, Gunther of Sehwarzburg, who 
 (lied, perhaps poisoned, after a few months (1349). 
 The king of Bohemia then became Emperor as 
 Charles IV. by a second election." — V. Duruy, 
 T/ie. Histvni of the Middle Ages, bk. 9, ch. 30.— 
 See, also, Ukumanv: A. I> 1314-1347. 
 
 A. ^. 1330-1364. — Forged charters of Duke 
 Rudolf. — The Privilegium Majus. — His as- 
 sumption of the Archducal title. — Acquisition 
 of Tyrol. — Treaties of inheritance with bohe- 
 mia and Hungary. — King .John, of Bohemia, had 
 uiarrieii his second son, .John Ilenry, at the ago 
 of eight, to the afterwards notable JIargaret 
 Jlaultasehe (Pouchmouth), daughter of the duke 
 of Tyrol and Carinthia, who was then twelve 
 years old. He hoped by this means to reunite 
 those provinces to Bohemia. To thwart this 
 scheme, the Emperor, Louis of Bavaria, and the 
 two Austrian princes, Albert the Wise and Otto 
 the Gay. came to an understanding. "By the 
 treaty of Hageiiau (1330), it was arranged that 
 on the death of duke Henry, who had no male 
 heirs, Carinthia should become the property of 
 Austria, Tyrol that of the Emperor. Ilenry 
 died in 1335, whereupon the Emperor, Louis of 
 Bavaria,, declared that Margaret Maultasche had 
 forfeited all rights of inheritance, and proceeded 
 to assign the two provinces to the Austrian 
 princfj, with the exception of some portion of 
 the Tyrol which devolved on the house of Wit- 
 telsbaeh. Carinthia alone, however, obeyed the 
 Emperor ; the Tyrolese nobles declared for Mar- 
 garet, and, with the help of John of Bohemia, 
 this princess was able to keep possession of this 
 part of her inheritance. . . . Carinthia also did 
 not long remain in the undisputed possession of 
 Austria. Margaret was soon divorced from her 
 very youthful husband (1342), and shortly after 
 married the son of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, 
 who hoped to be able to invest his son, not only 
 with Tyrol, but also with Carinthia, and once 
 more we lind the houses of Hapsburg and Lux- 
 emburg united by a common interest. . . . When 
 ■ . . Charles IV. of Bohemia was chosen em- 
 
 l)eror, he consented to leave Carinthia in the 
 pos.session of Austria. Albert did homage for it. 
 . . . According to tlu' wish of their father, the 
 four sons of Albert reigned after him; but tlio 
 eldest, Rudolf IV., exercised executive authority 
 in the name of the others [1358-130.')]. ... Ho 
 was only 19 when he came to the throne, but ho 
 had already married one of the daughters ol the 
 Emperor Charles IV. NotwitliHtandiiig this 
 family alliance, Charles had not given Austria 
 such a place in the Golden Bull [see Gekmany: 
 A. H. 1347-1492] as seemed likely to secure 
 either her territorial importance or a projier 
 position for her princes. They had not been 
 admitted into the eletloral cellege of the ICmpire, 
 and yet their scattered po.ssessions stretched from 
 the banks of the Leitlia to the Rhine. . . . These 
 grievances were enhanced by their feeling of 
 envy towards Bohemia, which had attained great 
 prosperity under Charles IV. Jt was at this 
 time that, in order to increase the importance of 
 his house, Rudolf, or his ollicers of state, had 
 recourse to a measure which was often employed 
 in that age by princes, religious bodies, and 
 even by the Holy See. It was pretended that 
 then; were in (existence a whole series of charters 
 which had been granted to the house of Austria 
 by various kings and emperors, and which 
 secured to their princes a position entirely inde- 
 pendent of both empire and Emperor. Accord- 
 ing to these documents, and more especially the 
 one called the 'privilegium majus,' the duke of 
 Austria owed no kind of service to the empire, 
 which was, however, bound to protect him ; . . . 
 he was to appear at the diets with the title of 
 archduke, and was to have the first place among 
 the electors. . . . Rudolf pretended that these 
 documentshad justcometo light, and demanded 
 their coniirmation from Charles IV., who refused 
 it. Nevertheless on the strength of these lying 
 charters, he took the title of palatine archduke, 
 without waiting to ask the leave of Charles, and 
 used the royal insignia. Charles IV., who could 
 not fail to be irritated by these pretensions, in his 
 turn revived the claims which he had inherited 
 from Premysl Otokar II. t" tli! lands of Austria, 
 Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. These claims, 
 however, were simply theorei icul, and no all. . :it 
 was made to enforce then', nnd the mediation of 
 Louis the Great, King of j lungary, linally led to 
 a treaty between the two princes, which satisUed 
 the ambition of the H bsburgs (1304). By this 
 treaty, the houses of Habsburg in Austria imd of 
 Luxemburg in Bohemia each guaranteed the in- 
 heritance oj their lands to the other, in case of 
 the extinction of cither of the two families, and 
 the estates of Bohemia and Austria ratilied th s 
 agreement. A similar (ompact was concluded 
 between Austria and Hungary, and thus the 
 boundaries of the future Austrian state were for 
 the first time marked out. Rudolf himself 
 gained little by these long and intricate negoti- 
 ations, Tyrol being all he added to his territcvry. 
 Margaret Maultasche had married her sou Meiu- 
 liard to the daughter of Albert the Wise, at the 
 same time declaring that, in default of heirs male 
 to her son, Tyrol should once more become the 
 possession of Austria, and it did so in 1303. 
 Rudolf immediately set out for Botzen, anil there 
 received the homage of the Tyrolese nobles. . . . 
 The acquisition of Tyrol was most important to 
 Austria. It united Austria Proper with the old 
 possessions of the Habsburgs in Western Oer- 
 
 201 
 
AUSTRIA, 1330-1304. 
 
 T!w lluuduriim 
 C'yowH. 
 
 AUSTUIA, 1438-1403. 
 
 mnny, and opened the way to Italy. !Margaret 
 Maiillasclio died at Vienna in KiCiU. The memory 
 of tills restless and dissolute princes.s still survives 
 BMioni; the Tyriilese." — L. Leger, Jlint.oJ ^iu^lro- 
 Uiiiii/ii)-!/, pp. 143-148. 
 
 A. D. 1386-1388.— Defeats by the Swiss at 
 Sempach and Naefels. See Switmculani): 
 A. I). i:!80-i;wH. 
 
 A. D. 1437-1516.— Contests for Hungary and 
 Bohemia.— The right of Successioa to the Hun- 
 garian Crown secured. — "Euroi'.e would liiive 
 na<l nothing to fear from the JJarhariiuis. if Hun- 
 gary had been permanently united to IJohemia, 
 and had held them in eheek. Hut Hungary in- 
 terfered both with the independence and the re- 
 ligion of Hoheuiia. In this way they weakened 
 caeh other, an<l in the 15lli century wavered be- 
 tween the two Sclavonic and German ])owers on 
 their borders (Poland and Austria) [se^.- HrNr.AKY; 
 A. I). 1301-1443, and 1'143-1458J. United undei 
 a German i)rinee from 1455 to 145S, .separated 
 for a time iinder national sovereigns (Bohemia 
 initil 1471, Hungary iintil 1490), they were once 
 niori united mider Polish princes until 152(5, at 
 wbii h period they passed delinitively into the 
 hands of Austria. After the reign of Ladislas of 
 Austria, who won so much glory by the exploits 
 of John Ilunniades, George Podiebrad obtained 
 the crown \f( Uohemia, and Matthias Corvinus, 
 the son of llumiiades, was elected King of Hun- 
 gary (1458). These two jjrinces opposed suc- 
 cessfully the chimerical i)reteusioii8 of the Em- 
 peror Frederick III. Podiebrad protected the 
 llussites and incurred the enmity of the Popes. 
 JIatthias victoriously encountered the Turks and 
 obtained the favour of Paul II., who offered him 
 the crown of Podiebrad, his father-in-law. The 
 latter opposed to the hostility of JIatlhias the 
 alliance of the Kingof Poland, whose cld'^t son, 
 Ijadislas, lie designated as liis successor At the 
 same time, Casimir, the brother of Lam las, en- 
 deavoured to take from Slatthias the crown of 
 Hungary. Matthias, thus pressed on all sides, 
 was obliged to renoinice t he conquest of IJohemia, 
 and content him.self with the i)roviuces of Mora- 
 via, Silesia, and Lusatia, which were to return 
 to Ladislas if Matthias died first (1475-1478). 
 Tlie King of Hungary compensated himself at 
 the exiiense of Austria. On the pretext that 
 Frederick HI. liad refused to give him his 
 daugliter, lie twice invaded liis states and re- 
 tained them in his posses.siou [see Hunoahy: 
 A. I). 1471-1487]. With thisgi-eat prince Chris- 
 tendom lost its chief defender, Hungary her con- 
 quests and her political preponderance (1490). 
 The civilization which he had tried to introduce 
 into his kingdcmi was deferred for many cen- 
 turies. . . . Ladislas (of Poland), King of Bohe- 
 mia, having been elected King of Hungary, was 
 attacked by his brother John Albert, and by 
 Maximilian of Austria, who both i>rctcnded to 
 tliat crown. He aiijicased his brother by the ces- 
 sion of Silesia (1491), and Maximilian by vesting 
 in the House of Austria the right of succession 
 to tlie throne of Hungary, in case lie himself 
 should die without male issue. Under Lad- 
 islas, and under his son Louis II., who succeeded 
 him while still a child, in 1510 Hungarv was 
 ravaged with impunity by the Turks. " — J. Jliche- 
 let, A SiiviiiKiri/ of Modern llhUn-y, ck. 4.— See, 
 also, Boiikmia; A. I). 14.58-1471. 
 
 A. D. 1438-1493.— The Imperial Crown last- 
 ingly regained. — The short reign of Albert II., 
 
 and the long reign of Frederick III. — "After 
 the death of Siglsniund. the |irinces, in 1438, 
 elected an emperor [kingVj from the house of Aus- 
 tria, wliicli, with scarcely any intermission, has 
 ever since occupied the ancient throne of Ger- 
 many. Albert II. of Austria, who, as son-in-law 
 of the late Emperor Sigismund, had become at 
 thesame time Kingof Hungary and Bohemia, was 
 a well-meaning, distinguislied prince, iiud would, 
 without doulit, have proved of great benefit to the 
 empire; but he died ... in the second year of 
 his reign, after his return from an expedition 
 against the Turks. . . . In the year 1431, during 
 the reign of Sigismund, a new council was assem- 
 bled at Basle, in order to carry on the work of re- 
 forming the church as already commenced at Con- 
 stance. But this council .soon became engaged 
 in many perplexing controversies with Po])e Eu- 
 gene IV. . . . The Germans, for a time, took no 
 part in the dispute; at length, however, under 
 the Emperor [King?] Albert II., they formally 
 adopted the chief decrees of the council of Basle, 
 at a diet held at Mentz in the year 1439. . . . 
 Amongst the resolutions then adopted were .such 
 as iiiiileiially circumscribed the existing privi- 
 legesof the pope. . . . Tliese and other decisions, 
 calculated to give important privileges and con- 
 siderable independence to the German church, 
 were, in a great measure, annulled by Albert's 
 cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of Austria, 
 who was elected by the i)riiices after liim in the 
 year 1440, as Frederick III. . . . Frederick, the 
 emperor, was a prince who meant well but, at 
 thesame time, was of too quiet and easy a nature; 
 bis long reign presents but little that was calcu- 
 lated to distinguish Germany or add to its re- 
 nown. From the east the empire was endangered 
 by the approach of an enemy — the Tui-ks, against 
 whom IK) precautionarv measures were adojited. 
 They, on the 29th of ^lay, 1453, conquered Con- 
 stantinople. . . . They then made their way to- 
 wards the Danube, and very nearly succeeded 
 also in taking Hungary [see Hukoauy: A. D. 
 1443-1458]. . . . The Hungarians, on the death 
 of the son of the Emperor Albert II., "VViadislas 
 Posthumus, in the year 1457, without leaving an 
 heir to the throne, chose JIatthias, the son of 
 John Corvinus, as king, being resolved not to 
 elect one from amongst the Austrian princes. 
 The Bohemians likewise selected a private noble- 
 man for their king, George Padriabrad [or Podie- 
 brad], and tlius the Austria'! house found itself 
 for a time rej'icted from holding possession of 
 either of iXw&y. countries. ... In Germany, 
 meantime, there existed numberk.ss contests and 
 feuds; each party considered only his own per- 
 sonal quarrels. . . . The cinpe?'or could not give 
 any weight to jjublic measures ; scarcely could 
 he maintain his dignity amongit his own sub- 
 jects. The Austrian nobility" were even bold 
 enough to send challenges to their sovereign; 
 whilst the city of Vienna revolted, 'ind his brother 
 Albert, taking pleasure in this disorder, was not 
 backward in adding to it. Things even went to 
 such an extremity, that, in 1402, the Emperor 
 Frederick, together with his consort and son, 
 Maximilian, tlien four years of age, was besieged 
 by his subjects in his own castle of Vienna. A 
 plebeian burgher, nami.-' Ilolzer, liad jilaced him- 
 self at the head of the insurgents, 1 nd was made 
 burgomaster, whilst Duke Albert ci>.me to Vienna 
 personally to superintend the siege of the castle, 
 which was intrenched and boitibarded. . . . The 
 
 202 
 
AUSTRIA, 1438-1403. 
 
 The Burgundian 
 Marriage. 
 
 AUSTHIA, 1477-1495. 
 
 German princes, however, could not witness witli 
 iiidifterence such ilisgrnccful treiitment of tlieir 
 emperor, and tliey assembled to liberate bini. 
 George Padriabrad', King of Hohen.ia, >.-as the first 
 who hastened to the spot with assistance, set the 
 emiieror at liberty, and ellectcd a reconciliation be- 
 tween him and his brother. The emperor, how- 
 ever, was obliged to resign to him, for eight 
 years. Lower Austria and Vienna. Albert died 
 ni the following year. ... In the Germanic 
 empire, the voice of the emperor was as littlo 
 heeded as in his hereditarv hinds. . . . The 
 feudal system raged under f reilerick's reign to 
 such an e.vtent, tliat it was pursued even by the 
 lower classes. Thus, in 1471, the shoeblacks in 
 Leipsic sent a challenge to the university of that 
 place; and the bakers of the C( ,nt Palatine 
 Lewis, and those of the Margrave of Baden defied 
 several imperial cities in Swabia. The most im- 
 portant transaction in the reign of Frederick, was 
 the uuion which he formed with the house of 
 Burgimdy, and which laid tlie foundation for the 
 greatness of Austria. ... In the year 1486, the 
 whole of the assembled princes, infiuenced es- 
 ])ecially by the representations of the faithful 
 and now venerable Albert, called the Achilles of 
 Hnmdenburg, elected JIaximiliau, the emperor's 
 sou, King of Home. Indeed, about this period 
 a clianged and improved spirit began to show 
 itself in a remarkable degree in the minds of 
 many throughout the empire, so that the pro- 
 found conten'iplator of commg events might easily 
 see the dawn of a new era. . . . These last years 
 were the best in the whole life of the emperor, 
 ami yielded to him in return for Ins many suffer- 
 ings that trau(iuillity which was so well merited 
 l^y his failhful generous disposition. He died 
 on the I'Jtli of August, 1403, after a reign of 54 
 vears. The emperor lived long enough to obtain, 
 in the year 1400, tlic restoration of his hereditary 
 estates by the death of King llattliias, by means 
 of a compact made with Wladislas, his successor." 
 — F. Koldrausch, Iliston/ of Gcrnmini, ch. 14. — 
 SeeGEUMANv: A. D. 1347-1493. 
 
 A. D. ii|68. — Invasion by George Podiebrad 
 of Bohemia. — The crusade against him. See 
 Bohemia: A. I). 1458-1471. 
 
 A. D. 1471-1491. — Hungarian invasion and 
 capture of Vienna. — Treaty of Presburg. 
 —Succession to the throne of Hungary 
 secured. — " George, King of Bohemia, expired 
 in 1471; and the claims of the Kmperor and 
 King of Hungary being equally disregarded, the 
 crown was conferred on Uladislaus, son of 
 Casimir IV. King of Poland, and grandson of 
 Albert II. To this election Freileric long per- 
 sisted in withholding his assent; but at 
 leugtli he detennined to crush the claim of 
 JIailhias by formally investing Uladislaus Ati*b 
 the kingdom and electorate of Bohemia, and the 
 office of imperial cup-bearer. In revenge for 
 this affront, Matthias marched into Austria: took 
 possession of the fortresses of the Danube ; and 
 compelled the Emperor to purchase a cessation 
 of hostilities by undertaking to pay an hundr.'d 
 thousand golden florins, one-half of which was 
 disbursed by the Austrian states at the appointed 
 time. But as the King of Hungary still delayed 
 to yield up the captured fortresses, Frederic 
 rcfu,sed all further payment; and the war was 
 again renewed. Matthias invaded and ravaged 
 Austria ; and though he experienced fornndablo 
 resistance from several towns, his arms were 
 
 crowne<i with success, and he iK'came master of 
 Vienna and Neustadt. Driven from his capital 
 the terrified Emperor was reduced to the utmost 
 distress, and wandered from to\.ii to town and 
 from <'onvent to convent, emleavouriiig to aroiise 
 tlie German States against the Hungarians. Yet 
 even in this exigency his good fDrtune did not 
 wholly forsake him; and I;e availed himself of a 
 Diet at Fraiii I'ort to procure the election of his 
 son Maximilian as King of the Uomans. To this 
 Diet, however, the King of Bohemia received no 
 sununiins, and therefore protested against the 
 validity of the election. A full apology and 
 admissicm of his right easily satisfie<l Uladislaus, 
 and he consented to remit the line which the 
 Golden Bull had fixed as the penalty of the 
 omission. The death of Jlatthias t'orvinus in 
 1400, left the throne of Hungary vacant, and the 
 Hungarians, inlluenced by their widowed (|ueen, 
 conferred the crown upon the King of Bohemia, 
 without listening to the pretensions of ^Maxi- 
 milian. That valorous prince, however, sword 
 in hand, recovered his Austrian domiiuous; and 
 the rival kings concluded a severe contest by the 
 treaty of Presburg, by which Hungary was for 
 the present secured to Uladislaus; but on his 
 ileath without heirs was to vest in the descen- 
 dants of tlie Emperor." — Sir K. C'omyn, The 
 llistoni of the Wextcni Empire, ch. 28 '(0. 2).— 
 Sec HuNCiAiiV: A. D. 1471-1487, and 1487-1520. 
 A. D. 1477-1495. — Marriage of Maximilian 
 V7ith Mary of Burgundy. — His splendid do- 
 minion. — His joyous character. — His vigorous 
 powers. — His ambitions and aims. — ".Maxi- 
 milian, who was as active and enterprising as his 
 father was indolent and timid, married at eigh- 
 teen years of age, the only daughter of Chark'S 
 the Bold, duke of Burgundy [see Nktiieui.anus: 
 A. D. 1477]. She brought him Flanders, 
 Pranchc-Comte, and all the Low Countries. 
 Louis XL, who disputed some of these terri- 
 tories, and who, on the death of the duke, had 
 seized Burgundy, Picardy, Ponthieu, and Arlois, 
 as fiefs of France, whicli could not be i)ossessed 
 by a woman, was defe.ited by Maximilian at 
 Guinegaste; and Charles VIII., who renewed the 
 same claims, was obliged to conclude a disad- 
 vantageous peace." Maximilian succeeded to 
 the imperial throne on the death of Ins father in 
 1403.— W. Russell, Hist, of Modem Europe, letter 
 40 (v. 1). — " Between the Alps and the Bohemian 
 frontier, the mark Austria was first founded 
 round and about the castles of Krems and Jlelk. 
 Since then, beginn ng first in the valley towards 
 Bavaria and Hungary, and coming to the House 
 of Habsburg, it had extended across the whole 
 of the northern slope of the Alps until where the 
 Slavish, Italian, and German tongues part, and 
 over to Alsace; thus becoming an arcliduchy 
 from a mark. On all sides the Archdukes hall 
 claims; on the German side to Switzerland, on 
 the Italian to the Venetian possessions, and on 
 the Slavish to Bohemia and llungary. To sucli 
 a pitch of greatness had Maximilian" by his mar- 
 riage with Maria of Burgundy brought the herit- 
 age received from Charles the Bold. True to 
 the Netherlanders' greeting, in the inscripthm 
 over their gates, 'Thou art our Duke, fight our 
 battle for us,' war was from the first his handi- 
 craft. He adopted Charles the Bold's hosiile 
 attitude towards France; ho saveil the greater 
 part of his inheritance from the schemes of 
 Louis XL Day and uigUt it ..'u< his whole 
 
 203 
 
AUSTRIA, 1477-149S. 
 
 Maxitni'.ian, 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1477-1495. 
 
 thought, to conquer it entirdj'. Hutaftcr Maria 
 of IJurKumly's prcuuiture dcatli, revolution fol- 
 lowed revolution, and his father Frederick lieing 
 too old to protect liimself, it came about that in 
 the year 1488 he was ousted from Austria l)y the 
 Hungarians, whilst liis son was kepta prisoner in 
 Bruges by tlie citizens, and they liail even to fear 
 the estrangement of tlie Tyrol. Yet tliey did 
 not lose courage. At this very time tlic fatlicr 
 denoted with the vowels, A. E. I. O. U. (' Allcs 
 Krdnich ist Oestcrreich unterthan' — AH the 
 earth is subject to Austria), tlie extent of his 
 liopes. In the same year, his son negotiated for 
 a Spanish alliance. Tlieir real strength lay in 
 th(^ imperial dignity of Ma.ximilian, which they 
 had from the German Empire. As soon as it l)e- 
 gan to bestir itself, JIaximilian was set at Iil)erty ; 
 as soon as it supported him in the persons of only 
 a few princes of the Empire, he became lonl in 
 Ills Netlicrlands. . . . Since tlien his plans were 
 directed against Hungary luid Burgundy. In 
 Hungary ho could gain nothing except securing 
 the succession to his house. But never, fre- 
 q\iently as he concluded i)cace, di(i he give up 
 his intentions upon Burgundy. . . . Xow that 
 lie liad allied himself with a Sforzi! and had 
 joined the Liga, now that his father wa.s dead, 
 and the Empire was jiledged to follow him across 
 the mountains, and now, too, tliat tlic Italian 
 complications were threatening Cliarles, he took 
 fresh hope, and in this hope he summoned a Diet 
 at Worms. JIaximilian was a prince of whom, 
 although many portraits Iiave been drawn, yet 
 there is scarcely one that resemliles another, so 
 easily and entirely did he suit himself to circum- 
 stances. . . . Ills soul is full of motion, of joy 
 in tilings, and of plans. There is scarcely any- 
 thing that lie is not capable of doing. In his 
 mines lie is a good screeuer, in his armoury the 
 best plater, capable of instructing others in new 
 inventions. With musket in hand, lie defeats liis 
 best marksman, George Purkliard; with heavy 
 cannon, which lie lias shown how to cast, and 
 lias placed on wheels, he comes as a rule nearest 
 the mark. He commands seven captains in their 
 seven several tongues; he liimself chooses .md 
 mixes liis food and medicines. In the open 
 country, lie feels himself liajipicst. . . . What 
 really distinguishes his public life is that pre- 
 sentiment of the future greatness of his dyuastj 
 wliicli he has inlierited of his father, and the 
 restless striving to attain all that devolved upon 
 him from the House of Burgundy. All his 
 policy and all his schemes were concentrated, 
 not upon his Empire, for the real needs of which 
 he evinced little real care, and not immediately 
 upon the welfare of his liercditary lauds, but 
 upon the realization of that sole idea. Of it all 
 his letters and speeches arc full. ... In March, 
 1495, JIaxiniilian came to the Diet at Wonns. 
 ... At this Reichstag the King gained two 
 momentous prospects. In Wurteraherg there 
 had sprung of two lines two counts of quite 
 opposite characters. . . . AVitli the elder, Maxi- 
 niiiian now entered into a compact. Wurtem- 
 berg was to be raised to a dukedom — an eleva- 
 tion wliich excluded the female line from the 
 succession — and, in the event of the stock fail- 
 iog, wa.a to be a ' widow's portion ' of the realm 
 to tile use of the Imperial Chamber. Now as the 
 sole hopes of this family centred in a weakling 
 of a boy. this arrangement held out to Maximilian 
 and hia successors the prospect of acquiring a 
 
 splendid country. Yet this was the smaller of 
 his two successes. The greater was the espousal 
 of his chihlren, Philip and Mari'aret, with the 
 two children of Ferdinand the Cttholic, ,Iuana 
 and Juan, which was here settled. This openeil 
 to his house still greater expectations, — it 
 brought him at once into the most intimate alli- 
 ance with the Kings of Spain. These matters 
 might possibly, however, have been arranged 
 elsewhere. Wliat Maximilian really wanted in 
 the Reichstag at "Worms was tlie assistance of 
 the Empire against the French with its world- 
 renowned and much-envied soldiery. For at this 
 time in all the wars of Europe, German auxilia- 
 ries were decisive. ... If ^laximilian liad 
 united the whole of this power in his hand, 
 neither Europe nor Asia would have been able to 
 withstand him. But God disposed that it should 
 rather be employed in the cause of freedom than 
 oppression. What an Empire was that which 
 in spite of its vast strength allowed its Emperor 
 to lie expelled from his lieritage, and did not for 
 a long time take steps to bring him back again ? 
 If we examine tlie constitution of the Empire, 
 not as wc sliould picture it toour.selvcs in Jlenry 
 III. '8 time, but as it liad at length become — the 
 legal independence of the several estates, the 
 emptiness of the imperial dignity, the electivc- 
 ness of a head, that afterwards exercised certain 
 rights over the electors, — we are led to inciuire 
 not so much into the causes of its disintegration, 
 for tills concerns us little, as into the way in 
 wliich it was held together. What welded it 
 together, and preserved it, would (leaving tra- 
 dition and the Pope out of the question) apjiear, 
 liefore all else, to have been the rights of in- 
 dividuals, the unions of neighbours, and tlm 
 social regulations which universally obtained. 
 Such were tho.se rights and privileges that not 
 only protected the citizen, his guild, and his 
 quarter of tlio town against his neiglibours ami 
 more powerful men tlian hitisclf, but wliich 
 also endowed him with an iuLer independence. 
 . . . Next, the unions of neighbours. These 
 were not only leagues of cities and peasantries, 
 expanded from ancient fraternities — for who 
 can tell the origin of the Hansa, or the earliest 
 treaty between LI ri and Scliwyz? — into large as- 
 sociations, orof knights, who .str.ngtliened a really 
 insignificant power by confederations of neigli- 
 bours, but also of the princes, who were bound 
 together by joint inheritances, mutual expectan- 
 cies, and the ties of blood, wliich in some cases 
 were very close. Tliis ramification, dependent 
 upon a supreme power and coutirmed by it, bound 
 neighbour to neighbour; and, whilst securing to 
 each his privilege and liis liberty, blended together 
 all countries of Germany in legal bonds of union. 
 But it is only in the social regulations that the 
 unity was really perceivable. Only as long as 
 the Empire was an actual reality, could the su- 
 preme power of the Electors, each with his own 
 .special rights, bo maintained ; only so long could 
 dukes and princes, bishops and abbots hold their 
 neigh) ^urs in due respect, and throiiorh court 
 offices v.- hereditary services, through 'fs and 
 tlie di uity of their independent i' i give 
 
 their vassals a peculiar position vholc. 
 
 Only so long could tlie cities enjoyin iliate- 
 
 ness under the Empire, carefully o d into 
 free and imperial cities, be not merely protected, 
 but also assured of a participation in the govern- 
 ment of the whole. Under this sanctified and 
 
 204 
 
AUSTRIA, 1477-1405. 
 
 ir. tiding 
 Thrift. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1510-1555. 
 
 traditional system of siizeniinty nixl vassalage 
 all were liappy and contented, ami bore a love to 
 it such as is clierialietl towards a native town or 
 a fatlier's house. For some time i)ast, tlic House 
 of A'.istria had enjoyed tlie foremost jjosition. 
 It also had a union, and, moreover, a great fac- 
 tion on its side. Tlio union was tlie Suiil)iau 
 League Old Suabia was divided into tlirce 
 league.^ — the league of tl:e peasantry (tlie origin 
 of Switzerland); the league of tlie Itniglits in tlic 
 Blaclv Forest, on tlie Koclier, tlio Neciiar, and tlio 
 Danube ; and the league of tlic cities. The peas- 
 antry were from the tirst hostile to Austria. The 
 Emperor Frederick brought it to pass that the 
 cities aiul knights, that had from time out of 
 mind lived in feud, bound themselves together 
 with several princes, and forme<l, under his pro- 
 tection, the league of the land of Suabia. IJut 
 the party was scattered throughout the whole 
 Empire." — L. von Ranko, Jlistory of tlie Latin 
 and Teutonic Nations, bk. 1, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1493-1^19. — The Imperial reign of 
 Maximilian. — Formation of the Circie of 
 Austria. — The Aulic Council. See Gkum.\ny: 
 A, 1). 149;!-1519. 
 
 A. D. 1496-1499. — The Swabian War with 
 the SwisF Confederacy and the Graubunden, 
 or Grey Leagues (Grisons). — Practical inde- 
 pendence of both acquired. Sec Switzeikl.us'u: 
 A. 1). 1300-149!). 
 
 A. D. 1496-1526. — Extraordinary aggran- 
 dizement of the House of Austria by its 
 marriages. — The Heritage ot Charles V. — 
 His cession of the German inheritance to 
 Ferdinand. — The division of the House into 
 Spanish and German branches. — Acquisition 
 of Hungary and Bohemia. — In 1400, Philip the 
 Fair, son of Ma.xirailian, Archduke and Emper- 
 or, by his marriage with JIary of Burgundy, 
 "espoused the Infanta of Spain, daughter of 
 Ferdinand [of Aragon] and Isabella of Castile. 
 They had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the 
 former of whom, known in history by the name 
 of Charles V., inherited the Low Countries in 
 iight of his father, Philip (1506). On the death 
 of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather (1510), he 
 became heir to the whole Spanish succession, 
 which comprehended the kingdoms of Spain, 
 Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with 
 Spanish America. To these vast possessions 
 were added his patrimonial dominions in Austria, 
 which were transmitted to him by his paternal 
 grandfather, the Emperor JIa.ximilian I. About 
 the siime time (1510), the Imperial dignity was 
 conferred on this prince by tlie electors [see 
 Germany: A. D. 1510]; so that Europe had 
 not seen, since the time of Cliarlemagne, a 
 monarchy so powerful as that of Charles V. 
 This Emperor concluded a treaty with his 
 brother Ferdinand; by which he ceded to him 
 all his hereditary possessions in Germany. The 
 two brothers thus became the founders of the 
 two principal branches of the House of Austria, 
 viz., that ot Spain, which began with Charles 
 V. (called Charles I. of Spain), and ended with 
 Charles II. (1700); and that of Germany, of 
 which Ferdinand I. was the ancestor, and wliich 
 became extinct in the male line in the Emperor 
 Charles VI. (1740). These two branches, closely 
 allied to each other, acted in concert for the 
 advancement of their reciprocal interests ; more- 
 over they gained each their own separate advan- 
 tages by Uie marriage connexions which they 
 14 
 
 formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line married 
 Anne (1521), sister of Louis King of Hungary 
 and Bohemia, who having been slain by the 
 Turks at the battle of Mohacs (1520), these two 
 kingdoms devolved to Ferdiiiaiid of the House of 
 A.istria. Finally, the marriage which Charles 
 V. contracted witli the Infant Isaltella, daughter 
 of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, procured I'liilip 
 11. of Spain, the sim of that marriage, the whole 
 Portuguese monarchy, to which he succeeded on 
 the death of Henry, called the Cardinal (1.580). 
 
 So vast an aggrandisement of power alarmed the 
 lutionn of Europe, period 0. 
 
 Sovereigns of Europe. " — C. W. Koch, The Beta- 
 
 Also in : W. Co.xc, Hint, of the Ifoime of Austria, 
 eh. 25(tntli7 (c. 1).— W. Robertson, I'lial. of the 
 Jiei(/n of OhurlcsV., bk. 1. — See, also, Spain: A. I). 
 
 um-ihn. 
 
 A. D. 1510.— Death of Maximilian.— Elec- 
 tion of Charles V., " Emperor of the Romans." 
 SccGku.manv: A. D. 1510. 
 
 A. D. 1519-1555. — The imperial reign of 
 Charles V. — The objects o^ his policy. — His 
 conflict with the Reformation and with 
 France. — ' ' Charles V. did not receive from nature 
 all the gifts nor all the charms she can bestow, nor 
 did experience give him every talent ; but he was 
 equal to the part lie had to play in the world. 
 He was sufliciently great to keep his many- 
 jewelled diadem. . . . His ambitioi' was cold 
 aud wise. The scope of his ideas, which are not 
 quite easy to divine, was vast enough to control 
 a state composed of divers and distant portions, 
 so as to make it always very dillicult to amalga- 
 mate his arinies, and to supply them willi food, 
 or to procure money. Indeed its very existence 
 woukl have been exposed to permanent ilaugcr 
 from ])owcrful coiditions. had Francis I. known 
 how to place its iiiost vulnerable jioiiits under a 
 united pressure from the armies of France, of 
 England, of Venice, and of the Ottoman Empire. 
 Charles V. attained his first object when he pre- 
 vented the French monarch from taking pos- 
 session of the inheritance of the house of Anjou, 
 at Naples, and of that of the V^iscontis at Milan. 
 Ho was more successful in stopping the march of 
 Solyman into Austria than in eheckiug the spread 
 of the Reformation iu Germauv. . . . Charles 
 V. had four objects very much at heart: ho 
 wished to be the master in Italy, to check the 
 progress of the Ottoman power in the west of 
 Europe, to cou(|uer the King of France, and to 
 govern the Germanic body by dividing it, and by 
 making the Reformation a religio\is pretext for 
 oppressing the political defenders of that belief. 
 In three out of four of these objects he succeeded. 
 Germany alone was not conquered: if she was 
 bc'Uen in battle, neither any political triunii)h 
 nor any religious results ensued. In Germany, 
 Charles V. began his work too late, and acted too 
 slowly ; he undertook to subdue it at a lime when 
 the abettors of the Reformation had grown 
 strong, when he himself was growing weaker. 
 . . . Like many otlier brilliant careers, the 
 career of Charles V. was more successful and 
 more strikiug at the commencement and the 
 middle than at the end, of its course. At 
 Madrid, at Cambrai, at Nice, he made his rival 
 bow down his head. At Crespy he again forced 
 him to obey his will, but as he had completely 
 made up his mind to have peace, Charles dic- 
 tated it, in some manner, to his own detriment. 
 At Passauhe had to yield to the terms of his enemy 
 
 205 
 
AUSTUIA, 1.J10-15j5. 
 
 Charlf ilif 
 Fifth. 
 
 AUSTHIA, 1525-1527. 
 
 — of nn pncriiy wlmin ClmrU'S V. cnrountcrt'd 
 in his 1)1(1 i\v,^\ iitid wlii'ii his powers hud dci'iiycd. 
 Although il may be wiid that tho extent iimlthc 
 jiowcrof the sovciX'ignty which Clmrles V. left to 
 his siieeesKor ill his death were not diminished, 
 still his armies were weakened, his (Inances were 
 exhausted, and the eoiintrv was weary of the 
 tyranny of the imperial lieutenants. The 
 supremacy of the empire in Germany, for which 
 lie had stVu,t;!;leil so much, was as little cstAl)- 
 lisheilat the end as at the licginningof his reign; 
 religious unity was solemnly destroyetl by tho 
 •Recess' of Augsburg. Uut that wliich marks 
 the position of Charles V. as the representative 
 man of his epoch, and as the founder of the 
 l)oliey of mo<lern times, is that, -wherever he was 
 victorious, the elTect of liis success was to crush 
 the last ('(torts of the spirit of the middle ages, 
 and of the independence of nations. In Italy, in 
 Spain, in Germany, and in the Low Countries, 
 his triumphs were so much gain to the eau.se of 
 nb.solule monarchy anil so much loss to the 
 liberty derived from the old state of society. 
 Whatever was the chaiiicter of liberty in the 
 middle ages — whether il were contested or 
 incomplete, or a mockery — il played a greater 
 part than in the four succeeding centuries. 
 Charles V. was assuredly one of those who con- 
 tributed the most to found and consolidate the 
 political system of modern governments. His 
 history has an asi>ect of grandeur. Had 
 Fnuicis I. been as sagacious in the closet as ho 
 was bold in the Held, i)y a vigorous alliance with 
 England, with Protestant Germany, and with 
 soini.' of the republics of Italy, he might jierhtips 
 have balanced and controlled the jjowcr of 
 Charles V. But tho French monarch did not 
 possess the foresight and the solid understanding 
 necessary to pursue such a policy with success. 
 His rival, therefm'e, occupies the first place iu 
 the historical picture of the epoch. Charles V. 
 had the .sentiment of his |)osition and of the 
 l)art he had to play." — J. Van I'ract, Kimii/s on 
 the Pdlitkid IlinlDii/ <if the, X'sth, Utth, iiiul Vllh 
 t'enturien, pp. 190-194.— See, also, Gi;k.many; 
 A. D. 1519 to l.V)2-1.5Ul, and Fit.\NCi:: A. D. 
 l.JSO-l.'iSa, to 1.547-:5.59. 
 
 A. D. 1525-1527.— Successful Contest for 
 the Hungarian and Bohemian Crowns. — In 
 Hungary, "under King JIatlbiiis the house of 
 Zapolya, so culled from a Slavonic village near 
 Posehega, whence it originated, rose to peculiar 
 eminence. To this house, in particular. King 
 Wladislas had owed his acces.sion to tho throne; 
 whence, however, il thought itself entitled to 
 claim a .share in the .sovereign ])ower, and e»'en u 
 sort of prospective right to the throne. Its mem- 
 bers were the wealthiest of all the magnates ; they 
 jjossessed seventy-two castles. ... It is said 
 that a prophecy early promised the crown to the 
 young John Zapolya. Pos.sessed of all the power 
 conferred by his rich iidieritance. Count of Zips, 
 and AVoiwixle of Transylvania, he soon collected 
 11 strong part)' around him. It was he who 
 maiidy persuaded the Hungarians, in the year 
 l.'iOu, to exclude all foreigners from the throne 
 by a formal decree; which, though they were 
 not always able to maintain in force, they could 
 never be induced absolutely to revoke. In the 
 year 1514 the Woiwmle succeeded in putting 
 down nn exceedingly formidable Insurrection of 
 the peasants with Ids own forces ; a service which 
 the lesser nobility prized the more highly, because 
 
 it enabled thent to nvluec the jx-nsantry to a 
 still liardi r state of servitude. His wish was, on 
 the death of .Vladislas, to lx;come Gul>crimtor of 
 the kingdom, to ntarry the (lccease<l king's 
 daughter Amie, and then to await the course of 
 events. But he was here encounterwl by the 
 policy of Maximilian. Anne was married to tlie 
 Archduke Fenlinand; Zapolya was excluded 
 from the ndministratioii of the kingtloni; even 
 the vacant Palatinate was refused him and given 
 to his old rival Stephen Buthory. Ho was highly 
 incensed. . . . But it was not till the year 1535 
 that Zapolya got the upper hand at the linkuscli. 
 ... No one entertain".! a doubt that he aimed 
 at the throne. . . . But before anything was 
 accomplished — on the contrary, just as these 
 party contliets had thrown the country into the 
 utmost confusion, tho mighty enemy, Soliman, 
 appeared on the frontiers of Hungary, (letermined 
 to put an end to tho anarchy. ... In his i)ri.son 
 at iMadrid, Francis I. had found iiuanst*) entreat 
 the assistance of Solimnn; urging that it well 
 beseemed a great emperor to succour the op- 
 pressed. Plans were laid at Constantinople, 
 according to which tho two sovcreigiLS were to 
 attack Spain with a combined fleet, and to send 
 armies to invade Hungary and the north of Italy. 
 Soliman, without any formal treaty, was by his 
 position an ally of tho Ligue, as the king of 
 Hungary was, of the emperor. On the 23(1 of 
 April, 1520, Soliman, after visiting tho graves of 
 his forefathers and of tho old Moslem martyrs, 
 marched out of Constantinople with a mighty 
 host, consisting of about a hiiiidred tlioiLsaud 
 men, and inces.santly strengthened by fresh re- 
 cruits on its road. . . . What ])ower had Hun- 
 gary, in the condition we have just descril)ed, 
 of resisting such an attack'? . . . The young 
 king took the lield with a following of not more 
 tliiin three thousand men. ... He proceeded to 
 the fatal plain of Mohaez, fully resolved with 
 his small band to await in tho open tiekl the 
 overwhelming force of the enemy . . . Pei-soiml 
 valour could avail nothing. The Hungarians 
 were immediately thrown into disorder, their 
 best men fell, the others took to flight. The 
 young king was comjielled to liee. It was not 
 even granted him to (lie iu the field of battle; a 
 far more niiserablo end awaited him. jMoimted 
 behind a Silesian soldier, wlio served him as a 
 guide, ho had already been carried across tho 
 dark watera that divide the jjlaiii; his horse 
 was already climbing the bunk, when lie slijiped, 
 fell back, and buried himself and liis rider in tho 
 morass. Tliis rendered the defeat decisive. . . . 
 Soliman had gained one of those victories which 
 decide the fate of nations during long epochs. 
 . . . That two thrones, tho succession to which 
 was not entirely free from doubt, had thus liien 
 left vacant, waa an event that necessarily caused 
 a great agitation throughout Christendom. It 
 was still a (luestion whether such a European 
 power as Austria would continue to exist; — a 
 (lUestion which it is only necessary to stale, in 
 order to be aware of its vast importance to tl'.u 
 fate of mankind at large, and of Germany iu par- 
 ticular. . . . The claims of Ferdinand to both 
 crowns, unquestionable as they might be in 
 reference to the treaties with the reigning houses, 
 were ojiposed in tho nations themselves, by the 
 right of election and the authority of considerable 
 ! rivals. In Hungary, as soon as tho Turks had 
 I retired, John Zapolya appeared with tho tiiic 
 
 06 
 
AUSTRIA, 152.V1537. 
 
 Uunyary and 
 Bohemia, 
 
 AUSTHIV, 1504-1618. 
 
 iiriny whicli he had kept hack from tlie conllict ; 
 the fall (if the kiiii; was at the same time tlio fall 
 of Iii8 ndvei'snries. . . . Even in Tokay, how- 
 ever, John Zapolya was saluted us king. Mean- 
 wliile, the dukes of Bavaria conceived tlie (le.si.i;n 
 of getting pos-session of tlic throne of lioheniia. 
 . . . Nor was it in the two king<loni3 alone 
 that these pretenders had a considerahle party. 
 The state of politics in Kurope was such as to 
 insure them powerful supporters ahroad. In the 
 first place, Fnuicis I. was intimately connected 
 with Zapolya: in a sliort time a delegate from 
 tlie pope was at his siile, and the Ocrmnns in 
 Home maintained that Clement a.ssisted the fac- 
 tion of the Woiwode witli money. Zapolya sent 
 an agent to Venice with n direct re(iuest to be 
 admitted a member of tlie Ligue of Cognac. In 
 lioheinia, too, the French had long had devoted 
 jiartisans. . . . Tlie conse(|uences thai must 
 liave resulted, had this sehenie 8uccee(le<l, are so 
 iiicaleuli.ble, that it is not too much to .say they 
 would have completely changed the political 
 history of Europe. The power of Bavaria would 
 have outweighed that of Austria in both German 
 and Slavonian countries, and Zapolya, thus sup- 
 ported, would have been able to maintain his 
 station; the Ligue, and with it high iiltra-mon- 
 tano opinions would have held the ascendency 
 in eastern Europe. Never was there a project 
 more pregnant with danger to the growing power 
 of tlie house of Austria. Ferdinand behaved 
 witli all the prudence and etiergy which that 
 house has so often displayed in dillictdt emergen- 
 cies. For tile present, the all-important object 
 was the crown of Bohemia. . . . All his meas- 
 ures were taken with sueli skill and prudence, 
 that on the day of election, though the Bavarian 
 agent had, up to the last moment, not the slightest 
 doubt of the success of his negotiations, an over- 
 whelming majority in the three estates elected 
 Ferdinand to the throne of Bohemia. This took 
 pliice on the 23d October, 152G. ... On his 
 lirother's birth-day, the 24th of February, l.')27, 
 Fertlinand was crowned at Prague. . . . The 
 affairs of Hungary were not so easilv" or so peace- 
 fully settled. ... At tirst, when Zapolya came 
 forwanl, full armed and powerful out of the 
 general desolation, he had the uncontested 
 superiority. The capitjd of the kingdom sought 
 his i)rotection, after which ho marched to Stulil- 
 weissenburg, where his partisans bore down all 
 attempts at opposition: he was elected and 
 crowned (11th of November, l.WO); in 'Croatia, 
 too, he was acknowledged king at a diet; he 
 tilled all the numerous places, temporal and 
 spiritual, left vacant by the disaster of Jlohaez, 
 with his friends. . . . [But] the Germans 
 nilvanccd witliout interruption ; and as soon as 
 it aiipeiired possible that Ferdinand might be 
 successful, Zapolya's followers began to desert 
 liiiii. . . . Never did the German troops (lisjilay 
 more bravery and constancy. They had often 
 neither meat nor bread, and were obliged to live 
 on sucli fruits as they found in the gardens: the 
 inhabitants were wavering and imcertain — they 
 submitted, and then revolted again to the enemy ; 
 Zapolya's troops, aided by their knowledge of 
 the ground, made several very formidable attacks 
 by night; but tlie Germans evinced, in the 
 moment of danger, the skill and determination of 
 a liiimau legion : tliey showed, too, a noble con- 
 shmcy under ditti(!Ulties and privations. At 
 ToUay they defeated Zaiwlyu uud comiMiUed him 
 
 to (juit Hungary. . . . On the :1<1 November, 
 1527, Ferdinand was crowned in !Stuhlweis.sen- 
 burg: only tlve of the magnates of the kingdom 
 adhered to Zapolya. The victory appeared com- 
 plete. Ferdinand, however, distinctly felt that 
 this appearance was delusive. ... In Boluuniii, 
 too, his power was far from secure. His Bavarian 
 neighbours had not relir..iui.slied the hope of 
 drivin;^ him from the thro • at the first general 
 turn of affairs, The Oltoi ans, meanwhile, act- 
 ing u|>on the ])ersua-iion tli 'Very land in which 
 the head of their chief liad rested belonged of 
 right to them, were jirepariiig to return to Hun- 
 gary; either to take possession of it themselves, 
 or at Hrst, as was their custom, to bestow it on a 
 native ruler — Zapolya, who now eagerly sought 
 an alliance with them — as tlieir vassal." — L. 
 Von Kaiike, Ilistorji of the liifurmation in Ucr- 
 mil II I/, hk. 4, rli. 4 ('•. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1564-1618. — The tolerance of Maxi- 
 milian II. — The bigotry and tyranny of Ro- 
 dolph and Ferdinand II. — Prelude to the 
 Thirty Years War. — " There is no perio<l eon- 
 nccte(l with tliese religious wars that ileserves 
 more to be studied than these reigns of Ferdi- 
 nand I., Ala.ximiiian [tlie Second], and those of 
 his successors who preceded the thirtv years' 
 war. We have no sovereign who e.vhibitcd that 
 exercise of moderation and good sense wliicli a 
 philosoplier would require, but Mu.ximilian; and 
 lie was imniediately foHowed by princes of a 
 ditTerent complexion. . . . Nothing could be 
 more complete than the difflculty of toleration 
 at tlie time when JIaximilian reigned; and if a 
 mild i)olicy could be attended with favourable 
 effects in liis age and nation, tliere can bo little 
 fear of the experiment at any oilier i)eriod. No 
 party or person in the state was thei. disposed 
 to tolerate his neighbour from any sen.se of the 
 justice of sui'h forbearance, btit from motives of 
 temporal policy alone. The Lutherans, it will be 
 seen, could not bear that the Calvinists sliould 
 have the same religious privileges with them- 
 selves. The Calvinists were equally opinionated 
 and unjust ; and Maximilian himself was probably 
 tolenint and wise, chietly because .le was in his 
 real opinions a Lutheran, and in outward pro- 
 fession, US th'! head of the empire, a Roman 
 Catholic. For twelve years, the whole of his 
 reign, he preserved thi religious peace of the 
 community, without di'stroying the religious 
 freedom of the human mind. He supported the 
 Roman Catholics, as the predominant party, in 
 all their rights, po.ssessions, and jirivileges ; but 
 he protected the Protestants in every exercise of 
 their religion which was then [iracticable. In 
 other words, he was as tolerant and just as the 
 temper of society then admitted, and more so 
 than tiie state of things would have suggested. 
 . . . The merit of Maximilian was but too appar- 
 ent the moment that his son Rixloloh was called 
 upon to supply his place. ... He ' , always left 
 the education of his son and successor too much 
 to the discretion of his bigoted consort. Ro- 
 dolpli, his son, was tlierefore as ignorant and 
 furious on his part as were tlie PVotestants on 
 theirs; ho had immediate recourse to the usual 
 expedients — force, and the execution of the 
 laws to the very letter. . . . After Rcxlolph 
 comes Matthias and, unhappily for all Eurojie, 
 Bohemia and the empire fell afterwards under 
 the management of Ferdinand II. Of the differ- 
 ent Austrian princes, it is the rcigu of Ferdinand 
 
 >07 
 
AUSTKi.V. 1564-1018. 
 
 % 
 
 Wiir. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1618-1648. 
 
 II. tliiit Ik inon' particularly to be congidcrptl. 
 Siii'li wa.s the iirbltniry nutiirc or IiIh f;ovi'rii- 
 niciil over lil.s Hiilijcct.'i in liolii'inia, tiiiit tlicy 
 r(!voii((l. Tlicv fi<'»i('(l for tiii'ir kliig tliu 
 youii)r Elt'ctor l\tluliiii-, hoping thus to cxtricul)! 
 tlicniwivcs from tlio bigotry iind tyriimiy of 
 Ffrdiimiid. This crown ho olYcrcd wiis accepted ; 
 and. in the event, tlie cause of tln^ lioheniiaiis 
 became tlie clause of tlie J{efonnation in (}er- 
 many, and the Kleclor Palatine the hero of thai 
 cans*'. It is this which gives tlu; great Interest 
 to tills reign of Ferdinand II, to these concerns 
 of his subjects in Bohemia, and to the character 
 of this Klector Palatine. For all these events 
 and circuinstiinces led to the thirty years' war. " 
 — W. Sinvth, J,ertiiriH on Mmlirn JIihIoii/, v. 1, 
 hrt. i:t.--See Hoiii:mi.\: A. I). lOU-1018, and 
 Okhm.xny: a. I). l(ilH-U)-J(). 
 
 A. D. 1567-1660.— Struggles of the Haps- 
 burg House in Hungary and Transylvania to 
 establish rights of sovereignty.— Wars with 
 the Turks. .Sec 1Ii,noauy: A. D. 1507-1(104, 
 and 10()«-1600. 
 
 A. D. 1618-1648.— The Thirty Years War. 
 — The Peace of Westphalia. — "The thirty 
 vear.s' war made Germany the centre-point of 
 European ]iolitics. . . . No one at itsconunence- 
 menl could have fores^een the dination and 
 extent. 15ut the train of war was everywliere 
 laid, and reiiuired only the match to set it going; 
 more than one war was joined to it, and swal- 
 lowed up in it; and the melancholy truth, that 
 war feeds itself, was never more clearly displayed. 
 . . . Though the war, whicli lirst broke out 
 in Bohemia, concerne<l only the house of Austria, 
 yet by its originating in religious disputes, by 
 its peculiar character as a religious war, anil by 
 the measures adopted both by the insurgents and 
 the emperor, it acquired such an extent, that 
 even the quelling of the insurrection was insuf- 
 fleient to put a stop to it. . . . Though^ the 
 lioliemian war was apparently terminated, yet 
 tlie llame had communicated to Germany and 
 Hungary, and new fuel was added by the act of 
 proscription promulgated against the elector 
 Frederic and his adherents. From this l"mi nar 
 derived that revolutionary character, which was 
 henceforward peculiar to it; it was a step that 
 could nC but lead to further results, for the ques- 
 tion of vl>o relations between the emperor and 
 his states, was in a fair way of being jjractically 
 considered. New and bolder projects were also 
 formed in Vienna and ^ladrid, wliero it was 
 resolved to renew the war witli the Netlierlands. 
 Under the present circumstances, the suppres- 
 sion of the Protestant religion and the overthrow 
 of German and Dutch liberty appeared insepar- 
 able; while the success of the imperial arms, 
 supported as they were by the league and the 
 co-oi)eration of the Spaniards, gave just grounds 
 for hope. ... By the carrying of the war into 
 Lower Saxony, the principal seat of tlie Protes- 
 tant religion in Germaiiy 'the states of which 
 had appointl'd Christian IV. of Denmark, as 
 duke of Ilolstein, head of their confe<leracy), 
 the northern states had already, though without 
 any benetieial result, been involved in the strife, 
 anil the Danish war had broken out. But the 
 elevation of Albert of Wallenstein to the dignity 
 of duke of Friedlaud and imperial general over 
 the army raised by himself, was of considerably 
 more importance, as it affected the wh le counse 
 ttud character uf the war. From this time the 
 
 war was completely and truly revolutionary. 
 The peculiar situation of the general, the manner 
 of the formation as well as the maintenance of 
 his army, could not fail to make it such. . . . 
 The distinguislied success of the imperial arms 
 in the north of Germany unveiled the daring 
 schemes of Wallenstein. He did not come for- 
 ward as coiU|Ucror alone, but, by the investiture of 
 Mecklenburg as a state of the empire, as a ruling 
 |irince. . . . But the elevation and conduct of 
 this novus homo, exasperated and annoyed the 
 Catholic no less than the Protestant states, 
 especially the league and its chief; all implored 
 peace, and Wallcnstein's discharge. Thus, at 
 the diet of the electors at Augsburg, the emperor 
 was reduced to the alternative of resigning him 
 or his allies. He chose the former. Wallen- 
 stein was dismis.sed, tlie majority of Ids army 
 disbanded, and Tilly nimiinated comniander-in- 
 cliief of the forces of the emperor and the league. 
 . . . On the side of the emperor sutlicienl care 
 was taken to prolong the war. The refusal to 
 restore the unfortunate Frederic, and even the 
 sale of his upper Palatine to Bavaria, must with 
 justice have e.\cited the apprehensions of tlie 
 other princes. But when the .Jesuits tlnally 
 succeeded, not only in extorting the edict of 
 restitution, but also in causing it to be enforced 
 in the most (xlious manner, the Catholic st^ites 
 themselves saw with regret that peace could no 
 longer exist. . . . The greater the success that 
 attended the house of Austria, the more actively 
 foreign policy laboured to counteract it. Eng- 
 land had tiiken an interest in the fate of Fred- 
 eric V. from the first, though this interest was 
 evinced by little beyond fruitless negotiations. 
 Denmark became engaged in the (luarrel mostlv 
 through the iutluencc of this power ami llollaiul. 
 liic^helieu, from the time he became prime 
 minister of France, had exerted himself in 
 opposing Austria and Spain. He found employ- 
 ment for Spain in the contests resjiecting 
 Vcltelin, and for Austria soon after, by the war 
 of Alantua. Willingly would he have detached 
 the German league from the interest of 
 the emperor; and though he failed in this, 
 he procured the fall of Wallenstein. . . . 
 Much more important, however, was Kiclie- 
 lieu's influence on the war, by the essential 
 share he had in gaining Qustavus Adolphiis' 
 active particijiation in it. . . . The nineteen 
 years of his [Gustavus Adolphus'l reign which 
 had already elapsed, together with the Polish 
 war, which lasted nearly that time, had taught 
 the world but little of the real worth of this 
 great and talented hero. The decisive superi- 
 ority of Protestantism in Germany, under his 
 guidance, soon created a more j ust knowledge, and 
 at the same t;nie showed the advantages which 
 must result to a victorious supporter of that 
 cau.se. , . . The battle at Leipzig was decisive 
 for Gustavus Adolphus and his party, almost 
 beyond expectation. The league fell asunder; 
 and in a short time he 'was master of the coun- 
 tries from the Baltic to Bavaria, and from tlie 
 Rhine to Bohemia. . . . But the misfortunes 
 and death of Tilly brought Wallenstein again 
 on the stage lus absolute commander-in-chief, 
 bent on plans not a whit less extensive than 
 those he had before formed. No period of the W!ir 
 gave i)romise of such great and rapid successes 
 or reverses as the present, for both leaders were 
 deteruiiued to effect tliuin; btit the victory of 
 
 208 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: FIRST HALF. 
 
 CONTEMPOKANEOUS EVENTS. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 KlOli. Clmrtcrinj; of Dutch Knst Iiidiii C'oinpiiny. — First aclin? of Sliakcspciiro's "Ilninlet." 
 
 KtOH. Death of Qui'(M\ Eli/.nlii'th of Kiiirlaiiil ami accession of .lames I. 
 
 1(«>5. Cliiiipowder plot of Enjtlisli ('atlinlics. — Publication of Bacon's " Advaii' incnt of 
 [iCaniin!,'." and part 1 of Cervantes' "Don (Jnixotc." 
 
 lOOO. IMiarter jrrajited to the London and I'lymoiith companies, for American coloni/.ntion. — 
 Organization of the Independent church of Hrowinsts at .Scrool)y, England. 
 
 1007. Settlement of .lameslown, Virginia. — Migration of Scrooliy Independents to Holland. 
 
 lOOJK Settlement of the exiled Pilgrims of Scrooby at Leyden. — Construction of the telescope 
 by Galileo and discovery of .lupiter's moons.* 
 
 KtlO. Assassination of Henry IV'. of Franco and accession of Louis XHI. 
 
 161 1. Publication in England of thi' King .lames or Authorized version of the Bible. 
 
 1014-. Last meeting of tlie States General of France before the Hevolulion. 
 
 mm. Appearance at Frankforton the-.Main of the first known weekly newspaper. 
 
 lO lO. Opening of war between J^weden and Poland. — Death of Shakespeare and Cervantes. 
 
 1((18. IJising of Protestants in Bohemia, l)eginning the Thirty Years War. 
 
 1(tl)>. Trial and execution of .lolm of Banieveldt. — Inlioductiou of slavery in Virginia. 
 
 1U120. Decisive defeat of the Protestants of ISohenua in tlie battle of the White Moinitain. — 
 Rising of the Freni h Huguenots at Hoehelle. — Migration of tlie Pilgrims from Leyden to America. 
 
 1G21. Formation of the Dutcli West India Company. — The lirst Tiianksgiving Day in Xew 
 England. 
 
 I((2i2. Appearance of the first known i)rintcd newspaper in England — "The Weekly Newcs," 
 
 1024. Beginning of Richelieu's ministry, in France, 
 
 loss. Death of .lames L, of England, and accession of Charles I. ; beginning of the English 
 struggle between King and Parliament. — Engagement of Wallenstein and Ills army in the service of 
 the Emperor against the Protestants. 
 
 1027. Alliance of England witli the French Huguenots. — Siege of Uochelle by Richelieu. 
 
 1028. Passage by the English Parliament of the act called the Petition of Uiglit. — A.ssassina- 
 tlon of the duke of Buckingham. — Surrender of Roehelle to Richelieu. — Publication of Harvey's 
 discovery of tlie circulation of the blood. 
 
 102il. Tumult in the English Parliament, dissolution by the king and arrest of Eliot and 
 others. 
 
 1030. Appearance in Germany of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, as the champion of 
 Protestantism. — Settlement of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in New England, and founding of 
 Boston. — The Day of the Dupes in France. 
 
 1031. Siege, capture and sack of ^Magdeburg by tlie imperial general, Tilly. — Defeat of Tilly 
 on the ilreitenfeld, at Leipzig, by Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 1G32. Defeat and death of Tilly. — Victory and death of Gu.stavus Adolphus at LUtzen. — 
 Patent to Lord Baltimore by James L, of England, granting him the territory in America called 
 Man-land. — First Jesuit mi'.sion to Canada. 
 
 1034:. Assassination of Wallenstein. — Levy of Ship-money in England. 
 
 1035. First settlements in the Connecticut valley. 
 
 1030. Banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts, and his founding of Providence. 
 
 1037. The Pequot War in New England. — Introduction of Laud's Service-book in Scotland; 
 tumult in St. Giles' church. 
 
 1038. Banishment of Anno Hutchinson from JIassachusetts. — Rising in Scotland against the 
 Service-book; organization of the Tables; signing of the National Covenant. 
 
 1030. The First Bishops' War of the Scotch with King Charles L 
 
 1040. Meeting of the Long Parliainont in England. — Recovery of independence by Portugal. 
 
 1041. Impeacbmcut and execut' n of Strafford and adoption of the Grand Remonstrance by 
 the English Parliament. — Catholic rising in Ireland and alleged massacres of Protestants. 
 
 1042. ICing Charles' attempt, in England, to arrest the Five Members, and opening of the 
 Civil War at Edgeliill. — Conspiracy of Cinq Mars in France. — Death of Cardinal Richelieu. 
 
 1G43. Meeting of the Westtninstcr Assembly of Divines. — Subscription of the Solemn League 
 and Covenant between the Scotch and English nations. — Siege of Gloucester and lifst battle of 
 Newl)ury. — Death of Louis XIII. of France and accession of Louis XIV. 
 
 1044. Battles of Marston Jloor and the second Newbury, in the English civil war. 
 
 1045. Oliver Cromwell jjlaced second in command of the English Parliamentary array. — His 
 victory nt Nascby. — Exploits of Montrose in Scotland. • 
 
 1046. Adoption of Presbyterianism by the English Parliament. —fjurrendcr of King Charles 
 to the Scottish army. 
 
 1047. Surrender of King Charles by the Scots to the English, and his seizure by tue Army. 
 
 1048. Tlie second Civil War in England. — Cromwell's victory at Preston. — Treaty of New- 
 port with the king. — Grand Army Remonstrance, and Pride's Purge of Parliament. — Last campaigns 
 of the Thirty Years War. — Peace of Westphalia; cession of Alsace to Franc(!. 
 
 1040. Trial and execution of King Charles I., of England, and establishment of the Common- 
 wealth. — Campaign of Cromwell in Ireland. — First civil war of the Fronde in Prance. 
 
 1050. Charles II. in Scotland. — War between the English and the Scotch.— Victory of Crom- 
 well at Dunbar. — The new Fronde ia France, in alliance with Spain. 
 
SEVENTEENTn CENTURY: SECOND HALF. 
 
 CONTKMPOIUNKOUM EVENTS. 
 
 A. n. 
 
 1(151. Invasion of Kn^^land by Charles II. ami tbu Scots; Crom^voll's victory nt Wnrceater; 
 
 COIII|llltl' <'<>lll|ll('Nt of S<'(ltlllll(l, 
 
 I<i52. Victorious imviil war of the English with the Dutch.— End of the Fronde.— InstitutiDM 
 of llif l.ilicniiii Veto in Poland. 
 
 1<)5<'{. Expulsion of " the lluinp " by Cromwell, and eHtabllsliniGnt of the Protectorate In 
 England.— Adoption of the Instrument of Oovernruent. — Ucturn of Mazariu to power In France. — 
 The ('roniwellian settlenu^nt of Ireland. 
 
 .lOA-!:. Incorporation of Hcotlatul with the (English Commonwealth, under Cromwell. — Peace 
 between the English and Dutch. — ('on(iuest of Nova Scotia by the New England colonists. 
 
 miiR. Alliance of England and V ranee against Spain. — English conquest of Jamaica. 
 
 lOnO. licglnning of tlie persecution of the (Quakers in .Massaeliusetts. 
 
 1058. (lapture of Diuikirlt from tlie Spaniards and possession given by the French to the 
 English, — Deatli of Cromwell and succession of his son Kichard as Protector. 
 
 1U50. .Meeting of a new Parliament in England; its dissolution; resuscitation and ro-expulsion 
 of the Kum]), and formation of a provisional government by the Army. 
 
 lOOO. .March of the English army under Monk from Scotland to London. — Call of a new Par- 
 liament Ijv Monk, and restoral:ion of the monarchy, in tlie person of (!liarles II. 
 
 KlOl. Hestoratinii of the (Jhurch of England and ejection of 2,000 nonconformist ministers. — 
 Personal assumption of government by Louis XIV. in France. — Beginning oT tlie ministry of Colb(Tt. 
 
 lOOti. Sale of Dunkirk t(» France by Charles II. — Uestorution of episcopacy in Scotland and 
 persecution of the Covenanters. 
 
 1004. Seizure of New Netherland (henceforth New York) by the English from the Dutch 
 and grant of the province to the duke of York. — Grant of New Jersey to Berkeley and Carteret. 
 
 1005. Outbreak of the great Plague in London. — Formol decluratiuus of war between the 
 Englisli and the Dutch. 
 
 1GU<(. The great Are in London. — Tremendous naval battles between Dutch and English and 
 defeat of the former. 
 
 1007. Havagcs by a Dutch fleet in the Thames. — Peace treaties of Breda, between England, 
 Holland, France and Denmark. — War of Louis XIV., called the War of the Queen's liights, In the 
 Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 1008. Triple alliance of England, Holland and Sweden against France. 
 l((Ot>. First exploring journey of La Salle from the St. Lawrence to the West. 
 
 I<t70. Treaty of the king of England with Louis XIV. of Fronce, betraying his allies, the 
 Dutch, and engaging to profess himself a Catholic. 
 
 1072. Alliance of England and France against the Dutch. — Ilcstoration of the Stadtholdership 
 in Holland to the Prince of Orange, and murder of the De Witts. 
 
 1073. Hecovery of New Netherland by the Dutch from the English. 
 
 1074. Treaty of Westminster, restoring peace between the Dutch and English and ceding Now 
 Netherland to the latter. 
 
 1075. War with the Indians in Now England, known as King Pliillp'a War. 
 1078. Pretended Popisli Plot in England. — Treaties of Nimeguen. 
 
 1071>. Passage of the Habeas Corpus Act in England. — Oppression of Scotland and perseoi- 
 tion of the Covenanters. — Defeat of Claverhouse at Drumclog. — Defeat of Covenanters at Bothwell 
 Bridge. 
 
 1680. First naming of tlie Whig and Tory parties in England. 
 
 1081. Merciless despotism of tlie duke of York in Scotland. — Beginning of "dragonnado" 
 persecution of Protestants in France. — Grant of Pennsylvania by Charles II. to William Penn. 
 
 1082. E.vploration of the Mississippi to its mouth by La Salle. 
 
 1<{8:). The Uyehouse Plot, and execution of Lord iiussell and Algernon Sidney, in England. 
 — Great invasion of Hungary and Austria by the Turks; their siege of Vienna, and the deliverance 
 of the city by John Sobieski, king of Poland. — Establishment of a penny post in London. 
 
 1085. Death of Charles II., king of England, and accession of his brother James II., an 
 avowed ('atholic. — Uebcllion of the duke of Monmouth. — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by 
 Louis XIV. of France. 
 
 1086. Consolidation of New England under a royal governor-general. — League of Augsburg 
 against Louis XIV. of France. 
 
 1G88. Declaration of Indulgence by James II. of England, and imjirisonment and trial of the 
 seven bishops for refusing to publish it. — Invitation to William and Mary of Orange to accept the 
 English crown.— Arrivol in England of the Prince of Orange and flight of James. 
 
 1080. Completion of tlie English Uevolution. —Settlement of the crown on William and Mary. 
 —Passage of the Toleration Act and the Bill of Rights.- Landing of James II. in Ireland and war 
 in that island ; siege and successful defense of Londonderry. 
 
 lOOO. The first congress of the American colonies. —Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. 
 
 1602. The Salem Witchcraft madness in Massachusetts.— Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland. 
 
 1095. Passage of the first of the Penal Laws, oppressing Catlioiics in Ireland. 
 
 1007. Peace of Ryswick. — Cession of Strasburg and restoration of Acadia to France. 
 
 1690. Peace of Carlowitz, between Turkey, Russia, Poland, Venice, and the Emperor. 
 
 1700. Prussia raised in rank to a kingdom. — First campaigns of Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
AUSTRIA, 1618-1048. 
 
 Pritct of 
 holla. 
 
 Weiliiha 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1072-1714. 
 
 LUtzvn, wlillf' It cost OimtnviiH IiIh life, prcnarcfl 
 tliu full of Wiillciistciii. . . . Tliiiii«li the fall of 
 Oustiivus .V<l(>l|iliii-i friistratcil liis own pri c 
 views, it liiil not tl.oHc of hi.s piirly. . . I'lic 
 BCliool of OuNtiiviis produced it iiuiiiIkt of iiit'ii. 
 Kri'itt ill the cubiiK't and in tliu llcl<l ; yet it waH 
 hard, even for an O.v'nHteirn, to pre.serve tlie 
 importance uf iSweden unimpaired : and it waH 
 l)ut partially done by tli" ulliancc of 'Ileilliroiin. 
 ... If tlie fortes of Sweden overrun alniont 
 every part of Germany in tiu^ folluwiii^ 
 niontliH, under tlic K»idauce of tlic pupilH of tlie 
 l<inj?, Hernard of Weimar and OuKtavus Horn, 
 we must appurently attribute It to Wallenstein's 
 intentional Inactivity in Roliemia. Tlic distrust 
 of liim increased in Vienna tlie more, as he toolt 
 but little trouble to dimini.sli it; and tlioufrli his 
 fall was not sullicient to atone for treachery, if 
 proved, it was for Ills ciiuivocal cliaracter and 
 imprudence. Hia dealli probably saved Ger- 
 many from a catastroplie. ... A great change 
 took place upon tlie deatli of Wallenstein; as a 
 prince of tlio bhxMl, Ferdinand, kinif of llunifary 
 and Uoiiemia, obtained I he coinmand. Tlius an 
 end was put to plans of revolutions from this 
 quarter. But in the same year the liattle of 
 Nordlingeii gave to the imperial arms a sudden 
 preponderance, such as it had never before! 
 acquired. The separate peace of Saxouy with 
 the emperor nt Prague, and soon after an alli- 
 ance, were its cimseciueiices; Sweden driven liack 
 to Pomerania, seemed unable of lier.sclf, during 
 tlie two following years, to maintain lier ground 
 in Germany: the victory of Wittstock turned 
 the scale iu lier favour. . . . Tlie war was pro- 
 longed and greatly extended by the active share 
 taken in it by Prance: lirst against Spain, and 
 soon against Austria. . . . Tlie German war, 
 after the treaty with Hernliard of Weimar, was 
 mainly carried on by France, liy the arming of 
 Germans against Germans. But the pupil of 
 Gustavus Adolplius preferred to light for him- 
 self rather than others, and ills early death was 
 almost as much coveted by France as by Austria. 
 The success of the Swedisli arms revived under 
 Baner. ... At the general diet, wliicli was at 
 last convened, the emperor j'ielded to a general 
 amnesty, or at least what was so designated. 
 But when at tlic meeting of tiie aiiil)assadors of 
 tlie leading powers at Hamburg, tlie prelimin- 
 aries were signed, and tlie time and place of tlie 
 congress of peace fixed, it was deferred ofter 
 Richelieu's death, (wlio was succeedeil by JIaza- 
 rin), by the war, which both parties continued, 
 in the hope of securing better conditions by 
 victory. A new war broke out in the north 
 between Sweden and Denmark, and when at 
 last the congress of peace was opened at Munster 
 and Osnabruck, the negotiations drugged on 
 for three years. . . . Tlie German peace was 
 negotiated at Munster between tlie emperor and 
 Prance, and at Osnabruck between the emperor 
 and Sweden; but both treaties, according* to 
 express agreement, Oct. 34, 1648, were to be 
 considered as one, under the title of the West- 
 phalian." — A. H. L. Heeren, A Manual of Hie 
 Ilktury of t/te Political System of Europe and its 
 Colonies, pp. 91-99. — "Tlie Peace of Westphalia 
 has met manifold hostile comments, not only in 
 earlier, but also in later, times. German patriots 
 complained that by it the unity of tlie Empire 
 was rent; and indeed the connection of the 
 States, \ ich even before was louse, was relaxed 
 
 to the extreme. Tliis was, however, an evil 
 wliich could net be avohled, and it had to \w. 
 accepted in ordiT to prevent the French and 
 Swedes from using their opportunity for the 
 fiirtlier enslavement of the land. . . . The 
 rellgi(nis parties also maiU; objections to the 
 peace. The strict C'atliolies condemned it ac t 
 work of Inexeusable and arliitrary injustice. 
 . . . Tlie dissatisfaclion of the Protestants was 
 cliietly Willi the recognition of tin- Keclrsiastical 
 Reservation. They complnincd also that their 
 bretliren in the faith were not allowed the free 
 exercise of their religion in Austria. Tlieir hos- 
 tility was limited to llieorelical di.scuHsIons, 
 whicli 8(M)ii ceased when Louis XIV. took advan- 
 tage of the preponderance wliich he had won 
 to make outrageous assaults upon Germany, 
 and even the Protestants were compi^lli'd to 
 acknowledge the Emperor as the real defender 
 of German independence." — A. Giihiely, History 
 of the Thirtii Yearn' War. r. 2, eh. 10. Hect. 4.— See, 
 lilso, Gku.\iany: a. 1). 1618-1620, to 1048; 
 Fu.\nck: a. D. 1624-1626; and Italy: A. D. 
 1637-16;!1. 
 
 A. D. i62i.— Formal establishment of the 
 right of primogeniture in the Archducal 
 Family. See (Jkkma.nv: A. 1). 16;!6-16.'i7. 
 
 A. D. 1624-1626. — Hostile combinations of 
 Richelieu, — The VaitelUne war in Northern 
 Italy. See Fuanck: A. I). 1624-1626. 
 
 A. D. 1627-1631. — War with France over 
 the succession to the Duchy of Mantua. Sec 
 Italy: A. I). 1627-16;il. 
 
 A. D. 1660-1664. — Renewed war with the 
 Turks. — Help from France. — Battle and 
 victory of St. Gothard. — Twenty years truce. 
 See IIi:n<iauv: A. I). 1660-1664. 
 
 A. D. 1668-1683. — Increased oppression and 
 religious persecution in Hungary. Revolt of 
 Tekeli. — The Turks again called in. — Mus- 
 tapha's great invasion and siege of Vienna. — 
 Deliverance of the city by John Sobieski. See 
 lIixciAUY: A. I). 16(W-16«;I 
 
 A. D. 1672-1714. — The wars with Louis 
 XIV. of France : War of the Grand Alliance. 
 — Peace of Ryswick. — "The leading principle 
 of the reign [in Francel of Louis XIV. ... is 
 the principle of war with tlie dynasty of Charles 
 V. — tlie ehler bruucliof which reigned in Spain, 
 while the descendants of tiio younger branch 
 occupied the imperial tlirono of Germany. . . . 
 At the death of Mazarin, or to speak more 
 correctly, immediately after tlie death of Philip 
 
 IV tlio early ambition of Louis XIV. 
 
 sought to prevent tlie junior lirancli of the 
 Austrian dynasty from succeeding to tlio in- 
 lieritance of tlie elder brancii. He had no desire 
 to see reconstituted under tlie imperial sceptre of 
 Germany the monarcliy wliich Cliarles V. had 
 at one time wislied to transmit entire to his son, 
 but which, worn out and weakened, lie sub- 
 sequently allowed without regret to he divided 
 ' between liis son and his brother. Before making 
 war upon Austria, Louis XIV. cast his eyes 
 upon a portion of tlie territory belonging to 
 Spain, and the expedition against Holland, begun 
 in 1672 [see Netherlands (Holland): A. D. 
 1672-1674, and 1674-1678], for the purpose of 
 absorbing the Spanisli provinces by overwhelm- 
 ing them, opened the series of his vast enter- 
 prises. His first great war was, historically 
 speaking, his first great fault. He fulled in hfe 
 object: for at the end of six campaigns, during 
 
 209 
 
AUSTRIA, lfl72-17U. 
 
 Wan tritk 
 lAtuit XIK 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1673-1714. 
 
 wlilrh tlio French nrmlcs olitiilixMl (front and 
 ilrwrviMl Hiio'c'SN, lliilliinil rriiiiilMcil iitiniii' 
 (|ii<Ti'il, Thus WHH Kiiri)|M- wiiriicil Ihnt the lust 
 of i'c>ii(|U<'Mt iif It yiiiiii); iMDiiiiri'h, whn iliil in't 
 hiiiist'lf piiMMcsM iiiilittiry Ki'iiiiiH. lint who fimii>l 
 in hln L'l'nrriil I the rewiiirceH iiiiil iil)ility in wliicli 
 lie was hlinsi'lf (letlcjent, wiiiild kihim threaten her 
 Indeiienilence, Cciniii' iinil Tnreiiiie, after havinit 
 lieen relielliiiiiM duhjeets under the UeKenev. 
 were aluiiit tii lieeoine tlie tlrnt and tlie must 
 illiistrioiiM lleiileiiaiits <if liouis XIV'. KiirDpe, 
 however, tlioiii;h warned, was not iinmeiliately 
 ready to detVnd herself. It was from Austria, 
 more directly exposed to tlii; daniters of the 
 ){reat war now <M)minen(ini,', that the llrst Kvs- 
 tematlc resistance outfht to have come. IJut 
 Austria was not prepared to play such li part; 
 and the Kiiiperor Leopold possessed neither the 
 (genius nor the wish for it. lie was. in fact, 
 nothliiif more than the nominal head of Germany. 
 . . . Such was the state of alTairs in Kuropu 
 when William of ()rani,'e tlrst made li anpear- 
 iinre on the Kta);e. . . . The old (juestion of 
 HuprcTuacy. which Loids XIV. wishcii t< IlLtht 
 out as a duel witli the House of Austria, was 
 now ahout to cliange its aspect, and, owini; to 
 tlie presence of an unexpected j;eniiis, to hring 
 into tlie riuarrel other powers lipsides the two 
 orijfinal competitors. The foe of Louis XIV. ou(;ht 
 by rifrhts to have been horn on the banks of the 
 DaiMdie, and not on the shores of the North Sea. 
 In fact, it was Austria that at that moment most 
 needed a man of ijenius, eilliei on the throne or 
 at the head of allairs. Tlie eveiitsof thecentury 
 ■would, in this ca.se, doiibtles.s have followed a 
 dilTerent course: the war would have been less 
 general, and the maritime nations would not 
 have been involved in it to llie same degree, . . . 
 Tlic treatii'S of peace would have been signed in 
 some small place in France! or (rermany. and not 
 in two towns and a village in Holland, such as 
 Nimcguen, Uyswick, and I'lreclit. . . . William 
 of Orange found himself in a jxisition soon to 
 form the Triple .Vlliance wliuli the very iioliev 
 of Louis XIV'. suggested. For France to attack 
 Holland, when her object was eventually to 
 reach Austria, and kei^p her out of the Spanish 
 succession, was to make enemies at one and the 
 same time of Spain, of Austria, and of Holland. 
 lint if it afierwards rc(iuired considerable elTorts 
 on the part of William of Orange to maintain 
 this alliance, it demanded still more energy to 
 extend it. It formed jiart of the Stadtliolder's 
 ulterior plans to couibine the uiiicm between liim- 
 lelf and the two branches of the Austrian 
 family, with the old Anglo-Swedish Triple 
 Alliance, which had just been dissolved under 
 the strong pressure brought to bear on it by 
 Louis XIV. . . . Louis XIV^., whose linanccs 
 were exhausted, was very soon anxious to make 
 peace, even on the morrow of his most brilliant 
 victories; whilst William of Orange, beaten and , 
 retreating, ardently desired the continuance of 
 tlie war. . . . The Peace of Nimeguen was at 
 lost signed, and by it were secured to Louis XIV. 
 Frauche-Cointe, and some important places in 
 the Spanish Low Countries on his northern 
 frontier [sen Nimeoven, Pkace op]. This 
 was the culminating point of the reign of Louis 
 XIV. Although the coalition had prevented 
 him from attaining the full object of his designs 
 against the House of Austria, which had been 
 to absorb by conquest so much of the territory 
 
 belonging to Spain as would sorure him agalimt 
 the ctTeel of a will preserving the whole in- 
 heritance intact in the family, vet his armies had 
 been constantly succcNsful. and icany of his op- 
 ponents wen- evidently llri'd of .he struggle. 
 . . . Some vears passeil thus, with the appear- 
 ance, of calm. ICurope was c(in((Uered ; and 
 when peace was broken, because, as was said, 
 the Treaty of Nimcguen was not duly ex^M'Utcd, 
 the eventsof the war were for some time neither 
 brilliant or important, for M-veral campaigns 
 began and ended without any consich'rablc re- 
 sult. . . . .\t length liOuls XIV. entered on the 
 second half of his reign, which dilTered widely 
 from the llrst. . . . During this second period of 
 more than thirty years, which begins after the 
 Treaty of Nimeguen aral lasts till the Peace of 
 Utreclit, events succeed each other In complete 
 logical setpience, so that the reign presents Itself 
 as one continuous whole, with a regular move- 
 ment of ascension and decline. . . . The leading; 
 principle of the reign remained the same; it was 
 always the desire to weaken the House of At's- 
 tria, or to secure an advantageous partition 
 of the Spanish succession. I!ut the Kmperor of 
 Germany was protecti.'d by the coalition, and the 
 King of Spain, whoso deatli was considen-d 
 imminent, would not make up his mind to die. 
 . . . During the first League, when the Prince 
 of Orange was contending against Louis XIV. 
 with the co-operation of the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, of the King of Spain, and of the Klectors 
 on the Khine, the religious element playe<l only 
 a secondary part in tlie war. Hut we shall see 
 this clement make its presence more manifest. 
 . . . Thus the irillui nee of Protestant Kngland 
 made itself more and more felt in the alTairs of 
 Kurope, in proportion as the government of the 
 Stuarts, from its violence, its unpopularity, and 
 from tlie opposition olTcred to it, was apjiroach- 
 ing its end. . . . The second coalition was 
 neither more united nor more tlrm than the first 
 hail been: but, after the expulsion of the Stuarts, 
 the germs of dissolution no hinger threatened 
 the same dangers. . . . The Hritisli nation now 
 made itself felt iu the balance of F^iirope, and 
 Williiiniof Orange was for tlie fii-st time in his 
 life successful in w;ir at tlie head of his Kngli.sh 
 troops. . . . This was the most brilliant epoch 
 of the life of William HI. . . . He was now at 
 the height of his glory, after u period of twenty 
 years from liir tart in life, and his destiny was 
 !iecomi)lished; .sO that until tlu^ Treaty of Hys- 
 wick. which in 1098 put an end to his hostilities 
 with France, and brought aliout his reciignition 
 as King of Kngland by Louis XIV., not much 
 more was left for him to gain ; and lie had the 
 skill to lose nothing. . . . The negotiations for 
 the Treaty of Uyswick were conducted with less 
 ability and boldness, and concluded on less 
 advantageous terms, than the Truce of Ratisbon 
 or the Peace of Nimeguen. Nevertheless, this 
 treaty, wliich securc'd to Louis the possession of 
 Strasbourg, might, particularly as age was now 
 creeping on him, have dosed his military career 
 without disgrace, if the eternal (piestion, for the 
 solution of which he had made so many sacri- 
 flces, and which had always held the foremost 
 place in his thoughts, had not remained as un- 
 settled and as full of dilliculty as on the day 
 when he had mounted the throne. Charles II. 
 of Spain was not dead, and the question of the 
 Spanish succession, which bad so actively 
 
 210 
 
AUSTRIA, 1072-1711. 
 
 Pntri- 
 »/ Utrrchl. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1718-1738. 
 
 cmploynl the iiriiiics cif I,i)iii>i XIV., itnil taxed 
 IiIm (llploiMiii'y, wiLs iiH undi'iiilcil itH lit tlii' Ih;- 
 {i(liiiilii){iif IiIh rt'l^n. Louis XIV. kuw two niter- 
 iiiitlvcH iH'fon* liliii: n piirtitloii of the HiireesKlon 
 Ix'twceii the Kinperor ami lilniHelf (ii Holiitloii 
 proiMwed thirty years before as a means to avoid 
 war), or else a will in favoiirof France, followed 
 of course by a ree(aniiiencernent of j?''"''""' 
 hostilities. . . . t.onis XIV. proposed in sue- 
 Cl'iwion two scbenii'S, not, as thirty years before, 
 tn the Kniperor, lint to the KIiik of Kn^rlunil, 
 whose power and whose jfenius rendered him 
 the arbiter of all the jtreat alTairs of Kurope. 
 ... In the first of the treaties of partitlr)n, 
 Spain ami the Low Countries were to Ik^ j;I^''''> 
 to llie I'rince of liavaria: in the second, to the 
 Archdiilii' Cliarles. In both, France obtaini'd 
 Naples anci Sicily for llie Mauphln. . . . Ilolli 
 tlies<,' arrangements . . . suited both France and 
 Kiigland as ii paiillu solution of tiie (|uestion. 
 , . . Hut events, as '■(. know, deranj;ed all these 
 caloiihttlons, and Charles II., who. by contituiinK 
 to live, had disappointed so mucii impatient <'X- 
 IX'Ctation, by his last will provokeil a ^j^eueral 
 war. to be carried on auMinsI Friinie by 
 the union of Knjjiaml with tiie Kinpire and with 
 Holland — a luilon which was much strenj;lhcnecl 
 under the new dynasty, and which afterwards 
 embraced the northern stales of (Jermany. . . . 
 William III. died at tiic ajre of llfly-two, on tho 
 llth of March, 170'), at the beuihninif of the 
 War of Succession. After him. the part he was 
 to have played was <lividcd. I'rince Kujfcne, 
 Marlborougli, and Ileinsius (tlie (irand Pen- 
 sionary) had the coiuluct of jxilitical and 
 especially of military alTairs, and actecl in con- 
 cert. The disastrous conseipienccs t(» France of 
 tliat war, in winch William liad no part, are 
 iiolorious. Tiie battles of ISlenheim, of Hamilii's, 
 and of Oudenardu l)roUf,dil the allied arnncs on 
 tlie soil of France, and ])lace(l l,()\iis XIV. on 
 tiu' vcrifi! of ruin." — ,1. Van I'niet. A'wn/* mt 
 the I'liiiticitl IHkI-ii-ji iif the Wh, \Wi, and llth 
 Centiirieii, pp. :t9()-4t4 ami \-i\-AThi. 
 
 Ai.s<> IN': II. Martin, Hint, of France: Aqe of 
 hndx XrV.. i\ 3, (■/(. 3 and 4-0.— T. II. I)y<'r, 
 Hint, of )fo(lcni Kiinipf, hk. 5. eh. 5-0 (c. ;i). — 
 See, also, <}kumanv: A. 1). 1080; and Fii.v.M i:: 
 A. 1). 10H!)-l(i!)() to 10!)7. 
 
 A. D. 1683-1687.— Merciless suppression of 
 the Hungarian revolt.— The crown of Hungary 
 made hereditary in the House of Hapsburg. 
 Sue IliN(i.utv: A. I). l(W!-UWr, 
 
 A. D. i68vif99-— Expulsion of the Turks 
 from Hungary. — The Peace of Carlowitz. Seo 
 iIrN<iAKV. A. I). lOHlt-lMUl). 
 
 A. D. 1699-1711.— Suppression of the Re- 
 volt under Rakoczy in Hungary. See IIln- 
 (iAKv: A. I). 10!)!l-iri«. 
 
 A. D. 1700. — Interest of the Imperial House 
 in the question of the Spanish Succession. 
 See Spain: A. I). 1C9H-170(). 
 
 A. D. 1701-1713.— The War of the Spanish 
 Succession. See OiiUMANv: A. D. 1(03, to 
 1704; Italy: A. D. 1701-1718: Si'ain: A. I). 
 1703. to 1707-1710, and Xi:tiii;hi,ax!)s: A. I). 
 1703-1704. to 1710-1713. 
 
 A. D. 171 1.— The War of the Spanish Sue 
 cession. — Its Circumstances changed. — "The 
 death of the Emperor tlosepli I., wiio expired 
 April 17, 1711, at the age of thirty-two, changed 
 the whole character of the War of the Spanish 
 Succession. As Joseph left no male heirs, tbu 
 
 hereditary dotniidons of the House of .\uHtrlik 
 devolved to his brother, the Ari'hiluke Charles; 
 and though that prince had not been ele<-ted 
 King of the Kianans, and had tin refore to Im-- 
 come a candidale for the imperial cniwn, yet 
 there coidd be little doubt that he would attidn 
 that dignity. Ileni-e, if Charles slxudil also be- 
 come sovereign of Spain and tin- Indies, the vast 
 empire of Charles V, WDuld be again united in 
 one person; and lliat very evil of an almost uni- 
 versal monarchy would be eslablislied, the pre- 
 vention of which had been the chief cause for 
 taking up arms airidnst Philip V. . . . After an 
 interregnum of half a yi'ar, during which tho 
 alTairs of the F.inpire had been 1 '"iilucted by tlii; 
 Klector Palatine juid the Klector of Saxony, a.<i 
 imperial vicars for South and North (lermany, 
 the Archduke Charles was imaidmously named 
 Kmperor by the Klecloral College (Oct. 13th). 
 . . . Charles . . . received tho imperial crown 
 a' Frankfort, Dec. 33d, with the title of Charles 
 VI."— T. II. Py. r, Hint, of .Viuiern Kiiro]u\ hk. B, 
 eh. (r. :(). 
 
 A. D. 1713-1711J.— Ending of the War of the 
 Spanish Succession.— The Peace of Utrecht 
 and the Treaty of Rastadt.— Acquisition of 
 the Spanish Netherlands, Naples and Milan. 
 See L'TUKdir: A. 1). 1713-lTll. 
 
 A. D. 1713-1719. — Continued differences 
 with Spain. — The Triple Alliance. — The 
 See Si vi.N; A. 1). 1713- 
 
 Quadruple Alliance. 
 I.3.V 
 
 A. D. 1714.— The Deserticiiof the Catalans. 
 
 See Si'ain; A. I). 17i;t-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1714-1718.— Recovery of Belgrade 
 and final expulsion of the Turks from Hun- 
 gary. See III XOAIIV: A. D. 1000-171H. 
 
 A. D. 1718-1738.— The question of the Suc- 
 cession. — The Pragmatic Sanction of Charles 
 VI., and its guarantee by the Powers. — "'»n 
 the death [.V. D. 17111 "'' •'"sepli, the hopes . f 
 \\w house of Austria and tlie fuluri! destiny of 
 Oermany rested on Charles |tlien, as titular king 
 of Spain, Charles III., inelTectually contesting 
 the Spanish throne with the Hourtion heir, 
 Philip V. ; aflerwiirds, as ICmperor, Cliarles VI.] 
 who was the only surviviiiir male of liis illius- 
 trious family. Hy that event the I iscs of Aus- 
 tria, (termaiiy and Kurope were idarcd in a new 
 and critical situation. From a principle of mis- 
 taken policy the succession to the licieditary do- 
 minions hail neverliecn eslablislied according to an 
 invariable rule; for il was not clearly ascertained 
 whetlier males of the collateral branches should 
 be preferred to females in lineal descent, a?i un- 
 certainty which h:id l'rc(|uently occasioned many 
 veliement disputes. To obviat,' this evil, as 
 well as to lirevent future disputes. Leopold 
 I father of .losepli and Cliarles] lia<l arranged the 
 order of succession: to ,Jo.se))li he assigned Ilnn- 
 gary and 15olieiiiia. and the other hereditary do- 
 minions; and to Charles the crowu of Spain, and 
 all the ter:-itories wliicli belonged to the Spanish 
 inheritance. Should .loscph die without issue 
 male, the whole succe.s.sion was to descend to 
 Charles, and in case of his death, under similar 
 circumstances, tlie Austrian dominions were to 
 dc'volvo on the daughters of .Joseph in prefer- 
 ence to those of Charles. This family compact 
 was signed by the two brothers in the presence 
 of Leopold. Joseph died without male issue; 
 but left two daujf liters." He was succeeded by 
 Charles in uccoruaucc with the compact. "On 
 
 211 
 
AUSTRIA, 1718-1738. 
 
 Pragmatic 
 Sanction. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1740. 
 
 Ihf 2n(l nf Atiffiifit, 1718, soon ftfterthcsigniituri' 
 of tlic (Quadruple Alliance, Charles promulgated 
 fl new law of suceession for the inheritanee of 
 tlx- house of Austria, under the name of the 
 Prairniati'' Sanction. Aceordinp to the family 
 conipaet formed by I,eo]ioId, an<l eonlinned liy 
 Jo.ieph and Charles, the succession was entailed 
 on the dauiihters of .Joseph in preference to 
 the daughters of Charles, should they both 
 die without issue male. Charles, however, had 
 scarcely ascended the throne, tliough at, that 
 time without children, than he reversed this 
 compact, and settled the right of succession, in 
 ■ default of his male issue, first on his daughters, 
 then on the (laughters of .Joseph, and afterwards 
 on the queen of Portugal and the oIIkt daugli- 
 tors of Leopold. Since the promulgation of that 
 decree, the Empress had borne a son who died in 
 his infancy, and three daughters, Maria Theresa, 
 ]\Iaria Anno and Maria Amelia. With a view to 
 insure the succession of these daughters, and to 
 obviate the dangers which might arise from the 
 claims of the .losephine archduchesses, he pub- 
 lished the Pragmatic Sanction, and compelled 
 Ills nieces to renounce their pretensions on their 
 marriages with the electors of Saxony and 15a- 
 varia. .Vware, however, that the strongest re- 
 nunciations are disregarded, he obtained from 
 the (lifTerent states of his extensive (hmiinions 
 the acknowledgement of the Pragmatic Sanction, 
 and made it the great object of his reign, to 
 which he sacriliccd every other consideration, to 
 procure the guaraiity of the European powers." 
 This guaranty was obtained in treaties with the 
 several powers, as follows : Spain in 172.'); Rus- 
 sia, 1726, renewed in 17IW; Prussia, 1728; Eng- 
 land and Holland, 1731 ; France, 1738; the Empire, 
 1732. The inheritance which Charles thus en- 
 deavored to secure to his daughter was vast and 
 imposing. "lie was by election Emperor of 
 Gernianv, by hereditary right sovereign of Hun- 
 gary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Austria, Styria, 
 Carinthia and Carniola, the Tyrol, and the Bris- 
 ga>i, and he had recently obtained Najdes and 
 Sicil}', the Milanese and the Netherlands." — W. 
 Co.\e, JUkI. (if the Huune of Aiistrui, ch. 80, 84-8.5 
 (v. 3). — "The Pragmatic Sanction, though framed 
 to legalize the accessioi, of Maria Theresa, ex- 
 cludes the present Emperor's daughters and his 
 grandchild by postponing the succession of 
 females to that of males in the family of Charles 
 VI."— J. D. Boure: The ITcritar/e of the 
 
 ILipsburris (Fortninh llev., March, 1889). 
 
 Also i.n: H. Tuttk, IlUt. of Prussia, 1740-1745, 
 ch. 3. — S. A. Dunham, Ilist. of the Germanic 
 Empire, bk. 3, rh. 3 (i\ 3). 
 
 A. D. 1719. — Sardinia ceded to the Duke of 
 Savoy in exchange for Sicily. See Si'ai.v: 
 A. D. 1713-1725; and It.vi.v; A. D. 1715- 
 1735. 
 
 A. D. 1731. — The second Treaty of Vienna 
 with England and Holland. See Siwik: A. D. 
 1720-1731. 
 
 A. D. 1732-1733.— Interference in the elec- 
 tion of the King of Poland. See Poland; 
 A. 1). 1732-1733. 
 
 A. D. 1733-1735.— The war of the Polish 
 Succession.— Cession of Naples and Sicily to 
 Spain, and Lorraine and Bar to France. Sec 
 Ekanck: a. I). 1733-1735, and Italy; A. I). 
 1715-173,5. 
 
 A. D. 1 737- 1 739. — Unfortunate war with the 
 Turks, in alliance with Russia. — Humiliating 
 
 peace of Belgrade. — Surrender of Belgrade, 
 with Servia, and part of Bosnia. See Russia: 
 A. 1). 172.5-1731). 
 
 A. D. 1740 (October).- Treachery among 
 the Guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction. — 
 The inheritance of Marie Theresa disputed. 
 — "The Enii)eror Charles VI. . . . died on the 
 20th of October, 1740. His daughter Maria 
 Theresa, the heiress of his dominions with the 
 title of Queen of Hungary, was but twenty- 
 three years of age, without experience or knowl- 
 edge of business; and her husband Francis, the 
 titular Duke of Lorraine and reigning Grand 
 Duke of Tu.scany, deserved the praise of amiable 
 (|ualities rather than of commanding talents. 
 Her Jlinisters were timorous, irresolute, and 
 useless: 'I saw theuj in despair,' writes Mr. 
 Robin.son, the British envoy, 'but that very 
 despair was not capable of rendering them 
 bravely desperate. ' The treasury was exhausted, 
 the army dispersed, and no General risen to re- 
 I)lace Eugene. The succession of JIaria Theresa 
 was, indeed, cheerfully acknowledged by her 
 subjects, and seemed to be secured amongst 
 foreign jjowers by their guarantee of the Prag- 
 matic Sanction; but it soon appeared that such 
 guarantees are mere wortliless parchments 
 where there is strong temptation to break and 
 only a feeble army to stipport theuL The 
 l)rincipal claimant to the succession was the 
 Elector of Bavaria, who maintained that the 
 will of the Emperor Ferdinand the First devised 
 the Austrian states to his daughter, from whom 
 the Elector descended, on failure of male lineage. 
 It appeared that the original will in the archives 
 at Vienna referred to the failure, not of the 
 male but of the legitimate issue of his sons; 
 but this document, though ostontatiou.sly dis- 
 played to all the Jlinisters of state and foreign 
 aml)assadors, was very far from inducing the 
 Elector to desist from his pretensions. As to the 
 Great Powers — the Court of France, the old 
 ally of the Bavarian family, and mindful of its 
 injuiies from the House of Austria, was eager 
 to exalt the first by the depression of the latter. 
 The Bourbons in Spain followed the direction of 
 the Bourbons in France. The King of Poland 
 and the Empress of Russia were more friendly 
 in their expressions than in their designs. An 
 opposite spirit pervaded England and Holland, 
 where motives of honour and of policy combined 
 to supi)ort the rights of JIaria Theresa. In 
 Germany itself the Elector of Cologne, the 
 Bavarian's brother, warmly espoused his cause; 
 and 'the remaining Electors,' says Chesterfield, 
 ' like electors with us, thought it a proper op- 
 portunity of making tlie most of their votes, — 
 and all .at the expense of the helpless and 
 abandoned House of Austria!' The first blow, 
 however, came from Prussia, whore the King 
 Frederick William had died a few months be- 
 fore, and been succeeded by his son Frederick 
 the Second; a Prince surnamcd the Great by 
 poets."— Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of 
 Kmj., 1713-1783, ch. 23 (c. 3). — "The elector of 
 Bavaria acted in a i)rompt, honest, and consistent 
 manner. He at once lodged a protest against 
 any disposition of the hereditJtry estates to the 
 prejudice of his own rights; insisted on the will 
 of Ferdinand I. ; and demanded the production 
 of the original text. It was promptly protluced. 
 But it was found to convey the succession to the 
 heirs of his daughter, the ancestress of the 
 
 212 
 
AUSTRIA. 1740. 
 
 Wnr of the 
 Sncresaion, 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1740-1741. 
 
 elector, not, ns ho conteiulod, on the failure of 
 male heirs, but in tlie absence of more direct 
 heirs born in wedloclc. Maria Tlieresa could, how- 
 ever, trace lierdcscert through nearer mule heirs, 
 ami had, therefore, a superior title. Charles 
 Albert was in any event only one of several 
 claimants. The King of Spain, a liourbon, pre- 
 sented himself as the heir of tlio llapsi)urg 
 emperor Cliarles V. The King of Sardinia 
 alleged an ancient marriaft'c contract, from wliich 
 he derived a right to tlir duchy of ^Milan. Even 
 August of Saxony claimed territory by virtue of 
 an anti(iuated title, which, it was i)rctended, the 
 renunciation of his wife could not alTect. All 
 tlu'sc were, however, mere vultures compare<l to 
 the eagle [Frederick of 7'ru.5siii] which was soon 
 to descend upon its prey." — II. Tattle, Hist, of 
 Pnima, 1740-1745, ch. 2. 
 
 A. D. I740(0ctober — November).— The War 
 of the Succession. — Conduct of Frederick the 
 Great as explained by himself. — "This Prag- 
 matic Sanction ha<l liccn guarantied by France, 
 England, Holland, Sardinia, Saxony, and tlie 
 Roman empire; nay by tlie late King Frediric 
 William [of Prussia] also, on condition that tlie 
 court of Vienna would secure to him tlie succes- 
 sion of Juliers and Berg. Tlie emperor i)romiscd 
 him the eventual succession, and did not fullil 
 his engagements; by which the King of Prussia, 
 his successor, was freed from tliis guarantee, to 
 which his father, the late king, liad pledged him- 
 self, conditionally. . . . Frederic I., when he 
 erected Prussia into a kingdom, had, by that vain 
 grandeur, planted the scion of ambition in the 
 bosom of his posterity ; which, soon or late, must 
 fructify. The monarchy he had left to his des- 
 cendants was, if I may be permitted the expres- 
 sion, a kind of hermaplirodite, which was rather 
 more an electorate than a kingdom. Fame was 
 to be acquired by determining the nature of tliis 
 being: and this sensation certainly was one of 
 tliose which strengthened so many motives, con- 
 spiring to engage the king in grand enterprises. 
 If tlie acquisition of the dutcliy of Berg had not 
 even met witli almost insurmountable impedi- 
 ments, it was in itself so small that the possession 
 would add little grandeur to the house of Bran- 
 deubourg. These reflections occasioned the king 
 to turn his views toward the house of Austria, 
 the succession of which would become matter of 
 litigation, at the death of the emperor, when the 
 throne of the Cajsars should be vacant. That 
 event must be favourable to the distinguished 
 part which the king l;.ul to act in Germany, by 
 the various claims of the houses of Saxony and 
 Bavaria to these states ; by the number of candi- 
 dates wliich Miight canvass for the Imiierial crown ; 
 and by the projects of the court of Versailles, 
 which, on such an occasion, must naturally prolit 
 by the troubles that the death of Charles VI. 
 could not fail to excite. This accident did not 
 long keep the world in expectation. The em- 
 peror ended his days at the palace La Favorite, 
 on I he 26th [20tli] day of October, 1740. Thenews 
 arrived at Kheinsberg when tlie king was ill of a 
 fever. ... lie immediately resolved to reclaim 
 the principalities of Silesia ; the rights of his house 
 to wliich [lo.ig dormant, the claim dating back 
 to a certain covenant of heritage-brotherhood 
 with the du'ie of Liegnitz, in 1587, which the 
 cniperor of that day caused to be annulled by the 
 Stales of Bohemia] were incontestable: and he 
 prepa.V'd, at the same time, to support these pre- 
 
 tensions, if necessary, bv arms. This project ac- 
 complished all his political views; it ailordcd the 
 means of acquiring reputation, of augmenting 
 the power of the state, and of terminating what 
 related to tlie litigious succession of tlie dutchy 
 of Berg, . . . The state of the court of Vienna, 
 after the <leath of the emperor, was deplorable. 
 'I'lie finances were in disorder; the army was 
 ruined and discouraged liy ill success in its wars 
 with the Turks; the ministry disunited, and a 
 youthful unex])eri('nced iirincess at the head of 
 the government, who was to defend the succes- 
 sion from all claimants. The result was that the 
 government couhl not appear formidable. It 
 was besides impossible that the king should be 
 destitute of allies. . . . Tlie war wliich he might 
 undertake in Silesia was the only offensive war 
 that could be favoured by the situation of his 
 states, for it would be carried on upon his front- 
 iers, and the Oder would always furnish him 
 with a sure communication. . . . Add to these 
 reasons, an army tit to marcli, a. treasury ready 
 prepared, and, perhaps, the ambition of acquir- 
 ing renown. Such were the cau.ses of the war 
 wiiich the king declared against Maria Theresa 
 of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia." — 
 Frederick II. (Frederick tlie Great), Jlist. of My 
 Own Timfx; I'onthutiunis Works {trans, by Ilol- 
 croft), V. 1, ch. 1-2. 
 
 A. D. 1740-1741.— The War of the Succes- 
 sion : Faithlessness of the King of Prussia. 
 — The Macaulay verdict. — "From no ((uarter 
 did (he young ((Ueen of Hungary receive stronger 
 as-: .i ranees of friendship and support than 
 from the King of Prussia. Yet the King of 
 Prussia, the ' Anti-Machiavel,' had already fully 
 determined to commit the great crime of 
 violating his plighted faith, of robbing the 
 ally whom he was bound to defend, and of 
 plunging all Europe into a long, bloody, and 
 desolating war, and all this for no end whatever 
 except that ho might extend his dominions and 
 see his name in the gazettes. lie determined to 
 assemble a great army with sjieed and secrecy, 
 to invade Silesia before Maria Theresa should be 
 apprized of his design, and to add that ricli 
 province to his king<lom. . . . Without any 
 declaration of war, without any demand for 
 reparation, in the very act of ])ouring fori h com- 
 pliments and assurances of good will, Frederic 
 commenced hostilities. Many thousands of his 
 troops were actually in Silesia before the Queen 
 of Hungary knew that he had set up any claim 
 to any part of lier territories. At length he sent 
 her a message which could be regarded only as 
 an insult. If she would but let hi'.i have Silesia, 
 he would, he said, stand by lier against any 
 power which should try to deprive her of her 
 other dominions: as if he was not already bound 
 to stand by her, or as if his new promise could 
 be of more value than the old one. It was the 
 depth of winter. The cold was severe, and the 
 roads deep in mire. But the Prussians pressed 
 on. Resistance was impossible. The Austrian 
 army was then neither numerous nor elli- 
 cient. Tlie small portion of that army which 
 lay in Silesia was unprepared for hostilities. 
 Glogau was blockaded ; Breslau opened its gates ; 
 Ohlau was evacuated. A few scattered garri- 
 sons still held out; but the whole open country 
 was subjugated : no enemy ventured to encounter 
 the king in the field ; and, before the end of .Jan- 
 uary, 1741, he return ;d to receive the congratula- 
 
 213 
 
AUSTRIA, 1740-1741. 
 
 Conduct of 
 Frederick the Ureal. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741. 
 
 tions of his sul)joct.s at Hcrlin. Had the Silcslan 
 (|ucsti()n lit'cii iiicrt'ly a fiucstion hctwccii FrediTic 
 and .Maria Theresa it would bo iiiipossiblf to 
 aciiiiit iIk; I'ru.ssiaii Itiiig of f!frf)ss perfidy. IJiit 
 when we consider tlie effeots whicli Ids policy 
 produced, and could not fail to jiroduce, on the 
 whole community of civilized nat; )ns, we are 
 <(irnpelled to pronoimco a conilcmnation still 
 more severe. . . . Tlic selfish rapacity of the 
 king of Prussia gave the si/jiial to hi.s neigh- 
 Iiours. . . . The evils produceil by this wicked- 
 ness were felt in lands wliire the name of Prussia 
 was unknown; and, in order that he might rob a 
 neiirhbour whom ho had promised to defend, 
 black men fought on the coa.st of Coroniandel, 
 and red men scalped eacli other by the great 
 lakes of North America. Silesia had been occu- 
 pied without a battle; but the Austrian troops 
 were advancing to the relief of the fortresses 
 which still held out. In the spring Frederic re- 
 joined his army. He had seen little of war, and 
 had never commiindcd any great body of men in 
 the field. . . . Frederic's first battle was fought 
 at Molwitz [April 10, 1741], and never did Uw 
 career of a great commander open in a more in- 
 auspicious maimer. His army was victorious. 
 Not only, however, did he not establish his title 
 to the character of an able general, but ho was 
 so unfortunate as to make it doulrtful whether he 
 possessed the vulgar courage of a soldier. The 
 cavalry, whicli he comnian<lcd in person, was 
 put to flight. Uimccustomed to the tumult and 
 carnage of a field of battle, he lost his self-pos- 
 session, and listened too readily to those wlio 
 urged him to save himself. His English gray 
 carried him many miles from the field, while 
 Schwerin, though wounded in two places, man- 
 fully upheld tile day. The skill of tlie old 
 Field-Marshal and the steadiness of the Prussian 
 l)attalli)ns prevailed, and the Austrian army was 
 driven from the field with the loss of M.OIM) men. 
 The news was carried lato at night to a mill in 
 which the king had taken shelter. It gave him 
 a bitter pang. He was successful ; but he owed 
 his success to dispositions which others had 
 made, and to the valour of men who had fought 
 while he was flying. So unpromising was the 
 first appearance of the greatest warrior of that 
 age." — liord .Macaulay, Frederic, the Great (A't- 
 .*(//.«, )'. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1741 (April— May).— The War of the 
 Succession: French responsibility. — The 
 Carlyle verdict. — "The battle of MoUwitz went 
 off like a signal shot among the Nations; inti- 
 mating tliat they were, one and all, to go battling. 
 Whicli they cliii, with a witness; making a ter- 
 rible tiling of it, over all the world, for above 
 seven years to come. . . . Not that .Mollwitz 
 kindled Europe; ►Europe was alreaily kindled 
 for some two years past; — especially since the 
 late Kaiser died, and his Pragmatic Sanction was 
 superadded to the other troubles afoot. But 
 ever since that image of Jenkins's Ear had at 
 Inst blazed-up in the slow English brain, like a 
 flerv constellation or Sign in the Heavens, sym- 
 b' 'uC of such injustices and unendurabilities, and 
 nad lighted the Spanish-English War (.see Eni;- 
 I,.VNI): A. 1). 1739-1741], Europe was slowly but 
 liretty surely taking fire. France 'coidd not see 
 Spain humbled,' she said: England (in its own 
 dim fooling, and also in the fact of things), could 
 not do at .all without considerably humbling 
 Spain. France, endlessly interested in that 
 
 Spanish-English matter, was already sending out 
 lleet.s, firing shots. — almost, or altogether, put- 
 ling her hand in it. ' In which case, will not, 
 must not, Au.strlahelp usT thouglit England, — 
 and was asking, daily, at Vienna . . . when the- 
 late Kai.ser died. . . . IJut if not as cause, then 
 as signal, or as signal and cause together (which 
 it properly was), the IJattle of Mollwitz gave the 
 fiiiLsliing stroke and set all in motion. . . . For 
 directly on the back of Mollwitz, thoro ensued, 
 first, an explosion of Diplomatic activity, sucli 
 as was never seen b<'fore ; E.tcellencies from the 
 four winds taking wing towards Friedrich; and 
 talking and insinualing, and fencing and fug- 
 ling, after their sort, in that Silesian camp of 
 his, the centre being there. A universal rookery 
 of Diplomatists, .vhosc loud cackle is now as if 
 gone mad to us; their work wholly fallen putres- 
 cent and avoidable, dead to all creatures. And 
 secondly, in the train of that, there ensued a 
 universal i.,,.ropean War, the French and the 
 English being chief parties in it; which abounds 
 in battles and feats of arms, spirited but delir- 
 ious, and cannot be got stilled for seven or elglit 
 years to come ; and ill which Friedrich and his 
 War swim only as an intermittent Episode hence- 
 forth. . . . Tlio first point to be noted is. Where 
 did it originate ? To which the answer mainly 
 is . . . with Monseigneur, the Marechalde IJelle- 
 isle principally; with the ambitious cupidities 
 and baseless vanities of tlie French Court and 
 Nation, as represented by IJelleisle. . . . The 
 English-Spanish War bad a basis to stand on in 
 this Universe. The like had the Prussian-Aus- 
 trian one; so all men now admit. If Friedrich 
 had not business there, what man ever had in an 
 enterprise he ventured on? Friedrich, after 
 such tri.il and i)roof as has seldom been, got his 
 claims on Schlesien allowed by the Destinies. 
 . . . Friedrich h.td business in this War; and 
 Jlaria Thi^resa versus Friedrich had likewise 
 cause to ajjpear in Court, and do her utmost 
 pleading ag;iinst liiiii. Hut if we ask. What 
 Belleisle or France and Louis XV. had to do 
 there? the answer is rigorously Nothing. Their 
 own windy vanities, ambitions, sanctioned nut 
 liy f.ict and the Almiglity Powers, but by Phan- 
 tasm and the babble of Versiilllcs; transcendent 
 .self-conceit, intrinsically insane; pnHensionsover 
 tlieir fellow-creatures which were without basis 
 anywhere in Nature, except in the French liiaiu; 
 it was this that brought nelleisle and France 
 into a German War. And Helleislc and Fiance 
 having gone into an Anti-Pragmatic War, the 
 unlucky George and his Englnnd were dragged 
 into a Pragmatic one, — (luilling their own liusi- 
 ness, on the Spanish Main, and hurrying to tier- 
 many, — in terror as at Doomsday, and zeal to 
 save the Keystone of Nature there. That is the 
 notiible point in regard to this War: 'I'lmt 
 France is to bo called the author of it, who, 
 alone of all the parties, lm<l no business there 
 whatever."— T. Carlyle, Hint, of Fricdvkh II.. hk. 
 13, (•/(. 11 ()i. 4).— See, also, Fkanch; A. D. ITH;!. 
 A. D. 1741 (May — June). — Mission of Belle- 
 isle.— The thickening of tlie Plot. — " The defeat 
 of Maria Theresa's onfy army [at Mollwitz] swept 
 away all the doubts anil scruples of France. The 
 fiery Belleisle had already set out upon his 
 mission to the various Gfcrraan courts, armed 
 with powers which were reluctantly granted by 
 the cardinal [Fleury, the French minister j, and 
 were promptly enlarged by the aiubassaaor to 
 
 214 
 
AUSTRIA, 1741. 
 
 Maria Therein 
 in Hungary. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1741. 
 
 suit Wa own more ambitions virws of tlie situa- 
 tiou. He travelled in orientiil state. . . . The 
 almost royal pomp with wliieli lie strode into the 
 presence of prinres of tlie blood, the copious 
 eloquence with which lie jtlcaded his cause, . . . 
 were only the outward decorations of one of the 
 most iiiiquitous schenies ever <levised by an un- 
 scrupulous diplomacy. The scheme, when 
 stripped of all its details, did not indeed at first 
 appear absolutely revolting. It proposed simply 
 to secure the election of Charles Albert of Bavaria 
 as emperor, an honor to which he had a jierfect 
 right 'D aspire. But it was dilllcult to obtain 
 the votes of certain electors without offering 
 tliem the prospect of territorial gains, and iinpos- 
 sible for Charles Albert to support the imperial 
 dignity without greater revenues than those of 
 Bavaria. It was i>roposed, therefore, that pro- 
 vinces should bo taken from JIaria Theresa her- 
 self, lirst to purchase votes against lier own 
 husband, and then to swell the income of the 
 successful rival candidate. The three episcopal 
 electors were tirst visited, and .subjected to vari- 
 ous forms of persuasion, — bribes, (lattery, threats, 
 — until the elTects of the treatment began to 
 appear; the count iialatine wasdevoted to France : 
 and these four with Bavaria made a majority of 
 one. But that was too small a margin for Belle- 
 isle's aspirations, or even for the safety of liis 
 project. The four remaining votes belonged to 
 the most powerful of the German states, Prussia, 
 Hanover, Saxony and Bohemia. . . . IJohemia, 
 if it voted at all, would of course vote for the 
 grand-duke Francis [husband of jMaria Theresa]. 
 Sa.\(my and Hanover were already negotiating 
 with Maria Theresa; and it was well understood 
 tliat Austria could have Frederick's support by 
 paying his i>rice." Austria refused to pay the 
 price, and Frederick signed a treaty with the 
 king of France at Breslau on tlie -lib of .June, 
 1741. "The essence of it was contained in four 
 secret articles. In these the king of Prussia re- 
 nounced liis claim to JiUicb-Berg in behalf of the 
 house of Sulzbach, and agreed to give his vote to 
 t!ie elector of Bavaria for emperor. Tlie king 
 of France engaged to guarantee Prussia in the 
 possession of Lower .Silesia, to send within two 
 nioiitlis an arm}' to the support of Bavaria, and 
 to provoke an immediate ruiitiire between Swe- 
 den and Russia." — II. Tuttle, Hist, of I'ruma, 
 1740-1745, <•/(. 4. 
 
 Also i\: W. Coxe, Hist, of the House of Austria, 
 ch. 'J'J (;•. li). 
 
 A. D. 1741 (June— September).— Maria 
 Theresa and the Hungarians. — " During these 
 anxious summer months Maria Tlieresa and the 
 Anslriau court had resided mainly at Presliurg, 
 in Hungary. Here she had been occuiiied in tlie 
 solution of domestic as well as inleriialional 
 proliliMns. The Magyars, as a manly and 
 chivalrous race, had been touched by the perilous 
 situation of tliu young queen; but, while 
 ardently protesting tlieir loyalty, insisted not the 
 less on the recognition of their own inalienable 
 rights. Tliese had been inade(|Ualely observed 
 In recent years, and in conse(iuence no little dis- 
 alfectiou prevailed in Hungary. The magnates 
 resolved, therefore, us they iiad resolv<'d at the 
 beginning of previous reigns, to demand the 
 restoration of all their riglits and ])rivileges. 
 But it does not apjiear that they wislied to take 
 any ungenerous advantage of the se.\ or the 
 necessities of Maria Theresa. They were argu- 
 
 iicntativc and stubborn, yet not in a bargaining, 
 liiercennry spirit. Tliey accepted in .Tune a 
 (pialitied compliance with tlieir (lemands, ;;:.d 
 when on the 2.5tli of that month the queen 
 ap|)eare(l liefore the diet lo receive the crown of 
 St. Stephen, and, according to custom, waved 
 the great sword of the kingdom toward the 
 four ])oints of the conipa.'^s, toward the north and 
 the south, the east and the west, challenging all 
 enemies to dispute her right, the asst nbly was 
 carried away by enthusiasm, and it seemed as it 
 an end had forever been put to constitiition.al 
 technicalities. Such was. liowever, not th(! case. 
 After the excitement caused by the dramatic 
 coronation had in a measure subsided, the old 
 contentions revived, as bitter and vexatious as 
 before. Tliese concerned especially the manner 
 in which the administration of Hungary should 
 be adjusted to meet the new state of things. 
 Should the chief political otlices be filled by 
 native Hungarians, as the diet demanded ? Could 
 the co-regenev of the grand-duke, which was 
 ardently desired by tlie (pu'en, be accepted by 
 the Magyars"? For two months the dispute over 
 these proljlems raged at Preslnirg, until finally 
 Maria Theresa herself found a bold, ingenious, 
 and patriotic solution. The ni'ws of the Franco- 
 Bavarian alliance and the fall of Passau deter- 
 mined her to throw lierself completely upon the 
 gallantry and devotion of tlie JIagyars. It had 
 long been the policy of the court of Vienna not 
 to entrust tlie Hungarians with arms. . . . But 
 Maria Theresa had not been robbed, in spite of 
 her experience with France and I'rus.sia, of all 
 her faith in human nature. She took the respon- 
 sibility of her decision, and the result proved 
 that her insight was correct. On the 11th of 
 September she summoned the members of the 
 diet Ijc^fore lier, and, seated ini I lie throne, 
 explained to them tlie perilous situation of her 
 dominions. Tlie danger, sin; said, threatened 
 herself, andall that was deartoher. Abandcmed 
 by all her allies, she took refuge in the fidelity 
 and the ancient valor of tlie Hungarians, to 
 whom slie entrusted he-self, her children, and 
 her empire. Here she broke into tears, and 
 covered her face with her l.iiidkercliief. The 
 diet responded to this apjieal by proclaiming tlio 
 ' insurrection ' or the rMiuipment of a large pop- 
 ular I'cn'ce for the defence of the queen. So 
 great was .the enthusiasin that it nearly swept 
 away even the original avei-sion of the Hun- 
 garians to the grand-duke Francis, who, to the 
 (lueen's delight, was finally, though not witliout 
 some murmurs, accepted as co-regent. . . . 
 Tills uprising was organized not an hour too 
 early, for >'.ingers were pressing upon tlie queen 
 froiii everjT side." — H. Tuttle, '//('«<. of Prussia, 
 1740-1745, ch. 4. 
 
 Also in : Due de Broglie, Frederick the Great 
 and Maria Thcrcia, ch. 4 (c. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1 74 1 (August — November). — The 
 French-Bavarian onset, — " France now licgan 
 to act with energy. In the month of August 
 [1711] two French armies crossed the Rhine, each 
 about 40, 000 strong. The lirst inarched into West- 
 phalia, and frightened George 11. into conclud- 
 ing a treaty of neutrality for Hanover, and jirom- 
 ising his vote to the Klector of Bavaria. The 
 second advanced through South Germany on 
 Passau, the frontier city of Bavaria and Austria. 
 As soon as it arrived on German soil, the French 
 officers assumed the blue and white cockade of 
 
 215 
 
AUSTRIA, 1741. 
 
 Silesifi to 
 h^-ederick. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1742. 
 
 Bnvnrin, for it was tlie cue of Fmncc to nppfiir 
 only us nil auxiliary, and the nominal romnianil 
 of lirr army was vested in the Elector. From 
 Passavi the French and liavarians passed into 
 Upper Austria, and on Sept. 11 entered its eai>i- 
 tal, I. in/., where the Elector assumed the title of 
 Archduke. Five days later Sa.\ony joined the 
 allies. Sweden had already declared war on Rus- 
 sia. Spain trumped up an old claim nud at- 
 tacked the Austrian domiiuonsin Italy. It seemed 
 ns if Belli'isle's schemes were about to be crowneil 
 with coniiilete success. Had the allies pushed 
 forward, Vienna must have fallen into their hands. 
 But the French did not wish to bo too victorious, 
 lest they should make the Elector too jiowerful, 
 and so indi'pendent of them. Therefore, after 
 si.x weeks' delay, they turned aside to the con- 
 quest of Bohemia." — F. W. Lon>;man, Frederick 
 the (Jrciit niitl the Seven Years M'ar, eh. 4, sect. 4. 
 — " While ... a portion of the French troops, 
 under the command of the Count de Segur, was 
 left in Upper Austria, the remainder of tlie allied 
 army turned towards Bohemia ; where they were 
 joined by a body of Sa.xons, under the couuuand 
 of Count Rulowsky. They took Prague by as- 
 sault, on the nijj;lit of the 2.5th of Novend)er, 
 while the Grand l)ukc of Tuscauy, the husband 
 of JIaria Theresa, was marching to his relief. lii 
 Prague, 3,000 prisoners were taken. The elector 
 of Bavaria hastened there, iiiion hearing of the 
 success of ills arms, was crowned King of Bo- 
 hemia, during the month of December, and re- 
 ceived the oath of fidelity from the constituted 
 authorities. But while he was thus employed, 
 the Austrian general, Khevenlndler, had driven 
 the Count de Segur out of A\islria, and had him- 
 self entered Bavaria ; which obliged the Bavarian 
 army to abandon Bohenda and hasten to the de- 
 fence of their own countiv." — Lord Dover, Life 
 of Frederick II., bk. 2, c/i.'H (r. 1). 
 
 Also in; Frederick II., Hist, nf My Own Times 
 {Post/niiuoiis M'orks, r. 1, c/i. ■')). 
 
 A. D. 1741 (October).— Sect et Treaty ^w^th 
 Frederick. — Lower Silesia conceded to him. 
 — Austrian success. — "By October, 1741, the 
 fortinies of JIaria Theresa had sunk to the low- 
 est ebb, but a great revulsiim speedily set in. 
 The martial enthusiasm of the Hungarians, the 
 subsidy from England, and the brilliant military 
 talents of General Khevenlndler, restored her 
 armies. Vienna was put in a state of defence, 
 and at the same time jealnusies and suspicion 
 made their way among the confederates. The 
 Electors of Bavaria and Saxony were already in 
 some degree divided; and the Germans, and es- 
 ])eciaily Frederick, were alarmed by the growing 
 ascendency, and irritated by the haughty de- 
 meanour of the French. In the moment of her 
 extreme depression, the Queen consented to a 
 concession which England had vaiidy urged upo3i 
 her before, and which laid the fou.idation of her 
 future success. In October 1741 she entered 
 into a secret convention with Frederick [called 
 the convention of Ober-Schnellendorf], !)■ which 
 that astute sovereign agreed to desert li', ,llies, 
 and desist from hostilities, on condition of ulti- 
 mately obtaining Lower Silesia, with Brcslau and 
 Neisse. Every precauti(ra was tiiken to ensure 
 secrecy. It was arranged that Frederick should 
 continue to besiege Neisse, that the town should 
 ultimately be surrendered to him, and that his 
 troops shouhl then retire into winter quarters, 
 and take no '.urther part in the war. As the 
 
 sacrifice of a few more lives was perfectly in- 
 dillerent to the contracting parties, and in order 
 that no one should suspect the treachery that 
 was contemplated, Neisse, after the arrangement 
 had been made for its surrender, was subjected 
 for four days and four nights to the horrors of 
 bombardment. Frederick, at the same time 
 talked, with his usual cynical frankness, to the 
 English ambassador about the best way of at- 
 tacking his allies the French; and ob.served, that 
 it tlie Queen of Hungary prospered, he would 
 perhaps sujiport her, if not — everyone must look 
 for himself. He only assented verbally to this 
 convention, and, no doubt, resolved to await the 
 course of events, in order to decide which Power 
 it was his interest finally to betray ; but in the 
 meantime the Austrians obtained a respite, 
 which enabled them to throw their whole forces 
 upon their other enemies. Two brilliant cam- 
 jiaigna followed. The greater part of Bohemia 
 was recoven d by an army under the Duke of 
 Lorraine, and the Flench were hemmed in at 
 I'rague; while another army, under General 
 Khevenhuller, invaded Ujiper Austria, drove 
 10,000 French soldiers within the walls of IJnz, 
 blockaded them, defeated a body of Bohemians 
 who were sent to the rescue, compelled the 
 whole French army to surrender, and then, cross- 
 ing the frontier, poured in a resistless torrent 
 over Bavaria. The fairest plains of that beauti- 
 ful land were desolated by hosts of irregular 
 troops from Hungary, Croatia, and the Tyrol; 
 and (m the 12tli of February the Austrians 
 inarched in triumph into Munich. On that very 
 day the Elector of Bavaria was crowned Emperor 
 of Germany, at Frankfort, under the title of 
 Cliarh^s VII., and the inipenal crown was thus, 
 for the fust time, for many generations, .separ- 
 ated from the House of Au.stria. " — W. E. II. 
 Lecky, ///-'. „/ h'mj., \8lh Codim/, ch. 3 (c. 1). 
 
 Also in: F. 7on Itaumer, Ci'ittribiitioiis to 
 Mmtcrn Iliat.: Fred'k II. and his Times, ch. 
 13-14. 
 
 A. D. 1741-1743. — Successes in Italy. Sie 
 It.\i.Y: a. D. 1741-17-13. 
 
 A. D. 1742 (January — May). — Frederick 
 breaks faith again. — Battle of Chotusitz.— 
 "The Queen of Hungary had assembled in the 
 licginning of the year two considerable armies in 
 Moravia and Bohemia, the one under Prince 
 Lobkowitz, to defend the former ])rovince, and 
 the other commanded by Prince Charles of Lor- 
 raine, her brother-in-law. This young Prince 
 possessed ns much bravery ami activity as 
 Frederick, and had equally with him the talent 
 of inspiring attachment and confidence. . . . 
 Frederick, alarmed at these preparations and the 
 progress of the Auslriaus iu Bavaria, ..bruptly 
 broke oil the convention of Ober Schnellendorf, 
 and recommenced Iioslilitiea. . . . The King of 
 Prussia became apprehensive that the Queen of 
 Hungary would again turn her arms to recover 
 Silesia. He therefore dispatched Marshal 
 Schwerin to seize Olmutz and lay siege to Glntz, 
 which surrendered after a desperate resistance 
 on the 9th of January. Soon after this event, 
 the King rejoinetl his army, and endeavoured to 
 drive the Austrians from their advantageous 
 position in the southern parts of Bohemia, which 
 would have delivered the French troops in the 
 neighbourhood and checked the progress of 
 Khevenhuller in Bavaria. The king advonccd 
 to Iglau, on the frontiers of Bohemia, and, oc- 
 
 216 
 
AUSTRIA, 1742. 
 
 Hattle of 
 Chotu3itz. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1742. 
 
 cupying the bnuks of the Taya, made irruptions 
 into Ujipcr Austria, liis liussars sjjrcadiiij!; terror 
 cvcu to tlio gates of Vietuia. Tlie Austrians 
 drew from Uavaria a eorps of 10,000 men to 
 cover tlie ea])ilal, wliile Prince Cliarles of Lor- 
 rnine, at tlie liead of ,'50,000 men, tlireatened tlie 
 Prussian magazine.s in Upper Silesia, an<l by this 
 movement compelled Prederiek to detach a con- 
 siderable force for their protection, and to 
 evacuate Moravia, which he had invaded. 
 Broglii', who commanded the French forces in 
 that country, must now have fallen a sacritice, 
 hud not the ever-active King of Prussia brought 
 up 30,000 uien, which, under the Prince of 
 Anhalt-Dessau, entering Bohemia, came up witli 
 Prince {.'harles at Czaslau, about thirty-live miles 
 from Prague, before he could form a junction 
 Willi Prince I.,obkowitz. Upon this ensued [May 
 IT, 1742] what is known in history as the battle 
 of Czaslau [also, and more commonly, called the 
 hattle of Ciiotusitz]. . . . The numbers in tlie 
 two armies were nearly eiiual, and the action 
 was warmly contested on both sides. . . . The 
 Prus.sians remained masters of the field, with 18 
 cannon, two pairs of colours and 1,200 prisoners; 
 hut they indeed paid dearly for the honour, for 
 it was computed that their loss was equal to that 
 of their enemy, which amounted to 7,0t*(> men on 
 either side; while the Prussian cavalry, under 
 Field-^Marshal IJuddenbroch, was nearly ruined. 
 . . . Although in this battle the victory was, 
 without doubt, on the side of the Prussians, yet 
 the immediate consequences were highly favour- 
 able to the Queen of Hungary. The King was 
 disappointed of his expected advantages, and 
 conceived a disgust to the war. lie now lowered 
 his demands and made overtures of accommoda- 
 tion, which, on the 11th of June, resulted in a 
 treaty of peace between the two crowns, which 
 was signed at Breslau under the mediation of the 
 British Ambas.sad<jr." — Sir E. Cust, Annals of 
 the Wars of tlie ISth Century, v. 2, ;). 19. 
 
 Also in : T. Carlyle, Hist, of Fricitrich II. of 
 Prnma, hk. 13, ch. 13 (r. Tj). 
 
 A. D. 1742 (June). — Treaty of Breslau with 
 the King; of Prussia. — "The following are the 
 lireliininary articles which were signed at 
 Breslau: 1. The queen of Ilungarj' ceded to 
 the king of Prussia Upper and Lower Silesia, 
 with the principality of Qlatz; except the towns 
 of Troppau, Jaegendorfl and tlio high mountains 
 situated beyond the Oppa. 2. The Prussians 
 undertook to repay the EnglLsh 1,700,000 crowns; 
 which smn was a mortgage loan on Silesia. The 
 remaining articles related to a suspension of 
 arms, an exchange of prisoners, and the freedom 
 of religion and trade. Thus was Silesia united 
 to the Prussian States. Two years were suf- 
 ficient for the conquest of that important jirov- 
 Ince. The treasures which the late king had left 
 were almost expended; but provinces that do 
 not cost more than seven or eight millions are 
 cheaply purchased."— Frederic II., Hist, of My 
 Otni 'J'imcs {Posthumous Works, v. 1), ch. 6. 
 
 A. D. 1742 (June — December). — Expulsion 
 of the French from Bohemia. — Belleisle's re- 
 treat from Prague. — " The Austrian arms began 
 now to he successful in all qiuirters. Just before 
 the signature of the preliminaries. Prince Lob- 
 cowitz, who was stationed at Budweiss Avith 
 10,000 men, made an attack on Frauenberg ; Brog- 
 lio and Belleisle advanced from Piseck to relieve 
 the town, and a combat took place at Sahay, in 
 
 whicli the Austrians were repulsed with the losi* 
 of .'iOO men. This trilling alTair was magiiitied 
 inio a decisive viclory. . . . .Marshal Broglio, 
 elated with this advantage, and relying on the 
 immediate junction of the King of Prussia, re- 
 mained at Frauenberg in jicrfect security. But 
 his expectations were disai)poiiited; Frederic had 
 already commenced his secret negotiations, and 
 Prin('(! Charles was enabled to turn his forces 
 against the French. Beii.g joined by Prince Lob 
 cowitz, they attacked Broglio, and compelled him 
 to ((uit Frauenberg with such precipitation that 
 his baggage fell intothe hands of the light troops, 
 and the French retreated towards Branau, har- 
 assed by the Croats and other irregulars. . . . 
 The Austrians, pursuing their success against 
 the French, drove Broglio from Branau, and fol- 
 1 lowed him to the walls of Prague, where he fouial 
 
 I Belleisle Vfter several consultations, the 
 
 two generals called in their posts, and secured 
 i their army jiartly wilhiii the walls and partly 
 I within a peninsiila of the Moldaii. . . . Soon 
 j afterwards the duke of Lorraine joinetl the army 
 i [of I'riiu'e Charles], which now amoiinled to70,- 
 ' 000 men, and the arrival of the heavy artillery 
 I enabled the Austrians to commence the siege." — 
 j W. Coxe, Hist, of the House if Austria, ch. 102 
 (». 3). — "To relievo the French at Prague, Mar- 
 shal Maillebois was directed to advance with his 
 army from Westphalia. At these tidings Prince 
 Charles changed the siege of Prague to a block- 
 ade, and marching against his new opponents, 
 checked their jirogress on the Bohemian frontier; 
 the French, however, still occupying the town 
 of Egra. It was under these circumstances that 
 Belleisle made Ills masterly and lenowned retreat 
 from Prague. In the night of the lOtli of Di'cem- 
 ber, he secretly left the city at the head of 11,000 
 foot and 3,000 horse, having deceived the Aus- 
 triars' vigilance by the feint of a general forage 
 in the opposite quarter; and pushed for Egra 
 through a liostile country, destitute of resources 
 and surrounded by superior enemies. His sol- 
 diers, with no other food than frozen bread, and 
 compelled to sleep without covering on the 
 snow and ice, perished in great numbers ; but the 
 gallant si)irit of Belleisle triumphed over every 
 obstacle; he struck through morasses almost 
 untrodden before, olTered battle to Prince Lobko- 
 witz, who, however, declined engaging, and at 
 length succeeded in reaching the other French 
 army with the Hower of his own. The remnant 
 left at Prague, amlan.iuinting only to 6,000 men, 
 seemed an easy prey; yet their threat of tiring 
 the city, and perishing beneath its ruins, and the 
 recent proof of wliat despair can do, obtained 
 for them honourable terms, and the permi.ssion 
 of rejoining their comrades at Egra. But in 
 spite of all this skill and courage in the French 
 invaders, the final result to them was failure; 
 nor had they attained a single permanent advan- 
 tage beyond tlK.'ir own safety in retreat. Maille- 
 bois anil I)e I>rogli(^ took up winter quarters in 
 Bavaria, while IJelleisle led back his division 
 across the Hhinc ; and it was computed that, of 
 the 35,000 men whom he hadlirst conducted inti 
 Germany, not more than 8,000 returned beneati 
 hislianner." — Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, 
 of Enij., 1713-1783, ch. 24 (e. 3).— " Thus, at the 
 termination of the campaign, all Bohemia was 
 regained, except Egra; and on the 12th of .May. 
 1743, Maria Theresa was soon afterwards crowned 
 at Prague, to the recovery of which, says her 
 
 217 
 
AUSTRIA, 1742. 
 
 Bnllte of 
 Dctiinyen. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1743-1744. 
 
 grcftt Hviil, lipr firmness Imd more oontrihMtod 
 tliiiii llic force of her iirms. The only reverse 
 wliieli the A\i.striiins experieneed in tlic nildsl of 
 their sueeesses wiis tlio teniponiry lo.ss of Ilii- 
 vnriii, wliicli, on the retreat of Kevenliidler, was 
 occupied by niarslial Seckt'ndorf; and the Ktn- 
 peror made his entry inti> .Miinicli on tlie 2d of 
 October. " — W. Coxo, Hint. ofthellouteofAvatria, 
 ch. im 0: 3). 
 
 A. D. 1743. — England drawn into the con- 
 flict. — The Pragmatic Army.— The Battle of 
 Dettingen. — " 'liie causiM)!' .Maria 'riieicsa had 
 bejiiin to excite a retnarkalilc enthusiasm in 
 Enirland. . . . Tlie couveiitiou of neutrality :'n- 
 tered into by Cii'oru;o II. in September 1741, 1 nd 
 the e.Mortioii of liis vote for the Elector 01 '.{a- 
 viiria, i)roperly concerned that prince oidy as 
 Elector of Ilanover; yet, as ho was also King of 
 Enirlaiid, they were felt us a distjrare by the 
 English iicoplo. The elections of that year went 
 against WalpoU , and in February 1742 he found 
 himself compe'.lei'. to resign, lie was succeeded 
 ill the administration by Pulteney, Earl of Bath, 
 though Lord Carteret was virtually prime min- 
 ister. Carteret was an ardent supporter of the 
 cause of Maria Theresa. His accession to office 
 was immediately followed t)y a large increase of 
 the army and navy; live millions were voted for 
 carrying on the war. and a subsidy of £.'>00,()0() 
 for the t^ueen of Hungary. The Earl of Stair, with 
 an army of Kt.OOO men, afterwards reinforced by 
 a large Ixxly of Hanoverians and Hessians in 
 British pay, was despatched into tlio Xetherlunds 
 to cooperate with tlie Dutch. IJut though the 
 8tates(Jeneral, at the instance of the liritish 
 Cabinet, voted Maria Theresa a subsidy, they 
 ■were not yet jirepared to tak(^ an active part in a 
 war which might ultimately involve them in 
 hostilities with France. The exertions of the 
 English ministry in favour of the Queen of Hun- 
 gary Imd therefore been conlined during the year 
 1743 to diplomacy, and they had helped to bring 
 about . . . the Peace of IJfeslau. In 1743 they 
 were able to do more." In April, 1743, the Em- 
 peror, Charles VII., regained possession of Ba- 
 varia and returned to Munich, but only to be 
 driven out again by the Austrians in June. The 
 Bavarians were badly beaten at Simpach {.May 9), 
 and Jlunicli was taken (June 12) after a short 
 bombardment. "Charles VII. was now again 
 obliged to fly, and took refuge at Augsburg. 
 At his cominand, Scckendorf [his general] made 
 a convention with the Austrians at the village of 
 NiederschOnfeld, by whicli ho agreed to abandon 
 to them Bavaria, on condition that Charles's 
 troops should bo allowed to occupy unmolested 
 quarters between Frauconia and Suabia. JIaria 
 Theresa seemed at first indisposed to ratify even 
 terms so humiliating to the Emperor. She had 
 become perliaps a little too niuch exalted \i the 
 rapid turn of fortune. She had caused herself 
 to be crowned in Prague. Slie had received the 
 homage of the Austrians. and entered Vienna in 
 a sort of triumpli. She now dreamt of nothing 
 less than contjuering Lorraine for herself, Alsace 
 for the Empire; of hurling Charles VII. from 
 the Imperial throne, and placing on it her own 
 consort. " She was persuaded, however, to con- 
 sent at length to the terms of the NiederscliOnfeld 
 convention. "Meanwhile the allied army of 
 English and Germans, under the Earl of Stair, 
 nearly 40,000 strong, which, from its destined 
 object, hud assumed the name of the ' Pragmatic 
 
 Army,' had oros.spd the Meiise and the Rhine in 
 March and April, with a view to cut off the 
 army of Bavaria fnmi France. George II. had 
 not concealed his intention of breaking the Treaty 
 of ilanover of 1741, alleging as a ground that 
 the duration of the lu^itrality .stipulated in it 
 had not been deterinin<'il; and on June lOtli he 
 had joined tlie army in perscm. lie found it in li 
 most critical jiosition. Lord Stair, who had 
 never distinguislied him.self as a general, and 
 was now falling into dotage, had led it into 
 a narrow valley near Aschatleuburg, between 
 .Mount Spessart and the river Main ; wldle 
 Marshal Noailles [commanding the Frencli], 
 who had crossed the Rhine towards the end of 
 April, by seizing the principal fords of the Main, 
 both above and below the British position, Imd 
 cut him ott both from his magazines at Hanau, 
 and from the supplies whicli lie had expected to 
 procure in Franconia. Xothing remained but for 
 him to fight his way back to Hanau." In the 
 battle of Dottingen, which followed (June 27), 
 all the advantages of the French in position 
 were thrown away by the ignorant imiietuosity 
 of the king's nephew, the Duke of Grammont, 
 who comm;;iid"d one division, and thev sufTerecl 
 a severe defeat. "The French are said to have 
 lost 6,000 men and the British half that number. 
 It is the last action in which a king of England 
 has fought in pers(m. But George II., or rather 
 Lord Stair, <lid not know how to profit by liis 
 victory. Although the Pragmatic Army was 
 joined after the battle of Dottingen by 15,000 
 Dutch troops, under Prince Maurice of Nassau, 
 nothing of importance was done during the re- 
 mainder of tlie campaign." — T. 11. Dyer, Hist, 
 of Modern, Eurojic, bk. 0, ch. 4 (r. 3). 
 
 Also in: W. Coxe, IIM. of the House of Aus- 
 tria, ch. 104 (i\ 3). — Sir E. Cust, Annals of the 
 Wars of the IHth Century, v. 3, ;);;. 30-30.— Lord 
 Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of Eng., 1713-1783, 
 ch. 3.5 (p. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1743. — Treaty of Worms with Sar- 
 dinia and England. See Italy: A. D. 1743. 
 
 A. D. 1743 (October).— The Second Bourbon 
 Family Compact, -- ■ - 
 
 See FuAKCE: A. D. 1743 
 Prussian King 
 
 1743-1744. — The 
 
 again. — The Union of Frankfort 
 
 (OCTOllEU) 
 
 A. D 
 strikes in again 
 Siege and capture of Prague. — "Everywliore 
 Austria was successful, and Frederick had reason 
 to fear for himself unless the tide of contjucst 
 could be stayed. He explains in the ' Histoire 
 de Mon Temps' that he feared lest France sliould 
 abandon the cause of the Emperor, which would 
 moan that the Austrians, who now boldly spoke 
 of compensation for the war, would turn their 
 arms against liimself. . . . France was trem- 
 bling, not for her conquests, but for her own ter- 
 ritory. After the battle of Dettingen, the 
 victorious Anglo-IIanoverian force was to cross 
 the Rhine above Mayence and march into 
 Alsace, while Prince Charles of Lorraine, with a 
 strong Austrian army, was to pass near Basle 
 and occupy Lorraine, taking up his winter quar- 
 ters in Burgundy and Champagne. The English 
 crossed without any check and moved on to 
 Worms, but the Austrians failed in their at- 
 tempt. Worms became a centre of intrigue, 
 which Frederick afterwards culled ' Cette abyme 
 de mauvaise foi. ' The Dutch were persuaded 
 by Lord Carteret to join the English, and they 
 did at last send 14,000 meu, who were never of 
 
 18 
 
AUSTRIA, 1743-1744. 
 
 Couture of 
 Prague. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1744-1745. 
 
 the Icftst iiBC. Lonl C'lirtcrcrt also (Icti.fhcd 
 CliarU's Eninnuol, Kinj; of Siirdiniiv, from his 
 Fri'iich li'iuiings, and per.suach'd him to (uitcr 
 into tlio Austro-Enjilisli allianie [by the treaty 
 of Worms, Sept. lit, 1743, wincli "conceded to 
 tlic Kinj; of Sardinia Finale, the cily of Flaceii- 
 tia, with some other small districl.s and gave 
 him command of the allied forces in Italy], It 
 was clear that action could not be long post- 
 poned, and Frederick began to recognize the 
 necessity of a new war. Ilis lirst an.xiety was 
 to guard himself against interference from his 
 northern and ca.stern neighbours. He secured, 
 ns he ho])e<l, the neutrality of Russia by mar- 
 rying the young princess of Anhalt-Zorbst, 
 afterwards the notorious Empres.s Catherine, 
 with the Grand-Duke Peter of Ru,ssia, nephew 
 and heir to the reigning Empress Elizabeth. 
 . . . Thus sirengthened, as be hoped, in bis rear 
 and (lank, and having made the conmiencement 
 of a German league called the Union of Frank- 
 furt, by which IIes.se and the Palatinate agreed 
 to join Frederick and the Kaiser, Ik; concluded 
 on the i)th of .June, 1744, a treaty which brought 
 France also into this alliance. It was secretly 
 agreed that Frerlciick was to invade Boliemia, 
 coiiiiuer it for the Kaiser, and have the districts 
 of K()niggril*7., IJunzlau, and Leitmeritz to repay 
 him for bis trouble and' costs; while France, 
 which was all tlii.s time at war with Austria and 
 England, should send an army against Prince 
 Charles and the English. , . . The tirst stroke of 
 the coming war was delivered by France. Louis 
 XV. sent a large army into the Netherlands under 
 two good leaders, Noailles and Maurice de Sa.xe. 
 Urged by his mistress, the Ducliessc de Chiiteau- 
 roux, he joined it himself early, and took the 
 nominal command early in June. . . . The 
 towns [Menin, Ypres, Fort Knoque, Funics] 
 rapidly fell before him, and Marshal W'ade, with 
 the Anglo-Dutcli-lIanoverian army, sat still and 
 looked at the success of the French. Hut on 
 the night of the 3t)tli June — 1st Jul^', Prince 
 Charles crossed the Rhine by an operation which 
 is worth the study of military students, and 
 invaded Alsace, the French army of observation 
 falling back before him. Louis XV. hurried 
 back to interpose between the Austrians and 
 Paris. . . . Maurice de Baxe was left in the 
 Netherlands with 45,000 men. Thus the French 
 army was paralysed, and tlie Austrian array in 
 its turn was actually invading France. At this 
 time Frederick struck in. He sent word to the 
 King that, though all the terms of their arrange- 
 mLUt had not yet been fulfilled, he would at 
 once invade Bohemia, and deliver a stroke 
 against Prague which would certainly cause the 
 retreat of Prince Charles with his 70,000 men. 
 If the French army would follow Prince Charles 
 in his retreat, Frederick would attack him, ancl 
 between France and- Prussia tlie Austrian army 
 would certainly be crushed, and Vienna be at 
 their mercy. This was no doubt an excellent 
 plan of campaign, but, like the previous opera- 
 tions concerted with Proglio, it depended for 
 success upon the good faith of the French, and 
 this turned out to be a broken reed. On the 7th 
 of August the Prussian ambassador al Vienna 
 gave notice of the Union of Frankfurt and with- 
 drew from the court of Austria; and on the loth 
 the Prussian army was put in march upon 
 Prague [opening what is called tlie Second 
 Silesian VVar]. Frederick's forces moved in 
 
 16 
 
 three columns, the total strength being over 
 80,000. . . . Maria 'I'beresa was now again in 
 great danger, but as usual retained her high 
 courage, and once more called forth the enthu- 
 siasm of her Hungarian subjects, who sent 
 swarms of wild troops, horse and fool, to tho 
 seat of war. . . . On the 1st of Septemli^r tho 
 thre<! columns met before Prague, whidi had 
 better defences than in the last campaign, and a 
 garrison of some 1(1, (Hto men. . . . During iho 
 night of the itlh the bombardinent commenced 
 , . . and on the Kith the garrison surrendered. 
 Thus, one month after the commencement of the 
 inarch Prague was captured, and tlie campaign 
 opened with a brilliant feat of arms." — Col, ('. B. 
 Brackenbury. Fntlcrick- the (hint. fh. 7. 
 
 Also IN: W. Riis.sell, //int. DjModrni JC)i rope, 
 pt. 2, Mtir 28. — F. Von Raumer, ('i/ittrihutions to 
 MiHlern Hint. : Fralk. II. and his Times, ch. 
 17-10. 
 
 A. D. 1744-1745. — Frederick's retreat and 
 fresh triumph.— Austria recovers the imperial 
 crown. — Saxony subdued. —The Peace of 
 Dresden. — After the reduction of I'rague. 
 Frederick, "in deference to the opinion of Marshal 
 Belleirile, but against his own judgment, advanced 
 into the south of Bohemia with the view of 
 threatening Vienna. He thiisexiiosei' himself to 
 the risk of being cut oil from Prague. Yet even 
 so he would probably have been able to main- 
 tain himself if the i'rench had fullilled their 
 engagements. But while he was con((uering the 
 districts of the Ui)per Moldau, the Austrian 
 army returned unimpaired from Alsace. The 
 French had allowed it tn cross the Rhine unmo- 
 lested, and had not niad'j the slightest attempt to 
 harass its retreat |but applied themselves to the 
 siege and capture of Freiburg]. They were 
 only too glad to get rid of it themselves. In the 
 ensuing operations Frederick was completely 
 outmanoeuvred. Traun [the Austrian geuer'lj, 
 witlDUt risking a battle, forced him back towards 
 the Silesian frontier. He had to choose between 
 abandoning Prague and abandoning his com- 
 munications with Silesia, and as the Saxons bad 
 cut oft his retreat through the Electorate, there 
 was really no choice in the matter. So he fell 
 hack on Silesia, abandoning Prague and his 
 iieavy artillery. The retreat was attended with 
 considerable loss. Frederick was much struck 
 with the skill displayed by Traun, and says, in 
 his 'llistoire de mou Temps,' that he regarded 
 this campaign as his school in the art of war and 
 M. de. Traun as his teacher. The campaign may 
 have been an excellent lesson in the art of war, 
 but in other respects it was very disastrous to 
 Frederick. lie had drawn upon himself the 
 whole power of Austria, and had learnt how 
 little the French were to be depended upon. His 
 prestige was dimmed by failure, and even in his 
 own army doubts were entertained of his capa- 
 city. But, bad as his i)osition already was, it 
 became far worse when the unliai)py Emperor 
 died [Jan. 20, 174.)], worn out with disease and 
 calamity. Tliis event put an end to the Union 
 of Frankfort. Frederick could no longer claim 
 to be acting in defence of his oppressed sovereij;n ; 
 the ground was cut from uiuler his feet, jsor 
 was there any longer much hope of preventing 
 the Imp-irial" Crown from reverting to Austria. 
 The new Elector of Bavaria was a 1 lere boy. In 
 this altered state of affairs lie sovght to make 
 peace. But Maria Theresa would not let him 
 
 219 
 
AUSTRIA, 17'W-174r). 
 
 Ilnngp of Htlpn- 
 tiuvij'Lurraine. 
 
 AUSTIUA, 1755-1703, 
 
 off sornsily. In order tlmt slir iiiij;lit tisc nil licr 
 forces iiKiimst liiiii, she Kraiile(l pence to Biiviiria, 
 and )fave buck to the young elector his hercdi- 
 turv dnniiiiioiis. on eoniiition of his resif;ning all 
 tljiini to liers and promising to vote for lier Tins- 
 iMiiid as Kinperor. While Frederick thus lost ii 
 friend in IJavaria, Siixony threw lierself com 
 pli'lely into t lie arms of his enemy, and united 
 with Austria in a treaty [May 1H| which hail for 
 its <il)jeet, not the recon(|Uest of Hilesiii merely, 
 but the partition of Prussia aiul the reduction of 
 l\\v kini; to his aii<ient limits as JlnrL'rave of 
 Branilenliurg. Sa.xony was then much larger 
 than it is now, hut it was not oidy the luimlier 
 of troops it coidd send int. the tleld that made 
 its hostility dangerous. Jt was partly the geo- 
 gra]>hical po.sition of the country, which maile it 
 an excellent base for operations against I'russia, 
 but .still more the alliance that was known to 
 subsist iN'twecn the Elector (King Augustus III. 
 of Poland) and the Kussiir.i Court. It was prob- 
 nlilc that a Prussian inv.ision of Sa.\ony would 
 be followed by a Hu.ssian invasion of Prussia. 
 Towards the end of May, the Austrian and 
 Sa.xon army, 75,1)00 strong, cros.sed the (iiant 
 Mountains and descended iiixin Silesia, Tin; 
 Aiistrians were again commanded by Prince 
 Charles, but the wise liead of Traun was no 
 longer there to guide him. . . . The encoimter 
 took place nt Hohenfriedberg [June 5J, and 
 resulted in a comjilete victory for Prussia. The 
 Austrians and Saxons lost 9,000 killed and 
 woiunled, and 7,000 iirisoners, besides 0(! cannons 
 and 7;! flags and standards. Four days after the 
 battle they were back again in Holiemia. 
 Frederick followed, not with the intention of 
 attacking them again, but in order to eat the 
 country l)are, so tlmt it might alTord no sust<'n- 
 anee to the enemy during the winter. For his 
 own part lie was really anxious for peace. His 
 resources we'O all but exhausted, while Austria 
 ■\vaS| fed by a constant stream of Kuglish sub- 
 sidies. As in tlic former war, England interposed 
 with her good offices, hut without elTect; Maria 
 Theresa was by no means disheartened by her 
 defeat, and refiised to liear of peace till she had 
 tried the chances of battle once more. On Sept. 
 13 her Inisband was elected Eini)eror by seven 
 votes out of nine, the dissentients l)eing tiie King 
 of Prussia and the Elector Palatine. This event 
 raised the spirits of the Empress-Queen, as Maria 
 Tlieresa was lienceforward called, and opened a 
 wider field for her ambition. She sent peremptory 
 orders to Prince Cliarles to attack Frederick 
 before lie retired from Boliemia. A battle was 
 accordingly fought at Solir [Sept. 30], and again 
 victory rested witli the Prussians. Tlic season 
 was now far advanced, and Frederick returned 
 home expecting that there would be no more 
 fighting till after the winter. Such liowever, 
 was far from lieiiig the intention of liis enemies." 
 A plan for the invasion of Brandenburg by three 
 Austrian and Saxon armies, simultaneously, was 
 secretly concerted; Imt Frederick iiad timely 
 wamiiii,' of it and it was frustrated l)y his 
 BCtiviiy nml energy. On tlie 23d of November 
 h') surprised and defeated Prince Charles at 
 Ilenncrsdorf. "Some tlirc; weeks afterwards 
 [Dec. 15] tlie Prince of De.«.snu defeated a second 
 Saxon and Austrian army at Kesselsdorf, a few 
 miles from Dresden. Thii victory completed the 
 subjugation of Saxony and put an end to tlie 
 war. Three days after Kesselsdorf, Frederick 
 
 entered Dresden, and asfonislied every one by 
 the graciousness of his l)ehaviour and by tlie 
 modenition of his terms, Fn.ni Saxony he 
 exacted no cession of territory, l)ut merely aeon- 
 trihutirm of 1,000,()(H) thalers" (£150,000) towards 
 the expenses of the war. From Austria ho 
 deinanded a guarantee of the treaty of Hreslau, 
 in return for which he agreed to recognize 
 (■'iiuiiis as Emperor. Peace was signed [at 
 Dresden] on Christmas Day." — F. W. liOngman, 
 Fnderick the Urtiit ttml the Seven Yuirs War, 
 c/i. '). 
 
 Ai.hoin: T. Carlvie, IlUt.of Fredenck IL, M: 
 15, <•//. 3-15 (r. 4).— liord Dover, Life of Fredtrick 
 ir.hk. 3, rh. 3-5 (r. 1), 
 
 A. D. 1745. — Overwhelming disasters in 
 Italy. Sii- Ir.M.v: A, I), 1T4."., 
 
 A. D. 1745 (Mav). — Reverses in the Nether- 
 lands.— Battle of Fontenoy. See \i:tiii;ii. 
 i..\Nl)s: A. I). 1745. 
 
 A. D. 174s (September— October).— The 
 Consort of Maria Theresa elected and crowned 
 Emperor. — Rise of the new House of Haps- 
 burg-Lorraine.— Francis of Lorrain(s Cirand 
 Diikeof 'I'uscaiiy and husl>and of Maria Theresa, 
 was elected Emperor, at Frankfort, Sept. 13, 
 1745, and crowned Oct. 1, wdtli the title of Fran- 
 cis I. "Thus the Empire; returned to the New 
 House of Austria, tlmt of Hapslmrg-Lorraine, 
 and France had missed the principal object for 
 which she had gone to war." By the treaties 
 signed at Dresden, Dec. 25, between Prussia, 
 Austria and Saxony, Frederick, as Elector of 
 Brandenburg, assented to and recognized the 
 election of Francis, against which he and the 
 Elector Palatine liad previously protested. — T. 
 II. Dyer, Hint, of Mo<lern Europe, lik. 0, c/i. 4 
 (r. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1746-1747. — Further French con- 
 quests in the Netlierlands. — Lombardy recov- 
 ered. — Genoa won and lost. See Netiiku- 
 lands: a. D. 1740-1747; and It.\ly: A. I). 
 1740-1747. 
 
 A. D. 1748 (October). — Termination and re- 
 sults of the War of the Succession. See Aix- 
 
 L.\-Cll.\I'EI.I.K, Till-; CONOIIKSS OF. 
 
 A. D. 1755-1763.— The Seven Years War.— 
 
 Since the conquest of Silesia by Frederick the 
 Great of Prussia, "lie had cast off all reserve. 
 In his extraordinary Court at Potsdam this man 
 of wit and war laughed at God, and at his 
 brother philosophers and sovereigns; he ill- 
 treated Voltaire, the chief organ of the new 
 opinions; lie wounded kings and queens with 
 his epigrams; he believed neither in the beauty 
 of Madam de Pompadour nor in the poetical 
 genius of thq Abbe Bernis, Prime Minister of 
 France. The Empress tliought the moineut 
 favourable for the recovery of Silesia; she 
 stirred up Europe, especially the queens; she 
 persuaded the Queen of Poland and the Empress 
 of Russiii ; she paid court to the mistress of 
 Louis XV. The monstrous alliance of Franco 
 with tlie ancient state of Austria against a sov- 
 ereign who maintained the equilibrium of Oer- 
 niauy united all Europe against him. England 
 alone supported him and gave him subsidies. 
 She was governed at tliat time by a gouty law- 
 yer, the famous William Pitt, afterwards Lord 
 Chatham, who raised liimself by his eloquence 
 and by his hatred of the French. England 
 wanted two things; the maintenance of the 
 balance of power in Europe, and the destruction 
 
 220 
 
AUSTRIA, ITM-ITO:!. 
 
 Seven Yeurt H'cir. 
 
 Ar.STUIA, 1700-1707. 
 
 of the French nnd Spanish colonics. Iler pricfs 
 were seriouH; tlio Spiiiiiiinls Imd lll-trcotcil licr 
 smujjgliTs and tlic Frencli wanted to prevent 
 her from settling on tlieir territory in Cai\ndn. 
 In India, J.a Hourdonnaie and his 8ue<-essor 
 Duplel.'c threatened to found a great empire in 
 the face of tlie Englisli. As a declanition of 
 war tlic Englisli eonllscntcd 300 French ships 
 (nnO). Tlie marvel of the war was to see tlds 
 little Itingdom of Prussia, interposal between 
 tlie liuge powers of Austria, France, and Russia, 
 run from one to the otlier, and defj' tliem all. 
 Tills was the second period of the art of war. 
 The unskillful adversaries of Frederick thought 
 that he owed all ids success to the precision of 
 the inan(ruvres of the Prussijin soldiers, to their 
 excellent drill and rapid tiring. Frederick had 
 certainlv carried tiio soldier machine to perfec- 
 tion. This was callable of imitation; the C'/.ar 
 Peter III. and the Count of St. Germain created 
 militaiy automatons by means of the lash. Hut 
 they could not imitate the (piickness of his 
 niaiueuvres; the happy arrangement of his 
 iimivhes, which gave him great facility for 
 moving and concentrating large masses, and 
 directing tliem on tlie weak points of theeneinv. 
 In this terrible cha.se given by the large unwieldy 
 armies of the allies to the agile Prussians, one 
 cannot help noticing the amusing ciicumspec- 
 tion of the Austrian tacticians and the stupid 
 folly of the fine gentlemen who led the armies r)f 
 Fiance. The Fabius of Austria, tlie sage and 
 heavy Daun, was satisfied with a war of posi- 
 tions; he could not find encampments strong 
 enough or mountains suHlciently inaccessible; his 
 stationary troops were always beaten by Fred- 
 erick. To begjn witli, he freed liinis"lf from the 
 enmity of Saxony, lie did not hurt, he only 
 disarmed her. lie struck his next blow in 
 Uoliemia. Repul.sed by the Austrians, and 
 aliandoned by the Knglish army, wliicli deter- 
 mined at Kioster-seven to fight lio more, threat- 
 ened by the Russians, who were victorious at 
 Joegerndorf, he passe<l into Saxony and found 
 tlie French nnd Imperialists combined there. 
 Prussia was surrounded by four armies. Fred- 
 erick fancied himself lost and determined on 
 suicide. He wrote to his sister and to d'Argens 
 announcing his intention. There was only one 
 tiling which frightened him: it was, that wlien 
 once he was dead the great distributor of glory 
 — Voltaire — might make free with his name: ho 
 wrote an epistle to disarm him. . . . Having 
 written this epistle ho defeated the enemy at 
 Ro.sbach. The Prince of Souhise, who tliought 
 that he fled, set off rashly in pursuit; then the 
 Prussians unmasked their batteries, killed 3,000 
 men, and took 7,000 prisonei's. In tlio French 
 camp were found an army of cooks, actors, hair- 
 dressers; n number of "parrots, parasols, and 
 huge cases of lavender-water, ikc. (1707). None 
 but a tactician could follow tlie King of Prussia 
 i»i this series of brilliant and skillful battles. 
 The Seven Years' War, however varied its inci- 
 dents, was a political and strategic;il war: it has 
 not the interest of the wars for ideas, the 
 struggles for religion and for freedom of the 
 Kith century and of our own time. Tlie defeat 
 of Hosbach was followed by another at Crevelt, 
 nnd by great reverses balanced by small advan- 
 ta.!?es; the total ruin of the French navy and 
 colonies; the Englisli masters of the ocean and 
 conquerors of India ; the exhaustion and huinili- 
 
 )f old Europe in the presence of younff 
 I. This is till! history of the Seven Vi'ars 
 
 ation of 
 Pru8.sia. 
 
 War. It was terminated under the ministry of 
 the Duke of Choiseul," by the Peace of Iluberts- 
 iirg and the Peace of" Paris. — J. Miche'et, A 
 SumiiKiri/ iif .ViKlifit Ifistiiry, pp. 3(MJ-302. — See 
 aKiiMANV; A. I>. 17r(5-1758, to 1703; and, also, 
 Sevkn Yk.\hs' W.vii. 
 
 A. D. 1772-1773.— The First Partition of 
 Poland. Set; Poi.ANl): A. I). 17«;!-177;!. 
 
 A. D. 1777-1779. — The question of the Bava- 
 rian Succession. See l!.\v.\iti.^: A. |). 1777- 
 1770, 
 
 A. D. 1782-1811.— Abolition of Serfdom. 
 See Si..vvK.nv, Mkdi.kv.m.: Gkhm.vnv. 
 
 A. D. 1787-1791.— War with the Turks.— 
 Treaty of Sistova.— Slight Acquisitions of 
 Territory. See Tiiiks: A. D. 177(l-17!r.'. 
 
 A. D. 1790-1797.— Death of Joseph II. and 
 Leopold II.— Accession of Francis II.— The 
 Coalition against and war with revolutionary 
 France, to the Peace of Campo Formio.— 
 " It is a mistake to imagine that the Kuropeau 
 Powers attackrd the Revolution in France. It 
 was the Revolution which attacked them. The 
 diplomatists of tlie lt<tli century viewed at first 
 witli cynical indiireieiice the meeting of the 
 States - General at Versailles. . . . The two 
 points which occupied the attention of Europe 
 in 1780 were the condition of Poiand and the 
 troubles in the East. The ambitious designs of 
 Catherine and the assistance lent to them by 
 .Joseph threatened the existence of the Turkish 
 Empire, irritated the Prussian Court, and awak- 
 ened English aiiprehensions, always sensitive 
 about the safety of .Stamboul. Poland, the 
 battle-field of cynical diplomacy, torn by long 
 dissen.sions and ruined by a miseiabh^ constitu- 
 tion, was vainly endeavouring, under the jealous 
 eyes of her great neighbours, to avert tlie doom 
 impending, and to reassert her ancient claim to 
 a place among the nations of the world. But 
 Russia had long since determined that Poland 
 must be a vassal State to her or cca.se to be 11 
 State at all, while Prussia, driven to face a hard 
 necessitv, realisi'd that a strong Poland and a 
 strong f'russia could not exist together, and that 
 if Poland ever rose again to power, Prussia must 
 bid good-bye to unity an(l greatness. These 
 two (luestions to the States involved seemed to 
 be of far more moment than any ])olitical reform 
 in France, and engrossed the diplomatists of 
 Europe until the summerof 1701. In February, 
 1700, a new infiuence was introduced into 
 European politics by the death of tlie Einiieror 
 .loseph and the accession of his brother, Leopold 
 II. Leopold was a man of remarkable ability, 
 no entliusia.st and no dreamer, thoroughly versed 
 in the sellish traditions of Austrian policy aifd in 
 some of the subtleties of Italian statecraft, dis- 
 cerning, temperate, resolute and clear-headed, 
 quietly determined to have his own way, and 
 gencnilly skilful enough to secure it. Leopold 
 found his new dominions in a state of the 
 utmost C(mfusion, witli wiirand rebellion threaten- 
 ing him on every side, lie speedily set about 
 restoring order. He repealed the unpopular de- 
 crees of Joseph. He conciliatcfl or repressed his 
 discontented subjects. He gradually re-estab- 
 lished the authority of the Crown. . . . Accord- 
 ingly, the first eighteen months of Leopold's 
 reign were occupied with his own immediate 
 interests, and at the end of that time his success 
 
 221 
 
AUSTRIA, 1700-1707, 
 
 W'-rt wilh 
 
 Kntituliimary 
 
 /•Vance. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 170ft-lH06. 
 
 ■wftR miirkod. ('iithcrinc's vast srlicmrs In Tur- 
 ki'y liiiil Ix'i'ti clicckccl. War Imil bcrii averted. 
 I'i)lati(l had lieeii streiiKtlK'iied by internal 
 cImnKes. I'riiHKia had been coneillated and oiit- 
 mana'uvred, and her inlliieneo had been impaired. 
 At laKt, at tile end of Aajfust, 1701, the Kniperor 
 was free to face the Freiieh problem, and he Het 
 out for the CaNtle of I'illnitz to meet the KiiiK of 
 I'rn.ssia atid the Kmi),'rnnt leaders at the Sji.\on 
 Elector's Court. For some time past the restless- 
 ness of the freneh EmiKnints had been eaiisiiiK 
 grent perple.xity i[i Knrope. Heeeived with open 
 arms by tlu^ eeelesiastieal princes of the Hhine, 
 by tli(" Klectors of .Mayencc and Trc^'ves, they 
 proceeded to ai^itate busily for their own restora- 
 tion. . . . TIk' object of the Emigrants was to 
 brinj,' pressure to liear at the Eurojiean Courts, 
 with tile view of inducing the Powers to inter- 
 vene actively in their behidf. . . . After Ids 
 eacaix! from France, in ,Iune, 1790, tlu^ Comte do 
 Provence establislie<l his Court at Cobleut.", 
 where he was joined l)y his brother the Come 
 d'Artois, and where, on the plea that l/Otiis was 
 a prisoner, lie claimed the title of Hegeiit, and 
 u.ssume<l I hi! authority of King. The Court of 
 the two Fi<'ni'h iniiices at Coblent/, represented 
 faithfully the faults and follies of liie F.mignint 
 parly. IJiil a more satisfactory spectacle was 
 oHered by the camp at Worms, where Condij was 
 bravely trying to organi.se an army to flglit 
 against the Hevclu.icm in France. To Comic's 
 standard Hocked the more patriotic Kniigrants. 
 . . . Hut the (ierman Princes in tlie neighbour- 
 IkxhI looked witli disfavour on the Kniigrant 
 army. It caused confusion in their dominions, 
 and it drew down on them the hostility of the 
 Frencli Government. Tlie Empenir joined them 
 in protesting against it. In February, 171)3, 
 Conde's army was compelled to abandon its camp 
 at Worms, and to retire further into Germany. 
 The Kmper.ir was well aware of tlie reciiless 
 BcltLslinessof the Kmignint princes. He had as 
 little sympathy with them as his sister. He did 
 not inteiul to listen to their demands. If he in- 
 terfered in France at all, it would only be in a 
 cautious and tentative manner, and in order to 
 save Marie Antoinette and her husband. Cer- 
 tainly he would not undertake a war for the restor- 
 ation of the Ancien Itegime. . . . Accordingly, 
 the interviews at Pillnitz came to notliing. . . . 
 Early in .March, 1703, Leopold suddenly died. His 
 heir Francis, unieslrained by his father's tact and 
 moderation, assumed a dilTerent tone and showed 
 less patience. The chances of any eiTectivc pres- 
 sure from tlie Powers declined, as the ])rospect 
 of war rose on the horizon. Francis' language 
 was sulliciently sharp to give tlie As.sembly the 
 pretext which it longed for, and on the" 20th 
 Apill, Louis, amid general enthusiasm, came 
 down to the Assembly and declared war against 
 Austria. The ellects of that momentous .step no 
 comment can exaggerate. It ruined llie best 
 hopes of the Hevolution, and prepared the way 
 for a miiitniy despotism in the future." — C. E. 
 >Iallet, T/ie French liemliition, ch. 7. — See 
 Fiianck: a. I). 1790-1791: 1791 (.Ii:i.v— Decem- 
 uiiU); 1791-1793; 1793 (Aruii. — .h:i,v), and 
 (SEPTE.MnEii — DECEMHEn); 1793-1793 (Decem- 
 BEU — FEUiiu.\itV); 1793 (Febhuaiiy — Ariiii.), 
 and (Jri.Y— I)i-;cEMUEu)-. 1794 (JI.\iicir— July); 
 1794-1795 (OcTOHEU— May) ; 1795 (June— I)e- 
 CEMUEit); 1790 (Ai'uii, — Octobek); and 1796- 
 1707 (Octobek— Atuil). 
 
 A. D. 1794-1796.— The Third partition of 
 Poland.— Austrian share of the spoils. See 
 Poland: A. D. 179:1-179(1. 
 
 A. D. 1707 (October).— Treaty of Campo- 
 Formto with France.— Cessio.n of the Nether- 
 lands and Lombard provinces. — Acquisition 
 of Venice and Venetian territories. Seo 
 FiiANci:: A. I). 1797 (.May— OcronDH). 
 
 A. D. 1798-1806.— Congress of Rastadt,— 
 Second Coalition aeainst France.— Peace of 
 Luneville.— Third Coalition.— Ulm and Aus- 
 terlitz. — Peace of Presburg.— Extinction of 
 the Holy Roman Empire. — Birth of the Empire 
 of Austria. — " When Honaparte. sailed for Egypt 
 he lia.l left a congress at Hastadt discussing 
 means fia- the execution of certain articles in tho 
 treaty of Campo Formio which were to establish 
 ])cace between France and the Empire . . . 
 Tliough openly undertaking to invite the Ger- 
 mans to a congress in order to settle a general 
 peac<' on the basis of tin; integrity of the Empire, 
 tlie Enipen)r agreed in secret articles to use Ids 
 inlltience to procure for the Republic the left 
 bank of the Rhine with the exception of the 
 Prus.sian provinces, to join with France in obtain- 
 ing compi'nsation in Germanv for tlio.se injured 
 by this change, anil to contribute no more than 
 his necessary contingent if the war were jiro- 
 longed. The ratilication of these secret pro- 
 visions had been extorted from the Congress by 
 threats before Honaparte had left; but the (pies- 
 tion of indemnitlcation had progressed no farther 
 than a decision to seculari.se the ecclesiastical 
 states for the purpo.se, when extravagant de- 
 mnnds from the French deputies brought nego- 
 tiation to a deadlock. Meanwhile, another coali- 
 tion war hail been brewing. Paul I. of Russia 
 had regarded with little pleasure the doings of 
 the Revolution, and when his proteges, the knights 
 of St. .lolin of .lerusalem. had been deprived of 
 ^lalta by Honaparte on his way to Egypt, whoa 
 the Directory established by force <if arms a 
 Helvetic republic in Switzerland, when it found 
 occasion to carry olf the Pope into exile aiul erect 
 a Roman republic, ho abandoned the cautious 
 and self-seeking policy of Catherine, and cordi- 
 ally responded to Pitt's advances for an alliance. 
 At tho same time Turkey was compelled by the 
 invitation of Egypt to ally itself for once with 
 Russia. Austria, conviiued that the French did 
 not intend to pay a fair i)rice for the treaty of 
 Campo Fonuio, also deterMiined to renew liostili- 
 ties; and Naples, exasperated by the sacrilege of 
 a republic at Rome, and alarmed by French ag- 
 gressiveness, enrolled itself in the league. Tho 
 Neapolitan king, indeed, opened the war with 
 some success, before he could receive support 
 from his allies ; hut he was soon vanquished by 
 the French, and his dominions were converted 
 into a Partlienopean republic. Austria, on tho 
 contrary, awaited the arrival of the Russian 
 forces; and the general cami)aign began carlj' in 
 1799. The French, lighting against such gener- 
 als ns the Arcluhike Charles and the Russian 
 Suvaroir, without the supervision of Carnot or 
 the strategy and enterprise of Bonaparte, 
 sulTereil severe reverses and great privations. 
 Towards the end the Russian army endiu'ed 
 much hardship on account of the selfish- 
 ness of the Austrian cabinet; and this caused 
 the Tsur, who thotight he had other reasons for 
 discontent, to withdraw his troops from the field. 
 When Bonaparte was made First Consul the 
 
 222 
 
AUSTRIA, 1708-1806. 
 
 H'nrn irith 
 
 AUSTHIA, 170H-1SWI. 
 
 military iHwitioii of Friincn wiis, ncvcrlliclcss. 
 vcrj' pW'ciU'iiiiis. . . . Till' Koiimii mill ('isiiliiiiii' 
 n'pulilli'H liMil fiillrii. Till" vrry coiiKri's^ at Itaf- 
 tiiilt liiul lirrii illMpiTKril liy tlii' apprimcli of llic 
 AiistriiMiH: anil tin- Kiriicli I'liils.sarii'H had liirn 
 Halard l>y Ausliiun Iripopn-s, llioiiuli Imw lliilr 
 ilisoli'iici- caiui' til III' tliiis foully punlslii'il Iiiih 
 iirviT bcrit clrmly rxplainril. At tills irisls 
 Friimr was itkciii'iI from forilicn fors ami 
 ilomcstic (llsordi'i's by its most surrcssful jri'ii- 
 i-ral. ... Ill tlio rampaiirn wliirli followed, 
 FniiHT otitaincd si!;iial sallsfartiim for its 
 (•liaj;riii. [,caviiiK .Moiraii to carry tlii,' war into 
 Gcrmanv, IJonapar'i^ siiddrnly crossi'd tlir .VIps, 
 and ili'^'iitL'd tin' Aiislrians on lliii plain of 
 JlarenKo. The Aiistriuus, llumirh lomplrti'ly 
 cowed, refrained from eoiicludin); iv dellnite 
 peace out of respect for their enita>;cments with 
 EiiKland ; and annislices, expiring into desiil- 
 torv warfare, proloiij^ed the eoiitesl till Moreiiii 
 laiil the way open to Vienna, by wiiniini'' i 
 Hplendid triumph at Holienlinden. A treat> t 
 jicace was llnally concliiiled iit, Liineville, win n 
 Francis II. pli'd(,'cd the Knipire to its provisions 
 oil the ground of the con.sents already niven at 
 Ilastailt. Ill conformity with the "treaty of 
 Canipo Forniii), Austria retained theliouiidary of 
 the Ailigc ill Italy ; France kept Helgium and 
 the left lianU of the liliine; and the princes, dis- 
 possessed by the cessions, were iiromised com- 
 pensation in Germany ; while Tuscany was 
 given to France to sell to Spain at the i)rice of 
 Parma, Louisiana, six sliips of the line, and a 
 sum of money. Shortly afterwards peace was 
 extended to N'lples on easy terms. . . . The 
 time was now come for the Uevolutiou to com- 
 plete tii^, ruin of the Holy lionian Empire. 
 I'ursuant to the treaty of Luiieville, the German 
 Diet met at Uegensb'urg to discuss a scheme of 
 compensation for the dis|)o.ssessed rulers. Vir- 
 tually the meeting was ii renewal of the congress 
 of Hastadt. ... At Ifastadt the incolierence 
 and diiiintegration of the venerable Kmpire had 
 become i)aiiifully apparent. . . . When it was 
 known tliat tin; head of the nation, wlio had 
 guaranteed ihe integrity of the Empire in the 
 preliminaries of Leoben, imil hiul renewed the 
 assiiraiice when he convoked the as.senibly, had 
 in trutli belrnyed to the striuiger nearly all the 
 left bank of the Rhine, — the Geriimn rulers 
 greedily hastened to .secure every possible trille 
 ill tlic acrmnble of recMstribution. The slow and 
 wearisome debates were supplemenled by 
 intrigues of the most degraded nature. Con- 
 scious that the French C'imsul could give a 
 casting vote on any disputed question, the 
 princes found no indignity too shameful, no 
 trick too base, to obtain his favour. . . . The 
 First Consul, on his side, prosecuted with a 
 duplicity and address, heretofore unequalled, 
 the traditional policy of France in German 
 affairs. . . . Feigning to take into his counsels 
 the young Tsar, whose convenient friendship 
 was thus easily obtained on account of his family 
 connections with the Geriimu courts, he drew 
 up a scheme of iudemnilication and presented it 
 to the Diet for endorsement. In due time u ser- 
 vile assent was given to every point wliicli con- 
 cerned the two autocrats. By this settlement, 
 Austria and Prussia were more equally balancecl 
 pgainst one another, the former being deprived 
 of influence In Western Germany, and the latter 
 finding in more convenient situations a ri<'h 
 
 recompeiiHc for its ccHsions on tlu' Klilno: while 
 the iniddli' Hitites, Ilavaria, lladin, and WUrtem- 
 berg, leeeivid very considerable accessions of 
 territory. Hut if lionaparte dislocated yet fur- 
 ther the |ioliticiil slructure of (termany, he wiM 
 at least instriiinriilal in removing the woi-st of 
 the anachronisms which slilled the development 
 of improved inslitiilioiis among a iarge division 
 of its people. The sjinie measure which brought 
 German si'paratism loaclimax. alsoe\tini;iiislieil 
 the ecclesiastical soverei.rnlies iind nearly all the 
 free cities. That tliese stiongliolds of priestly 
 obscurantism and bourgeois apathy would .some 
 day be invaded by their more amiiilious and 
 active neighbours, hail long bieii appaniit. . . . 
 And war was declined wlnii Ihousaiids of 
 British subjects visiting France had already 
 been ensnared and imprisoned. . . . Pitt had 
 taken the conduct of the war out of the hands of 
 Aihlington's feeble ministry. Po.ssessing the 
 conlldence of the powers, he rapidly concluded 
 olTensive alliances with Uussia, Sweden, and 
 Austria, though Prussia o'istinalely remained 
 iieiitriil. Thus, by IHO."!, Xtipolton had put to 
 hazard all his lately won iiower in a conllict 
 with the greatiT part of Europe. Tlie battle of 
 Cape Trafalgar crushed for goml his maritimo 
 power, and rendered England sale from direct 
 attack. The campaign on land, however, made 
 him master of central Europe. linnging the 
 Austrian army in Germany to an inglorious 
 capitulation at Ulin, he marched through 
 Vienna, and, with inferior forces won in Ills best 
 style the battle of Aiislerlitz against the troops 
 of Francis ami Alexander. The action was 
 decisive. The allies thought not of renewing 
 the war witli the relays of troops which were 
 hurrying up from North and South. P"ssia'; 
 and Austrian alike wished to be rid oi their ill- 
 fated connection. The Emperor Alexiinder 
 silently returned home, pursued only by X.ipo- 
 leon's tlalteritig tokens of esteem: the Emperor 
 Francis accepted the peace of Presburg, which 
 deprived his house of the ill-gotteii Venetian 
 States, Tyrol, and its more distant posses- 
 sions in Western Germany; the King of 
 Prussia, who had been on the point of joining 
 the coalition with ;> large army if his lueiliation 
 were uiisucce.ssful, was committed to an alliance 
 with the conqueror by his terrilied negotiator. 
 .Vnd well did Xapoleon apjiear to make the 
 fruits of victory compciisivte France for its exer- 
 tions. The empire was not made more unwieldy 
 in bulk, but its dependents, Bavaria, Wl\rteni- 
 berg, and Baden, received consideralile acces- 
 sions of territory, and the two lirst were raised 
 to tlie rank of kingdoms; while the Emperor's 
 Italian i)rincipality, which he had already 
 turned into a kingdom of Italy to the great dis- 
 gust of Austria, was iiicreased by the uddilion 
 of the ceded Venetian lauds. But the full depth 
 of Europe's humiliation was not experienced till 
 the two following years. In 180(1 an Act of 
 Federation was signed by the kings of Bavaria 
 and Wttrtemberg, the Elector of Baden, and 
 thirteen' minor princes which united them into a 
 league under the protection of the French 
 Emperor. The objects of this confederacy, 
 known as the Rheinbund were defence against 
 foreign aggression and the exercise of complete 
 autonomy at homo. . . . Already the conse- 
 (juences of the Peace of Lunevillo had induced 
 tiie ruling Hapsburg to assure his equality with 
 
 223 
 
AUSTRIA, ITOH-INOO, 
 
 W.irK irlth 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1800-1814. 
 
 tliP ROvrrrlffiiR "f Kninco iiml HuhhIu by tnkiii); 
 till' iinjii'riiil tillr ill his nwn iIkIiI : uml licfori- tin- 
 Coiifrili'tiillnii (if llic Ithiiii' was iiiiiclc piililic- lir 
 foriimlly ic'IioiiikimI liiHolllic of i'IimIIvc KliipiTor 
 iif llii- IIkIv Itoiiiiiii Kiiipirc anil I'cli'iisi'il from 
 iillrL'laiH r to him all tlir statiH iiiiil prilici'snf the 
 Krii'li. Till' triiimpli of the Ocriiiiiii iiolicy of 
 till' CiiiiHiilali' was compli'lf." — A. Wi'lr, Tlif 
 JliHliirirul Itimiit nf Mmlifn Kurojie, rh. 4. — Src, 
 also, KiiANCK: A. D. lT!»H-nUl», to 1805, ami 
 (JKHMANv: A. I). lH(ii-lHo;t, to isori-iMtwi. 
 
 A. D. 1809-1814.— The second struKgle wit'i 
 Napoleon and the second defeat. -The Ma: ■ 
 riage alliance.- -The Germanic War of LiUcr 
 ation. — The final alliance and the overthrow 
 of the Corsican.— " Mi tlir r.'tli of .Inly. IHOtt, 
 foiirlccii princes of the south and wi'st of (icr- 
 inany united tlieniselves into the confederation 
 of llie Kliiiic, iinil recoL'iiised Najjoleon asllieir 
 protector. On tlie Isl of Aufjiist, they si'rnilled 
 to the diet of Kalislion their separation from the 
 (lermanlc body. The lOmpiri' of (Jerniaiiy 
 ceased to exist, and Francis II. alidicated the 
 title hy proclamation. Ity a convention siLrncd 
 at Vienna, on the Lltli of Decemhcr, Prussia 
 exchanircd the territories of Aiispach, Clevcs and 
 Ncufchritil for tlieeh'ctorateof Hanover. Niipo. 
 Icon had all the west under his power. Absolute 
 master of Knineeaiid Italy, 11s emperor and kini;, 
 lie w lis also master of JSpaiii, by the dependence 
 of that rourl ; of Naples and Holland, by his 
 two brothers; of Switzerland, by the act of 
 mediation', and in Ocrmany he liail at. his dis- 
 ])osal the Uintrsof H.ivaria and Wurtemberir, and 
 the confcilcration of the Uliine against Au.stria 
 and Prussia. . . . Tliisencroachin.irproffrcssfjave 
 rise to tlie fourth coalition. Prussia, neutral 
 since the peace of IWlc, Imd, in the last campaiKn, 
 been on the point of joininj; the AustroUnssian 
 coalition. 'I'he rapidity of the cmjieror's vic- 
 tories had alone restrained her; but now, alarmed 
 at the iifigrandi/.ement of the empire, and eneour- 
 iif^ed by tin; line condition of her Iroop.s, she 
 lea)j:ue(l with Russia to dii e the French from 
 (Jermany. . . . The campaiun opened early in 
 October. Kiipoleon, as usual, everwhelmeif the 
 coalition by the promptitude of his marches and 
 the vii^our of his measures. On the Mill of 
 t)ctob(r, he destroyed at Jena the military 
 moniircliy of Prussia, by a ilecisive victory. . . ". 
 The campaiirn in Poland was less rajiid, Init ;'.s 
 brilliant as that of Prussia. Russia, for the third 
 time, measured its strength with France. Con- 
 quered at Zurich and Aiisterlitz, it was also 
 (lefeuted at Eyiau and Friedland. After these 
 memorable battles, the emperor Alexander entered 
 into a nejrotiiilion, and concluded at Tilsit, on 
 the 21st of June, 1807, an iirmislice which was 
 followed by u definitive treaty on the 7th of July. 
 The iieaee of Tilsit extended the French domina- 
 tion on the conlinent. Prussia was reduced to 
 half its extent. In the south of Germany, 
 Napoleon had Instituted the two kingdoms of 
 Bavaria and Wurteniberg against Austria; 
 further to the north, ho created the two feudatory 
 kingdoms of Saxony and Westphalia against 
 Prussia. ... In order to obtain imiversal and 
 uncontested supremacy, he made use of arms 
 against the continent, and the cessation of com- 
 merce against England. But in forbidding to 
 the continental states all communicatiim with 
 England, he was preparing new dilliculties for 
 himself, and soon added to the animosity of 
 
 opinion excited liy his degpotlHrn, and the hatred 
 of states pi'iHliiccil by Ills com|Ueriiig domination, 
 the exasperation of private Interests and com- 
 mercial sulTering iwcasioned by the blockade. 
 . . . TluM'Xpeditlon of Portugal In 1H07, and the 
 invasion of Spain in INOH. began for him and for 
 Kiiropeimew order of events. . . . The reaction 
 iniinifested itself in three countries, liitlierti) 
 allies of France, 'iml It brought on the tiftli 
 coalition. The court of Rome was dissatlstled; 
 till' |)eiiinsula wii.-i wounded in its national priile 
 by having imposed upon it a foreign king; in its 
 isages, liy the suppression of convents, of the 
 Inquisition, and of the grandees; Holland 
 siili'ered in its coinmerie from the blockade, and 
 Austria supported impatiently its losses and 
 subordinate condition. England, walcliing for 
 an opportunity to revive the struggle on the 
 continent, excited the ii'sistiince of Rome, tho 
 peninsula, and the cabinet of Vienna. . . . 
 .\ustria . . . madea jiowerful elTort, and raised 
 .'."lO.tMKt men, comprising the I.iinilwelir, and 
 took the Meld in the spring of IMdi). Tlie Tyrol 
 rose, anil King Jerome was driven from Ills 
 capil.il by the Westphali.ins; Italy wavered; and 
 Prus.sia oidy waited till Napoleon met willi 11 
 reverse, to take arms; but tlu^ emperor was still 
 at the height of his power and ))rc)sperity. He 
 ha.steiied from Madrid in the beginning of Feb- 
 ruary, and directed the membci'sof the confedera- 
 tion to keep their I'ontingents in readiness. 
 On the 12th of \\m\ he left Paris, passed the 
 Rhine, jilunged into Germany, gained the 
 victories of KikmUhl and Essling, oceupieil 
 Victuu', a second time on the l.'ith of May, and 
 overthrew this new coalition by the battle of 
 AVagrnm, after a cami)aign of four moiillis. . . . 
 Thepcaceof Vienna, of liie lltli of October, IHO!). 
 deprived the house of Austria of several more 
 provinces, and compelldl it again to adopt the 
 continental system. . . . Napoleon, who seemed 
 to follow a rash Imt inllexible policy, deviated 
 from his course about this time by a second 
 marriage. He divorced Josephine that li(^ might 
 give an heir to the empire, and married, on the 
 l.st of Ajiril, 1810, Marie-Ijouise, areh-ducbess of 
 Austria. Tliis was a decided error. He (luitted 
 his position and his post as a parvenu and revo- 
 lutionary monarch, opposing in I'Vance the 
 an<;ieut courts as the repulilii; had opposed the 
 ancient governments. He placed himself in a 
 false situation with respect to Austria, which he 
 ought either to have crushed after the victory of 
 Wiigram, or to have reinstated in its possessions 
 after his marriage with the arch-duchess. . . . 
 The birth, on the 2()th of .March, 1811, of a son, 
 who received the title of king of Rome, seemed 
 to consoliihite the pow'cr of Napoleon, by secur- 
 ing to him a successor. Tlie war in Spain was 
 prosecuted with vigourduring tlie years IHlOand 
 1811. . . . While the war was proieeding in the 
 peninsula with advantage, but without any 
 decided success, a new campaign was preparing 
 in the north. Russia perceived tin; empire of 
 Napoleon approaching its territories. . . . About 
 the close of 1810, it increased its armies, renewed 
 its commercial relations with Great Britain, and 
 did not seem indisposed to a rupture. The year 
 1811 was spent in negotiations which led to 
 nothing, and preparations for war were made on 
 lioth sides. . . . On the 0th of March, Napoleon 
 left Paris. . . . During several montlis he fixed 
 his court at Dresden, wlicre the emperor of 
 
 224 
 
ALSTIUA. 1H()«-1«U. 
 
 Ih^rthrotr of 
 
 Al^'lUIA. ISLVlSSa. 
 
 AiiKtrlii, tlif kiiiK iif Prii.sslii, iinil all llii' 
 (uivcrciKtiH (if Ocriimiiv, (iiimc Io Ihiw lictorc hit 
 lii^'li fdrtiiiu'. Oil tli'f 'J'JikI (if .luiic. will' wiiH 
 (lo'liircd ii^'iiiiiNt Itiisslii. . . . Nii|i(ili'<iii, wild, 
 a'ciirdini; Io his ciiKtuni, wished to llnisli all in 
 iiiic ('aiiipaiKn, advanced at (incc into tlie heart 
 of KiiNsia, iiisteiid (if prudently (irKaiii/.ini; the 
 I'dlish liiiirler against it. IliKariny aiiKiiinted t(i 
 ahdilt rilHI.INHI iiieii. lie passed llie Nieiiiendll the 
 '.>4tli (if .lime : tiKik Wiliia. and Wilepslv, defeated 
 tlie liiisslans at Asli'dWiiii, I'dldtsU, .Mdliilow 
 Hiiidleiisiid, at the Mdslidwa, and (in the 14tli (if 
 Hepteinlier. made his entry iiilii .Moscow. . 
 .Mdscow was hiuiicd hy its ffdVcriKir. . . . Tlie 
 ciiipei'dr dilKlit to have seen that this war would 
 not terminate as the others liad done; yel, coii- 
 (|iier(ir of the f(H', and master of his eimilal, lie 
 Cdiiccivcd hopes of pcac- which the Uiissians 
 skilfully eiieo'i rafted. Winter was iipproacliiii);. 
 and Napolei.i pniloiiKcd his stay at .Moscow for 
 si.\ Weeks. He (ielayed his moveinenls on 
 Hccouiit of tlie deceptive iiej,'otialioiis of tlie 
 Kiissians; and did not decide on a retreat till the 
 IWtliof Oclolier. Tills retreat was disastrous, and 
 began the downfall of the einpiie. . . , The 
 taliinet of llerliii began the defections. On the 
 1st of March, IHtli, it joined Russia and England, 
 which were forming the si.xtli coalition. Sweden 
 needed to it soon after; yet the emperor, wliom 
 the confederatt' powc tliought prostrated by 
 tlie last di.saster, opened llie campaign with new 
 victories. The battle of I,ut/.eii, won by con- 
 scripts, on the 2Dd of Slay, the occupalioii of 
 Dresden ; tilt! victory of naiitzen, and the war 
 carried to the Elbe, astonished the coalition. 
 Austria, wliicli, since 181(1, liad liccn on a foot- 
 ing of peace, was resuming arms, and already 
 meditating a change of alliance. Slie now pro- 
 po.sed herself as a mediatri.x between the emperor 
 and the confederates. Her mediation was 
 iiccepted; an urmisticu was concluded at Pless- 
 wit/., on the 4tli of .Iiiuc, and a tongres.s 
 iis.semliled at Prague to negotiate peace. It was 
 impossible to come to terms. . . . Austria 
 joined the coalition, and war, tlic only means of 
 settling this great contest, was resumed. Tlie 
 emperor liad only 280,000 men against 520.000. 
 . . . Victory seemed, at fli"st, to second lilm. 
 At Dresden ho defeated the combined forces; 
 but the defeats of his lieutenants demnged his 
 plans. . . . Tlio princes of the confederation of 
 the Khinc chose this moment to desert the cause 
 of the empire. A vast engagement having taken 
 place at Eeipsic between the two armies, tlie 
 ba.vons and Wiirteml .rgcrs passed over to the 
 enemy on the liekl of battle. This defection to 
 the strcngtli of the coalesced powers, who had 
 learned a more compact and skilful mode of war- 
 fare, oliligcd Napoleon to retreat, after a si rug 
 gle of tiiree days. . . . The empire was invaded 
 in all directions. The Austrians entered Italy ; 
 the English, having made tliemselves masters of 
 the peninsulii during the last two years, liad 
 passed the Bidassoa, under general Wellington, 
 and appeared on the Pyrenees. Three armies 
 pressed on France to the east and north. . . . 
 Napoleon was . . . obliged to submit to tlie 
 conditons of the allied powers; their pretensions 
 inerciwed with their power. . . . On the 11th of 
 April, 1814, lii> renounced for liimself and 
 children the thrones of France and Italy, and 
 received in exchange for his vast soverignty, the 
 limits of which had extended from Cadiz to the 
 
 Ilallh' S<'a, the liiile island of F.lbu.'-P. A. 
 .Migliet, llinlniii iif l/if l''reiiih l{i rtiliitU'ii, tit. 1.1. 
 — .Sle(jKIIM.\NV: A. I) IStmd.VNlIAUV— .Il.Nh), to 
 
 IHlll; Ut'SMM A I) 1H12; and Fiianck; A. I). 
 
 lHlO-1813 to 1M|.(. 
 
 A. D. 1 314. -Restored rule in Northern 
 Italy. Sec Itm.v: A. I». IHHIHI.-). 
 
 A. D. 1814-1815.— Treaties of Paris and Con- 
 presa of Vienna.— Readjustment of French 
 boundaries. - Recovery of the Tyrol from Ba- 
 varia and Lombardy in Italy.— Acquisition of 
 the Venetian states. Sec Kuan(I.:A. D. 1811 
 (.Vruii, — .liNK). and IMi.'i (.Iii.v — Novk.mukh): 
 
 also ViKNNA, TlIK ('llN(illKSS (IK, 
 
 A. D. 1814-1820.— Formation of the Ger- 
 manic Confederation. .See (>i:um.\sv: A. I>. 
 
 1811-1S-.M. 
 
 A. D. 1815.— The Holy Alliance. Sec lldi.v 
 
 .\l.l.I \N( 1;. 
 
 A. D. 1815.— Return of Napoleon from Elba. 
 — The Quadruple Alliance. — The Waterloo 
 Campaign and Us results, See Fii.\.N('I'.: A. I). 
 
 1814-181."). 
 
 A. D. 1815-1835. — Emperor Francis, Prince 
 Metternich, and "the system."— ' ,Mler the 
 treaty of Vienna in 1801), and slili more con- 
 spicuously after the pacilicatiiin of Eiinipe, the 
 political wisdom of the rulers (if Austria in- 
 clined them ever iiidre and more to the main- 
 tenance of tliat slat(! of things which was known 
 to friends and foes as tlie System. l!ut what 
 was the System V It was the organi.salion of do- 
 nothing. It (iimidt even he said to liave been 
 reactionary: it was simply inactionary. . . . 
 "Mark time in place' was the word of command 
 in every goveriinient ollice. The bureaucracy 
 was engaged from morning to night in niaking 
 work, but nothing ever came of it. Xot even 
 were the liberal innovatidiis wliich had lasted 
 through the reign (if Lcopdld got rid of. Every- 
 thing went on in the confused, iintini.slied, and 
 inelTective state in wliicli the great war had 
 found it. Sucli was tlie famous System which 
 was venerated by the iiltra-Tdriis of every land, 
 and most venerated wlieie it was least under- 
 stood. Two men dominalo the histiiry of 
 Austria during this iinliappy tMiu; — men who, 
 though utterly unlike in clianutcr and intellect, 
 were nevertliele.ss admirably tilted to work to- 
 gether, and whose names will be long united in 
 an unenviable notorietv. These were the 
 Emperor Francis and Prince Metternich. Tlio 
 Jirst was the evil gi nius of internal politics; the 
 second exercised a hardly less baneful iiillucnco 
 over foreigii affairs. . . . For tlie external policy 
 of Prince iietternich, the first and most neces- 
 sary condition was, tliat Austria should give to 
 Europe the impression of fixed adherence to the 
 most extreme ('(Uiservntive views. So for iTiany 
 years they worked together, Prince Metternich 
 always declaring that he was a mere tool in the 
 hands of his master, but in reality far more 
 absolute in the direction of his own "department 
 than the emperor was in his. . . . Prince Metter- 
 nich hud the power of making the most of ail 
 he knew, and constantly left upon persons of 
 real merit the impression tliat he was a man of 
 lofty aspirations and liberal views, who forced 
 himself to repress such tendencies in others be- 
 cause he thought that their repression was a sine 
 qua non for Austria. The men of ability, who 
 knew him intimately, thought less well of him. 
 To them he appearou vain and superficial, with 
 
 2 '2: 
 
AUSTRIA, 1815-1835. 
 
 Prince Mettemlch and 
 *• the System." 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1840. 
 
 much thnt recnlled tlio French nohlcssc of the 
 old regime in liis way of looliing at tilings, and 
 cmijhutically wanting in every element of great- 
 ness. With the ontbrenk of the Greek insurrec- 
 tion in 1821, began a period of difllculty and 
 complications for the statesmen of Austria. 
 There were two things of which they were 
 mortally afraid — Russia and the revolution. 
 Now, il tliey assisted the Greelis, tliey would be 
 playing into tlie hands of tlie second; and if 
 they oppo.sed the Greeks, they wouhl 1)e likely 
 to embroil tliemsclves with tlio tirst. The whole 
 art of Prince Metternic'h was tlierefore exerted 
 to licep things (luiet in tlie Eastern Peninsula, 
 and to postpone the intolerable ' question 
 d'Orient.' JIaiiy were the shifts he tried, and 
 sometimes, as j nst after the accession of Nicholas, 
 his hopes ' se very higli. All was, however, in 
 vain. En( and and Russia settled matters bo- 
 hind liis ba^k; and although the tone which tlie 
 publicists in his ])ay adopted towavds the Greeks 
 became more favourable in 1836-7, the battle of 
 Navariuo was a sad surjirLse and mortification to 
 the wily chancellor. Not less annoying was the 
 commencement of hostilities on tlie Danube be- 
 tween HusfJa and the Porte. Tlie reverses with 
 which tlie great neigliliour met in his first cam- 
 paign cannot liave been otherwise than pleasing 
 at Vienna. But tlie unfortunate succi'ss which 
 attended his arms in the second campaign soon 
 turned ill-dissembled joy into ill-concealed 
 sorrow, and the treaty of Adrianople at once 
 lowered Austria's prestige in the East, and de- 
 posed Metternich from tlie commanding position 
 which he had occupied in the councils of the 
 Holy Allies. It became, indee<1, "ver more and 
 more evident in the next few years that 
 the age of Congress politics, during which he 
 had been the observed of ah observers, was past 
 and gone, that the diplonatic period had van- 
 ished away, and that the military period had be- 
 gun. The very form in whidi the highest in- 
 ternational (pu'stions were ilebated was utterly 
 changed. At V'ienna, in 1814, the diplomatists 
 had been really the primary, the sovereigns only 
 secondary personages; while at the interview of 
 Mtinchengratz, between Nicholas and the Em- 
 peror Francis, in 1883, the great autocrat ap- 
 peared to look upon Prince Metternich as hardly 
 more than a confidential clerk. The dull 
 monotony of servitude which oppressed nec''" 
 the wliole of the empire was varied by the at 
 tions of one of its component parts. AVheu the 
 Hungarian Diet was dissolved in 1813, the emperor 
 had solemnly promised that It should be ci,lled 
 together again within three years. Up to 181.5, 
 accordingly, the nation went on giving ex- 
 tnionlinary levies and supplies without much 
 opposition. When, however, the appointed 
 time was fulfilled, it began to murmur. . . . 
 Year by year the agitation went on increasing, 
 till at last the breaking out of the Greek revolu- 
 tion, and the thrt;;tenii<g appearance of Eastern 
 politics, induced Pru^c., Metternich to join his 
 entreaties to those of many other counsellors, 
 who could i' t be suspected of the slightest lean- 
 ing to constitutional views. At length the 
 emperor yielded, and in 1825 Presburg was once 
 more filled with the best blood and most active 
 spirits of the land, assembled in parliament. 
 Long and stormy were the debates which ensued. 
 Bitter was, from time to time, the vexation of 
 the emperor, and great was the excitement 
 
 throughout Hungary. In the end, however, the 
 court of Vienna triumphed. Hardly any griev- 
 ances were redressed, while its demands were 
 fully conceded. The Diet of 1835 was, however, 
 not witliout fruit. The discussion which tooli 
 plac(' advanced the political education of the 
 people, who were brought back to the point 
 where they stood at the death of Joseph II.-- 
 tliat is, before the long wars with France had 
 come to distract their attention from their own 
 affairs. . . . The slumbers of Austria were not 
 yet over. The System dragged its slow length 
 along. Little or nothing was done for the im- 
 provement of the country. Klebelsberg ad- 
 ministered the finances in an easy and careless 
 manner. Conspiracies and risings in Italy were 
 easily checked, and batclv.i of prisoners sent off 
 from time to time to JIantua or Spielberg. 
 Austrian influence rose ever higlier and higher 
 in all the petty courts of the Peninsula. . . . lu 
 other regions Russia or England niiglit be will- 
 ing to thwart him, but in Italy Prince Metter- 
 nich might proudly reflect that Austria was in- 
 deed a 'great power.' Tlie French Revoluticm 
 of 1830 was at first alarming; but when it re- 
 sulted in the enthronement of a dynasty which 
 called to its aid a 'cabinet of repression,' all 
 fears were stilled. The Emperor Francis con- 
 tinued to say, when any change was proposed, 
 ' We must sleep upon it,' an(l died in 1835 in 
 ' the abundance of peace.'" — M. E. Grant Duff, 
 Stittlien ill European Politics, pp. 140-149. — See, 
 also, Geumany: A. D. 1819-1847. 
 
 /> D. 1815-1846. — Gains of the Hapsburg 
 monarchy. — Its aggressive absolutism. ^ 
 Death of Francis I. — Accession of Ferdinand 
 I. — Suppression of revolt in Galicia.— Extinc- 
 tion ana annexation of the Republic of Ciacow. 
 — "In the new partition of Europe, arranged in 
 the Congress of Vienna [see Vienna, The Con- 
 guess of], Austria received Lonibardy and 
 Venice under the title of a Lombardo-Venetian 
 kingdom, the Ulyrian provinces also as a king- 
 dom, Venetian Dalmatia, the Tirol, Vorarlberg, 
 Salzburg, the Innviertel and Ilausrucksviertel, 
 and the part of Galicia ceded by her at an earlier 
 period. Thus, after three and twenty years of 
 war, the monarchy had gained a considerable 
 accession of strength, having obtained, iu lieu 
 of its remote and unprofitable possessions in the 
 Netherlands, territories which consolidated its 
 power in Italy, and made it as great iu extent as 
 it had been in the days of Charles VI., and far 
 more compact and defensible. The grand 
 duchies of Modena, Parma, and Placentia, were 
 moreover restored to the collateral branches of 
 the house of Hapsbi.rg. . . . After the last fall 
 of Napoleon . . . the great powers of the con- 
 tinent . . . constituted themselves the champions 
 of the principle of absolute monarchy. The 
 maintenance of that principle ultimately became 
 the chief object of the so-called Holy AUianco 
 established in 1816 between Russia, Austria and 
 Prussia, and was pursued with remarkable stead- 
 fastness by the Emperor Francis and his min- 
 ister. Prince Metternich [see Holy Alliance]. 
 . . . Tlienceforth it became the avowed policy 
 of the chief sovereigns of Germany to maintain 
 the rights of dynasties in an adverse sense to 
 those of their subjects. The people, on the 
 other hand, deeply resented the breach of those 
 promises which had been 'avishly made to 
 them on the general summons to the war of 
 
 226 
 
AUSTRIA, 1815-1846. 
 
 Absolut isni. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1815-1849. 
 
 liberation. Disaffection took the place of that 
 entliusiastic loyalty with which they had bled 
 and suffered for their native princes; the secret 
 socictieu, formed with the concurrence of their 
 rulers, for the purpose of throwing olf the yoke 
 of the foreigner, became ready instruments of 
 .sedition. ... In the winter of 1819, a German 
 federative congress assembled at Vienna. In 
 May of the following year it published an act 
 containing closer detinitions of the Fedei'ative 
 Act, having for their essential objects the ex- 
 clusion of the various provincial Diets from all 
 positive interference in the general affairs of 
 Germany, and an increase of the power of the 
 princes over their respective Diets, by a guaran- 
 tee of aid on the part of the confederates" (sec 
 Gkrmanv: a. D. 1814-1820). During the next 
 three years, the powers of the Holy Alliance, 
 under the lead of Austria, and acting under a 
 concert established at the successive congresses 
 of Troppau, Laybacli and Verona (see Veuona, 
 C'ONOiiEss OF), interfered to put down popular 
 risings against the tyranny of government in 
 Italy and Spain, wliile they discouraged the re- 
 volt of the Greeks (see Italy: A. D. 1820- 
 1831 ; and Spain : A. D. 1814-1837). "The com- 
 motions that pervaded Europe after the French 
 Revolution of 1830 affected Austria only in her 
 Italian dominions, and there but indirectly, for 
 tlie imperial authority remained undisputed in 
 the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. But tlie 
 duke of Slodena and the archduke of Parma 
 were obliged to quit those states, and a formid- 
 able insurrection broke out in the territory of the 
 C'luirch. An Austrian army of 18,000 men 
 quickly put dowi the insurgents, who rose 
 again, however, as soon as it was withdrawn. 
 Tlie pope again invoked the aid of AiLstri-^i, 
 whose troops entered Bologna in January, 18''3, 
 and established themselves there in garrison. 
 Upon this, the French imiuediately sent a force 
 to occupy Ancona, and for a while a renewal of 
 the oft-re])catcd conflict between Austrii', and 
 France on Italian ground seemed inevitable ; but 
 it soon appeared that Prance was not prepared 
 to support the revolutionary party in the pope's 
 dominions, and that danger passed away. The 
 French remained for some years in Ancona, and 
 the Austrians in Bologna and other towns of 
 Romagna. This was the last important incident 
 in tlie foreign affairs of Austria previous to the 
 death of the Emperor Francis I. on the 2nd of 
 March, 183.5, after a reign of 43 years. . . . The 
 Emperor Francis was succeeded by his son, 
 Ferdinand I., whose accession occasioned no 
 change in the political or administrative syst<'iu 
 of the empire. Incapacitated, by physical and 
 mental infirmity, from labouring as his father 
 had done in the business of the state, the new 
 monarch left to Prince Metternich a much more 
 unrestricted power than that minister had 
 wielded in the preceding reign. . . . The prov- 
 ince of Galicia began early in the new reign to 
 occasion uneasiness to the government. The 
 Congress of Vienna had constituted the city of 
 Cracow an independent republic — a futile 
 representative of that Polish nationality which 
 I'md once extended from the Baltic to the Black 
 Sea. After the failure of the Polish insurrection 
 of IS'il against Russia, Cracow became the focus 
 of fresh conspiracies, to put an end to whicii the 
 city was occupied by a mixed force of Russians, 
 Prussians, and Austrians; the two former were 
 
 soon withdrawn, but the latter remained until 
 1840. When they also had retired, the Polish 
 propaganda was renewed with consideralile 
 effect. An insurrection broke out in Galii ia in 
 1846, when the scantiness of the Austrian mili- 
 tary force in the province seemed to promise it 
 success. It failed, however, as all [irevious 
 efforts of the Polish patriots had failed, because 
 it rested on no basis of popular sympathy. The 
 nationality for which they contended had ever 
 been of an oligarchical jiattern, hostile to the 
 freedom of the middle and lower cla°",es. The 
 Galician peasants had no mind to exchange the 
 yoke of Austria, which pressed lightly upon 
 them, for the feudal opjiression of the Poli.sli 
 nobles. They turned upon the insurgents and 
 slew or took "them prisoners, the police inciting 
 them to the work by publicly offering a reward 
 of live florins for every suspected person de- 
 livered up by them, alive or dead. Thus the 
 agents of a civilized government became the 
 avowed instigator' of an inhuman 'iac(iuerie.' 
 The houses of the landed proprietors were sacked 
 by the jteasants, their inmates were tortured and 
 murdered, and bloody anarchy raged throughout 
 the land in the prostituted name of loyalty. 
 The Austrian troops ,at last restored order ; but 
 Szela, the leader of the sanguinary marauders, 
 was thanked and higlily rewarded iu the name 
 of his sovereign. In the same year the three 
 protecting powers, Austria, Russia, and Pr issia, 
 took possession of Cracow, and, ignoring the 
 right of the other parties to the treaty of Vie ina 
 to concern themselves about the fate of tbo re- 
 public, they announced that its iiulepindeiice 
 was annulled, and that the city and territory of 
 Cracow were annexed to, and forever incorpo- 
 rated with, the Austrian monarchy. From tills 
 time forth the political atmosphere of Europe 
 became more and more loaded with the presages 
 of the storm that burst in 1848."— W. K. Kelly, 
 Continuation, of ('o.re'n Hist, of the IIouhc of 
 Austria, ch. .'i-O. 
 
 A. D. 1815-1840. — Arrangements in Italy of 
 the Congress of Vienna. — Heaviness of the 
 Austrian yoke. — The Italian risings. — "By 
 the treaty of Vienna (181.5), the . . . entire king- 
 dom of Venetian- Lombardy was handed over to 
 the Austrians; the duchies of Modena, Iteggio, 
 with Massa and Carrara, given to Austrian 
 princes; Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to 
 Napoleon's queen, Maria Luisa, because she was 
 an Austrian princess ; the grand-duchy of Tus- 
 cany to Ferdinand III. of Austria ; the duchy of 
 Lucca to a Bourbon. Rome and the Roman 
 states were restored to the new Po|)e, Pius VII. ; 
 Sicily was united to Naples under the Bourbons, 
 and later deprived of her constitution, despite 
 the promised protection of England ; the Canton 
 Ticino, though strictly Italian, annexed to the 
 Swiss Confederation; the little republic of St. 
 Slarino left intact, even as the principality of 
 Monaco. England retained ]\Ialta ; Corsica was 
 left to France. Italy, so Jletternich and Europe 
 foudly hoped, was reduced to a geographical ex- 
 pression. Unjust, brutal, and treacherous as 
 was that partition, at least it taught the Italians 
 that ' who would be free himself must strike the 
 blow.' It united them into one common hatred 
 of Austria and Austrian satellites. By substitut- 
 ing pa])al, Austrian, and Bourbon despotism for 
 the free institutions, codes, and constitutions of 
 the Napoleonic era, it taught them the difference 
 
 227 
 
AUSTHIA, 1815-1849. 
 
 The Fi-iink/ort 
 Asui'mhly, 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1848-1840. 
 
 l)CtW(>('ii rule ami misru'c. Hence the (leniiiiKl 
 nf the Neapolitans iliiriii); their lirst I'evohitiiui 
 (1821)) was for a conslitiition; that of tlie I'ied 
 monle.so anil Lombards (18^1) for a constitiitioii 
 iiml war aijaliist .Viistria. The liimrhoii swore 
 aiKl foreswore, aiicHhe Austriaiis ' restored orih'r ' 
 in Naples. The I'iednionlese. who had not con- 
 certed Ihiir movenient iiiilil Naples was crushed 
 — after the alidication of Victor Kniinamul I., the 
 jiranting of.the constitution by the re;;ent Charles 
 Albert, and its abropition l>y the new kiii?r 
 Cliarles Felix — saw the Aiistrians enter Pied- 
 mont, while Ihu leaders of the revolution went 
 out into e.xile [see It.vi.y: A. I). 182(»-1S,>1]. 
 Hut those revoliilioiisand those failures were the 
 beijinninir of the end. The will to be independent 
 of all fca'eiirners, the thirst for freedom, was 
 universal; the very name of empire or of em- 
 peror, was rendere<l ridiculous, reduced to a 
 parody — in the person of Ferdinand of Austria. 
 But one illusion remained — in the lilieratin.;,' 
 virtties of France and the French; this had to be 
 dispelled by bitter experience, and for it substi- 
 tuted the new idea of one Italy for the Italians. 
 11 nation tuii'cd, iniU'pendent, free, j;overned by 
 a president or by a kini; cliosen by the soveieijin 
 jieople. The apostle of tliLs idea, to which for 
 lifty years victims and martyrs were sacriticed 
 by thousands, was Joseph Mazzini ; its champion, 
 Joseph Uaribaldi. IJy the genius of the former, 
 the prowess of the litter, the al)nejjation, the 
 constancy, the tenacity, the iron will of both, all 
 thi.' i)op\ilations of Italy were sul)jugated by that 
 idea: iihilosophers ilemonstrated it, i)oets sung 
 it, ])ioiis Christian priests proclaimed it, states- 
 men found it confronting their negotiations, 
 baffling their half-i'ieasures." — J. W. V. Mario, 
 Inlrodnctioii to Aitt(iliiof/nij)/ii/ of Oin\hid(U. — 
 ScelT.M.Y: A. D. 18;i0-18,32, and '1848-1819. 
 
 A. D. 1835.— Accession °f the Emperor 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 A. D. 183^-1840.— The Turko-Egyptian 
 question end its settlement. — ^Quadruple Alli- 
 ance. SeeTi:uKs: A. I). ls;il-lS.l(». 
 
 A. D. 1848. — The Germanic revolutionary 
 rising. — National Assembly at Frankfort. — 
 Archduke John elected Administrator of Ger- 
 many. — "When the third French Hevolution 
 broke out, its inlluence was immediately fell in 
 Germany. The jiopidar movement this time was 
 very dilferent from any the Governments liad 
 hitherto had to contend with. The people were 
 cvidciuly in earnest, and resolved to obtain, at 
 whatever cost, their chief demands. . . . The 
 Hevolution was most .serious in the two great 
 German Stales, I'russia and Austria. ... It 
 was g<'nerally hoped that union as well as free- 
 dom was now to be achieved by Germany ; but, 
 as Prussia and Austria were in too much dis- 
 order to do anything, about .WO Germans from the 
 various States met at Frankfurt, and on ;\larcli 
 21 constituted themselves a provisional I'ailia 
 ment. .\ii extreme party wished the assembly 
 to declare itself permanent; but to this the ma- 
 jority would not agree. It was decided thai a 
 National A.s.sembiy should be elected forthwith 
 by the German people. The Confederate Diet, 
 knowing that the i>rovisioual Parliament was 
 approved by the nation, recognized its authority. 
 Through the Diet the various Governments were 
 communicated with, and all of thi^m agreed to 
 make aiTangcmenIs for the elections. . . . The 
 National Assembly was upeucd in Fruukfurt on 
 
 May 18, 1848. It elected the Archduke John of 
 -Vu.stria as the licad of a new provisional central 
 (Jovcrnment. The choice was a happy one. 
 The .Vrchduko was at onee iicknowlcdged bv the 
 diirercnt governments, and on July 12 the Presi- 
 dent of the Confederate Diet formally made over 
 to him the authority wliicli had hitherto belonged 
 to the Diet. Tl.e I)iel tlien ceased to e.xist. The 
 AichduUe chos{^ from the Assembly seven mem- 
 bers, who forjued a responsible ministry. The 
 Assembly was divided into two parties, the 
 Kight and the Left. These again were broken 
 u|) into varicms sections. Much time was lost in 
 useless discussions, and it was soon suspected 
 that the Assembly would not in the end prove 
 equal to the great task it had undertaken." — 
 J. Sime, lliHiory of Oerinrny, eh. IP, ,i(C<«. 8-11. 
 — .See Giou.m.\ny: A. D. 1848' (.Makcii— Sept;;m- 
 
 UKIi). 
 
 A. D. 1848 (December).— Accession of the 
 Emperor Francis Joseph I. 
 
 A. D. 1848-1849.— Revolutionary risings. — 
 Bombardment of Prague and Vienna.— Abdica- 
 tion of the Emperor Ferdinand. — Accession of 
 Francis Joseph. — The Hungarian struggle for 
 independence. — "The rise of n.iticaial feeling 
 am nig (Ik; Hungarian, Slavonic, and Italian 
 subject i)f the House of Ilapsburg wa.s not the 
 only dillictilty of the Emperor "Ferdinand I. 
 Vienna was then the gayest and the dearest centre 
 of fashion and lu.xury in Europe, but side by side 
 with wealth there seethed a mass of wretched 
 lioverty; and the protective trade system of 
 .\ustria so increased the price of the necessaries 
 of life that bread-riots were frecinent. . . . The 
 university students were foremost in the demand 
 for a constitution and for the removal of the 
 rigid censorship of the press and of all books. 
 So, wdien the news came of the llight of Louis 
 Philippe from Paris [see Fii.\nck: A. D. 1841- 
 1848, and 1848] the students as well as the 
 artisans of Vienna rose iu revolt (.March 13, 
 1848), the latter breaking machinery and attack- 
 ing the houses of unpopular employers. A 
 deputation of citizens clnmoured for the resigna- 
 tion of the bated Metternicli: his house was 
 burnt down, and ho tied to England. A second 
 outbreak of the e.xcited populace (May 1,5. 1848), 
 sent the Emperor Ferdinand in heli)less Hight to 
 InnsprUck in Tyrol; but lie returned when they 
 avowed their loyalty to his person, though they 
 detested the old bureaucratic system. Far more 
 comi)licate(l, however, were the race jealousies 
 of the Empire. The Slavs of Bohemia , . , had 
 demanded of Ferdinand the union of Bohemia, 
 Moravia, and Austrian Silesia iu Estates for those 
 provinces, and that the Slavs should enjoy equal 
 jirivileges with the Germans. After an unsatis- 
 factory answer had been received, they convoked 
 a Slavonic Congress at Prague. . . . But while 
 this Babel of tongues was seeking for a means of 
 fusion. Prince windiscligriltz was assembling 
 Austrian troops around tlie Bohemian capital. 
 Fights in the streets led to a bombardment of the 
 city, which Windi»eiigiai£. soon entered in 
 triumph. This has left 11 bitterness between the 
 Tsechs or Bohemians and the Germans which 
 still divides Bohemia socially and jiolitically. 
 . . . The exciting news of the spring of 1848 
 had made the hot Asiatic blood of the Magyars 
 boil; yet even Kossuth and the democr-ats at 
 first only demanded tlic abolition of Metter- 
 nich's systtni in favour of a represeututive gov- 
 
 28 
 
AUSTRIA, 1848-1849. 
 
 Ilnngarinn Struggle 
 for Indeiitfmience. 
 
 AUSTIUA, 1848-lH4n. 
 
 trnmcnt. . . . Unfortuniiloly Kossuth (^liiiiiu'd 
 lliiit tliL' T.Iiigyiir laws iiiul liuiguiij^e iiuisl now 
 be siipri'iuc, not only in Iliuifriirv propiT, but 
 also in the IIttn.L,'iuian 'crown lands' of Diilnni- 
 tia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and tlu; enthusiastic 
 Magyars wi: hcd also to absorb tlic ancient 
 principality o" Transylvania; l)ut this a;xain was 
 stoutly resisted by the Roumanians, Slavs, and 
 Saxons of that little known corner of Kurope. 
 and their discontent was fanned by the court of 
 Viennii. .lellachich, the Ban or" G()vern(n- of 
 Croatia, headed this movement, which aimed at 
 making Agram the capital of tlie southern Slavs. 
 Their revolt against the Hungarian ministry of 
 Battliyanyi was at lirst disavowed in June, 1848, 
 but in October was encouraged, by the perlidious 
 government of Vienna. A co'iference between 
 IJatthyanyi and .Tellachich ended with words of 
 deliance: 'Then wo must meet on the Drave ' 
 said the Hungarian. "No, on the Danube,' re- 
 torted the champion of the Slavs. The vacil- 
 lating Ferdinand annulled his acceptance of the 
 new Hungarian constitution and declared 
 .lellachich dictator of Ilungarj-. His tool was 
 unfortunate. After crossing the Drave, the 
 Slavs were defeated by the brave Hungarian 
 'honveds' (defenders); and as many as (),()()() 
 were made prisoners. Unable to sid)due 
 Hiuigary, .lellachich turned aside towards 
 Vienna to crush the popular pii'y there. For 
 the democrats, exasperated by the perlidious 
 policy of the government, liad, on October 6, 
 1848, risen a third time: the war-minister, 
 Latour, had been banged on a lamppost, and 
 the t. , .'ror again lle<l from histurl)ulent capital 
 to the ever-faithful Tyrolese. But now .lella- 
 chich and WindisehuTiltz bombanled the rebel- 
 lious cai)ital. It was on the point of surrendering 
 when the Hungarians appeared to aid the city; 
 but the levies raised by the exertions of Kossuth 
 were this time outmameuvrcd [and defeated] by 
 the imperialists at Scliwecliat (October 30, 1848), 
 and on the next day Vienna surrendered. Blum, 
 a delegate from Saxony [to the Olerman Piulia- 
 ment of Frankfort, who had come on a mission 
 of mediation to Vienna, but who had taken a 
 part in the lighting], and some other democrats, 
 vere shot. By this clever but unscrupulous use 
 of race jealousy the Viennese Government 
 seemed to have ovijrcome Bohemians, Italians, 
 Hungarians, and the citizens of its own capital 
 in turn; while it had diverted the southern 
 Slavonians from hostility to actual service on its 
 side. . . . The weak health and vacillating 
 spirit of Ferdinand did not satisfy the knot of 
 courtiers of Vienna, who now, flushed by success, 
 sought to concentrate all p iw er intheVienne.se 
 Cabinet. W<r.n out by the excitements of tin; 
 year and by the demands of these men, Ferdi- 
 nand, on December 'i, 1848, yielded up the 
 crown, not to his rightful successor, his brother, 
 but to his nephew, Francis .Joseph, lie, a yo\ith 
 of eighteen, ascended the throne so rudely 
 shaken, and still, in spite of alir.ost tuiiform dis- 
 aster in war, holds sway over an empire larger 
 and more powerful than he found it in 1848. 
 The Hungarians refused to rccogidse the young 
 sovereign thus forced upon them ; and the fact 
 that he was not crowned at Presburg with the 
 sacred iron crown of St. Stephen showed that he 
 did not intend to recognise the Hungarian con- 
 stitution. Austrian troops under Windischgriltz 
 entered Buda-Pusth, but the Hungarian patriots 
 
 witlalrew from their capital to organize a 
 jiational resistance; and when the Austrian (Jov- 
 ennnciit proclaimed the Hungarian constitution 
 abolished and the complete absorption of Hun- 
 gary in the Austrian Kinpire. Kossuth and his 
 collea'.rues retorli'd bv a Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence (April '.U, 184!)). The House of Haps- 
 hurg was declared biuiishe<l from Hungary, 
 which was to be a republic. Kossuth, the tirst 
 governor of the new rcpulilic. and (Jiirirei, its 
 general, raised ai.nies which soon showed their 
 prowess." The lirst important battle of the war 
 had been fought at Kapolna, "ii the right bank 
 of the Theiss, on the 'itilli ol February, 184!», 
 OOrgei and Dendiinski conunaeding the Hun- 
 garians and Windiscbgrilt/ leading the .Vustri- 
 ans. The latter won the victory, and the 
 Hungarians retreati'd toward the Theiss. About 
 the middle of .March, Oorgei resumed the olVeii- 
 sivc, advancing toward Peslh, and encountered 
 the Austriansatlsas/.eg, where he defeated them 
 in a hard-fought battle, — or rather in two bat- 
 tles which are sometimes caUed by dilTerent 
 names: viz., that of Tapio Biscke fought \pril 
 4th, and that of Godolo, fought on the ."ith. It 
 was now the turn of the Austrians lo fall back, 
 and they («ncentrated behind the Hakos, to 
 cover Pestli. The Hungarian general passed 
 round their left, carried W'aitzen by storm, 
 forced them to evacuate Pcsth and to retreat to 
 Presburg, abandoning the 'vhole of Hungary 
 with the exception of a fev, fortresses, which 
 they held. The most import ut of these fort- 
 resses, that of Bud;i, the " twin-city, " opposite 
 Pesth on the Danube, was besieged by the 
 Hungarians and carried by storm on the tilst of 
 .May. "In Transylvania, too, the Hungarians, 
 under the talented Polish gener.d Bem, overcame 
 the Auslrians, Slavonians, ind Uoiunanians in 
 many lirilliant encounters. But the proclama- 
 tiim of a republic had alienated those Hunga- 
 rians who had only striven for their old constitu- 
 tional rights, so ((Uarrels arose between Gorg<'i 
 and the ardent democrat Kos.suth. Worse still, 
 the Czar Nicholas, dreading the formation of a 
 republic near his Polish provinces sent the 
 military aid which Francis .Joseph in May 1840 i.n- 
 plored. Soon 80,000 Uussians unchr Paskiewitch 
 poured over the northern Carpathians to hel]> 
 the beaten Austrians, while others overpowered 
 the gallant Bem in Transylvania. .Jellachich 
 with his Croats again invaded South Hungary, 
 and Haynau, the scourge of Lombardy, marched 
 (m the siruigest Hungarian fortress, Komoru, ou 
 the Danube. ' The Hungarian.s, overpowered by 
 the combination of Austrians and Uussians 
 against them, were defeated at Pered, .June 21; 
 at Acz, July 3; at Kombrn, July 11 ; at Waitzen, 
 July 10; at Tzombor, July 30; at Segesvar, July 
 ;U; at Debreczin, August 3; atSzegedin, August 
 4; at Temesvar, August 10. "In despair 
 Kossuth handed over his dictatorship to his rival 
 (liirgei, who soon surrendered at Vilagos with 
 all his forces to the HiLssians (Aug\ist 13, 1849). 
 About 5,000 men with Kossuth, Bem, and other 
 leaders, escaped to Turkey. Even there Uussia 
 and Austria sought to drive them forth; but the 
 Porte, upheld by the Western Powers, main- 
 tained its right to give sanctmiry according to 
 the Koran. Koss\ith and many of his fellow- 
 exiles finally sailed to England [and afterwards 
 1:> America], where his nuijestic elocjuence 
 aiuuscd deep sympathy for the iilllicted country. 
 
 229 
 
AUSTRIA. 1848-1849. 
 
 fifrman 
 Hurvaucravy. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1840-1859. 
 
 Many Ilunnaiiiin ))iitrir)ts sulTorcil (Iciilli, All 
 ivIh'Is hull tlirir property contiscntcil, imil tlic 
 <'i)imlry was for yciws ruled l)y armed force, 
 and lis old ri^rlils were iil)olislied." — J. 11. Rose, 
 A C'ciitiin/ <;/' ('nntinentitl lliKtory, eh. 31. 
 
 Ai.so I.N: Sir .\. Ali.son. IHhI. nf Europe, ISLV 
 IH.Vi, eh. Tht. — A. CJilr^cei, My Life ami Aetn -'ii 
 Jlinir/an/. — (Jeiieral Klapka, MenmirH af the War 
 of IniU'peiiiU nee in Jliiii;/un/. — Count, llartij;, 
 deiiiKin of the lleroliitioii in Austria. — W. II. 
 Stiles, Auxfria in lH4H-4». 
 
 A. D. i848-i849.^Revolt in Lombardy and 
 ■ Venetia. — War with Sardinia. — Victories of 
 Radetzky. — Italy vanquished again. See 
 Itm.v: a. 1). IHIS-IHH . 
 
 A. D. 1848-1850. — Failure of the movement 
 for Germanic national unity. — End of the 
 Frankfort Assembly. — " Krank-forf, bad become 
 tlieeentreof tliemoveineut. The helpless Diet had 
 acknowledged the ne< essity of a Geriuau i)arlia- 
 uienl, and had sunimoned twelve men of conti- 
 dence charged with drawing up a new imperial 
 constitution. But it was unable to supply what 
 was most wanted — a strong executive. . . . 
 Instead of establishing before all u strong execu- 
 tive able to control and to realise its resolution.s, 
 the Assembly lost months in discussing the 
 fundamental rights of the German people, and 
 tluis was overhauled by the events. In June, 
 Prince Windiscligraetz crushed the insurrection 
 at I'rague; and in November the anarchy which 
 had prevailed during the whole summer at 
 Herlin was put down, when Count Ilrandenburg 
 became first minister. . . . Sehwarzeiiberg [at 
 Vienna] declared as soon as he had taken the 
 reins, that his programme was to maintain the 
 unity of the Austrian empire, and demanded 
 that the whole of it should enter into the Ger- 
 manic confederation. This was incompatible 
 with the federal state as contemplated by tlie 
 National Assembly, and therefore Gagern, who 
 had become president of the imperial ministry 
 [at Frankfort], answered Schwarzeiiberg's pro- 
 gnunme by declaring that the entering of the 
 Austrian monarchy with a majority of lum-Ger- 
 niau nationalities into the German federal state 
 was an impossibility. Thus nothing was left 
 but to place the king of Prussia at the head of 
 the German state. But in order to wi" a 
 majoritj' fo:' this plan Gagern foi.ud it neires- 
 sary to make large concessions to the d 'inocratic 
 party, amongst others universal suffrage. This 
 was not calculated to make the olTer of the 
 imperial crown uci'cptable to Frederic Williaui 
 IV., but his princii)al reason for declining it was, 
 that he would not exercise any pressure on the 
 other German sovereigns, and that, notwitu- 
 standiiig Schwarzenberg's haughty demeanour, 
 he could not make up his mind to exclude Aus- 
 tria from Germany. After the refusal of the 
 crown by the king, the National Assembly was 
 <ic)onu'd; it had certainly committed great faults, 
 but the decisive reason of its failure was the lack 
 of a clear and resolute will in Prussia. History, 
 however, teaches that great enterprises, such as 
 it was to unify iiii empire dismen-.bered for cen- 
 turies, rarely succeed at the first attempt. The 
 capital importance of the events of 1848 was 
 that lliey had made the German unionist move- 
 ment an historical fact; it could never be effaced 
 from the annals, that all the Qerinan govern- 
 ments had publicly acknowledged '.hat tendency 
 us legitimate, the direction for the future was 
 
 230 
 
 given, and even at the time of failure it was 
 certain, as Stockinar said, that the necessity of 
 circumstances would bring forward the man who. 
 lirofitiug by theexpericiu'esof 1848, would fuHil 
 the national aspirations." — F. II. GetTckeii, 
 The I'liiti: <if (ri'-iniiiiil (KiniUnh llintorieal Iter., 
 Ai V. ly.ll).— See Gki'imanv: A. I). lM4K-lH.-)(t. 
 A. D. 1849-1859. — The Return to pure Ab- 
 solutism. — Bureaucracy triumphant. — ' ' Tin.' 
 two great gains whi<'h the moral earth(|uake of 
 1848 brought to Austria were, that through wide 
 provinces of the Empire, and more especially in 
 Hungary, it swept away the sort of .semi- 
 vassalage in which the peasan'.ry had been left 
 by the Urbariutii of -Maria Theresa [an edict 
 which gave to the peasants the right ot moving 
 from |)lace to i)lace, and the riglit of bringing 
 up tlK'ir children as they wished, while it estab- 
 lished in certain courts the trial of all suits to 
 which they were parties], and other reforms akin 
 to or foimded upon it, and introduced modern in 
 the place of middle-age relations between the 
 two extremes of society. Secondly, it overthrew 
 the policy of do-uotliiug — a surer guarautee for 
 the continuance of abuses than even the deter- 
 mination, which soon manifested itself at head- 
 quarters, to make the head of tlie state more 
 absolute than ever After the taking of Vicuna 
 by Windischgriltz, the Natioaal Assembly had, 
 on the 15th of November 1848, been removed 
 from the capiti;" > the small town of Kremsier, 
 in Moravia. Here it itrolongcd an ineffective; 
 existence till March 1849, when the eoiu'l 
 camarilla felt itself strong enough to i)ut an end 
 to an inconvenient censor, and in March 184!) 
 it ceased to exist. A constitution was at the 
 same time promulgated which contained many 
 good provisioui, but which was never heartily 
 ai)prove(l by the ruling jiowers, or vigorously 
 carried into cITcct — the proclamation of a state 
 of sic;;e in many cities, and other expedients of 
 authority in a revolutioiuuy period, easily enab- 
 ling it to be set at naught. The 8ucces.ses of the 
 reaction in other parts of Europe, and, above all, 
 the coup d'etat in Paris, emboldened Schwartz- 
 enberg to throw off the mask ; and 011 the last 
 day of 1851 Austria became ou('e more u l)ure 
 despotism. The young emperor had taken 
 ' Viribus unitis' for his motto; and his advisers 
 iuterjireted those words to luciui that Austria 
 was henceforward to be a state as highly cen- 
 tralised as France — a state in which the minister 
 at Vienna was absolutely to govern cverythiug 
 from Salzburg to the Iron Gate. The baud of 
 authority laul been severely felt in the pre- 
 revolutionary jieriod, but now advantage was to 
 be taken of the revolution to make it felt far 
 more than ever. In Hungary, for example, . . . 
 it was fondly imagined that there woidd be no 
 more trouble. The old political division into 
 counties was swept away; the whole land was 
 divided into live provinces; and the coin-tiers 
 might imagine that from henceforth the Magyars 
 would be as easily led as the inhabitants ot 
 Upper Austria. These delusions soon became 
 general, but they owed their origin partly to the 
 enthusiastic ignorance of those who were at the 
 head of the army, and partly to two men" — 
 Priiu'e Schwartzenberg and Alexaiuler Bach. 
 Of the latter, the "two leading ideas were to 
 cover the whole empire with a German buifau- 
 cracy, and to draw closer the tics which con- 
 nected the court of Vieima with that of Rome. 
 
AUSTRIA, 1840-1850. 
 
 Tlie It'iir 
 t'n Italy. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 1802-1800. 
 
 ... If iil)solutism in Austria Imil ii fair trial 
 from tlic ;tlst of I)i'cc'iiil)cr 1851 to tin- Italian 
 war, it is to Hat "i tliat it was owinii; and if it 
 utterly and ludicrously failed, it is lie more than 
 any other nnm who mist bear the blame. 
 Already, in 1840, the bureaucracy liad been 
 reorj^anised. l)iit in 18.52 new and stricter resula- 
 tiiins were introduced. Everythin;; was deter- 
 mined l>y jirecise rules — oven the e.xact amount 
 of hair whieli the employe was i)ermitt"d to 
 wear upon his face. Hardly any (jucstion was 
 thought sulliciently insigiiiticant to l)e decided 
 upon the spot. The smallest matters had to be 
 referred to Vienna. . . . We can hardly be sur- 
 prised that the great nun of the Italian war 
 brought down with a crash the whole editice of 
 the reaction. " — M. E. G. Dull, studies in Euro- 
 pctiii Politics, ch. 3. 
 
 Al^so IN: L. Eegor, llint. c Ailxtro-ITuiii/nri/, 
 ch. 3;i. 
 
 A. D. 1853. — Commercial Treaty with the 
 German Zollverein. See Tahiff LK(ii.si,ATio.v 
 ((JioitMA.NY): A. I). 185:i-18!)2. 
 
 A. D. 1853-1856. — Attitude in the Crimean 
 War. See UtssiA; A. 1). 185;j-1851, to 1854- 
 18.50. 
 
 A. D. 1856-1859.— The war in Italy with 
 Sardinia and France. — Reverses at Magenta 
 and Solferino. — Peace of Villafranca. — Surren- 
 der of Lombardy. — "From the wars of 1848-0 
 the King of Sardinia was looked upon by the 
 moderate party as the champi(m of Italian free- 
 dom. Charles Albert had failed: yet his sim 
 would not, and indeed could not, go back, 
 though, wlien he be,gan his reign, there were 
 many things against him. . . . Great elTorts 
 were made to win him over to the Austrian 
 jmrty, b\it the King was neither cast down by 
 defeat and distrust nor won over by soft words. 
 He soon showed that, though he had been forced 
 to make a treaty vith Atistria, yet he would not 
 cast in his lot with the oppression of Italy. He 
 made .Massimo d'A/.eglio bis chief Jlinister, and 
 Ciunillo Benso di Cavour bis Minister of Com- 
 merce. AV'ilh the help of these tvo men he 
 honestly carried out the reforms which bad been 
 granted by his father, and set new ones on foot. 
 . . . The (juick progress of reform frightened 
 Count Massimo d'Azeglio. lie retireil from 
 otlice in 1853, and his place was taken by Count 
 Cavour, who made a coalition with the demo- 
 cratic party in Piedmont headed by Urbano Rat- 
 tiizzi. The new chief Minister began to w(nk 
 not only for the good of Piedmont iait for Italy 
 at large. Tlie Milanese still listened to the 
 hopes which Mazzini held out, and could not 
 .quietly bear their subjection. Count Cavour 
 indignantly remonstrated with Radetzky for his 
 liarsh govermnent. . . . The divi i(m and slavery 
 of Italy had shut her out from European itolitics. 
 Cavour held that, if she was once looked tipon 
 as an useful ally, then her deliverance might 
 ho hastened bj' foreign interference. The Sar- 
 dinian army had been brought into good order 
 by Alfonso della Marmora ; and was ready for 
 action. In 18.55. Sardinia made alliance with 
 England and France, who were at war with 
 Russia; for Cavour looked on that power as the 
 great support of the system of despotism on the 
 Continent, and held that it was necessary for 
 Italian freedom that Russia should be hunibled. 
 The Sardiiuau army was therefon^ sent to the 
 Crimea, under La Marmora, where it did good 
 
 service in the battle of Tchernaya. . . . The 
 ne.xt year the Congress of Paris was held to 
 arrange terms of peace between the allies and 
 Russia, and Cavour took the opportuiutv of lay- 
 ing before the representatives of the liuropeau 
 powers the unhappy state of his couiitrymeu. 
 . . . In December. 1851, Louis Napoleon Huo- 
 naparte. the President of the French Republic, 
 .seized tlie government, and the next year took 
 the title of Emperor of the French. He was 
 anxious to weaken the power of Austria, and at 
 the beginning of 18.50 it became evident that war 
 Avould soon break out. As a sign of the friendly 
 feeling of the French Emperor towards the 
 Italian cause, his cousin. Napoleon .Joseph, mar- 
 ried Clotilda, the daughter of V'ietor Emmanuel. 
 Count Cavour now declared that .Sardinia would 
 make war on Austria, unless a separate and na- 
 tional govcrnmi'iit was granted to Lombardy 
 and Venetia. and unless .Vustiia promised to 
 meddle no more with the rest of Italy. On the 
 other band, Austria demanded the disarmament 
 of Sardinia. The King would not listen to this 
 demand, and France and Sardinia declared war 
 against Austria. The Emperor Najxileon de- 
 ciared that he would free Italy from tla; Alps to 
 the Adriatic. . . . The Austrian army crossed 
 the Ticino, but was defeated by the King and 
 General Cialdini. The French victory of 3Ia- 
 genta, on June 4th forced the Austrians to re- 
 treat from Lombardy. . . . (Jn .June 24tli the 
 Austrians, who had crossed the .Mincio, were 
 defeated at Solferino by the allied armies of 
 France and .Sardinia. It seemed as though the 
 French Emperor would keep his word. Rut he 
 found that if he went further. Prussia would 
 take up the cause of Austria, and that lie would 
 have to tight on the Rhine as well as on the 
 Adige. When, therefore, the French army 
 came before Verona, a meeting was arranged 
 between the two Emperors. This took place at 
 Villafranca, and there liuonaparle, without con- 
 sulting his ally, airreed with Francis Joseph to 
 favour the establishment of an Italian (.'oiifeder- 
 atioii. . . . Austria gave u]) to the King of Sar- 
 dinia Lombardy to tiie west of jNIincio. Rut the 
 ({rand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of Mo- 
 deiia were to return to their Slates. The \)Vo- 
 posed Confederation was never made, for the 
 people of Tuscany, Modena. Parma, and Ro- 
 magna sent to the King to pray that they miglit 
 be mi'de part of his Kingdom, aii<l Victor Em- 
 manuel refused to enter (m the scheme of the 
 French Emperor. In return for allowing the 
 Italians of Central Italy to shake off the yoke, 
 Ruonaparte asked for Savoy and Nizza. . . . 
 The King . . . consented to give up the 'glorious 
 cradle of his Monarchy ' in exchange for Central 
 Italy."— W. A. Hunt, Ilintovy of itnlij.ch. 11. 
 
 Also in: J. AV. Probyn, Jtoiy from 1815 to 
 1800, ch. 0-10.— C. de Maznde, Life of Count 
 Giroiir, ch. 3-7. — See, also, Italy: A. 1). 1850- 
 1850, and 1850-1801. 
 
 A. D. 1862-1866.— The Schleswig-Holstein 
 question. — Quarrel with Prussia.— The humili- 
 ating S ven Weeks War. — Conliict with Prus- 
 sia ..trew out of the complicated Schleswigllol- 
 steii, (}uestion, reopened in 1803 and i)rovisioiially 
 settled by a delusive arrangement between Prus- 
 sia and Austria, into which"tlie latter was artfully 
 drawn by Prince Bismarck. See Scandi.navian 
 St.\te9(Den.ma:ik): A. 1). 1848-1803, aiul Gku- 
 MANY: A. D. 1801-1800. No sooner was the wur 
 
 231 
 
AUSTRIA, 1862-lSOO. 
 
 Seven Week* 
 War. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 186tt-lH67. 
 
 ■wifli Drnmnrk over, tlinn "Prussia sliowcil llmt 
 it wiiH liiT intciilioii to annex tin- iit'wly a('(|uir<'il 
 (liicliicK to licrsclf. This Austiiii foiilil not cn- 
 duro, iind Bicoiilinjrly. in 1W(H!, wiir hroke out 
 between Austria and I'russia. Prussia soujrlit 
 nllianee with Italy, wliich slie stirred u|)toatta(k 
 Austria in lier Italian nossessiiais. Tlio Austrian 
 army (h'fealed tlic Italian at I^ustaz/.a [or Cus- 
 tozza (see Italy: A. I). 18(l2-18(i0)] : hut the 
 fortunes of war were ajjainst them in Germany. 
 Allieil witli the Austriai\s were the Saxons, the 
 Ravarians, the WUrtenibeiXf'rs, Radeii and 
 Ilesse, and Hanover. The Prussians advan(<Ml 
 with their chief armv into Uohemia witli tlie 
 utmost rapidity, dreading lest tlie .So\itliern allies 
 fihouUl march north to Hanover, and cut the 
 kim;dom in half, an<I ])ush on to Rerlin. The 
 Prussians had three armies, which were to enter 
 Holieiuia and elTect a junction. The fllbe army 
 wider tlie Kiiij;. tlie tiist army \nidcr Prince 
 Frederick Charles, and the second army under 
 the Crown Prince. The Elbe army advanced 
 across Saxony by Dresden. The first army was 
 in Lusatia, at Reiclienberg, and the second army 
 in Silesia at Ileisse. Tliey were all to meet at 
 Oitschin. The Austrian army under General 
 Renedek was at KiMiiggriltz, in Eastern Holiemia. 
 ... As in the wars with Napoleon, so was it 
 now ; the Austrian generals . . . never did the 
 right tliini? at the right moment. Uenedek did 
 indeed march against the first army, but too late, 
 and when he found it was already through the 
 niountain door, ho retreated, and so gave time for 
 the three armies to cimcentrate upon biin. The 
 Elbe army and the first met at Milnchengratz, 
 and defeated an Austrian army then.', pushed on, 
 and drove them back out of Gitschin on ICOnig- 
 griltz. . . . The PriLssians pushed on, and now 
 the Elbe army went to Smidar, and the first army 
 to llorzitz, whilst the second army, under the 
 Crown Prince, was pushing on, and had got to 
 Gradlitz. The littUt river Ristritz is cro.s.sed by 
 the high road to Kitniggriltz. It runs through 
 swampy ground, and forms little inarehy jiools 
 or lakes. To the north of Ki'iniggriltz a little 
 stream of much the same character dribbles 
 through boL's into the Elbe. . . . Rut about 
 Chlum, Xnlclist and Lippa is terraced liigh 
 ground, and there Renedek planted his cannon. 
 Tlie Prussians advanced from Smidar against 
 the left wing of the Austrians, from llorzitz 
 against tlie centre, and the thrown Prince was to 
 attack ^lie right wing. The battle began on the 
 3d of July, at 7 o'clock in the morning, by the 
 simultaneous advance of the Elbe and the first 
 army upon the Ristritz. At Sadowa is a wood, 
 and there the battle raged most fiercely. . . . 
 Two things were against the Austrians; first, 
 th'j incompetence of their general, and, secondly, 
 the inferiority of their guns. The Prussians had 
 ■what are called needle-guns, breach-loaders, 
 ■which are fired by the prick of a needle, and for 
 the rapidity with which tliey can be fired far 
 sur])assed the old-fashioned muzzle-loaders used 
 bv the Austrians. After this great battle, which 
 is called by the French and English the battle of 
 Sadowa (Sadowa, not Sadowa, as it is erroneously 
 pronounced), but wliich the Germans call the 
 battle of Kiiniggn'ltz. the Prussians marclied on 
 Vienna, and reached the Marchfchl before the 
 Emperor Francis Joseph would come to terms. 
 At last, on the 33d of August, a peace which 
 £avc a crushing prupondentnco ia Germany to 
 
 Prussia, was concluded at Prague."— S. Raring- 
 Gould, T/ir KOiry <>f Oirmaini, pp. 39()-3!»-l.— 
 See (}H:iiM.\NV: A. I). 1800. 
 
 A. D. i866.— The War in Italy.— Loss of 
 Venetia. See Itai.v: A. 1). 1802-|H(iO. 
 
 A. D. 1866-1867. — Concession of nationality 
 to Hungary. — Formation of the dual Austro- 
 Hungarian Empire. — "For twelve years the 
 name of Hungary, as a Stale, was erased from 
 the map of Kuiope. Riireaucratic Absolutism 
 ruled suiireme in Austria, and did its best to ob- 
 literate all Hungarian institutions. Germani.sa- 
 tiiiii was the order of the day, the German tongue 
 being declared the exclusive language of otilcial 
 life as well asof the higher school.s. riovernnunt 
 was carried on by means of foreign, German, and 
 (,'zcch odieials. No vestige was left, not only of 
 the national independence, but either of Home 
 Rule or of self-government of any sort; the 
 country was divicled into provinces without re- 
 gard for historical traditions; in short, an at- 
 tempt was made to wipe out every trace denoting 
 the existence of a separate Hungary. All ranks 
 and classes opposed a sullen pikssive resistance to 
 these attacks against the existence of the nation; 
 even the sections of the nationalities which had 
 rebelled against the enactments of 184S, at the 
 instigation of the reactionary Camarilla, were 
 e(iually di.salTected in consenuence of the short- 
 sighted policy of despotical centralisation. . . . 
 Finally, after the collapse of the system of Ab- 
 solutism in conse<iuencc of financial disasters and 
 of the misfortunes of the Italian War of 18.")!), 
 the Hungarian Parliament was again convoked; 
 and after jirotracted negotiations, broken olT and 
 resumed again, the impracticability of a system 
 of provincial Federalism having been proved in 
 the meantime, and the defeat incurred in the 
 Prussian War of 1860 having demonstrated the 
 futility of any reconstructi(m of the Empire of 
 Austria in which the national aspiratiims of 
 Hungary were not tjiken into due consideration — 
 an arrangement was concluded under the aus- 
 pices of Francis Deak, Count Andra.ssy, and 
 Count Reust, on the basis of the full acknowl- 
 edgment of the separate national existence of 
 Hungary, and of the continuity of its legal 
 rights. The idea of a centralised Austrian Em- 
 pire had to give waj' to the dual Au.stro-Hiin- 
 garian monarchy, which is in fact an indissoluble 
 federation of two equal .States, under the com- 
 mon rule of a single sovereign, the Emperor of 
 Austria and King of Hungary, each of the 
 Slates having a constitution, government, and 
 parliament of its own, Hungary especially retain- 
 ing, witli slight 'Modiflcatious, its ancient institu- 
 ti(ms remodelled in 1848. The administration of 
 the foreign iiolicy, the management of the army,^ 
 and the disbursement of the expenditure neces- 
 sary for these purposes, were settled upon he 
 common affairs of the entire monarchy, for the 
 management of which common ministers were 
 instituted, responsible to tlu; two delegations, 
 co-equal committees of the parliaments of Hun- 
 gary and 'if the Cisleithanian (Austrian) prov- 
 inces. E 'orate provisions were framed for the 
 smooth WDiking of these common institutions, 
 for giving weight to the constitutional inlluence, 
 even in matters of common policy, of the sepa- 
 rate Cisleii lian and Hungarian ministries, .ind 
 for renderi their responsibility to the respect- 
 ive Parliaments an earnest and solid reality. 
 The fiuancial questions pending in the two iiide- 
 
 32 
 
AUSTHIA, 1800-1867. 
 
 Atutro-Hun- 
 gnrian Empire, 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1800-1887. 
 
 pendent nnd cfiiial States wcro .settled by a eoiii- 
 Ijioiiiise; lueasures were taken for the eiiuitable 
 arraugeiueiit of all inalteis whieh might luise in 
 relation to interests toiicliing both States, sneli 
 as duties, eonmieree, and indireet ta.\ation, all 
 legislation on these subjerts taking place by 
 means of identical laws separately enacted by 
 the Parliament of each State. . . . Simulta- 
 neously with these arrangements the political 
 diirereiices between Hungary and Ooatia were 
 compromised by granting provincial Ilomc^ Hule 
 to the latter. . . . Thus the organisation of tlie 
 AustroIIimgarian monarchy on the basis of 
 dualism, and the compromise entered into be- 
 tween the two halves composing it, whilst uniting 
 for the purposes of defence the forces of two 
 States of a moderate .size and extent into those of 
 r. great empire, able to cope with the exigencies 
 of an a(h'(iuate position amongst the lii'st-class 
 Powers of Kurope, restored also to Hungary its 
 iudcpendenee and its \mfettered sovcrei.^nty in 
 all internal matters." — A. Pulszky, Iliiiir/nri/ 
 (ytitwiiiil Life (iiid Tlwurjht. /^W." 3). — "The 
 Ausgloich, or agreement with Hungary, was 
 arranged by a committee of 07 membera of 
 the Hungarian diet, at the head of whom was 
 the Franklin of Hungary, Francis Deak, tlu; 
 true patriot and inexorable legist, who had 
 taken no part iu the revolutio'is, but who 
 had never given up one of the smallest of 
 the rights of his country. ... On the 8th of 
 June [I'^OT], the emperor Francis Joseph was 
 crowned with great pomp at Pesth. Onthe 38th 
 of the following June, he approved the decisions 
 of the diet, which settled tlie position of Hun- 
 giu'y with n^ganl to the other countries belong- 
 ing to his majesty, and moditied some portions 
 of the laws of 1848. . . . Since the Ausglcich 
 the empin^ has consisted of tv.o parts. . . . For 
 the sake of clearness, ])olitical language has been 
 increa.sed by the invent ion of two new term-, 
 Cisleithauia and Transleilhaniii, to <leseribc the 
 two groups, separated a little below Vienna by a 
 small aflluent of the Danul)e, called the Leitha — 
 a stream which never expected to become so 
 celebrated." — L. Leger, llist. of Austro-Ilun- 
 ijiiri/, eh. 35. 
 
 Also in: Francis Deak, A ifemnir, ch. 20-31. — 
 Count von Beust, Memoirs, v. 3, ch. 38. — L. 
 Pelbermann, Ilinir/nri/ (iiul its I'caplr, ch. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1866-1887.— The Austro-Hunp^arian 
 Empire, — Its new national life. — Its difficul- 
 ties and promises. — Its ambitions and aims in 
 Southeastern Europe. — " Peace politicians may 
 Siiy that a war always does more harm than 
 good to the nations wliich engage in it. Perhaps 
 it alwiiys does, at any rate, moralli' speaking, to 
 the victors: but that it does not to the van- 
 (piished, Austria stands as a living evidence. 
 Finally excluded from Italy and Germany by 
 the campai^'U of 1860, she has cast aside her 
 dref.n..^ of foreign domination, and has set her- 
 self manfullj' to the task of making a nation out 
 of the vanou.s conflicting nationalities over 
 which she presides. It does not require much 
 insight to perceive that as long as she held her 
 position in Germany this fusion was hopeless. 
 The overwhelming preponderance of the Ger- 
 man element made any api)roach to a recipro- 
 city of interests impossible. The Germans 
 always were regarded as soverciins, the icmain- 
 ing nationalities as subjects; it was for thesi' to 
 conunaud, for tLose to obey. In like maancr, it 
 
 wa.s impos.sible for the Austrian Government to 
 (■.■itabli.sh a mutual undei-standing with a popu- 
 lation which felt itself attracted — alike by the 
 tics of riu:e, langmige, ami geographical position 
 — to another political union. Nay more, as 
 long as the occupation of the Italian provinces 
 remained as a blot on the Imperial escutcheon, 
 it was impossible for the Uovermnent to com- 
 mand any genuine sympathy from any of its 
 subjects. Uut with the close of the war with 
 Prussia these two dilllcullies — the relations 
 with Germany and the relations with Italy — 
 were swept iiwiy. From this time forward 
 Austria could appear before the world as u 
 Power binding (o,:;etlier lor the interests of all, 
 a nund)er of petty nali(ai:'.lilies. each of whieh 
 was too feeble to maintain ;i separate! existence. 
 In short, from the year 1860 Austria had a 
 raison d'Otre, whereas beto e she had noia'. . . . 
 liaron Heust, on the Vth of February, 1807, took 
 ollice under Fran/. .1 weph. His ijrogranune 
 may be stated as follow.;. He saw that the day 
 of centralism and imperi:,l unity was gone past 
 recall, and that tlie most liberal (.'onstilution iu 
 the world would never reconcile the nationalities 
 to their present position, as provinces under the 
 always detested and now dcspi.sed Empire. But 
 then came the ((Uesticai — Gran'ed that a eerlain 
 disintegration is iiu^vitablc, ho.v far is this dis- 
 integration to go ? licust proposed to disarm 
 the opposition of the leading uatDuality by the 
 gift of an almost complete indepciidence, and, 
 resting on tla^ support thus obtained, to gain 
 time for conciliating the remaiiung provinces by 
 building \ip a new system of free govermnent. 
 It would be out of place to give a detailed 
 account of the well-known measure which con- 
 verted the 'Austrian empire' into the ' Austro- 
 Hungarian monarchy.' It will be necessary, 
 however, to describe the additions made to it by 
 the political machinery. The Hungarian Keichs- 
 t;ig was constructed on the same principle as the 
 Austrian Ileichsrath. It was to meet in Pesth, 
 as the Heichsrath at Vienna, and was to have its 
 own responsibli! ministers, From the mendjcrs 
 of tlie keielisratli and Kcichstag respectively 
 were to be chosen annually sixty delegates to 
 represent Cisleithanian and sixty to represent 
 Hungarian interests — twenty being taken in 
 each case from the Upper, folty from the Lower 
 House. These two 'Delegations,' whose votes 
 were to be taken, when necessary, collectively, 
 though each Delegation sat in a distinct chamber, 
 owing to the diircrence of language, formed 
 the Supreme Imperial Assembly, and met alter- 
 nate years at Vienna and Pesth. They were 
 competent in matters of foreign policy, in mili- 
 tary admini.strati(m, and in Imperial liiiancc. 
 At their head stood three Imperial ministers — 
 the Keichskan/.ler, who presided at the Foreign 
 Ollice, and was ex olHeio Prime Jlinister, tho 
 Jlinistcr of War, and the 1 inister of Finance. 
 These three ministers were independent of the 
 Heichsrath and Keich.stag, nnd could only be 
 dismissed by a vote of want of eonlidence on tho 
 part of the Delegatiims. Tlic ' Ausglcich ' or 
 scheme of federation with Hungary is, no doubt, 
 much open to criticism, both is a whole and in 
 its several parts. It must always be borne iu 
 mind that administratively and politically it was 
 a retrogression. At a time in which -W other 
 Eiiopeau nations — notably Xorlli (Jermany — 
 were simplifyiug and unifying their political 
 
 233 
 
AUHTIUA, 180(}-I88;, 
 
 A uttlft}' Hun- 
 garian Empire. 
 
 AUSTRIA, 1806-1887 
 
 gysU-ms, Aiistriii wiis found ilolncf the very 
 reverse. . . . The true iiuswer to these objec- 
 tions is, that tlu! measure of 1H(I7 wiis eon- 
 sirueled to meet ii pruetleal ilidieulty. Its end 
 was not tlie formation of a syninietrlral system of 
 government, but tlu' paeilieation of llunv;ary. 
 . . . Tile inlernul liistory of tlie two Iialvcs if 
 tlio empire Hows in two dilTerent channels 
 Oriif Andrassy, tlio Ilunf^arlaii Premier, liad a 
 comparatively easy task before him. There 
 were sev<'ral reasons for this. In the lirst jjliice, 
 the pnMlominunet! of Ihe Magyai-s in Uun^fary 
 was more assured llian that of the Oi'rmans in 
 Cisleitliaiiia. It is true lliat tliev luimlieredonlv 
 ri.mtO.OOO out of tlie l(!,(M)().(mO inlmbitants; bu"t 
 in tliesi- .j,01)(),()(M) were ineluded almost all the 
 rank, wealth, and iiitellii^enee of the country. 
 Hence they formed in the Ueichstag a compact 
 and homogeneous majority, under which the 
 remainiiiu,' Slovaks and Oroatians soon learnt to 
 ran.ije tliemselves. In tlie second place, Hun- 
 (jary had the >;rcat advaiUa^e of slartini? in a 
 certain degree afresh. Her goveiiunent was not 
 bound by the traditional policy of former 
 Viemia ministries, and ... it had manngcd to 
 keep its tinancial credit unimpaired. In the third 
 place, as those who are accpiainted with Hun- 
 garian history well know. Parliamentary institu 
 tions ,'iad for a long time nourished in Hungary. 
 Indeed the Magyars, who among their many 
 virtues can hardlj' be credited witli the virtue of 
 humility, assert that the world is mistaken in 
 ascribing to England the glory of having 
 invented representative government, and claim 
 this glory for themselves. Hence one of the 
 main dilli<^ulties with which the Cisleithanian 
 Government bad to deal was already solved for 
 Graf Andrassy and his colleagnes." — Aiixtriti 
 siin'c Sdditita (QiKiHciiji liericin, i\ lUl, j>j>. 00- 
 95). — "It is dilUcult for any one except an 
 Auslro-Hungarian statesman to realise the dilll- 
 ctilties of governing the Dual ilonarchy. Cis- 
 Leithania lias, as is well-known, a Uciehsratb 
 and seventeen Provincial Diets. Tlic two 
 Austrias, Stvria, Carinthia, and Salzburg i)re- 
 sent no dillfeulties, but causes of trouble are 
 abundant in the other districts. The Emperor 
 will probably end by getting himself crowned 
 King of IJohemia, although it will be dilllcult 
 for him to lend himself to a pro.scription of the 
 German language by the Tsi' :hs, as he has been 
 forced by the .Magyars to lend himself to the 
 proscription in parts of Hungary of Uoiunau ai\d 
 of various Slavonic languages. But how far is 
 this process to continue ? The German Austrians 
 are as unpopular in Istria and Dalmatia as 
 in Bohemia; and Dalmatia is also an ancient 
 kingdom. These territories were originally 
 obtained by the election of the K.!!-^ of Hun- 
 gary to the crown of the tripartite ^i.igdom of 
 Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. I, ■ Ferencz 
 Jozspf ' to be crowned King of Dalmitia? And 
 is Dalmatia to have its separate Miinsfy and its 
 separate olUcial language, and its c;ompletely 
 separate laws? And what then of Fiume, tlio 
 so-called Hungarian port? Then, again, Galicia 
 is also an ancient kingdom, although it has at 
 other times formed part of Poland; and the 
 Emperor is King of Galicia, as he is King of 
 Hohemia and Dalmatia. Is he to be crowned 
 King of Galicia? And if so, is the separate 
 e.vistenco of Galicia to be a Polish or a Ruthenian 
 existence, or, indeed, a Jewish? for the Jews 
 
 are not only cxtrncrdlnarily powerful and 
 numerous there, but arc gniniiig ground day by 
 day. The Rutheriians complain as bitterly of 
 being bullied by the Poles in Galicia as the 
 Croats complain of the Magyars. Even here the 
 dilflculties are not ended. The .Mnrgraviatc of 
 iMoravia contains a large Tsecli population, and 
 will have to be adile<l to the Hohemian kingdom. 
 Hukowinj'. iiay go with Galicia or Transylvania. 
 Austria'. Silesia may be divided between the 
 Tsedis of Bohemia and .Moravia on the one part, 
 and the Poles or Rutbenians or Jews of Oalicia 
 on the other. But what is to become of that 
 which, with the most obstinate disregard of 
 pedants, I intend to continue to call the Tyrol ? 
 Trieste must go with Austria and Sal/.burg, and 
 the Northern Tyrol and Styria and Carinthia no 
 doubt; but it is not difliciilt to show that 
 Austria would actually be strengthened by 
 giving up the Southern Tyrol, where the Italian 
 ijcople. or at least the Italian language, is gain- 
 ing groimd day by day. There really seems 
 very little left of the integrity of the Austrian 
 E;m|)ir(.' at the conclusion of our survey of its 
 constituent parts. Matters do not hmk nuich 
 better if we turn to Trans- Lcithania. Hungary 
 has its Reichstag (which is also known by some 
 terrible Magyar name), its Hou.sc of Representa- 
 tives, and its House of Magnates, and, although 
 there are not so many Provincial Diets as in 
 Austria, Slavonia and the Banat of Croatia 
 possess a Common Diet with which the JIagyars 
 are far from popular; and the Principality of 
 Transylvania al.so pos.sessed separate local rights, 
 for trying completely to suppress which tlu! 
 Magyars are at present highly luipopular. The 
 Principality, although undi'r Magyar rule, is 
 divided between 'Sa.\<ms' and Rinimans, who 
 eipially detest the Magyars, and the Croats and 
 Slovenes who people the IJniiat are Slavs who 
 also e.\ecrato their iJgi ' m rulers, inscriptions in 
 whose language are deiaced whenever seen. 
 Croatia is uiuler-rcpresented at Pest, and says 
 that .she goes unheard, and the Croats, who 
 have partial Home Rule without an executive, 
 ask for a local executive as well, and demand 
 Fiume and Da.matia. If we look to the numbers 
 of the various races, thcie are in Austria of Ger- 
 mans and Jews about 9,01)0,000 to about 
 13,000,000 Slavs and a few Italians and Ron- 
 mans. There are in the lands of the Crown of 
 Hungary 3,000,000 of Germans and .lew.s. of 
 Roumaiis nearly 3,000,000. although the M-.w, 
 yars only acknowledge 3,500,000, and of Mag- 
 yars and Slavs between five and six millions 
 apiece. In the whole of the territories of the 
 Dual Monarchy it will be seen that there are 
 18,000,000 of Slavs and only 17,000,000 of the 
 ruling races — Germans, Jews, and Magyars — 
 while between three and four millions of Rou- 
 mans and Italians count along with the Slav 
 majority . as being hostile to the dominant 
 nationalities. It is difflcult to exa.^genite the 
 gravity tor Austria of the state of things which 
 these tlgures reveal." — T/ie Present Position of 
 European Politics (Fortnif/htly Reciein, April, 
 1887). — " In past times, when Austria had Iwld 
 France tight bound between Spain, Germany, 
 and the Nc'lierlands. she had aspired to a 
 dominant position in Western Europe; and, so 
 long as her eyes were turned in that direction, 
 she naturally had every interest in preserving 
 the Ottoman Empire intact, for she wos thus 
 
 S84 
 
AUSTRIA, 1800-1887. 
 
 AVARS. 
 
 i;\mrftntrr(l ii);i'''i*'t "" attnrka from the fioiUh. 
 But. lifter till' loss i>f licr Itii'iaii i)()sscssi()iis In 
 IHO.j, iind of piirt. of Croiiliii in IHOll, ufiiT tlio 
 (li»iUit<T» of 1H41), 1H.-)1I and IStlrt, she tlioUKlit 
 more! and more seriously of indemnifying lier- 
 .self at the expense of Turkey. It was niori'over 
 evident that, in on'eivto paralyse tli<^ daniiii;inK 
 power of Hunpirv, it was essential for her to 
 assimilntt! the priiiiit ve and scattered peoples of 
 Turkey, aeeu.stomed to centuries of complete 
 suhniission and oliedience, anil form thus a kind 
 of iron hand whi<h shouhl encircle Iliuiuary and 
 elfectually prevent her from risinj?. If, in fact, 
 we glance hack at the position of Austria in 
 IHfiO, and tak(! the trouble carefully to study the 
 clmn;;e of ideas and interests which hud then 
 taken place in the policy of France and of 
 Kussia, the tendencies of tlie .strongly consti- 
 tuted nations who were repiigniint to the 
 authority and inlluence of Austria, the hasis of 
 the power of that empire, and, linnlly, the 
 internal ruin with which she was then threat- 
 ened, we cannot but arrive at the conclusion 
 that Austria, by the very instinct of self- 
 preservation, was forced to turn eastwards and 
 to consider how best she might devour .sonic, at 
 least, of the European provinces of Turkey. 
 Austrian statesmen have been thoroughly con- 
 vinced of this fact, and, impelled by the instinct 
 above-mentioned, liave not ceased carefully and 
 consistently to prepare and follow out the policy 
 here indicated. Their objects have already been 
 partially attained by the practical annexation of 
 liosiiia and Herzegovina in 1878 [see TuilKS: 
 A. I). 1878] ; and it was striking to observe with 
 what bitter feeling and rescntineut this measure 
 was looked upon at tlu! time by the Hungarian 
 section of the empire. . . . Russia has never 
 made any secret of her designs upon Turkey; 
 she has, indeed, more than once openly made 
 war in order to carry them out. Hut Austria 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN SMPIRE. See 
 AfsTKl.v: A. I). 1800-1867. 
 
 AUTERI, The. Sec Iuei-and, Tribks op 
 EAiti.v Cki.tic INMIAHITANTS. 
 
 AUTUN : Origin. See Gai;ia 
 
 A. D. 287.— Sacked by the Bagauds. Sec 
 Haoacds. 
 
 Sec 
 
 D. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Ancient. The country of the 
 Arveiiii. See/Enui; also Gai'I.s. 
 
 AUVERGNE, The Great Days of. 
 Franct:: A. I). lOfi.l. 
 
 AUXILIUM. See Tat,i„\ok. 
 
 AVA. See India: A. I). 1823-1833. 
 
 AVALON. See NKWFOuxni.AND: A 
 lfllO-in.5.5; and Mauyi.ani): A. D. 1033. 
 
 AVARICUM. See Bouikiks, Oiiioi.\ op. 
 
 AVARS, The. — The true Avars arc repre- 
 sented to have been a iiowerful Turanian people 
 who exercised in the sixth century a wide 
 dominion in Central Asia. Among the tribes 
 subject to them was one called tin; Ogors, or 
 Oiiigours, or Oniars, or Ouar Kliouni, or Varch- 
 onitcs (these diverse names have been given to 
 the nation) which is supposed to have belonged 
 to the national familv of the Huns. Some time 
 in the early half of the sixth century, the Turk.s, 
 then a people who dwelt in the very center of 
 Asia, at the foot of the Altai mountains, making 
 their first appearance in history as conquerors, 
 crushed and almost annihilated the Avars, there- 
 16 ^ 
 
 remains a fatal obstacle in her path. Even as 
 things at pri'sent stand, Austria, bv her geo- 
 grapliieal position, so commands and dominates 
 the Hu.ssian line >>f operations that, once the 
 Danulx- pas.sed, the Uussians are constantly 
 menaced b^' Austria (in the Hank and rear. . . . 
 And if tins be true now, how much more true 
 would it be were Austria to continue her inarch 
 eastwards towards .Salcniici. That necessiirily, 
 at some time or other, th.it inarch must be con- 
 tinued may he taken for almt ttcertain; but that 
 Austria has it in lier power to commence it for 
 till! present, cannot, I think, be admitted. She 
 must further consolidate and make certain of 
 wnat she has. .Movement now would bring 
 upon iier astruggk' for life or death — a struggle 
 wlio<e issue may fairly be saiil in no uiirriendly 
 spirit to Austria, to be doubtful. With at hnrnu 
 a bitterly discontented Croatia, strong I'an- 
 slavistic tendencies in llosnia, Herzegovina, and 
 Dalinatia, a (tii'ck population thoroughlv dis- 
 aflectcil, and a Hungary whose loyally is iloubt- 
 fill, sIk^ would have to deal bcyonil her frontiers 
 with the not contemptible armies, when coir- 
 bineil. of Servia, Hulguria, and (Jreecc, whose 
 a"p 'Dtions she would be asphyxiating for ever, 
 with a bitterly hostile population in Macedonia, 
 with the wlioW armed force of Turkey, and with 
 the gigantic military power of Russia; whilst it 
 is not fantastic to suppo.se that Germany would 
 be hovering near, rcadjf to pounce on her Ger- 
 man provinces when the ' moment psychologi- 
 <iue' should occur. With such a prospect 
 before her, it would be worse than madness for 
 Austria to move until the cards fell more 
 favourably for her." — V. C'aillard, The Bill- 
 f/iiriiin Imbroglio (Fortnightly lici'icw, Dreemlxr, 
 188.')). 
 
 A. D. 1878.— The Treaty of Berlin.— Acqui- 
 sition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. See Tuhks: 
 A. I). 1878. 
 
 bv becoming the lords of the Ouigours, or Ouar 
 Ivhouni. Hut the latter found ;im opportunity to 
 escape from the Turkish yoke. "Gathering 
 together their wives and their children, their 
 flocks and their herds, they turned their waggons 
 towards the ,Setting Sun. This immense exodus 
 comprised upwards of 200.0i)i) jxTsons. The 
 terror which inspired their flight rendered them 
 resistless in the onset; for the avenging Turk 
 was behind their frr.ck. They overturneil e very- 
 thin,'!; before them, even the Hunnic tribes of 
 kindred origin, who had long hovered on the 
 north-east frontiers of the Empire, and, driving 
 out or enslaving the inhabitants, established 
 themselves in tiie wide plains which stretch 
 between the Volga and the Don. In that age of 
 imperfect information they were naturally enough 
 confounded with the greatest and most formid- 
 able tribe of the Turanian stock known to the 
 nations of the AVest. The report that the Avars 
 had broken loose from Asia, and were coming in 
 irresistible force to overrun Europe, spread itself 
 all along both banks of t he Danube and penetrated 
 to the Byzantine cour* '*'ith true barbaric cun- 
 ning, the Ouar Khoui. I themselves of the 
 mistake, and by calling Ives Avars largely 
 increased the terrors of li. . name and their 
 chances of conquest." The pretended Avars 
 were taken into tlic pay of the Empire by .Jus- 
 tinian and employed against the Hun tribes north 
 and cast of the" Black Sea. They presently 
 
 35 
 
AVAKS, 
 
 AVIONON. 
 
 nrriiilrcil ii Arm fcMjtinj; 'Hi Ixitli banks of the 
 DiiniilH', iinil tur'X'cl tlx'ir iiriiiH iiKaiiist tlic 
 Kiiipirc, Thf impou.'it cily of (Siniiitim wiih 
 taken by tliciii ul'icr an '>t>»linal(' Kii';^<; and il.H 
 inlialiitantH put ti> tlic sword. Tlicir ravagi'S ex- 
 tended over central Kumpe to tlie Elbe, wliere 
 tliey were l)ealen l)a(k l)y the warlike; Kninks, 
 aiicl, Hoiitliwards, tliroiiL'li Moesia, Illyria, Thrace, 
 Macedonia and (Jreere, eventotlie I'eloponnesus. 
 Conslanlinopli' itself was tbn'atened more tliaii 
 once, anil in the suinnicr of *\'M, it was desper- 
 ately attacked tty Avars and Persians in con- 
 j 1111(1 ion (see UoMic: A. I). .')(),'>-(l28), with dis- 
 astrous results to tlic assailants. Hut the seat of 
 their Knipire was tlu; Dacian coiintrv — iiKwlerii 
 Houinunia. Transylvania and part of Hunirary — 
 in which the Avars had helped the Loinbanis to 
 crush and cxlinijuisli the (icpidu'. Thi' Slavic 
 tribes which, by this time, had movcii in j;reat 
 numbers into central and .south-eastern Kurope, 
 were larirely in subjection to the Avars and did 
 their biddiiu; in war and peace. "These iinfor 
 tunalc creatures, of apparently an imperfect, 
 or, at liny rate, imperfectly I'ultivated intelli- 
 jronce, endured such fri.iflitfiil tyranny from their 
 Avar con(iuerors, that their very name has passed 
 iiitoasynoiiyme for tin- most de^^radedserviuide." 
 — J. G. Shepi)ard, h'dU nf liinne, lid. 4. 
 
 Also in: K, Giblxm, 7>fr/*H« and Fall of the 
 lioiniin ICmpiiv, ch. 4'J. 
 
 7th Century.— The Slavic Revolt.— The Em- 
 [lire of the Avars was shaken and much diniiii- 
 islied in the Seventh ('eiiturv by an extensive 
 risiiis; of their oppres.sed Slavic subjects, rouseil 
 and led, it is said, by a Frank merchant, or ail- 
 vcnlurer, named .Sanio. who l)ecame their kiiifr. 
 The tirst to throw olf the yoke were a tribe called 
 the Veiides, or Wendes, or Veiiedi, in JJohemia, 
 who were reputed to be lialf-castes, resultini;: 
 from intercourse tictween the Avar warriors and 
 the woiie -I of their Slavic vassals. Under the 
 lead ot lino, the Wendes and Slovenes or 
 Slavonians drove the Avars to the east and 
 north; and it seems to have been in connection 
 with this revolution that the Emperor lleraclius 
 induced the Serbs or .Servians and Croats — 
 Slavic tribes of the same race and region — to 
 sottle in depopuhited Dalmatia. "'From the 
 year (i^O A. I).' writes >I. Thierry, 'the Avar 
 people are no longer mentioned in the annals of 
 of the East ; the successors of Attila no longer 
 figure beside the succes.sors of, Coustantine. It 
 required new wars in the West to bring upon 
 the stage of history the khan and his jieoph.' 
 In these wars [of Pepin and Charlemagne] 
 they were linally swept off from the roll of Euro- 
 pean nations." — J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, 
 led. 4. 
 
 A. D. 791-805. — Conquest by Charlemagne. 
 — " Hungary, now so called, was po.sses,sed by 
 the Avars, who, joining witli themselves a multi- 
 tude of llumiish tribes, accumulated the im- 
 mense spoils whieli both they themselves and 
 their eiiually barbarous predecessors had torn 
 fmni the other naticms of Europe. . . . They 
 extended their limits towards Lombardy, anil 
 touched upon the very verge of Bavaria. . . . 
 Much of their eastern frontier was now lost, al- 
 most without a struggle on their part, by tlie 
 rise of other barbarous nations, especially the 
 various tribes of Bulgarians." This was the 
 position of the Avars at the time of Cliarli!- 
 mague, whom they jirovokcd by funniug an al- 
 
 liance with the ambitious Duke of Bavaria, Tas- 
 silo, — most obstinate of all who resisted the 
 Frank king's imperious and imperial rule. In 
 a series of vigorous cuinpaigus, between 7Ut and 
 71)7 Charlenmgne crushed the power of the Avars 
 and took po.sM'Ssion of their country. The 
 royal "ring" or stnmghoUl — believed to have 
 been situated in the neighborhood of Tatar, lie- 
 Iween the Danube; and the Tlieiss — was pene- 
 trateil, and the vast treasure ston'd there was 
 seized. Charlemagne di.stribuled it with a gen- 
 erous hand to churches, to monasteries and to 
 the poor, as well as to his own nobles, servants 
 and .soldiers, who are said to have iH'cn madu 
 rich. There were sub.se(|iienl risings of the 
 Avars and wars, until H0."», when the remnant of 
 that almo.st annihilated people obtained permis- 
 sion to settle on a tract of land between Sarwar 
 and Ilaimbiirg, on the right bank of the Danube, 
 where they would bo jirotected from their 
 Slavonian enemies. This was the end of the 
 Avar nation. — O. P. H. Jumus, IIM. of Charle- 
 miii/iie, bka. l) iiiiil 11. 
 
 Al.so in: J. I. Mombert. Hint, of Charles the 
 Great, bk. 2, di. 7. 
 
 » 
 
 AVARS, The Rings of the.— The fortilica- 
 lions of the Avars were of a iieculiar and effec- 
 tive construction and were called Ilrings, or 
 liiugs. "They seem to have been a series of 
 eight or nine gigantic ramparts, constructed in 
 concentric circles, the iuui.' one of all being 
 called the royal circle or camp, where was de- 
 posited all the valuable |)lun(ler which the war- 
 riors had collected in their expeditions. The 
 method of constructing these ramparts was 
 .somewhat singular. Two para'lel rows of gigan- 
 tic piles were driven into .he ground, some 
 twenty feet apart. The intervening space was 
 tilled with stones, or 11 species of chalk, so com- 
 pacted as to become a solid nia.ss. The sides 
 and summit were covered with soil, upon which 
 were iilantcd trees and shrubs, who.se interlacing 
 branches formed an impenetrable hedge." — J. O, 
 Shejipard, Full of Itinnc, led U. 
 
 AVEBURY. Sec Auuuv. 
 
 AVEIN, Battle of (1635). See Netiier- 
 i.ANDs: A. D. lOri-1038. 
 
 AVENTINE, The. See Seven Hills of 
 
 HoMK. 
 
 AVERNUS, Lake and Cavern.— A gloomy 
 lake called Avernus, wliicli tilled the crater of an 
 extinct volcano, situated a little to the north of 
 tlie Bay of Naiili'S, was the object of many super- 
 stitious imaginations among the ancients. 
 "Tliere was a place near Lake Avernus called 
 the prophetic cavern. Persons were in attend- 
 ance there who called up ghosts. Anv one 
 desiring it came thither, and, liaving killed a 
 victim and poured out liliatioiis, siiminoncd what- 
 ever ghost he wanted. The ghost came, very 
 faint and doubtful to the siglit, but vocal and 
 prophetic; and, having answered the questions, 
 went off." — Maxinuis Tyrius, i|Uoted by C. C. 
 Felton, in Greece, Ancient iiiul Modern, e. 2, led. 
 9. — See, also, CUM.K and B.\l.«. 
 
 AVERYSBORO, Battle of. See United 
 St.\tks OK Am. : A. D. 18(35 (Feuhuauy—Maiich; 
 TiiK Cakoi.inas). 
 
 AVIGNON: loth Century.— In the Kingdom 
 of Aries. Sec Buikiunuv: A. D. 843-933. 
 
 A. D. 1226.— Siege by Louis VIII. See Al- 
 muENSEs: A. D. 1217-1229. 
 
 236 
 
AVIONON 
 
 AZTKC WD MAYA PICTUni: WRITING. 
 
 A. D. 1300-1348.— Made the seat of the Pa- 
 pacy.— Purchase of the city by Clement V. 
 ■Sec I'aI'Acy; A. 1>. l'i!)4-i:tlM. 
 
 A. D. 1367-1369.— Temporary return of Ur- 
 ban V. to Rome. Sec I'.vi-At v; A. D. i;r»0-i;i7H. 
 
 A. D. 1377-1417.— Return of Pope Gregory 
 XI. to Rome. — Residence of the anti-popes of 
 the great Schism. .Scr I'acacy: .\.. 1). I;i7i-1UT. 
 
 A. O. 1790-1791.— Revolution and Anarchy. 
 —Atrocities committed. —Reunion with France 
 decreed. Sic Kiianck; A. I). lTi)i)-17i)l. 
 
 A. D. 1797.— Surrendered to France by the 
 Pope. Std Fkasck: A. I). I7mi-171)7 (Octoueb 
 — .(I'ltii,). 
 
 A. D. 1815. — Possession by France con- 
 firmed. .Sec \ IK.NNA, 'rilK CONdllKSS OK. 
 ♦- - 
 
 AVIONES, The. — •' Tilt! Avloncs were 11 
 Sui'vl<: c'liiii. Tlicy iir(! inciitlDncd by Tiicitiis in 
 councxiun with the lieuilignl, Angll, ViirinI, 
 Euilosi's, HuiirdDncs niid Nuithoncs, all Suuvic 
 clans. These tribi'S must Imvo occupit'd iMcck- 
 leubiirj?Sch\verin, Meckli'nl)ur;;-8lri'litz and 
 Slt'swick-IIolstfiii, tli(.' Klbu bciiij? their Eastern 
 boundary. It is, however, Impossible to dellne 
 their precise loeiilltles." — A. J. Church and W. .1. 
 Brodribb, Minov Works of Tacitus, Q»>'i. Notes to 
 the ilirmiinn. 
 
 AVIS, The House of. See Poiituoai,: A. D. 
 1383-l;!8r). 
 
 AVIS, Knights of.— This is a Portuguese 
 military rellu:ious order which originated about 
 1147 during the wars with the Moors, and which 
 formerly observed the monastic rule of St. Bene- 
 dict. It became connected with the order of 
 Calatrava in Spain and rei^eived from the latter 
 its property in Portugal. Pope Paul III. united 
 the Qnuid .Mastership to the Crown of Portugal. 
 — P. C. 'tVoodhouse, Militavy Religious Orders, 
 pt. 4.— Ree, also, Poktuoai,: A. I). lOaVKia."). 
 
 AVITUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 
 45.'i-4.')(!. 
 
 AVVIM, The. — The original inhabitants of 
 the south-west corner of Canaan, from which 
 they were driven by the Philistines.— II. Ewahl, 
 Hist, of hruel. bh. 1. sect. 4. 
 
 AYACUCHO, Battle of (1824). See Pehu: 
 A. 1). 18'.J(»-182(!. 
 
 AYLESBURY ELECTION CASE. Sec 
 En(ii.a.ni): a. 1). 171:!. 
 
 AYLESFORD, Battle of (A. D. 455).— The 
 first battle fought and won by the invading 
 Jutes after their landing in Britain under Hen- 
 gest and Horsa. It was fought at the lowest 
 ford of the river Med way. See Enuland: A. D. 
 44«-47;i. 
 
 AYMARAS, The. SeePEUU: TiieAuokioi- 
 
 NAI, iNMAmTANTS. 
 
 AYOUBITE OR AIYUBITE DYNASTY. 
 See Sai.adin, Tub Emimuio of. 
 
 AZINCOUR (AGINCOURT), Battle of. 
 See PitANCK: A. I). 141;). 
 
 AZOF OR AZOV : A. D. 1696.— Taken by 
 the Russians. See Tuiuw: A. I). l(i84-l(i'J(). 
 
 A. D. 171 1. — Restoration to the Turks. .See 
 Scandinavian St .ATEs (Sweden): A. I). 1707- 
 1718. 
 
 A. D. 1736-1739. — Captured by the Russians. 
 —Secured to them by the Treaty of Belgrade. 
 See Russia; A. D. 1725-1739. 
 
 AZTEC. See Mexico, Ancient ; and A. D. 
 1835-1503; also, Amkuican AuoKiQiMES: Mayas. 
 
 AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRIT- 
 ING. — " .\o nation ever reduced it | pictography 1 
 more to a system. It was in constmit us<' In liie 
 dally transactions of life. They [the A/tecs| 
 manufactured for writing purposes a thick 
 coarse paper from the leaves of tliir agave plant 
 by a process of maceration ami pre.ssuri-. .\n 
 Aztec book closely resembles one of our i|Uarl() 
 volumes. It Is made of a sIngh? sheet, 12 to 15 
 inches wide, and often (iO or 70 feel long, and is 
 not rolled, but foldeil eitlier in sipiares or xlgxagH 
 in such a manner that on oiieiiing there are two 
 pages exposed to view. '1 hill wooden boards 
 lire fastened to each of the outer leaves, so that 
 the whole presents as neat an appearance, remarks 
 Peter .>fartyr, as if it had come from the shop of 
 a skilful book binder. They al.so covereil build- 
 ings, tapestries and scrolls of parchment willi 
 these devices. . . . What Is still more astonish- 
 ing, there is rea.son lo believe, in some instances, 
 their figures wen; not painted, but actually 
 printed with movable blocks of wood on which 
 the symbols were carved in relief, though this 
 was probably conlliied to those intemled for 
 ornament only. In these records we discern 
 soinetbing higher than a mere symbolur notation. 
 They contain the germ of a iihonetic alphabet, 
 and represent .sounds of spoken language. The 
 symbol is often not comiected with the idea, but 
 with the word. The iiUHle in which this is dono 
 correspomls precisely to that of the rebus. It is 
 a simple method, readily suggesting it.self. In 
 the middle ages it was mtich in vogue In Europe 
 for the same purpose for which it was chielly 
 employed in Mexico at tlie .same time — tho 
 writing of |)roper names. For example, tho 
 English family Bolton was known in heraldry 
 by a 'tun ' transfixed by a 'bolt.' Precisely so 
 the Mexican Emp«"ir Ixcoatl is mentioned in tho 
 Aztec innniiscript idcr the figure of a serpent, 
 'coatl,' pierced by oljsidiiin knives, 'ixtli.'. . . 
 As a syllable could be expres.sed by any object 
 whose name commenced with it, as few words 
 can be given the form of a rebus without soino 
 change, as the figures sometimes represent their 
 full phonetic value, sometimes (mly that of their 
 initial sound, and as universally the attention of 
 the artist was directed less to the sound than to 
 the idea, the didactic painting of the .Mexicans, 
 whatever it might have been io them, is a sealed 
 book to us, and must remain so in great part. 
 . . . Immense masses of sucli documents wero 
 stored in the imperial archives of ancient .Mexico. 
 Toniuemadii asserts that five cities alone yielded 
 to the Spanish governor on one reipiisition no 
 less tlian 10,000 volumes or scrolls! Every leaf 
 was destroyed. Indeed, so thonnigh and whole- 
 sale was the destruetiou of these memorials, now 
 so precious in our eyes, that hardly enough 
 remain to whet the wits of antiiiuaries. In tho 
 libraries of Paris, Dresden, Pestli, and tho 
 Vatican are, however, a sulUcieiit number to 
 make us despair of deciphering them, had wu 
 for comparison all which the Spaniards des- 
 troyed. Beyond all others the Mayas, resident 
 on the peninsula of Yucatiin, would seem to 
 have approached nearest a true phonetic system. 
 Tliey had a regular and well understood alpha- 
 bet of 37 elemenuiiy s<mn<ls, tho letters of which 
 are totally dilferent from those of any other 
 nation, and evidently originated with themselves. 
 But besides these they used a large number of 
 purely couveatioaal symbols, uud moreover 
 
 237 
 
AZTKU VNI) MAYA I'ICTUUE WUITINO. 
 
 UAHYLONIA. 
 
 were iirruHtomcd ronstiintiv to fmploy tlu' 
 iiiiclnil |ii('ti>Kr»|ilii(.' iiii'tli(H( ill aililllion as ii 
 Horl of ('iiiiiiiit'mary mi tlu; hoiimiI rcpiTHt'iitol. 
 . . . With till' alil of this alplialM't, wliicli liax 
 fiirtiiiiatcly Imi'Ii priscrvcd, we art' cnublcil ti) 
 Hpcll nut a few words on the Viicalccaii iiiaiiil- 
 HcrijiUi uud fuviulen, but thus fur with no puitilivL' 
 
 rcgultn. The losM iif the nncii'iit pmnunclatloti 
 Is cHiiccijilly III the way of such Htudlcs. In 
 South Ariicrica, also, thi'ru is luxM to have lu'vu 
 a nation wlio ciiltivulcd tliu art of piituro- 
 wrltlnj;, the I'unos, on thii river Ucuyalf. " — 
 I). O. llrluton, The Myth* of th» Neie World, 
 eh. 1. 
 
 B. 
 
 BABAR, King of Ferghana, A. I). 1404—; 
 King of Kabul, A. I). WM — -. Moghul Em- 
 peror or Padischah of India, A. I). i:i;>(i-iri;ti). 
 
 BABENBERGS, The. .SccAustuia: A.I). 
 wr. ijKi. 
 
 B AB V LON : The City.— " The city stands on 
 a broad plain, ami is an exact Nipiare, a litiiidrcd 
 and twenty furloiiRS in U'nj,'tli caitli wi.y, so that 
 tlic eritiro circuit is four hundred and ei;;lity 
 furlongs. Wliile sucli is its si/.c, in inaKliili- 
 cence there Is no otiier city that approaches it. 
 It is surrounded, in tlie tiist place, by a broad 
 and deep moat, full of water, licbiiid whicii rises 
 a wall llfly royal cubits in widlli mid two bun- 
 dreil in heij;lit. . . . And here I may not omit 
 to tell the use to wliicli tlie iiioiild dug out of 
 the H''''i't iiioiit was tinned, nor llu! manner 
 wlierein th(^ wall was wrought. As fast as they 
 duj; the moat llie soil wliicli they t^i'l from the 
 cutting; was made into bricUs, and wlien a siif- 
 flcieiit iiumlier were completed lliey baked the 
 bricl^s in kilns. Then they set to biiildiii!;, and 
 bej;aii with lirickin.i; the borders of I lie inoal, 
 after which they proceeded to construct the 
 wall itself, usinj; tliroun'iout for their cement 
 hot bilumen, and interposinj; a layer of wattled 
 reeils at every tliirlietli course of I lie brick. On 
 the to|), aloiii' the edges of the wall, they con- 
 structed liuililings of a single chamber facing 
 one another, leaving between tliem room for a 
 four horse cliariot to turn. In tlie circuit of tlie 
 wall are a iiuiidred gates, all of brass, with 
 lira/.en lintels and side po.sts. Tlie bitumen used 
 in tlie work was brmiglit to Babylon from the Is, 
 a small stream wliicli flows into the Euphrates 
 at the point wliere the city of the same name stands, 
 eiglit days' journey from Uabyloii. Lumps of 
 iiitumenare found in great aliinulance in this river. 
 Tlie city is divided into two portions by the 
 river wiiicli runs through the midst of it. This 
 river is tlie Euplirales. . . . The citv wall is 
 brouglii down on both sides to the cilge of the 
 stream; thence, from the corners of the wall, 
 there is carried along each bank of the river a 
 fence of burnt bricks. The houses are mostly 
 three and four stories liigli; the streets all run in 
 straight lines; not only those parallel to the 
 river, but also the cross streets which lead 
 down to tlie water side. At the river end of 
 these cross streets are low gates in the fence 
 that skirts the stream, whieli are, like the great 
 gates in the outer wall, of bra-ss, and open on 
 the water. Tlic outer wall is the main defence 
 of the city. There is, however, a second inner 
 wall, of less tliickncss than the first, but very 
 little inferior to it in strength. Tlic centre of 
 each division of the town was occupied bj' a 
 fortress. In tlie one stood ^he palace of the 
 kings, surrounded by a wall of great strength 
 and size: in the other was the sacred precinct of 
 Jupiter Bulus, a square enclosure, two furlongs 
 each way, with .-ates of solid brass; which was 
 
 al.su remaining in my time. In the miihlle of 
 the precinct there was a tower of solid ni;isonry, 
 a fui'long 111 lengtli and lireadlh, upon which wu» 
 raised a second tower, and on that a third, and 
 so on up to eiglit. Tlie ascent to the top is on 
 tlie (lUlsiile, by a path which winds round all 
 tlie towers. . . . On the topmost tower there is 
 a spacious teiii|)le."— HeriMlolus, lliiit.. trans. 
 Ill/ (I. JlnwUiiMoii, bk. 1, rh. 178-181. — According 
 to (;tesias, the circuit of tlie walls of liabyloa 
 was but IIIIO furlongs. The historians of Alex- 
 ander agreed nearly with this. As regards the 
 lieiglii of llu! walls, "Strabo and the historians 
 of Ale.vander substitule 50 for the iJOO cubits of 
 Herodotus, and it may Ihercfon' be suspected 
 that tlie latter author refc^rred to Imiids, four of 
 whicli were e(|ual to the cubit. The measure, 
 inileed, of 50 fathoms or 200 royal cubits for the 
 walls of a city in a iilain is iiuite preposterous. 
 . . . >Iv own belief is that the height of tlio 
 walls of Halivloii did not exceed flO or 70 Eng- 
 lish fci't."— ll. 0. Uawlinson, note to iilKire. — Sec, 
 al.so. nAiivi.()Nt.\: H. V. 02.5-5:19. 
 
 BABYLON OF THE CRUSADERS, The. 
 See CltiHADKs: A. I). 1248-1254. 
 
 BABYLONIA, Primitive.— (So much new 
 knowledge of the ancient peoples in tlic East ling 
 been and is being brouglit to light by recent 
 search and study, and the account of it in English 
 historical literature is so meagre as yet, that there 
 .seems to be good reason for deferring the treat- 
 ment of these subjects, for llie most part, to a 
 later volume of tliis work. Tlu^ reader is referred, 
 therefore, to the article "Semites," in the hope 
 that, before its publication is rcacbi'd, in the 
 fourth or fifth volume, there will be later and 
 better works to cpiotc from on all the subjects 
 embraced. Terrien de Lacouperie's interesting 
 theory, which is introduced below, in this jilace, 
 is questioned by many scholars; and Professor 
 Sayce, whose writings have done mucli to popu- 
 larize the new oriental studies, .seems to g.isonie- 
 times in advance of the sure ground.) — The 
 Sumirians, inhabitants of tlie Sliinar of the Old 
 Testament narrative, and Accadians, who di- 
 vided primitive Babylonia between them, "were 
 overrun and conquered by the Seniitic Baby- 
 loniaus of Inter history, Accad being apparently 
 the first half of the country to fall under the 
 sway of the new comers. It is possible that 
 Casdim, the Hebrew word translated Clialdecsor 
 C'haldeans in tlie authorized version, is the Baby- 
 lonian 'casidi' or conquerors, n title whicli con- 
 tinued to cling to them in consequence of tlieir 
 conquest. The Accadians had been the inven- 
 tors of the pictorial hieroglyphics which after- 
 wards developed into the cuneiform or wedge- 
 shaped writing ; tliey had found d the great cities 
 of Clialdea, and Iind attained to a high degree of 
 culture and civilization. Their cities possessed 
 libraries, stocked with books, written partly on 
 papyrus, partly on clay, which was, while still 
 
 238 
 
nAUYI.ONI.V. 
 
 nABVLONIA. 
 
 iioft, ItnprpiuM'il wlili clmriicliTH liy mrnnn of ri 
 iiu'tiil KtyliiH. Till' iMHikH wi'rr iiiiiiicniiis, and 
 rt'liiltMl lo It vurli'ty of HultjcclH. . . . Iti nmrsi' 
 of llinc. Imwfvcr, llii' two (llalcctn i>f Suiiilr and 
 Accad ri'iiHctl to Im' Hpokoii; Imt tlir ni'ccHMitv for 
 IcariiiiiK tlii'in Htill rrliiaiiicd, and w<> Mtxl, ac- 
 ('(mlln){ly. that down totlifilalcHt ilay.sof tH)tli As 
 Nyria anil Baliylonia, tlic cdiicali'd clasMi'M were 
 tiiUfclit till' old extinct Accadian, Inst as In imihI- 
 t'rnEuro|H' tlicyanitaiiiflit Jiatin.' —A. II. Haver, 
 Frenh IA<lht //•«/;» the Ain-liiit Monumiiitii, eft. 2. 
 — ".Slni-i' Siitnlr, the Slihiar of the lllhlc, was 
 tlic tlntt pail of till' country occupiiil liy tlic in- 
 vading; S<'inil<'S, wliilo Accuil lon<; continued to 
 Ik! rcKitrded as tlie Heat of an alien race, tlie lan- 
 
 &w\liv ami population of prindtive Ciialdea liave 
 t'cn named Aecadian l)y tlic ninjorily of As 
 1 yrlan scholars. Tli<' i)art |)layed by tliesi- Ac- 
 eailians in the intellectual liislorv of mankind is 
 liiilhly iinporlanl. They were tlic I'arliest eivili- 
 /.ers of Western Asia, and it Is to them that we 
 have to trace the arts and .sciences, the reliKioiis 
 traditions and the philosophy not only of tlie As- 
 Syrians, hut also of the I'lioMiicians, the Ara- 
 nia'ans, and even the Hebrews (hemselvcs. It 
 was, t(M), from Chaldca that the xerms of (Jreek 
 art and of much of tlii' (J reek pantlieon and niytli- 
 ology orljxinally came. Columnar areliiteelure 
 reached its llrst and highest development in 
 Hahylonia; the lions that still gourd tlw main en- 
 trance of .MykeniL' arc distinctly Assyrian In char 
 iicler; and the Ureek lleniklcs willi liis twelve 
 lalMiurs finds his prototype in the hero of the 
 grciit C'haUlean epic. It is dillicult to say how 
 much of our present culture is not owed to the 
 stunted, olilicpie-eyed people of ancient Baby- 
 lonia; Jerusalem and Athens are the sacred cities 
 of our modern life ; and both .Icrusalem and AIIkmis 
 were profoundly intluenced by tlic ideas which 
 had their first starting-point in priniieval Accad. 
 The Semite has ever been a trader and an inter- 
 niedinry, and his earliest work was the ])recious 
 trade in spiritual and mental wares. Babylonia 
 was the home and mother of Semitic culture and 
 Semitic inspiration; the I'h<eniciaiis never forgot 
 that they were a colony from the Persian Gulf, 
 while the Israelite recounted that his fatiier 
 Abraham had been born in Vr of the (!hal(lees. 
 Almost the whole of the As.syrian literature was 
 derived from Accad, and translated from the dead 
 language of primitive Ciialdea." — A. II. Sayce, 
 liiibyliiiiMn Literature, pp. 0-7. — Tlie same. 
 Ancient Empiren of the fjixt, ii/ip. 2. — "The place 
 of China in the past and future is not that which 
 it was long supposed to 1k'. Uecent researches 
 linve disch)se(l that its civilization, like ours, was 
 variously derived from the same old focus of cul- 
 ture of south-western Asia. . , . It was my good 
 fortune to be able to show, in an uninterrupted 
 series of a score or so of papers in periodicals, of 
 communications to the Royal Asiatic Society and 
 elsewhere, published and unpublished, and of 
 contributions to .several works since April 1880, 
 downwards, that the writing and some knowl- 
 edge of irts, science and government of the early 
 Chinese, more or less enumerated below, were 
 derivei'. from the old civilization of Babylonia, 
 through the secondary focus of Susiana, and that 
 this derivation was a social fact, resulting not 
 from scientilic teaching but from practical in- 
 tercourse of some leugtn between the Susian con- 
 federation and the future ci vilizers of the Chinese, 
 the Bak tribes, who, from their neighbouring 
 
 239 
 
 (M>ttlemont« In the N., moved cn.^twards nt the 
 timi' of the gn'iit rising of tlii' XXIII, crnlnry 
 B. C. Coming again in tlie Held, Dr. .1. Kdkins 
 has Joined me on the same line." — Terrien <hr 
 I.acouperic. Itilii/I'iniu unit Chimi [.{dideni)/, 
 A'l;/. I. IHMO).— •• We could enumerate a loiig 
 series of alllnities between Chaldean culture ami 
 Chini'se civili/.alion. allhough the last was not 
 iMirrowcfl directly. From what evidenc'c we have, 
 it Heeins highly probable that ac( rtain number of 
 families or of tribes, wilhoiit any apparent gen 
 eric mime, but among wliicli the" Kutia tilled an 
 important .>osilioii, ciime to China about the year 
 'J.'idil 11. C, Thi'se trilx v, which came from the 
 West, were obliged to (piit the neighlHinrhiKid, 
 probiibly north of the Susiana, and were com- 
 prised in tli(! feudal agglomeration of that region, 
 where thiy must have been iiilliii'iieed by the 
 Akkado-Chaldeim culture." — Terrien de I.iicoii- 
 perie, h'lirl;/ lli't. of ('liiiieiie ('irili:;iitiiin, ;i. 32. 
 — See, also, Ciiiw TukOhkiinof thi-: I'koim.k. 
 The early (Chaldean) monarchy.— " Our 
 earliest glimpse of the polilical condition of 
 Ciialdea shows us the connliy divided into 
 numerous sniiill states, each headed by a gri'iit 
 city, made famous and powerful by thesanetuiiry 
 or temple of .some particular deity, and ruled by 
 a piitesi, a title wliicli is now thought to mean 
 I)riest-king. i. e., i)riest ii.id king in one. There 
 Clin be liltle doubt that the beginning of tlie city 
 was every where the temple, with its college of 
 ministering priests, and that the surrounding 
 settlement was gradually formed by pilgrims 
 and worshippers. That royalty developed out 
 of the priestlioiHl is also more than probable. 
 . . . There comes a time when for the title of 
 l>iitesi is substituted that of king. ... It is 
 noticeable tliat the distinction between the 
 Semitic newcomers and the indigenous Sliumiro- 
 Aecadians continues long to be tmceable in the 
 names of the royal lemple-bnilders, even after 
 the new Seinilic idiom, wliich we call the 
 Assyrian, had entirely ousted the old language. 
 . . . Furthermore, even suiierlicial observation 
 shows that the old language and the old names 
 survive longest in Sliiimir, — the South. From 
 this fact it is to be inferred witli little chance of 
 mistake that the North, — the land of Accad, — 
 was earlier Semiti/.ed, that the Semitic im- 
 migrants established their first heiidciuarters in 
 that part of the country, that their power and 
 influence thence spread to the South. Fully in 
 accordance with tliese indications, the first grand 
 historical figure that meets us at the threshold of 
 Chaldean history, dim with the mists of ages and 
 fabidous traditions, yet immistakably real, is 
 that of the Semite Sliamikin, king of Accad, 
 or Agade, as the great Northern city came to be 
 calle(l — more gencndly known in history under 
 the corrupt mcMlern reading of Sargon, and 
 called Sargon I., 'the First,' to distinguish him 
 from a very famous Assyrian monarch of the 
 same name who reigned many centuries later. 
 As to the city of Agade, it is no other than the 
 city of Accad mentioned in Genesis x, 10. It 
 was situated close to the Euplmites on a wide 
 canal just opposite Sippar, so that in time the 
 two cities came to be considered as one <lcuble 
 city, and the Hebrews always called it 'the two 
 Sippars ' — Sepharvaim, which is often spoken of 
 in the Bible. . . . The tremendcmsly ancient 
 date of 3800 B. C. is now generally" accepted 
 for Sargon of Agade — perhaps the remotest 
 
BABYLONIA. 
 
 BACTRIA. 
 
 autliontic date j'ct nrrlvi'tl at in history." — Z. A. 
 Hajjoziii, Shin/ I if V/mlileit, e/i. 4. — ••.(. liordi' of 
 Cassilcs or Kossii'ans swept down from the 
 iiiouMlaiiis of Nortliern Khun under tlieir h'adcr, 
 Khaninnirafras; Aecad was (•on(iuered, a foreign 
 dynasty estalilislied in tlie land, and tlie capital 
 transferred from Aga(U! to Babylon. Bah-lon 
 now lH(ame a city of importanee for the lirst 
 time: the rank assij,'ne(l to it in the mythical age 
 was hilt a rellection of the |)osition it held after 
 the Cassile > ()n<piest. The ('.issite dyna.sty is 
 prohahly the Arabian ynasty of Berosos. . . . 
 A newlv-found insenption ot Nabonidos makes 
 the date fof its advent] B. ('. 3~r,0 [fo,il-ii„ti'\. 
 . . . The tirst care of Kliammiiragas, after estab- 
 lishing Idmself in Aecad, was to extend his sway 
 over tlie southern kingdom of Sinner as well. 
 . . . Khamni'Tiigas hecamit king of the whole 
 of Babylonia. From this time onward the coun- 
 try remained a united monarchy. The C'assito 
 dynasty must have lasted for several cemuries, 
 and probably included more than one line of 
 kings. ... It was under the C'as.site dynasty 
 that the kingdom of Assyria tiist took its rise, — 
 partly, perhai)s, in conseiiuence of the Asiatic 
 conquests of tlie Egyptian monarchs of tiie 
 eighteenth dynasty. ... In B. C. 1400 the 
 Cassite king married an Assyrian princess. Iler 
 son, Kara-Murdas, was murdered by the party 
 oppo.sed to Assyrian intluence, but the usurjier, 
 Nazi-bugas, was (pnckly overthrown by the 
 Assyrians, who placed a vassal-iirince on the 
 throne. This event may bo consiilercd the turn- 
 ing-jioint in the history of the kingdoms of the 
 Tigris and Euphrates; As.syria henceforth takes 
 the place of the worn-out monarchy of Babylonia, 
 and plays the chief part in the affairs of Western 
 Asia until the day of its final fall. In little more 
 than a liundred years later the Assyrians were 
 again in Babylonia, but this time as avowed 
 enemies to all ])arlies alike ; Babylon was captured 
 by the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-Adar in B. C. 
 1270, and the rule of the Cassite dynasty came 
 to an end." — A. II. Saj'ce, Ancient Enipin^ of 
 the Eimt, iipp. 2. 
 
 Al.fo IN: G. Kawlinson, FtK Grrnt Monarchies : 
 Chnldea, ch. H.— See. also, Asuviii.v. 
 
 B. C. 625-539.— The later Empire.— For 
 more than si.\ centuries after the conquest of 
 B. C. 1270, Babylonia was oiiscurcd by Assyria. 
 During most of that hing period, the tJhalilcan 
 kingdom was subject to its northern neighbor 
 and governed by Assyrian vicen)ys. There were 
 frequent revolts and some intervals of indepen- 
 dence: but they were brief, and the political life 
 of Babylonia a.s a distinct p(,wer nniy be said to 
 have been suspended from 1270 until 625 B. C, 
 when Nabopolassar, who rii!jd tirst as the viceroy 
 of the As.syrian monarch, threw olT bis yoke, took 
 the attributes of sovereignty to himself, and 
 joined the Jlcdes in extinguishing the glory of 
 Nineveli. "The Assyrian Empire was now 
 shared between Media and Babylon. lyabu- 
 cudur-utser. or Nebuchadrezzar, Nabojiolassar's 
 eldest son, was the real founder -'f the Babylonian 
 empire. The attempt of Pharaoh Nceho to win 
 for Egypt the inheritance of Assyria was over- 
 thrown at the battle of Carcheniish, and when 
 Nebuchadrezzar succeeded his father in B. C. 
 604, he fo"-id himself the <indisputed lord of 
 Western As) Palestine was coerced in (102, ai ' 
 I'.ie destruction of Jeruaalcra in 587 laid a way 
 open for the invasion of Egypt, wliiuh took 
 
 place twenty years later. Tjtc also u.idorwent 
 a long siege of thirteen years, but it is doiib'.lul 
 whelher it was taken after all. Babyl:)ri was 
 now enriched with the spoils of foreign conquest. 
 It owed as much to Nehuehadrezzar as Home 
 owed to Augustus. The buildings and walls 
 with which it was adorned were worthy of the 
 metropolis of the world. The piilace, now rep- 
 reseiiU'd by the Kasr mound, was built in (ifteen 
 days, and the outermost of its three walls was 
 seven miles in circuit. Hanging gardens were 
 constructed for Queen Amytis, the (laughter of 
 the Median prince, and the great temple of Bel 
 was roofed with cedar aiid overlaid with gold. 
 The temifle of the Seven Lights, dedicated to 
 Nebo at Borsi|)i)a by an early king, who had 
 rai.sed it to a height of forty-two cubits, was 
 completed, and various other temples were 
 erected on a s.imptuous scale, both in Babylon 
 and in the neighbouring cities, while new libra- 
 ries were estalilislied there. After a reign of 
 forty-two years, six nuinths and twenty -one 
 days, Nebuchadrezzar died (B. ('. 562), an ■ tt 
 the crown t(- his sou Evil->Ierodach, who i a 
 short and inactive reign of three years, and 1 ,.irty- 
 four days, when he was murdered by his brother- 
 in-law, Nergal-slmrezer, the Neriglissar of the 
 Greeks. . . . Tlie chief event of his reign of 
 four yeii"^ and four months was the construction 
 of a new palace. His son, who succeeded him, 
 was a mere lioy, and was murdered after a brief 
 reign of four months. The power now passed 
 from the house of Nabopolassar, — Niibu-uahid 
 or Nabonidos, who was mised to the throne, 
 being of anotli.r family. Ilis reign flisted 
 .seventeen years and tiv(^ months, and witnessed 
 the end of the Babylonian empire," — which was 
 overthrown by Cyrus the Great (or Kyros), 
 B. 0. 530 [see Peiisia: B. C. 54t)-52)], and swal- 
 lowed up in the Persian empire which he 
 founded. — A. II. Sayce, Ancient Eminres of the 
 East, app. 2. 
 
 Also in: M. Duncker, Hist, of Antiquity, hk. 
 4, ch. 15. — G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies : 
 The Fourth Monarch//, ch. 8. 
 
 BABYLONIAN JEWS. See .Iews: B. C. 
 53(!-A. D, 50, and A. 1). 200-100. 
 
 BABYLONIAN TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, The. See Tal- 
 mud. 
 
 "BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY" OF THE 
 POPES. See PaI'Acv: A. I>. 1294-1348. 
 
 BACCALAOS, OR BACALHAS, OR 
 BACALHAO COUNTRY. See Newkoi:,.)- 
 L.VNii: A. I). 1501-1578. 
 
 BACCHIADiE. See Couintii. 
 
 BACCHIC FESTIVAi-S. See Dionysia. 
 
 BACENIS, Forest of. See Hekcynian For- 
 
 ' BACON'S REBELLION. See Virginia: 
 A. D. 16(!0-107V. 
 
 BACTRIA.— "Where the edge [of the table- 
 land of Iran] rises to the lofty Hindu Kusli, 
 tlu-e !ies on its northern slope a favored district 
 in the region of the Upper Ox us. . . . On the 
 banks of the river, which Hows in a north- 
 westerly direction, extend broad mountain pas- 
 tures, where support is found in the fresh moun- 
 tain air for numerous herds of horses and sheep, 
 and beneath the wooded hills are blooming val- 
 leys. On those slopes of the Hindu Kush, the 
 middle stage between the table-land and the 
 
 240 
 
BACTRIA. 
 
 BAODAD. 
 
 deep plain of the Caspian Sen, l(iy tho Baotrians 
 — tlic" Bal<litri of tlio Achacmcniirs, tlic Bal(h(llii 
 of tlio Avestii. ... In ancient times tlie Bac- 
 trians were liardly distinguislied from nomads; 
 but tliiiir land was e.x^vr.cive and produced fruits 
 of nil kinds, witli the exception of the vine. Tlie 
 fertility of tho land enabled the Hellenic princes 
 to make great conqtiests. " — >I. Dunckcr, Hist, of 
 Anlii/inti/, lik. 6. ch. 3. — Tlio Bactrians were 
 among tlie people subjugated by Cyrus tlie 
 Great and their country formed part of tlie Per- 
 sian Empire until tho latter was overthrow n bv 
 Alexander (see Macedoni.v, &c. : B. C. 330-323). 
 In the division of tho ]^Iacedonian conquests, 
 after Alexander's death. Bnctria, with nil the 
 fartlier east, fell to the share of Seleucus Nicator 
 and formed part of what came to be called the 
 kingdom of Syria. About 2.50 B. C. the Bactrian 
 province, being then governed by an ambitious 
 Greek satrap named Diodotus, was led by him 
 into revolt against the Syrian monarchy, and 
 easily gained its in<'.epen(lenct, witli Diodotus 
 for its king (see SeleuciDvE: B. C. 281-224). 
 "Tho authority of Diodotus was confirmed and 
 riveted on liis subjects by an undisturbed reign 
 of eighteen years before a Syrian army even 
 showed itself in his neighbourhood. . . . The 
 Bactrian Kingdom was, at any rate at its com- 
 mencement, as thoroughly Greek as that of the 
 Seleucidffi." "From B. C. 206 to about B. C 
 185 was tlie most tlouri-shing period of the Bac- 
 trian monarchy, which expanded during that 
 s'>aee from a small kingdom to a considerable 
 empire " — extending over tho greater part of 
 modern .\fgliani.»ta'i ami across the Indus vato 
 the Punjaub. But meantime tho neighboring 
 Parthians. who tlirt v oti the Scleucid yoke soon 
 after the Bactrians Had done so, were growing 
 in pe "r «nd they soon passed from rivalry to 
 mn: f. Tlie iJactrian kingdom was prac- 
 tica extinguished about 150 B. C. by the con- 
 qui.'Si )f Iho Parthian Jlithridatcs I,, "although 
 Gieek 1.. 'larclis of the Bactrian series continued 
 airsters of Cabul and Western India till about 
 B. C. lt?C."— G. Itiiwlinson, Sixth Omit Oriental 
 Ml narchji, eh. 3-5. 
 
 iIADAJOS : The Geographical Congress 
 (1524). See Amkuicv: A. 1). 1510-1524. 
 
 BADEN : Early Suevic population. See 
 Si;i;v;. 
 
 A. D. 1801-1803. — Acquisition of territory 
 under the Treaty of Luneville. See Geumanv: 
 A. 1). 1801-1803. 
 
 A. D. 1805-1806.— Aggrandized by Napo- 
 leon. — Created a Grand Duchy. — Joined to the 
 Confederation of the Rhine. See Gkilmany: 
 A. 1). 18,)5-1800, and Wm (Jakuauv— AuousT). 
 
 A. D. 1813. — Abandonment of the Rhenish 
 Confederacy and the French Alliance. See 
 Fu,vnck:A. I). 18'4(.Ianiiauv— Maucii). 
 
 A. D. 1849. — Revolution .suppressed by 
 Prussian troops. See Gkh.many: A. D. 1848- 
 18.50. 
 
 A. p. 1866.— The Seven Weeks War.— In- 
 demnity and territorial ession to Prussia. 
 SicGi:ii.\iANy: A. D. 18U0. 
 
 A. D.1870-1871.— Treaty of Union with the 
 Germanic Confederation, soon transformed 
 into the German Empire. See Gkkmanv: A. 
 D. 1870 (Septe.mueii— December\ and 1871. 
 
 BADEN, OR RASTADT, Treaty of (1714). 
 See Utueciit: A. D. 1713-1714. 
 
 BAOn, OR BEDR, Battle of. See Ma-- 
 IIOMKTAN CoNCJUMST: A. 1). 000-633. 
 
 BiECULA, Battle of. See Plnic Wau, 
 TiiK Sr.coNi). 
 
 BjERS/ERK. See BEnsERKEU. 
 
 BiETICA. — The at cient name of the prov- 
 ince in Spain which afterwards took from the 
 Vandals the name of Andalusia. See Spain: 
 B. C. 218-25, and A. D. 428; also Tuudetani, 
 and Vandals: A. D. 428. 
 
 B./ETIS, The. — The ancient name of the 
 GuadaUiuiver river in Spain. 
 
 BAGACUM. See Neuvii. 
 
 BAGAUDS, Insurrection of the (A. D. 287). 
 — The peasants of Caul, whose conditio-i had 
 become very wretched during the distractions 
 and misgovernment of the third century, were 
 provoked to an insurrection, A. I). .187, which 
 was general and alarming. It was a rising 
 which seems to have becm much like those tliat 
 occurred in France and England eleven centuries 
 later. The rebel peasants were called Bagnuds, 
 — 1' name which some witers derive from the 
 Celtic word "bagad" or "bagat,' signifying 
 "tumultuous assemblage." They sacked and 
 ruined several cities, — taking Autun after a siege 
 of seven months, — and committed many terrible 
 atrocities. The Emperor Maximian — colleague 
 of Diocletian, — succeeded, at last, in suppressing 
 the general outbreak, but not in extinguishing 
 it every where. There were traces of it surviv- 
 ing long afterwards. — P. 'Godwin, IIi»t. of 
 France, 0. 1: Ancient (ia .1, lik. 2, ch. 6. 
 
 Also in: W. T. Arnold, The Roman System of 
 Pnirinfial Administration, ch. 4. — See, also, 
 Dedititm.s. 
 
 BAGDAD, A. D. 763.— The founding of the 
 new capital of the Caliphs. See Mahometan 
 C0W7UKST Ni) Empiui;: a. I). 763. 
 
 A. D. 815-945.— Decline of the Caliphate. 
 See Mahomi-.tas CIoncji'kst and Fh'Piui;: A. 1). 
 815-945. 
 
 A. D. 1050. — In the !;ands of the Seldjuk 
 Turks. S(cTruKs:A. 1). 1004-100;!. 
 
 A. D. 1258.— The Fall of the Caliphate.— 
 Destruction of the city by the Mongols. — In 
 1252, on the accession of ^Mangu Kliaii, grandson 
 of .lingis Khan, to the sovereignty of the 
 Moagol Empire [sco Mongols] ■■> ^r^.-.t Kuiiltai 
 or council was held, at wluuli it was decided to 
 send an expedition into the West, for two pur- 
 poses: (t), to exterminate tho Isinaileans or 
 Assassins, who still maintained their power in 
 northern Per.sia; (2), to reduce tlu! (,'alipli of 
 Bagdad to subini.ssion to the Mongol supreiuacy. 
 The command )f the expedition was given to 
 3Iaugu's brothci' Kliulagu, or lloulagou, wlio 
 ])erformed his aj. pointed tasks with tliorough- 
 iiess and unmerciuil resolution. In 1257 ho 
 made an end of the Assassins, to tho great 
 relief of the whol. eastern world, JIahometan 
 and Christian. In 1258 he psw-sed on to Bag<lad, 
 preceded by an embassy which euininoned the 
 Caupli to sui-init, to nizo the walls of Bagdad, 
 to give up his vain pretensions to the sovereignty 
 of the Moslem world, and to acknowledge the 
 Great Khan for his lord. The feebU; calipli and 
 his treacherous and incapable ministers neither 
 submitted nor made vigorous preparations for 
 defence. As a consequence, Bagdad was taken 
 after a siege which only exc'ted the ferocity of the 
 Mongols. They tired the city and .slaughtered 
 its people, excepting some Christuius, who ore 
 
 241 
 
BAGDAD. 
 
 HAINBRIDOK. 
 
 Raid to Imvo been sijiircd tlir<>uj,'li the influence 
 of one of KliiiliiKu's wives, wiio wns e Nestoriiui. 
 The siiek of Biigdiul liisted seven days. Tlie 
 numl. r of tlie (leml, we lire told by Rii.scliid, 
 wiiH 800,000. The ciiliph, iM().stiis.seni. with all 
 his family, was put to death. — H. 11. Il(, vortli. 
 Hint, of tlie Moiifiith, V. 1, pp. 103-201. — For a 
 I considerable period before thi.s final catastrophe, 
 in the decline of the Seljuic Empire, tli(^ C'liliphnte 
 at Ha;;clad had become once more "an inde- 
 pendent temporal state, though, instead of rul- 
 ing in the three .piarters of the globe, the 
 caliphs riih^d only over the province of Irak 
 And)i. Their position was not unlikt! that of 
 th(^ Popes in recent times, whom they itlso 
 resembled in a.ssuming a new name, of a pious 
 character, at their inaui^uration. Hoth the 
 Christiiin and the Jloslem pontiff was the real 
 temporal sovereign of a small state ; each claimed 
 to be spiritual sovereign over the whole of the 
 Faithful; each was recogni/.ed assucli by a large 
 body, but rejected by others But in truth the 
 spiritual recognition of the Abbaside caliphs was 
 more nearly universal in their last age than it 
 had ever been before." Witli the fall of Bagdad 
 fell the caliphate sis a temporal sovereignty^; but 
 it stirvived, or was resurrected, in its spiritual 
 functions, 'o become merged, a little later, in 
 the supremacy of the sultan of the Ottoman 
 Turks. " A certain Ahmed, a real or pretended 
 Abbasside, fled [from Bagdad] to Egypt, where 
 he was proclaimed caliph by the title of Al 
 Mostanser Billah, under the protection of the 
 then Sultan Bibars. He and his successors were 
 deemed, in spiritual tilings. Commanders of the 
 Faithful, and they were found to be a convenient 
 instrument both by the Mameluke sultans and 
 by other Mahometan princes. From one of them, 
 Baiazet the Thunderbolt received the title of 
 Sultan ; from another, ,Sclim the Inflexible pro- 
 cured the cession of his claims, and obtained the 
 right to deem himself the shadow of God upon 
 earth. Since then, the Otto.nnn Padishah has 
 been held to inherit the rights of Omar and of 
 Ilaroun, rights which if strictly pressed, might 
 be terrible alike to enemies, neutrals, and allies." 
 — E. A. Freeman, Hut. and Conq. of tlie Saracens, 
 leet. 4. 
 
 A. D. 1393. — Timour's pyramid of heads. 
 See Ti.Mot'u. 
 
 A. D. 1623-1638.— Taken by the Persians and 
 retaken by the Turks. — Fearful slaughter of 
 the inhabitants. See Ti:nKs: A. D. 1C23-1G40. 
 
 BAGISTANA. See Bkiiistcn, Rock of. 
 
 BAGLIONI, The.— "TheBaglioni first came 
 into notice during tlie ^\a^s they carried on with 
 the Oddi of Perugia in the 14th n'rd l.'ith cen- 
 turies. Tliis was one of those duels to the death, 
 like that of tlie Visconti with the Torrensi of 
 Milan, on which the fate of so many Italian 
 cities of the middle ages hung. The nobles 
 fought; the townsfolk assisted like a Greek 
 chorus, sharin;^ the passions of tlie actors, but 
 contrr'buting little to the catastrophe. The 
 piazza was the theatre on whicli the tragedy 
 was played. In this contest the Baglioni proved 
 the stronger, and began to sway the state of 
 Perugia after the irregular fashion of Italian 
 despots. They had no legal right over the city, 
 no hereditarj' magistracy, no title of princely 
 authoiity. The Church was reckoned the 
 supreme administrator of the Perugian common- 
 
 wealth. But in reality no man could set foot on 
 the rmbrinn i)lain witliout pemiis.sion from the 
 Baglioni, They elected tiie olUcers of stale. 
 The lives and goods of the citizens were at their 
 discretion. When a Papal legale showed his 
 face, they made the town too hot to hold him, 
 ... It was in vain that from time to time tlie 
 l)<o])le ro.se against them, massacring Pandolfo 
 iJ.'iglioid on tlie public sijuaro in UiiKi, and join- 
 ing with Uidolfo and Braccio of the dominant 
 house to assassinate another Pandolfo with his 
 son Niccolo in 1400. The more they were cut 
 down, the more they fli>uri.slicd. The wealth 
 they derived from tlieir lordships in the duchy 
 of "Spoleto and the Uinbrian liillcitics, and the 
 treasures they accumulated in tlic service of 
 the Italian republics, made them omnipotent 
 in their native town. . . . From father to son 
 they were warriors, and we have records of 
 few Italian houses, except perhaps the JIalatesti 
 of Rimini, who ecpialled them in hardihood and 
 fierceness. Esi)(^cially were they noted for the 
 remorseless vendette which they carried on 
 among themselves, cousin tracking c.iusin to 
 death with the ferocity and and craft of sleuth- 
 hounds. Had they rcstraineil these fratricidal 
 passions, they might, perhaps, by following 
 some common policy, like that of the Medici in 
 Florence or the Bentivogli in Bologna, have suc- 
 cessfully resisted the Papal authority, and se- 
 cured dynastic sovereignty. It is not until 1495 
 tliat the history of the Baglioni becomes dra- 
 matic, possibly" because till then tliey lacked the 
 pen of Matarazzo. But from this year forward 
 to their final extinction, every detail of their 
 doings has a picturesque and awfu! interest. 
 Domestic furies, like the revel descried by Cas- 
 sandra above the palace of Mycenae, seem to 
 take possession of the fated house ; and the doom 
 which lias fallen on tlieni is worked out with 
 pitiless exactitude to the last generation." — J. A. 
 Symonds, Sketches in Italy and Greece, pp. 70-73. 
 
 BAGRATIDAE. The. SccAkmenia: 12th- 
 14th Cknturies. 
 
 BAHAMA ISLANDS : A. D. 1492.— Dis- 
 covery by Columbus. See Amebica: A. D. 
 14i)2. 
 
 BAHRITE SULTANS. See Egypt: A. D. 
 19,')0-1,')17. 
 
 BAIiE. — Baia>, m Campania, opposite Puteoli 
 on a small bay near Naples, was the favorite 
 watering place of the ancient Romans. "As 
 soon as the reviving heats of April gave token 
 of advancing summer, the noble and the rich 
 hurried from Rome to this choice retreat; and 
 here, till the raging dogstar forbade the toils 
 even of amusement, they disported themselves 
 on shore or on sea, in the thick groves or on the 
 placid lakes, in litters and chariots, in gilded 
 boats with painted sails, lulled by day and night 
 with the sw(."test symphonies of song and music, 
 or gazing indo.^^ntly on the wanton measures of 
 male and female lancers. Tlie bath, elsewhere 
 their relaxation, wan here the business of the 
 day ; . . . they turned the pools of Avernus and 
 Lucrinus into tanks for swimming ; and in tlk se 
 pleasant waters both sexes mot familiarly to- 
 gether, and conversed amidst the roses sprinkled 
 lavishly on their surface." — C. Merivale, llist. 
 of the IlDinniiD, ch. 40. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Commodoie William, in 
 the War of 1812. See United States ok Am. : 
 A. D. 18ia-1813. 
 
 242 
 
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 T 
 
 f^ ^ 
 
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 -~<5^^ 
 
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 MAR rm cuu or tm twiuth ctNTufrv. 
 
 
 niiiaicln 
 
 ^.^t^^' 
 
 BYZ/kmiNEEM _J StU TURKS , 
 1 SERVIA _J BULGARIA ! 
 
 CILICIAN ARMENIA 
 
 VENETIAN POSSESSIONS i 
 
 STATES UNDER LATIN RULE I 
 ' COUNTY SALATINATEOFCtPMALDNIA 
 
 ti 
 
 
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 / 
 
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 L. 
 
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 SHomaiituTMloliriAairiNC WPinc T'l^ W*jlf-OS<i>i "^ <-*'Ttf \\ 
 
 '-7 I u FN rfiiiiiiimi .,• 
 
 S[LJUKI»N n«*S I3l/«l.l*CHW« 5WK, 
 
 SICaiHN POSStSSiaS _JVtlltIl«P(ISSE3S«lll5' 
 GREEK EMPIRE OF TREBIZOND- „ 
 
 RESTORED BYZANTINE EMPIRE _ 
 GREEK DESPOIAI OF 6PIRUS • _ 
 
 STATES UNDER LATIN RULC i 
 
 sutffSM'ftrmanfCO i'Th mn* 
 
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 r;., 
 
 ^^4 
 
JvAM'KMNSl'LA ^SfcKi, 'V-a'^ 
 
 WTKMIDDltor TDK . ilM. V \ ' ^OUCl 
 
 HAIJiAM'K 
 
 iKniiMntrr MtAJHus OF aiwtiA Aha ^^^w^t r .A^^S^*^ "^. 
 
 fc. £0. 
 
 llWTHt OBMANLI POWER) 
 
 5 
 
 OSMAIIll lURRS 1 SEBVIHN IMPlRt I 
 
 S^tUflKSUNDEROTHER DYNASTItS - ■ L__l 
 
 iiioBi piBstssioii5^_ivn(mAK PosstssOHS . r;^ 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE - T | i 
 
 iSTAItS UNDER LATIN RULE ■ jUi', - 
 
 CREEK EMPIBEOFTREBIZOND ^^ !l 
 
 
 r_..in"* /r ▼ \\.iv o 'J 
 
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 / 
 
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 " "I accession or "■"'' 
 
 MfHUHMKD II.'H.':i I fulfil 
 
 ^..., 
 
 ,.in«HTIM EMPIRE [ZDOSMANU TURKS '__) 
 ™™<S UNDER OTHER CnrNASTIES :" 1 
 VENETIAN POSSESSIONS ' -__] 
 
 GENOESE POSSESSIONS — ."l 
 
 SfATtS UNDER LATIN RULE uatj „ . 
 
 jbREEK EMPIRE OF TREBUOND- - i — 1 1 ' 
 
 -g. 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
IJAIHEUTH, 
 
 BALKAN AND PANUniAN STATES, 
 
 BAIREUTH, Creation of the Principality 
 
 of. Sec (JkkMANY; TllIUTKKNTlI t'KNTl'UY, 
 
 Separation from the Electorate of Branden- 
 burg. See BuANDE.MiLiKi: A. 1). 1417-1040. 
 
 BAJAZET I.— Turkish Suhan, A. D. 1380- 
 14(1'-' Bajazet II., A. I). MHI-loia. 
 
 BAKAIRI, The. Sec Amkuican Aiioni(3i- 
 NKs: Cauiiw. 
 
 BAKER, Colonel Edward D., Killed at 
 Ball's Bluff. Hoe L'nitkd (States ok Am. : A. D. 
 18(11 ((_)(Ti>i!i:u: Viu(iiNiA). 
 
 BAKSAR, OR BAXAR, OR BUXAR, 
 Battle of (1764). Hoc India: \. 1). n.J7-17T:J. 
 
 BALACLAVA, Battle of. See Ulbsia: A. U. 
 
 IS.W (OtTOIli:!! — NoVEMllKIi). 
 
 BALBINUS, Roman Emperor, -' . 1) 
 
 BALBOA'S DISCOVERY OF THE 
 CIFIC. See Amicuiia: A. I), inilj-l,-)!?. 
 
 BALCHITAS, The. See A.MEiacAN Abo- 
 uioiNEs: Pampas Tuihrs. 
 
 BALDWIN OF FLANDERS, The Cru- 
 sade of. Soe Ckusai>es: A. I). r.;oi-12()3 
 
 Baldwin I., Latin Emperor at Constantinople 
 
 (Romania), A. 1). 1204-120.") Baldwin II., 
 
 A. 1). 12;!7-iaoi. 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS: Origin of the 
 Name, &c. — "The iiilmbitiiiits were celebrated 
 for the skill and force with whicli they man- 
 aged their slings of leather, hemp or rushes; in 
 the wurs of the Carthagiuiaus with the liomans 
 
 238. 
 PA- 
 
 tliey were a most formidable description of light 
 troops. Tlic imme ' lialcarcs ' was <lcrive(l liy 
 the Greeks from ' ballciii,' to throw ; but tlie art 
 was taught thcni by the Pliieniciaiis, and the name 
 is no doul)t I'hoMiiCian." — ,J. Keurlek. I'/innirin, 
 r/i. 4. — For the chief incidents in the history of 
 these islands, sec MiNoitiA and .Ma.iokia. 
 
 BALIA OF FLORENCE, The.— The chief 
 iiistrument eni|doycd liy the .Medici to establi'ih 
 their jiowcr in Florence was "the pernicious 
 system of tlie I'arlamcnto and IJali;!, by means of 
 winch tiie people, ass"inblc(l from time to time in 
 tlie public S((uare. and intimidated l)y tlie reigning 
 faction, entru.sted full powers to a k( led com- 
 mittee nominated in private by the chiefs of the 
 great house. . . . Scgni say.s: 'The Paianiento 
 is a meeting of the Florentii"' people on the 
 Piazza of the Sigiiory. When tlie Signory lias 
 taken its place to address the meeting, the piazza 
 is guarded by armed men, and then the people 
 are nskcd wlK'thcr they wish to give absolute 
 power (Balia) and authority to the citizens named, 
 for their good. When the answer, yes, prompted 
 partly by inclination ai il partly liy compulsion, 
 is returned, the Signory immediately retires into 
 tlie palace. Tliis is all that is meant by this par- 
 lamento, which thus gives away the full ])ower 
 of effecting a change in the stale." — ,1. A. Sy- 
 monds, Renaissance in Italy : Af/e of the Desjmts, 
 p. 164, and foot-note. — See, also, Floiiencb: 
 A. D. 1378-1427, and 1458-1469. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 Ancient History. — The States of south- 
 eastern Europe, lately emancipated, for the 
 most part, from the rule of the Turks, arc so 
 nssociited by a common history, nlthougli re- 
 marka'-'.y diverse in race, tliat it seems expedient 
 to brill T them for discussion together. They 
 occupy mainly the regions known in Roman 
 times as Moe8i.\, Dacia and Ili.vuicum, to 
 which names the reader is referred for some 
 account of the scanty incidents of their early 
 history. — See, also, Avars. 
 
 Races existing. — "In no part of Western 
 Europe do wc find districts inh-bited by men 
 differing in speech and national feeling, lying in 
 distinct patches hero and there over a large 
 country. A district like one of our larger coun- 
 ties in which one parish, perhaps one hundred, 
 spoke Welsh, another Latin, anotlicr English, 
 another Dani.sh, another Old French, anothc- 
 the tongue of more modern settlers, Flemings, 
 Huguenots or Palatines, is something which we 
 find hard to conceive, and which, as applied to 
 our own land or to any other Western land, sounds 
 absurd on the face of it. Wiien we pass into 
 Souvli-„astern Europe, this state of things, the 
 very idea of which seems absurd in the West, is 
 found to be perfectly real. All the races which 
 we find dwelling there at the beginning of 
 recorded history, together with several races 
 which have come in since, all remain, not as 
 mere fragments or survivals, but as nations, 
 eaoh with its national language and national 
 feelings, and each having its greater or' less 
 share of practical importance in the politics of 
 the pr-sent moment. Setting aside races which 
 have simply passed through the coi.ntry without 
 occupying it, we may say that all the races 
 
 wliich have ever .settled in the country are there 
 still as distinct races. And, though each race 
 has its own partictdar region where it forms the 
 whole people or the great majority of the people, 
 still there are large districts where different 
 races really live side by side in the very way 
 which seems .so absurd when we try to conceive 
 it in any Western country. We cannot coa- 
 ceive a Welsh, an English, a: id a Norman vil- 
 lage side by side; but a Greek, a IJulgarian, and 
 a Turkish village side by side is a tiling which 
 may be seen in 11 any parts of Thrace. The 
 oldest races in thoije lands, those which answer 
 to Basques and Bretons in Western Europe, hold 
 ([uite another position from that of Basques and 
 IJretons in Western Europe. They form three 
 living and vigorous nations, Greek, Albanian, 
 and Uouman. They stand as nations alongside 
 of the Slaves who came in later, and who answer 
 roughly to the Teutons in the West, while all 
 alike are ur.'ler the rule of the Turk, who has 
 nothing ai. .wering to him in the West. . . . 
 When the itomans contjuered the Southeastern 
 laiids, they found there three great races, the 
 Greek, the Illyrian, and the Thracian. Those 
 three races are all there still. The Greeks speak 
 for themselves. The Illyrians are represented 
 by the nioderr Albanians. The Thracians are 
 represented, there seems every reason to believe, 
 by the modern Roumaiis. Now had the whole 
 of the Soutli-eastern lands been inhabited by 
 Illyrians and Thracians, those lands would 
 doubtless have become as thoroughly Roman as 
 the Western lands became. ... But the [losi- 
 tiou of the Greek nation, its long history and its 
 high civilization, hindered this. The Greeks 
 could not become Romans iu any but the most 
 
 243 
 
BALKAN AND DANUniAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANLHIAN STATKS. 
 
 purely politiral scnsr. Like otlior siibjrctH o( 
 the Kdinan Kinpirc, tlicy Rrudimlly look i\\r 
 Komaii nninc; but they ki'pt their own liiii 
 guugr, HtLTiituro, luid civili/aliiin. In Hliorl we 
 may say tliat tlio Hotuan Km|)irc in llic Kust 
 became (ireek, and tbat tlie (Jrirk nation lie- 
 came H(mmn. Tlie EasttTu Enii)irc and tlu; 
 Oretk-spoakinj? lands bccanio nearly (UH'Xtx'u- 
 sive. Greek lieeanie the om: lan)j;uaKo of the 
 Eastern Homau Empire, while those tliat .spoke 
 it still ealled themselves Homans. Till (piitc^ 
 lately, tbat is till the miMlern ideas of nationality 
 bega'n to spread, the Greek-speaking siibjeets of 
 the Turk called themselves by no name but that 
 of Uontans. . . . While the Greeks thus took 
 the Uoman name without adopting the Latin 
 language, another people in the Eastern penin- 
 sula adopted both name and language, exactly 
 asthenationsof the West (lid. If, as there is good 
 reason to believe, the modern Houmaiis repre- 
 sent the old Thracians, tbat nation came under 
 the gei.oral law, exactly like the Western 
 nations. The Thracians became tbnrotighly 
 Homan in speech, as they have ever since kept 
 the lioman name. They form in fact one of tlii' 
 Romance nations, just as nuich as the people of 
 Gaul or Spain. . . . In short, the existence of a 
 highly civilized people like tiie Greeks hindered 
 in every way the inlluence of Home from being 
 80 thorough in the East as it was in llie West. 
 The Greek nation lived on, and alongside of 
 itself, it preserved the other two ancient nations 
 of tlie peninsula. T lus all three have lived on 
 to the ])resent as dist n(a nations. Two of them, 
 the Greeks and the Ulyrians, still keep their own 
 languages, while the llurd, the old Thracians, 
 speak a Homance language and call themselves 
 jjoumans. . . . The Slavonic nations bold in the 
 East a place answering to that wliich is hekl by 
 the Teutoidc nations in the West. . . . Rut 
 though the ."slaves in the East thus answer in 
 many ways to the Teiitons in the West, their 
 position with, regard to the Eastern Empire was 
 not (luitc the sanu' as that of the Teutons to- 
 wards the Western Empire. . . . They learned 
 much from the half Komau, half Greek power 
 with which they had to do; but they did not 
 themselves become either Greelc or Homan, in 
 the way in which tbi! Teutonic con(iuerors in 
 die Western Empire became Homan. . . 
 Thus, while in tlie West everything ex( 
 few survivals of c;,rlier nations, is either Hianaii 
 orTciitoiiie, in llie East, Greeks, Ulyrians, Thraci- 
 aus or Houmaiis, and Slaves, all stood side by 
 side as distinct nations when the next set of in- 
 vaders came, and they remain as distinct nations 
 still. . . . TlM'reci.meamoiigthem, inthel'ormof 
 the Ottoman Turk, a jieople witli whom union 
 was not only hard but imiKissible, a peojile who 
 were kept distinct, not by special circumstances, 
 hut by tli6 inherent naiiirc of the case. Had 
 the Turk been other than what he really was, 
 he iiiiglit simply have become a new nation 
 aloiig.sido of the other South-eastern nations, 
 lieing what be was the Turk could not do this. 
 . . . Tlie original Turks did not belong to the 
 Aryan branch of mankind, and their original 
 speech is not an Aryai speech. The Turks and 
 their speecli belong to altogether another class 
 of nations and languages. . . . Long before tlu; 
 Turks came into Europe, the JIagyars or Hun- 
 garians had come ; and, before the jlagyars came, 
 the Bulgarians had <:omc. Both the Magyars 
 
 and the Bulgarians were In their origin Tur- 
 anian lations, nations as foreign to the Aryan 
 jH'ople of Europ(^ as the Ottoman Turks them- 
 selves. Hut their history shows that a Turanian 
 nation settling in Europe may cither be assimi- 
 lated with an existing European nation or may 
 sit (l')wn as an European nation alongside of 
 others. The Iliilgiiriaiis hav(' done one of these 
 things; tlie .Magyars have done the oilier; Uiit 
 Ottoman Turks have done neither. So iiuicli 
 has been iieard lately of the Bulgarians as being 
 in our times the special victims -i' the Turk that 
 some peopli! may lliid it stra ige to bear who 
 the original Bulgarians wer . They were a 
 people more or less nearly iinin to the Turks, 
 and they came into Europe as barbarian con- 
 querors who were as much dreade<l by the 
 nations of Soiitii-eastern Europe as the Turks 
 themselves were afterwards. The old Bulgar- 
 ians were a Turanian people, who settled in r 
 large imrl of the South-eastern peninsula, in 
 lands wliich had been already occupied by 
 Slaves. They came in as barbarian couiiuerors; 
 but, exactly as happened to so many conijuerors 
 in Western Europe, they were jiresently assimi- 
 lated by their Slavonic subjects and neighbours. 
 They learned the Slavonic speech; they gradii- 
 allylost all traces of their foreign origin. Those 
 whom we now call Bulgarians are ,. Slavonic 
 peoide speaking a Shivoiiic tongue, and they 
 have nothing Turanian about them except the 
 name which they borrowed from their Turanian 
 masters. . . . The Bulgarians entered the Em- 
 pire in the seventh century, and embraced 
 Christianity in the ninth. Tliey rose? to great 
 ]iower in tlie South-eastern lands, and played a 
 great iiart in tlieir hi.story. But all their later 
 liistory, from a comparatively short time niter 
 the first Bulgarian conquest, lias been that of a 
 Slavonic and not that of a Tuii'iiian people. 
 Tlie history of tlu^ Bulgarians therefore shows 
 that it is quite iiossible. if circumstances are 
 favourable, for a Turanian people to settle 
 among the Aryans of Europe and to be thor- 
 oughly assiniilaled by the Arvaii nation among 
 whom they settled." — E. A. I'Vcenian, The Otto- 
 .iKUi Poircr ill I'Si(ro/)(\ cli. 3. 
 
 Also in: H. G. liatham, The Xationalities of 
 Kiiyiipt'. 
 
 7th Century. — (Servia, Croatia, Bosnia, 
 Dalmatia and Montenegro.) — The Slavonic 
 settlement. — "No couiuiy on the face of our 
 unl'ortunate planet has been ofteiier ravaged, no 
 land so often soaked with the blood of its in- 
 habitants. At the dawn of history Bosnia 
 formed part of Illyria. It was .said to have been 
 already i)eopled by Slav tribes. Home con- 
 (piereii all tliis region as far as tlie Danube, and 
 annexed it to Dalmatia. Two jirovinc were 
 f. •ined, 'Dalmati.i maritima,' and ' Daliiiatia in- 
 tci 'a,' or 'lllyris barbara.' Order reigned, and 
 as the interior comiiuinieated with tlie coast, the 
 whole country tlouiished. Important ports 
 grew upon the littoral. ... At the fall of the 
 Emiiire came tlie (lOtlis, then the Avars, who, for 
 two centuries, burned and massacred, and turned 
 the whole! country into a desert. ... In 030 the 
 Croats began to occupy the ])rcscnt Croatia, 
 Slavonia, and the north of Bosnia, and in 040 the 
 Servians, of the same " jc and language, ex- 
 terminated tlie Avars .iiid peopled Servia, 
 Southern Bosnia, Montencgn, and Dalmatia. 
 TUe etUiic situation which exists to-day dales 
 
 245 
 
BALKAN AND DANI'IUAX STATKS. 
 
 HALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 from tills opncli." — E. do Lnvclcyc, Thf ndhin 
 J'ii(iii»iilii, c/i. iJ, — " Hcnii-liilH [will) ociiipifil 
 tlic tliriuic of the KiihIitm Kiiililrc iit Consliiii- 
 tiiiiiplr frciMi (110 til tll'J| iippi'urs to liiivc InriiiiMl 
 till' plan or rNtiililisliiiiu; ii prnimiit'Tit Imrrirr In 
 p^uriipr ii;;iiliist tliu t'iKToiicliiiii'iits of tlm Avars 
 iinilSclavDiiiaiis. . . . Ti)«cci)iiiplisli lliisolijcct, 
 lli'racliiis liiilii'.'ril the iScrbs, or Wcslrrii iScla- 
 VDiiiaiis, will) iHTupli'il till! cimiitry aliiiiit t.ii; 
 Carpalliiaii iiiiiiiiitaiiis, anil who liail siirri'ssfii'ly 
 <i|)piisi'il till' I'xiriisloii of till' Avar riiipiri'iii that 
 din rl ion, to aliandon tlirir aiirii'iit, scats, and 
 iiiovr down to till! SiMilli into tlu' proviiici's br- 
 twi'i'ii till' Adriatirand tlir Daiiiibi-. Thr Konian 
 and (ini'k popiilatiiiii of thi'sc prnvincos had 
 hern drivrii towards tlin scacnast by the con- 
 tinual iiiriirKiiais of till' norlhirii tribi's, and thi! 
 <lrsolati! plains of tliu iiili'rior had bri'ii orrnpicil 
 by u few Srlavoiiian subji'Cts and vassals of tlio 
 Avars. Tlii' most important of tlii! wrstcra 
 Hclavoniaii tribi'S who moved southward at tlin 
 invitutioii of irerat'lius were thu Servians and 
 <!roiitiaiis, who settled in the countries still 
 peopled by their deseemiants. Their orijjiiial 
 settlements were formed in con.seiiuenee of 
 friendly arranj^ements, and, doubtless, under the 
 sanction of an express treaty ; for the .Sclavonian 
 people of Illyria and Dalmatia long regarded 
 Iheinselves as bound ii) pay a certain degree of 
 territorial allegiance to the l-jastern Kiiipire. . . . 
 These colonies, unlike tlie earlier invaders of the 
 Kmpire, were composed of agricultuml com- 
 munities. . . . Unlike the military races of 
 Ooths, Huns, and Avars, who had ])receded 
 them, the Servian nations inca'ased and tlourislied 
 in the lands whi(!li they liaii colonized ; and by 
 tlio absorption of every relic of the ancient 
 liiipiilation, they formed political communitich 
 and independent states, which olTered n firm 
 barrier to the Avars and other hostile nations. 
 . . . The states which they constituted were of 
 considerable weight in the history of Europe; 
 and the kingdoms or bannats of Croatia, Servia, 
 Bosnia, Itascia and Dalmatia, occupied for some 
 centuries a political position very similar to that 
 now held by the secondary monarchical states of 
 the present day." — O. Finlay, Greece uiuler the 
 litwuiim. ch. 4, sect. 0. — See, also, Avahs: TifE 
 BiiKAKiNoop TiiEiu DOMINION; and Slavonic 
 Nations; (Itii and 7tii Centuuieb. 
 
 yth'-Sth Centuries (Bulgaria). — Vassalage to 
 the Khazars. See Khazahs. 
 
 9th Century (Servia).— Rise of the King- 
 dom. — "At the iieriod alluded to [the latter part 
 of the ninth century] the Servians did not, like 
 the rest of the L'llavonians, constitute a, distinct 
 state, but ncknovv'edged the 8U)iremacy of the 
 Eastern lloman Eniiieror: in fact the country 
 they ir.'.abitcd had, from ancient times, formed 
 part of the Boman territory ; and it Mill remained 
 part of the Eastern Kmpire when the Western 
 Empire wasreestablished, at the liine of Charle- 
 magne. The Servians, at tlie same period, em- 
 braced the Christian faith ; but in doing so they 
 did not subject themselves entirely, either to the 
 empire or church of the Greeks. . . . The Em- 
 l)eror . . . permitted the Servians to be ruled by 
 native chiefs, .solely of their own election, who 
 preserved a patriarchal form of government. 
 ... In the eleventh century, the Greeks, des- 
 pite of the stipulations they had entered into, at- 
 tempted to lake Servia under their immediate 
 control, and to subject it to their liuaucial sys- 
 
 tem." The attempt met with a defeat which 
 wasdeclslve. " Not only did it put a speedy ter- 
 miiialion to the encroachment of the Court of 
 Conslanlinopli' in imposing a direct governmint, 
 but it also tirnily cslalilished the princi'ly power 
 of the Grand Shiipanes; whose existence du- 
 Iiended on the preservation of the national iiidc- 
 peiidenie. . . . Pope Gregory VII. was the 
 first who saluted a Grand .Shupane as King." — 
 Ij. Von Itaiike, Hint, af S-rri<i. c!i. 1. 
 
 9th-i6th Centuries (Bosnia, Servia, Croatia, 
 Dalmatia.)— Conversion to Christianity.— The 
 Bogoiniles. — Hungarian crusades. — Turkish 
 conouest. — .Vflir tlie Slavonic sillleinent of Ser- 
 via, Bosnia, Croatia iind Dalmatia, foratimn "the 
 sovereignty of By/.antium was acknowledged. 
 But the conversion of these tribes, of Identieal 
 race, totwodiirereiitChristian rites, created an an- 
 tagonism which .still exists. The (,'roats were con- 
 verted llrst bv missionaries from Home; tliey 
 thus adopted ).iatiii letters and Latin ritual ; the 
 Servians, on the contrary, and consei|ueiitly 
 ))art of the inhabitants of Bosnia, were brought 
 to Christianity by Cyril and Methodius, wlio, 
 coining from Thcssalonica, brought the char- 
 acters and rites of the Eastern ('liurcli. About 
 860 Cyril translated the Bible into Slav, invent- 
 ing an alphabet which bears his name, and 
 which is still in use. ... In 874 Budimir, tlio 
 first Christian King of Bosnia, Croatia and 
 Dalmatia, called a diet upon the plain of 
 Dalminium, where ho tried to establish a regular 
 organization. It was about this time that the 
 name Bosnia appeared for the first time. It is 
 st.id to bo derived from a Slav tribe coming 
 originally from Tliraci!. In 905 Brisimir, ICing 
 of Servia. annexed Croatia and Bosnia; 'iiit this 
 union iliil not last long. The sovereignty of 
 By/.antium cca.sed in these parts after tlie year 
 ItiOO. It was gained by Lailislaus, King of 
 Hungary, about 1091. In 1103 Coloman, King 
 of Hungary, added the titles of 'Uex I^lmlB ' 
 (Herzegovina), then of ' Kcx Bosniic.' Since then 
 Bosnia has always been a dependence of the 
 crown of Saint Stephen. . . . About this time 
 some Albigenses came to Bosnia, who converted 
 to their beliefs a large number of the people who 
 were called Cauire, in German Patarener. In 
 Bosnia they received and adopted the nai)ie of 
 Bogomile, which means 'loving God.' Nothing 
 is more tragic than the history of this heresy. 
 . . . They [the BogomilesJ became in Bosnia a 
 oliicf factor, both of its history and its present 
 .situation. . . The Hungarian Kings, in obedi- 
 ence to the Pope, ceaselessly endeavoured to 
 extirpate them, and their frequent wars of 
 extermination provoked the hatred of the 
 Bosnians. ... In 1238 the first great crusado 
 was organized by Bela IV. of Hungary, in 
 obedience to Pope Gregory VII. The whole 
 country was devastated, and the Bogomiles nearly 
 all massacred, except a number who escapoil to 
 the forests and mountains. In 124.') the IIiui- 
 garian Bishop of K^ilocsa himself ? 1 a second 
 crusade. In 1280 a third crii«aile was luuk'r- 
 taken by Ladi.slaus IV., King of Hungary, in 
 order to regain the Pope's favour. . . . About 
 the year 1300 Pan' of Brebir, 'Banu.- Croatorum 
 et llosnia; dominus,' final!_> added Herzegovina 
 to Bosnia. Under the Ban Stejihen IV., the 
 Emperor of Servip, the great Dushan, occupied 
 Bosnia, but it soon regained its independeiice 
 (1355), au'l under Stephen Tvartko, who took 
 
 246 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 HAI-KAN AND DANUDIAN STATES. 
 
 tlio title of kins, tlm cmintry enjoyed ii last 
 pcrliiil (if jieiiee iind prospcilty. . . . Uefore Ills 
 (lentil the Turks appejired iiii the frontiers. At 
 the inenionilile unci dei.'lslve haltle of Kos.sovo 
 [seeTlltKs: A. D. IMIIO-IUHII). whieh iriwe them 
 Servhi, ;)(),(Mm liosnlans were engiitred. and, 
 thoii^fli retreatiiii; stopped the conciueror. 
 Under Tvariko II., the second kinir, who was iv 
 Uo;;otuile. IJo-inla en|ove(l some years' peaeo 
 (l!)'-'fl-IU;)). Then followed |seeTlliKs: A. I). 
 14()'J -I4.")l| a liloodv interlude of civil war," 
 ■which invited the Turks and prepared the way 
 for them. "Mohammed II.. wiioha<l just taken 
 ConstantinopI ' (ll.Vt), ailvaiicd with a fonnid- 
 nblc armv of l.'iD.OdO men, wliicli notldn.i; could 
 resist. The country was laid waste: ;ltl,(M)() 
 younj? men were circumcised and enrolled 
 lUiKUiftst the janissaries; 2(M),tHI0 (irisoners were 
 nu.le hi'ives; the towns which resisted were 
 buri.ed, the churches turned into mosr|ues, and 
 Uic lui.,1 coiillscated by Ihr conciuerors (I4ti;t). 
 . . . \. period of stni^fgle lasted from 1 1(K{ till 
 tho detlnil(i concpiest in l.V.>7 Isee Ti:i<Ks: A. I). 
 1451-1481 1. . . . When the l)allU! of Mohac/ 
 (August 2l», 1520) jjavi! llun^rarv to the Otto- 
 mans [see lIiNOAilV: A. I). 14H7-1.V.J(() .laitche. 
 the last rampart of Hosniu, whoso detenee had 
 inspired acts of legendary co\ira)r<', fell In its 
 tuin in 1527. A strange cin umstauco facilitated 
 the Musf.ulninn concpicst. To .save their wealth, 
 the greater nund)er of magnates, and almost all 
 the Uogoniiles, who were exasperated by the 
 cruel persecution.s directed against them, went 
 over to Islauiism. From that time they became 
 the most ardent followers of -Mohanui'cdanism, 
 whilst keeping the language and names of their 
 anc( stors. They fouglit everywhere iii the fore- 
 front of the battles which gained llungiiry for 
 the Turks." Within the present century the 
 Bosnian ^lussulmans have risen in arms "against 
 all the reforms that Europe, in the name of 
 modern pri.iciples, wrested from the Porte." — 
 E. de Laveleye, T/ie Ihtlhui PcniuKuUt, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: L. von lliuike. Hint. <if Serriii, ita. 
 
 loth-iith Centuries (Bulgfaria).— The First 
 Bul|;arian Kingdom and its overthrow by 
 Basil II. — "The glory of the Huljarians was 
 <;onliue(l to a narrow scope both of time and 
 place. In the Olh and 10th eeiiturioH they 
 reigned to the south of the Danube, but the 
 moro powerful nations iliat bad followed their 
 ■emigration rci)elled all return to the north and 
 all I'rogrcss U, the west. ... In the beginning 
 of the ilth century, the Second Basil [Byzantine 
 or (Ireek Emperor, A. I>. 97(5-102r)J who wivs 
 born in the purple, deserved the appellation of 
 confjueror of the Bulgarians [subdued by his 
 predecessor, John Zimi.sces, but still rebellious]. 
 His avarice was in some measure gratified by a 
 treaiiure of 400,000 nounds sterling (10,000 
 pounds' weight of gold) which he found in the 
 palace of Lychuidus. His cruelty inllicted a cool 
 and exquisite vengeance on 15,001) captives who 
 had been guilty of the defence of their country. 
 They were deprived of sight, but to one of each 
 hunllred a single eye was left, that he might con- 
 duct Ills bliiul century to the presence of their 
 king. Their king is said to have expired of 
 grief and horror; the nation was awed by this 
 terrible example, the Bulgarians were swept 
 away from their settlements, and circumscribed 
 witliin a narrow province; tlie surviving chiefs be- 
 queuthcd to their children the ail vice of patience 
 
 and the iluly of revenge." — E. Qlblion, Dteliiie 
 iindj'iill iif tlic Uiimdii /•'mpirf, ch. 55. 
 
 Also i.n: (1. Kinlay, Hint, nf ihf fii/zmitiiit 
 Kmiiiir,friim "Itl to 1(H»7, hk. 2, ch. 2.— See. also, 
 ('oNHT.\NTi.Noi'i.i:: \. I). ll07-104iJ, and AciiliiiiA, 
 
 TlIK KINOIIOM ul'. 
 
 A. D. 1096 (Bulgariai.— Hostilities with the 
 First Crusaders. .Se Cm sauks: V. I), lultd- 
 lOllO. 
 
 I2th Century (Bulgaria).— The Second Bul- 
 garian or Wallachian Kingdom.— " Thi' reign 
 of Isaac II. I llv/anline or (ireek Emperor. A. I). 
 1 1H5-I11(.')| is tilled with a series of revolts, caused 
 by his incapable administration anil linamial 
 rapacity. 'I hi' most important of these was thn 
 great rebellion of the V'allacbian and Hulgiirian 
 population which oceupied the country between 
 Mount Ibeiniis and the Danube. The imiueiiso 
 po|)ulation of this extensive country now sep- 
 arated itself llnally from the government of tlio 
 Ea.stern Empire, and its political destinies ceased 
 to be united with those of the Greeks. A new 
 European monarrhy, called the Vallachian, or 
 Second Biilgnriaii kingdom, was formed, which 
 for some time acti'd an important part in the 
 alTairs of the Ity/.antine Empire, and contributed 
 |)owerfully to the depression of the Greek race. 
 The sudden ImportauciMi.ssumed by the Vallachian 
 population in this revolution, and the great extent 
 of C'ountry then occupied by u |)eople who had 
 I)reviously acted no ])rominent part in the political 
 events of the East, render it necessary to give 
 some account of their previous history. Four 
 dilTerent countries are spoken of under the name 
 of Vallacbia by the Byzantine wr'ters: Gre.it 
 Vallachia, which was the country round the plain 
 of Thessaly, particularly the southern and south- 
 western part. White Vallachia, or the modern 
 Bulgaria, which formed the Vallachiollulgariaa 
 kingdom that revolted from Isaac II. ; Black 
 Vallachia, Mavro- Vallachia, or Karabogdon, 
 which is Moldavia; and Ilungarovallachia, or the 
 Vallachia of the jjresent day, comprising a part 
 of Transylvania. . . . The ciuestion remains un- 
 decided whether these Vallachians are the lineal 
 descendants of the Thracian race, who, Strabo 
 tells us, extended as far south as Thessaly, and as 
 far north as to the borders of Pannonia; for of 
 the Thracian language we know nothing." — 
 O. Finlay, Jlht. of the Hyzdntiiw and Greek Km- 
 pircs, from 710 to 145H, lik. 3, ch. 3, sect. 1. — 
 " Whether they were of Slavic origin or of Gaelic 
 or Welsh origin, whether they were the abo- 
 riginal inhabitants of theco\intry whohadcome 
 under the influence of tl;e elder Home, and had 
 acijuired so many Latin words as to overlay their 
 language and to retain little more than the gram- 
 maticai forms and mould of their own language, 
 or whether they were the descendants of the Latin 
 colonists of Dacia [see Dacia: Thajan's Con- 
 ijlt.st] with a, large mixture of other peoples, 
 are all questions which have been much contro- 
 verted. It is remarkable that while no peojilo 
 living on the south of the Balkans appear to be 
 mentioned as Wallachs until the tenth century, 
 when Anna Comneua mentions a village called 
 Ezeban, near Mimnt Kissavo, occupied by them, 
 almost suddenly we hear of them as a gieat 
 nation to the south of the Balkans. They spoko 
 a language which differed little from Latin. 
 Thessaly, during the twelfth century is usually- 
 called Great Wallachia. . . . Besides the Wal- 
 lachs in Thessaly, whose descendants are now 
 
 247 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 riilk'(i KutzoWnlliichs, there were the Wnllachs 
 ill Diiciii, th(! aneestors of the jirescnt Uouman 
 inns, 1111(1 Miivro-Wullnclis in Dtilmatin. Indeed, 
 iiocording to tlie Iliingiiritin and Byzantine writ- 
 ers, tlien! were during tlie twelftli rentury ii 
 series of Wallncliian peoples, (extending from the 
 Tlieiss to tlie Dniester. . . . Tlie word Wallacli 
 is used hy tlie Byzantine writers as equivalent to 
 shepherd, and it may be that the eonimon use of 
 a dialeet of Latin by all the Wallaohs is the only 
 bond of union among the peoples bearing that 
 name. Thcj were all occasionally spoken of by 
 the By/.antinc! writers as descendants of the 
 Itomaiis." — E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, 
 eh. 3. — " The classical type of feature, so often 
 met with among Roumanian peasants, pleads 
 strongly for the theory of Roman extraction, and 
 if just now I compared the Saxon pca.sants to 
 Noah's ark figures rudely carved out of the 
 coarsest wood, the Roumanians as often remind 
 me of a type of face chiefly to be seen on cameo 
 ornaments, or ancient signet rings. Take at ran- 
 dom a score of individuals from any Roumanian 
 village, and, like a handful of antique gems 
 which liave been strewn broadcast over the land, 
 you will there surely find a good choice of classi- 
 cal profiles wortliy to be immortalized on agate, 
 onyx, or jasper. An air of plaintive melancholy 
 generally characterizes the Roumanian peasant: 
 it is the melancholy of a long-subjected and 
 oppres.sed race. . . . Perhaps no other rac pos- 
 sesses in such marked degree the blind and im- 
 movable sense of nationality whicli charac ierizes 
 the Roumanians. They liardly ever mingle with 
 the surrounding races, far less adopt manners 
 and customs foreign to their own. Tliis singular 
 tenacity of tlie Roumanians to their own dress, 
 manners and customs is probably due to the in- 
 fiiience of their religion [the Greek church], 
 which teaches tliat any divergence from their own 
 established rules is sinful." — E. Gerard, Trnn- 
 nt/lriiiiiini PcojilcK (Coiiti'mp. Jicv., Mareh, 1887). 
 A. D. 1341-1356 (Servia). — The Empire of 
 Stephan Dushan. — "In llUl, when .John C'nn- 
 tacuzeiius assumed the purple [at Constantinople], 
 important prospects were opened to the Servians. 
 Cantaeiizenus . . . went up the mountains and 
 prevailed upon Stephan Dushan, the powerful 
 king of the Servians, whom he found in a coun- 
 try palace at Pristina, to join his cause." As the 
 result of this connection, and by favor of the op- 
 portunities which tlie civil war and general de- 
 cline in the Greek Emiiire afforded him, Stephan 
 Dushan extended his dominions over Epirus, 
 Thessaly, Macedonia, and a part of Thrace. 
 "The Shkypetares in Albania followed his 
 standard ; Arta and Joanninu were in his posses- 
 sion. From these points his Voivodes [Palatines], 
 whose districts may easily be traced, spread 
 themselves over llic whole of the Roumelian 
 terri iry on the Vardar and the Mariz/.a. as 
 far as Bulgaria, which he also regarded as a 
 province of his kingdom. Being in the posses- 
 sion of so extensive a dominion, he \ iw ventured 
 to assume a title which was still in dispute be- 
 tween the fjastern and Western I'Imiiires, and 
 could not riirhtly be claimed by either. As a 
 Servian Krale, he could neither ask nor expect 
 the obedience of tlie Greeks: therefore he called 
 himself Emperor of the Rounielians — the Mace- 
 donian (,'lirist-Ioving Czar — and began to wear 
 the tiara. . . . Stephan Dushan died [Dec. 2, 
 1S56J before he had completed the Empire of 
 
 which he had laid tlu; foundation, and ere he 
 had strengtliened his power by the bulwark of 
 national institutions." — L. Von lianke, Hut. of 
 Srria, ch. 1-2. 
 
 Ai.soin: M'me E. L. Mijatovicli, Kokkhvo, Int. 
 
 A. D. 1389 (Bulgaria). — Conquest by the 
 Turks. See Tithkk (The Otto.mans): A. D. 
 13fiO-i;!89. 
 
 14th Century (Bulgaria). — Subjection to 
 Hungary. See Hunoauv: A. D. l;)01-1442. 
 
 I4th-i8th Centuries (Roumania, or Wal- 
 lachia, and Moldavia). — Four Centuries of 
 Conflict with Hungarian'j and Turks. — "The 
 AVallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, whatever may 
 have been its limit.s, was annihilated by a horde 
 of Tartars about A. 1). IS.W. The same race 
 committed great havoc in Hungary, conquered 
 the Kuniani, overran Moldavia, Transylvania, 
 Ac, and held their ground there until about the 
 middle of the 14th century, when they were 
 driven northward by the Hungarian, Saxon, and 
 other settlers in Transylvania; and with their 
 exit we have done with the barbarians. . . . 
 Until recently the historians of Roumania have 
 had little to guide them concerning the events 
 of the ])eriod beyond traditions which, though 
 very interesting, are now gradually giving place 
 to recorded and authenticated facts. ... It is 
 admitted that the plains and slopes of the 
 Carpathians were inhabited by communities 
 ruled over by chieftains of varying power and 
 influence. Some were banates, as that of 
 Craiova, which long remained a semi-indepen- 
 dent State; then there were petty voivofles or 
 ])rinces . . . ; and besides these there were 
 Khanates, . . . some of which were petty 
 principalities, whilst others were merely the 
 govcrnorsliips of villages or groups of them. 
 . . . ^lircea, one of the heroes of Roumanian 
 history, not only secured the independent 
 sovereignty, and called himself Voivodc of Wal- 
 lacliia 'by the grace of God,' but in 1389 he 
 formed an alliance with Poland, and assumed 
 other titles by the right of conquest. This 
 alliance . . . had for its objects the extension of 
 his dominions, as well as protection against 
 Hungary on the one hand, and the Ottoman 
 power on the other; for the . . . Turki.sli armies 
 had overrun Bulgaria, and about the year 1391 
 they first made tlieir appearance north of the 
 Danube. At first the bravery of Mircea was 
 successful in stemining tlie tide of invasion;" 
 but after a year or two, "finding himself be- 
 tween two powerful enemies, the King of Hun- 
 gary and the Sultan, Jlircea elected to form an 
 alliance with the latter, and concluded a treaty 
 with him at Nicopolis (1393), known as the First 
 Capitulation, by which Walla'-hia retained its 
 autonomy,' but agreed to pay an annual tribute 
 and to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Sultan. 
 . . . According to several historians Mircea did 
 not adheri! to it long, for he is ^ lid to have been 
 in command of a contingent in tlie army of the 
 crusaders, and to have been present at the battle 
 of Nicopolis (1396), in which the fiower of the 
 French nobility fell, and, when he found their 
 cause to be hopeless, once more to have deserted 
 them and joined the victorious arms of Bajazct. 
 (1f the continued wars and dissensions in Wal- 
 lacliia during the reign of Mircea it is unneces- 
 sary to speak. He ruled with varjfing fortunes 
 until 1418 A. D." A Second Capitulation was 
 concluded, at Adrianople, with the Turks, in 
 
 248 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 1400. 1-v a Inter Walliutliiiiu voivcdi', named 
 Vlad. It iiiereased the tribute to tlie I'ortc, Imt 
 made no other important chaniie in tlie terms of 
 suzerainty. Meiuilime, in tlie neigld)()uring 
 Moldavian principality, eveut.s were bcKinning 
 to shape themselves into some historical distinet- 
 nes.s. "For a century after the foundation of 
 Moldavia, or. as it was at tirst called, Bogdania, 
 hy Bogdan Dragosch [a legendary hero], the 
 history of the country is shrouded in darkness. 
 Kings or princes are named, one or more of 
 whom were Lithuanians. . . . Atlengthaiirince 
 more )iowerful than the rest ascended the throne. 
 . . . This was Stephen, sometimes called tlus 
 'Great' or ' Good.' ... He came to the throne 
 about 115(5 or 1458, and reigned until 1504, and 
 his whole life was spent in wars against Transyl- 
 vania, AVallu('hia, . . . the Turks, a. ' TartaV.s. 
 ... In 1475 he was at war with t.-e Turks, 
 whom he defeated on the river Birlad. ... In 
 that year also Stephen . . . completely overran 
 Wallachia. Having reduced it to siibmission, 
 he placed a native boyard on the throne as his 
 viceroy, who showed his gratitude to Stephen 
 by rebelling • nd libc'rating the country from his 
 rule; but he was in his turn murdered by his 
 Wnllacliian subjects. In 1470 Steiihen sustained 
 a terrible defeat at the hands of the Ottomans at 
 Valea Alba (the 'White Yalk^), but eight years 
 afterwards, allied with the Poles, he again en- 
 countered [and defeated] this terrible enemy. 
 . . . After the battle of .Moliacs [see IIunoahy: 
 A. D. 1487-1520] the Turks began to encn)ach 
 more openly upon IJoinr.anian (Moldo-Wal- 
 lachian) territory. They occupie<l and fortified 
 Braila, Giurgevo, and Galatz; interfered in the 
 election of the princes . . . adding to their own 
 intluence, and rendering the ])rinces more and 
 more suli.servient to their will. This state of 
 things histed until the end of the 10th century, 
 when another hero, Jlichael the Brave of Wal- 
 lachia, restored tranquility and independence to 
 the Principalities, and raised i hem for a .season 
 in the esteem of surrounding nations." Michael, 
 who moiuited the throne in 1593, formed an 
 alliance with the Prince of SiebenbUrgen 
 (Transylvania) and tlu? voivode <if Jloldavia, 
 against the Turks. He began his warfare, 
 November. 1594, by a wholesale massacre of the 
 Turks in Bucharest and .Tassy. lie then took 
 Giurgevo by storm and defeated the Ottoman 
 forces in a battle at Hustchuk. In 1595, Giurgevo 
 was the scene of two bloody battles, in both of 
 which ]\lichael came off victor, wiJi famous 
 laurels. The Tui-ks were effectually driven from 
 the country. The ambition of the victorious 
 Michael was now excited, and he invaded 
 Transylvania (1599) desiring to add it to his do- 
 minions. In a battle " whieli is called by some 
 the battle of Schellcnberg, and by others of 
 Hermanstadt." he defeated the reignir.g prince. 
 Cardinal Andreas, and Transylvania was at his 
 feet. He subdueil ^lohlavia with equal ease, 
 and the whole of ancient Dacia became subject 
 to his rule. The Emperor Rudolph, as suzerain 
 of Transylvania, recognized his authority. But 
 his reign was brief. Before the close of the year 
 1600 a rising occurred in Transylvania, and 
 Michael was defeated in a battle tbught at 
 Miriszlo. He escaped to the mountjiins and bi;- 
 came a fugitive for some months, while even his 
 Wallachian throne was occupied by a brother of 
 tlui Moldavian voivode. At length he made 
 
 terms with the P2ni])eror Rudolph, wlio.se au- 
 thority had been slighted by the Tran.sylvanian 
 insurgents, and procured men and money with 
 whicli heretuna-d in force, <ruslic(l hisopponents 
 at Goioszlo, and reigned again as viceroy. Hut 
 he quarrelef' soon with tlie cdmmandci- 'if the 
 imperial troi d.s, General Basta, and the hillcr 
 caii.sed him to be assassinated, some time in 
 Augu.st, 1601. . . . TlK! history of Mohh)-\Val- 
 laeliia (luring the 17th century . . . possesses 
 little interest for English readers." At the end 
 of the 17th century "another great Power 
 [Russia] was drawing nearer and nearer to Rou- 
 niania, which was e\ eiitually to exercise a grave 
 intluence upon her ilestiiiy. ... In the begin- 
 ning of the ]8tl century there ruled two 
 voivodes, f'oiistaiu.n,' Br.ucovano. in AVallaihia. 
 and Deme.'vius C'antei"''r in Moldavia, both of 
 whom had been apji liuted in the usual manner 
 under the suzerainty of tli(! Porte; but these 
 jiriuces, indejiendently of each other, had entered 
 into ni'gotiations with Peter the Great after the 
 defeat of diaries XII. at Pultawc (1701.,., to 
 assist them against the Sultan, tlieii suzi-rain, 
 stipulating for their own iudepeisdiuce under 
 the protection of the Czar." Peter was induced 
 to enter the country with a CijusuleriJiIe army 
 [1711], but s"on found himself in a position from 
 which there appeared little cha.ice or escape. 
 He was extricated only by the cleverness of the 
 Czarina, who bribe<l the Turkish commander 
 with her jewels — sec Scandix.\vi.\n St.\te8 
 (SwEDKN); A. D. 1707-1718. The Moldavian 
 Voivode escaped with the Russians. The Wal- 
 lachian, Braneovano, was seized, taken to Con- 
 stantinople, and put to death, along with his 
 four sons. "Stephen Cautacuzeue, the son of 
 his accusers, was made Voivode of Wallachia, 
 but like his iiredecessors he only enjoyed the 
 honour for a brief term, and two years after- 
 wards he was deposed, ordered to Constantinople, 
 imprisoned, and decapitated; and with him 
 terminated the rule of the native princes, who 
 were followed, both in Wallachia and ^loldavia, 
 by the so-callcil Phanariote governors [see 
 PiiANAHioTEs] or farmers-general of the Porte." 
 — J. Samuelson, lioumania. Pant and Present, 
 pt. 2, di. ii-i;i. 
 
 I4th-I9th Centuries : (Montenegro) The 
 new Servia. — " The people that inhabit the two 
 territories known on the map as Serv;a and 
 Jlontenegro are one and the same. If you ask 
 a Montenegrin what language he speaks, he 
 replies 'Serb.' The last of the Serb Czars fell 
 gloriously lighting at Kossovo in 1389 [.see 
 TuKKs: A. D. 1360-1380]. To this day the 
 jMontenegrin wears a strip of black silk upon 
 his headgear in memory of that fatal day. . . . 
 The brave Serbs who escaped from Kossovo 
 found a sanctuary in the mountains that overlook 
 the Bay of Cattaro. Their leader, Ivo, sur- 
 nanied T,sernoi (Black), gave the nauic of 
 Tzrnogora (Montenegro) to these de.scrt rocks. 
 . . . Servia having become a Turkish province, 
 her colonists created in Montenegro a new and 
 independent Servia [see Tukks: A. D. 1451- 
 1481]. The iiH-'inory of Ivo the Black is still 
 greeu in the country. Springs, ruins, and 
 caverns are called after him, and the people look 
 forward to the day when lie will reappear us 
 a political Messiah. But Ivo's descendants 
 proved unworthy of him; they committed the 
 unpardonable sin of marrying alieua, and early 
 
 249 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 in the ■'.fltli century the Iftst dcsrcndant of Ivo the 
 Blnck retired to Venice. From 1516 to Kii)? 
 Montenegro wius ruled by elective Vlndikii-s or 
 Bishops; from 1097 to 1^51 by hereditnry Vlii- 
 dil a.s. For the Montenegrins the 16th, 17tli 
 and 18' 1> centuriea formed a period of incessiuit 
 wnrfiirc. . . . Up till 1703 the Serbs of the 
 mountHin were no more absolutely independent 
 of the Sultan than their enslaved kinsmen of the 
 
 f)lain. The Iluvatch or Sultan's slipper tax was 
 evied on the mountaineers. In 1703 Danilo 
 Petrovitch celebrated his consecration as a 
 Christian Bi.shop by ordering the slaughter ; f 
 every Mussulman who refused Lo bo baptised. 
 This ma.ssacre took jdaeeon Christmas Eve 1703. 
 . . . The 17th and 18th centuries were for 
 IMontenegro a struggle for existence. In the 
 10th century began their struggle for an outlet 
 to the sea. The fall of Venice would naturally 
 have given the mountaineers the bay of Cattaro, 
 Inid not the French stepped in and annexed Dal- 
 matia." In 1813, the Vladika, Peter I., "with 
 the aid of the British fleet . . . too!; Cattaro 
 from the French, but (pursuant toan arrangement 
 between Russia and Austria) was compelled sub- 
 sequently to relin<iuish it to the latter power. 
 . . . Peter I. of Montenegro . . . died in 1830, 
 at the age of 80. . . . His nephew Peter II. was 
 a wise ruler. . . . On the death of Peter II., 
 Prince Danilo, the uncle of the iirescnt Prince, 
 went to Russia to be consecrated Bishop of 
 JMontenegro. The czar seems to have laughed 
 him o>it of this ancient practice; and the late 
 Prince instead of converting himself into monk 
 and bishop returned to his own country and 
 married [IH.'il]. . . . Prince D.inilo was a.ssas- 
 Binated at Cattaro (1860). . . . He was succeeded 
 l)y his nephew Nicholas." — J. G. C. Jlinchin, 
 fkrvin and Montenegro (Natiomd Life (Did 
 Thoufiht, ket. 19). — "The present form of 
 government in Jlontcnegro is at once the most 
 despotic and the most pojiular in Europe — des- 
 potic, because the will of the Prince is the law of 
 the land ; and popular, because the ])ersonal rule 
 of the Prince meets all the wants and wishes of the 
 people. No Sovereign in Europe sits so firmly 
 on his throne as the Prince of this little St^'^e, 
 and no Sovereign is so absolute. The -Montene- 
 grins have no army; they are themselves a 
 standing army." — J. G. C. Mi^'jhin, The Growth 
 of Freedom in the PalKon Pent nmihi, eh. 1. — A. A. 
 faton, Renciirehes on Jie Dnniihe amltheAdriatie, 
 bk. 3, c!i 7 (p. 1). — L. Von Ranke, Jlist of Seritia. 
 Ac. : Slnre Provinces of TurK-eij, eh. 3-0. — 
 " Montenegro is an extremely curious instance 
 of the way in wliich favourable geographical 
 ' conditions may aid a small jieople to achieve a 
 fame and a place in the world quite out of pro- 
 portion to their numbers. Tlie Black Mountain 
 is the one place wliere a South Sclavonic com- 
 munity maintained themselves in independence, 
 sometimes seeing their territory overrun by the 
 Turks, but never acknowledging Turkish 
 authority de jure from the time of the Turkish 
 Conquest of the 15th century down to the Treaty 
 of Berlin. Montenegro could not have done 
 that but for her geographical structure. She is a 
 high mass of hmestone; you cannot call it a 
 plateau, because it is seamed by many valleys, 
 — and rises into many sharp mountain-peaks. 
 Still, it is a mountain mass, the average height 
 of which is rather more than 2,000 feet above 
 ; the sea, with summits reaching 5,000. It is bare 
 
 limestone, so that there is hardly anything 
 grown on it, only grass — and very good grass — 
 in spots, with little patclies of corn and jiotatoes, 
 and it has scarcely any water. Its upland is 
 covered with snow in winter, while m sum- 
 mer the invaders have to carry their water with 
 them, a .serious diffleidty when there were no roads, 
 and active mountaineers fired from behind e%'ery 
 rock, a dilficulty which becomes more serious the 
 larger the invading force. Consequently it is 
 one of the most impracti(.ablo regions imaginable 
 for an invading army. It is owing to those 
 circumstances that this handful of people — 
 i)ecause the Alontenegrins of the 17th century 
 did not number more than 40,000 or 50,000 — 
 have maintained their independence. That they 
 did maiiUain it is a fact most importjxnt in the 
 history of the Balkan Peninsula, and may have 
 great con.seq\ience8 yet to come." — J. Bryce, 
 Jlelationa of Jlistori/ and Qeography (Contemp. 
 Iter., Mar., 1880). 
 
 I4th-i9th Centuries.— (Servia) : The long 
 oppression of the Turk. — Struggle for free- 
 dom under Kara Georg and Milosch. — Inde- 
 pendence achieved. — The Obrenovitch dy- 
 nasty. — "The brilliant victories of Stephan 
 Dushan wore a misfortune to Christendom. 
 They .shattered the Greek empire, the last feeble 
 bulwark of Europe, and paved the way for 
 those ultimate successes of the Asiatic conquer- 
 ora wliich a timely imion of strength might liavc 
 lireventod. Stephan Dushan conquered, but did 
 not consolidate: and his scourging wars were in- 
 suflleiently balanced by the advantage of the 
 cotlo of laws to which he gave his name. His 
 son Urosh, b' ing a weak and incapable prince, 
 was murdered by one of the generals of the 
 army, and thus ended the Neman dynasty, after 
 havuig subsisted 313 years, and produced eight 
 kiu-^s and two cmijorors. The crown now de- 
 volved on Knes, or Prince Lasar, a connexion of 
 the house of Neman. ... Of all the ancient 
 rulers of the country, his memory is liold the 
 dearest by the Servians of the jiresont d;iy." 
 Knes Lasar perished in the fatal battle of Ivos- 
 .sovo, and with liim fell the Servian monarchy 
 (see TuuKS: A. D. 1300-1389, 1403-1451, anU 
 1459; also Mo:;tenkoho). "The Turkish con- 
 quest was followed by the gradual dispersion or 
 (lisappeanmce of the native nobility of Servia, 
 tlie last of whom, the Brankovitch, lived as 
 ' despots ' in the castle of Semoudria up to the 
 l-iginning of the 18th century. . . . The period 
 lirocoding the second siege of Vienna was tlie 
 spring-tide of Islam conquest. After this event, 
 in 1684, began the ebb. Hungary was lost to 
 the Porte, and six years afterwards 37,000 Ser- 
 vian fap'ilies emigi -ted into that kingdom ; this 
 first led the way to ccntact with the civilization 
 of Germany. . . . Seivia Proper, for : a short 
 time wrested from the Porte by the victories of 
 Prince Eugene, again became a part of tlie do- 
 minions of the Sultan [see Russia: A. D. 1739]. 
 But a turbulent militia overawed the govern- 
 ment and tyrannized over the Rayahs. Pasvan 
 Oglou and his bauds at Widdin were, at the end 
 of the last century, in open revolt against the 
 Porte. Otlier chiefs liad followed liis example ; 
 and for the first time the Divan thought of 
 associating Christian Rayahs with the spaliis, to 
 put down these rebels. The Daliis, as these 
 brigand-chiefs were called, resolved to anticipate 
 the approaching struggle by a massacre of tho 
 
 250 
 
BALKAN AND BANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 most influential Cliristiiins. This nlrooious nms- 
 siirrc was ciirriod out witli indcscribiiljlo liorrors. 
 . . . Kiira Qt'org [Black Georj^i'], a peasant, 
 born at ToDola about the year 1707, Kfttinfr 
 timely information tliat his name was in tin; list 
 of the (loomed, tied into tlie woods, and gradu- 
 ally orjranized a formidable force. In tlie rame 
 ofthePorIc lie cond)ated the Dahis, wlio liad 
 usurped local autliority in defiance of tlie I'aslia 
 of Belgrade. Tlie Divan, little anticipating tlie 
 idtimate is.stio of tlie struggle in iServia, was at 
 first deliglited at tlie siiccess of Kara Georg; but 
 soon sjiw witli constLrnation that tlieri.sing of tlic 
 Servian peasants grew into a formidalilc rebellion, 
 and ordered tlie I'aslias of Bosnia and Scodra to 
 assemble all thei disposable forces and invade 
 Scrvia. Between 40,000 ai.d .")0,000 Bosniac 
 burst into Scrvia on the west, in the spring of 
 1800, catting to pieces all who refu.sed to receive 
 Turkish authority. Kara (Jcorg undauntedly 
 met the storm," defeating 'the Turkish forces 
 near Tchoupria, September, 1804, and more 
 severely two years later (August. 1800) at Slia- 
 batz. In December of the same year he surprised 
 and took Belgrade. "The succeeding years were 
 passed in the vicissitudes of a guerilla warfar.i, 
 neither party obtaining any marked success; and 
 an au.xdiary corps of Uiissians assisted in pre- 
 venting the Turks from making the re-coiKjuest 
 of Scrvia. . . . Kara Georg was now a Russian 
 lieutenant-general, and exercised an almost un- 
 limited power in Scrvia; the revolution, after a 
 struggle of eight years, api)cared to be .success- 
 ful, but the momeiitous events then passing in 
 Europe completely altered the aspect of affairs. 
 Russia, in 1813, on the approach of ihe countless 
 legions of Napoleon, precipitately concluded the 
 treaty of Bucharest, the eighth article of wlii( :!i 
 foriually assured a separate administration to the 
 Servians. Next year, however, was fatal to 
 Kara Georg. In 18l;J, the vigour of the Otto- 
 man cmpir . . . was now concentrated on the 
 resubjugation of Seri ■'a. A general panic .seemed 
 to seize the nation; and Kara Geor), and his 
 companions in arms sought a retreat on the A\is- 
 trian territory, and thence passed into Wallachia. 
 In 1814, 300 Christians wereimjinled at Belgrade 
 by the Pasha, and every valley in Scrvia pre- 
 sented the spectacle of infuriated Turkish spahis 
 avenging on the Servians the blood, exile and 
 confiscation of the ten ])receding years. At this 
 period, Jlilosh Obrenovitch api)ears iironiinently 
 on the political tapis, lie spent his youth in 
 herding the famed swine of Scrvia; and during 
 the revolution was employed by Kara Georg to 
 watch the ]iasses of the Balkans. . . . lie now 
 saw that a favourable conjuncture had come for 
 his advancement from the positio;i of cliieftain 
 to that of chief; he therefore lost no time in 
 making terms with the Turks, offering to collect 
 the tribute, to serve them faithfully, and to aid 
 them in the resubjugation of the people. . . . 
 He now displayed singular activity in the ex- 
 tirpation of all the other popular chief.s," until 
 lie found reason to suspect that the Turks were 
 only using him to destroy him in the end. Then, 
 in 1815, Tie turned upon them and raised the 
 standard of revolt. The movement which he 
 headed was so formidable that the Porto made 
 liaste to treat, and Milosch made favvnirable 
 terms for himself, being reinstated as tribute- 
 collector. "Many of the chiefs, impatient at 
 the speedy submission of Milosh, wished to flght 
 
 17 
 
 the matter out, and Kara Georg, in order to give 
 effect to tlieir i)laiis, landed in Scrvia. iMilosh 
 pretemled to he friendly to his designs, but 
 secretly betrayed his place of concealment to the 
 governor, whose men brok(! into the cottage 
 where lie .slejjf, and |)ut him to death." — A. A. 
 Paton, KiDiiuv/iiK on the Ihumlie iiiiil the Ailriatic, 
 Ilk. 1, (•/(.;!. — "In 1817 Milosch was proclaimed 
 hereditary Prince of Scrvia by the National 
 As.sembly. ... In 1830 the autonomy of Scrvia 
 was at length .solemnly rceogni/ed by the Porte, 
 and Miloscli proclaimed ' the father of the Father- 
 land.'. . . If asked why the desceiulants of M'l- 
 os 1' still rule over Scrvia, am', not tlic dcsceuil- 
 nnts of Kara George, my answer is that every 
 step in Servian progress is connected witli the 
 (ibrenovitcli dynasty. The liberation of the 
 country, the creation of a juNisant jiroprietary, 
 the filial withdrawal of tlie Turkish troops from 
 Belgrade in 1803, tlie independence of the 
 country, the extension of its territory, and tlie 
 making of its railways, — all of these are among 
 the results of Obrenovitch rule. The founder of 
 the dynasty had in 1830 a great opportunitv of 
 making his people free as well as independent. 
 But Milosch hi'd lived too long with Turks to be 
 a lover of freedom. ... In 1839 Milo.scli ab- 
 dicated. The reason for this step was that he- 
 refused to accept a constitution which Hu.ssia 
 and Turkey concocted for him. Tliis charter 
 vested the actual government of the country in 
 a Senate comjiosed of Miloseh's rivals, and en- 
 tirely independent of that Prince. ... It was 
 anti-democratic, no less tlian anti-dynastic. Jlil- 
 oscli was succeeded first by liis son Milan, and 
 on Jlilan's deatli by Michael. Micliacl was too 
 gentle for the troubled times in which lie lived, 
 and after a two years's reign lie too started upon 
 his travels. . . . When Micliacl crossed the Save, 
 A lexander Kara Georgevitcli was elected Prince 
 of Servia. F.om 1843 to 18r)8 the son of Black 
 George lived — he can scarcely be said to have 
 reigned — in Belgrade. During these 17 years 
 this feeble son of a strong man did absolutely 
 nothing for liis country. . . . Late in 1858 lie 
 fled from Servia, and >lilosch ruled in his stead. 
 Milosch is the Grand Old Man of Serb history. 
 His mere presence in Scrvia cliccked the in- 
 trigues of foreign powers. lie died peacefully in 
 his bed. . . . Slicliacl succeeded his father. . . . 
 Prince Micliacl was murdered by convicts in the 
 park at Topschidera near Belgrade." lie "was 
 succeeded (1808) by Milan, the grandson of Ze- 
 lihrem, the brotlicr of Milosch. As Milan was 
 barely fourtec^n years of age, a Regency of three 
 was api)ointcd." — J. G. C. Jlincliin, Seirin and 
 Montenegro {Nntionid Life diul Thout/ht, leet. 19). 
 
 Ai.so IN: E. de Luvelcye, The lidlhni I'cnin- 
 siilfi, eh. 0. 
 
 A. O. 1718 (Bosnia). — A part ceded to Aus- 
 tria by the Turks. See IIuno.\uv: A. I). 1099- 
 1718. 
 
 A. D. 1739 (Bosnia and Roumania). — Entire 
 restoration of Bosnia to the Turks, and Ces- 
 sion of Austrian Wallachia. See Russia: A. D. 
 1725-1739. 
 
 19th Century (Roumania Jtnd Servia). — 
 Awakening of a National Spirit.— The effect 
 of historical teaching. — "No political fact is of 
 inort! importance and interest in modern conti- 
 nental history than the tenacity with which the 
 smaller nations of Europe jireserve their pride of 
 nationality in the face of the growing tendency 
 
 251 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STAT:3S. 
 
 lowiiids the fi)rinnli(m (if liirgc, strniiKly cm- 
 fciitnilt'di'inpircs, suppdi'lcd by pDWcmil armies. 
 Why HliDiild I'nrtugal utterly refuse to unite 
 with Spain? Wliy do Holland and Belgium 
 cling to their existence as separate States, in 
 spite of all IheefTorts of .statesmen to join them 1 
 Why do the people of Bohemia and C^roalia, 
 of Finland, and >f Polani!, refuse to ('oalesee 
 with the rest of the ixiniil.ition of tlie em- 
 pires of v.hich they form hut small sections? 
 Why, linally, <lo the new kingdoms of Houmania 
 and'Servia show such astonishing vitality V Tlic 
 arguments as to distinctive race or distinctive 
 lHnguag(.' fail to answer all these (piestions. . . . 
 This rekindling of the nati(mal spirit is the result 
 chiefly of the (levelopnient of tlie new historical 
 school all over the Continent. Instead of remain- 
 ing in ignorance of their pa.st history, or, at 
 l)e8t, regarding u mass of legends as containing 
 the true talc of their countries' •ichievcmenls, 
 these small nations have now learnt from the 
 works of their great historians what the story 
 of their fatlierlands really is, and what title they 
 have to be proud of their ancestors. These great 
 historians — llerctdano, Palacky, Szuchenyi, and 
 the rest — wlio made it their aim to tell the truth 
 aud l..^t to sliow off the beauties of a tine literary 
 style, all belonged to the generation winch had its 
 interest aroused in the history of the past by tlic 
 novels of Sir Walter Scott and the iiroductions of 
 tlie Romantic School, and they all learnt how 
 history was to be studied, and tiien written, from 
 Nielmhr, Von Banke and their disciples and fol- 
 lowers. From these masters tlicy learnt that 
 their Instories were not to be mad'.' interesting at 
 the expense of truth. . . . The vitality of the 
 new historical .school in Uouimuila is particularly 
 remarkable, for in the Dai'.ubian jjrovinces, 
 which form that kingdom, ccn more strenuous 
 efforts had been made to stamp out the national 
 spirit than in Boliemia, The e.Mraordinary 
 rapidity with which the .{oumanian ])eople has 
 rea.ss<!rted itself in recent y. 'ars, isoneof the most 
 remarkable facts in m(xlern European history, 
 aud it is largely due to the labours of its histor- 
 .luis. Up till 1833 the Roumanian language was 
 vigorously proscribed ; the rulers of the Danubiau 
 provinces permitted instruction to the upper 
 cluisses in the language of the rulers (mly. and 
 while Slavonic, anl in the days of the Phanariots 
 Greek, was the oflicial and fashional)le language, 
 used in educating the nobility and bourgeois, 
 the pcitsants were left in ignorance. Four men, 
 wnose names deserve record, tiret endeavoured 
 to raise the Roumanian language to a literary 
 level, and not only studied IJoumanian history, 
 but tried to teach the Roumanian people some- 
 thing of their own early history. Of these four, 
 George SchinkaY was by far the most remark- 
 able, lie was an inhabitjint of Tmnsylvania, a 
 Roumanian province which still remains subject 
 to Hungary, and he lirst thought of trying to 
 revive the Roiunanian "nationality by teaching 
 t/ic people their history. He arranged the amials 
 of his country from A. D. 80 to A. '>. 1739 with 
 indefiitigaJ)le hdniur, during the last .iilf of the 
 18th century, ami, according to Edgar Quiuct, 
 in such a trulj- nyKlcni manner, after such care- 
 ful weighing of originid autlM>rities, aud with 
 such critical power, that he deserves tc be ranV.cd 
 with the (treators of the modern historical sch'Md. 
 It need hardly lie sakl that SchinkaYs His' /ry 
 was not allowed to \xi priatcd by the Hungarian 
 
 authorities, who had no desire to see the .'Rou- 
 manian nationality re-as.sert itself, and the ceiisor 
 marked on it 'opus igue, auctorpatibulodignus. ' 
 It was not published tmtil 1H.");J, more than forty 
 years after its completion, andtlien only al.Ta.ssy, 
 "for the Hun';ari ins still proscri'oed it in Transyl- 
 vania. Si'hinkal's friend, Peter .Major, was more 
 fortunat(Mii his work, a ' History of the Origin 
 of the Roumanians in Dacia,' which, as it did 
 not touch (m modern society, was jiassed by tlio 
 Hungarian censorsliip, and printed at Buda 
 instil in 181!t. The two men who llrst taught 
 Roumanian history in the provinces which now 
 form the kin.gdoni of Roumania were not such 
 learned men as SchinkaV an<l Peter Major, but 
 their work was of more practical importance. 
 In IHlli George Asaky got leave to open a Rou- 
 manian class at the Greek Academy of Jassy, 
 under the pret(t.\t that it was necessary to teacli 
 surveying in the Roumanian tongue, because of 
 the (piesiions whicli c(aistantly arose in that pro- 
 fession, in which it would bo neces.sary to .s])eak 
 to the ijcasants in their own language, and in 
 his lectunis he carefully inserted lessons in Rou- 
 mnnian history, and tried to irousc the spirit of 
 the people. George Lazarus imitated him at 
 Bucharest in 1810, and the fruit of this instruc- 
 tion was seen when the Roumanians partially re- 
 gained their freedom. The Moldo-Waliachian 
 princes encouraged the teaching of Roumanian 
 idstory, as they encouraged the growth of the 
 spirit of Roumanian independence, and when the 
 Roumanian Academy was founded, an historical 
 section was formed with the special mission of 
 studying and publishin.g documents connected 
 with Rouniaiuan history. The modern scientitic 
 spirit has spread widely throughout the king- 
 dom." — II. Morse Stephens, Modern Jlistoii 'Ui 
 ami Hmall Nationalities (ConttMp. Rev., July, 
 1887). 
 
 A. D. 1829 (Roumania, or Wallachia and 
 Moldavia). — Important provisions of the 
 Treaty of Adrianople. — Life Election of the 
 Hospodars. — Substantial independence of the 
 Turk. See Tuiiks: A. 1). 182«-183!). 
 
 A. D. X856 (Roumania, or Wallachia and 
 Moldavia). — Privileges guaranteed by the 
 Treaty of Paris. See Russi.v: A. I). IHnt-lH.jO. 
 
 A. D. 1858-1866.— (Roumania or Wallachia 
 and Moldavia). — Union of the two provinces 
 under one Crowrn. — Accession of Prince 
 Charles of Hohenzollern. See Tuuks: A. I). 
 18()1-1877. 
 
 A. D. 1875-1878.— The Breaking of the 
 Turkish yoke. — Bulgarian atrocities. — Russo- 
 Turkish War.-— In 1875, a re\olt broke out in 
 Herzegovina. "The efforts made to suppress 
 the growing revolt strained the already weakened 
 resources of the Porte, until tliev could bear up 
 against it no longer, and the lierzegovinese re- 
 bellion proved tlie last straw which broke the 
 back of Turkish solvency. . . . The liojies of 
 the insurgents were of course quickened by tliis 
 catastroidie, wliich, as they saw, would alienate 
 much sympathy from the Turks. The advisers 
 of the Sultan, tlicrefo'o, thought it necessary to 
 be conciliatory, and . . . they induced him to 
 i-ssiie an Inule, or circular note, promising tlie re- 
 mission of taxes, and economical am! social 
 reforms. . . . Europe, however, had grown tired 
 of the Porte's promises of amemlment, and for 
 some time the Imperial Powers liad been laying 
 their heails togetlier, and the result of tlicir con- 
 
 }52 
 
UALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN' AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 sultatioiis WHS the Aiulnissy Note. The iliito of 
 this (lociiinent wiis DfccinbtT !10tli, 1^75, mid it 
 WHS scut to tliosu of tlie Wt'steni Powers who 
 liiul signed tlie treaties of 185(5. It dechired tlmt 
 iiltlioujjh tlie spirit of llie suggested reforms was 
 good, tliere was some doiil)t whetlier tlic I'orU^ 
 had the strcngtli to carry tliem out; Count An- 
 drassy, tlierefore, projiosed tliat tlie o.xccutioii 
 of tlie iieee.s.sar}' measures should be placed under 
 the care of a special commission, half the mem- 
 bers of which should be Mu.ssuhiiaiis and half 
 Christians. . . . It concluded with a. serious warn- 
 ing, that if the war was not gone witli the snow, 
 ' the Governmcuts of Sijrvia and .Montenegro, 
 rt'liich have lia<l great dillleulty in keeping aloof 
 from the movement, will be unable to resist the 
 current.'. . . It was evident, however, that this 
 note would have but little or no ellect; it con- 
 tained no coercive precautions, and accordingly 
 the Porte quietly allowed the (juestion to drop, 
 and contented liiinself with profuse promises. 
 . . . So affairs drifted on; the little war continued 
 to sputter on the frontier; reinforced by Servians 
 and Montenegrins, the ilcrzegovinese succeeded 
 in keeping their enemy at bay, and, instigated, it 
 is saicl, by Russian emissaries, put forward de- 
 mauds whicli the Porte was unable to accept. 
 . . . The Powers, in no wise disconcerted by the 
 failure of their first attempt to settle the dittl- 
 culties between the Sultan and his rebellious sub- 
 jects, had published a sequel to the Andrassy 
 Note. There was an informal conference of the 
 three Imperial Chancellors, Prince Bismarck, 
 Prince Qortschakoff, and Count Andrassy, at 
 Berlin, in JIay. . . . Then on 3Iay IfJth the Am- 
 bassadors of England, France, and Italy were 
 invited to Prince Bismarck's house, and the text 
 of the famous Berlin Memorandum was laid be- 
 fore them. . . . While the three Chancellors 
 were forging their diplomatic thunderbolt, a 
 catastroplie of such a terrible nature had occurred 
 in the interior of Turkey that all talk of armis- 
 tices and mixed coinmissions had become stale 
 and unprofitable. The Berlin ^Memorandum was 
 not even presented to the Porte ; for a rumour, 
 though carefully suppressed by Turkish olHcials, 
 was beginning to leak out that there had been an 
 insurrection of the Christian population of Bul- 
 garia, and that the most horrible atrocities had 
 been committed by the Turkish irregular troops 
 in its suppression. It was communicated to Lord 
 Derby by Sir Henry Elliot on the 4th of JIay. 
 ... On June Iflth a letter was received from 
 him at the Foreign Ottice, saying, ' The Bul- 
 garian insurrection appears to be unquestionably 
 put down, although I regret to say, with cruelty, 
 and, in some places, with brutality. ' . . . A week 
 afterwards the Constantinople correspondent of 
 the Daily News . . . gave the estimates of Bul- 
 garians slain as varying from 18,000 to 30,000, 
 and the number of villages destroyed at about a 
 hundred. . . . That there was much truth in the 
 statements of the newspaper correspondents was 
 . . . demonstrated beyond possibility of denial 
 as soon as Sir Henry Elliot's despatches were 
 made public. ... 'I am satisfied,' wrote Sir 
 Henry Elliot, ' that, while great atrocities have 
 been committed, both by Turks upon Christiana 
 and Christians upon Turks, the former have been 
 by far the greatest, although the Christians were 
 undoubtedly the first to commence them.' . . . 
 Meanwhile, the Daily News had resolved on send- 
 ing out a special commissioner to make an iuvesti- 
 
 galioii iiiilcpi udciil of olUiial reports. Jlr. .1. A. 
 5lac(iahaii, an American, who had been one of 
 that journal's correspondents during tlie Franco- 
 German War, was the person selected. He 
 started in comiiany with Mr. Eugeni! Schuyler, 
 the great authority on the Central Asian 
 (luestion, who, in the capacity of Consul- 
 General, was about to prepare a similar state- 
 ment for the Hon. lIora<;e .Mayiiard, the riiiled 
 States jMinisterat Ccaistantiiiople. They arrived 
 ! at Pliilippopolis on the Wtliof .luly, when .Mr. 
 < Walter Bariiiif, one of the Secretaries of the 
 I British Legation at Constantinople, was already 
 ; engaged in collecting iiiforniati(ai. The first of 
 1 Mr. .MacGahan's letters was dated .luly the 28th, 
 and its publication in this country revived in a 
 i nioinent the half-extiuct excitt'iiunt of the popu- 
 lace. . . . Perhaps the iiassage whirli was u'-st 
 frequently in men's mouths at the time was i.iat 
 in which he described the appearance of the 
 mountain village of Batak. ' We entered the 
 town. On ever' side were skulls luid skeletons 
 charred anumg the ruins, or lying entire where 
 they fell in their clothing. There were skeletons 
 of girls and women, with long brown hair hang- 
 ing to their skulls. We approached the church. 
 There the.se remains were more frequent, until 
 the ground was literally covered by skeletons, 
 skulls, and putrefying bodies in clothing. 
 Between the church and school there were 
 heaps. The stench was fearful. We entered 
 the ciiurchyard. The sight was more dreadful. 
 The whole churchyard, for three feet deep, was 
 festering with dead bodies, i)artly covered; 
 hands, legs, arms, and heads projecting in 
 ghastly confusion. I saw many little hands, 
 heads, and feet of children three years of age, 
 and girls with heads covered with beautiful 
 hair. The church was still worse. The floor 
 was covered with rotting bodies {juito uncovered. 
 I never imagined anything so fearful. . . . The 
 town had 9,000 inhabitants. There now remain 
 1,200. JIany who had escaped had returned 
 recently, weeping and moaning over their ruined 
 homes. Their sorrowful wailing could be iieard 
 half a mile olT. Some were digging out the 
 skeletons of loved ones. A woman was sitting 
 moaning over three small skulls, with hair 
 clinging to them, which she had in her hip. 
 The man who did this, Achmed Agra, has been 
 promoted, and is still governor of the district.' 
 An exceeding bitter cry of horror and disgust 
 arose throughout the country on the receipt of 
 this terrible news. 3Ir. Anderson at once asked 
 for information on the subject, and Mr. Bourke 
 was entrusted with the dilUcult duty of replying. 
 Ho could only read a letter from Jlr. Baring, in 
 which he said that, as far as he had been able to 
 discover, the proportion of the numbers of the 
 slain was about 13,000 Bulgarians to 500 Turks, 
 and that 00 villages had been wholly or partially 
 burnt. . . . Mr Schuyler's opinions were, as 
 might be expected from the circumstance that 
 his investigations had been shorter than those of 
 Mr. Baring, and that ho was ignorant of the 
 Turkish Tanginige — which is that cliietly 
 spoken in Bulgaria — and was therefore at the 
 mercy of his interpreter, the more liighly 
 coloured. He totally rejected Lord Beacons- 
 field's idea that there had been a civil war, and 
 that cruelties had been committed on both sides. 
 On the contrary he asserted that ' the insurgent 
 villages made little or no resistance. In iiiauy 
 
 m 
 
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 cases they siirrciulcred tlicir arms on tlic llrst 
 demand. . . . No Tiirki.sli woniei, -)r children 
 were killed in cold l)l(Mid. No Mn.-is iliimn 
 women were violated. No Mii.ssiilmanc were 
 tortured. No purely Turkish villa(;e was 
 attacked or burnt. No Moscpic was desecrated 
 or destroyed. The llaslii-Hazouks, on the other 
 hand, hail liuriit about «.') villages, and killed at 
 least 15,000 Buljiarians. ' Tlu^ terrible story of 
 the destruction of Hatak was told in lanRuajjc^ of 
 |)recis<'Iy similar import to that of ,Mr. .Slac- 
 Gahan, wlioso narrative the American Consul 
 hiui never seen, though there was a slight dilTer- 
 ence in the numbei's of the ma.ssacre<l. 'Of the 
 8,000 inhabitants,' he said, 'not '2,000 are known 
 to survive'. . . . Abdul Aziz had l"t loose the 
 hordes oi BashiBazouks on <lefenceless Bul- 
 garia, but Murad seenud utterly unable to 
 rectify the fatal error; the proviiiee fell into a 
 state of complete anarcliy. ... As Lord Derby 
 reimu'ked, it was impossible to effect much with 
 an imbecile monarch and ba.ikrupt treasury. 
 One thing, at any rate, tlie Turks were strong 
 enough to <lo, and that was to <lefcat the Ser- 
 vians, who declared war on Turkey on July 1st. 
 . . . Up to the last Prince Milan "declared that 
 his intentions were purely i)aeilic; but the 
 Increa.sing troubles of the Porte enabled him, 
 with some small chance of success, to avail liim- 
 self of the anti-Turkish spirit of his people and 
 to declare war. His example was followed by 
 Prince Nikita of Montenegro, who set out with 
 his brave little army from Cettigne on July 2nd. 
 At first it appeared as if the principalities would 
 have the better of the struggle. The Turkish 
 generals showed their usual dilatoriness in 
 attacking Servia, and Tchernaieir, who was a 
 man of considerable military talent, gave them 
 the good-bye, and cut them ofT from their base of 
 operations. This success was, however, tran- 
 sitory; Abdul Kerim, the Turkish Conuuander- 
 in-Chief, drove back tlie enemy by mere force of 
 numbers, and by the end of the month he was 
 over the border, jreaiiwhile, the hardy ^Monte- 
 negrins had been consider;. )ly more fortunate; 
 but their victories over Mukhtar Pasha were not 
 sufficiently important to effect a diversion. The 
 Servians fell back from all their positions of 
 defetice, and on September 1st received a most 
 disastrous beating before the walls of Ale.xinatz. 
 . . . On September 10th the Porte agreed to a 
 8usj)ensi(m of hostilities until the 3."ilh. It must 
 be acknowledged that the Servians used this 
 period of grace e.xceedingly ill. Prince Milan 
 was procl;;imcd by General Tchernaieff, in his 
 absence and r-rainst his will, King of Servia and 
 Bosnia; and though, on the remonstrance of the 
 Powers, he readily consented to waive the 
 obnoxious title, the evil effect of the declaration 
 remained. Lord Derby's propo.sals for peace, 
 which were made on September 21st, were 
 nevertheless accejited by the Sultan when he saw 
 that unanimity prevailed among the Powers, 
 and he offered in addition to prolong the formal 
 suspension of hostilities to October 3nd. This 
 offer the Servians, relying on the Russian volun- 
 teers who were flocking to join Tcliernaieff, 
 rejected with some contempt, and hostilities 
 were resumed. They paid dearly for their 
 temerity. Tchernaielf's position before Alex- 
 iniitz was forced by the Turks after three days' 
 severe fighting; position after position yielded 
 to them ; ou October 31st Alexiuatz was taken, 
 
 and Delif<rad was occupied on November 1st, 
 Nothing remained betwcf n the outpost of the 
 crescent and Belgrade, and it .seemed as if tho 
 new Kingdom of Servia must perish in the throes- 
 of its birth." Russia now invoked the inter- 
 vention of the powers, and brought about a con- 
 ference at Constantinople, which effected 
 nothing, the Porte rejecting all the proposals 
 submitted. On the 24th of April, 1877, Russia 
 declared war and entered upon a conflict with 
 the Turks, which had for its result the readjust- 
 ment of affairs in South-eastern Europe by the 
 Congress and Treaty of Berlin. — Ciikik'II'h [Uiih- 
 tr<U((l llhtorii of h'lii/ldiid, r. 10, '■//. 22-23.— Sec 
 TruKS: A. I). 1877-1878, and 1878. 
 
 A. D. 1878.— Treaty of Berlin.— Transfer of 
 Bosnia to Austria. — Independence of Servia, 
 Montenegro and Roumania. — Division and 
 semi-independence of Bulgaria. — "(t) Bosnia, 
 including Herzegovina, was assigned to Austria 
 for pcnnanent occupation. Thus Turkey lost a 
 great province of nearly 1,250,000 inhabitants. 
 Of these about 500,000 were Christians of tho 
 Greek Church, 4.')0,000 were Jlohammedana, 
 mainlj' in the towns, who offered a stout resist- 
 ance to tlie Austrian troops, and 200,000 Roman 
 Catholics By the occupation of the Novi-Baznr 
 district Austria wedged in her forces between 
 Montenegro and Servia, and was also able to- 
 keep watch over the turbulent province of Mace- 
 donia. (2) Jlontenegro rePeived less than the- 
 San Stefano terms had i)romiscd her, but secured 
 the s( aports of Anti vari and Dulcigno. It needed 
 a demonstration of the European fleets off tho 
 latter port, and a threat to seize Smyrna, to make 
 the Turks yield Dulcigno to the Montencgrians 
 (who alone of all the Christian races of the penin- 
 sula had never been coiKpiered by tho Turks). 
 (3) Servia was proclaimed an independent Prin- 
 cipality, and received the district of Old Servia 
 on tho upper valley of the Jlorava. (4) Rou- 
 mania also gaiii.'d her independenco and ceased 
 to pay any tribute to the Porte, but had to jjivo 
 up to her Russian benefactors the slice aciiuired 
 from Russia in 1850 between the Prutli and tho 
 northern mouth of the Danube. In return for 
 this sacrifice she gained tlie large but marshy 
 Dobnidscha district from Bulgaria, and so ac- 
 (juired the port of Kustendjo on the Black Sea. 
 (5) Bulgaria, which, according totlw rin Stefano 
 terms, would have been an indepeiKkiit State as 
 large as Roumania, was by the Berlin Treaty 
 subjected to the suzerainty of tlie sultan, divided 
 into two jiarts, and confined witliin much nar- 
 rower limits. Besides the Dobrudscha, it lost 
 the northern or Bulgarian part of Alacedonia, and 
 the Bulgarians who dwelt between the Balkans 
 and Adrianople were separated from their kins- 
 folk on the north of the Balkans, in a province 
 called Eastern Roumclia, with Philippopolis as 
 capital. Tho latter province was to remain Turk- 
 ish, under aChristain governor nominated by the- 
 Porte with the cons;!nt of the Powers. Turkey 
 was allowed to occupy the passes of the Balkans 
 ill time of war." — J. 11. Rose, A CeiUuri/ of C(«i.- 
 tinental IlUtovy, c/i. 43.— See Tukks: A. D. 1878. 
 
 Also in: E. Hc.'tslet, The Map of Europe by 
 Treaty, r. 4, ms. 518, 534-533. 
 
 A. D. 1878-1891.— Proposed Balkan Con- 
 federation and its aims. — " During the reaction 
 against Russia wliich followed the great war of 
 1878, negotiatians were actually set on foot with 
 a view to forming a combination of the Balkan 
 
 254 
 
BALKAN AND DANUHIAN STATES. 
 
 BALXAN AND DANUBIAN STATES. 
 
 StntfiS for the piirpose of rcflisting Ruasinn nffgrcs- 
 sion. . . . Prinro Alcxiiiidcr iilwiiys favoiiri'd 
 the idea of ii Hidkiin (^jiifedcrtitioii wliicli wiis 
 to include Turlicy ; uiiil even listened to proposals 
 on the piirtof Greece, (h'tlninjj the Biiljjrtriaii and 
 Greek spheres of intiuence in .Macedonia. But 
 the revolt of Eastern Uounielia, followed by the 
 Hervo-l!iil;rarian war and the clui.stisement of 
 Greece by the Powers, provoked so much bitter- 
 ness of feelintt among the rival races that for 
 many years nothini; more was heard of a Balkan 
 Confederation. Tlie idea lias lately been revived 
 under dilTerent auspices and with somewhat dif- 
 ferent aims. Durinj; the past si.v years the 
 Triple Alliance, with England, has, despite the 
 indilTerenee of Prince Bismarck, protected the 
 Balkan States in general, and Biilgiria in par- 
 ticular from the armed intervention of Russia. It 
 has also acted the part of i)oliceman in ])reserv- 
 ing the peace throughout tin- Peninsula, and in 
 deterring the young nations from any dangerous 
 Indulgence in tluir angry jjassion.s. Tlie most 
 remarkable feature in the history of this period 
 has been the extraordinary ])rogress made by 
 Bulgaria. Since the revolt of Eastern Roumelia, 
 Bulgaria lias been treated by Dame Europa as a 
 naughty child. But the Bulgarians hav(! been 
 shrewd enough to .sec that Mie Oentral Powers 
 and England have an interest in their national 
 independence and consolidation; they have re- 
 cognised the truth that fortune favours those 
 who help themselves, and they have boldly taken 
 their own course, while carefully avoiding any 
 breach of the proprieties such as might again 
 b: ing them under the censure of the European 
 Ar(-op';gus. They ventured, indeed, to elect a 
 Prince of their own choosing w"thout the sanc- 
 tion of that a\igust conclave ; the wiseacres shook 
 their heads, and prophesied tliat Prince Ferdi- 
 nand's days in Bulgaria might, ])erliaps, be as 
 many as Prince Alexander's years. Yet Prince 
 Ferdinand rf mains on the throne, and is now en- 
 gaged in celebrating the fourth anniversary of 
 his accession; the internal development of the 
 country proceeds ajjace, and the progress of the 
 Bulgarian sentiment outside tlie country — in 
 other words, the Macedonian propaganda — is 
 not a whit behind. The Bulgarians have made 
 their greatest strides in Slacedonia since the fall 
 of Prince Bismarck, who was always ready to 
 humour Russia at the expense of Bulgaria. . . . 
 Wliat liapi)encd after the great war of 1878 ? A 
 portion of the Bulgarian race was given a nomi- 
 nal freedom wliicli was never expected to be a 
 reality; Russia pounced on Bessarabia, England 
 on Cyprus, Austria on Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 France got something elsewhere, but ^liat is 
 another mutter. The Bulgarians have never for- 
 given Lord Beaconslield for the division of their 
 race, and I have seen some liitter poems upon the 
 great Israelite in the Bulgarian tongue ■v'vhich 
 many Englishmen would not care to hear trans- 
 lated. The Greeks have hated us since our occu- 
 pation of Cyprus, and tirmly believe that we 
 mean to take Crete as well. 'The Servians have 
 not forgotten how Russia, after instigating them 
 to two disastrous wars, dealt with their chiims 
 at San Stefano ; they ^ annot forgive Austria for 
 her occupation of B aia and Herzegovina, and 
 every Servian peasant, as he pays his heavy taxes, 
 or reluctantly gives a big price ' < some worth- 
 less imported article, feels the galling yoke of 
 her fiscal and commercial tyranny. Need it be 
 
 said how outraged Bulgaria scowls at Russia, or 
 how Roumania, who won Plevna for lu r heart- 
 less allv, weeps for lier Bessarabian <liildren, 
 and will not be comforted V It is evident that 
 the Balkan peoples have no reason to expect 
 much benetit from the next great war, from the 
 European (.'onferenee which will follow it, or 
 from the sympathy of the Christian Pov.ers. 
 . . . What, then, do the authors of the proposed 
 Confederation sugge ' as its ullimate aim .md 
 object'? The Balkan States are to act independ 
 ently of the foreign Powers, and in concert with 
 one another. The Sick Man's inherilanec lies 
 before them, and they are to take it when an op- 
 l)ortunity presents itf^df. They must not wait 
 for the great Armageddon, for then all may be 
 lost. If the Central Powers come victorious out 
 of the conlliet, Austria, it is believed, will go to 
 Salonika; if Russia con(|uers, slii! will plant her 
 standard at Stamboul, and practically annex the 
 Peninsulii. In either case the hopes of the young 
 nations will be destroyed forever. It is, there- 
 fore, sought to extricate a portion at li'asl of the 
 Eastern Question from the tangled web of 
 European politics, to isolate it, to deal with it 
 as a matter wliidi solely concerns the Sick Man 
 and his imnii'diate successors. It is hoped that 
 the Sick Man may be induced by the determined 
 attitude of his expectant heirs to make over to 
 them theirseveral portions in his lifetime; should 
 he refuse, they must act in concert, and provide 
 eutliaimsia for tlie moribund owner of Macedonia, 
 Crete, and Thrace. In other words, it is believed 
 tliat the Balkan States, if once they could come 
 to an understanding as regards their claims to 
 what is left of the Uttonian Empire in Europe, 
 miglit conjointly, and without tlie aid of any 
 foreign Power, bring such pressure to bear upon 
 Turkey as to induce her to surrender peaceably 
 her European possessions, and to content herself 
 henceforth with the position of an Asiatic Power. " 
 — J. D. Bourchier, A Biilkaii Confederation 
 (FortniuhtUi lifvietn, Sept., 1891). 
 
 A. D. 1878-1886 (Bulg;aria) : Reunion of the 
 two Bulgarias. — Hostility of Russia.— Vic- 
 torious war with Servia. — Abduction and 
 abdication of Prince Alexander. — "The Berlin 
 Treaty, by cutting Bulgaria into three pieces, 
 contrary to tlie desire of her inhabitants, and 
 with utter disregard of botli geographical and 
 ethnical litne.ss, liad jirepared the grouml from 
 wliicli a crop of never-euding agitation was 
 inevitably bound to spring — a crop wliicli tlie 
 Treaty of San Stefano would have ended in pre- 
 venting. On eitlier siilc of the Balkans, botli in 
 Bulgaria aud in Roumelia, the same desire for 
 union existed. Both parties were agreed as to 
 this, and only dilTered as to the means by which 
 tlie end should be attained. The Liberals were 
 of opinion that the course of events ought to be 
 awaited ; the unionists, on tlie otlicr hand, main- 
 tained that tliei ' ould be challenged. It was 
 a few individuiiio .lelonging to the latter party 
 and acting witli M. Karaveloff, the head of the 
 Bulgarian Cabinet, wlio prepared and successfully 
 carried out tlie revolution of September 18, 1885. 
 So unanimously was this movement supported by 
 the whole population, including even the 
 Slussiilmans, that,it was accomplished and the 
 union proclaimed without the least resistance 
 being encountered, and without the shedding of 
 one drop of blood ! Prince Alexander was in no 
 way made aware of what was in preparation; 
 
 255 
 
BALKAN AND DANUHIAN STATES. 
 
 BALKAN AND DANUBL\N STATES. 
 
 but 111' kiuw very wiOl thai it would be his duty 
 to phici' hijusi'lf lit the licnd of iiny iiationiil 
 iiiovi'iiu'iit, iind ill II iH'iK Iiuuiitioii diitrd tlu> ItMli 
 of Scpti'iuticr. mid iidilivssi'd from Tiniova, tlii' 
 aiicii'iit lapitiil. lie rrcoiniiii'iidi'd union and 
 assuiniil tlic litli' of I'rinco of Nortli anil Soulli 
 Huluaria, 'I'lii' I'ortc protrstrd in ii ciiciilar. 
 dated tlio 2.'li(l of ScptcTiiln'r, and calliMJ upon 
 the I'owcrs who liiid sif;iii'd tlii' Trnily of Hciliii, 
 to I'lifoici' till' obsorvmici! of its HtipulationM. 
 On till' l;ith of October, the Powcrn colU'ctively 
 declare 'lliatthey eondenin this violation of the 
 Troatv, and are sure that tlie Sultan will do all 
 that lie call, consistently with lii.s soverei^'ii 
 rights.hefore resortinj; to the force which he has 
 at his disposal.' From tlie nionieiit when there 
 was opposition to the use of force, whidievcii 
 the Porte did not seem in a hurry to employ, the 
 union of the ;wo Hulgarias necessarily became 
 an accomplished fact. . . . Whilst Enu:land and 
 Austria both accepted the union of the two 
 Bulgariiis as being rendered necessary by the 
 position of affairs, whilst even the Porte (although 
 protesting) was resigned, the Kmperor of Ifiissia 
 displiiyed a passionate hostility to it, not at all in 
 accorcl with the feelings of the Russian nation. 
 ... In Uussia they hud reckoned upon all the 
 liberties guaranteed by the (."onstitutiou of 
 Timova becoming so many causes of disorder 
 and anarchy, instead of whicli the Bulgarians 
 were growing accustomed to freedom. Schools 
 were being endowed, the countrv was progress- 
 ing in every way, and thus the Bulgorians were 
 becoming less and less fitted for transformation 
 into llussian subjects. Their lot was a prefer- 
 able one, by far, to that of the people of Russia 
 — henceforth they would refuse to accept the 
 Russian yoke! ... If, then, Russia wanted to 
 maintain her high-handed policy in Bulgaria, 
 she must oppose the union and hinder the con- 
 solidation of Bulgarian nationality by every 
 means in her power ; this she has done without 
 scruple of any sort or kind, as will be shown by 
 a brief epitome of what has happened recently. 
 Servia, hoping to extend her territory in the 
 direction of Tru and Widdin, and, pleading 
 regard for the Treaty of Berlin and the theory of 
 the balance of power, attacks Bulgaria. On 
 November 14th [17th to 19th?] 188,5, Prince 
 Mcxander defends the Slivuitza positions [in a 
 throe days' battle] with admirable courage and 
 strategic skill. 1 he Roumelian militia, coming 
 in by forced marches of unheard-of length, per- 
 form prodigies of valour in the field. Within 
 eight days, i. e., from the 20th to the 28th of 
 November, the Scirviiin army, far greater in 
 numbers, is driven back into its own territory ; 
 the I>ragonuin Pass is crossed ; Pirot is taken by 
 assault; and Prince Alexander is marching on 
 Niscli, when his victorious progress is arrested 
 by the Austrian Jlinister, under threats of an 
 armed intervention on the part of that country I 
 On December 21st, an armistice is concluded, 
 afterwards made into a treaty of peace, and 
 signed at Bucharest on March 3rd by M. 
 Miyatovitch on behalf of Servia, by :M. GuechofI 
 on beholf of Bulgaria, and by Aladgid Pascha 
 for the Sultan. Prince Alexander did all he 
 could to bring about a reconciliation with the 
 Czar and even went so far as to attribute to 
 Russian instructors all the merit of the victories 
 he had just won. The Czar would not yield. 
 Then the Prince turned to the Suit* n, and with 
 
 him MUcceeded In coming to a direct understand- 
 ing. The I'rincc was to be nominated (Jovernor- 
 (k'lieral of RouiiH'lia; a mixed Commission wa.l 
 to meet and modify tlie Roiimeliiin stututes; 
 more tlian lliis. the Porte was .xmnu to iiliicu 
 troops at his (lispo.sal, in the eveiil of his being 
 attacked. . . . From tliat date the Czar sworo 
 that he would cause Prince Alexander's down- 
 lull. It was said that Prince Alexander of 
 Hiittenlierg had changed into a sword thesceptro 
 which Uussia had given him and was going to 
 turn it against his liencfactor. Nothing could 
 he more untrue. Up to the very last moment, 
 he dill everylhing he (iiiild to disarm the anger 
 of the Czar, but what was wanted from him was 
 this — that he should make Bulgaria an 
 obedient satellite of RiLss^a, and rather than con- 
 sent to do so he left Solia. The story of the 
 Prince's dethronement by Russian intluence, or, 
 as Lord Salisbiirv said, by Russian gold, is well 
 known. A humlful of malcontent olllcers, a few 
 cadets of the fecole Miiitaire, and some of Zan- 
 kofT's adherents, banding themselves together, 
 broke into the palace during tlie night of the 
 21st of August, seized the Prince, and had him 
 carried olT, without escort, to Rahova on the 
 Danube, from thence to Reni in Bessarabia, 
 where he was handed over to the Russians 1 The 
 conspirators endeavoured to form a government, 
 but the whole country rose against them, in 
 spite of the support openly given them by M. 
 Bogdanoff the Russian diplomatic agent. On 
 the 3rd of September, a fc'w days after these 
 occurrences, Prince Alexander returned to his 
 capital, welcomed home by the acclamations of 
 the whole peojile ; but in answer to a respectful, 
 not to say too humble, telegram in which he 
 offered to re])lace his Crown in the hands of the 
 Czar, that i)oteutate replied that he ceased to 
 have any relations with Bulgaria as long as 
 Prince Alexander remained there. Owing to 
 advice which came, no iloubt, from Berlin, 
 Prince Alexander decided to abdicate ; he did so 
 because of the demands of the Czar and in the 
 interests of Bulgaria." — E. de Laveleye, T/i6 
 Balkan Peninnulit, Introd. 
 
 Also in: A. Von Iluhn, Tlie Struggle of tht 
 liulgarianH. — J. G. C. ^linchin, Orowth of Free- 
 dom ill the lialkun Peninsula. — A. Koch, Princt 
 Alexander of liattenberg. 
 
 A. D. i8y9-i88c) (Servia).— Quarrels and 
 divorce of King Milan and Queen Natalia. — 
 Abdication of the King.— "In October, 1875. 
 . . . Aliliiii, then but twenty -one years old, mar- 
 ried Natalia Kechko, herself but sixteen. The 
 present Queen was the daughter of a Russian 
 officer and of the Princess Pulckerie Stourdza. 
 She, as little as her husband, had been born 
 with a likelihood to sit upon the throne, and a 
 ((uiet burgher education had been hers at Odessa. 
 But even here her great beauty attracted notice, 
 as also her abilities, her ambition and her 
 wealth. ... At first all went well, to outward 
 appearance at least, for Milan was deeply en- 
 amoured of his beautiful wife, who soon became 
 the idol of the Servians, on account of lier 
 beauty and her amiability. This affection was 
 but increased when, a year after her marriage, 
 she presented her subjects with an heir. But 
 from that hour the domestic discord began. The 
 Queen had been ill long and seriously after her 
 boy's birth ; Milan had sought distractions else- 
 where. Scenes of jealousy and recrimination 
 
 >56 
 
BALKAN AND DANUDlAX STATES. 
 
 BALTIMOnE. 
 
 ffTPW fr('<|ucnl. Fiirthor, Sorviii was tlien pnss- 
 inj,' tliroiiKli u (lilllciilt |)(>litlnil rrlsis; tli<' 
 Turkish war wiis in full Hwiiijj;. .Milan, litllclic 
 loved ever siiKT lie lic;j;an to reign, brought home 
 no wreaths fruiu tlii.'s coiitlict, iilthoui^h Jiis siib- 
 jectK (Ilstinguislied IhcMiselves l)V their valour. 
 Then followed In 18H2 tlie rnisiiijV of the prinei- 
 pnlity hilo;a kingdom — ii fact whieli left the 
 Servians very indilTereiit. and in wliieh they 
 merely beheld the prospect of increased taxes, a 
 ju'evisinn that was reali/.ed. As time went on, 
 and troubles increased. King Mil.in l)ccan.e some- 
 what of a despot, who was sustaine<l solely by 
 the army, itself undermined by faetious in- 
 trigues. iMeantiiue thetjuecn, now grown some- 
 wdiat callous to her liusbaiid'sintidelitiis. aspired 
 to comfort herself by assuming a l)oliti<'al role, 
 for which slie believed herself to have giuat ap- 
 titude. ... As she could not intluenco tlin de- 
 cisions of the I'rinc<', the Ind;, vntered Into op- 
 position to liiui, and made it lier aim to oppose 
 all Ills projects. Tlie ((uarrel spread throughout 
 the entire I'alace. and two inimical factions were 
 formed, that of the King and tliat of the (^lU'en. 
 . . . Meantime Milan got deeper and deeper into 
 debt, so that after u time he ha<l almost mort- 
 gaged his territory. . . . Wliile theliushandaiid 
 wife were thus (piarrelling and going tlieir own 
 ways, grave events were maturing in neighbour- 
 ing Uulgaria. The coup d'etat of Fillipi)opoli, 
 which annexed Eastern Houmella to tli,e i)rin( i- 
 pality, enlarged it in such wise that Servia 
 henceforth had to cut a .sorry ligure in tlie 
 Balkans. Lilian roused himself, or i)retended 
 to rouse himself, and war was declared against 
 Bulgaria. . . . There followed the crushing (h'- 
 feat of Slivitza, in which Prine(! Alexander of 
 Battcnbcrg carried olT such laurels, and the 
 Servians had to beat a disgraceful and precipitate 
 retreat. Far from proving himself the hero Na- 
 thalie had dreamed, Milan . . . telegraphed to 
 the Queen, busied with tending tlie woinidcd, 
 that he intended to abdicate forthwitli. This 
 cowardly conduct gave the death blow to any 
 
 BALKH. — Destruction by Jingis Khan 
 (A. D, I22I). — From his concpiest of the region 
 heyond the Oxus, Jingis Klian moved southward 
 with his vast liordc of Jiongols, in pursuit of the 
 fugitive Khalirezmlan prince, in 1220 or 122!, 
 and invested the great city of Balkh, — wlilch is 
 thought In the east to be the oldest city of the 
 world, and wdiich may not impossibly have been 
 one of the capitals of tin; primitive Aryan nice. 
 "Some idea of its extent and riches [at that 
 time] may possibly be formed from the statement 
 that It contained 1,200 large mosques, without 
 including chapels, aud 200 public baths for the 
 use of foreign merchants and travellers — though 
 it has been suggested that the more correct 
 reading would be 200 nios(pies and 1,200 baths. 
 Anxious to avert the horrors of storm and 
 pillage, the citizens at once offered to capitulate; 
 but Chinghiz, distrusting the sincerity of their 
 submission so long as Sultan jMohammed Shah 
 was yet alive, preferred to carry the place by 
 force of arms — an achievement of no great diffl- 
 ctilty. A horrible butchery ensued, and the 
 ' Tabernacle of Islam ' — as the pious town was 
 called — was razed to the ground. In the words 
 of the Persian poet, quoted by Major Price, 
 ' The noble city he laid as smooth as the palm of 
 his hand — its spacious and lofty structures he 
 
 fooling the Quocn might have retained for the 
 King. Henceforth she dcspiHcd him, and took 
 no pains to hiile the fact. ... In IHH7 the pair 
 parted without outward scandals, the (Jueen 
 taking with her the Crown Prince. . . . Florence 
 was the goal of the (Jui'cn's wanderings, and 
 here she spent a ((ulet winter. . . . The winter 
 enilcd, Nathalie th'sired to return to Belgrade, 
 Milan would not hear of it. . . . Tlie (Jueen 
 went to Wiesbaden in cdiiscquenee. While re- 
 siding tliere .Milan professed to be smldenly taken 
 with a liaternal craving to see his son, . . . And 
 to the shame of the (jerman (iovcrnmcnt, be it 
 said, tiiey lent tliii'' hand to abducting an only 
 child from his mother. . . , Before ever the ex- 
 citement about this act could subside in Europe, 
 Jlihin . . . pctitioiicd the Servian Synod for a 
 divorce, on the ground of 'irreconcilable mutual 
 antipathy ' Neither by canonical (>r civil 1,'iw 
 was this iiosslble, and the (Jueen refused her 
 consent. . . , Nor could the divorcf have lieen 
 oblaini'd t-ut 'or the servile complaisance of 
 t. A "c'vian Metropolitan Theodore. . . . Quick 
 vengc' lee, however, was in store for Milan. 
 The interiiatlonal affairs of Servia had grown 
 niori iMid more disturbed. . . . The King, per- 
 plex I, .ifraid, storm-tossed between (livided 
 counsels, highly Irritable, aud deeply impressed 
 by Uudolph of Hapsburg's recent suicide, sud- 
 denly minounced his intention to alKlicate in 
 favotirof his son. . . . Without regret his people 
 saw (lc))art from among them a man who at 
 thirty-live j ( ars of age was already decrepit, and 
 who had not the pluck or ambition to try and 
 overcome a didlcult political crisis. . . . After 
 kneeling down before his son and swearing 
 fldelity'to him as ri subject (March, 1889), Milan 
 betook himself off lo tour through Europe . . . 
 leaving the little uoy and his guardians to extri- 
 cate themselves. ..." Now I can see mamma 
 again,' were tlie first words of the boy King on 
 hearing of his elevation. . . . Three Regents are 
 appointed to aid the King during his niinority." 
 — " Politlkos," The Sovereiijns, pp. 353-363. 
 
 levelled In the dust.'" — J. llutton, Central 
 Asiit, eh. 4. 
 
 Also in: H. H. Iloworth, Hist, of the Mongols, 
 V. \,rh. 3. 
 
 BALL'S BLUFF, The Battle of. See 
 United Statkh OF Am, : A. I). 1801 'October: 
 
 VlUCltNI.V), 
 
 BALMACEDA'S DICTATORSHIP. See 
 
 Cim,E: A, D. 1885-1891. 
 
 BALNEiE. See TirERM.5:. 
 
 BALTHI, OR BALTHINGS.— " The ru'ers 
 of the Visigoths, though they, like the An.<il 
 kings of the Ostrogoths, had a great house, the 
 Bnlthi, sprung from the seed of gods, did not 
 at this time fwlien driven across the Danube 
 by the Huns] bear the title of King, but con- 
 tenteil themselves with some humbler designa- 
 tion, whicli the Latin historians translated into 
 Judex (Judge)." — T. Hodgkin, Italy and her 
 Inr(tih'V!i. int., rh. 3.— See Baitx, Louds of, 
 
 BALTIMORE, Lord, and the Colonization 
 of Maryland. See Makyi.and : A, D. 1032, to 
 1088-17.", 
 
 BALTIMORE, A. D. 1729-1730.— Found- 
 ingof the city. See JIauvland : A. 1). 1729-1730. 
 
 A. D. 1812.— Riotineof the War Party. —The 
 mob and the Federalists. See United States 
 OK Am. : A. D. 1812 (June— OcTOUiiii)- 
 
 t&r 
 
L\LTIMORE. 
 
 BARBARY 8TATE8. 
 
 A. D. 1814.— British attempt againjt the 
 city. H('<! I'N' iKi) HTAiriti OK Am.: \. I» lMt4 
 
 (Au<H!»r— Hpi.TKMllKIl). 
 
 A. D. i860. —The Douglas Democratic and 
 Constitutional Union Conventions. !S(^c 
 UNriKii Statkm ok Am.: A. I). 1H<K) (Aimul— 
 
 NoVKMIIKU). 
 
 A. D. 1861 (April).— The city controlled hy 
 the Secessionists. — The Attack on the 
 Sixth Massachusetts Regiment. Hcu Uniteu 
 Htatkmi.k .\M. : A. I). lH(lT(Al'iiil,). 
 
 A. D. 1861 (May).— Disloyalty put down. 
 8p<! Unitki) Htatkh ok Am. : A. 1). '»*ll (Ai-un. 
 — .May: Maiivi.and). 
 
 BALUCHISTAN. Hec Siiipluineut in v 5. 
 
 BAN.— BANAT.— " Han Is Duke (I)p.:«), ami 
 riiiiiat i.s Duchy. TlietiTrilorj [lliinfi;ariatij ca.st 
 of the {'Hrpiithians is llu' llaiiat of Sovori" aii'i 
 that of the west llic Haiiat of Tcmcs.'i 
 Tlu^ Haiiat is tliu ciirnucopin, not only o .uii- 
 gary, liiit of tlic wIkjU; Austrian Knipiro." — A. 
 A. Paton, lltKiiiir/un oil the Ihtniitie 'iiid the Ad- 
 riatic, i\ 2, i>. 'iH. — A'lionj; tlui Croats, "after 
 the kinj?, the most important olHcersof the state 
 wiTe tlu! bans. .Vt first there was but one l)an, 
 who was a kind of lieuienaut-general; but later 
 on there were seven of them, eaeli known by the 
 name of tlii! province he governed, as the linn 
 of Sirniia, ban of Dalmatiu, etc. To tliis day 
 the royal lieutenant of Croatia (or ' governiir-gi'n- 
 eml,' if tliat title be preferred) is called llu^ i>an." 
 — L. Legi'r, lli«t. nf Aiintru-llungiiry, p. 55. 
 
 BAN, The Imperial. See Sa.\ony: A. I). 
 1178-1 IHH. 
 
 BANBURY, "Battle of.— Sometimes called 
 the " Uattle of Edgecote"; fought July 20, 1409, 
 and with success, by a body of Lancastrian in- 
 surgents, in the English " Wars of the Ko.scs," 
 against the forces of the Yorkist King, Edward 
 IV. Tlio latter were routed and most of their 
 leaders taken and beheaded. — Mrs. llookham. 
 Life lUid TiiiKH of ^fin'</<ii'it of Aiijon, v. 2, c/i. 5. 
 
 BAND A ORIENTAL, The.— .Signify ing the 
 " Eastern Horder"; a name ai)plied originally by 
 the Spaniards to the country on th(^ eastern side 
 of Uio de La Plata winch afterwards took the 
 name of I'ruguay. See Auoemtine Uei'uulic: 
 A. 1). ir.H(l-17T7. 
 
 BANGALORE, Capture of (1790). See 
 Inmia: A. I). 178.V17!»:i. 
 
 BANK OF ST. GEORGE. See Genoa: 
 A. I). 1407-1448. 
 
 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. See 
 United States ok Am. : A. D. 1«33-1838. 
 
 BANKS, General Nathaniel P.— Command 
 in ihe Shenandoah. H<'e Uniti'.h Statkm ok 
 
 \M. : A. I>. 18(12 (.Mav — IrsK: VlltoiNiA) 
 
 SiegeandCaptureof Port Hudson. See Unitki> 
 .States >►' Am.: A. I). 18(j;l (.May — ,I(!i,v: On 
 
 THE .MisHiHsii'i'i) Red River Expedition. 
 
 .See United States ok Am. : A. I). 18IU (.Maikii 
 — May: Loiisiana). 
 
 BANKS OF AMSTERDAM, ENGLAND 
 AND FRANCE.— The Ilaiik of Amsterdam 
 was founded in K'Oll, uid icplared, after 1814, 
 by the Netherland Bank. The Bank of England 
 was founded in KilM bv William Pulterson, u 
 Scolciiman; anil lliat of Prance by .Tohn Law, in 
 1710. The latter eollupsed with the Mississippi 
 scheme and was revived in 1770, — J. J. Lalor, 
 ed. C'l/dojxmliii of Ikil. Seifiice. 
 
 Aiiso IN: J. W. Oilburt, JIi»l. ami I'rinciplM 
 of liiiukimj, met. 1 mid 'A. 
 
 BANKS, Wildcat. See Wildcat Banks. 
 
 BANNACKS, The. See American Auout- 
 oiNKs: Siiosiio.NiA.s' Family. 
 
 BANNERETS, Knights. See Knioiits 
 Bannkukts. 
 
 BANNOCKPURN, Battle of (A. D. 1314). 
 See Scotland: A. I). l;!14;and 1314-1328. 
 
 BANT, The. .See Gau. 
 
 BANTU TRIBES, The. See South Af- 
 rica: Ti'E AitoEiKiiNAi. iniiahitants; and 
 Akuica: The iNiiAiuriNo uaces. 
 
 BAPTISTS. See article In the Supplement, / 
 
 V. n. ' 
 
 BAR. A. D. 1659-1735.— The Duchy ceded 
 to France. Seel-^iANCE: A. I). 1050-1001, and 
 17;!3-173;5. 
 
 BAR : The Confederation of. See Poland: 
 A. 1). 170.3-1773. 
 
 BARATHRUM, The.— "The barathrum, or 
 ' pit of ou'iislinieiit' at Athens, was a deep hole 
 like a well iatc which criminals were precipi- 
 tated, iron hooks were insiTted in the sides, 
 which t >re tlr- body in pieces as it fell. It cor- 
 respondc 1 to the Ceadas of the Laccdiemonians." 
 — O. Haw 'inson, Hist, of llerodotnit, bk. 7, nec.t. 
 133, wit,: 
 
 BARBADOES : A. D. 1649-1660.— Royalist 
 attitude towards the English Commonwealth. 
 See Xavkiatio.n Laws; A. 1). Ui.ll. 
 
 A. D. 1656. — Cromwell's colony of disor- 
 derly woien. See Jamaica: A. D. 1655. 
 ♦ 
 
 BARBARIANS. See AiivANa. 
 
 BARBAROSSAS, Piracies and dominioo 
 of. See Baubaiiy States: A. D. 1510-1535. 
 
 BARBARY STATES. 
 
 A. D. 647-709.— Mahometan conquest of 
 North Africa. See Mauometak Conqoest: 
 A. D. 047-709. 
 
 A. D. 908-1 171.— The Fatimite Caliphs. 
 See JIaiiometan Conijuest and E.mpire : A. D. 
 908-1171. 
 
 A. D. 1415.— Siege and capture of Ceuta by 
 the Portuguese. See] Portugal : A. D. 141.'>- 
 1460. 
 
 A. D. 1505-1510.— Spanish conquests on the 
 coast. — Oran. — Bugia. — Algiers. — Tripoli. — 
 In 1505, a Spanish expedition pir.nned and urged 
 by Cardinal Ximencs, captured Mazarquivcr, an 
 
 "important port, and formidable nest of pirates, 
 on the Barbary coast, nearly opposite Cartha- 
 gena." In 15()9, the same energetic prelate led 
 personally an expedition of 4,CH)0 horse and 
 10,000 foot, with a fleet of 10 galleyr, and 80 
 smaller vessels, for the conquest of Oran. "This 
 place, situated about a league from the former, 
 was one of the most considerable of the Moslem 
 possessions in the Jleditcrranean, being a princi- 
 pal miirt for the trade of the Levant," and main- 
 tained a swarm of cruisers, which swept the 
 Mediterranean " and made fearful depredations 
 on its populous borders." Oran was taken by 
 
 258 
 
HAIIBAKY STATE'S, 150.V1310. 
 
 Vtr 
 
 ItariHtniHMiH. 
 
 BA :BAUY states, 1516-1885. 
 
 ttortn, " No merry was h1i( wn ; no rcspt'ct for 
 age or SOX ; un<l tin Hohliciy iiIiuikIomi'iI tliciii- 
 HulvuH to all the lirutiil llcciist iiiiil ferocity wliicli 
 soeiii to Htiiin religious warn ahovc I'vcry other. 
 . . . No less than 4,()()() .Moors were sa'd to havi' 
 fulh'ii in llic liattle, and from Tt.WW to H,(Ml() were 
 nmcl(! prisoners. The loss of tlie Christians was 
 Inconsiderahle." Ki'called to Spain by Kin^ 
 Ferdinand, Ximenes left the army In AfrUii 
 under the command of Count I'eilro Navarro. 
 Navarro's "tlrst enterprise was a;{alnst Hii^jla 
 (Jan. l:tlh, VtUh. whose kinj;, al the heail of a 
 powerful artny, ne routed in two pitched hatth'S, 
 and Kot pos.sessiiin of his tlourishlnj; capital 
 (Jiin. yist). Algiers, Tennis, Treiuecin, and other 
 cities on the IJarliary coast, submitted one after 
 another to tlie Hpaidsh urn\s. The inliabitaiits 
 were received as vassals of the Catholic king. 
 . . . They giniranteed, moreover, tlu^ liberation 
 of nil ('hrislian captives in their <lominions; for 
 which the Algerines, liowever, took care to in- 
 demnify themselves, by e.Morting the full ran- 
 som from their •'. 'vi.sh resiilents. . . . On the 
 26th of July, l.)l(), ti.,' ancient city of Trip Hi. 
 after a most Moody and <I"sperate delenee, i iir- 
 rcndered to the arms of the victorious gene al, 
 whose nami.' bad now become \"rnble ii'-mi" the 
 wliole norlliern bordersof Africa. In the follow- 
 ing nionlli, however (Aug. i8th), lio met willi a 
 serious discomtilure in the isliiid if Gelves, 
 where i,00() of his men were slain or made 
 prisonirs. This cheek ill the brilliant career of 
 Count Navarro put a tbial stoji to the progress 
 of the Castilian arms in Africa under Ferdinand. 
 Tilt results obtained, however, were of great im- 
 portance. . . . jAlost of the new concpiests 
 escaped from the Spanish crown in later times, 
 through the imbecility or Indolence of Ferdi- 
 nand's successors. The conciuests of Ximenes, 
 liowever, were placed in so strong a ])ostuie of 
 defence as to resist every attempt for their re- 
 covery by tlie enemy, and to remain permanentlv 
 incorporated with the Spanish empire." — W. li. 
 Prescott, Hint, of the Ileigii of Ferdinand diul 
 IsahcUii, eh. 21 (c. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1516-1535. — Piratical dominion of the 
 Barbaiossas in Als^iers. — Establishment of 
 Turkish sovereignty. — Seizure of Tunis by 
 the Corsairs and its conquest by Charles V. 
 — " About the beginning of the Itith century, a 
 sudden revolution happened, which, by render- 
 ing the states of IJarbary formidable to the 
 Europeans, hath made their history worthy of 
 more attention. This revolution was brought 
 about liy pel•.s^ns born in a rank of life which 
 entitled them to act no such illustrious part. 
 Home and Il.iyradin, the sons of a potter in the 
 isle of Lisbo.s, prompted by a restless and enter- 
 prising sjjirit. forsook their father's trade, ran to 
 sea, and joined a crew of pirates. They soon 
 distinguished themselves by their valor and ac- 
 tivity, and, becoming masters of a small brigan- 
 tine, carried on their infamous trade with such 
 conduct and success that they as.seml)led a licet 
 of 13 galleys, besides many vessels of smaller 
 force. Of this fleet Ilorue. the elder brotlier, 
 calh^l Rarbarossa from the red color of his beard, 
 was admiral, and Hayradiu secoml in command, 
 but with almost cijual authority. They called 
 themselves the friends of the sea, and the ene- 
 mies of all who sail upon it; and their names 
 soon became terrible from the Straits of the Dar- 
 danelles to those of Gibraltar. . . . Tliey often 
 
 carried the prizes which they took on the roasts 
 of Spain and lialy into the ports of liarli.try, 
 and. eiirieliiiig the inhabitants by the Mile of 
 their booty, and the thoiighth.'ss pnxligality of 
 their crews, were welcome guests In every place 
 at whicli tliev toiielied. The convenient sitna 
 tion of these iiarboiirs. lying so near the greati'st 
 commercial slates at tliiit time in Christendom, 
 made the brothers wish fra- an establishment in 
 tliat country. An opiKirtiiiiily of aecomplishlng 
 this (|uickly pre.s<'nted itself fl'iKll. which they 
 did not siilTer to pa.ss nnimpnived." Invited 
 liy Kntenii, king of Algiers, to assist him in 
 taking a Spanish fort which had been built in 
 his neighlioiirliood. liarbiirossa was able to ninr 
 der Ills too conllding employer, master the Al 
 gerine kingdom and usurp its crown. "Not 
 satisfied willi the throne whicli be bad aci|uired, 
 he attacked the neighbouring king of Tieiiiecen, 
 and, having vaii(|uislied liiin in battle, added his 
 dominions to those of Algiers. At tlie same 
 time, he continued to infest the coasts of Spain 
 and Italy with fleets whicli resembled the iirina- 
 inents of a great moiiareh, rather than the light 
 scpiadrons of a corsair. Their frci)ueiit cruel dn- 
 vastations obliged Charles I the Fifth — thi^ great 
 Emperor and King of Spain: 151t)-l.'),"i.')|, about 
 the beginning of bis reign, to furnish the Mar- 
 (piis dc Comares. governor of Oran, with troops 
 sultlcient to attack him." Barlmrossa was de- 
 feated ill the ensuing war, driven from Trcnie- 
 ceil, and slain [LjISJ. "His brother llayradin, 
 known likewise by tlu; name of Barbaros.sa, 
 assumed tlu; sceptre of Algiers with the same 
 anibitioii and abilities, but with better fortune. 
 His reign being undisturbed by the arms of the 
 'jpaniards, whicli had full occupation in the wars 
 among the European powers, he regulated with 
 admirable prudence the interior police of his 
 kingdom, carried on bis naval operations with 
 great vigour, and e.vtended his con(|nests on the 
 ciailiiient of Africa. Hut perceiving that the 
 jMoors and Arabs submitted to bis government 
 with reluctance, and being afraid that his con- 
 tinual depredations would one day draw upon 
 him the arms of the Christians, be put his do- 
 iiiiniiais under the protection of the Grand Seig- 
 nior [151!)], and received from him [with the 
 title! of Bey, or Beylerbey] a liody of Turkish 
 .soldiers sulllcient for his domestic as well &i 
 foreign enemies. At last, the fame of his exploits 
 daily increasing, Solyman offered him the com- 
 mand of the Turkish tleet. . . . Barbarossa re- 
 ])aired to (,'oiistaiitinople, and . . . gained the 
 entire confidence both of the sultan and his 
 vizien To them he communicated a scheme 
 which he had formed of making himself master 
 of Tunis, the most fl;)url. "ling kingdom at thai 
 lime oil the coast of .A.fiica; and tills being aji- 
 jiroved of by them, he obtained whatever he 
 demanded for carrying It into e.\eeutioii. His 
 hopes of success in iliis undertaking were 
 founded on the intestine divisions in the king- 
 dom of Tiini.s." The last king of that country, 
 having 31 sons by different wives, had estab- 
 lished one of the younger sons on the throne as 
 his successor. I'liis young king attempted to 
 put all of his brothers to death ; but Alraschid, 
 who was one of the eldest, es(;apcd and fled to 
 Algiers. Barbarossa now jiroiKised to the Turk- 
 i.sli sultan to attack Tunis on the jiretence of 
 vindicating the rights of Alraschid. His pro- 
 posal was adopted and carried out; but even 
 
 259 
 
BAItlJARTi STATES, 1510-1535. 
 
 Kxnrrliliim 
 of Charles V. 
 
 HARBAItY STATES, 154a-1560. 
 
 before tlie Tiirkisli expedition siiiled, Alraseliid 
 hiuiHclf dififtijpeured — ii prisoner, slnit up in tlie 
 Heriifflio — iind was never heard of iijf"'"- T'"-' 
 use of liis name, liowever, enabled Uarbarossa to 
 enter Tunis in triumph, and tlie betrayed in- 
 habitants diseovered too late that he eainc ns a 
 vieeroy, to make them the subjects of the sultan. 
 ' ' Being now possessed of sueh extensive ter- 
 ritories, he carried on his depredations against 
 the C'hriatian states to a greater extent and with 
 more destructive violence than ever. Daily 
 complaints of the outrages committed by his 
 cruisers were brought to the emperor by his 
 subjects, both in Spain and Itjily. All C'liristen- 
 dom seemed to expect from him, as its greatest 
 and most fortunate prince, that he would put an 
 end to this new and odious species of ()pi)ressi(m. 
 At the sjime time Jluley-Ilascen, the exiled king 
 of Tunis, . . . apilied to Charles as the only 
 person who could assert his rights in opposition 
 to such a formidable tisurpcr." Tiie Emperor, 
 accordingly, in 15ii5, prepared a great expedition 
 against Tunis, drawing men and ships fronj 
 every part of Ids wide dominions — from Spain, 
 Italy, Germany and the Netherlands. "On the 
 10th of July the lleet, consisting of near 500 ves- 
 sels, liaving on board above 30,000 regidar 
 troops, set sail from Cagliari, and, after a pros- 
 perous navigation, lande<l within sight of Tunis." 
 The fort of (joletta, eonunanding the bay, was 
 invested and taken; tlie corsair's fleet sur- 
 rendered, and Barbarossa, advancing boldly from 
 Tunis to attack the invaders, was overwhelm- 
 ingly beaten, and lied, abandoning his capital. 
 Charle-s's soldiers rushed into the unfortunate 
 town, eseajjing all restraint, and making it a 
 scene of indescribable horrors. "Above 550,000 
 of the innocent inhabitants perished on that un- 
 happy day, and 10,000 were carried away as 
 slaves. Muley-IIascen took possession of a 
 throne surrounded with carnage, abhorred by 
 his subjects, on whom he had brought such 
 calamities." Before quitting the country, Charles 
 concluded a treaty with Muley-IIaseen, under 
 wliicli the latter iteknowledged that he held his 
 kingdom in fee of the crown of Spain, doing 
 homage to the Emperor as his liege, and main- 
 taining a Spanish garrison in the Golctta. lie 
 also released, without ransom, all the Christian 
 slaves in his dominions, 20,0P^ in number, and 
 jvioniised to detain in servitude no subject of tlie 
 Em|)eror thereafter. He opened his kingdom to 
 the t;liristian religion, and to free trade, and 
 pledged himself to exclude Turkish corsairs 
 from liis jjorts. — W. Robertson, Hist, of the Bcign 
 of Vharlei V., bk: 5 (c. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1541. — The disastrous expedition of 
 Charles V. against Algiers. — Kneouraged, ami 
 deceived, by his easy success at Tunis, the em- 
 peror, Charles V., determined, in 1541, to under- 
 take the reduction of Algiers, and to wholly 
 exterminate the freebooters of the north African 
 coast. Before his iireparations were completed, 
 "the season unfortunately was far advanced, on 
 which account the Pope entreated, and Doria 
 conjured him not to expose his whole armament 
 to a deslnuaiou almost unavoidable on a wild 
 shore during the violence of the autumnal gales. 
 Adhering, howevi 1, to his plan with determined 
 obstinacy, he embarked at Porto Venere. . . . 
 The force . . . which he had collected . . . 
 consisted of 20,000 fwit and 2,000 horse, mostly 
 veterans, together with 8,000 volunteers. . . . 
 
 Besides these there had joined his standard 1,000 
 soldiers sent by the Onler of St. John, and led 
 by 100 of its most valient kniglits. Landing 
 near Algi(^rs without opposition, Charles imme- 
 diately advanced towards the town. To oppose 
 the invaders, IIas.san had only 800 Turks, and 
 5,000 Jlcxirs, partly natives of Africa, and partly 
 refugees from Spain. When summoned to sur- 
 render he, nevertheless, returned n tierce and 
 haughty answer. But with such a handful of 
 troops, neither his desperate courage nor con- 
 summate skill in war could have long resisted 
 forces superior to those which had formerly 
 defeated Barbarossa at the head of 00,000 men." 
 He was speedily relieved from danger, however, 
 by an ojiportune stonn, which burst upon the 
 region during the second day after Charles's de- 
 barkation, 'i'lie Spanish camp was flooded ; the 
 soldiers drenched, chilled, sleepless and dis- 
 liirited. In this condition they were attacked 
 iiy the Moors at dawn, and narrowly escaped a 
 rout. "But all feeling of this disaster was 
 soon obliterated by a more affecting spectacle. 
 As the tempest continued with unabated vio- 
 lence, the full li.ght of day showed the ships, on 
 which alone their safety depended, driving from 
 their anchors, dashing against one another, and 
 many of them forced on the rocks, or sinking in 
 the waters. In less than an hour, 15 ships of 
 war and 140 transports, with 8,000 men, per- 
 ished before their eyes; and sueh of the unhappy 
 sailors as escaped the fury of the sea, were mur- 
 (h^red by the Arabs as soon as they reai^hed land. " 
 With such ships as lie could save, Doria sought 
 shelter behind Cape JIatafuz, sending a mes- 
 sage to the emperor, advising that he follow 
 with the army to that point. Charles could not 
 do otherwise than act according to the sugges- 
 tion; but his army suffered horribly in the 
 retreat, which occupied three days. "JIt.ny 
 jierished by famine, as the whole army subsisted 
 eliielly on roots and berries, or on the llesh of 
 horses, killed for that purpose by the empe-or's 
 orders; numbers were drowned in the swollen 
 brooks; and not a few were slain by the enemy." 
 Even after the army had regained the fleet, and 
 was reembarked, it was scattered by a second 
 storm, and several weeks passed before the 
 emperor reached his Spanish dominions, a wiser 
 and a sadder man. — 31. Russell, Ilist. of the Bar- 
 bary States, ch. 8. 
 
 Also in : W. Robertson, Ilist. of the Reign of 
 Charles V.,bk. Q (v. 2.) 
 
 A. D. 1543-1560. — The pirate Dragfut and 
 his exploits. — Turkish capture of Tripoli. — 
 Disastrous Christian attempt to recover the 
 place. — Dragut, or TorgliQil, a native of the 
 Caramanian coast, opposite the island of Rhodes, 
 began his career as a Alediterranean corsair some 
 time before the last of the Barbarossas quitted 
 the scene and was advanced by the favor of the 
 Algerine. In 1540 he fell into the hands of one 
 of the Dorias and uiis bound to the oar as a 
 galley-slave for three years, — which did not 
 sweeten his temper toward the Christian world. 
 In 1543 he w-as ransomed, and nsumed his 
 piracies, with more energy than before. "Dra- 
 gut's lair was at the island of Jerba [called 
 Gelves, by the Spaniards]. . . . Not content 
 with the rich spoils of Europe, Dragut took the 
 Spanish outposts in Africa, one by one — Siisa, 
 Sfax, Mouastir; and finally .set forth to conquer 
 ' Africa. ' It is nut uueommuu in Arabic to call 
 
 260 
 
DAKBAUY STATES, 1543-13B0. 
 
 LOMS of 
 
 Tripoli. 
 
 UAKBAUY STATES, 1572-1573. 
 
 a coiintry niul its capital by tlic same name. . . . | 
 ' Africi' ' nitwit to the Arab.s the province of 
 Cartilage or T'lnis and its capital, wliich was 
 notat first Tunis but successively Kayrawannnd 
 Malidiya. Throughout the later middle ages the 
 name 'Africa' is applied by C^hrlstian writers 
 to the latter city. . . . This was the city which 
 Dragul took without a blow in the spring of 
 LViO. j^Iahdiya was then in an anarchic stat" 
 ruled by a council of chicf.s, each ready to betni) 
 the ether, and none owing the smallest allegiance 
 to aiy king, least of all the despised king of 
 Tui Is, Ilamid, who had deposed and blinded his 
 father, Hasan, Charles V.'s protege. One of 
 M., .se chiefs let Dragut and his merry men into 
 ih J city by night. . . . So ea.sy a triumph roused 
 th • emulation of Christendom. . . . Don Garcia 
 de Toledo dreamed of outshining the Corsair's 
 glory. His father, the Viceroy of Naples, the 
 Pope, and others, promised their ai(l, and old 
 Andrea Doria took the c'ommand. After much 
 delay and consultation a large body of troops 
 ■was conveyed to Mahdiya and disembarked on 
 Juno 28, 1550. Dragut, though aware of the 
 project, was at sea, devastating the Gulf of 
 Genoa, and paying himself in advance for any 
 loss the Christians might inllict in Africa: his 
 nephew Ili.sar Ueis cimimanded in the city. 
 When Dmgut returned, the siege iiad gone on 
 for a month," but he failed in attempting to 
 raise it and retired to .lerba. Alabdiya was 
 airried by assault on the 8th of Septtiinber. 
 "Ke.xtyear, 1551, Dragut's place was with the 
 Ottoman navy, then commanded by Sinan Pasha. 
 . . . With nearly 150 galleys or galleots, 10,000 
 soldiers, and numerous siege-guns, Sinan and 
 Dragut sailed out of the Dardanelles — whitlier 
 bound no Christian could tell. They ravaged, 
 as usual, the Straits of Messina, and then revealed 
 the point of attack by making direct for Malta." 
 Hut the deinonstratif)n nnulc against the strong 
 fortifications of the Knights of St. John was ill- 
 planned and feebly executed; it was easily 
 repelled. To wipe out his defeat, Sinan "sailed 
 straight for Tripoli, some 04 leagues away. Tri- 
 poli was the natural antidote to Alalta ; for Tripoli, 
 too, belonged to the Knights of St. Jolin — much 
 against their will — inasmuch as the Emperor 
 liad made their defence of this easternmost 
 Barbary state a condition of their tenure of 
 MaltJi. Hut the fortifications of Tripoli were 
 not strong enough to resist the Turkish bom- 
 bardment, and Gaspard de Villiers, the com- 
 mandant, was forced to surrender (A gust 15tli), 
 "on terms, as he believed, identical with those 
 ■which Suleyman granted to the Knights of 
 Khodes. Hut Sinan was no Suleyman; more- 
 over, he was in a furious rage with the wliole 
 Order. He put the garrison — all save a few — 
 in chains and carried them olt to grace his 
 triumi)h at Stambol. Thus did Tripoli fall once 
 more into the hands of the Moslems. . . . The 
 misfortunes of the Christians did not end here. 
 Year after year the Ottoman fleet appeared in 
 Italian watere. . . . Unable as they felt theni- 
 selves to cope with the Turks at sea, the powrs 
 of Southern Europe resolved to strike one more 
 blow on land, and recover Tripoli. A fleet of 
 nearly 100 galleys and ships, gathered from 
 Spain, Genoa, ' the Iteligion,' the Pope, from all 
 quarters, with the Dnke de Medina-Celi at their 
 head, assembled at >[e.ssina. . . . Five times the 
 expedition [-'t to sea; live times was it driven 
 
 back by contrary winds. At las., on February 
 10, 1560. it was fairly away for the African 
 C(.ist. \ln-i\ fresh troubles awaited it. Long 
 delays in crowded vesre'-' had produce<l their 
 disastrous elfectM; fevers and scurvy and 
 dysentery were working their terrible ravages 
 among the crews, and 2,000 corpses were filing 
 into the sea. It was impossible to lay siege to 
 Tripoli with a diseased army, and wheii actually 
 in sight of their object the admirals gave orders 
 to return to Jerha. A sudden <le.scent ijuickly 
 gave them the command of the beautiful island!. 
 ... In two months a strong castle was built, 
 with all scientific earthworks, and the admiral 
 jtrepared to carry home such troojis as were not 
 needed for its defence. Unliai)|)ily for him, he 
 had lingered too long. . . . He was about to 
 prepare for deiiarture when news came that the 
 Turkish fleet had been seen at Goza. Instantly 
 all was panic. Valiant gentlemen forgot their 
 valour, forgot their coolnes.s. . . . Bef ire they 
 could make out of the strait . . . the dread 
 Corsair [Dragut] himself, and Ochiali, ind Piali 
 Pasha were upon them. Then ensued a scene; 
 of confusion that baflles description. Despairing 
 of weathering the north side of .lerba the panic- 
 stricken Christians ran their ships ashore and 
 deserted them, never stopping even to .set them 
 on fire. ... On rowed the Turks ; galleys and 
 galleons to the number of 50 fell into their hands; 
 18,000 Christians bowed down before their 
 scimitars; the beach on that memorable lltli of 
 !May, 1500, was a confused medley of stranded 
 sliips, helpless iirisoners, Turks busy in looting 
 men and galleys — and a hideous heap of 
 mangled bodies. The fleet and the army which 
 had sailed from ^Messina . . . were absolutely 
 lost." — S. Lane-Poole, Story ,</ the Darlmry 
 Cormirs. 
 
 Also in: W. H. Prescott, Hint, of the liei'juof 
 Philip IL, bk. 4, <•//. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1563-1565. — Repulse of the Moors 
 from Oran and Mazarquiver. -Capture of 
 Penon de Velez:. — In the spring of 1503 a 
 most determined ind formidable attempt was 
 made by Hassem, the dey of Algiers, to drive 
 the Spaniards from Oran and Mazarquiver, 
 which they had held since the African con- 
 quests of "{/"ardinal Ximenes. The siege was 
 fierce and desperate; the defence most heroic. 
 The beleaguered garrisons held tlicir ground 
 until a relieving expedition from Spain came in 
 sight, on the 8th of June, when the Moors 
 retrer.ted hastily. In tlie summer of the next 
 year the Spaniards toolc the strong island fortress 
 of Penon de Velez, breaking up one more nest of 
 piracy and strengthening their footing on the 
 IJarbary coast. In tlie course of the year fol- 
 lowing they blocked the mouth of the river 
 Tetuan, wh'icli was a place of refuge for the 
 marauders. — W. H. Prescott, Hist, of the Reign of 
 Philip II., hk. 4, ch. 1 (p. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1565.— Participation in the Turkish 
 Siege of Malta. — Death of Dragut. See 
 IIosi'iT.\i.Li;ns oi- St. John: A. 1). l.'iliO-b'iOo. 
 
 A. D. 1570-1571. — War •with the Holy- 
 League of Spain, Venice and the Pope. — The 
 Battle of Lepanto. See Turku: A. D. 1566- 
 1571. 
 
 A. D. 1572-1573. — Capture of Tunis by 
 Don John of Austria.— Its recovery, with 
 Goletta, by the Turks. See Tuuks; A. D. 
 1572-1573. 
 
 261 
 
BARBARY STATES, 1579. 
 
 Wars wiih 
 France. 
 
 BARBARY STATES, 1004-1084. 
 
 A. D. 1579.— Invasion of Morocco by Sebas- 
 tian ci Portugal. — His defeat and death. Suu 
 PoKTi (iAi.: A. I). 15711-l.Wl). 
 
 A. D. 1664-1684. — Wars of France against 
 the piratical powers. — Destructive bombard- 
 ments of Algiers. — "Tlii^ iiiiciciit alliance of 
 till' cTdwii of Kiiuicc with the Ottoman Porte, 
 always unpopular, and less necos.snry since France 
 had become so strong, was at this montent [early 
 in the reign of Louis XIV.] well-nigh bn.ken, to 
 the great satisfaction both of the Christian 
 nations of the South and of the Austrian empire. 
 . . . Divers jilans were ])roposed in the King's 
 council for attacking the Ottoman jjower on the 
 Moorish coasts, and for repressing the pirates, 
 who were tho terror of the merchautshipping 
 and maritime provinces. Colbert induced the 
 king to attempt a military settlement among the 
 Moors as the best jueans of holding them in 
 check. A squadron commanded by tlie Dukede 
 Beaufort . . . landed ft, 000 picked soldiers be- 
 fore ■Jijeli (or Djigelli), a small Algerine port 
 between Bougiah and Bona. They took [losses- 
 sion of Jijeli without dilliculty (.fuly ;.>3, 1004); 
 but discord arose between Beaufort and his 
 officers; they did not work actively enough to 
 fortify themselves," and before the end of 
 September they were obligeil to evacuate the 
 place precipitately. " Tlie success of Beaufort's 
 squadron, commanded >iiider the didic by the 
 celebrated Chevalier Paul, ere long clTaccd the 
 impression of th's reverse: two Algerine flotillas 
 were destroyed in the cour.se of 1005." The 
 Dey of Algiers sent one of his French captives, 
 an officer named l)u Babiuais, to France with 
 propo.sals of peace, making him swear to return 
 if his mission failed. The proposals were re- 
 jected; l)u Babinais was loyal to his oath and 
 returne<l — to sutTer death, as he cxjiected, at the 
 hands of the furious barbarian. "The devotion 
 of this Breton Hegulus was not lost: despondency 
 soon took the place of anger in the heart of the 
 Sloorish chi(^fs. Tunis yielded first ( ) the gui;s 
 of the French S(iuadron, brought to bear on it 
 from the Bay of Goletta. The Pacha and the 
 Divan of Tunis obligated themselves to restore 
 all the French slaves they possessed, to re- 
 spect French ships, and thenceforth to release 
 .•xll Frenchmen whom they should capture on 
 foreign ships. . . . Rights of aubaine, and of 
 admiralfv and shipwreck, were suppressed as re- 
 garded trenchmep (November 25, 1005). The 
 station at Cape Ne,.5ro was restored to France. 
 . . . Algiers submitted, six months after, to 
 nearly the same conditions imposed o;i it by 
 Louis XIV. ; one of the articles stipulated that 
 French merchants shoidd be treated as favorably 
 as any foreign nati(m, and even more so (May 17, 
 1060). :More than 3,000 French slaves were set 
 at liberty." Between 100!) and 1072, Louis XIV. 
 was .serib\isly meditating a great v it of conquest 
 with the Turks and their dependencies, but pre- 
 ferred, finally, to enter upon his war with Hol- 
 land, which brought the other project to naught. 
 France and the Ottoman emi)ire then remained 
 on tolerably good terms until 1081, when a 
 ".squiulron of Tripolitau corsairs having carrie<l 
 off a French shij) on the coast of Provence, 
 Duquesne, at the head of seven vessels, pur- 
 sued the pirates into the waters of Greece. They 
 took refuge in the harbor of Scio. Duquesne 
 summoned the Pacha of Scio to expel them. 
 The Pacha refused, and flred ou the French 
 
 8(|ua(Iron, when Duquesne canror.inled both the 
 jjirates and the town witii such violence that the 
 Pacha, terrilied, asked for a truce, in order to 
 refer the matter to the Sultan (.July 23, 1081). 
 Duquesne converted the attack into a bl<K;kade. 
 At the news of this viohition of the Ottoman 
 territory, the Sultan, Mahomet IV., fell into u 
 rage . . . and dispatched the Captain-Pacha to 
 Scio with 32 galleys. Duquesne allowed tho 
 Turki.sh galleys to enter tho harbor, then block- 
 aded thi^m with the pirates, and declared that ho 
 would burn the wholo if satisfaction were not 
 had of the Tripolitans. The Divan hesitated. 
 War was about to recommence with the Em- 
 l)eror; it was not the moment to kindle it against 
 France." In the end there was a "ompromise, 
 and the Tripolitans gave up the French vessel 
 and tho slaves they had captured, promising, 
 also, to receive a French consul at Tripoli. 
 "During this time another squadron, commanded 
 bv Chateau-Renault, blockaded the coasts of 
 >lorocco, the men of Maghreb having rivalled 
 in depredations the vassals of Turkey. The 
 jiowcrful Emperor of Morocco, Muley Ismael, 
 sent the governor of Tetuan to France to solicit 
 peace of Louis XIV. The treaty was signed at 
 Saint-Germain, January 29, 1082, on advantage- 
 ous conditions." including restitution of French 
 slaves. " iVflairs did not terminate so amicably 
 with Algiers. From tliis piratical centre had 
 proceeded the gravest offenses. A captain of 
 the royal navy was held in slavery there, with 
 many other Frenchmen. It was resolved to in- 
 flict a terrible piuiishment on the Algerines. 
 The thought of con({uering Algeria had more 
 than once presented itself to the king and 
 Colbert, and they appreciated the value of this 
 conquest ; the Jijeli expedition had been fn.-merly 
 a first attempt. They did not, however, deem 
 it incumbent on them to embark in sudi an 
 enterprise; a descent, a siege, would have re- 
 quired too great preparations; tliey lii.J recourse 
 to another means of attack. The regenerator of 
 the art of naval construction, Petit-Renau, in- 
 vented bomb-ketches expressly for the purpose. 
 . . . July 23, 1082, Duquesne anciiored before 
 Algiers, with 11 ships. 15 galleys, 5 bomb- 
 ketches, and Petit-Renau to guide them. After 
 five weeks' delay caused by bad weather, then 
 by a fire on one of the bomb-ketc/ies, the 
 thorough trial took place during the night of 
 August 30. The effect was terrible; a part of 
 the great mos((ue fell on the crowd that had 
 taken refuge there. During the night of Sep- 
 tember 3-4, the Algerines attempted to capture 
 the bomb-ketches moored at the entrance of their 
 harbor; they were repulsed, and the bombard- 
 ment continued. The Dey wished to negotiate; 
 the people, exasperated, prevented him. The 
 wind shifting to the northwest presaged the 
 equinoctial storm; Duquesne set sail again, 
 September 12. The expedition had not been 
 decisive. It was begun anew. June 18, 1083, 
 DiKiuesnc reappeared in the road of Algiers; he 
 had, this time, seven bomb-ketches instead of five. 
 These instruments of extermination had been 
 perfected in the interval. The nights of June 
 20-27 witnessed the overthrow of a great num- 
 ber of hou les, several mosques, and the palace 
 of the Dey. A thousand men perished in the 
 harbor and the town. " The Dey opened noirotia- 
 tions, giving up 700 French slaves, hu. was 
 killed by Ms Juuizaries, aud oue Uudgi-Uusseiu 
 
 262 
 
BARBARY STATES, 1664-1684. 
 
 American 
 JiesiHtaiice. 
 
 BARBARY STATES, 1785-1801. 
 
 pnxjiaiined in his stciid. "The boiubardniciit 
 wiis rt'suiucd witli iiicreiising violence. . . . The 
 . Llgeriuos avcuj;ed themselves by binding to the 
 muzzles of their guns a number of Krenchmen 
 who remained in their hands. . . . The fury of 
 the Algerines drew upon them redi/Ubled 
 calamities. . . . Tlie bombs rained ubi.,)st with- 
 out intermission. The harbor was strewn with 
 the wrecks of vessels. Tlie city was ... a 
 heap of bloody ruins." Hut "the bomb-ketebes 
 had exhausted tlieir ammunition. September 
 was approaching. Duquesue again departed; 
 but a strong l)lockading force was kept up, dur- 
 ing the whole winter, as a standing threat of the 
 return of the 'infernal vessels.' Tlie Algerines 
 finally bowed their head, and, April 2,"), 1084, 
 peace was accorded by Tourville, the coin- 
 uiauder of the blockade, to the Pacha, Dey, 
 Divan, and troops of Algiers. The Algerines 
 restored !!20 French slaves remaining in their 
 power, and 180 other Christians claimed by the 
 King; the janizaries only which had been taken 
 from them were restored; they engaged to make 
 no prizes within ten leagues of the coast of 
 France, nor to assist tlie other ^Moorish corsairs 
 at war with France ; to recognize the iireceihmce 
 of the Hag of I'^ance over all other Hags, &c., 
 &c. ; lastly, they sent an embassy to carry their 
 submission to Louis XIV. ; they did not, how- 
 ever, pay the damages which Du(iuesne had 
 wished to exact of tlieni." — II. Martin, Jlixt. of 
 Fraiicc: Arje of Lutiis XIV., v.. 1, eli. 4 and 7. 
 
 A. D. 1785-1801. — Piratical depredations 
 upon American commerce. — Humiliating trea- 
 ties and tribute. ^The example of resistance 
 given by the United States. — "It is dillicult 
 .for us to realize that only 70 years ago the Jledi- 
 terranean was so unsafe that the merchant ships 
 of every nation stood in danger of being cap- 
 tured by pirates, unless they were iiroteeted 
 cither by an armed convoy or by tribute paid to 
 the petty Barbary powers. Yet we can scarcely 
 open a book of travels during the last century 
 without mention being made of the immense 
 risks to whicli every one was exposed who ven- 
 tured by sea from j\Iarseilles to Najdes. . . . 
 The European states, in orilor to protect their com- 
 merce, had the choice either of paying certain 
 sums per head for each captive, which in reality 
 was a premium on capture, or of buying entire 
 freedom for their commerce by the expenditure of 
 large sums yearly. The treaty renewed by 
 France, in 1788, with Algiers, was for lifty years, 
 and it was agreed to piij- $200,000 annually, be- 
 sides large jiresents diatributed according to 
 custom every ten years, and a great sum given 
 down. The peace of Spain witli Algiers is said 
 to have cost from three to Ave millionsof dollars. 
 There is reason to believe that at the same time 
 England was jiaying an annual tribute of about 
 $280,000. England was the only power sutli- 
 ciently strong on the sea to ]5ut down these pirates ; 
 but in order to keep her own position as mistress 
 of the seas she preferred to leave them in existence 
 in order to be a scourge to the commerce of other 
 European powers, and even to supjiort them by 
 paying a sum so great that other states might 
 And it dillicult to make peace with them. When 
 the Revolution broke out, we [of the United 
 States of America] no longer hod the safeguards 
 for our commerce that bad been given to us by 
 England, and it was therefore that in our very 
 first uegotitttioiis for a treaty with Franco we 
 
 desired to have an article inserted into the treaty, 
 that the king of France should secure the in- 
 habitants of the United Statia, and iheir vessels 
 and elTects, against all attacks or depR'dations 
 from any of the Barbary iiowers. It was fouml 
 impossible to insert this article in tlic treaty of 
 1778, and instead of that the king agreed to 'em- 
 ploy his good otllces and interposition in order 
 to provide as fully and ellicaciously as po.ssiblo 
 for the benedt, conveniency and safety of the 
 United States against the jirinces and the states 
 of Barbary or their subjects.' " — Direct negotia- 
 tions between the United States and the jiiratical 
 powers were opened in KH."). by a call which Jlr. 
 Adams made upon the Tripolilaii ambassador. 
 The latter announced to .Mr. Adams tliat " ' Tur- 
 kej', Tripoli, Tunis, Algiei's, and Morocco were 
 the sovereigns of the Mediterranean; and that 
 no nation could navigate that sea without a treaty 
 of peace with them.' . . . The ambassador de- 
 manded as the lowest price for a perpetual peace 
 30,000 guineas for his emiiloyers and £3,000 for 
 himself; that Tunis would probably treat on the 
 same terms; but he could not answer for Algiers 
 or ^lorocco. Peace with all four powers would 
 cost at least ,^1,000,000, and Congress hadai)pro- 
 priated only $80,000. . . . 3Ir. Adams was 
 strongly opposed to war, on account of the ex- 
 pense, and preferred the payment of tribute. 
 . . . Mr. ticfierson quite as deeidedl}- iireferrcd 
 war." The opinion in favor of a trial of pacific 
 negotiations prevailed, and a treaty with the 
 Emperor of Morocco was concluded in 1787. An 
 attempt at the same time to make terms with the 
 Dey of Algiers and to redeem a number of 
 American caiitives in his bands, came to nothing. 
 " For the sake of saving a few thousand dollars, 
 fourteen men were allowed to remain in imprison- 
 ment for ten years. ... In November, 1793, 
 the number of [American] prisoners at Algiers 
 amounted to 115 men, among whom there re- 
 mained only ten of the original captives of 1785." 
 At last, the nation began to realize the intolerable 
 shame of the matter, and, "on January 2, 17U1, 
 the House of Representatives resolved that a 
 ' naval force adequ^jte for the protection of the 
 eommerco of the United States against the Al- 
 gorine forces ought to be provided.' In the same 
 year authority was given to build six frij^ates, 
 and to procure ten smaller ves.sels to be C(iuipped 
 as galley.s. Negotiations, however, continued 
 to goon," and in SepteniVier, 1795. a treaty with 
 the Dey was concluded. ' ' In making this treaty, 
 however, we had been obliged to follow the 
 usage of European powers — not only pay a large 
 sum for the purpo.se of obtaining peace, but an 
 annual tribute, in order to ke(!p our vessels from 
 being captured in the future. The total cost of 
 fuimiing the treaty was estimated at $992,- 
 463.25." — E. Schuyler, Ameriaiii Diplomiuij, pt. 
 4. — "The tirst treaty of 1795. with Algiers, 
 which was negotiated during Washington's ad- 
 ministration, cost the United States, for tlie ran- 
 som of American captives, and the Dey's forbear- 
 ance, around $1,000,000, in addition to which an 
 annuity was jjroinised. Treaties with other Bar- 
 bary i^tatcs followed, one of which purcliaseil 
 peace from Tripoli by the payment of a gross 
 sum. Nearly $3,000,000 had been squandered 
 thus far in bribing these powers to respect our 
 flag, and President Adams complained in 1800 
 that the United States had to pay three times the 
 tribute Imposed upon Swcdcu and Deumurk. 
 
 268 
 
BJUBAUY STATES, 1785-1801. 
 
 D*'ratHr'H 
 Exploit. 
 
 BAUBARY STATES, 1803-18015. 
 
 But tliis toniporizin^; policy only mndo mnUprs 
 worse. C'liptiiiii Bainl)ri(lKc iirrivcd iit AlgicTs 
 ill 1800, benriiig tlic annuiil ti'lbut,(! money for tlio 
 I)('3' in II niitioiiiil frigiite, aiul tlie Dey ordered 
 liiiii to proceed to Constimtinople to deliver Al- 
 ijerino dispatches. ' English, French, and Span- 
 ish ships of war have done the same,' said the 
 Dey, insolently, when Bainbridgo and the Ameri- 
 can consul remonstrated. ' You pay me tribute 
 because you are my slaves. ' Bainbridf^e had lO 
 obey. . . . Tlie lesser Barbary States were still 
 more exasperating. The Bashaw of 'I'ripoli had 
 threatened to seize American vessi'ls unless 
 President Adams sent him a present like that 
 bestowed upon Algiers. The Bashaw of Tunis 
 made a similar demand iipon the new President 
 [Jefferson]. . . . Jefferson had, while in Wash- 
 ington's cabinet, expressed his (U'testation of the 
 method hitherto favored for pacifying these pests 
 of commerce ; and, availing himself of the pres- 
 ent favonible opportunity, lie sent out (Commo- 
 dore Dale with a squadron of three frigates and 
 a sloop of war, to make a naval demonstration 
 on the coast of Barbary. . . . Commodore Dale, 
 upon arriving at Gibraltar [July, 1801], found 
 two Triijolitan cruisers watcliing for American 
 vessf's; for, as had been suspected, Tripoli 
 already meditated war. Tlie frigate Pliiladelphia 
 blockaded these vessels, while Baiubridge, with 
 tUo frigate Essex, convoyed American vessels in 
 the Mediterranean. Dale, in the frigate Presi- 
 dent, proceeded to cruise off Tripoli, followed 
 by the »''hooner Experiment, which presently 
 captured a Tripolitim cruiser of 14 guns after 
 a spirited actio.?. The Barbary powers were for 
 a time overawed, and the United States thus set 
 the first example among Christian nations of 
 making reprisals instead of ransom the rule of 
 security against these commercial marauders. 
 In this respect Jefferson's conduct was applauded 
 at liome by men of all parties." — J. Schoulcr, 
 JlUt. of the U. S., ch. 5, sect. 1 (v. 3). 
 
 Also in: 11. L. Playfair, T/te Scourr/c of Chris- 
 tendom, ch. 10. 
 
 A. D. 1803-1805. — American War with the 
 pirates of Tripoli. — "The war with Tripoli 
 dragged tediously along, and seemed no nearer 
 its end at the close of 1803 than 18 months be- 
 fore. Commodore Morris, whom the President 
 sent to command the jSIediterranean squadron, 
 cruised from port to port between May, 1802, 
 and August, 1803, convoying merchant vessels 
 from Gibraltar to Leghorn and JIalta, or lay in 
 liarbor and repaired his ships, but neither block- 
 aded nor molested Tripoli ; until at length, June 
 21, 1803, the President called him home and dis- 
 missed him from the service. His successor 
 was Commodore Preble, who Sept. 12, 1803, 
 reached Gibraltar with the relief-squadron which 
 Secretary Gallatin thought unnecessarily strong. 
 ... He found Morocco taking part with 
 Tripoli. Captain Bainbridge, who reached Gib- 
 raltar in the 'Philadelphia' August 24, some 
 tliree weeks before Preble arrived, caught in the 
 neighborhood a Moorish cruiser of 22 guns vitli 
 an American brig in its clutches. Another 
 American brig liiul just been seized at Mogador. 
 Determined to stop this peril at the outset, 
 I'reble united to his own squadron the ships 
 which he had come to relieve, and -with this 
 combined force, . . . sending the ' Pliiladelphia ' 
 to blockade Tripoli, he crossed to Tangiers 
 October 0, and brought the Emperor of Morocco 
 
 to reason. On both sides prizes and prisoners 
 w<'re restored, and the old treaty was renewed. 
 This 'iffair consumed time; ami when at length 
 Preble got the ' Constitution ' under way for the 
 Tripolitan coast, he spoke a British frigate off 
 the Island of Sardinia, which reported that the 
 'Philadelphia' had been captureil October 21, 
 more than three weeks before. Bainbridge, 
 cruising off Tripoli, had chased a Tripolitan 
 cruiser into shoal water, and was hauling off, 
 when the frigate struck on a reef at the mouth 
 of the harbor. Every effort was made without 
 success to float her; but at la.st she was sur- 
 rounded by Tripolitan gunboats, and Bainbridge 
 struck his flag. The Tripolitans. after a few 
 days work, floated the frigate, and brought her 
 under the guns of the castle. The olIl(«rs be- 
 came prisoners of war, and the crew, in number 
 300 or more, were iiut to hard labor. The affair 
 was in no way discreditable to the squadron. 
 . . . The Tripolitans gained nothing except the 
 jirisoncrs ; for at Bainbridge 's suggestion Preble, 
 some time afterward, ordered Stephen Decatur, 
 a young lieutenant in command of the 'Enter- 
 prise,' to take a captured Tripolitan craft re- 
 named the 'Intrepid,' and with a crew of 75 
 men to sail from Syracuse, enter the harbor of 
 Tripoli by night, board the 'Philadelphia,' and 
 burn her under the castle guns. The order was 
 literally obeyed. Decatur ran into the harbor 
 at ten o'clock in the night of Feb. 16, 1804, 
 boarded the frigate within half gun-shot of the 
 Pacha's castle, drove the Tripolitan crew over- 
 board, set the ship on fire, remained alongside 
 until the flames were beyond control, and then 
 withdrew without losing a man." — H. Adams, 
 Hist, of the U. 8. : Administration of Jefferson, 
 V. 2, e?i. 7. — "Commodore Preble, in the mean- 
 time, hurried his preparations for more serious 
 work, and on July 35th arrived off Tripoli with 
 a squadron, consisting of the fiigate Constitu- 
 tion, three brigs, three schooners, six gunboats, 
 and two bomb vessels. Opposed to him were 
 arrayed over a hundred guns mounted on shore 
 batteries, nineteen gunboats, one ten-gun brig, 
 two schooners mounting eight guns each, and 
 twelve galleys. Between August 3rd and Sep- 
 tember 3rd five attacks were made, and though 
 the town was never reduced, substantial damage 
 was inflicted, and the subsequent satisfactory 
 peace rendered possible. Preble was relieved 
 by Barron in September, not because of any loss 
 of confidence in his ability, but from exigencies 
 of the service, which forbade the Government 
 sc "di'.ig out an oHicer junior to him in the relief 
 squidron which reinforced his own. Upon his 
 return to the United States he was iiresented 
 with a gold medal, and the thanks of Congress 
 were tendered him, his otlicors, and men, for 
 gallant n> 1 faithful services. The blockade 
 was main 1 ued vigorously, and in 1805 an attack 
 was made upon the Tripolitan town of Derna, 
 by a combined land and naval force ; the former 
 being under command of Consul-General Eaton, 
 who had been a captain in the American army, 
 and of Lieutenant O'Bannou of the Marines. 
 The enemy made a spirited though disorganized 
 defence, but the shells of the war-ships drove 
 them from point to point, and finally their prin- 
 cipal work was carried by the force under 
 O'Bannon and Jlidshipmau Mann. Eaton was 
 eager to press forward, but he was denied rein- 
 forcements and military stores, and much of his 
 
 264 
 
BARBARY STATES, 180»-1806. 
 
 Bombardment 
 u/ Algieri. 
 
 BARBARY STATES, 1816. 
 
 adviuitngc was lost. All further openitloiis 
 w<Ti', however, (liseontinueil in Ju .'\ 1805, 
 when, niter the ii.stiul inlrifjues, ilelay.s, iiiid 
 prevuriciitidiis, a Ire.ity was signed by the 
 i'asim, whieh ])ri)\ ided that no further trilmto 
 should be exaeted, and tliat Anieriean ve.ssels 
 should 'le forever free of his rovers. Satisfac- 
 tory as was this conclusion, tlie uncomfortable 
 fact remains that tribute entered into the settle- 
 ment. After all the prisoners had been ex- 
 changed man for man, the Tripolitan Govern- 
 ment demanded, and the United States paid, the 
 handsome sum of si.\ty thousand dollars to 
 close the contract. This treaty, however, 
 awakened the conscience of Europe, and from 
 the day it was signed the power of tlie Uarbary 
 Corsairs began to wane. The older countries 
 saw their duty more clearly, and ceased to legalize 
 robbery on the high seas." — S. Lauo-Poolu, 
 Story of the liarbary Vur»air», eh. 20. 
 
 Also in : J. P. Cooper, Hist, (if the U. 8. 
 Navy, V. 1, eh. 18 and t. 2, ch, 1-7. — The same. 
 Life of I'rchlc. — A. S. .Mackenzie, Life of Deca- 
 tur, ch. 3-7. 
 
 A. D. 1815.— Final War of Algiers with the 
 United States. — Death-blow to Algerine 
 piracy. — ".Just as the late war with Great 
 Britain broke out, the Dey of Algiers, taking 
 offense at not having received from America the 
 precise articles in the way of tribute demanded, 
 had unceremoniously dismissed Lear, the consul, 
 had declared war, and had since captured an 
 American vessel, and reduced her crew to 
 slavery. Immediately after the ratification of 
 the treaty with England, this declaration had 
 been reciprocated. Efforts liad been at once 
 made to fit out ships, new and old, including 
 several small ones lately purchased for the pro- 
 posed squadrons of Porter and Perry, and before 
 many weeks Decatur saded from New York 
 with the Guerriiire, Macedonian, and Constel- 
 lation frigates, now rideased from blockade ; the 
 Ontario, new sloop of war, four brigs, and two 
 schooners. Two days after passing Gibralter, ho 
 fell in with and captured an Algerine frigate of 
 44 guns, the largest ship in the Algerine navy, 
 which struck to the Ouerrifire after a running 
 light of twenty-live minutes. A day or two 
 after, an Algerine brig was chased into shoal 
 water on the Spanish coast, and captured by the 
 smaller vessels. Decatur having appeared oil 
 Algiers, the terrified Dey at once consented to a 
 treaty, which he submitted to sign on Decatur's 
 quarter deck, surrendering all prisoners on hand, 
 making certain pecuniary indemnities, renouncing 
 all futuni claim to any American tribute or 
 presents, and the practice, also, of reducing 
 prisoners of war to slavery. Decatur then pro- 
 ceeded to Timis and Tripoli, and obtained from 
 both indcnuiity for certain American vessels 
 captured under the guns of their forts by British 
 cruisers during the late war. The Bey of 
 Tripoli being short of cash, Decatur agreed to 
 accept in part payment the restoration of liberty 
 to eight Danes and two Neapolitans held as 
 slaves." — R. llildrcth, Hint, of the U. S., Second 
 Series, ch. 30 (p. 3). 
 
 Also in: A. S. JIackenzio, Life of Decatur, ch. 
 18-14. 
 
 A. D. 1816.— Bombardment of Al|;iers by 
 Lord Exmouth. — Relinquishment of Christian 
 slavery in Algiers, Tripolis and Tunis. — "The 
 corsairs of Barbary still scoured the Mediter- 
 
 ranean; the eai)tives, whom they had taken from 
 {Christian vessels, still languished iii eaptivilv in 
 Algiers; and, to the disgrace of the civilized 
 world, a piratical state was suffered to exist in 
 its very centr<'. . . . The C(m<'lusion of the war 
 [of the Coalition against N'a])oleon and France | 
 made the continuance of the.se ravages utterly 
 intolerable. In the interests of civilization it 
 was essential that piracy shoidd be put down; 
 Britain was mistress of the seas, and it therefore 
 devolved upon her to do the work. . . . Happily 
 for this country the Mediterranean command was 
 held by anodicer I Lord Exmouth | whose bravery 
 and sliill were fully (Mpi.tl to the dangers before 
 him. . . . Early in 181(1 Exmouth was instructed 
 to proceed to ilie several stales of Barbary ; to 
 re(|uin; them to recognize the cession of the 
 Ionian Islands to Britain; to conclude peace with 
 the kingdoms of Sardinia an<l Naples; and to 
 abolish Christian slavery. The Dey of Algiers 
 readily assented to the two first of these condi- 
 tions; the Beys of Tripolis and Tunis followed 
 the example of the Dey of Algiers, and in addi- 
 tion consented to refrain in future from treating 
 l)risoners of war as slaves. Exmouth thereupon 
 returned to Algiers, anil endeavoured to obtain a 
 similar concession from the Dey. The Dey 
 pleaded that Algiers was subject to the Ottoman 
 Porte," and obtained a truce of three months in 
 order to confer witli the Sultan. But meantime 
 the Algerincs made an luiprovoked attack upon 
 a neighbouring coral fishery, which was pro- 
 tected by the British flag, massacring the fisher- 
 men and destroying the flag. This brought 
 Exmouth back to Algiers in great haste, with au 
 ultimatum which he delivered on the 27th of 
 August. No answer to it was returned, and the 
 fleet (which had been joined by some vessels of 
 the Dutch navy) sailed into battle range that 
 same afternoon. " The Algorines permitted the 
 ships to move into their stations. The British 
 reserved their fire till they could deliver it 
 with good effect. A crowd of spectators 
 watched the ships from the shore; and Exmouth 
 waved his hat to them to move and save them- 
 selves from the fire. They had not the prudence 
 to avail themselves of his timely warning. A 
 signal shot was fired by the Algeriues from the 
 mole. The 'Queen Charlotte' replied by 
 delivering her entire broadside. Five hundred 
 men were struck down by the first discharge. 
 . . . The battle, which had thus beguu at two 
 o'clock in the afternoon, continued till ten o'clock 
 in the evening. By that time half Algiers had 
 been destroyed ; the whole of the Algerine navy 
 had been burned; and, though a few of the 
 enemy's batteries still maintained a casual fire, 
 their principal fortifications were cnunbling 
 ruins; the majority of their guns were dis- 
 mouuted." The Dey humbled himself to the 
 terms proposed by the British commander. "On 
 the first day of September Exmouth had the 
 satisfaction of acquainting his government with 
 the liberation of all the slaves in the city of 
 Algiers, and the restitution of the money i)aid 
 since tlie commencement of the year by the 
 Neapolitan and Sardinian Governments for the 
 redemption of slaves." He had also extorted 
 from the piratical Dey a solemn declaration that 
 he would, in future wars, treat all prisoners 
 according to the usages of European nations. 
 In the battle which won these important results, 
 " 138 men wero killed and 090 wounded on 
 
 265 
 
UAUBAHY STATES, 1810. 
 
 Algler» 
 Subdued. 
 
 BARBARY STATES, 1830-1846. 
 
 boiml tlip British fleet ; the Diiteli lost 13 killed 
 and ry2 wounded." — 8. Wiilpole, IIi»t. of Kinj. 
 from 1815, ch. 2 (r. 1). 
 
 Also in: II. Mnrtineaii, IIi»t. of the riiirty 
 Tears Peace, bk. 1, ch. 6 (c. 1).— L. Ilertslet, 
 OolUctii/ii of Treittie* uitd Coittentionn, v. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1830. — French conquest of Algiers. — 
 "DuriuK llie Niipoleonie wars, the Dey of Al- 
 giers sii|)pli('<l grain for tlie use of the Fr<'iuh 
 armies; it was bouglit by mereliants of .Mar- 
 seille.s, and there was a dispute about tlie niiiltir 
 wliicli was unsettled as late as 1829. Several in- 
 stalments liad been paid; tlie dey demanded 
 payment in full nceonling to his own figures, 
 while ilie French government, believing tlie de- 
 mand exee.ssive, required an investigation. In 
 one of tlio numerous debates on the subject, 
 Ilussiein Paslia, the reigning dey, became very 
 angry, struclt tlie consul with a fan, and ordered 
 him out of tlie house. lie refused "ll reparation 
 for the insult, even on the formal demand of the 
 French government, and conseipiently there was 
 no alternative but war." Tlie expedition launched 
 from the port of Toulon, for the chastisement of 
 the insolent Algerine, "compri.sed 37,.W() men, 
 3,000 horses, and 180 pieces of artillery. . . . 
 The sea-forces included 11 ships of tlie "line, 23 
 frigates, 70 smaller ves.sels, 377 transports, and 
 830 boats for landing troops. General Uourmont, 
 Minister of War, commanded the expedition, 
 which appeared in front of Algiers on tlie 13th 
 of June, 1830." Hussein Pasha "had previously 
 asked for aid from the Sultan of Turkey, but 
 that wily ruler had blankly refu.sed. The beys 
 of Tunis and Tripoli had also declined to medclle 
 with the affair." The landing of the Freni'h 
 was effected safely and without serious oppo.si- 
 tion, at Sidi-Ferruch, about 16 miles west of 
 Algiers. The Algerine army, 40,000 to 50,000 
 strong, commanded by Aga Ibrahim, son-in-law 
 of the dey, took its position on the table-land of 
 Staoueli, overlooking the French, where it waited 
 while their landing was miuie. On the 19th 
 General IJourmont was ready to advance. His 
 antagonist, instead of adhering to the waiting 
 attitude, and forcing the French to attack liiiii, 
 on his own ground, now went out to meet tlieiii, 
 and flung his disorderly mob against their dis- 
 ciplined battalions, with the result that seldorti 
 fails. "The Arab loss in killed and wounded 
 was about 3,000, . . . while the French loss was 
 less than 500. In little more than an hour the 
 buttle was over, and the Osmaulis were in full 
 and disorderly retreat." General Bourmont took 
 possession of the Algerine camp at Staoueli, 
 wliere he was again attiicked on the 24tli of 
 June, with a similar disjistrous result to the Arabs. 
 Ho then advanced uiwii the city of Algiers, 
 established his army in jxisition behind the city, 
 constructed batteries, and oiieued, on the 4th of 
 July, a bombardment so terrific that the dey 
 hoisted the white flag in a few hours. " Hussein 
 Pasha hoixid to the last moment to retain his 
 country and its indeiiendence by making liberal 
 conces.sions in the way of indemnity *or tlie ex- 
 ]x;nses of the war, and offered to liberate all 
 Christian slaves in addition to paying them for 
 their services and sufferings. The English con- 
 sul tried to mediate on this basis, but his offers 
 of mecllation were politely declined. ... It was 
 finally agreed that the dey should surrender 
 Algiers with all its forts and military stores, and 
 be permitted to retire wherever he chose with 
 
 his wives, children, and personal belongings, 
 but he was not to remain in the country under 
 any circumstances. On the 5tli of July the 
 French entered Algiers in gr:>at pomp aiuf took 
 possession of the city. . . . The spoils of war 
 were such as rarely tall to the lot of a cou(|uer- 
 ing army, when its numbers and the circumstan- 
 ces of the campaign are considered. In the 
 treasury was fouiui a large room filled with gold 
 and .<ilver coins heaped together indiscriminately, 
 the fruits of three centuries of piracy; they were 
 the coins of all the nations that had suffered 
 from the depredations of the Algerines, and the 
 variety in tlie dates showed very clearly that 
 the accumulation had been the work of two 
 or three hundred years. How much money 
 was contained in this vast pile is not known; 
 certain it is that nearly 50,000,000 francs, or 
 £2,000,000 sterling, actually reached the French 
 treasury. . . . The cost of the war was much more 
 than covered by the captured property. . . . 
 Jlany slaves were liberated. . . . The Algerine 
 power was forever broken, and from that day 
 Algeria has been a prosperous colony of France. 
 TIu' .sein Pasha embarked on the 10th of July with 
 a suite of 110 persons, of whom 55 were women. 
 He proceeded to Naples, where he remained for 
 a time, went afterwards to Leghorn, and finally 
 to Egypt." In Egypt he died, under circum- 
 stances which indicated poison. — T. W. Knox, 
 Decisive Battles Since Waterloo, eh. 5. 
 
 Ai.so IN: R. L. Playfair, Tlie Scourge of Ghria- 
 teiulom, ch. 19. — E. E. Crowe, Hist, of the Iteigna 
 oflMiiis XVIIT. and Charles X., v. 2, ch. 13. 
 
 A. D. 1830-1846.— The French war of Sub- 
 jugation in Algeria with Abd-el-Kader. — 
 " When Louis Philippe ascended the throne [of 
 France, A. D. 1830] the generals of lii." predeces- 
 sor had overrun the country [of Algiers] — 
 though they did not effectually subdue it ; their 
 absolute dominion not extending far round Al- 
 giers — from Bona, on the east, in lat. 36° 53' N., 
 long. 7° 46' W., to Oran, on the west — nearly 
 the entire extent of the ancient Libya. . . . 
 There was always a party in the chamber of 
 deputies oppo.sed to the concjuest who deprecated 
 tlie colonisation of Algeria, and who steadily op- 
 posed any grants of either men or money to bo 
 devoted to the African enterprise. The natural 
 result followed. Ten thousand men could not 
 effect the work for which 40,000 were required; 
 and, whilst the young colony languished, the 
 natives became emboldened, and encouraged to 
 make that resistance which cost the French so 
 dear. Marshal Clausel, when entrusted with the 
 government of the colony, and the supreme com- 
 mand of the troops . . . established a series of 
 fortified posts, which were adequately garrisoned ; 
 and roads were opened to enable the garrisons 
 promptly to communicate with each other. 
 These positions, rapidly acquired, he was unable 
 to maintain, iu consequence of the home govern- 
 ment recalling the greater part of his force. To 
 recruit his army he resolved to enlist some corps 
 of the natives; and, in October, 1830, the first 
 regiment of zouaves was raised." ... In 1833 
 we " fli-st hear of Abd-el-Kader. This chief was 
 the son of a marabout, or priest, in tlie ])rovinco 
 of Oran. He united consummate ability with 
 great valour; was a devout Moliammedan; and 
 when he raised the standard of the prophet, he 
 called the Arabs around him, with the fullest con- 
 fidence of success. His countrj men obeyed his 
 
 266 
 
BARBARY STATES, 1830-1840. AMei-K<uirr. BARBARY STATES, 1830-1840. 
 
 call in groat numhrrs; ami, rnroiiragcd by tlie 
 entliusiasiii tlicy (lispliiy<'il, lu! llrst, iit tlio close 
 of 1833, proclaiiiu'd liiin.sclf t'inirof Tli'iiiscn (the 
 forriKT niiiiie of Oriiii), and then seized on tlio 
 port of Ar/.ew, on tlie west sid(( of tlic gulf of 
 tliatnamc; and the port of Mostaganem, on the 
 opposite coast. The province! of Mascara, lying 
 at tiie foot of the Atlas, was also under his rule. 
 At that time general Desniiehels commanded at 
 Oran. lie had not a very large force, but he 
 acted promptly. .Marching against AbdelKader, 
 1:0 defeated him in two pitched battles; retook 
 Arzew and Mo.staganem; and, on the 2(lth of 
 February, 1834, entered into a treaty with the 
 emir, by whieli both parties were liound to keep 
 the peace towardseacli other. During that year 
 the terms were ob.served; but, in 183."), the Arab 
 chief again commenced hostilities. He marched 
 to the east, entered the French territories, and 
 took possession of J[edeali, being receive " with 
 tlie utmost joy by the inhabitants. On the 20th 
 of June, general Trezel, with only 3.300 men, 
 marched against him. Abd-el-Kader had 8,000 
 Arabs under his command ; and a sanguinary 
 combat took place in the deliles of .Moidey-Ismnel. 
 After a severe combat, the French forced the 
 passage, b\it with considerable loss. . . . The 
 French general, tinding liis positi(m untenable, 
 commenced a retrograde movementon the28lli of 
 June. In his retreat he was pursued by the Arabs ; 
 and before he reached Oran, on the 4th of Jidy, 
 he lost all his waggons, train, and baggage ; be- 
 sides having ten olllcers, and 'i'ri sous-ollicers 
 and rank-and-tile killed, and 308 wounded. The 
 heads of many of the killed were displayed in 
 triumph by the victors. This was a severe blow 
 to the French, and the cause of great rejoicing 
 to the Arabs. The former called for marshal 
 Clausel to be restored to bis command, and the 
 govennnent at home complied ; at the same time 
 issuing a proclamation, declaring tliat Algeria 
 should not be abandoned, but that the honour of 
 the French arms should be maintained. The 
 marshal left France on the 28th of July; and as 
 soon as he landed, he organised an expedition 
 against Slascara, which was Abd-el- Kader's capi- 
 tal. . . . The Arab chieftain advanced to meet the 
 enemy; but, being twice defeated, he resolved to 
 abandon his capital, which tlic French entered 
 on the 0th of December, and found completely 
 deserted. Tlw streets and houses were alike 
 empty and desolate; and the only living creature 
 they encountered was an old woman, lying on 
 some mats, wlio could not move of hereelf, and 
 had been either forgotten or abandoned. The 
 French set lire to the deserted houses ; and having 
 effected the destruction of Mascara, they marched 
 to Mostaganem, which Clausel determined to 
 make the centre of F/encli power in that dis- 
 trict." — Thos. AVrif^'.it. History of France, v. 3, 
 m>. 033-035. — " A. camp was established on the 
 Taafna in April 1830, and an action took place 
 there on the 2oth, when the Tableau states that 
 3,000 French engaged 10,000 natives; and some 
 of the enemies being troops of ^Morocco, an ex- 
 planation was required of JIuley-Abd-er-Rach- 
 man, the emperor, who said that the assistance 
 was given to the Algcrines witliout his knowledge. 
 On July 01 h, 1830, Abd-el-Kader suffered a dis- 
 astrous'defeat on the river Sikkak, near Tlemsen, 
 at the hands of Marshal Bugeaud. November 
 1830, the first expedition was formed against 
 Constantina, . . . After the failure of Clauzel, 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 General Damremont was appointed governor, 
 Fi'b. 12th, 18:t7; and (m the 3Uth of May the 
 treaty of the Taafna between GcMKTal Hugeaud 
 and AbdelKader left the French government at 
 liberty to direct all their attention against ("on- 
 stanlina, a camp being formed at .Medjoy-el- 
 Ahmar in that direction. An army of l(i,00ii 
 men set out thence on the 1st of October, 1837, 
 for Constantina. On the 0th it arrived before 
 (-onstantina; and on the 13th the town was taken 
 with a severe loss, including Damremont. Mar- 
 shal Vallee succeeded Damremont as governor. 
 The fall of (,'onstaniina destroyed the last relic 
 of the old Turkish govennnent. . . . Hythe2*th 
 January, 1838, 100 tribes had subnntted to the 
 French. A road was cleare<l in Ajiril by (Jeneral 
 Negrier from Constantina to Stora on the sea. 
 Tills road, passing by the camiis of Smcndou and 
 the Arroiich, was 22 leagues in length. The 
 coast of the Bay of Stora, on the site of the an- 
 cient Rusicada, became covered with French 
 settlers: and I'hilippeville was founded Oct. 1838, 
 threatening to supplant Bona. Abd-i'lKader 
 advaii ing in December 1837 to the province of 
 Constantina, the French advanced also to observe 
 him; then both retired, without coining to blows. 
 A misunderstanding which arosc^ respecting the 
 second artieleof the treaty of Taafna was settled 
 in the beginning of 1838. . . . Wlien Abd-el- 
 Kader assumed the royal title of Sultan and the 
 command of a numerous army, the French, with 
 re])ublican charity and fraternal .sympathy, 
 sought to infringe tlie Taafna treaty, and embroil 
 tlie Arab hero, in order to ruin his rising empire, 
 and found their own on its ashes. The Kmir had 
 been recognised by the whole country, from the 
 gates of Ouchda to the river Alijerda, . . . The 
 war was resumed, and many French razzias took 
 jilace. They once marched a large force from 
 Algiers on INlilianah to surprise the sultan's camp. 
 They failed in tlieir chief object, but nearly cap- 
 tured the sultan himself, lie was surrounded in 
 the middle of a French sepiare, which thought 
 itself sureot the rewardof 100,o00francs(E4,0O0) 
 offered for him ; but uttering his favourite ' en- 
 sliallair (with the will of Ood), he gave his white 
 horse the spur, and came over their bayonets un- 
 wounded. lie lost, however thirty of his body- 
 guard and friends, but killed six Frenchmen 
 witli his own hand. Still, notwithstanding his 
 successes, Abd-el-Kader had been losing all his 
 former power, as his Arabs, though brave, could 
 not match P" 000 French troops, with artillery 
 and all the oilier ornaments of civilised warfare. 
 Seven actions were fought at the Col de Mouzaia, 
 where the Arabs were overthrown by the royal 
 dukes, in 1841 ; and at the Oued Foddha, where 
 Changarnier, witli a handful of tnxips, defeated 
 a whole population in a frightful gorge. It was 
 on this occasion tliat, having no gun.s, lie launched 
 his Chasseurs d'Afriquc against the fort, saying, 
 ' Voili mon nrtillerie!' Abd-el-Kader had then 
 only two chances, — the support of Muley-Abd-er- 
 liidiinan. Emperor of Morocco; or the iieace that 
 the latter might conclude witli France for him. 
 General Bugeaud, who had replaced Marshal 
 Vall6e, organised a plan of campaign b}' movable 
 columns riuliating from Algiers, Oran, and C'on- 
 stantina; and having 100,000 excellent soldiers 
 at his disposal, the results as against the Emir 
 were slowly but surely effective. General Ne- 
 
 fricr at Constantina, Cliangarnier amongst the 
 ladjouts about Medcali and Aliliauah, Civaiguac 
 
 7 
 
UAKH.VliV HTATE-S, 18H0-1846. 
 
 BAHCELONA. 
 
 iinil Liiiuipricii'^rc in Onin, — niiricil out the 
 c'oiiiiimiiili'riii'cliicf'H instruc-tioiis witli iiiitiriiii; 
 t'ncp,'y and jM'rsi'V('r:iiu(,'; iiiiil in tlic sprliiK "f 
 IHIll llio Diir il'Aunmli', in coinpiiny wllli (icn- 
 rnii C'li:in,':irnliT, surpriswi tlit,' Kniir's camp in 
 llic iil).s<'ni'(' of tlic firciilcst part of lil.s force, and 
 it was witii (iillicuitv lliat lie lilmself escaped. 
 Not lonK afterwards lie tools refiii?e in Moroeeo, 
 t'.\<'ile(l tlie fanatical passions of tlie populace of 
 that empire, and llicrcliy forced its ruler, .Muley- 
 Abil-eritaliman, nuich aj^ainst his own inclina- 
 lion, into a war wiJi Kran<te; a war very speedily 
 terminated liv (rcncral Hui;eaud's victory of Isly, 
 with some sli^jht assistance from the liomburd- 
 mcnt of Tani^ier and MoKiwIor by the I'rince de 
 JoiiiVille. In 1845 the stniKifle was maintained 
 amidst the hills by the partisansof Abdellvadcr; 
 but our limits ])revent us from dwelling on its 
 particulars, save in onc! instance. . . . On the 
 night of tlic lath of .June, 1845, about three 
 months before Marshal Uugoaud left Algeria, 
 Colonels Pelissicr and St. Arnaiid, at the head of 
 a considerable force, attempted a ra/./.la upon 
 the tribe of the Beni-Ouled-Uiali, numbering, in 
 men, women, and children, about TOU persons. 
 This was in the Dahra. The Arabs escaped the 
 first clutch of tlieir pursuers; and wlien hard 
 pres-sed, as they soon were, t<x)k refuge in tlie 
 ciivo of Khartani, which had some oilour of sanc- 
 tity about it: some holy man or maraliout had 
 lived and died there, wc believe. Tlie Frendi 
 troops came up (|uickly to the cntranc^e, and the 
 Arabs were summoned to surrender. Tliey made 
 no reply. Possibly they did not hear the sum- 
 mons. ... As there was no other outlet from 
 the cave than that by which tlie Arabs entered, 
 a few hours' pati(Mice must have been rewarded 
 by the unconditional surrender of the imprisoned 
 tribe. Colonels Pcdissier and St. Arnaiid were 
 (h:sirous of a speedier result; and Ijy their order 
 an immense tire was liindled at the moutli of the 
 cave, and fed sedulously dtiring tlie summer 
 night with wood, grass, reeds, anything that 
 would help to keep up the volume of smoke and 
 
 flame which the wind ilrove, in roaring, whirling 
 eddies, into the mouth of the cavern. It was 
 1(H) late now for the unfortunate .Vnibs to olTer 
 to surreniicr; the discharge of a cannon woulil 
 not have Dccn licanl in the roar of that liuge 
 blastfurnace, mucli less smoke-strangled (Ties of 
 human agony. TIk- tire was kept up throughout 
 the night; and when the day had fully dawnc<l, 
 the tli(!n expiring emli<TS were kicked aside, and 
 as s<H)n as a sulHcienl time Imd elapsed to render 
 IhcMiir of th(^ silent cave breathable, some soldiers 
 were directed to ascertain liow niatters wen; 
 within. They were gone but a few minutes; and 
 they came back, we are told, pale, trembling, 
 tcri-ilied, hardly daring, it seemed, to confront 
 the light of day. No wonder they trembled and 
 looked pale. They had found all the Arabs 
 dead — men, women, <;hildren. ... St. Arnaud 
 and Pelissicr were rewarded by the French min- 
 ister; and Marshal Soult observed, that 'what 
 would be a crime against civilisation 'n Europe 
 miglit be a justiliable necessity in Africa.' . . . 
 A taste of Frencli bayonets at Isly, and the 
 booming of French guns at Mogador, liatl 
 brought Morocco to reason. . . . Morocco sided 
 witli France, and threatened Abd-cl-Kader, who 
 cut one of their corps to pieces, and was in June 
 on tlie point of coming to blows with Muiey-Alid- 
 el-Ilahman, the emperor. But the Emperor of 
 Morocco took vigorous measures to oppose him, 
 nearly exterminating the tribes frieuiliy to him; 
 which drew off many partisans from the Emir, 
 who tried to pacify the emperor, but unsuc- 
 cessfully." In December, 1840, "he asked to 
 negotiate, offered to surrender; and after 24 
 hours' discussion he came to Sidi Braliim, the 
 scene of his last exploits against the French, 
 where he was received with military honours, 
 and conducted to the Duke of Aumale at Ne- 
 mours. France has been severely abused for the 
 detention of Abdel-Kader in Ham." — ,T. K. 
 Morell, A/i/crid, fk. "23. 
 
 A. D. i88i. — Tunis brought under the protec- 
 torate of France. See Fuance : A. D. 187o-1889. 
 
 BARBES.— BARBETS.— Theeldersamong 
 the early Waldeiises were called barbes, wliicli 
 signirted " Uncle." Wlu^nce came the nickname 
 Barbets, applieil to tlie \Valdensian peoi)le gen- 
 erally. — B. Comba, Hint, of the Waldenaes of 
 Italy, p. 147. 
 
 BARCA. SeeCTRENE. 
 
 BARCELONA: A. D. 713.— Surrender to 
 the Arab-Moors. See 8i'.\in': A. D. 711-713. 
 
 A. D. 1151. — The County joined to Aragon. 
 See Sp.u.v: A. D. 1035-1258. 
 
 I2th-i6th Centuries. — Commercial prosper- 
 ity and municipal freedom. — "The city of Bar- 
 celona, whicli originally gave its name to the 
 county of which it was the capital, was distin- 
 guished from a very early period by ample 
 miuiicipal privileges. After tlie union with Ara- 
 gon in the 13tli century, the momirclis of the lat- 
 ter kinjjdom extended towards it the same liberal 
 legislation; so that, by tlie 13th, Barcelona had 
 reached a degree of commercial prosperity rival- 
 ling that of any of the Italian republics. She 
 divided witli them the lucnitive commerce with 
 Alexandria ; and her port, thronged with foreign- 
 ers from every nation, became a principal em- 
 l)orliim in the Mediterranean for the spices, 
 drugs, perfumes, and other rich commodities of 
 the Eiust, whence tUey were diffused over the in 
 
 terior of Spain and the European continent. Her 
 consuls, and her commercial factories, were es- 
 tablished in every considerable port in the .Medi- 
 terranean and in tlie north of Europe. The natu- 
 ral products of her soil, and her various domestic 
 fabrics, supplied her with abunchmt articles of 
 export. Fine wool was imported by her in con- 
 siderable quantities from England in the 14th 
 and 15th centuries, and returned there manu- 
 factured into cloth ; an exchange of commodities 
 the reverse of that existing betwecm tlio two 
 nations at the present day. Barcelona claims the 
 merit of having established the flrst bank of 
 exchange and deposit in Europe, in 1401 ; it was 
 devoted to the accommodation of foreigners as 
 well as of her own citizens. She claims the glory, 
 tix), of having compiled the most ancient written 
 code, among the moderns, of maritime law now 
 extant, digested from the usages of commercial 
 nations, and which formed the basis of the mer- 
 cantile jurisprudence of Europe duriu" the Mid- 
 dle Ages. The wealth which tlowcd in ujioii 
 Barcelona, as the result of her activity and enter- 
 prise, was evinced by her numerous public works, 
 her docks, arsenal, warehouses, exchange, hospi- 
 tals, and other constructions of general utility. 
 Strangers, who vi.sited Spain in the 14th and 1,5th 
 centuries, expatiate on the luaguiflccnce of tliis 
 
 - .:i 
 
UAUCEF.OXA. 
 
 nAKNEVELDT. 
 
 city, Itscommodlniw private cdlflrM, tlio rlonnll- 
 nciisof its si reels mill publie Mc(iiares (ii virtue by 
 no nienns iisiiul in that duyi. luid on tliu iimenily 
 «f ItH ;r»rili'ii.s and ciillivaled enviri)iis. lint the 
 
 Eeculiar ijlory iif IJarcelona was the freedom of 
 er iiiiiiiielpal institutions. Her government 
 consisted of a senate or rouncil of one hundred, 
 and a body of rei^idores or eounseliors, as they 
 Were styli'd. varyin;? at times from four to six 
 in numlicr; llic> former intrusted wilii the lej^is- 
 Jiilive, the latter with tlii? executive functions of 
 ndiulnistration. A larj;e proportion of these 
 bodies weri! selected from the mercliants, trades- 
 men, and nieclianics of the city. They were In- 
 vested not merely with municipal authority, but 
 with many of the rights of soven^iu'nty. They 
 entered into commercial treaties with foreifju 
 powers; superintended llie defence of the city 
 in time of war; provided for the seciuMty of 
 trade; jjranted letters of reprisal ajjainst any na- 
 tion who mi^lit violate it; and raised ami appro- 
 priated the public moneys for the construction 
 of useful works, or the encoura^jemeut of such 
 commercial adventures as were too hazardous or 
 expensive for individual enterprise. The coun- 
 sellors, who ])re.sidedoverth(! municipality, were 
 complimented with certain lionorary iirivileges, 
 not veil .•iccorded to the nobility. They were 
 addressed liy the title of maifnilicos; were .seated, 
 with their lieads covered, in the presence of roy- 
 alty; were preceded by mace-bearers, or lietors, 
 in their jirogress through the country ; and depu- 
 ties from their body to tlio court were admitted 
 oil tlie footini; and "received the honors of foreif^n 
 ambassadors. These, it will be recollected, were 
 plel)eians,- merchants and mechanics. Trade 
 never was esteemed a dei^radation in ('ataloiiia, 
 as it came to be in (Castile." — \V. II. I'rescott, 
 7/('.^^ (if the lUiijii (if Finliiiniul anil IiuiMla, in- 
 trod., Ki'i'l. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1640.— Insurrection. See Sp.vin: A. D. 
 164O-104U. 
 
 A. D. 1651-1652. — Siege and capture by the 
 Spaniards. SeeSi-.u\: A. 1). lOW-KI.Vi. 
 
 A. D. 1705. — Capture by the Earl of 
 Peterborough. ScoSi-.vin: A. I). nO.T 
 
 A. D. 1706. — Unsuccessful siege by the 
 French and Spaniards. .See Sp.mn: A. D. 170(1. 
 
 A. D. 1713-1714.— Betrayal and desertion by 
 -the Allies. — Siege, capture and massacre by 
 French and Spaniards. See Spai.n: A. U. 
 17i:i-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1842. — Rebellion and bombardment. 
 See Spain: A. D. 1S:!:{-1840. 
 
 BARCELONA, Treaty of. See Italy: A.D. 
 l.TJT-l.Vii). 
 
 BARCIDES, OR BARCINE FAMILY, 
 The. — The family of tlie jjreat Carlhai^iiiian, 
 liamilcar 'Jarcii, father of the more famous 
 Hannibal. Tlie surname Barca, or IJurcas, given 
 to Hamilcar, is c(iuivalent to the Hebrew IJarak 
 and signirted lightning. — II. U. Smitli, Cart'iuge 
 and till' C(irt/uir/<iHiiii,i, cl'. 7. 
 
 BARDS. See Fii.r. 
 
 BARDULIA, Ancient Cantabria. See 
 Spain: A. D. 1026-1>;50. 
 
 BARE, The. See A.mehican AuouiaiNEs: 
 GucKou Coco GiiofP. 
 
 BAREBONES PARLIAMENT, The. See 
 
 EniILAND: a. I). lfi.");J (•IlINK— I)K('KMIIKU). 
 
 BARfeRE AND THE COMMITTEE OF 
 PUBLIC SAFETY. See France : A. 1). 
 
 1793 or .Mini— .Il'NK);(SRPTP.>'ltF.K — DECEMnElO; 
 
 TO lTltl-17!l.', (.Iii.Y— .Vl'liii,), 
 
 BARKIAROK, Seljoulc Turkish Sultan, 
 A. I>. I(i!t3-ll()l. 
 
 BARMECIDES, OR BARMEKIDES, 
 The. — The liarmecides, or llarmekides, famoiH 
 iu the history of the Caliphate at Bagdad, ami 
 made familiar to all the world by the stories of' 
 the " .Vnibian N'ighls," were a family which rose 
 to great power anil wealth uu<ler the Caliph 
 llarouri .Viraschid. It took its name from ono 
 Khaled ibn Barmek. a Tcrsian, whose father had' 
 been the " Barmek " or cuslodian of one of the 
 most celebratecl temples of the Zoroastrian faith. 
 Ivhali'd ai'ccpted .Mahometaiiism and bec.ime 0110 
 
 of till! abli'st agents of tli uspiracy which 
 
 overthre',.' the ()mmlail Caliphs and Viiised thu 
 Abbasides to the thioiie. The tlrst of the .Vbba- 
 siile Caliphs recogni/ed his ability and made 
 him vizier. His son Yaliya succeeded to his 
 power and was the llrst vizier of the Tamoiis 
 Ilaroun .Viraschid. But it was .laafar, one of 
 the sons of Valiya, who became the prime 
 favorite of Haroun and who raised the family of 
 the Barmecides to its acme of splendor. So 
 much greatness hi a Persian house excited wide 
 Jealousy, however, among the Arabs, and, in tliu 
 end, the capricious lord and master of the all 
 powerful vizier .Jaafar turned his heart against 
 him, and against all his house. The fall of tho 
 Barmecides was made a.s cruel as their advance- 
 ment had been unscrupulous. .Taafar was be- 
 headed without a moment's waniiiig; his father 
 and brother were imprisoned, anil a thou.sand 
 members of the family are said to liave been 
 slain.- -If. I). Us'iorn, IkIiuii under the Klodifii iif 
 liiif/ZidHd, pt. 3, (•/(. 3. 
 
 Also in: E. II. Palmer, Ilaroun Alnwchid, 
 ch. 3. 
 
 BARNABITES. — PAULINES.— "Tho 
 clerks-regular of St. Paul (Paulines), wiiose con- 
 grcgatiou was founded by .Vntonio .Maria 
 Zachariiiof Cremona and cwo Milanese associates 
 in l.");i3, approviMl by Clement VII. in I'M, and 
 continued as independent by Paul HI. in l.l;i4, 
 iu X'A'i toolc the name of Barnabites, from tho 
 church of St. Barnabas, which was given up to 
 them at Milan. The Barnabites, who have been 
 described as tho democmtic wing of tho Tliea- 
 tiiie.s, actively engaged in the cimversiim of 
 lieretics,. botliin Italy and in Franco and iu that 
 homo of heresy, Bohemia." — A. W. Ward, Tlie 
 Counter lieforniatioii, j>. 39. 
 
 BARNBURNERS. Sec U.nited States of 
 A>r. : A. I). 1845-1840. 
 
 BARNET, Battle of (A. D. 1471).— The do- 
 cisive battle, and the last but ono fought, in tho 
 "Wars of tho Hoses." Edward IV., havinji; 
 been driven out of England and Henry VI. re- 
 instated by Warwick, "tlie King-maker," the 
 former returned before six montlis Iwid pn 'd 
 and made his way to London. Warwick liiustciird 
 to meet him with an army of Laiica.strians and 
 the two forces camo together on Ea-ster Sunday, 
 April 14, 1471, near Barnet, only ten miles from 
 London. The victory, long (hmbtful, was won 
 for tho white rose of Y()rk and it was very 
 biiKxlily achieved. Tlio Earl of Warwick wa.s 
 among tho slain. See England: A. D. 1455- 
 1471. 
 
 BARNEVELDT, John of, The religious 
 persecution and death of. See NiiiuiiiiLANOS: 
 A. D. 1003-1019. 
 
 2iid 
 
HAUON. 
 
 nA8IN0 HOUSE. 
 
 BARON.— "Tlic title of Imrnn, tinlike tlmt of 
 Kuri, is II (Ti'iitloti of tile [Nomiiiiil OonqiiCHt. 
 Tlie woni, in its oriKi" eiiiiivaleiit to 'lioino,' 
 receives iiiider feudal institiltioiiH, like 'hoiiii>' 
 itHi'lf, tlii^ nteaniiiK of vtiHStil. Iloinii^e (lioiniii- 
 iiim) is tlio ceremony by wliieli tiie vassal 
 becomes the man of liis lord; and tlie lioinines 
 of tlie kiuK are barons. I'ossibly the kin);'s 
 tliegn of \nj?lo-Saxoii tiin:'S may answer to the 
 Norman baron." — \V. Htubbs, Cout^. lli»t. of 
 Eitf/., <•!,. 11, «'•<. 124. 
 
 BARON, Court. See Manouh. 
 
 BARONET.— "One approaches with reluc- 
 tance the modern title of baronet. . . . Gram- 
 matically, the term is clear enoURli; it is lli<' 
 ditninutive of baron; but baron Ls einpliatically 
 a man, the lieRc va.ssal of the kiiifj; ami baronet, 
 therefore, etymologically would seem to imply a 
 a doubt. Degrees of honor admit of no diminu- 
 tion; a 'damoisel' and u 'donzello' are gram- 
 matical diminutives, but they do not lessen the 
 rank of the bearer; for, on the contrary, they 
 denote the heir to the larger honor, being 
 attributed to none but the sons of tiie prince or 
 nobleman, who boro the paramount title. Tliey 
 did not degrade, even in their etymological 
 signitlcation, which baronet apixart. to do, and 
 no act of i)arliainent can remove this radical 
 defect. . . . Independently of these considera- 
 tions, the titli^ arose from the expedient of a 
 needy monarch [.lames I.] to raise money, and 
 was offered for sale. Any man, provided he 
 were of good birth, might, ' for a consideration,' 
 cantcm his family shieUl with the red hand of 
 Ulster." — U. T. llampson, Originea Patricia, pp. 
 868-it«l). 
 
 BARONS' WAR, The. See England: 
 A. 1). 121(i-l'..'7i 
 
 BARONY OF LAND.— "Fifteen acres, but 
 in some places twenty acres." — N. H. Nicolas, 
 Notitia Ilistorien, p. 134. 
 
 BARRIER FORTRESSES, The razing 
 of the. See Netiieki.ands (Holland) : A. D. 
 1746-1787. 
 
 BARRIER TREATIES, The. See Eng- 
 land: A. D. 1(01), and NKTnEUL.\ND8 (Hol- 
 land): A. I). 1713-1715. 
 
 BARROW. — A mound raised over the buried 
 dead. " This form of memorial, . . . a.s ancient 
 as it has been lasting, is found in almost all 
 parts of the globe. Barrows, under, diverse 
 names, line the coasts of the Mediterranean, the 
 seats of ancient empires and civilisations. . . . 
 They abound in Great Britain and Ireland, dif- 
 fering in shape and size and made of various 
 materials; onil are known as barrows (mounds of 
 earth) and cairns (mounds of stone) and popu- 
 larly in some parts of England us lows, houes, 
 and tuinps." — AV. Oreenwell, British Barrows, 
 pp. 1-3. 
 
 Also in : Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, 
 eh. 5. 
 
 BARTENSTEIN, Treaty of. See Ger- 
 many: A. D. 1807 (Februaky — June). 
 
 BARWALDE, Treaty of. See Germany: 
 A. I). 1031 (January). 
 
 BASH AN. See Jews: Israel under the 
 J u does. 
 
 BASHI BOZOUKS, OR BAZOUKS.— 
 For the suppression of the revolt of 1875-77 in 
 the Cliristian provinces of the Turkish dominions 
 (see Turks: 1801-1876), "besides the regular 
 forces engaged against the Bulgarians, great 
 
 numlK'rs of the Moslem part of the local popu- 
 lati<m hiul been armed bv the Government and 
 turned loose to tight the Insurgents In their own 
 way. These irregular warriors are called Hashl 
 lio/.oiiks, or Uottenlieads. The term alludes to 
 their iM'liig sent out without regular organization 
 and without olllcers at their head." — H. O. 
 Dwij^ht, Turkish l.ifc in Wiir Time, p. 15. 
 
 BASIL I. (called the Macedonian), Emperor 
 in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 867- 
 
 Ht6 Basil, or Vassili, I., Grand Duke of 
 
 Volodomir, A. I). 127a-ls.'7tl Basil 11., 
 
 Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), 
 
 A. 1). U(t3-l()'.>5 Basil, or Vassili, II., Grand 
 
 Prince of Moscow, A. 1). 138i)-14-.>5 Basil 
 
 III. (The Blind), Grand Prince of Moscow, 
 
 A. I). 14a5-l4;i2 Basil IV., Czar of Russia, 
 
 A. I). 1.505-1.5JJ3. 
 
 BASILEUS.— "From the earliest period of 
 history, the .sovereigns of Asia had been cele- 
 brated in the Greek language by the title of 
 Basileus, or King ; and since it was considered 
 as tlie llrst distinction among men, it was soon 
 employed by the servile provincials of the east 
 in their humble address to the Uonian throne." — 
 E. Gibbon, Ikdinc iiiul Fall of the llomaii Enipire, 
 ch. 13. 
 
 BASILIAN DYNASTY, The. See Byzan- 
 tine Emimre: a. D. 820-1057. 
 
 BASILICiE. — " Among the buildings appro- 
 priated to tile public service at Koine, none were 
 more important than the Basilicic. Altliougli 
 their name is Greek, yet they were essentially 
 a Uoman creation, and were used for practical 
 purposes peculiarly Uoman, — the administration 
 of law and the trausaetiou of merchants' busi- 
 ness. Historically, considerable interest attacl^es 
 to them from their connection witli the first 
 Christian churches. The name of Basilica was 
 applied by the Romans equally to all large 
 buildings intended for the special needs of public 
 business. . . . Qenendly, however, they took 
 the form most ndaptetl to their ')urposes — a 
 semicircular apse or tribunal for legal trials and 
 a central nave, with arcades and galleries on 
 each side for tlie transaction of business. They 
 existed not only as separate buildings, butlulso 
 as reception rooms attached to the great man- 
 sions of Rome. ... It is the opinion of some 
 writers that these private basilictD, and not the 
 public edifices, served as the model for the 
 Christian Basilica." — R. Burn, Rome and the 
 Campaf/na, introd. 
 
 Also IN: A. P. Stanley, Christian Imtitutioiis, 
 eh. 0. 
 
 BASILIKA, The.— A compilation or codifi- 
 cation of the imperial '..\vs of the Byzantine Em- 
 pire promulgated A. D. 884, in the reign of 
 Basil I. and atterwarc s revised and amplified by 
 his son, Leo VI. — Q. i'inlay. Hist, of the Byzan- 
 tine Empire, from 716 to 1057, bk. 2, ch. 1, sect. 1. 
 
 BASING HOUSE, The Storming and De- 
 struction of. — "Basing House [mansion of the 
 Alarquis of Winchester, near Basingstoke, in 
 Hampshire], an immense fortress, with a feudal 
 castle and a Tudor palace within its ramparts, 
 had long been a thorn in the side of tlie Parlia- 
 ment. I'our years it had held out, with an army 
 within, well provisioned for years, and blocked 
 the road to the west. At last it was resolved to 
 take it ; and Cromwell was directly commissioned 
 by Parliament to the work. Its capture is one 
 of the most terrible and stirring incidents of the 
 
 270 
 
BASINO nOl'SE. 
 
 BATAVIANS. 
 
 wnr. After hIx dnys' constant ninnonmlp. the 
 Mtorm Ix'Kiin at hIx o'clock in tli« incirnin^ of the 
 14th()f Oclohrr [A. I). UUr,]. After homu- hours 
 of dcNpcrutc (Ijflititift, oni' after another Itn ile 
 fences were taken and lis ({arrison put to the 
 Hword or taken. The pUinder was |)rodi^'i(iiis: 
 the destru('ti()t\ of properly unsparhi;;. It was 
 gutted, Imrnt, and the very ruiim carted uway," 
 — F. Harrison, (Jlinr ('niinirrll, cli. T). 
 
 Al.HolN: S. 11. Oardlner, llint. nft/ic Ciril War, 
 ch. U7(r. 2). — .Mrs. Thonip.son, Jl)T,>ll,vliuii»i>J' /.it- 
 irari/ C/inriifti m iiiid Cilthniliil I'liii-in, r. 3, eh. 1. 
 
 BASLE, Council of. Hee l».vi'.\CY: A. 1). 
 li:il-ltis. 
 
 BASLE, Treaties of (1795). See Fii.vNCB: 
 A. I). ITUl-r.in (( )(ToHKU— .\1\Y), and 17U5 
 (Jink — I)Kri'.Mni;iii. 
 
 BASOCHE.- BASOCHIENS.— " The Bas 
 oche was an association of tiie ' cleros du I'arle- 
 meiit' [Parlliinient of I'aris]. The etymolojry 
 of the name is uncertain. . . . Tlie Hii.socho is 
 Rupposed to liave l)ecn inslitiit<'d in VM'i, l)y 
 Pliilippe-lelJel, wlio pive it the title of ' Itov- 
 aurne dc la Hasoclii',' and orilered tluit it should 
 form a trilmnal for judi^inj;, witliout appeal, all 
 civil and criminal matters that ndght arise among 
 the clerks and all actions brought eijainst them. 
 Ho likewise ordered that the president should be 
 caHed ' Koi de la Ha.soclie.'and that the king and 
 his subjects should have iui annual 'montre'or 
 review. . . . L'nder tlie reign of Henry III. the 
 number of subjects of the roi de la lla.sochi! 
 nmounted to nearly lO.OIW. . . . The members 
 of the Uusoche t(M)k upon themselves to exhibit 
 plays in the ' Palais,' in which they censured the 
 public manners; indeed they mny be sidd to have 
 been the first comic authors and actors that ap- 
 peared in Paris. ... At the commencement of 
 the Revolution, the Hasochicns formed a troop, 
 the uniform of which was red, witli epaulettes 
 and silver buttons; but they were afterwards 
 disbanded by a decree of the > ational Assem')l y. " 
 —lli«t.ofPariit(tA>n(lon:G.B. Whittaher, 1837), 
 «. 2, ;). iO«. 
 
 BASQUES, The.— "The western extremity 
 of the Pyrenees, where France and Spain join, 
 gives us a locality . . . where, although the 
 towns, like Hayonue, Panipeluna, and Bilbao, 
 are French or Spanish, the country people are 
 Basques or Biseayaus — Basques or Biscayans not 
 only in the provinces of Biscay, but in Ahvva, 
 Upper Xavarre, and the French districts of La- 
 bourd and Soule. Their name is Spjnisli (the 
 word having originated in that of the ancient 
 Vascones), and it is not the one by which they 
 designate themselves; though possibly it is in- 
 directly connected with it. Tiie native name is 
 derived from the root Eusk-; which becomes 
 Euskani when the language, Euskkerria when 
 the country, and Euskaldunac when the people 
 are spoken of." — U. G. Latham, Ethnology of 
 Euro])e, ch. 2. 
 
 Ai.so IN : L Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, ch. 
 4, iiect. 4. — See, also, Ibekiass, The Western, 
 and Appendix A, v. 1. 
 
 BASSANO, Battle of. See Prance: A. D. 
 1706 (April— OcToiiKit.) 
 
 BASSEIN, Treaty of (1802). See India: 
 A. n. 17118- 1 SIC). 
 
 BASSORAH. See Bussoraii. 
 
 BASTARN./E, The. See Peucini. 
 
 BASTILLE, The.— "The name of Bastille 
 or Bastel was, in ancient times, given to any 
 
 kind of erection calculated to withstand a mill 
 tary fonc; and thus, formerly in Knglaml and 
 on the borders of ScollanrI, the term Bastel- 
 house was usuidly applied to places of strength 
 and fancied security. Of tlie many Bastilles in 
 France that of Paris, . . . which at first was 
 called the Bastille St.Vntoi '', from being 
 erected near the suburb of l| Aiitoine, retained 
 the name longest. This fortress, of nielancholy 
 celcbrlly, was erected under the following 
 eireunistances: In the year i;i.'')(l, when the 
 English, then at war wiili France, 1 'n the 
 ncighlKMirhood of I'aris, it wasconsidired neees- 
 sary by the inhabilaiits of the French capital to 
 repair the biilwiirks of their city. Stephen 
 Marcel, provost of the merchants, undertook this 
 task, and, amongst <itlier defences, added to the 
 fortillcations at the eastern entrance of the town 
 a gate fianked with a tower on eai'h sidi ." This 
 was tlie beginning of tlie constructii'is of tlie 
 Bastille. They were enlarged in IIHIK by Hugh 
 Aubriot, provost of Paris under Charles V. 
 He "added two towers, which, being placed 
 opposite to those ain iiily existing on eacli side 
 of the gate, made of the Bastille a s<iuare fort, 
 witli a tower at each of the four angles." 
 After the death of Charles V., Vubriot, who 
 had many enemies, was prosecuted for alleged 
 crimes, "was condemned to perpetual conllne- 
 ment, and placed in tin? Bastille, of which, ac- 
 cording to some hi.storians, he was the tlrst 
 ])risoner. At'< ■• some time, lie was removed 
 thence to Fori rEvC(|ue, another jirLson," from 
 which he was lilKiated in 1:181, by the insurrec- 
 tion of the Jlaillotiiis (see Paris: A. I). l:t81). 
 "After the insurrection of the Maillotins, in 
 ll!83, the young king, Charles VI., still further 
 enlarged the Bastille by adding four lowers to 
 it, thus giving it, instead of the square form it 
 formerly posscs.seil. the shape of an oblong or 
 parallelogram. Tlie fortress now consisted of 
 eight towers, each 101) feet high, and, like the 
 wall which united them, nine feet thick. Four 
 of these towers looked on the city, and four on 
 the suburb of St-Antoine. To increase its 
 strength, the Bastille was surrounded by a ditch 
 25 feet deep and 120 feci wide. The road which 
 formerly passed througli it was turned on one side. 
 . . . The Bastille was now completed (1383), and 
 though additions were subsequently made to it, 
 the body of the fortress underwent no important 
 change. . Both as a place of military de- 
 fence, and as a state prison of great strength, 
 the Bastille was, even at an early period, very 
 formidable." — Hist, of the Ba»tille (Chambers » 
 MMcllany, no. 132, r. 17). — For an account of 
 the taking and destruction of the Bastille by the 
 people, in 1789, see France: A. I). 1789 (.July). 
 
 Also ix: 1). Bingham, Tlic Bastille. — It. A. 
 Davenport, Hint, of the liastile. 
 
 BASTITANI, The. See Tukdetanl 
 
 BASUTOS, The. See South Africa: A. D. 
 1811-1808. 
 
 BATAVIA (Java), Origin of. See Netiier- 
 LA.NDs: A. D. 1594-1020. 
 
 BATAVIAN REPUBLIC, The. See 
 Fr'ANCE; A. 1). 1794-1795 (OcTonER — May). 
 
 ;:.1.T AVIANS, OR BAT AVI, The.— "The 
 Oermauic Batavi had been peacefully united 
 with the [RomiiD] Empire, not by Cicsar, but 
 not long afterwards, perhaps by Drusus. They 
 were settled in the Rhine delta, that is on the 
 left bank of the Rhine and on the islands formed 
 
 271 
 
BATAVIAN8. 
 
 BATTr.E OF TIIK KE08. 
 
 by Itn nrmn, iipwnnN ii« fur nt Icnut nn flic Old 
 Itliiti)', iukI ho iirarlv fniii) Antwrrp to I'trcrht 
 iiikI l/('yil<'ri tn /rafiiml iinil HoutliiTii llollaml, 
 oil trrrltory oriiflrmlly Crlllc — iit li'iiHt, the IcmuI 
 niiiiii's urn nn'iloiiiliiiintly Ccllir: lliiir riaiiii' \n 
 Hiill liornt' liv llic Itrtiiwi', the liiwl:iiiil Itrtwccn 
 till' Wiial itiic) till- 1,1'i'k with till! capital Novlinii- 
 UKiiH, now Niim'KUi'ii- Tliry wcri'. I'spi'dally 
 '•oMiimri'il with till' ri'Htli'SH iiiiil refractory (ilN, 
 olM'illi'iit anil iiNi'fiil KiiliJi'clH, ami hence occiipieil 
 u ilistlnctive poHitioii ill the aKK<°<'K»t<'. <■'<'' P'T- 
 ticiilarly in the military HyNteiii of the Uoniaii 
 Kiiipinv Tliey reniained i|iille free from taxa- 
 tion, Imt Wire (III the other hand drawn upon 
 moro largely lliaii any other canton in llie re- 
 cruiting; thin one canton fnrnisheil to llie army 
 l.IMM) horsemen and D.OlHI foot HoldierM; hesldeM, 
 the men of the imperial licMly-jjuard were taken 
 (■Hpecially from them, The comieand of thcHe 
 Uutiivian dlvisioim was conferred ixcliisivelv on 
 native Hatuvi. Tiie Ilalavl were accoiinteil lii- 
 dlsputahly not merely as the best riilers ami 
 swimmers of the army, hut nUo as the moilel id' 
 true soldiers. " — T. Mommsen, Hint, nf linaie, hk. 
 8, fh. \. — " When tlieCimlirl and their iissi«'iates, 
 fttioiit a century before our erii, made their 
 menioralile oiiHlaiiirlit upon Itome, tiie early in- 
 habitants of the iiliinu island of Hatavia, who 
 were proliabiy Celts, joined in tlie expedition. 
 A recent and tremendous Iniindatioii had swept 
 II way their miserable homes. . . . The island 
 was deserted of its population. At alioiit tlie 
 Sttino period a civil dissension amonjj the C'liatti 
 — a powerful Oermaii race within tlic Iler- 
 cynian forest — resulted in the expatri.itiim of a 
 
 fi'ortion of the people. The exiles soiigiit a new 
 loiiio in the empty Hliine island, called it 
 'Bet-iiuw,' or 'Rood meadow,' and were tliem- 
 gelves called, tlieiiieforward, IJatavi, or Hiitav- 
 ians. " — J. L. Jlotiey, Itineof the Dutch Ikpublic, 
 intrntl., mrt. 2. 
 
 A. D. 69.— Revolt of Civilis. — " Galba 
 [Roman EmperorJ, siicceedinK to the purplo 
 upon the suicide of Nero, dismissed tlie Bntavmn 
 life-guards to w lioin he owed his elevation. He 
 is murdered, Otlio and Vitelliiis contend for the 
 succession, while all eyes are turned upon the 
 eight Hatavian rei;iinents. In their hands the 
 scales of Empire seem to rest. Tliey declare for 
 Vitellius and the civil war begins. Otho Is 
 defeated; Vitellius acknowledged by Senate and 
 people. Fearing, like his predecessors, the 
 imperious turbulence of the Hatavian legions, 
 he, tix), sends them into Oermany. It was tlia 
 signal for a long and extensive revolt, wliifh 
 had well-nigh overturned the lioman pow>r in 
 Gaul and Lower Germany. Claudius Civilis 
 was a Hatavian of noble raci', who had served 
 twenty-tlvo years in the Konian armies. His 
 Teutonic name has perished. . . . After a quarter 
 of a century's service he was sent in chains to 
 Rome and his brother executed, both falsely 
 charged with conspiracy. . . . Desire to avenge 
 his own wrongs was mingled with loftier 
 motives in his breast. lie knew that the sceptre 
 was in the gift of the Batavian soldiery. . . . 
 By his courage, eloiiucnco and talent for politi- 
 cal combinations, Civilis effected a general con- 
 federation of nil the Netherland tribes, both 
 Celtic and German. For n brief moment there 
 was a united people, a Batavian commonwealth. 
 . . . The details of the revolt [A. D. 091 have 
 been carefully preserved by Tacitus, and form 
 
 one of Ills grandest and most elaborate plctiirpn. 
 . . . The battles, the sieges, the defeats, thii 
 imlninituble spirit of CiviliH, still llainlng most 
 brightly wlien the clouds were darkest around 
 him, have been described by the great historian 
 in his most powerful inanner. . . . Thestriigghi 
 was an unsuccessful one. After manv vIctorleH 
 and many overthrows, Civilis was left alone. 
 . . . lie accepted the offer of negotiathin from 
 Cerialis [the lioman commanderj. ... A co|- 
 iiiipiy was agreed upon. The bridge across t ho 
 Nabalia was broken asunder In the middle and 
 Cerialis mill Civilis met upon the severed sides. 
 . . . Here the story abruptly terminates. Tho 
 remainder of the Itoman's narrative is lost, and 
 upon that broken bridge the form of the Hatiivlan 
 hero disaiipears foreviT " — J. L. .Motley, Jliiie of 
 the hutch Ittpiililic, iiitrixl., mrtK. !(-4. 
 Almoin: Tacitus, Ilintovn, li/cn. 4-5. 
 
 BATH, The Order of the.— "The present 
 Military Order of the Hath, founded by King 
 (Jeorgel. in tlie year 11V>, differs so essentially 
 from the KniglitiioiHl of tlii' Hath, or the custom 
 of making Kniglits with various rites and cero- 
 inonies, of wliicli one was Hathing, that it may 
 almost be considered a distinct and new fni- 
 ternlty of chivalry. The last Knights of the Hath, 
 inadeiiccording to the ancient forms, were at the 
 coronation of Kint,' Charles II.; and from that 
 period until tlii' reign of tlie llrsl fleorge, tlie old 
 inslitiition fell into total oblivion. At the latter 
 epoch, however, it was determined to revive, as 
 it was termed, Tlie Order of tlie Hath, by 
 erecting it ' into a regular Military Order'; and 
 on the 25tli May, I7'J5, Letters Patent were 
 issued for tliat purpose. Hv the .Statutes then 
 promulgated, the number of Knights, indepen- 
 dent of the Sovereign, a I'rince of the BIoikI 
 Royal, and a Great Master, was restricted t()il5." 
 It 1ms since been greatly increased, and the 
 Order divided into three classes: First Class, con- 
 sisting of " Knights Grand Cross," not to exceed 
 50 for military and 25 for civil survice: Second 
 Class, consisting of " Kni>^!-ts Commanders," not 
 to exceed 103 for military aii.l 50 for civil 
 service; 'Third Class, "Companions." not to 
 exceed H'i'y for military and 200 for civil seii-lco. 
 — Sir B. Burke, Jiook of Orders if Knighthmd, p. 
 104. 
 
 BATH, in Roman times. See AijU/K Sous. 
 
 BATHS OF CARACALLA, Nero, etc. 
 See Tm;uM-K. 
 
 BATONIAN WAR, The.— A formidable 
 revolt of the Dalmatians and Pannonlans, A. D. 
 6, involved the Roman Ev.ioire, under Aiigu.stus, 
 in a serious war of tlirie years duration, which 
 was e:illed the Batoniaii ^Var, from tlie names of 
 two leaders of the insurgents, — Bato the Dalma- 
 tian, and Bato the Pannonian. — T. Mommsen, 
 Jlint. of Home, bk. 8, ch. 1. 
 
 BATOUM : Ceded to Russia.— Declared a 
 free port. See Turks: A. 1). 1878. 
 
 BATTIADiE, The. See Cvuene. 
 
 BATTLE ABBEY. Sec England: A. D. 
 
 1000 (OCTOIIEU). 
 
 BATTLE ABOVE THE CLOUDS, The. 
 See United States of A>i. : A. D. 1803 (Octo- 
 iiEii — NovE.MUF.u : Tennessee). 
 
 BATTLE OF THE CAMEL. See Ma- 
 hometan Conquest: A. D. 601. 
 
 BATTLE OF THE KEGS, The. Sec 
 PHiLADELPniA: A. D. 1777-1778. 
 
 272 
 
r\TTLK OF THK NATIONS. 
 
 HAVAHIA. 
 
 BATTLE OP THE NATIONS (Lelpiic). 
 
 R<l' OKUMANV. \. '>. 1H|;| (SKI'IKMIIKII— OCTO- 
 
 UKio, iind (OcTi'ii '.III. 
 
 BATTLE OF THE THREE EMPER- 
 ORS.- Till' >,., lie <il AiiHlcrllt/, — Mcc Fiian<k: 
 
 A. I). 1H(»,T(M.\IU'II— DMKMHKK)— WUHMOCullcil 
 
 by NjiiKplcdii. 
 
 BATTLES.— Tli<' iMittlcH of which mioiint 
 Id k'^''" i» ll'i'* wiirk arc mi nuiiicroiiH that no 
 C()tivciilciic(^ would be wrvcd by collect iii){ 
 n-fcrciiccH to them under iliit Keiicrul lieiidiiiK. 
 Tlicy arc Mevcrally Imlcxed \inilcr tlic iiunicH by 
 which they are hlHtorlcally known. 
 
 BAURE, The. Sei^ Amkiiidan Aiiohioinkh: 
 Andknian.-i. 
 
 BAUTZEN, Battle of. See Qriimanv: A. D. 
 1H|;|(Mav— Atoisr), 
 
 BAUX, Lords of; Gothic Origin of the.— 
 The illustrious Vlsiijolhlc rac(( of the "Ilallhi" 
 or "lialtha" ("the bold"), from which Hpraii^ 
 Alaric, "continued to llourish in Kraiu'c in tlie 
 Ootldc province of Sc|itiinania, or Ijingu doc. 
 under tiiu corniiitcd appellation of ''"<ix, and ii 
 branch of that, family afterwards 8, ilcd in tin- 
 kingdom of NapicN. " — K. Gibbon, Decline aiul 
 Ji'iltnt' l/if lliiniiin h'miiin; ch. !l(l, note. 
 
 BAVARIA: The name.— Bavaria derived its 
 name from the Hoii. — U. (J. Latliuin, The tier- 
 null id iif Tiieitun; Epilegomciui, Met, 20. — See, 
 also, BoiANs. 
 
 The Ethnology of. — "Bavaria . . . falls into 
 tAvo (liviHionM; the Bavaria of the lihine, and the 
 Biivuria of tin; Daiuilx-. In Itlienisli Bavaria the 
 descvut h from tlie ancient Vangiones ami Nc- 
 mctes, cither Qermanized Qauis or Ouliici/.cd 
 GermauM, with Homan 8uperiidditi(ms, After- 
 ■warda, an extension of tlic Alemamncand Huevic 
 
 {)opulations from ihu riitlit bank of the Upper 
 thine completes the cvoiulion of their present 
 Germanic cliaractcr. Danubian Uaviirm fails 
 Into two sulxlivisions. North of the Danube the 
 valley of the Naab, at Ica.st, was orij;inally Sla- 
 vonic, containini; an extension of tlie Slavonic 
 popnhition of Bohemia. But disturlmnco and 
 displacement l)e);an early. ... In the third and 
 fourth centuries, the Suevi and Alemanni ex- 
 tc-ndcd themselves from tlie Upper Uhine. . . . 
 The northwestern parts of Bavaria were jirolialily 
 German from the bcRinninK. Soutli of tlte Dan- 
 ube the ethuoloKy clianses. In the first place 
 the Uonian eleiiK'nts increase; since Viudelicia 
 was a Uoniaii province. ... Its present charac- 
 ter has arisen from an extension of tlie Germans 
 of the Upper Rhine." — K. 0. Latham, Ethrutlogy 
 of Ell rope, eh. 8. 
 
 A. D. 547.— Subjection of the Bavarians 
 to the Franks. — " It is about this period [A. D. 
 647] that the Bavarians first become known iu 
 history as tributarioa of the Pranks; but at what 
 time they became so is matter of dispute. 
 From the previous silence of the annalists re- 
 specling this pi »i)le, we may perhaps infer that 
 both tliey and the Huabians remained independ- 
 ent until the fall of the Ostrogothic Empire 'n 
 Itidy. The Gotliic dominions were bounded on 
 the "north by Bliietia and Noricum ; and between 
 these cimntries and tlie Tluiringians, wlio lived 
 still further to the north, was the cotmtry of the 
 Bavarians and Suabians. Tliuringia liad long 
 been possessed by tlie Franks. Hhietia was ceded 
 by Vitisges, king of Italy, and Venetia was con- 
 quered by Tlieudebert [the Austrasian Frank 
 King]. The Bavarians Avere therefore, at tliis 
 
 perirKJ, almost Riirroundcd by the Prankish ter- 
 ritories. . . . Whenever lliey may liave tintt 
 h ibndtted to the yoke, it is certain that at the 
 line of Theudcbcrt's death |A. I). Wi], or 
 Nho.'tly after that event. iHith Bavarians and 
 Suali'aiis (or AlemannianN), had lieconie subjects 
 of the .Merovingian kings." — W. ('. Perry, The 
 FiiiiikH, eh. H. 
 A. O. 843-963.— The ancient Duchy. See 
 
 (}|;UMANV: \. I) Hi:t im>. 
 
 A. D. 876.— Added to the Austrian March. 
 
 See Auslriii: .V I). HO.".- 1 OKI. 
 
 A. D. I07i-i;78.— The Dukes of the House 
 ofGuelf. See t^i'Kl.Ks AND ()iiiiil':i.i.iM.s; and 
 Saxo.nv: a. D. 1I.s-iih:i 
 
 A. D. iioi.— Disi'strous Crusade of Duke 
 Welf. SecCiusADDs. a. I). IKM-llO'i. 
 
 A. D. 1125-1153.— Tl."! origin of the Elector- 
 ate. See (iKitMANY: A. I? 1 1 •-'.■) 1 1 .'. .. 
 
 A. D. ii38-ii83.^Invoi"cd in the begin- 
 nings of the Guelf and Ghibctline Conflicts.— 
 The struggles of Henry the Pioud and Henry 
 the Lion. See <Jri:i,Ks and Oiiihi:i.i.i.\kh. and 
 Saxon v: A. I). 117H-I1H;1. 
 
 A. D. 1 156. — Separation of the Austrian 
 March, which becomes a distinct Duc.Sy. See 
 Aistuia: a. I), H().Vlil((. 
 
 A. D. 1 180-1356.— The House of Wittels- 
 bach.— Its acquisition o' Bavaria and the 
 Palatinate of the Rhine— uoss of the Elec- 
 toral Vote by Bavaria.— When, iu IIHO, tlio 
 dojuinions of Henry the Mon, under the brin of 
 the Kmpire, were stripped from liim(sce Saxony: 
 A. I). 1 178-1 18;t). by the imperial sentence of for- 
 feiture, and were divided and conferred upon 
 others by Krcdcrick Barbaro.ssa, tla; Duchy of 
 Bavaria "was given to Otto, (,'ounl Palatine of 
 Wittelsbacli. " As he claimed a descent from an 
 ancient royal family of Bavaria, it was alleged that, 
 in obtainiiig the sovereignty of tliat state, he had 
 only iu some inea.-sure regained those riglits 
 which in former times belonged tohis ancestors." 
 — Sir A. Ilalliday, Aniiiitu of the lloime of linn- 
 orer, v. 1,/). 'i~H\. — "Otto . . . was a descendant 
 of that Duke I.uilpoid who fiH in ccmiliat with 
 the Hungarians, and wliose sons ancl gniudsons 
 had already worn the ducal cap of Bavaria. No 
 princely race in Europe is of sucli ancient ex- 
 traction. . . . Bavaria was as yet destitute of 
 towns: Lan('.shutt and ^Itinich tirst rose into con- 
 sideration in the course of the KHh century; 
 Hatisb "1, already a flourishing town, Avas re- 
 ga-' d ' tile capital and resilience ot the Dukes 
 of . avar. .... A furtlier accession of dignity 
 ...ui powei awaited the family iu 1314 in the 
 acquisition if tlie Palatinate of the Khino. 
 Duke Ludwig Avas now the nio.st powerful ptince 
 of Southern Germany. . . . Ilis son Otto tho 
 Illustrious, remaining . . . true to the impcriil 
 house, died excommunicate, and his :ioininioni> 
 were placed for several years under an interdict. 
 . . . Upim the death of Otto a partition of the 
 inlieritance took place. This partition liccaine 
 to the family an hereditary evil, a fatal source of 
 (luarrcl and of secret or open enmity. ... In 
 [the] dark and dreadful periiKl of interreguum 
 [see Geilmanv: A. D. 12.50-1272J, when all men 
 waited for the tinal dis-solution of tlie empire, 
 nolliing ajipears concerning the 'Wittelsbacli 
 family. . . . Finally in 1373 Kudolf, the first of 
 die I'labsburgs, ascended the long-unoccupied 
 throne. . . . He Avon over the Bavarian princes 
 by bestowing his daughters upon them in 
 
 273 
 
BAVARIA. 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 itiP'Hftffe. TjOiiis romninod fiiithfiil and rendered 
 him jfood Hervicn: Imt the lurhulcnt llciirv, who 
 hud already made -.var iipdii liis brother for the 
 pos.soHsion of the ch'rtoral vote, deserU'd Inm, 
 and for this Havaria was punislicd by '.lie loss of 
 the vole, and of the territory above the Eiins. " 
 Afterwards, for a time, the Duke of Bavaria and 
 the (Jount Palatine e.\ercised the risht of the 
 electoral vote altemaU^lv; but in 11)50 by the 
 Gohlen Bull of Charles IV. [seoGEiiMANY: A. O. 
 1C47-14.13], the vote was given wholly to the 
 Count I'alatine, and lo.st to Bavaria for nearly 
 300 years. — .1. I. von DOllinger, The JfoiiKe of 
 Wittehhurh (Studies in Kuropiitii Hinloiji, cli. 3). 
 
 A. D, 1314. — Election of Louis to the im- 
 perial throne. .See Okum.\nv: A. D. 1314-1347. 
 
 A. D. 1500.— Formation of the Circb. Sec 
 Qekmany: a. D. 1493-1.519. 
 
 A. D. 1610, — The Duke at the head of the 
 Catholic Leafi^ue. See (jKini.^Ny: A. I). 1608- 
 1018. 
 
 A. D. 161^ The Duke in command of the 
 forces of the Jatholic League. Sec; Gekm.vnv : 
 A. D. 1618-1020. 
 
 A. D. 1623. — Transfer to the Duke of the 
 Electoral dignity of the Elector Palatine. See 
 Germany: A. J). 1021-1623, 
 
 A. D. 1632. — Occupation by Gustavus Adol- 
 phus. See Germany: A. I). 1031-1033. 
 
 A. D. 1646-1648. — Ravaged by the Swedes 
 and French —Truce made and renounced by 
 the Elector. — The last campaigns of the war. 
 See Germany: A. D. 1040-1048. 
 
 A. D. 1648. — Acquisition of the Upper Pala- 
 tinate in the Peace of Westphalia. Sec Ger- 
 many: A. D. 1648. 
 
 A. D. 1686. — The League of Augsburg. See 
 Germany: A. D. 1686. 
 
 A. D. 1689-1696.— The war of the Grand 
 Alliance against Louis XIV. See France: 
 A. D. 1689-1690; 1689-1691; 1093; 1093 (.July)- 
 1694; ie9,')-1696. 
 
 A. D. 1700. — Claims of the Electoral Prince 
 on the Spanish Crown. See Spain: A. D. 
 1698-1700, 
 
 A. D. 1702. — The Elector joins France 
 against the Allies. See Germany: A, D. 1703. 
 
 A. D. 1703.— Successes of the French and 
 Bavarians. See Germany: A. D, 1703. 
 
 A. D. ^704. — Ravaged, crushed and surren- 
 dered by the Elector. See Germany: A. D. 
 1704. 
 
 A. D. 1705. — Dissolution of the Electorate. 
 SeeGER.MANY; A. D. no.-i. 
 
 A. D. 1714.- The Elector restored to his 
 Dominions. See Utrecht: A. D. 1713-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1740.— Claims of the Elector to the 
 Austrian succession. See Austria: A. D. 
 
 1740 (OCTOliKR). 
 
 A. D. 1742.- The Elector crowned Emperor. 
 See Austria : A. D. 1741 (Ootoher). 
 
 A. D. 1743 (April).— The Emperor-Elector 
 recovers his Electoral territory. See Aus- 
 tria: A. I). 1743 (.June— December), and 1743. 
 
 A. D. 1743 (June).— The Emperor-Elector 
 again a fugitive.— The Austrians in Posses- 
 sion. .See AiSTuiA: A. 1). 1743. 
 
 A. D. 1745.- Death of the Emperor-Elector. 
 —Peace with Austria. Sec Austria: A. D. 
 1744-1745. 
 
 A. D. 1748. — Termination and results of the 
 war of the Austrian Succession. See Aix-i.a- 
 CuAPBLLE, The Congress. 
 
 A. D. 1767. — Expulsion of the Jesuits. See 
 Jesuits: A. I). 1761- '.709. 
 
 A. D. 1777-1779. — The Succession question. 
 
 — " With the death of Ma.ximiliau .Joseph, of 
 Bavaria (30 December, 1777), the younger branch 
 of th(! house of Wittelsbach became e.xtinct, and 
 the eleetorale of Bavaria . . . came to an end. 
 By virtue of the original partition in 1310, the 
 (lucliy of Bavaria ought to pass to the elder branch 
 of the family, represented by Charles Theodore, 
 the' Kleetor P.datine. But .Joseph [the Second, 
 the Kmperor], saw the po.ssibility of securing 
 valuable additions to Austria which woidd round 
 otT the frontier on the west. The Austrian claims 
 were legally worthless. They were based chietiy 
 upon a gift of the Straubingen territory which 
 Sigismund was said to have made in 1436 to his 
 son-in-law, Albert of Austria, but which had 
 never taken effect and had since been uttcly 
 forgotten. It would be impossible to induce tho 
 diet to recognise such claims, but it might be 
 possible to come to an imderstanding with tho 
 aged Charles Theodore, who had no legitimate 
 ciiildren and was not likely to feel any very keen 
 interest in his new inheritance. Without much 
 difficulty the elector was half frightened, half 
 induced to sign a treaty (3 January, 1778), by 
 which he recognised the claims put forward by 
 Austria, while the rest of Bavaria was guaranteed 
 to him and his successors. Austrian troops were 
 at once despatched to occupy the ceded districts. 
 The condition of Europe seemed to assure the 
 success of Joseph's bold venture. . . . There 
 was only one quarter from which opposition was 
 to be expected, Prussia. Frederick promptly ap- 
 pealed to the fundamental laws of the Empire, 
 and declared his intention of upholding them 
 with arms. But he could And 'j supporters ex- 
 cept those who were immediately interested, the 
 elector of Saxony, whose mother, as a sister of 
 the late elector of Bavaria, had a legal claim to 
 hisallodial propert}', and Charles of ZweibrUcken, 
 the heir apparent of the childless Charles Tlieo- 
 dore. . . . Frederick, left to himself, despatched 
 an army into Bohemia, where the Austrian troops 
 had been joined by the emperor in person. But 
 nothing came of the threatened hostilities. Fred- 
 erick was unable to force on a battle, and the 
 so-called war was little more than an armed nego- 
 tiation. . . . France and Russia undertook to 
 mediate, and negotiations were opened in 1779 at 
 Teschen, where peace was signed on the 13th of 
 May. Austria withdrew the claims which had 
 been recognised in tho treaty with the Elector 
 Palatine, and received the 'quarter of the Inn,' 
 i. e., tho district from Passau to Wildshut. 
 Frederick's eventual claims to tho succession in 
 the Franconian principalities of Anspaeh and 
 Baircuth, which Austria had every interest in 
 opposing, were recognised by the treaty. The 
 claims of Saxony were bought off by a payment 
 of 4,000,000 thalers. Tho most unsatisfactory 
 part of the treaty was that it was guaranteed by 
 France and Russia. ... On the whole, it was a 
 great triumph for Frederick and an equal humili- 
 ation for Joseph II. His schemes of aggrand- 
 isement had becL foiled." — R. Lodge, Jlist. of 
 Modern Europe, eh. 30, sect. 3, 
 
 Also in : T. H. Dyer, Hist, of Modern Europe, 
 bk. 6, ch. 8 (». 3). 
 
 A. D. 1801-1803. — Acquisition of territory 
 under the Treaty of Luneville. Sec Geiuiam y : 
 A. D. 1801-1803. 
 
 274 
 
BAVARIA. 
 
 BBC. 
 
 A. D. 1805-1806.— Aggrandized by Napoleon. 
 — Created a Kingdom. — Joined to the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine. See Gkumany: A. I). 
 180r>-lH()«, ,111(1 IHOO (.lANDAiiY— August). 
 
 A. D. ii09. — The revolt in the Tyrol.— 
 Heroic strue;gle of Hofer and his countrymer. 
 See Gkumany: A. 1). 1H09-1.S10 (Aimui^Fkh- 
 
 BUAUY). 
 
 A. D. 1813. — Abandonment of Napoleon and 
 •the Rhenish Confederation. — Union with the 
 Allies. Si'c Gkumany: A. I). 181H(.Skptk.mhku 
 — OcTonKU), and (Octdhku — Dkckmijku). 
 
 A. D. 1814-1815.— Restoration of the Tyrol 
 to Austria. — Territorial compensations. See 
 ViKNNA, The C0NOUE88 OF, nnd Pkance: A. D. 
 
 1814 (ApUII,- .lUNK). 
 
 A. D. 1848 (March).— Revolutionary out- 
 break. — Expulsion of Lola Montez. — Abdi- 
 cation of the King. See Germany : A. I). 1848 
 {Makcii). 
 
 A. D. 1866.— The Seven Weeks War.— 
 Indemnity and territorial cession to Prussia. 
 SeeGEHMANY: A. I). 1860. 
 
 A. D. 1870-1871.- Treaty of Union with the 
 Germanic Confederation, soon transformed 
 into the German Empire. See Qekm^ny: 
 A. D.* 1870 (Septembeu— Decembek), and 1 J71. 
 
 BAVAY, Origin of. See Neuvii. 
 
 BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, OR BUXAR, 
 
 Battle of (1764). See Ii jia: A. D. 1757-1773. 
 
 BAYARD, The Chevalier: His knightly 
 deeds and his death. See It,\ly: A. D. 1501- 
 1504, aiKl Fkanck: A. D. ir.33-l.')25. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY. — A remarkable 
 roll of mediiEvnl tapestry, 314 feet long and 
 20 inches wide, preserved for centuries in the 
 cathedral at Hayeiix, Normandy, on which a 
 pictorial history of the Noriniin invasion and 
 conquest of England is represented, with more 
 or less of names and explanatory inscriptions. 
 Mr. E. A. Freeman (Norman Conquent, r. 3, note 
 A) says: "It will be seen that, throughout this 
 volume, I accept the witness of the Baycux 
 Ttti)e8try as one of my highest authorities. I do 
 not hesitate to say that I look on it as lioldiug 
 the first place among the authorities on the Nor- 
 man side. That it is a contemporary work I 
 e;.tertain no doubt whatever, and I entertain 
 just as little doubt as to its being a work fully 
 ■entitled to our general confidence. I believe the 
 tapestry to have been made for Bishop Odo, and 
 to have been most probably designed by him 
 as an ornament for liis newly rebuilt cathedra! 
 church of IJaycr.x." The precious tapestrj' is 
 now preserved in the public library at Bayeux, 
 carefully stretched round the room under glass. 
 
 BAYEUX, The Saxons of. See Saxons op 
 Bayeux. 
 
 BAYLEN, Battle of (1808). See Spain: 
 A. D. 1808 (May— Septembeu). 
 
 BAYOGOULAS, The. See American 
 Aborioines: Muskiiogean Family. 
 
 BAYONNE : Conference of Catharine de' 
 Medici and the Duke of Alva (1565). See 
 France: A, D. 1503-1.570. 
 
 BAZAINE'S SURRENDER AT METZ. 
 See France: A. D. 1870 (July— August), (Au- 
 gust — September), and (September — Octo- 
 ber). 
 
 BEACONSFIELD (Disraeli) Ministries. 
 ,8ee England: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; 
 1868-1870, and 1873-1880. 
 
 BEAR FLAG, The. Sec Califohnia: 
 A. I). 1840-1847. 
 
 BfeARN: The rise of the Counts. See 
 BuHGi'Nnv: \. 1), 1033, 
 
 A. D. 1620.— Absorbed and incorporated in 
 the Kingdom of France. See France: A, I), 
 1030-1033, 
 
 A, D. 1685. — The Dragonnade. — Revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes. See France: A. I). 
 1081-1008. 
 
 BEATOUN, Cardinal, The assassination 
 of. See Scotland: A, 1), 1540, 
 
 BEAUFORT, N. C, Capture of, by the 
 National forces (1862). See United States op 
 Am.: a, D. 1803 (January— April: North 
 Carolina), , 
 
 BEAUGE, Battle of.— The English com- 
 mandt!d by the Duke of Clarence, defeated in 
 Anjou by an army of French and Scots, under 
 the Dauphin of Franco; the Duke of Clarence 
 slain. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS'S TRANSACTIONS 
 WITH THE UNITED STATES. See 
 United States op Am. : A. D. 1770-1778. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Battle of. See France: 
 A. D, 1870 (August — September). 
 
 BEAUREGARD, General G. T.— Bombard- 
 ment of Fort Sumter. See United States op 
 
 A.M. : A. I). 1801 (March- April) At the 
 
 first Battle of Bull Run. See United States 
 OF Am. : A. D. 1801 (July: Virginia) Com- 
 mand in the Potomac district. See United 
 St.\te9 op Am. : A. D. 1801-1803 (December- 
 April: Virginia) Command in the West. 
 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1803 (Febru- 
 ary — April: Tennessee), and (ApRii^ — May: 
 
 Tennessee — Mississippi) The Defence of 
 
 Charleston. See United States op Am. : A. D. 
 1803 (August— December: South Carolina). 
 
 BEAUVAIS, Origin of. See Belo«. 
 
 BEBRYKIANS,The. See Bithynians. 
 
 BEC, Abbey of. — One of the most famous 
 abbeys and ecclesiastical schools of the middle 
 ages. Its name was derived from the little beck 
 or rivulet of a valley in Normandy, on the banks 
 of which a pious knight, Herlouin, retiring from 
 the world, had fixed his hermitage. The renown 
 of the piety of Herlouin drew others around 
 him and resulted in the formation of a religious 
 coininunity with himself at its head. Among 
 those attracted to Herlouin's retreat were a noble 
 Lombard scholar, Lapfiuncof Pavia, who after- 
 wards became the great Norman archbisliop of 
 Canterbury, and Anselm of Aosta, another 
 Italian, who succeeded Lanfranc at Canterbury 
 with still more fame. The teaching of Lanfranc 
 at Bee raised it, says Mr. Green in his fyliort 
 llidory of the EnqUiih People, into the most 
 famous school of Christendom; it was, 'n fact, 
 the first wave of the intellectual movement 
 which was spreading from Italy to the ruder 
 countries of the West. The fabric of the canon 
 law and of mediaeval scholasticism, with the 
 philo.sophical skepticism which tirst awoke under 
 its influence, all trace their origin to Bee. "The 
 glory of Bee would have been as transitory as 
 that of other monastic hou.ses, but for the ap- 
 pearance of one illustrious man [Lanfranc] who 
 came to be enrolled as a private member of the 
 brotherhood, and who gave Bee for a while a 
 special and honorable character with which 
 hardly any other monastery in Christendom could 
 
 275 
 
BEC. 
 
 DEOUINES. 
 
 compare." — E. A. Frcpinan, Norman Conquest, 
 e/i. H. 
 
 BECHUANAS, The. Scu South Afiuc.v; 
 TllK Aiioiliiii.NAi, IN'IIAIIITANTB; ami Akhica: 
 
 TlIK INHAmTIMl HACKS, 
 
 BECKET, Thomas, and King Henry II. 
 See ENdi.AM); A. 1>. IKW-UTO. 
 
 BED-CHAMBER QUESTION, The. See 
 
 E.N(ii.ANi): A. 1). 1h:(7-1h39. 
 
 BED OF JUSTICE.— "The ceremony liy 
 wliieli tlie KrciK li Uiiijis eoiiiijelled the rejj;istrii- 
 lion of their edicts hv tlie Parliament was called 
 a ' lit de justiee ' [bed of justice]. The monarch 
 ]>roceeded in state to the Grand Chainbre, and 
 the chancellor, having taken his plciisure, an- 
 nounced that tlie kin;; re(iiiired such and such a 
 decree to he entered on their records in his 
 presence. It was liehl that this personal inter- 
 ference of the sovercifrn suspended for the time 
 being the functions of all inferior magistrates, 
 and the edict was accordingly registered without 
 ft word of objection. The form of registration 
 was ns follows: ' Le roi scant en son lit de justice 
 n or(h)nn6 et ordonnetiue les pre.sents edits seront 
 cnrcgistres ;' and at the end of the decree, ' Fait 
 en Parlenient, lo roi y scant on son lit do jus- 
 tice.'" — StiidentK' Jlist. of France, note to ch. 19. 
 — See, also, Paui.iament of Pauis.— "The 
 origin of this term [' l)cd cf justice'] has been 
 much discussed. The wits complained it was so 
 styled because there justice was put to sleep. 
 Tiic term was probably derived from the arrange- 
 ment of the throne on which the king sat. The 
 back and sides were made of bolsters and it was 
 called a i)cd." — J. II. Perkins, Frnnee tinder 
 Mazitrin, r. 1, p. 388, foot-note. — An elaborate 
 and entertaining account of a notable Bed of 
 Justice held under the Regency, in the early 
 part of the reign of Louis XV., will bo found in 
 the Memoirs of the Duke de Saint Simon, 
 abridged trauslaiion of St. John, v. 4, ch. 5-7. 
 
 BEDR, Battle of. See Mahometan Con- 
 quest: A. 1). 009-6;!3. 
 
 BEDRIACUM, Battles of. See Rome: 
 A. D. CO. 
 
 BEECHY HEAD, Battle of (A. D. 1690). 
 SeeENdi.ANi): A. 1). 1690 (June). 
 
 BEEF-EATERS, The. See Yeomen of 
 
 THE GUAllI). 
 
 BEEF STEAK CLUB, The. Sco Clubs: 
 TuE Beef Steak. 
 
 BEER-ZATH, Battle of.— The field on 
 ^vhich the groat Jewish soldier and patriot, Judas 
 Maecabicus, having but 800 men with him, was 
 beset by an army of the Syrians and slain, B. C 
 161. — j'osephus, Antiq. o/the Jeirs, bk. 13, ch. 11. 
 
 Also in : II. Ewald, Hist, of Israel, bk. 5, sect. 3. 
 
 BEG. — A Turkish title, signifying prince or 
 lord ; whence, also. Boy. See Bey. 
 
 BEGGARS (Gueux) of the Netherland Re- 
 volt. See Nktiieulani>s: A. D. 1562-1.')U0. 
 
 BEGGARS OF THE SEA. See Netiieu- 
 LANDS: A. I). 1572. 
 
 BEGUINES, OR BEGHINES. — BEG- 
 HARDS. — Weaving Brothers.— Lollards.— 
 Brethren of the Free Spirit. — Fratricelli. — 
 Bizochi. — Turlupins, — "In the year 1180 there 
 lived in Liege a certain kindly, stammering 
 priest, known from his infirmity as Lambert le 
 Biigue. Tills man took pity on the destitute 
 widows of the town. Despite the impedir 
 in hi J spoecli, he was, as often happens, a maL u 
 A cert.iiu power ana eloquence in preaching. . . 
 
 This Lainl)ert so moved the hearts of his hearers 
 that gold and silver i)oured in on him, given to 
 relieve such of the destitute women of Liege as 
 were still of good and jiious life. Witli the 
 moneys thus collected, Lambert built a little 
 square of cottages, with a church in the middle 
 and a hospital, and at the side a cemetery, ilere 
 he h()U.sed these homeless widows, one or two in 
 each little house, and then he drew iqi a half 
 moim.stic rule which was to :;uiile their lives. 
 The rule was very simi)Ie, (]uile informal; no 
 vows, no great renunciation bound the 'Swes- 
 t rones Brod durch Got.' A certain time of the 
 day was set apart for prayer and i)ioiis medita- 
 tion ; the other hours they spent in spinning or 
 sewing, in keeping their liou.ses clean, or they 
 went as ntirses in time of sickness into the 
 homes of the townspeople. . . . Thus these 
 women, though pious and sequestered, were still 
 in the world and of the world. . . . Soon wo 
 find the name ' Swostrones Brod durch Got' sot 
 aside for the more usual title of Beguines or 
 Beghines. Different authorities give different 
 origins of this word. . . . Some liave thought it 
 was tiikon in memory of the founder, the chari- 
 table Lambert le Biigut. Others think that, even 
 as the Slystics or Mutterers, the Lollards or 
 Hummers, the Popelhards or Babblers, so the 
 Beguines or Stammerers were thus nicknamed 
 from their continual murmuring in prayer. This 
 is plausible ; but not so i)lausiblo as the sugges- 
 tion of Dr. Moslieim and M. Augusto Jundt, who 
 derive tlie word Beguine from tlio Flemish 
 word 'beggen, 'to beg. For we know that 
 those pious women had been veritable beggars ; 
 and beggars should they again become. Witli 
 surprising swiftness tiic new order spread 
 through the Netherlands and into France and 
 Germany. . . . Lambert may have lived to see 
 a beguiiiago in every great town within his ken; 
 but we hear no more of him. The Beguines aro 
 no longer for Liege, but for all the world. Eacli 
 city possessed its quiet congregation ; and at any 
 sick-bod you might meet a woman clad in a 
 simple smock and a great veil-like mantle, who 
 lived only to pray and do deeds of mercy. . . . 
 The success of the Bogunes had made them an 
 example. . . . Before St. Francis and St. Dominio 
 instituted the mendicant orders, there had silently 
 grown up in every town of the Netherlands a 
 spirit of fraternity, not imposed by any rule, but 
 the natural impulse of a pooplo. The weavers 
 seated all day long alone at their rattling looms, 
 the armourers beating out their tlioughts in iron, 
 the cro.ss-leggcd tailors and busy cobblers think- 
 ing and stitching together — these men silent, 
 pious, thoughtful, joined themselves in a fra- 
 ternity modelled on that of tho Beguines. They 
 were called the Weaving Brothers. Bound by 
 no vows and fettered by no rule, they still lived 
 the worldly life and plied their trade for hire. 
 Only in their leisure they met together and 
 prayed and dreamed and thought. . . . Such 
 were the founders of the great fraternity of 
 ' Fratres Toxtores," or Beghards as in later years 
 the people more generally called them." — A. M. 
 F. Robinson, T/ie End of the Middle Ages, 1.— 
 " Tho Lollards differed from the Beghards less 
 in reality than in name. \Vo aro informed re- 
 specting them that, at their origin in Antwerp, 
 shortly after 1300, they associated together for 
 'he purpose of waiting upon patients danger- 
 ously sick, and burying the dead. . . . Very 
 
 276 
 
BEQUINE8. 
 
 BEHRINO SEA CONTROVEHSY. 
 
 cnr.v, liowcvtT, nn clement of a rlilTcrcnt kind 
 In'gi.n to work in tliose fellowships. Even ftbout 
 the close of the liilh century irrejjuliiritiL's and 
 cxtniviigances lire laid to their clmr/;e. . . . The 
 charges brought against the later Ik'ghards and 
 J/i>Ilards, in connection, on the ()n(^ hand, with 
 the fanatical Franciscans, who were violently 
 contending with the Church, and on the other, 
 with the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, 
 relate to three i)articulars, viz., an aversion to 
 all useful industry, conjoined with a ])ropensity 
 to niendlcancy and idleness, an inteini)erate 
 spirit of op])osilion to the Church, and a .skepti- 
 cal and more or less jiantheistical mysticism. . . . 
 They . . . declare<l that tlie time of Antichrist 
 was come, and on all hands endeavoured to em- 
 broil the people with tlieir spiritual guides. 
 Their own i)rofessed object was to restore the 
 pure i)rimeval state, the divine life of freedom, 
 innocence, and nature. The idea they formetl 
 of that state wa.i, that man, being in and of him- 
 self one with God, requires only to act in the 
 consciousness of this unity, ffnd to follow un- 
 restrained the divinely implanted impulses and 
 inclinations of his nature, in order to be good and 
 godly." — C. UUnumn, lieforiiters before the lie- 
 formntioii. '• 2, jip. 14-10. — "The names of beg- 
 Imrds'aiK' guines came not unnaturally to be 
 used for u itees who, without being members 
 of any regular nioniustic society, made a profes- 
 sion of religious strictness; and thus the applica- 
 tions of the names to some kinds of sectaries was 
 easy — more especially as manj' of these found 
 it convenient to assuiue the outward appearance 
 of beghards, in the hojje of disguising their dif- 
 ferences from the church. But on tlie other 
 hand, tliis drew on the orthodo.v beghards fre- 
 quent persecution.s, and many of them, for the 
 sake of safety, were glad to connect themselves 
 as tertiaries with the great mendicant orilers. 
 ... In the 14th century, the popes dealt hardly 
 with the beghards ; yet orthodox societies under 
 this name still remained in Germany; and in 
 Belgium, the country of their origin, sisterhoods 
 of beguincs flouri.sh to the present day. . . . 
 Matthias of Janow, the Bohemian reformer, in 
 the end of the 14th century, says that all who 
 act dilTcrently from the profane vidgar are 
 called beghardi or turlupini, or by other blas- 
 l)hemous names. . . . Among those who were 
 confounded with the beghards — jiartly because, 
 like tliem, they abounded along the Rhine — 
 were the brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit. 
 These appear in various places under various 
 names. They wore a peculiarly' simple dress, 
 professed to give themselves to contemplation, 
 and, holding that labour is a hindrance to con- 
 templation and to the elevation of the soul to 
 God, they lived by beggary. Tlieir doctrines 
 were mystical and almost ]iantheistic. . . . The 
 brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit were much 
 persecuted, and probably formed a largo pro- 
 portion of those who were burnt under tlie name 
 of beghards." — J. C. ]{obertsou, JfM. of Chris- 
 tian Church, hk. 7, ch. 7(i'. 0). — " Near the close 
 of this century [the 13tli] originated in Italj' the 
 Fratricelli and Uizochi, parties that in Germany 
 and France were denominated Beguards; and 
 which, tlrst Boniface VIII., and afterwards 
 other pontilTs condemned, and wished to see 
 persecuted by the Inquisition and exterminated 
 m every possible way. The Fratricelli, who 
 also called themselves in Latin ' Fratres parvi ' 
 
 (Ijittle Brethren), or 'Fraterculi de paupcre vita'' 
 (Little Brothers of the Poor Life), were Francis- 
 can monks, but detached from the great fantily 
 of Franciscans; who wished to ob.serve the regu- 
 lations prescribed by their founder St. Francis 
 in(H-e perfectly than the others, and therefore 
 jiossessed no itroperty, either individually or 
 collectively, but obtained their necessary food 
 from day to day by begging. . . . They pre- 
 dicted a reformatiim and ]uirilication of the 
 church. . . . Tliey extolled Celestine V. as the 
 legal founder of their sect; but Boniface and the 
 succeeding pontilT.s who opposed the Fratricelli, 
 they denied to be true pontilTs. As the great 
 Franciscan family had its associates and depend- 
 ents, who observed the third rule prescribed by 
 St. Francis [which retpiired only certain pious- 
 observances, such as fasts, jirayers, continence, 
 a coarse, cheap dress, gravity of manners, ic., 
 but did not prohibit private property, marriage, 
 public olllces, ajid worldly occupations], and who 
 were usually called Tertiarii, so also tlie sect of 
 the Fratricelli . . . hail numerous Tertiarii of 
 its own. These were called, in Italy, Bi/.oelii 
 and ">iicasoti; in France Begiiini; and in Ger- 
 mans Heghardi, by which name all the Tertiarii 
 were coinmoidy designated. Tliese dillered from 
 the Fratricelli . . . only in tlieir nuMle of life. 
 Tlie Fratricelli were real monks, living under 
 the rule of St. Francis; but the Bizochi or Be- 
 guini lived in tlie manner of otlier jieople. . . . 
 Totallv different from these austere BeguinE 
 and Beguiiiie, were tlie German and Belgic 
 Beguina', wlio did not indeed originate in this 
 century, but now first came into notice. . . . 
 Concer ling the Turlupins, many have written;, 
 but none accurately. . . . The origin of the name, 
 I know not ; but I lun able to lu-ove from sub- 
 stantial documents, tliat the Turluiiins who were 
 burned at Paris, and in other ,.arts of France 
 were no other than the Brethren of the Free 
 Spirit whom ihe pontiffs and councils con- 
 demned." — J. li. Von Mo.sheim, lust's of Eeele- 
 siasticttl IIist.,hk. i, century 13, }U. 2, ch. 2, sect. 
 30^1, andch. 5, sect. Q, foot-note. 
 
 Also in; L. JEariotti (A. Gallenga), /'Va Doleino- 
 and his Times. — See, also, Pic.MiDS. 
 
 BEGUMS OF OUDE, Warren Hasting* 
 and the. See Indi.v; A. 1). 1773-1785. 
 
 BEHISTUN, Rock of.— "This remarkable 
 spot, lying on tlie direct route between Babylon 
 and Ecbatana, and presenting the unusual com- 
 bination of a copious fountain, a rich plain and 
 a rock suitable for sculjUure, must have early 
 attracted the attention of the great monarchy 
 who marched their armies through the Zagros- 
 range, as a place where they might conveniently 
 set up memorials of their exploits. . . . The 
 tablet and inscriptions of Darius, which have 
 made Behistun famous in modern times, are in a 
 recess to the right of the scari)ed face of the 
 rock, and at a considerable elevation." — G. Raw- 
 linson, Fire Oreat Monarchies: Media, ch. 1.-- 
 Tho mountain or rock of Behistun fixes the 
 location of the district known to the Greeks as 
 Bagistana. "It lies southwest of Elvend, 
 between that mountain and the Zagriis in the 
 valley of the Choaspes, and is the district now 
 known as Kirmensliah."— M. Duncker, llist. of 
 Anlinuili), hk. 8, ch. 1. 
 
 BEHRING SEA CONTROVERSY, and 
 Arbitration. Sec United States of Am. : 
 A.. D. 1886-1803. , 
 
 277 
 
BEIRUT. 
 
 BELGRADE. 
 
 BEIRUT, Origin of. Sci' IJkuvtits. 
 
 BELA I., King of Hungary, A. I). 1000- 
 
 1063 Bela II., A. 1) li:tl-1141 Bela 
 
 III., A. D. U;:i-1190 Bela IV., A. I). 1205- 
 
 1270. 
 
 BELCHITE, Battle of. Soc Spain: A. I>. 
 1801) (FKiiiif.Mtv— -Jink). 
 
 BELERION, OR BOLERIUM. — The 
 Koiimii iiiimc nf [.unil's P^iid, Eiigliuul. See 
 
 BllIT.MN: Cl'l.TIC TlilllKS. 
 
 BELF )RT.— Siege by the Germans (1870- 
 1871). S<'c FliANfE: A. I). 1H70-18T1. 
 
 BELGiE, The.— "This Belgian confeileni- 
 lioii inclmleil the people of all the country north 
 of the Seine and JIarne, bounded by the Atlantic 
 on the west and the Rhine on the north and east, 
 fxcept the Medioniatriei and Treviri. . . . The 
 old (livisions of France before the great revolu- 
 tion of 1789 corresponded in some degree to the 
 divisions of the country in the time of Cii'sar, 
 and the names of the people aiKj still retained 
 with little alteration in the names of the chief 
 towns or the names of the antorevolutionary 
 divisions of France. In the country of the Remi 
 between the JIarne and the Aisno there is the 
 town of Reims. In the territory of the Suessiones 
 between the Marne and the Aisne there is Soissons 
 on the Aisne. The Rellovaci were west of the 
 Oise (Isara) a branch of the Seine: their chief 
 town, which at some time received the name of 
 CiEsiiromngus, is now Beauvais. The Nervii 
 were between and on the Sanibre and the Schelde. 
 The Atrebates were north of the Bellovuci be- 
 tween the Somnie and the upper Schelde: their 
 chief place was Nemetacum or Ncmetocenna, 
 now Ariiis in the old division of Artois. The 
 Ambiani were on the Sommc (Samara): their 
 name is represented by Amiens (Samarobriva). 
 The Jlorini, or sea-coast men extended from 
 Boulogne towards Duukertjue. The Menapii 
 bordered on the northern Slorini and were on 
 both sides of the lower Rhine (B. G. iv., 4). The 
 Caleti were north of the lower Seine along the 
 coast in the Pays de Caux. The Velocasses were 
 east of the Caleti on the north side of the Seine 
 as far as the Oise ; their chief town was Rotoma- 
 gus (Rouen) and their country was afterwards 
 Vexin Norman d and Vexin Fran(,'ai9. The Vero- 
 mandui were north of the Suessiones: their 
 chief town under the Roman dominion, Augusta 
 Veroinanduoruni, is now St. Quentin. The Adua- 
 tvici were on the lower Maas. The Condrusi and 
 the others included under the name of Qermani 
 were on the Alaas, or between the ^Maas and the 
 Rhine. The Eburones had the country about 
 Tongorn and Spa, and were the immediate neigh- 
 bours of the Menapii on the Rhine." — Q. Long, 
 Decline of tfie Itoiium liepublir, r. 4, ch. S. — 
 "Cajsar . . . informs us that, in their own esti- 
 mation, they [the Belgiu] were principally de- 
 scended from a German stock, tlie offspring of 
 some early migmtion across the Rhine. . . . 
 Slrabo ... by no means concurred in Cajsar's 
 view of the origin of this . . . race, whicii he 
 believed to be Gaulish and nou German, though 
 differing widely from the Galli, or Gauls of 
 the central region." — C. Merivale, Hist, of the 
 lioinaiui, ch. .5. 
 
 Also IN: E. Guest, Orir/iiies Celtinv, r. 1, ch. 12, 
 
 B. C. 57. — Cssar's campaign against the 
 confederacy. — In the second year of Ctusar's 
 command in Gaul, B. C. 57, he led his legions 
 against the Belgu;, whom he characterized in his 
 
 Commentaries as the bravest of all the pcop'" of 
 Gaid. The many tribes of the Belgian C( ry 
 had joined themselves in a great league 1 op- 
 jiose the advancing Roman ])ower, ancl were able 
 to bring into the (ield no less than 290,000 men. 
 The tribe of the Rend alone refused to join the 
 confederacy and placed themselves on the Roman 
 side. Ciesar who had ((Uartered his army during 
 the winter in the country of theSequaiu, marched 
 boldly, with eight legions, into the midst of these 
 swanning enemies. In his tirst encounter with 
 them on tlie banks of the Aisne, the Helgic bar- 
 barians were terribly cut to pieces and were so 
 disheartened that tribe after tribe made submis- 
 sion to the ])roconsul as he advanced. But the 
 Xcrvii, who Ijoasted a Germanic descent, together 
 with the Aduatuci, the Atrebates and the Vero- 
 mandui, rallied their forces for a struggle to the 
 death. The Nervii succeeded in surprising the 
 Romans, while the latter were preparing their 
 cam]) on the banks of the Sambre, and verv 
 nearly swept CItesar and his veterans off the fleld, 
 by their furious an<l tremendous charge. But 
 tlie energy and jiersonal influence of the one, 
 with the steady discipline of the other, prevailed 
 in the end over the untnuned vahmr of the Nervii, 
 and the proud nation was not only defeated but 
 annihilated. "Their eulogy is preserved in the 
 written testimony of their con(i\ieror; and the 
 Romans long remembered, and never failed to 
 signalize their formidable valour. But this 
 recollection of their ancient prowess became from 
 that day the principiU monument of tlieir name 
 and history, for the defeat they now sustained 
 well nigh annihilated the nation. Their combat- 
 ants were cut off almost to a man. _ The ciders 
 and the women, who liad been left in secure re- 
 treats, came forth of their own accord to solicit 
 the conqueror's clemency. ... 'Of 600 sena- 
 tors,' they said, 'we have lost nil but three; of 
 60,000 fighting men 500 only remain.' Cajsar 
 treated tlie survivors with compassion. " — C. 
 Jlerivalc, Hist, of the limruins, ch. 7. 
 
 Ai,80 IN : Julius Cresar, Gallic Wars, bk. 2. — 
 G. Long, Declini' of the Roman Republic, v. 4, ch. 
 3. — Napoleon III., Hist of Ofsar, bk. 3, eh. 5. 
 
 BELGiE OF BRITAIN, The.— Supposed 
 to be a colony from the Belga; of the continent. 
 The territory which they occupied is now 
 embraced in the counties of Wiltshire and 
 Somerset. SeeBniT.\iN: Cei.tic TmnKS. 
 
 BELGIUM: Ancient and Mediaeval His- 
 tory. See BKLOiK, Nehvii, Fiianks, Louhaine, 
 
 Fl.ANDEUS, LlEOE, NeTHEHI.ANDS. 
 
 Modern History. See Nistiieulands. 
 
 BELGRADE : Origin.— During the attacks 
 of the Avars upon the territory of the Eastern 
 Empire, in the last yeai-s of the Otli century, the 
 city of Singidunuin, at the junction of the Save 
 with the Danube, was taken and totally 
 destroyed. The advantageous site of the extinct 
 town soon attracted a colony of Sclavonians, 
 who raised out of the ruins a new and strongly 
 fortified city — the Belgrade, or the White City 
 of later times. "The Sclavonic name of Bel- 
 grade is mentioned in the lOtli century by Con- 
 stantine Porphyorgenitus: tlie Latin appellation 
 of Alba Qncca is used by the Pranks in the 
 beginning of the 9\\\."—K.. G'\h\nn\, Decline a)\d 
 Full of the Roimin Empire, ch. 46, note. 
 
 A. b. 1425.- Acquired by Hungary and forti- 
 fied against the Turks. SeelluNUAHY: A. D. 
 1301-1442. 
 
 278 
 
BELGRADE. 
 
 BENEDICTINE ORDERS. 
 
 A. D. 1442.— First repulse of the Turks. 
 8tr Ti'iiks(TiikOttom.\n8): A. 1). 1402-14.'il. 
 
 A. D. 1456.— Second repulse of the Turks. 
 Sec lIuNdAUY: A. D. 144-,'-14r)8; uud Tl'HKS 
 (TiiK Ottomans): A. D. I4.'il-14H1. 
 
 A. D. 1521. — Siege and capture by Solyman 
 the Magnificent. Sec IIi'.n(iauy: A. I), IIHT- 
 1526. 
 
 A. D. 1688-1690.— Taken by the Austrians 
 and recovered by the Turks. Sec IIunoahy: 
 A. 11. KiHIi-KiO!). 
 
 A. D. 1717. — Recovery from the Turks. ISco 
 IIiNdAUY: A. 1). 1099-lTlH. 
 
 A. D. 1739.— Restored to the Turks. See 
 RtiHstA: A. I). ir2,)-17:!<J. 
 
 A. D. 1789-1791.— Taken by the Austrians 
 and restored to the Turks. SteTimKs: A. D. 
 1770-1792. 
 
 A. D. 1806.— Surprised and taken by the 
 Servians. Si'e Balkan and Danuhian States: 
 14th-19tii Cknturiks (Sk.uvia). 
 
 A. D. 1862.— Withdrawal of Turkish 
 troops. Sec Balkan and Danuhian States: 
 14th-19tii Centuiues (Seuvia). 
 
 BELGRADE, The Peace of. See Russia: 
 A. D. 172.'>-1739. 
 
 BELIK, Battle on the (Carrha- B. C. S3)- 
 See Rome: B. C. 57-53. 
 
 BELISARIUS, Campaigns of. See Van- 
 dals: A. D. 53»-.534, ami Home: A. D. 535-553. 
 
 BELIZE, or British Honduras. See Nica- 
 Kaoua: a. I). 18.50. • • 
 
 BELL ROLAND, The great. See Ghent: 
 A. D. 1,539-1540. 
 
 BELLE ALLIANCE, Battle of La.— The 
 bnttlc of Waterloo — sec Fkance: A. D. 1815 
 (June) — is so called by the Prussians. 
 
 BELLE ISLE PRISON-PEN, The. See 
 PuisoNs AND Puison-Pens, Confedekate. 
 
 BELLOVACI, The. See Belg*. 
 
 BELLVILLE, Battle of. See United 
 States OK Am. : A. D. 1803 (July: Kentucky). 
 
 BELMONT, Battle of. See United States 
 OK Am. : A. D. 1861 (Septemuer — November : 
 On the Mississippi). 
 
 BEMA, The. See Pnyx. 
 
 BEMIS HEIGHTS, Battle of. SeeUyiTED 
 States of A.m. : A. D. 1777 (July — October). 
 
 BENARES. — " The early history of Benares 
 is involved in mnch obscurity. It is, indisputably, 
 a place of great antiquity, and may even date 
 from the time when the Aryan mco first spread 
 itself over Northern India. ... It is certain 
 that the city is regarded by all Hindus as coeval 
 with the birth of Hinduism, a notion derived 
 both from tradition and from their own writings. 
 Allusions to Benares are exceedingly abundantin 
 ancient Sanskrit literature ; and perhaps there is 
 no city in all Hindustan more frequently referred 
 to. By reason of some subtle and .lysterious 
 charm, it has linked it.sclf with the religious 
 sympathies of the Hindus through every c-;:tury 
 of its existence. For the sanctity of it; in- 
 habitants — of its temples and reservoir . ,^ its 
 wells and streams — of tlie very soil inat is 
 trodden — of the very air that is breathed — and 
 of everything in and around it, Benares has been 
 famed for thousands of years. . . . Previously 
 to the introiluction of the Buddhist faith into 
 India, she was already the sacred city of the 
 laud,— the centre of Hmduism, and chief seat of 
 its authority. Judging from the strong feelings | 
 
 of veneration and afToction with which the 
 native community regard her in the present day, 
 and bearing in iiinid that the founder of Bull- 
 (Ihisni coMiinenced his ministry at tliis spot, it 
 seems indisputable that, in those early times ])re- 
 ccding the Buddhist reformation, the city must 
 have exerted a powerful and wide-'spnwl 
 religious iiitluence over the land. Throughout 
 the IJuddlilst ])eriod in India — a [x'tiod e.Mcnd- 
 ing from 700 to 1.000 yeara — slie gave the same 
 support to Buddhism which slie had previously 
 given to the Hindu faith. Buddhist works of 
 that era . . . clearly establisli tlie fact lliat the 
 Buddhi.sts of those 'days regarded the city with 
 much tlie same kind of veneration as thi^ Iliiidu 
 does now." — M. A. Shcrring, T/ie i^Jirml Citi/ of 
 the Hindus, eh. 1. — For an account of the Eng- 
 lish annexation of Benares, see India: A. 1). 
 1773-178,5. 
 
 BENEDICT II., Pope, A. I). 084-08.5 
 
 Benedict III., Pope, A. I). 8,5,V8,58 Benedict 
 
 IV., Pope, A. I). 900-903 Benedict V., 
 
 Pope, A. 1). 964-90.5 Benedict VI., Pope, 
 
 A. 1). 972-974 Benedict VII., Pope, A. D. 
 
 97,5-984 Benedict VIII., Pope, A. 1). 1012- 
 
 1024 Benedict IX., Pope, A. I). 1033-1044, 
 
 1047-1048 Benedict X., Antipope, A D. 
 
 10.58-10,59 Benedict XI., Pope, A. D. 1303- 
 
 1304 Benedict XII., Pope, A. D. 1334-1342. 
 
 ...Benedict XIII., Pope, A. I). 1394-1423 (at 
 
 Avignon) Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D. 1724- 
 
 1730 Benedict XIV., Pope, A. D. 1740- 
 
 1758. 
 
 BENEDICTINE ORDERS.— The rule of 
 St. Benedict. — "There were many monasteries 
 in the West before the time of St. Benedict of 
 Nursia (A. D. 480) ; but ho has been rightly con- 
 sidered the father of Western monasticism ; for 
 he not only founded an order to whicli many 
 religious houses became attached, but he estab- 
 lished a rule for their government which, in its 
 main features, was adopted as the rule of mon- 
 astic life by all the orders for more than five 
 centuries, or until the time of St. Dominic and 
 St. Francis of Assisi. Benedict was first a 
 hermit, living in the mountains of Southern 
 Italy, and in that region he afterwards estab- 
 lished in succession twelve monasteries, each 
 with twelve monks and a superior. In the year 
 .520 he foimded the great monastery of Monte 
 Casino us the mother-house of his order, a liou';o 
 which became the most celebrated and powerful 
 monastery, according to Montalembert, in the 
 Catholic universe, celebrated especially because 
 there Benedict prepared his rule and formed the 
 type wliich was to serve as a model to the 
 innumerable communities sulunitting to that 
 sovereign code. . . . NeithcV in the East nor in 
 tlie West were the monks originally ecclesiastics; 
 and it was not until the eighth century that they 
 became priests, called regulars, in contrast with 
 the ordinary parish clergy, who were called 
 seculars. ... As missionaries, they proved the 
 most powerful instruments in extending the 
 authority and the boundaries of the church. 
 The monk had no individual property: even 
 his dress belonged to the monastery. ... To 
 enable him to work eflleiently, it was necessary 
 to feed him well; and such was the injuneti<m 
 of Benedict, as opposed to the former practice of 
 strict asceticism." — C. J. Stille, Sttidies in 
 Mcdimml Hist., ck. 12. — "Benedict would fiot 
 have the monks limit themselves to spiritual 
 
 279 
 
BENEDICTINE ORDERS. 
 
 BENEVOLENCES. 
 
 labour, to the notion of the soul \ipon itself; he 
 nuulc external laboui-, nianuiil or literary, a strict 
 oliliKatiori of liis ruli'. . . . lu order "to banisii 
 indolence, wliicli lie called tlie enemy of the soul, 
 lie regulated minutely the employment of every 
 hour of the day according to tlie seasons, and 
 ordained that, after having celebrated the 
 praises of God seven times u-day, seven hours 
 a-day should be given to manual lalioiir, and two 
 hours to HMiding. . . . Tliose wlio are sliilled in 
 tlie priK'tice of an art or trade, could only exer- 
 cise it by the permission of the abbot, in all 
 humility; and if any one pri<led himself on his 
 talent, or the prollt which resulted from it to 
 the house, he was toliave his occupation dianged 
 until lie liad humbled himself. . . . Obedience 
 is also to his ej'es a work, obedieiitiae laborem, 
 the most meritorious and essential of all. A 
 monk entered into monastic life only to make 
 the sacrillcc of self. This saeriliee implied 
 especially that of the will. . . . Thus the rule 
 pursued pride into its most secret hiding-place. 
 Submission had to be prompt, perfect, and 
 absolute. The monk must obey always, with- 
 out reserve, and witliout murmur, even in those 
 things which seemed impossible and above his 
 strength, trusting in the succour of God, if a 
 Innnblc and seasonable remonstrance, the only 
 thing permitted to him, was not accepted by his 
 superiors." — The Count dc Slontalembcrt, The 
 Monks of tlm West, bk. 4, sect. 3 (v. 2). 
 
 Also in; E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Chnracters of 
 the Middle Af/es,ch. 2.— S. R. Maitlnnd, The Dark 
 Ayes, No. 10. — J. H. Newman, Mission of St. 
 Benedict (Hist. Sketches, v. 3).— P. Schaff, Ilist. 
 of tJie Christian Church, v. 3, ch. 4, sect. 43-45. 
 — E. F. Henderson, Select Hist. Docs, of the 
 Middle Af/es, bk. 3, no. 1. — See, also. Capuchins. 
 
 BENEFICIUM. — COMMENDATION,— 
 Fcuilalism "had grown up from two great 
 sources — the beneficium, and the practice of 
 commendation, and had been spcvlaliy fostered 
 on Gallic soil by the existence of a subject popu- 
 lation which admitted of any amount of exten- 
 sion in the methods of dependence. The 
 beneficiary system originated partly in gifts of 
 laud made by the kings out of their own estates 
 to their kinsmen and servants, with a special 
 undertaking to be faithful; partly in the sur- 
 render by landownere of their estJitcs to churches 
 or powerful men, to be rccr-'vcd back again and 
 held by them as tenants for rent or service. By 
 the latter arrangement the weaker man obtained 
 the protection of the stronger, and he who felt 
 himself insecure placed his title under the de- 
 fence of the Churcli. By the practice of com- 
 mendation, on the other hand, the inferior put 
 himself under the personal care of a lord, but 
 without altering his title or divesting himself of 
 his riglit to his estate ; he became a vassal and 
 did homage. The placing of his hands between 
 those of his lord was the typical act by which 
 the connexion was formed." — W. Stubbs, Const. 
 Hist. ofEng., ch. 9, sect. 03. 
 
 Also in : II. Hallam, The Middle Ages, ch. 2, 
 pt. 1. — See, also, Scotland: IOtii-Hth Cen- 
 turies. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY.— " Among the 
 most important and dearly-prized privileges of 
 the church was that which conferred on its 
 members immunity from the operation of secu- 
 lar law, and relieved them from the jurisdic- 
 tloa of secular tribunals. ... So priceless a 
 
 prerogative was not obtained without a long and 
 resolute struggle. . . . To ask that a monk or 
 l)riest guilty of crime should not be siibiect to 
 the ordinary tribunals, and that civil suits be- 
 tween liiymen and ecclesiastics sliould ',)e referred 
 exclusively to courts composed of the latter, 
 was a claim too repugnant to the common sense 
 of mankind to be lightly accorded. . . . The 
 persistence of the ■••luireh, backed up by the 
 unfailing resource of excomniunication, tinally 
 triumphed, and the sacred immunity of tlie 
 priesthood was aeknowltidged, sooner or later, 
 in the laws of every r-t:)n of Europe." In 
 England, when Henry II, in 1164, "endeavored, 
 in the Constitutions of Ciarendon, to set bounds 
 to the privileges of the church, he therefore 
 especially attacked the benefit of clergy. . . . 
 The disastrous result of the quarrel between 
 the King and the archbishop [Becket] rendered 
 it necessary to abandon all such schemes of re- 
 form. ... As time passed on, the benefit of 
 clergy gradually extended itself. That the 
 laity were illiterate and the clergy educated was 
 taken for granted, and the test of churchman 
 ship came to be tlie ability to read, so that the 
 privilege became in fact a free pardon on a first 
 offence for all who knew their letters. . . . 
 Under Elizabeth, certain heinous offences were 
 declared felonies without benefit of clergy. 
 . . . Much legislation ensued from time to time, 
 effecting the limitation of the privilege in vari- 
 ous offences. . . . Early in the reign of Anne 
 the benefit of clergy was extended to all male- 
 factors by abrogatmg the reading test, tlius 
 placing the unlettered felon on a par with his 
 better educated fellows, and it was not until the 
 present century wos well advanced that this 
 remnant of mediajvnl ecclesiastical prerogative 
 was abolished by 7 and 8 Geo. Iv. c. 28." — 
 H. C. Lea, Studies in Church Hist., pt. 2. 
 
 Also in : W. Stubbs, Coiut. Hist, of Eng. , 
 sect. 722-735 {ch. 19, v. 3).— See, also, England: 
 A. D. 1162-1170. 
 
 BENEVENTO, OR GRANDELLA, Bat- 
 tle of (1266). See Italy (Soutiiehs): A. D. 
 1350-1268. 
 
 BENEVENTUM: The Lombard Duchy. 
 — The Duchy of Beneventum was a Lombard 
 fief of the 8th and 9th centuries, in southern 
 Italy, which survived the fall of the Lombard 
 kingdom in northern Italy. It covered nearly 
 the territory of the modern kingdom of Naples. 
 Charlemagne reduced the Duchy to submission 
 witii considerable dilflculty, after he had extin- 
 guished the Lombard kingdom. It was after- 
 wards divided into the minor principalities of 
 Benevento, Salerno and Capua, and became 
 part of the Norman conquest. — See Italy (South- 
 EUN): A. D. 800-1016; and 1000-1090; also, 
 Lombards: A. D. 573-774, and Amalfi. 
 
 BENEVENTUM, Battle of (B. C.27S). See 
 Rome: B. C. 282-275. 
 
 BENEVOLENCES. — "The collection of 
 benevolences, regarded even at the time [Eng- 
 land, reign of Edward IV.] as an innovation, was 
 perhaps a resuscitated form of some of the worst 
 measures of Edward II. and Richard II., but the 
 attention which it aroused under Edward IV. 
 shows how strange it had become under the 
 intervening kings. . . . Such evidence as 
 exists shows us Edward IV. canvassing by 
 word of mouth or by letter for direct gifts of 
 money from his subjects. Henry III. had thus 
 
 280 
 
BENEVOLENCES. 
 
 BERSERKER. 
 
 begRcd for new ycnr'.s gifts. Edwdrd IV. 
 roiiiu'stod and fxtort<,'d ' free-will offerings ' : rom 
 every one wlio could not say no to the pie id- 
 ings of such a king. He had a wonderful mem- 
 ory, too, and knew the name ami the purtioidar 
 property of every man in the country who was 
 worth ta.xing in this way. He liad no e.xeu.so 
 for such meanness; for the estates had shown 
 themselv(!s libend."— W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of 
 Eiuf., ch, 18, sect. 606. — Sec, also, England: 
 A. D. 1471-1485. 
 
 BENGAL, The English acquisition of. Sec 
 India; A. I). 17.-M-1757; 17r)7; and 1757-1773. 
 
 BENGAL: " Permanent Settlement." See 
 India: A. I). 1 78.5-1 7i):i. 
 
 BENNINGTON, Battle of. See United 
 States ok Am: A. I). 1777 (.Iui-y— (JcTonEii). 
 
 BENTINCK, Lord William, The Indian 
 Administration of. See India: A. D. 1823- 
 1833. 
 
 BENTONSVILLE, Battle of. See United 
 States OP Am. : A. D. 18G5(FEiinu.\nY— M.uicii: 
 The Cauolinas). 
 
 BEOTHUK, The. Sec Ameuican Abouig- 
 INES: Beothukan Family. 
 
 BERBERS, The. Sec LinYA:;s; Numid- 
 IAN8; Egypt, Ouigin op the Ancient people ; 
 and Maiiocco. 
 
 BERENICE, Cities of.— Ptolemy Phila- 
 dolphus, the second of the Ptolemies, founded a 
 city on the Egyptian shore of the Red Sea, to 
 whicli he gave the name of his mother, Berenice. 
 It became an important i)ort of trade. Subse- 
 quently two other cities of the same name were 
 founded at points further south on the same 
 coast, while a fourth Berenice came into existence 
 on the border of the Great Syrtis, in Cyrenaica. 
 — E. 11. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., ch. 15, 
 sect. 1. 
 
 BERESINA, Passage of the. See Russla: 
 A. D. 1813 (OcTODEH— Decembeu). 
 
 BERESTECZKO, Battle of (1651). See 
 Poland: A. D. 1648-1654. 
 
 BERGEN, Battles of (1759 and 1799). See 
 Germany: A. 1). 1759 (Apuii. — AtJOUST); and 
 PiiANCE : A. D. 1799 (Septembek— October). 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, A. D. 1588.— The 
 siege raised. See Netherlands: A. D. 1588- 
 1593. • 
 
 A. D. 1622, — Unsuccessful siege by the 
 Spaniards. See Netherlands: A. D. 1631- 
 1633. 
 
 A. D. 1747-1748.— Taken by the French and 
 restored to Holland, 
 
 1746-1747 
 gress. 
 
 See Netherlands : A. J), 
 and Aix-la-Cuapelle, The Con- 
 
 BERGER. See Biroer. 
 
 BERGERAC, Peace of. See France : A. D. 
 1577-1578. 
 
 BERING SEA CONTROVERSY AND 
 ARBITRATION. See United States op 
 Am. : A. 1). 1886-1893. 
 
 BERKELEY, Lord, The Jersey Grant to. 
 See New .Jersey: A. D. 1664-1667, to 1688-1738. 
 
 BERKELEY, Sir William, Government of 
 Virginia. See Virginia: A. D. 1643-1649, to 
 1660-1677. 
 
 BERLIN : A. D. 1631.— Forcible entry of 
 Gustavus Adolphus. See Germany: A. D. 
 1631. 
 
 A. D. 1675. — Threatened by the Swedes. 
 Bee Brandenburg: A. D. 1640-1688. 
 
 A. D. 1757.— Dashing Austrian attack. See 
 Germany: A. 1). 1757 (Ji'i.v— Decemhkr). 
 
 A. D. 1760. — Taken and plundered by the 
 Austrians and Russians. See Germany: A.I). 
 1 '10. 
 
 A. D. 1806. — Napoleon in possession. Sec 
 Germany: A. I). 1806 (Octoheu). 
 
 A. D. 1848.— Mistaken battle of soldiers 
 and citizens.— Continued disorder.— State of 
 siege. See Germany : A. I). 1848 (March), and 
 1848-1850. 
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884-5), The. 
 See Akimca: A. 1). 1884-1889; and Congo Free 
 State. 
 
 BERLIN, Congress and Treaty of. See 
 Turks: A. I). 1878. 
 
 BERLIN DECREE, The. See France: 
 A. D. 1806-1810; and United States op Am. : 
 A. D. 18(it-1809. 
 
 BERMUDA HUNDRED. See Hundred, 
 The. 
 
 BERMUDA HUN)JRED, Butler's Army 
 at. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1864 
 (May: Viu(iiMA), The Army ok the .Ia.mes. 
 
 BERMUDAS, The.— English Discovery of 
 the islands (1609). See Virginia: A. D. 1609- 
 1616. 
 
 BERMUDO, Kingof Leon and the Asturias, 
 
 or Oviedo, A. D. 788-791 Bermudo II., 
 
 A. D. 983-909 Bermudo III., A. D. 1037- 
 
 1037. 
 
 BERN, Dietrich of. See Verona: A. D. 
 493-535. 
 
 BERNADOTTE, Career of. See France: 
 A. I). 1798-1799 (Au(!U8T— April); 1799 (No- 
 vember); 1806 (.January — October); 1814 
 (January- — March); 1806- '.807; Scandinavian 
 States (Sweden): A. D. 1810; Germany: A. D. 
 1812-1813; 1818 (August), (September— Octo- 
 ber), (October — December). 
 
 BERNARD, St., and the Second Crusade. 
 See Crusades: A. D. 1147-1149. 
 
 BERNE, A. D. 1353.— Joined to the original 
 Swiss Confederation, or Old League of High 
 Germany. See Switzerland: A. D. 1333-1460. 
 
 A. D. 1798. — Occupation by the French. — 
 The plundering of the Treasury. See Switz- 
 erland: A. D. 1793-1798. 
 
 BERNICIA, The Kingdom of. See Eng- 
 land : A. I). 547-633 ; and Scotland : 7th Cen- 
 tury. 
 
 BERSERKER. — BiERSiERK. — "The 
 word Itersrerk is variously spelt, and stated to 
 be derived from 'bar' and 'sicrk,' or 'bareshirt.' 
 The men to whom the title was applied [among 
 the Northmen] . . . were stated to be iu the 
 habit of fighting without armour, and wearing 
 only a shirt of skins, or at times naked. In 
 Iceland they were sometimes called Ulfrhedin, 
 i. e., wolfskin. The derivation of Biersairk has 
 been questioned, as in philology is not uncom- 
 mon. The habit of their wearing bear (bjOrn) 
 skins, is said to afford the meaning of the word. 
 In pinlology, to agree to differ is best. The 
 Biersierks, according to the sagas, appear to Iiave 
 been men of unusual physical development and 
 savagery. They were, moreover, liable to what 
 was called Bairstcrkegang, or a state of excite- 
 ment in which they exhibited superhuman 
 strength, and then spared neither friend nor foe. 
 . . . After an attack of BcBrsoerk frenzy, it was 
 
 281 
 
DERSERKEIl. 
 
 BEY. 
 
 liellevwl tlmt the siipcrhiinmn influonce or Bpirit 
 l(;ft tilt! Hu'rsicrk'H Ixxly its ii 'Iiain,' nr ciist olT 
 Blinpe or form, witli llic njHult tlmt the MiiT- 
 siurk .siilTrri'd (jrciit cxlmUHtion, his imturiil forces 
 beiii)^ used up." — J. V. Vii'iiry, Saga Tiiiw, c/i. 3. 
 
 Ai.sr)iN: I'. «. 1)11 Clmillu, The Vikiny Age, 
 V. 2. rh. 20. 
 
 BERWICK-UPON-TWEED : A. D. 1293- 
 1333. — Conquest by the Eng^Hsh. — At the Iwifiii- 
 nfiiji;, in ViVA, of the striitgle of tlio Hrottish nation 
 to cast off the fcudiil yoKt! w hich Edward I. had 
 laid upon it, tlic EiiKiish Icini?, marcliinR angrily 
 nortlnvurds, inadi- his lirst assault upon Berwick. 
 The citizens, whose only rampart was a wtxMlen 
 stockade, foolishly aKgravatc<I his wrath by 
 gibes and taunts. "Tlie stockiule was stormed 
 witli the loss of a single knight, and nearly 
 8,000 of the citizens were mown down in a ruth- 
 less carnage, while a handful of Flemish traders 
 who held the town-hall stoutly against all as.sail- 
 aiits were burned alive in it. . . . The town was 
 ruined forever, and the great merchant city of 
 the North sank from that time into a petty sea- 
 
 Eort." Subsequently recovered by the Scotch, 
 lerwick was held by them in 13!i3 when Edward 
 III. attempted to seat Edward Balliol, as his 
 vassal, on the Scottish throne. The English laid 
 siege to the place, and an army under the regent 
 Douglas came to its relief. The battle of lluli- 
 don Hill, in which the Scotch were utterly 
 routed, decided the fate of Berwick. "From 
 that time the town remained the one part of 
 Edward's conquests which was preserved by the 
 English crown. Fragment as it was, it was 
 viewed as legally representing the realm of 
 wluch it had once formed a part. As Scotland, 
 it had its tcliancellor, chiimberlain, and other 
 oftlcers of state ; and the peculiar heading of acts 
 of Parliament enacted for England ' and the 
 town of Berwick-upon-Tweed ' still preserves 
 the memory of its peculiar jiosition." — J. R. 
 Green, Short Jlist. of the English People, eh. 4, 
 sect. 3 and 6. 
 
 A1.80 IN : J. II. Burton, Hut. of Scotland, ch. 
 17.— See Scotland: A. 1). 1390-1305. 
 
 BERWICK, Pacification of. See Scotland: 
 A. 1). 1038-lti40. 
 
 BERWICK, Treaty of. SccScotlakd: A. D. 
 1558-1560. 
 
 BERYTUS.— The colony of Berytus(inodern 
 Beirut) was founded by Agrippa, B. C. 15, and 
 made n st 1 ion fr r two legions. 
 
 A. D. i5i. — l„s Schools. — Its Destruction 
 by Earthquake. — The city of Berytus, modern 
 Beirut, was destroyed by earthquake on the 9th 
 of July, A. D. 551. "That city, on the coast of 
 Phoenicia, was illustrated by the study of the 
 civil law, which opened the surest road to wealth 
 and dignity : the schools of Berytus were filled 
 with the rising spirits of the age, and many a 
 youth was lost in the earthquake who might have 
 lived to be the scourge or the guardian of his 
 country." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, eh. 43. 
 
 A. D. nil. — Taken by the Crusaders. See 
 Cuusadeb: a. D. 1104-1111. 
 
 BESANCON : Origin. See Vebontio. 
 
 A. D. 1152-1648.— A Free City of the Em- 
 pire. See FuANcnE Comte. 
 
 A. D. 1674.— Siege and capture by Vauban. 
 See Netiikklands (Hollaud): A. D. 1674- 
 1678. 
 
 BESSI, The.— The BessI were an ancient 
 Thraeiau tribe who occupied the mountain range 
 of iliemus (the Balkan) and the upper valley of 
 the Ilebrns. They were subdued by Lucullus, 
 brother of the con(iueror of Mithridates. — E. II. 
 Bunburv, Hist, of Ancient Oeog.,ch. 18, sect. 6. 
 
 BESfeiN, The.— The district of Bayeux. Seo 
 Saxons ok Bayki'x. 
 
 BETH-HORON, Battles of.— The victory of 
 ■lo.shua over "the tlvo kings of the Amoritcs" 
 who laid siege to Gibeon; the decisive battle of 
 the Jewish con(iucstof Canaan. "The battle of 
 Beth-horon or Oibcon is one of the most important 
 in the history of the worhl; and yet so profound 
 has been the indiflFerenco, first of the religious 
 world, and then (through their cxomple or in- 
 fluence) of the common world, to the historical 
 study ^of the Hebrew annals, that the very name 
 of thiiJ great battle is far less known to most of 
 us than that of Alarathon or Cannir." — Dean 
 Stanley, Lccls. on the Hist, of the Jewish Church, 
 led. 11. — In the Maccabean war, Beth-horon was 
 the scene of two of the brilliant victories of 
 Judas llaci;abens, in B. C. 167 and 162. — 
 Joscphus, Antiq. of the\Teu>s, bk, 12. — Later, at 
 the time of the Jewish rc'volt against the Romans, 
 it witnessed the disastrous retreat of the Roman 
 general Cestius. 
 
 BETHSHEMESH, Battle of.— Fought by 
 Jousli, king of Israel, with Amaziah, king of 
 Judah, defeating the latter and causing part of 
 the walls of Jeru.salem to be thrown down. — 3 
 Chroniclis, ,!•./•». 
 
 BETH-ZACHARIAH, Battle of.— A defeat 
 suffered (B. V. 163) by the Jewish patriot, Judas 
 Muccabojus, at the hands of the Syrian monarch 
 Antiochus Eupator; the youngest of the Macca- 
 bees being slain. — Josephus, Antiq. of the Jews, 
 bk. 13, ch. 9. 
 
 BETHZUR, Battle of.— Defeat of an army 
 sent by Antiochus, against Judas JIaccabicus, 
 the Jewish patriot, B. C. 165, Josephus, Antiq. 
 of the Jews, bk. 13, ch. 7. 
 
 BEVERHOLT, Battle of (1381). See 
 Flandeks: a. D. 1379-1381. 
 
 BEY.— BE YLERBEY.— PACHA.— PAD- 
 ISCHAH.—" The administration of the [Turk- 
 ish] provinces was in the time of JIahomet II. 
 [the Sultan, A. D. 1451-1481, whos(? legislation 
 organized the Ottoman government] principally 
 intrusted to the Beys and Beylerbeys. These 
 were the natural chiefs of the class of feuda- 
 tories [Spahis], whom their tenure of office obliged 
 to serve on horseback in time of war. They 
 mustered under the Sanjak, the banner of the 
 chief of their district, and the districts them- 
 selves were thence called Sonjaks, and their 
 rulers Sanjak-beys. The title of Pacha, 
 so familiar to us when speaking of a Turkish 
 provincial ruler, is not strictly a term imply- 
 ing territorial jurisdiction, or even military 
 authority. It is a title of honour, meaning 
 literally the Shah's or sovereign's foot, and 
 implying that the person to whom that title was 
 given was one whom the sovereign employed. 
 . . . The title of Pacha was not at first applied 
 among the Ottomans exclusively to those otticers 
 who commanded armies or ruled provinces or 
 cities. Of the five first Pachas, that arc 
 mentioned by Ottoman writers, three were liter- 
 ary men. By degrees this honorary title was 
 appropriated to those whom the Sultan employed 
 in war and set over districts and important 
 
 282 
 
BEY. 
 
 BLACK DKATII. 
 
 towns; go thut tlif word Piicliu iH'camc nlmoRt 
 nyiioiiymoim with the won! f^ovcnior. Tlir 
 titl(; Pa(lis<'lmli, wliicli tlic Siiltiui liiriiscif bciirN, 
 and wliirli tlio TiirkiHli diploiimti.stH liiivi^ been 
 v^ry JL'ulou.s in allowing to L'liristian Sovenjigim, 
 U an I'ntiruly diiTfrent woni, and moanH tlx: 
 great, the iniperial Scliah or Sovereign. In the 
 time of Mahomet II. the Ottoman Kmpire con- 
 tained in Kuro|ie alone tli!rty-si.\ Sanjaks, or 
 banners, around eaeli of which asHcnihled about 
 4()0 cavaliers." — Sir E. S. Creasy, llUt. of the 
 Ottoman Turkit, rli. 0. 
 BEYLAN, Battle of (183 .). Sco Tuhkb: 
 
 A. 1). lH;il-IH40. 
 
 BEYROUT, Origin of. Sec Hekytub. 
 
 BEZANT, The. — The bezant was a Byzan- 
 tine gold coin (whence its name), worth a little 
 less than.ten English shillings — 1.2.50. 
 
 BEZIERES, The Massacre at. See Ai.bi- 
 OENSKs: A. I). 1200. 
 
 BHARADhRS. See India: A. I). 1805-1810. 
 
 BHONSLA RAJA, The. See India: A. I). 
 17i»8- 18(15. 
 
 BHURTPORE, Siege of (1805). See India: 
 A. I). 1798-1805. 
 
 BIANCHI AND NERI (The Whites and 
 Blacks). See Flokknck; A. 1). 1295-WOO, and 
 1301-iai3. 
 
 BIANCHI, or White Penitents. See Wiiitk 
 Penitknts. 
 
 BIBERACH, Battles of (1796 and 1800). 
 Sec FuANCi:; A. 1>. 1700 (Apiiii.— Uctoiieu) ; and 
 A. I). 1800-1801 (May— Peukuaky). 
 
 BIBRACTE. Sec Gauls. 
 
 BIBROCI, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons 
 who dwelt near the Thames. It is suspected, 
 but not known, that they gave their name to 
 Berks County. 
 
 BICAMERAL SYSTEM, The.— This term 
 was applied by .leremy Bentham to the division 
 of a legislative body into two chambers — such 
 us the Hou.se of Lords and House of Commons in 
 England, and the Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives in the United States of America. 
 
 BICOQUE OR BICOCCA, La, Battle of 
 (1522). SeeFuANCE: A. D. 1520-1523. 
 
 BIG BETHEL, Battle of. See United 
 States OF Am. : A. D. 1801 (.Iune: Viuoinia). 
 
 BIG BLACK, Battle of the. See United 
 States ov A.m.: A. D. 1803 (Aprii,— JnLV: On 
 the Mississippi). 
 
 BIGERRIONES, The. See AQurrAiuE, 
 The Ancient Tuuies. 
 
 BIGI, OR GREYS, The.— One of the three 
 factions which divided Florence in the time of 
 Savonarola, and after. The Bigi, or Greys, 
 were the partisans of the Medici ; their opponents 
 ■were the Piagnoui, or Weepers, and the Arra- 
 biati, or Madmen. See Floiience: A. D. 1490- 
 1498. 
 
 BIl T^ OF RIGHTS. See England: A. I). 
 1089 (Octoiieu). 
 
 BILLAUD-VARENNES and the French 
 Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety. 
 See Fuance: A. I). 1793 (.June- Octobeu), 
 (Septembek— Decembeu), to 1794-1795 (July— 
 Apuil). I 
 
 BILOXIS,The. See Ameuican ABonioiNEs: 
 SiouAN Family. 
 
 BIMINI, The island of. See America: 
 A. D. 1512. 
 
 BIRAPARACH, Fortress of. See Junoi- 
 
 PACH. 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 BIRGER, King of Sweden, A. I). 1200- 
 
 1319 Birger, or Berger Jarl, Regent of 
 
 Sweden, A. 1). 1250-1200. 
 
 BISHOPS' WAR, The First and Second. 
 See Scotland: A. 1). 1038-1040; and Eno LAND; 
 A. I). 1040. 
 
 BISMARCK'S MINISTRY. See Ger- 
 many: A. I). 1801-lHOO, to 1888; and FRANCE: 
 
 A. I). 1870 (.June— July); 1870-1871; and 1871 
 (.Ianuauv — May). 
 
 BISSEXTILE YEAR. See Calendar. 
 
 BITHYNIANS, THYNIANS.-" Along the 
 
 coast of the Euxinc, from the Thnician Hosphorus 
 eastward to the river llalys, dwelt Bithynians or 
 Thynians, Mariandynians and Papldagonians, — 
 all recognized branches of the widely extended 
 Thracian race. The Hithynians especially, in 
 the northwestern portion of this territory, ami 
 nNU'hing from tlie Eu.xine to tlx^ I'ropontis, are 
 often spoken of as Asiatic 'rhraciaiis,— while on 
 the other hand various tribes among tlu^ Thru- 
 cians of Europe are denominated Thyni or 
 Thynians, — so little difference was there in tlie 
 population on the two sides of the Bosphorus, 
 alike brave, predatory, and sanguinary. The 
 Hithynians ot Asia are also sometimes called 
 Hebrykians, under which denomination they ex- 
 tend as far southward as the gulf of Kios in the 
 Propontis." — G. Orote, Hint, of (irrerc, pt. 2, cli. 
 10. — The Hithynians were among the people in 
 Asia Minor subjugated by Cro'sus, kingof Lydia, 
 and fell, with his fall, under the Persian rule. 
 Hut, in s(mie way not clearly understood, an in- 
 dependent kingdom of Hitliynia was formed, 
 about the middle of the 5th century H. C. which 
 resisted th(! Persians, successfully resisted Alex- 
 ander the Great and his successors in Asia Minor, 
 resisted Mithridates of Pontus, and existed until 
 
 B. C. 74, when its last king Nimmedes III. 
 beciueathed his kingdom to Home and it was 
 made a l{oman itrovi::"". 
 
 BITONTO, Battle of (1734). See France: 
 A. 1). 1733-1735. 
 
 BITURIGES, The. See ^dui; also 
 Bouuges, Ouioin ok. 
 
 BIZOCHI, The. See Beguines, etc. 
 
 BIZYE. See Thracians. 
 
 BLACK ACTS, The. See Scotland: A. D. 
 1584. 
 
 BLACK DEATH, The.— "The Black Death 
 api)ears to have had its origin in the centre of 
 China, in or about the year 1333. It is said that 
 it was accompanied at its outbreak by various 
 terrestrial and atmosplierie pha-nomena of a 
 novel and most destructive character, pha;- 
 noniena similar to those wliich characterized the 
 tirst appearance of the Asiatic Cholera, of the 
 Intluenza, and even in more remote times of the 
 Athenian Plague. It is a singular fact that all 
 epidemics ot an unusually destructive character 
 have had their homes in the farthest East, and 
 have travelled slo\vly from those regions towards 
 Eurupe. It appears, too, that the disease ex- 
 hausted its<'lt iu the place of its origin at about 
 the same time in which it made its appearance 
 in Europe. . . . The disease still exists under 
 the name of the Levant or Oriental Plagiie. and 
 is endemic in Asia Minor, in parts of Turkey, 
 and in Egypt. It is specitically a disease in 
 which the "blood is poisoned, in which the system 
 seeks to relieve itself by suppuration of the 
 glands, and in which, the tissues becoming dis- 
 
 83 
 
HLACK DEATH. 
 
 BLOCKADE. 
 
 or(?iuii/''<l, mi'l tho l)l(xxl tlicrfiipon Ix'liii? In- 
 tlllratcil iiitii llii'iii. <liirk lilotrlicM iippcar i>n tho 
 xkiii. Ilciicit the I'urlivHt iiikiiii- liy wliicli tin; 
 l'liiK«<' "UH (IcHcrilMMl. TIk^ Htorm l)urKt on tlic 
 IhIum(I i>f CypriiH iit tlui cnil of the yciir 1;147, 
 iind WHS iiccoinpiinird. we iiri> told, liy remark' 
 hIiIc physical plni'iionicnu, an coiivulHions of tliu 
 ciirlli, and a total ('liatii(o In tho atniosphcrc. 
 Many ixthoiis alTi'ilcd died instantly. Tlie Black 
 Death si'eined, not otdy to the frightened ini- 
 iiKix'ttion of thi^ people, hut even to the more 
 Hoher oliservation of the few men of science of 
 the litne, to move forward with measuied steps 
 from the desolated East, under the form of a 
 dark and fetid mist. It Is very likely that con- 
 «'i|iient upon tho great physical convulsions 
 which had renf tho eartli and preceded the dis- 
 <'a.se, foreiijn substances of a deleterious chara(-ter 
 had been proji'Cted into tlie almoHphere. . . . 
 The Black Death appeared at Avignon in Jan- 
 uary i;;»H, vislt<'d Florence by tlii! middle of 
 April, and had thorouj;hly penetrated Franco 
 and (ienuany by Auj;ust. It entered I'oland in 
 l;)41t, reacheil Sweden in the winter of that year, 
 and Norway by infection from Enj^land at about 
 tho H«mc time. It spread even to Iceland and 
 Oruenlaiul. ... It made its appearance in Uu.s- 
 sla in i;!.')l, after it liad well-nijfh exhausted itself 
 in Europe. It tlius lo<ik the circuit of tho Medi- 
 terranean, and unlike most plagues which have 
 penetrated from tho Eastern to tho Westoni 
 world, was chocked, it would seem, by the 
 barrier of th(! Caucasus. . . . Ilccker calculates 
 the loss to Europe as amounting to 2.'),(KK),000. " 
 —J. E. T. Rogers, JIiKt. of Ayricultiire ami 
 PriciK, r. 1, ell. 1.5. 
 
 Al-w) in: J. F. C. Ilockcr, KtndemicH of the 
 Middle Agfs. — See. also, Enoi.anu: A. I). 1348- 
 1340; Fkanck: A. I). 1347-1348; Flohence: 
 A. I). 1348; .Ikws: A. D. 1348-1349. 
 
 BLACK EAGLE, Order of the.— A Prus- 
 sian order of kiiightliowl inslitutod by Frederick 
 III., elector of Brandenburg, in 1701. 
 
 BLACK FLAGS, The. SooFiiance: A. D. 
 187.5-1889. 
 
 BLACK FRIARS. See Mendicant Oiideiis. 
 
 BLACK GUELFS^NERI). SooFlouenck: 
 A. I). I'Ji).-)- 131)0, and 1301-1313. 
 
 BLACK HAWK WAR, The. See Illi- 
 nois: A. I). 1832. 
 
 BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, The. 
 Sco India: A. D. 17.")5- 17.57. 
 
 BLACK PRINCE, The wars of the. Seo 
 PoiTiEiis; FiiANci:: A. D. 1300-1380; and Spain 
 (Castile): A, D. 130G-1309. 
 
 BLACK ROBE, Counsellors of the. See 
 Venice: A. I). 1033-1319. 
 
 BLACK ROD.— "The gentleman whoso duty 
 it is to ])reservo decorum in tho IIuusc of 
 Lords, just as it is the duty of the Sergeaut-at- 
 Arms to maintain order in tho IIouso of Ccmi- 
 mons. These olllcials are bound to execute the 
 commands of their respective chambers, even 
 though the task involves th(f forcible ejection of 
 an ob.streperous mcniber. . . . His [Black Uod'sJ 
 most disturbing occupation, now-a-days, is when 
 ho conveys a message from the Lords to tho 
 Commons. . . . No sooner do the policemen 
 l>crald his approach from the lobbies than tho 
 doors of the Lower Chamber are closed against 
 him, and he is compelled to ask for admission 
 with becoming humility and humbleness. After 
 this has been granted, he advances to the bar, 
 
 bows to tho clmlr, nnd then — with ri-pented nets 
 of olM'iKaiii'e — walks slowly to the table, wlieni 
 his re<|Uest is madi; for the Speaker's attendance 
 in the t'pper House. The object may b<' to lUteu 
 to the (Queen's speech, or it may simply bo to 
 hear tho Itoyal itssent given to various bills. . . . 
 The conMe(iuence is nearly always the snmo. 
 The Sergeant-at-Arins shoulders the mace, tho 
 Speaker Joins Black KckI, the members fall in 
 behind, and a more or h'.ss orderly procession then 
 .starts on its way to the Peer's (Jnimber. . . . 
 No matter what the subject under cimsideratlon. 
 Black Hod's appeanuice necessitates a check . . . 
 till the journey to tho Lords has iM'CiX'ompleted, 
 The annoyance thus caus<'d has often fouial e.x- 
 l)ression during recent sessions. So great was 
 the grumbling last year [1890], indeed, that thu 
 Speaker undertook to devlsc! a belter system." — 
 liijniliir .Uc't of I'liiliiiiiuiitiin/ Procedure, p. 11. 
 
 BLACK RbOD, of Scotland. Seo lloi.v 
 UooD OK .Scotland. 
 
 BLACKBURN'S FORD, Engagement at. 
 See United St.vtes ok Am.: A. I). 1801 (.Iuly: 
 
 V'lll(lINIA). 
 
 BLACKFEET. Seo A.meuican Aborioines: 
 
 Bl.AlKKEKr. 
 
 BLADENSBURG, Battle of. Sec United 
 
 States OK A.M. : A. 1). 1814 (Auoust— Septe.m- 
 
 IIEIt). 
 
 BLAIR, Francis P., Sr., in the "Kitchen 
 Cabinet" of President Jackson. Seo United 
 States OK Am.: A. I). 18-.29. 
 
 BLAIR, General FrancisP., Jr.— Difficulties 
 with General Fremont. Seo United States 
 OF" A.M. : A. D. 18(il (Auoust— Octobeu: Mis- 
 
 SOUlll). 
 
 BLANCHE, Queen of Aragon, A. D. 142.5- 
 1441. 
 
 BLANCO, General Guzman, The dictator- 
 ship of. See Venezuela: A. D. 1809-1802. 
 
 BLAND SILVER BILL, The. See United 
 States ok Am. : A. D. 1878. 
 
 BLANII, The. See Iheland, Tiiibes op 
 EAiiLY Celtic Inhabitants. 
 
 BLANKETEERS, The. Seo England: 
 A. I). 1810-1820. 
 
 BLENEAU, Battle of (1653). See Fbanck: 
 A. 1). 10.51-10.53. 
 
 BLENHEIM, Battle of. Sec Germany: 
 A. 1). 1704. 
 
 BLENNERHASSET, Harman, and Aaron 
 Burr. See United States OK A.M. : A. D. 1800- 
 1807. 
 
 BLENNERHASSETT'S ISLAND.— An 
 island in tho Ohio, near Marietta, on which Har- 
 man Blennerlmssctt, a gentleman from Ireland, 
 had created a charming home, at the begimiing 
 of tho present century. He was drawn into 
 Aaron Burr's mysterious scheme (seo United 
 St.vtes ok Am. : A. D. 1800-1807); his island bo- 
 came tho rendezvous of the expedition, and ho 
 was involvoii iu the ruin of the treasonable pro- 
 ject. 
 
 BLOCK BOOKS. See Printing: A. D. 
 1430-1450. 
 
 BLOCK ISLAND, The name. See New- 
 York: A. D. 1010-1614. 
 
 BLOCKADE, Paper.— This term has been 
 applied to the assumption by a belligerent power, 
 in war, of the right to declare a given coast or 
 certain enumerated ports, to be in the state of 
 blockade, without actual presence of blockading 
 squadrons to enfore the declaration; us by tho 
 
 284 
 
BLOCKADi:. 
 
 B(KOTIA. 
 
 Ilritlsli "Onlcnt in roiinrll," mid the " llcrlln " 
 mill " Miliiii DciriTs" of NhpoIimmi, in IMIMI-IHOT. 
 Hcc CmtkdHivtkhok Am. ; A. 1). 1H01-I«im. 
 
 BLOIS, Treaties of. 8co Italt: A. D. 1804- 
 15(M1. 
 
 BLOOD COUNCIL, The. Sto Netiikh- 
 I.AMw: A. I). I. Mir. 
 
 BLOOD, or Kenai Indians. Sim^ Aimkuican 
 Aiu>uiiiim:s: I(i.A( Ki'i:i;r. 
 
 BLOODY ANGLE, The. S.r Initki) 
 Staii'.mdk .\m. : A. I». IH(lt (.May: Viii(iiM.\). 
 
 BLOODY ASSIZE, The. Sec Kn.ii.anh: 
 
 A. I). l(IH."l (Sr.PTKMIlKn). 
 
 BLOODY BRIDGE, Ambuscade at (A. D. 
 
 I763I. Sic I'nN'IIAc's \V\U. 
 
 BLOODY BROOK, Battle of. Sou Nkw 
 En(ii.aM): a. I). !•!;.■>. 
 
 BLOODY MARSH, The Battle of the. 
 StM'dKimuiA: A. 1). 17;tH-174;t. 
 
 BLOREHEATH, Battle of (A. D. 1459). 
 — FouKlit on a pliiiii cuIUmI Hlorcliciitli, iiciir 
 Dniyloii, in HUilTordsliirc, En),'liWi(l, Sept. 'S,i. 
 14r)(), iM'iwi'cii 10,000 Liinciistrians, coniniiindiMl 
 bv Lord Auillcy, luid about half that niiniber of 
 \orkists under tlie Earl of Halisbury. The lat- 
 ter won a victory by superior strategy. The 
 battle was the Hocond that oeeurred in the Wars 
 of the Uo.ses. See Enoi.and: A. I). liS.'i-UTl. 
 
 BLOCKER'S CAMPAIGNS. .See Oku- 
 MANv: A. D. 1H0« (OcToiiKH); 1813-1813; 1813 
 <AiMiii. — May) to ^Octohkh — I)kce.\ihku); 
 FiiANCE: A. D. 1814 Manuauv— .Mahch), and 
 181.5. 
 
 BLUE, Boys in. Bee Boys in Bi.uk. 
 
 BLUE LICKS, Battle of (A. D. 1782). 
 See Kkntucky: A. D. 17~r.-178t. 
 
 BLUE-LIGHT FEDERALISTS. — " An 
 ineident, real or inuiKinary, which had lately [in 
 1813] occurred at New Loudon [(JonnecticutJ 
 was seized upon as additional proof of collusion 
 between the Fedemlists and the enemy. [See 
 Unitki) Status ov Am.: A. I). ISIS.]" As the 
 winter approached, Decatur had expected to cet 
 to sea with his two frigates. V'e.xcd to find him- 
 self thwarted in every attempt by the watchful- 
 ness of the enemy, he wrote to the Navy 
 Deimrtment in a tit of disgust, that, beyond ail 
 •doubt, the British had, by signals or otherwise, 
 instantaneous information of till his movements; 
 and as i)roof of it, he stated that, after several 
 niglits of favorable weather, the report circulat- 
 ing in the town that an attempt was to be made 
 to get out, ' in the course of the evening two 
 blue lights were burned on both points of the 
 harbor's mouth.' These 'signals to the enemy,' 
 for such he unhesitatingly pronounced them, had 
 been repeated, so he wrote, and had been seen 
 by twenty persons at least of the K(jua<lron, 
 though it does not appear that Decatur him.self 
 was one of the number. . . . Such a clamor was 
 raised about it, that one of the Connecticut 
 members of Congress moved for a committee 
 of investigatiou. . . . The inquiry was . . . 
 quashed; but the story spread and grew, and 
 the more vehement opponents of the war began 
 to be stigmatized as 'blue-light Federalists.' — 
 K. Ilildreth, Jlist. nfthe. U. S., r. 0, ;). 407. 
 
 BLUE PARTY (of Venezuela), The. See 
 Ve.ne7.uela: a. D. 1839-188U. 
 
 BLUE RIBBON, The Order of the. See 
 
 SBHAPIIt.M. 
 
 BLUES, Roman Faction of the. Sec Ciil- 
 cus, Factions of the Ko.m.vn. 
 
 BOABDIL, The last Moorish King in 
 
 Spain. SeeSl'AIN: \. U. l(7flllir,'. 
 
 BOADICE A, Revolt of. See Biutain : A. O. 
 01. 
 
 bOAIRE, The.— A "Cow-lord," hiiving 
 
 certain wiidlli iniatllr. among the- ancient Irish. 
 
 BOARIAN TRIBUTE, The.— Also caUed 
 the Boriiwa, or Cow tribute. .\u hujiiiliating 
 exaction said to have been levied on tlio 
 province if LciiiHlir by a King Tuathal of ICrlii, 
 in the second cenlnrv, and wliich was maiii- 
 laine(l for live hnndrcil years. 
 
 BOCAGE. The. Sec Fkance: A. I). 1708 
 (.Mahcii .Vi'iiii.). 
 
 BOCASOTI, The. See Hkoiines, &c. 
 
 BOCLAND.— BOOKLAND. See Al.oi). 
 
 BCEOTARCHS. S.c Hdc. tian I.kaoik. 
 
 BCEOTIA. — BCEOTIANS. — ■lielween 
 Pholiis iinil I.dkris on line side, and .Vtliia (from 
 which it is divided by the mountains KitliaToii 
 and Panics) on Iheoliier, we llnd the important 
 territory called Bceotia, with its ten or twelve 
 autononioiiy ''Ities, forming a sort of confederacy 
 under the presidency of Tliebes, tlu! most power- 
 ful among them. Even of this territory, 
 destined dining tln^ second peri(Hl of this hi.story 
 to play a purt so conspicuous and elTective, wo 
 know nothing during tiie first two centuries after 
 770 B. C. We first aciiuire some insight into it 
 on occasion of the disputes between Thebes 
 and Platica, alKJUt the year H'H) B. C. "— O. Orote, 
 Jfitt. of Ureeee, pt. 3, eh. 3. — In the Greek 
 legcnihiry period one part of this territory, siib- 
 sciiiiently Bteotian — the Copaic valley in the 
 north — was occupied by the enterprising people 
 called the Minyi, whose chief city wiis Orclio- 
 menus. Their neighbors were the Cadmeians o£ 
 Tliebes, who are "rich," as Orotc expresses it, 
 "in legendary antiiiiiities." The reputed 
 founder of Thclies was Cadmus, bringerof letters 
 to Hellas, from PlKcnicia or from Egypt, accord- 
 ing to different rei)resontations. Dionysus 
 (Bacchus) and IWraklOs were both supposed to 
 recognize the Cadmeian city as their birth-place. 
 The terrible legends of (Edipiis and his un- 
 happy family connc'ct them.selves with the same 
 place, and the incident wars between Thebes 
 and Argos — the assaults of the seven Argivo 
 chiefs and of their sons, the Epigoni — were, 
 perhaps, real causes of a real destruction of the 
 power of some race for whom the Cadmeians 
 stand. They and their neighbors, the Minyi of 
 Orchomenus, appear to have given way before 
 another i)eople, from Thessaly, who gave the 
 name Bd'otia to the country of both and who 
 were the inhabitants of the Thebes of historic 
 times.— O. Grote, IUkI. "f On-ect; j>t. 1, eh. 14.— 
 E. Curtiiis, Hint, of (h r, bk. 1, ch. 4.— "That 
 the Ba'olia of history should never have attained 
 to a signirtcancc corresponding to the natural 
 advantages of the locality, and to the prosperity 
 of the district in the prc-Homeric age, is due 
 above all to one principal cause. The imniigra- 
 tioa of the Tlijssiilian 15(coti.ins, from which the 
 country derived its name and the licginnings of 
 its connected history, destroyed the earlier 
 civiliz^ition of the land, without succeeding in 
 establishing a new civiiization capable of eon- 
 ducting the entire district to a prosperous and 
 harmonious development. It cannot be said that 
 the ancient germs of culture were suijpressed, or 
 that barbarous times supervened. The ancient 
 scats of the gods aud orucles continued to be 
 
 285 
 
U(K()TIA. 
 
 HOIIKMIA, laSS. 
 
 koiuiiircil itiiil tliii Hnrii-iil fciitlvalu of tlio Muhch 
 on Miiiint lli'licon, mid of llic Cliiirllrx iil 
 Orc'liiiiiiciiiiM, til III' rcUiliriitcil. In liifntiii tiHi 
 till- liciK'lli'i'iit Intliit'nciMif Di'liilil wiiH lit Viirk. 
 unil the piH'llr hcIiikiI iif IIchIihI, ciinnccti'il an it 
 'WiiM with Di'lplii, liiiiK iiiiiiiitairKHl itwlf lirrr. 
 Anil II yet Mtroi:;trr incliniition wiih iliH|iliiyi'(l by 
 till! /Koliaii iiniiiiKrants lowarilx niiniir uiiil Ivric 
 piK'try. Tlieciiltlvatliinof tlii' niUHiiMir tlii' t)iitr 
 waH i'ncimra(?i'<l l>y Hii^ cxccUuut n'odn of tlir 
 Copiiii: nioriiHHC'H. TIiIh was tliu gvnitinoly 
 national HprrirH of mimic In Ha-otia. . . . Anil 
 yi't till! Ito'otianH liicltiMl tlic capacity for attract- 
 UifC to tlicnisclvcH the earlier elementH of popula- 
 tion in Hui'li a way iim to liring alioiit a iiiippy 
 nnial)(aniation. . . . The Hieut Ian loniM were not 
 much jireferable to the ThcHsnIlan; nor was 
 tiicre any region far or near, inhabiteil by Greek 
 tribes, which presented u harsher contrast in 
 'Millure or manners, than the district where the 
 road led from tho Attic side of Mount I'arnes 
 t cross to the Birotlan." — E. Curtlus, Jliit. of 
 Viwi; bk. 6, ch. 1.— See, also, Qiikkck: Tiik 
 
 JlldUATIONS. 
 
 BCEOTIAN LEAGUE.— "The old Itootian 
 Lriiifiie, as far as its outward forms went, seems 
 to Imvc been fairly entitled to the name of a 
 Federal Government, but In its whole history we 
 tnico little more than tho gradual advance of 
 Th ibes to a practical supremacy over the other 
 clti's. . . . The common covernmcnt was carried 
 on iti the name of tho whole Uieotian nation. Its 
 most important magistrates bore the tilU; of Boco- 
 tarc.'is; their exact number, whether eleven or 
 thirteen, is a disputed pointof Greek archieology, 
 or I'ther, of Uieotian geography. . . . Thebes 
 chose two BiBotarchs and each of the other cities 
 one."— E. A. Freeman, Ilitt. of Federal Govt., eh. 
 4, leet. 2. 
 
 BOERS, Boer War. See SouTii Africa: 
 A. I). 18(M1-1HH1. 
 
 BOIjDANIA. Sec lUi,KAX AND Danubian 
 St.^tei, Uxir-triTH Cf,nti;hies(Uou.mania, etc.) 
 
 BOOESUND, Batile of (1520). Sec .Scan- 
 dinavian States: A. 1). 1307-1537. 
 
 BOGOMILIANS, The.— A religious sect 
 which arose among the Sclavonians of Thrace 
 and Bulgaria, in the eleventli century, and 
 suffered persecution from tho orthodox of the 
 Greek church. They symDathized with the 
 Iconoclasis of former times, were hostile to the 
 adoratiOE of the Virgin and saints, ami took 
 more or 1 !8S from the heretical doctrines of the 
 Pauliciaii! . Their name is derived by some from 
 the two !''clavoniun words, "Bog," signifying 
 God, and ''milui," "have mercy." Others say 
 that " Bo 'imil,"meuniug "one beloved by God," 
 was the cuiiect designation. Basilios, the leader 
 of the Bogomilians, was burned by the Emperor 
 Alexius Comnenos, in the hippixirome, at Con- 
 stantinople, A. D. 1118. — G. Finliiy, Hiitt. of the 
 Byzantine and Qrcek Eiipires, 710-1453, bk. 3, 
 di. 2, seH. 1. — Sec Ba/.kan and Danuuian 
 States: i)Tii-l(iTii Centi'uies (Bosnia, etc.) 
 
 BOGOTA, The founding of the city (1538). 
 See Coi.oMiiiAN States: i\. I>. 1536-1731. 
 
 BOHEMIA, Derivation of the name. Sec 
 Boianh. 
 
 Its people and their early history. — " 'What- 
 ever may be the inferences from the fact of 
 Bohemia having been politically connected with 
 the empire of the Germanic Marcomunni, 
 whatever may be those from the element Boio-, 
 
 IIS ronncrtlng Uk population with the Boli of 
 Gaul mill Bavaria (Bulovi.rii), tho doctrine that 
 the present SlavonI'; population of that king 
 dniii — Tshekhs |or C/.ekliH| as they call Ihem- 
 Ki'lves — Is eitliir recent in origin or Keeondary to 
 liny German or Keltic aborigiiie.H, is wholly 
 unsupported by history. In ollnr words, at the 
 beginning of tlii^ lilstorical periinl Bohemia was 
 as Slavonic as it is now. From A. I). WH\ to 
 A. I). 550, Bohemia belonged to the great Thiir- 
 ingian Empire. The notion that it was then 
 Germanic (except In its political relations) Is 
 gratuitous. Xeverthelcss, SchaiTiirik's account 
 is, that tho ancestors of the present Tshekhs 
 came, probably, from White Croatia: which 
 was eitlier north of the Carpathians, or each side 
 of them. According to other writers, how<!Vcr, 
 the parts above the river Kulpa In Croatia sent 
 tliet:i forth. In Bohemian the verb 'ceti'='to 
 begin,' from which Dobrowsky derives the name 
 Czekhs = the beginners, tlie foremost, i. e., the 
 first Slavonians who passed westwards. The 
 powerful Saino, the Just Krok, and his daughter, 
 the wise liibussu, the founder of Prague, begin 
 the uncertain list of Bohemian kings, A. I). 024- 
 700. About A. I). 723, a number of netty chiefB 
 become united under F'remysl the husband of 
 LIbusstt. Under his son Nezumysl occurs the first 
 Constitutional Assembly at Wysegrad ; and In 
 A. I). 845, Christianity was introduced. But it 
 took no sure footing till about A. I). 006. Till 
 A. I). 1471 tho names of the Bohemian kings 
 and heroes are Tshckh — Wenccslaus, Ottokar, 
 Ziska, Potliebrad. In A. I). 1504, tlic Austrian 
 connexion atd tlio process of Germanizing began. 
 . . . The history and ethnology of Moravia is 
 nearly that of Bohemia, except tliat the Mar- 
 comanuic Germans, the Turks, Iluns, Avars, 
 and other less important populations may have 
 effected a greater amount of intermixture. 
 Both poiiulations are Tshekli, speaking the 
 Tshckh language — the language, probably, of 
 the ancient (Juudi." — H. G. LiUlham, Ethnology 
 of Europe, eh. 11. 
 
 7th Century.— The Yoke of the Avars 
 broken.— The Kingdom of Samo. See Avars: 
 7tii Century. 
 
 oth Century.— Subject to the Moravian 
 Kingdom of Svatopluk. See Moravia: 9th 
 Century. 
 
 13th Century.— The King made a Germanic 
 Elector. See Germany: A. I). 1135-11.52. 
 
 A. D. 1276. — War of King Ottocar with 
 the Emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg. — His de- 
 feat and death. See Austria: A. D. 1240- 
 1382. 
 
 A. D. 1310. — Acquisition of the crown by 
 John of Luxembourg. See Germany: A. D. 
 1308-1313. 
 
 A. D. 1347.— Charles IV. elected to the im- 
 perial throne. See Germany: A. D. 1347- 
 1493. 
 
 A. D. 1355. — The succession fixed in the 
 Luxemburg dynasty. — Incorporation of Mo- 
 ravia, Silesia, &c. — The diet of the nobles, in 
 1355, joined Charles IV. in "fixing the ortler of 
 succession in the dynasty of Luxemburg, and in 
 definitely establLsliing that principle of primo- 
 geniture which had already been the custom in 
 the Premyslide dynasty. Moravia, Silesia, 
 Upper Lusatia, Brandenburg, which had been 
 acquired from the margrave Otto, and the 
 county of Glatz (Kladsko), with the consent of 
 
 286 
 
nouEMiA, laso. 
 
 John ffiM. 
 
 HOilKMIA, t40ft-141S. 
 
 the iltctR nf thcM proviiitTK, wctc <lcclari'd In- 
 ti'^rnil iiiul Inalienable portiDim of tli« kitiK<l<)iii 
 iif Miilii'iiilii." — L. IjegcT, lliit. of Auttru-llun- 
 gttiii, i-li. 11. 
 
 A. D. 1364,— Reyeriton of the crown g^uar- 
 anteed to the Home of Austria. Hce Ai'h- 
 TKiv: A, l>, i:i;io-i;m». 
 
 A. D. 1378-1400.— Imperial election and 
 deposition of Wenceilaut. Svi; Okumany: 
 A. I). 1!M7-I41»:i. 
 
 A. D. 140^141$. — John Hut, and the 
 movement of ReligiouaKefoimation. — " Honiu 
 ■jiiirkK (pf llio lire Wiich Wlflif hml llfjliti'cl [nco 
 Enui.ani); a. I). lll(i«-14141, blown ovi r liillf 
 Europe, iiM fitr UH rcmoti! Hohi'inia, (iiiickciii'il into 
 atriMiKiT activity 11 tluniu wliicU for lonK yourit 
 biirni'ii unil scorclicil iinil <M)nHiiin<'(t, dofyiii); nil 
 elTortH to cxtinKuiHli it. Hut for itll tlilx, it wiui 
 not Wirlif who kiniilcd tlii' Uolicniiiin tires. 
 IIIr writiiig did much to fan and feed tlicm; 
 while the aHsuniud and in pari erroneously 
 aasuincd, identity of hiit teaching with that of 
 Hu8 contributed not a little to Hliape the tragic 
 iMues of the Uolieniiun refonner'8 life. Hut the 
 Boheniiau muvemeut wait an indepent'.ent uud 
 eminently a uutionnl one. If wo l(M)k for the 
 proper foreruunerg of IIus, hia true spiritual 
 ancestor!), we shall tlnd them in his own laud, In 
 a succcssiim of earnest and faithful preachers. 
 . . . John IIus (b. 1!)80, d. 1415), tlie central 
 figure of the Uoheniian lieforniation, took In 
 the year 1394 his degree us Bachelor of Theo- 
 logy in that University of Prague, upon the 
 fortune.s of which he was destined to exercise so 
 lasting un Influence ; and four years later, In 
 1098, he begun to deliver lectures there. . . . 
 He soon signalized himself by his diligence in 
 breaking the bread of life to hungering sotds, and 
 his boldness In rebuking vice in high places as In 
 low. 80 long as ho conllned himself to reproving 
 the sins of the laity, leaving those of the (Hergy 
 and monks unassuiled, he found little opposition, 
 nay, rather support and applause from these. 
 Biit when [1405] ho brought them also 'within the 
 circle of his condemnation, and begun to u])braid 
 them for their covetousness, their ambition, their 
 luxury, tlieir sloth, and for other vices, they 
 turned angrily upon him, and sought to under- 
 mine his authority, every wliere spreading reports 
 of the unsoundness of his teaching. . . . While 
 matters were in this strained condition, events 
 took place at Prague which are too closely con- 
 nected with the story that wo are telling, exer- 
 cised too great uu Intluenco in liringing al)out 
 the issues that Ho before us, to allow us to pass 
 them by. . . . The University of Prague, 
 though recently founded — it only duteil back to 
 the year lil48 — was now, next after those of 
 Paris and Oxford, the most illustrious in Europe. 
 . . . This University, like tliat of Paris, on the 
 pattern of which it Inid been modelled, was 
 divided into four ' nations ' — four groups, that is, 
 or families of scholars — each of these having in 
 academical affairs a single collective vote. 
 These nations were the Bavarian, the Suxon, the 
 Polish, and tlie Bohemian. This does not appear 
 at first an unfair division — two Gorman and 
 two Slavonic ; but in practical working the Polish 
 was so largely recruited rom Silesia, and other 
 German or half-German Ian<ls, that its vote was 
 in fact German also. The Teutonic votes were 
 thus as three to one, and the Bohemians in their 
 own land and their own University on every 
 
 Important matti-r hoiwlewtly outvoted. When, 
 by aid of thix preponilerance, th(! Unlver»ltv wan 
 motin to conilenui the teaching of Wicllf . , . 
 mutttTH came to a criitlH. Urged by IIus, who 
 as a stout patriot, and an earnest lover of the 
 llohemljin language and lileralure, had more than 
 a Iheologieal in'.erest in the nmlt<'r, — by .IiTciino 
 (of Praguel,--by u large number of the llohe- 
 mian nobility, — King Wen/.el pubiiHlird an 
 edict whereby the relations of natives and 
 foreigners were completely revers<>d. There 
 should 1m! henceforth three votes for the Hohc- 
 mian nation, and only one for the three others. 
 •Such a shifting of the weights certainly a|)pearg 
 as a re<lressing of one iue(|iuility by creating 
 unotlier. At all events It was so earnestly reNenteu 
 by tliu Germans, by professors uiki student* 
 alike, that they <]uitted the University li; a iKMiy, 
 sfjinesuvof five, -Mid some of thirty thousand, and 
 founded the rival University of Leipsic, leaving 
 no more than two thousanci students at Prague. 
 Full of indignation against IIus, whom tliey 
 regarded as the prim(! autlior of this ulTrimt and 
 wrong, they spread tliroughout all Germany the 
 most unfavourable reportsof him and of his teach- 
 ing. ThisextHlus of the foreigners hud left IIus, 
 who was now Hector of the University, with a 
 freer field than before. But Church nuitters at 
 Prague did not mend; they became more con- 
 fused and threatening every day ; intil presently 
 tho shamef id outrage against all Chri.stian morality 
 which a century later did a still more elTectual 
 work, served to put IIus into open opposition to 
 the corrupt hierarchy of his time. Pone John 
 XXIII., having a quarrel with the King of 
 Naples, proclaimed a crusiide against Jdm, with 
 what had become a constant acconipaidment of 
 this, — Indidgences to matcli. But to denounce 
 Indulgences, as IIus with fierce and righteous 
 indignation did now, was to wound Home in her 
 most sensitive part, lie was excommunicated at 
 once, and every place which should harbour him 
 stricken with an Interdict. While matters wore 
 In this frame the Council of Consttiuce [see 
 Papacy: A. D. 1414-1418] was opened, which 
 should appease all the troubles of Ciiristendom, 
 and correct whatever was nndss. The Bohcndan 
 difiictdty could not be omitted, and IIus was 
 siuiimonc<l to make answer at Constance for 
 himself. He had not been tliero four weeks 
 when be was required to appear before the Pope 
 and Cardinals (Nov. 18, 1414). After a Itrief infor- 
 mal hearing bo was committed to harsh durance 
 from wlndi ho never issued as a free man again. 
 Sigismund, the German King and Emporor 
 Elect, who had furiushed IIus with a safe-con- 
 duct which should protect him, ' going to the 
 Council, tjirrying at the Council, returning from 
 the Council,' was absent from Constjince at the 
 time, and lioard with real displeasure how lightly 
 reganlod this promise and pledge of his liad 
 been. Some big words too he spoke, threatening 
 to come himself and release tho prisoner by 
 force; but, being waited on by a deputation 
 from the Council, who represented to liim that 
 he, as a layman, In giving such a sjifc-conducl 
 had exceeded his powers, and intrudeil into a 
 region which was not his, Sigismund was ccn- 
 vincod, or affected to bo convinced. . . . More 
 than -ii'ven months elapsed before Hus could 
 obtidn <\ hearing before tlie Council. This was 
 granted to him at last. Thrice heard (June 5, 7, 
 8, 1416),— if indeed such tumultuary sittings, 
 
 28' 
 
BOHEMIA, 1405-1415. 
 
 Victnriet of the 
 llusaiies. 
 
 BOHEMIA. 1419-1434. 
 
 where the man siiciiking for liis life, and for 
 inueli more than his life, was continually inter- 
 rupted and overborne by hostile voices, by loud 
 cries of ' Itecant,' ' Hecant,' may be reckoned as 
 hearings at all, — lie bore himself, by the con- 
 fession of all, with courage, meekness and 
 dignity." He refused to recant. Some of tlio 
 articles brought against him, he said, "charged 
 him witli teaching tilings which he had never 
 taught, and he could not, by this formal act of 
 retraction, admit that he had Uiuglit them." He 
 was comicmned, sentenced to the stake, and 
 burned, on the (5th of .Inly, 1415. His friend, 
 Jerome, <if Prague, suffered the same fate in the 
 following May. —R. C. Trench, fyedn. on Medineml 
 Church IliHtonj. leH. 22. 
 
 Also in: E.'H. Gillctt, Life and timfs of John 
 IIus.—K. H. Wratislaw, Johnllus.- -A. Neiuider, 
 Ocneral Hist, of Chrhtian lieiigion, v. 1), pt. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1410. — Election of King Sig^ismund to 
 the imperial throne. See Gehmanv: A. U. 
 1347-149:5. 
 
 A. D. 1419-143/!.— The Hussite Wars.— 
 The Reformation checked.— "The fate of Iluss 
 and Jerome created an instant and fierce excite- 
 ment among the Bohemians. An address, 
 defending them against the charge of heresy and 
 protesting against the injustice and barbarity of 
 the Council, was signed by 400 or 500 nobles and 
 forwarded to Constance. The only result was 
 that the Council decreed that no safe-conduct 
 could be allowed to protect a heretic, that the 
 University of Prague must be reorganized, and 
 the strongest measures applied to suppress the 
 Hussite doctrines in Bohemia. This was a 
 defiance which the Bohemians courageously 
 accepted. Men of all classes united in proclaim- 
 ing that the doctrines of Huss should be freely 
 taught, and tliat no Interdict of the Church 
 should be enforced: the University, and even 
 Wennel's queen, Sophia, favored this movement, 
 which soon became so powerful that all priests 
 who refused to administer the sacrament ' in both 
 forms' were driven from the churches. . . . 
 When the Council of Constance was dissolved 
 [1418], Sigismund [the Emperor] hastened to 
 Hungary to carry on a new war with the Turks, 
 who were already extending their conquests 
 along the Danube. Tlie Hussites in Bohemia 
 employed this opportunity to organize tliem- 
 aelvcs for resistance; 40,000 of them, in July, 
 1419, assembled on a njounti'ia to which they 
 gave the name of Tabor, and chose as their 
 leader a nobleman who i/as surnamed Ziska, 
 'the one-eyed.' The excitement soon rose to 
 such a pitch that several monasteries were 
 stor;.ied and plundered. King Wenzel arrested 
 some of the ringleaders, but this only inflamed 
 the si)irit of the people. They formed a jiro- 
 cession in Prague, marched through the city, 
 carrying the sacramental cup at their head, and 
 took forcible possession of several churches. 
 AVhen they lialted before the city-hall, to demand 
 the release of their imprisoneil brethren, stones 
 were thrown at them from the windows, wliere- 
 upon they broke into the building and hurled 
 the Burgomaster and six other olilcials upon tlie 
 upheld spears of those below. . . . The Huss- 
 ites were already divided into two parties, one 
 moderate in its "demands, called the Calixtines, 
 from the Latin ' calix,' a chalice, which was their 
 symbol [preferring to their demand for the ad- 
 miuislratiuu of the eucharistic cup to the laity, 
 
 or communion ' sub utraque specie ' — whcuce 
 they were also called ' Utraquists '] ; the other 
 radical aiid fanatic, called the 'Taborites,' who 
 proclaimed their separation from the Church of 
 Home and a new system of brotherly eciuality 
 through which they expected to establish the 
 Millenium upon earth. The exigencies of their 
 situation obliged these two parlies 10 unite in 
 common defence against the forces of the Church 
 and the Empire, during the .sixteen years of war 
 which followed; but they always remained 
 separated in their religious views, and mutually 
 intolerant. Ziska, who called himself ' John 
 Ziska of the Chalice, commandc'r in the hope of 
 God of the Taborites,' had been a friend and 
 was an ardent follower of Huss. He was an old 
 man, hahi-headed, short, broad-shouldered, with 
 a deep furrow across his brow, an enormous 
 afjuiline nose, and a short red moustache. In 
 his genius for military operations, he ranks 
 among the great commanders of the world ; his 
 quickness, energy ard inventive talent were 
 marvellous, but at ihe same time he knew 
 neither tolerance nor mercy. . . . Sigismund 
 does not seem to have been aware of tlie formid- 
 able character of the movement, until the end of 
 his war with the Turks, some months afterwards, 
 and he then persuaded the Pope to summon all 
 Christendom to a crusade against Bohemia. 
 During the year 1420 a force of 100,000 soldiers 
 was collected, and Sigismund marched at their 
 head to Prague. The Hussites met him with the 
 demand for the accepts': ce of the following 
 articles: 1. — The word of God to be freely 
 preached ; 2. — The sacrament to be administered 
 in both forms; 3. — The clergy to possess no 
 property or temporal authority; 4. — All sins to 
 'vC punished by the proper authorities. Sigis- 
 mund was ready to accept these articles as the 
 price of their submission, but the Papal Legate 
 forbade the agreement, and war followed. On 
 the 1st of November, 1420, the Crusaders were 
 totally defeated by Ziska, and all Bohemia was 
 soon relieved of their presence. The dispute 
 between the moderates and the radicals broke 
 out again ; the idea of a community of property 
 began to prevail among the Taborites, and most 
 of the Bohemian nobles refused to act with them. 
 Ziska left Prague with his troops and for a tipio 
 devoted himself to the task of suppressing all 
 opposition through the country, with fire and 
 sword. He burned no less than 550 convents 
 and monasteries, slaying the priests and monks 
 who refused to accept the new doctrines. . . . 
 While besieging the town of Raby, an arrow 
 destroyed his remaining eye, yet he continued to 
 plan battles and sieges as before. The very 
 name of the blind warrior became a terror 
 throughout Germany. Li September, 1421, a 
 second Crusade of 200,000 men, commanded by 
 five German Electors, entered Bohemia from the 
 west. . . . But the blind Ziska, nothing daunted, 
 led his wagons, his flail-men, and mace-wielders 
 against the Electors, whose troops began to fly 
 before them. No battle was fought ; the 200,000 
 Crusaders were scattered in all directions, and 
 lost heavily during their retreat. Then Ziska 
 wheeled about and marched against Sigismund, 
 who was late in making his appearance. The 
 two armies met on the 8th of January, 1422 [at 
 Deutschbrod], and the Hussite victory was so 
 complete that the Emperor narrowly escaped 
 falling into their hands. ... A third Crusade 
 
 288 
 
BOHEMIA, 1419-1434. 
 
 Tk» Brformntion 
 Checked, 
 
 BOHEMIA, 1434-1457. 
 
 was arranged and Frcdi'rirk of Brandcnbiirfi 
 (tlie Ilolien/.ollern) selected to comnmnd it, but 
 the plan failed from laek of support. Tiie dis- 
 sensions among the Hussites became licreer than 
 ever; Ziska was at one time on the point of 
 attacking Prague, but tlie leaders of the moder- 
 ate party succeeded in coming 1o an under- 
 standing with him, and he entered the city in 
 triumph. In October, 1424, while marching 
 against Duke Albert of Au.stria, who had iuva<lcil 
 Moravia, he fell a victim to the plague. Even 
 after death ho continued to terrify the German 
 soldiers, who believed that his skin had been 
 made into a drum, and still called the Hussites 
 to battle. A majority of the Taborites eh'cted a 
 priest, called Procopius the Great, as their com- 
 mander in Zi.ska's stead; the others who thence- 
 forth styled themselves ' Orphans,' anitcd under 
 another priest, Procopius the Little. The 
 approach of another Imperial army, in 1420, 
 compelled them to forget their dilTerences, and 
 the result was a splendid victory over their 
 enemies. Procopius the Great then invaded 
 Austria and Silesia, which he laid waste witliout 
 mercy. The Pope called a fourth CJrusade, 
 which met the same fate as the former ones: the 
 united armies of the Archbishop of Treves, the 
 Elector Frederick of Brandenburg and the Duke 
 of Saxony, 200,000'strong, were utterly defeated, 
 and lied in di.sorder, leaving an enormous quan- 
 tity of stores and munitions of war in the hands 
 of the Bohcnuans. Procopius, who was almost 
 the equal of Ziska as a military leader, made 
 several unsuccessful attempts to unite the 
 Hussites in one religious boil}'. In order to 
 prevent ilieir dis.seusions from becoming danger- 
 ous to the common cause, he kept the soldiers of 
 all sects under his command, and undertook 
 fierce invasions into Baviirja, Saxony and Bran- 
 denburg, which made the Hussite name a terror 
 to all Germany. During these expeditions one 
 hundred towns were destroyed, more than 1,500 
 villages burned, tens of thousands of the inhabi- 
 tants slain, and such quantities of plunder col- 
 lected that it was impossible to transport the 
 whole of it to Bohemia. Freilerick of Branden- 
 burg and several other princes were compelled 
 to pay heavy tributes to the Hussites: the 
 Empire was thoroughly humiliated, the people 
 weary of slaughter, yet the Pope refused even to 
 call a Council for the discussion of tlie diflic\ilty. 
 . . . The German princes made a last and des- 
 perate effort: an army of 130,000 men, 40,000 of 
 whom were cavalry, was brought together, 
 under the conuiiand of Frederick of Branden- 
 burg, while Albert of Austria was to support it 
 by invading Bohemia from the south. Proco- 
 pius and his dauntless Hussites met the Crusaders 
 on the 14tli of August, 1431, at a place called 
 Thauss, and won another of thei'' marvellous 
 victories. The Imperial army was literally cut 
 to pieces, 8,000 wagons, tilled with provisions 
 and mimitions of war, and 150 cannons, were 
 left upon the lield. The Hussites marched 
 northward to the Baltic, and eastward into Hun- 
 gary, burning, slaying, anil i)lundering as they 
 went. Even the Pope now yielded, and the 
 Hussites were invited to attend the Council 
 at Basel, with the most solemn stipulations in 
 regard to personal siifety and a lair discussion of 
 their demands. . . . lu 1433, finally ;i00 Hussites, 
 headed by Procopius, appeared in Basel. They 
 demanded nothing more than the acceptance of 
 
 the four articles upon which they had united in 
 1420; but after seven weeks of talk, during 
 which the Council agreed ujion nothing and 
 ])romised nothing, they marched away, after 
 stating that any further negotiation must he 
 carried on in Prague. This course compelled 
 the C'ouncil to act; an embassy was appointed, 
 which proceeded to Prague, and <m the 30th of 
 November, the same year, concluded a treaty 
 with the Hussites. Tlie four demands were 
 granted, but each with a condition attached 
 which gave the Church a chance to regain its 
 lost i)owcr. For this reason, the Taborites and 
 ' Orphans ' refused to accept the compact ; the 
 moderate party united with the nobles and 
 undertook to suppress the former by force. A 
 fierce internal war followed, but it was of short 
 duration. In 1434, the Taborites were defeated 
 [at Lipan, May 30], their fortified mountain 
 taken, Procopius the Great and the Little were 
 both slain, and the members of the se^ dispersed. 
 The Bohemian Hefonnalion was never again 
 dangerous to the Church of Home." — B. Taylor, 
 JIi«t. (if Germany, ch. 23. 
 
 Also in: C. A. Peschek, Reformation and 
 Ant i-Ueformation in Ihheniia, iiitroductori/ ck. 
 — E. H. Gillett, Life and Times of John Iliis, v. 
 3, eh. 13-18.— E. de Schweinitz, 'lliat. of the Ch. 
 kuoirn as the Unitas Fratriim, eh. 9. 
 
 A. D. 1434-1457.— Organization of the Utra- 
 quist National Church. — Minority of Ladis- 
 laus Posthumus. — Regency of George Podie- 
 brad. — Origin of the Unitas Fratrum. — "The 
 battle of Lipaii was a turning point in the his- 
 tory of the Hussites. It put Bohemia and Jlora- 
 via into the hands of the Utraquists, and enabled 
 them to carry out their plans unhindered. The 
 man who was foremost in shaping events and 
 who became more and more prominent, until he 
 exerci-scd a commanding influence, was John of 
 Bokycana. ... At tlie diet of 1435 he was 
 unanimously elected archbishop. . . . Meantime 
 Sigismund endeavored to regain his kingdom. 
 The Diet made demands which were stringent 
 airtl humiliating; but he pledged l.'mself to fulfill 
 them, and on the 5th of July, 1436, at a meeting 
 held with great pomp ancl solemnity, in the 
 market-place of Iglau, wno iormally acknowl- 
 edged as Ki ig of Bohemia. Oi^ the same occasion, 
 the Conpactata were anew ratified and the 
 Bohemia '.^ readmitted to the fellowship of the 
 mother church. But scarcely had Sigismund 
 reached his capital when he begun so serious a 
 reaction in favor of Rome that iiokycana 
 secretly left the city and retired to a castle 
 near Pardubic (1437). The king's treachery 
 was, however, cut short by the hand of death, 
 on the 0th of December, of the .same year, at 
 Znaim, while on his way to Hungary; and his 
 successor and son-in-law, Albert of Austria, fol- 
 lowed him to the grave in 1439, in the midst of 
 a campaign against the Turks. Bohemia was 
 left without a ruler, for Albert had no children 
 except a posthumous son [Ladislaus Posthumus. 
 -See Hungary : A. D. 1301-1443, and 1443- 
 1458]. A time of auarithy began and various 
 leagues arose, the most powerful of which stocxl 
 under Baron Ptacek. . . . He . . . called an 
 ecclesiastical convention at Kuttenberg (Oc:tober 
 4tli). This convention brought about far-reach- 
 ing results. . . . Uokycana was acknowledged 
 as Archbishop elect, the supreme direction of 
 ecclesiastical affairs was committed into his huads, 
 
 289 
 
BOHEMIA, 1434-1457. 
 
 Tlie Unilfu 
 t'ratrum. 
 
 nOIIEMIA, 1458-1471. 
 
 tlio pripst.i? prnmisod him obedience, and 24 doc- 
 triiiul iiiid coiistitutioiiiil articles were adopted 
 wliicli laid tlie fouiidutioii of the Utraquist 
 Cliurcli as tlic National Church of Bohemia. 
 But the Taborites stood aloof. ... At last a <lis- 
 putntion was agreed upon," as the resultof which 
 the Taborit(!S were condemned by the Diet. 
 "They lost all prestige; their '^owns, with the 
 exception of Tabor, passed oit of their hands; 
 their membership was scattered and a largt part 
 of it joined tlie National Chi;rch. In the follow- 
 ing summer I'tacelf died and George Podiebrad 
 succeeded him as the head of the league. 
 Although a young man of only 34 years, he dis- 
 played the sagacity of an exp '•'"need statesman 
 and was distinguished bytlie virtues of a patriot. 
 In 1448 abohl stroke made him master of Prague 
 and constituted him pr.ictically Regent of all 
 Bohemia ; four years later his regency was form- 
 ally acknowledged. lie was a, warm friend of 
 Uokycana, whose consecration he endeavored to 
 bring about." When it was found that Home 
 could not be reconciled, there were thoughts of 
 cutting loose altogether from the Koman Catholic 
 and uniting with the Greek Church. "Negotia- 
 tions were actually begim in 14.')3, but came to 
 an abrupt close in the following year, in conse- 
 quence of the fall of Constantinople. About the 
 same time Ladislaus Posthuinus, Albert's son, 
 assumed the crown, Podiebrad remaining Ue- 
 gent. The latter continued the friend of Uoky- 
 cana; the former, who was a Catholic, conceived 
 a strong dislike to him. iVs soon as Kokycana 
 had given up the hope of conciliating Rome, he 
 began to preach, with great power and clocjuence, 
 against its corruptions." It was at this time that 
 a movement arose among certain of his followers 
 which resulted in the formation of tlio remark- 
 able religious body which called itself Unitas 
 Fratrum. The leading spirit in ■ > movement 
 was Rokycana's nephew, commc called Gre- 
 gory the Patriarch. The teaching and influence 
 which shaped it was that of Peter Chelcicky. 
 Gregory and his coinpanious, wishing to dwell 
 together, in the Christian unity of winch they 
 had formed an ideal in their muids, found a re- 
 treat at the secluded village of Kunwald, on tlie 
 estate of George Podiebrad. " The name which 
 they chose was ' Brethren of the Law of Christ' 
 — 'Fnitres Legis Cliristi'; inasmuch, however, 
 as this name gave rise to the idea that they were 
 a new order of Monks, they changed it simply 
 into ' Brethren.' Wlicn the organization of their 
 Church had been completed, they assumed 
 the additional title of 'Jednotii Bratrska,' or 
 Unitas Pratrum, that is, the Unity of the 
 Brethren, which has rem.iined the otBcial and 
 signiticant appellation of the Cliurch to the pres- 
 ent day. ... It was often abbreviated into ' Tlie 
 Unity.' Another name by which the Church 
 called itself was 'The Bohemian Brethren.' It 
 related to all the Brethren, whether they belonged 
 to Bohemia, Moravia, Prussia or Poland. To call 
 them The Bohemian-Moravian Brethren, or the 
 Moravian Brethren, is historically incorrect. The 
 ^ name Jloravian arose in the time of the Rene^tred 
 Brethren's Church, because the men by whom 
 it was reneweil came from Moravia. . . . The 
 organization of the Unitas Fratrum took place in 
 the year 1457." — E. Dc Schweinitz, Hist, of Vie 
 Ohureh known as Unitas Fratrum, ch. 10-12. 
 
 A. D. 1458.— Election of Georg^e Podiebrad 
 to the throne. SgcHunoaby: A. D. 1443-1458. 
 
 A. D. 1458-1471.— Papal excommunication 
 and deposition of the king, George Podie- 
 brad. — A crusade. — War with the Emperor 
 and Matthias of Hungary.— Death of Podie- 
 brad and election of Ladislaus of Poland. — 
 "(iciirgc Podiebrad Imd scarcely ascended the 
 throne before the ('alliolics, at the instigation of 
 the pope, required hiin to fulfil his coronation 
 oath, bv expelling all heretics from the king- 
 dom, lie complied with their request, banished 
 the Taborites, Picards, Adamites, and all other 
 religious sects who did not profess the Catholic 
 doctrines, and i.ssued a decree that all his sub- 
 jects should become members of the Catholic 
 church, as communicants under one or both 
 kinds. The Catholics, howc n-.v, were not satis- 
 fied; considering the Calixtins as heretics, they 
 entreated him to annul the compacts, or to ob- 
 tain a new ratification of them from the new 
 pope. To gratify their wishes ho sent an em- 
 ba.ssy to Rome, requesting a confirmation of the 
 compacts; but Pius, under the pretence that the 
 compacts gave occasion to licresy, refused his 
 ratification, and sent Fantino della Valle, as 
 legate, to Prague, for the purpose of persuading 
 the king to prohibit the administration of the 
 communion under both kinds. In consequence 
 of this legation the king called a diet, at which 
 the legate and the bishops of Olmutz and Bres- 
 lau were present. The ill success of the embassy 
 to Rome having been announced, he said, ' I am 
 astonished, and cannot divine the intentions of 
 the pope. The compacts were the only means 
 of terminating the dreadful commotions in 
 Bohemia, and if they are annulled, the king- 
 dom will again relapse into the former disorders. 
 The council of Basle, which was comp(\sed of 
 the most learned men in Europe, approved and 
 granted them to the Bohemians, and pope 
 Eugenius confirmed them. They contain no 
 heresy, and are in all respects conformable to the 
 doctrines of the holy church. I and my wife 
 hove followed tluMU from our childhood, and I 
 am determined to maintain them till my d(!ath.' 
 . . . Fantino replying in a long <ind virulent 
 invective, the king ordered him to quit the 
 assembly, and Imprisoned him in the castle of 
 Podiebrad, allowing him no other sustenance 
 except bread and water. The pope, irritated by 
 this insult, annulled the compacts, in 1403, and 
 fulminated a sentence of excommunication 
 against the king, uuli.ss he appeared at Rome 
 within a certain time to justify his conduct. 
 This btdl iccasioncd li great ferment among the 
 Catholics; Podiebrad was induced to liberate 
 the legate, and made an apology to the offended 
 pontiff; while Frederic, grateful for the assist- 
 ance which he had recently received from the 
 king of Bohemia, when brsieged by his brother 
 Albert, interposed his mediation with the pope, 
 and procured the suspension of the sentence of 
 excommunication. Pius dj'ing on the 14th of 
 August, 1464, the new pope, Paul II., perse- 
 cuted the king of Bohemia with increasing acri- 
 mony. He sent his legate to Breslau to excite 
 commotions among the Catholics, endeavoured 
 without effect to gain Casimir, king of Poland, 
 by the offer of the Bohemian crown, and applied 
 with the same ill success to the states of Ger- 
 many. He at length overctiir^e the gratitude of 
 tlie emperor by threats and promises, and at the 
 diet of Nuremberg in 1467, ti'.e proposal of his 
 legate Fantino, to form a crusade against the 
 
 290 
 
BOHEMIA, 1458-1471. 
 
 Strufffftp for the 
 Crown, 
 
 BOHEMIA, isTe-ioai. 
 
 licrotic king of Bnlipmiii, wa.s supported hr tlio 
 imperial lunbiissudors. Aitlioui^li this jiroposiil 
 was rejected by tlie diet, tlie i)ope publislicd a 
 sentence of depLiiii.,n against I'odiebrad. and 
 his emissaries were allowed to preacli tlie cru- 
 sade tlirougliDiit Geriniiny. and in every part of 
 the Austrian territories. The conduct of Fred- 
 eric drew from the king of Bohemia, in 1408, a 
 violent invective against his ingratitude, and a 
 formal declaration of war; li(^ followed this 
 declaration by an irruption into Austria, spread- 
 ing (hiViustation as far as the Danube. Frederic 
 in vain applied to the princes of the empire for 
 ussistimce: and at length excited Mattliias king 
 of Hungary against his father-in-law, by olfer- 
 ing to invest him with the kingdom of Bohemia. 
 Matthias, forgettii.j his obligations to Podie- 
 brad, to whom he owed his life and crown, was 
 dazzled by the otter, and being assisted by 
 bodies of German marauders, who had assumed 
 the cross, invaded Bohemia. At the same time 
 the intrigues of the jjope exciting the Catholics 
 to insurrection, tlie country again became a prey 
 to the dreadful evils of a civil and religious war. 
 The vigour and activity of George Fodiebrad 
 8uppres.seil the internal commotions, and repelled 
 the invasion of the Hungarians; an armistice 
 was concluded, and the two kings, on tlie 4th of 
 April, 1469, Iicld an amicable conference at 
 Sternberg, in Moravia, where they entered into 
 a treaty of peace. But Matthias, intluenced by 
 the perfidious maxim, that no compact should be 
 kept with heretics, was persuaded by the papal 
 legate to restniK! hostilities. After overrunning 
 Moravia and Silesia, he held a mock diet at 
 Olniutz with some of the Catholic party, where 
 he was clio.sen king of Bohemia, and .solemnly 
 crowned by the legate. . . . Podiebrad, in order 
 to baffle the designs both of the emperor and 
 Matthias, summoned a diet at Prague, and pro- 
 posed to the states as his successor, Ladislaus, 
 eldest son of Casimir, king of Poland, by Eliza- 
 beth, second daughter of the emperor Albert. 
 The proposal was warmly approved .by the 
 nation, » . . as tlie Catholics were desirous of 
 living under a prince of their own communion, 
 and tlie Calixtins anxious to prevent the acces- 
 sion of Frederic or Matthias, both of whom were 
 hostile to their doctrines. Tlie states accordingly 
 assented without hecitatiou, and Ladislaus was 
 unanimously nominated successor to the throne. 
 The indignation of JIattliias was inflamed by his 
 disappointment, and hostilities were continued 
 with increasing fury. The two armies, con- 
 ducted by their respective sovereigns, the ablest 
 generals of the age, for some time kept each 
 other in check; till at length both parties, 
 wearied by tlie devastation of their respective 
 countries, concluded a kina >;f armistice, on the 
 22nd of July, 1470, whicli put a period to hos- 
 tilities. On the death of Podiebrad, in the 
 ensuing year, Frederic again presenting himself 
 as a candidate, was suiiported by still fewer ad- 
 herents than on the former occasion; n more 
 numerous party osi)oused tlie interests of Mat- 
 thias ; but the majority declaring for Ladislaus, 
 he was re-elected, and proclaimed king. Fred- 
 eric supported Ladislaus in preference to 
 Matthias, and by fomenting the troubles in 
 Hungary, as well as by his intrigues with the 
 Ling of Poland, endeavoured not only to disap- 
 point Matthias of the throne of Bohemia, b-,jt 
 even to drive him from that of Hungary. "— W. 
 
 Coxe, ITist. of the Iloune of AusMd, eh. 18 
 (". 1). 
 
 A. D. 1471-1479.— War with Matthias of 
 Hungary. — Surrender of Moravia and Silesia. 
 See llr.No.utv: A. 1). 1471-1487. 
 
 A. D. 1490.— King Ladislaus elected to the 
 throne of Hungary. See Hungary: A. D. 1487- 
 ir)2«. 
 
 A. D. 1516-1576.— Accession of the House 
 of Austria.— The Reformation and its strength. 
 —Alternating toleration and persecution.— 
 In 1489 Vladislav " was 61ected to the throne of 
 llunijary after the death of Mathias Corvinus. 
 He ilied in 1510, and was succeeded on the throne 
 of Bohemia and Hungary by his minor .son. 
 Louis, who perished in 1520 at the battle of 
 Mohacz against the Turks [see Hunqaky: A. D. 
 1487-1 520J. An equality of rights was main- 
 tained between tlie Hussites and the Uoman 
 Catholics during these two reigns. Louis left 
 no children, and was succeeded on the tnrone of 
 Hungary and Boliemia by I>\'r(liiiund of Austria 
 [see, also, AusTUi.v; A. D. 1490-1520], brother 
 of the Emperor Charles V.. and married to the 
 sisterof Louis, a prince of a bigoted and despotic 
 character. Tlie doctrines of Luther had already 
 found a speedy eclio among.st the Calixtines under 
 the preceding reign; and Protestantism gained 
 so much ground under that of Ferdinand, that 
 the Bohemians refused to take part in tlie war 
 against the Protestant league of Smalkalden, and 
 formed a union for tlie defence of the national 
 and religious liberties, which were menaced by 
 Ferdinand. The defeat of the Protestants at the 
 battle of Muhlberg, in 1.547, by Charles V., which 
 laid prostrate tlieir cause in Germany, produced 
 a seviire reaction in Bohemia. Several leaders 
 of tho union were executed, others imprisoned 
 or banished ; the property of many nobles was 
 confiscated, the towns were heavily lined, de- 
 prived of sevend privileges, and subjected to 
 new taxes. These measures were carried into 
 execution with tlie assistance of German. Spanish, 
 and Hungarian soldiers, and legalized by an as- 
 sembly known under the name of the Bloody 
 Diet. . . . The .Jesuits were also introduced dur- 
 ing that reign into Bohemia. The privileges of 
 the Calixtiiie, or, as it was offlcially called, the 
 Utraiiuist Cliurch, were not abolished; and 
 Ferdinand, who had succeeded to the imperial 
 crown after the abdication of his brother Charles 
 v., softened, during the latter j-earsof his reign, 
 his harsh and despotic character. ... He died 
 ii 1504, sincerely regretting, it is said, the acts 
 of oppression which ho hail committed against 
 his Bohemian subjects. He was succeeded by 
 his son, the Emperor Maximilian II., a man of 
 noble character and tolerant disposition, which 
 led to the belief that he himself inclined towards 
 the 'doctrines of the Iteformation. He died in 
 1570, leaving a name venerated by all parties. 
 . . . Maximilian's son, the Emperor Uudolpli, 
 was educated at the court of his cou.sin, Philip 
 II. of Spain, and could not be but adverse to 
 Protestantism, which liad, however, become loo 
 strong, not only in Bohemia, but also in Austria 
 proper, to be easily supjiressed; but several in- 
 direct means were adopted, in order gradually to 
 effect this object." — V. Krasinski, Lectx. on the 
 liclif/ioua Hint, of the Slnconic Nations, led. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1576-1604.— Persecution of Protestants 
 by Rudolph. See UuNaAiiv: A. D. 1507- 
 1604. 
 
 291 
 
BOIIKiMIA. 1011-1618. 
 
 V7k« Letter of 
 Majetty. 
 
 BOHEMIA, 1011-1618. 
 
 A. D. 1611-1618.— The Letter of Majesty, 
 or Royal Charter, and Matthias's violation of 
 it. — Ferdinand of Styria forced upon the 
 nation as king by hereditary right.— The 
 throwing of the Royal Counsellors from the 
 window. — Beginning of the Thirty Years 
 War.— Ill 1011, tlu: Emperor HcHlolpli was 
 forced to surrender the crown of IJoliemiii to his 
 brotlier Miitthiiis. The next year he died, and 
 Mnttliiiw succeeded liitn as Emperor also. " Tlio 
 traii(|uillity wliicli Undolph II. 's Letterot Majesty 
 fsee Gkhmany: A. D. 1008-1018J had cstablislieJl 
 in Bohemia lasted for some time, under the 
 ndministmtion of Matthias, till the nomination 
 of a new heir to this kingdom in the person of 
 Ferdinand of Gratz [Styria]. This prince, whom 
 we shall afterwards liccoinc better acquaiMtcd 
 with under the title of Ferdinand II., Emperor 
 of Germany, had, by the violent extirpation of 
 the Protestant rolisioii within his hereditary 
 dominions, announced himself as an inexorable 
 zealot for popery, and was consequently looked 
 upon by the Koman Catholic part of Bohemia 
 as the future pillar of their church. The declin- 
 ing health of the Emperor brought on this hour 
 rapidly; and, relying on so powerful a sup- 
 porter, the Bohemian Papists began to treat the 
 Protestants with little moderation. The Protes- 
 tant vassals of Uoman (,'atliolic nobles, in par- 
 ticular, experienced the harshest treatment. At 
 length several of the former were incautious 
 enough to speak .somewhat loudly of their hopes, 
 and by threatening hints to awaken among the 
 Protestants a suspicion of their future sovereign. 
 But this mistrust would never have broken out 
 into actual violence, had the Roman Catholics 
 conlined themselves to general expressions, and 
 not by attacks on individuals furnished the dis- 
 content of the people with enterprising leaders. 
 Henry Matthias, Count Tliurn, not a native of 
 Bohemia, but proprietor of some estates in that 
 kingdom, had, by his zeal for the Protestant 
 cause, and an enthusiastic attachment to Ids 
 newly adopted country, gained the entire con- 
 fl<ience of the Utraquists, which opened him the 
 way to the most important posts. . . Of a hot 
 and impetuous disposition, which loved tumult 
 becau.se his talents shone in it — rash anil 
 thoughtless enough to undertake things which 
 cold prudence and a calmer temper would not 
 have ventured upon-^un.scrupulous enough, 
 where the gratification of his pa.ssions was con- 
 cerned, to sport with the fate of thousands, and 
 ftt the siimo time politic enougli to hold in lead- 
 ing-strings such a people os the Bohemians then 
 were. lie had already taken an active part in 
 the troubles under Itotlolph's administration; 
 and the Letter of jMajesty which the States hail 
 extorted from that Emperor, was chiefly to be 
 laid to his merit. The court had intrusted to 
 him, as burgrave or castellan of Calstein, the 
 custoily of the Bohemian crown, and of the 
 national charter. But the nation had placed in 
 his hands something far more important — itself 
 — with the oliu* of defender or iirotoetor of the 
 faith. Tlic aristocracy by whicli the Emperor 
 was ruled, imprudently deprived him of this 
 harmless guardianship of the dead, to leave him 
 his full influence over the living. They took 
 from him his ollice of burgrave, or constable of 
 the castle, which had rendered him dependent on 
 the court, thereby opening his eyes to the im- 
 portauce of the other which remained, and 
 
 wounded his vanity, which yet was the thing 
 that made his ambition harmless. From tills 
 moment he was actuated solely by a desire of 
 revenge; and the oppor inity of gratifying it 
 was not long wanting. In the Koyal Letter 
 which the Bohemians had extorted from Rodolph 
 II., as well as in the German religious treaty, 
 one material article remained undetennined. 
 All the i)rivileges granted by the latter to the 
 Protestants, were conceived in favour of the 
 Estates or governing bodies, not of the subjects; 
 for only to those of ecclesiastical states had a 
 toleration, and that precarious, been conceded. 
 The Bohemian Letter of JIajesty, in the same 
 manner, spoke only of the Estates and the im- 
 perial towns, the magistrates of which had con- 
 trived to obtain equal privileges with the former. 
 These alone were free to erect churches and 
 schools, and openly to celebrate their Protestant 
 worship: in all other towns, it was left entirely 
 to the government to which they belonged, to 
 determine the religion of the inhabitants. The 
 Estates of the Empire had availed themselves of 
 this privilege in its fullest extent; the secular 
 indeed without opposition; while the ecclesias- 
 tical, in whose case the declaration of Ferdinand 
 had limited this privilege, disputed, not without 
 reason, the validity of that limitation. What 
 was a disputed point in the religious treaty, was 
 loft still more doubtful in the Letter of Majesty. 
 ... In the little town of Klostergrab, subject 
 to the Archbishop of Prague ; and in Braunau, 
 which belonged to the abbot of that monastery, 
 churches were founded by the Protestants, and 
 completed notwithstanding the opposition of 
 their superiors, and the (lisapprobation of the 
 Emperor. ... By the Emperor's orders, the 
 church at Klostergrab was pulled down ; that at 
 Braunau forcibly shut up, and the most turbulent 
 of the citizens thrown into prison. A general 
 commotion among the Protestants was the con- 
 sequence of this niea.ure; a loud outcry was 
 everywhere raised at tl is violation of the Letter 
 of Majesty; and Couit Tliurn. animated by 
 revenge, and particula!)y called ui)oii by his 
 oftlce of defender, showed himself not a little 
 busy in inllaniing the minds of the people. At 
 his instigation deputies were summoned to 
 Prague from every circle in the empire, to con- 
 cert the necessary measures against the common 
 danger. It was resolved to petition the Emperor 
 to press for the liberation of the prisoners. The 
 answer of the Emperor, already offensive to the 
 states, from its being aildressed, not to them, but 
 to his viceroy, denounced their conduct as illegal 
 and rebellious, justified what had been done at 
 Klostergrab and Braunau as the result of an im- 
 perial mandate, and contained some passages 
 that might bo construed into threats. Count 
 Thurn did not fail to augment the unfavourable 
 impression which this imperial edict made upon 
 the as.sembled Estates. ... He held it . . . 
 advisable first to direct their indignation against 
 the Emperor's counsellors; and for that purpose 
 circulated a report, that the imii(!rial proclama- 
 '•■)n had been drawn up by tl' government at 
 ^rague and only signed in Vi' Among the 
 
 imperial delegat<?s, the cl jects of the 
 
 popular hatred, were the Pi of the Cham- 
 
 ber, Slawata, and Baron Marti who had been 
 
 elected in place of Count Tliuiii, Burgrave of 
 Calstein. . . . Against two characters so un- 
 popular the public indignation was easily ex- 
 
 292 
 
BOHEMIA, 161t-l(318. 
 
 Tliirtu Yrnr» 
 War. 
 
 nOIIEMIA, 1742. 
 
 cited, find tlicy were marked out for a sacrifice 
 to tlie gencruliiulignatioii. On the 33rd of May. 
 1618, the deputies appeared armed, and in great 
 numbers, at tlie royal palace, and forced tlieir 
 way into tlie hull where the Commisioners Stern- 
 berg, Martinitz, Lobkowitz, and Slawata were 
 assembled. In a threatening tone they demanded 
 to know from each of them, wlictlier he had 
 taken any part, or had consented to, the imperial 
 proclamation. Sternberg received them with 
 composure, Martinitz and Slawata with deimnce. 
 Tills decided their fate; Sternberg and Lob- 
 knwitz, loss hated, and more feared, were led by 
 the arm out of the room ; JIartinitz and Slawata 
 were seized, dragged to a window, and pre- 
 cipitated from ft height of 80 feet, into the castle 
 trench. Their creature, the secretary Fubricius. 
 was thrown after them. This singular mode of 
 execution naturally e.xcited the surprise of 
 civilized nations. The Hohemians justitied it as 
 a national custom, and saw notiiing remarkable 
 in the whole affair, excepting that any one should 
 have got up again safe and sound 'after such a 
 fall. A dunghill, on which the imperial com- 
 missioners chanced to be deposited, had saved 
 them from injury. [The incident of the flinging 
 of the obnoxious ministers from the window is 
 often referred to as ' the defenestration at 
 Prague. '] . . . By this brutal act of self-redress, 
 no room was left for irresolution or repentance, 
 and it seemed as if a single crime could be 
 absolved only by a series of violences. As tlie 
 deed itself could not be undone, nothing was left 
 but to disarm the hand of punishment. Thirty 
 directors were appointed to organize a regular 
 insurrection. They seized upon all the otlices of 
 state, and all the imperial revenues, took into 
 their own service the royal functionaries and tlie 
 soldiers, and summoned the wliole Boliemian 
 nation to avenge the common cause." — F. Schiller, 
 Hist, of the Thirty Yam' War. bk. 1, ]i\i. 51-5.). 
 
 Also in: S. R. Gardiner, Tim Tliirtii Ycava' 
 War, ch. 3.— A. Giudely, Hist, of the Thirty 
 Fears' War, ch. 1. — F. Kohlrausch, Hist, of 
 Germany, eh. 32. 
 
 A. D. 1618-1620. — Conciliatory measures de- 
 feated by Ferdinand. — His election to the Im- 
 perial throne, and his deposition in Bohemia. 
 — Acceptance of the crown by Frederick the 
 Palatine Elector. — His unsupported situation. 
 See Germany: A. D. 1018-1030. 
 
 A. D. 1620. — Disappointment in the newly 
 elected King. — His aggressive Calvinism, — 
 Battle of the White Mountain before Prague. 
 — Frederick's flight. — Annulling of the Royal 
 charter. — Loss of Bohemian Liberties. See 
 Gekmany: a. D. 1030, and IIunoauy: A. D. 
 1000-1060. 
 
 A. D. 1621-1648. — The Reign of Terror. — 
 Death, banishment, confiscation, dragoon- 
 ades. — The country a desert. — Protestantism 
 crushed, but not slain. — "In June, 1031, a fear- 
 ful reign of terror began in Bohemia, with the 
 execution of 37 of the most distinguished here- 
 tics. For years the unhappy people bled under 
 it; thousands were banished, and yet Protestant- 
 ism was not fully exterminated. The charter 
 was cut into shreds by the Emperor himself; 
 there couKl be no forbearance towards 'such 
 acknowledged rebels.' As a matter of course, 
 the Lutheran preaching was forbidden under the 
 heaviest penalties; heretical works, Bibles es- 
 pecially, were taken away in heaps. Jesuit 
 
 colleges, churches, and .schools came into power j 
 but this was not all. A large number of dis- 
 tinguished Protestant families were deprived of 
 their property, and, as if that were not enough, 
 it was decreed that no non-Catholic could be a 
 citizen, nor carry on a trade, enter into a mar- 
 riage, nor make a will; tiny one who harboured 
 a Protestant preacher forfeited his property; 
 whoever permitted Protestant instruction to bo 
 given was to be lined, and whipped out of town; 
 tlie Proti'Stant poor who were not converted 
 were to be driven out of the hospitals, and to bo 
 replaced by Catholic poor; he who gave free ex- 
 pression to his opinions about religion was to be 
 executed. In 1031 an order was issued to all 
 preachers and teachers to leave the country 
 within eight days under pain of death; and 
 finally, it was ordained that whoever had not 
 become Catholic by Easter, 1636, must emigrate. 
 . . . But the real convei-sions were few ; thousands 
 fpiietly remained true to the faith; otlier thou- 
 .sands wandered as beggars into foreign lands, 
 more than 30,000 Bohemian families, and among 
 them 500 belonging to the aristocracy, went into 
 banishment. Exiled Bohemians were to be 
 found in every country of Europe, and were not 
 wanting in any of the armies that fought against 
 Austria. Those who could not or would not 
 emigrate, held to their faith in secret. Against 
 them dragoonades were employed. Detachmenta 
 of soldiers were sen„ into the various districts to 
 torment the hei'etics till they were converted. 
 The ' Converters ' (Seligmacher) went thus 
 throughout all Bohemia, plundering and murder- 
 ing. . . . No succour reached the unfortunate 
 people ; but neither did the victors attain their 
 end. Protestantism and the Hussite memories 
 could not be slain, and only outward submission 
 was extorted. ... A respectable Protestant 
 party exists to this day in Bohemia and Jloravia. 
 But a de.sert was created ; the land was crushed 
 for a generation. Before the war Bohemia hiul 
 4,000,000 inhabitants, and in 1648 there were but 
 700,000 or 800,000. These figures appear pre- 
 posterous, but they are certified by Bohemian 
 historians. In some parts of the country the 
 population has not attained the standard of 1620 
 to this day." — L. Hilusser, The Period of the lie- 
 formation, ch. 33. 
 
 Also in: C. A. Peschek, litformation and 
 Anti-Iteformatinn in Bolie.nia, v. 2. — E. de 
 Sehweinitz, Hist, of tlie Church known as tlie 
 Unita^ Fratrum, ch. 47-51. 
 
 A. D. 1631-1632. — Temporary occupation by 
 the Saxons. — Their expulsion by Wallenstein. 
 Sec Germany: A. 1). 1031-1633. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1645, — Campaigns of Baner 
 and Torstenson. See Germany : A. D. 1640- 
 1615. 
 
 A. D. 1646-1648.— Last campaigns of the 
 Thirty Years War. — Surprise and capture of 
 part of Prague by the Swedes.— Siege of the 
 old city. — Peace. See Geumany: A. D. 1040- 
 1648. 
 
 A. D. 1740.— The question of the Austrian 
 Succession. — The Pragmatic Sanction. See 
 Austria: A. D. 1718-1738, and 1740. 
 
 A. D. 1741. — Brief conquest by the French, 
 Bavarians and Saxons. See Austria: A. D. 
 1741 (August— November), and (Octoheb). 
 
 A. D. 1742 (January -May).— Prussian inva- 
 sion.— Battle of Chotusitz. See Austria: 
 ■ A. i). 1742 (January— May). 
 
 293 
 
HOJIEMIA, 1743 
 
 BOKHARA, 1210. 
 
 A. D. i742(June— December).— Expulsion of 
 the French.— Belleisle's retreat.— Maria The- 
 resa crowned at Prague. Si;e At;sTUlA; A. I). 
 1743 (.Il'.NK— Dkokmiiku). 
 
 A. D. 1757.- The Seven Years War. — 
 Frederick's invasion and defeat. — Battles of 
 Prague and Kolin. Seo Gkumany: A. D. n'u 
 (Aruii,— .Jink). 
 
 - — -♦ 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, The. Sen 
 Boiikmia: a. 1). 14:14-1457, and Oeumany: 
 
 A. I). 1030. 
 
 BOHEMIANS (Gypsies). Bue Gyphies. 
 
 BOI ANS, OR BOII.— Some passages in the 
 curlier history ami movements of the powerful 
 Qallic tribe known as the Boil will be found 
 touched upon under KoMu:: B. C. 390-347, and 
 
 B. C. 29.')-li)l, in aeeotmts given of the destruc- 
 tion of Rome by the Gauls, and of the subse- 
 quent wars of the Uoinans with the Cisalpine 
 Gauls. After the linal con(iuest of the Boians in 
 Gallia Cisalpina, early in the second century, 
 B. C, the Romans seem to have c.xpcdled them, 
 wholly or partly, from that country, forcing 
 them "to cross the Alps. They afterwards occu- 
 piiid a region embraced in modern Bavaria and 
 Bohemia, both of whidi countries are thought 
 to have derived their names from these Boian 
 people. Some part of the nation, however, as- 
 .sociated itself with the Ilelvelii and joined in the 
 migration which C'lesar arrested. He settled 
 these Boians in Gaul, within the ^Eduan terri- 
 tory, between the Loire and the Allier. Their 
 capital city was G(!rgovia, which was also the 
 name of a city of the Arverni. The Gergovia of 
 the Boians is conjectured to have been modern 
 Monlins. Their territory was the modern Bour- 
 bonnais, which probably derived its name from 
 them. Three important names,' therefore, in 
 European geography and history, viz. — Bour- 
 bon, Bavaria and Bohemia, are traced to the 
 Gallic nation of the J$oii. — Tacitus, Oermany, 
 traiui. by C hutch and linxlribh, notes. 
 
 AiiSO IN: C. Merivale, Hint, of Vie Itoimuui, ch. 
 13, note. 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC— Siege and capture by the 
 Dutch (1629). Sec Netiieulands: A. D. 1031- 
 1033. 
 
 BOKHARA (Ancient Transoxania).— 
 "Taken literally, the name [Transo.xania] is a 
 translation of the Arabic >Iavera-ini-nehr (that 
 which lies beyond or across the river), and it 
 might therefore be supposed that Transoxania 
 meant the country lying beyond or on the right 
 shore of the 0.\us. But this is not stricUy 
 speaking the case. . . . From the period of the 
 Samanidcs down to modern times, the districts 
 of Talkan, Tokharistan and Zcm, although 
 lying partly or entirely on the left bank of the 
 O.vus, have been looked on as integral portions 
 of Bokhara. Our historical researclies seem to 
 prove that this arrangement dates from the 
 Samanidcs, who were themselves originally 
 natives of that part of Khorassan. ... It is 
 almost impossible in dealing geographically with 
 Transoxania to assign delinitely an accurate 
 frontier. We can and will therefore compre- 
 hend in our definition of Transoxania solely Bok- 
 hara, or the khanate of Bokhara; for althougli 
 it has only been known by the latter name since 
 the time of ShcVbani and of the Ozbcgs [A. I). 
 1500], the shores of the Zcrofshan and the tract 
 of country stretching southwards to the Oxus 
 
 and northwards to the desert of Kizil Kum, 
 n present the only i)arts of the territory which 
 have remaim^d uninterruptedly portions of the 
 original undivided state of Transf)xania from the 
 earliest hi.storical times. . . . Bokhara, the capi- 
 tal from the time of the Samanidcs, and at the 
 date of the very earliest geogniphical reports 
 concerning Transoxania, issai(l, during its pros- 
 perity, to have been the largest city of the 
 Islamite world. . . . Bokhara was not, however, 
 merely a luxurious city, distinguished by great 
 natural advantages; it was also the princijial 
 emporium for the tra<le between China and 
 Western Asia; in addition to the vast ware- 
 houses for silks, brocades, and cotton stulTs, for 
 the finest carpets,' and all kinds of gold and 
 silversnuths' work, it boasted of a great moncy- 
 nnirket, being in fact the Exchange of all the 
 I)opulation of Eastern and Western Asia. . . . 
 Sogd . . . comprised the mountainous part of 
 Transoxania (which may lie described as the 
 extreme western spurs ot the Tliien-Shan). . . . 
 The capital was Samarkand, undoubtedly the 
 .■Nlaraeanda of the Greeks, which they specify as 
 tlie capital of Sogdia. The city Inis, throughout 
 the history of Transoxania been tlie rival of 
 Bokhara. Before the time of tlie Samanidcs, 
 Samarkand was the largest city iKjyond the 
 Oxus, and only began to decline from its former 
 importance when Ismail chose Bokhara for his 
 own residence. Under the Khahrczmians it is 
 said to have raised itself again, and become 
 much larger than its rival, ami under Timour to 
 have reached the culminating point of its pros- 
 perity. " — A. Vambery, llint. of liokhara, introd. 
 
 Ai.soin; J. Ilutton, Centnil Aniit, ch. 3-3. 
 
 B. C. 329-327. — Conquest by Alexander the 
 Great. See AIackdonia: B. C. 330-333. 
 
 6th Century.— Conquest from the White 
 Huns by the Turks. See Turks: Otii Ckn- 
 
 TUKY. 
 
 A. D. 710.— The Moslem Conquest. See 
 Mahometan CoNtjUEST : A. I). 710. 
 A. D. 991-998. — Under the Samanides. See 
 
 Samanides. 
 
 A. D. 1004-1193. — The Seldjuk Turks. Sec 
 TuuKs(TiiB Sei,djuk8): a. D. 1004-1003, and 
 after. 
 
 A. D. 1209-1220. — Under the Khuarezmians. 
 Sec Khuakezm: 13tii Century. 
 
 A, D. 1219. — Destruction of the city by 
 Jingis Khan. — Bokhara was taken by Jingis 
 Khan in the summer of 1319. "It was then a 
 very large? and magnificent city. Its name, 
 according to the historian Alai-ud-din, is de- 
 rived from Bokliar, which in the Magian lan- 
 guage means the Centre of Science." File city 
 surrendered after a siege of a few days. Jingis 
 Khan, on entering the town, saw the great 
 mos(iue and asked if it was the Sultan's palace. 
 "Being told it was the house of Ottnl, he dis- 
 mounted, climbed the steps, and said in a loud 
 voice to his followers, 'The hay is cut, give 
 your horses fodder. ' They easily understood this 
 cynical invitation to idunder. . . . The inhabit- 
 ants were ordered to leave the town in a body, witli 
 only their clothes, so that it might be more easily 
 pillaged, after which the spoil was divided 
 among the victors. ' It was a fearful day,' says 
 Ibn al Ithir; 'one only heard the sobs and weep- 
 ing of men, women and children, who were 
 separated forever; women were ravished, while 
 men died rather than survive the dishonour of 
 
 294 
 
BOKHARA, 1310. 
 
 BOLOGNA. 
 
 their wivps and diiughtcrs.' The Monpola ended 
 l)y setting lire to nil the wooden portion of the 
 town, and only the great inos(|ue and eerlain 
 palaces wliieli were built of bri('k remained 
 standing."— II. H. Howorth, UUt. of the Mnii- 
 gols, V. 1, c/i. 3,_"The nourishing city on the 
 Zercfslian had heeonie a heap of rubbish, but 
 tlie garrison in the citadel, commanded by Kok 
 Khan, continued to hold out with a bravery 
 which deserves our admiration. The Mongols 
 used every imaginable effort to reduce this last 
 refuge of the enemy; the Bokhariots them.selves 
 were forced on to the scaling-ladders: but all in 
 vain, and it was not until the moat had been liter- 
 ally choked with corpsesof men and animals that 
 the stronghold was taken and its brave defenders 
 put to (leath. The peacealde portion of the 
 population was also made to suffer for this heroic 
 resistance. More than 30,000 men were executed, 
 and the remainder were, with the exception of 
 the very old people among them, redviced to 
 slavery, without any distiniition of rank what- 
 ever ; and thus the inhabitants of Bokhara, lately 
 so celebrated for their learning, their'Iove of art, 
 and their general refinement, were brought 
 down to a dead level of misery and degradation 
 and scattered to all quarters." — A. Vambery, 
 Hist, of Bukhara, eh. 8. — See JIonools: A. D. 
 1153-1237. 
 
 A. D. i868.— Subjection to Russia. See 
 RnssFA: A. D. 1839-1870. 
 
 BOLERIUM. See Hki.kuion. 
 
 BOLESLAUS I., King of Poland, A. D. 
 
 1000-1025 Boleslaus 11., King of Poland, 
 
 A. D. 1058-1083 Boleslaus III., Duke of 
 
 Poland, A. D. 1103-1138 Boleslaus IV., 
 
 Duke of Poland, A. D. 114G-117;J Boles- 
 laus v., King of Poland, A. I). 1227-1279. 
 
 BOLEYN, Anne. — Marriage, trial and exe- 
 cution. See England: A. 1). 1527-1534; and, 
 1536-1.143. 
 
 BOLGARI. See Buloauia: OniGiN op. 
 
 BOLIVAR'S LIBERATION OF THE 
 SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. See Co- 
 LOMUiAN States: A. D. 1810-1819, 1810-1830; 
 and Peuu: A. D. 1820-1820, 1835-1820, and 
 1826-1876. 
 
 BOLIVIA: The aboriginal inhabitants. — 
 "With the Toromonos tribe, who occupied, as 
 Orbigny tells us, a district of from 11° to 13° of 
 South lat'tude, it was an established rule for 
 every man to build his house, with liis own 
 hands alone, and if he did otherwise he lost the 
 title of man, as well as became the laughing- 
 stock of his fellow citizens. The only clothing 
 worn by these people was a turban on the head, 
 composed of feathers, the rest of the body being 
 perfectly naked ; whilst the women used a gar- 
 ment, manufactured out of cotton, that only 
 partially covered their persons. . . . The orna- 
 ment in which the soft sex took most pride was 
 a necklace made of the teeth of enemies, killed 
 by tlieir husbands in battle. Amongst the Moxos 
 polygamy was tolerated, and woman's infidelity 
 severely pimished. . . . The Moxos cultivated 
 the land with ploughs, and other implements of 
 agriculture, made of wood. They fabricated 
 canoes, fought and fished with bows and arrows. 
 In the provmce of the Moxos lived also a tribe 
 called Itonomos, who, besides these last named 
 instruments of war, used two-edged wooden 
 scimitars. The immorality of these Itonomos 
 
 was something like that of the Mormons of our 
 tim(^ . . . The (,'anichanas, who lived near 
 .Maehupo, between 13=" and 14° S. lat. and 07° to 
 08° W. long., are reputed by M. d'Orbigny as 
 the bravest of the Bolivian Indians. They are 
 accredited to have been cannibals. . . . Where 
 Jujuy — the mo.st northern ])rovinco of the 
 Argentine Republic — ioins Bolivia, we have in 
 the pres<>n day the Alatagmiya and Cambas 
 Indians. \ 'c latter are represented to me by Dr. 
 JIatien/,0, ' Ito.sario, as intelligent and devoted 
 to agrieultiiral labor. They hiive fixed tdlderias 
 [villages], the houses of whiCh are clean and neat. 
 Each town is commanded by a capitan, whose 
 sovereignty is liereditary to his male descendants 
 only." — T. J. Hutchinson, The I'arana, ch. 4. — 
 Se(;, also, Amkuican Abouigines: Anuesians, 
 and Tui>i. 
 
 In the Empire of the Incas. See Pehi;: Tife 
 EMi'iuii OK THE Incas. 
 
 A. D. 1559. — Establishment of the Audiencia 
 ofCharcas. Sec Audikncias. 
 
 A. D. 1825-1826.— The independent Repub- 
 lic founded and named in Upper Peru.— The 
 Bolivian Constitution. — " Ui)()er I'eru [or Las 
 Chareas, as it was more specifically known] . . . 
 had been detached [in 1776 — see Akoentinb 
 UiuTiii.ic: A. 1). l.'580-1777] from the govern- 
 ment of Lima ... to form part of the newly 
 constituted Vicoroyalty of Buenos Ayres. The 
 fifteen years' struggle for independence was here 
 a sanguinary one indeeil. There is scarcely a. 
 town, village, or noticeable place in this vast 
 region where bl(Mxi is not recorded to have been 
 shed in this terrible struggle. . . . T'lc Spanish 
 army afterwards succumbed to that of the inde- 
 pendents of Peru ; and thus Upper Peru gained, 
 not indeed liberty, but independence tinder the 
 rule of a republican aimy. This vast province 
 was incaiiable of governing itself. The Argen- 
 tines laid claim to it as a province of the con- 
 federation ; but they already exercised too great 
 a preponderance in the South American system, 
 and the Colombian generals obtained the relin- 
 (luishnient of these pretensions. Sucre [Bolivar's 
 Chief of Staff] assu-ned the government until a 
 congress could be assembled: and under the 
 iutiuence of the Colombian soldiery Upper Peru 
 was erected into au independent state by the 
 name of Hie Republic of Bolivar, or Bolivia." — 
 E. J. Pa^ ne, lliKt. of EavojKaii Colonies, p. 290. 
 — For an account of the Peruvian war of liber- 
 ation — the results of wliieh embraced Upper 
 Peru — and the adoption of the Bolivian consti- 
 tution by the latter, see Peuu: A. D. 1820- 
 1830, anil 1825-1830. 
 
 A. D. 1834-1839. — Confederation with Peru. 
 —War with Chile. See Peru: A. D. 1826- 
 1870. 
 
 A. D. 1879-1884.— The war with Chile. See 
 Chile: A. D. 1833-1884. 
 
 BOLIVIAN ^CONSTITUTION, or Code 
 Bolivar. See Peuu: A. D. 1825-1826, and 1826- 
 1876. 
 
 BOLOGNA : Origin of the city.— On the 
 final conquest of the Boian Gauls in 5forth Italy, 
 a new lioman colony and frontier fortress were 
 established, B. C. 189, called first Felsina and 
 then Bononia, which is the Bologna of motlern 
 Italy.— H. G. Liddell, Hist, of Home, bk. 5, eh. 
 41. 
 
 Origin of the name. See Boians. 
 
 295 
 
nOLOONA. 
 
 noOK OF THE DEAD. 
 
 B. C. 43. — Conference of the Triumvirs. 
 Sec ItosiK; 15. ('. U-ii. 
 
 nth Century.— School of Law.— The Glos- 
 sators. — ".Just at this time [piuI of tlu; lltli ccn- 
 ttiry] w(! lliulii fiiinous scliool of liiw pstjiblislied 
 in Bologna, (viid frcfiucMtod bv multitudes of 
 piipilB, not only from ail parts of Italy, but from 
 Oermany, Franee, and oilier coiintrie.s. Tlio basis 
 of all its instructions was tlie Corpus .IvirisCivilis. 
 Its teaehers, who ronstituto 11 scries of dis- 
 tiiiK'iislicd jurists extending over a eeiitury and 
 a half, flevoted themselves to the work of ex- 
 pounding the text and elucidating the prineiples 
 of the Cortius .luris, and especially the Digest. 
 From tlie form in which tliey recorded and 
 handed down tlu! results of their studies, tlicy 
 have obtaiited the name of glossators, (^n their 
 copies of the Corpus .Juris tliey were accustonicd 
 to write glosses. 1. e., brief marginal explanations 
 and remarlis. These glosses came at length to 
 b«! an immense literature." — .1. lladley, Iiitrml. 
 to Itniwm Law, Urt. 3. 
 
 iith-i2th Centuries.— Rise and Acquisition 
 of Republican Independence. See Italy: A. D. 
 1050-1 l.W. 
 
 A. D. 1275. — Sovereignty of the Pope con- 
 firmed by Rodolphof Hapsburg. SecOKUMANv: 
 A. I). 1373-1308. 
 
 A. D. 1350-1447.- Under the tyranny of the 
 Visconti. See .N1ii,\.n: A. D. 1377-1447; and 
 Floukncr: a. D. i:i90-1403. 
 
 A. D. 1512. — Acquisition by Pope Julius II. 
 Sec Italy: A. 1). 15 10-1,-) 11!. 
 
 A. D. 1796-1707. — Joined to the Cispadane 
 Republic. See PiiancI':; A. D. 1790 (Apuii, — 
 OcTouKU); 1790-1797 (Octoheh- .Vpuii,). 
 
 A. D. 1831. — Revolt suppressed by Austrian 
 troops. See Italy; A. D. 1830-1833. 
 
 BOMBAY.— Cession to England (1661). See 
 India: A. D. 1600-17')3 
 
 BON HOIVIME RICHARD AND THE 
 SER APIS.— Sea-fight. See Unitki) Statks 
 OF Am. : A. D. 1779 (SurTKMiiEU). 
 
 BONAPARTE, Jerome, and his Kingdom 
 of Westphalia. See Oicuma .v: A. D. 1807 
 (.luNK— .July); 1813 (SKPTE.MnEn — October), 
 and {()cTom:n— Drx'EMHEU). 
 
 BONAPARTE, Joseph, King of Naples and 
 Xing of Spain. See Fiiance : A. D. 180r)-180« 
 (Decembeii— 'jEPTE.MnEii); Spain: A. D. 1808 
 (May— Septembeii), to 1812-1814. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis, and the Kingdom of 
 Holland. See Xetiieulands: A. D. 1800-1810. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis Napoleon. Sec Napo- 
 leon III. 
 
 BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, The career 
 of. See Fkance: A. D. 1703 (July — December), 
 and 179o (October— December), to 1815. 
 
 BONAPARTE FAMILY, The origin of the. 
 — "About four miles to the south of Florence, on 
 an eminence overlooking tlie valley of the little 
 river Qrevc, ?n'l tl>"3 tlien bridle-path leading 
 towards Siena and Rome, there was a very strong 
 castle, called Monte Uoni, Mons Boni, as it is 
 styled in sundry deeds of gift executed within 
 it,s walls in the years 1041, 1085, and 1100, by 
 whicli its lords made their peace with the Church, 
 in the usual way, by sharing with churchmen 
 the proceeds of a course of life such as needed a 
 whitewashing stroke of the Church's olUce. A 
 strong castle on the road to F -me, and just at a 
 point where the path ascended a steep hill, offered 
 
 advantages and temptations not to he resisted; 
 and the lords of M<)nt(^ lloni 'took toll' of pas.sen- 
 gcrs. But, as Villaiii very naively says, 'tho 
 Florentines could not endure that another should 
 do what they abstained from doing. ' So as usual 
 they sallied forth from their gates oik^ line morn- 
 ing, attacked the strong fortress, and rii/.ed it to 
 the ground. All this was, as we have seen, an 
 ordinary occurrence enough in the history of young 
 Florence. This was a way the burghers had. 
 They were clearing their land of these vestiges 
 of feudalism, miicli as an American settler clears 
 his ground of the stumps remaining from tho 
 primeval forest. But a special interest will bo 
 admitted to belong to this instance of the clearing 
 process, when we discover who those noble old 
 freebooters of Monle Bcmi were. The lords of 
 Mouto Boni were called, by an easy, but it might 
 be fancied ironical, derivation from the name of 
 their castle ' Buoni del Monte,' — the Good Men 
 of the Mountain ; — and by abbreviation, Buondcl- 
 monto, a name which we shall hear more of anon 
 in tho pages of this history. But when, after tho 
 destruction of their fortress, these Good Men of 
 tho Mountain became Florentine citizens, they 
 increa.sed and multiplied; and in tho next genera- 
 tion, dividing off into two brunches, they as- 
 sumed, as was the frequent practice, two distinc- 
 tive appellations; the one branch remaining 
 Buondelmonti, and the other calling themselves 
 Buonaparte. This latter branch shortly after- 
 wards again divided itself into two, of which ono 
 settled at San Miniato al Tedesco, and became 
 extinct there in the person of an aged canon 
 of the name within this century; while tho 
 other first established itself at Sarzana, a littlo 
 town on the coast about half-way between 
 Florence and Genoa, and from thence at a later 
 period transplanted itself to Corsica ; and has since 
 been heard of." — T. A. Trollope, Hint, oftlw Com- 
 monirn ilt/i of Florence, 11 1, ;)/). 50-51. 
 
 BONIFACE, ST., The Mission of. See 
 CiiuisTL\NrTv: A. 1). 400-800. 
 
 BONIFACE, COUNT, and the Vandals. 
 See Vandals: A. D. 439-439. 
 
 BONIFACE III., Pope, A. D. 007, Februaky 
 to Nove.mber. . . . Boniface IV., Pope, A. 1>. 
 
 608-015 Boniface V., Pope, A. I). 'J19-635. 
 
 Boniface VI., Pope, A. D. 890 Boniface 
 
 VII., Pope, A. I). 974, 984-985 Boniface 
 
 VIII., Pope, A. D. 1294-1303 Boniface IX., 
 
 Pone, A. D. 1389-1404. 
 
 BONN, Siege and Capture by Marlborough 
 (1703). See Xetiieklands: A. 1). 1703-1704. 
 
 BONNET ROUGE, The. See Liberty 
 Cap. 
 
 BONONIA IN GAUL. See Gesoriacum. 
 
 BONONIA IN ITALY. See Bologna. 
 
 200K OF THE DEAD.— "A collection 
 (ancient Egyptian) of prayers and exorcisms com- 
 posed at various periods for the benctit of the 
 pilgrim soul in his journey through Ameuti (tho 
 Egyptian Hades) ; and it was in order to provide 
 him witli a safe conduct through tho perils of 
 that terrible valley that copies of this work, or 
 portions of it, were buried with tho mummy in 
 his tomb. Of the many thousands of papyri 
 which have been preserved to this day, it is per- 
 haps scarcely too much to say that one half, if 
 not two thirds, are copies more or less complete 
 of the Book of the Dead." — A. B. Edwards, 
 Academy, Sept. 10, 1887. M. Naville published 
 in 1887 a collatioa of tho numerous differing 
 
 296 
 
BOOK OF THE DEAD. 
 
 noROUOII. 
 
 texts of tlic Hook ( f tlm Dciid, on tlic propnrullon 
 of wliicli lie had been enpiijcMl for ten V'lirs. 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, and the settlement of 
 Kentucky. Sec Kentucky: A. D. 1705-1778, 
 mill 1775-1;hI. 
 
 BOONVILLE, Battle of. Sco MiBsoiiiti: 
 A. I). ISC.l (Kkiiiuaiiy — Iri.Y). 
 
 BOONSBORO, or South Mountain, Battle 
 of. .Sf(. I'mti:!) Htaths kk Am.: A. 1). IHO'i 
 (.Ski'tkmdku: Makyi.am)). 
 
 BOOTH, John Wilkes.— Assassination of 
 President Lincoln. Sec I'mtko Statics oi' 
 Am.: a. 1), 1H(1.-) (AiMiii. 14tii). 
 
 BOR-RUSSIA. SlcPiu-ksia: TiieObiotnai, 
 
 Cot'.NTltY AM) IT.sNAME. 
 
 BORDARII. See Slaveuv, Medieval: 
 
 En(ii.ani): iilso Manoiis. 
 
 BORDEAUX : Origin. Sue Hiudioala. 
 
 A. D. 732.— Stormed and sacked by the 
 Moslems. See Mahometan Conquest: A. D. 
 71.-5-732. 
 
 A. D. 1650.— Revolt of the Frondeurs.— 
 Siege of the city.— Treaty of Peace. Seo 
 Fkance: a. I). l(i.j()-10.-)l. 
 
 A. D. 1652-1653.— The last phase of the 
 Fronde.— Rebellion of the Society of the 
 Ormie. — Cromwell's help invoked. — Siege 
 and submission of the city. — " Tlio peace of 
 Bordeaux in October, 10.50, had left the city tran- 
 quil, but not intimidated, and its citizens were 
 neither attached to tlie government nor nfniid of 
 it._ . . . There, as at Paris, a violent element ob- 
 tained control, ready for disturbance, and not 
 alarmed by the possibility of radical changes in the 
 governtnoiit. . . . During the popular emotion 
 against Epernon, meetings, mostly of the lower 
 classes, had been held under some great elms 
 near the city, and from this circumstance a party 
 had taken the name of the Ormee. It now as- 
 sumed a more definite form, and began to pro- 
 test against the slackness of the otHcers and 
 magistrates, who it was charged, were ready to 
 abandon the popular cause. The Parliament 
 was itself divided into two factions," known as 
 the Little Fronde and the Great Fronde — the 
 latter of which was devoted to the Prince of 
 Conde. "The Ormee was a society composed 
 originally of a small number of active and vio- 
 lent men, and in its organization not wholly 
 unlike the society of the Jacobins. . . . Troubles 
 increased between this society and the parlia- 
 ment, and on June 3d [1052] it held a meeting 
 attended by 3,000 armed men, and decided on 
 the e.xilo of fourteen of the judges who were re- 
 garded as traitors to tli" cause. . . . The offend- 
 ing judges were obliged to leave the city, but in 
 a few days the Parliament again obtained con- 
 trol, and the exiles were recalled and received 
 with great solemnity. But the Ormee was not 
 thus to be overcome. On June 25th these con- 
 tests resulted in battle in the streets, in which 
 the society had the advantage. Many of the 
 judges abandoned the conflict and left the city. 
 The Onneo established itself at the Hotel de 
 Ville, and succeeded in controlling for the most 
 part the affairs of the city. . . . Conde decided 
 that he would recognize the Ormee as a political 
 organization, and strengthen it by his approval. 
 . . . The restoration of the King's authority at 
 Paris [see Fka>-ce: A. D. 1651-1 653J strength- 
 ened the party at Bordeaux that desired peace, 
 and increased the violence of the party that was 
 opposed to it. Plots were laid for the over- 
 
 throw of the local autborllles, but they were 
 wholly unsuccessful. . . . The desire of the 
 lieople, the nobility, and the clergy was for 
 peace. Only by sj^'cdy aid from Spain could 
 the city be kept in hostility to its King and in 
 allegiance to Conde. Spun was asked to send 
 asHistanc(^ and prevent this important loss, but 
 tlie Spanish delayed any vigorous action, partly 
 from remissness and pu'lly from lack of troops 
 and money. The mo.st ■ 1 he province of Uuienno 
 was gmdiially lost to th. insurgents. . . . Condo 
 .seems to have left Guienno to itself. ... In 
 Ibis condition, the people of Bordeaux turned to 
 Cromwell as the only person who had the iMiwer 
 to help them. . . . The envoys were received 
 by Cromwell, but be took no steps to send aid to 
 Bordeaux. Hopes were held out which en- 
 couraged the city and alarmed the French minis- 
 ter, but no ships were sent." Meantime, the 
 King's for<:es in Guienne advanced with steady 
 success, and early in the summer of 1053 they 
 began the si(^ge of the city. The peace party 
 within, thus encouraged, soon overthrew the 
 Ormee, and arranged terms for the 8ubniis.sion 
 of the town. '"The government proceeded at 
 once to erect the castles of Trompette and lid, 
 and they were made i)owerful enough to check 
 any future turbuli^nce." — J. B. Perkins, Frcnce 
 under Mazarin, eh. 15 (r. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1791. — The Girondists in the National 
 Legislative Assembly. See France: A. D. 
 1791 (Octobeh). 
 
 A. D. 1793. — Revolt against the Revolu- 
 tionary Government of Paris. — Fearful ven- 
 geance of the Terrorists. See Fuance ; A. D. 
 1793(June); (July— Decembeu); and 1703-1794 
 
 (OCTOIIEII — APUIL). 
 
 A. D. 1814.— Occupied by the English. See 
 Spain: A. D. 1812-1814. 
 
 BORDER-RUFFIANS. See Kansas : A. D. 
 1854-1859. 
 
 BORGHETTO, Battle of. See Fkance; A.D. 
 1700 (AruiJ. — Octobek). 
 
 BORGIAS, The. See Papacy: A. D. 1471- 
 1513. 
 
 BORIS, Czar of Russia. A. D. 1598-1005. 
 
 BORLA, The. See Peku; A. D. 1533-1548. 
 
 BORNHOVED, Battle of (1227). See 
 Scandinavi.vn St.\tes: A. D. 1018-1397. 
 
 BORNY, OR COLOMBEY-NOUIL!,Y, 
 Battle of. See Fr.vxce: A. D. 1870 (July— 
 
 AUOUST). 
 
 BORODINO, OR THE MOSKOWA, 
 Battle of. See Russia: A. D. 1813 (June— 
 Septembeu). 
 
 BOROUGH.— CITY— TOWN— VILLE. 
 
 — "'file butJi of the Anglo-Saxon period was 
 simply a more strictly organized form of the 
 township. It was probably in a more defensible 
 position; had a ditch and mound instead of the 
 quickset hedge or ' tun ' from which the town- 
 ship took its name ; and as the ' tun ' originally 
 was \he fenced homestead of the cultivator, the 
 burli was the fortified house and court-yard of 
 the 7-.iigbty man — the king, the magistrate, or 
 the noble. '^'—W. Stubbs, Omst. IIM. of Emj., 
 eh. 5. — "I must freely confess that I do not 
 know what difference, e:;cept a difference in rank, 
 there is in England between a city and a 
 liorough. ... A city does not seem to have any 
 rights or powers as a city wliich are not equally 
 shared by every other corporate town. The only 
 
 297 
 
HOItOUGH. 
 
 B08PII0nU8. 
 
 corpomte towns which have any Hpt-olal powers 
 hIhivc itthcrs arc lliosc whicli ari! couiitit'st of 
 thciiiHclvi'M; and a'l citicH aru not coiintii'.s of 
 tlicniiU'lvt'H, while Honu* townx which aru not 
 cilicM aro. The city in KnKland is not ho eiutily 
 duitncd an tlie city in tiio United StatcH. Tlier(\ 
 every corponit(! town is a vity. Tlds nialicH ii 
 Kn-nt many citii'H, and it ieads to an use of tin; 
 word city in common talit wiiicii Keems a little 
 BtmnKc in iSritisli ears. In Kn^land, even in 
 BpeaiiinK of a real city, tin! word city is seldom 
 used, except in languaj^o a little formal or 
 rliotorical ; in Amerh'a it is used wluMiever a 
 city is mentioned. Hut the American rule has 
 tlie advanlaite of lieinj; perfectly clear and avoid- 
 Inj? all doulil. And it ai;rees very well with tlie 
 origin of the word: a corpoiate town is a 
 ' civit4is,' a commonwealth; any lesser collection 
 of men hanily is a conunonwealth, or is sucli 
 only in a nuich less perfect (Uigrce. Tills brings 
 us to the historical use of tlie word. It is clear 
 at starting tliat the word is not Knglisli. It has 
 no Uld-Knglish equivalent; burh, burgli, 
 borough, in its various spc^Uings and various 
 shades of meaning, is our native word for urbes 
 of every kind from Rome downward. It is 
 curious that this word should in ordinary 
 speech have been so largely displaced by the 
 vaguer word tun, town, which means an enclos- 
 ure of any kind, and in some English dialects is 
 still applied to a single house and its surround- 
 ings. ... In common talk we use the word 
 borough hardly oftener than the word city ; when 
 the word is used, it has commonly some direct 
 reference to the parliaiiK.'ntary or munici|)al 
 characters of the town. Many people, I suspect, 
 would define a borough as a town which sends 
 members to Parliament, and such a definition, 
 though still not accurate, has, by late changes, 
 been brought nearer to accuracy than it used to 
 be. City and borough, then, are both rather for- 
 mal words; town is the word which comes most 
 naturally to the lips when there is no special 
 reason for using one of the others. Of the two 
 formal words, borough is English ; city is Latin ; 
 it comes to us from Gaul and Italy by some road 
 or other. It is in Domesday that we tlnd, by 
 no means its first use in England, but its first 
 clearly formal use, tlic fli-st use of it to dis- 
 tinguish a certain class of towns, to mark those 
 towns whicli are 'civitates' as well as burgi 
 from tliose which arc burgi only. Now in 
 Gaul the ' civitas ' in fonnal Itonian language 
 was the tribe nnd its territory, the whole land 
 of the Arverni, Parisii, or anyOther tribe. In a 
 secondary sense it meant the head town of the 
 tribe. . . . When Cliristianity was established, 
 the 'civitas' in the wider sense marked the 
 extent of tiio bishop's diocese; the 'civitas' 
 in the narrower sense became tlie immediate 
 seat of his bisliopstool. Thus we cannot 
 say that in Gaul a town became a city 
 because it was a bisliop's see ; but we may say 
 that a certain class of towns became bishops' 
 sees because tlicy were already cities. But in 
 modern French use no distinction is made 
 between these ancient capitals which became 
 bishoprics and other towns of less temijoral and 
 spiritual honour. The seat of the bishopric, the 
 head of the ancient province, tlie head of the 
 modern department, the smaller town whicli has 
 never ri-seu to any of tlui^c dignities, are all 
 alike villu. Lyons, liheims, I'aris, are in no way 
 
 distinguished from meaner places. The word 
 citC is common laiough, but it has a purely Iim'uI 
 meaning. It often distinguishes the old part of 
 a town, the ancient 'civitas,' from later add!- 
 llon.s. In Italy on the other hand, citti\ is both 
 the familiar and tiii^ formal muw. for towns 
 great and small. It is used Just like ville ia 
 French." — K. A. Freeman, Vtty mid liuwiiyh 
 (}f(icmill<iii'ii M,!)/.. Mail. IMHO). 
 
 BOROUGH-ENGLISH. See Fkudai, Tkn- 
 
 I'UKS. 
 
 BOROUGHBRIDGE, Battle of.^— Fought 
 March 16, VM'i, in tlie civil war which arose in 
 England during tlie reign of Edward II on ac- 
 count of the King's favorites, the Despenscrs. 
 Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the leader of opposi- 
 tion, was defeated, captured, summarily tried 
 and beheaded. 
 
 BOROUGHS, Rotten and Pocket. See 
 Enoi.and: a. I). IWIO, and 18;t()-t8;K. 
 
 BORROMEAN, OR GOLDEN LEAGUE, 
 The. See SwiTZKUi.ANi): A. I). ir)79-10;iO. 
 
 BORYSTHENES, The.— The name which 
 the Greeks gave anciently to the river now 
 known as the Dnieper. It also became the 
 name of a town near the mouth of the river, 
 which was originally called Olbia', — a very early 
 trading settlement of the Milesians. 
 
 BOSCOBEL, The Royal Oak of. See Scot- 
 land: A. I). 1051. 
 
 BOSNIA. See Balkan- and Danudian 
 Statks. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, OR BOSPORUS, The.— 
 The word means literally an 'ox-ford,' and the 
 Greeks derive<l it as a name from tliu legend of 
 lo, who, driv(m by a gad-fly, swam across the 
 straits from Europe into Asia. Tliey gave the 
 name particularly to tliat channel, on which 
 Constantinople lies, but applied it also to other 
 similar straits, such as the Cimmerian Bosporus, 
 opening the Sea of Azov. 
 
 The city and kingdom. — "Uespectiug Bos- 
 porus, or I'antikapiciini (for botli names denote 
 tlie same city, tliough tlie former name often 
 comprehends the whole annexed domini(m) 
 founded by Alilesian settlers ou the European 
 side of the Kimmerian Bosporus (near ICertsch) 
 wo first hear, about the pericwl when Xer.xes 
 was repuLsed from Greece (480-479 B. C.) It 
 was the centre of a dominion including Pliana- 
 goria, Kepi, IIermonas.sa, and otlier Greek cities 
 on the Asiatic side of tlio strait; and it is said ti» 
 have been governed by what seems to have been 
 an oligarchy — called the Archieanaktidie — for 
 forty! wo years (480-438 B. C.) After them we 
 have u scries of princes standing out individu- 
 ally bv name, and succeeding each other in the 
 same family, [438-284 B. C.]. . . . During the 
 reigns of these princes, a connexion of some 
 intimacy subsisteel between Athens and Bosporus ; 
 a connexion not political, since tlie Bosporanic 
 princes had little interest in tlie contentions about 
 llellenic lugemony — but of private intercourse, 
 commercial exchange lind reciprocal good olllces. 
 The eastern corner of the Tauric Chersonesus, 
 between Pantikapoeum and Theodosia, was well 
 suited for the production of corn; while plenty 
 of fish, as well as salt, was to be had in or near 
 tlie Palus Mieotis. Corn, salted tisli and meat, 
 hides and barbaric slaves in considerable num- 
 bers, were in demand among all Greeks round 
 the ^gean, and not least at Athens, where 
 Scythian slaves were numerous; while oil and 
 
 298 
 
IJOHPIKHIUS. 
 
 nOSTOX. 1680. 
 
 See Q0TII8, Ac- 
 
 by the Turks. — 
 
 FA. D. 50,5-574] tlin 
 hud bei'ii citpturcil 
 
 wliic, (iml othor prodiictH of more southprn 
 n'KioiiH. wi'H! lU'ci^ptiibli' hi llosporiiH and the 
 other Poiitli- portH. This iiiiporliiiit trullli' 
 HcriiiH t» hiivi' Ik'CII iniiitily "iirricd on in Mliips 
 and hy capital lu'lon^in^ Atlicns and otlicr 
 /KKcaii niaritinic townH and must havo Ih'cii 
 Kri'ntiy under tlii' prolcctiDi) anil rcjridation of 
 till' Athenians, ho lon^ as tlieir luaritiine empire 
 8ill)sisled. Knterprisiiij? citizens of Athens went 
 to Hosporus (as to Tlirace and tlie Tlinician 
 C'liersonesus), to pusli tiieir fortunes. . . . We 
 have no means of followiiuf [tlie fortunes of the 
 Kosporanie princes] in detail-, l)Ut we know tliat, 
 al)out II century H. ('., tlie tlicii reigninjf prince, 
 I'arisades IV. found himself so pressed and 
 Buuee/.ed hy tlie Scythians, that he wa.s forced 
 {Ukv Oihia and tlie I'entapolis) to forego Ills 
 Independence, and to call in, as auxiliary or 
 muster, tlio formidablt! .Mithridales Kupator of 
 Pontiis; from whom a new dynasty of Rospor- 
 nnlc kings began — subject, Iiowever, after no 
 long interval, to the dominion and interference 
 of I{ome."— O. Qrotc, Ilint. of (Irci-ee, pt. 2, 
 eh. 08. 
 
 A1.8O IN: T. MomniiM'n, /fist, nf llmiit', hk. 8, 
 eh. 7. — SeeMiTiiitiDATic Waiis, and Ko.mk: U. C. 
 47-40. 
 
 Acquisition by the Goths. 
 
 QUISITION (IF HoSI'lIMIirS. 
 
 A. D. 565-574.— Capture 
 " During the reign of .Justin ' 
 city of Bosporus, in Tauris, 
 by the Turks, who then occupied a considerable 
 portion of tlie Tauric (Jliersonesus. The city of 
 Cherson alone continued to maintain its inde- 
 pendence in the northern regions of the Black 
 Sea." — Q. Finlttv, Greece uiukr the Romaiui, ch. 
 4, sect. 8. — See I'uuKs; Sixth Centuky. 
 
 BOSSISM.— The "Spoils System "In Ameri- 
 can politics [see .Spoil ■, System] (levelo|ied enor- 
 mously the influenc and power of certain leaders 
 and managers of party organizations, in the 
 great cities and some of the states, who acquired 
 the names of " Bosses," while the system of poli- 
 tics which they represented was called "Boss- 
 ism." The notorious William M. Tweed, of the 
 New York " Tainmanv Ring" [see New Youk: 
 A. D. 1803-1871] scenis to have been the Hrst of 
 the species to be dubbed "Boss Tweed" by his 
 " heelers," or followers, and the title passed from 
 him to others of like kind. 
 
 BOSTON: A. D. 1628-1630.— The first 
 white inhabitant. — The founding and naming^ 
 of the city. See Mass.vciiusetts: A. 1). 1022- 
 1028, and 1030. 
 
 A. D. 1631-1651. — The Puritan Theocracy.— 
 Troubles with Roger Williams, Anne Hutch- 
 inson and the Presbyterians. Sen Massachu- 
 setts: A. n. 1031-1030, to 1040-1051. 
 
 A. D. 1656-1661. — The persecution of Qua- 
 kers. See .Massachusetts: A. D. 1050-1001. 
 
 A. D. 1657-1669.— The Halfway Covenant 
 and the founding of the Old South Church.— 
 " In Massachusetts after 1050 the opinion rapidly 
 gained ground that all bapti.sed persons of up- 
 right and decorous lives ought to be considered, 
 for pmctical purjioses, as members of the church, 
 and therefore entitled to the exercise of political 
 rights, even though unqualifled for participation 
 in the Lord's Supper. Tills theory of church- 
 membership, based on what was at that time 
 stigmatized as the Halfway Covenant, aroused 
 20 
 
 tntonM opposition. It was the grpttt fiiiestlon of 
 the day. In 1057 a couniil was held In itostoii. 
 which Jipproved the |irincipl<' of the Halfway 
 Covenant; and as this decision was far from 
 satisfvlng the churches, a hvikkI of all the clergy- 
 men fn .Massachusetts was lield live years later, 
 to reconsider the great i|Ueslion. 'I he dei Isioii 
 of the synod substantially eonllrnied the decision 
 of the couiK'il, but thelis we., some <lissentlng 
 voices. Koreniost among the dissenters, who 
 wished to retain the old theocratic regime in all 
 its strictness, was Charles Cliauncey, the presi- 
 dent of Harvard College, and ltiercas(! Alather 
 agreed with him at the time, though he after- 
 ward saw reason to change his opinion and pub- 
 lished two tracts in favour of the Halfway Cov- 
 enant. .Most bitter of all toward the new theory 
 of church-memlK'rslilp was, naturally enough, 
 Mr. Davenport of New Haven. Tbis burning 
 (luestion was the source of angry contentions In 
 the First Church of Boston. Its teachiT, the 
 learned and melancholy Norton, died in 1003, 
 and four years later th<^ aged pastor, .lohn Wil- 
 son, followed him. In clioosing a successor to 
 Wilson th(^ church decided to declare itself in op- 
 position to the liberal decision of the syninl, and 
 in token thereof invited Davenport to come from 
 New Haven to take cliarge of it. Davenport, 
 who was then seventy years old, was disgusted 
 at the recent annexation of his colony to Connec- 
 ticut. He accepted the Invitation and came ti> 
 Boston, against the wLslies of nearly half of the 
 Boston congregation, wlio did not like the illib- 
 eral principle which he represented. In little 
 more than a year his ministry at Boston was 
 ended by death; but the opposition to his call 
 had already proceeded so far that a secession 
 from the old church had become inevitable. In 
 1001) the advocates of the Halfway Covenant or- 
 ganized themselves into a new society under tin? 
 title of the ' Third Church in Boston. A wooden 
 meeting-liou.se was built on a lot which had once 
 belonged to the hite governor Winthrop, in what 
 was then tlie south part of the town, so that the 
 society and its mec^ting-house became known a.i 
 the South Church ; and after a new church 
 founded in Summer Street in 1717 took tlie name 
 of the New South, the church of 1000 came to 
 bo further distinguished as the Old South. As 
 this church represented a liberal idea which was 
 growing in favour with the people, it soon be- 
 came the most flourishing church in America. 
 After sixty years its nuiiibers had increased so 
 tliat the ol(l lueeting-house could not c<>ntain 
 tlicin; and in 1739 the famous building which 
 still stands was erected on the same spot, — u 
 building \vitli a grander history tliau any other 
 on the American continent, unless it be that 
 other plain brick building in Pliiladclphia where 
 the Declaration of Independence \vas adopted 
 and the Federal Constitution framed." — J. Fiske, 
 Tlie Ikginnings of New Entj., ch. 0. 
 
 Also in : H. M. Dexter, The Con/jregationaliKin, 
 of the Inxt 300 yean, led. 0.— B. B. AVisncr, Hint, 
 of the Old South Church, sermon 1. — W. Emer- 
 son, Hist. Sketch of the First Ch. in Boston, sect. 
 
 -King Philip's War. See 
 D. 1074-1075; 1075; 1070- 
 
 A. D. 1674-1678.- 
 New England: A. 
 1078. 
 
 A. D. 1689.— The rising for William and 
 Mary and the downfall of Andros. Sec Massa- 
 chusetts: A. D. 1080-1089. 
 
 299 
 
nOSTOV, 1607. 
 
 BOSTON, 176H. 
 
 A. D. 1697.— Tbrektened attack by the 
 French, rtrc ('.\NaUA (Nkw Kiianck): A. I). 
 KHf.' ItlKT. 
 
 A. D. 1704. — The first newspaper, Si-r 
 riiiNTlNa, Ac: A 1). I7l»l-17',MI 
 
 A. D. 1740-1743.— The origin of Faneuil 
 Hall. Sci> KvNKi II, IIai.i.. 
 
 A. D. 1761,— The queition of. the Writ* of 
 assistance and Tames Otis's speech. Hi-i- 
 .MA»«\<iiiM-:Trs: .\. I). l7tU. 
 
 A. D. 1764-1767.— Patriotic self-denials.— 
 Non-importation ag;reement». Sec Cnitki) 
 StaiksokAm, : A. I). I7(ll-I7tl7, 
 
 A. D. 1765-1767.— The doings under the Lib- 
 erty Tree. Scr l.iiir.HTV 'riiKi;. 
 
 A, D. 1768. —The seizure of the sloop " Lib- 
 erty. " — Riotous patriotism, — " For hoiiiu yi'urs 
 tlif'ti' oIllctTs [of th(^ <iistc)iiiH| liiiil liccii rc'sistcd in 
 miikiiiK sclziiri's of iiiiciistomccl floods, which 
 wero frciiiicntly ivsi'iii'd from their iHisscHslon by 
 Intcrcstcil imilirH, iind tliu dctcrmiimtion of the 
 coinmissioncrs of ciistonts to bri'iik up thin prac- 
 tice freoucntly led to colli ms; hut 110 tluifriuit 
 outbrc'iik occurred until tiie Hclzure of .fohii 
 Hancock's Hloop ' Mberty ' (.Ii'ie 10, 1708), liiden 
 with It ciirgo of Madi'ira wine. The olllccr in 
 charge, refusiiijj; a bribe, was forclldy locked up 
 In the cabin, tlic K''t'"l<''" P'""' "f t''" TOrgo was 
 removed, and the reinaiiKler entered at the cus- 
 tom-house as the whole cargo. This led to seiz- 
 ure of the vessel, .said to have been the first made 
 by the commissioners, and for security she was 
 placed under the guns of the ' Honniey,' a man- 
 of-war ill the harbor. For this the revenue olfl- 
 cers were roughly handled l)y the mob. Their 
 boat was burned, their houses threatened, and 
 they, with their alarmed families, t(M)k refuge on 
 board the ' Uomney,' and lliially in the Castle. 
 The.se proceeiliiigs undoubtedly led to the send- 
 ing additional military forces to Boston in Sep- 
 tember. Tlie (leneriil Court was in session at 
 the time, but noellcctual proceedings were taken 
 iigain.st the rioters. l'ul)llc svinpathy was with 
 them in their purpo.ses it not In their inea.sures. " 
 — M. Chamberlain, Tho liewlution Inijxndinr/ 
 (Narratitcand Critical Hint, of Am., v. 6, c/i. ij. 
 
 A. D. 1768.— The quartering of British 
 troops. — "Before news bad reached England of 
 the late riot in Boston, two regiments from Hali- 
 fax had been ordereil thither. When news of 
 that riot arrived, two additional regiments were 
 ordered from Ireland. Tlie arrival of an olHcer, 
 sent by Cage from New York, to provide 
 <iuartfrs for these troops, occasioned a town 
 nieetiag in Boston, by which the governor was 
 reciuested to summon a new General Court, which 
 he peremptorily refused to do. The meeting 
 then recommended a convention of delegates 
 from all the towns in the province to assemble at 
 Boston in ten days; 'in conse(iuence of prevail- 
 ing apprehensions of a war with France' — such 
 was tile pretence — they advised all persons not 
 already provided witli tire-arms to procure them 
 at (mcc; they also appointed a day of fasting and 
 prayer, to be ob.served by all the Congregational 
 societies. Delegates from more than a liundred 
 towns met accordingly at the day appointed 
 
 {Sept. 23], chose Ciishing, speaker of the late 
 louse, as their chairman, and petitioned Bernard 
 to summon a General CJourt. The governor not 
 only refused tc!* receive their petition, but de- 
 nounced the meeting as treasonable. In view of 
 this charge, the pi-oceediags were exceedingly 
 
 caiitioiH and mixlemte. All pretcnslnns to 
 
 rdlitical authority were expressly disclaimed. 
 n the course of a four days' session a pelitinn to 
 the King was agreed to, and a letter to llie 
 agent, l*e llerdt, of wliii'h tlie chief burden was 
 to defend the provliit ' against the charge of a 
 rebellious spirit Sueli was the llrsi of llioso 
 popular conventions, (h'slined within a few yi'irs 
 to assume the whole political aiilhority of lliii 
 I'ol'inles. The day after llii' adjouminent llui 
 troops from Halifax arrive<l. There was room 
 in the barracks at the citstle, but Gage, alariiii'd 
 at the accounts from .Massachusetts, had sent 
 onlers from New York to have the two regiments 
 i|iiartered In th(.' town. Tlw. council were called 
 upon to Ibid (|uarters, but. by the verv terms of 
 the {Quartering .\ct, as they alleged, till the 
 barracks were full there was no necessity to pro- 
 vide (iiiarters elsewhere. Bernard insisted that the 
 barrai^ks hail been reserved forthe two regimenta 
 expected from Ireland, and must, therefore, Iw 
 considered as already full. The council replied, 
 that, even allowing that to be the case, by tho 
 terms of the act, the provision of iiiiarleni 
 belonged not to them, hut to the local magis- 
 trates. There was a large building in Boston 
 belonging to the province, known as the ' Manu- 
 factory House,' and occupied by a number of 
 poor families. Bernard pressed the council to 
 advise that this bivlding be cleared and pre|)ared 
 for tho rocei)tion of the troops; but they utterly 
 refused. The governor then undertook to do ft 
 on his own authority. The troops had already 
 landed, undi'r cover of the ships of war, to thu 
 number of a thousand men. Some of them ap- 
 peared to demand an entrance into the Manu- 
 factory House; but the tenants were encouraged 
 to keep jiossession ; nor did the governor venture 
 to use force. One of the rt^giments encamped 
 on the common ; for a partof the other regiment, 
 which had no tents, the temporary use of Faneuil 
 Hall was reluctantly yielded; to the rest of it, 
 the Town House, useil also as a Slate House, all 
 except the council chamber, was thrown open 
 by the governor's oriler. It was Sunday. Tho 
 'Town House was directly opposite tho nieeting- 
 hoiise of the First Church. Cannon were planted 
 in front of it; sentinels were stationed in the 
 streets; the inhabitants were challenged as they 
 passed. The devout wero greatly aggravated 
 and annoyed by the beating of drums and tho 
 marching of tlie troops. Presently Gage camo 
 t( yoston to urge the provision of quarters. 
 Tile council directed Ills attention to the terms of 
 the act, and referred him to the selectmc'ii. As 
 the act spoke only of justices of the peace, tho 
 selectmen declined to take any steps in tho 
 matter. Bernard then constituted, wliat ho called 
 a Board of .lusticos, and retpdred them to Iind 
 quarters ; but they did not choose to exerci.se a 
 (loubtful and unpopular authority. Gage was 
 linally obliged to quarter the troops in liouses 
 which he liired for the ptirpose, and to procure 
 out of his own military chest the flring, bedding, 
 and other articles mentioned in the Quartering 
 Act, the council having declined to order any ex- 
 penditure for tliose puriioses, on the ground 
 that the appropriation of money belonged ex- 
 clusively to llie General Court. —U. Ilildreth, 
 Jligt. of the U. S., eh. 29 (n. 3). 
 
 A1.80IN: U. Prothingham, Life and Tiinen of 
 Joseph Warren, r,h. 0. — T. Hutchinson, lUM. of 
 the Praei nee 0/ Mats. Bay, 1749-1774, fip. 202-217. 
 
 300 
 
nrsTox, 1760. 
 
 BOSTON, 1770. 
 
 A. D. 1769.— The patriot! threatened and 
 Virginia ipeaking out. Si-c Unitkd Ht.mkh ok 
 Am.; \ 1). ITtH), 
 
 A. D. 1770, — Soldier* and citizens in col- 
 lision,— Tne " Massacre."— Removal of the 
 troops,— " A.s till' Hpriri); oi' llir year 1770 iii)- 
 
 tx'iiri'cl, till' I till anil :2U(li ri';;lin<'iils had hi'rii in 
 ioHtoii uliDiit. M'Vrnli'i'ii iiiorithH. The I Itli waH 
 in harruckH near llii' Uralllr Sircil Chiirrh; the 
 ■Jllth was <|inirli'rri| junt sinilh nf Kiiijf Hlrcct; 
 about iniilway lictwi'cii Ihi'iii, in Kin^ HtriTt, 
 ami cliMi' at lianil tu the town-hmiNi', wan tlio 
 inahi K'Hiril, whose niarnrss to the puhlie biiilii- 
 Inj^s liail hrrn a subject of fjreat annoyance I.) 
 tile people. . . . One is forceil toailnill . , . 'hat 
 
 11 Hixxl ilej;ri f (li."clpUne was inalnlahieil ; 110 
 
 lilooil hail as yet been shell by the soliliers, 
 iilthouuli provoeatlons were eonslant, llie ruili! 
 oloiuenl hi the town xr'^^inj,' >?railually inori? at?- 
 (ifresslvu as Ilii! soldiers were never allowed to use 
 their arms. Insults and blows with lists were 
 freijuently taken and K'ven, uniieudifelsidsitcanif 
 into fa.shion in thi- brawls. Whatever awe the 
 regiments hai' insiiired at their llrst coming had 
 lonj( worn oil'. In particular Ihi^ workmen of the 
 rope-walks and siiip-yards alloweil their lon>{Ues 
 the l:u')j[est license and were foremost in the en- 
 coiniters. About the 1st of .March lights of un- 
 usual bitterne.s.': . had occurretl near tjirey's rope- 
 walk, not far from the (piarters of the 20th, 
 between the Ininils of the lope-walk and soldu^rs 
 <)t that ref^imcnt, which had a particularly bad 
 reputation. 'I'lie soldiers had got the worst of it, 
 and were much irritated. Threats of revenge 
 had been made, which had called out arrogant 
 replies, and signs abounded that serious trouble 
 was not far olf. From an early hour on the 
 evening of the 5th of March the symptoms were 
 very ominous. . , , At length nn altercation be- 
 gan in Iviiig Street betwen a company of lawles.s 
 boys and a few older brawlers on the one side, 
 und the sentinel, who paced his beat before the 
 custom-liouse, on the other. . . , The soldier re- 
 treated up the steps of tlie custom-house and 
 called out for help. A tile of soldiers was at once 
 despatched from the main guard, ucro.ss the street, 
 by Captain Preston, olllcer of the guard, who him- 
 self soon followed to the scene of trouble. A coat- 
 ing of ice covered the ground, upon wliich shortly 
 before had fallen a light snow. A young moon 
 was shining; the whole transaction, therefore, was 
 plainly visible. The soldiers, witli the sentinel, 
 nine in number, drew up in line before the people, 
 who greatly outnumbered them. The pieces 
 were loaded and held ready, but the mob, believ- 
 ing that the troops would not us(! their arms ex- 
 cept upon requisition of a civil magistrate, 
 shouted coarse insults, iircssed upon the very 
 muzzles of the pieces, struck them with stick.s, 
 and assaulted the soldiers with balls of ice. In 
 the tumult precisely wliat was said aud done 
 cannot be known. JIany nllidavits were taken 
 in the investigation that followed, and, asalwa^-s 
 at such times, the testimony was most contnidic- 
 tory. Henry Kno.x, afterwards the artillery 
 gencnd, at this time a bookseller, was on the 
 spot and used his influence with Preston to pre- 
 vent a command to tire. Preston declared that 
 he never gavi; the command. The air, however, 
 was full of shouts, daring the soldiers to Are, 
 some of which may have been easily understood 
 as conunands, and at last the discharge came. If 
 it had failed to come, iuueed, the forbearance 
 
 Would have been (|uile mImrulniiH. Three wen» 
 killed (lutrlght, and eight were woiin<lei|, only 
 one of whom, Crispus Attucks, a tall niulallo 
 who faced the soldiers, leaning on a stick of conl- 
 wiukI, had really taken aiiv part in the dis- 
 turbance. The rest Were liystaiiderM or were 
 hurrying into the street, not linowing the causo 
 of the tumult. ... A wild confusion . . . tiM>lc 
 possession of the town. The iilarnibellM rang 
 frantically ; on the other hand the drums of Iho 
 regliiu'nts thundered to arms. . . . What averted 
 a fearful battle in the streets was tii(> excellent 
 conduct of Hutchinson" — thelleiitenantgovernor, 
 who miule his way promptly to the seeiu', caused 
 the tr(K)ps to be sent hack to their barriwks, 
 ordered the arrest of Cuptain Preston and tlio 
 nine soldiers who had done the tiring, and began 
 an investigation of thealTair the .same night. Tlio 
 next day a great town meeting was held, aud, as 
 crowds from the surroimdlng towns pres.sed in, 
 it was adjourned from Fancull Hall to the (Md 
 .South Church, and overllowed in the neighborhig 
 streets. A formal ilemand for the removal of the 
 troops was .sent to the governor and council by a 
 coinmiltee which had Sanuu'l Adams at its head. 
 (Jovernor Hutchinson disclaimed authority over 
 the troops; but their commanding olllcer. Colonel 
 l)alrympli>, proposed to compromise by seiidin{{ 
 away the 2l)th regiment and retaiinng the 14th. 
 As the committee! returiuMl to the meeting with 
 this proposal, through the crowd, Adams dropped 
 right and 1 ft the words, "Both regiments or 
 none. "—" He (h regiments or none. " 80 he put 
 into the mi)uJis of the people their reply, which 
 they shouteit as with one voice when the report 
 of the committee was made to them. There was 
 a determination in the cry which overcame even 
 the obstinacy of Oovernor llutchin.son, and the 
 departure of both regiments was ordered that 
 same day. " In Kngland the allair was regarded 
 as a ' successful bully ' of the whole power of 
 the government by the li:''o town, and when 
 Lord North received details >)f these events ho 
 always referred to the Mthand 29th as the ' Ham 
 Adams regiments.'" — J. K. Ilosmer, Samuel 
 Adtiinn, eh. 11. 
 
 Also in: U. Frothingliam, Life <tud Times of 
 JoKCjih Warren, eh. (t. — The same. The Sam. 
 Adniii* Ili'f/imeii/i < .Ulaiilic Afonthli/, r. 9, 10, ami 
 13; 1863-63).— J. l Adams, Life of John AdamH, 
 eh. 3 (('. 1). — T. Hutchinson, IIi»t. of the Promnee 
 
 of Maui, nan, 1749-1774, /)/*. 270-380.— H. Niles, 
 
 Prin 
 
 editii 
 
 Mattacre 
 
 ineiples and Acts of the Kecolution (Centennial 
 edition), pp. 15-79. — F. Kedder, Hint, of the ISoston 
 
 A. D. 1770. — The fair trial of the soldiers. — 
 
 "The episode [of tiie alTray of March 5thJ had 
 ... a seejuel which is extremely creditable to 
 tiie American people. It was determined to try 
 the soldiers for their lives, and public feeling 
 ran so fiercely against them that it seemed as it 
 tlieir fate was sealed. The trial, iiowever, was 
 delayed for seven months, till the excitement liiul 
 in some degree subsided. Captain Preston very 
 judiciously appealed to John Adams, who was 
 rapidly rising to the first place both among the 
 lawyers and the popular patriots of Boston, to 
 undertake liis defence. Adams knew well 
 how much lie was risking by espousing so un- 
 popular a cause, but he knew al.so iiis pro- 
 fessional duty, and, though violently opposed to 
 the British "government, lie was an eminently 
 honest, brave, and Uuraane man. In coujunc- 
 
 301 
 
BOSTON, 1770. 
 
 BOSTON, 1773. 
 
 tioii with Josiuli Quincy, a young lawyer who 
 w«» also of the ])atii()tic party, he undertook the 
 invidious t^isk, and he diselmrged it witli con- 
 sununate ability. . . . There was abundant 
 evidence that t!ie soldiers had iMidured gross 
 provocation and some violence. If the trial had 
 been the prosecution of a smuggler or a seditious 
 •writer, the jury would probably have decided 
 against evidence, but they had no disposition to 
 shed innocent blood. Judges, counsel, and 
 jurymen acted bravely and honourably. All 
 the soldiers were acquitted, except two, who 
 were found guilty of manslaughter, and who 
 escaped with very slight jiunishmcnt. It is very 
 remarkable that after Adams had accepted the 
 task of defending the incriminated soldiers, he 
 was elected by the people of Boston as their 
 representative in the Assembly, and the public 
 opinion of the province appears to have .fully 
 acquiesced in the verdict. In truth, altliough 
 no people have indulged more largely tlian the 
 Americans in violent, reckless, and unscrupulous 
 language, no people have at every period of 
 their history been more signally free from tlie 
 thirst for blood, which in moments of great 
 political excitement has been often shown both 
 in England and France." — W. E. II. Lecky, 
 UM. of Eitg. ill the Vith Century, ch. 13 (». 3). 
 
 Also in; J. Adams, Autohionraphy (Works, v. 
 2, ;). 230). — Lord JIahon (Eurl Stanhope), Ui»t. 
 ofKiig., 1713-1783, r. 5, p. 209. 
 
 A, D 1773.— The Tea Party. — "News 
 reached Boston in the spring of this year [1773] 
 that the East India Company, which was em- 
 barrassed by the accumulation of tea in England, 
 owing to the refusal of the Americans to buy it, 
 had induced parliament to permit its exportation 
 to America witliout the payment of the usual 
 duty [see United States of Av.: A. D. 1772- 
 1773]. This was intended to bribe the colonists 
 to buy ; for there had been a duty both in Eng- 
 land and in America. That in England was six 
 pence a pound, that in AiiKnica three pence. 
 Ships were laden and sent to Boston, New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Charleston, and they were 
 now expected to arrive in a short time. ... On 
 the 28th of November, 1773, which was Sunday, 
 tlie first tea-siiip (the ' Dartmoutli ') entered the 
 harbor [of Boston]. The following morning the 
 citizens were informed by placard that the 
 ' worst o ' "^'agues, the iletested ten, ' had actually 
 arrived, a that a meeting was to be held at 
 nine in iie morning, at Faneuil Hall, for the 
 purpose of making 'a united and successful 
 resistance to this last, woret, and most destruc- 
 tive measure of administration.' Tlie Cradle of 
 Liberty was not large enough to contain the 
 crowd that was called together. Adams rose 
 and made n stirring motion expressing doter- 
 minntion that the tea should not be landed, and 
 it was unanimously agreed to. The meeting 
 then adjourned to the Old South meeting-house, 
 where the motion was repeated, and again 
 adopted without an opposing voice. The owner 
 of the sliip protested in vain that the proceed- 
 ings were illegal ; a watch of tweuty-flve pei-sons 
 was set, to sec that the intentions of the citizens 
 were not evaded, and the meeting adjourned to 
 the following morning. The throng at that 
 time was as great as usual, and while the deliber- 
 ations were going on, a message was received 
 from the governor, through the sheriff, ordering 
 them to cease their proceedings. It was voted 
 
 not to follow the advice, ant' the sherilT wa» 
 hissed and obliged to retreat discomfited. It 
 was formally resolved that any person importing 
 tea from Enghind should be deemed an enemy 
 t 1 his eountrv, and it was declared that at the 
 risk of their lives ind properties the landing of 
 the tea should be prevented, and its return 
 effected. It was necessary that some positive 
 action should be taken in regard to tlie tea within 
 twenty days from its arrival, or the collector of 
 customs would confiscate ships and cargoes. . . . 
 Tlie twenty days would expire on the lOtli of 
 December. On the fourteenth a crowded meet- ' 
 ing was held at the Old South, and the importer 
 was enjoined to apply for a clearance to allow 
 his vessel to return with its cargo. He applied, 
 but the collector refused to give an answer 
 until the following day. Tlie meeting therefore- 
 adjourned to the ICtli, the last day before confis- 
 cation would be legal, and before the tea would 
 be placed under protection of the ships of 
 war in the harbor. There was another early 
 morning meeting, and 7,000 people thronged 
 uliout the meeting-house, all filled with a sense 
 of the fact that something notable was to occur. 
 The importer appearetl and reported that the- 
 collector refused a clearance. He was then 
 directed to ask the governor for a pass to enable 
 him to sail by tlie Castle. Hutchinson had 
 retieated to his mansion at Milton, and it would 
 take some time to make the demand. The 
 importer started out in the cold of a New Eng- 
 land winter, apologized to his Excellency for his 
 visit, but assured him that it was involuntary. 
 He received a reply that no pass could be given 
 him. ... It was six o'clock before the importer 
 returned, and a few candles wore brought in to 
 relieve the fast-increasing darkness. He reported 
 the governor's reply, and Samuel Adams rose 
 and exclaimed: 'This meeting can do nothing 
 more to save the country ! ' In an instant there 
 was a shout on the ixjrch; there was a war-whoop 
 in response, and forty or fifty of the men disguised 
 as Indians rushed out of the doors, down Milk 
 Street towards Griffin's (afterwards Liverpool) 
 Wharf, where tiie vessels lay. The meeting was 
 declared dissolved, and the throng followed their 
 leaders, forming a determined giuinl about the 
 wharf. The 'Mohawks' entered the vessel; 
 there was tugging at the ropes; tliere was break- 
 ing of light boxes; there was pouringof precious 
 tea into the watere of the harbor. For two or 
 three hours the work went on, and three hun- 
 dred and forty-two chests were emptied. Then, 
 under the light of the moon, the Indians marched 
 to the sound of fife and drum to their homes, and 
 the vast throng melted away, until not a man 
 remained to tell of the deed. The committee of 
 corresixmdence held a meeting next day, and 
 Samuel Adams and four others were appointed 
 to propare an account of the affair to be posted 
 to other places. Paul Revere, who is said to 
 have been one of the ' Mohawks, ' was sent express 
 to Philadelphia with the news, which was 
 received at that place on the 26tli. It was 
 announced by ringing of bells, and there was 
 every sign of joy. . . . The continent was uni- 
 vei-sidly stirred at last "—A. Gilman, 27/« Story 
 of Boston, oil. 23. 
 
 Also in : E. G. Porter, The Beginning of the 
 Bcmlution (Memorial Hist, of Boston, v. 3, ^i. 1). 
 — B. J. Lossing, FVeld Book of tlis Revolution, v. 1, 
 ch. 21,— T. Ilutchiason, Hist, of tlie Provitice of 
 
 302 
 
BOSTON, 1773. 
 
 BOSTON, 1774. 
 
 MdM. lirt!/, 1740-1774, pp. 429-440.— Same, Dinn/ 
 and letters, p. 138.— O. Bancroft, JIi«t. of the 
 U. S. (Author HlaHtrennion), c. 3, ch. 34. — J. Kim- 
 ball The l()0</t Aiinirvrmtry of the Destruction, of 
 Tea (Km'.r Lint. Ilixt. Coll. , v. 12, w>. 8). 
 
 A. D. 1774.— The Port Bill and the Massa- 
 chusetts Act.— Commerce interdicted. — Town 
 Meetings forbidden. Sou Uniteo States of 
 A.M. : A. D. 1774 (.M.vucii— AriiiL). 
 
 A. n. 1774.— The enforcement of the Port 
 Bill and its effects.- -Military occupation of the 
 city ty General Gage. — "The execution of tliis 
 nu'iisure[tlie Port Bill) devolved on Tliomas Gage, 
 wlio arrived at Boston May 13, 1774, as Captain 
 General and Governor of Jlassachiisetts. Ho 
 was not u stranger in tlic colonies. He had ex- 
 hibited gallantry in Braddock's defeat. . . . He 
 liad married in one of the most respectable fami- 
 lies in New York, and liad partaken of tlio lios- 
 pitalities of tlie people of Boston. His manners 
 were pleasing. Hence ho entered upon his pub- 
 lic duties with a large measure ot pojiularity. 
 But he took a narrow view of men and things 
 about liim. . . . General Gage, on the 17th of 
 May, landed at the Long Wharf and was received 
 with much parade. ... On the first day of June 
 the act went into effect. It met with no opposi- 
 tion from the people, and hence, there was no 
 dilHculty in carrying it into rigorous execution. 
 'Ihear from many,'tlie governor writes, 'that 
 the act has staggered the most presumptuous; the 
 violent party men seem to break, an<l people to 
 fall off from them.' Hence he looked for sub- 
 mission ; Jjut Boston asked assistanf-e from other 
 colonies, and the General Court requested him to 
 appoint a day of fasting and prayer. The loyal- 
 ists felt uneasy at the ab.sencc of the army. . . . 
 Hence a respectable force was soon concentrated 
 in Boston. On the 4tli of June, the 4th or king's 
 own regiment, and on the l.'ith the43tl regiment, 
 landed at the Long Wharf and enciimped on the 
 common." The 5th and 38th regiments arrived 
 on the 4th and 5tli of July ; th'> 59th regiment 
 was landed at Salem August 6, and additional 
 troops were ordered from New York, the Jerseys 
 and Quebec. ' ' The Boston Port Bill went into 
 operation amid tlie tolling of bells, fasting and 
 prayer. ... It bore severely upon t^so towns, 
 Boston ami Charlestown, which had been long 
 connected by a common iiatriotism. Tlieir laborera 
 were thrown out of employment, their poor 
 were deprived of bread, and gloom pervaded 
 their streets. But they were clieered and 
 ST. stained by the large contributions sent froni 
 every quarter for their relief, and by the noble 
 words that accompanied them The ex- 
 citement of the public mind was intense; and 
 the months of June, July, and August, were 
 characterized by varied political activity. Mul- 
 titudes signed a solemn league and covenant 
 against the use of British goods. The breach 
 between the whigs and loyalists daily became 
 wider. Patriotic donations from every colony 
 were on their way tc the suffering towns. 
 Supplies for the British troops were refused. 
 ... It was while llie public inind was in this 
 state of excitement tliat other acts arrived which 
 General Gage was instructed to cayry into effect. " 
 These were the acts which virtually annulled 
 the Massachusetts charter, wliich forbade town 
 meetings, and which provided for the sending of 
 accused persons to England or to other colonies 
 for trial. " Should Massachusetts submit to the 
 
 new acts ? Wo\ild the other colonies see, with- 
 out increaseil alarm, the humiliation of Jlassa- 
 chusetts V Tliis wus the turning-point of the 
 Revolution. It did not find the patriots iinjire- 
 pared. They had an organization beyond tho 
 reach alike of proclamations from the governors, 
 or of circulars from tlie mini.s'ry. This was the 
 Conunittees of Corres|)ondence, chosen in most of 
 the towns in legal town-meetings, or by he vari- 
 ous colonial assemblies, and extending through- 
 out the colonies. . . . The crisis called for '.il 
 the wisdom of these committees. A remarkable 
 circular from Boston addressed to the towns(July, 
 1774), dwelt upon the duty of opposing tlie new 
 laws; the towns, in their answei's, were bold, 
 spirited, and tirm and echoed the necc ' v of 
 resistance. Norwastliisall. Tlie people pnm.,;tly 
 thwarted the first attempts to exercise authority 
 tinder them. Such councillors as accepted their 
 appointments were compelled to resign, or, to 
 avoid compulsion, retired into Boston.' General 
 Gage now began (in September) inovemeiits to 
 secure the cannon and powder in the neighbor- 
 hood. Some 250 barrels of powder belonging to 
 the province were stealthily removed by his 
 orders from a magazine at Charlestown and two 
 field-pieces were carried away from Cambridge. 
 " The report of this affair, spreading ra])idlj', ex- 
 cited great indignation. The people collected in 
 large numbers, and many were in favor of at- 
 tempting to ivcai)tiire the powder and cannon. 
 Inlluential patriots, however, succeeded in turning 
 their attention in another direction. . . . Mean- 
 time the fact of the removal of the powder be- 
 came magnified into a report that the British had 
 cannonaded Boston, wlien the bells rang, beacon- 
 fires blazed on tho hills, the neighbor colonics 
 were alarmed, and the roads were filled with 
 armed men hastening to the point of supposed 
 danger. Tlieso demonstrations opened the eyes 
 of the governor to tlie extent of tlio popular 
 movement. . . . General Gage saw no hope of 
 ])rocuring obedience but by the power of arms; 
 and the patriot party saw no safety in anything 
 short of military preparation. Resistance to the 
 a(;ts continued to be manifested in every form. 
 On the 9th of September the memorable Suffolk 
 resolves [drawn by Joseph Warren] were adopted 
 [by a con'. ^ ition of Suffolk county, which em- 
 braced Boston] . . . and these were succeeded 
 by others in other counties equally bold and 
 spirited. These resolves were approve(' by the 
 Continental Congress, then in session. Every- 
 wlioro the people either compelled the unconsti- 
 tutional ofHcers to resign, or opposed every at- 
 tempt to exercise authority, whether by tho 
 governor or constable. They also made every 
 effort to transport ammunition and stores to places 
 of security. Cannon and muskets we-o carried 
 secretly out of Boston. The guns were taken 
 from an old battery at Charlestown, where tho 
 navy yard is, . . . silently, at night. . . . Gen- 
 eral Gage immediately began to fortify Boston 
 Neck. This added intensity to the excitement. 
 The inhabitants became alarmed at so ominous 
 a movement; and, on the 5th of September, the 
 selectmen waited on the general, represented the 
 public feeling, and requested him to explain his 
 object. The governor stated in reply that his 
 object was to protect his majesty's troops and 
 his majesty's subjects; and tliat he had no inten- 
 tion to stop up tlie avenue, or to obstruct the 
 free passage over it, or to do anything hostile 
 
 303 
 
BOSTON, 1774. 
 
 B0URGE8. 
 
 iigninst the inliabitnnta. He went on with the 
 works mill soim mounted on them two twenty- 
 four pounders luid eiglit nine jjouuders." — K. 
 Frotliingluun, Hint, of the Sk'jc of liontun, eh. 1. 
 
 Al.fM) in: The siinie. Life and I'imeit of Joneph 
 Wm-ivii, cJi. 11, aiul app. 1 (rjimiig tcH of the Suf- 
 folk lUsolr<cK).—\\ . V. AVu'ls, Life of Sdiiuwl 
 'Aitamit. V. 3, pp. 104-282.— W. Tudor, Life of 
 JamfH OtiH. ch. 37-29. 
 
 A. D. 1775.— The beginning of war.— Lex- 
 ington. — Concord. — The British troops be- 
 leaguered in the city.— Battle of Bunker Hill. 
 See L'.MTKl) Statks ok Am. ; A. O. \TiTt. 
 
 A. D. 1775-1776.— The siege directed by 
 Washingfton.— Evacuation of the city by the 
 British. See United States of A.m. : A. U. 
 1775-1776. 
 
 BOSWORTH, Battle of (A. D. 1485), Sec 
 ENdLANP: A. I). 148a-liar). 
 
 B01ANY BAY. See AusTiiALlA: A. D. 
 lOOl-lHOO. 
 
 BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Battle of. See 
 Scotland: A. 1). 107!) (.June). 
 
 BOTOCUDOS, The. See American Auohi- 
 GINE8: Tui'i. 
 
 BOUCHAIIf, Marlborough's capture of 
 (1711). Sec Netiieulands: A. I). 1710-1713. 
 
 BOUIDES, The. See JIaiio.metan Con- 
 quest and E.mimue: A. I). 815-045; also, Tuuks 
 (Tub Seuiuks): A. D. 1004-1063; also, Saman- 
 
 IDES. 
 
 BOULANGER, General, The intrigues of. 
 See Fuance: A. D. 1875-1889. 
 
 BOULE, The.— The Council of Chiefs in 
 Homeric Greece. — Q. Grote, Hint of Greece, ch. 
 20. — See, also. Aueopagus. 
 
 BOULOGNE : Origin. See Gesouiacum. 
 
 A. D. 1801. — Bonaparte's preparations for 
 the invasion of England. — Nelson's attack. 
 See Fuance: A. D. 1801-1802. 
 
 BOULON, Battle of. See France: A. D. 
 179:$ (.July— Oece.mueh). 
 
 BOUQUET'S EXPEDITION. See Pon- 
 tiac's WTmi. 
 
 BOURBON, The Constable: His treason 
 and his attack on Rome. See France : A. D. 
 1530-1.53;!, 152:5-1535, 1525-1526; and Italy: 
 A. D. 1.523-1527, 1527. 
 
 BOURBON : Origin of the name. See 
 BoiANs; also Udme: B. C. 390-347. 
 
 BOURBON, The House of: Its origin.— 
 From King Louis IX. (St. Louis), of France, 
 "tlirough his last male ehild, Robert de France, 
 Comtc (ie Clermont, sprang the House of Bour- 
 bon. An ancient barouy, the inheritance of 
 Beatrix, wife of this prince, was erected into a 
 dukedom in favour of Louis, his son, and gave 
 to his descendants the name which they have re- 
 tained, tliat of France being reserved for the 
 Uoyal branch. . . . The House which had the 
 honour of siipplying sovereigns to our country 
 was called ' I ranee. ' But our Icings, jealous of 
 that great name, reserved it for their own sons 
 and grandsons. Hence the designation ' Ills ' and 
 ' petit-lite dc France. ' The posterity of eacli 
 ' tils de France ' formed a cadet branch which took 
 it.s name from the title borne by its lioatl, Valois, 
 Artois, Bourbon, &c. At the time of tlie acces- 
 sion of Henry IV. the name of Bourbon remained 
 with those younger branches of Conde and Mont- 
 pcnsicr, wliich had sprung from the main branch 
 before the death of Henry III. But Henry IV, 's 
 
 children, those of Louis XIII., and those of vlieir 
 succe-s-soi-s in the throne, were surnamed ' do 
 France'; whilst in conformity with the law the 
 descendants of Louis XIII. 's second sou recitived 
 XW surname d' Orleans, from the tille borne by 
 their grandfather. . . . Possessora of vast terri- 
 tories wliich tliey [the Bourbons] owed more to 
 family alliances than to the generosity of kings, 
 llii^j' had known how to win the alTectiou of 
 their vassals. Their maguiflccnt hospitality drew 
 around them a numerous and brilliant nobility. 
 Tims the ' hotel ' of those brave ami august 
 princes, the "gracieux dues de Bourbon,' as our 
 ancient poet called them, was considered the best 
 school in wliieli a young nobleman could learn 
 the profession of arms. The order of the Ecu, 
 instituted by one of them, had been coveted aiul 
 worn by the bravest warriors of France. Suf- 
 ticicntly powerful to outshine the rank and tile of 
 the nobility, they had at the same time neither 
 the liii'ge estates nor the iniinense power which 
 enabled the Dukes of Bourgogne, of Bretagne, 
 and other great vassals, to become the rivals or 
 the enemies of the royal authority." The ex- 
 ample of the treason of tlie Constable Bourbon 
 [seeFuANCE: A. I). 1520-1533] " was not followed 
 by any of the princes of his House. . . . Tho 
 property of the Conuetjible was definitely alien- 
 ated from his House, ami Vendonie [his brother] 
 did not receive the hereditary possessions of the 
 Dukes d' Alen(;on, to which his wife was entitled. 
 He died on the 25th of Slarch, 1538, leaving but 
 a scanty patrimony to his numerous descendants. 
 . . . Five only of his sous obtained tlieir majority. 
 . . . Two of the.se princes founded families: 
 Antoino [Due de Vendomc and afterwards King 
 of Navarre through his marriage with Jeanne d' 
 Albret, see Navauue: A. D. 1528-1.503], father 
 of Henry IV., who was the ancestor of all the 
 Bourbons now living, and Louis [Prince dc Conde, 
 born 15301, who was the root of tlie House of 
 Conde and all its branches." — Due d' Auinale, 
 Hist, of tlie Princes of the House of Conde, bk. 1, ch. 
 1, and foot-note.— '^QC, also, Fuance: A. D. 1327. 
 
 BOURBON: The Spanish House. Seo 
 Spain: A. D. 1098-1700, and 1701-1702. 
 
 BOURBON FAMILY COMPACT, The 
 
 First. See Fuance: A. D. 1733 The 
 
 Second. See France: A. D. 1743 (October). 
 ....The Third. See France: A. D. 1761 
 (Auoust). 
 
 BOURGEOIS.— BOURG.— In France, "tlio 
 word Bourg originally meant any aggregation of 
 houses, from the greatest city to the smallest 
 liamlet. But . . . tlie word shifted its meaning, 
 and came to signiiy an assemblage of housed 
 surrounded' with walls. Secondlj', the word 
 Bourgeois also was at (ii-st used as synonymous 
 with the inhabitant of a bourg. Afterward, 
 when corporate franchises were bestowed on par- 
 ticular bourgs, the word acquired a sense corre- 
 sponding with that of the English designation 
 Burgess; that is a person entitled to the privi- 
 leges of a municipal corporation. Finally, tho 
 word Bourgeoisie, in its primitive sense, was tho 
 description of the burgesses when spoken of 
 collectively. But, in its later use, the word 
 would be best rendered into English by our term 
 citizensliip ; tliat is, the privilege or franchise of 
 Ixiing a burgess. " — Sir J. Stephen, Lects. on tlie 
 Hist, of France, lect. 5. 
 
 BOURGES, Origin of.— The city of Bourges, 
 France, was originally the capital city of the 
 
 304 
 
B0URGE8. 
 
 BOYS IN BLUE. 
 
 QnlHo tribe of tlio Tlitungca, find was called 
 Avarictiiin. "As with many other Gaulish 
 towns, the original name heeanit exelianged for 
 that of the pcoijlo, i. e. , Uituriges, and thence the 
 modern Hourges and the name of the province, 
 Berri." — C. Jlerivale, Hixt. of the Jltiiiiinin, ch. 
 13,— See, also, .EDtir, and G.ui,: H. C. 58-r.l. 
 
 BOUVINES, Battle of (A. D. 1214).— The 
 battle of Hoiivines, fought at Boiivincs, in Flan- 
 ders, not far from Tournay, on the 27th of August, 
 A. I). 1314, was one of the important battles of 
 Euroi)eaii history. On one side were the French, 
 led by tlieir king Philip Augustus, and lighting 
 ostensibly as the champions of the Pope and the 
 church. ' On the other side was an allied army of 
 English, under king John, of Germans, under 
 Otho, the Gu(;lf — one of two rival claimants of 
 the imperial crown — and of Flemings and 
 Lotharingians, le<l by their several lords. Philip 
 Augustus had exiielled the English king from 
 Ills Norman didiedom and causeil a court of the 
 peers of France to declare the title forfeit. From 
 that success his ambition rose so high that ho 
 Inid aspired to the conquest of the English 
 crown. A terrible pope — Innocent III. — had 
 approved his ambition and encouraged it; for 
 John, the miserable English king, had given pro- 
 vocations to the church which had brought the 
 thunders of the Vatican upon his head. Excom- 
 municated, himself, his kingdom wider interdict, 
 — the latter offered itself a tempting prey to the 
 vigorous French king, who posed as the champion 
 of the pope. lie had prepared a strong army and a 
 fleet for the invasion of England ; but fate and 
 papal diplomacy had battled his schemes. At the 
 last moment, John had made a base submission, 
 had meekly surrendered his kingdom to the 
 pope and had received it back as a papal flcf. 
 Whereupon the victorious pope commanded his 
 French champion to forego his intended attack. 
 Philip, under these circumstances, determined to 
 use the army he had assembled against a trouble- 
 some and contumacious vassal, the count of 
 Flanders. The pope approved, and Flanders 
 was overrun. King Jolui led an English force 
 across the channel to the help of the Flemish 
 count, and Otho, the Gcimnn king or emperor, 
 who was king Jolm's nephew, joined the coali- 
 tion, to antagonize France and the pope. The 
 battle of Bouviues was tlie decisive conflict of the 
 war. It luunbled, for the time, the independent 
 spirit of Flander.s, and several remoter conse- 
 quences can be traced to it. It was "tbelirst 
 real French victory. It roused the national spirit 
 as nothing else could have roused it ; it was the 
 nation's lii'st taste of glory, dear above all things 
 to the French heart. . . . The battle si newhat 
 broke the high spirit of the barons: the lesser 
 barons and churches grouped themselves round 
 the king; the greater lords came to feel their 
 weakness in the presence of royalty. Among 
 the incidental consequences of the day of 
 Bouvines was the ruin of Otho's ambition. Ho 
 fled from the field into utter obscurity. He 
 retired to the Ilartz moimtains, and there spent 
 the remaining, years of his life in private. King 
 John, too, was utterly discredited by his share in 
 the year's campaign. To it may partly be traced 
 liis humiliation before his barons, and the signing 
 of the Great Charter in the following year at 
 RuiHiymede." — G. W. Kltchin, Hul. of France, 
 bk. 'A, ch. 7, sect. 4. — "The battle of Bouviues was 
 not the victory of Philip Augustus aloue, over a 
 
 coalition of foreign princes; the victory was the 
 work of king and people, barons, burghers, and 
 peasants, of lie <le Fiiince, of Orleanness, of 
 Picardy, of Normandy, of Champagne, and of 
 Burginidy. . . . The victory of Houvinesmarked 
 the commencement of the time at which men 
 ndght speak, and indeed did speak, by one 
 single name, of 'the French.' The nation in 
 France and the kingship in France on that day 
 rose out of and abwo the fctidal system." — F. P. 
 Gui/.ot, I'opuliir likt. of France, ch. 18. — See, 
 also, Iialy: A. I). 1183-13.j(), and England: 
 A. 1). 130.5-1313, and 131.5. 
 
 BOVATE, OR OXGANG.— "Originally as 
 much as an ox-teain cotdd plough in a year. 
 Eight Boviites are usually .said to have made a 
 Carucate, but the number of acres which made 
 a Bovate are vaiiously slated in different records 
 from 8 to 34." — N. H. Nicolas, Nutitm llintorica, 
 V. 134. 
 
 BOVIANUM, Battle of (B. C. 88). Sec 
 Ro.mk: H. C. 90-88. 
 
 BOWIDES, The. See JLuiometan Con- 
 QUKST AND E-MPiuu: A. D. 815-945; also, Sa- 
 MANIDES; also, TuiiKS (Seijuks): A. D. 1004- 
 1003. 
 
 BCVACA, Battle of (1819). See Colombian 
 States: A. U. 1810-1819. 
 
 BOYARS. — "In the old times, when Russia 
 was merely a collection of independent prin- 
 cipalities, each reigning prince was surrounded 
 by a group of armed men, composed partly of 
 Boyars, or large landed proprietors, and partly of 
 knights, or soltliers of fortune. These men, who 
 formed the Noblesse of the time, were to a cer- 
 tain extent under the authority of the Prince, 
 but they were by no means mere obedient, silent 
 executors of his will. The Boyars might refuse 
 to take part in his military expeditions. . . . 
 Under the Tartar domination this political equi- 
 librium was destroyed. When the country had 
 been conquered, the jirinces became servile vas- 
 sals of the Khan, and arbitrary rulers towards 
 their own subjects. The politi".d significance of 
 the nobles was thereby greatly diminished." — 
 D. M. Wallace, Ibmia, ch. 17. 
 
 BOYNE, Battle of the (1690). See Ireland: 
 A. D. 1089-1 091. 
 
 BOYS IN BLUE.— BOYS IN GRAY.— 
 Soldier nicknames of the American Civil War. 
 — "During the first year of the war [of the Rebel- 
 lion, in the United States] the Union sokliers 
 commonly called their opponents ' Rebs ' and 
 'Secesh'; in 1863, 'Confeils'; in 1803, ' Gray- 
 backs' and 'Butternuts'; and in 1864, 'Johnnies.' 
 The nickname 'Butternuts' was given the C(m- 
 federates on account of their homespun clothes, 
 dyed reddish-brown with a dye made of butternut 
 bark. The last name, 'Johnnies,' is said to have 
 originated in a quarrel between two ])ickets, 
 which began by the Union man's saying that the 
 Confederates depended on England to get them 
 out of their scrape. . . . The Union man . . . 
 said that a 'Reb' was no better than a Johnny 
 Bull, anyhow. . . . The name stuck, ami in the 
 last part of the war the Confederate soldiers 
 were almost univei-sally called 'Johnnies.' 
 Throughout the war the Confederates dubbed 
 all the Union soldiei-s 'Yankees' and 'Yanks,' 
 without any reference to the part of the country 
 they came from. . . . Other nicknames for 
 Union soldiers, occasionally use<l, were 'Feds,' 
 ' Blue Birds ' and ' Blue Bellies. ' Since the war 
 
 305 
 
nOYS IN BLUE. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, 1142-1153. 
 
 the opponents have been commonly cftUed ' Boys 
 in Bhi(! ' and ' Boys in Gray.'" — .1. 1). Cliump- 
 llu, Jr., You ii'j Folks' IliHtury of tlie War for tlie 
 Union, p. 137. 
 
 BOZRA. See Gautiiaoe : Divisions, &c. 
 
 BOZZARIS, Marco, The death of. See 
 GuKKCi:: A. D. 1821-1829. 
 
 BRABANT : Mythical Explanation of the 
 name. Sue Antwkiu'. 
 
 4th centunr. — First settlement of the 
 Franks. See Toxanduia. 
 
 9th century. — Known as Basse Lorraine, 
 See LouuAt.Ni:: A. 1). 84;i-HT0. 
 
 A. D. 1096-1099.— Duke Godfrey de Bouillon 
 in the First Crusade, and his king^dom of 
 Jerusalem. See Ciiusadks: A. D. 10<J0-1099; 
 and Jkuusalkm: A. I). 1099-1144. 
 
 12th to 15th centuries. — The county and 
 duchy. — From tlie beginning of the 12th century, 
 the county, afterwards the ducliy, of Brabant, 
 existed under its own counts and dulces, until 
 the beginning of the loth century, wlien it 
 drifted under the influences which at tliat time 
 were drawing all the Netherland States within 
 the sphere of the sovereignty of the Burguudian 
 dukes. 
 
 A. D. 1430. — Acquisition by the House of 
 Burgundy. See Netiieklands: A. D. 1428- 
 1430. 
 
 * 
 
 BRACCATI, The. See Rome: B. C. 27.5. 
 BRACHYCEPHALIC MEN. See Doli- 
 
 CnOCEPIIAI.IC. 
 
 BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT. See Ohio 
 (Valley): A. D. 175,5. 
 
 BRADFORD, Governor, and the Plymouth 
 Colony. See JIassaciiusetts: A. D. 1621, and 
 after. 
 
 BRADFORD'S PRESS. See Puintino, 
 &c. : A. D. 1535-1709, 1704-1729, and Pennsyl- 
 vania: A. D. 1692-1096. 
 
 BRAGANZA, The House of: A. D. 1640.— 
 Accession to the throne of Portugal. See 
 Poutugal: a. 1). 1637-1608. 
 
 BRAGG, General Braxton. — Invasion of 
 Kentucky. See United States of A.m. : A. D. 
 1862 (.Tune — Octoueii: Tennessee — Ken- 
 tucky) The Battle of Stone River. See 
 
 United States of Am.: A. D. 1862-1863 
 
 (Decemher — Janjauy: Tennessee) The 
 
 Tullahoma Campaign. See United States of 
 Am.: a. D. 1863 (June— July: Tennessee). 
 Chickamauga. — The Chattanooga Cam- 
 paign. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1863 
 (Atjoust — SEPTE.MBE11, and Octobeu — Novem- 
 bek: Tennessee). 
 
 BRAHMANISM. See India: The immigua- 
 
 TION AND CONQUESTS OP THE AuYAS. 
 
 BRAHMANS. See Caste system of India. 
 — Also, India: The Abouiginal inhaiht.\nts. 
 
 BRANCHIDiE, The. See Oii.\cles op the 
 Greeks. 
 
 BRANDENBURG: A. D. 928-1142.— Be- 
 
 f;innings of the Margravatr. — "A. D. 928, 
 Icinr}' the Fowler, marcliing iic'ss the frozen 
 bogs, took Brannibor, a cliieL fortress of the 
 Wends; first mention in human siieech of the 
 place now called Brandenburg; Bor or 'Burg of 
 the Brenns ' (if there ever was any Tribe of 
 Brenns, — Brennus, there as elsewhere, being 
 name for King or Leader) ; ' Burg of the SVoods,' 
 say others, — wlio as little know. Probably, at that 
 time, tt town of clay huts, with ditch and palisaded 
 
 swl-wall round it ; certainly ' a chief fortress of 
 tlie Wends,' — who must have been a good deal 
 surprised at siglit of Henry on the rimy winter 
 morning near a tliousand years ago. . . . That 
 Henry ajipointed due Wardensliip in Brannibor 
 was in the common coui-se. Sure enougli, some 
 Markgiiif must take charge of Brannibor, — he of 
 the Lausitz eastward, lor e.\ami)le, or he of 
 Salzvvedel westward; — that Brannibor, in time, 
 will itself be found tlie fit place, and have its 
 own Markgraf of Brandenburg ; this, and what 
 in Mie ue.xt nluo centuries Brandenburg will 
 grow to, Henry is far from surmising. ... In 
 old books are lists of the primitive Markgraves 
 of Brandenburg, from Henry's time downward; 
 two sets, 'Jlarkgraves of the Witekind race,' 
 and of another: but they are altogether uncer- 
 tain, a shadowy intermittent set of Markgraves, 
 both the Witekind set and the Non- Witekind; 
 and truly, for a couple of centuries, seem none 
 of t'.iem to have been other than subaltern Depu- 
 ties, belonging mostly to Lausitz or Salzwedel; 
 of whom therefore we can say nothing here, but 
 must leave the first two himdrcd years in their 
 natural gray state, — pchaps sufHeiently con- 
 ceivable by the reader. . . . The Ditmarsch- 
 Stade kindred, much slain in battle witli the 
 Heathen, and otherwise beaten upon, died out, 
 about the year 1130 (earlier psrliaps, perhaps 
 later, for all is shadowy still) ; and were succeeded 
 in tlio Salzwedel part of their function by a kin- 
 dred called 'of Ascanien and BallenstiUlt'; the 
 Aseaiiier or Anlialt Jlargraves; whose History, 
 and that of Brandenburg, becomes henceforth 
 articulate to us. . . . This i^scanien, happily, 
 has nothing to do with Brute of Troy or the 
 I)ious JSneas's son; it is simply the name of a 
 most ancient Castle (etymology unknown to me, 
 ruins still dimly traceable) on the north slope of 
 the Hartz Mountains; sliort way from Aschere- 
 ieben,-the Castle and Town of Aschersleben 
 are, so tc> speak, a second edition of Ascanien. 
 . . . Tilt kindred, called Grafs and ultimately 
 Ilerzogs (Dukes) of 'Ascanien and Ballcnstildt,' 
 are very famous in old German History, espe- 
 cially down from this date. Some reckon that 
 they had intermittently been Markgrafs, in 
 their regi<m, long before this ; which is conceiv- 
 able enough ; at all events it is very plain they 
 did now attain the Office in Salzwedel (straight- 
 way shifting it to Brandenburg); and held it 
 continuously, it and much else that lay adjacent, 
 for centuries, in a highly conspicuous manner. 
 In Brandenburg they lasted for about two- 
 hundred years." — T. Carlyle, Frederick tlie 
 Oreat, bk. 3, ch. Z-i. 
 
 A. D. 1142-1152.— The Electorate.— "He 
 they call 'Albert the Bear (Albrccht der Bilr),' 
 first of the Ascanien ]\I-irkgnives of Branden- 
 burg ; — first wholly definite JIarkgravo of Bran- 
 denburg tliat there is ; once a very shining figure 
 in the world, though now fallen dim enough 
 again, . . . got the Northern jiart of what is 
 still called Saxony, and kept it in his family; 
 got the Brandenburg Countries withal, got the 
 Lausitz ; was the shining figure and great man 
 of the North in liis d.ay. 'fhc Mfvrkgrafdom of 
 Salzwedel (which soon became of Brandenburg) 
 lie very naturally acijuired (A. D. 1142 or earlier); 
 very naturally, considering what Saxon and 
 other honours and po.ssessious he had already got 
 hold of. We can only say, it was the luckiest of 
 events for Bmudcnburg, and the beginning of all 
 
 306 
 
BRANDENDURO, 1143-1152. 
 
 IJUANDEXBURQ, 1108-1417. 
 
 the better dcstiules it has hud. A oonspicuous 
 Country ever since in tlie world, and whieh grows 
 ever more so in our late times. . . . He trans- 
 ferred the Markgrafdoni to Rrandenlmrg, proba- 
 bly as more central in his wide lan<ls; Salzwedel 
 is henceforth the led Markgrafdom or ^larck, 
 and soon falls out of notice in the world. Salz- 
 wedel i.s called henceforth ever since the 'Old 
 Marck (Alte Marck, Altmarck)'; the Branden- 
 burg countries getting the name of ' New Marck.' 
 . . . Under Albert tin; Markgrafd(jni had risen 
 to be an Electorate withal. The Jfarkgraf of 
 Brandenburg was now furthermore the Ivurf llrst 
 of Brandenburg; oflicially ' Arch-treasurer of 
 the Holy Roman Empire': and one of the Seven 
 who have a right (which became about this time 
 an exclusive (me for those Seven) to choose, to 
 'kicren' the Romish Kai-ser; and wlio are there- 
 fore called • Kur-Princes,' Kurfllrste or Electors, 
 as the highest dignity except the Kaiser's own. " 
 — T. C'arlylc, Frederick the Great, bk. 2, eh. 4.— 
 See, also, Geum.vny: A. I). 1125-1152. 
 
 A. D. 1168-1417. — Under the Ascanian, the 
 Bavarian and the Luxemburg lines, to the 
 first of the Hohenzollern. — Albert the Hear was 
 succeeded in 1108 by his son Otlio. "In 1170, 
 as it would appear, the name of Brandenburg 
 was substituted for that of North Mark, whicli 
 iiad cciised to describe more thiUi the original 
 nucleus of the colony, now one of the several 
 districts into which it was divided. The city 
 and territory of Brandenburg were not probably 
 included in the imperial grant, but were in- 
 herited from the AVeudish i>rince, Pribislaw, 
 whom Albert had converted to Christianity. . . . 
 Under (^tlio II., brother of the preceding, the 
 family inheritance was sorely mismanaged. The 
 Margrave becoming involved in .some (piarrel 
 with the See of Magdeburg, the Arehbishoi) 
 placed him under the ban; and as the price of 
 release Otho was required to accept the 
 Suzerainty of the prelate for the older ami better 
 part of his doiuinious. His brother and suc- 
 cessor, Albert II., was also unfortunate in the 
 beginning of his career; but recovered the favor 
 of the Eiuiieror, and restored the prestige of his 
 house before his death. . . . Very important 
 accpusitions were made during the reign of these 
 two princes. The preoccupations of the King 
 of Denmark gave them a secure foothold in 
 Pomerauia, wliich the native nobility acknowl- 
 edged; the frontiers were pushed eastward to 
 the Oder, where the New jfark was organized, 
 and the town of Frankfort was laid out; pur- 
 chase put them in possession of the district of 
 Lebus; and the l)ride of Otho III., a Bohemian 
 jirincess, brought him as her dowry an extensive 
 region on the L'pper Spree with several thriving 
 villages — all this in spite of the <livision of 
 power and authority. . . . Otho III. died in 
 1207, .lohn one year later; and a new partition 
 of tlio estate was made between their several 
 sons, the oldest, Otho IV., receiving, however, 
 the title and prerogatives of head of the house." 
 The last margnive of the A.scanian lino, Walde- 
 mar, died in iiiiO. "His cousin and only heir, 
 Henry, was a minor, and survived him but a 
 year." Then "a host of claimants arose for the 
 whole or parts of the JIark. Tlie estates showeil 
 at lirst a gallant devotion to tlie widow, and in- 
 trusted the reins of authority to her; but she 
 repaid this tidelity i)y hastily espousing the 
 Duke of Brunswick, and transferring her rights 
 
 to him. The transiiction was not, however, 
 ratitied by the estates, and the Duke failed to 
 enforce it by arms, Pomerauia threw olf the 
 yoke which it had once unwillingly accepted; 
 Bohemia reclaimed the wedding portion of 
 Otho's bride ; the Duke of Lleguitz sought to re- 
 cover Lebus, although it had once been regtilarly 
 sold; and in the general scramble the Church, 
 through its local representatives, fought with all 
 the energy of mere worldly robbers. But in 
 this crisis the Emperor forgot neither the duties 
 of his station nor the interests of his house. 
 Louis II. of Bavaria tlien wore the purple. By 
 feudal law a vacant lief reverted to its suzerain. 
 . . . It was not therefore contrary to law, n<n'(Hd 
 it shock the moral sense of the age, when Louis 
 drew the JIark practically into his own pos.ses- 
 siou I)y conferring it nomnially upon his nnnor 
 son. . . . During the minority of Louis the Mar- 
 grave, the province was administered by Louis 
 the Emperor, and with some show of vigor." 
 But troubles .so thickened about the Emperor, in 
 his conrtict witli the House of Austria, on the 
 one hand, andwitli the Pope on the other [see 
 GiiiiMANY: A. D. 1314-13471, that lie could not 
 continue the protccticm of his son. The Mark 
 of Brandenburg was invaded by the King of 
 Poland, and its Alargrave " watched the devasta- 
 tion in helpless dismay." The people defended 
 themselves. "The young city of Frankfort was 
 the leader in the tardy but successful uprising. 
 The Poles were expelled; the citizens had for 
 the time saved tlie Mark. . . . The Margrave 
 linally wearied even of the forms of authority, 
 and sold his unhappy dominions to his two 
 brotliers, another Louis and Otho. In the mean- 
 time his father had died. The Electors — or live 
 of them — had alreiuly deposed him and chosen 
 in his place Charles of Moravia, a prince of the 
 house of Luxemburg, as his successor. He be- 
 came respectably au(l even creditably known in 
 history as Charles IV. . . . Although he failed 
 in the attempt to subdue by arms the Margrave 
 of Brandenburg, who had naturally espoused 
 his father's cause, he was persistent and in- 
 genious ir. diplomatic schemes for overthrowing 
 the House of Bavaria and bringing the Mark 
 under liis own sceptre. . . . From Louis he pro- 
 cured ... a treaty of succession, by whicli he 
 should acquire Brandenburg in case of the deatli 
 of that JIargrave and his brother Otho without 
 hell's. His intrigues were finally crowned with 
 ''onipleto success. Louis died suddenly in 1305. 
 Otho, thenceforth alone in the charge, vacillated 
 between weak submission to the Emperor's will, 
 and spurts of petulant but feeble resistance; 
 until Charles put an end to the farce by invading 
 the JIark, crushing the army of the Margrave, 
 and forcing him to an aliject capitulation. In 
 1371, after a nominal rule of half a century, and 
 for the price of a meagre annuity, the Bavarian 
 line transferred all its rights to the family of 
 Charles IV." Charles died in 1378. His s<m 
 Wenzel, " for whom the JIark had been destined 
 in the plans of Charles, aciiuired, meanwhile, 
 the crown of Bohemia a richer prize, and 
 Brandeuburg passed to t le next son, Siglsmond. 
 The change was a disastrous one." Sigismond 
 pawned tlie Mark to his kinsman, Jobst, of 
 Moravia, and it fell into great ilisorder. "Im- 
 lierial altairs during this period were in scarcely 
 less confusion. AVenzel of Bohemia had been 
 chosen emperor, and then deposed for obvious 
 
 307 
 
BUANDENBUHQ, 1168-1417. 
 
 BRANDENBUUQ, 1640-1688. 
 
 unfltnp.s.s. Kupcrt, Count Palatini', lind next 
 lii'cii elected, anil liail died. ARiiin llie post was 
 vacant, and Sigisniond, still the real Elector of 
 Hrandenburj;, . . . Issued successfully from the 
 <'ontest. His jroo<l fortune was due' in a con- 
 spicuous degree to the influence and the money 
 of Frederic, Bur),'grave of Nuremberg [see 
 HoiiiCNZoi.i.KKN, liisK OF THE IIoiisK OFJ; and 
 It Is to the credit of Slglsmond tliat lie did not 
 add ingratitude to his otiier vices, but on his 
 election as emperor hastened [1411] to make his 
 l)atron statlhalter, or viceroy of the Mark." Si.x 
 years later, In 1417, Frederic was formally In- 
 vested with the sovereignty of tbe .Mark, as 
 Margrave and Elector. — II. Ti-t.'e, JIM. of 
 PruHniic til thf Afnunioii of Frcdei:': the Great, 
 eh. 1 and 'A. 
 
 A. D. 1355. — Declared an integral part of 
 the Kingdom of Bohemia. See BoiiI':.mia: 
 A. D. IIh^.X 
 
 A. D. 1417-16AO. — Rising importance of the 
 HoheuzoUetn family. — Acquisition of the 
 Duchy of Prussia.— On being inj-ested with the 
 Electorate of lirandenburg, Frederick of Xurem- 
 berg sold the odice of Burggrave to the Nurem- 
 bergers lind devoted himself to his new provl'ice. 
 "Temperate, just, and tirm in his dealings, he 
 succeeded in reducing Brandenburg from anarchy 
 to order. Already as deputy for SIgismund he 
 had begim the task. . . . During tlie reign of 
 his son and successor, characteristically knowa 
 as Frederick Ironteeth [1440-1472], the strong 
 Hand was not rela.xed ; and Brandenburg became 
 thenceforward tamed to law and order. The 
 Electorate, which during the preceding century 
 had been curtailed by losses In war and by sales, 
 began again to enlarge Its borders. The New 
 March, which had been sold in the days of SIgis- 
 mund to tlic Teutonic Knights, was now [1455] 
 bought back from them in their need. . . . 
 Albert Achilles, the brother and successor of 
 Frederick II., was a man as powerful and as 
 able as his predecessor. By his accession the 
 principalities of Balreuth and Anspach, which 
 had been separated from the Electorate for tlie 
 younger sons of Frederick I. , were reunited to 
 It; and by a scheme of cross-remainders new 
 plans were laid for the acquisition of territory. 
 ... It was already understood that the Elector- 
 ate was to descend according to the law of 
 primogeniture ; but Auspach and Balreuth were 
 still reserved as appanages for younger sous; 
 and upon the death of Albert Achilles, In 1484, 
 his territories were again divided, and romaineil 
 so for more tlian a hundred years. The result 
 of the division, however, was to multiply and 
 wot to weaktm the strength of the House. The 
 earlier years of the 16th century saw the Ilolien- 
 zollerns rising everywhere to power. Albert 
 Achilles had been succeeded [148i l)y John, of 
 \vh(mi little is Isuown except his eloquence, and 
 by .loaehlm [1409], who was preparing to bear 
 his part against the Ileformation. A brother of 
 Joachim hiul become. In 1514, Elector of Meutz; 
 and the double vote of the family at the election 
 of Cliarles V. had increased their importance. 
 The younger branch was rising also to eminence. 
 George of Brandenburg, JIargrave of Anspach, 
 and grandson of Albert Achilles, was able in 
 1.534 to |)urcliase tlie Duchy of Jagerndorf in 
 Silesia, and with it the reversions to the princi- 
 palities of ()p|)elu and Kjvtibor, which eventually 
 fell to him. Ills younger brother, Albert, had 
 
 been chosen in 1511 Grand Master of the Teu- 
 tonic Order, and was already C(ravertlng his 
 olllce into the hereditary Dukedom of Prussia," 
 which it became in 1.525 (see Pol.vnm): .V. D. 
 13;3;)-1572). "Tlie Elector Joachim I. of Bran- 
 denburg Is perhaps the least prominent, but was" 
 not the least prudent, of his family. Through- 
 out his life he adhered to the old faith, and pre- 
 served his dominions In tran<|uility. His son 
 and successor, Joachim II., to the joy of his 
 people, adopted the new religi(m [15:")9]; and 
 found In the seculariz(nl bishoprics of Branden- 
 burg, Ilavelburg. and Lebus, solium compensation 
 for the ecclesiastical Electorate wliicli was about 
 to pass, upon the death of Albert of Mentz, 
 from his family. But he also was able to secure 
 the continuance of peace. Di.strustful of the 
 success of the League of SmalkakI he refused to 
 join ill It, and became chletly known as a media- 
 tor ill the struggles of the time. The Electors 
 John George [1571-1.508] and Joachim Frederick 
 [1598-1608] followed the same policy of peace. 
 . . . Peace and internal progress had charac- 
 terized the lOtli century; war and external 
 acquisitions were to mark the 17th. The failure 
 of the younger line in 1603 caused Bayreuth, 
 Anspacli, and Jagerndorf to fall to the Elector 
 Joachim Frederick ; but as they were re-granted 
 almost at once to younger sons, and never again 
 reverted to the Electorate, their acquisition 
 became of little importance. TIk; JIargrave, 
 George Frederick, however, had held. In addition 
 to his own territories, the olHce of administrator 
 for Albert Frederick, second Duke of Prussia, 
 who had become imbecile; and, by his death, 
 the Elector of Brandenburg became next of kin, 
 and claimed to succeed to the ofHce. The ad- 
 mission of this claim placed the Electors in 
 virtual jjossession of the Duchy. By a deed of 
 co-infeolfinent, which Joacliim II. had obtained 
 In 1508 from his father-in-law the King of Poland, 
 they were heirs to the Duchy upon failure 
 of the younger line. . . . Duke Albert died in 
 1618; and Brandenburg and Prussia were then 
 united under the Elector John SIgismund. It 
 was well that the Duchy had been secured be- 
 fore the storm which was already gathering over 
 the Empire had burst. . . . fturing the long 
 struggle of the Thirty Years' War, the history 
 of Brandenburg Is that of a sufferer rather than 
 an actor. . . . George William, who died in 
 1640, bequeathed a desert to his successor. That 
 successor was Frederick William, to be known 
 in history as the Great Elector." — C. F. John- 
 stone, Ilistorieal Ahstracta, eh. 5. 
 
 Also in: T. Carlyle, Hist, of Frederick the 
 Great, bk. 3 (p. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1609.— The JUlich-Cleve contest. See 
 Giiu.MANY: A. D. 1008-1018. 
 
 A. D. 1627. — Occupied by Wallenstein and 
 the Imperial army. See Gkumanv: 1027-1629. 
 
 A. D. 1630-1631. — Compulsory alliance of 
 the Elector with Gustavus Adotphus of 
 Sweden. Sec Geu.many: A. D. 1030-1031, and 
 1031. 
 
 A. D. 1632.— Refusal to enter the Union of 
 Heilbronn. See Germany: A. D. 1032-1634. 
 
 A. D. 1634.— Desertion °^ ^^^ Protestant 
 cause. — Alliance^ith the Emperor. See Ger- 
 many: A. D. 10.34-1039. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1688.— The Great Elector.— His 
 development of the strength of the Electorate. 
 — His successful wars.— His acquisition of the 
 
 308 
 
BUANDENDUnG, 1040-1688. 
 
 BRANDEffnUUO, 164i>-l(W8. 
 
 complete sovereignty of Prussia. — Fehrbellin. 
 
 — " l'V('(l('ri(^ William, known in liLstory as tlio 
 Great Elector, was only twenty years old when 
 he sureeeded liis father. He found everything 
 in disorder: his country desolate, his fortresses 
 garrisoned by troops under a solemn order to 
 obey ordy the mandates of the Emperor, his army 
 to be counted almost on the lingers. Ills first 
 care was to conclude a truce with the Swedes; 
 his second to .secure his western borders by an 
 alliance with Holland; his third — not in order 
 of action, for in that respect it tooli first place — 
 to raise the nucleus of an army; his fourth, to 
 cause the evacuation of his fortresses. . . . To 
 allay the wrath of the Emperor, he temporised 
 uutd his armed force had attained the n\imberof 
 8,000. That force once under arms, he boldly as- 
 serted his position, and with .so much elfect that 
 in the discussions preceding the I'eace of West- 
 phalia he could e.\ercise a considerable influence. 
 By the terms of that treaty, the part of Pomerania 
 linown as Hinter I^)mmern, the principalities of 
 Magdeburg an<l Ilalberstadt, and the bishoprics 
 of Slindcn and Ivanunin were ceded to Branden- 
 burg. . . . The Peace once signed, Frederic 
 William set diligently to work to IumI the dis- 
 orders and to repair the mischief which the long 
 -war had caused in his dominions. . . . He speci- 
 ally cherished his army. We have seen its small 
 beginning in 1040-43. Fifteen years later, in 
 lO.'i.'), or seven years after the conclusion of the 
 Peace of W^estphalia, it amounted to 2.'),000men, 
 ■well drilled and well disciplined, disposing ol 
 seventy-two pieces of cannon. In the times in 
 which he lived he had need of such an armj'. 
 In 10.')4, (,'hristina, the wayward and gifted 
 daugliterof Oustavus Adolphus, had abdicated. 
 Her successor on tlie throne of Sweden was her 
 co\'.sin, Charles Gustavus, Duke of Zweibrlicken. 
 . . . Tlic right of Charles Gustavus to the suc- 
 cession was, however, contested by .lolm Casimir, 
 King of Poland. . . . War ensued. In that war 
 the star of Charles Gustavus was in the ascend- 
 ant, and the unfortunate John Casimir was forced 
 to !d)andon his own dominions and to flee into 
 Silesia. The vicinity of the two rivals to his own 
 outlying territories was, however, too near not to 
 renderanxiousFrederic William of Brandenburg. 
 To protect Prussia, then held in fief from the King 
 of Poland, he marched with 8,000 men to its bor- 
 ders. But even with such a force he was tniable, 
 or perhaps, more correctly, he was prudenth' 
 unwilling, to resist the insisfjince put upon him 
 at IConigsberg by the victorious King of Sweden 
 (1650) to transfer to him the feudal overlordsliip 
 of that province. Great results followed from 
 this compliance. Hardly had the treaty been 
 signed, whenjohn Casimir, returningfrom Silesia 
 ■with an Imperial army at Iiis back, drove the 
 Swedes from Poland, and recovered his domin- 
 ions. He did not evidently intend to stop there. 
 Then it was that tlie opportunity arrived to the 
 Great Elector. Earnestly solicited by tlic King 
 of Sweden to aid him in a contest which had as- 
 turned dimensions .so formidable, Frederic Wil- 
 liam consented, but oalv on the condition that 
 he should receive the Polish palatinates (Woiwml- 
 shaften) of Posen and Kalisch as the price of a 
 victorious campaign. He then joined the King 
 with his army, met thecnemy at Warsaw, fought 
 with him close to that city a great battle, whicli 
 lasted three days (38th to JWth July 1600), and 
 which teriuiuutcd tlicu, thanks mainly to the 
 
 pertinacity of the Brandeuburgers — in the com- 
 plete defeat of I he Poles. The victory ginned, 
 Frederic William withdrew his tnN>|)H. . . . 
 Again did John Casimir recover from his defeat; 
 again, aided by the Im|K>rialists, did lie nmnli 
 to the front, reoccupy Warsaw, and take up ii 
 tlireatening position (.|iposite to the Swedish 
 camp. The Kim; of Sw' den l)eheld in this action 
 on the part of his enemy ilie prelude to his own 
 certain destruction, unless by any means he could 
 induce tlie Elector of Hmndt iilmrg once more to 
 save him. H(! sent, then, urgent nies.sengcr8 
 after him to beg him to return. The messengers 
 found Frederic William at Labian. Tliere the 
 Elector halted and tliere, joincil the nc.vt day, 
 20th November 10.">(), by King Charles Gustavii.s, 
 he signed a treaty, by which, im condition of his 
 material aid in tlie war, the latter renounced lii.s 
 feudal overlordsliip over Prus.sia, and agreed to 
 acknowledge the Elector and his male descend- 
 ants as sovereign dukes of that province. In tho 
 war which followed, the enemies of Sweden and 
 Brandenburg multiplied on every side. Tho 
 Danes and Lithuanians espoused the cause of 
 John Casimir. Its issue seemed to Frederic Wil- 
 liam more tlian doubtful. He asked himself, 
 then, whether — the new enemies who had arisen 
 being the enemies of Sweden and not of himself 
 — he had not more to gain by sharing in tho 
 victories of the Poles than in the defeats of the 
 Swedes. Replying to himself alllrmatively, he 
 concluded, 29th September 10.57, through the in- 
 termediation of the Emperor, witli the Poles, at 
 Wehlau, a treaty whcR-by the dukedom of Prus- 
 sia \vi\c ceded "in absolute sovereignty to the 
 Elect )r of Brandenburg and his male issue, with 
 reversion to Poland in case of the extinction of 
 the family of the Franeonian HolienzollernB; in 
 return, Frederic William engaged himself to sup- 
 port the Poles in their war against Sweden with 
 a corps of 4,000 men. But before this ctmven- 
 tion could be acted upon, fortune Inul again 
 smiled upon Charles Gustavus. Turning in the 
 heiglit of winter against the Danes, the King of 
 Sweden had defeated them in the open field, p\ir- 
 sued them across the frozen waters of the Belt to 
 Filnen and Seeland, and had imposed ui)on their 
 king the humiliating peace of l{oeskilde (Ifi.W). 
 He seemed inclined to proceed .still further in tho 
 destruction of the ancient rival of Ids countrj', 
 wlien a combined army of Poll's and Brandeu- 
 burgers suddenly poured through Mecklen- 
 burg into Hnlstein drove thence the Swedes, 
 and gave them i-.> rest till they had evacuated 
 likewise Sc^hleswig and Jutland (16159). In a 
 battle which took i)lace shortly afterwards on 
 tlie island of Fl'uien, at Nyborg, the Swedes .s»if- 
 fc'red a defeat. This defeat made Charles Giis- 
 tavusdespairof success, and he had already begun 
 to treat for peace, when deatli snatched liim from 
 the scene (January 1600). Tlie uegotiations which 
 had begun, however, continued, and finally iK'ace 
 was signetl on tlie 1st May 1000, in the nioniistery 
 of Oliva, close to Danzig. This peace confirmed 
 to the Elector of Brandenburg his sovereign rights 
 over the duchy of Prussia. From this e]XHh 
 dates the complete union of Brandenburg and 
 Prussia — a union upon which a great man was 
 able to lay the foundation of a powerful North 
 German Kingdom!" Duriug the next dozen 
 years, tlic Great Elector was chiefly busied in es- 
 tablishing his Authority in his doniinicms and 
 curbing the ixiwer of the nobles, particularly in 
 
 309 
 
BIUNDENBURO, 1040-1088. 
 
 UKAZIL, 1510-lOei. 
 
 PrusHiii. Ill 10T4, wlini Louis XIV. of Fmnce 
 provoki'tl war witli the (Jcrmim princes by liis 
 attiu'li on till' Diitcli, Ficilcric Willlimi led 2(),0(K) 
 men into AIhiui' to join tlii' Inipcri!!! forces. 
 Louis tlicn culled upon his iillies, the Swedes, to 
 inviide Uranderd)urj(, which they did, under (}en- 
 crul Wnuigel, in Jiinuiiry, 1075. " I'lundering 
 and burning us they adviiueed, they cntereil 
 llavcUaiid, lh<! granary of Herlhi, and carried 
 their devastations up to the very jrates of that 
 cajiital." Tile Elector was retn'utinj; from Alsace 
 before Tureniu; when lu^ heard of tlie invasion. 
 II(! paused for sonic v.eel<s, to put his army in 
 good (H)iidition, and then he Iiurried northwards, 
 liy forced marclie.,. Tho enemy was taken by 
 surprise, and attacked while attemjiting to re- 
 treat, near Fehrliellin, on tli<' 18tli of .Iimc. After 
 two liotirs of a tremendous liand-to-liand contliet, 
 "the right wing (>f the Swedes was crushed and 
 broken; the centn. and left wing were in full re- 
 treat towards Felirbellin. The victors, utterlv 
 exhausted — they liad scarcely (luitted their sad- 
 dles for eleven days — were too worn out to pur- 
 sue. It wa" not till tho following iii'irning tliat, 
 refreshed and recovered, they followed tlio re- 
 treatiii,'^ foe to the borders of Mecklenliurg. . . . 
 The Great Elector promptly followed up his vic- 
 tory till he had compelled tho Swedes to evacuate 
 all Pomerania. Three years later, when they 
 once more crossed the border from Livonia, he 
 forced tlicni again to retreat ; andaithoiigh in tlie 
 treaty signed at St. Germain in 1079 he was 
 forced to renounce his Pomeranian concjuests, he 
 <lid not the less estalilisli tlie ultimate right of 
 the State of which ho was the real founder to 
 those lauds on the Baltic for wliidi he had so 
 hardly struggled at the negotiations whicli iire- 
 ceded the Peace of AVestplialia. When he died 
 (i)tL Jlay 1088) he left the Kingdom already made 
 iu a [losition of prosperity sutlicieiit to justify his 
 son and successor in assuming, tliirteen vears 
 lator, on the anniversary of the victory of t\'hr- 
 bellin, the title of King."— G. B. Malleson, The 
 Buttle Ficlth of Germany, ch. 8. — Sec, also, Sc.^vn- 
 DiNAViAN States (Sweden): A. I). 1044-1007. 
 
 A. D. 1648.— The Peace of Westphalia.— 
 Loss of part of Pomerania. — Compensating 
 acquisitions. See Geu.many: A. 1). 1048. 
 
 A. D. 1672-1679.— In the Coalition against 
 Louis XIV. See Nethkulands (IIoli..\m)): 
 A. D. 1073-1074, and 1074-1078 ; also Nimeguen, 
 Peace of. 
 
 A. D. 1689-1696.— The war of the Grand 
 Alliance against Louis XIV. See Fuance: 
 A. D. 1089-101)0, to 1095-1090. 
 
 A. D. 1697.— The Treaty of Ryswick.— 
 Restitutions by France. See Fiu^'ce: A. D. 
 1007. 
 
 A. D. 1700.— The Elector made King of 
 Prussia. See Pkussia : A. D. 1700. 
 
 BRANDY STATION, OR FLEET- 
 WOOD, Battle of. Sec United States of 
 A.M. : A. D. 1803 (.IiNE; Vikoinia). 
 
 BRANDYWINE, Battle of the (A. D. 
 1777). See I'nited States of Am. : A. 1). 1777 
 <.Iani:auv — Decembeh). 
 
 BRANKIRKA, Battle of (1518). See Scan- 
 dinavian ST.vths: A. I). 1397-1.527. 
 
 BRANT, CP lEF, and the Indian warfare of 
 the American F evolution. Sec United States 
 OF Am.: a. D. 1778 (June— Novemueu), and 
 (July). 
 
 BRASIDAS IN CHALKIDIKE. See 
 
 Gukkck: H. C. 421-121: 
 
 BRAZIL : Origin of the name. — " Asthemost 
 valuable part of tlie cargo which Aliieri<us Vcs- 
 pucius carried back to Eurojje was tlie well- 
 known <lye-wooil, 'Ciesalpina Bni/iliensis, ' — 
 called in the Portuguese language 'pan brazil,' 
 on account of its resemblance to ' bra/as,' ' coals 
 of fire,' — the land whence it came was termed the 
 ' land of tlie brazil-wood '; and liiially this appel- 
 lation was shortened to Brazil, an(I completely 
 usurped the names Vera Cruz, or Santa Cruz." — 
 J. C. Fietcher and 1). P. Kidder, llnizil and the 
 llraziliann, ch. 3. — See, also, Ameuica: A. D. 
 1500-1514. 
 
 The aboriginal inhabitants. Sec Ameuican 
 AiiouioiNEs: Ti'i'i. — Guauani. — Tupuyas; also 
 OucK or Coco Gkodp. 
 
 A. D. 1500-1S04. — Discovery, exploration of 
 the coast and nrst settlement. See Amkhica: 
 A. I). 1499-1.")00, l.")()()-1514, and 1.5();!-1.5t)4. 
 
 A. D. 1510-1661. — Portuguese colonization 
 and agriculture. — Introduction of Slavery. — 
 The coming of the Jesuits. — Conquests of 
 the Dutch, and the Portuguese recovery of 
 them. — "Brazil, on which tho Portuguese ships 
 had been cast by accident, had been found to 
 unite iu itself tlie capabilities of every part of 
 the world in which Europeans have settled, 
 though happily gold and .silver had not yet been 
 discovered, anil the colonists betook themselves 
 from the first to agriculture. The first perma- 
 nent settlements on this coast were made by 
 Jews, e.xiled by the persecution of the Imiuisl- 
 tion; and the government supplemented those 
 by sending out criminals of all kinds. But 
 gradually the consequence of Bnizil became 
 recognized, and, as afterwards happened in New 
 England, the nobility at home asked to sliare the 
 land among themselves. Emmanuel would not 
 countenance such a claim, but this great prince 
 died in 1531, and his successor, John III., ex- 
 tended to Brazil the same system which had licen 
 adopted iu Madeira and the Azores. The whole 
 sea-coast of Brazil was parcelled out by feudal 
 grants. It was divided into captaincies, each 50 
 leagues in length, with no limits In the interior; 
 and these were granted out as male fiefs, witli 
 atisolute power over the natives, such as at that 
 time existed over the serfs who tilled tlie soil in 
 Europe. But tlie native Brazilians were neither 
 so easy a conquest as the Peruvians, nor so easily 
 induced to labour; and the Portuguese now be- 
 gan to bring uogros from the Guinea coast. 
 This tratlic in human flesh had long been vigor- 
 ously pursued in various parts of Europe ; the 
 Portuguese now introduced it to America. The 
 .settlors of Brazil were, jiroperly speaking, tho 
 first European colonists. For they sold tlieirowu 
 Iiossessions at home, and brouglit their house- 
 holds with them to tlio new country. Thus they 
 gradually formed the heart of a now nation, 
 whereas the chief Spaniards always returned 
 home after a certain tenure of their oflices, and 
 tliose who remained in the colony descended to 
 tho rank of the concpiored natives. JIany of 
 those who came to Brazil had already served in 
 the expeditious to tho East; and they naturally 
 perceived that the coast of America might raise 
 tlie productions of India. Ilonco Brazil early 
 became a plantation colony, and its prosperity is 
 very mucli due to the culture of the sugar cane. 
 The Portuguese were greatly assisted, both in 
 
 310 
 
BRAZIL, 1510-1661. 
 
 BRAZIL, 1581-1841. 
 
 the East and tlie West, by the efforts of the 
 newly fouiiiled onler of the Jesuits. . . . John 
 III. in [1549| sent out six of tlie order with the 
 first governor of Bnizil. . . . Tlie Dutch, iniule 
 bold by their great successes in i ■ P^ast, now- 
 sought to win the trade of Brazil by force of 
 amis, and tlic success of the I'^ist India Company 
 encouraged tlic adventurers wliot subscribed tlie 
 funds for tliat of the West Indies, incorporated in 
 1621. Tlic Dutch Admiral, Jacob Willeliens, suc- 
 cessfully assaulted San Salvador [Bahia] in 1624, 
 uiid thougli the capital was afterwards retaken by 
 the Intrepid Archbishop Te.xeira, one lialf of the 
 coast of Brazil submitted to the Dutch. Here, 
 as in the Eiust, the proUt of the company was the 
 whole aim of the Dutch, and the spirit in whicli 
 they executed their design was a main cause of 
 its failure. . . . But . . . the profits of tlie 
 company . . . rose at one time to cent i)er cent. 
 The visions of the speculators of Amsterdam be- 
 came greater; and they resolved to become 
 masters of all Brazil. . . . The man whom they 
 despatched [1037] to execute this design was 
 Prince John JIaurice of Nassau. ... In a short 
 time he had greatly extended the Dutch posses- 
 sions. But the Stad-houder was subject, not to 
 the wise and learned men wlio sat in tlie States- 
 General, but to the merchants who composed the 
 courts of the company. They tliouglit of nothing 
 but their dividends ; they considered that Maurice 
 kept up more trooi)s and built more fortresses 
 than were necessary for ii mercantile c(mimunity, 
 and that he lived in too princely a fasliion for 
 one in tlieir service. Perhaps they suspected him 
 of an intention of slipping into tliat royal dig- 
 nity wliich tlie feudal frame of Brazilian society 
 seemed to offer him. At any rate, in 1643, tliey 
 forced him to resign. A recent revolution had 
 terminated tlie subjection of Portugal to Spain, 
 and tlio new liing of Portugal concluded a truce 
 for ten years with Holland. War was therefore 
 supposed to be out of the question. . . . But the 
 recall of Maurice was the signal for an independ- 
 ent revolt in Brazil. Though the motiier coun- 
 tries were at peace, war brolte out between the 
 Dutch and the Portuguese of Brazil in 1045. 
 Tlie Jesuits had long preached a crusade against 
 the heretic Dutch. . . . Jolin Ferdinand de 
 Vieyra, a wealthy merchant of Pernamlnico, led 
 a general uprising of the Brazilians, and althougli 
 the Dulcli made a stubborn resistance, they re- 
 ceived no assistance from liome ; tiiey were driven 
 from one post after another, until, in 1054, the 
 liist of the company's servants quitted Brazil. 
 The Dutch declared war against Portugal ; but 
 in 1601 peace was made, aad the Dutch sold their 
 claims for SfOOO, 000 florins, the right of trading 
 being secured to tlieni. But after the expulsion 
 of the Dutch, the trade of Brazil came more and 
 more into tlie hands of the English." — E. J. 
 Payne, Hist, of Europmn Cuhiiies, ch. 3-3. 
 
 Also in: K. G. Watson, HjMimh and Portu- 
 guese South Ainenca, v. 1, ch. Oaiul 15/ v. 2,ch. 
 1-4.— R. Soutliey, Jlint. of Bnizil, ». 1-2. 
 
 A. D, 1524.— Conceded to Portugal. See 
 America: A. I). 1519-1524. 
 
 A. D. 1531-1641.— The Republic of St. Paul. 
 — The Paulistas or Mamelukes. — "Tlie cele- 
 brated reiniblic of St. Paul, as it is usually 
 denominated, had its rise about the year 1531, 
 from a very inconsiderable beginning. A mariner 
 of the name of Ramalho, having been sliip- 
 wreckcd on this part of the coast, was received 
 
 among a small Indian tribe called the Pirallninga, 
 after the name of their <'liief. Here he was 
 found liy De Housa some years afterwards, and, 
 contrary to the establislied policy of permitting 
 no settlement excepting immediately on tin,' sea- 
 coast, he allowed this man to reiiiaiii, on account 
 of his having intermarried and having 11 family. 
 The advantages of this establisliment were such, 
 that permission was soon after given to otiiers to 
 settle here, and as the adventurers intermarried 
 with the natives, their numbers increa.sed rapidly. 
 ... A mixed race was formed. ])ossessing a 
 compound of civilized and uncivilized iiainners 
 and customs. The Jesuits soon after establLsheil 
 them.selves witli a number of Indians lliej had 
 reclaimed, and exerted a salutary influence in 
 softening and harmonizing tlie growing colony. 
 In 1581, the seat of government was removed 
 from St. Vincent on tlie coast to St. Pauls; but 
 its subjection to Portugal was little more than 
 nominal. . . . The mi.\,ture produced an im- 
 proved race, 'tlie European spirit of enterprise,' 
 .says Soutliey, 'develo])e<l itself in constitutions 
 adapted to the country.' But it is much more 
 likely that the free and popular government 
 whicli they enjoyed produced the same fruits 
 here as in every other country. . . . Tliey soon 
 quarreled with tlie Jesuits [1581], on account of 
 the Indians whom they had reduced to slavery. 
 The Jesuits declaimed against tlie practice ; but 
 as there were now many wealthy families among 
 the Paulistas, the greater part of whose fortunes 
 consisted in their Indian.s, it was not heard with 
 patience. The Paulistas first engaged in war 
 against the enemies of their allies, ami afterwards 
 on their own account, on finding it advantageous. 
 They established a regular trade witli the otlier 
 provinces whom they supplied with Indian 
 slaves. They by this time acquired tlie name of 
 Mamelukes, from the peculiar military discipline 
 they adopted, bearing some resemlilance to the 
 Mamelukes of Egypt. The revolution in Portu- 
 gal, when Philip II. of Spain jdaced himself on 
 its throne,cast the Paulistas in a statu of iiide])cnd- 
 ence, as tliey were tlic only settlers in Brazil 
 wliich did not acknowledge tlie new dynasty. 
 From the year 1580 until the middle of the follow- 
 ing century, they may be regarded as a republic, 
 and it was during tliis period they displayed that 
 active and enterprising character for Avhieli they 
 were so much celebrated. . . . While a Spani-sh 
 king occupied the throne of Portugal, tliey 
 attacked the Spanish settlements on the Para- 
 guay, alleging that the Spaniards were encroach- 
 ing on tlieir territory. . . . They attjicked tlio 
 Jesuit missions [1629]. ... As tliey had fixed 
 themselves east of the Parana, the Paulistas laid 
 hold of this as a pretext. Tliey carried away 
 upwards of 2,000 of tlieir Indians into captivity, 
 the greater i)art of whom were sold and dis- 
 tributed as slaves. The Jesuits complained to 
 the king of Spain and to the pope; the latter 
 fulminated his excommunication. The Paulistas 
 attacked the Jesuits in their college, and ])ut 
 their principal to death, expelled tiie leiiialiider, 
 and set up a religion of tlieir own ; at least no 
 longer acknowledged the supremacy of the jiope. 
 Inconsequence of the interruption of the African 
 trade during the Dutch war, the demand for 
 Indian slaves was very mucli increased. Tiic 
 Paulistas redoubled their exertions, and traversed 
 every part of the Brazils in armed troops. . . . 
 The foundation was laid of enmity to the Portu- 
 
 1 • 
 
BRAZIL, 1581-1641. 
 
 BRAZIL, 1808-1823. 
 
 ji;u('H(', wlilcli ('(intinui'.t to tliin <liiy. uIIUoukIi a 
 L'lmiplotc nt()|> was put to the iiifainoiis practicn 
 In tlio year 1750. . . . When llm liousu of Hra- 
 Unma, in 1040, ascciulcd thr> throne, tlut I'aiilis- 
 tns, iiiHt<'a(l of ackiiowlcdKinj; liiiii, conceived 
 the idea of electing a liing for tlieniselves. Tliey 
 actually elected a distlnj;iiislied citizen of llu' 
 name of Hueno, who persisted in refusini; to 
 accept, upon winch thev were induced to ac 
 knowle(l),'i; Joani IV. [I<i41]. It was not tintil 
 Jong afterwards that they came under thu Portu- 
 guese government." — II. M. Hrackenridgo, Voy- 
 wji' to ti/nt/t Ain/rira, v. 1, <•//. 2. 
 
 Also i.n : K. Soutliey, Jliiit. of Brazil, ch. 311 
 
 (''. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1540-1541.— Orellana's voyag^e down 
 the Amazons. See Ama/.onh Kivku. 
 
 A. D. 1555-1560. — Attempted Huguenot 
 colony on the Bay of Rio Janeiro. Sec 
 Fmiuid.v: A. !).» l.Wi-t'iOa 
 
 A. D. 1654-1777. — The Portugfese policy of 
 exclusion and restriction. — B'undary dis- 
 putes with Spain. — "The period of peace which 
 followed thesi' victories [over the Dutch] . . . 
 was used by the Portuguese government only to 
 get up a kind of old .Japanese system of isolation, 
 by which it was intended to keep the colony in 
 perpetual tutelage. In consequence of this even 
 now, after the lapse of half a century since it 
 violently separated itself, Brazilians generally 
 cntcriaiu a bitter grudge against the mother 
 country. All the trade to and from Brazil was 
 engrossed by Portugal ; every functionary, down 
 to the last clerk, was Portuguese. Any other 
 European of scientitic education was looked at 
 with suspicion ; and particularly they sought to 
 prevent by nil means the exploration of the 
 interior, as they feared not only that the eyes of 
 the natives might be opened to their mode of 
 administration, but also that such traveller:! 
 might side with the Spaniards in their long dis- 
 pute regarding the boundaries of the two 
 nations, as the French astronomer. La Conda- 
 mine, liad done. This ({uestion, which arose 
 shortly after the discovery, and was hushed up 
 only during the sliort union of both crowns 
 (from 1581-1640), broke out with renewed vigor 
 now and then, maugre the Treaty of Tordesilhas 
 in 1494 [see Amkuic.x.: A. D. 1494]. ... By 
 the Treaty of Silo Ildefouso, in 1777, botli parties 
 having long felt how impracticable thu old 
 arrangements were — at least, for their American 
 colonies — the boundaries were fl.xed upon the 
 principle of the 'uti possidetis,' at any rate so 
 far as the imperfect knowledge of the interior 
 allowed ; but this effort also jjioved to be vain. 
 . . . The unsolved question descended as an evil 
 heritage to their respective heirs, Brazil and the 
 South American Kepublics. A few years ago it 
 gave rise to the terrible war with Paraguay ; and 
 It will lead to fresh conflicts between Brazil and 
 the Argentine Republic." — F. Keller, Ttie 
 Amnzon and }fa(kira liicera, pp. 33-34. 
 
 Also in : R. Soutliey, History of Brazil, v. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1713. — The Portuguese title con- 
 firmed. See Utueciit: A. D. 1712-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1759.— Expulsion of the Jesuits. See 
 Jksuits: A. D. 1757-1773. 
 
 A. D. 1808-1822.— Becomes the asylum of 
 Portuguese royalty. — The founding of tne in- 
 dependent Empire. — "While anarchy and ruin 
 . . . oversprca(l the greater part of the beautiful 
 continent of South America, the Empire of Bra- 
 
 zil won an Independent existence without blood- 
 shed, and kept It with credit. The Dutch 
 con(|uest of Brazil, and its rccon(|Ucst by tlio 
 Portuguese, has been mentioned in a former 
 chapter. The country long remained iiniler the 
 close anil oppressiv(.' monopoly imposed upon it 
 by the Portuguese; but, in 1808 [\HOl:\ when Na- 
 polecm invadciU Portus^al, the regent embarked 
 [see Poutiioal: A. I). 1807], with the royal in- 
 signia, for Brazil, which at once assumed the 
 dignity of an integral part of the kingdom. The 
 jiorts were opened to tlii! commerce of the world ; 
 the printing-press was introduc('d ; learning was 
 encouraged; the enormous resources of the 
 country were explored; foreign settlers were in- 
 vited to establish themselves; embassies were 
 sent to Euroiiean powers of the first rank, and 
 diplomatic agents rt'ceivcd. New towns and 
 harbours were planned; new life was breathed 
 into every department of the state. After a few 
 years, the state of affairs in Europe compelled 
 king John VI. to return to Eurofie, as the only 
 chance of preserving the integrity of the mon- 
 archy. The Cortes of Lisbon invited their sover- 
 eign to revisit his ancient capital, and deputies 
 from Brazil were summoned to attend the sit- 
 tings of the National Assembly. But before tho 
 deputies could arrive, the Cortes had resolved 
 that Brazil should be again reduced to absolute 
 dependence on Portugal. A resolution more 
 senseless or more impracticable can hardly be 
 imagined. Tho territory of Brazil was as large 
 as all Europe put together; Portugal was a 
 little kingdom, isolated and without influiaico 
 among the monarchies of the Old World ; yet it 
 was deliberately decreed that all the monopolies 
 of the exploded colonial system should be re- 
 vived, and that England should be deprived of 
 her free trade to Brazil. The king ai)poiuted 
 his eldest son, Uom Pedro, Regent of the new 
 kingdom, and soon after took h's departure for 
 Lisbon, with many of tlio emigrant nobility. 
 Doin Pedro assumed tho government under the 
 perplexing circumstances of an empty treasury, 
 a heavy public debt, and the provinces almost in 
 revolt. Bahia disavowed his authority, and the 
 Cortes withheld their support from him. The 
 regent reduced his expenditure to the monthly 
 sum allowed to his princess for pin money ; he 
 retired to a country house, and observed the 
 most rigid economy. By great exertions he re- 
 duced the public expenditure from S50,00l),000 
 to $15,000,000; but tho northern and internal 
 provinces still withheld their ta.xcs; the army 
 iiecame mutinous, and the ministers of his 
 father, who still remained in power, were un- 
 popular; the regent in despair drtnauded his 
 recall. But the Bra".ilians were at length dis- 
 armed by his noble conduct; they recognized his 
 activity, his beneficence, his assiduity in the 
 affairs of government, aud the habitual feelings 
 of affection and respect for tlie House of Bra- 
 ganza, which had for a moment been laid asleep 
 by distrust, were reawakened with renewed 
 strength. It was fortunate that the quarrels 
 which disturbed Brazil wore accommodated before 
 the arrival of intelligence from Portugal. Hardly 
 had the king arrived in Lisbon when he found 
 himself obliged to assent to a constitution which 
 treated his Brazilian subjects as mere colonists; 
 succeeding mails brought orders more and more 
 humiliating to the Brazilians. The design of 
 declaring Brazil an independent kingdom, grew 
 
 312 
 
BRAZIL, 1809-1883. 
 
 BRAZIL, 1871-1888. 
 
 more nnd more In imbllc favour; but, the prince 
 wiiH luiwillin;; to plarc liiinsclf in direct rrlx'llioii 
 to till' crown III' I'ortii^iil, ami Hicaillly aillu'ri'il to 
 hie (Ictcnnination to Icavo Aniiriia. At Icn^jtli, 
 it is rdatcil, a licMnatch was dcliviTcii to tlir 
 recent, wliiili 111' declined to show to any of Ids 
 ministers, Iml which (evidently excited in Ids 
 mind no ordinary emotions of un^er: he crushed 
 the paper in his hand, and moved away to a 
 window, where he stood for a few moments in 
 thought; at length he turned to his council with 
 the words ' Independencia ou morte': — the ex- 
 clamation was received with tinnultuous cheers, 
 nud was ailii|iteil as the watrliword of the IJevo- 
 lution. The I'orluguese troops wen; sent liack 
 to Kurojie. The Cortes of Llslmn were now 
 anxious to recall their obnoxious decrees; to 
 adnnt the deputies from llra/.il; to make any 
 cuucession tliat ndght lie demanded, lint it was 
 too late: the Independence of Bra/.il was for- 
 mally proclaimed in August, 182'J, and in De- 
 cember of the .same year, l>om I'edro was 
 crowned Kmperor of Unizil i'his is tlie lirst, 
 and as yet the only instance .i a modern colony 
 nchicving its iiideiiendeni'e, and separating itself 
 complett'ly from its metropolis without blixxl- 
 shcd." — Viscount Hury, h'j.vilua of the Waitern 
 Nations, i: 2, r/i. 11. 
 
 Also in: J. Armitage, Hint, of Brazil, eh. 1-7. 
 —See, idso, PointdAL: A. 1). 1820-182-1. 
 
 A. D. 1825-1865.— Wars with the Argen- 
 tines. — Abdication of Dom Pedro I.— The 
 GuerradosCabanos. — "In 182."), cliietly through 
 the mediation of England, iJrazil was acknowl- 
 edged as un independent empire. Hut tlie inner 
 commotions contiinied, and were not even soothed 
 by a new Constitution, drawn up in 1823, and 
 sworn to by the Emperor in 1824. New revolts 
 in Pernambuco, and some of the other Northern 
 provinces, and a war of three years with the 
 Argentine Republic, which ended in 1828 by 
 Brazil giving up Banda Oriental, annexed onlj 
 eleven years before, disturbed and weakened the 
 land. The foreign soldiers, enlisted for this wir, 
 and retained after its conclusion to keep do ivn 
 the Opposition, and the extravagant private life 
 of the Emperor, who recklessly trampled down 
 the honour of respectable families, i)rovokoil 
 dissatisfaction and murmurs, which rose to the 
 highest pitch wlien he insisted upon carrying on 
 a most mipopular war in Portugal to defend the 
 rights of his daughter. Dona Maria da Gloria (in 
 ■whose favour he had abdicated the Portuguese 
 Crown), against his brother, Don Miguel [see 
 Poutuoal: a. D. 1824-188«j. In April, 1831, 
 Dom Pedro I., so enthusiastically raised to the 
 Brazilian throne only nine years before, was 
 forced to abdicate it, deserted and betrayed by 
 every one, in behalf of his younger son, Pedro. 
 The next period was tlic most ilisturbed one that 
 the young Empire had yet witnes.sed. Slave 
 revolts at Bahia, a civil war in the South, which 
 almost cost it tlie province of Hio Grande do 8ul, 
 and the bloody rebellion known as the Querra 
 dos Cabanos, in Pani and Amazon, from 183.5 to 
 1837, followed each other qinckly. In this last 
 revolt, the Brazilians had stirred up the Indians 
 and mestizoes against the abhorred Portuguese, 
 without coiLsidering that they should not be 
 able to quench the fire they had themselves 
 kindled. In a short time, the fury of the whole 
 colored population turned against all whites, 
 Brazilians and Portuguese alike, without any 
 
 distinction. More than 10, 000 persons are sidd 
 to have perished in this (iiierra dos Cabanos; 
 and, to the present day. those terrible times anil 
 the barbarous iriii'lties conunitled by the In- 
 diaiiH, half-castes, and mulattoes, continue to bo 
 talked of with awe in the two priivinces. A 
 ri'Volulliin in .Minas, got ui) by the personal 
 ambitions of :i few political leaders, rather than 
 I'manating from tl'e spirit of the people, and the 
 war against Uosas, the Dictator of the Argiiitinu 
 Uepubllc, pa,ssed over Brazil without leiving 
 deep traces, at least when comiiared with the 
 last war against Paraguay; which, besides the 
 stimulus of the old diirerences about boundaries, 
 was occasioned liy the endless vexations and re- 
 strictions with which the Dictator Lopez strove 
 to ruin the Brazilian Iniile on the Paraguay, and 
 to prejudice the provlnre of .Mato Gros.sol" — V. 
 Keller, Tlu: Amnion and ^f(Ulcir<^ Jticeri, pp. 
 2.5-20. 
 
 Also in : J. Armitage, Jlial. of nrinil, 1808- 
 18:U.— See, also, AltOKNTlNIi lUil'iiiiLic: A. D. 
 1811(-I87I. 
 
 A. D. 1865-1870.— The virar with Paraguay. 
 See pAiiAiifAv: A, 1). 1(!08-1.ST:!. 
 
 A. D. 1871-1888.— Emaucipation of Slaves. 
 — The Brazilian act of emancipation, known as 
 the Law of Bio Branco (taking that name from 
 the Jlinlster who carried it through) was pii-sseJ 
 on the 28th of September, 1871, "and from that 
 date it was enacted 'that children henceforth 
 born of slave women shall be considered of free 
 condition.'. . . Such children are not to be 
 actually free, but are bound to serve the owners 
 of their mothers for a term of 21 years, under the 
 name of 'apprentices.' These must work, under 
 severe penalties, for their liereditary masters; 
 but if the latter inflict on them excessivo bodily 
 punishment, tliey are allowed tr, bring suit in a 
 criminal court, which :\m\ duclare their freedom.. 
 A [irovision was also made for the emancipation 
 of government slaves; and there was a clause 
 which insured u certain sum, to be annually set 
 aside from fines, which was to aid each province 
 in emancipating by purchase a certain number 
 of slaves. . . . The passage of this law did not 
 prove merely prospective In its elTects. In a 
 very short time the sums placed aside for emanci- 
 pating slaves by purchase resulted in tlie freedom 
 of many bondmen. And more than this, there 
 seemed to be a generous private rivalry in the 
 good work, from motives of benevolence and 
 from religious inlliience. Many persons in various 
 parts of Brazil liberated their slaves without com- 
 pensation. ... I am liajipy to say that the 
 number liberated, either by the provisions of the 
 .State or by private individuals, is always in an 
 increasing ratio. When the writer fli-st went to 
 Brazil [1852] ... it was estimated that there 
 were 3,000,000 in slavery. . . . There were at 
 the beginning of 1875, when the law of emanci- 
 pation had been but a little more than three 
 years in operation, 1,470,567 slaves." — J. C. 
 Fletcher ond I). P. Kidder, Brazil and the Bra- 
 ziliam, eh. 28.— "On the 25th of March, 1884, 
 slavery was abolished in the province of Cearii. 
 The liio News says, ' Tlie movement began only 
 15 months ago, tlie first municipality liberating 
 its slaves on tlie Ist of January, 1883. The new 
 tax law of last November greatly accelerated 
 this progress, because it made slave-holding im- 
 possible, the value of the slave being less than 
 the tax.' " On the 28th of September, 1885, the 
 
 313 
 
mixziu i87i-iN«t). 
 
 lUtAZIL, 1880-tHOl. 
 
 Impfttloncc of tlin nriizllliins to rid thcmfU'lvcA of 
 (tliivcry t'xprcHHcil iucir in n ni;w Kiniim'l|iiilion 
 A('t, Known UH till- Hiirulvii liiw. It (irovidod 
 for fucilitiitin;^ ami liastcninK tlin ('Xlt'iiMion of 
 freedom, by iniTcitNin); tin; piililic fund iijipnipri- 
 atcd to it, liy dt'tlninK tliu vnluution of HlavoH, 
 nnd l)y other efleetivti provisions, so timt 
 " within ten yeiini [from its tiatoj it is NiippoMcd 
 tliat Nliivery will liiivc ceiuwd to exist in Itrii/il." 
 —II. ('. Dent, A Yrar ill, Ifrnzii, pp. Wl-'Um.— 
 "On .Miirch !1(), 1H87, tlie olllcliil n'tiirn ^iive the 
 niinil)er of hIuvcm in iira/il as 7'':l,410, of the 
 legal value of i>.W5,23.'),aia. On May lU, lftH«, 
 the Crown Princess, 'is recent, gave tlu! royal 
 assent to a short nieasuro or two clauses, the (Irst 
 dcclarinfi; that slavery was ulxilisheil In Ura/.ll 
 from the (..ly of the promulgation of the law, and 
 the second repealing all former Acts on the sub- 
 ject. Both Chambers ref.ised tr) consider the 
 claim for compeiisatioii made by Ihe slave own- 
 ers." — StiitiniiKiii'n Ymr-lliHik, WW), p. 'M){. 
 
 A, D, 1889-1801. — Revolution. — Overthrow 
 of the Empire, — Establishment of the Republic 
 of the United States of Brazil.— Religious 
 freedom declared. — "The sudden collapse of the 
 Imperial Clovernmcnt in November j ISHKj, 
 residtlng in the downfall of Dom Pedro and Ins 
 banishment, caused universal surprise. For 
 some time tlu^ (iovernmeiit had l)een credited by 
 the Kepubllcan journals with the wish and 
 intention to disperse the army throughout the 
 provinces nnd along the frontier, so that, witli 
 the assistance of tlie newly-organised National 
 Guard, the succession of the Princess Imperial to 
 the throne might be secured in tlie event of the 
 death or incapacity through old age of the 
 Emperor Dom Pedro. An Infantry l)attallon, 
 onlered to embark for a distant province, 
 mutinied nnd refused to go. The AVar Depart- 
 ment resolved to compel them by force to 
 depart." The result was a general mutiny 
 (November 15, 1889), which soon becnme n 
 revolution. " Tlie organl.ser of the mutiny was 
 Colonel Benjamin Constant Uotellio de Magal- 
 hucs, an otlicer ul' exceptional ability and Pro- 
 fessor in the Military Academy. The' movement 
 seemed directed at first only ngninst the 
 obnoxious Ouro Prcto Ministry ; but the enthusi- 
 asm of the Ucpublicnns, under the leadership of 
 a popular agitator, Jose de Patrocinlo, was so 
 very pronounced, that nt a meeting held in the 
 cky hall, in the afternoon of Nov. 15, a resolu' 
 tion proclaiming the Uepublic was passed by 
 acclamation. About the same hour, a self-con- 
 stituted committee, consisting of General Deo- 
 doro [da Fonscca], Benjamin Constant, and 
 Quintino Bocnyuva, met and organised n Pro- 
 visional Government," with Jlarshnl Dcodoro da 
 Fonseca for its Chief, Colonel Botelho de Magal- 
 hacs for Minister of War. ' ' A formal decree 
 was issued declaring a federal Republic, the 
 several provinces of the late Empire constituting 
 the States and eacli State arranging its own con- 
 stitution and electing its deliberative bodies and 
 local governments. On the morning of the lOth 
 the deposed Emperor received intimation that he 
 and his family must leave the country within 
 twenty-four hours : — ' Between 3 and 3 o'clock 
 on the morning of the 17tli an olHcer appeared at 
 the palace and informed the Emperor that he 
 must at once embark, with all the members of 
 his family. The wn^tched old mnn# protested 
 that he was not a fugitive, and that he preferred 
 
 to embark by day; but after llstenir. - to tho 
 olllccr's explimatlon that a contliit might iNcur 
 and bliMMl might Iw shed, he finally yielded, 
 protesting that in such n crisis Ills old grey head 
 was the only one that was c(k>1. And so at tho 
 dead hour of night, with no one to say a fare- 
 well and bid him G(Kl-speed, the aged Kmperor, 
 witli his devoted wife and children, went down 
 to the Caes Phanmx, where a launch was wait- 
 ing to v.wvey them out to the sniull gunboat 
 Parnahvba. About 10 oVlo(!k the gunboat 
 hteameil out of the harbour nnd went down to 
 Illia Grande to wait for the merchant steamer 
 Alngoas, which had been <:hartered tocimvey tho 
 exiles to Europe'. ... It wils said tlint tho 
 Imperial Mlnl.stry, principally through tho 
 instrumentality of Ouro Preko, had arranged 
 with Dom Pedro to nlxilcate at the end of 
 January, 1800, In favour of his daughter, tho 
 Countess d'Eu. But the Countess, with her 
 husband, was extremely unpopuhir with tho 
 army nnd navy, nnd from these the feeling of 
 dlsloj-alty spread rapidly among i\w people. By 
 decree of the Provisional Government, tho 
 provinces of Brazil, united by the tie of feder- 
 ation, were to be styled tlie ' United States of 
 Brazil,' and general elections were to take placo 
 in August, 1800, to coullrm tiie establishment of 
 the Hepublic. A counter-revolution broke out 
 in Uio on Dec. 18. A numljcr of soldiers, sailors, 
 and civilians took part in it, and troops had to bo 
 ordered out to disperse them. It wns not until 
 the 20th that the disturbance was finally (luelled. " 
 — Aniiiiid ItiniHtei; 1880, pt. 1, pp. 444-448.— 
 "Tlie revolution was the work of leaders who 
 were not only conscious of tlielr jiower, but also 
 confident that the nation would Inevitably con- 
 done their teini)orary acts of usurpation. There 
 were no signs of weakness, vneillalion or uncer- 
 tainty in their action. ... A coalition of tho 
 anny otiicers and the constitution-makers nnd 
 political dreamers of the League would havo 
 lx>en imprncticablo if the leaders had not known 
 that the 20 ))rovliicc8 of the Empire were pro- 
 foundly disaffected nnd would readily acquiesce 
 in a radical cliango of government. . . . The 
 Emperor of Brazil has enjoyed tlic reputation of 
 being one of tho most enlightened nnd pro- 
 gressive sovereigns of his time. . . . lie wns a 
 ruler with many fascinating and estimable traits, 
 who endeared himself to his people. This nnd 
 much more may be said in praise of the deposed 
 and banished Emperor; but when the record of 
 his public services and of his private virtues is 
 complete, tho fact remains that he stocKl for a 
 system oif centralization that pmcticnlly deprived 
 the great series of federated provinces of their 
 nutouoniy nnd his subjects of the privileges of 
 self-government. Dom Pedro IT. wns not a con- 
 stitutionnl reformer. The charter whlcli he had 
 received from his fnthcr was not modified in nny 
 essential respect during his long reign. " — N. T. 
 Tribune Extra, v. 1, no. 13 (1880).- "A new 
 Constitution . . . was ratified by the first 
 National Congress, convened on Nov. 15, 1890. 
 By this instrument tho Brnzilinn nation consti- 
 tuted itself into a federal republic, under the 
 name of the United States of Brazil. Ench of 
 the old provinces wns declared a self-governing 
 state, to be administered under a repuJ)llcan form 
 of government, with i)ower to impose taxes, and 
 subject to no interference from the Central 
 Government, except for purposes of national 
 
 3U 
 
BRAZIL, 1880-1801. 
 
 BREITENFELD. 
 
 (lofpiiw- or tho prpsorvnflon of intornnl order or 
 for tlir cxcciitidii of Kt'ilcnil Iiiwh. l/*'f(iHliktion 
 rcliititi){ to cuHtonis, [..ipor ciirrciicy, iiml postal 
 foininuiiiciitionH Is nwrvcil to tliv Fi'doriil 
 Oovcriiinent. Tlio right of HiifTraKe im«'ciin'<l to 
 all iniilo citizpiiN over 31 yearH old, with tlu; 
 C'xcoption of U'ggnn, poraoiis if^noraiit of tho 
 alplialipt, KoldiurH in actual Horvico, and pcrson.s 
 iitKltT iiioiiatttic vowH, reditu ration hcinK the; 
 only nrcriMiulsitc. The executive authority is 
 vested in the President . . . elected by tlii, 
 people directlv for the term of 8ix years, and 
 . . . not eligihlo for the succeeding term. . . . 
 Bcnators are elected by the Lcgislatvires of the 
 States for nine yi'urs, three from each Htate, one 
 retiring and his nucccssor being cliosen every 
 three years. . . . 'I'lii^ (;haml)er of Deputies has 
 the initiative in nil laws relating to taxation. 
 Deputies arc elected for three years by direct 
 popular vote in tlio proporliim of one to every 
 iO,(K)() Inliabitanls. . , . It is declared that no 
 sect or church sliall receive aid from the National 
 or State governments." In 1801, differences 
 arose between tlie President and Congress, at 
 flrst over llnaneial measures passed by the 
 Chambers and vetoed by tho President and 
 schemes recommended by tho President that 
 were voted down by Congress. In November 
 the President publislied a decree dissolving 
 Congress, clos<'<l the Chamliers by force, pro- 
 claimed himself Dictator on the invitation of 
 ofllcers of tlie amiy, and convoked a new Con- 
 gress, to be charged with the revision of tlio 
 constitution. Tlie State of Uio Grande do Sul 
 led olT in a revolt against this usurpation, and on 
 tlie 2;Jd of November, after some shots had been 
 tired into tlie city of Kio de ilaneiro by a naval 
 scjuadrou acting against him, President Fonseca 
 resigned. " Fmriano Pei.\oto was immediately 
 instjilied by the revolutionary committee as 
 President in his 8t«ad . . . and the country soon 
 settled down under tlie new government." — 
 Appleton's AiuiiitU Cjichixtdia 1891, pp. 01-96. — 
 "When Deodoro, after struggling for twelve 
 months witli tlie factions in Congress, closed the 
 doors of Sao Christovao Palace and proclaimed a 
 dictatorship, ho had recourse to a familiar 
 expedient of Latin-American civilization. The 
 speedy collapse of his administration, when it 
 was wholly (lepcndcnt upon military force, was 
 a good augury for the future of Brazil. ... la 
 the early days of the Ucpublic, the Provisional 
 Ministry were unable to agree upon tho radical 
 policy of disestablishing the Church. . . . 
 Forti'nately for Unizil tliere was no compromise 
 of tlio disestablishment question. . . . Under 
 the Constitution no religious denomination was 
 permitted to liold relations of dependence upon, 
 or alliance witli, the fedenil or State governments. 
 . . . Every church was made free in the free 
 State. Civil marriage was recognized as essen- 
 tial. . . . Perhaps tlio most hopeful sign for the 
 cause of progress and religion is tho adoption of 
 educational sulTrage. "— I. N. Ford, Trofneal 
 America, c/i. 4.— See Constitution of Bkazil. 
 » 
 
 BREAD AND CHEESE WAR. See 
 Netiikklands: a. D. 143'3-Uy3. 
 
 BRECKINRIDGE, John C— Defeat in 
 Presidential election. See United States ok 
 A.M. : A. D. 1800 (Apuii.— Nove.mbek). 
 
 BREDA: A. D. 1575.— Spanish-Dutch Con- 
 gress. See NETiiEKiiANus: A. D. 1575-1577. 
 21 
 
 A. D. 1590.— Cftpture by Prince Maurice of 
 Nassau-Orange. Sp(' Netheiii.anuh: A. I). 
 
 l.-iMH-i,',!);!. 
 
 A. O. 1634-1635.— Siege and capture by the 
 Spaniards. See NCTHKiti.ANim; .V. I). 1(121- 
 l(ia:t. 
 
 A. D. 1637.— Taken by the Prince of Orange. 
 See Netiikhi.andh: A. f>. ltl;«-ltKtH. 
 
 A. D. 1793.— Taken and lost by the French. 
 See FuANCE: A. 1). 17y;MFKimiiAUY— APiiir.). 
 
 B'^EDA, Declaration from. Sco Enui,aj«d: 
 A. D. KiriH- 1(1(10. 
 
 BREDA, Treaty of (1666). See Nether- 
 l,ANi)s(IIi)i,i,ANl)): A. 1). inOS-lflfld. 
 
 BREED'S HILL (Bunker Hill), Battle of. 
 See I'.MTEi) Statics «)K A.M. : A. D. 1775 (.Iine). 
 
 BREHON LAWS— "The portion of tho 
 Irisli tribe Hystem which has attracted most 
 attention is the mode in which the Judici,,! 
 authority was withdrawn from the chief and n))- 
 pronriated by the hereditary caste of the 
 lireiions, and also tho siiiiposed anomaloim 
 principles which they applieil to the decision of 
 tho cases whicrh eanie before them. The earlier 
 Englisli writers found no terms too strong to ex- 
 press tlieir abhorrence and contempt of these 
 native judges, and their contempt for the prin- 
 ciples upon which they proceeded. On the other 
 hand, Irish writers attributed to these profes- 
 sional arbitrators advanced principles of e(iuity 
 wholly foreign to an early community. . . . The 
 translation of the existing va.st ma.ss of Brehon 
 law books, and the translation [publication?] of 
 tlio most important of them by the order of tlie 
 government, have dispo.sed of the arguments 
 and a.ssertions on both sides.. It is now ad- 
 mitted, that the system and princijiles of the 
 Brehon jurisprudence jiresent no characteristies 
 of any special cliaracter, although in them 
 primitive ideas of law were elaborated in a 
 manner not found elsewhere; . . . the laws 
 which existed among tho native Irish were in 
 substance those which are found to have pro- 
 vailed among other Aryan tribes in a similar 
 stage of social progress; as the social develop- 
 ment of the nation was prematurely arrested, so 
 also were the legal ideas of the same stage of 
 existence retained after tliey had disappeared in 
 all other nations of Europe. This legal survival 
 continued for centuries the property of an 
 hereditary caste, who had acquired the knowl- 
 edge of writing, and some tincture of scholastic 
 philosophy and civil law. . . . The learning of 
 the Brelions consisted (1) in an acquaintance 
 with tho minute ceremonies, intelligible now 
 onl^ to an archa'ologist, and not alwaj's to him, 
 by which tlie action could be instituted, and 
 without wliich no Brehon could assume the role 
 of arbitrator; and (3) in a knowledge of the 
 traditions, customs and precedents of the tribe, 
 in accordance with which the dispute should be- 
 decided." — A. G. Riclicy, Short llint. of the IrUh 
 People, eh. 3. 
 
 Also in: Sir II. Maine, Early Hist, of Iii- 
 ttitutions. lect. 3. 
 
 BREISACH: A. D. 1638.— Siege and cap- 
 ture by Duke Bernhard. See Geu.manv: A. D. 
 1034-1(139. 
 
 A. D. 1648.— Cession to France. See Ger- 
 many: A. I). 1G4H. 
 
 BREITENFELD, Battle of (or first battle 
 of Leipsic). See Gek-hany: A. D. 1031 
 
 315 
 
nUEITENFELD. 
 
 BRETWALDA. 
 
 The second battle of (1642). Sl'o Gehmany: 
 A. I). Hiio-uur). 
 
 BREMEN: I3th-I5th Centuries.— In the 
 Hanscatic League. Sec IIansa Towns. 
 
 A. D. 1525 — Formal establishment of the 
 Reformed Religion. .Sec; Pai-acv: A. 1). {■>'ii- 
 1525. 
 
 A. D. 1648. — Cession of the Bishoprick to 
 Sweden. Sec (jKU.many: A. 1). 1048. 
 
 A. D. 1720.— The Duchy ceded to the Elec- 
 tor of Hanover. Seo Scandinavian States 
 (SwKUi-.N): A. 1). 1710-1721. 
 
 A. D. 1801-1803.— One of six free cities 
 which survive the Peace of Luneville. >5ee 
 Geum.vny: a. 1). 1H01-18(W. 
 
 A. D. 1810. — Annexed to France. See 
 France: A. I). 1810 (Feiiuuauy — Dkce.mhku). 
 
 A. D. 1810-1815.— Loss and recovery of 
 autonomy as a "free city." See Cities, Im- 
 
 i'EUIAI, AND FllEE, OK GeU.MANY. 
 
 A. D. i8r^. — Once more a Free City and a 
 member of the Germanic Confederation. See 
 Vienna, The Congkess oe. 
 
 A. D. 1888. — Surrender of free privileges. — 
 Absorption in the ZoUverein and Empire. See 
 GEI1.M.VNY: A. D. 1888. 
 
 BREMI : A. D. 1635-1638.— Taken by the 
 French. — Recovered by the Spaniards, See 
 Italy; A. I). lOao-KioO. 
 
 BRfiMULE, Battle of (1119). Sec Eng- 
 land: A. I). 1087-113.'). 
 
 BRENHIN, The Cymric title. See Rome: 
 B V. ;i9()-347. 
 
 BRENNI, The. See Rii.stians. 
 
 BRENTFORD, Battle of.— Fought and 
 won by E;!::;',;;;d Ir^iiside.s in his contest with 
 Cuut, or Ciinute, for the English throne A. D. 
 1016. 
 
 BRESCIA: A. D. 1512.— Capture and pil- 
 lage by the F.-ench. See Italy: A. D. 1510- 
 15i:!. 
 
 A. D. 1849. — Bombardment, capture and 
 brutal treatment by the Austrian Haynau. See 
 Italy: A. D. 1848-1849. 
 
 BRESLAU : A. D. 1741-1760.— In the wars 
 of Frederick the Great. See Austuia: A. I). 
 1741 (May— .June); 1743 (Januauy— May); 1743 
 (June); Gekmany: A. D. 1757 (July— Decem- 
 DEU), and 1760. 
 
 BREST: A. D. 1694.— R 'se of the 
 English fleet. See France: A. „ J94. 
 
 BRETAGN.E. See Britt.vny. 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LOT 
 OR COMMON LIFE.— " The Societies of the 
 Beguines, Beghiuds, and Lollards [see Bequines], 
 wliieh from the flrst laboured under various de- 
 fects and imperfections, had in course of lime 
 degenerated, and by their own fault, either fallen 
 to pieces of themselves, or been sappressed. 
 The two things, however, still existed, viz., the 
 prop.'iisity to religious association, . . . and, 
 likewise, th ■ outward condition, which required 
 and rendered i,racticable the efforts of benevo- 
 lence and charity, strengthened by cooperation. 
 The asv was particularly the case lu the Nether- 
 lands, and most in the northern provinces. . . . 
 Heie, then, the In.stitutc of the Common Lot 
 takcS its rise. . . . The first author of this new 
 series of evolutions was Gerhard Groot (Geert 
 Groete or do Groot, Gerhardus Magnus), a man 
 of glowing piety, and great zeal in doing good, a 
 
 powerful popular orator and an affectionate 
 friend of youth [1340-1384]. . . . His affection 
 for Holy Scripture and the ancient Fathers kin- 
 dled in Gerhard's bo.soin the liveliest zeal for col- 
 lecting the records of Christian antiquity. . . . 
 Hence, he had long before employed young men, 
 under his oversight, as copyists, theretjy ac- 
 complishing the threefold end of inulliplyiug 
 these good theological works, giving protilablo 
 employment to the youths, and obtaining an op- 
 ])()rtunity of influencing their iniuils. This he 
 continued more and more to do. The circle of 
 his youthful friends, scholars, and transcriliers, 
 became from day to day larger, and grew at 
 length into a regular society. Having thus in 
 part owed its origin to the copying of tlio Scrip- 
 tures and devotional books, the Society from the 
 outset, and through its whole continuance, made 
 the Holy Scripture and its projiagation, the 
 copying, collecting, preserving, and utilizing of 
 gooil theological and ascetical books, one of its 
 main objects. . . . The members were called 
 ' Brethren of the Common Lot,' [or of the Com- 
 mon Life] or 'Brethren of Good Will,' 'Fratrcs 
 Collationarii,' ' Jeronymians,' and ' Gregorians.' 
 . . . Imitating the Church at Jerusalem, and 
 prompted by brotherly affection, they mutually 
 shared with each other their earnings and prop- 
 erty, or consecrated also their fortune, if they 
 Ijossessed any, to the service of the community. 
 From this source, and from donations and lega- 
 cies made to them, arose the ' Brother-houses,' 'u 
 each of which a certain number of members lived 
 together, subjected, it is true, in dress, diet, and 
 general way of life, to an appointed rule, but 
 yet not conventually sequestered from the world, 
 with which they maintained constant intercourse, 
 and in such a way as, in opposition to Monach- 
 ism, to preserve the principle of individual 
 liberty." — C. UUmann, lief ormcrk before the lit for- 
 mation, V. 8, pt. 3, ch. 1. — "Through the won- 
 derful activity of that fraternity of teachers, 
 begun about 1300, called the Brethren of the 
 Common Life, the Netherlands had the first sys- 
 tem of common schools in Europe. These 
 schools flourished in every large town and almost 
 in every village, so that popular education was 
 the rule." — W. E. Gritlls, T/ie Influence of t/ie 
 jS'etherlandi, p. 8. 
 
 Also in: S. Kettlcwell, Thomas d Keinpis 
 and the Brothers of Common Life, ch. 5-0 (v. 1). 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE FREE SPIRIT. 
 See Beouines. 
 
 BRETIGNY, Treaty of.— The treaty, called 
 at the time " the great peace," concluded Jlay 8, 
 1360, between Edward III. of England and John 
 II. of France, in which Edward renounced his 
 pretensions to the French crown, released for a 
 ransom King Jolni, then a prisoner in his hands, 
 and received the full sovereignty of Guicnne, 
 Poitou and Ponthieu in France, besides retaiu'ug 
 Calais and Guisnes. — See France: A. D. 1337- 
 1300. 
 
 BRETWALDA.— A title given to some of 
 the early English kings. " Opinions differ a? to 
 the meaning of the word Bretwalda. Palgri.ve 
 and Lappenberg take it as equivalent to ' ruler 
 of Britain': Kemble construes it 'broad-ruling,' 
 and sees in it a dignity without duty, hardly 
 more than an ' accidental predominance. (Saxons 
 in England, ii., 18.) 'The list of those who 
 obtained.. this ' "atus' includes Ethelbert of 
 Kent, who broke .ao power of the potty kiuga 
 
 316 
 
BHETWALDA. 
 
 BniSTOL. 
 
 as far as the Humber, Rodlmld of East Ani?lia, 
 who obtained it bj- soino nicaiis even in tlie life- 
 tiini! of Etlii'lbcrt, and tlio tliroe pretxt Nortli- 
 umbrian l<ings, Edwin, Oswold and Oswv, wlioso 
 supremacy liowcver did not exlcnil to kcnt." — 
 C. Eltou, Ofi'iiiis rif EiuiUsh Hixt., p. 31)3, note. 
 
 Also in: E. A. Freeman, Jliit. of the Xuriiuin 
 Com/, of /•Jiir/., V. 1, npp, li. — SSee, also, Enolani): 
 A. 1). 477-537, aii<l Enoland: 7tii ('i;ntii!V. 
 
 BREWSTER, William, and the Plymouth 
 Pilgrims. See Ini)i-;i'i:m)i;nts: A. 1). 10(U-1G17, 
 anil .MAssAciiusinTs: A. 1). 1020, and after. 
 
 BREYZAD.— The i)eople and the languafrc 
 of Ibittanv, or Hretagne. See BitlTTANY: A. 1). 
 81H-0r2. 
 
 BRIAN BORU, The reign in Ireland of. 
 See Iui:i,a\d: A. 1). 1011. 
 
 BRIDGE, Battle of the.— A serious reverse 
 sulfered by the Arab followers of Jlahomet in 
 their early movements against the Persians, 
 A. D. 034. A force of 'J^OOO or 10,000 having 
 crossed the Euphrates by a bridge of boats were 
 beaten back, their bridge destroyed and half of 
 them slain or drowned. — G. J{awlinsoii, t^icciith 
 Great Orientitl Miinnrehu, ch. 20. — See Maiio.nie- 
 TAN Conquest: A. O. 6;i2-6r)l. 
 
 BRIDGE WATER, OR LUNDY'SLANE, 
 Battle of. See UNiri;D Statics ok Am. : A. D. 
 1814 (July — SEi-TUMniiu). 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, Storming of. See Eno- 
 iiANo; A. 1). 1045 (,Il"ly— Sei'tkmuku). 
 
 BRIENNE, Battle of. See Fhance : A. D. 
 1814 (.Januauy— Mauuh). 
 
 BRIGANTES, The.— One of the strongest 
 and fiercest of the tribes of ancient Britain, be- 
 lieved by some historians to have been the origi- 
 nal prc-Celtic inhabitants of the Island. At the 
 time of the Koman conquest they held the whole 
 interior northward from the Humber uud Mersey 
 to the Forth and Clyde. Vhey wore subdued 
 by Agricola. — E, Guest, Oni/iiifn Cclticm, v. 1, cli. 
 1. — See, also, Britain, Celtic Tuibes, and A. I). 
 43-53; also, Iuelanu, Tuides of Eauly Celtic 
 
 lNllAniT.\NTS. 
 
 BRIGANTINE.— BERGANTIN. See 
 
 Cauavei.s. 
 
 BRIHUEGA, Battle of (A. D. 1710). Sec 
 Si'AJ.v ; A. D. 1707-1710. 
 
 BRILL, The capture of. See Netueulands: 
 A. D. 1572. 
 
 BRISBANE. See Australia : A. D. 1800- 
 1840, and 1859. 
 
 BRISSOT DE WARVILLE AND THE 
 GIRONDISTS. See Fuance : A. D. 1791 
 (OcTonKU), to 1703 (Septemueh — Decembeu). 
 
 BRISSOTINS.— The party of the Giron- 
 dists, in the French I^cvoliition, was sometimes 
 so called, after Brissot de Warville, one of its 
 leaders. 
 
 BRISTOE STATION, Battle of. See 
 United States ov Am. : A. D. 1803 (July— No- 
 VE.MiiKit: Viuuinia). 
 
 BRISTOL : 12th Centurj;.— Its slave trade 
 and other commerce. — "Within its compara- 
 tively narrow limits Bristol must have been in 
 general character and aspect not unlike what it 
 is to-day — a bu-sy, bu.stling, closely-packed city, 
 full of the eager, active, surging life of com- 
 mercinl enterprise. Ostmen from Watcrford 
 and liublin, Northmen from the Western Isles 
 and the more ilistant Drkneys, and even from 
 Norway itself, had long iigo learnt to avoid the 
 shuck of the ' Uigru, ' the mighty uurruut which 
 
 still kept its heathen name derived from the scii- 
 god of their forefathers, and make it serve to 
 float thi'm into the safe and conmuxlious har- 
 bour of Bristol, where a thousand ships could 
 ride at aiieli(a\ As the great trading centric of 
 till! west Bristol riudced as the third city in tho 
 kingdom, surpassed in importance only "by AVin- 
 cliestcr and London. The most lucrative branch 
 of its trade, however, retleets no credit on its 
 burghers. All the elo(|iience of S. Wulfstan 
 and all the .sternness of the ('on([ueror had barely 
 availed to check for a while their practice of 
 kidnapping men for tiie Irisli slave-market; and 
 that the tnidle was in lull Ciireer in the latter 
 years of Henry I. we learn from Hu! experiences 
 of the canons of Laon." — K. Xorgato, EuyUtiul 
 under t/ie Aui/iriii Kiiii/n. r. 1, c!i. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1497. — Cabot's voyage of discovery. 
 See Ami:iit<a: A. 1). 1197. 
 
 A. D. 1645. — The storming of the city by 
 Fairfax. See E.soi.ani): A. 1). 1015 (.1i:i,y— 
 
 SlCl'TEMnEll). 
 
 A. D. 1685. — The commerce and wealth of 
 the city. — " Xext to the capital, but next at an 
 immense distance, stood Bristol, then the first 
 English seaport. . . . Pepys, who visited Bris- 
 tol eight j-ears after the lU'storation, was struck 
 by the splendour of the city. But nis standard 
 was not high ; for he notctl down as a wonder tho 
 circumstance that, in Bristol, a man might look 
 round him and see nothi'ig but houses. ... A 
 few churches of eminent beauty rose out of a 
 labyrinth of narrow lanes built upon vaults of no 
 great solidity. If a coach or cart entered those 
 alleys, there was danger tnat it would be wedged 
 between the housc-j, and daugcir also that it 
 would break in the cellars. Goods were thcreforo 
 conveyed about the town almost exclusively in 
 trucks drawn by dogs; and the richest inhabit- 
 ants exhibited their wealth, not by ridiig in 
 carriages, but by walking the streets with trains 
 of servants in rich liveries and by keeping tables 
 loaded with good cheer. The hospitality of the 
 city was widely renowned, and especially tho 
 collations with wiiich the sugar retiuers regaled 
 their visitors. . . . This luxury was supported 
 by a thriving trade with the North American 
 Plantations and with the West Indies. The pas- 
 sion for coUmial trallic was so strong tlrat there 
 was scarcely a small shopkeeper in Bristol who 
 had not a venture on board of some ship bound 
 for Virginia or the Antilles. Some of these ven- 
 turers indeed were not of the most honourablo 
 kind. There was, in the Transatlantic posses- 
 sions of the crown, a great demand for labour; 
 and this demand was i)artly supplied by a .system 
 of crimping and kidnapping at the , •incipal 
 English seaports. Nowhere was this system in 
 such active and extensive operation as at Bristol. 
 . . . The number of houses ai)pear.s, from the 
 returns of the hearth-money, to have been, in the 
 year 168.5, just 5,300. . . . The population of 
 Bri.stol must therefore have been about 29,000. " — 
 Lord Macaulav, I/ist. of Kii'j., ch. 3 {i\ 1). 
 
 A. D. 1831.— The lieform Bill Riots.— Tho 
 l)opular excitement produced in lOngland in 1831 
 by the action of the House of Lords in rejecting 
 the Ueform Bill, led to riots in several places, but 
 most seriously at Bristol. "The Bristol moba 
 have always been noted for their brntidity; and 
 the outbreak now svas such as to amaze and con- 
 found the the whole kingdom. . . . The lower 
 parts of the city wcio the harbourage of probably 
 
 317 
 
BRISTOL. 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 ft worse seaport populncc than any other place in 
 Enghind, wliile the police was ineffective ami de- 
 moralised. There was no city In which a greater 
 amount of savagery lay bcneatli a society proud, 
 exclusive, and mutually repellent, ratlier tliaii 
 enlightened and accustomed to social co-opera- 
 tion. These are circumstimces which go far to 
 account for the Bristol riots being so fearfully 
 bad as they were. Of this city, Sir Cliarle's 
 AVctherell — tlien at the height of his unpopularity 
 as a vigorous opponent of the Iteform Bill — was 
 recorder ; and there he had to go, in the last days 
 of October, in his judicial capacity. . . . The 
 symptoms of discontent were such as to induce 
 the mayor, Jfr. Pinuey, to apply to the honie- 
 oftlco for military aid. Lord Melbourne sent 
 down some troops of horae, which were quartered 
 within reach, in the neighbourhood of tlie city. 
 . . . Kir Charles Wethcrell could not be induced 
 to relinquish his public entry, though warned of 
 the danger by the magistrates themselves. . . . 
 On Saturday, October 20, Sir Charles Wethcrell 
 entered Bristol in pomp ; and before he reached 
 the Mi>i8ion House at noon, he must have been 
 pretty well convinced, by the hootings and 
 tnrowing of stones, that he had better have fore- 
 gone the procession. For some hours the snecial 
 constables and the noisy mob In front of the Man 
 sion House exchanged discourtesies of an em 
 phatic character, but there was no actual violence 
 |till night. At night, the Mansion House was 
 attacked, and the Riot Act was read; but the 
 military were not brought down, as they ought 
 to have been, to clear the streets. The mayor 
 had ' religious scruples,' and was ' humane ' ; and 
 his Indecision was not overborne by any aid 
 fror/x his brother-magistrates. When the mili- 
 tary were brought in, it was after violence had 
 been committed, and when the passions of the 
 mob were much excited. Sir Charles Wethcrell 
 escaped from the city that night. During the 
 dark hours, sounds were heard provocative of 
 further riot; shouts in the streets, and the ham- 
 mering of workmen who we? i boarding up the 
 lower windows of the Mansion House and the 
 neighbouring dwellings. On the Sunday morn- 
 ing, the rioters broke into the Mansion House 
 without opposition ; and from the time they got 
 into the cellars, all went wrong. Hungry 
 wretches and boys broke the necks of the bottles, 
 and Queen Stiuare was strewed with the bodies 
 of the dead-drunk. Tlie soldiers were left with- 
 out orders, and their ofHcera without tliat Siuic- 
 tion of tlic magistracy in the ab.sence of wliich 
 they coidd not act, but only iiaradc; and in this 
 parading, some of the soldiers naturally lost 
 their tempers, and spoke and made gestures .)n 
 their own account, which did not tend to the 
 soothing of the mob. This mob never consisted 
 of more than five or six hundred. . . . The mob 
 declared openly what they were going to do ; and 
 they went to work unchecked — armed witli 
 staves and bludgeons from the quayp, and with 
 iron palisades from the Mansion House — to break 
 open and burn the bridewell, the jail, the bishop's 
 ])alace, the custom-house, and Queen Square. 
 They gave half an hoar's notice to the inhabitants 
 of each house in the square, wliieh they tlien .set 
 tire to in regular succession, till two sides, each 
 measuring n.lO feet, lay in smoking ruins. Tlie 
 bodies of the drunken were seen roasting in the 
 Are. The greater number of the rioters were be- 
 lieved to bo uuder twenty years of age, and some 
 
 were mere children; some Sunday scholars, 
 hitherto well conducted, and it may be ques- 
 tioned whether one in ten knew anything ■ t the 
 Reform Bill, or the offences of Sir Charles Weth- 
 crell. On the Monday morning, after all actual 
 riot seemed to be over, the soldiery at last made 
 two slaughterous charges. More horse arrived, 
 and a considerable bixly of foot soldiers; and the 
 constabulary became active; and from that time 
 the city was in a more orderly state than the resi- 
 dents were accustomed to see it. . . . The magis- 
 trates were brought to trial, and so was Colonel 
 Brereton, who was understood to be in command 
 of the whole of the military. The result of that 
 court-martial caused more emotion throughout 
 the kingdom than all the slaughtering and burn- 
 ing, ancl the subsequent executions which marked 
 that fearful season. It was a year before the 
 trial of the magistrates was entered \ipon. The 
 result was the acquittal of the mayor, and the 
 consequent relinquishment of the prosecution of 
 his brother-magistrates." — H. Martineau, A His- 
 tory of tlie Tliirty Years' Peace, bk. 4, ch. i (v. 2). 
 » 
 
 BRIT AIN,Count and Duke of.— The military 
 commanders of Roman Britain. Sec Bhitain : 
 A. I). iJ'->l!-;i;i7, also Arthur, Kino. 
 
 BRITAIN, The name. See Britannia. 
 
 Celtic Tribes. — "It appears that the south- 
 eastern part of the island, or the district now oc- 
 cupied by the county of Kent, was occupied by 
 the Cantii, a large and influential tribe, which in 
 Cresar's time, was divided among four chiefs or 
 kings. To the west, the Regni held the modern 
 counties of Sussex and Surrey, from the sea-coast 
 to the Thames. Still farther west, the Belgaj oc- 
 cupied tlie country from the southern coast to 
 the Bristol Channel, including nearly the whole 
 of Hampshire, Wiltshire and Somersetshire. The 
 whole of the extensive district extending from 
 the Bclgaj to the extreme western point of the 
 island, tliencalled AntivestsBumorBoleriuin (now 
 the Land's End) including Devonshire and Corn- 
 wall, was occupied by the Dumnonii, or Dam- 
 nonii. On the coast between the Dumnonii and 
 the Belgie the smaller tribe of the Durotriges 
 held the modern county of Dorset. On the other 
 side of the Thames, extending northwards to the 
 Stour, and including the greater part of Middle- 
 sex as well as Essex, lay the Trinobantes. To the 
 north of the Stour dwelt the Iceiii, extending 
 over the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge 
 and Huntingdon. Tlio Coritavi possessed the 
 present counties of Northampton, Leicester, Rut- 
 land, Dcrl)y, Nottingham and Lincoln; and the 
 S(;uth-easteru part of Yorkshire was held by the 
 Parisi. Between the tribes la.st enumerated, in 
 the counties of Buckingham, Bedford and Hert- 
 ford, lay the tribe called by Ptolemy the Cat- 
 yeuchlaiii, and by others Catuvellani. Another 
 name, apparently, for this tribe, or for a ilivision 
 of it, was the Cassii. West of these were the 
 Atrebates, in Berkshire; and still further west 
 were the Dobuni, in the counties of Oxford and 
 Gloucestc. . . '''lie interior of the island north- 
 ward was occupied by the Brigantes, who held 
 the exten.sive districts, ditiicult of approach ou 
 aceount of their mountains and woods, extend- 
 ing from the Ituniber and the Jlersey to the 
 present borders of Scotland. This extensive 
 tribe apjiears to have included several smaller 
 ones [tlie Voluntii, the Sestuntii, the Jugantes 
 and the Cangi]. The Brigantes are believed to 
 
 318 
 
BRITAIN. 
 
 BRITAIN, A. D. 43-58. 
 
 have been the originftl inhabitants of tlie inland, 
 wlio liad been driven nortliward by successive in- 
 vasions. . . . Wales, also, was inliabitcd by a 
 primitive population. Tlie nortliern counties 
 . . . was the territory of the Ordovices. The south- 
 eastern counties . . . were held by the Demetae. 
 Tlic still more celebrated tribe of the Silures in- 
 habited the modern counties of Hereford, Riulnor, 
 Brecknock, Monmouth and Glamorgan. Between 
 these and the Brigantes lay the Cornabii or Carn- 
 abii. The wilder parts of the island of Britain, 
 to the north of the Brigantes, were inhabited by 
 a great number of smaller tribes, some of whom 
 seem to have l)een raised in the scale of civiliza- 
 tion little above savages. Of these we have the 
 names of no less than twenty-one. Bordering 
 on the Bri;tantes were the Otadcni, inhabiting 
 the coast from the Tyne to the Firth of Forth. 
 . . . Next to them were tb" Qadeni. . . . The 
 Selgovoe inhabited Annandale, Nitlisdale and 
 Eskdule, in Dumfriesshire, with tlie East of Gallo- 
 way The Novantes inhabited the remainder of 
 Galloway. The Daiuuii, a larger tribe, held the 
 country from the chain of hills separating Gal- 
 loway from Carrick, northward to the river Em. 
 These tribes lay to the south of the Forth and 
 Clyde. Beyond the narrow boundary formed by 
 these rivers lay [the Horestii, the Venricones or 
 Vernicomes, the Taixali or Taexali, the Vaco- 
 magi, the .S">ani, the Cantte, the Logi, the 
 Carnabii, the Catini, the Mertaj, the Carnonaca;, 
 the Creones, the Cerones, and the Epidii]. The 
 ferocious tribe of the Attacotti inhabited part of 
 Argyleshire, and the greater part of Bumbarton- 
 shire. The wild forest country of the interior, 
 known as the Caledonia Sylva (or Forest of Cel- 
 yddon), extended from the ridge of mountains 
 between Inverness and Perth, northward to the 
 forest of Balnagowan, including the middle parts 
 of Inverness and Ross, was held by the Caledonii, 
 wliici; appears to have been at this time [of the 
 conquests of Agricola] the most important and 
 powerful of all the tribes north of the Brigantes." 
 — T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon, 
 cli. 2. 
 
 Also in: J. Rhys, Celtic Britain. — J. F. Skene, 
 Celtic Scotlaml, bk. 1, eh. 3. 
 
 B. C. 55-54. -Csesar's invasions. — Having 
 extended hi.s conquests in Gaul to the British 
 Channid and the Strait of Dover (see Gaul: 
 B. C. 158-51), CiBsar crossed the latter. In August, 
 B. C. iiS, and made his tirst landing in Britain, 
 with two legions, numl)ering8,000tol0,000mcn. 
 Portus Ilius, from which he sailed, was probably 
 either Wissant or Boulogne, a.ul his landing 
 place on the British coast is believed to liave 
 been nei r Deal. The Britons disputed his land- 
 ing with great obstinacy, but were driven back, 
 and olfered to submit; but when a few days 
 afterwards, Ca'sar's fleet suffered greatly from a 
 Btorm, tliey reconsidered their submission and 
 opened hostilities again. Rcjuted in a second 
 battle, tliey once more sued for peace, and gave 
 hostages; whereupon Cicsar reembarked his 
 troops and returned to the continent, having 
 remained in Britain not more tlian three weeks 
 and penetrated the island a short distance only. 
 The following summer he crossed to Britain 
 again, determined on making a thorougli con- 
 quest of the country. This time he bad live 
 legions at his back, with two th' usaml hoi-se, 
 and the expedition was embarkcl on more than 
 eight hundred ships. He sailed i'lom and landed 
 
 at the same points as before. Having established 
 and garri.soned a fortified camp, he advance<l 
 into the country, encountering and defeating the 
 Britons, tirst, at a river, supposed to be the 
 Sfour which flows past Canterbury. A storm 
 which damaged his fleet then interrupted his 
 advance, compelling him to return to the coast. 
 When tlie disaster had been repaired he marched 
 again, and again found the cr.;nny on the Stour, 
 nfekSembled under the command „f"Cassivelaunu8, 
 whose kingdom was north of the Thames. He 
 dispersed them, after much lighting, with great 
 slaughter, and crossed the Thames, at a point, it 
 is supposed, near the junction of the Wey. 
 Thence he pushed on until he reached the " oppi- 
 (lum " or stronghold of Cassivelaunus, which is 
 believed by some to have been on the site of the 
 imxlerntown of St. Albans, — but ihc point is a 
 disputed one. On receiving the sibmission of 
 CassivelaMnus, and of other chiefi, or kings, 
 fixing the tribute they should pay ami tiiking 
 hostages, Coesar returned to the coast, reem- 
 barked his army and withdrew. His stay in 
 Britain on this occasion was about sixty days. — 
 Cojsar, Qallie War, bk. 4, ch. 20-3(>, and bk. 7, 
 ch. 7-33. 
 
 Also in: H. M. Scarth, lioman Britain 'ch. 2. — 
 G. Long, Decline of tfie Roman Republic, c. 4, ch. 
 9 and 11-12. — T. Lewin, Invasion of Britain by 
 C(tsar. — F. T. Vine, Ceesar in Kent. — E. Guest, 
 Origines CfUicm, v. 2. 
 
 A. D. ■ 3-53. — Conquests of Claudius. — 
 Nearly a ' undred years passed after Cajsar's 
 hasty invasion of Britain before the Romans 
 reappeared on the island, to enforce their claim 
 of tribute. It was under the fourth of the im- 
 jicrial successors of Julius Cajsar, the feeble 
 Claudius, that the work of Roman conquest in 
 Britain •. -as really begun. Aulus Plautius, who 
 commanded in Gaul, was sent over with four 
 legions, A. D. 43, to obtain a footing and to 
 smooth the way for the Eniiieror's personal cam- 
 paign. With him went one, Vesjiasian, who 
 began in Britain to win the fame which pusiicd 
 him into the imperial seat and to a great place 
 in Roman history. Plautius and Vespasian 
 made good their occupation of the country as 
 far as the Tliames, and planted their forces 
 strongly on the northern bank of that river, be- 
 fore th-^y summoned the Emperor to their aid. 
 Claudius came before the clo' e of the military 
 season, and his vanity was gia'itled liy the nomi- 
 nal leading of an advance on the chief oppiduia, 
 or stronghold of the Britons, called Camulo- 
 dunum, which occupied the site of the modern 
 city of Colchester. The Trinobantes, whose 
 capital it was, were beater, and the place sur- 
 rendered. Satisfied with this easy victory, tht 
 Emperor returned to Rome, to enjoy the honors 
 of a triumph ; while Vespasian, in command of 
 the second legion, fought his way. foot by foot, 
 into the .southwest of the island, and subjugated 
 the obstinate tribes of that region. During the 
 next ten years, under the command of Ostorius 
 Scapula, who sueceeaed Plautius, and Avitiis 
 Didius Gallus, who succeeded Ostorius, the 
 Ilomiiii power was firmly settled in southern Bri- 
 tain, from the Stour, at the East, to the Exe and the 
 Severn at the West. The Silures, of South 
 Wales, who had resisted most stubbornly, under 
 Caractacus, the fugitive Trinobantine prince, 
 were subduc;d and Caractacus made captive. 
 The Iceui (in Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridge- 
 
 319 
 
BRITAIN, A. D. 43-53. 
 
 BRITAIN, A. I). 78-84. 
 
 shire) werr reduced from allies Id s\illcn dciicnd- 
 eirts. The lJrij;iuit('S, i lost powerful of all the 
 tribes, and who held the ;,'reiiter part of the 
 whole north of modern Knjrlanrl, were still in- 
 dependent, hut distnicted hy internal dissen-sions 
 which Roman inlluenee was active in keejiinj^ 
 iilive. Thi.s, stated brietly, was the extent to 
 which the conquest of Britain wius carried dur- 
 ing the reign of Claudius, — between A. L 43 
 and 54. — C. Merivale, Uist. of the llomans, ch. 
 51. 
 
 Also in : E. Quest, Orif/ines Celticcp, v. 3, pt. 
 2, ch. 13. — II. 51. Scarth, Roman Bntain. eh. 
 4. — See, also, ('oi.cnKSTKlt, OuKii.v of. 
 
 A. D. 6i.--Campaigns of Suetonius Pauli- 
 nus. — From \. D. 50 to 01, while Didius Oallus 
 and his siu-cessor Veranius commanded in 
 Britain, nothing was done to extend the Roman 
 acquisitioug. In the latter year, Suetonius 
 Paulinus en me to the command, and a stormy 
 period o{ war ensued. His firet movement was 
 to attpck the Druids in the isle of Mona, or 
 Anglesey, into which they ha<l retreated from 
 (iaul and Britain, in successive flights, before 
 the implacable hostility of Rome. "In this 
 gloomy lair, secure ai)pareutly, though shorn of 
 might and dignity, they stiil persisted in the 
 practice of their unholy superstition. . . . Here 
 they retained their assemblies, their .schools, and 
 their oracles ; here was the asylum of the fugi- 
 tives; here was the sacred grove, the abode of 
 the awful deity, whieli in tlie stillest noon of 
 night or day the priest liimself scarce ventured 
 to enter lest ho should rush unwittingly into the 
 presence of its lord. " From Segontium (modern 
 Uaernarvon) Suetonius crossed the Menai Strait 
 on rafts and boats with one of his legions, the 
 Bataviau cavalry swinnning their horses. The 
 landing was liercely disputed by women and 
 men, priesl.s and worshippers; but Roman valor 
 bore down all resistance. "From this moment 
 tlie Druids disappear from the page of history; 
 they were exterminated, we may believe, upon 
 their own altars; for Suetonius took no half 
 measures." This accomplished, tlie Roman 
 conunandcr was quickly called upon to meet a 
 terrific outburst of patriotic rage on the part of 
 the i)owerfid nation of the Iceni, who oc(-ui)ied 
 the region now forming the counties of SutTolk, 
 Norfolk, Cambridge, and llun'iugdon. They 
 had been allies of the Romans, ijrst; then tribu- 
 taries, under their own kirg, and finally sul)- 
 jects, much oppressed. Tlieir last king, Prasu- 
 tagus, had vaiidy hoped to v;in favor for his 
 wife and childien, when he died, by bequeath- 
 ing his kingdom to the Roman State. But the 
 widowed queen, Boudicea, or Boadicea, and her 
 daughters, were only exposed with more help- 
 lessness to the insolence and the outrages of a 
 brutal Roman ollicer. They appealed to their 
 people and maddened them by the cxposi;re of 
 indescribable wrongs. T( ■ rising which ensued 
 was tierce and general beyond precedent. "The 
 Roniari cflicials Hod, or, if arrested, were slaugh- 
 tered ; aiid a vast multitude, armed and unarmed, 
 rolled southward to overwhelm and extirpate 
 the intidders. To the Colne, to the Thames, to 
 the sea, the coimtry lay entirely open." The 
 colony at Camidodunum (Colchester), was de- 
 stroyed; Veridamium (St. Albans), and Lon- 
 dini'um (London), were sacked and burned ; not 
 less than 70,000 of the Remans in Britain were 
 slaughtered without mercy. Suetonius made 
 
 haste to (put Anglesey when the dreadful news 
 reached him, and pressed, with all speed, along 
 the great highway of Watling Street — gathering 
 \ip his forces in hand as he went — to reach the 
 awful scene of rage and terror. He had col- 
 lected but 10,000 men when he confronted, at 
 last, the vast swarm of the insurgents, on a 
 favorable piece of ground that he had secured, in 
 the neighborhood of Camulodunum. But, once 
 more, the valor of undisciplined serai-barliarism 
 wrecked itself on the iirni shields of the Roman 
 cohorts, and 80,000 Britons are said to have 
 fallen in the merciless light. The insurrection 
 was crushed and Roman authority in Britain re- 
 allirmed. But the grim Suetonius dealt S3 
 harshly with the broken people that even Romo 
 remonstrated, and he was, |)resently, recalled, to 
 give place to a more pacilic commander. — C. 
 Merivale, lUitt. of the Romans, ch. 51. 
 
 Also in: II. JI. Scarth, llonvm Bntain, eh. 5. 
 — T. Mommsen, J[ist. of Rome, hk. 8, ch. 5. 
 
 A. D. 78-84. — Campaigns of Agricola. — For 
 seventeen years after the recall of Suetonius 
 Paulinus (A. D. 61) there was a suspension of 
 Roman conquest in Britain. The military power 
 in the island suffered great demoralization, 
 residting naturally from the chaos of affairs at 
 Rome, between Nerd and Vespasian. Theso 
 conditions ceased soon after the accession of the 
 Flavian Emperor, and he, who had attained first 
 in Britain the footing from which he climbed to 
 the throne. Interested himself in the spreading of 
 his soverignty over tlie whole of tlie British 
 island. C. Julius Agricola was the soldier and 
 statesman — a great man in each character — 
 whom he selected for the work. Agricola was 
 made prefect or Governor of Britain, A. D. 78. 
 "Even in his first summer, when he had beea 
 but a few months in the island, and when none 
 even of his own olUcers expected active service, 
 Agricola led his forces into the country of the 
 Ordovices, in whose mountain passes the war of 
 independence still lingered, <lrove the Britains 
 across the SIcnai Straits and pursued them into 
 Anglesey, as Suetonius had done before him, by 
 boldly crossing the boiling current in the face of 
 the enemy. Another summer saw him advance 
 northward into tlic territory of the Brigantes, 
 and complete the organization of the district, 
 lately reduced, between the llumber and Tyne. 
 Struck perhaps with the natural defences of the 
 line from tlie Tyne to the Solway, where tlm 
 island seems to have broken, as it were, in tlio 
 middle and soldered unevenly together, he drew 
 a chain of forts from sea to sea. ... In the 
 third year of his command, Agricola pushed 
 forward along the eastern coast, and, making 
 good w ith roads and fortresses every inch of his 
 progress, reached, as I imagine, the Firtli of Forth. 
 . . . Here lie repeated the operations of the 
 preceding winter, planting his camps and stations 
 from hiil to hill, and securing a new belt of 
 territory, ninety miles acro.ss, for Roman occupa- 
 tion." The next two years were spent in 
 strengthening his position and organizing his 
 con((uest. In A. D. 83 and 84 lie advanced 
 beyond the Forth, in two campaigns of hard 
 fighting, the latter of which was made memor- 
 able by the famous battle of the Grampians, or 
 Graupius, fought with the Caledonian hero Gal- 
 gacus. At the close of this campi'ign he sent 
 his fleet northward to explore the unknown 
 coast and to awo the remoter tribes, and it is 
 
 320 
 
BRITAIN, A. D. 78-84. 
 
 BRITAIN. A. D. 888-888. 
 
 clnimcd that tho vessels of Aprioola clrcnmnavi- 
 giitcd the island of Uritiiui, for the lirst time, iiiid 
 saw the Orkneys and Shctlands. The further 
 plans of the sueeessfid prefect were internipteil 
 by his sudden recall. Vespasian, lirst, then 
 Titus, had died while he pursued his victorious 
 course iu Caledonia, and the mean Doinitiau was 
 envious and afraid of his renown. — C. Morivale, 
 Hint, of the Romaiin, eh. 61. 
 
 Ai.soiN: Tacitus, Agrieola. — Mommscn, IIM. 
 of Home, Ilk. 8, ch. 5. 
 
 2d-3d Centuries. — Introduction of Chris- 
 tianity. See ('nuisriAMTY: A. I). lOiMU'-i. 
 
 A. D. 208-211. — Campaigns of Severus. — 
 A fresh inroad of the wild Caledoniims of the 
 north upon Uoinan Hrilain, in the year 208, 
 caused the Emperor Severus to visit the distant 
 island iu person, with his two worthless scms, 
 Caracall and Geta. lie desired, it is said, to re- 
 move t' 30 troublesome youths from Rome and 
 to subject them to the wholesome discipline of 
 military life. Tho only result, so far as they 
 were concerned, was to give Caracalla opportuni- 
 ties for exciting mutiny among the troops and 
 for making .several attempts against his father's 
 life. But Severus persisted in his residence in 
 Britain during more than two years, and till his 
 death, which occurred at Eboracum (York) on 
 the 4th of February, A. D. 211. During that 
 time he ])rosecuted tho war against tlie Cale- 
 donians with great vigor, penetrating to the 
 northern extremity of tho island, and losing, it 
 is said, above ."50,000 men, more by tho hardships 
 of the climate and the march than by the attacks 
 of the skidking enemy. The Caledonians made 
 a pretence of submission, at last, but wore soon 
 in arms again, lieverus was then preparing to 
 pursue them to extermination, when he died. — 
 E. Gibbon, Decline and Full of the Eoman Em- 
 pire, ch. 6. 
 
 Also IN: T. Jlommsen, Ilist. <f Home, bk. 8, 
 eh. a. 
 
 A. D. 288-297. — Rebellion of Carausius.— 
 " During tlie reign of Gallienus [A. D. 200-208] 
 . . . the pirate Hoots of the Franks infested the 
 British seas, and it became needful to have a 
 fleet to protect the coast. The command of tins 
 fleet had been conferred on Carausius, a Alenapiau 
 by birth; but he was suspected of conniving at 
 piracy, in order that he might enrich himself by 
 becoming a sharer iu their booty, when they re- 
 turned laden with i)lunder. To save himself, 
 therefore, from iiunishment, ho UF:irped the im- 
 periid power, A. D. 288, and reigned over Britain 
 for seven years. A vast number of his coins 
 struck in Britain have been pres(!rvcd, so many 
 that the history of Carausius has been written 
 from his medals. lie was slain at length by his 
 minister AUectus, who usurped his power. The 
 Franks Tas allies of AUectus] had wcll-nigli 
 establishtd their power over the south portion of 
 Britain when it was broken by Coiistnntius, the 
 father of Constantino the Great, who defeated 
 AUectus in a decisive battle, in which that 
 usurper was slain. . . . AUectus held the govern- 
 ment of Britjiiii for three years. Many of his 
 coins arc found." — II. M. Scarth, Ro, in Britain, 
 eh. 10. 
 
 Af.so in: T. AVright, Celt, Raman and Saxon, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 A. D. 323-337. — Constantine's Organization. 
 — Under tho scheme of government designed by 
 Diocletian audumeuded by Coustantine, " Briiaiu 
 
 formed part of a vast pro-consulate, extending 
 from .Mount -Vtlas to the Caledonian deserts, and 
 was grn'crned by the Gallic prefect, through a 
 ' vicar ' or deputy at York. The island was 
 divided into live lu'w provinces. . . . Hritain 
 was imder the orders of the Count of Hritain, 
 assisted by the subordinate ollUers. The Duke 
 of Britain cimimanded in the north. The Count 
 of the Saxon Shore, governed the '.Maritime 
 Tract' and provided for the defence of the south- 
 eastern coast. The Saxon Shore on the coast of 
 liritain must not be mistaken for the Saxon 
 Shore on the ojiposite coast of France, the head- 
 (|uarlcrsof which were the harbourof Boulogne. 
 The names of the several provinces into which 
 Britain was divided are given in the 'Notitia,' 
 vi/: — 1. Britamna Prima, which included all the 
 south and west of England, from tho estuary of 
 the Thames to that of the Severn. 2. Britaimia 
 Secunda, which included tho Principality of 
 Wales, bounded by the .Severn on the east and 
 the Irish Channel on the west. 3. Flavia 
 Ca'saricnsis, — all tho middle portion of Britain, 
 from the Thames to the Iltunber and the 
 estuary of the Dee. 4. Maxima Ca'sariensis, — 
 tho Brigantian territory, lying between the- 
 estuaries of the Ilumber and Dee, and the Barrier 
 of the Lower Isthmus. 5. Valentin, — the most 
 northern portion, lying between the barrier of 
 Hadrian and that of Antoninus." — II. JI. Scarth, 
 Iloinan Britain, cJi. 10. 
 
 A. D. 367-370.— Deliverance by Theodosius. 
 — The distracted conditicm of affairs in the Ro- 
 man Empire that soon followed the death of 
 Coustantine, which was relieved by Julian for a 
 brief term, and which becaiue worse at his 
 death, proved especially ruinous to Roman Bri- 
 tain. The .savage tribes of t'aledonia — the I'icts, 
 now beginning to bo associated with the Scots 
 from Ireland — became bolder from year to yiiar 
 in their incursions, imf il they marched across the 
 whole extent of Britain. "Their path was 
 marked by cruelties so atrocious, that it was be- 
 lieved at the time and recorded by St. Jerome 
 that they lived on human flesh. London, even, 
 was threatened by them, and the whole island, 
 which, like all the other provinces of the Empire, 
 had lost every spark of military virtue, was in- 
 capable of opposing any resistance to them. 
 Theodosius, a Spanish olticer, and father of the 
 great man of the same name who was afterwards 
 associated in the Empire, was charged by Valen- 
 tinian with the defence of Britain. II(' forced 
 tho Scots to fall back (A. I). 367-370), but with- 
 out having been able to bring them to an en- 
 gagement."— J. C. L. do Sismondi, Fall of the 
 ll'iinaii Empire, eh. 5. — "The splendour of the 
 cities and the security of the fortifications were 
 diligently restored by tho paternal euro of Theo- 
 dosiu.s, who with a strong hand coidincd tho 
 trembling Caledonians to the northern angle of 
 the island, and perpetuated, by the name and 
 settlement of the new province of Valentia, tho 
 glories of the reign of Valontinian. " — E. Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. S."). 
 
 A. D. 383-388.-^Revoltof Maximus.— In38.'), 
 four years after Theodosius the Great hud been 
 associated in the Roman sovereignty by the 
 young Emperor Gratian, and placed on the throne 
 of the Bast, the generous Gralian lost his own 
 throne, and his life, through a revolt that was 
 organized iu Britain. "One Maximus, a Span- 
 iard by birth, occupying u high olBcial position 
 
 321 
 
BRITAIN, A. D. 383-388. 
 
 BRITAIN. A. D. 446. 
 
 in that province, forced on step !>>' step into in- 
 surrection, by a soldiery and ii people of whom 
 ho appears to hiive been the idol, raised the 
 stiindardof revolt in the island, and piis.sed over 
 into (laid, attended by a larjrci multitude, — 
 130,000 men and 70,000 women, says Zositnua, 
 the Byzantine historian. This colony, settiinj; 
 in the Armorican peninsula, gave it the name of 
 Brittany, wliicli it has since retained. The rel)el 
 forces were soon victorious over the two Km- 
 perors who had agreed to share the Roman 
 throne [Gratian and his l)oy-1jrother Valentinian 
 who divided the sovereignty of the West between 
 them, while Tlieo<losius ruled tlie East]. Gra- 
 tian they slew at Lyons; Valentinian they 
 speedily expelled from Italy. . . . Theodosius 
 adopted the cause of his brother Emperor " and 
 overtlirew Maximus (see Rome: A. I). 370-395). 
 —J. G. Hhcp])ard, Fall of Home, led. (5. 
 
 Also in: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, ch. 27. 
 
 A. D. 407. — The Usurpation of Constantine. 
 — " Tlie Roman soldiers in Britain, seeing tlmt 
 the Empire was falling to pieces under tlie feeble 
 sway of llonorius, and fearing lest tliey, too, 
 should soon lie ousted from their dominion iu tlie 
 island (part of which was already known as the 
 Saxon Shore) clotlied three usurpers successively 
 with tlie imperial purple [A. D. 407], falling, as 
 far as social position was concerned, lower and 
 lower in their clioice cadi time. The last and 
 least ephemeral of tliese rulers was a private 
 soldier named Constantine, and chosen for no 
 other reason l)ut his name, wliich was accounted 
 lucliy, as having been already borne by a general 
 who liad been carried by a Britisli army to 
 supreme dominion." — T. \lijAgk\n,\Italy ami Her 
 Invaders, bk. 1, ch. 5. — The usurper Constantino 
 soon led his legions across the channel into Gaul, 
 then ravaged by the Vandals, Sueves, Alans and 
 Burgundians who passed tlie Rhine in 406. lie 
 was welcomed with joy by tlie unhappy people 
 who found theinsclves abandoned to the bar- 
 barians. Some successes which the new Con- 
 stantine had, in prudent encounters with de- 
 tached parties of tlie German invadera, wore 
 greatly magnified, and gave prestige to his cause, 
 [e was still more successful, for a time, in buying 
 the iirecarious friendship of some tribes of the 
 enemy, and made, on tlie whole, a considerable 
 show of dominion in Gaul during two or three 
 years. Tlie seat of his government was estab- 
 lished at Aries, to which city the olHces and 
 court of the Roman Pncfect of Gaul had 
 retreated from Treves in 403. With the help of 
 a considerable army of barbarian auxiliaries (a 
 curious mixture of Scots, Moors and Marcoin- 
 anni) he extended his sovereignty over Spain. 
 He even extorted from the pusillanimous court at 
 Ravenna a recognition of his usurped royalty, 
 and promised assistiinco to llonorius against the 
 Goths. But the tide of fortune presently turned. 
 The lieutenant of Constantine in Spain, Count 
 Gorontius, became for some reason disalTected 
 and crowned a new usurper, named JIaximus. 
 In supiwrt of the latter he attacked Constantino 
 and aliut him up in Aries. At the sanif! time, 
 the Emperor Honorius, at Ravenna, having made 
 peace with the Goths, sent his general Constantius 
 against the Gallo-British usurper. Constantius, 
 approaching Aries, found it already besieged by 
 Gerontius. The latter was abandoned by his 
 troops, and fled, to be slain soon afterwards. 
 
 Aries capitulated to the representative of the 
 great name which llonorius still bore, as titular 
 Imperator of Rome. ConsUintine was sent to 
 Ravenna, and put to death on the way (A. D. 
 411). — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lionian 
 Empire, ch. 31. 
 
 Also in : P. Godwin, Iliitt. of France : Ancient 
 Gaul, hk. 3, cA.lO, 
 
 A. D. 410. — Abandoned by the Romans. — 
 " Up to the moment . . . when the Impi^rial 
 troops ([uitted Britain, we see them able easily 
 to repel the attacks of its barbarous assailants. 
 When a renewal of their inroads left Britain 
 weak and exhausted at the accession of the Em- 
 peror llonorius, tlie Koman general Stilicho re- 
 newed the triumphs which Theo<losiu8 had won. 
 The Piet was driven back afresh, the Saxou 
 boats chased by his galleys as far as the Orkneys, 
 and the Saxon Shore probably strengtliened with 
 fresli fortresses. But the campaign of Stilicho 
 was the last triumph of the Empire in its western 
 waters. Tlie struggle Rome had waged so long 
 drew in fact to its end; at the opening of tne 
 fifth century her resistance suddenly broke down; 
 and the savage mass of barbarism witli which 
 she had battled broke in upon the Empire. . . . 
 The strength of the Empire, broken everywhere 
 by military revolts, was nowhere more broken 
 than in Britain, where tlic two legions wliieli re- 
 mained quartered at Richborough and York set 
 up more than once their cliiefs as Emperors and 
 followed them across the channel in a march upon 
 Rome. The last of these pretendere, Constantine, 
 crossed over to Gaul in 407 with the bulk of the 
 soldiers quartered in Britain, and the province 
 seems to have been left to its own defence ; for it 
 was no longer the legionaries, but ' the people of 
 Britain ' wlio, ' taking up arms,' repulsed a now 
 onset of the barbarians. . . . Tliey appealed to 
 llonorius to accept their obedience, and replace 
 the troops. But the legions of the Empire were 
 needed to guard Rome Itself: and iu 410 a letter 
 of the Emperor bade Britain provide for its own 
 government and its own defence. Few state- 
 ments are more false than those which picture 
 the British provincials as cowards, or their 
 struggle against the barbarian as a weak and un- 
 worthy one. Nowhere, in fact, through the 
 whole circuit of the Roman world, was so long 
 and so desperate a resistance offered to the as- 
 sailants of the Empire. . . . For some thirty 
 years after the withdrawal of the legions the free 
 province maintained an equal struggle against 
 her foes. Of these she probably counted the 
 Saxons as still the least formidable. ... It was 
 with this view that Britain turned to what 
 seemed the weakest of her assailants, and strove 
 to find . . . troops whom she could use as mer- 
 cenaries against tlie Pict." — J. R. Green, The 
 Making of England, int. 
 
 Also in: J. M. Lappenberg, Iliat. of Eng. 
 vnder the Anglo-Saxon Kings, v. 1, jip. 574)6. 
 
 A. D. 446. — The last appeail to Rome. — 
 " Yet once again a supplicating embassy was 
 sent to the Roman general ^tius, during his 
 til ' consulship, in the year 446. . . . JEtiiis 
 wa,~ unable to help them." — J. JI. Lappenberg, 
 Hist, of Eng. uruler the Anglo-Saxon Kings, p. 
 63. — "The date of the letters of appeal is fixed 
 by t ' form of their address : ' The groans of 
 the tons to Aetius for the third time Consul. 
 The. huvages drive us to the sea and the sea casts 
 us back upon the savages : so arise two kinds of 
 
 322 
 
BRITAIX, A. n. 4W. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 dpfitli, nnd wonre either drowned or slnnglitcrod.' 
 TIk! third C'onsuiiiti! of Aetius fell in A. I). 44ti, 
 a yeiir mcmonihlc in tlie West as tlu- l)eKinniiii; 
 of a ])r()f()iind eahn whicli preeede<l tiu^ on- 
 sliuiglit of Attilii. The eompliiintof Britain Ims 
 left MO tniee in tlie poems wliieh eelehrated Uh- 
 j'ear of repose; and onr Chronicles are at any 
 rate wrong wlien lliey attritmte its rejection to. 
 the stress of a war with the Iluns. Jt is possible, 
 indeed, tliat tlie appeal was never made, and that 
 the whole story represents nothing hnt a rumour 
 current in the days of Oildas among the British 
 exiles in Armorica." — C. Klton, Urir/iiiK of 
 Enylinh Hist., rli. 13. 
 
 A. D. 449-633.— The Anglo-Saxon Con- 
 quest. See Kmii.and: A. D. 44!)-47;i, t o .■)4T-<i;}:t. 
 
 6th Century.— The unsubdued Britons. — 
 "Tlie Britons were soon restricted to tlio 
 ■western parts of the island, where they main- 
 taiueil themselves in several small states, of 
 which those lying to the east yielded more and 
 more to Germanic influence; the othei-s protected 
 by their mountains, preserved for a considerable 
 time a gradually decreasing independence. . . . 
 In the south-west we meet witli the powerful 
 territory of Danniouia, the Iviugdoui oL Arthur, 
 ■which bore also the name of West Wales. 
 Damnonia, at a later period, was limited to 
 Dyvnaint, or Devonshire, by the separatiim of 
 Cernau, or Cornwall. Tlie districts called by the 
 Sa.xons those of the Siimorsietas, of the Thorn- 
 sa'tas (Dorsetshire), and tlie Wilt'^ietas were lost 
 to the kings of Dyvnaint at an early period; 
 though for centuries afterwards a large British 
 jjopulatiou maintained itself in those i)arts among 
 the Haxon settlers, as well as among the 
 Defusietas, long after the Saxon conquest of 
 Dyvnaint, who for a considerable time preserv(Hl 
 to the natives of that shire the appellation of the 
 'Welsii kind.' Cambria (Cymru), the country 
 ■which at the present day we call Wales, Wiis 
 divided into several states." The chief of these 
 early states was Venedotia (Gwynedd), the king 
 of which was supreme over the other states. 
 Among those latter were Dimetia (Dyved), or 
 West Wales ; Powys, which was east of Gwynedd 
 and Snowdon mountain; Gwent (Monmouth- 
 shire) or South-east Wales, the country of the 
 Silures. "The usages and laws of the Cam- 
 brians were in all these states essentially the 
 same. An invaluable and venerable monument 
 of them, although of an age in which the Welsh 
 had long been subject to the Anglo-Saxons, and 
 liad adopted many of their institutions and 
 customs, are tlie laws of the king Howel Dda, 
 ■who reigned in the early part of the 10th century. 
 . . . Tlie partition of Cambria into several small 
 states is not, as has often been s\ii)posed, the 
 consequence of a division made by kiujj Kodri 
 Mawr, or Koderic tlie Great, among ins sons. 
 ... Of Dyfed, during the firet centuries after 
 the coming of tlie Siixon.s, v.'o know very little; 
 but with regard to Gwynedd, which was in jon- 
 stant warfare with Northumbria and Mercia, our 
 information is less scanty: of Gwent, also, as 
 the bulwark of Dimetia, frequent mention occurs. 
 On tlie whole we are less in want of a mass of 
 inforniatiou respecting the Welsh, than of 
 accuracy and [irecision in that which we possess. 
 . . . An obscurity still more dense than that 
 ■over Wales involves the district lying to tlie 
 north of hat country, comprised under the 
 name of Cumbria [see Cumv.uia and Strath- 
 
 ri.Ynp.]."— .T. M. Lappenberg, ///*/. nf Eng. vnder 
 the Aiii/lo-Si.riiH h'iiii/x, r. I, /). 119-123. 
 
 A. D. 635.— Defeat of the Wllsh by the 
 English of Bernicia. See Hkvk.nkiklu, Baiti.k 
 OK Tin;. 
 
 BRITAIN, Great: Adoption of the name 
 for the United Kingdoms of England and 
 Scotland. See Scotland: A. 1). 1707. 
 
 BRITAIN, Roman Walls in. See Ro.man 
 Walls in Ukitain. 
 
 BRITANNIA, The Origin of the name.- 
 " -Many are the speculations which have been 
 stjiiteil as to tlie etymology of the word Britan- 
 nia, an<l among the later ones have iR'cn some of 
 the most extraordinary. Yet surely it is not one 
 of those philological ililliculties wiiith we need 
 despair of solving. Few persons will question 
 tliat the na.ue Britannia is connected with 
 the name B ilaniii, in the same way ao Ger- 
 mania Galliii, Graecia, &c., w'thGermani, Galli, 
 Graeci, ikc. , and it is not unreasonable to as- 
 sume that Britanni was originally nothing 
 more than the Latinized form of the Welsh word 
 Brython, a name which we lind given in the 
 Triads to one of the three tribes ^wlio first colo- 
 ni/.ed Britain. . . . From the Welsh 'brith' and 
 Irish 'brit,' parti-coloured, may have come Bry- 
 thon, which on this hypothesis would signify the 
 painted men. ... As far then as i)hilology is 
 concerned, there seems to be no objection to our 
 assuming Brytiion, and therefore also Britanni, 
 to signify the painted mcu. How this Celtic 
 name tirst came to denote the inhabitants of 
 these islands is a question, tlie proper answer to 
 which lies deeper than is generally supposed. 
 . . . The ' Britannic Isles ' is the oldest name 
 we find given to tliese islands in the classical 
 writers. Under this title Polybius (3. 57) refers 
 to them in connection with the tin-trade, and 
 the well-known work on the Kosmos (c. 3) men- 
 tions 'The Britannic Isles, Albiou and lerne.' 
 . . . But in trutli neither the authorship nor the 
 age of this last-named work has been satisfac- 
 torily settled, and therefore ■wo cannot assert 
 that the phrase ' The Britannic Isles ' came into 
 use before the second century B. C. The name 
 Britannia first occurs in the works of Cicsar and 
 was not improbably invented by him." — E. 
 Guest, Origiiies ('Mica, v. 2, ch. 1.— ^Tho etymol- 
 ogy contended for by Dr. Guest is scouted by 
 Jlr. Kliy s, on principles of Celtic plionology. He, 
 on the contrary, trivces relations between the 
 name Brython and "the Welsh vocables 
 'brethyn,' cloth, and its congeners," and con- 
 cludes that it signified "a clothed or cloth-t'ad 
 people." — .1. Rhys, Celtic liritain, ch. 6. 
 
 BRITANNIA PRIMA AND SECUNDA. 
 See BuiTALV: A. 1). :J3;i-3;i7. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA: Aboriginal in- 
 habitants. See Ameuican Abokioines: Atilv- 
 I'AscAN Family. 
 
 A. E 1858-1871.— Establishment of provin- 
 cial government. — Union -with the Dominion 
 of Canada. -"British Columbia, the largest of 
 the Canadi.in provinces, cannot be .said to 
 have had any existence as a colony until 18.")8. 
 Previous to that year provision liad been made 
 liy a series of Acts for extending the Civil and 
 Criminal Laws of the Courts of Lower and Upper 
 Canada over territories not within any province, 
 but otherwise the territory was used as a hunting 
 ground of the Hudson's Bay Company. The 
 
 323 
 
DIUTISII COLUMniA. 
 
 DIUTTANY. 
 
 disputes (ind (lifTlcMiUics that arose from the In- 
 flux of millers owing to the polil discoveries in 
 IH.W. resulti'd in tlic revocation of tlio lieenee of 
 till! Hudson's Buy Comimnv, and tlio passing of 
 the Imperial ActSl & i'i Vic., c. 90, to provide 
 for the government of Britisli CJolumhia. . . . 
 Sir James Douglas was appointed Governor 
 and by his commission ho was authorised to 
 make laws, institutions and ordinances for tlio 
 peace, order and good government of llrilisli 
 Columbia, by proclamation issued under tlie 
 public seal of the colony. . . . Tlic Governor 
 continued to legislate by proclamation until 
 18G4, when his proclamations gave way to Ordi 
 nances passed by the Governor with the advice 
 and con.sent of the Legislative Council. . . . 
 Up to this tinu! the Governor of British Colum- 
 bia was also Governor of the neighliouring island 
 of Vancouver. Vancouver's Island is histori- 
 cally an older colony than British Coliimliia. 
 Though discovered in 1502 it remained practically 
 unknown to Europeans for two centuries, and it 
 was not until 1840, when the island was granted 
 to the Hudson's Bay Company, that a Governor 
 was appointed. ... In lHli5 the legislature of 
 the island adopted a series of resnlutions in 
 favour of union with British Columbia, and bv 
 the Imperial Act 30 & 30 Vic. (i), e. 07, llie two 
 colonies were united. . . . Bv an Order in 
 Council dated the Kith day of May, 1871, Britisli 
 Columbia was declared to be a iirovinoe of the 
 Dominion [see Can.mi.v: A. D. 1807, and 1800- 
 1873] from the 20th of July, 1871."— J. E. C. 
 Munro, T/te Coiiiititutitin of Citiinda, eh. 3. 
 
 Ai.so in: II. H. Bancroft, Jlist. of the Pitcifc 
 Statin, r. 37 .• lirilinh Culumliia. 
 
 A. D. 1872.— Settlement of the San Juan 
 Water Boundary Disi-ute. Hee B.vn Ju,»n ok 
 
 NOKTIIWKSTKUN WaTKII Bol'NDAKV QUKSTION. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA AND SOUTH 
 AFRICA COMPANIES. See Africa: A. D. 
 
 1881-1889. 
 
 BRITISH HONDURAS. See Centual 
 Ameiuca: a. D. 1821-1871. 
 
 BRITONS, OR BRITHONS. See Cklts; 
 al.so, BuiTA.wi.v; and Bhitain': Otii Centuiiy. 
 
 BRITONS OF CUMBRIA AND 
 STRATHCLYDE. Sic Ciimiiiiia. 
 
 BRITTANY, OR BRITANNY : lu the 
 Roman period. See Aii.mohica; also, Veneti 
 OK Wksteun Gaul 
 
 A. D. 383.— Alleged origin of the British 
 settlement and name. See Huitain: A. 1). 
 383-888. 
 
 A. D. 409.— Independence asserted. — At the 
 time that the Britisli isliiiul iiractically severed 
 its connection witli the expiring Uomaii Empire 
 (iihout 400) the Britons of the continent, — of the 
 Arniorican province, or modern Brittany,— 
 followed the example. "Tliey expelled the' 
 Roman magistrates, who acted under the au- 
 thority of the usurper Constantine; and a free 
 government was established among a people who 
 had so long been subject to the arbitrary will of 
 a master." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall <f the, 
 Roimin Umpire, ch. 31. — "From tliis time, per- 
 haps, we ought to date iliat isolation of Brittany 
 from the politic! of the rest of Prance which 
 has not entirely disappeared even at the 
 present day." — T. llodgkin, Italy and Her 
 Invaders, bk. 2, ch. 3. — The Armoricans, however, 
 were found fighting by the side of the Romans 
 
 and the Goths, against the Iluns, on the great 
 day at (Ihalcns. See IIuns: A. I). 4r)l. 
 
 A. D. 818-912.— The Breyzad Kingdom.— 
 Subjection to the Norman Dukes. — •'Charle- 
 magne's supremacy over the \rmoricans may be 
 compared to the dominion exercised by Imperial 
 Russia amongst the Caucasian tribes — periods 
 during which the vassals dare not claim the 
 rights of independence, intercalated amongst the 
 converse periods when the Emperor cannot assert 
 the rights of authority ; yet the Frank would not 
 abaiulon the prerogative of the Caesars, whilst 
 the mutual aniipatliy between the races inflamed 
 the desire of dominion on the one part, and the 
 determination of resistance on the other. Britanny 
 is divided into Brctagne Brctonnante and Brc- 
 tagno Gallicante, according to the predominance 
 of the Breyzad and the Romane languages 
 respectively. The latter constituted the march- 
 lands, and here the Counts-marchers were placed 
 by Charlemagne and his successors, Franks 
 mostly by lineage; yet one Breyzad, NominotJ, 
 was tru.sted by l.ouis-le-dehonnaire [A. D. 8181 
 with a delegated authority. NominoO deserved 
 his power; he was one of the new men of the 
 era, literally taken from the plough. . . . The 
 dis.sen.sions among the Franks enabled NominoO to 
 increase his authority. Could there bo any 
 adversary of the Empire so stupid as not to 
 profit by the battle of Fontcnay. . . . XominoO 
 assumed the royal title, vindicated the indepen- 
 dence of his antient people, and enabled them, in 
 the time of Rollo, to assert with incorrect gran- 
 diloquence, pardonable in political argument, that 
 the Frank had never reigned within the proper 
 Arniorican boundaries." NominoO transmitted 
 his crown to his son IlerispoO; but tlie latter 
 reigned briefly, succumbing to a conspiracy 
 which raised his neiihew, Solomon, to the throne. 
 Solomon was a vigorous warrior, sometimes 
 fighting the Pranks, and sometimes struggling 
 with the No.iiians, who pressed hard upon his 
 small kingdom. He extended his dominions 
 considerably, in Elaine, Anjou, and the future 
 Normandy, and his royal title was sanctioned by 
 Charles the Bald. But he, too, was conspired 
 against, blinded and dethroned, dying in prison; 
 and, about 013, the second duke of Normandy 
 established his lordship over the distracted 
 country. " Historical Britanny settled into four 
 great counties, which also absorbed the Car- 
 lovingian march-lands, Rennes, Nantes, Vannea 
 and Cornouaille.s, rivalling and jealousing, snarl- 
 ing and warring against each other for the royal 
 or ducal dignity, until the supremacy was per- 
 7uanently established in Alan Fergant's line, the 
 ally, the opponent, the son-in-law of William the 
 BiLstard. But the suzerainty or superiority of I'.ll 
 Britanny was vested in the Con(iucror's and the 
 Plantagenet's lineage, till the forfeiture incurred 
 by King John — an unjustexerciseof justice." — 
 Sir P. Palirravc, Hist, ef Kormaiidy and Eiujlntid, 
 bk. \.ch. 3'.' 
 
 A. D. 992-1237. — The First Dukes. — "After 
 the dealh of Solomon . . . all these districts or 
 territories merged in the three dominations of 
 Nantes, Rennes, and Cornouaille. Amongst the 
 Celts concord was impo.ssible. In early times 
 Nomenoe, the Ruler of Cornouaille, had assumed, 
 by Papal authority, the royal style, but the 
 Counts of Rennes acquired the pre-eminence over 
 the other chieftains. Regality vanished. Geof- 
 frey, sou of Couau [A. D, 003-1008] . . . must 
 
 324 
 
nniTTANT. 
 
 BRIXnAM CAVE. 
 
 bo (ligtinp;uisho(l ns tlip first Duko of Britlany. 
 He conslitutiMl himself Duko Hiiiiply by tiikiiiK 
 the title. This nsHumption miiy nossihly have 
 boon sanctioned by the successor of Haint Peter; 
 find, by dejirces, his rank in llie civil hierareliy 
 became ultimately recognized. . . . The t'ounts 
 of Hriltimy, and tlie Dukes in lik(! manner, in 
 later times, rendered liomage ' en parajie ' to 
 iNormaudy in tlie llrst instance, and that same 
 Jiomage wa.s afterwards demanded bv th(' crown 
 of Franc(!. But the (.'apetian monan'iis refused to 
 ncknowledge tlio ' Duko,' until the time of Peter 
 Ma\iclerc, son of Hobert, fount of Dreux, Earl of 
 Richmond [A. D. ]2i:i-12:t7]."— Sir F. Palgrave, 
 Hint, of Nnriimnd)! and Kii'i., r. !t, ;). lOo. 
 
 A. b. 1341-1365.— The long Civil War.— 
 Montfort against Blois. — .Vlmost simultane- 
 ously witli the beginning of tlie Hundred Years 
 AViir of the Kngli.sli kings in France, there brok(! 
 out a malignant and destructive civil war in 
 Brittany, wliich French and English took part 
 in, on the opposing sides. "John III. duke of 
 tliat province, had died without issue, and two 
 rivals disputed liis inheritance. The one was 
 Charles de Blois, husband of one of his nieces 
 and nephew of the King of Fr;i""''; tlie other, 
 Montfort, . . . younger brothei ol ilie last duke 
 and . . . disinherited by him. The Court of 
 Peers, d-jvotcd to the king, adjudged the duchy 
 to Charles de Blois, his nephew. Jlontfort im- 
 mediately made himself master of the .strongest 
 places, and rendered liomage for Brittany to 
 king Edward [III. of England], whose assistance 
 he implored. This war, in which Charles de 
 Blois was supported by Franco and Montfort by 
 England, lasted twenty-four yeara without inter- 
 ruption, and presented, in the midst of heroic 
 actions, a long course of treacheries and atrocious 
 robberies." The war was ended in l!iG.5 by tlie 
 battle of Auray, in wliieli Charles de Blois was 
 slain, and Bertraiid Du Gue.sclin, the famous 
 Breton warrior, was taken prisoner. This was 
 soon follo-.ved by the treaty of Quorande, which 
 o.stablifhe.l Montfort in Uio duchy. — E. De Bon- 
 necliose. Hist, of France, v. 1, bk. 3, ch. 2 and 4. 
 
 Also /n : Froissart (Johnes), Ohronicles, bk. 1, 
 c/i. 04-227. 
 
 A. D. 1491. — Joined by marriage to the 
 French crown. — I'lie family of Montfort, hav- 
 ing been established in the duchy of Brittany by 
 the arms of tlie English, were naturally inclined 
 to English connections; " but the Bretons would 
 seldom permit tliem to be cfTLCtual. Two car- 
 dinal feelings guided the conduct of this bravo 
 and faithful people; the one an attachment to 
 the French nation and monarchy in opposition to 
 foreign enemies; the other, a zeal for their own 
 privileges, and the family of Montfort, in opposi- 
 tion to tlie encroachments of the crown. In 
 Francis II., the present duko [at the time of the 
 accession of Cliarles VIII. of France, A. D. 1483], 
 the male line of that family was about to be ex- 
 tinguished. Ilis daugliter Anne was naturally 
 the objc^ct of many suitors, among whom were 
 particularly distinguished the duko of Orleans, 
 who se(^ins to have been preferred by herself; 
 the lord of Albrot, a member of the Gascon 
 family of Foix, favoured by the Breton nobility, 
 as miist likely to preserve the peace and liberties 
 of their country, but whose age rendered him 
 not very accoi)t4ible to a youthful princess ; and 
 Maximilian, king of the Romans [whose first 
 wife, Mary of Burgundy, died in 1483]. Britany 
 
 was rent by factions anil overrun by the armies 
 of the regent of France, who did not lose this 
 opportunity of interfering with its domestic 
 troubles, and of persecuting her private enemy, 
 the duke of Orleans. Anne f>f Britany, upon her 
 father's death, llnding no other means of escap- 
 ing the a<l(lresses of Albret, was married by 
 proxy to .Maximilian. This, however, aggra- 
 vated the evils of tlu^ country, since Franco was 
 resolved at all events to break otT so dangerous a 
 connexion. And as Maximilian liimself was un- 
 able, or 00k not sulUcient pains to relievo his 
 iM'trothed wife from her embarra-ssments, she was 
 ultimately compelled to accept lli(^ hand of 
 Charles VIII. He had long been engaged by 
 the treaty of Arras to marry the daugliter of 
 Maximilian, and tliat princess was educated at 
 the Freiii h court. But this engagement had not 
 prevented several years of hostilities, and con- 
 tinual intrigues with tlic towns of Flanders 
 against Maximilian. The double injury which 
 tlie latter sustained in the marriage o," Charles 
 with the heiress of Britany .seemed likely to ox- 
 cite a jirotracted contest; but the king of France, 
 who had other objects in view, and ))erliaps was 
 conscious that he hud not acted a fair part, soon 
 came loan accommodation, b^' which ho restored 
 Artois and Franchc-cointo. . . . France was 
 now consolidated into a great kingdom; the feu- 
 dal system was at an end." — H. Hallam, The 
 ^fithUe Ages, ch. 1, pt. 3. — In thi^ contract of 
 marriage between Charles VIII. and Anne of 
 Brittany, "each party surrowlered all separate 
 ])rcten.s"ions upan the bucliy, and 0110 stipulation 
 alone was considered roiiuisite to secure the per- 
 jietnal tniion of Bretany with France, namely, 
 that in case the <iucen .should survive lier con- 
 .sort, she should not remarry unless either with 
 tlie future king, or, if that were not possible, 
 with the i)rcsumptive heir of the crown.' — E. 
 Smedley, Hint, of France, pi. 1, ch. 18. 
 
 Also in: F. P. Guizot, Popular .'fist. ofFh-ance, 
 ch. 26. 
 
 A. D. 1532. — Final reunion with the crown 
 of France. — " Dupnit [chancellor of Francis I. 
 of France], wlioso administration was . . . 
 shameful, promoted one measure of high ntility. 
 Francis I. until then had governed Brittany only 
 in the (imdity of duke of that province; Duprat 
 counselled him to unite this duchy in an indis- 
 soluble manner with the crown, and he prevailed 
 upon the States of Brittany them.selvcs to rotiuest 
 this reunion, whicli alone was capable of pre- 
 venting tlie breaking out of civil wars at tho 
 death of the king. It was irrovociibly voted by 
 the States assembled at Vannes in 1.132. The 
 king swore to respect the rights of Brittany, and 
 not to raise any subsidy therein without the con- 
 sent of the States Provincial." — E. de Ronne- 
 ehoso, Iliiit. of France, bk. 1, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1793.— Resistance to the French 
 Revolution.— The Vendean War. Sv.o Fiia.vce : 
 A. D. 17U3 (Maucii— -Vpuil); (.Ju.Nii); (.lui.v— 
 Decemheu). 
 
 A. D. 1 794- 1 796.— The Chouans. See 
 ''h.vnck: a. D. 1794-17fl(i. 
 
 XHAMCAVE.— A cavern near Brixham, 
 De\' ire, England, in which noted evidences 
 of a viiy early race of men, contemporaneous 
 with certain extinct animals, have been found. — 
 J. Geikio, Prehistoric Kurope. 
 Also in : W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting. 
 
 325 
 
BnOAD-DOTTOMEn ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 BUUN8WICK. 
 
 BROAD-BOTTOMED ADMINISTRA- 
 TION, The. Sec Kn(H..\ni>: A. I). IT I'.'-lTt*). 
 BROAn CHURCH, The. Stu Oxkouii ok 
 
 TllACIAIllAN .".SlVKMKNT. 
 
 BROCK, General Isaac, and the War of 
 
 1812. Sec I'mtKI) StaTKH OK Am, : A. I). IMia 
 (Jl'NK— ••crollKIl), (SkI'TKMIIKU— NoVE.MUKU). 
 
 BROMSEBRO, Peace of (1645). 800 Okii- 
 M.\ny; .\. I). lfl|()-llU5. 
 
 BRONKHORST SPRUIT, Battle of (1880). 
 SccSoiTii Akiika; a. I). 1H(»((-1HH0. 
 
 BRONZE AGE. Sec Sto.nk A<h;. 
 
 BROOKLYN, N. Y.: A. D. i634.-The first 
 settlers. — "A IVw fimiilics of NViillodiiH, in UVU, 
 tiuilt tlicir ('(itliiKcsou Loiiff IhIiukI, and l)i'.i;au 
 tho cultivation of tlie lands they had Hcciircd, 
 the women working in tlio liekls," whiles the men 
 were engaged in tho service of tho ''ompiiny [llie 
 l>utch West India C!ompany, controlling the 
 colony of New Netherlandl. These were the 
 first settlers of Brooklyn. They were joined in 
 time by 11 few others, until there were enough to 
 be incorporated as a village'. TheiiiiniberH were 
 not large, for Brooklyn, nearly forty years after- 
 ward, contained only 'HI households and 134 
 souls.'"— O. W. Schuyler, Colonial New York, v. 
 
 i,^._.r 
 
 D. 1646. — The town named and org^an- 
 ized. — "The oceupalionof land wllliin the limits 
 of the present city of Brooklyn . . . had steadily 
 progressed, until now (104ti) nearly the whole 
 water-front, from Newtown Creek to the southerly 
 side of Gowanus Bay, was in the possession of 
 individuals who were engaged in its actual culti- 
 vation. . . . The village . . . which was located 
 on the present Fulton Aventie, in the vicinity of 
 the junction of lloyt and Smith streets with said 
 avenue, and soiilheast of tho present City Ilall, 
 was called Breuckclen, after the ancient village 
 of the same name in Holland, some 18 miles 
 from Amsterdam. " The town of Breuckelen was 
 organized under a commission from the Colonial 
 Ci)uncil in 1046, and two schepens appointed. 
 Tho following winter Jan Teunissen was com- 
 missioned ns sellout. — 11. R. Stiles, Hint, of 
 Brooklj/ii, eh. 1. 
 
 A. b. 1776.— The Battle of Long Island 
 and defeat of the Americans. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1770 (August). 
 
 BROTHERS.— BROTHERHOODS. See 
 
 Brktiihic.n. 
 
 BROTHERS' CLUB, The. See Clubs. 
 
 BROWN, George, and the Canadian "Clear 
 Grits." SeeCANAiM: A. I). 1840-1807. 
 
 BROWN, General Jacob, and the War of 
 1812. See Uniteu States of Am. : A. D. 1813 
 
 (SEPTEMBEU — NOVEMBEH); 1813 (OCTOBEU — 
 
 NovEMiiEii); 1814 (July— Septembeh). 
 
 BROWN, John. — Attack on Harper's 
 Ferry. — Trial and execution. See United 
 Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1850. 
 
 BROWNISTS. See Independents. 
 
 BROWNLOW, Parson, and the recon- 
 struction of Tennessee. See Tennessee: A. D. 
 1865-1 8(Hi. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, King of Scotland, A. D. 
 130(5-1329. 
 
 BRUCHIUM, The. See Alexandiua: 
 B. C. 28','-246, and A. D. 273. 
 
 BRUCTERI, The.—" After the Tencteri [on 
 the Rhine] came, in former days, the Bructeri; 
 but the general account now is, that the Cham- 
 
 nvl and Angrivarii entered their settlementu, 
 drove them out and utterly e.vterminatcd tlii'm 
 with the common help of the neighbouring tribes, 
 either from hatred of their tyranny, or from tho 
 attractions of pluiuh'r. or from heaven's favour- 
 able regard for us. It did not even gruilgi' ns 
 the spt'ctacic of (he contlict. .More than 60,000 
 fell, not beneath the Roman arms and weapons, 
 but, grander far, before our delighted eyes." — 
 "The original settlements of tin! Bructeri, from 
 which they were driven by the (/'hainavl anu 
 Angrivarii, seem to hav(! been between tho 
 Rhine and the I'hns, on either side of the Iiip|ie. 
 Their destruction could hardly have been so 
 complete as Tacitus represents, as they are sid)- 
 se(|uently mentioned by Claudlan." — Tacitus, 
 Miiwr workii, traim. by Chureh and Urodrihh: 
 Th' Qcrmanij, irith gcog. iiotcH. — See, idso, 
 
 FllANKH. 
 
 BRUGES : 13th Century.- The Great Fair. 
 See Ki.andehs: 13tii ('knti:iiv. 
 
 A. D. i;jth-i5th Centuries. — Commercial im- 
 portance in the Hanseatic League. Sec II ansa 
 Towns. 
 
 A. D. 1303. — Mass.irreof theFrench.— "The 
 Bruges Matins." See Flandbus: A. D. 1200- 
 1304. 
 
 A. D. 1341. — Made the Staple for English 
 trade. See Staple. 
 
 A. D. 1379-1381.— Hostilities with Ghent. 
 Se(! Fi..vNi)i;iis: A. 1). 1379-1381. 
 
 A. D. 1382.— Talten and plundered by the 
 people of Ghent. See Fi.axdichs: A. I). 1382. 
 
 A. D. 1482-1488. — At war with Maximilian. 
 See Netheklands: A. I). 1482-1493. 
 
 A. D. 1584. — Submission to Philip of Spain, 
 See Netiiehlands: j\. 1). 1584-158.1. 
 
 A. D. 1745-17A8.- Taken by the French, and 
 restored. See .NkTiIeulands (Aubtiuan I'nov- 
 iNCEs): A. U. 1745; and Ai.\-la-Chapelle: Tub 
 
 CONOIIESS, &C. 
 
 BRULE, The. See Amebican Abokioines: 
 
 SioiAN Family. 
 
 BRUMAIRE, The month. See Fkanck: 
 A. 1). 1793 (OcTOBEii). 
 
 BRUMAIRE, The Eighteenth of. See 
 Fkanck: A. 1). 1799 (Nov embeii). 
 
 BRUNDISIUM: Origin. See Rome: B. C. 
 282-275. 
 
 B. C.49,— Flight of Pompeius before Czsar. 
 See Rome: B. C. 50-49. 
 
 B. C. 40. — The peace of Antony and Octa- 
 vius. — The peace which Antony and Octavius 
 were forced by tlicir own soldiers to make at 
 Biundisium, B. C. 40, postponed for ten years 
 tho linal struggle between the two chief Trium- 
 virs. For a much longer time it "did at least 
 secure the repose of Italy. For a period of three 
 hundred and fifty years, excopt one day's fight- 
 ing in the streets of Rome, from Rlicgium to the 
 Kubieon no swords were again crossed in war." 
 — C. Merivalc, Jlist. of t/ie Jiomans, ch. 27. — Sec, 
 also, Rome: B. C. 31. 
 
 BRUNKEBURG, Battle of the (1471). See 
 Scandinavian St.vtes: A. D. 1397-1527. 
 
 BRUNNABURGH, OR BRUNANBURH, 
 Battle of. See England: A. D. 038. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, The city of.-Origin and 
 name. — In the ti.'ntli century, a prince named 
 Bruno, younger son of the reigning duke of Ba- 
 varia, and grandson of the Emperor Henry the 
 
 326 
 
BRUNSWICK. 
 
 BUDGKT. 
 
 Fowler, received an liis piilriinoiiy \\w cimnlry 
 about tile Oi'ker. " lluviii); llxecl lilx resideiieo 
 at II villiiKe estalill.Hlied by ('biirleniuf?ne on tliu 
 bnnkH of timt river, it beeiime Itiiowu us tlie 
 ' VioiiH Uninonis,' niiii, wlien eiiliirf;e<l and 
 formed into ii city, afterwards i^nw its name to 
 tile iirincipalitv of wliicli it formeii llie ea|iital." 
 — Kir A. Ilalllday, Aiiiiiiln of tliv Jloime of 
 lldiionr, ('. 1. Ilk. I, 
 
 In the Hanseatic League. Heu IIansa. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG, OR HAN- 
 OVER. See llANovKlt. 
 
 BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL, OR 
 BRUNSWICK : Origin of tiie iiouse and duke- 
 dom. Se(^ Saxo.nv: Thk Oi,i> Duchy, and A. 1). 
 117M-1183. 
 
 The Guelf connection. See Oi'elk ani> 
 GiiiiiKi. LINK, ami lOsTi:, llorsK ok. 
 
 A. D. 1543. — Expulsion of Duke Henry by 
 the League of Smalcald. Sue Gekmany: A. 1). 
 153:1-1. MO. 
 
 A. D. 1546. — Final separation from the 
 Liineburg or Hanoverian branch of the house. 
 See llA.NovKii: A. I). I.TIH. 
 
 A. D. 1806. — The Duke's dominions confis- 
 cated by Napoleon. See Uicuma.nv: A. I). IHIH) 
 (UtTonKK — I)k(km;;kii). 
 
 A. D. 1807. — Absorbed in the kingdom of 
 Westphalia. ScuGeumany: A. I). 1S07(Ji'ne 
 — Jui.v). 
 
 A. D. 1830.— Dtposition of the Duke. Scu 
 GEKM.VNY: A. I). 1819-1847. 
 
 BRUSSELS: A. D. 1577.— The Union of 
 the patriots. See Xktiieiii.anus: A. I). l.')7.')- 
 1577. 
 
 A. D. 1585. — Surrender to the Spaniards. 
 See -Netiieui.ands: A. I). l.W-l-l.Wr). 
 
 A. D. 1695. — Bombardment by the French, 
 SeeFiiANCE: A. I). lOO.^i-imtO. 
 
 A. D. 1706. — Taken by Marlborough and the 
 Allies. See Xetiikui.aniw: A. 1). 170(!-1707. 
 
 A. D. 1746-1748. — Taken by the French and 
 restored to Austria. Sec Nktheulands: A. D. 
 1746-1747, and Aix-la-Ciiapelle : The Con- 
 ukebs, &c. 
 
 A. D. 1815.— The Battle of Waterloo. Seo 
 FiL^vNCE: A. I). 1815 (June). 
 
 A. D. 1830.— Riot and Revolution.— Dutch 
 attack on the city repelled. See Netiieu- 
 lamuh: a. D. 1830-18:i-'. 
 
 BRUTTII, The. See Samnites. 
 
 BRUTUM FULMEN.— A phrase, signify- 
 ing a Idind thrust, or a stupid and ineffectual 
 blow, whiuli was specially applied in a contem- 
 porary pamphlet by Francis Ilotmau to the Bull 
 of excommunication issued by Pope Sixtns V. 
 against Henry of Navarre, in 1585. — II. M. Baird, 
 The Hiioucnotn and Ileiiry of Namrrc, v. l,p. 3(59. 
 —SeeFiiANCE: A. I). 1584-1589. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, and the expul- 
 sion of the Tarquins. See Home: B. C. 510. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, and the assassi- 
 nation of Caesar. See Uome: B. C. 44 to 44-42. 
 
 BRYTHONS, The. Sec Celts, The. 
 
 BUBASTIS.— "On the eastern side of the 
 Delta [of th<? Nile], more than half-way from 
 Memphis to Zoan, lay the great city of Pi-beseth, 
 or Bubastis. Vast mounds now mark the site 
 and preserve the name ; deep in their midst lie 
 the shattered fragments of the beautiful temple 
 
 wliieli Ilerixlolus saw, and to which in liis days 
 the Kgypiiaim came annually in vast iiumlH'rs to 
 keep the greatest festival of the yi'ar, the Assem- 
 bly of Hast, the gcsldessof the place. Here, after 
 the Kmpire had fallen, Slilsliak [Slicslionkl set 
 up his tiironi', and for a short spaet; revived Iho 
 imperial iiiagiiillci'iiee of Thebes. "-It. H. Pisile, 
 Ciliinol' Hiiinil. eh. 10. 
 
 BUCcANEERS, The. See Ameuiua: A. I). 
 10:iit 1700. 
 
 BUCENTAUR, The. See Venice: I4tii 
 
 ('K.NTntV. 
 
 BUCHANAN. JAMES.-Presidential elec- 
 tion and administration. See United States 
 OF Am.: A. I). lf<5(l lo tH((l. 
 
 BUCHAREST, Treaty of (iSia). See 
 Tuuks: A. D. 1789-lHfJ; also Balkan and 
 Daniiuan States: Utii-1!»tii t'ENTUUiES 
 (Seiivia). 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, Assassination of. Seo 
 Enoland: a. I). III'.'H. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE. Sec St. .Iames, 
 Tiir. Palace and Court ok. 
 
 BUCKTAILS. SeeNEwYoKK: A. D. 1817- 
 1819. 
 
 BUDA : A. D. 1526.— Taken and plundered 
 by the Turks. Sec Hinoakv: A. 1). MHT-l.V.'d. 
 
 A. D. 1529-1567.— Taken by the Turks.— 
 Besieged by the Austrians.— Occupied by the 
 Sultan. — Becomes the seat of a Pasha. See 
 
 HiNdAuv: A. 1). \n-i{\-\rm. 
 
 A. D. i686.— Recovery from the Turks. See 
 IIuNoAiiv: A. I). 1(183-1087. 
 
 A. D. 1849.— Siege and capture by the Hun- 
 garians. S'cAustuia: a. 1). 1848-1819. 
 ♦- 
 
 BUDA-PESTH: A. D. 1872.— Union of 
 the cities. — IJiidii, on the right bank of tho 
 Danube, and Pestli, on the left, were incorporated 
 1 187'i into one city — Buda-Pesth. 
 
 BUDDHISM. See India: B. C. 312 ; 
 
 also liAMAs. — Lamaism; and China: The ue- 
 
 LKIIONS. 
 
 BUDGET, The.— "The annual financial 
 statement which the Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 makes in the House of Commons in a C'ommitteo 
 of ways and means. In making this statement 
 the minister gives a view of the general tiuancial 
 ])olicy of the government, and at the same timo 
 presents an estimate of the probable income and 
 expenditure for tlie following twelve months, 
 and a statement of what taxes it is intended to 
 reduce or abolish, or what new ones it may be 
 necessary to impose. — To open the budget, to 
 lay before the legislative botly the finaiieial es- 
 timates and plans of the executive gov't." — Imp. 
 Did. — Mr. Dowcll in his lIMury of Taj^atioii (e. 1, 
 ch. 5) states that the plirast? ' opening the Budget ' 
 came into use in England during tho reign of 
 George III., and that it bore a reference to tho 
 bougette, or little bag, in which the chancellor 
 of the exche(iucr kept his papers. Tlic French, 
 ho adds, adopted the term in tlie present century, 
 about 1814. The following, however, is in dis- 
 agreement with Mr. Dowell's explanation: "In 
 the reign of George II. the word was u.sed with 
 conscious allusion to the celebrated pamphlet 
 which ridiculed Sir R. AValpole as a conjuror 
 opening his budget or 'bag of tricks.' After- 
 wards, it must, for a time, have been current as 
 slang; but, as it supplied a want, it was soon 
 taken up into the ordinary vocabulary." — Athen 
 <eum, Mb. 14, 1891, p. 313. 
 
 327 
 
BUDINI. 
 
 nUUUUNDIANS. 
 
 BUDINI, The.— A noinudlc trila- which Hero. 
 (lotus (IcHcrilK'H iiH itncii'iitly liihitliitinx ii rcuioii 
 tH'twrtii till! I'ral MoiiiitiiiiiH HMil the CiiHpiiui 
 Hen,— (}. (Initc, IUhI. <if (In-fd; pt. 'i, rh. 17. 
 
 BUELL, General Don Carlos, Campaigns 
 of. Sec Unitkii Statks <)!•■ Am.: A. I). li^HI 
 (July— NovKMiiKK); 1H«3 (Januahy— Fkiiiu.'- 
 auy: Kkntucky — Tknnkuhkk); (Febhuauy — 
 AiMiii.: 'I'knnkiwkk); (Junk— Octohkk: Tkn- 
 
 NKMWF.E — KkNTL'<'KV). 
 
 BUENA VISTA, Battle of. Sco >U;xKn; 
 
 A. I). IHltl-lHlT. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, Viceroyalty and Repub- 
 lic of. Sec .\ii<ii:.NTi.NK Ukithlic. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, The City of: A. D. 
 1534.— First and unsuccessful founding of the 
 City. Sec I'AliAdlAY: A. I). i:il5-ir,r)7. 
 
 BUFFALO, N. Y.: The aboriginal occu- 
 
 fants of the site. Set' Ammik an .Vhoukiini-.m; 
 IlllONS, Ac. 
 
 A. D. 1764.— Cession of the Four Mile Strip 
 by the Senecas. Sec I'(>ntia(;'h Wak. 
 
 A. D. 1779. — The site occupied by the 
 Senecas after Sullivan's Expedition. Sec 
 Unitioi) States ok Am.: A. D. 1770 (August — 
 Ski'tkmiikh). 
 
 A. D. 1799.— The founding and naming of 
 the city. See Ni;w YoiiK: A. 1). 178(t-l7U0. 
 
 A. D. 1812.— At the opening of the war. 
 See Unitku States of A.m. : .\. 1). 18ia (Sei'- 
 
 TEMIIEII — NoVEMIlEll). 
 
 A. D. 1813.— Destruction by British and In- 
 dians. See United States ok A.m. : A. I). 
 18i:j (Decemiikii). 
 
 A. D. 1825.— Opening of the Erie Canal. 
 See New Y«. UK: A. 1). 1H17-I82r.. 
 
 A. D. 1848.— The National Free-Soil Con- 
 vention. See United Siates of Am. : A. 1). 
 18-18. 
 
 A. D. 1866.— The Fenian invasion'of Can- 
 ada. See Canada: A I). iJU(|-1871. 
 
 BUFFALO HILL, Battles cf. See United 
 States of A.m.: A. 1). 1801 (AtousT- Decem- 
 ueu: West Viuc.inia). 
 
 BUFFINGTON FORD, Battle of. See 
 United States of A.m. : A. 1). 180;) (July: Ke.n- 
 tucky). 
 
 BUGIA, Conquest by the Spaniards (1510), 
 See Hakiiauy St.vtes: A. I). 1.505-1510. 
 
 BULGARIA. See Balkan and Danuuian 
 States. 
 
 BULGARIANS, The religious Sectaries so 
 called. See Paiimcians. 
 
 BULL " Apostolicum," The. Seo Jesuits: 
 A. I). 1701-1709. 
 
 BULL " Ausculta fill," The. Sco Papacy: 
 A. D. 12»l-i;!48. 
 
 BULL "Clericis Laicos."— Published by 
 Pope Uoiiifiiee VIII. Feb. 24, 1290, forbidding 
 "the clergy to pay and the sccuhir powers to 
 exact, under penalty of cxcoiiimunicalton, con- 
 tributions or tuxes, tenths, twentieths, hun- 
 dredths, o^ the like, from the revenues or tlio 
 goods of the churches 01 their ministers." — AV. 
 Stubbs, Conxt. Hist, of Eiuj., eh. 14. 
 
 Also in: E. F. Henderson, Select Iliat. Doc's of 
 the Mi(Me Ages, bk. 4, no. 6. — See, also, Papacy: 
 A. I). 129.t-l;U8. 
 
 BULL " Dominus Redemptor noster." See 
 Jesuits: A. 1). 1709-1871. 
 
 BULL "Exurge Doraine." See Papacy: 
 A. D. ■517-1021. 
 
 BULL, Golden. Seo Golden IJill, Btzak- 
 tine; also Uekmany: A. IX 1347-140.'!, and 
 IIinoauy: a. 1). 1114-11101. 
 
 BULL, " Laudabiliter," The.— A papal bull 
 pniniulgaled in lb'!."! by Pope Adrian IV. (the 
 one Kngil.slunuii who ever attained lo St. Peter's 
 Heat) a.sKUlidiig to liestow the kiiigdoui of Ireland 
 on the Knglisli King Henry II. See Iueland: 
 A. 1). 1100-1175. 
 
 BULL," Salvatorraundi," The. See Papacy: 
 A. I). l'201-i;i|8. 
 
 BULL " Unigenitus," The. See PonT IJoval 
 a.vd THE Jansenists: X. I). 1702-1715. 
 
 BULL RUN, OR MANASSAS, First 
 Battle of. Sec United States of .Vm. ; A. 1). 
 1801 (July: Vikoinia). ... .Second Battle of. 
 See United States ok A.m. : A. I). 1802 (August 
 — Sei-temheu: Viik'Inia). 
 
 BULLA, The. See Tooa. 
 
 BUMMERS, Sherman's. SeeUNiTKoSTATKB 
 OF A.M. : .\.. 1). 1804 (XovEMiiEii — Dece.miieu: 
 (Ieouoia). 
 
 BUND, BUNDESRATH, BUNDESPRE- 
 SIDENT, BUNDESGERICHT, The Swiss. 
 See Swit/.euland: A. 1). 184H-1800. 
 
 BUNDES-STAAT. See Oeilmany: A. D. 
 18I4-1H20. 
 
 BUNDSCHUH INSURRECTIONS. See 
 Oeumany: a. 1). 149-2-1514. 
 
 BUNKER HILL, Battle of. See United 
 States of Am. : A. 1). 1775 (June). 
 
 BURDIGALA.— The original name of tlio 
 modern city of Uonleaux, which was a town of 
 the Oallic tribe called the IJituriges-VivIsci.— T. 
 Jlommseii, IHst. of Home, bk. 5, c/i. 7. 
 
 BURGAGE "f ENURE. Sec Feudai. Ten- 
 
 UllES. 
 
 BURGESS. Sec liouuoEOis. 
 
 BURGH, OR BURGI, OR BURH. See 
 
 Boiioroii. 
 
 BURGOS, Battle of. See Spain; A. D. 1808 
 (Sei'temueh — Decemheu). 
 
 BURGOYNE, General John, and the War 
 of the American Revolution. .See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1775 (Apiiil — .May); 1777 
 (July— OcToiiEii), 
 
 BURGRAVES. See Palatine, Counts. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS: Origin and early history. 
 — "About the middle of the fourth century, the 
 countries, perhaps of Lusaco and Thuringia, on 
 eithersidoof the Elbe, were occupied by the vague 
 dominion of the Uurgundians — a warlike and 
 numerous people of the Vand.il nice, whose ob- 
 scure name ins(msil)ly swelled into a powerful 
 kingdom, and has finally settled on a nourishing 
 province. . . . The disputed possession of some 
 salt-pits engaged the Alemanui and the Burgun- 
 (lians in frequent contests. Tlie latter wero 
 easily t<;mpted by the secret solicitations and 
 liberal offers of the emperor [Valcntiuian. A. D. 
 371] ; and their fabulous descent from the Roman 
 soldiers who had formerly been left to garrison 
 the fortresses of Drusus was admitted with 
 mutual credulity, ns it was conducive to mutual 
 interest. An army of fourscore thousand Bur- 
 gundians soon appeared on the banks of the 
 Ilhiue, and impatiently required the support and 
 subsidies whicli Valentinian had promised ; but 
 they were amused wi a excuses and delays, till at 
 length,' after a fruitless expectjition, they were 
 compelled to retire. The arms and fortifications 
 of the Gallic frontier checked the fury of their 
 just resentment. " — E. Gibbon, Decline and FaU, 
 
 328 
 
nunauNDiANS. 
 
 DUROUNDY. A. D. 848-0:13. 
 
 'if the lliininn Rinin'rc, eh. i.V — " \Vi' llrsi liciir (if 
 tiii'iu [llic HurKXiiillium] im ii trilic of Teutonic. 
 Hto<'k, lociilcil Ix'twct'ii till' ()<l('r and tin- ViMtiilu, 
 on I'itliir Ipiink of llif river Wiirlu. When tlie 
 Gi'|iiilu' (leseeliileil HolltilWiU'ii witll llie (iotlis, 
 till' Hnr>;iiii(iians were eoniiielled to riioil liefore 
 the iiilviinee of tiie former trilie: one portion of 
 tliein liHili refii^'e in liorniioiin, iiii isliind of \\w. 
 llallie; llie reiiiainiier turned weslwani, and 
 made an allempt to enter (iiiul. 'I'liey were re- 
 pul.seil liy I'rolms, Iiut iierniilled to wltle near 
 tile HoureeM of tile Main. .Jovian slioweii tliem 
 fiiviiur, and ^ave tliem iands in tlie (iernianiik 
 Heeunda. Tiiix was in tlie l.,.ier part, o' tiie 
 fourlli cenlurv. •Inst at its close, tliey iidi>iiled 
 ('liri.sliaiiily, i)ut under iin .Vrian forin. Ammi- 
 an'is tells n» lliat they were a most warliiic 
 riic<'. " — .1. (i. Shcppard, The Full of limiie, 
 leet. H. — "The other Teutxmic people had very 
 little regard for tlic IJnrgundians; lliey aeetist'd 
 them of having degenerated from tiii! valor of 
 their unceston, liy taking in i)etty town.s (liour- 
 giules), wlience their name Ilurguiulii Kpiang; 
 and tliey looke(l upon them us lieing more Buit- 
 ahle for tlie professions of mechanics, smitlis, and 
 carpenters, tlian for a military life." — .1. {'.. I;, 
 do Sismondi, 'J'hc Finieh iiiider the .]feriiriii- 
 ffiaiw, eh. H. — "A document of A. i). 7H0, in 
 noticing the liigli tract of lands helween Kll- 
 wangen and Anspach, ha.s the following ex- 
 pression, — 'in Waldo, (pd vocatur Virgunuia.' 
 Orimm l(«)k» for the derivatiim of tliis word in 
 the M<i'so-(Jotliic word 'fairguni,' Old High 
 Ocrnian ' fergunud '= woody liillrangt-. ... I 
 have little doulit Init that this is the name of the 
 tract of land from wliidi the name Hurgundi 
 aro.se; and tliat it is tin; one wliieli il.xes their 
 locality. If so, hetween the Uurgundiau and 
 Suevio Germans, tlie dilTerence, sueli as it was, 
 was proliahly almost wlioUy i)olitical." — U. O. 
 Latham, 'J'he Oermania of lacilun; EpUeyoincna, 
 sect. 12. 
 
 A. D. 406-409.— Invasion of Gaul. Sec 
 Gaii. : A. 1). 4(Mi-40!». 
 
 A. D. 443-451. — Their Savoyan kingdom. 
 — "In the soullieast of Gaul, the IJurgundians 
 had, after many wars and some reverses, estab- 
 lished themselves (443) witli the consent of the 
 Romans in the district then called Sii))audia and 
 now tSavoy. Their territory was somewhat 
 more extensive tliiin the province which was the 
 cradle of the present roval hous(! of Italy, since 
 It stretched northwards beyond the lake of 
 Ncufchatel and southwards as far as Grenoble. 
 Here the IJurgundian immigrants under their 
 king Gundiok, were busy settling themselves in 
 their new possession, cultivating the lands 
 which they had divided by lot, each one receiv- 
 ing half the estate of a Honiau host or 'hospes' 
 (for under such gentle names the spoliation was 
 veiled), when the news came that tlie terrible 
 Ilun had crossed the Uhine [A. I). 451], and that 
 all hosts and guests in Gaul must unite for its 
 defence " — T. Ilodgkin, Itdly and Her Invaders, 
 b/c 3, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 4Si.— At the battle of Chalons. See 
 Huns: A. D. 451. 
 
 A. D. 500. — Extension of their kingdom. — 
 "Their [tlie Uurgtindians] domain, considerably 
 more extensive than when we last viewed it 011 
 the eve of Attila's invasion, now included the 
 later provinces of Burgundy, Franche-Comte 
 and Dauphiue, besides Savoy uud the greater 
 
 part of Swil/erliind — In fact the whole of tlin 
 valleys of the Sai ae and the Hhoiie, save that 
 for the In.'^l hundred miles of its conrse the Visi- 
 goths barnd tliem frnm the right bank and from 
 the iiioullis of the latter river." M the tlinu 
 now spoken of (.V. 1). 50(1), the MiirgiiiHlian 
 kingdom wiiHilivlded between two brollierkings, 
 Gnndobad, reigning at Lyons and Vicnne, aiul 
 GiMleglsej at Geneva. GiMlegisel, the younger, 
 had conspired willi Clovis, tlic^ king of the 
 Franks, against Giniilobad, and in lliis year 5(M) 
 tlietwoconfedi rates defeated llie latter, at Dijon, 
 driving him from tlie most part of his kingdom. 
 Hut Gundobad preseiilly recovered his fiKiling, 
 besieged and captiiri'd his treacherous brother at 
 Vicnne and promptly put him to death — lliire- 
 by reuniting IIk; kingdom. — T. Ilodgkin, lluli/ 
 Kill! J/i r liiniili f.i, hk. 4, rh. 0, 
 
 A. D. 534. — Final conquest by the Franks.— 
 " I iim iniialient lo pursue the tiiiiil ruin of that 
 kingdom |tlie Ilurgundiaiil wliieli was accoin- 
 plislied under the reign of Sigisniond, the son of 
 Gundobald [or Gundobad]. 'I'lie Catholic Higis- 
 mond has ai'i|iiired the honours of a saint ami 
 martyr; but the hands of the royal saint were 
 stained with tlie blood of his innocent son. . . . 
 It was his liumble prayer that Heaven would 
 inflict in this worhl tlie ])unislinient of his sins. 
 His jirayer was heard; the avengers were at 
 hand; and the provinces of Burgundy were over- 
 whelmed by anarmy of victorious Franks. After 
 the event of an unsuccessful battle, Sigismoiul 
 . . . with his wife and two children, was trans- 
 ])orted to Orleans and buried alive in a (h'ep 
 well by the stern command of the sons of (Jlovi.s, 
 whose cruelty miglit derive some excuse from 
 tlie ma.xims and examples of their barbarous 
 age. . . . The rebellious Biirgundians, for tliey 
 iittemi)te(l to break their chains, were still per- 
 mitted to enjoy their national laws under tlio 
 obligation of tribute and military service; and 
 tlie Merovingian princes peaceably n^igned over 
 a kingdom wliose gloi'y and greatness had been 
 first overthrown liy the arms of Clovis." — E. 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Jlonuiii Empiee, 
 ch. 38. 
 
 Also in: W. C. Perry, The Franks, ch. 3. 
 
 BURGUNDY: A. D. S34-752.-The Me.o- 
 vingian kingdom. — After tlie overthrow oi the 
 Burgundian mouarcliy by the sons of Clovis, tliu 
 territory of the Burguudians, witli jmrt of the 
 neighboring Frank territory adihd to it, became, 
 under tlie name of Burguudia or Burgundy, one 
 of the three Frank kingdoms (Austrasia and Neus- 
 tria being the other two), into wliiclithe Merovin- 
 gian princes divided their dominion. It occu- 
 j)ied "the cast of the country, between the Loire 
 and the Aliw, from Provence on the south to the 
 hill-ranges of tlie Vosges on the north." — P. 
 Godwin, Hist, of France: Ancient Gnat, eh. 13. 
 
 A. D. 843-933. — Divisions of the early king- 
 dom. — The later kingdoms of the south and 
 the French dukedom of the northwest.— By 
 the treaty of Verdun, A. D. 843, which formally 
 divided the empire of Charlemagne between his 
 three grandsons, a part of Burgundy was taken 
 to form, with Italy and Lorniiiie, the kingdom 
 of the Emperor Lotliar, or Lothaire. In tho 
 further dis.solutions which followed, a kingdom 
 of Burgundy or Provence was founded iu 877 by 
 one Boso, a prince who hat' "ied Irmingard, 
 daughter of the Emper » iis XL, son of 
 
 329 
 
BURGUNDY, A. D. 843-933. 
 
 BURGUNDY, 1032. 
 
 liOthiiirc. It "inchidod Provence, Daupliinfi, 
 the southern pnrt of Snvoy, ami the country 
 between the Siioue and the Jura," (ind is some- 
 times called the kingdom of ('is-.Jurane Bur- 
 gundy. "The kingdom of Trans-Jurane Bur- 
 gundy, . . . founded by Rudolf in A. D. 888, 
 re"ognized in the same year by the Emperor 
 Arnulf, ineludcd the nortliern part of Savoy, 
 and all Kwit7,erland between the Rcuss and the 
 Jura." — J. Brycc, Hie IMy Roman Empir", ch. 
 6, nnd (ipp., note A. — "The kingdoms of Pro- 
 vence and T-'Hsjuran Burgundy wore \mited, 
 In 033, by Raoul II., King of Transjuran Bur- 
 gundy, and formed the kingdom of Aries, 
 governed, from 037 to 903, by Conrad le 
 Patiticiue." — F. Guizot, ITist. of Civilization, 
 led. 24. — Sir P. Palgrave, Jlist. of I^oiinandy 
 and Enplaiid, hk. 1, ch. 4. — "Several of the 
 greater and more commercial towns of France, 
 such as Lyons, Vienne, Geneva, Besan(;on, 
 Avign.in, Aries, Marseille and Grenoble were 
 situated within the bounds of his [Conrad the 
 Pacific's] states." — J C. L. do Sismondi, France 
 under the Feudal System, ch. 2. — "Of tlie older 
 Burgundian kingdom, the northwestern part, 
 fonning the land best known as the Duchy of Bur- 
 gundy, was, ir the divisions of the ninth century, 
 n flcf of Knrolingia or the Western Kingdom. 
 This is the Burgundy which has Dijon for its 
 capital, and which was held by more than one 
 dynasty of dukes as vassals of the AVostern kings, 
 first atLaon, and then at Paris. This Burgundy, 
 which, as the name of France came to bear its 
 motleni sense may be distinguished as the French 
 Duchv, must be carefully distinguished from the 
 Royal Burgundy " of the Cis-Junme and Trans- 
 Jurane kingdoms mentioned above. — E. A. Free- 
 man, Ilintoricul Geog. of Europe, ch. 0, Kcct. 1. 
 
 A. D. 888-IOJ2.— The French Dukedom.— 
 The founding^ of the First Capetian House. — 
 Of the earliest princes of this northwestern frag- 
 ment of the old kingdom of Burgundy little seems 
 to have been discoverable. The lief and its title 
 do not seem to have become heredit' ry until they 
 fell into the grasping hands of the Capetian 
 family, vhich happened just at the time when 
 the aspiring counts of Paris wore rising to royal 
 rank. In the early years of the tenth century 
 the reigning count or duke was I{ichard-le-Jus- 
 ticior, whose distinguishing pruiecly virtue is 
 recorded in his name. This Itichard-le-Justicier 
 was a brother of that Boso, or Boson, son-in-law 
 of the Emperoi Loui.s II., who took advantage 
 ot tlie confusions of the time to fashion for him- 
 self a kingdom of Burgundy in the Souti. (Cis- 
 Juraijc Burgundj-, or Provence, — see above). 
 Richard's son Raoul, or Rudolph, married Emma, 
 the daughter of Uobert, Count of Paris and 
 Duke of France, who was soon afterwards elKisen 
 king, by the nobles who tired of Carlovingian 
 misrule. King Robert's reign was short; he fell 
 in battle with the Carlovingians, at Soissons, the 
 next year (A. D. 923). His son llugn, called Le 
 Griind, or The Great, found it more to his taste 
 to tie king-njaker tlian to be king. He decli;-."! 
 the prolTered crown, and brought about the coro- 
 nation of his brother-in-law, the IJurgundian 
 Rudolph, who reigned for eleven years. When he 
 died, in 934, Hugh tl'.c Great still held the crown 
 at his disposal and still refused to wear It liim- 
 seh It now pleased this king-mak( to set a 
 Carlo. ingian prncc on the throne, in the pereon 
 of Louis d'Outre Mer, a young sou of Charles 
 
 the Simple, who had been reared in England by 
 his English mother. But, if Duko Hugh cared 
 nothing for the name, he cared mi'jh for the sub- 
 stance, of power. He gmsped dominion whero- 
 everit fell within his reach, and the Burgundian 
 duchy was among the states which he clutched. 
 King Rudolph left no son to inherit either his 
 duKedom or his kingdom. He had a lirother, 
 Hugh, who claimed the Duchy ; but the greater 
 Hugh was too strong for him and secured, with 
 the authority of the young king, his protege, the 
 title of Duke of Burgundy and the larger part of 
 the domain. "In the Duchy of France or the 
 County of Paris Hugh-le-Grand had nothing lie- 
 yond the regalities to desire, and both in Burgundy 
 and the Duchy he now became an irremovable 
 Viceroy. But the privileges so obtained l»y Hugh- 
 le-Grand produced very important political re- 
 sults both present and future. Hugh assumed 
 even a loftier bearing than before ; Burgundy was 
 annexed to the Duchy of France, and passecl with 
 the Duchy ; and the grant thereof niiide liy Hugh 
 Capet to his son [brother?] IIenri-1 and, sever- 
 ing the same from the crown, ( ,ud the pre- 
 mier Duchy of Christendom, tin nost splendid 
 appanage which a prince of the third race [the 
 Capetiaus] could enjoy — the rival of the throne." 
 
 — Sir F. Palgrave, Jlist. of Kormandy and Eng., 
 bk. 1, pt. 2, ch. l-i. — Hugh-le-Qrand died in 
 956. "His power, which, more than his talents 
 or exploits, had given liim the name of Great, 
 was divided between his children, who were yet 
 very young. . . . There is some doubt as to their 
 number and the order of their birth. It appears, 
 howcvi ., that Otho was the eldest of his vlireo 
 sons. He had given him his part of the duchy 
 of Burgundy, and liad made him marry the 
 daughter and heir of Gislebert, duke of another 
 part of Burgundy, to which Otho succeeded the 
 same year. The latter dyi.ig in 963 or 905, the 
 duchy of Burgundy passed to his third brother, 
 sometimes named Henry, sometimes Eudes. 
 Ilugues [Hugh], sumamed Capet, who succeeded 
 to the county of Paris and the duchy of France, 
 was but the second son." — J. C. li. de Sismondi, 
 Tlie French utvlcr the Ctirloringians, ch. 15. — In 
 987 Hugh Capet became king of France and 
 founded the lasting dynasty which bears his 
 name. His elder brother Henry remained Duke 
 of Burgundy until his death, in 1002, when his 
 royal nephew, Robert, son and successor of 
 Hugh, annexed the Duchy to the Crown. It so 
 remained until. 1032. Then King Henry I., son 
 of Robert, granted it as an appanage to his 
 brother Robert, who founded the fiv.-,t Capetian 
 House of Burgundy. — E. de Bonn.""' ose. Hist, 
 of France, hk. 1, ch 2. 
 
 A. D. 1032. — T he last kingdom. — Its union 
 with Germany, and its dissolution. — The last 
 kingdom which bore the name of Burgundy — 
 though more often cidled the kingdom of Aries 
 
 — formed, as stated above, by the union of the 
 shortlived kingdoms of Provence and Trans,; .1- 
 rane Burgundy, became in 1082 nominally united 
 to the dominions of the Emperor-King of Ger- 
 many. Its last indeiiendent king was Rudolf 
 HI., son of Conriid the Pacific, who was undo 
 to the Emperor Henry II. Being childless ho 
 named Henry his heir. The latter, however, 
 died first, in 1024, and Rudolf attomiited to 
 cancel his bequest, claiming that it Avas made to 
 Henry personally, not as King of the G(!rman8. 
 When, however, the Burgundian king died, in 
 
 380 
 
BURGUNDY, 1032. 
 
 BURGUNDY, 1127-1378. 
 
 1032, the then reigning Emperor, Conrad the 
 Salie, or tlie Franconian, formally proclaimed the 
 union of Burgundy with Germany. "But since 
 • Burgundy was ruled almost exclusively by the 
 great nobility, tlie sovereignty of the German 
 Ei.ipcrors there was never much more than 
 nominal. Besides, the country, from the Bernese 
 Oberland to the Mediterranean, except that part 
 of AUcmannia which is now German Switzer- 
 land, was inhabited by a Romance people, too 
 distinct in language, cuscoms and laws from the 
 German empire ever really to form a part of it. 
 . . . Yet Switzerland was thenceforth connected 
 forever with the development ^of Germany, and 
 for 500 years remained a part of the empire." — 
 C. T. Lewis, Hist, of Germany, bk. 3, ch. 6-7.— 
 " The weakness of Kodolph-le-Faineant[Kodol])h 
 III., who made Henry II. of Germany his heir, 
 as stated above], gave the great lords of the 
 kingdom of Aries an opportunity of consolidat- 
 ing their independence. Among these one begins 
 to remark Berehtold and his son, Ilumbert-aux- 
 Blanches-Mains (the White-handed) Counts of 
 Maurienne, and founders of the House of Savoy ; 
 Otto William, who it is pretended was the son of 
 Adalbert, King of Italy, and heir by right of 
 his mother to the county of Burgundy, was the 
 founder of the sovereign house of Franche- 
 Comte [County Palatine of Burgundy] ; Guigue, 
 Count of Albon, tounder of the sovereign house 
 of ihe dauphins of Viennois; and William, who 
 it is pretended was the issue of a brotlier of 
 Bodolph of Burgundy, King of France, and 
 who was sovereign count of Provence. These 
 four lords had, throughout the reign of Uodolpli, 
 mucu more power than he in the king'om of 
 iVrlcs; and when at his death Ivis crown was 
 u\ited to that of the Empire, Ihe feudatories v. ho 
 had grown great at his expense be onie ah.'ost 
 absolutely independent. On the other hund, 
 their vassals began on their side to acquire 
 importance under them ; and in Provence can be 
 traced at this period the succession of the counts 
 of Forcakiuier and of Venaissin, of the princes 
 of Orange, of tlie viscounts of ^Marseille, of the 
 barons of Baux, of Sault, ot Qrignau, and of 
 Castellane. We can still follow the formation of 
 a great number of other feudatory or rather 
 sovereigr. Iiouses. Thus the counts of Toulouse, 
 those of Rouergue, the dukes of Gascouy, the 
 counts of Foix, of Beam, and of Carcassone, 
 date at le.:st from this epoch; but their existence 
 is announced to us only by their diplomas and 
 their wills." — J. C. L. de Sismondi, France under 
 the Feudal Si/stein, c/t. 3. — See, also, Pkovence: 
 A. D. 043-1093, and Fu.\NCiiE Comte. 
 
 A. D. 1 127-1378. — The Franco-Gei manic 
 contest for the valley of the Rhone. — End 
 of the kingdom of Aries, — "As soon as the 
 Capetiau iiionaiclis had ac(iuiied enough strength 
 lit lioine to be able to look with safety abroad, 
 they began to n'.ake aggressions on the tempting 
 and wealthy At'in idencies ot the distant em- 
 perors. But the Rhone valley was too i m porta t 
 iij itself and of too great strategical value as 
 Fccurini; an easy road to Italy, to make it pos- 
 sible for the emperors to actiuiesce easily in its 
 loss. Hence a long conllict, which soon became 
 a national eonlliet of French and Germans, to 
 maintain the Imperial position in the ' middle 
 kingdom' of the Hhoiie valky. 51. Fourniei's 
 book ['Le RoyauMie d' Aries et de Vienne (IIHS- 
 1178)'; par Paul Fournier] aims at giving an 
 23 
 
 adequate account of this struggle. . . . From 
 the times of the mighty Barbarossa to the times 
 of the pretentio'-.s and cunning Charles of 
 Luxemburg [see Germany: A. D. 1138-1268, and 
 A. 1). 1347-1403], nearly every emperor sought 
 by constant acts of sovereignty to uphold Ills 
 preearious powers in the Arelatc. Unable to 
 elT"ct much with their own resources, the em- 
 perors exhausted their ingenuity in finding allies 
 and inventing brilliant schemes for reviving the 
 Arelate, which invariably came to nothing. 
 Barlwi'ossa won the hand of the heiress of the 
 county of Burgundy, and sought to put in place 
 of the local dyna.sties princes on whom he ccmld 
 rely, like Berlholdof Zilringen, whose father had 
 received in 1137 from Conrad III. the high- 
 sounding but meaningless title of Rector of the 
 Burgundies. Bu* his quarrel with the church 
 soon set the clergy against Frederick, and, led 
 by the Carthusian and Cistercian orders, the 
 Churchmen of the Arelate began to look upon 
 the orthodox king of the French as tlieir truest 
 protector from a schismatic emperor. I'.ut the 
 Frer : 1. kings of the p jrioil saw in the power of 
 Henry of Anjou [Henry II., of England — see 
 England: A. D. 1154-1180] a more real and 
 pressing danger than the Empire of the Ilohen- 
 staufen. The result was an alliance between 
 Philip Augustus and his succes.sors and the 
 Swabian emperors, which gave Frederick and 
 his successors a new term in which they r 'ild 
 strive to win back a real hold over Burgi—dy. 
 Fred'.;'.;., li. never lost sight of this object. 
 nU investiture of the great feudal lord William 
 of Baux with the kingdom of Aries in 1315; his 
 long struggle with tne wealthy merchant city of 
 J[an.oiiles; his alliance with Raymond of 
 Toulouse and the heretical elements in Provence 
 against the Pope and the French ; his efforts to 
 lead an army against Innocent IV. at Lyons, 
 were among the chief phases of his constant 
 efforts to make the Imperial influence really felt 
 in the valley of the Rhone. But he had so little 
 success that the French crusaders against the 
 Albigenses waged open war within its limits, 
 and ilestroyed the heretic city of Avignon [see 
 Albioenses: A. D. 1317-1239], while Innocent 
 in his exile could find no surer protection against 
 the emperor than in the Imperial ^it;' of Lvous. 
 After Fr.derick's death the policy of St. Louis 
 of France was a complete triumph. His Ijrother, 
 Charles of Anjou, established himself in Prov- 
 ence, though in later times the Angevin lords of 
 Provence and Naples became so strong tliat their 
 local interests made them enemies latlier than 
 friends of the ex'.ension of French i)ower on their 
 borders. The subsequent efforts of the emperorn 
 were the merest shams and unrealities. Rudolf 
 of Ha|)sburg aciiuiesced without a murmur in 
 tie progress ot Phili]) the Fair, wlio ni" le him- 
 si if master of Lyons, and secured tlie Free 
 County of Burgundy for his sini [see Fuanciie- 
 Comte]. . . . The residence of the Popes at 
 Avignon was a further help to the French 
 advance. . . . Weak as were the early Valois 
 kings, they were strong eiiougli to push still 
 further tlie adviintage won by their greater jtre- 
 deeessors.v The rivalry of the leading slates of 
 the RhonoValley, Savoy and Dauphiny, facili- 
 tated tlieir task". Pliilip VI. aspired to take 
 Vienne as Pliilii) IV. had obtained Lyons The 
 Dauphin, HumlWrt II., struggled in vain • :ain.st 
 him, and at lasb., accepted the iuevit ; le by 
 
 331 
 
 \ 
 
BURGUNDY, 1127-1378. 
 
 BUUOUXDY, 1167. 
 
 CPflitiR to tlio French kiiiR the succession to all his 
 riglils in Diiuphinj', liciiccfortli to l)eronic llie 
 U|)|mim;;o of the eldest soiih of the French liinirs. 
 At lust, Charles of liii.\iinl)ur;c, in lliTH, ftiive 
 the Freiieh iii;f;reHsions ii le;?iil Imsis by coii- 
 ferrinu; the Vieariiit of Arli s on tlie Dauphin 
 Charles, suhse(iueiuly the mad Charles VI. of 
 Fnuice. From this ;rrant Savoy only was ex- 
 <'epte(l. llenceforlh the power of France in I lie 
 Ulione valley lieeaine ko great that it soon lie- 
 C'.ine tlie fashion to despise and ignore tlie 
 theoretical claims of the Kmpire." — The Athin- 
 teiiiii, Oct, ;!. l.S'Jl (nriiiriiir/ " f,e I{i>;/iiiiiiie 
 d'^lrlix ct lie \'ii iiiu," luir J'liil /•'mniii'i: 
 
 A. D. 1207-1401. — Advance of the dominions 
 cf the house of Sr 'oy beyond Lalce Geneva. 
 See Savoy: I Irii-l.lrii Ckntiiuks. 
 
 A. D. 1364. — The French Dukedom. — The 
 Planting of the Burgundian branch of the 
 house of Valois.— The last Duke of liiirgundy 
 of the Capetiaii Iiouso which descended from 
 Itohert, son of King Kobert, died in December, 
 1361. He was called Philip de Houvre, localise 
 the ChflteiUi de Houvre, near Dijon, had been 
 his birth-idaee, and his residence. He was still 
 in his youth when lie died, althougli he had 
 borne the ducal title for twelve years. It fell to 
 him at the age of four, when his father died. 
 From his mother and his grandmother he in- 
 herited, additionally, tl.e county, of Burgundy 
 (Fnmclie Comte) and tli' eo\intics of Boulogne, 
 Auvergne and Arlois. His tc nder years had not 
 prevented the ma'riage of the young duke to 
 j\Iargaret, daughter and heiiess of the Count of 
 Flanders. John H. King of France, whose 
 mother was a Burgundian princess, claimed to 
 be the nearest relalivi.' of the young duke, when 
 the hitter died, in 1361. and, although his claim 
 was disputed by the King of Xavarrc, Charles 
 the Bad, Kirg John took jiosse.ssion of the dnke- 
 dom. lie took it by right of succession, and not 
 as a flef which had lapsed, the original grant 
 of King Robert having contained no reversionary 
 provision. Franche Comte, or the county of 
 Burgundy, together with Artois, remained to the 
 young widow, Margaret of Flanders, while the 
 counties of Boulogne and Auvrgne passed to 
 John of Boulogne, Count de Mont fort. A grent 
 opportunity for strengthening the crown 01 
 France, by annexing to it the powerful Burgun- 
 <liaudukedoin, wasnowolTered to King Jolm; but 
 he lacked the wisdom to !mi)rove it. lie preferred 
 to grant it away as a splendid appanage for his 
 favorite son — the fourth — t he si)iriled lail Philip, 
 called the Fearless, who had stood by his father's 
 side in the disiustrous batib of Poitiers, and who 
 had shared his captivity in England. B)' a deed 
 which took elTect on Kmg John's death, in 13C4, 
 the great duchy of Burgundy was conferred on 
 Philip the Fearless and on his heirs. Soon after- 
 wards, Philip's marriage with the young widow 
 of his predecessor, Philip de Rotivre, was i)ronght 
 alMiut, which restored to their former union with 
 the duk<,'iloin the Burgundian County (Franche 
 ConU.e) and the county of Artois, while it gave 
 to the new duke prospectively the rich county 
 of Fhmders, to which Margaret was the heiress. 
 Tlius was raised up anew the most formidable 
 rival which the royal power in France had ever 
 to contend with, and themagnitudeof the blunder 
 of King .lohn was revealed before lialf a century 
 had passed. — P^roissart (Johnes) Chvoniden. bk. 1, 
 ch. 210. 
 
 Ai.soix; F. P. Ouizot, Popular IIi»t. of France, 
 eh. 22. 
 
 A. D. 1383. — Flanders added to the ducal 
 dominions. Sec !• i,.\.\i)i;ns: \. I). 13H3. 
 
 A. D. 1405-1453.— Civil war with the Ar- 
 magnacs. — Alliance with the English. See 
 Fii.\.NCi:: A. D. 1380-141.-); 141.5-1411); 1417- 
 1-122; 1420-1431; 1431-14.53. 
 
 A. D. 1430. — Holland, Hainault and Fries- 
 land absorbed by the dukes. Sei^ .Vkimku- 
 
 I.A.NDS (IIoLT.A.NI) AM) HaI.NAUI.T) : A. D. 1117- 
 
 1430. 
 
 A. D. 1467.— Charles the Bold.— His posi- 
 tion, between Germany and France. — His an- 
 tagonism to Loiiis XI. — The " Middle King- 
 dom" of his aims. — Charles, known conini'iiily in 
 history as Charles the Bold, became Dnke of Bur- 
 gundy in 1467, succeeding his father Philip, mis- 
 named "Thevjiood." "His position was a vry 
 ])eeuliar one; it rccpiires a successful shakingoil 
 of modern noti.ins fully to take in what it was. 
 ('harles held the rank of one of the first princes 
 in Europe without being a King, and without 
 possessing an inch of ground for which he did 
 not owe service to .some superior h)rd. And, 
 more tlinu this, ho did not owe service to one 
 hn'd only. The phrase of ' Great Powers' had 
 not been invented in the 15th century ; but 
 there can be no dotibt that, if it ha<l beep, the 
 Duke of Burgun<ly would have ranked among 
 the foremost of them. He was, in actual 
 strength, the equal of his royal neighbour to the 
 west, and far more than thee(iual of his Imperial 
 neighbour to the east. Yet for crery inch of his 
 territories he owed a vassid's duty to one or 
 other of tlunn. Placed on the borders of Franco 
 and the Kini)ire, some jf histenitorics were held 
 of the Empire and .some of the French Crown. 
 Charles, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Flanders 
 and Artois, was a vassal of France; but Charles, 
 Dulie of Brabant, Count of Burgundy, Holland, 
 and a dozen other duchies and counties, held his 
 <lominions as a vas.sal of Ciesar. His dominions 
 were largo in positive extent, and they were 
 valuable out of all proportion to their extent. 
 Xo other prince in Europe was the direct 
 .sovereign of so many ri( h and flinu-ishing cities, 
 rendered still more rich and tlouri.sliing tlirough 
 the long and, in the main, ])eaceful admin' .tra- 
 ti(m of ids lather. Thecilies of the Xetherlands 
 were incomparably greater and more prosperous 
 than those of France or England; and, though 
 they enjoyed large nuinicipal jirivileges, they 
 were not, like those of Germany, independent 
 commonwealths, acknowh'dging only an external 
 su/.er.iin in their nominal lord. Other parts of 
 his dominions, the Duchy of Burgundy especi- 
 ally, were as rich in men as Flanders was rich in 
 money. So far the Duke of Burgundy had some 
 great advantages over every other (irince of bis 
 ticie. But, on the other liiuid, his dominions 
 weic further removed than those of any prince 
 in Eui >pe troni forming a compact whole. Ho 
 was not King of one kingdom, but Duke, Count, 
 and Lord of inimmerable duchies, counties, and 
 lordships, ac(iiure(l by dilVerent meins, held by 
 dilTer.'nt titles and of dilVerent overiords, speak- 
 ing dillerent languages, subject to dilTerent laws, 
 transmitted acconlmg to dilTerent ndcs of s\ic- 
 cesssion. . . . They lay in two large nnisses, the 
 two Burgimdies fonning one and the Low 
 Countries forming the other, so that theirconmion 
 master could not go from one capital to anotlier 
 
 332 
 
IJIUGUNDY, 1167. 
 
 BURGUNDY, I4tir-1408. 
 
 without piissiiij; throiiKli it foreign territory. 
 And, even williin llicso two urcat iimsscs, tlnTc 
 wire porlions of t( rritory intVrscctiii!; tliu diictil 
 (loiniiiions wliicl, llicro was no hope of iimicxliii; 
 by fair incaiiH. . . . The career of Charles the 
 Bold . . . divides itself into a French ami a 
 fJeriiian jjorlioii. In both alil^e he is exposed to 
 the restless rivalry of Lewis of France; but in 
 the one jieriod liiat rivalry is carried on openly 
 within the French territory, while in tlie second 
 I)eriod the crafty kinir Ihids the means to deal 
 far more clTcetnal blows throuirh Iheaiiency of 
 Teutonic hands. ... As a French prince, he 
 joined with other French i)rinces to put linnts 
 on the power of the Crown, and to divide llie 
 kingdom into great, fendal holdings, as nearly 
 independent as inij;lit be of the connnou over- 
 lord. As a French prince, he jilavcd Ins part in 
 the War of ihe Pnblic Weal [see Fit.vNci;: A. 1). 
 1401-1408], and insisted, as ii main object of 
 his policy, on the establislinient of the Kinjr's 
 brother as an all but independent DnUe of Nor- 
 mandy. The ol)ject of Lewis was to nuike 
 France a compact monarchy; the object of 
 Charles and his fellows was to keep Franco as 
 nearly as niif;lit lie in the same state as Germany. 
 But, when the otlicr French princes had li 'cn 
 gradually coni|uercd, won over, or got rid of in 
 some waj' or other by the crafty polic'yof I,ewis, 
 CharU's remained no longer the cliief of a 
 coalition of French princes, but the jicrsonal 
 rival, the deadly enemy, of the Frencli King. 
 . . . C'hronok)gically and geographically alike, 
 Charles and his Duchy form the great barrier, or 
 the great connecting link, whichever we choos(^ 
 to call it, between the main divisions of Kuro- 
 pean history and European geograjihy. The 
 Dukes of Burgundy of the House of Valois form 
 a .sort of bridge between the later Middle Ag<! 
 and the period of the Renais.sance ami tlie 
 Reformation. They coimect those two periods 
 by forming the kerne' of the vast dondnion of 
 that Austrian House which ;)ecanie their heir, and 
 which, mainly by virtue of that heirship tills 
 such a space in the history of the 101 h and 17th 
 centuries. IJut the dominic'isof thcHurgundian 
 Dukes hold i. still higher historical i)osition. 
 They may be said to bind together the wdiolc of 
 Eurlipcan history for the last thou.sand years. 
 From the 9th century to the lUlli, the politics of 
 lOurope have largely gathered round the rivalry 
 between the Eastern and the Western Kingdoms 
 — in jnodern language, between Gernnuiy and 
 France. From the ilth century to the liltb, a 
 sncces.sion of elforts have been made to establish, 
 in one shape or another, a middle state between 
 the two. Over and over again during that long 
 period have men .striven to make tlie whole or 
 .some portion of the frontier lands stretching 
 from the mouth of the Rhine to the mouth of the 
 Uhonc into an independent barrier state. . . . 
 That object was never more distinctly aimed at, 
 and it neverseemed nearerioits ac^complishnient, 
 than when Charles the Hold actually reigned from 
 the Zuyder Zee to the Lake of Nenfchatel, and 
 was not without I'.opes of extending his frontier 
 to the Gulf of Lyons. . . . Holding, as he did, 
 parts of old Lotharingia and parts of old Bur- 
 gundy, tnerecan bemxloubt that he aimed at the 
 re-establishinent of a great .Middle Kingdom, 
 which should tiike in all that had ever been Bnr- 
 gundian or Lotharingian ground. He aimed, in 
 short, as others have aimed before and since, at 
 
 the fonnalionofa state which should liold aceii- 
 tral iHisiticai bi tween France, Germany aial Italy 
 — a slate which should discharge, wilh iidinitely 
 greater strength, all the duties which our own 
 age has endeavoured to throw on .Switzerland, 
 Belgium and Savoy. . . . I'ndoubledly it wouUi 
 have been for the permaia'Ut interest of Europo 
 if he had succee(led in his attempt." — K. A. 
 Freeman, Chitiirs tlir ]iiilil (Ilixtoiirnl Ekikijik^ 1st 
 .•tiriis, no, 11). 
 
 A. D. 1467-1468.— The war of Chailes the 
 Bold with the Liegeois and his troubles with 
 Louis XI. — "Soon after the pacilication of the 
 troubles of France [.see Fuancio: A. D. 1401- 
 140M|, the Duke of Burgundy began a war 
 against tlie I icgeois, which lasted for several 
 years; and wiieiiever thi; king of l-'niiice [Louis 
 XI. I had a mind to interru|it him, he attempted 
 .sonii' new acli(ai against the Bretons, and, in the 
 meantime, supported the Liegeois underhand; 
 upon which the Duke of Burgundy turned 
 against him to succour his allies, or else they 
 came to .some treaty or truce among themselves. 
 . . . During these wars, and ever .sii' .'e, secret 
 and fresli intrigues were carried on by tlic 
 princes. The king was so exceedingly exasper- 
 ated against Ww Dukes of Bretagne and Bur- 
 gundy that it was wonderful. . . . The king of 
 France's aim, in the meantime, was chietly to 
 carry his design against tli<! ])rovince of Bretagne, 
 and he looked upon it as a /nore feasible attempt, 
 and likelier to give him less resistance than the 
 house of Burgundy. Besides, the Bretons were 
 the people who protected and enterlained all his 
 malcontents; as his brother, and others, whose 
 interest and intelligence were great in his king- 
 ilom ; for this cause he endeavoured very earnestly 
 with Charles, Duke of Burgundy, by several 
 advantiifgeous offers and proposals, to prevail 
 with him to desert them, promising that upon 
 tliose terms he also would abandon the Liegeois, 
 and give no further ])rotection to his mal ■ontent.s. 
 The Duke of Burgundy would by no means 
 coiLscnt to it, but again made iircparalions for 
 war against th(! Liegeois, who had broken the 
 lieacc. " This was in October, 1407. The Duke 
 (Charles the Bold) atlackcd St. Tron, which was 
 held by a garri.s(m of 8,(«)() of the men of Liege. 
 The Liegeois, 30.000 strong, came to the relief of 
 th(! besieged town, and were routed, leaving 
 0,000 slain on the held. St. Tron and Tongres 
 were both surrendered, and Liege, itself, after 
 considerable strife among its citizens, opened its 
 gates to the Duke, who entered in triuni])!! (Nov. 
 17, 1407) and hanged half-a-dozen for his moder- 
 ate satisfaction. In the cimr.se of the next sum- 
 mer the French king opencil war afresh upon 
 the Duke of Brelagno and forced him into a 
 treaty, before the Duke of Burgundy, his ally, 
 could take the field. The king, then being 
 extremely anxious to pacify tJie Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, t<x)k the extraordinary ste]) of visiting 
 the latter at Pcror.ne, without any guard, trusting 
 himself wholly to the honor of his enemy. But 
 it happened u:\fortunately, during the king's 
 stay at Feronne, that a fcnx'ious revolt occurred 
 at Liege, which was traceil beyond denial to the 
 intrigues of two agents whom king Louis had 
 sent thither not long before, for mischief making 
 purposes. Thi' Duk(!, in his wrath, was not 
 easily restrained frian doing some violence to the 
 king; but the royal trickster escaped from his 
 gnive predicament by giving up the unhappy 
 
 333 
 
BUHOUNDY, 1407-1408. 
 
 nUHOUXDY, 147&-1477. 
 
 Llof^cnis to the vengeance of Duko Charles nnd 
 
 pcrsoiiiiHy assisting the latter to inflict it. 
 "After the eonelu.sion of the peare [dictated by 
 Cliarles at I'eroiiiie and sitrned snhinissively by 
 Louis] the Kinj? and the Duke of lluri^inidy set 
 out the iie.\t morning [Oct. IT), 1408] for Cani- 
 hray, and from thence towards tlie country of 
 Liege: it was the beginning of winter and llie 
 weather was very bad. TIk! I<ing had with him 
 only his Hootch guards and a small body of liis 
 standing forces; but he ordered liOO of his men 
 lU-arms to join him." Liege was invested, and, 
 notwithstanding its walls had been thrown dow-.i 
 the previous year, it made a stubborn defe'se. 
 During a siege of a fortnight, several <lespei.ile 
 sallies were made, by the last oiw! of wbicli both 
 the Duke and the King were brought to great 
 personal jjeril. K.\hausted by this lih il ell'ort, 
 the Liegeois were unpre|)ared to repel a grand 
 assault which the besieging forces made upon the 
 town the ne.\t morning — Sunday, Oct. 30. 
 Liege was taken that day almost without resist- 
 nnc(s tlie mi.serable inlial)itants Hying across the 
 Maes into the forest of Anh.'imes. abandoning 
 their homes to ])illage. The Duke of JJurgundy 
 now permitted King Louis to return home, while 
 he remained a few days longer in desolate Liege, 
 which his tierce hatred had doomed. " Ik'fore 
 the Duke left the city, a great numl)er of tliose 
 poor creatures who had hid tliemselves in tlie 
 Louses when the town was taken, and were after- 
 wards made prisoners, were drowned. He also 
 resolved to burn the city, which had always been 
 very populous; and orders were given for tiring 
 it in three different places, and ii.OOO vir 4,000 fool 
 of the country of T.imbourg (who were their 
 neighbours, and used the same habit and lan- 
 guage), were conmianded to effect this desolation, 
 Init to secure the churches. . . . Ail things being 
 thus ordered, the Duke began his march into the 
 country of Franchemont: lie was no .sooner out 
 of town, but immediately we saw a great number 
 of liouses Oil tire beyond the river; the duke lay 
 that night four leagues from the city, yet we 
 could hear the noise as distinctly as if we had 
 been upon the sjiot- but whether it was the wind 
 which lay that way, or our quartering uiion the 
 river, tluu was the cause of it, I luiow not. The 
 ne.xl day the Duk.; marched on. and those who 
 were left in Llie town continued the coiillagratiou 
 according to his orders; but all the cliurelies 
 (except some few) were preserved, and above 
 300 houses belonging to the priests and otllcers of 
 the churches, which was the reason it was so soon 
 teinhabited, for many Hocked tliither to live with 
 th.e priests." — Philip de Coinmines, Meiiwirs, bk. !;. 
 
 Also in: J. F. Kirk, Hist, nf (Hiarku the Hold, 
 hk. 1, ch 7-9; 4^•. 3.— P. F. Willert, The Ueiyn -/ 
 Jaiiuh XL — Sir. W. Scott, Queidiii Durwanl.— 
 See, also, Din.vnt. 
 
 A. D. 1476-1477. -Charles the Bold and the 
 Swiss. — His defeats and his death. — The 
 effects of his fall. — "Sovereign of the duchy of 
 Burgundy, of tlie Free County, of Hainaut, of 
 Flanders, of Holland, and of Gueldre, Charles 
 wished, by joining to it Lorraine, a portion of 
 Switzerland, and the inheritance of old King 
 licne, Count of Proven<e, to recompose tlie an- 
 cient kingdom of Lorraine, such as it had existed 
 nnder the Carlovingian dynasty; and Haltered 
 himself that by offering his daughter to Maxi- 
 milian, sou of ij'rederick IIL , he would olitain the 
 title of king. Deceived iu his hopes, the Duke 
 
 of Burgundy tried means to take away Lorraine 
 from the young Uene. That province was neces- 
 sary to him, ill order to join his northern states 
 with those in the south. The conquest was 
 rapid, and \ancy opened its gates to Charles the 
 Hash; but it was ri-served for a small people, 
 already celebrated for their heroic valour and by 
 tlieir love of liberty, to beat this powerful man. 
 Irritated against the Swiss, who had braved him, 
 Charles crossed over the Jura, besieged the little 
 town of Gr.inson, and, in despite of a capitula- 
 tion, caused all the defenders to be hanged or 
 drowned. At this news the eight cantons which 
 then composed the Helvetian republic arose, and 
 under the very walls of th iiwn which had been 
 tile llieaire of his cnudty i.i.'y attacked tlu^ Duke 
 and dispersed his troops [.March 3, 1470]. Some 
 months later [.June 'Jl], supported by young 
 Keiie of jjorraine, dcspoihMi of his inheritance, 
 they exterminated a second Hurgiindian army 
 before Moral. Charles, vaniiuished, reassem- 
 bled a third army, and marched in the midst of 
 winter against Nancy, which had fallen into the 
 hands of the Swiss and Lorrainer.s. It was there 
 that he perished [Jan. 5, 1477] bi^trayed by his 
 mercenary .soldiers, and overpowered by num- 
 bers." — L. de Bonnechose, lliKt. of Franct;, v. 1, 
 bk. 3, ch. 3. — "And what was the cause of this 
 war ? A miserable cart-load of sheep skins that 
 the Count of liomont had taken from the Swiss, 
 in his passage through his estates. If Uod 
 Almighty had not forsaken the Duke of Burgundy 
 it is scarce conceivable he would have exposed 
 himself to such great dangers upon so small and 
 trivial an occasion; especially considering the 
 offers the Swiss had made him, and that his con- 
 (piest of such enemies would yield him neither 
 profit nor honour; for at that time the Swiss were 
 not ill sui'li esteem as now, and no people in the 
 world could be poorer." At Gran.son, " the pcwr 
 Swiss were miglitily enriched by the' plunder of 
 his [the Duke of Burgundy's] camp. At lirst 
 they did not understand the value of the treasure 
 they were masters of, especially the common 
 .soldiers. One of llie richest and most inagniti- 
 cent tents in the world was cut into pieces. 
 There were .some of them that sold (luantities of 
 dishes and plates of silver for about two sous of 
 our moiiev, supposing they liiid lieen pewter. 
 His great diamond, . . . witli a large pearl li.xed 
 to it. was taken u|) by a Swi.ss, put up again 
 into the case, thrown under a wagon, taken up 
 again by the same foldicr, and after all offered to 
 a i)riest for a llorlii, who bought it, and sent il 
 to the magistrati's of that country, who returned 
 him three francs as a sullicient reward. [Tliis 
 was long suppo.sed to be the famous Sancy 
 diamond; but Mr. Streeter thinks that the tradi- 
 tion which .so connects it is totally disproved.] 
 Til \- also took three very rich jewels called the 
 Tliice Brothers another large ruby culled La 
 Halle, and another called the Ballot Flanders, 
 which 'Vere the fairest and richest in the 'vorld; 
 besides a prodigious (luaiitity of other goods." 
 Li his last liattle, near Nancy, the 1 )uke had less 
 than 4,000 men, " and of that number not above 
 1,300 were in a condition to light." He cncoun- 
 tercul on this occasion a powerful army of Swiss 
 and Germans, which the Duke of I..orraino had 
 been able to collect, with the help of the kingof 
 France and others. It was against the advice of 
 all his counsellors that the headstrong, half-mad 
 Duke Charles dashed his little army upon this 
 
 334 
 
BURGUNDY, 1470-1477. 
 
 nURGUNDY, 1477. 
 
 neater one, and ho paid the prnnlty. It was 
 broken at tlio first shock, and the Duke was killed 
 in the confused rout 'vithout beiiifj known. Ills 
 body, St ripped naked by the iiillajcers and niiumled 
 by wolves or dogs, was found frozen fust \n a 
 ditch. " I cannot easily determine towards wlioin 
 God Alinif];hly showed his anj!;er most, whether 
 towards him who died suddenly, without pain 
 or sickness in the field of battle, or towards his 
 subjects, who never enjoyed peace after his death, 
 but were continually involved in wars aijaiust 
 wlii(!h they were not able to maintain themselves, 
 upon ac(U)unt ot the civil dissensions and cruel 
 animosities that arose among them. ... As I 
 had seen these princes puissant, rich and lionour- 
 abl(!, so it fared with their subjects : for I think 
 I have seen and known tlio greatest part of 
 Europe, yet I never knew any province or country, 
 though of a larger extent, so abounding in money, 
 80 extravagantly tine in their furniture, so sump- 
 tuous in tiieir buildings, so profuse in tlieir 
 expenses, so luxurioiri in their feasts and enter- 
 tainments, and so prodigal in all respects, as the 
 subjects of tliese princes in my time; and if any 
 think I have exaggerated, others who lived in 
 my time will bo of opinion that I have rather 
 said too little. ... In short, I have seen this 
 fandly in all respects the most flourishing and 
 celebrated of any in Christendom: and then, in 
 a short space of time, it was quite ruined and 
 turned upside down, and left the most desolate 
 and miserable of any house in Europe, as regards 
 bp*h prince and subjects." — Philip de Commines, 
 Memoirs, bk. 5, eh. 1-9. — "The popular concep- 
 tion of tills war [between Charles the Bold and 
 the Swiss] is simply that Charles, a powerful 
 and encroaching prince, was overthrown in three 
 great battles by the petty commonwealths which 
 he had expected easily to attach to his dominion. 
 Grandson and !Morat are placed side by side with 
 Morgarten and Sempach. Such a view as this; 
 implies complete ignorance of the history ; it im- 
 plies ignonince of the fact that it was the Swiss 
 who made war upon Charles, and not Charles 
 ■who made war upon the Swiss; it implies ignor- 
 ance of the fact that Cliar:es's army never set 
 foot on proper Swiss territory at all, that Grand- 
 son and Jlorat were at the beginning of the wa)' 
 no part of Mie possessions of the Confederation. 
 . . . The mere political accident that the country 
 •which formed tlie cliief seat of war now forms 
 part of the Swiss Confederation lias been with 
 many people encmgh to determine their estimate 
 of the quarrel. Grandson and Morat are in Switz- 
 erland; Burgundian troops appeared and were 
 defeated at Grandson and Morat; therefore Oiiarlcs 
 must have been an invader of Switzerlar d, and 
 the warfare on the Swiss side must hav<. been a 
 warfare of purely defensive heroism, 'ihc sim- 
 ple fact that it was only through the result of 
 the Burgundian war that Grandson and Morat 
 ever became Swiss territory at once disposes of 
 this line of argument. . . . Tlie plain facts of 
 the ease are that the Burgundian war was a war 
 declared by Switzerland against Burgundy . . . 
 and that in the campaigns of Grand.son and Morat 
 the Duke of Burgundy was simply repelling and 
 avenging Swiss invasions of his own territory 
 and the territory of his allies. " — E. A. Freeman, 
 Historical Essays, i\ 1, iw. 11. 
 
 Also in : J, P. Kirk, Hist, of Cluirles the Bold, 
 bk. 5. — L. 8 Costello, Memoirs of Mary of Bur- 
 gundy, ch. 14-37. 
 
 A. D. 1477.— Permanently restored to the 
 French crown. — Louis XI. of France, wlio had 
 been eagerly watching while (.Charles tlu^ Bold 
 shatteri'd his armies and exhausted liis strength 
 in Switzerland, received eariy news of the death 
 of the self-willed Duke. U'hile the panic and 
 confusion which it caused still prevailed, the 
 king lost no time in taking ])osse.ssion of the 
 duchy of Burgumly, as an appanage which had 
 reverted to the crown, througli default of male 
 heirs. The U gality of his claim has been much 
 in dispute. "Charles left an only daughter, un- 
 doubted heiress of Flanders and Artois, as well 
 as of his dominions out of France, but whose 
 right of sui;i;es.sion to the duchy of Burgundy 
 was more questionable. Originally the great 
 flefs of the crown descended to females, and this 
 was the case with respect to the two first men- 
 tioned. But John had granted Burgundy to his 
 son Philip liy way of appanage ; and it was eon- 
 tended that the appanages reverted to the crown 
 in default of male heirs. In the form of Philip's 
 investiture, the duchy was granted to him and 
 liis lawful lieirs, without designation of sex. 
 1 he construction, therefore, must be left to the 
 established course of law. This, however, was 
 by no means acknowledged by Mary, Charles's 
 daughter, who maintained both that no general 
 law restricted appanages to male heirs, and that 
 Burgundy had always been considered as a 
 feminine fief, John himself liaving possessed it, 
 not by reversion as king (for descenclants of the 
 first dukes were then living), but by inheritance 
 derived through females. Such was this ques- 
 tion of succession between Louis XI. and Mary 
 of Burgundy, upon the merits of whose preten- 
 sions I will not pretend altogether to decide, but 
 sliall only observe that, if Charles had conceived 
 his daughter to be excluded from this part of 
 liis inheritance, he would probably, at Conflans 
 or Peronne, where he treated upon the vantage 
 ground, have attempted at least to obtain a re- 
 nunciation of Louis's claim. There was one 
 obvious mode of preventing all further contest, 
 and of iggrandizing the French monarchy far 
 more than liy the reunion of Burgundy. This 
 was the marriage of JIary with the dauphin, 
 which was ardently wished in Prance." Tht 
 dau])liin was a child of seven years; Mary of 
 Burgundy a masculine-minded young woman of 
 twenty. Probably Louis despaired of reconcil- 
 ing the latter to such a marriage. At all events, 
 while he talked of it occasionally, he proceeded 
 actively in despoiling the young duchess, seizing 
 Artois and Franche Comte, and laying hands 
 upon the frontier towns which were exposed to 
 his arms. He embittered her natural enmity to 
 him by various acts of meanness and treachery. 
 " Thus the French alliance becoming odious in 
 Flanders, this princess married Maximilian of 
 Austria, son of the Emperor Frederic — a con- 
 nexion which Louis strove to prevent, tliougli it 
 was impossible then to foresee that it was or- 
 dained to retJird the growth and to bias the fato 
 of Europe during tlirce hundred years. This 
 war lasted till after the death of .Mary, who lett 
 one son Philip and one daughter iIargaret."--H. 
 Hallam, The Middle Ages, ch. 1, pt. 3.—" The 
 king [Louis XL] had reason to be n»ore than 
 ordinarily pleased at the death of tliat duke [of 
 Burgundy], and he triumphed more in liis ruin 
 than in that of all the rest of his enemies, as ho 
 thought that nobody, for the future, either of 
 
 335 
 
DUROUNnV, 1477. 
 
 nUTLER. 
 
 his own Hiil)j('rt.s. or liis noighlxMirs, would Im' 
 nhlo to o|)|)oso liiiii, or disturl) llic traii(|uillity of 
 his rcigii. . . . AltlioiiKli Oixi Almiclity liiis 
 bIiowii, ;iii(I doi'S still show, that, his (Ictcrminii' 
 tloii is to piinishth('faiiiil3-ofnurj;uii(ly severely, 
 not only in tlic person of the diiki', hut in their 
 suhjccts and estates; yet I tlnnk the kin;; our 
 master did not tal<e rijiht nieasures to that <'iid. 
 For, if he had acted prudently, instead of ])re- 
 teiKliuf; to e<in(iuer Iheui, Ik; should rather have 
 endeavoured to annex all those larfre territories, 
 to which he had no just title, to the crown of 
 France by some treaty of marriage; or to have 
 gained tlu; hearts and afTo^:tions of the i .'ople, 
 and so have brought them over to his interest, 
 which he ndght, without any great ditllcidty, 
 have eir<'cted, considering how tlieir late atllic- 
 tions lii'd impoverished and dejected them. If 
 he had acted after that manner, h(' would not 
 only have i)revented their ruin and destruction, 
 but e.xtendcil and strengthened his own kingdom, 
 and ustabli.jhed them all in a firm and lasting 
 peace." — I'lnlip de Conunines Mi iimirK, hk. 5, cli. 
 13. — "He [Louis XI. | reassured, caressed, com- 
 forted the duchy of JJurgundy, gave it a parlia- 
 ment, visited his good city of Dijon, swore in 
 St. B(augnus' church to respect all the old 
 privileges and customs that co\d(l be sworn to, 
 and ho\uid his successors to do the same on their 
 acccs.sion. Burgundy was a land of nobles ; and 
 the king raised u bridge of gold for all the great 
 lonls to come over to him. — J. Jliclielet, JliKt. 
 of Fviinrv, hk. 17, eh. !t-l. 
 
 A. D. 1477-1482. — Reign of the Burgundian 
 heiress in the Netherlands. — Her marriage 
 with Maximilian of Austria. See Netiieu- 
 LANUS; A. 1). 1477. 
 
 A. D. 1512. — Formation of the Circle. See 
 Geh.m.\ny: A. I). 14i):!-l.-)l!}. 
 
 A. D. 1544. — Renunciation of the Claims of 
 Charles V. See Fk.vnck: A. 1). I.i;i2-ir)47. 
 
 BURH, The. See Bououoir. 
 
 BURI, The. — A Suevio clan of Germans 
 whose settlements were aneien'ly in the neigh- 
 borhood of modern Cracow. — Tacitus, Gffiiiani/, 
 traiix. Iiji CliHtrli II nd Itrnilrilili. ^•I'l'j. not en. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, and the American Revo- 
 lution. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 
 
 177.5 (.Ianuauy — Mahcii) And the French 
 
 Revolution. See KN(ii.AM)- A. I). 17i):!-170(). 
 
 BURLEIGH, Lord, and the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth. See Knoi.aM): A. D. 1 Twrt- ; -.!I8. 
 
 BURLINGAME CHINESE EMBAoSY 
 AND TREATIES. See China: A. 1). 1857- 
 1808. 
 
 BURMA: Rise of the kingdom.— First war 
 with the English (1824-1826).— Cersion of As- 
 sam and Aracan. See India: A. I). 182;!-I8;i;i. 
 
 A. D. 1852.— Second war with the English. 
 — Loss of Pegu. See India: A. 1). If't'i. 
 
 BURNED CANDLEMAS. See Scotland: 
 A. I). i:i;i;i-i;i7o. 
 
 BURNSIDE, General Ambrose E.— Expe- 
 dition to Roanoke. See United States ok 
 Am. : A. I). 18(i'2 (.January— Aruii,: jSTohtiiCau- 
 OLiNA) Command of the Army of the Poto- 
 mac. See United States of Am. : A. 1). 1803 
 (Octoheu— Novemheu : Vihoinia) Retire- 
 ment from command of the Army of the Poto- 
 mac. See Uniti;!) States of Am. : A. I). 180;i 
 
 (.Ianuauy — Ai-uii, : V'ikoinia) Deliverance 
 
 of East Tennessee. See United States 
 
 336 
 
 of Am.: a. D. 1803 Auorsr — SEfTEMnEu: 
 
 Tennessee) Defense of Knoxville. S<m) 
 
 I'n iTED States OF- Am. : A. 1>. lH(i;t (Octoiieu — 
 
 Decemiieu: Tennessee) At the siege of 
 
 Petersburg. See United States of Am. : A.I). 
 18(14 (.Iunk: VimilNiA). (.liri.v: Vihoinia). 
 
 BURR, Aaron.— Duel with Hamilton.— 
 Conspiracy. — Arrest. — Trial. See United 
 States OF A..r : A. D. 18(1(1-1807. 
 
 BURSCHENSCHAFT, The. See Ger- 
 many: A. I). 1817-18-.2(). 
 
 BUSACO, Battle of (i8io). See Spain: 
 
 A. I). i8i()-i8r.>. 
 
 BUSHMEN, The. Sco Africa: The in- 
 
 IIAHITINO HACES. 
 
 BUSHY RUN, Battle of (A. D. 1763). Seo 
 
 PONTIAC'S WaII. 
 
 BUSHWHACKERS.— A name eommrmly 
 given to the rebel guerrillas or half-biuidits of 
 the southwest in the American Civil War. — .1. O. 
 Nicolay and J. Hay, Ahniham Lincvlii, r. 6, p. 
 371. 
 
 BUSIRIS.— Destroyed by Diocletian. Sco 
 Ai.Ex.vNniuA: A. I). 2U((. 
 
 BUSSORAH AND KUFA, The rise and 
 importance of. — In the first years of their con- 
 (|uest and occ\ipatt(m of Mesopotamia luid the 
 Delta of the Euphrates and Tigris — as early as 
 A. I). 638 — the Moslems founded two citii's 
 which ncquired importance in JIahometan his- 
 tory. In both cases, these cities appear to have 
 ari.sen out of the need felt by the Arabs for more 
 .salubrious sites of residence than their predeces- 
 sors in the ancient country had been contented 
 with. Of Hus.sorab, or Hassorah, the city 
 founded in the Delta, the site is said to have been 
 changed three tiuK'S. Kufa was built on a plain 
 very near to the neglected city of Ilira, on the 
 Euphrates. " Kufa and Bus.sorah . . . had a 
 singular influence on the destinies of the Caliph- 
 ate and of Islam it.4elf. The vast majority of 
 the population came from the Peninsula and 
 were of pure Arabian blood. The tribes which, 
 with .heir families, scenting from afar llie pr(>y 
 of Persia, kept streaming into Chiddiea from 
 every corner of Arabia, .settled chietiv in ibese 
 two cities. At Kiifa, the races from Veinen and 
 the south predominated; at Bussorah, from the 
 north. Rapidly they grew into two great and 
 luxurious capitals, with an Arab poi)ulationeach 
 of from 150,000 to 200,000 souls. On the litera- 
 ture, theology, luid polities of Islam, these cities 
 had a greater influence than the whole Moslem 
 world besides. . . . The people became petulant 
 and factious, and boih cities grew into hotbeds 
 of turbulence and sedition. The Bedouin ele- 
 ment, conscious of its strength, was jealous of 
 the Coreish, and impatient of whatever checked 
 its capricious humour. Thus factions sprang 
 up which, controlled by the strong and wise arm 
 of Omar, broke loose under the weaker Caliphs, 
 eventually rent the unity of Islam, and brought 
 on disastrous days." — Sir W. !Muir, Aiiiutls of 
 the Early CalipluOc, ch. 18. — See, also, Mahome- 
 tan Conquest: A. D. C33-051. 
 
 PUTADiE, The. See V\\y\.m. 
 
 BUTE'S ADMINISTRATION. See Eng- 
 land: A. I). 17(iO-17!)3. 
 
 BUTLE^t, General Benjamin F. — In com- 
 mand at Baltimore. See United States op 
 
 Am. : A. 1). 1801 (Ai'itiL— May: Mauyland) 
 
 In command at Fortress Monroe. See United 
 States ok Am: A. U. 1801 (JIay) The Hat- 
 
nUTLER. 
 
 BYZANTIKE EMPIRE, A. D. 717. 
 
 teras .Expedition. Sec United Statf.s of Am. ; 
 
 A. I). IHtU (Ai-(H'rt: Noiitii Caiiomn.v) 
 
 Command at New Orleans. ."•'I'l! U.nitkd 
 St.viics OK A.M. : A. 1). 1H0:J (M.vy— Dw'KMiiku: 
 
 LofiHt.\N.\) Command of the Army of the 
 
 James, t-iuc rMTKi) Htatks ov A.h. : A. I>. 
 1S(W(.Hay: Viii(ii.ni.\). 
 
 BUTLER, Walter, and the Tory and In- 
 dian partisans of the American Revolution. 
 Sec liNiTKi) Stati:s ok Am.: A. 1). 1778 (.Jink 
 
 NoVKMllKll), mill v.JlLY). 
 
 BUTTERNUTS. Sue Hoys in Di,Uf;; nl.so 
 Unitki) Siatkh ok Am. : A. I). 1H04 (OcTonru). 
 
 BUXAR, OR BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, Bat- 
 tle 01(1764). See India: A. I). 175,-1773. 
 
 BYRON, Lord, in Greece. Sec Okefxe: 
 A. 1). 1H21-182i». 
 
 BYRSA.— The citadel of Carthage. See 
 
 CAinilA<IK. TlIK DoMI.MON OK. 
 
 BYTOWN.— The original mime of Ottawa, 
 the capital of tlie Doiniiiiou of Canada. See 
 Ottawa. 
 
 BYZACIUM. See Cabthage, The Domin- 
 ion OK. 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. — The Eastern 
 Roman Empire, havinj; its capital at Uyzantiuni 
 (modern Con.stantinople), the earlier liistory of 
 which will be found sketched tinder the caption 
 Rome: A. I). 394-39,'5, to 717-800, has been 
 given, in its later years, the name of the Byzan- 
 tine Empire. The propriety of this designation 
 is questioned by some historians, and the time 
 when it begins to be appropriate is likewise a 
 subject of debate. For some discussion of these 
 questions, see Romh: A. D. 717-800. 
 
 Its part in history. — Its defence of Europe. 
 — Its civilizing influence. — ^"The later Hoinan 
 Empire was tlie l)nl\varlv of Europe against tlie 
 oriental danger; Maurice and lleraclius, C"on- 
 stantine IV. and Leo the Isaurian were the suc- 
 cessors of Tliemistocles and Africanus. . . . 
 Until the daj-s of tlie crusades, the German 
 nations did not combine \vith the Empire against 
 the common foe. Nor did the Teutons, by 
 tlicmselves, acliieve any succcssof ecumenical im- 
 jiortance against non-Aryan races. I may be 
 reminded tliat Charles the Great exterminated 
 the Avars; but that was after they had ceased to 
 be really dangerous. When there existed a 
 truly formidable Avar monarchy it was the 
 Roman Empire th;t imn- the brunt; and yet 
 while most people w mi 1 ■ mI history know of "the 
 Avar war of Charles, how few tlierc are who 
 have ever heard of Priscus, the general who so 
 '1)ravely warred against the Avars in the reign of 
 Maurice. I may l)e reminded that Charles Martel 
 won a great name by victories in southern Gaul 
 over the Saracens ; yet tho.se successes sink into 
 insignitieanee by the; side of the achievement of 
 his contemporary, the third Leo, who held the 
 gate of eastern Europe agai. t all the forces 
 which the Saracen power, thci at its height, 
 coidd muster. Every one knows about the ex- 
 ploits of the Frank; it is almost incredible how 
 litiie is known of the Roman Emperor's defence 
 of the greatest city of Christian Europe, in the 
 quarter where the real danger lay. . . . The Em- 
 pire was much more than the military guard of 
 the Asiatic frontier; it not only defended but 
 also kept alive the traditions of Greek and 
 Roman culture. We cannot over-estimate tlie 
 importance of the presence of a higlily civilised 
 state for a system of nations which were as yet 
 
 only beginning to he civilised. The constant 
 intercourse of the Kmpire with Italy, which 
 until the eleventh century was parllv imperial, 
 and with southern (iaiil and Spain, had an in- 
 calculable influence on the development of 
 the West. Venice, which contributed .so much 
 to the growth of western culture, was for n long 
 lime actually, and for a much hinger time nomi- 
 nally, a city of the Roman Empire, and learned 
 what it taught from Hy/.antiuni. The Ilyzan- 
 tine was the mother of the Italian school of 
 painting, as Greece in the old days had been the 
 mistress c Rome in the line arts ; and the Hyzan- 
 tiiK' styl ; of architecture has had perhaps n 
 wider irduence than any other. It was to New 
 Rome hat the Teutonic kings applied when 
 they n 'cded men of learning, and thither stu- 
 dents trom western countries, who desired a 
 university education, repaired. ... It was, 
 moreover, in the lands ruled by New Rome that 
 old Hellenic culture and tin! inonuments of Hel- 
 lenic literature were preserved, as in a secure 
 storehouse, to be given at length to the ' wilil 
 nations ' when they had been sulliciently tamed. 
 And in their taming Now Rome played an in- 
 dispensable part. The Justinian law, which 
 still interpenetrates European civilisation, was a 
 product of New Rome. In the third place the 
 Roman Empire for many centuries entirely 
 maintained European commerce. This was a 
 circumstance of the greatest importance; but 
 unfortunately it is one of those facts concerning 
 which contemporary historians did not tliink of 
 leaving records to jjosterity. The fact that the 
 coins of the Roman Emperors were u.sed through- 
 out Europe in tlu^ >Iiddle Ages speaks for itself. 
 ... In the fourth place, the Riyiuan Emiiiro 
 preserved a great idea wliicli iiilluenced tho 
 whole course of western European history down 
 to the present Jay — the idea of tlie Roman Em- 
 pire itself. If we look at the ecumenical event 
 of 800 A. I), from a wide point of view, it really 
 resolves itself into this: New Rome bestowed 
 upon the western nations a great idea, which 
 moulded and ordered their future history; she 
 gave back to Old Rome the idea which Old 
 Rome bestowed upon her five centuries before. 
 ... If Constantinople and the Empire had 
 fallen, the imperial idea would have been lost in 
 the whirl of the 'wild nations.' It is to New 
 liome that Europeans really owe thanks for tlio 
 cstablisliment of the principle and the sy.stein 
 whicli brought law iind order into the political 
 relations of the West."— .1. R. I?ur.\ , Jlintory of 
 the Lfitir Roiiutn Kinpiir, hk. (i, ch. 14 {i\ 2). 
 
 A. D. 717. — Its organization by Leo the 
 Isaurian. — " The accession of Leo the Lsaurian 
 to tne throne of Constantinople suddenly opened 
 a new era in tlie history of the Eastern Empire. 
 . . . When Leo .II. "was proclaimed emperor 
 [A. I). 717], it seemed as if no human power 
 could save Constantinople from falling as Komo 
 had fallen. The Saracens considered the sov- 
 ereignty of every land, in whicli any remains of 
 Roman civilizaticm survived, as within their 
 grasp. Leo, an Isaurian. and an Iconoclast, con- 
 sequently a foreigner and a heretic, ascended the 
 tlironeof (.'onstantine and arrested the victorious 
 career of the Mohammeilans. He then reorgan- 
 ized the whole administration so completely in 
 accordance witli the new exigencies of Eastern 
 society tliat the reformed empire outlived for 
 many centuries every government contemporary 
 
 337 
 
BYZANTINE EMPIUK, A. I). 717. 
 
 HYZANTINK EMPIUK, 10.17-1081. 
 
 Willi iu cKtAhliHhinont. The KiiHtcni Uiniiun 
 Empirr, llitix rcforincd, U Ciillrd liy miihIitii liis- 
 t(iriari4 th(! liy/itiititic Ein|)lri'; mid tlic trriii is 
 wi'll dcvixcd to murk tlu.' cIiiiiiki'h circitcd in the 
 govcriiiiu'iil, lifter tliu cxtiiK'tinii of tlic lust 
 trui'csof till' niililary niiiimrcliy of iinclciit Uoiiic. 
 . . . Tlir jirovimial divisiniH of tliu Itoiiiari 
 Einpiri' had fallen into ohlivion. A new 
 KCoKraphieal arrmiKenient into Tlieines appears 
 to liuvi.' been estalilislied by Ilenu^lids, when he 
 riK^ovoml tlie AHiatic provinces fri.iii the IVr- 
 sluns; it was reori?ani/.ed liy Leo, and endured 
 ns lonjf IIS tlu! Byzantine governiiient. The 
 DUinlHT of themes varied at dilTerent periods. 
 Tho Emperor C'onstiintini^ I'orpliyrotfenitus, 
 writin)^ aixiiit tho middle of the tenih century, 
 counts si.xteen in the Asiatic jiortion of the 
 Empire and twelve in the European. . . . The 
 European iirovinces were divideil into eight con- 
 tinental and live insular or transmarine themes, 
 until the loss of the exarcliato of Kavennii re- 
 duced the number to twelvi;. Venice and 
 Naples, thoui^h they ac'tiiowledged tlie suzer- 
 ninty r)f the Eastern Empire, acted jtcnerally as 
 Independent cities. . . . When J,eowiis raised to 
 the throne the Empire was threatened with im- 
 mediate ruin. . . . Every army n.ssembled tc 
 encounter tlio Saracens broke out into rebellion. 
 The Bulgarians and Sclavoniuns wasted Europe 
 up to the walls of Constantinople ; the Saracens 
 ravnced the whole of Asia Minor to the shores 
 of the Bosphorus." — G. Finlay, Hist, of the 
 Bjizdiitine Empire, bk. 1, ch. 1. 
 
 Also in: E. W. Brooks, The KmjKror Zenon 
 andtlw Isininiim(f!ii(iUiih IHhI, liei;., April, 1803). 
 
 A. D. 7i7-7g7.--TheIsaurian dynasty. — The 
 dynasty founded by Leo the Isaurian held the 
 throne until tlie dethronement of Constantine VL 
 by his mother, Irene, A. D. 797, and lier de- 
 thronement, in turn by Nicephorus L, A. 1). 802. 
 It embraced the following reigns: Constantine 
 v., called Copronymus, A. D. 741-775; Leo IV., 
 775-780; Constantine VL, 780-707; Irene, 707- 
 802. 
 
 A. D. 726-751. — The Iconoclastic Contro- 
 versy. — Rupture with the West. — Fall of the 
 Exarchate of Ravenna. — End of authority in 
 Italy. See Iconoclastic Contiioviousy, and 
 Pai'.\cy: a. I). 728-774. 
 
 A. D. 802-820. — Emperors : Nicephorus I., 
 A. D. 802-811; Stauracius, A. D. 811; Michael 
 I., A. D. 811-813; Leo V., A. I). 813-820. 
 
 A. D. 803. — Treaty with Charlemagne, fix- 
 ing boundaries. See Vemik: A. 1). (197-810. 
 
 A. D. 820-1057. — The Amorinn and Basilian 
 or Macedon:ian dynasties. — Michael, the 
 Amori'M (82(Mi29) .so named from liis birth-place, 
 Amorium, in Phrygia, was a soldier, raised to the 
 throne by a revolution which deposed and 
 assassinated his friend and patron, tlie Emperor 
 Leo V. Michael transmitted tlic crown to his 
 son (Tlieophiliis, 829-843) and grandson. The 
 latter, called Jlicliael the Drunkard, was con- 
 spired against and killed by one of the companions 
 of his drunken orgies (807)" Basil tlie ^laeedonian, 
 who had been in early life a groom. Basil 
 founded a dynasty which reigned, with several 
 interruptions, from A. I). 867 to 1057 — a period 
 covering the following reigns: Basil I., A. D. 
 867-880; Leo VI. , A. I). 886-911; Constantine 
 VII. (Porphyrogenitus), A. D. 911-9.10; Ucmianus 
 I. (Colleague), A. D. 919-944; Constantine VIll. 
 (Colleague). A. D. 944; Roimiaus II., A. D. 
 
 0.'5n-0«3; Nlceplioriis II., A. I). IKilt-IMlO; .lolm 
 ZimiseiH, A. 1). tMlil-970; Basil II., A. I). 0(13- 
 1025; Constantine I.\., A. I>. 903-102H; Komaniis 
 III., A. 1). 1028-1034; .Michael IV., A. I). 1034- 
 1041; Michiiel V., A. I). 1041-1042; Zoe and 
 Theodnra, A. D. 1042-1056; Constanliiie X., 
 A. 1). 1042-10.54; .Michael VI. , A. I). 10.50-I0,-.7. 
 
 A. D. 865-10^3.— Wars, commerce and 
 Church Connection with the Russians. Keo 
 ItiKsiA.Ns: \. I>. Htri-OOO; alsoCo.NsTANTiNofl.K: 
 V I). 805 and 907-1043. 
 
 A. D. 8^0-1016. — Fresh acquisitions in South* 
 ern Italy. See Italy (Soutiikkn): A. D. 800- 
 1016. 
 
 A. D. 963-103^.— Recovery of prestige and 
 territory. — " -Vinidsl all the crimes and revolu- 
 tions ol the Byzantine government — and its 
 history is but it series of crimes a'ld revolutions 
 — it was never dismembered by intestine war. 
 A sedition in the army, u tumult in the theatre, 
 a conspiracy in the iialace, precipitated a mon- 
 arch from till' lliromt; but tho allegiance of Con- 
 stantinople was instantly transferred to his suc- 
 cessor, and tho provinces Implicitly obeyed the 
 voice of tlie capital. The custom, too, of parti- 
 tion, so baneful to the Latin kingdoms, and 
 which was not altogether unknown to the Sara- 
 cens, never prevailed in tlie Greek Empire. It 
 stood in the middle of the tenth century, us 
 vicious indeed and cowardly, but more wealthy, 
 more enlightened, and far more secure from its 
 enemies than under the first successors of Ilerac- 
 lius. For about one hundred years preceding 
 there had been only partial wars with the Mo- 
 hammedan potentates; and in these the emperors 
 seem gradually to have gained the advantage, 
 and to liave become more freciueiitly the aggres- 
 sors. But the increasing distractions of the East 
 encouraged two brave usurpers, Nicephorus 
 Phocas and John Zimisces, to attempt tho 
 actual recovery of the lost provinces. They 
 carried the Uoman arms (one may use the term 
 with less relih tance tlian usual) over Syria; 
 Antioch and Aleppo were taken by storm; 
 Damascus submitted ; even the cities of Mesopo- 
 tamia, beyond the ancient boundary of the 
 Euphrates, were added to the trophies of Zim- 
 isces, who unwillii'.gly spared the capital of tho 
 Khalifate. i'roin sueli distant conquests it was 
 expedient, and indeed necessary to withdraw; 
 l)ut Cilicia and Antioch were permanently re- 
 stored to the Kiniiire. At tlie close of the tenth 
 century the emperors of Constantinople pos- 
 sessed the best and greatest portion of the 
 modern kingdom of Naples, a part of Sicily, the 
 whole [present] European dominions of the 
 Ottomans, the province of Anatolia or Asia 
 Jlinor, with some part of Syria and Armenia." — 
 II. Ilallam, The Middle Agat, ch. 6. 
 
 A, D. 970-1014. — Recovery of Bulgaria. See 
 CoNSTANTiNol'i.i-: A. 1). 907-1043; also BuL- 
 OAUiA. and AfiiuiDA. 
 
 A. D. 1054. — Ecclesiastical division of the 
 Eastern from the Roman Church. See Fii.i- 
 
 OCJUE CoNTUOVKItSY, Ulld OUTHOUOX ClILKCII. 
 
 A. D. 1057-1081.— becween the Basilian and 
 the Comnenian dynasties. — A dark period. — 
 
 "The moment that the last of the ^lacedonian 
 dytiiisty was g".;o, the elements of discord 
 seemed unchained, and the double scourge of 
 civil war and foreign invasion began to atllict 
 the empire. In the twenty-four years between 
 1057 and 1081 wei:e pressed more disasters than 
 
 338 
 
BYZANTINE P:MPIUE, 1057-1081. 
 
 HYZANTINE EMPinE. 1146. 
 
 hiul bopii fU'cn in niiy other pcrindnf EiihI Uoiimn 
 hlHtnrv. Hiivi' iicrliiips tlic rclRii of Hcriicliun. 
 . I'lic »iivi\ 'rii((Mloni liiiil imincti iih Iut kuc- 
 Cfiiwor on tin; tlironi- Miclmcl St nil locus, li cori- 
 temporiiry of her own wlio had liccii iiii nh\v 
 soldier 'ih yeiirx buck. Mill iMichiu'l VI. wax 
 );ro\vii a^'i'd and in<'<iin|)etent, and the empire 
 wiiM full of andiitloiis ftrnerals, who would not 
 tolerati^ a dotard on tlii' throne, liefore a year 
 had passed a liiind of j;ri'at Asiatic noliles en- 
 tered into a conspiracy lo overturn .Mi<hael. and 
 replace him hy Isaac Comnenus, the chief of one 
 of the ancient Cappiidocian houses, and the most 
 popular >;i'neral of the East. Isaiu^ Conineniis 
 and his friends took arms, and dispossessed the 
 n^ed .Michael of his throne with little dilllciilty. 
 lint a curse seemed to rest upon the usurpation; 
 Isaac was slrieken down liy disease when he had 
 been little more than a year on the throne, and 
 retireii to a monastery "to dii'. Ills crown was 
 transferred to Conslantine Ducas, another Cap- 
 pa(h)ciau nol)le," who reiKne<l for seven troubled 
 
 J ears. His three immediate successors were 
 {omaniiH IV., A. 1). 1(M)7-1071: Michael VII., 
 A. n. 1071-1078; Nieephonis III., A. D. 107»- 
 1081.— C. W. C. Oman, 7'/(c Story of the Hymn- 
 tine Emjtirc, eh. 20. 
 
 A. D. 1063-1092.— Disasters in Asia Minor. 
 Bee Ti'iiKs (Hkljl'ks): A. I). l(m;t-107;t; and 
 A. D. 107!J-10«a. 
 
 A. D. 1064. — Great revival of pilgrimages 
 from Western Europe to the Holy Land. Hue 
 Ckl'sades: C.miskh, ktc. 
 
 A. D. 1081. — The enthronement of the 
 Comnentan Dynasty, See C'o.NsTAN'riNoi'i.i;: 
 A. 1). lOHl. 
 
 A. D. 1081-1085.— Attempted Norman con- 
 quest from Southern Italy. — Itobert (iuiseard, 
 Uie Norman adventurer who had carved forhim- 
 gelf u ])rinelpality in Southern Italy and ac(,uireil 
 the title of Duke of Apidia, — his duchy coincid- 
 ing with the subsequent Norman kingdom of 
 Naples — conceived the ambitious design of add- 
 ing the Uy/.antine Empire to his estate. His 
 coiKiuests in Italy had been mostly at the ex- 
 pense of the Uy/.antine dominions, and he be- 
 lieved that he had mea.sured the strength of the 
 degenerate Ilonum-Greeks. He was encouraged, 
 tuoreover, by the successive revolutions which 
 tossed the imperial crown from hand to hand, 
 and which hud just given it to the ('omnenian, 
 Alexius I. Ueyond all, he had a claim of right 
 to interfere in the affairs of the Empire; for his 
 young daughter was betrothed to the heir-ex- 
 pectant ^l■hose expectations were now vanishing, 
 nnd had actually been sent to Constantinople to 
 receive her education for the throne. To pro- 
 mote his bold undertaking, Uobert obtained the 
 approval of the pope, and an absolution for all 
 who would join his ranks. Thus spiritually 
 equipped, the Norman duke invadeil Greece, in 
 the summer of 1081, with l.")0 ships and ;!0,000 
 men. Making himself master, on the way, of 
 the island of Corcyra (Corfu), and taking .several 
 ports on the mainland, he laid siege to Dyrra- 
 chium, and found it a most obstinate fortification 
 to reduce. Its massive ancient walls defied the 
 Norman enginery, and it was not until February, 
 1083, that Robert Qinscard gained pcsscssion of 
 the town, by the treachery of one of its defend- 
 ers. Meantime the Normans had routed and scat- 
 tered one large army, which the Emperor Alexius 
 led in person to the relief of Dyrracliium ■ but 
 
 Ued towii.i In Illyrirt nnd Eplrus deiityod 
 nince toward ( Onstantlnople. HolMTt 
 
 the fortille 
 
 their advance toward Constantlnopi 
 was called home lo Italy by important alTidrsaml 
 left his sun lloheiniind (Ihe subse<|Uent CrUHiider 
 and I'riiKM'of Aniioch), In command. Holiemiiml 
 defcaled .Vlexliis again In Hie spring of 1 1 (Mil, and 
 slill a third time the following auliimn. All 
 Epiriis was overrun and Macedonia and Thesmdy 
 invaded; but Ihe Normans, while iM'sieging 
 I.arissa, were undone by a stratagem, lost tlieir 
 camp and found it necessary to rclreal. Itobert 
 was then just reentering tin" Held, in persiin, and 
 had w.iii an imporlant naval lialtle at Corfu, 
 over till' combined Oreeks and Venelians, wlien 
 he died (July, lOH,")), anil his project of ccmiiueHt 
 in Oreece ended with him. Twenty years after- 
 wards, his son lloheniunil, when rrince of An- 
 tioch, and i|iiarreling wllli the ity/.anline8, 
 gathered a crusading army in France and Italy 
 to lead it against Constanlinople ; but it wag 
 stopped bysluliliorn Dyfrachium, am' iiev<r got 
 beyond. Alexius hinl recovered that strong 
 coast defence shortly after Uobert Uuiscard's 
 death, with the help of the Venetians and Amal- 
 llans. Hy way of reward, those merchant allies 
 received import'int commercial privileges, and 
 the title of Venice to llu^ sovereignty of Dalmu- 
 tia nml Croatia was recognized. " From this lime 
 th(^ dog(! appears to have styled himself lord of 
 the kingdoms of Dalmalia and Croatia." — O. 
 Fiiilay, I/int. of the liyzantineand ilreek ICiniiiret, 
 bk. 3, eh. H.Kirl. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1081-1 185. — The Comnenian emperors. 
 — Alexius I., A. I). 1081-1118; .John II., A. U. 
 1118-1143; Manuel I., A. I). 1113-1181; Alexius 
 II., A. U. 1181-1183; Andronicus I., A. I). 118M- 
 1185. 
 
 A. D. 1096-1097. — The passage of the first 
 Crusaders. .See Curs.\i)i;s; A. I). lOiMl-lOllO. 
 
 A. D. 1 146.— Destructive invasion of Roger, 
 Icing of Sicily. — Sack of Thebes and Corinth. 
 — When Uoger, king of Sicilv, united Ihe Nor- 
 man possessions in Southern Italy to his Sicilian 
 realm he became ambitious, iii his turn, to 
 aciiuiro some part of the Uyzantino |)ossessions. 
 His single attack, however, made simultaneously 
 with tiie second cru.sading movement (A. U. 
 1140), amounted to no more than a g'eat and 
 destructive ])lundering raid in Greece. An 
 insurrection in Corfu gave that island to him, 
 after which his tieet ravaged the coastsof Eubueu 
 an(l Attica, Acarnania and ..'Etolia. "It then 
 entered the gulf of Corinth, and debarked a body 
 of troops at Cris.sa. This force marched Ihnmgh 
 the country to Thebes, plundering every town 
 and village on the way. Thebes olTered no 
 resistance, and was plundered in the most deliber- 
 ate and barbarous manner. The inhabitiints 
 were numerous and wealthy. The soil of 
 IJieotia is extremely productive, and numennis 
 manufactures established in the city of Thebes 
 gave additional value to the abundant pnxluce 
 of agricultural industry. . . . All military s))irit 
 was now dead, and hw Thebans had so long 
 lived without any fear of invasion that they hud 
 not even adopted any effectual measures to 
 secure or conceal their movable iiroiierty. _ The 
 conquerors, secure against all (finger of inter- 
 ruption, i)lundered Tllebes at their leisure. . . . 
 When all ordinary means of colUcting booty 
 were exhausted, the citizens were compelled to 
 take an oath on the Holy Scriptures that they 
 had uot concealed uuy portion of their property 
 
 339 
 
BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 1140. 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 1203-1304 
 
 yet many of the wealthiest were dragged away 
 ciiptivf. ill order to jiroflt by tlieir ratisom; and 
 iiKiiiyof tlie most skiltul worliinen in tlic silk- 
 nianufac loriL'S, for wliicli Tliebes had long been 
 famous, were pressed on boanl tlie fleet to labour 
 at the our. . . . IJenjaniinofTudela, who visited 
 Thebes about to'enty yeare later, or perhaps in 
 1161, speaks of it as then a large eity, with two 
 lliousaiid .Jewish inliabitants, wlio were the most 
 eminent manufaiturers of silk and purple cloth 
 in all Ureeee. The silks of Thebes continued to 
 be eelehruled as of superior ([Uality after this 
 invasion. . . . From Bieotia the army passed to 
 <'orintli. . . . Corinth was sacked as cruelly as 
 Thelirs; men of rank, beautiful women, and 
 skilful artisans, witli tlicir wives and families, 
 were eari'ied awcy into captivity. . . . This 
 invasion of Greece was conducted entirely as a 
 plundering expedition. . . . Corfu was the only 
 cou(jue.<t of which Roger retained po.ssession; 
 yet this jMissing invasion istho period from which 
 the decline of Byzantine Greece is to be dated. 
 The cent\iry-and-a-lialf which preceded this dis- 
 aster had pas.sed in uninterrupted tranquillity, 
 and the Greek peoi>le had increased rapidly in 
 numbers and wealtlL. The power of the Sela- 
 vonian pojiulation $ank with the ruin of the 
 kingdom of Aeln-idii ; and the Sclavonians who 
 now dwelt in Greece were peaceable cultivators 
 of the soil, or graziers. T!ie Greek population, 
 on tlie other hand, was in possession of an 
 extensive coiniaerco and many flourishing manu- 
 factures. The ruin of this commerce and of 
 these manufactures lias been ascribed to the 
 transference of tlie silk trade from Thebes and 
 Corinth to Palermo, under the judicious pro- 
 tection it received fron.\ Roger; but it would be 
 more correct to .say that the injudicious and 
 oppressive Jin.aneial administration of the Byzan- 
 tine Emperors destroyed the commercial pros- 
 perity and manufaeturmg industry of the Greeks ; 
 while the wise liberality and intelligent pro- 
 tection of the Norman kings extended the com- 
 merce and increased the indutry of the Sicilians. 
 When the Sicilian fleet returned to Palermo, 
 Roger determined to employ all the silk-manu- 
 facturers in their original occupations. lie eon- 
 seiiuently collected all their families together, 
 and settled them at Palermo, supplying tliem 
 with the means of exercising their industry witli 
 profit to themselves, and inducing them to teach 
 his own subjects to manufacture the richest 
 brocades, and to rival the rarest productions of 
 the East. ... It is not remarkable that the 
 commerce and manufactures of Greece were 
 transferred in the course of another century to 
 Sicily and Italy." — G. Finlay, Hist, of Bi/iniitine 
 itml Greek Empires, from 710 to 1453, bk. 3, ch. 3, 
 sect. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1 147-1 148.— Trouble with the German 
 and French Crusaders. SeeCucsADEs: A. D. 
 1147-1140. 
 
 A. D. 1185-1204.— The Angeli.— Isaac II., 
 A. D. 11H,V11«.5; Alexius III., A. I). 1195- 
 1203; Alexius IV., A. 1). 120:i-l20t. 
 
 A. D. 1203-1204.-113 overthrow by the 
 Venetians and Crusaders. — Sack of Constan- 
 tinople. — The last of the Comnenian Emperors 
 in the male line — the brutal Audronicus I. — 
 jierished horribly in a wild insurrection at Con- 
 stantinople which his tyranny provoked, A. D. 
 1185. His successor, Isaac Augelus, collater- 
 ally related to the imperial house, had been a 
 
 contemptible creature licforc his coronation, and 
 received no tincture of manliness or virtue from 
 that ceremony. In the second year of his reign, 
 the Empire was shorn of its Bulgarian and 
 Wallaehian provinces by a successful revolt. 
 In the tenth year (A. D. 1105), Isaac was pushed 
 from his throne, deprived of sight and sliut up 
 in a dungeon, by a brother of equal worthless- 
 ness, who styled himself Alexius III. The 
 latter neglected, however, to secure the person 
 of Isaac's son, Alexius, who es<;aped from Con- 
 stantinople and niade Lis way to his sister, wife 
 of Philip, tlie German King and claimant of 
 the western imperial crown. Philip thereujion 
 plotted with the Venetians to divert tlie great 
 crusading expedition, then assembling to take 
 ship at Venice, and to employ it for the restora- 
 tion of young Alexius and his father Isaac to 
 the Byzantine throne. The cunning and per- 
 fidious means by which that diversion was 
 brought about are related in another place (see 
 CuusADES : A. D. 1301-1303), The great fleet 
 of the crusading filibusters arrived in the Bos- 
 phorus near the end of June, 1203. The army 
 which it bore was landed first on the Asiatic 
 side of the strait, opposite the imperial city. 
 After ten days of parley and preparation it was 
 conveyed across the water and began its attack. 
 The towers guarding the entrance to the Golden 
 Horn — the harbor of Constantinople — were 
 captured, the chain removed, the harlior occu- 
 pied, and the imperial fleet seized or destroyed. 
 On the 17th of July a combined assault by limd 
 and water was made on the walls of the city, at 
 theii northwest corner, near the Blachern palace, 
 where they presented one face to the Horn anil 
 another to the land. The laLdattack failed. 
 The Venetians, from their ships, stormed twenty- 
 five towers, gained possession of a long stretch 
 of the wall, and pushed into the city far enough 
 to start a conflagration which spread ruin over 
 an extensive district. They could not hold their 
 ground, and witlidrew ; but the result was a 
 victory. The cowardly Emperor, Alexius III., 
 fled from the city that night, and blind old Isaac 
 Angelus was restored to the throne. He was 
 reaiiy to associate his son in the sovereignty, and 
 to fulfill, if he could, the contracts which the 
 latter had made with Venetians and Crusiiders. 
 These invadcra had now no present excuse for 
 making war on Constantinople any further. But 
 the excuse was soon found. Jloney to pay their 
 heavy claims could not be raised, and their hato- 
 fulness to the Greeks was increased by the in- 
 solence of their demeanor. A serious collision 
 occurred at length, jirovoked by the ])lunderiiig 
 of a Jlahonietan mosque wliieli the Byzantines 
 had tolerated in their capital. Once more, on 
 this occasion, the splendid city was fired by the 
 ruthless invaders, and an immense district in tlie 
 richest and most pojiulous jiart was destroyed, 
 while many of the inhabitants perished. The 
 Are lasted two days and nights, sweeping a 
 wide belt from the harbor to the Marmora. The 
 suburbs of Constantinople were ])ilhiged and 
 ruined by the Latin soldiery, and more and 
 more it became impossible for the two restored 
 emperoi-s to raise money for iiaying tlie claims of 
 the Crusaders who had ehampioned them. Their 
 subjects hated tliem and were desperate. At 
 last, in January, 1204, the public feeling of 
 Constantinople flamed out in a revolution which 
 crowned a new emperor, — one Alexis Duciis, 
 
 840 
 
BVZAIsTINE EMPIRE, 1203-1204. 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 1204-1205. 
 
 nicknaiufd Mmirtzophlos, on account of liis eye- 
 brows, wliicli met. A few days aftcrwanis, with 
 Buppicious opiortiineness, I .lac and Alexius 
 died. Then botli sides entered upon active pre- 
 parations for serious war; but it was not until 
 April Oth tliat tlie Crusaders and Venetians were 
 ready to assail the walls once more. The tirst 
 assault was repelled, with heavy loss to tnc be- 
 siegers. Tliey rested two <lays and repeated the 
 attack on the 12tli witli irresistible resolution 
 and fury. Tlie towers were taken, llie gates 
 were broken down, knights and soldiers poured 
 into the fated city, killing without mercy, burning 
 without scruple — starting a third appalling contla- 
 gration which laid another wide district in ruins. 
 The new emperor lied, the tnxiiis laid down 
 their arms, — (Jonstantinople was eon(piere<l and 
 prostrate. "Then began the plunder of the city. 
 The imperial treasun and the arsenal were 
 placed under guard ; but with these e.vceptions 
 the right to plunder was given indiserimiuately 
 to the troops and sailore. Never in Europe was 
 a work of pillage more systematically and 
 shamelessly carried out. Never by the army of 
 a Christian state was acre a more barbarous 
 sack of a city than that perpetrated by these 
 soldici's of Christ, sworn to chastity, pledged be- 
 fore God not to shed Christian blood, and bearing 
 upon them the emblem of the Prince of Peace. 
 . . . 'Never since the world was created,' says 
 the Marshal [Villehardouin] ' was there so much 
 booty gained in one city. Each man took the 
 house which pleased him, and there were enough 
 for all. Those who were poor found themselves 
 suddenly rich. There was captured an immense 
 supply of gold and silver, of plate and of jjrecious 
 stones, of satins and of silk, of furs and of every 
 kind of wealth ever found upon the earth.' . . . 
 The Greek eye-witness [Nicetas] gives the com- 
 
 fde;nent of the picture of Villeliardouiu. The 
 ust of the army spared neitlier maiden nor tlie 
 virgin dedicated to God. Violence and debauch- 
 ery were everywhere present ; cries and lamen- 
 tations and the groans of the victims were heard 
 throughout the city ; for (.'verywhere pillage 
 was unrestrained and lust unbridled. ... A 
 large part of the booty had been collected in the 
 three churclies designated for tliat iHU'pose. . . . 
 The disti'ibutiou was made during tlie latter cud 
 of April. Many works of art in bronze were 
 sent to the melting-pot to be coined. JIany 
 statues were broken up in order to obtain the 
 metals with wln"ch they were adoi-ned. The 
 conijuerors knew nothing and cared nothing for 
 the ai't which had added value to the metal. " — 
 E. Pears, TIte Full of Constantinople, ch. 1 4-15. 
 
 Also in: G. Fiulay, llist. of the Bjizaniine and 
 Orcek Empires, from 716 to 1453, bk. 3, ch. 3, 
 teet. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1204.— Reig^n of Alexius V. 
 
 A. D. 1204-1205. — The partitioning of the 
 Empire by the Crusaders and the Venetians. — 
 •' Before the crusaders made their last successful 
 attack on Constantinople, they concluded a treaty 
 jiartitioning the Byzantine empire and dividing 
 the plunder of the capital. . . . Tliis treaty was 
 entered into by the Frank crusaders on the one 
 part, and the citizens of the Venetian republic 
 on the otlier, for the purpose of ijreventing dis- 
 putes and jireserving unity in the e.xpeilition." 
 The treaty further i)rovided for the creation of 
 an Empire of Romania, to take the place of the 
 Byzautiuu Empire, and for the election of au 
 
 Emperor to reign over it. The arrangements of 
 the treaty in this hitter respect were carried out, 
 not long after the taking of the city by the elec- 
 tion of Baldwin, count of Flanders, the most 
 esteemed and tlie most popular among tlio 
 ))rinces of the crusade, and he received the 
 imperial crown of the new Empire of Romania 
 at the hands of the legate of the pope. " Meas- 
 ures were immediately taken after the coronatioi, 
 of Baldwin to carry into execution the act of 
 partition as arranged by the joint consent of the 
 Frank and Venetian commissioners. But their 
 ignorance of geograpliy, and the resistance 
 olfered by the Greeks in Asia Minor, and by the 
 Vallachians and Albanians in Europe, threw 
 innumerable dilllculties in the way of the pro- 
 posed distribution of tiefs. The quartir of the 
 Empire that formed the portion of BiiMw") con- 
 sisted of the city of Con.stantinopl.-, with tho 
 country in its immediate vicinity, as far as Ki/.ja 
 and Tzouroulos in Europe and Nicomedia in 
 Asia. Beyond the tiTritory around Constanti- 
 nople, Baldwin po.s.sessed districts extending as 
 far as the Strymon in Europe and the Sangarius 
 in Asia; but his possess ans w lto intermingled 
 with those of the Vcnetiacs and the vassa'.s of 
 the Empire. Prokonneso'3, Lesbos, Chios, Lem- 
 iios, Skyros, and several smaller islands, also fell 
 to his share." — G. Finlay, Jlint. of Greece from 
 its Conquest by the Crusaders, ch. 4, sect. 1-2. — "In 
 the division jf the Gr'"'k provinces the share of 
 the Veneti;.!.s was r ire ample than that of tho 
 Latin emperor. No more than one fourth was 
 api)ropriated to his domain ; a clear moiety of the 
 remainder was reserved for Venice and tlie other 
 moiety was distributed among the adventurers 
 of France and Lombardy. Tlio venerable Daii- 
 ilolo was proclaimed Despot of Romania, and 
 was invested, after the Greek fashion, witli the 
 ])urple buskins. He ended at Constantinople his 
 long and glorious life; and if the prerogative 
 was personal, the title was used by his successors 
 till the middle of the fourteenth century, with 
 the singular, though true, addition of ' Lords of 
 one fourth and a half of the Roman Empire.' 
 . . . Tliey possessed three of the eight (piarters 
 of the city. . . . Tliey had rashly accepted tho 
 dominion and defence of Adrianople ; but it was 
 the more reasonable aim of their jiolicy to form 
 a chain of factories and cities aiul islands along 
 the maritime coast, from the neighbourhood of 
 Ragusa to the Hellespont and the Bosphorus. 
 . . . For the price of 10,000 marks the republic 
 l>ur<liase(l of tlie marquis of Slontferrat the 
 fiu'lile island of Crete or Caudia with the ruins 
 of a hundred cities. ... In the moiety of tho 
 ad venturers the Marquis Boniface [of Moiitferrat] 
 might claim the most liberal reward; and, 
 besides tlie isle of Crete, his exclusion from the, 
 throne [for which he had been a candidate 
 against Baldwin of Flanders] was compensated 
 by the royal title and the provinces beyond tho 
 itellespont. But he prudently exchanged that 
 distant and ditlicult coiuiuest for the kingdom 
 of Tliessalonica or Macedonia, twelve days' 
 journey from the capital, where he might be 
 supported by the neighbouring powers of his 
 brother-in-law, the king of Ilimgarj'. . . The 
 lots of the Latin pilgrims were rcgulated by 
 chance or choice or subsequent exchange. . . . 
 At tlie head of his knights and archers each 
 baron mounted on horseback to secure the jios- 
 session of his share, and their lirst efforts were 
 
 341 
 
BYZANTINE EMPIPF 1204-1305. 
 
 BYZANTIUM. 
 
 gcncmlly successful. But the public force was 
 \v('iikene<l by their (tispcrsion ; iiml a thousiiiul 
 (piiirrels must <.: ise under n law niul among men 
 whose sole umpire was the sword." — E. Gii)bon, 
 Dirline (iiitl Full of the lioni'tii Empire, c/i. 61. 
 
 A. D. 1204-1205. — The political shaping of 
 the fraerments. Bee Ko.mania. Thk Emimuk; 
 OiiKHK E.Mi'inKoF Nic/Ea; Tkkiiizoni); Eimhus; 
 Na.xos, Tub Mkdi/KVAI. Dukedom: Aciiaia: 
 A. I). 1205-1387; Athens: A. D. 120r>-14.")0; 
 Sai.oniki. 
 
 A. D. 1261-1453. — The Greek restoration. — 
 Last struggle with the Turks and final over- 
 throw. — '1 he story of the shadowy restoration 
 of u Oreek Empii'c at Constantinople, its last 
 struggle with the Turks, and its fall is told else- 
 where. — See CoNSTANTtNOPi.E; A. I). 1201-14.')iJ, 
 to Hr>3. — "Frcmi the hour of her foundation t.. 
 that in which her sun Anally sank in bk.id. 
 Christian Con^tjintinople was engaged in con- 
 stant struggles against (.uccessive hordes of bar- 
 barians. Hlie did not always triumph in the 
 strife, but, even when she was beaten she did 
 not succumb, but carried on the contest still; 
 and tlie fact that she was able to do so is alone a 
 sutlicing ])roof of the strengtli and vitality of 
 her organization. ... Of the seventy-si.K em- 
 perors and five empresses who occupied the 
 Byzantine throne, 15 were put to death, 7 were 
 blinded or otherwise mutilated, 4 were deposed 
 and Imprisoned in monasteries, and 10 were 
 compelled to abdicate. This list, comprising 
 nearly half of the whole number, is sufficient indi- 
 cation of the horrore by which the history of the 
 empire is only too often marked, and it ma; be 
 frankly admitted that these dark stains, 'dis- 
 figuring pages which but for them would be 
 bright witli the things which were beautiful and 
 glorious, go some way to excuse, if not to jus- 
 tify, tlie obloijuy which Western writers have 
 been so prone to cast upon the East. But it is 
 not by considering the evil only, any more than 
 the good only, that it is possible to form a just 
 judgment upon an historic epoch. To judge 
 the Byzantine Empire only by the crimes which 
 defiled the palace would be as unjust as if the 
 French people were to be estimate('. by nothing 
 but the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Reign 
 of Terror, and the Commune of 1871. The 
 dynastic crimes and revolutions of New Rome 
 were not a constant feature in her history. On 
 the contniry, the times of trouble and aui',chy 
 were episodes between long periods of peace. 
 They arose either from quarrels in the imperial 
 family itself, which degraded the dignity of the 
 crown, or from the contentions of pretenders 
 struggling among themselves till one or other 
 had woreted his rivals and was able to become 
 the founder of a long dynasty. . . . The most 
 deplorable epoch in the history of the Byzantine 
 Emi)ire, the period in which assassination and 
 mutilation most I'lwunded, was that in which it 
 was exposed to the intluenee of the Crusaders, 
 and thus brought into contact with Western 
 Europe. . . . The Byzantine peoi)Ic, although 
 in every respect the superiors of their contem- 
 poraries, were unable entirely to escape the in- 
 lluence of their ncighborhcHKl. As the guardians 
 of class'.cal civilization, they strove to keep almve 
 the deluge of barbarism by which the rest of the 
 world was then inundatecl. But it was a Hood 
 whose watere prevailed exceedingly vipon the 
 earth, uud sometimes all the high hills were 
 
 covered, even where might have « rested tho 
 ark in which the traditions of ancient culture 
 were iK-ing preserved. . . . The Byzantine Em- 
 pire was predestinated to perform in esi)ecial one 
 great work in humim history. That work was 
 to preserve civilization during the perio<l of 
 barbarism which we call the Jliddle Ages. . . . 
 Constantinople fell, and the whole Hellenic world 
 passed into Turkish slavery. Western Europe 
 looked on with uneonix'rn at the appalling catas- 
 troi)he. It was in vain tliat the last of the 
 I'alaiologoi cried to them for lielp. ' Christen- 
 dom,' says Gibb<m, 'beheld with indiflerence 
 the fall of Ccmstantinople.' . . . Up to her last 
 hour she had never ceased, for more than a 
 thousand years, to fight. In the fourth century 
 she fought the Goths; in the fifth, the Iluns and 
 Vandals; in the sixt!;, the Slavs; in the seventh, 
 the Persians, the Av.a's, and the Arabs; in the 
 eighth, ninth, and tenth, the Bulgars, the Mag- 
 yars, and the Russians; in the eleventh, tho 
 Ivoumanoi, the Petzenegoi, and the Seljoukian 
 Turks; in the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, 
 and fifteenth, the Ottomans, the Normans, the 
 Crusiiders, the Venetians, and the Genoese. No 
 wonder tluit at last she fell exhausted. The 
 wonder is, how she could keep herself alive so 
 long. But it was by this long battle that she 
 succeeded in saving from destruction, amid the 
 universjil cataclysm which overwhelmed the 
 classical world, the civilization of the ancients, 
 modified by the Christian religion. The moral 
 and intellectual development of modern Europe 
 are owing to the Byzantine Empire, if it be true 
 that this development is the common offspring 
 of antiquity upon the one hand and of Chris- 
 tianity upon the othei-. " — Demetrios Bikehis, 
 The Byzantine Empire {Scottish liev.. v. 8, 1880). 
 
 BYZANTIUM, Beginnings of.— The ancient 
 Greek city of Byzantium, which occupied part 
 of the site of the motlern city of Constantinople, 
 was fovmded, accortling to tradition, by Mcga- 
 rians, in tlie seventh century B. C. Its situation 
 on the Bosphorus enabled the possessors of the 
 city to control the important corn supply which 
 came from the Euxiiie, while its tunny fish- 
 eries were renowned sources of wealth. It was 
 to the latter that the bay called the Golden 
 Ilorn was said to owe its name. The Persians, 
 the Laceducmonians, the Athenians and the 
 Macedonians were successive masters of Byzan- 
 tium, before the Roman day, Athens and Spaita 
 having taken and retaken the city from one 
 another many times during their wars. 
 
 B. C. 478.— Taken by the Greeks from the 
 Persians. See Gheece: B. C. 478-477. 
 
 B. C. 440. — Unsuccessful revolt against 
 Athens. See Athens: B. C. 440-437. 
 
 B. C. 408. — Revolt and reduction by the 
 Athenians. See Gkeece: B. C. 411-407. 
 
 B. C. 340. — Unsuccessful siege by Philip of 
 Macedon. See Giieece: B. C. 340. 
 
 B. C. 336. — Alliance with Alexander the 
 Great. See Queece: B. C. 330-33.5. 
 
 A. D. 194.— Siege by Severus. See Ro.me: 
 A. 1). 192-284. 
 
 A. D. 267. — Capture by the Goths. See 
 Goi'iis: A. D. 258-207. 
 
 A. P. 323. — Siege by Constantine. See 
 Rome: A. D. SO.VSia. 
 
 A. D. 330. — Transformed into Constanti- 
 nople. See CONblANTLNOl'iai. 
 
 342 
 
(,'A IIIA. 
 
 CABIXKT. 
 
 c. 
 
 PA IRA: Theoriginofthecry and the song. 
 
 — " When the news of the (lisasliDiis ivlreiit [of 
 Wiishiiijrioii, in ITTO] throni^h the Jciseys and 
 the miseries of Valley Forjic reiielieil France, 
 many j^ood friends to Anuiica t)e!;an to tldnk 
 that now indeed all was lost. 15ut the stout 
 heart of Franlclin never llinelied. ' This is in- 
 <leed bad news,' said lie, 'hut <;a ira, t/a ira 
 [literally, 'this will ,u;o, this will ;;o'], it will all 
 come ri.^ht in the end.' Old diplomats and 
 courtiers, amazed at his conlidenee, i>assed ahout 
 his elieerinji; words. They were taken up by 
 the newspapers; they were remembered by the 
 l)e()ple, anil, in the dark days of the French 
 Hevolution, were reiieated over and over ajrain 
 (m every side, and made the subject of a slirrin:^ 
 scmij which, till thcMarseillaiie Hymn appeared, 
 had no e(iual in France." — J. ii. !>t(Master. llixt. 
 of the People of the U. S.. v. 2, p. 8'J.— L. Itoscn- 
 thai, Americd and Fmiicc, p. 20!!. — "The 
 original wcu'ds (afterward inucli changed) were 
 by Lad re, a street singer ; and the nuisic was a 
 popu' ir dance tune of the time comjiused by 
 Becourt, a drummer of the Grand Opera." — 
 Centuri/ DiclioiKin/. — "The original name of the 
 tune to which the words wcmc written is 
 'Le Carillon J'^ational,' and it is a remarkable 
 circumstance that it was a great favourite with 
 the uufortiunite Marie Antoinette, who u.sed to 
 play it on the liarpsiehord. " — J. O.xcuford, Jjuok 
 of hVcnch iSon'/K {notr to " Va irn"). 
 
 CAABA AT MECCA, The.— "An Arab 
 legend asserts that this famous temple was erected 
 by Abraham and his .son Ishmael with the aid of 
 the angel Gabriel. Mahomet lent his authority 
 to the legend and devoted to it fevoral chapters 
 in the Koran, and thus it became one of the JIus- 
 sulman articles of faith. Even before the intro- 
 duction of Ishinusm this story was current 
 through a great part of Arabia and spread abroad 
 in i)roportiou as tlie Ishmaelitish tribes gained 
 ground. . . . This temple, whose name 'siiuare 
 house ' indicates its form, is still ])rcserved. It 
 was very small and of very rude construction. 
 It was not till com])aratively recent times that 
 it had a door with a lock. . . . For a long time 
 the sole .sacred object it contained was the cele- 
 brated black stone hadjarel-aswa'i, an aerolite, 
 which is still the object of Mussubnan venera- 
 tion. . . . We have already mentioned llobal, 
 the first anthropomorphic idol, placed in the 
 Caaba. This example was soon copied. . . . 
 The Caaba thus became a sort of Arabian Pan- 
 theon, and even the Virgbi JIary, with her child 
 on her knees, eventually tound a place there." — 
 F. Lenormant, Maiiiidl of Ancient Hint, of the 
 MiKt, hk. 7, ch. 3. 
 
 Ai-boin: Sir W. !Muir, IJfc of Muhomet, ch. 2. 
 
 CABAL, The. (See C.miinet, The English; 
 also, En(ii.ani): A. 1). IGTl. 
 
 CABALA, The.— "The term Cabala is usu- 
 nlly applied to that wild .system of Oriental phi- 
 losophy which was introduced, it is uncertain at 
 what period, into the .Jewish schools: in a wider 
 sense it comprehended all the decisions of the 
 Uabbinical courts or schools, whether on religious 
 or civil points. " — II. II. Milman, Hint, of the Jeics, 
 V. 2, bk. 18. — "The ])hilosophic Cabala aspired 
 to oe a more sublime and transcendental Habbin- 
 ism. It was a mystery not ('xclusive of, but 
 above their more couunou mysteries; a secret 
 
 more profmmd than their profoundest secrets. 
 It claimed the same guaranty of anticpdty, of 
 revelation, of tradition; it was the triu', occult, 
 to few inlelligilile seii.^e of the sacred writings 
 and of the sayings of the most r ^n iwned Wise 
 Jlen; the inward interpretation oc' .he geindne 
 imerpretation of the Law and i le I'rophets. 
 . 'en went on ; they advanced, they rose from the 
 most full and i)effect study of the Talmuds to 
 the higher doctrines, to the "more divine contem- 
 plalious of the Cabala. And the Zohar was the 
 liook of the Cabala which soared almost above 
 Ihecomprehensionof the wisest. . . . Initstradi- 
 tioiial, no doidit unwritten form, the Cabala, at 
 li'ast a ('!' lala, ascends to a very early date, the 
 ('aptivity ; in its proper and more mature form, 
 it belongs to the lirst century, and reaches down 
 to the end of the .seventh century of our era. 
 The Sepher Yetzira, the I$ook of Creation, which 
 l)oasts itself to be derived from Jloses, from 
 Abraham, if not from Adam, or even aspires 
 liigher, belongs to the earlier ])eriod; the Zohar, 
 the Light, to the later. The remote origin of the 
 (Cabala belongs vo that period \\ hen the je\. ish 
 mind, during the Captivity, became so deeply 
 impregnated with Oriental notions, those of the 
 Persian or Zoroastrian religion. Some of the 
 lirst principles of the Cabala, as veil as many 
 of the tenets, still more of th(! superstitions, of 
 the Talmud, coincide so exactly with the Zen- 
 davesta . . . as to leave no doiibt of their kin 
 dred and alliliatiou." — II. II. Milman, Jliiit. of 
 the Jcirs. hk. :\Q. 
 
 CABILDO, The. See Louisiana: A. D. 
 170i). 
 
 CABINET, The American.— " There is in 
 the government of the United States no such 
 thing as a Cabinet in the English sense of the 
 term. I5ut I use the term, not only because it is 
 c:rrent in America to describe the chief mim's- 
 ters of the President, but also because it calls 
 attention to the remarkable dilTercnee which ex- 
 ists between the great ollicers of State in America 
 and the similar oHlcers in the free coiuitries ot 
 Europe. Almost the cmly reference in the Con- 
 stitution to the nnnisters of the President is tliat 
 contained in the i)ower given him to ' reiiuire the 
 opinion in writing of the principal oflicer in each 
 of the e.xeinitive departments ujion any subject 
 relating to the duties of their respective olllces.' 
 All these dei)artments have been created by Acts 
 of Ccmgrcss. Washingtim began in 17^9 with 
 four only, at tlie head of whom were the follow- 
 ing four ollicials: Secretary of State, Secretary 
 of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney 
 <!eneral. In 17!t8 there was added a Secretary 
 ■.f the Navy, in 1829 a Postmaster General, anil 
 ill 1849 a Secretary of the Interior. . . . Each 
 receives ii salary of S8,000 (£1,000), All are ap- 
 pointed by the President, subject to the con- 
 .sent of the Senate (which is practically never 
 refused), and may be removed by the President 
 alime. Nothing marks them oil from aiiv other 
 ollicials wlio nnglit be placed in charge of a de 
 partment, except that they are summoned by 
 the President to his lu'iva'te council. None of 
 them can vote in Congress, Art. XI.. § of the 
 Constitution provi<ling that 'no person holding 
 any othce \inder the United States shall be a 
 memlicr of either House during his c<mtinuance 
 inolUce.'" — J. lirycc, Z'/a' Jw, Commouiceallh,ch. 
 
 343 
 
CABINET. 
 
 CiVniNET. 
 
 0. — "III 1862 ft separate Department of ARricul- 
 tiire was estnl)lislieil. ... In 1889 tlu^ head iif 
 the Department heeaiiK' Secretary '-t the Depiirt- 
 ineiit of A;,'r:eultiire and a ('a')met oflle<'r. A 
 iiiireail of l,at)or under the Inierior Department 
 wa.s created in 18HI. In '8S8 Con^iress con- 
 utituted it, a separate department. Imt did not 
 make its head a Seeretarv, and tln'refore not a 
 <. al'inet ollleer." There "are now (1891) ei^ht 
 licnds of departments who eonstitute tli(^ Presi- 
 dent's ('al)init. — W. \V. and \V. F. \VilloU|,'ld>y, 
 (Sort, and Aili/iiiiiiitriili<iu ofllie U. S. (Joliita Ilnp- 
 kin* I'lii' Slidh'i'.i, gcrii'MlX., mm. 1-2), f/i. 10. 
 
 CABINET, The English.— "Few tilings in 
 our history are more eurious than the orij^in ami 
 f>rowlh of the power now jiossessed l)y the 
 Caliiiiei. From an early period the Kinfrs of 
 Kn^land had been assisted by a I'rivy Coiineil to 
 which tlie law assigned many important functions 
 and duties [see I'liivy CouNCii,]. During several 
 centuries tliis body delilierated on tlie gravest 
 and most deiieate alTair.s. But by degrees its 
 character changed. It became too large for des- 
 patch and secrecy. The rank of Privy Councillor 
 was often liestowed as an honorary distinction 
 on per.sons to whom nothing wa.s C(mtided, and 
 whos(! opinion was never asked. The sovereign, 
 on the most important occasions, resorted for 
 advice t« a small knot of leading ministers. The 
 advantages and disadvantages of this course were 
 early pointed out by Bacon, with hisusiud judg- 
 ment and sagac-ity: but it was not till after tlio 
 Ilestoration that the interioi' council began to 
 attract general notice. During many years old 
 fashioned ])oliticians continued to regard the 
 Cabinet as an imconstitutional and dangerous 
 board. Nevertheless, it constantly became more 
 and more important. It at length drew to itself 
 the chief executive power, and has now been 
 regarded, during several generations, us an essen- 
 tial part of our polity. Yet, strange to say, it 
 still continues to be altogether imknown to the 
 law. The names of the noblemen and gentlemen 
 who compose it arc never ollicially announced to 
 • he public. No record is kept "of its meetings 
 iind resolutions; nor has its existence ever been i 
 recognized by any Act of Parliament. During 
 some years the word Cabal was popularly used 
 as synonymous with Cabinet. But it happened 
 by a whimsical coincidence that, in 1071, the 
 Cftbinct consisted of live persons the initial let- 
 ters of whoso names made uptlie'.'ord Cabal, 
 Cliflord, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and 
 Lauderdale. '1 he.se ministers were therefore em- 
 phatically called the Cabal; and they soon made 
 that appellation so infamous that it has never 
 since their time been used except as a term of 
 reproach." — Lord Macaulay, IJist. of End., f^'- 2. I 
 — " Walpole'swork, . . . the effect of his policy, ' 
 vheu it was tinally carried tlu'ough, was to estab- 
 lish the Cabinet on a delinite footing, as the seat 
 and centre of the executive government, to main- 
 tain the executive in the closest relation with the 
 legislature, to govern through the legislature, 
 and to transfer the power and authority of the 
 Crown to the House of Commcns. Some writers 
 have held that the first Ministry in the mo<leru 
 sense was that combination of Whigs whom Wil- 
 liam called to aid him in government in 1695. 
 Others contend that the second administration 
 of Lonl Bockingham, which came into power in 
 1783, after the triumph of the American colon- 
 ists, the fall of Lord North, and the defeat of 
 
 George III., was tlie earliest Ministry of the typo 
 of to-day. At whatcMT <latc we choose lirst to 
 see all the decisive marks of that rennirkablo 
 system which combines unity, steadfastness, and 
 initiative in the executive, with the i)os.session of 
 supreme autliority alike over men and measures 
 by the House of Conunons, it is certain that it 
 was imder Walpole that its ruling principles 
 were first fixed in i)arlianientary govenunent, 
 .and that the Cabinet system received the impres- 
 sion that it bears in our own time. . . . Perliaps 
 the most important of all the distinctions between 
 the Cabinet in its rudimentary stage at the 
 beginning of the century and its later practice, 
 remains to be noticed. Queen Anne held a 
 Cabinet every Sumlay, at which she was her-self 
 liresent, just as we have seen that she was pres- 
 ent at debates in the House of Lords. With a 
 doubtful exception in the time of George III., 
 no sovereign has been present at a mce' :ng of the 
 Cabinet since Anne. . . . This vital change was 
 probably due to the accident that Anne's suc- 
 cessor did not understand the language in which 
 its deliberations were carried on. The with- 
 drawal of the sovereign from o'abinet Countils 
 was essential to the momentous change which 
 has transferred the whole substance of authority 
 and power from the Crown, to a committee 
 chosen bj' one member of the two Houses of 
 Parliament, from among other members. . . . 
 The Prime Minister is the keystone of the Cidiinet 
 arch. Although in Cabinet all its members f tind 
 on an equal footing, speak with equal voici and, 
 on the rare occasions when a division is taken, 
 are counted on the fraternal principle of one man, 
 one vote, yet the heail of the Cabinet is ' prinms 
 inter pares,' and occupies a position which, so 
 long as it lasts, is one of exceptional and peculiar 
 authority. It is true that he is in form chosen 
 by the Crown, but in practice tue choice of the 
 Crown is pretty strictly confined to the man who 
 is designated by the acclamation of a party ma- 
 jority. . . . The Prime Minister, o-ice appointed, 
 chooses his own colleagues, and assigns them to 
 their respective otlices. . . . The flexibility of 
 the Cabinet system allows the Prime Jlinister 
 in an emergency to take upon himself a power 
 not inferior to that of a dictator, provided always 
 tliat the House of Commons will stand by him. 
 In ordinary circumstances, he leaves the heads 
 of departments to do their own worl in their 
 own way. . . . Just as tliC Cabinet has been 
 described as being the regulator of relations be- 
 tween Queen, Lords and Commons, so is the 
 Prime Minister the regulator of relations between 
 the Queen and her servants. . . . Walpole was 
 in practice able to invest hira.self with more of 
 tlie functions and powers of a Prime Minister 
 than any of his successors, and yet was com- 
 pelled by the feeling of the time earnestly and 
 profusely to repudiate both the name and title, 
 and every one of the pretensions that it involves. 
 The earliest instance m which I have found the 
 head of the government designated as the Premier 
 is in ft letter to tlie Duke of Newcastle from the 
 Duke of Cumberland in 1746."— J. Morley, Wal- 
 jwle, ch. 7. — "In theory the Cabinet is nothing 
 but a committee of the Privy Council, yet with 
 the Council it has in reality no dealings; and 
 thus the extraordinary result has taken place, 
 that the Government of England is in the hands 
 of men whose position is legally undefined : that 
 while the Cabinet is a ■»■, ord of every-day use, no 
 
 344 
 
CABINET. 
 
 C.ESAH AUGUSTA. 
 
 lawyer can say what a Cabinet is: that while no 
 ordinary Englishinun knows wlio the Lonl.s uf 
 the Council are, tlie Cliiircli of England prays, 
 Sunday by Sunday, that these Lt)rds may bo 
 'endued with wis>loni and understanding'! that 
 while the collective responsibility of Ministers is 
 a doctrine appealed to by inenibers of the Gov- 
 eminent, no less than by their opponents, it Is 
 more than doubtful whether such responsibility 
 could be enforced by any legal penalties: that, 
 to sum up this catalogue of contradictions, the 
 Privy Council has the same political powers 
 which it had wlien Henry VIII. ascended the 
 throne, whilst it is in reality composed of persons 
 many of whom never have taken part or wished 
 to take part in the contests of political life." — A. 
 V. Dicey, The Priri/ Council, p. 143. 
 
 CABINET, The Kitchen. See United 
 St.\tes of Am. : A. D. 1820. 
 
 CABOCHIENS, The. See Fhance: A. D. 
 1380-1415. 
 
 CABOT, John and Sebastian. — American 
 Discoveries. See Ameuica : A. D. 1407, and 1408. 
 
 CABUL: A. D. 1840-1841.— Occupation by 
 the Brit'sh. — Successful native rising. — Re- 
 treat and destruction of the British army. See 
 Afghanistan: A. D. 18:58-1843. 
 
 A. D. 1878-1880.— Murder of Major Cavag- 
 nari. the British Resident. — Second occupation 
 bv '.he English. See Afoii.vnistan: A. D. 1800- 
 -.881. 
 
 CACIQUE. — "Cacique, lord of vas.sals, was 
 the ivMvv by which the natives of Cuba, (lesig- 
 natod tl f chiefs. Learning this, the conquerors 
 appli' " ne name generally to the rulers of wild 
 tribes, a though in none of the dialects of the 
 contiuei.t is the word found." — II. II. Bancroft, 
 Hist. </ the Piicifii; Stiiti-i, r. 1, /*. '»10, foot-note. 
 
 CADDOAN FAMILY, The. See Ameri- 
 can AnouioiNEs: P.vw.nee (Caddoan) Family; 
 olso, Texas: The Ahouigi.val inhabitants. 
 
 CADE'S REBELLION. See England: 
 A. D. 14.')0. 
 
 CADESIA (KADISIYEH), Battle of.— 
 This WHS the first of the decisive series of battles 
 in which the Arab followers of Mohammed 
 elTected the overthrow of the Persian Empire 
 (the Sassannian) and the conquest of its domin- 
 ions. It was desperately fought, A. D. 030, 
 under the walls of the fortified town of Cadesia 
 (Kadisiyeh in the Arabic) situated near the Sea of 
 Nedjef, between the Euphrates and the Arabian 
 desert. The Persians numbered 120,000 men, 
 under Rustam, their best general. "The Arabs 
 were but 80,000 strong at first, but were rein- 
 forced the second day. They were eoinmaiuled 
 by Sa'ad and led by the redoubtable Kaled. The 
 battle was obstinately prolonged through four 
 days, but ended in the complete rout of the Per- 
 sians and the death of Uustam, with 40,000 of 
 his men. — G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental 
 Monarch)/, ch. 20. — See, also, ^Mahometan Con- 
 quest: A. D. 033-051. 
 
 CADIZ : Origin. Sec Utica, and Gades. 
 
 A. D. 1596. — Taken and sacked by the 
 English and Dutch. See Spain: A. D. 1.590. 
 
 A. D. 1702. — Abortive English and Dutch 
 expedition against. See Spain: A. D. 1703. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1811.— Siege by the French. 
 See Spain: A. D. 1810-1813. 
 
 A..D. 1823. — Siege, bombardment and cap- 
 ture by the French. SccSpain: A. D. 1814r-1837. 
 
 SB 
 
 CADMEA(KADMEIA),The. SeeGiiEECE: 
 B. C. 3H;i. 
 
 CADMEANS, OR KADMEIANS. See 
 
 BlKOTIA. 
 
 CADURCI, The.— The Cadurd were one of 
 the tribes of ancient Gaul whose chief place was 
 Divona, now Cahora on the Lot. — G. Long, In- 
 cline of the lioman Itrimhlic. r. 4, ch. 17. 
 
 CADUSIANS, The. — An ancient people so- 
 called by the Greeks, whose territory was on 
 the sout'- ,1 stern Iwrder of the Caspian Sea, — 
 the district of modern Persians called Ghilan or 
 Gliulan. Their native name was "Gaels." — 
 M. Duncker, Hint, of Aiitii/iiiti/. bk. 8, ch. 1. 
 
 CADWALLON, Death of. See IIeven- 
 FiEi.T), Battle of the. 
 
 CiELIAN HILL, The. See Seven Hills 
 
 OF Ho.VIE. 
 
 CAERLAVEROCK, Siege of.— A famous 
 siege and reduction of the Scottish castle of 
 Caerlaveroek, in Dumfriesshire, by Edward I. 
 A. 1). 1300. 
 
 CAERLEON.— "Caer," like the "Oeaster" 
 of the Saxons, is a corruption by Celtic tongues 
 of the Roman "Castrum. ' "In memory of tho 
 second legion, which had been so long established 
 at the Silurian Isca, they [the Welsh] gavo 
 to the ruins of that city the name of Caer- 
 Legion, the city of flie legion, now softened to 
 Caerleou." — T. Wright, Celt, Roman and iSaxon, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 CiESAR, JULIUS, Career and death of. 
 See Rome: B. C. 00-03, to 44; Gaul: B. C. SB- 
 SI; and BniTAiN: B. ('. 55-54. 
 
 CiESAR, The title.— " Octavius was the 
 adopted lieir of .Julius Ciusiir; from the moment 
 of his adoption the surname Cicsar became ap- 
 propriated to hiin, and it was l)y this n.inio 
 accordingly that ho was most famiiiarly known 
 to his own contemponiries. Modern writers for 
 the sake of distinction have agreed for the most 
 part to confine this illustrious title to tlie first of 
 the Ciesarian dynasty ; but wo should (l(mbtles.9 
 gain a clearer conception of the gniilual process 
 by which tlie idea of a dynastiv; succession fixed 
 itself in tho minds of the Romans, if we followed 
 their own i)raetice in this particular, and applied 
 the name of Ca'sar, not to Augustus only, but 
 also to his adopted son Tiberius, to the scions of 
 the same lineage who succeeded him, and even 
 to those of later and independent dynasties. As 
 late indeed as the reign of Diocletian, the Roman 
 nionarcli was still eminently the Ciesar. It was 
 not till llio close of the third century of our era 
 that that illustrious title was deposed from its 
 preeminence, and restricted to a secondary and 
 deputed authority. Its older use was however 
 revived and perpetuated, though less exclusively, 
 through the declining ages of the empire, and 
 has survived witli perhaps unbroken continuity 
 even to our own days. 'The Austrian Kaiser still 
 retains the name, though he has renounced tho 
 succession, of the Cicsars of Rome, while the Czar 
 of Muscovy pretends to derive his national desig- 
 nation by direct inheritance from tlie Cicsars of 
 Byzantium." — C. Jlerivale, Hist, of the liomana, 
 ch. 31.— See, also, Rome: B. C. 31-A. D. 14. 
 
 CiESAR-AUGUSTA.- Onoof the fortified 
 posts established in Spain bv the Emperor 
 Augustus, B. C. 27, aud in which the veterans 
 of the legions were settled. The jilace and its 
 name (corrupted) survive in modern Saragossa. 
 — C. Merivale, Uut. of the Itomam, ch. 34. 
 
 345 
 
C.ESAUEA IN C..PPADOCIA. 
 
 CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO. 
 
 CiESAREA IN CAPPADOCIA: Origin. 
 
 S<T M..ZA. A. 
 
 A. D. 260. — Capture, massacre and pillaee 
 by Sapor, king of Persia. Sci' I'i:hsia: A. 1). 
 2at(-<>'.'7. 
 
 CiESAREA IN PALESTINE : Massacre 
 of Jews. Sec .Ikwh: A. D. «(t-70. 
 
 The Church in. ht-o Christianity: A. I). 
 
 100-:! r,'. 
 
 C/ESAROMAGUS IN BRITAIN.— A 
 
 Koman lowii iileiililii'd, j^cncnilly, willi iiioilfrn 
 Cht'hnsford. — T. Wright, Celt, liomaiiandHaxon, 
 eh. 5. 
 
 CiESAROMAGUS IN GAUL.— Modorn 
 Bt'iuiviiis. Sec l{i;i.(i.«. 
 
 CiESARS, The Twelve. See Kome: A. D. 
 68-iHI. 
 
 CiESAR'S TOWER. Sec Toweh of 
 London. 
 
 CAFFA. 8d! Oknoa: A. D. 1201-1399. 
 
 CAHORS : Origin. Stc Caduiioi A. D. 
 
 1580.— Siege and capture by Henry of 
 Navarre. Sec Fuanck: A. D. 1578-1580. 
 
 CAIRN. Hcc Bauhow. 
 
 CAIRO : A. D. 641.— Origin. Sec Maiiomk- 
 TANC'oNiiiEsT: A. I). 0-40-«4(i. 
 
 A. D. 967-1171.— Capital of the Fatimite 
 Caliphs. See .Mahdmetan Conquest and 
 Emi'IUK: a. 1). 908-1171. 
 
 A. D. 1517. — Capture, sack and massacre by 
 the Ottoman Turks. See Turks: A. D. 1481- 
 1620. 
 
 A. D. 1798. — Occupied by the French under 
 Bonaparte. See France : A. 1). 1798 (May — 
 
 AUOUOT). 
 
 A. D. 1800. — Revolt suppressed by the 
 French. Bee France: A. H. 1800 (January- 
 June). 
 
 A. D. 1801-1802.— Surrender to the English. 
 — Restoration to Turkey. Sec Fr.\nce : A. i). 
 1801-1803. 
 
 A. D. 1805-1811.— Massacres of the Mame- 
 lukes. See Eoyit: A. D. 1803-1811. 
 
 A. D. 1879-1883.— Revolt against the Khe- 
 dive and the foreign control. — Occupation by 
 the British. Sec Egypt: A. D. 1875-1882, and 
 1883-1883. 
 
 » 
 
 CAIROAN. See Kairwan. 
 
 CAIUS, called Caligula, Roman Emperor, 
 A. I). 37-41. 
 
 CAKCHIQUELS, The. See American Abo- 
 BiciiNEs: Quiches, aud Mayas. 
 
 CALABRIA : Transfer of the name.— "After 
 the loss of the true Calabria [to the Lombards] 
 the vanity of the Greeks substituted that name 
 instead of the more ignoble appellation of Bnit- 
 tium; and the change appears to have taken 
 place before the time of Charlemagne." — E. Gib- 
 bon, Decline and Fall nf the Homan, Empire, eh. 
 45, note. 
 
 A. D. 1080. — Norman duchy. See Italy 
 (Southern): A. D. 1000-1090. 
 
 CALAIS : A. D. 1346-1347.— Siege and cap- 
 ture by Edward III. — Immediately after his 
 great victory won at Creci, the English king, 
 Edward III. laid siege to the strong city of 
 Calais. Me built a town of huts round the city, 
 "which he culled 'Newtown the Bold,' and laid 
 it out with a market, regular streets and shops, 
 and all the cecessary accommodation for an 
 army, aud hither were carried in vast stores of 
 
 vieluals and other iie<'es.sarie.s, obtained by 
 ravaging the country round and liy Hhipiiient 
 from Eiiglaiiil." Calais held out for a year, and 
 angered the king so by its obstinacy tlmt when, in 
 August, 1347, starvation forced its people to sur- 
 render, lie re(iuired that six of the chief burgesses 
 should be given up to him, with halters round 
 their necks, for execution. Kustaelie St. I'ierro 
 and flvi! others nobly olTered themselves for tlio 
 saerillee, and It was only by the weeping inter- 
 cession of Queen Philippa that Edward was In- 
 duced to spare their lives. He expelled all the 
 inhabitants who refused to take; an oath of fealty 
 to him and repeopled the town with Englishmen. 
 — W. Warburtoi., rJilirard Iff., SiroiiU f)ecade, ch. 
 3.— See, also, France: A. I), 1337-1360. 
 
 A. D. 1348.— The Staple for English trade. 
 See Stai'LE. 
 
 A. D. 1558.— Recovery from the English by 
 France. See France: A. 1). l'>-i'i-Vh>\>. 
 
 A. D. 1564.— Final surrender of English 
 claims. See France: A. 1). 1563-15(14. 
 
 A. D. 1596-1598. — Surprise and capture by 
 the Spaniards. — Restoration to France. See 
 Fr.\nce: A. 1). 1593-1598. 
 
 CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO, Knights 
 
 of. — "It was to repn'ss the never-ceasing incur- 
 sions of the Mohammedans, us well as to return 
 these incursions with interest, that, in the time of 
 Fernando [SVrnimdo II. of the early Spanish 
 kingdom of Leon], two military orders, those of 
 Calatruva and Santiago [or St. Jago — or St. 
 James of Compostella], were instituted. The 
 origin of the former order was owing to tho 
 devotion of two Cistercian monks; St. liaymond, 
 abbot of Fitero, and his companion, the friar 
 Diego Velasijuez. These intrepid men, who had 
 both borne arms previous to their monastic pro- 
 fession, indignant at the cowardice of the Temp- 
 lars, who resigned into the king of Castile's 
 hands the fortress of Calatruva, which had been 
 coutided to their defense by the emperor Alfonso, 
 proposed, in 1158, to the regency of that king- 
 dom, to preserve that position against the assail- 
 ants. The proposal was readily accepted. Tho 
 preaching of the warlike abbot was so efficacious, 
 that in a short time he assembled 20,000 men, 
 whom he conducted to Calatrava, and among 
 whom were not a few of his own monks. There 
 he drew up the institutions of tl e order, which 
 took its name from the place, and which in its 
 religious government long followed the Cistercian 
 rule, and wore tho same monastic habit, — a 
 white robe and scapulary. [By pope Benedict 
 XIII. the habit was dispensed with, and tho 
 knights allowed to marry 'once.' — Foot-note.] 
 The other order commenced in 1161. Some rob- 
 bers of Leon, touched with their past enormities, 
 resolved to make reparation for them, by defend- 
 ing the frontiers against the incursions of tho 
 Mohammedans. Don Pedro Fernandez — if the 
 'don' has not been added to ive something like 
 respectubility to the origin — was the chief 
 founder of the order. He engaged tho brethren 
 to assume the rule of St. Augustine, in addition 
 to the ordinary obligations of knighthood. His 
 military and monastic fraternity was approved 
 by king Fernando; at whose suggestion tho 
 knights chose Santiago as their patron, whoso 
 bloody sword, in form of a cross, became their 
 professional symbol. These two orders were 
 richly endowed by successive kings of Leon &n^ 
 
 346 
 
CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO. 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 Castile, until tht-lr possessions becamo Immense." 
 — 8. A. Diiiiliam, Hint, of S/xiin itnd Piirtm/nl, M: 
 8, teel. 2, ch. 1, <lir. 2. —In litOO the Itiiiglits of 
 the order of St. Jiiines of Conipostellii " received 
 p(^rmi».siou to marry. In 140;t, the Grand Muster- 
 sidp was iiiiited to tli(! erown of Hpaii'.." In 
 152!) tlie ri^ht of nomination lo tlie Grand Mas- 
 tcrsliip of the Order of Caiatrii '.a was transferred 
 from the Pope to tlie crown of Spain, "and 
 since that time the order has gradually merged 
 into a court In.stltutioii. The state dress is a 
 white robe, witli a red cro.ss on the left breast. 
 The permis-sion to marry has been enjoyed since 
 1540." — F. C. Woodhouse, Military Ileliffioun 
 Ortlvrs, pt. A. 
 
 CALAURIA, Confederation of.— A naval 
 confiMlcration, formed at a very early period of 
 Greek history, by the seven maritime cities of 
 Orchomi'nus, Athens, .lEgina, Epidaiirus, llcr- 
 mionc, Prasia; and Nauplia against tlie liings 
 of Argos. The island of C'alauria, oil the 
 eastern point of Argolis, was the center of the 
 confeiieracy. — £. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, v. 1, 
 bh. \,rh. 3. 
 
 CALCINATO, Battle of (1706). See Italy 
 (Savoy .UNI) PiKUMONT): A. U. 1701-1713. 
 
 CALCUTTA : A. D. 1698.— The founding 
 of the city. See Indi.v: A. I). 1000-1702. 
 
 A. D. 1756.— Capture by Surajah Dowlah.— 
 The tragedy of the B!:ick Hole. See India: 
 A. D. 1755-1757. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CALDERON, Battle of. See Mexico: A. D. 
 1810-1819. 
 CALEDONIA, The name. See Scotland, 
 
 TIIK Na.MK. 
 
 Ancient Tribes. See IJihtain, Celtic Tuibes. 
 Wars of the Romans. See Britain: A. I). 
 
 78-«4. 
 
 CALEDONIA SYLVA. See Britain, Cel- 
 tic Tribes. 
 
 CALEDONII, The.— One of the vald tribes 
 which occupied tlie Highlands of Scotland when 
 the liomans held Britain, and whose name they 
 gave linally to all the Highland tribes and to that 
 part of the island. — W. F. Sl^eiie, Celtic Scotland, 
 T. 1. — See Britain, Celtic Tribes. 
 
 CALENDAR, The French Republican. See 
 France : A. D. 17!).J (October). 
 
 CALENDAR, Gregorian.— Gregorian Era. 
 — "This was a correction and improvement 
 of the Julian [see Calendar, Julian]. It was 
 discovered at length, by more accurate astronomi- 
 cal observations, tliat the true solar or tropical 
 year was 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 57 
 seconds; whence it fell short of the Julian or 
 Egyptian computation of 365 days and hours by 
 an interval of 11 minutes, 3 seconds, . . .which, 
 in the course of 130 years, amounted :o a whole 
 day. At the end of 130 years, therefore, the 
 tropical year began a day earlier than the civil, 
 or fell back a day behind it. . . . In the time of 
 Pope Gregory XIII. , A. D. 1582, : . . the [ver- 
 nal] cquino.K was found to be on tlic lltli of 
 March, having fallen back ten days. In order, 
 therefore, to bring it forward to its former place 
 of the 21st, he left out ten days in October, call- 
 ing the 5th the loth day of that niontli. Whence 
 in that year of confusion, the 22d day of Decem- 
 ber became the flrst of January, A. I). 1583, 
 which was the flrst year of the Gregorian Era. 
 
 In making this correction, ho was prinrlpally 
 a.ssislcd by llic^ cch'bratrd matliemallciau Clavlus. 
 Hut to prevent the repi'tition of this error In 
 future, a further reformation of the Julian Calen- 
 dar was want lug. Because the vernal eipilnox fell 
 backwards three days in the course of 31)0 years, 
 Gregory, chielly l)y the assistance of Aloysius 
 Llllius, decreed that thn'e days should be omitted 
 in every four centuries: namely, that every 
 flrst, seconil and third centurial year, which 
 would otherwise be bisw.xtile, should be a com- 
 mon year; but that every fourth centurial year 
 should remain bi.s.sextile. Thus, llu! years A. I). 
 1700, l.SOl), 1900, and 2100, 22(h). 2300. were to Ixj 
 common years; but A. I). 1000, 2000, 2400, to 
 remain leap years. By this ingenious reform, 
 the Julian Calendar is rendered sulllciently accu- 
 rate for all tlu- purposes of chronology, and even 
 of astronomy, for (IO(X) years to come. . . . The 
 Gregorian or reformed Julian year was not 
 adopted In England until X. 1). lt51, when, the 
 deticiency from the time of the Council of Nice 
 then amounting to elev(^ii days, this number wa.s 
 struck out of the month of Septen ucr, by Act 
 of Parliament ; and the 3(1 day was counted the 
 14th, in that year of confu.sion. The next year 
 A. 1). 1752, was the flrst of the new style, be- 
 ginning January 1, instead of Marcli" 25." — 
 W. Hales, New Aintlyiiiii of Vhronolof/y, v. 1, 
 l>Jc. 1. — The change from Old Style, as the Julian 
 Calendar, and dates according with it, now came 
 to be called to New Style, or the reformed, Gre- 
 gorian Calendar, was made in Spain, Portugal, 
 part of Italy, part of the Netherlands, France, 
 Denmark, and Lorraine, in A. D. 1582; in Poland 
 in 1586; in Hungary in 1587; in Catholic Switzer- 
 land in 1583; in Catliolic Germany in 1584; la 
 nio.st parts of Protestant Germany and Switzer- 
 land in 1700 and 1701, and, lastly, in England, in 
 1751. In Russia, Greece, and the East generally, 
 the Old Style is still retained. — Sir II. Nicolas, 
 C'hroiwlot/i/ of History. 
 
 CALENDAR, Julian.— Julian Era.— "The 
 epoch of the Julia'i Era, which precedes the com- 
 mon or Christian Era by forty-flve yeai's, is the 
 n^formatiou of tlie Roman calendar by Julius 
 Ciesar, who ordained that the Year of Rome 707 
 should consist ' if 15 months, forming altogether 
 445 days; that the ensuing year, 708, should be 
 composed of 365 days; and that every fourth year 
 should contiiin 306 days, tlie additional day 
 being introduced after the Otii of the calends of 
 March, i. c., the 24th of February, which year 
 lie called Bissextile, because the 0th of the calends 
 of March were then doubled. Julius Ca-sar also 
 divided the months into the numbcrof days which 
 they at present contain. The Roman calendar, 
 which was diviiled into calends, nones and ides, 
 was used in most public instruments throughout 
 Europe for many centuries. . . . The calend is 
 the 1st day of each month. Tlie ides wfrc eight 
 days in each month: in March, Jlay, July and 
 October the ides commence on th<i 15tli, and in 
 all other laonths on the 13th day. The nones 
 are the 5tli day of each month, excepting in 
 March, May, July and October, when tlie iiones 
 fall on tlie 7th day The days of the inontli 
 were reckoned backwards instead of forwards: 
 thus, the 3d calends of February is the 30tli of 
 January ; the 4th calends of February the 29th 
 January. . . . Excepting July and August, which 
 were named after Julius and Augustus Ca;sar, 
 having been called Quiutilis and Sextilis, tho 
 
 347 
 
CALENDAR 
 
 CALIFORNIA, 154!)-1781. 
 
 Ilomiin months boro tliclr prcHont iiamcM. An 
 error prcviiilcd for !17 years iifl<'r the dciilli of 
 .luliiis Cicsiir, from reckoning? every third liisteiid 
 of every fourth year ii hiKKextlle, or leap year, 
 Rg if the year contained !t(ir((iays, 8 liouin. Wlien 
 tliiH miHtalte wan (ietecteci, tliirteen interealatloiis 
 Jiad occurred instead of ten, and tlio year consc- 
 (|Uently l)ej{aii tliree days too lute: tlie calendar 
 was, therefore, ajfuin corrected, and it was or- 
 dered tliat eacli of tlie cnsidnp twelve years 
 should contain 305 days only, and that there 
 shoidd not be any leap year until A. U. C. 700 
 or A. D. 7. From that time the years have been 
 ealcidated without mistakes, and tlie Uoman year 
 lias been u(h>pted by all Christian nations, tlinuju;h 
 about the sixth century they began to date from 
 thebirtliof oiirHaviour." — l^irll. Nicolas, Chron- 
 ology of JliKlon/, p. 4. — " It nilKht naturally have 
 been cxp.^cted that Julius Ciesar would have so 
 ordered his reformed solar year, as to begin on 
 the day of the winter solstice, which. In the ' Year 
 of Confusion ' [i. e., the year in which the error 
 of the calendar was corrected] was supposed to 
 fall on Dec. 2.5. Rut he chose to begin his new 
 year on the first of January following, because 
 on that day the n^oon was new, or in conjunc- 
 tion witli the sun, at 7 hours, minutes and !i5 
 seconds after ncwn. By this means he began his 
 year on a most high or holy day among tlio ar- 
 dent Druids, with whoso usages ho was well ac- 
 (|uainted, and also made his new year tlie first 
 of u lunar cycle." — W. Hales, Kew Analysis of 
 Chronology, v.\, bk. \. 
 
 At.so in: C. '"lerivale, Ilist. of the Romans, 
 eh. '20. — For on account of the subsequent correc- 
 tion of tho Julian calendar, see CALEtroAR, Que- 
 
 OOItlAN. 
 
 CALENDS. See Calendar, Jclian. 
 
 CALETI, The. See Bei.o^,. 
 
 CALHOUN, John C, and the War of 1812. 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1810-1813. 
 . . . .And the Nullification Movement. See 
 United States of A.m. : A. D. 1828-18.'i3. 
 
 CALIFORNIA: The aboriginal inhabi- 
 tants. See American Aborigines: Shosiionean 
 Family, and SIodocs and their California 
 
 NEIQllnORS. 
 
 A. D. 1543-1781.— Origin of the name.— 
 Early Spanish exploration and settlement. — 
 The founding of the Franciscan missions. — 
 
 "The settlements of the Spanish miasionaries 
 within the present limits of the State of Cali- 
 fornia date from the first foundation of San Diego 
 in 1769. The mis-sions that were later founded 
 north of San Diego were, with the original 
 establishment itself, for a time known merely by 
 some collective name, such as the Northern 
 / Missions. But later the name California, already 
 / long since applied to tho country of the peninsular 
 
 missions to the Southward, was extended to the 
 new land, with various prefixes or qualifying 
 phrases; and out of these the defluitive name 
 Alta [or Upper] California at last came, being 
 ' ■ applied to our present country during the whole 
 , period of the Jlexicau Republican ownership. 
 
 As to the origin of the name California, no 
 serious question remains that this name, as first 
 applied, between 1535 and 1539 to a portion of 
 Lower California, was derived from an old 
 printed romance, tho one which Mr. Edward 
 Everett Hale rediscovered in 1862, and from 
 which he drew this now accepted conclusion. 
 For, in this romance, the name California was 
 
 already before 1520 applied to n fabulous island, 
 deseril)e<l as near tlio Indies and also ' very near 
 the Terrestrial Paradise. ' Colonists whom Cortes 
 brouglit to the newly discovered peniiisida in 
 1535, and who returned the ne:;t year, may have 
 been the first to apply the name to this supposed 
 island, on which they had Iieen for a time resi- 
 dent. The coast of Upper California was first 
 visited (iuring the voyage of the explorer Juan 
 Cabrillo in 1542-43. Several landings were then 
 made on the coast and on the islands, in tho 
 Santa Barbara regicm. ... In 1579 Drake's 
 famous visit took place [see America: A. D. 
 1573-15801. . . . It ' is . . . almost perfectly- 
 sure that he did not enter or observe the Golden 
 Gate, and that he got no sort of idea of tho 
 existence of the Great Day. . . . This result of 
 the examination of the evidence about Drake's 
 voyage is now fairly well accepted, although some 
 people will always try to insist that Drake dis- 
 covered our Bay of San Francisco. The name 
 San Francisco was probably applied to a port on 
 this coast for tho first time by Cermciloii, who, 
 in a voyage from tho Philippines in 1595 ran 
 ashore, while exploring tho coast near Point 
 Reyes. It is now, however, perfectly sure that 
 neither ho nor any other Spanish navigator be- 
 fore 1709 applied this name to our present bay, 
 which remained utterly unknown to Europeans 
 during all this periotl. . . . lu 1602-8, Sebastian 
 Vizouno conducted a Spanish exploring expedi- 
 tion along tho California coast. . . . From this 
 voyage a little more knowledge of the diaracter 
 of tlie coast was gained; and thenceforth 
 geographical researches in the region of Cali- 
 fornia ceased for over 0. century and a holf. 
 AVith only this meagre result we reach the era of 
 the first settlement of Upper California. Tho 
 missions of tho peninsula of Lower California 
 passed, in 1767, by the expulsion of the Jesuits, 
 into the hands of the Franciscans; and tlie 
 Spanish government, whoso attention was at- 
 tracted in tills direction by the changed con- 
 ditions, ordered the immediate prosecution of a 
 long-cherished plan to provide the Manilla ships, 
 on their return voyage, with good ports of 
 supply and repairs, and to occupy the north- 
 west land as a safeguard against Russian or 
 other aggressions. . . . Thus began the career 
 of Spanish discovery and settlement in Cali- 
 fornia. The early yeors show a generally rapid 
 progress, only one great disaster occurring, — the 
 destruction of San Diego Mission in 1775, by 
 assailing Indians. But this loss was quickly re- 
 paired. In 1770 tho ^Mission of San Carlos was 
 founded at !Monterey. In 1772, a land expedi- 
 tion, under Fages and Crespi, first explored the 
 eastern shore of our San Francisco Bay, in an 
 effort to reach by land the old Port of San Fran- 
 cisco. . . . After 1775, the old name began to 
 bo generally applied to the new Bay, and so, 
 thenceforth, the name Port of San Francisco 
 means what we now mean thereby. In 1775, 
 Lieutenant Ayala entered the new harbor by 
 water. In the-following year tho Mission at San 
 Francisco was founded, and in October its church 
 was dedicated. Not only missions, however, but 
 pueblos, inhabited by Spanish colonists, lay in 
 the ofllcial plan of the new undertakings. The 
 first of these to be established was San Jose, 
 founded in November, 1777. The next was Los 
 Angeles, founded in September, 1781." — J. 
 Royce, California, eh. 1, sect. 3. 
 
 349 
 
CALIFORNIA, 1543-1781. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, 184ft-1847. 
 
 Also in: H. IT. Rnncroft, Ilht. of the PacijJc 
 Sldtm, r. \;i(('iilif,inii(i, t, 1).— F. AV. IJlackniur, 
 SlKtiiinh Iimtitiitiiiiiit iifilie Nmithirtut, eh. Tt-\Ti. 
 
 A. D. 1846-1847. — The American conquest 
 and its unexplained preludes.— " Knrly in 1H4(I, 
 the AiiuTiiiiiiH ill Ciiliforniiuiumbcrcil nlioiit *{K), 
 mostly iiblc-bodicd men, mid wlifi in llicir 
 iictivity, (MitcTiirisc, mid midacllv, ((institulcd 
 (initc II formidi'bic I'lcmcnt in tliis spiirscly in- 
 linbitcd region. Tlio population of Ciilifornin iit 
 this time was 6,000 Mc.xican.s mid 200,000 In- 
 dians. Wc nnr^v come to a period in the history 
 of California that has never been made clear, and 
 respectinit which there nroconllicting statements 
 ami opinions. The following facti wr,! ob- 
 tained by careful inquiry of intelligent parties 
 who lived in California during the period men- 
 tioned, and wlio jiarti ■ipated in the scenes nar- 
 rated. The native Californians appear to have 
 entertained no very strong allection for their own 
 government, or, rather, they felt that under the 
 influences at work they would inevitably, and 
 at no very distant period, become a dismembered 
 branch o"f the Mexican nation; and the matter 
 was finally nanowcd down to this contested 
 point, nar.ielv, whether this state surgery sliould 
 be performed by Americans or English, the real 
 struggle beiug between tlioso two nationalities. 
 In tlie northern part of tlie territory, such native 
 Californians as the Vallejos, Castros, etc., with 
 the old American settlers, Leese, Larkin, and 
 others, sympathized with the United States, and 
 desired annexation to tlie American republic. 
 In the south, Pio Pico, then governor of the ter- 
 ritory, ancl other prominent native Califoniians, 
 with James Alexander Forbes, the English con- 
 sul, who settled in Santa Clara in 1838, wer' ex- 
 erting themselves to bring the country under 
 English domination. . . . This was the state of 
 affairs for two or three years previous to the 
 Mexican War. For some months before the news 
 that hostilities between the United States and 
 Mexico had commenced [see Mexico: A. D. 
 1846-1847] reached California, the belief that 
 such an event would certainly occur was uni- 
 versal throughout the territory. This quickened 
 the impulses of all parties, and stimulated the 
 two .rivals — the American and English — in 
 tlu'ir efforts to be the first to obtain a permanent 
 hold of the country. The United States govern- 
 ment had sent Colonel Fremont to the Pacific on 
 an exploring expedition. Colonel Fremont had 
 passed through California, and was on his way 
 to Oregon, when, in Jlarch, 1846, Lieutenant 
 Gillespie, of the United States marine service, 
 was sent from Washington with dispatches to 
 Colonel Fremont. Lieutenant Gillespie went 
 across Mexico to Mazatlan, and from thence by 
 sea to California. He finally overtook Fremont 
 early in June, 1846, a short distance on the road 
 to Oregon, ond communicated to hira the purport 
 of his dispatches, they having been committed to 
 memory and the papers destroyed before he en- 
 tered Mexico. Wliat these instructions author- 
 ized Colonel Fremont to do has never been pro- 
 mulgated, but it is said they directed him to 
 remain in California, and hold himself in readi- 
 ness to cooperate with the United States fleet, in 
 case war with Mexico should occur. Fremont 
 immediately returned to California, and camped 
 a short time on Feather River, and then took up 
 his headquarters at Sutter's Fort. A few days 
 after, on Sunday, June 14th, 1846, a party of 
 
 fourteen Americans, under no apparent com- 
 inancl, appeared in Sonoma, captured the place, 
 raised tlie Bear flag, pronaimed the iiidependen'ee 
 of California, and carried olT to Kremont's hea<l- 
 ((uarters four prominent citizens, namely, the 
 two Vallejos, J. P. Leese, .ii'il Colonel Priulhon. 
 On the eoiisiimmationof these aeliievenients, one 
 Merritt was elei'ted captain. Tills was a rough 
 Iiarty of revolulioiiists, and the manner in which 
 they improvised the famous Hear flag shows upon 
 what slender means nations I'.nd kingiloms are 
 sometimes started. From an estimable old la<ly 
 they obtained a fragmentary portion of her 
 whfte skirt, on which tliey painted what was in- 
 ten' "(I to represent a grizzly bear, but not beintf 
 artistic in their work . . . tlie Mexicans, with 
 tl jir usual happy faculty on such occasions, 
 called it the 'Bandera Colchis,' or ' Ilog Flag.' 
 Ti.is flag now ornaments the rooms of the Pioneer 
 Society In San Francisco. On the 18th of June, 
 1846, William B. Ide, a native of New England, 
 who had emigrated to California the year pre- 
 vious, issued a proclamation as commander-in- 
 chief of the fortress of Sonoma. This proclama- 
 tion declared the purpose to overthrow the 
 existing government, and establish in its place 
 the '■cpublican form. . . . General Castro now 
 proposed to attack the feebly mantfed post at 
 Sonoma, but he was frustrated by a rapid move- 
 ment of Fremont, who, on the 4th of July, 
 1846, called a meeting of Americans at Sonoma; 
 and this osscmbly, acting under his advice, pro- 
 claimed tlie independence of the country, ap- 
 pointed Fremont Governor, and declared war 
 against ]\'exico. During these proceedings at 
 Sonoma, a flag with one star floated over the 
 headquarters of Fremont at Sutter's Fort. The 
 meaning of this lone-star flag no one seems to 
 
 have understood lust as Piemont, with 
 
 his company, had started for tlie coast to con- 
 front Castro, and act on the aggressive gener.illy, 
 he was suddenly brought to a stand by the os- 
 tounding intelligence that Commodore Sloat had 
 arrived at Monterey, and that, on the 7th of 
 July, 1846, he had raised the American flag and 
 taken possession of the place ; also, that, by com- 
 mand of Commodore Sloat, Con'mander Mont- 
 gomery, of the United States sloop-of-war Ports- 
 mouth, then lying in San Francisco Bay, had, 
 on the 8th of "July, taken possession of Yerba 
 Buena and raised the American flag on the plaza. 
 This of course settled the business for all par- 
 ties. The Mexican flag and the Bear flag were 
 lowered, and in due time, nolens volena, all ac- 
 quiesced in the flying of the Stars and Stripes. 
 . . . Commodore Sloat . . . had heard of the 
 commencement of hostilities on the Rio Grande, 
 . . . sailed from Mazatlan for California, took 
 possession of the country and raised the Ameri- 
 can flag on his own responsibility. These deci- 
 sive steps on the part of Commodore Sloat were 
 not taken a moment too soon, as on the 14th of 
 July the British man-of-war Collingwood, Sir 
 George Seymour commanding, arrived at Mon- 
 terey," intending, as Sir George acknowledged, 
 " to take possession of that portion of the coun- 
 try." In August, Commodore Sloat relinquished 
 the command of the Pacific squadron to Com- 
 modore Stockton, who "immediately instituted 
 bold and vigorous measures for the subjugation 
 of the territory. All his available force for land 
 operations was 350 men — sailors and marines. 
 But so rapid and skilful were Stockton's move- 
 
 849 
 
rALIFOUNIA, 1840-1847. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, 1856. 
 
 mfnln, iiml ho rtllcli'nt wiis the rcM'ipcriitInn of 
 KrriiiDiil with his kiiiuII troop, timt Culiforiiiik 
 wiiH I'lTri'tiinlly coiiiiiii'rril in .litiiiiitry, lN4i. 
 DiiriiiK all this" pfrlod the people of tlie Unilcil 
 Htiites were Ixiionmt of wliiil was tranHpiritiff in 
 ('alifoniia anil vice versa. Hut the aetlon of 
 CoiinniMlore HIcmt . . . anil . . . ConiniiKlore 
 Htix'ktoii . . . iliil hut anticipate the wishes of 
 tlio United Slates (Joverntneiit, whieli had, in 
 June, IHIfl, dispatched Oeneral Kearney across 
 tbii country from Fort Leavenworth [see Nkw 
 Mkxico: a. 1). IHJtl), at the liend of l.fXH) men, 
 witn orders to conquer California, and \vhen 
 conquered to assume the K'>veniorsldp of the 
 territory. Oeneral Kearney arrived In California 
 via Han Pasiiuxl with j^reatly dindnished forces, 
 DecemlK^r, 18KI, a few weeks licfore active mili- 
 tary openitioiiH ill that rej?ion ceased." — E. K. 
 Dunbar, Th<' Unmanee of the Af/i; pp. 21)-4'3. 
 
 Also in: H. 11. Bancroft, Iliiit. of the I'lififln 
 matet, V. 17 (OiUfoniiii, v. ,'5), r/i. 'l-lB.— .1. C. 
 Fremont, Mcintiimiifmi/ Life, r. 1, eh. 14-15. 
 
 A. D. 1848.— Cession to the United States. 
 SeeMKXKO: A. I). IHlrt. 
 
 A. D. 1848-1849. -The discovery of Gold 
 and the immigration of the Gold-hunters. — 
 " In the summer of IH |7 the American residents 
 of California, numbering perhaps 2,0(X), and 
 mostly established near San Francisco Bay, 
 looked forward with hope and copfiilenee to the 
 future. Their government held secure posses- 
 sion of the whole territory, and had announced 
 its iiurpo.se to hold it pennanently. ... It so 
 hap|)ened that at this time one of the leading 
 representJitives of American interests in Califor- 
 nia was John A. Sutter, a Swiss by his paren- 
 tage; a Qernmn by the place of his birth in 
 Baden ; an American by residence and natviraliza- 
 tlou in Missouri; and a Jlcxicnn by subsequent 
 residence and naturalization in California. In 
 18IiO he had settled at the lunotion of the Sacra- 
 mento and American rivers, near the site 
 of the present city of Sacromento." Ills 
 rancho became known as Sutter's Fort. 
 In the summer of 1847 he planned the build- 
 ing of a Hour-mill, and "partly to get lum- 
 ber for it, he determined to build a saw-mill id.so. 
 Since there was no good timber in the valley, 
 the saw-mill must be in the mountains. The 
 site for it was selected by James W. Marshall, a 
 native of New Jersey, a skilful wheelwright by 
 occupation, industrious, honest, generous, but 
 'cranky,' full of wild fancies, and defective in 
 some kinds of business sense. . . . The place 
 for liis mill was in the small valley of Colonui, 
 1,.500 feet above the level of the sea, and 45 
 miles from Slitter's Fort, from which it was 
 accessible by wagon without expense for road- 
 making." Early in 1848 the saw -mill was nearly 
 completed; "the water had been turned into 
 the race to carry away some of the loose dirt 
 and gravel, and then had been turned oft again. 
 On theafterncKjnof Monday, the24tliof January, 
 Marshall wasnvalking in the toil-race, when on 
 its rotten granite bcd-ro^k he saw some yellow 
 particles and picked up several of them. The 
 largest were about the size of grains of wheat. 
 . . . He thought they were gold, and went to 
 the mill, where he told the men that he had 
 found a gold mine. At the time, little import- 
 ance was attached to his statement. It was 
 regarded as a ijroper subject for ridicule. Mar- 
 shall liummered Ids new metal and found it 
 
 malleable; he put it Into the kitchen fire, nnd 
 oliMS-ved that it did not readily melt or iH'come 
 diseolored ; he compared Its color with gold coin; 
 and the more be examined it the more he was 
 eonviiiced that it was gold." lie soon found an 
 opportunity to sliow his discovery to Sutter, 
 who tested the metal with add and bv careful 
 weighing, and satistii'd himself that MarshaH's 
 conclusion was correct. In the spring of 1H4S 
 San Fninclsco, a vilhigo of al)out 700 inhabi- 
 tants, had two newspapers, the 'Californian' 
 and the 'California Star,' both weeklies. Tho 
 llrst printed nu'iition of the gold discovery was 
 a short paragraph In the former, under date of 
 the t5th of March, stating that a gold mine had 
 been fouiiil at Sutter's Mill, and tliat a jmckiigo 
 of the metal worth ililO had been received at 
 New Helvetia. . . . Before the middle of Juno 
 the whole territory resounded with the cry of 
 ' gold ' ' . . Nearly all the men hurried oil to 
 the minis. Workshops, stores, dwellings, 
 wives, and even ripe tlclds of grain, were left 
 for a time to take earo of themselves. . . . 
 The reports of the discovery, which began to 
 roach the Atlantic Sttites in September, 1849, 
 commanded little criHlence there before January; 
 but the news of the arrival of large amounts of 
 gold ut Mazatlan, Valparaiso, Panama, and New 
 York, in the latter part of tho winter, put an 
 end to all doubt, and in the . , .ing there was 
 sucli a rush of peaceful migration as the world 
 had never seen. In 1840, 25,000 — according to 
 one authority .50,000 — imndgrants went by 
 land, nnd 23,000 by sea from the region east of 
 tliB Rocky Mountains, and by sea perhaps 
 40,000 from other parts of the world. . . . Tho 
 gold yield of 1848 was estimated at |5,000,000; 
 that of 1840 at $2;),0(M),000; that of IS.W at 
 .150,000,000; that of 18.53 at |05,000,()00; and 
 tlu'n came tlie decline which has continued until 
 the present time [1800] when the yield is about 
 112,000,000."— J. 8. Ilittell, The DiacoKrn of 
 Gold in California (Century Magazine, February, 
 1891). 
 
 Also in; E. E. Dunbar, Tlie Itmnanee irf the 
 Ai/e, or the Diseotery of Gold in Cat. — II. H. 
 Bi'incroft, Iliitt. of tlie Pucifie States, ». 18 (Cali- 
 fornia, V. 6) eh. 2-4. 
 
 A. D. 1850. — Admission to the Union as a 
 free state. — The Compromise. See United 
 St.\te8 op Am. : A. I). 1850. 
 
 A. D. 1856. — The San Francisco Vigilance 
 Committee. — " The association of cilizensknown 
 a; the vigilance conmiittec, which was organized 
 ii Ban Francisco on the 15th of May, 1856, has 
 li ui such an iuHuence on tho growth and pros- 
 pi vity of tliat city that now [1877], at tho end of 
 21 -ears, a true account of tho origin nnd subse- 
 qiiei.*. u'jtionof that association will bo read with 
 interest. For some time the corruption in the 
 courts of law, the insecurity of the ballot-box 
 at elections, and the infamous character of many 
 of the public oflicials, had been the subject of 
 coir plaint, not only in San Francisco, but 
 throughout the State of California. It was evi- 
 dent to the honest and respectable citizens of 
 San Francisco that ... it would become the 
 duty of the people to protect themselves by 
 reforming the courts of law, and by taking tho 
 ballot-box from the hands of greedy and 
 unprincipled politicians." The latter were repre- 
 sented by a newspaper called the Sunday Times, 
 edited by one James P. Casey. The opinion of 
 
 350 
 
CALIFORNIA. 1856. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, ISM. 
 
 thp hfitter cliw«'s of rltizonii was volcrd by tho 
 Evcninji niillctin, wliow I'ditor wiis.Iiiiiich KIii);. 
 On till- Mill rif Miiy, IMi], lUuii wan Hlmt l>y 
 Ciiwy, In till? public Hircct, receiving ii wouiitl 
 from which he (litvl nix diiys Inter, luid Intense 
 excitement (if foelinf? In the city was iinHluccd. 
 Cnsey Hiirrendercd liiiii.Helf and wa.s lodKed in 
 jnil. DurliiK the cvcniiiK i)f till) Utli sonic of 
 the nicnibcrs of ii vlttllnncc coiiiniittec which 
 had been formed in IHUl, and which hud then 
 checked ii free riot of crime in the suddenly 
 populated and unorganized city, by tryirif? and 
 exccutlnjf a few desperadoes, came to/;ethcr and 
 determined theorfranizatlon of another conimlttce 
 for the same purpose. " The next day (the 15tli) 
 a set of rules and regulations wero drawn up 
 which each member was obliged to sljrn. The 
 coniniittce took spacious nMiins, and all citizens 
 of 8iin Francisco having? the welfiiro of the city 
 at heart were Invited to Join the association. 
 Several thousands enrolled themselves in ii few 
 days. . . . The members of the vi>;llaiice com- 
 mittee were divided Into companies of ItH), 
 each company Imvlm; a captain. Early on Sun- 
 day (the 18th) orders were sent to the dilTcrcnt 
 Crtptuins to appear with their companies ready 
 for duty at the headquarters of the coninilttee. 
 In Sacramento Street, at nine o'clock. When all 
 the ccmipanics had arrived, they were formed 
 Into one bodv, in all a'l.'mt 2,000 men. Sixty 
 picked men >'ero ,electei; as ii guard frr the 
 cxecutivo conimiUce. At half-past eleven the 
 whole force moved in the directum of the jail. 
 A Inrgj number of spectators had collected, but 
 there was no ccmfusion, no noi.se. They marched 
 through tho city to Broadway, and there formed 
 in the open space bef.ire the jail. . . . The 
 houses opposite tho Jail were searched for men 
 and arms secreted there, the committee wishing 
 to prevent any chance of u collision which might 
 lend to bloodshed. A camion was then brought 
 forward and idiiccd in front of the jail, the 
 muzzle pointed at llic door." The jai'er was 
 now called upon to deliver Casey io tlio com 
 mittce, and complied, being unable to resist. 
 One Charles Cora, who had killi-d a United States 
 marshal the. November previous, was taken 
 from the jail at the same time. The two prisoii- 
 .■V8 were escort "d to the quarters of the vigilance 
 committee and there conlined under guard. 
 Two days afterwards (>Ioy 20th) Mr. King died. 
 Casey and Cora 'vero put on trial before a tribu- 
 nal which tho committee had organized, were 
 condemned to death, and were hanged, with 
 Bolemnity, on the 22d, from a platform erected in 
 front of the building on Sacramenio Street. 
 "The executive commitce, Hnding that tho 
 power they held was perfectly under coutrol, 
 and that there was no danger of any popui.;r 
 excesses, determined to continue their work and 
 rid the country of the gang of ruffians which had 
 for so long a time managed elections in Sun Fran- 
 cisco ond its vicinity. These men were all well 
 known, and were ordered to leave San Francisco. 
 Many went away. Those who refused to go 
 were arrested and taken to the rooms of the 
 committee, where they were contlned until 
 opportunities offered for shipping them out of 
 '..he country. . . . The governor of California at 
 this time was Mr. .1. Jscely Johnson. . . . The 
 major-general of tho second divifion of state 
 militia (which included the city and county of 
 Son Francisco) was Jlr. William T. Sherman 
 
 [aftcrwartls well known In tho world m Oonoml 
 Sherman] who had ri'»lgiied his commlHsloii in 
 the rnlteil Slates army and had iM'coine a part- 
 ner in the banking house of I^ucim, Turner & 
 Co., In San Francisco. . . . Toward the end of 
 May, Oovenior .loliiison . . . appealed to (Jen- 
 cral Slierman for advice uiiil assistance in putting 
 a stop to the vigilance committee. At this tinin 
 (lenenil Wool was In command of the United 
 States troops, and ('omnuHlore Karragut had 
 charge of the navy yard." Oeneral Wool was 
 applied to for amis, and Commodore Furragut 
 was asked to si at Inn a vessel of war at anchor off 
 San Francisci). Holh olllccrs i! ■clliied to act as 
 re(iuested, having no authority to do so. " When 
 (lovcrnor Johnson returned to Sacnimi'iito, a 
 writ was issued, at his rc(iucst, by Judge Terry 
 of the supremo court, conimandin)^ the slierlil 
 of San Francisco to bring before him due William 
 .Mulligan, who was then in the hands of tho 
 vigilance committee." The vigilance conimitteo 
 refu.scd to surrender their prisoner to the sherilT, 
 and (Jcneral Sherinan was ordered to call out the 
 militia of liis di\ision tosupport that otlicer. At 
 the same time the governor Issued a proclamation 
 declaring tho city of San Francisco in a state of 
 Insurrection. General Shernian found it impo8.si- 
 ble to arm his mlliliii for service, and resigned 
 the command. The governor sought and ob- 
 tained arms elsewhere; but tho schooner which 
 brought them was seized and the arms possessed 
 by tlie conimlttce. On attempting to arrest tliu 
 person who had charge of the schooner, one of 
 tho vigilance conimitte<''s policemen, named Hop- 
 kins, WHS stabbed by the afterwards notorious 
 Judge Terry, who, with .some others, had under- 
 taken to protect tlio man. "The signal for a 
 general meetiugund'r "rrus wf?" >-:i,iindc(l, and in 
 a short time l.tWO inca wc"' reported ready for 
 duty. In an hour 4,000 men were under arms 
 and prepared to act against the so-culled law- 
 and-order party, who were collected in force at 
 tho dilTerent armories. These armories wero 
 surrounded." Judge Terry was demanded and 
 delivered up, and all the arms and ammunition 
 ! in the armories were removed. "In this way 
 was settled the question of powr between the 
 vigilance committee, who wished to restore 
 onler and were working to establish an honest 
 judiciary and a ])ure tmllot, and their opponents, 
 the law-and-ordcr party, who wished to uphold 
 the dignity of the law by means of a butcher'8 
 knife in the hands of a judge of the supreme 
 court. Although the committee were masters in 
 San Francisco, their position was made more 
 precarious by the very fact of their having dis- 
 armed their opponents. The attention of the 
 whole Union was attracted to the state of things 
 in California, and it was rumore<i that instruc- 
 tions had been sent from Washington to all the 
 United States vcsselo in the Pacific to proceed at 
 once to San Francisco ; an(i that orders were on 
 the way, placing the United States military 
 force In" California at the disposal of Governor 
 Johnson. The committee went on steadily with 
 their work. . . . All the iinportunt changed 
 which they had undertaken had been carried 
 out successfully, and they would gladly have 
 given up the responsibility they hud a lined liud 
 it not been for the ciwe of Judge Ti .... At 
 last the physicians announced that lioi)kin8 was 
 out of danger, and on the 7tli of August .Iiidgo 
 Terry was released. . . . Having got rid of 
 
 351 
 
CALIFORNIA, 1856. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 1877-1880. 
 
 .TiuIro Terry tlie committee prepared to bring 
 tlieir lnlx)ur» to a close, and on tlie IHtli of August 
 tlic whole iissociiition, numbering over .1,000 
 men, after mareliing through the principiil streets 
 of iSiin Francisco, returnecl to their headquarters 
 in Sacramento Street, where aft<'r delivcriug up 
 their arms they were relieved from duty. . . . 
 In tlic following November there v.iis an election 
 of city and county oflicers. Every thing went 
 oil very (piietly. A 'people's tiolvet', bearing 
 the mimes of thoroughly trustworthy citizens, 
 irrespective of Jiarty, was elected by a largo 
 majority, and for the last 30 years San Fmncisco 
 has had the rejjutation of being one of the best 
 governed cities in the United States." — T. G. 
 Carv, The Sin Francisco Viyilanee Covimittc< 
 (Atlantic MontMy, Dec. 1877). 
 
 At.so in: n. II. Bancroft, Ilist. of the Pacific 
 States, V. 18 (California, v. 0), ch. 35.— Gen. W. T. 
 Sherman, Menunrs, ch. 4 (v. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1877-1880.— Denis Kearney and the 
 Sand Lot Party.— The new state constitution. 
 — " Late in 1H77 a meeting was called in San Fran- 
 cisco to express sympathy with the jnen then on 
 strike at Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. . . . Some 
 strong language used at this meeting, and ex- 
 aggerated by the newspapers, frightened the 
 business men into forming a sort of committee 
 of public safety. . . . The chief result of the 
 incident was further irritation of the poorer 
 classes, who perceived that the rich were afraid 
 of them, and therefore disiicscd to deal harshly 
 with them. Shortly after came an election of 
 miuiicipal olBcers and members of the State 
 legislature. The contest, as is the custom in 
 America, brought into life a number of clubs 
 and other organizations, purporting to represent 
 various parties or sections of a party, and among 
 others a body calling itself 'The Working men's 
 Trade and Labor Union,' the Secretary of which 
 was a certain Denis Kearney. When the election 
 was over, Kearney declared that ho would keep 
 his imion going, and form a working man's party. 
 He was a drayman by trade, Irish by birth, 
 brought up a Roman Catholic, but accustomed 
 to include his religion among the established in- 
 stitutions be reviled. He had borne a good 
 character for industry and steadiness till some 
 friend 'put him into stocks,' and the loss of 
 what he hoped to gain is said to have flt^t turned 
 him to agitation. Ho had gained some faculty 
 In speaking by practice at a Sunday debating 
 club called the Lyceum of Self Culture. . . . 
 Kearney's tongue, loud and abusive, soon 
 
 fathered an audience. On the west side of San 
 rancisco, as you cross the peninsula from tlie 
 horbor towards the ocean, there is (or then was) 
 a large open space, laid out for building, but not 
 yet built on, covered with sand, and hence called 
 the Sand Lot. Here the mob had been wont to 
 gather for meetings; here Kearney formed his 
 party. At first he had merely vagabonds to lis- 
 ten, biit one of the two pcsA newspapers took 
 him up. These two, the Chronicle and the 
 Morning Call, were in keen rivalry, and the for- 
 mer seeing in this new movement a chance of 
 going ahead, filling its columns with sensational 
 matter and increasing its sale among working 
 men, went in hot and strong for the Sand Lot 
 party. . . . The advertisement which the Chro-- 
 nicle gave him by its reports and articles, and 
 which he repaid by advising working men to 
 take it, soon made him a personage; and his 
 
 position was finally assured by his being, 
 along with several other speakers, arrested and 
 prosecuted on a charge of riot, in respect of in- 
 llammatory speeches delivered at a meeting on 
 tlie top of" Nob Hill, one of the steep heights 
 whicli make San Francisco the most picturesque 
 of American cities. The prosecution failed, and 
 Kearney was a popular hero. Clerks and the 
 better class of citizens now began to attend his 
 meetings, tliough many went from mere curi- 
 osity, as they would have gone to a circus ; tlio 
 AV. P. C. (working man's Party of California) 
 was organized as a regular party, embraring the 
 whole Stiite of California, with Kearney for its 
 President. . . . The Sand Lot party <lrew its 
 support chiefly froir tlic Democrats, wlio here, 
 as in the East, have the larger share of the 
 rabble: hence its rise was not unwelcome to tlio 
 Republicans, because it promised to divide and 
 weaken their old opponents; while the Demo- 
 crats, hoping ultimately to capture it, gave a 
 feeble resistance. Tlius it grew the faster, and 
 soon began to run a ticket of its own at city and 
 State elections. It carried most of the city offices, 
 and when tlie question was submitted to the 
 people whether a new Constitution should be 
 framed for California, it threw its vote in favor 
 of having one and prevailed. . . . Next came, 
 in the summer of 1878, tlie choice of delegates to 
 the convention which was to frame the new Con- 
 stitution. The Working man's Party obtained a 
 substantial representation in the convention, but 
 its nominees were ignorant men, without ex- 
 perience or constructive ideas. . . . However 
 the working men's delegates, together with the 
 more numerous and less corruptible delegates of 
 thr farmers, got their way in many things and 
 produced that surprising instrument by which 
 California is now governed. ... 1. It restricts 
 and limits in every possible way the powers of 
 the State legislature, leaving it little authority 
 except to carry out by statutes the provisions of 
 the Constitution. It makes 'lobbying,' i. e., 
 the attempt to corrupt a legislator, and the cor- 
 rupt action of a legislator, felony. 2. It forbids 
 tlie State legistaturo or local authorities to incur 
 debts beyond a certain limit, taxes uncultivated 
 land equally ivith cultivated, makes sums due 
 on mortgage taxable in the district where the 
 mortgaged property lies, authorizes an income 
 tax, and directs a highly inquisitorial scrutiny 
 of everybody's property for the purposes of taxa- 
 tion. 3. It forbids the 'watering of stock,' de- 
 clares that the State has power to prevent cor- 
 porations from conducting their business so as to 
 'infringe the general well-being of the State'; 
 directs the charges of telegraph and gas com- 
 panies, and of water-supplying bodies, to be 
 regulated and limited by law ; institutes a rail- 
 road commission withpow.T to fix the transpor- 
 tation rates on all railroads and examine the 
 books and accounts of all transportation com- 
 panies. 4. It forbids all corporations to employ 
 any Chinese, debars them from the suffrage, 
 forbids their employment on any public works, 
 annuls all contracts for 'coolie labour,' directs 
 the legislature to provide for the punishment of 
 any company which shall import Chinese, to 
 impose conditions on the residence of Chinese, 
 and to cause their removal if they fail to observe 
 these conditions. It also declares that eight 
 hours shall constitute a legal day's work on all 
 public works. When the Constitution came to 
 
 352 
 
CALIFORNIA, 1877-1880. 
 
 CAMDORICUM. 
 
 be submitted to the vote of the people, in JIny 
 1870, it was vcbomently oi)i)ose(l by the moiiicd 
 men. . . . Tlie striij^^^le was severe, but tlie 
 Grnnger party conmiandeil so many r\iral votes, 
 and tlic Sand Lot party so many in San Francisco 
 (wliose popidation is nearly a tliird of that of the 
 entire State) that the Constitution was carried, 
 though l)y a small majority, only 11,000 out of 
 a total of 145,000 citizens voting. . . . The next 
 thing was to choose a legislature to carrj' out 
 the Constitution, Had the same influences pre- 
 vailed in tliis election as prevailed in that of the 
 Constitutional Convention, the results might have 
 been serious. But fortunately there was a slight 
 reaction. ... A series of statutes was passed 
 which gave effect to the provisions of • je Con- 
 stitution in a form perhaps as little harmful as 
 could be contrived, and certainly less harmful 
 than had been feared when the Constitution was 
 put to the vote. JIany bad hills, particularly 
 those aimed at tlii' Cliincse, were defeated, and 
 one may say generally that the expectations of 
 tlic Sand Lot men were grievously isappointed. 
 AVhile all this was passing, Kearu ' had more 
 and more declined in fame and po'.i .-r. lie did 
 not sit either in the Constitutional C( nvention or 
 in the legislature of 1880. The moh had tired of 
 his harangues, especially as little seemed to come 
 of them, and as the cimdidates of the W. P. C. had 
 behaved no better in ofHce than those of the old 
 parties. He had quarreled with the Chronicle. 
 He was, moreover, quite unfitted by knowledge 
 or training to argue the legal, economical, and 
 political questions invo:ved in the new Constitu- 
 tion so that the prominence of these questions 
 •threw him into the background. . . . Since 1880 
 he has played no part in Californian politics, and 
 is indeed so insignificant that no one cares to 
 know where he goes or what he does. " — J. Bryce, 
 The American Commomcealth, ch. 90 {v. 2), and 
 app. to V. 1 (containing the text of the Const, of 
 Col). 
 
 — — • 
 
 CALIGULA, SceCAius. 
 
 CALIPH, The Title.— The title Caliph, or 
 Khalifa, simply signifies in the Arabic language 
 "Successor." The Caliphs were the successors 
 of Mahomet. 
 
 CALIPHATE, The. See Mahometan Con- 
 quest. 
 
 CALIPHS, The Turkish Sultan becomes 
 successor to the. SeeB.\or)An: A. D. 13.58. 
 
 CALISCH, OR KALISCH, Treaty of. See 
 Geumany; A. I). 1813-1813. 
 
 CALIXTINES, The. See Bohemia: A. D. 
 1419-1434. 
 
 CALLAO: Siege, 1825-1826. See Peru: 
 A. D. 1820-1836. 
 
 A. D. 1866. — Repulse of the Spanish fleet. 
 See Peru: A. D. 18?" 1870. 
 
 CALLEVA. — One of the greater towns of 
 Roman Britain, the walls of which, found at Sil- 
 chester enclose an area of three miles in circuit. 
 — T. Wright, Celt, lioman and Saxon, ch. 5. 
 
 CALLIAS, Peace of. Sec Athens: B. C. 
 460-449. 
 
 CALLINICUS, B-ttle of.— Fought la the 
 wars of the Romans ^>ith the Persians, on the 
 banks of the Euphraten, Easter Eve, iV D. 531. 
 The Romans, commanded by Belisarius, suffered 
 an apparent defeat, but they checked an intended 
 advance of the Persians on Antioch. — G. Itawlln- 
 son, Seventh Oreat Oriental Monarchy, ch. 19. 
 
 CALLISTUS II., Pope, A. D. 1119-1124. 
 . . . Callistus III., Pope, A. 1). 1455-1458. 
 
 CALMAR, The Union of. See Scandina- 
 vian States: A. I). I()18-i;t97, and 1397-1537. 
 
 CALPULALPAM, Battle of (i860). See 
 
 MkXICO; A. I). l«lH-lMflt. 
 
 CALPURNIAN LAW,The.— "Intliisyear, 
 B. (;. 149, the tribune L. Calpurnius Piso Frugl, 
 who was one of tlie Roman writers of annals, 
 proposed and carried a Lex Calpurnia, which 
 made a great change in the Roman criminal 
 procedure. Before tliis time and to the third 
 P\uiic war, when a magi.stratus had misconducteil 
 himself in his foreign administration by oppres- 
 sive acts and si)oliation, tliere were several ways 
 of inquiring into his offence. . . . But these 
 modes of procedi.re were insufiicient to protect 
 the subjects of Rome against bad magistratus. 
 . . . The remedy for these evils was tlic establish- 
 ment of a court under the name of Quaestio Per- 
 pctiia de pecuniis ropetundis, the first regul.ir 
 crinunal court that existed at Rome. Courts 
 similiirly constituted were afterwards established 
 for the trial of persons charged with other 
 offences. The Lex ("alpnrnia defined the offence 
 of Repetundw, as it was briefly named, to be 
 the taking of money by irregular means for the 
 use of a governor. The name Repetundas was 
 given to this offence, because the object of the 
 procedure was to compel the governor to make 
 restitution. . . . The court consisted of a pre- 
 siding judge . . . and of a body of judices or 
 jui-ymen annually appointed. The number of 
 this body of judices is not known, but they were 
 all senators. The judge and a juiy taken from 
 the body of the judices tried all the cases which 
 came before them during one year; and hence 
 came the name Quaestio Perpetua or standing 
 court, in opposition to the extraordinary commis- 
 sions which had hitherto been appointed as the 
 occasion arose. We do not know that the Lex 
 Calpurnia contained any ,yenaltics. As far as the 
 evidence shows, it simply enabled the complain- 
 ants to obtain satisfaction." — G. Long, Decline 
 of the Roman liepubUc, ch. 3. 
 
 CALUSA, The. Sec Americvn Aborigines : 
 
 TiMUQUANAN FAMILY. 
 
 CALVEN, Batl'a of (1499). Sec Switzer- 
 land: A. D. 1390 .499. 
 
 CALVIN Ar J THE REFORMATION. 
 See Papacy: A. 1). 1531-1535; and Geneva: 
 A. D. 1536-1564. 
 
 CAMARCUM.— The ancient name of the 
 town of Cambrai. 
 
 CAMARILLA. — A circle of irresponsible 
 chamber counsellors — court'"rs — surrounding 
 a sovereign with influences superior to those of 
 his responsible ministers. 
 
 CAMBALU.OR CAMBALEC. SeeCiiiNA: 
 A. I). 12.59-1394. 
 
 C AMB AS, OR C AMPA, OR C AMPO, The. 
 Sec BoLiMA: Aboriginal iniiahitants; and 
 American Aiiouuiinks: Andesians. 
 
 CAMBORICUM.— A Roman town in Bri- 
 tain. — " Camboricum was without doubt a very 
 important town, wliieh rommanded the southern 
 fens. It had three forts or citadels, the principal 
 of which occupied the district called the Castle- 
 end, in the modern town of Cambridge, and ai)pears 
 to have had a bridge over the Cam, or Grauta ; 
 of the others, one stood below the town, at Ches- 
 terton, and the other above it, at Granchcster. 
 Numerous roads branched off from this town. 
 
 353. 
 
CAMBORICUM. 
 
 CAMPBELL. 
 
 , . . Bp(1o calls the representative of CamlK)ri- 
 cum, in his time, a 'little deserted city,' and 
 tells us how, when the nuns of Ely wanted a 
 coflln for tlieir sjiiiitly abbess, Ethelnreda, tliey 
 found a iH'autiful sculptured sarcophagus of 
 white marble outside the city walls of tlie 
 Roman town." — T. Wright, CkU, Roman and 
 Siixoii, eh. ."i. 
 
 CAMBRAI : A. D. 1581. — Unsuccessful 
 siege by the Prince of Parma, See Netiieh- 
 Lands: a. I). 1581-1584. 
 
 A. D. 1595-1598.— End of the Principality of 
 governor Balagni. — Siege and capture by the 
 Spaniards. — Retention under the treaty of Ver- 
 vfns. See Fuanck: A. D. ISOS-LIOS. 
 
 A. .D. 1677.— Taken by Louis XIV. See 
 Netiiehlan-us (Holland): A. I). 1674-1078. 
 
 A. D. 1670.— Ceded to France. Sec Nime- 
 OUEN, TuE Peace ok 
 
 CAMBRAI, The League of. See Yekice: 
 A. D. 1508-1. "509. 
 
 CAMBRAI, Peace of. See Italy: A. D. 
 1527-1529. 
 
 C AMBRI/^ .—The early name of Wales. See 
 Kymuy, and C.1.MBI11A; also, Buitain : 6'rii Cen- 
 tury. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, England, Origin of. See 
 
 CAMBOUK't:M. ' 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Mass.— The first settle- 
 ment. SiM' Maksaciiusettb: A. D. 1629-l«;i0. , 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Platform, The. See Mass.v 
 Ciiusetts: a. D. 1«40-1G51. 
 
 CAMBYSES, OR KAMBYSES, King of 
 Persia, B. C. 529-522. 
 
 CAMDEN, Battle of. See United States 
 OF Am. : A. D. 1780 (FEimuAuv— August). 
 
 CAMERONIAN REGIMENT, The.— In 
 1689, when Claverhouse was raising the High- 
 land clans in favor of James II., " AVilliam Cle- 
 land, who had fought with distinguished bravery 
 at Bothwell, and was one of the few men whom 
 Claverhouse feared, made an offer to the [Scot- 
 tish] Estates to raise a regiment among the Cam- 
 eronians, under tlie colonelcy of the Earl of 
 Angus, and the offer was accepted. Such was 
 the origin of the Camcronian regiment. Its first 
 lieutenant-colonel was Cleland ; its first chaplain 
 •was Shields. Its courage was first tried at Dun- 
 keld, where these 800 Covenanted warriors rolled 
 back the tide of Celtic invasion ; and since that, 
 undegenerate thougli changed, it has won tro- 
 phies In every quarter of tlie world." — J. Cuu- 
 ningham. Church Hist, of Scotland, v. 2, eh. 7. 
 
 Also in : J. Browne, Ilist. of the IlighlancU, 
 «. 2, ch. 8. 
 
 CAMERONIANS, The. See Scotland: 
 A. D. 1081-1{)89. 
 
 CAMISARDS, The revolt of the. See 
 Fkance: a. D. 1702-1710. 
 
 CAMORRA, OR CAMORRISTI, The.— 
 "Besides the regular authorities known to and 
 avowed by the law . . . there existed under t'le 
 Bourbon rule at Naples [overthrown by Garibaldi 
 in 1860] a self-constituted authority more 
 terrible than either. It was not easy to obtain 
 exact proof of the operation of this authority, 
 for it was impatient of question, its vengeance 
 was prompt, and the instrument of that ven- 
 geance was the knife. In speaking of it as one 
 authority it is possible to err, for different forms 
 or branches of this secret institution at times 
 
 revcalc(i their existence by the orders which 
 thoy issued. Tliis si'cret influence was that of 
 tlie Camorra, or Camorristi, a sort of combina- 
 tion of the violence of the middle ages, of the 
 trades union tyranny of Shetlleld, and of the 
 blackmail levy of the borders. The Camorristi 
 were a body of unknown individuals who sub- 
 sisted on the public, especially on the smaller 
 tradespeople. A man eflected a sale of his ware ; 
 as the customer left his shop a man of the people 
 would enter and demand the tax on the sale for 
 tlie Camorra. None could escape from the 
 odious tyranny. It was impalpable to the 
 police. It did not confine itself to the industry 
 of illicit taxation. It issued its orders. When 
 the Italian Parliament imposed stamp duties, 
 that sensibly increased the cost of litigation, that 
 indispensable luxury of the Neapolitans, the 
 advocates received letters warning them to cease 
 all practice in tiie courts so long as these stamp 
 duties were enforced. 'Otherwise,' continued 
 the mandate, ' we shall take an early opportunity 
 of arranging your affairs.' Signe{l hy 'the 
 Camorra of the avvocati.' The arrangement 
 hinted at was to be made by the knife. . . . The 
 Italian governmeiit, much to its credit, made a 
 great onslaught on the Camorristi. Slauy were 
 arrested, imprisoned or exiled, some even killed 
 one another in prison. But the total eradication 
 of so terrible a social vice must be [published in 
 1867] a work of great dilBculty, perseverance 
 and time." — The I'nnity of Italy; by an English 
 Civilian, p. 70. 
 
 CAMP OF REFUGE AT ELY. See Eng- 
 land: A. D. 1009-1071. 
 
 CAMPAGNA, OR CAMPANIA.— " 'The 
 name of Campania,' says Pelligrini, ' which was 
 first applied to the territory of Capua alone, ex- 
 tended itself by successive rc-arraagements of 
 the Italian provinces over a great part of Central 
 Italy, and then gradually shrank back again 
 into its birth-place, and at last berame restricted 
 to the limits of one city only, Naples, and that 
 one of the least importance in Italy. What 
 naturally followed was tlie total disuse of the 
 name.' . . . The term Campania, therefore, be- 
 came obsolete except in the writings of a few 
 mediaeval authors, whose statements created 
 some confusion by their iguorauce of the different 
 senses in which it had at different times been 
 used. An impression seems, however, to have 
 prevailed that the district of Capua had been so 
 named on account of its flat and fertile nature, 
 and hence every similar tract of plain country 
 came to be called a campagna in the Italian 
 language. The exact time wiien the name, 
 which had thus become a mere appellative, wa» 
 applied to the Roman Campagna is not accurately 
 ascertained. ... It will be seen that the term. 
 Roman Campagna is not a geographical definition 
 of any district or province with clearly fixed 
 limits, but tlmt it is a name loosely employed in 
 speaking of the tract which lies round the city 
 of Rome." — R. Burn, Jiome and the Campagna, 
 'ch. 14, note at end. 
 
 Also in : Sir W. Gell, Topog. of Home, v. 1. 
 
 CAMPALUINO, Battle of. See Floiiencb: 
 A. T). 1289. 
 
 CAMPANIANS, The, See Sabinks : also, 
 Samnites. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Sir Colin (Lord Clyde), The 
 Indian Campaign of. See India : A. D. 1867- 
 1858. 
 
 354 
 
CAMPBELL'S STATION. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 CAMPBELL'S STATION, Battle of. See 
 United States of Am. : A. D. ise."} (October— 
 Dgcemurk : Tennessee). 
 
 CAMPERDOWN, Naval battle of. Sue 
 ENfii,.VNi) : A. 1). 1797. 
 
 CAMPO-FORMIO, Peace of. See Fijance : 
 A D. 17!)7(.May— OcTOiiEU). 
 
 CAMPO SANTO, Battle of (1743). See 
 Italy : A. D. 1741-1743. 
 
 CAMPO-TENESE, Battle of (1806). See 
 Fkajjce : A. D. 1805-1800 (Dece.muek— Sep- 
 te.mbek). 
 
 CAMPUS I.ARTIUS AT ROME, The. 
 — "The history of the Cam 'pus Jturlius presents 
 us witli a series of striking contrasts. It has 
 been covered in successive ages, first by tlio 
 cornfields of the Tarquiniau dynasty, then by 
 the parade ground of tlie great military repub- 
 lic, ne.\t by a forest of martle colonnades and 
 porticoes, and, lastly, by a confused mass of 
 mean and filthy streets, clustering round vast 
 mansions, and innumemble cliurches of every 
 size and description. . . . During the time of 
 the Republic, tlie whole Campus seems to have 
 been considered state property and was used as 
 a military and athletic exercise ground and a 
 place of meeting for the comitia centuriata." — 
 K. Burn, Ilome ami the Campagna, ch 13, pt. 1. 
 — "We have hitherto employed tins name to 
 designate the whole of the meadow laud bounded 
 by the Tiber on one side, and on the other by the 
 CoUis Ilortulorum, the Quirinal and the Capito- 
 line. . . . Butthc Campus Martius, strictly speak- 
 ing, was that portion only of tlie tlat ground 
 
 which lies in the angle formed by the bend of 
 the stream. According to the narrative of Livy, 
 It was the property of the Tarquins, and upon 
 their expulsion was conflscateil, and then conse- 
 crated to Mars ; but Dionysiiis asserts that it had 
 been previously set apart to the gcd and sacri- 
 legiously appropriated by tli(^ tyrant. . . . During 
 the republic the Campus Martius was employed 
 specially for two purposes. (1.) Asa placo'for 
 holding the constitutional assemblies (coinitia) 
 especially the Comitia Centuriata, and also for 
 ordinary public meetings (coneiones). (2.) For 
 gymnastic and warlike sport". For seven cen- 
 turies it remained almost entirely open. ... In 
 the Comitia, the citizens, when their votes were 
 taken, passed into enclosures termed septa, or 
 ovilia, which were, for a long period, temporary 
 wooden erections. "— W. Uumsay, Manual of 
 Jiomaii Antiq., ch. 1. 
 
 CAMULODUNUM. See Colciiestek, Ori- 
 gin OK. 
 
 CAMUNI, The. See Rii.eti.\ns. 
 
 CANAAN. — CANAANITES. — " Canaan 
 signifies ' the lowlands,' and was primarily the 
 name of the coast on which the great cities of 
 Phoenicia were built. As, however, the inland 
 parts of the country were inhabited by a kindred 
 population, the name came to be extended to 
 designate the whole of Palestine, just as Pales- 
 tine itself meant originally only the small territory 
 of the Philistines." — A. II. Sayce, Fresh Light 
 from the Ancient Monuments, eh. 2. — See PiifCNi- 
 ciANs: OiiioiN and eahlv iiisToiiv ; also, Jews: 
 The Early Hebrew History, and Hamites. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 (NEW FRANCE.') 
 
 Names. — "The year after the failure of Ver- 
 razano's last enterprise, 1525, Stefano Gomez 
 sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida; thence 
 he steered northward in search of the long hoped- 
 for passage to India, till he reached Cape Race, 
 on tiic southeastern extremity of Newfoundland. 
 The further details of his voyage remain un- 
 known, but there is reason to suppose that he 
 entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and traded 
 upon its shores. An ancient Castilian tradition 
 existed that the Spaniards visited these coasts 
 before the French, and having perceived no ap- 
 pearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed 
 frequently 'Aca nada' [signifying 'here is 
 nothing 'J; the natives caught up the sound, and 
 ■when other Europeans arrived, repeated it to 
 them. The strangers concluded that lliese words 
 were a designation, and from that time this mag- 
 nificent country bore the name of Canada. . . . 
 Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were 
 the first discoverers of Canada, and that, finding 
 nothing there to gratify their extensive desires 
 for gold, they bestowed upon it the appellation 
 of Capo di Nada, 'Cape Nothing,' whence by 
 corruption its present name. ... La Potlierie 
 gives the same derivation. . . . This derivation 
 would reconcile the different assertions of the 
 early discoverers, some of whom give the name 
 of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Law- 
 rence; others, equally worthy of credit, confine 
 it to a small district in the neighbourhood of 
 Stadacoua (now Quebec). . . . Duponceau, in 
 
 the Transactions of the [American] Philosophical 
 Society, of Philadelphia, founds his conjecture 
 of the Indian origin of the name of Canada upon 
 the fact that, in the translation of the Gospel of 
 St. Matthew into the Mohawk tongue, made by 
 Bmudt, the Indian chief, the wonl Canada f» 
 always used to signify a village. The mistake 
 of the early discoverers, in taking the name of a 
 part for that of the whole, is very pardonable in 
 persons ignorant of the Indian language. . . . 
 The natural conclusion ... is, that the word 
 Canada was a mere local appellation, without 
 reference to the country; that each tribe had 
 their own Canada, or collection of huts, which 
 shifted its position according to their migra- 
 tions." — E. Warburton, The Conquest of Canada, 
 V. 1, ch. \, and foot-note. — " Canada was the name 
 which Cartier found attached to the laud and 
 there is no evidence that he attempted to displace 
 it. . . . Nor did Roberval attempt to name the 
 country, while the commission given him by the 
 king does not associate the name of Francis or 
 any new name therewith. . . . Tlicre seems to 
 have been a belief in New England, at a later 
 day, that Canada was derived from 'Willium and 
 Emery de Caen (Cane, as the English spelled it), 
 who were in New France in 1021, and later. 
 Cf. Morton's 'New English Canaan,' Adam's edi- 
 tion, p. 235, and Josselyn's 'Rarities,' p. 5; also, 
 J. Reade, in his history of geographical naimiB 
 in Canada, printed in New Dominion Jlonthly, 
 xi. 344."— B. F. De Costa, Jacques Cartier and 
 
 355 
 
CANADA. 
 
 Founding nt 
 " ' "■ ia(. 
 
 Port Boyaf. 
 
 CANADA, 1603-1605. 
 
 his Sinrfiuort (Xarrntite and Crit. IIi»t. of Am., 
 V. 4, ch. 2), iiitd Editor's foot -note.--" Cnrtior calls 
 tin; Ht. Lawruncc the ' Uivcr of Ilochclaga,' or 
 'the great river of Cniinda.' He contines tlio 
 naiiKr of Caiiathi to a district cvteniliiig from the 
 Isle nu.x ("ouUres in the 8t. Lawrence to a poiiii 
 at some (list.ii.ee i\l)o\e the Bite of Quolicc. The 
 country belt .v, he adds, was called by the In- 
 d'ans Hiiguenay, and that above, lloehelaga. In 
 the map of Gerard Mcrcator (LWU) the name 
 C.inadii !s given to a town, with an adjacent dis- 
 trict, on the river Stadin (St. Charles). Lescar- 
 bot, a later writer, insists that the coimtry on 
 both sides of the St. Lawrence, from Ilochelaga 
 to its mouth, bore the name of Canada. In the 
 second map of Ortelius, puldished about the 
 year 1572, New France, Nova Francia is thus 
 divided: — ' Canada, 'a district on the St. Lawrence 
 above the River Saguenay; 'Chilaga'(IIoclielaga), 
 the angle between the Ottawa and the St. Law- 
 rence; 'Saguenai.'a district below the river of 
 that name; ' Moscosa,' south of the St. Lawrence 
 and cast of the River Uichclieu; ' Avacal,' west 
 and south of Moscosa; 'Norumbcga,' Maine and 
 New Brunswicli; ' Apalachen,' Virginia, Penn- 
 sylvania, etc.; 'Terra Corterealis,' Labrador; 
 'Florida,' Mississippi, Alabama, Florida. Mcr- 
 cator contines the name of New Franco to districts 
 bordering on the St. Lawrence. Otliers give it 
 a much broader application. The use of this 
 name, or the nearly allied names of Fnincisca 
 and La Franciscane, dates bacl{, to say the 
 least, as far as 15'25, and the Dutcli geographers 
 are especially free in their use of it, out of spite 
 to the Si)aniards. Tlie derivation of the name of 
 Canada has been a point of discussion. It is, 
 without doulit, not Spanish, but Indian. . . . 
 Lescarljot alllrms that Canada is simply an In- 
 dian proper name, of wliich it is vain to seelc a 
 meaning. Bcllcforest also calls it an Indian 
 word, but translates it ' Terre,' as does a'.so 
 Tlievet." — F. Prtrlcman,/'('oH«'('« of Prance in the 
 ■New World; CftampUiin, ch. 1, foot-note. 
 
 The Aboriginal inhabitants. Sec American 
 Abokioines: Aloonqui.'VN Family; Huhons; 
 OjiuwAYs; SiouAN Family; Athapascan 
 Family, and Eskimauan Family. 
 
 A. D. 1497-1498.— Coast discoveries of the 
 Cabots. See Amkuica: A. D. 14»7 and 1498. 
 
 A. D. 1500. — Cortereal on the coast. See 
 
 Am'-.tca: a. d. irm. 
 
 f . D. 1501-1504. — Portuguese, Norman and 
 Briton fishermen on the Newfoundland banks. 
 See Newfoundland: A. D. 1501-11578. 
 
 A. D. 1524. — The coasting voyage of Ver- 
 razano. See Amkuica: A. U. 1533-1524. 
 
 A. D. 1534-1535.— Possession taken by 
 Jacques Cartier tor the King of France. See 
 Ameuica: A. I). 1534-1535. 
 
 A. D. 1541-1603.— Jacques Cartier's last 
 undertaking. — Unsuccessful French attempts 
 at Colonization. See America; A. D. 1541- 
 1003. 
 
 A. D. 1603-1605.— The Beginning of Cham- 
 plain's Career in the New World.— Coloniza- 
 tion at Port Royal.— Exploration of the New 
 England coast. — In Pontgrave's expedition of 
 1003 to New France [see America: A. D. 154'- 
 1003], "Sanniel de Cliamplaiu, a captain in tiie 
 navy, accepted a command ... at the request 
 of l)e Chatte [or De Cliastes] ; he was a native 
 of Saiutonge, and had lately returned to Franco 
 from the West Indies, where he had gaiued a 
 
 high name for boldness and skill. Under the 
 direction of this wise and energetic man the first 
 successful efforts were made to foui.u a per- 
 manent settlement in the magnificent province 
 of Canada, and the stain of tlie errors and disaster* 
 of more than seventy years was at len' th wiped 
 away. Pontgrave and Champlaia sailed for the 
 St. Lawrence in 1603," explored it as far as the 
 rapids of St. Louis, and tlien returned to France. 
 They found that the patron of tlieir undertaking, 
 De tliastes, was dead. " Pierre du Guast, Sieur 
 de Slonts, liad succeeded to tlie powers and 
 privileges of the deceased, with even a more ex- 
 tensive commission. De Jlonts was a Calvinist, 
 and liad obtained from the king the freedom of 
 religious faith for liimself and his followers in 
 America, but under the engagement that *'ie 
 lioman Catholic worship should be established, 
 among the natives. . . . The trading company 
 establislied by De Cliatte was continued and in- 
 creased by Ills successor. With this additional 
 aid De Monts was enabled to fit out a more com- 
 plete armament tlian had ever liitherto been 
 engaged in Canadian commerce. He sailed from 
 Havre on the 7th of March, 1604, with four 
 vessels. Of tliese, two under liis immediate 
 command were destined for Acadia. Champlain, 
 Poutrincourt, and many otlicr volunteers, em- 
 barked their fortunes with liim, purposing to 
 cast their future lot in the New World. A third 
 vessel was dispatched under Pontgrave to the 
 Strait of Canso, to protect the exclusive trading 
 l)rivile"es of the company. The fourth steered 
 for Tadoussac, to barter for the rich furs brought 
 by the Indian Imnters from the dreary wilds of 
 the Saguenay. On the 6th of May De Monts 
 readied a harbor on the coast of Acadia ;" but, 
 for some reason not to be understood, his pro- 
 jected colony was quartered on the little islet of 
 St. Croix, near the mouth of the river of that 
 name, which became subsequently the boundary 
 between Maine and New Brunswick. Meantime, 
 the fine harbor, now Annapolis, then named 
 Port Royal, had been discovered, and was 
 
 granted, with a large surrounding territory, by 
 m lHonts to De Poutrincourt, who proposed to 
 settle upon it as its feudal proprietor and lord. 
 The colony at St. Croix liaving been housed and 
 ])Ut in order, De Poutrincourt sailed for France, 
 intending to bring his family and establisli him- 
 self at Port Royal. De Monts, Champlain, and 
 those who remained, suffered a winter of terrible 
 hardsliips, and thirty-five died before spring. 
 De Monts now resolved to seek a better site for 
 his Infant settlement, and, finding no other 
 situation so good he resumed possession of that 
 most desirable Port Roy^l wliich lie had granted 
 away to Poutrincourt and removed his colony 
 thither. Cliamplain, meanwhile, in tlie summer 
 of 1605, had explored the coast southward far 
 down tlie future home of tlie English Puritans, 
 looking into IMassachusetts Bay, taking shelter 
 in Plymouth liarbor and naming it Port St. 
 Louis, doubling Capo Cod ("whicli lie called Cap 
 Blanc), turning back at Nausett Harbor, and 
 gaining on the whole a remarkable knowledge 
 of the country and its coast. Soon after Cliam- 
 plf.in's return from this coasting voyage, 
 De Monts was called home to Franco, by news 
 of machinations that were threatening to ex- 
 tinguish his patent, and Pontgrave was left in 
 command of the colony at Port Royal. — E. War- 
 burton, T/ie Conquest vf Canada, «. 1, ch. 3. — In 
 
 356 
 
CANADA, 1003-1005. 
 
 Champlaf i'» 
 
 CAN AH A, 1008-1611. 
 
 Do Monts' jwtitioii to tlu; kin/j; for leave to colo- 
 nize Aciulia that rcj^ion viun dcfliicd "ttse:;teii(l- 
 iiig from the lOtli to the 40tli degree of north 
 iatitude or from Plulnd(dphiu to beyond Mou- 
 ♦,2al." — F. Parkman, Pioneers of Friiiee in t'ui 
 A'eie W'>rtd: Champlain, ch. 3. 
 
 .A ' io IN : E. F. Slafter, [ftmoir pref. to 
 " Voi/offeg of SmnuA de Chdn.pluiii " {Prince the., 
 1880), cA. 1-5. 
 
 A. D. icj6-i6o8. — The fortunes of the 
 Acadian colony. — "Pe Monts fou.id liis patli- 
 way iu France surrounded witli ditllcidtiea. Tlie 
 Kocliclle merchants wl)o were jiartners in tlio 
 enterprise 'lesircd a return for tlicir investments. 
 The Baron de Poutrincou.t, wlio was still 
 possessed with the desire to make the New 
 World his homo, proved of assistance to Do 
 Monts. De Poutriucourt returned to Acadia 
 and encouraged the colonists, wlio were on the 
 verge of deserting Port Uoyal. With De Pou- 
 triucourt emigrated at this time a Parisian 
 advocate, named Mark Lescarbot, who was of 
 great service to the colony. During the absence 
 of De Poutrincourt on an exploring expedition 
 down the coast, Lescarbot drained and repaired 
 the colonists' fort, and made a number of ad- 
 ministrative changes, much improving the con- 
 dition of the settlers. The following winter was 
 one of comfort, indeed of enjoyment. ... In 
 May, however, the sad news reached the colony 
 that the company of the merchants on whom it 
 depended had been broken up. Their depen- 
 dence being gone, on tlie 30th of July most of 
 the colonists left Acadia for France ui vessels 
 sent out for them. For two years the empty 
 buildings of Port Royal stood, a melancholy 
 sight, with not a white person in them, but 
 under the safe protection of Memborton, the 
 Micmak chief, who proved a trusty friend to the 
 French. The opposition to the company of 
 Rochelle arose from various causes. In addition 
 to its financial difficulties the fact of De Monts 
 being a Protestant was seized on as the reason 
 why nothing was being done in the colony to 
 christianize the Indians. Accordingly when De 
 Monts, fired with a new scheme for exploring 
 the northwest passage, turned over tlie man- 
 agement of Acadian allairs to De Poutrincourt, 
 who was a sincere Catholic, some of the diffi- 
 culties disappeared. It was not, however, till 
 two years later that arrangements were made for 
 a new Acadian expedition." — G. Bryco, Short 
 Hist, of the Gaihidian People, ch. 4, sect. 1. 
 
 Also in: J. Hannay, llist. of Acadia, ch. 4. 
 
 A. D. 1608-1611. — Champlain's third and 
 fourth expeditions. — His settlement at Que- 
 bec, discovery of Lake Champlain, and first 
 Tvars with the Iroquois. — "Do Monts in no 
 way lost heart, and he resolved to continue in 
 the career of exploration for settlement. A new 
 expedition Avas determined on, and De Jlonts 
 selected the Saint Lawrence as the spot where 
 the effort should be made. Champlain coun- 
 selled the change. In ^^lova Scotia and on the 
 coast of New Brunswicic and Maine he had been 
 struck by the number of ports affording protec- 
 tion to vessels from sea, and by the small number 
 of Indians whom he had met. In Nova Scotia 
 he would be exposed to rival attempts at settle- 
 ment, and at the same time he could not see the 
 possibility of obtaining Indian allies. In Canada 
 the full control would remain with those who 
 first made a settlement ou the Saint Lawrence, 
 
 and Champlain counted the native tribes lus 
 l)owcrful instiumciits in carrying out his pciicy. 
 We have «lie key here to his "conduct in assisting 
 the Ilurons in ftlK-ir wars. . . . In 1008 1 'ham- 
 plain »tart'.'(' for the St. Lawrenc. I'ontgnive 
 was with the expedition. .V settlement was 
 made at Quebec, ns 'he most suitablr place. 
 Some ground was cleared, buililings were com- 
 nionced, when a conspiracy wa.s discoveicd. 
 Tlie ringleader was lianged and three of those 
 mtivdy iniplicated w'ere sent back to France 
 witli Pontgrave on his return in the autumn. 
 Matters now went peaceably on. The summer 
 was passed in completing tlio ' Abitation de (Jue- 
 bec,' of which Champlain has left us a sketch. 
 It was situated in tlio jiresent Lower Town on the 
 river bank, 'n\ the corner whore Notre Dame 
 Street meets Sous le Fort '^treot. It was hero 
 Champlain laid the foundation Uix the future 
 city. Winter came, the scurvy carrying olf 
 twenty of their number. ... In June, Dos 
 JIarais, Pontgravo's son-in-law, arrived, telling 
 him that Pontgrave was at Taddusac. Cliam- 
 I)lain i)roceeded thither. The question had then 
 to bo discussed, what policy sliould be followed 
 with the Indians? Should they bo bo iiiileil by 
 what force Champlain could command, in the 
 expedition which they had resolved to make 
 against the Iroquois ? It is plain that no advance 
 in discovery could have boon made without their 
 assistance, and that this assistance could only 
 have been obtained by rendering them service. 
 . . . AVith the view of making explorations 
 beyond the points then known by Europeans, 
 Champlain in the middle of June ascended the 
 St. Lawrence. About a league and a half west 
 of the river Saint Anne, they wore joined by a 
 party of Algonquins wlio were to form a pari of 
 the expedition. Cliamplaia tells us of their 
 mortal feud with the Iroquois, a proof that in no 
 way he created it. They all returned to Quebec, 
 where there was festivity for some days. It was 
 brought to a close and the war parties started ; 
 Champlain with nine men, Dcs Marais and a 
 pilot, joined it [them ?]. With his Indian allies 
 lie ascended the Uiclielieu and reached Lake 
 Champlain, the first white man who saw its 
 waters: subsequently for 105 years to be the 
 scene of contest between the Indian and white 
 man, the French and English, the revolted 
 Colonies and the Mother Country. . . . The 
 advance up Lake Chaini)lain was made only by 
 night. They reached Crown Point. They were 
 then in the Iroquois domain ; very shortly they 
 knew of the presence of the enemy." On the 
 30th of July the invaders fought a battle with 
 the Iroquois, who fled in terror before the arque- 
 buse of Champlain, which killed two of tlioir 
 chiefs and wounded a third. Soon after his 
 return to Quebec from this expedition — the 
 beginning of the long war of the French with 
 the Iroquois — Champlain was sunimoued to 
 France. The patent of De Monts had been re- 
 voked and he could not obtain its renewal. 
 "Nevertheless, De Monts, with his associates 
 decided to continue their efforts, and, in March, 
 1010, Champlain again started for Canada." 
 After reaching Quebec his stay this time was 
 short. He joined liis Indian allies in another 
 expedition of war, and helped them to win 
 another victory over ^tlie Iroquois, at a place 
 on the Richelieu, one league above Sorel, On 
 rcturniug he got news of the ossassiuatiou of 
 
 357 
 
CANADA, 160a-16n. 
 
 EnfjtiMh (iftitck itti 
 Mount l)e»ert. 
 
 CANADA, 1310-1613. 
 
 Ilfurj- fV find gUirU'd (it once for France. "Tlio 
 (Icalli of h 'ti'T IV. (••■'^rciscd great iiilluence on 
 the I'ortuiieH of Cuniula. He hod nerHonuIly 
 taken interest in Chuinpliiin's 'oyagcs, and Ins 
 energetic mind was well tiualiflea to direct the 
 fortnne? of u growing colony. Louis XIII. was 
 not then ten years old. Mary of Sledecis was 
 under the control of her favourites, Leonora 
 Galigai, an<l her husband, Concino Coneini. 
 Hiclielieu had not then appeared on the scene. 
 . . . The Jesuits were becoming all-powerful at 
 Court. . . . France was unsettled and disordered. 
 The Protestants, not witliout provocation, were 
 acting with passion and without judgment. The 
 assassination of the King had alarmed tliem. 
 The whole kingdom was threatened witli con- 
 vulsion and anarchy, and Canada was to pass 
 out of the notice of those in power: and, in the 
 sense of giving aid, half a century was to elapse 
 before the French Oovernnicnt could compre- 
 lieiid the duty of ta'ing part in the defence of 
 the country, and of protecting the persons of 
 those living iu New France. The ground was 
 to be regarded simply as a field for the active 
 trader, side by side with the devoted missionary. 
 Thus the Government fell virtually under the 
 control of the Jesuits, who, impatient of contra- 
 diction, aimed only at the establishment of their 
 authority, which was to bring the colony to the 
 verge or destruction." Cliamplain returned to 
 his colony in the spring of 1011, facinjj its pros- 
 pects with sucli courage as he found m his own 
 stout heart. — W. Kiugsford, IliH. of Canada, bk. 
 1, eh. 3-4 (i>. 1). 
 
 iVi.so in: E. B. O'Callaghan, ed., Doc. Hist, 
 of y. r., T. 3, pp. 1-0. 
 
 A. D. 1610-1613. — The Acadian colony re- 
 vived, but destroyed by the English of 'ir- 
 ginia. — Port Hoyal was left uninhabited till 1010, 
 when Poutrincourt returned at the instance of 
 the king to make the new settlement a central 
 station for the conversion of the Indians, — a work 
 winch made some Jesuit missionaries prominent 
 in the history of the New World. His son fol- 
 lowed in 1011, with fathers Pierre Biard, and 
 Euemond Masse. !Madamc la ^Marquise de 
 Guercheville, a pio\is Catliolic, to whom De 
 Monts had ceded his title to Acadia, and to 
 whom afterwards the Frcncii king granted the 
 whole territory now covered by the United 
 States, was the chief patroness of these voyages. 
 Desiring to make another settlement, she des- 
 patched a vessel in 1013 with two more Jesuits, 
 father Quentin and Gilbert Du Thet, and forty- 
 eight men under La Saussaye. "When they 
 arrived at Port Boyal, they only found five per- 
 sons — fathers Biard and Masse, their servant, 
 the apothecary Hebcrt, and another. All the 
 rest were absent, cither hunting or trading. 
 They showed the Queen's letter to Hebert, who 
 represented Bieucourt in his absence, and takirg 
 the two Jesuits, with their servant and luggage 
 aboard, again set sail. It was their intention to 
 establish the colony at Pentagoet, which father 
 Biard had visited the year previous, but when 
 off Grand Manan a thick fog came on, which 
 lasted for two days, and when it became clear, 
 they put into a harbor on the eastern side of 
 Mount Desert Islan)!, in Matne. The harbor 
 was deep, secure and commodious, and they 
 judged this would be a favorable site for the 
 colony, and named the place St. Sauveur. . . . 
 La Saussaye was advised by the principal colon- 
 
 ists to erect a stifllcient fortification before com- 
 mencing to cultivate the soil, but he disreg:irdcd 
 this udvicc, and nothing was completed in t'lo 
 way of defence, except the raising of a sma'l 
 palisaded structure, when a storm buret upon 
 the colony, wldch was little expected by its 
 founders. In 1007 a company of London mer- 
 chants liad founded a colony on the James River, 
 in Virgil ia, where, after suffering greatly from 
 the insal ibrity of tlie climate and want of pro- 
 visions, they hail attained a considerable degree 
 of property. In 1013 they sent a fleet of eleven 
 vessels to fish on the coast of Acadia, convoyed 
 by an armed vessel under the command of Cap- 
 tain Samuel Argal, who had been connected with 
 the colony since 1009. Argal was one of those 
 adventurers formed iu the school of Drake, who 
 made a trade of piracy, but confined themselves 
 to the robbery of tliose who were so uufortimate 
 as not to be their own countrymen. . . . When 
 Argal arrived at Slount Desert, he was told by 
 the Indians that the French were there in the 
 harbor with a vessel. Learning tliat they were 
 not very numerous, he at once resolved to attack 
 them. All the French were ashore when Argal 
 approached, except ten men, most of whom were 
 unacquainted with the working of a ship. Argal 
 attacked the French witli musketry, and at tlie 
 second discharge Gilbert Du Thet fell back, mor- 
 tally wounded; four others were severely in- 
 jured, and two young men, named Lemoine 
 and Neveau, jumped overboard and were 
 drowned. Having taken possession of the ves- 
 sel, Argal went ashore and informed La Saussqye 
 that the place where they were was En^rlish 
 territory, and included in the charter of Virgmia, 
 and tliat they must remove ; but, if they could 
 prove to him tliat they were there under a com- 
 mission from the crown of France, he would 
 treat them tenderly. He then asked La Saussaye 
 to show him his commission ; but, as Argal, with 
 unparalleled indecency, had abstracted it from his 
 chest while the vessel was being plundered by his 
 men, the unhappy governor was of course unable 
 to produce it. Argal then assumed a very lofty 
 tone. . . . When Argul arrived in Virgir'a, he 
 found that his perfidious theft of the French 
 governor's commission was likely to cause his 
 prisoners to be treated as pirates. They were 
 put into prison and in a fair way of being exe- 
 cuted, in spite of Argal's remonstrances, until 
 struck with sliame and remorse, he produced 
 the commission which he had so dishonestly 
 filched from them, and the prisoners were set 
 free. But the protluction of this document, 
 while it saved the lives of one set of Frenchmen, 
 brought ruin upon all the othere who remained 
 in Acadia. The Virginia colonists . . . resolved 
 to send Argal to destroy all the French settle- 
 ments in Acadia, and erase all traces of their 
 power. . . . The only excuse offered for this 
 piratical outrage of Argal — wliicli was com- 
 mitted during a period of profound peace — was 
 the claim which was made by England to the 
 whole continent of North Amer' .., founded on 
 tlie discoveries of tl'i Cabots more than a cen- 
 tury before. That claim might, perhaps, have 
 been of some value if followed by immediate 
 occupancy, us was the case with the Spaniards 
 in the ;South, but that not having been done, 
 and the French colony being the oldest, it was 
 entitled to, ut least, as much consideration as 
 that of Virginia. Singularly enough, this act 
 
 358 
 
CANADA, 1010-1813. 
 
 Attack nn tie 
 Iri'ifuoia. 
 
 CANADA, 1011-1610. 
 
 -J. 
 
 produced no remonstrance from France, 
 llaniiiiy. Hint, uf Aiadia, eh. (5. 
 
 Ai.«) IN: W. C. Diyantand 8. II. Gay, Ihpii- 
 i.r I fiat, of the U. S., r. 1, ch. 13. 
 
 A. D. i6n-i6i6.— The founding of Montreal. 
 — Champlain's invasion of the Iroquois in New 
 York. — " In 1011 Cliunipliiiii ajruiii rt'turni.-d ti) 
 Anicricn . . . iind on the 28th of May proceedt'd 
 in search of liis allies, whom lie was to meet by 
 appointment. Not (hiding them he employed 
 Ills time in ehoosinj; a site for n new settlement, 
 higher up the river than Quebec. After a care- 
 ful survey, he fixed upon an eligible spot in the 
 vicinity of Mont Uoyal. His choice lias been 
 amply justified by the great prosperity to which 
 tills place, under the name of Montreal, lias sub- 
 sequently ri.sen. Having cleared a consi<lerable 
 space of ground, he fenced it in by an earthen 
 ditcli and planted grain in the enclosure. At 
 length, on the 13tli of June, three weeks after 
 the time appointed, a party of his Indian friends 
 appeared. . . . As an evidence of their good will 
 they imparted much valuable information respect- 
 ing the gcoifraphy of this continent, with wliich 
 they secmeiT to be tolerably well acquainted as 
 far south as the Gulf of Jlexico. They readily 
 agreed to his propo.sal to return shortly with 40 
 or 50 of his per)pIo to iirosecute discoveries and 
 form settlements in their country if he thought 
 proper. They even made a request that u French 
 youth sliould accompany them, and make obser- 
 vations upon their territory and tribe. Cham- 
 plain again returned to France, with a view of 
 making arrangements for more extensive opera- 
 tions ; but this object was now of very dilUcult 
 accomplishment. De Monts, who had been ap- 
 pointe<l governor of Saintonge, was no longer 
 inclined to take the lead in measures of this kind, 
 and excused himself from going to court by stat- 
 ing the urgency of his own alfairs. He tlierefore 
 committed the whole conduct of the settlement 
 to Cluimplaiu, advising him, at the same time, 
 to seek some powerful protector, wliosc influence 
 ■would overcome any opposition which might be 
 made to his plans. The latter was so fortunate 
 as to win over, almost immediately, tlie Count 
 de Soissons to aid him in liis designs. This 
 nobleman obtained tiie title of lieutenant-general 
 of New France; and, by a formal agreement, 
 transferred to Champlain all tlie functions of that 
 high oflice. Tlie Count died soon after, but 
 Champlain found a still more influential friend 
 in tlie Prince of Conde, who succeeded to all the 
 privileges of the deceased, and transferred them 
 to him in a manner equally ample. These privi- 
 leges, including a monopoly of the fur trade, 
 gave great dis.satisfaction to the merchants; but 
 Champlain endeavored to remove their principal 
 objection, by permitting as many of them as 
 chose to accompany him to the New World, and 
 to engage in this traffic. In consequence of this 
 permission, three merchants from Normandy, one 
 from Rochellc, and one from St. Malo, accom- 
 panied him. They were allowed the privileges 
 of a free trade on contributing six men each to 
 assist in projects of discovery, and giving one- 
 twer.tieth of their iiroflts towards defraying the 
 expenses of the settlement. In the beginning of 
 March j;iR13] the expedition sailed from Har- 
 fleur, and on the 7tli of May arrived at Queliec. 
 Cliamplaiii now engaged in a new project." His 
 new proje'c was a voyage of exploration up th" 
 Ottawa Liver, which he accomplished with grcui 
 
 dilllculty, through the aid of his Indian allies, 
 but from which he returned disappointed in the 
 hope he had entertained of discovering the north- 
 ern sea and away to India theieby. The next 
 summer found Champlain again in Prance, wliere 
 •'matters still continued favorable for tlic col- 
 ony. The Prince of Conde retained his influence 
 at Court, and no diflleulty was coiise(|uently 
 found in equipping a small fleet, to carry out 
 settlers and sui)plies from Houen and St. Malo. 
 On board of this fleet came four fathers of the 
 order of the Kecollets, whos(! benevolence in- 
 duced them to desire the conversion of the In- 
 dians to Christianity. These were the first priests 
 who settled in C'anada. Champlain arrived safely, 
 on the a.'ithof May, at Tadoussac, wlience lie im- 
 mediately inished forward to Quebec, and sub- 
 secjuently to the usual place of Indian rendez- 
 vous, at the Lachine Hapids. Hero he found his 
 Algonquin and Huron allies full of projects of 
 wai against the Irorpiois, whom they now pro- 
 posed to assail among the lakes to the westward, 
 with a force of 3,000 flgliting men."— J. Mac- 
 Mullen, Hint, of Canada, ch. 1. — "Champlain 
 found tlie Ilurons and tlieir allies preparing for 
 an expedition against their ancient enemies, the 
 Iroquois. Anxious to reconnoitre the hostile ter- 
 ritory, and also to secure the friendship of tlio 
 Canadian savages, the gallant Frenchman re- 
 solved to accompany their warriors. After visit- 
 ing the tribes at tlie hea<l waters of the Ottawa, 
 and discovering Lake Huron [at Georgian Bay], 
 which, because of its 'great extent,' he named 
 ' A\ Mer Douce, ' Champlain, attended by an armed 
 party of ten Frenchmen, accordingly set out 
 toward the south, with his Indian allies. Enrap- 
 tured with the ' very beautiful and pleasant 
 country ' through whic:li they passed, and amusing 
 themselves with fishing unci hunting, as the" 
 descended the chain of 'Shallow Lakes,' which 
 discharge their waters through the River I'rent, 
 the expedition reached the banks of Lake Ontario. 
 Crossing the end of the lake, ' at the outlet of 
 the great River of Saint Lawrence,' and pass- 
 ing by many beautiful islands on the way, tho 
 invaders followed the eastern shore of Ontario 
 for fourteen leagues, toward their enemy's coun- 
 try. . . . Leaving tlie shores of the lake, the in- 
 vaders continued their route inland to the south- 
 ward, for 25 or 30 leagues." After a journey of 
 five days, "the expedition arrived before tho 
 fortified village of the Iroipiois, on the northern 
 bank of the Onondaga Lake, near the site of the 
 l)resent town of Liverpool. Tlie village was in- 
 closed by four rows of palisades, made of largo 
 pieces of timber closely interlaced. The stock- 
 ade was 30 feet high, witli galleries running 
 around like o parapet." In the siege which 
 followed tlie Iroquois were dismayed by the fire- 
 arms of Cliainpluiu and his men, and by tlie 
 ojieration of a. moveable tower with which he ad- 
 vanced to tlieir stockade and set fire to it. But 
 his Indian allies proved incapable of acting in 
 any rational or ctHcient way, or to submit to the 
 least direction, and the attack was abortive. 
 After a few days the invading force retreated, 
 carrying Cliamplaiii with them and forcing him 
 to remain in the Huron country until the follow- 
 ing spring (1010), when he maile his way back to 
 Montreal— J. R. Brodhead, Hist, of the State of 
 New York, v. 1, eh. 3.— The above account, which 
 fixes on Onondaga Lake the site of the Iroquois 
 ' )tt to which Cliampioin penetrated, does not 
 
 359 
 
CANADA, HI I -1616. 
 
 '!%€ HutuSrea 
 Astxiutet. 
 
 CANADA, 1016-1628. 
 
 iigr>.' with tlio vicwH of Pi'rkmnn, O'Cftlliiclmn, 
 and Miinr tluT liiMtoriiuiH, wliotriicc Cliiimpliiiii'x 
 iniite fiii lirr wcKlwiird in New York; but It ac- 
 cepts tlic concliisii.iiH rciiclied by (). II. MurHlmll, 
 ,1, v. II. (,'liirk, 1111(1 other turcf id studcntH of tin- 
 ((lU'stlim. .Mr. MucMiilK'ii, in tlic "History of 
 Ciimuhi" ouotod iibovo, find* nil extriiordlimry 
 roule for the cxpt'dition via Lnkcs Huron and 
 8t. Clair, to the vicinity of Detroit.— J. V. H. 
 Clark, Jfiiit. of Oiiondngit. 
 
 Also is: O. H. MnrHhall, Ohamplain's Etp. 
 uii'nt the Onondtiyas. — C'humplain's Voi/iK/ea 
 O'riiiff S/jc.), 1880.— E. B. O'Callnglmn," ed., 
 Dof. Hint, of X. Y.. r. !l, !>/). 10-24. 
 
 A. D. i'6i6-i6a8.— Champlain and the fur 
 traders.- The first Jesuit mission. — Creation 
 of the Company of the Hundred Associates. 
 — " Tlio exploration in tlie distant Indian terri- 
 tories wliieh we liave just described in tlie i)re- 
 ceding pages was the liutt made by Clminplain. 
 He had plans for the survey of other regions yet 
 unexplored, but the favorable opportunity did 
 not occur. Henceforth ho directed his attention 
 more exclusively than he had hitherto done to 
 the enlargeni'^nt and strengthening of his colonial 
 plantation, without such success, we regret 
 to say, as his zeal, devotion and labors fitly do- 
 served. The obstacles that lay in his way were 
 insurmountable. The establishment or factory, 
 we can hardly call it a plantation, at Quebec, 
 was tlie creature of a company of merchants. 
 They had invested considerable sums in ship- 
 ping, buildings, nnd in the employment of men, 
 in order to carry on a trade In furs and peltry 
 wiUi tlie Indians, and they naturally desired 
 reinunemtive returns. This was the limit of 
 the).' purpose in making the investment. . . . 
 Undci these circumstances, Champlain struggled 
 on for yeors against a current wnich he could 
 barely diiect, but by no means control. . . . 
 He succeedc(i at length in extorting from the 
 company a promise to enlarge the establishment 
 to 80 persons, with suitable equipments, farming 
 implements, all kinds of scede, and domestic 
 animals, including cattle and sheep. But when 
 the time came, this promise was not fulfilled. 
 DiSereuces, bickerings and feuds sprang up in 
 the company. Some wanted one thing, and 
 some wantett another. The Catholics wished to 
 extend the faith of their church into the wilds of 
 Canada, while the Huguenots desired to prevent 
 it, or at least not to promote it by their own contri- 
 butions. The company, inspired by avarice and a 
 desire to restrict the establishment to a mere 
 trading post, iiiised an issue to discredit Cham- 
 plain. It was gravely proposed that ho should 
 devote himself exclusively to exploration, and 
 that the government and trade should henceforth 
 be under the d'rection and control of Pont 
 Grave. But Champlain . . . obtained a decree 
 ordering that he should liave the command at 
 Qucliec, and at nil other settlements in New 
 France, and that the company should abstain 
 from any interference with him in the discharge 
 of the duties of his office." In 1620 the Prince 
 do Conde sold his viceroyalty to the Duke de 
 Montmorency, then high-iidmiral of France, who 
 commissioned Champlain anew, as his lieuten- 
 ant, and supported him vigorously. Champlain 
 had made voyages to Canada in 1617 and 1618, 
 and now, in 1020, he proceeded to his post 
 again. At Quebec he began immediately the 
 building of a fort, which he called fort St. Louis. 
 
 The company of associates opposed this work, 
 and so provoked the Duke or Montinoreney by 
 their conduct that "in the spring of U121, he 
 Kiininiarily dissolved the association of mer- 
 chants, which he denominated the 'Ciinipany of 
 Uoiien and !St. .Malo,' and established iimitlier in 
 its nlace. He continued Chainnlain in the otiloo 
 of lieutenant, but committed all matters relating 
 to trade to William do Caen, a merchant of higli 
 standing, and to Enieric de Caen, tlie neiiliew of 
 the former, a good naval captain." In tlio 
 course of the following year, however, the new 
 and the old trading companies were consolidated 
 in one. "Champlain remained at Quebec four 
 years before again returning to France. His 
 time was divided between many local enterprises 
 of great importimce. His special attention was 
 given to anvancing the work on the unfinished 
 fort, in order to provide against incursions of 
 tlio hostile Irociuois, who at one time approached 
 the very walls of Quebec, and attacked unsuc- 
 cessfully the guarded house of the Herollccts on 
 the St. Charles. " In the summer of 1024 Cham- 
 plain returned again to France, where the Duko 
 de Montmorency was just stdling, or had sold, 
 his viceroyalty to the Duko do Ventadour. 
 "This nobleman, of a deeply religious cast of 
 mind, had taken holy orders, and his chief pur- 
 pose in obtaining the viceroyalty was to 
 encourage the planting of Catholic missions in 
 New France. As his spiritual directors were 
 Jesuits, he naturally committed the work to 
 them. Three fathers and two lay brothers of 
 this order were sent to Canada in 162.'), and othere 
 subsequently Joined them. . . . Champlain was 
 reappointed lieutenant, but remained in France 
 two years." Returning to Quebec in July, 1026, 
 he found, as usual, that everything but trade 
 had suffered neglect in his absence. Nor was he 
 able, during the following year, to improve 
 much the prospects of the colony. As a colony, 
 "it had never prospered. The average number 
 composing it had not exceeded about 50 persons. 
 At tins time it may have been somewhat more, 
 but did not reach a hundred. A single family 
 only appears to have subsisted by the cultivotion 
 of the soil. The rest were sustained by supplies 
 sent from France. . . . The company as a mere 
 trading association, was doubtless successful. 
 . . . The large dividends that they were able 
 to make, intimated by Champlain to be not far 
 from forty per centum yearly, were, of course, 
 highly satisfactory to the company. . . . Nearly 
 twenty years ha(l elapsed since the founding of 
 Quebec, and it still possessed only the character 
 of a trading post, and not that of a colonial 
 plantation. This progress was satisfactory 
 neither to Champlain, to the Viceroy, nor to the 
 Council of State. In the view of these several 
 interested parties, the time had come for a radi- 
 cal change in the organization of the companv. 
 Cardinal de Richelieu had risen by his extraordi- 
 nary ability as a statesman, a short time an- 
 terior to this, into supremo authority. ... He 
 lost no time in organizing measures. . . . The 
 company of merchants whose finances had been 
 so skilfully managed by the Caens was by hira 
 at once dissolved. A new one was formed, de- 
 nominated ' La Compagnie de la Nouvelle- 
 France,' consisting of a hundred or more mem- 
 bers, ond commonly known as the Company of 
 the Hundred Associates. It was under the 
 control and management of Richelieu himself. 
 
 360 
 
CANADA, 1016-1028. 
 
 Jen 
 
 Fair II f Ihe 
 Hit MtMiinu 
 
 CANADA, 1034-1053. 
 
 Its iticmljcrs wc/o liirRcly Kcntlemon in olllcitil 
 positions. ... Its 'uitliority exti'iiiifil over tlio 
 wli)!'; (lomiiin o'' New i'miico and Fioridii. . . . 
 If. I'litert'd into uii ohligatimi . . . witliin tliu 
 sniice of 1^ y. ure to trnnsport 4,000 coloniHtii to 
 New France. . . . Tin orj^iinizntion of tlio com- 
 pany . . . WHS riititled by tlio Council of Stuto 
 on tlio Ctliof M,.^, 1028."— E. F. Sliiftcr, Memoir 
 of Vhamplaiii (\ uyayea : Prince iiuc., 1880, v. 1), 
 c/i. 0. 
 
 Also in: Pi\re Clmrl'ivoLx, llinl. of Xew 
 Fniiirf, traim. by J. (f. N/xd, lik. 4 (t\ 2). 
 
 A. D. 1628-1635. — Conquest and brief occu- 
 pation by the English. — Restoration to France. 
 — "Tlid first ciu'u of tlie new Conipiiiiy was to 
 succor Quebec, whoso inmates were on tlic verge 
 of starvfttiou. Four armed vessels, witli a fleet 
 of transports commanded by Uo(|uemont, one of 
 the associates, sailed from Dieppe witli colonists 
 and supplies in April, 1628; but nearly at tlio 
 snmo time another squadron, destined also for 
 Q\iebec, was sailing from an English port. War 
 had at length brolten out in France. The Hugue- 
 not revolt had come to a head. Uocliellc was in 
 arms against the king; and Richedeu, with his 
 royal ward, was beleaguering it with the wliolo 
 strength of the kingdom. Charles I. of England, 
 urged by the heated pas.sions ('f Buckingliam, 
 had declared himself for the rebels, and sent a 
 fleet to their aid. . . . The attempts of Sir 
 William Alexander to colonize Acadia hiul of 
 late turned attention in England towards the 
 New World ; and, on the breaking out of the 
 war. an expedition was set on foot, under tlio 
 auspices of tliat singular personage, to seize on 
 the French possessions in Nortli America. It 
 was a private enterprise, imdertaken by London 
 merchants, prominent among whom was Gervaso 
 Kirkc, an Eiiglislmian of Derbyshire, who had 
 long lived at Dieppe, and had there married a 
 Frenchwoman. Qervase Kirko and his associates 
 fitted out three small armed ships, commanded 
 respectively by his sons David, Lewis • -d 
 Thomas. Letters of marque were obtained from 
 the king, and the adventurers were authorized to 
 drive out tlie French from Acadia and Canada. 
 Many Huguenot ugees were among tlie crews. 
 Having been expv,iled from New France as 
 settlers, the persecuted sect were returning ai 
 caemies." The Kirkes reached the St. Lawrence 
 in advance of Roquemont's supply ships, inter- 
 cepted the latter and captured or sank the whole. 
 They then sailed back to England with their 
 spoils, and it was not until the following summer 
 that they returned to complete their conquest. 
 Meantime, the small garrison and population at 
 Quebec were reduced to starvation, and were 
 subsisting on acorns and roots when, in July 
 1029, Admiral David Kirke, with his three ships, 
 appeared before the place. Champlain could do 
 nothing but arrange a dignifled surrender. For 
 three years following, Quebec and New Franco 
 remained under the control of the English. They 
 were then restored, under a treaty stipulation to 
 France. "It long remained a mj^stery why 
 Charles consented to a stipulation wliich pledged 
 him to resign so important a conquest. The 
 mystery is explained by tlic recent discovery of 
 a letter from the king to Sir Isaac AVake, his 
 ambassador at Paris. The promised dowry of 
 Queen Henrietta Maria, amounting to 800,000 
 crowns, had been but halt i)aid by the French 
 government, and Charles, theu at issue with his 
 
 24 
 
 Parliament and in desperate need of money, 
 iiislruits his ambassador tliat, when he receive* 
 the balance due, and not before, he is to give up 
 to tli(' Frcncli lioth Quebec and Port Uoval, 
 wlilrli had also been captuicil by Kirke. I'lio 
 letter was accompanied liy 'solemn instruments 
 under our hand anil seal ' to make good the trans- 
 fer on ftilfllment of tlie condition. It was for 
 a sum e(|ual to about i(;240.(N)0 that Charles 
 entailed on Great Britain and her colonics u 
 century of bhwHly wars. The Kirkes Jind their 
 associates, who hail made the conquest at their 
 own cost, under tlie royal authority, were never 
 reimbursed, though David Kirke received tho 
 honor of knightlioiMl, wliieli cost the kinff 
 nothing," — and also the grant of Newfoiinillanir 
 On the .'ith of July, l«:i2, (Juebec was delivered 
 up by Thomas Kirke to Emery de Caen, eom- 
 missioned by the French king to reclaim tho 
 lilace. Tlie latter held command for one year, 
 with a monopoly of the fur trade; then Cliam- 
 
 Iilain resumed the government, on behalf of tho 
 lundred Associates, continuing in it until his 
 deatli, which occurred on Christmas Day, 1035. 
 — F. Parkinan, Pioiuem of tYance in the A'ino 
 World: ChampUiin, cli. 10-17. 
 
 Ai.soiN: Cdkmlar (f iSttite PajKri : Coloninl 
 Series. 1574-1660, pp. 00-143.— D. Brymner, 
 Rcpt. on Canadiiiii Archiren, pp. xi-rir. <tiul note 
 D. — H. Kirke, Fint h'ni/lish ConqiteM of Canmht. 
 —Sec, also, Newfoundi^and,' A. D. 1010-10.55. 
 
 A. D. 1634-1652.— The Jesuit missions and 
 their fate. — The fli-st of the Jesuit missionaries 
 came to Quebec in 1025, as stated above, but it 
 was not until nearly seven years later that t'ley 
 made their way into tlio heart of the Indian 
 country and began there their devoted work. 
 "The Father Superior of the Jlission was Paul 
 le Jeune, a man devoted in every libro of mind 
 and heart to the work on which he had come. 
 He utterly scorned ditHeulty and pain. He had 
 received the order to depart for Canada 'with 
 inexpressible 1oy at the prospect of a living or 
 dying martyrdom.' Among his companions was 
 Jean de Brebueuf, a man noble in birtli and 
 aspect, of strong intellect and will, of zeal which 
 knew no limit, and recognized no obstacle iu 
 the path of duty. . . . Far in the west, beside a 
 great lake of which the Jesuits had vaguely 
 heard, dwelt tho Hurons, u powerful nation 
 with many kindred tribes over which tliey ex- 
 ercii^d Intluence. The Jesuits resolved to found 
 a mission among the Hurons. Once in every 
 year a fleet of canoes came down the great river, 
 bearing six or seven hundred Huron warriors, 
 who visited Quebec to dispose of their furs, to 
 gamble and to steal. Breba'uf and two com- 
 panions took passage [1034] with tlio returning 
 fleet, and set out for the dreary scene of their 
 new apostolate. . . . The Hurons received with 
 hospitable welcome the black-robed strangers. 
 The priests were able to repay the kindness with 
 services of high value. They taught more 
 effective metluMls of fortifying the town in 
 which they lived. They promised the help of a 
 few French musketeers against an impending 
 attack by the Iroquois. They cured diseases; 
 they bound up wounds. Tliey gave simple in- 
 struction to the young, and gained the hearts 
 of their pupils by gifts of beads and raisins. 
 The elders of the people came to have the faith 
 explained to them: they readily owned that it 
 was a good faith for the French, but they could 
 
 361 
 
CANADA, 1684-1609. 
 
 TTn- fymeh 
 in Ihf Went. 
 
 CANADA. 1684-1673. 
 
 not be pornimclcd that it wiis siiltiiWe- for the red 
 limii. Till' fiitlirm laltnuri'il in liiipu iiiiil tlir 
 ■»viiK<'^ liami'il to love tlii'tii. . . . Hoiiii- of 
 tlii'ir iiirtlioilH of coiivcrxion were I'Xi'ccillnnly 
 null'. A Irttcr from Fatlii'i' (JarnliT Iiiih Imtii 
 
 iiri'srrviMl ill M-lilch picliircs an- ordiTril froii, 
 I'raiK-c for the Hpiii'iial iiiiprovcmciit of the 
 IndiuUN. Many ri'prrHcntUioiis of itoiils In piT- 
 dition arc ri'iiuircd, witli appropriati^ lucoiiipaiii' 
 mi'iit of thiiiii'M, and trliinipliaiit drinons trarini; 
 thciii with pincrrM. One pictiiri' of Hiivrd souls 
 woiilil sulllct', and 'a picturi? of Christ without 
 iihrard.' Tliry were conHiinicd by ii zeal for 
 the liaptiHiii of littk' childri'n. At the outset 
 the Inciiiuis welcomed this ceremonial, liellevinjt 
 that it was a eliarm to avert Rieitiiess and death. 
 But wlieii e|iidemics wasted them they charged 
 the calamity against the mysterious o|)eratioiis 
 of the fathi'i'H, and refused now to permit bap- 
 tism. The fathers recognized the hand of .''^atan 
 in this proliibition, and refused to submit to it. 
 They liaptl/.ed liy stealth. ... In time, the 
 patient, self-denving labour of the fathers might 
 have won thosit discimraging savages totlie cross; 
 but a fatal interruption was at hand. A power- 
 ful and relentless enemy, l)ent on c.vtermiimtion, 
 was alioiit to sweep over the Huron territory, 
 involving the savages and their teachers in one 
 common ruin. Tliirty-two years had jms-sed 
 since those illjudged expeditions in which 
 <yhumplain bad given help to tlie Uurons against 
 the Iroipiois. Tlic unforgiving savages had 
 never forgotten the wrong. . . . The Iroquois 
 [lt)48-ltUUJ attacked in overwhelming force tlio 
 towns of their llurcm enemies; forced the inade- 
 quate defences ; burned tlie palisades and woimIcii 
 liuts; slaughtered with indescribable tortures 
 the wretched inhabitants. In one of tliese towns 
 they found IJrcbu'uf and one of his companion.s. 
 Tliey bound the ilifated missionaries to stakes; 
 they hung around their necks collars of red-hot 
 iron; tliey poured boiling water on their heads; 
 they cut stripes of tiesh from their quivering 
 limbs and ate them in tlieir sight. To the last 
 Brebieuf cheered with hopes of licaven the 
 native converts who shared his agony. And 
 thus was gained the crown of martyrdom for 
 which in the fervour of their entiiusiasm, these 
 
 food men had long yearned. In a few years the 
 [uron nat \<m was extinct ; famine and small-pox 
 swept oil 1 !io3o whom the Iroquois spared. The 
 Huron mission was closed by the extirpation of 
 the race for whom it was founded. Many of the 
 missionaries iierishod ; some returned to France. 
 Their labour seemed to liavc been in vain ; their 
 years of toil and suffering left no trace." — U. 
 Mackenzie, Amcriai: A Jlistori/, pp. 320-333. — 
 " With the fall of the Ilurons, fell the best hope 
 of the Caniulian mission. They, and the stable 
 and populous comnuinities around them, had 
 been the rude material from which the Jesuit 
 would have formed his Christain empire in the 
 wilderness; but, one by one, these kindred peo- 
 ples were uprooted and swept away, while the 
 neighboring Algonquins, to wliom they had been 
 a bulwark, were involved with them in a common 
 ruin. ... In a measure, the occupation of the 
 Jesuits was gone. Some of them went home, 
 'well resolved,' writes the Father Superior, 'to 
 return to the ccmbat at the first sound of the 
 trumpet'; while of those who remained, about 
 twenty in number, several soon fell victims to 
 famine, hardship and the Iroquois. A few 
 
 years more, and Canada ceased to l)p n mission 
 jiolitical and commercial interestH gradually be- 
 came ascendant, and tlie story of Jesuit pro- 
 pagandism was interwoven with her civil and 
 ' Mitary annals." — F. I'arkman, T/ie Jemtitu in 
 X Am., r/i. m. 
 
 Also i.\: Father Charlevoix, Jfint. nf New 
 Fmui-r, tr. by Shin, bk. 5-7 (/•. 2).— J. O, Hliea, 
 Tlie JiKiiitH, Uerollirlii, and the Iiiilinn» (Aarrii- 
 till' ami Critiiud Hint, of Am , r. 4, eh. tl). 
 
 A. D. 1634-1673.— Nicolet.—Marauette. — 
 Joliet. — Pioneer exploration in the West and 
 discovery of the Missis.iippi. — When Cliam- 
 jilain gave up his work, the map of New France 
 was blank beyond Lake Ontario and Ueorgian 
 Hay. The first of the French explorers who 
 wii'leneil it far westward was a Nonuati named 
 Jean Nicolet, who came to America in KllH, and 
 who was trained for many years in Champlain'a 
 service. " After dwelling some time among the 
 Nipisslngs, he visited tlie Far West; seemingly 
 between the years 1034 and 1040. In a bircb- 
 Imrk canoe, the brave Norman voyagenr croK.Hed 
 or coasted Lake Huron, entered the St. Mary's 
 River, and, tirst of white men, stood at the stndt 
 now called Sault Hte Marie. He do(!s not seem 
 to have known of Lake Superior, but returned 
 down the St. Mary's River, passed from Lake 
 Huron through the western detour to Michili- 
 mackinac, and entered anotlier fresh-water sea, 
 Mitcliigannon or Michigan, also afterwards 
 known as the Lake of the Illinois, Lake St. 
 Joseph, Lake Dauphin, or even Algoniiuin 
 Lake. Here he visited the Menomoneo tribe of 
 Indians, and after tliem the Winnibagoes. . . . 
 The lierci! wrath of the Iroquois liad driven 
 numbers of the Hurons, Ottawas, and sevenil 
 minor Algonquin tribes westward. The 
 Iroquois, like a wedge, had split tlie northern 
 tribes into east and west. Sault Ste Marie be- 
 came u centnd point for tlie refugees. . . . 
 Another gathering place for the fugitives had 
 been found very near the south-west corner of this 
 great lake. This was La Pointe, one of the 
 Apostle Islands, near the present town of Asli- 
 lond in Wisconsin. Tlie Jesuits took up these 
 two points as mission centres. ... In 1009 the 
 Fathers Dablon and Marquette, with their men, 
 had erected a palisaded fort, enclosing a chiqiel 
 and house, at Sault Ste Marie. In the same year 
 Father Allouez had begun a mission at Green 
 Bay. In 1070 an intrepid explorer, St. Lusson, 
 under orders from Intendant Talon, came west 
 searching for copper-mines. He was accom- 
 jianied by the afterwards well-known Joliet. 
 When this party arrived at Sault Sto Marie, tlio 
 Indians were gathered together in great num- 
 bers, and with imposing ceremonies St. Lusson 
 took possession of ' Sainte JIarie du Saut, as also 
 of Lakes Huron and Superior, the island of 
 ^lanetoulin, and all countries, rivers, lakes, and 
 streams contiguous and adjacent thereunto.' 
 ... It was undoubtedly the pressing desire of 
 the Jesuit fathers to visit the country of the 
 Illinois and their great river that led to the dis- 
 covery of the 'Father of Watere.' Fatuer 
 Allouez indeed had already ascended the Fo.x 
 River from Lake Michigau, and seen the marshy 
 lake which is the lieatl of a tributary of the 
 Mississippi. At last on June 4th, 1673, the 
 French minister, Colbert, wrote to Talon: 'As 
 after the increase of the colony there is nothing 
 more important for the colony than the discovery 
 
 362 
 
CANADA, 1634-1073. 
 
 
 CANADA. 1637-16.17. 
 
 ■of n ixifWAKo to tlin .South .Son, his Mnjcsty wIshi'H 
 you to j{lv(? It your iiltciitioii.' TIiIh tii('Hwif((> to 
 tlii^ Intciulaiitntinc iis he wim Inivliin for Kraiicc, 
 1111(1 li<> ri'coiiiiiK'iKlcil the Ht'hciiiiMiiKl till' cxplori'r 
 hu Imd ill view for ciirryliiK it out to llic notlct' 
 of tlu! (lovcriior, Frontrimc, who hiid Just 
 Brrlvcd. Oovmior Front<>!iii(' npprovcil iinil Ihr 
 explorer stiirtcd. The niiiii chosen for the enter- 
 prise WHS I.oiils .loliet, who had already been at 
 Hault Hie Marie. He was of hunilile birth, and 
 was II native of \ew Franee. . . . Tlu- Freneli 
 Canadian ex|>lorer was aceeptalili^ to the niis- 
 sionaries, and ininiediately journeyed west to 
 meet Marquette, who was to iieeompany lilni. 
 . . . M. iJoliet met the priest Marquette at 
 Bt. Ignncc Migslon. Mieliiliinackinae. .laciiues 
 Marquette, of wlioni we have already hearil, 
 was born in 11137 at (iaoii, ('liaiiipaK"('. i" 
 France. He spraii)? of an ancient and dis- 
 tinKuished family. . . . On May 17tli, 1673, 
 ■wiUi deepest religious emotion, tlie triwier and 
 missionary launched forth on Lake Miehl);;an 
 their two canoes, containing seven Frenchinen in 
 all, to make the ftreatest (liscovery of the time. 
 They hastened to Qrecii Hay, followed the couitie 
 of Father Alloucz up the Fo.x Uiver, and reached 
 the trilie of the Maseoutins or Fire Nation on 
 .hia river. These were new Indians to the ex- 
 plorers. They were peaceful, and helped the 
 voyagers on their way. With Kuides furnished, 
 the two canoes were transported for 2,700 paces, 
 4»nd the head waters of the Wisconsin were 
 reached. After an easy descent of 30 or 40 
 leagues, on June 17th, 1673, the feat was accom- 
 plished, the Mississippi was discovered by white 
 men, and the canoes shot out upon its surface In 
 latitude 43°. Sailing down the great river for a 
 month, the party reached the village of Akansea, 
 on the Arkansas liiver, in latitude 34°, and on 
 July 17th began their return journey. It is but 
 Just to say tliat some o. the Hecollet fathers, be- 
 tween whom and the Jesuits jealousy existed, 
 have disputed the fact of Joliet and Alarquetto 
 ■ever reaching this point. The evidence here 
 seems entirely in favour of the explorers. On 
 their return journey the party turned from the 
 Mississippi into a tributary river in latitude 38°. 
 This was the Illinois. Ascending this, the 
 Indian town of Kaskasl-ia was readied, and 
 here for a time Father Marquette remained. 
 Joliet and his party passed on," arriving at 
 Montreal in due time, but losing all their papers 
 In the rapids of the St. Lawrence. Father Mar- 
 quette cstAblished a mission among the Illinois 
 Indians, but his labors were cut short. He died 
 while on a journey to Green Bay, May 18, 1675. 
 "High encomiums of Father Marquette fill — 
 and deservedly so — the 'Jesuit Relations.' We 
 have his autograph map of the Mississippi. 
 This great stream he desired to call ' Conception 
 River,' but the name, like those of ' Colbert and 
 ' Buade ' [the family name of Count Frontenac], 
 which were both bestowed upon it, have failed 
 to take the place of the musical Indian name. " 
 — G. Bryce, Short JIM. of the Canadian People, 
 eh. 5, sect. 3. 
 
 Also in : F. Parkman, La Salle and the Dii- 
 cmei-y of tht Qreat West, eh. 2-5.— C. W. Butter- 
 flelu, Hilt, of the IHsanery of tfie N. W. by 
 Mcolet.—J. W. Monette, Hist, of the Discovery 
 and Settlement of the Valley of the Miss., hk. 3, 
 ch. 1 (v. 1).— 8. 8. Hebberd, Ilist. of Wis. under 
 the dominion of Franee, ch. 1-2. 
 
 A. D. 1637-1657.— The Sulpicikn settlement 
 of Montreitl and reliKtout activity at Quebec. 
 
 — ('haiiiplulii was NUici'rdcd as governor of New 
 France by .M, de Chillcaufdrl, of wlios<> brief 
 administration little is known, and the latter 
 was followed by M. dc Montiiiagny. out of the 
 tranHlatiiin of whose name the Indians funned 
 the title Onontio, signifying "Oreiit .Moun- 
 tain," vlilch they afterwards appUcd to all the 
 Frriuh governors. .Montinagiiy entered with 
 zeal into the plans of Cliainplairi, "but dilllcul- 
 ties accuinulate<l on all sides. .Men anil money 
 were wanting, trade languiHlicd, and llie Akho- 
 ciated C!onipanv in France were! daily becoming 
 indilTerent to the success of the colony. Homo 
 few merchants and inhabitants of tlie outposts, 
 indeed, were enriched by llic prolllable deal- 
 iiiilH of the fur-trade, but tlieir suddenly -aciiiilred 
 weiiltli excited the jealousy rather than Increased 
 the general pDspority of the si'ttlers. The 
 work of rellgiou" inntitutions was alone j)ursueil 
 with vigor and success in thosi! limes of failure 
 and discouragement. At Sillery, one league 
 from tiiiebec, i\n establishment was founded for 
 the instniction of thesav'g"" and the dilTusion 
 of Chrisiian liglit [1«:, 1. The Hotel Dieu 
 owed its existence to the Duchesso d'Aiguillon 
 two years afterwinl, and the convent of the 
 Ursulines was founded by the pious and high- 
 born Madame de la Peltrie. The partial success 
 and subseiiuent failure of Champlain and his 
 Indian allies in tlieir encounters with the Iro- 
 quois had emboldened these bravo and politic 
 savages. They now captured several conoea 
 belonging to the Hurons, loden with furs, which 
 that friendly people were conveying to tjuebec. 
 Montmagny's military force was Ux) small to 
 allow of his avenging this insult; he, however, 
 zealously promoted an enterprise to build a fort 
 and elTect a settlement on the island of Montreal, 
 which he fondly hoped would curb the audacity 
 of his savage foes. The Associated Company 
 would render no aid whatever to this important 
 plan, but the religious zeal of the Abb6 Olivier 
 overcame all difllculties. lie obtAined a grant 
 of Montreal from the king, and dispatched tho 
 Sieur de Maisonneuve and others to take posses- 
 sion. On the 17th of May, 1641, the place des- 
 tined for the settlement was consecrated by the 
 superior of the Jesuits. At the same time the 
 go 'g^fnor erected a fort at the entrance of the 
 F'ver Richelieu," which so far checked the Iro- 
 quois tliot they entered into a treaty of peace 
 f nd respected it for o brief period. — L. Warbur- 
 ton, The Conquest of Canada, v. 1, ch. 12. — The 
 settlement of Montreol was undertaken by an 
 associatiim of thirty-flvc rich and influential per- 
 sons in France, among whom was the Duke de 
 Liancourt de la Roche Quyon. "This company 
 obtained a concession of the island in 1640, and 
 a member >f the association orrived at Quebec 
 from Franco with several immigrating families, 
 some soldiers, and on armament valued at 25,000 
 piastres." In 1642 "a reinforcement of colo- 
 nists arrived, led by M. d'Ailleboust de Musseau, 
 During the following year, a second party came. 
 At this time the European population resident in 
 Canada did not exceed 200 souls. The immi- 
 grants who now entered it had been selected 
 with the utmost care. "—A. Bell, Ilist. of Canada, 
 bk. 8, ch. 1 (d. 1).— In 1657 the scigniority of 
 Montreal was ceded to the Seminary of St. 8ul- 
 pice in Paris, where the reins of its government 
 
 363 
 
CANADA. I637-1(W7. 
 
 navaoti of 
 oil. 
 
 tht /ruyHou 
 
 CANADA, 1003-1874. 
 
 wrrr belli iiiilll lOlW— Kiillicr Clmrlrvolx, Ilitt. 
 1)/ NfiP francf, trim*, by Shen. r. U, /), 2U. 
 
 Al.KO IN: K. I'urkiiiiiii, Thf Jrimili in S'orlh 
 Am., fh. 13- IS. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1700.— The wan with the Iro- 
 
 ?uoil. — " Friiin iilxpiil tlir ynir ItHO to llii- ynir 
 704), n I'lmntiinl wiirfitrr wiiHiMiiiiitiilnril Ix'twct'ii 
 the in>(|ii(iiH iinil tli« Frriicli, inti'rru|it<Ml imcii- 
 Hioniilly l)y n<'K<>tiittii>iiH mid brief ititervnlii of 
 IM'iiee. An tlie former poHMeHKed botli biiiil(M of 
 the Hi. Liiwrenee, ni.d tlie rirciiitH of liiltcH Krie 
 and Ontario, llii'y intercepted tlie fur tnide, 
 wliieb tlie Krenrb were aiixioim to maintain willi 
 tlie weitlerii natioiiH. . , . Tbe war part les of tlie 
 1.1'aKiii' raiijfcd tliniilKli tliewi terrilorieH ho con- 
 Htantly tliat it waH impoHHibli! for tlie Freiicli to 
 piiHM in Hafety tbroilKli tlie lakeN, or I'ven up tlu^ 
 Ht. Lawrence bImivc .Montreal. ... Ho ({rent wim 
 tlio feur of tlicHv Huddeii uttackH, tliat iKitli tlie 
 tnuU^nt and tlie nilsMlonaricM were obliKe<l to 
 Mcend tlin Ottawa river to near its Hoiirce. and 
 from tlience to crotw over to tlii' Haiilt St. .Marie, 
 and tilt! Bliores of Lake .Superior. . . , To retali- 
 ate for tlicMe freiiiient inroads, and to prevent 
 their recurrence, tlie country of the Iro(|uois was 
 often invaded by tlie French. ... In 1««.'), .M. 
 Courcelles, (governor of Canada, led a Htrong 
 party into the country of the Mohawks; hut tlio 
 linrdsliips tliey encountered rendered it necessary 
 for them to return without accompiishinjt their 
 purpose. The ne.xt year, ,M. de Tracy, Viceroy 
 of New France, with l,a(M) French and 000 In- 
 dians, renewed the invasion with better success, 
 lie captured Te-llton-ta-16-ga, one of the princi- 
 pal villafj;cs of tho Mohawks, situated at the 
 mouth of the Scliobaric Creek ; hut after destroy- 
 ing till, town, and the stores of com, which they 
 found in caches, they wore obliged to n'tire 
 without meeting an opposing force. Again, In 
 16H4, -M. I)e La Ilarre, tlien governor of Canada, 
 entered tin country of the Onondagas, with 
 about 1,800 men. Having readied Hungry Day, 
 on the east shoro of lake Ontario, a conferenco 
 was had with a delegation of Iro(iuois chiefs. 
 ... A species of armistice was Anally agreed 
 upon, and tliiis tho expedition ended. A more 
 guccessful enterprise was projected and carried 
 Into execution in 1087 by M. I)c Nonville, then 
 
 Sovcmor of Canada. Having raised a force of 
 ,000 French and 000 Indians, he embarked them 
 in a fleet of 200 bateau, and as many birch bark 
 canoes. After coasting lake Ontario from Kings- 
 ton to Irondequoit bay, in tho territory of the 
 Senecas, ho lauded at the head of this bay, and 
 found himself within a few miles of the pnncipal 
 yillages of the Senecas, which were then in the 
 counties of Ontario and Monroe." After one 
 battle with about 500 of tho Senecas, the latter 
 retreated into the interior, and the Frcach dc- 
 ■troyed four of their villages, together with the 
 surrounding fields of growing com. " To retali- 
 ate for this invasion, a formidable party of tho 
 Iroquois, in the fall of the same year, i.iadc a 
 sudden descent upon Fort Chambly, on the Sorel 
 River, near Montreal. Unablo to capture the 
 fort, which was resolutely defended by tho gar- 
 rison, they ravaged the settlements adjacent, and 
 returned with a number of captives Ahout the 
 same time, a party of 800 attacked Irontenac, 
 on the site of Kingston, and destroyed and laid 
 waste the plantations and establishments of the 
 French without the fortification. In July of 
 the ensuing year the French were made to feel 
 
 Rtill more Hcniilbly the power of their revenffc. 
 A band of t,', .K) warriors, animated with tlie- 
 fiercest rewiilment, niiule a di'Hcnit upon tho 
 iHiandof Monlrral. . . . All that were witlioiit 
 the fortifiratioiiH fell under the rille or the n'lent- 
 IcKjt loniahawk. Tlieir lioiisrs were burned, their 
 plantatioiiH ravaged, and the whole iHland eov- 
 eri'il with desolation. AlHiut l.dOOof the French, 
 accordliig to Home writers, periHiied in this iiivu- 
 sioii, or were larrh'd into captivity. . . . Over- 
 whelmed bv this sudden dlsiiHler, the French ile- 
 stroyed their fiirtsat Niagara and Fmiitcnae, and 
 thus yielded the whole country west of .Montreal 
 to the poHseHsion of tiie Iri>i|uoiH. At this erili- 
 eal periiHi Count Froiiteiiac again becanio gov- 
 ernor of Canada, and during tlie short residue of 
 ills life devoted liiniself, witli untiring energy, 
 to restore its declining prosperitv,"— L. H. Mor- 
 gan, I ^atjue of the Irntiuniii, bk. I, eh. 1. 
 
 Ai.KOlN: \V. Kiiigsford, lliiit. of ('muula, bk. 
 'i-i (c. 1-2).— E. n. O'Callaghan. ed., J),>e. Hint. 
 of \. r, r, 1, pp. n7-278.--J. 1{. Hrodhead, 
 hint, of the State of N. Y., ». 2, eh. 'A and 8.— 
 O. H. Marshall, Kjrped. of the Marijuiii dti NonriUe 
 iifl'nt the Semraii (llint. Writ i ni/M, pp. 123-180). 
 
 A. D. 1660-1688. — French encroachments 
 and Eng^liah concessions in Newfoundland. 
 See Nkwkoiniii.a.ni): A. D. 1(10(»-|((HH, 
 
 A.D. 1663-1674.— Erected by Colbert into a 
 Royal Province. — Brief career of the French 
 West India Company. — "In l(H!;t the ])roeeed- 
 ings of llie company [of the liundred asstxiiates] 
 became so obnoxious that the king of Franco 
 decided upon the immediate resumption of his 
 rights, and the erecting of Canada Into a royal 
 government: Monsieur do Mosy was appointed 
 governor, and proceeded from Franco to Quebec 
 with 400 regular troops, and 100 families as 
 settlers, witli cattle, horses and implements of 
 agriculture. Under the royal jurisdiction, tho 
 governor, a king's commissioner, an apostolical 
 vicar, and four other gentlemen, woro formed 
 Into a sovereign council, to whom were confided 
 the powers of cognizance in all causes, civil and 
 criminal, to judge in the last resort according to 
 the laws anil orciinances of France, and the pnic- 
 tice of tlie I'arliamcnt of Paris, reserving the 
 general legislative powers of the Crown, to be 
 applied acconling to circumstances. Tliia Coun- 
 cil was further invested with the regulation of 
 commerce, the expenditure of tho public monies, 
 and tho establishment of inferior courts at Three 
 Kivcrs and Montreal. This change of Canada 
 from an ecclesiastical mission to a secular govern- 
 ment was owing to the great Colbert, who was 
 animated by tho exampTo of Great Britain, to 
 improve the navigation and commerce of his 
 country by colonial establishments. The enlight- 
 ened policy of this renowned financial minister 
 of Louis XIV. was followed by the success which' 
 it deserved. To a regulated civil government! 
 was added increased military protection against 
 tho Iroquois Indians; tho emigration of French 
 settlers to New France was promoted by every 
 possible means, and a martial spirit was imparted, 
 to the population, by the location in the colony 
 of the disbanded soldiers of the Carignan regi- 
 ment . . . and otlicr troops, whose ofticers 
 became the principal Seigneurs of tho colony, on 
 condition of making cessions of land under the 
 feudal tenure, as it itill exists, to the soldiers and 
 other inhabitants." Tho ambitious projects of 
 Louis XIV. soon led, however, to a new measure 
 
 364 
 
CANADA, 1608-1874. 
 
 Krplnrntinnii nf 
 
 iM Stlllr 
 
 CANADA, 1880-1687 
 
 which nrovt'd h'nn witlufnctory In Itn working. 
 "The rrciicli Wi'st Indlii Conipiiiiy wiih rr- 
 mcMli'lli'tl [l(l6-t|, luiil CiiiiikIii iiddril to their 
 p<m»«'H(il<)im, Hubordlniitc to the crown of Kriincc, 
 with powers coiitrolU'il hy hin MiiJcxty'K )("'vcrn- 
 orH iind IntcnduntH in tlic dUTcriiit cnlmdcH." 
 The domain of llic compiuiy cndjriiccd all thn 
 
 KomhckhIoiih of Friinco In the New World mid lti» 
 ilandH and on the African coaNt. " Tlic com- 
 pany was to enjoy ii monopoly of the lerritoricH 
 and the trade of thi! colonicM thint conceded for 
 40 years; it was not oidy to enjoy the excliiHivc! 
 nnvli(ation, hut hl» Majesty conferred a bounty 
 of 00 l'v.<'« on every ton of jjcwmIs exported to 
 France. . . The company was not only endowed 
 IIS Heieiieur with all iinconccdcd lands, liiit 
 !r. .( Med w<ll< the ri^ht of extliiKuihhInfr the titles 
 of HelKnIories (framed or sold by previous coin- 
 paiiies, on condition of reinibiirsin({ the ffnmtecs 
 and purchasers forlheir costs and Improvements." 
 The West India Company's manajrement soon 
 showed evil elTects, and camo to an end after ti'n 
 yearn of unsatisfactory trial. " Monsieur Dc 
 Tnlon, the Intendant, a mini of profound views, 
 . . . perceived that It was the natural Interest 
 nf the ('oni|iiiiiy to discoiira^i^ coloni/.ation. He 
 represented to tlur minister Colbert the absoliiti? 
 neces-sity of the total resumption of the riffhts <if 
 the crown; drew his attention to the means of 
 obtaining abundance of warlike inutrunients and 
 naval stores within the colony . . . anil, in fact, 
 at last prevailed; so that, In 1074, the king of 
 France resumed Ids rights to a'l the territories 
 conceded to the West India Con, puny, as.sumed 
 their debts and the current value of their stock, 
 and appointed a governor, council and judges 
 for the direction of the Canadian colonies. . . . 
 From this period (1074), when the population, 
 embracing ccmverted Ii'i'/ins, did not exceeil 
 8,000, the French seuienx t in Canada rapidly 
 ■ progressed, and os it rose In power, and iiKsiimeil 
 oflcnsivc operations on the New England frontier, 
 the jealousy of the British o'onicH became 
 roused, and both parties, aided alf rnately by tlio 
 Indians, carried on a destructive and harassing 
 border warforo. " — H. M. Martin, Jlist. of Upper 
 and Lower Canada, eh. T. 
 
 Also in : A. Bell, //«><. of Canada, bk. 8, eh. 8 
 (r. 1). — P. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, 
 eh. 10-17. 
 
 A. D. 1669-1687. — La Salle and the acquisi- 
 tion of Louisiana. — " Second only to Champlain 
 among the heroes of Canadian history stands 
 Robert Cavclicr de la Salle — a man of iron if 
 ever there was one — a man austere and cold in 
 manner, and endowed with such indomitable 
 pluck and perseverance as have never been sur- 
 passed in tlds world. He did more than any other 
 man to extend the dominion of France in the 
 New World. As Champlain had founded the 
 colony of Canada and opened the way to the 
 great lakes, so La Salle completed the discovery 
 of the Mississippi, and added to the French pos- 
 sessions the vast province of Louisiana. . . . T~ 
 1009 La Salle made his first journey to the ■"' ,t, 
 hoping to find a northwest passage to Chin' , out 
 very little Is known about this expedi'' .., except 
 that the Ohio River was discovered, and perhaps 
 also the Illinois. La Salle's feudal domain of 
 St. Sulpice, sot.e eight miles from Montreol, 
 bears to-day the name of La Chine, or China, 
 which is said to have been applied to it in derision 
 of this fruitless expedition. In 1678 the priest 
 
 Mnr(|iirttc and the furtmder .lolirt nrtunlty 
 reached the MlHsiNsippI by way of the Wlscon 
 sill, anil Kiiiled down the great river as far a.s the 
 mouth of the .Arkansas; and now the life work 
 of I,a Salle began In earnest. He formed 11 grand 
 project forexhloriiig the .MissiHsipiil to Its mouth, 
 and determining whether it flowed Into the (Julf 
 of California or the (iiilf of Mexico. The ad- 
 vance of Spain oil the Hide of .Mexico wiis to be 
 chicked fori'Ver, the Kngiisii were to he (nntlned 
 to the ciist of the Allcghaiiles, and (Uicli military 
 posts wire t(.bi' establlKlied as would cITectuillly 
 contlrm the authority of l.oiiis XIV'. tliroughout 
 the centre of this continent. La Salle had but 
 little ready money, and was surrounded by rivals 
 and enemies; but he had a powirfiil friend In 
 Count Fronteimc, the Viicroy of Cmia'la. . . . 
 At length, after siirnioiinting innuiiienibli> didl- 
 ciilties, a ve.H.Hel |llie OrilTon or (irilllii| was built 
 and launchi'd on thi* Nlagani HIver 1 1071)1, a 
 small I)arty of 110 or 40 men were gathered to- 
 gether, and I.a Salle, having just recovered from 
 a treacherous dose of iiolson, embarked on his 
 great enterprise. His departure was clouded by 
 the news that his Inipatient creditors had laid 
 lianils upon his Ciinadiiin estates; but, nothing 
 daunted, he piished on through 2,akes Krie iinu 
 Huron, and after many disasters n'ached the 
 southern extremity of Lake .Michigan. The vessel 
 was now sent back, with half the party, to Ni- 
 agara, carrying furs to apiicase the ercilitorsand 
 |>iirchasc additional supiillcs for the remainder 
 of the journey, while La Salle with his diminished 
 company |iiislie<l <m to the Illinois, where a fort 
 was built, and approi)riately named Fort Crdve- 
 cieur, or, as we niiglit translate it, tlie ' fort of 
 the breaking heart.' Here, amid perils of famine, 
 mutiny, and Indian attack, and exposed to death 
 from the wintry cold, they waited until it Inramo 
 evident to all that their vessel must liave perished. 
 She never was he 1 from again, and most likely 
 had foundered on her perilous voyage. To add 
 to the troulile. La Salle was again poisoned; but 
 his iron constitution, aided by some lijcky anti- 
 dote, again carried him safely through tlie ordeal, 
 11 lid Mlxiut the 1st of March, 1680, lie started on 
 foot c Montreal. Leaving Fort Crftveco'iir and 
 its tiny garrison under command of his faithful 
 lieutenant, Tonty, he set out with four French- 
 men and one Mohegan guide. . . . They made 
 their way for a tliousanil miles acr.)ss Michigan 
 and Western Canada to Niagara, and so on to 
 ^Montreal. ... At Niagara La Salic learned that 
 a ship from France, freighted for him with a cargo 
 worth more than 20,000 livres, had been wrecked 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and nothing had 
 been saved. In spite of this dreadful blow, he 
 contrived to get together supplies and reenforce- 
 ments at Montreal, and had returned to Fort 
 Frontenac, at the lower end of Lake Ontario, 
 when still more woful tidings were received. 
 Here, towanl the end of July, a message came 
 from the fortress so well named Criivccoeur. The 
 garrison had mutinied and destroyed the fort,^ 
 and made their way back through Michigan." 
 The indomitable LaSalle promptly; hunted down 
 he deserters, and sent them in cl. lins to Quebec, 
 i'l then " proceeded again to the Illinois to re- 
 construct his fort, and rescue, if possible, his 
 lieutenant Tonty and the few faithful followers 
 who had survived the mutiny. This little party, 
 abandoned in the wilderness had found shelter 
 among the Illinois Indians; but during the sum- 
 
 866 
 
CAXADA, 1669-1687. 
 
 CANADA, 1689-1600. 
 
 »"er oi' 1680 the great village or town of the Illi- 
 nois was destroyed by the Iroquois, und tlie hard- 
 prcssei Frenchmen retreated up the western shore 
 of Lake Michigan to Green Bi'.y. On arriving at 
 the Illino!s, tlicrcfore. La Salle found nothing 
 but the terrible traces of lire and massacre and 
 cannibal orpies; but he spent the following win- 
 ter to goo<l i)urpose in securing the friend, 'n of 
 the western Indians, and in making an alh..ace 
 witli them against the Iroquois. Then, in May, 
 1081, he set out again for Canada, to look after 
 his creditors and obtain new resources. On the 
 way home, at the outlet of Lake Michigan, he 
 met Ins friend Tonty, and together they paddled 
 their canoes a thousand miles and came to Fort 
 Frontenac. So, after all this hardship and dis- 
 aster, the work was to be begun anew ; and the 
 enemies of the ^reat explorer were exulting in 
 what they imagined must be his despair. But 
 that was a word of which La Salle knew not the 
 meaning, and now his fortunes began to change. 
 In Mr. Parkman's words, ' Fate at length seemer' 
 tired of the conflict with so stubborn an adver- i 
 sary.' At this third venture everything went 
 smoothly. The little fleet passed up the grt ., 
 lakes, from the outlet of Ontario to the head of 
 Michigan, and gained the Chicago River. Cross- 
 ing the narrow portage, they descended the Illin- 
 ois and the Mississippi, till they came out upon the 
 Gulf of Mexico ; and on the 9th of April, 1683, 
 the fleurs-de-lis were planted at the mouth of the 
 great river, and all the country drained by its 
 tributaries, from the Allcghanies to the Rocky 
 Mountflins, was formally declared to be the prop- 
 erty r '-.e king of France, and named after him 
 L>'i'3iina. Returning up the river after his 
 triumph. La Salle founded a station or small col- 
 ony on the Illinois, which he called St. Louis, 
 and leaving Tonty in command, kept on to Can- 
 ada, and crossed to France for means to circum- 
 vent his enemies and complete liis far-reaching 
 schemes. A colony was to be founded at the 
 mouth of the Mississippi, and military stations 
 were to connect this with the French settlements 
 in CanadA. At the French court La Salle was 
 treated like a hero, and a tine expedition was soon 
 fltted out, but everything was ruined by jealousy 
 and ill-will between La Salle and the naval com- 
 mander, Beaujeu. The fleet sailed beyond the 
 mouth of the ilississippi, the colony was thrown 
 upon the coast of Texas, some of the vessels were 
 wrecked, and Beaujeu — though apparently with- 
 out sinister design — sailed away with the rest, 
 and two years of terrible suffering followed. At 
 last, in March, 1687, La Salle started to find the 
 Mississippi, hoping to ascend it to Tonty's fort 
 on the Illinois, and obtain relief for his followers. 
 But . ^ had scarcely set out on this desperate en- 
 terprise when two or three mutinous wretches of 
 his party laid an ambush for him in the forest, 
 and shot him dead. Thus, at the early age of 
 forty-three, perished this extraordinary man, with 
 his life-work but half accomplished. Yet his 
 labors had done much towards building up the 
 imposing dominion with which New France con- 
 fronted New England in the following century. " 
 — J. Fiske, Tlis Ronianee of the Spanish and 
 French Explorers (Harper's Mug., v. ti, pp. 446- 
 448. 
 
 Also in : F. Parkman, La Salle and the Dis- 
 covery of the Oreat West. — Chevalier Tonti, Acc't 
 of M.de la Salle's last Exp. (N. T. Hist. Soc. Coil's, 
 V. 8). — J. G. Shea, Discovery and Expl. of the Mis- 
 
 nssij)]n Valley. — C. lid CXcTCCi, First Estahlishment 
 of the Faith in A'. France, tr. by Shea,, ch. 21-35 
 (i-. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1689-1690.— The first Inter-Colonial 
 War (King William's War): The Schenectady 
 Massacre. — Montreal threatened, Quebec at- 
 tacked, and Port Royal taken by the English. 
 — Tlie Revolution of 1688, in England, which 
 drove James II. from the tli i-oiie, and called to it 
 his daugiiter Slary with her able husband, Wil- 
 liam of Orange, produced war between England 
 and !■ ranee (see Fuance: A. D. 1689-1690). The 
 French and English colonies in America were 
 soon involved in the contest, and so far as it 
 troubled American history, it bears in New 
 England annals the name of King William's 
 War "If the issue had depended on the con- 
 dition of the colonies, it could hardly have 
 seemed doubtful. The French census for the 
 North American cc Cnent, in 1688, showed but 
 11,349 persons, scurcly a tenth part of the Eng- 
 lish population on its frontiers ; about a twentieth 
 part of English North America. West of Mon- 
 treal, the princiiJil French posts, and those but 
 inconsiderable ones, wer" at Frontenac, at Macki- 
 naw, and on the Illinois. At Niagara, there 
 was a wavering purpose of maintaining a post, 
 but no permanent occupation. So weak were 
 the garrisons that English traders, with an escort 
 of Indians, had ventui'ed even to Mackinaw. 
 . . . France, bounding its territory next New 
 England by the Kennebec, claimed the whole 
 eastern coast, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, New- 
 foundland, Labrador, and Hudson's Bay ; and to 
 assert and defend this boundless region, Acadia 
 and itj dependencies counted but 900 French 
 inhabitants. The miiisionaries, swaying the 
 minds of the Abenakis, were the sole source of 
 hope. On the declaration of war by France 
 against England, Count Frontenac, once more 
 governor of Canada, ivas charged to recover 
 Hudson's Bay; to protect Acadia; and, by a 
 descent from Canada, to assist a fleet from 
 Franco in making conquest of New York. Of 
 that province De Callieres was, in advance, ap- 
 pointed governor; theEnglisli Catholics were to 
 be permitted to remain, — other inliabitants to be 
 sent into Peunsylvania or New England. . . . 
 In the east, blood was first shed at Cocheco, 
 where, thirteen years before, an unsuspecting 
 party of 350 Indians ha 1 been taken prisoners 
 and shipped for Bostor, to be sold into foreign 
 slavery. The memory of the treachery was in- 
 delible, and the Indian emissaries of Castin 
 easily excited the tribe of Penacook to revenge. 
 On the evening of tlie 27th of June [1689] two 
 squaws repaired to the house of Richard Wald- 
 ron, and the octogenarian magistrate bade them 
 lodge on the floor. At ni^ht, they rise, unbar 
 the gates, and summon tlieir companions," who 
 tortured the aged WaldTOn until he died. "The 
 Indians, burning his house and others that stood 
 near it, having killed three-and-twenty, returned 
 to the wiluerness with 29 captives." In August, 
 the stockade at Pemaquid was taken by 100 
 Indians from the French mission on the Penob- 
 scot. " Other inroads were made by the Penob- 
 scot and St. John Indians, so that the settlements 
 east of Falmouth were deserted. In September, 
 commissioners from New England held a con- 
 ference with the Mohawks at Albany, soliciting 
 an alliance. 'We have burned Montreal,' said . 
 they; ' we are the allies of the English; we will 
 
 366 
 
CANADA, 1689-1690. 
 
 CANADA. 1693-1697. 
 
 keep the chain unbroken.' But they refused to 
 Invade the Abcnakis. . . . Front ennc . . . now 
 used every effort to win the Five Nations [the 
 Iroquois] to neutrality or to friendship. To re- 
 cover esteem in their eyes; to secure to Duran- 
 taye, tlie commander at Mackinaw, the means of 
 treating witli the Hurons and the Ottawas; it 
 ■was resolved by Frontenac to make a triple 
 descent into the English provinces. From Mon- 
 treal, a party of 110, composed of French and of 
 the Christian Iroquois, — having De Mantet and 
 Sainte Helcne as leaders . . . — for two and 
 twenty days waded through snows and morasses, 
 through forests and across rivers, to Schenectady. 
 The village had given itself calmly to slumber: 
 through open and unguarded gates the invaders 
 entered silently [Feb. 8, 1690], and having, just 
 before midnight, reached its heart, the war- 
 whoop was raised (dreadful sound to the mothers 
 of that place and their children I), and the dwell- 
 ings set on Are. Of the inhabitants, some, half 
 clad, fled through the snows to Albany ; 60 were 
 massacred, of whom 17 were children and 10 
 were Africans. . . . The party from Three Rivers, 
 led by Hertel, and consisting of but 53 persons 
 . . . surprised the settlement at Salmon Falls, 
 on the Piseataqua, and, after a bloody engage- 
 ment, burned houses, barns, and cattle in the 
 stalls, and took 54 prisoners, chiefly women and 
 children. . . . Returning from this expedition, 
 Hertel met the war party, under Portneuf, from 
 Quebec, and, with them and a reCnforcement 
 from Castin, made a successful attack on the fort 
 and settlement in Casco Bay. Meantime, danger 
 taught the colonies the necessity of union, and, 
 on the 1st day of May, 1690, New York beheld 
 the momentous example of an American congress 
 [see Unitkd States op Am. : A. D. 1690]. . . . 
 At that congress it was resolved to attempt the 
 conquest of Canada by marching an army, by 
 way of Lake ( .;amplam, against Montreal, while 
 Massachusetts should, with a fleet, attack Que- 
 bec."— G. Bancroft, /Tm*. of the U. 8., ch. 31 (p. 3), 
 {pt, 8, eh. 11, V. 3, ill the "Author's la«t Re- 
 miion"). — Before the end of the month in which 
 the congress was held. Port Royal and the whole 
 of Acadia had already been conquered, having 
 surrendered to an expedition sent out by Mas.sa- 
 chusetts, in eight small vessels, under Sir Wil- 
 liam Phips. The larger fleet (consisting of 33 
 ships and carrying 3,000 men) directed against 
 Quebec, sailed in August from Nastasket, and 
 was, likewise, commanded by Phips. "The 
 plan of the campaign contemplated a diversion 
 to bo made by an assault on Montreal, by a 
 force composed of English from Connecticut and 
 New York, and of Iroquois Indians, at the same 
 time witli the attack on Quebec by the fleet. 
 And a second expedition into Maine under Cap- 
 tain Church was to threaten the Eastern tribes 
 whose incursions had, during tlie last summer, 
 been so disastrous. ... As is so apt to happen 
 when a plan involves the simultflneous action of 
 distant parties, the condition of success failed. 
 The movement of Church, who had with him 
 but 300 men, proved ineffective as to any con- 
 tribution to the descent upon Conadn. ... It 
 was not till after a voyage of more than six 
 weeks tliat the fleet from Boston cast anchor 
 within the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, and 
 meanwhile the overland expedition against Mon- 
 treal had miscarried. The commanders respec- 
 tively of the Connecticut and the New York troops 
 
 mi 
 
 had disagreed, and could not act effectively t«- 
 getlier. . . . The supply, both of boats and of 
 provisions, was found to be insulHcient. The 
 disastrous result was that a retreat was ordered, 
 without so much as an embarkation of the 
 troops on Lake Cliamplain. Frontenac was at 
 Montreal, whither ho had gone ■ to superintend 
 the defence, when the nitelligence, so unex- 
 pected, roaclicd him from Quebec ; and presently 
 after came the tidings of Phips's fleet beiuK in 
 the St. Lawrence. Nothing could liave been 
 more opportune thi»n this coincidence, which 
 gave the Governor liberty to ha.sten down to 
 direct his little force of 200 soldiers at the 
 capital. The French historian says that, if he 
 had been thr''e days later, or it the Englisli fleet 
 had not been delayed by contrary winds, or had 
 had better pilots in the river, where it was nearly 
 a fortnight more in making its slow way, Fron- 
 tenac would have come down from the upper 
 country only to find the English nommander in 
 his citadel. As it was, there ensued a crushing 
 mortification and sorrow to Mnssacliusetts. New 
 France was made much more formidable than 
 ever." The fleet arrived before Quebec Oct. 6, 
 and retreated on the lltli, after considerable 
 cannonading and an assaidt which the French 
 repelled. It suffered storms and disasters on the 
 return vnyage. and lost altogether some 200 
 men. — J. G. Palfrey, Hist, of New Kng., hk. 4, eh. 
 3 {v. 4). 
 
 Also in: F. Parkman, Count Frontenac and 
 New France under Ijoxtis XIV., ch. 10-13. — Bee. 
 Hist. ofN. T., V. 1-3.— F. Bowen, Life of SirW. 
 Phips (Library of Am. Bio/;., v. 7), ch. 2-3.— J. R. 
 Brodhead,J3i«^ of the State of N. V., v. 2, ch. 13. 
 — .1. Pearson, et al. Hist, of the Schenectady Pat- 
 ent, ch. 8-10. 
 
 A. D. i692-i6()7.— The first Inter-Colonial 
 War (King William's War) : Abortive plans 
 of invasion on both sides. — French recovery of 
 Acadia. — " The defeat of the expedition of 1690 
 was probably attributable to the want of concert 
 on the part of tlie troops from Connecticut and 
 New York and those from Massachusetts, and 
 the failure of tlie supplies which were sought 
 from England. . . . But there was mismanage- 
 ment on all hands in the conduct of the expedi- 
 tion; and it seems to have been predestinated 
 that New England should not be delivered from 
 the presence of the French at the north, until 
 time had wrought the necessary changes which 
 were to render the conquest of that country 
 available for the promotion of still more impor- 
 tant ends. Hence a new expedition, projected 
 two years later, and resolved to be prosecuted in 
 the following year [1693], was attendee with the 
 like circumstances of mortification and defeat. 
 England herself participated in this enterprise, 
 and . . . the government was informed that it 
 had ' pleased the king, out of his great goodness 
 and disposition for the welfare of all his subjects, 
 to send a considerable strength of ships and men 
 into the West Indies, and to direct Sir Francis 
 Wheeler, the admiral, to sail to New England 
 from the Caribbee Islands, so as to be there by the 
 last of M'iy or the middle of June at furthest, 
 with a streiigth sufficient to overcome the enemy, 
 if joined and seconded by tlie forces of New 
 England.' . . . Unfortunately for the success of 
 these plans, the letter, which should have reached 
 Boston by the first of April, did not arrive until 
 July ; and the mortality which prevailed in the 
 
CANADA, 1693-1697. 
 
 CANADA, 1700-1785. 
 
 fleet (luring its stiiy in tlie West Indies was ho 
 grout tliot, wlien the commander-in-chief, bir 
 Francis Wlieeler, ancliored off Nantaskct, — 
 ))ringing liinist-lf the news of tlie projected 
 invasion, — he liad lost 1,300 out of 2,100 sailors, 
 and l,800out of 2,400 soldiers. All thoughts of 
 reducing Caimila were therefore abandoned ; hut 
 a plan for another year was settled with th(! 
 governor, the details of which were that 2,000 
 land forces should be sent from England to 
 Cunscau by the tirst of June, to be joined by 
 3,000 from the colonies, aud that the whole force 
 should go up the St. Lawrence, divide and 
 simultaneously attack Montreal and Quebec. 
 Changes in the government of the province, 
 however, and other causes, prevented the execu- 
 tion of this plan, whose success was problem- 
 atical even if it had been attempted. But if the 
 plans of tlie English for the reduction of Canada 
 were doomed to disappointment, the plans of the 
 French for tlie recovery of Acadia were more 
 successful. For the first year after the conquest 
 of that country, indeed, the French were as 
 little concerned to regain, as the English were to 
 retain, the possession of its territory ; nor was 
 Massachusetts able to bear the charge of a 
 sufficient military force to keep its inhabitants in 
 subjection, though she issued commissions to 
 judges and other officers, and required the ad- 
 ministration of the oath of fidelity. In the 
 course of that year [1601], authority was given to 
 Mr. John Nt'ion, of Boston, who had taken an 
 active part in the overthrow of Andros, and who 
 was bound thither on a tradiug voyage, to be 
 commander-in-chief of Acadia; but as lie neared 
 the mouth of the St. John's, he was taken by 
 Monsieur Villebon, who, under a commission 
 from the French king, had touched at Port 
 Royal, and ordered the English flag to be struck, 
 and the French flag to be raised in its place. 
 The next year an attempt was made to dislodge 
 Villebon, but witnout success. ... In the 
 summer of 1696, Pemaquid was taken by the 
 French, under D'lberville and Castine, and the 
 frontier of the dominion of France was extended 
 into Maine ; and by the treaty of the following 
 year Acadia was receded to France, and the 
 English relinquished their claims to the country. 
 The last year of King William's War, as it was 
 long termed in New England, was a year of 
 especial alarm to the province [Massachusetts] 
 and rumors were rife that the French were on 
 the eve of fitting out a formidable fleet for the 
 invasion of the colonies and the conquest of New 
 York." According to the plan of the French 
 undertaking, a powerful fleet from France was 
 to be joined by a force of 1,500 men, raised by 
 Count Frontenac, in Canada, and make, first, a 
 conquest of Boston. "When that town was 
 taken, they were to range the coast to Piscataqua, 
 destroying the settlements as far back into the 
 country as possible. Should there be time for 
 further acquisitions, they were next to go to 
 New York, and upon its reduction the Canadian 
 troops were fc march overland to Quebec, laying 
 waste the country as they proceeded." This 
 project was frustrated bjr happenings much the 
 same in kind as those which thwarted the designs 
 of the English against Quebec. The fleet was 
 delayed by contmry winds, and by certain boot- 
 less undertakings in Newfoundland, until the 
 season was too far advanced for the enterprise 
 contemplated. " The peace of Kyswick, which 
 
 368 
 
 soon followed, led to a temporary suspension of 
 hostilities. France, anxious to secure as large a 
 share of territory in America as possible, retained 
 the whole coast and adjacent islands from ]klaine 
 to Labrador and Hudson's Bay, with Canada, 
 and the Valley of the Mississippi. The posses- 
 sions of England were southward from the St. 
 Croix. Hut the bounds between the nations 
 were imiierfectly define<l, and were, for a long 
 time, a subject of dispute and negotiation."'— J. 
 S. Barry, I'ltHt. of Mans., v. 2, eh. 4. 
 
 Also in: F. Parkman, Count Frontenac and 
 NeiB ]<Vance iiiuler Louis XIV., eh, 16-10. — J. 
 Hannay, JltHt. of Acadia, ch. 14. — See, also, 
 Newfoundland: A. D. 1694-1697. 
 
 A. D. 1696. — Frontenac's expedition against 
 the Iroquois. — The war with tlie "Bastonnais" 
 or " Bostonnais," as he called the New England- 
 ers, did not divert Frontenac's attention from 
 "the grand castigation which at last he was 
 planning for the Iroquois. He had succeeded, 
 in 1094, in inducing them to meet him in general 
 council at Quebec, and had framed the conc"'- 
 tions of a truce; but the English at Albany 
 intrigu' d to prevent the fulfilment, and war wos 
 again imminent. Both sides were endeavoring 
 to secure the alliance of the tribes of the upper 
 lakes. These wavered, "nd Frontenac saw the 
 peril and the remedy. His recourse was to at- 
 tack the Iroquois in their villages at once, and 
 conquer on tlie Mohawk the peace he needed at 
 Michilimackinac. It was Frontenac's last cam- 
 paign. Early in July [1690] he left Montreal 
 with 2,200 men. He went by way of Fort 
 Frontenac, crossed Lake Ontario, landed at 
 Oswego, and struggled up its stream, and at 
 last set sails to his canoes on Lake Onondaga. 
 Then his force marched again, and Frontenac, 
 enfeebled by his years, was borne along in an 
 arm-chair. Eight or nine miles and a day's 
 work brought them to the Onondaga village; 
 but its inhabitants had burned it and fled. 
 Vaudreuil was sent with a detachment which 
 destroyed the town of the Oneidas. After com- 
 mitting all the devastation of crops that ho 
 could, in hopes that famine would help him, 
 Frontenac began his homeward march before the 
 English at Albany were aroused at all. The 
 effect was what Frontenac wished. The Iro- 
 quois ceased their negotiations with the western 
 tribes, and sued for peace." — G. Stewart, Jr.,i 
 Ji'rontenae and his Times (Narrative and Critical 
 Hist, of Am., v. 4, ch. 7). 
 
 Also in: F. Parkman, Count Frontenac and 
 New France under Louis XIV., ch. 18-10. 
 
 A. D. 1698-1^10. — Colonization of Louisiana 
 and the organization of its separate govern- 
 ment. See Louisiana: A. D. 1698-1712. 
 
 A. D. 1700-1735. — The spread of French 
 occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on 
 the Lakes. — "From the time of La Salle's visit 
 in 1679, we can trace a continuous French occu-' 
 pation of Illinois. ... He planted his citadel of 
 St. Louis on the summit of ' Starved Rock,' pro- 
 posing to make that the centre of his colony. 
 ... At first his colony was exceedingly feeble, 
 but it was never discontinued. ' Joutel found a 
 garrison at Fort St. Louis ... in 1687, and in 
 1689 La Ilontan bears testimony that it still con- 
 tinued. In 1"96 a public document proves its 
 existence; and when Tonty, in 1700, again de- 
 scended the Mississippi, he was attended by 
 twenty Canadians, residents on the Illinois.' 
 
CANADA, 1700-173(5. 
 
 CANADA, 1711-1718. 
 
 ISven while the wars named after King William 
 and Queen Anne were going on, the French set- 
 tlements were growing in numlxira iind increas- 
 ing in size ; those wars over, they made still more 
 rapid progress. Missions grew into settlements 
 and parishes. Old Kaskaskia was begun in 
 what La Salle called the ' terrestrial paradise ' 
 before the clo.se of the seventeenth century. 
 The AVabash Valley was occupied about 1700, 
 the first settlers entering it by the portage lead- 
 ing from tlic Kankakee. Later the voyageurs 
 found a shorter route to the fertile valley. . . . 
 The French located their principal missions and 
 posts with admirable judgment. There is not 
 one of them in which we cannot see the wisdom 
 of the priest, of the soldier, and the trader com- 
 bined. The triple alliance worked for an im- 
 mediate end, but the sites that they chose are as 
 Important to-day as they were when they chose 
 them. ... La Salle's colony of St. Louis was 
 planted in one of the gardens of the world, in 
 the midst of a numerous Indian population, on 
 the great line of travel between Lake Michigan 
 and the Mississippi River. Kaskaskia and the 
 ncigliboring settlements held the centre of the 
 long line extending from Canada to Louisiana. 
 The Wabash colony commanded that valley and 
 the Lower Ohio. Detroit was a position so im- 
 portant that, securely held by the French, it 
 practically banished from the English mind for 
 fifty years tlie thought of acquiring the North- 
 west. . . . Then how unerringly were the 
 French guided to the carryiug places between the 
 Ntrthern and the Southern waters, viz., Green 
 Bay, Fox River, and the AVisconsin; the Chi- 
 cago River and the Illinois ; the St. Joseph and 
 the Kankakee; the St. Joseph and the Wabasli; 
 the Maumce and the Wabash; and, later, on the 
 •eve of the war that gave New France to .ng- 
 land, the Chautauqua and French Creek routes 
 from Lake Erie to the Ohio. ... In due time 
 the French began to establish tliemselves on the 
 Northern frontier of the British colonies. They 
 built Fort Niagara in 1726, four years after the 
 English built Fort Oswego. Following the 
 ^arly footsteps of Cliamplam, they ascended to 
 the head of the lake that bears his name, where 
 they fortified Crown Point in 1727, and Ticon- 
 •deroga in 1731. Presque Isle, the present lite 
 of the city of Erie, was occupied about the time 
 that Vincennes was founded m the Wabash Val- 
 ley [1735]. Finally, just on the eve of the last 
 «truggle between England and France, the 
 French pressed into the valleys of the Alleghany 
 and the Ohio, at the same time that the English 
 also began to enter them." — B. A. Hinsdale, The 
 Old Northwest, eh. 4. 
 
 A. D. 1702-1710.— The Secon<! Inter-Colo- 
 nial War (Queen Anne's War) : Border rava- 
 ges in New England and Acadia. — English 
 Conquest of Acadia. See New England : A. D. 
 1702-1710. 
 
 A. D. 1711-1713.— The Second Inter-Colo- 
 nial War. — Walker's Expedition against 
 Quebec. — Massacre of Fox Indians. — The 
 Peace of Utrecht. — After the reduction of Port 
 Royal, whiLli was practically the conquest of 
 Acadia, Colonel Nicholson, who bore the honors 
 of that achievement, repaired to England and 
 prevailed with the government to fit out an ade- 
 quate expedition for the Conquest of Canada. 
 " The fleet, consisting of 15 ships of war and 40 
 transports, was placed under the command of 
 
 Sir Hovonden Walker ; seven veteran reglmont« 
 from Marllwroiigh's army, with a battalion of 
 marines, were intrusted to Mrs. Masham's second 
 brother, whom the queen had itensioned and 
 made a brigadier-general, whom his bottle com- 
 panions called honest Jack Hill. . . . From June 
 25th to the 30th day of July 1711, the fleet lay 
 at Boston, taking in supplies and the colonial 
 forces. At the same time, an army of men from 
 C'onnecticut, New Jersey, and New York, Pala- 
 tine emigrants, and about 'tOO Iroquois, assem- 
 bling at Albany, prepared to burst upon Mon- 
 treid ; while in Wisconsin the English had allies 
 in the Foxes, who were always wishing to expel 
 the French from Michigan. In Quebec, meas- 
 ures of defence began by a renewal of friend- 
 ship witli the Indians. To deputies from the 
 Onondagas and Senecas, the governor spoke of 
 the fidelity with whieli the French had kept their 
 treaty ; and he reminded them of their jjromisc 
 to remain quiet upon their mats. A war festival 
 was next held, at which were present all the 
 savages domiciliated near the French settlements, 
 and all the delegates of their allies who liad come 
 down to Montreal. In the presence of 700 or 800 
 warriors, the war song was sung and the hatchet 
 uplifted. The savages of the remote west were 
 wavering, till twenty Ilurons from Detroit took 
 up the hatchet, and swayed all the rest by their 
 example. By the influence of tlie Jesuits over 
 the natives, an alliance extending to the Oiib- 
 ways constit<ited the defence of Slontreid. De- 
 scending to Quebec, Vaudreui! found Abenaki 
 volunteers assembling for his protection. Meas- 
 ures for resistance had been adopted with hearti- 
 ness ; tlie fortiflcations were strengtliencd ; Beau- 
 port was garrisoned; and the people were 
 resolute and confiding ; even women were ready 
 to labor for the common defence. Toward the 
 last of August, it was said tliat peasants at 
 Matanes had descried 90 or 06 vessels with the 
 English flag. Yet September came, and still from 
 the heights of Cape Diamond no eye caught one 
 sail of the expected enemy. The English squad- 
 ron, leaving Boston on the 30th of July [1711], 
 after loitering near tlio bay of Gaspe, at last be- 
 gan to ascend the St. Lawrence, while Sirlloven- 
 tten Walker puzzled himself with contriving how 
 he would secure his vessels during the winter at 
 Quebec." At the same time, the present and 
 actual difficulties of the expedition were so heed- 
 lessly and ignorantly dealt with that eight ships 
 of tlie fleet were recl-.ed among tlie rocks and 
 shoals near the Egg Isi uds, and 884 men were 
 drowned. Tlie enterprise was then abandoned. 
 " 'Had we arrived safe at Quebec,' wrote the 
 admiral, ' ten or twelve thousand men must have 
 been left to perish of cold and hunger: by the 
 loss of a part, Providence saved all the rest.' 
 Such was the issue of hostilities in the nort ast. 
 Their total failure left the expedition from 
 Albany no option but to return, and Slontreal 
 was unmolested. Detroit, in 1712, almost fell 
 before the valor of a party of the Ottagamies, or 
 Foxes. . . . Resolving to burn Detroit, tliey 
 pitched their lodgings near the fort, wliieli Du 
 Buisson, with but twenty Frenchmen, defended. 
 Aware of their intention, he summoned his In- 
 dian allies from the chase ; and, about tlic middle 
 of Jlay, Ottawas and Ilurons and Pottawotta- 
 inies, with one branch of the Sacs, Illinois, 
 Mcnomonies, and even Osages and Missouris, 
 each nation with its own ensign, came to his re- 
 
 nfi9 
 
CANADA, 1711-1718. 
 
 Boundaru 
 Dinpulea. 
 
 CANADA, 1750-1753. 
 
 llcf. So wide was the influence of the mission- 
 aries in tlie West. . . . Tlic warriors of the Fox 
 nation, far from destroying Detroit, were them- 
 selves besieged, and at lust were compelled to 
 surrender at discretion. Those who bore arms 
 were ruthlessly murdered; the rest distributed 
 among the confederates, to be enslaved or mas.sa- 
 cred at the will of their masters. Cherished as the 
 loveliest spot in Canada, the possession of De- 
 troit secured for Quebec a great highway to the 
 upper Indian tribes and to the Mississippi. . . . 
 In the meantime, the preliminaries of a treaty 
 had been signed between France and England ; 
 and the war . . . was suspended by negotiations 
 that were soon followed by the uncertain peace 
 of Utrecht [April 11, 1713]. . . . England, by 
 the peace of Utrecht, obtained from France large 
 concessions of territorv in America. The as- 
 sembly of New York had addressed the queen 
 against French settlements in the West ; AVilliam 
 Penn advised to establish the St. Lawrence as 
 the boundary on the north, and to include in our 
 colonies the valley of the Mississippi. ' It will 
 make glorious country ' ; such were his pro- 
 phetic words. . . . The colony of Louisiana ex- 
 cited in Saint-John ' apprehensions of the future 
 undertakings of the French in North America.' 
 The occupation of the Mississippi valley had 
 been proposed to Queen Anne; yet, at the 
 peace, that immense region remained to France. 
 But England obtained the bay of Hudson and its 
 borders ; Newfoundland, subject to the rights of 
 France in its tisherics ; and all Nova Scotia, or 
 Acadia, accorumg to its ancient boundaries. It 
 was agreed that 'France should never molest the 
 Five Nations subject to the dominion of Great Bri- 
 tain.' But Louisiana, according to French ideas, 
 included both banks of the Alississippi. Did the 
 treaty of Utrecht assent to such an extension of 
 French terjitory 1 And what were the ancient 
 limits of Acadia ? Did it include all that is now 
 New Bruns vick ? or had Prance still a large ter- 
 ritory on Mie Atlantic between Acadia and 
 Maine ? And what were the bounds of the ter- 
 ritory of the Five Nations, which the treaty ap- 
 peared to recognize as a part of the English 
 dominions ? These were questions which were 
 never to be adjusted am!cably." — G. Bancroft, 
 Hist, of the U. 8. (Author' i Last Jtension), pt. 3, 
 ch. 12 (». 2). — With reference to the destruction of 
 the Fox Indians at Detroit, a recent writer says: 
 "The French official reports pretend that the 
 Wisconsin Indians, being in secret alliance with 
 the Iroquois and the English, had come to De- 
 troit with the express purpose of besieging the 
 fort and reducing it to ruins; and their state- 
 ment has heretofore been unsuspectingly ac- 
 cepted by all historians. But there is little doubt 
 that the charge is a shameful falsehood. The 
 Fox Indians had rendered themselves very ob- 
 noxious to the French. Firmly lodged on the 
 Fox River, they controlled the chief highway 
 to the West; a haughty, independent and in- 
 tractable people, they could not be cajoled 
 into vassalage. It was necessary for the suc- 
 cess of the French policy to get them out 
 of the way. They were enticed to Detroit in 
 order that they might be slaughtered." — S. S. 
 Ilebberd, Hist, of Wis. under tlie dominion of 
 France, eh. 5-0. 
 
 Also in: Wis. Hist. Soc. Colls., v. 5. — W. Kiugs- 
 ford. Hist, of Canada, bk. 6, ch. 5-6 (». 2).— It. 
 Brown, Hist, of the Island of Cape Breton, letters 
 
 8-9.— See, also, Utrecht: A. D. 1712-1714, and 
 Newfoundland: A. I). 1713. 
 
 A. D. 1720. — The fortifying of Louisbourg. 
 See Cape Bheton: A. D. 1720-1745. 
 
 A. D. 1744-1748.— The Third Inter-Colonial 
 War (King George's War). — Loss and recovery 
 of Louisbourg and Cape Breton. See New 
 Enoland: a. I). 1744; 1.45; and 1745-1748. 
 
 A. D. 1748-1754.— Active measures to fortify 
 possession of the Ohio Valley and the West, 
 See Ohio (Valley): A. D. 1748-1754. 
 
 A. D. 1750-1753. — Boundaries disputes with 
 E ngland.— Futile negotiations at Paris.- " For 
 the past three years [1750-1753] the commis- 
 sioners appointed under the treaty of ;x-la- 
 Chapelle to settle the question of bd laries- 
 between France and England in America had 
 been in session at Paris, waging interminable 
 war on paper; La Galissoniire and Silhouette for 
 France, Shirley and Mildinay for England. By 
 the treaty of Utrecht, Acadia belonged to 
 England ; but what was Acodia ? According to 
 the English commissioners, it comprised not only 
 the peninsula called Nova Scotia, but all tho 
 immense tract of land between the River St. 
 Lawrence on the north, the Gulf of the same- 
 name on the east, the Atlantic on the south, and 
 New England on the west. The French commis- 
 sioners, on their part, maintained that the name 
 Acadia belonged of right only to about a twen- 
 tieth part of this territory, and that it did not 
 even cover the whole of the Acadian peninsula, 
 but only its southern coast, with an adjoining- 
 belt of barren wilderness. When the French 
 owned Acadia, they gave it boundaries as com- 
 prehensive as those claimed for it by the English 
 commissionaries ; now that it belonged to a rival, 
 they cut it down to a paring of its former self. 
 . . . Four censuses of Acadia while it belonged 
 to the French had recognized the mainland as 
 included in it; and so do also the early French 
 maps. Its prodigious shrinkage was simply the 
 consequence of its possession by an alien. Other 
 questions of limits, more important and equally 
 perilous, called loudly for solution. What line 
 should separate Canada and her western dependen- 
 cies from the British colonies? Various prin- 
 ciples of demarcation were suggested, of which 
 the most prominent was a geographical one. All 
 countries watered by streams falling into the St. 
 Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi 
 were to belong to her. This would have planted 
 her in the heart of New York and along the 
 crests of the Alleghanies, giving her all the 
 interior of the continent, and leaving nothing to 
 England but a strip of sea-coast. Yet in view 
 of what France had achieved; of the patient 
 gallantry of her explorers, the zeal of her mis- 
 sionaries, the adventurous hardihood of her 
 bushrangers, revealing to civilized mankind the 
 existence of this wilderness world, while her 
 rivals plodded at their workshops, their farms, 
 or their fisheries, — in view of all this, her pre- 
 tensions were moderate and reasonable compared 
 with those of England. The treaty of Utrecht 
 had declared the Iroquois, or Five Nations, to be 
 British subjects ; therefore it was insisted that 
 all countries conquered by them belonged to the 
 British Crown. But what was an Iroquois con- 
 quest ? The Iroquois rarely occupied the coun- 
 tries they overran. . . . But the range of their 
 war-parties was prodigious ; and the English laid 
 claim to every mountain, forest or prairie where 
 
 370 
 
CANADA, 1750-1758. 
 
 The last 
 ttntggU begun. 
 
 CANADA, 1755. 
 
 an Iroquois lind taken a scalp. This would give 
 them not only the country between the Alle- 
 chanies and the Mississippi, but also that between 
 Lake Huron and the Ottawa, tlius reducing 
 Canada to the patch on the American map now 
 represented by the province of Quebec, — or 
 rat»)er by a port of it, since tlie extension of Acadia 
 to the 8t. Lawrence would cut off the present 
 coimties of Qaspe, Rimouski and Bonaventuro. 
 Indeed, among the advocates of British claims 
 there were those who denied that France had 
 any rights wliatever on the south side of the St. 
 Lawrence. Such being the attitude of the two 
 contestants, it was plain them was no resort but 
 the last argument of kings. Peace must be won 
 with the swonl." — F. Parkman, Montcalm and 
 Wolfe, eh. 5 (r. 1). 
 
 Also in: T. C. Haliburton, Account of Nova 
 Scotia, V. i,pp. 143-149. — See, also. Nova Scotia: 
 A. D. 1749-1755.— Relative to the very dubious 
 English claim based on treaties with the Iroquois, 
 see New York: A. D. 1684, and 1726. 
 
 A. D. 17SS (April).— Plans of the English 
 against the French. — "While the negotiations 
 [between England and France, at Paris] were 
 pending, Braddock arrived in the Chesopeake. 
 In March [nUb] i -, reached Williamsburgh, and 
 visited Annapolis; on the 14th of April, he, with 
 Commodore Keppel, held a congress at Alex- 
 andria. There were present, of the American 
 governors, Shirley, next to Braddock in military 
 rank; Delancey, of New York; Morris, of 
 Pennsylvania; Sharpe, of Maryland; and Din- 
 widdle, of Virginia. . . . Between England and 
 France peace existed under ratified treaties; it 
 was proposed not to invade Canada, but to repel 
 encroachments on the frontier. For this end, 
 four expeditions were concerted by Braddock at 
 Alexandria. Lawrence, the lieutenant-governor 
 of Nova Scotia, was to reduce that province 
 according to the English interpretation of its 
 boundaries; Johnson [afterwards Sir William 
 Johnson, of New York] from his long acquaint- 
 ance with the Six Nations, was selected to enroll 
 Mohawk warriors in British pay and lead them 
 with provincial militia against Crown Point; 
 Shirley proposed to drive the French from 
 Niagara ; the commander-in-chief was to recover 
 the Ohio valley."— G. Bancroft, Hist, of the 
 U. 8. (Author's last revision), v. 2, pp. 416-419. 
 
 A. D. 17SS (June).— French disaster at Sea. 
 — Frustrated attempt against Nova Scotia. — 
 The arrival of Dieskau at Quebec. — " In 1754, 
 France fully awakened to the fact that England 
 not only intended to maintain her position in the 
 wilds of America, but likewise by sea. She 
 equipped an armament under the command of 
 admirals Macnamara and Bois de la Mothe, of 18 
 ships of the line and 9 frigates, having on board, 
 ostensibly for Canada, eleven battjvlions of troops 
 under General Dieskau, an ' elfive ' of Marshal 
 Saxe. England, apprised of this force being 
 sent, despatched Vice-Admiral Boscawen with 
 11 ships of the lino and one frigate to intercept 
 it en route. Botli sailed about the same time, 
 the 22d of April, 1755. The French ambassador 
 at London being duly notified, replied: 'That 
 his royal master would consider the first gun 
 fired at sea in a hostile manner to be a declaration 
 of war.' The esoteric instructions of the French 
 ileet were to rendezvous at Chebuctou Harbour, 
 destroy Halifax, and then proceed to Annapolis 
 for the same purpose. While the instructions 
 
 were of necessity secret, it was well known In 
 Acadia that an att(>mpt would be made by 
 Frtmce to recover possession of the province. 
 It was this fleet, so eagerly expected by the 
 Acadians, that gave rise to the insolent manner 
 in which they addressed the Council at Halifax, 
 and which led to an inunediate removal of their 
 arms and 8ubse(iuent dispersal. Owing to mis- 
 adventure, some of the French fleet imder 
 Alacnamara had to put back to Brest; the re- 
 mainder met the Englisli off the coast of New- 
 foundland [June 8] in a dense; fog ; avoiding an 
 engagement, several of them escaped by taking 
 the northern route via Bcllcisle . . . siiccess- 
 fully reaching thei. 'harbour of refuge,' Louis- 
 bourg. The ' Lys ' and the ' Alcyde ' were suf- 
 ficiently unfortunate to be compelled to face the 
 guns of the English frigates ' Dunkirk ' and 
 ' Defiance, 'and after five hours close engageme\it 
 the ' Lvs ' struck its colors . . . followed by the 
 'Alcyde,' when Hocquart in command became 
 Boscawen's prisoner by sea for the third time, 
 together with £76,000 sterling in money, eight 
 companies of soldiers and several officers and 
 engineers. The unexpected rencontre with Bos- 
 cawen's fleet, the loss of two of their vessels, and 
 the knowledge that the garrison at Halifax was 
 considerably reinforced by the forces brought out 
 by Boscawen, caused the abandonment of all 
 attempts to recover Acadia. Dieskau, after 
 landing a few regiments at Louisbourg, pro- 
 ceeded to Quebec."— G. E. Hart, The Fall of 
 New France, pp. 51-54. 
 
 Also in: J. Campbell, Natal Hist, of Qreat 
 Britain, v. 5, ;>;'• 104-106. 
 
 A. D. 17SS (July).— Defeat of Braddock's 
 Expedition against Fort Duquesne. Sec Ohio 
 (Valley): A. D. 1755. 
 
 A. D. 1 755 (August— October) : The abortive 
 expedition against Niagara. — According to 
 the English plan of campaign, concerted with 
 Braddock at Alexandria, Governor Shirley was 
 to lead an army for the conquest of Niagara ; 
 but his march westward ended at Oswego. 
 "Colonel Philip Schuyler led the first regiment 
 of the expedition. Boats were built at Oswego 
 to convey 600 men by lake. Shirley followed 
 by way of the Mohawk, and reached Oswego 
 August 21. He was delayed from various 
 causes, and in October a council of war decided 
 that the attack on Niagara should be postponed 
 for a year. Shirley was to have met Braddock 
 in victory at Niagara. Both branches of the 
 plan had been shattered. The great western 
 scheme sank to a mere strengthening of the 
 defences of Oswego. Colonel Mercer was left in 
 command of a garrison of 700 men, with instruc- 
 tions to build two new forts, and General Shirley 
 took the remainder of his force back to Albany. 
 The pitiful failure led to recriminations relative 
 to the causes of the fatal delays." — E. H. 
 Roberts, New York, v. 1, eh. 20. 
 
 Also in: R. Hildreth, Hiet. of the V. S., eh. 26 
 (v. 2). 
 
 A. D I7SS (September).— The Battle of 
 Lake George and defeat of Dieskau.— ' Tlie 
 expedition against Crown Point on Lake Cham- 
 plain, had been intrusted to General William 
 Johnson. His troops were drawn principally 
 from Massachusetts and Connecticut; a regiment 
 from New Hampshire joined them at Albany. 
 At the head of boat navigation on the Hudson, a 
 fort was built which, in honor of their com- 
 
 871 
 
CANADA, 1755. 
 
 KxiU of tht 
 Acadiam. 
 
 CANADA, 1766. 
 
 mander, wliom they revercncod ft« ' ii lirnvo nn<l 
 vlrtiious iniin,' tlio RolditTH nnmcd Fort Lymiiii. 
 Hut when .lohiiHon aHHiinu^d thi- coiiinmiid liu 
 iiUKciu'rously chnngcd tlio niiinp to Fort Kdwiird. 
 Leaving; a garrison in this fort, Joliiison moved 
 with about ."i.OOO nwi\ to the licad of Laku Qeorgo, 
 and tliiTL' f(>riiic<l a camp, iiitending to dfHrcnd 
 into Lalte (Jhamplain. Ilcndricli, the celebniti'd 
 Mohuwii chief, with lux warriors, were nnionj; 
 these troopH. Israel Putnam, too, was tliere, as 
 u captain, and Jolin Htarli as a lieutenant, each 
 taking; lessons in warfare. The French were not 
 idle; the district of Montreal made the most 
 strenuous exertions to meet the invading foe. 
 All the men who were able to bear arms were 
 called into active service ; so that, to gather in 
 the harvest, their places were supplied by men 
 from other districts. The energetic Baron Dies- 
 kau resolved, by a bold attack, to terrify the 
 invaders. Taking with Iiim 200 regulars, and 
 4ibout 1,200 Canadians and Indians, he set out to 
 capture Fort Edward; but, as he drew near, the 
 Indians heard that it was defended by cannon, 
 which they greatly dreaded, and they refused to 
 advance. lie now changed his plan, and resolved 
 to attack Johnson's camp, which wassnpposcd to 
 >)« without cannon. Meantime scout« had 
 reported to Johnson that they liad seen roads 
 made through the woods in the direction of Fort 
 Edward. Not knowing the movements of Dies- 
 kau, a detaclmient of 1,000 men, under Colonel 
 Ephraim Williams, of Massachusetts, and 200 
 Mohawks, under Ilendrick, marched to relieve 
 that post. The French had information of their 
 appniach and placed themselves in ambush. 
 They were concealed among the thick bushes of 
 a swamp, on the one side, and rocks and trees on 
 the other. The Englisli recklessly marched into 
 the defile. They were vigorously attacked 
 [Sept. 5] and thrown into confusion. Ilendrick 
 was almost instantly killed, and in a short time 
 Williams fell also. The detachment commenced 
 to retreat, occasionally halting to check their 
 pursuers. The firing was heard in the camp ; as 
 the sound drew nearer and nearer, it was evident 
 the detachment was retreating. The drums beat 
 to arms, trees were hastily felled and thrown 
 together to form a breastwork, upon which 
 were placed a few cannon, just arrived from the 
 Hudson. Scarcely were thesr, preparations made 
 whta the panting fugitives appeared in sight, 
 hotly pursued by the French and Indians. 
 Intending to enter the camp with the fugitives, 
 Dieskau urged forward his men with the greatest 
 Impetuosity. The moment the fugitives were 
 past the muzzles of the cannon they opened with 
 a tremendous sliowcr of grape, which scattered 
 the terrified Indians and checked tlie Canadians, 
 but the regulars pushed on. A determined con- 
 test ensued, which lasted Ave liours, until the 
 regulars were nearly all slain, while tlie Indians 
 and Canadians did but little execution; tliey 
 remained at a respectful distance among the 
 trees. At length the enemy began to retreat, 
 and the Americans leaped over tlie breastworks 
 and pursued (hem with great vigor. Thot same 
 evening, after the pursuit haa ceased, as the 
 French were retreating, they were suddenly 
 attacked with great spirit by the New Hamp- 
 shire regiment, which was on its way from Fort 
 Edward. They were so panic stricken by this 
 now assault tliat they abondoned everything and 
 fled for their lives. Dieskau had been wounded 
 
 once or twice at the commencement of the battle, 
 but he never left his post. . . . He was taken 
 pri.Honer, kindly treated, and sent to England, 
 where lie died. Joliiis<m wos slightly wounded 
 at the commencement of the battle, and prudently 
 retired from danger. To General livman belongs 
 the honor of the victory, yet ■lolinson, in his 
 report of the battle, did not even mention his 
 name. .Tohnson, for his exertions on that ilay, 
 was made a baronet, and received from royal 
 favor a gift of |2.">,000. He had friends at 
 court, hut Lyman was unknown. Col. Ephraim 
 Williams, who fell in this battle, while pas.sing 
 through Albany, had taken the precaution to 
 make his will, in which he iK'queathed property 
 to found a frc^c school in western Massachusetts. 
 That school has since grown into AVilliams Col- 
 lege." — J. II. Patton, Concise Jlist. of t/w Am. 
 People, r. 1, rh. 22. 
 
 Also in: W. L. Stone, Life and Times of Sir 
 W. Johnson, v. 1, ch. 10. — F. Parkman, Montcalm 
 and y/olfe, v. 1, ch. 9. 
 
 A. D.I7S5 (October — November). — Removal 
 and dispersion in exile of the French Acadians. 
 See Nova Scotia: A. D. IT.W. 
 
 A. D. 1756. — Formal declarations of war — 
 the " Seven Years War " of Europe, called the 
 " French and Indian War " in British America. 
 — Montcalm sent from France. — "Ou the 18th 
 of May, 1750, England, after a year of o])en hos- 
 tility, at length declared war. She had attacked 
 Franco by land and sea, turned loose lier ships 
 to prey on French commerce, and brought some 
 300 prizes into her ports. It was the act of a 
 weak government, supplying by spasms of vio- 
 lence what it lacked in considerate resolution. 
 France, no match for her amphiliious enemy in 
 the game of marine depredation, cried out in 
 horror; and to emphasize her complaints and 
 signalize a pretended good faith which her acts 
 had belied, ostentatiously released a British frigate 
 captured by her cruisers. She in her turn de- 
 clared war on the 9th of June : and now began 
 the most terrible conflict of the 18th century; one 
 that convulsed Europe and shook Amenica, India, 
 the coasts of Africa, and the islands of the sea 
 [seeENOLAND: A. D. 1754-175.5, and after; also 
 Germany: A. D. 1755-1756, and after]. . . . 
 Henceforth France was to turn her strength 
 against her European foes; and the American 
 war, the occasion of the universal outbreak, was 
 to hold in her eyes a second place. . . . Still, 
 something must be done for the American war; 
 at least there must be a new general to replace 
 Dieskau. None of the court favorites wanted a 
 command in the backwoods, and the minister of 
 war was free to choose whom he would. His 
 choice fell on Louis Joseph, Marquis de Mont- 
 crim-Qozon de Saint Veran. . . . The Chevalier 
 de Levis, afterwards Marshal of Franco, was 
 named as his second in command. . . . The 
 troops destined for Canada were only two battal- 
 ions, one belonging to the regiment of La Sarre, 
 and the other to that of Uoyal Roussillon. Louis 
 XV. and Pompadour sent 100,000 men to fight 
 the battles of Austria, and could spare but 1,200 
 to reinforce New France." Montcalm, who 
 reached Quebec in Slay, was placed in difficult 
 relations witli the governor-general, Vaudreuil, 
 by the fact that the latter held command of the 
 colonial troops. The forces in New France, w(!ro 
 of three kinds, — "the ' troupes do terre,' troops 
 of the line, or regulars from France ; the ' troupes 
 
 372 
 
CANADA, 1756. 
 
 7^ "FVench and 
 Indian War." 
 
 CANADA, 1786-1757. 
 
 de la marine,' or colony regulars; and lastly the 
 militia. The first consisted of the four battalions 
 that had como over with Dieskau and the two 
 that had come with Montcalm, comprising in all 
 a little Ics.? than 3,000 men. Besides these, the 
 battalions of Artois and Bourgogne, to the num- 
 ber of 1, too men, were in garrison at Louisbourg. " 
 This constituted Montcalm's command. The 
 colony regul rs and the militia remained subject 
 to the orders of the governor, who manifested an 
 early jealousy of Montcalm. The former troops 
 numbered less than 3,000 men. " All theelTectivo 
 male population' of Canada, from 15 years to 60, 
 was enrolled in the militia. ... In 1750 the 
 militia of all ranks counted obout 13,000; and 
 eight years later the number had increased to 
 about 15,000. Until the last two years of the 
 war, those employed in actual warfare were but 
 few. ... To the white flglifing force of the 
 colony are to be added the red men. . . . Tlie 
 military situation was somewhat perplexing. 
 Ire luois spies had brought reports of great pre- 
 parations on the part of the English. As neither 
 party dared offend these wavering tribes, their 
 warriors could pass with impunity from one to 
 the other, and were paid by each for bringing in- 
 formation, not always trustworthy. They de- 
 clared that the English were gathering in force 
 to renew the attempt made by Jolmson the 
 year before against Crown Point and Ticon- 
 deroga, as well as that made by Shirley against 
 Forts Prontenac and Niagara. Vaudreuil had 
 spared no effort to meet the double danger. 
 Lotbinifire, a Canadian engineer, hod been busied 
 during tlie winter in fortifying Ticondcroga, 
 while Pouchot, a captain in the battalion of 
 Beam, had rebuilt Niagara, and two French 
 engineers were at work in strengthening the 
 defences of Prontenac. . . . Indians presently 
 brought word that 10,000 English were coming 
 to attack Ticonderoga. " Both Montcalm and 
 Levis, with troops, "hastened to the supposed 
 scene of danger . . . and reached Ticonderoga 
 at the end of June. They found the fort 
 . . . advanced towards completion. It stood on 
 the crown of the promontory. . . . The rampart 
 consisted of two parallel walls ten feet apart, 
 built of the trunks of trees, and held together by 
 transverse logs dovetailed at both ends, the space 
 betv^een being filled with earth and gravel well 
 packed. Such was the first Port Ticonderoga, 
 or Carillon, — a structure quite distinct from the 
 later fort of which the ruins still stand on the 
 same spot. . . . Ticonderoga was now the most 
 advonced position of the French, and Crown 
 Point, which hod before held that perilous honor, 
 was in the second line. . . . The danger from 
 the English proved to be still remote. . . . Mean- 
 while, at the head of Lake George, the raw bands 
 of ever-active New Engloud, were mustering for 
 the fray." — P. Porkmon, Montcalm and Wolfe, 
 V. 1, ch. 11. 
 
 Also in: W. Kingsford, Ilist. of Canada, bk. 
 11, ch. (v. 3). 
 
 A. D. 1256-1757. — French successes. — 
 Capture of Oswego and Fort William Henry. 
 — Bloody Twork of the savage allies. — On the 
 death of Braddock, Gov. Shirley became cora- 
 monder-in-chief of the British forces in America, 
 "a position for which he was not adopted by 
 military knowledge. . . . His military schemes 
 for the season of 1756 were grand in conception 
 and theory, but disastrous failures in practice. 
 
 Ten thousand men were to advance against 
 Crown Point — 6,000 for service on Lake On- 
 tiirio, 3,000 for an attark on Fort Duciuesne, 
 and 2,000 to advance up the river Kennebec, 
 destroy the settlement adjoining the Chaudiire 
 and descending the mouth of that river within 
 three miles of Quebec, keep all that part of 
 Canada in alarm. While each of these armies 
 was being put into motion, the season Inid be- 
 come too fur advanced for action at any one 
 point. Moreover, the British Government, dis- 
 satisfied with a Provincial officer being at the 
 head of its army in America, determined upou 
 sending out General Lord Loudoun. Wlule 
 Shirley was preparing, Montcalm advanced 
 against the three forts at Oswego, the terror of 
 the French in the Iroquois country and which it 
 had been their desire to destroy for many years 
 back ; they likewise commanded the entrance to 
 Lake Ontario. The English liad a garrison of 
 1,800 men in these divided between Fort Ontario 
 . . . Fort Oswego . . . and Fort George, or 
 Rascal . . . about a mile distant from each 
 other." Montcalm took oil three of the forts 
 without much difficulty, and demolished them. 
 " Shirley was much blamed for this defeat and 
 the failure of his projects, and lost both his 
 
 fovemment and command, being succeeded by 
 ohn Campbell, fourth Earl of Loudoun, Baron 
 Mauchlaw, one of the si.xteen peers of Scotland, 
 witli General Abercromby as second in command 
 — both notorious for previous incompetency. 
 . . . They were sent out with considerable rein- 
 forcements, and had transferred to them by 
 Shirley 16,000 men in the field, of whom 6,000 
 were regulars; but, with that masterly inactivity 
 and indecision for which Loudoun was most 
 renowned, no further movement was made this 
 year. The year 1757 was not distinguished by 
 any military movements of much moment." 
 An intended attack on Louisbourg was postponed 
 because of news that a powerful F; 'ch tleet 
 held possession of its harbor ond that the 
 garrison was very strong. "Montcalm, finding 
 himself free from attack, penetrated with his 
 army of 7,006 men to Port William Henry, at 
 the iiead of Lake George. Included wore 2,000 
 Indians. The fort was garrisoned by 2,264 
 regulars under Colonel Munroe of the 85th Regi- 
 ment, and in the neighborhood there was an 
 additional force of 4,600 men under General 
 Webb. On tlie 3d of August the fort was in- 
 vested and, after a summons to surrender was 
 rejected, the attack was begun and continued 
 with undiminished fervor until the 0th at noon, 
 when a capitulation was signed. General Webb 
 did not join Munroe, as he was instructed to do 
 by Abercromby's plans, some cowardice being 
 attributed to him by contemporary writers. An 
 incident of the war which has given rise to a 
 great deal of controversy and ill-feeling up to 
 the present moment, was the so-called massacre 
 at Fort William Henry, the outcome of the 
 numerous horde of savages the French allies 
 had in the engagement. ... On the morning 
 following the ■ surrender, the garrison was to 
 march out under a proper escort to protect them 
 from injury at the hands of the Indians. The 
 evacuation had barely commenced, when a repeti- 
 tion of the looting of the day previous, which en- 
 sued immediately after the capitulation had been 
 signed, was attempted. An effort being made 
 by the escort to stop it, some drunken Indians 
 
 373 
 
CANADA, 176ft-1757. 
 
 lAntialHiurff 
 and Ticonderoga, 
 
 CANADA. 1758. 
 
 attnrkrd the ilrllh". which rosiiltcd In tlip miirdpr- 
 Injt 1111(1 Hciilpinj; of koiiic (10 or 70 of the 
 iirTfHiiirrM ; nmltrcntInK imd rohliiti^ n largv niini- 
 xwT of others. I'poii a cnrcful invcslljfntlon of 
 the rontempomry niiflioritics, no liliiiiiewlmtovcr 
 cnn bo nttiichcd to tlie koo(1 fiiiiu' of the brave 
 nnd hiimano Moritrnlm or Do LeviH. . . . Fort 
 Georije, or Williiim llenrv, ns it wiis IndilTereiitly 
 callecT, like Its rompeer l'N)rt Oswejro, was razed 
 to the ground and tlu^ army retreated into tlieir 
 winter quarters at Montreal. The termination 
 of the year left the Freiieh masters of Lakes 
 Clmmplaln and Georgo, together wIlIi the ehaiii 
 of great lakes connecting the 8t. Lawrence witli 
 the MisBlssippi ; also the undisturbed possession 
 of all the country in dispute west of the Alle- 
 ghany Mountains."— O. H Hart, T/ie Fall of 
 Neie France, pp. 70-70. 
 
 Also in: E. Warlmrton, Conquest of Canada, 
 V. 2, <•/(. 2-3. 
 
 A. D. 1758. — The loss of Louisbourg; and 
 Fort Du Quesne.— Bloody defeat of the Eng- 
 lish at Ticonderoga. — "The affairs of Great 
 ISritain in North America wore a more gloomy 
 aspect, at the close of the camjiaign of 1757, 
 than at any former period. By tlio acquisition 
 of fort William Henry, the French had obtained 
 complete possession of the lakes Champlain, and 
 George. By the destruction of Oswego, thev 
 had acquired the dominion of those lakes which 
 connect tlie St. Lawrence with the waters of the 
 Mississippi, and unite Canada to Louisiana. By 
 means of fort Du Quflsne, they maintained their 
 ascendency over the Indians, and held undis- 
 turbed possession of the country west of tlie 
 Allegheny mountains; while the Lnglish settlers 
 were driven to the blue ridge. The great object 
 of the war in that quarter was gained, and 
 France held the country for which hostilities had 
 been commenced. . . . But this inglorious scene 
 was about to be succeeded by one of unrivalled 
 brilliancy. . . . The brightest era of British his- 
 tory was to commence. . . . The public voice 
 had, at length, made its way to the throne, and 
 had forced, on the unwilling monarch, a minister 
 who has been justly deemed one of the greatest 
 men of the age in which ho lived. ... In the 
 summer of 1757, an administration was formed, 
 which conciliated tlio great contending interests 
 in parliament; and Mr. Pitt was placed at its 
 head. . . . Possessing the public confidence 
 without limitation, he commanded all tlie re- 
 sources of the nation, and drew liberally from 
 the public purse. . . . In no part of his majesty's 
 dominions was the new administration more 
 popular than in his American colonies. . . . 
 The circular letter of Mr. Pitt assured the several 
 governors that, to repair tlie losses and disap- 
 pointments of the last inactive campaign, the 
 cabinet was determined to send a formidable 
 force, to operate by sea and land, against the 
 French in America; and he called upon them to 
 raise as large bodies of men, within their re- 
 spective governments, as the number of inliabit- 
 ants nii-'ht a'low. . . . The legislature of Mas- 
 sachu.si its agi cd to furnish 7,000 men; Connec- 
 ticut 5,000; and New Hampshire 3,000. . . . 
 Three expeditions were proposed. The first wis 
 against Louisbourg; the second against Ticon- 
 deroga and Crown Point ; and the third against 
 fort Du QuCsne. The army destined against 
 Louisbourg, consisting of 14,000 men, was com- 
 manded by major general Amherst. [The expe- 
 
 dition was suoccssfiil and Tjouisbourg fell, July 
 2(1, 1758.— See Cave Bukto.v Iki.a.M): A. I). 
 1758-1700.1 . . . The expedition against Ticon- 
 deroga and Crown Point was conducted by gen- 
 eral Aberrrombie in person. His army, consist- 
 ing of near 10,(X)0 ciTectives, of wliom 9,000 
 were provincials, was attended by a fonnldable 
 train of artillery, and possessed every retiuisite 
 to ensure success. On the 5th of July he 
 embarked on lake George, and reached the land- 
 ing place early the next morning. A discmbarli- 
 ation being ciTected without opposition, the 
 troops wen; immediately formed In four columns, 
 the Britisli in the centre, and the provincials on 
 tlie Hanks; In wliicli order tliey marched towards 
 the advanced guard of the French, composed of 
 one battalion posted in a log camp, which, on 
 the approach of the Knglisli, made a precipitate 
 retreat. Abercrombie continued his march to- 
 wards Ticonderoga, with the intention of invest- 
 ing that place ; but, tlie womls being thick, and 
 the guides unskilful, his columns were thrown 
 into confusion, and. In some measure, entangled 
 with each otlier. In this situation lord Howe, at 
 the head of the right centre column, fell in with 
 a part of the advanced guard of the French ; 
 which, in retreating from lake George, was like- 
 wise lost in the wood, lie immediately attacked 
 and dispersed them ; killing several, and taking 
 148 prisoners, among wliom were five ofilcers. 
 This small advantage was purchased at a dear 
 rate. Though only two officers, on the side of 
 the British, were killed, one of these was lord 
 Howe himself, who fell on the first fire. This 
 gallant young nobleman had endeared himself 
 to the whole army. . . . Without farther oppo- 
 sition, the Englisli army took possession of the 
 post at the Saw Mills, within two miles of 
 Ticonderoga. This fortress Tcalled Carillon by 
 the French], wliicli commands the communica- 
 tion between the two lakes, is encompassed on 
 three sides by water, and secured in front by a 
 morass. The ordinary garrison amounting to 
 4,000 men, was stationed under the cannon of 
 the place, and covered by a breast-work, the ap- 
 proach to which had been rendered extremely 
 difficult by trees felled in front, with their 
 branches outward, many of which were sharp- 
 ened so as to answer the purpose of chevaux-de- 
 f rize. This body of troops was rendered still more 
 formidable by its general than by its position. 
 It was commanded by the marquis de Montcalm. 
 Having learned from his prisoners the strength 
 of the army under the walls of Ticonderoga, 
 and that a reinforcement of 3,000 men was daily 
 expected, general Abercrombie thought it ad- 
 visablo to storm the place before tl.is reinforce- 
 ment should arrive. ,Tlie troops matched to the 
 assault with great intrepidity ; but tiieir utmost 
 efforts could make no impression on the works. 
 . . . After a contest of near four hours, and 
 several repeated attacks, general Abercrombie 
 ordered a retreat. The army retired to ihe camp 
 from which it had marched m the morniiig ; ancl, 
 the next day, resumed its former position on the 
 south side of lake George. In this rash attempt, 
 the killed and wounded of the English amounted 
 to near 2,000 men, of whom not quite 400 were 
 provincials. The French were covered during 
 the whole action, and their loss was incon- 
 siderable. Entirely disconcerted by this unex- 
 pected and bloody repulse, general Abercrombie 
 relinquished bis designs against Ticonderoga 
 
 374 
 
CANADA, 1758. 
 
 Kngliah Conituest 
 of i^ebev. 
 
 CANADA, 1759. 
 
 and Crown Point. ScarehinK howovcr for tlio 
 mcnns of rcpniring tlio misfortune, I not the 
 (llHirrncu, BUHtuincii ))y IiIh iirniH, he rciidilv ix'- 
 ccdcd to a proposition nmde by colonel Briid- 
 street, for in expedition iijjuin.st 'nrt Frontljjnae. 
 This fortn stands on tlie north si<Ie of On- 
 tario. . . . Colonel Briidstreet embarked on the 
 Ontario at O.swcro, and on the 25th of August, 
 landed within one mile of the fort. In two (lays, 
 his batteries were opened at so short a distance 
 that almost every shell toolt elTeet; and the j{ov- 
 ernor, finding; the j)lace absolutely untenal)le, 
 sumindered at discretion. . . . After destroying 
 the fort and vessels, and such stores as could not 
 be brought olT, colonel IJradstreet returned to 
 tlic army wliich undertook nothing fartlierduring 
 the can paign. The demolition of fort Frontig- 
 nac and of tlie stores which had been collected 
 there, contributed materially to the success of 
 tlie expedition against fort Du (JuCsne. The 
 conduct of this enterprise had been entrusted to 
 general Forbes, who marched from Philadelphia, 
 about the beginning of July, at the head of the 
 main body of the army, destined for this service, 
 in order to join colonel Bouquet at Raystown. 
 So much time waF cmployecl in preparing to 
 move from this place, that the Virginia regulars, 
 commanded by colonel Washington, were not 
 ordered to Join the British troops until the month 
 of September. . . . Early in October general 
 Forbes moved from liaystown ; but the obstruc- 
 tions to his march were so great that be did not 
 reach fort Du C^uGsne until late In November. 
 The garrison, being deserted by the Indians, and 
 too weak to maintain the place against the formid- 
 able array which was approaching, abandoned 
 the fort the evening before the arrival of the 
 British, and escaped down the Oliio in boats. The 
 English placed a garrison in it, and changed its 
 name to Pittsburg, in compliment to their popular 
 minister. The acquisition of this post was of 
 great importance to Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 and Virginia." — J. Marshall, Life of Wathinglon, 
 V. 1, ch. 13. 
 
 Also in : W. C. Bryant and 8. H. Gay, Pop. 
 Hist, of tlie U. S., V. 8, eh. 11.— B. Fernow, Tim 
 Ohio Valley in Colonial Dat/t, ch. 7. — Major U. 
 Rogers, Journals, erf. by Ilongh, pp. 115-123. — 
 W. Irving, Life of Washington, v. 1, ch. 24. — 
 N. B. Craig, The Olden Time, v. 1, pp 177-200. 
 
 A. D. 1759 (June— September).— The Fall of 
 Quebec. — "Wolfe's name stood high in the 
 esteem of all who were qualified to judge, but, 
 at the same time, it stood low in the column of 
 colonels in the Army List. The great minister 
 [Pitt] thought that the former counterbalanced 
 the latter. . . . One of the last gazettes in the 
 year 1758 announced the promotion of Colonel 
 James Wolfe to the rank of major-general, and 
 his appointment to the chief command of the 
 expedition against Quebec. About the middle 
 of FebruaVy, 1759, the squadron sailed from 
 England to Louisbourg, where the whole of the 
 British force destined for the River St. Lawrence 
 was ordered to assemble. . . . Twenty -two ships 
 of the line, five frigates, and nineteen smaller 
 vessels of war, with a crowd of transports, were 
 mustered under the orders of the admiral [Saun- 
 ders] , and a detachment of artillery and engineers, 
 and ten battalions of infantry, with six companies 
 of Rangers, formed Wolfe's command ; the right 
 flank companies of the three regiments which still 
 garrisoned Louisbourg soon after joined the 
 
 army, and were fonne<l Into a corps called tho 
 Louisbourg Orcnadiers. The total of tho land 
 forces embarked were somewhat under H,000. " — 
 E. Warburtoii, Coin/uest of ('diKiiIti, r. 8, eh. 0. — 
 "Wolfe, with his 8,(MH) iiuii, ascended the Ht 
 Lawri'TK'o in the licet in the month of June. 
 With him came Brigadiers .Monckton, Towns- 
 hend and Murray, youthful and bmve like 
 liimself, and, like himself, already 8ch(H)lcd to 
 arms. . . . The Grenadiers of tho army were 
 commanded by Colonel Guy Carieton, and part 
 of the light infantry by Lieuteuant-Colonol Wil- 
 liam Howe, both destined to celebrity in after 
 years, in llie annals of the American revolution. 
 Colonel Howe was brother of the gallant Lord 
 Howe, whose fall in tho preceding year was so 
 generally lamented. Among the ofllcers of tho 
 licet was Jervi.s, the future admiral, and ulti- 
 mately Earl St. Vincent ; and the master of ono 
 of the ships was James Cook, afterwards re- 
 nowned as a discoverer. About the end of June, 
 the tr(M)ps debarked on the large, populous, aiul 
 well-cultivated Isle of Orleans, a little below 
 Quebec, and encamped in its fc'rtile fields. 
 Quebec, tho citadel of Canada, was strong by 
 nature. It was built round tlio point of a rocky 
 promontory, and flanked by precipices. . . . Tho 
 place was tolerably fortified, but art had not yet 
 rendered it, as at the present day, iniitrcgiiable. 
 Montcalm commanded tho post. His troops 
 were more numerous than the assailants; but 
 the greater part of them were Canadians, n;any 
 of them inliabitants of Quebec; and he had a 
 host of savages. His forces were <lrawn out 
 along the northern shore below the city, from 
 the River St. Charles to the Falls of >Iontmorency , 
 and their position was secured by deep intrench- 
 ments. . . . After much resistance, Wolfe estiib- 
 lished batteries at the west point of tho Isle of 
 Orleans, .and at Point Levi, on the right (or 
 south) bank of the St. Lawrence, within cannon 
 range of the city. . . . Many houses wire set on 
 fire in the upper town, the lower toTn was 
 reduced to rubbish; the main fort, however, 
 remained unharmed. Anxious for a decisive 
 action, Wolfe, on the 9th of July, crossed over 
 in boats from the Isle of Orleans to the north 
 bank of the St. Lawrence, and encamped below 
 the Montmorency. It was an ill-judged position. 
 ... On the 18th of July, Wolfe made a recon- 
 noitcring expedition up the river, with two 
 armed sloops, and two transports with troops. 
 He passed Quebec unliarmed and carefully 
 noted the shores abov<' it. Rugged cliffs rose 
 almost fn,n the water's edge. . . . He returned 
 to Montmorency disappointed, and resolved to 
 attack Montcalm in his camp, however difticult 
 to be approached, iii'd however strongly posted. 
 Townshend and Murray, with their brigades, 
 were to cross the Montmorency at low tide, 
 below the falls, and storm the redoubt thrown up 
 in front of the ford. Monckton, at tho same time, 
 was to cross, with part of his brigade in boats 
 from Point Levi. ... As usual in complicoted 
 orders, port were misunderstood, or neglected, 
 and confusion was the consequence." The 
 assault was repelled and Wolfe fell back across 
 the river, having lost four hundred men, with 
 two vessels, which ran aground and were burned. 
 He felt the failure deeply, and his chagrin was 
 increased by news of the successes of his coadju- 
 tors at Ticonderoga and Niagara. "The dilB- 
 culties multiplying around him, and the delay of 
 
 375 
 
CANADA, 176». 
 
 Pmth nf 
 
 ANADA. 1789. 
 
 Ofliiprnl Amhorst In hiuitnninf; to lii« aid, prpyod 
 !nri'S8iintly »» liU HpiritH. . . . TIh- itgltation of 
 his initxl, and IiIh itciitc RcnHlbillty, linxi^ht on a 
 fc'vcr, wlilcli for Home thntt incitimcitatod lilm 
 from laklnK tin- Held. In tlic midst of IdxillnnKH 
 ho t'ttllcd u conncil of war, in whicli thi' wliole 
 plan of (>[H'mtionH was altered. It was deter- 
 mI'iCKl to convey tr(M>ps above the town, and 
 endeavor to make ii tliversion in that direetion, 
 or draw Montcalm into the open Held. . . . The 
 brief (Canadian Kumnier was over; they were in 
 the month of M.'ptemlM'r. Tlie canii) at Mont- 
 morency was broken up. The troops were 
 transported to Point Levi, leaving a sufllcient 
 number to man the batteries on the Isle of 
 Orleans. On the ,'ith and fith of September the 
 embarkation t(H)k place above Point Levi, in 
 transports which had been sent for the |)nr- 
 pose. Montcalm detache<l I)c Bongainville with 
 1,500 men to keep alon^ the north shoro •ibove 
 the town, watch the movements of the scjuadron, 
 and prevent a landing. To deceive him. Admiral 
 Holmes moved with the ships of war three 
 leagues beyond the place where the landing was 
 to bo Bttcmpt<'d. lie was to drop down, how- 
 ever, In the night, and protect the landing. . . . 
 The descent was made In tiat-bottomed boats, 
 past midnight, on the 13th of September. They 
 dropped down silently, with tho swift current. 
 ' Qui va la 'I ' (wh(, goes there ?) cried a sentinel 
 from the shore. 'La France,' replied a captain 
 in tlio first boat, wlio understood tho French 
 language. ' A quel regiment ? ' was the demand. 
 ' De la Itelne ' (tho queen's) replied the captain, 
 Itnowlng that regiment was in Do Ilougainville's 
 detachment. Fortunately, a convoy of provisions 
 was expected down from De Bougainville's, 
 wliich the sentinel supposed this to be. ' Passe,' 
 cried he, and the boats glided on without further 
 challenge. The landing took place in a cove 
 near Cape Diamond, which still bears Wolfe's 
 name, tie had marked it in rcconnoiterlng, and 
 saw tliat a crngged path straggled up from it 
 to the Heights of Abraham, which might be 
 climbed, though with difflculty, and that it 
 appeared to be slightly guarded at top. Wolfe 
 was among tlie first that landed and ascended up 
 the steep and narrow path, where not more than 
 two could go abreast, and which liad been 
 broken up by cross ditches. Colonel Howe, at 
 the same time, with the light infantry and High- 
 landers, scrambled up the woody precipices, 
 helping themselves by the roots and branches, 
 and putting to flight a sergeant's guard posted 
 at the summit. Wolfe drew up the men in order 
 as thcv mounted ; and by the break of day found 
 liimself in possession of the fateful Plains of 
 Abraham. Montcalm was thunderstruck when 
 word was brought to him in his camp that the 
 English were on the heights threatening the 
 weakest part of the town. Abandoning his 
 intrenchments, he hastened across the river St. 
 Charles and ascended the heights, which slope up 
 gradually from its banks. His force wos equal 
 in number to that of the English, but a great 
 part was made up of colony troops and savages. 
 When he saw the formidable host of regulars he 
 had to contend with, he sent off swift messengers 
 to summon De Bougainville with his detachment 
 to ills aid ; and De Vaudreil to reinforce him with 
 1,500 men from the camp. In the meantime he 
 prepared to flank the left of the English line and 
 force them to the opposite precipices. " In the 
 
 memorable battle which ensued, Wolfe, who led 
 the KnglUh line, received, first, a musket ball in 
 hi.H wrist, and sixm afterward wa.s struck by a 
 second In the breiust. He was borne mortally 
 wounded to the rear, and lived just long enough 
 to hi'ar a cry from those around him that the 
 enemy ran. Giving a (juiek order for Webb's 
 regiment to be hurried down to tho Charles 
 Kiver bridge and then? obstruct the Fn-nch 
 retreat, he turned upon his side, saving, "Now, 
 (l(xl be praised, I will die In peace,'' and expired. 
 In the meantime the French commander, Jlont- 
 calm, had received his death-wound, while 
 striving to rally his flying troops. Tho victory 
 of the Knglish was complete, and they hastened 
 to fortify their position on tho Plains of Abraham, 
 preparing to attack the citadel. But, Montcalm 
 dying of his wound the following morning, no 
 further defence of the place was undertaken. It 
 was surrendered on the 17th of September to Gen- 
 eral Townshend, who had succeeded to the com- 
 mand. — W. Irving, Lifcof Wnthiiii/ton, v. 1, eh. 25. 
 
 Also in: P. Parknian, ^f()lltralrn and Wolfe, 
 eh. 27-28 (v. 2). — H. Wright, Lifi of Wolfe, eh. 
 21-33.— Lord .Mahon (Karl Stitnho}y;), Im. of 
 Knfi., 17i:i-1783, eh. 35 {v. 4).— W Smith, Hut. 
 of C'atuula, v. 1, eh. 6. — .7. Knox, IfinforiealJonr- 
 nnl, V. 1, jtp. 2.M-360; r. 3, pp. \-\:\'Z. 
 
 A. D. 1759 (July— August).— The fall of 
 Niagara, Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — 
 " For tho campaign of 1751) the British Parlia- 
 ment voted liberal supplies of men and money, 
 and tho American colonics, encouraged by the 
 successes of the preceding year, raised large num- 
 bers of troops. Amherst superseded Abercrombie 
 as commander-in-chief. 'The plan for the year 
 embraced three expeditions: Fort Niagara was to 
 bo attacked by Prideaux, assisted by Sir William 
 Johnson ; Amherst was to march his force against 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and Quebec was 
 to be assailed by an army under Wolfe and a fleet 
 under Saunders. Prideaux and Amherst, after 
 tho capture of the forts, were to descend the St. 
 Lawrence, take Montreal, and join the army before 
 Quebec. . . . Vaudreuil, the Governor, having 
 received warning from France of the intentions of 
 the English, sent a small force to Niagara under 
 the engineer Pouchot. not expecting to be able 
 to hold the post, and not wishing to sacrifice 
 many men, or to spare the troops from the more 
 important points. Pouchot repaired the defences, 
 and when the alarm was given that the English 
 were near, sent for men from Presqu' Isle, 
 Venango, and Detroit. Prideaux, in command of 
 two British regiments, a battalion of Royal 
 Americans, two battalions from New York, and 
 a train of artillery, was joined by Johnson with 
 a detiichment of Indians. They began their 
 march from Schenectady on the 30th of May, 
 and, after a difficult journey, reached Oswego, 
 wliere a detachment under Colonel Haldimand 
 was left to take possession and form a post, and 
 the remainder of the forces embarked on Lake 
 Ontario, and on the 1st of July landed without 
 opposition about six miles east of the mouth of 
 the Niagara. . . . Prideaux began his trenches 
 on the 10th, and on the 11th a sally was made 
 from the fort ; but the English placed themselves 
 in line of battle, and the French were obliged to 
 retire. Prideaux was steadily advancing tho 
 work . . . when, on the 19th, he was killed by 
 the bursting of a shell from a Coehorn mortar in 
 one of the trenches, where he had gone to issue 
 
 376 
 
CANADA, 1750. 
 
 TV fymrh 
 Sumnttrr, 
 
 CANADA. 1760. 
 
 orders. Amlier«t iinpolnU'il Ocnonil Qftjfo to 
 micrfcd liiiii. but iK'Tori! tlii^ iirrlvitl of ih\)fv llic 
 cumiimjiikI ili'volvi'd ii|)(iii Ot'ticnil Joliiimiii, who 
 curried on tlii' Hlcffc- lU'cordliig to llu? pliiiis of 
 I'ridnuix." On tlii> 34tli ii coiisldcriililu force of 
 Frciich itiid Iiidliiiix, ul)out 1,(1(10 Hlroii)(, Kent to 
 the rclli'f of tlie bcleiif^uercd fort, wjis Inter- 
 cepted and routed, most of the French oIllcerH 
 nnd men beinn nliilnor captured. TlilHt(H)k from 
 Pouebol his iiiHt hope, iind ho surn'ndered th<! 
 followlnif (hiy. " Ah the stivlions lK>yond Nhiifiim 
 were now completely cut olT from communieik- 
 tion with the en.st, iind had i:f\\fi\ up ii lur^e piirt 
 of their men to join D'Aubry |in the iittx-mpt to 
 reli(^ve Niujfiim], they were no lonfjer ciipiible of 
 resistllnc(^ I're«(|u'^.sle, Vetmngo, iind Le U(eut 
 were easily tnlceli l)y Oolouel liouquet, who had 
 l)een sent {() sinninon them to surrender." The 
 detiichmeiit left at Oswejfo. in charge of Btores, 
 was atti.cked by a Ixxly of French and Indians 
 from r,a Presentation (Ugdeusburi^). but the at- 
 t4ick failed. " For tho reduction of the fort» at 
 TieoncU'rogii and Crown I'oint, Amherst had 
 somewhat more than ll.UOO men. He be^an 
 prepariitions early In May at Albany, preparing 
 boats, ^fathering stores, and disciplining the now 
 recruits." In Juno he reached LakeOeor^o with 
 his army, but It was not until late in .July that 
 "the army moved down the lake in four columns. 
 In a lleet of whale-boats, bateau.x, and artillery 
 rafts, very much as Abercromby's men had gone 
 to their defeat tho year before, and Icf- ihe boats 
 nearly opposite tho former landing-place. The 
 vanguard, pushing on rapi(dy over the road to 
 the falls, met a detachment of French and In- 
 dians, whom they overpowered and scattered 
 after a slight skirmish, and tlio main body 
 pressed on and took a position at tho saw mills. 
 From prisoners it was learned that Bourlamnquo 
 commanded at Ticonderoga with 3,4()0 men. 
 Montcalm was at Quebec' The French with- 
 drew from their outer lines into tho fort, ond 
 made a show of resistance; for several doys while 
 they evacuated tho place. An explosion, during 
 the night of tho a.'ith of July, "and the light of 
 tho burning works, ossunul tho English of the 
 retreat of the Frcpch, of which they had already 
 heord from a deserter, and Colonel Ilaviland pur- 
 sued them down tho lake with a few troops, and 
 took sixteen prisoners anil some boats laden with 
 powder. . . . After tho flames were extinguished, 
 Amherst, who had lost about 75 men, wont to 
 work to repair tho fortifications and complete tho 
 road from tho lake. Some sunken French boats 
 were raised, and a brig was built. Amherst was 
 slowly preparing to attack Crown Point, and 
 sent Rogers with his rangers to reconnoitre. But 
 on the first of August they learned that tho 
 French htul abandoned that fo^'t also ; and on tho 
 10th that Bourlamaquc's men were encamped on 
 the Isle aux Noix, at tho northern extremity of 
 Lake Champlain, commandii'g the entrance to 
 the Richelieu. They had- been joineil by some 
 small detachments, and numbered about 3,500 
 men. Amherst spent his time in fortifying Crown 
 Point, and building boats and riifta," until "it 
 was too late to descend to Montreal and go to tho 
 help of Wolfe; the time for that had been passed 
 in elaborate and useless preparations." — R. John- 
 son, Iliiit. of the French War, ch. 18. 
 Also IN: E. Warburton, Conquest of Canada, v. 
 
 3, ch. 0.— W. L. Stone, Life and Timet of Sir 
 
 W. Johnson, v. 2, eh. 4. 
 
 30 
 
 A. D. 1760.— The completion of the Ensllih 
 conquest. —The end of " New France."— " Not- 
 
 witliMtundiriif till' HuecesMcs of IT.-iK, Canada wa« 
 not yet coMipletely coticpiered. If .Vndierst had 
 moved on faster and taken .Montreal, the work 
 would have been llnished; but his failure to do 
 HO gave th(! Fn-nch forces an opportunity to 
 rally, and the indefatigabh! De Levis, who had 
 Hucceerled .Montt'alm, gjithered what remained of 
 tho army at .Montreal, and nunli! preparation:! 
 for attemptitig the recovery of (^uebi'c. . . . 
 After several fnutless utiaeks hiiil been made on 
 the British outposts during the winter. De l,evi» 
 refitted all the vessels y<'t ri'maining early in tho 
 spring and gathered the stores still left at tho 
 forts on th(^ l{lch<'lieu. On the 17th of .Vpril. hn 
 left .Montreal with all his force and deseended 
 the river, gathering up llw, iletaehed troops on 
 the way; the whole amountini; to more than 
 10,000 men. Quebec had In'en left in charge of 
 Murray, with 7,(MM) men, a supply of heavy ar- 
 tillery, and stores of anununilioii a id provisions; 
 out the lUimber of men had been much reduce(l 
 by sickness and by hanlship encountered in 
 bringing fuel 'o the citv from forest), some as 
 far as ten niilof away. Their position, however, 
 had been very much strengthened. . . . De Levis 
 encamped at St. Foy, and on the '27tli advanced 
 to within three miles of the citv." — 11. Johnson, 
 Jfigt. of thi: French Wir, ch. 2t"— "On the 28tU 
 of April, Murray, marching out from tho city, 
 luft tho advantageous ground which he first 
 o(!CU])ied, and hazarded an attack near Sillery 
 Wood; The advance-guard, under Bourlamaque, 
 returned it with ar(h)r. In danger of being sur- 
 nnindcd, Murray was obliged to fiy, leaving 'his 
 very fine trainof artillery,' and losuig 1,000 men. 
 Tho French appear to have lost about HOO, 
 though Murray's report increased it more tlian 
 eightfold. During the next two days, L(!vl 
 [Levis] opened trenches against the town; but 
 the frost delayed the works. The English gar- 
 risoii, reduced to 2,200 elToctive men, labored 
 with alacrity; women, and even cripples were 
 set to light work. In tho French army, not a 
 word would be listened to of the possibility of 
 failure. But Pitt liad foreseen and proparea for 
 all. A fleet at his bidding went to relievo tho 
 city ; and to his wife he was able to write in 
 Juno: 'Join, my love, with mo, in most humble 
 and grateful thanks to the Almighty. Swanton 
 arrived at Quebec in the Vanguard on the 15ili 
 of May, and destroyed all the French shipping, 
 six or seven in number. Tho siege was raised 
 on the 17th, with every happy circumstance. 
 The enemy left their camp stanaing; abandoned 
 40 pieces of cannon. Happy, happy day I My 
 joy and hurry are inexpressible.' When tho 
 spring opened, Amherst had no difficulties to 
 encounter in taking possession of Canada but 
 such as he himself should create. A country 
 suffering from a four years' scarcity, :i dis- 
 heartened peasantry, flve or six battalions, w^isted 
 by Incredible services and not recruited from 
 France, offered no opposition. Amherst led tho 
 main army of 10,000 men by way of Oswego; 
 though the labor of getting there was greater 
 than that of proceeding directly upon Jlontrcal. 
 He descended tho St. Lawrence cautiously, tak- 
 ing possession of the feeble wo'-ks at Ogdeng- 
 burg. Treat 'ig the helpless Canadians with 
 humanity, ami with no loss of lives except in 
 passing the nipids, on the 7th of September, 1760, 
 
 377 
 
CANADA, 1780. 
 
 TV 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CANADA, 1T8JHTT4. 
 
 \w mot bpfon- Mmitrritl ilio nrmy of Murniy. 
 Thi^ next ility Iliiviliincl iirrivcd witli forcrH fmrii 
 Crown I'oint; iiikI, in tin- view of the tlircc 
 urnilt'H, III)' tliiK (if HI. OcorKi* wjih niiiM'il in 
 triiinipli over tlu- gnXv of Moiitri'iil. . . . Tlie 
 <.'a|iitiiliition [HiKiicij liy liir MiiniiilHilcViiiulrt'uii, 
 jfovirnor. uKiiinul tlic pnilcHl of [,i'vis| Inclucti'il 
 »li Citniiiiii, wlilcli wiiH Hiilil til cxti'iiil III till' rrrst 
 of liinil liiviiiini; liniiiclirH of \.ttkvn Krii' iiiiil 
 Mirliik'iiii from tliiwi' of tlii' Miiinii, llir W'iiIiiihIi, 
 nnil till' liliiioiH riviTH. I'rojiiTty anil rriiKin" 
 wcri' ciirril fur in liii' trriuH of Murri'nilcr; Imt for 
 civil lilHTty no Htl|iuliillon wiih tlioiiKlit of. . . . 
 On till' tlftli <lnv iiftt'r tlii^ capituliitlon, lioKcrH 
 (Icparti'il with 2(H) niiiKcrH to carry Kn({lisli lian- 
 nvrx to till' iippiT postH. . . . '1*111' InilliinH on 
 till) liiki'H wi'ir at iii'iici', iiniti'il unilcr I'ontiac, 
 tlio xn-at chief ot tint OttawiiN, liappy in a 
 country fruitful of corn anil alioiuiilinK in Kainc. 
 Tilt! Aincrli'an.H were met at the mouth of a river 
 by a deputation of Ottawat*. ' Pontlae,' Haiti tliey, 
 ' IH the chief and lord of the country you are in; 
 wait till he can see you.' When" Pontine and 
 IlogerH met, the savnn*-' chieftain asked: 'How 
 have you dared to enter mv country without my 
 leave?' 'I come,' replieil the English agent, 
 ' with no design against the Indians, but to re- 
 movo the Frtmch.' " Pontlae, after some delay, 
 smoked the calumet with Itugcrs and consented 
 to his mission. The latter then priK'eeded to 
 take iwssesslon of Detroit. In the following 
 spring he went on to the French posts in the 
 northwest.— a. Bancroft, IlUt. of the If. S. 
 {Autlu)r'» liut retinion), V, 3, pp. .523-534. 
 
 Also in: W. Smltli, JIUt. of Caiuuhi, r>. 1, ch. 7 
 (giving the Articles of Capitulation In full).— F. 
 Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, ch. 20-80 (r. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Ceded to England by the 
 Treaty of Paris. Sec Seven Years Wau. 
 
 A. D. 1763-1774.— The Province of Quebec 
 created. — Eleven years of military rule. — The 
 Quebec Act of 1774. — Extension of Quebec 
 Province to the Ohio and the Mississippi. — 
 " For three years after the conquest, the govern- 
 ment of Canada wasentrusted to military chiefs, 
 stationed at Quebec, Montreal and Three Itlvcrs, 
 the headquarters of the three departments Into 
 which General Amherst divided the country. 
 Military councils were established to administer 
 law, though, as a rule, the people did not resort 
 to such tribunals, but settled their difflcultics 
 Jimong themselves. In 1703, the king, Qcorgc 
 III. , Issued a priKlamation establishing four now 
 governments, of which Quebec was one. Lab- 
 rador, from St. John's River to Hudson's Bay, 
 Anticostl, and the Magdalen Islands, were placed 
 under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland, and the 
 islands of St. John (or Prince Edward Island, as 
 Jt was afterwards called), and Cape Breton (He 
 Royale) with the smaller islands adjacent thereto, 
 were added to tlie government of Nova Scotia. 
 Express power was given to the governors, in 
 the letters-patent by ■ dilch these governments 
 were constituted, to summon general assemblies, 
 with the advice and consent of His Majesty's 
 Council, ' in such manner and form as was usual 
 in those colonies and provinces which were under 
 the King's immediate government.'. . . No os- 
 genililv, however, ever met, as the Frencli-Cana- 
 diaii population were unwilling to take the test 
 oath, and the government of the province was 
 carried on solely by the governor general, with 
 the assistance of an executive coimcil, composed 
 
 in the first instance of the two lioutcnant-gov- 
 I'ruom of Montreal and Three Itlvi-rs, the ddef 
 Justice, the surveyor general of customs, and 
 eight othorH chosen fniin the leading residents In 
 the colony. From lifllt to 1771 the province ro- 
 mained in a very unsetlied state, rhictly on ac- 
 count of the uncertainty that previdled as to the 
 laws artiially in force. . . . The province nf 
 (^ucIh'c ri'iuaini'd for eleven years under the 
 system of government estjihlished liv the pro- 
 clamatliinof 170:i. In 1771, Parliament Intervened 
 for i\w first time in Canadian alTuirs ami niiiile 
 Important ciinHtitutional changes. The previous 
 constitutliin had been created by letters patent 
 under tlie great seal of Oreat Britain, in the ex- 
 ercise of an unquestionable and undisputed pre- 
 rogative of the ('rown. The ciiliiniai inslitutliins 
 of the old iKissessions of Great Britain, now 
 known as the United States of .<Vmerl('a, had their 
 origin In the same way. But in 1774, a system 
 of government was granted to Cainida by tho 
 express authority of Parliament. This constitu- 
 tion was known its tlic Queliec Act, and greatly 
 extended the boundaries "f tho province of 
 Quebec, as detlned in the proclamation of 17flti. 
 On one side, the province expended to the fron- 
 tiers of New England, Pennsylvania, Now York 
 province, the Oulo, and tho left bank of the 
 Mississippi; on the other, to tho Hudson's Bay 
 Territory. Labrador, and the Islands annexed to 
 Newfoundland by the proclamation of 1763, wero 
 made part of the province of Quebec. . . . Tho 
 Act of 1774 was exceedingly unpopular in Eng- 
 land and In tho English-speaking colonies, then 
 at tho commencement of the Involution. Par- 
 liament, however, appears to have been influenced 
 by a desiro to adjust the government of tho 
 province so as to conclliaio tho majority of tho 
 people. . . . The new constitution came into 
 force in October, 1774. The Act sets forth among 
 the reasons for legislation that tho provisions 
 made by the proclamation of 1763 were ' Inap- 
 plicable to the state and circumstances of tho 
 said province, tho inhabitants whereof amounted 
 at the conquest, to above 65,000 persons pro- 
 fessing the religion of the Church of Rome, and 
 cnjoyii.g an established form of cou.<-titutlon and 
 system of laws, by which their persons and prop- 
 erty had i)cen protected, governed, and ordered 
 for a long scries of years, from tho first establish- 
 ment of the province.' Consequently, it is pro- 
 vided that Itoman Catholics should bo no longer 
 obliged to take the test oath, but only the oath 
 of allegiance. Tlio government of the province 
 was entrusted to a governor and a leglslativ„ 
 council, appointed by the Crown, inasmuch as 
 it was 'inoxpodlcnt to call an assembly.' This 
 coimcll was to comprise not more than twenty- 
 three, and not less Uian seventeen members, and 
 had the jiower, with the consent of the governor 
 or commander-in-chief for the time being, to make 
 ordinances for the peace, welfare, and good 
 government of the province. They had no au- 
 thority, liowevcr, to lay on any taxes or duties 
 except such as the inhabitants of any town or 
 district might be authorized to assess or levy 
 within its precincts for roods and ordinary local 
 services. No ordinance could bo passed, except 
 by a majority of the council, and every one had 
 to be transmitted within six months after its enact- 
 ment to His Majesty for approval or disallow- 
 ance. It was also enacted that In all matters of 
 controversy, relative to property and civil rights, 
 
 378 
 
CANADA, 17ea-t774. 
 
 Inviulon. 
 
 CANADA, m*-1778. 
 
 n-couriM! dhoiild Iw Imil tn the Fn-ncli civil pro- 
 <'i'iliiri', wliilNttlKMTiiiiltml likw of KtiKJiinil Nhniiltl 
 obtain til llit> cxi'IuhIiiii of cviTV iitlirr criiiiiiial 
 cihIc wliicli iiii^lit liiiv*^ iirt'viilli'il iM'fiirc 17li(. 
 . . . Uoiiiiiri CiilliiilirH wrr« iiiTiiiitli'il to oliwrv" 
 tliclr religion with pcrfccl frriMJiitn, iiiiil tlicir 
 I'lrr^y wi'rr to enjoy their ' lU'eUNtoineil due-t tin<l 
 rlxlilH' witli respect to Kuch per^ions at profeSMeil 
 tliitt creeil. ('onNei|Uently, the Itoinan Catliollc 
 poiiulation of (^anaila were relieved of their dix- 
 aliilitleH many years before peimji' of the Hanie 
 belief III Orea't llrltain and Ireland received 
 Niiniljir prlvile>;eH. TIk' new coiiMlitiilion wns 
 inaiinnruted by .Major Oeneral Carletoii, after- 
 wards liord Dorehi'stcr, who iioniiiiated a le);i>;- 
 lalivi^ coiiiici! of twenty tiiree iiieinbers, of wliom 
 ei){lit wen? Itoiiian Catholii'S. " — .1. (i. liourinot 
 MitiiHitl iif ('iinnt. Hint, iif ('iti)iiilii, eh. 2-H. 
 
 Ai.hoin: W. Houston, lhinniu'iit» llUmtriilire 
 of t/ii" f.'iiimdiiin I'liiiMitutiiiii, jip. IMI-IMI. — See, 
 also, IInitkdHtatksok Am. : A. I). l77l(M.\iU'ii 
 — Afim.). 
 
 A. D. 1775-1776.— Invaiian by the revolting 
 American colonists. — Loss and recovery of 
 Montreal. — Successful defence of Quebec— 
 At the befjiniiiiif; of the revolt of \\w thirteen 
 colonies which siib^"(iiieiitly forini'd, by tlu'ir 
 Hepiiration from (Ireut Hritain, the Unlteil States 
 of Amorlctt, it was believed aiiioiiK them that 
 Canada would join their inovciiiciit if the liritish 
 troops which occupied tlu? country were driven 
 out. Acting on this belief, the ('ontinental Con- 
 gress at I'hilailel|>liia, in .liine. 177."), ailoptcd a 
 resolution instnictiiii; (J<'iieral Schuyler to repair 
 without delay to TiconderoKa (which had been 
 surprised and taki'ii a few weeks bi^foreby Ktlian 
 Allen and his " Green .Mountain Hoys"), and " if 
 he found it practicable, anil it would not be dis- 
 at^recable to the Cauadiaiis, imiuediately to lake 
 possession of St. .John's and Montreal, aiid pursue 
 any othe? luensures in Canada which iniitht have 
 a tendepcy to promote tlie peace and security of 
 these colonic.-*." Oeneral Schuyler found it 
 dilllcult to gather tr(«)ps and supplies for the 
 ])rojected expedition, and it was the middle of 
 Aiiiiust before he was prepared to move. His 
 chief subordinate ofllcer was Oen. Uichard Mont- 
 gomery, an Irishman, formerly in the Hritisli 
 service, but settled latterly in New York; iind 
 lu- was to be suiipor'.ed by a cooperative move- 
 ment planned and led by IJeiiedict Arnold. 
 "Oeneral Montgomery, with 3,0()0 men, would 
 go ilowu Lake Chaniplain and attack Montreal; 
 while Oeneml Arnold, with 1,300, was to seek 
 the headwaters of Kennebec Uiver, cross the 
 height of land, and descend the Chaudicre to the 
 very gates of (Jiiebec. The bnive General 
 Cnrleton, who had been with Wolfe at Quebec, 
 was now in command of the forces of Canada — 
 if .'iOO Uritish regulars and a few hundred militia 
 might be so denominated. No doubt Governor 
 Carleton with his small army undertook too 
 much. He sought to defend the way to Montreal 
 by holding Port St. John, and that to (Juebec by 
 defending Chambly. IJotli tlie.se places fell be- 
 fore the Americans. Oeneral Slontgomery 
 pushed on down tlie Uiver Uichelieii and occu- 
 pied Sorel, throwing forces across the St. 
 Lawrence, and erected batteries on both sides to 
 prevent intercourse between ^lontreal and 
 Quebec. Montreal, now <lefonceless, was com- 
 pelled to surrender on the lUtli of November, and 
 11 British vessola were given up to the enemy. 
 
 It wn* D'rllyadark hour for Canada. Oeneral 
 Carh'ton nas been severely critici/ed fur dlvidln){ 
 his forces. The truth is, the attack wax ho un- 
 expected, and Ml HiHin after the mitbreak of tliu 
 relM'llion, lliat no plan of defence for Canailn 
 had been laid. . . . Oenerid Carliton escaped 
 from .Monln'iil, and, in a boat, passed the Sorel 
 biitti'ries with iniilllid oars under covir of night. 
 The general had but I'euchi'd (Quebec in tiiiie. 
 The expedition iif Arnnld had already gained tliu 
 
 St. Lawreni n the side opiiosite the ' Ancient 
 
 Capital.' The energy displayed by Arnold's 
 men was remarkable. The Kiimeliec Is a series ' 
 of rapids, lis swift current hurrirs over dan- 
 genius nicks at every turn. The highlands 
 when reached cunslst of Hwamiis and riH'ky 
 ridges coven'd witli forest. 'I he Cliaudlera 
 proved worse than the Keiineliec, and, thu 
 eiirn'iit lieing with the boats, dashed them to 
 pieces on tlie I'iM'ks. Arnold's men, on their six 
 weeks' inanli, had run short of fond, and w(>re 
 <'i impelled t4>eat the dogs which hadaccompanleil 
 Ihein. Not much more than half of Arnold's 
 army reached the St. Lawrence. Arnold's force 
 inissed the St. Lawreni'e, laniled at Wolfe's 
 Cove, and built huts for themselves on the I'lains 
 of Abraliaiii, On the Tith of December .Mont- 
 ginnery joined the Kcniielicc men before tjnebec. 
 The united force was of some II.OOO men, sup- 
 ported by about a dozen light guns. Carleton 
 liail, for the defence of Quebec, only one com- 
 pany of ri'gulars and a few seamen and marines 
 i.f a sloop of war at tjiieliec. The popularity of. 
 the governor was such that he easily prevailed 
 upon the citizens, both Kn-nch and Kiiglish, to 
 enroll themselves in coinpan'es for tlie defence 
 of their lionies. He wis able to count upon 
 about 1,000 bayonets. The defences of (Jueliec 
 were, however, too strong for the Americans. 
 On the night of December Jilst, a desperate 
 eirort was made to take the city by escalaile. 
 Four attacks were made simultaneonsly. Arni'ld 
 sought to enter by the St. Charles, on the north 
 side of Quebec, and Jlontgomery by the south, 
 between Cape Diamond and the St. Lawrence. 
 Two feints were to be made on the side towards 
 the I'lains of .'Vliraham. The hope of the com- 
 manders was to have forced the gates from the 
 lower to the upper town in both ciLses. Arnold 
 failed to reach the hiwer town, and In a sortie 
 the def.'ndeis cut olt nearly the whole of his 
 (Mjluinn. He escap ;d wounded. Montgomery 
 was killed at the s<;coijd entrenchment of the 
 lower town, and Ir's troops retired in confusion. 
 The American ge lerals have been criticized by" 
 experts for not ir iking their chief attack on the 
 wall ft.cing on the I'lains of Abniham. . . . 
 Oeneml Arnold .emained before Quebec, though 
 his troops had become reduced to 800 men. 
 General Car'.e^on pursued n policy of actiiik 
 strictly on the defensive. If he retained (Juebco 
 it wou'd bi; his greatest success. General Aniolil 
 sought to gain the sympathy of the French 
 Canadian lei'gniors and people, but without any 
 success. Three thousand troops, however, came 
 to reinforce Arnold early in the year, and 4,000 
 occupied Montreal, St. .John's, and Chambly. 
 Hut on the 0th of May relief came fnini Eng- 
 land; men of war and transports, with three 
 brigades of infantry besules artillerv, stores, and 
 ammunition. The Americans withdrew to Sorel. 
 The Hritisli tniops followed them, and a brigade 
 encuiupc'd ttt Three Kivers. The Ameriuuus at- 
 
 379 
 
CANADA, 1775-1776. 
 
 Thr Family 
 Compact. 
 
 CANADA, 1820-1837. 
 
 tempted to si.rpriso the force at Three Uivcrs, 
 but were repulH;'(l witli heavy loss. The Ameri- 
 cans now fell buck from Slontreul, deserted nil 
 the posts down to LiikeClmmpliiin. and Governor 
 Ciirleton had the pleasure of occupying Isleuux- 
 Noix as tlie outpost, h'avinjr C'aniula as it had 
 been Iwfore the lirst attack In the year before." 
 — ti. Hryce. f^/iort Jfint. <// the Camidiaii J'coplc, 
 eh. 6, met. 'i. 
 
 Ar.so IN: IJ. J. Lossing, Life and Times of 
 Philip Schiii/let; r. 1, eh. 10-29, and v. 8, eh. 1-4. 
 — J. Sparks, Life and Tfeamii of Benedict Arnold, 
 eh. 3-5 {Lihrary of Am. Bioy,, v. 3). — J. Arm- 
 strong, Life of liicluird Montr/oineri/ (Lib. of Am. 
 Jliof/., V. 1). — C. II. Jones, Jlist. of the Vampainn 
 for the Comiuentof Cnna<Uiin 1776. — J. J. Henry, 
 Arihold's CamjMiign ar/uinst Quebec. 
 
 A. D. 1776. — General Carleton's unsuc- 
 cessful advance against Ticonderoga. See 
 UxiTKi) Statks OK Am. : A. I). 1770-1777. 
 
 A. D. 1777. — Burgoyne's disastrous invasion 
 of New York. See Unitkd States of Am. : 
 A. D. 1777 (,ri:LY— OCTOUEH). 
 
 A. D 1783. — Settlement of boundaries in 
 the Treaty of Peace between Great Britain 
 and the United States. See United States ov 
 Am. : A. I). 1783 (Ski'Temdeb). 
 
 A. D. 1783-1784.— Influx of the "United 
 Empire Loyalists " from the United States. 
 Bee ToKiBs of the American Revolution. 
 
 A. D. 1791— .The Const tutional Act. — Di- 
 vision of the province into Upper and Lower 
 Canada. — " In 1791 a bill was introduced by 
 Pitt dividing the Province into Upper and Lower 
 Canada, the line of division being so drawn as to 
 give a great majority to the British element in 
 Upper Canada and a great majority to the French 
 settlers in Lower Canada. The measure was 
 strongly oppo.sed by Fo.k, who urged that the 
 separation of the English and French inlmbitiuits 
 ■was most undesirable. . . . The act was passed, 
 and is known us the Constitutional Act of 1791. 
 ... In each province the legislature was to 
 consist of tlie Governor, a Legislative Council 
 and a Legislative Assembly. The Governor had 
 power to give or withhold the royal assent to 
 bills, or to reserve them for consideration by the 
 Crown. He could summon, pnirogue, or dis- 
 solve the legislature, but was required to con- 
 vene the legisluture at least once a year. The 
 Legislative Council in Upper Canada consisted of 
 not less than 7, and in Lower Cunada of not Ijss 
 than I.') members, chosen by the King for life, the 
 Speaker being appointed by the Go vernor-Oeneral. 
 The Legislative Assembly was in counties elected 
 bj' 40s. freeholders, and" in towns by owners of 
 houses of £5 yearly value and by resicient inhabit- 
 ants paying £10 yearly rent. The numbtr and 
 limits of electoral districts were fixed by the Gov- 
 ernor-General. Lower Canada had 50 members. 
 Upper Canada 16 members, assigned to <heir 
 respective legislatures. The new Constitutir a did 
 not prove a success. Serious differences arose 
 between the Legislative Council and the Legislat- 
 ive Assembly in regurd to the control of the 
 revenue and supplies, diiterences which were 
 aggravated bv the craflict tnat still went on 
 between the p'rench and English races. . . . The 
 discontent resulted in the rebellion of 1837-8. " — 
 J. E. C. Muuro, I'he Uonxtitutionof Canuda, ch. 2. 
 
 Also in: W. Houston, D(ks. Illustrative of 
 the Gaiuidiun Const., pp. 112-133. — D. Brymner, 
 Mept. on Canadian. Arcldves, 1890, app, B. 
 
 A. D. 1812-1815.— The War of Great Britain 
 with the United States. See United States 
 OK Am. : A. I). 1813 (June — October), to 1815 
 
 (.lANI'AllY). 
 
 A. D. 1818. — Convention between Great 
 Britain and the United States relating to 
 Fisheries, etc. See Fisiiekies, Nokth A.meiii- 
 can: a. 1). 1814-1818. 
 
 A. D. 1820-1837.— The Family Compact.— 
 " The Family Compact manifestly grew out of 
 the principles of the U. E. Loyalists. It was the 
 union of the leaders of the loyalists with others 
 of kindred spirit, to rule Upper Cunada, heedless 
 of the rights or wishes of its people. We have 
 admired the patriotic, heroic and sentimental 
 side of U. E. loyalism ; but plainly, as related to 
 civil government, its political doctrines and 
 Ijructices were tyrannical. Its prominent mem- 
 bers belonged to the class which in the American 
 colonies, in the persons of Governors Bernard 
 and Hutchinson, and many o^'-ers of high ofHcc 
 and standing, had plotted to destroy the liberties 
 of the people and had hastened the American 
 revolution. ... By the years. 1818 or 1820 a 
 junto or cabal had been formed, definite in its 
 aims and firmly combined together, known as 
 the r'amily Compact, not to its best leaders 
 seeming an embodiment of. selfishness, but rather 
 set for patriotic defence and hallowed with the 
 name of religion. " — G. Bryce, Short Hist, of the 
 Canadian People, ch. 10, seet. 2. — "Upper 
 Canada . . . has long been entirely governed by 
 a party commonly designated throughout the 
 Province as the ' Family Compact, ' a name not 
 much more appropriate than party designations 
 usually are, ina smuch as there is, in truth, very 
 little of family connection among the persons 
 thus united. For a long time this body of men, 
 receiving at times accessions to its members, pos- 
 sessed almost all the highest public otlices, by 
 means of which, and of its influence in the 
 E.xecutive Council, it wielded all the powers of 
 government; it maintained influence in the legis- 
 lature by means of its predominance in the Leg- 
 islative Council ; and it disposed of a large num- 
 ber of petty posts which are in the patronage of 
 the Government al' /ver the Province. Succes- 
 sive Governors, as they came in their turn, are 
 said to have either submitted quietly to its influ- 
 ence, or, after a short and unavailing struggle, 
 to have yielded to this well-organized party the 
 real conduct of affairs. The bench, the magis- 
 tracy, the high offices of the Episcopal Church, 
 and a great part of the legal profession, are filled 
 by the adherents of this party : by grant or pur- 
 chase, they have ucquireil nearly the whole of 
 the waste lands of the Province; they are all 
 powerful in the chartered banks, and, till lately, 
 shared among themselves almost exclusively all 
 offices of trust and profit. The bulk of this party 
 consists, for the most part, of native-born inhabit- 
 ants of the colony, or of emigrants who settled 
 in it before the last war with the Unitci States; 
 the principal members of it belong to the church 
 of England, and the maintenance of the claims 
 of that church has always been one of its dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics." — Earl of Durham, 
 Itept. on the Affairs of British N. Am., p. 105. — 
 "The influences which produced the Family 
 Compact were not confined to Upper Canada. 
 In the Lower Province, as well as in Nova Scotia 
 and New Brunswick, similar causes led to similar 
 results, and the term Family Compact has at one 
 
 380 
 
CANADA, 1820-1837. 
 
 Discontent 
 and Rebellion. 
 
 CAKADA, K37. 
 
 time or anotlicr been a familiar one in all the 
 British North American colonies. . . . The des- 
 ignation Family Compact, however, did not owe 
 its origin to any combination of North American 
 colonists, but was borrowed from the diplomatic 
 history of Europe."— J. C. Dent, Tlic Story of 
 the Upjifr Camulinn Ii/:l)ellion, eh. 3. 
 ^ A. D. 1837. — The Causes of discontent which, 
 produced rebellion. — "It was in Lower Canada 
 that the greatest difUculties arose. A constant 
 antagonism grew up between the majority of 
 the legislative council, who were nominees of 
 the Crown, and the nuijority of the representa- 
 tive assembly, who were elected by the popula- 
 tion of the province [see above: A. D. 1791]. 
 The homo Government encourr.ged and indeed 
 kept up that most odious and dangerous of all 
 instruments for the supposed management of a 
 colony — a 'British party' devoted to the so- 
 called interests of tlie mother country, and obedi- 
 ent to the word of command from their miusters 
 and putrons at liorae. The majority in the legis- 
 lative council constantly thwarted the resolu- 
 tions of the vast majority of the popular assembly. 
 Disputes arose as to the voting of supplies. The 
 Government retained in their service officials 
 whom the lepresentative assembly had con- 
 demned, and insisted on the right to pay them their 
 salaries out of certain funds of the colony. The 
 representative assembly took to stoppmg the 
 supplies, and the Government claimed the right 
 to counteract this raea.sure by appropriating to 
 the purpose sucli public moneys as happened to 
 be within their reacli at the time. The colony — 
 for indeed on these subjects the population of 
 Lower Canada, right or wrong, was so near to 
 being of one mind that we may take the declara- 
 tions of public meetings as representing the col- 
 ony — demanded that the legislative council 
 should be made elective, and that tlie colonial 
 government should not be allowed to dispose of 
 the moneys of the colony at their pleasure. The 
 House of Commons and the Gtovemment lierc re- 
 plied by refusing to listen to tlie proposal. . . . 
 It is not 'necessary to suppose that in all these 
 disputes the popular majority were in the right 
 and the officials in the wrong. No one can doubt 
 that there was much bitterness of feeling arising 
 out of tile mere differences of race. ... At last 
 the representative assembly refused to vote any 
 further supplies or to carry on any further busi- 
 ness. They formulated their grievances against 
 the liome Govt.ninent. Their lomplaints were 
 of arbitrary conduct on the part of the governors ; 
 intolerable composition of the legislative council, 
 wliich they insisted ouglit to be elective; illegal 
 appropriation of the public money, and violent 
 prorogation of the provincial parliament. One 
 of the leading men in the movement which after- 
 wards became rebellion in Lower Canada was Mr. 
 Louis Joseph Papineau. This man had risen to 
 high position by his talents, his energy, and his 
 undoubtedly honourable character. He had rep- 
 resented Montreal in therepresentative Assembly 
 of Lower Canada, and he afterwards became 
 Speaker of the House. He made himself leader 
 of the movement to protest against the policy of 
 the governors, and that of the Government by 
 whom they were sustained. He held a series of 
 meetings, at some of which undoubtedly rather 
 strong language was used. . . . Lord Gosford, 
 the governor, began by dismissing several militia 
 officers who had taken part in some of these 
 
 demonstrations; Mr. Papineau himself was an 
 officer of this force. Then the governor issued 
 warrants for the apprehension of many members 
 of the popular A.ssembly on the charge of high 
 treason. Some of these at once left the country ; 
 others against whom warrants were issued were 
 arrested, and a sudden resistance was made by 
 their friends and supporters. Then, in a manner 
 familiar to all who have read anything of the 
 history of revolutionary movement s. the resistance 
 to a capture of prisoners suddenly transformed 
 itself into open rebellion." — J. McCarthy, Hist. 
 of our own Times, b. 1, ch. 3. — Among the griev- 
 ances which gave rise to discontent in both Upper 
 and Lower Canada, " ilrst of all there was the 
 chronic grievance of the Clergy Keserves [whicli 
 were public lands set ajiart by the Act of 1791 
 for the sujjport of the Protestant Clergy], com- 
 mon both to Britisli and Frene'i, to Upper and to 
 Lower Canada. In Upper Canada these reserves 
 amounted to 2,500,000 acres, being one-seventh 
 of the lands in tlie Province. Three objections 
 were made against continuing these Ileserves for 
 the purpose for which they had been set apart. 
 The first objection arose from the way in which 
 the E.xccutive Council wished to apply the rev- 
 enues accruing from these lands. According to 
 the Act they were to be applied for ' maintaining 
 the Protestant religion in Canada' ; and the Execu- 
 tive Council interpreted this as meaning too ex- 
 clusively the Church of Englan<l, which was es- 
 tablished by law in the mother-country. But the 
 objectors claimed a right for all Protestant de- 
 nominations to share in tlie Reserves. The second 
 objection was that the amount of these lands was 
 too large for the purpose in view: and the third 
 referred to the way in which the Reserves were 
 selected. Tliese 2,500,000 acres did not lie in a 
 block, but, when the early surveys were made, 
 every seventh lot was reserved ; and as these lots 
 were not cleared for years the people complained 
 that they were not utilized, and so became incon- 
 venient baiTiers to uniform civilization. With 
 the Roman Catholics, both priests and people, 
 the Clergy Reserves were naturally unpopular. 
 . . . An additional source of complaint was found 
 in the fact that the government of Upper and 
 Lower Canada had found its way into the hands 
 of a few powerful families banded together by a 
 Family Compact [see above : A. D. 1820-1837]. 
 . . . But the Constitutional difficulty was, after 
 all, the great one, and it lay at the bottom of the 
 whole dispute. . . . Altogether the issues were 
 very complicated in the St. Lawrence Valley 
 Provinces and the Maritime Provinces . . . and 
 so it is not to be wondered at that some should 
 internret the rebellion as a class, and perhaps 
 semi-religious, contest rather than a race-con- 
 flict. The constitutional dead-lock,however, was 
 tolerably clear to those who looked beneath the 
 surface. . . . The main desire of all was to bo 
 f .-eed of the burden of Executive Councils, nom- , 
 *nated at home and kept in office with or without 
 the wish of the people. In Upper Canada, 
 William Lyon Mackenzie, and in Lower Canada. 
 Louis Papineau and Dr. Wolfred Nelson, agitated 
 forindependence."— W. P. Greswell, Iliet. of the 
 Dominion of Canada, ch. 16. 
 
 Also in: J. McMulIen, Hist, of Canada, ch. 
 19-20.— Earl of Durham, Rept. and Dispatches. 
 —Sir P. B. Head, Narrative.— Rgpt. of Gomrs. ap- 
 pointed to inquire i •;'■ 'iw, grievances complained of 
 in Lower CavMla{HaumofComimns, Feb. 20, 1837). 
 
 381 
 
CANADA, 1837-1888. 
 
 Burtiing of 
 the Carolitie. 
 
 CANADA, 1840-1841. 
 
 A. D. 1837-1838.— The rebellion under Papi- 
 neau and Mackenzie, and its suppression. — 
 The Burning: of the Caroline. — " Iiuincdiiitely 
 on tlio breaking out of the rebellion, t!ie cou- 
 stitulion of Lower Ciuiada wiis suspended; the 
 revolt was put down at once, and with little 
 dilHculty. Though the outbreak in Upper Can- 
 ada showed that a comparatively small portion 
 of the i)0i)uhition was disaffected to the govern- 
 ment, there were some sharp skirmishes before 
 the smouldering tire was completely trodden out. 
 ... On the night of the 4th of December, 1837, 
 when all Toronto was asleep, cxcejjt the police- 
 men who stocxl sentries over the arras in the city 
 hall, and a few gentlemen who sat up to watch 
 out the night with the Adjutant-Oeneral of 
 Militia in the Parliament House, the alarm came 
 that the rebels were u])on tiic city. They were 
 under the command of a n nvspaper editor named 
 Mackenzie, whose grotes jue llgure was until 
 lately [this was publishci in 1805] familiar to 
 the frequenters of the iJanadian llouse of As- 
 sembly. Kumours Iwi been rife f'^r some days 
 past of arming and drilling among t.ie disaffected 
 m the Home and London districts. . . . The 
 alarm threw Toronto into commotion. . . . The 
 volunteers were formed in the market square 
 during the night and well armed. In point of 
 discipline, even in the ...st instance, they were 
 not wholly deficient, many of them being retired 
 officers and discharged men from both the naval 
 and military services. . . . Towards morning 
 news came of a smart skirmisli which had 
 occurred during the night, in whidi a party of 
 the rebels were driven back and their leader 
 killed. During the succeeding day and night, 
 loyal yeomen kept pouring in to act in defence 
 of the crown. Sir Allan, then Colonel, Jfacnab, 
 the Speaker of the Hcuse of Assembly . . . 
 raised a botly of his friends and adherents in the 
 course of the night and following day, and, 
 seizing a vessel in tlie harbour at Hamilton, 
 hurried to Toronto. . . . Tlie rebels were de- 
 feated and dispersed next day, at a place somo 
 two miles from Toronto. In this action, the 
 Speaker took the command of the Volunteers, 
 which he kept during the subsequent campaign 
 on the Niagara frontier, and till all danger was 
 over. . . . ^lackenzio soon rallied his scattered 
 adherents, and seized Navy Island, just above 
 Niagara -Falls, where he was joined by large 
 numbers of American 'sympathizers,' who camo 
 to the .spot on the chance of a quarrel with the 
 English. On receipt of is intelligence, the 
 Speaker hastened from neighbourliood of 
 
 Brantford (where he had just dispersed a baud 
 of insurgents imder the command of a doctor 
 named Duncombe) to reinforce Colonel Cameron, 
 formerly of the 79th, who had taken up a posi- 
 tion at Chippewa. Navy Island, an eyott somo 
 quarter of a mile in length, lies in the Niagara 
 Hiver within musket-shot of the Canadian bank. 
 The current rims past the island on both sides 
 with great velocity, and, immediately below it, 
 hurries over the two miles of rocks and rapids 
 that precede its tremendous leap. The rebels 
 threw up works on the side facing the Cana- 
 dians. They drew their siipplies from Port 
 Schlosaer, an American work nearly opposite the 
 village of Chippewa." A small steamboat, named 
 the Caroline, had been secured by the insurgents 
 and was plying between Fort Schlo.sser and 
 Navy Island. She "had brought over several 
 
 fleld-pieces and other military stores ; it therefore 
 became necessary to deciile whether it was not 
 expediimt f'.r the safety of Canada to destroy 
 her. Great Britain was not at war with the 
 United States, and to cut out an Americaa 
 steamer from an American port was to incur a 
 heavy responsibility. Nevertheless Colonel Mac- 
 nab determined to assume it." A party sent 
 over in boats at night to Fort Schlosser surprised 
 the Caroline at her wharf, tired her and sent her 
 adrift in the river, to be carried over the Falls. 
 — Viscount Bury, Krodua of the Western Nations, 
 V. 3, ch. 12. — "On all sides the in.surgcnts were 
 crushed, jails were lilled with their leaders, and 
 180 were sentenced to be hanged. Some of them 
 were executed mid some were banished to Van 
 Dieman's Land, while others were pardoned on 
 account of their youth. But there was a great 
 revulsion of feelmg in England, and after a few 
 years, pardons were extended to almost all. 
 Even Papineau and JIackenzie, the leaders of 
 the rebellion, were allowed to come back, and, 
 strange to say, both w jre elected to seats in tlio 
 Canadian Assembly." — W. P. Greswell, Ifist. of 
 the Dominion of Canada, ch. 16, sect. 13. — On the 
 American border the Canadian rebellion of 1837- 
 38 was very commonly called ' ' the Patriot War. " 
 
 Also in: C. Lindsey, Life and Times of Wm.' 
 Lyon Mackenzie, v. 3. — J. C. Dent, Stor;/ of tlie 
 U. Canada liebellion, 
 
 A. D. 1840-1841. — International Imbroglio' 
 consequent on the burning of the Carol! le. — 
 The McLeod Case. — The burning of the 
 steamer Caroline (see, above, A. D. 1837-1838) 
 gave rise to a serious question between Great 
 Britain and the United States. "In the fray 
 which occurred, an American named Durfree 
 was killed. Tlie British government avowed 
 this invasion to be a public act and a necessary 
 measure of self-defence ; but it was a question 
 when Mr. Van Buren [President of tlie United 
 States] went out of olHcc whether this avowal 
 had been made in an authentic manner. ... In 
 November, 1840, one Alexander 3IcLeod came 
 from Canada to New York, where he boasted 
 that he was the slayer of Durfree, and thereupon 
 was at once arrested on a charge of murder and 
 thrown into prison. This aroused great anger 
 in England, and the conviction of ^IcLeod was 
 all that was needed to cause immediate war. . . . 
 Our [the American] government was, of course, 
 
 freatly hampered in action ... by the fact that 
 IcLcod was within the jurisdiction and in tlio 
 power of the Now York courts, and wholly out 
 reach of those of the United States. . . . Jlr. 
 Webster [who became Secretary of State under 
 President Taylor] . . . was hardly in ofiice 
 before he received a demaiu' from Mr. Fox for 
 tlie release of McLeod, in which full avowal was 
 made that the burning of tlic Caroline was a 
 public act. Mr. Webster determined that . . . 
 tlie only way to dispose of McLeod was to get 
 him out of prison, separate him, diplomatically 
 speaking, from the affair of the Caroline, and 
 tlien take that up as a distinct matter for nego- 
 tiation with tlic British government. . . . His 
 fii'st step was to instruct the lAttorney-GeneRil to 
 pruceed to Lockport, where ^IcLeod was 
 imprisoned, and communicate with the counsel 
 for the defence, furnishing tliem with authentic 
 information that the destruction of the Caroline 
 was a public act, and that therefore McLeod 
 could not bo held icsponsible. . . . This threw 
 
 382 
 
CANADA, 1840-1841. 
 
 Clear Oritt 
 and Cotuervatitvs. 
 
 CANADA, 1866-1871. 
 
 tlie responsibility for McLcod, and for consequent 
 peace or war, wlicie it b<'lougcd, on tlie New 
 Yorlt iiutliorities, who scemeil, liowcver, but 
 little inclined to assist the general government. 
 McLeod came before tlie Supreme Court of New 
 Yoric in July, on a writ of habeas corpus, but 
 tlicy refused to release hini on tlie grounds set 
 'forth in Mr. ^Vc^bste' s instructions to the Attor- 
 ney-General, and 'le was remanded for trial in 
 October, which wps highly embarassiug to our 
 government, as it liciit tliis dangerous affair 
 open." But when McLeod came to trial in 
 October, 1841, it appeared that he was a mere 
 braggart wlio liad not even be :n present when 
 Durfree was liilled. Ilis acquittal liapi)ily ended 
 the cose, and smootlieil tlie way to tlie negoti- 
 ation ol iho Asliburton treaty, wliicli opened at 
 Wasliington soon afterwards and whieli settled 
 all questions between England and the United 
 States.— II. C. Lodge, Danid Webster, cli. 8. 
 
 Also in : \V. II. Seward, Works, r. 2, pp. 547- 
 588.— 1). Webster, Works, v. 0, ;)/). 247-209. 
 
 A. D. 1840-1867.- -Reunion of the provinces. 
 — The opposition of races. — Clear Grits and 
 Conservatives. — "The reunion of the two I'ro- 
 vinces liad been projected before: it was greatly 
 desired by tlie Brilisli of tlie Lower Province; 
 and in 1822 a bill for the purpose had actually 
 been brought into the Imperial Parliament, but 
 the Prc.ieh being bitterly opposed to it, tlie Hill 
 had been dropped. The French were as much 
 opposed to reunion as ever, clearly seeing, what 
 the author of the policy [Lord Durham] had 
 avowed, that the measure was directed against 
 their nationality. But since tlie Hebelliou they 
 were jirostrate. Their Constitution had been 
 superseded by a Provisional Council sitting 
 under the protection of Imperial bayonets, and 
 tills Council consented to the union. The two 
 Provinces were now [July, 1840] placed under a 
 Governor-General with a single legislature, con- 
 sisting, like the legislatures of the two Provinces 
 before, of an Upper House nominated by the 
 Crown and a Lower House elected by tlie people. 
 Each province was to have the same number of 
 representatives, although the population of the 
 French Province was at that time much larger 
 than that of the British Province. The French 
 language was proscribed in official proceedings. 
 French nationality was thus sent, constitutionally, 
 under the yoke. But to leave it its votes, 
 necessary and right as that might be, was to 
 leave it the only weapon which puts the weak on 
 a level with the strong, and even gives them the 
 advantage, since the weak are the most likely to 
 hold togetlier and to submit to the discipline of 
 organised party. . . . The French . . . ' had 
 the wisdom,' as their manual of history . . . 
 complacently observes, ' to remain united among 
 themselves, and by that union were able to 
 exercise a happy intluence on the Legislature and 
 the Government.' Instead of being politically 
 suppressed, they soon, thanks to tlieir compact- 
 ness as an interest and their docile obedience to 
 their leaders, became politically dominant. The 
 British factions began to bid against each other 
 for their support, and were presently it their 
 feet. , . . Tlie statute proscribing the use of the 
 French language in official jiroceedings was 
 repealed, and the Canadian Legislature was 
 made bi-linguu'. Tlie Premiership was divided 
 between the Engl'ih and the French leader, and 
 the Ministries were designated by the double 
 
 name — 'the Lafontaine-Baldwin,' or 'the Mac- 
 donald-Tache.' The French got their full share 
 of seats in the Cabinet and of patronage; of 
 public funds they got more than their full share, 
 especially as being small consumers of imported 
 goods they contributed fnr less than their quota 
 to the public revenue. By their aid the Roman 
 Catholics of the Upper I'^rovince obtained the 
 privilege of Sejiarate Schools in contravention 
 of the principle of religious e(iuality and 
 severance of the Church from the State. In time 
 it was recognized as a rule that a ^Ministry to 
 retain power must have a majority from each 
 section of the Province. This practically almost 
 reduced the Union to a federation, under which 
 French nationality was more securely entrencliecl 
 than ever. Gradually the Fixiicfi and their 
 clergy became, as tlie^v have ever since been, the 
 basis of what styles itself a Conservative party, 
 playing for French support, liy defending 
 clerical privilege, by protecting Frencli nation- 
 ality, and, not least, by allowing the French 
 Province to dip her liand deep in the common 
 treasury. On tlie other hand, a secession of 
 thorough-going Reformers from the Jloderates 
 . . . gave birth to the jiartv of the ' Clear Grits,' 
 the leader of which was ilr. George Brown, a 
 Scotch Presbyterian, and which having tirst 
 insisted on the secularization of the Clergy 
 Reserves, became, when that (juestion was out 
 of the way, a party of g(meral opposition to 
 French and Roman Catholic influence. ... A 
 change had thus come over the character and 
 relations of jjarties. French Canada, so lately 
 the seat of disaffection, became the basis of the 
 Conservative party. British Canada became the 
 stronghold of the Liberals. ... A period of 
 tricky combinations, perlidious alliances, and 
 selfish intrigues now commenced, and a series of 
 weak and ephemeral governments was its fruit." 
 — Goldwin Smitli, Canada and the Canadian 
 Question, cli. 7. 
 
 Also in : W. Houston, Bom. lllustratite of tlie 
 Canadian Const., pp. 149-185. — J. G. Bourinot, 
 Manual of the Const, hist, of Canada, cli. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1842. — Settlement of boundary dis- 
 putes with the United States by the Ash- 
 burton Treaty. See Umted States ok A.m. : 
 A. D. 1842. 
 
 A. D. 1854-1866.— The Reciprocity Treaty 
 with the United States and its abrogation. 
 See Tauiff Lkgislation (Unitkd States and 
 Canada): A. D. 1854-1806. 
 
 A. D. 1864.— The St. Albans Raid. See 
 United States of Aji. : A. D. 1864 (Octobeu). 
 
 A. D. 1866-1871. — Fenian invasions. — The 
 Fenian movement (see Iueland: A. .'). 1858- 
 1867) had its most serious outcome in an at- 
 tempted invasion of Canada from the United 
 States, wliich took place in 1800. "Canadian 
 volunteers were under arms all day on the i7th 
 of .March, 1800, exijccting a Fenian invasion, but 
 it was not made: in April an iiisignifieant attai:;k 
 was made upon New Brunswick. About 900 
 men, under Col. O'Neil, crossed from BulTalo to 
 Fort Erie on the night of May 31st. Jloving 
 westward, this body aimed at destroying tlie 
 Welland Canal, when they were met by the 
 Queen's Own Volunteer Regiment of Toronto, 
 and the 13th battalion of Hamilton Militia, near 
 the village of Ridgeway. Here, after a conflict 
 of two hours, in wliieli for a time the Volunteers 
 drove the enemy before them, the Canadian 
 
 383 
 
CANADA, 1866-1871. 
 
 FedfratUm nf 
 the l^rovincea. 
 
 CANADA. 1867. 
 
 forces retired to nidgewny, and tlienco to Port 
 Colborne, with a losw of nine killed aud ilO 
 wouiuled. Col. Peacoek, in charge of a body of 
 regulars, was inarching to meet the volunteers, 
 so that O'Xeil was compelled to tlee to Fort Erie, 
 and, crossing to the United States with his men, 
 was arrested, but afterwards liberated. The day 
 after the skirmish the regulars and volunteers 
 encamped at Fort Erie, and the danger on the 
 Niagara Frontier was past. A Fenian expedi- 
 tion threatened Prescott, aiming at reaching the 
 capital lit Ottawa, and another band of marauders 
 cro.ssed the ))order from St. Albans, Vermont, 
 but both wen; easily driven back. The Fenian 
 troubles roused strong feeling in Canada against 
 the American authorities. ... A Fenian attack 
 was led by Col. O'Neil on the Lower Canadian 
 frontier, in 1870, but it was easily met, and the 
 United States authorities were moved to arrest 
 the repulsed fugitives. A foolish movement was 
 again made in 1871 by the same leader, tlirough 
 Minnesota, against Manitoba. Through the 
 prompt action of the friendly American com- 
 mander at Fort Pembina, the United States troops 
 followed the Fenians across the border, arrested 
 their leader, and, though he was liberated after 
 a trial at St. Paul, Minnesota, tl(e expedition 
 ended as a miserable and laughable failure. 
 These movements of the Fenian Society, though 
 trifling in effect, yet involved Canada in a con- 
 siderable expense from the maintenance of bodies 
 of the Active Militia at different points along 
 the frontier. The training of a useful force of 
 citizen soldiery however resulted." — G. Bryce, 
 81iort Hist, of t/ie Canadian People, pp. 468- 
 470. 
 
 Also IN: G. T. Denison, Jr., The Fenian Raid 
 on fbrt Erie. — Corr. relating to tlie Fenian In- 
 vasion. — Official Report of Gen. John O'Neill. 
 
 A. D. 1867. — Federation of the provinces of 
 British North America in the Dominion of 
 Canada. — The constitution of the Dominion. 
 — " The Union between Upper and Lower Canada 
 lasted until 1867, when the provinces of British 
 North America were brought more closely to- 
 gether In a federation and entered on a new era 
 in their constitutional history. For many yearS/ 
 previous to 1865, the administmtion of governs 
 ment in Canada had become surrounded with 
 political difficulties of a very perplexing charac- 
 ter. . . . Parties at last were so equally balanced 
 on account of the antagonism between the two 
 sections, that the vote of one member might 
 decide the fate of an administration, atd the 
 course of legislation for a year or a series of 
 years. From the 31st of May, 1863, to the enlV 
 of June, 1864, there were no less than five dif- 
 ferent ministries in charge of the public busi- 
 ness. Legislation, in fact, was at last practi- 
 cally at a dead -lock. . . . It was at this critical 
 juLcturc of affairs that the leaders of the govern^, 
 ment and opposition, in the session of 1864, came^ 
 to a mutual understimding, after the most ma- 
 ture consideration of tlie whole question. A, 
 coalition government was formed on the basis oil 
 a federal union of all the British American 
 provinces, or of the two Canadas, in ?ase of the 
 failure of the larger .scheme. . . . It was a happy 
 coincidence that the legislatures of the lower/ 
 provinces were about considering a maritime' 
 union at the time the leading statesmen of 
 Canada had combined to mature a plan of set- 
 tling their political difficulties. The Canadian 
 
 ministry at once availed themselves of this fact 
 to meet the moritime delegates at their conven- 
 tion in Charlottetown, and the result was tlioj' 
 decision to consider the question of the larger^ 
 uni(m at Quebec. Accordingly, on the lOtli 
 of October, 1864, delegates from all the British 
 North American provinces assembled in confer- 
 ence, in 'the ancient capital,' and after veryt / 
 ample deliberations during eighteen daj's, agreecl ^ 
 to 73 resolutions, which form the basis of the 
 Act of Union. These resolutions were formally 
 submitte<l to the legislature of Cana(Ui in Janu- 
 ary, 186.'), and after an elaborate debate, which'' 
 extended from the 3d of Feburary to the 14th of 
 March, both houses agreed by very large majori- 
 ties to an address to her Majesty praying her to 
 submit a measure lo the Imperial Parliament 
 ' for the purpose of unitii.g the provinces in ac- 
 cordance with the provisions of the Quebec 
 resolutions. ' Some time, however, liad to elapse 
 before the Union could be consummated, in con- 
 sequence of the strong opposition that very soon 
 exhibited itseli in the maritime provinces, more 
 especially to the financial terms of the scheme." 
 Certain modifications of the terms of the Quebec 
 resolutions were acccordingly made, and "the 
 provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick, being at last in full accord, through 
 the action of their respective legislatures, the 
 plan of union was submitted on the 12th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1867, to the Imperial Parliament, where 
 it met with tlie wann support of the statesmen 
 of 1 11 parties, and passed without amendment in 
 the course of a few weeks, the royal assent 
 being given on the 39th of JIarch. The new 
 constitution came into force on the First of July 
 [annually celebrated since, as ' Dominion Day 1 
 1867, and the first parliament of the united 
 provinces met on November of the same year. 
 . . . The confederation, as inaugurated in 1867, 
 consisted only of the four provinces of Ontario 
 [Upper Canada], Quebec [Lower Canada], Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick. By tlie 146th sec- 
 tion of the Act of Union, provision was made 
 for the admission of other colonies on addresses 
 from the parliament of Canada, and from the 
 respective legislatures of Newfoundland, Prince 
 Edward Island, and British Columbia. Rupert's 
 Land and the North-west Territory miglit also 
 at any time be admitted into the Union on the 
 address of the Canadian Parliament. . . . The 
 title of Dominion did not appear in the Quebec 
 resolutions. The 71st Kes. is to the effect that 
 ' Iler Majesty be solicited to determine the rank 
 and name of t le federated Provinces. ' The 
 name ['The Dom.nionof Canada'] was arranged 
 at the conference 'leld in London in 1866, when 
 the union bill was i.nally dVafted."— J. G. Bouri- 
 not. Manual of Const. Hist, of Canada, eh. 6-7 
 {inth foot-note).— " 'V\\Q Federal Constitution of 
 the Dominion of Canada is contained in the 
 British North America Act, 1867, a statute of 
 the British Parliament (30 Vict., c. 3). I note a 
 few of the many points in which it deserves to 
 be com))ared with that of the United States. 
 Tlie Federal or Dominion Government is con- 
 ducted on the so-called 'Cabinet system' of 
 England, i. e., the Ministry sit in Parliament, 
 antf hold office at the pleasure of the House of 
 Commons. The Governor-General [appointed 
 by the Crown] is in the position of an irrespon- 
 sible and permanent executive similar to that of 
 the Crown of Great Britain, acting on the advice 
 
 384 
 
CANADA, 1807. 
 
 The Dominion 
 of Canada. 
 
 CANADA, 1809-1873. 
 
 of responsible ministers. lie can dissolve Pnr- 
 liumcnt. The Upper House or Heiiiite, is com- 
 posed of 78 persons, noniiniited for life by tlie 
 Oovernor-Geiierul, I. e., the Ministry. The 
 House of Commons has at present 210 members, 
 who arc elected for Ave years. Both senators 
 and members receive salaries. The Senate has 
 very little i)ower or inlluence. The Governor- 
 General has a veto but rarely exercises it, and 
 may reserve a bill for the (Juecn's pleasure. 
 The judj^es, not only of the Federal or Dominion 
 Courts, but also of tlie provinces, are appointed 
 by tlio Crown, i. e. , by the Dominion Jlinistry, 
 and hold for good \)ehaviour. Each of the 
 Provinces, at present [1888] seven in number, 
 has a legislat\ire of its own, which, liowever, 
 consi.sts in Ontario, British Columbia, and Mani- 
 toba, of one Hou.se only, and a Lieutenant- 
 Governor, with a riglit of veto on the acts of the 
 legislature, which he seldom exercises. Mem- 
 bers of the Domiiuon Parliament cannot sit in a 
 Provincial legislature. The Governor-General 
 has a right of disallowing acts of a Provincial 
 legislature, and sometimes exerts it, especially 
 when a legislature is deemed to have exceeded 
 its constitutional competence. In each of the 
 Provinces there is a responsible ^linistry, work- 
 ing on the Cabinet system of England. The 
 distribution of matters within the competence of 
 the Dominion Parliament and of the Provincial 
 legislatures respectively, bears a general resem- 
 blance to that existing in the United States ; but 
 there is tliis remarkable distinction, that whereas 
 in the United States, Congress lias only the 
 powers actually granted to it, the State legisla- 
 tures retaining all such powers as liave not been 
 taken from them, the Dominion Parlianient has 
 a general power of legislation, restricted only 
 by the grant of certain specific and exclusive 
 powers to the Provincial legislatures. Criminal 
 law is reserved for the Domiinon Parliament; 
 and no Province has the right to maintain a 
 military force. Questions iis to the constitu- 
 tionality of a statute, whether of the Dominion 
 Parliament or of a Provincial legislature, come 
 before the courts in tlie ordinary way, and if ap- 
 pealed, before the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
 Council in England. The Constitution of the 
 Dominion was never submitted to a popular vote, 
 and can be altered only by the British Parliament, 
 •except as regards certain points left to its own 
 legislature. . . . There exists no power of amend- 
 ing the Provincial constitutions by popular vote 
 similar to that which the peoples of the several 
 States exercise in the United States." — J. Bryce, 
 I'/te Amcncaii Commonwealth, v. 1, app., note 
 (B) to ch. 30.— See Constitution op Canada. 
 
 Al.so in: J. E. G. Slunro, The Count, of 
 Caiuulu (with text of Act in app.) — Pari. Debate 
 on Confederation, 3d Sem., Sth Prm. Pari, of 
 Caniula. — \V. Houston, Boen. Illustrative of the 
 Canmlian Const., pp. 180-324. 
 
 A. D. 1869-1873.— Acquisition of the Hud- 
 son's Bay Territory. — Admission of Manitoba, 
 British Columbia and Prince Edward's Island 
 to the Dominion. — "In 1869 . . . the Dominion 
 was enlarged by the acquisition of tlie famous 
 Hudson's Bay Territory. Wlien the charter of 
 the Hudson's Bay Company exi)ired iu 1869, 
 Lord Granville, then Colonial Secretary, pro- 
 posed that the chief part of the Company's 
 territories should be transferred to the Dominion 
 for £300,000; and the proposition was agreed to 
 
 on both sides. The Hudson's Bay ("barter dated 
 from the reign of Charles II. The region to 
 which it referred carries some of its history im- 
 printed in its names. Prince Uupert was at the 
 head of the association incorporated by the 
 Cliarter into the Hudson's Bay Company. The 
 name of Kupert's Land perpetuates his memory. 
 . . . The Hudson's Bay Company obtained from 
 King Charles, by virtue of the Charter in 1070, 
 the sole and absolute govenmient of the vast 
 watershed of Hudson's Bay, the Kupert's Land 
 of the tUiarter, on condition of paying yearly to 
 the King and his successors 'two elks and two 
 black beavers,' 'whensoever and as often as we, 
 our heirs and successors, shall happen to enter 
 into the said countries, territories and regions.' 
 Tlie Hudson's Bay Company was o])posed by the 
 North West Fui Oomi)any m 1783, which fought 
 them for a long time with Indians and law, with 
 the tomahawk of the red man and the legal 
 itidgment of a Komilly or a Keating. In XHVi 
 Lord Selkirk founded the Bed lUver Company. 
 This interloper on the battle field was harassed 
 by the North West Company, and it was not 
 until 1821, when the Hudson's Bay and North 
 West Companies — impoverished by their long 
 warfare — amalgamated their interests, that the 
 Red Hiver settlers were able to reap their har- 
 vests iu ijcace, disturbed only by occasional 
 leagues of locusts and blackbir<ls. In 1835, on 
 Lord Selkirk's death, the Hudson's Bay Company 
 bought the settlement from his executors. It 
 had been under their sway before that, having 
 been committed to their care by Lord Selkirk 
 during his lifetime. The privilege of exclusive 
 trading east of the Hocky Jlountaius was con- 
 ferred by Uoyal license for twenty-one years in 
 May 1838, and some ten years later the Company 
 received a grant of Vancouver's Island for the 
 term of ten years from 1849 to 1859. The Hud- 
 son's Bay Company were always careful to foster 
 the idea that their territory was chielly wilder- 
 ness, and discountenanced the reports of its fer- 
 tility a 'd fitness for colonisation which were from 
 time to time brought to the ears of the English 
 Government. In 1857, at the instance of Mr. 
 Labouchere, a Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons was appointed to enquire into tho 
 state of the British possessions under the Com- 
 pany's administration. Various Government 
 expeditions, and the publication of many Blue 
 Books, enlightened the public mind as to the real 
 nature of those tracts of land which the council 
 from the Fenchurch Street house declared to be 
 so desolate. . . . During the sittings of the Com- 
 mittee there was cited in evidence a petition from 
 575 Bed River settlers to the Legislative Assem- 
 bly of Canada demanding British protection. 
 Tins appeal was a proceeding curiously at vari- 
 ance with the later action of the settlement. 
 When in 1809 the chief part of the territories 
 was transferred to Canada, on the jjroposition of 
 Earl Granville, the Red River country rose in 
 rebellion, and refuscil to receive tlie new Gov- 
 ernor. Louis Riel, the insurgent chief, seized on 
 Fort Garry and tlie Company's treasury, and 
 proclaimed the independence of tlie settlement. 
 Sir Garnet, then Colonel, AVolseley, was sent in 
 command of an expedition which reached Fort 
 Garry on August 23, when the insurgents sub- 
 mitted without resistance, and the district re- 
 ceived the name of ^Manitoba." — J. McCarthy, 
 Iliat. of our own Times, ch. 55 (». 4). — Manitoba 
 
 885 
 
CANADA, 1809-1878. 
 
 CAN0S8A. 
 
 niid t]if! Northwest TiTritorics wcro admitted to 
 tlit^ DiiiiiiiiioiiConfcderution Miiy I'i, 1870; liritisli 
 (-'oliimbiu, July 20, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 
 July 1, 187^. — J. McCouu, ManUuki ami tlu- 
 Great Xorth Weal. 
 
 Ai.Ho in: G. M. Adam, The Canadian Kurth- 
 vxnt, ch. 1-ia.— O. L. lluyshe. The Red Hirer 
 Expedition.— \y . P. Oreswcll, Ilint. of the Do- 
 minion of UaiuuUi, p. 313. — J. E. 0. Munro, 
 The (hnMitution of Canada, eh. 2. — O. E. Ellis, 
 The IlniUon Jiay Company (Xarratice and Crit- 
 ical Jlist. of Am,, V. 8).— See, also, British 
 
 Columbia : A. D. 1858-1871, and Nortitwest 
 Tkiiiiitouies of Canada. 
 
 A. D. 1871.— The Treaty of Washing^ton. 
 See Alabama Claims: A. I). 1871. 
 
 A. D. 1877.— The Halifax Fishery Award. 
 See FisiiEitiKS, NouTii Amkuican : A. I). 1H77- 
 1888. 
 
 A. D. 1885-1888.— Termination of the Fish- 
 ery articles of the Treaty of Washinj^ton. — 
 Renewed controversies. — The rejected Treaty. 
 See FisEiKiiiEs, NoUTll A.MEIIICAN : A. I). 1877- 
 1888. 
 
 CANAI, The. Sec American Aiiouioines: 
 Ai.dONQLiAN Family. 
 
 CAN ARES, The. Sec Ecuador: The auo 
 
 RKilNAL ISllAUnW "S. 
 
 CANARY ISLa:IDS, Discovery of the.— 
 
 The llrst great step in African e.vploration " was 
 the discovery of the Canary Islands. These were 
 the ' Elysian fields ' and ' Fortunate islands ' of an- 
 tiquity. Perhaps there is no country in the 
 world that lias been so many times discovered, 
 con(iuered, and invaded, or so much fabled 
 about, as these islands. There is scarcely a 
 nation upon earth of any maritime repute that 
 hius not had to do with them. PlKcnicians, Car- 
 thaginians, Romans, floors, Genoese, Normans, 
 Portuguese, and Spaniards of every province 
 (Aragonese, Castilians, Gallieians, Biscayans, 
 Andalucians) have all made their appearance in 
 these islands. The Cartliagiuians are said to 
 have discovered them, and to have reserved them 
 as an asylum in case of extreme danger to the 
 state. Sertorius, the lloman general who par- 
 tooli the fallen fortunes of Marius is said to have 
 meditjited retreat to these ' islands of the blessed,' 
 and by some writers is supposed to have gone 
 there. Juba, the JIauritanian prince, son of the 
 Julia celebrated by Sallust, sent ships to examine 
 them, and has left a description of them. Then 
 came the death of empires, and darkness fell 
 upon the human race, at least upon the records 
 of their history. When the world revived, and 
 especially when the use of the loadstone began 
 to be known among mariners, the Canary Islands 
 were again discovered. Petrarch is referred to 
 by Viera to prove that the Genoese sent out an 
 expedition to these islands. Las Casas mentions 
 that an English or French vessel bound from 
 France or England to Si)ain was driven by con- 
 trary winds to the Canary Islands, and on its 
 return spread abroad in Franco an account of the 
 voyage." — A. Helps, Njmnish Conquest, bk. 1, ch. 1. 
 
 Also in : E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient 
 Oeog., ch. 20, note E. 
 
 CAN AS, The. See Peru: The aboriqinal 
 
 INHAniTANTS. 
 
 CANCELLARIUS. See Chancellor. 
 
 CANDAHAR.— Siege and relief of English 
 forces (i38o). See Afouanistan: A. D. 1809- 
 I88I; 
 
 CANDIA. — This is the name of the principal 
 town in the island of Crete, but has been often 
 applied to Crete itself. See Turks: A. D. 1045- 
 1009, where an account is given of the so-culled 
 " War of Candia"; also Crete: A. I), ii'i'i. 
 
 CANDRAGUPTA, OR CHANDRAGUP- 
 TA, The empire of. See India: B. C. 327-312, 
 and 312 . 
 
 CANGI, The.— A tribe in early Britain which 
 occupied the westerly part ot Modern Car- 
 narvonshire. See Britain, Celtic Tribes. 
 
 CANICHANAS, The. See Bolivia: Abo- 
 
 RKIINAL l.NHABITANT.S. 
 
 CANIENGAS, The. Sec American Abo- 
 RKilNKs: Iroquois Conkederacv. 
 
 CKaHJE, Battles of (B. C. 216). See Punic 
 
 War: The Second (B. C. 88). See Home: 
 
 B. C. 90-88. 
 
 CANNENEFATES, The.— " On the other 
 bank of the Rhine [on the right bank] ne.vt to 
 the Batavi, in the modern Kennemer district 
 (nMrth Holland, bevond Amsterdam) dwelt the 
 Cannenefates, closely related to them but less 
 numerous ; they arc not merely named among 
 the tribes subjugated by Tiberius, but were also 
 treated like the Batavi in the furnishing of 
 soldiers." — T. Jlommsen, Iliat. of Rome, bk. 8, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 CANNING, Lord, The Indian administra- 
 tion of, A. D. 1850-1802. 
 
 CANNING MINISTRY, The. See Eng- 
 land: A. D. 1820-182:. 
 
 CANOPUS, Decree of. — An important in- 
 scribed stone found in 1805 at San, or Tauis, in 
 Egypt, which is a monument of the reign of 
 Ptolemy Euergetes, who ascended the throne in 
 240 B. C. It gives "in hieroglyphics and Greek 
 (the demotic version is on the edge) a decree. of 
 the priests assembled at Canopus for their yearly 
 salutation of the king. When they were so 
 assembled, in his ninth year, his infant daughter 
 Berenice, fell sick and died, and there was great 
 lamentation over lier. The decree first recounts 
 the generous conduct and prowess of the king, 
 who had conquered all his enemies abroad, and 
 hud brought back from Persia all the stJitues of 
 the gods carried off in old time from Egypt by 
 foreign kings. Ho had also, in a great threaten- 
 ing of famine, when the Nile had failed to rise to 
 its full amount, imported vast quantities of corn 
 from Cyprus, Pha'nicia, &c., and fed his people. 
 Consequently divine honours are to be paid to 
 him and his queen as ' Benefactor-Gods ' in oil 
 the temples of Egypt, and feasts are to be held 
 in their honour. . . . This great inscription, far 
 more perfect and considerably older than the 
 Rosctta Stone, can now be cited as the clearest 
 proof of Champollion's reading of the hiero- 
 glyphics." — J. P. 'iilaXiafXy, Story of Alexander's 
 Empire, ch. 15, w>te. 
 
 CANOSSA, Henry IV. at.— In the conflict 
 which arose between the German Emperor, 
 Henry IV. (then crowned only as King of the 
 Romans) and Pope Gregory "V^II. (the inflexible 
 Hildebrand), the former was placed at a great 
 disadvantage by revolts and discontents in his 
 own Germanic dominions. When, therefore, on 
 the 22d of February, A. D. 1076, the au(4acious 
 pontiff pronounced against the king his tremen- 
 dous sentence, not only of excommunicat'on, but 
 of deposition, releasing all Christians from 
 
 386 
 
CANOSSA. 
 
 CAPE UHICTON ISLAND. 
 
 allt'giancp to liini, ho addressed u larjte party, 
 bolli in Ofrniaiiy and ItJily, who were more than 
 willinj; to accei)t an excuse for (k'privini; Henry 
 of hid erown. Thi.s party controlled a (liet helll 
 at Tribiir, in Oetober, which declared that Iuh 
 forfeiture of the throne would be made irre- 
 vocable if he did not procure from tlie pope a 
 relea.se from his exconununication before the com- 
 ing amiiversary of its pronunciation, in February. 
 A diet to be held lien at Aiigsburir, under the 
 presidency of the pope, would deternune the 
 alfairs of tl'e Empire. 'Yith characteristic 
 energy, Henry resolved to make his way to tlu- 
 popi!, in person, and to become reeoni:iled with 
 liim, before tlie Augsburg meeting. Accom- 
 panied by the (lueeii, her child, and a few 
 attendants, he cros.s('d the Alps, with great liaril- 
 shij) and danger, in the midst of an uncom- 
 monly cohl and .snowy winter. jMeantirne, the 
 pope liad started U])on his journey to Augsburg. 
 Ileiiring on the way of Henry's movement to 
 meet him, not desirmg the encounter, and dis- 
 trusting, moreover, the intentions of his enemy, 
 he took refuge in the strong fortress of Cancssa, 
 high up in the rocky recesses of the Apennines. 
 To that mountain retreat the despenito king 
 pre.s.se<l his way. "It was .lanuary 21, 1077, 
 when Henry arrived at Canos.sa; the cold was 
 severe and the snow lay deej). He was lodged 
 at the foot of the castle-steep, and had an inter- 
 view with the countess Matilda [mistress of the 
 castle, and devoted friend of the pope], Hugh, 
 abbot of Clugny, and others, in the Chapel of 
 St. Nicolas, of which no traces now remain. 
 Three ilays were spent in debating terms of 
 reccmciliation; Matilda and Hugh interceded 
 with the pope on the king's behalf, but Gregory 
 was inexorable; unless Henry surrendered the 
 crown into the pope's hands the ban should not 
 be taken off. Henry could not stoop so low as 
 this, but ho made up his mind to play the part 
 of a penitent suppliant. Early on the morning 
 of January 25 he mounted the winding, rocky 
 path, until he reached the uppermost of the 
 three walls, the one which enclosed the castle 
 yard. And here, before the gateway which still 
 exists, and perpetuates in its name, ' Porta dl 
 penit<jnza,' the memory of this strange event, 
 the king, barefoot, and clad in a coai-sc woolen 
 shirt, sto(Kl knocking for admittance. But he 
 knocked in vain: from morning till evening the 
 heir of tlie Roman Empire stood shivering out- 
 side the fiist-closed door. Two more di>ys he 
 climbed the rugged path and stood weeping and 
 imploring to be admitted." At last, the iron- 
 willed pontiff consented to a parley, and an agree- 
 ment was brought about by which Henry was 
 released from excommunication, but the question 
 of his crown was left for future settlement. In 
 the end he gained nothing by his extmordinary 
 abasement of himself. 3Iany of his supporters 
 were alienated by it; a rival king was elected. 
 Gathering all his energies, Henry then stood lii^ 
 ground and mailc a flglit in which even Gregory 
 fled before him; but it was all to no avail. 
 The triumph remained with the priests. — W. 
 R. AV. Stephens, JliUlebrand and Ilis Times, eh. 
 11-15. 
 
 AIjSO in: a. F. Villcmain, Life of Oregory 
 VI L, l)k. 5.— See, also, Pai-acy: A. D. 1050- 
 1122; also Homk: 1081-1084. 
 
 CANTABRIA, Becomes Barduliaand Cas- 
 tile. Sec Sl'Au; ; A. D. 1020-1230. 
 
 CANTABRIANS AND ASTURIANS, 
 The. — The Canlabrians were an ancient people in 
 the north of Spain, inhabiting a region to the west 
 of the Asturians. They were not con(|Uered by 
 the l{omans imtil the reign of Augustus, who led 
 an expedition against them in person, 11. C. 27, 
 but was forced by illness to conunit the campaign 
 to his lieutenants. The Cantabrians s\ibmitted 
 soon after being defeated in a great battle at 
 Vellica, near the sources of the Ebro; but in 22 
 IJ. C. they joined the .\sturians in a desperate 
 revolt, which was not subdued until three vears 
 later.— {;. ilerivale, IUkI. <if the Itomann, ch. JM. 
 
 Also in: T. )Iomms<.'n, Hist, of Home, lik. 8, 
 ch. 2. — See Ai'I'kndix A, v. 1. 
 
 CANTjE, The.— a tribe in ancient Cale- 
 donia. See Hkitain. Cki.tic TuniKs. 
 ^CANTERBURY.— The murder of Becket 
 (1170). See Enoi.ani): .\. I). 11(VJ-1170. 
 
 CANTERBURY PRIMACY, Origin of 
 the. See Enoi-a-mj: A. I). 51)7-085. 
 
 CANTII, The. — The tribe of ancient liritons 
 
 liich occupied the region of Kent. See Bkitain, 
 
 .i.Tic Thiiucs. 
 
 CANTON: A. D. 1839-1842.— The Opium 
 War. — Ransom of the city from English as- 
 sault. — Its port opened to British trade. See 
 China: A. U. 18;)'J-I842, 
 
 A. D. 1856-1857.— Bombardment by the 
 English. — Capture by the English and French, 
 See China: A. 1). 1850-1800. 
 
 CANTONS, Latin. See Gens, Roman; also 
 
 Al.llA. 
 
 CANTONS, Swiss. See Switzeuland: 
 
 A. 1>. 1848-18U0. 
 
 CANULEIAN LAW, The. See Rome: 
 
 B. C. 445. 
 
 CANUTE, OR CNUT, King of England, 
 A. I). 1017-1(J35, and King of Denmark, A. 1). 
 
 1018-1035 Canute II., King of Denmark, 
 
 A. D. 1080-1080 Canute III., King of Den- 
 mark, A. I). 1147-1150 Canute IV., King 
 
 of Denmark, A. I). 1182-1203. 
 
 CANZACA. See Eciiatana. 
 
 CANZACA, OR SHIZ, Battle of.— A battle 
 fought A. I). 591, by the Romans, under Narses, 
 supporting the cause of Chosro(!s II. king of Per- 
 sia, against a usurper Bahrain, who had driven 
 him from his throne. Bahrain was defeated and 
 Chosroi!s restored. — G. Rawlinson, Seventh Oreat 
 Oriental Moiuirchy, ch. 23. 
 
 CAP OF LIBERTY, The. See Liberty 
 Cai\ 
 
 CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1497.— 
 Discovery by John Cabot. See Ameiiica : A. U. 
 1407. 
 
 A. D. 1504. — Named by the fishermen from 
 Brittany. See Nkwkouni>lani): A. I). 1501- 
 1578. 
 
 A. D. 1713. — Possession confirmed to 
 France. See Newfoundland: A. 1). 1713. 
 
 A. D. 1720-1745. — The fortification of Louis- 
 bourg. — After the surrender of Placentia or 
 Plaisance, in Newfoundland, to England, under 
 the treaty of Utrecht (see Newfoundland: A. I). 
 1713), the French government detennincd to 
 fortify strongly some suitable harbor on the 
 islanc of Cape Breton for a naval station, end 
 especi illy for the jjrotcction of the fisheries of 
 Franci '>n the ueigliboring coasts. The harbor 
 knowu. orcviously as Havre &. \' Anglois wat 
 chosen ior the purpose. "When the French 
 
 387 
 
CAPE UUETON ISLAND. 
 
 CAPITOLINE HILL AT HOME. 
 
 government decided In favour of Ilnvro A 1' An- 
 gluix itH imnic wtis <tliitnK<'d to LoiiiHboiirK, in 
 iionour of tlie kinKI and, to murk the value set 
 upon Cape Hrelon it was called Isle lioyale, 
 which it retained until its thial conquest In 1758, 
 when its ancient name was resumed." In I'i'M 
 the fortitU'ations wer<' commeneed, and the work 
 of their construction was prosecuted with enerjjy 
 and with unstinted lllteralily for more thiin twenty 
 years " Even the Enf^lish colonies contributed 
 a gri ; proportion of I !ie materials u.sed in their 
 consti uclion. When Messrs. Newton and Hrad- 
 street, who were sent to confer with M. de St. 
 Ovule [to remonstrate against the supplying of 
 arms to the Indliuis in Nova ScotiaJ . . . re- 
 turned to Annapolis, they reported that during 
 their short stay at Loulsbourg, In 17!)!), fourteen 
 colonial ves.sels, belonging chlclly to New Eng- 
 land, arrived there with cargoes of boards, timlyer 
 and bricks. . . . Loulsbourg [described, with a 
 J)lau, in the work liere(|Uoled| . . . had, between 
 the years 1720 and 1745. cost the French nation 
 the enormous sum of U(),(M)(),000 llvres, or £1,- 
 200,000 sterling; nevertheless, as l)u8sie\ix In- 
 forms us, the fortitlcatlons were still vmtlrilshed, 
 and likely to remain so, because the cost had far 
 exceeded the estimates; and it was found such a 
 large garrison would be re((ulred for their defence 
 that the government had abandoned the idea of 
 completing them according to the original de- 
 sign." — U. Brown, J/inl. df (he hUind of (,'(ij»^ 
 Breton, Utten 9-11. — "The fort was built of 
 stone, with walls more than iiO feet high, and a 
 ditch 80 feet wide, over which was a communica- 
 tion with the town by a drawbridge. It had si.\ 
 bastions and three batteries, with platforms for 
 148 cannon and sl.x mortars. On an islet, which 
 was flanked on one side by a shoal, a battery of 
 30 guns, 28 pounders, defended the entrance of 
 the harbor, which was aliout 400 yards wide, and 
 was also commandi^d from within by the Grand or 
 Royal Battery, mounting as many guns, of the 
 calibre of 42 pounds. The fort . . . was a safe 
 rendezvous and refuge for French fleets and 
 privateers, sailing in the Western Hemisphere. 
 It connnanded the maritime way into Canada, 
 and it watched the English settlements all along 
 the coast. It was a standing threat to the great 
 business of New England seamen, which was 
 the fishery on the banks."— J. G. Palfrey, llint. 
 of N. Eiiff., bk. 5, ch. U (r. 5).—" ' So great was 
 its strength that it was called the Dunkirk of 
 America. It had nunneries and palaces, terraces 
 and gardens. That such a city rose upon a low 
 and desolate island in the inmncy of American 
 colonization appears incredible; explanation is 
 alone found in the fishing enthusiivsm of the 
 period.' "— C. B. Elliott, I'lie IT. 8. andt/ie N. K. 
 IFinheries, p. 18. 
 
 A. D. 1744.— Outbreak of the Third Inter- 
 colonial War. Sec New Ekolakd: A. I). 
 1744. 
 
 A. D. 1745.— Conquest by the New Eng- 
 landers.- Fall of Louisbourg. See New Eno- 
 i..\nd: A. I). 1715; and En(ii..\ni>: A. D. 1745- 
 1747. 
 
 A. D. 1748.— Restored to France. See Aix- 
 LA-CitAfKi.i,u, TiiK Conokesb; and New Eno- 
 l.w,d: a. D. 1745-1748. 
 
 A. D. 1758-1760.— The final capture and 
 destruction of Loulsbourg, by the English.— 
 " In Slay, 1758 [during the Seven Yeare War — 
 see Canada; A. D. 1750-1703 and after', a 
 
 powerful fleet, under rommand of AdndrnI 
 Iloscawen, arrived at Halifax for the purpose of 
 reciipturing a pla<'e [Loulsbourg! whicli ougiit 
 never to have i)een given up. The fleet con- 
 sisted of 23 ships of the line and 18 frigates, 
 besides transports, and when it left Halifax it 
 innnbered 157 vessels. With It was a land 
 force, under .TelTery Amherst, of upward of 
 12,0(M) men. The i rench forces at Louisbonrg 
 were much Inferior, and consisted of only 8 ships 
 of the line and 3 frigates, and of about 4.(MH) 
 soldiers. The English fleet set siul from Halifax 
 on the 28th of May, and on the 8th of June a 
 landing was effected In Oabarus Bay. The ne.\t 
 day the attack iM'gan, and after a sharp conflict 
 th(! French abandoned and destroyed two 
 Important batteries. The siege was then pushed 
 by regular ajiproaches ; but it was not until the 
 2<tth of July that the garrison capitulated. By 
 the terms of surrender the whole garrison w(mo 
 to become prisoners of war and to be sent to 
 England, and the English acquired 218 cannon 
 and 18 mortars, beside great quantities of ammu- 
 nition and nnlitary stores. All the vessels of 
 war had been captured or destroyed; but their 
 crews, to the number of upward of 3,600 men, 
 were included In the capitulation. Two years 
 later, at the bi'ginning of 1760, orders were sent 
 from England to demolish the fortress, render 
 the harbor impracticable, and transport the 
 garrison and stores to Halifax. These orders 
 were carried out so effectually that few traces 
 of Its fortifications remain, and the place is 
 inhabited only by fishermen." — C. C. Smith, 77*« 
 \\'tirs on the tkalward (Xarratice and Critical 
 IliKt. of Am., r. 5, eh. 7). 
 
 Also in: F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, 
 ch. 10 (r. 2). — See, also, Canada (New Fu.^nce): 
 A. I). 1758. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— Ceded to England by the 
 Treaty of Paris. See Si;ven Yeahs Wau. 
 
 A. D. 1763. — Added to the government of 
 Nova Scotia. See Canada; A. D. 1763-1774 
 
 CAPE COLONY. See South Akhica. 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT, Naval battle of. 
 See Enoland: A. I). 1797. 
 CAPETIANS, Origin and crowning of the. 
 
 See Fhanck: A. 1). 861, and 877-987. 
 
 CAPHARSALAMA, Battle of.— One of the 
 victories of the Jewish patriot, Judas Maccaboius 
 over the Syrian general Nicanor, B. C. 162. — 
 Josephus. Antiq. of the JeiM, bk. 12, eh. 10. 
 
 OAPHTOR. — An ancient Phoenician settle- 
 ment on the coast of the Nile Delta. ' ' From an 
 early period the whole of this district had been 
 colonised by the Phnenicians, and as Phmnicia 
 itself was called Keft by the Egyptians, the part 
 of Egypt in which they had settled went by the 
 name of Keft-ur, or '(Greater Phoenicia.'" — A. 
 11. Sayce, Freah Liyht from the Ancient Monu- 
 ments, eh. 2. — On the other Inind, Ewald and 
 other writers say that "the Philistines came 
 from Caphtor," and that " this now obsolete 
 name probably designated either the whole or a 
 part of Crete." 
 
 CAPHYjE, Battle of.— Fought B. C. 320 in 
 the Social War of the Acluean and ^Etolian 
 Leagues. The forces of the former were totally 
 routed. — C. Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, r.h. 63. 
 
 CAPITOLINE HILL AT ROME.— The 
 Capitol. — "In prehistoric times this hill was 
 called the Mons Saturnius, see Varro, Lin. Lat., 
 
 388 
 
CAPITOLINE HILL AT HOME. 
 
 CARAFFA. 
 
 V. 41 ; its nnmc bcinjf connertrd witli that logcn- 
 dnry ' xoUU'ii age ' wlii'u Hiitiini Iiiiii.si'lf 
 reigned fii Italy. . . . This liill, wliitli, lilio tlio 
 otiior hills of liomc, has hail its contour much 
 altered by cutting away and levelling, consists 
 of a moss of tufa rock harder in structure than 
 that of the Palatine hill. It appears once to 
 Iiavc been surrounded by elilTs, very steep at 
 most places, and had only approaches on one 
 side — that tr)\vards the l-'oruiu. . . . The top of 
 the hill is shap<'d into two peaks of about e()ual 
 height, one of whicli was known as tlic Capi- 
 toliuni, and the other as the Arx, or Citadel. . . . 
 The Capitolium was also in early time known ns 
 the 'Mons Trtri)oius,' so called from the familiar 
 legend of the treachery of Tarpeia. . . . In later 
 times the name 'rupes Tarpeia ' was applied, not 
 to thi^ whole peak, but to a part of its elill wliicth 
 faced towards the ' Vicus Jugarius' and the 
 'Forum Magnum.' The identification of tliat 
 part of th(! Tarpeian rock, which was used for 
 the execution of criminals, according to a very 
 primitive custom, is now almost impossible. At 
 one place the clilT of tlie Ca])itolium is quite 
 
 f)erpcndicular, and has been e\it very carefully 
 nto an upright even surface; a deep groove, 
 about a foot wide, runs uj) the face of this 
 cutting, and tlicre are many rock-cut chambers 
 excavated in this part of tlie cliff, some openings 
 into which appear in the face of the rock. This 
 is popularly though crroneoi" 'y known as the 
 Tarpeian rock. . . . The perpendicular cliff was 
 once very much higher than it is at present, as 
 there is u great accumulation of rubliish at its 
 foot. . . . That this cliff cannot be the Tarpeian 
 rock wlicro crindnals were executed is shown by 
 Dionysius (viii. 78, and vii. 35), who expressly 
 says that this took place in the sight of people in 
 the Forum Magnum, so that the popular Uupes 
 Tarpeia is on the wrong side of the hill. " — J. II. 
 Middleton, Ancient Home in 1885, ch. 7. — See, 
 also. Seven Hills op Rome, and Gens, Roman. 
 
 CAPITULARIES.— "It is commonly sup- 
 posed that the term capitularies applies only to 
 the laws of Charlemagne; this is a mistake. 
 The word 'capitula,' 'little chapters,' equally 
 applies to all the laws of the Frank kings. . . . 
 Charlemagne, in Ids capitularies, did anything 
 but legislate. Capitularies are, properly speak- 
 ing, the whole acts of his government, public 
 acts of all kinds by which he manifested his 
 authority." — F. Guizot, Hist, of CiHlization, 
 lect. 31. 
 
 Also in : E. F. Henderson, Select Ilist. Docs, 
 of the Middle Ar/cs, bk. 3. 
 
 CAPITULATIONOF CHARLES V. See 
 aEHMANY: A. D. 1520-1531. 
 
 CAPO D'ISTRIA, Count, The Assassina- 
 tion of. See GnEECE: A. I). 1830-1863. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. See MiTiiniD.VTic Waus. 
 
 CAPS, Party of the. See Scandinavian 
 States (Sweden): A. D. 1730-1793. 
 
 CAPTAL. — A title, derived from " capitalis," 
 originally cqiuvalent to count, and anciently 
 borne by several lords in Aquitaiue. "Towards 
 the 14th century there were no more than two 
 captals acknowledged, that of Buch and that of 
 Franc." — I roissart (.lohnes), Chronicles, bk. 1, 
 eh. 158, note. 
 
 CAPTIVITY, Prince of the. See Jews: 
 A. D. 300-400. 
 
 CAPTIVITY OF THE JEWS, The. See 
 Jews: B. C. 604-536. 
 
 CAPUA.— Capua, originally an Etruscan 
 city, callcil Vulturnum, was taken l)y \\u- Sam- 
 nites, U, ('. 434, and was afterwards a city in 
 whicli Etruscan and neighboring,' (Jreek inllueiiccs 
 were ndxed in their effect on a barbarous new 
 population. "Capua iH'came by its commereo 
 and agriculture the si^cond city in Italy in point 
 of size — the tlrstin point of wealth and luxury. 
 Tlie deep demoralization in which, aei'ording to 
 the accounts of the ancients, that city surpassed 
 all others in Italy, is especially retlecled in llie 
 mercenary recriiiting and in tlie gladiatorial 
 sports, both of which nre-eminenlly nourished in 
 Capua. Nowlien^ did recruiting (iIHcits tind so 
 numerous a concourse as in tins metroiiolis of 
 demoralized ('ivili/.ation. , . . Tlie gladiatorial 
 sports ... if they did not originate, were at 
 any rate carried to perfectiim in Capua. There, 
 sets of gladiali.rs made their appearance even 
 during baiKiuets." — T. Mommsen, Jlinl. of lloine, 
 bk. 3, ch. r,. 
 
 B. C. 343. Surrender to the Romans. See 
 Rome: IJ. ( ;i;i-3iKI. 
 
 B. C. 2I0-2H.— Welcome to Hannibal. — 
 Siege and capture by the Romans. — The city 
 repeopled. Seel'i'Nic Wau, The Second. 
 
 A. D. 800-1016. — The Lombard principality. 
 See Italy (Soutiieun): A. I). Hl)0-ll)ltl. 
 
 A. D. 1501. — Capture, sack and massacre 
 by the French. See Italy: A. I>. 1501-1504. 
 
 CAPUCHINS, The.— "The Capuchins were 
 
 only a branch of the great Franciscan order, and 
 their mode of life a nuxliflcalicm of Its Rule. 
 Among the Franciscans the severity of their 
 Rule had early become a subject of discu.ssion, 
 whicli finally led to a secession of some of tlio 
 members, of whom Matteo do' Bassi, of the con- 
 vent of Montefalcone was the leading spirit. 
 These were the rigorists who desired to restore 
 the iirimitive austerities of the Order. They 
 began by a change of dress, adding to tlie usual 
 monastic habit a 'cappuccio,' or pointed hoixl, 
 which Matteo claimed was of the same pattern 
 as that worn by St. Francis. By the bull 
 ' Religionis zelus (1538), Matteo obtained from 
 Pope Clement VII. leave for himself anil his 
 companions to wear this peculiar dress ; to allow 
 their beards to grow; to live in hermitages, 
 according to the rule of St. Francis, and to devote 
 themselves chietiy to the reclaiming of great 
 sinners. Paul III. afterwanls gave them pi.'r- 
 mission to settle wheresoever tliey liked. Con 
 sistently with tlie austerity of their professions, 
 their churches were unadi''..ed, and their con- 
 vents built in the simplest style. They beeanio 
 very serviceable to tlie Church, and their fear- 
 lessness and assiduity in waiting ujion tlie sick 
 during the plague, which ravaged the whole of 
 Italy, made them extremely pojiular. " — J. Alzog, 
 Manuiil of Unicermil Church Hint., p. 3, /). 455. 
 
 CAPUCHONS, OR CAPUTIATI. See 
 White IIoods ok Fkance. 
 
 CARABOBO, Battles of (1821-1822). See 
 Coi.OMUiAN St.\tes: a. I). 1810-1830. 
 
 CARACALLA, Roman Emperor, A. I). 
 211-217. 
 
 CARACCAS : A. D. 1812.— Destruction by 
 earthquake. Se6 Colomuian States; A. 1). 
 1810-lHU). 
 
 CARAFFA, Cardinal (Pope Paul IV.) and 
 the Counter Reformation. Sec Papacy: A. U. 
 1537-1563, and 1555-1603. 
 
 389 
 
CAUA«. 
 
 CARL. 
 
 CARAS, OR CARANS, OR CARANQUIS, 
 
 The. Sit Ki rAiHiii. 
 CARAUSIUS, Revolt of. Sec IIuiiain: 
 
 AD. '-'MH 'iKT. 
 
 CARAVELS. — GALEONS, Etc. — ' Tli<' 
 term ciinivcl wiih originally Ki^'<'<i '<> Hliips 
 iiiiviKiitr<l wholly l>y Hiiils iih (liHtin^riiiHliiMl from 
 till! ftiillcy propi'llcil liy oars. It lias Ik'cii 
 np|ilic<l U) n Kr''"! variety of vchscIs of (lllTcri'iit 
 »i/.i' atitl ('(mBtnutlioti. 'I'lio raravcis of the New 
 World (liscovcrcm may \h; jfiK'niUy (k'lW'rilK'd as 
 loiijt narrow bouts of from 2i) to 100 tons burden, 
 with tliroo or four maNis of about ciinal hei.i;iil 
 carryini; hoiik times sipiare and sonuMimes lateen 
 miils, the fourth mast set at the heel of the bow- 
 sprit carrying s(|uare sails. Tliey were tisually 
 Imlf-deeked, and adorned with the lofty forecastle 
 nnd loftier poop of thi^ day. The latter eon- 
 Btiliited over that part of the vessel a double or 
 trebh' deck, which was pierced for caimoii. . . . 
 The galera was a vessel of low bulwarks, navi- 
 gated by sails and oars, usually twenty or thirty 
 oars on cither side, four or live oarsmen to a 
 bench. . . . The gulea/a was the larfjest class of 
 fralera, or cnift propelled wholly or in part by 
 ojirs. ... A galeota was a small galera, having 
 only 10 or 20 oarsmen on a side, and two mast,s. 
 The galeim was a largo armed merchant vessel 
 with liigh bulwarks, three or four decks, with two 
 or three masts, 8(|imre rigged, spreading courses 
 and top-.sails, and sometimes topgallant sails. 
 . . . Those which iplied between Acapuleo and 
 Manila were from 1,200 to 2,(H)0 tons burden. A 
 galeoncillo was a small galeon. The carac was 
 a large carrying ves.s<'l, the one intended for 
 Columbus' second voyage being 1,2.)0 toneles or 
 1,500 tons. A nao, or navio, was a large ship 
 witli high bulwarks and three masts. A nave 
 was a vessel with deck and sails, the former 
 distinguishing it from tlio barca, and tlie absence 
 of oars from a galera. The bergantin, or brig, 
 had low bulwarks. . . . The name brigautine 
 was api)lied in America also to an open tlat- 
 bottomed boat, which usually carried one sail and 
 from 8 to 10 men." — IL II. Bancroft, Hint, of the 
 Piieific titiiten, v. 1, p. 187, foot-note. — Sec, alst), 
 Amkhic.x.: a. I>. 1402. 
 
 CARBERRY, Mary Stuart's surrender at. 
 See Scotland; A. D. irjOl-l.lOS. 
 
 CARBONARI, Origin and character of the. 
 Bee Italy (SouTiiEnN): A. I). 1808-1809. 
 
 CARCHEMISH. See IIittitks, The. 
 
 CARCHEMISH, Battle of.— Fought, B. C. 
 604, between the armies of Necho, the Egyptian 
 Pharaoh, and Nebuchadnezzar, then crown prince 
 of Babylon. Necho, being defeated, was driven 
 back to Egypt and stripped of all his Syrian 
 conquests. — V. Lcnormant, Manual of Ancient 
 llii>t. of the Kimt, bk. 2, ch. 4. 
 
 CARDADEN, Battle of (i8o8). Sec Spain: 
 A. I). 1808-1809 (I)kci.;m!h.:k— March). 
 
 CARDINAL INFANT, The. See Netiieu- 
 l.ANOs: A. I). 10;i5-16:!8. 
 
 CARDINALS, College of. Sec Ccria, Tue 
 UoMAN (Fai'ai,), and Papacy: A. D. 1059. 
 
 CARDUCHI, The. -"South of the lake 
 [Lake of Van, in Asia Minor] lay the Carduclii, 
 wliom the later Greeks call the Qordyipaus nnil 
 Gordycnes ; but among the Armenians they were 
 known as Kordii, among the Syrians as Kardu. 
 These arc the ancestors of the modern Kurds, a 
 nation also of the Aryan stock." — M. Duuekcr, 
 Uint. of Antiquity, bk. 2, ch. 13. — See, also, 
 
 (loiiDVKNE.— Under 8aladln nnd the Ayonblto 
 dyniisty tli<- Kurds played nn Important part in 
 medlM'val hislorv. Hec Sai.adin, Empikk oF. 
 
 CARGILLITES, The. See Scoti.amij: 
 A, I). lOMI-KWlt. 
 
 CARHAM, Battle of.— Fought and won bv 
 an army of Scots, under King Maldihn, inva(l- 
 iiig the then English earldom of Bernicia, A. I). 
 1018, and securing the aimcxation of Lothian to 
 till' Scottish kingdom. The l)atllcli('ld was near 
 that on which I'lodden was afterwards fought. — 
 E. A. Freeman, S'nnnan ('oni/iimt, eh. 0, met. 3, 
 
 CARIANS, The.— "The Carians may bo 
 called the doubles of the Ldeges, They aro 
 termed the 'speakers of a barliarous tongue,' and 
 yet, on tlie other hand, Apollo is sitid to have 
 spoken Carian. As a people of pirates dad in 
 bron/.c they onc^; upon a time bad their day in 
 tlio Archipelago, and, Hue tlie Normans of the 
 Middle Ages, swooped down from the sea to 
 desolate the coasts ; but their real home was in 
 Asia Minor, where their settleini'nts lay bc'tween 
 those of I'lirygians and Pisidians, and eom- 
 munity of religion united them with the Lydians 
 and RIysians." — E. Curtiiis, IM, of llreee^, bk. 1, 
 elt. 3. — The country of the Carians was tlio 
 mountainous di.strict in the southwestern angle 
 of Asia .Alinor, tlie coast of which is indented 
 with gulfs and frayed with long-projecting 
 rocky promontories. The island of llhofles lies 
 close to it on i\w south. The Carians were sub- 
 jugated by the Lyilian King Cnesus, and after- 
 wards passed under the Persian yoke. The 
 Persians i)ermitted the establishment of a vassal 
 kingilom, under a dynasty which fixed its 
 cajjital at llalicarnassus, and made that city one 
 of the splendid Asiatic outpo.sts of Greek art and 
 civilization, though always faithfully Persian in 
 its politics. 'It was to the memory of one of the 
 Carian kings at llalicarnassus, 5laiisolus, that 
 the famous sepulchral monument, which gave 
 its name to all similar edifices, and which the 
 oncients counted among the seven wonders of 
 the world, was erected by his widow, llali- 
 carnassus offered an obstinate resistance to Alex- 
 ander the Great and was destroyed by that ruth- 
 less conqueror after it had succumbed to his 
 siege. Subsequently rebuilt, it never gained inj- 
 porlancG again. The Turkish town of Budruin 
 now occupies the site. — C. T. Newton, Travel* 
 and DtKCorerien in the I/evant, r>. 3. — Sec, also, 
 Hamites and Doiuans and Ionians. 
 
 CARIAY, The. See American Auouioineb: 
 QucK OR Coco Group. 
 
 CARIBBEAN ISLANDS, The. See 
 Ami;uica: a. D. 1493-1490, and West Indies. 
 
 CARIBS, The. See American Aboiuoines: 
 Cariils. 
 
 CARILLON.— The French name of Fort 
 Ticonderoga. See Canada (New France): 
 A. I). 1758. 
 
 CARINTHIA, Early mediaeval history. 
 See Slavonic Peoples: 6tii-7th Centuries, 
 nnd Germany: A. D. 843-963. 
 
 CARINUS, Roman Emperor. A. D. 383- 
 284. 
 
 CARIPUNA, The. See American Ajiori- 
 oines: Guck or Coco Group. 
 
 CARISBROOK CASTLE, The flight of 
 King Charles to. See England: A. D. 1647 
 (August — December). 
 
 CARIZMIANS. See Kiiuarezm. 
 
 CARL, OR KARL. Sec Etbel.— ExnEiiiNa. 
 
 390 
 
CAHLINOM. 
 
 CARNOT. 
 
 CARLINGS. 8cc Fhankh ((!Ani.ovi!«niAN 
 E.MI-IUK): A. I). 7ft« Hll. 
 CARLISLE, Origin of. See Lii(ii;vAi,i,irM. 
 CARLISTS AND CHRISTINOS. *,• 
 
 8l>AI\; A. I), IHim-IHltl, 1111(1 1M7;|-1HH,-,. 
 
 CARLOMAN, King of the Franks (East 
 Franks — Germany — in association with Louis 
 in.), A. I). H7(|-8M1 : (Burgundy and Aquitaine), 
 
 A. I). H7U-HSI Carloman, Duke and Prince 
 
 of the Franks, A. I). 711-717. 
 
 CARLOS. SccCiiAui.hx 
 
 CARLOVINGIANS. 8p.- Fuanks (Cabo- 
 LlNiiiAN KMriiiK): A. D. 788-814. 
 
 CARLOWITZ, Peace of. Soo IIunoaky: 
 A. I). l(W;t-imH». 
 
 CARLSBAD, Congress of. Sci; Okkmamy: 
 A. 1). IHll^lMO. 
 
 CARMAGNOLE. Sou Fuancb: A. I). 1703 
 (Fkiiiiiakv — .Vi'uii.). 
 
 CARMANIANS, The.— "The normoiiliuis 
 of llcrDiliitiis n\v. till! Oariiiiiniiiim of tlio liitiT 
 Gri'cks, who uIm) piissed willi tlii'in us a Hi'piinite 
 nation, tliou;^h closi'ly iillicil to the I'lTHiiins itiid 
 Modes. Tlicy wiiiidcred to mid fro to the east of 
 Persia in the district now called Klrnian." — M. 
 Diiiickcr, IHxt. of Antiqiiiti/, v. !>. Iik. H. c/t. ii. 
 
 CARMATHIANS, The.— " In the 277th 
 year of the IIcKira [.V. I). HUO), and in the iieijch- 
 bourlKMKl of C'ufa, an Arabian preacher of the 
 name of C'aniiath assumed the lofty and iiicoin- 
 nrehenslhle style of the Ouiih', the Director, tl.o 
 Deinonstratioii, the Word, the Holy Qlio.st, the 
 Camel, the Herald of the Messiah, who had con- 
 versed with him in a human shape, and the 
 repres('iitative of Mohammed the son of Ali, of 
 St. John the Baptist, and of the Anj;el Gabriel." 
 Carmath was one of the eaat(!rn proselytes of the 
 sect of the Ishmaileans or Ishniailitcs — the same 
 from which spraiii; the terrible secret order of 
 the Assassins. He founded another branch of 
 the Ishmaileans, which, taking his name, were 
 culled the C'armathiaiis. The sect made rai)id 
 goins amoiij; the Ucdouins and were so(m a for- 
 midable and uncontrollable body. "After a 
 blo(xly conllict they prevailed in the province of 
 Bahrein, along the Persian Gulf. Far anil wide 
 the tribes of the desert were subject to the 
 sceptre, or rather to the sword, of Ai)u Said and 
 bis son Abu Taher; and these rebellious imams 
 could muster in the field 107,000 faiiaties. . . . 
 The cities of liaccu and Baalbee, of Cufa and 
 Bassorali, were taken and pillaged; Bagdad was 
 filled witli consternation ; and the caliph trembled 
 behind the veils of his palace. . . . The rapine 
 of the Carmathians was sanctified by their aver- 
 sion to the worship of Jlecca. They robbed a 
 caravau of pilgrhns, and 20,000 devout Moslems 
 were abandoneil on the burning sands to a death 
 of hunger and thirst. Another year [A. D. 929] 
 they sutTered the pilgrims to proceed without 
 interruption; but, in the festival of devotion, 
 Abu Taher stormed the holy city and trampled 
 on the most venerable relics of the Mahometan 
 faith. Thirty thousand citizens and strangers 
 were put to the sword; the sacred precincts 
 were polluted by the burial of 3,(M)0 dead bodies; 
 the well of Zemzen overfiowed with blood ; the 
 golden spout was forced from its place; the 
 veil of the Caaba was divided among these im- 
 pious sectaries; and the black stone, the first 
 monument of the nation, was borne away in 
 triumph to their capital. After this deed of 
 sacrilege and cruelty they continued to infest the 
 
 contlnes of Irak, 8yria and KgVPt; but the vital 
 prlnciiile of cnthiisiaHm had withered at the root. 
 ... It is needless to enipiire into what factions 
 they were broken, or by whose swords they wero 
 finiillv extirpated. The sect of llic CarmalhiaiiH 
 may be eonsldei' ' as the seconil visible cause of 
 th(! decline and fall of the empire of the caliphs." 
 — K. GiblMin, Dedine mill FnUnfl/iK Unmiiit Kin- 
 pi iv. r/i. ,12, iinil note />;/ Dv. liinith. — St'O, uliM), 
 
 CARMELITE FRIARS. — " About the 
 niiildleof thel 12lli)ci'nlury, one llerthold. a Cain- 
 briaii, wllli a few companions, migrated to Mount 
 Carmel [I'lilestine], and iu the place where tliD 
 prophet Klias of old is said to liiive hiil himself, 
 iiuilt a humble cottage with a cliapel. In whicli 
 he and his assix^iates led a laborious anil solitary 
 life. As others continued to unite themHi'lveii 
 with these residents on .Mount Ciirinrl, .Vlliert tho 
 patriarch of .Icrusalcm, near the cominencement 
 of the next centurv prescribed for them a riilo 
 of life; which the pontilTs afterwards sanctioned 
 by their authority, and also cliaiiged in v.irioiis 
 respects, and when it was found too rlgnroiis 
 anil burdensome, mitigated eonsideralily. Such 
 was the origin of the celebrated order of Car- 
 melites, or as it Is commonly called the order of 
 St. Mary of Mount Carmel (and known in Eng- 
 land as the White Friars]; which subseiiueiitly 
 _,as.sed from Syria intc Kurope, and became ono 
 of the principal niendi( mt orders. The Carmel- 
 ites themselves reject with disdain this account 
 of their origin, and most strenuously contend that 
 the holy prophet Klias of the Old Testament, 
 was the parent and founder of their society. 
 But they were able to persuade very few, (or 
 rather none out of their soi^iety), that their origin 
 was so ancient and illustrious." — J. ],. von Mos- 
 lii'im, Iimtiliitin of Ktvlcniimlifiit Ifinton/, hk. 'A, 
 cenfji 12, pt. 2, i-k. 2, met. 21. 
 
 Ai.soin: G. Wadilington, Hint, of the C'/iiiir/i, 
 eh. II), seet. 5. — J. Alzog, Munuiil of Unineriiiil 
 Chiireli Hint., sect. 244 (r. 2). — K. L. Cutts, Scene* 
 and (!hiiiiietern of the Miilille Ai/en, ch. 5. 
 
 CARMIGNA'NO, Battle of (1796). See 
 FitAMic: .V. I). 179(1-1797 (OcTonKK—Ai'HiL). 
 
 CARNABII, OR CORNABII, The. Se^ 
 
 BitlTAIN, ClJ.TIC TitllllOS. 
 
 CARNAC. See .ViiLUY. 
 
 CARNATES, The. See Tiuanian Races. 
 
 CARNEIAN FESTIVAL, The.— A Spar- 
 tan festival, sjiid to liave been instituted B. C. 
 070. "The Carneian festival fell in the Spartan 
 mouth Carneius, the Athenian .Metageitnon, cor- 
 responding nearly to our August. It was held 
 in lionour of Apollo Carneius, a deity worshipped 
 from vi'ry ancient times in the Peloponnese, 
 especially at Amycia;. ... It was of a warlike 
 character, like the Athenian BoedrUmia." — O, 
 Uawlinson, Note to Ileroilotiis, bk. 7. 
 
 Ai.so IN : E. Curtius, Jliit. of Oreece, bk. 2, eh. 1. 
 
 CARNIANS, The. See UiiAvrrANs. 
 
 CARNIFEX FERRY, Battle of. See 
 Unitkd Statks ok Am. : A. O. 1801 (August — 
 DECK.MHKn: West Vikoinia). 
 
 CARNONACiE, The. Sec Buitain, Celtic 
 Tiiiuks. 
 
 CARNOT, Larare N. M., and the French 
 Revolution. See France: A. D. 1793 (June— 
 OcTouKii), to 1707 (SEi-rEMBEii), and 1800-1801 
 (May— FEniiuAuv). 
 
 CARNOT, Sadi, President of the French 
 Republic, 1887 . 
 
 391 
 
CAItNUTES. 
 
 CAUTHAaE. 
 
 CARNUTBS, The.— The Cnrnutpn w«ro n 
 tlilM! who iXcupU'il a rc^iiiii HiippoM"! to lie tlic 
 O'litcr of (liiul. Till' miimUtm city ( 'hurt res 
 BtuiuU III tlic iiiidMt of it. Till- hiiitimI K<'>i<'r<>l 
 mcctiti); plarc of tlw DruidH wiin in tlii' coiiiilry 
 of the ('iirmiti H, — <1. Loiij;. ItrHine of tlit Itnmnii 
 Urjiuhlie, r. 11, rh. 'J2.— Hw, iilxo, ° VknK'I'I ok 
 Wkhtkiin (Iaii,. 
 
 CAROLINAS, The. Hon Novtii Cakomna, 
 and Sol I'll Caiiomna. 
 
 CAROLINE, Queen, Trial of. Hoc Eno- 
 l,ANl>: A. I), lM'2()-lHa7. 
 
 CAROLINE, The BurninE of the. Hie 
 Canada: A. I). 1h;)7-1h;ih, nrci ThK>-1s41. 
 
 CAROLINE BOOKS, The.— A work put 
 fortli l)y ('liiirlciniiK'X' iiK"'"'*' l>iiitK<''W>i''*l>>J>> '" 
 roMHiili'riklil(^ Hyinpittliy witli tlic vIcwh of tlii^ 
 KuMtiTii IcoiiocliiNtH iiiui nKiiiiiHt tlic ilccrrcM of 
 tlio Sccoml Couiuil of Nioi'ii (A. I). 787), l.s 
 known iih tlic Ciiroliiic Hooks. It is Huppoxcd to 
 hiivi' l«'cn rldctly tlic coinposllion of the kind's 
 Iciinicd friend iind counxcllor, Alcuin, the En^- 
 liHliniiin. — .1. I. Monibort, Jliitt. nf dharlet the 
 Orenl. ttk. a, rh. 13. 
 
 CAROLINGIA.— On the division of tho 
 ••mpiro of ('liiirli'innKno between his three ;?riin(i- 
 Bons, A. I). 843, the western kinirdom, whieU 
 fell to ("hiirles, took for u lime the name of 
 ('urolin>;iii, as part of liothitr's middle kingdom 
 t(K)k the mime of Lotliarin^ia, or Lorniine. liut 
 tho imine died out, or wiis slowly superseded by 
 that of France. — K. A Freeman, Hist. Deog. uf 
 Kurvix, ell. (I. nect. 1. 
 
 CAROLINGIANS. See Fkankb (Cako 
 LiNdiAN Emi-iuk): a, '~ 708-814. 
 
 CARPET-BAGGE. 3. Sec United States 
 OP Am.: a. 1). 1H««-1M71. 
 
 CARR DIKE.— A Hoioan work in Britain, 
 formed for tlic draining of the Lincolnshiro 
 Fens, and usckI, also, as a road. — 11. 51. Hearth, 
 Jiomnn Hntain, eh. 16. 
 
 CARRACKS, OR CARACS.-" A larRc 
 species of luereliant ves.sel, principally used hi 
 coasting trade," among the Spaniards of tho inth 
 and 10th centuries. — W. Irving, Life and Voyage» 
 of Ooluml/uf, Ilk. 0, ch. 1 (n. 1), fuot-note. — See, 
 aisc, Cauavki.b. 
 
 CARRARA FAMILY, The: Its rite to 
 sovereignty at Padua and its struggle with 
 the Visconti of Milan. Hco Vekona: A. 1). 
 1260-i;mH, and Milan: A. D. 1377-1447. 
 
 CARRHiE, Battles of (B.C. 53). See Rome: 
 
 B. 0. ri7-53 (A. D. 207), See Persia: A. D. 
 
 230-«37. 
 
 CARRICK'S FORD, Battle of. See United 
 States ok Am. : A. D. 1801 (June— July : West 
 
 VlUOINIA). 
 
 CARROCCIO, The.— "Tho militia of every 
 city [in Lombardy, or northern Italy, eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries] was divided into separate 
 bo<lies, according to local partitions, each led by 
 a Qonfaloniero, or standard-bearer. They fought 
 on foot, and assembled round the carroecio, a 
 heavy car drawn by oxen, and covered with the 
 flags and armorial bearings of the city. A high 
 pole rose in the middle of this car, bearing ttic 
 colc-rs and a Christ, which seemed to bless the 
 army, with both arras extended. A priest said 
 daily mass at an altar placed in the front of the 
 car. The trumpeters of the community, seated 
 on the back, part, sounded the charge and the 
 retreat. It was Ileribert, archbishop of Milan, 
 contemporary of Conrad the Salic, who invented 
 
 this car In Imitation of the ark of alllanro, and 
 cailHcd it to be adopted at Milan. All the freir 
 I'llieHof Italy followed the example: this sacred 
 car. intriiHled to the giianliiinship of the nillltia, 
 gave them weight and r'ontldeiiei'." — .1. ('. Ii. do 
 Hlsiiioiidl. Hint, iif the Itiiliiin llijiii/ilicii, rh. 1. 
 
 CARTEREl*. Sir George, The Jerser 
 Grant to. Sec New .Jeiirev: A. D. lOei-lOOT, 
 to 1(1HH-17;18. 
 
 CARTERET'S MINISTRY. Sec Eno- 
 I, A Nil: A. I). 1 74'.'- 1 7 1.-). 
 
 CARTHAGE, The founding of.— p:thbaal, 
 or Ilhobaal, a priest of .Vslarle, ac<|iiired pos-ses- 
 sion of the throne of Tyre H. (', 1117, deposing 
 and putting to <leatli the legitimate prince, a 
 descendant of Hiram, Solomon's ally and friend. 
 The .Ie/.el«'l of .lewish history, who married 
 Ahab, king of Isi el, was the daughter of this 
 king Kthbaal. "Kthbaul was siici'eeded by his 
 son Hale/.or (88.V-877 H (.'.). After eight years 
 Hale/.or left two sons, Mutton and Sicharbaal, 
 both under age. . . . Mutton died in the year 
 851) li. ('. and again left a son nine years old, 
 Pygmalion, and a daughter, Klissa, a few years 
 older, whom he had married to his brother 
 Sicharbaal, the priest of the templt! of .Melkarth. 
 Mutton had intended that Eli.ssa and Pygmalion 
 should reign together, and thus the ])ower really 
 pa.ssed into the hands of Sicliarbaal, the husband 
 of Elissa. When Pygmalion reached his six- 
 teenth year the people transferred to him tho 
 sovereignty of Tyre, and he put Sicharbaal, his 
 uncle, to death . . . (84011. C.). Eli-ssii [or Dido, 
 as she was also called) lied from Tyre before her 
 brother, as we are told, with others who would 
 not submit to the tyranny of Pygmalion. Tho 
 exiles . . . are said ... to have landed on the 
 coast of Africa, in the neighbourhood of Ityke, 
 tho old colony of the Pheiiieians, and there to 
 have bought as much land of the Libyans as 
 could be covered by the skin of an ox. By 
 dividing this into very thin strips they obtained 
 a piece of land sutlieient to enable them to build 
 a fortress. This now dwelling-place, or the city 
 which grew up round this fortress, the wander- 
 ers called, in reference to their old home, Kar- 
 thada (Kartiv hadasha), 1. e., 'the new city,' 
 t'lio Karchedon of the Greeks, the Carthage of 
 the Romans. The legend of the purchise of 
 the soil may have arisen from the fact that 
 the settlers for a long time paid tribute to the 
 ancient iiopulation, the Maxyans, for their 
 soil." — M. Duncker, Jliat. of Antiquity, hk. 3, 
 ch. 11. 
 
 Also IN: .1. Kenrick, Phncninn : Hi»t.,eh. 1. 
 
 Divisions, Size and Population. — "The city 
 proper, at the time at which it is best known to 
 us, the iieriixl of the Punic wars, consisted of 
 the Byrsa or Citadel quarter, a Greek word 
 corrupted from the Canaanitish Bozrn, or Bostra, 
 that IS, a fort, and of the Cothon or harbour 
 quarter, so important in the history of the final 
 siege. To the north and west of these, and 
 occupying all the vast space between them and 
 • he isthmus behind, were the Megara (Hebrew, 
 taguriin), that is, the suburbs and gardens of 
 Carthage, which, with tho city proper, covered 
 an area of 23 miles in circumference. Its popu- 
 lation must have been fully proportioned to Its 
 size. Just before the third Punic war, when its 
 strength had been drained ... it contained 
 700,000 inhabitants."— R. B. Smith, Carthage 
 and tflw Cartliaginians, ch. 1, 
 
 392 
 
CAnriiAOE. 
 
 (AnTIIAOK. 
 
 Krcoimin, Girthdtgt (Ui»l. 
 
 Al.w) IN: K. A. 
 Kmxiiin, Ath tfrif*). 
 
 Tiie Dominion of.— " All mir piwltlvi' liifor 
 iiiittloii, Hciiiity iM it U, iilHiiil ()iirtli»K<' it»<l Ix'i' 
 iiiHtitiuioiiH, rclulcM to tli(! fdurtli, tliliil, <ir 
 hi'coikI cfiitiirli'H H. ('. ; vi't It iniiy lir lidil In 
 justify pi'cHiiiiiptivc {'oncfuHloim iis to llir llflli 
 ct'iiliirv "■ <'i •■.H|>('(iiilly In rrfcrniri' to llic 
 fri'iicriil KyHtcm piirsiii'il. Tlic iiiitxirniiiii of her 
 nowcT WHS iiltiilncd hrforc her Ili'Ht wiir willi 
 Uonic, wlilcli bcifiiii in 'HH It. ('. ; tlu- tint unci 
 M-coiid i'iuil(^ wiirs hoth of tlicin ((rcatlv ri'iliici'il 
 licr HtrciiKtli niid (loiiiliiloii. Yet In Hprirof hucIi 
 ri'tliu'tion wo Iciirn llmt iiboiit I.IO IJ. ('. Hlinrlly 
 hcforu tli(! third I'unic war, whicli ended In tlic- 
 capluit' mid depopulation of the eilj'. not less 
 tlian 7(K),(M)0 kouIs were eonipiited in it. as rx'cu- 
 pantH of a fortilled eireuniference of above twenty 
 MiileH, covering a peninsula with its isthmus. 
 Upon this iHthinus Its citaiiel liyrsa wasNituated. 
 surrounded liy a triple wall of its own, and 
 crowned at its suinniit liy a nijif^nitlcent teniplo 
 of .itlsculapius. Tlie numerous population isthu 
 moro remarkalile, since Ulica (a consldemble 
 city, colonized from I'lnenlela more anciently 
 tlian even (lartha^e itself, and always indepenil- 
 cut of the Carthaginians, tliou)^li In tlie condition 
 of an inferior aiKldiscontentcd ally) was within 
 till! distance of seven miles from (;artha)i;c on the 
 one side, and Tunis Hceminf^ly not miicli further 
 olT on tliu other. Even at that time, tiK), thy 
 Cartliaginians arc said to havu possessed aoo 
 tributary cities in Libya. Yet this was but a 
 small fraction of the pr(xliKious empire which 
 liad belonged to them certainly in the fourth 
 century U. C. and in all probability also I 'tween 
 4«0-110 B. C. That cmnirii extended eastward 
 as far a.s the Altars of the I'liilicnl, near tlie 
 Great Syrtis, — westward, all along the coast to 
 the Pillars of Herakles ami tlie western coast of 
 Morocco. The Hue of coast southeast of Car- 
 thage, as far as the bay called the Lesser Syrtis, 
 was proverliiai (under tlio name of liyzaclum 
 ami the Emporia) for its fertility. AK>ng this 
 extensive line were distributed indigenous 
 Libyan tribes, living l)y agriculture; and a 
 mixed population called I.iiby-Pha'nician. . . . 
 Of the Litiy-i*h(enician towns the numlier is not 
 Itnown to us, but it must liave been pnKligiously 
 great. ... A few of the towns along the coast, 
 — Hippo, Utica, Adrumotum, Tiiapsus, Lcpils, 
 &c. — were colonies from Tyre, like Carthage 
 Itself. . . . Yet tlie Carthaginians contrived m 
 time to render every town trlbutjiry, witli the 
 exception of Utica. ... At one time, immedi- 
 ately after the first Piniic war, they took from 
 the rural cultivators as much as one-lialf of their 
 prmluce, and doul)1ed at one stroke the tribute 
 levied upon the towns. . . . The native Cartlia- 
 ginians, though encoiinigcd liy lumorary marks 
 to undertake . . . inilitary service were gener 
 idly averse to it, and sparingly employed. . . . 
 A chosen division of 2,.')U0 citizens, men of 
 wealth and family, formed what was called the 
 Sacred Hand of Carthage distinguished for their 
 bravery in the field as well as for the splendour 
 of their arms, and the gold and silver plate 
 wiiicli formed part of their baggage. We shall 
 find these citizen troops occasionally employed 
 on service in Sicily : but mo.st part of the Cartha- 
 ginian army consists of Gauls, Iberians, Liby- 
 ans, &c., a mingled host got together for tiie 
 occasion, discordant in lauguagc as well as in 
 26 
 
 riiiiU)m«."— O. Orolf, IM. of Oretet, pt. 3, eh. 
 Ml. 
 
 B. C. 480.— Invasion of Sicily.— Great defeat 
 at Himera. See Sn ii,v; ». c. Imo, 
 
 B. C. 409-40^.— Invasion* of Sicily.— De- 
 struction, of Selinus, Himera and AKrigentutn. 
 .Sic .S|( ii.v; 11. ( ', 4()!»- lO.V 
 
 B. C. 396.— Siege of Syracuse. See Svha- 
 
 (1 sk: h. c. ;)(»t :m(i. 
 
 B. C. 383.— War with Syracuse. See Sicily : 
 H. (,'. ;w;i. 
 
 B C. 3io-3o6.— Invasion by Agathoklea. 
 
 SeeSviiACl'SK: II. C. !J17-'JH1). 
 
 B. C. 264-241.— The first war with Rome.— 
 Expulsion from Sicily. — Loss of maritime 
 supremacy. .Sec I'lsic Wak, 'I'm-; l-'iiisr. 
 
 B. C. 241-238.— Revolt of the mercenaries. 
 — At the close of the First I'unic War, the vet- 
 eran armv of mercenaries with whhh llamilcar 
 liarca had maintained hlms<'lf so loni; In Sicily — 
 a motley gathering of Greeks, Llgurians, Gaiiis, 
 Ilieriaiis, Libyans and others — was sent ov<'r to 
 Cartilage for the long arrears of pay due them 
 and for their discharge. The party 111 power in 
 Carthage, being botli Incapable and mi'ari, and 
 being also embarrassed by an empty tri'asiiry, 
 exasperated this dangeri.us body of men by 
 ilelays and by attempts at bargaining with them 
 for a reduction of their claims, until a general 
 mutiny was provoked. The mercenaries, 20,000 
 strong with Spendliis, a runaway Campanlan 
 slave, Matlio, an African, and Aiitaritus, a Gaul, 
 for their leaders, marched from tin; town of Sicca, 
 where they were quartered, and campi'd near 
 Tunis, threatening Carthagi-. The government 
 became jiaiiicstricken and t<M)k no measures 
 which did not embolden the mutineers and 
 increase tlieir demands. All the oppressed Afri- 
 can peoples in the Carthaginian (tomain rose to 
 join the revolt, and poured into tlu^ hands of tlio 
 mercenaries the tribute money which Carthage 
 would have wrung from them. The latter was 
 soon brought to a state of sore distress, without 
 an army, without ships, and with its supplies of 
 f<M: I mostly cut off. The neighboring cities of 
 U'i'a ami Hippo Zarytus were besieged. At 
 len^tli the Carthaginian government, controlled 
 by a party hostile to llamilcar, was obliged to 
 call him to the command, but a.ssoelated witt 
 him Hanno, ids biltert^st personal enemy and the 
 most incompetent leader of the ruling faction, 
 llamilcar succeeded, after a desperate and long 
 struggle, in destroying the mutineers to almost 
 the last man, and in saving Carthage. But the 
 war, whicli lasted 'nore than three years (U. C. 
 241-238), was merciicss and horrible beyond de- 
 scription. It was known to the amiints as the 
 "Trucelcss War" and the " Inexp: l)lo War." 
 The .scenes and circumstances of it ii;ne lieen ex- 
 traordinarily [lictured in Klaulicrt's " Salammbo," 
 which is one of the most revolting but most 
 powerful of historical romances. — K. B. Smith, 
 C'art/iii (tiul the Oirt/uif/inUiiui, ch. 8. 
 
 Al,i-() i.v: W. llinc. itiiit. '// Itoiiw. hk. 4, cli. A. 
 
 B. C. 237-202.— Hamilcar in Spain.— The 
 second war with Rome. — Hannibal in Italy 
 and Sicily.— Scipio in Africa. — The great de- 
 feat at Zama.— Loss of naval dominion and 
 of Spain. .See Pu.Nic Wau, The Siico.NU. 
 
 B. C. 146.— Destruction by Scipio.— Car. 
 tliage existed by Uoiiian su/Teraiice for fifty 
 years after the ending of the Second Punic War, 
 and even recovered some considerable prosperity 
 
 393 
 
CAHTIIAGE. 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 In tniflp, tt;on;?li Home took care tlmt licr clmnops 
 for recovery sliould bu slij^lit. Wlicii IIannil)!iI 
 giivo sij^iis of lu'iug ulile to reform tlm govern- 
 meiit of lUv city aixl to distiiiguisli liiiiiself in 
 statesmanship as lie Iniil imniortali/.eil liimself in 
 war, Home (lenniiided liini. and he escaped her 
 chains only liy llight. When, even wilhont 
 Ilannilial, Carlhafce slowly rcpidred the broken 
 fortunes of her merchants, there was an enemy 
 at her door always ready, at the biilding of 
 Itome, to ])hinder them afresh. This was Mas- 
 sinissa, the Numidian prince, client and obedient 
 serv.uit of the Roman state. Aitain and afjain 
 the helpless Carthai^inians appealed to Rome to 
 protect them from Ins depredations, and linally 
 they ventured to attempt the protection of them- 
 selves. Then the patient perlidy of Roman state- 
 craft gras|>ed its reward. It had wailed many 
 years for the iirovocations of Massirussa to work 
 their ciTect; the maddened Carthaginians had 
 broken, at last, the hard letterof the treaty of 201 
 by as.sailing the friend and ally of Rome. The 
 pretext. siilliccd foranewdei'laration of war, with 
 the ILved purpose of pressing it to the last ex- 
 treme. Old Cato, who had been crying in the 
 cars of the Senate, "Carthago deleiula est," 
 should have his will. The doomed Cartha- 
 ginians were kei)t in ignorance of the fate 
 (lecreed, until they had been foully tricked into 
 the surrender of their arms and the whole arma- 
 ment of their city. IJut when they knew the 
 dreadful truth, they threw off all cowardice and 
 rose to such a majesty of spirit as liad never 
 been exhibited in their history befcnc. Without 
 weapcms, or engines or ships, until they made 
 them anew, they shut their gates and kept llie 
 Roman armies out for more than two years. It 
 was another Scipio, adopted grandson and name- 
 sidie of the concpieror of Hannibal, who finally 
 entered Carthage (H. C. 146), fought his way to 
 its citadel, sU-cet by street, and, against his own 
 wish, by commaiKl of the implacable senate at 
 Rome, levelled its last building to the earth, 
 after sending the iidiabitants who survived to be 
 sold as slaves. — R. 15. Smith, Cartluuje itiul the 
 C'art/iiif/iniiin/i, eh. 20. 
 
 Ai>s() in: II. G. Liddell, Hist, of lioine, ch. 40. 
 
 B. C. 44.— Restoration by Csesar.— "A set- 
 tlement named .lunoiiia, had been made at Car- 
 thage by C. Gracchus [which fiu'nished Ids 
 enemies one of their weai)ons against him, be- 
 cause, they sai<l, he had drawn on himself the 
 curse of Seipio] and it aj^ijoars that the city of 
 Gracchus still existed. Cae.sar restored the old 
 name, and, as Strabo says, rebuilt the place: 
 many Romans who preferred Carthage to Rome 
 were sent there, and some .soldiers; and it is now, 
 adds Strabo [reign of August 11.',] more pojjtdous 
 than any town in L'bya." — G. Long, Dediitcof the 
 lioiiMii liepiihUc, V. a, ch. 33. 
 
 2d'4th Centuries. — The Christian Church. 
 SeeCiiitisTiANiTy: A. I). 100-;!12. 
 
 A. D. 439.— Taken by the Vandals. — 
 Cartilage was surprised and captured by the 
 '•■ dais on the 9th of Oct., A. 1). 4;)!).— nine 
 • ,i's after the C(m(iuest and destruction of the 
 . frican provinces by Genseric began; — M^ 
 years after the ancient Carthage was destroyed 
 by Scipio. " A new city had risen from its 
 ruins, with the title of a colony; and though 
 Carthago might yield to the royal jn-erogatives 
 of Coustautiuople, and perhaps to the trade of 
 Alexandria or the splendour of Aiitioch, she still 
 
 maintained the second rank in the West — as the 
 Rome (if we may use the style of contemporaries) 
 of the African world. . . . The buildings of ('ar- 
 thage were tiniform and magiiilieent. A shady 
 grove was ])lanttHl in the midst of the capital; 
 the new port, a secure and capacious liarl)our, 
 was subservient to the commerdal industry of 
 citizens and .strangers; and the splendid games of 
 the circus and theatre were cxliibite<l almo.st in 
 the i)resence of the barbarians. Tlie reputation 
 of the Carthaginians was not ecpial to that of 
 their couritry, and the reproach of Punic faith 
 still adlu^red to their subtle and faithless chamc- 
 ter. The habits of trade and the abuse of 
 luxury had corrupted their manners. . . . The 
 King of the Vandals severely reformed the vices 
 of a voluptuous people. . . . The lands of the 
 proconsidar i)rovince, which formed the im- 
 mediate district of Carthage, were accurately 
 measured and divided among the barbarians." 
 — E. Gibbon, Derliiu and ?all of the liomiiii 
 Empive, ch. 33. — See, also, Vandai.s: A. D. 439- 
 439. 
 
 A. D. 533. — Taken by Belisarius. See 
 Vandai.s. a. I). r)33-.'")34. 
 
 A. D. 534-558.— The Province of Africa 
 after Justinian's conquest.— "Successive in- 
 roads [of the Moorish tribes] had reduced tho 
 l)rovince of Africa to one-third of the measure 
 of Italy; yet the Roman emperors ccmtinued to 
 reign above a century over Carthage and the 
 fruitful coa.st of the Mediterranean. But the 
 victories and the losses of Justinian were alike 
 pernicious to mankind ; and such was the desola- 
 tion of Africa that a stranger might wander whole 
 days rtilliout meeting the face either of a friend 
 or an enemy. The nation of the Vandals liad 
 disajjpeared. . . . Tlicir numbers were inlinitely 
 surp!is.sed by the number of the Moorish families 
 extirpated in a relentless war; and the same 
 destruction was retaliated on the Romans and 
 tlieir allies, who peri.slied by the climate, their 
 mutual (piarrels, and the rage of the barbarians. 
 When Procopius first landed [with Belisarius, 
 A. D. 1)33] he admired tho populousness of the 
 cities and country, strenuously exercised in the 
 labours of commerce and agriculture. In less 
 than twenty years that busy scene was converted 
 into a silent solitude; the wealthy citizens 
 escaped to Sicily and Constantinople; and tho 
 secret historian has confidently atlirmcd that live 
 millions of Africans were consumed l)y the wars 
 and government of the Emperor Justinian." — E. 
 Gibbon, Decline and Full of the Itomaa Empire, 
 ch. 43. 
 
 A. D. 698. — Destruction by the Arabs, — " In 
 the 77tli year of the Ilegira [A. D. 098] . . . 
 Abd'ahnalec [the Calii)li] sent llossau Ibn An- 
 no'man, at the head of 40,000 choice troops, to 
 carry out the scheme of African coiuiucst [wliicli 
 had languished for some years, during the civil 
 wars among tho Moslems]. That general pressed 
 forward at once with his troops agairst tho city 
 of Carthage, which, though deelined from its 
 ancient might and glory, was still an important 
 seaport, fortified witii lofty wails, haughty towera 
 and powerful bulwarks, and liad a numerous 
 garrison of Greeks and other Christians. Ilossan 
 proceeded accortling to tho old Arab mode ; be- 
 leaguering and reducing it by a long siege; ho 
 then as.sailed it by storm, scaled iis lofty walls 
 with ladders, ami made himself master of the 
 place. Many of the iuhabituuls fell by the edge 
 
 394 
 
CARTHAGE. 
 
 CAUTOUCHE. 
 
 of the sword ; many escnped by scp to Sicily and 
 Spain. The walls were then demolished; the 
 city \ras given up to be plundered l)y the sol- 
 diery, the meanest of whom was enriched by 
 booty. . . . The triumph of the Moslem host 
 was suddenly interrupted. While they were 
 revelling in the ravaged palaces of Carthage, a 
 fleet appeared before the port ; snapped the strong 
 chain wliicli guarded the entrance, and sailed 
 into the harbor. It was a combined force of sliips 
 and troops from Constantinople and Sicily ; re- 
 inforced by Qoths from Spain ; all >mdcr the com- 
 mand of the prefect John, a patrician general of 
 great valor and experience, llossan felt himself 
 unable to cope with such a force ; he withdrew, 
 however in good order, and conducted his troops 
 laden with spoils to Tripoli and Caerwan, and, 
 having strongly posted them, lie awaited rein- 
 forcements from the Caliph. These arrived in 
 course of time by sea and land. llossan again 
 tooli the field ; encountered the prefect John, not 
 far from Utica, defeated him in a pitched battle 
 and drove him to embark the wrecks of his army 
 and make all sail for Constantiiiople. Carthage 
 was again assailed by the victors, and now its 
 desolation was complete, for thu vengeance of 
 the Moslems gave that majestic city to the flames. 
 A heap of ruins and the remains of a noble aque- 
 duct are all the relics of a metropolis that once 
 valiantly contended for dominion with Home." 
 — W. Irving, Maliamet aiul his Successors, v. 3, 
 eh. 5i. 
 
 Also in : N. Davis, Carthage and Her Remains. 
 — See, also, Mahometan Conquest : A. D. 647- 
 
 709. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CARTHAGE, Mo., Battle of. See United 
 States of Am. : .'.. D. 1861 (July— Septemdeh : 
 Missouri). 
 
 CARTHAGENA (NEW CARTHAGE).— 
 The founding; of the city. — Hasdrubal, son-in-law 
 and successor of Hamilcar Barca in Spain , founded 
 New Carthage — modern Carthagena — some time 
 between 339 and 331 B. C. to be the capital of 
 the Carthaginian dominion in the Spanish penin- 
 sula. — U. B. Smith, Carthage and t/ie Cartlia- 
 ginians, ch. 9. 
 
 Capture by Scipio. See Punic War. The 
 Second. 
 
 Settlement of the Alans in. See Spain: 
 A. D. 409^14. 
 
 CARTHAGENA (S. Am.): A. D. 1697.— 
 Taken and sacked by the French. — One of the 
 
 last enterprises of the French in tlie war which 
 was closed by the Peace of Ryswick — under- 
 taken, in fact, while tin negotiations at Ryswick 
 were in progress — was the storming and sacking 
 of Carthagena by a privateer squadron, from 
 Brest, commanded by rear-admiral Pointis, April, 
 1697. "The inhabitants were allowed to carry 
 away their effects ; but all the gold, silver, and 
 precious stones were the prey of the conqueror. 
 Pointis . . . reentered Brest safe and sound, 
 bringing back to his ship-owners more than ten 
 millions. The oflicers of the squadron and the 
 privateers had well provided for themselves be- 
 sides, and the Spaniards had probably lost more 
 than twenty millions." — 11. Martin, Ilist. of 
 Prance: Age of Louis XIV. {tr. by M. L. Booth), 
 i>. 3, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1741. — Attack and repulse of the 
 English. See England: A. D. 1739-1741. 
 
 A. D. 1815.— Siege and capture by the 
 Spaniards. See Colomhian States: A. D. \HU\- 
 1819. 
 
 CARTHUSIAN ORDER.— La Grande 
 
 Chartreuse.— " St, Bruno, once a canon cf St. 
 Cunibert's, at Cologne, and afterward clian- 
 collor of the metropolitan church of P.heims, fol- 
 lowed by six companions, founded a monastery 
 near Grenoble, amii' the bleak and rugged 
 mountains of the ('jsert of Cliartreuse (A. D. 
 1084). The rule given by St. Bruno to his disci- 
 ples was founded upon that of St. Benedict, but 
 with such modifications as almost to make of it 
 a new and particular one. The Carthusians were 
 very nearly akin to the monks of Vallis-Unibrosa 
 and Camaldoli; they led the same kind of life — 
 the eremitical joined to the cenobitic. Each re- 
 ligious had his own cell, where he spent the week 
 in solitude, and met the commimity only on Sim- 
 day. . . . Never, perhaps, had the monastic life 
 surrounded itself with such rij' ors and holy aus- 
 terities. . . . Thereligious we, e bound to a life- 
 long silence, having reno\mced tlie world to hold 
 converse with Heaven alone. Like the solitaries 
 of Thebais they never eat meat, and tlieir dress, 
 as an additional penance, consisted only of a 
 sack-cloth garment. >Ianual labors, broken only 
 by the exercise of common prayer ; a boird on 
 the bare earth for a couch; a vn.. w cell, whero 
 the religious twice a day receives his slight 
 allowance of boiled herbs;— such is the life' of 
 pious austerities of whicli the world knows not 
 the heavenly sweetness. For 800 years has this 
 order continued to edify and to serve the Church 
 by the pmctice of the most sublime virtue ; and 
 its very rigor seems to hold out a mysterious 
 attraction to pious soids. A congregation of 
 women has embraced the primitive rule." — J. E. 
 Darras, Ilist of tin: Catlwlie Church, v. 3, ch. 4, 
 ]mr. 26, and ch. 10, par. 11. — From the account 
 of a visit to the Grande Chartreuse, the parent 
 monastery, near Grenoble, made in 1667, by 
 Dom Claude Lancelot, of Port Royal, the follow- 
 ing is taken: " All I had heard of this astonish- 
 ing seclusion falls infinitely short of the reality. 
 No adequate description can be given of tho 
 awful magnificence of this dreary solitude. . . . 
 The desert of the Chartreuse is wholly inacces- 
 sible but by one exceedingly narrow defile. This 
 pass, which is only a few feet wide, is indeed 
 truly tremendous. It winds between stupendous 
 granite rocks, which overhang above. . . . The 
 monastery itself is as striking as the approach. 
 ... On the west . . . there is a little space 
 whicli ... is occupied by a dark grove of pino 
 trees ; on every otlier side tlic rocks, whicli aro 
 as steep as so many walls, are not more than ten 
 yards from the convent. By this means a dim 
 and gloomy twilight perpetually reigns within." 
 — M. A. Schimmelpenninck, A tour to Alet and 
 La Orande Chartreuse, v. 1, ;);'• 0-13. 
 
 CARTIER, Jacques, Exploration of the St. 
 Lawrence by. — See Amekica: A. D. 1534-1535, 
 and 1541-1003. 
 
 CARTOUCHE.— "It is impossible to travel 
 in Upper Egypt without knowing what is meant 
 by a cartouche. A cartouche is that elongated 
 oval terminated by a straight line which is to be 
 seen on every wall of the Egyi)tian temples, and 
 of wliich other monuments also afford us 
 numerous examples. The cartouche always 
 contains the name of a king rr of a queen, or in 
 
 395 
 
CAUTOUCHE. 
 
 CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA. 
 
 Bomc cases the names of royal princesses. To 
 designate a king there are most frequently two 
 cartouches side hy side. The first is called the 
 pnenomen, the second thenomen." — A. Mariette, 
 Monument* of Upjier Eijypt, p. 43. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT'S POWER LOOM, The 
 invention of. .See Cotton Manufactuue. 
 
 CARUCATE. See Hide op Land. 
 
 CARUS. Roman Emperor, A. 1). 282-383. 
 
 CAS A MATA, Battle of. See Mexico: A. D. 
 1847 (Maucii— Sei'temheu). 
 
 CASALE: A. D. 1628-1631.— Siege by the 
 Imperialists. — Final acquisition by France. 
 See Italy: A. I). 1027-1031. 
 
 A. D. 1640. — Unsuccessful siege by the 
 Spaniards. See Italy: A. D. 1635-1659. 
 
 A. D. 1697.— Ceded to the Duke of Savoy. 
 See Savoy and Piedmont: A. D. 1580-1713. 
 
 CASALSECCO, Battle of (1427). See 
 Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. 
 
 CASAS, Bartolom^ de las. The humane 
 labors of. See Slaveuy: Modern — ov the 
 Indians. 
 
 CASDIM. See Baotlonia, Primitive. 
 
 CASENA, Massacre at. See Italy: A. D. 
 134:i-1393. 
 
 CASHEL, Psalter of. See Tara, The IIii.l 
 AND the Feih ok. 
 
 CASHEL, Synod of. See Ireland: A. D. 
 1169-1175. 
 
 CASHMERE: A. D. 1819-1820.— Conquest 
 by Runjet Singh. See Sikhs. 
 
 A. D. 1846.— Taken from the Sikhs by '^'•e 
 English and given as a kingdom to Gholab 
 Singh. See India: A. D. 1845-1849. 
 *■ ■ 
 
 CASIMIR I., King of Poland, A. D. 1037- 
 
 1058 Casimir II., Duke of Poland, A. D. 
 
 1177-1194 Casimir III. (called The Great), 
 
 King of Poland, A. D. 1333-1370 Casimir 
 
 IV., King of Poland, A. D. 1445-1493 
 
 Casimir, John, King of Poland, A. P. 1648- 
 1668. 
 
 CASKET GIRLS, The. See Louisiana: 
 A. D. 1728. 
 
 CASKET LETTERS, The. SeeScoTLANU: 
 A. D. 1561-1568. 
 
 CASPIAN GATES (PYLiE CASPIiE).— 
 An important pass in the Elburz Mountains, so 
 called by the Greeks. It is identifled with the 
 pass known to the modern Persians as the Girduni 
 Surdurrah, some fifty miles or more eastward, 
 or northeivstward, from Teheran. "Through 
 this pass alone can armies proceed from Armenia, 
 Media, or Persia eastward, or from Turkestan, 
 Khorasnn and Afghanistan into the more western 
 parts of Asia. Tlie position is therefore one of 
 primary importance. It was to guard it that 
 llhages was built so near to the eastern end of its 
 territxiry. " — G. Kawlinson, Sixth Oreat Oriental 
 Monarchy, eh. 4. 
 
 Also in: Same, Mm Great Monarchies: Media, 
 ch. 1. 
 
 CASSANDER, und the wars of the Dia- 
 dochi. See Macedonia: B. C. 323-316 to 297-280; 
 also Greece: B. U. 321-312. 
 
 CASSANO, Battles of (1705 and 1799). See 
 Italy: A. D. 1701-1713, and France: A. D. 1799 
 (April — Septemiieu). 
 
 CASSEL: a. D. 1383.— Burned by the 
 French. See Flanubiw: A. D. 1383. 
 
 CASSEL, Battles of (1338 and 1677). See 
 Flanders; A. D. 1328, and Netherlands (Hol- 
 land): A. I). 1674-1678. 
 
 CASSIAN ROAD.— One of the great Roman 
 roads of antiquity, which ran from Rome, by 
 way of Sutrium and Clusium to Arretium and 
 Florentia. — T. Jlommseii, llist. of Rome, bk. 4, 
 ch. 11. 
 
 CASSII, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons 
 whose territory was near the Thames. See Bri- 
 tain, (;eltio1''uiiies. 
 
 CASSITERIDES, The.— The " tin islands," 
 from which the Pha>nicians and Cartliaginians 
 obtained their supply of tin. Sonio arcliajologists 
 identify them with the British islaiids, some with 
 the Scilly islands, and some with the islanr' 4 in 
 Vigo Bay, on the coast of Spain. — Charles Elton, 
 Origins of Eiig, Hist. 
 
 Also in; .1. Rhys, Celtic Britain. 
 
 CASSOPIANS. See Epirus. 
 
 CASTALIAN spring.— a spring which 
 issued from between two peaks or cliffs of Mount 
 Parnassus and flowed downward in a cool stream 
 pa.st the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 
 
 CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA, The.— 
 " Tlie caste system of India is not based upou an 
 exclusive descent as involving u difference of rank 
 and culture, but upon an exclusive descent as In- 
 volving purity of blood. In the old materialistic 
 religion which prevailed so largely in the ancient 
 world, and was closely associated with sexual 
 ideas, the maintenance of purity of blood was. 
 regarded as a sacred duty. The "individual had 
 no existence independent of the family. Male 
 or female, the individual was but a link in the 
 life of the family ; and any intermixture would 
 be followed by the separation of the impure 
 branch from the parent stem. In a word, caste 
 was the religion of the sexes, and as such exists 
 in India to this day. . . . The Hindus are di- 
 vided Into an infinite number of castes, accord- 
 ing to their hereditary trades and professions ; 
 but in the present day they are nearly all com- 
 prehended in four great castes, namely, the 
 Brahmans, or priests ; tlie Kshatriyas, or soldiers ; 
 the Vaisyus, or merchants ; and the Sudras, or 
 servile class. The Brahmans are the mouth of 
 Brahma ; the Kshatriyas are his arms ; the Vaisyas 
 are hi? thighs ; and the Sudras are his feet. The 
 three first castes of priests, soldiers, and mer- 
 chants, are distinguished from the fourth caste 
 of Sudras by the thread, or paita, which is worn 
 depending from the left shoulder and resting on 
 the right side below the loins. The investiture 
 usually takes place between the eighth and 
 twelfth year,and is known as the second birth, and 
 those who are invested are termed the ' twice 
 born. ' It is difilcult to say whether the thread in- 
 dicates a separation between the conquerors and 
 the conquered ; or whether it originated in a re- 
 ligious investiture from which the Sudras were 
 excluded."— J. T. Wheeler, Hist, of India, v. 3, 
 jip. 114 and 64. — " Among the delusions about 
 modern India which itsecms impossible to kill, the 
 belief still surviveo that, although there have 
 been many changes in the system of caste, it re- 
 mains true that the Hindu population is divided 
 into the four grcaf, classes described by Manu ; 
 Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. In 
 India itself this notion is fostered by the more 
 learned among the Brahmans, who love to make 
 themselves and others believe in the continuous 
 existcucu of a diviuely constituted organization. 
 
 396, 
 
CASTE SYSTEM OP INDIA. 
 
 CASTLE ST. ANGELO. 
 
 To whiit extent the religious nnil sociiil systems 
 slindowed fortl: in tlic ancient liraluniiniciil litera- 
 ture had nn aetuai -ixistencc it is dillicult to say, 
 but it is certain tliat little n-iiiains of tlieni now. 
 The Bn\hnians maintain their exceptional posi- 
 tion; but noonecan discern theo .er great castes 
 which Manu descrilKjd. Excluding the lirali- 
 mans, caste means for the most i)ail hereditary 
 occupation, but it also often signifies a common 
 oi.ginof tribe or race. India, in the words of 
 Sir Henry Maine, is divided into a vast number 
 of independent, self-acting, organised social 
 groups — trading, manufacturing, cultivatinjj. 
 ' In the enormous majority of instances, caste is 
 only the name for a ui\mbcr of practices wliicli 
 are followed by each om; of a midtitude of groups 
 of men, wlielher such a group be ancient ami 
 natural or mo<lern and artificial. As a rule, every 
 tiiide, every profession, every guild, every tribe, 
 every class, is also a caste ; and the members of 
 a caste not only have their special objects of 
 worship, selected from the Hindu Pantheon, or 
 adopted into it, but they exclusively eat togctlier, 
 and exclusively intermarry.' ^Ir. Kitts, in his 
 interesting ' Compendium of the Castes and Tribes 
 of India,' compiled from the Indian Census re - 
 
 })orts of 1881, enumerates 1039 dilferent castes. 
 *"orty-8even of these have each more than 1,000,- 
 000 members; twenty-one have 3,000,000 and uj)- 
 wards. The Bralimans, K\nibis (agriculturists), 
 and Chumars (workers in leather), are the only 
 three castes each of which has more than 10,- 
 000,000; nearly 15 perceiit. of the inhabitants of 
 India arc included in these three castes. Tlie 
 distinctions and subdivisions of caste are in- 
 numerable, and even the Brahmans, wlio have 
 this in common, tliat they arc reverenced by the 
 members of all other castes, are as much divided 
 among themselves as the rest. There are nearly 
 14,000,000 Brahmans; accor^ling to Mr. Sherring, 
 in his work on ' Hindu Tribes and Castes,' there 
 are more than 1,800 Brahmanical subdivisions; 
 and it constantly happens that to a Brahman of 
 some particular class or district tlie pollution of 
 eating with other Brsilimans would be ruinous. 
 . . . The Brahmans have become so numerous 
 that only a small proportion can be employed in 
 sacerdotal functions, and the charity which it is 
 a duty to bestow upon them could not, however 
 profuse, be sutllcient for their support. Tliey 
 are found in almost every occupation. They are 
 soldiers, cultivators, traders, and servants; they 
 were very numerous in the old Sepoy army, and 
 the name of one of their subdivisions, 'Pande,' 
 became the generic term by which the mutineer 
 of 1857 were commonly known by the English 
 in India. . . . Mr. Ibbetson, in his report on the 
 census In the Punjab, shows liow completely it 
 is true that caste is a social and not a religious 
 institution. Conversion to Alohammednnism, for 
 instance, does not necessarily affect the caste of 
 the convert. " — Sir J. Strachey, India, led. 8. 
 
 Also in : JI. Williams, Rcligiou* Thought and 
 Life in India, eh. 18. — Sir A. C. Lyall, Asiatic 
 StudifK, ch. 7. — Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communi- 
 tien, eh. 2. 
 
 CASTEL. See Mogontiacu.m. 
 
 CASTELAR AND REPUBLICANISM 
 IN SPAIN. See Spain: A. D. 1800-1873, and 
 1873-1885. 
 
 CASTELFIDARDO, BatMe of (i860). See 
 Italy: A. I). 1859-1861. 
 
 CASTELLANO. See Spanish Coins. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. See France: 
 A. I). 17!))) (ApKir. — OcTonKu). 
 
 CASTILE, Early inhabitants of. Sec 
 Ckltidkiiianh. 
 
 A. D. 713-1230.— Origin and rise of the 
 kingdom. See Spaln: A. 1). 713-737, and 1020- 
 1230. 
 
 A. D. 1 140.— Separation of Portugal as an 
 independent kingdom. See I'oien-oAi,: A. I). 
 1095-1325. 
 
 A. D. 1169.— The first Cortes.— The old 
 monarchical constitution. See C'outks. 
 
 A. D. 1212-1238.— Progress of arms.— Per- 
 manent union of the crown with that of Leon. 
 — Conquest of Cordova. — Vassalage impos<>d 
 on Granada and Murcia. See Spain; A. (). 
 1212-1238. 
 
 A. D. 1248-1350.— Reigns of St. Ferdinand, 
 Alfonso the Learned, and their three succes- 
 sors. See Spain: A. 1). 1248-1350. 
 
 A. D. 1366-1360^— Pedro the Cruel and the 
 invasion of the English Black Prince. See 
 Spain (Castii.e:): A. 1). 1360 1309. 
 
 A. D. 1368-1476.- Under the house of Tras- 
 tamare.- Discord and civil war. — The triumph 
 of Queen Isabella ^nd her mar.iage to Ferdi- 
 nand of Aragon. See Spain: A. 1). 1^08-1479. 
 
 A. D. 1515. — Incorporation of Navarre with 
 the kingdom. See Navauuk: A. I). 1443-1521. 
 
 A. D. 1516.— The crown united with that of 
 Aragon, by Joanna, mother of Charles V. See 
 Spain: A. I>. 1496-1517. 
 
 CASTILLA DEL ORG. Sec Ameuica: 
 A. D. 1.509-1511. 
 
 CASTILLON, Battle of (1450). See Fhance: 
 A. D. 1431-1453. 
 
 CASTLE ST. ANGELO.— The Mausoleum 
 of Hadrian, begun by the emperor Hadrian, A. I). 
 135, and probably completed by Antoninus Pius, 
 "owes its preservation entirely to the peculiar 
 litne.ss of its site and shape for tlie purposes of 
 a fortress, which it has served since the time of 
 Belisarius. . . . After the burial of Marcus 
 Aurelius, the tomb was closed until the sack of 
 Rome by Alaric in 410 A. D., when his barba- 
 rian soldiers probably broke it open in searcli of 
 treasure, and scattered theashesof the Antonines 
 to the winds. From this time, for a hundred 
 years, the tomb was turned into a fortress, the 
 possession of which became the object of many 
 struggles in the wars of the Goths under Vitiges 
 (537 A. D.) and Totilas (killed 553). From the 
 end of the sixth century, when Gregory the 
 Great saw on its sun.mit a vision of St. Michael 
 sheathing his sword, in token tliat the prayers 
 of the Romans for preservation from the jilague 
 were heard, the Mausoleum of Hadrian was 
 considered as a consecrated building, under the 
 name of 'S. Angelus inter Nubes,' 'Usque ad 
 Ccelos.'or 'Inter Ca'los,' until it was seized in 
 023 A. D. by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the 
 infamous JIarozia, and again became the scone 
 of the fierce struggles between Popes, Emperors, 
 and reckless adventurers which marked those 
 miserable times. Tlic last injuries appear to have 
 been infl-xtcd upon the building in the contest 
 between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the 
 Italian Pope Urban VIII. [see Papacy: A. D. 
 1377-1417]. The exterior was then finally dis- 
 mantled and stripped. Partial additions and resto- 
 rations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., 
 in the beginning of the fifteenth century, erected 
 
 397 
 
CASTLE ST. ANGELO. 
 
 CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. 
 
 new bfttUcments and fortifications on and around 
 the building; and .since his time it has remained 
 In the ])()s.session of the Papal go /eminent. Tlie 
 strange niedlcv of Papal reception rooms, dun- 
 geons and nulitary magazines wliieli now en- 
 cunihers llie top, was chiefly huilt by Paid 111. 
 The corridor connecting it with the Vatican 
 dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (1494 
 A. I).), and the bronze statu(' of St. Michael on 
 the summit, whidi replaced an older marlile 
 statue, from the reign of Benedict XIV." — K. 
 Burn, llitiitf (iiid the Vmnjxit/nii, ch. 11. 
 
 Al.so in: W. W. Story, dnntlc St. Aiii/elo. 
 
 C ASTLEN AUDARI, Battle of (1632). See 
 Fuanck: a. I). lf.;!0-lfi:!2. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH, Lord, and the union of 
 Ireland with Great Britain. Sec Ikei.and: 
 A. I). 170H-1H0O. 
 
 CASTOR WARE.— " Durobrivian or Castor 
 ware, as it is variously called, is the pnxluetion 
 of the extensive Homano-British potteries on the 
 River Nen in Northamptoiisliire and Hunting- 
 donshire, wliicb, with settlements, arc computed 
 to have covered a district of some twenty sipiarc 
 miles in extent. . . . There are several varieiiis 
 . . . and two especially have been reniarl<ed; 
 the first, blue, or slate-coloured, the otlier 
 reddish-brown, or of a dark copper colour." — L. 
 •Tewett, Gtutve Mounds, 2> 1'')3. 
 
 CASTRA, Roman. — '" When a Roman army 
 was in tlie field it never halted, even for a single 
 night, without throwing up an entrenchment 
 capable of containing tlie wliolc of the troops 
 and their baggage. Tliis field- worli was tcrniL'd 
 Castra. . . . The form of the camp was a square, 
 each side of which was 2,017 Roman feet in 
 length. Tlic defences consisted of a ditch, 
 (fossa,) the earth dug out, being thrown inwards 
 so as to form a rampart, (agger,) upon the sum- 
 mit of which a palisade (vallum) was erected of 
 wooden stakes, (valli — sudes,) a certain number 
 of wliich were carried by each soldier, along witli 
 his entrenching tools." — W. Ramsay, Manual of 
 lioirmii Aiitiq., rh. 13. 
 
 CASTRICUM, Battle of. Sec Fuanck: 
 A. D. 1799 (Septkmiiku — OcTonKii). 
 
 CASTRIOTS, The. See Ai.hani.'VNS: A. D. 
 1443-14B7. 
 
 CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, The des- 
 potism of. See Italy: A. D. i;!i;i-i;330. 
 
 CAT NATION, The. See Amkkican Aiio- 
 nioiNKs: IIuKONS, &c., and Iiioquois Con- 
 fedeuacv: Tiikik Conquests, &c. 
 
 CATACOMBS OF ROME, The.— "The 
 Roman Catacomlis — a name con.secrated bj lung 
 usage, but having no etymological meaning, and 
 not a very determinate geograpliical one — are a 
 vast labyrinth of galleries excavated in the 
 bowels of the earth in the hills around the 
 Eternal City; not in the hills <m wliich the city 
 itself was built, but in tliose beyond the walls. 
 Their extent is enormous, not as to the amount 
 of superficial soil which they underlie, for they 
 rarely, if ever, pass beyond the third milestone 
 from tlie city, but in the actual lengtli of their 
 galleries; for tlie.se are often excavated on 
 various levels, or piani, three, four, or even five, 
 one above the other, and they cross and reeross 
 one another, some times at sliort intervals, on 
 each of these levels; so that, on the whole, there 
 arc certainly not less that 350 miles of them; 
 that is to say, if stretched out in one continuous 
 Une, they would extend the whole length of Italy 
 
 itself. The galleries are from two to four feet 
 in width, and vary in height acconliiig to the 
 nature of the rock in whicli they are dug. The 
 walls on both sides are pierced with horizontal 
 niches, like slielves in a book-ca.se, or bertlis in a 
 steamer, and every niche once contained one or 
 more dead bodies. At various intervals this 
 succes.sion of shelves is interrupted for a moment, 
 that room may be made for a doorway opening 
 into a small chamber; and the walls of these 
 chambers are generally pierced with graves in 
 the same way as tlu! galleries. These vast ex- 
 cavati<ms once formed the ancient Cliristian 
 cemeteries of Rome; they were begun in 
 apostolic times, and contii.'ied to be used as 
 burial-places of the faithful until the capture of 
 the city by Alaric in the year 410. In the third 
 century, the Roman Cliurch numbered twenty- 
 five or twenty-six of them, corresponding to tno 
 number of her titles or parishes within tlie city; 
 and besides thes<;, there are about twenty others, 
 of smaller dimensions, isolated monuments of 
 special martyrs, or belonging to this or that 
 private family. Originally tliey all belonged to 
 private families or individuals, the villas or 
 gardens In which they were dug being the 
 property of wealthy citizens who had embraced 
 the faith of Christ, and devoted of their substance 
 to His service. Hence their most ancient titles 
 were taken merely from tlie names of their law- 
 ful ownei-s, many of which still survive. . . . 
 It has always been agreed among men of learn- 
 ing who have had an opportunity of examining 
 these excavations, that tliey were used exclusively 
 by the Christians as places of burial and of holti- 
 ing religious assemblies. Modern research has 
 placed it beyond a doubt, that they were also 
 originally designed for this purpose and for no 
 other." — J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, 
 Roma Sotterranen, bk. 1, ch. 1. 
 
 A1.8O IN: A. P. Stanley, Chvintinii Inntitntions, 
 ch. 13. 
 
 CATALAN GRAND COMPANY, The.— 
 The Catalan Grand Company was a formidable 
 body of militjiry adventurers — mercenary sol- 
 diers — formed in Sicily during the twenty years 
 of war that followed the Sicilian Vespers. 
 " High pay and great license drew the best 
 sinews in Catalonia and Aragon into tlie mercen- 
 ary battalions of Sicily and induced tliem to 
 s'lbniit to the severest discipline." The con- 
 clusion of peace in 1302 threw this trained army 
 out of employment, and the greater part of its 
 members were enlisted in tlie service of Androni- 
 cusll., of the restored Greek empire at Constanti- 
 nople. They were under the command of one 
 Roger de Flor, who had been a Templar, de- 
 graded from his knighthood for desertion, and 
 afterwards a pirate; but wliose military talents 
 were undoubted. The Grand Company soon 
 quarrelled with the Greek emperor; its leader 
 was assassinated, and open war declared. The 
 Greeli army was terribly defeated in a battle at 
 Apros, A. I). 1307, and tlie Catalans plundered 
 Thrace for two years without resistance. Galll- 
 poli, tlieir headquarters, to which they brought 
 their captives, became one of tlic great slave 
 marts of Europe. In 1310 they marched into 
 the heart of Greece, and were engaged in the 
 service of Walter de Brienno, Duke of Athens. 
 He, too, found them dangerous servants. 
 Quarrels were followed by war; the Duke 
 perished in a battle (A. D. 1311) with his Catalan 
 
 398 
 
CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. 
 
 CATHOLICS. 
 
 mercenaries on the banks of the Cephissus; his 
 dukedom, embrncing Attica and Bojotia, was tlie 
 prize of their victory. The widows and daugli- 
 ters of the Greek nobles wlio liad fallen were 
 forced to marry the officers of the Catalans, who 
 thus settled themselves in family as well us 
 estate. They elected a Duke of Athens; but 
 proceeded afterwards to make the duchy au 
 appanage of the House of Aragon. The title 
 was held by sons of the Aragonese kings of 
 Sicily until 1377, when it passed to Alphonso V., 
 king of Aragon, and was retained by the kings 
 of Spain after the union of the crowns of 
 Aragon and Castile. The titular dukes were 
 represented at Athens by regents. " During the 
 period the duchy of Athens was possessed by 
 the Sicilian branch of the house of Aragon, the 
 Catalans were incessantly engaged in wars with 
 all their neighbours." But, gradually, their 
 military vigor and discipline were lost, and their 
 name and power in Greece disappeared obout 
 1388, when Athens and most of the territory of 
 its duchy was conquered by Nero Acciainoli, a 
 rich and powerful Florentine, who had become 
 governor of Corinth, but acted as an independent 
 prince, ond who founded a new ducal family. — 
 G. Finlay, IIi»t. of the Byzantine and Greek 
 Empires, bk. 4, ch. 2, sect. 3. 
 
 Also in : Same, Uist. of Greece from its Comj. 
 by the Crusaders, ch. 7, sec. 3. — E. Gfibbon, Decline 
 and Fall of Die Roman Empire, eh. 63. 
 
 CATALANS: A. D. 1151— The County of 
 Barcelona united by marriage to Aragon. 
 See Spain : A. D. 1035-1258. 
 
 A. D. I2th-i5th Centuries. — Commercial 
 importance and municipal freedom of Barce- 
 lona. See Barcelona: 13th-10th Centuuiks. 
 
 A. D. 1461-1473. — Lon^ but unsuccessful 
 revolt against Jonn IL of 
 A. D. 1368-1479. 
 
 ■ Aragon. See Sp.\in : 
 
 A. D. 1630-1640. — Causes of disaffection 
 and revolt. See Spain: A. D. 1637-1640. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1652. — Revolt.— Renunciation of 
 allegiance to the Spanish crown. — Annexation 
 to France offered and accepted. — Re-subjec- 
 tion to Spain. See Spain: A. D. 1640-1043; 
 1644-1646; 1648-1653. 
 
 A. D. 1705.— Adhesion to the Allies in the 
 War of the Spanish Succession. See Sp.\in : 
 A. D. 1705. 
 
 A. D. 1713-1714. — Betrayed and deserted by 
 the Allies. See Spain: A. D. 1713-1714. 
 
 CATALAUNIAN PLAINS. See Huns: 
 A. D. 451. 
 
 CATALONIA. See Catalans. 
 
 CATANA, OR KATANA, Battle of. See 
 Syisacuse: B. C. 397-390. 
 
 CATANIA. — Storming and capture by 
 King Ferdinand (1849). See Italy: A. D. 
 1848-1849. 
 
 CATAPAN. See Italy (SotrrnERN): A. 1). 
 800-1016. 
 
 CATAWBAS, The. See American Abo- 
 KioiNKs: Siouan Family. 
 
 CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, Treaty of. See 
 France: A. D. 1547-1559. 
 
 CATERANS.— "In 1384 an act was passed 
 [by the Scotch parliament] for the suppression of 
 masterful plundered, who get in the statute their 
 Highland name of 'catenm.'. . . This is the 
 first of a long succession of penal and denuncia- 
 
 tory laws against the Highlanders." — .1. H. Bur- 
 ton, Hist, of Scotland, v. 3, eh. 37. 
 
 catharists, or PATARENES.— 
 
 "Among all the sects of the Middle Ages, very 
 far the most importiint in numbers and in radical 
 antagonism to the Church, were the Cathari, or 
 the Pure, as with characteristic sc<:tarian 
 a.ssumption they styled themselves. Albigenses 
 they were called in Languedoc; Patareiies in 
 North Italy ; Good Men by themselves. Stretch- 
 ing through central Europe to Thrace and 
 Bulgaria, they joined hands with the Paulicians 
 of the East and shared their errors. Whether 
 these Cathari stootl in lineal historical descent 
 from the old Manichicaiis, or hiul generated a 
 dualistic scheme of their own, is a ({uestioii hard 
 to answer, and which has been answered in very 
 different ways. This much, however, is certain, 
 that in all essentials they agreed with tliem." — 
 U. C. Trench, Lects. on Mediieval Church Hist., 
 leet. 15. — "In Italy, men supposed to hold the 
 same belief [as that of the Paulicians, Albigenses, 
 etc.] went by the name of the Pateriui, a word of 
 uncertain derivation, perhaps arising from their 
 willingness meekly to submit to all sufferings 
 for Christ's sake (pati), perhaps from a quarter 
 in the city of Jlilan named ' Pataria ' ; and more 
 lately by that ol Catiiari (tlie Pure, Puritans), 
 which was soon corrupted into Gazari, whence 
 the German ' Ketzer, ' the general word for a 
 heretic." — L. Mariotti, Pra Doleitu) and hit 
 Times, ch. 1. — See, also, Paulicians, and Albi- 
 genses. 
 CATHAY. See China: Tiik Names of thk 
 
 Coi'.NTKV. 
 
 CATHELINEAU and, THE INSUR- 
 RECTION IN LA VENDEE. See France: 
 A. D. 1793 (March — April); (June); and (July 
 
 — ~"D K C F MBE R^ 
 
 CATHERINE I., Czarina of Russia, A. D. 
 1735-1737 Catherine II., Czarina of Rus- 
 sia, A. D. 1763-1796 Catherine and Jean 
 
 d'Albret, Queen and King of Navarre, A. D. 
 
 1503-1513 Catherine de Medici : her part 
 
 in French history. See France: A. D. 1533- 
 1547, to 1584-1589. 
 
 CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION AND THE 
 CATHOLIC RENT IN IRELAND. See 
 IREL.VND: A. D. 1811-1839. 
 
 CATHOLIC DEFENDERS. See Ireland: 
 A. I). 1760-1798. 
 
 CATHOLIC LEAGUE, The. See Papacy: 
 A. D. 1530-1531. 
 
 CATHOLIC LEAGUE IN FRANCE, 
 The. See France: A. I). 1576-1.585 and after. 
 
 CATHOLICS (England): A. D. 1572-1679. 
 — Persecutions. See En(!L.vni); A. U. 157^ 
 1603; 1585-1587; 1.587-1588; 1678-1679. 
 
 (Ireland) : A. D. 1691-1782.— Oppression of 
 the Penal Laws. See Irelakd: A. 1). 1691- 
 1782. 
 
 (England): A. D. 1778-1780.— Repeal of 
 Penal laws.— No-Popery Riots. See Eng- 
 land: A. U, 1778-1780. 
 
 (Ireland) : A. D. 1795-1796.— Persecution by 
 Protestant mobs.— Formation of the Orange 
 Society. See Irei..\.nu; A. 1). 1795-1796. 
 
 (Ireland) : A. D. 1801. — Pitt's promises 
 broken by the King. See Enoland: \. \). 
 1801-1806. 
 
 (England and Ireland): A. D. 1829.— Eman- 
 cipation from civil disabilities. See Ioeland: 
 A. D. 1811-1839. 
 
 399 
 
CATHOLICS. 
 
 CAUCASUS AND THE CniCAS8IAN8. 
 
 CATHOLICS, Old. Sec Papact: A. D. 
 
 18««-1H7(). 
 
 CATILINE, The Conspiracy of. See Rome: 
 B. ('. «:). 
 
 CATINI, The. See Huitain, Cki.tk' Tiiiiiks. 
 
 CATO THE YOUNGER, and the last 
 ▼ears of the Roman Republic. See Rome: 
 IJ. ('. 03-r)H, ti) 47-4(1. 
 
 CATO STREET CONSPIRACY, The. 
 Sec Kn(ii,.\ni>: \. I). 1H30-18:37. 
 
 CATRAIL, The. — An anciont ninipart. the 
 reiniiins of wliieli are found in southern Heot- 
 hinil, runninjj from the south-east corner of 
 PcebleKiiliire to the south slilo <>f Lulilesdnle. It 
 is supposed to have marked the boundary 
 between the old Anglian kingdom of Bernicia 
 and the territory of the British kings of Alcluith 
 (Dumbarton).—" W. F. Skene, CelticSoithiiid.v. 1. 
 
 CATTANI.— VASSALL— MASNADA.— 
 SERVI.— The feiidal barons of northern Italy 
 were called t'attani. In the Florentine territory, 
 "many of these Cattani, after having be^n sub- 
 dued and made citizens of Florence, still main- 
 tained tlieir feudal following, and weie usually 
 attended by troops of retainers, half slaves, linff 
 freedmen, called 'Uomini di Masnada,' whohchl 
 certain possessions of them by the tenure of 
 military service, took oaths of fidelity, and 
 appear to have included every rank of person in 
 the different Italian states according to the 
 quality of the chief; but without any degrada- 
 tion of character being attached to such employ- 
 ment. This kind of servitude, which could not 
 be thrown off without a formal act of manumis- 
 sion, was common in the north of Italy, and 
 began in the 11th century, when innumerable 
 chieftains started up owning no superior but the 
 emperor. Being at constant war with each other 
 they sought every means of creating a military 
 foUowin'j by granting lands to all ranks of 
 people, and it is probable that many slaves 
 were tnen partly emancipated for the purpose: 
 such a condition, though not considered dis- 
 honourable, was thus essentially tinged wit': the 
 colours of slavery, and so far differed from tie 
 ' Vassi 'and ' Vassali,' as well as from the 'Vava- 
 sours.' . . . Some slight, perhaps unnecessary 
 distinction is made between the 'Vassi,' who are 
 supposed to have been vassals of the crown, and 
 the 'Vassali,' who were the vassals of great 
 lords. The ' Vavasours ' were the vassals of 
 great vassals. . . . This union [as described 
 above] of ' Servi,' slaves, or vassals of one chief, 
 was called ' Masnada,' and hence the name ' Mas- 
 nadieri,' so often recurring in early Italian his- 
 tory; for the commanders of these irregular 
 bands were often retained in the pay of the 
 republic and frequently kept the field when the 
 civic troops had returned to their homes, or when 
 the war was not sufficiently important to bring 
 the latter out with the Can-occio. . . . Besides 
 these military Villains, who were also called 
 'Fedoli,' there were two other kinds of slaves 
 amongst the early Italians, namely prisoners of 
 war and the labourers attached to the soil, who 
 were considered as cattle in every respect except 
 that of their superior utility and value: the 
 former species of slavery was probably soon dis- 
 solved by the union of self-interest and human- 
 ity: the latter began to decline in the 12th cen- 
 tury, partly continued through the 13th, and 
 vanished entirely in the I'Mi centur''." — H. E. 
 Napier, Florentine HUtorij, o. 1, p. 634 
 
 CATTI, The. See Ciiatti. 
 CATUVELLANI, The. S.e BniTAiN, Cei,- 
 
 CAUCASUS AND THE CIRCASSIANS. 
 — The Russian conquest. — "The Caucasus ha.s 
 always po.s,ses.sed a certain fas<ination not for 
 the Russians only, but also for western nations, 
 and is pecidiarfy rich in historical traditions, 
 and in memories of ancient times and ancient 
 nations. Here to the rocks of Elbruz, Prome- 
 the 8 lay chained; and to Colchis, wliere the 
 Phasis flowed towards the sea, through ever 
 green woods, came the Argonaut.s. The present 
 Kutais is the old capital of King .Eetes, near 
 which, in the sacred grove of Ares, hung the 
 golden fleece. The gold mines which tlie Rus- 
 sians discovered in 1804 were apparently known 
 to the Greeks, who.se <!olony, Dioscurias, was 
 an a.s.semblage of .'iOO diverse nationalities. . . . 
 Here on the coasts of the stormy and dangerous 
 Black Sea arose the famous Pontine kingdom [seo 
 MiTiiiiiiUTic Wahs] which in .spite of its valiant 
 resistance under Mithridates. fell a victim to 
 Roman aggression. Along the rivers Kura and 
 Rion ran the old commercial road from Europe to 
 Asia, which enriched the Venetians and the 
 Genoese in the middle ages. Up to recent times 
 this trade consisted not only of all sorts of other 
 merchandise, but of slaves; numberless girls and 
 women were conveyed to Turkish harems i.nd 
 there exercised an important inlluence on the 
 character of the Tartar and Jlongol races. In 
 the middle ages the Caucasus was the route by 
 which the wild Asiatic hordes, the Goths, 
 Khasars, Huns, Avars, Mongols, Tartars, and 
 Arabs cro.ssed from Asia into Europe ; and con- 
 sequently its secluded valleys contain a popula- 
 tion composed of more different and distinct 
 races than any other district in the world. . . . 
 It was in the 16th century, under Ivan the Ter- 
 rible, that Russia first turned her attention to 
 the conquest of the Caucasus; but it was not 
 till 1859 that the defeat and capture of the 
 famous Schamyl brought about the final subju- 
 gation of the country. ... In 1785 [after the 
 partial conquest of 1784 — see Turks: A. D. 
 1776-1792] the mountaineers had been incited to 
 take arms by a so-called prophet Scheick Man- 
 sur, but he was seized and banished to Solovetsk, 
 on the White Sea. In 1820 a MoUah, Kasi by 
 name, made his appearance in Daghestan, and 
 began to preach the ' Kasawat,' that is, holy war 
 against the Russians. To him succeeded another 
 equally fanatical adventurer, Hamset Beg. The 
 work which they had begun was carried on by 
 Schamyl, who far surpassed his predecessors in 
 all the qualities which make up a successful 
 guerilla chief, and who maintained the unequal 
 conflict against the en6:r>'es of his country for 35 
 years with singular good fortune, undaunted 
 courage, untinng . energy, and conspicuous 
 ability. He was of the tribe of tlie Lesgliians in 
 Daghestan, and was bom in 1796, in the village 
 of Gimri, of poor shepherd parents. In spite of 
 his humble origin he raised himself to the rank 
 of an Imaum, surrounded himself with a strong 
 body-guard of devoted adherents, whom he 
 named Murides, and succeeded in fanning to a 
 flame the patriotic ardour of his fellow-country- 
 men. The capture of the mountain fastness of 
 Achulgo in 1839 seemed to be the death-blow of 
 Schamyl's cause, for it brought about the loss of 
 the whole of Daghestan, the very focus of the 
 
 400 
 
CAUCASUS AND THE CIRCASSIANS. 
 
 CECROPIA 
 
 Muridcs' activity. Srhamyl barely cscapfid 
 beiaij madi! u prisoner, ami was forceci to yield 
 up ills son, Djammel-ICddeii, only nine years of 
 ago as a hostage. The boy was sent to St. 
 Petersburg and placed in a cadet corps, which 
 he left at the conclusion of his military educa- 
 tion somewhere about 18.50 and returned to his 
 native countrv in 1854 where he <lied a few 
 years later. In 1840 the Tchetcliens, who had 
 jjrt^viously been pacified, rose in arms once more, 
 and Daghestan and other Jj)i»rts of the country 
 followed their example. The country of the 
 Tchetchens was a specially favourable theatri! 
 for the conflict witli the Russians; its long 
 mountain chains, rocky fastnesses, impenetrable 
 forests, and wild precipices and gorges rendered 
 ambusciules and surprises of constant and, to 
 the Russians, fatal occurrence. During the 
 earlier stages of the war, Russia liad ransomed 
 the officers taken prisoners by tlie mountaineers, 
 but, subsequently, no ([uarter was given on 
 either side. At last, by means of a great cou- 
 wjntration of tnwps on all the threatened points, 
 by fortifying the chief central stations, and by 
 forming broad military roads tliroughout the 
 district, tiie Russians succeeded in breaking 
 down Scliamvl's resistance. He now suffered 
 one reverse after another. His chief fastnesses, 
 Dargo, Weden, and Guni, were successively 
 stormed and destroyed; and, finally, he himself 
 and his family were taken prisoners. He was 
 astonished and, it is said, not altogether grati- 
 fied to find that a violent death was not to close 
 his romantic career. Ho and his familv were at 
 first interned at Kaluga in Ru.ssia, both a house 
 and a considerable sum of money for his mainte- 
 nance being assigned to him. But after a few 
 years he was allowed to remove to Mecca, where 
 he died. His sons and grandsons, who have en- 
 tirely adopted the manners of the Russians, are 
 oflScers in the Circassian guard. In 1864 the 
 pacification of the whole country was accom- 
 plished, and a few years later the abolition of 
 serfdom was proclaimed at Tiflis. After the sub- 
 jugation of the various mountain tribes, the 
 Circassians liad the choice given them by the 
 QovemmcDt of settling on tlie low country along 
 the Kuban, or of emigrating to Turkey. The 
 latter course was chosen by the bulk of tlu 
 nation, urged, thereto, in great measure, by en- 
 '• ys from Turkey. As many as 400,000 are said 
 u have come to the ports, where the Sultan had 
 promised to send vessels to receive tlicm; but 
 delays took place, and a Irrge number diid of 
 want and disease. Those \vlio reached Turkey 
 were settled on the west coasts of the Black Sea, 
 in Bulgaria and near Varna, and proved them- 
 selves most troublesome and unruly subjects. 
 Most of tlione who at first remained m Circassia 
 followed their fellow-countrymen in 1874." — 
 H. M. Chester, Rusna, ch. 18. 
 
 Also in; F. Mayne, Life of Nietiolas I., pt. 1, 
 eh. 11 and 14. — S. M. Schmucker, Life and Reign 
 of Nicholas L, ch. 21. 
 
 CAUCAPUS.The Indian.— "The real Cauca- 
 sus was the inost lofty range of mountains known 
 to the Greeks before [Alexander's conquests], 
 and they were generally regarded as the highest 
 mountams in the world. Hence when the army 
 of Alexander came in sight of the vast mountain 
 barrier [of the Hindoo Koosh] that rose before 
 them as they advanced northward from Aracho- 
 sia, they seem to have at once concluded that 
 
 this could be no other than the Caucasus." 
 Hence the name Caiicasus given by the Greeks 
 to those mountains; "for the n;une of Hindor 
 Koosh, by which they ari' still known, i • nothing 
 more than a corruption of flic Indian (Jaucasus. 
 — E. II. Bimburv, Hint, of Ancient Oeog., eh. 13, 
 note Q. 
 
 CAUCI, The. Sei^ Ikeland, TninEs ok 
 K\ui,v Cki.tic Inii.vhitants. 
 
 CAUCUS.— In KtlU — the fourth year of the 
 colony of .Massacliusetts May — the freemen of 
 the colony chose niiillr\ instead of Winthrop 
 for governor. The iir\i year they " followed 
 up tlie doctrine of rotation in olll<'e by choosing 
 Haynes as governor, a dioice agreeil \ipon l)y 
 deputies from the towns, who came together for 
 tliat purpose previously to the meeting of the 
 court — the first instance of 'tlie cauiMis system' 
 on record." — K. Hildreth, Hint, of the U. S., i: 1, 
 /). 334. — See, also, CoNanEss of the United 
 St a t k s 
 
 CAUDINE FORKS, The Romans at the. 
 See R0.M1:: B. C. :!t:t-3«0. 
 
 CAUSENNiE, OR ISINiE.— A town of 
 some importance in Roman Brilain. "Tliera 
 can be no doubt that this town occupied tlie site 
 of tlie modern Ancaster, wliicli has been cele- 
 brated for its Roman antiquities since the time 
 of Lcland." — T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 CAVALIERS, The party of the. See Eng- 
 land; A. I). 1641 (Octodeu); al.so. Round- 
 heads. 
 
 CAVE DWELLERS.— "We find a hunting 
 and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the remote 
 pleistocene age, in possession of France, Bel- 
 gium, Germany, and Britain, probably of the 
 same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming 
 part of a fauna in which northern and soutliern, 
 living and extinct, species are strangely mingled 
 with those "now living in Europe. In the neolithic 
 age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by 
 men of the Iberian or Basque race, which is still 
 represented by the small dark-haired peoples 
 of Europe." — W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting, 
 ]>. 430. 
 
 CAVE OF ADULLAM. See Adullam, 
 
 C.\VE OF. 
 
 CAVOUR, Count, and the unification of 
 Italy. See Italy; A. D. 1856-1859, and 1859- 
 1861. 
 
 CAVOUR, Treaty of (1561). See Savoy: 
 A. D. 1559-1580. 
 
 CAWNPUR, OR CAWNPORE: A. D. 
 1857. — Sieee by the Sepoy mutineers. — Sur- 
 render and massacre of the English. See 
 India; A. D. 1857 (May— August), and 1857- 
 1858 (July— June). 
 
 CAXTON PRESS, The. See Printing 
 andtiiePiiess; a. D. 1476-1491. 
 
 CAYENNE, Colonization of. See Guiana: 
 A. D. 1580-1814. 
 
 CAYUGAS, The. See Ameiucan Abo- 
 rigines; Iroquois Confedeuacy. 
 
 CEADAS, The. See Baratiiuu.m. 
 
 CEBRENES, The. See Thoja. 
 
 CECIL, Sir William (Lord Burleigh), and 
 the reign of Elizabeth. See England; A. I). 
 1558-1598. 
 
 CECORA, Battle of (1621). See Poland: 
 A. D. 1.590-1648. 
 
 CECROPIA.— CECROPIAN HILL.— The 
 Acropolis of Athens. See Attica. 
 
 401 
 
CEDAU CREEK. 
 
 CENSORS. 
 
 CEDAR CREEK, Battle of. Hoc United 
 Statk.s ok Am. : \. 1). \HM (AuiiUHT — OcxoiiEn: 
 VimiiNi.\). 
 
 CEDAR MOUNTAIN OR CEDAR RUN, 
 Battle of. Sec Uniteu States ok Am. : A. D. 
 1882 (.IiJi.Y— Auni'BT: Vikoinia). 
 
 CELESTINE 11., Pope, A. D. 1143-1144. 
 
 . . . .Celestine III., Pope, A. 1). 1191-1198 
 
 Celestine IV., Pope, A. I). 1241 Celestine 
 
 v.. Pope, A. I). 1294. July to December. 
 
 CELTIBERIANS, The.— "The Celtiberi 
 (K'cupled the centre of Spain, and a large jjartof 
 the two Castiles, an elevated tabk^ land bordered 
 and internectt'd by muuntaiu8. They were the 
 most warlike race in the Spanish peninsula. " — 
 O. Long, Decline of the Ildiiuiii Itepublie, ch. 1. — 
 "Tlie appellation Oelliberians indicates that in 
 the north-eastern part of the peninsula [Spain] 
 there was a mi.\ture of Celts and Iberians. 
 Nevertheless the Iberians must have been the 
 prevailing race, for we find no indications of 
 Celtic characteristics in the people." — \V. Ihne, 
 llUt. of Jloine, hk. 3, ch. 6, note. — See, also, 
 KuMANi'iAN Wau. 
 
 CELTS, The.— "The Celts form a branch of 
 the great family of nations which lias been 
 varioush called Aryan, Indo-PIuropeiui, ludo- 
 Qermanic, IndoCeltic and .Japhetic, its other 
 branches being represented by the Italians, the 
 Greeks, the Litu-Slaves, the Armenians, the 
 Persians and the chief peoples of Hindustan. 
 . . . The Celts of antiquity who appeared tirst 
 and oftr^iiest in history were tho.se of Gallia, 
 which, having been made by the French into 
 Gaule, we term Gaul. It included the France 
 and Switzerland of the present day, and much 
 territory besides. Tliis people iiad various 
 names. One of them was Oalli, which in their 
 language meant warriors or brave men; . . . 
 but the Gauls themselves in Ctcsar's time appear 
 to have preferred the name which he wrote 
 CeltfB. This was synonymous with the other 
 and appears to have meant warriors. . . . The 
 Celtic family, so far back as we can trace it into 
 the darkness of antiquity consisted of two groups 
 or bran<'lies, with linguistic features of their own 
 which marked them off from one another. To 
 the one belonged the ancestors of the jicople who 
 speak Gaelic in Ireland, the Isle of JIan and the 
 Highlands of the North. . . . The national name 
 which the members of this group have always 
 given themselves, .so far as one knows, is that of 
 Gaidhel, pronounced and spelt in Englisli Gael, 
 but formerly written by themselves Goidel. . . . 
 The other group is represented in point of 
 speech by the ])eople of Wales and the Bretons. 
 . . . .''he national name of those speaking these 
 dialects was that of Briton ; but, since that word 
 has now no precise meaning, we take the Welsh 
 form of it, which is Brython, and call this group 
 Brythous and Brythouic, whenever it is needful 
 to be exact. The ancient Gauls must also be 
 classifled with them, since the Brythons may be 
 regarded as Gauls who came over to settle in 
 Britain." — J. Khys, Celtic Britain, ch. 1. — See, 
 also, AuvANS, and Ari'ENin.K A, v. 1. 
 
 Origin and first meaning of the name. — 
 " Who were the Keltic of Spain V tlie population 
 whose name occurs in the word Celtic! and 
 Celtiberi, Keltic Iberians or Iberian Kelts V . . . 
 I think, that though used to denominate the 
 tribe and nations allied to tlie Gauls, it [the word 
 Celt or Kelt] was, originally, no Gallic word — 
 
 as little native as Welsh is British. I also think 
 that even the first populations to which it was 
 applied were other than Keltic in the nuxlern 
 sense of the term. I think, in short, that it was 
 a word belonging to the IlK'rian language, 
 applied, until the time of Coisar at least, to Iberic 
 ])opulations. ... By the time of CiEsar, how- 
 ever, a great number of undoubted Gauls were 
 included under the name Celtic : in other words, 
 the Iberian name for an Iberian population was 
 first adopted by the Greeks as the name for all 
 the inhabitants of south-western Gaul, and it 
 was then extended by the liomans so as to 
 include all the populations of Gallia except the 
 Belgiu and Aquitanians." — U. G. Latham, /l%- 
 nology of Kuroiye, ch. 2. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CELTS. — A name given among archieologists 
 to certain iirehistoric implements, both stone and 
 bronze, of the wedge, chisel and axe kind. Mr. 
 Thomas Wright contends that the term is 
 properly applied only to the bronze chisels, which 
 the old antiquary Ilearne identified with the 
 Itomau celtis, or chisel — whence the name. It 
 has evidently no connection with the word Celt 
 used ethnologically. 
 
 CELYDDON, Forest of (or Coed Celydon). 
 See Bhitain, Celtic Tuibes. 
 
 CENABUM. See Genabum. 
 
 CENOMANIANS, The. See Inscbiiians. 
 
 CENSORS, The Roman.—" The censorship 
 was an office so remarkable that, liowever 
 familiar the subject may be to many readers, it 
 is necessary here to bestow some notice on it. 
 Its original business was to take a register of the 
 citizens and of their property; but this, which 
 seems at first sight to be no more than the dniw- 
 ing up of a mere statistical report, became in 
 fact, from the large discretion allowed to every 
 Uoman officer, a political power of the highest 
 importance. The censors made out the returns 
 of the free population ; but they did more ; they 
 divided it according to its civil distinctions, and 
 drew up a list of the senators, a list of the 
 equites, a list of the members of the several 
 tribes, or of those citizens who enjoyed the right 
 of voting, and u list of the lurarians, consisting 
 of those freedmen, naturalized strangers, and 
 others, who, being enrolled in no tribe, possessed 
 no vote in the comitia, but still enjoyed all the 
 private rights of Uoman citizens. Now the lists 
 thus drawn up by the censors were regarded as 
 legal evidence of a man's condition. . . . Prom 
 tlience the transition was easy, according to 
 Roman notions, to the decision of questions of 
 right; sucli as whether a citizen was really 
 worthy of retaining his rank. ... If a man 
 behaved tynmuically to his wife or children, if 
 he was guilty of excessive cruelty even to his 
 slaves, if he neglected his land, if he indulged in 
 habits of extravagant expense, or followed any 
 calling which was regarded as degrading, the 
 offence was justly noted by the censors, ami the 
 offender was struck off from the list of senators, 
 if his rank was so high; or, if he were an 
 ordinary citizen, he was expelled from his tribe, 
 and reduced to the class of tlio icrarians. . . . 
 The censors had the entire management of the 
 regular revenues of the stjite, or of its vcctigalia. 
 They were the commonwealth's stewards, and to 
 their hands all its property was entrusted. . . . 
 With these almost kingly powers, and arrayed in 
 kingly state, for the censor's robe was all scarlet 
 
 402 
 
CBNovyRS. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 . . . tho ceniora might well seem too great for a 
 free commonwcultli. — T. Arnold, Iliit. of Iloinf, 
 eh. 17. — See, iilso, Lurtkilv. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA: Ruins of ancient 
 civilization. See Amkuican Aiiouiuineh: 
 Mayas, iiiid QticiiKs; also, Mkxico, Ancient. 
 
 Discovery and early settlement. See Ameii- 
 ICA A. 1). 14»8-ir)0,j; inOK-ir.U; 1513-1517. 
 
 A. D. 1831-1871. — Separation from Spain, 
 and Independence. — Attempted federation and 
 its failures. — Wars and revolutions of the five 
 Republics. — "The eenlral part of the American 
 continent, extending from the southern boundary 
 of Mexico to tho Isthmus of Panama, consisted 
 in the old colonial times of several Inteiulaneiea, 
 all of which were united in the Captaincy-Gen- 
 eral of Guatemala. Like the West Indian 
 Islands, it was a negleci ■ i part of the Spanish 
 Empire. . . . Central America has no history up 
 to the epoch of independence. ... It was not 
 until the success of the Revolution had become 
 certain on both sides of them, both In Mexico 
 and New Qn\na<la, tlnit the Intendancies which 
 made up the Captaincy-General of Guatemala 
 declared themselves also independent of Spain. 
 The cry of liberty had indeed been raised in 
 Costa Rica in 1813, and in Nicaragua in 1815; 
 but tho Revolution was postponed for six years 
 longer. Guatemala, tho seat of government, 
 published its declaration in September, 1821, and 
 Its example was speedilv followed by San Salva- 
 dor and Honduras. Nicantgua, on jiroclaiming 
 its independence, together with one of the depart- 
 ments of Guatemala, declared its adhesion to 
 wliat was known in Mexico as the plan of Iguala 
 [see Mexico: A. D. 1820-1830]. As there were 
 no Spanish troops in Central America, the recu- 
 sant Spanish official party could make no resist- 
 ance to the popular movement; and many of 
 them crossed the sea to Cuba or returned to 
 Spain. . . . Tlie Revolution of Central America 
 thus stands alone in the history of independence, 
 as having been accomplished without the shed- 
 ding of blood." During tho brief empire of 
 Iturbidc in Mexico [see as above] the Central 
 American states were annexed to it, though 
 with strong resistance on the part of all except 
 Guatemala. "On the proclamation of the Fed- 
 enjl Republic in Mexico [1824], tlie whole of 
 Central America, except the district of Chiapas, 
 withdrew from the alliance, and drove out the 
 Mexican officials as only a year before they liad 
 driven out the Spanish officials. The people now 
 had to face the task of forming a government 
 for themselves: and . . . they now resolved on 
 combining in a federation, in imitation of tlie 
 great United States of North America. Perhaps 
 no states were ever less suited to form a federal 
 imion. The petty territories of Central America 
 lie on two oceans, are divided by lofty niountiiins, 
 and have scarcely any communication with each 
 other: and the citizens of each have scarcely any 
 common interest. A Central American feilera- 
 tion, however, 'was an imposing idea, and tlie 
 people clung to it with great pertinacity. The 
 first effort for federation was made under the 
 direction of General Fillsola. All the Intendan- 
 cies combined i'l one sovereign state; iii-st under 
 the name of the 'United Provinces,' afterwards 
 (November 23, 1823) under that of the ' Federal 
 Republic ' of Central America. ... A constitu- 
 tion of tlie most liberal kind was voted. This 
 constitution is romarliable for having been the 
 
 first which nbolKdied slavery at o.ncc and abso- 
 lutely and declan'd the slave trade to bo piracy. 
 . . . The clerical and oligarchic party set their 
 faces stubbornly against the execution of the 
 constitution, and began the revolt at Leon in 
 Nicaragua. The union broke down in 182(t, and 
 though Mora/.an [of Honduras] reconstituted it 
 in 1820, its history Is a record of continual re- 
 bellion and reaction on the part of the Guatc- 
 maltec oligarchy. Of all South American con- 
 servative parties this oligarchy was perhaps the 
 most despicable. They sank to their lowest 
 when they raised the Spanish fiag In 1832. Rut 
 in doing this tliey went too far. Morazan's 
 successes date froni this time, and having beaten 
 the Guatemaltccs, ho transferred the Federal 
 government In 1834 to San Salvador. Hut the 
 Federal Republic of Central America dragged 
 on a precarious existence until 1838, when it was 
 overthrown by the revolt of Carrera in Guate- 
 mala. From the first the Infiuenco of the Fed- 
 eralists in the capital began to decay, and it was 
 soon apparent that they lia<l little power except 
 in Honduras, San Salvador and Nicaragua. The 
 Costa Ricans, a thriving commercial community, 
 but of no great ))olitical importance, and sepa- 
 rated by mountainous wastes fro r. all the rest, 
 soon ceased to take any part in public business. 
 A second Federal Republic, excluding Costiv 
 Rica, was agreed to in 1842; but it fared no 
 better than tho first. Tho chief representative 
 of tlic Federalist principle in Central America 
 was Jlorazan, of Honduras, from whose govern- 
 ment Carrera had revolted in 1838. On tho fail- 
 ure of the Federation Morazan had fled to Chile, 
 and on his return to Costa Rica ho was shot at 
 San Jos6 by the Carrerlsts. This was a great 
 blow to the Liberals, and It was not until 1847 
 that a third Federation, consisting of Honduras, 
 San Salvador, and Nicaragua, was organized. 
 For some years Honduras, at tho head of these 
 states, carried on a war against Guatemala to 
 compel It to join the union. Guatemala was far 
 more than their match: San Salvador and Nica- 
 ragua soon failed in the struggle, and left Hon- 
 duras to carry on the war alone. Under General 
 Carrera Guatemala completely defeated Its rival; 
 and to his successes are due the revival of the 
 Conservative or Clerical party all over Central 
 America. . . . The government of each state 
 became weaker and weaker: revolutions were 
 everywhere frequent: and ultimately . . . the 
 whole country was near falling into the hands of 
 a North American adventurer [see Nicauaocja: 
 A. D. 1855-1800]. In former times the English 
 government had maintained some connection 
 with the country [originating with the bucca- 
 neei-s and made important by the mahogany -cut- 
 ting] through the independent Indians of the 
 Mosquito co;ist, over whom, for the purposes of 
 their trade with Jamaica, it had maintained a 
 protectorate : and even a small English eoinmer- 
 cial colony, called Greytown, had been founded 
 on this coast at the mouth of tho river San Juan. 
 Towards the close of Carrera 's asceiuhiiify this 
 coast was resigned to Nicaragua, iind tho Bay 
 Islands, which lie off the coast, to Honduras: and 
 England thus retained nothing In the country but 
 the old .settlement of British Honduras, with its 
 cap! tal, Belize. After Carrera's death in 1805, tho 
 Liberal party began to reas.sert itself: and in 1871 
 tiiere was a Liberal revolution in Guatemala It- 
 self." — E. J. Payne, Hint. oJ'Eurup'u Culou's, c/i.21. 
 
 108 
 
CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 CIIALCI8 AND ERKTRIA. 
 
 Al.do IN : 11. 11. Bancroft, Ilitt. of the Pneifle 
 
 Staten. 
 
 * 
 
 CENTRAL ASIA. See Aria, Ckntiiai,. 
 
 CENTRE, The. Hci' Ukiiit. &v. 
 
 CENTREVILLE, Evacuation of. Hce 
 Unitki) Statkh ok Am. : A. D. 18fll-lM63 (I)e- 
 CKMiiKU— Maiicii: Viuoinia). 
 
 CENTURIES, Roman. See C'o.mitia Cen- 
 
 Tl'IIIATA. 
 
 CENTURION.— The onkrrcommamllnjf one 
 of llic llfty live ('cnturlcs or ('(imimiiics in a 
 Uoiimri l('u;iiiii of tlic empire. See Lkoion, 
 
 CENWULF, KingofMercia, A. D. 704-819. 
 
 CEORL. See Kom,, and PItiiki,. 
 
 CEPEDA, Battle of (1859). ^^i'*" Auoentink 
 Rkim lil.ic: A. I). IHID-IHT'T 
 
 CEPHISSUS, Battle of the (A. D. 1311). 
 See Catalan Oiiand Company, 
 
 CERAMICUS OF ATHENS.— Tlio Ceni- 
 niicus was orl^rinally tlic most important of tlie 
 suburban (iiHtriets of Alliens and derived its 
 name from the potters. "It is iirobalile tliat 
 about the time of I'isislmtus tlie market of tlio 
 aneient suburb called tlie Ceramieus (for every 
 Attic district jiossessed its own marliet) was con- 
 stituteil the eenlral market of the ('ity. . . . 
 They [the Pisistratidie] connected Athens In all 
 directions by roadways with the country di.s- 
 tricts: tiiese roads were accurately measured, 
 and all met on the Ceramieus, in the centre of 
 which an altar was erected «o the Twelve Gods. 
 From this centre of town a id country were cal- 
 culated the distances to tlie dilTerent country 
 districts, to the ports, and to the most important 
 sanctuaries of the common fatherland. . . . [In 
 the next century — in the age of Pericles — the 
 population had extended to the north and west 
 and] part of the ancient potters' district or 
 Ceramieus had long become n quarter of the city 
 [the Inner Ceramieus]; the other part remained 
 Siiburb [the Outer Ceramieus]. Between the 
 two lay the double cntc or Dipylum, the broad- 
 est and most splendid gate of the city. . . . 
 Here the broad carriage-road which, avoiding 
 all lieiglits, ascended from the market-place of 
 llippodamus directly to the city-inarket of the 
 Ceramieus, entered the city ; from here straiglit 
 to the west led the road to Eleusis, the sacred 
 course of the festive processions. . . . Prom 
 this road again, immediately outside the gate, 
 branched off that which led to the Academy. 
 . . . The high roads in tlie vicinity of tlie city 
 gates were everywhere bordered witli numerous 
 and handsome sepulchral monuments, in par- 
 ticular the road leading through the outer Cera- 
 mieus. Here lay the public burial-ground for 
 the citizens who had fallen in war; tlie vast 
 space was divided into fields, corresponding to 
 the different battle-fields at home and abroad." — 
 E. Curtius, Iliat. of Greece, bh. 3, ch. 2, and bk. 3, 
 eh. 3. 
 
 Also in : AV. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, 
 sect. 3. 
 
 CERESTES, OR KERESTES, Battle of 
 (1596). See Hungary : A. D. 1595-1606. 
 
 CERIGNOLA, Battle of (1503). See Italy: 
 
 A. n. ir)0i-i,')()4. 
 
 CERISOLES, Battle of (1544). See France: 
 A. 1). ir)32-1547. 
 
 CERONES, The. See Bihtain, Celtic 
 TaiBBS. 
 
 CERRO GORDO, Battle of. Sco Mexico: 
 A. I>. IH47(.MAmir— SKi-rKMnK.n). 
 
 CESS.— A word, corrupted from "assess," 
 si>;iiifyiiig a rate, or ta.\; used especially in 
 Scotland, and applied more particularly to a tax 
 imposed in 1()7N, for the maintenance of troops, 
 during tlie persecution of the Covenanters. — A 
 Cl'iiiil of M^itnetnes, ed. hy ,T. II, Thoinpmin, p. 67. 
 — The Imp. Dirt. 
 
 CEUTA, A. D. 1415.— Sieg^e and capture 
 by the Portugese. See 1'oiituoai,: A. 1). 14ir(- 
 MIIO. 
 
 A. D. 1668.— Ceded to Spain. See Pohtu- 
 oal: a. D. 1637-1608. 
 
 CEVENNES, The prophets of the (or the 
 C^venol prophets). — The Camisards. See 
 FllANCK: .\. 1). 17tl',>-171(). 
 
 CEYLON, 3d Centary B. C— Conversion 
 to Buddhism. SeelNHiA: B. ('. 312 . 
 
 A. D. 1802.— Permanent acquisition by 
 England. See Fhanck: A. I). lMOl-1803. 
 ♦ 
 
 CHACABUCO, Battle of (1817). SccCuilk: 
 A. I). 1H10-1H18. 
 
 CHACO, The Gran. See Guan Ciiaco. 
 
 CHiGRONEA, Battles of (B. C. 338). See 
 
 GiiKiccE; U. C. 357-386 (B. C. 86). See 
 
 MiTiiuiDATu: Wahs. 
 
 CHAGAN. See Khan. 
 
 CHA'HTAS, OR CHOCTAWS, The. See 
 Ameuican Ahokioines: Muskiiooban Family. 
 
 CHALCEDON.— An ancient Greek city, 
 founded by tlio Megarians on the Asiatic side of 
 the Bosphoriis, nearly opposite to Byzantium, 
 like whicli city it suffered in early times many 
 changes of masters. It was bequeathed to the 
 P.omans by tlic last king of Bithynia. 
 
 A. D. 358.— Capture by the Goths. See 
 Goths: A. I). 258-267. 
 
 A. D. 616-635. — The Persians in possession. 
 See Peiisia: A. D. 226-627. 
 
 CHALCEDON, The Council of (A. D. 451). 
 See Nestorian and Monophysite Contro- 
 versy. 
 
 CHALCIS AND ERETRIA.-"Tlie most 
 dangerous rivals of Ionia were tlic towns of 
 Euba!a, among whicli, in the fl,rst instance, 
 Cyme, situated in an excellent bay of the east 
 coast, in a district abounding in wine, and after- 
 wards the two sister-towns on the Euripus, Chal- 
 cis and Eretria, distinguished themselves by 
 larger measures of colonization. While Eretria, 
 tlie 'city of rowers,' rose to prosperity especially 
 by means of purple-flshericB a!id a ferry-naviga- 
 tion conducted on a constantly increasing scale, 
 ('halcis, the 'bronze city,' on the double sea of 
 the Boeotian sound, contrived to raise and 
 employ for herself the most important of the 
 many treasures of the island — its copper. . . . 
 Chalcis became the Greek centre of tins branch 
 of industry ; it became the Greek Sidon. Next 
 to Cyprus there were no richer stores of copper 
 in tlie Greek world than on Euboea, and in Chal- 
 cis were tlio first copper- works and smithies 
 known in European Greece." — E. Curtius, UUt. 
 of Greece, bk. 2, ch. 3.— Tlie Chalcidians were 
 enterprising colonists, particularly in Thrace, in 
 tlie Macedonian peninsula, whore they are said 
 to have founded thirty-two towns, which wore 
 collectively called the Chalcidice, and in southerj 
 Italy and Sicily. It was the abundant wealth of 
 
 404 
 
CHAWI8 AND ERETHIA. 
 
 CnANOBLLOR 
 
 Tlimcfi In mctnlllo nrrH which drew tlic Chiilcl- 
 dliiim to it. About 71)0 H. C. u bonier feud 
 l)etwct'n Clmli'lH iiiid Krclrlii, comcrriiii;; iTrtaiii 
 " Lvlniitiiiii llcldM" wliicli liiy bi'twtcn lliciii, 
 grew to Hiicli proporlioiiH and ho iiiiiny other 
 Htutea eimu' to tiike part In it, that, "according 
 to Tluieydides no war of iiioro iiidverHul import' 
 aiico for the whole imlloti was foujflit between 
 tho fall of Troja and the Persian war." — The 
 Kanie, r. 1, lik. 2, c/i. 1. — ChalelH wan subdued 
 by thi! Athenians in H. (;. BOO. 8ec Athenb: 
 B. C. noO-.IOd ; also Ki.Eiiiifns, and Eoikea. 
 
 CHALCUS. See T.m.knt. 
 
 CHALDEA. — CHALUEES. See Bahv- 
 
 LONIA, 
 
 CHALDEAN CHURCH. Sec Nkstokians. 
 
 CHALDIRAN, Battle of (1514). He.' TiriiKs; 
 A. I). HHI^l.V.'O. 
 
 CHALGROVE FIELD, Fall of Hampden 
 at. See Enoi.and: A. I). 1643 (Auoust — Sei-- 
 
 TEMHKIl). 
 
 CHALONS, Battles at (A. D. 271).— Amonc 
 the many pretenders to tlio Roman imperial 
 throne — "tlie thirty tyrants," as they were 
 called — of the distracted reign of Oalllenus, was 
 Tetrieus, who had been governor of Aquitaine. 
 Tho dangerous honor was forced upon him, by 
 a demoraliz(^d army, and he reigned against his 
 will for several years over Gaul, Spain antl 
 Britain. At length, when the iron-handed 
 Aurellan had taken tho reins of government at 
 Itomo, Tetrieus secretly plotted with him for 
 deliverance from bis own uncoveted greatness. 
 Aurellan invaded '' ud and Tetrieus leu an army 
 against him, only betray it, in a great battle 
 at Chalons (271), « liero the rebels were cut to 
 pieces. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, eh. 11. 
 
 A. D. 366. See Alemanni, Invasion of 
 Gaul by the. 
 
 A. D. 451. See Huns: A. D. 451, Attila's 
 Invasion of Qaui,. 
 
 CHALYBES, The.— Tho Chalybes, or 
 Chalybians, were an ancient people in Asia 
 Minor, on the coast of the Euxino, proboblv east 
 of tho Halys, who were noted as workers of Iron. 
 — E. H. Bunbury, Ilist. of Ancient Oeog., ch. 22, 
 note A. 
 
 CHAM AVI, The. See Bructeri; also, 
 Franks; also, Gaul: A. D. 355-301. 
 
 CHAMBERS OF REANNEXATON, 
 French. See Fhance: A. I). 1670-1081. 
 
 CHAMBERSBURG, Burning of. See 
 United States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (July: 
 Virginia — Maryland). 
 
 CHAMPAGNE: Origin of vhe county.— 
 In the middle years of the revolt that dethroned 
 the Carlovinglans and raised the Capotians to a 
 tlirone which they made the throne of a kingdom 
 of France, Count Herbert of Vermandoiii allied 
 himself with tho party of the latter, and began 
 operations for the expanding of Ids domain. 
 "The Champaign of Rheims, the 'Campania 
 Remensis' — a most appropriate descriptive de- 
 nomination of the region — an extension of the 
 plains of Flanders — but not yet employed politi- 
 cally as designating a province — was protected 
 against Coimt Herbert on the Vermandois border 
 by the Castrum Theoilorici — Chateau Thierry. 
 . . . Herbert's profuse promises induced the 
 commander to betray his dutj'. . . . Herbeit, 
 through this occupation of Ch&teau Tlueiiy, 
 
 obtained therltv of Troyesandall the 'Campania 
 ReinensiM.' wlilrb, under his poti'nt sway, was 
 speedily developed Into the magnilleent ('ouiily 
 of Champagne. Herbert and his lineage lielil 
 Chanipagne during three genenilions, until some 
 time after the accession of the Capets, when the 
 Grand Fii'f pas.sed from the Mouse of Ver- 
 mandois to the lliiuse of lllois,"— Sir F. I'al- 
 grave. Hint. <if SnniHiinhi mul /■.'m/., r. 2, ;>. 103. 
 
 CHAMPfeAUBERT, Battle of. See 
 I'^hanci;: A. D. Ihi 1 (.Iamaiiy— Maiicii), 
 
 CHAMPION Y.Sortie of (1870). See France: 
 A. I>. 1H70-IH7I. 
 
 CHAMPION'S HILL, Battle of. See 
 
 United States ok Am. : A. I). 1863 (Arnii 
 
 Jfi.Y: On the Missihhippi). 
 
 CHAMPL AIN, Samuel.— Explorations and 
 Colonizations. See Canada (Ni^w FitANcE): 
 A. 1). 160;t-Ul(r(; KIOH-lOll; and lOll-lOIO. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Lake: A. D. 1776. -Arnold's 
 naval battle with Carleton. See II.nitemStateh 
 OF A.M. : A. I). 177<l-1777. 
 
 A. D. 181^. — Macdonough's naval victory. 
 See United States of Am. : A. 1). 1814 (Sep- 
 tember). 
 
 - — » 
 
 CHAMPS DE MARS. -CHAMPS DE 
 MAI. — Wlien the Merovingian kings of the 
 Franks summont'd their captains to gather for 
 tho plaiming and preparing of campaigns, tho 
 assemblies A-ere cailecl at first the Champs do 
 Mars, because the meeting was In earliest spring 
 — In March. " But as the Fnmks, from serving 
 on foot, became cavaliers under tho second [tho 
 Carlovlnglan] race, the time was change(l to 
 May, for the sake of forage, and the as-semblies 
 were called Champs do Mai." — E. E. Crowe, 
 Hint, of France, ch. 1. — See, also, Mallum, and 
 Parliament of Paris. 
 
 CHANCAS, The. See Peru: The Abori- 
 ginal INIIAHITANTS. 
 
 CHANCELLOR, The.— "Tho name [of tho 
 Chancellor], derived [irobably from the cancelll 
 or screen behind which the secretarial work of 
 the royal household was carried on, claims a con- 
 siderablo antiquity ; and the offices which it de- 
 notes are various in proportion. The chancellor 
 of the Karollngian sovereigns, succeeding to tho 
 place of the more ancient rcferendarius, Is simply 
 the royal notary, the archifancellarius Is tho 
 chief of a large body of such officers a.ssoclated 
 under the .mmo 01 the choncery, and is the keeper 
 of the royal seal. It is from this minister that 
 the English chancellor derives his name and 
 function. Edward the Confessor, the first of our 
 sovereigns who had a seal, is also the first who 
 had a chancellor ; from the rcign of the Conqueror 
 tho office has descended in regular succession. 
 It seems to have been to a comparatlv(!ly lato 
 period, generally if not always, at least in Eng- 
 land, held by an ecclesiastic who was a member 
 of the royol household and on a footing with tho 
 great dignitaries. The chancellor was the most 
 dignified of tho royal chaplains, if not the head 
 of that body. Tho whole secretarial work of the 
 liousehold and court fell on the chancellor and 
 the chaplains. . . . Tho chancellor was, in a 
 manner, the secretary of state for all depart- 
 ments."— W. Stubbs, Const. Hist. ofEng.,ch. 11, 
 sect. 121.—" In the reign of Edward I. we begin 
 to perceive signs of the rise of the extraordinary 
 or equitable jurisdiction of the Chancellor. Tho 
 numerous petitions addressed to the King and 
 
 406 
 
niANCELLOR 
 
 CHARLES. 
 
 liiH (.'ouncil, McckinK tlio Inturpmiltion of tlw- royal 
 KHicp und fuvoiir cither to niltlnuti! tli(! ImrHli- 
 MfsH of the ( 'oniiiioii I.iiw or Hiipply ItH (Ictlcii'iiriis, 
 had Utii In tliu H[M'('iitl care of the (.'haiitrllor, 
 who uxumiiK-d and reported upon tliem to the 
 Khix. . . . Al letit'th, in t!WH, l)y a writ or or- 
 dinance of the 'i'M vcar of KdwanI III. all such 
 niattcrH iw were 'of (knco ' were ciirccttMl to he 
 <liHpatclieil hy the Chamudlor or liy the Keeper 
 of the I'rivy Heal. Thin wan n great Htep in tlie 
 re<'o^Tiltion of tlio o(|iiital>ie Jurisdiction of tlip 
 (Nuirt of (liancery, hh diHtinct from the legal 
 jurisdiction of the Ohancclior and of thu (NxirtH 
 of Common Law; although it was not until the 
 following reign tliat it can be sidd to havu been 
 permanently cHtaliliHhed." — T. I'. Tasweli-Lang- 
 mead, h'ng. Omul. JIiiit.,j>p. 17:1-174.— "The Lord 
 Chancellor is a I'rivy Councillor by IiIh offlcc; a 
 Cabinet Minister ; and, according to Lord Chancel- 
 lor KllcHinere, prolocutor [I'hainnan, or Speaker] 
 of the IIous(! of Lords by prescription." — A. C. 
 Ewald, T/ic Croitn and it» Ailrisert, Uet. 2. 
 
 Amm) in : E. FiBchcl, 2'he KnglUh Corutitntion, 
 bk. 5, ek. 7. 
 
 CHANCELLOR'S ROLLS. See Excue- 
 
 qllKK. — ExcilKtilKK KoI.I.M. 
 
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battles of. Bee 
 Un'teij States ok A.vi. : A. 1). 1883 (.VrniL— 
 M.\/: Viu(iinia). 
 
 CHANCERY. Hee CiiANCEi,i,on. 
 
 CHANDRAGUPTA, OR CANDRAGUP- 
 TA, The empire of. Bee India: H. C. 327-312, 
 und 312 . 
 
 CHANEERS, The. See Ameuican Aboiii- 
 gineh: SioiAN Family. 
 
 CHANTILLY, Battle of. See United 
 States op Am. : A. I). 1802 (Auoubt— Septem- 
 HEit: Vihoinia). 
 
 CHANTRY PRIESTS.—" With the more 
 wealthy and devout lin the 14th, 15th and 16th 
 centiirfeH] it was the pnicticc to erect little 
 chapels, which were cither added to churches or 
 enclosed by screens within them, where chantry 
 priests might celebrate mass for the good of their 
 souls in perpetuity. . . . Large stmis of money 
 were . . . devoted to the maintenance of chantry 
 priests, whose duty it was to say mass for the 
 rcpo.se of the testator's soul. . . . The character 
 and conduct of the chantry priests must have be- 
 come somewhat of a lax order in the 16th cen- 
 tury. "—K. It. Sharpc, /;i^ to •' Calendar of Wills 
 in the Ctiiirt of Iliiatinr/, Ix/mlon," n. 2, ;). viii. 
 
 CHAOUANONS, The. See American Abo- 
 
 niOINES: SlIAWANESi;. 
 
 CHAPAS, OR CHAPANECS, The. See 
 
 Ameuican .Viioukiinks: Zapotkcb, &c. 
 
 CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of. See Mexico: 
 A. D. 1847 (Maucii— SEi-rEMiiKii). 
 
 CHARCAS, Las. — The Spanish province 
 which now forms the Republic of Uolivia. Also 
 called, formerly, Upper Peru, and sometimes the 
 province of Potosi. — See Aimientine Republic : 
 A. D. 1580-1777; and Bolivia: A. D. 1825- 
 1826. 
 
 CHARIBERT I., King of Aquitaine, A. D. 
 
 561-507 Charibert II., King of Aquitaine, 
 
 A. D. 628-031. 
 
 CHARITON RIVER, Battle of. See 
 United Stati:s ok Am. : A. D. 1862 (.Iult — 
 SEPTKMiiEU : Missorui — Aukansak). 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE. See 
 Fuankb(CaulovingianEmpiue): A. D. 708-814; 
 Roman Empike: A. D. 800; Lombards: A. D. 
 
 7M-774; Baxonh: A. D. 772-Sftl; Avarh: 701- 
 805; and HpAiN: A. I). 778. 
 CHARLEMAGNE'S SCHOOL OF THE 
 
 PALACE. See HciKHIL OK THE I'alack. 
 
 CHARLEROI : A. 0. 1667.— Taken by the 
 French. Sec Nktiieklands (The Hpanihii 
 I'uoviNCEK): A. I). 1007. 
 
 A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. See Nrthkh- 
 LANDS (Holland): A. I>. 1608. 
 
 A. D. 1670.— Restored to Spain. See Nimb- 
 oi'EN, The Peace ok. 
 
 A. D. 1693.— Siege and cnoture by the 
 French. Sec FnAN( e: .V. " lOu.t (■Iin.Y). 
 
 A. D. 1697.— Restored to Spain. See Francb : 
 A. I). 16 >7. 
 
 A. D. 1713.— Ceded to Holland. See 
 Utheciit: a. I). 17l'2-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1746-1748.— Taken by French and 
 ceded to Austria. Hee Netiieiilandh: A. I). 
 1740-1747,andAix LA (;iiapelle,Tiie(;on«reb8. 
 
 CHARLES (called The Great — Charle- 
 magne), King of Neustria, / . I). 768; of all the 
 Franks, A. D. 771 ; of Franks and Lorabardy, 
 
 774 ; Emperor of the West, 800-814 Charles 
 
 of Austria, Archduke, Campaigns of. See 
 France: A. I). 1706 (Aprii,— Octobeu); 1700- 
 1707 (October— April) ; 1707 (Aprii^.May); 
 1708-1700 (August— April); 1700 (August- 
 December); also Ger.many: 1800 (.January- 
 June), ( .July— Seitemueu ) Charles of 
 
 Bourbon, King of Naples or the Two Sicilies, 
 
 17:J4-1750 Charles (called The Bold), Duke 
 
 of Burgundy, 1407-1477 Charles I., King 
 
 of England, 1625-1640.— Trial and execution. 
 
 See England: A. I). 1640(.Januauv) Charles 
 
 I. (of Anjou), King of Naples and Sicily, 1200- 
 
 1282; King of Naples, 1282-128.5 Charles 
 
 I., King of Portugal, 1880- Charles II. 
 
 (called The Bald), Emperor, and King of Italy, 
 A. 1). 875-877; Kingof Neustriaand Burgundy, 
 
 840-877 Charies II., King of England, 1000- 
 
 1085. (Bt a loyal fiction, supposed to have 
 reigned from 1649, when his father was be- 
 headed ; though the throne was in Cromwell's 
 
 possession) Charles II., King of Naples, 
 
 1285-1300 Charles II., King of Navarre, 
 
 1340-1387 Charles II., King of Spain, 106.'>- 
 
 1700 Charles III. (called The Fat), Em- 
 peror, King of the East Franks (Germany), 
 and King of Italy, A. 1). 881-888; King of the 
 
 West Franks (France), 884-888 Charles 
 
 III. (called The Simple), King of France, 
 
 A. D. 802-020 Charles III., King of Naples, 
 
 1381-1386 Charles III., King of Navarre, 
 
 1387-1425 Charles III., King of Spain, 
 
 17.50-1788 Charles IV., Emperor, and King 
 
 of Italy, 135.5-1378; King of Bohemia, 1340- 
 1378; King of Germany, 1347-1378; King of 
 
 Burgundy, 130.5-1378 Charles IV., King of 
 
 France, and of Navarre (Charies I.), 1322-1328. 
 
 . . . .Charies IV., King of Spain, 1788-1808 
 
 Charles V., Emperor, 1510-1558; Duke of Bur- 
 eundy, 1500-1555; King of Spain (as Charles 
 I.) and of Naples, or the Two Sicilies, 1516- 
 
 1556. See Austria: A. I). 1400-1526 
 
 Charies V. (called The Wise), King of France, 
 
 1304-1380 Charles VI., Germanic Emperor, 
 
 and King of Hungary and Bohemia, 1711-1740. 
 . . . .Charies VI. (called The Well-loved), King 
 of France, 1380-1422 Charies VII. (of Ba- 
 varia), Germanic Emperor, 1742-1745 
 
 Charies VIL, King of France, 1422-1461 
 
 406 
 
CHARLES. 
 
 CIIATILLON sun HKINK. 
 
 Charlei VIII., King of France, 148»-1408. 
 Charles IX., King of France, I.VIO-lfl74. 
 Charlei IX., King of S'/eden. HlOl-ltlll. 
 Charles X., King of France (the last 
 
 of 
 
 the House of Bourbon), I^Jt-iHilo Charles 
 
 X., King of Sweden, HW-Kino Charles 
 
 XI., King of Sweden, tiWI()-|<m7 Charles 
 
 XII., King of Sweden, KIDT-WIH Charles 
 
 XIII., King of Sweden, Ihoimhih Charles 
 
 XIV.(Bernadotte), King of Sweden, IHlH-mit. 
 . . . .Charles XV., King of Sweden, 1H,-.I»-|HTJ. 
 
 Charles Albert, Duke of Savoy and King 
 
 of Sardinia, ts:il IHII) Charles Emanuel, 
 
 Duke of Savoy, l.'iHO-KIMO Charleb Emanuel 
 
 II., Duke of Savoy, ItllW KC." ...Charles 
 Emanuel III., Duke of Savoy and King of 
 
 Sardinia, 17;lO-177;t Charles Emanuel iV., 
 
 Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinip 1 DXl- 
 
 mn Charles Felix, Duke of Savoy and 
 
 King of Sardinia, lHJl~lH;ti Charles Mar- 
 
 tel, Duke of Austrasia and Mayor of the Palace 
 
 (of the King of the Franks), .V. D. 71.')-7U 
 
 Charles Robert, or Charobert, or Caribert, 
 
 Kingof Hungary, lMi)M-i;ilJ Charles Swrr- 
 
 kerson, King of Sweden. lltll-ll«7. 
 
 CHARLESTON, S. C. : A. D. i6ao.— The 
 founding of the city. Scu HouTii Caiiolina: 
 
 A. 1). 1(170- loim. 
 
 A. D. i7o6.— Unsuccessful attack by the 
 French. Sim; South Caiioi.ina: A. I). 1701- 
 1700. 
 
 D. 1775-1776. — Revolutionary proceed- 
 Suo .Soi-Tii Caikm.ina: A. I). l77.') anil 
 
 D. 1776.— Sir Henry Clinton's attack 
 repulse. See United States ok Am. : 
 
 A, 
 ings. 
 1776. 
 
 A. 
 and 
 
 A. I). 1*70 (.lUNE). 
 
 A. D. 1780.— Siege by the British.— Sur- 
 render of the city. Sec United States of Am. : 
 A. 1). 1780 (Feiiuuauy — Ai:oUKT). 
 
 A. D. i860.— The splitting of the National 
 Democratic Convention. See United ST.vrns 
 okAm. : A. 1). lH0O(AiMiii Novk.miikii). 
 
 A. D. i860.— The adoption of the Ordinance 
 of Secession. Sec United States of Am. : 
 A. I). 1800 (NovEMHEii — Decemueii). 
 
 A. D. i860. — Major Anderson at Fort Sum- 
 ter. Sen United States ok Am. : A. D. 1800 
 (Decemueu). 
 
 A. D. 1861 (April). — The Beginning of war. 
 — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. Sec United 
 8t.\tes OK Am. : A. U. 1801 (Maiuh— Aphil). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (April).— The attack and repulse 
 of the Monitor fleet. See United States of 
 Am. : A. I). 1803 (Ai'iui, : South Cauomna). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (July). — The Union troops on 
 Morris Island. — Assault on Fort Wagner. 
 See United States ok A.m. : A. 1). 180!) (Jii.y: 
 South Caiioi.ina). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (August — December).— Siege of 
 Fort Wagner.— Bombardment of the city. 
 See United States OK Am. : A. I). 1803 (August 
 — Decemueu: South Caiioi.ina). 
 
 A. D. 1865 (February). — Evacuation by the 
 Confederates. — Occupation by Federal troops. 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1865 (Febru- 
 Auv : South Caholina). 
 
 CHARLESTOWN, Mass.: A. D. 1623.— 
 The first settlement. See Massachusetts: 
 A. 1). lOaO-1630. 
 
 CHARTER OAK, The. See Connecticut : 
 A. I). 1085-1087. 
 
 CHARTER OF FORESTS. 8«'eENiil.AND: 
 A. 1). l'Ji:;-l.'71. 
 CHARTERHOUSE,OR CHARTREUSE. 
 
 Hoc {'AUTIIIHIXN OllMKIl. 
 
 CHARTISTS. -CHARTISM. See E.so- 
 
 land: A. 1». IHItH-lMfJ, Jtnci IMIH. 
 
 CHARTRES, Defeat of the Normans at.— 
 The Nonimii, Unlli), liivcHtiiiff llic city cif CImr- 
 trcH, Hustiiined there, mi the '.iOtli of .luly, A. I>. 
 911, the most Herli>us defeiit which hv iiiul his 
 piriites ever «ii(Tere(l. — Sir F. I'iil){rm-e, //int. 
 of Xormii mil/ mill A'/h/., tik: 1, r/i. 5. 
 
 CHARTREUSE. La Grande. See Caii- 
 TlirwlAN Okdkk. 
 
 CHASIDIJa, OR CHASIDEES, OR AS- 
 
 SIDEANS, The.— .V Tmmc, HiKiiifyiiiK the 
 jjdilly or pliiiis, iiHKumeil liy 11 party ainoii); the 
 ,IeWH, III the .second century M. i',., who resisted 
 the (JrccliuilzInK tendencies of the time under 
 the liilliienee of the OriecoSyriiui ddininiitliiii, 
 mid who were the nucleus of the Mucciil«'an 
 revolt. The latiT school of the Pharisees if rc^p- 
 resented by Kwald (Ifinl. of Im-ii '<■. 5, nirt. 'i) 
 to have lieen the prisluct of a 11,1. ..wIiik iraiis- 
 foriiiationof the school of the Cliasidiiii; wliili'thii 
 Es.senes, in Ills view, were a purer resiiliii^ of the 
 Cliashlini "who strove after piety, yet would 
 not Joii. the Pharisees" ; who abandoned " society 
 as worldly and Incurably corrupt," and in whom 
 "the con.selenee of the nation, as it were, with- 
 drew into the wilderness." — II. Ewahl, Iliiit. of 
 hriifl, hk. 5, met. 'i. — A iinMlerii sect, iHjrrowinjj; 
 the name, founiled l)y one Isnu'l Baal Sehein, vrlio 
 first appeared In Podolla, in iriO, is said to em- 
 brace most of the .Jews In tjallcia, Hungary, 
 Southern Russia, and Wallai liin — 11. C. Adams, 
 Hint, of the Jeim. p. 333. 
 
 Ai,s() IN ; II. Oraetz, JftHt. of t/ieJeies, v. \ ch. P. 
 
 CHASuARII, The. See Franks: Oihoin, 
 
 ETC. ^ 
 
 CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty of 
 (1559).^ SeeFliANCE: A. D. l.')47-15r)i). 
 
 CHATEAU GALLAIRD.— This was the 
 name given to a famous castle, built by Hichard 
 Cu!ur (le Lion in Normandy, and designed to be 
 the key to the defences of that important duchy. 
 "As a iiioiiument of warlike skill, his 'Saucy 
 Castle,' Chateau CJaillard, stands first among tlio 
 fortresses of the AIi(hlle Ages. Uieliard ti.\(!d 
 its site where the Seine benils suddenly at Gail- 
 Ion in a great semicircle to the north, and where 
 the Valley of Les AndiMys breaks the line of the 
 chalk cliffs along its bank. The castle ff)rnied 
 part of an intrenched camp which Hidiard ile- 
 signed to cover his Norman capital. . . . The 
 easy reduction of Normandy on the fall of 
 Cliiltcau Gaillard at a later time [when it was 
 taken by Philip Augustus, of France] proved 
 HU^hard's foresight." — .1. It. Green, Short Ilist. 
 of the Kiiqlinh People, ch. 2, neet. 0. 
 
 CHATEAU THIERRY, Battle of. See 
 France: A. D. 1814 (.Januauv— .Maucii). 
 
 CHATEAUVIEUX, Fete to the soldiers 
 of. See LiiiEitTY Cai*. 
 
 CHATHAM, Lord; Administration of. See 
 Enoland: a. I>. 17.')7-17«0: 1760-1703, and 
 
 1765-1708 And the American Revolution. 
 
 See United States of A.m. : A. I). 1775 (.Janu- 
 ary — Mahcii). 
 
 CHATILLON, Battles of (1793). See 
 France: A. D. 1703 (.July- Decemueu). 
 
 CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, Congress of. 
 See France : A. D. 1814 (January— SIauch). 
 
 m 
 
CHATTANOOGA. 
 
 CIIERU8CI. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA : The name. Sco United 
 Statics of A.m. : A. I). 186a (Auoust — Skitkm- 
 iiEii: Tennebskk). 
 
 A. D. 1862.— Secured by the Confedemtes. 
 Sni' United States ok Am. : A. I). 180a(.IrNE — 
 OCTOIIEII : Ten.nehskk — Kentih'ky). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (August). — Evacuation by the 
 Confederates. Hcu United States of Am. : 
 A. I). 18(1!{ (AudusT — Septembek: Tennessee). 
 
 A. D. 1863 (October— November).— The 
 siege. — The battle on Lookout Mountain. — 
 The assault of Missionary Ridge. — The Rout- 
 ing of Bragg's army. Sec United States of 
 Am.: a. I). 180!! (Octobek— Novembem : Ten- 
 nessee). 
 
 * 
 
 CHATTI, or CATTI, The.— "Beyond [the 
 JIuttiaei] are the Clmtti, wliose settklnents begin 
 lit the llercyniiin forest, where the country is 
 not so open luiil marshy ns in the other <;antons 
 into which Germany stretches. They are found 
 where there are hills, and with them grow less 
 frequent, for the llercynian forest keeps close till 
 it has seen llie last of its native Chatti. Hardy 
 frames, close-knit limbs, fierie countenances, 
 und a peculiarly vigorous courage, mark the 
 tribe. For Germans, they have nnich intelli- 
 gence and sagacity. . . . Other tribes you see 
 going to battle, the Chatti to a campaign." — 
 "The settlements of the Chatti, one of the chief 
 German tribes, apparently coincide with poi ions 
 of Westphalia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstjidt and 
 Hcsse-Cassel. Dr. Latham assumes the Chatti 
 of fiicitus to be the Suevi of Cicsar. The fact 
 that the name Chatti does not occur in Ca'sar 
 renders this hypothesis by no means improbable." 
 — Tacitus, Germany, trans, by Church and Brod- 
 rihh, and note. — See, also, SuKVl. 
 
 CHAUCER, and his times. See England: 
 A. D. 1350-1400. 
 
 CHAUCI and CHERlISCI,.The.— "The 
 tribe of the Chauci . . . beginning at tlie Frisian 
 settlements and occupying a part of the coast, 
 stretches along the frontier of all the tribes 
 which I have enumerated, till it reaches with a 
 bend as fcr as the Chatti. This vast extent of 
 country is not merely possessed but densely 
 peopled by the Chauci, the noblest of the Ger- 
 man races, a nation who would maintain their 
 grnntnesw hy .igliteous dealing. Without am- 
 bition, without lawless violence, ... the crown- 
 ing prnf of their valour and their strength 
 is, that they keep up tlieir superiority without 
 harm to ethers. . . . Dwelling on one side of the 
 Chauci and Chatti, tlic Cherusci long cherished, 
 unossailed, au excessive and enervating love of 
 peace. This was more pleasant than safe, . . . 
 and so the Cherusci, ever reputed good and just, 
 are now called cowards and fools, while in tlie 
 case of tlie victorious Chatti success has been 
 identified with prudence. The downfall of the 
 Cherusci brt ught with it also that of the Fosi, a 
 neighbouring tribe." — "Tlie settlements of the 
 Chauci . . . nuist have included almost the en- 
 tire country between tlie ^ ^s and the Wes(!r — 
 that is, Oldenburg and ^ of Hanover — and 
 have taken in portions ot Westphalia about 
 Munstcr and Paderboni. The Cherusci . . . 
 appear to liave occupied Brunswick and the 
 south part of Hanover. Armiuius who destroyed 
 the Komau army under Varus, was a Clicruscim 
 chief. . . . The P\)si . . . must have occupied 
 part of Hanover. " — Tacitus, Minor Works, trans. 
 
 by Chureh and lirodribb: The Germany, iHth 
 (leoff. notes. — ULshop Stubbs conjectures that the 
 fthauci, Cherusci, and spme other tribes may 
 have been afterwards comprehended under the 
 general name "Saxon." See Saxons. 
 
 CHAZARS, The. See Kiiazaus. 
 
 CHEAT SUMMIT, Battle of. See United 
 States op Am. : A. D. 1861 (August — Decem- 
 uek: W?;st Vihoinia). 
 
 CHEBUCTO.— The original name of the 
 harbor chosen for the site of the city of Hali- 
 fax. See Nova Scotia: A. D. 1740-1755, and 
 Halifax: A. D. 1749. 
 
 CHEIROTONIA .—A vote by show of hands, 
 among the ancient Greeks. — Q. F. SchOmann, 
 Anttq. of Orcece: The State, pt. 8, eh. 3. 
 
 CHEML See Eovi'T : Its NA.ME8. 
 
 CHEMNITZ, Battle of (1639). Sec Ger- 
 many: A. D. 1634-1639. 
 
 CHERBOURG.— Destroyed by the Eng- 
 lish. See England: A. U. 1758 (July — August). 
 
 CHEROKEE WAR, The. See South 
 Cauoi.ina: a. D. 1759-1761. 
 
 CHEROKEES, The. See American Abo- 
 rigines: ChEKOKEES. 
 
 CHERRONESUS, The proposed State of. 
 See Northwest Territory of the United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1784. 
 
 CHERRY VALLEY, The massacre at. 
 
 See United States op Aji. : A. D. 1778 (June 
 — No'> ember). 
 
 CHERSON. See Bosphorus: A. D. 565- 
 574. 
 
 A. D. 988.— Taken by the Russians.— "A 
 thousand years after the rest of the Greek nation 
 was sunk in irremediable slavery, Cherson re- 
 mained free. Such a phenomenon as the ex- 
 istence of manly feeling in one city, when man- 
 kind everywhere else slept contented in a state 
 of political degradation, deserved attentive con- 
 sideration. . . . Cherson retained its position as 
 an independent State until the reign of Theo- 
 philus [Byzantine emperor A. D. 829-842], who 
 compellecl it to receive a governor from Con- 
 stantinople; but, even under the Byzantine 
 government, it continued to defend its municipal 
 institutions, and, instead of slavishly soliciting 
 the imperial favour, and adopting Byzantine 
 manners, it boasted of its constitution and self 
 government. But it gradually lost its former 
 wealth and extensive trade, and when Vladimir, 
 the sovereign of Russia, attacked it in 988, it 
 was betrayed into his hands by a priest, who in- 
 formed hiin how to cut off the water. . . . 
 Vladimir obtained the hand of Anno, the sister 
 of the emperors Basil XL and Constantine VIII., 
 and was baptised and married in the church of 
 the Panaghia at Cherson. To soothe the vanity 
 of the Empire, he pretended to retain possession 
 of his conquest as the dowry of his wife. Mony 
 of the priests who converted the Russians to 
 Christianity, and mLuy of the artists who 
 adorned the earliest Russian churches with 
 paintings and mosaics, were natives of Cherson. " 
 — G. Finlay, Hist, of the Byzantine Empire fro^n 
 
 716 to 1057. 
 
 « 
 
 CHERSONESE, The Golden. SceCHRYSE. 
 
 CHERSONESUS.— The Greek name for a 
 peninsula, or "laud-island," applied most especi- 
 ally to the long tongue of land between the 
 Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas. 
 
 CHERUSCI, The. See Cuaucl 
 
 408 
 
CHESAPEAKE AND SHANNON. 
 
 CrilCAQO. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE AND SHANNON, The 
 fight of the. Sci' L'.NITED 8t.vti:s ok Am. : A.I). 
 18l'i-I81i!. 
 
 CHESS, Origin of the game of,— "If wc 
 
 wisheil to know, for iiistanci!, wlio has tjiu>;ht us 
 tlie game of cliess, thu name of chess would tell 
 us better than anything else that it canio to the 
 West from Persia. In spite of all that lias been 
 written to the contrary, ches,s was originally the 
 game of Kings, the game «f Shahs. This worcl 
 Shall became in Old French eschac, It. scacco, 
 Germ. .Schach; while the Old French eschecs 
 was further corrupted into chess. Tlic more 
 original form chec has likewise been prcserve<l, 
 though wc little think of it when we draw a 
 clicquo, or when wo suffer a check, or wlien we 
 speak of the Chancellor of tlic E.\ehoquer. The 
 great object of the chess-player is to protect the 
 king, and when the king is in danger, the 
 opponent is obliged to say 'check,' i. e.. Shall, 
 tiie king. . . . After this the various meanings 
 of check, cheque, or exchequer become easily 
 intelligible, though it is quite true that if similar 
 changes of meaning, which in our case we can 
 watch by the light of history, had taken place in 
 the dimness of prehistoric ages, it would be 
 dilTlcult to convince the sceptic that exchequer, 
 or scaccarium, the name of the chess-board was 
 afterwards used for the checkered cloth on 
 which accounts were calculated by means of 
 counters, and that a checkered career was a life 
 with many cross-lines." — F. Max MUUer, Bio(i. 
 of Wordu, ch. 4. 
 
 CHESTER, Origin of. See Deva. 
 
 CHESTER, The Palatine Earldom. See 
 Palatine.Tue English Counties; also AVales, 
 
 PniNCE OP. 
 
 CHESTER, Battle of.— One of the fiercest 
 of the battles fought between the Welsh and the 
 Angles, A. I). 613. The latter wore the victors. 
 
 CHEVY CHASE. See Otteubuun, B.vtti.e 
 
 OP. 
 
 CHEYENNES, OR SHEYENNES, The. 
 
 See American Abouig INKS : Algonquian Fa.m- 
 
 ILY. 
 
 CHIAPAS : Ruins of ancient civilization in. 
 
 See Am Kuic.\N AnouiGiNEs ; Mayas ; and Mexico, 
 Ancient. 
 
 CHIARI, Battle of(i70i). Sec Italy (Savoy 
 AND Piedmont): A. D. 1(01-1713. 
 
 CHIBCHAS, The. Sec Ameuican Abo- 
 
 RIOINES: ClIIBCIIAK. 
 
 CHICAGO: AD. 1812.— Evacuation of the 
 Fort Dearborn Post, and massacre of most of 
 the retreating garrison. See United States 
 OK Am. : A. D. 1813 (.Iune— Octoiiek). 
 
 A. D. i860.— The Republican National Con- 
 vention. — Nomination of Lincoln. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1800 (Apuil— Novem- 
 ber). 
 
 A. D. 1871.- The great Fire.—" The greatest 
 event in the history of Chicago was the Great 
 Fire, as it is terme(i, which broke out on the 
 evening of Oct. 8, 1871. Chicago was at that 
 time [except in the bu.siness centre] a city of 
 wood. For a long time prior to the evening re- 
 ferred to there had been blowing a hot wind from 
 the southwest, which had dried everything to 
 the iuflammability of tinder, and it was ui)on a 
 mass of suu and wind-dried wooden structures 
 that the Are began its work. It is supposed to 
 have originated from the accidental upsetting of 
 a kerosene lamp in a cow barn [Mrs. O'Leary's] 
 
 27 
 
 409 
 
 on De Koven Street, near the corner of .Tcfforson, 
 on the west side of the river. Tnis region was 
 composed large'^' of shanties, and the fire spread 
 rapidly, very • 1 crossing the river to the South 
 Side, and fas ing on that portion of the city 
 which contained nearly all tiie leading business 
 hoiLses, and which was built up very largely witll 
 stone and brick. Rut it seemed to enkindle as 
 if it were tinder. Some buildings were blown 
 up with gunpowder, which, in connection with 
 the .strong southwest gale, prevented the exten- 
 sion of the Ihinies to the south. The tire swept 
 on Monday steadily to the north including every- 
 thing from the hike to the South Branch, and 
 then crossed to the Xorth Side, and, taking in 
 everything fnmi tli(^ lake to the North Branch, 
 it burned northward for a distance of three miles, 
 where it died out, at the city limits, when there 
 was nothing more to burn. In the midst of this 
 broad area of devastation, on the north side of 
 Washington Square, between Clark Street and 
 Dearborn Avenue, the well-known Ogden house 
 stands amid trees of the ancient forest and sur- 
 rounded by extensive grounds, the solitary relic 
 of that section of the city lieforc the liery tlood. 
 The total aren of the land burned over was 3,100 
 acres. Nearly 30,000 buildings were consumed; 
 100,000 people were rendered homeless; 200 lives 
 were lost, and the grand total of values destroyed 
 is estimated at |200,000,000. Of this vast sum, 
 nearly one-half was covered by insurance, but 
 under the tremendous losses many of the in- 
 surance companies were forced to the wall, and 
 went into liquidation, and the victims of the con- 
 flagration recovered only about one-flfth of their 
 aggregate losses. Among the buildings which 
 were burned were the court-house, custom-house 
 and post office, chamber of commerce, three rail- 
 way depots, nine daily newspaper oftlces, thirty- 
 two hotels, ten theatres and halls, eight public 
 schools and some branch sc'iool buildings, forty- 
 one churches, five elevators, .!nd all the national 
 banks. If the Great Fire was r.n event without 
 parallel in its dimensions and the magnitude of 
 Its dire results, 1 he charity which followed it was 
 equally unrivalled in its extent. . . . All the 
 civilized world appeared to instantly appreciate 
 the calamity. Food, clothing, supplies of every 
 kind, money, ".iiessages of atfection, sympathy, 
 etc., began pouring in at once in a stream that ap- 
 peared endless and bottomless. In all, the amount 
 contributed reached over §7,000,000. . . . It was 
 believed by many that the fire had forever blotted 
 out Chicago from the list of great American 
 cities, but the spirit of her people was undaunted 
 by calamity, and, encouraged by the generous 
 sympathy and help from all quarters, they set 
 to work at once to repair their almost ruined 
 fortunes. . . . Rebuilding was at once com- 
 menced, and, within a year after the fire, more 
 than $40,000,000 were expended in improvements. 
 The city came up from its ruins far more palatial, 
 splendid, strong and imperishable than before. 
 In one sense the fire was a benefit. Its consequence 
 was a class of structures far better, in every 
 essential respect, than before the conflagration. 
 Fire-proof buildings became the rule, the limits 
 of woo<l were carefully restricted, and the value 
 of the reconstructed portion imnieasuralily ex- 
 ceeded that of the city which li,n 1 been destroyed. " 
 —ifarquis' IfiiullMKik of C/iicai/u, p. 32.— "Thou- 
 sands of people on the North Side fleil far out on the 
 prairie, but other thousands, less fortunate, were 
 
CHICAGO. 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 Iicmmcd in before they could ronch the country, 
 and wen; driven to tlie Sands, n group of l)encii- 
 hillociis fronting on Lalie Micliigiui. Tlicsc liad 
 been covered willi rescued mereliamlise 'ind fui 
 niture. Tlie (lames fell fiercely upon the heaps 
 of goods, and the miserable refugees were driven 
 into the iilacli waves, wliere they stood neck-deep 
 in rhilllng water, scourged l>y sheets of sparks 
 and blowing sand. A great number of )<orses 
 had been collected hero, and they too dashed into 
 tlic sea, where scores of tliem were drowned. 
 Toward evening tlie Mayor sent a ticet of tow- 
 boats which took off tlie fugitives at the Sands. 
 When the ne.xtday [Tuesday, October 10] dawned, 
 the |)rairie was covered with the calcined ruins 
 of more than 17,000 buildings. . . . Tills was 
 the greatest and most disastrous c(mtlagration on 
 reconl. The burning of Mo.scow, in 1813, caused 
 ft loss amounting to .€30,000,000; but the loss at 
 Chicago was in excess of this amount. Tlie 
 Great Fire of London, in lOflO. devastated a tnict 
 of 486 acres, and lestroyed IJi.OOO buildings; but 
 that of f'hicago swept over 1,000 acres, and 
 burned more than 17,000 buildings." — M. P. 
 Swcetser, C'him;io (" Cities of the \YiirM," r. 1). 
 — The following is the statement of area burned 
 over, and of propt^rtv destroyed, made by tlie 
 Chicago l{elief and Aid Society, and wliicli is 
 probably authoritative: " The total area burned 
 over in the city, including streets, was 3, 124 acres, 
 or nearly tliree and one-third stiuare miles. Tliis 
 area contJiined about 7U miles of streets, 18,000 
 buildings, and the homes of 100,000 people." — 
 A. T. Andreas, IHkI. of Cliirarjo. v. 3, /). 760. 
 
 Ai-s«> IN: J]. Colbert and E. Chanibcrlnin, Chi- 
 ear/o and the Great ('onjliif/nitioii. 
 
 A. D. 1886-1887.— The Haymarket Con- 
 spiracy. — Crime of the Anarchists. — Their 
 trial and execution. — " In Februaiy, 1886, 
 Messrs. McCormick, large agriceUurnl machine 
 makers of Chicago, refusing to yii 1 to the 
 dictation of their workmen, who required tliem 
 to discharge some non-Union hands they 
 had taken on, announced a 'lock-out,' and pre- 
 pared to resume business as soon as possible witli 
 a new stalT. Spies, Lingg, and other German 
 Anarchists saw their opportunity. Tliey jier- 
 suaded the ousted workmen to prevent the 
 ' scabs,' — anglice, ' blacklegs, ' — from entering 
 the works on the day of their reopening. 
 Revolvers, rifles, aid bombs were readily found, 
 the latter being entrusted principally to the 
 hands of professional 'Ueds.' The most violent 
 a])peals were made to the members of Unions and 
 the populace generally ; but though a succession of 
 riots were got up, they were easily quelled by tlu! 
 resolute action of 'lie ])oliee, backed by the 
 approval of the immense majority of tlie people of 
 Chicago. Finally, a mass meeting in arms was 
 called' to take place on .May 4tli, 1886, at 7.!!0 i),m.. 
 In tlie Haymarket, u long and recently wideiK'd 
 stri'et of "the town, for the express purpose of 
 denouncing the police. IJut the intention of the 
 Anarchists was not merely to denounce the police : 
 this was the pretext only. The i)ris()ns were to 
 be forced, the police-stations blown up, the 
 public buildings attacked, and the onslaught on 
 property and capital to be inaugurated by the 
 devastation of one of the fairest cities of the 
 Union. By 8 p. m. a mob of some three or four 
 tliousand persons had been collected, and were 
 regaled by speeches that became more violent 
 as the night wore ou. At 10 p. in. tlie police 
 
 appeared in force. The crowd were commanded 
 to disperse peaceably. A voice shouted : ' We 
 arc peaceable. ' Captain Scliaack says this was a 
 signal. The words were hardly uttered when 
 'a spark flashed through the air. It looked like 
 (he lighted remnant of a cigar, but hissed like 
 a miniature sky-rocket.' It was a bomb, and 
 fell amid the ranks of the police. A terrific 
 explosion followed, and immediately afterwards 
 tlie mob opened Are upop the police. The latter, 
 stunned for a nionient, soon recovered them- 
 selves, returned the lire, charged the mob, and 
 in a couple of minutes dispersed it in every 
 direction. Hut eight of their comrades lay dead 
 upon tli(! pavement, and scores of others were 
 weltering in their blood around the spot. Such 
 was the Chicago outrage of May 4(li, 1886." — 
 The Spectator, Apr. 10, 1890 (reriewiny Sehaiirk'8 
 " Amirchy and Anarehintn"). — The Anarchists 
 who were arrested and brought to itrial for this 
 crime were eight in number, — August Spies, 
 Michael Schwab, Samuel Fielden, Albert H. 
 Parsons, Adolpli Fischer, George Engel, Louis 
 Lingg, and Oscar W. Neebe. Tlic trial began 
 July 14, 1886. The evidence closed on the 10th 
 of August ; the argument of council consumed 
 more tlian a week, and on the 20tli of August 
 the jury brought in a verdict which condemned 
 Neebe to imprisonment for fifteen years, and all 
 the other i)risoi'ers to death. Lingg committed 
 suicide in prison ; the sentences of Schwab and 
 Fielding wen; commuted by tlie Governor to 
 imprisonment for life; the remaining four were 
 hanged on the 11th of November, 1887. — Judge 
 Gary, The Chieai/o Anarchists of 1880 (Century 
 Mmi., April, 1893). 
 
 Also in: il. J. Scliaak, Anarchy and Anar- 
 ch ints. 
 
 A. D. 1892-1893.— The World's Columbian 
 Exposition. — " As a fitting imxle of celebrating 
 (he four hundredth anniversary of the landing of 
 Columbus on Oct. 13, 1493, it was proposed to 
 liave a universal exhibition in the United States. 
 Tlie idea was flrsi taken up by citizens of New 
 York, where subscriptions to the amount of 
 $5,000,000 were obtained from merchants and 
 capitalists before application was made for the 
 sanction and support of the Federal Government. 
 Wncn the matter came up in Congress the 
 claims of Chicago were considered superior, and 
 a bill was passed and approved on April 35, 
 1890, entitled ' An Act to provide for celebrating 
 the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery 
 of America by Christopher Columbus, by hold- 
 ing an international exhibition of arts, industries, 
 manufactures, and the products of the soil 
 mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the 
 State of Illinois.' Tlie iict provided for the 
 appointment of commissioners who should 
 organize tlie exposition. . . . Wlien the organ- 
 ization was completed and the stipulated fliiau- 
 cial support from the citizens and munieipali'.y 
 of Chicago assured, President Harrison, on Dec. 
 24, 1890, issued a proclamation inviting all the 
 nations of the earth to participate in the World's 
 (lolumbian Exposition. Since tlie time was too 
 sliort to have tlie grounds and buildings com- 
 pleted for the summer of 1893, as was originally 
 intenclcd, the opening of the exposition was 
 announced for May, 189!). When the work was 
 fairly begun it was accelerated, as many as 
 10,000 workmen being employed at one time, in 
 order to have the buildings ready to be dsdi- 
 
 410 
 
CHICAGO. 
 
 CHILE, 14S0-1734. 
 
 catcd with imposing ceremonios on Oct. 12, 1803, 
 in comniL'inomlion of tliu i'.\act date of the dis- 
 covery of Anicrica." — Appleton'a Annual Cydo- 
 padid, 1891, p. 8^7. —On .May 1, 180iJ, tlie Fair 
 was opened witli appropriate ceremonies hy 
 President Cleveland. 
 
 CHICASAS, The. Sec American Abo- 
 BloiNKs: MusKiiooKAN FAMILY; also, Louisi- 
 ana: A. D. 1719-t7r)0. 
 
 CHICHIMECS, The. See .Mexico: A. D. 
 
 CHICKAHOMINY, Battles on the (Gaines' 
 Mill, 1862; Cold Harbor, 1864). See Unitkd 
 Status ok Am.: A. I). ISO'J (.Tune— July: 
 ViK(iiNiA); and lHfi4(.MAY — Jt;xi;: Viikhnia). 
 
 CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of. See United 
 States of Am, : A. I). 1863 (August— Septem- 
 ber: Tennknskk). 
 
 CHICORA. — Tlie name given to the region of 
 South Carolina by its Spanish discoverers. Sec 
 America: A. D. l.JlO-l.T'.l 
 
 CHILDEBERT L, King of the Franks, at 
 
 Paris, A. I). oll-r),j8 CTiildebert 11., King 
 
 of the Franks (Austrasia), A. 1). .")?."i-.VJ{I; 
 
 (Burgundy), rm-rm Childebert HL, King 
 
 of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. I). 
 60.'>-711. 
 
 CHILDERIC U., King of the Franks (Aus- 
 trasia), A. 1). 0(10-078 Childeric UL, King 
 
 of the Franks (Neustria), A. 1). 743-753. 
 
 CHILDREN OF REBECCA. See ItEBEC- 
 CAITE8. 
 
 CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, The. Set) 
 Crusades: A. D. 1313. 
 
 CHILE:' The Araucanians. — "The land of 
 Chili, from f!0" south latitude, was and is still in 
 part occupied by several tribes who speak tlie 
 same language. They form the fourth and most 
 southern group of the Andes people, and are 
 called Araucanians. Like almost all American 
 tribal names, the term Araucanian is indefinite ; 
 sometimes it is restricted to a single band, and 
 som. ''.nes so extended as to embrace a group of 
 tribes. Some regard them as a separate family, 
 calling them Chilians, while others, whom we 
 follow, regard them as the soutliern members of 
 the Andes group, and still others class them 
 with the Pampas Indians. The name Araucanian 
 is an improper one, introduced by the Spaniards, 
 but it is so firmly fixed that it cannot be changed. 
 The native names are Mohiche (warriors) and 
 Alapuche (natives). Originally thev extended 
 from Coquimbo to the Chonos Archipelago aiul 
 from ocean to ocean, and even now they extend, 
 though not very far, to the east of the Cordilleras. 
 They are divided into four (or, if we include tlie 
 Picuhcho, five) tribes, the names of which all end 
 In ' tche ' or 'che,' the word for man. Other 
 minor divisions exist. The entf'c number of the 
 Araucanians is computed at about 30,000 
 souls, but it is decreasing by sickness as well as 
 by vice. They are owners of their land and have 
 cattle in abundance, pay no taxes, nml even their 
 labor in the construction of liigliways is only 
 light. They are warlike, brave, and still enjoy 
 some of the blessings of the Inca civilization; 
 only_ the real, western Araucanians in Chili have 
 attained to a sedentary life. Long before the 
 arrival of the Spauia.ds the government of the 
 Araucanians offered a striking resemblance to the 
 military aristocnicy of the old world. All the 
 rest that has been written of their higli stage of 
 
 culture has proved to be an empty picture of 
 fancy. Tlicy followed ngriculfure, built fixed 
 lioii.ses, and made at least an attempt at a form 
 of governnient, but they still remain, as a wliohi, 
 cruel, plundering savages." — T/ie StandttrJ 
 Niituml Hint. (J. H. Kinf/slei/, ed.), v, 6, ;)/). 
 333-334.— " Tlie Araucanians inlialiit the delight- 
 ful region between tlii' Andes iind the sea. and 
 between the rivers Hio-bio and Valdivia. They 
 derive tlie api>ellation of Ariiucaiiians from the 
 province of Aniiico. . . . The i)i)litical division 
 of the Araucanian .state is regulated with much 
 intelligence. It is divided from north to south 
 into four governments. . . . Each government 
 is divided into five provinces, and each piovlnco 
 into nine counties. Tlie state; consists of three 
 orders of nobility, each being subordinate to tlio 
 other, and all having tlieir respective vassals. 
 They are the Txiui.s, the .Vpo-Ulmenes, and the 
 Ulmenes. The Toqiiis. or governors, are four in 
 numlier. They are independent of each oilier, 
 but confederated for the public welfare. The 
 Arch-Ulmenes govern flie provinces under their 
 resiiective Toquis. Tuo Ulmenes govern the 
 i counties. The upper ranks, generally, are like- 
 I wise comprehended under the term Ulmenes." — 
 R. G. Watson, Spanish ami Porttiytwse S. Am., 
 v. 1, ch. 13. 
 
 Ai-SoiN: J. I. Molina, Oeog., Natural and Civil 
 Hint, of Chili, i\ 3, bh. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1450-1724. — The Spanish conquest. — 
 The Araucanian War of Independence. — " In 
 the year 14.50 the Peruviin Iiiea, Yupauqui, 
 desirous of extending his d( minions towards the 
 south, stationed himself wit.'i a powerful army 
 at Atacama. Thence he dispatched a forces of 
 10,000 men to Chili, under the command of 
 Chincliiruea, w' o, overcon;ing almost incredible 
 obstacles, inarched through 1: sandy de.sert as far 
 as Copiapo, a di.stance of 80 leagues. The 
 Ci^piapins flew to arms, and preiiared to resist 
 tills invasion. But Chinchirue.i, true to the 
 policy which the Incas always observed, stood 
 upon the defensive, trusting to persuasion rather 
 than to force for the accomplishment of his 
 d ■ igns. . . . Willie he proffered peace, he 
 wiiued them of the consequences of resisting 
 the ' Children of the Sun.' " After wavering for 
 a time, the Copianins submitted themselves to 
 the rule of the Incas. " The adjoining province 
 of Coquimbo was easily subjugated, and steadily 
 advancing, the Peruvians, some six years after 
 their first entering the country, firmly established 
 t.hcm.selves in the valley of Chili, at a distance 
 of more than 300 leagues from the frontier of 
 Atacama. Tlie ' Children of the Sun ' had met 
 thus far with li*,tlc resistance, and, encouraged 
 by success, they marched their victoiious armies 
 agaiiLst the Purumancians, a warlike people 
 living beyond the rivsr Rapel." Here they were 
 desperately resisted, in a battle which lasted 
 three days, and from which both armies witli ■ 
 drew, undefeated and unvictorious. On learning 
 this result, the Inca Yupanqul ordered his gen- 
 erals to relinquish all ittempts at further con. 
 quest, and to " seek, vy the introduction of wise 
 laws, and by instructing the people iii agricuK 
 turc and the arts, to establish themselves more 
 firmly in the territory already acquired. To 
 what extent the Peruvians were successful in 
 the cndaavor to ingr.ift their civilization, religion, 
 and customs upon the Chilians, it is at iliLi distaut 
 day impossible to determine, since the earliest 
 
 411 
 
CHILE, 1450-1784. 
 
 CHILE, 1810-1818. 
 
 historiiins difTer widely on tlit subject. Certain 
 it is, that on the arrival of tlic Spaniards the 
 Incas, at least nominally, ruled tlie country, 
 and received an annual tribute of gokl from the 
 people. In the year l.^SS, after the death of the 
 unfortunate Inca Alahuullpu, Diego Ahnagro, 
 fired by the love of glory and the thir.st for 
 gold, yiehled to the solicitations of Fnuiei.sco 
 Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, and .set out for 
 the subjection of (.'hili, which, as yet, had not 
 been visited by any European. His arniy con- 
 sisted of 570 H|)aniards, well cquippeil, and 
 15,000 Peruvian auxiliaries. Regardless of diffi- 
 culties and dangers this impetuous soldier se- 
 lected the nec.r route that lay along the summits 
 of tlie Andes, in preference to the more circuitous 
 road passing through the desert of Atacama. 
 Upon the horrors of this inarch, of which so 
 thrilling an account is given by Pre.scott in the 
 'Conquest of Peru,' it is unnecessary for us to 
 dwell ; suffice it to state th'it, on reaching Copiapo 
 no less than one-fourth of his Snanish troops, 
 and two-thirds of his Indian ajxilia'ies, had 
 perished from the effects of cold, fatigue and 
 starvation. . . . Everywhere the Spaniards met 
 with a friendly reception from the natives, who 
 regarded them as a superior race of beings, and 
 the after conquest of tlie country would probably 
 hi ve been attended with no dilticulty had a con- 
 ciliatory policy been adojited ; but this naturally 
 inoffensive people, aroused by acts of the most 
 barbarous cruelty, soon flew to arms. Despite 
 the opposition of the natives, who were now 
 rising in every direction to oppose his marcli, 
 Almagro kept on, overcoming every obstacle, 
 until he reached the river Cachapoal, the north- 
 ern boundary of the Purumauciau territory." 
 Here he met with so 8tid)born and effective a 
 resistance that he abandoned his expedition and 
 returned to Peru, where, soon after, he lost his 
 life [see Peru: A. D. 153:5-1548] in a co.^test 
 with the Pizarros. " Pizarro, ever desirous of 
 conquering Chili, in 1540 dispatched Pedro Val- 
 divia for that purpose, with some 200 Spanish 
 soldiers and a large body ot Peruvians." The 
 invasion of Valdivia was opposed from the 
 moment he entered the country ; but he pushed 
 on until he reached the river Mapoclio, and 
 "encamped upon the site of the present capital 
 of Chili. Valdivia, finding the locution pleasant, 
 and the surrounding jilain fertile, here founded 
 a city on the 24tli of February, 1541. To this 
 first European settlement in Chili he gave the 
 name of Santiago, in honor of the patron saint 
 of Spain. lie laid out the town in Spanish 
 style ; and as a place of refuge in case of attack, 
 erected a fort upon a steep rocky hill, rising 
 some 200 feet above the plain. " Tlie Mapochins 
 soon attacked the infant town, drove its people 
 to the fort and burned their settlement; but were 
 finally repulsed with dreadful slaughter. "On 
 the arrival of a second army from Peru, Valdivia, 
 whose ambition had "Iways been to conquer the 
 southern provi.iccs o* Chili, advanced into the 
 country (if the Parumancians. Here history is 
 probably d(^fccti\e, as we have no account of 
 a'iy battles fought with these brave peoj/le. . . . 
 We simply learn tliat the Spanish leader eventu- 
 ally gained their good-will, and established with 
 them an alliance both offensive and defensive. 
 ... In the following year (1546) the Spanish 
 forces crossed the river Maule, the southern 
 boundary of the Purumancians, and advanced 
 
 toward the Itata. While encamped near the 
 latter river, they were attacked at dead of night 
 by a body of Araucanians. So unexpected was 
 the approach of this new enemy, that many of 
 the horses were cajitured, and the army with 
 difficulty escaped total destruction. After this 
 terrible defeat, Valdivia finding himself unable 
 to proceed, returned to Santiago. " Soon after- 
 wards he went to Peru for reinforcements and 
 was absent two years; but came oack, at the end 
 of that time, with a large band of followers, aud 
 marched to the South. "Keaching the bay of 
 Talcahuano without liaving met with any oppo- 
 sition, on the 5th of October, 1550, he founded 
 the city of Concepcion on a site at present known 
 as Penco." The Araucanians, advancing boldly 
 upon the Spaniards at Concepcion, were defeated 
 in a furious battle which cost the invaders many 
 lives. Three years I'lter, in December, 1553, the 
 Araucanians liad their revenge, routing the 
 Spaniards utterly and pursuing them so funously 
 that only two of their whole army escaped. 
 Valdivia was among the prisoners taken and was- 
 slain. Again and again, under the lead of a 
 youthful hero, Lautaro, and a vigorous toqui, or 
 chief, named Caupolican, the Araucanians as- 
 sailed the invaders of their country with success; 
 but the latter increased in numbers and gained 
 ground, at last, for a time, building towns and 
 extending settlements in the Araucanian territory. 
 The indomitable people were not broken ii» 
 spirit, however; and in 1598, by an universal and 
 simultaneous rising, they expelled tlie Spaniards 
 from almost every settlement they had made. 
 "In 1602 ... of the numerous Spanish forts 
 and settlements south of the Bio-Bio, Naciiniento 
 and Arauco only had not fallen. Valdivia and 
 Osorno were afterward rebuilt. About the same 
 time a fort was erected at Boroa. This fort was 
 soon after abandoned. Valdivia, Osorno, Naci- 
 miento, and Arauco still remain. But of all the 
 ' cities of the plain ' lying within the boundaries 
 of the haughty Araucanians, not one ever rose 
 from its oshes; their names exist only in liistory ;, 
 and the sites where they once flourished are now 
 marked by ill-detiued and grass-grown ruins. 
 From the period of their fall dates the independ- 
 ence of tlie Araucanian nation; for though a 
 hundred years more were wasted in the vain 
 attempt to reconquer the heroic people . . . the 
 Spaniards, weary of constant war, and disheart- 
 ened by tlie loss of so much blood and treasure, 
 were Anally compelled to sue for peace ; and in 
 1724 a treaty was ratified, acknowledging their 
 freedom, aud establishing the limits of their terri- 
 tory." — E. K. Smith, The Araiiamiaiis, cli. 11-14. 
 
 Also in: R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portu- 
 {lueseS. Am., r. l,ch. 12-14. — J. I. Molina, Qeog., 
 .Natund and Vivil Hist, of Chili, v. 2, bk. 1, 3-4. 
 
 A. D. 1568. — The Audiencia established. 
 See Ai:dienc'i.\s. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1818. — The achievement of in- 
 dependence. — San Martin, the Liberator. — 
 " Chili lirst threw off the Spanish yoke in Sep- 
 tember, 1810 [on the pretext of fidelity to the 
 Bourbon king dethroned by Xapoleon], but the 
 national independence was not fully established 
 till April 1818. During the intermediate period, 
 the dissensions of the different parties; their dis- 
 putes as to the form of government and the law 
 of election; with other distracting causes, arising 
 out of the ambition of turbulent individuals, and 
 the inexperience of the whole nation in political 
 
 412 
 
CHILE, 1810-1818. 
 
 CHILE. 1833-1884. 
 
 affaire ; so materially retarded the union of tlie 
 cowntry, tliat tlie Spaniards, by Hcnding expedi- 
 tions from Peru, were eiialilcd, in 1(H14, to regain 
 their lost authority in Cliili. Meanwliiie tlic 
 Oovcnnnent of IJucnos Ayrcs, tlio independence 
 of wliicli liad been establislied in 1810 [see Aii- 
 OENTINE Kkpuiii.ic: A. D. 1800-1820], naturally 
 dreaded that tlie Spaniards would not long be 
 confined to the western side of tlio Andes; but 
 would speedily make a descent upon the prov- 
 inces of the River Piute, of which Buenos Ayres 
 is the capital. In order to guard against this for- 
 midable danger, they bnively resolved themselves 
 to become tlie invaders, and by great exertions 
 equipped an army of 4,000 men. The command 
 of this force was given to General Don Jose de 
 San Jilartin, a native of the town of Yapeyu in 
 Paraguay ; a man greatly beloved by all ranks, 
 and held in such high estimation by the people, 
 that to his personal exertions the formation of 
 this army is cliicflv due. With these troops San 
 Martin entered Chili by a pass over the Andes 
 heretofore deemed inaccessible, and on the 12th 
 of February, 1817, attacked and completely de- 
 feated the royal army at Chacabuco. Tlie 
 Cliilians, thus freed from the immediate presence 
 of the enemy, elected Gcnenil O'Higgins [see 
 Peru: A. D. 1550-1816] as Director; and lie, in 
 1818, offered the Chilians a constitution, and 
 nominated live senators to administer the affairs 
 of the country. This meritorious oflicer, an 
 J isliman by descent, though born in Chili, has 
 
 er since [1825] remained at the head of the 
 government. It was originally proposed to elect 
 General San Martin as Director; but this he 
 steadily refused, proposing his companion in 
 anns, O'Higgins, in his stead. Tlie remnant of 
 the Spanish army took refuge in Talcuhuana, a 
 fortified sea-port near Conception, on the southern 
 frontier of Chili. Vigorous measures were taken 
 to reduce this place, but, in tlie beginning of 
 1818, the Viceroy of Peru, by draining that prov- 
 ince of its best troops, sent off a body of 5,000 
 men under General Osorio, who succeeded in 
 joining the Spaniards shut up in Talcuhuana. 
 Thus reinforced, the Itoyal army, amounting in 
 all to 8, 000, drove back tlio Chilians, marched on 
 the capital, and gained other considerable advan- 
 tages; particularly in a night attack at Talca, on 
 the 19th of March 1818, where the Royalists 
 almost entirely dispersed the Patriot forces. San 
 Martin, however, who, after the battle of Chaca- 
 buco, had been named Commander-in-chief of 
 the united armies of Chili and Buenos Ayres," 
 rallied his army and equipped it anew so quickly 
 that, " on the 5th of April, only 17 days after his 
 defeat, he engaged, and, after an obstinate and 
 sanguinary contlict, completely routed tlie Span- 
 ish army on the plains of Maypo. From tliat 
 day Chili may date her complete independence ; 
 for althougli a small portion of the Spanish 
 troops endeavoured to make a stand at Concep- 
 tion, they were soon driven out and the country 
 left in the free possession of the Patriots. Having 
 now time to breathe, the Chilian Government, 
 aided by that of Buenos Ayres, determined to 
 attack the Royalists in their turn, by sending an 
 armament against Peru [see Peuu: A. D. 1830- 
 1820] — a great and bold measure, originating 
 with San Martin." — Capt. B. Hall, ExtrcKts from 
 ajounuil, t. \, ch. 1. 
 
 Also in : J. Sliller, Menwira of General Miller, 
 cJi. 4r-7(». 1). — T. Sutcliffe, Sixteen Years in Chili 
 
 and Pern, eh. 2-4.— Gen. R. Mitre, Th" Eman- 
 ei}xitioii of S. Aiiieriea : Hint, nf Sin .\fiirtin. 
 
 A. D. 1820-1826.— Operations in Peru. See 
 Peiii;; A, 1). 1820-1820. 
 
 A. D. 1833-1884. — A successful oligarchy 
 and its constitution. — The war with Peru and 
 Bolivia. — "After tlu; perfettion of its national 
 independence, the Chilean government soon 
 pa.s.sed into the permanent control of civilians, 
 ' while the other governments of the west coast 
 remained priz<'s for military chieftains,' Its 
 present constitution was framed in 1833. and 
 though it is only half a century old ' it is the 
 oldest written national constitution in force in 
 all the world except our own, unless the Magna 
 Cliarta of England be included in the category.' 
 The political history of Chile during the fifty 
 years of its life has been that of a well ordered 
 commonwealth, but one of a most unusual and 
 interesting sort. Its government has never been 
 forcibly overthrown, and only one serious at- 
 tempt at revolution lias been made. Chile is in 
 name and in an important sense a republic, and 
 yet its government is an oligarchy. Suffrage is 
 restricted to those male citizens who are regis- 
 tered, who are twenty-five years old if unmar- 
 ried and twenty-one if married, and who can 
 read and write; and there is also a stringent 
 property qualification. The consequence is tliat 
 tlie privilege of voting is confined to an aristoc- 
 racy : in 1876, the total number of ballots thrown 
 for president was onlj' 46,114 in a population of 
 about two and a quarter millions. The presi- 
 dent of Chile has immense powers of nomina- 
 tion and appointment, and when he is a man of 
 vigorous will he tyrannically sways public 
 policy, and can almost always dictate tlie name 
 of his successor. The government has thus 
 become practically vested in a comparatively 
 small number of leading Chilean families. There 
 is no such thing as ' public opinion ' in the sense 
 in which we use the phrase, and the newspapera, 
 though ably conducted, do not attempt, as they 
 do not desire, to change the existing order of 
 tilings, 'History,' says Mr. Browne, 'does 
 not furnisli an example of a more powerful 
 political " machine " under the title of republic; 
 nor, 1 am bound to say, one which has been 
 more aiily directed so far as conc(!rns the ag- 
 grandizement of the countrj', or more honestly 
 administered so far as concerns jiecuniary cor- 
 ruption.' Tlie population of Chile doubled be- 
 tween 1848 and 1875; the quantity of land 
 brought under tillage was quadrupled; . . . 
 more than 1,000 miles of railroad were built; a 
 foreign export trade of |31, 695,039 was reported 
 in 1878; and two powerful ironclads, which 
 were destined to play a most important part in 
 Chilean affairs, were built in England. Mean- 
 while, the constitution was officially interpreted 
 so as to guarantee religious toleration, and tlie 
 political power of the Roman Catholic priest- 
 hood diminished. Almost everything good, 
 except home manufactures and popular educa- 
 tion, flourished. The develo])ment of the nation 
 in tlicse years was on a wonderful sc'ale for a 
 South American state, and the contrast between 
 Chile and Peru was peculiarly striking. . . . 
 Early in 1879 began the great series of events 
 which were to make the fortune of Chile. We 
 use the wonl 'great,' in its low, superficial 
 sense, and without the attribution of any moral 
 signiflcauce to the adjective. The aggressor in 
 
 413 
 
CHILE, 1833-1884. 
 
 CHILE, 1885-1891. 
 
 the war botwocn Chilo and Peru was inspired b_v 
 thf most jMiri'ly soltlsh motives, iind it rcinains 
 to ln' wen wlirtlicr tlio just gods will not win in 
 tlic ionK run, even tliouRli tlio gamo of tlicir 
 anlaKonists bo played with lioavily plated iron- 
 clads. . . . At the date last mentioned Chile was 
 sufTerinif, lik<! many other nations, from a general 
 depression in business pursuits. Its people 
 w(!re in no serious trouble, but as a govornment 
 it was in a bad way. . . . The means to keep 
 up a sinking fund for the foreign del)t had 
 failed, and the (hilean live per eents were 
 <]Uoled ill London at si.vty-l'oiir. 'A i)olitieal 
 eloud also was darkening again in tin; north, in 
 the renewal of something like a confederation 
 between IN'rii and Holivia.' In this state 
 of things the governing oligareliy of Chile 
 decided, rather suddenly, Mr. Urowne thinks, 
 upon a scheme whicli was sun; to result either 
 in splendid prosperity or al)solnte ruin, and 
 which comeinplatcd nothing less than a war of 
 conquest against Peru and l5olivia, with a view 
 to se'i/.ing the most valuable territory of the 
 former countrj'. There is a certain strip of land 
 bordering >ipon the Pacilic and about 401) miles 
 long, of which tlie northern tliree quarters be- 
 longed to Peru and Bolivia, the remaining one 
 quarter to Chile. Upon this land a heavy rain 
 never falls, and often years pass in whicli the 
 soil does not feel a shower. . . . Its money value 
 is immense. ' From this region the world de- 
 rives almost its whole supply of nitrates — 
 chieHy saltpetre — and of iodine;' its mountains, 
 also, are rich in metals, anil great deposits of 
 gimno are found in the highlands bordering the 
 sea. The nitrate-bearing country is a plain, 
 from lifty to eighty miles wide, the nitrate lying 
 in layers just below a thin sheet of impacted 
 stones, gravel, and sand. The export of salt- 
 petre from this region was valued in 1883 at 
 nearly po,000,000, and the worth of the Peruvian 
 section, wliich is much the largest and most pro- 
 ductive, is estimated, for government purposes, 
 at a capital of $600,000,000. Cliile was, natu- 
 rally, well aware of the wealth which lay so 
 close to her own doors, and to possess herself 
 thereof, and thus to rehabilitate her national 
 fortunes, she addressed herself to war. The 
 occasion for war was easily found. Bolivia was 
 first attacked, a difficulty whii li arose at her 
 port of Antofagasta, with respect to her en- 
 forcement of a tax upon some nitrate works 
 carried on by a Cliilean company, affording a 
 good pretext; and when Peru attempted inter- 
 vention her envoy was confronted with Chile's 
 knowledge of a secret treaty between Peru and 
 Bolivia, and war was formally declared by Chile 
 upon Peru, April 5, 1879. This war lasted, 
 with some breatliing spaces, for almost exactly 
 five years. At the outset the two belligerent 
 powers — Bolivia being soon practically out of 
 the contest — seemed to be about equal in ships, 
 soldiers, and resources ; but the supremacy which 
 Chile soon gained upon the seas svibstantially 
 determined the war in her favor. Each nation 
 owned two powerful iron-clads, and six months 
 were employed in settling the question of naval 
 superiority. ... On the 21st of May, 1879, the 
 Peruvian fleet attacked and almost destroyed the 
 Chilean wooden frigates which were blockading 
 Iquique ; but in chasing a Chilean corvette tlie 
 larger Peruvian iron-clad — the Independencia — 
 ran too near the shore, and was fatally wrecked. 
 
 ' So Pent lost one of her knights. The game she 
 played with the other — the iluascar — was ad- 
 mirable, hut a losing one;' and on the 8th of 
 October of the same year the Iluascar was 
 attacked by the Chilean licet, which included 
 two ironclads, and was finally captured 'after a 
 desperate! resistance' . . . From this moment 
 the Peruvian coast was at Chile's mercy: the 
 (Jhilean arms prevailed in every pitclied battle, 
 at San Francisco [November 10, 187i)J, at Tacna 
 I .May 26, 1880], at Arica [.Uuw 7, 1880] ; and 
 flnafly. >"i the 17lh of .January, 1881, after a 
 series of actions whicli resembled in some of 
 tlieir <l(!tails the engagements that preceded our 
 capture of the city of .Slexico [ending in what is 
 known as the Battle of Miratloresl, the victorious 
 army of Chile took po.ssession of Lima, the capi- 
 tal of Peru. . . . The results of the war have 
 thus far exceeded the wildest hopes of Chile. 
 She has taken absolute possession of the whole 
 nitrate region, has cut liolivia oil from the scui, 
 and achieved the permanent dissolution of the 
 Peni-Bolivian confederation. As a consequence, 
 her foreign trade lias doubled, the revenue of 
 her government has been trebled, and the public 
 debt greatly reduced. The Chilean bonds, whicli 
 were sold at 64 in London in tianuary, 1879, and 
 fell to 60 in March of that year, at the announce- 
 ment ui uio war, were quoted at 95 in .January, 
 l'<8t."— 7'/ic Orowing Poieer of the Jtepuhlic of 
 Vhile (Atlantic Monthly, July, "1884). 
 
 Also in: II. Birkedal, The lute M'^ar iiiS. Am. 
 (Ore.rliind jVonthli/, Jan., Feb., and Afarch, 1884). 
 — C. li. Markhani, The War bet. Peru, and Chile. 
 — H. N. Boyd, Chile, ch. IQ-n.—.Veasage of tlie 
 Prca't oftiM v. 8., transmittinq Papers relating to 
 the War in 8. Am., Jan. 36, 1883.— T. W. Knox, 
 Decisive Battles since Waterloo, ch. 23. — See, also, 
 Peuu: a. U. 1826-1876. 
 
 A. D. 1885-1891.— The presidency and dic- 
 tatorship of Balmaceda. — His conflict with 
 the Congress. — Civil 'war. — "Save in the one 
 struggle m which tlie parties re-sorted to arms, 
 the political development of Chili was free from 
 civil disturbances, and the ruling class was dis- 
 tinguished among the Spanish- American nations 
 not only for wealth and education, but for its 
 talent for government and love of constitutional 
 liberty. Tlie republic was called ' the England 
 of South America,' and it was a common boast 
 that in Chili a pronunciamicnto or a revolution 
 was impossible. The spirit of modern Liberalism 
 became more prevalent. ... As the Liberal 
 party became all-powerful it split into factions, 
 divided by questions of principle and by strug- 
 gles for leadership and olHce. . . . The patron- 
 age of the Chilian President is enormous, em- 
 bracing not only tlie general civil service, but 
 local officials, except in the municipalities, and 
 all appointments in the army and navy and in 
 the telegraph and railroad services and the giv- 
 ing out of contracts. The President has always 
 been able to select his successor, and has exer- 
 cised this power, usually in liarmony with the 
 wishes of intliumtial statesmen, sometimes call- 
 ing a conference of party chiefs to decide on a 
 candidate. In tlie course of time the more ad- 
 vanced wing of the Liberals grew more numer- 
 ous than the Motlerates. The most radical 
 section had its nucleus in a Reform Club in 
 Santiago, composed of young university men, of 
 whom Balmaceda was the finest orator. Enter- 
 ing Congress in 1868, he took a leading part in 
 
 414 
 
CHILE, 1885-1891. 
 
 CIIIMAUIKAN FAMILY. 
 
 debates. ... In 1885 lie was the most popular 
 mun in the country ; but his cliiim to t!ie jiresi- 
 (lential succession was cont<.'8t<,'il by various otlicr 
 aspirants — older politicians und leaders of fac- 
 tions striving for supremacy in Coi):<rcss. He 
 was elected by an overwlielniing majority, and 
 as President enjoyed an unexampled degree of 
 popularity. For two or tlnfc years the politi- 
 cians who had been his party associates worked 
 in liarmony witli his ideas. ... At tlie lloml of 
 the democratic tide he was tiie most popidar 
 man in Soutli America. Hut when the old 
 teriitorial families saw the seats in Congress and 
 tile posts in tiie civil service tliat had been their 
 l)rerogative Ulled by new men, and fortunes 
 made Ijy upstarts wliere all chances had been at 
 their disposid, tlien a reaction .set in, corruption 
 was scented, and Jloderato Liberals, joining 
 hands witli the Nationalists and the reviving 
 Conservative party, formed an opposition of 
 respectable strength. In the earlier part of his 
 administration Baimaceda had the co-operation 
 of the Nationalists, wlio were represented in the 
 Cabinet. In the last two years of his term, when 
 the time drew near for selecting his successor, 
 defection and revolt and the rivalries of aspir- 
 ants for tlie succession tlirew the party into dis- 
 order and angered its Intlierto unciuesticmed 
 leader. ... In January, 1890, the Opposition 
 were strong euoiigii to place their candidate in 
 tlie chair when the House of Hepreseutatives 
 organizctd. Tlie ministry resigned, and a conllict 
 between tlie E.xccutive and legislative brandies 
 of the Government was openly begun when 
 the President appointed a Cabinet of liis own 
 selection. . . . This ministry had to face an over- 
 whelming majority against tlie President, whicli 
 treated hini as a dictator and began to pass hos- 
 tile laws and resolutions that were vetoed, 
 and refused to consider the measures that he 
 recommended. The ministers wen; cited before 
 tlie Chambers and questioned about the manner 
 of tlieir appointment. Tlicy either declined to 
 answer, or answered in a way tliat increased the 
 animosity of Congress, whicli finally passed a 
 vote of censure, in obedience to which, as was 
 usual, the Cabinet resigned. Tlieu Baimaceda 
 apjiointed a ministry in open detiance of Con- 
 gress, witli Sanfuentes at its head, tlie man who 
 was already spoken of as his selected candidate 
 for the presidency. He prepared for tlie strug- 
 gle that lie invited by removing the chiefs of the 
 administration of the departments and replacing 
 them witli men devoted to himself and liis policy, 
 and making clianges in the police, tlie militia, 
 und, to some extent, in the army and navy com- 
 mands. The jjress denounced i.im as a dictator, 
 and indignation meetings were held in every 
 town. Baimaceda and his supporters pretended 
 to be not only the champions of the people 
 against tlie aristocracy, but of the principle 
 of Chili for the Chilians." — Appletoii's Annual 
 Ci/dop.,-[mi,pp. 133-124.— " Tlie conllict between 
 President Baimaceda und Congress riiiened into 
 revolution. On January 1, 1891, the Opposition 
 members of tlie Senate and House of Deputies 
 met, and signed an Act declaring that tlio Presi- 
 dent was unworthy of his post, and that he was 
 no longer head of tlie State nor President of tlio 
 Republic, as he had violated the Constitution. 
 On January 7 the navy declared in favour of the 
 Legislature, and against Baimaceda. The Presi- 
 dent denounced the luvy as traitors, abolished all 
 
 the laws of the country, declared himself Dicta- 
 tor, and proelaimcil martini law. It was a reign 
 of terror. The Opposition recruited an army in 
 the Island of Santa .Maria under Oeneral Urrutia 
 and Commander Canto. ( )u Fi'bruary It a severe 
 light took place witli the (lovernment troops 
 in Liuiiiue, and the (Congressional army took 
 
 i)ossession of Pisa(j;ua. In April, President 
 ialmaceda . . . delivered a long message, de- 
 nouncing tlie navy. . . . The contest continued, 
 and April 7, Ariea, in tlie province of Tar- 
 apaca, was taken by the revolutionists. Some 
 naval lights occurred later, and the iron-clad 
 Blanco Encalada was blown up by the Dicta- 
 tor's torpedo cruisers. Finally, on August 21, 
 General Canto landed at Concon, ten miles north 
 of Valparaiso. Balniaeeda's forces attacked im- 
 mediately and were routed, losing 8,500 killed 
 and wounded. The Congress army lost COO. 
 On the 2«tli a <lecisive battle was fought at Pla- 
 cilla, near Valparaiso. The Dictator liad 12,000 
 troops, and the opposing army 10,000. Balnia- 
 eeda's forces WL'tr, completely routed after live 
 hours' hard ligliting, with aloss of 1.500 men. 
 Santiago formally siirrendered, and tlie triumph 
 of tile Congress party was complete, A Junta, 
 headed by Sefior Jorge Montt, tcuik charge of , 
 alTairs at Valparaiso August iiO. Baimaceda, 
 who had taken refuge at the Argentine Lega- 
 tion in Santiago, was not able to make his escape, 
 and to avoid capture, trial, and punishment, com- 
 mitted suicide, September 20, by rshooting him- 
 .self. On the 19tli November Admiral Jorge 
 .Montt was chosen by the Electoral College, at 
 Santiago, President of Cliili, and on December 26 
 he was installed with gi'eat ceremony anrl general 
 rejoicings." — Annual /iiyister, 1891, p. 420. 
 
 CHILIARCHS.— Captains of thousands, in 
 the army of tlio Vandals. — T. Hodgkin, Italy 
 and Tier Invadem, bk. 3, eh. 2. 
 
 CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of (1840). 
 See India: A. D. 1845-1849. 
 
 CHILPERICL, King of the Franks (Neus- 
 
 tria), A. D. 561-584 Chilperic II., King of 
 
 the Franks, A. D. 71.5-720. 
 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS, Applying for 
 the Stev7ardship of the. — A seat in the lintish 
 House of Coninums "cannot be resigned, nor 
 can a man wiio has once formally taken his seat 
 for one constituency tlirow it up and contest 
 another. Eitlier a disqualification must be in- 
 curred, or the House must declare the seat 
 vacant." The necessary disqualitieation can be 
 Incurred by accepting an office of profit under 
 the Crown, — witliin certain olBcial categories. 
 "Certain old otllces of nominal value in the gift 
 of tlie Treasury are now granted, as of course, 
 to members who wisli to resign their seats in 
 order to be quit of Parliamentary duties or to 
 contest anotlier constituencv. These offices are 
 the Stewardship of tlie Chiltern Hundreds 
 [Crown property in Bucliinghamshire], of tlie 
 manors of East Ilendred, Northstead, or Hemp- 
 holme, and the escheatorship of JIunster. The 
 office is resigned as soon as it has oi)erated to 
 vacate the seat and sever the tie between the 
 member and his constituents." — SirW. R. Anson, 
 Law and Custom of the C'onxt., v. 1, p. 84. 
 
 CHIMAKUAN FAMILY, The. See 
 American Ahouioines: Ciii.maku.vn Fa.mily. 
 
 CHIMARIKAN FAMILY, The. See 
 Ameuic'A^ Auokioines: Cuimakikan Family. 
 
 416 
 
cniNA. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 The names of the Country.— "That spacious 
 gent of imcici I civilization which we cull China 
 haB loomed iilways ho largo to western eyes, 
 . . . that, at eras far apart, we find it to have 
 l)ec'ii (listinguished by different appellations 
 nccordin^c as it was reganhid as the terminus of 
 a Houtherii sea-route coasting the great penin- 
 sulas and islands of Asia, or as that of a northern 
 land route traversing the longitude of tliat con- 
 tinent. In the former aspect the name applied 
 lias nearly always been some form of the name 
 bin, CInn, 8inie, China. In the latter point of 
 view the region in (lueation was known to the 
 ancients as the land of the Hercs; tho middle 
 ages us the Empire of Cathay. The name of 
 China has been supposed, like many another 
 word and name connected with 'rade an("l 
 geogrnphy of the far east, to have come to us 
 through the Malays, and to have been applied by 
 them to the great eastern monarchy from the 
 style of the dynasty of Thsin, which a little more 
 than two centuries before our era enjoyed a 
 brief but very vigorous existence. . . . There 
 are reasons however for believing that the nume of 
 China must have been bestowed at a much earlier 
 date, for it occurs in tlie laws of >Ianu, which 
 assert the Chinas to have been degenerate Ifsha- 
 tryas, and in the Mahabharat, compositions many 
 centuries older than the imperial dynasty of Thsin. 
 . . . This name may have yet possibly been con- 
 nected with the Thsin, or some monurchy of like 
 dynastic title; for that dyjinsty had reigned 
 locally in Shensi from the 9th century before our 
 era; and when, at a still wirlier date, the empire 
 was partitioned into many small kingdoms, we 
 find among them the dynasties of tho T(;in and 
 tho Ching. . . . Some at least of the circum- 
 stances which have been collected . . . render 
 it the less improbable that tho Sinim of the 
 prophet Isaiah . . . should bo truly interpreted 
 as indicating the Cliinese. The name of China 
 in this form was late in reaching tho Greeks and 
 Romans, and to them it probably came through 
 people of Arabian speech, as tho Arabs, being 
 without tho soimd of ' ch, ' made the Chii a of the 
 Hindus and Malays into Sin, and perhaj s some- 
 times into Thi'i. Hence the Thin of the ai thor of 
 th(^ Perijjlus of the f>y thraean Sea, who appears to 
 be tho flist extant author toemploy f ho name in this 
 form ; hence also tho Sinajaud Thinai of Ptolemy. 
 ... If wo now turn to the Seres we find this 
 name mentioned by classic authors much more 
 frequently and at an earlier date by at least a 
 century. Tlie naiuo is familiar enough to the 
 Latin poets of the Augustan age, but always in 
 a vague way. . . . Tho name of Seres is proba- 
 bly from itii earliest use in the west identilied 
 with the name of the silkworm and its produce, 
 und this association continued until the name 
 ceased entirely to bo used as a geographical 
 expression. ... It was in the days of the Jlou- 
 gols . . . bhat China tirst became really known 
 to Europe, and that by a name which, though 
 especially applied to tlio northern provinces, also 
 came to bear a more genend ai)plication, Cathay. 
 This name, Khitai, is tliat by which Chi"a is 
 styled to this day by all, or nearly all, the nations 
 which know it from an inland point of view, 
 including the Russians, the Persians, and the 
 nations of Turkestan; and yet it originally 
 belonged to a people who were not Chinese at 
 
 a I .'ho Khitans were a people of Mancliu 
 rui , who iidiabited for centuries a coimtry to 
 the north-east of China." During a peri(Hl 
 between the 10th and 12th centuries, tlie Khi- 
 tans ac(|uired supremacy over their neighbours 
 and established an empire wliich embraced 
 Northern China and the adjoining regions of 
 Tartary. "It must have been during this piriiwl, 
 ending' witli the overthrow of tliedyna.sty I called 
 the Leao or Iron Dynasty) in 1 12:1, and whilst this 
 northern monarchy was the face whiiJi the Celes- 
 tial Empire! turned to Inner Asia, tliat the name 
 of IChitan, Khitat, or IChitaT, became indissolu- 
 bly associated with China." — II. Yule, t'athny 
 iiml the Wdjl Thither: I'nUiiiititiry ICmdi/. 
 
 The Origin of the People and their early 
 History. — "The origin of the Chinese race is 
 slirouded in some obscurity. The llrst recorda 
 we have of them represent them as a band of 
 immigrants settling in tho north-eastern pro- 
 vinces of the modern empire of China, and fight- 
 ing their way amongst tho aborigines, much a3 
 tho Jews of old forced their way into Canaan 
 against tlio various tribes which they found in 
 possession of tho land. It is probable that 
 though they all entered China by the same 
 route, they separated into bands almost on tho 
 threshold of the empire, one b(xly, those who 
 have left us the records of their history in tho 
 ancient Chinese books, apparently followocl tho 
 cour.se of tho Yellow River, and, turning south- 
 ward with it from its northernmost bend, settled 
 themselves in tho fertile districts of the modern 
 provinces of Shansi and Ilonan. Rut as wo find 
 nlso that at about tho same period a largo settle- 
 ment was made as far south as Annaiii, of which 
 there is no mention in the books of the northern 
 Chinese, we must assume that another body 
 struck directly southward through the southern 
 provinces of China to that country. The ques- 
 tion then arises, where did these people come 
 from? and the answer which recent research [see 
 Rahvlonia Primitive] gives to this question 
 is, from the south of the Caspian Sea. ... In 
 all probability, the outbreak in Susiana of, 
 possibly, some political disturbance, in about the 
 24th or 23rd century H. C, drove the Chinese 
 from the land of their adoption, and that they 
 wandered eastward until they finally settled in 
 China and the countries south of it. . . . It 
 wou'd appear also that tho Chinese came into 
 China possessed of the resources of Western 
 Asian culture. They brought with them a 
 knowledge of writing and astronomy, as well as 
 of the arts which primarily minister to the wants 
 and comfort of mankind. The invention of 
 these civilising influences is traditionally attri- 
 buted to the Emperor Hwang-te, who is said to 
 have reigned from H. C. 2U9;-2597. But tho 
 name of this sovereign leads us to suppose that ho 
 never sat on tho throne in China. One of his 
 names, we are told, was Nai, anciently Nak, and 
 in the Chinese paleographical collection he is 
 described by a character composed of a group 
 of phonetics which read Nak-kon-ti. Tlio 
 resemblance between this name lud that of Nak- 
 liunte, who, according to the S isian texts, was 
 the chief of the gods, is sulliciontly striking, and 
 many of the attributes belonging to him arc such 
 as to place him on an equality with the Susian 
 deity. In exact accordance also with the system 
 
 416 
 
CHINA. 
 
 Dytuutie; 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 of Hiibyloninn chronology lie cgtabllshcd a cycle 
 of twelve years, und Uxeil the length of the your 
 ut 300 (luyH composed of twelve months, with an 
 intcrculury month to bulance the surplug titnc. 
 lie further, we are told, built a Ling tai, or 
 observatory, rendnding us of the IJabylonian 
 Zigguratu, or house of observation, ' from which 
 to watch tlie movements of the heavenly Imdies.' 
 The primitive Chinese, like the Habyloniuns, 
 recognised live planets besides the sun and nioon, 
 und, with one exception. Itnew them by the same 
 names. . . . The various phusiis of these |)lanet8 
 were curefully watched, and portents were 
 derived from every real and imaginary change in 
 thei.- relative ))08itions and colours. A coini)ari- 
 gon between the astrological tablets translated by 
 Professor Sayce and the astrological chapter 
 {87th) in the She ke, the earliest of the Dynastic 
 Histories, shows a remarkable parallelism, not 
 only in the general style of the forecasts, but in 
 particular portents which arc so ctmtrary to 
 Chinese prejudices, as a nation, und the train of 
 thought of the people that they woidd be at once 
 put down as of foreign origin, even if they were 
 not found in the Babylonian records. ... In 
 the reign of Chwan Hu (2513-2435 13. C), we 
 find according to the Chinese records, that the 
 year, us umong the Chnldeans, began with the 
 third month of the solar year, and a comparison 
 between the ancient names of the months given 
 in the Urh ya, the oldest Chinese dictionary, 
 with the Accadian eciuivalcnts, shows, in some 
 instances, an exact identity. . . . These parallel- 
 isms, together with a host of others which might 
 be produced, all point to the existence of an 
 early relationship betveen Chinese and Slesopo- 
 tamian culttirc; and, armed with the advantages 
 thus posscs.sed, the Chiiieso entered Into the 
 empire over which they \v. '•o ultimately to over- 
 spread themselves. But tiiey came among tribes 
 who, though somewhat inferior to them in 
 general civilisation, were by no nienns destitute 
 of culture. . . . Among such people, and others 
 of a lower civilisation, such as the Jungs of the 
 west and the Teks, the ancestors of the Tekke 
 Turcomans, in the north, the Chinese succeeded 
 in establishing themselves. The Emperor Yaou 
 (2350-2255 B. C.) divided his kingdom into 
 twelve portions, presided over by as many Pas- 
 tors, in exact imitation of the duodenary feudal 
 system of Susa with their twelve Pastor Princes. 
 To Yaou succeeded Shun, who carried on the 
 work of his predecessor of consolidating the 
 Chinese power with energy and success. In his 
 reign the first mention is made of religious wor- 
 ship. ... In Shun's reign occurred the great 
 flood which inundated most of the provinces of 
 the existing empire. The waters, we are told, 
 rose to so great a height, that the people had to 
 betake themselves to the mountains to escape 
 death. The disaster arose, as many similar dis- 
 asters, though of a less magnitude, have since 
 arisen, in conseciuence of the Yellow River 
 bursting its bounds, and the ' Great Yu ' was 
 appointed to lead the waters back to the'r chan- 
 nel. With unremitting v-'nergy he set about his 
 task, and in nine years succeeded in bringing the 
 river under control. ... As a reward for the 
 services he had rendered to the empire, hn was 
 invested with the principality of Hea, and after 
 having occupied the throne conjointly with Shun 
 for some years, he succeeded that soverign on his 
 death, in 2208 B. C. With Yu began the dynasty 
 
 I of Ilea, which gave place, in 1706 B. C, to tho 
 Shang Dynasty. The last soverign of the lira 
 line, Kieh kwei, is said to have been u monster 
 of Iniquity, and to have sulTered the just punish- 
 ment for his crimes at the hands of T'aiig, tho 
 prince of the Stale of Shung, who took his throne 
 from him. In like manner, 040 years later. Woo 
 Wang, the prince of (,'liow, overthrew ('how 
 Sin, the last of the Shang Dynasty, ond estab- 
 lished himself as the chief' of the soverign 
 state of the enii)ire. By empire it must not bo 
 supposed tliat the empire, as it exists at present, 
 is meant. The ('hiiia of the Chow Dynasty lay 
 between tho 33rd and 38th parallels of latitude, 
 and the 100th and llOth of longitude oidy, and 
 extended over no more than portions of the pro- 
 vinces of Pill ('hih-li, Shunse, Shense, Honan, 
 Keang-so, ond Shan-tung. This territory was 
 re-arranged by Woo Wang into the lune princi- 
 palities established by Yu. . . . Woo is held up 
 \n Chinese history as one of the model monarchs 
 of antiquity. . . . Under the next rider, K'ang 
 (B. C. 1078-1053), tho empire was consolidated, 
 and the feudal princes one and all acknowledged 
 their allegiance to the ruling house of Chow. 
 . . . From all accounts there speedily occurred a 
 marked degeneracy in the characters of the Chow 
 kings. . . . Already a spirit of lawlessness was 
 spreading far and wide among the princes and 
 nobles, and wars and rumours of wars were 
 ctjating misery and unrest throughout the coun- 
 try. . . . Tho hand of every man was against 
 his neighbour, and a constant state of internecine 
 war succeeded the peace and prosperity which 
 had existed under the rule of Woo-wang. . . . 
 As time went on and the disorder increased, 
 supernatural signs added their testimony to the 
 impending crisis. The brazen vessels upon 
 which Yu had engraved the nine divisions of the 
 empire were observed to shake and totter as 
 though foreshadowing the approaching change 
 in the political position. Jleanwhile Ts'in on the 
 northwest, Ts'oo on the south, and Tsin on the 
 north, having vanquished all the other states, 
 engaged in the final struggle for the Mastery 
 over the confederate principalities. The ul!,- 
 mate victory rested with the state of Ts'in, and 
 in 255 B. C., Chaou-seang Wang become the 
 acknowledged ruler over the 'black-haired' peo- 
 ple. Only four years were given him to reign 
 supreme, and at the end of that time he was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Ileaou-wan Wang, who died 
 almost immediately on ascending the throne. To 
 him succeeded Chwang-seang Wang, who was 
 followed in 240 B. C. by Che Hwang-te, the first 
 Emperor of China. The abolition of feudalism, 
 whicli was the first act of Che Ilwaug-te raised 
 much discontent among those to whom the feudal 
 system had brought power and emoluments, and 
 the countenance which had been given to the 
 system by Confucius and Mencius made it desir- 
 able — so thought the emperor — to demolish 
 once for all their testimony in favour of that 
 condition of affairs, which he had decreed should 
 be among the things of the past. With this 
 object ho ordered that the whole existing litera- 
 ture, with the exception of books on medicine, 
 agriculture, and divinotion should be burned. 
 The decree was obeyed as faithfully as was 
 possible in the case of so sweeping an ordinance, 
 • and for many years a night of ignorance rested 
 on the country. The construction of one gigan- 
 tic work — the Great Wall of China — has made 
 
 41! 
 
CHINA. 
 
 HrligionM. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 the nam<! rit tliis mnnarcli im famnufi as tlin dcH- 
 triiclinri of till! IxKikH Iiiih made it infamous. 
 Fiiiiliiitr tlic nuiiiiK'MU TartarH wi-nr maliiii^ 
 ilanKvroua inroads into tliv rinpiri', luHlctcrmintMl 
 will) characteristic tlioniiiKlincsH to liiiild u liugo 
 barrier which Bhould protect tho norlliern fron- 
 tier of the empire throii^li all time. In 211 n. (-'. 
 tho work was betcnn under his personal super- 
 vision, and tlmugh every endeavor was made to 
 hasten its completion he died ('.2(10) leaving it un- 
 t1ni.shc<l. Ilis death was the signal for an out- 
 'ireak among tho dispossessed feudal princes, 
 who, however, after some yi iirs of disorder, were 
 ii^ain riMlueed to the ranli of <iti/.ens liy a siic- 
 cessi.:' leader, who adopted the title of itaoii-te, 
 and iian."d his dj'iiaHt y that of Han (200). From 
 that day to thi.s, with occasional interregnums, 
 the empire lias liec^n ruled on tlie lines laid down 
 liy Che Hwangle. I>ynasty has succeeded 
 dynasty, but tho political tradithm has remained 
 unchanged, and though iMongols and Manchoos 
 have at different times wrested the throne from 
 its legitimate heirs, they have been engulfed in 
 tho homogeneous mass inhabiting the empire, 
 and instead of impressing their seal on the coun- 
 try have become but the retleclion of the van- 
 (|uisbcd. Tlie dynasties from the beginning of the 
 earlier Han, founded, as staled above, by Kaou-te, 
 are as follows: — The earlier Han Dynasty B. C. 
 206- A. 1). 2.5; tho late Han A. D. 25-220; the 
 Wei 220-280; tho western Tsin 205-317; the 
 eastern Tsin 317-420; the Sung 420-479; the 
 Ts'e 479-,5()2; the Leang 502-557; the Ch'in 557- 
 .580. Simultaneouslv w'ith these — the northern 
 Wei A. 1). :t8fi-5;)4"; tho western Wei 535-557; 
 the eastern Wei 534-550; the northern Ts'e 550- 
 577; the northern Chow 557-580. The Suy .589- 
 018; the Tang 618-907; tho later Leang 907-923; 
 the later T'ang 923-930; the later Tsin 930-947; 
 the later Han 947-051 ; tho later Chow 951-900, 
 tho Sung 960-1127; the southern Sung 1127- 
 1280; tho Yuen 1280-1808; the Ming 1308-1044; 
 the Ts'ing 1044. Simultaneously with some of 
 tlicse — the Leaou 007-1125; the western Leaou 
 1125-1108; the Kin 1115-1280."— R. K. Douglas, 
 China, ch. 1. 
 
 Also rN D.C. Boulger, Jlut of China, v. 1-2. 
 
 The Religions of the People. — Confucian- 
 ism. — Taouism. — Buddhism. — " Tho Chinese 
 describe themselves as possessing three religions, 
 or more accurately, three sects, namely Joo 
 keaou, tho sect of Scholars; Fuh keaou, the 
 sect of Buddha; and Taou keaou, the sect of 
 Taoii. Both as regards age and origin, the sect 
 of Scholars, or, as it is generally called, Con- 
 fucianism, represents pre-eminently the religion 
 of China. It has its root in tlie worship of 
 8hang-te, a deity which is associated with tho 
 earliest traditions of tlio Chinese race. Ilwang-te 
 (2097 B. C.) erected a temple to his honour, and 
 succeeding emperors worshipped before his 
 .shrine. . . . During the troulilous times which 
 followed after the reign of the few llrst sovereigns 
 of tlie Chow Dynasty, the belief in a personal 
 deity grew iudi-stinct and dim, until, when Con- 
 fucius [born B. C. 551] began his career, there 
 appeared nothing strange in his atheistic doc- 
 trines. He never in any way denied the ex- 
 istence of Shang-te, but he ignored him. His 
 concern was with man as a member of society, 
 and the object of liis teaching was to lead him 
 into those patlis of rectitude which might best 
 contribute to bis own liappiucss, and to tJie well- 
 
 418 
 
 being of that <'ommunity of which he formed 
 part. Man, he held, was born g(Kid, and was 
 endowed with (iiialilles which, when eultivote<l 
 and improved by watclifuliK'SS and self-restraint, 
 might eiiablo him to aciiuiro godlike wisdom 
 and to become 'the equal of Heaven.' He 
 divided mankind into four classes, viz., those 
 who are born with the possession of knowledge; 
 tho.>M' who learn, and so readily get possession of 
 knowledge; those who are dull anil stupid, and 
 yet succeed in learning; and, lastly, those who 
 are dull and stupid, and yet do not learn. To 
 all tlie.se, except those of tho last class, the path 
 to the climax reached by tho 'Sage' is open. 
 Man has only to watch, listen to, understand, 
 and obey the moral sense implanted in him by 
 Heaven, and the highest perfection is within his 
 reach. ... In this system there is no place 
 for a i)er8onal God. I'lie impersonal Heaven, 
 according to Confucius, implants a pure nature 
 in every being at his birtli, but, having done 
 thi.s, there is no further supernatural interference 
 with the thouglits and deeds of men. It is in 
 tlie power of each one to perfect his nature, and 
 tliiTc is no divine inlluence to restrain those who 
 take the downward course. Man has his destiny 
 in his own hands, to make or to mar. Neither 
 had Confucius any inducement to offer to en- 
 courage men in tho pnictico of virtue, except 
 virtue's self. He was a matter-of-fact, unim- 
 aginative man, who was quite content to occupy 
 himself with the study of his fellow-men, and 
 was disinclined to grope Into tlic future or to 
 peer upwards. No wonder that his system, as 
 he enunciated it, i)roved a failure. Eagerly he 
 sought in tho execution of his olllcial duties to 
 effect the regeneration of the empire, but beyond 
 tlio circle of lu.s personal disciples ho found few 
 followers, and as soon as princes and statesmen 
 had satisfied their curiosity about him they 
 turned their backs on his precepts and would 
 none of his reproofs. Succeeding a^es, recognis- 
 ing tho loftiness of his aims, eliminated all that 
 was imi)n";ticablo and unreal in his system, and 
 held fast to that part of it that was true and 
 gootl. They were content to accept tho logic of 
 events, and to throw overboard the ideal 'sage,' 
 and to ignore the supposed potency of his in- 
 fluence; but '.hey cUmg to the doctrines of filial 
 piety, brot'.erly love, and virtuous living. It 
 was admin: tion for tlic emphasis which he laid 
 on these and other virtues which has drawn so 
 many millions of men unto him; which has 
 made his tomb at Keo-foo been to be the Mecca 
 of Confucianism, and has adorned every city of 
 the empire with temples built in his honour. . . . 
 Concurrently with the lapse of pure Confucian- 
 ism, and the adoption of those principles which 
 lind their earliest expression in tlio pre-Confucian 
 classics of Cliina, there is observable a return to 
 the worship of Shang-tc. Tho most magnificent 
 temple in tho empire is the Temple of Heaven at 
 Poking, where the highest object of Chinese 
 worslup is adored with the purest rites. . . . 
 What is popularly known in Europe as Con- 
 fucianism is, therefore, Confucianism with the 
 distinctive opinions of Confucius omitted. . . . 
 But this worsliip of Shang-te is confined only to 
 the emperor. 'Tlie people have no lot or heritage 
 in the sacred acts of worship at the Altar of 
 Uca"en. . . . Side by side with the revival of 
 the Joo keaou, under the influence of Confucius, 
 grew up a system of a totally different nature. 
 
CHINA. 
 
 Kublai Kluin. 
 
 CHINA, rjftU-ia94. 
 
 and wlilrli, wlii-n (llvcstcd of its OHotcrIc doc- 
 trinrs, mid rcduccil l)y tlio priicllriilly-inirKh'd 
 ChinuMirii to II (ikIi: of iiiondH, wim tli'Mtiiiid in 
 futuro UKVS to liccoini' iilUIiiitcd with tliu tciicli- 
 ingH of tlio tingv. Tliis wiis TitoiiiHiii, wlilrli 
 wi»B founded liy Liioii-tazt', who wiw a con- 
 tt'inpomry of Confucius. An uir of niyHt<'rv 
 haiif^s over the liistory of I.aoii Iszc. Of lifs 
 purputagc wo liiiow nolliiii);, imd Ihi^ liistorianM, in 
 tht'ir anxh'ty to coiiri'al llicir i>riioraii(tc of liis 
 earlliT ycant, Hlicltcr IIiciiihcIvi-i Iwhind llic 
 Icffcnd tlial ho was liorii an old man. . . . Tlic 
 primary nicaniiij; of Taou is 'Tlio way,' "Tlio 
 palli,' Imt in Laoiitszo's jihliosopiiy it was more 
 tlian tiio way, it was tlio way-jjix'r as well. It 
 wim an eternal road; alon^ it nil bein^fs and 
 thiii)5» walked; it was everylhinj? and nothing, 
 and llio (.'auso and eileet of all. All things 
 originated from Taoii, eoiiforined to Taou, and 
 to Taou at last returned. ... 'If, then, wo hud 
 to e.\press tlio ineaniiiK of Taou, wo should 
 desorilio it as tlio Absoluto; the totality of Ueing 
 and ThinKs ; tho phenomenal world and its order ; 
 and tho ethical nature of the goml man, and the 
 principle of his action.' It was absorption into 
 tills ' Alothcrof all things' that Laou-t.szo aimed 
 at. And this end was to bo attained to by self- 
 emptiness, and by Kiting free; scope to the un- 
 containinated nature which, like Confucius, he 
 taught was given by Heaven to all men. . . . 
 But these subtleties, like the more abstruse 
 speculations of Confucius, were suited only to 
 the taste of the schools. To the common people 
 they were foolishness, and, before long, the 
 philosophical doctrine of Laou-tszi? of the 
 identity of existence and non-existence, a.ssumed 
 in their eyes a warrant for the old Epicurean 
 motto, ' Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we 
 die.' T'!n pleasures of sen.se were substituted 
 for the delights of virtue, and the next step was 
 to desire prolongation of the time when those 
 pleasures could bo enjoyed. Legend said that 
 Laou-ts/.o had secured to himself immunity from 
 death by drinking the elixir of immortality, and 
 to enjoy tho same privilege became the all- 
 absorbing object of his followers. The demand 
 for elixirs and charms produced a supply, and 
 Taoulsm quickly degenerated into a system of 
 magic. . . . Tho teachings of Laou-tszo having 
 familiarised the Chinese mind with philosophiciii 
 doctrines, which, whatever were their direct 
 source, bore a marked resemblance to ti mus- 
 ings of Indian sages, served to prepare \ way 
 for the introduction of Buddhism. The exact 
 date at which the Chinese first became acquainted 
 with the doctrines of Buddha was, according to 
 an author quoted in K'ang-he's Imperial Ency- 
 clopajdia, the thirtietli year of the reign of She 
 Hwang-te, i. e., B. C. 216. The story this writer 
 tells of the difficulties which the first missionaries 
 encountered is curious, and singularly sugges- 
 tive of the narrative of St. Peter's imprison- 
 ment." — 1? K. Douglas, China, ch. 17. — Also 
 IN The same, Confucianiam and Ttwuiam. — 
 ''Buddhism . . . penetrated to China along the 
 fixed route from India to that country, round tho 
 north-west corner of the Himalayas and across 
 Eastern Turkestan. Already in the 2nu year 
 B. C, an embassy, perhaps sent by Iluvishka 
 [who reigned in Kabul and Kashmere] took 
 Buddhist books to the then Emperor of China, 
 A-ili; and the Emperor Ming-ti, 02 A. I)., guided 
 by a dream, is said to have sent to Tartury and 
 
 Central India and brought HiKldhist books to 
 China. From this lime Buddhism rapidly 
 spread there. ... In thi! fourth cenlurv Buil- 
 dliisni beeami' the slate religion. "—T. W. Rbyt 
 Davids, Jlmlil/iium, ch. 0. 
 
 Ai.wi IN J. Legge,"7'A<! Jit lif/ions of China. — 
 J. Edkins, Ileliyion in China. — The same, 
 ChiufM Jliiililhinin. — .S. Beals, /liiililhium in 
 China. — S. .lohnson, Oritiital IttUfiionn: China. 
 
 A. D. 1205-1334.— Conquest by Jinei* 
 Khan and his son. — "The eoiKpiest of ('linia 
 was (■omiiieiieid liy Cliiiighiz lor .linirLs Kliaii|, 
 although it was not completed for several gen- 
 erations. Already in 120.') lie had invaded Tiin 
 gut, a kingdoin occupying tlie (ixlreiiie north- 
 west of China, and extending beyond Chinese 
 limits in the same ilirection, held by a dynasty 
 of Tibetan race, which was or had been avassal 
 to the Kill. Tliis invasinn was repeated In suc- 
 ceeding years; and in 1211 his attacks extinded 
 to tho Empire of the Kin itself. In 1214 ho 
 ravaged their provinces to the Yellow Hiver, and 
 in tho following year took Cliungtu or Peking. 
 In 121U he turned his arms against AVestern 
 Asia; . . . but a lieutenant whom he had left 
 behind him in tlii^ East continued to proseeuto 
 the subjection of Nortliern China. Chinjrhiz 
 himself on his return from his western coiuiui'sts 
 renewed his attack on Taugut, and died on that 
 enterprise, 18th August. Okkodai, tlie son and 
 successor of Chinghiz, followed up the subjuga- 
 tion ( f Chiiifli, extinguished tlie Kin llnally in 
 12a4 and con.solidated with his Empire all" the 
 provinces nortii of the Great Kiang. Th'> 
 Southern j)rovinces remained for the present 
 subject to the Chinese dynasty of the Sung, 
 reigning now at Kingsso "or iJaugcheu. This 
 kingdoin was known to the Tartars as Nangkiass, 
 and also by tho quasi-Chinese title of Mungi or 
 Manzi, made so famous by Marco Polo and the 
 travellers of the following age." — II. Yule, 
 Cathaji and the II'k.v Thither. Preliminary Kk- 
 »<ty, tert. 91-02. — See, also, Mongols: A. I). 
 1153-1'227. 
 
 A. D. 1259-1294.— The Empire of Kublai 
 Khan. — Kubhii, or Kliubilai Khan, one of tho 
 grandsons of Jingis Khan, who reigned as the 
 Great Khan or Supreme lord of the Mongols 
 from 1250 until 1204, "was tho sovereign of the 
 largest empire that was ever controlled by one 
 man. China, Corea, Thibet, Tung-King, Cochin 
 China, a great portion of India beyond the 
 Ganges, the Turkish and Siberian realms from 
 the Eastern Sea to the Dnieper, obeyed his com- 
 mands ; and although the chief of the Hordes of 
 Jagatui and Ogatui refused to acknowledge him, 
 the Ilklians of Persia . . . were his feudatories. 
 . . . The Supreme Khan had immediate authority 
 only in Mongolia and China. . . . The capital of 
 the Kliakan, after the accession of Khubilai, was 
 a new city ho built close to the ancient metropo- 
 lis of the Liao and Kin dynasties." — II. II. 
 Iloworth, //(■«<. (/ the Mongols, v. 1, pp. 210-283. 
 — "Khan-Biilig (.Mong., 'The Khan's city'), 
 the Cambalu of Marco, Peking . . . was cap- 
 tured by Chinghiz in 1215, and hi 1204 Kublai 
 made it his chief residence. In 1207 he built a 
 new city, three ' li ' to the north-east of the old 
 one, to which was given the name of Ta-tu or 
 ' Great Court,' called by the Mongols DaYdu, the 
 Taydo of (Jdoric and Taidu of Polo, who gives a 
 description of its dimensions, the number of its 
 gates, etc., similar to that in the text. The 
 
 419 
 
CHINA. 1250-1204. 
 
 Tartar 
 fktvrrrigniy. 
 
 (^IIINA, 1204-1H82. 
 
 C'lilncRO iiccountit elvo nnly cloven fcatcn. Tills 
 city WHH ikbiiniliiiKMi iis ii roviil rcitltltMu'c on the 
 uxpulHioM (if tilt) MoMpil (lyiiiiHty In lilUH. Iml 
 re (h-(-u|iIimI in I4'.il by tlii'tlilnl .Mini; Kin|i<'r(ir, 
 wild liuilt tlic walls IIS tluiy iinw exist, ri'iliii'iii>; 
 tlu.'ir extent mill the iiunilii'r <if the gates to nine. 
 ThU Ih what is riiiiim<iiily called the ' Tartar 
 city ' of the present day (I'lilled also by the Clil- 
 nes(> LaU'ChhiiiK <ir '(')1(1 Town'), wl'iieli IJiere- 
 fore represenls tlie Taydo of Odorle." — II. Yule, 
 Valhiiji ami t/ui Way Thither, v. 1, j>. 127, foot- 
 note. 
 
 Al.KO IN .Marco I'olo, Trnrelt, irith Xotetbif Sir 
 II. Yide. hk. 2.— See, also, Monooi.h: A. 1). 122U- 
 12114, and I'oi.o. M.MUo. 
 
 A. D. 1294-1883.— Dissolution of the Em- 
 pire of Kublai Khan.— The Mine dynasty 
 and its fall.— The enthronement of the pre- 
 sent Manchu Tartar Dynasty, of the Tsingsor 
 Ch'ings.— The appearance of the Portuguese 
 and the Jesuit Missionaries. — "The ininieiliate 
 Kuecessors of Kiililiii, bniiiKht up In the luxuries 
 of the Imperial palace, the most gorgeous at that 
 time in the world, relied upon the pre.stigi^ with 
 which the glory of the late emperor invested 
 them, and never dreunied that changu could 
 touch a dominion so vast and so solid. Some de- 
 voted themselves to elegant literature and the 
 improvement of the people; later princes to 
 the mysteries of Buddhism, which biraiiie, in 
 Home degree, the state religion; mid as tlie cycle 
 went round, the dregs of the dynasty iihaiiddiied 
 themselves, us usual, to priests, women, anil 
 (mnuclis. . . . The distant provinces threw oil 
 their subjection; robbers ravaged the land, and 
 pirates the Hca; a minority ami a famiiiu came 
 at the same moment; unif in less than ninety 
 years after its commencement, the fall of the 
 dynasty was only illumined by some few Hashes 
 of dying heroism, and every armed Tartar, who 
 could obtain a horse to aid his (light, spurred 
 back to Ills native deserts. Sonio of them, 
 of the royal race, turning to the west, took 
 refuge with the Manchows, and in proccs-s of 
 time, marrying with ine families of the chiefs, 
 intermingled the blood of the two great tribes. 
 The proximate cause of this catastrophe was a 
 Chinese of low birth, who, in the midst of the 
 troubles of the time, found means to raise him- 
 self by his genius from u servile station to the 
 leadership of a body of the malcontents, and 
 thence to step into the imperial throne. The new- 
 dynasty [the Sling] began their reign with great 
 brilliance. The emperor carried tlio Tartar war 
 into their own country, and at home made unre- 
 lenting war u|)on the abuses of his palace. lie 
 committed the niisttike, however, of granting 
 separate principalities to the members of his 
 house, which in the next reign caused a civil 
 war, and the usurpation of the throne by an 
 uncle of the then emperor. The usurper found 
 it necessary to transfer the capital to Peking, as 
 u post of dcfcn. e against the eastern Tartars, 
 who now made their appearance again on this 
 eventful stage. He was successful, however, in 
 his wars in the desert, and lie added Tonnuin 
 and Cochin China to the Chinese dominions. 
 After him the fortunes of the dynasty began to 
 wane. The government became weaker, the 
 Tartars stronger, some princes uttaclicd them- 
 selves to literature, some to Buddhism or TaOism; 
 Cochin China revolted, and was lost to the em- 
 pire, Japan ravaged the coasts with her priva- 
 
 terrH ; famine camo to odd to the horrors of mis- 
 rule. "— l.,eltcli Ultchie. IUkI. of tlie Oriental A'a- 
 liiiiiik. Ilk. 7, eh. 1 (/'. 2). — " tVoni wllhout, the 
 .Mings weni ciiiisliiiilly hiiras.>«'il by the eiieriiach- 
 ments of the Tartars; fnini within, the ceaseless 
 intriguing of the eunuchs (resulting in one case 
 In the teiiipiirary deposition of an Hmiieror) was 
 a fertile cause of trouble. Towards the close of 
 the tOtli <;eiiturv the I'nrtuguese appeared upon 
 the scene, and troin their 'concesHiiin ' at .Macao, 
 Home time the residence of Camoens, opened 
 ciimmereliil reliitioim between China and the 
 West. They brought the ChineHe, among otiier 
 things, opium, which had previoUHly been Im- 
 ported overiaiid from India. They pos.Hibly 
 taught them how to make gunpowder, to the in- 
 vention of which the CliiiieKe do not neem, upon 
 striking a balance of evidence, to iio.ssesH an in- 
 dependent claim. About the name time [15M0J 
 Koine ciintribiited the llrst instalment of tliose 
 wiinderful .lesuil fathers, whose names may truly 
 be said to have tilled the empire 'witli soiindH 
 that echo still,' the memory of their selentitlo 
 labours and the benetitH they thus conferred upon 
 China having long Hurvived the wreck and dis- 
 credit of llie faith to which thi-y devoted their 
 lives. And at this distance of time it diH^s not 
 appear to be a wild Htatement to as.sert that had 
 the Jesuits, the Franciscans, and the Dominicans, 
 beenabli! to resist quarrellii , among them.selves, 
 and had they rather united to persuade I'upal in- 
 fallibility to permit the incorporation of ancestor 
 worsliip with the rites and ceremonies of the 
 lioml.sh church — China wouhl ut this moment 
 be a Catholic country, and liuddhism, Taoism, 
 and Confucianism would long since have receded 
 into the past. Of all these Jesuit mi.ssionaries, 
 the name of Matteo Uicci [who died in 1610] 
 stands by coninion consent llrst upon the long 
 list. . . . The overthrow of the Mings [A. 1>. 
 lt}44] was brought about by a combination of 
 events, of the utmost importance to those who 
 would understand the present position of the 
 Tartars as rulers of China. A sudden rebellion 
 had resulted in the capture of Picking by the in- 
 surgents, and in the suicide of the Emperor who 
 was fated to be the last of his line. The Im- 
 perial Commander-in-chief, Wu San-kuei, at that 
 lime away on the frontiers of Alanchuria, en- 
 gaged in resisting the incursions of the Manchu 
 Tartars, now for a long time in a state of fer- 
 ment, immediately hurried back to the capital, 
 but was totally defeated by the insurgent leader, 
 and once more made his way, this time as a 
 fugitive and u suppliant, towards the Tartar 
 camp. Here he obtained [iromises of assistance, 
 cl'ielly on condition that he would shave his head 
 and grow a tail in accordance with Manchu cus- 
 tom, and again set oil with his new auxiliaries 
 towards Peking, being reinforced on the way by 
 a body of Mongol volunteers. As things turned 
 out y^w San-kuei arrived at Peking in advance 
 of these allies, and actually succeeded, with the 
 remnant of his own scattered forces, in routing 
 the troojis of the rebel leader before the Tartars 
 and the Slongols came up. lie then started In 
 pursuit of the flying foe. Meanwhile the Tar- 
 tar contingent arrived ; and on entering the capi- 
 tal, the young JIanchu prince in command was 
 invited by the people of Peking to ascend the 
 vacant* throne. 80 that by the time Wu Sun-kuei 
 reappeared ho found a new dynasty [the Ch'ing 
 or Tsing dynasty of the present day] already 
 
 420 
 
CHINA, rju4-iH»a. 
 
 O/iiuiM W'ltr, 
 
 CHINA, lMau-1843. 
 
 C!itiil)lish('(l, iiml Ills liitn Miindiii nlly lit tin- liciiil 
 
 of iilTiilrH. His tli'Ml intention Imil ilniilitlcHM I n 
 
 to t'ciiKlniic till' Ming line of i' iiprriirs; lint lii^ 
 scciiiH to liiivu rniilily fiillcn !> v, llli tliii iirriiiiKi'- 
 nu'Mt iilrriiily iiiiulc, itnil to liitvo tciuiiTi'il liU 
 fornml iillcfilitni'i^ on tlii' four following conili- 
 tionH: — (l.)Tliat no ClilnrHi' woniitn Hlioiild Ik- 
 tiikrn Into tlio Iinprriiil MniKlio. (2.) Tliiit thi- 
 ll fhI ptiu eat t lii' grrat I rirnniiil rxiiuiiniit ion for tlio 
 lilKlx'tl litiTiiry ilinrrrH hIioiiIiI ncvrr liii glvrn to 
 a Tartar. (It.) Tliat tin; propli- hIiouIiI itiiopt tliii 
 nntiniial I'OHtiiinr of tlie Tartars in llirlr evi-ry- 
 day nil'; but that tliry kIiouIiI lie allowi'il to bury 
 thi'ir i:i>rp»M'H in the ilrrs.sof the lati> liyna^ty. (t.) 
 That tills I'onilition of coHtunie nIioiiIiI not apply 
 to tlin womrii of Cliina, who wcrit not to br 
 conipclli'il vithi-r to wi-iir tlii! hair in ii tail lu'forii 
 niarriage(aH tlm Tartar t;lrls ilo)iir to abanilon tlic 
 (Mistoin of conipri'HsinK tlii'ir fri't. TIki grrat 
 Mini; liviiastv was now at an end, though not 
 (Icstlni'il wholij to pass away. A largii part of 
 it may bo fuiiil to ri'nmin in tlii> litrrary inonii- 
 Mii'iits wliicli wi-ri! i-.xi'cuti'il liiiring its tlireo ccn- 
 turii's of cxistciiri.-. Tlu- ilri'ss of thi) period 
 survives upon tliu mu'' .:: Chinesu stage; anU 
 when oeea.slonally the present alien yoke is found 
 to gall, seditious whispers of ' restoration' are not 
 altogether unheard. . . . The age of the ('h'iiiga 
 U the age in whieh we live; but it i.s not so fu- 
 miliiir to some persons as it ought to be, that a 
 Tartar, and not a Chinese sovereign, is now 
 dented upon tlie throne of ('hina. For some tiiuo 
 after the aeeession of the llrst Manehu Kniperor 
 there was considerable frietioii between the two 
 raecs, due, among other natural causes, to the 
 enforced ado|ition of the peculiar coiiluru in 
 vogue among the .Manchus — i. e., the tidl, or 
 plaited queue of hair, which now liaugs down 
 every Chinainan'a back. This fashion was for a 
 long time vigorously resisted by the inhabitants 
 of soutliern China, though now regarded by all 
 alike as one of the most sacred characteristics of 
 the 'bhick-baircd people' . . . The sulij ligation 
 of the empire by tlie Manchus was followed by u 
 military occupatiim of the ('ouiitry, which has 
 survived the original neceasity, and is part of the 
 system of government at the present day. Gar- 
 risons of Tartar troops were stationed ut various 
 important centres of population. . . . Those 
 Tartar garrisons still occupy the same positions ; 
 and the descendants of the flrst battalions, with 
 occasional reinforcements from Peking, live side 
 by side and in perfect harmony with the strictly 
 Chinese jjoiiulations. These Bannernien, as they 
 are called, may be known by their square, heavy 
 faces, which contrast strongly with the sharper 
 and more astute physiognomies of the Chinese. 
 Tliey speak the dialect of Peking, now recognised 
 as the ofliciiil language par excellence. They do 
 not use their family or surnames — which belong 
 rather to the clan tlian to the individual — but 
 in order to conform to the requirements of 
 Chinese life, the personal name is substituted. 
 Their women do not coiiipress their feet, ana the 
 female coiffure and dress are wholly Tartar in 
 character. Intermarriage betweeu the two races 
 is not considered desirable, though instances are 
 not unknown. In other respects, it is tl:3 old 
 story of ' victa victrix ; ' the conquering Tartars 
 have been themselves conquered by the people 
 over whom they sei themselves to rule. They 
 have adopted the language, written and collo- 
 quial, of China. . . . Manehu, the language of 
 
 the roniiuerors, is still kept alive at tlie Court of 
 j'l'kiiig. liy u Stale lirtion, it is HiippoHcd to be 
 the langiiuge of the sovrreigii. . , . Kiglit em- 
 perors of this lliii! have already ix'cupii'd the 
 throne, and 'beeuini' guests on high;' the ninth 
 is yet [in IHH'i] a boy less than ten years of age. 
 of these eight, the second in every way tills tin) 
 largest spare in Chinesi! history, ivaiig llsi 
 (or Kaiig Hi) reigned for slxty-omj years. . . . 
 I'lider the third .Maiiihii J-'mperor, ^ ling (.'heng 
 [A. I). 17'J!t-17;mi. liegiiii that violent iiersecu- 
 tion of the Catholii's which has rontlniled almost 
 to the present day. The various M'cta — Jesuits, 
 Doniinicans, Kraneiscaim — had been unable to 
 agree about the Chinese enuival"nt for (lod, and 
 the matter had been tlnally referred to the Pone. 
 Another ditlleiilty had arisen as to the toleratloa 
 of ancestral worship by Chinese converts pro- 
 fessing the (.'atliolic faith. ... As the Pope re- 
 fused to permit the embodiment of this ancient 
 (custom with the ceremonies of the Catholic 
 church, the new religion ceased to advance, and 
 liy-and-by fell into disrepute." — H. A. Giles, 
 lIMorie China, cli. f>-0. 
 
 Al.H( IN 8. \V. Williams, The Muhllf. Kingdom, 
 eh. 17, and Ui-'iO (v. 2).— C. Gutzlaff, Skf.trhof 
 Chinese Hid., v. 1, rh, 10, v. 2. — ,1. Uoss, Th« 
 Manchim. — Abh6 Hue, Chrittianity in ifhina, 
 r. 2-8. 
 
 A. D. 1839-1842.— The Opium War with 
 England. — Treaty of Nanlcinz. — Opening of 
 the Five Ports. — "The (Irst Chinese war [of 
 KnglundJ was in one sense directly attributablo 
 to the altered position of the Kast India Com- 
 puiiy after 1833. [.See India: A. D. 1823-1833. 1 
 Up to that year trade between England and 
 China had been conducted in both countries on 
 principles of strict monopoly. The Chinese 
 trade was sectired to the East India Company, 
 and the English trade was confined to a company 
 of merchants specially nominated for (he pur- 
 pose by the Emperor. The change of thought 
 which produced the destruction of monopolies 
 in England did not penetrate to thi' con.servative 
 atmosphere of the Celestial Empire, and, while 
 the trade in one country was thrown open to 
 everyone, trade in the other was still exclusively 
 confined to the merchants nominated by the 
 Chinese Government. Th(-se merchants. Hong 
 merchants as they were called, traded separately, 
 but were mutually liable for the dues to the 
 Chinese Government and for their debts to the 
 foreigners. Such conditions neither promoted 
 the growth of trade nor the solvency of the 
 traders; and, out of the thirteen Hong merchants 
 in 1837, three or four were avowedly insolvent. 
 (State Papers, v. 27, p. 1310.) Such were the 
 general conditions on which the trade was con- 
 ducted. The most important article of trade 
 was opium. The importation of o'>Mim into 
 China had, indeed, been illegal since 1.00. Hut 
 the Chinese Government had nmdu no stringent 
 efforts to prohibit the trade, and a Si'lect Com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons had declared 
 that it was inadvisable to abandon an important 
 source of revenue to the East India Company. 
 (State Papers, v. 29, p. 1020.) The opium trade 
 consequently throve, and grew from 4,100 chests 
 in 1790 to 30,000 chests in 1837, and the Chinese 
 connived at or ignored the growing trade. 
 (Ibid., p. 1010). ... In 1837 the Chinese Gov- 
 ernment adopted a fresh policy. It decided on 
 rigourously stopping the trade at which it bad 
 
 421 
 
CHINA, 1839-1842. 
 
 Opium War. 
 
 CHINA, 1889-1848. 
 
 previously tacitly connived. . . . Whether the 
 Cliinesfl Government was roiilly slioclcud lit tlio 
 growing uw. of tlio drug nnd the consequences 
 of Its use, or whcher it wiis iilarmcd nt a drain 
 of silver from C'ina wliicli disturbed wliat tlie 
 political nrithmcticians of England a hundred 
 years before would have called the balance of 
 trade, it undoubtedly determined to check the 
 trafTlc by every means at its disposal. With 
 this object it strengthened its force on the coast 
 nnd sent Lin, a man of great energy, to Canton 
 [March, 1839] with supremo authority. (State 
 rapers, v. 29, p. 934, and Autobiography of Sir 
 H. Taylor, v. 1, appx., p. 343.) Before Lin's 
 arrival cargoes of opium had been seized bv the 
 Custom House autliorities. On his arrival L'u 
 required both the Hong merchants and the 
 Chmese merchants to deliver up all the opium 
 In their possession in order tliat it might bo 
 destroyed. (State Papers, v. 29, p. 930.) The 
 interests of England in China were at that time 
 entrusted to Charles Elliot. . . . Hut Elliot 
 occupied u very difllcult position in China. Tlie 
 ("' 'nese placed on their communications to him 
 the Chinese word 'Yu,' and wished him to 
 place on his despatclies to them the Chinese 
 word 'Pin.' But Yu signifies a commond, and 
 Pin a humble address, rnd a British Plenipoten- 
 tiary could not receive commands from, or 
 liumblc himself before, Chinese ofUcials. (State 
 Papers, v. 29, pp. 881, 880, 888.) And hence 
 the communications between him and the 
 Chinese Government were unable to follow a 
 direct course, but were frequently or usually 
 sent through the Hong merchants. Sucli was the 
 state of tlr.ngs in China when Lin, arriving in 
 Canton, insisted on the surrender and destruction 
 of all tlie opium there. Elliot was at Macao. 
 He at once decided on icturning to the post of 
 difllculty and danger; and, though Canton was 
 blockaded by Chinese forces and its river guarded 
 by Chinese batteries, he made his way up in a 
 boat of H. M. S. 'Lame,' and threw himself 
 among his imprisoned countrymen. After his 
 arrival he took the responsibility of demanding 
 the surrender into his own hands, for the service 
 of his Government, of all the British opium i, 
 China, and he surrendered tlie opium wliicli he 
 thus obtained, amounting to 20,283 chests, to the 
 Chinese authorities, by whom it was destroyed. 
 (Ibid., pp. 945, 007.) The imminent danger to 
 the lives and properties of a Icrge number of 
 British subjects was undoubtedly removed by 
 Elliot's action. Though some difllculty arose in 
 connection with the surrender, Lin undertook 
 gradually to relax the s ringeucy of the measures " 
 which he had adopted (ibid., p. 977), and Elliot 
 hoped that his own zealous etforts to carry out 
 the arrangement which he had made would lead 
 to the raising of the blockade. He was, how- 
 ever, soon undeceived. On the 4th of April 
 Lin required Iiim, in conjunction with the mer- 
 chants, to enter into a bond under which all 
 vessels hereafter engaged in the opium traffic 
 would have been confiscated to the Chinese 
 Government, and all persons connected with the 
 trade would 'suffer death at the hands of the 
 Celestial Court.' (Ibid., p. 989.) This bond 
 Elliot steadily refused to sign (ibid., p. 992); and 
 feeling .hat ' all sense of security was broken to 
 pieces' (ibid., p. 978), he ordered all British sub- 
 jects to leave Canton (ibid., p. 1004), he himself 
 withdrew to the Portuguese settlement at Macao 
 
 (ibid., p. 1007), ond ho wrote to Auckland, the 
 Governor-Oenerul of India, for armed assistant :'.. 
 (Ibid., p. 1009.) These grave events natuniUy 
 created profound aii.victy. A Select Committee 
 of the Ilouse of Commons had formally dechned 
 to interfere with the trade. The opiuui ii..'nopoly 
 at that time was worth some £1,000,000 or 
 £1,500,000 a year to British India (ibid., p. 1020); 
 and India, engaged in war with Afghanistan 
 and already involved ia a serious deficit, could 
 cot afford to part with so large an amount of its 
 revenue (ibid., p. 1020). Nino-tenths of the 
 British merchants ?n China were engaged in the 
 illegal trade (ibid., p. 1030), while Elliot, in 
 enforcing the surreiuli-r of the opium, had given 
 the merchants bonds on the British Government 
 for its value, and the 20,000 chests surrendered 
 were supposed to be worth from 000 to 1,200 
 dollars a chest (ibid., p. 987), or say from 
 £3,400,000 to £4,800,000. ... As the summer 
 advanced, moreover, a fresh outrage increased 
 the intensity of the crisis. On the 7th July some 
 British seamen land(!d near Ilong Kon,\ aad 
 engaged in a serious riot. A native wu. un- 
 fortunately killed on the occasion, and though 
 Elliot, at his own risk, gave the relations of the 
 victim a large pecuniary compensation, and 
 
 E laced the men engaged in the riot on tlieir trial, 
 in was not satisfied. lie moved down to the 
 coast, cut off the supplies of British subjects, 
 and threatened to stop the supplies to Macao if 
 the Portuguese continued to assist the British, 
 flbid., pp. 1037-1039.) The British were in con- 
 sequ-ince forced to leave Macao; and about the 
 same time a small sel tr, the 'Black Joke,' 
 was attacked by the nese, and a British sub- 
 ject on board of her .^ riously wounded. Soon 
 afterwards, however, the arrival of a ship of 
 war, the 'Volage,' in Chinese waters enabled 
 Elliot to assume a bolder front. lie returned to 
 Slacao; he even attempted to procure supplies 
 from tlie mainland. But, though he succeeded 
 in purchasing food, 'the Mandarin runners ap- 
 proached and obliged the natives to take back 
 their provisions,' and Elliot, cxasnerated at their 
 conduct, fired on some war junks of the Chinese, 
 which returned the fire. A w .ek afterwards 
 Elliot declared the port and river of Canton to 
 be in a state of blockade. (Ibid., p. 1000.) The 
 conunencemeut of the blockade, however, did 
 not lead to immediate war. On the contrary, the 
 Chinese showed considerable desire to av^"^ 
 hostilities. They insisted, indeed, that some 
 British sailor must be smrendered to them to 
 suffer for the death of the Chinaman who had 
 fallen in the riot of Kong Kong. But they 
 showed so much anxiety to conclude an arrange- 
 ment on this jioint that they endeavoured to in- 
 duce Elliot to declare that a sailor who was acci- 
 dentally drowned in Chinese waters, and whose 
 body they had found, was the actual murderer. 
 (State Papers, v. 30, p. 27.) And in the mean- 
 while the trade which Lin had intended to de- 
 stroy went on at least as actively as ever. Lin's 
 proceedings had, indeed, the effect of stimulat- 
 ing it to an unprecedented degree. The destruc- 
 tion of vast stores of op'"-m led to a rise in ihe 
 price of opium in China, The rise in price pro- 
 duced the natural consequence of an increased 
 speculiviion; and, though British shipping was 
 excluded from Chinese waters, and the contents 
 of British vessels liad to be transferred to Ameri- 
 can bottoms for conveyance into Chinese ports, 
 
 422 
 
CHINA. 1839-1843. 
 
 Opium War. 
 
 CHINA, 1830-1842. 
 
 Dritish trade liail nevur bc-i'n so largo or so 
 ailvuntttgcous as in tlio period wliich siicuceclfd 
 Liu's arliitrary proti'fdiiigs. lOlliot was, of 
 course, uualjlc to prevent war either by the 
 surrender of a British sailor to tlie Cliineso, or hy 
 even assuming tliat a drowned man was the 
 murderer; and war In consequence l)ecanic daily 
 more probable. In January, 1840, operations 
 actually coninicnccd. Elnot was instructed to 
 make an armed demonstration on the northern 
 coasts of China, to take possession of some island 
 on the coast, and to ol)tain reparation and in- 
 demnity, if possible by a mere display of force, 
 but otherwise to proceed with the squadron 
 and thence send an ultimatum to Pekin. In 
 accordance with these orders the Island of 
 Chusiui was occupied in July, and the llect was 
 sent to the mouth of the Peiho with orders to 
 transmit a letter to Pckin. But the sea off the 
 Peiho is shallow, the ships could not approach 
 the coasts, and tlie Chinese naturally refused to 
 yield to an empty demonstration. The expedi- 
 tion was forced to leturn to Chusan, where it 
 found that the tioops whom they had left be- 
 hind were smitten by disease, that one out of 
 every four men were dead, and that more than 
 one-half of the survivors were invalid(;d. Thus, 
 throughout 1840, the Chinese war was only at- 
 tended witli disaster and distress. Things com- 
 menced a little more prosperously in 1841 by the 
 capture of the Chinese position at the mouth of 
 the Canton river. Elliot, after this success, was 
 even able to conclude a preliminary treaty with 
 the Chinese authorities. But this treaty did not 
 prove satisfactory either to the British Govern- 
 ment or to the Chinese. The British saw with 
 di-smay that the treaty made no mention of the 
 trade in opium which had been the ostensible 
 cause of the war. The Whig Government 
 accordingly decided on superseding Elliot. He 
 was recalled and replaced by Henry Pottinger. 
 Before news of his recall reached him, however, 
 the treaty which had led to his supersession had 
 been disavowed by iiio Chinese authorities, and 
 Elliot had commenced a fresh attack on the 
 Chinese force which guarded the road to Canton. 
 British sailors and British troops, under the com- 
 mand of Bremer and Gough, won a victory 
 which placed Cau:on at their mevy. But Elliot, 
 shrinking from exposing a grciit town to th'> 
 horrors of an assault, stopped the ad 'ance of the 
 troops and admitted the -Uy to ". ransom of 
 £1,250,000. (Sir II. Taylor^s Autobiography, 
 V. 1, appx., pp. 353-303.) His moderation was 
 naturally unacceptable to the troops and not 
 entirely approved by the British Government. 
 It constituted, howeve;, Elliot's last action as 
 agent in China. The subsequent operations 
 were conducted under Pottinger's advice." — S. 
 Walpole, Ilist. of Eng. from 1815, Note, v. 5, 
 pp. 287-291. —"Sir Henry Pottinger, who irrived 
 as Plenipotentiary on the 10th of August, took 
 the chief direction of the affairs. ... To the 
 end of "lWX there were various successes achieved 
 hy the laud and naval forces, which gave the 
 Biitish possession of many large fortided towns, 
 amongst which were Amoy, Ting-hai, Chin-hai, 
 Ning-po, and Shang-hai. The Cliinese were 
 nevertheless persevering in their resistance, and 
 in most cases evinced a bravery which showed 
 how mistaken were the views which regarded 
 the subjection of this extraordinary peopV as an 
 easy task. . . . The British fleet on the IS.hof 
 
 Jime [1843] entered the great river Kiang, and 
 on tlie 0th of July advanced up the river, and 
 cut off its communication witli the Grand Canal, 
 by which Nanking, the ancient capital of Cliina, 
 was supplied with grain. The point where the 
 river intersects tlie canal is the city of Chin- 
 Kiang-<()0. ... On the morning of the 2l8t the 
 city was stormed by the Britisli, in three bri- 
 gades. The resistance of tlie Tartar troops was 
 most desperate. Our troojis fought under a 
 burning sun, whose overpowering heat caused 
 some to fall dead. The obstinate defence of the 
 ]iIaco prevented its being taken till six o'clock 
 ill the evening. When the streets were entered, 
 the houses were found almost deserted. They 
 were llUed with ghastly eorp.ses, many of the 
 Tartiir soliliers having destroyed their families 
 and tlien committed suicide. The city, from the 
 number of the dead, had become uninhabitable." 
 — C. Kniglit, Popular JUkI. of Emj., v. 8, ch. 25. 
 — "Tlie (lestruction of life was appalling. . . . 
 Every Manehu preferred resistance, death, 
 suicide, or lliglit, to surrender. Out of a Mauchu 
 population (jf 4,000, it was estimated that not 
 more than 50(» survived, the greater part having 
 perished by their own hands. . . . Within 
 twenty-four hours after the troops landed, the 
 city and suburbs of Cliinkiang were a mass of 
 ruin and destrrction. . . . The total lo.ss of the 
 English was 37 killcl and 181 wounded. . . . 
 Some of the large ships were towed up to Nan- 
 king, and i...e whole fleet reached it August 9tli, 
 at which time preparations had been made for 
 the assault. . . . Everything was ready for the 
 assault by daylight of August 15th ; " but on the 
 night of the i4th the Chinese made overtu.es for 
 the negotiation of peace, and the important 
 Treaty of Nanking was soon afterwards con- 
 cluded. Its terms were as follows: "1. Last- 
 ing peace between the two nations. 2. The 
 ports of Canton, Amoy, Fulichau, Ningpo, and 
 Shanghai [known afterwards as the Treaty 
 Ports] to be opened to British trade and resi- 
 dence, and trade conducted according to a well- 
 understood tariff. 3. ' It being ob\ usly ueccs- 
 • ■../ and desirable that British subjects should 
 have some port whereat they may careen and 
 refit their ships when required,' the island of 
 Hongkong 'o be ceded to her Slajesty. 4. Six 
 millions of dollars to be paid as the value of the 
 opium which was delivered up ' as a ransom for 
 the lives of H. B. M. Superintendent anu sub- 
 jects,' in March, 1839. 5. Three millions of 
 dollars to be paid for the debts due to British 
 merchants. 6. Twelve millious to be paid for 
 the expenses incurred in the expedition sent cut 
 ' to obtain redress for the violent and unjust pro- 
 ceedings of the Chinese high authorities.' 7. The 
 entire amount of $31,000,000 to be paid before 
 December 31, 1845. 8. All prisoni rs of war to 
 be immediately released by the Chinese. 9. The 
 Emperor to grant full and entire amnesty to 
 tliooo cf hio subjects who hud aided the British." 
 Articles 10 to 13 related to the tariff of export 
 and import dues that should be levied at the 
 open ports; to future terms of ofllcii.1 corre- 
 spondence, etc. Tlie Treaty was signed by the 
 Commissioners on the 29th of August, 1843, and 
 the Emiieror's ratilication was received Bepteni- 
 ber 15th.— S. W. Williams, Tlw Middle King- 
 dom, ch. 32-23. 
 
 Also in D. C. Boulger, Hid. of China, o. 3, eh. 5 
 -7.— E. II. Parker, Chinese Ace' t of the Opium War. 
 
 423 
 
CHINA, 1850-1804. 
 
 Tniping 
 liebetUon. 
 
 CHINA, 1850-1864. 
 
 A. D. 1850-1864.— The TaipineT Rebellion. 
 
 — "Thf jilnusc! 'Tiiiping IU?l)ellioii is wliolly cf 
 foii'ijjii iimmifactiire; at Pcliiiig and every where 
 ainoiij!; those loyal to the government the in- 
 surgents were styled ' Chiing-nmo tseh,' or 
 'liong-lmired rehels,' while on their side, by i\ 
 'wliiinsienl resemblance to English slang, the im- 
 perialists were di.Micd ' imps.' When tlie chiefs 
 n8suine<i to be aiming at independence in IS.TO, 
 in order to identify their f.)llowers with their 
 cause they took the term ' Ping Chao.'or 'Peace 
 Dynasty,' as the style of their sway, to dis- 
 tinginsh it from tlie 'Tsing Chao,' or 'Pure 
 Dynasty ' of the IVlanchus. Each of them pre- 
 fixed the adjective 'Ta' (or 'Tai,' in Cantonese), 
 'Great,' as is the Chinese custom with regard to 
 dynasties and nations ; thus tlie name Tai-ping 
 became known to foreigners." — S. W. Williams, 
 T/ie Middle. Kiiir/dom. f/i. 24 (r. 2),— "This re- 
 markable movement, which at one time excited 
 much interest in Western lands, originated with 
 a man named Hung Sew-tseucn [or Hung Siu- 
 tseiien], son of a humble peasant residing in a 
 village near Canton. On the occasion of one of 
 liis visits to the provincial city, probably in the 
 year 1833, he apjiears to have seen a foreign 
 Protestant missionary addressing the populace 
 in the streets, assisted by a ni'.live interpreter. 
 Either then or on the following day he received 
 from some tract-distributor a book entitled 
 'Good Words for Exhorting the Age,' which 
 consisted of essays and sermons l)y Leang A-fah, 
 a well-k'iown convert and evangelist. Taking 
 the volume homo with him, he lookecl it over 
 with some interest, but carelessly laid it aside in 
 his book-case. A few years afterward lie at- 
 tended for the second time the competitive 
 literary examination with high hopes of honor 
 and clistinction, having already passed with 
 much credit the lower examination in the dis- 
 trict city. His ambitious vent\ire, however, met 
 ■with severe di.^ippointment, and he returned to 
 his friends sicV in mind and body. During tliis 
 state of mental depression and pliysiealinlirmity, 
 which continued for some forty days, lie had 
 certain strange visions, in which lie received 
 commands from heaven to destroy the idols. 
 These fancied revelations seem to have produced 
 a deep impression on his mind, and led to a cer- 
 tain gravity of demeanor after his recovery and 
 return to his quiet occupation as a student and 
 vil'ago schoolmaster. When the English war 
 broke out, and foreigner.^ swept up Canton River 
 •with their wonderiul fire-ships, ... it is not 
 surprising that Hu.ig should have hsnl his atten- 
 tion again attracted to the Christian publication 
 ■wliich had lain so long neglected in liis library. 
 . . . The writings of Leang A-fah contained 
 chapters from the O'd and New Testament 
 Scriptures, which he found to correspond in a 
 striking manner with the preternatural sights and 
 voices of that memorable period in his history 
 [during his .sickness, si.K years before]; and this 
 strange coincidence convinced liimot their truth, 
 and of his being divinely appointed to restore 
 the world, that is China, to the worship of the 
 true God. Hung Sew-tseucn acct^pted his mis- 
 sion and began the work of propagatiiig tlie 
 faith he liad eppou.scd. Among his tir,st converts 
 ■was one Fung Yun-san, who became a most 
 ardent inissior.ny and disinterested preacher. 
 These two lenders of the movement traveled far 
 and near through the country, teaching the 
 
 people of all classes and forming a society of 
 G(Kl-worsliippers. All the converts renounced 
 idolatry ami gave up the worship of Confucius. 
 Hung, at this time apparently a sincere and 
 earnest Lctker after truth, went to Canton and 
 placed himself under the instructions of the Hev. 
 Air. Roberts, an American missionary, who for 
 some cause fearing that his novitiate mij'lit be 
 inspired by mercenary motives, denied him the 
 rite of bajitisin. But, without being offended 
 at this cold and suspicious treatment, he went 
 home pnd taught his converts how to baptize 
 themselves, "rho God-worshippers rapidly in- 
 creased in numbers, and were known and feared 
 as zealous iconoclasts. . . . For a year after 
 Hung Sew-tseuen had rejoined the God-wor- 
 sliippers that society retiiined its exclusively 
 religious nature, but in the autumn of 1850 it 
 was brought into direct collision with the civil 
 magistrates, when the movement assumed a 
 political character of the highest aims." It was 
 soon a movement of declared rebellion, and 
 allied with a rebel army of bandits and pirates 
 which liad taken arms against the govern- 
 ment in south-eastern China. — L. N. Wheeler, 
 T/ie foreigner in China, ch. 13. — "The Ilakka 
 schooliniwter proclaimed his ' mission ' in ISr.O. 
 A vast horde gathered to him. He nominated 
 five 'Wangs 'or soldier sub-kings from out of 
 his clan, and commenced liis northward movement 
 from Woosewen in January, 18!j!. Through 
 the rich prosperous provinces liis desultory 
 march, inters'jersed with frequent halts, spread, 
 destruction and desolation. The peaceful fled 
 shuddoringly before this wave of fierce, stalwart 
 ruflianhood, with its tatterdemalian tawdrincss, 
 its flaunting banners, its rusty naked weapons. 
 Everywhere it gathered in the local scoundrelism. 
 The pirates came from the coast; the robbers 
 from the interior mountains rallied to an enter- 
 prise that promised so well for their trade. In 
 the perturbed state of the Cliinese population 
 the horde grew like an avalanche as it rolled 
 along. The Heavenly King [as Hung now 
 styled himself] met with no opijosition to speak 
 of^ and in 1853 liis promenade ended under the 
 shadow of the Porcelain Tower, in the city of 
 Nanking, the second metropolis of thi, Chinese 
 Empire, where, till the rebellion and liis life 
 ended siniu'taneouslj', he lived a life of licen- 
 tiousness, darkened furtlier by the grossest 
 cruelties. The rebellion had lasted nearly ten 
 years when the fates brought it into collision 
 with the armed civilization of the West. The 
 Imperialist forces had made sluggishly some 
 head against it. Nanking had been invested 
 after a fashion for years on end. ' Tiie prospects 
 of the^Tai-pings,' says Commander Brine, 'in the 
 early spring of 1860, had become very gloomy. ' 
 The Imperialist generals had hemmed Tai-ping- 
 dom witliin certain limits in tlie 1 wer valley of 
 the Yantsze, and the movement languilied 
 further ' from its destructive and exhausting 
 nature, ■whicli for continued vitality constantly 
 required new districts of country to exhaust and 
 destroy.' But in 1859 China and the West came 
 into collision. . . . The rebellion had opi)or- 
 tunity to recover lost ground. For the sixth 
 time the ' Faithful King ' relieved Nanking. 
 Tlie Imiierialist generals fell back, and then the 
 Tai-pings took the offensive, and as the result of 
 .sundry victories, the rebellion regained an active 
 and flourishing condition. . . . Shanghai, one of 
 
 ■<24 
 
CHINA, 1850-1804. 
 
 War with 
 Etigtand and trance. 
 
 CHINA, 1850-1860. 
 
 llio trenty ports, was tlireiitencd. " — A. Forbes, 
 Chinese Gordon, ch. 3. — " Europe . . . has 
 known ev.' diiys nmler the Imnds of lierco cou- 
 ■inerors, pi indering and destroying in religion's 
 name; but .ts annuls may be ransacked in vain, 
 witJKMit fin Ing any parallel to the miseries 
 endured in t.iose provinces of Cliina over which 
 ' The Heavenly King,' tlic Tai-ping prophet, ex- 
 tended his fell sway for ten sad years. Hung 
 Sew-ts\ien (better known in Cliina by liis assumed 
 title, Tien Wang) . . . liad read Christian tracts, 
 had learnt from a Christian missionary; and 
 when ho announced publicly three years aft(!r- 
 wards that part of his mission was to destroy the 
 temples and images, and showed in the jargon 
 of his pretended visions some traces of his New 
 Testament study, the conclusion was instantly 
 seized by the sanguine minds of a section set 
 upon evangelizing the East, tliat their efforts 
 had produced a true prophet, tit for the work. 
 SVeiUled to tliis fancy, they rejected as the in- 
 ventions of the enemies of missions the tales of 
 Taiping cruelty which soon reached Europe: 
 and long after the details of the impostor's life 
 at Nankin, with its medley of visions, execu- 
 tions, edicts, ap'l Inirem iiuhdgcnce, became 
 notorious to the world, prayers were offered for 
 his success by devotees in Great Britain as 
 bigoted to his cause as the bloodiest commander, 
 or ' Wang,' whom ho had raised from the ranks 
 of his followers to carry out his ' exterminating 
 decrees.' The Taiping cause was lost in China 
 before it was wholly abandoned by these 
 fanatics in England, and their belief in its ex- 
 cellence so powerfully reacted on our policy, 
 that it iniglit have preserved us from active 
 intervention down to the present time, had not 
 certain Imperialist successes elsewhere, the 
 diminishing means of their wasted possessions, 
 and the rashness of tlieir own chiefs, brought 
 the Taiping arms into direct collision with us. 
 And with the occasion tliere was happily raised 
 up the man whose prowess was to .scatter their 
 blood-cemented (impire to pieces far more 
 speedily tlian it had been built up." — C. C. 
 Chesney, Essays in Military E'>q., ch. 10. — "The 
 Taiping rebellion was of so barbarous a nature 
 that its suppression had become necessary in the 
 interests of civilization. A force raised at the 
 expense of the Shanghai merchants, and sup- 
 ported by the Chinese government, liad been for 
 some years struggling against its jirogress. 
 This force, known as the 'Ever Victorious 
 Army,' was commanded at first by Ward, an 
 American, and, on his death, by Burgevine, also 
 an American, who was summarily dismissed ; for 
 a short time the command was held by Holland, 
 an English mi'rine odicer, but he wivs defeated 
 at Taitsiui 2i Feb., 1803. Li Hung Chang, 
 governor-general of the Kiang provinces, then 
 applied to the Britisli conuuander-inchief for the 
 services of an English olllccr, and Gordon [Charles 
 George, subsequently known as ' Cliinese 
 Gordon'] was authorised to accept the command. 
 He arrived at Sung-Kiong and entered on his 
 new duties as a mandarin and lieutenant-colonel 
 in the Chinese service on 21 Marcli ly03. His 
 force was composed of some tliiee to four tliou- 
 sand Chinese, oflicered by li50 Europeans of 
 almost eveiy nationality and often of doubtful 
 character. By the indomitable will ot its com- 
 mander this heterogeneous body was moulded 
 into a little army whoso high-sounding title of 
 28 
 
 'ever-victorious' became a reality, and in less 
 than two years, after IW engagements, the 
 jiower of the Taipings was completely broken 
 and the rebellion stamped out. 'I'lie theatre of 
 operations was the district of Kiangwio, lying 
 between the Yang tze- Kiang river in tlie north 
 and the bay of Hangcliow in the south." Ik- 
 fore the summer of 1803 was over, Gordon h id 
 raised the rebel .siege of Chanzu, and taken frcn 
 the Taipings the towns of Fushaii, Taitsan, 
 Ouinsan, Kahpoo, Wokong, Patacbiaow, Leeku, 
 Wanti, and Fusai(iwan Finally, in December, 
 the great city of Soo-chow was surrendered to 
 him. Gordon was always in front of all his 
 storming parties, "carrying no other weapon 
 than a little cane. His men called it his ' magic 
 wand,' regarding it as a charm that prote<^ted 
 his life and led them on to victory. When .Soo- 
 chow fell Gordon had stipulated with the 
 Governor-general Li for the lives of the Wangs 
 (rebel leaders). They were treacherous'.y mur- 
 dered by Li's orders. Indignant at this per- 
 fidy, Gordon refused to serve any longer with 
 Governor Li, and when on 1 Jan. 1804 money 
 and rewards were heaped upon him by the Em- 
 peror, declined them all. . . . After some [two] 
 months of inaction it became evident that if 
 Gordon did not again take the field the Taipings 
 would regain the rescued c<Aintry," and he was 
 prevailed upon to resume his campaign, wliich, 
 although badly wounded in one of the battles, 
 he brought to an end in the follow lUg April 
 (1804), by the capture of Chan-chu-fu. "This 
 victory not only ended the campaign but com- 
 pletely destroyed the rebellion, and the Chinese 
 regular forces were enabled to occupy Nankin 
 ill the July folloviug. The large money present 
 offered to Gordon by the emperor was again 
 declined, although he had spent his pay in pro- 
 moting the efHciency of his force, so that he 
 wrote home : ' I shall leave China as poor as 
 w lien I entered it.'" — Col. R. H. Veitch, Charles 
 Oeorr/e Gordon (Diet, of Xat. Iliog.) 
 
 Also in: A. E. Hake, The titori/ of Chinese 
 Gordon, ch. 3-8.— W. F. Butler, Chas. Georf/e 
 Gordon, ch. 3. — S. Mossman, General Gordon in, 
 China. — Private Diary of Gen. Gordon in China. 
 — Jim. Gallery and Yvan, Hist, of tlie Insurrec- 
 tion in China. 
 
 A. D. 1856-1860.— 'War with England and 
 France. — Bombardment and capture of Can- 
 ton. — The Allies in Pekin. — Their destruction 
 of the Summer Palace. — Terms of peace. — 
 The speech from the throne at tlie opening of 
 the Englisli Parliament, on February 3, 1857, 
 "stated that acts of violeuce, insults to the 
 British flag, and infractions of treaty rights, com- 
 mitted by the local authorities at Canton, and a 
 pertinacious refusal of redress, had rendered it 
 necessary for her JIajesty's olllrers in China to 
 have recourse to measures of force to obtain satis- 
 faction. Tlie alleged ollences of the Cliinese au- 
 thorities at Canton had for their single victim 
 the lorclia 'Arrow.' The lorclia 'Arrow' was a 
 small boat built on the European model. The 
 word ' Lorclia' is tiiken from tlie Portuguerx set- 
 tlement at Macao, at tlie mouth of tlie Cant(m 
 river. It often <ccui-s in treaties with the Chinese 
 authorities. On October 8, 1850, a party of 
 Chinese in charge of an oflicer boarded tlio 
 'Arrow,' in the Canton river. Tliey took off 
 twelve men on a charge of piracy, leaving two 
 men in charge of the lorcha. The ' Arrow ' was 
 
 426 
 
CHINA, 1856-1860. 
 
 Affair of 
 the Arrow. 
 
 CriINA, 1856-1860. 
 
 declared by its owners to be n British vcssci. 
 Our eonwul ut C'linton, Mr. Parlies, (loiiiiUKlrd 
 from Yell, the Chinese Governor of Canton, the 
 return of the men, basing liis demand ujion the 
 Treaty of 18i:t, siiiipiemenlai to the Treaty of 
 1842. This treaty did not !;ive the Chinese" au- 
 thorities any ri;;hl to seize Clnnesc? olTenders, or 
 supposed ollenders, on board an Knirlish vessel. 
 It merely gave tlieni a right to re(|uire the sur- 
 render of the offenders at the hands of the 
 Enjilisli. The Chinese Governor, Yeh, con- 
 tended, liowever, that the loreha vas a Chinese 
 pirate vessel, whieh had no riglit whatever to 
 hoist the flag of England. It may be plainly 
 stjited at once that the ' Arrow ' was not an 
 English vessel, hut only a Chinese ves.4el whieh 
 hail obtained by false pret-nees the temporary 
 possession tif a Uritish tlag. Mr. Consul Parkes, 
 however, wis fussy, and l:e demanded the in- 
 stant rcstoniiion of the captured men, and he sent 
 oil to our Plenipotentiary at Hong Kong, Sir 
 John Bowring, for authority and assistance in the 
 business. >Slr .John Bowring . . . ordered the 
 Chinese authorities to surrender all tlie mea taken 
 from the ' Arrow,' and he insisted that an apology 
 should be olTered for their arrest, and u formal 
 pledge given that no such act should ever be 
 committed again. If this were not done witldn 
 forty -eight hours, naval ojierations weretobe be- 
 gun against the Chinese. Tlie Chinese Governor, 
 Yell, sent back all the men, and undertook to 
 pnmiise that for the future great care should be 
 tiiken that no Britisli ships slionld be vi.sited im- 
 properly by Chinese ollieers. But he could not 
 offer an apology for the particular case of the 
 ' Arrow,' for he still niaintaim^d, as was indeed 
 the fact, that tlie 'Arrow' was a Chinese vessel, 
 and that the Englisli had nothing to do with lier. 
 Acordingly Sir John Bowring carried out his 
 tlireat, and had Canton bombarded by the fleet 
 which Admiral Sir Michael Seymour commanded. 
 From October 23 to November liJ naval and mili- 
 tary operations were kept uj) continuously. Com- 
 missioner Y'eli retaliated by foolislily offering a 
 reward for tlie head of every Englishman. This 
 news from Cliiiia created a consiilerable sensation 
 in England. On February 24, 1857, Lord Derby 
 brought forward in tlie House of Lords a motion, 
 comprehensively condemning the wliole of tlie 
 proceedings of the British authorities in China. 
 The debate would liave been memorable if only 
 for the powerful speech in which the venerable 
 Lord Lyndliurst sup|,orted the motion, and ex- 
 posed the utter illegality of tlie course pursued 
 by Sir John Bowring. The House of Lords re- 
 jected the motion of Lord Derby bv a majority 
 of 146 to 110. On February 26" Mr. Ci.'hIcu 
 brouglit forward a similar motion in the House 
 of Commons. . . . Mr. Cobdeii had probably 
 never dreamed of the amount or the nature of 
 the sup[)ort his motion was destined to receive. 
 The vote of censure was carried by 263 votes 
 uguinat 347 — a majority of 16. Lord Puhnerston 
 announced two oi three days after that the 
 Government had resolved on a dissolution and an 
 appeal to the country. Lord Palmerston under- 
 stood his countrymen." In the ensuing elections 
 his victory was complete. "Cobden, Bright, Mil- 
 ner Gibson, W. J. Fox, Layard, an(l many other 
 leading opponents of the Cliinese policy, were 
 left without seals. Lord Palmerston came back 
 to power with renewed and redou'jled strength." 
 lie "had tUc satisfaction before he left ofliee [in 
 
 18,')8] of lieing able to announce the capture of 
 ('anion. The operations against China had been 
 virtually suspended . . . when the Indian !Mii- 
 tiay liroke out. England liad now got the co- 
 operation of France. France had a complaint of 
 long standing against Cliina on account of the 
 murder of some mis.sionaries, for which redress 
 had been asked in vain. There was, tlierefore, 
 an allied attack made upon Canton [December, 
 1857], and o? courae the city was easily captured. 
 Conimi.ssioner Y'eh himself was taken iirisoner, 
 not until he had beiMi sought for and hunted oiit 
 ill most ignominious fasliion. He was found iit 
 last hidden away in some obscure part of a Iioiise. 
 He was known by his enormous fatness. . . . 
 He was put on board an Engli.sli man-of-war, and 
 afterwards sent to Calcutta, where he died early 
 in the following yei'.'.'. Unless report greatly be- 
 lied him he had been exceptionally cruel, even 
 for a Chinese olllcial. Tlie Englisli and French 
 Envoys, Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, succeeded 
 in making a treaty with China. By the con- 
 ditions of tlie treaty, England and France were 
 to have ministers at the (!liinese Court, on certain 
 special occasions at least, and China was to be 
 represented in London and Paris; there was to 
 be toleration of Cliristiauity in Cliina, and a 
 certain freedom of access to Chinese rivers for 
 English and French mercantile vessels, and to 
 the interior of Cliina for Englisli and French sub- 
 jects. China was to pay the expenses of the war. 
 It was further agreed that the term 'barbarian' 
 w.is no longer to be applied to Europeans in 
 Cliina. There was great congratulation in Eng- 
 land over this treaty, and the prospect it alforded 
 of a lasting peace with China. The peace thus 
 ])rocurcd lasted in fact exactly a year. . . . The 
 tieatiy of Tien-tsin, which had been arranged by 
 Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, contained u clause 
 providing for the exchange of the ratifications 
 at Pekin within a year from tlie date of the sig- 
 nature, wdiicli took nlace in ■Tune 1858. Lord 
 Elgin returned <o Eng and, and his brother, Mr. 
 Frederick Bruce, was appointed in JIarcli 1859 
 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- 
 tiary to China. Mr. Bruce was directed to pro- 
 ceed by way of tlic Peilio to Tien-tsin, and thence 
 to Pekin to excliange the ratifications of tlic 
 treaty. Lord Malmesbury, who was then Foreign 
 Secretary . . . impressed upon Mr. Bruce that 
 he was not to be put off from going to the capit'.l. 
 Instructions were sent out from fingland at the 
 same time to Admiral Hope, the Naval Com- 
 mander-in-Cliief in Cliina, to i)rovido a sufBcient 
 force to accompany Jlr. Bruce to tlie mouth' of 
 the Peiho. The Peiho river flows from Mie liigli- 
 lands on the west into the Gulf of Pecheli, at the 
 north-east corner of the Chinese dominions. Tlie 
 capital of the Empire is about 100 miles inland 
 from the mouth of the Peiho. It does not stand 
 on lliat river, which flows past it at some dis- 
 tance westward, but it is connected with the 
 river by means of a canal. The town of Tien- 
 tsin stands on the Peiho near its junction with 
 one of the many rivers that flow into it, and 
 about forty miles fn^n the mouth. The entrance 
 to the Peilio was defe.vled by tlie Taku *'orts. 
 On June 20, 1859, Mv. Bruce and the French En- 
 voy reached the mouth of the Peilio witli Admind 
 Hope's Meet, some nuieteen vessels in all, to 
 escort them. They found the forts defended; 
 some negotiations and inter-communications took 
 place, and a Chinese official from Tien-tsin came 
 
 426 
 
CHINA, 1850-1800. 
 
 Bnrbarinn» 
 in Pekin. 
 
 CHINA, 1857-1868. 
 
 to Mr. nruc<! nnd endeavoured to oMiiin some 
 delay or coin promise. Mr. Hruce became con- 
 vinced tliat tlie condition of tilings predicted by 
 Lord Malmesbury was coming about, and tliat 
 tlie Cliincse authorities were only trying to de- 
 feat his purpose. lie called on Adinirid Ilojje 
 to clear a passage for the vessels. WI.en tlie 
 Adinind brought up his gunboats the forts 
 opened lire. The Chinese artillerymen showed 
 unexpected skill and precision. Four of the gun- 
 boats were almost immediately di.sablcd. All 
 the attacking vessels got aground. Admiral 
 Hope attempted to storm the forts. The attempt 
 was u complete failure. Admiiiil Hope himself 
 was wounded; so was the commander of the 
 French veuse! which had contriliuted a con'ingent 
 to the storming party. The attempt to loice a 
 passage of the river was given up nnd the mis- 
 sion to Pekiu WHS over for the preser.t. It seems 
 only fair to say that the C^hinese at tlie mouth of 
 the Peiho cannot bo accused of perfidy. They 
 had mounted the forts and barricaded the river 
 openly and even ostentatiously. ... It will be 
 easily imagined that the news created a deep 
 sensiitioii in Kngland. People in general made 
 up their minds at once that the matter could not 
 be allowed to rest there, and that the mission to 
 Pekin must be enforced. . . . Before the whole 
 question came to be discussed in Parliament the 
 Conservatives liad gone out and the Liberals had 
 come in. The English and French Qovernments 
 deti.rinined that the men who had made the 
 treaty of Tien-tsin — Loril Elgin and Uaron Gros 
 — should be sent back to insist on its reinforce- 
 ment. Sir Hope Grant was appointed to the 
 military command of our land forces, and Geneml 
 Cousin de Montauban, afterwards Count Palikao, 
 commanded the soldiers of France. The Chinese, 
 to do them justice, fought very bravely, but of 
 coui-so they liad no chance whatever against such 
 forces as those commanded by the English ami 
 French generals. The allies captured the Taku 
 forts [August, 1800], occupied Tien-tsin, and 
 marched on Pekia. The Chinese Government 
 endeavoured to negotiate for peace, and to inter- 
 pose any manner of delay, diiilomatic or other- 
 wise, between the allies and their progress to th'! 
 capital. Lord Elgin consented at last to enter 
 into negotiations at Tungchow, a walled town 
 ten or twelve niiles nearer than Pekin. Before 
 the negotiations took place. Lord Elgin's secre- 
 taries, Mr. Parkes and !Mr. Loch, some English 
 otticers, Mr. Bowlby, the correspondent of the 
 ' Times,' and some membei's of the stall of Baron 
 Oros, were treai herously seized by the Chinese 
 while under a Bug of truce and dragged off to 
 various jirLsons. Mr. Parkes and Jlr. Loch, with 
 eleven of their companions, were afterwards re- 
 leased, after having been treated with much 
 cruelty and indignity, but thirteen of the prison- 
 ers died of the horrible ill-treatment tlicy re- 
 ceived. Lord Elgin I'cfusetl to negotiate untii 
 the jirisoners had been returned, and the allied 
 armies were actually at one of the great gates of 
 Pekin, and had their giuis in position to blow 
 the gate in, when the Chinese acceded to their 
 term.s. The gate was surrendered, the allies en- 
 tered the city, and the English and French flags 
 were hoistecf side by side on the walls of Pekin. 
 It was only after entering the city that Lord 
 Elgin learned of the murder of the captives. He 
 then deterntined that the Summer Palace should 
 be burnt dowu as a, means of impressing the 
 
 mind of the Chinese authorities generally with 
 some sen.se of the dnugiT of treachery and foul 
 play. Two days were (M'cupied in the destruc- 
 tion of the palace. It covered an area of many 
 miles. Garilens, temples, small lodges, and i)a- 
 godas. groves, grottoes, lakes, bridges, terraces, 
 artificial hills, diversitied the vast space. All 
 the artistic treasures, all the curiosities, arch' 
 aeologieal and other, that C)liinese wealth and 
 Chinese taste, such as it was, co\ild bring to- 
 gether, had been accunuilated in this inai;nilicent 
 pleasaunce. The surrounding scenery was 
 beautiful. The high mountains of Tarlary ram- 
 l)arted one side of the enclosure. The buildings 
 were set on tire; the whole place was given over 
 to destruction. A monument was raised with an 
 inscripti(jn in Chinesi^ setting forth that such 
 was the reward of perfidy and cruelty. Very 
 different ojjinions were held in England a • the 
 destruction of the Imperial palace. To ni.niy it 
 seemed an act of unintelligible and unpardonable 
 vandalism. Lord Elgin explained, tlial if he did 
 not demand the surrender of the a(ttual perpetra- 
 tore, it was because he knew full well that no 
 dilHculty would have been made about giving 
 him a seeming satisfaction. The Chinese Govern- 
 ment would liave selected for vicarious punish- 
 ment, in all probability, a crowd of mean and 
 unfor'unato wnjtches who had nothing to do with 
 the murders. ... It is somewhat singular that 
 so many persons should have been roused to in- 
 dignation by the destruction of a building who 
 took with perfect composure the unjust invasion 
 of a country. The allied powers now of course 
 had it all their own way. England established 
 her right to have an envoy in Pc'kin, whether the 
 Cliinese liked it or not. China 'lad to pay a war 
 indemnity, and a large sum of money as com- 
 pensation to the families of the murdered prison- 
 ers and to those who had suffered injuries, and 
 to make an apology for the attack by the garrison 
 of the Taku forts. Perhaiis the most important 
 gain to Europe from the war was the knowledge 
 that Pekin was not by any means so large a city 
 as we had all imagined it to be, and that it was 
 on the whole rather a crumbling and tumble- 
 down sort of place." — J. McCarthy, Short Hint, 
 of ouv own Time, ch. 12, 15, 17 (c/t. 30 and 43, 
 V. 3, of larger work). 
 
 Also in: L. Oliphant, Narrative of tlte Earl of 
 Elgin's Mission, v. 1. — H. B. Loch, Personal Mar- 
 ratire. — S. W. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, 
 ch. 25 (,v. 2).— Col. SirW. F. Butler, Ohas. Geo. 
 Gordon, ch. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1857-1868.— Treaty w.th the United 
 States. — The Burlingame Embassy and the 
 Burlingame Treaties. — "The government of 
 the United States viewed with an.xiety tlie new 
 breaking out of liostilitics between Great Britain, 
 supported by Prance as an ally, and China, in the 
 year 18.^0. President Bucharnn sent thither the 
 Hon. William B. Reed to watch the course of 
 events, and to act the part of a mediator and 
 peacemaker when opportunity should offer. 
 In this lie waj sustained by Ihe intlueuce of 
 Russia. Mr. Reed arrived in Hong-Kong, on the 
 fine war steamer Minnesota, November 7, 1857. 
 He at once set himself to remove the dilliculties 
 between the English and Chinese, and save if 
 possible the future effusion of blood. He en- 
 tleavored in vain to persuade the proud and ob- 
 stinate governor Yeh to yield, and save Cantou 
 from bombardment. He proceeded to the north. 
 
 427 
 
CHINA, 1857-1868. 
 
 HurUnffame 
 JCmlxusy. 
 
 CHINA, 1857-1868. 
 
 hik) iniuli' on licliair of his ^ovcriiiiiciit a treaty 
 of |uii(T Willi CliiTia wliicli wa.s sij^iicd .luiic IH. 
 Till! first article of the treaty contains a sijfiiitl- 
 cant reference to the postuii; of the United Stal<'s 
 In relation to the war then in jjrogrcHs, as well 
 as to any which might thereafter arise. The 
 article says: 'There shall he, as there have 
 always been, i)eace and friiaidship between the 
 United .States of America and the Ta-Tsing 
 Kmpire, and between their jieople respectively. 
 They shall not insidt or oppress each other for 
 any trilling cause, so as to produce an estran^e- 
 ni'nt between them; and if any other nation 
 should net unjustly or oppres-sively, the United 
 StJites will e.xerl their good ollices, (ui being 
 informed of the ca.se, to bring about an amicable 
 arrangement of the (piestion, thus showing their 
 friendly feelings.' A subseiiuent article of this 
 treaty is to be interpreted by keeping in view 
 the Wtter root of the dilliculties between Groat 
 Britain and China which led to the previous war 
 of 1839 to '4'2, and to this war. After stating 
 the ports where Americans shall be perinilted to 
 reside and their vessels to trade, it contuiues in 
 the following language: 'But said vi'.,sels shall 
 not carry on a dandestini; and fnmdulent trade 
 lit other ports of China not dedarec, to be legal, 
 or aUmg the coasts thereof; and any vessel under 
 the American Hag violating 'his provision shall, 
 with her cargo, be subject t( .onliscation to the 
 Chinese government; and any citizen of the 
 United States who shall trade in any contraband 
 article of merchandise shall be subject to be 
 dealt with by the Chinese government, without 
 being entitled to any countenance or protection 
 from that of the United States ; and tlie United 
 States will take measures to prevent their flag 
 from being abused by the subjects of other nations 
 88 a cover for the violation of the laws of the 
 empire.' . . . Tlie developinent of the foreign 
 trade with China during the brief time which 
 lias passeil [1870J since the last war has been very 
 gri at. . . . The Aiaericau government has lieen 
 represented most of the time by tlie Hon. Anson 
 Burlingame, who has taken the lead, with re- 
 markable ability and success, in establishing 
 the policy tf peaceful co-operation between the 
 chief treaty powers, in encouraging the (^'liinese 
 to adopt a more wise and progressive jiolicy 
 in their entercoiirse with foreign nations and in 
 the introduction of the improvements of the age. 
 . . . Mr. Burlingame, who liad been in China six 
 years, determined [in 180V] to resign his i)ost and 
 return to America. The news of it excited much 
 regret among both Chinese and foreign tliploma- 
 tists. The former endeavored in vain to dissuade 
 him from his purpose. Failing to accomplish this, 
 lie was invited by Prince Kung to a farewell enter- 
 tainment, at which were present many of the lead- 
 ing offleers of the government. During it they 
 c.ipressed to him their gratitude for his offices to 
 tliem as an intelligent and disinterested counselor 
 and friend. And they seem to have conceived at 
 this time the thought of putting the relations of 
 the empire with foreign countries upon a more just 
 and equal bas's, by sending to them an imperial 
 embassy of which he should be the head. They 
 ptomptly consulted some of their n'.ore reliable 
 friends among the foreign gentlemen at the capi- 
 tal, and in two days after they tendered to Mr. 
 Bi-rlingame, much'to his surprise, the appoint- 
 ment of minister plenipotentiary of China in the 
 Western powers. . . , Mr. Builiugume leU the 
 
 Chinese capital on the H'Ah of November, 18(17. 
 The embassy consisted, besides the principal, of 
 Cliih-k>')'; and Hun Chiakii, a Manchii and a 
 Chinese olHcer, each wearing the red ball on his 
 cap which indicates on ollicial of a rank next to 
 the highest in the empire; J. McLeary Browr 
 formerly of the British legation, and M. I)i 
 cliainp.s, as secretaries; Teh -Aliiig and Fung 1 
 as (Chinese attaches, and several other jiersuns 
 in subordinate pcsitions. ... It went to Hhnug- 
 liai, thence to San Fniucisco, where it was most 
 cordially welcomed by both the American and 
 Chinese mercantile communities. It reached 
 ■Washington in JNIay, IHOS. The embassy was 
 treated with iiiiich distinction at the American 
 capital. No American .slatcsman was so capable 
 and disposed to enter cordially into its objects as 
 tlie Secretary of Slate at that time, the lion. 
 William II. Seward, whose mind had long ap- 
 l)reheii<led the great features of the policy which 
 American and foreign nations should pursue in 
 relation to the Chinese em|)irc. On the lOtli of 
 .Inly the Senate of the United States ratified a 
 treaty which he had made in behalf of this 
 country with the representative of the Chinese 
 government. The treaty defines and fixes the 
 ))riiiciples of the intercourse of Western nations- 
 with China, of t'" importance of which 1 have 
 already spoken, .t secures the territorial integ- 
 rity of the empire, and cimccdes to China the 
 rights which the civilized nations of the world 
 accord to each other as to eminent domain over 
 land and waters, and jurisdiction over persons 
 and ])ropcrty therein. It lakes the first step 
 toward the appointment of Chinese consuls in 
 our seaports — a measure promotive of both 
 Chinese and American interests. It secures ex- 
 emi/tion from all disability or persecution on 
 account of religious faith in either country. It 
 recognizes the right of voluntary emigration and 
 makes penal the wrongs of the coolie tralHc. It 
 jiledgcs jirivik'ges as to travel or residence in 
 either country such as are enjoyed by the most 
 favored nation. It grants to the Chinese per- 
 mission to attend our schools and colleges, and. 
 allows us to freely establish and maintain schools 
 in China. And while it acknowledges the right 
 of the Chinese government to control its own 
 whole interior arrangements, as to railroads, 
 telegraphs and other internal improvements, it 
 suggests the willingness of our government ta> 
 alford aid toward their construction by desig- 
 nating and authorizing suitable engineers tO' 
 perform the work, at the expense of the Chinese 
 government. The treaty expressly leaves the- 
 question of naturalization in either country an 
 open one. ... It is not accessary to follow in 
 detail the jjrogress of this first imperial Chinese 
 embassy. In England it was r(;ceived at first 
 very coldly, and it was soii'e months before 
 l)roi)er attention could be secured from the gov- 
 ernment to its objects. At length, however, on/ 
 November 20, it was presented to the queen at 
 Windsor Castle. . . . What Iieart is there that 
 will not join in the cordial wish that the treaties- 
 made b' the embassy with Great Britain, France, 
 Prussia and other Luropean powers may be the 
 commencement of a new la'a in the diplomatic 
 and national intercourse of China with those and 
 all other lands of the West ! "— W. Speer The 
 Oldest and l/ie Newest Empire, ch. 14. 
 
 Also in: Treatum and Conventions bet. th«. 
 U. IS. and other Pmers (1889), p. 159 ami 179. 
 
 428 
 
CHINA, 1884-1885. 
 
 Future of 
 the Chinene. 
 
 CHIPPEWA. 
 
 A. D. i884-i88s.— War with France. Hcv. 
 Fh.vnck; a. I). 1H75-1MW). 
 
 A. D. 1892. — Exclusion of Chinese from the 
 United States. Sec I'mtki) Sia ti'.s oi- A.m. : 
 
 A. I). IHICJ. 
 
 A. D. 1893. — The future of the Chinese. — A 
 speculation. — " China is goncnilly rc^iirdcd a.sii 
 stalioimry power which can fairly hold it.s own, 
 though it has lost Anuani to Jraiicc, and the 
 Kiizcrainty of Upper Hurmah to England, and 
 thu Amoor Valley to Russia, hut which is not 11 
 Korious competitor in the race foreni|)irc. There 
 is a certain idausihility in this view. f)n the 
 other hand. China has recovered Eastern Turkes- 
 tan from Jlahomniedan rule and from a Uussian 
 protectorate, is dominating the Corea, and has 
 stamped out a dangerous rebellion in Yunnan. 
 No one can doulit that if China were to get for 
 sovereign a man with the organising and aggres- 
 sive genius of Peter the Great or Frederick the 
 Second, it would he a very formidable neighbour 
 to either British India or Uussia. Neither is it 
 easy to suppo.se that the improvements, now 
 tentatively mtroduced into China, will notsoonbu 
 taken up and pushed on a large scale, so that 
 railways will be ('arried into the heart of Asia, 
 and large armies Irilled an<l furnished with arms 
 of precisiim on the European model. In any 
 such case the rights which China has reluctantly 
 conceded or still claims over Annam and Ton- 
 <iuiu, over Siam, over Upper ISurmah, and over 
 Nejjaid, may become matters of very serious dis- 
 cuesion. At present the French settlements 
 arrest the e.vpansiou of China in the direction 
 most dangerous to the world. Unfortunately, 
 the climate of Saigon is such as no Europe.m 
 cares to settle in, and the war to secure Ton(ju.n 
 was so unpopular that it cost a French premier 
 his tenure of oflice. . . . AVhatever, however, be 
 the fortune of China in this direction, it is 
 scarcely doubtful that she will not only people 
 up to the furthest boundary of her recognised 
 territory, but gradually acquire new dominions. 
 The history of our Straits Settlements will afford 
 a familiar instance how the Chinese are spread- 
 ing. They already form half the population 
 liredominating in Singapore and Perak, and the 
 best observers arc agreed that the Malay cannot 
 hold his cwn against them. They arc beginuing 
 to settle in Borneo I'ud Sumatra, and they are 
 supplanting the natives in some of the small 
 islands of the Pacilic, such as Hawaii. The 
 climate of all these countries suits them, and they 
 conmieud themselves to governments and em- 
 
 ployers by their power of steady industry; nml 
 they intermarry freely up to a .saf<r i)oint with 
 the women of the "country, getting all th« 
 advantages of alliance, yet not saerillcing their 
 nationality. Several eaus<'S have retarded 
 their spread hitherto: the regions enumeral<'d 
 have mostly bei'ii loo insi'cun' for an industrial 
 people to tlourisli in, until the British or tho 
 Dutch established order; the government of 
 China has hitherto discouraged enngralion; 
 English administrations have been obliged to bo 
 rather wary in their dealings with a pi uph; who 
 •showed at "Si.rawak and Peiiang that tliey were 
 capable of combining for purposes of massacre; 
 and the Chinese superstition about burial in tho 
 sacred soil of the Celestial Empire made tho 
 great majority of the emigrants birds of i)assiigc. 
 All these causes are disappearing. . . . Euro- 
 peans cannot tlourisli under the tropics, and will 
 not work with the hand where an inferior raoo 
 works. What W(! have to consider, flierefore. is 
 the probabilitv tl.at lli(! natives who are givinjj 
 way to the Chinese in tlie Malay Peninsula will 
 bo able to make head against them in liorneo or 
 Sumatra. Borneo is nearly si.\ times as big as 
 .lava, and if it were peopled like .lava would 
 support a population of nearly 100,000,000. . . . 
 In tlu: long run tho Chinese, who out-nund)er 
 the Malay, as si.\teen to one, who are more 
 detlucdly industrial, and who organise where 
 they can in a way that i)recludes competition, 
 are tolerably certain to gain the upjier hand. 
 They may not destroy tlie early settlers, but 
 they will reduce them to the positicm of the Hill 
 tribes in India, or of the Ainos in Japan. 
 Assume flfty years hence that China has taken 
 its inevitable ptsition as one of the great powers 
 of tho world, and that Borneo has a population 
 of 10,000,000, predominantly Chinese, is it ea.sy 
 to suppose in such a case that the larger part of 
 Borneo would still bo a dependency of the 
 Netherlands V or that the A'hole island woidd not 
 have passed, by arms or diplomacy, into the 
 possession of Cliina ? . . . There are those who 
 believe that tho Chinaman is li.:ely to super.ede 
 the Spaniard and Indian alike in parts of South 
 America. Without assuming that all of these 
 possibilities arc likely to be realised, there is 
 surely a strong presumption that so great a 
 people as the Chinese, and possessed of such 
 enormous natural resources, will sooner or later 
 overflow their borders and spread over new 
 territory, and submerge weaker races." — C. H. 
 Pearson, National Life and Character, pp. 45-51. 
 
 CIIINANTECS, The. See A.muuican Aaio- 
 iiKiiNKs: Zapotecs. etc. 
 
 CHING OR TSING DYNASTY, The. 
 See China: A. D. 1394-1883. 
 
 CHINGIS KHAN, Conquests of. See Mon- 
 gols: A. D. 1153-1337; and India: A. D. 077- 
 1290. 
 
 CHINOOK, The. See Ameiucan Ajsoui- 
 aiNEs: Ciiinookan Family. 
 
 CHIOGGIA, The War of. See Venice: 
 A. D, 1379-1381. 
 
 CHIOS. — Tho rocky island known anciently 
 as Chios, called Scio in modern times, was one of 
 Uie places which claimed Homer's birth. It is 
 situated in the J5gean Sea, sepam.'ed by a strait 
 only five miles wide from the Asiatic coast. The 
 wines of Chios were famous in anti<iuity and 
 have a good reputation at tho preen I day. Tho 
 
 island was an important member of the Ionian 
 confederation, and afterwards subject to Athens, 
 from which it revolted twice, suffering terrible 
 barbarities in consequence. See Asia Minok: 
 TheGheek Colonies. 
 
 B. C. 413. — Revolt from Athens. See 
 Greece: B. C. 413-413. 
 
 A. D. 1346.— Taken by the Genoese. See 
 Constantinople: A. I). 1348-13.>5. 
 
 A. D. 1681.— Blockade and attack by the 
 French. See BauuaiivSt.\tes: A. I). 1(104-1084. 
 
 A. D. 1770. — Temporary possession by the 
 Russians. See Ti;kks: A. I). 1708-1774. 
 
 A. D. 1822.— Turkish massacre of Chris- 
 tians. See Gueece: A. I). 1831-1829. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, Battle of. See United States 
 OF Ml. : A. D. 1814 (.JuLV— Septembeu). 
 
 429 
 
CniPPEWAS. 
 
 CHIVALRY. 
 
 CHIPPEWAS. OR OIIBWAS, The. Seo 
 
 Amkkican AiiDiiKiiNKs: Ai.(ioN({Ui\N Family, 
 
 AM) O.MIIWAM. 
 
 CHIPPEWYANS, The. 8«c Amehican 
 AiioiiKiiNKH: Atiiai'ascan Family. 
 
 CHITON, The.— "Thcrliitoii [of the oncicnt 
 Orccks] wiis an dIiIomj; pioi^c of cloth iirniiiKL'd 
 round tUr iHxIy no that the arm was |)ut through 
 a hole ill the iloscd Hide, the two ends of the open 
 side iH'ing fastened over tlic opposite slioulder 
 liy means of a l>utton or elasp. On tliis latter 
 Hide, therefore, tlie chiton was completely open, 
 at least as far as the thigh, underneath of wliich 
 the two ends might he cither pinned or stitched 
 together, UouikI the liips the chiton was fas- 
 tciK'd with a rlhhon or girdle, and the lower part 
 could lie shortened as much as required by pull- 
 ing it through this girdle. . . . Freiiuently 
 sleeves, cither shorter and covering only the 
 upper arm, or continued to the wrist were adcU'd 
 to the chiton. . . . The short-.sleeved chiton is 
 frequently worn by women and children on inonu- 
 mcuta. Of the Hlecveless chiton, worn by men 
 over both shouhlers, it is stated that it was the 
 sign of a free citizen. Slaves and artisans arc 
 said to Iiavc wo-n a chiton witl one hole for the 
 left arm, the right arm and half the chest remain- 
 ing (juitc uncovered. ... It apjiears clearly 
 that the whole chiton consists of (me jiicce. 
 Together with the open and half-open kinds of 
 the chiton we al.so find the clo.sed double chiton 
 flowing down to the feet. It was a p!"ce of 
 cloth considerably longer than the human body, 
 and clo.sed on both sides, inside of which the per- 
 son putting it on stood as in a cylinder. " — K. Quid 
 and \V. Koncr, Life of the Oivcht (tiid Ii/>maM, 
 pt. 1, nect. 41. — "The principal, or ratlier, the 
 sole garment, of the Dorian maidens was the 
 chiton, or himation made of woolen stutf, and 
 without sleeves, but fastened on either shouhh'r 
 by a large clasp, and gathered on the breast by 
 a kind of brooch. This sleeveless robe, which 
 seldom reached mere than half way to the knee, 
 was moreover left open up to a certain point on 
 both sides, so that the skirts or wings, tiying 
 open as they walked, entirely exposed their 
 limbs. . . . The married women, however, did 
 not make their appearance in public ' en che- 
 mise,' but when going abroad donned a second 
 garment which seems to have resembled pretty 
 closely their luLsbauds' himatia." — J. A. St. John, 
 T/ie Itillciien. bk. 8, ch. 6. 
 
 CHITTIM. Sec Kittim. 
 
 CHIVALRY.— "The primitive sense of this 
 well-known word, derived from the Frencli 
 Chevalier, signifies merely cavalry, or a body of 
 soldiers serving on h'>rseback ; and has been used 
 in that general acceptation by the best of our 
 poets, ancient and .nodern, from Milton to 
 Thomas Campbell. But the present article 
 respects the peculiar meaning given to the word 
 in modern Europe, as applied to the order of 
 knighthood, establLshed in almost all her king- 
 doms during the middle ages, and the laws, 
 rules, and customs, by whici it was governed. 
 Tliose laws and customs have ".ong been anti- 
 quated, bu'o their cfTects may stili be traced in 
 European manners; and, excepting only the 
 change which flowed from the introduction of 
 the Christian religion, wo know no cause which 
 has produced such general and permanent diflfer- 
 encc betwixt the ancients and modems, as that 
 which has arisen out of the irstitutiou of chivalry. 
 
 . . . Prom the time thnt cavalry hecomes used 
 In war. tin- horseman who furnishes and supportH 
 a charger arises, in all countries, into a person of 
 superior importanee to the mere foot-soldier. 
 . . . In various militarv nations, therefore, wo 
 tlnd that horsemeu arc distingidshed as an order 
 in the state. . . . liut, in the middle ages, thu 
 distinction ascribed to soldiers serving on horse- 
 back assumed a very pecidiar and imposing 
 character. They were not merely respected ou 
 iiceount of their wealth or military skill, but 
 were li<mnd together by a union of a very 
 peculiar character, which monarehs were am- 
 bitious to sliare with the poorest of their subjects, 
 and govenK'd by laws (firected to enhance, Into 
 enthusiasm, the military spirit and the sense of 
 personal honour associated with it. The aspir- 
 ants to this dignity were not permitted to assume 
 the sacred ch.iracter of knighthood until after <l 
 long and severe probation, during which they 
 I)i.'''tised, as acolytes, tlie virtues necessary to 
 the order of Cliivalry. Knighthood was tho 
 goal to which tlie ambition of every noble youth 
 turned; and to support its honours, which (in 
 tlieory at least) could only be conferred on tho 
 gallant, tho modest, and thu virtuous, it was 
 neccessary he shoultl ^pend a certain time in a 
 subordinate situation, attendant upon somo 
 knight of eminence, oli.serving the conduct of 
 his master, as what must in future be the model 
 of his own, and practising the virtues of humility, 
 modesty, and temperance, until called upon to 
 display those of a higher order. ... In tlio 
 general and abstract deflnition of Chivalry, 
 whether as compiising a body of men whoso 
 military service was on hoiseback, and who 
 were invested with peculiar honoui's and privi- 
 leges, or with reference to the iikkIc and period 
 in which tliese distinctions and privileges were 
 conferred, there is nothing either original or 
 exclusively proper to our Gothic ancestors. It 
 was in the singular tenets of Cliivalry, — in tho 
 exalted, enthusiastic, and almost sanctimonious, 
 ideas connected with its duties, — in the singular 
 balance which its institutions offered against the 
 evils of the rude ages in which it arose, that we 
 are to seek those peculiarities whicli render it so 
 worthy of our attention. . . . The education of 
 the future knight began at an early period. Tho 
 care of the mother, after tlie llrst years of early 
 youtli were passecl, was deemed too tender, and 
 the indulgences of the paternal roof too eliemi- 
 nate, for tlie future aspirant to the honours of 
 chivalry. . . . To countenict these habits of 
 indulgence, the first step to the order of knight- 
 hood was the degree of Page. The young and 
 noble stripling, gciicriilly about his twelfth year, 
 was transferred from his father's house to that of 
 some baron or gallant knight, sedulously chosen 
 by the anxious parent as that which had the best 
 reputation for good order and discipline. . . . 
 When advancing age and experience in the use 
 of arms had qualified the page for the hanlship? 
 and dangers of actual war, he was ivmoved, 
 from the lowest to the second gradation of 
 chivaliy, and bcoame an Eseuycr, Esquire, or 
 Squirr . The derivation of this phrase has been 
 much contested. It has been generally supposed 
 to be derived from it ; becoming the ofllcial duty 
 of the esquire to carry the shield (Escu) of tho 
 knight his master, until he was about to engage 
 the enemy. Others have fetched the epithet 
 (more remotely certainly) from Scuria, a stable. 
 
 430 
 
cm VLUY. 
 
 CIIOCZIM. 
 
 the rhfirgcr of the knight being under the 
 especial care of the s(iuiro. Otiicrs, again, 
 UHcrilH! the derivation of tlie word to tlie riglit 
 wliich tlie squire himself liad to carry a shield, 
 and to blazon it witli armorial bearings. Tliis, 
 in later times, became almost the exclusive 
 meiuiing attJiclied to the appellative esquire; 
 ami, accordingly, if the pliras(! now means any- 
 thing, it means a genth'man having ii riglit to 
 carry arms. There is reason, jiowever, to think 
 this is n secondary meaning of tlie word, for wv 
 do not find tlie word Escuyer, applied as a title 
 of rank, until so late as the Ordonnance of Blois, 
 in 1579, , , . In actual war the page was not 
 expected to render much service, but that of the 
 squire was important and indispensable. Upon 
 a march he bore the helmet and shield of the 
 knight and led his horse of battle, a tall heavy 
 animal lit to hear the weight of a man in armour, 
 but wliicli was led in haml in marching, while 
 the knight rode an ambling hackney. The 
 squire was also qualiticd to perform the part of 
 an armourer, not only lacing his master's helmet 
 ami buckling his cuirass, but also closing with a 
 liammer the rivets by which the various pieces 
 were united to each other. ... In the actual 
 shock of battle, the esquire attended closely on 
 the banner of his master, or on liis person if he 
 were only a knight bachelor, kept pace with him 
 during tlie melee, and was at hand to remount 
 him when his steed was slain, or relieve him 
 when oppressed by numbers. If the kniglit 
 made prisoners they were the charge of the 
 esquire; if the esquire himself fortuned to make 
 one, the ransom belonged to his master. ... A 
 youth usually ceased to be a page at 14, or a little 
 earlier, ond could not regularly receive the 
 honour of knighthord until he was oneand- 
 twenty. . . , Knighthood was, in its origin, an 
 order of a republican, or at least an oligarchic 
 nature; arising , . . from the customs of the free 
 tribes of Germany [see Comitatus], and, in its 
 essence, not requiring the sanction of a monarch. 
 On the contrary, each knight could confer the 
 order of knlghtliood upon whomsoever prepara- 
 tory noviciate and probation had fitted to receive 
 it. The highest potentates sought the accolade, 
 or stroke which conferred the honour, at the 
 hands of the worthiest knight whose achieve- 
 ments had dignified the peritxl. . , , Though no 
 positive regulation took place on the subject, 
 ambition on the part of the aspirant, and pride 
 and policy on that of the sovereign princes and 
 nobles of high rank, gradually limited to the 
 latter the power of conferring knightlioo<l, , , , 
 Knights were usually made either on the eve of 
 battle, or when the victory had been obtained ; 
 or they were created during the pomp of some 
 solemn warning or grand festival. . , . The 
 spirit of chivalry sunk gradually under a 
 combination of physical au(I moral causes ; the 
 first arising from the change gradually introduced 
 into the artof var, and the last from the equal'y 
 great alteration iiri.iuced by time ?n the habits 
 and modes of thinking in modern Europe, 
 Chivalry began to dawn in the end of the 10th, 
 ami beginning of the 11th century. It blazed 
 fortli with high vigour during the crusades, which 
 indeed may be considered as exploits of national 
 kniglit-errantry, or general wars, undertaken on 
 the very same principles which actuated the con- 
 duct of individual knig'-ts adventurers. But its 
 most brilliant period 'as during the wars 
 
 between J'rance and England, anil it was un- 
 (|Ue8tionably in those kingdoniH tliat the habit of 
 constant and honourable opposition, iinemliittcred 
 liy rancour or personal liatred, gave tlie fairest 
 opportunity for tlie exercise of .lie virtues 
 reciuired from him whom (!liaueer teriiiH 'a very 
 perfect genth- kniglit.' Fniissart fre(|uently 
 makes allusions to the generosity exercised liy the 
 French and English to tlieir prisoners, and con- 
 trasts it with the diingetms lo wliicli eaptivefi 
 taken in war were consign"d both in Spain and 
 (lerniany. Yet both tliese countries, and indeed 
 every kingdom in Europe, partook of the spirit 
 of chivalry in a greater or less degree; and even 
 the Moors of Spain caught tlie emiilati(m, and 
 had their oniers of KnighthoiKl aa well as the 
 Cliristians, Hut even during this splendid 
 period, various causes were silently operating 
 tile future oxtinction of the llame, wliicli blazed 
 thus wide and brightly. An important di.scovi'ry, 
 the iuvenMon of gunpowder, had takeii place, 
 and was beginning to be used in war, even when 
 chivalry was in its higliest glory, , . . Another 
 change, of vital importance, aro.se from the 
 insti' ution of the bands of gens-d'armes, or 
 mer at arms in France, constituteil . . . expressly 
 as 1 sort of standing army. ... A more fatal 
 ca ISO had, however, been for some time operating 
 in England, as well as France, for the destruction 
 of the system we are treating of. The wars of 
 York and Lancaster in England, and those of 
 the Huguenots and of the League, were of a 
 nature so bitter anc'. rancorous, as was utterly 
 Inconsistent with the courtesy, fair play, and 
 gentleness, proper to chivalry. . . . The civil 
 wars not only operated in debasing the spirit of 
 chivalry, but in exhausting and destroying the 
 particular class of society from which its votaries 
 were drawn. "—Sir W. Scott, KHsay on Chimlry. 
 
 Also in; G. P. R. James, llht.of Chimlry. — 
 H. Hallam, State of Europe duriiir/ tfte MiddU 
 Atfei, eh. 9, pt. 2 (v. 3),— F. P. Ouizot, Hist, of 
 Civilimtioii in France, fSth lect., id course (o. 4). — 
 C. Mills, Hist, of Chivalry.— n. Stebbing, Jlifit. 
 of Chimin/ and the Crusades. — L. Gautier, 
 'Chivalry. — K. II. Digby, The Broadatone of 
 Honour. — Dr. Doran, Knights and tlieir Days. — 
 See, also, Kniohtiiood, Orders op. 
 
 CHLAMVS, The.— "The chlamys [worn by 
 the ancient Greeks] . . . was an oblong piece of 
 cloth thrown over the left shoulder, the open ends 
 being listened across the right slioulder by 
 means of a clasp ; the comers hanging down were, 
 as In the himation, kept straight by means of 
 weights sewad into tbem. The chlamys was 
 principally used by travellers and soldiers. " — E. 
 Gulil and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks ami Ro- 
 mans, pt. 1, sect. 43, 
 
 CHOCIM. See Ciioczim, 
 
 CHOCTAWS, OR CHA'HTAS, The. See 
 A.MEUICAN Atioukiinks: Mi:fiKii<)(iE\N Family. 
 
 CHOCZIM (KHOTZIM, CHOTYN, KHO- 
 TIN, CHOCIM, KOTZIM): A. D. 1622.— De- 
 feat of the Turks by the Poles. See Poland: 
 A. D. l.')90-1648. 
 
 A. D. 1672.- Taken by S.ibieska and the 
 Poles.— Great defeat of the Turks. See Poland: 
 A, D, 16C8-1696. 
 
 A. D. 1739.— Captured by the Russians and 
 restored to the Turks. See Russia: A, I). 1725- 
 1739. 
 
 A, D. 17 q. — Taken by the Russians. — De- 
 feat of the Turks, bee Turks: A, D. 1708-1774. 
 
 431 
 
cnocziM. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 A. D. 1790.— Defeat of the Turki by the Rui- 
 ■ians. Hc.Tiukh: A. I). 177(l-l71»a. 
 
 CHOLEl, Battles of. Sui; Fuanck: A. D. 
 
 17l»lt (.ll I.V — I)K(K.MIlKll). 
 
 CHOLULA, Pyramids at. See Mkxico, An- 
 CIKnt; Thk Tki.tkc I'.mi'IUk. 
 
 A. D. 1519.— The Massacre at. Boo Mextco: 
 A. I). 1510 (OcToiiKU). 
 
 CHONTALS, The. Sec Amkbican Aiioiii- 
 oini;h: CiiDNTAi.s. 
 CHONTAQUIROS, OR PIRU, The. Sif 
 
 A.MKIIU AN AllOKKllNKM: AM)I>IANH. 
 
 CHORASMIA. SiM' Km AiiK/.M. 
 
 CHOREGIA. Sec LntiidiKH. 
 
 CHOTUSITZ, OR CZASLAU, Battle of. 
 80c AfsTHiA: A. 1). 1743 (Jan L-AiiY— May). 
 
 CHOTYN. Sio('ii()(Zi.M. 
 
 CHOUANS. — CHOUANNERIE. Scu 
 Fkance: a. 1). 1704-17ra. 
 
 CHOUT.— Thp hlrtckmnll levlrd by the Miih 
 rmtiiH. Her India; a. I). IHCVIHUI. 
 CHOWANS, The. Set! Amkuican Aiioiii 
 
 (HNi:k: liioijrDiM TiiiiiKu ok tiik .SdiTii. 
 
 CHREMONIDEAN WAR, The. Sto 
 Atiiknh: II. ('. ;.'HH->,>(i;i. 
 
 CHRIST, Knights of the Order of. Hvu 
 roUTiciAi,: A. I). 1 1 1.'.- 1 100. 
 
 CHRISTIAN I., Kineof Denmark, Norway 
 
 and Sweden, A. I>. lllM-MHl Christian 
 
 II., A, I). l.'^pUI-I.Wt Christian III., King 
 
 of Denmark and Norway, A. i). init^-l.'JriH 
 
 Christian IV., A. 1). IftHH-UllH Christian 
 
 v., A.I). l«70-ltH)« Christian VI., A. 1). 
 
 17:10-174(1 Christian VII., .\. I>. 17mi-tH08. 
 
 Christian VIII., King of Denmark, A. I). 
 
 lH;iU-lH4H Christian IX., A. I). 1H(|;1-. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, The United 
 
 States. Sec SaNITAUY t'oMMIHKION. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA. See Eiu, Ciiuibtian. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 §; 
 
 " Historicftl Kcogrnphv has of late years be- 
 come an iutejjral part of the historical science. 
 Recent inveHtigatioiis have opened up the subject 
 and a solid beginning has been made — b\it It is 
 only a beginning. It is clearly recognized that 
 the land itself as it appears at dillerent i)eriod8 
 is one of those invaluable original documents 
 upon which history is built, and no stone is 
 being left unturned to clear away my.steries and 
 to bring to our aid a realism hitherto unknown 
 to the science. . . . But the special branch of 
 this vast and complicated theme of historical 
 ;eograpliy which interests us most and which I 
 Icsire briefly to bring to your attention is that 
 %.'hich deals with the Christian Church. . . . Our 
 eyes lirst rest upon that little group at Jerusalem 
 that made up the Pentecostal Church. Its spread 
 was conditioned by tho extent and character of 
 the lioman Empire, by the municipal genius of 
 that empire, its great highways by land and sea; 
 coudit'oned by the commerciul routes and the 
 track of armies outside the bounds of civiliza- 
 tion ; conditioned by tho spread of languages — 
 Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, — and, most import- 
 ant of all, conditioned by the whereabouts of the 
 seven million Jews massed in 8yria, Babylonia, 
 and Egypt, and scattered everj where through- 
 out the Iiiinpire and far beyond its boundaries. " — 
 H. W. llulbert. The Historical Oeixjraphy of the 
 Christian Church (Am. Soc. Church Ilist., v. 3). 
 — " When we turn from the Jewish ' dispersion ' 
 in the East to that in the West, we seem in quite 
 a dillerent iitmosphere. Despite their Intense 
 nationalism, all unconsciously to tliemseUes, 
 their mental characteristics and tendencies were 
 in the opposite direction from those of their 
 brethren. With fIio.se of the East rested the 
 future of Judaism ; with them of the West, in a 
 sense, that of the world. The one represented 
 old Israel groping back into the darkness of the 
 
 East ; the other young Israel, stretching forth its 
 ands to where the dawn of a new day was about 
 to break. These Jews of the West are known 
 by the term Hellenists. . . . The translation of 
 the Old Testament into Greek may be regarded 
 as the starting point of Hellenism. It rendered 
 possible the hope tha^ what in its original form 
 
 had been confined to tho few, might become acces- 
 sibU, to the world at large. ... In tho account 
 of the truly representative gathering in Jerusalem 
 on that ever-memorable Feast of Weeks, the divi- 
 sion of the ' dispersion ' into two grand sections 
 — the Eastern or Trans-I^uphratic, and the West- 
 ern or Hellenist — seems clearly marked. In this 
 arrnngement the former would include ' the 
 Partliians, Medes, Elamites, and dwellers in Meso- 
 potamia,' Judiea standing, so to speak, in the 
 middle, while ' the Cretes and Arabians ' would 
 typically represent the farthest outrunners re- 
 spectively of the Western and Eastern Diaspora. 
 The former, as wc know from the New Testament, 
 commonly bore in Palestine the name of tho ' dis- 
 persion of tho Greeks ', and of ' Hellenists ' or 
 'Grecians.' On the other hand, the Trans- 
 Euphnitic Jews, who ' inhabited Babylon and 
 many of the other satrapies,' were included with 
 the Palestinians and the Syrians under the term 
 ' Hebrews,' from the common language which 
 they spoke. But the difference between tho 
 'Grecians' and the 'Hebrews' was far deeper 
 than merely of language, and extended to the 
 whole direction of thought." — A. Edersheiin, 
 The JJfe and Times of Jentta the Messiah, v. 1, bk. 
 1, ch, 3-3, and 1. — " Before Pentecost an assem- 
 bly of tho believers took place, at which the post 
 vacated in the number of the apostles by tho 
 suicide of the traitor Judas of Keriotli, was filled 
 up by the electitm of Matthias by lot. On this 
 occasion the number of the assembled brethren 
 nmoimted to about 130 men. ... At the feast 
 of Peutecost ... a very considerable accession 
 was made to the formerly moderate baud of be- 
 lievers in Jerusalem . . . ; about 3,000 soids re- 
 ceived the word and were joined to the Church 
 by baptism (Acts ii. 41). We must iiot, however, 
 at once credit the Church in Jerusalem with this 
 increase. For among the listeners to the apos- 
 tolic discourse there were Israolitish guests and 
 proselytes from near and distant countries (ii. 5, 
 9-11, 14), whence we m.ay infer that of those 
 newly converted many were not living in Jeru- 
 salem itself, but partly in Judiea and Galilee, 
 partly in countries beyond Palestine, who there- 
 fore returned home after the feast days were 
 
 432 
 
D/XEr.OPMEXT Mi\F> 
 
 or 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 urnr if nnirriwrrr <t ntcaMiKiMiin 
 or TM loarH cn-njir . . 
 
 TtimiTaiT camiriAwzED « ra[ SEvntii md 
 UUTV coTuaru _ . 
 
 TtltfniIRrCilDlinAIIIZilllll THtDJHmTBTH 
 
 iMBiuvsinicinTuiiits . r 1 
 
 Tm nuiiiTOiT smt huthik h int «•-' 
 mcimn Of m imrm (onuiT DiiHms 
 
 rwcHuKic or rxt urosroiic nmoD 
 ca-ioo)** umnuiiu) n\is . . na-jiirrn 
 
 nKMon niD«a[iiT cHinuiEjgrrNE post- 
 
 tfOSTOUC HHIODIIOO-llDAKCUNIKIIUIini 
 THUS . - - . ^Nif-oineclin . 
 
 amaia umai nggiiE «s crwrncs or dif- 
 ruuON aiiTH mm unsTOUC «ho post - 
 ArasToiic Kitnouirt laoiCAns n tut 
 
 OOUUE UKDfKUIIC THU AnUocl, 
 
 THE jouimirs ottkc apostle paul adc 
 
 WICKTBO THUS .— --;.V., 
 
 tITIO or THE noiUN PCRIOt) IK INDI - 
 CATCDINTVUTrPE Medialaiiiini . 
 CITIES or THE MEOIAEWinmoOAK moid 
 TED IN THIS TTPC Fuhia. 
 
 TXE DATU ON THE MAP An IITTEXDED fO 
 INOICATC TKE APPROtlMATC PERIODS 
 OrCOHVEUION. 
 
 ■^RRtMtnrirvGCca ui?ntv 
 
CIIRISTIANITV. 
 
 Jewish 
 Christianity. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 «nded. Some of these might, under certain cir- 
 cumstances, form the centre of a small Church 
 in the diapcrsion, so that gradually Churches 
 may have arisen to which also James may pos- 
 sibly have addressed his Epistle. ... So abun- 
 dantly did God bless with success tlie activity oi 
 the early ajiostles though limited to the nation 
 of Israel and the land of Canaan, and their lidel- 
 ity within a ciiiuniseritied sphere. Hence there 
 existed at the end of the period of wliich wc 
 treat numerous Christiar Churclies in Jerusalem 
 and tlie whole country of Judiea ^eonip. Oal. i. 
 22, etc. ; .LCts xi. 1), also on the coast (Acts i,\. 
 32-i55, etc." in Sanjaria and Galilee, and finally 
 in Syria, Plieuicia, and Cyprus, '.\cts ix. 2, 10, 
 25, xi. 10), some of wliich were directly, some in- 
 diri tly, founded by the Tsvelve, and were, in 
 any case, governeil and guided by them. In 
 tli(^ above named districts outf^ide Palestine, it 
 might not, indeed, have been easy to find a 
 Christian Cliurch consisting exclusively of be- 
 Jieving Jews, for as a rule they consisted of be- 
 lieving Jews and individual Gentilej. On the 
 other hand, we shall scarcely be wrong in re- 
 garding the Cliristian Churclies within Palestine 
 •itself as composed entirely of believing Israelitos. 
 But even among these there were many distinc- 
 tions, e. g., between Palestinians and Hellenists." 
 — G. V. Lechler, The Apostolic ami Post-Apon- 
 folic Timen. v. 1, ;). 30-3,j.— " We find the early 
 J^Jewish] Ciiristians observing the national feasts 
 and holidays (Acts ii. 1; xviii. 21; xx. 6, 16; 
 Uom. xiv. 5). They take part in tlio worship of 
 tlip temple and the synagogue ; they pray at the 
 customary hours (cliaps. ii. 40; iii. 1; v. 42; x. 
 'J). They observe the fasts, and undergo volun- 
 tary abstinence, binding themselves by special 
 vows like all pious Jews (xiii. 2; xvii. 18; xxi. 
 23). They scrupul usly avoid unlawful food, 
 and all legal defiler..ent (x. 14). They have their 
 children circumcised (xv. 5; xvi. 3; Gal. v. 2). 
 . . . This scrupulous piety won for them the 
 esteem and admiration ol the people (chap. t. 
 18)." At first their creed was "comprised in a 
 single dogma: ' Jesus is the Messiah. ' . . . Their 
 preaching of the Gospel strictly followed the 
 lines of Alessianic tradition (i. 7 ; ii. 36 ; iii. 20). 
 . . . But in reality all this formed or: y the out- 
 side of their life and creed. . . . Herein lies the 
 profound significance of the miracle of Pente- 
 cost. Tliat (lay was the bii ihda"' of tlie Church, 
 not because of tlic marvelous 'r i,ss of Peter's 
 preacliing, but because tlie Christian principle, 
 hitherto existing only objectiv(dy and externally 
 in the person of Jesus, passed from lliat moment 
 into the souls of His disciples. . . . And thus in 
 the very midst of J.idaism we see created and 
 unfolded a form of rcli.^ious life essentially dif- 
 ferent from it — tlie Christian life." — A. Sabatier, 
 r/io AiMftle Paul, pp. 35-36.— "By the two 
 parables of the Mustard Seed and the Leaven, 
 Christ marked out the two sides or aspects of His 
 truth — its external growth from the least to the 
 greatest, and its internal action on society at 
 large — as setting up a ferment, and making a 
 new lump out of the unkneaded mass of the old 
 humanity. With tlieso two symbols in view we 
 may gauge what the gospel was designed to be 
 and to do. It was to grow into a great outward 
 society — tlie tree of tlic Churcli ; but it was also 
 to do a work on secular society as such, corre- 
 sponding to (he action of leaven on flour. Tlie 
 history of Christianity has been the c:ir'*ying out 
 
 of these two distinct and contrasted conceptions : 
 but how imperfectly, and under what draw- 
 backs." — IJev. J. H. Heard, AUxamlrian ami 
 Cartha'jiiiiiiii T/ieolot/i/ Oinlniiitcil. p. 186. — "The 
 organic connection of Jewi^li Ciiristians with the 
 synagogue, wliidi niii.st, in acconlancc witli tlii! 
 facts before us, be reg.mled as a rule, is certainly 
 not to be taken as a mere incidental pbcnonienon, 
 a customary liabit or arbitraiy accommodation, 
 but as a moral fact resting uiioii an internal 
 necessity, liaviiig its foundation in tlie love of 
 Jcwisli Christians to their nation, and in the ad- 
 hesion of llieir religious consciousness to tlie olil 
 covenant. To mistake tliis would be to under- 
 rate the wide bearing of tlie fact. But lest we 
 should over-estimate its importance, we must at 
 once proceed to another consideration. Within 
 Judaism we must distinguish not only the Ilab- 
 binical or Pliarisaic tradition of the oriL'inal 
 canonical revelation, but also withui tlie canon 
 itself we .'lave to distinguish the Levilieal ele- 
 ment from the prophetic, . . . taking the latter 
 not in a close but a wide .sense as the living 
 spiritual development of tlie tlieocracy." — O. V. 
 Lecliler, The AjMistolie ami Post- AponUilic Times, 
 V. 1, p. 54. — " Moreover the law had claims on a 
 Hebrew of Palestine wholly independent of his 
 religious obligations. To liim it was a national 
 institution, as well um a divine covenant. Under 
 the Gu '.pel he might consider his relations to it 
 in this latter character altered, but as embodying 
 the decrees and usages of his country it still de- 
 manded his allegiance. To be a gixid Christian 
 he was not reiiuired to be a bad citizen. On 
 these grounds the more enlightened members of 
 t'.ie mother-church would justify tlieir continued 
 adhesion to tiie law. Nor is there any reason to 
 supijoso that St. Paul himself took a different 
 view of their ':l"'gation.s."-J. B. Lightfoot, 
 Disstrtations on the Apostolic ^lye, p. 67. — "The 
 term ' Jewish-Cliristianity ' is applicable exclu- 
 sively to those Christians wlio really retained, 
 .'iitirely or in the smallest part, the national and 
 political forms cf Judaism and insisted upon tlie 
 observance of the Mosaic Law without modiflc a- 
 tion as essential to Christianity, at least to the 
 Christianity o' the Jewish-born converts, o- who 
 indeed rjjected tliese forms, but acknowlv:dgcd 
 the prerogative of the Jewish people also in 
 Cliri.stianity." — A. Harnack, Outlines of the Ilis- 
 tofji of Dognw, pi. 75. 
 
 A. "D. 33-100. — The Rise of the Churches. 
 — Jerusalem. — "After tlvj miraculous healing 
 of the cripple and the discourse of tlie Apostle 
 Peter on that ( < casion, the historiiui goes on to 
 say, ' iMany of them which heard the word 
 believed, and the number of the men was about 
 5,000 ' (iv. 4). It seems as if in consequence of 
 this event, whicli made no little stir, a larger 
 number joined tlicmselves to the Church. Nor 
 is it ])robal)le tliat this healing took plswc! until a 
 long time after tlie beginning of the Cliurch. 
 The miracle, with the effect which it had, 
 serves as a resting place at which the result of 
 the previous growth of the Church may be 
 ascertained. And here the number again in- 
 cidentally mentioned refers witliout doubt to the 
 Church at Jerusalem. "—G. V. Lechh r, Th6 
 Apostolic and Post- Apostolic Times, v. 1. ;). 83. — 
 The early history of the Churches "falls into 
 tliree periods wliicli nio'k three distinct stages In 
 its progress: (1) The Extension of the Church 
 to the Gentiles; (2) The Kecognition of Gentile 
 
 433 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Firtt 
 ApoaloUc MissioHi. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Liberty; (3) The Emancipation of the Jewisli 
 Churches. . . . And soon enough tlie pressure 
 of events began to be felt. The dispersion was 
 the link which connected the Hebrews of Pales- 
 tine with the outer world. Led captive by the 
 pow'T of Greek philosophy at Athens and T^irsus 
 and Alexandria, attracted by the fascinations of 
 Oriental mysticism in Asia, swept along with 
 the busy whirl of social life in the city and court 
 of the Ca'sars, these outlying members of the 
 chosen race had inhaled a freer spirit and con- 
 tract<!d wider interests than their fellow-country- 
 men at home. By a series of insensible grada- 
 tions — proselytes of the covenant — proselytes 
 of the gate — superstitious devotees w^o observed 
 the rites witliout accepting the faith of tlie 
 Mosaic dispensation — curious Ixjkers-on who 
 interested tlieniselves in the Jewish ritual as they 
 would in the worship of Isis or of Astarte — the 
 most stubborn zealot of the law was linked to 
 the idolatrous heathen whom he abhorred an<l 
 who despised him iu turn. Thus tlie train was 
 uneonscioiisly laid, when the spark fell from 
 heaven and tired i',. . . . Mean while at Jerusalem 
 some vears p.issed away before the barrier of 
 Judaism was a.ssailed. The Apostles still 
 observed the Mosaic ritual; they still confined 
 their pleaching to Jews by birth, or Jews by 
 adoption, the proselytes of the covenant. At 
 length a breach was made, and the assailants as 
 might be e.\pected were Hellenists. The first 
 step towards the creation of an organized ministry 
 wa'o also the first step towards the emancipation 
 of the Church. Tne Jews of Judrea, ' Hebrews 
 of the Hebrews' had ever regarded their 
 Hellenist brethren with suspicion and distrust; 
 and tliis estrangement reproduced itself In the 
 Christian Clnu'ch. The interests of the Hellenist 
 widows had been neglected in the daily distri- 
 bution of alms. Hence ' arose a murmuring of 
 the Hellenists against the Hebrews ' (Acts vi. 1), 
 which was met by the appointment of seven 
 persons specially charged with providing for the 
 wants of these neglected poor. If the selection 
 was made, as St. Luke's language seems to 
 imply, not by the Hellenists themselves but by 
 the Chvirch at large (vi. 2), the concession when 
 granted was carried out in a liberal spirit. All 
 the names of the seven are Greek, pomting to a 
 Hellenist rather than a Hebrew extraction, and 
 one is especially described as a proselyte, being 
 doubtless chosen to represent a hitliLTlo small 
 but growing section of the comnumlty. By 
 this appointment the Hellenist members obtained 
 a status in the Church ; and the effects of this 
 measure soon became visible. Two out of the 
 seven stand i)rominently forward as the cham- 
 pions of emancipation, Stephen the preacher and 
 martyr of liberty, and Philip tlio practical 
 worker." — J. B. Lightfoot, Binnertations on the 
 ApoHtoUc Age, pp. 50-52. — "The IlelUmist 
 Stephen roused deep-stirring movements cliietty 
 in Hellenist circles. . . . The persecution of the 
 Jerusalem community — perhaps spec il'y of its 
 Hellenist part — whicli followed tlie ining of 
 Stephen, became a means of promoting the 
 spread of the Christinri filth to . . . Cyprus, at 
 last to so important a centre ns Antioch, the 
 imperial capital of the E ist. To the winning of 
 the Jews to faith in Jesus there i^ already ailded 
 the reception into the Christian community of 
 the pious Gentile Cornelius, a proselyte of the gate. 
 . . . Though this appears iu tradition as an 
 
 individual case sanctioned by special Divine 
 guidance, in the meantime Hellenist Christians 
 had already begun to preach the Gospel to born 
 Greeks, also at Antioch in Syria, and suecess- 
 fiilly (Acts xi. 10-28), Barnabas is sent thither 
 froir Jerusnlem." — W. Moeller, Ilhtory of the 
 Chrintidn Church, p. 53-54. — "Philip, driven 
 from Jerusalem by the persecution, preached 
 Christ to the Samaritans. . . . The Apostles who 
 had remained at Jerusalem, hearing of the 
 success of Philip's preaching, sent two of their 
 number into this new and fruitful field of labor. 
 . . . Peter and John return to Jerusalem while 
 the Deacon Philip is called, by a new manifesta- 
 tion of the will of God, yet further to extend the 
 field of Christian missions. It is not a Samari- 
 tan but a pagan, whom he next in.struets in the 
 truth. . . . He was an Ethiopian eunuch, a greot 
 dignitary of the court of MeroO, treasurer of the 
 Queen. . . . This man, a pagan by birth, had 
 taken a long journey to worehip the true God in 
 the temple of Jerusidem." — E. DePressense, T/ie 
 Eiirly Years of ChriHtianity, pp. 71-74. — "For 
 the sake of the popular feeling Herod Agrippa 
 laid hands on members of the community, and 
 caused James the brother of John (the sons of 
 Zcbedee) to be put to death by the sword, in the 
 yi^ar 44, for soon thereafter Herod Agrippa 
 died. Peter also was taken prisoner, but miracu- 
 lously escaped and provisionally left Jerusalem. 
 From this time on James the brother of the 
 Lord appears ever more and more as really bear- 
 ing ranit as head of the Jerusalem community, 
 viiile Peter more and more devotes himself to 
 the apostolic mission abroad, and indeed, more . 
 accurately, to the mission in Israel. " — VV. l^Ioeller, 
 History of the Christian Church, p. 55. — "T' e 
 accounts which we have regarding the apostle 
 Peter, represent him as preaching the gospel from 
 the far cast to distant parts of the west. . . . 
 According to his own words, he founded churches 
 in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithy- 
 nia, and according to the testimony of ancient 
 historians of the Church in the east also; in 
 Syria, Babylon, Mcsoiotamia, Clialdaea, Arabia, 
 Phoenicia and Egyp', and in the west, at Rome, 
 in Britain, Ireland, Helvetia and Spain." — J. E. 
 T. Wiltscli, IlaiuJ. Hook of the. Geography and 
 Statistics of Tlie Church, v. 1, pp. 19-20.— 
 "Three and three only of the personal disci- 
 ples and immediate followers of our Lord hold 
 any prominent place in the Apostolic records — 
 James, Peter, and John; the first the Lord's 
 brotlier, the two latter the foremost members of 
 the Twelve. Apart from an incidental refer- 
 ence to the death of James the son of Zebedee, 
 which is dismissed in a single sentence, the rest 
 of the Twelve are mentioned by name for the 
 last time on the day of the Lord's Ascension. 
 Thenceforward they disappear wholly from the 
 canonical writings. And this silence also 
 extends to the traditions of succeeding ages. 
 We read indeed of St. Thomas in India, of St. 
 Andrew in Scythia; but such scanty notices, 
 even if we accept them as trustworthy, show 
 only the more plainly how little the Church 
 could tell of her earliest teachers. Doubtless 
 they laboured zealously and effectively in the 
 spread of the Gospel ; but, so far as we know, 
 they have left no impress of their individual 
 mind and character on the Church at large. 
 Occupying the foreground, and indeed covering 
 the whole canvas of early ecclesiastical history, 
 
 434 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Advent 
 of f». I-aul. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 npponr four figures alone, St. Piiul, nnd the 
 tlircu Apostlea of the Circumcision." — J. U. 
 Liglitfoot, DiiaertatioHS on tite Apostolic Age, p. 
 46.— "Wliile Peter (ns it appears) is occupied 
 with tlie worli of preaching to the Jews outside 
 of Palestine, tlie community at Jerusalem, and 
 Indeed the Palestinian communities in general, 
 stand under the leadership of the brother of the 
 Lord, James, as tlieir recognised head. They 
 remain strictly in tli"; life; of the law, nnd still 
 hold securely to the hope of the conversion of 
 the whole of God's people (which Paul hail for 
 the present gi'en up). The mission to tlie 
 Gentiles is indeei,' recognised, but the manner of 
 its conduct by Paul anil the powerfid increase of 
 Pauline comr'.uiuties excite misgivings and dis- 
 sensions. For in these mi.xed communities, in 
 the presence of what is often a preponderating 
 Gentile elenr.ent, it becomes ever clearer in what 
 direction the devel'>'iment is pressing; that, in 
 iact, for the sake o ilie higher Christian com- 
 munion the lega istoms even of the Jewish 
 Christians in thesv ommunities must inevitably 
 be broken down, and general Christian freedom, 
 on principle, frrm the commands of the law, 
 giiin rcco^i^itiou." — Dr. Wilhelm Moeller, Hist, 
 of the Christian Church, p. 73.— "The fall of 
 Jerusalem occurred in the Autumn of the year 
 70 [see Jews: A. D. 66-70], And soon the 
 catastrophe came which solved the difficult prob- 
 lem. . . . Jerusalem was razed to the ground, 
 and the Temple-worship ceased, never again to 
 be revived. The Christians foreseeing the calam- 
 ity had fled before the tempest. . . . Before the 
 crisis came, they had been deprived of the coun- 
 sel and guidance of the leading apostles. Peter 
 had fallen a martyr at Rome ; John had retired 
 to Asia Minor ; Jam<;s, the Lord's brother, was slain 
 not long before the great catastrophe. ... He 
 was succeeded by his cousin Symeon, the son of 
 Clopas and nephew of Joseph. Under these cir- 
 cumstances the Church was reformed at Pella. Its 
 history in the ages following is a hopeless blank. " 
 —J. B. Lightfoot, Dissertations on the Apostolic 
 Age, p. 68. — "While Cocsarea succeeded Jerusa- 
 lem as the political capital of Palestine, Antioch 
 succeeded it as the centre of Christendom." — A. 
 Plummer, Church of the Early Fathers, ch. 8. 
 
 Antioch. — " Untfer Macedonian rule the Greek 
 Intellect had become the leading intellectual 
 power of the world. The great Greek-speaking 
 towns of the Ea^-t were alike the strongholds of 
 intellectual power, the battlefields of opinion 
 and systems, and the laboratories of scientific 
 research, where discoveries were made and liter- 
 ary undertakings requiring the combination of 
 forces were carried out. Such was Antioch on 
 the Orontes, the meeting point of Syrian and 
 Greek intellect ; such, above all, was Alexandria. " 
 — J. J. v.:n Diillinger, Studies in European His- 
 tory, p. 165. — " The chief lino along which the 
 new religion developed was that which led from 
 Syrian Antioch through the Cilician Gates, 
 across Lycaonia to Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome. 
 One subsidiary line followed the land route by 
 Philadelphia, Troas, Philippi, and the Egnatian 
 Way to Brindisi and Rome; and another went 
 north from the Gates by Tyana and Cscsarcia of 
 Cappadocia to Amisos iu Pontus, the great har- 
 bour of tl'.e Black Sea, by which the trade of 
 Central Asia was carried to Rome. The main- 
 tenance of close and constant communication 
 between the scattered congregations must be 
 
 presiipposcd, as necessary to explain the growtli 
 of the Church and the attitude which the State 
 assumed towanls it. Such communication was, 
 on the view advocated in tlie present work, 
 maintained along the same lines on which the 
 general develo|)ment of the Emi)ire took place ; 
 and politics, education and religion grew side by 
 side." — W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the lioman 
 Empire, p. 10.— "The incitement to the wider 
 I)reaching of the Gospel in the Greek world 
 starts from the Christian community at Antioch. 
 For this purpose Barnabas receives Paul as a 
 companion (Acts xiii. , and xi v.) Saul, by birth a 
 Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, born ut 1 arsus in 
 Cilicia, educated as a Pharisee, and although 
 indeed as a Hellenist, he had command of Greek 
 and had come into contact with Greek culture 
 and Greek life, yet had not actually pa.ssed 
 through the diicipline of Greek culture, was 
 introduced by Gamaliel to the learned study of 
 the law, and hii, whole soul was seized with tiery 
 zeal for the Statutes of the fathers. . . . After 
 [his conversion and] his stay in Damascus and in 
 Arabia and tlie visit to Peter (and James) at 
 Jerusalem, having gone to Syria and Cilicia, he 
 was taken to Antioch by Barnabas. " — W. Moel- 
 ler, History of the Christian Church, p. .57. — 
 "The strength and zeal of the Antioch (Christian 
 society are sliown in the sending forth of Paul 
 and Barnabas, with Murk, a cousin of Barnabas, 
 for tlieir companion for a part of the way, on a 
 preaching tour in the eastern districts of Asia 
 Elinor. First they visited Cyprus, where Scrgius 
 Paulus, the proconsul, was converted. Thence 
 they sailed to Attalia, on the southern coast of 
 Pamphylia, and near Perga; from Perga they 
 proceecled to Antioch in Pisiilia, and from there 
 eastward to Iconium, and as far as Lystra and 
 Derbe in Lycaonia. Retracing their steps, they 
 came back to Attalia, and sailed directly to 
 Antioch. . . . This was the first incursion of 
 Paul into the domain of heathenism." — G. P. 
 Fisher, Jlistoi-y of the Christian Church, p. 23. — 
 " How then should Paul and Barnabas proceed ? 
 To leave Syria they must go first to Seleucciu, the 
 harbour of Antioch, where they would find ships 
 going south to the Syrian coast and Egypt, and 
 west either by way of Cyprus or along the coast 
 of Asia Minor. The western route led toward 
 the Roman world, to which all Paul's subsequent 
 history proves that he considered himself called 
 by the Sjiirlt. The Apostles embarked in a 
 ship for Cyprus, which was very closely con- 
 nected by commerce and general intercourse with 
 the Syrian coast. After traversing the island 
 from east to west, they must go onward. Ships 
 going westward naturally went across the coast 
 of Pamphylia, and the Apostles, after reaching 
 Paphos, near the west end of Cyprus, sailed iu 
 one of these ships, and landed at Attalia in Pam- 
 phylia." — W. JI. Riimsay, The Church in the 
 lioman Empire, p. 60. — " 'The work starting from 
 Antioch, by which access to the faith is opened 
 to the Gentiles, the formation of (prcponderat- 
 ingly) Gentile Christian communities, now intro- 
 duces into the original Christian development an 
 important problem, which (about the year 53, 
 probably not later), (Gal. ii. ; Acts xv.) leads to 
 discus.sions and explanations at tlie so-called 
 Apostolic Council [at Jerusalem]. . . . For 
 Paul, who has risen to perfect independence by 
 the eiier(;v of his own peculiar stamp of gospel, 
 there now begin the years of his powerful 
 
 436 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Journeys. 
 
 CimiSTIANITy. 
 
 activity, in wliicli !ie not only i\R(iin visits unci 
 cxtc'n(is liis former missionary liclil in Asia Minor, 
 bnt K"i>i» " linn footing in MaciHionia (I'liiiippi), 
 Atlicns, ami Acliala (Corintli); then on tlic so- 
 caiiwi tiilrii missionary jonrnt-y iic cxcri'iscs a 
 comprc'licnsivc intincncc durinL; a stay of neariy 
 tlir(!(! years at ICpliesus, and linally looks from 
 Aclutia towards tlie metropolis of I'lit; world."— 
 W. Moellcr, //(■*/. of the (Jhiintidit Vhnrch, ]i/i. 
 57-51).— "If tli(! lieathen wliom iw (I'aid) liad 
 won to the faith and received into the Chnrcli 
 were to be pcrsimded to adopt drcnmeision and 
 tlie law before iiiey coidd attain to full partici- 
 pation in the Christian salvation, ids prcachinj; 
 liad fallen sliort of his aim. it had been in vain, 
 .since it was very doubtfid whether tlie (Jentiles 
 gained over to believe in the .Messiaii wonld sub- 
 mit to the condition. I'aid coidd only look on 
 tho.se who nuide sucli a demand a.s false bretliren, 
 who liaving no claim to ChrLstiau brotherhood 
 had forced themselves into tlie Chnrcli at Antioch 
 In an unauthorized way (Oal. ii. 4), and was i)er- 
 suaded that neitlierthe primitive Cliurch assndi, 
 nor its rulers, shared tliis view. In order tlierc- 
 fore to prevent the Gentile Christians from being 
 disturbed on this point, lie determined to go to 
 Jcrusaluni and there to challenge a decision in 
 the matter that shonld ptit an end to tlie strife 
 (ii. 2). The Church at Antioch also recognized 
 tills necessity ; hence followed the i)rocceding8 in 
 Jerusalem [about A. D. 52], whither Paul and 
 Barnabas repaired with other associates (Gal. ii. 
 1, Acts XV. 2 if). ... It is certain tluit when 
 Paul laid ids (free) gospel before tlie authorities 
 in Jerusalem, tliey added notliing to it (Gal. ii. 
 2-6), i. e., they di(f not require that tlie gospel ho 
 preached to tlie Gentiles should, besides the solo 
 condition of faith which he laid down, impose 
 Judaism upon them as a condition of participa- 
 tion in salvation. . . . Paul's stipulations with 
 the authorities in Jerusalem respecting tlieir 
 future work were just as iraport«nt for him us 
 the recognition of his free gospel (Gal. ii. 7-10). 
 They had for their basis a recognition on the 
 part of the primitive apostles that ho was en- 
 trusted witli the gospel of the imcircumcision, to 
 whicli they could add nothing (ii. 6), just as 
 Petei (f.s admittedly the most prominent among 
 the prii.iitive apostles) was entrusted with that 
 of the circumcision." — Bernhard Weiss, A Man- 
 iial of Introdiietion to the New Testament, v. 1, 
 ;);). 172-175, 178.— "It seems clear that tlie first 
 meetings of tlie Christians as a community apart 
 — mcetin(js that is of a private ratlier than a 
 proselytising (ilmracter — took place, ns we see 
 from Acts 1. 13-15, in private apartments, the 
 upper rooms or large guest-chambers in the 
 houses of individual members. Sucli a room was 
 doubtless provided by the liberality of Titus Jus- 
 tus (Acts xviii. 7), such a room again was tlio 
 upper chamber in wliicli St. Paul preaclied at 
 Troas (Acts xx. 7, 8); in such assembled the con- 
 verts saluted by the Apostle ns the church wliicli 
 is in the house of Aquila and Prisca, of Nymphas 
 and of Philemon. . . . The primitive Roman 
 house had only one story, but as tlie cities grew 
 to be more densely populated upper stories came 
 into use, and it was the custom to place in these 
 dining apartments, which were called cenacula. 
 Sucli apartments would answer to the ' upper 
 rooms' . . . associated with the early days of 
 Christianity. . . . The Christian communities 
 contained from an early period members of 
 
 wealth and social position, who could accommo- 
 date in their houses larg(? gatherings of the faith- 
 ful ; and it is interesting to rctlcct that while some 
 of the mansions i/T an ancient city might be wit- 
 nessing in supi)ers of a Trimalchlo or a V'irro, 
 scenes more revolting to modern taste than 
 almost anything presented by the pagan world, 
 others, perhaps in the same street, might be the 
 seat of Christian worsliip or of the simple 
 Christian meal." — G. B. Brown, From Se/iola to 
 Ciillinlrill. /iji. :(H-4;t. 
 
 Asia Minor and Greece. — "Our knowledge 
 of the Apostle Paul's life is far from bc'iig com- 
 plete. We have only a brief sketcli of journeys 
 and toils that extended over a period of thirty 
 years. Large sjiaces are ])as.sed over in silence. 
 For example, in the catalogue of his suflerings, 
 incidentally given, he refers to tlie fact that ho 
 had been sliipwreckcd tlirec times, and these dis- 
 asters were all prior to the shipwreck on the 
 Island of Malta described by Luke. Shortly 
 after the conference at Jerusalem he started on 
 his second missionary tour. He was accom- 
 panied by Silas, and was joined by Timothy at 
 Lystra. He revisited his converts in Eastern 
 Asia Minor, founded churches in Galatia and 
 Plirygia, and from Troas, obedient to a heavenly 
 summons, crossed over to Europe. Having 
 planted at Pliilippi a church that remained re- 
 markably devoted and loyal to him, he followed 
 the great Roman road to Thessalonica, the most 
 important city in Alacedonia. Driven from there 
 and from Berea, he proceeded to Athens [sen 
 Athens: A. D. 54 (?)J, In that renowned and 
 cultivated city he discoursed on Mars Hill to 
 auditors eager for new ideas in philosophy and 
 religion, and in private debated with Stoic? and 
 Epicureans. At Corinth, wliich had risen from 
 its ruins and was once more rich and prosperous, 
 he remained for a j'ear and a half. It was there, 
 probably, tliat ho wrote his two Epistles to the 
 Thessalonian Christians. After a short stay at 
 Ephesus he returned to Antioch by way of 
 Cesarea and Jerusalem. It was not long before 
 Paul — a second Alexander, but on a peaceful 
 expedition — began his third great missionary 
 journej'. Taking tlie land route from Antioch, 
 he traversed Asia Jlinor to Ephesus, a flourish- 
 ing commercial mart, tlie capital of ilic Roman 
 province of Asia. Tliere, witli occa.-^ional ab- 
 sences, he made his abode for upwards of two 
 years. From Ephesus, probably, he wrote the 
 Epistle to the Galatians. . . . From Ephesus 
 Paul also wrote the First Epistle to the Cori.i- 
 tliians. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians 
 he probably wrote from Pliilippi. . . . Coming 
 down through Greece, he remained tliere three 
 months. There lie composed his Ephtle to the 
 Romans. . . . The untiring Apostle now turned 
 his face towards Jerusalem. He desired to be 
 present at the festival of the Pentecost. In order 
 to save time, he sailed past Ephesus, and at 
 Miletus bade a tender farewell to the Ephcsiau 
 elders. Ho had fulfilled his pledge given at the 
 conference, and ho now carried contributions 
 from the Christians of Macedonia and Achaia for 
 the poor at Jerusalem." — G. P. Fisher, History 
 of the Christian Church, pp. 27-28.— "Wo may 
 safely say that if Saul had been less of a Jew, 
 Paul the Apostle would have been less bold and 
 independent. His work would have been more 
 superficial, and his mind less unfettered. God 
 did not choose a heathen to be the apostle for the 
 
 436 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 iMbort of St. Paul. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 heftthen ; for he might have been ensnared by 
 the triuiitions of Jiuhiism, by its priestly liiur- 
 archy iind the splemloura of its worsliip, a.i In- 
 deed it happened witli tlie clmreh of tli(! second 
 century. On the contrary Oiid cliose a Pharisee. 
 But this Pharisee lia<l tlie most complete e.K- 
 perience of the emptiness of external ceremonies 
 and tlie crushing yoke of the law. Tliere was 
 no fear that he would ever look back, that he 
 would be tempted to setup aHain what the grace 
 of Oo() had justly overthrown (Oal. ii. 18). Juda- 
 ism was wholly vancpiishcd in his soul, for it 
 was wholly displaced." — A. '&i\ha.l{Kr,The Apontle 
 Paul, p. (ii). — "Notwithstanding the opposition 
 he met from his countrymen, in spite of all the 
 liberal and the awakened sympathies which he 
 derived from liis work, despite the necessity of 
 contending daily and hourly for the freedom of 
 the Gospel among the Gentiles, ho never ceased 
 to be a Jew. . . . The most ardent patriot could 
 not enlarge with greater pride on the glories of 
 the chosen race than he does in the Epistle to the 
 Romans. His care for the poor in Judica is a 
 touching proof of the strengtli of this national 
 feeling. His attendance at the great annual fes- 
 tivals in Jerusalem is still more significant. ' I 
 must spend the coming feast at Jerusalem.' This 
 language becomes the more s^rilcing when we 
 remember that he was then intending to open 
 out a new field of missionary labour in the far 
 West, and was bidding perhaps his last farewell 
 to the Holy City, the joy of the whole earth." — 
 J. B. Liglitfoot, Biblical Essays, pp. 209-210.— 
 "The Macedonian Churches are honorabijr dis- 
 tinguished above all others by their fidelity to 
 the Gospel and their affectionate regard for St. 
 Paul himself. While the C.aircli of Corinth 
 disgraced herself by gross moral delinquencies, 
 while the Galatians bartered the liberty of the 
 Gospel for a narrow formalism, while the be- 
 lievers of Ephesus drifted into the wildest 
 speculative errors, no such stain attaclies to the 
 brethren of Philippi and Thessalonica. It is to 
 the Macedonian congregations that tlie Apostle 
 ever turns for solace in the midst of his severest 
 trials and sufferings. Time seems not to have 
 chilled these feelings of mutual alfeetion. The 
 Epistle to the Philippians was written about ten 
 years after the Thessalonian letters. It is the 
 mori surprising therefore that they should re- 
 semble each other so strongly in tone. In botli 
 alike St. Paul drops his official title at the outset, 
 . . . and in both ho adopts throughout the same 
 tone of confidence and affection. In this inter- 
 val of ten years we meet with one notice of the 
 Macedonian Churches. It is conceived in terms 
 of unmeasured praise. The Macedonians had 
 been called upon to contribute to the wants of 
 their poorer brethren in Judaia, who were suffer- 
 ing from famine. They had responded nobly to 
 the call. Deep-sunk in poverty and sorely tried 
 by persecution, they came forward with eager 
 joy and poured out the riches of their liberality, 
 straining their means to the utmost in order to 
 relieve the sufferers. . . . We may imagine that 
 the people still retained something of those 
 simpler habits and that sturdier character, which 
 triumphed over Greeks and Orientals in the days 
 of Philip and Alexander, and thus in the early 
 warfare of the Christian Church the Macedonian 
 phalanx offered a sue "ssful resistance to the 
 assaults of an enemy, Jore which the lax and 
 enervated ranks of Asia and Achaia had yielded 
 
 ignominiously. "—J. B. Lightfoot, liihlicnl Knsaiis, 
 pp. 240-ar)().--At Jerusalem, "thi^ Apostle was 
 rescued by a detachment nf the liomuii giirrison 
 from a mob of Jewish malignants, was liclil in 
 custody for two years at Ccsarea, and was finally 
 enabled to iiccomplish ii longcherishcd intention 
 to go to R<mie, by being conveyed there as a 
 priscmer, he having made an appeal to Ciusar. 
 After being wreckei' on the Mediterranean anil 
 cast ashore on the Island of Malta, under the ci:- 
 cumstances rclateil in Luke's graphic and accu- 
 rate description of the voyage, ho went on his 
 way ill safety to the capital." — 0,.P. fM-nher, Ili.i~ 
 tun/of tlie Vhi-i.il inn C/iiii-rh, p. 20. — " Paul's ajios- 
 tolic career, as known to iis, lasted . . . twenty- 
 nine or thirty years; and it falls into three 
 distinct periods which are smnmarized in the 
 following chronological table: Fii-st Period — Es- 
 sentially Missionary; 35 A. T)., Conversion of 
 Paul. — .lourney to Arabia; 38, Eirst visit to 
 Jerusalem; 38-40, Mission in Syria and C'ilieia — 
 Tarsus and Antioch; r)0-r)l,First missionary jour- 
 ney — Cyprus, PampliyliaandGalatia (Acts xiii., 
 xiv.); 52, Conference at Jerusalem (Acts XV. ; Gal. 
 ii.); 52-55, Second missionary journey — Epistles 
 to the Thesialonians (from Corinth). Scconil 
 Period — The Great Conflicts, and the Great Epis- 
 tles: 54, Return to Antioch — Controversy with 
 Peter (Gal. ii. 12-22); 55-57, Mission to Epliesus 
 and Asia ; 56, Epistle to the Galatians ; 57 or 58 
 (Passover), First Epistle to the CoWnthians 
 (Epliesus); 57 or 58 (Autumn), Second Epistle 
 to the Corinthians (Macedonia); 58 (Winter), 
 Epistle to the Romans. Third Period — The 
 Captivity: 58 or 59 (Pentecost), Paul is arrested 
 at Jerusalem; 58-60, or 59-61, Captivity at Cscs- 
 area — Epistles to Philemon, Colossians and 
 Ephesians; 60 or 61 (Autumn), Departure for 
 Rome; 61 or 62 (Spring), Arrival of Paul in 
 Rome ; 62-63, Epistle to the Philippians ; 63 or 64, 
 End of the narrative of the Acts of tin Apos- 
 tles.' — A. Sabatier, T/ie Aposi'e Paul, pp. 21-22. — 
 "The impression that we get from Acts is, that the 
 evangelisation of Asia Minor originated from St. 
 Paul ; and that from his initiative tlie now reli- 
 gion gradually spread over the country through 
 the action of many other missionaries (Acts xix. 
 10). Moreover, missionaries not traincMl by him, 
 were at work in South Galatia and in Ephesus as 
 early as 54^56 A. D. (Gal. v. 7-10; Acts xviii. 
 25). . . . The Cliristiau Church in Asia Minor 
 was always opposed to the primitive native char- 
 acter. It was Christianity, and not the Imperial 
 government, which finally destroyed the native 
 languages, and made Greek the unlversrd lan- 
 guage of A.'iia Jlinor. Tlie new religion was 
 strong in the towns before it liad any hold of the 
 country parts. The ruder and the less civilised 
 any district was, the slower was Christianity in 
 permeating it. Cliristianity in the early centuries 
 was the religion of the more advanced, not of the 
 ' barbarian ' peoples ; and in f " ^t it seems to be 
 nearly confined within the limits of the Roman 
 world, and practically to take little thought of 
 any people beyond, though in theory, ' Barbarian 
 and Scythian are included in it. . . . The First 
 Epistle of John was in all probability ' addressed 
 primarily to the circle of Asiatic Churches, of 
 which Ephesus was the centre.'" — W. M. Ram- 
 say, The Church in the Roman Empire, pp. 284, 
 44, 303. — " Unless we are prepared to reject with- 
 out a hearing all the traditions of Christianity, 
 we cannot refuse to believe that the latest years 
 
 487 
 
CHIUSTIANITY. 
 
 at. JoAn, 
 
 CnniSTIANITY 
 
 of the Apogtlc St. John were spent In the Ilomnn 
 provlnro of Asin nnd clilctly In KphcHtitt lt8 capi- 
 tal. This tniditioii Ih Hin>;iilarly full, coiiHlstciit 
 and well uutliciiticntcd. Here he Kutlirrcd dlst'i- 
 
 {)lo.s about liliii, orj^aiilzcd cliurclics, appointed 
 il.shopH and proHliytiTS. A whole chorus of 
 voices unite in bearing teHliniony to its truth. 
 One who passed his earlier life in these parts and 
 had heani his aged master, n disciple of .St. John 
 himself, recount his personal reminiscences of tlie 
 great Apostle; another, who held this very sec 
 of Ephesus, and writing less than a century after 
 the Apostle's death was linked with the past bv a 
 chain of relatives all bishops in tlie Christian 
 Church; a third who also flourished about the 
 close of the century and numbered among his 
 teachers nn old man from this very district — are 
 the principal, because the most dii'inct, witnesses 
 to a fact which is implied in several other notices 
 of earlier or contempo ..ry writere. As to the 
 time at which St. John left his original home and 
 settled in this new abode no direct account is pre- 
 served ; but a very ])robable conjecture may be 
 hazarded, Tlie impending fall of the Holy City 
 was the signal for the dispersion of the followers 
 of Christ. About this same time tlie three other 
 great Apostles, St. Peter, St. Paul and St. James, 
 (lied a martyr's death ; nnd on St. John, the last 
 Burvivini; of the four great pillars of the Church, 
 devolvccl the work of developing the theology of 
 the Gospel and completing tlio organization of 
 the Church. It was not unnatural that at siieli ii 
 crisis he should fix his residence in the centre of 
 a large and growing Christian community, which 
 liad been planted by the Apostle of the Gentiles, 
 nnd watered by the Apostle of the Circumcision. 
 The missionary l:.bours of St. Paul and St. Peter 
 in Asia Minor were confirmed nnd extended by 
 the prolonged residence of their younger con- 
 temporary. At all events such evidence ns we 
 possess is favourable to this view of the date of 
 St. John's settlement at Ephesus. Assuming that 
 the Apocalypse is the work of tlie beloved Apos- 
 tle, and accepting the view wliicli assigns it to 
 the close of Nero's reign or tlicreabouts, we find 
 hiin now for the first time in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of Asia Minor and in direct com- 
 munication with Ephesus and the neiglibouring 
 Churches. St. John howevM was not alone. 
 AVliether drawn thither by tlir attraction of liis 
 presence or acting in pursuance if some common 
 agreement, the few surviving pur- mal disciples 
 of tlie I.ord would seem to have chosen Asia 
 Elinor as their permanent abode, or at all events 
 as their recognised headquarters. Here at least 
 wo meet with tlie friend of St. John's youth and 
 perhaps his fellow-townsman, Andrew of Beth- 
 saida, who with liiin had first listened to John 
 the Baptist, and witli him also luul been the earliest 
 to recognise Jesus as tlie Christ. Here too we 
 encounter Philip tlic Evangelist with his daugh- 
 ters, and perlinps also Philip of Bethsaida, the 
 Apostle. Here also was settled the Apostle's 
 namesake, John tlie Presbyter, also a personal 
 disciple of Jesus, and one Aristion, not other- 
 wise known to us, who likewise had hea d the 
 Lonl. And possibly also other Apostles whose 
 traditions Papias recorded [see J. B. Lightfoot, 
 Apogtolic Fathers, p. 537], Matthew and Thomas 
 and James, may liuve had some connexion, tem- 
 porary or permanent, with this distflct. Thus 
 surrounded by the surviving disciples of the 
 Lord, by bishops and presbyters of his own ap- 
 
 pointment, and by the pupils who gathered 
 alM)ut him and looked to him for instruction, St. 
 John was the focus of a large and active society 
 of lielievers. In tills respect he holds a unhpie 
 position among the great teachers of the new 
 faitli. St. Peter and St. Paul converted disciples 
 and organized congregations; St. John alone wag 
 the centre of a scliool. Ills life prolong.^d till 
 the close of the century, when the Church was 
 firmly rooted and wiaelv extended, combined 
 with his fixed aliode in the centre of an estab- 
 li.slied community to give a certain detlniteness 
 to his personal infiuence which would be wanting 
 to the wider labours of these strictly missionary 
 preachers. Hence the notices of St. John have a 
 more solid basis and claim greater attention than 
 stories relating to the other Apostles." — J. B. 
 Lightfoot, liiUicnl EMayii, pp. 51-.5!t. — "In the 
 pnrnbic of Jesus, of which we are speaking, it is 
 said that ' the earth bringeth forth fruit of her- 
 self;' — that is, to tmnsfer tlio Greek term into 
 English, ' automatically. ' That epithet is chosen 
 which denotes most precisely a self-acting, spon- 
 taneous energy, inherent in the seed which Jesus, 
 through his discourses, his acts of mercy and 
 power, and his patience unto death, was sowing 
 in the world. This grand prophetic declaration, 
 uttered in a figure so simple and beartiful, in 
 the ears of a little company of Galileans was to 
 be wonderfully verified in the cominj"- oges of 
 Christian history." — G. P. Fisher, The Nature 
 ami Method of Uevelatiim, p. 47. 
 
 Alexandria. — "Plutarch looked upon it as 
 the great mission of Alexander to transplant 
 Greciim culture into distant countries, ond to 
 conciliate Greeks and barbarians, and to fuse 
 them into one. He says of him, not without 
 reason, that ho was sent of God for this purpose; 
 though the historian did not divine that this end 
 itself was only subsidiary to, and the means of, 
 one still higher — the making, viz., the united 
 peoples of the East nnd West more accessible to 
 the new creation which was to proceed from 
 Christianity, and by the combination of the ele- 
 ments of Oriental and Hellenic culture the pre- 
 paring for Christianity a material in which it 
 might develop itself. If we overlook this ulterior 
 end, and do not fix our regords on the higher 
 quickening spirit destined to reanimate, for some 
 new end, that combination which already bore 
 within itself a germ of corruption, we might 
 well doubt whether that union was really a gain 
 to either party; w^hcther, at least, it was not 
 everywhere attended with a correspondent loss. 
 For the fresh vigour which it infused into the 
 old national spirit must have been constantly re- 
 pressed by the violence which the foreign ele- 
 ment did to it. To introduce into that combina- 
 tion a new living principle of development, and, 
 without prejudice to their original essence, to 
 unite peculiarities the most diverse into a whole 
 in which each part should be a complement to 
 the other, required something higher than any 
 element of human culture. The true living com- 
 munion between the East and the West, which 
 should combine together the two peculiar prin- 
 ciples that were equally necessary for a complete 
 exhibition of the type of humanity, could first 
 come only from Christianity. But still, as pre- 
 paratory thereto, the influence which, for three 
 centuries, went forth from Alexandria, that cen- 
 tre of the intercourse of the world, was of great 
 importance." — A. Neander, General Jliat. of the 
 
 438 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Thr Kiirly Oturch 
 at Hume. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Chrittinn lirliginn .iml dhiirch, r. 1, intrml — 
 "Tlio Gri'ck virsion [of the Old TcHliunciit, the 
 Suptiiii^rint], liko IhuTiir^Miinof tlic I'lilt'stiiiiiuis, 
 oriKinuti'd, no doubt, in tlic llfHt j>liu'c, in u full 
 national wiint on the piirt of the lldlcnists, who 
 ns a body wore ignorant of Ilelni-w, Hence wo 
 find notices of very early Greek vernion» of ut 
 least parts of tlie Fentaleueh. Hutlliis, of course, 
 coulil not BUllice. On the other liaii(l, there ex- 
 isted, as we may suppose, a natuvil curiosity on 
 the part of the students, si)ecinlly in Alexandria, 
 which had so large a .lewish population, to know 
 the suered Ijooka on which tlic religion and 
 history of Israel were founded. Kven more tlian 
 this, wu must tnl(o into account the literary 
 tastes of tlie first three I'tol.'inies (successors in 
 Egypt of Alexander the Great), and the eMcp- 
 tioiial favour whicli tlie Jews for a time enjoyed. " 
 — A. Edersheiin, Life and Timet of Ji'iis the 
 Mentiiih, V. 1, ;). 24. 
 
 Rome. — "Alongside of tlio province ul Asia 
 ISIinor, Home \c'ry early attains to an outstnndinc 
 Importance for young Christianity. If, as wu 
 have supposed, the community liere which eman- 
 cipated itself from the synagogue was mainly 
 recruited from among the proselyte circles which 
 hurt formed themselves around the Jewish syna- 
 gogue, if Taul (luring the years of his captivity, 
 and Peter al.so, influenced this preponderatingly 
 Gentile-Christian community, we must, however, 
 by no means undervalue for the Christian com- 
 munity the continuous influence of Judaism on 
 the Roman world, an influence widch was not 
 lessened l)Ut ratlier increased by the destruction 
 of Jerusalem. Many thousards of Jewish cap- 
 tives Imd arrived liere and been sold as slaves — 
 Rome was the greatest Jewish city in the Empire, 
 . . . and in part it wat' an enlightened and lil)eral 
 Judaism. Jewisli Hellenism liad already long 
 availed itself of the weapons of Hellenic philoso- 
 phy and science ... in order to exalt the Jewish 
 foitli. . . . Under this stimidus tlicre was . . . 
 developed a proselytism wliich was indeed at- 
 tra 'ted by tliat monotheism and the belief in 
 pro\idence and prophecy and tlie moral ideas 
 allieo therewitli, and whicli also had a strong 
 tendei.ey to Jewish customs and festivals — es- 
 pecially the keeping of the Sabbath - - but which 
 remained far from binding itself to a strictly 
 legal wa}' of life in circumcision, etc. We may 
 suppose \liat Roman Cliristianity not only ap- 
 peorcd in \he character of such a pro.selytism, but 
 also retained from it a certain Jewish colouring." 
 — W. Moel.er, History of the Chri»tian Gliurck: 
 A. D. 1-000, pp. 83-84.— "The last notice of tlie 
 Roman Church in tlie Apostolic writings seems 
 to point to /'vo separate communities, a Judaiz- 
 Ing Cliurcli and a Pauline Cliurch. The arrival 
 of the Qentiie Apostle in the metropolis, it would 
 appear, was the signal for the separation of the 
 Judaizcrs, who had hitherto associated with their 
 Gentile bretlircn coldly and distrustfully. The 
 presence of St. Paul must have vastly strength- 
 ened the numbers and influence of the more 
 liberal and Catholic party; while the Judaizers 
 provoked by rivalry redoubled their efforts, that 
 in making converts to the Gospel they miglit also 
 gain proselytes to the law."^J. B. Lightfoot, 
 Dissertations on the Apostolic Age, p. 94. — " His- 
 torical information of any certainty on the latter 
 period of Paul's life is entirely wanting. While 
 the epistles require this unknown period, and a 
 second captivity, as a basis for their apostolic 
 
 origin, on the other hand, the hypothesis of a 
 second captivity Hcarccly tlnds any real founda- 
 tions except In the three Pastoral iellers. " — A. 
 Sabatier, The A/xisIl,' I'aiit, p. ','01). — It only re- 
 mains f<ir us, ri'turning to the close of the apos- 
 tle's life, to ])ut together the slender inilleatioiis 
 that we liaveof its date. He embarked for Rome 
 In the autumn of 00 (or 01) .\. I>. ; but was eoni- 
 pelled by shipwreck to winter in the island of 
 Malta, aiid only ri ..ilied the Klernal City in the 
 spring of 01 ((('.!; l,uke adds tliat he remained 
 there as a pri.viier for two years, living in a 
 private house under the guard of a soldier; tlieu 
 his narrative breaks oil' uhruplly, and we are 
 confronted witli the unknown (.Vets, xxviii. 30). 
 Caul is suppo.sed to have perished in the friglit- 
 ful persecution caused by the tUf of Rome in 
 July 04 A. I). All that is" certain is that he died 
 a martyr at Rome under Nero (Sabatier). 
 
 [The puroo.se of what follows in this article Is 
 to give a brief history of Christiunity in some of 
 its relations to general history by the method of 
 tills wirk, and in the light of .some of the best 
 thoug'.l, of our time. The article as a combina- 
 tion of quotations from many authors attempts a 
 presentation of historic facts, and also a positive 
 and representative view, so far as this may bo 
 obtained under the guidance of ideas common to 
 nany of the books used. Some of tlie.se books 
 have had more iiitlucnce on the development of 
 the article than others: entire liarinony and a full 
 presentation of any author's view would mani- 
 festly be impossible. Nevertheless, the reader 
 may di.scover in the article principles and ele- 
 ments of unity derived from the literature and 
 representing it. Unfortunately, (/no of the es- 
 sential parts of such a history niu;it be omitted — 
 biography.] 
 
 A. D. 100-312.— The Period ■>t Growth and 
 Struggle. — "Christian belief, Ciiristian moral- 
 ity, the Christian view of tlie world, of which 
 the church as a religious society and institution 
 Is the focus, as fluid spiritual elements iiermento 
 humanity as it becomes Christian, far beyond the 
 sphere of the church proper; while conversely 
 the church is not assured against tlie (lossibility 
 that spiritual elements originally ali( n to her 
 may dominate and influence her in their turn. 
 ... In this living Interaction tlie peculiar life 
 of the church is unfolded, in accordance with 
 its internal principles of formation, into an ex- 
 traordinarily manifold and complicated object of 
 historical examination. . . . For this jiurpose it 
 is necessary to elucidate the general historical 
 movement of the church by the relative separa- 
 tion of certain of Its aspects, without loosening 
 the bond of unity." — "W. Moeller, Hist, of the 
 Christian Church: A. IX 1-000, ;*/>. 1-3. — "Such, 
 in fact, has been the history of the Faitli: a sa(l 
 and yet a glorious succession of buttles, often 
 hiirdly fought, and sometimes indecisive, between 
 the new life and the old life. . . . Tlie Christian 
 victory of c(miinon life was wrought out in silence 
 and patience and nameless agonies. It was the 
 victory of the soldiers and not of the captains of 
 Christ's army. But in due time another conflict 
 had to be sustained, not by the masses, but by 
 great men, the consequence and the completion of 
 that which liad gone before. . . . The discipline 
 of action precedes the effort of reason. ... So 
 it came to pass that the period during which this 
 second conflict if the Faith was waged was, 
 roughly speaking', from the middle of the second 
 
 489 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 (Irrrk I'hiloiinphrrt dm/ 
 Chrttluin A}mUnii»ta. 
 
 cnniSTIANITY. 
 
 to the middle ( f llu' third ii-ntury."— R F. WcHt- 
 cott, KuKiji) in the lli»tiirii of l{elii/ii>n» 'J'/imii/ht 
 in t/if Wmt. pp. llM-t«7.— "I'hIloHophv wi'iit 
 on ItH Hiiy uniong thu lii>;hcT cliism.!i, Itut fiild iih- 
 wilutily nr) hold on nicn iil liir^fi,'. Tho refornm- 
 tion which it wrought in ii few elect Kpirits 
 failed utterly to Hpreiid downward to the miuhh 
 of mankind. The poor were not toiiehed by 
 it; Bociety wa.s not helped by it; its uobleHt 
 men, nnd tliey K''ew fewer and fewer, genera- 
 tion by generation, bewailed bitterly the univer- 
 snl IndilTerenee. The sehoolit dwindled into 
 a mere university Hystem of culture; (-"hrisli- 
 onity developed into a religion for the cIvlliHed 
 world. . . . New Ideas it liad in abundance, b';"; 
 new ideas were not the serrcit of its power The 
 essential mutter iuthe Qospel was that it was the 
 history of a Life. It wa.s a tale of fact t'lut all 
 could luidcrstjuid, that all could believe, that all 
 could love. ItdilTered fundamentally from I'lil- 
 losophy, because it appealed not to culture, but 
 to life. . . . It was the spell of substantial facts, 
 living facts, . . . the spell of aloyaltytoapersonai 
 Lord; and those who have not mastered thodllTer- 
 enco between a philosopher's speculations about 
 life, and the actual record of a life which. In all 
 that makes life holy and beautiful, transcended the 
 philosopher's most |)ure and lofty dreams, have 
 not underatocKl yet the rudiments of the reas<m 
 why the Stoic could not, while Christianity could 
 anil did, regenerate society." — J. H. Brown, Stoics 
 and Hiintii, pp. 85-88. — The "period, from the 
 accession of Marcus Aurelius (A. I). 101) to the 
 accession of Valerian (A. I). 25,3) was for the Gen- 
 tile world a period of vinrest and exhaustion, of 
 ferment and of indecision. The time of great 
 hopes and creative minds was gone. The most 
 conspicuous men were, with few exceptions, 
 busied with the past. . . . Local beliefb hud lost 
 their power. Even old Rome ceased to exercise 
 an uncjuestioned moral supremacy. Men strove 
 to be cosmopoliton. They strove vaguely after a 
 unity in which the scattered elements of ancient 
 experience should be harmonized. The effect can 
 be seen both in the policy of statesmoi; and In the 
 speculations of philosophe'-s, in Marcus Aurelius, 
 or Alexander Sevcrua, or Decius, no less than In 
 Plotlnus or Porphyry. As a necessary consc- 
 
 Suence, the teaching of tlie Bible accessible in 
 reek begun to attract serious attention among 
 the heathen. The assailants of Christianity, 
 even If they affected contempt, shewed that they 
 were deeply moved by its doctrines. The mem- 
 orable saying of Numenius, ' What Is Plato but 
 Moses speaking in the language of Athens ? ' 
 shews at once the feeling after spiritual sympathy 
 which begun to be entertained, and the want of 
 spiritual Insight In the representatives of Qcntlle 
 thought." — B. P. Westcott, Esmys in the Iliitory 
 of lidigious Thought in the West, pp. 196-107.— 
 ' ' To our minds It appears that the prepurutlon of 
 philosophy for Christianity was complete. . . . 
 The time was ripe for that movement of which 
 Justin Is the earliest [complete] representative." 
 — G. T. Purves, The Testimony of Jvstin Martyr, 
 p. 135. — "The writing in defense of Christi- 
 anity is called the apology, and the writer an 
 apologist. . . . There were two classes of apolo- 
 gists, the Greek and the Latin, according to the 
 territory which they occupied, and the language 
 In which they wrote. But there were further 
 differences. The Greeks belonged mostly to the 
 second century, and their writings exhibited a 
 
 profound Intimacy with the Greek philosophy. 
 Home of them hud studied In the Greek Nchools, 
 and entered the church only In mutiire llfi . They 
 endeavored to prove that Christianity was tho 
 blossom of idl that was valuable In every »v8teni. 
 They stootl largely on the defensive. The Latins, 
 on the other hanif, were aggressive. They lived 
 mostly in the third century. . . . The principal 
 Greek apologists I were] Aristo, Quadratiia, Arls- 
 ti(h's [A, I), nil], .lUHtin [A. 1). 100], Melito [A. D. 
 170], Miltiades, Ip'naeus, Athenagorus |A. D. 
 17H), Tatian, Clement of Alexandria [A. I). 200], 
 llippolytus, and Origen [A. I). 8'i5]."— J. P. 
 Ilurst, Short History of the Christian Church, p, 
 83. Light foot assigns to about A. D. 180 (?) the 
 author of the Epistle to Dlogncti "Times 
 without number the defenders of Christianity 
 appeal to the great and advantageous "hunge 
 wrought by the Gospel in all who embraced It. 
 . . . ' We who hated and destroyed one unotlier, 
 and on u'-count of their different manners would 
 not receive Into our houses men of a different 
 tribe, now, since the coming of Christ, live fa- 
 miliarly with them. We pray for our enemies, 
 we enif' avor to persuade those who hate us un- 
 justly to live conformably to the beautiful pre- 
 cepts of Chri;-t, to the end that they may become 
 partakers with ui of the same joyful hope of a 
 reward from God, the Ruler ot all.' This dis- 
 tinction between Christians and heathen, this 
 consciousness of a complete change in character 
 and life, is nowhere more beautifully described 
 than In the noble epistle ... to DIognetus." 
 — Gerhard Uhlhorn, TJie Conflict of Christianity 
 with Heathenism, p. 106. — "For Christians are 
 not distinguished from the rest of mankind either 
 In locality or in speech or In customs. For they 
 dwell not somewhere in cities of their own, 
 neither do they use some different language, nor 
 practise an extraordinary kind of life. . . . But 
 while tl ey dwell In cities of Greeks ond barba- 
 rians ai the lot of each is casi, and follow the 
 native i istoms In dre.ss and food and the other 
 arrangen. ntsof life, yet tho constitution of their 
 own citlzcish'p, which they set forth, is marvel- 
 lous, and i.onfcssedly contradicts expectation. 
 They dwell in their ov^n countries, but only as 
 sojourners; they bear their share In all things 
 as citizens, and they endure all hardships as 
 strangers. Every foreign country is a fatherland 
 to them, and every fatherland ir, foreign. . . . 
 Their existence is on earth, but their citizenship 
 is In heaven. They obey the established laws, 
 and they surpass the laws In their own lives. 
 They love all men and they are persecuted by 
 oil. . . . AVur is urged ngainst them as aliens by 
 the Jews, and persecution Is carried on against 
 them by the Greeks, and yet those that hate them 
 cannot tell the reason of their hostility." — J. B. 
 Llghtfoot, T^ans. of the Epistle to Diognetus {The 
 Apostolic Fathers, pp. 505-506). — "Tliese apolo- 
 gists rise against philosophy also, out of which 
 they themselves had arisen. In the full conscious- 
 ness of their faith open to oil and not only to the 
 cultured few, the certainty of which, based upon 
 revelation, cannot be replaced by uncertain human 
 wisdom, which, moreover, is self-contradictory in 
 its most Important representatives. On the other 
 hand, they willingly recognise in the philosophy 
 by means of which they had themselves been 
 educated, certain elements of truth, which they 
 partly derive from the seed-corns of truth, which 
 the divine Logos hud scattered among the heathen « 
 
 440 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Rnme 
 and Chrittinnily. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 ftlso, partly e.xtorniiPy from n (It'pcndciu'o r)f 
 tircck wiwloni nii tlio inut'li (ildiT wiwloiii of tlio 
 East, 1111(1 tlieriifori,' from the um! of the 8crl|itiirt's 
 of tlio Olil Tcsliuiu'iit. To the reproach thjit they 
 hml <lcsi'rtc'(l the relij^lon which Imd been himdcd 
 down from their iinceNtors and thereby miule 
 sacred, tikey oppose llie rl>;ht of recoj^nised 
 truth, tlie right of freedom of coiisoienee; re- 
 ligion becomes the peeiiliiir iilTiilr of Mersoniil 
 conviction, ngnlnst wlilch methmls of force do not 
 gutnce: QimI la to be obeyed rnther thiui man." 
 — W. Moeller, I'M. of the Hhrintuin Church: 
 A. D. l-OOO, ;). 170. — "Such ii morality, os Uomun 
 greatness was passing away, tooli possession of 
 the ground. Its l)egliuiinga were scarcely felt, 
 scarcely known of, in the vast movement of 
 allairs lu the greatest of empires. By and by Its 
 presence, strangely austere, strangely gentle, 
 strangely tender, strangely inllexll)le, began to 
 be noticed. But its work was long only a work 
 of indirect prcparatio.i. Those whom It charmed, 
 those wl.om It opposed, those whom it turned, 
 know not whot was being done for tlie genera- 
 tions which were to follow." — U. \V. Church, 
 T/ie Gift* of Cieilizdtinn, p. 1(30. — "The more 
 spiritual and profound historians of the Church 
 recognize it as a manifestation of this divine 
 life flowing into liuman history. But this is 
 true of tlie organized church only 'vith important 
 qualifications. Tlie life must manifest itself in 
 an organization ; but the organization is neither 
 the only nor the complete exp 'lion of the life. 
 . . . The life which creates e organization 
 penetrates and purities also the ..miily and the 
 state, renovates individuals, and blooms and 
 fructifies in Christian civilizations; and these are 
 also historical manifestations." — S. Harris, The 
 Kingdom of Christ oil. Earth, p. 87. — It was tlie 
 great formative period of the world's ne\v life, 
 and all streams tended to How together. The in- 
 fluence of Greek thought on Komau law had led, 
 under the circumstances of Roman commercial 
 Uf., to the development of an ideal "jus gen- 
 Mum," a kind of natural law discovered by the 
 reason. This conception transformed the Roman 
 law and brought it into touch with the new sense 
 of human relations. "It was by means of this 
 higher conception of equity which resulted from 
 the idcntitlcation of the jus gentium with the 
 jus naturale — that tlie alliance between law and 
 philosophy was really nade eflicient. " — W. C. 
 Morey, Outlines from Roman Licw, p. 114. — 
 "There were three agencies whose influence in 
 working simultaneously and successively at this 
 identical task, tl e developing and importing of 
 the jus gentinM, was decisive of the ultimate 
 result. These were the praetorian edict [which 
 reached its climax under the Republic and was 
 completed under lladrinn], Roman scientiflc juris- 
 prudence [which developed its greatest ability 
 about A. D. 200] and imperial legislation." — 
 R. 8o\im, Inatiti.ites of Roman Law, p. 40. — "The 
 liberal policy of Rome gradually extended the 
 privileges of her citizenship till it included all 
 her subjects; and along with the 'Jus suffragii,' 
 went of course the 'Jus honorum.' Even under 
 Augustus we find a Spaniard consul at Rome; 
 and uiuier Galba an Egyi)tian is governor of 
 Egypt. It is not long before even the emperor 
 himself is supplied by tlie provinces. It is easy 
 to comprehend therefore how the provincials 
 forgot the fatherland of their birth for the father- 
 land of their citizenship. Once win the fran- 
 
 30 
 
 cIiInc, and to great capacity was opened a great 
 career. The Roman Empire cam" to be u homo- 
 geneous mass of privileged persons, largely 
 using the same language, aiming at the same 
 type of cIvillHatlon, e(iual among themselves, 
 but all alike eoiiHcious of their superiority to the 
 Hiirrounding barbarians."— \V. T. Ariulld, The 
 llouiiin Sj/stcin if I'roriiirial Ailmiiiist ration, 
 p. !17. — "As far as she could. Koine destroyed 
 the individual genius of nations; slie .seems to 
 have rendered them un(|iiulitlr(l for a national ex- 
 istence. When the public life of the Empire 
 ceased, Italy, Uaul, and Hpaiii were thus unable 
 to become nations. Tlieir great historical ex- 
 istence did not coiiiniencc until after the arrival 
 of the barbarians, and after several centuries of 
 experiments amid violence and <alaniity. But 
 how does it happen that the countries which 
 liomc did not con(|uer, or dhl not long have 
 uilder her sway, now hold such a prominent 
 place In the world — that they exhibit so much 
 originality and such complete confidence in their 
 future? Is It only becaime, having existed a 
 shorter time, they are eiititle(l to a longer future? 
 Or, perchaiKc, did Rome leave behind lier certain 
 habits of mind, intellectual and moral <|iialities, 
 which impede and limit activity? "— E. Lavissc, 
 I'oHtiriil Jlisl. of Einojie, p. 6. — Patriotism was 
 a considerable part of both the ancient religion 
 and the old morality. The empire weakened the 
 former ..nd deeply Injured the latter by conquest 
 of the individual states. It had little to offer In 
 place of these e.vccpt that anomaly, the worship 
 of the emperor; and a law and justice adminis- 
 tered by rulers who, to say 'he least, grew very 
 ri.;h. "The feeling of pr'de in Roman citizen- 
 ship . . . btcamo much weakeros the citizenship 
 was ^\idencd. . . . Uoinan citizenship Included 
 an ever growing j.roportlon of the population In 
 every land round the Mediterranean, till at last 
 it embraced the whole Roman world. . . . Chris- 
 tianity also created a religion for the Empire, 
 transcending all distinctions of nationality. . . . 
 Tlie path of development for the Empire lay in 
 accepting the religion offered it to complete Its 
 organisation. Down to the time of Hadrian there 
 was a certain progress on the part of the Empire 
 towards a recognition of this necessity." — W. M. 
 Ramsay. The Church, in tlie Roman Empire, pp. 
 373, 1»1-10'3.— The relations of the laws of the 
 Empire to Christianity may be briefly atJited, but 
 there are differences of opinion which cannot be 
 noted here : "A. D. 30 to 100, Christians treated 
 as a sect of the Jews and sharing in the general 
 toleration accorded to them. A. D. 100 to 250, 
 Christians recognized, . . . and rendered liable 
 to persecution : (1st) For treason and impiety. 
 (2nd) As belonging to illegal associations, but at 
 the same time protected In their capacity of 
 members of Friendly or Burial Societies of a kind 
 allowed by the law. A. D. 2r)0 to 200, Christi- 
 anity recognized as a formidable power by the 
 State. Commencement of an open struggle be- 
 tween Christianity and the secular authority. 
 . . . The cemeteries of tlie Chris'tians now for 
 the first time interfered with and become places 
 of hiding and secret assembly. A. D. 200 to 300, 
 Persecutions cease for a time, 40 years Peace for 
 the Church. Time of much prosperity wlien, as 
 Eusebius writes, ' great multitudes flocked to the 
 religion of Christ. ' A. D. 300 to 313, Last de- 
 cisive struggle under Diocletian." — G. B. Brown, 
 Pi-om SchoUi to Cathedral.— ''The judges decided 
 
 441 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 The Early 
 Persecutions, 
 
 CimiSTIANITY. 
 
 simply in accordance witli tlic laws, and, in the 
 great majr.dfy of cases, did so roolly, calmly, 
 without piission, as men who were simply dis- 
 charging their duty. . . . Not the priests, but 
 the Emperors led the attack. ... It is true tlie 
 Christians never rebelled ngain.stthe State. Tliey 
 cannot be reproached with even the appearanci! 
 of a rcvolutionarv spirit. Despised, persecuted, 
 abused, they still never revolted, but showed 
 themselves everywhere obedient to tlio laws, and 
 ready to pay to the Emperors the honor whic^li was 
 their due. Yet in one particular tliey could not 
 obey, the worship of idols, the strewing of in- 
 cense to the CtBsar-god. And in this one thing 
 it was made evident that in Christianity lay the 
 
 ferm of a wholly new political and social order, 
 his is the character of the conflict which we are 
 now to review. T'-. jg ^ contest of the spirit of 
 Antiquity against that of Christianity, of the 
 ancient heathen order of the world against the 
 new Christian order. Ten persecutions are com- 
 monly enumerated, viz., under Nero, Domitian, 
 Trajan, Hadrian, JIarcus Aurelius, Septimius 
 Scvcrus, Maximinus the Thracian, Decius, Va- 
 lerian, and Diocletian. This traditional enumera- 
 tion is, however, very superficial, and leaves en- 
 tirely unrecognized the real course of the struggle. 
 . . . Though times of relative tranquillity oc- 
 curred, Christianity remained, notwithstanding, 
 a prohibited religion. This being the case, the 
 simple arrangement of the persecutions in a series 
 makes the impression that they were all of the 
 same character, while in fact the persecution 
 under Nero was wholly different from that under 
 Trajan and his successors, and this again varied 
 essentially from those under Decius and Diocle- 
 tian. The first pensecution which was really 
 general and Bystematically aimed at the suppres- 
 sion of the Church, was the Decian [see Home: 
 A. D. 192-284]. That under Trajan and his suc- 
 cessors [see Home: A. D. 00-138, 138-180, and 
 803-305] consisted merely of more or less fre- 
 quent processes against individual Christians, in 
 which the established methods of trial were em- 
 ployed, and the existing laws were more or Isss 
 sharply used against them. Finally, the perse- 
 cutions under Nero and Domitian [see Rome: 
 A. D. 04-68, and 70-96] were mere outbreaks of 
 nersonal cruelty and tyrar icul caprice. . . . 
 Christianity is the growing might; with the 
 energy of youth it looks the future in the face, 
 and there sees victory beckoning onward. And 
 how changed are now its ideas of tliat triumph 1 
 The earlier period had no thought of any victory 
 but that which Christ was to bring at his coming. 
 . . . But in the time of Cyprian the hopes of the 
 Christians are directed towards another victory : 
 they begin to grasp the idea that Christianity will 
 vanquish heathenism from within, and become 
 the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. . . . 
 It is true that the Christians were still greatly in 
 the minority. It is generally assumed that they 
 formed aboutone-twelfth of the whole population 
 in the Euat, a^d in the West about one-flfteenth. 
 Even this is jierhaps too hi^h an estimate. But 
 there wtro two things which gave a great im- 
 portance to thi."* minority. First, tliat no single 
 religion of the much divided Heathenism had so 
 many adherents as the Christian. Over against 
 the scattered forces of Heathenism, the Chris- 
 tians formed a close phalanx ; the Church was 
 a compact and strongly framed organization. 
 Second, the Christians were massed in the towns, 
 
 while the rural population was almost ex- 
 clusively devoted to Heathenism. There existed 
 in Antioch, for instance, a C'lristian church of 
 fifty thousand souls."— G. Ulilhorn, The Conflict 
 of Christianity with Ileatheniim, bk. 3. — "The 
 Encyclopedia of Missions " on the authority of 
 tlie late Prof. H. I). Hitchcock states that there 
 are on record "the names of cliurches existing 
 at this period [at the close of the persecutions] 
 in 525 cities: cities of Europe 188, of Asia 214, 
 of Africa 123." (See Appendix D.) There were 
 tendencies at work in many of these against that 
 toward general cathclic (universal) organization, 
 but in sulTering and sympathy the Christian 
 Churches formed a vast body of believers. ' ' Such 
 a vast organisation of a perfectly new kind, with 
 no analogy in previously existing institutions, 
 was naturally slow in development. . . . The 
 critical stage was passed when the destruction of 
 Jerusalem annihilated all possibility of a localised 
 centre for Cliristianity, and made it clear that the 
 centralisation of the Church could reside only in an 
 idea — viz., a processof intercommunication, union 
 and brotlierhood. It would be hardly possible 
 to exaggerate the share which frequent inter- 
 course from a very early stage betwecm the sep- 
 arate congregations had in moulding the develop- 
 ment of tlie Church. Most of the documents In 
 the New Testament are products and monuments 
 of this intercourse ; all attest in numberless details 
 the vivid interest which the scattered com- 
 munities took in one another. From the first the 
 Christian idea was to annihilate the separation 
 due to space, and hold the most distant brother 
 as near as the nearest. A clear consciousness of 
 the importance of this idea first appears in the 
 Pastoral Epistles, and Is still stronger in writ- 
 ings of A. D. 80-100. . . . The close relations 
 between different congregations is brought into 
 strong relief by the circumstances disclosed in 
 the letters of Ignat'us: the welcome extended 
 everywhere to him; the loving messotres 'tent 
 when he was writing to other churches ; the depu- 
 tations sent from churches off his road to meet 
 him and convoy him ; the rapidity with which 
 news of his progress was sent round, so that 
 deputations from Ephesus, Magnesia, and Tralles 
 were ready to visit him in Smyrna; the news 
 from Antioch which reached him in Troas, but 
 which was unknown to him in Smyrna; the 
 directions which he gave to call a council oi the 
 church in Smyrna, and send a messenger to con- 
 gratulate the church in An.ioch ; the knowledge 
 that his fate is known to and is engaging the 
 efforts of the church in Rome." — AV. M. Ramsay, 
 The Church in the Roman Minpire, pp. 364-366. — 
 "The fellowship . . . thus strongly impressed 
 by apostolic hands on the infant Church, is never 
 wholly lost Right of throughout all the ages, and 
 its permanent expression is found in the synod, 
 whether oecumenic, provincial, or diocesan. This 
 becomes fainter as we reach the age in which a 
 presbyter, told off from the body to a distinct 
 parish, attains gradual isolation from his breth- 
 ren. But this conies some centuries later. . . . 
 Everywhere, till that decline, the idea is that of 
 a brotherhood or corporate office, a unity of 
 function pervaded by an energy of brotljerly 
 love. ... It is no mere confluence of units be- 
 fore distinct." — H. Hayman, Diocesan Synod* 
 (Contemp. Rev., Oc<., 1882). — " It is the age when 
 the New Testament writings begin to come to- 
 gether to form a generally recognized canon. 
 
 442 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 The Patistic 
 Church. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 The opposition too to the sovereign spirit of 
 Montanist prophecy undoubtedly increased the 
 need for it. . . . After the example of the 
 Gnostics, a beginning is also made with c.xe- 
 getical explanation of New Testament writings; 
 Mellto with one on the Revelation of John, a cer- 
 tain Heraclitus with one on the Apostles. . . . 
 Finally, in this same opposition to the heretics, 
 it is sought to secure the agreement of the dif- 
 ferent churches with one another, and in this re- | 
 lation importance is gained by the idea of a imi- 
 vcrsnl (Catholic) Clmrch. So-called catliolie 
 Epistles of men of repute in the church to dilTer 
 ent comnumities are highly regarded. As ilUr,- 
 trntions take those of Ui.shop Dionysius of Cjr- 
 inth to Lacedajmon, Athens, Crete, Paphlag' nlii, 
 Pontus, Rome(Eu8eb. 4, 23)."— \V. Jloeller, Ilinl. 
 of (he Chnstian Church, pp. 183-184.— "This 
 period [100-312] may be divided into the Post- 
 Api'StoUc Age which reaches down to t tie middle 
 of the second century, and the Age of the Old 
 Catholic Church which ends with the establish- 
 ment of the Church under Constantine. . . . The 
 point of transition from one Age to the other 
 may be imhesitatingly set down at A. D. 170. 
 The following are the most important data in re- 
 gard thereto. The death about A. D. 165 of 
 Justin Martyr, who marks the high'^st point 
 reached in the Post- Apostolic Age and forms also 
 the transition to the Old Catholic Age ; and 
 Irenaeus, flourishing somewhere about A. D. 
 170, who was the real inaugurator of this latter 
 age. Besides these we come upon the beginnings 
 of the Trinitarian controversies about the year 
 170. Finally, the rejection of Montauism from 
 the universal Catholic Church was effected about 
 the year 170 by means of the synodal institution 
 called into existence for that purpose." — J. H. 
 Kurtz, Church History, v. 1, p. 70. — "If every 
 church must so live in the world as to be a 
 part of its co'rieutivc being, then it must always 
 be construed in and through the place and time 
 in which it lives." — A. M. Fairbairn, The Place of 
 Christ in Modern Tlieology. — "The Church of the 
 first three centuries was never, except perhaps 
 on the day of Pentecost, in an absolutely ideal 
 condition. But yet during the ages of persecu- 
 tion, the Church as a whole was visibly an un- 
 worldly institution. It was a spiritual empire 
 in recognized antagonism with the world-empire. " 
 — F. W. Puller, The Primitive /Saints and The See 
 of Home, p. 153. — All the greater forces of the at.", 
 political and legal, and commercial, ai'ed those 
 working within the church to create au organic 
 unity. "Speaking with some qualifications, the 
 patristic church was Greek, as the primitive 
 church had been Jewish, and the mediojval church 
 was to be Latin. Its unity, like that of the Greek 
 nation, was federative; cacli church, like each of 
 the Gi'ecian states, was a little commonwealth. As 
 the Greece which resisted the Persians was one, 
 not by any imperial organization, but by com- 
 mon ideas and a. common love of liberty, so the 
 church of the fatliei-s was one, not by any organic 
 connection, but by common thoughts and sym- 
 
 Sathies. above all by a common loyalty to Christ, 
 [aturally the questions which agitated such a 
 church were those which concern the individual 
 soul rather than society. Its members made 
 much of personal beliefs and speculative opinions ; 
 and so long as the old free spirit lasted they al- 
 lowed one another large freedom of thought, only 
 requiring that -ommon instinct of loyalty to 
 
 Christ. Happily for the world, that free spirit 
 did not die out from the Kast for at least two 
 centuries after Paul had prorlaiined the individ- 
 ual relationship of Ww. soul to tjod. . . . The 
 genius of the Greek expressing it.se"" in thought, 
 of the Latin in ruling power, the Christianity 
 which was to the formera body of truth, became to 
 'he hitter a system of government." — G. A. Jack- 
 ton, The Fathers of the Third Century, pp. 154- 
 
 50. — The Apostolic ideal was set fortli, and 
 it'ithin a few generations forgotten. The vision 
 
 vas only for a time and then vani.shed. "The 
 Kiu.gdom of Clirist, not beuig a kingdom of this 
 world, is not limited by the restrictions which 
 fetter other societies, political or religious. It is 
 in the fullest sense free, comprehensive, univer- 
 sal. ... It is most important that we should 
 keep this ideal d-thiitely in view, and I have 
 therefore stated it as broadly as possible. Yet 
 the broad statement, if allowed to stand alone, 
 would suggest a false iiiipiessiou, or a; least 
 would convey only a half truth. It must be 
 evident that no societ; of men could hold to- 
 gether without olUceis, without rules, witlicut 
 institutions of any kind; and the Church of 
 Christ is not exempt from this universal law. 
 The conception in short is strictly an ideal, which 
 we must ever hold before our eyes. . . . Every 
 member of the human family was potentially a 
 member of the Church, and, as such, a priest of 
 God. ... It will hardly be denied, I think, by 
 those who have studied the history of modern 
 civilization with attention, that this conception 
 of the Christian Church has been nuiiuly instru- 
 mental in the emancipation of the degraded and 
 oppressed, in the removal of artificial barriers 
 between class and class, and in the ditlusion of a 
 general philanthropy untrammelled by the fet- 
 ters of party or race ; in short, that to it mainly 
 must be attributed the most important advan- 
 tages which constitute the superiority of modern 
 societies over ancient. Consciously or uncon- 
 sciously, the idea of au universal priesthood, of 
 the religious equality of all men, which, though 
 not untaught before, was first embodied in the 
 Church of Christ, has worked and is working un- 
 told blessings in political institutions and in social 
 life. But the careful student will also observe 
 that this idea has hitherto been very imperfectly 
 apprehended; ":it throughout the history of 
 the Church it has been struggling for recogni- 
 tion, at most times discerned in some of its 
 aspects but at all times wholly ignored in others; 
 and that therefore the actual results are a very 
 inadequate measure of its efficacy, if only it 
 could assume due prominence and were allowed 
 free scope in action. ... It may be a general 
 rule, it may be under ordinary circumstances a 
 practically universal law, that the highest acts 
 of congregational worship shall be performed 
 through the principal olli,.jrs of the congrega- 
 tion. But an emergency may arise when the 
 spirit and not the letter must decide. The 
 Christian ideal will then . . . interpret our duty. 
 The higher ordinance of the universal priestliood 
 will overrule all special limitations. The lay- 
 man will assume functions which are otherwise 
 restricted to the ordained minister."— J. B. Light- 
 foot, Disstrtatione on the AjMstolic Aye, pp. 137- 
 140, 237. — "No Church now existing is an exact 
 counterpart of the Apostolic Church. . . . Allu- 
 sions bear out the idea that the Church at Corinth 
 was as yet almost structureless — little more than 
 
 443 
 
CnniSTIANITY. 
 
 Rue of 
 
 the Episcopate . 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 an aggregate of iudividuuls — with no bishop, 
 presbyter or deacon. " — J. W. Cunuingliam, The 
 Grmcth of the Church in its Organization ami In- 
 ttitutionn, pp. 73, 18. — "Some time before the 
 middle of tlie second century heresy begun sadly 
 to distract tlie Christian community ; and to avoid 
 InuD'nent danger of schism, it was deemed expe- 
 dieni in a few great towns to arm the chairman of 
 the I'dership with additional power. A modified 
 form of prelacy was thus introduced." — W. I). 
 Killea, 2VieOl(l Catholic Church, p. 51. — Respect- 
 ing tlie rise of the Episcopate as a distinct otllcc 
 there j a difference of opinion among scholars, — 
 some holding thatit was expressly ordained by the 
 Apostles, others that it arose quite independently 
 of them ; a third class think that it was developed 
 gradually out of the eldership, but not without 
 the sanction of one or more of the Apostles. 
 "For the Church is a catholic society, that is, a 
 society belonging to all nations and ages. As u 
 catholic society it lacks the bonds of the life of a 
 city >T a nation — local contiguity, common lan- 
 guaf.e, common customs. We cannot then very 
 ■wel! conceive how its corporate continuity could 
 have been maintained otherwise than througli 
 some succession of persons such as, bearing the 
 apostolic commission for ministry, should be in 
 each generation the necessary centres of the 
 Church's life."— C. Gore, The Mission of the 
 Church, pp. 10, 11. — "Jewish presbyteries existed 
 alreiidy in all the principal cities of the dispersion, 
 and Christian presbyteries would early occupy a 
 no', less 'vide area. . . . The name of the presbyter 
 thuc presents no difficulty. But what must bo 
 said of the term bishop? . . . But these notices, 
 besides establishing the general prevalence of 
 episcopacy, also throw considerable light on its 
 origin. They indicate that the relation suggested 
 by the historyof the word ' bishop ' and its trans- 
 ference from the lower to the higher office is the 
 true solution, and that the episcopate was created 
 out of the presbytery. . . . They leem to hint 
 also that, so far as this development was affected 
 at all by national temper and characteristics, it 
 ■was slower where the prevailing influences were 
 more purely Greek, as at Corinth and Philippi 
 and Rome, and more rapid where an Oriental 
 spirit predominated, as at Jerusalem and Antioch 
 and Ephesus. Above all, they establish this re- 
 sult clearly, that its maturer forms are seen 
 first in those ref 'ons where the latest surviving 
 Apootlcs (more especially St. John) fixed their 
 abode, and at a time when its prevalence cannot 
 be dissociated from their influence or their sanc- 
 tion." — J. B. lAghtioot, Dissertations on the A]M8- 
 tolic Age, pp. 151, 190, 191. — "Since then in the 
 constitution of the church two elements met to- 
 gether — the aristocratic and the monarchical — 
 it could not fail to be the case that a conflict would 
 ensue between them. . . . Th_se struggles be- 
 tween the prcsbyterial and episcopal systems 
 belong among the most important phenomena 
 connected with the process of the develop- 
 ment of church life in the third century. Many 
 gresbyters made a capricious use of their power, 
 urtful to good discipline and order in tlie com- 
 munities." — A. Neander, General History of tlie 
 Christian lieligion and Church, v. 1, sect. 2. — 
 "As 4 rule Christianity would get a footing first 
 in the metropolis of its region. The lesser cities 
 would be evangelized by missions sent from 
 thence ; and so the suffragan sees would look on 
 themselves as daughters of the metropolitan see. 
 
 The metropolitan bishop is the natural center of 
 unity for the bishops of the province. . . . The 
 bishops of the metropolitan sees acquired certain 
 rights which were delegated to them by their 
 brother bishops. Moreover, among the most im- 
 portant churches a certain or<ler of precedence 
 grew up which corresponded with the civil dig- 
 nity of the cities in which those churches existed ; 
 and finally the churches which were founded by 
 the apostles were treated with peculiar rever- 
 ence." — F. W. Puller, The Primitii.. Saints and 
 the See of litmie, pp. 11 and 18. — "The triumph 
 of the episcopal system undoubtedly promoted 
 unity, order, and tranquillity. But, on the other 
 hand, it was unfavourable to the free development 
 of the life of the church; and while the latter 
 promoted the formation of a priesthood foreign 
 to the essence of that development of the king- 
 dom of God which the New Testament sets 
 forth, on the other liand a revolution of senti- 
 ment which had already been prepared — an 
 altered view of the idea of the priesthood — had 
 no small influence on the development of the 
 episcopal system. Thus docs this change of the 
 original constitution of the Christian communi- 
 ties stand intimately connected with another and 
 still more radical change, — the formation of a 
 sacerdotal caste in the t mristiitn church. . . . Out 
 of the husk of Judaism Christianity had evolved 
 Itself to freedom and independence, — had stripped 
 off the forms in which it first sprang up, and 
 within which the new spirit lay at first concealed, 
 until by its own inherent power it broke through 
 them. This development belonged more par- 
 ticularly to the Paulino position, from which 
 proceecled the form of the church in the Gentile 
 world. In the struggle with the Jewish elements 
 which opposed the free development of Christi- 
 anity, this principle hud triumphantly made its 
 way. In the churches of pagan Christians the 
 new creation stood forth completely unfolded; 
 but the Jewish principle, which had been van- 
 quished, pressed in once more from another 
 quarter. Humanity was as yet incapable of 
 maintaining itself at the lofty position of pure 
 spiritual religion. The Jewish position was bet- 
 ter adapted to the mass, which needed first to be 
 trained before it could apprehend Christianity in 
 its purity, — needed to be disabused from pagan- 
 ism. Out of Christianity, now become indepen- 
 dent, a principle once more sprang forth akin to 
 the principles of the Old Testament, — a new out- 
 ward shaping of the kingdom ox God, a new 
 discipline of the law which one day was to serve 
 for the training of rude nations, a new tutorship 
 for the spirit of humanity, until it should arrive 
 at the maturity of the perfect manhood in Christ. 
 This investiture of the Christian spirit in a form 
 nearly akin to the position arrived at in the Old 
 Testament, could not fail, after the fruitful prin- 
 ciple had once made its appearance, to unfold 
 itself more and more, and to bring to light one 
 after another all the consequences which it in- 
 volved ; but there also began with it a reaction of 
 the Christian consciousness as it yearned after 
 freedom, which was continually bursting forth 
 anew in an endlets variety of appearances, until 
 it attuioed its triumph at the Reformation." — A. 
 Neander, General Uiiiory of the Christian Reli- 
 gion and Church, v. 1, sect. 3, Ji. — "Though the 
 forms of [pagan] religion had broken -vway, the 
 spirit of religion was still quick; it uad even 
 developed: the sense of sin, an almost new 
 
 444 
 
CHRIS! lANITY. 
 
 The Sprenit of 
 the faith. 
 
 CIIKISTIANITY. 
 
 phenomenon, began to invade Society and Philoso- 
 phy ; and along with this, au almost importunate 
 cruving after a revelation. Tlie changed tone of 
 philosophy, the spread of mysticism, tlio rapid 
 growtli of mystery-worship, the revived Plato- 
 nism, are all articulate expressions of this need. 
 The old Philosophy begins not onlv to proach but 
 to pray: the new strives to catch the revealed 
 voice of God in the oracles of less unfaithful 
 days. ... In the teeth of an organised and con- 
 centrated despotism a new society had grown 
 up, scIf-supporting,'self-regulated, self-governed, 
 a State within tlio State. Calm and assured 
 amid a world that hid its fears only In blind ex- 
 citement, free -amid the servile, sanguine amid 
 the despairing. Christians lived with an object. 
 United in loyal fellowship by socred pledges 
 more binding than the sacramentum of the sol- 
 dier, welded together by a stringent discipline, 
 led by trained and tried commanders, the Church 
 had succeeded in attaining tmlty. It had proved 
 Itself able to command self-devotion even to the 
 death. It had not feared to assimilate the 
 choicest fruits of the choicest intellects of East 
 and West. . . . Yet tlie centripetal forces were 
 stronger; Tertullian had died an hercsiarch, and 
 Origan but narrowly and somewhat of grace 
 escaped a like fate. If rent with schisms and 
 threatened with disintegration, the Church was 
 still an undivided whole."— G. H. Rendall, The 
 Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, pp. 
 21-23.— " The designation of the Universal Chris- 
 tian Church as Catholic dates from the time of 
 Irenaeus. ... At the beginning of this age, the 
 heretical as well as the non-heretical Ebionism may 
 be regarded as virtually suppressed, although 
 some scanty remnants of it might yet be found. 
 The most brilliant period of Gnosticism, too, . . . 
 was already passed. But in Manichoiism there 
 appeared, during the second half of t)\e third cen- 
 tury, a new peril of a no less threatening kind in- 
 spired by Parseeism and Buddhism. . . . With 
 Marcus Aurclius, Paganism outside of Christi- 
 anity as embodied in the Roman State, begins 
 the war of extermination against the Church that 
 was ever more and more extending her boun- 
 daries. Such manifestation of hostility, however, 
 was not able to subdue the Church. . . . During 
 the same time the episcopal and synodal-hierarchi- 
 cal organization of the church was more fully 
 developed by the Introduction of an order of 
 Metropolitans, and then in the following period it 
 reached its climax in the oligarchical Pentarchy of 
 Patriarchs, and in the institution of oecumenical 
 Synods." — J. H. Kurtz, Church Histori/, v. l,pp. 
 72-73, to which the reader is also referred for all 
 periods of church history. See, also,P. Schafr,Ifi»- 
 tory of tlie Christian Church; ond, for biography, 
 W. Smith and H. Wace, A Dictionary of ChrisUan 
 Biography. — " Missionary effort in this period was 
 mainly directed to the conversion of the hea- 
 then. On the ruins of Jerusalem, Hadrian's 
 colony of ^lia Capitolina was planted ; so that 
 even there the Church, in its character and 
 modes of worship, was a Gentile community. 
 Christianity was early carried to Edessa, the 
 capital of the small state of Osrhene, in Mesopo- 
 tamia. After the middle of the second century, 
 the Church at Edessa was sufflciently flourishing 
 to count among its members the king, Abgar Bar 
 Manu. At about this time the gospel was 
 preached in Persia, Media, Parthia, and Bactria. 
 We have notices of churches in Arabia in the 
 
 early part of the third century. They were 
 vi.sit('<l several times by Origen. the celebrated 
 AK'.Miiulriaii Church toucher (185-254). In the 
 middle of the fourth century a missionary, Thoo- 
 philus, of Diu, found churches in India. In 
 E.irypt, Christianity niade great progress, especi- 
 ally at Alexandria, wlienco it spread to Cyrcne 
 and otlicr neighboring places. In upper Egypt, 
 wlicre tli(! Coptic language and the superstition 
 of the ijcopie were obstacles in its path, Cliristi- 
 auity had, nevertheless, gained a foothold as 
 early as towards tlie close of tlu; second century. 
 At tliis time tlie gospel had been planted in pro- 
 consular Africa, being conveyed thitlier from 
 Rome, and there was a llourislilng church at 
 Carthage. In Gaul, where the Druiilical sy.stem, 
 with its priesthood and sacrificial worsliip, was 
 the religion of the Celtic population, several 
 cliurclies were founded from Asia Jlinor. At 
 Lyons and Vienne there were strong cliu'ches in 
 the lust quarter of the second century. At this 
 time Irenicus, Bishop of Lyons, speaks of the 
 establishment of Christianity in Germany, west 
 of the Rhine, and Tertullian, the North African 
 presbyter, speaks of Christianity in Britain. The 
 fatliers in tlic second century describe in glowing 
 terms, and not without rhetorical exaggeration, 
 tlio rapid conquests of the Gospel. The number 
 of converts in the reign of Hadrian must have 
 been very large. Otherwise we cannot account 
 for the entliusiastic language of Justin Martyr 
 respecting the multitude of professing Christians. 
 Tertullian writes in a similar strain. Irenajus 
 refers to Barbarians who have believed without 
 having a knowledge of letters, through oral 
 teaching merely." — Q. P. Fisher, History of the 
 Christian Church, pp. 45^6. 
 
 Alexandria. — "Christianity first began its 
 activity in the country among the Jewisli and 
 Greek population of the Delta, but gradually 
 also among the Egyptians proper (the Copts) as 
 may be inferred from the Coptic (Memphytic) 
 translation of the Now Testament (third cen- 
 tury). In the second century. Gnosticism [see 
 Gnostics], which had its chief seat here as well 
 as in Syria, and, secondly, towards the close of 
 the century, the Alexandrian Catechetical School, 
 show the importance of tliis centre of religious 
 movement and Cliristian education." — W. Moel- 
 ler, Ilist.ofthe Ohriatian Church, p. 105. — "Never 
 perhaps has the free statement of the Christian 
 idea had less prejudice to encounter than at 
 Alexandria at the close of the second century. 
 Never has it more successfully vindicated by 
 argument its right to be the great interpreter of 
 the human spirit. The institutions of tlie great 
 metropolis were highly favourable to this result. 
 The Museum, built by tlie Ptolemies, was in- 
 tended to be, and speedily became, the centre of an 
 intense intellectual life. The Serapeum, at the 
 other end of the town, rivalled it in beauty of 
 architecture and wealth of rare JISS. The Sebas- 
 tion, reared in honour of Augustus, was no un- 
 worthy companion to these two noble establish- 
 ments. In all three, splendid endowments and a 
 ricli professoriate attracted the talent of the world. 
 If the ambition of a secured reputation drew 
 many eminent men away to Rome, the means of 
 se(;uring such eminence were mainly procured at 
 Alexandria. . . . The Christian Church in this 
 city rose to the height of its grand opportunity. 
 It entered the lists without fear and witliout 
 favour, and boldly proclaimed its competence to 
 
 445 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 ne AleJranilrinn 
 Church. 
 
 CIIIUSTIANITy. 
 
 satisfy the intellectual cravings of man. Num- 
 Dcrs of restless and iiuiiiiriiiK Bpirits eiiine from 
 till |)arts (if the worlil, liopin.; to t1ii<l ii solution 
 of the (loiihts that perple.'ied them. And the 
 Chureli, which hud nlreiidy hrou^ht pence to th(^ 
 soids of the wontiin and tlie slave, nriw fflrded 
 herself to the harder task of c'onvincin;; the 
 trained intelligence of the man of letters and the 
 pliilosopher." — C. T. C'ruttwell, A Litinin/ Ilin- 
 ton/ of Eiirlif Chrintiiinitu, hk. 4, rh. 1 (c. 2). — 
 "TluMiuestion . . . came up for decision towards 
 the close of the mibapostolic aije, as to what 
 shape the Church was tinally to take. Two 
 types were set before her toclioose from — one the 
 Hebrew-Latin type, as \\v. may call it, into which 
 . . . site finally settled down; the otlier the 
 Hellenist type of a Demos, or commonwealth of 
 free citizens, all equal, all alike kings and priests 
 unto Qod, and whose moml and spiritual growth 
 was left very much to the initiative of eacli mem- 
 ber of the community. In Alexandria, as the 
 meeting-point of all nationalities, and where 
 Judaism itself had tried to set up a new typo of 
 thought, eclectic between Hebraism and Hellen- 
 ism, and comprehending what was best in both, 
 naturally enough tliere grew up u Christian type 
 of eclecticism corresponding to that of Philo. . . . 
 Into this seething of rival sects and races the 
 Alexandrian school of catechists threw them- 
 selves, and nnule a noble attempt to rescue the 
 Church, the synagogue, and the Stoics alike from 
 the one bane common to all — the dangerous delu- 
 sion that the truth was for tlu^m, not they for 
 the truth. Setting out on the assumption that 
 God's purpose was the education of the whole 
 human faini'.y, they saw in the Logos doctrine of 
 St. John .le key to harmonise all truth, whether 
 of Chris -ian sect, Hebrew synagogue, or Stoic 
 philosophy. ... To educate all men up to this 
 standard seemed to tliem the true ideal of the 
 Church. True Gnosis was their keynote; and 
 the Gnostic, as Clemens loves to describe himself, 
 was to them the pattern philosopher and Chris- 
 tian in one. Tliey regarded, moreover, a disci- 
 pline of at least three years as imperative; it 
 was the preliminary conditiou of entrance into the 
 Christian Church. — J. B. Heard, Alexandrian 
 ami Cartluiginian Theology Contrasted, pp. 37-38. 
 — The two great Christian writers of Alexandria 
 were Clement and Origen. "The universal in- 
 fluence of Origen made itself felt in the third 
 century over the whole field of Greek theology. 
 In him, as it were, everything whidi had hitherto 
 been striven after in tlie Greek field of tlieology, 
 had been gathered tofjether, so as, being collected 
 liere in a centre, to give an impulse in the most 
 various directions; lienco also tlio further de- 
 velopment of theology in subsequent times is 
 always accustomed to link itself on to one side 
 or the other of his rich spiritual heritage. . . . 
 And wliilo this involves that Christianity is 
 placed on friendly relations with the previous 
 philo.sophicul development of the highest concep- 
 tions of God and the world, yet on the other 
 hand Cliristian truth also appears conversely as 
 the universal truth which gatliers together in 
 itself all the hitherto isolated rays of divine 
 truth. ... In the great religious ferment of 
 the time there was further contained the ten- 
 dency to seek similar religious ideas amid the 
 different mythological religious forms and to 
 mingle them syncretistically. This religiotis fer- 
 ment was still further increased by the original 
 
 content of Christianity, that mighty leaven, 
 which anno'inced a religion destined to the re- 
 demption and ])crfectiug of the world, and by 
 this means a like direction and tendency was im- 
 l)arted to various other religious views likewise. 
 Tlie exciting and moving etfect of Gnosticism on 
 tlie Chureli depended at the same time on the 
 fact, that its re|)rcs<'ntatives practically appre- 
 hended Christianity in the manner of the antique 
 religiotis mysteries, and in so doing sought to 
 lean tiixm the Christian comnuinities and make 
 themselves at home in them, according as their 
 religious life and usages seemed to invite them, 
 and to establish in them a community of the 
 initiated and perfect; an cndeavfmr wliidi the 
 powerful ascetic tendency in tlie church exploited 
 and augmented in its own sen.se, and for which 
 the institution of prophecy, wiiich was so higlily 
 respected and powerful in the communities, 
 afforded a handle. In this way the initiated were 
 able to make for themselves a basis in tlie com- 
 munity on which tliey could depend, while the 
 religiophilosophical speculations, which arc 
 always intelligible only to a few, at the same 
 time propagated themselves and branched out 
 scholastically." — W. Moeller, Jlintoryofthe Chris- 
 uan Church, pp. 215, 213, 130-131.— "At Alex- 
 andria, Basilides (A. D. 12.')) and Valentine ex- 
 erted in turn an extraordinary influence; the 
 latter endeavored to establish Ins school at Homo 
 about the year 140. The Gnostics of Syria pro- 
 fessed a more open dualism than those of Egypt. 
 The Church of Antioch had to resist Siiiurnin, 
 that of Edessa to oppose Dordesancs and Tatian." 
 — E. De Pressense, The Early Years of Christian- 
 ity; The Martyrs and Apologists, p. 135. — "There 
 was something very imposing in those mighty sys- 
 tems, wliich embraced lieaven and earth. How 
 plain and meagre in comparison seemed simple 
 Christianity 1 There was something remarkably 
 attractive m the breadth and liberality of Gnos- 
 ticism. It seemed completely to have reconciled 
 Christianity with culture. How narrow tlie 
 Christian Church appeared 1 Even noble souls 
 might be captivated by the hope of winning tlie 
 world over to Christianity in tliis way. . . . 
 Over against tlie mighty systems of tlie Gnostics, 
 the Church stood, in sober earnestness and child- 
 like faith, on the simple Christian doctrine of tlie 
 Apostles. This was to be sought in the churches 
 founded by the apostles themselves, where they 
 had defined the faitli in their iireaching." — G. 
 Uhlhorn, 7 he Conflict of Christianity with Ilea then- 
 -'sm, bk. 2, ch. 3. — "Greek philosopliy had joined 
 Hands with Jewish theosophy, and the Church 
 knew not where to look for help. So serious did 
 the danger seem, when it was assailed at once and 
 from opposite sides by Jewish and Greek tyjjes of 
 Grtostici'^m, the one from the monotheistic point of 
 view in ugning the Gotlhead, the other for the 
 Docetic side explaining away [as a spiritual illu- 
 sion] the manhood of Christ, that the Church, in 
 despair of beating error by mere apology, fell back 
 on the method of authority. Tlie Church was the 
 only safe keeper of the deposit of sacred tradition ; 
 whoever impugned that tradition, let him bo put 
 out of the communion of saints."— Rev. J. B. 
 Heard, Alexandrian and Carthaginian Theology 
 Contrasted, p. 41. — " The interest, the meaning, of 
 Gnosticism rest entirely upon its ethical motive. 
 It was an attempt, a serious attempt, to fathom 
 the dread mystery of sorrow and pain, to answer 
 that spectral doubt, which is mostly crushed 
 
 msF 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 The Si/rinn 
 r*Aurr'u'«. 
 
 ClIRISTIAXITY. 
 
 down by force — Can the world ns wo Vnow it 
 Imvo been made by God? 'Ceiwe,' sajji Biisil- 
 idcs. 'from idle anil curious variety, and let us 
 riitber discuss tlie opinions, wliicli even barbari- 
 ans liave lield, on tlie sutgect of go(Kl and evil.' 
 ' I will say anytliing ratlicr tlmn adndt that 
 Providence is wicked. ' Valentinus describes in 
 till! strain of an ancient prophet the woes that 
 alllict mankind. 'I durst not afllrin,' he con- 
 <'ludes, • that God is the author of all this.' So 
 Tcrtullian says of Marcion, 'like many men of 
 our time, and especially the heretics, he is be- 
 wildered by the question of evil.' They ap- 
 jiroach the problem from a non-Christian point of 
 vi(^w, and arrive therefore at a non-Christian 
 solution. . . . Many of thcnj, especially the 
 later sectaries, accepted the whole Christian 
 Creed, but always with reserve. The teaching 
 of the Churcli thus became in their eyes a popu- 
 lar exoteric confession, beneath their own Gnosis, 
 or Knowledge, <vhich was a Mystery, jealously 
 guarded from all but the chosen few. ' — C. Bigg, 
 T/if C/iristiiiii PliiiimintaofAlcriindna, pp. 28-29. 
 
 Czsarea. — "The chief points of interest in 
 the history of the Church of Ctcsarea during this 
 period are the residence of Origen there (first 
 between A. I). 31!) and 219 and again after his 
 final departure from Alexandria in 2;!1), the 
 (■duration of Eu.sebius, the foundation of the 
 great library by Pamphilus, and the martyrdoms 
 il\iriiig the Diocletian persecution. Most of 
 these will come before us again in other con- 
 nexions, but they require mention here. It 
 would be ditflcult to ovcr-e.stimato the effect of 
 what they imply on the Churoh at large. Had 
 the work of Origen, Pamphilus, and Ensebius 
 at Cii'sarea remainecl unrecorded, there would be 
 a huge blank in ecclesiastical history, rendering 
 much that is otherwise known scarcely intel- 
 ligible. Had that work never been done, the 
 course of ecclesiastical history would have been 
 very dilferent. In the whole of the second and 
 third centuries it would be dilHcult to name two 
 more influential Christians than Origen and 
 Euscbius; and Panipliilus laboured earnestly to 
 preserve and circulate the writings of the one 
 and to facilitate those of the other. It was from 
 the libraries of Pamphilus at Ctcsarea and of 
 Alexander at Jerusalem that Eusebius obtained 
 most of his material " for his " Ecclesinstical His- 
 tory," wliich has preserved titles a' .i quotations 
 from many lost books of exceeding value. — A. 
 Pluiuiner, The Church of the JSarly Fathers, ch. 3. 
 
 Edessa. — ' ' Edessa (the modern Urf a) was from 
 the beginning of the third century one of the 
 cliief centres of Syrian Christian life and theo- 
 logical study. For many years, amid the vicissi- 
 tudes of theological persecution, a series of 
 flourishing theological schools \\ ;re maintained 
 there, one of which (the 'Persia" school') is of 
 great importance as tlie nursery of Nestorianism 
 in the extreme East. It was as bishop of Edessa, 
 also, that Jacob Baradaeus organized the mono- 
 pliysite churches into that Jacobite church of 
 which he is the hero. From the scholars of 
 Edessa came many of the translations which 
 carried Greek thought to tlie East, and in the 
 periods of exciting controversy Edessa was within 
 the range of the theological movements that 
 stirred Alexandria and Constantinople. The 
 ' Chronicle of Edessa,' as it is called because the 
 greater number of its notices relate to Edessene 
 affairs, is a brief document in Syriac contained 
 
 in a manusoript of six leaves in the Vatican 
 library. It is (me of the most important funda- 
 mental sources for tin? history of Edessa, c(m 
 tains a long otUcial narrative of the floinl of A. I). 
 2(11, which is perhaps the only existing inonu- 
 nieiit of lieathen Hyriac literature, and includes 
 an excellent and vcTy carefully dated list of the 
 bishops of Edessa from A. I). '.iV.i to 54!}." — An- 
 (lonr Uiricw, r. 19, p. 374. — The Syriac Versions 
 (of the Gospel) form a group of which mention 
 should undoubtedly be made. The Syria(r ver- 
 sions of the Bible (Old Testjiment) are among the 
 most ancient remains of the language, the Syriac 
 and the Chaldee being the two dialects of the 
 Ammaean spoken in the North. Of versions of 
 the New Testament, "the 'Peshito' or the 
 'Simple,' though not the oldest text, has been the 
 longest known. . . . The 'Curetonian' . . . was 
 discovered after its existence had been for a ling 
 time 8usi)ected by sagacious scholars [but is not 
 much more than a series of fragiiiciitsl. . . . 
 Cureton, Tregelles, Alford, Ewald, BleeU, and 
 others, believe this text to be older than the 
 Peshito [which speaks for the Greek text of the 
 second century, though itsowndate is doubtful]. 
 . . . Other valuable Syriac versions an; 'Phil- 
 oxenian "... and the ' Jerusalem Syriac Lec- 
 tionary "... a service-book with lessons from 
 the Gosjiels for Sundays and feast days tlirougli- 
 out the y(!ar . . . written at Antioch in 10!i() in 
 a dialect similar to that in use in Jerusalem and 
 from a Greek text of great antiquity." A recent 
 discovery renders these facts and statements of 
 peculiar interests. — G. E. Merrill, T/te Story of 
 tlie Miinunerlpts, eh. 10. 
 
 Rural Palestine. — " If Eliionism [.see Eiuon- 
 ismJ was not ])riniitive Christianity, neither was 
 it a creation of the second century. As an or- 
 ganization, a distinct sect, it first made itself 
 known, we may suppose, in the reign of Trajan: 
 but as a sentiment, it had been harboured within 
 the Church from the very earli(!st days. Mod- 
 erated by the personal infiuenee of the Apostka, 
 soothed by the general practice of their church, 
 not yet forced into declaring themselves by the 
 turn of events, though scarcely tolerant of others, 
 these Judaizers were tolerated for a time them- 
 selves. The beginning of the second century 
 was a winnowing season in the Chnic.h of the 
 Circumcision. ... It is a probalile conjecture, 
 that after the destruction of Jerusalem the fugi- 
 tive Christians, living in their retirement in the 
 neiglibourhood of the Essene settlements, re- 
 ceived largo accessions to their numbers from 
 this sect, wliich thus inoculated the Cliurch with 
 its peculiar views. It is at least worthy of notice, 
 that in a religious work emanating from this 
 school of Ebionites the ' true Gospel ' is re-ported 
 to have been first propagated ' after the destruc- 
 tion of the holy place' " — J. B. Lightfoot, Dis- 
 sertations on, the Apostolic Age, pp. 7y->S0. 
 
 Carthage. — "If the world is indebted to 
 Rome for the organisation of the Church, Rome 
 is indebted to Carthage for the theory on which 
 that organisation is built. The career of Car- 
 thage as a Christian centre exemplifies the 
 strange vicissitudes of history. The city which 
 Rome in her jealousy had crushed, which, not 
 content with crushing, she had obliterated from 
 the face of the earth, had at the bidding of 
 Rome's greatest son risen from her ashes, and by 
 her career almost verified the poet's taunt that 
 the greatness of Carthage was reared on the 
 
 447 
 
CimiSTIANITV. 
 
 Carlhaye and 
 Home. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 ruin of Itftly. For in tnith the Afrirnn capital 
 was In all but political i)()wor no unworthy rival 
 of Home. It liad stoadily grown in comniiTcial 
 prosperity. Its site was so advantajjeoiis as to 
 invite, almost to compel, the inthix of trade, 
 which ever spontaneously moves along the line 
 of least resistance. And the people were well 
 abl(^ to turn this natural udvant^ige to account. 
 A mi.\ed nationality, in which the original 
 Italian innnigration lent a steadying force to tlie 
 native I'unic and kindred African elements that 
 formed its basis, with its intelligence enriched 
 by large accessions of Greek settlers from Cyrene 
 and Alexandria — Cartilage had developed in 
 the second century of our era into a community 
 at once wealthy, enterprising and ambitious. 
 ... It was no longer in the sphere of profane 
 literature, but in her contributions to the cause 
 of Christianity and the spiritual armoury of the 
 Church, that the proud Queen of Africa was to 
 win her second crown of fame. . . . The names 
 of Tertullian, Cyprian and Augustine, at onco 
 suggest the source from which Papal Rome 
 drew the principles of Church controversy, 
 Church orgaidsation, and Church doctrine, which 
 have consolidated her authority, and to some 
 extent justified her prcteiLsions to rule the con- 
 science of Christendom." — C. T. Cruttwell, A 
 Literary IlisUiry of Early Christianity, bk, 5, ch. 
 3 (». 2). — "At the end of the second century th ; 
 African Tertullian first began to wrestle wi i 
 the dilllculties of tlie Latin language in the \- 
 deavour to make it a veliicle for the expression /f 
 Christian ideas. In reading his dogmatic writ- 
 ings the struggle is so apparent that it seems as 
 though we beheld a rider endeavouring to disci- 
 
 Eline an unbroken steed. Tertullian's doctrine 
 I, however, still wholly Greek in substance, and 
 this continued to be the case in the church of 
 the Latin tongue until the end of the fourth 
 century. Hilary, Ambrose, even Jerome, are 
 essentially interpreters of Greek philo.sophy and 
 theology to the Latin West. With Augus- 
 tine learning begins to assume a Latin form, 
 partly original and independent — partly, I say, 
 for even later compositions are abundantly inter- 
 woven with Greek elements ond materials. Very 
 gradually from the writings of the African 
 lathers of the church does the specific Latin 
 element come to occupy that dominant position 
 in Western Christendom, which soon, portly 
 from self-sufllcient indifference, partly from 
 ignorance, so completely severed itself from 
 Greek influences that the old unity and harmony 
 could never be restored. Still the Biblical study 
 of the Latins is, as a whole, a mere eclio and 
 copy of Greek predecessors " — J. I. von Di>l- 
 linger, Studies in European History, pp. 170-171. 
 — From Carthage which was afterward the resi- 
 dence of " tlie primate of all Africa . . . tlie 
 Christian faith soon disseminated throughout 
 Numidia, JIauritania and Getulia, which is 
 proved by the great number of bishops at two 
 councils held at Carthage in 250 and 308. At 
 the latter there were 270 bishops, whose names 
 are not given, but at the former were bishops 
 from (87) . . . cities."— J. E. T. Wiltsch, i/aHd- 
 book of the Geography and Statistics oft/ie Church, 
 Rome. — "In the West, Rome-remains and in- 
 deed becomes ever more and more the ' sedes 
 Apostolica,' by far the most important centre 
 where, alongside of the Roman element, there 
 are to be found elements streaming together from 
 
 all points of the Empire. Orc(^k names, and the 
 long la.sting (still dominant in the second century) 
 maintenance of Greek as the written language of 
 Roman Christianity are liere noteworthy. . . . 
 Rome was the point of departure not only for 
 Italy and the Western Provinces, but without 
 doubt also for Proconsular Africa, where in turn 
 Carthage becomes the centres of diffusion. . . . 
 Tlie diffusion in tlie Gncco-Roman world as a 
 whole goes first to the more important towns and 
 from tliese gradually over tlie country. . . . 
 The instruments however of this mission are by 
 no means exclusivelv apostolic men, who pursue 
 mi.ssions as their cafliiig . . . ; every Christian 
 becomes a witness in liis own circle, and inter- 
 course and trade bring Christians hither and 
 thither, and along witli them their Christian 
 faith." — W. Moeller, History of the Christian 
 Church, pp. 105-107. — " It has been contended, 
 and many still believe, that in ancient Rome the 
 doctrines of Christ found no proselytes, except 
 among the lower and poorer classes of citizens. 
 . . . The gospel found its way also to the man- 
 1 'ons of the masters, nay, even to the palace of 
 tuL Cn;sars. The discoveries lately made on this 
 subject are startling, and constitute a new 
 chapter in the history of imperial Rome. ... A 
 ditficuity may arise in the mind of the reader: 
 how was it possible for these magistrates, gen- 
 erals, consuls, officers, senators, and governors of 
 provinces, to attend to their duties without per- 
 forming acts of idolatry ? . . . Tlie Roman em- 
 perors gave plenty of liberty to tlie new religion 
 from time to time; and some of them, moved by 
 a sort of religious syncretism, even tried to ally 
 it with tlie official worship of the empire, and to 
 place Christ and Jupiter on the steps of the same 
 ■lararium.'. . . We must not believe that the 
 transformation of Rome from a pagan into a 
 Cliristian city was a sudden and unexpected 
 event, which took the world by surprise. It 
 'vas the natural result of the work of three cen- 
 turies, brought to maturity under Constantine by 
 an inevitable reaction against the violence of 
 Diocletian's rule. It was not a revolution or a 
 conversion in the tnie sense of these words ; it 
 was the ofl[lcial recognition of a state of things 
 wliich had long ceased to be a secret. The 
 moral superiority of the new doctrines over the 
 old religions was so evident, so overpowering, 
 tliat the result of the struggle had been a fore- 
 gone conclusion since the ago of the first apolo- 
 gists. Tlie revolution was an exceedingly mild 
 one, tlie transformation almost imperceptible. 
 . . . The transformation may be followed stage by 
 stage in both its moral and material aspect. There 
 is not a ruin of ancient Rome that does not bear 
 evidence of the great change. . . . Rome pos- 
 sesses authentic remains of the ' houses of prayer ' 
 in which the gospel was first announced in apos- 
 tolic times. ... A very old tradition, confirmed 
 by the ' Liber Pontiflcalis,' describes the modern 
 church of S. Pudentiana as having been once 
 the private house of the same Pudens who was 
 baptized by the apo.iitles, and who is mentioned 
 in tlie epistles of S. ?aul. . . . The connection 
 of the house with tlic apostolate of S8. Peter and 
 Paul mide it very popular from the beginning. 
 . . . Remains of tlie house of Pudens were found 
 in 1870. They occupy a considerable area under 
 the neighboring houses. . . . Among the Roman 
 churches whose origin can be n-aced to the hall 
 of meeting, besides those of Pudens and Prisca 
 
 448 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 nniil and 
 
 Simin. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 nlrpftdy mentioiipd, (ho best pri^servrd socins to 
 be tbut billlt by DemetriiiHUt thetliini mile-stone 
 of the Via Liitinn, near Ibc ' piiiiited tombs.' . . . 
 Tlie Cliristians to.)lc advantage of tlie freedom 
 accorded to funeral colleges, and associated 
 thcmsi'lvcs for tlie same purpose, following as 
 closely as possible their rules concerning contri- 
 butions, tlie erecti(m of lodges, the meetings, ami 
 the . . . love feasts; and it was largely through 
 the niloption of these well-understood and re- 
 8]>eoted customs that they were enabled to hold 
 their meetings and keep together as a, corporate 
 bo<ly througli thi! stormy times of the second and 
 third centuries. Two excellent specimens of 
 scholoe connected with Christian cejueteries and 
 with meetings of the faithful have come down to 
 us, one above the Catacombs of Callixtus, the 
 other above those of Soter." This formation of 
 Christian communities into colleges is an import- 
 ant fact, and connects these Christian societies 
 with one of the social institutions of the Empire 
 which may have influenced the church as an or- 
 ganization. "The experience gained in twenty- 
 tlve years of active exploration in ancient Home, 
 both al)ove and below ground, enables me to 
 state that every pagan building which was 
 cai)able of giving shelter to a congregation was 
 transformed, at one time or anotlier, into a 
 church or a chapel. . . . From apostolic times 
 to the persecution of Domitian, tlie faithful were 
 buried, separately or collectively, in private 
 tombs which did not have the character of a 
 Church institution. These early tombs, whether 
 above or below ground, display a sense of per- 
 fect security, and an absence of all fear or solici- 
 tude. This feeling arose from two facts: the 
 small extent of the cemeteries, which .secured to 
 them the rights of private property, and the pro- 
 tection and freedom which the Jewish colony 
 in Rome enjoyed from time immemorial. . . . 
 From the time of the apostles to the first persecu- 
 tion of Domitian, Christian tombs, whether 
 above or below ground, were built with perfect 
 impunity and in defiance of public opinion. We 
 have l)ccn accustomed to consider the catacombs 
 of Rome as crypts plunged in total darkness, and 
 penetrating the bowels of the earth at unfathom- 
 able deptlis. This is, in a certain measure, the 
 case with those catacombs, or sections of cata- 
 combs, which were excavated in times of perse- 
 cution ; but not with those belonging to the first 
 century. The cemetery of these members of 
 Domitiau's family who had embraced the gospel 
 — such as Flavins Clemens, Flavia Domitilla, 
 Plautilla, Petronilla, and others — reveals a bold 
 example of iiublicity. . . . How is it possible 
 to imagine that the primitive Church did not 
 know the place of the '".eath of its two leading 
 apostles V In default cc written testimony let us 
 consult monumental evidence. There is no event 
 of the imperial age and of imperial Rome which 
 is attested by so many noble structures, all of 
 which point to the same conclusion, — the 
 presence and execution of the apostles in the 
 capital of the empire." — R. Lanciani, Pagan ami 
 Christian Itome, ch. 1, 3 and!. — The Church at 
 Rome "gave no Illustrious teachers to ancient 
 Christianity. . . . All the greatest questions 
 were debated elsewhere. ... By a sort of in- 
 stinct of race, [it] occupied itself far more with 
 points of government and organization than of 
 speculation. Its central position, in the capital 
 of the empire, and its glorious memories, guar- 
 
 anteed to it a growing authoritv. " — K. He Pres- 
 sense, The Kiirlji Viun of Vhriiitiiinity : 'Die 
 Miiiii/rii ami Ajxiliif/iiilii, p. 41. 
 
 Gaul.— "Of the history of the Galilean 
 Churches before the middle of the second century 
 we have no certain information. It seems fairly 
 probable indeed that, when we read in the 
 Apostolic age of a mission of Crescens to 
 •Oalalia' or 'Oa\il,' the western country is 
 meant rather than the Asiatic settlement wliich 
 bore the same name; and, if so, this points to 
 some relati(m8 with St. Paul himself. But, even 
 though this explanati(m should be accepted, the 
 notice stands (juite alone. Jjator tradition indeed 
 supplements it with legendary matter, but it 
 is impossible to say what sulistratum of fact, 
 if any underlies these comparatively recent 
 stories. The connection between the southern 
 parts of Gaul and the western distrii'ts of Asia 
 Minor had ' 'cn intimate from very remote 
 limes. Gaui was in(lebte<l for her earliest civil- 
 ization to her Greek settlements like Marseilles, 
 which ha<l been colonized from Asia Minor some 
 six centuries before the Christian era; and dose 
 relations ajipear to have been maintained even 
 to the latest times. During the Roman period 
 the people of Marseilles stdl spoke the Greek 
 language familiarly ahmg with the vernacular 
 Celtic of the native population and the oflicial 
 Latin of the 'dominant power. When therefore 
 Christianity had established her heachiuarters in 
 Asia Jlinor, it was not umiat\iral that the Gosi)el 
 should flow in the same channels which already 
 conducted the civilization and the commerce of 
 the Asiatic Greeks westward. At all events, 
 whatever we may think of the antecedent pro- 
 babilities, the fact itself can hardly be disputed. 
 In the year A. D. 177, under Marcus Aurelius, 
 a severe persecution broke out on the banks of 
 the Rhone in the cities of Vienne and Lyons — a 
 jiersecution which by its extent and character 
 bears a noble testimony to tlie vitality of the 
 Churches in these places. To this incident we 
 owe the earliest extant historical notice of 
 Christianity in Gaul." — .1. B. Lightfoot, Emays 
 on the work entitled Supernatural lieliijion, pp. 
 2.')l-253. — "The Churches of proconsular Africa, 
 of Spain, of Italy, and of Soutiiern Gaul consti- 
 tute, at this period, the Western Church, so dif- 
 ferent in its general type from tlie Eastern. 
 With the exception of Ircnaeus [bishop of Lyons] 
 and Hippolytus [the first celebrated preacher of 
 the West, of Italy and, for a i)eriod, Lyons] who 
 represent the oriental element in Gaul and at 
 Rome, the AVestern Fathers are broadly distin- 
 guished from those of the East. . . . They 
 afflrm rather than demonstrate; . . . they pre- 
 fer practical to speculative questions. The sys- 
 tem of episcopal authority is gradually developed 
 with a larger amount of ])assiun at Carthage, 
 with greater prudence and ])atience in Italy." — 
 E. I)e Pressense, 1 he Early Years of Christi- 
 anity: the Martyrs and ApoUigists. 
 
 Spain. — "Christians are generally mentioned 
 as liaving existed in all parts of Spain at the 
 close of tlie second century ; before the middle of 
 the third century there is a letter of the liomun 
 bishop Anterus (in 237) to the bishops of the 
 provinces of Ba-tica and Toletana . . . ; and 
 after the middle of the same century a letter of 
 Cyprian's was addressed to . . . people ... in 
 the north ... as well as . . . in the south of 
 that country."— J. E. T. Wiltsch, Handbook of 
 
 449 
 
CIiniSTIANITY. 
 
 of tilt (litlht. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 the Oe/>qraphy and fUatittia of the Church, pi>. 
 40-41. 
 
 Britain. — "All tlmt wo can snfcly nsaort 
 Ih tlijit there is Hnme rcnson for Ix'licvinp; thiit 
 tlicrc were (Miristiiins in Hritniii boforo A. 1). 
 2(Mt. ("crtnliily there was a Itritish (Miiireh with 
 hisliops of its own soon after A. I). U0(), and 
 poHsilily sonic time before tlmt. Very little can 
 be known about this Celtic (,'hiireli; but tli(> 
 sciinly evidence tends to establish tlireo points, 
 (1) It liad its ori||;ii' from, and remained largely 
 uependent upon, llic Gallic Church. (2) It was 
 confined almost exclusively .i> Itoman settle- 
 ments. (U) Itsiiiunbers were small and its mem- 
 bers were poor. . . . That lir'tiiin may have 
 «lerived its Cliri.stianity from Asia .Minor cannot 
 be denied: but the ])cculiar lirilish custom 
 respecting; Kaster must not be (piotcd in evidence! 
 of it. Itsec^ms to hav(! been a mere blunder, and 
 not a contiiunilion of the old Quarta-decimim 
 practice, (laul is the more i)robabl(! parent of 
 the liritisli Cluirch. ... At the (.'ouncil of 
 liimini in iWO Constantius olTered to Jiay out of 
 the trea.sury the travelling e.\penses of all the 
 bishops who attended. Out of more than four 
 hundred bishops, tluee from Hritain were the 
 only clergy who availed themselves of this offer. 
 Neither at Himini, any more than at Arle.s, do 
 the British representatives make any show: they 
 appear to be tpiitu witliout iniluence. " — A. 
 Plummer, T/ie Ckuvch of the Eni'ly Fatliem, 
 eh. 8. 
 
 Goths. — "It has been observed that the first 
 indjspulalile appearance of the Ooths in European 
 history must Ix^ ;lated in A. 1). 21(8, when they 
 laid waste the Soulh-Dunubian province of 
 Moesia as far as the HIack Sea. In the thirty 
 years (2;i8-2(i9) that followed, there took place no 
 iew<'r than ten such inroads. . . . From these 
 expeditions tlicy returned with immen.se booty, 
 — corn and cattle, silks anil line linen, silver and 
 gold, an<l captives of all ranks and ages. It is 
 to tliese captives, many of whom were Chris- 
 tians, and not a few clergy, that the introduction 
 of Christianity among the Ooths is primarily 
 due. . . . Tile periixl of tlie inroad", wliicli so 
 strangely formed a sowing-time for Ciiristianity, 
 was followed by a long perio<l of tniiiiiuiility, 
 during wliicli the new faith took root and spread. 
 ... It is to the faithful work and ])Ui'e lives of 
 [CliristianJ men . . . wlio had tied from Uoman 
 civilisation for conscience sake, to the example 
 of patience in misfortune and higli Ciiristian 
 cliaractcr displayed by the captives, and to the 
 instruction of the presbyters sprinkled among 
 thein, that we must look, as the source of 
 Christianity among the Goths. . . . The fact (to 
 ■which we shall have to refer later), tiiat, of all the 
 sea raids undertaken by the Goths between the 
 years 238 and 209, the Visigoths took i)iirt in 
 only two, while tlie Ostrogoths, wlio were settled 
 in Southern Russia along the coast of the Euxine 
 from tlie (-'rimea to tlic Dneister, were engaged 
 ])robably in all of tliein, makes it very unlikely 
 that tlie captives mentioned by Plnlostorgius 
 were curried nnywiicre else than the eastern 
 settlements. To the influence of these Asian 
 Ciiristinns, exerted mainly, if not entirely upon 
 the Ostrogoths, must be added tlie ever-increas- 
 ing intercourse carried on by sen lietweeu the 
 Crimea and both the southern siiore of the 
 Euxine and Constantinople. To these probabili- 
 ties has uow to be added the fact that the odI\ 
 
 traces if an organised Qotliic Church existing- 
 before he year :141 are clearly to be referred loiv 
 commui ity in tliis neighbourhood. Among tlio 
 bishops ,"lio were present at the Council of 
 Nicaca (A. I). 32.')), and who signed the symlMd 
 wliicli was tlien approved, we find a certain 
 Theophilus, before wliose name stand tlie words, 
 'do Oothis,' an<l after it the word ' Hospliori- 
 tanus.' Tiiere can be little doubi that tins was 
 a bishop representing a Gothic Church on the 
 Cimmerian Rosphorus: and if, following the 
 Paris MSS., we read further down the list tlie 
 name Domnus Rosphorensis or Rosplioranus, wo 
 mav find here anotlier l)isliop from this (liocese, 
 aiul legaiil Theophilus as chief w archbishop of 
 the Crimean churclies. Tlie undoubted presence 
 at this council of at least one bishop of the 
 Goths, and the conclusion drawn therefrom in 
 favour of the orthodoxy of tlie Gothic Churcli ia 
 general, led afterwards to the greatest confusion. 
 Failing to distinguish lietween the Crimean and 
 Danubian communities, th(> historians often foiiml 
 tlieir information contradietory, and altered it 
 ill tlie readiest way to suit tlie condition of the 
 (Miiircli which tliey had specially in view. . . . 
 Tlie conversion of tliat section of tlie nation, 
 wliich beciime the Gothic Ciiurcli, was due to 
 the apostolic labours of one of tlieir own race, 
 — tlie great missionary bishop Ultilas [see 
 GoTiis: A. D. ;i41-;i81J. Rut to him too was 
 to be traced the heresy in wliicli they stopped 
 short on the wa> from lieatlienism to a complete 
 Christian fjiitli." — C. .V. A. Scott, Ulfilitn. AjMmtle 
 of tlie (rot/is, j)p. 19-;)0. — "The suiierstitions of 
 tlie barbarians, who had found homes in the 
 empire, had been exchanged for a more whole- 
 some belief. Rut Christianity had done more 
 than this. It liad extended its infiuence to 
 the distant East and South, to Abyssinia, 
 and the tribes of the Syrian and Lybiaii 
 deserts, to Armenia, Persia, and Indiif. " — G. P. 
 Fisher, J/ixt. of the Ohrinddn Chureh, p. 98. — 
 ' ' We have bef(ue us many significant examples of 
 the facility witli which the most intelligem. .'f the 
 Pagans accepted the outward rite of Chrisliui 
 baptism, and made a nominiil professlm of tin 
 Faitli, while they retained and openly I'ractieed, 
 without rebuke, witliout remark, >vitli the 
 indulgence even of genuine believers, tlie rites 
 and usages of tlie Paganism tliey prel ended to 
 have abjured. We find abundant records of the 
 fact that personages high in olllce, such as con- 
 suls and other magistrates, while admiuisteriag 
 the laws by wliicli the ohl idolatries were pro- 
 scribed, actually performed Pagan rites and 
 even erected public statues to Pagan divinities. 
 Still more did men, high in tlie respect of tlieir 
 fellow-Christians, allow themselves to cherish 
 sentiments utterly at variance with the defini- 
 tions of the Church." — C. Mcrivale, Four leetnre* 
 on some Epochn of Early Church IIi»tory, p. 150. — 
 ' We loolt back to the early acts and policy of the 
 Church towards the new nations, their kings and 
 their people; the ways and works of her mission- 
 aries and lawgivers, Ultilas among the Goths, 
 Augustine in Kent, Remigius in Fmnce, Roni- 
 face iu Germany, Anscliar in the North, the Irish 
 Coluinban in Rurgiindy and Switzerland, 
 Benedict at llonte Cassino; or the reforming 
 kings, the Arian Theodoric, the great German 
 Charles, the great English Alfred. Measured 
 by the liglit and the standards they have heljicd 
 'IS to attain to, their methods uo doubt surprise. 
 
 4uU 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Conifriion of 
 CantUmiint. 
 
 CIIKISTIANITY. 
 
 (llsnpnoint — It may bo, mvcilt im; iim' 
 we ((well upon Is tlic childlslincss, 
 
 till that 
 or till' 
 liii|H'rfc<'t moriillty, of their iitteiiipts. Hut if 
 there in iinythiiiK ('crtaiii in liiHtory, It la thut in 
 thcHe rmi/h cnniniuiiieittiiiiiM of tlin (lettpest 
 truths, iu iiiesf [for us| often ((uestionitble niiMles 
 of rulinj? niimls and souls, the seeds were sown of 
 all that was to make the hope and the glory of 
 the foremost nations. ... I have spoken of 
 three other groups of virtues which are 'leld In 
 speeial rejjard and respect amonjr us — those 
 roimected with manliness luid hard work, witli 
 reverenre for law and lilierty, and with pure 
 fanuly life. The rudiments and tendencies out 
 of which tliesc' have grown appear to have been 
 early marked in the (ierinHii races; but they 
 were only rudiments, e.xistinn in company with 
 nuicli wUder and stronger elements, and liable, 
 amid the changes and cliances of liarbariun 
 existence, to Ix.- paralysed or trampled out. No 
 mere barbarian virtues could by themselves have 
 KtxKxl the trial of having won by coniiuest the 
 wealth, the lands, the power of Home. IJut 
 their guardian was there. What Christianity 
 (lid for these natural tendencies to good was to 
 adopt them, to watuh over them, to di.scipline, 
 to consolidate them. The energy which warriors 
 were accu.slomed to put forth in their elTorts to 
 c(amuer, the mls.slonarics and ministers of 
 Christianity exhibited in their enler|)rises of 
 conversion and teaching. Tlie crowd of unknown 
 saints whose iiantes till the calendars, and live, 
 8o;iie of them, only in tlie titK f our churches, 
 mainly represent the age of heroic spiritual 
 ventures, of which we see glimpses in liie story 
 of St. H(mifac(s the aposth; of Germany; of St. 
 Coluniban and St. Uidl, wandering from Ireland 
 to reclaim tlio barbarians of the Uurgundian 
 deserts and of the shores of the Swiss lakes. It 
 was among men like these — men who were then 
 termed emphatically ' men of religion ' — tlnit tlie 
 new races saw the example of life ruled by a 
 great and serious purpose, which yet was not 
 one of ambition or the excitement of war; a Hie 
 of deliberate and steady industrv, of hard and 
 uncomplaining labour; a life as full of activilv 
 in peace, of stout and brave work, as a warrior's 
 was wont to be in the camp, on the march, in 
 the battle. It was in these men and In the 
 Christianity which they taught, and which 
 inspired and governed them, that the fa iters of 
 our iiKHlern nations first saw exemplified the 
 sense of human responsibility, first le irned the 
 nobleness of a ruled and disciplined life, first 
 enlarged their thoughts of the uses of 
 existence, first were tauglit the dignity and 
 sacredness of lionest toll, riicse great axioms of 
 nuxlern life passed silently from the speciid 
 homes of religams employment to those of civil; 
 from tlie cloisters and cells of men who, when 
 they were not engaged In worship, were engaged 
 in tleld-work or book-work, — clearing the forest, 
 extending cultivation, multiplying manuscripts 
 — to the guild of the craftsman, the shop of the 
 trader, the study of the scholar. Religion gener- 
 ated and fed these ideas of what was manly and 
 worthy in man." — R. \V. Church, The Gifts of 
 Civi'''mtion, pp. 270-283. 
 
 A. D. 312-337.— The Church and the Em- 
 pire. — " Shortly after the beginning of the fourth 
 century there occurred an event which, had it 
 been predicted in the days of Nero or even of 
 Dcciua, would have been deemed a wild fancy. 
 
 It was nothing less than the conversion of the 
 Roman Kinpcror to the Christian faith. It was 
 an evinl of monicntoiis iniporlance In tli' history 
 of the Christian religion. Tlic Roman empire, 
 from being the enemy and persecutor of the 
 Church, thenceforward became its protector and 
 patron. The Church entered into an alliance 
 with the State, which was to prove fruitful of 
 consei)ueiices, both good and evil, in the subse- 
 (puiit hisloiy of Kurope. Chrisliaiilly was now 
 to reap the advantages and incur the dangers 
 arising from the friendship of earl lily rulers and 
 from a close connection with the civil authority. 
 C(Ui.stanlin(! was born In 274. lie was the son Iif 
 Constaiitins Chioriis. His mother, Helena, was 
 of obsenri! birth. She became a Christian — 
 whether before or after his conversion, is doubt- 
 ful. . . . After the death of Ccinslaiiline's fallier, 
 a revolt against (ialerius augmented tlu^ niiniber 
 of emperors, so that. In !t(JH, not less llian six 
 claimed to exercise rule. The contest of Con- 
 stantiiie was at first In the West, against the 
 tyrannical and dissolute Alaxentiiis. It was just 
 before his victory over tills rival at the .Mllvian 
 Hridge, near Rome, that he adopted the Christian 
 faith. That there mingled in this deeisiiai. as In 
 most of the steps of his career, liolitieal ainhilion, 
 is highly prohable. The slrength of the Chris- 
 tian community made it pulilic for hiiii to win 
 its united support. Hut he sincerely believed in 
 the (JimI whom tla; Christians worsliipped, and in 
 tlie help which, tliroui'h his providence, he could 
 lend to his servants. . . . Shortly before his 
 victory over Maxenlius there occurred what he 
 ii.s.serted to be the vision of a fiaming cro.ss in the 
 sky, seen by him at noonday, on wliicli was the 
 iiiseriiition, in (ireek, ' Hy this coiKiuer.' It 
 was, jierhaps, an optical illusion, the etfect of a 
 parhelion beheld in a moment when the imagin- 
 ation . . . was strongly excited. He adopted the 
 labarum, or the standard of the cross, which was 
 afterwards carried in his armies. [See Ro.mk: 
 A. 1). !i2:}.] In later contests with Licinius, 
 the ruler in tlie East, who was a defender of 
 paganisni, Constaiitine became more distinctly 
 the champion of tlie Christian (.'ause. The final 
 defeat of liicinius, In !t2;i, left him the master 
 of the whole Roman world. An edict signed 
 by Galerius, Constaiitine, and Lieinins, In 
 
 311, had proclaimed freedom and toleration in 
 matters of religion. The edict of Milan, in 
 
 312, emanating from the two hitter, established 
 unrestricted liberty on this subject. If we 
 consider the time when it was issued, we shall 
 be surprised to find that It alleges as a mo- 
 tive for tlie edict the sacred rights of con- 
 science." — G. P. Fisher, llidt. of the Christian 
 Chnreh, pp. 87-88. — "Towanls the end of the 
 year Constantine left Rome for Jlilan, where \u: 
 met Licinius. This nieetinif resulted in the issiK 
 of the famous edict of Slilan. Up to tliat hour 
 Christianity had been an ' illiclta religio,' and It 
 was a crime to be a Christian. Even in Trajan's 
 answer to Pliny this position is as.sume(I, though 
 it forms the basis of liumane regulations. The 
 edict of Milan is the cliarter of Christianity; it 
 proclaims absolute freedom in the matter of 
 religion. Both Cliristians and all others were to 
 be freely permitted to follow whatsoever religion ' 
 each might choose. Moreover, restitution was to 
 be made to the Christian body of all churches 
 and other buildings which had been alienated 
 from them during the persecution. This was in 
 
 461 
 
CIIUISTIANITY. 
 
 f/iiii'./i 
 
 IfrffanixiiUitn. 
 
 CIIUISTIANITY. 
 
 818 A. I). . . . Hilt till' cauw'H of (liHHcnHioii 
 rcinaiiicil lu'liiml. Oiicr inorr (!t'J!)) llic (|ii«'sll<>ii 
 Im'Iwci'm imKiuiixni iiikI Cliristiiiiilty was to he 
 trii'il (III till' tti'lil iif Imtllc, ami tliri'r aniilcH con 
 friiiitcil one aiiiitlirr on tlir iiliiliiMiif ii ^''iitiioiilc. 
 AkiiIii till' "I^Hl of CiiiiNtaiitlnr anil .lir trained 
 valour of his tri>o|iN jirovcd siipi'iior to the iiii- 
 (U.srlliliiiril li'vics of LicinldH; wlillc at wa Cri.s- 
 pilH, llic <'lili-Ht iinil iil-t'atrd son of CoiiHlantini', 
 di'Htroyrd tlii' rnciny'H lli'ct in tlir rrowdrd 
 waters of tile llelli'spont, sowillff tlieretiy llie 
 seeds of liis fatlier's jealousy, liy/.antiiiin fell, 
 )mt not witlioiit a vigorous resistance; and, 
 aftiT one more iriisliiiiK defeat on llie site of tlu; 
 iniMlern Hciitiiri, IJciniiis suliinitted liiniself to 
 the mercy of ('oiiHtantinu. . . . ^VIlat we notice 
 iu the whole' of these events Is the enormous 
 power which still belonged to iiaKanisni. The 
 uitlaiice still wavered between paKiinlsm and 
 ("hristianity. , . . ('onstantine had now, by a 
 marvellous succession of victories, iilaced him- 
 Hclf in a position of supreme and undisputed 
 power. At this juncture it is of interest to 
 observe that . . . the divided empire, which 
 followed the rei>;n of C,'oii*tuiitine, served to 
 sustain Calliolicity at least in one half of the 
 world. . . . The foundation of Constant inople 
 was the outward symbol of the new monarcliy 
 and of the triumph of Christianity, . . . Tlic 
 choice of tliis incomparable position for the new 
 ca])ital of the world remains the iastin); i)roof of 
 Constantiue's genius. . . . The magnificence of 
 its public' buildings, its treasures of art, its vast 
 endowments, the lieauty of its situation, the 
 rapid growtli oC its eomnierce, made it worthy to 
 l)c 'as it weiv 11 (laughter of Home herself.' 
 But the most important thought for us is the 
 relation of Constantinople to the advance of 
 Christianity. Tliat the city which had sprung 
 into supremacy from its birth and had become 
 the capital of the conquered world, should have 
 excliKled from the circuit of its walls all public 
 recognition of ])olytheism, and made the Cross 
 its most conspicuous ornament, and the to!<en of 
 its greatness, gave a realitv to the relij.'ious 
 revolution. . . . The imiu'rial centre of the 
 world had been visibly displaced." — A. Carr, 
 The Church and the linvutn Jimpire, rh. 4. — 
 AVith the first General Council of the Church, 
 lield at Nicii'a, A. D. 325 (see Nic/Ka), " the 
 decisions ... of which received the force of 
 law from the confirmation of "le Emjieror, a 
 tendencv was entered upon winch was deci.sive 
 for tile further development : decisive also by the 
 fact that the Kmpcror lu^d it to be his duty to 
 compel subordination to the decisions of the 
 council on penalty of banisliment, and actually 
 carried out this biinishment in the case of Arius 
 and several of his adherents, Tlie Emperor 
 summoned general synods, the liseus provided 
 tile cost of travel and subsistence (also at other 
 great synods), a imperial commissioner opened 
 them by rcailing the imperial edict, and watched 
 over the course of business. Only the liishops 
 and their ainiointed representatives had votes. 
 Dogmatic jioints ti.xed . . . were to be the out- 
 come of unanimous agreement, the rest of tlie 
 ordinances (on the constitution, discipline and 
 worship) of ii majority of votes." — W. Mocller, 
 Hint, if Vie ClirUtiiin Church, p. 337.— "The 
 direct influence of the cmi)eror, however, does 
 not appear until the Emperor Marcian procured 
 from the Council of Chalccdou the completion of 
 
 the Patriarchal Hysti'iii, Asouniing that Home, 
 .Vlcxandrla, and Anlioch were I'atriarchates bv 
 the recognition of their privileges at the Council 
 of Nica'a (though the canon of that (iiiincil does 
 not really admit that inference), tlie Council of 
 Chalccdon, by its uinth, seventeenth and twenty- 
 eighth canons, enlarged and ti.xed the patriarclial 
 jurisdiction and privileges of the I'hurcli of 
 Constantinople, giving it authority over the 
 Dioceses of Thrace, Asia and I'ontus, with the 
 power of ordaining and reiiiiiring canonical 
 obedience from the metropolis of tliose Dioceses, 
 and also tlie right to adjiidi('at(! appeals in 
 (iiuses ecclesiastical from the wholi- Eastern 
 Church. The iiisliopof .Teriisalem also obtained 
 in this council ]>atriarclial authority over Pales- 
 tine. The organization of the Church was thus 
 conformed to that of the empire, the patriarchs 
 corresponding U> the I'netoriiin Prefects, the 
 e.xarchs, tothe governors of tlie Dioceses, and the 
 luetroixililans to the governors of the provinces 
 — the Bishop of I{onie being given by an edict 
 of Valenliniaii 111., of the year 44.'), supreme 
 appellate jurisdiction in the West, and the 
 Bishop of (.'oiistantinoplc, liy tliese canons of 
 Chalcedon, supreme appellati; jurisdiction in the 
 East. . . . Dean Milinan remarks that the 
 Episcopati^ of St. John Chrysostom was the last 
 altem|)t of a bishop of Constantinoph' to lie inde- 
 jicndent of tlie political power, and that his fato 
 involved the freedom of the Churdiof thatcity." 
 — J. II. Egar, Chriiiteiuhim : Krclcniniiticnl and 
 l'olitic4il, from ('nimtniitiiie to the Kefonmttion, 
 pp. 2.5-27.'— "The name of patriarch, probably 
 borrowed from .riidaisni, was from this jii^iod 
 the appellation of the highest dignitari(.>s of the 
 church, and by it were more immediately, Imt 
 not e.xclusivelv, designated the bishops of Con- 
 stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. 
 One patriarch accordingly presided over several 
 provinces, and was distinguished from the metro- 
 politan in this, that the latter was subordinate 
 to him, and had only the superintendence of one • 
 |)rovince or a small district. However the desig- 
 nation apidied only to the highest rulers of the 
 church in tlie east, and not to those in the west, 
 for here the title of i)atriarch was iiot unfre- 
 queutly given, even in later tiniits, to the metror 
 politan. The first mention of this title occurs in 
 the Bccoud letter of the Uoman bishop, Anncle- 
 tus at the beginning of the second century, and 
 it is ne.xt spoken of by Socrates; and after the 
 Council of Chalcedon, m 451, it came into general 
 use. The bishop of Constantinoiile bore the 
 special title of a'cumenical bishop or patriarch ; 
 there were also other titles in tise among the Nes- 
 torians and Jacobites. The Primates and Metro- 
 politans or Archbishops arose contemporane- 
 ously. The title of Eparch is also said to have 
 been given to jirimates about tlie middle of the 
 liftli century. The metropolitan of Epliesus sub- 
 scribed himself thus in the year 680, therefore in 
 the succeeding period. There was no particular 
 title of long continuance for the Hoiuaii bishop 
 until the sixth century ; but from the year 536 
 he was usually called Papa, and from the time 
 of Gregory the Great he styled hiiiLself Scrvus 
 Servorum Dei." — J. E. T. Wiltsch, Ilnndbook of 
 t/ie Geography and Statistical of the Church, pp. 
 70, 71 amlli. — " Christianity may now be said to 
 have ascended the imperial tliroue: with the 
 single exception of Julian, from this period 
 the mouarchs of the Itomau empire professed 
 
 452 
 
0IIIII8TIANITY. 
 
 flury'lrlna 
 I'uuanum, 
 
 CnniSTIANITY. 
 
 tho religion of tlip OoHpol. This Importiiiit ciiHis 
 In tilt! lilHtory of ('liristiniiily iilinoNt furrlbly 
 am'MtN the iittcMtioii to coiitcmplute tlu* cliiuiKt' 
 wrouKilt III (.'liriHtiiiiilty )iy IIm iiilviiiicciucnt Into 
 II (loiiilniiiit power In the Ntatc; iinil tlif('lmiiK<' in 
 th(! I'oiitlitioii of iiiiinkiiul up to this pcrliHl, 
 ttttillmtiiblf to the dlri'ct iiiitliority or liidiicct 
 inlliit'iice of llic iii'W rclijjion. Hv criisin- to 
 vxl.Ht iiM itwpiu'iitiM'oiiiiiitiiilty, iiiiil iiy iiilviiiicini; 
 iti) pri'triitloiiM to liiMiiciK'i' the f^i'iicriil jjovcrii- 
 meiit of iiiiiiikliKl, ( 'liristlitiilty to u ci'rtiiiii extent, 
 forfeited Its liiilepeiideiiee. It eoiild not lint 
 suliiiilt to these Ittws, friinied, its It iiilf;ht m'ein, 
 with Its own concurn'nt voice. It was no lonj^er 
 II republic, ftovernt'd exclusively — iis fur, iit 
 least, as Its rellgoiis concerns — bylts own Inter- 
 nal polity. The Interference of the civil power 
 in 801110 of its most private alTuIrs, the proniiilKa- 
 tiou (<. Its i;anons, and even, In sonic cases, the 
 eluction o'' Its bishops by the state, was the price 
 ■,■ '''h :t must Inevitably pay for its iissoeialioii 
 with the rulinj? power. . . . During; the reij;n of 
 Constantlne Christianity had made a rapiil 
 advance, no doubt. In the number of its prose- 
 lyti's as well as in Its exU'rnal position. It was 
 not yet the establLshed reliKlon of tli^ empire. 
 It did not as yet stand forward as the new 
 religion adapted to the new onler of things, as a 
 part of the great simultaneous change which 
 gave to the Roman world a new capital, a new 
 system of government, and. In some Important 
 Instances, anew jurisprudence. . . . The religion 
 of the emperor would soon become that of the 
 court, and, by somewhat slower degrees, that of 
 the empire. At present, however, as we have 
 seen, little open agression took place upon pagan- 
 Ism. The few temples which were closed were 
 insulated cases, and condemned as offensive to 
 public morality. In general the temples stood in 
 all their former majesty, for as yet the ordinary 
 process of decay from neglect or suplneness 
 could have produced little effect. The differ- 
 ence was, that the Christian churches began to 
 assume a more stately and imposing form. In 
 the new capital they surpassed in grandeur, and 
 probably in decoration, the pagan temples, 
 which belonged to old Byzantium. The im- 
 munities granted to the Christian clergy only 
 placed them on the same level with the pagan 
 priesthood. The pontifical olBces were still held 
 by the distinguished men of the state: the 
 emperor himself was long the chief pontiff ; but 
 the religio\is offlce had become a kincl of append- 
 ago to tho temi>oral dignity. Tlie Christian pre- 
 lates were constantly iwlmitted, in virtue of their 
 office, to the imperial presence." — 11. II. Milman, 
 Hist, of GhristiaiUty, bk. 3, ch. 4. — "As early as 
 Constantino's time tho punisliment of crucifixiou 
 was aliolished ; immoral practices, like infanti- 
 cide, and the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, 
 were discouraged, the latter of these being for- 
 bidden in Constantinople; and in order to 
 improve the relation of the sexes, severe laws 
 were passed against adultery, and restrictions 
 were placed on the facility of divorce. Further, 
 the bishops were empowered, in the name of 
 religion, to intercede with governors, and even 
 with tho emperor, in behalf of the unfortunate 
 and opprcssetl. And gradually they obtained 
 the right of exercising a sort of moral superin- 
 tendence over tho discharge of their offlcial 
 duties by the judges, and others, who belonged 
 to their commumties. The supervision of the 
 
 prisons, in purtii'iilar, was enlriisted to them; 
 and, whereas in the llrst inslani'e llieir power of 
 Interferniee wjis liiiilled to exhortations addressed 
 to the Judges who su|N'riiiten(le<l them, in .liis- 
 tiiiian's ri'lgn the bisliops were conimiMsioiied by 
 law to visit the prisons on two ilii\'S of eacli 
 week 111 order to liKiiilrc Into, iiiiil. If necessiirv, 
 report upon, Ihc- trealini'iit of ill" prisoners. In 
 all these and ni'iiiy other ways, the inlliience of 
 the Hlate in (•onlrnlliiin and iiiipn)vliig society 
 was ailvaneed by its aTllance with tlie Chut , 
 — 11. F. To/er, 'till! dhitirli iinil tl • Kimtifii h'in- 
 jiiiv, pp. M-^T. — "The Cliristiuns were nIIU a 
 separate people. . . . It can scureely be doubled 
 that the stricter moral tone of ('onstaiitlne's leg- 
 islatifm more or less remotely emanated from 
 Cliristianity. . . . During the reign of Constaii- 
 tiiie Christianity coiitiiiued to advance beyond 
 the lH)rtlersof the Uoniaii empire, and In some 
 degree to indemnify herself for the losses wliieli 
 she sustained In the kingdom of Persia. Tlio 
 Kthlopians appear to have attained some degreo 
 of eivilizatlon; a considerable part of the Aral>iaii 
 commerce was kept up with l\u' oilier side of tho 
 Hed Hea through the port of ..dulls; and (Ireek 
 letters appear, from Inscriptions recently ilis- 
 covered, to have made considerabli' progres,s 
 among this barbarous people.- . . . Tlie theo- 
 logical opinions of Christianity naturally inado 
 more rapid progress than its moral Intluence. 
 The former had only to overpower tho resistance 
 of a religion which had already lost its hold upon 
 tho mind, or a philosophy t<K) speculative for 
 ordinary understandings and too unsatisfactory 
 for the more curious and imiuiring; It had only 
 to enter, us It were, into a vacant place in tho 
 mind of man. But the moral intliienco had to 
 contest, not only with tho natural dispositions of 
 man, but with the barbarism and depraved 
 manners of ages. While, then, the religion of 
 tlie world underwent a total change, the Church 
 rose <m the ruins of the temple, and the pontifi- 
 cal establishment of paganism became gradu- 
 ally extinct or suffered violent suppression; the 
 moriil revolution was far more slow and far less 
 complete. . . . Everywhorr lliero was exagger- 
 ation of one of the constituent elements of 
 Christianity; that exaggeration which is tho 
 inovitable consequence of a strong impulsi! upon 
 the human mind. Wherever men feel strongly, 
 they act violently. The more speculative (Chris- 
 tians, therefore, who were more inclined, in tho 
 deep and somewhat seltish solicitude for tlieir 
 own salvation, to isolate themselves from tho 
 infected class of mankind, pressed into the ex- 
 treme of asceticism; the more practical, who 
 were in earnest in the desire of dis.s<uniuating tho 
 blessings of religion throughout society, scrupled 
 little to press into tlieir service whatever might 
 advance their cause. With both extremes tho 
 dogmatical part of the religion predominated. 
 . . . In pro) rtion to the admitted importance of 
 tho creed, r.icn became more sternly and exclu- 
 sively wedded to their opinions. . . . Wlillo 
 they swept in converts indiscriminately from the 
 palace and the public street, while tlie emperor 
 and the lowest of the populace were alike 
 admitted on little more than the open profession 
 of allegiance, they were satisfied if their alle- 
 giance in this respect was blind and complete. 
 Hence a far larger admixture of human passions, 
 and the common vulgar incentives of action, 
 were infused into the expanding Christian body. 
 
 453 
 
t'lmiHTIANirY. 
 
 Chunk. 
 
 CHItlSTIANlTV. 
 
 Men iH-mmP C'hriHtlunii, ortlioilox ClirlHllittiM, 
 Mitli llltli- Hiuritlo' of tliiit. wlilcli CliriHlliiiiilv 
 iiliiii'il rliii'tlv III ixtirpiitr. Vil, iiflcr iill, lliis 
 lMi|«Tfr(t vfrw of CliriHliitrilty Imil |iri)liiil)ly 
 Hoint' I'tTcrt ill ciinci'iitntiiiiK tlii' CliriNtliiii coin- 
 tntiiiitv, itiiil liolililiK it toifi'lliiT hv II lirw ami 
 iiiiirc fmllHMiliililc lioiiil. 'I'lii' wiir''l illviiliil iiiln 
 two partlcH. . . . All, liiiwcvcr, wit<( ciirolUMl 
 uiiilrr oiii' or tli(> iitlicr Niaii.lanl. inti tlio party 
 wliirli triiiiiiiilicil I'vrntii iMv would riilr tlio 
 wIkiIi' CliriMlian worlil."— if. II. Milniaii, ///«/. 
 of (HiriHliiiiiitii. Ilk. ;), c,'. 4-."i. — "Of tlii.s ditrr 
 iiirutiiiii of iiiomlM we ii.'Vi aliiiiiilaiit tiviiliiiii'. 
 Krail till' Caiioimof tlii> viirin'mCouiicilMaiiil yoil 
 will Irani that llir Cliiirrl: iiiiiiil it iifccHxary to 
 ]iroliil)il till! (■iiiiiiniH.sioii of till' iiioHt liciiioiiH ami 
 aliomliialilr I'riinrH i. >t only liy the laity, but 
 ••veil by the cli'rjty. !><'ail tlio lioiiiilii's of hiicIi 
 pri'iiclicrs iiH (HiryHo.'Stom llaKil, ami (licf^orv', 
 ami you may infer wliat tlii' inoriil toiii- of a 
 CliriHtlaii ('oiiKri'xatloii iiiUMt liavr Ihtii to wliicli 
 NiK'li rcpriKifs coiilil be aiiil'cs.'U'il. Ucail, alnivc 
 all, till' tri'iitisc (III Proviiicnci', or Di' (lubrriia- 
 lloiic Dei, written at tlie close of our period by 
 Salvian, a presbyter of .Marsellle.s. The bar- 
 barians had over-spread the West, and C'liris- 
 tlans hiid siitTereil ho iiiaiiy liiirdHliips that they 
 be);au to doubt wlictliir there was any Divine 
 governinent of buiiian affairs. Salvian retorted 
 that the fait of llieir sulTeriiij; was tlie best evi- 
 clenee of llie (loetriin' o!' I'lovideliee, for the 
 miseries they endured were tlio effects of the 
 Divine displeasun^ provoked by the debauchery 
 «)f the Church. And then he proceeds to draw 
 up an imiictiuenl and to lend priKif wliicli I 
 prefi'r not to >?ive in detail. After making every 
 iilliiwance for rhetorical exajjKeration, enough 
 remains to sliow that the niorah'y af the Church 
 had i^rievoiisly deeliiied, and that tlie declensiuu 
 was duo to the inroads of J'agan vice. . . . 
 Under this head, had space permitted, some 
 nccoiinl would liavo been jtiveii of the Krowth of 
 the Cliristian literature of tliis iktIixI, of the 
 great writers uml preachers, and of tlie opposinj^ 
 scIkmiIh of interpretation which divided Cliristeu- 
 dom. Ill the Eastern Church we should have 
 had to notice [at greater length the work of| 
 Eusebius of Cii'.sarea, tlie father of Church 
 History and the friend of Constiuitine ; Ephreiu 
 the Syrian, the poet -preacher; the three Cappii- 
 docians, IJasil of Ciesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, 
 ond Gregory of Nii/.iiinzus, each great in his 
 own way, the first as a preacher and adm'uis- 
 trator, the second as a thinker, the third, us a 
 poet and panegyrist; (;iiry.so,stom, theorotorand 
 cxegete ; Theixlore of >Iopsuestia and Theodoret 
 of Kyros, along with Chrysostom the most in- 
 fluential representatives of the School of Antioch. 
 In the Western Church we should have liiul to 
 speak of Ambrose, the eloquent prenclicr and 
 voluminous writer; of Jerome, tne biblical 
 critic; and of Augustine, the philosopher nnil 
 controversialist, whose thoughts live among us 
 even at the present day."— W. Stewart, The 
 Churc/i of the Ath ami ath Centuries (St. Qileii' 
 Lecturefi, 4th xerieii). — See RoMK: A. D. 323, to 
 8111-305. — "Hitherto Christian asceticism had 
 been individualistic in its character. ... In the 
 third century hermits began to form a class by 
 themselves in the East and in Africa; in the 
 fourth they liegan to be organized into communi- 
 ties. After the institution of monastic societies, 
 this development of Christian asceticism spread 
 
 far agil wide from the dPHort* of thcThobnld anil 
 'Aiwer Kgypt; liasil, .leroine, AthanaHliis. Aii- 
 gilNline, Aliibnise, were foieinost among its 
 earliest advoeateM and pn>paK'>'<"°'<; CasHian, 
 Coiumbaiius, lii'iiediet, and otiiers, crowned the 
 labourH of their predei'essorH by a nioie elalKirato 
 orgiinl/.iilion." — I. Gri'gory Smith, Chnntian 
 Mimiintirimii, pp. 'i'A-m. 
 
 A. D. 318-335.— The Arian Controversy and 
 the Councir of Nicca. See Auiamsm, and 
 
 Nir.KA. TlIK FinsT ColMII. OK. 
 
 A. D. 330-105^.— The £aatern (Greek, or 
 Orthodox) Church.— " 'The KasU'rn Church,' 
 says a well-known writer, 'was iikir the Kast, 
 Htiitlonary and lininiitable; the Western, like the 
 West, progressive and llexible. This distinction 
 is the more remarkable, iM'cause at certain iM^riixIs 
 of their course, then^ can be no doubt that the 
 civili/.ation of the Kastt ni Churili wa;f far higher 
 than that of the Western.'"— G. !•'. Maeh'iir, The 
 Slum, p. 'J.'i. — It is the more reniarkabh' lie- 
 cause this lung continuing iiiilforniity, while 
 peculiarly adapted to a people and a chiufh 
 wlileh slioiild retjiin and tninsnitt an ir'heritiince 
 of faith and culture, stands in singiil'ir "ciiti'Uit 
 to the reputed character of the Greeli-speaking 
 peoples of the East. The word Grei k, however, 
 lias, as an iidjeeiive, niaiiy meanings, ami there 
 is danger of wrong infeienee through inattentiim 
 to these; some of its ilistinctive cliaracters are 
 therefore indicated in brackets in various 
 places in the following matter. "The New 
 lioine at the time of its foundation was Hoinan. 
 . . . IJiit from tliiMlrNt it was destined to iR'come 
 Greek; for tlie Grii'ks, who now iK'gan to call 
 theiiLSi'lves Uoinans — an ap|M'llatioii which they 
 have ever since retained — held fast to their 
 language, inanners, and prejudices, wliile they 
 availed them.selves to the full of their rights as 
 Homau citizens. The turning-point in this re- 
 siH'ct was the separation of the einpircH of the 
 East and the West in tlie time of Arcadlim and 
 llonoriua; and in Justinian's time we tind all the 
 higliest olllccH in the hands of the Greeks, and 
 (ireek was the pri^vailing language. But the 
 people whom we call by this naiiv were not the 
 1 lelleiies of Greece proper, but tlie Macetlonian 
 Greeks. This distinction arose with the estnb- 
 lisliment of Greek colonies with municipal gov- 
 ernment thioughout Asia by Alexander the 
 Great and his liuccessors. The tyiie of character 
 which was developed in them and among those 
 who were Ilelleniiiwl by their intlucnce, (liffenKl 
 in many respt^cts from that of the old Greeks. 
 The res»'inblancc between them wius iniU^'il main- 
 tained by similarity of education and social 
 feelings, by the posp-'ssion of a common lan- 
 guage and literature, iiiu! by their exclusive- 
 ness, which caused them t<) look down on less 
 favoured races; but while the inhabitants of 
 Greece retained more of tlie iudeix'ndcnt spirit 
 and of the moral character and patriotism of 
 their fort-fathers, the Macedoniati Greeks were 
 more cosmopolitan, more subservie.'it, and more 
 ready to take the impri'ss of those among whom 
 they were tlirown: and the astuteness iind versa- 
 tility which at all times luul formed one element 
 in the Hellenic character, in tltcm became the 
 leading characteristic. 'The influence 01 this 
 type is traceable in the ixJicy of the Eastern 
 Empire, varying in intensity in different ages in 
 proportion to the power exercised by the Greeks: 
 until, during the later period of the history — in 
 
 454 
 
CHIIWTIANITY 
 
 TTie ChHtHimitrit 
 Urrrka, 
 
 ClIltlSTIANITY. 
 
 tli« timi! nf the (?omni>ir,, iinil Rtlll mnni In Hint 
 of the I'iilii'ol(i({l — It Utii • priMliitiiiniinl fi'iitiin'." 
 — II. F. To/.cr, The C/iiirr/i ami llw h'liiittrii 
 Kin/iiiv, }i)). 1)-10. — " Wliiii !iav<! Imtii tlicclIi'cN 
 of CliriHrlaiilty on wimt wr citll imlioiiiil rlmritc'- 
 tcr iti KiiHlcni ('lirlHtc'iiili)iiiV . . . 'I'lic OrrckH of 
 tho l,owiT ICiil|>lrt' arc liikcii iis the lyi)i('al 
 cxitiiipic of tlicHc rac'i'H, anil tlic OrcckM of tlii^ 
 LowiT Kni|)iri' have Iutoiiil' a l)y\V(iril fiirt'vcry- 
 tiling; IliJit H falHt' atJil bani'. TIk^ Itvaiitlni' waH 
 profoiiiiiliv tlii'ol(i)(|ral, wi' arc tolil, anil pro- 
 foiiMilly vlli'. . , . 'I'lioHi! will) wIhIi to III' Just to 
 [It I . . . will pass ... to thii . , . I'liiiitalili) 
 mill coiisrii'Mllous, lint hy no niraiis, Inilnlgrnt, 
 JiiilKnii'nts of Mr. Finlay, Mr. Krrcinan, ami 
 IK'an Staiilry. Oni^ fact aloni- Is Hiilllrii'nt to 
 onKiiKt' '"ir ilrrp Inlcri'st In I Ills raro. It was 
 Ori'i'KS llli'llrnist ,lfWH| anil projilr liiilinril wllli 
 On'ik lilnis who llrst wi-lcoinril ('lirlstlaiilty. It 
 was in llirlr JaiiKUaKi' that it first spoki; to t'.i- 
 woriil, anil its tirst lioiiif was in Oii'rk hoiiHi>- 
 lioiils anil In Ori'i'k citii's. It was In Uri'i'k 
 [Ili'lii-nistii'l atmosiilii'ri! tliat tlin Divinu Stran- 
 iiT friini till- Kii.Hl, in niaiiy ri'spccts ho wlilrly 
 uKIerent from all that Qri^^ks were aornHtoini-il 
 to, first >{n!W up to strength anil shapi'; tirst 
 hIiiiwciI lt.s power of assimiiutlng anil rccoiiriiing ; 
 llrst hIiowviI what It was to lie In human sorirty. 
 Its I'ariii'st nursiings were Greeks; Greeks [Hel- 
 lenist Jews] II r.st took in tile meaning; anil mea- 
 sure of Itsamii/ing and eventful aniiouneements; 
 Greek sympathies llrst awoke anil vllinited to its 
 appeals: Greek olieiiienee, Greek courajfe, Greek 
 guiieriug llrst lllu.strateil its new les.sons. Hail it 
 not llrst,;aiiie(l ov.tr Greek iiiiiul anil Greek lielief. 
 It Is liai'd to see how It would have made its fur- 
 ll'erway. . . . The Roman comiuest of the world 
 fou:id the Gri'ek raee, and the Kastern nations 
 whicli It had Intluuueed, in a low and deeliii- 
 ing stai't — morally, H'>cially, politleally. Tlie 
 lioinau Gn:|iire, when It Tell, left them In the same 
 diseourii'ln).^ eonditlon, and sulTerlng besides 
 from tile degr.Mliilioij and inl'ichlef wrought on 
 all Its subjects by its clironlc anil relentless flscal 
 oppression. . . . These were the men in whose 
 cliildish eonccit, childish frivolitv, childish self- 
 assertion, St. Paul saw such (laugers to the 
 growth of C'hristian manliness and to the unity 
 of the Clirlstiau biMly — the Idly curious and gos- 
 siping men of Athens; the va'n and shamelessly 
 ostentatious Corinthians, men in mtellect, but In 
 inonil seriousness liabus; the £|iheslans, 'like 
 children carried away with every Must of vain 
 teachinif,' tlie victims of every impostor, and 
 sport of every deceit; the Cretans, pro.'erbially, 
 'ever liars, evil beasts, slow bellies;' the pas- 
 sionate, volatile, Greek-speaking, Celts of Asia, 
 the ' foolish ' Galatians. . . . The Greek ot the 
 Roman times is portrayed in the special wan- 
 ings ot the Apostolic Epistles. After Apostoliu 
 times he is portrayed in the same way by the 
 heathen satirist Lucian, and by the Christian 
 preacher Chrysostom ; and such, with all liis bad 
 tendencies, aggmvated by almost uninterrupted 
 misrule and oppression, the Empire, when it 
 broke up, left him. The prospects of such a 
 people, amid the coming storms, were dark. 
 Everything, their gifts and versatility, as well 
 as their faults, threatened national decay and 
 disintegration. . . . These races whom the Em- 
 pire of the Coesars left like scattered sheep to 
 the mercy of the barbarians, lived through a 
 succession of the most appalling storms, and 
 
 kept Ihi'mM'lveN together, holding fiiHl, rcMiliitn 
 ami unwavering, amid all their iiilwrirH and all 
 tlii'ir ili'liaM'inent, to the failh of their nallimal 
 briillierliood, . . . This, it seeiiiM lo ine, Clirit 
 liiuiity dill for a raie wlileli had npparenlly lived 
 its time, and had no future before It — Ilie'Greek 
 rare in tile days of the Cie.sars. It created In 
 lliein, in a new and ehaniileristie degree, 
 national enduraiiie, iiatinnal felluwhlilp and 
 HVinpathy, natlniial Impe. . . , It gave thein an 
 I'.inpire of tlieirnwn, wliltli, undervalueil n* It is 
 by lliiise fiiinillar with the ultimate ri'siills of 
 U'esterii liisliiry, yet witlisliMKi the assaults be- 
 fore whli'li, fur the niiinient, Western elvillHa- 
 tlon sank, and whiili had the strength to last a 
 life— II stirring and eventful life — of ten cen- 
 turies. The Greek Kinpire, with all s evils 
 and weaknes,seH, was yet in its time tlie only 
 existing image in the world of a civilised Htate. 
 . . . The lives of great men priifouniily aiiii per- 
 miinently inlliienee national eharaeter; and the 
 great men of later (Jnek memory are siiints. 
 Tliey belong to the people more than emperors 
 and warriors; for tlie Clinreh Is of tlie penple, 
 . . , The mark which siieh men left on Greek 
 society and Greek cliaracter has not been elTaced 
 to this day, even by the nielanelioly examples of 
 many degenerate succes.s'>r,.. . . . Why, if 
 Christianity alTected Greek chariu'ler .so pro- 
 foundly, did it not do more? Why, if it cured 
 It of much of its instaliillly and trilling, did it 
 not also cure It of its falselioiil and dissimula- 
 tion? Why, If It Impressed the Greek mind so 
 deeply with the n'ality of tlie objects of faltli, 
 did it not also check the vain lni|iiisltiveness and 
 spirit of disjiulaiiousness and sophistry, wMcU 
 lllleil Greek Cliurcli history Avitli furious wran'j 
 lings about the most lioiieless problems? Why, 
 if It could raise such r.diniration for imselllsli- 
 ness and heroic nobleness, haa not this admiratton 
 borne more cong'^ninl fruit? Why, if heaven 
 was felt to be so great and so near, was there in 
 real life such coarse and mean worldlincss? 
 Why, Indeed? . . . Profoundly, permanently, 
 as Christianity affected Greek character, tliero 
 was much in that character whiili Christianity 
 failed to reach, much that it failed to cnrrect, 
 much that was obstinately refractory to iiillu- 
 ences which, elsewhere, were so fruitful of good- 
 ness and greatness. The East, as well as the 
 West, hi' . . ''11 much to lea.ii from that religion, 
 which acii too e.xolusively claims to umler- 
 s» ' to ap reciate, and to defend." — R. V. 
 oliiirch, The'Hfts of Cimlimtion, pp. 1HH-'J1«. 
 — "The types oi character that were developed 
 in the Eastern Church, as might be expected, 
 were not of the very highest. There was among 
 them no 8t. Francis, no St. Louis. The uni- 
 formity which pervades everything Byzantinu 
 prevented the development of such salient 
 characters as are found in the West. It is dllH- 
 cult, no doubt, to form a true estimate of tlio 
 li.lluence of religion on men's lives in Eastern 
 coi:utries, just as it is of tlieir domestic relations, 
 and 'tveu of the condition of the lower classes, 
 becaui e such matters are steadily ignored by tlio 
 contemiMirary historians. But all the evidence 
 tends to bhow that individual rather than heroic 
 piety was fostered by the system which pre- 
 vailed there. That at certain iieriods a high 
 tone of spiriMiallty prevailed among certain 
 classes is suffltiently proved by the beautiful 
 hymns of the Eusteru Church, many of which, 
 
 455 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 JCcclPnifiMtical 
 Jiome. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 thanks to Dr. Noale's singular felicity in trans- 
 lation, are in use ainonj; ourselves. Hut the 
 loftier development of their spirit took the form 
 of asceticism, and the scene of tliis wius rather 
 the scciiuled monastery, or the pillar of tlie 
 Btyiite, tlian human society at large. But if the 
 Eastern C'iiur('h did not rise as high as her sister 
 of the West, slie never sjink as low." — II. F. 
 Tozer, The Okurch and the Eastern Empire, pp. 
 45-40.— "The Greek Cliurch, or, as it calls 
 itself, the Holy Orthodox, Catholic, Apostolic, 
 Oriental Clnireh. has a venerahle if not an event- 
 ful history. Unlike the Church of the West, it 
 has not been moidded by great political move- 
 ments, the rise and fall of kingdoms, and tlie 
 convidsions which have passed over the face of 
 mcKlern society. Its course has been out of the 
 siglit of European civilisation, it has grown up 
 among peoples who have been hut slightly 
 ttlfccted, if tliey have been aflected at all, by the 
 progressive movements of mankind. It has no 
 middle ages. It has no renaissance. It has no 
 Ileformation. It has given birth to no great 
 universities and schools of leaminj' It has no 
 Protestantism. It remains very .luch as tlie 
 fourth and fifth centuries left it. . . . When tlie 
 royal throne in the days of tlie first Christian 
 Emperor was removed from Rome to Constanti- 
 nople, there arose at once a cause of strife 
 between the bisliops of old and new Rome, as 
 Byzantium or Constantinople was named. Eacli 
 claimed pre-eminence, and each alternately re- 
 ceived it from the governing powers in Churcli 
 and State. One Council decreed (A. D. 381) that 
 the Bishop of the new Rome should be inferior 
 only to that of the old ; another declared (A. D. 
 451) the equality of both prelates. The Patri- 
 arch of Constantinople at the close of the aixtli 
 century claimed suiieriority over all Christian 
 Churches, — a claim which might have developed, 
 had circumstances favoured it, into an Eastern 
 Papacy. The assumption was, however, but 
 short-lived, and the Bishop of Ron- Boniface, 
 obtained lii^m the Emperor Phoci. in 606 the 
 much-coveted position. The Eastern Church 
 submitted, but from this time looked with a jeal- 
 ous eye on her Western sister. She noted and 
 magnified every point of divergence between 
 them. Differences or apparent differences in 
 doctrine and ritual were denounced as heresies. 
 Excommunications fulminated between the East- 
 em and Western city, and ecclesiastical bitter- 
 ness was intensified by political intrigue. . . . 
 In the ninth, century the contest grew very 
 fierce. The holder of the Eastern see, Photius, 
 formulated and denounced the terrible doctrinal 
 and other defections of the Western prelate and 
 his followers. The list is very formidable. 
 They, tlie followers of Rome, deemed it proper 
 to fast on the seventh day of the week — that is 
 on the Jewish Sabbath; in the first week of 
 Lent they permitted the use of milk and cheese ; 
 they disapproved wholly of the marriage of 
 priests; they thought none but bishops could 
 anoint with the holy oil or confirm the bap- 
 tized, and that they therefore anointed a second 
 time those wlio had been anointed by presby- 
 ters; and fifthly, they had adulterated the Con- 
 stantinopolitan Crectl by adding to it tlie words 
 Filioque, thus teaching that the Holy Spirit did 
 not proceed only from the Father, but also from 
 the Son. This last was deemed, and has always 
 been deemed by the Greek Church the great 
 
 heresy of the Romaa Church. . . . The Greek 
 Church to-day in all its branches — in Turkey, 
 Greece, in(' Russia — professes 'o hold firmly by 
 the formulas and decisions of e seven (Ecu- 
 menical or General Councils, regarding with 
 special honour that of Nice. The Niceiie and 
 Athanasiau Creeds are the symbols of its faith, 
 the Filioqae clause being omitted from the 
 former, and the eighth article reading thus: 
 ' And in the Holy Oliost, the Lord and Giver of 
 life, who proceedeth from the Father, and with 
 the { Father and Son togetlier is worshipped 
 and glorified.' . . . The Greek Church, unlike 
 the Latin, denounces the use of images as objects 
 of devotion, and holds in abhorrence every form 
 of what it terms 'image worsliip.' Its position 
 in this munner is very curious. It is true, no 
 figures of our Lord, of the Virgin, or saints, such 
 as one s<;es in cliurches, wayside chapels, and in 
 the open fields in countries where the Roman 
 Church is powerful, arc to be seen in Russia, 
 Greece «r ai.y of those lands where the Eastern 
 Church is supreme. On the other hand, pictures 
 of the plainest kind everywhere take their place, 
 and are regarded with the deepest veneration. " 
 — J. C. Lees, T/te Greek Church (in the Churcfies 
 of Christendom), lect. 4. — See, also, Filioque 
 
 CONTUOVKKSY. 
 
 A. D. 337-476.— The fall of Imperial Rome. 
 — The rise of Ecclesiastical Rome. — The poli- 
 tical and religious history of the Empire from 
 the death of Constantine is so fully narrated 
 under Rome that mere mention here of a few 
 events will suffice, viz. : the revival of Paganism 
 under the Emperor Julian; the reascendency of 
 Christianity ; the formal establishment of Chris- 
 tianity as the religion of the Romans, by the suf- 
 frages of the senate ; the final division of the Em- 
 pire into East and West between the sons of 
 Theodosius ; the three sieges and the sacking of 
 Rome by Alaric; the legal sepamtion of the 
 Eastern and Western Empires; the pillage of 
 Rome by the Vandals and its final submissicm to 
 the barbarians. See Rome: A. D. 337-361, to 
 445-476. For an account of tlie early bishops 
 of Rome, see Papacy. "A heathen historian 
 traces the origin of the calairities which he re- 
 cords to the abolition of sacrifice by Theodosius, 
 and the sack of Rome to the laws against the an- 
 cient faith passed by his son. This objection of 
 the heathens that the overthrow of idolatry and 
 the ascendency of Christianity were the cause of 
 the misfortunes of the empire was so wide spread, 
 and had such force with those, both Pagans and 
 Christians, who conceived history to be the out- 
 come of magical or demonic powers, that Augus- 
 tine devoted twelve years of his life to its refuta- 
 tion. His treotise, ' De Civitate Dei,' was begun 
 in 413, and was not finished till 426, within four 
 years of his death. Rome had once been taken ; 
 society, consumed by inward corruption, was 
 shaken to its foundations by the violent onset of 
 the Teutonic tribes; men's hearts were failing 
 them for fear; the voice of calumny cried aloud, 
 and laid these woes to the charge of the Chris- 
 tian faith. A. gustine undertook to refute the 
 calumny, and to restore the courage of his fel- 
 low-Christians. Taking a rapid survey of his- 
 tory, he asks what the gods had ever done for 
 tlie well-being of the state or for public morality. 
 He maintains that the greatness of Rome in the 
 past was due to the virtues of her sons, and not 
 to the protection of the gods. He shows that. 
 
 46^ 
 
CimiSTIANITY. 
 
 Weniern Empire 
 anti Church. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 long before the rise of Cliriatiiinity, her ruin Iiml 
 be;j;un with the introduction of foreign viees 
 lifter the destruction of Curtlmge, nnd declares 
 that much in the ancient worship, instead of pre- 
 venting, had haiitened that niin. Ho rises above 
 the troubles of the present, and amid the vanish- 
 ing glories of the city of men he proclaims tlie 
 Stability of the city of God. At a time when 
 the downfall of Home was thought to presage 
 ai)proacliing doom, Augustine regarded the dis- 
 asters around liim as the birth-throes of a new 
 world, as a necessary moment in the onward 
 movement of (,'liristianity." — W. Stewart, The 
 Church of the Ath and Tith Centuries (St. Giles' 
 Lectures, Ath series). — " There is as little groimd 
 foi discovering a miraculous, as there is for dis- 
 owning a providential clement iu tlie course of 
 events. Tlic institutions of Roman authority 
 and law had been planted regularly over all the 
 territory which the conquermg hordes coveted 
 and seized; alongside of every magistrate was 
 now placed a nunister of Christ, and by every 
 Hall of Justice stood a Hou.se of Pniyer. The 
 Representative of Cicsar lost all his power and 
 dignity when the armies of Cicsar were scattered 
 in flight; the minister of Clirist felt that beliim' 
 him was an invisible force \ 't': which the hosts 
 of the alien could not cope, und his behaviour im- 
 pressed the barbarian with the conviction that 
 there was reality here. That beneficent mission 
 of Leo, A. D. 452, of which Oibbon says : ' The 
 pressing eloquence of Leo, his majestic aspect 
 and sacerdotal robes, excited the veneration of 
 Attila for the spiritual father of the Christians ' 
 — would be but an inst^ince of what many name- 
 less priests from provincial towns did, ' not count- 
 ing their lives dear to them.' The organisation 
 of the Latin state vitalised by a new spiritual 
 force vanquished the victors. It was the method 
 and the discipline of this organisation, not the 
 subtlety of its doctrine, nor the fervour of its 
 ofllcials, that beat in detail one chief with his 
 motley following after another. Hence too it 
 came about that the Christianity which was 
 adopted as the religion of Europe was not modi- 
 fled to suit the tastes of the various tribes that 
 embraced it, but was delivered to each as from 
 a common fountain-head. ... It was a social 
 triumph, proceeding from religious motives which 
 we may regard with unstinted admiration and 
 gratitude."— J. Watt, The iMtin Church {St. 
 Oiles' Lectures, Ath series. — "The temporal fall 
 of the Imperial inctrr^^olis tended to throw a 
 brighter light upon her ecclesiastical claims. The 
 separation of the East and the West had already 
 enhanced the religious dignity of the ancient 
 capital. The great Eastern patriarcliates of An- 
 tioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem had up to that 
 time all held themselves equal, if not superior to 
 Rome, Constantinople had even assuuieil certain 
 airs of supremacy over nil. The General Coun- 
 cils which had defined the Faith at Nicrea and 
 Constantinople had been composed almost wholly 
 of Orientals. The great Doctors of the Church, 
 the men who had defended or diffused the com- 
 mon Faith, had been mostly Greeks by origin 
 and language. None had been Ronuuis, and it 
 was rarely, till the fourth century, that any of 
 them had written in the Latin tongue. When 
 Atlianasius, exiled from Alexandria, came to 
 Italy and Gaul, it was three years before he 
 could learn enough of the language of the West 
 to address its congregations in public. But this 
 
 '' 457 
 
 curious fact .shows that the Western Christians 
 were now no longer the little Greek colony of the 
 first and second centuries. Christianity had be- 
 come the national religion of the native races. 
 The liomans might now feel that they were be- 
 coming again a people; that their glorious career 
 was assuming, as it were, a new point of depart- 
 ure. . . . For at tliis moment the pojiuliir in- 
 stinct could not fail to perceive how strongly the 
 conscience of the barbarians ha<l been affected by 
 the spiritual majesty of Christian Home. The 
 Northern hordes liad beaten down all armed re- 
 sistance. They had made a deep impression upon 
 the strength of the Eastern Empire; they had, 
 for a moment at least, actually overconu; the 
 Western; they had overrun many of the fairest 
 provinces, and had effected a permanent lodge- 
 ment in Gaul and Spain, and still more recently 
 in Africa. Yet in all these countries, rude as 
 they still were, they had sul)mitted to accept the 
 creed of the Gospel. There was no such thing 
 as a barbarian Paganism established within the 
 limits of the Empire anywIuTe, except perhaps 
 in furthest Britain." — C. Merivale, Four lectures 
 on some Kixichs of Eu rly Ch u rch History, pp. 1 HO- 
 136. — " When the surging tides of barbarian in- 
 vasion swept over Europe, tlio Christian organi- 
 zation was almost the only institution of the past 
 which survived the flood. It remained as a visi- 
 ble monument of what had been, and, by so re- 
 maining, was of itself an antithesis to the present. 
 The chief town of the Roman province, whatever 
 its status under barbarian rule, was still the 
 bishop's see. The limits of the old 'province,' 
 though the boundary of a new kingdom might 
 bisect them, were still the limits of his diocese. 
 The bishop's tribunal was the only tribunal in 
 which the laws of the Empire could be pleaded 
 in their integrity. The bishop's dress was the 
 ancient robe of "a Roman magistrate. Tlie an- 
 cient Roman language which was used in the 
 Church services was a standing protest against 
 the growing degeneracy of the ' vulgar tongue.' 
 ... As the forces of the Empire became less 
 and less, the forcesof the Church became more and 
 more. The Churches preserved that which had 
 been from the first the secret of Imperial strength. 
 For underneath the Empire which changed and 
 passed, beneath the shifting pageantry of Em- 
 perors who moved across the stage and were 
 seen no more, was the abiding empire of law 
 and administration, — which changed only as 
 the deep sea changes beneath the windswept 
 waves. That inner empire was continued in the 
 Christian Churches. In the years of transition 
 from the ancient to the modern world, when all 
 civilized society seemed to be disintegrated, the 
 confederation of the Christian Churches, by the 
 very fact of its existence upon the old imperial 
 lines, was not only the most powerful, but ilie 
 only powerful organization in the civilized world. 
 It was so vast, and so powerful, that it seemed 
 to be, and there werg few to question its being, 
 the visible realization of that Kingdom of 
 God which our Lord Himself had preached." — 
 E. Hatch, The Urr/nni^ittion of the Christian 
 Churches, pp. 100-178. 
 
 A. D. 347-412.— The Syrian Churches. — 
 "St. Chry.sostom was born there A. 1). !MT; and 
 it was in his time that Antioeli, with its hundred 
 thousand Christians, became the leading Church 
 in Asia, especially in the Arian contn-ersy [see 
 Auianism], for Arianibm was very prevalent 
 
CmUSTIANITY. 
 
 Cnnvemion 
 of the frank*. 
 
 CIIIIISTIANITY. 
 
 then'. But all tliis lies outsido our period. The 
 s(i (iillcil ' School of Antioch ' 1ms itH origin just 
 before . . . our i)eri(Hl [8U, WiltschJ. Doro- 
 theus, . . . luid the iimrtyr Luciaii may be re- 
 garded as its founders. In contrast to the allegor- 
 ising inysliciMn of the School of Alexandria, it 
 was tlistinguislicd liy a more sober and erill< ill in- 
 terpretation (if Scripture. It looked to grammar 
 and history for its principles of e.xegesis. IJut 
 we must not suppose that there was at Antioeh 
 an educational eslablishnient like the Catechetical 
 School at Alexandria, which, bv a succession of 
 great teachers, kept up a traditional mode of 
 exegesis and instruction. It was rather an in- 
 tellectual tendency which, begirniing with 
 LiU'ian and Dorotheus, developed in a definite 
 direction in Anlioch and other Syrian Churches. 
 . . . Thes(' notices of the Churches of Jerusalem, 
 Ca'siirea in I'idestino, and Antioeh must sufflee 
 as representative of the Syrian Cluirches. The 
 number of these Churches was considerable even 
 in the second century, and by the beginning of 
 the fourth was very large indeed, as is .seen by 
 the inind)er of bishops who attend local Coun- 
 cils." — A. Plummer, T/ie Church <if the Early 
 Fathen, ch. 3. — " It has ofteu astonished me that 
 no one has ever tr;inslated the letters of St. 
 Jerome. The letters of St. Atigtistine have been 
 translated, and are in many parts very enter- 
 taining reading, but they are nothing in point of 
 living interest when compared with St. Jerome'.s. 
 These letters illustrate life about the year 400 as 
 nothing else can. They show us, for instance, 
 what education then w;as, what clerical life con- 
 sisted in; they tell us of modes and fashions, and 
 they teach us how vigorous and constant was 
 the commtmication at tliat same period between 
 the most distant parts of the Uoman empire. 
 We are apt to think of the fifth century as a time 
 when there was very little travel, and when most 
 certainly the East and West — Ireland, England, 
 Gaid and Palestine — were much more widely 
 and conijiletely separated than now, when steam 
 has practically annihilated time and space. And 
 yet such an idea is very mistaken. There was a 
 most lively intercourse existing between these 
 regions, a constant Church correspondence kept 
 up between them, and the most intense and vivid 
 interest maintained by the Gallic and Syrian 
 churches in the minutest details of their re- 
 spective liistories. Mark now liow this happened. 
 St. Jerome at IJethlehem was the centre of this 
 intercourse. His position in the Christian world 
 in tlie beginning of the fifth century can only he 
 compared to, but was not ut all equalled by, that 
 of John Calvin at the time of the Reformation. 
 Men from the most distant parts consulted him. 
 Bishops of highest renown for sanctity and 
 learning, like St. Augustine, and Exuperius of 
 Toulouse in southern France, deferred to his 
 authority. The keen interest he took in the 
 churches of Gaul, and the intimate knowledge 
 he possessed of tlie most petty local details and 
 religious gossip therein, can only t)e understood 
 by one wlio has studied his very abusive treatise 
 against Vigilantius or his correspondence with 
 Exuperius. . . . Hut how, it may he asked, was 
 this correspondence carried on when there was 
 no postal system ? Here it was that tlu 
 eanization of nionasticisin supplied a ■ ; 
 Jerome's letters tell us the very name of his 
 postman. He was a monk nanied Sy.jinniu.-i. 
 He was perpetually on the roud between Mar- 
 
 seilles and Ilethlehem. Again and again does 
 Jerome mention his coming and his going. His 
 a|)peanince must indeed have been tlie great ex- 
 citement of life at Bethlehem. Tnwelling 
 probably via Sanlinia, Hemic, Greece, and the 
 islands of the Adriatic, he gathered up all kin<is 
 of clerical news on the way— i piece of conduct 
 on his part which .seems to liave had its usual 
 residt.s. Ai a tale-bearer, !)<■ not oidy revealed 
 secrets, but also separated chief friends, and this 
 monk Sysinnius with his gossips seems to have 
 lic<'n the original cause of the celebrated (pnirrel 
 between Augustine and Jerome." — G. T. Stokes, 
 Ircliind and the Celtic Church, pp. 170-173. 
 
 A. D. 496-800.— The Prankish Church to 
 the Empire of Charlemagne. — "The baptism 
 of Chlo(lovech [Clovis— see Fiianks: A. 1). 481- 
 .'illl was followed by the wholesale c(mversion 
 of the Franks. No compulsion was used to 
 bring the heathen into the Church. As a heathen, 
 Chlodovech had treated the Church with for- 
 bearance; he was eeiually tolerant to heathenism 
 when he was a Christian. But his example 
 worked, and thousands of noble Franks crowded 
 to the water of regeneration. Gregory of Tours 
 reckons the Franks as Christians after the bap- 
 tism of their king, which took place at Christmas, 
 A. D. 496. His conversion made no alteration 
 in the policy and conduct of Chlodov(!ch; ho 
 remained the same mixture of cunning and 
 audacity, of cruelty and sensimlity, that he was 
 before. . . . Btit, tliough his baptism was to him 
 of no moral import, its consequences were wide 
 spreading. When Gregory of Tours compares 
 the conversion of Chlodovech with that of Con- 
 stantino the Great, he was fully in the right. 
 . . . And the bajitism of Chlodovech declared to 
 the world that the new blood being poured into 
 the veins of the old and expiring civilization, 
 had been quickened by the same elements, and 
 would unite with the old in the new development. 
 . . . That many of those who were baptized car- 
 ried with them into their new Christianity their 
 old heathen superstitions as well as their barbarism 
 is certain ; and the times were not those in which 
 the growth of the great Christian graces was 
 encouraged; the f^erms, however, of a new life 
 were laid." — S. Baring-Gould, The Church in 
 Germany, ch. 3. — "The details of the history of 
 the Merovingian period of Fnuikish history are 
 extraordinarily complicated ; happily, it is not at 
 all necessary for our purpose to follow them. 
 ... In the earlier years after the conquest, all 
 ranks of the clergy were filled by Qallo-Komans. 
 The Franks were the dominant race, and were 
 Christian, but they were new converts from a 
 rude heathenism, and it would take some genera- 
 tions to raise up a ' native ministry ' among 
 them. Not only the literattire of the (Western) 
 Church, but all its services, and, still more, the 
 conversational intercourse of all civilized and 
 Christian people, was in Latin. Besides, the 
 Franks were warriors, a conquering caste, a 
 sei)arate nation ; and to lay down the battle-axe 
 and spear, and enter into the peaceful ranks of 
 the Komano-Gallic Cluirch, would have seemed 
 to them like changing their nationality for that 
 of the more highly cultured, perhaps, but, in 
 their eyes, subject race. The Frank kings did 
 not ignore the value of education. Clovis is said 
 to have established a Palatine school, and encour- 
 aged his yoimg men to qualify themselves for 
 the positions which his conquests hud opened out 
 
 458 
 
CnmSTIANITY. 
 
 ^fiMilmlt to 
 the (it'ntuina. 
 
 CIIUISTIANITY. 
 
 to them. Ilis grandsons, we liiivc seen, prilled 
 tlicmsclvesontlieirLiitiu culture. Afterii while, 
 Franks aspired to the ninRnilieeiit i)ositioii9 whieh 
 the ^'cat sees of the Chureh olTere.l to their 
 ambition ; and we find men with Teutonic names, 
 and 10 doiiht of Teutonic race, among the 
 bishOj-'S. . . . For a still longer period, few 
 Franks entered into the lo\v<'r ranks of the 
 Cliiireh. Not only did the priesthood offer little 
 temptation to them, but also the policy of the 
 kings and nobles opposed the diminution of their 
 military strength, bj- refusing leave to their 
 Franks to enter into holy orders or into the mon- 
 r.sterics. Tlie cultured families of the cities 
 would afford aiv ample supply of men for the 
 clergy, and promising youths of a lower class 
 seem already not infrequently to have been edu- 
 cated for the service of the Church. It was only 
 in the later period, when some approach had 
 been made to a fusion of tlie races, that we tind 
 Franks entering into the lower ranks of the 
 Ohurch, and simultaneously wc tind Gallo- 
 liomans in the ranks of the armies. . . , ]\Iouks 
 wielded a powerful spiritual inlluence. But the 
 name of not a single priest appears in the history 
 of the times as exercising any influence or 
 authorit}-. . Under the gradual secularization 
 of the Cliu in the Merovingian period, the 
 monasteries I tlie greatest sliarc in keeping 
 alive a remnant of vital religion among the 
 people; and in the gradual decay of learning and 
 art, the monastic institution was the ark in which 
 the ancient civilization survived the deluge of 
 barbarism, and emerged at length to spread itself 
 over the modern world." — E. L. Cutts, Charle- 
 magne, ch. 5 and 7. — " Two Anglo-Saxon monks, 
 St. Wilfrid, bishop of York, and St. Willibrord 
 undertook the conversion of the savage fisher- 
 men of Friesland and Holland at the end of the 
 seventh and beginning of the eighth century; 
 they were followed by another Englishman, the 
 most renowned of all these missionaries, AVin- 
 frith, wliose name was changed to Boniface, 
 perhaps by the'Pope, in recognition of his active 
 and beneficent apostleship. AVhcn Gregory II. 
 appointed him bishop of Germany (723), he went 
 through Bavaria and established tliere the dio- 
 ceses of Frisiugcn, Passau, and Ratisbon. AVhen 
 Pope Zaclmrias bestowed the rank of metro- 
 politan upon the Clmrch of Mainz in 748, he 
 entrusted its direction to St. Boniface, who from 
 that time was iirimate, as it were, of all Ger- 
 many, under the authority of the Holy See. St. 
 Boniface was assassinated by the Pagans of Fries- 
 land in 755." — V. Duruy, Ilist. of the Middle 
 Ages, bk. 3, ch. 8. — "Boniface, whose original 
 name was AVinfrid, was of a noble Devonshire 
 family (A. D. 680), educated at the monastery of 
 Nutcelle, in Hampshire, and at the age of thirtj'- 
 five years had obtained a high reputation for 
 learning and ability, when (in A. I). 716), seized 
 with the prevalent missionary enthusiasm, ho 
 abandoned his prospects at home, and set out 
 with two companions to labour among the Fris- 
 ians. . . . AVinfrid was refused permission by 
 the Duke to preach in his dominions, and he 
 returned home to England. In the following 
 spring he went to Rome, where he remained for 
 some months, and then, with a general authori- 
 zation from the i)ope to preach the gospel in 
 Central Europe, he crossed the Alps, passed 
 through Bavaria into Thuringia, where lie began 
 his work. AVhilc here the death of Radbod, 
 
 A. I). 710, and the coniiuest of Frisia by Cliarles 
 Martcl, opened up new prospects for the evau- 
 gelizaticjii of that country, and Boniface went 
 thither and laboured for three years among the 
 missionaries, under Willil)r()nl of I'lredit. Then, 
 following in the track of tlie victorious forces of 
 Charles Alartel, he i)liiiiged into the wilds of 
 Ilessia, eonverted two of its chiefs whose exaiii])lo 
 was followed by niultiludes of the Hessians and 
 Saxons, and a monastery arose at Amllneburg as 
 the liead-(piarters of the mission. The Bishop 
 of Rome being informed of this success, sum- 
 moned Boniface to Home, A. 1). 723, and con.se- 
 crated him a regionarv bislio]!, with a general 
 jurisdiction over all wliom he should win from 
 paganism into the Christian fold, reipiiriiig from 
 him at the same time the oath which was usually 
 required of bishops within the patriarchate of 
 Rome, of obedience to the see. . . . Boniface 
 was not only a zealous missionary, an earnest 
 preacher, a learned scholar, but he was a stati'S- 
 man and an able administruior. 1I(> not only 
 s|)read the Gospel among the heathen, but he 
 organized the Church among the newly converted 
 nation^ if Germany; he regulated the disorder 
 which 1 \isted in the Frankish Churcli, and estab- 
 lished the relations between Church and State on 
 a settled basis. The mediaeval analysts tell us 
 that Boniface crowned Pepin king, and modern 
 writers have usually reproduced tlie statement. 
 ' Rettberg, and the able writer of the biography 
 of Boniface in Ilerzog (Real Ecyk, s. v.), argue 
 satisfactorily from Boniface's lett<'rs that he took 
 no part in Pepin's coronation.' AVhen Boniface 
 withdrew from the active supervision of the 
 Frankish Churches, it is j)robable that his place 
 was to some extent supplied in the councils of 
 the mayor and in the synods of the Church by 
 Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, a man whose 
 character and inlluence in the ..Istcry of the 
 Frank Church have hardly hitherto bee:! appre- 
 ciated." — E. L. Cutts, Charlemagne, eh. 12. — 
 "Both Karlmann and Pippin tried to reform 
 certain abuses that had crept into the Church. 
 Tv.'o councils, convoked by Karlmann, the one in 
 Germany (742), the otlier in the following year 
 at Lestines (near Charleroi, in Belgium), drew up 
 decrees which abolished superstitious rites and 
 certain Pagan ceremonies, still remaining in 
 force; they also authorized grants of Church 
 lands by the ' Prince ' for military purposes on 
 condition of a payment of an annual rent to the 
 Church; they reformed the ecclesiastical life, 
 forbade the priests to hunt or to ride through the 
 woods with dogs, falcons, or sparrow-hawks; 
 and, finally, made all iiricsts subordinate to their 
 diocesan bishops, to whom they were obliged to 
 give account each year of their faith and their 
 ministry — all of which were necessary jirovisions 
 for the organization of the ecclesiastical hierarchy 
 and for the regulation of church government. 
 Similar measures were taken by the Council of 
 Soissons, convok(!d by l'ii)i)in in 744. In 747, 
 Karlmann renounced the world and retired to 
 the celebrated Italian monastery of Monte ^Cas- 
 sino. As he left he entrusted his children to 
 the care of their uncle, Pippin, wlio robbed 
 them of their inheritaiiee and ruled alone over 
 the whole Frankish Empire. . . . Cliarlemagne 
 enlarged and coini)leted the work which had 
 only been begun by Charles JIartel and Pippin. 
 . . . The Middle Ages acknowledged two 
 Masters, the Pope and the Emperor, nnd these 
 
 459 
 
CIIIUSTIANITY. 
 
 Chnrli'mnijnc 
 and the church. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 two powrrs came, the one from Rome, nnd the 
 other from Aiistnisiiin Pmnre. . . . The mayors 
 of Austrasiii, I'ippin of Ileristal, iiiul Cliarh's 
 Murtcl, rclmilt the Krankish monarchy and pre- 
 [Hirvil the way for tlic empire of (JliarleniHKne ; 
 . , . th<' Koinan poiitilTs , . , feathered around 
 thcni all the ehurchcs of the West, and placed 
 themselves at the head of the jrreat Catholic 
 society, over which one day Gregory VII. and 
 Innocent ' ' I. should claim to have sole dominion. " 
 —V. Durv.y, J/ixt. ,if the MkhUe. AfftK, pp. 110- 
 ', KIH. — See M.wons ok tiik Pai.ack ; Fiianks : 
 A. n. 7(1W-H14; and Papacy: A. D. T.W-TTt, and 
 774. — The coronation of Charlemagne at l{ome 
 by Pope L('o III. (see Roman E.mi'Iki;, A. D. 
 8('H)) gave tlii^ Western Church the place in the 
 state it had held under the earlier Roman emper- 
 ors. The character of so great n man, the very 
 books he read and all tluit fed the vigorous ideal 
 element in so powerful a spirit are worthy of 
 Interest; for this at least he sought to accomplish 
 
 — to give order to a tumultuous and barbarian 
 world, and to e.stjiblish learning, and purify the 
 church: "While at table, he liked to hear a 
 recital or a reading, and it was histories and the 
 great deeds of past times which were usually 
 re;'.d to him. He took great pleas\ire, also, in the 
 works of St. Augustine, and especially in that 
 whose title is I)e (,'ivitato Dei.'. . . He prac- 
 ticed the Christian religion in all its jiurity and 
 with great fervnir. whose principles had been 
 taught him from his. infancy. . . . He diligently 
 attended . . . church in ihe evening and morn- 
 ing, and even at night, to assist at the olllccs 
 and at the holy sacritice, as much as his health 
 permitted him. He watched with care that 
 nothing should he done bui with the greatest 
 propriety, constantly orde'.mg the guardians of 
 the chureli not to allow anytliing to be brought 
 there or left there inconsistent with or imworfliy 
 of the sanctity of the place. . . . He was always 
 ready to help the poor, and it was not only in 
 his own country, or within his own dominions 
 that he dispensed those gratuitous liberalities 
 which the Greeks call 'alms,' but beyond the 
 Beas — in Syria, in Egypt, in Africa, at Jerusalem, 
 at Alexandria, at CJarthage, everywhere whore 
 lie learned that Christians were living in jioverty 
 
 — he pitied their misery and loved to send them 
 money. If he sought with so much care the 
 friendship of foreign sovereigns, it was, above 
 nil, to procure for the Christians living under 
 their rule help and relief. Of all the holy 
 places, he had, above all, a great veneration for 
 the Church of ,,he Apostle St. Peter at Rome." — 
 Eginhard, Life of Charkmagnc. — "The religious 
 side of Charles' character is of the greatest inter 
 est in the study of his remarkable character as a 
 whole nnd his religious policy led to the most 
 important and durable results of his reign. He 
 inherited an ecclesiastical policy from his father; 
 the policy of regulating and strengthening the 
 influence of the Church in his dominions as the 
 chief agent of civilization, and a great means of 
 binding the various elements of the empire into 
 one ; the policy of accepting the Bishop of Rome 
 as the head of Western Christianity, with patri- 
 archal autliority over all its Churches." — E. L. 
 Cutts, CharUmnonc, ch. 23. — The following is a 
 noteworthy passage from Charlemagne's Capitu- 
 lary of 787 : " It is our wish that you may be what 
 it behoves the soldiers of the church to be, — 
 religious in heart, learned in discourse, pure in 
 
 act, eloquent in speech ; so that all who appr" ich 
 your house in order to invoke the; Divine M; r, 
 or to behold the excellence of the religious ,ae, 
 may be editied in beholding you, and instructed 
 in hearing you discourse or chant, and may 
 return home rendering thanks to Gwl most High. 
 Fail not, as thou regardest our favour, to send a 
 copy of this letter to all thy suffragans and to all 
 the monasteries; and let no monk go beyond his 
 monastery to administer justice or to enter the 
 assemblies and the voting-places. Adieu." — J. 
 U. Mullinger, Tlu ffchooU of Chiiiicx the Great. 
 
 Sth-7th Centuries. — The Nestorian, Mono- 
 physite and Monothelite Controversies. See 
 
 iS'KSTOUIAN and .MoNOlMlVHITK, alld MoNOTHE- 
 I.ITK. 
 
 Sth-^th Centuries. — The Irish Church and 
 its missions. — The story of the conversion 
 of Ireland by St. Patrick, and of the missionary 
 labors of the Church which he founded, is briefly 
 told elsewhere — see luEiiAND: 5tli-8th Ckn- 
 Ti:uiES. "The early Church worked her way, 
 in the litenil sense of the word, 'underground,' 
 uii'ler camp and palace, under senate and forum. 
 Put turn where we will in these Celtic missions, 
 ■,ve notice how diiferent were the features thai 
 marked them now. In Dalaradia St. Patrick 
 obtains the site of his earliest church from the 
 chieftain of the country, Dichu. At Tara, he 
 ol>tains from King Laoghaire a reluctant toler- 
 ation of his ministry. In Connaught he addresses 
 himself first to the chieftains of Tirawle)', and in 
 Alunster baptizes Angus, the king, at Cashel, 
 the scat of the kings. What he did in Ireland 
 reproduces itself in the Celtic missions of Wales 
 and Scotland, and we cannot but take note of 
 the important influence of Welsh and Pictish 
 chiefs. . . . ' The people may not have adopted 
 the actual profession of Christianity, which was 
 all perhaps that in the first instance tliey adopted 
 from any clear or intelligent appreciation of its 
 superiority to their former religion. But to 
 olitain from the people even an actual profession 
 (if Christianity was an important step to ultimate 
 success. It secured toleration at least for Chris- 
 tian institutions. It enabled the missionaries to 
 plant in every tribe their churches, schools, and 
 monasteries, and to establish among the half 
 pagan inhabitants of the country societies of 
 holy men, whose devotion, usefulness, and piety 
 soon produced an effect on the most barbarous 
 and savage hearts.' " — G. F. Maclear, Conversion 
 of the We»t: The Celts, ch. 11.— " The Medieval 
 Church of the West found in the seventh century 
 an immense task before it to fulfil. . . . The 
 missionaries who addressed themselves to the 
 enormous task of the conversion of Germany 
 may be conveniently divided into three groups 
 — the British, the Frankish, and, entering some- 
 what later into an honourable rivalry with these, 
 the Anglo-Saxon. A word or two upon each of 
 these groups. The British — they include Irish 
 and Scotch — could no longer find n field for the 
 exercise of their ministry in England, now that 
 there the Roman rule and discipline, to which 
 they were so little disposed to submit, had every- 
 where won the day. Their own religious houses 
 were full to overflowing. At home there was 
 little for them to do, while yet that divine 
 hunger and thirst for the winning of souls, 
 which had so possessed the heart of St. 
 Patrick, lived on in theirs. To these so minded, 
 pagan Germany offered a welcome field of 
 
 460 
 
CimiSTIANITY. 
 
 MiMiwuiriea. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 labour, and one in which there was ample rooni 
 for all. Then tlicro were the Frankisli mission- 
 aries, wlio enjoyed tlio siipport of tlic Franliish 
 kings, whicli sometimes served tliem in good 
 Btead; while at otlier times tliis protection was 
 very far from a recommendation in tlieir eyes who 
 were easily iiersuaded to sec in tlicH(! missionaries 
 the emissaries of a foe. Aiid to tlicso the Anglo- 
 Saxons; these last, mindful of the source from 
 which they had received tlieir own Christianity, 
 making it a point to attacli their converts to 
 Rome, even as they were themselves hound to 
 lier hy the closest ties. Tlie language which 
 these spoke — a language which as yet can have 
 diverged very little from tlie Low German of 
 Frisia, must have given to them many facilities 
 whicli tlie Frankish missionaries possessed in a 
 far slighter degree, the British not at all; and 
 this may help to account for a success on their 
 parts far greater than attended the labours of the 
 others. To them too it was mainly due that the 
 battle of the Creeds, which had been fought 
 and lost by the Celtic missionaries in England, 
 and was presently renewed in Qermnny, hail 
 finally the same issues there as in England. 
 ... At the same time, there were dilTerences in 
 the intensity and obstinacy of resistance to the 
 message of truth, which would be olTercd by 
 different ti 'les. There was ground, whictli at 
 an early day had been won for the Gospel, Imt 
 which m the storms and confusion of the two 
 preceding centuries had been lost again; the 
 whole line, that is, of the Danube and tlio Rhine, 
 regions fair and prosperous once, but in every 
 sense wildernesses now. In these we may note 
 a readier acceptance of the message than found 
 place in lands which in earlier times that mes- 
 sage had never reached; as though obscure 
 reminiscences and traditions of tlie past, not 
 wholly e-xtinct, had helped to set forward the 
 present work.'" — R. C. Trench, Lectures on 
 Medieml Church llintorj/, led. H. — "From Ireland 
 cameGallus, Fridolin, Kilian, Trutbert and Levin. 
 . . . The order in which these men succeeded one 
 another cannot always be established, from the 
 uncertainty of the accounts. We know thus much, 
 that of all those above-mentioned, Gallus was the 
 first, for his labours in Helvetia (Switzerland) were 
 continued from the preceding into the period of 
 which we are now treating. On the other hand, 
 it is uncertain as to Fridolin whether he had not 
 completed his work before Gallvis, in the sixtli 
 century, for in the opinion of some he closed his 
 career in the time of Clodoveus I., but, accord- 
 ing to others, he is said to have lived under 
 Clodoveus II. , or at another period. His labours 
 extended over the lands on the Moselle, in the 
 Vosges Mountains, over Helvetia, Rhtetia and 
 Nigra Silva (the Black Forest). He built the 
 monastery of Sekkinga on the Rhine. Trutbert 
 was a contemporary and at the same time a 
 countryman of Gallus. His sphere of action is 
 said to have been Brisgovia (Breisgau) and the 
 Black Forest. Almost half a century later Kil- 
 ian proclaimed the gospel in Franconia and 
 Wirtzburg, with two assistants, Colonatus and 
 Totnanus. In the latter place they converted 
 duke Qozbert, and were put to death there in 
 388. After the above mentioned missionaries 
 trom Ireland, in the seventh centurj', had built 
 churches and monasteries in the southern Ger- 
 many, the missionaries from Britain repaired 
 with a similar purpose, to the northern countries. 
 
 . . . Men from other nations, as Willericus, 
 bishop of Brenia, preached in Vransalbingia at 
 the beginning of the ninth century. Almost all 
 the missionaries from the kingdom of the Franks 
 selected southern Ocrniaiiy as their sphere of 
 action: Emmeran, about 040, Ratisbona, Uud- 
 bert, about C9(t, IJajoaria (iJavaria), Corbinian tho 
 country around Frisinga, Otliert the Hrelsgau 
 and Black Fiacst, and I'irniiiiius the lircisgau, 
 Uajoaria, Franconia, Helvetia, and Alsatis." — 
 .1. E. T. Wiltsch, lliimllKi'ik tifihe (leor/fii/i/iy <iii(l 
 Stiitinlics of tlie Church, r. 1, ;)/). iiO.'i-UOT. 
 
 A. D. 553-800.— The Western Church.— Rise 
 of the Papacy. — "Though kindly treated, the 
 Cliun^h of Rome did not make any progress 
 under the Ostrogoths. But when their power 
 had been broken (r).");!), and Rome had been placed 
 again under the authority of the Emperor of 
 Constantinople [see Rome: A. I). SILl-.^.i;}], the 
 very remoteness of her new master insuo'd to 
 the Church a more i)rosperous future. The in- 
 vasi(m of the Loinbanls drove a great many 
 refugees into her territory, and the Roman popu- 
 lation showed a slight return of its old energy in 
 its double hatred toward them, as barbarians and 
 as Arians. ... It was at this favorable point in 
 the state of affairs, though critical in some re- 
 spects, that Gregory the Great made his appear- 
 ance (590-604). 1I(; was a descendant of tli(! noble 
 Anicia family, and added to his advantages of 
 liirtli and position the advantages of a well- 
 endowed body and mind. He was prefect of 
 Rome when less than thirty years old, but 
 after holding tliis olHce a few months he 
 abandoned the honors aiul cares of worldly things 
 for the retirement of the cloister. His reputation 
 did not allow him to remain in the obscurity of 
 that life. Toward 579 he was sent to Constanti- 
 nople by Pope Pelagius II. as secretary or p;,pal 
 nuncio, and he rendered distinguislicid services 
 to the Holy See in its relatiais with the Empire 
 and in its struggles agains^, the Lombards. In 
 590 the clergy, the senate, and the people raised 
 him with one accord to the .sovereign pontificate, 
 to succeed Pelagius. As it was still necessary 
 for every election to be confirmed by the Em- 
 peror at Const^intinople, Gregory wrote to him 
 to beg him not to sanction this one; but the 
 letter was intercepted and soon orders arrived 
 from Slaurice ratifying the election. Gregory 
 hid himself, but he was discovered and led back 
 to Rome. When once Pope, though against his 
 will, he used his power to strengtlien the papacy, 
 to propagate Christianity, and to improve the 
 discipline and organization of the Church. . . . 
 Strengthened thus by his own efforts, he under- 
 took the propagation of Christianity and ortho- 
 doxy both within and without the limits of the 
 old Roman Empire. Within those limits there 
 were still some who clung to paganism, in Sicily, 
 Sardinia, and even at the very gates of Rome, at 
 Terracina, and doubtless also in Gaul, as there 
 is a constitution of Childebert still extant dated 
 554, and entitled: 'For the abolition of tho re- 
 mains of idolatry. ' There were Arians very near 
 to Rome — namely, tho Lombards; but through 
 the intervention of Theudalinda, tlieir queen, 
 Gregory succeeded in having Adelwald, tho heir 
 to the throne, brought up in the Catholic faith; 
 as early as 587 the "Visigoths in Spain, under 
 Rcccared, were converted. . . . The Roman 
 Empire had perished, and the barbarians had 
 built upon its ruins many slight structures that 
 
 461 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 fiiite of the 
 Pajmcy, 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 wore soon overthrown. Not ovrn Imd the 
 FriinkH, wlio were destined to Iks perpettmted as 
 a nation, as yet siiceeeded in foiindin); a Hoeial 
 state of any strengtli; tlieir laek of experience 
 led tlieni from one attempt to anotlier, all ecpnUly 
 vain; even tlie attcm|)t of C'lmrlemaj;ne met 
 witli no morn permanent suecess. In tlie midst 
 of these siieeessive failure.^ one institution alone, 
 developinK slowly and steadilv through the cen- 
 turies, followiiig out the spirit of its principles, 
 continued to grow and gain in power, in extent 
 and in imity. . . . The Pope had now become, 
 in truth, the nder of Christendom. He was, 
 however, still a subject of the Greek Emperor; 
 but a rupture was inevitable, as his authority, 
 on the one hand, was growing day by day, and 
 the emperor's on the contrary, was declining." — 
 V. Duruy, Jfint. of the Miililh Agm, pp. 114-115, 
 108-109, 117. — "'^he real i)ower which advanced 
 the credit of the Roman see during these ages 
 was the reaction against the Byzantine despotism 
 over the Eastern Church; and this is the expla- 
 nation of the fact that although the new map of 
 Europe had been marked out, in outline at least, 
 by the year 500, the Roman see. clung to the 
 eastern connection until the first half of the 
 eighth centtiry. ... In the political or diplo- 
 matic struggle between the Church and the Em- 
 perors, in which the Emperors endeavored to 
 make the Church subservient to the imperial 
 policy, or to adjust the situation to the neces- 
 sities oi the empire, and the Church strove to 
 retain its autonomy as a witness to the faith and 
 a legislator in the affairs of religion, the Bisliop 
 of Rome became, so to speak, the constitutional 
 head of the opposition; and the East was willing 
 to exalt his authority, as a counterpoise to that 
 of the Emperor, to any extent short of acknowl- 
 edging that the primacy implied a supremacy." 
 — J. II. Egar, ChriiitcmUym : Ecclestatitical and 
 Politirnl, from Cnnstantiiie to tlie licformation, p. 
 99. — "The election system was only used for 
 one degree of the ecclesiastical dignitaries, for the 
 bishopric. The lower dignitaries vvere chosen 
 by the bishop. They were divided into two 
 categories of orders — the higher and the lower 
 orders. There were three higher orders, namely, 
 the priests, the deacons, and the sub-deacons, 
 and four lower orders, the acolytes, the door- 
 keepers, the exorcists, and the readers. The 
 latter orders we.-e not regarded as an integral 
 part of the clerg^', as their members were the 
 servants of the otiiors. As regards the territorial 
 divisions, the bishop governed the diocese, which 
 at a much later date was divided into parishes, 
 whoso spiritual welfare was in the hands of the 
 parish priest or curate (curio). The parishes, 
 taken together, constituted the diocese ; the united 
 dioceses, or suffragan bishoprics, constituted the 
 ecclesiastical province, at whose head stood the 
 metropolitan or archbishop. When a provin- 
 cial council was held, it met in the metropolis 
 and was presided over by the metropolitan. 
 Above the metropolitans were the Patriarchs, in 
 the East, and the Primates in the West, bishops 
 who held the great capitals or the apostolic sees, 
 Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, 
 Jerusalem, Cesarea in Cappadocia, Carthage in 
 Africa, and Heraclius in Thrace; among them 
 Home ranked higher by one degree, ond from 
 this supreme position exercised a supreme author- 
 ity acknowledged by all the Church." — V. 
 Duruy, Uiit. of t>ie Middle Ages, pp. 100-110.— 
 
 "The divergence of the two Churches, Eastern 
 and Western, was greater in reality than it 
 appears to be from a superficial view. It was 
 based on essential varijitions in tlx^ character and 
 disposition of the people in the Kast and in the 
 West, on the nature of their civilization, and on 
 theditTerenl, almost antagonistic, development of 
 the Christian idea in on(! Cliurch and in tlic other. 
 . . . The Ea.stern Church rejoiced in its direct 
 alllliation with apostolic times, in its carefid pre- 
 servation of traditions, and was convinced of its 
 especial right to be considered the true heir and 
 sncces.s()r of Christ. . . . The letter of the law 
 superseded the spirit ; religion stiffened into for- 
 malism; piety consisted in strict observance of 
 ceremonial rites ; external holiness replaced sin- 
 cere and heortfelt devotion. . . . Throughout 
 the West the tendency was in a contrary direc- 
 tion — towards the practical ai)plication of the 
 religious idea. The effete, worn-out civilization 
 of the past was there renovated by contact and 
 admixture with young and vigorous races, and 
 gained new strength and vitality in the struggle 
 for existence. The C'lurch, freed from control, 
 became independent and self -asserting ; the re- 
 sponsibility of government, the preservation of 
 social order, devolved upon it, and it rose 
 proudly to tlie task." — A. F. Heard, The lius- 
 Htaii Church and Ruman Jh'ssent, pp. 0-10. — 
 "On the overthrow of the Western Empire, and 
 the demonstration, rendered manifest to all, that 
 with the complete triumph of the new world of 
 secular polities a new spiritual development, a 
 new phase of Divine guidance, was opening, 
 the conscience of the believers was aroused to a 
 sense of the sinfulness of their cowardly inac- 
 tivity. 'Go ye into all nations, and baptize 
 them,' had been the last words of their blessed 
 Master. ... It is to this new or revived mis- 
 sionary spirit which distinguished the sixth cen- 
 tury, of which I would place Pope Gregory the 
 First, or the Great, as the central figure, that I 
 desire now to introduce you. Itcmcmber that 
 the Empire, which had represented the unity of 
 niankiid, had become disintegrated and broken 
 into iiagments. Men were no longer Romans, 
 but Goths and Sueves, Burgundians and Van- 
 dals, and beyond them Huns, Avars, Franks, 
 and Lombards, some with a slight tincture of 
 Christian teaching, but most with none. . . . 
 Let but the Gospel be [jroclaiined to all, and 
 leave the issue in God's hands I Such was the 
 contrast between the age of Leo and the age of 
 Gregory I . . . The conversion of Clovis and the 
 Franks is, I suppose, the earliest instance of a 
 Christian mission curried out on a national scale 
 by the common action of the Church represented 
 by the Pope and See of Rome. It becomes 
 accordingly a great historical event, deserving 
 the earnest consideration not of Churchmen only, 
 but cf all political enquirers. " — C. Merivale, Four 
 Lectures on sonie Epochs of Early Church Hist., 
 pp. 172-177. — "Christianity thus renewed its 
 ardor for proselytisin, and Gregory contributed to 
 its success most wisely by enjoining precepts of 
 moderation upon his missionaries, and by the 
 skillful manner in which ho n\ade the transition 
 to Catholicism easy to the pagans ; he wrote to 
 Augustine : ' Be careful not to destroy the pagan 
 temples ; it is only necessary to destroy the idols, 
 then to sprinkle the edifice with holy water, and 
 to build altars and place relics there. If the 
 temples arc well built, it is a wise and useful 
 
 462 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 ConvrritiitH 
 of the KnglUh. 
 
 fliniSTIANITY. 
 
 thinR for tlipm to priss from the worship of 
 demons to the worship of the true (}o<l : for 
 wliile Ihe iiiition sees its old phiees of worship 
 gtil! standing,', it will \w. the more ready to go 
 there, by force of lial)it, to worship the true 
 0<hI.' In the interior Gregory sucreeded in 
 arninfrinj; the different degrees of power in the 
 Church, and in forcing the recognition of tlu^ 
 supreme power of the Holy See. W'e find liini 
 granting the title of Vicar of Oaul to the bishop 
 of Aries, and corresponding witii Augustine, 
 arclibishop of Canterbury, in regard to Great 
 Britain, with the archbishop of Seville in regard 
 to Spain, with tlio archbishop of Thessalonica in 
 regard to Greece, and, finally, sending legates 
 'a latere' to Constantinople. In his Pastoral, 
 wliich he wrote; on tlie occasion of his election, 
 and which became an established precedent in 
 tlie West, he prescril)cd to the bishops their 
 several duties, following the decisions of many 
 cbimcils. Ho strengthened the hierarchy by 
 preventing the encroachments of the bishops 
 upon one another: 'I have given to you the 
 spiritual direction of Britain,' he wrote to the 
 ambitious Augustine, 'and not that of the Gauls.' 
 He rcarnuiged the monasteries, made discipline 
 the object of his vigilant care, reformed Church 
 music, and substituted the cliant that bears his 
 name for tlie Ambrosian chant, 'which re- 
 sembled,' according to a contemporary, ' the far- 
 ofl noise of a chariot rumbling over pebbles.' 
 I{ome, victorious again with the help of Gregory 
 the Great, continued to push her conquests to 
 distant coimtries after his death." — V. Duruy, 
 Hist, of the Middle Ages, p. 116. — See, above: 
 A. I). 496-800, and Rcme: A. D. 590-640. 
 
 A. D. 597-800.— The English Church.— "It 
 siH'ms right to add a word of caution against the 
 common confusion between the British Church 
 and the English Church. They were quite dis- 
 tinct, and had very little to do with one another. 
 To cite the British bishops at the Councils of 
 Aries and Uimini as evidence of the antiquity of 
 the English Church is preposterous. There was 
 then no England ; and the ancestors of English 
 Churchmen were heathen tribes on the continent. 
 The history of the Church of England begins 
 with the episcopate of Archbishop Theodore 
 (A. D. 668), or at the very earliest with the land- 
 ing of Augustine (A. D. 507). By that time the 
 British Church had been almost destroyed by 
 tlie heathen English. . . . Bede tells us that 
 down to his day the Britons still treated English 
 Christians as pagans. " — A. Plunimer, Tlie Church 
 of the Early Fathers, eh. 8. — "About the year 
 580, in the pontificate of Pelagius, Gregory occu- 
 pied the rank of a deacon among the Roman 
 clergy. He was early noted for his zeal and 
 piety ; coming into large possessions, as an off- 
 shoot of an ancient and noble family, he had ex- 
 pended his wealth in the foundation of no less 
 than seven monasteries, and had become himself 
 the abbot of one of them, St. Andrew's, at Rome. 
 Devoted as he was from the first to all the good 
 works to whicli the religious profession might 
 best apply itself, his attention was more par- 
 ticularly turned to the cause of Christian mis- 
 sions by casually remarking a troop of young 
 slaves exhibited for sale in the Roman market. 
 Struck with the beauty or fresh complexion of 
 these strangers, lie asked whether they were 
 Christians or Pagans. They wore Pagans, it 
 was replied. How sad, he exclaimed, that such 
 
 fair countenaces should lie under the power of 
 lii'nions. ' Whence came they Y' — ' From Anglia. ' 
 — 'Truly they art^ Angels, What is tlie name 
 of their country?' — ' Deira.' — "I'ritly they are 
 Niiliject to the wrath of God: ira Dei. Ami their 
 king?' — 'Is named .Klla.' — ' I.et them learn to 
 sing Allelujah.' Britain had lately fallen under 
 the sway of the heatlien Angles, Throngliout 
 the eastern section of Ww. isliind, Ihc; faith of 
 Christ, which Imd Imm'U established there fnmi 
 early limes, had been, it seems, utterly extirpated. 
 The British church of Lucius and Albanus still 
 lingered, but was chielly confined within the 
 ruder districts of Cornwall, Wales, and Cumbria. 
 The reported destruction of the people witli all 
 their churches, and all their culture, begun by 
 the Picts and Scots, and carried on by the 
 Angles and their kindred Saxons, had miule a 
 profound iMipres.sion upon Christendom. Tlie 
 'Groans of the Britons' had terrified all man- 
 kind, and discouraged even the lirave mis- 
 sionaries of Italy and Caul. . . . Gregory <le- 
 termined to make the sacrifice liimself. Ho 
 prevailed on the Pope to sanction his enter- 
 prise ; but the people of Rome, with whom he was 
 a favourite, interposed, and he was constrained 
 reluctantly to forego the peril and the blessing. 
 But the sight he had witnessed in the market- 
 place still retained its impression upon him. He 
 kept the fair-haired Angles ever in view; and 
 when, in the year 592, he was himself elevated 
 to the popedom, he resolved to send a mission, 
 and fling upon tlie obscure shores of Britain the 
 full beams of the sun of Christendom, as they 
 then seemed to shine so conspicuously at Rome. 
 Augustine was the preacher chosen from among 
 the inmates of one of Gregory's monasteries, for 
 the anluous task thus imposed upon him. He 
 was to be accompanied by a select band of 
 twelve monks, together with a certain number of 
 attendants. . . . There is something very re- 
 markable in the facility with which the fierce 
 idolaters, whose name had struck such terror 
 into tlie Christian nations far and near, yielded 
 to the persuasions of tliis band of peaceful 
 evangelists." — C. Alerivale, Four lectures on some 
 Epochs of Eirly Church Jfistory, pp. 19'3-198. — 
 See Enoland: A. D. 507-685. — The Roman 
 missionaries in England landed in Kent and ap- 
 pear to have had more influence with the petty 
 courts of tlie little kingdoms than with the people. 
 The conversion of the North of England must 
 be credited to the Irish monastery on the island 
 of lona. "At the beginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury these Irish Christians were seized with an 
 unconquerable impulse to wander afar and 
 preach Christianity to the heathen. In 563 
 Columba, with twelve confederates, left Ireland 
 and founded a monastery on a small island off 
 the coast of Scotland (lona or Hy), through the 
 influence of which the Scots and Picts of Britain 
 became converted to Christianity, twenty-three 
 missions among the Scots and eighteen in the 
 country of the Picts having been established at 
 the death of Columba (597). Under his third 
 successor the heathen Saxons were converted; 
 Aedan, summoned by Osward of Northumbria, 
 having labored among them from 635 to 651 as 
 missionary, abbot, and bishop. • His successors, 
 Finnan and Colnian, worthily carried on his 
 work, and introduced Christianity into other 
 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms near East Anglia, 
 Mercla, and Essex."- H. Zimmer, The Irish 
 
 463 
 
CHUISTIANITY. 
 
 The llulynrian 
 t'ltunh. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 JBtmsnt in Medimnl Culture, pp. 10-21.— "Two 
 bands "f di'votcd nici hud hllliiTto iM'cn cm- 
 |)li)y('<l in llit'convrrMioiiof KukIiimiI, tlip l^)nlltIl, 
 iimmlt'd liy tlicir ((invtTl.s iiikI Mmu\ tciirlicrs 
 from Fnincc, and tli(^ lriH)i, who were pliihily 
 thu liir^iT l)ody. Hcl ween the two thcru were 
 tho old ditrcrciicos iih to thr time of Iteoping 
 Kuster luid tlii^ form of tile clerical tonsure. . . . 
 Tims, while ()8wy [Kiiiff of Mcrcia] was cele- 
 hratin^; Kustcr accordinj.^ to the custom he had 
 learnt at lona, his (jueen Karlleda observed it 
 aeeordiuK to the rule which slu; had learnt in 
 Kent, and was still jiraetisinK th(> austerities of 
 Lent. Thes(' dilTerences were tolerated during 
 the Kpiscopate of Aidun and Finan, but when 
 Kinan died and was succeeded by ('olman, the 
 controversy " was terminated by Oswy, after 
 much debate, with the words — " 'I will hold to 
 8t. I'eter, lest, when I present myself at the 
 gates of Heaven, he should close them against 
 me.' . . . Colman, with all his Irish brethren, 
 and thirty Northundirians who had joined the 
 monastery, uultted Lindisfarnc and sailed to 
 lona." — O. F. Madear, Cimreritiiin of the UW.' 
 The Fnfflia/i, jip. Sl-S."). — The imj)artial historian 
 to whom we owe all the early histr)ry of the 
 English Church, thus records the memory of 
 these devoted men as it remained in the minds 
 of Englishmen long after llu'ir (lei)arture. It 
 is a brief passage, one' like those in the greater 
 Ecclesiatical History of Eusebius, which mi;st 
 stand for much wo <lo not know. Iteferriug to 
 their devoted lives — "T-^r this reason the relig- 
 ious habit was at that time in great veneration; 
 80 that wheresoever any clergyman or monk 
 hupiiened to come, he was joyfully received by 
 all persons, as God's servant; and if they chanced 
 to meet him upon the way, they ran to him, and 
 bowing, were glad to be signed with his hand, 
 or blessed with his mouth. Great attention was 
 also paid to their exhortations; and on Sundays 
 they flocked eagerly to tho church, or the 
 monasteries, not to feed their bodies, but to licar 
 tho wonl of God; and if any priest happened to 
 come into a village, the inhabitants flocked 
 together to hear from him the word of life ; for 
 
 ' le priests and clergymen went into the village 
 on no other account than to preach, baptize, visit 
 the sick, and, in few words, to take care of 
 soids ; and they were so free from worldy avarice, 
 that none ■ I hem received lands and possessions 
 for building monasteries, unless they were com- 
 pelled to do so by the temporal authorities; 
 which custom was for some time after observed 
 in all the churches of tho Northumbrians. But 
 enough has now been said on this subject." — T!te 
 
 Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England; 
 ed. by J. A. Giles, bk. 3, ch. 26.— Tho English 
 Church passed through several stages during 
 tills period. A notable one was the rise and fall of 
 a loose monastic system which attracted men 
 and women of the better classes, but for lack 
 of a strict rule brought itself into disrepute. 
 Another was the development of classical learning 
 and the foundation of the school at Jarrow in 
 Northumberland resulting in making England 
 the intellectual centre of the world. Venerable 
 Bede, who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of tlio 
 English Church, was the greatest teacher of this 
 epoch ; and Alcuin, a Northumbrian by birth, 
 and of the school at York, of the next. Invited 
 bv Charlemagne to the Frankish Court, he curried 
 English learning to the Continent, and although 
 
 h(.' died at tlic time of the foundation of tlui 
 P^mpire, left his influence In many ways on tho 
 (li'velopment of Kuropean culture. A single 
 fact of interest will siifllce, to show the close 
 connection of this early history with tliot of 
 Home and the continent — viz., to Alruin we arc 
 largely indebted for the parent script which 
 formed our Uoman letters. (I. Taylor, TIte 
 Alpha/jei, r. 3, /). IMO.) Nortliumlirian learning 
 and the rich libraries of ancient and Anglo- 
 Saxon literature were destroyed by the Danes, 
 who, in their incursions, showed for a long time 
 peculiar animosity to monks and monasteries. 
 Although the service of this early Anglo-Saxon 
 Church was partly in the vernuculnr, and largo 
 portions, if not all, of the Gospels had been 
 translated, little remains to us of its early relig- 
 ious literature The translations of the Gospel 
 into Anglo-Saxon that have come down to us aro 
 to be attrilmted to a late period. 
 
 9th Century. — The Bulgarian Church.— "In 
 the beginning of this 9tli (;entury, a sister of the 
 reigning Bulgarian king, Bogoris, had fallen 
 as a captive into the keeping of the Greek em- 
 peror. For thirty -eight years she lived at Con- 
 stantinople, and was there instructed in the doc- 
 trines of tile Christain Faith. Meanwhile, the 
 administration passed into the hands of the cm- 
 press Kegent, Theodora. She was interested in 
 a certain monk named Cupharas, who had been 
 taken prisoner by tho Bulgarians, and with a 
 view to his redemption, she opened negotiations 
 with Bogoris. An exchange of prisoners was 
 Anally elfected. The sister of Bogoris was re- 
 stored to him, while Cupharas was iiermitted to 
 return to Constantinople. iJefore the release of 
 the iiious monk, however, he had striven, though 
 (luito uimvailingly, to win the Bulgarian prince 
 to the service of the Cross. These fruitless en- 
 deavors were supplemented by the entreaties of 
 the king's sister, on her return from Constanti- 
 nojile. ... At last, fear snapped the fetters 
 which love had failed to disengage. . . . His 
 baptism was celebrated at midmglit with pro- 
 foundest secrecy. The rite was administered by 
 no less a personage than the patriarch Photius. 
 lie emphasized the solemnity of the occasion by 
 jircsentinfj the neophyte with a lengthy treatise 
 on Christianity, theoretical and practical, con- 
 sidered mainly in its bearings on tlie duties of a 
 inonurch. Tlie emperor jMichael stood sponsor 
 by proxy, and the Bulgarian king received, as 
 his Clinstian name, that of his imperial god- 
 father. . . . The battle-cries of theology rang 
 over Christendom, and the world was regaled 
 with the spectacle of a struggle between the rival 
 Churches for the possession of Bulgaria, a country 
 till recently so conspicuously destitute of dogma 
 of any kind. The Bulgarians themselves, doubt- 
 less much astonished at the uproar for their sake, 
 and, surely, more perplexed than ever by the 
 manners and customs of Christianity, begun to 
 waver in their adherence to the Western Cliuich, 
 and to exhibit symptoms of an inclination to trans- 
 fer their allegiance to Constantinople. The 
 strife went on for years. At last, A. D. 877, 
 tho Latin clergy liaving been dismissed from the 
 country. Pope John VIII. solemnly expostulated, 
 protesting against the Greek proclivities of the 
 Bulgarians, and predicting dire results from their 
 identity with a Church which was rarely free 
 from heresy in one form or another. Neverthe- 
 less, the Byzantine leanings of Bulgaria did cul- 
 
 464 
 
CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Ulavt and 
 Northmen. 
 
 CimiSTIAN[TY. 
 
 jninato in union witli tlio Kustorn Cliurcli. A 
 Oruolc nrchl)lMlio|) luul ))i.slio|)s of tliu Hitme com- 
 munion, Ht'ttlnl 111 Iho coimtry. . . . ' Tlio Eiist- 
 em bnincli ' of tlio Hlavonlc; fiiM>iuiiKi'«. properly 
 lociillcii, 'comprclifiuiMllic Husslaii, witli viirious 
 locui (iiiiicctH, till! liiilKiiriiui, and tlio Illyriari. 
 Tli(! most luu'iciit (liK'iuticrit of this EiisU'ni 
 bnmcli is tlie no-cuIIciI (•(•(•Icslastical Slavonic, 
 1. L'., till! ancient Hiilj;iiHaii, into wliicli Cyrilliis 
 t ml Metliodins tniiislateil tlii! Iiil)le in the miiidic 
 oi tlie i>tli eenturv. This is still the authorized 
 version of tliu Hililo for the whole .-ilavonic race, 
 anil to the student of the Slavonic lanKuaKea it 
 is what Gothic is to the student of Oerinan. ' — O. 
 F. Maclear, t'untergion i>f the Went: The Slam, 
 pp. r>4-09. 
 
 9th Century.— Conversion of Moravia. — " In 
 tlie opening years of the Ktli century, Moravia 
 stretched from the Uavarian borders to the Hun- 
 
 farian river Drina, and from the banks of the 
 )anul)e, beyond the ('nrpathian mountains, to 
 the river Stryi in Hoiithern I'oland. Into this 
 territory (Jhristianity had been ushered as early 
 lis A. i). 801, by Charh'inaKne, who, as his cus- 
 tom was, enforced baptism at the jioint of the 
 sword, at least as far as the kinj; was concerned. 
 Ellorts were 8ubse(|iiently madi^ by the arch- 
 bishops of Saizbiirff and I'assaii to fan this first 
 feeble tlickcr into somethinK like a tlanic. iiiit 
 no .wccess attended their exertions. Paganism 
 was overpoweringlv strong;, and (.'hristianity not 
 only veak, but rude and uncouth in type. . . . 
 Tlie story of this country, during; tlie process 
 of emancipation from paganism, is but a re|)eti- 
 tion of tlie incidents witli which, in neighbouring 
 states, we have already become familiar. Kami- 
 flcations of the work of (Jyril and Metliodius ex- 
 tended into Servia. The Slavonic alphabet made 
 way there, as in Bohemia and .Moravia, for 
 Christianity. Tlic Servians ' enjoyed the advant- 
 age of a liturgy which was intelligible to them ; 
 and we find that, early in the 10th century, a 
 considerable number of Slavonian priests from 
 all the dioceses were ordained by the bishop of 
 Nona, who was himself a Slavonian by descent. ' " 
 — G. P. >Iaclear, Conversion of the We»t: The 
 Slats, eh. 4. 
 
 9th-ioth Centuries. — The Eastern Church 
 as a missionary Church. — " If the missionary 
 spirit is tlic best evidence of vitality in a church, 
 it certainly was not wanting in the Eastern Church 
 during the nintli and tenth centuries of our era. 
 Tliis period witnessed the conversion to Cliris- 
 tianity of the principal Slavonic peoples, whereby 
 they arc both linked witli Constantinople, and 
 bound together by those associations of creed, as 
 well as race, wliicli form so important a factor 
 In the European politics of tlie present day. The 
 Moravians, the Bulgarians, and tlie Russians 
 were now brought witliin the fold of the Church ; 
 and the way was prepared for tliat vast exten- 
 sion of the Greek communion by -wliicli it has 
 spread, not only throughout the Balkan penin- 
 sula and the lands to the north of it, but wlier- 
 cver Russian intiueiice is found — as far as tlio 
 White Sea on the one side, and Kamtchatka on 
 the other, and into the heart of Central Asm. 
 The leaders in tliis great work were the two 
 brothers, Cyril and Methodius, wlio in conse- 
 quence of tills, have since been known as tlie 
 Apostles of the Slavonians. What Mezrop did 
 for the Armenians, what Ulfllas did for the 
 Ooths, was accomplished for that race by Cyril 
 
 In the Invention of a Slavonic alphnhrt, which 
 from this cause is still known by the name of tlie 
 Cvrillic. The same teacher, by his translittloii 
 of the Scriptures into their tongue, pnivhicd them 
 with a literary language, tliercliy priKliicIng the 
 same result wliicli Luther's Bible siil)se(nicntly 
 cITected for (Jermany, and Dante's Divina Coni- 
 niedia for Italy. It is no matter for surprise that, 
 throughout the whole of this great branch of the 
 human race — even amongst the Uussians, who 
 owed their Christianity to anotlicr source — the 
 names of these two brothers should occupy the 
 foremost places in the calendar of Saints. It is 
 not less signitlcant that their names art; not I'Ven 
 mcntioiicii by the Byzantine historians." — II. F. 
 Tozer, The Church and the Kunlern Kinpire, 
 ch. 7. 
 
 9th-iith Centuries.— The Western Church 
 asa missionary Church. — TliecarlicrinisslnMsof 
 tlie Western (Miiircli have been described, but it 
 is notewortliy tliat again and again missions to 
 tlie same regiims are necessary. It reiniiressucli 
 a map as the one accompanying tlds artlcli' to 
 maki! plain tlie slowness of its dilTusions and the 
 long period needed to produce even a nomi- 
 nally (Miristian Europe. "The views of Cliarlo 
 magne for the con(|ue.st and convcrsicui of tliu 
 Northern heathens [see Saxons: A. 1). 773-H04], 
 were not confined to the limits, wide as they 
 were, of Saxony. The final paeiticalion elTeeted 
 at Salz, seemed to open liis ev<'-S to more 
 extensive enterpris<'s in prospect. Political may 
 have combined witli religious motives in i'i'',iic- 
 ing him to secure the peace of his new frontii i.s, 
 by enlisting the tribes of Denmark under the 
 banner of the Cross, and he conceived tlie idea 
 of planting a church in tlio neighbourhood of 
 Hamburg, whidi should become a missionary 
 centre. This plan, though interrupted by his 
 death, was not neglected by liis snii Louis lo 
 Debonnaire, or 'the Pious.'. . . But it is easier 
 to propose sucli a plan than find one willing to 
 carry it out. The well-known ferocity of the 
 Northmen long deterred any one from offering 
 himself for such a duty. At length he received 
 intelligence from Wala, the abbot of Corbey, 
 near Amiens, tliat one of his monks was not 
 unwilling to undertake the perilous enterprise. 
 Tlie intrejiid volunteer was Anskar." — O. F. 
 Maclear, Conversion of the Wei^t : The Northmen, 
 eh. 2.— "In 822, Harold, the king of Jutland, 
 and claimant of tlie crown of Denmark, came to 
 seek the help of Louis tlie Pious, tlie son, and 
 one of the successors, of Charlemagne. ... On 
 Harold's return to Denmark he was accompanied 
 by Anskar, who well deserves to be called the 
 apostle of Scandinavia. . . . Tlius An.skar and 
 Autbert set out in the train of Iliirold, and 
 during tlie journey and voyage a kindly feeling 
 sprang up between the royal and the missionary 
 families. Harold got no cordial greeting from 
 liis proud heatlum subjects when he announced 
 to them that he had done homage to the emperor, 
 and tliat he had embraced tlie gospel. He seems 
 to have been very sincere and very earnest in his 
 endeavours to induce his nobles and subjects to 
 abandon idolatry and embrace C'hristianity. To 
 expect that he was altogether judicious in these 
 efforts would lie to suppose that ho liiul those 
 views regarding flic relation that ouglit to sub- 
 sist between rulers and subjects, . . . views 
 regarding liberty of conscience and the right of 
 private judgment. . . . The result was that 
 
 465 
 
CIIRISTIANITV. 
 
 Thr liuwian 
 f'hurrh. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 afUT two yporii, in 828, he wiw compollpd to 
 nlHlicutctlu^tlircitic. . . . Tin- ixmltlimor AiiMkiir, 
 
 (lilliclllt IIH it WIIN Wllilc Unroll! WIIH DM llll' 
 
 tliroiu', l)pciiini! Htill iniirc lillllcnlt after liis 
 alKliciitioii. . . , liiit JuHtitt tliK tiiiii' wlicri till' 
 door wiwj*liut HKiiinst liim in I>riiiniirl<, iiiiutlirr 
 witH opi'iK'il ill Hwi'ilcn, wliicli proinisi'il to hr. 
 wilier iinil morn clTrctim!. . . . Iln wiis kinilly 
 rt'coivcil by tlio HwimIIhIi kllin, who K"ve him 
 {M'rmiHMiim to preach, iiiiil IiIh Hiibjeetx fn'eilom 
 to iitri'pt mill profess the gospel of ('lirlst. As 
 Aimkiirhiiil iM'eii leil to expert, so he fouiiil, miiiiy 
 ('hristliin captives, wlio liiiil been hroiiKht from 
 other countries, — Fnmce, (Jermiiny, Hritnln, 
 Ireland, — and wlio, having; been as slieep with- 
 out II Hheplierd, gladly received from Aiiskar 
 those consolations and exhortations wliidi were 
 fltte<l to alleviate tlie sorrows of tlieir captivity. 
 . . . After a year and a hnlf's stay in Hweilen, 
 Anskar nttiimed home, and Klaildened the heart 
 of the >(immI emperor, and lioiibtless of many 
 others, by the cheering prospect lie was able to 
 present of the acceptance of the gospel by the 
 bwedes. lie was now made nominally bisliop of 
 Hamburg, but with the special design of super- 
 intending and conducting missionary operations 
 both in Denmark and Hwe<len. . . . Ilorik, 
 king of IDenmark, who had driven Harold from 
 his throne, . . . had been hitiicrto an uncom- 
 promising enemy of the gospel. Anskar under- 
 took the management of some political negoti- 
 ations with him, and in the conduct of them 
 made so favourable an impression on him that 
 he refused to have any other negotiator or 
 ainbas.sailor of the German king at his court. 
 He treated him as a personal friend, niid gave 
 him full liberty to conduct missionary operations. 
 These operations he conducted wltli his usual 
 zeal, and by Qixl's blessing, wltli much success. 
 Alaiiy were baptized The Christiana of Ger- 
 many and Holland traded more freely with the 
 Danes than before, and tlio Danes resorted in 
 larger numbers as traders to Holland and 
 Germany ; and in these and otlicr ways a knowl- 
 edge of the gospel, and some apprehension of 
 the blessings wliich it brings with it, were 
 diffused among the people. . . . Although the 
 Norwegians were continually coming into con- 
 tact, in the varying relations of war and peace, 
 with tlio Swedes and the Danes, tiie French ancl 
 the Germans, the English and the Irish, and 
 although in tiiis way some knowledge of the 
 Christian system must have been diffused among 
 them, yet tlie formal introduction of it into their 
 country was a full century later tlian its intro- 
 duction into Denmark and Sweden." — Thomas 
 Smith, Medittml Mimons, pp. 123-138.— "The 
 conversions in Denmark were confined to the 
 mainland. Tlie islands still remained pagan, 
 while human victims continued to be offered till 
 the Emperor Henry I. extorted from Gorm, the 
 first king of all Denmark, in A. D. 934, protection 
 for tlie Christians throughout his realm, and the 
 abolition of human sacrifices. In Sweden, for 
 seventy years after Anskar's death, the nucleus 
 of a Chnstiau Church continued to be restricted 
 to the neighbourhood of Birka, and the country 
 •was hardly visited by Christian missionaries." — 
 G. F. Jlaclcar, Contersion of the West: The 
 Northmen, eh. 2. — "It is very remarkable that. 
 In the wliole history of the introduction of 
 Christianity into Norway and Iceland, extending 
 over a period of u century and a half, we meet 
 
 not with the name of any noted hloliop, or eccleiil- 
 astic, or mlsMionary. Tliere were, no doiilit, 
 eerlesiaHtlis I'liiployed in the worit, and themj 
 would appear to iiave been generally Knglish- 
 men; liut they occupied a secondary jilace, 
 almost tiieir only province being to bapti/.e those 
 wliom tlie kings compelled to Niibmit to tliat 
 onlinance. The kings were tlie real missionaries; 
 and one cannot help feeling a kind of admiration 
 for the ferocious zeal which one and another of 
 them manifested in the undertaking, — even as 
 tlic Lord comnicnileil the unjust steward because 
 he had done wisely, altlioiigh his wisdom was 
 wholly niisilirected. Tlie most persistent and tlio 
 most successful of these missionary kings was 
 Olaf tlie Thick, wlio came from England in 1017, 
 and set himself with lieart and soul to the work 
 of the demolition of heathenism, and the sub- 
 stitution of (Christianity as the national re- 
 ligion." — Thomas Smith, .Afe<li(Friil Afimonn, pp. 
 140-141. 
 
 loth Century.— The Russian Church.— "In 
 the middle of the 10th century, tlie widowed 
 Princess Glga, lately released from the cares of 
 regency, travelled from Kief to Constantinople. 
 Whether her visit had political objects, or 
 whether she was protuptcd to pay it solely, as 
 some say, by a desire to know more of the holy 
 faith of which only glimpses had been vouch- 
 safed her at home, cannot be positively dechled. 
 IJut her sojourn in the imperial city was a turn- 
 ing-point In her career. Haptism was adminis- 
 tered to her by the patriarch Polyeuetes, the 
 emperor Constantino Porphyrogcnitus officiating 
 as sponsor. Polyeuetes then solemnly addressed 
 tlie princess, predicting that through her instru- 
 mentality Uussia should be richly blessed. 
 'Olgii,' writes M. Mouravieff, 'now become 
 Helena by baptism, tluit she miglit resemble both 
 in name and deed the mother of Constontine the 
 Great, stowl meekly bowing down her head, and 
 drinking in, as a sponge that is thirsty of moist- 
 ure, the instructions of the pi;'latc. ' . . . Some 
 latent Impressions favourable to Chi-istianity her 
 youngest grandson, Vladimir, doubtless owed to 
 her. Nevertheless when, at the death of his 
 brother Yarapolk, for which indeed he was held 
 responsible, he mounted the throne, no signs of 
 a grocious character revealed themselves. He 
 was, on the contrary, a bitter and bigoted pagan. 
 ... It seems to have occurred to many mission- 
 aries of varying types, tliat a chief of such mark 
 should not be left at the mercy of his own violent 
 passions. The spiritual well-being of Vladimir 
 accordingly became the object of laborious jour- 
 neys, of much exertion, and of redundant elo- 
 quence. . . . Last of nil came a Greek emissary. 
 He was neither ' a priest nor a missionary, but a. 
 philosopher.' . . . Like Bogorid, the wild Rus- 
 sian chief was greatly moved. . . . The follow- 
 ing year the king laid before the elders of his 
 council the rival pleas of these variously recom- 
 mended forms of faith, and solicited their advice. 
 Tlie nobles mused awhile, and then counselled 
 their master to ascertain how each religion 
 worked at home. This, they thought, would be 
 more practical evidence than the plausible repre- 
 sentations of professors. On this suggestion 
 Vladimir actetl. Envoys were chosen, — pre- 
 sumably, for their powers of observation, — and 
 the embassy of inquiry started. ' This public 
 agreement, says the historian of the Russian 
 Church, 'explains in some degree the suddeii 
 
 466 
 
nimaTiANiTY. 
 
 CTirUCH OP KNOLAND. 
 
 and noiiprii' luccptiincf of ClirlHtlnnity which 
 Hhortly iiflcr .'ollowcil in KuhmIii. It in |)r()lmbl() 
 thnt nnt only tlin chii^rx, l)Ut tho coniinoii people 
 bIso, were expecting and ready for tlu- elnuiKO.' 
 A report, far from encoiiraKlnK, was In due time 
 received from the umbiiSHiutorK. Of the (lerman 
 nnil Itoinan, an well as the .lewiHli, rellKlonH in 
 dally life, they Hpoke in very diHpaniKdn); lerins, 
 while they (h'clared the MiiHHulinan creed, when 
 reduced lopractice, to Ih' utterly outof the iiuch- 
 tion. Disuppointed in all tlu'w (piarters, they 
 now proceeded, by c<miniand, to (.'oiiHtantinople, 
 or, aH tlu^ UuHtilanH railed it, T/araKoriMl. . . . 
 Singularly enough, the UuHxian envoys, nccuH- 
 tnnie<l, M we inUHt HuppoHC them to Imvo been, 
 only to the ban-Ht Himplicity of life, had roni- 
 plained not otdy of the paucity of decoration in 
 the Latin cliurclicH, but of a laclc of beauty in 
 their nppointmentx. Thux the preparations of 
 tlio patriarch were accurately fitted to their ex- 
 pectant frame of ndnd. They were U^d into the 
 church of S. Sophia, gleaming; with variegated 
 marbles, and porphyries, and Jasper, at thnt timo 
 ' the ma.Hterpie<'e of Ohrislian architecture.' Tho 
 building glittered with gold, and rich mosaics. 
 The service was that of a high fcstivid, either of 
 St. John Olirysostom, or of the Deatli of the 
 Virgin, and wiw conducted by the patriarch In 
 person, clad In his most gorgeous vestments. 
 ... On their return to Vladimir, tlicy dilated 
 with eager delight on the wonders they had seen. 
 The king listened gravely to tbi'ir glowing ac- 
 count of 'the tcmi)le, like which tliero was none 
 upon earth.' After sweetness, they protested, bit- 
 ternes.s would l)o unbearable, so that — whatever 
 others might do — they at all events should at 
 onco abandon heathenism. While the king hesi- 
 tated, his boyers turned tho scale by reminding 
 him that if tlio creed of tho Oreeks had not in- 
 deed had much to recommend it, his pious and 
 sagacious gnindmother. Princess Olga, would 
 not have loved and obeyed it. Her name acte<l 
 like a talisman. Vladimir resolved to conform 
 to Chiistianity. Hut still, fondly clinging to the 
 habits of his forefathers, he cherislied tho idea of 
 wooing and winning his now n^ligion by the 
 sword. . . . Under the auspices of the sovereign, 
 
 the stately church of St. Itasil soon arose, im the 
 very spot recently occupied by the ti-mplo of 
 Perun. Kief iM'came the centre of ('hristlan In- 
 lluence, whence evangell/.ltigencrgies nidiatcd In 
 idl directions. Schools and churches were built, 
 while .Michael, th(> first Pii'tropolitan, attended 
 by his bislKips, 'man.' progresses into 1 hi' interior 
 of KuHsia, everywhere oapll/.ing and instructing 
 the people.' The Orcek c.uioii law came Into 
 force, and llic use of the scj-vicebook anil choral 
 music of the (Ireek communion iH-camc general, 
 wlule. In llie Slavoid(! Scriptures and Liturgy of 
 ('yril and MetlKulius, a road was discovered 
 which led Htraight to the hearts of th(^ native 
 population. 'Cyril and .MetlKHliiis, if anyone, 
 must be considered by antlclpalioi. as the (Irst 
 Christian teachers of Russia; their rude alphabet 
 first instructed the Russian nation in letters, and, 
 by Its quaint Oreek cjiaractcrs, still tcslilles In 
 every Uussian book, and on every Russian house 
 or shop, tlie (Ireck source of the religion and lit- 
 erature of the empire. '" — (J. F. .Maclear, Cnnrer- 
 »ioHofthe We»t : T/te Slam, eh. 5. 
 
 "As in the first centuries it was necessary 
 tliat the leaven of Christianity sbouM gradually 
 pcnctrat(! the entire intelieefual life of the culti- 
 vated nations, befont a new spiritual creation, 
 striking its root in the forms of tho (Irecian an(l 
 Roman (•ulture, which Chrisfianily appropriated, 
 coidd in tliese forms completely \infold itself; so 
 after the same i tanner it was necessary that tho 
 Icnvon of Chrisuan.ly which . . . had been intro- 
 duced into the masses of the tuifutored nations, 
 sliould gradually iii'netrate their whole inward 
 life, before u new and peculiar spiritual creation 
 couhl spring out of it, which shouli! go on to 
 unfold itself through the entire i>eri(Ml of tho 
 middle ages. And tho period in which we now 
 aro must bo regarded as still belonging to the 
 epoch of transition from tliat old spiritual crea- 
 tion which flourished on tlie basis of (Irecian and 
 Roman culture to tho new one." — A. Neandcr, 
 (teneral lli»t. of the ('hrintian IMif/ioii, niid 
 Vhurfh, V. 3, p. 456. — Wo leave tho author's sen- 
 tence incomplete, that it may express tlie more 
 fully all tho subsequent history of Christianity. 
 
 CHRISTINA, Queen-regent of Spain, A. D. 
 
 1833-1841 Christina, Queen oi Sweden, 
 
 A. I). 163J5-1054. 
 
 CHRISTINOS. The. See Spain: A. I). 
 1833-1846. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER I., King- of Denmark, 
 
 A. D. 1253-1259 Christopher II., A. 1). 
 
 1819-1834 Christopher III., King of Den- 
 mark, Sweden and Norway, A. D. 1430- 
 1448. 
 
 CHRYSE. — Vague reports of a region called 
 Chryso (tho Golden), somewhere beyond tho 
 Ganges, and of an isl ind bearing tho sumo name, 
 off llio mouths of the Ganges, as well as of 
 another island called Argyro (tho Silver Island), 
 were prevalent among the early Roman geo- 
 graphical writers. 'They probably all had 
 reference to tho Malay peninsula, which Ptolemy 
 called the Golden Chersonese. — E. 11. Bunbury, 
 HiH. of Aneient Gcog., eh. 25. 
 
 CHRYSLER'S FARM, Battle of. Sec 
 United Statks ok Am. : A. D. 1813 (Octobek — 
 
 NOVEMBEU). 
 
 CHRYSOBULUM. See GoujBaj Bull, 
 Byzantine. -,.■■■■ - , . . 
 
 CHRYSOPOLIS.— Modern Scufjiri, opposite 
 Constantinople ; originally tho port of the city of 
 Chalccdon. 
 
 CHRYSOPOLIS, Battle of (A. D. 323). 
 See Home: A. I). 30.')-323. 
 
 CHUMARS. See Caste Svste.m or India. 
 
 CHUMASHAN FAMILY, The. See 
 Ameuican AiiouiQiNEs: Chimasiian Family. 
 
 CHUR, The Bishopric of. Sco Tyuoi,, and 
 Switzehi.and: A. D. 13IW-1490. 
 
 CHURCH, The Armenian. Sen Akmeman 
 Ciiuncii. 
 
 CHURCH OF BOHEMIA, The Utraquist 
 National. SccHoiikmia: .V. 1). 1134-1457. 
 
 CHURCH IN BRAZIL, Disestablishment 
 of the. SeeBuAZii.: A. 1). 1889-1891. 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND: Origin and 
 Establishment. See Knol.vnd: A. D. 1527- 
 1534; 1531-1.563; and 1535-1539. 
 
 The Six Articles. See Esoland: A. I). 
 1539. 
 
 The completed Church-reform under Ed- 
 ward VI. See Enoi.and: A. D. 1547-1553. 
 
 The doubtful conflict of religions. See Eng- 
 land: A. D. 1553. 
 
 467 
 
CHURCH OP ENOLANO. 
 
 CILK^IAN GATES. 
 
 Romaniim reitored by Mary. Sci> Enoi.and : 
 A. I). I.Vm-I.mM. 
 
 Recovery of Proteitantiim under Eliiabeth. 
 
 Bvi' KN"I.AM); a. I). l.V)M-l.')HH. 
 
 The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. 
 8.-I' K.Noi.AMi: A. I). I.V)1I. 
 
 Riie of Puritanitm. Siie Enoi^nu: A. I>. 
 irL^u-iNMi; i:>()i-ir»<n(Y). 
 
 The Deipotiam of Laud. 8vc Enulanu: 
 A. I». in;i:i-i((i(i. 
 
 Riie of the Independents. Hm Enoland: 
 A. 1>. Hl:tH Itmi. 
 
 The Root and Branch Bill. Hvv. Enoland: 
 A. I). Kill (Maui II — May). 
 
 The Westminster Asiembly. See Eniii.and: 
 A. I). llUlK.li i.v), ami DMlKMAm ii). 
 
 The Solemn League and Covenant. Sou 
 
 EN(11.A.NI». .V. 1). Ittl!) (.Ii:i.Y— Sl:|-TKMI1KU) 
 
 The Restoration.— The Savoy Conference. 
 
 Hi'c KNdi.AM); A. 1). lltOl (Ai'uii.— .hi.v). 
 
 The Act of Uniformity and persecution of 
 Nonconformists. .Sec K.n<ii./.m>: A. I). UWi- 
 
 uwr,. 
 
 Charles' Declaration of Indulgence, and the 
 Test Act. Hee Enoi.anu: A. 1). 1073-1073, luid 
 10H7. 
 
 James' Declaration of Indulgence.— Trial of 
 the seven Bishops. .Sec En(ii.ani); A. I). 10H7- 
 10«8. 
 
 The Church and the Revolution. — The Non- 
 Jurors. See En(1I,anii: A. I). tOHU (AlMllL — 
 
 AlIUUHT). 
 
 A. O. 1704.— Queen Anne's Bounty. Sec 
 Qukkn Annk'h Hoi nty. 
 
 A. D. 1711-1714. — The Occasional Conform- 
 ity Bill and the Schism Act. Hov. Emii.anii: 
 A. I). 1711-1714. 
 
 A. D. 1833-1845.— The Oxford or Tract- 
 arian Movement. Si'O Oxfoiid oil Tuact- 
 
 AlllAN .MoVE.\lliNT. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CHURCH OF FRANCE. Seo Gallican 
 
 CiiiJiicir. 
 
 CHURCH, The Greek or Eastern. Suu 
 CiiiiiHTiANnY: A. D. mO-um. 
 
 CHURCH OF IRELAND, Disestablish- 
 ment of the. See Enoi.and: A. 1). 1808-1870. 
 
 CHURCH OF LATTER DAY SAINTS. 
 .See M0UMONI8.M; A. I). 18'.>-18;tO. 
 
 CHURCH OF ROME. See Papacy. 
 
 CHURCH, The Russian.— The great schism 
 known as Raskol. Hce Uuhhia : A. D. lOS.'i- 
 1059, 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.— Its birth. 
 SeeScciTi and; A. 1). 1.547-1.')57. 
 
 The 1 J rst Covenant. Seo Scotland: A. 1). 
 1557. 
 
 Rebellion and triumph of the Lords of the 
 Congregation. See Scotland: A. D. 1558- 
 1500. 
 
 Restoration of Episcopacy. Sec Scotland : 
 A. I). 1573. 
 
 The First National Covenant. See Scot- 
 land; A. I). 1.581. 
 
 The Black Acts. See Scotl.\nd: A. D. 1584 
 
 Appropriation of Church lands. Sec Scot- 
 land: A. I). 1587. 
 
 The Five Articles of Perth. Sec Scotland: 
 A. I). 1018. 
 
 Laud's liturgy and Jenny Geddes' stool. 
 Sec Scotland: A. I). 1037. 
 
 The signing of the National Covenant. Sec 
 Scotland: A. D. 1038. 
 
 The First Bishops' War. See H<;otlani>: 
 A. I). I0;!8-10»0, 
 
 The Second Bishops' War. See Enoland: 
 A. I). 1010, 
 
 The Westminster Assembly. Sees England: 
 A. I). |0.»3(,)ii,v). 
 
 The Solemn League and Covenant. See 
 Eniii.anI): .V. I). 1043 (.lll.Y— Ski-ikmiikk). 
 
 Montrose and the Covenanters. Seo Scot- 
 land: A. I>. HM4-1045, 
 
 The restored king and restored prelacy. Seo 
 Siori.AND; A, l», IftOO 1000. 
 
 Persecutions of the Covenanters. See Scot- 
 I.A.nd: a. I). 100»-1071»; 10711; IOMl-iri81t. 
 
 The Revolution and re-establishment of the 
 Presbyterian Church. Sec Scotland: A. I). 
 1088-101M>. 
 
 The Disruption. — Formation of the Free 
 Church. See S<(>Ti.AND; A. I). 184:1. 
 
 CHURUBUSCO, Battle of. See Mkxico: 
 A. I). 1847 (.Maiicii— Ski'tk.miikk). 
 
 CIBALIS. Battle of (A. D. 313). See Home: 
 A. I). 305-33)). 
 
 CIBOLA, The Seven Cities of. See Amkui- 
 cAN Aiiiiukiinkh: Pijkhi.on. 
 
 CICERO, and the last years of the Roman 
 Republic. See Uomk: H. V. OU-03, 1. 1 44-13. 
 
 CILICIA.— KILIKIA.— An luuient distriet 
 ill the soiitlieiiHterii corner of A«lii Minor, border- 
 ing on Syriii. It wuh 11 siitrupy of llie Persian 
 Empire, then i\ part o.' the kingdom of the Sc- 
 liieidie, iind iifterwiird.s a Uoiimn province. The 
 chief city ot Cilicia was Tarsus, a very ancient 
 eoniinercial eniporiuin, whime peo|)lo were noted 
 for mental acuteness. The ApoHtle Paul is to Im) 
 counted among the d!stingui.shed natives of Tar- 
 sus, and a (plite rtimarkalile number of eminent 
 leaclu^rs of philosophy were from the same birth- 
 place. 
 
 CILICIA, Pirates of.— DuringtheMithridatic 
 wars ])inuy was developed to alarming propor- 
 tions 111 the eastern parts of the Mediterranean 
 Sea. Distracted by civil conflicts and occupied 
 by foreign ones, simultaneously, the Uomaiis, for 
 a considerable period, gave uo proper heed to the 
 growth of this lawli'.ssness, until they found 
 their commerce half destroyed and Home and 
 Italy actually threatened with starvation by the 
 intercepting of their supplies from abroad. The 
 pirates flourished under the protection and en- 
 couragement of the king of Pontus, at whoso 
 instance they established their chief head- 
 quarters, their docks, arsenals and magazines, at 
 various points on the coast of Cilfria. Hence the 
 name Cilician came to be applied to all the 
 pirates of the time. This era of piracy was 
 brought to an end, at last, by Pompey, who was 
 sent against them, B. C. 67, with extraordinary 
 powers conferred by the law known as the Lex 
 Qabinia. He proceeded to his undertaking with 
 remarkable energy and ability, and his hunting 
 down of the freebooters which lie accomplished 
 effectually within three months from the day his 
 operations begun, was really the most brilliant 
 exploit of his life.— U. G. Liddell, Hist, uf 
 Jiome, bk. 7, eh. 03. 
 
 Also in : C. Merivule, Hist, of the liomant, 
 eh. 1. — O. Long, Deeline of the Roman Repxiblie, 
 V. 3, ch. 0-7. 
 
 CILICIAN GATES.— A pass through the 
 Taurus range of mountains, opening from Cap- 
 padocia into Cilicia, was anciently culled the 
 
 468 
 
CILICIAN OATKS. 
 
 CIMnill AND TKUTONKS. 
 
 Pylm rr.lrlio or Clllrliwi (IiiUh, Tin- city of 
 Tyikiin witn HitiiiiU'd ut tlic I'litriincc to llin pimi. 
 Ilotli XtMioiilioii iiikI Alrxiuuirr, wlir> trikvcrm'il 
 It, fU'om to liavi* ri'KiirilciI the \mnn im our whit'li 
 iionriiiy coiilil fonuilf propi'rlyiU'ffliKliMl. — K. II. 
 liiinltuVy, Uiiil. iif Aneifitt (lemj., eh. 10, iiecl. 2, 
 ami rli. \'i. mrt. 1. 
 
 CILURNUM.— A Koinnn city In Hrltnlii. 
 " tin' cxIciikIvc riilim of wlilcli, well (IcHcrllicil iiH 
 n MritiMli I'otnpt'il, iin; vIhIIiIc iiciir tin- iiKidcrn 
 liiunlctH of ClicHtcrH." — T. Wright, Celt, Human 
 antf Stiroii, r/i. 5. 
 
 CIMARRONES, The. SrcAMKitiCA: A. D. 
 tr)Ti-\r,m, hihI .Iamaua; a. I). i()r)5-l7u«. 
 
 CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, The.— "For 
 II coiislilcral)!)' period [second century, B. (',] nn 
 ' iinwttleil people ' Imd been wiinderlnjf alon^ 
 the northern vcrife of the country oc(!upied hy 
 the Cell!* on hollisldcH of the Diirnihc. They 
 I'lilled theinMclves the t.'Inihrl. thiit l«, the C'hein- 
 nho, Iho chitniplotm, or, hh their enemies tranH- 
 lilted It, the robbers; ii dcHlKniitlon, however, 
 which to all iippeiinince hiid become the niimo of 
 th(^ people even before their mljfriitlon. They 
 came from the north, and the llntt Celtic pcoph; 
 with whom they canii^ In contact were, so far as 
 Is known, the lioil, probably In liohenda. More 
 exact details as to the cause and the direction of 
 their mlKi'iitlon have not iK'cn recorded by con- 
 tcniponiries and cannot be supplied by C(mjecture. 
 . . . Hut th(' hypothesis that the Chnbri, us well 
 as the similar horde of the Teutones which after- 
 wards joined them, belonged In the main not to 
 the (y'eftic nation, to which the Uonians at first 
 assigned them, but to the Germanic, Is 
 supported by the most dctlnlte facts: viz., by 
 the existence of two small tribes of the same 
 name — remnants left behind to all appearance 
 In their primitive seats — the C'Imbri In the 
 mfslern Denmark, the Teutones in the north-east 
 of Germany in the neighlwurluMxl of the IJaltlc. 
 where .fythcas, a contwnporary of Alexander 
 the QreuL, makes mention of them thus curly in 
 j'oiinoction with the umlx'r trude; by the 
 insertion of the CImbri and Teutones in the list 
 of the Germanic peoples among the Ingfcvones 
 niongside of the Chanel; by the judgment of 
 Ciesar, who first made tlio Romans acquainted 
 with the distinction between the Germans and 
 the Celts, and who includes the CImbri, many of 
 whom he must himself have seen, among the 
 Germans; and lastly, by the very names of the 
 peoi)le and the statements as to their physical 
 appearance and habits. . . . On the other hand 
 it is conceivable enough that such a liorde, after 
 having wandered perhaps for many years, and 
 having doubtless welcomed every brother-in- 
 arms who joined it in its movemeii's near to or 
 within the land of the Celts, would include a 
 certain amount of Celtic elements. . . . When 
 men afterwards began to trace the chain, of 
 which this emigration, the first Germanic move- 
 ment which touched the orbit of -.ncient civili- 
 zation, was a link, the direct and living knowledge 
 of it had long passed away." — T. Mommsen, 
 ITi/it. of Rome, hk. 4, ch. 5. — "The name Kymri, 
 or Cymri, still exists. It is the name that the 
 Welsh give themselves, but I •\,m not aware that 
 any other people have called iiicm by that name. 
 These Kymri are a branch of the great Celtic 
 peonle, and this resemblance of the words Kymri 
 and Cimbri has led many modern writers to 
 assume that the Cimbri were also a Celtic 
 
 people, as many of the ancient writers namo 
 them. liut these ancient writers an- principally 
 tlie later Greeks, who are no authority at all 
 on such a mailer. . . . Th<' nami- Clinbrl hait 
 perished in Germany, wliUetlmt of the Teutones, 
 iiy some strange aeeldent. Is now the tiameof Iho 
 whole Germanl(! population." — G. Long, AWi'/io 
 i>f Ihi' Itiimitii lliim/ilii; r. 3, r/i, t. 
 
 Al.Ho IN: W. Ihne, Ifinl. if li,imi\ hk, 7, <•//. It. 
 
 B.C. 1 13-103.— Battle* with the Romani. 
 — The CImbri and the Teutones made tlii'lr llrst 
 nppeitrancu on the Itoman horl/.on In the year 
 118 IJ. C. when Ihey eiilired .Noricum. The 
 Norlcans were an independent people, as yet, 
 but accepted a lertiiln protect Ion from Itoine, 
 and the latter sent her eon ul, Carbo, with an 
 I'rmy, to defend them. Carbo inaile an unfortu- 
 nate attirmpt to di'id Ireaeherouslv with Iho 
 invaders and siilTered an appalling defeat. 
 Then the migraling barbarians, Invtead of press- 
 ing into Italy, on the heels lA the tlying Itomans, 
 turned westward through Helvetia" to (hiul, and 
 occupied themselves for four yeiirs In ravaging 
 that unhappy country. In 100 H. ('., having 
 gathered tiielr plunder Into the forlilled town of 
 Aduatuca and left It well protectiMl, they 
 advanced into the Iloman province of Narbo, 
 .Southern Gaul, and demanded land to settlii 
 upon. The Romans reslst<'d and were agniti 
 overwhelmingly beaten. Rut even now thu 
 victorious host did not venture to enter Italy, 
 and nothing is known of Its movements until 10,5 
 R. ('. , when a third Roman army was defeated in 
 Roman Gaul an<l Its commaniler taken prisoner 
 and slain. The alTrighted l^)muns sent strong 
 recnfo.'-cemcnts to the Rhone; but jealousy 
 between the consul who commandeil the new 
 army and the proconsul who retained command 
 of the f)ld delivered both of them to destruction. 
 They were virtually annlhilateil, Oct. fl, B. C. 
 10.'), at Arausio (Orange), on the left bank of Iho 
 Rhone. It Is said that 8U,(MX) Roman soldiers 
 perished on tluit dreadful field, liesides half as 
 many more of camp followers. "This much 
 is certain," says Mommsen, " that only a few out 
 of the two armies succeeded in escaping, for tho 
 Romans had fought with the river in their rear. 
 \* was a calamity which materially and morally 
 f. • surpas8t!d the day of Canine." In the panic 
 wliich tills disaster cn'\sed at Rome the consti- 
 tution of tho Republic was broken down. 
 Marius, conqueror of Jugurtha, was recalled 
 from Africa and not only re-ehiclcd to tho Consul- 
 ship, but invested with the otlice for five 
 successive years. He took command In Gaul and 
 found that the formit'able Invaders had moved 
 off into Spain. This gave him time, fortunately, 
 for the organizing and disciplining of his demoral- 
 ized troops. When the barbarians reappeared 
 on t!ie Rhone, in the summer of 103 I). C. , ho 
 faced them with an army worthy of earlier 
 Roman times. They had now resolved, 
 apparently, to force their way, at all hazards, 
 into Italy, and had divided tlieir incrt'iising host, 
 to move on Rome by two routes. The Cimbri, 
 reinforced by the TIgorini, who had joined them, 
 made a circuit to tlio Eastern Alps, while tho 
 Teutones, with Ambrones and TougenI for con- 
 federates crossed tho Rlione and attacked tho 
 defenders of the western passes. Failing to 
 make any impression on the fortified camp of 
 Marius the Teutones rashly passed it, marching 
 straight for the coast road to Ituiy. Mariuii 
 
 469 
 
CIMBRI AND TEUT0NE8. 
 
 CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OP THE. 
 
 cautiously followed nnd after some days gave 
 battle to the barbarians, in the distrint of Aqiiic 
 Scxtiie, a few miles nortli of Massilia. Tlic 
 Uomans that day t<iok revenj^e for Arausio with 
 a\vf\il int<^rest. The whole barbaric horde was 
 antiiliilated. "So great was tlic number of 
 dead bo<iie8 that the land in tlie neighborlioo<l 
 was made fertile by them, and the people of 
 Massilia used the Ixmes for fencing tlieir vine- 
 yards." Meantime tlie Cimbri nnd their fellows 
 had reached and penetrated the Brenner pass and 
 were in the valley of the Adige. The Roman 
 army stationed there had given way before them, 
 and Marius was needed to roll the invasion back. 
 lie did so, on the 30th of July B. C. 101, when 
 the Cimbr; were destroyed, at a ba'tle fought on 
 the Raudine Plain near VerccUa;, : is completely 
 as the Tcntones had been destroyed at Aqua; 
 Bcxtiffi. — T. Mommsen, Hint, of Rome, bk. 4, 
 eh. 5. 
 Ai-BO IN : W. Ihne, Hut. of Rome, bk. 7, ch. 0. 
 
 CIMBRIAN CHERSONESUS.— The mod- 
 ern Danish promontory of tlutland; believed to 
 have been the liomo of the Cimbri before they 
 migrated southwards and invaded Gaul. 
 
 CIMINIAN FOREST, The.— The moun- 
 tains ol Viterbo, which formed anciently the 
 frontier of Rome towards Etruria, were then 
 covered with a thick forest — "the 'silvaCim- 
 Inia' of which Livy gives so romantic a descrip- 
 tion. It was, however, nothing but a natural 
 division between two nations which were not con- 
 nected by friendship, and wished to have little to 
 do with each other. . . . This forest was by no 
 means like the 'silva Ilercynia' with which Livy 
 compares it, but was of just such an extent that, 
 according to his own account, the Romans only 
 wanted a couple of hours to march through it." 
 — B. Q. Niebuhr, Leets. on the IlUt. of Rome, 
 leet. 44. 
 
 CIMMERIANS, The.— "The name Cim- 
 merians appears in the Odyssey, — the fable 
 describes them as dwelling beyond the ocean- 
 stream, immersed in darkness and unblessed by 
 the rays of Helios. Of this people as existent 
 we can render no account, for they had passed 
 away, or lost their Identity and become subject, 
 previous to the commencement of trustworthy 
 authorities : but they seem to have been the chief 
 occupants of the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea) and 
 of the territory between thr.c peninsula and tlie 
 river Tyras (Dneister) at th : time when the Greeks 
 first commenced their permanent settlements 
 on those coasts in the sevcntli century B. C. 
 Th'i numerous localities which bore their name, 
 even in the time of Herodotus, after they had 
 ceased to exist as a nation, — as well as the tombs 
 of the Cimmerian kings then shown near the 
 Tyras, — sufficiently attest the fact; and there is 
 reason to believe that they were — like their con- 
 querors and successors tlie Scythians — a nomadic 
 people, mare-milkers, moving about with their 
 tents and herds, suitably to the nature of those 
 unbroken steppes which their territory pre- 
 sented, and which offered little except herbage 
 in profusion. Strabo tells us — on what autliority 
 we do not know — that tlicy, us well as the 
 Trflres and other Thracians, had desolated Asia 
 Jlinor more tlian once before the time of Ardys 
 [King of Lydia, seventh century B. C] and even 
 earlier than Homer." — G. Grote, JIM. of &reece, 
 pt. 2, ch. 17. — See, also, CuMiE. 
 
 CIMON, Career of. Sec Atkens: B, C. 477- 
 463, to .'30-449. 
 
 CIMON, Peace of. See Athens: B. C. 400- 
 440, 
 
 CINCINNATI : A. D. 1788.— The founding 
 and naming of the city. — In 1787 "an offer was 
 made to Congress by Jolm Clevc Sj .nines [after- 
 wards famous for his theory that the earth is 
 hollow, with openings at the poles], to buy two 
 millions of acres betwf anthe Little and the Great 
 Miamis. Symmes was a .Terseyman of wealth, 
 had visitet' the Shawanese country, had been 
 greatly pleased with its fertility, and had come 
 away declaring that every acre in the wildest 
 part was worth a silver dollar. It was too, he 
 thought, only a question of time, and a very 
 short time, when this value would be doubled 
 and tripled. Thousands of immigrants were 
 pouring into this valley each j'ear, hundreds of 
 thousands of acres were being taken up, and the 
 day would soon come when the rich land along 
 the Miamis and the C'hio would be in great de- 
 mand. There was therefore a mighty fortune in 
 store for the lucky speculator who should buy 
 land from Congress for five shillings an acre and 
 sell it to immigrants for twenty. But . . . his 
 business lagged, and though his offer to pur- 
 chase was made in August, 1787, it was the 15th 
 of May, 1788, before the contract was closed. 
 In the meaatime he put out a pamphlet and made 
 known his terms of sale. A copy soon fell into 
 the hands of Matthias Denman. He became in- 
 terested in the scheme and purchased that section 
 on which now stands the city of Cincinnati. One 
 third he kept, one third he sold to Robert Patter- 
 son, and the remainder to Jolm Filson. The con- 
 ditions of the purchase from Symmes gave them 
 two years in which to begin making clearings 
 and building huts. But the three determined to 
 lose no time, and at once matle ready to lay out 
 a city directly opposite that spot where the 
 waters of the Licking mingled themselves with 
 the Ohio. Denman and Patterson were no 
 scholars. But Filson had once been a school- 
 master, knew a little of Latin and something of 
 history, and to him was assigned the duty of 
 choosing a name for the town. . . . He determined 
 to make one, and produced a word that was a 
 most absurd mixture of Latin, Greek and Frenoh. 
 He called the place Losnntiville, which, being 
 interpreted, means the city opposite the mouth 
 of the Licking. A few weeks later the Indians 
 scalped him.' — J. B. McMaster, Hist, of the Peo- 
 ple of the U. S., V. 1, p. 516. — The name given 
 a little later to Filson's settlement was conferred 
 on it by General St. Clair, Governor of the Ter- 
 ritory, in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati. 
 See Northwest Teruitory of the U. S. : A. D. 
 1788-1802. 
 
 Ai-soiN: F.W. Miller, Cincinnati's BeginntTms. 
 
 A. D. 1863. — Threatened by John Morgan's 
 Rebel Raid. See United States op Am. ; 
 A. D. 1883 (July: Kentucky). 
 
 CINCINNATI, The Society of the.— "Men 
 of the present generation who in childhood rum- 
 maged in their grandmothers' cosy garrets can- 
 not fail to have come across scores of musty and 
 worm-eaten pamphlets, their yellow pages 
 crowded with italics and exclamation points, in- 
 veighing in passionate language against the 
 wicked and dangerous Society of the Cincinnati. 
 Just before the army [of the American Revolu- 
 
 470 
 
CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS. 
 
 tion] was disbanded, the oflicers, at the sugges- 
 tion of General Knox, formed themselves [April. 
 17831 into a secret society, for the purpose of 
 kcepuig up their friendly intercourse and cher- 
 ishing the heroic memories of the struggle iu 
 whicli they had taken part. With the fondness 
 for classical analogies which characterized that 
 time, they likened themselves to Cincinnatus, 
 V, ho was taken from the plow to lead an army, 
 and returned to his quiet farm so soon as his 
 warlike duties were over. They were modern 
 Cincinnati. A constitution and by-laws were 
 established for tlie order, and Washington was 
 unanimously chosen to be its president. Its 
 branches in the several states were to hold meet- 
 ings each Fourth of July, and there was to be 
 a general meeting of tlie whole society every 
 year in the month of May. French officers who 
 had taken part in the war were admitted to 
 membership, and the order was to be perpetu- 
 ated by descent through the eldest male repre- 
 sentatives of the families of tlie members. It 
 was furflier provided tliat a limited membersliip 
 should from time to time be granted, as a dis- 
 tinguished honour, to able and worthy citizens, 
 without regard to the memories of tlie war. A 
 golden American eagle attached to a blue ribbon 
 edged with white was tho sacred badge of the 
 order ; and to this emblem especial favour was 
 shown at the French court, where th^ insignia of 
 foreign states were generally, it is said, regarded 
 witii jealousy. No political purpose was to be 
 subserved by this order of the Cincinnati, save 
 in so far as the members pledged to one another 
 their determination to promote and clierisli the 
 union between the states. In its main intent the 
 society was to be a kind of masonic brotherliopd, 
 charged with the duty of aiding the widows and 
 the orpl.an children of its mi mbers iu time of 
 need. Innocent as all this was, however, the 
 news of the establishment of such a society was 
 greeted with a howl of indignation all over the 
 country. It was thought that its founders were 
 inspired by a deep-laid political scheme for 
 centralizing the government and setting up a 
 hereditary aristocracy. . . . The absurdity of tlie 
 situation was quickly realized by Washington, 
 and he prevailed upon the society, in its first 
 annual meeting of May, 1784, to abandon the 
 principle of hereditary membership. The agita- 
 tion was thus allayed, and in the presence of 
 graver questions the inuch-dreaded brotherhood 
 gradually ceased to occupy popular attention." — 
 J. Fiske, The Critical Period of Am. Hist., cli. 3. 
 —J. B. McMaster, lEd. of tlve People of the U. S., 
 V. 1, ch. 3. — "Tlie hereditary succession was 
 never abandoned. A recommendation to tliat 
 effect was indeed made to tlie several State 
 Societies, at the first General Meeting in Phila- 
 delphia. . . . But tlie proposition, unwillingly 
 urged, was accepted in deprecatory terms by 
 some, and by others it was totally rejected. . . . 
 At the second General Meeting, it was resolved 
 ' that the alterations could not take effect until 
 they had been agreed to by all the State Societies. ' 
 They never were so agreed to, and consequently 
 the original Institution remains in full force. 
 Those Societies that accepted the proposed alter- 
 ations unconditionally, of course perished with 
 their own generation." — A. Johnston, Some Ace'', 
 of thi Sac. of the Cincinnati (Penn. Hist. Soc. 
 Memoirs, v. 6, pp. 51-53). — "The claim to mem- 
 bership has latterly been determined not by strict 
 
 primogeniture, but by a 'just elective preference, 
 especially in the line of tlie tlrst-born, ' who has 
 a moral but not an absolutely indisputable right; 
 and membership has always been renewed by 
 election. . . . Si.\ only of the original thirteen 
 states — Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina — 
 are still [in 1873] represented at tlie General 
 Meetings. Tlie largest society, that of Jlassa- 
 chusetts, consisting originally of 343 members, 
 now [1873] numbers less than 80; that of New 
 York, from 230 had in 1858 decrcaseil to 73; the 
 368 of Pen.isylvania to about «0; the 110 of 
 New Jersey, in 1860, to 60; and the 131 of South 
 Carolina was, in 1849, reduced to 71." — F. S. 
 Drake, Meriuirials of the Soc. of the CinHimati of 
 Mass., p. 37. 
 
 CINCO DE MAYO, Battle of (1862). See 
 Mexico;, A. D. 1861-1867. 
 
 CINE, The.— Kinsfolk of the head of the 
 tribe, among the ancient Iribh. 
 
 CINQ MARS, Conspiracy of. See France: 
 A. D. 1641-16;3. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS, The.-" Hastings, Sand- 
 wich, Dover, Romuey, Ilythe — this is the order 
 in which the Cinque Ports were ranked in the 
 times when they formed a nourishing and 
 important confederation. Winchelsca and Rye 
 were added to these live . . . soon after the Nor- 
 man Conquest. . . . The new comers were 
 ofHcially known as 'the two Ancient Towns.' 
 Wlien therefore we wish to speak of this famous 
 corporation with strict accuracy wo say, ' Tlio 
 live Cinque Ports and two Ancient Towns. ' Tlie 
 repetition of the number ' five ' in this title proba- 
 bly never struck people so much a.s we might 
 expect, since it very soon came to be merely a 
 technical term, tlie French form of the word 
 being pronounced, and very often spelt ' Synke ' 
 or ' Sinke,' just as if it was the English ' Sink ' 
 . . . The difference between the Cinque Ports 
 and the rest of the English coast towns is plainly 
 indicated by mcdiaival custom, since tlicy were 
 generally spoken of collectively as ' The Ports. ' 
 . . . Most writers upon this subject . . . have 
 been at pains to connect tlie Cinque Ports by 
 some sort of direct descent with the Ave Roman 
 stations and fortresses whicli, under the Comes 
 Littoris Saxonicl [see Saxon Siioiie, Count of], 
 guarded the soutli-eastern shores of Britain." 
 — M. Burrows, The Cinque Ports, eh. 1-3. — "Our 
 kings have thought them [the Cinque Ports] 
 wortliy a peculiar regard ; and, in order to secure 
 them against inv;isions, have granted tlieni a 
 particular form of government. They are under 
 a keeper, who has the title of Lord Warden of 
 the Cinque Ports (an officer first appointed by 
 William the Conqueror), who has lie i- uthority 
 of an admiral among them, and issues out writs 
 in his own name. The privileges anciently 
 annexed to these ports and tlieir dependents 
 wen! [among others]: An exemption from all 
 taxes and tolls. ... A power to punish foreign- 
 ers, as well as natives, for theft. ... A power 
 to raise mounds or banks in any man's land 
 against breaches of tlie sea. ... To convert to 
 their own use such goods as tliey found floating 
 on the sea; those thrown out of ships in a storm; 
 and those driven ashore when no wreck or ship 
 was to be seen. To be a guild or fraternity, and 
 to be allowed the franchises of court-leet and 
 court-baron. A power to assemble and keep a 
 portmote or parliament for the Cinque Ports, 
 
 17J. 
 
CINQUE PORTS. 
 
 CISTERCIAN ORDER. 
 
 . . . Their bnrona to have the privilege of gup- 
 porting the cnnopy over tlie king's liead at liis 
 coronation. In return for tlicse privilege.s the 
 Cinrjue Port.s were required tr Hi o>it 57 ships, 
 cacli niiinned witli 21 men and a boy, witli 
 whicli they were to attend the king's service for 
 15 days at tlieir own expensf ; but if the state 
 of affairs reiiuired tlieir assistance any longer 
 they were to be paid by the crown. ... As the 
 term baron occurs continually throughout all the 
 charters of the Ports, it may not be improper to 
 inform our readers that it is of the same imiiort 
 as burge.ss or freeman. . . . The representatives 
 of the Ports in |)arliament are to this day styled 
 barons." The post of Warden of the Cinque 
 Ports, " formerly considered of so much honour 
 and consequence, is now converted into a patent 
 sinecure place, for life;, with a sjilary of £4,000 a 
 year." — llint. of the Jloroufflui of Ore/it Britain; 
 tof/et/ier with the Cinque Ports, v. 3. — The olHceof 
 Warden of the Cincpie Ports has been held 
 during the present century bv Mr. Pitt, the Earl 
 of Liverpool, the Duke of Wellington, the Enri 
 of Dalhousie, Viscount Palmcrston, and Earl 
 Granville. 
 
 CINTRA, Convention of. See Spain: A.I). 
 1808-1809 (August— .I.VNu.\Hv). 
 
 CIOMPI, Tumult of the. See Florence: 
 A. D. 1378-1427. 
 
 CIRCARS, OR SIRKARS, The northern. 
 See lNr>i.\: A. D. 1758-1761. 
 
 CIRCASSIANS. See CJaucasus. 
 
 CIRCLES OF GERMANY, The. See 
 Gekmanv: a. I). 149:^1519. 
 
 CIRCUMCELLIONES, The. See Dona- 
 
 TISTS. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE 
 WORLD: A. D. 1519-1522.— Magellan's voy- 
 age : the first in history, ^ee America : 
 A. D. 1519-1524. 
 
 A. D. 1577-1580. — Drake voyage. See 
 A.m:HiCA: A. O. 1572-1580. 
 
 CIRCUS, Factions of the Roman.—" The 
 race, iu its tirst institution [among the Romans], 
 was a simple contest of two chariots, whose 
 drivers were distinguished by white and red 
 liveries: two additional colours, a light green 
 and a cerulian blue, were afterwards introduced ; 
 and as the races were repeated twenty-five times, 
 one hundred chariots contributed m the same 
 day to the pomp of the circus. The four fac- 
 tions soon acquired a legal establishment and a 
 mysterious origin, and their fanciful colours 
 were derived from the various appearances of 
 nature in the four seasons of the year. . . . 
 Another interpretation preferred the elements to 
 the seasons, and the struggle of the green and 
 blue was supposed to represent the conflict of 
 the earth and sea. Their respective victories 
 announced either a plentiful harvest or a pros- 
 perous navigation, and the hostility of the hus- 
 bandmen and mariners was somewhat less absurd 
 than the blind ardour of the Roman people, who 
 devoted their lives and fortunes to the colour 
 which they had espoused. . . . Constantinople 
 adopted the follies, though not the virtues, of 
 ancient Rome ; and the same factions which had 
 agitated the circus raged with redoubled fury in 
 the hippodrome. Under the reign of Anastasius 
 [A. D. 491-518J this popular frenzy was intlamed 
 by religious zeal; and the greens, who had 
 treacherously concealed stones and daggers under 
 
 baskets of fruit, massacred, at a solemn festival, 
 3,000 of their blue adversaries. From the capital 
 this pestilence was diffused into the proviilces 
 and cities of the East, and the sportive distinction 
 of two colours produced two strong and irrecon- 
 cilable factions, which shook the foundations of 
 a feeble government. ... A sedition, which 
 almost laid Constantinople in ashes, w as excited 
 by the mutual hatred and momentary reconcilia- 
 tion of the two factions. " This fearful tumult, 
 which ac(iuired the name of the Nika scditi m, 
 from the cry, " Nika " (vanquish), adopted by tho 
 rioters, broke out in connection with the celebra- 
 tion of the festival of the Ides of January, A. D. 
 532. For five days the city was given up to tho 
 mob and large districts in it were burned, in- 
 cluding many churches and other stately edi- 
 fices. The emperor Justinian would have 
 abandoned his palace and throne, but for tho 
 hen ic "pposition of his consort, Theodora. On 
 the sixth ■ lay, the imperial authority was re-estab- 
 lished by the great soldier, Iielisarius, after 
 30,000 citizens had been slain in the hippodrome 
 and in tlu streets. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall 
 of the lio lUtii Empire, ch. 40. 
 
 CIRC JS MAXIMUS AT ROME, The.— 
 "The races and wild beast shows in the circi 
 were amon^;; the most ancient and most favourite 
 Roman iinusements, and the buildings dedicated 
 to these miwrts were numerous, and nearly equal 
 in inagiiilicence to the ninphitheatrcs. The '^ir- 
 ons Maxim JS, .which was first provided with 
 permanent f.cats for the spectators as early as the 
 time of Taiquinius Priscus, was successively re- 
 stored and ornamented by the republican govern- 
 ment in 327 and 174 U. C. and by Julius CfEsar, 
 Augustus, Claudiiw, Domitian and Trajan. Tho 
 result was a building which, in dimensions and 
 magniflcei.^e, rivalled the Coliseum, but has, 
 unfortunately, prove(\ far less durable, scarcely 
 a vestige of it now being left. " — R. Burn, Rome and 
 tlie Campngnn, int. and ch. 12. — See, also, FounM 
 
 BOARIUM. 
 
 CIRENCESTER, Orign of. See Corinium. 
 
 CIRRHA. See Deli-iii. 
 
 CIRRHiEAN, OR KIRRHiEAN WAR, 
 The. See Athens: V.. C. 010-580, and Delphi. 
 
 CIRTA. — A-n ancient Numidian city. Tho 
 modem town of Constantina in Algeria is on it» 
 site. See Numipians. 
 
 CISALPINE GAUL (GALLIA CISAL- 
 PINA). See Rome: B. C. 390-347. 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. See France: 
 A. D. i. 796-1 797 (October— April); 1797 (May 
 — October); 1799 (April — SeptemiJer); and 
 1801-1803. 
 
 CISLEITHANIA. See Austria: A. D. 
 1866-1807. 
 
 CISPADANE GAUL.— Cisalpine Gaul south 
 of the Padus, or Po. See Padus. 
 
 CISPADANE REPUBLIC, The. Sec 
 France: A. D. 1796-1797 (October— ^Vpril), 
 and 1797 (May— Octoiser). 
 
 CISSIA (KISSIA). See Ela.m. 
 
 CISTERCIAN ORDER.— The Monastery 
 of Citeaux. — "Harding was an Englishman 
 who spent his boyhood in the monastery of Sher- 
 borne in Dorset, till he was seized with a passion 
 for wandering and for study which led him first 
 to Scotland, then to Gaul, and at last to Rome. 
 It chanced that on his return thence, passing 
 through the duchy of Burgundy, ho stopped at 
 the abbey of Mol6mes. As he saw the ways and 
 
 472 
 
CISTERCIAN ORDER. 
 
 CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE. 
 
 hnbits familiar to his cliildhood reproduced in 
 tliose of tlie monlis, the wanderer's lieart yearned 
 for tlie peaceful life which he had forsaken ; he 
 took the vows, and Lecame a brother of the 
 house. But when, with the zeal of a convert^ ho 
 began to look more closely into his monastic 
 obligations, he perceived that the practice of 
 MolCmes, and indeed of most other monasteries, 
 fell very far short of the strict rule of 8. Benedict. 
 He remonstrated with his brethren till they had 
 no rest in their minds. At last after long and 
 anxious debates in the chapter, the abbot deter- 
 mined to go to the root of the matter, and ap- 
 pointed two brethren, whose learning was 
 equalled by their jiiety, to examine diligently 
 the original rule and decla'e what they found in 
 it. The result of tlieii investigations justified 
 Hai-ding's reproaches and caused u schism in the 
 convent. The majoritj' refused to alter their 
 1 ecustomcd ways; tlnding they were not to be 
 reformed, the zealous minority, consisting of 
 Robert the abbot, Harding himself (or Stephen as 
 he was called in religion) and sixteen others 
 equally ' stilf -necked in their holy obstinacy,' left 
 MolCmes, and sought a new abode in the wilder- 
 ness. The site which they eho.se — in the diocese 
 of Ohalon-sur-Saone, not far from Dijon — was 
 no happy valley, no ' green retreat ' such as the 
 earlier Benedictine founders had been wont to 
 select. It was a dismal swamp overgrown with 
 brushwood, a forlorn, dreary, unhealthy spot, 
 from whose marshy character tlie new house took 
 its name of ' the Cistern ' — Cistellum, commonly 
 called Citeaux. There the little band set to 
 work in 1098 to carry into practice their views 
 of monastic duty. . . . Three-and-twenty daugh- 
 ter houses were brought to completion during 
 his [Harding's] life-time. One of the earliest 
 was Pontigny, founded in 1114, and destined in 
 after-days to become inseparably associated witli 
 the name of another English saint. Next year 
 there went forth anotlicr Cistercian colony, 
 whose glory was soon to eclipse that of the 
 mother-house itself. Its leader was a young 
 monk called Bernard, and the place of its settle- 
 ment was named Clairvaux. From Burgundy 
 and Champagne the 'White Monks,' as the Cis- 
 tercians were called from the colour of their 
 habit, soon spread over France and Normandy. 
 In 1128 they crossed the sea and made an en- 
 trance Into their founder's native land." — K. 
 Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, v. 1, 
 eh. 1. 
 
 Also in: S. R. aiaitland, Tlie Bark Ages, 21. 
 
 CITEAUX, The Monastery of. See Cister- 
 cian Order. 
 
 CITIES, Chartered. See Com.mtjne; also 
 BoRouoiis, and Guilds. 
 
 CITIES, Free, of Italy. See Italy: A. D. 
 1056-11.52, and after. 
 
 CITIES, Imperial and Free, of Germany. — 
 "The tenitorial disintegration of Germany [see 
 Germany: 13th Century] had introduced a 
 new and beneficial element into the national life, 
 by allowing the rise and growth of the free 
 cities. These were of two ehisses : those which 
 stood in immediate connection with the Empire, 
 and were practically independent republics; and 
 those which, while owning some dependence 
 vipon spiritual or temporal jirinces, had yet con- 
 querc!^ for themselves a large measure of self- 
 government. The local distribution of the 
 former, which is curiously unequal, depended 
 
 31 
 
 upon the circumstances which attended the dis- 
 solution of the old tribal dukedoms. Wherever 
 some powerful house was able to seize upon tlie 
 inheritance, free cities were few : whenever the 
 contrary was the case, they sprang up in abund- 
 ance. In Swabia and on the Rhine there were 
 more than a himdrcd: Franconia on the contrary 
 counted only N'.^rnberg and five smaller cities: 
 Westphalia, Dortmund and Ilerford: whil(^ in 
 Bavaria, Regensburg stood alone. . . . The Im- 
 perial free cities . . . were self-governed, under 
 constitutions in which the aristocratic and the 
 democratic elements mingled in various propor- 
 tions: they provided for their own defence: they 
 were republics, in the midst of States where the 
 personal will of the ruler counted for more and 
 more. ... In these cities the refined and 
 luxurious civilization, to which the princes were 
 indifferent, and on which the knights wagi'd 
 predatory war, found expression in the pursuit 
 of letters and the cultivation of the arts of life. 
 Tliere, too, the Imperial feeling, which was else- 
 wliere slowly dying out of the land, retained 
 much of its force. The cities held, so to speak, 
 directly of the Empire, to which they looked for 
 protection against powerful and lawless neigh- 
 bours, and they felt that their liberties and 
 privileges were bound up with the maintenance 
 of the general order. ... In them, too, as we 
 might natunilly expect, religious life put on a 
 freer aspect." — C. Beard, Martin Lnlher and the 
 Jicformation, p. 16. — " Prior to the peace of 
 Luneville [1801], Germany possessed 133 free 
 cities, called Reiclistildte. A Reichstadt (' civitas 
 imperii ') was a town under the immediate 
 authority of the Emperor, who was represented 
 by an imperial oflicial called a Vogt or ScliulHieis. 
 The first mention of the term ' civitas imperii ' 
 (imperial city) occurs in an edict of the emperor 
 Frederick II. [1214-12r)0], in which Lubeck was 
 declared a ' civitas imperii ' in perpetuity. In a 
 later edict, of the year 1287, we tind tliat Kiiig 
 Rudolf termed the following places 'civitales 
 regni ' (royal cities), viz., Frankfort, Friedberg, 
 Wetzlar, Oppenheim, Wesel, and Boppart. All 
 these royal cities subsequently became imperial 
 cities in consequence of the Kings of Germany 
 being again raised to the dignity of Emperors. 
 During tlie reign of Louis tlie Bavarian [1314- 
 1347] Latin ceased to be the official language, 
 and the imperial towns were designated in the 
 vernacular 'Richstat.' In course of time the 
 imperial towns acquired, either by purchase or 
 conquest, their independence. Besides the 
 Reichstildte, there were Freistttdte, or free towns, 
 the principal being Cologne, Basle, Mayence, 
 liatisbou. Spires, and Worms. The free towns 
 appear to have enjoyed the following im- 
 munities: — 1. They were exempt from the oath 
 of allegiance to the Emperor. 2. They were 
 not bound to furnish a contingent for any ex- 
 pedition beyond the Alps. 3. They were free 
 from all imperial taxes and duties. 4. They 
 could not be pledged. !>. They were dis- 
 tinguished from the imperial towns by not hav- 
 ing the imperial eagle emblazoned on the muni- 
 cipal escutclieon. " Subsequently "the free 
 towns were placed on the same footing as the 
 Reichstttdt, and the term ' Freistadt, ' or free town, 
 was disused. The government of the imperial 
 towns was in the hands of a military and civil 
 governor. ... On the imperial towns becoming 
 independent, the adrliii'tration of the town wa» 
 
 473 
 
CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE. 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS BILL. 
 
 entrusted to a collecc of from four to twenty- 
 four persons, ncconlin); to the population, and 
 the nienil)ers of this liind of town eounci! were 
 called either liiitlismimn. Uiithsfreiind, or Rnths- 
 Lerr, whieh means couneilinan or adviser. The 
 town councillors appear to have si^lected one or 
 more of their number ns presidents, with the 
 title of Rathsmeister, Burgermoister, or St4»dt- 
 meister. . . . -Many of the imperial towns gained 
 their autonomy either by i)urchase or force of 
 arms. In lilie manner we tind that others either 
 lost their privileges or voluntarily became sub- 
 jects of some burgravo or ecclesiastical prince, 
 e. g., Cologne, Worms, and Spires placed them- 
 selves under the jurisdiction of their respective 
 archbishops, whereas Altcnburg, Chemnitz and 
 Zwickau were seized by Frederick the Quarrel- 
 some in his war with the Emperor; whilst 
 othei-s, like Hagenau, Colmar, Landau, and 
 Strasburg, were annexed or torn from the 
 German Empire. As the Imperial towns in- 
 creased iu wealth and power they extended the 
 circle of their authority over the surrounding 
 districts, and, in order to obtain a voice in the 
 affairs of tlie empire, at length demanded that 
 the country imder their jurisdiction should be 
 represented at the Ileielmtag (Imperial Diet). 
 To accomplish this, they formed themselves into 
 Bunds or confederations to assert their claims, 
 and succeeded in forcing the Emperor and the 
 princes to allow their representatives to take part 
 in the deliberations of the Diet. The principal 
 confederations brought into existence by the 
 struggles going on in Germany were the Rhenish 
 and Suabiau Bunds, and the llansa [see Hansa 
 Towns]. ... At the Diet held at Augsburg in 
 1474, it appears that almost all the imperial 
 towns were represented, and in 1648, on the 
 
 Beace of Westjihalia, when their presence in the 
 'let was formally recognized, they were formed 
 into a separate college. ... By the peace of 
 Luneville four of the imperial towns, viz., Aix- 
 l»Chapelle, Cologne, Spires, and Worms, were 
 ceded to France. In 1803, all the imperial towns 
 lost their autonomy with the exception of the 
 following six: — Augsburg, Nuremberg, Frank- 
 fort, Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen; and in 
 1800 the first three, and in 1810 the others, 
 shared the same fate, but iu 1815, on the fall of 
 Napoleon, Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck, and 
 Frankfort, recovered their freedom, and were 
 admitted as members of the German Bund, 
 which they continued to be up to the ye.ir 1866." 
 — AV. J. Wyatt, JIM. of Pruasia, v. 3, pp. 427- 
 433. — " According to the German historians the 
 period of the greatest splendour of these towns 
 was during the 14th and 15th centuries. ... In 
 the 10th century they still enjoyed tlio same 
 prosperity, but the period of their decay was 
 come. The Thirty-Yeare War hastened their 
 fall, and scarcely one of them escaped destruc- 
 tion and ruin during that jieriod. Nevertheless, 
 the treaty of Westphalia mentions them posi- 
 tively, and asserts their position as immediate 
 states, that is to say, states which depended im- 
 mediately upon the Emperor; but the neigli- 
 bouriug Sovereigns, on the one hand, and on the 
 other the Emperor himself, the exercise of whose 
 power, since the Thirty-Years War, was limited 
 to the lesser vassals of the empire, restricted 
 their sovereignty within narrower and narrower 
 limits. In the 18th century, 51 of them were 
 still iu existence, they tilled two benches at the 
 
 diet, and had an independent vote there ; but, in 
 fact, they no longer exercised any intluence upon 
 the direction of gen(!ral affairs. At liome they 
 were all heavily burthened with debts, partly bo- 
 eau.se they continued to bo charged for the Im- 
 perial taxes at a rate suited to their former 
 splendour, and partly because their own ad- 
 ministration was extremely bad. It is very re- 
 markable that this '>ad administration seemed to 
 be the result of so'.ne secret disease which was 
 common to thera all, whatever might l)e the 
 form of their constitution. . . . Their popula- 
 tion decreased, and distress prevailed in them. 
 Thej/^ were no longer the abodes of German 
 civilization; the arts left them, and went to 
 shine in the new towns created by the Sovereigns, 
 and representing modern society. Trade forsook 
 them — their ancient energy and patriotic vigour 
 disappc »red. Hamburg almost alone still re- 
 mained a great centre of wealth and intelligence, 
 but this was owing to causes quite peculiar to her- 
 self." — A. de Tocqueville, State of Society in 
 France before 1789, mte 0. — See, also, IIanba 
 Towns. — Of the 48 Free Cities of the Empire re- 
 maining in 1803, 43 were then robbed of their 
 franchises, under the exigencies of the Treaty of 
 Luneville (see Geiimany: A. D. 1801-1803). 
 After the Peace of Pressburg only three sur- 
 vived, namely, Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen 
 (see Geumanv: A. D. 1805-1806). These were 
 annexed to France by Napoleon in 1810. — See 
 France: A. D. 1810 (Febuuaky — Decembeu). 
 The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, restored fiee- 
 dom to them, and to Frankfort, likewise, and 
 they became members of the Germanic Coa- 
 fcderation then formed. — See Vienna, Tfik 
 CoNGiiEss OP. — Lubeck gave up its privileges as 
 a free city in 1866, joining the Prussian Customs 
 Union. Hamburg and Bremqn did the same in 
 1888, being absorbed in the Empire. This extin- 
 guished the last of the "free cities." See Ger- 
 many: A. D. 1888. 
 
 CITY. See Bououoh. 
 
 CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN.— 
 "Ancient poets called Athens 'The City of the 
 Violet Crown,' with an unmistakable play upon 
 the name of the Ionian stock to which it belonged, 
 and which called to mind the Greek word for 
 violet." — Q. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece: T/ie 
 State, pt. 3, (•/(. 3. 
 
 CITY REPUBLICS, Italian. See Italy: 
 A. D. 1056-1153. 
 
 CIUDAD RODRIDGO: A. D. i8lo-i3l2.— 
 Twice besieged and captured by the French and 
 by the English. See Spain: A. 1). 1810-1813. 
 
 CIVES ROMANI AND PEREGRIN!.— 
 "Before the Social orMarsic war(B. C. 90) tliere 
 were only two classes within the Roman domin- 
 ions who were designated by a political name, 
 Cives Romani, or Roman citizens, and Peregrini, 
 a term which comprehended the Latini, the Socii 
 and the Provinciales, such as the inhabitants of 
 Sicily. The Cives Itoinani were the citizens of 
 Rome, the citizens of Itoman colonies and the 
 inliabitants of the Municipin niiich had received 
 the Roman citizenship." — mg, Decline of the 
 li/)man Republic, ch. 17.— Iso, Rome: B.C. 
 
 90-88. 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS Bli The First. See 
 
 United States of Am.: .. I). 1866 (April). — 
 The Second, and its declared unconstitution- 
 ality. See United States of Am. : A. D. 
 1875. 
 
 474 
 
CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN ENG- 
 LAND.— •' It was not till loMK lifter lH3a tlmt 
 the itiluTcnt mischief of tliii piirtisiiii system [of 
 appointments in the national civil service] l)ecan\e 
 manifest to the great body of thinking people. 
 When that result was attained, the final struggle 
 ■with patronage in the hands of members of Par- 
 liament began on a large scale. It seems to have 
 been, even then, foreseen by the best informed 
 that it could not be removed by any partisan 
 agency. They began to sec the need of some 
 method by which fitness for the public service 
 could he tested otherwise than by the fiat of a 
 member of Parliament or the vote of the Cal)inet 
 or the Treasury. What that metliod should be 
 was one of the great problems of the future. 
 No government had then solved it. That there 
 must be tests of fitness independent of any 
 political action, or mere ottlcial influence, became 
 more and more plain to thinking men. The 
 leaders of the great i)urties soon began to see 
 that a public opinion in favor of sucli U'sts was 
 being rapidly developed, which seriously threat- 
 ened their power, uidess the [larty system itself 
 could be made more acceptable to the people. 
 . . . There was an abundance of fine promises 
 made. But no member gave up his patronage 
 — no way was opened by which a person of 
 merit could get into an ofiice or a place except 
 by the favor of the party or the condescension 
 of a member. The jiartisan blockade of every 
 port of entry to the pul)lic service, which made 
 It tenfold easier for a decayed butler or an in- 
 competent cousin of a member or a minister, 
 than for the promising son of a poor widow, to 
 pa.ss the barrier, was, after the Reform Bill as 
 before, rigidly maintained. Fealty to the party 
 and work in its ranks — subserviency to mem- 
 bers and to ministei's — and electioneering on 
 their behalf — these wore the virtues before 
 which the ways to office and the doors of the 
 Treasury were opened. Year by year, the public 
 discontent with the whole system increased. 
 . . . During the Melbourne administration, 
 between 1834 and 1841, a demand for examina- 
 tions, as a condition for admission to the service, 
 came from two very different quarters. One 
 was the higlier officials, who declared that they 
 could not do the public work with such poor 
 servants iis the partisan system supplied. The 
 other was the more independent, thoughtful 
 portion of the people, who held it to be as un- 
 just as it was demoralizing for members of 
 Parliament and other officers to monopolize the 
 privilege of saying who might enter the public 
 service. Lord Melbourne then yielded so far as 
 to allow pass examinations to bo instituted in 
 some of tlie larger offices ; and he was inclined 
 to favor competitive examinations, but it was 
 tliought to be too great an innovation to attempt 
 at once. Tliese examinations — several of them 
 being competitive — introduced by public officers 
 in self-defence many years previous to 1853, had 
 before thi\t time produced striking results. In 
 the Poor Law Con: lission, for example, they 
 had brought about a reform that arrested public 
 attention. Under the Comnuttee on Education, 
 they had caused tlie selection of teachers so 
 much superior ' that higlier salaries were bidden 
 for tliem for private service.' . . . These ex- 
 aminations were steadily extended from office to 
 office down to the radical change made in 1853. 
 ... It had been provided, long before 1853, 
 
 that those de8igne<l for the civil service of India, 
 should not only be subjected tc a piuss examina- 
 tion, but should, before entering the service, be 
 subi('<ted to a course of speci.:' instruction at 
 llaileybury College, a .sort of civil West Point. 
 Tins College was abolished in 18.54, but e<iuiva- 
 Icnt instruction was elsewhere provided for. 
 The directors had the patronage of nonnnation 
 for such instruction. . . . If it seems strange that 
 a severe cour.se of study, for two years in such 
 a college, was not sufficient to weed out the in- 
 competents wliich patronage forced into it, we 
 must bear in mind that the same influence wliieh 
 sent them there was used to keep them there. 
 . . . Both the Derby and the Aberdeen aundnis- 
 tratlon.s, in 1853 and 1853, took notice tliat the 
 civil service was in a condition of peril to 
 British India; and, without distinction of i)arty, 
 it was agreed that radical reforms nuist be 
 jiromptly made. There was corruption, there 
 was incflicieuey, there was disgraceful ignorance, 
 there was a humiliating failure in the govern- 
 ment to command the respect of the more intelli- 
 gent [jortion of the people of India, and there 
 was a still more alarnnng failure to overawe the 
 unndy classes. It was as bad in the army iis in the 
 civil offices. . . . There was, in short, a hotbed 
 of abuses prolific of those influences which 
 caused the fearful outbreak of 1857. It was too 
 late when reform was decided upon, to prevent 
 the outbreak, but not too lute to save British 
 supremacy in India. A change of system was 
 entered upon in 1853. The 30th and 3Tth cla\ises 
 of the India act of that year priividcd ' that all 
 powers, rights, and privileges of the court of 
 directors of the said India Company to nominate 
 or appoint persons to be adnntted as students 
 . . . shall cease ; and that, subject to such regu- 
 lations as miglit be made, any person, being a 
 natural born subject of her Alajesty, who might 
 be desirous of presenting himself, should be 
 admitted to be exannned as a candidat<'.' Thus, 
 it will be seen, Indian patronage received its 
 death-blow, and the same blow opened the door 
 of study for the civil service of India to every 
 British citizen. ... In 1853, the British Govern- 
 ment had reached a final decisicm that the 
 partisan system of appointments coidd not be 
 longer tolemted. Substantial control of nondua- 
 tionsby members of Parliament, however guarded 
 by restrictions and improved by mere pass 
 examinations, had continued to be demoralizing 
 in its effect upon elections, vicio\is in its intluence 
 upon legislation, and fatal to economy and 
 efficiency in the (lepartments. . . . The adminis- 
 tration, with Lord Aberdeen at its head, promptly 
 decided to undertake a radical and systematic 
 reform. ... It was decided that, in the outset, 
 no application should be made to Parliament. 
 The reform should be imdertakeu by the Eng- 
 lish Executive . . . for the time being. The 
 first step decided upon was an inquiry into 
 the exact condition of tlie public service. Sir 
 Stafford Northcote (the present Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer) and Sir Cliiirles Trevelyan were 
 appointed in 1853 to make such inciuiry and a 
 report. They submitted their report in Novem- 
 ber of the same year. ... A system of com- 
 petitive examinations . . . [was] recommended. 
 . . . The report was accoinpanieilwitli a scheme 
 for carrying the examinations into effect, from 
 which 1 quote the following passages. . . . 
 ' Such a measure will exercise the happiest inllu- 
 
 475 
 
CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: ENGLAND. 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM: THE U. 8. 
 
 cuce in tlio education of tlie lower diissps 
 througliout KnKlniul, acting l)y the surest of all 
 motives — tlie ifeaire a man liasof bettering liiiu- 
 self in life. . . . Tliey will have attained their 
 situations in an independent manner througli 
 their own merits. The sense of tliis conduct 
 cannot but induce self-respect and dilfuse a 
 wliolesonie respect among tlie lower no less than 
 the liiglier clas.ses of offleial men. . . . Tlie 
 elTect of it in giving a stimulus to the education 
 of tlie lower classes can hardly be overestimated.' 
 Such was ihe spirit of the report. This was the 
 theory of the merit system, then first approved 
 by an English administration for the home 
 government. I hardly need repeat that the 
 examinations referred to as existing were (witli 
 small exception) mere pass examinations, and 
 that the new examinations proposed were open, 
 competitive examinations. . . . But the great 
 feature of the report, which made it really a pro- 
 posal for the introduction of a new system, was 
 its advocacy of open competition. Except the 
 experiment just put on trial in India, no nation 
 had adopted that system. It was as theoretical 
 as it was radical. ... A chorus of ri<iicule, 
 indignation, lamentation, and wrath arose from 
 all the ollicial and partisan places of politics. 
 The government saw that a further struggle was 
 at hand. It appeared more clear than ever that 
 Parliament was not a very hopeful place in 
 which to trust the tender years of such a 
 refortn. . . . The executive caused the report 
 to be spread broadcast among tlie people, and 
 also requested the written opinions of a large 
 number of persons of worth and distinction both 
 in and out of office. The report was sent to 
 Parliament, but no action upon it was requested. 
 . . . About the time that English public opinion 
 had pronoimced its first judgment upon the 
 oftlcial report, and before any final action had 
 been taken upon it, the Aberdeen administration 
 went out. . . . Lord Palmerston came into power 
 early in 1855, than whom, this most practical of 
 nations never produced a more hard-headed, 
 practical statesman. . . . Upon his administra- 
 tion fell the duty of deciding the fate of the 
 new system advocated in the report. . . . He 
 had faith in his party, and believed it would 
 gain more by removing grave abuses than by 
 any partisan use of patronage. . . . Making no 
 direct appeal to Parliament, and trusting to the 
 higher public opinion, Lord Palmerston's ad- 
 ministration advised that an order should bo 
 made by the Queen in Council for carrying the 
 reform into etiect; and such an order was made 
 on the 21st of May, 1855."— I). B. Eaton, Civil 
 Service in Oreat Britain. 
 
 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE 
 UNITED STATES.— "The question as to 
 the Civil Service [in the United States] arises 
 from the fact that the president has the power 
 of appointing a vast number of petty officials, 
 chielly postmasters and officials concerned with 
 the collection of the federal revenue. Such 
 officials have properly nothing to do with poli- 
 tics, they are simply the agents or clerks or 
 servants of the national government in conduct- 
 ing its business; and if the business of the 
 national government is to be managed on sucli 
 ordinary principles of prudence as prevail in tiie 
 management of private business, such servants 
 ought to bo selected for personal merit and re- 
 tained for life or during good behaviour. It did 
 
 not occur to our earlier presidents to regard the 
 management of tlu^ public business in any other 
 light tlian tills. But as early as the beginning of 
 tlie jiresent century a vicious system was grow- 
 ing up in New York and Pennsylvania. In those 
 states the appointive offices came to be u.sed as 
 bribes or as rewards for partisan services. By 
 securing votes for a successful candidate, a man 
 with little in his pocket and notliing in particular 
 to do could obtain some office with a comfortable 
 salary. It would be given to him as a reward, 
 and some other man, jierhaps more competent 
 than himself, would have to be turned out in 
 order to make room for him. A more eflectivo 
 method of driving good citi/i^ns ' out of politics' 
 could hardly be devised. It called to the front 
 a large class of men of coarse moral fibre. . . . 
 The civil service of these states was seriously 
 damaged in quality, politics degenerated into a 
 wild scramble for ofilces, salaries were paid to 
 men who did little or no public service in return, 
 and tlie line which separates taxation from rob- 
 bery was often crossed. About tlie same time 
 tliLre grew up an idea that there is something 
 especially democratic, and therefore meritorious, 
 about 'rotation in office.'" On tlie change of 
 party which took place upon the election of 
 ■lackson to the presidency in 1828, " tlie methods 
 of New York and Pennsylvania were applied on 
 a national scale. Jackson cherished the absurd 
 belief that the administration of his predecessor 
 Adams had been corrupt, and he turned men out 
 of office witli a keen zest. During the forty 
 years between Washington's first inauguration 
 and Jackson's the total number of removals from 
 office was 74, and out of this number 5 were de- 
 faulters. During tlie first year of Jackson's ad- 
 ministration the number of changes made in the 
 civil service was about 2,000. Such was tho 
 abrupt inauguration upon a national scale of tlio 
 so-called Spoils System. The phrase originated 
 with W. L. 3Iarcy, of New York, who, in a 
 speech in the senate in 1831 declared tliat ' to the 
 victors belong the spoils.' . . . In the canvass of 
 1840 the Whigs promised to reform the civil 
 service, and the promise brought them many 
 Democratic votes ; but after they had won tho 
 election they followed Jackson's example. The 
 Democrats followed in the same way in 1845, and 
 from that time down to 1885 it wa.i customary at 
 each change of parly to make a ' clean sweep ' of 
 the offices. Soon after the Civ'il War the evils of 
 the system began to attract serious attention on 
 the part of thoughtful people." — J. Fiske, Civil 
 Gov't in the U. 8., pp. 261-264.— "It was not 
 until 1867 that any important move was mado 
 [toward a reform]. . . . This was by Mr. Jencks, 
 of Rhode Island, who introduced a bill, made an 
 able report and several speeches in its behalf. 
 Unfortunately, death soon put an end to his 
 labors and deprived tho cause of an able advocate. 
 But the seed he had sown bore good fruit. At- 
 tention was so awakened to the necessity of re- 
 form, that President Grant, in his message in 
 1870, called tho attention of Congress to it, and 
 that body passed an act in March, 1871, which 
 authorized the President to prescribe, for admis- 
 sion to tho Civil Service, such regulations as 
 would best promote its efficiency, and ascertain 
 the fitness of each candidate for the position he 
 sought. For this purpose, it says, he may ' em- 
 ploy suitable persons to conduct such inquiries, 
 and may prescribe their duties, and establish 
 
 476 
 
CIVIL-SERVICE REFOKM; THE U. 8, 
 
 CLAIRVAUX. 
 
 TC'guliitions for ttie conduct of persons who miiy 
 receive appointments in the Civil Service.' In 
 accordiinco wltii tills act, President Oriint ap- 
 
 Solnted a Civil Service Commission, of wliich 
 eorgo William Curtis was made chairman, after- 
 wards succeeded by Dorman B. Eaton, and an 
 Bi)propriatlon of $25,000 was made by ConKr<'ss 
 to defray its expenses. A like sum was voted 
 ne.vt year; but after that notlilng was granted 
 untilJune, 1882, when, instead of §2.'), 000 asked 
 for by the President, S1.'),0()() was grudgingly 
 appropriated. It is due to Mr. Silas W. Burt, 
 IJaval Officer in New York, who had long been 
 greatly interested in the 8ul)ject of Reform, to 
 say tliat he deserves tlie credit of having been tlie 
 first to introduce open competitive examinations. 
 Before the appointment of Grant's committee, he 
 ]iad held sucli an examination in his oltice. . . . 
 Under Grant's commission, open competitive ex- 
 aminations were intnKluced in the departments 
 at Wasliington, and Customs Service at New 
 York, and in part in the New York Postofflcc. 
 Although tills commission labored under many 
 disadvantages in trying a new experiment, it was 
 able to make a very satisfactory report, which 
 was approved by the President and liis cabinet. 
 . . . 'file rules adopted by Grant's commission 
 were prepared by the chairman, Sir. Curtis. 
 They were admirably adapted for their purpose, 
 and have served as the basis of similar rules since 
 then. The great interest taken by Mr. Curtis at 
 that time, and the practical value of his work, 
 entitled him to be regartled as the leader of the 
 Reform. . . . Other able men took an active part 
 in the movement, but tlie times were not pro- 
 pitious, public sentiment did not sustain them, 
 and Congress refused any further appropriation, 
 although the President asked for it. As a con- 
 sequence, Competitive Examinations were every- 
 where suspended, and a return made to 'pass 
 examinations.' And this method continued in 
 use at Washington until July, 1883, after the 
 
 {lassage of the Civil Service Reform Act. . . . 
 'resident Hayes favored reform of the Civil 
 Service, and strongly urged it in his messages to 
 Congress; yet he did things not consistent witli 
 his professions, and Congress paid little attention 
 to his recommendations, and gave him no ef- 
 fectual aid. But we owe it to liim that an order 
 was passed in March, 1870, enforcing the use of 
 competitive examinations in the New York Cus- 
 tom House. The entire charge of this work was 
 given to Mr. Burt by the Collector. ... In 1880, 
 Postmaster James revived tlie competitive 
 methods in some parts of his ollicc. . . . When 
 the President, desiring that these examinations 
 sliould be more general and uniform, asked Con- 
 gress for an appropriation, it was refused. But, 
 notwitlistanding this, competitive examinations 
 continued to be held in the New York Custom 
 House and PostotBce until the passage of the 
 Reform Act of 1883. Feeling that more light 
 was needed upon the methods and progress of 
 reform in other countries, President Hayes had 
 formally requested Mr. Dorman B. Eaton to 
 visit England for the purpose of making such in- 
 quiries. Mr. Eaton spent several months in a 
 cjireful, thorough examination; and his report 
 was transmitted to Congress in December, 1879, 
 by the President, in a message wliicli described 
 it as an elaborate and comprehensive history of 
 the whole subject. This report was afterwards 
 embodied in Mr. Eaton's ' Civil Service in Great 
 
 Britain.'. . . For this invaluable service Mr. 
 f^aton received no <:onipensation from the (Jovem- 
 ment, not even his personal expenses to England 
 having been paid. And to Mr. Eaton is due, 
 also, the credit of originating Civil Service Re- 
 form Associations." — H. Laniliert, T/ii< I'rogrcus 
 iif t'ieil firciee Jltfuriit, in the Unitid Sldti'n, pp. 
 O-IO.— "The Na't'onal Civil Service Reform 
 League was organized at Newport, R. I., on tlio 
 Utli of August, 1881. It was the res\iU of a 
 conference among members of civil service reform 
 associations that had spontaneously arisen in 
 various parts of the country for the purpose of 
 awakening public interest in the question, like 
 the clubs of the Sons of Liberty among our 
 fathers, and tlie anti-slavery societies among 
 their cliildren. The first act of the League was 
 a resolution of hearty approval of the bill then 
 pending in Congress, known as the Pendleton 
 bill. Within less than two years afterward the 
 Civil Service law was passed in Congress by a 
 vote in the Senate of 38 yeas to 5 nays, 33 Sen- 
 ators being absent, and in the House only a week 
 later, by a vote of 155 yeas to 47 nays, 87 mem- 
 btrs not voting. In the House t:ie bill was put 
 upon its passage at once, the Speaker permitting 
 only thirty minutes for debute. This i wift en- 
 actment of righteous law was due, undoubtedly, 
 to the panic of the party of administration, a 
 panic whicli saw in the disastrous result of the 
 recent election a demand of the country for 
 honest politics; and it was due also to the exult- 
 ing belief of the party of opposition that the law 
 would essentially weaken the dominant party 
 by reducing its patronage. The sudden and over- 
 whelming vote was tliat of a Congress of which 
 probably the members had very little individual 
 knowledge or conviction upon the subject. But 
 the instinct in regard to intelligent public opinion 
 was UL'doubtedly sure, and it is intelligent public 
 opinion which always commands the future. 
 . . . Tlie passage of the law was the first great 
 victory of the ten years of tlie reform movement. 
 The second is the demonstration of the complete 
 practicability of reform attested by the heads of 
 the largest offices of auministration in the country. 
 In the Treasury and Navy departments, the New 
 York Custom House and Post Office, and other 
 important ■ ustom houses and post offices, without 
 the least regard to the wishes or the wrath of that 
 remarkable class of our fellow -citizens, known as 
 political bosses, it is conceded by officers, wholly 
 beyond suspicion of party independence, that, in 
 these chief brandies of the public service, reform 
 is perfectly practicable and the reformed system 
 a great public benefit. And, although as yet 
 these offices are by no means tlioroughly reorgan- 
 ized upon reform principles, yet a ((uartcr of the 
 wliole number" of places in the public service to 
 which the reformed methods apply are now in- 
 cluded within those methods."— G. W. Curtis, 
 Address at Annual Meeting of t!ui Xational Cinl- 
 Servi-, Reform League, 18i)l. 
 
 CIVILIS, Revolt of. See Batavians: A. D. 
 69. 
 
 CIVITA-CASTELLANA, Battle of (1798). 
 SeeFu.\NCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (Aikiust—Ai'iul). 
 
 CIVITELLA, Siege of (1557). See Fuance: 
 A. D. 1547-1559. 
 
 CLAIR-ON-EPTE, Treaty of. See Non- 
 manb: a. 1). 876-911. 
 
 CLAIRVAUX, The Monastery of.— St. Ber- 
 nard, "the greatest reformer of the abuses of 
 
 477 
 
CLAIRVAUX. 
 
 CLANS. 
 
 tho monastic life, If not the gn'ut<!gt monk In 
 history FA. I). 1001-1153] . . . revived the priic- 
 tice In tlie monastery of Clteiiux, wliicli he llrst 
 rntereil, and in tliut of Clairvaux, wliieli Im; 
 ufUTwards founded, of llie Nternest diseii)iine 
 wliicli liiid l)een enjoined liy St. Heuediet. lie 
 iK'cumc! tlie Ideal type of the perfect monl(. . . . 
 lie was not a I'opi', but he was greater than any 
 I'op<! of his day, and for nearly half a century 
 t\w history of tiie Chrislian Cliurch is the history 
 of the Intliienee of one monk, the Abbot of 
 Clairvaux. " — C. J. Stille, Studies in Meiliirral 
 Hint,, eh. 12. — "The convent of Citeaux was 
 found too small for tlie number of persons who de- 
 sired to join the society which could boast of so 
 eminent a saint. Finding his influence beneticial, 
 Bernard proceeded to founil a new monastery. 
 The spot wlii<'h he chose for his purpose was ni 
 a wild and gloomy vale, formerly known as the 
 Valley of Wormwood. . . . The district i)er- 
 taineil to the bishopric of Laugres; and here 
 Uernard raised his far famed abbey of Clair- 
 vaux." — II. Stebbing, Hint, of C'hriat's Unie. 
 Church, ch. 2«. 
 
 AiiHO IN ; A. Butler, Lireii of the Saints, v. 8. — 
 W. P. Hook, KcdeHimtinil liioy., v. 2.— J. C. 
 Morison, Life and Times of St. Bernard. — See, 
 
 also, CiSTKllCIAN Okueu. 
 
 CLANS, Highland.—" The word Clan signi- 
 fies simply cliildren or descendants, and the clan 
 name thus implies tliat the members of it are or 
 were suppo.sed to be descended from a common 
 ancestor or eponymus, and they were distin- 
 guished from each other by their patronymics, 
 the use of surnames In the proper sense being 
 unknown among them. [SccGenh, Ro.man.] . . . 
 In considering the genealogies of the Highland 
 clans we must bear In mind that in the early 
 state of the tribal organisjition the pedigree of 
 tlie 8ei)t or clan, and of each member of the 
 tribe, had a very important meaning. Their 
 rights were derived through the common ancestor, 
 and their relation to him, and through him to 
 each other, indicutcd their position in the suc- 
 cession, as well as their place In the allocation of 
 the tribe land. In such a state of society the 
 pedigree occupied the same position as the title- 
 deed of tlie feudal system, and the Scnnachics 
 were as much tin; custodiers of the rights of 
 families as the mere panegyrists of the clan. 
 . . . During the 16th century the clans were 
 brought into direct contact with tlie Crown, and 
 in the latter part of it serious efforts were made 
 by the Legislature to establish an eflicient control 
 over tliem. These gave rise to the Acts of 1587 
 and 1504 . . . ; but they were followed in a few 
 years by an important Statute, which had a 
 powerful effect upon the position of the clans, 
 and led to another great change iU the theory of 
 their descent. . . . Tlie chiefs of , ..e clans thus 
 found themselves compelled to defend their 
 rights upon grounds wliicli could compete witli 
 the claims of their eager opponents, and to 
 maintain an equality of rank and prestige with 
 them in the Heralds' Ollice, which must drive 
 them to every device necessary to effect their 
 purpose ; and they would not hesitate to manu- 
 facture titles to the land when they did not 
 exist, and to put forward spurious pedigrees 
 better calculated to maintain their position when 
 a native descent had lost its value and was too 
 weak to serve their purpose. From this period 
 MS. histories of the leading Highland families 
 
 began to lie complied, in which these pretensions 
 were advanced and spurious charters Inserted. 
 . . . Tlie form which these pretentious genealo- 
 gies took was tliat of making the eponymus or 
 male ancestor of the clan a Norwegian, Dane, or 
 Norman, or a cadet of some distinguished family, 
 who succeeded to the clilefship and to the terri- 
 tory of the clan by marriage with the daughter 
 ana heiress of the last of the old Celtic line, thus 
 combining the advantage of a descent which 
 could compete with that of the great Norman 
 families with a feudal succession to their lands ; 
 and (he new form of the clan genealogy wouUl 
 have the greater tendency to assume this form 
 wliere the clan name was derived not from a 
 |)ers()iial name or patronymic but from a personal 
 epithet of its founder. . . . The conclusion, then, 
 to which [an] analysis of the clan pedigrees 
 which have been popularly acc(!pted at <llfferent 
 times has brought us. Is that, so far as they pro- 
 fess to show the origin of tlie different clans, 
 they are entirely artlllclal and untrustworthy, 
 but that the older genealogies may be accepted 
 as showing the descent of the clan from its 
 eponymus or founder, and within reasonable 
 limits for some generations beyond him, while 
 the later spurious pedigrees must be rejected 
 altogether. It may seem surprising tliat such 
 spurious pedigrees and fabulous origins should 
 be so readily credited by the Clun families as 
 genuine traditions, and receive such prompt 
 acceptance as the true fount from wliicli they 
 sjjrung ; but we must recollect that the fabulous 
 history of Hector Uik'cc was as rapidly and 
 universally adopted as the genuine annals of the 
 national history, and became rooted in those 
 parts of the country to which its flctitious events 
 related as local traditions. AVlien Hector Boeco 
 invested the ob.scure usurper Grig with the name 
 and attributes of a fictitious king, Gregory the 
 Great, and connected him with the royal line of 
 kings, the Clan Gregorat once recognised him as 
 their eponymous ancestor, and their descent from 
 him Is now implicitly believed In by all the 
 JlacGregors. It is possible, however, from these 
 genealogies, and from other Indications, to dis- 
 tribute the clans in certain groups, as having 
 apparently a closer connection with each other, 
 and these groups we hold in the main to repre- 
 sent the great tribes Into which the Gaelic popu- 
 lation was divided before they became broken 
 up into clans. The two great tribes which 
 possessed the greater part of the Highlands were 
 the GttUgaldheal or Gael in the west, who had 
 been under the power of the Norwegians, and 
 the great tribe of the Moravians, or Jlen of 
 Moray, in the Central and Eastern Highlands. 
 To the former belong all the clans descended of 
 the Lords of the Isles, the Campbells and Mac- 
 leods jirobably representing the older inliabitants 
 of their respective districts; to the latter belong 
 in the main the clans brought In the old Irish 
 genealogies from the kings of Dalriada of the 
 tribe of Lorn, among whom the old Mormacrs 
 of Moray appear. The group containing the 
 Clan Andres or old Rosses, the !Mackcnzies and 
 Mathesons, belong to the tribe of lloss, the Clan 
 l)onnachy to Atliole, the Clan Lawren to btrat- 
 herne, and the Clan Pharlane to Lennox, while 
 the group containing the MacNabs, Clan Gregor, 
 and Mackinnons, appear to have emerged from 
 Glcndochart, at least to be connected with the 
 old Columban monasteries. The Clans, properly 
 
 m 
 
CLANS. 
 
 CLIVE IN mniA. 
 
 w cnllcil, were thus of niitivo origin; the §ur- 
 nnmci* partly of niitlvc jtiid partly of fori'lpn 
 dcwcnt."— W. F. Skene, Crltie S;,ll,iii(l. M: M, 
 ell. 1) (r. H). 
 
 CLARENDON, The Constitutions and the 
 Assize of. See KNdi.ANO; A. I). UfW-U70. 
 
 CLARIAN ORACLE, The. See Ohacles 
 
 OK TIIK (JllKKKH. 
 
 CLARK, George Rogers, and the conquest 
 of the Northwest. See Uniti:i> Statics ok .Vm. : 
 A. I). I77H-I77i». 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 41-54. 
 ....Claudius IL, A. I). i(lK-j7(l. 
 
 CLAVERHOUSE AND THE COVE- 
 NANTERS. Se<' Scotland; A. D. 1079; 1081- 
 10H», mill l'!Hi)(.h-i,Y). 
 
 CLAY, Henry, and the war of l8l2. ^co 
 
 Fnitko St.vtks ok Am.: A. D. 1810-1812 
 
 Negotiation of the Treaty of Ghent. See 
 UnitiodStatksok.Vm. : A. 1). 1814(I)ECK.\tliK!0. 
 
 And the Tariff question. Bee Taiukp 
 
 Lk(iihi,ation(Unitki> Statics): A. I). 1810-1821. 
 and 18;)3; uml Unitkd Statics ok Am.: A. I). 
 
 1828-1833 And the Missouri Compromise. 
 
 Sec U.NiTici) Statics ok Am.: .V. I). 1818-1H21. 
 
 In the Cabinet of President John Quincy 
 
 Adams. See Unitkd Statics ok Am. : A. I). 
 182.'V-1828 Defeat in the Presidential elec- 
 tion. See Unitici) Statks ok Am. : A. I). 1844. 
 
 The Compromise Measures of 1850. See 
 
 L'nitkd States ok A.m. : A. 1). 18.")0. 
 
 CLAYBANKS AND CHARCOALS.— 
 During IIh; American civil war the (loiiservative 
 and liiulicnl factions in Missouri were sonietiiuos 
 called Claybanks and (Jliareoals. — .1. O. TCicolay 
 and .1. Hav, Ahni/niin, l.iiicnln, >\ 8, /». 204. 
 
 CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, The. 
 See Nicauaoua: A. D. 1850. 
 
 CLEAR GRITS. See Canada: A. D. 1840- 
 1807. 
 
 CI EISTHENES, Constitution of. Sec 
 Athens: B. C. r)10-507. 
 
 CLEMENT II., Pope, A. D. 1046-1047 
 
 Clement III., Pope, A. I). 1187-1191 Clem- 
 ent IV., Pope, A. D. 1205-1208 Clement V., 
 
 Pope, A. D. 1305-1314 Clement VI., Pope, 
 
 A. D. 1342-1353 Clement VII., Pope, A. I). 
 
 1378-1394 (Antipopc at Avignon) Clement 
 
 VII., Pope, A. 1). 1523-1534 Clement VIII., 
 
 Pope, A. D. 1591-1605 Clement IX., Pope, 
 
 A. D. 1667-1609 Clement X., Pope, A. I). 
 
 1670-1676 Clement XI., Pope, A. D. 1700- 
 
 1731 Clement XII., Pope, A. D. 1730- 
 
 1740 Clement XIII., Pope, A. D. 1758- 
 
 1709 Clement XIV., Pope, A. 1). 1769-1774. 
 
 CLEOMENIC (KLEOMENIC) WAR, 
 The. See Queece: B. C. 280-146. 
 
 CLEOPATRA AND CiESAR. See Alex- 
 
 ANDiuA: B. C. 48-47 And Mark Antony. 
 
 See Rome: B. C. 31. 
 
 CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES.— "The two 
 obelisks known as Cleopatra's Needles were 
 originally setup by Tbothmes III. at Heliopolis. 
 Augustus transferred them to Alexandria, where 
 they remained until rccetjtlv. At present (July, 
 1880) one ornamenta the "Thames Embankment 
 [Loudon] while the other is on its way to the 
 United States of America. " — G. Itivwlinson, Hist, 
 of Ancient Egypt, ch. 20, note. — The obelisk last 
 mentioned now stands in Central Park, New 
 York, having been brought over and erected by 
 Commander Gorringe, at the expense of the late 
 William H. Vanderbilt.- 11. II. Gorringe, Egyp- 
 
 tian Ohfli»k». — 8<H!, also, Eoytt: AnotTT B. C. 
 17(H)-M(M). 
 
 CLEPHES, King of the Lombards, A. D. 
 r)73-5H(t. 
 
 CLERGY, Benefit of. See Bk.nkkit ok 
 ('i.icmiY. 
 
 CLERGY RESERVES. See Canada: 
 A. I). 1837. 
 
 CLERMONT. See (m.kgovia op tub Au- 
 
 VEUNI. 
 
 CLERMONT, The Council of.— Speech of 
 Pope Urban. S<'c CiirsADKs: .\. I). lOilt. 
 
 CLERUCHI. See Ki.iciiK lis. 
 
 CLEVELAND, Grover : First Presidential 
 election and administration. See I'mtki) 
 
 St.vtesok .\m. ; A. I). 1884 to 1889 De'eat 
 
 in Presidential election. Sec United Statics 
 
 OP Am.: a. I). 1888 Second Presidential 
 
 election. See United Statics ok A.m. : \. I). 
 18112. 
 
 CLEVELAND: The founding and naming 
 of the City (1796). See Ohio; .V. I), 178(I-I7!M1. 
 
 CLICHY CLUB. — CLICHYANS, The. 
 See FitANCE; A. D. 1797 (Ski-ticmiieu). 
 
 CLIENTES, Roman.— "To fihe Homanl 
 family or bou-sehold united uiiilcr the eoiitrol of 
 a living ma.ster, and tlie claii which originated 
 out of the breaking up of such liousehiilds, lliere 
 furthiT belonged the dependents or 'listeners' 
 (elientes, from 'cluere'). Tliis term denoted not 
 theguest.s, tiiat is, the ineinbers of similar circles 
 who wcr(! temporarily sojourning in another 
 household than their own, and still less the 
 slaves who were looked upon iu law as the prop- 
 erty of the household and not as nieinhers of it, 
 but those individuals who, while they were not 
 free burges.ses of any commonwealth, y<'t lived 
 within one in a condition of protected freedom. 
 The class included refugees who hud found a re- 
 ception with a foreign protector, and those slaves 
 in respect to whom their master had for the time 
 being waived the exercise of his rights, and so 
 conferred on them practical freedom. Tliis rela-. 
 ti<m had not properly the character of a relation 
 ' de jure,' like the relation of a man to his guest 
 or to his slave: the client remained non-free, 
 although good faith and use and wont alleviated 
 in his case the condition of non-frcedoin. Hence 
 ' the ' listeners ' of the household (elientes) together 
 with the slaves strictly so-called formed the 
 ' body of servants ' (' familia ') dependent on the 
 will of the 'burgess' ('patronus,' like ' patri- 
 cius')." — T. Mommscn, Jliat. of li/nne, bk. 1, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 Also in: Pastel De Coulanges, Tlie Ancient 
 City, bk. 4, ch. 1 and 6. 
 
 CLINTON, Dewitt, and the Erie Canal. 
 SeeNEW Yoiik: A. D. 1817-1825. 
 
 CLINTON, George, The first Governor of 
 New York. See New Youk: A. 1). 1777. 
 
 CLINTON, General Sir Henry, and the 
 war of the American Revolution, Sec United 
 States OK Am. : A. I). 1775(Ai'Hii.— .May); 1776 
 (June), (August); 1778 (June); 1778-1779; 1780 
 (Februauy— AuousT); 1781 (Januauy). 
 
 CLINTONIANSAND BUCKTAILS. See 
 New Youk: A. I). 1817-1819. 
 
 CLISSAU OR CLISSOW, Battle of (1703). 
 See Scandinavian Statics (Sweden); A. 1). 
 1701-1707. 
 
 OLIVE'S CONQUESTS AND RULE IN 
 INDIA. See Indl^: A. D. 1743-1752, to 1757- 
 1773. 
 
 479 
 
CLOACA MAXIMA. 
 
 CLuns. 
 
 CLOACA MAXIMA OF ROME, The.— 
 
 " Kvni III till' ptTwiil iliiy llirrc HtiindH uiiclmiiKcil 
 tli« Krciit wwcr, the 'cloiicii iiiiixiiiia,' tlic olijcct 
 of wlilrli, it limy lie iiltscrvi'd, wild iKit iiicri'ly to 
 curry iiwiiy tlin rcfiiw-of tli<? clly, Init cliiclly Id 
 ilniiii the liirt'c lake wlilcli wiiH foriricil liy I lie 
 TIImt liclwccn the Ciipiloliiii', Avciilliic iinil I'jilii- 
 liiir. tlii'ii cMi'iuli'd liclwccii the I'alatiiit' and 
 ('apitdliiic, anil rrailii'd iih a Nwanin iih far iiMtlic 
 district lictwi'i'ii the (jiiiriniil and Viiniiial. Tills 
 worii, consisting; of tliri'C scnilrlrrlcs of iiniiii'iiso 
 Hqiiaii' blocks, uliicli, tliouKli willioiit mortar, 
 liavu not to this day niovcil ii knife's lirciidtli 
 from oiii' anotluT . . . c<iualliiiff the pyramids 
 in cvtcnt and niassivcncss, far surpasses llicm in 
 tlit'dilllciilty of its execution. It Is so gigantic, 
 tliiit the more one examines it tlic more liieon- 
 celvalile it iM'comes liow even a large and power- 
 ful state could have excKiuted It. . . . Whether 
 the cloaca nia.xima was actually executed by 
 Taniuiniis IVisciis or by his son Superbiis is a 
 ()Uestlon about wliicli the ancients themselves are 
 not agreed, and respecting whicli true historical 
 criticism cannot presume to decide. Hut thus 
 much may lie said, that the structure must have 
 been completed before tile city encompassed tlie 
 space of the seven lillls and formed a compact 
 whole. . . . But such a work cannot possilily 
 have been executed by the powers of a state such 
 as Home is said to have been in those times." — 
 B. O. Niebulir, LccU. on the JIM. of Home, leeta. 
 6 anil 8. 
 
 CLODOMIR, King of the Franks, at Or- 
 leans, A, 1). riii-,wt. 
 
 CLONARD, Monastery of. — .V great monas- 
 tery founded in Aleath, Ireland, b^' St. Finuian, 
 in the sixth century, " which is said to have con- 
 tained no fewer than 3,000 monks and which be- 
 cameu great training-school in the monastic life." 
 Tlie twelve principal <lisciple8 of FInnian were 
 called the "Twelve Apostles of Ireland," St. 
 Columba being the chief.— W. F. Skene, Celtic 
 Scotldiitl. U: 2, eh. 2. 
 
 CLONTARF, Battle of. SeeliiEL.VND: A.D. 
 1014. 
 
 CLONTARF MEETING, The. 8eo Ihe- 
 LANl): A. I). 1841-1848. 
 
 CLOSTER-SEVEN, Convention of. See 
 Qeu.manv: A. I). 1757 (July— Dkckmueu), and < 
 1758. 
 
 CLOTHAIRE I., King of the Franks, A. D. 
 
 511-5(11 Clothaire II., King of the Franks 
 
 (Neustria), A. 1). .584-028 ; (Austrasia), 613-822; 
 
 Burgundy, «13-«28 Clothaire III., King of 
 
 the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. I). 
 
 660-070 Clothaire IV., King of the Franks 
 
 (Austrasia), A. I). 717-719. 
 
 CLOVIS, King of the Franks, A. D. 481- 
 511 Clovis II., King of the Franks (Neus- 
 tria), A. D. 038-654; (Austrasia), 650-654 ; (Bur- 
 gundy), 638-654 Clovis III., King of the 
 
 Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. D. 601- 
 605. 
 
 CLUBS, Ancient Greek. Sec Lesche, IIbt- 
 .iKBiKs, Eit.\Ni and Tiiiasi. 
 
 The Beefsteak. — " In 1735 there was formed 
 in the capital [London] the celebrated Beefsteak 
 Club, or ' Sublime Society of Beef Steaks,' us its 
 membei-s always desired to be designated. The 
 origin of this club is singular, and was in this 
 wise. Rich, a celebrated harletiuin, and patentee 
 of Covent Garden Theatre in the time of George 
 II., while engaged during the daytime iu direct- 
 
 ing and controlling the nrmngcmcntfi of the stago 
 scenery was often visited by his friends, of wlioni 
 he had a very numerous circle. One (lay, whilo 
 the Karl of Peterborough was present, Hieli felt 
 the pangs of hunger so keenly that he cooked a 
 beef steak and invited the earl to partake of it, 
 which he did, relishing It so greatly that lie ciimu 
 again, bringing some friends with him on iiurposu 
 to taste tile same fare. In priK'css of time tliu 
 beef-steak dinner became an institution. Homo 
 of the chief wits and greatest men of tlu^ nation, 
 to the number of 24, formed themselves Into ii 
 society, and took as their motto 'Steaks and 
 Liberty. ' Among its early celebrities wore Hiibb 
 Doddington, Aaron Hill, Dr. Iloadley, Itiehard 
 (ilover, the two Colmans, Oarriek and .lohn 
 Beard. The number of the 'steaks' remained at 
 its original limit until 178.'), when it was aug- 
 mented liy (me, in order to secure the admisHion 
 of the Ileir- Apparent." — W. C. Sydney, Kiiy- 
 liind (tnd tlie KnyU»h in t?ie 18</» Centiivy, ch. 6 
 (». 1). 
 
 The Brothers'.— In 1711, a political club which 
 took this name was founded in London by 
 Henry St. ,Iohn, afterwards Lord Bollngbroke, 
 fo counteract the "extravagance of the Kit Cut " 
 and " the drunkenness of the Beefsteak." "This 
 society . . . continued for some time to restrain 
 the outburst of those elements of disunion with 
 which tlie llarloy ministry was so rife. To be a 
 member of this club was esteemed a distinguished 
 honour. They addressed each other as ' brother'; 
 and \v(f find their ladies In their corre.spondenco 
 claiming to be enrolled a.s sisters, llie mem- 
 bers of this club were the Dukes of Oniiimd, 
 Shrewsbury, Beaufort; the Earls of Oxfonl, 
 Arran, Jersey, Orrery, Bathurst; Lonla llarley, 
 Duplin, Masliam; Sir Robert Raymond, Sir 
 William Windham, Col. Hill, Col. Desney, St. 
 John, Granville, Arbuthnot, Prior, Swift, antl 
 Friend." — O. W. Cooke, Memoirs of Bolinijbroke, 
 V. 1, ch. 10. 
 
 TheClichy. See Fuance: A.D. 1797 (Sep- 
 
 TE.MHKU). 
 
 The French Revolutionary. Sec Fhancb: 
 A. I). 1700. 
 
 The Hampden. See England: A. D. 1816- 
 1820. 
 
 Dr. Johnson's. — "During his literary career 
 Dr. Johnson assisted in the foundation of no 
 fewer than three clubs, eacli of which was fully 
 deserving of the name. In 1740 he established 
 a club at a house in Ivy Lane, Paternoster How, 
 and only the year before he died he drafted a 
 code of rules for a club, of which the members 
 should hold their meetings, thrice in each week, 
 at the Essex Head iu the Strand ; an establish- 
 ment which was then kept by a former servant 
 of his old friends the Thrales. Those members 
 who failed to put in an appearance at the club 
 were required to forfeit the sum of two pence. 
 There is an interesting account of one of the 
 meetings of the Ivy Lane Club, at which .lolmson 
 presided, in Sir John Hawkins's biography of 
 him. . . . The next club with which Johnson 
 became acquainted wnS the most influential of 
 them all, and was the one which is now chietly 
 remembered in connection with his name. It 
 was, however, a plant of slow and gradual 
 growth. The first meeting of its members, wlio 
 exulted in the designation of 'The Club,' was 
 held in 1763 at a hostelry called the Turk's 
 Head, situated in Gerard Street, Soho. 'The 
 
 im 
 
CLUBS. 
 
 COAMTIONS. 
 
 Cliil) ' retained that title \iiitil nfter the funeriil 
 of (Inrriek, when It wiw iilwiiyH known im 'Tlie 
 Llteriiry Club, ' As ItH nunil)erH were Hnmll iiiul 
 limited, the lidtnlHsion to it was an honour Kreutly 
 coveteil in politleal, leKal, and literary eireies. 
 'The Cluh' originated with 8ir Joshua Heynoldh, 
 then i'resident of the Hoyal Academy, wlio at 
 llrnt restrleted ItM nunilMTH to nine, these beinn 
 IteynoIdH hiiiiHelf, Kaniuel .TohuNon, Kilmund 
 linrke. Dr. CliriHtophcr Nugent (an aeeomplii*hed 
 lionian Catholie i)hyNlelan), Hennet Langton, 
 Tonliam ileauelerk, 'Hir Jolui llawkhm, Oliver 
 Ooldsniith, and M. (Mianiier, Secretary in the 
 SVar Ollice. The niendierx asiKMnhled every 
 Monday evening piinctually at seven o'clock, 
 and, having partaken of an inexpensive supper, 
 conversed on literary, scientillc and artistic 
 topics till the clock in<licale(l the hour of retir- 
 ing. The nundiers of tlu^ Literary Clul) were 
 Hnl)se(|ueiitly augmented by the enrolment of 
 Garrick, Kdward Giblion, Lord Gharlemont, BIr 
 William .lones. the enunent Oriental linguist, and 
 James Hoswell, of hiographical fame. OtlxTS 
 were adnutted from time to tiuK!, until in ITDl it 
 niunhered 35. In Deeendicr, 1773, tlu; day of 
 meeting was altered to Friday, and the weekly 
 8up|)ers were coniuuiled to fortnightly dliuiers 
 4luruig the sitting of parliament. <)wing to tin; 
 conversion of the original tavern into a private 
 house, the clul) moved, in I7H3, first to Prince's, in 
 Hackvillc Street; next to Le Teller's in Dover 
 Street; then, in llO'i, to Parsloe's in St. James's 
 Street; and lastly, in February, 1709, to the 
 Thatched House Tavern in St, James's Street, 
 where it reniain<'d until long after 18-W. " — W. (-'. 
 Sydney, Eiuilniid utid the Enyliah in Vie \Hth 
 Century, ch. (i\ 1). 
 
 The King's Head. See Enoland: A. D. 
 1678-10711. 
 
 The Kit Cat.— " The Kit Cat Club was Insti- 
 tuted In 1091). Its most illustrious members 
 •were Cougreve, Prior, Sir John Vanbrugh, the 
 Earl of Orrery, and Lord Somers; but the 
 members becoming more numeroiis, the most 
 violent party obtained the majority, and the 
 Earl and his friends were less regvdar in their 
 attendance. . . . The Kit Cat took its name 
 from a jiastry-cook [Christopher Katt], whose 
 pies formed a regular dish at the suppers of the 
 club." — Q. W. Cooke, Memoirs of Jiolimjbroke, v. 
 1, ch. 10, fuot-/iote. 
 
 Also in: J. Timbs, C'liihH and Club Life in 
 London, pp. 47-53. — VV. C. Sydney, England and 
 the Ent/linh in the i%th century, ch. 6. 
 
 The Mohocks. See JIoiiocks. 
 
 The October and the March.— "The October 
 •Club came first into importance in the latest years 
 of Anne, although it had existed since the last 
 decade of the 17th century. The stout Tory 
 squires met togetlier in tlie ' Bell ' Tavern, in 
 narrow, dirty King Street, Westininst(T, to 
 drink October ale, under Dahl's portrait of 
 Queen Anne, and to trouble with tlieir tierce 
 uueompromising Jacobitism tlic fluctuating pur- 
 poses of Harley and the crafty counsels of St. 
 John. The genius of Swift tempered their liot 
 zeal with tlie cool air of his 'advice.' Then the 
 wilder spirits .seceded, and formed the March 
 Club, which retained all the angry Jacobitism of 
 the parent body, but lost all its importance. " — J. 
 McCarthy, Uiat. of tlie Four Georf/en, v. 1, ch. 5. 
 
 Also in: W. C. Sydney, England and tlie 
 English in the 18th century, ch. 6. 
 
 CLUBMEN. H«!e England: A. D, 1045 
 (Jri.Y— .Vi oisT). 
 CLUGNY.OR CLUNY.The Monastery of. 
 
 — The famous monastery of Clugny, or t'liiny, 
 WHS founded \. D. 010, at Cluiiy, iii'ar .Macon, in 
 Hurgundy, by the abbot Count H"-rno, who had 
 previously established and ruled ilie monastery 
 of Oignl, near Lyons, It was founded under 
 the auspices and at the e,\pense of William, 
 Count of .Vuvergne, eoinnionly called William 
 the Pious. " In the disastrous times which 
 followed the death of Charles the Great anil the 
 failiirct of his scheme to reorganize the Western 
 world iinilcr a single head, the discipline of the 
 religious houses fell with everything el.se; fell, 
 not perhaps quite so soon, vet by the end of the 
 ninth century hail fallen atinost as low us it was 
 possible to fall. Hut here symptoms of a moral 
 reaction showed themselves earlier than el.se- 
 where. The revival dales from 010, the year of 
 the foundation of the Monastery of Cliigny in 
 Hurgundy, which was destined to exercise an 
 enormous Inlluence on the future of the Church. 
 While matters at Home were at their worst, there 
 were silently training there the men who should 
 inaugurate a new state of things [notably Ililde- 
 lirand, afterwards Pope Gregory V II.] Already, 
 so one .siud at the time, the whole house of tlu! 
 C'hiirch was tilled witli the sweet savour of the 
 ointment there poured out. It followed that 
 wherever in any religious house tliere were any 
 aspirations after a higher life, any longings for 
 reformation, that house atllliated itself to Clugny; 
 thus beginning to constitute a Congregation, 
 that is a cluster of religious houses, scattered it 
 might be over all Christendom, but owning one 
 rule, acknowledging the superiority of o'le 
 mother house, and receiving its abbots and 
 priors from thence. In the C^iigni.in Congrega- 
 tion, for example, there were about two thousand 
 houses in the middle of the twelfth century — 
 these mostly in France; the Abbot, or Aieh- 
 Abbot, as he was called, of Clugny, being a kind 
 of Pope of Monasticism, and for a long time, the 
 Pope excepted, quite the most influential Church- 
 ruler In Christendom." — U. C. Trench, Lect's on 
 Medi(fml Oh, Hist., ch. 8. 
 
 Also in: 8. R. Maitland, The Dark Ages, ch, 
 18-26.— A. F. Vfllemain, Life of Gregory VI L, hk. 
 1. — S. K. Gardiner and J. 11. Mulllnger. Int. to 
 the Study of Eng. Hist., ch. 3, sect. 8.— E. F. 
 Henderson, iklect Hist. Docs, of tlie Middle Ages, 
 bk. 3, no. 4. 
 
 CLUNIAC MONKS. See Cluony. 
 
 CLUSIUM, Battle of (B. C. 83). See 
 Uomk: H. C. 88-78. 
 
 CLYPEUS, The.— The round iron shield of 
 the Uomaiis. — E. Gtild and W. Koner, Life of 
 the Greek.1 and Romans, sect. 107. 
 
 CNOSSUS. See Cuetk. 
 
 CNUT. Sec Can-utk. 
 
 CNYDUS, Battle of (B. C. 394). See 
 GiiEECK: B. C. 399-387. 
 
 COAHUILTECAN FAMILY, The. See 
 
 A.MERICAN AliOltlia.NEB: COAIIUILTECAN FAMILY. 
 
 COAJIRO, The. See Ameiucvjj Auoui- 
 oiNES: Co.uino. 
 
 COALITION MINISTRY OF FOX AND 
 LORD NORTH. See Enolam): A. I). 178'-'- 
 1783; and 1783-1787. 
 
 COALITIONS AGAINST NAPOLEON. 
 See FitANCE; A. D. 1805 (Januahy— AruiL); 
 
 481 
 
COALITIONS. 
 
 COLCIIIAN8. 
 
 Ok.hmanv. a. I). IHtS-lHia. iukI 1H18 (May— 
 AiMii KT), iitid FuAN< k: a. I). IHlt-IHl.V 
 
 COALITIONS AGAINST REVOLU- 
 TIONARY FRANCE. Scr KiiAMK \. I). 
 ITlCt (.Maucii— Ski-tkmiiku); 17UH-17I)1) (Aiiiiht 
 
 — .\l'HII,». 
 
 COBBLER'S LEAGUE, The. Sec Gku 
 
 M\ny: a I). lWJ-l.Vr». 
 
 COBDEN, Richard, and the Free Trade 
 movement. Sec Taiiikk I,i;(iini.ati()n (Kmi- 
 LAND): A. I). 1H;)«-IH;1U; 1H4'.'; 1M4.')-1H»0; imd 
 llicHiiMic(KnAN(K.): A. 1). la-.H-lKHO. 
 
 COBDEN-CHEVALIER COMMERCIAL 
 TREATY, The. Sec Tauii'k I,i;(iiki.ati<>n 
 (KllANiK); A. I). 1H.-)H-IH(10. 
 
 COBURG, OriKination of the Dukedom of. 
 Hrc Saxony: A. 1). 11H((-1,-.,W. 
 
 COCCIUM. — All iniportuiit Udiiihii town in 
 Itritaiii, the rcmiiiim of which iirc supjxiMcil to ho 
 found lit llilx lu'HttT.— T. VHght, CHI, llotnan 
 mill Siij'oii, fli. .1. 
 
 COCHIBO, The. 8ce Ameiiican Abori- 
 
 OI.Nl'.H- AnKIXANH. 
 
 COCHIQUIMA, The. See Ahkkican Adohi- 
 
 (iiNKs: Aniimsians. 
 
 COCO TRIBES. Sec Amkuican Anoiii- 
 (iinkh: (ir( k <ir Coco Gliofl'. 
 
 COCONOONS, The. Hoc Amf.uicak Ahoki- 
 (iinkh; Maiiii'oha.n Family. 
 
 COCOSATES, The. Sec Aqiitaine, The 
 
 ANCIl'.NT TkMIKM. 
 
 COD, Cape: A. D. 1602.— Named by Bar- 
 tholomew Gosnold. .Sec Amkhica: a. D. KIO'J- 
 
 100."). 
 
 A. D. 1605.— Called Cap Blanc by Cham- 
 plain. S<c Canada (Xkw Fuanck): A. I). WWA- 
 Kfor.. 
 
 A. D. 1609.— Named New Holland by Hud- 
 son. Sec Amkuua; a. I). KlOtl. 
 
 CODE NAPOLEON, The. See France: 
 A. 1). lHOl-1804. 
 
 CODES. Sco Laws, &c. 
 
 CODS, The. Sec Netherlands (II0L1..VND): 
 A. I). 134,')-1354;iiua 1483-149:1 
 
 CCELE- SYRIA.— "Hollow Syria"— the 
 long, broud, fertile and bcimtiful valley which 
 lies bclwccn the Lilmnus and AntilibaniiH ranges 
 of mountains, and is watered by the Orontcs and 
 the Leontes or Littany rivers. "Few places in 
 the wo''d are more remarkable, or have a more 
 stirring history, than this wonderful vale." — Q. 
 Rawlinson, Fiee Great Monarchicg : Babylonia, 
 eh. 1. 
 
 C(E N OBI U M.— CCENOBITES. -"The 
 word ' Ca'uobiuni ' is e(iuivalent to ' moiuistc- 
 rium ' in the later sense of that word. Cussian 
 distinguishes the word thus. 'Monastcrium,' 
 he says, ' may be the dwelling of a single monk, 
 Ccenobium must be of several; the former word,' 
 he adds, ' expressed only tlie place, the latter the 
 manncrof living.'" — I. G. Smith, Christian Mon- 
 atticism, p. 40. 
 
 Also in; J. Bingham, -4n<i'y. of the Christ. Ch., 
 bk. 7, eh. 2, sect. 3. 
 
 COFAN, The. Sec American AuoRiarNEg: 
 Anijesianh. 
 
 COGNOMEN, NOMEN, PRiENOMEN. 
 See Gens. Uoman. 
 
 COHORTS. See Leoion, Roman. 
 
 COIMBRA: Early history. See Portugal; 
 Early history. 
 
 COLBERT, The System of.— Colbertism. 
 
 Se<' Taiiikk I,e<iihi,atio.n : \. I> 1(M14-1««7 
 (FllANCE). AImo. Fhanie; A. I). Ultll HWM. 
 
 COLCHESTER, Origin of.-Wlien Cusar 
 tlrxt opened to the UciiiiaiiH homic knowledge of 
 liritain, the slti' of ino<lern ColclK'ster was (H'eii- 
 pied by an "oppidiini," or fastness of the Trlno- 
 liantcM. which the Homaimcalled CaniuhMlunum. 
 .V little later. Cainuloilunuin acquired sonie re- 
 nown as the royal town of the Trinobuntlne 
 king, or prince, Cunobellii, — the Cyinbclliie of 
 Shakespeare. It was after the death of Cunobe- 
 llii, and when his son CaractacUM was king, 
 (luring the reign of the emperor Claudius, that 
 the Hoiimns began their actual con<(Uest of liri- 
 tain. Claiidii. was present. In pirson, when 
 Cainulodiinuin was taken, and he founded there 
 the first Honiiin colony in the island, calling it 
 Claiidiana Vletrlcensls. That name was too cum- 
 brous to be preserved; but the ■ lonial character 
 of the town caused it toliecallcii ' i>|onia-ceaster, 
 the Colonia fortress. — abbreviat' 1. In time, to 
 Colne-icasler, and, llnally, to Colchester. The 
 colony was deslroycd by "the Iceni, at the time 
 of their rising, under Hoadicca, lilt was recon- 
 Htltiilcil and grew into an important Uoman 
 town,— C. I,. Ciitts. CiilrhcHtn; eh. I-<I, 
 
 A. D. 1648.— The Roundhead siege and cap- 
 ture. — On tile collapse of the Uoyalist rising of 
 1(14M, which prixliiced what is called the Second 
 Civil War of the I'liritaii revolutionary jieriod, 
 Colchester received tlie "wreck of the insurrec- 
 tion," so far as London and the surrounding 
 country hail lately been threatened by it. Troops 
 of cavaliers, under Sir Charli's Lucas and Ijord 
 Capel, having collected in the town, were sur- 
 rounded and beleaguered there by Fairfax, and 
 held out against their besiegers from .Iiinc until 
 late in August. "After two months of the most 
 desperate n'sistance, Colchester, conquered by 
 famine and sedition, at last surrendered (Aug. 
 27); and the next day a court-martial cimc^mned 
 to death three of its bravest defenders. Sir 
 Cliarles Lucas, Sir George Lisle, and Sir Bernard 
 Gascoign, as an example, it was said, to future 
 rebels who might be temi)ted to imitate them. 
 In vain did the other i)rlsoner8, Lord Capel at 
 their head, entreat Fairfax to suspend the execu- 
 tion of the sentence, or at least that they should 
 all undergo it, since all were alike guilty of the 
 of ice of these three. Fairfax, excited by the 
 long struggle, or rather intimidated bv Ireton, 
 made no answer, and the condemned olBcers 
 were ordered to be shot on the spot." Gascoign, 
 however, was reprieved at the last moment. — 
 F. P. Guizot, Hist, of the Eng. Revolution, bk. 8. 
 
 Also in: C. It. Markham, Life of the Great 
 Lord Fail fur, eh. 26-27. 
 
 COLCHIANS, The.— "The Colchions ap- 
 pear to have been in part independent, in part 
 subject to Persia. Their true home was evidently 
 that tract of country [on the Euxine] about the 
 river Phasis. . . . Here they first became known 
 to the commereial Greeks, whose early dealings 
 in this quarter seem to have given rise to the 
 jioetic legend of the Argonauts. The limits of 
 Colchis vnried ut different times, but the natural 
 bounds were nei-er greatly depart(;d from. They 
 were the Euxine on the "east, the Caucasus on 
 the north, the mountain range which forms the 
 watershed between the Phasis (Uioti) and the 
 Cyrus (Kur) ou the west, and the high ground 
 
 482 
 
COLCniANS. 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES. l.Wft-t7.11 
 
 botwoon ni\tn\im ami Kiirs (tlii' Mofirhi.in moiin- 
 UiluM) on till' Hoiitli. . . . Tlii> inimt irilcri'HtiiiK 
 question connciti'il with tin- Cnlcliittim Ih tlntt 
 cnnncclt'il witli tlicir niitioimliiy. Tlirv wcru ii 
 Murk nici' ilwrlUnj? In llic tnlcUt of wdllc-t, and 
 In a country which i1(hm not, tend to make im 
 inhabltanl.H ilark coniiilcxioiicd. That they wcrx 
 comparatively recent immli;riintM from a hotter 
 climate Heenm therefore to lie certain. The notion 
 cntertalneil Ity lli'rodotus of their K)jy|)tian 
 extraction appears lo have been a conjecture of 
 liiH own. . . . I'erhapH the nKHlcrn theory that 
 the OolchlanH were lmini)f rants from India is 
 entitled to some sliare of our attention. ... If 
 the true Colchi were a colony of lilacks, thi-y 
 must have l)ecome (fradually al)Horl>ed in tlic 
 white populati<m proper to the country." — (}. 
 Hawlinson, lli'tori/ nf llrri»liitu», lik\ 7, upp. 1. — 
 See. also, Al..Mloi)l.\SS. 
 
 COLD HARBOR, First and second battles 
 of. Hei Unitki) Htatkh uk Am.; A. I). lM6a 
 (.It'NK— .Ilii.v: VimiiNiA). and 1M(I4 (May— Junk; 
 
 VllKlI.NIA). 
 
 COLDEN, Cadwallader, The lieutenant- 
 l^overnorship of. See Nkw Youk; A. i>. I77:t- 
 17^4 lo 177r( (.Vi-nii.— Ski'Iumeikii). 
 
 COLIGNY, Admiral de, and the religious 
 wars in France. See Khanck; A. I). ITittO- 
 ITitCi to \'u'i American Colonies. See 
 
 Fu.hida; a. 1). iMa-moa, \rM\-\rm, and 
 \ms. 
 
 COLLAS, The. See Pehu; The Ahokkiinai, 
 
 IMIAniTANTS. 
 
 COLLEGIA. — Numerous associations called 
 "oolleftia" cxi.sted in ancient Kome, havlni? 
 various jiurposes. Some were relitrious associa- 
 tions (colleffia templorum); some were orpitd/.a- 
 tlons of clerks or scribes; some were j^uilds of 
 workmen; some ap[)ear to \uwv had a political 
 character, althoujrh tlic political clubs were more 
 commonlv called "sodalitates. " — U. Lon^, De- 
 cline of Oie liiiiuiiu Uepiihlie, r. ii, e/i. 11. 
 
 COLLINE GATE, Battle of the (B. C. 83). 
 See HoMK: H. ('. HH-7H. 
 
 COLLOT D'HERBOIS, and the French 
 Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety. 
 Sue KiiANci-:; A. 1). nilii (Junk— Octobek), to 
 17«+-17i(r> (July— Apkii.). 
 
 COLMAR, Cession to France. Sec Ger- 
 many; A. I). UUS. 
 
 COLMAR, Battle of (1674). See NETireu- 
 1.AND8 (Holland) : A. I). 1674-1678. 
 
 COLOGNE: Origin. See Colonia Aorippi- 
 
 NENSIS. 
 
 The Electorate. Sec Germany: A. D. 1125- 
 1153. 
 In the Hanseatic Leag^ue. See Hanba 
 
 Towns. 
 
 COLOMAN. See Koloman. 
 COLOMBEY-NOUILLY, OR BORNY, 
 
 Battle of. See France: A. D. 1870 (July— 
 
 AUOUST). 
 
 COLOMBIA, United States of. See Col- 
 
 OMIHAN StATKS. 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, The.— This gen- 
 eral title will be used, for convenience, to cover, 
 for considerable jieriods of their history, the 
 territory now divided between the republics of 
 Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Unite(i States of 
 Colombia (formerly New Granada), the latter 
 embracing the Isthmus of Panama. The history 
 of these countries being for a long time substan- 
 
 tially identical In the main, and only illHtlnKiiish- 
 able at intervals, it si'cms to be illtllcult to <1(> 
 olherwiM- than hold it, somewhat arbitrarily, 
 under one heading, until the s<>veral currents of 
 events part company ilistinctly. 
 
 The aboriginal inhabitants. See Amkhican 
 .Vnoiiioi.NKH: CiiinciiA. 
 
 A. D. 1536-1731.— The Spaniiih conquest of 
 New Granada.— Creation of the new vice- 
 royalty.— " For some time after the disiistroiis 
 failure of the attempt of l.as (asas to found 11 
 colony on the I'earl coast of Ciimana, the norlh- 
 em portion of Spanish South America, from the 
 (irinoco westwards, is almost lost to hlslorv. 
 The powers working for iiihA had siif:ialU" 
 falli'd, and the powers of evil seemed to have tt 
 almost all their o>vn wav. . . . l.yiii); behind 
 these extensive coasts to tlie westward in the in- 
 terior, is the region to which the Spaniards )ravo 
 the name of the kingdom of New (iranada, the 
 name beini; applied in consei|ueiice of a rescm- 
 li!i..ice which WHS detected between the idaiti 
 around Santa Fe de Bogota and thi' royal Vega 
 which adjoins the historical .Moorish cap'tal. 
 New Granada was a most extensive reiiloii. com- 
 prising as ii dill the entire country from sea to si'ii 
 In the north, Iving between flD' and "H longi- 
 tude, and from 6' to 15^ of latitude." The 
 Spanish connuest of New Granada was achieved 
 in till' main by Xiniencs de (jiicsada. who in- 
 vaded the eoiintiy from the north, ,' Ithoiigh the 
 governor of t^u to, IJcnalea/ar, cut Ted it like- 
 wise from the south. "Ximcne, de (^iiesaila 
 came to America about the year l.");t,">, in the 
 suite of tlie (Jovernor of Santa .Miirta, by whom 
 he was selected to lead an expedition against the 
 ('hibchas, who dwelt on the plain of Hogotil and 
 around the headwaters of the .Magdaleiia. Set- 
 ting out in Aiuil ir>;)6 with HIM) men, he suc- 
 ceeded in pushing his way through the forest 
 and acoss imiumerable streams lie contrived 
 to subsist for eight months, during which he 
 traversed 450 ndlcs, enduring meanwhile the 
 very utmost exertions and privations that human 
 nature coidd support. . . . When he had sur- 
 mounted the natuntl ditlieulties in his jiath. his 
 remaining force consisted of but 166 men, with 
 60 horsi's. On MiU' 2d, 1537, he resumed his 
 advance; nnd, as tiMially happened, the mere 
 sight of his horsemen territied the Indians into 
 submission. At Tunja, according to the Spanish 
 historians, he was treacherously attacked whilst 
 resting in the palace of one of the chiefs. ... In 
 any case, tlie chief was taken, and, after much 
 slaughter, Ximenes found liimsclf the ah.solute 
 jjossessor of immense riches, one golden li ntern 
 alone being vali:cd at 6,000 ducats. From 
 Tunja Ximenes marched tipon the sacred city of 
 Iraca, where two Spanish soldiers accidentally 
 set tire to the great Temple of the Sun. The 
 result was that, after a contlagration which 
 lasted several days, both th" city and the temple 
 were utterly destroyed. ... On the Uth of 
 August, 1538, was founded the city of Bogota. 
 Ximenes was soon here joined by Frederman, 
 a subject of the Emperor Charles V., with 160 
 soldiers, with whom he had been engaged in 
 conquering Venezuela; and likewise by Benal- 
 civzar, the conqueror of Quito. This hitter 
 warrior had crossed tlie continent in trium|)li 
 at the head of 150 Spaniards, together with a 
 multitude of native followers." In the intrigues 
 and jealous rivalries between the three which 
 
 483 
 
COLOMBIAN STATES, 1536-1731. 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1810-1819. 
 
 followed, Ximencs de Qiiesada was pushed 
 aside!, at tlrst, and even lined and banished by 
 the Emperor; but in the end he triumphed and 
 was appiiiiited marshal of tlic kingdom of New 
 Granada. "On his return to Bogota in 1551, 
 he, to his credit, exhibited an energy in pro- 
 tecting the people of the country against their 
 invaders, e(jual to that which he liad displayed 
 in elTecting tlieir conepiest. Ten years later he 
 conimaniled a force organized to repel an attack 
 from the ruler of Venezuela; shortly after which 
 he was apiminted Adehintado of the Kingdom of 
 New Granada. He devoted three years, and an 
 enormous amount of toil and money, to an absurd 
 expedition in ipiest of the fabled lOl Dorado [.see 
 El Douado]. " CJuesada died of leprosy in 1572. 
 Until 1718 the kingdom of New Grannda re- 
 mained subject to the Viceroy of Peru. In that 
 year the Viceroyalty of Peru " was divided into 
 two portions, the northern region, from the 
 frontiers of jSIexico as far as to the Orinoco, and 
 on the Southern Sea from Veragua to Tumbcz, 
 forming the Viceroyalty of New Gninada, of 
 which the capital was Bogota. To this region, 
 likewise, was assigned the inland province of 
 Quito. The Viceroyalty of New Granada, in 
 fact, comprised what now [1884] forms the 
 Republic of Venezuela, the United States of 
 Columbia, and the Republic of Equador." In 
 1731 "it was deemed expedient to detach from 
 the Viceroyalty of New Granada the provinces 
 of Venezuela, Maracaibo, Varina.s, Cumana, and 
 Spanish Guyana, and to form them into a sepa- 
 rate Captain-Generalship, the residence of the 
 ruler being fixed at Caracas in Venezuela." — 
 R. G. AVatson, Spanish and Portuguese South 
 Americn, t>. 2, ch. 0. 
 
 A. D. 1810-1819.— The strugrJc for inde- 
 pendence and its achievement,— Miranda and 
 Simon Bolivar. — The Earthquake in Vene- 
 zuela. — The founding^ of the Republic of 
 Colombia. — "The Colombian IStates occupy the 
 first place in the history of South American 
 independence. . . . The Colombian States were 
 first in the struggle because they were in many 
 ways nearest to Europe. It was through them 
 that intercourse between the Pacific coast and 
 Etirope was mainly carried on : Porto Bello and 
 Carthagena were thus the main inlets of European 
 ideas. V 'des, there was here constant com- 
 municat' with the AVest Indies; and govern- 
 ment, pi ulation and wealth were less centralised 
 than in the more important viceroyalties of 
 Mexico and Peru. The Indians of New Granada 
 had always been a restless race, and the increase 
 of taxation which was resorted to for the defence 
 of the coast in the war with Great Britain (1777- 
 1788) produced discontents among the whole 
 population, both red and white. . . . The 
 French I{evolution, coming soon afterwards, 
 was another link in the chain of causes. ... In 
 Venezuela, which the industry of its inhabitant^ 
 liad nuscd from a poor mission district to a 
 thriving commercial ])rovince, the progress of 
 nuxlern ideas was yet faster. . . . The concpiest 
 of Trinidad by Eugknd in 1707 gave a new 
 turn to the movement. ... It was from 
 Trinidad that the first attempts were made to 
 excite the Spanish colonists to revolution. 
 Francis Miranda, by whom this was done, was a 
 type of many other men to whom is due the 
 credit of leading the South American peoples to 
 indepuudeuce. He was a native of Caraccas, 
 
 and when a young man had held a French com- 
 :iussion in the American War of Independence. 
 On his return to Venezuela in 1783 he found the 
 populace, as we have already mentioned, in an 
 excited state, and finding that he was suspected 
 of designs for liberating his own country, ho 
 went to Europe, and again attacht'd himself to 
 the French service. . . . Being proscribed by 
 the Directory, he turned to England, and . . . 
 when the war [between England and Spain] 
 broke out afresh in 1804, and England sent 
 out an expedition to invade Buenos Ayres, 
 Miranda believed that his opportunity was come. 
 In 1800, by English and American aid, he sailed 
 from Tjimdad and landed with 500 men on the 
 coast of Venezuela. But the 'Colombian Army,' 
 as Miranda named it, met with a cool reception 
 among the people. His utter inability to meet 
 the Spanish forces compelled him to retreat to 
 Trinidatl, nor did he reappear on the continent 
 until after the revolution of 1810. The iirincipal 
 inhabitants of Caraccas had been meditating the 
 formation of a provisional government, on the 
 model of the juntas of Spain, ever since the 
 abdication of the king [see Spain : A. D. 1807- 
 1808] ; but it was not until 1810, when the final 
 victory of Napoleon in Spain appeared certain, 
 that they made a decisive movement in favour of 
 independence. Spain, for the time at least, was 
 now blotted out of the list of nations. Acting, 
 therefore, in the name of Ferdinand VII., they 
 deposed the Spanish colonial officers, and 
 elected a supreme junta or council. Similar 
 juntas were soon established in New Granada, 
 at Santa Fe, Quito, Carthagena, and the other 
 chief towns of the Viceroyalty . . . and the 
 fortune of the patriot party in new Granada, 
 from their close neighbourhood, was closely 
 linked with that of the Venezolans. The 
 Regency of Cadiz, grasping for itself all the 
 rights and powers of the Spanish nation, 
 determined to reduce the colonists to subjection. 
 They therefore declared the port of Caraccas in 
 a state of blockade, as the British government 
 had done in the previous generation with that of 
 Boston ; and, as in the case of Boston, this reso- 
 lution of the Regency amounted to a declaration 
 of war. ... A congress of all the provinces of 
 Venezuela now met at Caraccas, and publislied 
 a declanition of independence on the 5th of 
 July, 1811, and those of Mexico and New 
 Granada soon followed. . . . 'Ihe powers of 
 nature seemed to conspire with the tyranny of 
 Europe to destroy the young South American 
 Republic. On the 26Hi of March, 181"^, Vene- 
 zviela was visited by ! ;arful earthouiu 0, which 
 destroj'cd the capitjil [Caraccas] aiil .several 
 other towns, together with 20,000 people, and 
 many others jjerished of hunger and in other ways. 
 This day was Holy Thursday ; and the super- 
 stitious people, prompted by their priests, 
 believed this awful visitation to be a judgment 
 from God for their revolt. The Spanish troops, 
 iinder Montevcrde, now began a fresh attack on 
 the disquieted Venezolans. Miranda, who on his 
 return bad been placed at the head of the army, 
 had in the meantime overrun New Granada, and 
 laid the foundation of the future United States 
 of Colombia. But the face of affairs was 
 changed by the news of the earthquake. Smitten 
 with despair, his soldiers now deserted to the 
 royalists; he lost ground everywhere; the for- 
 tress of Puerto Cavello, commanded by the 
 
 484 
 
COLOMBIAN aXATES, 1810-1819. 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1819-1830. 
 
 great Bolivar, then a colonel in the sorvict! of the 
 Republic, was surrendered through treachery. 
 On the 25th of June iMimnda himself capitu- 
 lated, witli all his forces; and Venezuela fell 
 once more into the hands of the royalists. 
 Miranda himself was arrested, in defiance of the 
 terms of the surrender, and perished in an 
 European dungeon, as Toussaint had perished a 
 few years b'.rore. . . . Monteverde emptied the 
 prisons of taeir occupants, and tilled them with 
 the families of the principal citizens of the 
 republic; and Caraccas became the scene of a 
 Ueign of Terror. After Miranda's capitulation, 
 Bolivar had gone to New Granada, which still 
 maintained its independence, and entered into 
 the service of that republic. Bolivar now 
 reappeared in a new character, and earned for 
 himself a rep\itation in the history of the new 
 world which up to a certain point ranks with 
 that of Washington. Simon Bolivar, like 
 Miranda, was a native of Caracci\s. . . . Like 
 Miranda, he had to some e.xt'jpt learned modern 
 ideas by visiting tlie old worlu and the United 
 States. When the cruelties of Monteverde had 
 made Venezuela ripe for a new revolt, Bolivar 
 reappeared on his native soil at the head of a 
 small body of troops from the adjacent repub- 
 lic. The successes which he gained so incensed 
 the royalists that they refused quarter to th( ir 
 prisoners, and war to the death ( ' guerra u muertc ') 
 was proclaimed. All obstacles disappeared 
 before Bolivar's generalship, and on the 4th of 
 August, 1813, he publicly entered Caraccas, the 
 fortress of Puerto Cavello being now the only one 
 in the possession of the royalists. Bolivar was 
 hailed with the title of the liberator of Vene- 
 zuela. Ho was willing to see the republic 
 restored; but the inhabitants very properly 
 feared to trusr. at this time to anything but a 
 militarj^ govcriiment, and vested the supreme 
 power in him as dictator (1814). The event 
 mdeed proved the necessity of a nulitary govern- 
 ment. The defeated royalists raised fresh 
 troops, many thousands of whom were negro 
 slaves, and overran the whole country ; Bolivar 
 was beaten at La Puerta, and forced to take 
 refuge a second time in New Granada ; and the 
 capital fell again into tlie hands of the royalists. 
 . . . The War of Independence had been under 
 taken against the Regency ; and had Ferdinand, 
 on his restoration to the throne in 1814, shown 
 any signs of conciliation, he might yet have 
 recovered his American provinces. But the 
 government persisted in its course of absolute 
 repression. . . . New Granada, where Bolivar 
 was general in chief of the forces, was the only 
 part where the insurrection survived; and in 
 1815 a fleet containing 10,000 men under General 
 Morillo arrived off Carthagona, its principal ])ort. 
 . . . Carthagena was only provisioned for a 
 short time : and Bolivar, overpowered by num- 
 bers, quitted the soil of the continent and went 
 to the West Indies to seek help to relievo 
 Carthagena, and maintain the contest for 
 liberty." Obtaining assistance in Hayti, he 
 fitted out an expedition " which sailed in April 
 from the port of Aux Cayes. Boll var landed near 
 Cumana, in the eastern extremity of Venezuela, 
 and from this point he gradually advanced 
 westwards, gaining strength by slow degrees. 
 In the meantime, after a siege of 1 16 days, 
 Carthagena surrendered ; 5,000 of its inhabitants 
 had perished of hunger. Both provinces were 
 
 now in Morillo's hands. Fancying himself com- 
 pletely master of the country, he proceeded to 
 wreak a terrible vengeance on the Granadines. 
 But at the news of Bolivar's rcai)p('araMce, 
 though yet at a distance, the face of alTairs 
 chanijed. . . . Ills successes in the year 1817 
 were sure, though slow: in 1818, after he had 
 been joined bv European volunteers, they wi re 
 brilliant. Bolivar beat the royalists in o le 
 pitched battlj after another [Sagamoso, July 1, 
 1819, and Pantano de Bargas, July 'J.')]: anil at 
 length a decisive victory was won by his lieuten- 
 ant, Santander, at Boyaea, in New (iranada, 
 August 1, 1819. This battle, in which some 
 hundreds of British and French auxillari' 
 fought on the side of liberty, com])letely freed 
 the two countries from the yoke of Spain." — 
 E. J. Payne, Ilist. of European Colonien, cIl 10. 
 
 Also in : C. S. Cochrane, Jourixd of a UeKUknm 
 in Colombia, v. 1, ch. 6-8. — II. Brownell, X. <ind 
 S. America lUuKtrated, pp. 310-334. — V. Cusldng, 
 Simon Bolivar (jV^. Am. Jiev., Jan., 1839, amlJan., 
 1830).— II. L. V. D. Ilolstein, Memoirs of liolimr, 
 ch. 3-20.— .Major Flintner, Hist, of the Item- 
 liition of Caraccas. 
 
 A. b. 1819-1830.— The gloiy and the fall 
 of Bolivar. — Dissolution of the Colombian Fed- 
 eration. — Tyranny under the Liberator, and 
 monarchical schemes. — Three davs after the 
 battle of Boyaea, Bolivar entered Bogota in 
 triumph. " A congress met in December anil 
 ('ecided that Venezuela and Nueva Granada 
 Fliould form one republic, to be called Colombia. 
 Morillo departed for Europe in 1820, and the vic- 
 tory gained by Bolivar at Carabobo on Jime 24, 
 1821, decided the fate of Colombia. In the fol- 
 lowing January General Bolivar assenil)k'd an 
 army at Popayan to drive the Spaniards out of 
 the province of Quito. His second in conunand, 
 General Sucre, led an advanced guard, which was 
 reinforced by :i contingent of volunteers from 
 Peru, under Santa Cruz. The Spanish General 
 Ramirez was entirely defeated in the battle of 
 Pichincha, and Quito was incori)orated with tlie 
 new republic of Colombia." — C. R. Jlarkham, 
 Colonial Hist, of S. America (Narrative and Crit- 
 ical Hist, of Am., V. 8, ch. 5). — "The provinces 
 of New Granad and Venezuela, together with 
 the Presidency of Quito, now sent delegates to 
 the convention of Cueuta, in 1831, and there de- 
 creed the unifm of the three countries as a single 
 state by the name of the Republic of Colombia. 
 The first Colombian federal constitution was con- 
 cocted by the united wisdom of the delegates ; and 
 the result might easily have been foreseen. It 
 was a farrago of crude and heterogeneous ideas. 
 Some of its features were imitated from the 
 American political system, some from the Eng- 
 lish, some from the French. . . . Bolivar of 
 course became President: and the Republic had 
 need of him. The task of liberation was not yet 
 completed. Carthagena, and ni'uiy other strong 
 places, remained in Spanish hands. Bolivar re- 
 duced these one by one, and the second decisive 
 victory of Carabobo, in 1822, finally secured Col- 
 ombian freedom. Tlie English claim the chief 
 share in tlie battle of Carabobo: for the British 
 legion alone carried the main Spanish position, 
 losing in the feat two-thirds of its numbers. The 
 war now fast drew to its close. The republic 
 was able to contest w'ith the invaders the do- 
 minion of the sea: General Padllla, on the 23rd 
 of Ju.y, 1823, totally destroyed the Spanish fleet: 
 
 485 
 
COLOMBIAN 8TAT£S, 1819-1830. 
 
 COLOMBIAN STATES, 1826. 
 
 and the Spanish commander Anally cnpitiilatrd 
 at Puerto Cavello in December. All these hnrd- 
 won successe.'i were mainly owinj; to the hnivery 
 and reKolution of Bolivar. Bolivar deserves to 
 the full the reputation of an able and patriotic 
 soldier. He was now set free . . . to render im- 
 portant services to the rest of South America : and 
 among the heroes of independence perhaps liis 
 name will always stand flret. But Bolivar the 
 statesman was a man very different from Bolivar 
 the general. He was alternately timid and arbi- 
 trary. He was indeed afraid to" touch the prob- 
 lems of statesmanship which awaited him: but 
 instead of leading the Colombian peojde through 
 independence to liberty, he stubbornly set his 
 face against all measures of political or social re- 
 form. His fall may be said to liavo begun with 
 the moment when his military triumphs were 
 complete. The disaiTection to the constitution 
 of the leading people in Venezuela and Ecuador 
 [the new name given to the old province of Quito, 
 indicating its position at the equator] in 1820 and 
 
 1827, was favoured by the Provincial governors, 
 Paez and Mos(iuera ; and Bolivar, instead of re- 
 sisting the disintegration of the state, openly 
 favoured the military dictatorsliips which Paez 
 and Jlosqucra established. This policy fore- 
 shadowed the reign of absolutism in New Granada 
 itself. Bolivar . . . had now become not only 
 the constitutional head of the Colombian federa- 
 tion, but also the military head of the Peruvian 
 republics [see Pkiht: A. I). 1820-1826, 1825- 
 1826, and 1826-1870] : and there can be no doubt 
 tint he intended tlie Colombian constitution to 
 be reduced to the Peruvian model. As a first 
 step towards reuniting nil the South American 
 nations under a military government, Paez, be- 
 yond reasonable doubt, with Bolivar's connivance, 
 prool. limed the independence of Venezuela, April 
 80th, ;826. This practically broke up the Col- 
 ombian federation: and the destruction of the 
 constitution, so far as it regarded New Granada 
 itself, s.Kin followed. Bolivar had already re- 
 sorted to the usual devices of military tyranny. 
 The terrorism of Sbirri, arbitrary arrests, the as- 
 sumption of additional executive powers, and, 
 finally, the suppression of the vice-presidency, 
 all pointed one way. ... At length, after the 
 practical se<ession of Venezuela and Ecuador 
 under their jnilitary rulers, Congress decreed a 
 summons for ;'. Convention, which met at Ocaiia 
 in March, 1828. . . . The liberals, who were bent 
 on electoral reform and decentralization, were 
 paralyzed by the violent bearing of the Bolivian 
 leaders: and Bolivar quartered himself in the 
 neighbourhood, and threatened the Convention 
 at the head of an army of 3,000 veterans. 
 He did not, however, resort to open force. 
 Instead of tliis, he ordered his party to recede 
 from the Convention: and this left the Conven- 
 tion without the means of making a quorum. 
 From this moment the designs of Bolivar were 
 unmistakable. The dissolution of the Conven- 
 tion, and the appointment of Bolivar as Dictator, 
 by a junta of notables, followed as a matter of 
 course ; and by the ' Organic decree ' of August 
 
 1828, Bolivar assumed the absolute sovereignty 
 of Colombia. A reign of brute force now fol- 
 lowed: but the triumph of Bolivar was only 
 ephemend. . . . The Federation was gone : audit 
 became a question of securing military ride in 
 the separate provinces. A portentous change 
 now occurred in Ecuador, Tlie democratic party 
 
 under Flores triumphed over the Bolivians tmdcr 
 Mosfpiera : and Paez assured his chief that no 
 help was to be e.vpccte<l from Venezuela. At 
 the Convention of Bogota, in 1830, though it was 
 packed with Bolivar's nominees, it became clear 
 that the liberator's star had set at last. . . . This 
 convention refused to vote him President. Boli- 
 var now withdrew from public life: and a few 
 months later, December 17, 1830, he died broken- 
 hearted at San Pedro, near Santa ^Martha. Boli- 
 var, though a patriot as regarded the struggle 
 with Spain, was in the end a traitor to his fellow 
 citizens. Recent discoveries leave little doubt 
 that he intended to found a monarchy on the 
 ruins of the Spanish dominion. England and 
 France, both at this time strongly conservative 
 powers, were in favour of such a scheme ; and a 
 Prince of the House of Bourbon had already been 
 ■"-.minated to be Bolivar's successor." — E. J. 
 Payne, HM. of JHuropeaii Colonies, ch. 16. — 
 " About one month before his death. General 
 Bolivar, the so-called ' Liberator ' of South Amer- 
 ica, wrote a letter to the late Oenend Flores of 
 Ecuador, in which tlie following renuirkable 
 passages occur, which have never before been 
 published in the English language: 'I have 
 oeen in power for nearly 20 years, from which I 
 have gathered only a few definite results: 1. 
 America, for us, is ungovernable. 2. He who 
 dedicates his services to a revolution, plows the 
 sea. 3. The only thing that can be done in 
 America, is to emigrate. 4. This country will 
 inevitably fall into the hands of the unbridled 
 rabble, and little by little become a prey to petty 
 tyrants of all colors and races. ' " — F. Has-saurek, 
 Four Yearn nmomj Sp<tnish-Ameriettiis, eh. 12. 
 
 Also IN: J. M. Spence, The Lniul of Bolirar, 
 V. 1, ch. 7. — E. B. Eastwick, Venezuela, ch. 11 
 {Battle of CaraMw). 
 
 A. D. 1821-1854. — Emancipation of slaves. 
 — The abolition of slavery in the three republics 
 of New Grenada, Venezuela and Ecuador was 
 initiated in the Republic of Colombia, while it 
 embraced them all. "By a law of the 21st of 
 July, 1821, it was provided that the children of 
 slaves, born after its publication in the principal 
 cities of the republic, should be free. . . . Cer- 
 tain revenues were appropriated to the creation 
 of an emancipation fund in each district. . . . 
 Aside from a certain bungling looseness with 
 which almost all Spanish-American laws are 
 drawn, it [the act of 1821] contains some very 
 sensible regulations, and served to lay a solid 
 foundation for the work of emancipation, since 
 completed by the three republics which then 
 constituted Colombia." In Ecuador the comple- 
 tion of emancipation was reached in 1854. — F. 
 Hassaurck, Four Tears among Spanish- Ameri- 
 cans, pp. 830-383. 
 
 A. D. 1826. — The Congress of Panama. — 
 "The proposition for assembling this body eman- 
 ated from Bolivar, who, in 1823, as president of 
 Colombia, invited the governments of Mexico, 
 Peru, Chile, and Buenos Ayres, to form a con- 
 federacy of the Spanish-American states, by 
 means of plenipotentiaries to be convened, in the 
 spirit of classic analogy, in the isthmus of Pan- 
 ama. To this inv;t)»tion the governments of 
 P"ru and Mexico promptly acceded, Chile and 
 Buenos Ayres neglecteel or declined to be repre- 
 sented in the assembly, for the reasons which we 
 shall presently state. This magniticcnt idea of a 
 second AchKan League seized on the imagina- 
 
 486 
 
COLOMBIAN STATES, 1826. 
 
 COLOiMBIAN STATES, 1830-1886. 
 
 tions of miiiiy speculative and of some practical 
 men in America and Europe, us destined to 
 create u new era in the political liistor/ of the 
 world by originatinj^ a ])urcr system of public 
 law, and almost realizing Bernardin dc Saint 
 Pierre's league of the m(Klern nations. In its 
 original shape, it was professedly a plan of a bel- 
 ligerent nature, having for its main object to 
 combine the revolutionized states against the 
 conunou enemy. But time was re(iuired for 
 carrying it into effect. Meanwhile the project, 
 magnitled by the course of events, began to 
 change its complexion. The United States were 
 invited to participate in the Congress, so as to 
 form an American policy, and n rallying point 
 for American interests, m opposition to those of 
 Europe ; and, after the discussions which are so 
 familiar to all, the government of the United 
 States accepted the invitation, and despatched 
 its representatives to Panama. ... In the in- 
 terval, between the proposal of the plan and its 
 execution, Centnd America was added to the 
 family of American nations, and agreed to 
 take part in the Congress. At length, after 
 many delays, this modern Amphictyonic Coun- 
 cil, consistmg of plenipotentiaries from Colombia, 
 Central America, Peru and Jlexico, a.sscmbled 
 in the city of Panama, June 23, 1826, and in a 
 session of three weeks concluded various treaties ; 
 one of perpetual union, league, and confedera- 
 tion; others relating to the contingents which 
 the confederates should contribute for the 
 common defence; and another for the annual 
 meeting of the Congress in time of war. Hav- 
 ing th\i3 promptly despatched their private 
 affairs, the assembly adjourned to Tacubaya in 
 Mexico, on account of the insalubrious climate 
 of Panama, before the delegation of the United 
 States had arrived; since when it has justly ac- 
 <iuircd the epithet of 'introuvable,' and probably 
 never will reassemble in its original form. Is 
 there not a secret liistory of all this ? AVhy did 
 Chile and Buenos Ayres refuse to participate in 
 the Congress ? Why has it now vanished from 
 the face of the earth? The answer given in 
 South America is, that Bolivar proposed the 
 assembly as part of a grand schf.'me of ambition, 
 — ascribed to him by the republican party, and 
 not witliout some countenance from his own 
 conduct, — for establishing a military empire to 
 embrace the whole of Spanish-America, or ut 
 least an empire uniting Colombia and the two 
 Perus. To give the color of plousibility to the 
 projected assembly, the United States were in- 
 vited to be represented; and it is said Bolivar 
 did not expect, nor very graciously receive, their 
 accep^nce of the invitation." — C. Gushing, Bo'i- 
 var and the Bolimaii Constitution (N. A. Hev., 
 Jan., 1830). — In the United States "no question, 
 in its day, excited more heat and intemperate 
 discussion, or more feeling between a President 
 and Senate, than this proposed mission to the 
 Congress of American nations at Panama; and 
 no heated question ever cooled off and died out 
 so suddenly and completely. . . . Though long 
 since sunk into oblivion, and its name almost 
 forgotten, it was a master subject on the political 
 theatre during its day; and gave rise to ques- 
 tions of national and of constitutional law, and of 
 national policy, the importance of which survive 
 the occasion from which they sprung; and the 
 solution of which (as then solved), may be some 
 guide to future action, if similar questions again 
 
 occur. Besides the gnivc ijuestions to which the 
 subject gave rise, the subjec^t itself became one 
 of unu.sual and |>ainful excitcnu-nt. It agitated 
 tlie people, mad(! a violent (h bate in the two 
 Houses of Congress, inllamed the passions of 
 parties and individuals, rai.sed a tenii)est before 
 which Congress l)ent, made bad feeling between 
 the President [Jolm Quincy Adams] and tlie 
 Senate; and le(l to the duel between Mr. Ran- 
 dolph and Mr. Clay. It was an adminlstnition 
 measure, and pressed by all the means known to 
 an administration. It was evidently relied ui)on 
 asameansof acting upon the i)ei)ple — asa popu- 
 lar movement wliich might have the elfect of 
 turning the tide which was then running high 
 against Mr. Adams and Mr. Clay. . . . Now, 
 the chief benefit to be clerived froiii its retrospect 
 — and that indeed is a real one — is a view of 
 the firmness with which was then maintained, by 
 a minority, the old policy of tlie United States, to 
 avoid entangling alliances and interference with 
 tlie affairs of other nations; — and the exjiosition 
 of the ^lonroe doctrine, from one so competent 
 to give it as Mr. Adams." — T. H. Benton, Thirty 
 Yeam' View, eh. 25 (s. 1). 
 
 Also in : O. F. Tucker, The ^fonroe Doctrine, 
 ch. 3. — C. Schurz, Life of Henry Clay, ch. 11 (v. 1). 
 — International Am. Conference (of 1%%^): liepts. 
 and DiHCumoM, v. 4, Hist. ap]iendix. 
 
 A. D. 1830-1886. — Revolutions and civil 
 wars. — The New Confederation (1863) of the 
 United States of Colombia. — The Republic of 
 Colombia. — *" New Granada was obliged in 
 1830 to recognize the disruption of Colombia, 
 which had long been an accom|)lished fact. 
 From this date the three states have a separate 
 history, which is very much of a piece, though 
 Venezuela was for some years preserved from 
 the intestine commotions which have from the 
 beginning distracted New Granada and Ecuador. 
 . . . Mosquera, who had won the election which 
 decided the fate of Bolivar did not long occupy 
 the presidency. . . . Mosquera was soon driven 
 out by General Urdanete, who was now at the 
 head of the conservative or Bolivian party. But 
 after the death of their leader, this party suffered 
 a natural relapse, and Urdanete was overthrown 
 early in 1831. Tlie history of New Granada may 
 be siiid really to commence with the presidency 
 of Bolivar's old rival and companion in arms, 
 Santandcr, who was elected under the constitu- 
 tion of 1832. . . . His presidency . . . was a 
 coni))aratively bright episode: and with its 
 termination in 1830 begins the dark and troubled 
 period which the Granadines emphatically desig- 
 nate by the name of the 'Twelve Years.' The 
 scanty measure of liberalism which Santander 
 had dealt out to the people was now withdrawn. 
 Marquez, his successor, was a sceptic in politics 
 and a man of infirm will. . . . Now began the 
 ascendancy of clericalism, of absolutist oligarchy, 
 and of government by the gallows. This same 
 system continued under President Herran, who 
 was elected in 1841 ; and tlien appeared on the 
 scene, as his chief minister, the famous Dr. 
 Ospina," who brought back the .Jesuits and cur- 
 tailed the constitution. Liberalism again gained 
 ground, electing General Lopez to the presidency 
 m 1849 and once more expelling the Jesuits. In 
 April 1854 a radical revolution overturned the 
 constitution and President Obando was declared 
 dictator. "The conservatives rallied, howevcir, 
 and regained possession of the government before 
 
 487 
 
COLOMBIAN STATES, 1830-1886. 
 
 COLORADO. 
 
 tlie close of the year. In 1857 Ospina ontorod on 
 tlic prcsidpncy and civil war soon raged tliroiigli- 
 oiil the country. "After n hundred tights the 
 revolution triumphed in July, 1801. . . . Mos- 
 qucra, who wiw now in posacdsion of the Held, 
 was a true pupil of Uoliviir'H, and he thought the 
 time had come for reviving Holivar's plans. . . . 
 In 18(!H Moscpicra's new Federal (Jonstitution 
 was proclaimed. Henceforth each State [of the 
 eight federal States into which the 44 pr'-.vinces 
 of New Granada were divided] became practi- 
 cally independent under its own President; and to 
 mark tlie change the title of the nation was 
 altered. At first it was called the Qranadine 
 Confedcratir)n : but it afterwards took the name 
 of Colombia [the United States of Colombia], 
 ■which Inul formerly been the title of the larger 
 Confedenition under Bolivar. Among the most 
 important facts in recent Colombian history 
 is the independence of the State of Panama, 
 which has become of great importance through 
 the construction of the railway connecting the 
 port of Colon, or Aspinwall, as it was named by 
 the Americans, on the Atlantic, with that of 
 Panama on the Pacific. This railway was opened 
 in IHnS; and in the same year Panama declared 
 itself a sovereign state. The State of Panama, 
 after many years of conservative domination, 
 has now perhaps the most democratic govern- 
 ment in the world. Tlie President is elected for 
 two years only, and is incapable of re-election. 
 Panama has had many revolutions of its own ; 
 nor has the new Federal Constitution solved all 
 the difficulties of the Qranadine government. In 
 1867 Mosquera was obliged to have recourse to a 
 coup d'etat, and declared himself dictator, but 
 he was soon ofterwards arrested ; a conservative 
 revolution took place ; Mosquera was banished ; 
 and Gutierrez became President. The liberalb, 
 however, came back the next year, under Ponce. 
 Since 1874 [the date of writing being 1879] 
 General Perez has been President of Colombia. 
 — E. J. Payne, Hist, of European Colonien, ch. 
 16. — "The federal Constitution of 1863 was 
 clearly formed on the model of ihe Constitution 
 of the United States of America. It remained in 
 force until 1886, wlien it was superseded by a 
 law whicli gave the State a centralized organiza- 
 tion and named it the 'Republic of Colombia.' " 
 — Const, of the Republic of Colombia, with Hist. 
 Introd. by B. Moses (Sup, to Annals of Am. Acad, 
 of Pol. and Sac. Science, Jan., 1893). 
 
 A. D. iSS^-iSpx.— The Revolution of 1885. 
 — The constitution of 1886. — The presidency of 
 Dr. Nunez. — "Cartagena is virtually the centre 
 of political power in Colombia, for it is the resi- 
 dence of President Nuilez, a dictator without the 
 name. Before the revolution of 1885, during 
 which Colon was burned and the Panama Rail- 
 way protected by American marines, tlie States 
 cvjoyed a large measure of home rule. The 
 insurgents who were defeated in that strtjggle 
 were Radicals and advanced Liberals. They 
 were making a stand against centralized govern- 
 ment, and they were overthrown. When the 
 followers of Dr. NuSez were victorious, they 
 transformed the constitutional system of the 
 country. . . . Dr. Nui^cz, who had entered 
 public life as a Radical agitator, swung completely 
 around the circle. As the leader of the National 
 party he became the all^ of Clericalism, and the 
 defender of ecclesiastical privilege. Being a 
 man of unrivalled capacity for directing public 
 
 affairs and enforcing party discipline, he has 
 established a highly centralized military govern- 
 ment without incurring unpopularity by remain- 
 ing constantly in sight and openly exercising 
 authority. . . . Strong government has not 
 been without its advantages; but the system can 
 hardly be considered either republican or demo- 
 cratic. ... Of all the travesties of popular 
 government which have been witnessed in Spanish 
 America, the political play enacted in BogotA 
 ni.'. Cartagena is the most grotesque. Dr. 
 Nufiez is known os the titular President of the 
 Republic. His practice is to go to the capital at 
 the beginning of the presidential term, and when 
 he has taken the oath of office to remain there a 
 few weeks until all matters of policy and 
 discipline are arranged among his followers. He 
 then retires to his country-seat in Cartagena, 
 leaving the vice-President to bear the burdens of 
 state." — I. N. Ford, Tropical America, ch. 12^ 
 
 A. D. 1892, — Re-election of President Nunez. 
 — In 1892, Dr. Rafael Nunez was elected Presi- 
 dent for a fourth term, the term of ofllce being 
 six years. — Statesman's Year-hook, 1893. 
 
 COLONI. See Dedititius. 
 
 COLONIA AGRIPPINENSIS. — Agrip- 
 
 pina, the daughter of Germaiiicus and the mother 
 of Nero, founded on the Rhine the ColoniaAgrip- 
 pinensis (modern Cologne) — probably the only 
 colony of Roman veterans ever established under 
 female auspices. The site had been previously 
 occupied by a village of the Ubii. "It is 
 curious that this abnormal colony has, alone, of 
 all its kindred foundations, retained to the 
 present day the name of Colonia." — C. Merivale, 
 Ilist. of the liomanr, ch. 50. 
 
 COLONIA, URUGUAY. See Aiiokntine 
 Repuhlic: a. D. 1580-1777. 
 
 COLONIZATION SOCIETY, The Ameri- 
 can. See Slavery, Neoro: A. D. 1816-1847. 
 
 COLONNA, The. See Rome: 13Tn-14TJi 
 Centuries, and A. D. 1347-1354; also Papacy: 
 A. D. 1294-1348. 
 
 COLONUS, The. See SLA\-EnY, Medleval : 
 Germany. 
 
 COLORADO: A. D. 1803-1848.— Acquisi- 
 tion of the eastern part in the Louisiana Pur- 
 chase and the western part from Mexico. 
 See Louisiana: A. D. 1798-1803; and Mexico: 
 A. D. 1848. 
 
 A. D. 1806-1876.— Early explorations. — 
 Gold discoveries. — Territorial and state or- 
 g^anization. — The first American explorer to 
 penetrate to the mountains of Colorado was 
 Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, sent out with a small 
 party by General Wilkinson, in 1806. He ap- 
 proached within 15 miles of the Rocky Mountain 
 Peak which bears his name. A more extensive 
 official exploration of the country was made in 
 1819 by Major Stephen H. Long, whose report 
 upon the whole region drained by the Missouri, 
 Arkansas and Platte rivers and their tributaries 
 was unfavorable and discouraging. Fremont's 
 explorations, which touched Colorado, were 
 TT.r.ie in 1843-44. "The only persons encoun- 
 tered in the Rocky mountains by Fremont at this 
 time were the few remaining traders and their 
 former employes, now their colonists, who lived 
 with their Mexican and Indian wives and half- 
 breed children in a primitive manner of life, 
 usually under the protection of some defensive 
 structure called a fort. The first American 
 
 488 
 
COLORADO. 
 
 COMITATUS. 
 
 families in Colorado wore a pnrt ot the Monnon 
 biittulion of 1840, wlio, witli tlicir wives and 
 cliiliiren, resided at Piiebio from September to 
 tlie spring and summer of tlie following year, 
 when tliey joined tlic >Iornion emigration to Salt 
 Lake. . . . Jleusures wen; taken early in Mareli, 
 1847, to select locations for two United States 
 forts bc'tween the llissoiiri and the Rocky moun- 
 tains, tlie sites selected being those now occupie<l 
 by Kearney City and Port Ijiramie. ... Up to 
 18.5!} Colorado's scant population still lived in or 
 near some defensive establishment, and had been 
 decreasing rather tlian increasing for the past 
 decade, owing to the hostility of the Indians." In 
 1838 the first organized searching or prospecting 
 for gold in the region was begun by a party of 
 Cherokee Indians and whites. Other parties 
 soon followed; the search succeeded; and the 
 Pike's Peak mining region was speedily swarm- 
 ing with eager advcnttirers. In the fall of 1858 
 two rival towns were laid out on the opposite; 
 sides of Cherry Creek. They were named 
 respectively Auraria and Denver. The struggle 
 for existence between them was bitter, but brief. 
 Auraria succumbed and Denver survived, to 
 liecomc the metropolis of the llountjiins. The 
 first attempt at political organization was tmide 
 at the Auraria settlement, iu November, 18.58, 
 and took the form of a provisional territorial 
 organization, under tlie name of the Territory of 
 Jefifersoii; but the provisional government did 
 not succeed in establishing its autiiority, opposed 
 as it was by conflicting claims to territorial juris- 
 diction on the part of Utah, New Slexico, 
 Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota. At length, on 
 the 28th of February, 1861, an act of Congress 
 became law, by which the proposed new territory 
 was duly created, but not bearing the name of 
 Jefferson. " The name of Colorado wasgiventoit 
 at tlu' suggestion of the man selected for its first 
 governor. . . . ' Some,' says Gilpin, 'wanted it 
 called Jefferson, some Arcadia. ... I said the 
 p(!ople have to a great extent named the States 
 after the great rivers of the country . . . and 
 the great feature of that country is the great 
 Colorado river. ' " Remaining in the territorial 
 condition until July 1876, Colorado was then 
 admitted to the Union as a state. — II. H. Bancroft, 
 Hist, of the Pacific Staten, v. 20: Colorado, ch. 2-6. 
 
 COLOSSEUM, OR COLISEUM, The.— 
 
 " The Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colosseum, was 
 built by Vespasian and Titus in the lowest part 
 of the valley between the Cwlean and Esquillne 
 Hills, which was then occupied by a large arti- 
 ficial pool for naval fights ('Nauniachia'). . . . 
 The exact date of the commencement of the 
 Colosseum is doubtful, but' it was opened for use 
 in A. D. 80. . . . As built by the Flavian Em- 
 perors the upper galleries (' ma;niani ') wore of 
 wood, and these, as in the case of tlie Circus 
 Maximus, at many times caught fire from light- 
 ning and other causes, and did much damage to 
 the stone-work of the building."— J. II. Middle- 
 ton, Ancient Home «» 188.5, c/i. 10. 
 
 Also IN: J. II. Parker, Airfiafolor/i/of Jiome, pt. 
 7. — R. Burn, Home and the (Janipogtui, ch. 9, pt. 
 2.— See, also, Rome: A. D. 70-96, 
 
 COLOSSUS OF RHODES. See Rhodes. 
 
 COLUMB AN CHURCH.The.- The church, 
 or the organization of Christianity, in Scotland, 
 wliieli resulted from the labors of the Irish mis- 
 sionary, Columba, in the sixth century, and 
 
 ^* 489 
 
 which spread from tlie great monastery that he 
 founded on the little island of lona. or la, or 
 Ilil, near the greater Island of iMull. The church 
 of Coluinba, "not only for a time enibrace<l 
 within its fold the whoUiof Scotland north of the 
 Firllis of Forth and Clyde, and was for a ecntury 
 and a half the national church of .Scotland, but 
 was destined to give to the Angles of Northum- 
 bria the sa-'ie form of Clu'istlanity for a period 
 of thirty years. " It represented some differences 
 from the Roman church whi-.'h two centuries of 
 isolation liad produced In tlu; Irish church, fnmi 
 which it sprang.— W. F. Skene, Vellic fkotland, 
 hk. 2, ch. 3. 
 
 Ai.so I.N : Count de Alontalembert, The Monks 
 of the WiKt, bk. 9 (». ii).— C. F. Madear, Conver- 
 nionof the West: The Clin, ch. 7-10.— See Ciima- 
 tianity: .5tii-9tii ('KNTriiiKs, and .597-^00. 
 
 COLUMBIA, The District of. See Wash- 
 INOTON (Crrv) : A. I). 1791. 
 
 A. D. 1850.— Abolition of slave-trade in. 
 See United States ok A.m. : A. 1). is.")i). 
 
 A. D. 1867. — Extension of suffrage to the 
 Neeroes. See United States ok Am. : A . I). 
 1867 (Januauy). 
 
 ♦ 
 
 COLUMBIA, S. C, The burning of. See 
 United States op A.m. : A. D. 1865 (Fehuuauy 
 — Maiicii: The Cauoi.inas). 
 
 COLUMBIA, Tenn., Engagement at. See 
 United States OK Am. : A. 1). 1864(NovE.MnEu: 
 Tennessee). 
 
 COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, The 
 ■World's. See Chicaoo: A. D. 1892-1803. 
 
 COLUMBIAN ORDER, The. See Tam- 
 many Society. 
 
 COLUMBUS, 'Voyages of. See America: 
 A. D. 1484-1492; 1492; 1493-1406; 1498-1.505. 
 
 COM AN A. — Comana, an ancient city of Cap- 
 padocia, on the river Sams (Silioon) was the seat 
 of a priesthood, in the temple of Euyo, or Bel- 
 lona, so venerated, so wealthy and so powerful 
 that the chief priest of Comana counted among 
 the great Asiatic dignitaries in the time of Ca-sar. 
 — G. Long, Decline of the Itoman Rep., v. 5, 
 ch. 22. 
 
 COMANCHES, The. See American ^Vbo- 
 uioiNEs: SiiosiiONEAN Fa-mily, and Kicwan 
 Family, and Apache Ouour. 
 
 COMANS, The. See Kipchaks; Patchi- 
 NAKs; Cossacks, and IIunoahy: A. D. 1114- 
 1301. 
 
 COMBAT, Judicial. See W.uiEU ok B.\ttle. 
 
 COMES LITTORIS SAXONICI. See 
 Saxon Shore, Count ok. 
 
 COMES PALATII. See Palatine Counts. 
 
 COMITATUS.— COMITES.—GESITHS. 
 — THEGNS. — Comitatus is the name given by 
 Tacitus to a body of warlike conii)anious among 
 the ancient Germans "who attached themselves in 
 the closest manner to the chieftain of their choice. 
 They were in many cases the sons of the nobles 
 who were ambitious of renown or of a perfect 
 education in arms. The princeps provided for 
 them horses, arms, and such rough e(iuipineiit as 
 they wanted. These and plentiful entertainment 
 were accepted instead of wages. In time of war 
 the comites fought for their chief, at once his 
 defenders and the rivals of his jn-owess. ... In 
 the times of forced and unwelcome rest they 
 were thoroughly idle; they cared neither for 
 farming nor for hunting, but siient the time in 
 feasting and in sleep. . . . Like the Frank king,. 
 
COMITATUS. 
 
 COMITIA CENTURIATA. 
 
 the Anglo-Saxon king seems to linve entered on 
 the full possession of wimt hiid been the right of 
 the eli'i.'tive principcs [to nominates and maintain 
 u eomilatns, to wliieli heeoidd give territory and 
 politieal power]: hut the very prineiple of the 
 4'oinitatus hud iinilergonu n change from what it 
 was in the time of Tacitus, when it r(Mip|)ears in 
 our historians, and it seems to have had in Kng- 
 hiiid a pecMiliar deveh)pment and a hearing of 
 special irnp(>rtanc(t on the constitution. In Taci- 
 tus the comiti's are the personal following of the 
 priiici^ps; they live in his house, are maintained 
 by his gifts, light for him in the Held. If there 
 is little dilTeren'^e between companions and ser- 
 vants, it is because civilizathm luis not vet intro- 
 <luced voluntary helplessness. . . . Now the 
 king, the perpetiud princeps and representiitive 
 of the ra<'e, conveys to his personal following 
 public dignity and importance. His gesiths and 
 thegns are among the great and wise men of the 
 land. Th(! right of having such dependents is 
 not restricted to liim, but tlie gesith of the eal- 
 4lorman or bi.shop is simply a retainer, a pupil or 
 i\ ward : the free househohl servants of the ceori 
 are in a certain sense Ins gesitlis also. ]I>'t the 
 gesiths of the king are liis guard and private 
 council ; they muy be endowed by him from the 
 folkland an(' ".'.Imitted by him to the witenage- 
 niot. . . . The Danish husearls of Canute are a 
 late reproduction of wlnit the familia of the 
 Northumbrian kings must have been in the eighth 
 century. . . . The development of the comitjitus 
 into a territorial nobility seems to bo a featun; 
 peculiar to English history. . . . The Lombard 
 gasiud, and tlie Bavarian sindman were originally 
 the .same thing as the Anglo-!Sax(m gesith. But 
 they sank into tlie general mass of vassalage as 
 it grew up in the ninth and tenth centuries. 
 . . . Closely connected with the gesith is the 
 thegii; so closely that it is scarcely possible to 
 see the difference except in the nature of the em- 
 ployment. Tlie tliegii seems to be primarily the 
 warrior gesith ; in this idea Alfred uses the word 
 as translating the ' miles ' of Hede. He is prob- 
 ably the gesith who has a particular military 
 duty in liis master's service. But he also appears 
 lis a landowner. The ceorl who has acquired 
 live hides of land, and a siiecial appointment in 
 the king's hall, with other judicial rights, be- 
 comes tliegn-worthy. . . . And from tills point, 
 the time of Athelstan, the gesitli is lost sight of, 
 except very occasionally; the more important 
 members ot the class having become thegns, and 
 the le.sser sort sinking into the ranks of mere 
 servants to the king. The cla.ss of thegns now 
 widens; on tlie one hand the name is given to all 
 wliopo.ssess the proper quantity of land, whether 
 or no they stand in the old reliitinn to the king; 
 on the other the remains of the ■ • 1 nobility place 
 them.selves in tlie king's service. The name of 
 tliegn covers the wliolc class which after the 
 €on(iuest appears uo'lcr the name of knights, 
 with the same qualirication in land and nearly 
 the same obligations. It also carried so much of 
 nobility as is implied in hereditary privilege. 
 The thegn-born are contrasted with the ceorl- 
 born; and arc perhaps much the same as the 
 gesitlicund. . . . Under the name of thegn are 
 included however various grades of dignity. 
 The ela.ss of king's thegns is distinguished fnmi 
 that of the medial thegns, and from a residuum 
 that falls in rank below the latter. . . . The very 
 name, like that of the gesith, has different senses 
 
 in different ages and kingdimis; but the original 
 idea of military service runs through all the 
 meanings of thegn, as that of (lersonal associa- 
 tion is traceable in all the applications of gesith." 
 — W. Htubbs, CiiiiMt. Hist, of Eng., ch. 2, »ect. 14 
 anil di. 6, xcct. Ort-Ori. 
 
 Al.so IN: T. Hodgkin, Tlidi/ and Jler Invaders, 
 hk. 4. di. 7. — See, also, CofNT AND DliKK. 
 
 COMITIA CENTURIATA.—" Under the 
 original eonstituti<m of Home, the jiatricians 
 alone . . . enjoyed political rights in the state, 
 but at the .sanu^ time they were forced to bear 
 the whole burden of political duties. In these 
 last were included, for example, the tilling of the 
 king's fields, the construction of pulilic works 
 and buildings . . . ; citizens alone, also, were 
 liable to service in the army. . . . The political 
 burdens, especially those connected with the 
 army, grew heavier, naturally, as tlu! jiower of 
 Home increased, and it was seen to be an injus- 
 tice that one part of the people, and that, too, the 
 smaller part, should alone feel their weight. 
 This led to the first important modification of 
 the Roman constitution, which was made even 
 before the close of the regal period. According 
 to tradition, its author was the king ServiusTul- 
 lius, and its general object was to make nil men 
 who held hind in the state liable to military ser- 
 vice. It thus conferred no ])olitieal rights on 
 tlie plebeians, but assigned to them their sliare of 
 nolitical duties. . . . According to tradition, all 
 'le freeholders in the city between tlio ages of 
 17 and 60, with some exceptions, were divided, 
 without distinction as to birth, into five classes 
 ('ela.ssis,' 'a 8ummoniu„ ' 'calo') for service in the 
 infantry according to the size of their estates. 
 Tliose who were excepted served as horsemen. 
 These were selected from among the very richest 
 men in tlie state. . . . (.)f the live classes of in- 
 fantry, the first contained the richest men. . . . 
 The members of tin* first class were recjuired to 
 come to the battle array in complete armor, while 
 less was demanded of the other four. Each class 
 was subdivided into centuries or bodies of a hun- 
 dred men each, for convenience in arranging the 
 army. There were in all 198 centuries. . . . 
 TliLs absolute number and this apportionment 
 were continued, as tlie jiopulation increased and 
 the distribution of wealth altered, until the name 
 century came to have a purely conventional mean- 
 ing, even if it had any other iu the begirning. 
 Henceforth a careful census was taken every 
 fourth year, and all freeholders were made 
 subject to the 'tributum.' The arrangement 
 of the people thus described was primarily 
 made simply for military purposes. . . . Grad- 
 ually, however, this organization came to 
 have political significance, until finally these 
 men, got together for what is the cliief politi- 
 cal duty in a primitive state, enjoyed what 
 political privileges there were. . . . In the 
 end, this ' exercitus ' of Servius Tullius formed 
 anot her popular assembly, the Comitia Centuriata, 
 which supplanted the comitia curiata entirely, 
 except in matters connectf'd with the religion of 
 the family and very soon of i)urely formal signi- 
 ficance. This organization, therefore, became of 
 the highest civil importance, and was continued 
 for civil purposes long after tlie armv was mar- 
 shalled on quite another plan. " — A. "Tighe, Dc- 
 V4:lopment ofllie Roman Const., eh. 4. 
 
 Also in: W. Iline, Hist, of Jiome, hk. 6, eh. 1. 
 — W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiq., ch. 4. 
 
 490 
 
COMITIA CURIATA. 
 
 COMMUNE. 
 
 COMITIA CURIATA.— " In tlio bopinnlriR, 
 (iny iiicniliiT of any one of tlic rliins which wen; 
 included in the tlircc original Uonian trilics, was 
 a Roman cili/cn. So, too, were his children 
 born in lawful wedlock, an<l iliose who were 
 n<lo|)ted hy liini according to the forms of law. 
 Illegitimate children, on the other hand, were ex- 
 cluded from the nund)er of citizens. These 
 earliest Romans called themselves patricians 
 (patricii, 'children of their fathers'), for some 
 reason about which we cannot he sure. Perhaps 
 it was in order to distinguish tliemselves from 
 their illegitimate kinsmen and from such other 
 people as lived about, having no pretense of 
 l)l()od connection with them, unci who were, there- 
 fore, incapable of contracting lawful marriages, 
 according to the patrician's view of this religious 
 ceremony. The patrcians . . . were grouped 
 togetlier in families, clans and tribes, partly on 
 the basis of blood relationship, but cliietly on the 
 basis of common religious worship. Besides 
 the.se groups, tlierc was still another in the state, 
 the curia, or ' ward,' which stood between tlie 
 clan and the tribe. In the earliest times, tradi- 
 tion said, ten families formed a clan, ten clans a 
 curia and ten curiic a tribe. These n"n'bers, if 
 they ever had any historical existence, could not 
 have sustained themselves for any length of time 
 in tlie case of the clans and families, for such or- 
 ganisms of necessity would increase and decrease 
 quite irregularly. About the natun'of the curia 
 we have practically uo direct information. The 
 organization had become a mere name at an early 
 period in the city's liistory. Whether the mem- 
 bers of a curia thought of themselves as having 
 closer kinship with one another than with mem- 
 bers of other curio) is not clear. We know, how- 
 ever, that the curiae were definite political sub- 
 divisions of the city, perhaps like modern wards, 
 and that each curia had a common religious wor- 
 sliip for its members' participation. Thus much, 
 at any rate, is significant, because it has to do 
 with the form of Rome's primitive popular as- 
 sembly. When tlie king wanted to harangue the 
 people (' populus,' cf. 'populor,' ' to devastate ') 
 ho called them to a ' contio' (compounded of 'co' 
 and ' venio '). But if he wanted to propose to 
 them action which implied a change in the or- 
 ganic law of the state, he summoned them to a 
 comitia (compounded of 'con' and 'eo'). To 
 this the name comitia curiata was given, becaui •> 
 its members voted by curisc. Each curia had one 
 vote, the character of which was determined by 
 a majority of its members, and a majority of the 
 curiiE decided tlie matter for the comitia." — A. 
 Tighe, Development of the Itonuin Const., ch. 3. 
 
 Ai.soiN: T. Mommscn, JIM. of Home, bk. 1, 
 ch. 5. — P. De Coulanges, The Ancient City, bk. 
 3, ch. 1, and bk. 4 ch. 1.— See, also, CoMlTlA Cen- 
 Tcm.vTA, and Contiones. 
 
 COMITIA TRIBUTA, The. See Ro.me: 
 B. C. 4T'.J-471. 
 
 COMMAGENE, Kingdom of.— A district of 
 northern Syria, between Cilicia and the Euphra- 
 tes, which acquired independence during the dis- 
 orders which broke up the empire of the 
 Seleucida;, and was a separate kingdom during 
 the last century B. C. It was afterwards made 
 a Roman province. Its capital was Samosata. 
 
 COMMENDATION. See Beneficium. 
 
 COMMERCIUM. See MuNicii'ruM. 
 
 COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY, 
 The French Revolutionary. See Fkance: 
 
 A. D. 1793 (March- .luNE), and (JtrwE- Octo- 
 
 BEIl). 
 
 COMMITTEE ON THE CONDUCT OF 
 
 THE WA"., The. Se(^ I'mted .States ok 
 Am.: A. 1). 1801-1HO'3 (Decemueii— .Maucii: 
 ViniiiNiA). 
 
 COMMODUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 180- 
 192. 
 
 COMMON LAW, English. -"The munici- 
 pal law of England, or tlie rule nf civil conduct 
 prescribed to th(^ inhabitants of lids king<lom, 
 may with sullicient propriety be divided into 
 two kinds; the 'lex non scrip'la,' the unwritten 
 or common law; and the 'lex scripla,' tlu' writ- 
 ten or statute law. The 'lex non scripta,' or 
 unwritten law, inclmles not only general cus- 
 toms, or the commim law properly so called, but 
 also the particular custcmis of certain parts of 
 the kingdom; and likewi.se those particular laws 
 that are by custom observed only in certain 
 courts and jurisdictions. Wlien I call these 
 parts of our law 'leges non scriptic,' I would not 
 be understood as if all those laws were! at present 
 merely oral, or communicated from th(^ former 
 ages to the present solely by word .)i mouth. 
 . . . But, with us at present, the monuments 
 and evidences of our legal customs are contained 
 in the records of the several courts of justice, 
 in books of reports and judicial decisions, and in 
 the treatises of learned sages of the profession, 
 preserved and handed down to us from the times 
 of highest antiijuity. However, I therefore 
 style these parts of our law 'leges non .scriptie,' 
 because their original institution and authority 
 are not set down in writing, as Acts of Parlia- 
 ment are, but they receive their binding power, 
 and the force of "laws, by long and immemorial 
 usage, and by their universal reception through- 
 out the kingdom. " — Sir W. Blackstone, Commen- 
 taries on the Tmws of Eng., int., sect. 3. 
 
 Also IN: H. S. Maine, Ancient Law, ch. 1. — 
 J. N. Pomeroy, Int. to Municipal Law, sects. 
 37-42. 
 
 COMMON LOT, OR COMMON LIFE, 
 Brethren of the. See Bketiiren of the Com- 
 mon Lot. 
 
 "COMMON SENSE" (Paine's Pamphlet), 
 The influence of. See United States of A.m. : 
 A. D. 1770 (.Januahy — June). 
 
 COMMONS, The. See Estates, The 
 
 TllUEE. 
 
 COMMONS, House of. Sec Pahliamext, 
 The Enoi.ish, and Kniohts of the Shike. 
 
 COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, 
 Establishment of the. See Engl.\nd: A. U. 
 1649 (FEniiiTAUY). 
 
 COMMUNE, The.— The commonalty; the 
 commons. In feudal usage, the term .signified, 
 as defined by Littre, the body of the bourgeois 
 or burghers of a town who had received a 
 charter which gave them rights of self-govern- 
 ment. "In Prance the communal constitution 
 was during this period (12tli century) encouraged, 
 although not very heartily, by Lewis VI., who 
 saw in it one iiK^ans of fettering the action of the 
 barons and bisliojis and securing to himself the 
 support of a strong portion of his iieojile. In 
 some cases the commune of France is, like the 
 guild, a voluntary association, but its: objects are 
 from the first mou distinctly political. In some 
 parts of the kingdom the towns had risen 
 against their lords in the latter half of the 
 eleventh century, and had retained the fruits of 
 
 491 
 
COMMUNE. 
 
 COMPASS. 
 
 their liiirdwon vict()ri<'H. In others, they pos- 
 flcHsi'd, in tlic rcniuiniug fragments (if tlic 
 Kiirolinf^ian (constitution, Honiu or);iiniHiiti(in tliiit 
 formed a liasis for new lil)crtie8, Tluc great 
 number of eliarters granted in tli(! twelftli century 
 bIiows tliat Uw. policy of encouraging tlio tliird 
 estate was in fuli Hway in tlie royal councils, and 
 the king by ready recognition of the popidar 
 riglit-s gained the afTeclions of the people! to an 
 extent whicli has few parallels in French history. 
 The Frendi charters are in both style and sub- 
 stance very differeni from tlio Knglish. The 
 liberties winch are bestowed arc for the most 
 part the same, exemption from arbitrary tax- 
 ation, therijuhtto local jurisdiction, the privilege 
 of enfranchising the villein wlio has been for a 
 year and a day received within the walls, and 
 the power of eh'cting the otlicers. I5ut whilst 
 all the Knglish charters contain a conlirmation of 
 free and good customs, th" French are filled with 
 an enumeration of bad ones. . . . The English 
 have an ancient local constitution the members 
 of which are the recipients of the new grant, and 
 guilds ()f at least sulllcient anti(iuity to render 
 their confirmation typical of the freedom now 
 guaranteed; French comnuinia is a new boily 
 which, by the action of a sworn confederacy, lias 
 wrung from its oppressors a deliverance from 
 hereditary bondage. . . . The commune lacks 
 too the ancient element of festive religious or 
 mercantile association which is so conspicuous in 
 the hi.story of the guild. The idea of the latter 
 is English, that of the former is French or 
 Gallic. Yet notwitlistanding tliese differences, 
 the substantial identity of the privileges 
 secured by these charters se(,'ins to prove the 
 cxi.stence of much international sympatliy. 
 The ancient liberties of the English were 
 not unintelligible to the townsmen of Nor- 
 mandy; the rising freedom of the German 
 cities roused a corresponding amliition in tlie 
 towns of Flanders; and the struggles of the 
 Italian inun'ciDalities awoke tlie energies of the 
 cities of Provence. All took different ways to 
 win the siuuc liberties. . . . Tlie German liansa 
 may have been derived from England ; the com- 
 muna of London was certainly derived from 
 France. . . . The communa of London, and of 
 those other English towns which in the twelfth 
 century aimed at such a constitution, was the 
 old English guild in a new French garb: it was 
 the ancient association, but directed to tlie attain- 
 ment of municipal rather than mercantile privi- 
 leges." — W. Stubbs, Const. Jlist. of Eiif/., ch. 11. 
 — " Oppression and insurrection were not the sole 
 origin of the communes. . . . Two causes, quite 
 distinct from feudal oppression, viz., Koman 
 traditions and Christian sentiments, had their 
 share in the formation of the communes and in 
 the bcneticial results thereof. The Roman 
 municipal regimen, whicli is described in JI. 
 Quizot's ' Essais sur I'llistoire de Prance ' (1st 
 Essay, pp. 1-44), [also in 'Hist, of Civilization,' 
 V. 3, lect. 2] did not every where perish with the 
 Empire ; it kept its footing in a great number of 
 towns, especially in those of Southern Gaul. " — 
 F. P. Guizot, Popular JIM. of Pranec, ch. 19. 
 
 Also in: Sir J. Stephen, IjeeU. on the Hint, of 
 France, lect. 5.— See France: A. D. 1070-1135; 
 also, Cuni.\, Municipal, and Guilds of Flan- 
 
 DKHS. 
 
 COMMUNE, The Flemish. See Guilds of 
 
 FIlAHDEUS. 
 
 COMMUNE OF PARIS, The Revolution- 
 ary, of 1793. See Fuanck: A. I). 1703 (Au- 
 (irsT). 
 
 The rebellion of the. Sec Fhamch:: A, D, . 
 1871 (Maucii— May). 
 
 ♦ 
 
 COMMUNE, The Russian. See Mm. 
 
 COMMUNE, The Swiss. See Switzeu- 
 l,A.Ni>; A. 1). 1H4H-U«U0. 
 
 COMMUNEROS, The. See Spain: A. D. 
 1814-1H37. 
 
 COMNENIAN DYNASTY.— The dynasty 
 of Hj'/.antine emperors founded, A. I). 1081, by 
 Alexius Comnenos, and consisting of Alexius I., 
 .John II., Manuel I., AlexiusII., and Androuicus 
 I., who was murdered A. D. 1185. See Con- 
 stantinoplk: A. 1). 1081. 
 
 COMPAGNACCI, The. See Flouence: 
 A. I). 14!HI-14i)8. 
 
 COMPASS, Introduction of the Mariner's. 
 — "It is perhaps impossible to ascertain the 
 epoch when the polarity of the magnet was lirst 
 known in Europe. The coinnion opinion which 
 ascribes its discovery to a citizen of Amalfl In 
 the 14lh century, is undoubtedly erroneous. 
 Guiot de Provins, a French jioet who lived about 
 the year 1200, or, at the latest, under St. Louis, 
 describes it in the most une((uiv()cal language. 
 James de Vitry, a bishop in Palestine, before 
 tlie middle ot the 13th century, and Guido 
 Guinizzelli, an Italian poet of tlie same time, are 
 e(iually explicit. The French, as well as Italians, 
 claim the discovery as their own; but whether 
 it were due to either of these nations, or rather 
 learned from their intercourse with the Saracens, 
 is not easily to be ascertained. . . . It is a singu- 
 lar circuinstance, and only to be explained by 
 the obstinacy with which men are apt to reject 
 improvements, that the magnetic needle was not 
 generally adopted in navigation till very long 
 after the discovery of its properties, and even 
 after their peculiar importance had been per- 
 ceived. The writers of the 13th century, who 
 mention the polarity of the needle, mention also 
 its use in navigation; yet Capmany has found 
 no distinct jiroof of its employment till 1403, and 
 does not believe that it was frequently on board 
 ^Mediterranean ships at the latter part of the 
 preceding age. " — II. Hallam, The Middle Ages, 
 eh. 9, pt. 3, with note. — "Both Cliaucer, the 
 English, am' 'Barbour, the Scottish, poet, allude 
 familiarly .^ the compass in the latter part of 
 the 14th century." — G. L. Craik, Hist, of British 
 Commerce, c 1, p. 138: — "AVe have no certain 
 information of the directive tendency of the 
 natural magnet being Icnown eorlicr than the 
 middle or end of the 11th century (in Europe, of 
 course). . . . Tliat it was known at this date an(l 
 its practical value recognized, is shown by & 
 passage from an Icelandic historian, quoted by 
 llanstien in his treatise of Terrestrial Magnetism. 
 In this extract an expedition from Norway to 
 Iceland in the year 868 is described ; and it is 
 stated that three ravens were taken as guides, 
 for, adds the historian, 'in those times seamen 
 had no loadstone in the northern countries.' 
 This history was written about the year A. D. 
 1068, and the allusion I have quoteil obviously 
 shows that the author was aware of natural 
 magnets liaving been employed as a compass. 
 At the same time it fixes a limit of the discovery 
 in northern countries. We find no mention of 
 artificial magnets being so employed till about a 
 
 492 
 
COMPASS. 
 
 C;ON0O FREE STATE. 
 
 century Inter." — Sir W. Thompson, quoted hi/ 
 It. F. liiirttm ill Ultima Thiili\ n. 1, p. !11'2. 
 
 COMPIEGNE : Capture of the Maid of 
 Orleans (1430). Sci' Kh.v.nck. A. I). I ' 'l-tWl. 
 
 COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDER, The. 
 Sec KNcit.ANi): A. I). IHO.V-IHIW, 
 
 COMPROMISE, The Crittenden. Sec 
 Uniti:ii Statios (IK Am. : -V. I). IHtio (Deckmuku). 
 
 COMPROMISE, The Flemish, of 1565. Sic 
 Nktmi-.ui.andm: A. 1). I.")tl2-1.-)(HI. 
 
 COMPROMISE, The Missouri. See United 
 ST.vri-.HoK Am. : A. 1). 1H1H-1821, 
 
 COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850, 
 The. Sc(' Umtki) Statkw dk Am. : A. 1). 18.50. 
 
 COMPROMISE TARIFF OF 1833, The. 
 Sir UnitkdStatkhok Am. : A. I). 1828-18;!:}. 
 
 COMPURGATION.— Among tho Teutonic 
 and other peoples, in early times, one accused of 
 a crime might clear himself by his own oath, 
 supported by tin; oaths of certain compurgators, 
 who bore witness to his trustworthiness. Sec 
 Wa<ikii i)f Law. 
 
 COMSTOCK LODE, Discovery of the. 
 8e(^ Nkvada: A. 1). 18I8-18(!4. 
 
 COMUM, Battle of (B. C. 196). See Ho.me: 
 IJ. ('. 2i».')-lill. 
 
 CONCIONES, The Roman. See Co.ntiones, 
 The. 
 
 CONCON, Battle of (1891). See Chile: 
 A. 1). 1885-1801. 
 
 CONCORD.— Beginning of the War of the 
 American Revolution. See United States of 
 Am. : A. 1). 177.5 (Ai'Kil,). 
 
 CONCORDAT OF BOLOGNA, The. See 
 FiiANCK; A. I). 1.51.5-1.51H. 
 
 CONCORDAT OF NAPOLEON.The. See 
 Fuance: a. I). 1801-1804. 
 
 CONCORDAT OF 1813, The. See Papacy: 
 A. 1). 1809-1814. 
 
 CONDE, The first Prince Louis de, and the 
 French wars of religion. Sec Fu^vnce : A. 1). 
 1 500- 1 .5(!3 and 1 ,503- 1 ,570. 
 
 CONDE, The Second Prince Louis de 
 (called The Great). — Campaigns in the Thirty 
 Years War, and the war with Spain. See 
 France: A. D. 1642-1043; 1043; Geu.many: A. D. 
 
 1640-1045; 1043-1644 In the wars of the 
 
 Fronde. SeeFiiANCE: A. D. 1047-1648; 1049; 
 
 1650-1051; 1051-1053 Campaigns against 
 
 France in the service of Spain. Sec Fkance : 
 A. I). 1053-1056, and 1655-1658 Last cam- 
 paigns. Sec Netherlands (Holland): A. D. 
 1672-1674, and 1074-1678. 
 
 COND^, The House of. See Bouiibon, The 
 House of., 
 
 CONDE : A. D. 1793.— Siege and capture 
 by the Austrians. See France: A. D. 1793 
 (■July — December). 
 
 A. D. 1794.— Recovery by the French. See 
 France: A. I). 1794 (IIarcu— July). 
 
 CONDORE, OR KONDUR, Battle of (1758). 
 See India: A. I). 1758-1761. 
 
 CONDOTTIERE.— In the general meaning 
 of tlie word, a conductor or leader; applied 
 specially, in Italian history, to the professional 
 military leaders of the 13th and 14th centuries, 
 who made a business of war very much as a 
 modern contractor makes a business of railroad 
 construction, and who were open to engagement, 
 with the troops at their command, by any prince, 
 or any free city whose offers were satisfactory. 
 
 CONDRUSI, The. See Belg^. 
 
 CONESTOGAS, The. See Ameiucan Abo- 
 
 iimiNEs: Si's^uehannas. 
 
 CONFEDERACY OF DELOS, OR THE 
 DELIAN. See (iuKECE; li. ('. 478-477, and 
 .Vthe.ns: li. ('. 4(l(;4.54, iiiid after 
 
 CONFEDERATE STATES OF AM.— 
 Constitution and organization of the govern- 
 ment. See Umtei) .Spates of -Vm: .\. 1). 1861 
 (Feiuuaryi. 
 
 CONFEDERATION, Articles of (U. S. of 
 Am.) See United States of Am.; A. I). 1777- 
 1781. 
 
 CONFEDERATION, Australian. Sec 
 -ViHTiiALiA: A. 1), 1HH5-1892. 
 
 CONFEDERATION, The Germanic, of 
 
 1814. See Oermany; A. I). 1814-1820 Of 
 
 1870. See Germany; A. I). 1870 (Septemheh 
 
 — I)ECE.MI1ER). 
 
 CONFEDERATION, The North German. 
 See Germany: A. I). 18(10. 
 
 CONFEDERATION, The Swiss. See 
 Switzerland. 
 
 CONFEDERATION OF iHr BRITISH 
 AMERICAN PROVINCES. Sec^ Canada: 
 A. I). 1867. 
 
 CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, 
 The. See Germany: A. I). 180.5-1806; ISO6 
 (.January— Auoust); and 1813 (Octoiier— 1)e- 
 CEMRER); also, France: A. I). 1814 (January- 
 March). 
 
 CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG. See 
 Pai'ACY: A. 1). 15;!0-15;il. 
 
 CONFLANS, Treaty of. See France: 
 .V. I). 1401-1468. 
 
 CONFUCIANISM. See Ciiina: Tue Rk- 
 
 LKIIONS. 
 
 CONGO FREE STATE, The Founding of 
 the. — "Since Leopold II. 's accession to the 
 throne [of lielgium], his great object has been to 
 secure colonial possessions to B('lgiuiu for her 
 excess of population and prodnctlon. To this 
 end he founded, in (Jctober, 1876, with tlie aid 
 of eminent African e.\plorers, the luternatioual 
 African .iVssociation. Its ooject was to form 
 committees in several countries, with a view to 
 the collection of funds, and to the establishment 
 of a chain of stations across Africa, passing by 
 Lake Tanganyika, to assist future explorers. 
 Accordingly committees were formed, whose 
 presidents wore us follows: in England, the 
 Prince of Wales; in Germany the (Jrown Prince; 
 in Italy the King's brother; in Fnince, M. de 
 Lesseps; and in Belgium, King Leopold. Sums 
 of money were subscribed, and stations were 
 opened from Bagomoyo (just south of Zanzibar) 
 to Lake Tanganyika; but when toward the close 
 of 1877, Stanley reappeared on the Atlantic coast 
 and revealed the immense length of the mar- 
 velous Congo liiver, King Leopold at once 
 turned his attention in that direction. That ho 
 might not put himself forward prematurely, 
 he acted under cover of an association and a 
 committee of exploration, which were in reality 
 formed and entirely supported by the King's 
 energy and by the large sums of money that he 
 lavished upon them. Through this association 
 King Leopold maintained Stanley for five years 
 on the Congo. During this time a road was 
 made from the coast to Stanley Pool, where the 
 navigable portion of the Upper Congo com- 
 mences; and thus was formed the basis of the 
 future empire. During this period Stanley 
 signed no less than four thousand treaties or 
 
 493 
 
CONGO FREE STATE. 
 
 CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY. 
 
 conordiilori of U-rritory, on which upwnnl of I 
 two thouHiiiHl chicfN hail plitccil their iiiiirkH li I 
 Hi);ii of uiUu'Nioii. At II coNt of niJiii^v laonthH of 
 triiiiHportiilioii, ncccHsitjitliij? the t'Mi|iloyni('iit of 
 thoiisniicis of porters, ll^ht HteamerM wen^ phiced 
 on the upper river whicli was expioreii as far 
 as Htaiiiey Falls, Its nuineroim triliiitaries also 
 were followed up as far as tlie rapiils that inter- 
 rupt their roursi'S. ilany young lielgian olllei rs 
 ami otiier adventiirous e.xplon'rs estaldished 
 themselves on the hanks of tlie Congo and tlie 
 ndjoiniiii,' river, the Kouilio\i, ami founded a 
 series of stations, each oeeupied l)y on(! or two 
 Europeans and by a fi'W soldiers from Zanzibar. 
 In this way the <'ountrj' was insensibly taken 
 possession of in thi^ most jiaeilio manner, witii- 
 out II strnjigie and witli no l)loodslied whatever; 
 for the natives, wlio are of a very gentle dispo- 
 sition, olTered no resistanci Th'; Senate of the 
 United States, wliieli was eailee upon, in 1HH4, 
 to give an opinion on tlie rights of the Afri( an 
 Assoeiation. made a careful e.tamination of the 
 matter, and recognized tlie le.gality of tlie claims 
 nml title deeds submitted to them. A little 
 later, in order to mark the formation of a state, 
 the Congo Assoeiation adopted as its Hag a g<ild 
 star on a blue ground. A French lawyer, M. 
 Delounii', in a very well-written ))ampfilet en- 
 till'd ' Le Droit des Gens dans rAfriipie Eipia- 
 toriale,' has proveil that this proceeding was not 
 only legitimate, but necessary. The Qinbryo 
 state, however, lacked one essential thing, 
 namely, recognition by the civilized powers. It 
 existed only as a private association, or, as a 
 hostile publicist expressed it, ii.s 'a state in 
 shares, indulging in pretensions of sovereignty.' 
 Great difHculties stood in tlie way of realizing 
 this cs.sential condition. Disputes, on tlio one 
 hand with France ami on tlic other with Portu- 
 gal, appeared inevitable. . . . King Leopold 
 did not lose heart. In 1883 ho obtained from 
 the French government an assurance that, wliilo 
 maintaining its rights to the north of Stanley 
 Pool, it would give support to tlie International 
 Association of the Congo. Witli Portugal it 
 seemed very difflcult to come to an understand- 
 ing. . . . Prince Bismarck took part in tlie 
 matter, and in the German Parliament praised 
 highly tlie work of the African Association. In 
 April, 1884, he proposed to Franco to come to an 
 understanding, and to settle all difHculties by 
 general agreement. From this proposition 
 sprang the famous Berlin conference, the re- 
 markable decisions of which we shall mention 
 later. At the same time, before tlie conference 
 opened, Germany signed an agreement with tlio 
 International Association of the Congo, in which 
 sho agreed to vecognizo its flag as that of a state, 
 in exc!;ango for an assurance that her trade 
 should be free, and that Gennan subjects should 
 enjoy all the privileges of the most favored 
 nations. Similar agreements were entered upon 
 with nearly all the other countries of the globe. 
 The delegates of the Association were accepted 
 at the conference on the same footing as tliose of 
 the different states tliiit were represented there, 
 and on February 26, the day on which the act 
 was signed, Bismarck expressed himself as fol- 
 lows: ' The new State of the Congo is destined 
 to be one of the chief .safe-guards of tlie work 
 we have in view, and I sincerely trust that its 
 development will fulfill the noble aspirations of 
 its august founder.' Thus the Congo Inter- 
 
 nntlonnl Association, hltlierto only a prlviito 
 enterprise, Meenied now to be recognized iis u 
 sovereign state, without having, however, as yet 
 a-ssumed tlie title. Hut where were the limits of 
 its territory, . . , Thanks to the interference of 
 Friincc, after prolonged negotiations an under- 
 standing was arrived at on Febriiarj' IS, 1885, 
 by whicli both parties were satisfied. They 
 agreed that Portugal slioiild take possesslonof tin; 
 •southern bank of tlie Congo, up to its Junction 
 with the little stream Uango, above Nokki, and 
 also of the district o' Kabimla forming a wedge 
 timt extends into the French territory on tlie 
 Atlantic Ocean, Tlie International Congo Asso- 
 ciation — for sucii was still its title — was to liave 
 access to the sea by a strip of land cxti'iiding 
 from Manyiinga (west of Lcopoldville) to the 
 ocean, north of Banana, and comprising in addi- 
 tion to this port, Boma and the important station 
 of Vivi. Tiicse treaties granted tlic association 
 0:11,28.') sipiiire miles of territory, that is to say, 
 a domain eighty times the size of Belgium, witli 
 more than 7,500 miles of navigable rivers. The 
 limits fixed were, (m the west, the Kuango, an 
 important tributary of I lie Congo; (m tlie soutli, 
 the bourcei of the Zambesi ; on tlie east, tlio Lakes 
 Bangweolo, Moero, and Tanganyika, and a lino 
 pa8.sTng through Lake Albert Edward to the 
 river Ouelle; on tlie north, a line following the 
 fourth degree of latitude to tlie Mobangi River 
 on the French frontier. The whole forms one 
 eleventh part of the African continent. Tlie 
 association became transformed into a state in 
 August 1885, wlien King Leopold, witli the 
 authorization of the Belgian Cliambers, notified 
 tho powers that he should assume the title of 
 Sovereign of the Independent State of tho Congo, 
 tho union of which with Belgium was to be 
 exclusively personal. The Congo is, therefore, 
 not a Belgian colony, but nevertheless the Bel- 
 gian Chambers have recently given valuable 
 aasistance to tlie King's work; firs', in taking, 
 on July 26, 1889, 10,000,000 franr:8' wortli of 
 shares in the railway which is to co.inect the sea- 
 port of Matadi witli the riverpo-.t of Lcopold- 
 ville, on Stanley Pool, and scconJly by granting 
 a loan of 25,0()0,000 francs to the Independent 
 State on August 4, 1890. The King, in a will 
 laid before Parliament, bequeaths oil his Afri- 
 can possessions to the Belgian nation, author- 
 izing the country to take possession of tliem 
 after a lapse of ten years." — E. do Laveleye, 
 The DMifion of Africa { The Forum, Jan., 1891). 
 
 Also in: II. il. Stanley, 7'!ie Congo, and the 
 Foundinq of its Free t^tdte. 
 
 CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY, 
 The. — "Philip of Neri, a young Florentine of 
 good birth il.')15-1.593; canonised 1633) ... in 
 1,548 instituted at Rome tho Society of the Holy 
 Trinity, to minister to the wants of tho pilgrims 
 at Rome. But the operations of his mission 
 gradually extended till they embraced the 
 spiritual welfare of the Roman population at 
 largo, and the reformation of the Itoman clergy 
 in particular. No figure is more serene and 
 more sympathetic to us in the history of tho 
 Catholic reaction than that of this latter-day 
 ' apostle of Rome.' From his assoeiation, which 
 followed the rule of St. Augustine, sprang in 
 1575 the Congregation of the Onitory ut Rome, 
 famous as the seminary of much that is most 
 admirable in the labours of tho Catholic clergy. " 
 —A. W. Ward, The Counter- Information, p. 30. 
 
 494 
 
CONOUEOATION OF THE ORATOHY. 
 
 coNNAUonr. 
 
 — "In tlu) V'lir 1*"<V there were iilioveu Iniiiilred 
 CoiiKrexiitloim i)f tlie Onitory of S. I'liilip in 
 £urii|)e iiiiil the KiiHt IntlieH; but Hhiei; the revii- 
 liitiotw of the liiHt wventy years nmny of theite 
 imve eeiiHetl to exist, while, on the eontniry, 
 withhi the litHt twelve years two have been 
 established In KnKlaud."— Mrs. Hope, Life of S. 
 I'hilip Xeri, ch. 24. 
 
 Also in: 1[. L. H. Lear, PrieMly Life in 
 Friiiii'f, fh. 4. 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. See Indkpen- 
 
 DKNTS. 
 
 CONGRESS, Colonial, at Albany. Sec 
 Unitkii SiATKs (IK .Vm. ; A. I). 1754. 
 
 CONGRESS, Continental, The Firit. Sec 
 I'MTKi) ST.vrios OF A.>i.: A. 1). 1774 (Ski-- 
 
 TKMiiKii), and (Ski'Tkmiiku— OcTouKU) The 
 
 Second. See Unitku Statkh ok Am.: A. D. 
 177.'> (.May— AidUST). 
 
 CONGRESS, The First Ai "rican. 8eo 
 L'ni'iki) St.m'kh OK Amkuica: A 1(11)0. 
 
 CONGRESS, The Pan-American. See 
 Umtkd Statks ok A.m. : A. I). l«««-18l)0. 
 
 CONGRESS, The Stamp Act. Sec United 
 Statks OK Am.: A. I). 1705. 
 
 CONGRESS OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 
 The. See Aix-la-Ciiapki-le, The Conokkbu 
 AND Thkatv. 
 
 CONGRESS OF BERLIN. 8co Tckkh: 
 A. 1). 1H78. 
 
 CONGRESS OF PANAMA. 8co Colom- 
 iiiAN Statks: A. I). 182(1. 
 
 CONGRESS OF PARIS. See RiiwiA: 
 A. I). 1854-1850, and Deci.aiiation op Pahim. 
 
 CONGRESS OF RASTADT, The. See 
 Fuanck: a. I). 1709 (AiMdi,— Sk.i-temhku). 
 
 CONGRESS OF VERONA, The. S^-e 
 Vkuona, The CIonouesb ok. 
 
 CONGRESS OF VIENNA. See Vikhma, 
 
 CoNOItKSS OK. 
 
 CONGRESS OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES.— "The Constitution ereaU'dCoUKrcHK 
 and conferred upon it i)owers of legislation for 
 national purposes, but made no provision as to 
 the method by which these powers should be 
 exercised. In conseciuenco Congress has itself 
 developed a method of tnuisacting its business 
 by means of committees. The Federal Leglslii- 
 ture con.sists of two Houses — the Senate, or 
 Upper and less numerous branch, and tlie House 
 of lU'presentatives, or the Lower and more 
 numerou.s popular branch. The Senate is com- 
 posed of two members from each StJite elected 
 by the State legislatures for a term of six years, 
 one third of wTiom retire every two years. The 
 presiding; officer is the Vice-President. Early iu 
 each session the Senate chooses a President pro 
 tempore, so as to provide for any ab.sence of the 
 Vice-President, whether caused by death, sick- 
 ness, or for other reasons. The House of Repre- 
 sentatives is at present [1801] composed of 332 
 members and four delegates from the Territories. 
 These delegates, however, have no vote, though 
 they may speak. The House is presided over by 
 a Speaker, elected at the beginning of each 
 [Congress]. A quorum for business is, in either 
 House, a majority. Congress meets every year 
 in the beginning of December. Each Congress 
 lasts two years and holds two sessions — a long 
 and a short session. The long session lasts from 
 December to midsummer [or until the two Houses 
 agree upon an adjournment]. The short session 
 
 lasts from December, when Congress meets again, 
 until the tlh of .Mjireli. The term of olliee then 
 ixpires ff)r all the inemlM'rs of the House and for 
 one third of the Senators. The long S4'Sslon ends 
 in even years (1880 :inil 1882, et<'.), and the short 
 W'ssion "in odd year.-i (1881 and t8H:i). Extra 
 si'ssions may be eidli d by llii' President for 
 urgent business. In llie eiirly part of the Nov- 
 ember preceding the end of the short session of 
 Congress (leciirs the eleellon of Representatives. 
 Congressmen then elected do not take their seats 
 until thirteen months later, that is, at the re- 
 assembling of Congress in DeeeinlHT of the year 
 following, unU'.ss an extra s<'ssion is called. The 
 Senate frecpiently holds secret, or, as they aro 
 called, executiv<" sessions, lor liii' eonsidefation 
 of treaties and nominations of the President, in 
 which the House of Representatives has no 
 voice. It is then said to sit with closed doors. 
 An immense amount of business must neeessarily 
 bo transacted by n Congress that legislates for 
 nearly 0IMH)O,0()O of people. . . . Lack of time, 
 of course, prevents a consideration of each bill 
 separately by the whole legislature. To provide 
 a means by which each subject may receive 
 investigation and consideration, a plan is used by 
 which the inenil)er8 of both branches of Congress 
 are divided into committees. Each .ommitteo 
 busies itself with u certain class of business, and 
 bills wlien introduced are referred to this or that 
 committee for consideration, according to the 
 subjects to which the bills relate. . . . The 
 Seiitttt^ is now divided between 50 and 00 com- 
 mittees, but the numlK'r varies from session to 
 WHsion. . . . Tlie House of Representatives is 
 organized into (M> committees [appointed by tlio 
 S|M'aker|, niiiging, in their number rf members, 
 from thirt<'en down. . . . "Tbe Committee of 
 Wavs and Means, which regulates customs 
 duties and excise faxes, is by far the most im- 
 |K.>rtant. . . . Congress ordinarily a.ssembles at 
 iKKin and remains in session until 4 or 5 P. M., 
 though towards the end of the term it frequently 
 remains in session until late in the niglit. . . . 
 There is still one feature of Congressional govern- 
 ment which needs explanation, and that is the 
 caucus. A caucurj is the meeting of the members 
 of one party in private, for the discussion of the 
 attitude and line ot policy which members of 
 that party are to take on questions which are 
 expected to arise in the legislative halls. Thus, 
 in Senate caucus, is decided who shall be mem- 
 bers of the various committees. In these meet- 
 ings is frecjuently discussed whether or not the 
 whole party shall vote for or against this or that 
 important bill, and tlius its fate is decided before 
 it has even come up for debate in Congress." — 
 W. W. and W. F. Willoughby, QoH. and Ad- 
 ministration of the U. K (Johns Hopkins Univ. 
 Studies, series ix., nos. 1-2), ch. 9. 
 
 Also in: W. Wilson, Conyresaional Ootern- 
 7nent, eh. 2-4.— J. Bryce, T/i€ Am. Common- 
 wealth, pt. 1, ch. 10-21 (c. 1).— A. L. Dawes, How 
 we are Oonerned, ch. 2. — The Federalist, nos. 51- 
 05.— J. Story, Commentaries on the Const, of the 
 U. 8., bk. 3, ch. 8-31 (r. 2-3). 
 
 CONL— Sieges (1744 and 1799). SccItaly: 
 A. D. 1744; and Filvnce: A. D. 1799 (Auqobt 
 — Decembeu). 
 
 CONIBO, The. See American Aborioinks: 
 Andebians. 
 
 CONNAUGHT, Transplantation of the 
 Irish people into. See Ireland : A. D. 1653. 
 
 495 
 
C0NNE(;TI(:1!T 
 
 77ic Fimnderi. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, lfliM-1687. 
 
 CONNECTICUT: The River and the 
 Name. — "'\'\iv tIrNt iliMCdvcricN inuili'of this |)itrt 
 of Ni'W EiiKliinil wcrr <if Its iiriii('i|iitl river mid 
 the (liic in<iiilowH lyliiK iipini lis bank. Whctlicr 
 tlif Diilcli lit New Nctlicrlanils, or llic pciiplc of 
 New I'lyiixmlh, wcri' the llrsi (llsciivcri'rH of llii' 
 river is mil eerlain. Ilotli the KiikHkIi h'kI the 
 Dutch claiiiiecl to l>e the llrsl dlscovererM, and 
 both purchased luid iiiaih' a Hettleineiit of the 
 lands upon it nearly at the Kaiiie time. . . , From 
 this line river, widcli tlie Iiuiiuns <'all (juonelita- 
 cut, or Connecticut, (in Knulisli the lonj; river) 
 till! colony oriL'inally tooli its name."— II. Trum 
 bull, lli.i iifVonii., ell. 2.— According to Dutch 
 BccounLs, the river was entered by Adriaen 
 Block, a,HCended to latitude 41'' 4H', and named 
 Fresh Ulvcr, in Kill. See Nkw YoilK: A. 1). 
 KIlO-KUl. 
 
 The Aboriginal inhabitants. Sen Amehicvn 
 AnoiiioiNKs; Ai.ooMjri.vN K.VMii.v. 
 
 A. D. 1631.— The grant to Lord Say and 
 Sele, and others.— In Kllll, the Karl of War- 
 wick granted to LonI Say and Sele, l>ord llrooUe, 
 Sir Uichard Sallouatull, and others, "tho territory 
 between NarniRan.sctt Hivcr and soutliwest *o- 
 ■wurds New York for 120 miles ami west to the 
 Pucillc Ocean, or, according to the words of Presi- 
 dent Clap of Yule College, ' from Point .ludith to 
 New York, and from theni'c a west line to the 
 South Sea, and if we take Narragansett Ulvcr in 
 Its whole length the tract will extend as far north 
 us Worcester. It comprehends the wliole of \\w. 
 colony of C(>nn(!Cticut and more. This was called 
 the old patent of Connecticut, and had been 
 granted the previous year, lllliO, by the Council 
 of Plymouth [or ('ouncil for New Knglandl to 
 the Earl of Warwick. Yet before Ww English 
 had planted settlements in ConnectiiMit tlie Dutch 
 had purchased of the Pecjuots land where llart- 
 fonl now stands and erected a small trading fort 
 called 'The House of Good Hope.' "—C\ W. 
 Bowen, liiiunthii fi Disimten of Conn., p. lH. — In 
 16't5, four years after the Connecticut grant, said 
 to have been derived originally from the Council 
 for New England, in 1030, had been transferred by 
 the Earl of Warwick to liord Hay and Seal and 
 others, tlie Council made an attempt, in conni- 
 Tanco with the English court, to nullify all its 
 grants, to regain possession of the territory of 
 New England and to parcel it out by lot among 
 its own memlicrs. In this attempted parcelling, 
 which proved ineffectual, Connecticut fell to tho 
 lot of the Earl of Carlisle, the Duke of Lennox, 
 and the Duke of Hamilton. Modern investiga- 
 tion seems to have found the alleged grant from 
 the Council of Plymouth, or Council for New 
 England, to tlie Earl of Warwick, in 16,10, to bo 
 iiiythical. " No one has ever seen it, or has 
 heard of any one who claims to have seen it. 
 It is not mentioned even ie the grant from War- 
 wick to the Say and Sele patentees in 1631. . . . 
 The deed is a mere quit-claim, which warrants 
 nothing and does not even a,ssert title to the soil 
 transferred. . . . Why the Warwick tran.saction 
 took this peculiar shape, why Warwick trans- 
 ferred, without showing title, a territory which 
 the original owners granted anew to other pat- 
 entees in 163,';, are questions which are beyond 
 conjecture." — A. Johnston, Connecticut, ch. 3. — 
 See New Enoi,and: A. D. 1035. 
 
 A. D. 1634-1637.— The pioneer settlements. 
 — "In October, 1634, some men of Plymouth, 
 led by William Holmes, sailed up the Connecti- 
 
 cut river, and, after bnndying thrcatN with a 
 party of Dutch who had built a rude fort on the 
 site of Hartford, passed on and fortltled them 
 selves on the site of Windsor. Next year (lover 
 nor V^aii Twiller siiit a < innpany of seventy men 
 Id drive awiiy tlie.ne ii)'.;ders, but after recon- 
 iioilerltig the situation Ihe Dutchmen thought It 
 best not to make an attack. Tlieir little strong- 
 hold at Hartford remained uninolested by the 
 English, and, in orih'r to secure the eominiinica- 
 lion between this advanced outpost and New 
 .Vinsterdam, Van Twiller decided to builil an- 
 other fort at the moiitli of the river, but this 
 lime the English were befondiand. Humours of 
 Dutch designs may have reached the I'ars of 
 Lord Say and Sele and Lord Hrooke — 'fanatic 
 Brooke, as Scott calls him in ' .Marndon ' — who 
 had obtained from the Council for New England 
 u grant of terrilorv on the shores of Ihe Sound. 
 'I'liese iiolilemeii chose as their agent the younger 
 .liihn Winthrop, son of the .Massachusetts gover- 
 nor, and tills new-comer arrived upon the sc'cno 
 just in tiiiK! to drive away Van Twiller's vessel 
 and build an English fort which in honour of 
 h'.h two ]mtrons he calle<l 'Say-Brooke.' Had It 
 not been for seeds of discontent already sown in 
 Alassiiehusetts, thc! English hold ujion the (!on- 
 nccticut valley might perhaps have been for u 
 few years confined to these two military outposts 
 at Windsor and Saybrookc;. But there were 
 Jicople In Massachusetts who did not look with 
 favour upon the aristocniti(! and theocratic 
 features of its polity. Tlie provision that none 
 but church-members should vote or hold offlco 
 wius by no means unanimously npproviid. . . . 
 Cotton declared that democracy was no fit 
 government either for church or for common- 
 w(!aUh, and the majority of the ministers agreed 
 with liim. Cliief among those who did not was 
 till! learned and ehxiiient Thomas Hooker, pastor 
 of the church at Newtown. . . . There were 
 many in Newtown wlio took Hooker's view of 
 the matter; and there, as also in Watertown iind 
 Dorchester, which in 1633 took the initiative in 
 framing town governments witli selectmen, a 
 strong disposition was shown to evade tho re- 
 strictions upon the suffrage. While such things 
 were talketl about, in tlie summer of 1633, tho 
 adventurous .lohn Oldham was making his way 
 through the forest and over the mountains into 
 the Connecticut valley, and when he returned to 
 the coast his glowing accounts set some people 
 to thinking. Two years afterward, a few pio- 
 neers from Dorchester pushed through the wil- 
 derness as far as the Plymouth men's fort at 
 Windsor, while a party from Watertown went 
 farther and came to a halt upon the site of 
 Wethersfl(!ld. A larger party, bringing cattle 
 and such goods as they could carry, set out in 
 the autumn and succeeded in reacliing Windsor. 
 ... In the next June, 1636, the Newtown con- 
 gregation, a hundred or more in number, led by 
 their sturdy pastor, and bringing with them 160 
 head of cattle, made tlie pilgrimage to the Con- 
 necticut valley. Women and children took part 
 in this pleasant summer journey ; Mrs. Hooker, 
 the pastor's wife, being too ill to walk, was 
 carried on a litter. Thus, in the memorable year 
 in which out great university was born, did 
 Cambridge become, in the true Greek sense of a 
 much-abused word, the metropolis or 'mother 
 town' of Hartford. The migration at once be- 
 came strong in numbers. During the past 
 
 496 
 
CONNECTICIT, Iflai-1(W7. 
 
 nr Ml Ill/a- 
 mentnl ttrtUn, 
 
 coxNEcTiruT, iflnn-ifl30 
 
 twolvpmontli It Hcorr' of Nlilps hml liroiiirlit from 
 KiikIi^ixI to MiiMNiu'liUM'ttH iiioro tliitii :t.00<) houIm, 
 imd HO f^rcnt iin iiccrHNloii niitili' fiirtliiT imovc' 
 nicnt cnHy. IIiMikfr's iiD^friiim were soon followed 
 by till' DorclicHlcr iind Wiilrrlowiicoiinri'ttiitloiiK, 
 Hml tty till' next Miiy H(M) iicoplc were llvlii^f Iti 
 Wliiilsor, Iliirtfonl," iiiiil XVfllierHllelil. An wo 
 mill of thi'Mi' iiiovi'inriils, not of indlvlilimlH, hut 
 of orKiinIr roniniuiiitli'K. iiiiitrd In iillrKlniici' to 
 ft rhiirrli niid ItH piiHlor, mid frrvld with the 
 liiHtlrirt of Hi'lfKovi'miiH'iil, we si-cm to si'i' 
 (Irrrk hintory ri'iii'wi'il, liul with ci'iiturli's of 
 Hililrd polltlriil training. l'\)r our ycitr ii lioiird 
 of roiiiiiilHslonrrH from MuHsiicliii.sctt.s K"vi'riiiMl 
 till' iii'W towim, but lit till' riid of timt tliiir thi> 
 towim rliosi' ri'prrHi'iitiitlvi'K and lirlil a Ornrral 
 Court lit llarlf/rd, iind thus llir si'parati' I'xist- 
 ■'ncii of Connrrtlrut \viin bi'jiun. As forSprinj?- 
 tltl,!, ivlil';li WHS Krttli'd iiliout tlir sanii' limi! by 
 n party from lloxbury, it ri'iiiainril for sonu: 
 vi'iirs cioiibtful ti. which statu it l«'loii>ti'd " — J. 
 Viski', The Jle /iiiiiiiir/ii of Afir Kiii/., rh. U. 
 
 Ai.soin: J. O. I'alfrcy, //(W. '/A'. Hitij., r. 1, 
 fh. 11.— O. L. WalkiT, IIM. nfthe. Fimt Chiirdi 
 ill Ilartford, eh. 4-5. — M. A. Ori'i'ii, Si>riiiiifi<lil, 
 ltt!W-l»H(i, rh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1636-1639. — The constitutional evolu- 
 tion. — " It must 111' iiotril that |tlii'| Ni'wtown, 
 Watfrlown, and Dorrhrstrr mif?rations hud not 
 Im'I'Ii alloKethi'r a simplo transfer of individual 
 ftottlors from oiii- rolony to another. In each of 
 these migrations a part of the people was left be- 
 iiind. so that the Mii.ssaehuselts towns did not 
 <!ease to exist. And yet each of them brouf^ht its 
 Mas.saeliu.setts niajristratcs, its ministers (except 
 Watertown), and all the political and ecclesias- 
 tical machinery of the town; and at least one of 
 them (DorclK'Hter) hail hardly changed its struct- 
 ure since its members lirst organized in 16;i() at 
 Dorchester in Kngland. The lirst settlement of 
 Connecticut was thus the migriition of three dis- 
 tinct and individual town organi/atlons out of tho« 
 jurisdiction of Mas.sachiisi'tts and into iib.solute 
 freedom. It was the Massachu.setts town system 
 set ioo.sc in the wilderness. At first the three 
 towns retained even their Mas-sacliusetts names; 
 and it was not until the eighth court meeting, 
 February 21 1030 (7), that it was decided that 
 ' the plantacon nowc called Newtowne slialbe 
 <alled (Si nnmed by the name of Ilartefordc 
 Towne, likewise tlie pluntacon nowe called Wator- 
 towne slialbo called & named Wythersfciijl,' and 
 'till' pla' tacon called Dorchester slialbe called 
 Windsor.' (Jn the same day the boundaries be- 
 tween the tlirec towns were ' agreed ' upon, and 
 thus the germ of the future State was the agree- 
 ment and union of tlie three towns. .Vccordingly, 
 the siiliseiiuent court meeting at Ilartford, May 
 1, 1637, for the first time took the name of the 
 ' Qenrall Corte,' and was composed, in addition 
 to the town magistrates wlio had previously held 
 it, of ' comittecs ' of three from each town. So 
 simply and naturally did the migrated town sys- 
 tem evolve, in tliis binal assembly, the .seminal 
 principle of the Senate and House of Represen- 
 tatives of the future State of Connecticut. Tlie 
 Assembly further showed its consciousness of 
 separate existence by declaring ' an offensive 
 warr ag' the Pequoitt,' assigning the proportions 
 of its miniature army and supplies to each town, 
 and ajipointiug a commander. ... So complete 
 are the features of State-hood, that we may fairly 
 assign May 1, 1637, aa the proper birthday of 
 
 Coiinectlctil. No king, no f'ongroiw, pri'sldeil 
 over llie birth: lis seed was In the towns. ,lan- 
 uary II. lti:iH(U). the little ('ommonuealth formed 
 till' llrsl .Vmerican Constitution at llarlford. .So 
 far as its provisions are concerned, the King, the 
 I'arllami'iit, the I'lymoulh ('oiiiicil. the Warwick 
 gram, the Say and Sele grant . might as well 
 have been lion existent : not one of tliiiii Is min 
 tioiied. . . . This consllnition was not only lln 
 eiirliesi 1, it the longest in coiiliiiuance of .Viiieri- 
 III I documeiilsof the kind, unless we except the 
 Itlioile Island charter. It was not essentially 
 altered by the cliiirler of 1(MI'.>, which was prac- 
 tieiilly a royal eoiillriiiiitiiiii of it; and it was not 
 untiriHlH ihiit the charter, that is the constitu- 
 tion of 1031), was superseded by the presi'iit con- 
 stiliition. Connecticut was us alisolulely a slatj 
 in 1030 as in 1770."— ,V. .lohnsinii, Tlw Uiiitiit 
 of (I Srw Kiiij. Sliili(./ti/iiiit l/i>ii/,iiiM I'liir. Stiiilif.\ 
 110. II). — The following is the text of those 
 " Fuiidamental Orders" lulopliil by the |)eoplo 
 dwelling on Coniicillciil Itlver, Jamiary 14, 
 1038(U), which formed the llisl of wrilliii consll- 
 tutions: " Koil.VHMlcil "'> it hath pleased the 
 AUmiglity (tod by Ilie wise ilispositioii of his 
 diuyne p'oiilince so to Dnler and disiiose of 
 tilings that we the Inbubiliints and Itesiilenls of 
 Windsor, lliirleford and Wcllierslield ari' now 
 cohabiting and dwelling in and vppoii the liiver 
 of Conecti'cotte anil the Lands thereunto adioyne- 
 ing; And well knowing where a people are 
 gathered togatlier Wiv word of (tod rcijiiires that 
 to mayntayne the ]>eace and vnioii of such a 
 people there should be an orderly and decent 
 Gouerment eslablislied aceordiiig to Ood, to 
 order and dispose of the airayres of the people at 
 all seasons as occalion sliiill rei[uiri'; doe there- 
 fore assotiate and conioyne our seines to tie as 
 one I'ublike State or Comonwclth ; and doe, for 
 our .seines and our Successors and such as shall 
 be adioyneil to vs att any tyiiie hereafter, enter 
 into Combination and ('oiifederiition togatlier, to 
 mayntayne and p'scarue the liberty iind purity 
 of ilie ffospell of our Lord .lesiis w" we now 
 p'fesse, as al.so the diseiplyne of the (.'hurchcs, 
 w"' according to the truth of the said gospell is 
 now practised amongst vs; As al.so in o' Ciuell 
 AtTiiiri's to lie guided iinil goiieriied according to 
 such Lawes, Kules, Orders and decrees as shall 
 lie made, ordered & decreed, as followeth: — 
 1. It is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, tliat 
 there shall be yerely two generall As.seniblies or 
 Courts, tlic on Hie second thiirsduy in Aprill, tlie 
 other the second tluirsday in Sejitcmlier follow- 
 ing; the tirst shall be called the Courte of Elec- 
 tion, wherein shall be yerely Chosen frO tyme to 
 tyme soe many Slagestrats and other publiko 
 Olllcers as shall be found requisitte: Whereof 
 one to be chosen Goueniour for the yeiire ensiieing 
 and vntill another tic clio.sen, iind iioe other 
 Magestmtc to be chosen for more than one y care; 
 p'uided ullwayes there be sixe chosen besids the 
 Gouernour; W bi'ing chosen and sworiie accord- 
 ing to an Oath recorded for that purpose shall 
 liaue power to administer lust ice according to 
 the Lawes here establislied, and for want thereof 
 according to the rule of the word of God; W 
 clioise Bliall be made by all llmt are adinittcd 
 freemen and huue taken the Oath of Fidellity, 
 and doe cohabitte w'in this ■lurisdiction, (liauing 
 beene admitteil Inhabitants by the maior ji't of 
 the Towne wherein tiiey line.) or the mayor p'to 
 of such as shall be then p'seut. 3. It is Ordered, 
 
 497 
 
CONNECTICUT, 1636-1630. 
 
 The Funiln- 
 mental Orders. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1630-1639. 
 
 sentenced and decreed, thnt tlie Election of the 
 iiforcsaid Mnccstriits shall be on this manner: 
 eucry p'son p'seiit iind (luallitii d for clioyse shall 
 hriiijr in (to the p'soiis deputed to reeeaue the) 
 one single pap' w" the name of him written iu 
 yt whom he desires to hauo Gouernour, and lie 
 that hath the greatest nfiber of papers shall he 
 Gouernor for that yeare. And the rest of the 
 Magestrats or jtiibli'ke OfWcers to be chosen in 
 this manner: The Secretary for the tyme being 
 shall first read the names of all that are to bo put 
 to clioi.se and then shall seuerally nominate tliem 
 di.stinctly, and enery one that would liaue the 
 p'son nominated to be chosen shall bring in one 
 single paper written vppon, and he that would 
 not haiie him chosen shall bring in a blankc: and 
 (tuerv one that hath more written ])ai)ers then 
 blanks shall be a Magistral for that yeare; W' 
 paiiers sha'l be receaiied and told by one or more 
 that shall be then chosen by the court and swf)rne 
 to be faythfull therein: but in ca.so there should 
 not be si.xe chosen as aforesaid, besids the Gouer- 
 nor, out of those W are nominated, then he or 
 they W' hauc the most written pai)'s shall be a 
 Magestrato or >Iagcstrats for the ensueing yeare, 
 to make vp the foresaid nnber. 3. It is Ordered, 
 sentenced and decreed, that the Secretary shall 
 not nominate any p'son, nor shall any p'son be 
 chosen newly into the Magestracy w' was not 
 p'po.vnded in some Generall Courte before, to be 
 nominated the ne.xt Election; and to that end yt 
 shall be lawful! for cell of tlio Townes aforesaid 
 by their deputyes to nominate any two wh" tliey 
 conceauo fitte to be put to election; and the 
 Courte ni'i.y a'l so i.niny more as tliey iiuige 
 requisitt. 4. It is Ordered, sentenced and de- 
 creed that noe p'son be chosen Gouernor abouo 
 once in two yeares, and that the Gouernor be 
 always a meb'.r of some approved congregation, 
 and formerly of the JIagestracy w"in this Juris- 
 diction ; an(l all the Slagestrats Freemen of this 
 Comonweltli: and that no Magestrato or other 
 publiko offlcer sludl execute any p'te of his or 
 their OITlee before they arc seuerally sworne, 
 W' shall be done in the face of the Courte if they 
 be p'sent, and in case of absence by some deputed 
 for that purpose. 5. It is Ordered, sentenced 
 and decreed, that to the aforesaid Courte of 
 Election the seu'all Townes shall send their depu- 
 tyes, and wlien the Elections ' ended tliey 
 may p'ceod in any publike sea; as at other 
 
 Courts. Also the other Generall Courte in Sep- 
 tember shall be for nuikeing of lawes, and any 
 other publike occation, w' conseriis the good of 
 the Comonweltli. 0. It is Ordered, sentenced 
 and decreed, that the Gou'nor shall, ether by him- 
 selfo or by the secretary, send out sumons to the 
 Constables of eu' Towne for the cauleing of these 
 two standing Courts, on month at lest before 
 their seu'all tyines: And also if tlie Gou'nor and 
 the gretest p'te of the Magestrats see cause vppon 
 any spel.'al. occation to call a generall Courte, 
 they may giiie order to tlie secretary soe to doe 
 w'Mn fowerteene dayes warneing; and if vrgent 
 necessity so require, vjipon a shorter notice, glue- 
 ing sufflcient grownds for y t to the deputyes when 
 they meete, or els bo questioned for tlie same ; 
 And if the Gou'nor and Jilayor p'te of Magestrats 
 shall ether neglect or refuse to call the two Gen- 
 eral! standing Courts or ether of the, as also at 
 other tymes when the occatious of the Comon- 
 weltli n^quire, the Freemen thereof, or the Mayor 
 p'te of them, shall petition to them soe to doe: if 
 
 then yt be ether denyed or neglected the said 
 Freemen or the Mayor p'te of tlieni shall haue 
 power to giue order to the Constables of tho 
 seuerall Townes to doe the same, and so may 
 meete togather, and cliu.so to tliemselues a JIocl- 
 enitor, and may p'ceetl to do any Acte of power, 
 w"' any other Generall Courte may. 7. It is 
 Ordered, sentenced and decreed that after tliere 
 are warrants giuen out for any of the said Gen- 
 erall Courts, tile Constable or Constables of ecli 
 Towne shall forthw" give notice distinctly to the 
 inhabitants of the same, in some I'ublike As- 
 sembly or by goeing or sending frfi liowse to 
 liowse, that at a pla(X' and tyme by him or them 
 lymited and sett, they meet and assemble the 
 seines togathci to elect and chuse certen depu- 
 tyes to be att the Generall Courte then following 
 to agitate the afay res of tlie comonweltli; w' said 
 Deputyes shall bo chosen by all that are admitted 
 Inhabitants in the seu'all Townes and haue taken 
 the oath of tidollity ; p'uided that non be chosen ii 
 Deputy for any Generall Courte w"'' is not a 
 Freeman of tliis Comonweltli. The foresaid 
 deputyes shall be chosen in manner following: 
 euery p'son tliat is p'sent and quallified as before 
 exp'ssed. shall bring the names of such, written 
 in seu'rall papers, as they desire to haue chosen 
 for that Imployment, and these 3 or 4, more or 
 lessc, being the ndber agreed on to be chosen for 
 that tyme, that haue greatest nClber of papers 
 written for tlie shall be deputyes for that Courte; 
 whose names shall be endorsed on the backe side 
 of the warnuit and returned into the Courte, w" the 
 Constable or Constables hand vnto the same. 8. It 
 is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that Wyndsor, 
 Hartford and AVethersfleld shall liaue power, 
 cell Towne, to send fower of their freemen as 
 deputyes to euery Generall Courte ; and wliatso- 
 euer other Townes shall be hereafter added to 
 this Jurisdiction, they shall send so many depu- 
 tyes as the Courte shall Judge meete, a reason- 
 able p'portion to the nClbei of Freemen that are 
 in the said Townes being to be attended therein ; 
 W deputyes sliall have tho power of the wliole 
 Towne to giue their voats and alowance to all 
 such lawes and orders as may be for the publike 
 good, and unto W the sjvid Townes are to be 
 bownd. 9. It is ordered and decreed, that tlie 
 deputyes thus chosen shall haue power and 
 liberty to appoynt a tyme and a place of meeting 
 togather before any Generall Courte to aduise 
 and consult of all such things as may concerne 
 the good of the publike, as also to examine their 
 owne Elections, whether according to tlie order, 
 and if they or the gretest p'te of them find any 
 election to be illegall they may sc jlud such for 
 p'sent frO their meeting, and returne tlio same 
 and their resous to tlie Courte ; and it yt proue 
 true, the Courte may fyne tlie p'ty or p'tj'"? so 
 intruding and tlie Towne, if they see cause, and 
 giue out a warrant to goe to a newe el'iction in a 
 legall way, either in p'te or in whole. Also the 
 said deputyes shall hauo power to fyne any that 
 shall bo disorderly at their meetings, or f<i not 
 coming in due tyme or place according to ap- 
 poyntment; and tliey may returne the said fynes 
 into the Courte if yt bo refused to be paid, and 
 the tresurer to take notice of yt, and to estreete 
 or levy the same as ho doth other fynes. 10. It 
 is Ordered, sentenced and decreed, that euery 
 Generall Courti ;cept such as through neglecte 
 of the Gou'nor and the greatest p'te of Magestrats 
 the Freemen themselves doe call, shall consist of 
 
 498 
 
CONNECTICUT, lCaO-1030. 
 
 Xew Haven 
 Colouv. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1639. 
 
 the Qouernor, or some one chosen to moderate 
 the Court, iiud 4 other .Mii^estriits at lest, w" 
 tlie mayor p'te of tlie deputyes of the seuerall 
 Towiiea legally chosen ; aiul in case the Freemen 
 or mayor p'te of the, tlirough neglect or refusall 
 of the Qouernor ami mayor p'te of the mnges- 
 tnits, sliall call a Courte, y' slmll consist of tlie 
 mayor ji'le of Freemen that are p'sent or their 
 deputyes, w" a Mmlerator cliosen by tliu: In W 
 said Oenerall Courts sliall consist the supreme 
 power of the Comonweltli, and tliey only shall 
 haiie power to make laws or rcpeale the, to 
 graunl leuyea, to admitt of Freemen, dispose of 
 lands vndisiiosed of, to seuendl Towncs or p'sons, 
 and also shall haue power to call ether Courte or 
 JIagestrate or any other p'son whatsoeuer into 
 (picstion for any misdemeanour, and may for just 
 causes displace or deale otherwise according to 
 the nature of the ofTence ; and also may dealo in 
 any other matter that concerns the good of this 
 comou welth, excepte election of JIagestrats, 
 W' shall be done by the wliole boddy of Freemen. 
 In w' Courte the Gouernour or Moderator shall 
 haue power to order the Courte to giuc liberty 
 of spech, and silence vnceasonabic and disorderly 
 speakeings, to put all things to voate, and in 
 case the voate be equalltohauc the casting voice. 
 But non of these Courts shall be a<liorned or dis- 
 solued w"out the consent of the maior p'te of the 
 Court. 11. It is ordered, seutence<l and decreed, 
 that when any Qenerall Courte vjjpon the occa- 
 tioiis of the Comonweltli haue agreed vppon any 
 same or somes of mony to be leuycd vppon the 
 seuerall Townes ■w'Mn this Jurisdiction, that a 
 Comittec be chosen to sett out and appoynt w' 
 shall be the p'jjortion of euery Towno to pay of 
 the said leuy, p'vided the Comittees be made vp 
 of an eciimll ntlber out of each Tov .:e. 14"" Jan- 
 uary, 1038, the 11 Orders abouesaid are voted." 
 — Public Itecoi'tls of the Colony of Connecticut, 
 v. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1637.— The Pequot War. See New 
 Enoland: a. D. 1037. 
 
 A, D. 1638.— The planting of New Haven 
 Colony. — " In the height of the Hutchinson con- 
 troversy [sc'3 Massachusetts: A. 1). 1636-1038], 
 John Davenport, an eminent nonconformist min- 
 ister from London, had arrived at Boston, and 
 with him a wealthy company, led by two mer- 
 chants, Theophilus Eaton and Edward Hopkins. 
 Alarmed at the new opinions and religious agita- 
 tions of whicli Massachusetts was the seat, not- 
 witlistimding very advantageous offers of settle- 
 ment there, they preferred to establish a separate 
 community of their own, to be forever free from 
 the innovations of error and licentiousness. 
 Eaton and others sent to explore the coast west 
 of tlic Connecticut, selected a place for settle- 
 ment near the head of a spacious bay at Quina- 
 piaek lor Quinnipinck], or, as the Dutch called 
 it, Ucd Hill, where they built a hut and spent 
 the winter. They were joined in the spring 
 
 t April, 1638] by the rest of their company, and 
 )avenport ijreached his first sermon under the 
 shade of a spreading oak. Presently they entered 
 into what they called a 'plantation covenant,' 
 and a communication being opened with the 
 Intiians, who were but few in that neighborhood, 
 the lands of Quinapiack were purchased, except 
 a sniiill reservation on the east side of the bay, the 
 Indians receiving a few presents and a promise 
 of iirotection. A tract north of the bay, ten 
 miles in one direction and thirteen in the other, 
 
 was purchased for ten coats , and the colonists 
 proceeded to lay out in sijuarcs the ground-plan 
 of a spacious city, to which tlu-v iirescutly gave 
 the name of New Haven." — H. llildreth, }lt«t. of 
 the U. S.,v. 1, ch. 9. — "They formed their politi- 
 cal as.sociation by what they called a 'plantation 
 covenant,' ' to distinguish it from a church cov- 
 enant, which could not at that time be made.' 
 Ill this coiii])act they resolved, 'that, as in 
 matters that concern the gathering and ordering 
 of a church, .so likewise in all i)ublic olllces 
 which concern civil order, as choice of magis- 
 trates and olUcei's, making and repealing of 
 laws; dividing allotments of iiiluritance, and all 
 tilings of like nature,' they would ' be ordeied tiy 
 the rules which the Scriptures hold forth.' It 
 had no external sanction, and comprehended no 
 acknowledgment of the government of England. 
 The company consisted mostly of Londoners, 
 who at home had been engaged in trade. lu 
 proportion to their numbers, they were the 
 richest of all the iilantations. Like the settlers 
 on Narragansett Bay, they had no other title to 
 their lands than that which they obtained by 
 purchase from the Indians. " — J. O. Palfrey, Hist, 
 of New Kiid., v. 1, ch. 13. 
 
 Also in: C. H. Levermore, The Itepuhlie of 
 JVefO Ilntcn, ch. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1639. — The Fundamental Agreement 
 of New Haven. — "In June, ^039, the wliolo 
 body of settlers [at Quinnipiack, tt New Haven] 
 came together to frame a constitution. A tra- 
 dition, seemingly well founded, days that the 
 meeting was held in a large b;ii n. According to 
 the same account, the purpose for which they 
 had met and the principles on which they ought 
 to proceed were set forth by Davenport in a ser- 
 mon. ' Wisdom hath builded her house, sliu 
 hath hewn out seven pillars,' was the text. 
 There is an obvious connection between this an I 
 the subsequent choice of seven of the chief men 
 to lay the foundation of the constitution. . . . 
 Davenport set forth the general system on which 
 the constitution ought to be framed. The two 
 main principles which he laid down were, that 
 Scripture is a perfect and sulBcient rule for the 
 conduct of civil affairs, and that church-member- 
 ship must be a condition of citizenship. In this 
 the colonists were but imitating the example of 
 Massachusetts. . . . After the sermon, live reso- 
 lutions [followed by a sixth, constituting together 
 what was called the ' fundamental agreement ' 
 of New Haven Colony], formally introducing 
 Davenport's proposals, were carried. If a 
 church already existed, it was not considered ' "■■ 
 to form a basis for the state. Accordingly a 
 fresh one was framed by a curiously complicated 
 process. As a first step, twelve men were elected. 
 These twelve were instructed, after a due inter- 
 val for consideration, to choose seven out of 
 their own number, who should serve as a nu- 
 cleus for the church. At the same time an oath 
 was ti'.ken by the settU^rs, which may be looked 
 on as a sort of preliminary and provisional test 
 of citizenship, pledging them to accept the 
 principles laid down by Davenport Sixty-three 
 of the inhabitants took the oath, and their 
 example was soon followed by fifty more. By 
 October, four months after the original meeting, 
 the seven formally established the new common- 
 wealth. They granted the rights of a freeman 
 to all who joined them, and who were recognized 
 members either of the church at New Haven or 
 
 499 
 
CONNECTICUT, 1630. 
 
 The 
 Royal Charter. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1663-1664. 
 
 of ony other ui)provt'(l diurcli. The fn^emen 
 thus chosen entered into nu agreement to the 
 same effect as the oath already taken. They 
 tlien elected n Governor and four Magistrates, or, 
 as tlicy were for tlie jiresent called, ii Magistrate 
 and four Deputies. . . . Tlic functions of llie 
 Governor and Magistrates were not detined. 
 Indeed, l)Ut one formal resolution was passed as 
 to tlie conslitulion of tlie colony, namely, ' tliat 
 the Word of Ood sliall be tlie only rule attended 
 >uito in ordering the affairs of government.' " — 
 J. A. Doyle, T//e KnuUnh in Am.: The Puritnii 
 ColoniiH, V. 1, e!i. 0. — "Of all the New England 
 colonies, New Haven was most purely a govern- 
 ment hy compact, by social contract. . . . Tlie 
 free i)lauters . . . signed each their names to 
 their voluntary compact, and ordered tliat ' all 
 planters hereafter received in this plantation 
 should submit to the said foiindamentiill agree- 
 ment, and testilie the same l)y subscriliing their 
 names.' It is believed that this is the sole 
 insuinec of the formation of an independent civil 
 government by a general compact wherein all 
 the parties to the agreement were legally required 
 to be actual signers thereof. AVhen tli.i cMiit 
 occurred, Jolm Locke was in his seventh \ ^ iir, 
 and Uousseau was a century away." — C. II. 
 Levermore, I'/ie liijinlilii' i>f JS'tin Ifnren, p. 23. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1655. — The attempted New 
 Haven colonization on the Delaware. — Fresh 
 quarrels with the Dutch. See New Jeusey: 
 A. I). i04()-lC.j,-). 
 
 A. D. 1643. — The confederation of the colo- 
 "ies. — The progress and state of New Haven 
 and the River Colony. See New En<il.\ni): 
 A. D. 1643. 
 
 A. D. 1650. — Settlement of boundaries with 
 the Dutch of New Netherland. See New 
 Youk: a. D. 1050. 
 
 A. D. 1656-1661. — The persecution of 
 Quakers. See Massachusetts: A. D. 1650- 
 1001. 
 
 A. D. 1660-1663. — The beginning of bound- 
 ary conflicts with Rhode Island. See Hiioue 
 Island: A. I). 1000-1003. 
 
 A. D. 1560-1664. — The protection of the 
 regicides at New Haven. — " Against the colony 
 of New Haven the king had a special grudge. 
 Two of 'the regicide judges, who had sat in the 
 tribunal which condemned his father, escaped 
 to New England in 1060 and were well received 
 there. They wore gentlemen o'' high position. 
 Edward Wlialley was a cousin of Cromwell and 
 Hampden. . . . The other regicide, William 
 Goffe, as a riajnr-general in Cromwell's army, 
 had won such distinction that there were some 
 who pointed to him as the ))ropcr person to 
 succeed the Lord Protector on the death of the 
 latter. He had married Whalley's daughter. 
 Soon after the arrival of these gentlemen, 
 a royal order for their arrest was sent to 
 Boston. . . . The king's detectives hotly pur- 
 sued them tlirough the woodland i)athsofNew 
 England, aud they would soon have been taken 
 but for tlie aid they got from the people. Many 
 are the stories of their hairbreadth escapes. 
 Sometimes they took refuge in a cave on a 
 mountain near New Haven, sometimes they hid 
 in friendly cellars ; and or.ce, being hard put to 
 it, they skulked under a wooden bridge, whilo 
 their pursuers on horselmck galloped by over- 
 head. After lurking about New Ilavcn and 
 Milford for two or threo years, on hearing of the 
 
 expected arrival of Colonel Nichols and liis com- 
 mission [the royal commission appointed to take 
 possession of the American grant lately made by 
 tlie king to his brother, the Duke of "iorkj, they 
 soughta more secluded hiding place near Hadley, 
 It village lately settled far up the Connecticut 
 river, within tlie jurisdiction of Massachusetts. 
 Here the avengers lost the trail, the pursuit was 
 alviiidoned, and the weary regicides were 
 lucse'ntly forgotten. The people of New Haven 
 had been especially zealous in shielding the 
 fugitives. . . . The colony, moreover, di(l not 
 nllicially recognize the restoration of Charles II. 
 to the throne until that event had been commonly 
 known in New Englmd for more than a year. 
 For these reasons, the wrath of the king was 
 s))ecially roused agiMnst New Haven." — J. Fiske, 
 TIte Jiei/iiiniiif/a of New Enrj., pp. 193-194. 
 
 At.so in: G. H. Hollister, IIM. of Conn., v, 1, 
 c/i. 11. 
 
 A. D. 1662-1664.— The Royal Charter and 
 annexation of New Haven to the River Colony. 
 — "The Restoration in England left the New 
 Haven colony under a cloud in the favor of the 
 new government: it had been tardy and un- 
 gracious in its proclamation of Charles II. ; it 
 had been especially remiss in searching for the 
 regicide colonels, Gofle and Wlialley ; and any 
 application for a charter would have come from 
 New Haven with a very ill grace. Connecticut 
 was under no such disabilities; and it had in its 
 Governor, John AVinthrop [tlio younger, son of 
 the first governor of Massachusetts], a man well 
 calculated to win favor with the ne^v King. . . . 
 In March, 1660, the General Court solemnly de- 
 clared its loyalty to Charles II. , sent the Gov- 
 ernor to Englaiui to offer a loyal address to the 
 King and ask him for a charter, and laid aside 
 i'oOO for his exi)enses. Winthrop was successful, 
 and the charter was granted April 20, 1602. The 
 ac(juisition of the charter rai.sed the Connecticut 
 leaders to the seventh heaven of satisfaction. 
 And well it might, for it was a grant of privileges 
 with hardly a limitation. Practically the King 
 had given Winthrop 'carte blanche,' and allowed 
 him to frame the charter to suit himself. It in- 
 corporated the freemen of Connecticut as a ' body 
 corporate and pollitique,' by the name of 'The 
 Governor and Company of the English CoUony 
 of Conectic'ut in New Euglaud in America.' 
 . . . The people were to have all the liberties 
 and immunities of free and natural subjects of 
 the King, as if born within tiie realm. It granted 
 to the Governor and Company all that part of 
 New England south of the Massachusetts line 
 and west of the ' Norroganatt River com- 
 monly called Norroganatt Bay ' to the South 
 Sea, with the ' Islands thereunto adioyneinge. ' 
 ... It is difficult to see more than two jioints 
 in which it [the charter] altered the constitution 
 adopted by the towns in 1039. Tliere were now 
 to be two deputies from each town; and the 
 bounuaries 01 J 1 Commonwealth now embraced 
 the rival colony of New Haven. . . . New Haven 
 did not submit witliout a struggle, for not only 
 her pride of separate existence but the supremacy 
 of her ecclesiastical system was at stake. For 
 three years a succession of diplomatic notes 
 passed between tiie General Court of Connecticut 
 and ' our honored friends of New Haven, Mil- 
 ford, Branford, aud Guilford.' ... In October, 
 1664, the Connecticut General Court appointed 
 the Nei- Haven magistrates commissioners for 
 
 500 
 
CONNECTICUT, 1662-1664. 
 
 The Hiding 
 of the Charter. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1685-1687. 
 
 their towns, 'with mftgistraticnll powers,' es- 
 tftblislied till! New Iltivcn local olUcers in tlieir 
 places for tlu! time, and declared oblivion for 
 any past resistance to the laws. In Decenil)er, 
 Milford having already 8\ibmitted, the remnant 
 of the New Haven General Court, representing 
 New Haven, Guilford, and Uranfonl, held its 
 last meeting and voted to submit, ' with a salvo 
 jure of our former rights and claims, as a people 
 who have not yet been Iieard in point of ph-a.' 
 The next year the hiws of New Iliivcn rtere laid 
 aside forever, and her towns sent deputies to the 
 General Court at Hartford. ... In I'lOl the 
 General Court . . . voted that its annual Octo- 
 ber session should thereafter be held at New 
 Haven. This provision of a double capital was 
 incorporated into the constitution of 1818, and 
 continued until in 1873 Hartford was made sole 
 capital." — A. Johnston, The Genesis of a JVeu) 
 Enij. State, pp. 25-38. 
 
 Also in: B. Trumbull, Hist, of Conn., v. 1, <•//. 
 18. — Public Records of the Colony of Conn., 1605- 
 78. 
 
 A. D. 1664. — Royal irrant to the Duke of 
 York, in conflict with tne charter. See New 
 Youk: a. I). 1664. 
 
 A. D. 1666. — The New Haven migration to 
 Newark, N.J. See Nkw Jkuskv: A. D. 1664- 
 10(17. 
 
 A. D. 1674-1675.— Long Island and the 
 western half of the colony granted to the 
 Duke of York. — In 1674, after the momentary 
 recovery of New York by the Dutch, and its 
 re-surrender to the English, "tlie king issued a 
 new patent for the province, in which he not 
 only in'^luded Long Island, but the territory up 
 to the Connecticut River, which liad been 
 assigned to Connecticut by the royal commis- 
 sioners. The assignment of Long Island was 
 regretted, b. it not resisted; and tlic island which 
 is the natural sea-wall of Connecticut passed, by 
 royal deiTce, to a province whose only natural 
 claim to it was that it barely touched it at one 
 corner. The revival of the duke's claim to a 
 part of tlic mainland was a different matter, and 
 every preparation was made for resistance. In 
 July, 1075, just as Kii. j Philip's war had broken 
 out in Plymoutli, hasty word was sent from the 
 authorities at Ilartfonl to Captain Thomas Bull 
 at .Saybrook that Governor Andros of New 
 York was on his way through the Sound for the 
 purpose, as he avowed, of aiding the people 
 against the Indians. Of the two evils, Connecti- 
 cut rather preferred the Indians. Bull was 
 instructed to inform Andros, if he sliould call at 
 Saybrook, that the colony liad taken all pre- 
 cauMons against the Indians, and to direct liim 
 to tlie actual scene of conllict, l)ut not to permit 
 the landing of any armed soldiers. ' And you 
 are to keep the king's colors standing there, 
 under his majesty's lieutenant, the governor of 
 Connecticut ; and if any other colors be set up 
 there, you arc not to sulfer them to stand. . . . 
 But yo\i are in his majesty's name re(iuired to 
 avoid striking tlie first blow; but if they begin, 
 then you ere to defend yourselves, and do your 
 best to secure his majesty's interest and the 
 I)eace of the wliole colony of Connecticut in our 
 l)ossc8sion. ' Andros came and landed at Say- 
 brook, but confined his proceedings to leading 
 the duke's patent against tlie protest of Bull and 
 the Connecticut representatives. " — A. Johnston, 
 Connecticut, ch. 12.— liept. of liegents of tlie 
 
 University on the Boundaries of the State of 
 iV..r.,;). 21. 
 
 Also in; C.W. Bowen, T lie Boundary Disputes 
 of Conn., pp. 70-73. 
 
 A. D. 1674-1678.— King Philip's War. See 
 New Enol.\m); A. 1). 1671-1675; 1075; 1670- 
 1078. 
 
 A. D. 1685-1687.— The hostile ki.ag and the 
 hidden charter.— Sir Edmund Andius in pos- 
 session of the government. — " During tlic latter 
 years of tlie reign of Charles II. the king had 
 become .so recklc-^s of his pledges and his faith 
 that lie did not s( 1 ujile to set the dangerous ex- 
 ample of violating the charters that had been 
 granted \>y the crown. Owing to the friendsliip 
 that the king entertained for Winthrop, we have 
 seen that Coniu'cticut was favored by liim to a 
 degree even after tlie death of that great man. 
 But no sooner had Charles demise<l and the 
 sceptre passed into the liands of his bigoted 
 brother. King James II., than Connecticit was 
 called upon to contend against lier sovereign for 
 liberties that had been alllr'icd to hei by the 
 most solemn muniments known to the i:uv of 
 England. The accession of James II. took 
 place on the 0th day of February 1085, and such 
 was his haste to violate the honor of the crowa 
 that, early in the sunimer of 1685, a quo warranto 
 was issued against the governor and company of 
 Connecticut, citing them to appear before the 
 king, within eij. it days of St. Martiu'.s, to show 
 by wliat right a li tenor thej^ exercised certain 
 powers and privileges." This was quickly fol- 
 lowed by two other writs, conveyed to Hartford 
 by Edward Ilandolph, the implacable enemy 
 of the colonics. "The day of appearance 
 named in them was passed long before the writs 
 were served." Mr. Wiiiting was sent to England 
 as the agent of the colony, to exert such intlu- 
 ences as might be brought to bear against the 
 plainly hostile and unscrupulous intentions of 
 the king; but his errand was f"uitless. "On the 
 28th of December another writ of quo warranto 
 was served upon tlie governor and company of 
 the colony. This writ bore date the 23d of 
 October, and required tlie defendants to appear 
 before the king ' within eight days of the purifi- 
 cation of the Blessed Virgin.' ... Of cour.se, 
 the day nam^d was not known to the English 
 law, and was therefore no day at all ir- legal con- 
 templation." Already, the other New England 
 colonies had been brought under a iirovisional 
 general government, by comniissioiu^rs, of whom 
 Joseph Dudley was named president. President 
 Dudley "addrcsfied a loiter to the governor and 
 council, advising them to resign the charter into 
 tlie king's hands. Should they do so, he under- 
 took to use his influence in belialf of the colony. 
 Tliey did not deem it advisable to comply with 
 the request. Indeed they lia<l hardly time to do 
 so before the old commission was broken up, 
 and a new one granted, superseding Dudley 
 and naming Sir Edmund Andros governor of 
 New England. Sir Edmund arrived in 15o.ston 
 on tlie 19th of December, 1686, and tlie next (hiy 
 he published his commission and took the govern- 
 ment into his hands. Scarcely had lie establislied 
 liiiHself, when he sent a letter to the governor 
 and company of Connecticut, ac(iuainting them 
 with his appointment, and informing tliem that 
 he was commissioned by the king to receive 
 their charter if they would give it up to him."— 
 0. H. Hollister, Ilist. of Conn., v. 1, ch. 14.— On 
 
 501 
 
CONNECTICUT, 1685-1687. 
 
 The Keinttated 
 Cluirler. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1689-1701. 
 
 receipt of the comrminicntion from Andros, "the 
 General Court wiis nt once convened, and l)y its 
 direetion u letter was addressed to the EngUsh 
 Secretary of State, earnestly pleading for the 
 preservation of the jjrivileges that had been 
 granted to them. For the first time they admit- 
 ted the po.ssibility that tlieir peli'ion might be 
 ilenied, and in that case reepiested to be united 
 to iMa-ssachusetts. This was construed by Sir 
 Edmund as a virtual surrender; hut as the days 
 went by he saw that he had mistaken the spirit 
 and purpose of the colony. Andros finally de- 
 cided to go in person to Connecticut. He arrived 
 at Ilartfor 1 the last day of October, attended by 
 a retinue of CO oflicers and soldiers. The Assem- 
 bly, then in session, received liim with every 
 outward mark of respect. After this formal ex- 
 change o' courtesies. Sir Kdmund publicly de- 
 manded Mo charter, and declared tlie colonial 
 government dissolved. Tradition relates that 
 Governor Treat, in cnlm hut earnest words, re- 
 monstrated against this action. . . . The flebate 
 was continued until tlie sha<lows of the early 
 autumnal evening liad fallen. After candles were 
 lighted, the -jovernor and his council seemed to 
 yield ; and the bo.x supposed to contain the char- 
 ter was brought into the room, and placed upon 
 the table. Suddenly the lights were extin- 
 guished. Quiet reigned in the room, and in the 
 dense crowd outside the building. Tiie candles 
 were soon relighted; but the charter had dis- 
 appeared, and after the most diligent search 
 could not be found. The common tradition has 
 been, that it was taken imdcr cover of the dark- 
 ness by Captain Joseph Wadsworth, and hidden 
 by him in the liollow trunk of a venerable and 
 noble oak tree standing near the entrance-gate of 
 Governor AVyllys's mansion. The charter taken 
 by Captain Wadsworth was probably the dupli- 
 cate, and remained safely in his possession for 
 several years. There is reason to believe tliat, 
 some time before the coming of Andros to Hart- 
 ford, the original charter liad been carefully 
 secreted, and the tradition of later times makes 
 it probable that, while the duplicate charter that 
 was tiikcn from the table was hidden elsewhere, 
 the original charter found a safe resting place in 
 the heart of the tree that will always be remem- 
 bered as The Charter Oak. This tree is said to 
 have been preserved by the early settlers at the 
 request of the Indians. 'It hi) s been the guide 
 of our ancestors for centuries,' ihey said, 'as to 
 the time of planting our corn. iVhen the leaves 
 are the size of a mouse's ears, then is the time 
 to put it in the ground.' The record of the 
 Court briefly states that Andros, having been 
 conducted to the governor's seat by the gov- 
 ernor himself, declared that he had been com- 
 missioned by his Majesty to take on him the 
 government of Connecticut. The commission 
 having been read, he said that it was his 
 Majesty's pleasure to make the late governor 
 ami Captain John Allyn members of his council. 
 The secretary handed their common seal to Sir 
 Edmund, and afterwards wrote these words in- 
 closing the recor' : _ ' His Excellency, Sir Ed- 
 mund Andros, Knight, Captain-General and 
 Governor of his Majesty's Territory and Domin- 
 ion in New England, bv order from his JIajesty, 
 King of England, Scotland and Irelaiid, the 81st 
 of October, 1687, took mto his hands the govern- 
 ment of this colony of Connecticut, it being by 
 Lis Majesty annexed to the Massachusetts and 
 
 other colonics under his Excellency's government. 
 Finis.' Andros soon disclosed a hand of steel 
 beneath the velvet glove of plausible words and 
 fair promis's." — E. B. Sanford, Hist, of Conn., 
 ch. 10. 
 
 Also in: J. G. Palfrey, Hist, of New En//., bk. 
 ■S, ch. 13 (v. 3).— Sec, also, New Enol.vnd: A. D. 
 1080, and JIassaciiusetts: 1071-1080. 
 
 A. D. 1689-1697.— King William's War. 
 See Canada (NewFkance): A. D. 1089-1090; 
 and 1093-1097. 
 
 A. D. 1689-1701.— The reinstatement of the 
 charter government. — "April, 1089, came at 
 last. The jicople of Boston, at tlie first news 
 of the English Revolution, clapped Andros into 
 custody. Alay 9, tlie old Connecticut authorities 
 (piietly resumed their functions, and called the 
 assembly together for the following month. 
 Willianj and Mary were proclaimed with great 
 fervor. Not a word was said about the dis- 
 appearance or reappearance of the charter; but 
 the charter government was put into full effect 
 again, as if Andros had never interrupted it. 
 An address was sent to the king, asking that the 
 charter he no further interfered with ; but ojier- 
 ations under it went on as before. No decided 
 action was taken by the home government for 
 some years, except that its appointment of the 
 New York governoi-, Fletcher, to the command 
 of the Connecticut militia, implied a decision 
 tliat the Connecticut charter had been super- 
 .seded. Late in 1693, Fitz John Wiuthrop was 
 sent to England as agent to obtain a confirmation 
 of the charter. Ho secured an emphatic legal 
 opinion from Attorney General Somers, backed 
 by those of Treby and Ward, that the charter 
 was entirely valid, Treby's concurrent opinion 
 taking this shape : ' I am of the same opinion, 
 and, as this matter is stilted, there is no ground 
 of doubt.' The basis of the opinion was that 
 the charter had been granted under the great 
 seal ; that it Iiad not been surrendered under the 
 common seal of the colony, nor had any judg- 
 ment of record been entered against it; tliat its 
 operation had merely been interfered with by 
 overpowering force; that the charter therefore 
 remained valid ; and that the peaceable submission 
 of the colony to A'.idros was merely an illegal sus- 
 pension of lawful authority. In other words, the 
 passive attitude of the colonial government had 
 disarmed Andros so far as to stop the legal pro- 
 ceedings necessary to forfeit the charter, and 
 their prompt action, at the critical moment, 
 secured all that could he secured under the cir- 
 cumstances. William was willing enough to 
 retain all possible fruit of James's tyranny, as he 
 sliowed by enforcing the forfeiture of the Massa- 
 chusetts charter ; but the law in this case was 
 too plain, and he ratified the lawyers' opinion in 
 April, 1694. The clip.rter had escaped its 
 enemies at last, and its escape is a monument of 
 one of the advantages of a real democracy. . . . 
 Democracy had done more for Connecticut than 
 class influence had done for Massachusetts " — A. 
 Johnston, Connecticut, ch. 12. — "The decisions 
 which established the rights of Connecticut 
 included Rhode Island. These two common- 
 wealths were the portion of the British empire 
 distinguished above all others by the largest 
 liberty. Each was a nearly peri'ect democracy 
 under the shelter of a monarchy. . . . The 
 crown, by reserving to itself the right of appeal, 
 had still a method of interfering in the internal 
 
 502 
 
CONNECTICUT, 1089-1701. The Revolution. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1776. 
 
 affairs of the two rppiiblica. Both of tliptn wore 
 Included among the colonies in which tlic lords 
 of »~uie advised a complete restonition of tlie 
 preroKiii'ves of the crown. Both wen; niimcd in 
 tlie bdl winch, in April, 1701, was introduced 
 into parliament for the ai)rogation of all Ameri- 
 can clmrters. The journals of the house of lords 
 relate that Connecticut was publicly heard 
 against the measure, and contended tliat its 
 liberties were held by contract in return for 
 services tliat had been performed; that the 
 taking away of so many charters would destroy 
 all contldenco in royal promises, and would afford 
 a precedent dangerous to all the chartered cor- 
 porations of England. Yet the bill was read iv 
 second time, and its i.'rinciple, as applied to 
 colonies, was advocated by the mercantile 
 interest and Ic ' great men ' in England. The 
 impending w with the French postponed the 
 purpose till the accession of the house of Han- 
 over."— G. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. S. (Autlwr't 
 last Tension), pt, 3, ch. 3 (r. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1690. — The first Colonial Congress. 
 See Unitici) Status of Am. : A. 1). 1G90. 
 
 A, D. 1702-1711. — Queen Anne's War. See 
 New Enol.\ni>: A. 1). 1702-1710; and Canad.v. 
 (NkwFhanck): A. 1), 1711-1713. 
 
 A. D, 1744-1748.— King George's War and 
 the taking of Louisbourg. Hci; New Englano : 
 A. 1). 1744; 174r); and 1745-1748. 
 
 A. D. 1753-1799. — Western territorial claims. 
 — Settlements in the Wyoming Valley. — Con- 
 flicts with the Penn colonists. See Pennsyl- 
 vania: A. I). 17r)3-179i). 
 
 A. D. 1754. — The Colonial Congress at 
 Albany, and Franklins plan of union. See 
 United States of Am. : A. I). 17i)4. 
 
 A. D. 1755-1760.— The French and Indian 
 War, and conquest of Canada. See Canada 
 (New France): A. D. 17r)0-17o3; 1755; 1750; 
 17)0-1757; 1758; 1759; 1700; Nova Scotia: 
 A. D. 1749-1755; 1755; Ohio (Valley): A. D. 
 1748-1754; 1754; 1755; C.U'e Breton Island: 
 A. I). 1758-1700. 
 
 A. D. 1760-1765^— The question of taxation 
 by Parliament. — The Sugar Act. — The Stamp 
 Act.— The Stamp Act Congress. See United 
 States OP Am.: A. D. 1700-1775; 1703-1704; 
 1705; and 1700. 
 
 A. D. 1765. — The revolt against the Stamp 
 Act. — "The English government understood 
 very well that the colonies were earnestly 
 opposed to the Stamp Act, but they had no 
 thought of the storm of wrath and resistance 
 whicli it would arouse. It was a surprise to 
 many of the leaders of public affairs in America. 
 . . . Governor Fitch and Jared Ingersoll, with 
 other prominent citizens who had done all in 
 their power to oppose the scheme of taxation 
 . . . counsolk"? submission. They mistook the 
 feeling of the people. . . . The clergy were still 
 the leaders of public opinion, and they were 
 united in denunciation of the great wrong. 
 Societies were organized under the name of the 
 Sons of Liberty, the secret purpose of which 
 was to resist the Stamp Act by violent m( sures 
 if necessary. . . . Mr. Ingersoll, who had done 
 all in his power to oppose the bill, after its pas- 
 sage decided to accept the position of stamp 
 agent for Connecticut. Franklin urged him to 
 take the place, and no one doubted his motives 
 in accepting it. The people of Connecticut, 
 however, were not pleased with this action. . . . 
 
 He was vi.sited l)v a crowd of citizens, who 
 incpiired impatiently if he would resign. " Inger- 
 soll put them off with evasive rei)lies for some 
 time; but tinally there was a gathering of a 
 thousand men on horseback, from Norwich, 
 New Lond(m, Windham, Lebanon and other 
 towns, each armed with a heavy peeled dub, 
 who surrounded tlie obstinate stamp agent at 
 Wethtrsliehl and made him understand that tliey 
 were in deadly earnest. "'The cause is not 
 worth dying for,' said the intrepid man, wlio 
 would never have Hinched had he not felt tluit, 
 after all, this band of earnest men were in the 
 right. A formal resignation was given him to 
 sign. . . . After he had signed his name, tlic 
 crowd cried out, 'Swear to it!' He begged to be 
 excused from taking an oath. ' Then shout 
 Liberty and Property, 'said the now good-natured 
 company. To this he had no objection, and 
 waved his hat enthusiastically as he repeated the 
 words. Having given three cheers, the now 
 hilarious party dined together." Ingersoll was 
 then escorted to Hartford, where he read his 
 resignation publicly at the court-house. — E. B. 
 Sanford, Hist, of Coiuurtifiit, ch. 29. 
 
 A. D. 1766. — The repeal of the Stamp Act. 
 — The Declaratory Act. See United States ov 
 Am.: a. I). 1700. 
 
 A. D. 1766-1768.— The Townshend duties.— 
 The Circular Letter of Massachusetts. See 
 United States of A.m. : A. 1). 1700-1707, and 
 1707-1708. 
 
 A. D. 1768-1770. — The quartering of troops 
 in Boston. — The " Massacre " and the removal 
 of the troops. See Boston: A. D. 1708, and 
 1770. 
 
 A. D. 1769-1784. — The ending of slavery. 
 See Slavery, Neoro: A. I). 1709-1785. 
 
 A. D. 1770-1773. — Repeal of the Townshend 
 duties except on tea. — Committees of Corres- 
 pondence instituted. — The tea ships and the 
 Boston Tea-party. Sec United States of Am. : 
 A. I>. 1770, and 1773-1773; and Boston: A. 1). 
 1773. 
 
 A. D. 1774.— The Boston Port Bill, the 
 Massachusetts Act, and the Quebec Act. — 
 The First Continental Congress. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1774. 
 
 A. D. 1775. — The beginning of the War of 
 the American Revolution. — Lexington. — Con- 
 cord. — New England in arms and Boston 
 beleagured. — Ticonderoga. — Bunker Hill. — 
 The Second Continental Congress. See United 
 States op Am. : A. I). 1775. 
 
 A. D. 1776.— Assumes to be a " free, sover- 
 eign and independent State." — " In Jlay, 1770, 
 the people had been formally released from their 
 allegiance to the crown; and in October the 
 general assembly passed an act assuming the 
 functions of a State. The important section of 
 the act was the first, as follows: 'Tliat the 
 ancient form of civil government, contained in 
 the charter from Charles the Second, King of 
 England, and adopted by the people of this 
 State, shall be and remain the civil Constitution 
 of this State, under the sole authority of the 
 people thereof, independent of any king or prince 
 whatever. And that this Republic is, and shall 
 forever be and remain, a free, sovereign and 
 independent State, by the name of the State of 
 Connecticut.' The form of the act speaks what 
 was doubtless always the belief of the people, 
 that their charter derived its vrlidity, not from 
 
 603 
 
CONNECTICUT, 1776. 
 
 CONSTABLE. 
 
 tbe will of the crown, but from the assent of the 
 people. And ^the curious laiiKuugc of the lust 
 sciitt'iice. in wliich ' tliis Uepublic ' declares itself 
 to be 'u free, sovereign, and independent Slate,' 
 nmy serve to indicate sonietliinj; of the appear- 
 ance wlii'h state sovereignty do\ibtless presented 
 to the Americans of 177(>-80." — A. jolniston, 
 ConnicticHt, eh. 10. — See, also. United Status 
 OK Am. : A. I). 177»-1771). 
 
 A. D. 1776-1783.— The war and the victory. 
 — Independence achieved. See Lnitkd States 
 OF Am.: a. I). ITT(> to ITm;!. 
 
 A. D. 1778. — The massacre at the Wyoming 
 settlement. See United States ok Am. : A. \). 
 1778 (.III i.Y). 
 
 A. D. 1779. — Tryon's marauding expeditions. 
 See I'mted States OK Am. : A. I). I7i8-1771>. 
 
 A. D. 1786. — Partial cession of western 
 territorial claims to the United States. — The 
 Western Reserve in Ohio. See United States 
 OK Am. : A. I). 1781-1786; Pennsylvania: A. D. 
 175:1-1709; and Ohio: A. I). 1786-1790. 
 
 A. D. 1788.— Ratification of the Federal 
 Constitution. See United States ok Am. : 
 A. 1). 1787-1789. 
 
 A. D. 1814.— The Hartford Convention. 
 See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1814 (De- 
 
 CEMUEIt). 
 
 ♦ 
 
 CONNECTICUT TRACT, The. See New 
 Youk: a. I). 1780-1799. 
 
 CONNUBIUM. See Municipium. 
 
 CONON, Pope, A. D. 080-687. 
 
 CONOYS. See A.MEUICAN AnonionjEs: Al- 
 
 GONliUIA.N Fa.MII,Y. 
 
 CONRAD I., King of the East Franks 
 (Germany), (the first of the Saxon line), A. D. 
 
 911-919 Conrad II., King of the Romans 
 
 (King of Germany), A. I). I()i4-1(«9; King of 
 Italy, 1020-10:59 ; King of Burgundy, 10;i2-1039: 
 
 Emperor, 1027-1039 Conrad III., King of 
 
 Germany (the first of the Swabian or Hohen- 
 
 stauffen dynasty), 1137-1152 Conrad IV., 
 
 King of Germany, 1250-1254. 
 
 CONSCRIPT FATHERS.— The Roman 
 senators were so called, — "Patres Conscripti." 
 The origin of the designation has been much dis- 
 cussed, and tlie explanation whicli has found 
 most acceptance is this: tliatwhen, at the organi- 
 zation of the Republic, there was a new creation 
 of senators, to till tlie ranks, the new senators 
 were called "conscripti" ("added to the roll") 
 while the older ones were called "patres" 
 ("fathers"), as before. Then the whole senate 
 was addressed as " Patres et Conscripti," which 
 lapsed finally into "Patres-Conscripti." — H. G. 
 Liddell, Ilut. of Home, bk. 1, ch. 4. 
 
 CONSCRIPTION, The first French. Sec 
 France: A. D. 1798-1799 (August— Apiul). 
 
 CONSCRIPTION IN THE AMERICAN 
 CIVIL WAR. See United States of Am. : 
 A. D. 1863 (MAiicn). 
 
 CONSERVATIVE PARTY, The English. 
 — The name "Conservative," to replace that <>•' 
 Tory (sec Enoi.and: A. D. 1680 for the origin (ji 
 the latter) as a party designation, was first in- 
 troiluced in 1831, by Mr. John Wilson Croker, 
 in an article in the Quarterly Review. ' ' It crept 
 slowly into general favour, although some few 
 there were who always held out against it, en- 
 couraged l)y the example of the late leader of 
 tlie party, Lord Beaconsfield, who was not at all 
 likely to extend a welcome to anything which 
 
 camo with Mr. Croker's mark , upon it."— L. J 
 Jennings. The Croker Pitprm, r. 3, p. 198. 
 
 CONSILIO DI CREDENZA. See Italy: 
 A. I). 10-.6-1I52. 
 
 CONSISTORY, The Papal. See CuniA, 
 Papal. 
 
 CONSISTORY COURTS OF THE 
 BISHOPS.—" Thedutiesot tlieolIlcialsottlie.se 
 courts resembled in theory the duties of the cen- 
 sors under the Roman Republic. In the middle 
 ages, a lofty ellort had been made to overpass 
 llie common linntiitions of government, to intro- 
 duce punishment for sins as well as crimes, and 
 to visit V ith temporal penalties the breach of the 
 moral l.'iw. . . . The adniinistratio.i of such a 
 discipline fell as a matter of course, to the clergy. 
 . . . Thus arose throughout Europe a system of 
 spiritual surveillance over the habits and conduct 
 of every man, extending from tbe cottage to the 
 castle, taking note of all wrong dealing, of all 
 oppression of man by man, of all licentiousness 
 and prolligacy, and representing upon earth, in 
 the principles by which it was guided, the laws 
 of the great tribunal of Almiglity God. Sueli 
 was the origin of the church courts, perhaps the 
 greatest institutions yet devised by man. But 
 to aim at these high ideals is as perilous as it is 
 noble; and weapons which may be safely trusted 
 in the hands of saints become fatal implements 
 of mischief when saints have ceased to wield 
 them. . . . The Consistory Courts had continued 
 into the .sixtceuthcentury with unrestricted juris- 
 diction, although they had been for generations 
 merely perennially flowing fountains, feeding 
 the ecclesiastical exchequer. The moral conduct 
 of every English man and woman remained sub- 
 ject to them. . . . But between the original de- 
 sign and the degenerate counterfeit there was 
 this vital difference, — that the censures were no 
 longer spiritual. Tliey were commuted in var- 
 ious gradations for pecuniary fines, and each 
 offence a.'^ainst morality was rated at its specific 
 mouej' value in the Episcopal tables. Suspen- 
 sion and excommunication remained as ultimate 
 I)enalties ; but they were resorted to only to com- 
 I)el unwilling culprits to accept the alternative. 
 The misdemeanours of which the courts took 
 cognizance were 'offences against chastity,' 
 'lieresy,'or ' matter sounding thereunto,' 'witch- 
 craft,' 'drunkenness,' 'scandal,' 'defamation,' 
 ' impatient words,' ' broken promises," untruth,' 
 'absence from church,' ' speaking evil of saints,' 
 'non-payment of offerings,' and other delin- 
 quencies incapable of legal definition." — J. A. 
 Eroude, Jlist. of EngUiml, ch. 3. 
 
 CONSPIRACY BILL, The. SeeENoi-AUD: 
 A. I). 1858-1859. 
 
 CONSTABLE, The.—" The name is derived 
 from the ' conies stabuli ' of the Byzantine court, 
 and appears in the west as early as the days of 
 Gregory of Tours. The duties of the constables 
 of France . . . and those of the constables of 
 Naples . . . are not exactly parallel with [those 
 of J the constables of England. In Naples the con- 
 stable kept the king's sword, commanded tlie 
 army, appointed the quarters, disciplined the 
 troops and distributed the sentinels ; the marshals 
 and all other officers being his subordinates. The 
 "rench office wiis nearly the same. In England, 
 However, the marshal was not subordinate to 
 the constable. Probably tlie English marshals 
 fulfilled the duties which liad been in Normandy 
 discharged by the constables. The marshal fa 
 
 504 
 
CONSTABLE. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 380. 
 
 more distinctly an ofHcer of tlio court, the con- 
 gtiible one of tlie castle or army. .... Tho con- 
 stable . . . exercised tlie odlce of (luarterinaster- 
 general of the court and army and succeeded to 
 the duties of the Anglo-Saxon stuller." — VV. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist, of Eiig., cli. 11, sect. 123, 
 ami note. 
 
 CONSTABLE OF FRANCE.-" No other 
 dignity in Hie world has been held Ijy such a 
 succession of great soldii.'rs as tlio olUce of Con- 
 stable of France. The Constable was originally 
 a mere otUccr of the stables, but his power had 
 increased by tlie suppression of the olllce of 
 Grand Seneschal, and by the time of Philip 
 Augustus he exercised control over all the mili- 
 tary forces of the crown, lie was the gi^ieral in 
 chief of th(! army and the highest military 
 autliority in the Ivingdom. Tho constables had for 
 four centuries been leaders in the wars of France, 
 and they had experienced strange and varied 
 fortunes. Tlu; odice had been bestowed on the 
 son of Simon de Montfort, and he for this lionor 
 had granted to the liing of France his rights 
 over tliose vast domains which had been given 
 his father for his pious con(iuests. [See Ai,ni- 
 QEN8E8: A. D. 1317-1229.] It had been be- 
 stowed on llaoul de Nesle, who fell at Courtrai, 
 where the French nobility sulferi'd its first 
 defeat from Flemish boors; on IJertrand do 
 Quesclin, tlie last of the great warriors, Avhose 
 deeds were .sung with tliose of tho pala.lins of 
 Charlemagne; on Cli.sson, the victor of Kooso- 
 beeii [or Itosebecque] ; on Armagnac, whose 
 name has a bloody preeminence among the 
 leaders of tlie fierce soldiery who ravaged Franco 
 during tlie Englisli wars; on Buchan, whose 
 Scotch valor and fidelity gained him this great 
 trust among a foreign people ; on Uichemont, the 
 companion of Joan Dare; on Saint Pol, the ally 
 of Charles the Bold, the betrayer and tlie victim 
 of Louis XI. ) on the Uuke of Bourbon, who won 
 the battle of Pavia against his sovereign, and led 
 his soldiers to that saelc of liome wliich made 
 the ravages of Qenseric and Alaric seem mild; 
 on Anne of Jlontmorenci, a prominent actor in 
 every great event in France from the battle ef 
 Pavia against Charles V. to that of St. Denis 
 against Coligni; on his son, the companion of 
 Henry IV. in his youth, and his trusted adviser 
 in his age. . . . Tlie sword borne by such men 
 had been bestowed [1631] on Luines, the hero of 
 an assassination, who could not drill a company of 
 infantry; it was now [1633] given to tlie hero of 
 many battles [the Dulcoof Lesdeguiires], and the 
 great offlce was to expire in the hands of a great 
 soldier." — J. B. Perkins, Fra)ice uiuUir Mazarin, 
 v. 1, /). 94. 
 
 CONSTANCE.The Council of. SeePxPACS': 
 A. D. 1414-1418. 
 
 CONSTANCE, Peace of (i 183). See Italy: 
 A. D. 1174-1183. 
 
 CONSTANS I., Roman Emperor, A. D. 337- 
 850 Constans II., Roman Emperor (East- 
 ern), A. I), 641-668. 
 
 CONSTANTINA, The taking of (1837). 
 See B,vHU.\r.Y States: A. I). 1830-1846. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Pope, A. D. 708-715 
 
 Constantme I. (called The Great), Roman 
 
 Emperor, A. D. 306-337 .The Conversion. 
 
 SeeRcME: A. D. 333 The Forged Dona- 
 tion of. Sec P.vpACv: A. D. 774 (?) Constan- 
 
 tine II,, Roman Emperor, A. I). 33V-340 
 
 Constantine III., Roman Emperor in the East, 
 33 
 
 505 
 
 A. D.fill Constantine IV. (called Pogona- 
 
 tus), Roman Emperor in the East, .V. 1). t!68- 
 
 6H."j Constantine V. (cr.lled Copronymus), 
 
 Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), 
 
 A. 1). 741-77.") Constantine VI., Empemr 
 
 in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A, I). 780- 
 
 797 Constantine VII. (called Porphyrogeni- 
 
 tus). Emperor in the E-st (Byzantine, or 
 
 Greek), A. I). 911-i).-)() Constantine VIII. 
 
 (colleague of Constantine VII.), Emperor in 
 
 the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). 944 
 
 Constantine IX., Emperor in the East (Byzan- 
 tine, or Greek), A. 1), 96;i-lil28 Constantine 
 
 X., Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek),. 
 
 A. I). 1043-10.")4 Constantine XL, Emperor 
 
 in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. 1). lO.-iO- 
 1067 Constantine XII., nominal Greek Em- 
 peror in the East, about A, 1), li)71 Con- 
 stantine XIII. (Polxologus), Greek Emperor 
 of Constantinople, A. 1). 144H-14.")3 Con- 
 stantine the Usurper. See I5uit\[\: A. I). 407. 
 CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 330.— Trans- 
 formation of Byzantium. — "Constantine liad 
 for some time contemplated the ereetion of a 
 new capital, The experience of nearly half a. 
 century had confirmed the sagacity of Diocle- 
 tian's selection of a site on the confines of Europe 
 and Asia [Xicomedia] as the whereabouts in 
 which the political centre of gravity of the 
 Empire rested. At one time Constantine thought 
 of adopting the site of ancient Troy, and is said 
 to have actually commenced building a new city 
 there. . . . More prosaic reasons ultimately pre- 
 vailed. Tlie practical genius of Constantine 
 recognized in the town of Byzantium, on the 
 European side of the border line between the 
 two continents, the site best adapted for his new 
 capital. All subsequent ages have applauded 
 his discernment, for experience has endorsed the 
 wisdom of the choice. By land, witli its Asian 
 suburb of Chrysopolis [modern Scutari], it 
 practically spanned the narrow strait and joined 
 Europe and Asia: by sea, it was open on one 
 .side to Spain, Italy, Greece, Africa, Egypt, Syria; 
 on the other to the Euxinc, and .so by the Danube 
 it had easy access to the wliole of that important 
 frontier between the Empire and the barbarians ; 
 and round all the northern coasts of the e"a it 
 took the barbarians in flank. . . . The city was 
 solemnly dedicated witli religious ceremonies on 
 tho 11th of May, 330, and the occasion was cele- 
 brated, after the Roman fasliion, by a great 
 festival, largesses and games in the hippodrome, 
 wliich lasted forty days. The Emperor gave to- 
 tlio city institutions modelled after those of the 
 ancient Rome." — E. L. Cutts, Constiintine the 
 Great, ch. 29. — 'The new walls of Constantine- 
 stretched from the port to the Propontis ... at 
 tlic distance of fifteen stadia from the ancient 
 fortification, and, with the city of Byzantium, 
 they enclosed five of tho seven hills which, to 
 ilie eyes of those who approach Constantinople, 
 appear to rise above each other in beautiful 
 order. About a century after the death of the 
 founder, tlio new buildings . . . already covered 
 the narrow ridge of the sixtli and the broad 
 summit of the seventh hill. . . . The buildings 
 of tho new city were executed by such artificers 
 as tlio reign of Constantine could all'ord; but 
 they were decora ed by the hands of the most 
 celebrated masters of "the ago of Pericles and 
 Alexander. . . . By his commands the cities of 
 Greece andJAsia were despoiled of their most 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 330. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 088-075. 
 
 vnlimblo omiimcnts." — E. Oibbon, Dedine and 
 Fnllofthc li'iiiKtn Kiiijiirf, eh. 17. — "Tlin now 
 city WHS mi exiict copy of old Hoint'. ... It 
 wiislnliiibitcd by soiiiitors from Home. Wcaltliy 
 individiml.s from the proviiici's were likowiso 
 conipclU'd to keep up bcnisus lit Constantinople, 
 pensions were conferred upon them, and a rijiht 
 to n c(^rtuin amount of provisions fromtlic public 
 stores was annexed to tlu'se dwellin>?s. Eifflity 
 thousand loaves of bread were distriliuted daily 
 to the inhabitants of Constantinople. . . . The 
 tribute of grain from Egypt wasapproprialeil to 
 supply Constantinople, and that of Africa was 
 left for the consumption of Home." — O. Finlay, 
 Oreere iiiiiler the Ii>man», eh. 2. 
 
 Also in: ,1. B. Bur}", Iliot. of the later Roman 
 Empire, hk. 1, eh. T) (c. 1). 
 
 A. D. 363-518.— The Eastern Court from 
 Valens to Anastatius. — Tumults at the capital. 
 See HoMli; A. D. UliH-IiTl* to •lOO-.'ilH. 
 
 A. D. 378.— Threatened by the Goths. 
 See OoTus: A. I). :(;i)-;i.S'3, 
 
 A. D. 400. — Popular rising against the 
 Gothic soldiery.^Thdir expulsion from the 
 city. See Uomk: A. I). -lOO-rjlH. 
 
 A. D. 511-512. — Tumults concerning the 
 Trisagion. — During the reign of Aimstatms, nt 
 Coustaiitiiiojjle, the tierce controversy which bad 
 raged for many years throughout the empire, 
 between the Monopbysitep (who maintained that 
 the divine and the human natures iu Christ were 
 one), and the adherents of the Council of 
 Chalcedon (which declared that Christ po.ss( used 
 two natures in one person), was embittered aitho 
 imperial ca))ital by opposition between the 
 emperor, who favored the iMoiiojjhysites, and the 
 patriarch who was strict in Chalcedonian ortho- 
 doxy. In 511, and again in 512, it gave rise to 
 two alarming riots at Constantinople. On the 
 first occasion, a 3Ionopliysite or Eutychian party 
 "burst into the Chajjel of the Archangel in the 
 Imperial Palace and dared to chant the Te Deum 
 with the addition of the forbidden words, the 
 war-cry of many an Eutychian mob, ' Who wast 
 crucified for us. ' The Trisagiou, as it was called, 
 the thrice-repeated ciy to the Holy One, whicli 
 Isaiph in liis vision lieard uttered by the sera- 
 phim, became, by the addition of these words, 
 as em|)hatic a statement as the Slonophysite 
 party could desire of their favourite tenet that 
 God, not man, breathed out his soul unto death 
 outside the gates of Jerusalem. ... On the 
 next Sunday the Monophysites sang tlie verse 
 which was their war-cry in the great Basilica 
 itself." The riot which ensued was quieted wiih 
 difficulty by the patriarch, to whom the emperor 
 humbled himself. But in the next year, on a 
 fast-day (Nov. 6) the Monophysites gave a 
 similar challenge, singing the Trisagion with the 
 prohibited words added, and "again jjsalmody 
 gave place to blows; men wounded and dyiug 
 lay upon the floor of the church. . . . The 
 orthodox mob streamed from all parts into the 
 great forum. There they swarmed and swayed 
 to and fro all that ilay and all that night, 
 shouting forth, not the greatness of the Ephesian 
 Diana, but ' Holy, Holy, Holy,' without the 
 words ' Who wast cruciticd.' They liewed down 
 the monks, — a minority of their class, — who 
 were on the siile of the imperial creed, and 
 burned their monasteries with Are." After two 
 days of riot, the aged emperor humbled himself 
 to the mob, in the great Circus, offered to 
 
 abdicate the throne and made peace by promises 
 to respect the decrees of Chalceclon. — T. llodgkin, 
 Itnly (iikd ller IiiFiiders, hk. 4, eh. 10. — See, also, 
 
 NesTOUIAN A.VD MoNOIMIVSITK. CONTIIOVKIISY. 
 
 A. D. 532.— The Sedition of Nilca. See 
 CiucuH, Factions ok thk Uom.vn. 
 
 A. D. 542. — The Plague. See Plaock: 
 A. I). 512-5W. 
 
 A. D. 553.— General Council. See Tiihke 
 
 ClI.M'TI'.IlS, 'rili; DlsriTKOK TUB. 
 
 A. D. 626.— Attacked by the Avars and 
 Persians. Sc(^ Komi:: A. I). .505-02S 
 
 A. D. 668-675.— First siege by the Sara- 
 cens. — "Forty-six years after the flight of .Ma- 
 homet from Mecca his disciples ajjoeared in 
 arms under the walls of Constantinople. They 
 were animated by a genuine or flctitious saying 
 of tlie prophet, that, to the first army which 
 besieged the city of the Ciesars, their sins were 
 forgiven. . . . I^o sooner had the Caliph Moa- 
 wiyali [the first of the ()mniia<le caliphs, seated 
 at Damascus,] suppres.sed his rivals and estab- 
 lished his throne, than he aspired to expiate the 
 guilt of civil l)lood by the success of this holy 
 expedition; his preparations by sea and land 
 were ade(iuate to the importance of the object; 
 his standard was entrusted to Sophian, a veteran 
 warrior. . . . The Greeks had little to hope, nor 
 had their enemies any reasons of fear, from the 
 courage and vigilauce of the reigning Emperor, 
 who disgraced the name of Constantiiie, and 
 imitated only the inglorious years of his grand- 
 father Heraclius. Without delay or opposition, 
 the naval forces of the Saracens passed through 
 the unguarded channel of the Hellespont, which 
 even now, under the feeble and disorderly gov- 
 ernment of the Turks, is maintained as the 
 natural bulwark of the capital. The Arabian 
 fieet cast anchor and the troops were disembarked 
 near the palace of Hebdomon, seven miles from 
 the city. During many days, from the dawn of 
 light to the evening, the line of c'wault was ex- 
 tended from the golden gate to the Eastern 
 promontory. . . . But the besiegers had formed 
 an insufficient estimate of the strength and re- 
 sources of Constantinople. The solid and lofty 
 walls wt;re guarded by numbers and discipline; 
 the spirit of the Uomans was rekindled by the 
 last danger of their religion and empire; the 
 fugitives from the conquered provinces more 
 successfully renewed the defence of Damascus 
 and Alexandria; and the Saracens were dismayed 
 by the strange and prodigious effects of artificial 
 fire. This firm and effectual resistance diverted 
 their arms to the more easy attempts of plunder- 
 ing the European and Asiatic coastH of the Pro- 
 pontis; and, after keeping the se,\ from the 
 month of April to that of September, on the 
 ai)proach of winter they retreated four scoro 
 miles from the capital, to the isle of Cyzicus, in 
 which they had established their magazine of 
 spoil and provisions. So patient was their per- 
 severence, or so languid were their operations, 
 that they repeated in the six following summers 
 the same attack and retreat, with a gradual 
 abatement of hojie and vigour, till the mischances 
 of shipwreck aud disease, of the sword and ot 
 fire, compelled them to relincjuish the fruitless 
 enterprise. They might bewail the loss, or com- 
 memorate the martyrdom, of 30,000 Moslems 
 who fell in the siege of Constantinople. . . . Tlie 
 event of the siege revived, both in the East and 
 West, the reputation of tlie Roman arms, aud 
 
 506 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 668-678. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. I). 007-1048. 
 
 cast a momcntiirr shade over tlio jrlorics of tlii! 
 Huriiccns. ... A pciico, or truce of tliirty yi'iirs 
 WHS nititled hctwet'ii the two Empire.s; iiiul the 
 Htipiilutiou of nil minimi tribute, llfty horses of ii 
 noble lireed, llfty slaves, iind 3,000 pleees of 
 ({old, deftraded the majesty of the commander of 
 the faithful," — E. Gibbon, Ikdine and Fall of 
 the lliiiiKiii Kininiv, rh. .'53. 
 
 A. D. 68o.— General Council, l .-e Monotiik- 
 i.iTK CoNruovniisv. 
 
 A. D. 717-718. — The second siege by the 
 Saracens.—" When Leo [the IsaurianJ was raised 
 to llie I Byzantine] throne [A. I). 717), the empire 
 was threatened with immediate ruin. Six em- 
 perors Inul been dethroneil within the space of 
 twenly-one years. . . . The Hul);arians and 
 .Sclavonians wasted Europe up to the walls of 
 ('(iiislanlinople; the Saracens ravaji^ed the whole 
 of -Vsia .Minor to the shores of the Bosplioru.s. . . . 
 The t'aliph Suleiman, who had seen one private 
 udventurer succeed the other in (juick succession 
 on the imperial throne, deemed the moment 
 favourable for the linal concpiest of the ("hris- 
 liaiis; and, reinforcinj; his brotlier's army [in 
 Asia .Minor], he ordered him to lay siep 1. Con- 
 slanlinople. Tlie Saracen empire ha i now 
 reached its greatest extent. From the banks of 
 the Sihun and the Indus to the shores of the 
 .Vtlantie in Mauretania anil Spain, the order of 
 SuliMinan was implicitly obeyed. . . . The army 
 .Moslcmah led against Constantinople was the 
 tiestappoinied that had ever attacked the 
 (Hiristians: it consisted of 80,000 warriors. The 
 <'alipli announced his intention of takinjr the 
 field in person with additional forc(!s, sliould the 
 capital of the Cliristians oiler a protracted re- 
 sistance to the arms of Islam. The whole expe- 
 ililioii is said to have employed 180,000 men. 
 . . . Moslemali, after capturing Pergamu.s, 
 laurelled to Abydos, where he was joined by the 
 Saiacen fleet. lie then transported his army 
 across the Helle.'ipont, and inarching along the 
 sliore of the Proxontis, invested Leo in his capital 
 both by land aid sea. The strong walls of ('on- 
 .staiitiiioi)le, th' engines of defence witli which 
 Hoinan and Greek art had covered the ramparts, 
 and tlie skill of the Byzantine engineers, rendered 
 ■every attempt to carry the place by assault hope- 
 less, so that the Saracens werecomiielled to trust 
 to the effect of a strict blockade for gaining pos- 
 ses.siiai of the city. . . . The besiegers encamped 
 liefore Constantinople on the 1,5th Avgust 717. 
 Till! Caliph Suleiman died before he was abi:i to 
 send any reinforcements to his brotlier. The 
 winter proved nnusiially severe." Great nuiii- 
 bersof the warriors from tlie south were destroyed 
 by the inclemency of a climate to which they 
 had not become inured; many more died of 
 famiiK! in the Moslem cam]), while the besieged 
 city was plentifully supplied. The whole under- 
 taking was disastrous from its beginning to its 
 close, and, exactly one year from the pitcliing of 
 his camp under the Byzantine walls, "on the 
 15th of August 718, Moslcmah raised the siege, 
 after ruining one of tlie finest armies the Saracens 
 ever assembled. . . . Few military details con- 
 cerning Leo's defence of Constantinople have 
 been preservi'd, but there can be no doubt that 
 it was one of the most brilliant exploits of a 
 warlike age. . . . The vanity of Gallic writers 
 has magnified tlie success of Charles llartel over 
 a plundering expedition of the Spanish Arabs 
 into a marvellous victory, and attributed the de- 
 
 liverance of Europe from the Saracen yoke to 
 the valour of the Franks. A veil has been 
 thrown over the talents and courage of Leo, u 
 soldier of fortune, just seated on the imperial 
 throne, who defeated the longplaniieil schemes 
 of conipiest of the Caliphs Welid anil Siileiinun. 
 It is unfortunate tliat we have no Isaiirian litera- 
 ture. . . . The war was langiiiilly carried on 
 for some years and the Saraciiis were gradually 
 expelled from 'iiost of their c(ini|iicsls lieyiind 
 .Mount Tauris,"—0. Kiiilnv. Hint, nf the ifyzan- 
 tine EiiijiiiYfrtim 7H1 ^< IO.')T, e/i. I. 
 
 A. D. 747".— The Great Plague. See Plaiiue: 
 A. 1). 7^1-748, 
 
 A. D. 754.— The Iconoclastic Council. See 
 I(i)NiKi..\sric CoNriiovKiisv. 
 
 A. D. 865.— i~irst attack by the Russians.— 
 "In the year HO."), a nation hitliirln unknown 
 made its first appearance in the history of the 
 world, where it was deslined foact no unimport- 
 ant part. Its entrance into the )ioliliial systi lU 
 of the European nations was marked by an 
 attempt to take Coiislantlnople, a project which 
 it has often revived. . . . In theyearHOJ, Uurik, 
 a Scanilinavian or Varangian chief, arrived at 
 Novgorod, and laid the first foiiiidatioii of the 
 state which has grown into the Uiissiau empire. 
 Tile Russian people, under Varangian doinina- 
 tioii, rapidly increased in jiower, and reduced 
 many of their neighbours to sultmission. . . . 
 From what ])arlii'ular circiimslaiice the Unssians 
 w(!re led to make their daring attack on Cou- 
 stantiiiople is not known. The Einpeior .Michael 
 [HI.] Iiail taken the command of an army to 
 act against tlie Saracens, and Oryphas, admiral 
 of the fleet, acted as governor of the capital 
 during his absence. Before the Emperor had 
 eomnienccd his military operations, a fleet of 200 
 Uiissian vessels of small size, taking advantage 
 of a favourable wind, suddenly passed through 
 the Bosphorus, and anchored at the mouth of' 
 the Black Kiver in the Propontis, about 18 miles 
 from Constantinople. This Hussian expedition 
 had already phinilered the slioiis of the Black 
 Sea, and from its station within the Bosphorus it 
 ravaged the country about Constantinople, and 
 plundered the Prince's Islands, pillaging the 
 monasteries and slaying the monks as well as the 
 other inhabitants. Tlie Einiieror, inforineil by 
 Oryphas of the attack on his capital hastened to 
 itsdefeiice. . . . Itreipiircd nogreatexertioiisott 
 tlie part of the imperial ollicers to equip a force 
 snillcient to attack and put to flight these 
 invaders; but the horrid cruelty of the bar- 
 barians and the wild daring of their Varangian 
 leaders, made a iirofoiiiid impression on 'he 
 people of Constantinople." — G. Finlay, Hint, of 
 the Byzantine Empire, hk. 1, eh. 'i, met. 'i. 
 
 A. D. 907-1043. — Repeated attacks by the 
 Russians. — Notwithstaiuliiig an active iuiil in- 
 creasing cominereial intercourse between tliu 
 Greeks and the Hus.siaiis, Constantinople was ex- 
 posed, during the tenth century and part of the 
 eleventh, to repeated attacks from the masterful 
 Varan w and their subjects. In the year t)07, 
 a fleet '10 Hussian vessels or boats swarmed 
 
 into the irus, and laid waste the shores in 
 
 the neighlKii nl of Constantinoiile. "It is not 
 improbable that the expedition was undertaken to 
 obtain indemnity for some commercial losses sus- 
 tained by iiniierial negligence, monopoly or 
 oppression. The subjects of the emperor were 
 murdered, and the Russians amused themselves 
 
 507 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 907-1048. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. ISOl-H.W. 
 
 witli torturing their rnptivpi in tlio moHt Imr- 
 ImrouH MiiiliniT. At IcMKth Leo I VI. | purcliiim'il 
 tlicir rotrt'iit liy- the iiiiynicnt oi a liirKr Kuin of 
 nidiicy. . . . ThcHc lupstililicH were tirtiiiniitcd 
 liy II ciiinnicriiiil trr.ily in lUi." 'I'licrc was 
 jH'nrc under thin trciity until Itll, when a tliiril 
 ntliick (in Constantiniiplo was led by Itfiir, the 
 Hon of Kurik. Diit it ended most disjistrously 
 for the liuHsians ami If;<>r eseaped with only a 
 few l>oats. Tlu^ result was another important 
 treaty, nejr'Hiated in 1)45. In 970 the liy/.antine 
 Empire was more seriously threatened by an 
 iittemiit on the part of the Hussians to subdue 
 the kingdom of Hulfiaria; which would have 
 brought them into the same ilangerous neighbor- 
 hofxl to Constantinople that the Uussia of our 
 own day has labored so hard to reac^h. Itut the 
 ablu soldier .lolui Zunisees happeneil to occupy 
 the Hy/.antitie throne; the Hussian invasion of 
 Bulgaria was repelled and Hulgaria, it.self, was 
 reaiuiexed to the Empire, wliich pushed its 
 boundaries to the Damdw, once more. For more 
 than half a century, Constantinoi)le was tuidis- 
 turbed by the covetous ambition of her Russian 
 fellow Christians. Then they invaded i\u'. IJos- 
 phorua agaiii with a formidable armament; but 
 the expedition was wholly disastrous and they 
 retreated with a loss of 15,()(H) men. "Three 
 years elaps«'d before peace was re-established ; 
 but a treaty was then concluded and th<' trade 
 at Constantinople .placed on the old footing. 
 From tlds period the alliance of the Hussians 
 with the llyzantine Empin! was long tininter- 
 rupted; and as tlu! Greeks became more dceidy 
 imbued with ecclesiastical ])rejudices, and more 
 hostile to the Latin nations, the Eastern Church 
 became, in their eyes, the symbol of their 
 nationality, and the bigoted attachment of tlu^ 
 Uussians to the same religious formalities ob- 
 tained for them from the IJyzantinc' Greeks the 
 appellation of the most Christian nation." — G. 
 Finlay, Jlixt. of the, lii/zdntine Empire, from 710 
 to 10r)7, hk. 3, (•/(. 3, mrt. 2. 
 
 A. D. loSi.— Sacked by th? rebel army of 
 Alexius Comnenus. — Alexius Comnenus, the 
 emperor who occupied the Byzantine throne at 
 the time of the First Crusade, and who became 
 historically proininent in that connection, 
 nc(iuircd his crown by a successful rebellion. 
 Ho was collaterally of the family of Lsaac 
 Comnenus, (Isaac I.) who had reigned briefly in 
 1057-101)9, — he, too, having been, in his im- 
 perial oflicc, tlu; product of a revolution. But 
 the interval of twenty-two years had seen four 
 emperors come and go — two to the grave and 
 two into monastic secUision. It was the last of 
 tliese — Nicophorus III. (Botancitcs) that Alexius 
 displaced, with the support of an army whicli 
 he had previously commanded. One of the 
 gates of the capital was betrayed to him by a 
 German mercenary, and he gained the city 
 almost without a blow. "The old Emperor 
 consented to resign his crown and retire into a 
 monastery. Alexius entered the imperial palace, 
 and the rebel army conmienccd plundering 
 every quarter of the city. Natives and mer- 
 cenaries vied with one another in license and 
 rapine. No class of society was sacred from 
 their lust and avarice, and the inmates of mon- 
 asteries, churches, and palaces were alike plun- 
 dered and insulted. This sack of Constantinople 
 by the Sclavoniaus, Bulgarians, and Greeks in 
 the service of the families of Comnenus, Ducas, 
 
 and Paleologos, wlio crept treacherously into 
 
 the city, was a tit prologue to Its sulferings 
 when it was stormed by the Crusa<lcrs in 1304. 
 From this disgraceful coti((U<'8t of Constantinopln 
 by Alexius Comnenus, we must date the dei'ay 
 of its wealth and civic suprennicy, both as a 
 capital and a commercial city. . . . The power 
 which was thus established in rapine terminated 
 about a century later in a bliMxly vengeance 
 intlieted by an itifuriated populace rai tlie last 
 Emperor of tin; Conmenian family, Andronicus 
 I. Const'intinople was taken on the Ist of 
 April, lOHl, and Alexius was crowned in St. 
 Sophia's next day." — G. Finlay, Hint, of the 
 /li/ziinliiie and (treek Kntiiirin, front 710 to 1458, 
 !.k. ;t, rh. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1204.— Conquest and brutal sack by 
 Crusaders and Venetians. See ('uiisadkh: 
 A. I). 1301-l-'o;(; amlBvzA.snNKEMi'iHK: A. I). 
 130ii-1304. 
 
 A. D. 1204-1261.— The Latin Empire and its 
 fall.— Recovery by the Greeks. See I{<>.mama, 
 Till'; E.mi'ihk ok, and Bvzantink Emi-iuk: A. D. 
 121)4-1205. 
 
 A. D. 1261.— Great privileges conceded to 
 the Genoese.— Pera and its citadel Galata 
 given up to them. See Gk.noa: A. I>. 1201- 
 1299. 
 
 A. D. 1261-1453.— The restored Greek Em- 
 pire.— On the 25tli of .Fidy, A. I). 12(11, Constan- 
 tinople was surpris(;<l and the last Latin emperor 
 expelled by the fortunate arms of Michael Palie- 
 ologus, the Greek usurper at Niciea. (See GltF.KK 
 E.Mi'iKE OF Nic.ka.) Twenty days later AIi(;hae> 
 made his triumphal entry info the aiu'ient capi- 
 tal. "But after the lirst transport of devotion 
 anil pride, he sighed at the dreary prospect of 
 solitude and ruin. The; palace was detlled with 
 smoke an<l dirt and the gross intemperance of 
 the Franks; whole streets liad been consumed by 
 (ire, or were decayed by the injuries of time ; the 
 sacred and profane edilices were stripped of 
 their ornaments; and, as if they were conscious 
 of their approa<;hing exile, the industry of the 
 Latins had been confined to the wcnk of ])illago 
 and destruction. Trade had expired under the 
 ])ressure of anarchy and distress, and the numbers 
 of inhabitants had decreased with the opulence 
 of the city. It was the first care of the Greek 
 monarch to reinstate the" nobles in the palaces of 
 their fathers. . . . He repeopled Constantinople 
 by a liberal invitation to the iirovinces, and the 
 brave 'volunteers' were seated in the capital 
 which had been recovered by their arms. Instead 
 of banishing the factories of the Pi.sans, Vene- 
 tians, and Oenoe.se, the prudent conqueror ac- 
 cepted their oaths of allegiance, encouraged their 
 industry, confirmed their privileges and allowed 
 them to live under the jurisdictiou of their proper 
 magistrates. Of these nations the Pi.sans and 
 Venetians preserved their respective quarters in 
 the city ; but the services and power of the Gen- 
 oese [who had assisted in the recon(iucst of Con- 
 stantinople] deserved at the same time the grati- 
 tude and the jealousy of the Greeks. Their 
 independent colony was first planted at the seaport 
 town of Ileraelea in Thrace. They were speedily 
 recalled, and settled in the exclusive possession 
 of the suburb of Galatji, an advantageous post, 
 in wliich they revived the commerce and insulted 
 the majesty of the Byzantine Empire. Tlie re- 
 covery of Constantinople was ceU^brated as the 
 era of u new Empire. " The new empire thus 
 
 508 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE, 1201-1458. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLK, 11M8-1355. 
 
 CHtJtliliHlu'il in till! itiii'iriit Itoniiui ciipiliil of tlit- 
 I'lisl iniuli' some sliow of vijjcpr iit llrst. Micliiirl 
 I'lilii'olojfiis " wrested from llie Friiiiks wverul 
 of the noblest isliuids of the Ar(lii|ielni(o — Les- 
 bos. CliioH, and UIkhIi'S. His lirotlier Coiistiin 
 tine wiM sent toeomnmiid in Malviisiii anil Sparta: 
 and tlie Kastern side of tin Morea, from Ar^'os 
 iind Napoli to ('a|)e Tienanis. was repossessed 
 liy tlie (Ireeks. . . . Hut In llie proseitution of 
 tliese Western eoiniiiests tlie eoiintries beyond 
 tlie Hellespont Were left naki^d to tlie Turks; 
 and tlieir depredations veritl(Ml the proplieey of 
 a dvinij senator, that tho recovery of (Jonstanti- 
 nojile would be the ruin of Asia." Not only was 
 Asia Minor abandoned to the n(-w raee of Tur- 
 kish eon(|Uerors — tlie Ottomans — but those most 
 ttj{j;re.ssi V(? of the proselyte." of Islam wiTe in- 
 vited in the next j;eneration to eross the- Bos- 
 plionis, and to enter Thraei^ as parti.Hans in a 
 Greek civil war. Their footinj; in Kurope oik'c 
 gained, they devoured tlie distracti'd and feidde 
 empire piece by piece, until little remained to It 
 bi^yond tlie capital itself. Lonj; before the latter- 
 fell, the empire was a sliadow and a name. In 
 the very suburbs of Constantinople, the Genoese 
 pcMlesta, at I'era or Gal'ita, had more power tliaii 
 the Greek Kmperor; and the rival Italian traders, 
 of Genoa, Venice and I'isa, foii>;lit tlieir battles 
 under the eyes of tlie Byzantines witli iiidilTer- 
 encu, almost, to the will or wislies, the opposi- 
 tion or the help of tlie latter. " The weight of 
 the Uoimiu Kmpire was scarcely felt in tlie 
 balance of these opulent and powerful repulilie.s. 
 . . . Tlie Uoman Kmpire (I smile in transcriliiii); 
 tlie iiume) miglit soon have sunk into a province 
 of Genoa, if tlie ambition of tlie repiiliiic had 
 not been checked by the ruin of lier freedom and 
 naval power. A long ccmlest of liiO years was 
 determined by the triumph of Venice. . . . Yet 
 tlie spirit of commerce survived that of conquest ; 
 and the c(dony of Pera still awed the capital and 
 navigated tlio Eu.xine, till it was involved by 
 the Turks ill the final servitude of Constantinople 
 itself." — !•;. Gibbon, Decline and Fdll of the liDinmi 
 Kiay.irc, eh. d'i-iV.i. 
 
 Al-so in: G. Finlay, Jlint. of the ni/nintine and 
 Orcfk Kinpires, bk. 4, ch. 'i. — See, also, Ti'iiKs 
 (TllK Ottcmans): A. 1). 1340-1326; 1320-13r.«; 
 1360-1389; 1380-1403, &c. 
 
 A. D. 1348-1355.— Wir with the Genoese.— 
 Alliance with Venice and Aragon. — Joliii 
 (-'aiitaeuzenos, v/lio usurped the tlirone in 1347, 
 "had not reigned a year before! he was involveil 
 in liostilities with tlie Genoese colony of Galata, 
 which liad always coutaine<l many warm par- 
 tisuna of tlic house of Paleologos [dispiaceif by 
 Cantacuzenos]. This factory liad grown into a 
 tiourisliing town, and commanded a largo por- 
 tion of tho Qohlen Horn. During the civil war, 
 the Genoese capitalists liad supplied the regency 
 with money, and tliey now formed ahiiost every 
 biiinchof tlie revenue which tlie imperial govern- 
 ment derived from tlie port. . . . Tlie linancial 
 measures of tlie new emperor reduced their 
 profits. . . . Tho increased industry of tlie 
 Greeks, and tlie jealousy of the Genoese, led to 
 open hostilities. The colonists of Galata com- 
 menced the war in a treaclierous manner, with- 
 out any authority from tlie republic of Genoa 
 (1348). Witli a fleet of only eiglit large and 
 some small galleys they attacked Constantinople 
 while Cantacuzenos was absent from tlie capital, 
 and burned several buildings and the greater 
 
 iiart of the fleet he was then constructing. The 
 kmpress Irene, who ailministere<l the govern- 
 ment in I he absence of her husband, behaved 
 with great prudeiice and courage and repulsed a 
 bold attack of the GeniM'se. CantaiuzenoH 
 liast<'ned to tlie capital, where he spent the 
 winter in repairing the loss his fleet hiiil sus- 
 tained. As soon as it was ready forai'li<ai, ho 
 engageil the Genoese in llii' port, where hi' hoped 
 that their naval skill would Ite of no avail, and 
 wliert! the mimerical superiority of Ids sliipM 
 would insure him a victory, lie expected, 
 moreover, to gain possession of (ialata itself by 
 an attack on the land side while the (ieiiiM'su 
 were occupied at sea. Tlie cowardly conduct of 
 the Greeks, botli by sea and land, rendered his 
 plans abortive. The greater part of his sliips 
 were taken, and Ids army retrialid without 
 making a serious attack. Kortunalily for Can- 
 tacuzenos, the colonists of (ialata receiveil an 
 order from the Senate of Genoa to conclude 
 peace. . . . Their victory enabled them to 
 obtain favourable terms, and to keep possession 
 of some land they bad seized, and on wliiih tliey 
 soon completed the conHtriiction of a new citadel. 
 The friendly ilisposilioii uianifisted by tlie 
 government of (ienoa induced Cantacuzeniis to 
 send amliassadors to the Senate to demand the 
 restoration of the island of Chios, which liad 
 been cimiinered by a band of Genoese exiles in 
 134(1. A treaty was concluded, by which the 
 Genoese were to restore the island to the Kmperor 
 of Omstantinople in ten years. . . . But tills 
 treaty was never carried into execution, for llie 
 exiles at Chios set liolli the rei)ublic of (Jenoa and 
 the Greek Kmpire at defiance, anil retained their 
 con(|Uest." Tlie peace with (Jenoa was of short 
 dm 'ion. Cantacuzenos was bent upim oxpell- 
 inn ''" Genoese from Gidata. and as they 
 were now involved in the war with tlie Venetians 
 whidi is known as the war of Calla he hoped to 
 accomplish liis purpose liy joining the latter. 
 "The Genoese liad drawn into their liands tho 
 greater part of the commerce of the Black Sea. 
 The town of Tana or Azof was then a place of 
 great commercial importance, as many of tlie 
 liroductions of India and China found their way 
 to western Kuropo from its wareliouses. The 
 Oeiioeso, in consequence of a quarrel witli the 
 Tartars, had been compelled to suspend their 
 intercourse with Tana, and the Venetians, avail- 
 ing tliemselves of thi^ opportunity, liad extended 
 their trade and increased their prolils. Tlie envy 
 of the Genoese led tliem to obstruct the Viiie- 
 tiun trade and capture Venetian ships, until at 
 lengtli the disputes of the two republics broko 
 out in open war in i;548. In tlie year Vi'A, 
 Cantacuzenos entered into an alliance witli 
 Venice, and joined liis forces to those of tho 
 Venetians, wlio had also concluded an alliance 
 with Peter the Ceremonious, king of Aragon. 
 Nicholas Pisani, one of the ablest ;idmirals of 
 the age, ajipeared before Constantinople witli tho 
 Venetian fleet ; but Ids sliips liad sulTered severely 
 from a storm, and his priiicii)al object was 
 attaini'd wlien he had convoyed tlie merchant- 
 men of Venice safely into tlie Black Sea. Can- 
 tacuzenos, however, had no object but to take 
 Galata: and, expecting to receive important aid 
 from Pisani, he attacked the Genoese colony 
 by sea and land. His a.ssault was defeated in 
 conse<iuenee of the weakness of tlie Greeks and 
 the lake warmness of tho Venetians. Pisani retired 
 
 509 
 
CONSTANTINOPLK. t!M8-iaW. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLK, 14.W-14H1. 
 
 toNrgnniont, to cfTrrt II Junction witli tlirfntitlim 
 ticrt ; and l'iiK»nn |><irhi. who liiid iiiii'mui'iI liiin 
 witli II Nii|ii'rinr forir, in icluniinK to (iiiliitit to 
 piiHH the wintiT, Htorincil tlir town of lli'riirlciii 
 on tlic Sen of Miirinorii, where Ciinliieiizi-noH hiiil 
 eolleeteil larp' niiiKa/ini'M of proviHionH, iiiiil 
 citrrieil olT II rich l>iH>ly, with niiiny wealthy 
 Ori'ckH, who were ninipelled to ransom them- 
 wives hy paying larjre siiniH to these eiiplors. 
 Cantaeiixenos wiih now liesieKeil in Conslanti 
 nople, . . . The (ieiioese, iinalile to nnike any 
 InipreMMion on the eity, indeinnilied themselves 
 liy ravaginK the Oreek territory on the lUaek 
 Hca. . . . Karly in the year liri'J, I'isanI returned 
 to Coimtanlinople with the Catalan fleet, under 
 Pon/.io da Santapaee. and a ^reat lialtli- was 
 fought Ixlween the allies and the (lenoese. in 
 full view of Constaiilinople and (iaiiila. The 
 scene of the ronibat Wi.-iolTthe island of I'rote, 
 and it received the iianu- of V'rachophagos from 
 Home sunken rocks, of which the (ieniiese availed 
 themselves ill their manii'uvrcs. The honour of 
 n (hailitful and liloody day rested with tlie 
 OeiKK'se. . . . I'isani soon ((uitled the neiglilxiur- 
 liood of Constanlinopli', and Canlacu/enos, 
 Iniviiijj nothinj; more to hope from tlie Venetian 
 alllaiicc . . . concluded a peace with the rcputi 
 lie of Genoa. In this war he had exposed the 
 weakness of the (Jreek empire, aial the decline of 
 the maritime force of (irecce, to all the states of 
 Kurope. The treaty coiillrmed all the ))revious 
 privileiri'S and encroachments of the colony of 
 (Jalata and other (ienoese eslalilisliments in the 
 Kmpirc." — (!. Kiiilav. Hint, of t/ic lliizniitiin' imtl 
 (link KmiiiriH, 7 Id- 1 in;). Iik. 4. eli. 'i. n<rt. 4.— 
 The retirenieiil of the (Jreeks from the contest 
 did not check the war between Genoa and 
 Venice and the other allies of the latter, which 
 was coiitin\uil until 1!).').'). The Genoese were 
 defeated, August 29, 11)5!), by the Venetians and 
 Catalans, in a (;reat battle foufjht near Lojera, 
 on the northern coast of Harilinia, losing; 41 
 galleys and 4.")<M) or 5,001) men. They obtained 
 their reveui;!' the ne.\t year, on the 4th of 
 November, when Paganino Doria surprised the 
 Venetian admiral, Pisaiii, at I'orlolongo, opposite 
 the island of Sajiienza, as he was prejairing to gi) 
 into winter-ipiarters. "The Venetians siistaiiie<l 
 not so much a defeat as a total discomliture; 4.')0 
 were killed; an enormous number of prisoners, 
 loosely calculated at 0,(M)0, and a highly valuable 
 booty' in prizes and stores, were taken." In 
 June, lii'M, the war was ended by a treaty which 
 excluded Venice from all HIack Sea ports except 
 Calfa.— W. C. Ilazlitt, Jlist. of the Vcnctimt 
 Jlepiihlir. ch. 18-19 (/'. !i). 
 
 Also in: F. A. Parker, The FleeUofthe World, 
 pp. 88-94. 
 
 A. D. 1453.— Conquest by the Turks.— 
 Mahonu't II., son of Amuratli II. came to the 
 Ottoman throne, at the age of twenty-one, mt 
 14.J1. "The con(iuest ol Conslanlinople was 
 the tir.st. object on which his thoughts were ti.xed 
 at the opening of his reign. The resolution 
 with which he had formed this purpose expressed 
 itself in his .stern reply to the ambassadors of the 
 Kmperor, olTering him tributi^ if he would 
 renoimeo the project of building a fort on the 
 EuroiH'an shore of the Bosporus, which, at the 
 dis uice of only live miles from the capital, 
 woulil give him the command of the Ulack Sea. 
 lie ordered the envoys to retire, and threatened 
 to fluy ulive any who should dare to briug him a 
 
 flimilar ineitsage again. The fort was llnished in 
 three inontliH and garrlNoned with 400 JaidzaricH; 
 a tribute was cxacled of all vess4'ls that passed, 
 and war was fornudly declared by the Hultan. 
 CoiiHlantine |Ci.nstantine Palieologus, the last 
 Greek F'.m[ieror| nnide the best preparations In 
 his power for defence; but he could muster only 
 (KM) (Jreek soldiers, " In order to secure aid from 
 tile Pope and the Italians, Constanline united 
 himself with the Koman Church. A few hundred 
 troops were then sent to his assistance; Init, at 
 
 the most, he had only siici ded in manning tliii 
 
 many ndles of the city wall with 9,000 men, 
 wlK'n, in April, 14.'>;t, tlie Sultan invested It. 
 The Turkish army was said to number 'J.IO.OOO 
 men, and 420 vessels were counted in the accom- 
 panying licet. A summons to surrender was 
 answered with indignant refusal hy ('onstantine, 
 " who had calmly resolved not lo survive the 
 fall of the city," anil the final assault of the 
 furious Turks was made on the 29th of May, 145!!. 
 The heroic Kmperor was slain among the last 
 defenders of thi^ gate of St. Uomanos, and the 
 janizaries rode over his dead body as I hey 
 charged into tht^ streets of the fallen Koman 
 capital. "The despairing jieople — senators, 
 priests, monks, nuns, hiisbanils, wives and 
 children — sought safely in the church of St. 
 Sophia. A propliecv had been circulated that 
 here the Turks W(]uld be arrested by an angel 
 from heaven, witli a drawn sword; and hillier 
 the miserable mulliliide crowded, in liu! expec- 
 tation of siipcrnalund help. The coni|uei'ors 
 followed, sword in liand, slaughtering those 
 whom they encountered in the street. They 
 broke down the (Iimhs of the church with axes, 
 and, rushing in, commit led every act of atrocity 
 that a frantic thirst for blood and the inllanied 
 passions of demons could .suggest. All the 
 unhappv victims were divided as slaves among 
 the soldiers, without regard to blood or rank, 
 and hurried oft to tlie camp; and the mighty 
 cathedral, so long the glory of the Christian 
 world, .soon presented only traces of the orgies 
 of hell. The other ipiarii'rs of tlii! city were 
 |)lundercd by other divisions of the army. . . . 
 About noon the Sidtan made his triumphal entry 
 by the gate of St. Uomanos, pas.sing by the body 
 of the Kmperor, which lay concealed among the 
 slain. Kntering the church, he ordered a moolah 
 to ascend the bema and announce to the Mussul- 
 mans that St. Sophia was now a mos(iue, con- 
 secrated to the prayers of the true believers. He 
 ordered the body of tlu; Kmperor to be sought, 
 his head to l)e exposed to the jn'ople, and after- 
 wards to be sent as a trophy, to be seen by the 
 (ireeks, in the principal cities of the Ottoman 
 Kmpirc. For three days the city was given up 
 to the indescribable horrors of pillage and the 
 license of the Mussulman soldiery. Forty 
 thousand perished diiring the sack of the city 
 and lifty thi)u.sand wore reduced to slavery." — 
 O. C. Felton, (Ireeee, Ancient ami Modern ; 
 Fourth coii/sc, left. 0. 
 
 Also in ; G. Finlav. IIi»t. of the Byzantine and 
 Greek Fmpirenfrom 710 to 1453, bk. 4, ch. 3.— E. 
 Gibbon, l)eeline and Full of the Human I'^mpirf, 
 ch. 68. 
 
 A. D. i453-i<|8i. — The city repopulated and 
 rebuilt. — Creation of the Turkish Stamboul.— 
 " It was neccs.sary for Mohammed II. to rcpeople 
 Constantinople, in order to render it the capital 
 of the Othoinan Empire. The installation of au 
 
 510 
 
C'ONHTANTINOI'LE, im!H481. 
 
 rONSTITUTION: AROKNTINE REI'UHLIC. 
 
 itrtlindox Piitrinrrli cnlmrd tlic iiiintlH of the 
 Ori'i'kH, mill Miiiiiy w)ii) liiid i'iiii)rmtr(l lirfun' tin- 
 Hii'Ki' Kriiiliially ri'tiiriircl, uiul wrri' iillowcil to 
 cliiiiii 11 poitliiii iif llii'lr pnipiTly. Hut the slow 
 llicrnisc iif piipiiliilliin, riiiiMril by a wilst' iif 
 MruHly mill the liiipr of ;;iiiii, iliil luit siitUfy llir 
 Hilltmi, wliii wiiM ili'trriiilnril to hci' IiIh nipilal 
 iiiH' iif tlir Kf"'!''''**'' I'llli't "f II"' KiiMt, mill Willi 
 kiirw thai It hull fnniu'rly i-m'I'ciIi'iI DmiiaiKMiM, 
 Mai;ilail miil Cairo, in wimiIIIi, ixtriit anil piipil- 
 liilliiii. I'rum MiosI of his siilisi'iiii'iit roni|iU'.MtM 
 Miiliaimiiiil roliipi'ilril thi' wnillh' "Sl o' tlir iu- 
 lialiitaiitN to riiilKratr to ('oiiHtaiiliiiopli', whrri- 
 III' f^ntntcii thrill plots of Imiil to liiiilil tlii'ir 
 liiiiiw'H. . . . Tiirl<K, Ori'i'ks, Scrvlmis, lliilKari- 
 aiis, AllianlmiH, anil I.a/.i's, follownl onr anothrr 
 in ipiirk Hiii'ci'HHioii, anil lon^' lirfori' tlir ciiil of 
 his ri'l^n ('onHtaiiliiiiiiili' wan rrowilrd liy a niuii- 
 iTousanihu'tivr popiilntion, anil pri'scntril ii nioro 
 flourlHliiiiK aspect than it hail iloni'iliiriiiKlhi' prr 
 I'cillii^; ci'iitury. Thi'i'inlHllisliini'nt of hisrajiitcl 
 was also thu ubji'Ct ot tlit' Sultan's atti'iition. 
 . . . MoHipicH, inliiarrlH, fountains ami tonilm, 
 the great obji'cts of arrhltcctiiral niaKnlHccnce 
 among tbo Musaulmuus, wvru coimtructi'd in 
 
 every quiirtcr nf tlio rlty. . . , The pirtiirf-Hqiie 
 iM'auly of thr StanilKiiil of ihi- prt'srnt day owcn 
 innst of itH artillrlal friitiirrM to tlii' Othoiniin con- 
 i|iiisl. ami wrars a 'I'lirkish aspiTt. 'I'hf Con- 
 slantinoplfof ihi' ity/.anliiic Kiiipiri' illHiipprari'd 
 with the last ii'liis'of thr (Iri'i'k Kinjiin'. Tlio 
 tnivilliT who now ilrsirrs to vli-w llii' vrslljfi'H of 
 a Itv/.aiillni' rapital. and I'Xaniini- tlii' last rcllcH 
 of liv/.antini' arrliilrrtiiri', must conliniii' his 
 travi'ls cast ward to'l rrlii/.ond." — (}. I'Miilay. Hint. 
 of till llii:iiiitiiii' iiiiil llreik h'tii/iirtit. /niiii 710 fo 
 I l."f;i, /./■. 4. i-h. 'i. mrl. 7. 
 
 A. D. 1807.— Threatened by a British fleet. 
 Hi'i'TruKs; A. 1). IMIkuimo?. 
 
 CONSTANTlNOPLt , Conference of 
 
 (1877). SiiTniKs: A. I>. 1M(1|_1H77 
 CONSTANTIUS I., Roman Emperor, A. 1). 
 
 !tO.V:iiMl Constantius II., A. 1). ;i:i7 ildl. 
 
 CONSTITUTION, The battles of the frig- 
 
 a c. Si'c rvirKi) .Stacks OK Am.: A. 1). IMiJ- 
 
 18i:t. ami IMIJ. 
 CONSTITUTION OF ARAGON AND 
 
 CASTILE (the old monarchy). .See Ciiutkm, 
 
 TiiK Eahly Upamhii. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 Till! siilijoinid text of the Constitution of the 
 Ai'^'entine Hepiiblie is n translation "from the 
 olUcial edition of 1808," taken from R. Napps 
 work on "The Arj;i'ntine Republic," jirepared 
 for the Central Argentine Commission on the Cen- 
 tenary Exhibition at I'hiladelphia. 1870. Accord- 
 ing to the "Statesman's Year-Book" of 181)3, 
 there have been no moditicatious since 1800; 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Article 1. The Argentine Nation adopts the 
 fi'deral-republlcan, and representative form of 
 Ooverument, as established by the present Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. 2, The Federal Government shall main- 
 tain the Apo.stolic Roman Catholic Faith. 
 
 Art. 3. The authorities of the Federal Govern- 
 ment shall reside in the city which a special law 
 of Congress may declare the capital of the He- 
 public, subsequently to the cession by one or 
 more of tlie Provincial Legislatures, of the terri- 
 tory about to be federalized. 
 
 Art. 4. The Federal Government shall ad- 
 minister the expenses of the Nation out of the 
 revenue in the National Treasury, derived from 
 import and export duties ; from the sale and lease 
 of the public lands; from postage; and from 
 such other taxes as the General Congress may 
 equitably and proportionably lay upon the peo- 
 ple; as also, from such loans and credits as may 
 be decreed by it in times of national necessity, or 
 for enterprises of national utility. 
 
 Art. 5. Each Province shall make a Constitu- 
 tion for itself, according to the republican repre- 
 sentative system, and the principles, declarations 
 and guarantees of this Constitution ; and which 
 shall provide for (secure) Municipal Government, 
 primary education and the administration of jus- 
 tice, tinder these conditions the Federal Govern- 
 ment shall g uarantcc to each Province the exercise 
 and enjoyment of its institutions. 
 
 Art. 6. The Federal Government shall inter- 
 vene in the Provinces to guarantee the republican 
 
 form of Ooverniiient, ortorepil foreign invas.on, 
 and also, on application of their constituted au- 
 thorities, shnuld they have been deposed by 
 sedition or by invasion from another Irovince, 
 for the purpose of sustaining or reestablishing 
 them. 
 
 Art. 7. Full faith shall be given in each Prov- 
 ince to the |)ublii- acts, and judicial proceedings 
 of every other Provinci'; and Congress may by 
 general laws, prescribe the manner in which such 
 acts and proceedings shall be proved, and the 
 ellect thereof. 
 
 Art. 8. The citizens of each Province shall bo 
 entitled to all the rights, privileges and immuni- 
 ties, inherent to tlie citizens of all the several 
 Provinces. Tlie reciprocal extradition of crimi- 
 nals between all the Provinces, is obligatory. 
 
 Art. 9. Throiighoutthe territory of the Nation, 
 no other than the National Custom-lloii,ses shall 
 be al'owed, and they shall be regulated by the 
 tarills sanctioned by Oingress. 
 
 Art. 10. The circulation of all goods produced 
 or manufactured in the Republic, is free within 
 its borders, as al.so, that of all species of mer- 
 cliaiidise which may be dispatched by the Cus- 
 tom-IIousesof entry. 
 
 Art. It. Such articles of native or foreign pro- 
 duction, ns well as cattle of every kind, which 
 pass from one Province to another, shall \k free 
 from all transit-duties, und also •he vehicles, 
 vessels or animals, which transport them ; and no 
 tax, let it be what it may, can be henceforward 
 imposed upon them on account of such transit. 
 
 Art. 12. Vessels bound from one Province to 
 another, shall not be compelled to enter, anchor, 
 or pay transit-duties; nor in any case can prefer- 
 ences be granted to one port .iver another, by 
 any commercial laws or regulations. 
 
 Art. 13. New Provinces may be admitted into 
 the Nation; but no Province r' ' be erected 
 within the territory of any ot er ovince, or 
 Provinces, nor any Province be "by the 
 
 junction of various Vrovinces, wituo .he con- 
 
 511 
 
CONSTITUTION: AHGENTTNE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE UEPURLIC. 
 
 sent of tlip legislatures of the Provinces con- 
 cerned, ns well (18 of Conifress. 
 
 Art. 14. All the inlmliitiints of the Nation slmll 
 enjoy the following rights, iiecordingto the hiws 
 which regiiliUe their exercise: viz., to liihor mid 
 to priu'tice till lawful industry , to trade and 
 navigate; to petition the authorities; to enter, 
 remain in, travel over and leave, Argentine terri- 
 tory; to publish their ideas in the public-press 
 without previous censure; to enjoy and dispose 
 of their pn ,/erty ; to associate for useful pur- 
 poses; to profess freely their religion; to teach 
 and to learn. 
 
 Art. 15. In the Argentine Nation there arc no 
 slaves; the few which now exist shall be free 
 from the date of the adoption of this Constitu- 
 tion, and a special law shall regulate the indem- 
 nity acknowledged as duo by this declaration. 
 All contracts for the purchase and sale; of jiersons 
 Is a crime, for wliieli those who make them, as 
 well as the notary or functionary wliich author- 
 izes tiiem, shall bo responsible, and the slaves 
 who in any manner whatever may be introduced, 
 shall be free from the sole fact that they tread 
 the territory of tlie Republic. 
 
 Art. 16, The Argentine Nation does not ad- 
 mit the prerogatives of blood nor of birth; in it, 
 there are no personal privileges or titles of no- 
 bility. All its inhabitants ere equal in presence 
 of the law, and admissible to otiice without other 
 condition tlian that of titness. Equality is the 
 basis of taxation as well as of public-posts. 
 
 Art. 17. Property is inviolable, and no inhabit- 
 ant of the Nation can be deprived of it, save by 
 virtue of a sentence liased on law. The expropri- 
 ation for public utility must be authorized by law 
 and i)Tevioiisl^- indemnitied. Congress alone shall 
 iinpos'' the contributions mentioned in Art. 4. 
 No personal service shall be exacted save by 
 virtue of law, or of a sentence founded on law. 
 Every author or inventor is the exclusive pro- 
 prietor of his work, invention or discovery, for 
 the term wliich the law accords to him. Tlie con- 
 fiscation of property is henceforward and forever, 
 stricken from the Argentine penal-code. No 
 armed body can make requisitions, nor exact as- 
 sistance of any kind. 
 
 Art. 18. No inhabitant of the Nation shall 
 suifer punishment without iv previous judgment 
 founded on a law passed previously to the cause of 
 judgment, mr'oe judged by special commissions, 
 or withdrawn from the .Judges designated bj' 
 law before the opening of tlio cause. No one 
 shell be obliged to testify against himself ; nor be 
 arrested, save by virtue of a written order from 
 a competent authority. The defense at law both 
 of the person and his rights, is inviolable. The 
 domicil, private papers and epistolary corre- 
 spondence, are inviolable ; and a law shall deter- 
 mine in what cases, and under wliat imputations, 
 a search-warrant can proceed agaiustand occupy 
 them. Capital punisliinent for political cau.ses 
 us well as every species of torture and whippings, 
 are abolished for eve. The prisons of the Aaiion 
 shall be healthy and clean, for the security, and 
 not for the punishment, of tlie criminals detained 
 in them, and every measure which under pretext 
 of precaution may mortify them more than such 
 -"curity requireft, shall render res'ionsible the 
 i ge who authorizes it. 
 
 Art. 19. Tnose private actions of men that in 
 nowise offend public order and morality, or in- 
 jure a third party, belong alone to God, and are 
 
 beyond the authority of tlie inagist- ntes. No in- 
 habitant of the Nation shall be compelled to do 
 what the law does not ordain, nor be deprived of 
 anylliing which it doe.s not prohibit. 
 
 Art. 20. Within the territory of the Nation, 
 forelgiu'is shall enjoy all the civil rights of citi- 
 zens; they can exercise their industries, com- 
 merce or professions, in accordance with the laws ; 
 own, buy and .sell real-estate; navigate the rivers 
 and coasts; freely profess their religion, and tes- 
 tate anil marry. Tliey shall not be obliged to be- 
 come citizens, nor to ]iay forced contributions. 
 Two yeara i)revious residence in the Nation sliall 
 be required for naturalization, but theauthoritiea 
 can shorttn this term in favour of him who so 
 desires it, under the allegation and proof of ser- 
 vices rendered to the Republic. 
 
 Art. 21. Every Argentine citizen is obliged to 
 arm himself in defense of his country and of this 
 Constitution, according to tlie laws which Con- 
 gress shall ordain for the purj" c, and the de- 
 crees of the National Exeeutiv For the period 
 of ten years from tlie day on iiicli they nicy 
 have obtained their citizenship, this service shall 
 be voluntary on the part >/f the naturalized. 
 
 Art. 22. The people shall not deliberate nor 
 govern save by means of their Representatives 
 and Autluu'ities, created by this Constitution. 
 Every armed force or meeting of persons which 
 shallnrrogate to itself tlie rights of the people, 
 and petition in their name, is guilty of sedition. 
 
 Art. 23. In the event of internal commotion or 
 foreifrn attack which might jilace in jeopardy 
 the piactice of tliis Constitutiou, and the free 
 action of the Autliorities created by it, tlie Prov- 
 ince or territory v.'here such disturbance exists 
 shall be declared in a state of siege, all constitu- 
 tional guarantees beiiiji meantime suspended 
 there. But during sucli suspension the Presi- 
 dent of the Republic cannot condemn nor apply 
 any punishment iicr se. In respect to pereons, 
 his power shall be limited to arresting and re- 
 moving them fnmi one place to another in the 
 Nation, sliould they not jirefev to leave Argen- 
 tine territory. 
 
 Art. 24. Congress shall establish the reforin of 
 existing laws in all bmnches, as also the trial by 
 ■Jury. 
 
 Art. 25. The Federal Government shall foment 
 European immigration; and it cannot restrict, 
 limit, nor lay any impost upon, the entry upoa 
 Argentine territory, of such foreigners as come 
 for the purpose of cultivating tlie soil, improving 
 manufactures, and introducing srnd teaeliing the 
 arts and sciences. 
 
 Art. 26. The lavigation of the interior rivera 
 of tlie Nation is free to all flags, subject only to 
 such regulations as tlie National Authority may 
 dictate. 
 
 Art. 27. The Federal Government is obliged to 
 strengthen the bonds of peace and commerce 
 with foreign powi^rs, by means of treaties wliich 
 shall be in conformity witli the principles of pub- 
 lic law laid down in this Constitutiou. 
 
 Art. 28. Tlic principles, riglits and guarantees 
 laid down in the foregoing articles, cannot be 
 altered by any laws intended to regulate their 
 practice. 
 
 Art. 29. Congress cannot grant to the Execu- 
 tive, nor the p'-ovincial legislatures to the Gov- 
 ernor of Provinces, any "extraordinary faculties," 
 nor the "sum of the public power," nor "re- 
 nunciations or supremacies" by which the lives, 
 
 512 
 
CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION ; ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 honor or fortune of tho Argcnthu's slmll he at 
 the mercy of any Government or person wliiit- 
 cver. Acts of this nature sliall be irremediably 
 null and void, nnd shall subject those who frame, 
 vote, or sign them, to the pains and penalties in- 
 curred by those who are infamous traitors to their 
 country. 
 
 Art. 30. Tills Constitution can be reformed in 
 whole or in part. The necessity for the reform 
 shall be declared by Congress by at least a two- 
 thirds vote; but it can only be accomplished by 
 11 eiinvcntion called ad hoc. 
 
 Art. 31. This Constitution, and the laws of tho 
 Nation which shall be made in piusuance there- 
 of, and all treaties made or which shall be made 
 with Foreign Powers, shall be the supreme law 
 of tho land; and the authorities of every Prov- 
 ince shall 1)0 bound thereby, anything in the Con- 
 stitution or laws of any Province to the contrary 
 notwithstanding, excepting in the case of Buenos- 
 Aires, i'l the treaties ratified after tho compact of 
 Nov. 11th, 1859. 
 
 Art. 32. The Federal Congress .shall not dictate 
 laws restricting the liberty of the press, nor es- 
 tiU)Hsh any federal jurisdiction over it. 
 
 Art. 33!^ The enumcr.'.tion in this Constitution 
 of certain rights and guarantees, shall not be 
 construed to deny or dispar.ige other rights and 
 guarantees, not enumerated; but which spring 
 from the iirlnciplo of popidar sovereignty, and 
 the republican form of Government. 
 
 Art. 34. Tho Judges of the Federal courts 
 shall not be Jmlgesof Provincia' tribunals at the 
 same time: nor shall the federal service, civil as 
 well a J militarj', constitute a domicil in the 
 Provini e where it may be exercised, it it be not 
 Imhituaily that of the employe; it being under- 
 stood by this, that all Proviucial public service 
 is optional in the Province where such employe 
 may casually reside. 
 
 Art. 35. The names which have been s\ic- 
 ce.ssively adopted for the Nation, since tho jjear 
 1810 up to the present time; viz., tnc United 
 Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, Argentine Ro- 
 l)\iblic and Argentine Confederation, shall heuce- 
 forward serve without distinction, ollicially to 
 designate the Government and territoiy of the 
 Provinces, winlst the words Argentine Nation 
 shall be employed in the making and sanction of 
 the laws. 
 
 Part II.— Section I. 
 
 Article 36. All legislative powers herein 
 granted shall be vested in a Congress composed 
 of two Chambers, one of National Deputies, and 
 the other of Senators of the Provinces and of the 
 capital. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 A'-*icle 37. Tho Chamber of Deputies shall 
 he composed of representatives elected directly 
 by the people of the Provinces, for whicli pur- 
 pose each one shall bj considered as a single 
 electori',1 district, and by a simple plundity of 
 votes in the r ''o of one for each 20,000 inhabit- 
 ants, or for a fraction not less than 10,000. 
 
 Art. 38. Tho deputies for the first Legisla- 
 ture shall be nominated in the following propor- 
 tion: for the Province of Buenos- Aires, twelve; 
 for that of Cordoba, six; for Cat.unarca, three; 
 Corrientes, four, Entre-Rios, two; .Tujui, two; 
 Mondoza, three; Rioja, two; Salta, three; San- 
 tiago, four; Sau Juan, two; 3anta-Fe, two; San 
 Luis, two, and for that of Tucumdu, throe. 
 
 Art. 39. For the second Legislature' a general 
 census shall be taken, aiid the number of Depu- 
 ties be regulated by it; thereafter, this census 
 shall be decennial. 
 
 Art. 40 No person shall be a Deputy who 
 shall not liavo attained the age of twenty live 
 years, have been four years in the exercise of citi- 
 zenship, and be a native of the Province which 
 elects hiiu, or a resident of it for the two years 
 immediately preceding. 
 
 Art. 41. For the first election, the provincial 
 Legislatures shall regulate the method for a 
 direct election of the National Depucies. Con- 
 gress shall pass a genend law for tli(' future. 
 
 Art. 42. The I)eputies sliall hold their place 
 for four years, and are re-eligible; but the liousc 
 shall be renewed each " 'ennial, by halves; for 
 which purpose 'hose elected to the first Legisla- 
 ture, as soon as the session opens, shall decide by 
 lot who shall leave at the end of the first periodf. 
 
 Art. 43. In case of vacancy, the (ioverninent 
 of the Province or of the capital, shall call an 
 election for a new memlier. 
 
 Art. 44. The origination of the tax-laws and 
 those for the recruiting of troops, belongs exclu- 
 sively to the House of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 45. It has the sole right of impeaching 
 before the Senate, the President, Vice-President, 
 their .Ministers, and the members of the Supreme 
 Court and other inferior Tribunals of the Nation, 
 in suits whicl'. n' '.y be undertaken against them 
 for tho iirip-oper discharge of, or deficiency in, 
 the exeri;ise of their functions; or for common 
 crimes, after having heard them, and declared by 
 a vote of two thirds of tho members present, 
 that there is cause for proceeding against them. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Article 46. Tlie Senate shall be composed of 
 two Senators from each Province, chosen by the 
 Legislatures thereof by plurality of vote, and two 
 from the cap'tal elected in the form prescribed 
 for the election of the President of the Nation. 
 Each Senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Art. 47. No person shall be c Senator who 
 shall not liave attained the age of thirty years, 
 been six years a citizen of the Nation, enjoy an 
 annual rent or iucomi! "f two thousand liara- 
 dollars, and !>•. a native of tho Province which 
 elects him, or a resident of the same for the two 
 years immediately preceding. 
 
 Art. 48. The Senators sliall enjoy their trust 
 for nine years, and are indefinitely re-eligible; 
 but the Senate shall bo renewed by thirds each . 
 three years, and shall decide by lot, as soon as 
 they lie all re-united, who shall leave at the end 
 of th' • first and .second triennial periods. 
 
 Art. 49. Tlie Vice-President of the Nation shall 
 be Pre;ident of the Senate; but shall have no 
 vote, e eept in a case of a tie. 
 
 Art. 50. The Senate shall choose a President 
 pro-tempore who shall preside during the absence 
 if the Vice-President, or v/hen he sliall exer^'se 
 the otliee of President of the Nation. 
 
 Art. 51. The Senate sliall have sole power to 
 try all impeachments presented by the House of 
 Dei)uties. When sitting for that purpose they 
 shall be uniler oa'.h. When the President of the 
 Nation is tried, the Chief .Justice shall preside. 
 No person shall be convicted without the con- 
 currence of nvo-thirds of the members present 
 
 Art. 52. Judgment in case of impeachmei' 
 shall not extend farther than to removal r.ji,. 
 
 513 
 
CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 ollicc, and diaqunliflcatioii to liold ami enjoy any 
 ollk'c (if honor, trust, or profit under the Nation. 
 But till: party convicted slnill, nevcrtliel('s.s, l)e 
 liable to indictment, trial, judgment and punish- 
 ment acconling to law, before the ordinary tribu- 
 nals. 
 
 Art. 53. It belongs, moreover, to the Senate, 
 to aulliori/.e (he I'resident to declare martial law 
 in one or n'ore points of the Republic, iu case of 
 foreign aggression. 
 
 Art. 54. When any scat of a Senator bo va- 
 cant by death, re,signati(;n or other reason, the 
 Gov(!rinneMt to which the vacancy belongs, shall 
 immediately proceed to the election cf ti new 
 member. 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 A.-ticleSS. Both C'liandu'rs .shall meet in ordi- 
 nary session, cvi ry year from tlie 1st 3Iay until 
 the ;i()th September. Tliey can be extraordi- 
 narily eonvolied, or their session be prolonged by 
 the President of the Nation. 
 
 Art. 56. Each House shall be tlie judge of 
 the elections, returns, and (lualifications of its 
 own members. Neither of them shall enter into 
 session without an absolute majority of its mem- 
 bers; but a smaller luunber may compel al)sent 
 members to attend tiie sessions, in sucli terms 
 and tnider such penal; ies as each llousc may es- 
 tablisli. 
 
 Art. 57. Both Houses shall begin and close 
 their sessions simultaneously. Neither of tliem 
 whilst in sessions can suspend its meetings for 
 more than three ilays, without the consent of the 
 other. 
 
 Art. 58. Each IIou.se may make its rules of 
 proceeding, and witli the concurrence of two- 
 thirds punish its members for disorderly behavior 
 in the exercise of their functions, or remove, and 
 even expel them from the House, for physical or 
 moral incapacity occurring after their incorpora- 
 tion; but a majority of one above one half of 
 the members present, shall sulllce to decide ((Ues- 
 tions of voluntary resignation. 
 
 Art. 59. In the act of thei'- incorporation the 
 Senators and Deputies shall tjike an oath, to 
 properly fu'til their charge, and to act in all 
 things in conformity to the prescriptions of this 
 Constitution. 
 
 A*!. 60. No member of Congress can be in- 
 dieted, judicially interrogated, or molested for 
 any opinion or discourse which he may have 
 uttered in fulfilment of his Legislative duties. 
 
 Art. 6l. No Senator or Deputy, during the 
 term for which he may have been elected, shall 
 be arrested, except when taken ' in flagrante' com- 
 mission of some crime wnich merits capital pun- 
 ishment or other degrading sentence ; an account 
 thereof shall be rendered to the Chamber he be- 
 longs to, with a verbal process of the facts. 
 
 Art. 62. When a complaint in writing be made 
 bef(/re the ordinary courts against any Senator 
 or Deputy, each Chamber can by a two-thirds 
 vote, suspend the accused in his functions and 
 place him at the disposition of the competent 
 judge for trial. 
 
 Art. 63. Each of the Chambers can cause the 
 Ministers of the Executive to come to their Hall, 
 to give such explanations or information as may 
 be considered convenient. 
 
 Art. 64. No member of Congress can receive 
 any post oi- commission from the Executive, with- 
 out the previous consent of his respective Cl-am- 
 
 ber, excepting such as are in the line of jiromo- 
 tion. 
 
 Art. 65. The regular ecclesiastics cannot be 
 members of Congress, nor can the Governors of 
 Provinces represent the Province which they 
 govern. 
 
 Art. 66. The Senators and Deputies shall be 
 remunerated for their services, by a compensation 
 to be ascertained liy law. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 Article 67. The Congress sliall have power; — 
 1. To legislate upon the Ciistom-Houses and es- 
 tablish import duties; which, as well as all a])- 
 praiseinents for their collection, shall be uniform 
 throughout the Nation, it being clearly understood 
 that the.se, as well as all other national coii'riltu- 
 tions, can be paid in any money at the just value 
 which may be current in the respective Provinces. 
 Also, to establish export duties. 2. To lay direct 
 taxes for determinate jieriods, whenever the com- 
 mon detense and general welfare require it, 
 which shall be uniform throughout the territory 
 of tlie Nation. I!. To borrow money on the 
 credit of the Nation. 4. To determine t\y; use 
 and sale of the Nati(mal lands. 5. To establish 
 and regulate a National Bank in the<apit;'.l, with 
 branches in the Provinces, and with power to 
 emit bills. 0. To regulate the payment of the 
 home and foreign debts of the Nation. 7. To 
 annui'lly determine the estimates of the National 
 Administration, and approve or reject the ac- 
 counts of expenses. 8. To grant subsidies from 
 the National Treasury to those I'rovinces, whose 
 revenues, according 10 their liudgets, do not suf- 
 fice to cover the ori'inary expenses. 9. To regu- 
 late tlie free navigation of the interior rivers, 
 open such ports as ma.v be considered necessary, 
 create and suppress Custom-llouses, but without 
 suppressing those which existed in each Province 
 at the time of its incorporation. 10. To coin 
 money, regulate the v.ilue thereof and of foreign 
 coin, and adopt a uniform system of weights and 
 measures for the whole Nation. 11. To decree 
 civil, commercial, penal and mining Codes, but 
 such Codes shall have no power to change local 
 
 i'urisdiction; their application shall bclon to the 
 'ederal or Provincial courts, in accordance with 
 such things or persons as may come under their 
 respective jurisdiction; especially, general laws 
 embracing the whole Nation, shall be passed upon 
 naturalization and citizenship, subject to the 
 principle of native citizenship; also upon bank- 
 1 .iptcy, the counterfeiting of current-money and 
 public State documents ; and such laws as may 
 be required for the establishment of trial by 
 Jury. 13. To regulate commerce by laud and 
 sea with foreign nations, and between the Prov- 
 inces. 13. To establish and regulate the general 
 pi.st-ofHces and post-roads of the Nation. 14. To 
 finai'y settie the National boundaries, fix those 
 of tliL Provinces, create new Provinces, and de- 
 termine by a special legislation, the organization 
 ami governments, which such National territories 
 as are beyond the limits assigned lO the Province, 
 should have. 15. To provide for the security of 
 the frontiers; preserve peaceful relations with 
 the Indians, and promote their conversion to 
 Catholicism. 16. To provide all things condu- 
 cive to the prosperity of the country, to the ad- 
 vancement and happiness of the Provinces, and 
 to the increase of enlightenment, decreeing plans 
 for general and university instruction, promoting 
 
 514 
 
CONSTITUTION : ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION : ARGENTIfTE REPUBLIC. 
 
 industry, immigrfttion, the construction of mil- 
 wftj'S, and navigable canals, the peopling of the 
 National lands, the introduction and cstablisli- 
 ment of now industries, the importation of for- 
 eign capital and the exploration of the interior 
 rivers, liy prot<!ction laws to these ends, and by 
 temporary concessions and stimulating recom- 
 penses. 17. To constitute tribunals interior to 
 the Supreme Court, create and suppress public 
 ollices, fl.v their attributes, grant pensions, decree 
 honors and general amnesties. 18. To accept or 
 reject the resignation of the 1 resident or Vice- 
 I'resident of the Republic, and declare new elec- 
 tions; to make the scrutiny and rectification of 
 tlie same. 10. To ratify or reject the treaties 
 made with other Nations and the Concordats with 
 •he Apostolic See, and regulate the patronage of 
 advowsons throughout the Nation. 20. To admit 
 religious orders witliiu the Nation, other than 
 tliose already existing. 31. To authorize the 
 Executive to declare war and make peace. 22. 
 To grant letters of maripu^ and rei)risal, and to 
 make rules concerning prizes. 23. To tix tlie 
 land and sea forces in tinu^ of peace and war: and 
 to make rules and regulations for the government 
 of said forces. 2-1. To i)rovi(le for calling forth 
 the militia of all, or a part of, the Provinces, to 
 execute the laws of the Nation, suppress insur- 
 rections or repel invasions. To provide for or- 
 ganizing, arming, and disciplining said militia, 
 and for governing such part of them as may be 
 employed in the service of the Nation, reserving 
 to the Provinces respectively, the appointment of 
 the corresponding cliiefs and ollicers, and the au- 
 thority of training the militia according to the 
 discipline prescril.icd by l^ongress. 25. To per- 
 mit the introduction of foreign troops within the 
 territory of the Nation, and the going beyond it 
 of the N. tional foices. 26. To declare martial 
 law in any or various points of the Nation in 
 case of domesJc commotion, and ratify or sus- 
 pend the declaration of martial law made by the 
 executive during the recess. 27. To exercise ex- 
 elusive legislation over the ijrritory of the Na- 
 tional capitjil, and over such other places accjuired 
 by p jrchiisc or cession in any of the Provinces, 
 for the purpose of establislung fcrts, arsenals, 
 warehouses, or other needful nation.vl buildings. 
 28. To make all laws and regulations which shall 
 be necessary for carrying into execution the fore- 
 going powers, and all others vested by the pres- 
 ent Constitution in the Government of the Ar- 
 gentina.; Nation. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Article 68. Laws may originate in cither of 
 the Houses of Congress, by bills presented by 
 their members or by the Executive, excepting 
 those relative to the objects treated of in Art. 44. 
 
 Art. 69. A bill being approved by -ae House 
 wherein if, originated, shall pass for discussion 
 to the other House. IBeing approved by both, it 
 shall pass to the Executive of the Nation for liia 
 examination; and should it receive his approba- 
 tion he shall publish it as law. 
 
 Art. 70. Every bill not returned within ten 
 worl 'ag-days by the Executive, shall be taken as 
 approved by him. 
 
 Art. 71. No bill entirely rejected by one 
 House, can be presented again during thai year. 
 But should it be only amplilied or corrected ay the 
 revising House, it shall return to that wherein 
 it originated ; and if there the additions or cor- 
 
 rections lie approved by an absolute majority, 
 it shall jiass to the Executive. If the addition* 
 or corrections be rejected, it shall return to the 
 revising House, and if here tliev be again sanc- 
 tioned bv a majority of two-thirds of its mem- 
 bers, it sliall pa.ss to the other House, and it shall 
 not be understood that the said additions and 
 corrections are rejected, unless two-thirds of the 
 members present should so vote. 
 
 Art. /a. A bill being rejected in whole or in 
 part by the Executive, he shall return it with his 
 objections to the House in which it originated; 
 here it shall be debated again; and if it be con- 
 firmed by a majority of two-thirds, it shall pass 
 again to the revising House. If both Houses 
 should pass it by the Mime majority, it becomes 
 a law, and shall be sent to tlie ftxeeiitive for 
 promulgation. In such ease the votes of both 
 Houses shall be by yeas and nays, and the names 
 of the persons so voting sliali be recorded, as 
 well as the objections of the Executive, and sliall 
 be imnu.liately published in the daily-press. If 
 tl'.e Houses differ upon the objections, the bill 
 cannot be renewed during that year. 
 
 Art. 73. The following formula shall be used 
 in the pas,sage of the laws: "The (Senate and 
 Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Nation in 
 Congress assembled, etc. decree, or sanction, 
 with the force of law." 
 
 Section II.— Chapter I. 
 
 Article 74. The Executive power of the Na- 
 tion shall be exercised by a citizen, with the title 
 of " President of the Argentine Nation." 
 
 Art. 75. In case of the sickness, absence from 
 the capital, death, resignation or dismissal of the 
 President, the Executive power shall be exer- 
 cised by the Vice-President of the Nation. In 
 case of the removal, death, resignation, or in- 
 ability of the President and Vice-President of the 
 Nation, Congress will determine which public 
 functionary shall then (111 the Presidency, until 
 the disability be removed or a new President be 
 elected. 
 
 Art. 76. No person except a natural-born citi- 
 zen or a son of a natural-born citizen brought 
 forth abroad, shall be eligible as Presitlent or 
 Vice-President of the Nation ; he is re(iuired to 
 belong to the Apostolic-Roman-Catholic com- 
 munion, and possess the other qualiflcations re- 
 quired to be elected Senator. 
 
 Art. 77. The President and Vice-President 
 shall hold office during the ♦erm of six years; 
 and cannot be re-elected except iftcr an interval 
 of an equal period. 
 
 Art. 78. The President of the Nation shall 
 cease in his functions the very day on which his 
 period of six years expires, and no event what- 
 ever which may have interruiited it, can be a 
 motive for completing it at a later time. 
 
 Art, 79. The President and Vice-President 
 shall receive a compensation from the National 
 Treasury, which cannot be altered during the 
 
 Berio<l for which they shall have been elected, 
 luring ihe same period they cannot exercise any 
 other office nor receive any other emolument 
 from the Nation, or any of its Provinces. 
 
 Art. 80. The President and Vice-President be- 
 fore entering upon the execution of their of^^ces, 
 shall take the following oath administered by the 
 President of the Senate (the first time by the 
 President of the Constituent Congress) in Con- 
 gress assembled: "I (such an one) iwcar by 
 
 515 
 
CONSTITUTION: ARQENTINK IlEPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 God our Lord, nnd by these Holy Evangelists, 
 that I will fiiithfiilly and piitriotically execute 
 the olllce of I'ri'sidciit (or Vice-l'rcsidcnt) of the, 
 Ni)tioii, and oliscrvc and cause to be faithfully 
 olwcrvcd, the Constitutidii of the Argentine Na- 
 tion. If 1 should not do so, let God and the 
 Nation indict me." 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Article 8i. Tlie election of the President and 
 Vice-President of the Nation, .sli;ill he made in 
 the following manner: — Ihe capital and each of 
 tlie Provinces shall by direct vote nominate a 
 boanl of electors, double the number of Depu- 
 ties and Senators which tliey send to (!ongress, 
 with tlio same qualiflcutinns and under the same 
 form as those prescribed for the election of Depu- 
 ties. Deputies or Senators, or o(li(!ers in the pay 
 of the Federal Government cannot be electors. 
 The electors being met in tlie National-capital 
 and in that of their respective Provinces, four 
 months [jrior to tlie conclusion of the term of 
 the out-going President, they shall proceed by 
 signed ballois, to elect a President, and Vice- 
 President, one of winch shall .stiitc the person as 
 Presid(;nt, and the other the person as Vice-Presi- 
 dent, for whom they vote. Two lists shall be 
 made of al! the individuals elected as President, 
 and other two also, of those elected as Vice- 
 President, with tlie number of votes which each 
 may have received. These lists shall be signed 
 by the electors, and shall be remitted closecl and 
 sealed, two of them (one of each kind) to the 
 President of tlu^ Provincial Legislature, and to 
 the President of the Municipality in tlic capital, 
 among whose records they shall remain deposited 
 and closed; the other two shall be .sent to the 
 President of the Senate (the first time to the 
 President of the Constituent Congress). 
 
 Art. 82. Tlic President of tlie Senate (the 
 first time tiiat of the Constituent Congress) all 
 the lists being received, shall open them in the 
 presence of both Houses. Four members of 
 Congress taken by lot and associated to tlie Secre- 
 taries, shall immediately proceed to count the 
 votes, and to announce the number which may 
 result in favor of each candidate for the Presi- 
 dency and Vice-Presidency of the Nation. Those 
 who have received an absolute majority of all 
 the votes in both cases, shall be immediately pro- 
 claimed President and Vice-President. 
 
 Art. 83. In case there be no absolute ma- 
 jority, on account of a division of the votes, Con- 
 gress shall elect one of tlie two persons who shall 
 have received tlic highest number of votes. If 
 the first majority should liavc fallen to a single 
 person, and the second to two or more, Congniss 
 shall elect among all the persons who may have 
 obtained the first and second majorities. 
 
 Art. 84. This election shall bo made by abso- 
 lute plurality of votes, and voting by name. If, 
 on counting the first vote, no absolute majority 
 shall liavft been obtained, a second trial shall be 
 made, limiting the voting to the two per.sons 
 who shall have obtained the greatest number of 
 suffrages at the first trial. In case of an equal 
 number of votes, the operation shall be '•epeated, 
 and should the result be the same, then the Presi- 
 dent of the Senate (the first time that of the Con- 
 stituent Congress) shall decide it. No scrutiny 
 or rectificition of these elections can be made, 
 unless three-fourth parts of all the members of 
 the Congress be present. 
 
 Art. 85. The election of the President and 
 Vice-President of the Nation, shall be concluded 
 in a single meeting of Ihe Congress, and there- 
 after, the result and the electoral lists shall lie 
 published in the daily press. 
 
 Chapter I! I. 
 
 Article 86. The President of 'the Nation has 
 the following attributes: — 1. lie is the supreme 
 chief of the Nation, ond is chargi^l with the 
 general administration of the country. 3. He 
 issues such instructions and regulations as may 
 be necessary for the execution of the laws of the 
 Nation, taking care not to alter their spirit with 
 regul.itive exceptions. 3. lie is the immediate 
 and local chief of the National capital. 4. He 
 particulates in making the laws according to the 
 Constitution; and sanctions and promulgates 
 them. n. He nominates the Judges of Mie Su- 
 preme Court anil of the Inferior Federal tri- 
 bunals, and appoints them by and with the con- 
 sent and advice of the Senate. 0. He has power 
 to pardon or comniiite iienalties against officers 
 subject to Federal jurisdiction, pi\'ceded by a 
 report of tiie proper Tribunal, excepting in case 
 of im]ieaehment by Ihe House of Deputies. 7. 
 Ho grants reUring-pensions, leaves of absence 
 and pawnbrokers' licences, in conformity to the 
 laws of the Nation, c!. He exercises the rights 
 of National Patronage in the presentation of 
 Hishojjs for the catlii'dri.ls, choosing from a ter- 
 nary nomination of the Senate. 0. He grants 
 letters-iiatent or retains the decrees of tlie Coun- 
 cils, the bulls, briefs and rescript.^ of the Holy 
 Roman Pontitf, by and with the consent of the 
 Supreme Court, and must require a law for the 
 same when tliey contain general and permanent 
 dispositions. 10. lie appoints nnd removes Min- 
 isters Plenipotentiary and Charge d'Aflaires, by 
 and with the consent and advice of the Senate ; 
 and himself alone appoints and removes the Min- 
 isters of his Cabinet, the ofticers of the Secretary- 
 ships, Consular Agents, nnd the rest of the em- 
 ployes of the Administration whose nomination 
 is not otherwise ordained by this Constitution. 
 11. He annually opens the Sessions of Congress, 
 both Houses being united for this purpose in the 
 Senate Chamber, giving an account to Congress 
 on this occasion of the state of the Nation, of 
 the reforms provided by the Constitution, and 
 recommending to its consideration such measures 
 as may be judged necessary and convenient. 13. 
 He prolongs the ordinary meetings of Congress 
 or convokes it in extra session, when a question 
 of progress or aa important interest so re(iuires. 
 13. He collects the rents of the Nation and de- 
 crees their expenditure in conformity to the law 
 or estimates of the Public expenses. 14. He 
 negotiates and signs those treaties of peace, of 
 commerce, of navigation, of alliance, of bounda- 
 ries and of neutrality, requisite to maintain 
 good relations with foreign powers ; he receives 
 their Ministers and admits tlieir Consuls. 15. Ho 
 is commander in chief of all the sea and land 
 forces of the Nation. 16. He confers, b;,- and 
 v/it' the consent of the Senate, the high military 
 graaes in the army and navy of the Nation ; and 
 by himself on the field of battle. 17. He dis- 
 poses of the land and sea forces, and takes 
 charge of their organization and distribution ac- 
 corditig to the requirements of the Nation. 18. 
 By the authority and approval of Congress, he 
 declares war and grants letters of marcjue and 
 
 516 
 
CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. CONSTITUTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 reprisal. 19. By nnd with the consent i)f Iho 
 Sennte, in case of foreign aggression and for a 
 limited time, lie declares niartjal law in oTie or 
 more points of the Nation. In ra.se of internal 
 commotion he has this power oidy when (;ongre.ss 
 is in recess, because it is an attribute which be- 
 longs to this body. Tlu! President exercises it 
 under tlie limitations mentioned in Art. 2ii. 20. 
 lie may require from the chiefs of all the 
 branches and departments of the Administration, 
 and through tlicm from, all other employes, siicli 
 reports as lie may believe necessary, and they 
 lire compelled to give them. 21. He cannot ab- 
 'Bcnt himself from the capital of the Nation with- 
 out permission of Congress. During the recess 
 ho can only do so without permission on account 
 of important objects of public service. 22. The 
 President sliall have power to till all vacancies 
 tliat may happen during the recess of the Senate, 
 by granting commissions, which ahull expire at 
 the end of their next session. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Article 87. Five Minister-Secretaries; to wit, 
 of tlie Interior; of Foreign Affairs ; of Finance; 
 of Justice, Worslnp and Public Instruction; and 
 of War and the Navy; shall have under tlieir \ 
 charge tlie disi....cli of National affairs, and tliey 
 shall counter-sig. and legalize the acts of the 
 President by means of their signatures, without 
 wliicli requisite they shall not lie efficacious. A 
 law shall determine the respective duties of the 
 Jliiiistens. 
 
 Art. 88. Each Minister is responsible for tlio 
 acts which ho legalizes, nnd collectively, for 
 those wliich be agrees to with his colleagues. 
 
 Art. 89. The Ministers cannot determine any- 
 thing whatever, by themselves, except what con- 
 cerns the economical and adniirii'trativc regimen 
 of their respective Departmenvs. 
 
 Art. 90. As soon as Congress opens, the Jlin- 
 isters shidl present to it a detailed report of the 
 State of tlio Nation, in all that relates to tlieir 
 respective Departments. 
 
 Art. 91. They cannot be Senators or Deputies 
 without resigning their places as Ministers. 
 
 Art. 92. The Ministers can assist at the meet- 
 ings of Congress and take part in its debates, 
 but tliey cannot vote. 
 
 Art. 93. They shall receive for their services a 
 compensntion established by law, which shall not 
 b(! increased or diminished, in favor or ag'iiust, 
 the actual incumbents. 
 
 Section III.— Chapter I. 
 
 Article 94. The Judicial Power of tho Nation 
 shall be exercised by a Supremo Court of Justice, 
 and by such other inferior Tribunals as Congress 
 may establish within the dominion of tlie Nation. 
 
 Art. 95. The President of tlie Nation cannot 
 in any ease whatever, exercise Judicial powers, 
 arrogate to himself any knowledge of pending 
 causes, or reopen tliose which have terminated. 
 
 Art. 96. The Judges of the Supreme Court 
 and of the lower National-Tribunals, shall keep 
 their places quamdiu so bene gcsserit, and shall 
 receive for their cervices a compensation deter- 
 mined by law, which shall not be diminished in 
 any manner whatever during their continuance 
 in olUce. 
 
 Art. 97. No one can be a member of the Su- 
 preme Court of Justice, unless he shall have been 
 un attorney at law of the Nation for eight years, 
 
 an(! shall pos.sess the qualitlcationa required for a 
 Senator. 
 
 Art. 98. At tlie first installation of the Supreme 
 Court, the individuals appointed .shall take an 
 oath administered l)ytli(^ President of the Nation, 
 to discharge their functions, by the good and legal 
 administration of Justice according to the jue- 
 scripllons of this Constitution. Tliereafter, tho 
 oath shall be taken before the President of the 
 Court itself. 
 
 Ar.. 99. The Supreme Court shall establish 
 its own internal and economical regulations, and 
 shall appoint its subaltern employes. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Article 100. The Judicial power of the Su- 
 ])renie Court and th(! lower National-Tribunals, 
 shall extend to all cases arising under llils Con- 
 stitution, tho laws of the Nation with Ihereserve 
 made in clause 11 of Art. H7, and by treaties with 
 foreign nations; to ail cases afTccting aml)as.-ii- 
 dors, i)ublic Ministers and foreign Consuls; to 
 all eases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; 
 to C()ntrover.sies to which tlie Nation slmll be 
 party; to controversies between two or more 
 Provinces; between a Province and the eill/.ens 
 of another; between the citizens of ditferent 
 Provinces; and between a Province or its citi- 
 zens, against a foreign State or citizen. 
 
 Art. lOI. In these cases the Supreme Court 
 shall exercise an ap|)elate jurisdiction according 
 to such rules aiiil exceptions as Congress may 
 prescribe; but in all ca.ses affecting ambassadors, 
 ministers and foreign consuls, or tiio.se in wliicli 
 a Province shall be a party, it slmll exercise 
 original and exclusive jurisdiction. 
 
 Art. 102. The trial of all ordinary crimes ex- 
 c(!pt in cases of impiMichment, shall terminate by 
 jury, so soon as this institution be established in 
 the Republic. Tliese trials shall be held in the 
 same Province where tho crimes sliall have bix'u 
 committed, but when not committed within the 
 frontiers of the Nation, but against International 
 Law, Congress shall determine by a siieciai law 
 the place wliero the trial shall take effect. 
 
 Art. 103. Treason against the Nation shall 
 only consist in levying war against it, or in ad- 
 hering to its enemies, giving them aid and com- 
 fort. Congress shall fix b}' .1 special law the 
 punishment of treason; but it c.innot go beyond 
 the person of the criminal, and no attainder of 
 treason shall work corruption of blood to relatives 
 of any grade whatever. 
 
 Art. 104. Tlie Provinces keep all the powers 
 not delegated by this Constitution to the Federal 
 Government, and those which were exjiressly re- 
 served by special compacts at the time of their 
 incorporation. 
 
 Art. 105. They create their own local institu- 
 tions and are governed by these. They elect 
 their own Governors, tlieir Legislators ami other 
 Provincial functionaries, without intervention 
 from the Fedc^ral Government. 
 
 Art. 106. Each Province shall make its own 
 Constitution in conformity witli the dispositions 
 of Art. 5. 
 
 Art. 107. The Provinces with the consent of 
 Congress can celebrate contr:tcts among them- 
 selves for the purposes of administering justice 
 and promoting economical interests and works of 
 common utility, and a'so, <'an pass protective 
 laws for the purpose with their own resources, 
 of promoting manufactures, immigration, tho 
 
 517 
 
CONSTIT'JTION: ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 building of railways ami oniiuls, tlie peopling of 
 their liindH, the introduction and I'stablmhrnent 
 of new industries, the import of foreign-capital 
 and the exploration of their rivers. 
 
 Art. lo8. The Provinces cannot exercise any 
 powers delegated to the Nation. They cannot 
 ceh'brate compacts of a, political character, nor 
 make laws on conunerce or internal or external 
 navigation ; nor establish Provincial Custom- 
 llouses, nor coin money, nor establish Banks oC 
 omission, williout authority of Congress; nor 
 make civil, commenial, penal or minuig 'otles 
 after Congress shall have sanctioned those pro- 
 vided for in this C'cmstitution; nor pass laws 
 upon citizenship or naturalization; iikruptcy, 
 counterfei; ing money or public State-<locuments ; 
 nor lay toimage dues ; nor arm vessels of war or 
 
 raise armies, save in the case of foreign invasion, 
 or of a danger so inunineiit that it admits of no 
 <lelay, and then an account thereof must be im- 
 mediately given fo the Federal Government; or 
 name or receive foreign agents; or admit new re- 
 ligious orders. 
 
 Art. 109. No Province can declare or make 
 war to another Province. Its complaints must be 
 submitted to the Supretnc Court of Justice and 
 be settled by it. Hostilities ile facto arc acts of 
 civtl-war and qualitled as scditio\is and tunuiltu- 
 ous, wliicli the (Jencral Government must repress 
 and s\ifrocate according to law. 
 
 Art. no. The Prov' al Governors arc the 
 nat\iral agents of the I'ederal Government to 
 catiso the fullllmcnt of tlie laws of the Nation. 
 See Ahoenti.ne HKi-unMc: A. 1). 1880-1801. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE AUSTRO- 
 HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. Introduced in 
 1807. See AusTiUA: A. D. 1806-1807. and 1800- 
 
 1887. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM. See 
 
 NKTirEur,.\M)s; A. 1). 18;i()-1884. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BOLIVIA. See 
 Peuu: A. I). 1825-1830, and 1830-1878. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 Tlie following text of the Constitution of the 
 United States of Brazil, adopted February 94, 
 1891, is taken from a translation published in 
 Bulletin No. 7 of tlu! B\ireau of American Re- 
 publics, Washington: 
 
 We, the representatives of the Brazilian peo- 
 ple, >inited in constitutional cmgress, to organize 
 a free and democratic regime, do establish, de- 
 cree and promulgate the following constitution 
 of the Republic of the United States of Bnizil: 
 
 Article i. T'le Brazilian nation, adopting as 
 a form of government the Federal Republic pro- 
 claimed November 15, 1889, constit\ites itself, by 
 the perpetual and indissoluble union of its for- 
 mer ijrovinces, the United States of Brazil. 
 
 Art. 2. Eacli of the former provinces shall con- 
 stitute a Stiitc, and the former municipal district 
 shall form the F(!deral District, continuing to bo 
 tlie cai)ital of the Union until the following arti- 
 cle snail be carried into effect. 
 
 Art. 3. In the center there is allotted as the 
 property of the Union a zone of 14,400 square 
 kilometres, which in due time shall be laid off 
 for the establishment of the future federal capi- 
 tal. Sole paragraph. — After the change of site 
 of the capital, the present Federal District shall 
 constitute a State. 
 
 Art. 4. The States shall have the right to in- 
 cornorate themselves one with another, sub- 
 divide themselves, dismember themselves to join 
 with others or form new States, witli the consent 
 of the respective local le^'islatures in two Fucces- 
 givc annual sessions and the approval of the 
 national Congress. 
 
 Art. 5. It shall be the duty of each State to 
 provide, at its own expense, for the necessities of 
 its government and administration ; but the Union 
 shall extend assistance to any State which, in 
 case of public calamity, shall demand it. 
 
 Art. o. The Federal Government shall not intei - 
 fere in matters pertaining peculiarly to the States, 
 save: (1) To repel foreign invasion, or the inva- 
 sion of one State by another. (2) To maintain the 
 fedenitive republican form of government. (3) 
 To reestablish order and tranquillity in the States 
 at the request of the respective governments. 
 
 (4) To assure the execution of the laws and fed 
 eral decrees. 
 
 Art. 7. It is the exclusive prerogative of the 
 Union to deeiee: (1; Duties on imports from for- 
 eign countries. (3) Duties of entry, departure, 
 and stay of vessels ; the coasting trade for national 
 articles being free of duties, as well as for for- 
 eign mercliandise that has already paid an im- 
 port duty. (15) Stamp duties, save the restric- 
 tions impo.sed by article 9, ^ 1, No. 1. (4) Postal 
 and federal telegraphic taxes, i^ 1. The Union 
 alone shall have the power: (1) To establish 
 banks of emission. (3) To create aiu'. maintain 
 custom-houses. 5^ 2. The taxes decreed by tlu; 
 Union shall be uniform forall the States. 8 3. The 
 laws of the Union and the acts and decisions of 
 its authorities shall be executed throughout the 
 country by federal ollieials, except that the en- 
 forcement of the former may be committ' d li.^ 
 the governments of the States, with the consent 
 of the said States. 
 
 Art. 8. The Federal Government is forbidden 
 to make distinctions and preferences in favor of 
 the ports of an' of the States against those of 
 others. 
 
 Art. 9. The States alone are competent to de- 
 cree taxes : (1) On the exportation of merchan- 
 dise of their own production. (2) On landed 
 property. (3) On the transmission of property. 
 (4) On industries and professions. § 1. The 
 States also have the exclasive right to decree: 
 (1) Stamp duties on instruments emanating from 
 their respective governments and business of 
 their internal economy. (3) Contributions touch- 
 ing their own telegraphs and postal service. 
 § 2. The products of the other States are exempt 
 from imposid in the State wlience they are ex- 
 ported. § 3. It is lawful for a State to levy 
 duties on imports of foreign goods only when 
 Intended for consumption in its own territory; 
 but it shall, in such case, cover into the federal 
 treasury the amount of duties collected. 8 4. The 
 right is reserved to the State? of establishing 
 telegraph lines between the different points of 
 their own territory, and between these and those 
 of other States not served by federal lines; but 
 
 518 
 
CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. 
 
 tlic Union may liikc possession of tlicm when the 
 gciicr.il welfiire shall require. 
 
 Art. 10. Tlie several States are proliihited from 
 taxing the federal property or reveniu!, or any- 
 thing in the service of tlie Lnion, and vice versa. 
 
 Art, II. It is forbidden to tlie States, as well 
 as to tlie Unions: (1) To impo.se duties on tlie 
 jiroduc'ts of tiie other States, or of foreign conn- 
 tries, in transit througli tlie territory of any 
 State, or from one State to another, as also on 
 tlie vehicles, whether by land or water, by whicli 
 tliey are transported. (3) To establish, aid, or 
 emliarrass the exercise of religii us worsliip. (3) 
 To enact ex post facto laws. 
 
 Art. 12. In addition to the sources of revenue 
 set forth in articles 7 and 9, it sliall be lawful for 
 tlic Union, as well as for the States, cumulatively 
 or otlierwise, to create any others whatsoever 
 wliicii may not be in contravention of the terras 
 of articles?, 9, and 11, § 1. 
 
 Art. 13. The right of the Union and of the 
 States to legislate in regard to railways an<l navi- 
 gation of internal waters shall be regulated by 
 federal law. Sole pdrnr/raph. — Tlie coastwise 
 trade sliall be carried on in national vessels. 
 
 Art. 14. The land anil naval forces are perma- 
 nent national institutions, intended for the de- 
 fense of the country from foreign attadc and the 
 niiiinteiiance of the laws of the land. Witliin 
 the limits of tlie law, the armed forces are from 
 their nature lield to obedience, caeli raiili to its 
 .superior, and bound to support all constitutional 
 institutions. 
 
 Art. 15. The legislative, executive, and judi- 
 cial powers arc organs of the national sover- 
 eigntj', harmonious and indepem'.ent among 
 theiiLselves. 
 
 Art. 16. The legislative power is vested in the 
 national Congress, with the sanction of tlie Presi- 
 dent of tlie Republic. § 1. The national Con- 
 gress is composed of two branches, the Chamber 
 of Deputies and the Senate, i^ 3- The elections 
 for senators and for deputies shall be held siniul- 
 tiiiieously throughout the country. § 3. No per- 
 son shall be senator and deputy at the same time. 
 
 Art. 17. The Congress shall assemble in the 
 federal capital on the 3d day of May of each 
 year, unless some other day shall be fixed by 
 law, without being convokeil, and shall continue 
 in session 4 montlis from the date of the opening, 
 and may be prorogued, adjourned, or convoked 
 in extraordinary session. § 1. Tlie Congress 
 .ilone shall have the power to deliberate on the 
 prorogation or extension of its session. §2. Each 
 legislature shall last for 3 years. § 3. The gov- 
 ernor of any State in which tliere shall be a va- 
 cancy in the representation, including the case of 
 resignation, sliall order a new election to be held 
 at once. 
 
 Art. 18. Tlie Chamber and the Senate shall 
 hold their sessions apart and in public, unless 
 otlierwise resolved by a majority vote, and shall 
 deliberate only when, in cacli of the chambers, 
 there shall be present an absolute majority of its 
 members. SuU jmragraph. — To eacli of the cham- 
 bers sliall belong the right to verify and recog- 
 nize the powers of its members, to clioose its own 
 presiding oHlcers, to organize its internal govem- 
 incut, to regulate the service of its own police 
 rules, and to choose its own secretaries. 
 
 Art. 19. Tlie deputies and senators can not be 
 held to account for their opinions, expressions, 
 and votes in the discharge of their mandate. 
 
 I 
 
 Art. 20. Deputies and senators, from the time 
 of receiving their certitlcati' of election until a 
 new election, can not be arrested or proceeded 
 against criminally without the [lerini.ssion of 
 tlieir respective chambers, except, in the case of a 
 llagrant crime, in wliich liaii is inadmissible. In 
 sueli case, the prosecution being carried to exclu- 
 sive decision, tlie prosecuting aulliorily sliall 
 send the court records to the respective chamber 
 for its decision on tlie iiroseciition of tlie charge, 
 unless the accused shall prefer immediate judg- 
 ment. 
 
 Art. 21. The members of the two chambers, 
 on taking tlieir .seats, shall taki! a formal obliga- 
 tion, in public session, t' iierform their duties 
 faithfully. 
 
 Art. 22. During tlie sessions the senators and 
 deputies shall receive an e((ual pecuniary salarj' 
 and mileage, which shall be fixed by Congress 
 at the end of each session for tlie following one. 
 
 Art. 23. No member of the Congress, from 
 the time if his election, can make contracts witli 
 tlie executive power or receive from it any paid 
 commission or employment. 5; 1. Exceptions to 
 this iirohibition are: (1) Diplomatic missions. (2) 
 C'ommissions or military commands. (3) Ad- 
 vancement in rank and legal iiromotion. ;$ 3. 
 No deputy or senator, however, can accept an 
 apiiointnient for any mission, commission, or 
 command mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 of the ]re- 
 ceding paragraph, witliout the consent of the 
 chamber to wliicli he belongs, when such accept- 
 ance would prevent the exercise of his legisla- 
 tive duties, except iu case of war or .sudi as 
 involve the iKmor iv integrity of tin; nation. 
 
 Art. 24. No deputy or senator can be jiresi- 
 dent or form part of a directory of any bank, 
 companv, or enterprise whicli enjoys the favors 
 of the Federal Government defined in and by 
 law. Solepardf/rnph. — Nonobservance of the jiro- 
 visions of the fon going article by any deputy or 
 senator shall involve the loss of his .seat. 
 
 Art. 25. Tiie legislative commission shall be 
 incomiiatible with tlie exercisa of any other func- 
 tions during the sessions. 
 
 Art. 26. Tlie conditions for eligibility to the 
 national C(jngress are: (1) To be iu possession 
 of tlie riglits of Brazilian citizenship and to lie 
 registered as a voter. (2) For the t'hamber, to 
 have been for more than 4 years a Brazilian citi- 
 zen; and for tlie Senate, for more than li years. 
 This provision does not include those citizens 
 referred to in No. 4, article 09. 
 
 Art. 27. The Congress shall by special legis- 
 lation declare the cases of electoral incompetency. 
 
 Art. 28. The Chamber of Deputies shall be 
 composed of tiie reiiresentatives of the people, 
 elected by tlie States and tlie Federal District by 
 direct sulTrage, the representation of the min- 
 ority being guarantied, t^ 1- Tlie number of 
 the deputies shall be fixed by law yi sueii a way 
 as not to exceed one for each 70,000 iiiliabitants, 
 and that there shall not be less than four for 
 each State. S ~- To this end the Federal Gov- 
 ernment sliali at once order a census to Ir- taken 
 of tlie population of the Republic, whicli shall 
 be revi-sed everv 10 years. 
 
 Art. 29. TotheCliainberbelnngs the initiative 
 in the adjournment of the legislative sessions 
 and in all legislation in regard to taxation, to tlie 
 determination of tiie size of tiie army and navy, 
 in tlie discussion of propositions from the execu- 
 tive power, am.! in tlie decision to proceed or not 
 
 519 
 
CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 in rliiirjrcH HjcainHt tlic I'rcKidciit of tlic Ucpuhlir 
 under tlio trrriiH r)f article 5i), and aKainitt tlio 
 niini.sti'rs of HtAtc in crimes connected with tlioHo 
 of tli(^ Htti<l President. 
 
 Art. 30. Tlie .Senate sludl lie composed of citi- 
 zens elifrihie under tlic terms of article 2(1 and 
 more than iW years of age, to the numlier of 
 three senators for each State and three for the 
 Federal District, chosen in the same maimer as 
 the deputies. 
 
 Art. 31. The mandate of a senator shall con- 
 tinue for years, and one-third of f'lO Seiuito 
 shall he renewed every 3 years, title ])iiragr(iji/i. 
 — A senator elected in place of another shall 
 exercise his mandate during the remainder of the 
 ternt of tlie latter. 
 
 Alt. 32. The Vice President of the ncpuhlic 
 shall lie the president of the Senate, where he 
 shall vote only in case of tie, and shall he re- 
 jilaced in ease of ahsence or inipeiHmeiit by the 
 vice president of that body. 
 
 Art. 33. The Senate alone shall have the power 
 to try and sentence the President of the Uepub- 
 lic and the other federal oflleers designiited by 
 the constitution, under the conditions and in the 
 manner which it prescribes. S; 1. The Senate, 
 when sitting as a tribunal of justice, shall be 
 presided over by the jiresidcnt of tlic federal su- 
 preme cotirt. ^ 2. It shall not pass sentence of 
 condemnation unless two-thirds of its members 
 be present. 8 3. It shall not impose other penal- 
 tics tliaii the less of ollicc and prohibition from 
 holding any otiier, without prejudice to the 
 action of ordinary justice against tlie condemned. 
 
 Art. 34. The national Congress shall have ex- 
 clusive power: (1) To estimiite tlie revenue, and 
 fix the expenditures of the Federal Government 
 annually, and tal<e account of the receipts and 
 ex|K'nditures of each flcaiicial budget. (2) To 
 autliorizc the executive to contract loans and 
 make other operations of credit, (ii) To legislate 
 in regard to the public debt and furnish means 
 for its payment. (4) To coitrol the collection 
 ind disposition of the national revenue. (5) To 
 regulate international commeroe, as well os that 
 of the States with each other and with the Fed- 
 eral District; to establish and regulate the col- 
 lection of customs duties in the ports, create or 
 abolish warehouses of deposit. (6) To legislate 
 in regard to navigation of rivers running through 
 more than one State, or through foic'gn tcrri- 
 ,tory. (7) To determine the weight, vaiUe, in- 
 scription, type, am' denomination of the currency. 
 (8) To create banks of emi.ssion, legislate in re- 
 gard to tills emission and to tax it. (9) To fix 
 the standard of weights and measures. (10) To 
 determine definitely the boundaries of the States 
 between each other, those of the Federal District, 
 and those of the national territory with the ad- 
 joining nations. (11) To authorize the Govern- 
 ment to declare war, if there be no recourse to 
 arbitration or in case of failure of this, and to 
 makepeace. (12) To decide definitively in regard 
 to treaties and cor i^entions with foreign nations. 
 (13) To remove the capital of the Union. (U) To 
 extend aid to the States in the case referred to 'n 
 article 5. (1.5) To legislate in 'cgard to federal 
 postal and telegraph service. (16) To adopt the 
 necessary measures for the protection of the fron- 
 tiers. (17) To fix every year the number of the 
 land and naval forces. (18) To make laws for 
 the organization of the army and navy. (10) To 
 grant or refuse to foreign forces passage through 
 
 the territory of the country to carry on military 
 operiitioiiH. (2(1) To molilli/e and make use of 
 the national guard or local militia in the cases 
 designated by the Constitution. (21) To declare 
 a state of siege at one or more points in the 
 national territory, in tlie emergency of an attiiek 
 by foreign forces, or internal disturlmnci^ and to 
 approve or suspend the slate of siege proclaimed 
 by the executive power or its responsible agents 
 in llie absence of tlie C'ongress. (22) To reg\ilat(! 
 the conditions and methods of elections for fed- 
 eral otlices throughout the country. (23) To leg- 
 islate upon the civil, crimiial, and (■ominereial 
 laws and legal procedures of the federal judi- 
 ciary. (24) To establisli uniform :<iituralizatioii 
 laws. (25) To create and abolish federal pub- 
 lic ofilccs, to fix the duties of the same, and 
 designate their salaries, (20) To organize t!;^ 
 federal judiciary according to the terms of arti- 
 cle 55 and the succeeding, section 3. (27) To 
 grant iimnesty. (28) To commute and pardon 
 penalties imposed upon federal olUeers for of- 
 fenses arising from their responsibility. (20) To 
 make laws regarding Government lands and 
 mines. (30) To legislate in regard to the munici 
 pal organization of tlie Federal District, as well 
 as to the police, the superior instruction and 
 other services wliicli in the capital may be re- 
 served for tlie Government of the Union. (31) 
 To govern by special legislation tliose points of 
 the territory of tlie Republic needed for the 
 cstablisliment of arsenals, other establishments 
 or institutions for federal uses. (32) To settle 
 cases of extradition between the States. (33) To 
 enact such laws and resolutions as may be neces- 
 sary for the exercise of the powers belonging to 
 the Union. (34) To enact the organic laws neces- 
 sary for the complete execution of the require- 
 ments of tlic Constitution. (35) To prorogue and 
 adjourn its own sessions. 
 
 Art. 35. It shall belong likewise to the Con- 
 g'ess, but not exclusively : (1) To watch over the 
 Constitution and the laws, and provide for neces- 
 sities of a federal character. (2) To promote 
 in the country the development of literature, 
 the arts, and sciences, together with immigra- 
 tion, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, 
 witliout privileges such as would obstruct the 
 action of tlie local governments. (3) To create 
 institutions of higher instruction and of higli 
 school cducatic n in the States. (4) To provide 
 for high school instruct'on in tlie Federal Dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Art. 36. Save the exceptions named in article 
 27, all bills may originate, indilferently, in the 
 Chamber or in the Senate, and may be introduced 
 by any of their members. 
 
 Art. 37. A bill, after being passed in one of 
 the chambers, shall be submitted to tlie other, 
 and, if tlie latter shall approve the sume, it shall 
 send it to the executive, who, if he approve it, 
 shall sanction and promulgate it. S 1- I^. how- 
 ever, the President of the Republic sliall consider 
 it unconstitutional, or contrarj- to the good of the 
 nation, he shall refuse his sanction to the same 
 witliin 10 working days, countc '. from thiA on 
 which he recjived it (tlie bill), and shall return 
 it, within tiie same period, to the chamber in 
 which it originated, with liis reasons for his re- 
 fusal. 5; 2. Vhc failure of the executive to sig- 
 nify his disapproval within tlie above-named 10 
 days b.iall be considered as an approval, and in 
 case his sanction be refused after the close of the 
 
 520 
 
CONSTITUTION OF HltAZII,. 
 
 CONHTITUTION OF BUAZIJ.. 
 
 spssion of tho Congress, tlio I'rcsidont sliall mako 
 public Ills reasons therefor. (5 iJ. The bill sent 
 back to the chamber where it, originated shall 
 be discussed and voted upcin by call of names, 
 and shall be considered as passed if it obtain 
 two-thirds of the votes of tlie members present; 
 and, in this case, it shall be sent to th(f other 
 clianiber, whence, if it receive' the same majority, 
 it shall return, ns a law, to the executive to be 
 formally promulgated. S 4. Tlie sanction and 
 promulgation shall be eft'eeted in the following 
 forms: (1) "The national Congress enacts and t 
 sanction the following law (or resolution)." (3) 
 "The national Congress enacts and I promul- 
 gate the following law (or resolution)." 
 
 Art. 38. If tli(! law be not promulgated by the 
 President of the Republic within 48 hours, in the 
 cases provided for in SS 3 and 3 of tho preced- 
 ing article, tho president of the Senate, or the 
 vice president, if the former shall not do so in 
 the same space of time, sliall pronuilgate it, 
 making use of tho following formula: " I, presi- 
 dent (or vice president) of the Senate, mako 
 known to whomsoever these presents may come, 
 that the national Congress enacts and promul- 
 gates tho following law (or resolution). " 
 
 Art. 39. A l)ill from one cliamber, amended in 
 tlio otlier, shall' return to the former, wldeh, if it 
 accept tho amendments, shall send it, clianged to 
 conform with the same, to the executive, g 1. In 
 the contrary case, it sliall go back to tho amend- 
 ing cliamber, where tho alterations shall be con- 
 .iilered as approved, if they receive the vote of 
 two-thirds of t'.io members present; in tlio latter 
 case, the bill sliall return to the chamber where 
 it originated, and there tho amendments can be 
 rejected only by a two-tlards vote. S 2- If tl>e 
 alterations be rejected by such vote, the bill shall 
 he submitted without them to the approval of 
 the executive. 
 
 Art. 40. Bills finally rejected or not approved, 
 shall not be presented again in the same legisla- 
 tive! session. 
 
 Art. 41. The executive power shall be exer- 
 ci.sed by the President of tlio United States of 
 Brazil, as elective cliief of the' nation. § 1. Tlio 
 Vice President, elected simultaneously with the 
 President, shall serve in place of the latter in 
 case of impediment and succeed hiln in case of 
 vacancy in tho Presidency. ' In cas(! of im- 
 pedi'nent or vacancy in the \ ice I i isidency, tho 
 following officers, in tho order named, shall be 
 called to the Presidency: Tho vice president of 
 the Senate, tho president of tho Chamber of 
 Deputies, the president of tlie federal supremo 
 court. § 8. The following are the conditions of 
 eligibility to the Presidency or Vice Presidency 
 of tlie Republic: (1) Must be a native of Brazil. 
 
 (2) Must bo in tho exorcise of politi"al rights. 
 
 (3) Must be more than 35 years of age. 
 
 Art. 42. In case of vacancy from any cause in 
 tlie Presidency or Vicj Presidency before tlie ex- 
 piration of tho first 3 years of tlie Presidential 
 term, a new election shall be held. 
 
 Art. 43. Tlie President shall hoM his office 
 during 4 years, and is not eligible for reflection 
 for tlie fiext succeeding term. S 1. Tlie Vice 
 President who shall fill the Presidency during 
 the last year of the Presidential term shall not be 
 eligible to the Presidency for the next term of 
 that office. § 3. On the same day on which his 
 Presidential term shall cease the Presidout shivll, 
 without fail, cease to exercise the functions of 
 
 34 
 
 his office, ami the newly elected President sliall 
 at onci^ Kiieceed him. ^ 3. If the latter should 
 be hinderi'il or should fail to do so, the succes 
 slon shall be ell'eeled in accordance \villi jStS 1 
 and 3 of article 41. ^ 4. The llrsl Presidential 
 term shall expire on Ihi' IHlh of November, 1HI)4. 
 
 Art. 44. On taking possession of bis iilllce, the 
 President, in a session of the Congress, or, if it 
 be not assembled, before the federal siiprciiui 
 court, shall pronounce' the following alllrmalion: 
 " I promise to maintain tlu' federal Coiistitiitlon 
 and comply witli '.s provisions with perfect loy- 
 alty, to promote .he general welfare of tlu! lie- 
 public, to obse ve its laws, and support the 
 union, intogrit}, and independence of the na- 
 tion." 
 
 Art. 45. The President and Vice President 
 shall not leave tlie national territory without tho 
 permission of the Congress, under penalty of loss 
 of office. 
 
 Art. 46. The President and Vice President 
 shall receive tlie salary fixed by the Congress In 
 the preceding Presidential term. 
 
 Art. 47. The President and Vice President 
 shall be clio.sen by direct sulTrage of tlie nation 
 and an absolute majority of tlio votes, g 1 Tlie 
 election sliall take place on tlie first day of >Liieli 
 In tho last year of the P'-esidential term, and the 
 counting of tlie votes cast at the dilTerent pre- 
 cincts shall at once be made in the respectivo 
 capitals of the States and in the federal capital. 
 Tlie Congress shall make the count at its lirst 
 session of the same year, with any number of 
 members present. § '■^- If """c "f f'ose voted 
 for shall have received an absolute majority, the 
 Congress sliall elect, by a majority of votes of 
 tliose present, one of the two who, in the direct 
 election, shall have received 'he highest number 
 of votes. In case of v tie the older shall be con- 
 sidered elected, g 3. The manner of the election 
 and of the counting of tlie votes shall be regu- 
 lated by ordinary legislation. S i- The relatives, 
 botli by consanguinity and by marriage, in the 
 first and secoiul degrees, of the President and 
 Vice President shall bo ineligible for the offices 
 of President and Vice President, provided the 
 said otBeials art; in office at tlie time of the eh.'C- 
 tion or have left the office even 6 mimtlis before. 
 
 Art. 48. To the President of the Republic 
 shall beleng the exclusive right to — (1) Sanction,, 
 promulgate, and make public the laws and reso- 
 lutions of the Congress; issue decrees, instruc- 
 tions, and regulations for tlieir f".itliful execu- 
 tion. (3) Choose and dismiss at will the cabinet 
 ofilcers. (3) Exercise or appoint some one to 
 exorcise supreme command over the land and 
 naval forces of the Uniteil Stjites of TJrazil, as 
 well as over the local polic, when called to arms 
 for the internal or externa, defense of the Union. 
 (4) Govern and distribute, under the laws of the 
 Congress, according to the necessities of the Na- 
 tional Government, the lanil and :iaval forces. 
 (15) Dispose of the offices, both military and civil, 
 of a federal character, with the exceptions speci- 
 fied in tho Constitution. (0) Pardon crimes and 
 commute penalties for olTenses subject to federal 
 jurisdiction, save in tlie cases mentioned in arti- 
 cle 34, No. 38, and article 'J3, g 3. (T) Declare 
 war and •'■iike peace, .inder the provisions of 
 article 34, No. 11. (8) Declare war at once in 
 cose of foreign invasion or aggression. (9) Give 
 an annual state:nent to tiui national Congress of 
 the condition of tlie country, with a rccommv;nda- 
 
 521 
 
CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF HUAZIL. 
 
 lion of pri'ssliij; provlHioiiH nnd rcfoniiH, tliroii);ti 
 r. ii.t'HHiiKi', wlilcli lie hIiiiII w-nil to the Hi'crc'tary 
 of tlic Hciiittc on the duy of tlli^ opciiiiii^ of Itio 
 I<'f;isliitlv4' session. (10) Convoke llie ('oni;ress 
 ill e.xtni session. (11) .\|ipoint tli<' feilenil |ii<l|;es 
 when prr)poseil by the supreme court. {I'i) Ap- 
 point tli(^ meniliers of tlie fciieral supreme eimrl 
 iiM(i ministers of tlie dlploiniitie corps, willi llie 
 approvul of tile senate: anil, in tlie absence of the 
 Conj^ress, appoint them in commission until con 
 Hiilereil by the senate, (lit) Appoint the other 
 members of the (liplomatic corps unil consular 
 aKiints. (14) Maintain relations with forel);n 
 states. (15) Declare, ilirectly, or through his 
 responsible! ajjents, a slate of siege at any point 
 of the national territory, in ca.se of for<'f)j;n a>r- 
 ftression or serious internal ilisturbance. (Article 
 fl, No. !); article :U, No. 21 ; ami article 8(1.) (1(1) 
 Set on f(«)t international ne>;otiatiims, celebrate 
 njrreements, conventions, anil treaties, always nd 
 refer<!iidum to tlu^ Coni^ress, nnd npjjrove tho.se 
 ni.idy by the States in conformity witli article (15, 
 Hiibinittii;); Iheni when necessary to the authority 
 of the C'on),'ress. 
 
 Art. 49. The President of the Republic shall 
 be assisted by the ministers of state (cabinet otll- 
 <:ers), aj;ents of his contldence, who sign the acts 
 and prosido over their respective departments 
 into which the federal administration is divided. 
 
 Art. 50. TIk! cabinet ministers shall not exer- 
 cise any oilier employment or function of a pid)- 
 lic natiire, be eligible to the Presidency or Vice 
 Presidency of the Union, or be elected deputy or 
 senator. Sale piiraijraph. — Any deputy or sena- 
 tor, who shall accept the position of cabinet 
 minister, shall lose his .seat in the respective 
 cliamlier, and ft new election shall at once be 
 lield, in which lie shall not be voted for. 
 
 Art. 51. The cabinet ministers shall not appear 
 at the sessions of the Congress, and shall com- 
 municate with that body in writing only or by 
 personal conference with the committees of tlio 
 chambers. The annual report of the ministers 
 shall be aililressed to the Pre.siilent of the Repub- 
 lic, and distributed to all the members of the 
 Congress. 
 
 Art. S3, The cabinet ministers shall not be 
 responsible to the Congress or to the courts for 
 advice given to the President of the Republic. 
 § 1. They shall be responsible, nevertheless, with 
 respect to their acts, for crimes deflned in tlic 
 law. j5 3. For common crimes and those for 
 which they are responsible they shall be prose- 
 cui.'d and tried by the federal supreme court, 
 ar 1 I'lr those committed jointly with the Presi- 
 dent ot 'he Republic, by the authority competent 
 to judge this latter. 
 
 Art. S3. The President of the United States of 
 Brazil shall be brought to trial and judgment, 
 after the Chamber of Deputies sliall have decided 
 that he should be tried on tlie charges made 
 against him, in the federal supreme court, in the 
 case of common crimes, nnd in those of responsi- 
 bility, in the Senate. Sole paragraph. — As .soon 
 as it shall be decided to try him on the charges 
 brought, the President shall be suspended in the 
 exercise of the duties of his ollicc. 
 
 Art. 54. Crimes of responsibility on the part 
 of the President of tlie Republic are such as are 
 directed agnin.st — (1) The political existence of 
 the Union. (2) The (Jonstitution and the form of 
 the Federal Government. (3) The free exercioj 
 of the political powers. (4) The legal enjoyment 
 
 and exercis<- of political or Individual righti. 
 (5) The intcnial security of thi^ country, (tl) The 
 piirilv of till' administration. (7) The cmmtltu- 
 tioiial keeping and use of the iiiibllc fuiiilH. (K) 
 The tinancial legislation enacted by the ('ongress. 
 ^ I. Tliesi- olTcnsi's shall Ih' di'llncd in a special 
 law, 5; 'i. Another law sliall provide for the 
 chargi'S, the trial, and the |iid.Lrnu'nt. ^ !l. Both 
 these laws sliall be enacted In the tlrst session of 
 the (Irst ('ongres.s. 
 
 Art. 55. The iiidlciiil power of the Union sliall 
 be lodged in a federal supreme court sitting in 
 the capital of the Republic, and as inaiiv inferior 
 federal courts anil Iribiinals, dislributcil through 
 the country, as llie Congress shall create. 
 
 Art. S6. The federal Kupreme court shall be 
 composed of tlfteen justices, appointed under tlie 
 provisions of article 4H, No. \'i. from among tlie 
 oldest thirty citizens of well-known knowledge 
 and reputation who may be eligible to the Senate. 
 
 Art. S7- The federal justices shall hold olllce 
 for life, being removable solely by juiliclal sen- 
 tence. SI- Their salaries shall be llxed by law 
 of the (."(ingress, and can not be diminisheil. ,5 3. 
 The Senate shall try the meiiiliers of the federal 
 supreme court for crimes of responsibility, and 
 this latter the lower federal judges. 
 
 Art. s8. The federal courts shall choo.si! their 
 presidents from among their own members, and 
 shall organize their respective clerical corps. 
 S 1. In tliese corps the appointment and dis- 
 inissal of the respective clerks, as well as the (III- 
 ing of the judicial otilces in the respective judi- 
 cial districts, shall belong to the presidents of tlie 
 respective^ couits. ij 2. The President of the 
 Republic shall appoint from among tlie members 
 of the federal .supreme court the attorney-general 
 of the Republic, wliose duties sliall be dullned by 
 law. 
 
 Art. S9- To the federal supreme court shall 
 belong till duty of — (1) Trying and judging by 
 original and exclusive jtiri.sdietion — (a) Tlie 
 President of the Republic for common (Times, 
 and tlio cabinet ministers in the cases specilied 
 in article 53. (h) ,The ministers of tlie diplomatic 
 corps for common crimes and those of respimsi- 
 bility. (c) Cases and disputes between the .States 
 and the Union, or between the States one with 
 another. ('/) Disputes nnd claims between for- 
 eign states and the Union, or between foreign 
 nations and the States, (e) Conilicts between the 
 federal courts one with anotlier, or between these 
 nnd those of the States, as well as those between 
 the courts of one State and those of another. 
 (2) Deciding, on appeal, (iiiestions pronounced 
 upon by the lower federal courts and tribunals, 
 ns well as those mentioned in § 1 of the present 
 article and in article 60. (3) Reviewing the pro- 
 ceedings of flnislied trials, under the jirovisions 
 of article 81. ^ 1. Decisions of State courts in 
 last appeal can be carried to the federal supremo 
 court — (a) AViien the validity or application of 
 the federal laws or l...'aties is called in (juestion 
 and the decisioL - f the St.ite court shall be 
 against the same, (h) "When the validity of laws 
 or acts of the governments of the States in respect 
 to I .e Constitution or of the federal laws is con- 
 tested and the State court shall have decided in 
 favor of the validity of the acts or laws in ques- 
 tio.i. § 3. In tlie cases which involve the appli- 
 cation of the laws of the States, the federal court 
 shall consult the jurisprudence of the local tribu- 
 nals, and vice versa, the State court shall consider 
 
 522 
 
CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 CONHTITIITION OP nUAZIt,, 
 
 • hut of till' frdcriil trll)iiimlH wlini llic iiitcrprctn- 
 tloli of till! liiwH of till! I'liiciti Is Involved. 
 
 Art, 60. It hIiiiII Ih'Ioiik totlir frilrritl roiirtx to 
 di'cldc — (") t'liwH In widcli the iilalntllT or llir 
 (Icfcndant Hlmll rest tti<; case on sonir provision of 
 the federal ConHtitution. (/>) All suits lirouKl>t 
 aKailist the (iovernnient of the I'nion or the na- 
 tional treasury Imscd on constitiitional provisions, 
 on the laws'and regulations of the executive 
 power, or on contracts made with tlie said <}ov- 
 cnunent. (c) Hidts arising from eompeiisations, 
 claims, indemnilication of dama^;es, or any others 
 •vliatsocviT lirouKht by the ((overninenl of the 
 Union against private individuals, and vice versa. 
 (il) MliKations hetwecn a States and the eiti/ens 
 of another, or lictwcen citizens of dilTerent Slates 
 liaving dllTeronces in their laws, (c) Suits be- 
 tween fort'ijfii states and Itra/.ilian citizens. (/) 
 Actions begun by foreigners, and based either on 
 contracts with the Ferlcral Oovernment or on 
 conventions or treaties of the I'liion with other 
 nations. (</) Questions of maritime law and 
 navigation, whether on tlu' sea or on the rivers 
 and lakes of the country. (/() (Questions of inter- 
 national law, whether crindnal or civil. (/) Po- 
 litical crimes. i5 1. ("ongress is forliidden to 
 conunit any part of the federal jurisdiction to 
 the Stale courls. § 3. Heutenccs and orders of 
 tlic federal judges will be ctecuted by federal 
 <>ourt olBcers, and the local police shall assist 
 them when called upon by the same. 
 
 Art. 61. 'I'he decisions of the State courts or 
 tribunals in matters within their competence 
 shall put an end to the suits and questions, ex- 
 cept as to (1) habeas corpus, or (2) elTccts of a 
 foreigner deceased in cases not provided for bv 
 convention or treaty. In such cases there shall 
 be voluntary recourse to the federal supreme 
 court. 
 
 Art. 62. The State courts shall not have the 
 power to Intervene In (luestions subnutted to the 
 federal tribunals, or to annul, alter, or suspend 
 the sentences or orders of these latter; and, recip- 
 rocallv, the federal judiciary can not interfere in 
 questions submitted to the State courts, or annul, 
 alter, or suspend their decisions or orders, except 
 In the cases provided in this Constitution. 
 
 Art. 65. Each State shall be governed by the 
 constitution and laws which it shall adopt, respect 
 l)clng observed for the coustitutional principles of 
 the Union. 
 
 Art. 64. The unexplored mines and wild lands 
 lying within the States shall belong to these 
 States respectively; and to the Union only as 
 much territory as may be nccessi\ry for the de- 
 fense of the frontiers, for fortiflcationa, nulitary 
 VorKs, and federal railways. Sole paragrnph. — 
 The national properties, not necessary for the 
 service of the Union, shall pass to the domain of 
 the States in whose territory they may be situ- 
 ated. 
 
 Art. 65. The States shall have the right to — 
 (1) Conclude agreements and conventions among 
 themselves, if such be not of a political character. 
 (Article 48, No. 16.) (2) Exercise in general any 
 and every power or right not deui'ul expressly 
 by the Constitution, or implicitly in its express 
 terms. 
 
 Art. 66. It is forbidden to the States to— (1) 
 Kefuse to recognize public documents of tlie 
 Union, or of any of t)»e States, of a legislative, 
 arlministiative, or judiciol character. (2) Reject 
 tlie currency or notes issued by banks, which 
 
 clrculiite by act of the Fcclcral (Jovernmcnt. 
 (II) iMake or (hrlarc war, r)ne with another, or 
 make reprisals. (J) Refuse tlie extradition of 
 criiidiials drmanded by the justice of other .Stall's, 
 or of the Feileral District, in coiifdrmlty with the 
 laws id ('iiiigress wliieli relate to tills subject. 
 (Arllih-ll, No. !t2.) 
 
 Art. 67. Save the rcslrlctlnns specitled in Ihe 
 Ciinstllution. and the federal laws, the Federal 
 Distrirl shall be governed directly by the iiiuiilci- 
 \n\\ authorillis. Sol,-, jkirdijrdiih. — Kxpenses of a 
 local character in llie lapilal of the Re|>ulillc 
 imist be provided fur i'.\clu><ivcly by the muiiiii- 
 pal aiillioritii's. 
 
 Art. 68. The States shall orguiiize tlieinselves 
 in such n iiiaimcr as to assure the autonomy of 
 the municipalltii's in ('Very thing that coucema 
 their peculiar interests. 
 
 Art. 69. The following shall be Ilrazilian 1 ,tl- 
 zcns: (I) Natives of Hrazil. thougli of I'orclgn 
 parentage (father), provided hi- be not in tlie .ser- 
 vice of ills nation. (2) Sons of a Hiazilian falliir, 
 and illegitimate sons of a Brazilian mother, born 
 in foreign parts, if they take up their nsidinei) 
 (domicile) in the republic. (H) Sons of a Ilrazil- 
 ian father who may be in another country in tlie 
 service of the Republic, although tliey do not 
 make their domicile hi Hra/.il. (4) Foreigners, 
 who, being in Hrazil on the l,'5tli of November, 
 1881), shall not declare, within (1 months from the 
 time when the Cimstitutloii enters into force, 
 their desire to pre,m'rve their original iialionalily. 
 (5) Foreigners who possess property (real estate) 
 in Hrazil and arc married to lirazilian women, or 
 have Hraziliau children, provided they reside in 
 Hrazil, unless they shall declare their iiitention 
 of not changing their nationality. (6) Foreign- 
 ers naturalized lu any other way. 
 
 Art. 70. Citizens of more than 21 years of age, 
 and registered according to law, shall be electors. 
 55 1. The following shall not be registered as 
 electors for federal or State elections: (1) Beg- 
 gars. (2) Persons ignorant of the alphabet, (it) 
 Soldiers on pay, except alumni of the military 
 sch'ools of higher instruction. (4) Members of 
 monastic orders, companies, congregations, or 
 communities of whatsoever denomination, who 
 are subject to vows of obedience, rule, or statute, 
 which implies the surrender of individual liberty. 
 ^5 2. Citizens who can not be registered shall not 
 be eligible. 
 
 Art. 71. The rights of the Hrazilian citizen 
 can be suspended or lust only in the following 
 cases: ^ 1. The rights may be suspended — (<() 
 For physical or monil incapacity, (b) For crimi- 
 nal conviction, during the operation of the .sen- 
 tence. § 2. Tliey may bo lost — (n) By naturali- 
 zation in a foreign country, (h) By acceptance 
 of employment or pension from a foreign power, 
 without permission of tlie federal executive. ^ 3. 
 Tlio means of reacquiring lost riglits of the Bra- 
 zilian citizen shall be specitled by federal law. 
 
 Art. 72. Tlie Constitution secures 10 Hrazil- 
 ians ami foreigners residing in the country the 
 inviolability of their rights touching individual 
 liberty, and security, and projierty. in tlie fol- 
 lowing terms: § 1.* No person sliall be forced 
 to do, or leave undone, luiything whatever, ex- 
 cei)t by virtue of law. (5 2. Before the law all 
 persons are equal. The Republic does not recog- 
 nize privileges of birth, or titles of nobility, and 
 abolishes all existing honorary orders, with all 
 their prerogatives and decorations, as well as all 
 
 523 
 
CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP BRAZIL. 
 
 liercditury und coiiciliar titles. § 3. All persons 
 ami ri'li)iiouH profegsions miiy exercise, publicly 
 and freely, the riglit of worship, and may asso- 
 ciate themselves for that purpose, acquire prop- 
 erty, observance being had to the provisions of 
 the common law. t^ 4. The Uepubiic recognizes 
 only the civil marriage, the celebration of which 
 shall lie gratuitou.s. s^ li. The cemeteries shall be 
 secular m character, and be managed by the 
 municipal authorities, being free to all religious 
 st^cts for the exercise of tlieir respective rites as 
 regards their membert, provided they do not 
 oitend public morals or the laws. t$ 6. The in- 
 struction given in the public institutions shall be 
 secular. S 7. No sect or church shall receive 
 ofUcial aid, nor be dependent on, nor connected 
 with, the Government of the Union, or of the 
 States. § 8. AH persons have the right of free 
 association and -usscmbly, without arms; and the 
 police force shall not intxirvene, except to main- 
 tain the public order. <^ 0. Any person wliatso- 
 ever shall have the right to address, by petition, 
 the public powers, deuoimcc abuses of the authori- 
 ties, and appeal to the responsibility of the 
 accused. S 10- I'i time of peace any person 
 may, without pasf port, enter or loavc the terri- 
 tory of the Kepul;lic,witli his fortune and goods, 
 whenever and however he may choose. § 11. 
 The house is the inviolable asylum of the person; 
 no one can enter it at night without tlie consent 
 of the inhabitant, except to aid the victims of a 
 crime or disaster; nor by day, unless in the ca.ses 
 and in the form prescribed by law. g 12. The 
 expression of opinion shall be free, in respect to 
 whatever sabject, tlirough the press or through 
 the tribune, v/ithout subjection to censorship, 
 eacli one bein'j responsible for the abuses he may 
 commit, in tha cases and in the form prescribed 
 by law. Anonymous publications arc forbidden, 
 g 13. Cases of flagrante delicto alone excepted, 
 no arrest shall be made, unless after declara- 
 tion of the charge (save in cases determined by 
 law), and by written order of the competent 
 autiiorities. § 14. No person shall be kept in 
 prison without charge formally made, save- the 
 exceptions mentioned in the law, or talien to 
 prison, or diitained there, if he give bail, in cases 
 where such is lawful. § 15. No person shall bo 
 condemned, except by competent authority, and 
 in virtue of law alrea<ly existing and in the form 
 prescribed by it. § 16. The law shall secure to 
 the accused the fullest defense by all the re- 
 courses and means essential to the sitme, includ- 
 ing the notice of the charge, delivered to the 
 prisoner within 24 hours and signed by the pro- 
 per author ,ty along with the names of the accu- 
 sers and witnesses. §17. The rights of property 
 arc maint lined in all their plenitude, and no 
 disupprop .nation shall be made, er-^ept from ne- 
 cessity or public utility, and indemnity shall, in 
 such caseti, be made beforehan'i. Mines belong 
 to tlic owners of tlie soil, under tl j limitations 
 to be cstiblished by the la'" U encourage the 
 developnent of this branch -^ .adustry. §18. 
 Correspc ndence under seal is in\ lolable. § 19. No 
 penalty shall extend beyond the person of tlie 
 delinquent. § 20. The penalty of the galleys is 
 abolished, as also judicial banishment. § 21. 
 The death penalty is abolished, except in the 
 cases under military law in time of war. g 22. 
 The hiibcas corpus shall always be granted wben 
 the icdividual suffers violence or compulsion, 
 through illegality or abuse of power, or considers 
 
 himself in imminent danger of the same. § 23. 
 There shall be no privileged tribunal, except in 
 such cases as, from their nature, belong to special 
 courts. § 24. The free exercise of any profes- 
 sion, moral, intellectual, or industrial, is guanm- 
 tied. § 25. Industrial inventions belong to their 
 authors, to whom the law will grant a temporary 
 privilege, or to whom the Congress will give a 
 reasonable premium, w lien it is desirable to make 
 the invention public property. § 26. To authors 
 of literary and artistic works is guarantied tlie 
 exclusive right of reproducing them through the 
 press or by any other mechanical pnxiess, and 
 tlieir heirs shall enjoy the same right during the 
 tipace of time dutermined by the law. § 27. The 
 law shall also secure the riglits of property in 
 trade-marKs. § 28. No Brazilian can be deprived 
 of his civil and political riglits on u'-count of 
 religious belief or duty, nor lie cxt mpted from 
 the performance of any civic duty. 55 29. Those 
 who sliall claim exemption from any i)urden im- 
 posed by tlie laws of the Itepublie on its citizens, 
 on account of religious belief, or who shall accept 
 any foreign decoration or title of nobility, sha'l 
 lose all their political rights. § 30. No tax >{ 
 any kind shall be collected except in virtue of a 
 law authorizing tlie same. § 31. The institutioa 
 of trial by jury is maintained. 
 
 Art. 73. i'ublic offices, civil or military, are 
 accessible to all Brazilian citizens, always observ- 
 ing the conditions of particular capacity fixed 
 by the law; but the accumulation of remunera- 
 tions is forbidden. 
 
 Art. 74. Conunissions, offices, and positions 
 not subject to removal are guarantied in all their 
 plenitude. 
 
 Art. 75. Only such public officials as have be- 
 come infirm in tlie service of the nation shall be 
 retired on paj'. 
 
 Art. 76. Officers of the army and navy shall 
 lose their commissions only in case of condemna- 
 tion to more than 2 years in prison, pronounced 
 in judgment by the competent tribunals. 
 
 Art. 77. There shall bo a special court for the 
 trial of military offenses committed by soldiers 
 or marines. § 1. This court shall be composed 
 of a supreme military tribunal, whose members- 
 shall hold their seats for life, and of the councils 
 necessary for the formulation of tlie charge and 
 the judgment of the crimes. §2. The organiza- 
 tion and pov/ers of the supreme military tribunal 
 shall be determined by law. 
 
 Art. 78. The enumeration of the rights and 
 guaranties expressed in the Constitution docs not 
 exclude other guaranties and rights, not enumer- 
 ated, but resulting from the form of government 
 established and principles settled by said Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 Art. 79. The citizen vested with the functions- 
 of either of these three federal powers shall not 
 exercise those of another. 
 
 Art. 80. Any part of the territory of the Union 
 may be declared in state of siege, and the consti- 
 tutional guaranties suspended for a determined 
 period, whenever the security of the Republic 
 so demands in case of foreign aggression or in- 
 testine disturbance. (Article 34, No. 21.) § 1. 
 The power to execute the above provision may, 
 if the Congress be not in session and the country 
 be in imminent peril, be used by the federal 
 executive. (Article 48, No. 15.) § 2. In the 
 cxercis' of this power, during the state of siege, 
 the executive shall be restricted to the following 
 
 524 
 
CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF HR \7IL. 
 
 measures of repression against persons: (1) To 
 tliclr detention in a place not allotted to persons 
 accused of common crimes. (2) To banishment 
 to other parts of the national territory. S 3. As 
 soon as the Congress shall have asfembled, th(,' 
 President of the Republic shall make a report to 
 that body of the exceptional measures which 
 may have been taken. S 4. Tlie authorities who 
 shall have ordered such measures shall be re- 
 sponsible for any abuses that may have been com- 
 mitted. 
 
 Art. 8i. In criminal cases, trials concluded 
 may be reviewed at any time, in favor of the 
 condemned ])arties, by the federal supreme court, 
 for the purpose of correcting or of confirming tluj 
 sentence. ;? 1. The law shall tletermine the cases 
 and the form of such revision, which may be 
 asked for by the condemned, by any one of the 
 people, or by the attorney-general of the Repub- 
 lic, ex officio. § 2. In such revision the penalties 
 imposed by viie sentence reviewed can not be iu- 
 tTeased. § 3. The provisions of the present ar- 
 ticle are applicable to military trials. 
 
 Art. 82. Public officers shall be strictly rc- 
 8)K)nsible for the abuses and omissions that occur 
 in the exercise of the duties of their offices, as 
 well as for the indulgences and negligences for 
 which they do not hold their subordinates re- 
 sponsible. Sole paragraph. — They shall all be 
 bomid by formal obligation, on takmg possession 
 of their offices, to discharge the lawful duties of 
 the same. 
 
 Art. 83. Until revoked, the laws of the aneien 
 regime shall remain in force, in as far as they 
 are not, explicitly or implicitly, contrary to the 
 system of government established by the Con- 
 stitution, and to the principles laid down in the 
 Biune. 
 
 Art. 84. The federal government guaranties 
 the payment of the public debt, both internal 
 and foreign. 
 
 Art. 85. The officers of the line and of the an- 
 nexed classes of tlw navy shall liave the same 
 commissions and advantage as those of the army 
 of corresponding rank. 
 
 Art. 86. Every Brazilian shall be bound to 
 military service in defense of the country and 
 the Constitution, as provided by the federal laws. 
 
 Art. 87. The federal army shall be made up 
 of contingents which the states and tlie Federal 
 District are bound to furnish, constituted in con- 
 formity with the annual law regulating the num- 
 ber of the forces. § 1. The general organization 
 of the army shall be determined by a federal law, 
 in accordance with No. 18 of article 34. § 2. 
 The Union shall have charge of the military in- 
 struction of the troops and of the higher military 
 instruction. § 3. Compulsory recruiting for mili- 
 tary purposes is abolished. § 4. The army and 
 navy shall be made up by volunteering without 
 bounties, or, if this means be not sufficient, by 
 lot previously determined. The crews for the 
 navy shall be made up from the naval school, 
 the schools of marine apprentices, and the mer- 
 chant marine, by means of lot. 
 
 Art. 88. In no case, either directly or indi- 
 rectly, alone or in alliance with another nation, 
 shall the United States of Brazil engage in a war 
 of conquest. 
 
 Art. 89. A tribunal of accounts shall be insti- 
 tuted for the auditing of the receipt and expense 
 accounts and examining into their legality before 
 their presentation to the Congress. The mem- 
 
 bers of this tribunal shall be appointed by the 
 President of llie Republic, with the approval of 
 tlie Senate, and can lose their seats only by sen- 
 tence. 
 
 Art. 90. The Constitution may be amended, at 
 tlie initiative of the national Congress, or of the 
 legislatures of tiie States. S 1- ^^ amendment 
 shiiU be considered as proposed, when, having 
 been presented by one-fourlh, at least, of the 
 members of either house of the Congress, it shall 
 have been accepted in three readings (discussions) 
 by two-tliirds of the votes in both houses of the 
 Congress, or when it slmll have been asked for 
 by two-thirds of the Staies represented, each one 
 by a majority of the votes of its legislature, said 
 votes to be taken in the courst; of 1 year, t^ 2. 
 The proposed amendment shall be considered 
 ajiproved, if, in the following year, after three 
 discussions, it shall have been adopted by a ma- 
 jority of two-thirds of the votes in the two 
 houses of the Congress. § 3. The amendment 
 adopted shall be published with the signatures 
 of the presidents and clerks of the two chambers, 
 and be incorporated into the Constitution as a 
 part of the same. 55 4. No project having a ten- 
 dency to abolish the fedemtive republican form, 
 or the equal representation of the States in the 
 Senate, shall be admitted for consideration in the 
 Congress. 
 
 Art. 91. This Constitution, after approval, 
 shall be promulgated by the president of the 
 Congress and signed by the members of the 
 same. 
 
 Temporary Provisions. 
 
 Article i. After the promulgation of this Con- 
 stitution, the Congress, in joint lussembly, shall 
 choose 'Consecutively, by an absolute majority of 
 votes in the first balloting, and, if no candidate! 
 shall receive such, by a plurality in the second 
 balloting, the President and Vice; President of the 
 United States of Brazil. §1. This election shall 
 be in two distinct ballotings, for the President 
 and Vice President respectively, the ballots for 
 President being taken anl counted, in the first 
 place, and afterwards f( r Vice President. § 2. 
 The President and Vice President, thus elected, 
 shall occupy the Presidency and Vice Presidency 
 of the Republic during the first Presidential 
 term, g 3. For said election there shall be no 
 incompatibilities admitted. § 4. As soon as said 
 election shall be concluded, the Congress shall 
 consider as terminated its mission in joint session 
 and, separating into Chamber and Senate, shall 
 enter upon the exercise of its functions as de- 
 fined by law, on the 15th of June of the present 
 year, and can not in any case be dissolved, g 5. 
 In the first year of the first legislature, among its 
 preparatory measures, the Senate shall designate 
 the first and second third of its members, whose 
 term of office shall cease at the end of the first 
 and second 3-ycar terms, t!, 6. The discrimina- 
 tion shall be made in three lists, corresponding 
 to the three classes, alloting to them the senators 
 of each State and of the Federal District accord- 
 ing to the number of votes received by them 
 respectively, so as to allot to the third for the 
 last 3 years the one receiving the highest number 
 of votes in the Federal District and in each State, 
 and to the otlier two-thirds the remaining two 
 names in the order of the numlier of votes re- 
 ceived by them respectively. §7. In case of tie, 
 the oldest shall be preferred, and if the ages are 
 equal, the choice shall be made by lot. 
 
 525 
 
CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 Art. 2. The State which, by tlio end of the 
 year 1802, Nhiill not Imvu adopted its constitu- 
 tion, shall, by act of the fedeml legislative power, 
 be placed iinder that of one of the other States, 
 which it shall judge most suitable, until the 
 State tlius subjected to said constitution shall 
 amend it in the manner provided in the same. 
 
 Art. 3. As fast as the States shall be organized, 
 the Federal Government shall deliver to them 
 the administration of the services which belong 
 to them, and shall settle tin; responsibility of the 
 fedend administration in all that relates to said 
 services and to the payment of the respective 
 officials. 
 
 Art. 4. While, during the period of organiza- 
 tion of their services, the States shall be engaged in 
 regulating t heir expenses,the Federal Government 
 shall, fortius purpose, open spechd credits to them, 
 under conditions detertnined by the Congress. 
 
 Art. 5. In llie States which shall become or- 
 ganized the classiflcation of the revenues estab- 
 lished in the C'onstituti<m shall enter into force. 
 
 Art. 6. In the first appointments for the federal 
 magistracy and for that of the States, the pre- 
 ference shall be given to the justices and magis- 
 trates of the higher courts of the greatest note. 
 Such as are not admitted into the new organiza- 
 tion of the judiciary, and have served 30 years, 
 shall be retired on full pay. Those who have 
 
 served for less than 30 years shall continue to 
 receive their salaries umil they shall be em- 
 ployed, or retired with pay corresponding to 
 their length of service. The payment of salaries 
 of magistrate 'etired or set aside shall be made 
 by the FeOf ..1 Government. 
 
 Art. 7. J., 1). Pedrode Alcantara, ex-Emperor 
 of Brnz.i, a pension is granted, to run from the 
 15th of November, 1889, siitlicient to guaranty 
 him a decent subsisttmce during liis lifetime. 
 The Congress, at its first session, shall fix the 
 amount of said pension. 
 
 Art. 8. Tlie Federal Government shall acquire 
 for the ni'tion the house in which Dr. Bcujamin 
 Constant Botelho de MagalliAes died, and shall 
 have placed on it a memorial slab in memory of 
 that great patriot, the founder of the Republic. 
 ik)le paragraph. — The widow of the said Dr. Ben- 
 janun Constant shall have, during her lifetime, 
 the usufruct of the said house. \Vu order, then, 
 all the authorities to whom the recognition and 
 execution of this Constitution belongs, to exe- 
 cute it and have it executed and observed faith- 
 fully and fully in all its provision?. Let the 
 same be published and observed throughout the 
 territory of the nation. Hall of the sessions of 
 the National Constitutional Congress, in the city 
 of Rio de Janeiro, in the year 1891, and the 
 third of the Republic. SeeBuAZiL: 1889-1891. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CALIFORNIA.— 
 
 For an account of the main features of this 
 
 singular constitution, see Califounia: A. D. 
 1877-1880. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 A. D. 1774.— The Quebec Act. See Canada : 
 A. D. 1763-1774. 
 
 A. D. 1791.— The Constitutional Act. See 
 Canada: A. D. 1701. 
 
 A. D. 1840.— The Union Act, Bee Canada: 
 A. D. 1840-1807. 
 
 A. D. 1867.— The British North America 
 Act.— The history of t'.:e Confederation of the 
 provinces of British North America, forming the 
 Dominion of Canada, is given briefly under 
 Canada: A. D. 1807. The following is the text 
 of the Act of the Parliament of Great Britain by 
 ■which tho Confederation was formed and its 
 constitution established : 
 
 An Act for the Union of Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick, and the Government 
 thereof; and for purposes connected therewith. 
 aOrn Makcii, 1867. 
 
 Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed 
 their desire to be feuerally united into one 
 Dominion under the Crown of the United King- 
 dom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a con- 
 stitution similar in principle to that of the United 
 Kingdom: And whereas such a Union would 
 conduce to the welfare of the Provinces and pro- 
 mote the interests of the British Empire; And 
 whereas on the establishment of the Union by 
 authority of Parliament it is expedient, not only 
 that the Constitution of the Legislative Authority 
 in the Dominion be provided for, but also that 
 the nature of the Executive Government therem 
 be declored: And whereas it is expedient that 
 provision be made for the eventual admission 
 into the Union of other parts of British North 
 America: Be it therefore enacted ond declared 
 
 b^ the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and 
 with the advice and consent of the I.irds 
 Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this 
 present Parliament assembled, and by the 
 authority of the same, as follows : 
 
 1. This Act may be cited as The British North 
 America Act, 1867. 
 
 2. The provisions of this Act referring to Iler 
 Majesty the Queen extend also to the heirs and 
 successors of Her Majesty, Jlings and Queens of 
 W\p United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 3. It shall be lawful for the Queen, by and 
 with the advice of Her Majesty's Most Honour- 
 able Privy Council, to declare by Proclamation 
 that, on and after a day therein appointed, not 
 being more than six months after the passing of 
 this Act, the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick shall form and be one 
 Dominion under the name of Canada; and on 
 and after that day those three Provinces shall 
 form and be one Dominion under that name 
 accordingly. 
 
 4. The subsequent provisions ^i this Act 
 shall, unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, 
 commence and have effect on and after the 
 Union, that is to say, on and after the day ap- 
 pointed for the Union taking effect in theQw\'n's 
 Proclamation ; and in the same provisions, unless 
 it is otherwise expressed or implied, the name 
 Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as con- 
 stituted i;uder this Act. 
 
 5. Canada shall be divided into four Prov- 
 inces, named Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 6. The parts of the Province of Canada ''is it 
 exists at the passing of this Act) which for;aerly 
 
 526 
 
CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 Executive antl 
 Parliament. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 constituted respectively the Provinces of Upper 
 Ciiiiiulii and Lower Ciinadii sliiill ho. deemed to be 
 fievcrcd, and Kimll fonn two separate I'rovinceH. 
 Tlic part wlncli formerly constituted the Prov- 
 ince of Upper Canada shall constitute tlie Prov- 
 ince of Ontario; and tlie ))Hrt which formcrlv 
 constituted the Province of Lower Canada shall 
 constitute tlie Province of Quebec. 
 
 7. The Provinces of Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick shall liavc the sunie limits as at the 
 passinjf of this Act. 
 
 8. In the p;ciieral census of the population of 
 Canada, which is hereby required to be talsen in 
 tlie year one thousand eight hundred and 
 seventy-one, and in every tenth year thereafter, 
 the respective populations of the four Provinces 
 shall be distinguished. 
 
 O. The Executive Government and authority 
 of and over C anada is hereby declared to con- 
 tinue and be vested in the Queen. 
 
 10. The provisions of tliis Act refciring to 
 the Governor General extend and apply to the 
 Governor General for the time being of Canada, 
 or other the Chief Executive Officer cr Ad- 
 ministrator, for tlie time being carrying on tlie 
 Government of Canada on behalf and in the 
 name of the Queen, by whatever title he is 
 designated. 
 
 11. There shall be a Council to aid and advise 
 in the Government of Canada, to bo styled the 
 Queen's Privy Council for Canada; and the 
 persons who are to be members of that Council 
 shal. be from time to time chosen and summoned 
 by tlie Governor General and sworn in as Privy 
 Councillors, and members thereof may be from 
 time to time removed by tlio Governor General. 
 
 12. Ail powers, authorities, and functions 
 which : nr'er any Act of the Parliament of Great 
 Britain, or of i,he Parliament of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the 
 Legislature of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, 
 Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, are at 
 the Union vested in or exerciseable by the re- 
 spective Governors or Lieutenant Governors of 
 those Provinces, with the advice, or with the 
 advice and consent, of tlie respective Executive 
 Councils thereof, or in conjunction with those 
 Councils, or with any number of members 
 tliereof, or by those Governors or Lieutenant 
 Governors individually, sliall, as far as the same 
 continue in existence and capable of being 
 exercised after the Union in relation to the Gov- 
 ernment of Canada, be vested in and exercise- 
 able by the Governor General, with the advice 
 or with the advice and consent of or in conjunc- 
 tion witli the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, 
 or any members thereof, or by tlie Governor 
 General individually, as the case requires, subject 
 nevertheless (except with respect to such as exit 
 under Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain or 
 of the Parliament of Ihe United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland) to be abolished or 
 altered by the Parliament of Canada. 
 
 13. llie provisions of tliis Act referring to the 
 Governor General in Council shall be construed 
 as referring to tlie Governor General acting by 
 and with the advice of the Queen's Privy Council 
 for Canada. 
 
 14. It shall be lawful for the Queen, if Her 
 Majesty thinks fit, to authorize the Governor 
 General from time to time to appoint any person 
 or any persons, jointly or severally, to be hia 
 Deputy or Deputies within any part or parts of 
 
 Canada, and in that capacity to exercise during 
 tlie iilcasiire of the Governor General such of the 
 powers, authorities, and functions of the Gov- 
 ernor General as the Governor General deems it 
 nccf'.ssury and expedient to a.ssign to him or 
 them, sultjcct to any limitations or directions ex- 
 pressed or given by the Queen; but the appoint- 
 ment of such a Deputy or Deputies shall not 
 aiTect the exercise by the Governor General him- 
 self or any power, authority or function. 
 
 15. ''"he Command-iu-Chief of the liand and 
 Naval AL.litia, and of all Naval and Milit'S'-y 
 Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to 
 continue and be vested in the tju<'en. 
 
 lO. Until the Queen otherwise directs, the 
 reat of Government of Canada sliall be (Jitawa. 
 
 17. There shall be one Parliament for Canada, 
 consisting of the Queen, an Upjier House styled 
 tlie Senate, and tlie House of C;oninions. 
 
 18. The privileges, immunities, and powers 
 to be held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Senate 
 and by the House of Commons, and by the 
 members thereof respectively, sliall be such aa 
 are from time to time defined by Act of the 
 Parliament of Canada, but so that the same shall 
 never exceed those at the passing of this Act 
 held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons 
 Hovise of Parliament of the I iiited Kingdom 
 of Great Britain and Ireland anil Ly the members 
 thereof. 
 
 13. The Parliament of Canada shall be called 
 together not later than six months after the 
 Union. 
 
 20. There shall be a Session of the Parliament 
 of, Canada once at least in every year, so that 
 twelve months shall not intervene between the 
 last sitting of the Parliament in one Session and 
 its first sitting in the next Session. 
 
 21. The Senate shall, subject to the pro- 
 visiorsof this Act, consist of seventy-two mem- 
 bers, who shall be styled Senators. 
 
 22. In relation to the constitution of the 
 Senate, Canada shall bo deemed to consist of 
 three divisions — 1. Ontario; 2. Quebec; 3. The 
 Maritime Provinces, Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick ; which tlirce divisions sliall (subject 
 to the provisions of this Act) be equally repre- 
 sented in the Senate as follows: Ontario by 
 twenty-four Senators; QuebC'; by twenty-four 
 Senators; and the Maritime Pre vinces by twenty- 
 four Senators, twelve thereof 'epresenting Nova 
 Scotia, and twelve thereof representing New 
 Brunswick. In the ease of Quebec each of the 
 twenty-four Senotors repres'nting tliat Province 
 shall be appointed for one of the twenty-four 
 Electoral Divisions of Lower Canada specified in 
 Schedule A. to chapter one of the Consolidated 
 Statutes of Canada. 
 
 23. The qualification of a Senator sliall be as 
 follows: — Cj He shall be of the full age of 
 thirty years: (2) He shall be eitiicr a natural 
 born subject of the Queen, or a subject of the 
 Queen naturalized by an Act of tlie Parliament 
 of Great Britain, or of tlie Parliament of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or 
 of the Legislature of one of the Provinces of 
 Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, or New Brunswick, before the Union, or 
 of the Parliament of C:inada after the Union: 
 (3) He shall be legally or equitably .seised as of 
 freehold for his own use and benetic of lands or 
 tenements held in free and comnion socage, or 
 seised or possessed for his own use and benefit of 
 
 m 
 
CONHTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 Settatr 
 and Commong. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 lands or teneincnU licld in frunc-allcti or in 
 rot UK', witliin till! Province for wlilcli In- is np- 
 piiiiitc'd, of till' valiiL' of four thousand dollars, 
 over and al)ov(.' all rents, dues, debts, cliarges, 
 inortguK<'s, and ineunil)ranees due or jiayaMe out 
 of or eliarged on or alTeeting tlu; same: (4) His 
 real an<l personal property shall be together 
 worth 1|4,<MH) over antl al)ovc his debts and 
 liabilities: (5) lie shall be resident in the Prov- 
 iniw for which he is ajjpoiiiU'd: ((t) In the case 
 of Quebec he shall have his real property 
 qualitiealion in the Electoral 'Jivjsion for which 
 he is appointed, or shall hr resident in that 
 Division, 
 
 24. The Governor General shall from time to 
 time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under 
 the Great Seal of Canada, summon (iiniliticd 
 persons to the Senate ; and, stibject to the jiro- 
 visions of this Act, every person so summoned 
 shall become and be a member of the Senate and 
 11 Senator. 
 
 25. Such iiersons shall be lirst summoned to 
 the Senate as the Queen by warrant under Her 
 Majesty's Uoyal Sign Manual thinks lit to ap- 
 prove, and their names shall be inserted in the 
 Queen's Proclamation of Union. 
 
 2((. If at any time on the recommendation of 
 the Governor General the (^uecn thinks lit to 
 direct that three or six members be a(hh'd to the 
 Senate, the Governor General may by sununons 
 to three or six qualified persons (as the case maj' 
 be), representing cqinilly the three divisions of 
 Canada, add to tlie Senate accordingly. 
 
 27. In case of such addition being iit any 
 time made the Governor General shall not 
 suiumon any person to the Senate, except on a 
 further like direction liy the Queen on the like 
 recommendation, until each of the three divisions 
 of Canada is represented by twenty -four Senators 
 and no more. 
 
 28. 'liie innnbcr of Senators shall not at any 
 time exceed seventy-eight. 
 
 29. A Senator shall, subject to the provisions 
 of this Act, hold his place 1 1 the Senate for life. 
 
 JJO. A Senator may by writing under his hand 
 addressed to the Governor General resign bis 
 place in the Senate, and thereupon ' the same 
 shall be vacant. 
 
 31. The place of a Senator shall become 
 vacant in any of the following cases: (1) If for 
 two consecutive Sessions of the Parliament he 
 fails to give his attendance in the Senote : (2) If 
 he takes an oath or makes a declaration or 
 acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or ad- 
 herence to a foreign power, or does an act 
 ■whereby he becomes a subject or citizen, or 
 entitled to the rights or privileges of a subject or 
 citizen of ;: foreign power; (3) If he i° adjudged 
 V-. .jl 'upt or insolvent, or applies for the benefit 
 ol any law relating to insolvent debtors, or be- 
 comes a public defaulter: (4) If he is attnintcd 
 of treason or convicted of felony or of uny in- 
 famous crime: (5) If he ceases to be qualified in 
 respect of ])roperty or of residence; provided, 
 that a Senator shall not be deemed to have ceaseil 
 to be qmilified in respect of residence by reason 
 only of his residing at the seat of the Govern- 
 ment of Canada while holding an office under 
 that Government requiring his presence there. 
 
 •)2. When a vacancy happens in tlie Senate 
 by resignation, death, or otherwise, the Governor 
 General shall by s\in'mons to u fit and qualified 
 person fill the vacancy. 
 
 Sii. If any question arises respecting the 
 (|ualitic4»tlon of a Senator or a vacancy In the 
 Senate the same shall be heard and determined 
 by the Senate. 
 
 JI4. The Governor Gennvl may from time to 
 time, by instrument under the Great Seal of 
 Canada, appoint a Senator to be Speaker of the 
 Senate, and may remove him and appoint another 
 in his stead. 
 
 U5. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwise 
 provides, the presence of at least fifteen Senators, 
 including the Speaker, shall be necessary to con- 
 stitute a meeting of the Senate for the exercise 
 of its powers. 
 
 30. Questions aHsing in the Senate shall bo 
 decided by a majority of voices, and the Speaker 
 shall in all cases have a vote, and when the 
 voices are equal the decision shall be deemed to 
 be in the negative. 
 
 37. The House of Commons shall, subject to 
 the provisions of this Act, consist -jf one hundred 
 and eighty-one members, of whom eighty-two 
 shall be elected for Ontario, sixty-flve for Quebec, 
 nineteen for Nova Scotia, and fli'een for New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 38. Tlie Governor General shall from IJtic to 
 time, in the Queen's name, by instrument under 
 the Great Seal of Canada, summon and call 
 together the House of Commons. 
 
 30. A Senator shall not be capable of being 
 elected or of sitting or voting as a member of the 
 House of Commons. 
 
 40. Until the Parliament of Canada otherwise 
 provides, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and 
 New Brunswick shall, for the purposes of the 
 e'ection of members to serve in the House of 
 l^oinmons, be diviih d into Electoral Districts as 
 follows: — (1) Ontario .shall be divided into the 
 Counties, Ridings of Counties, Cities, parts of 
 Cities, and Towns enumerated in the first 
 Schedule to this Act, each whereof shall be an 
 Electoral District, each iuch District as num- 
 bered in that Schedule being entitled to return 
 one member. (3) Quebec shall be divided into 
 sixty-five Electoral Districts, composed of the 
 sixty-five Electoral Divi^'ons into which Lower 
 Canada is at the past _^ of this Act divided 
 under chapter two of the Consolidated Statutes 
 of Canada, chapter seventy-five of the Con- 
 solidated Statutes for Lower Canada, and the 
 Act of the Province of Canada of the twenty- 
 third year of the Queen, chapter one, or ony 
 other Act amending tlie same in force at the 
 Union, so tliat each such Electoral Division shall 
 be for the purposes of this Act an Electoral Dis- 
 trict entitled to return one member. (3) Each of 
 the eighteen Counties of Nova Scotia shall be 
 an Electond District. The County of Halifax 
 shall be entitled to return two members, and 
 each of the other Counties one memi)er. (4) Each 
 of the fourteen Counties into wliicli New Bruns- 
 wick is divided, including ilie City and County 
 of St. Jolm, shall be an Electoral District; the 
 City of St. Jolin shall also be a separate Electoral 
 District. Each of those fifteen Electorol Dis- 
 tricts shall be entitled to return one member. 
 
 41. Until the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wise rrovides, all laws in force in the several 
 Provinces at the Union relative to the following 
 matters or any of them, namely, — the quoflifica- 
 tious ami disqualifications of persons to be 
 elected or to sit or vote as members of the House 
 of Assembly or Legislative Assembly in the 
 
 528 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 House nf 
 Commons. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 •several Provinces, the voters nt ilcrtions of sueh 
 members, the oaths to be taken by voters, the 
 returning oftlcers, tlieir powers nnd duties, tlic 
 proceedings at elections, tlic periods during 
 wliieh elections may be continued, the trial of 
 controverted elections, and proceedings incident 
 thereto, the vacating of seats of members, and 
 the execution of new writs in case of scatr 
 vacated otlierwise tlian by dissolution, — sliall re 
 spectively apply to elections of members to serve 
 in tlie ifouse of Commons for tlie same several 
 Provinces. Provided tliat, until tlie Parliament 
 of Canada otherwise provides, at any election 
 for a Member of the House of Commons for tlie 
 District of Algoma, in addition to persons 
 qualified by the law of tlu; Province of Canada 
 to vote, every male Britisli subject aged twenty- 
 one years or upwards, being a houseliolder, sliall 
 liave a vote. 
 
 42. For the first election of members to serve 
 in the House of Commons tlie Governor General 
 shall er.use writs to be issued by such person, in 
 such form, and addressed to such returning 
 otlicers as he thinlis fit. The person issuing 
 writs under this section shall have the like 
 powers as are possessed at tlie Union by the 
 otficers charged with tlie issuing of writs for the 
 election of members to serve in the respective 
 House of Assembly o. Legislative Assembly of 
 tlie Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, or Nev 
 Brunswick ; and the Returning Officers to whom 
 ■writs are directed under this section shall have 
 the like powers as are possessed at tlio Union by 
 the officers charged witli the returning of writs 
 for the election of members to serve in the same 
 lesiiectivc House of Assembly or Legislative 
 Aissembly. 
 
 43. In case a vacancy in the representation in 
 the House of Commons of any Electoral Dis- 
 trict happens before the meeting of the Parlia- 
 ment, or after tlic meeting of the Parliament be- 
 fore provision is made by the Parliament in this 
 behalf, the provisions of the last foregoing 
 section of this Act shall extend and apply to tlic 
 issuing and returning of a writ in respect of such 
 vacant District. 
 
 44. The House of Commons on its first as- 
 sembling after a general election shall proceed 
 with all practicable speed to elect one of its 
 members to be Speaker. 
 
 45. In case of a vacancy happening in the 
 offlce of Speaker by death, resignation or other- 
 wise, the House of Commons shall witli all 
 practicable speed proceed to elect another of its 
 members to be Speaker. 
 
 40. Tlie Speaker shall preside at all meetings 
 of the House of Commons. 
 
 47. Until the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wist! provides, in case of the absence for any 
 reason of the Speaker from the chair of tlie 
 House of Commons for a period of forty-eight 
 consecutive hours, the House may elect another 
 of its members to act as Speaker, and the mem- 
 ber so elected shall during tlie continuance of 
 sucli absence of the Speaker have and execute 
 all the powers, privileges, and duties of Speaker. 
 
 48. The presence of at least twenty members 
 of tlic House of Commons shall be necessary to 
 constitute a meeting of the House for tlie exercise 
 of its powers, and for that purpose the Speaker 
 shall be reckoned as a member. 
 
 49. Questions arising in the House of Com- 
 mons shall be decided by a majority of voices 
 
 other than that of the Speaker, and when the 
 voices are equal, but not otherwise, tlie Speaker 
 sliall have a vote. 
 
 50. Every Hoitse of Commons sliall continue 
 for five years from tlie day of the return of the 
 writs for clioosing the House (subject to be 
 sooner dissolved by the Governor General), and 
 no longer. 
 
 61. On the completion of the census in the 
 year one thousand eiglit biiiiilred and seventy- 
 one, and of each subs<'(iu('nt decennial census, 
 the representation of the four Provinces shall bo 
 re-adjusted by such aiithorily. in sucli manner 
 and from such time as tlie Parliament of Canada 
 from time to time provides, suliject and accord- 
 ing to the following rules: — (1) Quebec shall 
 have the fixed number of sixty-five members: 
 (2) There shall be assigned to eacli of the other 
 Provinces such a number of members as will 
 bear the same proportion to the number of its 
 population (ascertained in such census) as tlio 
 number sixty-five bears to the number of the 
 population cf Quebec (so a.scertained) : (3) In the 
 computation of the number of members for a 
 Province a fractional part not exceeding one-half 
 of the whole number requisite for entitling the 
 Province to a member shall be disregarded ; but 
 a fractional part exceeding one-half of that 
 number shall be equivalent to the whole num- 
 ber: (4) On any such re-adju.stment the number 
 of members for a Province sliall not be reiluced 
 unless the proportion which the number of the 
 population of tlie Province bore to the number 
 of the aggregate population of Canada at the 
 then last preceding re-adjustment of the number 
 of members for the Province is ascertained at the 
 then latest census to be diminished by one- 
 twentieth part or upwards: (i5) Such readjust- 
 ment shall not take effect until the termination 
 of the then existing Parliament. 
 
 52. The number of members of the House of 
 Commons may be from time to time increased by 
 the Parliament of Canada, provided the pr:>por- 
 tionate representation of tlic Provinces prescribed 
 by this Act is not thereby disturbed. 
 
 53. Bills for appropriating any part of the 
 public revenue, or for imposing any tax or im- 
 post, shall originate in the House of Commons. 
 
 54. It shall not be lawful for the House of 
 Commons to adopt or pass any vote, resolution, 
 i'ddress, or bill for the appropriation of any part 
 of the public revenue, or of any tax or impost, 
 to any purpose that has not been first recom- 
 mended to that House by mes-snge of the Gov- 
 ernor General in the Session in wliicli such vote, 
 resolution, address, or bill is proposed. 
 
 55. Where a bill passed by the Houses of the 
 Parliament is presented to the Governor General 
 for the Queen's assent, he shall declare according 
 to his discretion, but subject to the provisions of 
 tliis Act and to Iler Majesty's instructions, either 
 that he assents thereto in the Queen's name, or 
 that he withholds the Queen's assent, or that he 
 reserves the bill for the sifniflcation of the 
 Queen's pleasure. 
 
 50. Where the Governor General assents to a 
 bill in tlie Queen's name, he shall by the first 
 convenient opportunity send an authentic copy 
 of the Act to one of Her Majesty's Principal 
 Secretaries of .jtate, and if the Queen in Council 
 within two years after receipt thereof by the 
 Secretary of State thinks lit to disallow the Act, 
 such disallowance (with a certificate of the Secrc- 
 
 &29 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 Provimuil 
 (Jovenwientt. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 tary of Suite of tlie <liiy on which the Act wiw 
 recolvwi by him) l)einj5 8ii;niflc(l by tlie QoveriiDr 
 Qoneriil, l)y 8|M('c1i i,: aifSHiii^e to cudi of tlie 
 IIoii.scs of !lie I'arliiimciil, or l)y i)r()cliimiitioii, 
 hIihII annul tl:o Act from luiil lifter tlic liay of 
 such siKniticution. 
 
 57. A bill reserved for the signilleation of the 
 Queen's jileasure wliull not have any force unless 
 and until within tw( years from the day on 
 which it was presented to tlie Governor General 
 for the CJuccn'H assent, the Governor General 
 sigtdtlcs, by speech or message to each of *he 
 Houses of the Parliament or by proclamation, 
 that it lias rei'cived the assent of tlie Queen in 
 Council. An entry of every such speech, mes- 
 sage, or proclamation shall be madcin the Journal 
 of eacli Ilou.se, and a duplicate thereof duly at- 
 testtul shall bedelivereil to the proper otUcer to be 
 kept among the Uecords of Cana(la. 
 
 08. For eauh Province tliere shall be an 
 ofllccr, styled the Lieutenant Governor, np- 
 
 fwintei' by the Governor Gt'neral In Council by 
 nstrvnA^'iit under the Great Seal of Canada. 
 
 BO. A Lieutenant Governor shall liold ollice 
 during the pleasure of the Governor General; 
 but any Lieutenant Governor appointed afte; the 
 commencement of the tirst Session of the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada slmll not be removable within 
 five years from his appointment, except for cause 
 assigned, which shall be communicated to him 
 in writing within one month after the order for 
 his removal is made, and shall be communicated 
 by message to the Senate and to the House of 
 dommons within one week thereafter if the 
 Parliament is then sitting, and if not then within 
 one week after the commencement of the next 
 Session of the Parliament. 
 
 00. The salaries of the Lieutenant Governors 
 shall be fixed and provided by the Parliament of 
 Canada. 
 
 01. Every Lieutenant Governor shall, before 
 assuming the duties of his otflce, make and sub- 
 scribe before the Governor General, or some 
 person authorized by him, oaths of allegiance 
 and ofllce similar to those taken by the Governor 
 General. 
 
 02. The provisions of this Act referring to 
 the Lieutenant Governor extend and apply tn the 
 Lieutenant Governor for the time being of 1 ich 
 Province or otiier the chief executive officer or 
 administrator for the time being carrying on the 
 government of the Province, by whatever title 
 he is designated. 
 
 on. The Executive Council of Ontario and of 
 Quebec shall be composed of such persons as the 
 Lieutenant Governor from to time thinks fit, und 
 in tlie first instance of the following officers, 
 namely: — The Attorney-General, the Secretary 
 and Registrar of the Province, the Treosurer of 
 the Province, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, 
 and the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public 
 "W orks, with in Quebec the Speaker of the Legis- 
 lative Council and the Solicitor General. 
 
 04. The Constitution of the Executive 
 Authority in eacli of the Provinces of Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick shall, subject to the 
 provisions of this Act, continue as it exists at the 
 Union until altered under the authority of this 
 Act. 
 
 Of». All powers, authorities, and functions 
 which under any Act of the Parliament of Great 
 Britain, or of the Parliament of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the 
 
 Legislaturo of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, or 
 Canada, were or are before or at the Uuitm 
 vested in or exerciseable by the respective Gov- 
 ernors or Lieutenant Governors of those Prov- 
 inces, with the advice, or with the advice and 
 consent, of the respective Executive Councila 
 tliereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, 
 or with any number of members thereof, or by 
 those Governors or Lieutenant Governors in- 
 dividually, sliall, us far as the same are capable 
 of being exercised after tlie Union in relation to 
 the Government of Ontario and Quebec, n-spec- 
 tively, be vested in, aiul shall or may ■ ^,x- 
 ercised by the Lieutenant Governor of OiiUirio 
 and Quebec respectively, with the adviu' or 
 with the advice and consent of or in conjunction 
 with the respective Executive Councils, or any 
 members thereof, or by the Lieutenant Governor 
 individually, as the case requires, subject never- 
 theless (except with respect to sucli as exist 
 under Acts of the I'arliamcnt of Great Britain, 
 or of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland), to be atiolished or 
 altered by the respective Legislatures of Ontario 
 and Quebec. 
 
 66. The provisions of this Act, referring to 
 the Lieutenant Governor in Council shall be con- 
 strued as refernng to the Lieutenant Governor 
 of the Province acting by and with the advice of 
 the Executive Council thereof. 
 
 67. The Governor General in Council may 
 from time to time appoint an administrator to 
 execute the office and functions of Lieutenant 
 Governor during his absence, illness, or other 
 inability. 
 
 68. Unless and until the Executive Govern- 
 ment of any Province otherwise directs with re- 
 spect to thot Province, the seats of Government 
 of the Provinces shall be as follows, namely, — 
 of Ontario, the City of Toronto ; of Quebec, the 
 City of Quebec; of Nova Scotia, the City ol. 
 Halifax ; and of New Brunswick, the City of 
 Predericton. 
 
 61). There shall be a Legislature for Ontario 
 consisting of the Lieutenant Governor nd of one 
 House, styled the Legislative Assembly of On- 
 tario. 
 
 70. The Legislative Assembly of Ontario 
 shall be composed of eighty-two inembor-s, to be 
 elected to represent the eighty-two Electoral 
 Districts set forth in the first Schedule to this- 
 Act. 
 
 71. There shall be a Legislature for Quebec 
 consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of two 
 HoiLses, styled the Legislative Council of Quebec 
 
 • and the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. 
 
 73. The Legislative Council of Quebec shall 
 be composed of twenty-four members, to be ap- 
 pointed by the Lieutenant Governor in the 
 Queen's name, by instrument under the Great 
 Seal of Quebec, one being appointed to represent 
 each of the twenty -four Electoral Divisions of 
 Lower Canada in this Act referred to, and each 
 holding office for the term of his life, unless the 
 LegLslature of Quebec otherwise provides under 
 the provisions of this Act. 
 
 73. The qualiflcatiuns of the Legislative 
 Councillors of Quebec shall be the same as those 
 of the Senators for Quebec. 
 
 74. Tlie place of a Legislative Councillor of 
 Quebec shall become vacant in the cases, ' mutatis 
 mutandis' in which the place of Senator be- 
 comes vacant. 
 
 530 
 
CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 Provincial 
 Oowmment$. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OK CANADA. 
 
 78. When a vacancy liappenf) In the Legis- 
 lative Council of (Jufl)ec, by resignation, (Iciilli, 
 or otiierwise, tlie Lieutenant Ooveruor, in tlie 
 Queen's niunp, l)y instrument under the Great 
 Heal of Quebec, sl'iall appoint a lit and (luaiilied 
 person to till tlie vacancy. 
 
 7tt. If any ([ucstion arises respecting tlic 
 qualilicatiiin of a Le: 'slativo t'ouncilior of 
 Quebec, or a vacancy in tlie Legislative Council 
 of Quebec, tlie same .shall be heard and de- 
 tcrnnned by the Legislative Council. 
 
 77. The Lieutenant Qovornor may from time 
 to time, by instrument under the Orc:it Heal of 
 Quebec, appoint a member of the Legislative 
 Council of Quebec to be Speaker tliereof, and 
 may remove liim and appoint another in his stead. 
 
 78. Uiitii tlie Legislature of Quebec other- 
 wise jirovides, the presence of at least ten mem 
 ber^ of the Legislative Council, including the 
 Speaker, shall be necessary to constitute a meet- 
 ing for the exercise of its powers. 
 
 70. Questions arising in the Legislative 
 Coiincil of Quebec shall be decided by a majority 
 of voices, and the Speaker shall in all cases have 
 a vote, and when the voices are equal the decision 
 shall be deemed to lie in the negatii i. 
 
 80. The Legislative Assembly of Quebec 
 shall be composed of sixty -five members, to be 
 elected to represent tlic sixty-five Electoral 
 Divisions or Districts of Lower Canada in this 
 Act referred to, subject to alteration thereof by 
 the Legislature of Quebec: Provided that it 
 shall not be lawful to present to the Lieutenant 
 Governor of Quebec for assent any bill for alter- 
 ing tlie limits of any of the Electoral Divisions 
 or Districts mentioned in the second Schedule to 
 this Act, unless the second and third readings of 
 such bill have been passed in tlie Legislative 
 Assembly with the concurrence of the majority 
 of the members representing all those Electoral 
 Divisions or Districts, and the assent .shau not be 
 given to such bills unless an address has been 
 presented by the Legislative Assembly to the 
 Lieutenant Governor stating that it has been so 
 passed. 
 
 81. The Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec 
 respectively shall be called together not later 
 than six months after the Union. 
 
 82. Tlie Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and 
 of Quebec shall from time to time, in the Qu 'en's 
 name, by instrument under the Great Seal of the 
 Province, summon and call together the Legis- 
 lative As.scmbly of the Province. 
 
 83. Until the Legislature of Ontario or of 
 Quebec otherwise provides, a person accepting 
 or holding in Ontario Oi in Quebec any office, 
 commission, or employment, permanent or 
 temporary, at the nomination of the Lieutenant 
 Governor, to which an annual salary, or any fee, 
 allowance, emolument, or profit of any kind or 
 amount wliatever from the Province is attached, 
 shall not be eligible as a member of the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly of the respective Province, nor 
 shall he sit or vote as such ; but nothing in this 
 section shall make ineligible any person being a 
 member of the Executive Council of the respec- 
 tive Province, or holding any of tlie following 
 offices, that is to say, tlie offices of Attorney- 
 General, Secretary and Registrar of the Province, 
 Treasurer of the Province, Commissioner of 
 Crown Lands, and Commissioner of Agriculture 
 and Public Works, and, in Quebec, Solicitor- 
 General, or shall disqualify him to sit or vote in 
 
 tli(> IIou.se for which he is elected, provided he is 
 elected while holding such olllee, 
 
 84. I'litil till- Legislatures of Ontario and 
 Quebec respectively otherwise provi<le. all laws 
 which at the Union are in force in tliost! Prov- 
 i:ices respectively, re'alive io the following 
 matters, or any of tliem. namely,-— the qiialillea- 
 tions and dis(|ualitiiations of persons to bo 
 ;'ectcd or to sit or vote as members of the As- 
 H mblv of Canada, the (|ualilleations or liis- 
 qualilicatioiis of voters, the oatlis to be taken by 
 voters, the Heturning OlUcers, their powers and 
 duties, the proceedings at elections, tlie periods 
 (luring wliicli such elections may be continued, 
 and the trial of controverted erections ami tliu 
 Iiroccedihgs incident thereto, the vacating of the 
 .seats of members and the iss'iiiig and execution 
 of new writs in ease of seats vacated otiierwise 
 than by dissolution, shall resiiectively apply to 
 elections of members to serve in the "respective 
 Legislative Assemblies of Ontario aad Quebec. 
 Provided that until tlie Legislature of Ontario 
 otherwise ))rovides, at anj- election for a member 
 of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario for the 
 District of Algoma, in addition to persctis quali- 
 fied by the law of the Province of Canada to 
 vote, every male British subject, aged twenty- 
 one years or upwards, being a liouseholdcr, shall 
 have a vote. 
 
 85. Every Legislative Assembly of Ontario 
 and every Legislative Assembly of Quebec shall 
 continue for four years from the day of the re- 
 turn of the v.'rits for choosing tlie same (subject 
 nevertheless to either the Legislative Assembly 
 of Ontario or the Legislative Assembly of Quebec 
 being sooner dissolved by the Lieutenant Gov- 
 ernor of the Province), and no longer. 
 
 80. There shall be a session of the Legislature 
 of Ontario and of that of (Jucbec once at least in 
 every year, so that twelve months sliall not 
 intervene between the last sitting of the Legisla- 
 ture in each Province in one session and its first 
 sitting in tlic next session. 
 
 87. Tlie following provisions of this Act re- 
 specting tlic House of C'ommons of Canada, sliall 
 extend and apply to the Legislative Assemblies 
 of Ontario and Quebec, that is to say, — the pro- 
 visions relating to the election of a Speaker 
 originally and on vacancies, the duties of the 
 Speaker, the absence of the Speaker, the quorum, 
 and the mode ot voting, as if those provisions 
 were here re-enacted and made applicable in 
 terms to each such Legislative Assembly. 
 
 88. The constitution of the Legislature of 
 each of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New 
 Urunswick shall, subject to the provisions of 
 this Act, continue as it exists at the Union until 
 altered under the authority of this Act ; aii<l the 
 House of Assembly of New Brunswick existing 
 at the passing of this Act sliall, unless sooner 
 dissolved, continue for the period for which it 
 was elected. 
 
 89. Each of the Lieutenant Governors of 
 Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia shall cause 
 writs to be issued for the first election of mem- 
 bers of the Legislative Assembly thereof in such 
 form and by such person as he thinks fit, and at 
 such time and addressed to such Heturning 
 Officer as the Governor General directs, and so 
 that the first election of member of Assembly for 
 any Electoral District or any subdivision thereof 
 shall be held at the same time and at the same 
 places as the election for a member to serve in the 
 
 531 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 Oistribution 
 at i'oujeri. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 IIouw.' of ComnioDH of Canadii for that Electoral 
 
 District. 
 
 OO. Tliu following provlgionii of this Act re- 
 Hix'cting tlic I'lirliiiiuciit of Cniiadii, namely, — 
 till' proviitiiiim ri'liitlrig to apprniiriiilioii and tax 
 biiJH, tlio r('<(>iiiiii('ii(latii<n of MKincy votes, tlie 
 a.HS<'nt to liilin, tlie (ii.sallo«aneo of Acts, and tlie 
 Ki)rni(l<ationof i)iea»un! lu bills reserved, — slial! 
 <'.\tend and apply to the IjCgislatures of the 
 wveral I'rovinees as if tlio.se provisions were 
 here re-enacted and made applicable in terms to 
 the respective Provinces and tlu^ Lejfislatures 
 thereof, with the suhstitution of the Lieutenant 
 Oovernor of th(^ I'rovinco for the Ooveriior 
 iJeneral, of the (Joveruor General for the Queen 
 and for a Secretary of State, of one year for two 
 years, atid of the I'roviiice for Canada. 
 
 IH. It shall be lawful for the Qiuen, by and 
 with th<' advice and con.sent of the Senate and 
 House of Commons, to make law.s for the peace, 
 order, and good government of Canada, in rela- 
 tion to all matters not coming within the clas.ses 
 of subjects by this A<'t aHslgncd exclusively to 
 the Legislatures of the Provinces; and for 
 greater certainty, but not so as to restrict the 
 generality of the foregoing terms of this section, 
 It \.i hereby declared that (notwithstanding any- 
 thing in this Act) the exclu.sivc legislati' e 
 authority of the Parliament of Canada exter.ds 
 to all matters coming within the classes of sub- 
 jects next hereinafter enumerat(d, that is to 
 say,— 1. The Public Debt and Property. 3. The 
 regulation of Trade and Commerce. 3. The 
 raising of money by any mode or system of 
 Taxation. 4. The borrowing of motwy on the 
 public credit. 5. Postjil servico. 8. ThoCen.sus 
 and Statistics. 7. Militia, Military and Naval 
 Service, and Defence. 8. The fixing of and pro- 
 viding for the salaries and allowances of civil 
 and other ofllcers of the Government of Canada. 
 9. IJeacons, Buoys, Lighthouses, and Sable 
 Island. 10. Navigation and Shipping. 11. 
 Quarantine and the establishment and main- 
 tenance of Marine Hospitals. 13. Sea coast and 
 inland Fisheries. 13. Ferries between a Prov- 
 ince and any British or Foreign country, or be- 
 tween two Provinces. 14. Currency and Coin- 
 age. 15. Banking, incorporation of banks, and 
 the issue of paper money. 18. Savings Banks. 
 17. Weights and Measures. 18. Bills of Ex- 
 change and Promissory Notes. 10. Interest. 
 20. Legal tender. 31. Bankruptcy and In- 
 solvency. 22. Patents of invention and dis- 
 covery. 23. Copyrights. 24. Indians, and 
 lands reserved for the Indians. 25. Naturaliza- 
 tion and Aliens. 28. Marriage and Divorce. 
 27. The Criminal Law, except the Constitution 
 of Courts of Criminal Jurisdiction, but includ- 
 ing the Procedure in tJriminal JIatters. 28. The 
 EsUiblishment, Maintenance, and Management 
 of Penitentiaries. 20. Such classes of subjects 
 as are expressly excepted in the enumeration of 
 the classes of subjects by this Act assigned ex- 
 clusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. 
 And any matter coming within any of the class<!s 
 of subjects enumerated in this section shall not 
 be deemed to come within the class of matters of 
 a local or private nature comprised in the 
 enumeration of the classes of subjects by this 
 Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of 
 the Provinces. 
 
 02. In each Province the Legislature may ex- 
 clusively make laws in relation to matters coming 
 
 within the cla.sses of siibjecta next hereinafter 
 enumerated ; that is to say, — 1. The amendment 
 from time to time, notwithstanding anvthing in 
 this Act, of the Constitution of tin.' I'rovlnce, 
 except as regards the oltlci' of Lieutenant Gov- 
 ernor, 2. Direct Taxation within the Province 
 in order to the ndslng of a Ucvenint for Pro- 
 vincial purposes. 1). Tlie borrowing of money 
 on the .sole credit of the Province. 4. The 
 estalilishmeiit and tenure of I'rovincial olllces 
 an<l the n)ipointment and payiiu'nt of Provincial 
 olllccrs. 5. T\u' management and sale of the 
 Puhli(! Lands belonging to the Province and of 
 the timber and wood thereon. 8. The establish- 
 ment, maintenance, and management of public 
 and reformatorv ])ri.sons in and for the Province. 
 7. Tlie establishment, maintenance, and nianago- 
 ment of hospitals, asylums, charities, and 
 eleemosynary inslitutions in and for the Prov- 
 ince, other than marine hospitals. 8. ^Iiinicipal 
 instituticms in the Province. 0. Shop, sahion,. 
 tavern, auctioneer, and other licenses in order to 
 the niLsing of a revenue for Provincial, loci'l, or 
 municipar purposes. 10. Local works and 
 undertakings other than such as are of the 
 following clas.ses, — a. Lines of steam or otlier 
 ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, and other 
 works and undertakings c<mnecting the Province 
 with any other or others of the Provinces, or ex- 
 tending beyond the limits of the Province: 
 A. Lines of steamships between the Province and 
 any British or foR'ign country, c. Such works 
 as, although wholly situate within the Province, 
 are before or after their execution declared by 
 the Parliament of Canada to be for the general 
 advantage of Canada or for the advantage 
 of two or more of the Provinces. 11. The in- 
 corporation of companies with Provincial objects. 
 13. The solcmni/ation of marriage in the Prov- 
 ince. 13. Property and civil rights in tlie 
 Province. 14. The administnition of justice in 
 the Province, including the constitution, main- 
 tenance, and organization of Provincial Courts, 
 both of civil and of criminal jurisdiction, and in- 
 cluding procedure in Civil matters in tiiose 
 Courts. 15. The imposition of punishment by 
 flne, penalty, or imiirisonment for enforcing any 
 law of the Province made in relation to any 
 matter coming within any of the classes of sub- 
 jects enumerated in this section. 16. Generally 
 all matters of a merely local or private nature in 
 the Province. 
 
 03. In and for each Province the Legislature 
 may exclusively make laws in relation to educa- 
 tion, subject and according to the following 
 provisions: (1) Nothing in any such law shall 
 prejudicially affect any right or privihjge with 
 respect tc denominational schools which any 
 cla.ss of persons have by law in the Province at tlio 
 Union. (2) All the powers, privileges, and 
 duties at tlie Union by law conferred and im- 
 posed in Upper Canada on the separate schools 
 and school trustees of the (Jueen's Roman Catholic 
 subjects shall he and the same are hereby ex- 
 tended to the dissentient schools of the Queen's 
 Protestant and Roman Catholic subjects in 
 Quebec (3) Where in any Province a system of 
 .separate or dissentient schools exists by law at 
 the Union or is thereafter established by the 
 Legislature of the Province, an appeal shall lie 
 to the Governor General in Council from any 
 Act or decision of any Provincial authority 
 affecting any right or privilege of the Protestant 
 
 582 
 
CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 Judiciary 
 and Mruinr**, 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 or Romftii Catholic minority of tl:i' Qiiwn'n mib- 
 jects In ri'liition to cdvicution: (4) In ciiso iiny 
 auch I'roviucial liiw us from tiin*- to tinii' wcmim 
 to thn Governor UcniTiil in Council rci|iiinii"' for 
 the (Iiic execution of the provUionHof IIiIh M'ctioii 
 la not nimU', or In case any decision of ihe (Jov- 
 emor Oenernl in Council on any appeal under 
 this section Is not dtily executed by tlie proper 
 Provincial iiutliority in tliat behalf, then and in 
 every sucli case, an<l as far only as tin- ciii'um- 
 stances (<f each ca.sc re(iuiri', the Parliament of 
 ('anada may nialio i,:<ie(iial laws for the <lui! 
 execution ot tile iirovisions of this sccMon and of 
 any decision of tiic Oovernor Ocnerul In Council 
 under this section. 
 
 94. Notwitlistandlng anytldng in tills Act, 
 the Parliament of Canada may nutke provision 
 for the uniformity of ail or any ot the laws 
 relative to i)roperty anil civil ri.i^hts in Ontario, 
 Nova Scotia, and New Urunswick, and of tlie 
 procedure of ail or any of tlie Courts in those 
 three Provinces; and from and after tlie passing 
 of any Act in tliat behalf the power of the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada to make laws in riMation to any 
 matter compriseil in any such Act shall, notwith- 
 standing anything in this Act, be unrestricted ; 
 but any Act of the Parliament of Canada mak- 
 ing provision for sudi uniformity shall not have 
 clTect in any Province unless and until it is 
 adopted and enacted as law by the Legislature 
 thereof. 
 
 96. In each Province the Legislature may 
 make laws in relation to Agriculture in the 
 Province, and to Immigration into tlic Province ; 
 and it is hereby declared that the Parliament of 
 Canada may from time to time make laws in re- 
 lation to Agriculture in all or any of tlic Prov- 
 inces, and to Immigration into ail or any of the 
 Provinces; and any law of the Legislature of a 
 Province relative to Agriculture or to Immi.'jra- 
 tion sliall have effect in and for the Province as 
 long and as far only as it is not repugnant to any 
 Act of the Parliament of Canada. 
 
 96. The Governor General shall appoint the 
 Judges of the Superior, District, and County 
 Courts In each Province, except those of the 
 Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New 
 Urunswick. 
 
 97. Until the laws relative to property and 
 civil riglits in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick, and the procedure of the Courts in 
 those Provinces, arc made uniform, the Judges 
 of the Courts of those Provinces aiipointed by 
 the Governor General shall be selected from the 
 respective Bars of those Provinces. 
 
 98. The Judges of the Courts of Quebec 
 shall bo selected from the Bar of that Province. 
 
 99. The Judges of the Superior Courts shall 
 hold office during good behaviour, but shall be 
 removeable by the Governor General on address 
 of the Senate and House of Commons. 
 
 100. The salaries, allowances, and pensions 
 of the Judges of the Superior, District, and 
 County Courts (except the Courts of Probate in 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), and of the 
 Admiralty Courts in cases where the Judges 
 thereof are for the time being paid by salary, 
 shall be fixed and provided by the Parliament of 
 Canada. 
 
 101. The Parliament of Canada may, not- 
 withstanding any :'iing in this Act, from time to 
 ^ime, provide for the "institution, maintenance, 
 and organization of a general Court of A ppeal 
 
 for Canada, and for the ratablisliment of any 
 addilioiial Courts for the (H'tlcr adminlMtra'.lou 
 of the Laws of Canada. 
 
 lOSi. All duties and revenues over which 
 the respeilive Legislatures of Cannda, Nova 
 Sciilia, aii<i New Brunswirk bcfnre and at tho 
 riiion had and have power of appropriation, 
 except Hiicli portions thereof as iire by this Act 
 reserved to tlie respeeliv,' Leirislatures of tho 
 I'roviiiies, or are raised by iIumii in acconlanco 
 with the special powers conri-rred on tliem by 
 this Act, shall form one Con.solidated Kevenuo 
 Fund, to be appropriated for the public service 
 of ('anada in the maimer and subject to tho 
 charges li, this Ac-t provided. 
 
 10!l. The Consolidated Uevenue Fund of 
 Canada sliall be perniaiiently charged witli tho 
 costs, charges, and expenses incident to llio 
 collection, management, and receipt thereof, and 
 tho same shall form the lirst charge thereon, siib- 
 je'jt to b(! reviewed and audited in sucli manner 
 as shall be ordered by tlii^ Governor General in 
 Council until the Parliament otherwise provides. 
 
 104. The annual interest of the public debts 
 of the sevral ''-ovinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick at tlie Union shall fonn tho 
 second charge on the Co.isolidated Heveniie 
 Fund of Canada. 
 
 105. Unless altered by the Parliament of 
 Canada, the salary of the Oovernor General shall 
 be ten thousand pounds sterling money of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 payable out of the Consoliilated Uevenue Fund 
 of Canada, and the same shall form the third 
 charge thereon. 
 
 lOO. Subject to the several payments by this 
 Act charged on the Consolidated Hevenue Fund 
 of CaiuKla, tlie same shall be appropriated by 
 the Parliament of Canada for the publ'c service. 
 
 107. All stocks, cash, banker's bala-""cs, and 
 securities for immey belonging to eacli Province 
 at the time of the Union, except as in tliii Act 
 mentioned, shall be the projierty of Canada, and 
 shall be taken in reduction of the amount of the 
 respective debts of tlie Provinces at the Union. 
 
 108. The public works and jiroperty of each 
 Province, enumerated in the third scliedule to 
 this Act, shall be the pro.iierty of Canada. 
 
 109. All lands, mines, minerals, and royal- 
 ties belonging to the sevcml Provinces of 
 Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick at tho 
 Union, and all sums then due or payable for such 
 lands, mines, minerals, or roj-alties, shall belong to 
 the several Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick in whicli the same 
 are situate or arise, subject to any trusts existing 
 in respect tliercof, and to any interest other than 
 that of the Province in the same. 
 
 1 J O All as.sots connected with such portions 
 of the public debt of each Province • .^ are 
 assumed by that Province sliall belong to that 
 Province. 
 
 111. Canada shall be liable for the debts and 
 liabilities of each Province existing at the Union. 
 
 112. Ontario and Quebec conjointly shall bo 
 liable 10 Canada for the amount (if any) by 
 which the debt of the Province of Canada ex- 
 ceeds at the Union sixty-two million five hun- 
 dred thousand dollars, and shall be charged with 
 interest at tlie rate of five per centum per annum 
 thereon. 
 
 118. The assets enumerated in the fourth 
 Schedule to this Act belonging at the Union to 
 
 53a 
 
CONHTITITION OF CANADA. 
 
 fiehtt anil 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 thi! Pmvlncf! (if Cunndit nIiiiII Im' tlif pniporty of 
 Oiitiirio niid CjiK'lx-c ('(iMji>iiitly. 
 
 I l-l-. NdVii Hcotiii hIiiiII Iio liable to ('iiiiii<lii 
 for llir aiiKiuiit (if luiy) by wlilcli ItH piilill(^ dclit 
 t'Xi'i'i'd.s al tlic I'ldon cii^lit million dollars, and 
 Hhall be cliarKi'il witli liitcrcst at tilt' rate of live 
 per <'('iitiiiii perannutii tliercon. 
 
 110. New lininBwick NJiall Ik' liable to 
 ('aiia<la for tli(! amount (if any) by which its 
 ])Mbli(' debt exceedH at the Union Heveii million 
 doilarx, and Hhall be cliarffed with interent at the 
 rate of the ]ier centum per annum therccm. 
 
 1 lO. In eaHC the public ilel)t of Nova Scotia 
 .'.iKl New Hnniswick do not at tiic Union am""Mt 
 to elKlit million dollars and Hcven nullioii dollars 
 respect ively, they sliall respectively receive by 
 half-yearly i)aym'<'nts In advance from tlic Oov- 
 enimcnt of (Canada int<'reHt at tlvu per centum 
 per annum on the dilTen'rici! Ijctween the actual 
 amounts of their respective debts and such 
 Htipulateil amotints. 
 
 117. The sevend provlnccH shall n^tain all 
 their respective public proix-rty not otherwise 
 disposed of in this Act, subject to the right of 
 Canada to assume any lands or public property 
 required for fortiUeations or for the defence of 
 tlw. country. 
 
 118. The following Btims shall be paid 
 yearly by Canada to the s«'veml I'rovlnces for 
 the mipport of their Uovernmcnts and liCgisia- 
 turcs : Ontario, eighty thousand dollars ; QuelK'c, 
 seventy thousand dollars; Nova Scotia, sixty 
 thousiiml dollars; New Itrunswick, lifty th(«i- 
 8iind (h>llars; [total! two hundred and sixty 
 thousand dollars ; nnd an annual grant in aid of 
 eadi Province shall be made, ecpiul to eighty 
 cents per head, of the population as ascertained 
 by the census if one tlui'isand eight hundred and 
 sixty-one, ami in tlie eas<' of Nova Scotia and 
 New lJrunswi(;k, l)y each subsequent decennial 
 census until tl e population of each of those two 
 Provinces amc. ints to four hundred thousand 
 soids, at which 'ate such grunt shall thereafter 
 remuia. Such gi.nt shall be in full Settlement 
 of all future demands on Ciiuada, and shall be 
 paid half-yearly in advance to each Province; 
 liut the Ooverniiient of Canada shall deduct from 
 such grants, us uguinst uny Province, uU sums 
 chargeable as int,rest on the Public Debt of tliat 
 Province in excess of the sevcnil amounts stipu- 
 lated in this Act. 
 
 IIO. New Brunswick shall receive by half- 
 yearly payments in advance from Canada, for 
 the periwl of ten years from the Union, an ad- 
 ditional nlidwam'e of sixty-three tiiousuiul dol- 
 lars per a-unim ; but as long as the Public Debt 
 of tiiut Province remains under seven million 
 dollars a deduction equal *o the interest at five 
 per centum per annum on h i li deflciency shall 
 be made from that allowance of sixty-three 
 thousand dollars. 
 
 120. All payments to be made under this 
 Act, or in discharge of liabilities created und'-r 
 uny Act of tlie Provinces of (Canada, Nova Scotia 
 and New Brunswick respectively, and assumed 
 by Canada, shall, until the Parliament of Canada 
 otherwiBC directs, be made in such form and 
 manner as may from time to time be ordered by 
 the Governor General in Council. 
 
 ISil. All articles of the growth, produce, or 
 manufacture of any one of tlie Provinces shall, 
 from and after the Union, be admitted free into 
 each of the other Provinces. 
 
 122. The Customs an<l Excise I.uwHofeach 
 Province shall, subject to the provisions of this 
 A<t, continue in force until altered by the Par- 
 liament (>r Canada. 
 
 1 2.'l. Where Customs duties are, at the Union, 
 leviable on any goods, wares or merchandises 
 in any two Provinces, those gO(Mls, wares and 
 merchandiws may, from and after the Uniim, bo 
 imported from one of those Provinces into the 
 other of them on proof of pavment of the Cus- 
 toms duty leviable thereon In the I'rovuiK- of 
 exportation, and on payment of sucli further 
 amount (if any) of ('■ ioms duty as is leviable 
 thereon in tlie Province of importation. 
 
 124. Notlung in this Act shall alTect the 
 right of Ni V Brunswick to levy the lumber 
 dues provided In chapter fifteen, of title three, 
 of the Revised Statul"s of New Brunswick, or 
 in any Act amending i.iat act before or after the 
 Union, and not increasing the amount of suck 
 dues; but the lumber of any of the Provinces 
 other tlian New Brunswick shall not be subjected 
 to such dues. 
 
 120. No lands or property belonging to 
 Canada or any Province shall tie liable to taxa- 
 tion. 
 
 120. Such portions of the duties and rev- 
 enues (vvcr which the respective Legislatures of 
 Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick had 
 before the Union power of appropriation as are 
 by this Act reserved to the i;vi)ective Govern- 
 ments or Legislatures of the Provinces, and all 
 duties (ind revenues raised by tliem in accordance 
 with the special powers conferred uiiou them by 
 this act, shall in each Province form one CJonsoii- 
 dated Uevenuo Fund to be appropriated for the 
 public service of tlie Province. 
 
 127. If any person being at the passing of 
 this Act a member of the Legislative Council of 
 Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, to 
 whom a place in the Senate is offered, docs not 
 within thirty days thereafter, by witing under 
 his hand, addressed to the Qover;.or General of 
 the Province of Canada, or to the Lieutenant 
 Governor of Novo Scotia or New Brunswick (as 
 the case may be), accept the same, he shall be 
 deemed to have declined the same ; nnd any per- 
 son who, being at the passing of this Act a mem- 
 ber of the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia or 
 New Brunswick, accepts a place in the Senate, 
 shall thereby vacate his seat in such Legislative 
 Council. 
 
 128. Every member of tlie Senate or House 
 of (;ommon8 of Canada shall before taking his 
 seat therein, take and subscribe before the Gov- 
 ernor General or some person authorized by him, 
 and every member of a Legislative Council or 
 Legislative Assembly of any Province shall 
 before taking his scat therein, take and subscrilie 
 before the Lieutenant Governor of the Province, 
 or some person uutliorized by him, the oath of 
 allegiance contoined in tlie flftli Schedule to 
 this Act; and every member of the Senate of 
 Canada and every member of the Legislative 
 Council of Quebec shall also, before taking his 
 seat therein, take and subscribe before the Gov- 
 ernor General, or some person authorized by him, 
 the declaration of quulitication contained in the 
 pame Schedule. 
 
 120. Except as otherwise provided by this 
 Act, all laws in force in Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 or New Brunswick at the Union, and all courts 
 of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and all legal 
 
 m^ 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 IMtano 
 and .^uebec. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 commiBginnH, powers and autliDritioM, iiiul all 
 ottlccrH, Judlciiil, iidmlniNtnitivi', iind ininiHtcrinl, 
 rxiHtiii^ tlicrciti at tliu Uiiidii, hIiuII ((intiiiiK; in 
 Onlurlo, tinclu'c, Novii Scotlii, iiiitl Ni'W llriiim- 
 wick rcHpi'ctivi'ly, tin if IIk^ Union liiiil nol Ihtu 
 miiilc, Hiilijcrt iH'VcrlliclcHH (cxrcpt wllli icwpi'ct 
 to siicli ii.s lire cniiclcd l)y or c.viHl under Acts of 
 the I'lirliiiincnt of Orunl Hritiiin or of IIk^ I'urliii- 
 nicnt of tlic United KinK<ioni of (ireiit llritiiin 
 aud Ireland), to l)i- repealed, alxilislied or altered 
 by tlie Parliament of Canacla, or by tlie Lej^i.sla- 
 ture of tlie reHpeetive I'rovinee, aecordinj? to tlio 
 nutlioritv of the i'jirliament or of that Legisla- 
 ture under thi.s Act. 
 
 IJIO. Until the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wise provides, all oilleers of the several Provinces 
 having duties to di.scliarge in relation to matters 
 other tlian thoH<! connng within tlu^ cla.s.sc8 of 
 subjects by this Act a.s.signed exclusively to the 
 Legislatures of the Provinces shall be oilleers of 
 Canada, and shall ecmtinue to discharge the 
 duties of their respective otllces under the same 
 liabilities, responsibilities aud penalties as if the 
 Union liad not been made. 
 
 131. Until the Parliament of Canada other- 
 wise provides, the Governor General in (,'ouneil 
 may fnmi time to time appoint such odieers as 
 the Governor General in Council deems neces.sary 
 or proper for the clfectual e.veeution of tins Act. 
 
 13^. Tho Parliament and Government of 
 Canadit shall have all iiowerr, necessary or proper 
 for performing the obligations of Canada or of 
 ony Province thereof, us part of the Dritish 
 Empire towards foreign countries, arising under 
 treaties between the Empire ami such foreign 
 countries. 
 
 133. Either the English or tlie French lan- 
 guage may be used by any person in the debates 
 of tlie Houses of Parliament of Canada aud 
 of the Houses of the Legislature of Quebec ; and 
 both those languages shall be used in the respect- 
 ive records and journals of tlio.se Houses; and 
 either of those languages may be used by any 
 person or in any pleading or process in or issuing 
 from any Court of Canada established under this 
 Act, and in or from all or any of the Courts of 
 Quebec. The Acts of the Parliament of Canada 
 and of tlio I egislature of Quebec sliall be printed 
 and publislicd in both those languages. 
 
 134. Until the Legislature of Ontario or of 
 Quebec otherwise provides, the Lieutenant 
 Governors of Ontario and Quebec may eueli ap- 
 point under the Great Seal of tlu! Province the 
 following officers, to hold oflice during pleasure, 
 that is to say, — tlie Attorney General, the Secre- 
 tary and Itegistrar of the Province, the Treas- 
 urer of the Province, the Commissioner of Crown 
 Lands and the Commissioner of Agriculture and 
 Public Works, and, in the case of Quebec, the 
 Solicitor General; and may, hy order of the 
 Lieutenant Governor in Council from time to 
 time prescribe the duties of tho.se ofHcers and 
 of the several dei)artments over which they shall 
 preside or to wliich they sliall belong, and of 
 the ofliccrs and clerks thereof; and may also ap- 
 point other and additional officers to liold office 
 during pleasure, and may from time to time 
 prescribe the duties of those officers, and of the 
 several departments over which they shall pre- 
 side or to which they shall belong, and of the 
 officers and clerks thereof. 
 
 136. Until the Legislature of Ontario or 
 Quebec otherwise provides, all rights, powers, 
 
 duticD, functions, rcsponsibilitios or nuthori- 
 ties at the passing of this Act vested in or iin- 
 posed on tlie Attorney General, Solicitor General, 
 Secretary an<l Ueicislrar of tlie Pri>vinee of Can- 
 ada, .Minister of Finance, Commissionerof (,'rown 
 Lands, Commissionerof Pulilic Works, and .Minis- 
 ter of Agriculture and Heceiver General, by any 
 law, statute or ordinance of Upper Canada, 
 JiOWer Canada, or Canada, and not repugnant to 
 tills Act, shall lie vested in or imposed on any 
 officer to be appointed hy the Lieutenant Gov 
 ernor f(i'- lliedisclmrgeof I'liesami'orany of them; 
 and til'! Commissio.icr of Agriculture and Public 
 Works shall iierform (he duties and functions 
 of tlie office of Minister of Agriculture at tlio 
 missing of this Act imposed by the law of the 
 Province of Canada as well as Jiose of the Com- 
 missioner of Public Works. 
 
 13«. Until altered by the Lieutenant Gov- 
 ernor in Council, tiie Great Seals of Ontario and 
 Quebec respectively, shall !«■ tlie sami' or of tlie 
 same design, as thost! used in the Provinces of 
 Upper Canada and Lower Carada respectively 
 before their Unicm as tlie Province of Canada. 
 
 137. The words "and from thence to the 
 end of the then next ensuing Session of t. >; Leg- 
 islature," or words to the same elfect, used in any 
 temporary Act of tlie Province of Canada not 
 expired liefore tlie Union, shall be construed to 
 extend and applv to the next Session of ar- 
 liament of Canada, if the spbiect matter of tlie 
 Act is within the powers of the same as dellned 
 by this Act, or to tlie next Sessions of the Legis- 
 latures of Ontario and (Juebec resiicctively, if 
 the subject mutter of the Act is within tiie powers 
 of the same 03 defined by this Act. 
 
 138. From and after the Uni(m, the v.no of 
 the words ' ' Upper Canada, " instead of ' ' OntJirio, " 
 or "Lower Canada" instead of "Quebec," in 
 aiy deed, writ, process, pleading, document, 
 matter or. thing, shall not invalidate the same. 
 
 130. Any Proclamation under the Great Seal 
 of the Province of Canada, issued lH;fore tlie Union 
 to take effect at a time wliicli is subsequent to 
 the Union, whether relating to that Province or 
 to Upper Canada, or to Lower Canada, an<l the 
 several mattera and things therein proclaimed 
 shall be and continue of like force and effect as 
 if the Union had not been made. 
 
 140. Any proc ■imation wliich is authorized 
 by anv Act of the Legislature of the Province of 
 Canada to be issued under the Great Seal of the 
 Provime of Canada, whether relating to that 
 Province or to Upper Canada, or to Lower Can- 
 ada, and which is not issued before llie Union, 
 may be issued by the Lieutenant Governor of 
 Ontario or of Quebec, as its subject matter re- 
 quires, under tlie Great Seal thereof; and from 
 and after the issue of such Proclamation the 
 same and the several matters and tilings therein 
 proclaimed shall be and continue of tlie like 
 force and effect in Ontario or Quebec as if the 
 Union had not been made. 
 
 141. The Penitentiary of the Province of 
 Canada shall, until the Parliament of Canada 
 otherwise jirovides, be and continue the Peniten- 
 tiary of Ontario and of Quebec. 
 
 142. The division and adjustment of the 
 debts, eretlits, liabilities, properties and assets 
 of Upper Canada and Lower Canada shall be re- 
 ferred to the arbitrament of three arbitrators, 
 one chosen by the Government of Ontario, one 
 by the Government of Quebec, and one by the 
 
 535 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 SuppUmentarv 
 Actt. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP CANADA. 
 
 Qvivcmmont of Oanadn ; and the selection of the 
 Arbitrato n shull not be niiulc until the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada and the Legislatures of Ontar' i 
 snd Quebec have met; and the arbitrator chosen 
 by the Government of ('auada shall not bo a 
 resident either in Ontario <;r in Quebec. 
 
 143. Tlie Governor (ieneral in Council may 
 from time to tiiiw order lliat .sueli ami so many 
 of the records, books, and documents of the 
 Province of Canada as he t.iinks tit shall be ap- 
 propriated and delivered either to Ontario or to 
 Quebec, and the same shall henceforth be the 
 proi)erty of that Province; an<l any copy thereof 
 or extract therefrom, duly certified by the ollicer 
 having charge of the original thereof sliall be 
 admitted as evidence. 
 
 l^^. The Lieute...u t Govenior of Quel)ec 
 may from time to time, by Proclamation under 
 the Great Seal of tlie Province, to take effect 
 from a day to be appointed therein, constitute 
 townships in those parts of the Province of 
 Quebec in which townships arc not then already 
 censtituted, and fl.x the inet<'s and bounds thereof. 
 
 145. Inasmuch as the Provinces of Canada, 
 Nova Scotia, and New IJninswick have joined 
 in a declaration that the construction of the In- 
 tercolonial Itailway is essential to the consolida- 
 tion of the Union of British Nortli America, and 
 to the assent tlieroto of Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick, and have consequently agreed that 
 provision sliould be mp.de for its Immediate con- 
 struction by the Government of Canada: There- 
 fore, in orcler to give effect to that agreement, 
 it shall be the duty of tho Government and Par- 
 liament of Canada to provide for the commence- 
 ment, within si.x months after the Union, of a 
 railway connecting the liiver St. Lawrence with 
 the City of Halifax in Nova Scotia, and for the 
 construction thereof without intermission, and 
 the completion thereof with all practicable speed. 
 
 140. It sliall be lawfid for the Queen, by and 
 with tlie advice of Her JIajesty's Most Honour- 
 able Privy Council, on Addresses from the Houses 
 of the Parliament of Canada, and from tlie Houses 
 of the respective Legislatures of the Colonies or 
 Provinces of Newfoundland, Prince Edward 
 Island, and British Columbia, to admit those 
 Colonies or Provinces, or any of them, into the 
 Union, and on Address from the I'ouscs of the 
 Parliament of Canada to admit iupert's Laud 
 and the North-western TerriU' /, or either of 
 them, into the Union, "■ mC jrins and condi- 
 tions in each case a' .trc in tlic Addresses ex- 
 pressed and as the Queen thinl;s fit to approve, 
 subject to tlie provisions of this Act, and the 
 provisions of any Order in Council in that behalf 
 shall have effect as if they had been enacted by 
 the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. 
 
 147. In case of the admission of Newfound- 
 land and Prince Edwatxl Island, or either of them, 
 eacli shall be entitled to a representation in the 
 Senate of Canada of four members, and (not- 
 withstanding anything in this Act) in case of the 
 admission of Newfoundland the normal num- 
 ber of Senators shall be seventy-six and their 
 maximum number shall be eighty-two; but 
 Prince Edward Island when admitted shall be 
 deemed to be comprised in the third of the three 
 divisions into which Canada is, in relation to the 
 constitution of the Senate, divided by this Act, 
 and accoixlingly, after the admission of Prince 
 Edwaitl Island, whether Newfoundland is ad- 
 
 mitted or not, the representation of Nova Scotia 
 and New Brunswick in the Senate shall, as va- 
 cancies occur, be reduced from twelve to ten 
 members respectively, and the n.'presentation of 
 each of those Provinces shall not be increased at 
 any time Iwyond ten, except under the provi- 
 sions of this Act for the appointment of three 
 or six additional Senators under the direction of 
 the Quet n. 
 
 A. O. i8?i. — British North America Act, 
 1871. — An Act respecting the Establishment of 
 Provinces in the Dominion of Canada. [29tu 
 Jdne, 1871.] 
 
 WiiKUKAS doubts have been entertained re- 
 specting the powers of the Parliament of Canada 
 to establish Provinces in territories admitted, or 
 which may hereafter be admi icd, into the Do- 
 minion of Caniula, n;ul to provide for the repre- 
 sentation of such Provinces in the said Parlia- 
 ment, and it is expedient to remove such doubts, 
 a, id to vest such lowers in the said Parliament: 
 Be it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent 
 ^Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of 
 the Lonls, Spiritual and Temporal, and Com- 
 mons in tlii!-. present Parliament assembled, and 
 by the authority of the same, as fiillows: — 
 
 1. This Act may be cited for all purposes a» 
 The British North America Act, 1871. 
 
 2. T1;l' Parliament of Canada may from time 
 to time .stahlish new Provinces in any territories 
 formir -■■ for the time being part of tlie Dominion 
 of Ca;i.ida, but not included in any Province 
 there')'., and may, at the time of such establish- 
 ment, make provision for the constitution and 
 administraticu of any such Province, and for 
 the passing of laws for the peace, order and goo<l 
 government of such Province, and for its repre- 
 sentation in the said Parliament. 
 
 3. The Parliament of Canada may from time 
 to time, with the consent of the Legislature of 
 nny Province of the said Dominion, increase, 
 diminish, cr otherwise alter the limits of such 
 Province, upon such terms and conditions as 
 may be agreed to by the said Legislature, and 
 may, with the like consent, make provision re- 
 specting the effect and operation of any such in- 
 crease or diminution or alteration of territory in 
 relation to any Province affected thereby. 
 
 4. The Parliament of Canada may from time 
 to time make provision for the administration, 
 peace, order, and good government of any terri- 
 tory not for the time being included in any 
 Province. 
 
 5. The following Acts passed by the said 
 Parliament of CaniuTa, and intituled respectively : 
 "An Act for the temporary government of 
 Rupert's Land and the North- Western Territory 
 when united n-ith Canala;" and "An Act tc> 
 amend and continue the Act thirty-two and thirty- 
 three Victoria, chapter three, and to establish 
 ond provide for the government of the Province 
 of Manitoba," shall be and be deemed to hav& 
 been valid and effectual for all purposes whatso- 
 ever from the date at which they respectively 
 received the assent, in the Queen's name, of the 
 Governor General of the said Dominion of 
 Canada. 
 
 6. Except as provided by the third section of 
 this Act, it shall not be competent for the Parlia- 
 ment of Canada to alter the provisions of the last 
 mentionea Act of the said Parliament in so far 
 as it relates to the Province of Manitoba, or of 
 any other Act hereafter establishing new Prov 
 
 536 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Inces in the said Dominion, sul)ject always to 
 tlie rig'it of tlic Lt'gislaturt' of tlie Province of 
 Manit,)l)a to alter from time to time tlie pro- 
 visions of any law respoctin;; the qualitication 
 of electors and members of the Legislative 
 Assembly, and to malic laws respecting elections 
 In the salil Province. 
 
 A. D. 1875.— Parliament of Canada Act, 
 '^7S- — A.n Act to remove certain doubts with 
 1 "ject to the powers of tlie Parliament of 
 C. ada, nnder Section 18 of the British North 
 America Act, 1867. [IOtii July, 1875.] 
 
 ■■ *''iiEHEA8 by section 18 of The Dritisli North 
 America Act, 1807, it is provided as follows: — 
 "The privileges, inununitics, and powers to bo 
 held, enjoyed, and exercised by the Senate and 
 by tlie House of Commons, an(l by the members 
 thereof respectively, shall be such as are from 
 time to time defined by Act of the Parliament of 
 Canada, bill so that the same shall never exceed 
 those at the passing of this Act licld, eii.jo;?ed, 
 and exercised by the Commons House of PiiVlia- 
 ment of the United Kingdom of Great Hritain 
 and Ireland, and by the members thereof." And 
 whereas doubts have arisen with regard to the 
 power of defining by an Act of tlie Parliament 
 of Canada, in pursuance of the said section, the 
 said privileges, powers or immunities: audit is 
 expedient to remove such doubts: Be it tiiere- 
 fore enacted bv the Queen's Most Excellent 
 Majesty, by antl with the advice and consent of 
 the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Com- 
 mons, in tills present Parliament assembled, and 
 by the authority of tlie same, a^ follows: — 
 
 1. Section 18 of The British North America 
 Act, 1867, is hereby repealed, without prejudice 
 to anything done under that section, and the 
 following section shall be substitii.ed for tlio 
 section so repealed : — The privileges, immunities, 
 and powers to bo held, enjoyed and exercised by 
 the Senate and by the House of Commons, and 
 by the members thereof respectively, shall be 
 such as are from time to time defined by Act of 
 the Parliament of Canada, but so that any Act 
 of the Parliament of Canada defining sucli 
 privileges, immunities and powers shall not 
 confer any privileges, immunities, or powers ex- 
 ceeding those at the passing of such Act held, 
 enjoyed, and exercised by the Commons House 
 of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britidn and Ireland, and by the members thereof. 
 
 2. Tho Act of the Parliament of Canada 
 passed in the thirty-first year of the reign of her 
 present J.'ajesty, chapter twenty-four, intituled 
 An Act to provide for oaths to witnesses being 
 administered in certain cases for the purposes of 
 
 either Hoilic of Parliament, shall be deemed to he 
 valid, and to have been valid as from the date at 
 which the royal assent was given thereto by the 
 Governor General of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 3. This Act may be cited as The Parliament 
 of Canada Act, 1875. 
 
 A. D. 1886.— British North America Act, 
 1886. — An Act respecting the Kepreseiitation 
 in tlie Parliament of Canada of Territories which 
 for the time being form part of the Dominiou 
 of Canada, but arc not included in any Pri<vinco. 
 [25T1I June, 1886.] 
 
 WiiEiiEAS it is expedient to empower the 
 Parliament of Canada to provide for the repre- 
 sentation in the Senate and House of Commons, 
 of Canada, or eitlicr of them, of any territory 
 wliicli for tlie time being forms part of the Do- 
 minion of Canada, but is not included in any 
 Province: Be it therefore enact;'d by the Queen s 
 Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice 
 and consent of tlie Lords Spiritual and Temporal, 
 and Commons, in the present Parliament os- 
 sembleil, and by the authority of the same, ao 
 follows: — 
 
 1. The Parliament of Canada may from time 
 to time make provision for tlio representation in 
 tlie Senate and House of Commons of Canada, or 
 in either of them, of anj- territories wliieli for the 
 time being form part of the Dominion of Canada, 
 but are not included in any Province thereof. 
 
 3. Any Act passed by the Parliament of 
 Canada before tlie passing of this Act for the 
 purpose mentioned m this Act sliall, if not dis- 
 allowed by the Queen, be, and shall be deemed 
 to have been, valid and eflectual from the date 
 at wliich it received the assent, in Her Majesty's 
 name, of tlio Governor- general of Canada. It i» 
 hereliy declared that any Act passed by the 
 Parliament of Canada, whether before or after 
 the passing of this Act, for the purpose men- 
 tioned ill this Act, or in Tlio British North 
 America Act, 1871, has effect, notwithstanding 
 anything in Tlie British North America Act, 1867. 
 and the number of Scnatoi's or the number of 
 Members of the House of Commcms specified in 
 the last-mentioned Act is increased by the num- 
 ber of Senators or of Members, as tlie case may 
 be, provided by any sucli Act of the Parliament 
 of Canada for tlie representation of any provincea 
 or territories of Canada. 
 
 3. This Act maybe cited as The British North 
 America Act, 1880. This Act and The British 
 North America Act, 1867, aiiikThe British North 
 America Act, 1871, shall be construed together, 
 and iray bo cited together as The Brills'- North 
 America Acts, 1867 to 1886. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF (OR FOR) THE 
 CAROLINAS (Locke's). See Nouth Caro- 
 lina: A. D. 1660-1093. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CHILE. See Chile: 
 A. D. 1833-1884, and 1885-lfeul. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CLEISTHENES. 
 See Athens: B. C. 510-507. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF COLOMBIA. See 
 CoLOMniAN States: A. D. 1830-1886, and 1885- 
 1891. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE CONFED- 
 ERATE STATES OF AMERICA. See 
 United States of Am. : A. I). 1861 (Febhu- 
 
 AllV). 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CONNECTICUT 
 
 (1639 — the Fundamental Agreement of New 
 
 86 
 
 Haven). See Connecticut: A. D. 1686-1030, 
 and 1639. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF DENMARK. See 
 Scandinavian States (Denmark— Iceland) : 
 A. D. 1849-1874. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE DUTCH 
 REPUBLIC, or the United Netherlands. See 
 NETiiEnL.\NDs: A. I). 1.584-1585. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND.—" Our 
 Englii;h Constitution was never maile, in the 
 sense in which tlie Constitutions of many other 
 countries liave been made. There never was 
 any moment when Englislimen drew out their 
 political system in the shape of a formal docu- 
 ment, whether as the carrying out of any 
 abstract political theories or as the imitation of 
 
 537 
 
CONHTIVUTION OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 the past or prcsont system of nny otlior nation. 
 There arc indeed certain great political docu- 
 ments, eaeli of wliicli forms a landniaric in our 
 [lolitieal lilstory Tliert! is tlie Great Cliarter 
 see Enoi.and: A. D. 12151, tlie Petition of 
 {iKlits[same: /. D. 1025-1628, and 1028], the 
 Hill of Rights [same: A. D. 1080 (October)]. 
 But not one of tliese gave itself out us tlie 
 enactment of anything new. All claimed to set 
 fortli, with new strengtli, it miglit be, and with 
 new clearnes.s, those riglits of Englislunen wliicli 
 were already old. . . . Th(! life and soul of 
 Englisli law hius evr been precedent; we have 
 always held that whatever our fathers once did 
 their stms liave a right to do again." — E. A. 
 Freeman, The Growth of the KiKjUtth Cunstitu- 
 Hon, ch. 2. — " It is, in the first place, necessary 
 to liave a clear understanding of what we mean 
 when wo tallt about 'thelCngli.sh Constitution.' 
 Few terms in our langiuige Iiave been more laxly 
 employed. . . . Still, tlie term, ' the English 
 Constitution' is susceptible of full and accurate 
 explanation : tliougli it may not be easy to set it 
 lucidly forth, witliout first investigating the 
 arcliaeology of our history, rather more deeply 
 than may suit hasty tamers and superficial 
 thinkers. . . . Some furious Jacobins, at the 
 close of tlie l:vst century, used to clamour tliat 
 there was no such thing as tiie Englisli Constitu- 
 tion, because it could not be jjroduced in full 
 written form, lilie that of tlie United States. . . . 
 But an impartial and earnest investigator may 
 still satisfy him.self that England has a constitu- 
 tion, and tliat there is ample cause why she 
 should cherisli it. And by this it is meant that 
 he will recognise and admire, in tlie history, the 
 laws and tlie institutions of England, certain 
 great leading i)rinciples, which have existed 
 from the earliest period of our nationality down 
 to the present time; expanding and adapting 
 themselves to the progress of society and civil- 
 ization, advancing and varying in development, 
 but still essentiall}' the same in substance and 
 spirit. These great primeval and enduring 
 principles are the principles of the English 
 Constitution. And we are not obliged to learn 
 them from imperfect evidences or precarious 
 speculation ; for they are imperishably recorded 
 in the Great Charter, and in Charters and Stat- 
 utes connected with and conflrmafory of Magna 
 Charta [see England: A. D. 1215]. . . . These 
 
 great primeval and enduring principles of our 
 C(m8t;tution are as follows: The government 
 of the country by an lieredit'iry s vereign, rul- 
 ing with limited powers, and bound to summon 
 an<l consult a parliament of the whole rca'.m, 
 comprising hereditar peers and elective repre- 
 sentatives of the commons. That without the 
 stinction of parliament no Uix of any kind can be 
 imposed; and no law can be made, repealed, or 
 altered. That no man be arbitrarily fined or 
 impri.soned, that no man's property or liberties 
 1h! impaired, and that no man 'le in any way 
 punished, except after a lawful trial. Trial by 
 jiiry. Tliat justice sliail not be sold or delayeii. 
 These great constitutional principles can all bo 
 I)roved, eitlier by express terms or by fair impli- 
 ciition, from JIagna Carta, and its . . . supple- 
 ment [tlie statute ' Conflrnmtio Cartarum ']. 
 Tlieir vigorous development was aided and 
 attested in many subsequent statutes, especially 
 in the Petition of Rights and the Bill of Rights. 
 . . . Lord Chatham called these three ' The 
 Bible of the English Constitution,' to which 
 appeal is to be made on every grave political 
 question." — E. S. Creasy, liim and Proyresa of 
 the Eng. Const., ch. 1. — "The fact that our con- 
 stitution has to be collected from statutes, from 
 legal decisions, from observation of the course of 
 conduct of the business of politics ; that much of 
 what is written is of a negative sort, stating 
 I what the Crown and its ministers cannot do; 
 that there is no part of it wliicli an omnipotent 
 Parliament may not change at will ; all this is a 
 puzzle not only to foreign jurists who are pre- 
 pared to say, with De Tocqueville, that the 
 English constitution does not exist, but to our- 
 selves who are prepared to maintain that it is a 
 monument, if only we can find it, of political 
 sagacity. Tliose who praise it call it flexible; 
 those who criticise it unstable." — Sir W. R. 
 Anson, The Law and Custom of the Const., pt. 1, 
 p. 85. 
 
 Also in: W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of Eng. 
 in its Ongin and Develojmient. — H. Hallam, 
 Const. Hist of Eng.: Henry VII. to Geo. //.— T. 
 E. May, Const. Hist, of Eng., 1760-1800.— R. 
 Gneist, Hist, of the Eng. Const. — E. Fiscliel, 
 Tlie Eng. Const.— W. Bagehot, The Eng. Const.— 
 E. Boutmy, The Eng. Const. — See, also, Pah- 
 LiAMBNT, The English, and Cabinet, The 
 English. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 1791. 
 
 Louis XVI. See Fhance: A. D. 1789-1 toi, an5 
 1791 (July— Seitembeu). 
 
 A. D. 1793 (or the Year One).— The Jacobin 
 Constitution. See Fhance: A. D. 1793 (June 
 
 — OCTOUEU). 
 
 A. D. 170S (or the Year Three).— The Con- 
 stitution of the Directory. See France: A. D. 
 1795 (June — Septembeb). 
 
 A. D. 1799.— The Constitution of the Con- 
 sulate. Sec Fuance: A. D. 1790 (Nove.mbeu— 
 Deuembeu). 
 
 A. D. 1814.— The Constitution of the Restor- 
 ation. See Fuance: A. D. 1814 (Ai'uir, — June). 
 
 A. D. 1848.— The Constitution of the Second 
 Republic. See France: A. D. 1848 (Apbil— 
 December). 
 
 A. D. 1853. — The Constitution of the Second 
 Empire. See France: A. D. 1851-1852. 
 
 A. D. 1875-1889.— The Constitution of the 
 Third Republic. — The circumstances of tlie 
 framing and adoption in 1875 of the Constitution 
 of the Third Republic will be found narrated 
 under France: A. D. 1871-1870. The follow- 
 ing is the text of the organic law of 1875, with 
 the later amendatory and supplemental enact- 
 ments, down to July 17, 1889, as transli.[ed and 
 edited, with an historical introduction, by Mr. 
 Charles F. A. Currier, and published in the 
 Annals of the American Academy of Political 
 and Social Science, March, 1898. It is repro- 
 duced here with the kind permission of the 
 President of the Academy, Professor Edmund 
 J. James: 
 
 588 
 
CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 1875. Law on the Organization of the Pub- 
 lic Powers. February 25. 
 
 AiiTici.K 1. The k'gislativo power is exer- 
 cised by two assemblies: tlie Chiunljer of Depu- 
 ties ami tliu Senate. Tlie Chamber of Deputies is 
 elected by universal suffrage, luider the condi- 
 tions determined by the electoral lawp* The 
 composition, the method of election, and the 
 powers of the Senate shall be regulated by a 
 special law." 
 
 Akt. 2. The President of the Republic is 
 chosen by an absolute majority of votes of tlie 
 Senate and Chamber of Deputies united in 
 National Assembly. He is elected for seven 
 years. He is re-eligible. 
 
 AnT. 3. Tlie President of the Republic has 
 the initiative of the laws, concurrcutly with the 
 members of the two Chambers. He promul- 
 gates the laws wnen they have been voted by 
 the two Chambers; ho looks after and scL'ures 
 their execution. He has the right of pardon; 
 amnesty can be granted by law only. He dis- 
 poses of the armed f(.rce. He appoints to all 
 civil and military positions. He presides over 
 national festivals; envoys and ambassadors of 
 foreign powers are accredited to him. Every 
 act of the President of the Republic must be 
 countersigned by a .Minister. 
 
 AilT. 4. As vacancies occur on and after the 
 promulgation of the present law, the President of 
 the i{epublic appoints, in the Council of aMinis- 
 ters, the Councilors of State in ordinary service. 
 The Councilors of State thus chosen may bo dis- 
 missed only by decree rendered in the Council of 
 Ministers The Councilors of State chosen by 
 virtue of the law of May 24, 1872, cannot, before 
 the expiration of their powers, be dismissed ex- 
 cept in the manner determined by that law. 
 After the dissolution of the National Assembly, 
 revocation may be pronounced only by resolu- 
 tion of the Senate. 
 
 Akt. 5. The President of the Republic may, 
 with the advice of the Senate, dissolve the 
 Chamber of Deputies before the legal expiration 
 of its term. [In that case the electoral colleges 
 are summoned for new elections within the space 
 of three months.]' 
 
 AiiT. 6. The Ministers are jointly and sev- 
 erally (' solidairement') responsible to the Cham- 
 bers for the general policy of the government, 
 and individually for their personal acts. The 
 President of the Republic is responsible in case 
 of high treason only.' 
 
 AuT. 7. In case of vacancy by death or for 
 any otlier reason, the two Chambers assembled 
 together proceed at once to the election of a new 
 President. In the meantime the Council of Min- 
 isters is invested witli the executive power.' 
 
 AiiT. 8. The Chambers shall have the right 
 by separate resolutions, t«ken in each by an ab- 
 solute majority of votes, either upon their own 
 Initiative or upon the re(iuest of the President of 
 the Republic, to declare a revision of the Consti- 
 tutional Laws necessary. jVfter each of the two 
 Chambers shall have come to this decision, they 
 shall meet together in National Assembly to pro- 
 ceed with the revision. Tlie acts effecting 
 revision of the constitutional laws, in whole or 
 
 ' See law of November 80, 187.1, infra. 
 
 ' See laws of February a4. ami Au^jTiBt S, 1875, infra. 
 
 • Amended by constitutional law of August 14, 1884, 
 infra. 
 
 • See Art. 13, law of July 10, 1875, infra. 
 
 • Bee Arts. 3 and 11, law of July 16, 1876, infra. 
 
 in part, must be by an absolute majority of the 
 members comiiosmg the National Assembly. 
 [During the continuance, however, of the pow- 
 ers conferred by the law of November 20, 1873, 
 upon Slarshal de MacMahon, this revision can 
 take place only upon the initiative of the Presi- 
 dent of the Republic.]' 
 
 [AuT. 9. The scat of the Executive Power 
 and of the two Chambers is at Versailles.]' 
 
 1875. Law on the Organization of the 
 Senate. February 24. 
 
 [Ainici.io 1.' The Senate consists of three hun- 
 dred members: Two hundred and twenty-flve 
 elected by the departments and colonics, and 
 seventy-five elected by the National A.ssembiy.l 
 
 [AuT. 2. The deiiartments of the Seine and 
 Nord elect each live senators. TIk- follow ii.,j 
 departments elect f(mr sc^nators each: Seine- 
 Inferieure, Pas-de-Calais, Giroiidc, Rhone, Fiuis- 
 t(5re, Cotes-du-Nord. The following depart- 
 ments elect three senators each : lioire-hiferieure, 
 Saone-et-Loirc, Ille-et-Vilaine, Seine-et-Oise, 
 Is^re, Puy-dc-D6me, Somme, Houehes-du-Rhone, 
 Aisiie, Loire, Manclie, Maine-et-Loire, Morbihan, 
 Dordogne, Haute-Garonne, Chareute-Inferieure, 
 Calvados, Sarthc, Herault, Rasses-Pyrences, 
 Gard, Aveyron, Vendee, Orne, Oise, "Vosges, 
 Allier. All the other departments elect two 
 senators each. The following elect one senator 
 each: The Territory of Bclfort, the three de- 
 partments of Algena, the four colonies: Jlarti- 
 nique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and the French 
 Indies.] 
 
 [AiiT. 3. No one can be senator unless he is 
 a French citizen, forty years of age at least, and 
 enjoying civil and political rights.] 
 
 [Akt. 4. The senators of the departments 
 and colonies are elected by an absolute majority 
 and by ' scrutin de liste', by a college meeting at 
 the capital of the department or colony and 
 composed: (1) of the deputies; (2) of the general 
 councilors; (3) of the urrondissemeut councilors; 
 (4) of delegates elected, one by each municipal 
 council, from among the voters of the com- 
 mune. In the French Indies the members of 
 the colonial council or of the local councils art. 
 substituted for the general councilors, arrondisse- 
 ment councilors and delegates from the munici- 
 pal councils. They vote at the capital of each 
 district.] 
 
 [Art. 5. The senators chosen by the Assem- 
 bly are elected by ' scrutin de liste ' and by an 
 absolute majority of votes.] 
 
 [Akt. 6. The senators of the departments 
 and colonies are elected for nine years and re- 
 newable by thirds every three years. At the 
 beginning ol the first session tlie departments 
 shall be divided into three scries containing an 
 equal number of senators each. It shall be 
 determined by lot which series shall be renewed 
 at the expiration of the first and second triennial 
 periotls.] 
 
 [Akt. 7. The senators elected by the Assem- 
 bly are irremovable. Vacancies by death, by 
 resignation, or for any other reason, shall, within 
 the space of two months, be filled by the Senate 
 itself.] 
 
 ' Amended by constitutional law of August 14, 18&(, 
 
 » Repealed by constitutional law of June 21, 1879, infra. 
 
 ' By the constitutional law of August 14, 1884, it was 
 provided that Articles 1 to 7 of this law should no longer 
 have a constitutlouol character; and they were repealed 
 by the low of December 9, 1884, infra. 
 
 539 
 
CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP FIUNCE. 
 
 AnT. 8. The Heimtc has, concurrently witli 
 tlie Clmnilxir of Deputies, the iiiithitivo and 
 piiHsuig of liiws. Money bills, however, miist 
 first Ih! intrtKluccd iu, and passed by the Chani- 
 Ikt of Deputies. 
 
 AiiT. 9. The Hrnnto may be constituted a 
 Court of .lustice to jud){e either the President of 
 tlie Republic or the Ministers, and to take coj;- 
 nizancc of attacks made upon tlic safety of tlic 
 State. 
 
 AuT. 10. Elections to tlie Senate shall tjike 
 place one iiiontli before the time fixed by the 
 National As.sembly for its own dissolution. 
 Tlic Senate sliall organize and enter upon its 
 duties tlie same day that the National Assembly 
 is dissolved. 
 
 Aht. 11. The present law sholl be promul- 
 gated only after tlie passage of the law on the 
 public powers.' 
 
 1875. Law on the Relations of the Public 
 Powers. July 16. 
 
 AiiTici.K 1. The Senate and the C'haml)er of 
 Deputies shall assemble each year the second 
 Tuesday of January, unless convened earlier by 
 the President of the Republic. The two Cham- 
 bers continue in session at least five months 
 each year. The sessions of eacli begin and end 
 at the same time. [On the Sunday following 
 the opening of the session, public prayers shall 
 be addressed to Ood in the churches and tem- 
 ples, to invoke His aid iu the labors of the 
 Chambers.]' 
 
 Aht. 2. The President of the Republic pro- 
 nounces the closure of the session. He may con- 
 vene the Chambers in extra session. He must 
 convene them if, during the recess, an absolute 
 majority of the members of each Chamber re- 
 quest it. The President may adjourn the Cham- 
 bers. The adjournment, however, must not 
 exceed one month, nor take place more than 
 twice in the same session. 
 
 Art. 3. One month at least before the legal 
 expiration of the powers of the President of the 
 Republic, the Chambers must be called together 
 in National Assembly and proceed to tho election 
 of a new President. In default of a summons, 
 this meeting shall take place, as of right, the 
 flfteentli day before the expiration of those 
 powers. In case of the death or resignation of 
 the President of the Republic, the two Cham- 
 bers shall reassemble immediately, as of right. 
 In case tlie Chamber of Deputies, in conse- 
 quence of Article 5 of the law of February 25, 
 1875, is dissolved at tlie time when the presi- 
 dency of tlie Republic becomes vacant, the 
 electoral colleges shall be convened at once, and 
 the Senate shall reassemble as of right. 
 
 Akt. 4. Every meeting of cither of the two 
 Chambers w' Ch shall bo held at a time other 
 then the con iium session of both is illegal and 
 void, except tlie case provided for in the pre- 
 ceding article, and tliat when tho Senate meets 
 08 a court of justice; and in this last case, judi- 
 cial duties alone shall be performed. 
 
 Art. 5. The sittings of the Senate and of the 
 Chamber of Deputies are public. Nevertheless 
 each Chamber may meet iu secret session, upon 
 the request of a fixed number of its members, 
 determined by the rules. It decides by absolute 
 majority whether tho sitting shall be resumed in 
 public upon the same subject. 
 
 > i.e., the law of February 25, 1875, aupra. 
 
 > Repealed by law of August 14, 1684, infra. 
 
 AliT. 0. Tlu- President of tho Republic com- 
 municates with the Chambers by messages, 
 which are read from tho tribune liy a Minister. 
 The Jlinisters have entrance to both Chamliers, 
 and must bo heani when they request it. They 
 may lie represented, for the tiiscnssion of a 
 specifit; bill, by commissioners designated by 
 decree of tlie President of tho Republic. 
 
 AuT. 7. The President of the Republic pro- 
 mulgates tho laws within the month following 
 the transmission to tlio Qovemment of tho law 
 finally pas.sed. Ho must promulgate, within 
 three days, laws whoso promulgation shall liavo 
 been declared urgent by an express vote in each 
 Chamber. Within the time fixed for promulga- 
 tion tile President of the Republic may, by a 
 message witli reiuwns assigned, request of the 
 two Chambers a new discussion, which cam ot 
 bo refused. 
 
 AuT. 8. The President of tho Itopublic nego- 
 tiates and mtitlcs treaties. He communicotes 
 tliem to tho Chambers as soon as the interests and 
 safety of the State permit. Treaties of peoce, 
 and of commerce, treaties wliich involve tho 
 finances of the State, those relating to tlio per- 
 sons and property of French citizens in foreign 
 countries, shall become definitive only after 
 having been voted by the two Chambers. No 
 cession, no exchange, no annexation of territory 
 shall take place except by virtue of a law. 
 
 Art. 9. The President of the Republic can- 
 not declare war except by the previous assent of 
 the two Chambers. ; 
 
 Art. 10. Each Chamber is the judge of tho 
 eligibility of its members, and of the legality of 
 their election; it alone can receive tlioir resig- 
 nation. 
 
 Art. 11. The bureau' of each Chamber is 
 elected each year for the entire session, and for 
 every extra session which may be held before 
 the ordinary session of the following year. 
 When tlio two Chambers moot together as a 
 National Assembly, their bureau consists of the 
 President, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the 
 Senate. 
 
 Art. 12. The President of the Republic may 
 be impcaclied by tho Chamber of Deputies only, 
 and tried by tho Senate only. Tho Ministers 
 may bo impeached by tho Chamber of Deputies 
 for offences committed in the performance of 
 their duties. In this case they are tried by the 
 Senate. Tho Senate may be constituted a court 
 of Justice, by a decree of the President of tlio 
 Republic, issued in tho Council of Ministers, to 
 try all persons accused of attempts upon the 
 safety of the State. If procedure is begun by 
 the ordinary courts, tlic decree convening the 
 Senate may be issued any time before the grant- 
 ing of a discharge. A law shall determine tlie 
 method of procedure for the accusation, trial 
 and judgment' 
 
 Art. 13. No member of either Chamber shall 
 be prosecuted or held responsible on account of 
 any opinions expressed or votes cast by him in 
 the performance of his duties. 
 
 Art. 14. No member of either Chamber 
 shall, during the session, be prosecuted or ar- 
 rested for any offence or misdemeanor, except 
 on the authority of the Chamber of which he is a 
 
 ' Tlie bureau of the Senate consists of a president, four 
 vice-presidents, six secretaries and thrt»e (inestors; the 
 bureau of the Cliamber ot Deputies i.s tlie same, except 
 that there are eight secretaries Instead of six. 
 
 ' Fixed by law of April 10, 1889. 
 
 540 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP FRANCK 
 
 iiiry 
 
 member, unless ho be cauffht In the very act. 
 The detention or prosecution of ft member of 
 cither CJhnmber is Hiispendcd for the session, nnd 
 for its [the Chamber's] cntin; term, if it de- 
 miinds it. 
 
 1879. ^"■'^ Revising; Article 9 of the Con- 
 stitutional Law of February 25, 1 875. I une 2 1 . 
 
 Article 9 of the conHtitutioniiT law of Febriii 
 25, 1875, is repealed. 
 
 1884. Law Partially Revising the Con- 
 stitutional Laws, August 14. 
 
 AuTicLK 1. Para>?niph 2 of Article 5 of the 
 constitutionul law of Febr\iary 25, 1875, on the 
 Organization of the Public Powers, is amended 
 us follows: "In that case the electoral colleges 
 meet for new elections within two months, and 
 the Chamber within the ten days following the 
 close of the elections." 
 
 Art. 2. To Paragraph 3 of Article 8 of the 
 same law of February 25, 1875, is added the fol- 
 lowing: " The Republican form of the Govern- 
 ment cannot be made the subject of a proposed 
 revision. Members of families that have reigned 
 in France are ineligible to the presidency of the 
 Republic." 
 
 Art. 8. Articles 1 to 7 of the constitutional 
 law of February 24, 1875, on the Organization 
 of the Senate, shall no longer have a constitu- 
 tional character.' 
 
 Art. 4. Paragraph 3 of Article 1 of the con- 
 stitutional law of July 16, 1875, on the Illation 
 of the Public Powers, is repealed. 
 
 1875. Law on the Election of Senators. 
 August 2. 
 
 Article 1. A decree of the President of the 
 Republic, issued at least six weeks in advance, 
 determines the day for the elections to the 
 Senate, and at the same time that for [the choice 
 of delegates of the municipal councils. There 
 must be an interval of at least one month be- 
 tween the choice of delegates and the election of 
 senators. 
 
 Art. 2. Each municipal council elects one 
 delegate. The election is without debate, by 
 secret ballot, and by an absolute majority of 
 votes. Aftei two ballots a plurality is sufficient, 
 and in case of an equality of votes, the oldest is 
 declared elected. If the Mayor is not a member 
 of the municipal council, he presides, but shall 
 not vote.' On the same day and in the same 
 way an alternate is elected, who takes the place 
 of the delegate in case of refu.sal or Inability to 
 serve.' The choice of the municipal councils shall 
 not extend to a deputy, a general councilor, or 
 ftn arrondissement councilor.' All communal 
 electors, including the municipal councilors, are 
 eligible without distinction. 
 
 Art. 3. In the communes where a municipal 
 committee exists, the delegate and alternate 
 shall bo chosen by the old council.' 
 
 Art. 4. If the delegate was not prenent at 
 the election, the Mayor shall see to it that he is 
 notified within twenty-four hours. He must 
 transmit to the Prefect, within live days, notice 
 of his acceptance. In case of refusal or silence, 
 he is replaced by the alternate, who is then 
 placed upon the list as the delegate of the com- 
 mune.' 
 
 ' And may therefore be amended by ordinary legisla- 
 tion. See tlie law of December », 1HH4, infra. 
 iJ Amended by Art. 8, law of December 9, 18&4, infra. 
 ' ' ', la\ 
 
 ' See Art. 4, law of February ^4, 1H75, mpra. 
 * See Art. 8, law of Decemlier 0, 1884, infra. 
 
 Art. 5. The ofllcial report of the election of 
 
 thi' delegate and alternate is transmitted at oncu 
 to the Prefect ; it states the ac(!eptance or refusal 
 of tlie delegates and alternates, iw well as the pro- 
 tests raised, by one or more members of the 
 municipal council, against the legality of the 
 election. A copy of this official report is posted 
 on the door of the town hall.' 
 
 Art. 0. A statement of the results of the 
 election of delegates and alternates is drawn up 
 within a week by the Prefect; this is given to all 
 reiiuesting it, and may be copied and published. 
 Every elector may, at the bureaux of the prefec- 
 ture, obtain information and a copy of the list, 
 by communes, of the municipai councilors of tho 
 department, and, at the bureaux of the sub- 
 prefectures tt copy of the list, by communes, 
 of the municipal councilors of tlio arrondisse- 
 ment. 
 
 Art. 7. Every communal elector nuiy, within 
 three days, address directly to the Prel"(,'ct a pro- 
 test against the legality of the election. If tho 
 Prefect deems the proceedings illegal, he may 
 request that they be .s'.t uside. 
 
 Art. 8. Protests concerning the election of 
 the delegate or alternate are decided, subject to 
 an appeal to the Council of State, by the council 
 of the prefecture, and, in tho colonies, by the 
 privy council. A delegate whose election is an- 
 nulled because he docs not satisfy the conditions 
 demanded by law, or on account of informality, 
 is replaced by the alternate. In cose the elec- 
 tion of the delegate and alternate is rendered 
 void, as by the refusal or death of both after 
 their acceptance, new elections are held by the 
 municipal council on a day fixed by an order of 
 the Prefect.' 
 
 Art. 9. Eight days, at the latest, before the 
 election of senators, the Prefect, and, in the colo- 
 nies, the Director of the Interior, orranges the 
 list of the electors of tho department in alpha- 
 betical order. The list is communicated to all 
 demanding it, and may be copied and published. 
 No elector has more than one vote. 
 
 Art. 10. The deputies, the members of the 
 general council, or of the arrondissement coun- 
 cils, who have been announced by the returning 
 committees, but whose powers have not been 
 verified, are enrolled upon the list of electors 
 and are allowed to vote. 
 
 Art. 11. In each of the three departments of 
 Algeria the electoral college is composed : (1) of 
 the deputies ; (2) of tho members of the general 
 councils, of French citizenship ; (3) of delegates 
 elected by the French members of each muni- 
 cipal council from among tho communal electors 
 of French citizenship. 
 
 Art. 12. The electoral college is presided 
 over by the President of the civil tribunal of the 
 capital of the department or colony. The Presi- 
 dent is assisted by the two oldest and two 
 youngest electors present at the opening of the 
 meeting. The bureau thus constituted chooses 
 a secretary from among the electors. If the 
 President is prevented [from presiding] his place 
 is taken by the Vice-President [of the civil 
 tribunal], and, in his absence, by the oldest 
 justice. 
 
 Art. 13. The bureau divides the electors in 
 alphabetical order into sections of at least one 
 hundred voters each. It appoints the President 
 
 1 See Art. 8, law of December 9, 1884, infra. 
 
 641 
 
CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 and Inspectors of each of these sections. It 
 decides ttll (luestions iin(i contesti wliioli may 
 arisj! in llu' course of tlio election, witlumt, 
 however, power to depart from I lie decisions 
 rend'-'red by virtue of Article 8 of the present 
 law. 
 
 AllT. 14. Tli(^ first Imllot licpiiLS iit eljrlit 
 o'clock in the morning and closes at noon. The 
 second Ix'gins at two o'clock and closes at four 
 o'clock. The third, if it takes place, lu-gins at 
 Bis o'clock and doses at eight o'clock. Tlie 
 results of the hallotings are determined by the 
 bureau and announced Ihc same day by the 
 President of the electoral college.' 
 
 Akt. IT). No one is elected senator on either 
 of the first two ballots \ude8S he receives: (1) an 
 absolute majority of the votes cast ; and (2) a 
 number of votes equal to one-fourth of the total 
 number of electors registered. On the third bal- 
 lot a idurality is sufilcicnt, and, in case of an 
 equality of votes, tlie oldest is elec'ted. 
 
 Ai'T. 1(1, Political meetings for the nomina- 
 tion (..' senatoi-s may take phu:o confonnably to 
 the rules laid down by the law of June «, 1868' 
 subject to the following conditions : I. These 
 meetings may be held from the date of the elec- 
 tion of delegates up to the day of the election [of 
 senators] inclusive; II. They must be preceded 
 by a declaration made, at latest, the evening 
 before, by seven senatorial electors of the arron- 
 dissement, and indicating the place, the day and 
 the hour the meeting is to take place, and the 
 names, occupation and residence of the candi- 
 dates to be presented; III. The municipal 
 authorities will sec to it that no one is admitted 
 to the meeting unless he is a deputy, general 
 councilor, arrondissement coimcilor, delegate or 
 candidate. The delegate will present, as a 
 means of identification, a certificate from the 
 Mayor of his commune, the candidate a certifi- 
 cate from the otlicial who shall have received the 
 declaration mentioned in the preceding para- 
 graph." 
 
 AuT. 17. Delegates who take part in all the 
 hallotings shall, if they demand it, receive from 
 the Ptale, upon the presentation of tlieir letter of 
 Bununons, countersigned by the President of the 
 electoral college, a remuneration for traveling 
 expenses, which shall be paid to them upon the 
 same l)a8is and in the same manner as that given 
 to jurors by Articles 35, 00 and following, of the 
 decree of June 18, 1811. A public administra- 
 tive regulation shall determine the metho<l of 
 fixing the amount and the method of payment 
 of this remuneration.' 
 
 AiiT. 18. Every delegate who, without law- 
 ful reason, shall not take part in M the hal- 
 lotings, or, having been liindered, shall not have 
 given notice to the nlteriiate in sufiicient season, 
 shall, upon the demand of the public prosecutor, 
 be punished by a tine of fifty francs by the civil 
 tribunal of the capital.' The same penalty may 
 bo imposed upon tlie alternate who, after having 
 been notified by letter, telegram, or notice per- 
 sonally delivered in due season, shall not have 
 taken part in the election. 
 
 AuT. 19. Every attempt at corruption by the 
 employment of means enumerated in Articles 
 177 and following, of the Penal Code, to influ- 
 
 ' See Art. 8, law of December 9, 18S1, ivfra. 
 
 > This law has been superseded by a law of June 80, 
 1881. 
 
 • Done by decree of Decemljer !», 1876. 
 
 * Of the uepartment. 
 
 cncc the vote of an elector, or to keep him from 
 voting, shall be pnidshed by imiirisonmcnt of 
 from three months to two years, and a fine of 
 from fifty to five hundred fnmcs, or l)y one of 
 the.se twi) penalties alone. Article 40!} of tho 
 Penal C(Mle shall apply to the penalties iinposcd 
 by the present article.' 
 
 AuT. 20. It is incompatible for a senator to 
 be; I. Councilor of State, Maltre de ReqiiCtes, 
 Prefect or Sub-Prefect, except Prefect of the 
 Seine and Prefect of Police; II. Member of tho 
 courts of appeal ("appel,")' or of the tribunals 
 of first instance, except i)\it)lie prosecutor at tho 
 court of Paris; III. General Paymaster, Special 
 Receiver, official or employe of the central ad- 
 minLstration of the ministries. 
 
 Akt. 21. The following shall not be elected 
 by the department or the colony included wholly 
 or partially in tlieir jurisdiction, during tlio exer- 
 cise of their duties and during the six months 
 following the cessation of their duties by resig- 
 nation, (lismissal, change of residence, or other 
 cause : I. The First Presidents, Presidents, and 
 members of the courts of appeal ("appel"); II. 
 The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Examining Mag- 
 istrates, and menilKTS of the tribunals of first 
 instance; III. The Prefect of Poliiie; Prefects 
 and Suo-Prefects, and Prefectorial General Sec- 
 retaries ; the Governors, Directors of the Interior, 
 and General Secretaries of the Colonies; IV. 
 The Chief Arrondissement Engineers and Chief 
 Arrondis.sem(!nt Road-Surveyors ; V. The School 
 Rectors and Inspectors; VI. The Primary School 
 Inspectors; VII. The Archbishops, Bishops, and 
 Vicars General ; VIII. Tlie officers of all grades 
 of the land and naval force; IX. The Division 
 Commissaries and the ]^Iilitary Deputy Commis- 
 saries ; X. Tho General Paymasters and Special 
 Keceivers of Money ; XI. The Supervisors of 
 Direct and Indirect Taxes, of Registration of 
 Lands and of Posts; XII. The Guardians and 
 Inspectors of Forests. 
 
 AiiT. 22. A senator elected in several depart- 
 ments, must let his choice be known to the Presi- 
 dent of the senate within ten days following tho 
 verification of tho elections. If a choice is not 
 made in this time, the question is settled by lot 
 in open session. The vacancy shall be filled 
 within one month and by the same electoral 
 bo<ly. The same holds true in case of an in- 
 validated election. 
 
 Art. 33. If by death or resignation the num- 
 ber of senators of a department is reduced by 
 one -half, the vacancies shall be filled within the 
 space of tliree months, unless the vacancies 
 occur within the twelve months preceding the 
 triennial elections. At the time fixed for tho 
 triennial elections, all vacancies shall be filled 
 which have occurred, whatever their number 
 and date.' 
 
 [Akt. 24. The election of senators chosen by 
 the National Assembly takes place in public 
 sittirg, by " scrutin do liste," and by an absolute 
 majority of votes, whatever tho number of hal- 
 lotings. 
 
 Akt. 25. When it is necessary to elect suc- 
 cessors of senators chosen by virtue of Article 7 
 of the law of February 24, 1875, the Senate pro- 
 
 ' See Article 8. law of December 9, 1884, infra. 
 
 ' Franco is divided into twenty-six judicial districtH, in 
 each of which there is a cour d'appel. There are similar 
 courts in Algeria and the colonies. The Cour de Cassa- 
 tion is the supreme court of appeal for all France, 
 Alg:erla and the colonies. 
 
 542 
 
CONSTITUTION OP FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 c^eds in the manner indicated In ttic preceding 
 nrtlcle]." 
 
 AuT. 20. Members of the 8eiial(^ receive tlie 
 winie snliiry iih members of the Clmmbcr of 
 Deputies.' 
 
 AuT. 27. Tliere are applicable to elections to 
 tlie Senate all tlie provisions of tlie electoriil law 
 relatinj(: I. to cases of unworthiness and in- 
 capacity ; II. to offences, prosecutions, and pen- 
 alties; III. to election proceediiips, in all respects 
 not contrary to ihc provisions of tlie present law. 
 
 Temporary Provisions. 
 
 AuT. 28. For the (irsl election of members of 
 the Senate, the law which shall determine the 
 date of the dissolution of the National Assembly 
 shall fix, without regard to the intervals estab- 
 lished l)y Article 1, the date on which the 
 municipal councils shall meet for the election of 
 delegates am' die day for the election of Sena- 
 tors. Before the meeting of the municipal 
 councils, the National A.ssj'mbly shall pniceed to 
 the election of those Senators whom it is to 
 choose. 
 
 AiiT. 20. The provisions of Article 21, by 
 which an interval of six months must elapse 
 between the cessation of duties and election, 
 sliall not apply to officials, except Prefects and 
 Sub-Prefects, whose duties shall have ceosed 
 cither before the promulgation of the present 
 law or within twenty days following. 
 
 1875. Law on the Election of Deputies.' 
 November 30. 
 
 Akticle 1. The deputies shall be chosen by the 
 votei-8 registered: I. upon the lists drawn up in 
 accordance with the law of ,Tuly 7, 1874; II. 
 upon the supplementary list including those who 
 have lived in the commune six months. Regis- 
 tration upon the supplementary list shall take 
 place conformably to the laws and regulations 
 now governing the political electoral lists, by 
 the committees and according to the forms 
 established by Articles 1, 2 and 8 of the law of 
 July 7, 1874. Appeals relating to the formation 
 and revision of either list shall be carried 
 directly before the Civil Chamber of the Court of 
 Appeal (" Cassation"). The elecLoral lists drawn 
 up March 31, 1875, shall serve until March 81, 
 1876. 
 
 Art. 2. The soldiers of all ranks and grades, 
 of both the land and naval forces, shall not vot<s 
 when they are with their regiment, at their post 
 or on duty. Those who, on election day, are in 
 private residence, in non-activity or in possession 
 of a regular leave of absence, may vote in the 
 commune on the lists of which they are duly 
 registered. This last provision applies equally 
 to officers on the unattached list or on the re- 
 serve list. 
 
 Akt. 3. During the electoral period, circulars 
 and platforms ("professions de foi") signed by 
 the candidates, placards and manifestoes signed 
 bjf one or more voters, may, after being deposited 
 with the public prosecutor, be posted and dis- 
 tributed without previous authorization. The 
 distribution of ballots is not subjected to this 
 deposit.' Every public or municipal official is for- 
 bidden to distribute ballots, platforms and circu- 
 
 ' Articles 24 and 25 repealed by law of December 9, 
 )9K1, infra. 
 
 • See Article 17, law of November 30, 1875, infra. 
 
 ' Heo, infra, the laws of June 10, 1885, and February 13, 
 18811. amending tlie electoral law. 
 
 • See, however, a law of December 80, 1878, by which 
 deposit is made necessary. 
 
 lars of randidntes. The provisions of Article 10 
 of the organic law of August 2, 1875, on the 
 i'lcctions of Senators, shall apply to the elections 
 of deputies. 
 
 AiiT. 4. Halloting shall continue one day 
 only. The voting occurs at the chief place of 
 the commune; each commune may nevertheless 
 be divided, by order of the Prefect, into as many 
 sections as may Ik- demanded by local cir- 
 cumstances and the numlicr of voters. The 
 second ballot shall take place the second Sunday 
 following the Hiiiiounccnu'nt of the (Irst ballot, 
 according to the provisions of Article (15, of the 
 law of March 15, 1849. 
 
 AiiT. r>. The method of voting shall l)o ac- 
 cording to the provisions of the organic and 
 regulating decrees of IVbruary 2, 18.52. The 
 ballot is secret. The voting lists used at the 
 elections in each section, signel by the President 
 and Secretary, shall reinnin depo-iited for eight 
 days at the Secretary's office at the town hall, 
 where they shall bo communicated to every 
 voter requesting them. 
 
 AuT. fl. Every voter is eligible, without any 
 tax ((Palification, at the age of twenty-live years. 
 
 AiiT. 7. No soldier or sailor forming part of 
 the active forces of hind or sea may, whatever 
 his rank or position, be elected a member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies. This provision applies to 
 soldiers and sailors on the unattached list or in 
 non-activity, but does not extend to officers of 
 the second section of the list of the general staff, 
 nor to tlio.so who, kept in the first section for 
 having been commander-in-chief in the fiehl, 
 have censed to be employed actively, nor to offi- 
 cers who, having privileges acci.iiea m, the re- 
 tired list, are sent to or maintained at their homes 
 while awaiting the settlement of heir pen.sicm. 
 The decision by which the officer shul! I>".ve been 
 permitted to establish his rights on the retired 
 li.st shall become, in this case, irrevocable. The 
 rule laid down in the first paragraph of the 
 present Article shall not apply to the reserve of 
 the active army nor to the territorial army. 
 
 Akt. 8. Tlie exercise of public duties paid 
 out of the treasury of the State is incompatible 
 with the office of deputy. Consequently every 
 official elected deputy shall be superseded in his 
 duties if, within the eight days following the 
 verification of powers, he has not signified that 
 he does not accept the oflice of deputy. There 
 are excepted from the preceding provisions the 
 duties of Jlinister, Under Secretary of State, 
 Ambassador, Minister Plenipotentiary, Prefect of 
 the Seine, Prefect of Police, First President of 
 the Court of Appeal ("cassation,") First Presi- 
 dent of the Court of Accounts, First President of 
 the Court of Appeal (" appel ") of Paris, Attorney 
 General atthcCourtof Appeal ("cassati(m,") At- 
 torney General at the Court of Accounts, Attorney 
 General at the Court of Appeal ("appel ") of Paris, 
 Archbishop and Bishop, Consistorial Presiding 
 Pastor in consistorial districts whose capital has 
 two or more pastors. Chief Itabbi of the Central 
 C'jnsistory, Chief Rabbi of the Consistory of Paris. 
 
 AiiT. 9. There are also excepted from tho 
 provisions of Article 8: I. titular professors of 
 chairs which are filled by competition or upon tho 
 nomination of the bodie.'^ where the vacancy oc- 
 curs ; II. persons who have been charged with a 
 temporary mission. All missions continuing 
 more than six months cease to be temporary and 
 are governed by Article 8 above. 
 
 543 
 
CONSTITUrnN OF FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. 
 
 .Vkt. 10. Tin- ofllriiil i)rcHervfH tlic riffhtu 
 wlilcli ho lilts iicqu'ri-d to a ritirliiK pciiHioii, iiiiil 
 limy, ntlvr tlio i^xpirutiou of liis Icriii of olllcc, lio 
 rcHtorcd t" iictive nerv ce. Tlio civil olliciiil wlio, 
 )mvin){ liuil twenty vt' ir»of wrvic'c iit tlie iliitr of 
 tilt' lU'iTplmici! of tfio ilHco of ilcputy, iinil hIiiiII 
 Ik- fifty yciirH of ai[i- iit tlio time of tlie cxpinitioii 
 of tills trriii of ollicc, iimy crtiililixh IiIh nj^litH to 
 itn I'xccptioiiiii rctiriiiji; pciiHioii. Tliig pension 
 shall li(^ regulated aeeordin); to tlie third Para- 
 irniph of Article 13 of the law of June 9, \Hr,;i. 
 If the (.(llcial is restored to active service after 
 the expiration of his term of ulHce, the provisions 
 of Article a, Parasraph 2, and Art'elc i'S of the 
 law of June 0, 185!), shall apply to him. In 
 dllti(^s where tlie rank is distinct from the em- 
 ployment, the olllcial, liy the acceptance of the 
 olBce of (h'puty, loses the emiiloyment and pre- 
 serves the rank only. 
 
 AiiT. 11. Every deputy appointed or pro- 
 moted to a salaried public position ceases to 
 belonf^ to the Cliamber by the very fact of his 
 acceptance ; but he may be re-electe(l, if tlie ofllce 
 which ho occupies is compatible with tlie olllce 
 of deputy. Dcpuiies who become Ministers or 
 Under-Secretaries of State are not subjected to a 
 re-election. 
 
 AiiT. 13. There shall not be elected by the 
 arrondissement or tht! colony included wholly or 
 partially in their jurisdiction, during the exercise 
 of their duties or for six months lollowing the 
 expiration of their duties due to resignation, dls- 
 mlasal, change of residence, or any other cause: 
 I. The First-Presidents, Presidents, and mem- 
 bers of the Courts of Appeal ("appel"); II. The 
 Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Titular Judges, Ex- 
 amining Magistrates, and members of the tribu- 
 nals of first instance; III. The Prefect of Police; 
 the Prefects and General Secretaries of the 
 Prefectures; the Governors, Directors of the In- 
 terior, and General Secretaries of the Colonies; 
 IV. The Chief Arrondissement Engineers and 
 Chief Arrondissement Road-Surveyors; V. 
 The School Rectors and Inspectors; VI. The 
 Primary School Inspectors; VII. The Arch- 
 bishops, Bishops, and Vicars General ; VIII. The 
 General Paymasters and Special Receivers of 
 Money ; IX. The Supervisors of Direct and Indi- 
 rect Taxes, of Registration of Lands, and of 
 Posts; X. The Guardians and Inspectors of For- 
 ests. The Sub-Prefects shall not be elected in 
 any of the arrondissements of the department 
 where they perform their duties. 
 
 AiiT. 13. Every imperative mandate is null 
 and void. 
 
 AuT. 14. Members of the Chamber of Deputies 
 are elected by single districts. Each administra- 
 tive arrondissement shall elect one deputy. Ar- 
 rondissements having more than 100,000 inhabit- 
 ants shall elect one deputy in addition for every 
 additional 100,000 inhabitants or fraction of 
 100,000. Arrondissements of this kind shall be 
 divided into districts whose boundaries shall be es- 
 tablished by law and may be changed only by law. 
 
 Art. 15. Deputies shall be chosen for four 
 years. The Chamber is renewable integrally. 
 
 AliT. 16. In case of vacancy by death, resig- 
 nation, or otherwise, a new election shall be held 
 within three months of the date when the 
 vacancy occurred. In case of option,' the 
 viicincy shall be filled within one month. 
 
 . when a deputy had been elected from two or 
 mu.' oiatriota. 
 
 AuT. 17. The dcpuiies sliall receive a salary. 
 This salary is regulated by Articles Oil and 07 of 
 tli(^ law of March 15, 1840, and by the provisions 
 of the law of February 1(1, 1873. 
 
 AiiT. 18. No one is elected on the first ballot 
 unless he receives: (1) an absolute majority of 
 tlie votes cast; (2) a number of votes eipiai to 
 onefourtli of the number of voters registered. 
 On tlie second ballot a plurality is sufilcient. In 
 case of nil equality of votes, the oldest is de- 
 clared elected. 
 
 Aht. 10. Each department of Algeria electa 
 one dejiuty. 
 
 Abt. 20. The voters living in Algeria in a 
 place not yet made a commune, shall be regis- 
 tered on the electoral list of the nearest com- 
 mune. When it is necessary to establish electoral 
 districts, eitlier for the purpose of grouping 
 mixed communes in each of which the niimlx;r 
 of voters shall be iiisufilcient, or to bring togetiier 
 voters living in places not formed into communes 
 the decrees for tlxing the seat of these districts 
 shall be issued by tlie Governor-General, upon 
 the report of the Prefect or of the General com- 
 manding the division. 
 
 Aht. 21. The four colonies to which senators 
 have been assigned by the law of February 34, 
 1875, on the organization of the Senate, shall 
 choose one deputy each. 
 
 AuT. 22. Every violation of the prohibitive 
 provisions of Article 3, Paragraph 8, of the 
 present law shall be punished by a fine of from 
 sixteen francs to three hundred francs. Never- 
 theless the criminal courts may apply Article 
 463 of the Penal Code. The provisions of Arti- 
 cle 6 of tlie law of July 7, 1874, shall apply to 
 the political electoral lists. The decree of Janu- 
 ary 29, 1871, and the laws of April 10, 1871, 
 May 2, 1871, and February 18, 1873, arc re- 
 pealed. Paragraph 11 of Article 15 of the 
 organic decree of February 2, 1858, is also re- 
 pealed, in so far as it refers to tlie law of May 31, 
 1836, on lotteries, reserving, however, to the 
 courts the right to apply to convicted persons 
 Article 42 of the Penal Code. The provisions of 
 the laws and decrees now in force, with which 
 the present law docs not conflict, shall continue 
 to be applied. 
 
 Art. 23. The provision of Article 13 of the 
 present law by which an interval of six months 
 must elapse between the expiration of duties and 
 election, shall not apply to olficials, excep!. Pre- 
 fects and Sub-Prefects, whose duties shall have 
 ceased either before the promulgation of the 
 present law or within the twenty days follow- 
 ing it. 
 
 1879. Law ReUtine to the Seat of the 
 Executive Power ana of the Chamber; at 
 Paris. July 22. 
 
 Article 1. The seat of the Executive Power 
 and of the two Chambers is at Paris. 
 
 Art. 2. The Palace of the Luxemburg avl 
 the Palais-Bourbon are assigned, the first to the 
 use of the Senate, the second to that of the 
 Chamber of Deputies. Nevertheless each of the 
 Chambers is outhorized to choose, in the city of 
 Paris, the palace which it wishes to occupy. 
 
 Art. 3. The various parts of the palace of Ver- 
 sailles now occupied by the Senate and Chamber 
 of Deputies preserve their arrangements. When- 
 ever, according to Articles 7 and 8 of the law of 
 February 25, 1875, on the organization of the 
 public powers, a meeting of the National Assem- 
 
 544 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. 
 
 bly tnkr» pliicc, It kIiiiII sit iit VcrsiilllcK, In tlip 
 pri'MPiit liull iif tlu,' ('Iminbi'r nf Dcpiitii-H. 
 WliPiicvpr, uccordliiff to Article of llic liiw of 
 Fel)ruiiry 24, IHTn, on tin; orKimiziilioii of tlic 
 Hciiiitc, iind Articli' I'J of Ilic conHtilnlioiml law 
 of .Inly 10, lN7r>, on tlic ri'liitlotiH of tlu^ iMihlic 
 powers, tlic Semite sliiill be call<'tl upon to con- 
 Btltwte itHclf a ("ourt of Jiistiee, It hIuiU Indieuto 
 the toivn and plaeo wliere It propowH to Hit. 
 
 AuT. 4. Tlie Senate and CliHinber of DeputieH 
 will Kit at Paris on and after NovenitM'r U next. 
 
 AnT. a. The PresidentH of the Senate and 
 (Chamber of Depiilles are charged with the duty 
 of securing the external and int"rnal safety df 
 th(^ Chambers over which they preside. To this 
 vnd they have the right to call upon the armed 
 force and every authority whose assistance tli(!y 
 Judge necessary. The demands nniy be act- 
 dressed directly to all odlcers, coninianders, or 
 ofllcials, who arc bound to obey Immediately, 
 under the penalties established by the luvs. 
 The Presidents of the Senate and Chamber of 
 Deputies may delegate to the (|uestors or to one 
 of them their ri^ht of demanding aid. 
 
 AuT. 6. Petitions to either of the Chnml)ers 
 can be made and presented In writing only. It Is 
 forbidden to present them In person or at the bur. 
 
 AuT. 7. Every violation of the preceding 
 article, every provocation, by speeches uttered 
 publicly, or by writings, or printed matter, 
 posted or distributed, to a crowd upon the piddic 
 ways, having for an object the discussion, draw- 
 ing up, or carrying to the Chambers or either of 
 them, of petitions, declarations, or addresses — 
 whether or not any results follow such action — 
 shall be punislied by the penalties euumcrated 
 In Paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the law of June 
 7, 1848. 
 
 AiiT. 8. The preceding provisions do not 
 diminish the force of the law of June 7, 1848, on 
 riotous assemblies. 
 
 Aht. 9. Article 463 of the Penal Co<le applies 
 to the offences mentioned in the present law. 
 
 1884. Law Am<"i(line the Organic Laws 
 on the Organization of the Senate and the 
 Elections ot Senators. December 9. 
 
 Abtici-e 1. The Senate consists of three hun- 
 dred members, elected by the departments and 
 the colonics. The present members, without 
 any distinction between senators elected by the 
 National Assembly or the Senate and those 
 •elected by the departments and colonics, main- 
 tain their term of office during the time for 
 ■wldch they have been chosen. 
 
 Art. 2. The department of the Seine elects 
 ten senators. The deportment of the Nord elects 
 •eight senators. The loUowing departments elect 
 five senators each: C6te8-du-Nord, Finistire, 
 Gironde, Ille-et-Vilaine, Loire, Loire-Infcrieure, 
 Pas-de-Colais, Rhone, Sa6ne-et-Loire, 8eine-In- 
 ferieure. The following departments elect four 
 senators each ; Aisne, Bouche8-du-Rh6ne, Char- 
 cnte - Infcricure, Dordogne, Haute - Garonne, 
 Isdre, Maine-et-Loirc, Manche, Morbihan, Puy- 
 de-D6me, Seine-et-Oise, Somme. The following 
 •departmenta elect throe senators each: Ain, 
 Allier, Ard^che, Ardennes, Aubc, Aude, Avey- 
 ron, Calvados, Charente, Cher, Corrfize, Corse, 
 COte-d'Or, Creuse, lloubs. Drome, Eure, Eure- 
 et-Lolr, Qard, Gers, Herault, Indre, Indre-ct- 
 Loire, Jura, Landes, Loir-et-Cher, Haute-Lolre, 
 Loiret, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Marne, Haute-Mame, 
 Mayenne, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Nidvre, 
 
 Ol8P,()rne,Ua8He8-Pyrene<'K, HanteSartne, Sarthe, 
 Savoie, ilaute-Savole, Seineet-Mnrne, Deux- 
 SevrcH, Tarn, Var, V'endiV, Vienne, llaute- 
 Vicnne, Vosges, Yonne. The following depart- 
 ments cleft two senators each: nas.srs-Alpes, 
 llautcs-Alpes, AliX'S .Maritinies, Arii^ge, Cantal, 
 l.o/.iyre, llaulcs-Pyrenees, Pvrfinees-Orientaics, 
 Tani-et-Oaronnc, Vanchise. The following elect 
 one senator each; the Territory of Helfort, tho 
 three departments of Algeria, tlie four colonies: 
 iMurtinhiue, Guadeloupe, lii'iudon and Krencli 
 Ii.dles. 
 
 Aht. 8. In the departnient.s where the num- 
 ber of senators Is increased by the present law, 
 the increase shall take effect as vacancies occur 
 among the life senators. To this end, within 
 eight days after the vacancy occiirs, it shall l>e 
 determined by lot what de])artment shall bo 
 calle<l upon to elec^t a senator. This election 
 shall take place within tliree months of the dc- 
 terminatiim by lot. Furthermore, if the vacancy 
 ocnirs within six months preceding the triennial 
 el ^•ti(m, the vacancy shall be tilled at that 
 election. The term of ofllce in this case shall 
 expire at the siune time as that of the other 
 senators belonging to the same department. 
 
 AiiT. 4. No one shall l)e a senator unless ho 
 Is a French citizen, forty years of age, at least, 
 and enjoying civil and political right.s. Mem- 
 lH?rs of families that have reigned in France are 
 ineligible to the Senate. 
 
 Aht. a. The soldiers of the land and naval 
 forces cannot be elected senators. There are 
 excepted from this provision: I. The Marshaln 
 and Admirals of France; II. The general olllcers 
 maiut^dned without limit of age in the tlrst sec- 
 tion of the list of the general staff and not pro- 
 vided with a command ; III. The general olHcc^rs 
 placed in the second section of the list of the 
 general .staff; IV. Soldiers of the land and naval 
 forces who belong either to the reserve of the 
 active ormy or to the territorial army. 
 
 Aht. 6. Senators are elected by "scrutinde 
 liste," by a college meeting at the capital of the 
 department or colony, and composed: (1) of the 
 Deputies; (2) of the General Councilors; (3) of 
 the Arrondissement Councilors ; (4) of delegates 
 elected from among the voters of the commune, 
 by each Alunicipal Co\incil. Councils composed 
 of ten members shall elect one delegate. Coun- 
 cils composed of twelve members shall elect two 
 delegates. Councils composed of sixteen mem- 
 bers shall elect three delegates. Councils com- 
 posed of twenty-one members shall ehict six 
 delegates. Councils composed of twenty-three 
 members shall elect nine delegates. Councils 
 composed of twenty-seven members shall elect 
 twelve delegates. Councils composed of thirty 
 inemt)ers shall elect fifteen deleg.".tes. Councils 
 composed of thirty-two members shall elect 
 eighteen delegates. Councils compo.sed of 
 thirty-four members shall elect twenty -one dele- 
 gates. Councils composed of thirty -six members 
 or more shall elect twenty-four delegates. The 
 Munlcipol Council of Paris shall elect thirty 
 delegates. In the French Indies the members of 
 the local councils take the place of Arrondisse- 
 ment Councilors. The JIunicipal Council of 
 Pondichery shall elect five delegates. The 
 Municipal Council of Karikal shall elect thrcS 
 delegates. All the other communes shall elect 
 two delpgates each. The balloting takes place 
 at the capital of each district. 
 
 545 
 
CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF FHANCE. 
 
 AliT, 7. McmliiTH iif tlic Hcimli' iirr clcrtcd 
 for niiH' yciifH. Tin- Hcniil*' Ix rriii-wi'd cviTy 
 three yeiirit aecortliiiK to llie oriler of tin- prcitcnt 
 M'rieM uf <lL>|mrtnieiitH iiiul eoloiiieii. 
 
 AiiT. 8. ArtlcleH 'J (imniKriiplm 1 nml 2), U, 4, 
 S, H, 14, 10, lit Hliil Sa of the orKiinle \nw of 
 Au^ilHt 2, 1H7A, on the Klectloim of SetiiilorH lire 
 amuniled iih followH: "Art. 2(imrit>rmiihH 1 itiiil 
 2). In Riu'h Miiiiicipiil Coiiiiell the election of 
 diOexateH tjikes plaee without debate and liy 
 M'cretlmllot, l)y "wrutindeiiHte" and l)y imalmo- 
 luti! majority of voteH euHl. After two liailotH a 
 plurality \h Hiillleient, ami in eaxe of an e(|uality 
 of vott'H tlie oldcHt in elected. Tlic procedure 
 nnd tnetiiod Ih tlie Haine for tliu election of alter- 
 natcH. OoiincilH having one, two, or thre<^ dele- 
 gatcM to clioose Hliail elect one alternate. Tlione 
 choosiiiff Hix or idne <leieKaleH elect two alter- 
 nalcH. riioMe cliiMMtinK twelve or llfteen dele 
 gat^M elect three alteriiateH. Those cliooHinj; 
 ciKhtcon or twenty -one delegates elect four alter- 
 nates. Those elKKwinx twenty-four deleijates 
 elect live alternates. The Mun'icinai Council of 
 Paris elects ei^lit alternates. 'I lie alterinites 
 take the ])iacu of delegates in ca.se of refusal or 
 inal)ility to serve, in tlie order deterniiiie(l hy the 
 nuinlier of votes received by each of tlicni. 
 Art. 3. In eoinniunes wliere llie duties of a Munici- 
 pal Council are performed by a special delegation 
 organized by virtue of Article 44 of the law of 
 April 5, 1H84, the senatorial delegates and alter- 
 nates shall be chosen by the old council. Art. 4. 
 If the delegates were not pa'sent at the election, 
 notice is given them by the Mayor within 
 twenty-four liours. They must within live <lay8 
 notify the Prefect of their acceptance. In case 
 of declination or silence they sliall be re- 
 placed by the alternates, who are then placed 
 upon the list as tlie delegates of the commune. 
 Art. 5. The olllcial report of the election of 
 delegates and alternates is transmitted at once 
 to the Prefect. It indicates the acceptance or 
 declination of tlie delegates and alternates, as 
 ■well as the protests made bv one or more mem- 
 bers of the Municipal Council against tlie legality 
 of the election. A copy of this olllcial report Is 
 posted on the door of the t<jwn hall. Art. 8. 
 Protests concerning the election of delegates or 
 alternates arc decided, subject to an appeal to 
 the Council of State, by tlie Council of tlie 
 Prefecture, and, in the colonies, by the Privy 
 Council. Delegates whose election is set 
 aside because they do not satisfy tlie conditions 
 demanded by law, or because of informality, are 
 replaced by the alternates. In case the election 
 of a delegate and of an alternate is rendered 
 void, as by the refusal or death of both after their 
 acceptance, new elections are held by the Munici- 
 pal Council on a day fixed by decree of the Pre- 
 fect. Art. 14. The first ballot begins at eight 
 o'clock In the morning and closes at noon. The 
 second begins at two o'clock and closes at^ four 
 o'clock. The third begins at seven o'clock and 
 closes at ten o'clock. The results of the bal- 
 lotings are determined by the bureau and an- 
 nounced immediately by the President of the 
 electoral follegc. Art. 10. Political meetings 
 for the nomination of senators may be held from 
 the date of the promulgation of the decree sum- 
 moning the electors up to the day of the election 
 inclusive. The declaration prescribed by Article 
 3 of the law of June 30, 1881, shall be made by 
 two voters, at least. The forms and regulations 
 
 of this Article, as well as those of Article .1, 
 Nliall be obH<Tved. The members of Parliament 
 elected or electors In the department, the sena- 
 torial electors, delegates and iilternates, and the 
 candidates, or their representatives, may alone 
 be present at these meetlng.H. The municipal 
 authorities will see to it lluit no other person 
 is admitted. Delegates and alternates shall 
 present as a means of Identitlcation a certiflcatu 
 from the Mayor of the commune; candidates or 
 their repn'sentativesa ci'rtiflcate frfim IheoHlelal 
 who sliall have received the declaration men- 
 tioned in Paragraph 3. Art. 10. Kvery attem,.l 
 at corruption or constraint by the employment 
 of means enumerated in Articles 177 and follow- 
 ing of tlie Penal ('(mIc, to Infiuenee the vote of 
 an elector or to keep him from voting, shall bo 
 puni.slic<i by imprisonme.<l of from three montlia 
 to two years, and by a fine of from fifty francs 
 to five hundred francs, or by one of these penal- 
 ties alone. Article 4(13 of the Penal Code is aji- 
 plicable to the penalties provided for by tlw 
 prcm'nt artlch;. Art. 23. Vacancies caused by 
 tlu^ death or resignation of senators shall be filled 
 within three months; moreover, if the vacancy 
 
 occurs within the six months preceding the 
 
 ed at th 
 
 tions." 
 
 triennial elections, it sliall be filled at those clcc- 
 
 AuT. 0. There are repealed : (1) Articles 1 to 
 7 of the law of February 24, 1875, on the organi- 
 zation of tlie Senate ; (2) Articles 24 and 25 of the 
 law of August 2, 1875, on the elections of sena- 
 tors. 
 
 Temporary Provision. 
 
 In case a special law on parliamentary incom- 
 patibilities shall not liave been passed at the 
 date of the next senatorial elections. Article 8, of 
 the law of November 30, 1875, shall ajiply to 
 those elections. Every official affected by this 
 provision, who has had twenty years of service 
 and is fifty years of age at the date of Ids ac- 
 ceptance of the olHco [of senator], may establish 
 his right to a proportional retiring pension, 
 which shall be governed by the third paragraph 
 of Article 12, of the law of June 0, 1853. 
 
 1885. Law Amending the Electoral Law. 
 June 16, 
 
 [AkticleI.' The members of the Chamber 
 of Deputies are elected by " scrutin de listc." 
 
 Art. 2. Each department elects the number 
 of deputies assigned to it in the table' annexed to 
 the present law, on the basis of one deputy for 
 seventy thousand inhabitants, foreign residents 
 not included. Account shall be taken, never- 
 theless, of every fraction smaller than seventy 
 thousand.' Each department elects at least 
 three deputies. Two deputies are assigned to 
 the territory of Belfort, six to Algeria, and t«n 
 to the colonies, as is indicated by the table. This 
 table can be changed by law only. 
 
 AuT. 3. The department forms a single elec- 
 toral district.] 
 
 Art. 4. Members of families that have reigned 
 in France are ineligible to the Chamber of 
 Deputies. 
 
 Art. 5. No one is elected on the first ballot 
 unless he receives: (1) an absolute majority of 
 
 ' Articles 1, S and 3 repealed by the law of February 
 13, 1880, infra. 
 
 ' Tills table may be found In the Bullethi <les Lois, 
 twelfth series, No. 15,518 ; and In the Journal Offlciel for 
 June 17, 1HK5, p. 8074. 
 
 > i. «., fractious of less than 70,000 are entitled to a. 
 deputy. 
 
 546 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PRANCE. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GEUMANY. 
 
 Ilio votcH ciiHt ; (2) a iuiihImt of viilcii (Miunl to 
 imc-fdurtli of the totiil iiiiinlH'r of voters tckIh- 
 tcn'd. Oil till' m-conil ballot i\ pliimllty Ih Hiif- 
 flciciit. Ill a\M\ of iiii riiuitlity of votJ's, the 
 olili'Ht of the ciinilliljitcH is <l('('liiri'(l elected. 
 
 AllT. (t. Hiilijeet to tile etiHe of ii ilJHHollltiiin 
 foreseen anil reKiilateil by tlie ConHtitiitlon, tliu 
 general eleitloiiH take plaee wltliin Hixty dav" 
 prceediii); tlie expiration of tlie powers of 'lie 
 Chamber of DeputleH. 
 
 Aht. 7. Viicunek'H itliall not be llllfd wlik'li 
 oeeiir in tlio hIx inontliH pn-eodlnK tbu renewal of 
 the Clmmber. 
 
 1887. Law on Parliamentary Incompati- 
 bilitiei. December a6. 
 
 Until the piiHHiiKi' of a Hpeeial law on parlia- 
 mentary ineonipatibilitiex, ArticleH H and of 
 tlie law of November HO, 1H75, Hliall apply to 
 senatorial elections. Every olllcial afTected liy 
 this provision who lias hiul twenty years of sef- 
 vlco f "i l» ilfty years of a)?o at "the time of his 
 acci- ■■ ■nee of the otilce [of senator], may estab- 
 lish Ills riRlit.s to a proportional retiring pension, 
 which shall be fjoverned by the third pamgruph 
 of Article 13 <if the law of .June I), IH.W. 
 
 1889. Law Re-establishing Single Districts 
 for the Election of Deputies. February 13. 
 
 Aktici.I'. 1. Articles 1, 3 and !1 of the law of 
 .lune 16, 1HH5, are re^)ealed. 
 
 Akt. a. Members of the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties are elected by sin);Ie districts. Each ad- 
 ininistrutive arrondissement In the departments, 
 and eaeli municipal arrondissement at I'aris and 
 at Lyons, elects one deputy. Arrondis-sements 
 whose population (^xceeils one hundred thousand 
 inhabitnnts elect an additional deputy for every 
 one hundred thousand or fraction of one hun- 
 dred thousand inhabitants. The arrondissements 
 are in this case divided into di.slrlcts, u table' of 
 which is annexed to the present law and can be 
 changed by a law only. 
 
 ■ Tills table may be found In the Journal OMciel for 
 Kebniary 14, IHHll, pp. 70 anU following ; and In the Bulle- 
 tin det Loit, twelfth sertea, No. 120,47$. 
 
 AuT. :). One deputy is aiwiKned to the terri- 
 tory of llelfort, six to Algeria, ami ten to the 
 colonies, as is indicated by the table. 
 
 Altr. 4. On and after the pi'oiiiul);ation of 
 the presi'ut law, iiiilll llie renewal of tlieChant- 
 iMTof Deputies, vaeiiiieles o<>currili|{ ill the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies shiill not be tilled. 
 
 1889. Law on Multiple Candidatures. July 
 
 AuTK'M': 1. No one may 1m' a caiidldiile In 
 more than one district. 
 
 Aht. 3. Every citizen who olTers himself or 
 Is offered at tlic^ general or partial elei tions must, 
 by a declaration siKneil or <'oiiiiterslKiied by liiiii- 
 wdf, and duly legalized, make known in what 
 district he means to be a eandidate. This de- 
 claration is deposited, and a jirovisional receipt 
 obUilned therefor, at the Prefecture of the 
 department corcerned, the llflli day, at latest, 
 before the day of election, A delliiilive receipt 
 shall be delivered within twenty-four hours. 
 
 AuT. it. Every declaration iiiade in violation 
 of Article 1 of the present law is void and not to 
 be received. If declarations are denoslted by 
 the same citizen in more than one district, the 
 earliest in date is alone valid. If they bear thu 
 same date, all are void. 
 
 AuT. 4. It is forbidden to sign or post pla- 
 cards, to carry or distributee ballots, circulars, or 
 platforms in the interest of a candidate who has 
 not conformed to the reiiulrementsof the present 
 law. 
 
 AiiT. a. liiillots bearing the name of a citizen 
 whose candidacy Is |)ut forward in violation of 
 the present law shall not be Included in the re- 
 turn of votes. Posters, placards, iilatforms, and 
 ballots posted or distributed to support a candi- 
 dacy in a district where such caiulidacy is con- 
 trary to the law, shall be removed or seized. 
 
 AiiT. 0. A flue of ten tllou^•an(l fnincs shall 
 be imposed on the candidate violating the pro- 
 visions of the present law, and one of Ave thou- 
 sand francs on all persons acting in violutiou of 
 Article 4 of the present law. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 I3th-i7th Centuries.— The" Old (Holy Ro- 
 man) Empire. — The Golden Bull. See Qeh- 
 MANv: A. I). lU'.l-ll.W; i:M~-1403; and DiKT, 
 TiiK Qeumanic. 
 
 A. D. 1815.— The Confederation. See Ger- 
 many: A. D. 1814-1820. 
 
 A. D. 1871.— The New Empire.— On the 18th 
 day of .January, 1871 ; at Versailles, King 
 William of Prussia assumed the title of German 
 Emperor. On the 16th of April following the 
 Emperor Lssiied a proclamation, by and with the 
 consent of tlio Council of the German Confeder- 
 ation, and of the Imperial Diet, decreeing the 
 adoption of a constitution for the Empire. See 
 Germany: A. D. 1871 (Januauy) and (April). 
 The following is a translation of the text of the 
 Constitution, as transmitted by the American 
 Minister ot Berlin to his Government: 
 
 His Majesty the King of Prussia, in tlie 
 name of the North German Union, His Majesty 
 the King of Bavaria, His Majesty the King of 
 Wtlrtemberg, His Itoyal Highness the Grand 
 Duke of Hiidcn, and His Royal Highness the 
 Grand Duke of llesse, and by llhine for those 
 
 parts of the Grand Duchy of Hesse which are 
 situated south of the Main, conclude an eternal 
 alliance for the protection of the territory of the 
 confcderntion, and of the laws of the same, a» 
 well as for the promotion of the welfare of the 
 German people. This confederation shall bear 
 the name of the German Empire, and shall have vl 
 the following constitution. 
 
 I.— Territory. 
 
 Article i. The territory of the confederation 
 shall consist of the States of Prussia, with Lunen- 
 burg, Bavaria, Saxony, WUrtcmberg, Baden, 
 Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Saxe-Weimar, 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, 
 Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Sa.\e-Cobnrg- 
 Gotha, Anhalt, Sehwarzburg - Kudolstadt, 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Woldeck, Heuss of 
 the elder branch, Keuss of the younger branch, 
 Schaumburg-Jjippc, Lippe, Lubeck, Bremen, 
 and Hamburg. 
 
 II.— Legislation of the Empire. 
 
 Article 2. AVitliin this territory the Empire 
 shall have the right of legislation according to 
 the provisions of this constitution, and the law» 
 
 547 
 
CONSTITUTION OF OKHM\NY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OK OKHMANY. 
 
 iif till' Kiiiiilri* Hlmll tiiki* pri'ii'tli'iu'c of iIkim' uf 
 ciicli liiilivliliiiil Htalc. The litwN of III*' Ijiipiri' 
 nIiiiII III' ri'iiili'r<'(l liliuiiiiK I'y liiiixTiiil iiroiliiiiiu 
 tioii, Niicli |iriK'liiiMittiiiii til III' iiuIiIIkIh'iI in ii 
 Jiiiiriiiil ili'vnti'il til I III' |iulillrittliiii of till' liiWM iif 
 till' Kiii|iiri', (Iti'lrliHKi'iu't/.iiliilt.) If no otliiT 
 IMtIoiI nIiiiII III' ilrnlKlliltril ill llii' pilliliHlii'il luw 
 fur it III taki' I'tTrrI, it hIiiiII tiiki' t'lTcct on tlir 
 foiirti'i'Mtli iliiv iiflir till' iliiy of itH pi|lill''iitii>:i 
 111 till' liiw-jouriial lit. liiTlin. 
 
 Article 3. TliiTr is imn citl/.i-nHliip for all 
 OiTiiiuny, mill tlic lili/riis or Hiihji'cts of cttcli 
 hUU' of till- fi'iliTittliiii nIiuII li(t tri'iiti'il 111 uvrry 
 iitlicr Ntiili' lliiTiuif If* iiiitivrH, iiiiil Hliitll liuvr till' 
 rl){lil of lH'romin>{ piTiiiiiiirnt rrHlili'iilH, of riirry 
 iugoii IiiinIiii'hm, of lining pulilic otIlcvH, unit iiiiiy 
 iicqulri' itll civil rlKlitx on tliv hiij'ic coniiitiiiim iih 
 thuHo iHirii in tlii' Htiiti', itnil nIiuII hIho liiivi' tlir 
 Hiiiiic iiHii;;!' iiM ri'KorilH livil nm-itiitions iinil tiw. 
 
 {irutcction of tliu Iiiwh. No drrniim hIiiiII be 
 iinittfd, ill till) (!Xpr('ls<! of this privili'gc, liy tlii! 
 nutliortticH of liiH niitivo Hliiti), or by tlio iiutliori- 
 tlrM of liny otlirr Ktiito of the confi'ik'nition. 
 Till' ri'KiiliilionH K"*''''"iihiK ll»' f'liri' of piiupiTs, 
 unit their luliniwiiiiii into tlii' various purislii'S, 
 ur«.' not Hfli'Ctril by tlii' iirimlplr I'liiiniiiiteil in 
 the llrsi pariigriiph. In llki' iimnncr those treaties 
 Hhali reniiiiii in foree whieh have liee-i coneliideil 
 between the various states of the feileration in 
 relation to the eustinly of persons who are to be 
 bunishei], the care of sick, ami the burial of 
 (leceaseil citizens. With rejjaril to the n'liilering 
 <if iiiliitary service to the various states, the 
 necessary laws will be passed hereafter. All 
 Uerniaiis in foreif^n countries shall have equal 
 claims upon the prutectiou of the Knipire. 
 
 Article 4. 'Iho fullowiug matters shall be 
 under the suiiervlsloa of the Empire and Its 
 legislature; 1. The privilege of carrying on 
 trade in more than one place; domestic affairs 
 and matters relating to the settlement of natives 
 of one state in the territory of another ; the right 
 of citizenslii|i; the issuing and examination of 
 passports; surveillance of foreigners and of 
 manufactures, together with insurance business, 
 80 far as these matters are not already provided 
 for by article 8 of this constitution, (in Uavaria, 
 however, exclusive of domestic oSairs and mat- 
 ters relating to the settlement of natives of one 
 state in the territory of another;) and likewise 
 matters relating to colonization and emigration to 
 foreign countries. 2. Legislation oncerning 
 custoiiis duties and commerce, and such imposts 
 as are to be applied to the uses of the Empire. 
 8. llegulatiou of weights and racf ■,'• of the 
 coinage, together with the eraisaii . funded 
 and unfunded paper monej . 4. Bi.uUing regu- 
 lations in general. 5. Patents for inventions. 
 0. The protection of literary property. 7. The 
 organization of a general system of protection 
 for Qerman trade in foreign countries ; of Qerman 
 navigation, and of tlie German flag on the high 
 seas; likewise the organization of u general 
 consular representation of the Empire. 8. Hail- 
 way matters, (subject in Bavaria to the provisions 
 of article 40,) and the construction of rac-s of 
 communication by land and water for tlie pur- 
 
 goses of home defense and of general commerce. 
 Rafting and navigation upon those waters 
 ■which are common to several States, and the 
 condition of such waters, as likewise river and 
 other water dues. 10. Postal and telegraphic 
 affairs ; but in Bavaria and Hungary these shall 
 
 be subject to the provisiiins of article 53. 11. 
 Iti'giiialions ciiiiri'riiing the exeiniliiin of Judicial 
 Hi'iiti'iii'i'S in civil nialtera, and the fuilllliiirni of 
 ri'i|iiiHitliiim in general. I'i. The aiillu'iitiriitlon 
 of public docuinents. HI. (Jeiieral legiHiiiliiin 
 regarding tlie law of obligalions, criniliial law, 
 I'oinmeri'lal law, and the law of exchange; like- 
 wise JuiHrial pMceedings. 14. The liiiperlal 
 army and navy. ITi. The surveillanre of the 
 mi'ilicid and veterinary |irofeHHions. 10. The 
 pri'ss, tiiwles' unions, Ac. 
 
 Article 5. The legislative power of the 
 Empire sliall be exereisi'd by the federal (Miiincil 
 and the diet. A majority of the votes of both 
 houses shall be necessary and sulllcieiit for the 
 passage of a law. When a law is proposed in 
 relation to the army or navy, or to the imposts 
 specitled In article '•)!>. the vote of the presldiiig 
 ollleer shall ileeida|| in cas<! of a dllTerence of 
 opinion in the federal council, if said vote shall 
 be in favor of the retention of the existing 
 arrangements. 
 
 III. — Federal Council. 
 
 Article 6. The federal council shall consist of 
 the representatives of the states of the confedem- 
 tion, among whom the votes shall be divhied in 
 such a manner that Prussia, including the former 
 votes of Hanover, the electorale of Ilessc, Hol- 
 stein, Nassau, and Frankfort shall have 17 votes; 
 Bavaria, votes; Saxony, 4 votes; WUrtemlx'rg, 
 4 votes; Baden, II votes; IIes.se, 8 vot«'s; Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin, 2 votes; Saxe- Weimar, 1 vote; 
 Mei'klenburg-.Streilt/,, Ivote; Oldenburg, Ivoto; 
 Brunswick, 2 votes; Saxe-Meiningen, 1 vote; 
 Saxe-Altcnburg, 1 vote; Saxe-Coburg-Ootha, 1 
 vote; Anhalt, T vote; Hchwarzburg-Uudolstadt, 
 1 vote ; Schwarzburg-8oudershau.sen, 1 vote ; Wal- 
 dcck, Ivote; Heuss, elder branch, 1 vote; lieuss, ■ 
 younger branch, 1 vote ; Schaumburgh-Lliipe, 1 
 vote; Lippc, 1 vote; Lubeck, 1 vote; Bremen, 1 
 vote; Hamburgh, 1 vote; total 58 vnies. Each 
 membei of the confederation shall appoint as 
 many delegates to the federal council as it has 
 votes ; the total of the votes of each state shall, 
 however, be cast by only one delegate. 
 
 Article 7. The federal council shall take liction 
 upon — 1. The measures to lie jiroposed to the 
 diet and the resolutions passed by the same. 2. 
 The general provisions and regulations necessary 
 for the cxccutioo of the laws of the Empire, si) 
 far OS no other provision is made by said laws. 
 3. The defects which moy be discovered in the 
 execution of the laws of the Empire, or of the 
 provisions r. d regulations heretofore mentioned. 
 Each member of the confederation shall have the 
 right to introduce motions, and it shall be the 
 duty of the presiding officer to submit them for 
 deliberation. Legislative action shall take place 
 by simple majority, with the exceptions of the 
 provisions in articles 5, 87, and 78. Votes not 
 represented or instructed shall not be counted. 
 In the case of a tie, the vote of the presiding 
 officer shall decide. When legislative action 
 upon a subject which does not affect, according 
 to the provisions of this constitution, the whole 
 Empire is taken, the votes of only those states 
 of the confederation shall be counted which shall 
 be interested in the matter in question. 
 
 Article 8. The federal council shall appoint 
 from its own members permanent committees — 
 1. On the amy and the fortiflcations. 2. On 
 naval affairs. ? On duties and taxes. 4. On 
 commerce and .-ado. 5. On railroads, post 
 
 / 
 
 
 548 
 
 \Jt^ 
 
 i^X 
 
CONSTITUTION OF aEHMANV. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 <>ni('('H, mill tc'li'i(miiliH. ft. On the Jiiillcliiry. 
 7. On itri'oiinlH. In I'ltcli nf (Iicho ciininiltti'cM 
 tlirro hIiiiII Im' ri'prrsintativiH of iit IntHl four 
 Htatrx iif till- <'i)nfi'ili'riilii)n, lirslili' the lirt'Hiilini( 
 ollh'i'r, itnil I'lirli Hiati' Hliail lir rntltlcii to only 
 one voti' in tlir winii'. In llic ciiinniittri' on llii' 
 army anil fortlllrationH Bavaria NJiall liavr a per 
 niiiru'nt rtcat ; tlir rrinalnini; nirniliiTs of It, tin 
 wril itH llii' nirinlirrx of llii' coinrnittiT on naval 
 ulTalrs, hIuiII I>i' a|ipiiinlril tiy the Kniprror : the 
 nicnilirrHof tlir ollirr coniniflli'rH Hliall ln'clrcti'il 
 by tlic fi'iliTitl ciiuncll. TIh'hc comnilttii's Hliall 
 !)(• iii'wly forinril at racli ki'msIoii of tlir fnliral 
 rouiicil, i. <'. , I'auli yrar, when tlii^ rcllrliij? nii'iii- 
 Imth Hliall a^aln bo cliffibli'. Bi'siili'S, tlicrt' Hliall 
 bo appiiintcil ill the federal roiincil a con 'iiitlei! 
 on fori'lKii airairs, over wliieli Bavaria nliali pre- 
 Hiile, to lie eonipimed of tlie plenlpotelitiarieH of 
 llie Kliijfdom.sof Bavaria, Haxony, and WUrteiii- 
 l)er((, and of two plenlpotelitiarieH of the other 
 Htates of till! Knipire, wlio Hliall be elected 
 animally by the federal couneil. ClerkH Hliall be 
 placed at the dinponal of the ooiiiniittees to per- 
 forin the neeoHsary work appertaining thiTcto. 
 
 Article 9. Kacli ineinbcr of the federal ruiin- 
 cil NJiaii have the right to appear in the diet, and 
 J gbail be heard tlieru at any tliP'i . ..en he Khali ho 
 reijucHt, to represent the viewH of bin govern- 
 ment, even when the same shall not liiivo been 
 adopted by the majority of the couuril. Nobixly 
 shall beat the name time a member of the federal 
 coiiiieii and of the diet. 
 
 Article 10. The Emperor Hball alTord the 
 cuHtiimary diplnmatio prutcution to the members 
 of tlie federal couneil. 
 
 IV.— Presidium. 
 
 Article II. The King of Prussia sliall bo the 
 president of the eonfeireratloii, and shall have 
 the title of Gorman Kmpcror. Tho Emperor 
 shall represent the Empire among nations, declare 
 _l war, and conclude peace in tlie name of the 
 same, enter into alliances and other conventions 
 with foreign countries, accredit embassiidors, and 
 receive them. For a declaration of war in the 
 name of the Empire, the consent of the federal 
 
 V council Hhall be required, except in case of an 
 attack upon the territory of the confederation or 
 its coasts. So far as treaties with foreign coun- 
 tries refer to matters which, acconling to article 
 4, are to '■ regulated by the legislature of tho 
 Empir( Jic onsent of the federal council u:iall 
 borer,, i/ed ft their ratification, and the approval 
 > . tue diet sh. 11 bo necessary to render them 
 valid. 
 
 Article 12. The Emperor shall have the right 
 ■ to convene the federal counci' and the diet, and 
 to open, adjourn, and close them. 
 
 Article 13. The convocation of the federal 
 council and tho diet shall take place annually, and 
 the federal counci' may be called together for the 
 preparation of business without the diet ; the 
 latter, however, shall not be convoked without 
 the federal council. 
 
 Article 14. The convocation of tho federal 
 4 couneil shall take place as soon as demanded by 
 one-third of its members. 
 
 Article 15. The chancellor of the Empire, who 
 shall be appointed by the Emperor, shall preside 
 
 V in the federal council, and supervise the conduct 
 of its business. The chancellor of the Empire 
 shall have the right to delegate the power to 
 represent him to any member of the federal 
 couaciL 
 
 Article 16. The iicroHHary bill.H Hhall bo laid 
 lii'fiiri' llio ilii't in tho name of the Knipenir, in 
 aroordanoo with ll'o rrHoliillons of the fodoral 
 niuiiril, and they nliall Im' roproKonteil in Ilio diet ■* 
 by tiioiiiliorH of the fodrral oDunoil or by H|H'cial 
 ('oiiiiiiJMKiiiiii'rs aiipoiiilod by naid iiiiinill. 
 
 Article 17. 'ro the Kiiipomr hIiiiII iK'long tliii 
 rJKht to prepare and puIiIIhIi the laws of the 
 Empire. Tlii^ laws and rigiilatloiiH of tho j 
 Empornr Hliall Ih! published in the name of tliii 
 Enijiiri', and reiiiilro for their validity the nlgna- 
 ture of the (•liancolior of the Empire, who thuru- 
 by boeoiiioH roHpiinsilile for tli"ir execution. 
 
 Article 18. Tho Einporor Hhall appoint tho 
 ollloers of the Empire, roiiuire them to take tliu 
 oath of allegiiinoe, and disiiiiss them when iioeoH- 
 Hary. Oltlcials appointed • 1 an olllio of tlio 
 Empire from one of the staloH of the (•unfodora- 
 tion Hhall enjoy tho same rights to which they 
 wen- entillod in their native Htates by their ollleial 
 position, provided no other legiHlalivo provinion 
 Hhall have been made previoUHly to their entrance 
 into the service of the Empire. 
 
 Article 19. If Htates of the confederation 
 Hhall not fultlll their coiistilutional duties, pro- 
 ceedings may bo instituted again.st them by mili- 
 tary oxecutiim. This execution sliull be ordered 
 by tho federal council, and enforced by tho 
 Emperor. 
 
 Vi-Diet. 
 
 Article 30. The members of the diet shall lie 
 elected by universal suffrage, and by direct secret 
 ballot. Until regulatod by law, which is reserved 
 by section 5 of the election law of May 31, 1869 
 (Bundesgosotzblatt, 1800, section 146,) 48 dele- 
 gates shall bo elected in IJavaria, 17 in Wtlrtom- 
 berg, 14 in Baden, in llosso, south of tho river . 
 Main, and tlie total number of delegates shall bo ' 
 »83. 
 
 Article ai. Officials shall not require a leave 
 of absence in order to enter the diet. When a 
 memlior of tho diet accepts a salaried office of 
 the Empire, or a salaried office in one of tho 
 states of the confederation, or accepts any office 
 of tho Empire, or of a state, with \ 'hich a high 
 rank or salary is connected, he sluiL forfeit his 
 seat and vote in tho diet, but may recover his 
 place in the same by a new election. 
 
 Article 22. The proceedings of the diet siiall 
 be public. Truthful reports of tho proceedings 
 of tlio public sessions of tlio diet shall subject < 
 those making tliem to no responsibility. 
 
 Article 23. Tho diet shall have the right tc 
 propose laws within tiie jurisdiction of tho ^ 
 Empire, and to refer petitions addressed to it to 
 tlie federal council or tlie chancellor of tho 
 Empire. 
 
 Article 24. Each legislative period of tho 
 diet siiall last three yours. The diet may be dis- j 
 solved by a resolution of tlio federal council, 
 with the consent of the Emperor. 
 
 Article 25. In the case of a dissolution of tlio 
 diet, new elections shall take place within a 
 period of 00 days, and the diet siiall reassemble '' 
 witliin a period of 90 days after the dissolution. 
 
 Article 26. Unless by consent of the diet, un 
 adjournment of that body shall not exceed tho 
 period of 30 daya, and shall not be repeated 
 during the same jession, without such consent. 
 
 Article 27. The diet sliall examine into tho 
 legality of tho election of its members and decide 
 thereon. It shall regulate the mode of transact- 
 ing business, and its ov/n discipline, by establish- 
 
 549 
 
CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 ln>,' rules therefor, and elect its president, vice- 
 presidents, iiiid secretaries. 
 
 Article 28. The diet .slinll pii^ laws by 
 absolute majority. To render the 1 ssage of 
 ^ laws valid, tlie presence of the majority of the 
 legal n\iml)er of members shidl be required. 
 Wlien passing laws which <lo not affect the whole 
 Empire, according to the provisions of this con- 
 stitution, the votes of only those members shall 
 be co>intc<l who shall have been elected in those 
 states of the confederation wliich the laws to be 
 passeil shall affect. 
 
 Article 29. The members of the diet shall be 
 the representatives of the entire people, and shall 
 not be sul)ject to orders and instructions from 
 their constituents. 
 
 Article 30. No member of the diet shall at 
 any time suffer legal prosecution on account of 
 his vote, or on account of utterances made while 
 in the jjcrformance of his functions, or be held 
 resi)onsible outside of the diet for his actions. * 
 
 Article 31. Without the consent of the diet, 
 none of its members shall l)e tried or punished, 
 during the session, for any offense committed, 
 except when arrested in the act of committing 
 the offense, or in the course of the following day. 
 The same rule shall apply in the case of arrests 
 for debt. At the request of the diet, all legal 
 proceedings instituted against one of its mem- 
 bers, and liliewise imprisonment, shall be sus- 
 pended during its session. 
 
 Article 32. The members of the diet shall 
 J not be allowed to draw any salary, or be compen- 
 sated as such. 
 
 VI. — Customs and Commerce. 
 
 Article 33. Germany sliall form a customs 
 and commercial union, having a common frontier 
 for the collection of duties. Such territories as 
 cannot, by reason of their situation, be suitably 
 embraced within the said frontier, shall l)e 
 excluded. It shall be lawful to introduce all 
 articles of commerce of a state of the confedera- 
 tion into any other «ite of the confederation, 
 without paying any duty thereon, except so far 
 as such articles are subject to taxation therein. 
 
 Article 34. Tlie uanseatic towns, Bremen 
 and Hamburg, shall remain free ports outside of 
 J tiie common boundary of the customs union, 
 retaining for that purpose a district of their own, 
 or of the surrounding territory, until they shall 
 request to be admitted into the said union. 
 
 Article 35. The Empire shall have the exclu- 
 sive power to legislate concerning everything 
 relating to the customs, the taxation of salt and 
 tobacco manufactured or raised in the territory 
 of the confederation ; concerning the taxation of 
 manufactured brandy and beer, and of sugar and 
 sirup prepared from beets or other domestic pro- 
 ductions. It shall have exclusive power to legis- 
 late concerning the mutual protection of taxes 
 upon articles of consumption levied in the several 
 states of the Empire ; against embezzlement ; as 
 well as concerning the measures which are 
 required, in granting exemption from the pay- 
 ment of duties, for the security of the common 
 customs frontier. iU Bavaria, WUrtemberg, and 
 Baden, the matter of imposing duties on domes- 
 tic brandy and beer is reserved for the legislature 
 of each country. The states of the confederation 
 shall, however, endeavor to bring about uniform 
 legislation regarding the taxation of chese articles. 
 
 Article 36. The imposing of duties and 
 excises on articles of consumption, and the collec- 
 
 tion of the same (article 3.'),) is left to each state 
 of the confederation within its own territory, so 
 far as this has been done by each state hirntofo'c. 
 The Emperor shall have the supervision of ttit 
 institution of legal proceedings ijy otlicials of t.ie 
 empire, whom he shall designate as adjuncts to 
 the custom or excise offlces, and boards of direc- 
 tors of the several states, after hearing the 
 committee of the Confederate Council on customs 
 and revenues. Notices given by these otlicials as 
 to defects in the execution of the laws of the 
 Empire (article 35) shall be submitted to the 
 confederate coimcil for action. 
 
 Article 37. In taking action upon the rules 
 and regulations for the execution of tlie laws of 
 the Empire, (article 35,) the vote of the presiding 
 officer shall decide, whenever he shall pronounce 
 for upholding tlie existing rule or regulation. 
 
 Article 38. The amounts accruing from cus- 
 toms and otlier revenues designated in article 85 
 of the latter, so far as they are subject to legis- 
 lation by the diet, shall go to the treasury of the 
 Empire. This amount is made up of the total 
 receipts from the customs and otlier revenues, 
 after deducting therefrom — 1. Tax compensa- 
 tions and reductions in conformity with existing 
 laws or regulations. 2. Reimbursements for 
 taxes unduly imposed. 8. The costs for collec- 
 tion and administration, viz. : a. In the depart- 
 ment of customs, the costs which are required 
 for the protection and collection of customs on 
 the frontiers and in the frontier districts, b. In 
 the department of the duty on salt, the costs 
 whicli are used for the pay of tlie officers charged 
 with collecting and controlling these duties in the 
 salt mines, c. In the department of duties on 
 beet-sugar and tobacco, the compensation which 
 is to be allowed, according to the resolutions of 
 the confederate council, to the several state 
 governments for the costs of tlie collection of 
 these duties, d. Fifteen per cent, of tlic total 
 receipts in the departments of the other duties. 
 The territories situated outside of the common 
 customs frontier shall contribute to the expenses 
 of the Empire by paying an 'aversum,' (a sum of 
 acquittance.) Bavaria, WUrtemberg, and Baden 
 shall not share in the revenues from duties on 
 liquors and beer, which go into the treasury of 
 the Empire, nor in the corresponding portion of 
 the aforesaid ' aversum. ' 
 
 Article 39. Tlie quarterly statements to be 
 regularly made by the revenue officers of the 
 federal states at the end of every quarter, and 
 the final settlements (to be made at the end of 
 the year, and after the closing of the account- 
 books) of the receipts from customs, wliich have 
 become due in the course of tlie quarter, or 
 during the fiscal year, and the revenues of the 
 treasury of the Empire, according to article 38, 
 shall be arranged by the boards of directors 
 of the federal states, after a previous examination 
 in general summaries in which every duty is to 
 be shown separately ; t'lcsc summaries sliall be 
 transmitted to the fedc'.al committee on accounts. 
 The latter provisional'.y fixes, every three months, 
 taking as a basis th ;se summaries, the amount 
 due to the treasury 01 the Empire from the treas- 
 ury of each state, and it su.-'U inform the federal 
 council and the federal States 01 this act ; furtlier- 
 Kiore, it shall submit to the federal council, 
 aniiually, the final statement of these amounts, 
 with :ts remarks. The federal council shall act 
 upon f-c- fixing of these amounts. 
 
 660 
 
CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 Article 40. The terms of the customs-union 
 treaty of July 8, 1867, rciuiiin in force, so far ns 
 they have not been altenMl l>y tlie Provisions of 
 this constitution, and as long us they are not 
 alicred iii the manner designated iu articles? and 
 78. 
 
 VII. — Railways. 
 
 Article 41. Hallways, which are considered 
 necessary for the defense of Germany or for pur- 
 poses of general eonuuerce, may be built for the 
 account of tlie Empire by a law of the Emi)ire, 
 i even in opposition to the will of those members 
 of the confederation through whose territory the 
 railroads run, without detracting from the rights 
 of the sovereign of that country ; or private 
 persons may be charged with tlieir construction 
 and receive rights of expropriation. Every ex- 
 isting railway company is bound to permit new 
 railroad lines to be connected with it, at the 
 expense of these latter. All laws granting 
 cxlstiug railway companies the right of injimction 
 against the builtling of parallel or competition 
 lines are hereby abolished throughout the Empire, 
 without detriment to rights already acquired. 
 Such right of injunction can henceforth not be 
 granted in concessions to be given hereafter. 
 
 Article 42. The governments of the federal 
 states bind themselves, in the interest of general 
 commerce, to have the German railways managed 
 as a uniform net- work, and for this purpose to 
 have the lines constructed and equipped accord- 
 ing to a uniform system. 
 
 Article 43. Accordingly, as soon as possible, 
 uniform arrangements as to management, shall 
 be made, and especially shall uniform regulations 
 be instituted for the police of the railroads. Tiie 
 Empire shall take care that the administrative 
 olHeers of the railway lines keep the roads alwavs 
 in such a condition us is required for public 
 security, and that they bo equipped with the 
 necessary rolling stock. 
 
 Article 44. Railway companies arc bound to 
 cstiiblish such passenger trains of suitable 
 velocity as may be required for ordinary travel, 
 and for the establishment of harmonizing sched- 
 ules of travel ; also, to make provision for such 
 freight trains as may be necessary for commercial 
 purposes, and to establish, without extra remun- 
 eration, offices for the d'^ect forwarding of pas- 
 sengers and freight trains, to be transferred, when 
 necessary, from one road to another. 
 
 Article 45. The Empire shall have control 
 over the tariff of fares. The same shall endeavor 
 j to cause — 1. Uniform regulations to be speedily 
 introduced Ol^ all German railway lines. 2. The 
 tariff to be reduced and made uniform as far as 
 possible, and particularly to cause a reduction 
 of the tariff for the transport of coal, coke, 
 wood, minerals, stone, salt, crude iron, manure, 
 and similar articles, for long distances, as de- 
 manded by the interests of agriculture and 
 industry, and to introduce a one-penny tariff as 
 soon as practicable. 
 
 Article 46. In case of distress, especially in 
 case of an extraordinary rise in the price of pro- 
 visions, it shall bo the duty of the railway com- 
 panies to adopt temporarily a low special tjiriff, 
 to be fixed by the Emperor, on motion of the 
 competent committee, for the forwarding of 
 grain, flour, vegetables, and potatoes. This 
 tariff shall, however, not be less than the lowest 
 rate for raw produce exisiing on the said line. 
 The foregoing provisions, and those of articles 42 
 
 to 4.';, shall not apply to Bavaria. Tlie imperia\ 
 government has, however, the power, also with 
 reganl to Havana, to cstablisli, by way of 
 legislation, uniform rules for the construction 
 and equipment of such railways as may bo of 
 importance for the defense of the country. 
 
 Article 47. The managers of all railways 
 shall bo required to obey, without hesitation, 
 requisitions made by the authorities of tlio 
 Empire for the use of their roads for the defeuso 
 of Germany. Particularly shall the military and 
 all material of war be forwarded at uniform 
 reduced rates. 
 
 VIII. — Mails and Telegraphs. 
 
 Article 48. The; mails and telegraphs shall bo 
 organized and managed as state institutions 
 throughout tlie German Empire. The legislation 
 of the empire in regard to postal and telegniijliic 
 affairs, provided for in article 4, does not extend 
 to those matters whose regulation is left to tlio 
 Inanagerial arrangement, according to the princi- 
 l)les which have controlled the North Gennau 
 administration of mails and telegraphs. 
 
 Article 49. The receipts of mails and tele- 
 graphs are a joint affoir throughout the Empire. 
 The expenses shall bo paid from the general 
 receipts. The surplus goes into the treasury of 
 the Empire. (Section 12.) 
 
 Article 50. The Emperor has the supremo 
 suiiervisiou of the administration of mails and 
 telegraiihs. The authorities appointed by him 
 are in duty bound and uuthorizc'd to see that 
 uniformitjr be established and maintained in the 
 organization of the administration and in tlio 
 transaction of business, as al.so in regard to the 
 qualifications of employes. The Fmperor shall 
 have the power to make general administrativo 
 regulation.s, and al.so exclusively to regulate the 
 relations which are to exist between the post and 
 telegraph offices of Germany and those of other 
 countries. It shall be the duty of all officers of 
 the post-office and telegraph department to obey 
 imperial orders. This obligation shall be included 
 in their oath of office. The apiiointnient of 
 superior officers (such as directors, counselors, 
 and superintendents,) as they shall be required 
 for the administration of the mails and telegraphs, 
 in the various districts ; also the appointment of 
 officers of the posts and telegraphs (such as 
 inspectors or comptrollers,) acting for the afore- 
 said authorities in the several districts, in the 
 capacity of supervisors, shall bo made by tho 
 Emperor for the whole territory of the German 
 Empire, and these officers shall take the oaiu ^f 
 fealty to him as a part of their oath of office. 
 The governments of the several states shall be 
 informed in due time, by means of imperial con- 
 firmation and official publication, of the afore- 
 mentioned appointments, so far as they may 
 relate to their territories. Other officers required 
 by the department of mails and telegraphs, as 
 also all olllcers to be employed at the various 
 stations, and for technical purposes, and hence 
 officiating at the actual centers of communica- 
 tion, &c., shall be appointed by the respective 
 governments of the states. Where there is no 
 independent administration of inland mails or 
 telegraphs, the terms of the various treaties are 
 to be enforced. 
 
 Article 51. In assigning the surplus of the 
 post-office department to the treasury of tlio 
 Empire for general purposes, (article 49,) tlio 
 following proceeding is to be observed in con- 
 
 551 
 
CONSTITUTION OF OEUMANY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP OEUMANY. 
 
 Nidcrotlon of the diffcrcnco which has licretoforo 
 existed in tho clear receipts of tlie post-ofilce 
 departments of tlio several territories, for tho 
 
 fmrposo of 8<t;viiiiig a suitable e(iualizalion dur- 
 ng tlic period of transition below named. Of 
 the p<ist-ofiice surplus, which accumulated in the 
 several mail districts during the tivo years from 
 IHOl to 1885, nn average yearly surplus shall be 
 computed, and the share which every separate 
 mail district has had in tho surplus resulting 
 therefrom for the whole territory of l!ie Empire 
 shall be fixed upon by a percentage. In :\cconl- 
 ancc with the proportion thus made, the several 
 states shall be credited on the account of their 
 otlier contributions to tlie exvenscs of the empire 
 with their quota accruing from the postal surplus 
 in the Empire, for a period of eiplit years subse- 
 quent to their entrance into the post-oflico 
 department of tho Empire. At the end of tlie 
 3aid eight years this distinction sliall cease, and 
 any surplus in the post-oflico department sliall 
 go, without division, into tho treasury of the 
 Empire, according to the principle enunciated in 
 article 49. Of the quota of the post-olflce 
 department surpl'is resulting during the afore- 
 mentioned period of eiglit years in favor of the 
 Hanscatic towns, one-half shall every year be 
 placed at the disposal of the Emperor, for the 
 purpose of providing for the establishment of 
 uniform post-offlces in tlie Hanseatic towns. 
 
 Article 52. The stipulations of the foregoing 
 articles 48 to 51 do not apply to Bavaria and 
 ^ Wilrtemberg. In their stead the following stipu- 
 lation shall be valid for these two states of tho 
 confederation. The Empire alone is authorized 
 to legislate upon the privileges of the post-oflico 
 and telegraph departments, on the legal position 
 of both institutions toward the public, upon the 
 franking privilege and rates of postage, and upon 
 the establishment of rates for telegraphic corres- 
 pondence into Hanseatic towns. Exclusive, 
 however, of managerial arrangements, and the 
 fixing of tariffs for internal communication 
 within Bavaria and WUrtemberg. In the same 
 manner the Empire shall regulate postal and 
 te'^i^raphic communication with foreign coun- 
 tries excepting the immediate communication of 
 Bavaria and WUrtemberg with their neighboring 
 statci, not belonging to the Empire, in regard to 
 which regulation the stipulations in article 49 of 
 the postal treaty of November 33, 1867, remains 
 in force. Bavoria and Wilrtemberg shall not 
 share in the postal and telegraphic receipts which 
 belong to the treasury of the Empire. 
 IX. — Marine and NaTigation. 
 Article 53. The navy of the Empire is a 
 J united one, under the supremo command of tho 
 Emperor. The Emperor is charged with its 
 organization and arrangement, and he shall 
 appoint the officers and officials of the navy, and 
 in his name these and the seamen are to be 
 sworn in. The harbor of Kiel and the harbor of 
 the lade are imperial war harbors. The expendi- 
 tures required for tho establishment and main- 
 tenance of the navy and the institutions 
 connected therewith shall bo defrayed from the 
 treasury of the Empire. All sea-faring men of 
 the Empire, including machinists and hands 
 vni)loycd in ship-building, are exempt from 
 *Tvice in the nrmy, but obliged to serve in the 
 imperial navy. The apportionment of men to 
 supply the wants of the navy shall be made 
 according to the actual sea-'aring population, 
 
 o? 
 
 and the quota furnished in accordance herewith 
 by each state shall be credited to the army 
 account. 
 
 Article 54. The merchant vessels of all states 
 of the confederation shall form :i united com- 
 mercial marine. The Empire sliali 'letermine the 
 process for ascertaining the tonnage of sea-going 
 vesse's, shall regulate the issuing of tonnage- 
 certificates and sea-letters, and shall fix the con- 
 ditions to which a permit for commanding a 
 sea-going vessel shall be subject. The merchant 
 vesseio of all the states of tfie confederation 
 shall bo ail.nitted on an equal footing to the 
 harbors, and to all natural and artificial water- 
 courses of the several states of the confcieration, 
 and shall receive the sumo usage therein. The 
 duties which shall be collectud from sea-going 
 vessels, or levied upon their freights, for the use 
 of naval institutions in the harbors, shall not 
 exceed the amount required for the mointenunce 
 and ordinary repair of these institutions. On all 
 natural water-courses, duties are only to be levied 
 for the use of special estiblishments, which 
 servo for facilitating commercial intercourse, 
 These duties, as well as the duties for navigatin 
 such artificial channels, which are prop v 
 the state, are not to exceed the amount ri red 
 for the maintenance and ordinary repair ui the 
 institutions and establishments. These rules 
 apply to rafting, so far as it is carried on on 
 navigable water-courses. The levying of other 
 or higher duties upon foreign vessels or their 
 freights than those which are paid by the vessels 
 of tho federal states or their freights does not 
 belong to the various states, but to the Empire. 
 
 Article 55. The flag of the war and merchant 
 navy shall be black, wliite, and red. 
 
 X. — Consular Affairs. 
 
 Article 56. The Emperor shall have the 
 supervision of all consular affairs of the German 
 Empire, and he shall appoint consuls, after hear- 
 ing the committee of tho federal council on 
 commerce and trafllc. No new state consulates are 
 to be established within the jurisdiction of the 
 German consuls. German consuls shall perform 
 the functions of state consuls for the states of 
 the confederation not represented in their district. 
 All tho now existing state consulates shall be 
 abolished, as soon as the organization of the 
 German consulates shall be completed, in such a 
 manner that the representation of tho separate 
 interests of all the federal states shall be recog- 
 nized by the federal council as secured by the 
 German consulates. 
 
 XI. — Milita^ Affairs of the Empire. 
 
 Article 57. Every German is subject to mili- 
 tary duty, and in the discharge of this duty no 
 substitute can bo accepted. 
 
 Article 58. The costs and the burden of all 
 the military system of the Empire are to be 
 borne equally by all tho federal states and their 
 subjects, and no privileges or molestations to 
 the several states or classes are admissible. 
 Whore an equal distribution of tho burdens can- 
 not be effected 'in natura' without prejudice to 
 the public welfare, affairs shall be equalized by 
 legislation in accordance with the principles of 
 justice. 
 
 Article 59. Every German capable of bearing 
 arms shall serve for seven years in the standing 
 army, ordinarily from the end of his twentieth to 
 the beginning of his twenty -eighth year; the 
 first three years in the army of the field, the last 
 
 y/ 
 
 562 
 
CONSTITUTION OF OFRM<VNY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF OEIIMANY. 
 
 four yciirs in the rewrvo; durinif the i;oxt five 
 years he sliall belong tn the niiiitiit. In those 
 states of theconfederutiiiii in whicli lieretoforo a 
 longer term of service tlian twelve years was 
 req\''.re(l by law, the gradual reduction of tlic 
 ro^^uircd time of service shall take place in such 
 a manner as is compatible with the interests and 
 the war-footing of the army of the Empire. As 
 regards the emigration of men belonging to the 
 reserve, only those provisions shall bo Tn force 
 which apply to the emigration of members of 
 the militia. 
 
 Article 60. The strength of the German 
 army in time of peace shall be, until the 31st 
 December, 1871, one per cent, of the population 
 of ISGI, and shall be furnished by the several 
 federal states in proportion to their population. 
 In future the strength of the army in time of 
 peace shall bo fl.xcd by legislation. 
 
 Article 61. After the publication of this con- 
 v/ stitution the full Prussian military sysicin of 
 legislation shall be introduced without delay 
 throughout the Empire, as well the statutes 
 themseh' s as the regulations, instructions, and 
 ordinanc< .-. issued for their execution, explana- 
 tion, or completion; thus, in particular, the 
 military penal code of April 3, 1845; the military 
 orders of the penal court of April 3, 1845; the 
 ordinance concerning the courts of honor of July 
 20, 1843; the regulations with respect to recruit- 
 ing, time of service, matters relating to the 
 service and subsistence, to the quartering of 
 troops, claims for damages, mobilizing, &c., for 
 times of peace and war. Orders for the attend- 
 ance of tin military upon religious services is, 
 however, excluded. When a uniform organiza- 
 tion of the German army shall have been estab- 
 lished, a comprehensive military law for the 
 Empire shall be submitted to the ''et and the 
 federal council for their action in accordance with 
 the constitution. 
 
 Article 62. For the purpose of defraying the 
 expenses of the wliole German army, and the 
 lcs*'tutions connected therewith, the sum of 225 
 (two hundred and twenty-five) thalers shall be 
 placed at the disposal of the Emperor until the 
 31st of December, 1871, for each man in the 
 army on the peace-footing, according to article 
 60. (See section 13.) After tlie 31st of Decem- 
 ber, 1871, the payment of these contributions of 
 the several states to tlie imper'' 1 treasury must 
 bo continued. The strength of tlie army in time 
 of peace, which has been temporarily fixed In 
 article 60, shall be taken as a basis for calculuiii.g 
 these amounts until it shall be altered by a law 
 of the Empire. The expenditure of this sum for 
 the whole army of the Empire and its establish- 
 ments shall bo detcnnined by a budget law. In 
 determining the budget of military expenditures, 
 the lawfully established organization of tlie 
 imperial army, in accordance with this constitu- 
 tion, shall be taken as a basis. 
 
 Article 63. The total land force of the Empire 
 shall form one army, wliicli, in war and in peace, 
 shall be under the command of the Emperor. 
 The regiments, &c., throughout the whole Ger- 
 man army shall bear continuous numbers. The 
 principal colors and the cut of the garments of 
 the Royal Prussian army sliall serve as a pattern 
 for the rest of the army. It is left to commanders 
 of contingent forces to choose the external 
 badges, cockades, &c. It shall be the duty and 
 the right of the Empeior to take care that, 
 
 ^'^ 553 
 
 throughout the German army, all divisions bo 
 kept full and well eijuippod, and that unity be 
 established and maintained in regard to organiza- 
 tion and formation, c<iuipmcnt. and ccmimand in 
 the training of the nion, as well as in tlio qualifi- 
 cation of the olHcers. For thi.s purpose the 
 Eini.-ror shall be authori/.ed to satisfy himself at 
 any tiiiic of tlie condition of the several contin- 
 gents, and to provide remeilics for existing defects. 
 The Knipcror shall determine the strcnglli, com- 
 position, and division of the contingents of th<! 
 imperial army, and also the organization of the 
 militia, and he shall have the right to designate 
 garrisons within the territory of the confedera- 
 tion, as also to call any portion of the army into 
 active service. In order to maintain the neces- 
 sary unity in the care, arming, and eiiuipment of 
 all troops of the Oerinan army, all orders here- 
 after to be issued for the Prussian army shall b(! 
 communicated in due form to the commanders of 
 tlie remaining contingents by tlie committee on 
 tlie army and fortifications, provided for in article 
 8, No. 1. 
 
 Article 64. All Gorman troops arc bound 
 implicitly to obey the orders of the Emperor. 
 Tills obligation shall bo included in the oath of 
 allegiance. Tho commander-in-chief of a con- 
 tingent, as well as all oftlcers commanding troopa 
 of more than one contingent, and all commanders 
 of fortresses, shall bo appointed by tlie Emperor. 
 Tho otBcers appointed by tho Emperor shall take 
 the oath of fealty to him. The appointment of 
 generals, or of officers performing the duties of 
 generals, in a contingent force, shall be in each 
 case subject to tho approval of the Emperor. 
 The Emperor has tho right with regard to the 
 transfer of officers, with or without promotion, 
 to positions which are to be filled in the service 
 of tho Empire, bo it in the Prussian army or in 
 other contingents, to select from the officers of 
 all the contingents of the army of the Empire. 
 
 Article 65. The right to build fpitrcsses 
 witliin tlio territory of tlie Empire shall belong 
 to the Emperor, who, according to section 12, 
 shall ask for the appropriation of the necessary 
 means ^uired for that purpose, if not already 
 includeu in the regular appropriation. 
 
 Article 66. If not otherwise stipulated, tho 
 princesof the Empire and the senates sliall appoint 
 tlio officers of tlie'r respective contingents, sub- 
 ject to the restriction of article 64. Tliey are tho 
 chiefs of all the troops belonging to their 
 respecti\v- ter'-itories, and are entitled to the 
 honors couneclod thorcwitli. They shall have 
 especially tho right to hold inspections at any 
 time, and receive, besides the regular reports 
 and announcements of changes for publication, 
 timely information of all promotions and appoint- 
 ments concerning their respective contingents. 
 They shall olso have tho right to employ, for 
 police purposes, not only their own troops but 
 all other contingents of the army of tho Empire 
 who are stationed in tlieir respective territories. 
 
 Article 67. The unexpended portion of the 
 military appropriation shall, under no circum- 
 stances, fall to the share of a single government, 
 but at all times to tho treasury of tlie Empire. 
 
 Article 68. Tho Emperor sliall have tho 
 power, if the public security of the Empire 
 demands it, to declare martial law in any part 
 thereof, until the publication of a law regulating 
 the grounds, the form of announcement, and tho 
 effects of such a declaration, the provisions of tlio 
 
CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP JAPAN. 
 
 Prussliin law of June 4, 1851, shall be imbstituti 
 thcri'for. (Liiw.sof 1851, piigc 451.) 
 
 Addition to section XI. 
 
 Tliv provi.sion.s coiitiiiiictl in this section slinll 
 KO into <'ffi'ct in Biiviiriii us providod for in tluj 
 treaty of alliaucf of Novt-niber 23, 1870, (Hun- 
 desgt'setzbliitt, 1871, section 0,) under III, section 
 5, in Wtlrtemberg, as provided for in tlie military 
 convention of \ovenil)er 21-25, 1870, (Bundes- 
 Keset/.blatt, 1870, section 658.) 
 
 XII. — Finances of the Empire. 
 
 Article 69. All receipts and expenditures of 
 the ICnipin! .shall be estimated yearly, and 
 included in the tiiiancial estimate. The latter 
 shall be fixed by law before the Ijcginning of the 
 flsi'al year, according to llie following princi- 
 ples: 
 
 Article 70. The surplus of tlie previous 
 year, as well as the customs duties, the com- 
 mon excise duties, and tlie revenues derived 
 from the postal and telegrupli service, sliall be 
 applied to the defrayal of all general expendi- 
 ture. In so far as these expenditures are not 
 •covered by the receipts, tliey shall be misod, as 
 long as no taxes of the Empire shall have been 
 ■established, by assessing the several states of 
 the Empire according to their population, tlic 
 amount of tin! assessment to be fixed by the 
 Chancellor of the Empire in accordance with the 
 budget agreed ui)on. 
 
 Article 71. The general expenditure shall 
 be, as a rule, granted for one year; they may, 
 I however, in special cases, be granted for a 
 longer period. During the period of transition 
 fixed in Article 60, the financial estimate, prop- 
 erly classified, of the expenditures of the army 
 shall be laid before tlie federal council and the 
 <iiet for their information. 
 
 Article 72. An annual report of the expen- 
 diture of all the receipts of the Empire shall be 
 rendered to tlie federal council and the diet, 
 thriiugh the Chancellor of the Empire. 
 
 Article 73. In cases of extraordinary re- 
 <iuirements, a loan may be contracted in accord- 
 ance witli the laws of the Empire, such loan 
 to be granted by the Empire. 
 
 Addfition to section XII. 
 
 Articles 09 and 71 apply to the expenditures 
 for the Bavarian army only according to the pro- 
 visions of the addition to section XI of the treaty 
 ■of November 23, 1870 ; and article 73 only so far 
 as is required to inform the federal council and 
 the diet of tlie assignment to Bavaria of the 
 required sum for the Bavarian army. 
 
 XIII.— Settlement of Disputes and Modes 
 of Punishment. 
 
 Article 74. Every attempt against the exist- 
 ■ence, the integrity, the security, or the constitu- 
 tion of the German Empire ; finally, any offense 
 committed against the federal council, tlie 
 diet, a member of the federal council, rr of the 
 •diet, a magistrate or public official of tlie Em- 
 
 pire, while in the execution of his duty, or with 
 reference to his otllcial positi(m. by word, writ- 
 ing, printing, signs, or caricatures, shall be 
 judicially investigated, and upon conviction 
 punisli('<l ill tlie several states of the Empire, 
 according to the laws tlierein existing, or which 
 shall ht^reafter exist in the same, acconiing to 
 wliicli laws a similar olleiise against any one of 
 the stJites of the Empire, its constitution, legis- 
 lature, members of its legislature, authorities or 
 officials is to be judged. 
 
 Article 75. For those offenses, specified in 
 Article 7'!, against the German Empire, which, 
 if committed against one of the states of the Em- 
 pire, would be deemed high treason, the superior 
 court of appeals of the three free llanseatic 
 towns at Lubeclc shall be the competent decid- 
 ing tribunal in the first and last resort. More 
 definite provisions as to the competency and the 
 proceedings of the superior court of appeals 
 shall be adopted by tlie Legislature of the 
 Empire. Until the passage of a law of the 
 Empire, the existing competency of tlie courts 
 in the respective states of the Empire, and the 
 provisions relative to the proceedings of those 
 courts, shall remain in force. 
 
 Article 76. Disputes between tlic different 
 states of the confederation, so far as they are 
 not of a private nature, and tiierefore to be 
 decided by the competent authorities, sliall be 
 settled by tlie federal council, at tlie request of 
 one of the parties. Disputes relating to consti- 
 utional matters in those of the states of the 
 confederation whose constitution contains no 
 provision for tlie settlement of such differences, 
 shall bo adjusted by the federal council, at the 
 request of one of the parties, or, if this cannot be 
 done, they shall be settled by the legislative 
 power of the confederation. 
 
 Article 77. If in one of the states of tlie 
 confederation justice shall be denied, and no 
 suflicient relief can bo procured by legal meas- 
 ures, it shall be the duty of the federal council 
 to receive substantiated complaints concerning 
 denial or restriction of justice, wliicli are to be 
 judged according to the constitution and the 
 existing laws of the respective states of the 
 confederation, and thereupon to obtain judicial 
 relief from tlie confederate government in the 
 matter which shall have given rise to the com- 
 plaint. 
 
 XIV. — General Provision. 
 
 Amendments of the constitution shall be made 
 by legislative enactment. They shall be con- ^ 
 sidered as rejected wlien 14 votes are cast 
 against them in the federal council. The pro- 
 visions of tlie constitution of the Empire, by 
 which fixed rights of individual states of tlie 
 confederation arc established in their relation 
 to the whole, shall only be ino<lifled with the 
 consent of that state of the confcderatioa which 
 is immediately concerned. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 The following text of the Constitution of the 
 Empire of Japan,, promulgated by the Emperor, 
 February 11, 1880, is from a imniplilct published 
 at Johns Hopkins University on the occasion of 
 a meeting of professors, students and guests, 
 April 17, 1889, to celebrate its promulgation : 
 
 Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ances- 
 tors, ascended the throne of a lineal succession 
 unbroken for ages eternal ; desiring to promote 
 the welfare of, and to give development to the 
 moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved 
 subjects, the very same that have been favoured 
 
 554 
 
CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP JAPAN. 
 
 •with the benevolent cftre and afI<,ctionate vigi- 
 lance of Our Ancestors; and hoping to maintain 
 the prosperity of the Siate, in concert with Our 
 I)eople and with their support, We hereby pro- 
 mulgate, in i)ursu»nce of Our Imperial Rescript 
 of the 14th (lay of tlic lOt'a month of tlie 14th 
 year of Meiji, a fundamental law of State, to 
 exhibit the principles, by which We are to be 
 guided in Our conduct, and to point out to what 
 Our descendants and Our subjects and tlieir de- 
 scendants are forever to conform. The rights of 
 sovereignty of the State, We have inherited from 
 Our Ancestors, and We shall bequeath them to 
 Our descendants. Neither We nor they shall in 
 future fail to wield them, in accordaucc with the 
 provisions of the Constitution hereby granted. 
 We now declare to respect and protect the 
 security of the rights and of the property of Our 
 people, and to secure to them the complete enjoy- 
 ment of the same, within tlio extent of the pro- 
 visions of the present Constitution and of the 
 law. The Imperial Diet shall first be convoked 
 for tlie 23d vear of Meiji, and the time of its 
 opening shall be the date, when the present Con- 
 stitution comes into force. When in the future 
 it may become necessary to amend any of the 
 provisions of the present Constitution, We or 
 Our successors shall assume the initiative right, 
 and submit a project for the same to the Imperial 
 Diet. The Imperial Diet shall pass its vote upon 
 It, according to tlie conditions imposed by the 
 present Constitution, and in no otherwise shall 
 Our descendants or Our subjects be permitted to 
 attempt any alteration thereof. Our Ministers 
 of Stote, on Our behalf, shall be held responsible 
 for tlie carrying out of the present Constitution, 
 and Our present and future subjects shall for- 
 ever assume the duly of allegiance to the present 
 Constitution. [His Imperial Majesty's Sign- 
 Manual.] The 11th day of the 2nd month of the 
 23nd year of Meij 1. [Countersigned by Ministers. ] 
 
 Chapter'!. 
 
 Article I. The Empire of Japan shall be 
 reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors 
 unbroken for ages eternal. 
 
 Article II. The Imperial Throne shall be suc- 
 ceeded to by Imperial male descendants, accord- 
 ing to the provisions of the Imperial House Law. 
 
 Article III. The Emperor is sacred and in- 
 violable. 
 
 Article IV. The Emperor is the head of the 
 Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sov- 
 ereignty, and exercises them, according to the 
 provisions of the present Constitution. 
 
 Article V. The Emperor exercises the legis- 
 lative power with the consent of the Imperial 
 Diet. 
 
 Article VI. The Emperor gives sanction to 
 laws, and orders them to be promulgated and 
 executed. 
 
 Article VII, The Emperor convokes the Im- 
 perial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and 
 dissolves the House of Representatives. 
 
 Article VIII. The Emperor, in consequence 
 of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety 
 or to avert public calamities, issues, when the 
 Imperial Diet is not sitting. Imperial Ordinances 
 in the place of law. Such Imperial Ordinances 
 arc to be laid before the Imperial Diet at its 
 next session, and when the Diet does not approve 
 the said Ordinances, the Government shall declari' 
 them to be invalid for the future. 
 
 Article IX. The Emperor issues, or causes 
 to be issued, the Ordinances necessary for the 
 carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance 
 of the public peace and order, i>n(l for the pro- 
 motion of the welfare of the subjects. But no 
 Ordinance shall In any way alter any of tlie exist- 
 ing laws. 
 
 Article X. The Emperor determines the or- 
 ganization of the different brunches of tlie ad- 
 ininistration. and tlie salaries of all ( vil and 
 military olllcers, and appoints and dismisses the 
 same. Exceptions especially provided for In the 
 present Constitution or in other laws, shall be in 
 accordance with the respective provisions (bear- 
 ing thereon). 
 
 Article XI. The Emperor has the supremo 
 command of the Army and Navy. 
 
 Article XII, The Emperor determines the 
 organization and peace standing of the Army 
 and Navy. 
 
 Article XIII. The Emperor declares war, 
 makes peace, and concludes treaties. 
 
 Article XIV. The Emperor proclaims the 
 law of siege. The condltijns and effects of the 
 law of siege shall lie determined by law. 
 
 Article XV. The Emperor confers titles of 
 nobility, rank, orders, and other marks of honor. 
 
 Article XVI. The Emperor orders amnesty, 
 Iiardon, commutation of punishment, and re- 
 habilitation. 
 
 Article XVII. A Regency shall be Instituted 
 in conformity witli the provisions of the Imperial 
 House Law. The Regent shall exc'lse the 
 powers appertaining to the Emperor in 1 1 is name. 
 
 Chapter II, 
 
 Article XVIII. The conditions necessary for 
 being a Japanese subject shall be determined by 
 law. 
 
 Article XIX. Japanese subjects may, ac- 
 cording to qualifications determined in law or 
 ordinances, be appointed to civil or military 
 offices equally, and may fill any other public 
 offices. 
 
 Article XX. Japanese subjects are amenable 
 to service in the Army or Navy, according to 
 the provisions of law. 
 
 Article XXI. Japanese subjects are amenable 
 to the duty of paying taxes, according to the 
 provisions of law. 
 
 Article XXII. .lapanese subjects shall have 
 the liberty of abode and of changing the same 
 within the limits of law. 
 
 Article XXIII. No Japanese subiect shall be 
 arrested, detained, tried, or punished, unless ac- 
 cording to law. 
 
 Article XXIV. No Japanese subject shall be 
 deprived of his right of being tried by the judges 
 determined bv law. 
 
 Article X3tV. Except in the cases provided 
 for in the law, tlie house of no Japanese subject 
 shall be entered or searched without his consent. 
 
 Article XXVI. Except in the cases mentioned 
 in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every 
 Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. 
 
 Article XXVII. Tlie right of property of 
 every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. 
 Measures necessary to be taken for the public 
 benefit shall be provided for by law. 
 
 Article XXVIII. Japanese subjects shall, 
 within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, 
 and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, 
 enjoy freedom of religious belief. 
 
 555 
 
CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP JAPAN. 
 
 Article XXIX. JiipancBC subjects Hhall, 
 williin I lie liiiiit.4 of liiw, enjoy the liberty of 
 H|)C'('(.'li, writiiii;;, publication, public incotinga, 
 itiidassooiittionH. 
 
 Article XXX. Jnpiinese subjects nmy present 
 petitions, by i)l)Hcrvin>r tlie proper forms of n- 
 spect, luiil by complying witli the rules si)ccially 
 [jrovided for tlie same. 
 
 Article XXXI. The provisions cuut4iiQu<l in 
 the present ('liiipter slmll not affect the exerei.se 
 of the powers apiMTtaining to the Emperor in 
 times of war or in eases of a national emergency. 
 
 Article XXXII. Each and every one of tlie 
 provisions ccmtjiined in the preceding Articles of 
 the present Chapter, that are not in conflict with 
 the laws or the rules and discipline of the Arniy 
 and Navy, shall apply to the olllcers and men of 
 the Army and of tlic Navy. 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 Article XXXIII. The Imperial Diet shall 
 consist of two Houses, a House of Peers and a 
 House of Uepresentativcs. 
 
 Article XXXIV. The House of Peers shall, 
 in accordance with the Ordinance concerning tlie 
 House of Peers, be composed of the members of 
 the Imperial Family, of the orders of nobility, 
 and of those persons who have been nominated 
 thereto by the Emperor. 
 
 Article XXXV. The House of Representa- 
 tives shall be composed of Jlembers elected by 
 the people accordmg to the provisions of the 
 Law of Ele(!tion. 
 
 Article XXXVI. No one can at one and the 
 same time be a member of both Houses. 
 
 Article XXXVII. Every law requires the 
 consent of the Imperial Diet. 
 
 Article XXXVIII. Both Houses shall vote 
 upon projects of law submitted to it by the 
 Government, and may respectively initiate pro- 
 jects of law. 
 
 Article XXXIX. A Bill, which has been re- 
 jected by either the one or the other of the two 
 houses, ihall not be again brought in during the 
 same sesiion. 
 
 Article XL. Both Houses can make repre- 
 sentations to the Government, as to laws or upon 
 ony other subject. When, however, such repre- 
 sentations are not accepted, they cannot be made 
 a second time during the same session. 
 I Article XLI. The Imperial Diet shall be con- 
 voked every year. 
 
 Article xLlI. A session of the Imperial 
 Diet shall last during three months. In case of 
 necessity, the duration of a session may be pro- 
 longed by Imperial Order. 
 ' Article XLIII. When urgent necessity arises, 
 an extraordinary session may be convoked, in 
 addition to the ordinary one. The duration of 
 an extraordinary session shall be determined by 
 Imperial Order. 
 
 Article XLIV. The opening, closing, pro- 
 longation of session, and prorogation of the 
 Imperial Diet, shall be effected simultaneously 
 for both Houses. In case the House of Repre- 
 sentatives has been ordered to d'ssolve, the House 
 of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued. 
 
 Article XLV. When the House of Iteprcsen-. 
 tatives has been ordered to dissolve. Members" 
 shall be caused by Imperial Order to be newly 
 elected, and the new House shall be convokeil 
 within five months from the day of dissolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Article XLVI. No debate can beopcniHl and 
 no vole can be taken in either House of the Im- 
 perial Diet, unl<'.s8 not less than one-third r)f the 
 wh(de number of the mend)ers thereof is present. 
 
 Article XLVII. Votes shall be taken in both 
 Houses by absolute majority. In the ciuse of a 
 tie vole, tli(' President shall have the casting vote. 
 
 Article XLVIII. Tlie deliberations of both 
 Iloust's shall be held in public. The delibemtions 
 may, however, upon demand of the Government or 
 by resolution of the House, be held in secret sitting. 
 
 Article XLIX. Both Houses of the Imperial 
 Diet nuiy respectively present addresses to the 
 Emjieror. 
 
 Article L. Both Houses may receive petitions 
 presented by subjects. 
 
 Article LI. Both Houses may enact, besides 
 what is provided for in the present Constitution 
 and in the Law of the Houses, rules necessary 
 for the management of their internal afTairs. 
 
 Article Lll. No member of either House 
 .si. .ill be held responsible outside the respective 
 Houses, for any opinion uttered or for any vote 
 given in the House. When, however, a Member 
 liimself has given publicity to his opinions by 
 public speech, by documents in printing or in 
 writing, or by any other similar means he shall, 
 in the ma'ter, be amenable to the general law. 
 
 Article y.IIL The members of both Houses 
 shall, during the session, be free from arrest, un- 
 less with the consent of the House, except in 
 cases of flagrant delicts, or of offences connected 
 with a stjite of internal commotion or with a 
 foreign trouble. 
 
 Article HV. The Ministers of State and the 
 Delegates of the Government may, at any time, 
 take seats and speak in either House. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Article LV. The respective Ministers of 
 State shall give their advice to the Emperor, 
 and be responsible for it. All Laws, Imperial 
 Ordinances, and Imperial Rescripts of whatever 
 kind, that relate to the affairs of the State, re- 
 quire the countersignature of a Minister of State. 
 
 Article LVI. The Privy Council shall, in 
 accordance with the provisions for the organiza- 
 tion of the Privy Council, deliberate upon im- 
 portant matters of State, when they have been 
 consulted by the Emperor. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Article LVII. The Judicature shall be exer- 
 cised by the Courts of Law according to law, in 
 the name of the Emperor. The organization of 
 the Courts of Law shall be determined by law. 
 
 Article LVIII. The judges shall be appointed 
 from among those, who possess proper qualifi- 
 cations according to law. No judge shall be 
 deprived of his position, unless by way of crimi- 
 nal sentence or disciplinary punishment. Rules 
 for disciplinary punishment shall be determined 
 by law. 
 
 Article LIX. Trials and judgments of a 
 Court shall be conducted publicly. When, how- 
 ever, I'lpro exists any fear that such publicity 
 may bi prejudicial to peace and order, or to the 
 mamtcuance of public morality, the public trial 
 may be suspended by provision of law or by the 
 decision of the Court of Law. 
 
 Article LX. All matters, that fall within the 
 competency of u special Court, shall be specially, 
 provided for by law. 
 
 556 
 
CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF LYCURGU8. 
 
 Article LXI. No suit nt law, wlilrli rclntcs 
 to riglilH i'll('){c(l to liivvt; Ihtii infringed l)y the 
 legal nieiisiires of the executive iiutliorilies, imd 
 ■wliich shall come within the competency of the 
 Court of Administrative Litigation specially 
 established 1)V law, shall bo .akeu coguizanco of 
 by a Court oi Law. 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 Article LXII. The imposition of ii new tax 
 or the moditlcation of tlu^ rates (of an existing 
 one) shall be detemiined by law. However, all 
 such administrative fees or other revenue having 
 the nature of compensation shall not fall witliin 
 the category of the above clause. The raising of 
 national loans and the contracting of other lia- 
 bilities to file charge of the National Treasury, 
 except time that are provided in tlio Hudget, 
 shall require tlie consent of the Imperial Diet. 
 
 Article LXIII, The taxes levied at present 
 shall, in so far as they an not remodelled by new 
 law, lie collected according to the old system. 
 
 Article LXIV. The expenditure and revenue 
 of the 8ta.>' reciuire the consent of the Imperial 
 Diet by means of an annual Budget. Any and 
 all expenditures overpassing the aiipropriations 
 set forth in the Titles and Paragraphs of the 
 Budget, or that are not provided for in the Bud- 
 get, shall subsequently require the approbation 
 of the Imperial Diet. 
 
 Article LXV. The Budget shall be first laid 
 before the House of Representatives. 
 
 Article LxVI. The expenditures of the Im- 
 perial House shall be defrayed every year out of 
 the National Treasury, according to the present 
 fixed amount for the same, and shall not require 
 the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except 
 in case an increase thereof is found necessary. 
 
 Article LXVII. Those already fixed expen- 
 ditures based by the Constitution upon the pow- 
 ers appertaining to the Emperor, and such ex- 
 ficnditures as may have arisen by the effect of 
 aw, or that appertain to the legal obligations of 
 the Government, shall be neither rejected nor re- 
 duced by the Imperial Diet, without the con- 
 currence of the Government. 
 
 Article LXVI II. In order to meet special re- 
 quirements, the Government may ask the consent 
 of the Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a 
 Continuing Expenditure Fund, for a previously 
 fixed number of years. 
 
 Article LXIX. In order to supply deficiencies 
 which are unavoidable, in the Budget, and to 
 
 meet reciuirements unprovided for In the same, a 
 Hescrvc Fund shall be provided in the Budget. 
 
 Article LXX. Wlicn the Impcriiil Diet can- 
 rot be convoked, owing to the external or Inter- 
 nal condition of the country, In case of urgent 
 need for the maintenance of piiblic safety, the 
 Government may take all necessary financial 
 measures, by means of an Imperial Ordinance. 
 In the case mentioned in the i)receiling clause, 
 the matter shall be submitted to the Imperial 
 Diet at Its next session, and its approbation shall 
 be obtained thereto. 
 
 Article LXXI. When the Itnperial Diet hag 
 not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget 
 has not been brought into actual exi.stence, tlie 
 Government shall carry out the Budget of the 
 preceding year. 
 
 Article LXXII. The final account of the ex- 
 penditures an<l revenue of the State shall t)o 
 verified and confirmed by tlie Board of Audit, 
 and it shall be submitted by the Government to 
 the Imperial Diet, together with tlie report of 
 verificafiim of the said Board. The organization 
 and comix'fcncy of the Board of Audit shall bo 
 determined by law separately. 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Article LXXIII. When it has become neces- 
 sary in future to amend the provisions of the 
 present Constitution, a project to that elTect shall 
 be submitted to the Imperial Diet by Imperial 
 Order. In the above case, neitli(!r House can 
 open the debate, imless not less than two-thirds 
 of the whole numlier of Members are present, 
 and no amendment can be passed, unless a ma- 
 jority of not less than two-thirds of the Members 
 present is obtained. 
 
 Article LXXIV. No modification of the Im- 
 perial House Law shall be required to be sub- 
 mitted to the deliberation of the Imperial Diet. 
 No provision of the present Constitution can be 
 modified by the Imperial House Law. 
 
 Article LXXV. No modification can be in- 
 troduced into the Constitution, or into the Im- 
 perial House Law, during the time of a Pegency, 
 
 Article LXXVI. Existing legal enactments, 
 such as laws, regulations. Ordinances, or by 
 whatever names they may be called, shall, so far 
 as they do not conflict with the present Constitu- 
 tion, continue in force. All existing contracts or 
 orders, that entail obligations upon the Govern- 
 ment, and that are connected with expenditure 
 shall come within the scope of Art. LXVII. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF LYCURGUS.— 
 
 "The constitution of Lykourgos was especially 
 adapted to make heroes, and it made them. To 
 serve his country ond die for her, this was the 
 Spartan's chief ambition. ' Victory or death ! ' 
 was their war-cry; honor, their supreme law. 
 'That most to be admired in Lykourgos,' says 
 Xenophon, ' is that he was able to make a noble 
 death seem preferable to a dishonored life. This 
 great lawgiver provided for the happiness of the 
 brave man, and devoted the coward to infamy. 
 ... At Sparta men would be ashamed to sit at 
 table with the coward, to touch his weapons or 
 his hand ; in the games neither party will receive 
 him. He has the lowest place at the dances and 
 the dramatic representations. In the street he is 
 pushed aside by younger men. His daughters 
 share in his disgrace; they are excluded from 
 public feasts, and can obtain no husbands. ' " — V. 
 
 Duruy, Hist, of Greece, v. 1, gect. 3, p. 467. — Mr. 
 Grote remarks upon the "unparalleled stcatli- 
 ness" of the Spartan constitution ascribed to 
 Lycurgus, which was maintained "for four or 
 five successive centuries, in the midst of govern- 
 ments like the Grecian, all of which had under- 
 gone more or less of fluctuation. No consider- 
 able revolution — not even any palpable or formal 
 change — occurred in it from the days of the 
 Messenian war down to those of Agis III. : in 
 spite of the irreparable blow wliich the power 
 and territory of the state sustained from Epamel- 
 nondas and the Thebans, the form ol government 
 nevertheless remained unchanged. It was the 
 only government in Greece which could trace an 
 unbroken peaceable descent from o high antiquity 
 and from its real or supposed founder."— O. 
 Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 6 (». 2). — See 
 Spabta, The Constitution. 
 
 557 
 
CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 The following trnnHliitcd toxt of tho Constitu- 
 tion of Mexico lHfn)nil)uIlrtiii No. Oof till! liuri'iui 
 of tho Amcricun licpublics, publighcd in July, 
 1801: 
 
 Preamble. — In the mime of Oo<l nnd with the 
 mithority of the Mexican people. The represen- 
 tiitivcH of the different Htiites, of tho Uistriet 
 «nd Territories which coniposo tho Hcpubllc of 
 Mexico, culled by tlie Pliin procluimed In Ayutia 
 the 1st of ^Miirch, IHM, nmended In Acapulco the 
 11th day of tho Bnnio month and year, and by 
 the Bitnimons Issued tho 17th of ()ctol)er, IH.W, to 
 constitute tho nation under the form of a popular, 
 reprosentativo, ('L'niocralic republic, exorcisinfj; 
 the powers witli which they are Invested, comply 
 with tho requin'mentsof tholr hi)i;h oftico, decree- 
 ing tho following political Constitution of the 
 Mexican liepublle, on the Indestructible basis of 
 it8 legitimate independence, proclaimed the 16th 
 of SeptemlH'r, 1810, and completed the 37th of 
 September, 1821. 
 
 Article l, Tho Mexican people recognize that 
 the rights of man are tho basis and the obiect of 
 social Institutions. Conseouently they (ledare 
 that all the laws and all the authorities of tho 
 coimtry must respect and maintain tho guarantees 
 which tho present Constitution establishes. 
 
 Art. 3. In tho Uepuh'ic all are born free. 
 Slaves who set fcot upon the national territory 
 recover, by that act alone, tholr liberty, and have 
 a right to the protection of the laws. 
 
 Art. 3, Instruction is frc'. Tho law shall 
 determine what professions require a diploma for 
 their exercise, and witli what requisites they must 
 be iasued. 
 
 Art. A. Every man Is free to adopt tho pro-, 
 fossion, industrial pursuit, or occupation which 
 suits him, tho same being useful and honorable, 
 and to avail himself of Its products. Nor shall 
 any one bo hindered in tho exercise of such pro- 
 fession. Industrial pursuit, or occupation, unless 
 by judicial sentence when such exorcise attacks 
 the rights of a third party, or by governmental 
 resolution, dictated in terms which the law marks 
 out, when it offends the rights of society. 
 
 Art. S. No one shall bo obliged to ^ive per- 
 sonal services without just compensation, and 
 without Ills full consent. Tho state shall not per- 
 mit any contract, pact, or agreement to be carried 
 into elfcct which has for Its object tho diminution, 
 loss, or irrevocable sftcriflce of tho liberty of man, 
 whether It be for tho sike of labor, education, or 
 a religious vow. Thj law, consequently, may 
 not recognize monastic orders, nor may it permit 
 their establishment, whatever may be the de- 
 nomination or object with wliich they claim to 
 bo formed.* Neither may an agreement be per- 
 mitted in which anyone stipulates for his pro- 
 scription or banishment. 
 
 Art. 6. The expression of ideas shall not be 
 the object of any judicial or lulminlstrativo in- 
 quisition, except in case it attacks morality, the 
 rights of a third party, provokes some crime or 
 misdemeanor, or disturbs public onier. 
 
 Art. 7. Tho liberty to write and to publish 
 writings on any subject whatsoever is inviolable. 
 No law or authority shall establish previous cen- 
 sure, nor require security from authors or printers, 
 
 » This sentence was introduced Into the original article 
 September 2S, ISTi, with other less important Amend- 
 ments. 
 
 nor restrict the lllwrty of the press, which has no 
 other limits than respt^c^t of private life, morality, 
 and the public peace. The crimes whh'h aro 
 committed by means of tho press shall be Judged 
 by tho competent tribunals of tho Federation, or 
 by those of the States, those of the Federal Dis- 
 trict and the Territory of Lower California, in 
 acconlanco with their penal laws.* 
 
 Art. 8. The riglit of petition, exercised In 
 writing in a peaceful and respectful manner, la 
 inviolable ; but in political matters only citizens 
 of tho Republic may exorcise It. To every peti- 
 tion mup'., be returned a written opinion by tho 
 autho'.iv to whom It may have been addressed, 
 and the li.'ter Is oblig(!d to make the result known 
 to tho peutloner. 
 
 Art, o. No one may bo deprived of the right 
 peacefully to assemble or unite with others for 
 any lawful obiect whatsoever, but only citizens 
 of the Kepublic may do this in order to take part 
 in the political affairs of tho country. No armed 
 assembly has a right to deliberate. 
 
 Art. 10. Every man has a right to poss(>ss and 
 carry arms for his security and legitimate de- 
 fence. The law shall designate what arms aro 
 iirobibitoil and the punishment which those shall 
 incur who carry them. 
 
 Art. II. Every man has a right to enter and 
 to go out of the Republic, to travel through its 
 territory and change his residence, without tho 
 necessity of a letter of security, passport, safe- 
 conduct, or other similar requisite. Tho exercise 
 of this right shall not prejudice tho legitimate 
 faculties of the judicial or administrative au- 
 thority in cases of criminal or civil responsi- 
 billty. 
 
 Art. 13. There are not, nor shall there be 
 recognized In tho Kepublic, titles of nobility, or 
 prerogatives, or heredltory honors. Only the 
 people, legitimately represented, n ay decree 
 recompenses in honor of those who may have 
 rendered or may render eminent services to the 
 country or to humanity. 
 
 Art. 13. In the Mexican Republic no one may 
 be judged by special law nor by special tribunals. 
 No person or corporation may have privileges, 
 or enioy emoluments, which are not compensa- 
 tion for a public service and are established by 
 law. Martial law may exist only for crimes and 
 offences wliich have a definite connection with 
 military discipline. The law shall determine 
 with all clearness tho cases included in this ex- 
 ception. 
 
 Art. 14. No retroactive law shall be enacted. 
 No one may be judged or sentenced except by 
 laws made prior to the act, and exactly applica- 
 ble to it, and by a tribunal which shall have been 
 previously established by law. 
 
 Art. 15. Treaties shall never be made for tho 
 extradition of political offenders, nor for the ox- 
 tradition of those violators of the public order 
 who may have held In the country where they 
 committed the oflfenco the position of slaves ; nor 
 agreements or treaties in virtue of which may bo 
 altered the guarantees and rights which this 
 Constitution grants to the man and to tho citizen. 
 
 • This article was amended May IS, 1883, by introducing 
 the last sentence ns a Bubstitutt) for tlie following : " Tho 
 crimes of the press shall be judged by one jury which at- 
 tests the fact and by another which applies the law and 
 designates the punisimieut." 
 
 558 
 
CONSTITTTION OF JIEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 Art. i6. No one niiiy be nuilfstcd In Ills per- 
 son, fiiinily, ilomlcile, piiperH mid poHHessiong, 
 except In virtue of iin order written by the com- 
 petent authority, which shull estiilillMh and im- 
 lign the lcK»l cause for the proceedlnf^s. In tho 
 C880 of in tliigrunto dellnto iiny person may ap- 
 prehend the olTender and Ids iicconipllees, pluclng 
 them without delay at tho dlsposnl of the nearest 
 BUthoritles. 
 
 Art. 17. No one may be arrested for (U^bts of 
 a purely civil cliaracter. No one may exercise 
 violence In order to reclaim Ills riglits. Tlic tri- 
 bunals sliall always be prompt to administer 
 lustice. TUIb sliall be gratuitous, Judicial costs 
 being conseouently abolished. 
 
 Art. 18, Imprisonment sliall take place only 
 for crimes which deserve corporal punishment. 
 In any stato of tho process in which it shall ap- 
 pear that sucli a punishment might not bo im- 
 posed upon the occused, he shall be set at liberty 
 under bail. In no case shall the imprisonment 
 or detention bo prolonged for default of payment 
 of fees, or of any furnishing of money what- 
 ever. 
 
 Art. 10. No detention shall exceed the term 
 of three days, unless justified by a writ showing 
 cause of impiisoniucnt and other requisites which 
 the law cstablisheg. Tlic mere lapse of this term 
 shall render responsible tho authority tliat orders 
 or consents to it, and tho agents, ministers, war- 
 dens, or jailors who execute it. Any maltreat- 
 ment in the apprehension or in the confinement 
 of the prisoners, any injury which may be In- 
 flicted without legal ground, any tax or contri- 
 bution in the prisons, is an abuse which tho laws 
 must correct and the authorities severally 1 mish. 
 
 Art. 20. In every criminal trial the accused 
 shall have the following guarantees : T. That tlic 
 grounds of the proceedings and the name of the 
 accuser, if there shall be one, shall be made known 
 to him. II. That his preparatory declaration 
 sliall bo taken within forty-eight hours, counting 
 from the time he may be placed at the disposol 
 of the judge. III. That he shall be confronted 
 with tlie witnesses who testify against* him. IV. 
 That he shall be furnished with the data which 
 ho requires and which appear in the process, in 
 order to prepare for his defence. V. That he 
 shall bo heard in defence by himself or by coun- 
 sel, or by both, as he may desire. In case he 
 should have no one to defend him, a list of olHcial 
 defenders shall be presented to him, in order that 
 he moy choose one or more who may suit him. 
 
 Art. 21. The application of penalties properly 
 BO called belongs exclusively to the judicial au- 
 thority. The political or administrative authori- 
 ties may only impose fines, as correction, to tho 
 extent of five hundred dollars, or imprisonment 
 to the extent of one month, in the ca.ses and man- 
 ner which the law shall expressly determine. 
 
 Art. 22. Punishments by mutilation and in- 
 famy, by branding, fiogging, the bastinado, 
 torturfc of whatever kind, excessive fines, confis- 
 cation of property, or any otlier unusual or extra- 
 ordinary penalties, shall be forever prohibited. 
 
 Art, 23. In order to obolish the penalty of 
 death, the administrative power is charged to es- 
 tablish, as soon as possible, a penitentiary system. 
 In the meantime tlie penalty of death shall be 
 abolished for political offences, and shall not be 
 extended to other cases than treason during for- 
 eign war, highwoy robbery, arson, parricide, 
 homicide with treachery, premeditation or ad- 
 
 vantage, to grave ofTenc<'S of the military order, 
 and piracy, which the law shall d<-fine. 
 
 Art. 24. No criminal proceeding may liave 
 more than three Instaiices. Noone sliall bo tried 
 twice for the same olTence, wlictliiT by the judg- 
 ment he be absolved or conileniiicd. Thi' prac- 
 tice of absolving from the Instance Is abolished. 
 
 Art. 25. Sealed correspondence which circu- 
 lates by the mails is free Irom all registry. Tho 
 violation of tills guarantee Is an otfeuce which 
 the law Hliall pimish severely. 
 
 Art. 26, In time of peace no soliller may ite- 
 mund ((iiarters, supplies, or other real or personal 
 service without the consent of the proprietor. In 
 time of war he shall do this only In the manner 
 prescribed by the law. 
 
 Art. 27. Private property sliall not lie ap- 
 propriated without the consent of tlie owner, ex- 
 cept for the sake of public use, and with previous 
 indemnification. The law sliall determine the au- 
 thority which may make the appropriation and 
 the conditions under which it may bo carried 
 out. No corporation, civil or ecclesiastical, what- 
 ever may be its character, denomination, or ob- 
 ject, shall have legal capacity to acquire in pro- 
 prietorship or administer for itself real estate, 
 with tlie single exception of edifices destined im- 
 mediately and directly to tho service and object 
 of tho institution.* 
 
 Art. 28. There shall be no monopolies, nor 
 places of any kind for the sale of privileged gooiis, 
 nor prohibitions under titles of protection to in- 
 dustry. There shall bo excepted only those rela- 
 tive to the coining of money, to the mails, and to 
 tho privileges wlilcli, for a limited time, the law 
 may concede to inventors or pcrfectors of some 
 Improvement. 
 
 Art. 39, In cases of invasion, grave disturb- 
 ance of the public peace, or any other cases what- 
 soever which may place society in great danger 
 or confiict, only tho President of the Republic in 
 concurrence with the Council of Ministers and 
 with the approbation of the Congress of tho Union, 
 and, in the recess thereof, of the permanent depu- 
 tation, may suspend the guarantees established 
 by this Constitution, with the exception of those 
 which assure the life of man ; but such suspen- 
 sion shall be made only for a limited time, by 
 moans of general provisions, and without being 
 limited to a determined person. If the suspension 
 should take place during the session of Congress, 
 this body shall concede the authorizations which 
 it may esteem necessary In order that tho Execu- 
 tive may meet properly the situation. If the 
 suspension should take place during the recess, 
 the permanent deputation shall convoke the Con- 
 gress without delay in order that it may make 
 the authorizations. 
 
 Art. 30. Me.\ ns are — I. All those bom, 
 within or wlthoi ihe Republic, of Mexican par- 
 ents. II. Foreigners who are naturalized in con- 
 formity with the laws of the Federation. III. 
 Foreigners who acquire real estate in the Republic 
 or have Mexican children ; provided they do not 
 manifest their resolution to preserve their nation- 
 ality. 
 
 Art. 31. It is an obligation of every Mexican — 
 
 I. To defend the Independence, the territory, the 
 honor, tho rights and Interests of his country. 
 
 II. To contribute for the public expenses, as well 
 of the Federation as of the State and municipality 
 
 * See Article 3 of Additions to the Constitution. 
 
 559 
 
CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 In which ho rcHldPH, In the proportional nnd f>(iul- 
 tahlc iimiiiH'r wlilcli tho Ihwh w:^y provlilo. 
 
 Art. 3a. Mi'xiciiiiH Hhiill ',1- prcfcrriKl to for- 
 clKix'm In i'(|iiitl rircuniHt.inccK, for nil cniploy- 
 mvntH, ohiirKcH, orcomn'igHioimof nppointniL'iitby 
 tho iiuthorlllcM, In w'lirh thr ('ondltionof eltlzi'n- 
 ■hip may not Ik* lii'iUponiuililc. l>awN shnll Ih' Ih- 
 giK'd to Improve tjif condition of Mexir'iinlaborr'rH, 
 n^wardhiK tlu'tc who (IJKtlnKiilHh tlicMiwIvcx in 
 any twience ',r art, HtlniiilatiiiK labor, and found- 
 ing practical collrKcs and Mch(K)|g uf arts and 
 tradcH. 
 
 Art. 33. Foreigners are those who do not 
 
 So8W"« tho (|iiallttcatlons determined In Article 
 ). They have a right to t\w guarantees estjib- 
 lU'icd by . . . [Articles 1-20] of the present Con- 
 Btltutlon, except that In all cases the Ooveniment 
 hai the right to expel peniicious foreigners. They 
 an under obligation to contrib\itc to tho public 
 expenses In tho manner which tho laws may pro- 
 vlilo, and to obey and respect the institutions, 
 lav, s, and authorities of the country, subjecting 
 the nselves to tho judgments and sentences of tho 
 tribunals, without power to seek other protection 
 thau that which tho laws concede to Mcxicau 
 citii.cns. 
 
 Art. 34. Citizens of the I{«^publlc arc all those 
 who, having the quality of Mexicans, have also 
 tilt following qualitlcatlons: I. Eighteen years 
 of ago If married, or twenty-one If not married. 
 II. An honest means of livelihood. 
 
 Art. 35. The prerogatives of tho citizen are 
 — I. To vote at popular elections. II. The privi- 
 lege of being voted for for any ofBcc subject to 
 popular election, and of being selected for any 
 other emi)loyment or commission, having tho 
 qualifications established bv law. III. To asso- 
 ciate to discuss the political affairsof the country. 
 IV. To take up amis In tho army or In the na- 
 tional guard for tho defence of tho Itepubllc and 
 Its Institutions. V. To exorcise In all cases the 
 right of petition. 
 
 Art. 36. Every citizen of the Republlcis under 
 tho following obligations: I. To bo inscribed on 
 the municipal roll, stating the property which 
 he has, or tho industry, profession, or labor by 
 which he subsists. II. To enlist in the national 
 
 fuard. III. To vote at popular elections In the 
 istrlct to which he belongs. IV. To discharge 
 the duties of the oftlcesof popular election of the 
 Federation, which In no case shall bo gratuitrfus. 
 
 Art. 37. The character of citizen Is lost — I. 
 By naturalization in a foreign country. II. By 
 serving officially the government of another coun- 
 try or accepting its decorations, titles, or employ- 
 ments witliout previous permission from the 
 Feileral Congress; excepting literary, scientlflc, 
 and humanitarian titles, which may be accepted 
 freely. 
 
 Art. 38. The law shall prescribe the cases and 
 the form in which may be lost or suspended the 
 rights of citizenship and the manner in which 
 they may be regained. 
 
 Art. 39. The national .sovereignty resides es- 
 Boutially and originally in the people. All public 
 power emanates from the people, and is instituted 
 for their iK'neflt. The people have at all times 
 the inalienable right to alter or modify the form 
 of their government. 
 
 Art. 40. The ^Mexican people voluntorily con- 
 stitute themselves a democratic, federal, repre- 
 sentative republic, composed of States free and 
 soToreign in all that concoms their internal gov- 
 
 ernment, but united in a fedemtlnn establlNhed 
 according to tho principles of this fundamental 
 law. 
 
 Art. 41. The people exercise their sovereignty 
 by means of Federid officers incases lielongiug to 
 tlie Federation, and through those of the Hiatog 
 In all that relates to the internal alTalrs of tho 
 Htatcs within tho limits respectively established 
 by this Federal (N>nslltuti(m, and by the special 
 ConHtitntlons of the States, which latter shall la 
 no case contmveno the stljiulatlons of the Fed- 
 eral Compact. 
 
 Art. 4a. The National Territory compris<'s that 
 of the integral parts of the Federation and that 
 of the adjacent Islands In both oceans. 
 
 Art. 43. The integral parts of the Federation 
 are : the States of Aguascallcntcs, Collnia, Chia- 
 pas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Querrero, 
 .lallsco, Mexico, MIchoacan, Niu^vo Leon and 
 Coahulla, Oajaca, Puebla, Uueretaro, San Luis 
 Fotosl, HInaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaullpag, 
 Tlascala, Vallo do Mexico, Veracruz, Yucatan, 
 Zacatecas, and the Territory of Lower California. 
 
 Art. 44. The States of Aguascallentes, Chla- 
 
 Iias, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Mexico, 
 'uebla, Quer6taro, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaiillpas, 
 iind tho Territory of Lower California shall pre- 
 serve the limits which they now have. 
 
 Art. 45. The States of Collma nnd Tlascala 
 shall presi'rve in their new character of States tho 
 limits which they have had as Territories of tho 
 Federation. 
 
 Art.1^46. The State of the Valley of Mexico 
 shall be formed of tho territory actually compos- 
 ing the Federal District, but the erection into a 
 State shall only have effect when the supremo 
 Federal authontics are removed to another place. 
 
 Art. 47. Tho State of Nuevo Leon and Coa- 
 hulla shall comprise the territory which has be- 
 longed to the two distinct States of which it ia 
 now formed, excejit the part of the hacienda of 
 Bonanza, which shall be reincorporated in Zacate- 
 cas, on the same terms in which it was before its 
 incorporation in Coahulla. 
 
 Art. 48. Tho States of Guanajuato, Jalisco, 
 MIchoacan, Oajaca, San Luis Potosi, Tabasco, 
 Veracruz, Yucatan, and Zucatecos shall recover 
 the extension and limits which they had on the 
 31st of December, 1852, with the alterations the 
 following Article establishes. 
 
 Art. 49. The town of Contepec, which has be- 
 longed to Guanajuato, shall bo Incorporoted in 
 MIchoacan. The municipality of Ahualulco, 
 which lias belonged to Zacatecas, shall bo incor- 
 poroted in San Luis Potosi. Tho municipalities 
 of Ojo-Callente and San Francisco do los Adames, 
 which have belonged to San Luis, as well as the 
 towns of Nueva Tlascala and San Andres del 
 Teul, which have belonged to Jalisco, shall be in- 
 corporated in Zacatecas. The department of 
 Tuxpan shall continue to form a part of Vera- 
 cruz. The canton of Huimanguillo, whicji has 
 iK'longed 'o Veracruz, shall be incorporated in 
 Tabasco.* 
 
 * Besides the twenty-foup States which are mentioned 
 in tliis section there liave be<>n created subsequentiy, ac- 
 cording to executive decrees is.sued in accoruonce with 
 the Constitution, tlie four following : 
 
 XXV. That of Campeche, separated from Yucatan. 
 
 XXVI. Tliat of Ci)almlln, separoted from Nuevo Leon. 
 
 XXVII. Tlmt of Hidalpo, in territory of tlie ancient State 
 of Mexico, which forme<l the second military district. 
 
 XXVIII. That of MorelOB, in territory also of the ancient 
 State of Mexico, which formed the third military district. 
 
 560 
 
CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 Art. 50. Tlu! guprcmn power of tlio Fedcmtlon 
 b divided f.i' lis "xerclHu Into leKlHliktivc, execu- 
 tive, and Judlcl.vl. Two or more of tlioKe powers 
 ■linll never be united In one person or eorponitinn, 
 ncr the legislative power bo deposited In one In- 
 dlvlduul. 
 
 Art. SI. Tlio lejfisliitlvo power of the niillon 
 Is deposited In a K»neriil Congress, which shall he 
 dlvliie.l Into two houses, one of Deputies nnd the 
 oihar o? Honators.* 
 
 Art. 52. The House of Deputies shall be com- 
 posed ot representatives of the nation, elected In 
 their entire number every two years l)y Moxican 
 citizens. 
 
 Art. S3- One deputy shall be elected for each 
 forty thousand inhabltapts, or for a fraction which 
 exceeds twenty thoiisivnd. The territory in which 
 the population Is less than that deterndned in this 
 article shall, nevertheless, elect one deputy. 
 
 Art. 54. Poreachdeputy there shall be elected 
 one alternate. 
 
 Art. 55. The election for deputies shall bo In- 
 direct in the first degree, and by secret ballot, In 
 the miinner which the law shall prescribe. 
 
 Art. 56. In onlcr to bo eligible to the position 
 of a d(>puty it is required that the candidate be 
 a Mexican citizen in the enjoyment of his rights; 
 that ho be fully twenty -five years of age on the 
 day of the opening of the session ; that ho bo a 
 resident of tlio State or Territory which makes 
 tho election, and that he bo not an ecclesiastic. 
 Residence is not lost by absence in tho discharge 
 of any public trust bestowed by popular election. 
 
 Art. 57. The positions of Dep<ity and of Sena- 
 tor are incompatible \»ith any Federal commission 
 or olBce whatsoever for which a salary is received. 
 
 Art. 58, Tho Deputies and the Senators from 
 the day of their election to the day on which 
 their trust is concluded, may not accept any com- 
 mission or office offered by tlio Federal Execu- 
 tive, for which a salary is received, except with 
 the previous license of the respective house. Tho 
 same requisites are necessary for tho alternates 
 of Deputies and Senators when in the exercise of 
 their functions. A. Tho Senate is composed ot 
 two Senators for each State and two for tho Fed- 
 eral District. The election of Senators shall be 
 indirect in tho first degree. The Legislature of 
 each State shall declare elected the person who 
 shall have obtained the absolute majority of the 
 votes cast, or shall elect from among those who 
 shall have obtained the relative majority in the 
 manner whicli the electoral law shall prescribe. 
 For each Senator there shall be elected an altern- 
 ate. B. Tho Senate shall be renewed one-half 
 every two years. The .'^t notors named in the 
 second place shall go out at the end of the first 
 two years, and thereafter the half who have held 
 longer. C. The same qualifications are required 
 for a Senator as for a Deputy, except that of age, 
 which must be at least thirty years on the day of 
 the opening of the session. 
 
 Art. 59. The Deputies and Senators are privi- 
 leged from arrest for their opinions manifested 
 in the perfonnancc of their duties, and shall never 
 be liable to be called to account for them. 
 
 Art. 60. Each house shall judge of the elec- 
 tion of its members, and shall solve the doubts 
 which may arise regarding them. 
 
 • The original fonn of this article was as follows: " The 
 exercise of the supreme legislative i)ower is vested In one 
 iusembly, which shall be denominated Congress of the 
 Union." 
 
 Art. 61. The houses niav not open their »<'S- 
 slons nor perform their functions without tho 
 presi'Mce in the Hi^iiate of at least two-thlnls, and 
 In the House of Depullrs of more than one-half 
 of the whole numlxT of their nicmbers, but those 
 present of one or the (ithcr Inxly mUHt meet on 
 the day Indicated by the law ami compel tho 
 attendance of absent mcmberH under penalties 
 whh'h the law shall d('Hignat<'. 
 
 Art. 6a. The (Nmgress hIiiiII have each year 
 two periixls of ordinary sessions; the first, which 
 may be prorogued for thirty (lays, shall begin 
 on the Iflth of September ami end on the 1.1th of 
 December, and tlie second, which may l)e pro- 
 rogued for fift<'en days, shall Ix^gin the 1st of 
 April ond end the last day of May. 
 
 Art. 63. At the opciihig of the sessions of the 
 Congress the President of the Union shall bo 
 present and shall pronounce a discourse In which 
 lie shall set forth the state of the country. The 
 President of tho Congress shall reply in general 
 terms. 
 
 Art. 64. Every resolution of the (Congress shall 
 have the character of a law or decree. The laws 
 and decrees shall bo communicated to the Exeeu- 
 tlvo, signed by the Presidents of both houses and 
 by a Secretary of each of them, and shall be 
 promulgated in this foi in ; " Tho Coiigress of tho 
 United States of Mexico decrees;" (Text of tho 
 law or decree.) 
 
 Art. 65. The right to Initiate laws or decrees 
 liclongs; I. To tho Presulent of the Union. II. 
 To the Deputies and Senators of the general Con- 
 gress. III. To the Legislatures of the States. 
 
 Art. 66. Bills pa-sented by tho President of 
 tho Kepublle, by the Legislatures of the States, 
 or by deputations from tho same, shall pass im- 
 mediately to a committee. Those which the 
 Deputies or the Senators may present shall be sub- 
 jected to tho procedure which the rules of debate 
 may prescribe. 
 
 Art. 67. Every bill which shall be rejected In 
 the house where it originated, before passing to 
 the other house, shall not again be presented dur- 
 ing tho sessions of that year. 
 
 Art. 68. The second period of sessions shall 
 bo (U -lined, in all preference, to tho examination 
 of and action uppn tho estimates of the following 
 fiscal year, to passing the necessary appropria- 
 tions to cover tlie same, and to the examination 
 of tho accounts of the past year, which the Execu- 
 tive shall present. 
 
 Art. 69. The lust day but one of the first 
 period of sessions the Executive shall present to 
 the House of Deputies the bill of appropriations 
 for the next year following and the accounts of 
 the preceding year. Both sliall pass to a com- 
 mittee of five Uepre.sentatives appointed on the 
 same day, which shall be under obligation to ex- 
 amine said documents, and present a report on 
 them at the second session of tho second period. 
 
 Art. 70. Tlie formation of the laws and of tho 
 decrees may begin indiscriminately in cither of 
 tlie two houses, with the exception of bills which 
 treat of loans, taxes, or imposts, or of the re- 
 cruiting of troops, all of which must be discussed 
 first in the House ot Deputies. 
 
 Art. 71. Every bill, the consideration ot which 
 does not belong exclusively to one of tho houses, 
 shall be discussed successively in both, tho rules 
 ot debate being observed with reference to tlio 
 form, the intervals, and manner of proceeding in 
 discussions and voting. A. A bill having been 
 
 561 
 
CONSTITUTION OK MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 itpiimvril in tin- linuM! where It iiritriiiatfil, hIiiiII 
 iiiiNH for ItH (lisciiMtion to Uio otlicr Iiuuhv. If tlic 
 flitter Ixiily hIioiiIiI iipprovit it, it will Ix^ n'liiittcd 
 til till' Kxi>(Mitivi', will), if liu nIiaII hikvii no iili- 
 HcrvnIiiiiiH to iiiitlo', hIiiiII piililiHli it iiii'uciiiatL'ly. 
 li, Hvi'ry liill hIihII liiM'iinsiilt'rcil iiMii|i{ir(>v(^il by 
 till' Kxi'c;utlv(! if not ri'tiiriiril witli olmTViitioiiM 
 to till' hoiiw wlirri' itoriKiiiittrii witlili. trii work- 
 In^ <luv"4, unli'HH iliirinK tlilH term i'oiigrL'HH hIiiiII 
 liiivi- I'lowii or HiiHpcmlcit itH m'HhIoiih, In wliicli 
 riiHo till! ri'tiirii iiiiiNt bu nioilu tlu.' llrHt workInK 
 
 ility on wliicli it Hlmll inci't. C A bill rcjuctoil 
 wliolly or in piirt by tliu Excciitivu must Ins ru- 
 tiiriird witli IiIm obiM'rviitionii to tlii! Iioiihv wlicru 
 
 it oriKinitti'ii. It hIiiiII bi'iliMMiHm'il nf^nin by tliix 
 lH)iiy,uiiii if ItKlioiiliI 1)0 coiillrmcil liy imiihHolutu 
 iimjority of voti'H, ItHlmll piixs iiKuinto tlii' otlirr 
 hoiiHv. If by tliin liouM H hIioiiIiI bu Hiuu'tioiit'd 
 with tliu NiiiiK! nmjority, ti'u bill hIiuII bo a liiw 
 or (lorrcc, und Hhallbu retiirui'd to the K-viciitivo 
 for proinii 'Kittion. Thu voting on tli« law or ili'- 
 crco Hliull bu by nninu. I). If nny bill kIiduUI bo 
 rclectud wlioUy In tliu hoiisu in wliii'h it did not 
 orlginiitu, it shall be rutiirnud to that In wliiuh it 
 oriKinatud with thu obHcrvutlon.s which thu 'orinur 
 shall liavu made upon It. If having been uxuminud 
 nnuw it should bu approved by tnu absolulu ma- 
 jority of thu inuml)ur8 present, it shall bu rul urnud 
 to thu housu which rejected it, which shall again 
 take it Into cousidenition, and If it should approve 
 It by thu same majority it shall pass to thu Execu- 
 tive, to bo trciteif in accordancu with division A; 
 but, if it should i-ejuct It, it shall not be jirus :ntcd 
 again until the f'lllowing sessions. E. If i; bill 
 should Ih! rujuetud only m part, or moilitlcd, or 
 receive odditionii by the house of revision, the 
 new discussion in tiio housu where It orlgiDutcd 
 shall treat only of tho rejected part, or of t,ho 
 umendmeuts or additions, without being able to 
 alter In any manner the articles approved. If the 
 additions or amendments niadu by the house of 
 revision should be approved by the absolute ma- 
 jority of the votes present in tho house where it 
 originated, the whole bill shall be passed to the 
 Executive, to be treated In accordance with di- 
 vision A. But if (ho additions or amendments 
 made by tho house of revision should bo rejected 
 by the majority of tho votes In tho house where 
 It originated, they shall be returned to tho former, 
 in order tliut thu ruasons of thu latter may bo 
 taken into consideration ; and if by the absolute 
 majority of the votes present said additions or 
 amendments sholl be rejected In this second re- 
 vision, the bill, in so far as it has been approved 
 by both houses, shall bu passed to tho Executive, 
 to be treated in accordance with division A; but 
 if the house of revision should insist, by the ab- 
 solute majority of tlie votes present, on said ad- 
 ditions or amendments, the whole bill shall not 
 be again presented until the following sessions, 
 unless both houses agree by the absolute majority 
 of their members present that tho law or decree 
 shall bo issued solely with the articles approved, 
 and that tho parts added or o mended shall be re- 
 served to be examined and voted in the following 
 sessions. F. In the interpretation, amendment, 
 or repeal of the laws or decrees, tho rules estab- 
 lished for their formation shall be observed. Q. 
 Both houses shall resido in the same place, and 
 they shall not remove to another without first 
 agreeing to tho removal and on the time and 
 manner of making it, designating the same point 
 for the meeting of both. But if both houses, 
 
 agreeing to the removal, should dilTcr as to time, 
 manner, or place, the Kxecutivu Hlmll tcriiiinato 
 the illtTeri'iiri' liy chiMmIng one of the iilaiVN In 
 (lUeNtion. Neither hoiiw! Nhali huhih^ikI its im«- 
 Mions for more than three days without thu eou- 
 sent of thu other. 11. When thu general Con- 
 gres;> meets in extra seHsioiiH, It shall oeeupy itself 
 exelusively with the objector objects di'Kignated 
 in till! summons; and if the H|H'<'ial liUKiness Hhall 
 not have iM-en completed on the day on wliicli thu 
 regular sesMion should open, thu extra sessionH 
 shall bo closed nevertlu'leHS, leaving the piiintu 
 pending to be treated of In the regular sessions. 
 The Kxeciitivi! of the Union shall not make ob- 
 servations on the resolul <' ins of the Congress whea 
 this body prorogues itssi'SHionsor exercises func- 
 tions of an electoral body or a jury. 
 
 Art. 7a. The Congress has power — I. To ad- 
 mit new Htates or Territories Into thu Federal 
 Uniini, incorporating them in thu nation. II. To 
 erect Territories Into Htates when they shall have 
 a population of eighty thousand inhabitants and 
 thu necessr ' elements to providu for their polit- 
 ical existt e. III. To form new Htates within 
 tliu ll.'iilts of those existing, it iH^ing necessary to 
 this end — 1. That the f racthin or fractions which 
 asked to bu ereiaed into a Htuto shall number a 
 population of at least one hundred und twenty 
 thousand Inhabliants. 2. That It shall bu proved 
 before Congress that they have elc'nents sulUcient 
 to provide for their political existence. 8. That 
 the Legislatures of the States, tho territories of 
 which are in question, shall have been hoard on 
 tho expediency or inexpediency of the establish- 
 ment of tho new State, aiii| they shall bo obliged 
 to make their report within six months, counted 
 from tho day on which the commuulcatiou re- 
 lating to it shall have been remitted to tliem. 4. 
 That tho Executive of tho Federation sliall like- 
 wise be heard, who shall send his report within 
 seven days, counted from tho dato on which ho 
 shall havu been asked for it. 5. That the estab- 
 lishment of the new State shall have been voted 
 for by two-thirds of the Deputies and Senators 
 present in their respective houses. 6. That tho 
 resolution of Congress shall have been ratified by 
 the majority of tho Legislatures of tho States, 
 after examining a copy of the procecj'ngs; pro- 
 vided i^iat the Legislatures of the Stat • ^"lioso 
 territory is In question sliall have given , .icir con- 
 sent. 7. If thu Legislatures of the States wiioso 
 territory is in question shall not have given their 
 consent, the ratification mentioned In the preced- 
 ing clause must bo made by two-thirds of the 
 Lcglsktures of the other States. A. The exclu- 
 sive powers of the House of Deputies are — i. To 
 constitute itself an Electoral College in order to 
 exercise the powers whicli tho law may assign 
 to it, in respect to the election of the Constitu- 
 tional President of tho Itepubllc, Magistrates of 
 the Supremo Court, and Senators for the Federal 
 District. 11. To judge and decide upon the res- 
 ignations which the President of the liepubllc 
 or the Magistrates of tho Supreme Court of Jus- 
 tice may make. The same power belongs to it 
 in treating of licenses solicited by the first, iii. 
 To watch over, by means of an mspocting cora- 
 mitteo from its own body, the exact performance 
 of the business of the chief auditorship. iv. To 
 appoint the principal oftlcers and other employes 
 of the same. v. To constitute itself a jury of 
 accusation, for tho high functionaries of whom 
 Article 108 of this Constitution treats, vi. Ta 
 
 562 
 
CONSTITUTION OK MKXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 exnmiiio tlic luroiintM which tlio Kxcciitivo iiiiut 
 prt'nciit iiiiiniiilly, to iiiinrDvc tho iiiiiiiiiil I'Ntliiiittii 
 of t'xpciiM'i*, unit to inltiiiti' the taxcH which In itii 
 jiiilKiiu'iit otiKlit to 1)1! (Iccrccil to cover thcMii ex 
 lu'iiHcM. H. Tliu cxcIiihIvo powers of the Heiiiitc 
 lire — t. Tu npprovu tliu treiitIcK ami (liploinntlit 
 C'onvi'iitioiiH which tlie Kxeciilive iiiiiy iiiiike with 
 foreign lioweni. ii. To riilify the iippolntnicntH 
 which the I'rcHlileiit of tlii! I{c|iiil)lie iiiuy iiiukn 
 (if ininiHterH, ilipioiniilic iiKciitH, coimiilM Keneriil, 
 Hiiperlor eiiiployf'H of tlie Tniimiry, colniiclti iiiiil 
 otlicr Hii|ierior otIlcerH of the nittioiial army ami 
 iiitvy, oil the teriim which tlii^ law Hliall provide. 
 III. To authori/.i! the Kxcculivc to penult the de 
 
 Iiartiiri'of iiatioiiul tr(M)pHheyoml tlie liiiiitxof tlie 
 {epiihllc, the iiiiHwixe of forelKii tr<Hip)t tliroii)(h 
 the national territory, the Htatloii of Hriiiadrotm 
 of other powerH for inori! than u inontli in the 
 waterH i f the Uepulilic. IV. To ^ive ItH coliHenl 
 In order that the Kxecutive may dlHptmu of the 
 national guard oui^ide of their renpectlvo Htates 
 or Torriiories, determining the necesHnry forc(^ 
 
 V. Todcclare, when the ConNtitiitional h'gUlatlve 
 and executive poweni of a Statu hIuiU have iIIh- 
 appvureil, that the caHu lum arrived for appoint- 
 ing to It a provlHlonal Uovernor, who Hhall call 
 electloiH In conformity with the ConstltiitloDal 
 lawHof the Kuid State. The appointnientof Gov- 
 criior Khali be made by the federal Kxecutive 
 with the approval of the Senate, and in its rc- 
 cesscii with the approval of the Permanent Coni- 
 mi§8l')n. Said functionary Hhall not be elected 
 (.'ouHlltutional Uovernor at the election!) which 
 are had in virtue of the suminonit which he xhall 
 IsHUC. VI. To decide political quetitions which 
 may arise between the i.owers of ii State, when 
 any of them may appear with this purpose in the 
 8<'nate, or when on account of said (|ue8tions Con- 
 stitutional order shall have l)een interrupted dur- 
 ing a contiict of arms. In this case the Senate 
 sliall dictate its resolution, being subject to the 
 geiicnd Constitution of tlio Kepulilie and to that 
 of the Stftfe. The law sliull regulate the exerci.se 
 of this power and that of the preceding, vii. 
 To constitute itself a jury of judgment in accord- 
 Buco with Article 105 of this Constitution. C. 
 .''lehof the liouses may, without the interven- 
 tion of the other — r Dictate economic resolu- 
 tions .relative to its internal regimen, n. Com- 
 municate within itself, and with the Executive 
 of the Union, by means of committees from its 
 own liody. in. Appoint the employes of its 
 secretaryship, and make the internal regulations 
 for the same. iv. Issue summons for exiraor 
 dlnary elections, with the object of filling the 
 vacancies of their respective members. IV. To 
 regulate definitely the limits of the States, ter- 
 minating the dilTerenccs which may arise between 
 them relative to the demarcation of tlipir respect- 
 ive territories, except when these diflicultieshave 
 a contentious character. V. To change the resi- 
 dence of the supreme powers of the Federation. 
 
 VI. To establish the internal order of the Federal 
 District and Territories, taking as a basis that 
 the citizens sliall choose by popular election the 
 political, municipal, and judicial authorities, and 
 designating tlie taxes necessary to cover their 
 loail expenditure. VII. To approve the estimates 
 of the Federal expenditure, which the Executive 
 must annually present to it, and to impose the 
 necessary taxes to cover them. VIII. To giv ) 
 rules under which the Executive may make loans 
 on tae credit of the nation ; to approve said loans, 
 
 And to recognl/.e and nnler the payment of tlin 
 national delit. IX. To eMtiibllNh tarllTs on for- 
 eign coimiierce, and to prevent, liy ineiiim of 
 general laws, onerous riHtrictiotm from being cm- 
 talillHhed with refereiire to the <'onimerce Im!- 
 Iween till' States. X. To ^hiic codes, obligatory 
 throughout the Uepiililic, of inlneHand comnu'rce, 
 ('omprebemllng In this hist banking InstitiitlonM. 
 XI. To cri'iite iiiid HiippreMs public Federal em- 
 ployments and to eHtiiiillHli, iiiigment, or diniiiiish 
 their Hiiliirii'M. Xll. To riitifv the appoliitmeiilH 
 which the Kxi'<'utlve may make of ministers, dip- 
 lomatic aj/cnls, and consuls, of the higher em- 
 ployes of the Tri'asury, of the colnnels and other 
 suiierldr olUcers of the niitlonal army mid navy. 
 XIII. To approve the treaties, coiilr'.''ts, or dip- 
 lomatic conventions which the Kxecutive may 
 make. XIV. To declare war In '. lew of the datit 
 which the i^xecullve may present to it. XV. 
 To regulate the manner in which letters of mariiiio 
 may he issued; to dictate lawsaceonling to which 
 must Im' declared goiKl or bad the pri/.es on sea 
 and land, and to Issue laws relating to nmritinio 
 rights in peace and war. XVI. To permit or 
 deny the ei'tniHce of foreign tnsips into the ter- 
 ritory of Jio Hcpublii , and to consent to the 
 station of s'luadrotisoi other powers for iiiore than 
 a month in the waters of the Uepulilic. XVII. 
 To permit tlie depart urtMif national troops bey mid 
 the limits of the Hepublic* XVIII. To raisu 
 and maintain the army and navy of the Union, 
 and to re).Miliite their organization ami service. 
 XIX. To establish regulations with the purpose 
 of organi/iiig, arming, and disciplining the na- 
 tioniuguard, reserving respectively to the citizens 
 wlio compose it the appointment of the command- 
 ers and ollicers, and to the Stales the power of 
 instructing it in conformity with the disciplina 
 prescribeclby said regulations. XX. To give its 
 consent in order that the Executive may control 
 the national guard outside of its respective Statea 
 and Territories, determining the necessary force. 
 XXI. To dictate laws on natiinilization, coloniza- 
 tion, and citizenship. XXII. To dictate laws on 
 the general means of communication and on the 
 post-otlice and mails. XXIII. To establish mints, 
 lixing tlie conditions of their operation, to deter- 
 mine the value of foreign money, and adopt a 
 general system of weights and nieasuR's. XXI V. 
 To tlx rules to which must be subject the occu- 
 pation and sale of public lands and the price of 
 these lands. XXV. To grant pardons for crimes 
 cognizable by the tribunals of the Federation. 
 
 XXVI. To grant rewards or recompense for emi- 
 nent services rendered to tlie country or humanity. 
 
 XXVII. To prorogue for thirty working days 
 the first period of its ordinary sessions. XXVIII. 
 To form rules for its internal regulation, to take 
 the necessary measures to compel the attendance 
 of absent meiabers, and to correct the faults or 
 omissions of those pn^sent. XXIX. To appoint 
 ami remove freely tue employes of its secretary- 
 ship and those of the chief niiditorsliip, which 
 shall be organized in accordance with tlu' jiro- 
 visions of tlie law. XXX. To make al laws 
 which may be necessary and proper to icmlcr 
 effective tlie foregoing powers and all others 
 granted by this Constitution and the authorities 
 of the Union, f 
 
 • Amended by Section H, Clause III., Article 7S, of the 
 law of the 18th of Novemlier, 1H~4. 
 
 + See respcctlnK this Artii'le the additions A, B.and C lo 
 Article 7S of the law of the 13th of November, already cited. 
 
 568 
 
CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 Art. 7j. During the recess of Congress there 
 sliiill be u Permanent Deputation composed of 
 twenty-nine nieml)er8, of wliom fifteen shall be 
 Deputies njid fourteen Senators, appointed by 
 tlielr respective houses tlie evening before the 
 close of the sessions. 
 
 Art. 74. The attributes of the Permanent 
 Deputation are — I. To give its consent to the 
 U8<! of the national gua d iu the cases mentioned 
 in Article 72. Clause XX. II. To detennino by 
 Itself, or on he jiroposal of the Executive, after 
 hearing him in the first place, the summons of 
 Congres.s, or of one house alone, for extra sessions, 
 the vote of two-thirds of the members present 
 being necessary in botli cases. The summons 
 shall designate the object or objects of the extra 
 sessions. III. To api)rove the appointments 
 which are referred to in Article 8!>, Clause III. 
 IV. To administer tlie oath of olliee to the Presi- 
 dent of trie Republic, and to the Justices of the 
 Supreme Court, in t le cases provided by this 
 Constitution.* V. To report u]ion all the liusi- 
 ness not disposed of, in order that tlie Legislature 
 ■whicli follows may immediately take up such 
 unfinished business. 
 
 Art. 75. Tlie exercise of the supreme execu- 
 tive power of tlic Union is vested in a single 
 individual, who shall be called "President of the 
 United States of Mexico." 
 
 Art. 76. The election of President shall be 
 indirect in the first degree and by secret ballot, 
 in such manner as may lie prescribed by the 
 electoral law. 
 
 Art. 77. To be eligible to the position of 
 President, the candidr.tc must be a Mexican citi- 
 zen by birth, in the exorcise of his rights, be 
 fully thirty-five years old nt the time of tlic elec- 
 tion, not belong to the ecclesiastical order, and 
 reside in the country at the time the election is 
 held. 
 
 Art. 78. Tlie President shall enter upon the 
 performance of the duties of liis office on the first 
 of December, and shall continue in office four 
 years, being eligible for the Constitutional period 
 immediately following ; but he shall remain in- 
 capable thereafter to occupy the presidency by 
 a new election until four years shall have p-xsscd, 
 •counting from tlio day on which he ceased to 
 perform his functions. 
 
 Art. 79. In the temporary default of the Presi- 
 dent of the Kepublic, and in tlie vacancy before 
 the installation of the newly-elected President, 
 tlie citizen who may have performed the duties 
 of President or Vice-President of the Senate, or 
 •of the Permanent Commission in the periods of 
 recess, during the month prior to that in which 
 said default may have occurred, shall enter upon 
 the exercise of tlie executive power of tlie Union. 
 A. The President and Vice-President of the Sen- 
 ate and of the Permanent Commission sliall not 
 "be reOlected to tliose otflces until a year after 
 having held them. B. If the period of sessions 
 •of the Senate or of the Permanent Commission 
 sliall begin in tlie second half of a month, the 
 default of the President of the Republic shall be 
 ■covered by the President or Vice-President who 
 may have acted in the Senate or in the Perma- 
 nent Commission during the first half of the said 
 month. C. The Senate and the Permanent Com- 
 mission shall renew, the last day of each month, 
 their Presidents and Vice-Presidents. For these 
 
 •See the Amendmeat of Septemlwr 25, 1873, Art. 4. 
 
 offices the Permanent Commission shall elect, 
 alternatively, in one month two Deputies and in 
 the following month two Senators. D. When 
 the office of President of the Republic is vacant, 
 the functionary who shall take it constitutionally 
 as his substitute must issue, within the definite 
 term of fifteen days, tlip s'lmnions t<. proceed to 
 a new election, which slr.ill be held within the 
 term of three mcntho, and in accordance with 
 the provisions of Article 70 of this Constitution. 
 The provisional President shall not be eligible to 
 tlie iiresidency at tlie elections -(vliicli are held to 
 ])ut an end to his provisional term. E. If, on 
 account of death or any other reason, the func- 
 tionaries who, according to this law, should iako 
 the place of the Prcsidentof the Republic, might 
 not be able in any absolute manner to do so, it 
 shall be taken, under predetermined conditions, 
 by the citizen who may have been President or 
 Vice-President of the Senate or the Pennanent 
 Commission in the month prior to that in which 
 they discharged those offices. P. When the office 
 of I'resident of tlie Republic shall become vacant 
 within t'^e last six months of the constitutional 
 period, the functionary who shall take the place 
 of the President shall terminate this period. G. 
 To be eligible to the position of President or 
 Vice-President of the Senate or of the Permanent 
 Commission, one must be a Mexican citizen by 
 birtli. II. If tlie vacancy in tlie office of Presi- 
 dent of the Republic sliould occur when the 
 Senate and Permanent Commission are perform- 
 ing their functions in extra sessions, the Presi- 
 dent of the Commission shall fill the vacancy, 
 under conditions 'ndicated in this r.rticle. I. 
 The Vice-President of the Senate or of the Per- 
 manent Commission shall enter upon the per- 
 formance of the functions whiih ,tliis Article 
 confers upon tliem, in the vacancies of the office 
 of President of tlie Senate or of the Permanent 
 Commission, and in the periods only while the 
 impediment lasts. J. The newly-elected Presi- 
 dent sliall enter upon the discbarge of his duties, 
 at the latest, sixty days after that of the election. 
 In case the House of Deputies shall not be in 
 session, it shall be convened in extnv session, in 
 order to make the computation of votes within 
 the term mentioned. 
 
 Art. 80. In the vacancy of the office of Presi- 
 dent, the period of the newly-elected President 
 shall be computed from the first of December of 
 the year prior to that of his election, provided 
 he may not have taken possession of his office on 
 the date which Article 78 determines. 
 
 Art. 81. The office of President of the Union 
 may not be resigned, except for grave cause, ap- 
 proved by Congress, before whom the resignation 
 shall be iircsented. 
 
 Art. 82. If for any reason the election of Presi- 
 dent shall not have been miule and publislied by 
 the first of December, on which the transfer of 
 the otflce should be made, or the President-elect 
 shall not have been ready to enter upon the dis- 
 charge of his duties, the term of the former Presi- 
 dent shall end nevertheless, and the supreme 
 executive power shall be deposited provisionally 
 in the functionary to whom it belongs according 
 to the provisions of the reformed Article 79 of 
 this Constitution. 
 
 Art. 83. The President, on taking possession 
 of his office, shall take an oath before Congress, 
 and in its recess before the Permanent Commis- 
 sion, under the following formula: " I swear to 
 
 564 
 
CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 perform loyally and patnotically the duties of 
 President of the United States of Mexico, accord- 
 ing to the Constitution, and seek in everything 
 for the welfare and prosperity of the Union."* 
 
 Art. 84. The President may not remove from 
 the place of the residence of the Federal powers, 
 nor lay aside the exercise of liis functions, with- 
 out grave cause, approved by the Congress, and 
 in its recesses by the Permanent Commission. 
 
 Art. 85. The powers and obligations of the 
 President are the following: I. To promulgate 
 and execute tlio laws passed by the Congress 
 of the Union, providing, in the administrative 
 sphere, for their exact observance. II. To ap- 
 point and remove freely the Secretaries of the 
 Cabinet, to remove the diplomatic agents and 
 superior employds of the Treasury, and to ap- 
 pomt and remove freely the other employes of 
 the Union whose appointment and removal are 
 not otherwise provided for iu the Constitut..yn or 
 in the laws. III. To appoint ministers, diplo- 
 matic agents, consuls-general, with the approval 
 of Congress, and, in its recess, of the Permanent 
 Commission. IV. To appoint, with the iiproval 
 of Congress, the colonels and other superior offi- 
 cers of the national army and navy, and the su- 
 perior employes of the treasury. V. To appoint 
 the other officers of the national army and navy, 
 according to the laws. VI. To control the per- 
 manent armed force by sea and land for the in- 
 ternal security and external defence of the Fed- 
 eration. VIL To control the national guard for 
 the same objects within the limits estamished by 
 Article 73, Clause XX. VIII. To declare war 
 in the name of the United States of Slexico, after 
 the passage of the necessary law by the Congress 
 of the Union. IX. To grant letters of marque, 
 subject to bases fixed by the Congress. X. To 
 direct diplomatic negotiations and make treaties 
 with foreign powers, submitting them for the 
 ratification of the Federal Congress. XI. To re- 
 ceive ministers ond other envoys from foreign 
 powers. XII. To convoke Congress in extra ses- 
 sions when the Permanent Commission sliall con- 
 sent to it. XIII. To furnisli the judicial power 
 with that assistance which may be necessary for 
 the prompt exercise of its functions. XIV. To 
 open all classes of ports, to establish maritime 
 and frontier custom-houses and designate their 
 situation. XV. To grant, in accordance with 
 the laws, pardons to criminals sentenced for 
 crimes within the jurisdiction of the Federal tri- 
 bunals. XVI. To grant exclusive privileges, for 
 a linnted time and according to the proper law, 
 to discoverers, inventors, or perfecters of any 
 branch of industry. 
 
 Art. 86. For the dispatch of th .■ business of 
 the administrative department of the federation 
 there shall be the number of Secretaries which 
 the Congress may establish by a law, which shall 
 provide for the distribution of business and pre- 
 scribe what shall be in charge of each Secretary. 
 
 Art. 87. To be a Secretary of the Cabinet it 
 is required that one shall be a Mexican citizen 
 by birth, in the exercise of his rights, and fully 
 twenty-five years old. 
 
 Art. 88. All the regulations, decrees, and orders 
 of the President must be signed by the Secretary 
 of the Cabinet who is in charge of the depart- 
 ment to which the subject belongs. Without 
 this requisite they shall not be obeyed. 
 
 * See the Amendments and Additions of September as, 
 1873. 
 
 Art. 80. The Secretaries of the Cabinet, as 
 soon as the sessions of the first period shall l)e 
 opened, shall render an account to the Congress 
 of the state of their respective departments. 
 
 Art. 90. The exercise of tlu; judicial power of 
 the Federation is vested in a Supreme Court of 
 Justice and in the district and circuit courts. 
 
 Art. 91. The Supreme Court of Justice shall 
 be composed of eleven judges, four supernum- 
 eraries, one fiscal, an<l one attorney-general. 
 
 Art. 92. Each of the members of the Supreme 
 Court of Justice shall remain in office six years, and 
 his election shall be indirect in the first degree, 
 under conditions established by the electoml law. 
 
 Art. 93. In order to be elected a member of 
 the Supreme Court of Justice it is necessary that 
 one be learned in tlie science of tlie law in the 
 judgment of the electors, more than tliirty-flve 
 years old, and a Jlexican citizen by l)irtli, in the 
 exercise of his riglits. 
 
 Art. 94. The meml)crs of the Supreme Court 
 of Justice, on entering upon the exercise of their 
 charge, shall take an oath before Congress, and, 
 in its recesses, before the Permanent Commission, 
 in the following form: "Do yoti swear to per- 
 form loyally and patriotically the charge of Jlag- 
 istrate of the Supreme Court of Justice, wliicli 
 the people have conferred upon you in conformity 
 with the Constitution, seeking m everything the 
 welfare and prosperity of the Union ? * 
 
 Art, 95. A member of the Supreme Court of 
 Justice may resign his office only for grave cause, 
 approved by the Co 'jress, to whom the resigna- 
 tion shall be preseni -d. In the recesses of the 
 Congress the judgment shall be rendered by the 
 Permanent Commission. 
 
 Art. 96. The law shall establish and organize 
 the circuit and district courts. 
 
 Art. 97. It belongs to the Federal tribunals to 
 take cognizance of — I. All controversies which 
 may ariso in regard to the fulfilment and appli- 
 cation of the Federal laws, except in the case in 
 which the application affects only private in- 
 terests ; such a case falls within the competence 
 of the local judges and tribunals of the common 
 order of the States, of the Federal District, and 
 of the Territory of Lower California. II. AH 
 cases pertainiiig to maritime law. III. Those 
 in which the Federation may be a party. IV. 
 Those that may arise between two or more States. 
 V. Those that may arise between a State and 
 one or more citizens of another Stat '. VI. Civil 
 or criminal cases that may arise uader treaties 
 with foreign powers. VII. Cases concerning dip- 
 lomatic agents and consuls. 
 
 Art. 98. It belongs to the Supreme Court of 
 Justice, in tlie first instance, to take cognizance 
 of controversies wliicli may arise between one 
 State and another, and of those in which the 
 Union may be a party. 
 
 Art. 99. It belongs also to the Supreme Court 
 of Justice to detennine the questions of jurisdic- 
 tion which may arise between tlie Federal tri- 
 bunals, between tliese and those of the States, 
 or between the courts of one State and those of 
 another. 
 
 Art. 100. In the other cases comprehended in 
 Article 97, the Supreme Court of Justice shall be 
 a court of appeal or, ratlier, of last resort, accord- 
 ing to the graduation wliicli the law rnay make in 
 the jurisdiction of tiie circuit and district courts. 
 
 • See Additions to the Constitution, Septem1)er 25, 1873. 
 
 565 
 
CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP MEXICO. 
 
 Art. lOl. Tliotribuiuila of the Federation shall 
 decide all {juestions which arise — I. Under laws 
 or acts of whatever authority which violate in- 
 dividual guarantees. II. Under laws or acts of 
 the State autliority which violate or restrain the 
 sovereignty of the States. III. Under laws or 
 acts of the State authority which invade the 
 sphere of t)ic Federal authority. 
 
 Art. 102. All the judgments which the pre- 
 ceding article mentions shall l)e had on petition 
 of tlie aggrieved party, by means of judicial 
 proceedings and forms which sluill be prescribed 
 i)y law. The sentence shall be always such as 
 to affect private individuals only, limiting itself 
 to defend and protect them in the special case to 
 which the process refers, without making any 
 general declaration respecting the law or act 
 which gave rise to it. 
 
 Art. 103. The Senators, the Deputies, the mem- 
 bers of the Supremo Court of Jus''.ce, and the 
 Secretaries of the Cabinet are responsible for 
 the common crimes which they may commit dur- 
 ing their terms of olTlce, and for the crimes, mis- 
 demeanors, and negligence into which they may 
 fall in the performance of the duties of said office. 
 The Governors of the States are likewise respon- 
 sible for the infraction of the Constitution and 
 Federal laws. The President of the Republic is 
 also responsible ; but during the term of his office 
 lie may be accused only for the crimes of treason 
 against the country, express violation of the 
 Constitution, attack on the freedom of election, 
 and grave crimes of the common order. The high 
 functionaries of the Federation shall not enjoy 
 any Constitutional privilege for the official crimes, 
 misdemeanors, or negligence into which tlicy may 
 fall in the performance of any employment, office, 
 or public commission which they may have ac- 
 cepted during the periotl for which, in conformity 
 with the law, they shall have been elected. The 
 same shall happen with respect to those common 
 crimes which they may commit during the per- 
 formance of said employment, officf or commis- 
 sion. In order that the cause may be initiated 
 when the high functionary shall have returned 
 to the exercise of his proper functions, proceeding 
 should be undertaken in accordance with the 
 provision of Article 104 of this Constitution. 
 
 Art. 104. If the crime should be a common 
 one, the House of Representatives, formed into 
 a grand jury, shall declare, by an absolute ma- 
 jority of votes, whether there is or is not ground 
 to procecu against the accused. In the negative 
 case, there shall be no ground for further, pro- 
 ceedings; in the affirmative, the accused shall 
 be, by the said act, deprived of his office, and 
 subjected to the action of the ordinary tribunals. 
 
 Art. 105. The houses shall take cognizance of 
 official crimes, the House of Deputies as a jury 
 of accusation, the Senators a.s a jury of judgment. 
 The jury of accusation shad have for its object 
 to declare, by an absohite majority of votes, 
 whether the accused is or is not culpable. If 
 the declaration should bo absolutory, the func- 
 tionary shall continue in the exercise of his office ; 
 if it should be condemnatory, he shall be imme- 
 diately deprived of his office, and shall be placed 
 at the disposal of the Senate. The latter, formed 
 into a jury of judgment, and, with the presence 
 of the criminal and of the accuser, if there«hould 
 be one, shall proceed to apply, by an absolute 
 majority of votes, the punishment which the law 
 designates. 
 
 Art. 106. A judgment of responsibility for 
 official crimes having been pronounced, no favc 
 of pardon may be extended to the offender. 
 
 Art. 107. The responsibility for official crimes 
 and misdemeanors may be required only during 
 the period in whicli the functionary remains in 
 office, and one year thereafter. 
 
 Art. 108. With respect to demands of the civ'l 
 onlcr, there sliall be no privilege or immunity 
 for any public functionary. 
 
 Art. 109. The States shall adopt for their in- 
 ternal regimen the popular, representative, re- 
 publiciui form of government, and may provide 
 in their respective Constitutions for the reelection 
 of the Governors in accordance with what Article 
 78 provides for the President of the Republic. 
 
 Art. no. The States may regulate among 
 themselves, by friendly agreements, their re- 
 spective boundaries; but those regulations shall 
 not be carried into effect without the approval 
 of the Congress of the Union. 
 
 Art. III. The States may not in any case — 
 I. Form alliances, treaties, or coalitions with 
 anotherState, or with foreign powers, excepting 
 the coalition which the frontier States may make 
 for offensive or defensive war against the In- 
 dians. II. Grant letters of murque or reprisal. 
 III. Coin money, or emit paper money or stamped 
 paper. 
 
 Art. 112. Neither may any State, without the 
 consent of the Congress of the Union: I. Es- 
 tablish tonnage duties, or any port duty, or 
 impose taxes or duties upon importations or ex- 
 portations. II. Have at any time permanent 
 troops or vessels of war. III. Make war by 
 itself on any foreign power except in cases of 
 invasion or of such imminent peril as to admit 
 of no delay. In these cases the State shall give 
 notice immediately to the President of the Re- 
 public. 
 
 Art. 11^. Each State is under obligation to 
 deliver without delay the criminals of other 
 States to the authority that claims them. 
 
 Art. 114. The Governors of the States are 
 obliged to publish and cause to be obeyed tlie 
 Federal laws. 
 
 Art. 1x5. In each State uf the Federation en- 
 tire faith and credit shall be given to the public 
 acts, records, and judicial proceedings of all the 
 other States. The Congress may, by means of 
 general laws, prescribe the manner of proving 
 said acts, records, and proceedings, and the effect 
 thereof. 
 
 Art. 116. The powers of the Union are bound 
 to protect the States against all invasion or ex- 
 ternal violence. In case of insurrection or in- 
 ternal disturbance they shall give them like pro- 
 tection, provided the Legislature of the State, or 
 the Executive, if the Legislature is not in session, 
 shall request it. 
 
 Art. 117. The powers which are not expressly 
 granted by this Constitution to the Federal 
 authorities are understood to be reserved to the 
 States. 
 
 Art. 118. No person may at the same time 
 hold two Federal elective offices ; but if elected 
 to two, he may choose which of them he will fill. 
 
 Art, 119. No payment shall be made which is 
 not comprehended in tlie budget or determined 
 by a subsequent law. 
 
 Art. 120. The President of the Republic, the 
 members of the Supreme Court of Justice, the 
 Deputies, and other public officers of the Federa- 
 
 666 
 
CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 tion, who aro chosen by popular election, shall 
 receive a compensation for their services, which 
 ghall be determined by law and paid by th(! Fed- 
 eral Treasury. This compensation may not be 
 renounced, and any law wliich augments or di- 
 minishes it shall not have elTect during the period 
 for which a functionary holds the office. 
 
 Art. 131. Every public ofTlcer, withoat any 
 exception, l)efore taking possession of hii office, 
 shall take an oath to maintain this Constitution 
 and the laws which emanate from it.* 
 
 Art. 123. In time of peace no military au- 
 thoritj' may exercise more functions than those 
 which have close connection with military disci- 
 pline. There shall be fixed and permanent mili- 
 tary commands only in the castles, fortresses, 
 and magazines which ore immediately under the 
 government of the Union ; or in encampments, 
 barracks, or depots which may be established 
 outside of towns for stationing troops. 
 
 Art. 123. It belongs exclusively to the Federal 
 authorities to exercise, in matters of religious 
 worship and external discipline, the intervention 
 v.'liich the laws may designate. 
 
 Art. 124. The States shall not impose any duty 
 for the simple passage of goods in the internal 
 commerce. The Government of the Union alone 
 may tlecree transit duties, but only with respect 
 to 1 reign goods which cross the country by in- 
 ternational or interoceanic lines, without being 
 on the national territory more time than is nec- 
 essary to traverse it and depart to the foreign 
 country. Tliey shall not prohibit, either directly 
 or indirectly, the entrance to their territory, or 
 the departure from it, of any merchandise, ex- 
 cept on police grounds ; nor burden the articles 
 of national production on their departure for a 
 foreign country or for another State. The ex- 
 emptions from duties which they concede shall 
 be general ; they may not be decreed in favor of 
 the products of specified origin. The quota of 
 the import for a given amount of merchandise 
 shall be the same, whatever may have been its 
 origin, and no heavier burden may be assigned 
 to it than that which the similar products of the 
 political entity in which the import is decreed 
 bear. The national merchandise shall not be sub- 
 mitted to definitti route nor to inspection or reg- 
 istry on the ways, nor any fiscal document be 
 demanded for its internal circulation. Nor shall 
 they burden foreign merchandise with a greater 
 quotii than that which may have been permitted 
 them by the Federal law to receive. 
 
 Art. 125. The forts, military quarters, maga- 
 zines, and other edifices necessary to the govern- 
 
 ment of the Union shall be under the immediate 
 inspection of the Federal authorities. 
 
 Art. 126. This Constitution, the laws of the 
 Congress of tl'.e Union which emanate from it, 
 and all the treaties made or which shall be made 
 by the President of the Republic, with the ap- 
 proval of Congress, shall be the supreme law of 
 the whole Union. The judges of each State shall 
 be guided by said Constitution, law, and treaties 
 in spite of provisions to the contrary which may 
 appear in the Constitutions or laws of the 
 States. 
 
 Art. 127. The present Constitution may be 
 added to or reformed. In order that additions 
 or alterations may become part of the Constitu- 
 tion, it is required that the Congress of the Union, 
 by a vote of two-thirds of tlie members present, 
 shall agree to the alterations or additions, and 
 that these shall be approved by the majority of 
 the Legislatures of the States. The Congress of 
 the Union shall count the votes of the Legislatures 
 and make the declaration that the reforms or 
 additions have been ajiproved. 
 
 Art. 128. This Constitution shall not lose its 
 force and vigor even if its observance be inter- 
 rupted by a rebellion. In case that by any pub- 
 lic disturbance a government contrary to the 
 principles which it sanctions shall be established, 
 as soon as the peoplii recover their liberty its ob- 
 servance shall be reestablished, and in accordance 
 with it and the laws which shall have been is- 
 sued in virtue of it, shall be judged not only 
 those who shall have figured in the government 
 emanating from the rebellion, but also those who 
 shall have cooperated with it. 
 
 Additions. 
 
 Art. 1, The State and the Church are inde- 
 pendent of one another. The Congress may not 
 pass laws establishing or prohibiting any religion. 
 
 Art. 2. Marriage is a civil contract. This and 
 the other acts relating to the civil state of persons 
 belong to the exclusive jurisdiction of the func- 
 tionaries and authorities of the civil order, within 
 limits provided by the laws, and they shall have 
 the force and validity which the same attribute 
 to them. 
 
 Art. 3. No religious institution may acquire 
 real estate or capital fixed upon it, with the single 
 exception established in Article 27 of this Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. 4. The simple promise to dpeak the truth 
 and to comply with the obligations which have 
 been incurred, shall be substituted for the re- 
 ligious oath, with its effects and penalties. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NETHERLANDS 
 KINGDOM. After 1830, this became the King- 
 
 dom of Holland. See NETUBBLANDa : A. D. 
 1830-1832, and 1830-1884. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 "On May 17, 1814, ... a constitution was 
 granted to "Norway. The Fundamental Law of 
 the constitution (GrundlOv), which almost every 
 peasant farmer now-a-days has framed and hung 
 up in the chief room of his house, bears the date 
 the 4th of November 1814. "— C. F. Keary, Nor- 
 way and tfie Norwegians, ch. 13. — The following 
 is the text of the corotii ition as granted in 1814: 
 
 • See the Additions of September 25, 187S. 
 
 Title I. 
 
 Article ■• . The kingdom of Norway is a free, 
 independent, ntUvisible, and inalienable state, 
 united to Sweden -nrler the same king. The 
 form of its governme.- ""s limited, hereditary, 
 and monarchical. 
 
 2. The Lutheran evangelical religion shall 
 continue to be the ruling religion of tlie king- 
 dom; those of the inhabitants which profess It 
 
 567 
 
CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 lire bound to bring up their chiUIrcn in its tenets; 
 J('8uitM iiml monastic orders Hbull not l)u pro- 
 hibited in the liingdom. TIio admission of Jews 
 into tlie Icingdom shall always lie, as formerly, 
 prohibited. 
 
 Title II. 
 
 Article 1. Tlic ex""utivc power is declared to 
 bo in the person of tl.e king. 
 
 2. The king si.all always profess the evan- 
 gelical Lutlieran religion, which he shall main- 
 tiiin and protect. 
 
 3. Tlie jx'rson of the king is sacred : he can 
 neither be Ijlaniod or accused. 
 
 4. The Biieccssion is lineal, and collateral, 
 gucli as it is determined l)y the order of succes- 
 sion decrc(!d by the general estates of Sweden, 
 and siinct oned by the king in the Act of the 20tli 
 8epteml)cr 1810, of which a translation is an- 
 nexed to this Constitution. Of the number of 
 legitimate heirs, is comprehended the child in its 
 mother's womb, which, as soon as it shall be 
 born, after the death of its father, takes the place 
 which is due to liim in the lino of succession. 
 When a Prince, heir of the re-united crowns of 
 Norway and Sweden, shall be born, his name, 
 and the day of his birth shall be announced at 
 the first Storthing, and inscribed in the registers. 
 
 5. Should there not be found any prince, a 
 legitimate lieir to the throne, the king can pro- 
 pose his successor at the Storthing of Norway, 
 and at the same time to the states general oi 
 Sweden. As soon as the king shall have made 
 the proposition, the representatives of the two 
 nations shall choose from among them a commit- 
 tee, invested with the right of determining the 
 election, in case the king's proposition should 
 not, by the plurality of voices, be approved of 
 separately Ijy the representatives of each of the 
 countries. The number of members of this com- 
 mittee, shall be composed of an equal number of 
 Norwegians and Swedes, so that the step to fol- 
 low in the election shall be regulated by a law 
 which the king shall propose at the same time to 
 the next Storthing, and the states general of 
 Sweden. They shall draw by lot one out of the 
 committee for its member. • 
 
 6. Tlie Storthing* of Norway, and the states 
 general of Sweden shall concert to fix by a law 
 the king's majority ; if they cannot agree, a com- 
 mittee, taken from the representatives of the two 
 nations, shall decide it in the manner established 
 by article 5th, title 2nd. As soon as the king 
 shall have attained the years of majority fixed 
 by the law, he shall publicly declare that he is of 
 age.f 
 
 7. When the king comes of age he shall take 
 Into his hands the reins of government, and make 
 the following oath to the Storthing: "I swear, on 
 my soul and conscience, to govern the kingdom 
 of Norwav conformably to its constitution and 
 laws." If the Storthing is not then assembled, 
 this oath shall be deposited in writing in the 
 council, and solemnly repeatr ' by the king at 
 the first Storthing, either vivfi or by writing, 
 by tlie person whom he shi appointed to 
 this effect. 
 
 8. The coronation of the - iiall take place 
 when he is of age, in the cathei i . . i of Dronthelm, 
 
 *The national assembly, or general estates of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 tA law of the Storthing, 18th July 181B, and sanctioned 
 by the king, doclarpd that the king Is major on arriving 
 •t the age of eighteen years. 
 
 at the time and with those ceremonies that shall 
 be fixed by liimself. 
 
 O. The king shall pass some time in Norway 
 yearly, unless this is prevented by urgent cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 10. The king st all exclusively choose a coun- 
 cil of Norwegian.s, citizens, who shall have ot- 
 tained the seventieth year of their age. This 
 council shall be composed at least of a minister 
 of state, and seven otiier members. In like 
 manner the king can create a viceroy or a gov- 
 ernment. The king shall arrange the affairs 
 between the members of the council, in such 
 manner as he shall consider expedient. Besides 
 these ordinary members of council, the king, or 
 in Ills absence the viceroy (or the government 
 jointly with the ordinary members of council)' 
 may on particular occasions, call other Norwe- 
 gians, citizens, to sit there, provided they are not 
 members of the Stortliing. Tlie father and son, 
 or two brotliers, shall not, ot the same time, have 
 a seat in the council. 
 
 11. The king sliall appoint a governor of the- 
 kingdom in his absence, and on failure it shall 
 bo governed by the viceroy or a governor, with 
 five at least of the members of council. They 
 shall govern the Kingdom in the name and behalf 
 of the king; and they shall observe inviolably, 
 as much the principles contained in this funda- 
 mental law as those [relative precepts the king 
 shall lay down ic his instructions. They shall 
 make a humble report to the king upon those 
 affairs they have decided. All matters shall be 
 decided by plurality of votes. If the votes 
 happen to be equal, the viceroy or governor, or 
 in their absence the first member of council, shall 
 have two. 
 
 12. The prince royal or his eldest son can be 
 viceroy ; but this can only occur when they have 
 attained the majority of the king. In the case 
 of a governor, either a Norwegian or a Swede 
 may be nominoted. The viceroy shall remain in 
 the kingdom, and shall not be allowed to reside 
 in a foreign one beyond three months each year. 
 When tlie king shall be present, the viceroy's 
 functions shall cease. If there is no viceroy, but 
 only a governor, the functions of the latter shall 
 also cease, in which event he is only the first 
 member of council. 
 
 13. During the residence of the king in 
 Sweden, ho shall always have near him the 
 minister of stote of Norway, and two of the 
 members of the Norwegian council, when they 
 shall be annually changed. These are charged 
 with similar duties, and the same constitutional 
 responsibility attaches to them as to the sitting 
 council in Norway ; and it is only in their pres- 
 ence that state affairs shall be decided by the 
 king. All pjetitions addressed to the kin^ by 
 Norwegian citizens ought, first, to be transmitted 
 to the Norwegian council, that they may bo duly 
 considered previously to decisions being pro- 
 nounced. In general, no affairs ought U be 
 decided before the council has expressea an 
 opinion, in case it should be met with important 
 objections. The minister of state of Norway 
 ought to report the affairs, and he shall be re- 
 sponsible for expedition in the resolutions which 
 shall iiave been taken. 
 
 14. The king shall regulate public worship 
 and its rites, as well as all assemblies that have 
 religion for their object, so that ministers of re- 
 ligion may observe their forms prescribed to them. 
 
 668 
 
CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. 
 
 in. The king can give nndiiboliHlioriliDaMcoa 
 wliicli respei't commtTcc, tlio custom-house, 
 mniuifiictures, and police. Tliey slmll not, liow- 
 ever, be contriiry to tlie constitution nor tli(! liiws 
 mlonteil by tlie Stortliing. Tliey sliall liave pro- 
 visional force \intil the next Storthing. 
 
 10. Tlie king shall in general regulate the 
 taxes imposed by the Storthing. Tlie public 
 treasurerof Norway shall remain in Norway, and 
 the revenues shall only be employed towards the 
 expenses of Norway. 
 
 17. The king shall superintend the manner 
 in wliich the domains and crown property of the 
 stale are employed and governed, in tlie manner 
 lixed l)y the Storthing, and which sliall be most 
 advantageous to the country. 
 
 18. The king in council has the right to par- 
 don criminals wlicn the supreme trilmnal has 
 pronounced its oj)inlon. Tlie criminal has tluf 
 choice of receiving pardon from the king or of 
 subniitling to tlie punishment to wliicli he is 
 condemned. In tlie causes which the Odelsthing 
 would have ordered to be carried to tlie Uigsrct, 
 there can be no other pardon but that which 
 shall liberate from a capitid punisliment. 
 
 10. The king, after liaving lieard his Norwe- 
 gian council, shall dispose of all the civil, eccle- 
 siastic, and military employments. Those who 
 assist in the functions shall swear obedience and 
 lidelity to the constitution and to the king. Tlie 
 princes of the royal family cannot be invested 
 witli any civil employment; yet tlie prince royal, 
 or his eldest son, may be nominated viceroy. 
 
 20. The governor of tlie kingdom, the minis- 
 ter of state, otlier members of council, and those 
 employed in the functions connected with these 
 offices, the envoys and consuls, superior magis- 
 trates, civil and ecclesiastic commanders of regi- 
 ments, and other military bodies, governors of 
 fortresses, and commanders-in-cliicf of ships of 
 war, shall, without previous arrest, bo deposed 
 by the king and his Norwegian council. As to 
 the pension to be granted to tliose employed they 
 sliall be decided by the first Storthing. In the 
 mean time, they shall enjoy two-third parts of 
 their former salary. The others employed can 
 tinly be suspended by the king, and they shall 
 afterwards be brought before the tribunals, but 
 cannot be deposed excepting by order of an 
 arrest, and the king cannot make them change 
 their situations contrary to their will. 
 
 21. The king can confer orders of knighthood 
 on whomsoever he chooses, in reward of dis- 
 tinguished services, which shall be published; 
 but he can confer no other rank, with the title, 
 tlmn that which is attached to every employment. 
 An order of knighthood does not liberatd the per- 
 son on whom it is conferred from those duties 
 common to all citizens, and particular titles are 
 not conferred in order to obtain situations in the 
 state. Such persons shall preserve the title and 
 rank attached to those situations which they 
 have occupied. No person can, for the future, 
 obtain personal, mixed, or hereditary privileges. 
 
 22. The king elects and dismisses, whenever 
 he thinks proper, all the officers attached to his 
 court. 
 
 23. The king is commander-in-chief of all the 
 forces, by sea and land, in tlie kingdom, and 
 these cannot be increased or diminished without 
 the consent of the Storthing. They will not be 
 ceded to the service of ony foreign power, and 
 troops belonging to a foreign power (except 
 
 87 
 
 auxiliary tnxips in case of a hostile invasion,) 
 cannot enter the country without tlie eimsent of 
 the Stiirthing, During peace, the Norwegian 
 tr(«)ps sliall be stationed in Norwav, and not in 
 Sweden. Notwithstanding tills tlic king may 
 have in Sweden a Norwegian gimid, composed 
 of volunteers, and may for a short time, not ex- 
 ceeding six weeks in a year, nsseiiible troops in 
 the envinms of tlie two countries, for exercising; 
 but in ease tliere are more than it,l)00 men, com- 
 posing the army of one of the two countries, they 
 cannot in time of peace enter the other.* The 
 Norwegian army and gun-boats shall not be em- 
 ployed without the consent of the Storthing. 
 The Norwegian licet shall have dry docks, and 
 during peace its stations and harbours in Nor- 
 way. Ships of war of both countries shall bo 
 supiiiied with the seamen of the other, so long as 
 they shall voluntarily engage to serve. Tho 
 laiulwchr, and other Norwegian forces, which 
 are not calculated among the number of troops 
 of the line, sliall never be employed beyond the 
 frontiers of the kingdom of Norway. 
 
 24. Tlie king has the right of assembling 
 troops, commencing war, making peace, coneluil- 
 iiig and dis.solving treaties, semling ministers to, 
 and receiving those of, foreign courts. When ho 
 begins war he ought to adv'ise the council of 
 Norway, consult it, and order it to prepare an 
 address on the state of the kingdom, relative to 
 its finances, and proper means of defence. On 
 this tho king shall convoke the minister of state 
 of Norway, and those of the council of Sweden, 
 at an extraordinary assembly, when he shall ex- 
 plain all those relative circumstances tliat ought 
 to be taken into considemtion ; with a representa- 
 tion of the Norwegian council, and a similar one 
 on tlie part of Sweden, upon the state of the king- 
 dom, sliall then be presented. The king shall then 
 require advice upon tliesc objects; and each shall 
 be inserted in a register, under tlie responsibility 
 imposed by tlic constitution, when the king sliall 
 then adopt that resolution which he judges most 
 proper for tho benefit of the state. 
 
 25. On this occasion all the members of coun- 
 cil must be present, if not prevented by some law- 
 ful cause, and no resolution ought to be adopted 
 unless one half of the members are present. In 
 Norwegian affairs, which, according to the fif- 
 teenth article, are decided in Sweden, no resolu- 
 tion shall be taken unless the minister of state of 
 Norway and one of the members of council, or 
 two members, are present. 
 
 20. The representations respecting employ- 
 ments, and other important acts, excepting those 
 of a diplomatic and military nature, properly so 
 called, shall be referred to the council by him 
 who is one of the members in tho department 
 charged with it, wlio shall accordingly draw up 
 the resolution adopted in council. 
 
 27. If any member of council is prevented 
 from appearing, and referring the affairs which 
 belong to his peculiar department, he shall be re- 
 placed in this office by one of the others appointed 
 to this purpose, either by the king, if personally 
 present, and if not, by liim who has precedence in 
 tlie council, jointly with the other members com- 
 posing it. Sliould several of these be prevented 
 
 • Tho law of the Storthintt, 5th July 191«, bears, that 
 troops of the line shall be employed beyond the frontiers 
 of the kinKdoin, and llie interpn-tation Kivon by it to that 
 law is, that tnxips of the line shall be employed beyond 
 the frontiers of the two kingdoms. 
 
 669 
 
CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 from npppnrinjt, so tlmt only one half of the ordi- 
 nary n\nnl>i'r is prewnt, the otiier employed in 
 tlie ollU'cN Hhnll in lilie innnner liave ri^lit to git 
 In rouncil ; und in thnt event it hIiiiII he iifter- 
 wiirds referred to tlio Itinc, who decides if they 
 ought to continue to exercise this olflce. 
 
 28. 'I'lie eonneil slmll keep n register of all 
 nfTairs tlmt mny come under its ronsiderntion. 
 Kvery individuul wliosits in it slmll he iit liherty 
 to give his opinion freely, which tlie king is 
 ohligcd to heiir; hut it is reserved to his majesty 
 to ado])t resolutions after he has consulted his 
 own mind. If a incml)er of council finds thnt 
 the king's resolution is contrary to the form of 
 government, the lows of the kingdom, or in- 
 jurious to the state, he shall consider it his duty 
 to opi)ose it, and record his opinion in the register 
 accordingly ; hut he who rcmainb silent slmll be 
 presumed to Imvo agreed with the king, and 
 shall he responsible for it, even in the case of be- 
 ing referrecl to at a future period ; and the Odels- 
 tlung is empowered to bring him before the 
 lligsret. 
 
 20. All the orders issued by the king (mili- 
 tary afTairs excepted) shall be eountersigned by 
 tlie Norwegian minister of state. 
 
 30. Kesolutions made in absence of the king, 
 by the council in Norway, shall be publicly pro- 
 claimed and signed by the viceroy, or the gov- 
 ernor and council, and countersigned by him who 
 slmll have referred them, and he is further re- 
 
 ' sponsible for the accuracy and dispatch with the 
 register in which the resolution is entered. 
 
 31. All representations relative to the affoirs 
 of this country, as well as writings concerning 
 tliem, must be in the Norwegian language. 
 
 32. The heir-apparent to the throne, if a son 
 of the reigning king, bhall have the title of prince 
 royal, the other legitimate heirs to the crown 
 shall be culled ])rinces, and the king's daughters 
 princesses. 
 
 33. As soon as the heir shall h:<.ve attained 
 tlie age of eighteen, he shall have a right to sit 
 in council, without, however, having a vote, or 
 any responsibility. 
 
 34. No prince of the blood shall marry with- 
 out permission of the king, and in case of con- 
 travention, he shall forfeit his right to tlie crown 
 of Norwaj'. 
 
 35. The princes and princesses of the royal 
 family, shall not, so far as respects their persons, 
 he bound to appear before other judges, but be- 
 fore the king or whomsoever he slmll have ap- 
 pointed for that purpose. 
 
 30. The minister of state of Norway, as well 
 as the two members of council who are near the 
 king, shall have a seat and deliberative voice in 
 the Swedish council, where objects relative to 
 the t\yo kingdoms shall be treated of. In affairs 
 of this nature the advice of the council ought 
 also to be undcrstooil, unless these require quick 
 dispatch, so as not to allow time. 
 
 37. If the king happens to die, and the heir 
 to the throne is under age, the council of Nor- 
 way, and that of Sweden, shall assemble, and 
 mutually call a convocation of the Storthing in 
 Norway and Diet of Sweden. 
 
 38. Although the representatives of the two 
 kingdoms should have assembled, and regulated 
 the administration during the king's minority, a 
 council composed of an equal number of Nor- 
 wegian and Swedish members shall govern the 
 kingdoms, and follow their fundamental recipro- 
 
 cal laws. The minister of state of Norway who 
 sits in this council, shall draw by ballot in order 
 to decide on which of Its members the preference 
 slmll happen to fall. 
 
 30. The regulations contained in the two last 
 articles shall he always e(|imlly adopted after the 
 constitution of Sweden. It belongs to the Swed- 
 ish council, in this quality, to he at the head of 
 government. 
 
 40. With respect to more particular and neces- 
 sary alTairs that might occur in cases under the 
 three former articles, the king slmll propose to 
 the first Storthing in Norway, and at the first 
 Diet in Sweden, a law having for its basis the 
 principle of a perfect equality existing between 
 the two kingdoms. 
 
 41. The election of guardians to be at the 
 head of government during the king's minority, 
 shall be made after the same rules and manner 
 formerly prescribed in tlie second title. Article 
 5th, concerning the election of an heir to the 
 throne. 
 
 42. The individuals who in the cases under 
 the 38th and 89th articles, are at the head of gov- 
 ernment, shall be, the Norwegians at the Storth- 
 ing of Norway, and slmll take the following oatli: 
 "I swear, on my soul and conscience, to govern 
 the kingdom conformably to its constitution and 
 laws;" and the Swedes shall also make a similar 
 oath. If there is not a Storthing or Diet, it shall 
 bo deposited in writing in the council, and after- 
 wards repeated at the first of these when they 
 happen to assemble. 
 
 43. As soon as the governments have ceased, 
 they shall be restored to the king, and the Storth- 
 ing. 
 
 44. If the Storthing is not convoked, agree- 
 ably to what is expressed in the 38th and 89th 
 articles, the supreme tribunal slmll consider it as 
 an imperious duty, nt the expiration of four 
 weeks, to call a meeting. 
 
 45. The charge of the education of the king, 
 in case his father may not have left in writing 
 instructions regarding it, shall be regulated in 
 the manner laid down under the 5th and 4Ist 
 articles. It is held to be an invariable rule, that 
 the king during Ids minority shall learn the Nor-" 
 wegian language. 
 
 40. If the masculine line of the royal family 
 is extinct, and there has not been elected a suc- 
 cessor to the throne, the election of a new 
 dynasty shall be proceeded in, and after the man- 
 ner prescribed under the 5tli article. In the 
 mean time tlie executive power shall be exercised 
 agreeably to the 41st article. 
 
 Title III. 
 Article 1. Legislative power is exercised by 
 the Storthing, which is constituted of two houses, , 
 namely, the Lagthing and Odclsthing. 
 
 2. None shall have a right to vote but Nor- 
 wegians, who have attaineil twenty-five years, 
 and resided in the country during five years. 
 1. Those wlio are exercising, or who have exer- 
 cised functions. 2. Possess land in the country, 
 which has been let for more than five years. 3. 
 Are burgesses of some city, or possess eitlier in 
 it, or some village, a house, or property of the 
 value of at least three liundred bank crowns in 
 silver. 
 
 3. There shall be drawn up in cities by the 
 magistrates, and in every parish by the iiubllc 
 authority and the priest, a register of all the iu- 
 
 570 
 
CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. 
 
 haliitiints who are voters. They slmll also note 
 in it with(<ut delay, tlioBC changes which may 
 successively take place. Before iM-ing inscribed 
 in the register, every one shall take an oath, be- 
 fore the tribunal, of fidelity to the constitution. 
 
 4. Right of voting is suspended in the follow- 
 ing cases: 1. By the accumition of crime before 
 a tribuital ; 3. By not attaining the proper age ; 
 8. By insolvency or bankruptcy, \nitil creditors 
 have obtained their payment in whole, \inless it 
 can be proved that the former has arisen from 
 tire, or other unforeseen events. 
 
 a. The riglit of voting is forfeited deliniti vcly : 
 
 1. By condenuiation to the lio\ise of correction, 
 slavery, or punishment for defamatory language ; 
 
 2. By acceptance of tlie service of a foreign 
 power, witliout the consent of government. 3. 
 By obtaining the right of citizen in a foreign 
 co\ui|ry. 4. By conviction of liaving purchased 
 ancl sold votes, and having voted in more than 
 one electoral assembly. 
 
 O. The electoral assemblies and districts arc 
 held every three years, and sliall finish before the 
 end of the month of Decemlwr. 
 
 7. Electoral assemblies shall be held for the 
 country, at tlic manor-house of the i)ari8h, the 
 church, town-hall, or some other tit place. In 
 the country they shall be directed by the first 
 minister and assistants; and in towns, by magis- 
 trates and slieriffs; election shall be made in tlie 
 onler appointed by the registers. Disputes con- 
 cerning the riglit of voting slnill be decided by 
 the directors of the assembly, from whose judg- 
 ment an appeal may be made to tlie Htorlhing. 
 
 8. Before proceeding to the election, tlie con- 
 stitution shall be read with a loud voice in tlic 
 cities, by the first magistrate, and in the country 
 by the curate. 
 
 O. In cities, an elector shall be chosen by fifty 
 eligibl.' inliabitants. They shall assemble eight 
 days after, in the place ap|)ointed by the magis- 
 trate, and choose, either from amongst themselves, 
 or from others who are eligible in the department 
 of tlieir election, a fourth of their number to sit 
 at tlie Storthing, thai, is after the manner of three 
 to si.x in choosing one ; seven to ten in electing 
 two; eleven to fourteen in choosing three, and 
 fifteen to ■ iglitcen in electing four; which is tlie 
 greatest number permitted to a city to send. If 
 these consist of less than 150 eligible inhabitants, 
 they shall send the electors to the nearest city, to 
 vote conjointly with tlie electors of the former, 
 wlien the two shall only be considered as forining 
 one district.* 
 
 10. In each parish in tlie country tlie eligible 
 inliabitants sliall choose in proportion to tlieir 
 number electors in tlie following manner; that is 
 to say, a hundred may clioose one ; two to three 
 liundred, three; and so on in the same propor- 
 tion.! Electors shall assemble a month after, in 
 tlie place appointed by tlie bailiff, and choose, 
 cither from amongst themselves or the others of 
 
 * A law passed 8tli February 1816, contains this amend- 
 ment. Twenty-five electors and more shall not elect nioro 
 than tliree representatives, which Rlmll be. ad interim, 
 the greatest niimher wliicli tlie baitiwielc can send ; and, 
 consequently, out of which tlie number of representatives 
 in the county, which are sixty-one, shall bo diminished 
 from fifty to fifty-tliree. 
 
 + If future Storthings discover the number of repre- 
 sentatives of towns from an increOKe of ix>nulation should 
 amount to thirty, the same StorthiiiR stiall have riifht to 
 augment of now the number of representatives of the 
 country, in the manner fixed by the principles of the con- 
 stitution, which shall be held as a rule in future. 
 
 the liailiwick eligible, a tenth of tlieir own num- 
 ber to sit at the Stortliing, so that five to fourleen 
 may choose one; fifteen to twenty-four may 
 choose two of llieiii; twenty-five to thirty-four, 
 three; thirty-five and lieyond it, four. This istho 
 greatest niimlier. 
 
 1 1. The powers contained in tlie 0th and 10th 
 articles shall have their proper force and elTect 
 until ne.\t Storthing. If it is found that the re- 
 presenlatives of cities constitute more or less than 
 one-third of those of the kingdom, the .Storthing, 
 as a rule for the future, shall have right to cliango 
 these powers in sucli a manner that repre.st^uta- 
 fives of tlie cif's may join with those of the 
 country, as one to two; and the total number of 
 reprcsentiifives ought not to be under seventy- 
 five, nor above (me liundred. 
 
 12. Those eligible, who are in tlie country, 
 and are prevented from attending by sickness, 
 military service, or otiier proper reasons, can 
 transmit tlieir votes in writing to tho.se who direct 
 tile electoral assemblies, before tlieir terminafion. 
 
 IJJ. No person can be clios<'ii a representative, 
 unless he is thirty years of age, ami has resided 
 ten years in the country. 
 
 14. The members of council, those employed 
 in tlieir offices, ofiicers of the court, and its pen- 
 sioners, sliall not be cliosen as rei)reseiitatives. 
 
 15. Individuals chosen to lie representatives, 
 are obliged to accept of tlie election, unless pre- 
 vented by motives considered lawful by the elect- 
 ors, whose judgment may be submitted to tlie 
 decision of tlie Storthing. A person who lias 
 appeared more than once as representative at an 
 ordinary Stortliing, is not obliged to accept of the 
 electiim for tlie ne.\t ordinary Storthing. If legal 
 reasons prevent a representative from apiiearing 
 at tlie Storthing, the person who after him lias 
 most votes shall take his jilace. 
 
 lO. As soon as representatives have been 
 elected, tliey shall receive a writing in the coun- 
 try from tlie superior magistrate, and in tlie cities 
 from the magistrate, also from all the electors, 
 as a [iroof tliat they have been elected in the man- 
 ner prescribed by tlie constitution. The Storth- 
 ing .shall judge of the legality of this authority. 
 
 17. All representatives have a riglit to claim 
 an indemnification in travelling to and returning 
 from tlie Storthing; as well as subsistence dur- 
 ing the period tliey shall have remained tliere. 
 
 18. During tlie journey, and return of repre- 
 sentatives, as well as the time tliey may have 
 attended the Storthing, they are exempted from 
 arrest; unless tliey are seized in some flagrant 
 and public act, and out of the Storthing they sliall 
 not be responsible for llie opinions they may liave 
 (leclared in it. Every one is bound to conform 
 himself to the order established in it. 
 
 lO. Representatives, chosen in tlie manner 
 above declared, compose tlie Storthing of tlic 
 liingdom of Norway. 
 
 20. The opening of the Storthing shall lie 
 made tlic first lawful day in tlie month of Febru- 
 ary, every three years, in tlie capital of the king- 
 dom, unless tlie king, in extraordinary circum- 
 stances, by foreign invasion or contagious disease, 
 fixes on some other city of the kingdom. Such 
 change ought tlien to be early annoiineed. 
 
 21. In extraordinary cases, the king has the 
 right of a.ssembling the Storthing, witliout re- 
 spect to the ordinary time. The king will then 
 cause to be issued a proclamation, which is to be 
 read in all the principal churches six weeks at 
 
 571 
 
CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP NOUWAY. 
 
 IcHHt pix'vioUB to tb(3 iluy flxf<l fur the asscm- 
 Miiig of iiii'IiiImth of the- Storthing at tlic pluce 
 uji|)ointi'(l. 
 
 22. Hticli cxtriiordinary HtortliinK may iMidis- 
 8olv('(l by till; king wiicn iii- Himll Juilgu tit. 
 
 2i). MLMiil>C'rti of till! Stortliiiig Kliall continue 
 ill till) cxtTcisu of tlifir otlico (iiiring tlirce con- 
 wciitivc ycurH, iia inncli during an extraordinary 
 ns any ordinary Stortiiing tliat might bu lieid 
 during tliis time. 
 
 24. If an extraordinary Storthing is lieid at a 
 time wiieii tiie ordinary Stortiiing oiiglit to as- 
 geinlile, tile funetion.s of tlie llrHt will cease, as 
 Boon as tlie second Hliall liave met. 
 
 2n. The extraordinary Storthing, no more 
 tlian tlie ordinary, can be held if two-thirds of 
 the iiieniliers do not Iiappen to lie present. 
 
 2((. As soon as the Stortiiing sliail be orgau- 
 ixed, the l(ing, or the person who sliaii lie ap- 
 pointed by liim for tliat i)urpoBe, sliall open it liy 
 an address, in wliicii lie is to descrilic tlie state of 
 the kingdom, and those ol)jccts to which lie di- 
 rects llie attention of the Storthing. No delilier- 
 ution ouglit to take place in the king's presence. 
 The Storthing sliall choose from its members one- 
 fourth imrt to form tlie I^gthing, and the other 
 tliree-fourths to constitute tlie Odelsthing. Eacli 
 of these houses shall have its private meetings, 
 and nominate its president and secretary. 
 
 27. It lielongs to the Storthing, — 1. To make 
 and abolisli laws, cstablisli imposts, taxes, cus- 
 tom-houses, and other public acts, wliich sliall, 
 however, only exist until the 1st of July of that 
 year, when a new Storthing sliall be assembled, 
 unless this last is expressly renewed by them. 
 
 3. To make loans, by means of the credit of the 
 state. 3. To watch over the finances of the state. 
 
 4. To grant sums necessary for its expenses. 5. 
 To fix the yearly grant for the maintenance of 
 the king and viceroy, and also appendages of tlie 
 royal family ; which ought not, however, to con- 
 sist in landed property. 6. To exhibit the regis- 
 ter of the sitting council in Norway, and all the 
 reports, and public documents (the affairs of 
 military command excepted), and certified copies, 
 or extracts of tlie registers kept by the ministers 
 of state and members of council near the king, or 
 tlie public documents, which shall have been pro- 
 duced. 7. To communicate wliatever treaties 
 the king sliall have concluded in tlic name of the 
 state with foreign powers, excepting secret arti- 
 cles, provided these are not in contradiction with 
 the public articles. 8. To require all individuals 
 to appear before the Storthing on affairs of state, 
 the king and royal family excepted. This is not, 
 however, applicable to the princes of the royal 
 family, as tlioy are invested with other offices than 
 that of viceroy. 9. To examine the lists of pro- 
 visional pensions ; and to make such alterations 
 as shall be judged necessary. 10. To name five 
 revisers, who are annually to examine the oc- 
 counts of tlie state, and publish printed extracts 
 of these, which are to be remitted to the revisers 
 also every year before the Ist of July. 11. To 
 naturalize foreigners. 
 
 28. Laws ouglit first to be proposed to the 
 Odelsthing, either by its own members or the 
 government, through one of the members of coun- 
 cil. If the proposition is accepted, it shall be 
 Bent to the Lagthing, who approve or reject it; 
 and in the last case return it accompanied with 
 remarks. These shall be weighed by the Odels- 
 thing, which sets the proposed law aside, or 
 
 remits it to the Lagthing, with or without alter- 
 ations. Wlii'ii a law shall have lH>en twice pro- 
 posed by the Odelsthing to tlie Lagthing, and 
 tlie latter shall have rejected it a seconirtime, 
 the Storthing shall assemble, when two-thirds of 
 the votes shall ih-cide iipim it. Three days at 
 least ought to pass between each of those clelib- 
 erations. 
 
 2W,' When a resolution proposed by the Odels- 
 thing shall bo approved by the Lagthing, or by 
 the Storthing al(mc, a deputation of these two 
 houses to the Storthing shall present it to the 
 king if he is present, and if not, to the viceroy, or 
 Norwegian council, and require it may receive 
 tlie royal sanction. 
 
 JIG. Sliould the king approve of the n'solution, 
 he subscribes to it, anil from tliat period it is de- 
 I'lared to pass into a public law. If he disap- 
 jiroves lie retiiins it to tlie Odelsthing, declaring 
 that at >liis time he does not give it his stmction. 
 
 t) 1 . In this event, tlie Storthing, then assem- 
 bled, ouglit to submit the resolution to the king, 
 wlio inav proceed in it in the same manner it the 
 first ordinary Storthing presents again to him the 
 same resolution. But if, after reconsideration, 
 it is still adopted by the two houses of the third 
 ordinary Storthing, and afterwards submitted to 
 tiie king, who gliall have been intreated not to. 
 withhold his sanction to a resolution that the 
 Stortiiing, after tlie most mature deliberations, 
 believes to be useful ; it shall acquire the strength 
 of a law, even should it not receive the king's 
 signature before the closing of the Storthing. 
 
 32. The Storthing sliall sit as long as it shall 
 be judged necessary, but not beyond three 
 months, witliout tlie king's permission. When 
 tlie business is finished, or after it has assembled 
 for the time fixed, it is dissolved by the king. 
 Ills Majesty gives, at tlic same time, his sanc- 
 tion to tlie decrees not already decided, either in 
 corroboratinfj or rejecting till i. All those not ex- 
 pressly sanctioned are held to be rejected by him. 
 
 33. Laws are to be drawn up in the Norwe- 
 gian language, and (those mentioned in 81st arti- 
 cle excepted) in name of the king, under tiie seal 
 of the kingdom, and in tliese terms: — "We, «&c. 
 Be it known, that there has been submitted to 
 us a decree of the Storthing (of such a date) 
 thus expressed (follows the resolution) ; We have 
 accepted and sanctioned as law the said decree, 
 in giving it our signature, and seal of the king- 
 dom." 
 
 34. The king's sanction is not necessary to the- 
 resolutions of the Stortiiing, by which the legis- 
 lative body, — 1. Declares itself organized as the 
 Storthing, according to the constitution. 2. 
 Regulates its internal police. 3. Accepts or re- 
 jects writs of present members. 4. Confirms or 
 rejects judgments relative to disputes respect- 
 ing elections. 5. Naturalizes foreigners. 6. 
 And in sliort, the resolution by which tlie Odels- 
 thing orders some member of council to appear 
 before the tribunals. 
 
 35. Tlie Storthing can demand the advice of 
 the supreme tribunal in judicial matters. 
 
 30. The Storthing will hold its sittings with 
 open doors, and its acts shall be printed and pub- 
 lished, excepting in cases where a contrary meas- 
 ure shall have been decided by the plurality of 
 votes. 
 
 37. Whoever molests the liberty and safety of 
 the Storthing, renders- himself guilty of an act of 
 high treason towards the country. 
 
 572 
 
CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY. 
 
 Title IV. 
 
 Article 1. Tlu^ mi'mlicrM of tlio LiigthiiiK mid 
 supri'tiK! trihiiiial coiiiposiii; tlio Hlgsrct, Ju<lj?o 
 ill tliu tlrat 1111(1 IiiHt limtiiiiri' of the nlfiiira cntcrt'd 
 upmi l)v tlic OdelHtliiiig, either iigiilnst tlic mem- 
 bers of council or siiprcnu' tribiimil for crimes 
 committed in the excr .■ of their ollices, or 
 iigninat the members n Storthing for nets com- 
 mitted by them in ii similar ciipuclty. The presi- 
 dent of the Lngthing has the precedence in the 
 Higsret. 
 
 3, The accused can, without declaring his mo- 
 tive for so doing, refuse, even a tliird part of the 
 members of the Rigsret, provided, however, that 
 tlie nuinlierof persons who compose this tr'bunal 
 be not reduced to less than fifteen. 
 
 3. The supreme tribunal shall judge in the 
 last instance, and ought not to lie composed of a 
 lesser number than the resident and six assessors. 
 
 4. In time of peace the supremo tribunal, 
 with two supc^rior ofllcers appointed by the king, 
 constitutes a tribunal of the second and last re- 
 sort in nil military affairs which respect life, hon- 
 our, and loss of liberty for a time beyond the 
 space of three months. 
 
 5. The arrests of the supreme tribunal shall 
 not in any case be called upon to be submitted to 
 revisal. 
 
 O. No person shall be named member of the 
 supreme tribunal, if he has not attained at least 
 thirty years of age. 
 
 Title V. 
 Article 1. Employments in the states shall be 
 conferred only on Norwegian citizens, who pro- 
 fess the Evangelical Lutheran religion — have 
 sworn fidelity to the constitution and king, speak 
 the language of the country, and arc, — 1. Eltlier 
 born in the kingdom of parents who were then 
 subjects of the state. 3. Or born in a foreign 
 country, their father and mother being Norwe- 
 gians, and at that period not the subjects of 
 another state. 3. Or, whoon the 17th May, 1814, 
 hod a permanent residence in the kingdom, and 
 did not refuse to take an oath to maintain the 
 independence of Norway, 4. Or who in future 
 shall remain ten years in the kingdom. 5. Or 
 who have been naturalized by the Storthing. 
 Foreigners, however, may be nominated to these 
 otiicial situations in the university and colleges, 
 as well as to those of physicians, and consuls in 
 a foreign country. In order to succeed to an 
 office in the superior tribunal, the person must 
 be thirty years old ; and to fill a place in the in- 
 ferior magistracy, — a judge of the tribunal of 
 first instance, or a public receiver, he must be 
 twenty -five. 
 
 2. Norway does not acknowledge herself ow- 
 ing any other debt than that of her own. 
 
 3. A new general code, of a civil and criminal 
 nature, shall first be published ; or, if that is im- 
 practicable, at the second ordinary Storthing. 
 Meantime, the laws of the state, as at present ex- 
 isting, shall preserve their effect, since they are 
 not contrary to this fundamental law, or provi- 
 sional ordinances published in the interval. Per- 
 manent taxes shall continue to be levied until 
 next Storthing. 
 
 4. No protecting dispensation, letter of respite, 
 or restitutions, shall be granted after the new 
 general code shall be published. 
 
 5. No persons can be judged but in conformitv 
 to the law, or be pimished until a tribunal shall 
 
 have taken cogniznm'e of tin- charj-'es directed 
 agidiiHt them. Torture shall never take place. 
 H. Laws shall have no retroactive efleet. 
 
 7. Fees due to otllcers of justice are not to bo 
 comliined with rents payable to the public treas- 
 ury. 
 
 8. Arrest ought not to take place excepting in 
 cases and in tlii^ manner llxed by law. Illegal 
 arrests, and unlawful delays, render liim who 
 oceasiims them responsible to tlie person arrested. 
 Government is not authorized to employ military 
 force against the memlKTs of the statt , but un- 
 der the forms preserilied by the laws, unless an 
 assembly which disturbs the public tninquillity 
 does not instantly disperse after the iirticles of 
 the code {'omcrning sedition shall hive been 
 read aloud thrci' times by the civil autliorities. 
 
 1>. The liberty of the press sliall lie estab- 
 lished. No person can be punished tor a writ- 
 ing he has ordered to be jirinted or jmblishcd, 
 whatever may lie the contents of it, unless he 
 has, by himself or others, wilfully declared, or 
 prompted others to, disobedience of the laws, 
 contempt for religion, and constitutioiml powers, 
 and resistance to their operations; or has ad- 
 vanced false and defamatory accusations against 
 others. It is permitted to every oiu! to speak 
 freely his opinion on tlie administrution of the 
 state, or on any other object whatever. 
 
 10. New and permanent restrictions on the 
 freedom of industry are not to be granted in 
 future to any one. 
 
 11. Domiciliary visits are prohibiU^d, except- 
 ing in the cases of criminals. 
 
 12. Refuge will not be granted to those who 
 shall be bankrupts. 
 
 13. Xo person can In any case forfeit his 
 landed jiioperty, and fortune. 
 
 14. If the interest of the state requires thot 
 any one should sacrifice his moveable or immove- 
 able property for the public benefit, he shall be 
 fully indemnified by the public treasury. 
 
 15. The capital, as well as the revenues of the 
 domains of tlie church, can bo applied only for 
 the interests of the clergy, and the prosperity of 
 
 fmblic instruction. The property of benevolent 
 nstitutions shall be employed only for their profit. 
 10. The right of the power of redemption 
 called Odelsret*, and that of possession, called 
 Afojdesret (father's right), shall exist. Particu- 
 lar regulations, which will render these of util- 
 ity to the states and agriculture, shall be deter- 
 
 mined by the first or second Storthing. 
 17. No county, barony, majorat or 
 
 'fldel 
 
 commis"f sliall be created for the future. 
 
 18. Every citizen of the state, without re- 
 gard to birth or fortune, shall be equally obliged, 
 during a particular period, to defend his coun- 
 try. J The application of this principle ond its 
 restrictions, as well as the question of ascertain- 
 ing to what point it is of benefit to the country, 
 that this obligation should cease at the age of 
 twenty-five,— shall be abandoned to the decision 
 
 • In virtue of tho rleht of " Odelaret." mnmbers of a 
 family to wliom certain laads oriKtnally iwrtained, can 
 reclaim and retake [jOBseBsion of tlie Kanie, even atUtr the 
 lapse of centuries, provided these lauds are repreHenta- 
 live of the title of the family; that is, if for every ten 
 years successively they shall have judicially made reser- 
 vation of their right. This custom, injurious perhaps to 
 tlie progress of agriculture, does, however, attach the 
 peasants to their native soil. 
 
 + Entail. 
 
 t Every person is obliged to serve from twenty-one to 
 twenty-three, and not after. 
 
 673 
 
CONSTITUTION OP NORWAY. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 of thn flrxl onllnnry HUirtlilnK, nftir llicy Hhall 
 have Ih'i'ii illNcliiirKi''! I>y a ('oiiiniiltt'c; in tlic 
 nivautiiiu', viK'iniuH cfTortM hIiiiII pri-mTvi- tlii'ir 
 effoct. 
 
 lO. Norway shall ri'taiii her own langiiauc, 
 her own tlnaiiccR itiiil coin: inHtltutloiiH whluli 
 ■hall lif (IcU'riiiiniMl npon by lawn. 
 
 20. Norway Iiuh the rlnl't '>f Imvlnj? hi-r own 
 flaKof trndi-unil war, wliicliNhall be an union lla^. 
 
 !il. If (■xprricncc Hhould hIiow llic necessity 
 of clianKiiiK Home imrt of this fundamental law, 
 a proposition to this purpoHi; shall be made to au 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PLYMOUTH 
 COLONY (Compact of the Pilgrim Fathers). 
 Ben MAHHAcuuHKri's: A. U. 1U20. 
 
 I ordinary Storthliif;, published and printed ; and 
 j it oidy pertains to the next ordinary Slorthluff 
 j to decide if the chuuKe proposeil oujitht to In) 
 efTectual or not. Such alteration, however, 
 ouKht iieviT to Ik- contrary to the principles of 
 this fundamental law ; and should only have for 
 its object thoH<* modifications in which particular 
 reftuiations do not alter the spirit of the consti- 
 tution. Two-thirds of the Htorthinj^ outfht to 
 agree upon such a chaiiKe. (.'hrlstiaua, 4th No- 
 vember, 1H14. See .Scandinavian 8tatk8(Nou- 
 WAY): A. D. 1814-1815. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF POLAND (The 
 
 old). .Sec Poland: A. I). inTil, and 1578-1(152. 
 . . . .(of 1791). See P01.ANU: A. D. 1791-1798. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 The followiuK text of the Constitution granted 
 l)y FrediTick William, King of Prussia, on the 
 Ulst of January, 1850, with subsectucnt altera- 
 tions, is a translation made by Mr. Charles 
 Lowe, and published in the appendix to his Life 
 of Prince IHsniarek, 1885. 
 
 Wk, Frederick William, &c., hereby proclaim 
 and give to know that, whereas the Constitu- 
 tion of the Prussian State, promulgated by us 
 on the 5lh December, 1848, subject to revision 
 in the ordinary course of legislation, and recog- 
 nised by both Chambers of our Kiugdom, has 
 been submitted to the prescribed revision; we 
 have linuUy established that Constitution in 
 agreement with both Chambers. Now, there- 
 fore, we promulgate, as a fundamental law of 
 the State, as follows: — 
 
 Article i. — All parts of the Monarchy in its 
 present extent form the Prussian Stat<! Territory. 
 
 Article a.— The limits of this State Territory 
 can only be altered by law. 
 
 Article 3. — The Constitution and the laws de- 
 termine under what conditions the quality and 
 tivil rights of a Prussian may be acquired, exer- 
 cised, and forfeited. 
 
 Article 4. — All Prussians are equal before the 
 , law. Class privileges there are none. Public 
 ■^ olllccs, subject to the conditions imposed by 
 law, are equally accessible to all who are com- 
 petent to hold tlicm. 
 
 Article 5. — Personal freedom is guaranteed. 
 The forms and conditions under which ony limi- 
 tation thereof, especially arrest, is permissible, 
 will be determined by law. 
 
 Article 6. — The domicile is inviolable. Intru- 
 sion and sciirch therein, as well as the seizing of 
 letters anil iiapers, are only allowed in legally 
 settled cases. 
 
 Article 7. — No one may be deprived of his law- 
 ful judge. Exceptional tribunals and extraordi- 
 nary commissions are inadmissible. 
 
 Article 8. — Punishments can only be threatened 
 or iullicted according to the law. 
 
 Article 9. — Property is inviolable. Itcan only 
 be taken or curtailed from reasons of jniblic weal 
 *" and expediency, and in return for statutory com- 
 pensation which, in urgent cases at least, shall 
 be fixed beforehond. 
 
 Article 10.— Civil death and confiscation of 
 property, as punishments, are not possible. 
 
 Article 11. — Freedom of emigration can only 
 bo limited by the Stale, with reference to military 
 service. Migration fees may not Ixs levied. 
 
 Article la. — Freedom of religious confession, 
 of meeting In religious societies (Art. 30 and 81), 
 and of tlie common exercise of religion in private 
 and public, is guaranteed. The enjoyment of 
 civil and political rights is independent of re- 
 ligious belief, yet the duties of a citizen or a sub- 
 ject may not be impaired by the exercise of re- 
 ligious liberty. 
 
 Article 13. — Religious and clerical societies, 
 which have no corporate rights, can only ac(iuire 
 tlio.sc rights by siiecial laws. 
 
 Article 14. — The Christian religion is taken as 
 the basis of those State institutions which are 
 connected with the exercise of religion — all re- 
 ligious liberty guaranteed by Art. 13 notwith- 
 standing. 
 
 Article 15.*— The Protestant and Roman Cath- 
 olic Churches, as well as every other religioug 
 society, regulate and administer their own affairs 
 in an independent manner, and remain in posses- 
 sion and enjoyment of the institutions, founda- 
 tions, and moneys intended for their purposes of 
 public worship, education, and charity. 
 
 Article l6.* — Intercourse between religious 
 societies and their superiors shall be tmobstructed. 
 The making public of Church ordinances is only 
 subject to those restrictions imposed on all other 
 publications. 
 
 Article 17. — A special law will be passed 
 with respect to Church patronage, and to the 
 conditions on which it may be abolished. 
 
 Article 18.* — Abolished is the right of nom- 
 inating, proposing, electing, and confirming, in 
 the matter of appointments to eccl'^siastical 
 posts, iu so far as it belongs to the State, and is 
 not based on patronage or special legal titles. 
 
 Article 19. — Civil marriage will be introduced 
 in accordance with a special law, which shall also 
 regulate the keeping of a civil register. 
 
 Article 20. — Science and its doctrines are free. 
 
 Article 21. — The education of youth shall be 
 sufBciently cared for by public schools. Par- 
 ents and their substitutes may not leave their 
 children or wards without that education pre- 
 scribed for the public folk-schools. 
 
 • Affected by the T k laws of 1875, and by the act of 
 1887 which repealea .hem. See Qbrhant: A. D. 1873- 
 1887. 
 
 574 
 
CONBTITUTION OP PIIUH8IA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PRUH8IA. 
 
 Article aa.— Every oim rIihII Ik- ut liberty to 
 fflvt! liiHtriiction, mill cHluliliHh iiiNtitiitionH fur 
 cloiiiK *<>i proviilluK !>•' nIiiiII Iiuvo kIvi'Ii prixif of 
 IiIh luoriil, H('lfiititl(\ and ticliiilcal cupuclty t(i 
 the Sliitt' iiulliDrillcs coiiccriii'd 
 
 Article 23. — All piililic itiut privutt! liiHtitti- 
 tloimof nil t'duciitioiuil klml uri: under the super- 
 vIhIiiii of autlioritii'H ui)p<iliited by the Htato. 
 Public teacbertt have tliu rights and duties uf 
 Htatt! HervaiitH. 
 
 Article 34. — In the eHtubHHhinent of public 
 folk schools,* confessional dillerenccs shall re- 
 ceive thi^ greatest possll)le eonslileratlon. Ke- 
 ll)(lous hiNlrucMon in th<^ folksi 'lools will be 
 superintended by the rellKlous hX'ietles con- 
 cerned. OliarKc of the other (external) atfairs of 
 the folksch(M)l8 belongs to the Parish (Com- 
 mune). WItli the statutory co-operation of the 
 (lommune, the Htate shall appoint teachers In 
 the public folk-st'hools from the number of those 
 (|ua'illed (for such posts). 
 
 Article ac. — The means forestabllHliIng, inain- 
 lalnliiK, arKl enlarKhiK the public folk-.sehools 
 shall be provided by tlu; (y'ommunes, ubich may, 
 however, be assisted by the State in proven cases 
 of parochial inability. The obligations of third 
 l)ersons — based on special legal titles — remain 
 in force. The State, therefore, gimrantees to 
 teachers in folk-schools a steady income suitable 
 to local circumstances. In public folk-schools 
 education shall be imparted free of charge. 
 
 Article a6. — A special law will regulate all 
 matters of education. 
 
 Article 27. — Every Prussian is entitled to ex- 
 press his opinion freely by word, writing, print, 
 or artistic representation. Censorship may not 
 be introduced ; every other restriethm on freedom 
 of the Press will only be Imposed by law. 
 
 Article 38. — Offences committed by word, 
 writing, print, or artistic representation will be 
 punished in accordance with the general penal 
 code. 
 
 Article 29. — All Pnissinns are entitled to meet 
 in closed rooms, peacefully and unarmed, with- 
 out previous permission from the authorities. 
 But this provision docs not apply to open-air 
 meetings, which are subject to the law with re- 
 spect to previous permission from the authori- 
 ties. 
 
 Article 30. — All Prussians have the right to 
 assemble (in societies) for such purposes as do not 
 contravene the penal laws. The law will regu- 
 late, witli special regard to the preservation of 
 public security, the exercise of '.'.le right guaran- 
 teed by this and the preceding orticle. 
 
 Article 31. — The law shall determine the con- 
 ditions on which corporate rights may be granted 
 or refused. 
 
 Article 33. — The right of petitioning belongs 
 to all Prussians. Petitions under a collective 
 name are only permitted to authorities and cor- 
 porations. 
 
 Article 33. — The privacy of letters is inviola- 
 ble. The necessary restrictions of this right, in 
 cases of war and of criminal investigation, will 
 be determined by law. 
 
 Article 34. — All Prussians are bound to bear 
 arms. The extent and manner of this duty will 
 be fixed by law. 
 
 Article 35. — The army comprises all sections 
 "■■ dli 
 
 of the standing army and the Landwehr (terri- 
 Volkschulo" better than by 
 
 •We cannot translate 
 'foUc-scbool." 
 
 torlol forces). In th(< event of war, the King can 
 <'all<iut the l.andsturm In arcon lance with the law. 
 
 Article 36. — 'I'he armi'd force (of the nation) 
 cull only be I'lnployrd fur the suppression of In- 
 ternal troubles, and the exn iillon of the laws, in 
 the cases and inanner speeilled by statute, and on 
 till' re(|uisili(ii 'I the civil authorities. In the 
 latter respeit 'Xceptlons will have to be deter- 
 mined by law. 
 
 Article 37.— The military Judiciary of the army 
 Is restricted to penal mattrrs. and will be regii- 
 lateil by law. Provlsloim with ri'gard to mlll- 
 tarv discipline will remain the subject of special 
 orilhianci'S. 
 
 Article 38.— The armed force (of the nathui) 
 may not deliberate either when on or off duty; 
 nor may it otlierwl.se assemble than when com- 
 manded to do HO. Assemblii'S and meetings of 
 the l.aiidwehr for the purpose of discussing mili- 
 tary institutions, commands and ordinances, are 
 forbidden even when It is not called out. 
 
 Article 39.— The provisions of .\rts. Ti, (1, 20, 
 ;tO. and ICJ will only apply to the army in so far 
 as they (1(1 not c(mlllct with military laws and 
 rules of discipline. 
 
 Article 40. — The establishment of feudal ten- ■/ 
 ures is forbidden. The Keiidal Union still exist- 
 ing with respect to surviving llefs shall be dis- 
 solved by law. 
 
 Article 41. — The provisions of Art, 40 do not 
 apply to Crown tiefs oi* to non-.'itate llefs. 
 
 Article 43. — Abolished without compensatl(jn, 
 in accordance with special laws passed, are: 1. 
 The exercise or transfer of judicial power con- 
 nected with the posseasion of certain lands, to- 
 gether with the (lues and exemptions iw'cruing 
 from this right ; 3. The obligationsarising from 
 patriarchal jurisdiction, vassalage, and former tax 
 and trading institutions. And with these rights 
 are also abolished the counter-servicesand burdens 
 hitherto therewith connected. 
 
 Article 43. — The person of the King is Invhila- 
 ble. 
 
 Article~44. — The King's Ministers are responsi- 
 ble. All Oovernment acts (documentary) of the 
 King reiiuire for their validity the approval of a 
 >Iinister, who thereby assumes responsibility for 
 them. 
 
 Article 45. — The King alone is invested with 
 executive power, lie appoints and dismisses 
 Ministers. He orders the promulgathm of laws, 
 and Issues the necessary ordinances for their exe- 
 cution. 
 
 Article 46. — The King is Commander-in-Chief 
 of tlie army. 
 
 Article 47.— The King fills all posts in the 
 army, as well as in other branches of the State 
 service, in so far us not otherwise ordained by 
 law. 
 
 Article 48.— The King has the right to declare 
 war and make peace, and to conclude other 
 treaties with foreign governments. The latter 
 require for their validity the assent of the Cham- 
 bers in so far as they are commercial treaties, or 
 impose burden.s on the State, or obligations on 
 its individual subjects. 
 
 Article 49.— The King has the right to par- 
 don, an(' to mitigate punishment. But in favour • 
 of a Minister condemned for his olficial acts, 
 this right can only be exercised on the motion of 
 that Chamber whence his indictment emanated. 
 Only by special law can the Kmg suppress in- 
 quiries already instituted. 
 
 575 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PnUHHIA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PUUSHIA. 
 
 Article 50.— Tlic Kliij? nmy ronfcr imlvrn nml 
 other ilUtiiictioim. nut larryiiiK with tliciii iirivi 
 li'Ki'H. Ill' rxcrriiw'M the rlxht of coinuKu In m- 
 fonliiiuT with tlic law. 
 
 Article sx. — Tht- Khig convoliuM tlii< CIiiiim' 
 iMrN, and Wdhch thrir M'DHinnH. IIi; nmy iliHwilvi' 
 •4 botli lit onci', i>r only oni' iit 11 tinir. In hiicIi 11 
 ciue, liowvvcr, the I'lectoni niiiHt lie iinhciiiIiIi'iI 
 within u i)(>riiMl of (H) tlnyi, iinil thr ('hitiiibrrs 
 luinnioncil within 11 pi'riod of (M) ilsyfi rcupi'ct' 
 Ivf'ly lifter the iUhhoIiiIIoh. 
 
 Article 5a.— The KIiik con mljoiim thu Chiini- 
 bcrM. Hut without their luwent thiH iKljouni' 
 iiienl, nmy not exceed the Hpiiee of *) dayB, nor 
 liu repented iluriiiK the Hiinie Hciuiion. 
 
 Article 53.— Tlie (!rown, ncconllnR to the 
 luWH of the Hoyul Hoiihu, Ih iKireditiiry in the 
 mule lliiu of tliut Ilouac in necordnnco with the 
 law of priinoKen tuns imd UKnutic sueccsHlon 
 
 Article 54.— Tlie Klnj? iittninH his iniijority on 
 conipletlnft Ids I8th yeiir. In pnsenre of the 
 united I'lmiiiberH he will tiiko the otith to oli- 
 wrve the CoiiHtltutlon of the Monarchy Htciid- 
 fiiHtly uud invioliibly, and to rule in accordnncu 
 with it and the Iuwh. 
 
 Article 55. — Without the consent of both 
 Chuinbers the Kin)i; cannot also bo ruler of for- 
 I'Ikii rciilius (lielchc). 
 
 Article 56.— If thu King is u minor, or is 
 otherwise lastingly prevented from ruling him- 
 self, the Hegency will be undertaken by that 
 agnate (Art. 53) who has attained his majority and 
 stands nearest the Crown. Ho has Immediately to 
 convoke the Cliumbcrs, which, in united session, 
 will decide as to the necessity of the Regency. 
 
 Article S7- —If there be no agnate of age, and 
 if no legal provision has previously been made 
 for such a contingency, the Ministry of Htiite will 
 » convoke the Clminbers, which shall then elect a 
 Hegeut in united session. And imtil the assump- 
 tion of the Hegency by him, the Ministry of State 
 will conduct the Government. 
 
 Article 58. — The Hcgent will exercise the pow- 
 ers invested in tlie King In the lattcr's name ; and, 
 after institution of the Itegency, he will take an 
 oath before the united Chambers to observe the 
 Constitution of the Monarchy steadfastly and in- 
 violably, and to ride in accordance with it and 
 tb^ laws. Until this oath is taken, the whole 
 M., stry of State for the time being will remoin 
 responsible for all acts of the Government. 
 
 Article 59. — To the Crown Trust Fund appcr- 
 talug the annuity drawn from the income of the 
 forests and domains. 
 
 Article 60. — The Ministers, as well as the State 
 ollicials appointctl to represent them, have access 
 1 to each Clmmbcr, and must at all times be listened 
 to at request. Each Chamber con demand the 
 presence of the Ministers. The Ministers are 
 oidy entitled to \ >>te in one or other of the Cham- 
 bers when membirs of It. 
 
 Article 61. — On the resolution of a Clmmbcr 
 the Jlinistcrs may be impeached for the crime of 
 infringing the Constitution, of bribery, and of 
 ' treason. The decision of such a case lies with 
 
 the Supreme Tribunal of the Monarchy sitting in 
 United Senates. As long as two Supreme Trl- 
 
 bunals co-exist, they shall unite for the above 
 
 purpose. Further details as to matters of re- 
 sponsibility (criminal) procedure (th'jreupon), and 
 punishracutfi, are reserved for a special law. 
 
 Article 62. — The legislative power will be ex- 
 ercised in common by the King and by two Chom- 
 
 IxTH. Kvery law reqiiiri-M the luwcnt of the King 1 
 and t he two ( 'liainlxTH. Money liills and budget* 
 shall llrst Ih' laid iH'fore the Hecoiid Chaiiiber; 
 and thelatterd. e., budgets) shall either be wholly 
 ap|in>ved by the First Clmniber, or rejectoi alto- 
 gether. 
 
 Article 63. — In tlie event only of its being 
 urgently nccesHary to maintain public Heeurlty, 
 or deal with on unusual state of dlsln'ss wlien 
 the ('liamlN'rH are not in session, ordlimnees, 
 wliieh do not contravene the ('onstltutlon, may 
 lie issued with the forie of law, on the responsi- 
 bility of the whole Ministry. Hut these must be 
 laid for approval before the Chamlieni at their 
 next meeting. 
 
 Article 64, — The King, as well as eoeh Cham- 
 lH!r, has the right of proposing laws. Hills that . 
 have been rejected by one of tlu^ ClmmlK'rs, of 
 by th(' King, cannot be re-irtroduced in the 
 same session. 
 
 Articles 65-<i8.— The First (.'hamb'.'r is formed 
 by royal orainance, which can o;i!y be altered 
 by a law to be Issued with tlie apfi'.ival of the ^ 
 <;iiuuibers. Tlic First (Jhamber is cimiposed of 
 members appointed by the King, \ih\i hen^dlt- 
 ary rl)j[hts, or only for life. 
 
 Article 69. — The Second Chamber consists of 
 4!J0 members.* Tli(! electoral districts arc de- 
 terminiMl by law. They may consist of on(! or 
 more C^'lrcfcs (Arrondlssements), or of one or 
 more of the larger towns. 
 
 Article 70. — Every Prussian who has com- 
 pleted his astli year (1. e., attained his maiority), 
 and is capable of taking part In the elections of 
 the Commune where he is domiciled, is entitled ^ 
 to act as a primary voter (UrwUhlcr). Any one 
 who Is entitled to take part In the election of 
 scverol Communes, can only exercise his right as 
 primary voter in one Commune. 
 
 Article 71. — For every 250 souls of the popu- 
 lation, one (secondary) elector (Wahlmann) shall 
 be chosen. The primary voters fall into three 
 classes, in proportion to the amount of direct 
 taxes they pay — and in such a manner as tirat 
 each class will represent a third of tlie sum-total 
 of tlie taxes paid by the primary voters. This 
 lum-total is reckoned : — (a) by Parishes, in case 
 the Commune docs not form of itself a primary 
 electoral district, (b) by (Government) Districts 
 (Bezirke), in case the primary electoral district con- 
 sists of several Communes. The first class consists 
 of those primary voters, highest in the scale of 
 taxation, who pay a third of the total. The sec- 
 ond class consists of those primary voters, next 
 highest in the scale, whose taxes wrm a second 
 third of the whole ; and the third doss is made up 
 of the remaining tax-payers (lowest in the scale) 
 who contribute the other tliird of the whole. 
 Each class votes opart, and for a third of the 
 secondary electors. These classes may be divided 
 into several voting sections, noi ■■ of which, how- 
 ever, must include more than 500 primary voters. 
 The secondary voters are electetl in each class 
 from the number of the primary voters in their 
 district, without regard to the classes. 
 
 Article 72. — The deputies ore elected by the 
 secondary voters. Details will be regulated by 
 an electoral law, which must also make the neces- 
 bory provision for those cities where flour and 
 slaughter duties are levied instead of direct taxes. 
 
 • Orifrinally S50 only— a number which, In 1881, was 
 increased by 3, for the Principality of Hohentollem, and 
 In 1887 by 80 tor the annexed provinces. 
 
 576 
 
CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP PRUSSIA. 
 
 Article 73.— The lp«iBlutlvn poriiMl of the Sec- 
 ond (IlminlMT Is (IximI iit llirro yciirs, 
 
 Article 74.— Elljfllilo iw (Icpiily to tli" Hornnd 
 
 C'huinliur U every I'rtiHfiiiui who Iiuh completed 
 
 . bin tliirtloth year, hiis forfeited nonu of his elvll 
 
 V rIgliiS In eonfMM|iien('o of 11 valid judlcliil tu'ntcnec, 
 ami liofi Ih'I'ii 11 I'mssliui Hulijcct for tlireo yciirs. 
 The president iiiid iiu'iiiherii of the Supreme 
 (.'hnmocr of AcroiinlH euniiot Hit in either llougt; 
 of the Diet (l.andtiiK). 
 
 Article 75.— After the lupso of n legislative 
 period the C Immbcrs will Im? eleeled uiiew, mid 
 the Hitme in the event of dUiuiliitlon. In both 
 ciwes, prevloiiH members lire ruollgible. 
 
 Article 76.— Hoth Houses of the Diet of the 
 Moimrrhy shiill be regularly convened by the 
 King In the perhul from the beginning of Novcm- 
 \J b ;r in eiw h year till the middle of the followinf 
 Januiiry, and otherwUo aa often us circumstAnces 
 ""Miuiro. 
 
 Article 77. — The Chambers will be opened and 
 closed by the Ivliig In person, or liy n Minister 
 appointed by him to do so, at a combined sit- 
 ting of the Cliamberg. Doth Chambers shall be 
 siiniiltaneousiy convened, opened, adjourned, and 
 closed. If one Chamber Is dissolved, the other 
 shall be at the sumo time prorogued. 
 
 Article 78, — Each ('hamber will examine the 
 credeiitlnls ol Us members, mid decide thereupon. 
 It will regulnt ; its own order of business and dls- 
 clpline by spr ,inl ordinances, nnd elect its presi- 
 dent, vico-pr 'sldents, and olBce-1 carers. Civil 
 scrvonts require no leave of nbserco In order to 
 enter the Chui'iber. If a inembei of the Chamber 
 accepts u salaried offlco of the State, or is pro- 
 moted In the ssrvico of the State to a pi)st Involv- 
 
 V Ing higher rank or increase of pay, he shall lose 
 his scat and vovc in the Chamber, and can only 
 recover his place in it by '"-election. No one 
 can bo racmber of both Chami> ts. 
 
 Article 79. — The sittings of both Chambers 
 arc public. On tho motion of its president, 1 
 of ten members, each Chamber may meet iu 
 
 Erivate sitting — at which this motion will then 
 ave to be discussed. 
 
 Article 80. — Neither of the Chambers can pass 
 a resolution unle there be present a majority 
 of the legal number of its members. Each 
 Chamber passes its resolutions by absolute mu- 
 ^ jority of votes, subject to any exceptions that 
 may bo determined by the order of business for 
 elections. 
 
 Article 81. — Each Chamber lia.^ the separate 
 right of presenting addresses to the King. No 
 one may In person present to the Chai"bers, or 
 to one of tlier.i, a petition or address, Each 
 Chamber can transmit the communications made 
 to it to the Ministers, and demand of them an 
 answer to any grievances thus conveyed. 
 
 Article 82. — Each Chamber is entitled to ap- 
 point commissions of Inquiry into facts — for its 
 own information. 
 
 Article 83. — The members of both Chambers 
 are representatives of the whole people. Tlicy 
 vole according to their simple convictions, and 
 are not bound by commissions or instructions. 
 
 Article 84. — For their votes in the Chamber 
 they can never be called to account, and for the 
 opinions they express therein they can only be 
 
 V called to account within the Chamber, in virtue 
 of the order of business. No member of a 
 Chamber can, without Hs assent, be had up for 
 «zamiuation, or be arrested during the Parlia- 
 
 mentary sesNlon for nny penal olTrncc, unlosx ho 
 be taken In the act, or in the course of the fol- 
 lowing day. A Himllar usMent Nhall be iieccsMury 
 In the rase of arrest for debts. All crlinlnal 
 proeeedingH ugainst a member of the (.'hamlier, 
 and all arrests for |ireliniinury examination, or 
 civil arrest, shall be sUHpcndeil iluring thi; I'ar- 
 llamcntarv session on demand from the Cluimber 
 concerneil. 
 
 Article 85. — The members of the Sc'cond 
 Clhamber shall receive out of the State Treasury 1 
 travelling expenses and daily feci , according to a '■' 
 statutory scale; and renunciation thereof shall 
 be Inadmissible. 
 
 Article 86.— Tho judicial power will bo exor- 
 cised in tlie name of the King, by independent 
 tribunals subject to no other authority but that 
 of the law. .lodgment shall be executeil in the 
 nami^ of the King. 
 
 Article 87.— The judges will be appoinied for 
 life by the King, or In his name. They can only 
 be removed or temporarily suspended from otilce 
 by judicial sentence, and for reasons forestu'ii by 
 the mw. Tempomry suspcjision from olllce (not 
 ensuing on the strength of a law), and Involuntary 
 traimfei to another place, or to the retired list, 
 can only take place from the causes and In tho 
 form meiitioned by law, anil In virtue of a Judicial 
 seutence. Hut these iirovisions do not apply to 
 cases of transfer, renclered necessary by changes 
 in the organisation of the courts or their districts. 
 
 Article 88 (aboUithed). 
 
 Artir ' t 89. — The organisation of tho tribunals 
 will oniy bo determined by law. 
 
 Article 90 — ."o the Juuiciul olBcc oniy thos-' 
 can be appointed who have qualified themselves 
 for It as I rescrilwd by law. 
 
 Article >n.— Courts for special kinds of affairs, 
 and, in paf.lcular, tribunals for trade and com- 
 merce, shall bo established by statute in those 
 places where 1 icul needs may require them. Tho 
 organisation an I Jurisdiction of such courts, as 
 well us their pr )ccdure and the appointment of 
 their members, the special status of the latter, 
 and the duratl'/n of their office, will be determined 
 by law. 
 
 Article 9;,. — In Prussia theie shall only bo one 
 supreme tri junal. 
 
 Article 93. — Tho proceedings of the civil and 
 criminal CO, irts shall be public. But the public 
 may bo excluded by an openly declared resolution 
 of the court, when order or good morals may 
 seem endangered (by their admittance). In otlier 
 casts publicity of proceedings can only be limited 
 by law. 
 
 Article 94. — In criminal cases the guilt of the 
 accused shall be determined by jurymen, in so 
 far as exceptions are not determined by a law 
 issued witli the previous assent of the Cham- 
 bers. The formation of a jury-court shall bo 
 regulated by a law. 
 
 Article 95.— By a law issued with the previ- 
 ous assent of the Chambers, there may be estab- 
 lished a special court whereof the jurisdiction 
 shall include the crimes of higli treason, as well 
 as those crimes against the internal and external 
 security of the State, which may be iLssigned to 
 it by law. 
 
 Article 96. — The competence of the courts and 
 o." the administrative authorities shall be deter- 
 mined by law. Conflicts of authority between 
 tho courts and the administrative authorities shall 
 be settled by a tribunal appointed by law. 
 
 m 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF PUU8SIA. 
 
 Article 07. — A liiw shall determiuo the condi- 
 tions on which public, civil, and military otUcials 
 may Ih; sued for wrongs committed by them in 
 exceeding their functions. But the previous 
 assent of olllcial superiors need not be rc- 
 (luestcd. 
 
 Article 98. — Tlie special legal status (Rechts- 
 vcrhilltnissc) of State olllcials (including advo- 
 cates and solicitors) not belonging to the judicial 
 class, shall be determined by a law, which, with- 
 out rostricting the Government in the choice of 
 its executive agonta, will grant civil servants 
 proper protection against arbitniry dismissal 
 from their posts or diminution of their pay. 
 
 Article 99.— All income and expenditure of 
 . the State must be pre-estimated for every year, 
 ■^ and be presented in the Budget, which shall be 
 annually fixed by a law. 
 
 Article 100. — Taxes and dues for the State 
 Treasury may only bo raised in so far as they 
 shall have been included in the Budget or or- 
 dained by special laws. 
 
 Article 101. — In the matter of taxes there 
 / must bo no privilege of persons. Existing tax- 
 ^ laws shall be subjected to a revision, and all 
 ^ such privileges abolislied. 
 
 Article 102.— State and Communal oflicers can 
 only levy dues on the strength of a law. 
 
 Article 103. — The contracting of loans for the 
 State Treasury can only be effected on the strength 
 of a law ; anil tlie same holds good of guarantees 
 involving a burden to the State. 
 
 Article 104. — Budget transgressions require 
 subscfiuent approval by the Chambers. The Bud- 
 get will be examined and audited by the Supreme 
 Cliamber of Accounts. The general Budget ac- 
 counts of every year, including tabular stiitistics 
 of the National Debt, shall, with the comments 
 of the Supremo Chamber of Accounts, be laid 
 before the Chambers for the jjurpose of exonerat- 
 ing the Government. A special law will regulate 
 the establishment and functions of the Supreme 
 Chamber of Accounts. 
 
 Article 105. — The represenlaliim and adminis- 
 tration of the Communes. Arrondissements and 
 Provinces of the Prussian State, will be deter- 
 mined in detail by specibl laws. 
 
 Article lo6. — Laws and ordinances become 
 binding after having been published in the form 
 prescribed by law. The examination of the valid- 
 ity of properly promulgated Royal ordinances is 
 not witliin the competence of the authorities, but 
 of the Chambers. 
 
 Article 107. — The Constitution may be altered 
 by ordinary legislative means; and sucli altera- 
 tion sliall merely require the usual absolute ma- 
 iority in both Chambers on two divisions (of the 
 louse), between whioli there must elapse a period 
 of at least twerly-one days. 
 
 Article 108.— The members of both Chambers, 
 and all State oflieials, shall take the oath of fealty 
 and obedience to tlie King, and swear conscienti- 
 ously to observe the Constitution. The army 
 will not take the oath to the Constitution. 
 
 Article 109.— Existing ta.xes and dues will 
 continue to be raised ; and all provisions of ex- 
 isting statute-books, single laws, and ordinances, 
 which do not contravene the present Constitution, 
 will remain in force until altered by law. 
 
 Article no. — All authorities holding appoint- 
 ments in virtue of existing laws will continue 
 their activity pending the issue of organic laws 
 aficctiug them. 
 
 Article m. — In the event of war or revolu- 
 tion, and pressing danger to public security 
 therefrom ensuing, Articles 5, 0, 7, 27, 28, 20, 'SO, 
 and liO of the Constitution may be suspended for 
 a certain time, and in certain districts — the de- 
 tails to be determined by law. 
 
 Article 11 a. — Until issue of the law contem- 
 plated in Article 26, educational m'itters will be 
 coutroll(;d by the laws at present in force. 
 
 Article 113. — Prior to the vevision of the 
 criminal code, a special law will deal with 
 offences committed by word, writing, print, or 
 artistic repriisentation. 
 
 Article 114 (abulished). 
 
 Article 115. — Until issue of t"-ie electoral law 
 contemplated in Article 72, the ordinance of 30th 
 Jlay, 184i), touching the return of deputies to 
 the Second Chamber, will remain in force; and 
 with this ordinance is associated the provisional 
 electoral law for elections to the Second Cham- 
 ber in the llohenzollern Principalities of 30th 
 April, 1851. 
 
 Article 116. — The two supreme tribunals still 
 existing sliall be combined into one — to be or- 
 ganised by a special law. 
 
 Article 117. — The claims of State oflieials ap- 
 pointed before the promulgation of the Constitu- 
 tion shall be taken into special consideration by 
 the Civil Servant Law. 
 
 Article 118. — Should changes in the present 
 Constitution be rendered necessary by the Ger- 
 man Federal Constitution to be drawn up on the 
 basis of 'he Draft of 26th May, 1849, such altera- 
 tions will be decreed by the King; and the ordi- 
 nances to this effect loid before tlie Chonibers, at 
 their first meeting. The Chambers will then 
 have to decide whether the changes thus pro- 
 visionally ordained harmonise witli the Federal 
 Constitution of Germany. 
 
 Article 119. — The Royal oath mentioned in 
 Article 54, as well as the oath prescribed to be 
 taken by both Chambers and all State officials, 
 will have to be tendered immediately after the 
 legislative revision of the present Constitution 
 (Articles 62 and 108). 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our 
 signature and seal. 
 
 Given at Charlottenburg, the 31st January, 
 1850. (Signed) FniEDUicii Wiliielm. 
 
 In connection with Article 44 the course of do- 
 mestic and parliamentary politics drew forth the 
 following Declaratory Ifcscr.'pt from the German 
 Emperor and King of Prussia, in 1882: — "The 
 iliflit of the King to conduct the Government and 
 pt-icy of Prussia according to his own discre- 
 tion is limited by the Constitution (of January 81, 
 1850), but not abolished. The Government acts 
 (documentary) of the King require the counter- 
 signature of a Minister, and, as was also the case 
 before the Constitution was issued, have to be 
 represented by the King's Ministers; but they 
 nevertheless remain Government acts of the King, 
 from whose decisions they result, and who thereby 
 constitutionally expresses his will and pleasure. It 
 is therefore not admissible, and leads to obscura- 
 tion of the constitutional riglits of the King, when 
 their exercise is so spoken of as if lliey emanated 
 from the Ministci-s for the time being responsible 
 for them, and not iroin the King himself. The 
 Constitution of Prussia is the expression of the 
 monarchical traditica of this country, whose de- 
 velopment is based on the living and actual re- 
 
 5V8 
 
CONSTITUTION OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 litt ion.s of its Kings to the people. Tliesc relntions, 
 moreover, do not admit of being tnuisferrcd to 
 tlie Ministera appointed bv the King, for they iit- 
 tiicli to the person of tlie King. Their preserva- 
 tion, too, is a political necesisity for Prussia. It i 
 is, tiierefore, my will that both in Prussia and in 
 the Legislative Hodiea of the realm (or R ich), . 
 \/ there may be no doubt left as to my own a nsti- , 
 tutional right and that of my successors to per- 
 sonally conduct the policy of my Government ; 
 and that the theory shall always be gainsaid that 
 the [doctrine of the] inviolability of the person 
 of the King, which has always existed in Prus- i 
 sia, and is enunciated by Article 43 of the Con- | 
 stitution, or the necessity of a responsible coui. 
 signature of my Government acts, deprives then, 
 of the character of Royal and independent deci- 
 sions. It is the duty of my Ministers to support 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE ROMAN 
 EMPIRE. Sec Ro.me: B. C. 31-A. D. 14, and 
 A. I). '384-305. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE ROMAN RE- 
 PUBLIC. Sec Home: IJ. C. 509, to U. C. 280; 
 also CoMiTi.v Cknturiat.v; Comitlv Cukiat.a.; 
 Consuls, Roman ; Consui.au Tuibunks ; Senate, 
 Roman; Pleoeianb. 
 
 my constitutional rights by protecting them from 
 doubt and obscuration, and 1 e.\pect thi^ same 
 from all State servants (IJeamten) who have taken 
 to me the olllcial oath. I am far from wishing to 
 impair the freedom of elections, but in the case of 
 those olllcials who are intrusted with the execu- 
 tion of my Government acts, anil may, therefore, 
 in conformity with the disciplinary law forfeit 
 their situations, the duty solemnly undertaken by 
 their oath of service also applies to tli(^ representa- 
 tion by them of the policy of my Government 
 during election times. The faithful performance 
 of this duty I shall thankfully acknowledge, and 
 I expect from all oflicials that, in view of their 
 oath of allegiance, they will refrain from all agi- 
 tation against my Government al.so during elec- 
 tions. — Berlin, "ji\n\niry 4, 1883. — Wiliielm. 
 Von Bih.mauck. To the Ministry of State." 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SOLON. See 
 
 Atiikns: B. C. 504. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN (1812). See 
 Spain: A. 1). 1814-1827 (1869). See Si-ain; 
 
 A. D. 1800-1873 (The Early Kingdoms.) 
 
 Sec Cortes. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SULLA. See Rcmk: 
 
 B. C. 88-78. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 "Four fundamental lows account for the pres- 
 ent political constitution of Sweden: the law 
 concerning the form of government (regerings- 
 formcn) dated Juno 0, 1801); the law on represen- 
 tation (riksdags-ordningen), June 22, 1860; the 
 order of successiou (successions-orduingen), Sept. 
 20, 1810; and the law on the liberty of the press 
 (tryckfrihets-fiirordningen), July 10, 1812. The 
 imion with Norway is regulated by the act of 
 union (riks-akten), Aug. 0. 1815. . . . The re- 
 presentation of the nation, since the law of June 
 22, 1808, rests not as formerly on the division of 
 the nation into four orders, but on election only. 
 Two chambers, having equal authority, compose 
 the diet. The members of the first chamber are 
 elected for n.-j years by the 'landstingen' (spe- 
 cies of provincial assemblies) and by the ' stads- 
 fullmllktigc' (municipal counsellors) of cities 
 which do not sit in the ' landsting. ' " — Lalor's 
 Cyclopedia of Political Scienee, v. 3, pp. 834-835. 
 —"The First Chamber consists (1892) of 147 
 members, or one deputy for every 30,000 of tlic 
 popidatiou. The election of the members takes 
 place by the ' Landstings, ' or provincial repre- 
 sentations, 25 in number, and the municipal cor- 
 porations of the towns, not already represented 
 in the 'Landstings,' Stockholm, GOtebcrg, MalmO 
 and NorrkOping. All members of the First 
 Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and 
 must have possessed for at least three years pre- 
 vious to the election either real property to the 
 taxed value of 80,000 kroner, or 4,444 1., or an 
 annual income of 4,000 kroner, or 223 1. They 
 are elected for the term of nine years, and obtain 
 no payment for their services. The Second Cliam- 
 l)er consists (Autumn 1892) of 228 members, of 
 whom 76 are elected by the towns and 146 by the 
 rural districts, one representative being returned 
 for every 10,000 of the population of towns, one 
 fcr every 'Domeaga,' or rural district, of under 
 40 000 inhabitants, and two for rural districts of 
 
 I over 40,000 inhabitants. All natives of Sweden, 
 I aged 21, possessing real property to the taxe(l 
 i value of 1,000 kroner, or 56 1., or farming, for 
 a period of not less than live years, landed 
 property to the taxed value of 0,000 kroner, or 
 333 1., or paying income tox on an annual in- 
 come of 800 kroner, or 45 1., are electors; and all 
 natives, aged 25, possessing, and having ]ms- 
 sessed at least one year previous to the election, 
 the s^ime qvialifications, may be elected members 
 of the Second Chamber. The number of quuli- 
 fled electors to the Second Chamber in 1890 was 
 i 288,098, or 0.0 of the population; only 110,890, 
 I or 38.5 of the electors actually voted. In the 
 smaller towns and country districts the election 
 may either be direct or indirect, according to the 
 wish of the majority. The election is for the 
 term of three years, and the members obtain 
 salaries for their services, at the rate of 1,200 
 kroner, or 07 1., for each session of four months, 
 besides travelling expenses. . . . The members 
 of both Chambers are elected by ballot, both in 
 town and country." — Sldtesv.an's Year-book, 1893, 
 ;). 905. — "The IJict, or R!-sdag, assembles every 
 year, in ordinary session, on the 15th of January, 
 or the day following, if the 1.5th is a holiday. It 
 may be convoked in extraordinary session by the 
 king. In case of the decease, absence, or illness 
 of the king, the Diet may be, convoked extraor- 
 dinarily by the Council of State, or even, if this 
 latter neglects to do so, by the tribunals of seer nd 
 instance. The king may dissolve the two cham- 
 bers simultaneously, or one of them alone, dur- 
 ing the ordinary sessions, but the new Diet as- 
 sembles after the three months of the dissolution, 
 and can only be dissolved again four months 
 after resuming its sitting. The king dissolves 
 the extraordinary session when ho deems proper. 
 . . . The Diet divides the right of initiative 
 with the king : tlie consent of the synod is neces- 
 sary for ecclesiastical Laws. . . . Every three 
 
 679 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. 
 
 ypiirs the Diet names a commission of twenty- 
 four members (twelve from eacli cliambor), 
 charged with the duty of electing six persons 
 who are commissioned under the presidency of 
 the Procureur general of the Diet to watch over 
 the liberty of the press." — G. Demombynes, Con- 
 gtitiitiont EvrojmeiuKK, v. 1, pp. 84-00. — The fol- 
 lowing^ is the text of the Constitution as adopted 
 in 180i), the subsequent modifications of which 
 are indicated above: 
 
 Form of government adopted by the King and 
 the Estates of the Swedish Healm, nt Stockholm, 
 on the 6th of .Time, 1809; together with the 
 Alterations afterwards introduced. 
 
 We Charles, bv the Grace of God, King of the 
 Swedes, the Goths, and the Vandals, &c. &c. &c. 
 Heir to Norway, I)>ike of Sleswick-Holstein, 
 Stomiam, and Uitmarsen, Count of 01denb\irg 
 ,...d Delnienhorst, &c. &c. &c. make known, that 
 having unlimited conti<lence in the estates of the 
 realm, charged them with drawing up a new 
 form of government, as the perpetual gro\ind- 
 ■work of the prosperity and independence of our 
 common native land, We do hereby perform a 
 dear and pleasing duty in promulgating the fun- 
 damental law (which has been) upon mature de- 
 liberation, framed and adopted by the estates of 
 the realm, and presented inito Us this day, to- 
 gether with their free and unanimous offer of 
 the Swedish crown. Having with deep emotion 
 and an affectionate interest in the prosperity of a 
 nation which lias afforded Us so striking a proof 
 of confidence and attachment, complied with 
 their request. We trust to our endeavors to pro- 
 mote its happiness, as the reciprocal rights and 
 duties of the monarch and the subjects have 
 been marked so distinctly, that, without en- 
 croachment on the sacred nature and power of 
 majesty, the constitutional liberty of the people 
 is protected. We do therefore hereby adopt, 
 sanction, and ratify this form of government, 
 such as it follows here : — 
 
 We the underwritten representatives of the 
 Swedish realm, counts, barons, bishops, knights, 
 nobles, clergymen, burghers, and peasants, as- 
 sembled at a general Diet, in behalf of ourselves 
 and our brethren at home. Do hereby make known, 
 that, having by the late change of government, to 
 which we, the deputies of the Swedish people, 
 gave our unanimous assent, exercised our rights 
 of drawing up a new and improved constitution, 
 ■we have, in repealing those fundamental laws, 
 which down to this day have been in force more 
 or less ; viz. , — The Form of Government of the 
 21st of August 1772, the Act of Union and Se- 
 curity, of the 2l8t of February and the 3d of 
 April 1789, the Ordinonce of Diet, of the 24th of 
 January 1617, as well as all those laws, acts, 
 statutes, and resolutions comprehended under 
 the denomination of fundamental laws; — We 
 have Kesolved to adopt for the kingdom of Swe- 
 den and its dependencies the following constitu- 
 tion, which from henceforth shall be the chief 
 fundamental law of the realm, reserving to Our- 
 selves, before the expiration of the present Diet, 
 to consider the other fundamental laws, men- 
 tioned in tlie S.'ith article of this constitution. 
 
 Article 1. The kingdom of Sweden shall be 
 governed by a king, wlio shall bo hereditary in 
 that order of succession which the estates will 
 further hereafter determine. 
 
 2. The king shall profess the pure evangelical 
 faith, such as is contained and declared In the 
 
 Augsburgian Confession, and explained in the 
 Decree of the Diet at Upsala in the year 1593. 
 
 3. The majesty of the king shall be held 
 sacred and inviolable; and his actions shall not 
 be subject to any censure. 
 
 4. The king shall govern the realm alone, in 
 the manner determined by this constitution. In 
 certain cases, however, (to be specified) ho shall 
 take the opinion of a council of state, which shall 
 be constituti.'d of vrell-informed, experienced, 
 honest, and generally-esteemed native Swedes, 
 noblemen and commoners, who profess the pure 
 evangelical faith. 
 
 5i The council of state shall consist of nine 
 members, viz., the minister of state and justice, 
 who shall always be a member of the king's su- 
 preme court of judicature, the ministtir of state 
 for foreign affairs, six counsellors of state, three 
 of whom at least must have held civ il offices, and 
 the chancellor of the court, or aulic chancellor. 
 The secretaries of state shall have a seat and 
 vote in the council, when they have to report 
 matters there, and in cases that belong to their 
 respective departments. Father and son, or two 
 brothers, shall not be permitted to be constant 
 members of the council of state. 
 
 O. The secretaries of state shall be four, viz. 
 — One for military affairs; a second for public 
 economy, mining, and all other affairs connected 
 with the civil and interior administration ; a third 
 fr,r tlie finances of the realm, inland and foreign 
 commerce, manufactures, &c. ; and the fourtli, 
 for affairs relating to religion, public education, 
 and charities. 
 
 7. All affairs of government shall be laid 
 before the king, and decided in a council of 
 state : those of a ministerial nature, however, ex- 
 cepted, concerning the relations of the realm 
 with foreign powers, and matters of military 
 command, which the king decides in his capacity 
 of commander-in-chief of the land and naval 
 forces. 
 
 8. The king can make no decision in matters 
 in which the council of state are to be heard, un- 
 less at least three counsellors of state, and the 
 secretary of state wliom it concerns, or his deputy- 
 secretary, are present. — All the members of the 
 council shall, upon due notice, attend all deliber- 
 ations deemed of importance, and which concern 
 the general administration of the affairs of the 
 kingdom; such as questions for adopting new 
 statutes, repealing or altering those in existence, 
 introducing new institutions in the different 
 branches of the administration, &c. 
 
 1). Minutes shall be kept of all matters which 
 shall come before the king in his council of state. 
 The ministers of state, the counsellors of state, 
 the aulic chancellor, and the secretaries of state 
 or deputy -secretaries, shall be peremptorily Iwund 
 to deliver their opinions: it is, however, the pre- 
 rogative of tlie king to decide. Should it, how- 
 ever, unexpectedly occur, that the decisions of 
 the king are evidently contrary to the constitu- 
 tion and the common law of the realm, it shall 
 in that case he the duty of the members of the 
 council of state to make spirited remonstrances 
 against such decision or resolution. Unless a 
 different opinion has been recorded in the min- 
 utes (for then the counsellors present shall be con- 
 sidered as having advised the king to the adopted 
 measuret, the members of the council shall be 
 respousfble for their advices, as enacted in the 
 106th article. 
 
 580 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SMTEDEN. 
 
 10. Necessary Informfttions Imving been de- 
 manded and obtainiid fiuir. ••"! proper boards, 
 aiitliorities, and functionaries, tlie atTairs for de- 
 liberation shall be prepared by the secretary of 
 state and eight skilful and impartial men, con- 
 sisting of four nobles and four commoners, in 
 order to their being laid before the king in the 
 council of state. — The secretary, as well as all 
 the other members of this committee (which are 
 nominated by the king) for preparing tlie general 
 aifairs of the kingdom, shall upon all occasions, 
 when so met, deli ver tlieir opinions to the minutes, 
 which shall afterwards be reported to the king 
 and tlie council of state. 
 
 11. As to the management of the ministerial 
 affairs, they may be prepared and conducted in 
 the manner wliich appears most 8uital)le to the 
 king. It appertains to the minister for foreign 
 aifairs to lay such mutters before him in the 
 presence of the aulic chancellor, or some other 
 member of the council, if the chancellor cannot 
 attend. In the absence of the minister of state 
 this duty devolves upon the aulic cliancellor, or 
 any other member of the council of state, whom 
 his majesty may appoint. After having ascer- 
 tained the opinions of these otlicial persons en- 
 tered in tlie minutes, and for whieli they shall 
 be responsible, the king shall pronounce his de- 
 cision in their presence. It shall be the duty 
 of the aulic chancellor to keep the minutes on 
 these occasions. The king shall communicate to 
 the council of state the information on these 
 topics as may be necessary, in order that tliey 
 may have a general knowledge even of this branch 
 of the administration. 
 
 12. The king can enter into treaties and alli- 
 ances with foreign powers, after having ascer- 
 tained, as enacted in the prpceding article, the 
 opinion of the minister of state for foreign af- 
 fairs, and of the aulic chancellor. 
 
 13. When the king is at liberty to commence 
 war, or conclude peace, he shall convoke an ex- 
 traordinarj- council of state; the ministers of 
 state, the counsellors of state, the aulic chancel- 
 lor, and the secretaries of state ; and, after having 
 explained to them the circumstances wliicli re- 
 quire their consideration, lie shall desire their 
 opinions thereon, which each of them shall in- 
 dividually deliver, on the responsibility defined 
 in the 107th article. The king shall thereafter 
 have a ri^lit to adopt the resolutions, or make 
 such decision as may appear to him most bene- 
 ficial for the kingdom. 
 
 14. The king sliall have the supreme com- 
 mand of the military forces by sea and land. 
 
 15. The king shall decide in all matters of 
 raititary command, in the presence of that min- 
 ister or oHicer to whom he has entrusted the 
 general management tliereof. It shall be the 
 duty of this person to give his opinion, under 
 responsibility, upon the resolutions taken by the 
 kin^, and in case of tlicse being contrary to bis 
 advice, he shall be bound to enter his objections 
 and counsel in the minutes, which the king must 
 confirm by his own signature. Should this min- 
 ister or olflcial person find the resolutions of the 
 king to be of a flniigerous tendency, or founded 
 on mistaken or erroneous principles, he shall ad- 
 vise his majesty to convoke two or more military 
 officers of a superior rank into a council of war. 
 The king shall, however, be at liberty to comply 
 with or to reject this proposition for a council of 
 war; and ii approved of, he may take what no- 
 
 tice he pleases of the opinions of such council, 
 which shall, however, be entered in tlie minutes. 
 lO. The king shall promote the exercise of 
 justice and riglit, and prevent partiality and in- 
 justice. He shall not deprive any subject of 
 life, honour, liberty, and property, without pre- 
 vious trial and sentence, and in that order which 
 the laws of the country prescribe. He shall not 
 disturb, or cause to be disturbed, the peace of any 
 individual in his house. He shall not banish any 
 from one place to another, nor constrain, or cause 
 to be constrained, tlie conscience of any; but 
 shall protect every one in tlie free exercise of his 
 religion, provideil he does not thereby disturb 
 the tranquillity of society, or occasion public 
 oilence. The king shall cause every one to bo 
 tried' in that court to which he properly belongs. 
 
 1 7. The king's prerogative of justice shiill be 
 invested in twelve men, learned in the law, six 
 nobles, and six ccmimoners, who have shown 
 knowledge, experience, and integrity in judicial 
 matters. They shall be styled counsellors of 
 
 ^ justice, and constitute the king's supreme court 
 of justice. 
 
 18. The supreme court of justice shall t)iko 
 cognizance of petitions to the king for cancelling 
 sentences which have obtained legal force, and 
 granting extension of time in lawsuits, when it 
 has been, through some circumstances, forfeited. 
 
 lO. If information be sought by judges or 
 courts of justice concerning the proper interpre- 
 tation of the law, the explanation thus required 
 shall be given by the said supreme court. 
 
 20. In time of peace, all cases referred from 
 the courts martial sliall be decided in the Bupreii 
 court of justice. Two military officers of a su- 
 perior degree, to be nominated by the king, shall, 
 with the responsibility of judges, attend and 
 have a vote in such cases in the supreme court. 
 The number of judges may not, however, exceed 
 eight. In time of war, all such cases shall be 
 tried as enacted by the articles of war. 
 
 21. The king, should he think fit to attend, 
 shall have right to two votes in causes decided 
 by the supreme court. All questions concerning 
 explanations of tlie law shall be reported to him, 
 and his suffrages counted, even though he should 
 not have attended the deliberations of the court. 
 
 22. Causes of minor importance may be de- 
 cided in the supreme court by five members, or 
 even four, if they are all of one opinion ; but in 
 causes of greater consequence seven counsellors, 
 at least, must attend. More than eight members 
 of the supreme court, or four noblemen aud four 
 commoners, may not be at one time in actiye 
 service. 
 
 23. All the decrees of the supreme court of 
 justice shall issue in the king's name, and under 
 his hand and seal. 
 
 24. The cases shall bo prepared in tlie "king's 
 inferior court for revision of judiciary affairs," 
 in order to be laid before, or produced in the 
 supreme court. 
 
 25. In criminal cases the king has a right to 
 grant pardon, to mitigate capital punishment, 
 and to restore property forfeited to the crown. 
 In applications, however, of this kind, the su- 
 preme court shall be heard, and the king give 
 his decision in the council of slate. 
 
 20. When matters of justice are laid before 
 the council of state, the minister of state and 
 justice, and, at least, two counsellors of state, 
 two members of the supreme court, and the chau- 
 
 581 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 cfUor of justice shall attend, who must all dpliver 
 their opinions to the minutes, according to the 
 general instruction for tlie members of the coun- 
 cil of state, quoted in the 01st article. 
 
 27. The king shall nominate, as chancellor of 
 justice, a j\iri8-consult, an able and impartial 
 man, who has previously Ik Id the oflke of a 
 judge. It shall be his chief duty, as the highest 
 legal offlccr or attr)riiey general of the king, to 
 i,ro8ccute, either personally or through the otli- 
 cers or flscals under him, in all such cases as con- 
 cern the public safety and the rights of the crown, 
 on the kmg's behalf, to superintend the adminis- 
 tration of justice, and to take cognizance of, and 
 correct, errors committed by judges or other 
 legal officers in the discharge of their official 
 duties. 
 
 28. The king, in his council of state, has a 
 right to appoint native Swedes to all such offices 
 and places within the kingdom for which the 
 king's commissions are granted. The proper au- 
 thorities shall, however, send in the names of 
 the candidates to be put in nomination for such , 
 employments. The king may, likewise, appoint 
 foreigners of eminent talents to military offices, 
 ■without, however, entrusting to them the com- 
 mand of the fortresses of the realm. In prefer- 
 ments the king shall only consider the merits 
 and the abilities of the candidates, without any 
 regard to their birth. Ministers and counsellors 
 of state and of justice, sccretariesof state, judges, 
 and all other civil officers, must always bo of the 
 pure evangelical faith. 
 
 29. The archbishop and bishops shall be 
 elected as formerly, and the king nominates one 
 of the three candidates proposed to him. 
 
 30. The king appoints, as formerly, the in- 
 cumbents of rectories in the gift of the crown. 
 As to the consistorial benefices, the parishioners 
 shall be maintained in their usual rightof election. 
 
 31. Citizens, who are freemen of towns, shall 
 enjoy their privilege as heretofore, of proposing 
 to the king three candidates for the office of bur- 
 gomaster or mayor, one of whom the king selects. 
 The aldermen and secretaries of the magistracy 
 of Stockholm shall be elected in the same manner. 
 
 32. The king appoints envoys to foreign 
 courts and the officers of the embassies, in tlie 
 presence of the minister of state for foreign af- 
 fairs and the aulic chancellor. 
 
 33. When offices, for which candidates are 
 proposed, are to be filled up, the members of the 
 council of state shall deliver their opinions on the 
 qualifications and merits of the applicants. They 
 shall also have right to make respectful remon- 
 strances against the nomination of the king re- 
 specting other offices. 
 
 34. The new functionaries created by this 
 constitution, viz. — the ministers and counsellors 
 of state and counsellors of justice, shall be paid 
 by the crown, and may not hold any other civil 
 offices. The two ministers of state are the highest 
 functionaries of the realm. The counselloi-s of 
 state shall hold the rank of generals, and the 
 counsellors of justice that of lieutenant-generals. 
 
 35. The minister of state for foreign affairs, 
 the counsellors of state, the presidents of the 
 public boards, the grand governor of Stockholm, 
 the deputy governor, and the chief magistrate 
 of police in the city, the aulic chancellor, the 
 chancellor of justice, the secretaries of state, 
 the governors or lord lieutenants of provinces, 
 field marshals, gcncrula and admirals of all de- 
 
 grees, adjutant generals, adjutant in chief, ad- 
 jutants ot the staff, the governors of fortresses, 
 captain lieutenants, and officers of the king's life 
 guards, colonels of the regiments, and officers 
 second in command in the foot and horse guards, 
 lieutenant-colonels in the brigade of the life regi- 
 ments, chiefs of the artillery of the royal en- 
 gineers, ministers, envoys, and commercial agents 
 with foreign powers, and official persons em- 
 ployed in the king's cabinet for the foreign cor- 
 respondence, and at the embassies, as holding 
 places of tiust, can be removed by the king, 
 when he considers it necessary for tlie benefit of 
 the realm. The king shall, however, signify his 
 determination in the council of state, the mem- 
 bers whereof shall be bound to make respectful 
 remonstrances, if they see it expedient. 
 
 36. Judges, and all other oHicial persons, not 
 included in the preceding article, cannot be sus- 
 pended from their situations witliout legal trial, 
 nor be translated or removed to other places, 
 without having themselves applied for these. 
 
 37. The king has jiower to confer dignities oa 
 those who have served their country with fidelity, 
 bravery, virtue, and zeal. He may also promote 
 to the order of counts and barons, persons, who 
 by eminent merits have deserved such an honour. 
 Nobility and the dignity of a count and baron, 
 granted from this time, sliall no longer devolve 
 to any other than the individual himself thus 
 created a noble, and after him, to the oldest of 
 his male issue in a direct descending line, and this 
 branch of the family being extinct, to the nearest 
 malt descendant of the ancestor. 
 
 38. All despatches and orders emanating from 
 tlie king, excepting such as concern military af- 
 fairs, shall be countersigned by the secretary who 
 has submitted tlienj to the council, and is respon- 
 sible for their being confevmable to the minutes. 
 Should the secretary find any of the decisions 
 made by the king to be contrary to the spirit of 
 the constitution, he shall make his remonstrances 
 respecting the same, in the council of state. 
 Should the king still persist in his determination, 
 it shall then be the duty of the secretary to re- 
 fuse his countersign, and resign his place, which 
 he may not resume until the estates of the realm 
 shall have examined and approved of his con- 
 duct. He shall, however, in the mean time, re- 
 ceive his salary, and all the fees of his office as 
 formerly. 
 
 30. If the king wishes to go abroad, he shall 
 communicate his resolution to the council of state, 
 in a full assembly, and take the opinion of all its 
 members, as enacted in the ninth article. Dur- 
 ing the absence of the king he may not interfere 
 with tiie government, or exercise the regal power, 
 which shall be carried on, in his name, by the 
 council of state; the council of stat« cannot, how- 
 ever, confer dignities or create counts, barons, 
 and knights; and oil officers appointed by the 
 council sliall only hold their places ad interim. 
 
 40. Should the king be in such a state of 
 health as to be incapable of attending to the af- 
 fairs of the kingdom, the council of state shall 
 conduct the administration, us enacted in the pre- 
 ceding orticle. 
 
 41. The lung shall be of age after havingcom- 
 pleted eighteen years. Should the king die be- 
 fore tile heir of the crown has attained this age, 
 the government shall be conducted by the coun- 
 cil of state, acting with regal power and au- 
 thority, iu tue name of the king, until the estates 
 
 582 
 
CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. 
 
 of the realm shnll have appointed a provisional 
 government or regency ; and the council of state 
 is enjoined strictly to conform to the enactments 
 of this constitution. 
 
 42. Sliould the melancholy event take place, 
 that the whole royal family became extinct on 
 the male side, the council of state shall exercise 
 the government with regal power and authority, 
 until the estates have chosen another roj-al house, 
 and the new king has taken upon Inniself the 
 government. All occurrences or things having 
 reference to tlie four last articles, shall be deter- 
 mined by the whole council of state and the sec- 
 retaries of state. 
 
 43. When the king takes the field of battle, 
 or repairs to distant parts of the kingdom, he 
 shall constitute four of the members of the coun- 
 cil of state to exercise the government in those 
 alTairs which he is pleased to prescribe. 
 
 44. No prince of the royal family shall be 
 permitted to marry without liaving obtained the 
 consent of the king, and in the contrary case 
 shall forfeit his right of inheritance to the king- 
 dom, both for himself and descendants. 
 
 45. Neither the crown prince, or any other 
 prince of the royal family, shall have any appan- 
 age or civil place. The princes of the blood may, 
 however, bear titles of dukedoms and principali- 
 ties, as heretofore, but without any claims upon 
 those provinces. 
 
 46. The kingdom shall remain divided, as 
 licretofore, into governments, under the usual 
 provincial administrations. No governor-general 
 shall, from this time, be appointed within the 
 kingdom. 
 
 47. The courts of justice, superior as well as 
 inferior, shall administer justice according to the 
 laws and statutes of the realm. The provincial 
 governors, and all other public functionaries, 
 shall exercise the offices entrusted to them accord- 
 ing to existing regulations; they shall obey the 
 orders of the king, and be responsible to him if 
 any act is done contrary to law. 
 
 48. The court of the king is under his own 
 management, and he may at his own pleasure ap- 
 point or discharge all his officers and attendants 
 there. 
 
 49. The estates of the realm shall meet every 
 fifth year. In the decree of every Diet the day 
 sliull be fixed for the next meeting of the estates. 
 Tlic king may, however, convoke the estates to 
 un extraordinary Diet before that time. 
 
 50. The Diets shall bo held in the capital, ex- 
 cept when the invasion of an enemy, or some 
 other important impediment, may render it dan- 
 gerous for the safety of the representatives. 
 
 51. When the king or council convokes the 
 estates, the period for the commencement of the 
 Diet shall be subsequent to the thirtieth, and 
 within the fiftieth day, to reckon from that day 
 when the summons has been proclaimed In the 
 churches of tiie capital. 
 
 52. The king names the speakers of the nobles, 
 the burghers and the peasants: the archbishop 
 is, at all times, the constant speaker of the clergy. 
 
 53. The estates of the realm shall, immedi- 
 ately after the opening of the Diet, elect the 
 different committees, which are to prepare the af- 
 fairs intended for their consideration. Such com- 
 mittees shall consist in, — a constitutional com- 
 mittee, which shall take cognizance of questions 
 concerning proposed alterations in the fundamen- 
 tal laws, report thereupon to the representatives. 
 
 and examine the minutes held in the council of 
 state ; — a committee of finances, wliich shall ex- 
 amine and report upon the state and management 
 of the revenues; — a committee of taxation, for 
 regulating tlie taxes; — a committee of the bank 
 for inquiring into the administration of the af- 
 fairs of the national bank ; — a law committee for 
 digesting propositions concerning improvements 
 in tlie civil, criminal, ai.d ecclesiastical laws; — 
 a c-mmittee of public grievances and matters of 
 economy, to attend to the defects in public in- 
 stitutions, suggest alterations, &c. 
 
 54. Should the king dc^sirc a special commit- 
 tee for deliberating witli him on sucli matters as 
 do not come witliin the cognizance of any of tlie 
 other committees, and arc to be kept secret, tlio 
 estates shall select it. Tliis committee shall, how- 
 ever, have no riglit to adopt any resolutions, but 
 only to give their opinion on matters referred to 
 them by the king. 
 
 55. The representatives of tlie realm shall not 
 discuss any subject in the presence of the king, 
 nor can any other committee than the one men- 
 tioned in the above article hold their delibera- 
 tions before him. 
 
 56. General questions started at the meetings 
 or the orders of tlie estates, cannot be immedi- 
 ately discussed or decided, but shall be referred 
 to the proper committees, which are to give tlieir 
 oiiinion thereupon. The jiropositions or report 
 of the committees shall, in tlie first instance, 
 without any alteration or amendment, be referred 
 to the estates at the general meetings of all the 
 onlers. If at these meetings, observations should 
 be made which may prevent the adoption of the 
 proposed measure, these objections shall be com- 
 municated to the committee, in order to its being 
 examined and revised. A proposition thus pre- 
 pared having been again referred to the estates, 
 it shall remain with them to adopt it, with or 
 without alterations, or to reject it altogether. 
 Questions concerning alterations in the funda- 
 mental laws, shall be thus treated: — If the con- 
 stitutional committee approves of the suggestion 
 of one of the representatives, or the committee 
 reports in favour of or against a measure pro- 
 posed by the king, the opinion of the committee 
 shall be referred to the estates, who may discuss 
 the topic, but not come to any resolution during 
 that Diet. — If at the general meetings of the 
 orders no observations are made against the 
 opinion of the committee, flu' question shall be 
 postponed till the Diet f ol I ig, and then be de- 
 cided solely by yes or no, : uacted in the 75th 
 article of the ordinance of 1 liit. — If, on tlie con- 
 trary, objections are urged at the general meet- 
 ings of the orders against the opinion of the 
 committee, these shall be referred back for its re- 
 consideration. If all the orders bo of one opinion, 
 the question shall be postponed for final decision, 
 as enacted above. Should again a particular 
 order differ from the other orders, twenty mem- 
 bers shall be elected from among every order, and 
 added to the cominittee, for adjusting the differ- 
 ences. Tlie question being thus prepared, shall 
 be decided at the following Diet. 
 
 67. The ancient right of the Swedish people, 
 of imposing taxes on themselves, shall bo exer- 
 cised by the estates only at a general Diet. 
 
 58. The king shall at every Diet lay before 
 the committee of finances the state of the rev. 
 enues in all their branches. Should the crown 
 have obtained subsidies through treaties with for- 
 
 583 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 (■\gn powers, these slinll be explnincd in the usual 
 way. 
 
 AO. The kirifi; shall refer to the decision of 
 this cominittee to determine what the government 
 may recjuire beyond tlie ordinary taxation, to l)e 
 raised by an e.x"traordinary grant. 
 
 (to. No tJi.vcs of any de.seription whatever can 
 be increased without tlic e.\i)res8 consent of tlie 
 estates. The king may not farm or let on lease 
 the revenues of state, for tlie sake of profit to 
 himself and the crown; nor grant monopolies to 
 private individuals, or torporations. 
 
 01. All taxes shall be paid to tlie end of that 
 term for wliicli they have been imposed. Should, 
 however, tlie estates meet before the expiration 
 of that term, new regulations shall take place. 
 
 03. Tlie funds required by government hav- 
 ing been ascertained by the committee of tinanccs, 
 it sliall rest with the estates whether to assign 
 proportionate means, and also to determine how 
 the various sums granted shall be appropriated. 
 
 03. Besides tlicsc means, two adequate sums 
 shall be voted and set apart for the disposal of 
 the king, after he has conbultcd the council of 
 state, — for the defence of the kingdom, or some 
 other important object; — the other sum to be 
 deposited in the national bank, in case of war, 
 after the king has ascertained the opinion of the 
 council and convened tlie estates. The seal of 
 the order for this latter sum may not be broken, 
 nor the money be paid by the commissioners of 
 the bank, till the summons to Diet sliall have been 
 duly proclaimed in the churches of the capital. 
 
 04. Tlie ordinary revenues of the land, as well 
 as the extraordinary grants which may be voted 
 by the estates, shall be at the disposal of the king 
 for the civil list and other spccitled purposes. 
 
 05. The above means may not be applied but 
 for the assigned purposes, and the council of 
 state shall be resoonsible if they permit any 
 deviation in tills respect, without entering their 
 remonstrances in the minutes, and pointing out 
 what tlic constitution in this case ordains. 
 
 OO. The funds of amortissement or national 
 debt, shall remain, as heretofore, under the super- 
 intendence and direction of the estates, who have 
 guaranteed or come under a responsibility for 
 the national debt ; and after having received the 
 report of the committee of finances on the affairs 
 of that establishment, the estates will provide, 
 tlirough a special grant, the requisite means for 
 paying the capital as well as the interest of this 
 debt, in order that the credit of the kingdom may 
 be maintained. 
 
 07. The deputy of the king shall not attend 
 the meetings of the directors or commissioners of 
 the funds of amortissement, on any other occasion 
 than when the directors are disposed to take his 
 opinion. 
 
 08. The means assigned for paying off the 
 national debt shall not, under any pretence or 
 condition, be appropriated to other purposes. 
 
 09. Should the estates, or any particular 
 order, entertain doubts either in allowing the 
 grant proposed by the committee of finances, or 
 as to the participation in the taxes, or tlie prin- 
 ciples of the management of the funils of amor- 
 tissement, these doubts shall be communicated to 
 the committee for their further consideration. — 
 If the committee cannot coincide in the opinions 
 of the estates, or a single order, it shall depute 
 some members to explain circumstances. Should 
 this order still persist in its opinion, the question 
 
 shall be decided by tlio resolution of throe onlers. 
 If two orders be of one, and the other two of a 
 different opinion, thirty new members of every 
 order shall bo added to the committee — the com- 
 mittee shall then vote conjointly, and not by 
 orders, witli folded liillets, for adopting, or re- 
 jecting, unconditionally the proposition of the 
 committee. 
 
 70. Tiie committee of taxation shall at every 
 Diet suggest general principles for dividing tho 
 future taxes, and the amount having been fixed, 
 tlie committee shall also propose how these are 
 to be paid, referring their proposition to the con- 
 sideration and decision of the states. 
 
 71. Should a difference of opinion arise be- 
 tween the orders, as to tliese principles and tho 
 mode of applying tliem, and dividing the taxes; 
 or, what hardly can be presumed, any order de- 
 cline participating in tlie proposed taxation, tlio 
 order, which may thus desire some alteration, 
 shall communicate their views to the other repre- 
 sentatives, and suggest in wliat mode tliis altera- 
 tion may be effected without frustrating the 
 general object. The committee of taxation hav- 
 ing again reported thereon to the estates, they, 
 the estates, shall decide the ciucstion at issue. If 
 tliree orders object to the proposition of the com- 
 mittee, it shall be rejected. If, again, three 
 orders oppose the demands of a single order, or 
 if two be of an opinion contrary to that of the 
 other two, the question sliall be referred to the 
 committee of finances, with an additional num- 
 ber of members, as enacted in the above article. 
 If the majority of this committee assent to the 
 proposition of the committee of taxation, in those 
 points concerning which the representatives have 
 disagreed, the proposition shall be considered as 
 the general resolution of the estates. Should ;t, 
 on the contrary, be negatived by a majority of 
 votes, or be rejected by tliree orders, the com- 
 mittee of taxation shall propose other principles 
 for levying and dividing tho taxes. 
 
 72. The national bank shall remain, as for- 
 merly, under the superintendence and guarantee 
 of tlio estatco, and the management of directors 
 selected from among all the orders, according to 
 existing regulations. Tlic states alone can issue 
 bank-notes, which are to be recognized as the 
 circulating medium of the realm. 
 
 73. No troops, new taxes or imposts, either 
 in money or kind, can be levied without the vol- 
 untary consent of the estates, in the usual order, 
 as aforesaid. 
 
 74. The king shall have no right to demand 
 or levy any other aid for carrying on war, than 
 that contribution of provisions which may be 
 necessary for the maintenance of the troops dur- 
 ing their march through a province. These con- 
 tributions shall, however, be immediately paid out 
 of the treasury, according to the fixed price-cur- 
 rent of provisions, with an augmentation of a 
 moiety, according to tills valuation. Such con- 
 tributions may not be demanded for troops which 
 have been quartered in a place, or are employed 
 in military operations, in which case they shall 
 be supplied with provisions from tho magazines. 
 
 75. The annual estimation of such rente? as 
 are paid in kind shall be fixed by deputies elected 
 from among all the orders of tlie estates. 
 
 70. * 'le king cannot, without the consent of 
 the estates, contract loans within or without the 
 kingdom, nor burthen the land with any new 
 debts. 
 
 584 
 
CONSTITUTION OP SWKDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP SWEDEN. 
 
 77. He cannot nlso, without the consent of 
 till! t'slttles, vend, plcdj?e, niortgaKf, or in any 
 other way alienutv domuius, farms, forests, purlis, 
 preserve' jf K'i"'e, meadows, pasture-land, fish- 
 eries, and other appurtenances of the crown. 
 These shall be managed acmrding to the instruc- 
 tions of the estates. 
 
 78. No part of the kingd.in can be alienated 
 through sale, mortgage, douatidii, or in any other 
 way whatever. 
 
 to. No alteration can bo effected In the stand- 
 ard value of the coin, either for enhancing or 
 deteriorating it, without the consent of the 
 cstat-'s. 
 
 80. The land and naval forces of the realm 
 shall remain on the same footing, till the king 
 and the estates may think proper to introduce 
 some other principles. No regular troops can be 
 raised, without the mutual consent of the king 
 and the estates. 
 
 81. This form of government and the other 
 fundamental laws cannot be altered or repealed, 
 without the unanimous consent of the king and 
 the estates Questiono to this effect cannot be 
 brought forward at the meetings of the orders, 
 but must be referred to the constitutional com- 
 mittee, whose province it is to suggest such alter- 
 ations in the fundamental laws, as may be deemed 
 necessary, useful, and practicable. The estates 
 may not decide on such proposed alterations at 
 the same Diet. If all the orders ogree about the 
 a'* -ation, it shall be submitted to tlie king, 
 t;..t.iigh the speakers, for obtaining his royal 
 sanction. After having ascertained the opinion 
 of the council, the king shall take his resolution, 
 and communicate to the estates either his appro- 
 bation or reasons for refusing it. In the event of 
 the king proposing any alteration in the funda- 
 mental laws, he shall, after having taken the 
 opinion of the council, deliver his proposition to 
 the estates, who shall, without discussing it, 
 again r^fer it to the constitutional committee. If 
 the committee coincide in the proposition of the 
 king, the question shall remain till next Diet. If 
 ngam the committee is averse to the proposition 
 of the king, the estates may either reject it im- 
 mediately or adjourn it to the following Diet. 
 In the case of all the orders approving of the 
 proposition, they shall request that a day be ap- 
 pointed to declare their consent in the presence 
 of his majesty, or signify their disapprobation 
 through their speakers. 
 
 82. What the estates have thus unanimously 
 resolved and the king sanctioned, concerning 
 alterations in the fundamental laws, or the king 
 has proposed and the estates approved of, shall 
 for the future have the force and effect of a fun- 
 damental law. 
 
 83. No explanation of the fundamental laws 
 may be established by any other mode or order, 
 than that prescribed by the two preceding arti- 
 cles. Laws shall bo applied according to their 
 literal sense. 
 
 84. When the constitutional committee find 
 no reason for approving of the proposition, made 
 by a representative concerning alterations or ex- 
 planations of the fundamental laws, it shall be 
 the duty of the committee to communicate to him, 
 at his request, their opinion, which the proposer of 
 the resolution ma/ publish, with his own motion, 
 and under the usual responsibility of authors. 
 
 85. As fundamental laws of the present form 
 of government, there shall be considered the ordi- 
 
 38 
 
 58 
 
 nance of Diet, the order of succession, and tho 
 act concerning universal liberty of the press. 
 
 HU. liy the liberty of the press is iinderstoo<l 
 the right of every Swedish subject to publish his 
 writings, without any inipediiiieiit from the gov- 
 ernment, and without being resiHinsible for them, 
 except before a court of justice, or liable to pun- 
 ishment, unless their contents b(' contrary to a 
 clear law, made for the preservation of public 
 peace. The minutes, or protocols, or the pro- 
 ceedings, may be published in any case, except- 
 ing the minutes kept in the council of state and 
 before the king in ministerial affairs, and those 
 matters of military command; nor may tho 
 records of the bank, and the otllce of the funds 
 of amortissement, or national (lel)t, be printed. 
 
 87. The estates, together with the king, have 
 the right to make new and repeal old laws. In 
 this view such questions must be proposed at tho 
 general meetings of the orders of the estates, and 
 shall be decided by them, after having taken tho 
 opinion of the law committee, us laid down in 
 tho 56th article. The proposition sliall be sub- 
 mitted, through tho speakers, to the king, who, 
 after having ascertained the opinion of the coun- 
 cil of state and supreme court, shall declfrc mher 
 his royal approbation, or motives for withhold- 
 ing it. Should the king desire to propose any 
 alteration in the laws, he shall, after having con- 
 sulted the council of state and supreme court, 
 refer his proposition, together with their opinion, 
 to the deliberation of the states, who, after hav- 
 ing received the report of the law committee, shall 
 decide on the point. In all such questions the 
 resolution of three orders shall bo considered as. 
 the resolution of the estates of the realm. If two 
 orders are opposed to the other two, the proposi- 
 tion is negatived, and the law is to remain as 
 formerly. 
 
 88. The same course, or mode of ])roceeding, 
 shall be observed in explaining tlie civil, criminal, 
 and ecclesiastical laws, as in making these. £x- 
 
 f)lanations concerning the proper sen.se of the 
 aw given by the supreme court in the name of 
 tho king, in the interval between the Diets, may 
 be rejected by the states, and shall not after- 
 wards be valid, or cited by the courts of judica- 
 ture. 
 
 80. At the general meetings of the orders of 
 the estates, questions may be proposed for alter- 
 ing, explaining, repealing, and issuing acts con- 
 cerning public economy; and the principles of 
 public institutions of any kind may be di.scusscd. 
 These questions shall afterwards be referred to 
 tho committee of public grievances and economi- 
 cal affairs, and then be submitted to the decision 
 of the king, in a council of state. When the 
 king is pleased to invite the estates to deliberate 
 with him on questions concerning tlie general 
 administration, the same course shall bo adopted . 
 as is prescribed for questions concerning the 
 laws. 
 
 00. During the deliberations of the orders, or 
 tlieir committees, no questions shall be proposed 
 but in the way expressly prescribed by this fun- 
 damental law, concerning either appointing or 
 removing of officers, decisions and resolutions of 
 the government nnil courts of law, and the con- 
 duct of private individuals and corporations. 
 
 01. When the king, in such cases as those 
 mentioned in the 30tli article, is absent from the 
 kingdom longer than twelve months, the council 
 shall convoke the estates to a general Diet, and 
 
 5 
 
CONSTITUTION OF HWEDBN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 caiiRO the Riimnions to \hi pmclnimi><1 within flf- 
 tecn (Inyu from tlic iil«>vi' tini«, In the cliiirchcH 
 of the nipitul, and npfcdlly nftcrwiinlH in tlie 
 otlicr j)artH of tliu Ivitifciloiii. If tlie Iting, after 
 bcini; inforiiu'il tlicri'of, docs not return to tlie 
 kingdom, the estiitcH fthall iidopt Niieh meuHiireH 
 as tliey deem most lienelleial for tlio eountrv. 
 
 1>ti. Th(! same sliall he eiiacte(i in case of any 
 disease or ill health of tlie liing, which might ])re- 
 vent him from attending to the affairs of the 
 liingdom for more tlinn twelve months. 
 
 li.l. When the lieir of the crown, at the de- 
 cca.se of the king, is nniler age, the council of 
 state shall issue siinimons to the representatives 
 to meet. The estates of the realm shall have the 
 riglit, witliout regard to the will of a deceased 
 king concerning the adniinistnition, to appoint 
 one or w^veral giuirdians, to rule in the king's 
 nonie, according to this fuudanieutal law, till the 
 king l)ecome8 of age. 
 
 1>4. Should it ever happen that tlie royal 
 family become extinct in the mole line, the council 
 of state shall convene the estates, to elect another 
 royal family to ride comformably to this funda- 
 mental law. 
 
 1)5. Should, contrary to expectation, the coun- 
 cil of state fail to convoke the estates, in the 
 cases prescribed by the Olst, 98d, and 04th articles, 
 it shall be the jiositive duty of the directors of 
 the house of nobles, the diopters throughout the 
 kingdom, the magistrates in the capital, and the 
 governors in the provinces, to give public notice 
 thereof, in order that elections of deputies to the 
 Diet may forthwith take place, and the estates 
 assemble to protect their privileges and rights of 
 • he kingdom. Such a Diet shall be opened on 
 the liftieth day from that period when the coun- 
 cil of state had proclaimed the summons in the 
 churches of the capital. 
 
 OO. The estates shall at every Diet oppoint on 
 ollic(^r, distinguished for integrity and learning in 
 the law, to watch over, as their deputy, the con- 
 duct of the judges and other official men, and 
 who shall, in legal order and at the proper court, 
 arraign those who in the performance of their 
 offices have betrayed negligence and partiality, 
 or else have committed any illegal act. He shall, 
 however, be liable to the some responsibility as the 
 law iirescribes for public prosecutors in general. 
 
 97. This deputj- or attorney-general of the 
 estates sha'" j chosen by twelve electors out of 
 cverv order. 
 
 08. The electors shall at the same time they 
 choose the said attorney-general, elect a person 
 possessing equal or similiar qinilities to succeed 
 him, in case of his death before the ne.xt Diet. 
 
 91). The attorney-general may, whenever he 
 pleases, attend the sessions of all the superior 
 and inferior courts, ond the public offices, and 
 shall have free access to their records and min- 
 utes ; and the king's officers shall be bound to 
 give him every assistance. 
 
 100. Tlie attorney-general shall at every Diet 
 present a report of the performance of his office, 
 explaining the state of the administration of jus- 
 tice in the land, noticing tlie defects in the exist- 
 ing laws, and suggesting new improvements. 
 He shall also, at the end of each year, publish a 
 general statement concerning these. 
 
 101. Should the supreme court, or any of its 
 members, from interest, partiality, or negligence, 
 judge so wrong that an individual, contrary to 
 law and evidence, did lose or might have lost life. 
 
 lilierty, honour, or pmperty, thoottorney-general 
 shall be bound, and the chuncellor of justleo 
 authorised, to arraign the guilty, acconling to the 
 laws of the realm, in the court after mentioned. 
 
 102. This court is to be denominated the 
 court of justice for the realm, and shall be formed 
 by the president in the superior court of Swea, 
 the presidents of all the pui)lie boards, four senior 
 members of the council of state, the highest com- 
 mander of the troops within the capital, and the 
 commander of the squadron of the fleet stationed 
 at the capital, two of the senior members of the 
 superior court of Swea, and the senior member 
 of all the public boards. Should any of the 
 officers mentioned above decline attending this 
 court, he shall be legally responsible for such a 
 neglect of duty. After trial, the judgment shall 
 be publicly announced : no one can alter such a 
 s<'ntence. The king may, however, 'extend par- 
 don to tlie guilty, but not admitting bim any 
 more into the service of the kingdom. 
 
 103. The estates shall at every Diet nominate 
 a jury of twelve members from out of each order, 
 for deciding if the members of the supreme court 
 of justice have deserved to fill their important 
 places, or if any member, without having been 
 legally convicted for the faults mentioned in the 
 above articles, yet ought to be removed from 
 office. 
 
 104. The estates shall not resolve themselves 
 into court of justice, nor enter into any special 
 examination of the decrees, verdicts, resolutions 
 of the sujircme court. 
 
 105. The constitutional committee shall hove 
 right to demand the minutes of the council of 
 state, except those which concern ministerial or 
 foreign affairs, and matters of military command, 
 which may only be communicated os fur as tlieso 
 have a reference to generally known events, 
 specified by the committee. 
 
 lOG. Should the committee find from these 
 minutes that any member of the council of state 
 has openly acted against the clear dictates of the 
 constitution, or advised any infringement either 
 of the simic or of the other lows of the realm, or 
 thot lie had omitted to remonstrate against such 
 a violation, or caused ond promoted it by wilfully 
 concealing any informotion, the committee shall 
 order the attorney-general to institute the proper 
 proceedings against tlie guilty. 
 
 107. if the constitutional committee should 
 find that any or all the members of the council 
 of state hove not consulted the real interest of 
 the kingdom, or that any of the secretaries of 
 state have not performed his or their official duties 
 with impartiality, activity, and skill, the com- 
 mittee shall report it to the estates, who, if they 
 deem it necessary, may signify to the king their 
 wish of having those removed, who may thus 
 have given dissatisfaction. Questions to this 
 effect may be brouglit forward at the general 
 meetings of the orders, and even be proposed by 
 any of the committees. These cannot, however, 
 be decided until the constitutional committee 
 have delivered their opinion. 
 
 108. The estates shall at every Diet appoint 
 six individuals, two of whom must be learned in 
 the law, besides the attorney-general, to watch 
 over the liberty of the jircss. These deputies 
 shall be bound to give their opinion as to tlio 
 legality of publications, if such be requested by 
 the authors. These deputies shall be chosen by 
 six electors out of every order. 
 
 586 
 
CONSTITUTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 lOO. Diet* may not last longer than tlircc 
 months from the time that the king has informed 
 the representatives of tlio state of the revenues. 
 Should, however, the estates at the expiration of 
 that time not have concluded tlicir deliberations, 
 they may demand the Diet to l)e prolonged for 
 another month, which the king shall not refuse. 
 If again, contrary to expectation, the estjites at 
 the expiration of this term liave not regidatcd tlie 
 civil Ii3t, the king shall dissolve tlie Diet, and 
 taxation continue iu its former state till the next 
 meeting of representatives. 
 
 1 lO. No representative shall be responsible 
 for any opinion uttered at meetings of the orders, 
 or of the committees, unless by the express per- 
 mission of at least five-sixths of Ids o'.vn order: 
 nor can a representative be banished from the 
 Diet. Should any individual or body, either civil 
 or militjiry, endeavour to offer violence to the 
 estates, or to any individual representative, or 
 presume to interrupt and disturb their delibera- 
 tions, it shall bi! considered as an act of treason, 
 and it rests with the estates to take legal cogni- 
 zance of such IU/ offence. 
 
 111. Should any representative, after having 
 announced himself as such, be insulted, cither at 
 the Diet or )n his way to or from the same, it 
 shall be punished as a violation of the peace of 
 the king. 
 
 112. No olllcial person may exercise his offl- 
 cial authority (his authority in that capacity) to 
 
 Influence the clectionH of deputies to the Diet, 
 under pain of losing his place. 
 
 11. 't. Individuals elected for regidatlng thu 
 taxation shall not be responsible for their lawful 
 deeds in tins their capacity. 
 
 1 14. The king shall leave the estates in un- 
 disturbed possession of their liberties, liriviieges, 
 ami Immunities. Moditieations which the pros- 
 perity of the reiilm nniy demand can only 1)0 
 done with the eeneral concurrence and consent of 
 the estates and tlie sanction of the king. Nor 
 can any new i)rivileges be gnuited to one order, 
 without tlie consent of the other, and the sanc- 
 tion of the sovereign. 
 
 This we have conllrmed by our names and 
 seals, on the sixth day of the month of .June, In 
 the year after the birtli of our Lord one thousand 
 eiglit hundred and nine. 
 
 On lieliaif of the Nobles, .M. Ankarsvard. On 
 behalf of the Clergy, Jac. Ax. Lindblom. On 
 helialf of the Hurghers, H. N. Schwan. .On be- 
 half of the Peasantry, Lars Olsson, Speakers. 
 
 The above form of government we have not 
 only acknowledged Ourselves, but do also com- 
 mand all our faithful subjects to obey it ; in con- 
 firmation of which, wo have thereto alllxed our 
 manual signature and the seal of the realm. In 
 the city of our royal residence, Stockholm, on the 
 sixth (lay of the month of June, in the year after 
 the birth of our Lord one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and nine. Cuakles. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION. 
 
 After the Sondcrbund secession and war of 
 1847 (see Hwitzehland: A. D. 1803-18'.8), the 
 task of drawing up a Constitution for Uie Con- 
 federacy was confided to a committee ol fourteen 
 members, and the work was finished on the 14th 
 of April, i848. "The project was submitted to 
 the Cantons, and accepted at once by tliirteen 
 and a half; others joined during the summer, 
 and tlie new Constitution was finally promulgated 
 with the assent of all on the 12tli September. 
 Hence arose the seventh and last phase of the 
 Confederation, by the adoption of a Federal Con- 
 stitution for the whole of Switzerland, being the 
 first which was entirely the work of Swiss, with- 
 out any foreign influence, although Its authors 
 had studied that of the United States. ... It 
 was natural that, as in process of time commerce 
 and industry were developed, and as the differ- 
 ences between the legislation of the various Can- 
 tons became more apparent, a revision of the 
 first really Swiss Confederation should be neces; 
 .sary. This was proposed botli in 1871 and 1873| 
 but tlu; partisans of a further centralization, 
 though successful in the Chambers, were defeated 
 upon an appeal to the popular vote on the 12th 
 of May 1872, by a majority of between five and 
 six thousand, and by thirteen Cantons to nine. 
 The question was, however, by no means settled, 
 and in 1874 a new project of revision more ac- 
 ceptable to the partisans of cantonal independ- 
 ence, was adopt<;d by the people, the numbers 
 being 340,199, to 198,013. The Cantons were 
 about two to one in favour of the revision, 14^ 
 declaring for and 7i against it. This Constitu- 
 tion bears date the 29th May, 1874, aud has since 
 been added to and altered in certain particulars." 
 — Sir F. O. Adams and C. D. Cunningliam, The 
 
 Siciss Confederation, ch. 1. — "Since 1848, . . . 
 Switzerland has been a federal state, consisting 
 of a central authority, the Hund, and 19 entire 
 and six half states, the Cantons; to foreign 
 powers she presents an unitejl front, •while her 
 internal policy allows to each Canton a largo 
 amount of independence. . . . The basis of all 
 legislative division is the Commune or Qemeinde, 
 corresponding in some slight degree to the Eng- 
 lish Parish. The commune in its legislative and 
 administrative aspect or ' Einwohnergemeinde ' 
 is composed of all the inhabitants of a Commune. 
 It is self-governing and has the control of the 
 local police ; it also administers all matters con- 
 nected with pauperism, education, sanitary and 
 funeral regulations, the fire brigade, the mainte- 
 nance of public peace and trusteeships. ... At 
 the head of the Commune is the Gcmeinderath, 
 or Communal Council, whose members are elected 
 from the inhabitants for a fixed, period. It is 
 presided over byan Ammann, or Mayor, or Presi- 
 dent. . . . Above the Commune on the ascending 
 scale comes the Canton. . . . Each of the 19 
 Cantons and 6 half Cantons is a sovereign state, 
 whose i)rivileges are nevertheless limited by the 
 Federal Constitution, particularly as regards 
 legal and military matters; the Constitution also 
 defines the extent of each Canton, and no portion 
 of a Canton is allowed to secede and join itself 
 to another Canton. . . . Legislative power is in 
 the hands of the ' Volk ' ; in the i)olitical sense 
 of the word the ' Volk ' consists of all the Swiss 
 living in the Canton, who liave passed their 20tli 
 year and are not under disability from crime or 
 bankruptcy. Tlic voting on the part of the 
 people deals mostly with alterations in the can- 
 tonal constitution, treaties, laws, decisions of the 
 
 587 
 
CONSTITUTION: 8WITZEULAND. 
 
 CONSTITUTION : SWITZERLAND. 
 
 KIret ("ouncll Invnlvlnj? rxpcndlttirpH of Prs. 
 I(N),IMK) luicl iipwuril, itiid otiicr (IcclHinnH wliicli 
 till! Couru'll coiiHidcrH iiilvimkblc to Hiilijvct to (lit 
 imlilic vote, wlilc'li iiIho detcrniincfi tliu adoption 
 of propoHitioiiH for tin; cri'iitioii of new lawH, or 
 the iiltcnitlon or iiliolition of old ouch, when hucIi 
 It pli'blgcltc! 1h dcmundcd by a petition signed by 
 5,000 voters. . . . The first (Conned (Grosse 
 Itiith) 1.4 th<- hijclieHt politieiil hikI udndnUtrutive 
 pow<'r of ttie ('nnton. It correspondD to the 
 '('lmnil)er ' of other coiintrieH. Every 1,3(K) in- 
 liubitantH of nn eleetorul circuit send one mem- 
 ber. . . . The Kleine Hath or npucial council 
 (corrcHponding to tho ' Ministcrium ' of otiier 
 continental countries) is composed of three mem- 
 bers and has three proxies. It is cliosen Iw the 
 First Council for a period of two years. It su- 
 perintends all cantonal institutions and controls 
 the various public tM)ards. , . . The jiopniations 
 of the 22 Bovoreign (.'antons constitute together 
 tho Hwiss Confederation." — P. Ilauri, Sketch of 
 the Conttitution of Smtterland (in Strickland s 
 The Engadine). 
 
 The following text of tho Federal Constitution 
 of the 8w Iss Confederation is a translation from 
 parallel French and German texts, by Professor 
 Albert Uushnell Hart, of Harvard College. It 
 oppeared originally in " Old South Leaflets," No. 
 18, and is now reprinted under permission from 
 Professor Ilart, who has most kindly revised his 
 translation throughout and intnMluced tho later 
 amendments, to July, 1803. 
 
 In the Name of Almig^hty God. — The Swiss 
 Confederation, desiring to contirm the alliance 
 of the Confederates, to maintain and to jiromoto 
 the unity, strength, and honor of the Swiss 
 nation, has adopted the Federal Constitution 
 following: 
 
 Chapter i. General Provisions.— Autici.b 1. 
 The peoples of the twenty-two sovereign Can- 
 tons of Switzerland, united by this present alli- 
 ance, viz. : Zurich, Bern, Luzem, Uri, Schwyz, 
 Unlerwaldcn (Upper and Lower), Olarus, Zug, 
 Freiburg, Solothurn, Basel (urban and rural), 
 Schaffhausop, Ajipenzell (tho two lUiodes), St. 
 Gallon, Orisons, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, Vaud, 
 Valttis, Ncuchdtel, ond Genevo, form in the r 
 entirety the Swiss Confederation. 
 
 Akt. 2. The purpose of the Confederation U, 
 to secure the independence of tho country against 
 foreign nations, to maintain peace and order 
 within, to protect the liberty and tho rights of 
 tho Confederates, and to foster their comr.ion 
 welfare. 
 
 AliT. 3. The Cantons are sovereign, so far as 
 their sovereignty is not limited by the Federal 
 Constitution; and, as such, they exercise all tho 
 rights which are not delegated to the federal 
 government. 
 
 Art. 4. All Swiss are equal before the law. 
 In Switzerland there are neither iioliticid depend- 
 ents, nor privileges of place, birth, persons, or 
 families. 
 
 AuT. 5. The Confederation guarantees to tho 
 Cantons their territory, their sovereignty, within 
 the limits fixed by Article 3, their Constitutions, 
 tho libortj; and rights of the people, the consti- 
 tutional riglits of citizens, and the rights and 
 powers which the people have conferred on 
 those in authority. 
 
 AiiT. 0. The Cantons are bound to ask of the 
 Confederation the guaranty of thoirConstitutions. 
 This guaranty is accorded, provided : (u) that the 
 
 ConHtitutions contain notldng contrary to thor 
 proviHionN of the Federal ('onstitution. (h) That 
 they assure the exercist' of political riglits, ac- 
 cording to republican forniH, representativf" or 
 dem<H'ratic. (c) Tliat they liav(! lieen ratified by 
 the |>eople, ami may bo amended whenever the 
 majority of all the citizens demand it. 
 
 AiiT. 7. All H<'parate alliances and all treaties 
 of a iMilitical character lM}tween the (.'anions are 
 forbidden. On tlio other hand the Cantons have 
 the right to make conventions among themselves 
 iiIHHi legislative, administrative or Judicial sub- 
 jects; in all ciiMcs they shall bring such conven- 
 tions to tho uttenticm of tlie federal ofllcials, who 
 are authorized to prevent their execution, if they 
 contain anything contrary to the Confederation, 
 or to the rights of other Cantons. Should such 
 not be the cast-, the covenanting Cantons are 
 authorized to re(iuirc the coilperatlon of the fed- 
 eral otllciuls in carrying out the conventicm. 
 
 AuT. 8. The Confederation has the sole right 
 of declaring war, of making peace, and of con- 
 cluding alliances and treaties with foreign pow- 
 ers, particularly treaties relating to tariffs and 
 commerce. 
 
 Akt. 0. By exception the Cantons preserve- 
 the right of concluding treaties with foreign 
 ])owers, respecting tho administration of public 
 l)ronerty, and border and jjolice intercourse ; but 
 such treaties sliall contain nothing contrary to the 
 Confederation or to tho riglits of other Cantons. 
 
 AuT. 10. Otticial intercourse between Cantons 
 and foreign governments, or their representatives, 
 shall take place through the Federal Council. 
 Nevertheless, the Cantons may correspond di- 
 rectly with the inferior ofllciala and oilicers of 
 a foreign State, in regard to the subjects enu- 
 merated in the preceding article. 
 
 Akt. 11. No military capitulations shall be 
 made. 
 
 Art. 12. No members of tho departments of 
 the federal government, civil and military ofll- 
 cials of the Confederation, or federal representa- 
 tives or commissioners, shall receive from any 
 foreign government any pension, salary, title, 
 gift, or decoration. Such persons, already in 
 possession of pensions, titles, or decorations, 
 must renounce tho enjoyment of pensions and 
 the bearing of titles anil decorations during thq^r 
 term of olBco. Nevertheless, inferior olflciala 
 may be authorized by the Federal Council to- 
 continue in the receipt of pensions. No deco- 
 ration or title conferred by a foreign government 
 shall bo borne in tlio federal army. No officer, 
 non-commissioned officer, or soldier shall accept 
 such distinction. 
 
 . Akt. 13. The Confederation has no right to 
 keep up a standing army. No Canton or Half- 
 Canton shall, without tho permission of the 
 federal government keep np a standing force of 
 more than three hundred men; the mounted 
 police [gendarmeriej is not included in this 
 number. 
 
 Art. 14. In case of differences arising between 
 Cantons, tlio States sliall abstain from violence 
 and from arming themselves; they shall submit 
 to the decision to bo taken upon such differences 
 by the Confederation. 
 
 Art. 15. In case of sudden danger of foreign 
 attack, tho authorities of the Cantons threatened 
 .shall request the aid of other members of the 
 Confederation and shall Immediotely notify the 
 federal governmeut; tlie subsequent action of 
 
 588 
 
CONSTITUTION; SWITZEHLAND. 
 
 Army 
 find S*ttUcf, 
 
 CONSTITITION ; iSWITZEIU-ANn. 
 
 the Inttor »hnll not thi-rrby bo prcrliidod. Tlin 
 CanUinH Hiiiniiinni'il nrr lioiiiid to ^ivc aid. Tlui 
 oxpciiHCH Nliall be Ixirni' by thr ('onrcilcrittion. 
 
 Km. 1(1. In 'list! (if iiitcrnid di.sturbanrt', or 
 If Ww daiiK<'r Ih tlircatcncd by another Canton, 
 the authorities of i\w Canton tlireatened Hliall 
 givo ininiediato uotin; to the Federal Council, In 
 order that that Ixuly may take tlu^ nieaHun'H 
 necesnary, within the llniltH of Itn power (Art. 
 103, ^^'i, 10, 11), or may Huniinon the Ke<leral 
 AsHeinbly. In extreme ense.s the authoritieH of 
 the Canton are authorized, while jjivinK imme<ll- 
 nte notiee to the Feilernl (^>uneil, to ask the aid 
 of other Cantons, which are bound to alTord such 
 aid. If the executive of the Canton Is unable to 
 call for aid, the federal a\ithority having the 
 power may, and if the safety of Switzerland is 
 endangered shall. Intervene without requisition. 
 In case of federal intervention, the federal 
 autliorities shall take cure that the provisions of 
 Arlie'o 5 l)0 obsiTved. The expenses shall be 
 l)orne by the Canton asking aid or occasioning 
 federal Intervention, cxcep„ when the Federal 
 Assembly otherwise decides on account of special 
 circumstances. 
 
 AiiT. 17. In the cases mentioned In Articles 
 15 and 10, every Canton is bound to afford imdis- 
 turbed passage for the troops. The troops shall 
 immediately bo placed under federal command. 
 
 AiiT. 18. Every Swiss Is bound to perform 
 military service. Soldiers who lose their lives or 
 sulTer permanent injury to their health, in con- 
 sequence of federal service, are entitled to aid 
 from the Confederation for themselves or their 
 families, In case of need. Each soldier shall 
 receive without expense his first equipment, 
 clothing, and arms. T'-.^ r.:::-.i)on remains in the 
 hands of the soldier, under conditions which sh ill 
 be prescribed by federal legislation. The Con- 
 federation shall enact uniform provisions as to an 
 exemption t^tx. 
 
 Akt. 19. The federal army is composed: (a) 
 Of the cantonal military corps, (b) Of all Swiss 
 who do not belong to such military corps, but 
 are nevertheless liable to military service. The 
 Confederation exercises control over the nrmy 
 aud the material of war provided by law. In 
 cases of danger, the Confederation lias also the 
 exclusive and direct control of men not included 
 in the federal army, and of all other military 
 resources of the Cantons. The Cantons have 
 authority over the military forces of their terri- 
 tory, so far as this right is not limited by the 
 Federal Constitution or laws. 
 
 Art. 20. The laws on the organization of 
 the army are passed by the Confederation. The 
 enforcement of military laws in the Cantons is 
 Intrusted to the cantonal olllcials, within limits 
 which shall be fixed by federal legislation, and 
 under the supervision of the Confederation. Mili- 
 tary instruction of every kind pertains to the 
 Confederation. The same applies to the arming 
 of troops. The furnislnng aud maintenance of 
 clothing and equipment is within the power of 
 the Cantons ; but the Cantons shall be credited 
 with tlie expenses therefor, occording to a regu- 
 lation to be established by federal legislation. 
 
 Art. 21. So far as military reasons do not 
 prevent, bodies of troops shall bo formed out of 
 the soldiers of the same Cantons. The composi- 
 tion of these bodies of troops, the maintenance 
 of their eflfective strength, the appointment and 
 promotion of officers of these bodies of troops. 
 
 iM'long to the CantonK, Rubject to general pmvl- 
 sions which shall !><■ establiMhed by the Confi'dcnt- 
 tion. 
 
 AliT. 22. On payment of a reasonable indem- 
 nity, Wu: Confederation has the right lo use or 
 aeouire drill-grounds aud buildings Intended for 
 ndfilary purposes, within the Cantons, together 
 witli the appurtenances thereof. The terms of 
 the Indemidty shall be settled by federal legisla- 
 tion. 
 
 Aut. 211. Tlie Confederation may construct 
 at its own expense, or may aid by subsidies, pub- 
 lic works which concern Switzerland or a con- 
 siderable part of the country. For this purpose 
 It may expropriate property, on payment of a 
 reasonable indemnity. Further enactments upon 
 this matter shall be made by federal legislation. 
 The Federal Assembly may forbid public works 
 which endanger the ndlltary interests of the (Con- 
 federation. 
 
 Aut. 24. The Confederation has the right of 
 superintendence over dike and forest police in 
 tlie upper mountain regions. It may c()lip<Tatc 
 in the straightening and embankment of torrents 
 us well as in the afforesting of the districts in 
 whieli they rise. It may prescribe the regulations 
 necessary to assure the maintenance of these 
 works, and the jireservation of existing forests. 
 
 Aut. 25. The Confederation has power to 
 make legislative enactments for the regulation of 
 the right of fishing and hunting, particularly 
 with a view to the picservation of tlie large game 
 In the mountains, as well as for thi- nrotccticm of 
 birds useful to agriculture and forestry. 
 
 Art. 20. Legislation upon the construction 
 and operation of railroads is In the province of 
 the Confederation. 
 
 Aut. 27. The Confederation has the right to 
 establish, besides the existing Polyicchnic HcIkk)!, 
 a Federal University and other Institutions of 
 higher instruction, or to subsidize Institutions of 
 such nature. The Cantons provide for primary 
 instruction, which shall be sutllcient, ami shall 
 be placed exclusively under tho direction of the 
 secular authority. It is compulsory and, in the 
 public schools, free. The public sciiools shall 
 be such that they may be frequented by the ad- 
 herents of all religious sects, without any olTense 
 to their freedom of conscience or of belief. Tlie 
 Confederation shall take the necessary m(Misures 
 against such Cantons as shall not fullill these 
 duties. 
 
 Art. 28. The customs are In the province of 
 tho Confederation. It may levy export and im- 
 port duties. 
 
 Art. 29. The collection of the federal cus- 
 toms shall bo regulated according to tlie following 
 principles: 1. Duties on imports: (a) Materials 
 necessary for the manufactures and agriculture 
 of the country sliall be taxed as low as po.ssi- 
 ble. (h) It shall be the same with tlio necessities 
 of life. ((•) Luxuries shall be subjected to the 
 highest duties. Unless there arc imperative 
 reasons to the contrary, these principles shall be 
 observed also iu the conclusion of treaties of 
 commerce with foreign powers. 2. The duties 
 on exports shall also be as low as possible. 3. 
 The customs legislation shall include suitable 
 provisions for the continuance of commercial and 
 market intercourse across the frontier. Tlie 
 above provisions do not prevent the Confedera- 
 tion from making temporary exceptional provi- 
 sions, under extraordinary circumstances. 
 
 089 
 
CONSTITUTION: HWIT7EULAND. 
 
 Outtnmi 
 unii Ktcit. 
 
 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Art. 80, Till' prcKTnU of llmrMiHtonmlH-lonK 
 tu tbo Confcdinitioii. Tin- Indi'iiililty cniM'N 
 whU'h liltlicrto liiiH Ix'fn p.'iiil to ilui Ciiiitnim for 
 tlio rc(I<'m|itioii of <uiHt'„.'<4, for road nnd bridge 
 tnlU, ciihtomii diitiuB nnd olliiT like diii'H. li.v 
 ('X('«{>t!:iM, and on nccouMt of their iMt<'rniitioniil 
 nlpinit roiidH, \\w CiintonNof I'll, Urlhonx, TIcIno, 
 iind ViilitlH rcci'ivR iin iuimiihI ItidcMinlty, wliicli, 
 conHlderlng ull tlic clrciiniKtiinci'H, U tlxcd uh fol- 
 low*: Url, H(),(H)0 friincK. Gnsons, 2(M) (KM) 
 fmnca. TIrIno, 200,(MM) friincn. V.iliiiH, no.OOO 
 fnuicR. Till' Ciinloim of I'rl and TIcIno Hliall re- 
 reive in iiddition, for clcarinf^ the Hriow from tlie 
 Hitint Oottliard road, jin annual ind( ninity of 
 40,()()0 francs, ho Imi); as that road hIiuII not be 
 ropliiccd l>y ii raiiroaii. 
 
 AuT. HI. Tlio freedom of trade and of industry 
 is giinranteed tlirouijliout tlie wliolo extent of 
 tlie (/"(mfederatlon. Tlio followintf subjeets are 
 excepted: (ii) The salt and ^{unpowder monopoly, 
 the federal enstoms, import duties on wines and 
 other spiritiioiiH li(|U(irs, and other taxes on eon- 
 sumption expressly permitted by tlie (lonfedera 
 lion, according to article 82. (b) [Added by 
 AiMiuinunt of Dec. 22, 1885.] The manufncturo 
 and fuilu of alcohol, under Article 82 (ii). (c) 
 [AMedby Amendment of Dec. 22, 1885.] Drinking 
 nlaces, and the retail tindu in Rpirituoiis liciuors; 
 i)ut ncvcrtheles.s the Cantons may by legislation 
 subject the business of keeping drinking places, 
 and the retail trade in spirituouH liijuors, to such 
 restrictions as are required for the public welfare. 
 
 (d) [Originally (b)] Measures of sanitary police 
 against epidemics and cattle diseases. (<■) [Orif/i- 
 nally (r)] Provisions in regard to the exercise of 
 trades nnd manufactures, in regard to taxes im- 
 posed thereon, and in regard to the police of the 
 ruads. Tliese provisions shall not contain any- 
 thing contrary to the principle of freetlom of trn'lo 
 and manufacture. 
 
 AuT. 83. The Cantons are authori/.ed to col- 
 lect the import duties on wines and other spirit- 
 uous licjuors, provided in Article 81 {</), always 
 luider liie following restrictions: («) The collec- 
 tion of the.se import duties shall in no wise im- 
 pede transportation: commerce shall be ob- 
 structed as little as possible and sliall not be 
 burdened with any otlier dues, (h) If tlie articles 
 imported for consumption are reexported from 
 the Canton, tlie duties paid on importation shall 
 be refunded, witliout further charges, (r) Pro- 
 ducts of Swiss origin shall be less burdened than 
 those of foreign countries. ('/) Tlie existing im- 
 port duties on wines and otlier spirituous liquors 
 of Swiss origin shall not lie incren.sed by tlie 
 Cantons whicli already levy them. .Such duties 
 shall not be establislicd upon such articles by 
 Cantons v.hicli do not at present collect them. 
 
 (e) The laws and ordinances of tlie Cantons on 
 the collection of import duties .sliall, before their 
 going into effect, be submitted to tlie federal 
 government for apiiroval, in order that it may, 
 if necessary, cause the enforcement of the jire- 
 ccding provisions. All the inijwit duties now 
 leviecl by the Cantons, n.; well as tbo similar 
 duties levied by the Communes, shall cease, witli- 
 out indcmnitv, at the end of the year 1890. 
 
 Akt. 33 (i";). [Amendment of Da-. 23, 1885.] 
 The Confederation is authorized by legislatiqn to 
 make regulations for tlie manufacture and sale 
 of alcohol. In this legislation those products 
 which are intended for exportation, or which 
 have been subjected to a process excluding them 
 
 from um> an a tM'venige, shall be Hubjeeted to no 
 tax. DiHtillallon of wlni>, fnilt, and their liy- 
 pr(HliictH, of gentian root, juniper lierries, and 
 similar priNliictH, is not HUbjerl to federal legisla- 
 tion as to manufacture or tax. After till! cesHii- 
 tloii of the import duties on splritiious li(|Uor8, 
 provided for in Article 82 of the ('(iiiNtitution, the 
 trade in litiiiors not distilled shall not be sub- 
 jected by tli<^ Cantons to any special taxes or to 
 other limitations than those necessary for pro- 
 tection against adulterated or noxious beverages. 
 Nevertheless, the powers of the Cantons, dellned 
 in Article 81, are retained over tlie keeping of 
 dri. iking places, nnd the sah^ at retail of (pianti- 
 ties less tlian two liters. The net proceeds re- 
 sulting from taxation on the snle of nil oliol belong 
 to tlie Cantons in whiJi the tax is levied. The 
 net proceeds to tlie Coi.rc"'"':itlon from the In- 
 teninl manufaetunMif alcohol, and the correspond- 
 ing addition to tlie duty on imported alcohol, are 
 divided among nil the {'nntons, in proportion to 
 tlie actual population as ascertaineii from time 
 to time by the next preceding federal census. 
 Out of the receipts therefrom the Cantons must 
 expend not less than one tenth in combating 
 drunkenness in its causes and elTocts. [For ail- 
 ditinniil iirtiele» of this Amendment tee Temporary 
 J'roiisioni, ArtiHe 0, at the eiul of thit Coiutitu- 
 tion.\ 
 
 Au'i 83. The Cantons may require proofs of 
 <'(>mpeti'ney from tliose mIio desire to practice u 
 liberal profession. Provision shall be made by 
 federal legislation by which sueli persons may 
 obtain certificates of competency which shall bo 
 valid throughout the Confederation. 
 
 AuT. 34. The Confederation lias power to 
 enact uniform provisions as to the labor of chil- 
 dren in factoiies, and as to the duration of labor 
 llxed for adults tlierein, and as to the protection 
 of workmen against tlie operation of unliealthy 
 and dangerous nianufactures. The transactions 
 of emigration agents and of organizations for 
 insurance, not instituted Viy the State, are sub- 
 ject to federal supervision nnd legislation. 
 
 AllT. 84 (ii). [Amendment of Dec. 17, 1890.] 
 Tlie (Jonfedemtion sliull by law iirovide for in- 
 surance against sickness nnd accident, with duo 
 regard for existing sick-benefit funds. The Con- 
 federation may require participation therein, 
 <'ither by all persons or by particular classes of 
 the population. 
 
 AuT. 35. The opening of ■ aming houses is 
 forbidden. Those which now exist sliall be 
 closed Dec. 31, 1877. The concessions which 
 may have been granted or renewed since tlie be- 
 ginning of tile year 1871 are declared invalid. 
 The Confederation may also take necessary 
 measures comterning lotteries. 
 
 AuT. 86. The posts and telegrai)hs in all 
 Switzerland are controlled by the Confederation. 
 The proceeds of tlie posts and telegraphs belong 
 to the federal treasury. The rates shall, for all 
 linrts of Switzerland, be fixed according to tlie 
 same principle and as fairly as possible. Invio- 
 lable secrecy of letters and telegrams is guaran- 
 teed. 
 
 Akt. 87. The Confet'eration exercises general 
 oversight over those roads and bridges in the 
 maiutenance of which it is interested. Tlie sums 
 due to the Cantons mentioned in Article 30, on 
 nccount of their international alpine roads, shall 
 be retained by the federal government if such 
 roads are not kept by them in suitable condition. 
 
 590 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWlTZKIU.ANf). Ciiiitnthtp. CONSTIl ^ HON : SWITZEUF-AND. 
 
 Art. 88. The ConfcdcnUioii cxcrdiM'S nil the 
 excluxlvn HkIiIh p<'rtiiliiiMi; tr> ('oinit)(c. .'t Iiih 
 tlif! iMilii rlKlit of coining nioiii'y. Il cMtnliliHluM 
 tlui mouuUiry HyitUaii, itiid may I'liitct provlsioiiH, 
 If nocoHttry, for the rutu of cxclmiiKu of fon-lKn 
 coins. 
 
 [AnT. 80. (Ahm/iiled hy the nrticle /<>!!■ "'ng 
 it). The ('i)i\fe<lfriitiiin him the, /wircc In iiiu hy 
 liiw general prnrinioiiffur the iimiie (tint redemption 
 qf hank noten. Unt it nhnll not civate any monop- 
 oly for the iiuiie »/' htnk luitet, luir make lueh 
 nii/en a legal tender \ 
 
 AbT. liu. [Hii/iKlitiite for former Art. no, adopted 
 Oct. 18, 1801. 1 Till! ("oiifcdcmtlon liim tlio 
 exclutilvo power to issiiu bank noti's mid otiior 
 like cuiTt'iicy. Tlio Coiifcdcrutloii miiy I'XcrciHo 
 the excliiHlvu power over tlie Immuo of hank notes 
 throuKi' a National Hank carried on under a Hpcelal 
 (leparlnient of administration : or it. may aHr4lf;u 
 tliu riKlit to a central Joint stock bank hereafter 
 to l)e created, which hIiuII he administered under 
 tlie ('oi)peration and supervision of the Con- 
 federation; hut the yirivileco to take over tlio 
 hank, by paying acomponwitron. shall he rctiiincd. 
 The bank possessed of the exclusive rljjht to issue 
 Dotes shall havu for its cidef function to regulate 
 thi >;irculatiun of muuey in 8wilzcrlaud and to 
 fneilitate cxchanK"'- To the Cantons shall lii^ 
 paid at lea.st two-thirds of the net prollts of tlie 
 banli beyond a reasonable interest or n reason- 
 able <lividend to the stockholders, and the ueces- 
 miry transfers to the reserve fund, Tlio hank 
 anil its branches shall not be subjected to taxa- 
 tion by tliu Cantons. The Confederation shall 
 not niako liank notes and other liko currency 
 legal tender, except in urgent need in time of 
 war. The principal olllcu of the hank and the 
 details of its organization, as well as in general tlio 
 carrying into effect this article, shall bo deter- 
 mined by federal law. 
 
 AiiT. 40. The Confederation Axes the stand- 
 ard of weights and measures. The Cantons, 
 under the supervision of the Confederation, 
 enforce the laws relating thereto. 
 
 AliT. 41. The manufacture and the sale of 
 gunpowder throughout Switzerland pertain ex- 
 clusively to the Confederation. Powders used 
 for blasting and not suitable for shooting aro 
 not included in the monopoly. 
 
 Art. 43. The expenditures of the Confedera- 
 tion are met as follows: (a) Out of the income 
 from federal property. (6) Out of the proceeds 
 of the federal customs levied at the Swiss 
 frontier, (c) Out of the proceeds of the posts 
 and telegraphs, (d) Out of the proceeds of the 
 powder monopoly, (e) Out of half of the gross 
 receipts from the tax on military exemptions 
 levied by the Cantons. (/) Out of the contribu- 
 tions of the Cantons, which shall be determined 
 by federal legislation, with special reference to 
 their wealth and taxable resources. 
 
 AuT. 43. Every citizen of a Canton is a 
 Swiss citizen. As such he may participate, in 
 the place where he is dondciled, in all federal 
 elections and popular votes, after having duly 
 proven his qualification ns a voter. No person 
 can exercise political rights in more than one 
 Canton. The Swiss settled as a citizen outside 
 his native Canton enjoys in the place where he 
 is domiciled, all the rights of the citizens of the 
 Canton, Including all the rights of the communal 
 citizen. Participation in municipal and cor- 
 porate property, and the right to vote upon 
 
 purely municipal alTaln*, are rxconted from such 
 rlghtH, unless the Cantun hy legislation has 
 otherwise provided. In riinloiial and coiiimiinal 
 alTairs, he gains the right to Vdte after a risi- 
 deuce of three months. Canlcinal laws relating 
 to the right of Swiss citi/.ens to settle iiutHide lliii 
 (.'antoni in which they were Ixirn, and to vote 
 on communal ({Uestions, are submitted for the 
 approval of the Kederal Coiineil. 
 
 AuT. 44. No Cantdii shall e.xpe' from its ter- 
 ritory one of its own eiti/.rns, nor deprive him of 
 his rights, whether aciiuireil by birlli nr settle- 
 ment. [Origine (111 rile, | Ke'drni! legislatlim 
 shall tlx the coiKlitiniis upon which foreigners 
 may be naturalized, as well us those upon which 
 a Swiss may give up his cili/.eiisliip in order to 
 obtain natiirall/.atloii in a foreign country. 
 
 Al'.T. 4r», Every Swiss cilizin has the right 1o 
 settle anywhere in Swiss territory, on condition 
 of submUting a certificate of origin, or a similiir 
 document. By exception, settleiiicnt may be 
 refused to or withdrawn from, those who, in 
 consequi'nee of a penal convielion, are not enti- 
 tled to civil rights. In addition, settlement may 
 be withdrawn from tlio.se who have been repeat- 
 edly punished for serious olleiises, and also from 
 those who permanently come upon the diarge of 
 ]iublic cliarity, and to whom their Commune or 
 Canton of origin, as the case may be, refuses 
 sutllcient succor, after they have Is'en olllcially 
 asked to grant it. In the Cantons where the 
 poor are relieved in their place of residence the 
 perniis.sion to settle, if it relates to citizens of 
 the Canton, may be coupled witli the condition 
 that they shall be able to work, ond that they 
 shall not, in their former domicile in the Canton 
 of origin, have permanently become a charge on 
 public charity. Every expulsion on account of 
 poverty must be approveil by the government 
 of the Canton of domicile, and previously 
 announced to the government of tho Canton of 
 origin. A Canton in which a 8w'.,s est^ibllshcs 
 his domicile may not require security, nor im- 
 pose any special obligations for such establish- 
 ment. In like manner the Communes cannot 
 require from Swiss domiciled in their tcrritr>ry 
 other contributions than those which they 
 require from t'leir own subjects, A federal law 
 shall establish the maximum fee to bo paid the 
 Chancery for a permit to settle. 
 
 Akt. 40. Persons settled in Switzerland are, 
 as a rule, subjected to the jurisdiction and legis- 
 lation of their domicile, in all that pertains to 
 their personal status and property rights. The 
 Confederation shall hy law make the provisions 
 necessary for the application of this principle 
 and for the prevention of double taxation of a 
 citizen. 
 
 AnT. 47. A federal law sliall establish the 
 distinction between settlement and temporary 
 residence, and shall at the same time make the 
 regulations to which Swiss temporary residents 
 shall be subjected as to their political rights and 
 their civil rights. 
 
 Art. 48. A federal law shall provide for the 
 regulation of the expenses of the illness and 
 burial of indigent persons amenable to one 
 Canton, who have fallen ill or died in another 
 Canton. 
 
 Art. 49. Freedom of conscience and belief is 
 inviolable. No person can be constrained to take 
 part in a religious society, to attend religious in- 
 struction, to perform a religious rite, or to Incur 
 
 591 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 BighU. 
 
 CONSTI'llJTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 fjcnalties of any kind wliutevcr on uccount of re- 
 igious opinion. The person who exercises the 
 parent's or (juardiiin's uutliority lias the right, 
 conformably to the principles above stated, to 
 regulate the religious education of children up 
 to the age of sixteen completed years. The ex- 
 ercise of civil or political rights shall not be 
 abridged by any provisions or conditions what- 
 ever of an ecclesiastical or religious kind. No 
 person shall, on account of a religious belief, 
 relea.se himself from the accomplishment of a 
 civil duty. No person is bound to pay taxes of 
 which the proceeds are specitlcally appropriated 
 to the actual expenses of the worship of a relig- 
 ious body to which he does not belong. The 
 details of the carrying out of this principle are 
 reserved for federal legislation. 
 
 Art. 50. The free exercise of religious wor- 
 ship is guaranteed within the limits compatible 
 with public order and good morals. The Cantons 
 and the Confederation may take suitable measures 
 for the preservation of public o.der and of peace 
 between the members of different religious bodies, 
 and also against encroachments of ecclesiastical 
 authorities upon the rights of citizens and of the 
 State. Contests in public and private law, which 
 arise out of the formation or the division of re- 
 ligious bodies, may be brought by appeal before 
 the competent federal authorities. No bishopric 
 shall be created upon Swiss t< rritory without the 
 consent of the Confederation. 
 
 Art. 51. The order of the Jesuits, and the so- 
 cieties affiliated with them, shall not be received 
 into any part of Switzerland ; and all action in 
 church and school is forbidden to its members. 
 This prohibition may be extended also, by feaeral 
 ordinance, to other religious orders, the action 
 of which is dangerous to the state or disturbs 
 the peace between sects. 
 
 Art. 53. The foundation of new consents or 
 religious orders, and the reSstablishment of those 
 which have been suppressed, are forbidden. 
 
 Art. 53. The civil status and the keeping of 
 records thereof is subject to the civil authority. 
 The Confederation shall by law enact detailed 
 provisions upon this subject. The control of 
 places of burial is subject to the civil authority. 
 It shall take care that every deceased person may 
 be decently interred. 
 
 Art. 54. The right of marriage is placed 
 under the protection of the Confederation. No 
 limitation upon marriage shall be based upon 
 sectarian grounds, nor upon the poverty of either 
 of the eontractants, nor on their conduct, nor on 
 any other consideration of good order. A marriage 
 contracted in a Canton or in a foreign country, 
 conformably to the law which is there in force, 
 shall be recognized as valid throughout the Con- 
 federation. By marriage the wife acquires the 
 citizenship of her husband. Children born be- 
 fore the marriage are made legitlma.e by the 
 subsequent marriage of their parents. No tax 
 upon admission or similar tax shall be levied 
 upon either party to a marriage. 
 
 Art. 55. The freedom of the press is guar- 
 anteed. Nevertheless the Cantons by law enact 
 the measures necessary for the suppression of 
 abuses. Such laws are submitted for the ap- 
 proval of the Federal Council. The Confedera- 
 tion may enact "enalties for the suppression of 
 press otienses r. .ted against it or its authorities. 
 
 Art. 66. Citizens have the right of forming 
 associations, provided that there be iu the pur- 
 
 pose of such as-sociations, or iu the means which 
 they emplov. nothing unlawful or dangerous to 
 the state The Cantons by law take the meas- 
 ures necessary for the suppression of abuses. 
 
 Art. 57. The right of petition is guaranteed. 
 
 Art, 58. No person shall be deprived of his 
 constitutional judge. Therefore no extraordinary 
 tribuunl shall be established. Ecclesiatical juris- 
 diction is abolished. 
 
 Art. 59. Suits for personal claims against a 
 solvent debtor having a domicil'i iu Switzerland, 
 must be brought before the judge of his dom- 
 icile; in consequence, his property outside the 
 Canton in which he is domiciled may not be at- 
 tached in suits for personal claims. Neverthe- 
 less, with reference to foreigners, the provisions 
 of international treaties shall not thereby be 
 affected. Imprisonment for debt is abo)ished. 
 
 Art. 60. All the Cantons are bound to treat 
 the citizens of tue other confederated States like 
 those of their own State iu legislation and in all 
 judical proceedings. 
 
 Art. 61. Civil judgments definitely pro- 
 nounced in any Canton may be executed any- 
 where in Switzerland. 
 
 Art. 62. The exit duty on property [traite 
 foraine] is abolished in the Interior of Switzer- 
 land, as well as the right of redemption [droit 
 de retrait] by citizens of one Canton against 
 those of other confederated States. 
 
 Art. 63. The exit duty on properly is abol- 
 ished as respects foreign countries, provided re- 
 ciprocity be observed. 
 
 Art. 64. The Confederation has power to 
 make laws : On legal competency. On all legal 
 questions relating to commerce and to trans- 
 actions affecting chattels (law of commercial ob- 
 ligations, including commercial law and law of 
 exchange). On literary and artistic copyright. 
 On the protection of new patterns and forms, and 
 of inventions which are represented in models 
 and are capable of industrial application. 
 [Amendment of Dec. 20, 1887.] On the legal 
 collection of debts and ou bankruptcy. The ad- 
 ministration of justice remains with the Cantons, 
 save as affected by the powers of the Federal 
 Court. 
 
 [Art. 65. {Abrogated by Amendment of June 20, 
 1870.) The death penalty is abolisJud ; nevertheless 
 the provisions 0^ military law in time of war shall 
 be <£served. dorporal punishment is abolished.^ 
 
 Art. 65. [Amendment of June 20, 1819.] No 
 death penalty shall be pronounced for a political 
 crime. Corporal punishment is abolished. 
 
 Art. 66. The Confederation by law fixes the 
 limits within which a Swiss citizen may be de- 
 nrived of his political rights. 
 
 Art. 67. The Confederation by law provides 
 for the extradition of accused persons from one 
 Canton to another ; nevertheless, extradition shall 
 not be made obligatory for political offenses and 
 offenses of the press. 
 
 Art. 68. Measures are taken by federal law 
 for the incorporation of persons without country 
 (Ileimathlosen), and for the prevention of new 
 cases of that nature. 
 
 Art. 69. Legislation concerning measures of 
 sanitary police against epidemic and cattle dis- 
 eases, causing a common danger, is included in 
 the powers of the Confederation. 
 
 Art. 70. The Confederation has power to 
 expel from its territory foreigners who endanger 
 the internal or external safety of Switzerland. 
 
 592 
 
CONSTITUTION; SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Federal 
 
 COUHCU. 
 
 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Chapter II.— Art. 71. Witli the n'serviition 
 of tlio riglita of tlie people and of the (Jiintoiis 
 (Articles 89 nnd 131), tlie supreme nuthoritj' of 
 the Confederation is exercised by the Federal 
 Assembly, [ Assembleo federale ; liundesvcrsamm- 
 lung] which consists of two sections or councils, 
 to wit: (A) The National Council. (B) The 
 Council of States. 
 
 AUT. 72. The National Council rConseil 
 National ; Nationalrath] is comi)osed of repre- 
 Bcntatives of the Swiss people, chosen in tlie ratio 
 of one member for each 20,000 persons of the 
 total j)opuIation. PYactions of upwards of 10,000 
 persons arc reckoned as 20,000. Every Canton, 
 and in the divided Cantons every Ila'lf-Cunton, 
 chooses at least one representative. 
 
 Aht 73. The elections for tlie National 
 Council arc direct. They are held in federal 
 electoral districts, which in no case shall be 
 formed out of parts of different Cantons. 
 
 AuT. 74. Every Swiss who has completed 
 twenty years of age, and who in addition is not 
 excluded from the rights of a voter by the legis- 
 lation of the Canton in which he is domiciled, has 
 the riglit to vote in elections and popular votes. 
 Nevertheless, the Confederation by law may 
 establish uniform regulations for the exci'-ise of 
 such right. 
 
 Aht. 75. Every lay Swiss citizen who has the 
 right to vote is eligible for membership in the 
 National Council. 
 
 AuT. 70. The National Council is chosen for 
 three years, and entirely renewed at oach general 
 election. 
 
 AliT. 77. Representatives to the Council of 
 States, members of til's Federal Council, and 
 oRlcials appointed by that Council, shall not at the 
 same time be membere of the National Council. 
 
 AiiT. 78. The National Council chooses out of 
 its own numlicr, for each regular or extraordinary 
 session, a President and a Vice-President. A 
 member who has held the ofllce of President 
 during a regular session is ineligible either as 
 Presiden*, or Vice-President at the next rej,'ular 
 session. The same member may not be Vice- 
 President during two consecutive regular ses- 
 sions. When the votes arc equally divided tlic 
 President has a casting vote; in elections he 
 votes in the same manner as other members. 
 
 Akt. 79. The members of the National 
 Council receive a compensation out of the federal 
 treasury. 
 
 Art. 80. The Council of States [Conseil des 
 Etats; Stttnderath] consists of forty-four repre- 
 sentatives of the Cantons. Each Canton af oints 
 two representatives; in tlie divided Cantons, 
 each Half-State chooses one. 
 
 Art. 81. The members of the National Coun- 
 cil and those of the Federal Council may not be 
 representatives in the Council of States. 
 
 Art. 82. The Council of States chooses out of 
 Its own number for each regular or extraordinary 
 session a President and a Vice-President. Neither 
 tlie President nor the Vice-President can be 
 chosen from among tlie representatives of the 
 Canton from which the President has been chosen 
 for the regular session next preceding. Repre- 
 sentatives of tlie same Canton cannot occupy the 
 position of Vice-President during two con- 
 secutive regular sessions. W^lien tlie votes are 
 equally divided the President has a casting vote ; 
 In elections he votes in the same manner as the 
 other members. 
 
 AitT. 83. Representatives in the Council of 
 States receive a compensation from the Cantons. 
 
 AuT. 84. The National Council and the Coun- 
 cil of States consider all the subjects which the 
 present Constitution places within the com- 
 petence of the Cimfedenition, and which are not 
 assigned to anv' other federal mitliority. 
 
 AuT. 65. The subjects within tlii^ competence 
 of the two Councils are particularly the t lUow- 
 ing: 1. Laws on the organization of and election 
 of federal authorities. 2. Laws and [ordinances 
 on subjects which by the Constitution are placed 
 within the federal competence. 3. The salary 
 and compensation of members of the federal 
 governing bodies and of the Federal Chancery ; 
 the creation of federal olllccs and the determin- 
 ation of salaries tlierefor. 4. The election of tlio 
 Federal Council, of the Federal Court, and of the 
 Chancellor, and also of the Commander-in-cliief 
 of the federal army. The Confederation may by 
 law a.ssign to the Federal Assembly other powers 
 of election or of confirmation. 5. Alliances and 
 treaties with foreign powers, and also the 
 approval of treaties made by the Cantons 
 between themselves or with foreign jiowers; 
 nevertheless the treaties made by the Cantons 
 shall be brought before the Federal Assembly 
 only in case tlie Federal C'ouncil or another Canton 
 protests. 6. Measures for external safety and 
 also for the maintenance of the independenci; 
 and neutrality of Switzerland; the declaration 
 of war and the conclusion of peace. 7. The 
 guaranty of the Constitution and of the territory 
 of the Cantons ; intervention in consequence of 
 such guaranty ; measures for the internal safety 
 of Switzerland, for the maintenance of peace and 
 order; amnesty and pardon. 8. Measures for 
 the preservation of tlie Constitution, for carrying 
 out the guaranty of the cantonal constitutions, 
 and for fulfilling federal obligations. 9. The 
 power of controlling the federal army. 10. The 
 determination of the annual budget, the audit of 
 public accounts, and federal ordinances author- 
 izing loans. 11. The superintendence of fedenil 
 administration and of federal courts. 12. Pro- 
 tests against the decisions of the Federal Council 
 upon administrative conflicts. (Art. 113.) 13. 
 Conflicts of jurisdiction between federal autliori- 
 tics. 14. The amendment of the federal Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. 86. The two Councils assemble annually 
 in regular session upon a day to be fixed by the 
 standing orders. They are convened in extra 
 session by the Federal Council upon the reciuest 
 either of one fourth of the members of the 
 National Council, or c f five Cantons. 
 
 Art. 87. In cithc Council a quorum is a 
 majority of the total number of its members. 
 
 Art. 88. In the National Council and in the 
 Council of States a majority of those voting is 
 required. 
 
 Art. 89. Federal laws, enactments, and reso- 
 lutions shall be passed only by the agreement of 
 the two Councils. Federal laws shall be sub- 
 mitted for acceptance or rcj' ction by the people, 
 if the demand is niiuie by 30,000 voters or 
 by eight Cantons. The same principle applies 
 to federal resolutions which have a genen;! 
 application, and which are not of an urgent 
 nature. 
 
 Art. 90. Tlic Confederation shall by law 
 establish the forms and intervals to be observed 
 in popular votes. 
 
 593 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Federal 
 Council. 
 
 CONSTITUTION : SWITZKHLAND. 
 
 Art. 91. Members of either Council vote 
 ■witlidut instnietidns. 
 
 AuT. 93. Eacli Council takes action separately. 
 But in the ease of the elections specified m 
 Article 8.5, ^ 4, of pardons, or of deciding a con- 
 flict of jiirisdiction (Art. 83, § 13), the two Coun- 
 cils meet in joint session, under the direction of 
 the President of tlic National Council, and a 
 decision is made by the majority ot the members 
 of both Councils present and voting. 
 
 AuT. OH. Sleastires may originate in either 
 Council, and may be introduced by any of their 
 meml)crs. Tlie Cantons may by correspondence 
 exercise the same right. 
 
 AiiT. 04. As ar\de, the sittings of the Councils 
 arc public. 
 
 Akt. d'l. Tile si.preme direction and executive 
 authority of tlie Confederation is exercised by a 
 Federal Council [Conseil federal; IJundesrath], 
 composed of seven members. 
 
 AuT. 90. Tlie members of the Federal Council 
 are chosen for three years by the Councils in 
 joint session from among all the Swiss citizens 
 eligible to the National Council. But not more 
 than one member of the Fedeiid Coiuicil shall be 
 chosen from the same Canton. The Federal 
 Council is chosen anew after each election of the 
 National Council. Vacancies which occur in the 
 co\irse of the three years are filled at the first 
 ensuing session of the Federal As.sembly, for the 
 remainder of the term of otflce. 
 
 AiiT. 97. The members of tlie Federal Coun- 
 cil shall not, during their term of otlico, occupy 
 any other ofllcc, either in the service of the Con- 
 federation or in a Canton, or follow any other 
 pursuit, or exercise a profession. 
 
 Aut. 98. The Federal Council is presided 
 over by the President of the Confederation. 
 There is a Vice-President. The President of the 
 Confederation and tlio Vice-President of the 
 Fei. ' Council arc chosen for one year by the 
 Federal Assembly from among the members of 
 the Council. The retiring President shall not be 
 chosen as President or Vice-President for the 
 year ensuing. The same memlier shall not hold 
 the office of Vice-President during two consecu- 
 tive years. 
 
 Art. 99. Tlie' President of the Confederation 
 and the other members of the Federal Council 
 receive an annual salary from the federal 
 treasury. 
 
 Art. 100. A quorum of the Federal Council 
 consists of four members. 
 
 Art. 101. The members of the Federal Coun- 
 cil have the right to .^peak but not to vote in 
 either house of the Federal Assembly, and also 
 the right to make motions on tlie subject under 
 consideration. 
 
 Art. 102. The powers and the duties of the 
 Federal Council, within the limits of tliis Con- 
 stitution, are parMcularly the following: 1. it 
 cond'"-'- federal affairs, conformably to the laws 
 and resolutiu^j of the Confederation. 2. It 
 takes care that the Constitution, federal laws 
 and ordinances, und also the provisions of fed- 
 eral concordats, be observetl; upon its own 
 initiative or upon complaint, it takes measures 
 necessary to cause these instruments to be ob- 
 served, unless the consideration of redress be 
 among the subjects which should be brought 
 before the Federal Court, according to Article 
 113. 3. It takes care that the guarauty of the 
 caQtoLil constitutions be observed. 4. It intro- 
 
 duces bills or resolutions into the Federal 
 Assembly, and gives its opinion upon the pro- 
 posals submitted to it by the Councils or the 
 Cantons. 3. It executes the laws and resolu- 
 tions of the Conf deration and the judgments of 
 the Federal Cou.t, and also the compromises or 
 decisions in arbitration upon disputes between 
 Cantons. 0. It makes tliose appointments which 
 are not assigned to the Federal Assembly, Fed- 
 end Court, or other authority. 7. It examines 
 tlie treaties made by Cantons witli each other, or 
 with foreign powers, and approves them, if 
 proper. (Art. 85, § 5.) 8. It watclies over the 
 external interests of the Confederation, particu- 
 larly the maintenance of its international rela- 
 tions, and is, in general, intrusted with foreign 
 relations. 9. It watches over the external safety 
 of Switzerlai.d, over tlie maintenance of inde- 
 pendence and neutrality. 10. It watches over 
 the internal safety of the Coiifeden\tion, over 
 the maintenancij of peace and order. 11 In 
 cases of urgency, and when the Federal Assem- 
 bly is not in session, the Federal Council has 
 power to raise the necessary troops and to 
 employ tlicm, with tlie reservation that it shall 
 immecliately summon the Councils if the number 
 of troops exceeds two thousand men, or if they 
 remain in arms more tlian iliree weeks. 12. It 
 administers the military establishn.: r.t of the 
 Confederation, and all other branches of admin- 
 istration committed to the Confederation. 13. 
 It examines such laws and ordinances of tlie 
 Cantons a« must be submitted for its approval ; 
 it exercises supervision over such departments 
 ot the cantonal administration '"s are placed 
 under its control. 14. It administers tlie finances 
 of the Confederation, introduces the budget, and 
 submits accounts of receipts and expenses. 15. 
 It supervises the conduct of all the officials and 
 employees of the fedend administration. 10. It 
 f.ubmivs to the Federal Assembly at each regular 
 session an account of its administration and a 
 report of the condition of the Confederation, 
 internal as well as external, and calls attention 
 to the measures which it deems desirable for the 
 promotion of the general welfare. It also makes 
 spec lal reports when the Federal Assembly or 
 either Council requires it. 
 
 Art. 103. The business of the Federal Coun- 
 cil is distributed by departments among its 
 members. This distribution has the purpose 
 only of facilitating the examination and despatch 
 of business; decisions emanate from the Federal 
 Council as a single authority. 
 
 Art. 104. The Federal Council and Its de- 
 partments have power to cad in experts on 
 special subjects. 
 
 Aut. 105. A Federal Chancery [Chancellcrio 
 federale; Bundeskanzlei], at the head of which 
 is placed the Chancellor of the Confederation, 
 conducts tlie secretary's business for the Federal 
 Assembly and the Federal Council. The Chan- 
 cellor is chosen by the Federal Assembly for the 
 term of three years, at the same time as the Fed- 
 eral Council. The Chancery is under the special 
 supervision of the Federal Council. A federal 
 law shall provide for the organization of the 
 Chancery. 
 
 Art. 106. There shall be a Federal Court 
 [Tribunal federal; Bundesgericht] for the ad- 
 ministration of j ustice in federal concerns. Tliere 
 shall be, moreover, a jury for criminal cases. 
 (Art. 112.) 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Frdrrnl 
 Court. 
 
 CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 AiiT. 107. The mcmliors iind nlterndtra of the 
 Fi'ilcnil Court slmll be chosen by the Federal ^Vs- 
 scmbly, which shall take care that all lliree iia- 
 tioiiiil laugim^^es arc represented therein. A law 
 sliall establisii the organization of the Federal 
 Court and of its section.s. the number of iudges 
 and alternates, their term of otHce, and their 
 salary. 
 
 Akt. 108. Any Swiss citizen eligible to the 
 National Council may be chosen to the Federal 
 Court. The members of the Federal Assembly 
 and of the Federal Council, and ofHcials appointed 
 by those authorities, shall not at the Siime timi! 
 belong to the F'_'dcral Court. The members of 
 the Federal Court shall not, during their term 
 of olUce, occupy any other olHec, either in the 
 service of tlie Confederation or in a "anton, nor 
 engage in any other pursuit, nor practice a pro- 
 fession. 
 
 AiiT. 109. Tlie Federal Court orgi\nizes its 
 own Chancery and appoints the offlcii'.is thereof. 
 
 Akt. 110. The Federal Court has jurisdiction 
 in civil suits: 1. Between the Confederation 
 and the Cantons. 2. Between the Confedera- 
 tion on one i)art and corporations or individuals 
 on the otlier part, when such corporations or 
 individuals are plaintills, and when the amount 
 involved is of a degree of importance to ho 
 determined l)y fedend legislation. 3. Between 
 Cantons. 4. Between Cantons on one part and 
 corporations • individiutls on the other part, when 
 one of the par'ies demands it, and the amount in- 
 volved is of !i degree of importance to be de- 
 tennincd by federal legislation. It further has 
 jurisdiction in suits concerning the status of 
 persons not subjects of any government (heimath- 
 losat), and the conflicts which arise between Com- 
 miuies of difterent Cantons respecting the right 
 of local citizenship. [Droit do cite.] 
 
 AuT. 111. The Federal Court is bound to 
 give judgment in other cases when both parties 
 agree to abide by its derision, and when the 
 amount involved is of a degree of importance tc 
 be <Ieterinined by federal legislation. 
 
 AuT. 113. The Federal Court, assisted by a 
 jury to decide upon questions of fact, has crim- 
 inal jurisdiction in: 1. Ca.ses of high treason 
 against the Confederation, of rebellion or violence 
 against federal authorities. 3. Crimes and mis- 
 demeanors ogainst tlie law of nations. 3. Politi- 
 cal crimes and misdemeanors \vK .h are the cause 
 or the result of disturbances ivhich occasion 
 armed federal intervention. 4. Cases against 
 ollicials appointetl by a federal authority, where 
 such authority relegates them to the Federal 
 Court. 
 
 Art. 113. The Federal Court further has juris- 
 diction: 1. Overconflictsof jurisdiction betiween 
 federal authorities on one part and cantonal au- 
 thorities on the other part. 3. Disputes between 
 Cantons, when such disputes are upon questions 
 of public law. 3. Complaints of violation of 
 the constitutional rights of citizens, and com- 
 plaints of individuals for the violation of con- 
 cordats or treaties. Conflicts of administrative 
 jurisdiction are reserved, and are to be settled 
 in a manner prescribed by federal legislation. 
 In all the fore- mentioned cases the Federal Court 
 shall apply the laws passed by the Federal As- 
 sembly and those resolutions of the Assembly 
 which have a general import. It shall in like 
 iiianner conform to treoties which shall have been 
 ratified by the Federal Assembly. 
 
 Art. 114. Besides the C!i.ses specified in Arti- 
 cles 110, U3, and 113, the Confederatiop may by 
 law |)la(e other matters within the jurisdiction 
 of the Federal Court; in particular, it may give 
 to that court powers intended to insure the 
 uniform ai)plication of the laws provided for in 
 Article 64. 
 
 AiiT. ll.">. All that relates to the locati(m of 
 the authorities of the Confederation is a subject 
 for federal legislation. 
 
 Am". 110. The three principal languages 
 spoken in Switzerland, German, French, and 
 Italian, are national languages of the Confedera- 
 tion. 
 
 AuT. 117. The oHiclals of tlie Confederation 
 are responsible for their i'onduct in ofilce. A 
 federal law sliall enforce this responsibility. 
 
 Chapter III. {{Them foiirnrtidfK abrogated by 
 the four arlickn folloiping tliem, 118-123.) Art. 
 118. Tlie Federal Constitution may at any time 
 lie amended. 
 
 Art. 110. Amendment is secured through the 
 forms required for passing federal laws. 
 
 Art. 130. When either Council of the Federal 
 Assemhly passes, a resolution for amendment of the 
 Federal Constitution and the other Council does 
 not agree; or when fifty thousand Swiss voters de- 
 mand amendment, the question whether the Federal 
 Constitution ought to l/e amendetl is, in either ease, 
 submitted to a rote of the Swiss people, voting yes or 
 no. If in cither ease the majority of the Siciss 
 citizens who vote pronounce in the ajfirmatire, 
 there shedl be a new election of both Corumlsfor the 
 purjMisc of preparing amendnienl,-. 
 
 Art. 121. The amended Federal Constitution 
 shedl be in force when it has been adopted by the 
 miij i'y of Siriss citizens who take part in the 
 vote tliereon and by a majority of the States. In 
 making np a majority if the States the vote of a, 
 Ilalf-Canton is counted as half a rote. The result 
 of tM popular vote in eimh Canton is considered to 
 be the vote of the State. 1 
 
 Akt. 118. [Amemi)nentofJul,v 5, 1891.] The 
 Federal Constitution may at any time be amended 
 as a whole or ii: part. 
 
 Art. 119. [Amemliwntof July r,, iSQl.] Gen- 
 eral revision is secured through the forms re- 
 quired for passing the federal laws. 
 
 Art. 120. When eitlier Council of the Federal 
 Assembly passes a resolution for general revision 
 and the other Council does not agree ; or when 
 fifty thousand Swiss voters demand general re- 
 vision the question whether there shall be such 
 a revision must, in cither case, be submitted to 
 the popular vote of the Swiss people. If, in 
 either case, the majority of the Swiss citizena 
 who vote on the question pronounce in the afflr- 
 mative, there shall be a new election of both 
 Cou'icils for the purpose of preparing a general 
 revision. 
 
 Art. 131. [Amendment of July 5, 1891.] Spe- 
 cific amendments may be brought forward either 
 through a Proposition of the People [Volksanre- 
 gung] (Initiative) or by Federal legislation. A. 
 Preposition of the People means a demand sup- 
 ported by fifty thousand Swiss voters, either for 
 suspension, lopeal, or alteration of specified ar- 
 ticles of the Federal Constitution. If by means 
 of the method of Proposition of the People 
 several different subjects are brought forwanl 
 cither for alteration or for incorporation into the 
 Federal Constitution, each one of those separate 
 subjects must be presented in a separate demand 
 
 695 
 
CONSTITUTION: SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. 
 
 for n popular vote [Initiiilivbcgolirenl. Tlie <1<;- 
 tntiiul for 11 ])cipiil!ir votu niiiy tiiko tlu; form 
 «!tliL'r of II ri'(iia'st in gciicriil terms, or of ii 
 detliiito (Iritft. If Huch a (iemiiiul be iiiiulu in 
 the form of ii request in general terms and the 
 Councils of the Federal As.sembly agree thereto, 
 the said Councils shall thereupon prepare u 
 specilic amendment of the purport indicated by 
 those asking amendment; and such specitic 
 amendment shall be submitted to the people and 
 to the states for their acceptance or rejection. 
 In case the Councils of the i ederal Assembly do j 
 not agree thereto, the question of specific amend- 
 ment shall then be subjected to the people for a ' 
 popular vote; and in case the majority of the I 
 Swiss voters vote therefor, an amendment of the ! 
 purport indicated by the vote of the people shall 
 then be i)rei)ared by the Federal Assembly. In 
 case the re(iue8t shall take the form of a specific 
 <lraft and the Federal Assembly agree thereto, 
 the draft is then to bo submitted to the people 
 and the States for acceptance or rejection. If 
 the Federal Assembly shall not agree thereto it 
 may either prepare a substitute draft for itself, 
 or it may propose the rejection of the propo- 
 sition. The proposition to reject such substi- 
 tute draft or proposition shall be submitted to 
 the vote of the people and of the States at the 
 same time with the general Proposition of the 
 People. 
 
 AuT. 122. [Amendmentof July 5. ISOl.] The 
 procedure upon the Proposition of the People 
 and the popular votes concerning amendment of 
 tlie Federal Constitution, shall be regulated in 
 detail by a Federal Law. 
 
 AuT. 123. [Amendment of Jul)/ 5, ISdl.] The 
 amended FedemI Constitution or the specific 
 amendments proposed, as the case may be, shall 
 be in force when adopted by the majority of the 
 Swi.ss citizens who take part in the vote thereon 
 and by a majority of the Cantons. lu making 
 up the majority of the States tlie vote of a half 
 of each Canton is counted as half a vote. The 
 result of the popular vote in each Cantou is 
 considered to be the vote of the state. 
 
 Temporary Provisions. Auticle 1. The 
 proceeds of the posts and customs shall be 
 divided upon the present basis, until such time 
 ns the Confederation shall take upon itself the 
 military expenses up to this time borne by the 
 Cantons. Federal legislation shall provide, be- 
 sides, that the loss which may bo occasioned to 
 the finances of certain Cantons by the sum of the 
 charges which result from Articles 20, 30, 36 
 (§ 2), and 42 (e), shall fall upon such Cantons 
 only gradually, and shall not attain its full effect 
 till after a transition period of some years. 
 Those Cantons which, at the going into effect of 
 Article 20 of the Constitution, have not fulfilled 
 
 the military obligations which are imposed upon 
 them by the former Constitution, or by federal 
 laws, shall be bound to carry them out at their 
 own e.xijcnse. 
 
 AiiT. 2. The provisions of the federal laws 
 and of the cantonal conconlats, constitutions or 
 cantonal laws, which are contrary to this Con- 
 stitution, cease to have eifect by the adoption of 
 tlic Constitution or tlie ))ublication of the laws 
 • for which it provides. 
 
 AuT. 3. The new ])rovisiou8 ndating to the 
 organization and jtirisdiction of tlie Fedend 
 (.'ourt take eifect only after the publication of 
 fedend laws tliercon. 
 
 AiiT. 4. A tlelay of five years is allowed to 
 Cantons for the establishment of fn-e instruction 
 in primary public eciucation. (Ar . 27.) 
 
 AiiT. 5. Those persons who p L'tice a liberal 
 profession, ami who, before the publication of 
 the federal law provided for in Article 33, have 
 obtained a certificate of competence from a Can- 
 ton or a joint authority representing several 
 Cantons, may pursue that profession throughout 
 the Confederation. 
 
 AuT. 6. [Ameiuliiuitt of Bee. 22, 1885. For 
 the rciiiiiinder of this amendment see article 32 
 ((■().] If a federal law for carrying out Article 
 32 (li) be passed before the end of 1890, the im- 
 port duties levied on spirituous liquors by the 
 Cantons and Commtines, accortiing to Article 38, 
 cease on the going into effect of such law. If, 
 in such case, the shares of any Canton or Com- 
 mime, out of the sums to be divided, are not 
 sufficient to equal the average annual net pro- 
 ceeds of the ta.\es they have levied on spirituous 
 liquors in tlie years 1880 to 1884 inclusive, the 
 Cantons and Communes affected shall, till the 
 end of 1800, receive the amount of the deficiency 
 out of the amount which is to be divided among 
 the other Cantons ace jrding to population; and 
 the remainder only slmll be divided among such 
 otiier Cantons and Communes, according to popu- 
 lation. The Confederation shall further provide 
 by law that for such Cantons or Communes as 
 may suffer financial loss through the effect of this 
 amendment, such loss shall not come upon them 
 immediately in its full e.xtent, but gradually up 
 to the year 1805. The indemnities thereby made 
 necessary shall be previously taken out of the net 
 proceeds designated in Article 32 (ii), paragraph 4. 
 
 Thus resolved by the National Council to be 
 submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss 
 j)eople and of the Cantons. Bern, January 81, 
 1874. Ziegler, President. Sehiess, Secretary. 
 
 Thus resolved by the Council of States, to be 
 submitted to the popular vote of the Swiss 
 people and of the Cantons. Bern, January 31, 
 1874. A. Kopp, President. J. -L. Lutscher, Sec- 
 retary. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF TEE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 A. D. 1781.— The Articles of Confederation. 
 See Unitkd States of A.m. : A. 1). 1777-1781, 
 and 1783-1787. 
 
 A. D. 1787-1789, and 1791-1870.— A sketch 
 of tlu! history of tlie framing and adoption of the 
 Federal Constitution of the United States will be 
 found under United States of Am. : A. D. 
 1787, and 1787-1789. The .'ollowing text of the 
 original instrument, with the subsequent amend- 
 
 ments to it, is one i)rcpared by Professor Albert 
 Bushnell Hart, and is the result of a careful com- 
 parison witli tiie original manuscripts, preserved 
 in the State Department at Washington. " It is 
 intended to be absolutely exact in word, spelling, 
 capitalization and punctuation. A few headings 
 and paragraph numbers, inserted for convenience 
 of reference, are indicated by brackets. " " Those 
 parts of the Constitution which were temporary in 
 
 596 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. Congreu. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. 
 
 their nature, or which linvo been siiperscdeil or 
 altered by later amendments, are included witliin 
 the signs [ ]." This text, originally j)riuted in 
 the " American History Leaflets," is reprotlueed 
 with Professor Hart's consent. The pumgrajjli- 
 iug has been altered, to economize B|)ace, but it 
 is otherwise exactly reproduced : 
 " We TiiE People of the United States, in Order 
 to form a more perfect Union, establish Jus- 
 tice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for 
 the common defence, promote the genend Wel- 
 fare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to 
 ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and es- 
 tablish this Constitution for the United States 
 of America. 
 
 Article i. /Section 1. All legislative Powers 
 herein granted shall bo vested in a Congress of 
 the United States, which shall consist of a Senate 
 and House of Representatives, tkctioii 3 [§ 1.] 
 The House of Representatives shall be com- 
 posed of Members chosen every second Year 
 by the People of the several States, and the 
 Electors in each State shall have the Qualifl- 
 cations requisite for Electors of the most numer- 
 ous Branch of the State Legislature.* [§2.1 
 No Person shall be a Representative who shall 
 not have attained to the Age of twenty-tive 
 Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
 be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall 
 be chosen. [^ 3.] Representatives and direct 
 Taxes shall be apportioned among the several 
 States which may be included within this Union, 
 according to their respective Numbers, [which 
 shall be determined by adding to the whole 
 Number of free Persons, including those bound 
 to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding 
 Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Per- 
 sons. If The actual Enumeration shall be made 
 withm three Years after the first Meeting of the 
 Congress of the United States, and within every 
 subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner 
 as they shall by Law direct. The Number of 
 Representatives shall not exceed one for every 
 thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at 
 Least one Representative ; [and until such enu- 
 meration shall be made?, the State of New 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massa- 
 chusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence 
 Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six. 
 New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware 
 one, Maryland six, Virgmia ten. North Carolina 
 five. South Carolina five, and Glcorgia three. ]t 
 [§ 4.] When vacancies happen in the Represen- 
 tation from any State, the Executive Authority 
 thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such 
 Vacancies.^_[^5.] The House of Representa- 
 tives sluilKpu^iiilieir Speaker and other Officers; 
 and shall liaViTthe sole Power of Impeachment. 
 Sections. [§ 1.] The Senate of the United States 
 shall be composed of two Senators from each 
 State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six 
 Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 
 [% 2.] Immediately after they shall be assembled 
 m Consequence of the first Election, thc^y shall 
 be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. 
 The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall 
 be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, 
 of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth 
 Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of 
 
 • Modifled by Fourteenth Amendment. 
 t Bupergeded by Fourteentb Amendment. 
 i Temporary clause. 
 
 [g 7.] Judgment in 
 11 not extend further 
 
 the sixth Year, so that one third niuj- t)e chosen 
 every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by 
 Resignation, orotherwi.se, during the Recess of 
 the Legislature of any State, the Executive 
 thereof may make temporary Appointnu-nts until 
 the next Meeting of the Legislature, whicli shall 
 then fill such Vacancies, [t^ 3. | No Person shall 
 be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
 Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citi- 
 zen of the United States, and who shall not, 
 when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for 
 which he shall be chosen. [55 4.] The Vice 
 President of tl-e United States shall be President 
 of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless thev 
 be equally divided, [st 5.] Tlie Senate shall 
 chuse their other OlUcers, and al.so a President 
 pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice Presi- 
 ilent, or when he shall exercise the Ollice of 
 President of the United States. [^ 0.] The 
 Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Im- 
 peachments. When sitting for that Purpose, 
 they shall be on Oath or Allirmation. AVhen the 
 President of the United States is tried, the Chief 
 Justice shall presiile: And no Person shall be 
 convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds 
 of the Members present. 
 Cases of Impeachment shalf 
 than to removal from Oftice, and disqualification 
 to hold and enjoy any Office of honor. Trust or 
 Profit under the United States: but the Party 
 convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject 
 to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punish- 
 ment, according to Law. tkctioni. [§ 1.] The 
 Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections 
 for Senators and Representatives, shall be pre- 
 scribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; 
 but the Congress may at any time by Law make 
 or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places 
 of chusing Senators. [S 2.] The Congress shall 
 assemble at least once ,in every Year, and such 
 Meeting shall be on the first Mondaj' in Decem- 
 ber, unless they shall by Law appoint a different 
 Day. tketion 5. [§ 1.] Each House shall be 
 the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifi- 
 cations of its own Members, and a Majority of 
 each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; 
 but a smaller Number may adjourn from day 
 to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
 Attendance gi absent Members, in such Manner, 
 and under such Penalties as each House may 
 provide. [§ 2. ] Each House may detenuine the 
 Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for 
 disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence 
 A two thirds, expel a ilember. ft^ 3.] Each 
 House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, 
 and from time to time publish the same, except- 
 ing such Parts as may in their Judgment require 
 Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members 
 of either House on any question shall, at the 
 Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered 
 on the Journal. [§ 4.] Neither House, during 
 the Session of Congress, shall, without the Con- 
 sent of the other, adjourn for more than three 
 days, nor to any other Place than that in which 
 the two Housesshall be sitting. Section G. [§ 1.] 
 The Senators and Representatives shall receive 
 a Compensation for their Services, to be ascer- 
 tained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of 
 the United States. They shall in all Cases, ex- 
 cept Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, 
 be privileged from Arrest during their Attend- 
 ance at the Session of their respective Houses, 
 and in going to and returning from the same ; 
 
 597 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITKD STATES. Congrt,%. CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. 
 
 and for nny Speech or Pelmtc in I'itliiT Hoiisc, 
 tliey shall not be ((Uestioiied in iiny other I'liue. 
 [55 «. 1 No Senator or Kcpresentative shall, diir- 
 iii); tlie Time for which he wa.s elected, be ap- 
 pointed to any civil Olliee under the Authoritv 
 of the United States, which shall have been create(l, 
 or the Eniolurnents whereof shall have been in- 
 creas<'d during such time; and no Person holding 
 a7iy OUice under th(^ United States, shall bo a 
 Member of either House during his (,'ontinuance 
 in Olllce. tirtioiil. [g 1.] All Hills for raising 
 Itevenie shall originate in the House of Kepre- 
 sentat.ves; but the Senate may propose or concur 
 with AiT'.;..diiients as on other IJills. f«5 3.J 
 Ever/ Kill winch shall have passed the llouse 
 of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before 
 it become a Law, be presented to the President 
 of the United States; If he approve he shall sign 
 it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objec- 
 tions to that House in which it shall have origi- 
 nated, who shall enter the Objections at large 
 on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. 
 If after such Ucconsideration two thirds of that 
 llouse shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, 
 together with the Objections, to the other House, 
 by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and 
 il aiiproved by two thirds of that House, it shall 
 become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes 
 of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and 
 Navs, and the Names of the Persons voting for 
 and against the Bill shall be entered on the ,Jour- 
 nal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall 
 not be returned by the President within ten Days 
 (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pre- 
 sented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like 
 Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
 by their Adjournment prevent its Keturn, in 
 which Case it shall not be a Law. [§ 3.] Every 
 Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Con- 
 currence of the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives may be necessary (except on a question of 
 Adjournment) shall be presented to the President 
 of the United States; and before the same shall 
 take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being 
 disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two 
 thirds of the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives, according to the Rules and Limitations 
 prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The 
 CongreES shall have Power [§ 1.] To lay and col- 
 lect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay 
 the Debts and provide for the common Defence 
 and general Welfare of the United States ; but all 
 Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform 
 throughout the United States; [§2.] To bor- 
 row Money on the credit of the United States ; 
 [§ 3.] To regulate Commerce with foreign 
 Nations, and among the several States, and with 
 the Indian Tribes; [^ 4.^ To establish an uni- 
 form Rule of Naturahzation, and uniform Laws 
 on the subject of Bankrupt<iie8 throughout the 
 United States ; [§5.1 To coin Money, regulate 
 ♦,he Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the 
 standard of Weights and Measures ; [§ 6.] To 
 provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the 
 Securities and current Coin of the United States; 
 [§7.1 To establish Post OfBces and post Roads ; 
 [§ 8. J To promote the Progress of Science and 
 useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to 
 Authors and Inventors the [exclusive Right to 
 their respective Writings and Discoveries; [§ 9.] 
 To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme 
 Court; [| 10.] To define and punish Piracies 
 and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and 
 
 Offences against the Law of Nations; [§ 11.1 
 To declare War, grant Letters of Marepus and 
 Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures 
 on Land and Water; [^ 13.] To raise and sup- 
 port Armies, b\it no Appropriation of iloney to 
 that Use shall bo for a longer Term than two 
 Years; [S 13.] To provide and maintain a Navy ; 
 [^ 14.] To make Rules for the Government and 
 Regulation of the land and naval Forces; [g 15.] 
 To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute 
 the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections 
 and repel Invasions; [g 10. J To provide for or- 
 ganizing, arming, ancl disci|)lining the Militia, 
 and for governing such Part of them as may bo 
 employed in the Service of the United States, 
 reservmg to the States resi)ectively, the Appoint- 
 ment of the OIHccrs, and the Authority of 
 training the Militia according to the discipline 
 prescribed l)y Congress; [i; 17.] To exercise ex- 
 clusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over 
 such District (not exceeding ten Miles S()uare) 
 as may, by Cession of particular States, and the 
 Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the 
 Government of the United States, and to exercise 
 like Authority over all Places i)urchased by the 
 Consent of the Legislature of the State in which 
 the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, 
 Slaga/.ines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other need- 
 ftd Buildings; — And [S 18.] Tomakeall Laws 
 which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
 into Execution the foregoing Powers, an(l all 
 other Powers vested by this Constitution in the 
 Government of the United States, or in any De- 
 partment or Otllcer thereof. Section 0. [§ 1.] 
 [The Migration or Importation of such Persons 
 as any of the States now existing shall think 
 proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the 
 Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight 
 hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be 
 imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten 
 dollars for each Person.]* [§ 3.] The Privilege 
 of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be sus- 
 pended, unless when in Cases of Kebellion or In- 
 vasion the public Safety may require it. [§3.1 
 No Bill of Attainder ^c ex post facto Law shall 
 be passed. ■)■ [§ 4.] No Capitation, or other 
 direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to 
 the Census or Enumeration herein before directed 
 to be taken. [§ 5.] No Tax or Duty shall be 
 laid on Articles exported from any State. [§ 6.] 
 No Preference shall be given by any Regulation 
 of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one 
 State over those of another: nor shall Vessels 
 bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, 
 clear, or pay Duties in another. [§ 7.] No 
 Money shall be drawn frcm the Treasury, but in 
 Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; 
 and a regular Statement and Account of the Re- 
 ceipts and Expenditures of all public Money 
 shall be published from time to time. [§ 8.] 
 No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the 
 United States : And no Person holding any Office 
 of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without 
 the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, 
 Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind what- 
 ever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State, t 
 Section 10. [g 1.] No State shall enter into any 
 Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Let- 
 ters of Marque and lieprisal ; coi:. Money ; emit 
 Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and 
 
 • Temporary provisloD. 
 
 t Extended by the first ei^t Amendments, 
 
 t Extended by Ninth and Tenth Amendments. 
 
 598 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. 
 
 „ Thf CONSTITUTION: 
 
 Executive. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 silver Coin n Toruler in Piiynient of Dobts ; pnsa 
 any Bill of AttiiiiukT, ex post fiicto Law, or I.aw 
 impairing the Obli^'ation of Contracts, or grant 
 any Title of N()l)iiity. [tj 2.] No State sliall, 
 without the Consent of the Congress, lay any 
 Imposts or Duties on Imports or E.\ports, except 
 what may be absolutely necessary for executing 
 its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all 
 Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports 
 or Kxi)orts, shall be for the U.se of tlie Treasury 
 of the United States; and all such Laws sliall be 
 subject to the Kevision and Controul of the Con- 
 gress, [g 3.] No State shall, without the Con- 
 sent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep 
 Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter 
 into any Agreement or Compact witli another 
 State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in 
 \Var, \mless actually invaded, or in such immi- 
 nent Danger as will not admit of delay.* 
 
 Article II. Section!. [^ 1.] Tlie executive 
 Power shall be vested in a President of the 
 United States of America. He shall hold his 
 Oftiee during the Term of four Years, and, to- 
 gether witli the Vice President, ciiosen for the 
 same Term, be elected, as follows [^ 2.] Each 
 State shall appoint, in sucli Manner as the Legis- 
 lature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, 
 e(iunl to the whole Number of Senators and 
 Uepresentatives to wliich the State nniy be en- 
 titled in tlie Congress: but no Senator or Kepre- 
 seutj^tive, or Person liolding an Offlce of Trust 
 or Profit under the United States, sliall be ap- 
 pointed an Elector. [Tlio Electors shall meet in 
 their respective States, and vote by Ballot for 
 two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be 
 an Inhabitant of tlie same State with tliemselves. 
 And they sliall make a List of all the Persons 
 voted for, and of tlie Number of Votes for each ; 
 wliicli List they shall sign and certify, and 
 transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of 
 tlie United States, directed to tlie President of 
 the Senate. The President of the Senate sliall, 
 in the Presence of tlie Senate and House of Re- 
 presentatives, open all the Certificates, and the 
 Votes shall then be counted. The Person hav- 
 ing tlic greatest Number of Votes shall be the 
 President, if such Number be a Majority of the 
 whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if 
 there be more than one who have such Jlajority, 
 and iiave an equal Number of Votes, then tlie 
 House of Uopresentatives shall immediately 
 cliiise by Ballot one of them for President ; and 
 if no Person have a Majority, then from the five 
 highest on the List the said House sliall in like 
 Manner chuse the President. But in cliusing 
 the President, tlie Votes shall be taken by States, 
 tlie Representation from eacli State having one 
 Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist 
 of a Member or Members from two thirds of the 
 States, and a ^Majority of all the States shall be 
 necessary to a Choice. In every (Jase, after tlie 
 Choice of the President, the Person having tlie 
 greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall 
 be the Vice President. But if tliere should re- 
 main two or more who have equal Votes, tlie 
 Senate shall cliuse from them by Ballot the Vice 
 President Jl [§ 3.1 The Congress may deter- 
 mine tlie Time of cliusing tlic Electors, and the 
 Day on which 'ley shall give their Votes; which 
 Day shall be the same tliroughout the United 
 
 •Extended by Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth 
 AmendmentH. 
 t Superseded by Twelfth Amendment. 
 
 States. [§ 4.] No Person except a natural born 
 Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the 
 time of till! Adoption of this Constitution, shall 
 be eligible to the Otllce of President; neither 
 shall any Person be eligible to that Odlee who 
 shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five 
 Years, and lieeu fourteen Years a liesident within 
 tlie United States. [Sj 5.] In Case of tlu' Re- 
 moval of the President from Ofilce, or of Ids 
 Deatli, Resignation, or Inability to discliurge the 
 Powers and Duties of tin; .said Ofilce, the Same 
 shall devolve on the Vice President, and the 
 ("ongress may by Law provide for the t)ase of 
 Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both 
 of the President and Vice Presid<>nt, declaring 
 what OlHcer shall then act as President, and such 
 Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability 
 be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 [^ 0.] The President sliall, at stated Times, re- 
 ceive for his Services, a Compensation, which 
 shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
 tlie Period for which he shall have been elected, 
 and he shall not receive within tliat Period any 
 other Emolument from the United Stales, or any 
 of tliem. [g7.] Before he enter on the Execu- 
 tion of his Ofilce, he shall take tli(! following 
 Oath or Atllrmation: — " I do solemnly swear (or 
 "afilrni) that I will faithfully execute the Ofilce 
 "of President of tli(' United States, and will to 
 "the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and 
 " defend the Constitution of the United States." 
 /Section 2. [S l.J Tlie President shall be Com- 
 mander in Chief of tlio Armv and Navy of the 
 United States, and of tiie Militia of the several 
 States, when called into the actual Service of tlie 
 United States; he may require the Opinion, in 
 writing, of the principal OfBcer in each of the 
 executive Departments, upon any Subject relat- 
 ing to the Duties of their respective Olllces, and 
 lie shall have Power to grant Reprieves and 
 Pardons for OlTeuces against tlie United States, 
 except in Cases of Impeachment. [>; 2.] He 
 sliall have Power, by and with iXw. Advice and 
 Consent of tlie Senate, to make Treaties, pro- 
 vided two thirds of tlie Senators present concur; 
 and he shall nominate, and by and with the Ad- 
 vice and Consent of tlie Senate, shall appoint 
 Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
 suls, Judges of the suiirenie Court, and all other 
 Onicers of the United States, whose Appoint- 
 ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 
 which sliall be established by Law: but the 
 Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of 
 such inferior Otiicei-s, as they tliink proi)er, iu 
 the President alone, iu the Courts of Law, or in 
 the Heads of Departments. [^ 3.] The Presi- 
 dent sliall have Power to fill up all Vacancies 
 that may happen during the Recess of the Sen- 
 ate, by granting Commissicms wliich shall expire 
 at the' End of their ne.vt Session. t>ectiou3. He 
 shall from time to time give to tlie Congress In- 
 formation of the State of the Union, and recom- 
 mend to their Ctmsideration such Jleasures as ho 
 shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, 
 on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, 
 or eitlier of them, and in Case of Disagreement 
 between them, witli Respect to the Time of 
 Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
 Time as he shall think proper; lie shall receive 
 Ambassadors and other public Ministei-s; he 
 sliall take Care that the Laws be faithfully exe- 
 cuted, and shall Commission all the Ollicers of 
 the United States. Seotion 4. The President, 
 
 599 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. Ju,iiciarv. CONSTITUTION : UNITED STATES. 
 
 Vioo PrcMldont and all civil Ofllcers of tlic 
 Unlk'tl StatcH, Hliall !«■ removed from Ofllce on 
 Impeacliiiient for, and Conviction of, Treason, 
 Hril)ory, or otlier Ingli Crinios anil Misdcmean- 
 orH. 
 
 Article III. fiection 1. The judicial Power 
 of the United StateH, Hliall Ik; vested in one su- 
 premo Court, and in such inferior Courts as the 
 Congress may from time to time ordain and 
 establish. Tlie Judf;es, hoth of the supreme and 
 Inferior Courts, sliall liold their Olliccs during 
 go(Ml Iteliaviour, and shall, at slated Times, re- 
 ceive for tiieir Services, a Compensation, which 
 shall not be diminished during their Continunnce 
 In OfHce. .'feWioii 2. [55 1.] The judicial Power 
 8hall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, 
 arising under this Constitution, tlio Litws of the 
 United States, and Treaties nuide, or which sliull 
 Ik! ma<le, under their Autliority; — to all Cases 
 affecting Amba-ssadors, other public Ministers 
 and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and mari- 
 time Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which 
 the United States shall be a Party; — to Contro- 
 versies between two or more States ; — between 
 a State and Citizens of another State ; * — between 
 Citizens of dilTercnt States, — between Citizens 
 of the same State claiming Lands under Grants 
 of different States, and between a State, or the 
 Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or 
 Subjects. [S5 2.] In all Cases affecting Ambassa- 
 dors, otlier public Ministers and Consuls, and 
 those in wliiclx a State shall be Party, the supreme 
 Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all 
 the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme 
 Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as 
 to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and 
 tinder such Ucgulations as tiic Congress shall 
 make. [§ 3.] The Trial of nil Crimes, except 
 iu Cases of Impcacliment, shall be by Jury; and 
 such Trial shall be held in the State where the 
 said Crimes shall have been co.nmitted; but 
 when not committed witliiu any State, the Trial 
 shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress 
 may by Law have directed. Section 3. [§ L] 
 Treason against tlie United States, shall consist 
 only in levying War against them, or in adher- 
 ing to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Com- 
 fort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason 
 unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the 
 same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. 
 [S 2.] The Congress shall have Power to de- 
 clare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attain- 
 der of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, 
 or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Per- 
 son attainted. 
 
 Article IV. Section 1. Full Faith --.ud Credit 
 shall be given in each State to the public Acts, 
 Records, and judicial Proceedings of every 
 other State. And the Congress may by general 
 Laws prescribe the JIaimer in which such Acts, 
 Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and 
 the Effect thereof. Section 2. [§ 1.] The Citi- 
 zens of each State shall be entitled to all Privi- 
 leges and Immunities of Citizens in the several 
 Slat»;st [§ 3.] A Person chrrged in any State 
 with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall 
 flee from Justice, and bo found in anotlier State, 
 shall on Demand of the executive Authority of 
 the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to 
 be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of 
 the Crime. [§ 3.] [No Person held to Service 
 
 * Limited by Eleventh Amendment, 
 t Extended by Fourteenth Amendment. 
 
 or LalKiur In one State, tinder the Laws thereof, 
 escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of 
 any Law or Kegiilation therein, be discharged 
 from such Service or Labour, but shall be de- 
 livered up on Claim of the Party to whom such 
 Service or Labour may be due.]* Section 3. [j5 1.] 
 New States may be admitted by the Congress 
 into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed 
 or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other 
 State; nor any State be formed by the Junction 
 of two or more States, or Parts of States, with- 
 out the Consent of the Legislatures of the States 
 concerned as well as of tlie Congress. [S 2.1 
 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and 
 make all needful Uules and Ucgulations respect- 
 ing the Territory or otlier Property I>clonging to 
 the United States; and nothing in this Constitu- 
 tion shall be so construed as to Prejudice any 
 Claims of the United States, or of any particular 
 State. Section 4. The United States sliall guar- 
 antee to every State in this Union a llepubiican 
 Form of Government, and shall protect each of 
 tlien> against Invasion; and on Application of 
 the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the 
 Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic 
 Violence. 
 
 Article V. The Congress, whenever two 
 thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, 
 shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, 
 or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two 
 thirds of the several States, shall call a Conven- 
 tion for proposing Amendments, which. In either 
 Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, 
 as Part of this Constitution, when ratifled by the 
 Legislatures of three fourths of the several 
 States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, 
 as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may 
 be proposed by the Congress; Provided that 
 [no Amendment which may be made prior to the 
 Year One thousand fight hundred and eight 
 shall in any Manner affect the flvst and fourth 
 Clauses in the Ninth Section oi t'.ie first Article ; 
 andlt that no State, without itii Consent, shall 
 be deprived of its equal Suff -age in the Sen- 
 ate. 
 
 Article VI. [§ 1.] All Debts contracted and 
 Engagements entered into, before the Adoption 
 of this Constitution, shall be as valid against 
 the United States under this Constitution, as 
 under tlie Confederation, t [§2.] This Consti- 
 tution, and the Laws of the United States which 
 shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all 
 Treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
 the Authority of the United States, shall be the 
 supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in 
 every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing 
 in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the 
 Contrary notwltlistanding. [§ 3.| The Senators 
 and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
 Members of the several State Legislatures, and 
 all executive and judicial Ofllccrs, both of the 
 United States and of the several States, shall be 
 bound by Goth or Aftlrmation, to support this 
 Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be 
 required as a Qualification to any Oflice or public 
 Trust under the United States. 
 
 Article VII. The Itatificution of the Conven- 
 tions of nine States, sliall be sufBcient for the 
 Establishment of this Constitution between the 
 States so ratifying the Same. 
 
 • &iipersedc<l by Thirteenth Amendment. 
 
 tTeinporary provision. 
 
 t Estf Dded by Fourteenth Amendment, Section 4. 
 
 600 
 
CONSTITUTION: UNITED STATES. AmendmmU. CONSTITUTION; UNITED STATES. 
 
 DoNK in Convention by llio UnaniinnuH Con- 
 gont of tilt' SUltt'g present tlu^ Seventeenth Day 
 of September in tlie Yeiir of our Lonl one 
 thou8»U(l Bevcn hundred and Eiglity seven and 
 of tlio Independenec of tlie United States of 
 America tlie Twelfth In Witness whereof We 
 have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 Qo Wasiiinoton — Presidt and deputy from 
 Virginia. 
 
 Dklawaub. 
 Qco: Head John Dickinson 
 
 Gunning Bedford iun Uielmrd Uassett 
 Jaco: Broom 
 New IIa.mi'8iiiue. 
 Jolm Langdon Nicliolas Oilman 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 Nathaniel Ooriiam Hufus King 
 
 MAUYIiAND. 
 
 James Mcllenry Dan of St. Thos. Jenifer 
 
 Danl Carroll 
 Connecticut. 
 Wm. Saml. Johnson Roger Sherman 
 
 VmoiNiA. 
 John Blair — James Madison Jr. 
 
 New Yokk. 
 Alexander Hamilton 
 NouTii Cauomna. 
 Wm. Blount Hichd. Dobbs Spaight 
 
 Hu Williamson 
 New Jehbey. 
 Wil : Livingston Wm : Patcrson. 
 
 David Brearley Jona : Dayton 
 
 South Carolina. 
 J. Uutledge, Charles Pinckney 
 
 Charles Cotesworth Pierce Butler. 
 
 Pinckney 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 B Franklin Tlios. Fitz Simons 
 
 Thomas Mifflin Jaa>d Ingcrsoll 
 
 Robt. Morris James Wilson. 
 
 Geo. Clymer Qouv Morris 
 
 Geouoia. 
 William Few Abr Baldwin * 
 
 ARTICLES in addition to and Amendment of 
 the Constitution of the United States of America, 
 proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legis- 
 latures of the several States, pursuant to the ttfth 
 Article of the original Constitution, f 
 
 [Article I.] Congress shall make no law re- 
 specting an establisliment of religion, or pro- 
 hibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging 
 the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the 
 riglit of the people peaceably to assemble, and 
 to petition the Government for a redress of 
 grievunces. 
 
 [Article II.] A well regulated Militia, being 
 necessary to the security of a free State, the 
 right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall 
 not be infringed. 
 
 [Article III.] No Soldier shall, in time of 
 peace be quartered in any house, without the 
 consent of the Owner, nor ni time of war, but in 
 a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 [Z'HclelV.] The riglit of the people to be 
 Beci. 'icir persons, houses, papers, and effects, 
 
 again. iisonable searches and seizure?, shall 
 
 not be vio ed, and no Warrants shall issue, but 
 upon probable cause, supported by Oath or afTlrm- 
 ation, and particularly describing the place to 
 
 • These signatures have no other legal force than that 
 of attestation. 
 
 tThis heading appears only in the joint resolution sub- 
 mitting the first ten amendments. 
 
 ^® 601 
 
 be searelicd, and the persons or things to Ih- 
 seized. 
 
 [Article V.] No persmi shall be held to answer 
 for a capital, or otlierwiw^ infamous crinie, unless 
 on a preHentmeiil or InrMctnient of a Grand Jury, 
 except in eases arising in tlie land or naval forces, 
 or in the Alilitia, when in actual service in time 
 of War or publl<' danger; nor shall any person 
 bo subject for tlu! same olTence to be twice put 
 in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be com- 
 pelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
 against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
 or property, without due process of law ; nor 
 shall private i)roperly be taken for public use. 
 without just comiiensation. 
 
 [Article VI.] In all criminal prosecutions the 
 accu.sed shall enjoy the right to u speedy and 
 public tri il, by an imi)artial jury of the State 
 and district wherein tlie crinie shall have been 
 committed, which district shall ha e iM'en pre- 
 viously ascertained by law, and to be informed 
 of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be 
 confronted witli the witnesses against liim; to 
 have compulsiory process for obtaining witnes.ses 
 in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Coun- 
 sel for his defence. 
 
 [Article VII.] In suitsat common law, where 
 the value in controvei'sy shall exceed twenty 
 dcllai-s, the right of trial by jury shall be pre- 
 se. ved and no fact tried by a jury shall be 
 otherwise re-examined in any Court of the 
 United States, tlian according to the rules of the 
 common law. 
 
 [Article VIII.] Excessive bail shall not be 
 required, nor excessive fines impo.sed, nor cruel 
 and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 [Article Ix.] The enumeration in tlie Con- 
 stitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed 
 to deny or disparage others retained by the 
 people. 
 
 [Article X.] The powers not delegated to the 
 United States by tlie Constitution, nor |)rohibitcd 
 by it to the States, are reserved to the States re- 
 spectively, or to tlie people.* 
 
 [Article XI.] The Judicial power of the 
 United States shall not be construed to extend to 
 any suit in law or equity, commenced or prose- 
 cuted against one of tlie United States by Citizens 
 of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of 
 any Foreign State, f 
 
 [Article XII.] The Electors shall meet in 
 their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
 President and Vice-President, one of whim, at 
 least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state 
 with themselves; they shall name in tlieir ballots 
 the person voted for as President, and in distinct 
 ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, 
 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons 
 voted for as President, and of all persons voted 
 for as Vice-President, and of tlie number of 
 votes for each, wliich lists they shall sign and 
 certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
 government of the United States, directed to the 
 Pres' lent of the Senate; — The President of the 
 Sent vC shall, in tlie presence of the Senate and 
 Hoise of Representatives, open all the certificates 
 am' the votes shall th 'ii be counted; — The 
 pel son having tlie greatest number of votes for 
 President, sliall be the President, if such number 
 
 * Amendments First to Tenth appear to have been in 
 force from Nov. H, 1(91. [^e Vsiteu States or Am.: 
 A. D. 1791.1 
 
 t Proclaimed to be in force Jan, 8, 1796. 
 
CONSTITUTION : UNITED 8TATE8. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 be a rimjorify of the whole number of RIcctoni 
 itppoiiili'cl ; mill if III) iMTHoii liiivcNiii'li majority, 
 tlit'ii froin tlie porsoiix liitviiiK the lii^lK'Ht 
 niiiiilK'rx not (•Xd'cdin^ three on the lint of thoxe 
 voted for im I'reHidciit, the House of Itepreselita- 
 tiveH Hhall chiHiHc iiiiriieiliately, )iv liallot, the 
 President. Hut in eliooKiiig the President, tlio 
 vot<;.s shall be taken by Hlale.s, tlio representation 
 from each state liavinii; one vote; ii i|Uorum for 
 tills purpose shall consist of a memlMT or mem- 
 bers from two thirds of the slates, and a majority 
 uf all the states shall be necessary tu a choice. 
 And if the House of Itepn^sentatlves shall not 
 clioos*! a President whenever the ri^ht of choice 
 sliall devolve upon tliein, before the fourth day 
 of >Iarch next followinjf, then the VleePresi 
 <lent shall act as President, as in the case of the 
 <leatli or other constitutional disability of the 
 President, — The person having the greatest 
 number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the 
 Vice-I'resideiit, It such number lie a maiorlty of 
 the whole nuiiiln r of Electors appointed, and if 
 no person have a iiiujority, then from the two 
 higliest numbers ou the list, tlic Senate shall 
 choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the 
 purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole 
 uiimbcr of Senators, and a majority of the whole 
 number shall be necessary to a choice. Uut no 
 
 iierson constitutionally ineligible to the oHlce of 
 •resident shall be eligible to that of Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the United States.* 
 
 Article XIII. Section \. Neither slavery nor 
 involuntary servitude, except as u punishment 
 for crime whereof the parly shall have been duly 
 convicted, shall exist within the United States, 
 or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 Section 2. Congress sliall liave power to eulorco 
 this article by appropriate legislation.! 
 
 Article XlV. Section 1. All persons born or 
 naturalized in the United Stiites, and subject to 
 tlio juri.sdiction thereof, are citizensof the United 
 States and of the State wherein they reside. 
 No State shall make or enforce any law which 
 shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
 citizens of tlie United Slates; nor shall any State 
 deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
 without due jjrocess of law ; nor deny to any 
 person within its jurisdiction the eipial protec- 
 tion of the laws. Section 3. Representatives 
 shall be apportioned among the several States 
 
 ftccordlnff to their reapoctlvo numl)crn, counting 
 the whole number of persons In each State, ex- 
 cluding Indians not taxed. Miit when the right 
 to vote at any election for the clioice of electors 
 for President and Vice President of the United 
 States, Heprescntatlves in Congress, the Execu- 
 tive and Judicial otllcers of a Htiite, or the mem- 
 bers of the Ix'gislat lire thereof, Is denied to any 
 of the male Inhabltanls of such State, being 
 twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the 
 United Slates, or in any way abriilged, except 
 for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the 
 basis of representation therein shall be reduced 
 in tlic proportion which the number of such 
 male citizens shall bear to the whole number of 
 mule citizens twenty-one years of age in such 
 State. Section 8. No |)erson shall be a Senator 
 or Uepri'sentative in ('ongres.s, or elector of 
 President and Vice President, or hold any ofllco, 
 civil or military, under the United States, or 
 under any State, who, having previously taken 
 an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
 olHcer of the United States, or as a member of 
 any State legislature, or as an executive or 
 judicial olHcer of any State, to support the Con- 
 stitution of the United St4itcs, shall have engaged 
 111 insurrection or rebellion again.st the same, or 
 given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. 
 Uu* Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of 
 each House, remove Biicli disability. Section 4. 
 Tlie validity of the public debt of the United 
 Slates, autliorized by law, including debts in- 
 curred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
 services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
 shall not be questioned. Hut neither the United 
 States nor any State shall assume or pay any 
 debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrecti(m 
 or rebellion against the United States, or any 
 claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
 but all such debts, obligations and clainis slii'.U 
 be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Con- 
 gress shall have power to enforce, by appropri- 
 ate legislation, the jirovisions of this article.* 
 
 Article XV. Section 1. The right of citizens 
 of the United States to vote shall not be denied 
 or abridgetl by the United States or by any State 
 on account of race, color, or previous condition 
 ofservitude, — SectionZ. The Congress shall have 
 power to enforce this article by appropriate 
 legislation." — f 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 The following text is taken from Bulletin No. 
 34 (if the Bureau of tiie American Republics: 
 
 Article i. The States that the constitution of 
 March 28, lri04, declared independent and united 
 to form tlie Venezuelan Federation, and that on 
 April 27, 1881, were denominated Apure, Boli- 
 var, Barq_uislmeto, Barcelona, Carabobo, Co- 
 jcdes, Cumana, Falcon, Guzman Blanco, Guii- 
 rico, Qimyana, Ouzmiin, Jlaturin, Nueva Esparta, 
 Portuguesa, Tacliini, Trujillo, Yaracuy, Za- 
 inora, and Zulia are constituted into nine grand 
 political bodies, viz : The Slate of Bermudcz, com- 
 |)osed of Barcelona, Cumana, and Maturin; the 
 State of Minmdo, composed of Bolivar, Ouzman 
 
 ♦ Proclaimed to be In force Sept. 85, 1CM. 
 •(• Proolalnietl to he in force Doc. IH, 1865. [See Untted 
 States of Ah.: A. U. ItiUS (Januaby).] 
 
 Blanco, Gufirico, and Nueva Esparta ; the State 
 of Carabobo, composed of Carabobo and Nirgua ; 
 the State of Zamorii, composed of Coiedes, Por- 
 tuguesa, and Zumora; the State of Lara, com- 
 posed of Barquisimeto and Yaracuy, except the 
 department of Nirgua ; the Stiito of Los Andes, 
 composed of Guzman, Trujillo, and Tdchira; the 
 State of Bolivar, composed of Guayana and 
 Apure ; the State of Zulia, and also the State of 
 Falcon. And they are thus constituted to continue 
 one only nation, free, sovereign, and independent, 
 under the title of the United States of Venezuela. 
 
 • Proclaimed to be in force July 88. IffM. [Bee UNmsD 
 States ok Am.: A. D. 18«5-18()6 (Dkcbbbkr— April); 
 1800 (Ju.NK), and 186ft-1867 (October— March).] 
 
 t Proclaimed to he In force Mar. 30, 1870, [See United 
 States of Ah.: A. D. 1800-1870.] 
 
 602 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. 
 
 Art. a. Till) IxiundftrloH of tliow! j^ri'iit Htntos 
 an; di'tcrmliu'd by tlioiM! tlint tlio law of Anril 2H, 
 IMO, tliikt iirriMiKi'd tlio liiHt tcrrltoriiil (llvUlon, 
 <lefliKuiit('<l for tlioauclunt provinci-H until it hIiiiII 
 Ik! rcfomit'<l. 
 
 Art. 3. Tlic l)oiin(liirle» of tho United HtatPH of 
 tlio Vcnc/.ucliin Ki'dcnition iin; llui HiuntMliitt In 
 1810 bt'loiigt'd to till! old ('iiptiiincydcncnd of 
 VcnfZiiclu. 
 
 Art. 4. Tho Stiitcs timt urc grouped to^jctluT 
 to form tlic gmnd political IxmIIch will Ix; culled 
 Sections. TlioHu arc ci|ual among tlicmsclvcH ; tho 
 conNtitiitlons proscriliod for their internal organ- 
 ism niiiHt be harmonloiiH with tho foderatlvo 
 principles cHtabiislied by tlic present compact, 
 and tho sovereignty not delegated resides In tlio 
 Stato without any other llmitationN than tliost; 
 that devolve from the eonipromiso of association. 
 
 Art. 5. These are Venezuelans, viz: tst, All 
 persons that may have been or may bo born on 
 Venezuelan soil, whatever maybe the nationality 
 of their parents; 2d, The children of a Vene- 
 zuelan father or mother that may have been liorn 
 on foreign soil, if they should come to take up 
 their domicile In tho country an<l express the 
 desire to become citizens; 3d, Foreigners that 
 may have obtained naturalization papers; and, 
 4th, Those born or that shall be born In any of 
 the .Spanish-American republics or in the Spanish 
 Antilles, provided that they may have taken up 
 their residence in tho territory of the liepiibiic 
 and express a willingness to become citizens. 
 
 Art. 6. Tiioso that take up their residence and 
 acquire nationality in a foreign country do not 
 lose the character of Venezuelans. , 
 
 Art. 7. Males over twentyono years of ago 
 arc qunlitled Venezuelan citizens, with only the 
 eptions contained in this constitution. 
 
 Art. 8. All Venezuelans are obliged to serve' 
 the nation according to the prescriptions of the" 
 laws, sacritlcing his property and. his life, If 
 necessary, to defend the country. 
 
 Art. 9. Venezuelans shall enjoy,' In all ' the 
 States of tho Union, tho rights ami immunities 
 Inherent to their condition as citizens of the Fed- 
 eration, and tlicy shall also have Imposed upon 
 them there the same duties that are required of 
 those that are natives or domiciled there. 
 
 Art. 10. Foreigners shall enjoy the samo civil 
 riglits as Venezuelans and tho same security in 
 their persons and property. Tliey can only take 
 atlvantage of diplomatic means in accordance 
 with public treaties and in cases when right per-_ 
 mits it. 
 
 Art. II. The law will determine tho right ap- 
 
 filicablo to tho condition of foreigners, accord- 
 ng as they may be domiciled or in transit. 
 
 Art. 13. The States that form the Venezuelan 
 Federation reciprocally recognize their respective 
 autonomies ; they are declared equal in political 
 entity, and preserve, in all its plenitude, tho 
 sovereignty not expressly delegated in this con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. ij. The States of the Venezuelan Feder- 
 ation oblige themselves — Ist, To organize them- 
 selves in accord with the principles of popular, 
 elective, federal, representative, alternative, and 
 responsible goveniment; 2d, To establish tho 
 fundamental regulations of their interior regu- 
 lation and government in entire confonnity with 
 the principles of this constitution; 3d, To defend 
 thcinselves against all violence that threatens the 
 sectional independence or the integrity of the 
 
 Venezuelan Federation ; 4th, To not alienate to 
 a foreign power any part of tlieir territory, nor 
 to implore its protection, nor to establiHh or cul- 
 tivate political or diplomatic relations with otlier 
 nations, siiiiu' tills last Is reserved to the Federal 
 power; 5tli. To not combine or ally themselves 
 witli another natiim, nor to m-parate themselveii 
 to the prejuillcc of the nationality of Venezuela 
 and her territory; Otli, To cede to tho nation tho 
 territory that may be necessary for tho Federal 
 district; 7tii, To cede to tho Oovernment of tho 
 Federation tho territory necessary for the erec- 
 tion of forts, warehouses, sliipyards, and penl- 
 tentiaries, and for the construction of other 
 editlees indisnensidilo to the general administra- 
 tion ; Htli, To leave to th(! Government of tho 
 Federation the administration of the Amazonaa 
 and Goajira territories and that of tho islanils 
 which pertain to the nation, until it may be con- 
 venient to elevate them to another rank; 9lh, To 
 reserve to the powers of tho Federation all legis- 
 lative or executive jurisdiction cimcerning mari- 
 time, coastwise, and tluvlal navigation, and tlio 
 national roads, considering as such those that 
 exceed the limits of a State and lead to tlii! fron- 
 tiers of others and to tho Federal district; 10th, 
 To not s"')Ject to contributions the prcMliict.s or 
 articles upon which national taxes are Imposed, 
 or those that are by law exempt from tax lieforo 
 they have been offered for consumption; lltli, 
 To not impose contributions on cattle, elTccts, or 
 any class of merchandise in transit for another 
 State, in order that tralUc may bo absolutely 
 free, and that in one section the consumption of 
 others may not be taxed; 12th, To not prohibit 
 the consumption of the products of other States 
 nor to tax their productions with greater general 
 or municipal taxes than those paid on pnxliicts 
 raised In the locality; 13tli, To not establisli 
 inaritime or territorial custom-houses for the col- 
 lection of imports, since there will bo national 
 ones only; 14tli, To recognise the right of each 
 State to dispose of its natural prtMUicts; IStli, 
 I To cede to tho Oovernment of the Federation 
 the administration of mines, public lands, and 
 salt mines, in order that the lirst may be regu- 
 lated by a system of uniform working and that 
 the latter may be applied to tho benetit of tho 
 people ; 16th, To respect the property, arsenals, 
 and forts of the nation; 17tli, To comjily with 
 and cause to be complied witli and executed tho 
 Constitution and laws of tho federation and tlio 
 decrees and orders that the federal power, tho 
 tribunals, and courts may expedite in use of 
 their attributes and legal faculties; 18tli, To 
 give entire faith to and to cause to bo comijlied 
 witli and executed the public acts and juiticial 
 procedures of the other States; 19th, To organ- 
 ize their tribunals and courts for tlic administra- 
 tion of justice in tlie State and to have for all of 
 them the same substantive civil and criminal 
 legislation and tlie same laws of civil and crimi- 
 nal procedure; 20tli, To present judges for tho 
 court of appeals and to submit to the decision of 
 this supreme tribunal of tlie States; 2l8t, To 
 incorporate the extradition of criminals as a 
 political principle in tlieir respective Constitu- 
 tions; 22d, To establisli direct and public suf- 
 frage iu popular elections, making it obligatory 
 and endorsing it in tlie electoral registry. The 
 vote of the suffragist must be cast in full 
 and public session of the respective board; it 
 will be inscribed in the registry books that the 
 
 603 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUKLA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 Inw pn'fH'rilx'H for clrrtlonit, which cim nut )h> 
 RulmtlluU'il ill liny otliir form, iiiiil tint ch'ctor, 
 fur hliiiiM'lf or liy luiotlirr lit liin r('<|iicHt In caiwt 
 (if ini|MMliiiu'nt or tliroiiKh iKnonuit'c, will hI^ii 
 the nicinoruiiiluni ciilrv of IiIh vote, iiiiil without 
 
 IIiIh r)'i|ulHitr It ciui not lie cliiimcil tliiit In rciility 
 
 iif iirl 
 mury ciliu'iitionand that of iirtHiiiiil truilcH; 2'ttli, 
 
 he hiiH voted; 'iM, To eHliililiiili ii HyHleni of 
 
 To rcHervft to tlic powers of the Fcderiillon the 
 liiWH nnd provlHlons neeeKsitry for the creiitloii, 
 C'oniiorvation, iind ))ro);reHH of freneral hcIiooIn, 
 colIegcH, or iinlverHltiis lU'Kljjned for tin; tench- 
 IliK of thu M'leni'eit; 'iMt, Tu not Impose diitieH 
 upon thi^ national eniployeR, exeept in the i|ual- 
 ity of eitlzenH of theKtale and insoiniieh as these 
 dutleH may not be Inronipatlblu with thu national 
 piililie service ; 2(llh, To funilsh the |)roporlional 
 coDtlnf(cnt that pertains to them to compose 
 tho national piiblie forces in time of peace or 
 war; 27th, To not iiernilt in the Ktates of the 
 Pcdenitlon forced enllstnienis and levies thai 
 liave or may have for their object an attack on 
 liberty or Indeiicmlence or a (listurbiinee of the 
 public order of the Nation, of other Htates, or of 
 nnothiT Nation ; 28th, To jireservo u strict neu- 
 trality in the contentions that may arise in otiier 
 Btates; 20tli, To not declare or carry on war In 
 any case, one Htnte with anolher; Soth, To de- 
 fer and submit to the decision of tlie Congress or 
 the High Federal Court in all the controversies 
 that may arise between two or more Htates when 
 they <'an not, between themselves and by pacific 
 measures, arrive at an agreement. If, for any 
 cause, they may not designate the arbiter to 
 whose decision they may submit, they leave it, 
 in fact, to the High Federal Court; ai.st, To 
 recognize the competency of Congress and of the 
 court of appeals to take cognizance of the causes 
 that, for trea.son to the country or for the Infrac- 
 tion of the Constitution nnd laws of the Fcdern- 
 tlon, may be instituted against those that exer- 
 cise executive authority in the Stat<.'s, it being 
 their duty to Incoriiorato this precciit in their 
 constitutions. In these trials the modes of pro- 
 cedure that tho general laws prescribe will be 
 followed nnd they will be tleclded in consonance 
 w ith those luws ; 22d, To have as the just Income 
 of the States, two-thinls of the total product of 
 the Impost collected as transit tux in nil tlic custom- 
 liouses of the Republic nnd wwo-thirds of that col- 
 lected from mines, public lands, and salt mines 
 administered by the Federal Power and to distrib- 
 ute tills income nmoug all the States of the Fed- 
 eration in proportion to the population of each ; 
 83d, To reserve to the Federal Power the amount 
 of the third part of the income from transit tax, 
 the production of mines, public lands, and salt 
 mines, to be invested in the improvement of the 
 country ; 34th, To keep far away from the fron- 
 tier those individuals that, through politicnl 
 motives, take refuge in a State, provided that 
 the State interested requests it. 
 
 Art. 14. The nation guarantees to Venezue- 
 lans: Ist, The inviolal)illty of life, capital pun- 
 ishment being abolished iu spite of any low that 
 establishes it ; 2il, Proj)erty, jv.ith all its attri- 
 butes, riglits and privileges, will only be sub- 
 jected to contributions decreed by legislative 
 authority, to judicial decision, and to be taken 
 for public works after indemnity and condemna- 
 tion; 3d, Tlic inviolability and secrecy of cor- 
 respondence and other private papere ; 4th, The 
 domestic bcartli, that can not be approached ex- 
 
 cept to nrevi'nt tho perpetration of crime, and 
 thiR itwli must Ix' done in accordance with law: 
 fllh, Persona' lili'Tty, and conseiineiitly(l) forcx'd 
 recruiting for jirnied service is abolished, (2) slav- 
 ery is forever proscribed, (II) slaves that tread 
 the soil of Venezuela arc free, and (4) nobody ts 
 obliged to do that which llie law does not com- 
 mand, nor is impeded from doihg that wliich It 
 does not lirohlbit ; titli, The freedom of tlioiiglit, 
 exiiressed by word or through the iiress, is with- 
 out any restriction to be Mibmitteil to previous 
 censun-. In cases of calumny or Injury or preju- 
 dice to a third party, the aggrieved party sliall 
 have every facility to have Ids complaints Inves- 
 tigated before competent tribunnlH of justico in 
 accoriiance with the common laws; 7tli, The llb- 
 iTty of traveling without passport, to change 
 the domicil, observing the legal formalities, and 
 to depart from and return to the Hepnlilic, carry- 
 ing olf and bringing back his or her property; 
 8tli, The liberty of industry and conseciuently 
 the proprietorslil|) of discoveries and produc- 
 tions. The law will assign to the proprietors a 
 temporary privilege or the mixle of indemnity In 
 case that the author agrees to Its publication; 
 Oth, The liberty of reunion nnd assembling with- 
 out nrnis, publicly or privately, the nuthorltles 
 being iirohibited from exercising any net of in- 
 spection or coercion; 10th, The liberty of peti- 
 tion, with the right of obtaining action by reso- 
 lution ; jietitlon can be made by any functionary, 
 authority or corporation. If the petition shall 
 be made In the name of various jiersous, the flrst 
 five will respond for the authenticity of the sig- 
 natures and all for the truth of the assertions; 
 11th, The lilK'rty of suffrage at popular elections 
 without any restriction except to males under 
 eighteen years of age; 12th, The liberty of in- 
 struction w ill bo protected to every extent. The 
 public power is obliged to establish gratuitoua 
 instruction in primary schools, the arts, and 
 trades; IStli, lUiiglous lllierty ; 14th, Individual 
 security, and, therefore (1) no Venezuelan can bo 
 imprisoned or arrested in punishment for debts 
 not founded in fraud or crime ; (2) nor to lie obliged 
 to lodge or quarter soldiers in his house; (3) nor 
 to be judged liy special commissions or tribu- 
 nals, but by his natural judges and by virtue of 
 laws dictated before the commission of the crime 
 or net to bo judged; (4) nor to be imprisoned nor 
 arrested without previous summary iufonnation 
 that a crime meriting corporal punishment has 
 been committed, and a written order from the 
 functionary that orders the imprisonment, stating 
 the cause of arrest, unless tho person may bo 
 caught in the commission of the crime ; (5) nor 
 to be ploced in solitary confinement for any 
 cause ; (6) nor to bo obliged to give evidence, in 
 criminal causes, against himself or his blood re- 
 lations within the fourth degree of consanguinity 
 or against his relations by marriage within tho 
 second degree, or against husband or wife; (7) 
 nor to remain in prison wiien the reasons that 
 caused the imprisonment have been dissipated ; 
 (8) nor tc be sentenced to corporal punishment 
 for more than ten years ; (9) nor to remain de- 
 prived of liis liberty for political reasons when 
 order is reestablished. 
 
 Art. 15. Equality: in virtue of which (1) all 
 must be judged by the very same laws and sub- 
 ject to equal duty, service and contributions; 
 (2) no titles of nobility, iiereditary honors, and 
 distinctions will be conceded, nor employments 
 
 604 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZl'ET.A. 
 
 CONflTITl'TION OP VfiNEZUELA. 
 
 or offices llio MilnrloH or pmoliimcnts of wlilrli 
 ('(mtlnup ftflcr tlm t^'nnlimlloii of ncrvic^o; (!l) no 
 other ollW'iiil fiiilututiiiii tliati "citi/.cn " unit 
 "you" will Im! ({Ivcii to cinployc'd atid corporii- 
 tloiiH. The prc'si'iit. ciiiiminitiDii docM not Im- 
 poNc upon till) Htatt'H tlic oliliKatiuM to ucconl 
 other giiiirHiiteeN to their lnliiil)ltiuitH. 
 
 Art. i6. The InwH In the HtalcM will prescribe 
 peimltleH fortius liifractloiiH of thcHe K»arantees. 
 eHtat)llslilnf; iiiodi'S of i)roee(lur(! to niuKe thetn 
 elTectlve. 
 
 Art. 17. Those who may issue, sign, or exe- 
 cute, or order executed any decrees, orders, or 
 resolutions that violate or in any manner infrlnj^e 
 upon the j{uarante<>s accorded to Venezuelans are 
 culpable and must be punished according to the 
 law. Every citizen is empowered to IjrinKcliarKcs. 
 
 Art. 18. Tlie National Lejjislature will l)e com- 
 posed of two clinndK'rs, one of Senators and 
 another of Deputies. 
 
 Art. 19. The States will determine the mode 
 of election of Deputies. 
 
 Art. ao. To form tlie (!lmmber of Deputies, 
 each State will name, by |>opular election In ac- 
 cordance with paragraph 'i'i of Article liJ of tills 
 (Jonstitution, on<^ Deputy for each thirty-five 
 thousand inhal)ltants aiuf anotber for an excess 
 not under fifteen tliousand. In tlie same man- 
 nvx it will elect alternates in equal number to 
 the principals. 
 
 Art. 21. Tlio Deputies will liold olUce for four 
 years, when tliey will 1)0 renewed in their en- 
 tirety. 
 
 Art. 2a. The prerogatives of tlie clinmber of 
 I)ep\itie8 are: First, to examine the annual ac- 
 count that the President of tlie United States of 
 Venezuela must render; second, to pass a vote 
 of censure of the Ministers of tlic Cabinet, in 
 which event their posis will Ih; vacant; third, to 
 hear charges against the persons in charge of 
 the olHce of the Notional Executive for treason 
 to tile country, for infraction of the constitution, 
 or for ordinary crimes; against tlie ministers and 
 other National eniployfis for infraction of tlio 
 Constitution and laws and for fault in the dis- 
 cliarge of tlieir duties according to article 75 of 
 this constitution and of tiie general laws of the 
 Uepuiilic. This attribute is preventative and 
 neiJier contracts nor dimlnislies those that other 
 authorities have to judge and punish. 
 
 Art. 23. Wlien a charge is instituted by a 
 Deputy or by any corporation or individual the 
 following rules will be observed : (1) there will 
 he appointed, in secret session, a commission of 
 tiirec deputies; (2) the commission will, within 
 tlirco days, render an opinion, declaring whether 
 or not there is foundation for instituting a cause ; 
 (3) the Chamber will consider tlie information 
 and decide upon tlie cause by the vote of an ol)- 
 soluto majonty of the members present, the 
 accusing Deputy abstaining from voting. 
 _ Art. 24. Tile declaration that there is founda- 
 tion for the cause operates to suspend from office 
 the accused and incapacitates liim for the dis- 
 charge of any public function during the trial. 
 
 Art. 25. To form this Chamber each State, 
 tlirough its respective legislature, will elect 
 three principal Senators and an "rual number of 
 alternates to supply the vacu hat may oc- 
 
 cur. 
 
 Art. 26. To be a Senator it is ^ _ lA that he 
 shall be a Venezuelan by birth anQ .nirty years 
 of age. 
 
 Art. 37. The ft-nBtom will occupy their po«t« 
 for four vears and lie renewed in their I'ntirety. 
 
 Art. a&. It Is tlie pn'rogative of tlie Senate to 
 sii' - initiate and decide llie causes Initiated in 
 till' Clianilier of Deputies. 
 
 Art. ao. If tlie cause may not have been con 
 cluiled (luring tlie seHKlons,"tlie Senate will eon- 
 tinue aHsenililed for this purpose only until the 
 cause is llnislied. 
 
 Art. 30. The National Legislature will assem- 
 ble on tlie aoth day of Fetiruiiry of each year or 
 IIS soon thereafter as possilile at the capital of 
 the United States without tlie necessity of pre- 
 vious notice. Till' KeHsions will hiHt for seventy 
 days to lie jirohmged until nimly days at the 
 jiKlgiiient of the majority. 
 
 Art. 31. The Cliamliers will open their bob- 
 sions wltii twothirds of their iiumlier at least; 
 and. In default of tills numl«'r, those present 
 will assemble in preparatory ciinimission anil 
 adopt measures for tlie concurrence of tlic ab- 
 sentees. 
 
 Art.3a. The sessions having lieen open-d, tliey 
 may lie continued by twotliirds of those tiiat 
 may liave Installed them, provided that the num- 
 bcT be not less than liiilf of all tlie memliers 
 elected. 
 
 Art. 33. Altliough tlio Chamliers deliberate 
 separately, they may assemble together In the 
 Congress wlien the constitution and laws proviile 
 for It or wlien one of the two Chamtiers may 
 deem it n(!eessary. If tlie Cliamlier that is in- 
 vited sliall agree, it remains to it to fix tlie day 
 and the Iiour of the joint session. 
 
 Art. 34. Tiie sessions will be public and secret 
 at the will of tlie Chamber. 
 
 Art. 35. The Chamliers liave the right: (1) to 
 make rules to be observed in tlie sessions and to 
 regulate the detiates; (2) to correct infractors; (!)) 
 to estalilish the police force in tlic hall of ses- 
 sions; (4) to punish or correct spectators who cre- 
 ate disorder ; (.')) to remove the obstacles to the 
 free exercise of their functions : (6) to command 
 tlie execution of tlieir private resolutions ; (7) to 
 judge of the ((uoliHcations of their members and 
 to consider their resignations. 
 
 Art. 36. One of the Chambers cannot suspend 
 Its sessions nor change its place of meeting with- 
 out the consent of tlie otlier ; in case of disagree- 
 ment tliey will reassemble together and execute 
 that which tiie majority resolves. 
 
 Art. 37. Tiie exerci.se of any other pulilic func- 
 tion, during tiie sessions, is incompatible with 
 tliose of a Senator or Deputy. The law will 
 specify tlie remunerations that the members of 
 the national Legislature sliall receive for their 
 services. And whenever an increase of said re- 
 munerations is decreed, the law that sanctions it 
 will not begin to be in force until the following 
 period when the Chambers tliat sanctioned it 
 shall have been renewed in their entirety. 
 
 Art. 38. Tlie Senators and Deputies shall en- 
 joy immunity from tlio 20th day of January 
 of eacli year until thirty days after the close of 
 the sessions and this consists in the suspension 
 of all civil or criminal proceeding, whatever 
 may be its origin or nature ; when any one shall 
 perpetrate an act that merits corporal piinisii- 
 ment the investigation sliall continue until the 
 end of tlie summing up and shall remain in tuis 
 stoto wliile the term of immunity continues. 
 
 Art. 30. The Congress will be presided • over 
 iPn ■ ■ • - 
 
 by the President of tlie Senate and tho presiding 
 
 605 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 oflBcpr of the Chamber of deputies will act as 
 Vice-President. 
 
 Art. 40. The members of the Chambers are 
 not n-spousible for tlie opinions tliey expres-s or 
 the discourses tliej' pronounce in session. 
 
 Art. 41. Senators and deputies that accept of- 
 fice or commission from the National E.xecutivo 
 thereby leave vacant the posts of legislators in 
 the Chamlwrs to which they were elected. 
 
 Art. 43. Nor can senators and deputies make 
 contracts with the general Govemmcut or con- 
 duct the prosecution of claims of others against it. 
 
 Art. 43, The National Legislature has the fol- 
 lowing prerogatives: (1) to dissolve the contro- 
 versies that may arise between two or more 
 States; (3) to locate the Federal District in an 
 unpopulated territory not exceeding three miles 
 square, 'vhere will be constructed the capital 
 city of the Republic. This district will be neu- 
 tral territory, and no other elections will be 
 there held than those that ' :iw determines for 
 the locality. The distric; ill be provisionally 
 that which the consvitueni assembly designated 
 or that which the National Legislature may 
 designate; (3) to organize everythmg relating to 
 the custom-houses, whose income will constitute 
 the treasure of the Union until these incomes are 
 supplied from other sources; (4) to dispose in 
 everything relating to the habitation and security 
 of ports and seacoasts; (5) to create and organize 
 the postal service and to fix the charges for 
 transportation of correspondence ; (6) tc form the 
 x.ational Codes in accordance with paidgraph 19, 
 article 13 of this Constitution ; (7) to fix the value, 
 type law, weight, and coinage of national money, 
 and to regulate the admission and circulation of 
 foreign money ; (8) to designate the coat-of-arms 
 and the national flag which will be the same for 
 all the States ; (9) to create, abolish, and fix sala- 
 ries for national offices; (10) to determine every- 
 thing in relation to the national debt; (11) to 
 contract loans upon the credit of the nation; (l!i) 
 to dictate necessary measures to perfect the cen- 
 sus of the current population and the national 
 statistics; (18) to annually fix the armed forces 
 by sea and land and to aictate the army regula- 
 tions ; (14) to decree rules for the formation and 
 substitution of the forces referred to in the pre- 
 ceding clause; (15) to declare war and to require 
 the National Executive to negotiate peace ; (16) 
 to ratify or reject the contracts for national pub- 
 lic works made by the President with the ap- 
 proval of the Federal Courcil, without which 
 requisite they will not be cai'' i into effect; (18) 
 to annually tix the estimates tor public expenses; 
 
 (19) to promote whatever conduces to the pros- 
 perity of the country and to its advancement in 
 the general knowledge of the arts and sciences; 
 
 (20) to fix and regulate the national weights and 
 measures; (21) to grant anmesties; (22) to estab- 
 lish, under tlie names of territories, sptjial regu- 
 lations for the government of regions inhabited 
 by unconquered and uncivilized Indians. Such 
 territories will be under the immediate super- 
 vision of tlio Executive of the Union; (23) to 
 establish the motles of procedure and to desig- 
 nate the penalties to be imposed by the Senate 
 in the trials originated in the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties ; (24) to increase the basi j of population for 
 the election of deputies; (25) to permit or refuse 
 the admission of foreigners into the service of 
 the Republic ; (26) to make laws in respect to re- 
 tirements from the military service and army 
 
 pensions ; (27) to dictate the law of responnibility 
 on the part of all national employes and thosa 
 of the States for infraction of the constitution 
 and the general laws of t'uu Union; (2b) to de- 
 termine the mo<le of conceding military rank or 
 promotion ; (29) to elect the Federal Council pro- 
 vided for in this constitution and to convoke the 
 alternates of the senators and deputies who may 
 have been chosen for it. 
 
 Art. 44. Besides the preceding enumeration the 
 National Legislature may pass such laws of gen- 
 eral character as may be necessary, but in no 
 case can they be promulgated, much less exe- 
 cuted, if they conflict with this constitution, 
 which defines the prerogatives of the public 
 powers in \ enezuela. 
 
 Art. 45. The laws and decrees of the National 
 Legislature may be proposed by the members of 
 either chamber, provided that the respective 
 projects are conformed to the rules established 
 for the Parliament of Venezuela. 
 
 Art. a6. After a project may have been pre- 
 sented, it will be read and considered in order to 
 be admitted ; and if it is, it must undergo three 
 discussions, with an interval of at least one day 
 between each, observing the rules established for 
 debate. 
 
 Art. 47. The projects approved in the chamber 
 in which they were originated will be passed to the 
 other for the purposes indicated in the preceding 
 article, and if they are not rejected they will be 
 retuiued to the chamber whence they originated, 
 with the amendments they may have under- 
 gone. 
 
 Art. 48. If the cham'ier of their origin does 
 not agree to the amrndi. ents, it may insist and 
 send Its written reasons to the other. They may 
 "so ussf lie together in Congress and deliber- 
 ate, in ler;)'. commission, over the mo<le of 
 agrpome. but If this can not be reached, the 
 project w. ' bi; of no effect after the chamber of 
 its origin sepi. atcly decides upon the ratification 
 of i'^ iDsistenca. 
 
 Art. 49. Upon the passing of the projects from 
 cue to the other chamber, the days on which 
 they have been discussed will be stated. 
 
 Art. so. The law reforming onother law must 
 be fully engrossed and the former law, in all its 
 parts, will be annulled. 
 
 Art. SI. In the laws this form will be used: 
 "The Congress of the United States of Venezuela 
 decrees." 
 
 Art. 52. The projects defeated in one legisla- 
 ture cannot be reintroduced except in another. 
 
 Art. 53. The projects pending in a chamber at 
 the close of the sessions must undergo the same 
 three discussions in succeeding legislatures. 
 
 Art. S4. Laws are annulled with tlie same for- 
 malities established fo. their sanction. 
 
 Art. SS- When the ministers of Cnbinet may 
 have sustained, in a chamber, the unconrMtutlon- 
 ality cf a project by word or in writing, and, 
 notwithstanding this, it inay have been sanctioned 
 as law, the National Executive, with the affirma- 
 tive vote of the Federal Council, will suspend its 
 execution and apply to the legislatures of the 
 States, asking their vote in the matter. 
 
 Art. s6. In case of the foregoing article, each 
 State will represent one vote expressed by the 
 majority of the members of the legislature pres- 
 ent, and the result will bo sent to the High I ed- 
 eral Court in this form: "I confirm" or "I .'e- 
 ject." 
 
 606 
 
CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. 
 
 Art. 57. If a majority of the legislatures of the 
 Bt<ite8 agree ■with the Federal Executive, the 
 Iliffh Federal Court will confirm the suspension, 
 and the Federal Executive himself will render an 
 Bccouni. to the next Congress relative to all that 
 has hcen done in the matter. 
 
 Art. 58. The laws will not be observed until 
 after being published in the solemn form estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Art. so. The faculty conceded to sanction n 
 Jaw is not to be delegated. 
 
 Art. 60. No legislative disposition will have a 
 retroactive effect, except in matters of judicial 
 procedure and that which 'mposes a lighter pen- 
 alty. 
 
 Art. 61. There will be a Federal Council com- 
 posed of one senator and one deputy for each 
 State and of one more deputy for the Federal 
 District, who will be elected by the Congress 
 each two years from among the respective repre- 
 sentations of the States compo-iing tlie Federation 
 and from that of the Federal District. TJiis 
 election will take place in the first fifteen days of 
 tlie meeting of Congress, in the first and third 
 year of the constitutional period. 
 
 Art. 62. The Federal Council elects from its 
 members the President of the United States of 
 Venezuela, and in the same manner the person who 
 sliall act in his stead in case of his temporal or per- 
 manent disability during his term. The electic 
 of a pers^v ■ '■ V;" President of the United States or 
 Vcneruc.H who is not a member of the Federal 
 Council, as well as of those who may have to act 
 in his stead in case of Ids temporal or permanent 
 disabili*y, is null of right and void of efficacy. 
 
 Art. 63. The members of the Federal Council 
 hold office for two vears, the same as the Presi- 
 dent of the United States of Venezuela, whose 
 term is of equal duration; and neither lie nor 
 they can be reelected for the term immediately 
 succeeding, although they may return to occupy 
 their posts as legislators in the chambers to which 
 they belong. 
 
 Art. 64. The Federal Council resides in the 
 district and exercises the functions prescribed in 
 this constitution. It cannot deliberate with less 
 tunn an absolute majority of all its members; it 
 dictates the intorfci ic^-,alations to be observed 
 in its deliVierations, and annually appoints the 
 person who shall preside over its sessions. 
 
 Art. 65. The prerogatives of the President of 
 Venezuela are: (1) To appoint and remove the 
 cabinet ministers; (2) to preside over the cabinet, 
 in wliose discussions he will have a vote, and to 
 '"nforra the Council of all the matters that refer 
 ti> the General Administration; (3) to receive and 
 Wv.)como public ministers; (4) to sign the official 
 lettirs to the Sovereigns or Presidents of other 
 cnur. tries; (5) to order the execution of the laws 
 and decrees of the National Legislature, and to 
 take care that they arc complied with and exe- 
 cuted; (6) to promulgate the resolutions and de- 
 crees that may have been jiroposcd and re eived 
 the approbation of the Federal Council, jn con- 
 formity with article 66 of this constitution ; (7) 
 to organize the Federal District and to act there- 
 in as the chief civil an 1 political authority estab- 
 lished by this constitution ; (8) to issue registers 
 of navigation to national vessels; (9) to render an 
 account to Congress, within the first eight (' ya 
 of its annual session, of the cases in which, • ;th 
 the approval of the Federal Council, he my 
 have exercised all or any of the faculties aceo .-ded 
 
 to him in article 66 of this compact; (10) to dis- 
 charge the other functions that the national laws 
 entrust to him. 
 
 Art. 66. Besides the foregoing prerogatives, 
 that are personal to the president of the United 
 States of Venezuela, he can, with the deliberate 
 vote of the Federal Council, exercise the follow- 
 ing: (1) To protect the Nation from all exterior 
 attack ; (3) to administer the public lands, mines, 
 and salt mines of the States as their delegate ; (8) 
 to convoke the Nationa. IjCgislat'-re in its regu- 
 lar sessions, and in extraordinary session when 
 the gravity of any subject demands it' (4) to 
 nominate persons for diplomatic positions, con- 
 suls-general, and consuls; those named for the 
 first and second positions must be Venezu- 
 elans by birth ; (5) to direct negotiations and cele- 
 brate all kinds of treaties with other nations, 
 submitting these to the National Legislature; (6) 
 to celebrate contracts of national interest in 
 accordance with the laws and to submit them 
 the legislatures for their approval ; (7) to nomin- 
 ate the employes oi hacienda, wliich nominations 
 are not to be made by any other authority. It 
 is required that these employes shall be Vene- 
 zuelan by birth ; (8) to remove and suspend em- 
 ployes of his own free motion, order.ng them to 
 be tried if there should be cause for it; (9) to 
 declare war in the name of the Republic when 
 Congress shall have decreed it; (10) in the case 
 of foreign war he can, first, demand from the 
 States the assistance necessary for tlie national 
 defense; second, require, in anticipation, the 
 contributions and iiegotiate the loans decreed by 
 the National Legislature ; third, arrest or expel 
 pevsons who pertain to the nation with which 
 war is carried on and who may be opposed to 
 the defense of the country; fourth, to suspend 
 the giiarauties that may be incompatible with 
 the defense of the country, except that of life ; 
 fiftli, to select the place to which the General 
 Power of the Federation may be provisionally 
 translated when there may be grave rea&ons for 
 it; sixth, to bring to trial for treason to the 
 country those Venezuelans who may be, ir any 
 manner, hostile to tlie notional defense; seventh, 
 to issue registers to corsairs and privateers and to 
 prescribe the laws that they must observe in 
 cases of capture; (11) to employ the public force 
 and the powers containcc' in numbers 1, 2, and 5 
 of the preceding clause with the object of rees- 
 tablishing constitutional order in case of armed 
 insurrection against the institutions of the Nation ; 
 U2) to dispose of the public force for the pur- 
 pose of quelling every anned collision between 
 two or more States, requiring them to lay down 
 their arms and submit their controversies to the 
 arbitration to whicli they arc pledged by num- 
 ber 30, article 14 of this constitution; (13) to 
 direct the war and to appoint tlic person who 
 filiall command tlie army; (14) to organize the 
 national force in time of peace ; (15) to concede 
 general or particular exemptions; (!6) to defend 
 the territory designat'^d for the Federal District 
 when there may be reasons to apprehenc. that it 
 will be invaded by hostile forces. 
 
 Art. 67. The President of the United States of 
 Venezuela shall have the ministers for his cabinet 
 that the law designates. It will determine their 
 ianctions and duties and will organize their 
 bureaus. 
 
 Art. 68. To be a minister of the cabinet it is 
 required that the person shall be twenty-five 
 
 607 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OP VENEZUELA. 
 
 years of oge, aVenezuelan by birth or live years 
 of naturahzation. 
 
 Art. 69. Tlie ministers are the natural and 
 proper organs of the President of tlie United 
 States of Venezuela. All his acts must be sub- 
 scribed by them and witliout such requisite they 
 will not be complied with nor executed by the 
 authorities, employees, or private persons. 
 
 Art. 70. A", tlie acts of the^ministers must be 
 conformed to this Constituti(m and tlie laws ; their 
 personal responsibility is not saved, althougli 
 they may Jiave the written order of the President. 
 
 Art. 71. Tlic settlement of all business, except 
 the fiscal affairs of the bureaus, will bo deter- 
 mined in the council of ministers, and their re- 
 sponsibility is collective and consolidated. 
 
 Art. 72. The ministers, witliin the Ave tirst 
 sessions of each year, will render an account to 
 the Chambers of wliat they may have done or 
 propose to do in their respective branches. Tliey 
 will also render written or verbal reports tliat 
 may be requested of tliem, reserving only that 
 which, in diplomatic affairs, it may not be con- 
 venient to publish. 
 
 Art. 73. Within the same period, tliey will 
 present to the National Legislature the estimates 
 of public expenditures and the general account 
 of the past year. 
 
 Art. 74. The ministers have the right to be 
 heard in the Chambers, and are obliged to attend 
 wJicn they may be called upon for information. 
 
 Art. 75. The ministers are responsible : (1) for 
 treason to th.e country ; (3) for infraction of this 
 Constitution or the Ism's; (3) for malversation of 
 the public funds; (4) for exceeding the estimates 
 in their expenditures; (5) for subornation or 
 bribery in the affairs under their charge or in the 
 nominations for public employees ; (6) for failure 
 in compliance with the decisions of the Federal 
 Council. 
 
 Art. 76. The High Federal Court will be com- 
 posed of as many j iidges as there may be States 
 of the Federation and with the following quali- 
 ties: (1) A judge must be a Venezuelan by birth; 
 (2) he must be thirty years of age. 
 
 Art. 77. For the nomination of judfjes of the 
 High Federal Court the Congress wi . convene 
 on the fifteenth day of its regular sessions and 
 wih proceed to group together the representation 
 of each State from which to form a list of as 
 many candidates for principal judges and an 
 equal number of alternates as there may be States 
 of the Federation. The Congress, in the same or 
 following session, will elect one principal and 
 one alternate for each State, selecting them from 
 the respective lists. 
 
 Art. 78. The law will determine the different 
 functions of tlie judges and other officers of the 
 High Federal Court. 
 
 Art. 79. The judges and their respective alter- 
 nates will hold olfice for four years. The princi- 
 pals and their alternates in oiiice can not accept 
 during this period any office in the gift of the 
 executive without previous resignation and law- 
 ful acceptance. The infraction of this disposition 
 will be pupished wltli four years of disability to 
 hold public oliice in Venezuela. 
 
 Art. 80. Tlie matters within the competence of 
 the High Federal Court an : (1) to talie cogni- 
 zance of civil or criminal causes that may be in- 
 stituted against diplomatic officers in those cases 
 permitted by the law of nations; (2) to talie cog- 
 nizance of causes ordered by the President to be 
 
 instituted against cabinet ministers when they 
 may be accused according to the ca'-cs provided 
 for in this Constitution. In the matter of the 
 necessity of suspension from office, they will re- 
 quest tlie President to that effect and he will com- 
 ply ; (•!) to have jurisdiction of the causes of re- 
 sponsibility instituted against diplomatic agents 
 accredited to another nation for the wrong dis- 
 chiirge of their functions ; (5) to have jurisdiction 
 in civil trials when the nation is defi.'ndant and 
 the law sanctions it; (C) to dissipate the contro- 
 VL-sies ti.at may arise between the officials 01 
 different States in political order in the matter of 
 jurisdiction or competence; (7) to take cogni- 
 zance of all matters of political nature that the 
 States desire to submit for tlieir consideration; 
 (8) to declare whioli may be the law in force when 
 the national and State laws may be found to con- 
 flict with each otlier; (9) to have jurisdiction in 
 the controversies that may result from contracts 
 or negrtiations celebrated by the president of the 
 federation; (10) to have jurisdiction in causes of 
 imprisonment; (11) to exercise otlier prerogatives 
 provided for by law. 
 
 Art. 81. The Court of Appeals referred to in 
 paragraph 20, article 13 of this Constitution, is 
 the tribunal rf the states ; it will be composed of 
 as many judges as there are states of the federa- 
 tion, and their terms of office will last for four 
 years. 
 
 Art. 82. A judge of tlie Court of Appeals 
 must have the following qualitications : (1) he 
 must be an attorney at law in the exercise of his 
 profession, and must have had at least six years 
 practice; (2) he must be a Venezuelan, thirty 
 years of age. 
 
 Art. 83. Every four years the legislature of 
 each State will form a list of as many attorneys, 
 with the qualifications ex))i 'ssed in tiie preceding 
 article, as there are States, and will remit it, duly 
 certified, to the Federal Council in order that tliis 
 body, from the respective lists, may select a 
 judge for each State in the organization of this 
 high tribunal. 
 
 Art. 84. After the Federal Council may have 
 received the lists from all the States, it will pro- 
 ceed, in public session, to verify the election; 
 forming thereafter a list of the attorneys not 
 elected, in order that from this general list, which 
 will be published in the official paper, the per- 
 manent vacancies that may occur in the Court of 
 Appeals may be filled by lot. The temporary 
 vacancies will be filled a ocording to law. 
 
 Art. 85. The Court of Appeals will have the 
 following prerogatives: (1) to take cognizance of 
 criminal causes or those of responsibility that 
 may be instituted against the high functionaries 
 of the different States, applying the laws of the 
 States themselves in matters of resyonsibility, 
 and in case of omission of the promulgation of a 
 law of constitutional precept, it will apply to 
 the cause in question the general laws of the 
 land; (2) to take cognizance and to decide in 
 cases of appeal in tlie form and terms directed 
 by law ; (3) to annually report to the National 
 Legislature the difficulties that stand in tlie way 
 of uniformity in the r .tter of civil or criminal 
 legislation; (4) to dispose of the rivalries that 
 may arise between ♦he officers or functionaries of 
 judicial order in the different States of the federa- 
 tion and amongst those of a single State, pro- 
 vided that the authority to settle them does not 
 exist in the State. 
 
 608 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 Art. 86. The National Executive is c::erriscd 
 by tlie Federal Council, tlie President of tlie 
 United States of Venezuela, or tlic person wlio 
 fllla his vacancies, in union witli tlie cabinet niiu- 
 istijrs who are his organs. Tlie President of 
 Venezuela must be a Venezuelan by birth. 
 
 Art. 87. Tlic functions of National Executive 
 can not be exercised outside of the federal district 
 except in the case provided for in number 5, para- 
 grajjli 10, article 60 of tlie Constitution. When 
 the President, with tlie ajiproval of tlie Council, 
 shall take command of tlie army or absent Iiim- 
 self from the district on account of matters of 
 public interest tliat deinund it, he can not exercise 
 any functions and will be replaced by tlie Federal 
 Council in accordance with article 03 of this Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Art. 88. Everything that may not be expressly 
 assigned to the general administration of the na- 
 tion in this Constitution is reserved to the States. 
 
 Art. 89. Tlie tribunals of justice in the States 
 are independent; the causes originated in them 
 will be concluded in the same States without any 
 other review than that of the Court of Appeals 
 in the eases provided for by law. 
 
 Art. 90. Every act of Congress and of the 
 National Executive that violates the riglits guar- 
 anteed to tlie States in this Constitution, or tluit 
 attacks their independence, must be declared of 
 no effect by the High Court, provided that a ma- 
 jority of the legislatures demands it. 
 
 Art. 91. The public national force is divided 
 into naval and land troops, and will be composed 
 of the citizen militia that the States may organize 
 according to law. 
 
 Art. 92. Tlie force at the disposal of the federa- 
 tion will be organized from citizens of a contin- 
 gent furnislied by each State in proportion to its 
 population, calling to service those citizens that 
 should render it according to tlieir internal laws. 
 
 Art. 93. In case of war the continger.t can be 
 augmented by bodies of citizen militia up to 
 tlio number of men necessary to till the draft of 
 the National Government. 
 
 Art. 94. The National Government may change 
 the eommanders of the public force supplied by 
 the States in ilie cases and witli the formalities 
 provided for in the national military law and then 
 their successors will be called for from the States. 
 
 Art. 95. The military and civil authority can 
 never be exercised by the same person or corpo- 
 ration. 
 
 Art. 96. The nation, be'ng in possession of the 
 right of ecclesiastical patronage, will exercise it 
 as the law upon the subject may direct. 
 
 Art. 97. The Government of the Federation 
 will have no other resident employees with juris- 
 diction or authority in the States than those of 
 the States themselves. The officers of hacienda, 
 those of the forces that garrison national for- 
 tresses, arse uals created by law, navy-yards, and 
 habilitated ports, that only have jurisdiction in 
 matters peculiar to their respective offices and 
 witliin the limits of the forts and quarters that 
 thcj command, are excepted; but even these 
 must be subject to tlie general laivs of the Sirite 
 in which they reside. All the elements of wf 
 now existing belong to the National Government ; 
 nevertheless it is not to be understood that the 
 States are prohibited from acquiring those that 
 tliey may need for domestic defense. 
 
 Art. 98. The National Govcrmient can not 
 station troops nor military otflcers with command 
 
 in a State, although they may be from that or 
 another State, without permission of the govern- 
 ment of the State in which tlie force is to bo 
 stationed. 
 
 Art. 99. Neither tlie National Executive nor 
 those; of tlic States can resort to armed interven- 
 tion in the domestic contentions of a State ; it is 
 only permitted to them to tender their good offi- 
 ces to bring about a pacific solution in the case. 
 
 Art. 100. In case of a permanent or temporary 
 vacancy in the office of Presi<ient of the United 
 States of Venezuela, the States will be immedi- 
 ately informed as to wlio lias supplied the va- 
 cancy. 
 
 Art. 101. Exportation in Vehezuela is free and 
 no duty can be placed upon it. 
 
 Art. 102. All usurped authority is without 
 effect and its acts are null. Every order granted 
 for a requisition, direct or indirect, by armed 
 force or by an assemblage of people in subversive 
 attitude is null of right and void of efficacy. 
 
 Art. 103. The exercise of any function not con- 
 ferred by tlie c. institution or laws is prohibited 
 to every corpora.'iou or autliority. 
 
 Art. 104. Any citizen may accuse the em- 
 ployees of the nation or tlie States before the 
 chamber of deputies, before their respective su- 
 periors in office, or before tlie authorities desig- 
 nated by law. 
 
 Art. 105. No payment shall be made from the 
 National Treasury for which Congress lia.s not 
 expressly provided in tlie annual estimate, and 
 tliosc tliat may infringe this rule will be civilly 
 responsible to the National Treasury for the sums 
 they have paid out. In every payment from tlio 
 public Treasury the ordinary expenses will bo 
 preferred to the extraordinary charges. 
 
 Art. 106. The ollicesof collection and disburse- 
 ment of the national taxes shall be always separ- 
 ate, and the officers of collection may disburse 
 only tlie salaries of their respective employees. 
 
 Art. 107. When, for any -cason, the estimate 
 of appropriations for a fiscal period liave not been 
 made, that of the immediately preceding periud 
 will continue in force. 
 
 Art. 108. In time of elections, the public na- 
 tional force or that of tlie States themselves will 
 remain closely quartered during the holding of 
 popular elections. 
 
 Art. 109. In international treaties of commerce 
 and friendship tiiis clause will be inserted, to wit: 
 " all the disagreements between the contracting 
 parties must be decided witliout an appeal to war, 
 by the decision of a powei or friendly powers." 
 
 Art. no. No individual can hold more tlian 
 one office within the gift of Congress and tlie 
 National Excutive. The acceptance of any 
 otlier is equivalent to resignation of the first. 
 Officials that are removable will cease to liold 
 office upon accepting the cliar^e of a Senator or 
 Deputy when they are dependents of the National 
 Executive. 
 
 Art. III. The law will create and designate 
 other national tribunals that may be necessary. 
 
 Art. 112. National oflieers can not accept gifts, 
 commissions, honors, or emoluments from u for- 
 eign nation without permission from the National 
 Legislature. 
 
 Art. 113. Armed force can not deliberate ; it is 
 passive and obedient. No armed body can make 
 requisitions nor demand assistance of any kiinl, 
 but from the civil authorities, and in the mode and 
 form prescribed by law. 
 
 609 
 
CONSTITUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
 
 CONSUL. 
 
 Art. 114. Tlie Nation and the Stntt's will pro- 
 mote foreign immigration and eolonizntioa inac- 
 corilancc with their respective laws. 
 
 Art, ii5. A law will regulate the manner in 
 which national ofllccra, upon taking charge of 
 their posts, shall ta^.c the oath to comply with 
 their duties. 
 
 Art. 116. The National Executive will negoti- 
 Bte with the Ooveranients of America over treaties 
 of alliance or confedenition. 
 
 Art. 117. The law of Nations forms a part of 
 the National Legislation ; its dispositions will bo 
 Bpecially in force in cases of civil war, which can 
 bie terniuiated by treaties between the belligerents 
 ■who will have tOTCspect the humanitarian cus- 
 toms of Christians and civilized nations, the 
 guarantee of life being, in every case, inviolable. 
 
 Art. Ii8. Tliis constitution can be reformed by 
 the National Le^'islaturc if the legislatures of 
 the States desire it, but there shall never be any 
 reform except in the jiarts upon which the ma- 
 jority of the St'ites coincide ; also a reform can 
 be made upon one or more points when two- 
 thirds of the members of the National Legisla- 
 ture, deliberating separately and by the proceed- 
 ings established to sanction the laws, shall accord 
 it; but, in this second case, the amendment voted 
 shall be submitted to the legislaturesof the States, 
 and it will stand sanctioned in the point or points 
 tliat may have been ratified by th"m. 
 
 Art. no. This constitution will >akv effect 
 from the day of its ofllcial promulgation in each 
 State, and m all public acts and utUcial docu- 
 ments there will be cited the <Iate of the 
 Federation to begin with February 20, 1850, 
 and the date of the law to begin with March 
 28, 1864. 
 
 Art. 120. The constitutional period for the 
 ollices of the Qenenil Administration of tlie Ke- 
 public will continue to be computed from Febru- 
 ary 20, 1882, the date on which the reformed 
 constitution took cflfect. 
 
 Art. 121. For every act of civil and roliticftl 
 life of the States of the Federation, its basis of 
 population is that which is determined in the 
 last census approved by the National Legis- 
 lature. 
 
 Art. 122. The Federal Constitution of Ajiril 
 27, 1881 ■ ..pealed. Done in Cameos, in the- 
 Palac . the Federal Legislative Corps, and 
 sealed ith the seal of Congress on the 0th day 
 of Apni, 1801. The 28th year of the Law and 
 the 33rd year of the Federation. 
 
 (Here follow the signatures of the Presidents, 
 Vice-Presidents, and Second Vice-Presidents of 
 the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, together 
 with those of the Senators and Deiiuties of the 
 various States, followed by those ( f the President 
 and the ministers of his cabinet.) See Venezu- 
 ela: A. D. 1869-1892. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE WATAUGA 
 ASSOCIATION (the first Wes'.ern American 
 Commonwealth). See Tennessee : A. I). 1769- 
 1772. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.— 
 The " Constitutions of Clarendon" were a series 
 of declarations drawn up by a council which King 
 Henry II. of England convened at Clarendon, 
 near Winchester, in 1164, and which were in- 
 tended to determine the law on various points in 
 dispute between the Crown and the laity, on one 
 side, and the Church on the other. The issues 
 in question were those which brought Henry into 
 collision with Thomas Becket, Archbisliop of 
 Canterbury. The general provisions embodied in 
 the Constitutions of Clarendon "would now be 
 scarcely challenged in the most Catholic country 
 in the world. 1. Duringthe vacancy of any arch- 
 bishopric, bishopric, abbey, or pnory of royal 
 foundation, the estates were tc be in the custody of 
 the Crowu. Elections to these preferments were 
 to be held in the royal chapel, with the assert of 
 the king and council. 2. In every suit to which a 
 clerk was a party, proceedings were to commence 
 before the king's justices, and these justices were 
 to decide wliether the case was to be tried before 
 ft spiritual or a civil court. If it was referred to 
 ft spiritual court, a civil officer was to attend to 
 watch the trial, and if a clerk was found guilty 
 of felony the Ciuuch Msis to tease to ])roteethim. 
 3. No tenant in-cliief of the king, or olHeer of 
 his household, was to be excommunicated, or his 
 lands laid under an interdict, mitil application 
 liad been first made to the king, or, in liis absence, 
 to the chief justice. 4. Laymen were not to be 
 indicted in a bishop's court, either for perjury or 
 otber similar offence, except in the bishop s pres- 
 ence by a lawful prosecutor and with lawfid 
 ■witnesses. If the accused was of so high rank 
 that no proseciitor would appear, the bishop 
 miglit reciuire the sheriff to call a jury to inijuire 
 into the case. 6. Archbishops, bishoiis, and other 
 
 great persons were forbidden to leave the realm 
 without the king's permisi ion. 6. Appeals were 
 to be from the archdeacon to the bishop, from 
 the bishop to the archbishop, from the archbishop 
 to the king, and no further; that, by the kings- 
 mandate, the case might be ended in the arch- 
 bishop's court. The last article the king after- 
 wards explained away. It was one of the moi' t 
 essential, but he was unable to maintain i; ; and 
 he was rash, o- he was ill-advised, in raising a 
 si"ond question, on which the pope woidd natu- 
 rally be sensitive, before he had disposed of the 
 first." — J. A. Froude, Life a ml I'imcs of liecket, 
 VP. 31-32.— See England: A. D. 1162-1170. 
 CONSTITUTIONS, Roman Imperial. See 
 
 C0UPU8 JUUIS C1VILI8. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY^ 
 The. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1860 
 (Ai'HiL — November). 
 
 CONSUL, Roman.— When the Romans had 
 rid themseh 's of their kings and established a 
 republic, or, rather, an aristocratic government, 
 ' ' the civil duties of the king were given to two- 
 magistrates, chosen for a year, who were at 
 first called 'pnetores' or generals, 'judices' or 
 judges, or consules (cf. con ' together' and salio 
 ' to leap ') or ' colleagues. ' In the matter of their 
 power, no violent departure was made from the 
 imperium of the king. The greatest limitation 
 on the consuls was the short period for which 
 they were at the head of the state ; but even here 
 tliey were thought of, by a fiction, as voluntarily 
 abdicating at the expiration of their term, aud as- 
 nominating tlieir successors, although iliey were 
 required to nominate the men who had already 
 been selected in the 'coniitiaecntuiiata.' Another 
 limitation was the result of the dual character of 
 the magistracy. The imperium was not divided 
 between the consuls, but each possessed it in 
 full, as the king had before. When, therefore, 
 they did not agree, the veto of the one prevailed 
 over the proposal of the other, and there wab no 
 
 610 
 
CONSUL. 
 
 CONVOCATION. 
 
 BCtion." — A. Tiglic, D''telopment of the Roman 
 Const., eh. 4. — "As judges, tlic consuls occupied 
 altoKttlicr tlie plnce of the kings. Tliey decided 
 tlie legal disputes of the citizens either personally 
 or by deputy. Their criminal jurisdiction was 
 pfohably limited to the most important cases. 
 ... In the warlilte stjite of the Komana the 
 military character of the consuls was no doubt 
 most prominent and most important. When the 
 consul led tlie army into the field he possessed 
 tlie unlimited military power of the liings (the 
 imperium). He was entrusted with tlie direction 
 of the war, the distribution of tlie booty, and the 
 first disposal Ci the conquered land. . . . The 
 oldest designation for tlie consuls, therefore, was 
 derived from their military quality, for they wee 
 called imetors, tliat is, commanders. It was, how- 
 ever, precisely in war that the division of power 
 among two colleagues must often have provi d 
 prejudicial . . . and f lie necessity of unity in the 
 direction of affairs was felt to be indispe:' sable. 
 The dietatorsliip served this purpose. By decree 
 of tlie senate one of the consuls could be charged 
 with naming a dictator for six months, and in 
 this officer the full power of the king was re- 
 vived for a limited period. The <lictatorsliip 
 was a formal suspension of the constitution of 
 the republic. . . . Military was substituted for 
 common law, and Rome, (luring the time of tlie 
 dictatorship, was in a state of siege." — W. Ihne, 
 Jligt. of Home, bk. 2, eh. 1, nnd bk. 0, eh. 3-5.— 
 In the later years of the lioman empire, "two 
 consuls were created by the sovereigns of Rome 
 and Constantinople for the sole purpose of giving 
 a date to the year and a festival to the people. 
 But the expenses of this festival, in which the 
 wealthy and the vain aspired to surpass their 
 predecessors, insensibly arose to the eni.-mous 
 sum of four score thousand pounds; tlie wisest 
 senators declined a useless honour which in- 
 volved the certain ruin of their families, and to 
 this nductance I should impute the frequent 
 chasms in tlie last age of the consular Fasti. . . . 
 Tlie succession of consuls tinally ceased in the 
 thirteenth year of Justinian [A. D. 541] whose 
 despotic temper miglit be gnitifled bj the final 
 extiiietion of a title which lulmonished the 
 Romans of their ancient freedom. Yet the annual 
 consulship still lived in tie minds of the people; 
 they fondly expected its speecly restoration . . . 
 ami three centuries elapsed after the death of 
 Justinian before tliat obsolete dignity, which 
 had been suppressed by custom, could be 
 abolished by law. The imperfect mode of dis- 
 tinguishing each year by the name of a magistrate 
 was usefully supplied by tlie date of a permanent 
 era." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire, ch. 40. — "There were no consuls in 531 
 ond 532. The Emperor held the office alone in 
 533, and witli a colleague in 534. Belisarius was 
 sole consul in 535. The two following years, hav- 
 ing no consuls of their own, wc re styled the First 
 and Second after tlie Consulship of Belisarius. 
 John of Cappadocia gave his name to the year 
 538, and the years 539 and 540 had again consuls, 
 though one only for each year, in 541 Albiuus 
 Biisilius sat in the curule chair, and he was prac- 
 tically the last of the long list of warriors, orators, 
 demagogues, courtiers, which began (in the year 
 509 B. C.) with tlie names of Lucius Junius 
 Brutus aud Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. All 
 the rest of the years of Justinian, twenty-four in 
 number, were reckoned as Post Consulatum 
 
 Basilii."— T. ITodgkin, Itahi and Tier Inmdert. 
 hk. ,5, ch. 14.— See, also. Rome: B. C. 509. 
 
 CONSULAR? TRIBUNES, Roman.- The 
 plebeians of Rome having demanded admissioa 
 fr>r their order to the consulship, a compromise 
 was arranged. B. C. 444, whicli settled that, 
 thereafter, "tlie people should be free to elect 
 either consuls — that is, patricians according to 
 the old law — or in their place other officers under 
 the title of 'military tribunes with consular 
 power,' consisting of patricians and plebeians. 
 ... It is not reported in what respect the official 
 competency of the consular tribunes was to differ 
 from that of tlie consuls. Still, so mucli is plain, 
 that the dilTerence consisted not alone in name. 
 Tlie number of the consular tribunes was in the 
 beginning fixed at three." — W. Ihne, Ilitt. of 
 Rome. Ilk. 2, <•/(. 11. 
 
 CONSULATE GOVERNMENT OF 
 FRANCE, The. See Fiianck: A. D. 1790 
 
 (NoVK.MliKIl — DKCKMnKU). 
 
 CONTINENTAL ARMY.— "The Con- 
 tinentals " of the American Revolution. See 
 United States of Am. : A. I). 1775 (May — 
 
 AUOUST). 
 
 CONTINENTAL CURRENCY, The. See 
 
 United St.vtes ok Am. : A. 1). 1780 (Januauv — 
 Ami I.). 
 
 CONTINENTAL SYSTEM OF NAPO- 
 LEON, The. See France : A. I). 1801-1802, and 
 1800-1810. 
 
 CONTIONES, OR CONCIOKES.- The 
 eontiones, or condones, at Rome, were assemblies 
 of the people, "less formal than the comitia," 
 held for the mere purpose of discussing public 
 questions, and incapable of pissing any binding 
 resolution. "They could not be calleil together 
 by anybody except the magistrates, neither had 
 every man the liberty of speaking in tliem, of 
 making proposals or of declaring his opinion ; 
 . . . but even in this limited manner public 
 questions could be discussed and the people 
 could be enliglitened. . . . The cu.stom of dis- 
 cussing public questions in tlie eontiones became 
 general after the comitia of the tribes had 
 obtained full legislative competency. " — W. Ihne, 
 IKH. of Rome,''bk. 0, eh. 1. — See, also, Comitia. 
 
 CUIllATA. 
 
 CONTRABANDS.— In the early part of the 
 American civil war of 180'-fl.5, the escaped slave* 
 of the Confederates, who came witliin tlie Union 
 lines, were called contrabands. General Butler 
 having supplied the term by dcehiring them to. 
 be ' ' contraband of war. " See United States ov 
 Am. : A. D. 1801 (May). 
 
 CONTRERAS, Battle of. See Mexico: 
 A. D. 1847 (Maucii— Septemheu). 
 
 CONVENT. Sec Monakteuy. 
 
 CONVENTICLE ACT, The. See Eno- 
 i.anp: A. I). 1002-100.-). 
 
 CONVENTION, The French National, of 
 the great Revolution. See Fkance: A. D. 1792 
 (Auoust), and 1792 (SEPTEMmcu- Nove.mbeu), 
 
 to 1795 (OlTOHEU— OECKMnEH). 
 
 CONVOCATION.— The a.s.scmblies of the 
 clergy in the two ecclesiastical jirovinccs of 
 England arc called the Convocation of Canter- 
 bury and the Convocation of York. The former, 
 which is tlie superior uody, fre(iuently receives 
 thjnameof Convocation, simply. It is consti- 
 tuted upon the model of Parliament, and is, in 
 fact, tlie Parliament of the Church of England. 
 It has two Houses : the upper one consisting of 
 
 611 
 
CONVOCATION. 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 the Archbishop nnd his Bislmps; tlie lower one 
 composed of cieiuis, arclidciicoim and proctors, 
 TcprcHcnting tlic inferior dcrffy. 'I'lie Convoca- 
 tion of Yorlt lias Imt one Ilousc. Since 1716 
 Convocation lias possesscii sligiit powers. 
 
 CONWAY CABAL, The. See United 
 Statkh OK Am, : A. I). 1777-1778. 
 
 COOMASSIE, Burning of. See England: 
 A. I>. 1H7;!-1HH(). 
 
 COPAIC REEDS. Sec nauyriA. 
 
 COPAN, Ruins of. See A.muhican Aborig- 
 inkm: -Mayas; and .AIk.xico, A.ncient. 
 
 COPE HAN FA" LY, The. See Ameuican 
 AiioiiKUM'.s: Coi'KiiA.N Family. 
 
 COPENHAGEN: A. D. 1362.— Taken and 
 pillaged by the Hanseatic League. Sec Sc'an- 
 DiNAViAN Statios: A. I). 101H-i;)l)7. 
 
 A. D. 1658-1660.— Sieges by Charles X. of 
 Sweden. See Scandlnavian States (Sweden) : 
 A. I). 1044-1697. 
 
 A. D. 1700.— Surrender to Charles XII. of 
 Sweden. Sec Scandinavian States (Sweden): 
 A. I). 1(J'J7-17U(). 
 
 A. D. 1801. — Bombardment by the English 
 fleet. See Kuance: A. 1). 1801-1803. 
 
 A. D. 1807.— Bombardment of the [city by 
 the English. — Seizure of the fleet. See Scan- 
 dinavian St.vtks; A. I). 1807-1810. 
 
 COPPERHEADS.— During the American 
 Civil War, tlieJDciiuKratic I'arty in the North- 
 ern States "comprised two well-recognized 
 classes: The Anti-War (or Peace) Democrats, 
 coninioul^' called 'Copperlicads,' who sympa- 
 thized with the Rebellion, and opposed the War 
 for the Union ; nnd the War (or Union) Demo- 
 crats, who favored a vigorc^us prosecution of the 
 War for the preservation of the Union." — J. A. 
 Logun, I'he Oreat Coiisjiiracy, jh WIA, foot-note. — 
 See, also. United States ok Am. : A. D. 1864 
 
 (OCTOBEU). 
 
 COPREDY BRIDGE ,|Battle of. See Eng- 
 land: A. D. 1044 (.January — July). 
 
 COPTS, The.— The descendants of the an- 
 cient Egyptian race, who form to this da^ the 
 laiger part of the population of Egypt. See 
 EoYiT: Ohio IN of the Ancient People. 
 
 COPTOS.— Destroyed by Diocletian. See 
 Alexanduia: A. D. 296. 
 
 COR, The. See Epiiau. 
 
 CORBIE, Spanish capture of (1636). Sen 
 Netiikuiands: a. D. 163S-1638. 
 
 CORCYRA. See Koukyua. 
 
 CORDAY, Charlotte, and the assassina- 
 tion of Marat. Sue Fmance: A. D. 1793 (July). 
 
 CORDELIERS. See Mendicant Ordeks. 
 
 CORDELIERS, Club of the. SeeFRANCE: 
 A. D. 1700. 
 
 CORDOVA (Spain): A. D. 711.— Surrender 
 to the Arab-Moors. See Spain: .V D. 711-713. 
 
 A. D. 756-1031.— The Caliphate at. See 
 Mahometan Conquest and Empiue: A. D. 756- 
 1031. 
 
 A. D. 1235.— Capture by the King of Castile. 
 See Spain: A. D. 1212-1338. 
 
 CORDOVA (Mexico), Treaty of. See Mex- 
 ico: A. n. 1820-1830. 
 
 CORDYENE. See Goudyknb. 
 
 COREA. See Couea in Suppbment (vol. 5). 
 
 COREISH, KOREISH. See Mahometan 
 CONHUEST AND EMPIRE : A. D. 609-633. 
 
 COREY, Martha and Giles, The execution 
 for witchcraft of. See .Massachusetts: A. 1). 
 1693. 
 
 CORFINIUM, CKsar's Capture of. See 
 Rome: H. C. W-i<i. 
 
 CORFU, Ancient. See Koukvka. 
 
 A. D. 1216-1880.— Since the fall of the Greek 
 Empire. — Corfu was won liy the Veiietians in 
 the early years of the Latin coiuiuest of the 
 Greek empire (1216), but was presently lost, to 
 come back again into tlie possession of the re- 
 public 170 years later. '' No part of Greece l.as 
 iicen so often cutoff from the Greek body. Under 
 Pvrrhoa and Agathoklfis, no less than under 
 jfichnel Angelos and Roger, it olx'j'ed : n Epeirot 
 or Sicilian master. . . . At la.st, after yet another 
 turn of Sicilian rule, it passed lor 400 years [1380- 
 1797] to the great conimonwealth ["f Venice]. 
 In our own day Corfu was not added to free 
 Greece till long after the deliverance of Atticii 
 and I'eloponnflsos. But, under so inaiiy changes 
 of foreign masters, tlie island has always re- 
 mained part of Europe and of (Jhristendom. 
 Alone among the Greek lands, Corfu has never 
 passed under barbarian rule. It has seen the 
 Turk only, for one moment, as an invader [see 
 Turks: A. D. 1714^1718], for another moment 
 as a nominal overlord." — E. A. Freeman. His- 
 torii'id Gcog. of Europe, p. 408. — See Ionian Isl- 
 ands: To 1814. ^ 
 
 CORINIUM.— A Roman city in Britain, on 
 the site of which is the modern city of Cirences- 
 ter. Some of the riclicst mosaic pavements found 
 in England have been uncovered there. — T. 
 Wright. Celt, Roman and Sdxon. ch. 5. 
 
 CORINTH.— Corinth, the chief city and state, 
 in anc'''nt times, of the narrow isthmus which 
 connecis Peloponnesus witii northern Greece, 
 "owed everything to her situation. Tlie double 
 sea by th \ isthmus, the confluence of the high 
 road of the whole of Hellas, the rocky citadel 
 towering aloft over land and sea, through wliich 
 rushed — or around which flowed — an abundance 
 of springs; all these formed so extraordinary a 
 commixture of advantages, that, if the intercourse 
 with other countries remained urlisturbed, they 
 could not but call forth an important city. As 
 in Argolis, so on the isthmus also, other b(!sides 
 Dorian families had in the days of the migration 
 helped to found the new state. ... By tlie side 
 of the Dorian, five non-Dorian tribes existed in 
 Corinth, attesting the multitude and variety of 
 population, which were kept together as one 
 state by the royal power of the Ileraclidic, sup- 
 ported by the armed force of the Dorians. In 
 the ninth centurv [B. C] the royal power passed 
 into the hands of a branch of the IIcniclidiE de- 
 riv. u^; its descent from Bncchis [one of the earliest 
 of the kings] ; and it was in the extraordinary 
 genius of this royal line that the greatness of the 
 city originated. The Bacchiadie opened the city 
 to the immigration of the industrious settlers who 
 hoped to make their fortunes more speedily than 
 elsewhere at this meeting point of all Greek high- 
 roads of commerce. They cherished and ad- 
 vanced every invention of importance. . . . They 
 took commerce into their ow:\ hands, nnd es- 
 labli-'hed the tramway on the isthmus, along 
 which ships were, on rollers, transitorted from 
 one gulf to the other. . . . They converted the 
 
 gulf which had hitherto taken its name from 
 risa into the Corinthian, and secured its narrow 
 
 612 
 
CORINTH. 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 Inlet by mcnna nf tlio fortified place of Molycrla. 
 . . . Tliey continued tlielr iidviiiice ulong tlio 
 coast and occupied the most Important points on 
 the Achcloua.'— E. Curtiu.s, Ilht. of Greece, bk. 
 2, ch. 1. 
 
 B. C. 745-725.— Constitutional Revolution. 
 —End of Monarchy.— The prytanes.— Com- 
 mercial progress. — A vio'eiit contention which 
 arose hetweeu t\vo branches of the HacehUulu! 
 " no doubt gave the nobles of Corinth power and 
 opportunity to end the struggle by a change in 
 the constitution, and by the <liscontniuance of the 
 monarchy; this occurred lu the year 745 B. C, 
 after eight generations of kings. . . . Yet tlie 
 place at tlie 'i-id of die commonwealth was not 
 to be entirely taken away from the ancient royal 
 liousc. A presiding chief (a prytanis), newly 
 elected each year by the whole nobility from tlu; 
 members of the royal race, was henceforward to 
 conduct the government [see Puytanib]. It was 
 a peculiar arrangement which this change intro- 
 duced Into Corinth. We may assume that the 
 sovereignty was transferred to the nobles col- 
 lectively, or to their representative. This repre- 
 sentation seems to have been so regulated that 
 each of the eight tribes sent an equal number of 
 members to the Qerousia, 1. e. the council of 
 elders. . . . Hut the tirst of these eight tribes, 
 to which belonged tlie royal family, was privi- 
 leged. From it was chosen the head of the 
 state, an office for which only a Bacchiad was 
 eligible — that l.s, only a member of the old rryal 
 house, which took the foremost place in the first 
 tribe. This clan of the Bacchiado; is said to 
 have contained 200 men. 'They were numerous 
 and wealthy,' says Strabo. Accordingly the 
 royal house did not exclusively retain the first 
 raiik in the state, but only In conjunction witii 
 the families connected with it by kindred and 
 race. . . . The new constitution of Corinth, the 
 government by nobles, under the dynastic presi- 
 dency of ono family, became n type for other 
 cantons. I', was a Corinthian of the Bacchiadaj 
 who, twenty or thirty years after the intrmluc- 
 tion of the prytanes, regulated the oligarchy of 
 the Thebans and gave them laws (about 725 
 B. C.) . . . The fall of the monarchy In Corinth 
 at first brought with it disastrous consequences 
 for the power and prestige of the commonwealth. 
 The communities of the Jlegarians — either be- 
 cause the new government made increa.sed de- 
 mands upon them, or because they considered 
 tlieir allegiance had ceased with the cessation of 
 monarchy, and thought the moment was favour- 
 able — deserted Corinth and asserted their free- 
 dom. The five communities on the isthmus 
 united together around the territory of Megara, 
 lying in the plain by the Saronlc Gulf, where 
 the majority of the Doric tribes had settled ; the 
 city of Megara, in the viciiity of two ancient 
 fortresses . . . became the chief centre of the 
 communities, now associated in one common- 
 wealth. . . . The important progress of Corinth 
 under the prytany of the BacchladiB was not 
 due to successes upon the mainland, but in an 
 other sphere. For navigation and commerce no 
 canton in Hellas was more favourably situated. 
 Lying on the neck of the isthmus, it extended 
 from sea to sea, an advantageous position which 
 had Indeed first attracted the Phoenicians thither 
 in ancient times. . . . Corinth, says Thucy- 
 dides, was always from the first a centre of 
 commerce, and abounded in wealth ; for the popu- 
 
 lation within and without the Pcloponnp.iK.l 
 communicated with each other more In ancient 
 times by land acro.ss the l.sthinim than by sea. 
 But when the Hellenes became more | ractfsed in 
 navigation, the CorinlliiariH with their .ships put 
 down piracy and established nmrlson both siiies; 
 and through lliis inllux of riches Iheir city be- 
 came very powerful."- M. Uimcker, IUkI. of 
 Greece, hk. :i, eli. :i (i\ 2). 
 
 ^ B. C. 509-506. — Opposition to the desire of 
 Sparta to restore tyranny at Athens. See 
 Atiik.ns: H. (;. ,-|(m ,")(ltl, 
 
 B. C. 481-479. — Coneress and organized 
 Hellenic union against Persia. .See Oukkck: 
 B. C. 481-ITy. 
 
 B. C. 458-456.--Alliance with iEgina in un- 
 successful war with Athens and Megara. Seo 
 Gkkixic: B. C. •l.'iH-.l,-))!. 
 
 B. C. 440. — Opposition to Spartan interfer- 
 ence with Athens in Samos. S<c Atiii-.ns: 
 B. C. 440-4H7. 
 
 B. C. 435-432.— Quarrel with Korkyra.— In- 
 terference of Athens.— Events leadini; to the 
 Peloponnesian War. Hue Uukkck: B. C. 435- 
 4;i3. 
 
 B. C. 432.— Great sea-fight with the Kor- 
 kyrians and Athenians. See (iUKICCK; B. C. 
 432. 
 
 B. C. 429-^127.— The Peloponnesian War: 
 sea-fights ana defeats. — Fruitless aid to the 
 Mitylenxans. See Oukkck: B. C. 429-427. 
 
 B. C. 421.— Opposition to the Peace of Nic- 
 ias. SeeGitEKCE: B. C. 421-418. 
 
 B. C. 415-413.— Help to Syraruse against 
 the Athenians. See SvitACusE: B. C. 415-413. 
 
 B. C. 395-387.— Confederacy against Sparta. 
 —The Corinthian War.— Battle on the Ne- 
 mea. — The Peace of Antalcidas. See Oukkce: 
 B. C. 399-387. 
 
 B. C. 368-365. — Attempt of Epaminondas to 
 surprise the city.— Attempt of the Athenians. 
 See Gueece: B. C. 371-302. 
 
 B. C. 337. — Congress of Greek states to ac- 
 knowledge the hegemony of Philip of Mace- 
 dr .. See Greece: B. C. 357-330. 
 
 B. C. 244. — Capture by Antigonus Gonatus, 
 king of Macedon. See M.\ceijonia, &c. : B. C. 
 277-2i4. 
 
 B. C. 243-146. — In the Achaian League. 
 See Greece: B. C. 280-140. 
 
 B. C. 146. — Sack by the Romans. See 
 Greece: B. C. 280-140. 
 
 B. C. 44. — Restoration by Cssar. — "In 
 the desolate land of Greece, Ca;sar, besides other 
 plans, . . . busied himself above al) with tho 
 restoration of Corinth. Not only wds a con- 
 siderable burgess-colony conducted thivher, but 
 a plan was projected for cutting through tho 
 isthmus, so as to avoid the dangerous circum- 
 navigation of tho Peloponnesus and to make 
 the whole traffic between Italy and Asia p.iss 
 through the Corintho-Saronic gulf." — T. Morom- 
 sen. Hist, of Botne, bk. 5, ch. 11. — "Ccesar sent to 
 Corinth a large number of freedmen, and other 
 settlers were afterwards sent by Augustus; but 
 it is certain that many Greeks came to live in 
 the new Corinth, for it became a Greek town. 
 Corinth was a mass of ruins when the new set- 
 tlers came, and while they were removing the 
 rubbish, they grubbed up the burial places,, 
 where they found a great number of earthen 
 figures and bronze urns, which they sold at 
 a high price and filled Rome with them." — 
 
 613 
 
CORINTH. 
 
 CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS. 
 
 O. Long, DreUnf of thf liimuin JlrjnthUe, «. B, eh. 
 32. — "Corinth nipiilly row under tlicHC auBplccs, 
 Ix'Ciirne ii ccntrt' of coinmcroc luul art, and took 
 the leud anions tlie rilieH of Kiiropean HcIIuh. 
 Here was estahhshed the M'at of the Roman 
 Kovonii.tcnt of Achaia, and its popidation, 
 though the representations we have received of 
 It are extravagant, undoubtedly exceeded tliat 
 of any Grecian rival." — C. Merivalc, I[i»t. of the 
 lionutiiH. <•/(. 40. 
 
 A. D. 367.— Ravaged by the Goths. See 
 OoTlls: A. I). 258-207. 
 
 A. D. 395.— Plundered by the Goths. See 
 (Jotmh: a. I). m5. 
 
 A. D. 1 146.— Sacked by the Normans of 
 Sicily. — Abduction of silk weavers. See 
 Byzantine E.mpihk: A. D. 1146. 
 
 A. D. 1445.— Destruction by the Turks.— 
 The fortilications of the isthmus of Corinth were 
 Btonncd and tlic Peloponnesus invaded by 
 Ainurath II. in 1445. "Corinth itself, a city 
 (>iui('tilled by Its anti(iuity, by its gods, by its 
 arts, by the beauty of its women, by its foun- 
 tains, its cypr(!8ses, its very ruins themselves, 
 whence its imrivalled situation had always re- 
 stored it, fell anev/, buried in Its llames, by the 
 hands of Tourakhan, thai ancient and ambitious 
 vizier of Amurath. Its flames were seen from 
 Athens, from yEgina, from Lepanto, from Cy- 
 tlieron, from Piuuus. The inhabitants, as also 
 those of Patras, were ted into slavery in Asia, to 
 the number of 60,000." — A. Lamartinc, Iliat. of 
 Turkey, bk. 11, »ect. 10. 
 
 A. D. 1463-1464.— Unsuccessful siege by the 
 Venetians. — Fortification of the Isthmus. See 
 Ohekce: a. D. 14r)4-1479. 
 
 A. D. 1687.— Taken by the Venetians. Sec 
 Ti'UKw: A. D. 1684-1096. 
 
 A. D. 1822. — Rc'Tolt, siege and capture by 
 the Turks. See Gueece: A. I). 1821-1829. 
 
 CORINTH, Miss., Siege and Battle. Seo 
 United States of A.m.: A. 1). 1863 (Apuil — 
 May: Tennessee — Mississippi), and (Septem- 
 MEH — OcTOBEii: Mississippi). 
 
 CORINTH CANAL, The.— "On Sunday 
 [August 6, 1893] tlie canal across the Isthmus of 
 Corinth — [projected by Ca;sar — see Rome: 
 B. C. 45-44] begun by Nero, and completed, 
 nearly 2,000 years later, by a Greek engineer, M. 
 Matsos — wail opened by the King of Greece, 
 wlio steamed through the canal in his yacht, 
 accompanied by a procession consisting of four 
 Greek tx)rpedo- boats and o:her vessels. Including 
 three English men-of-war and an English des- 
 patch-boat. The canal . . . will be practicable 
 for all but the largest vessels." — The Spectator, 
 Aug. 13, 18i)o. 
 
 CORINTHIAN TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR, The. See Greece: 
 B. C. 399-387. 
 
 CORIONDI, The. See Ireland, Tribes of 
 Ancient. 
 
 CORITANI, OR CORITAVL— A British 
 tribe whici- occupied the lower valley of the 
 Trent and its vicinity. See Britain, Celtic 
 Tribes. 
 
 CORN LAWS (English^ and their repeal. 
 See Tariff Leoislation (Enolvnd): A. D. 
 ISlC 1828; 1830-1839; 1842; and 1845-1846. 
 
 CORNABII, OR CORNAVII, The.— An 
 ancient British tribe which dwelt near the mouchs 
 
 of the Dee and the Mersey. Sec Britain, Cel- 
 tic Thiues. 
 
 CORNWALL, Duchy of.— In the division of 
 the spoils of his nnuiucst of England, William 
 the ('omiueror gave to his brother Robert almost 
 the whole shire of Cornwall, besides other vast 
 estates. " Out of those possessions," savs Mr. 
 Freeman, "arose that great Earldom, an(r after- 
 wanls Duchv, of Cornwall, whi<'h was deemed 
 too powerful to be trusted in the hands of .my 
 but men closely akin to the ro^'al house, and the 
 remains of which have for ages formed the 
 appanage of the heir-apparent to the Crown." — 
 See, al.so, Wales, Prince of. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Charles, Lcrd.-In the 
 War of the American Revolution. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1776 (Auoust), (Septem- 
 iiER — NovE.MHER); 1780 (Fehruary — August); 
 1780-1781; 1781 (January- May); 1781 (May- 
 October) Indian administration. See 
 
 India: A. D. 1785-1703 Irish administra- 
 tion. See Ireland: A. I). 1798-1800. 
 
 CORON, Battle of (B. C. 281). See Mace- 
 donia, itc. : B. C. 297-280. 
 
 CORONADO, Expedition of. See Ameri- 
 can AiioRuiiNKs: Pueblos. 
 
 CORONATION.—" The royal consecration 
 in its most perfect form inpiu(led both coronn- 
 tion and tmction. The wearing of a crown was 
 a most ancient sign of royalty, into the origin of 
 which it is u"' ' •sa now to inquire ; but the 
 solemn rite of crowning was borrowed from the 
 Old Testament by the Byzantine Cfcsars; the 
 second Theodosius was the first emperor crowned 
 with religious ceremonies in Christian times. 
 The introduction of the rite of anointing is less 
 certainly ascertained. It did not always accom- 
 
 finny coronatiim. and, although usual with the 
 Btcr emperors i.-i not recorded In the case of the 
 earlier ones." — W. Stubbs, Const, Uist. of E)ij},, 
 eh. 6, sect. 60. 
 
 CORONATION STONE. See Scotland: 
 8tii-0tii Centuries; also, Lia Fail. 
 
 CORONEI A, Battles of (B. C. 447 and B. C. 
 394). See Greece: B. C. 449-445; and B. C. 
 399-387 
 
 CORPS DE BELGIQUE. See Unitkd 
 Stateh op Aji. : A. I). 1864 (October). 
 
 CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, The.— "The 
 Corpus Juris Ci villa represents the Roman law in 
 the form which it assumed at the close of the 
 ancient period (a thousand years after the 
 decern viral legislation A the Twelve Tables), and 
 Uirough whicli mainly it has acted upon modern 
 times. It was compded in the Eastern Roman 
 Empire (the Western ceased in 476 A. D.) under 
 the Emperor Justinian, . . . who reigned 537- 
 565 A. D. The plan of the work, as laid out by 
 [his great law-minister] Tribonian, Included two 
 principal parts, to be made from the constitu- 
 tions of the Roman emperors, and from the 
 treatises of the Roman lawyers. The ' constitu- 
 tiones ' (law-utterance.s) of the emperors consisted 
 of — 1. 'Orationes,' proposals of law, submitted 
 to and adopted by the S ;uate ; 2. ' Edicta,' laws 
 issued directly by the emperor as head of the 
 stntc; 3. 'Mandata,' instructions addressed by 
 the emperor to high ofTicers of law and justice; 
 
 4. ' Dccreta, ' decisions given by the emperor in 
 cases brought before him by appeal or otherwise ; 
 
 5. ' Rescripta,' answers returned by the emperor 
 when consulted on questions of law by parties in 
 
 614 
 
C0UPU8 JURIS CIVILI9. 
 
 CORSICA. 
 
 a Bult or by miiRlstrates. . . . Three or (our col- 
 lections IiikI iilreiiily )H>eii iiiiule, in wliieli the 
 most importimt constitutions were selected from 
 llie mass, presented in i. condensed form, and 
 arranged according to tlicir sulHccts. Tlie last 
 ami most elaborate of tlieso collections was the 
 Tliemiosian Co<lo, compiled about a century 
 lM-foru tlio accession of Justinian; it is still in 
 great part extant. . . . Tlie new (-Vxlex Con- 
 stitutioneni, pr 'pared in little more than a year, 
 was publislici in April, 530. The next work 
 was to digest the treatises of the most eminent 
 law writers. Tlilrty-nine were selected, nearly 
 all of whon> lived between 100 H. C. and SW) 
 A. D. Thuir books (2,000 in number) were 
 divided among a body of collaborators (sixteen 
 besides Tribonian), each of whom from the books 
 assigned to liim extracted what he thought 
 proper . . . and putting the extracts (9,000 in 
 all) under an arranged series of heads. . . . The 
 Digest — or Pandects (all-receiving), ns it is also 
 called from the multiplicity of its sources — was 
 issued with authority of law, in December, SiUJ. 
 . . . While the Digest or Pandects forms much 
 tlie largest fraction of the Corpus Juris, its 
 relative value and importance are far more than 
 proportionate to its extent. The Digest is, in 
 fact, the soul of the Corpus. ... To bring the 
 Codex Constitutionem into better conformity 
 with th(! Digest, it was revised in 534 and issued 
 1^ we now have it in November of tliat year. 
 . . . The Corpus Juris includes also an elemen- 
 tary text-book, tlio Institutiones (founded on the 
 ' iastitutiones ' of Oaius, who flourished about 
 150). . . . Tlio Institutes, Digjst and Codex 
 were given, as a complete body of law, to the 
 law-scliools at Cons'autiiiople, Home, lierytus, 
 Alexandria, Ciesana, to be studied in their five 
 years' curriculum. In the courts it was to super- 
 sede all earlier authorities. . . . Later statutes 
 of Justinian, arranged in order of time, form the 
 Novels ('novellae constitutione,' most of them in 
 Greek), the hist component of tlie Corpus Juris." 
 — J. Iladley, Int. to Raman I^iw, led. 1. 
 
 Ai.so in: J. E. Goudsmit, r/ztf J'ltmkcta. 
 
 CORREGIDOR. See Alcalde. 
 
 CORSICA: Early history.— " Tlic original 
 inliabitants of Corsica are supposed to have 
 been Ligurians, but at a very early period the 
 people had commercial intercoui-se with Spain, 
 Ionia and Tuscany. Tlie island was subsequently 
 occupied by tlio Carthaginians, who, however, 
 were expelled by the Romans during the first 
 Punic war. A few years later Corsica came 
 under tile dominion of Rome, and tiiatsway was 
 nominally maintained until the (loi^nfall of the 
 Empire. It then fell i: der the dominion of tlie 
 Vandals, and after tlijir expulsion owned suc- 
 cessively tlic rule of tlie Goths, the Saracens 
 and the Pisiins, and finally of the Genoese. It 
 came into the possession of tlie laiter people in the 
 year 1120. Pisii subsequently made several 
 attempts to drive out her rivals, but tliey wore 
 in tlie end void of results. But in 1448, Genoa, 
 having sustained great losses In the constant 
 wars in wliicli she was engaged, was induced to 
 surrender the administration of Corsica and of 
 lier co! ..ies in tlie Lerant to a corporation known 
 as tlie Bhuk of St George. From that time the 
 island was administered by governors appointed 
 by the Bank of St George, almost precisely ii: 
 the manner in which, in i!..igland, up to '851*, the 
 East Indies were administered by an ' imperium 
 
 In Imperlo.'"— O. B. Malleson, .'^iKtieii from 
 (tenoftf Ilinton). eh. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1558-1559.— Revolt against the Geno- 
 ese rule, and re-subjection. See Oknoa: .V. 1). 
 15'J«-1.W1); and Fua.nck: A. I). 1.547- 15.')U. 
 
 A. D. 1720-1769.— The Struggle for inde- 
 pendence. — Romance of King Theodore. — 
 The Paoiis.— Cession to France.— The ri'volt 
 of 1.5.5H was renewed in 1504, but ended in 1507, 
 upon the death of its leacK r, Hampicro. For the 
 next century and a half, Corsica reniaincci in- 
 active ; "depressed and miserable under renewed 
 Genoese exactiims and tyninnies, but t(K) 
 exhausted to resume hoslilifies. In 1720, how- 
 ever, fighting again broke out, suddenly roused 
 by (me of the many nrivate wrongs then pres.sing 
 upcm tlie lower orders, and the rebellion soon 
 spread over the whole island. It was well organ- 
 ized under two leaders of energy and ability, 
 and was more determined in its measures than 
 ever. . . . Genoa had recourse to the emperor of 
 Germany, from whom she bought several thou- 
 sand mercenaries, who were sent across tlie sea to 
 try tlieirskill upon tliesc unconquerable islwiders. 
 . . . The courage and chivalry of Ids insular 
 foes . . . won for them the regard of the 
 opposing Oenenil Wachtendonk ; and, chiefly 
 through his mediation, a treaty, sujjposed to 
 bo favourable to the islanders, was concluded 
 between Genoa and the Corte legislative assembly 
 in 1733. Wachtendonk remained in tlic island 
 another year to see the treaty carrieil out, and in 
 June, 1734, the German general returned to his 
 own country. . . . Bu' lie had scarcely retired 
 before the treaty was broken. Genoa began 
 anew her system of illegal arrests and attempted 
 r.ssassi nations ; and, once more, the people arose 
 under Ilyacintli Piioli, an obscure native of tlie 
 little village of Morosaglia, but a man of spirit 
 and talent, and a scholar. Under the direction 
 of tills man, and of GialTeri, his colleague, a 
 democratic constitution, in tlie highest degree 
 prudent and practical, was framed for the 
 Corsican jieople. . . . Early in tlie next year 
 occurred a stninge and romantic adventure in 
 tills adventureful country. A man, haiiv^some 
 and well-dressed, surrounded by obse(juious 
 courtiers, and attended by every luxury, landed 
 in tlie island from a vessel well-furnislied with 
 gold, ammunition, and arms. Tliia man was a 
 German adventurer. Baron Theodore von N'ui- 
 hoff, who, after a romantic youth, had suddenly 
 conceived a desire to become king of Corsica. 
 He was a man of great talent and personal 
 fascination, of good judgment, and entiiusiiastic 
 disposition. He iiad fallen in love with the 
 bravery and determination of the Corsicans, uiid 
 longed to head such a nation. ^le had put liiiu- 
 self into communication with the leading island- 
 ers ; and, having really some little influence at 
 the continent4il courts, persuaded them that he 
 had much more. He offered to obtain sucli 
 assistance from foreign potentates, by liis per- 
 suasions, as sliould effectually oust the Genoese ; 
 and, in return, requested tlie crown of Corsica. 
 His genius and his enthusiasm were so great, and 
 his promises so dazzling, that, after some hesi- 
 tation, the pool Corsicans, in their despair, 
 seized upon this last straw; and in Marcii, 1730, 
 Theodore was crowned king. His exertions for 
 tlie good of this country were untiring. He 
 established manufactures and promoted witli all 
 his power art and commerce, at the same time 
 
 615 
 
rORHICA. 
 
 CORTES. 
 
 timt, with nil till' force of IiIh Ronlufi, ho 
 cnclriivoiirnl to pcrNiuicli' forclffii powcrH to lend 
 their iiHMiHtiuicc to Ijin new Hiii)Je('tN in tlie Meld 
 IIIn Htyle iif living iiieiinwliili' wiih refill and 
 HuiM|)t!ioiiH. . . . TowiirdH tlie coneliision of liiH 
 (irsl y<'iir of sovereignly, Tlieodoro left ("orMlcii 
 on II eonlinenlul tour, willi the avowed object of 
 ImKteninK th(! proiuiHcd Hiiecoiir. In two yeurR he 
 returned, hrlriKinff vvilli him tliree litrgo and 
 m-veriil Hinalier war vessels, handsomely laden 
 witli iiiiuniinilion, ivhicli Imd actuidlvtieen raised 
 bv means of Ids tjth'nts iiinl persuasive faculties, 
 eldetly ainoii);st the Dutch. Hut, meitnwiiile, 
 till! C/'orsleiuis had had oilier iitTairs to which 
 U) attend. France had iiiterfere<l at the re- 
 quest of Oenoa; and nej;otiations were actively 
 going on, whl(!h tlie arrival of the pseudo-king 
 couKl only interrupt. Tiieodore, although now 
 so well attended, found himself unheeded and 
 disregarded; and after a few nionlhs was forced 
 to leave his new kingdom to its fate, and to 
 return to tlu! continent. Five years later, in 
 174!!, he again returned, again well e(|uipped, 
 this time with Englisli vessels, but willi the same 
 ill success. Convinced now that his cliance was 
 over and his dream of royalty destroynd, Theo- 
 dore returned to Kngland with a sore heart, 
 spending his remaining years in this asylum for 
 dethrcmed kings and ruined adventurers. His 
 tomb may be .seen in Westminster Abbey. For 
 the next tive and twenty years the war continued 
 between Corsica and Oenoa, still fought out on the 
 blootl-deluged plains of the unhappy little island. 
 But the republic of Genoa was now long past 
 her prime, and her energies were fading into 
 senility ; and, had it not been for the evcr- 
 lncrca.sir.g assistance of France, her intn-pid fm's 
 would long ere this have got the better of her. 
 In Jlay, 1708, a treaty was signed between 
 Geno:i and Fmnce, by which the republic ceded 
 her now enfeebled claims on Corsica to lier ally, 
 and left lur long-oppressed victim to flght the 
 contest out with the French troops. During 
 this time, first GafTori, then Pasquale Paoli, were 
 the leaders of the people. GafTori, a man of 
 refinement, and a hero of skill and intrepidity, 
 was murdered in a vendetta in 1753, and in n.W 
 Pasqufile, yotmgest son of the old patriot 
 Hyacinth Paoli, left his position as ofilcer in the 
 Neapolitan service, and landed, by the general 
 desire of his own people, at Aleria, to undertake 
 the command of the Corylcan army. . . . From 
 1764 to 1708 a truce was concluded between the 
 foes. ... In August, 1768, the truce was to 
 expire; but, before the appointed day bad 
 arrived, an army of 20,000 French suddenly 
 swooped down upon the luckless island. ... It 
 was a hopeless stniggle for Corsica; but the 
 heroism of the uncfiiuntcd people moved all 
 Europe to sympathy. . . . The Corsicans at 
 first got the better of their formidable foe, at 
 the Bridge of Gc), in tlie taking of Borgo, and 
 in other les •"• actions. . . . Meanwhile, the 
 country was being destroyed, and the troops 
 becoming exhausted. . . . The battle of Ponte 
 Nuovo, on the 9th of May, 1769, at once and 
 forever annihilated the Corsican cause. . . . 
 After this victory, the French rapidly gained 
 possession of the whole island, and shortly after- 
 wards tlie struggle was abandoned. ... In the 
 same year, 1709, Napoleon Buonaparte was born 
 in the house out of the Place du Marclie at 
 Ajaccio. 'I was born,' he said himself in a 
 
 letter to Pnoli, 'the year my ooiintry dle<l."' — 
 G. Fordi?, ,4 Liulifii Tmir in ('omicii, r. 'i. eh. If. 
 
 Al.KO IN; I'. FIt/.gcrald. Kiui/ii mid Oueenii of 
 (in //our, r/i. 1. — J. tioswell, ,/oiirniil of a Tour 
 to f/ormi'ii. 
 
 A. D. 1794.— Conquest by the Eng;liih. Bee 
 FnAN(K: A. I). 17»nM.\H( 11— .h;i,v), 
 
 A. D. 1796.— Evacuated by the Eneliih.— 
 Reoccupied by the French. See tjiANCK: 
 
 A. 1). 179(1 (SKfTKMIIKH). 
 
 CORTENUOVA, Battle of (1236). 8co 
 Italy: A. 1). llwt-lWd 
 
 CORTES, HERNANDO, Conqueit of 
 Mexico by. See Mkxico: A. I). ir)19 to 1581- 
 
 ma-t. 
 
 CORTES, The early Spanish.— The old 
 mjnarchical constitutions of Castile and 
 Aragon, — "The earliest instance on record of 
 popular representation in (.'astile occurred at 
 IJurgos, in 11(19; nearly a century aiiteceilent to 
 the celebralcd Leicester parliament. Kach city 
 had but one vote, whatever niiglit be the number 
 of its representatives. A much greater irregu- 
 larity, in regard to tlie number of cities required 
 to send deputies to cortes [tlie name signifying 
 ' court '] on ditl'erent occasion.!, ])revailed in Cas- 
 tile, than had ever existed in England; though, 
 previously to tlie Ifltli century, this floes not 
 seem to liavi^ proceeded from any design of in- 
 fringing on tlie liberties of the people. Tlio 
 nomination of these was originally vested in the 
 householders at large, but was afterwards con- 
 fined to the municipalities, — a most mischievous 
 alteration, whidi subjected their election eventu- 
 ally to the corrupt inlliience of the crown. They 
 assembled in the same chamber wltli the higher 
 orders of tlie nobility and clergy, but or (pies- 
 tions of moment, retireil to deliberate by them- 
 selves. After the transaction of other business, 
 their own petitions were presented to the sover- 
 eign, and his assent gave them the validity of 
 laws. The Castilian commons, by neglecting to 
 make tlieir money grants depend on correspond- 
 ing concessions from the crown, relinquished 
 that powerful check on its operations so bene- 
 ficially exerted In the British parliament, but in 
 vain contended for even there till a much later 
 period than that now under consideration. 
 Whatever miy have been the right of the no- 
 bility and clergy to attend in cortes, their sanc- 
 tion was not deemed essential to the validity of 
 legislative acts; for their presence was not even 
 required in many assemblies of the nation which 
 occurred in the 14th and 15th centuries. The 
 extrnordinary power thus committed to the com- 
 mons was, on the whole, unfavorable to their 
 liberties. It deprived them of the sympathy and 
 cooperation of the great orders of the state, whose 
 authority alone could have enabled them to with- 
 stand the encroachments of arbitrary power, and 
 who, in fact, did eventually desert them in their 
 utmost need. . . . Tlie Aragonese cortes was 
 composed of four branches, or arms; the ricos 
 hombres, or great barons; the lesser nobles, com- 
 prehending the kniglits; the clergy; and the 
 commons. The nobility of every denomination 
 were entitled to a seat in the legislature. The 
 ricos hombres were allowed to appear by proxy, 
 and a similar privilege was enjoyed by baronial 
 heiresses. The number of this body was very 
 limited, twelve of them constituting a quorum. 
 The arm of the ecclesiastics embraced an ample 
 
 616 
 
CORTES. 
 
 C'OUTES. 
 
 delegation from llie itiferior ivs well an liiglmr 
 cler^.V. It Ih iilllrnied luit to have been n nim- 
 |i(iiieiit(if the niktioiiiil IcKiHliituri' until more Ihiiii 
 It century iukI ii hiilf nfter (he iiilniisHJon r)f IIk^ 
 cominiinH. Indeed, the intlucnei' (if the ehureli 
 was much Ichm HenMilile in Aru)<(iii than in tlie 
 other kinK<l'iii>t<)f tlio I'euinHulii. . . . Tli<! com- 
 inoiiM enjoyed Id^luT cousideriition mid civil 
 privile^fes. For tiiis they were perlmpH some 
 wimt indelili'cl to the example of llieir Cataliin 
 neixhl)(ir«, tlie inlluence of wIiomc demoerallc in- 
 Htitutlons naturally extendeil to other parts of 
 the AragonescnioiLarcliy. The ciiarters of certain 
 cities accorded to tlie InhabitantH privile);cH 
 of nobility, ])articiiiarly that of immunity from 
 taxation; wiiile the maKlMtrates of others were 
 permitted to taki; their seats in the order of 
 liidalKos. From a very early nerlod w find 
 them employed in u!llcc» of i)ublli; trust, and on 
 lmp<irtaiit missions. The epoch of their admis- 
 sion into the national assembly Is traced its far 
 back as HUH, several years earlier than the com- 
 niencement of popular representation iu Castile. 
 Kach city had the rl^ht of sending two or more 
 deputies selected from persons clif^ilde to itr. 
 magistracy; but with the privilege' of only one 
 vote, whatever migiit be the niimbeif of its depu- 
 ties. Any place whic'h had been oiiro represi'iited 
 in cortes might always claim to be so. By a 
 statute of i;)()7, the convocation of the states, 
 which had been annual, was declan^l biennial. 
 The kings, however, paid little regard to this 
 provision, rarely smnmoning them except for 
 some specltic uecessity. The great olllcers of 
 the crown, whatever might be tlieir personal 
 rank, were jealously excluded from their delib- 
 erations. ... It was in the power of any mem- 
 ber to defeat the piLssage of it bill, by opposing 
 to it his veto or dis.sent, formally registered to 
 that effect. lie might even interpose his nega- 
 tive on tlie proceeilinga of the house, and thus 
 put a stop to the prosecution of all further busi- 
 ness during the session. This anomalous privi- 
 lege, transcending even that claimed in tlic 
 Polish diet, must have been too invidious In its 
 exercise, and too pernicious in its conseiiiiences, 
 to have been often resorted to. This may be in- 
 ferred from the fact that it was not formally re- 
 pealed until the reign of Philip II., in UiQ'i. . . , 
 The cortes exercised the highest functions, 
 whether of a deliberative, legislative, or judicial 
 nature. It had a. right to be consulteil on all 
 matters of importance, especially on those of 
 peace and war. No law was valid, no tax could 
 be imposed, without its consent ; and it carefully 
 provided for the application of the revenue to 
 Its destined uses. It determined the succession 
 to the crown, removed obnoxious ministers, re- 
 formed the household and domestic expenditure 
 of the monarch, and exercised the power, in the 
 most unreserved manner, of withholding sup- 
 plies, as well as of resisting what \l regarded as 
 an encroachment on the liberties of the nation. 
 . . . The statute-book affc.rds the moat unequivo- 
 cal evidence of the fidelity with wliich tlie 
 guardians of the realm discharged tlie high trust 
 reposed in tliom, in the numerous enactments it 
 exhibits for tlie security both of person and 
 property. Almost the first page wliich meets 
 the eye in this venerable record contains the 
 General Privilege, the Magna Charta, as it has 
 been well denominated, of Aragon. It was 
 granted by Peter the Qreat to the cortes at Saro- 
 
 gosaii, In 12mm. It iiiibnteefi a variety of pro- 
 vIhIoiis for till' fair ami open administration of 
 Justice; for ascerlaining tlie legitimate jiowen 
 Intrusted to the cortes; for the security of prop- 
 erty against exactions of the crown ; and for Iho 
 con.servatlon of their legal immiiiiltles to the mu- 
 nlcliial corporations and the dilYerint orders of 
 nobility, . . . The Aragonese, who rightly rc- 
 gardeii the (Jeiieral Privilege as the broadest 
 basis of 'heir liberties, repeatedly procured lis 
 eonllrmation by succeeding sovereigns. . . . The 
 Judicial functions of the cortes have not been 
 siilUeiently noticed by writers. They were ex- 
 ten.sivo In their operation, and gave it the name 
 of the Oenend (lourt."— W. II. Prcscott, lliit. 
 <if the Ileir/n of Ferdinanil itml Jmi/ul/ii, iiitrml., 
 xert. 1-3. — "Castile bore a closer aiialogv to Kng- 
 land In its form of civil polity than l''raiice or 
 even Aragon. Hut the fiei|ueiit di.sordeis of its 
 government and a barbarous state of manners 
 rendered violations of law much more continual 
 and flagrant than they were In Unghind under 
 the Pl.mtagenet dynasty. And besides these 
 practical mi.'ichlefs, there were two essential de- 
 fects in tlic constitution of Casiile, through which 
 perhaps It was ultimately subverted. It wanted 
 tliose two brilliants in the coronet of liritlsh lib- 
 erty, the representation of freeholders among the 
 commons, and trial by jury. The cortes of Cas- 
 tile became a congress of deputies from a few 
 cities, public spirited, indeeil, and intrepid, as 
 we Iliid tliem in bad times, to an eminent degree, 
 but too much limited in number, anil too uncon- 
 nected with the territorial aristocracy, to main- 
 tain a just balance against the crown. . . . Per- 
 haps In no European monarchy except our own 
 was the form of government more interesting 
 than in Antgon, as a fortunate temperament of 
 law and justice witli the royal authority. . . . 
 IJliincas quotes a noble pa.ssiige from the acts of 
 cortes in M")I. 'We have always heard of old 
 time, and it is found by experience, that seeing 
 the great barrenness of this land, and the poverty 
 of the realm, if it were not for tlic liberties 
 thereof, the folk would go hence to live and 
 abide in other realms and lands more fruitful.' 
 This high spirit of freedom had long animated 
 the Aragoncsi' After severid contesi.s witli the 
 crown in the reign of James I., not to go buck t<> 
 earlier times, they compelled Peter III. in 1283 
 to grant a law called the Oenenil Privilege, the 
 Magna Charta of Aragon, and perhaps a more 
 full and satisfactory basis of civil liberty than 
 our own." They further "established a positive 
 right of maintaining their liberties by arrfis. 
 Tliis was contained in the Privilege of Union 
 granted by Alfonso III. in 1287, after a violent 
 conflict with his subjects ; but which was after- 
 wards so completely abolished, and even eradi- 
 cated from the records of the kingdom, that its 
 precise words have never been recovered. . . . 
 Tliat watchfulness over public liberty which 
 originally belongeil to the aristocracy of ricos 
 iiombres . . . and which was afterwards main- 
 tained by the dangerous Privilege of Union, be- 
 came the duty of a civil magistrate whose ofBce 
 and functions are tlie most pleasing feature in 
 the constitutional history of Arugon. The Jiis- 
 tiza or Justiciary of Aragon has been treated by 
 some writers aa a sort of auonialous magistrate. 
 . . . But I do not perceive that his functions 
 were, in any essential respect, diHereut from 
 those of the chief justice of England, divided. 
 
 40 
 
 617 
 
CORTES. 
 
 COSSACKS. 
 
 from the time of Kdward I., among the judges 
 of the Khig's Bench. . . . All the royal an well 
 118 territorial judges were bound to apply for liis 
 opinion in case of legal diUicultie.s arising in their 
 courts, which he was to certify within eight 
 days. By suhseciueii. statutes of the same reign 
 it was made penal for any one to obtain letters 
 from the king, impeding the execution of the 
 Justiza's process, and tliey were declared null. 
 Inferior courts were forbidden to proceed in any 
 business after Ills prohibition. . . . There are 
 two parts of his remedial jurisdiction which de- 
 serve special notice. These are tlie processes of 
 juris tirnia, or lirnia del derechio, and of manifes- 
 tation. The former bears some analogy to the 
 writs of ' pone ' and ' certiorari ' in Lngland, 
 through which the Court of King's Bench exer- 
 cises Its right of withdrawing a sidt from the 
 jurisdiction of inferior tribimals. But tlie Ara- 
 gonese juris Hrma was of more extensive ojiera- 
 tion. . . . The process termed manifesUition 
 afforded as ample security for personal liberty as 
 that of juris firmadid for i)roperty. " — H. Ilallam, 
 The Muhlle Ages, ch. 4 (v. 3). — For some account 
 of the loss of the old constitutional liberties of 
 Castile and Aragon, under Charles V. , see Spain : 
 A. D. 1518-152SJ. — " The councils or meetings of 
 the bishops after the reconquest, like the later 
 Councils of Toledo, were always 'jussu regis,' 
 and were attended by counts and masjnates ' ad 
 videndum sine ad audiendum verbum Domini.' 
 But when the ecclesiastical business was ended, 
 it was natural that the lav part of the assem- 
 bly should discuss the alfairs of the kingdom 
 and of the people; and insensibly this after- 
 part of the proceeding j grew as tlie first part 
 diminished in importance. The exact date when 
 the Council merged into the Curia or Cortes 
 is difficult to determine ; Sefior Colmeiro takes 
 the so-named Council of Leon in 1020 as the 
 true starting-point of the latter. The early 
 monarchy of Spain was elective, anu the accla- 
 mation of tlie assembled people (plebs) was at 
 least theoretically necessary to render the king's 
 election valid. 'The presenca of the citizens at 
 the Cortes or Zamor.i, though stated by Sando- 
 val and Morales, is impugned by Sefior Col- 
 meiro; but at the rouncil of Oviedo in 1115 were 
 present bishops of Spain and Portugal ' cum 
 principibus et plebe praedictae regionis,' and 
 these latter also subscribed the Acts. Still, 
 though present and making their influence more 
 and more felt, tliere is no record of a true repre- 
 sentation of cities until Alfonso IX. convoked 
 the Cortes of Leon in 1188, ' cum archiepiscopo, 
 et episcopis, et niagnatibus regni met et cum 
 electis civihus ox singulis civitatibus ' ; from this 
 time the three estates — clergy, nobles, citizens 
 — were always represented in the Cortes of Leon. 
 Unfortunately, the political development of Cas- 
 tillo did not synchronise with that of Leon. In 
 general, that of Castillo was fully half a century 
 later. We pass by ■■* 'nore than doubtful the 
 alleged presence of citizens at Burgos 'n 1169; 
 the 'majores civitatum et villarum at the 
 Cortes of Carrion in ll'' v.' ere not deputies, but 
 the judges or governc of twenty-eight cities. 
 It is not till the unite 1 Cortes of both kingdoms' 
 met at Seville in 1!J50, that we find true repre- 
 sentation in Castillo. tIJastille was always more 
 feudal than Leon. It is in this w!\nt of simul- 
 taneous development, and in the presence of 
 privileged classes, that we find the germ of the 
 
 evils which eventually destroyed the liberties of 
 Spain. Neither the number of d''r)"ties nor of 
 the cities represented was ever 15:.t i; at Burgos, 
 in 1315, we find 200 deputies (pi vyci.radores) from 
 100 cities; gradually the number sank till sevcn- 
 'x'en, and finally twenty-two, ciMes alone were 
 represented. The deputies were chosen from 
 ho municipality either by lot, by rotation, or by 
 election ; they were the mere spokesmen of the 
 city councils, whose mandate was imperative. 
 Their payment was at first by the cities, but, 
 after 1422, by the king; and tliere are constant 
 complaints that the salary was insufficient. Tlie 
 reign of Juan II. (1400-54) was fatal to the liber- 
 ties of Castillo ; the answers to the demands and 
 petitions of the deputies were deferred; and, in 
 fact, if not in form, the law tliat no tax should 
 be levied without consent of the Cortes was con- 
 stantly violated. Still, but for the death of 
 Prince Juan, in 1497, and uie advent of the 
 Austrian dj^nasty with th? possession of the 
 Low Countries, the old liberties might yet have 
 boon recovered. . . . With the Cortes of Toledo, 
 in 1538, ended the meeting of the three estat'. ■; 
 The nobility first, then the clergy, were elimi- 
 nated from the Cortes, leaving only the proctors 
 of the cities to become servile instruments for 
 the purposes of taxation." — W. Webster. Review 
 of Colmeiro' 8 "Cortes de tos Antiguos Ueinoa de 
 Leonyde CMtilla" (Aeadumi/, Aug. IC 1884). 
 
 CORUNNA, Battle of (1809). See Spaim: 
 A. D. 1808-1809 (August— January). 
 
 CORUPEDION, Battle of.— A battle fought 
 in western Phrygia, B. C. 281, in wliich Lysim- 
 inachus, one of the disputants for Alexander's 
 empire, wiis defeated by Seleucus, and slain. — 
 C. Thirlwall, IliHt. of Greece, ch. 60. 
 
 CORVbE. — One of the feudal rights possessed 
 in France (under tlie old regime, before the Uevo- 
 lution) "by the lord of the manor over his sub- 
 jects, by means of which he could employ for 
 his own profit a certain number of their days of 
 labour, or of their oxen and horses. The ' Cor- 
 vee & volonte,' that is to say, at the arbitrary 
 will of the Seigneur, liad been completely abol- 
 ished [before the Revolution] : forced labour had 
 boon for some time past confined to a certain 
 number of days a-year." — A. de Tocqueville, On 
 the State of Society in. France before 1789, note 
 4 E. (p. 499). 
 
 CORVUS, The Roman. See Punic War, 
 The Fikst. 
 
 COS, OR K JS.— One of the islands in the 
 .iEgean callc ' the Sporades, near the Carian 
 coast of Asia Minor. The island was sacred to 
 Asclepius, or Jisculapeus, and was the birth- 
 place of the celebrated physician Hippocrates, as 
 well as of the painter Apelles. It was an iEolian 
 colony, but joined the Dorian confederacy. 
 
 COSIMO DE' MEDICI, The ascendancy 
 at Florence of. See Florence: A. D. 1483- 
 1464. 
 
 COSMOS, COSMIOS, COSMOPOLIS. 
 See De.miiikoi. 
 
 COSSACKS, The.—" The origin of the Cos- 
 sack tribes is lost in the obscurity of ages ; and 
 many celebrated historians ui'e still divided in 
 opinion as to whence the term Cossack, or rather 
 Kosaque, is properly to be derived. This word, 
 ' indeed, is susceptible of so many etymological 
 explaiii^ Jons, as scarcely to offer for any one of 
 them decided grounds of preference. Every- 
 thing, however, would seem to favour the belief 
 
 618 
 
COSSACKS. 
 
 COTARir. 
 
 that the word C.)ssark, or Kosntmc, wns in much 
 earlier use iu the vicinity of tlie Caucasus tliiin 
 in the Uliraine. . . . Slierer, in liis 'Annals of 
 Russia Minor,' (La Petite HuskIc,) traces back 
 the origin of the Cossacks to the ninth century ; 
 but he does not support his assertion by any 
 facts clothed with the dignity of historical truth. 
 It appears certain, however, tliat the vast pas- 
 ture lands between the Don and the Dnieper, llie 
 country lying on the soutli of KYow, and trav- 
 ersed by the Dnieper up to the Black Sea, was 
 the principal birthplace of the Cos.sacks. When, 
 in 1243, Batukhan came witli 500,000 men to 
 take possession of the empire wliich fell to his 
 share of tlie vast inheritance left by Tchingis 
 Khan [see Mongols: A. D. 1229-1294], he extir- 
 pated many nations and displaced many others. 
 One portion of the Komans Hying from the 
 horrors of this terrific storm, and arriving on tl>e 
 borders of the Caspian Sea, on the banks of tlie 
 IiYk, (now Ouralsek,) turned to the left, and took 
 refuge between the embouchures of that river, 
 where they dwelt in small numbers, ai>art from 
 their 1 ethren, in a less fertile climate. These 
 were, incontestably, tlie progenitors of the Cos- 
 sacks of the laYk, who are, historically, scarcely 
 impo''tant enough for notice. ... At the 
 approach of this formidable invasion towards the 
 Don, that portion of the Komans located o i the 
 left bank took refuge in tlie marshes, and in the 
 numerous islands formed by that river near its 
 embouchure. Here they found a secure retreat ; 
 and from thence, having, from their new posi- 
 tion, acquired maritime habits and seafaring ex- 
 perience, thej' not only, themselves, resorted to 
 piracy as a means of existence, but likewise eii- 
 listecl in a formidable confederacy, for purposes 
 of rapine and pillage, all the roving and discon- 
 tented tribes in their surrounding neighbour- 
 hood. These latter were very numerous. Tlie 
 Tartars, ever but indifferent seamen, had not the 
 courage to join them in these iiiratical expe- 
 ditions. This division of the Komans is in- 
 dubitably the parent stock of the mwlem Cos- 
 sacks of the Don, by far the most numerous of 
 the Cossack tribes: by amalgamation, however, 
 with whole hosts of Tartar and Calmuck hordes, 
 lawless, desperate, and nomadic as themsel.es, 
 they lost, in some degree, the primitive and 
 deeply marked distinctive character of their race. 
 The Komans of the Dnieper offered no more 
 energetic resistance to the invading hordes of 
 Batukhan than had been shown by tlieir brethren 
 of the Don : they dispersed in various directions, 
 and from this peoplck tiying at the advance of 
 the ferocious Tartar* descended a variety of 
 hordes, who occasionsnjy figure iu history as 
 distinct and independenSkiiations. . . . [They] 
 ultimately found a per.niment resHng-placc in 
 the wild islets of the Dnieper, below the cata- 
 racts, where dwelt already a small number of 
 their ancient compatriots, who had escaped the 
 general destruction of their nation. This spot 
 became the cradle of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, 
 or of the tribes known in after times as the Polish 
 Cossacks. When Quedynun, Grand Duke of 
 Lithuania, after having defeated twelve Russian 
 princes on the banks of the PiCrna, conquered 
 liVow with its dependencies in 1320, the wander- 
 ing tribes scattered over the steppes of the 
 Ukraine owned his allegiance. After the vic- 
 tories of Olgierd, of Vitold, and of Ladislas 
 lagellon, over the Tartars and the Russians, 
 
 large bodies of Scytiiian militia, known subse- 
 (|uently by the comprehensive denomination of 
 Cossacks, or Kosaques, served under these con- 
 querors: and after the union of the Grand 
 Duchy of Lithuania with Poland, in i:t80, they 
 c(mtinue<l under the dominion of the „'niiid dukes 
 of Lithuania, forming, apparently, an intermedi- 
 ate tribe or caste, superior to the peasuiitry and 
 inferior to the nobles. At a later iieriod, when 
 the Ukraine was annexed to the Polish crown, 
 tliey pas.sed under the protection of the kings of 
 Poland. . . . Although there may, doubtless, 
 exist several species or castes of Cossacks, hnd to 
 wliom Russia in order to impose on Europe, is 
 pleased to give as many different names, yet 
 there never have been, nor will there ever be, 
 properly speaking, more than two principal 
 tribes of the Co.ssack nation, namely the Cos- 
 sacks of the Don, or Don-Cossaeks, and the Cos- 
 .sacks of the Black Sea, known in ancient times 
 as the Polish Cos.sacks, or Zajxirowscy Kozacy. 
 . . . The Cossacks [of the Don] . . . have ren- 
 dered signal service to Russia, which, ever since 
 tlie year 1.549, lias taken them under lier protec- 
 tion, without, however, the existence of any 
 official act, treaty, or stipulation, confirming 
 their .submission to that power. . . . The Don- 
 Co8.sacks enjoy a certain kind of liberty and 
 independence ; they have a hetman, attaman, or 
 chief, nominated by the Emperor of Russia ; and 
 to tills cliief tliey yield an obeilience more or less 
 willing and implicit; in general, th"y are com- 
 manded only by Cossack orticers, who take equal 
 rank in the Russian army. They have a sepa- 
 rate war administration of their own ; although 
 they are compelled to furnish a stated number of 
 recruits wlio serve in a manner for life, inasmuch 
 as they are rarely discharged before attaining 
 !Axty years of age: on the whole, their condition 
 is happier than that of the rest of the Russian 
 •population. They belong to the Greek-Russian 
 church. The existence of this small republic of 
 the Don, in tlic very heart of tlie nust despotic 
 and most extensive empire in the world, appears 
 to constitute a problem, the solution of wiiich 
 is not as yet definitely known, and the ultimate 
 solution of which yet remains to be ascertained." 
 — II. Krasinski, T/ie Cosmtcks of the Ukraine, ch. 
 1. — Tlie Cossacks of the Ukraine transferred their 
 allegiance from the King of Poland to the Czar of 
 Russia in 1654, after a revolt led by their hetman, 
 Bogdan Khinelnitski, in which they were assisted 
 by the neighboring Tartars, and whicli was ac- 
 companied by terrible scenes ot slaughter and 
 destruction. Sec Poland: A. D. 1648-1054. 
 
 COSSiEANS, The. See Kos8*:ans. 
 
 COSTA RICA: A. D. 1502.— Discovery by 
 Columbus. SeeAMEKicA: A. D. 1498-1.505. 
 
 A. D. 1813-1871.— Independence of Spain. — 
 Brief annexation to Mexico. — The fai'ures of 
 federation, the wars and revolutions of Central 
 America. See Central America : A. D. 1821- 
 1871. 
 
 A. D. 1850.— The Clayton Bulwer Treaty 
 and the projected Nicaragua Canal. See Kic- 
 auaoua: A. D. 1850. 
 
 COSTANOAN FAMILY, The. See Amkiu- 
 CAN AiioiiidiNKS: C08TANOAN Family. 
 
 COSTER, Laurent, and the invention of 
 printing. See Printing: A. D. 1430-1456. 
 
 COTARII. See Slavery, Medlkval and 
 Modern; England. 
 
 619 
 
COTIION OP CARTHAGE. 
 
 COTTON MANUFVCTUKK 
 
 COTHON OF CARTHAGE, The.— " Tlicro 
 were two liindlockccl docks or Imrboiirs, opening 
 the one into the other, uiui botli, it would seem, 
 the work of humun hands. . . . Tlic outer hiirbour 
 WU8 re<'tanguliir, iibout 1,400 feet long and 1,100 
 broad, and wan appronriiitcd to merchant vessels ; 
 the inner was circular like a drinking cup, whence 
 it was, called the Cothon, and was reserved for 
 ships 'f war. It could not be approached except 
 through the merchant harbour, and the entrance 
 to this last was only 70 feet wide, and could be 
 closed at any time by chains. The war harbour 
 was entirely surroini<led by quays, containing 
 tM^paratc docks for 220 ships. In front of each 
 dock were two Ionic pillars of marble, so that 
 the whole must have presented the appearance 
 of a splendid circular colonnade. Right in the 
 centre of the harbour was an island, the head- 
 quarters of the admiral." — R. B. Smith, Carthage 
 and the Carthaginians, ch. 20. 
 
 COTSETI. See 8i.aveuy, Medieval and 
 Modeun: England. 
 
 COTTON, Rev. John, and the colony of 
 Massachusetts Bay. See Mas-sachusetts: A.I). 
 1631-l«;i6. 
 
 COTTON FAMINE, The. Sec England: 
 A. I). 1801-1865. 
 
 COTTON-GIN : Eli Whitney's invention 
 and its effects. See United States of Am. : 
 A. D. 1818-1821. 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE : The great 
 inventions in spinning^ and weaving. — ' ' Cotton 
 had been used in the extreme East aud in the ex- 
 treme West from the earliest periods of which 
 we have any record. The Spaniards, on their 
 discovery of America, found the Mexicans clothed 
 in cotton. . . . But though the use of cotton had 
 been known from the earliest ages, both in India 
 and America, no cotton goods were Imported 
 into Europe ; and in the ancient world both rich 
 and poor were clothed in silk, linen, and wool. 
 The industrious floors introduceil cotton into 
 Spain. Many centuries afterwards cotton was 
 imported into Italy, Saxony and the Low Coun- 
 tries. Isolated from the rest of Europe, with 
 little wealth, little industry, and no roads; rent 
 by civil commotions; the English were the last 
 people in Europi to intrt duce the manufacture 
 of cotton goods S^.to their own homes. Towards 
 the close of the 16th century, indeed, cotton gjods 
 were occasionally mentioned in the Statute Book, 
 anil the manufacture of the cottons of Manches- 
 ter was regulated by Acts passed in the reigns 
 of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Elizabeth. 
 But there seem to be good reasons for conclud- 
 ing that Manchester cottons, in the time of the 
 Tudors, were -woollen goods, and did not consist 
 of cotton at all. More than a century elapsed 
 before any consiucrable trade in cotton attracted 
 the attention of the legislature. The woollen 
 manufacttirers complained that people were dress- 
 ing their children in printed cottons ; and Par- 
 liament was actually persuaded to prohibit the 
 introduction of Indian printed calicoes. Even 
 an Act of Parliament, however, was unable to 
 extinguish the growing taste for Indian cottons. 
 . . . The taste for cotton led to the introduction 
 of calico-printing in London; Parliament in order 
 to encourage the new trade, was induced to 
 sanction the importation of plain cotton cloths 
 from India under a dtity. The demand, which 
 was thus created for calicoes, probably pronioteil 
 their manufacture at home. ... Up to the mid- 
 
 dle of the last century cotton goods were really 
 never made at all. The so-called cotton manu- 
 factures were a combination of wool or linen and 
 cotton. No EnglishmaD had been able to pro- 
 duce a cotton thread strong enough for the warp. 
 . . . The superior skill of the Indian manufac- 
 turers enabled them to u.sc cotton for a warp ; 
 while clumsy workmanship made the use of cot- 
 tou J a warp unattainable at home. In the 
 n-ii.ale of the 18th century, then, a piece of cot- 
 ton cloth in the true sense of the term, had never 
 been made in England. The so-called cotton 
 goods were all made in the cottages of the 
 weavers. The yarn was carded by hand ; it was 
 spim by hand ; it was worked into cloth by a 
 hand loom. . . . The operation of weaving was, 
 however, much more rapid than that of spinning. 
 The weaver consumed more weft than his ov/n 
 family could supply him with ; and the weavera 
 generally experienced the greatest difficulty in 
 obtiup'ng sullicient yarn. About the middle of 
 the 18th century the ingenuity of two persons, 
 a father and a son, made this difference more 
 apparent. The shuttle had originE lly been thrown 
 by the liand from one end of the loom to the 
 other. John Kay, a native of Bury, by his in- 
 vention of the ny-shultle [patented in 1733], 
 saved the weaver from this labour. . . . liobert 
 Kay, John Kay's son, added the drop-box, by 
 means of which the weaver was able ' ;a use any 
 one of three shuttles, each containing a different 
 coloured weft, without the trouble of taking 
 them from and replacing them in the lathe. ' By 
 means of these inventions the productive power 
 of each weaver was doubled. . . . Carding and 
 roving were both slowly performed. . . . The 
 t;ade was in this humble and primitive state 
 when a series of extraordinary and unparalleled 
 inventions revolutionised the conditions on which 
 cotton had been hitherto prepared. A little 
 more than a century ago John Ilargreaves, a poor 
 weaver in the neighbourhood of Blackburn, was 
 returning home from a long walk, in which he 
 had been purchasing a furthur supply of yarn 
 for his loom. As he entered his cottage, his wife 
 Jenny accidentally upsc^ the spindle which she 
 was using. Ilargreaves noticed that the spindles 
 which were now thrown into an upright positiou, 
 continued to revolve, and that the thread was 
 still spinning in his wife's hand. The idea im- 
 mediately occurred to him that it would be pos- 
 sible to connect a considerable number of up- 
 right spindles with one wheel, and thus multiply 
 the productive power of each spinster. . . . Har- 
 greaves succeeded in keeping his admirable in- 
 vention secret 'ir a time ; but the powers of his 
 machine soon became known. His ignorant 
 neighbours hastily concluded that a machine, 
 which enabled one spinster to do the work of 
 eight, would throw multitudes of persons out of 
 employment. A mob broke into his house and 
 destroyed his machine. Ilargreaves himself had 
 to retire to Nottingham, where, with the friendly 
 assistance of another person, he was able to take 
 out a patent [1770^ for the spinning-jenny, as the 
 machine, in compliment to his industrious wife, 
 was culled. The invention of the spinning-jenny 
 gave a new impulse to the cotton manufacture. 
 But the . . . yarn spun by the jenny, like that 
 which had previously been spun by hand, was 
 neither fine enough nor hard enough to be em- 
 ployed as warp, and linen or woollen threads had 
 consequently to be used fur this purpose. la 
 
 620 
 
COTTON MANTr^iCTURE. 
 
 COUNT AND DUKE. 
 
 the very ycnr, liowevpr, in which IlnrRrrnvps 
 moved from Bli\cl<l)iirn to Nottinjrlmni, liiRliiml 
 Arltwriglit [wlio begnn life as a Ijiirber's iissistnnt] 
 took out n [iiitent [1709] for liin still more cele- 
 brated mnehine. . . . ' After inunj' years i^.tensc 
 and painful application,' lie invented his mem- 
 orable machine for spinning by rollers; and laid 
 the foundations of the gigantic industry which 
 has done more than any other trade to concen- 
 trate in this country the wealth of the world. 
 . . . He puosed tiie thread over two pairs of 
 rollers, one of which was made to revolve much 
 more rapidly than the other. The thread, after 
 
 eassiiig the pair revolving slowlv, was drawn 
 ito the requisite tenuity by the rollers revolving 
 at a higher rapidity. By this simple but mem- 
 orable invention Arkwright succeed-'d in pro- 
 ducing thread capable of employment as warp. 
 From the circumstance that the mill at which 
 his machinery was first erected was driven by 
 water power, the machine received the somewhat 
 inappropriate name of the water fnune; the 
 thread spun by it was usually called the water 
 twist. Invention of the spinning-jenny and Jie 
 water frame would have been useless if the old 
 system of hand-carding liad not been superseded 
 by a more eflicient and more rapid process. Just 
 as Arkwright applied rotatory motion to spin- 
 ning, so Lewis Paul introduced revolving cylin- 
 ders for carding cotton. . . . This extraordinary 
 series of inventions placed an almost unlimited 
 supply of yarn at the disposal of the weaver. But. 
 the machinery, which had thus been introduced, 
 was still incapable of providing yarn tit for the 
 finer qualities of cotton cloth. . . . This defect, 
 liowe ver, was removed by t he ingenuity of Samuel 
 Crompton, a young weaver residing near Bolton. 
 Crompton succeeded in combining in one machine 
 the various excellences ' of Arkwright's water 
 frame and Hargreaves' jenny.' Like the former, 
 his machine, which from its nature is liappily 
 C".';ed the mule, ' has a system of ro!''.'rs to re- 
 duce the roving ; and like the latter it has spin- 
 dles without bobbins to give the twist. . . . Tlie 
 effects of Crompton's great invention may be 
 stated epigrammatically. . . . The natives of 
 India could spin a pound of cotton into a thread 
 119 miles long.' The inglish succeed in spin- 
 ning the same thread to a length of 100 miles. 
 Yarn of the finest quality was at once at the di.- - 
 posal of the weaver. . . . The ingenuity of Har- 
 greaves, Arkwright and Crompton had been 
 exercised to provide the weaver with yarn. . . . 
 The spinster had beaten the weaver. . . . Ed- 
 mund Cartwright, a clergyman residing in Kent, 
 liappencd to be staying at Matlock in the sum- 
 mer of 1784, and to be thrown into the company 
 of some Manchester gentlemen. The conversa- 
 tion turned on Arkwnghl's machinery, and ' one 
 of tilt company observed that, as soon as Ark- 
 wright's patent expired, so many mills would be 
 erected and so much cotton spun that hands 
 would never be found to weave it.' Cartwright 
 replied ' that Arkwright must then set his wits to 
 work to invent a weaving mill.' . . . Within 
 three years he had himself proved that the in- 
 vention was practicable by producing the power- 
 loom. Subsequent in- entors improved the idea 
 which Cartwright had originated, and within 
 flfty years from the date of his memorable visit 
 to Matlock there were not less than 100,000 power- 
 looms i i work in Groat Britain alone. . . . Other 
 inventions, leas generally remembered, were 
 
 hardly less wonderful or less lieneflcial than these. 
 . . . Scheele, the Swedish philosopher, discovered 
 in 1774 the bleaching properties of chlorine, or 
 oxy muriatic acid. Bertliollet, the French chem- 
 ist, conceived the idea of applying the acid to 
 bleaching cloth. ... In th(^ same year in which 
 AVatt and Henry were introducing" the new acid 
 to the bleacher, Bell, a Scotchman, was laying 
 tlie foundations of a trade in printed calicoes. 
 ' The old method of printing was by blocks of 
 sycamore.'. . . This clumsy process was super- 
 seded by cylinder printing. . . . Surh are the 
 leading inventions, which made Great Britain in 
 less than a century the wealthiest country in the 
 world. "— S. Walpole, Ilist. of Eng. from 1815, 
 V. 1, ch. 1. 
 
 Also in: R. W. C. Taylor, Iiiti<Hl. to a Hut. 
 of the Factory Syntem, ch. 10. — E. Baines, Iliitt. 
 of the Cotton Manufacture in Oreat Uritain. — A. 
 Ure, The Cotton Maiiiifactureof Oreat Britain. 
 
 COULMIERS, battle of (1870). Sec 
 Fhance: a. D. 1870-1871. 
 
 COUNCIL BLUFFS, The Mormons at. 
 Sc ■ MoRMONlBM : A. D. 1840-1848. 
 
 COUNCIL FOR NEW ENGLAND. See 
 New England: A. D. 1020-102:1; 1021-1031; 
 and 1035. 
 
 COUWCIL OF BLOOD, The. SeeNKrnKR- 
 LANDS. A. D. 1507. 
 
 COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, The 
 
 Athenian. Sen Athens: B. C. 510-507 The 
 
 French. See France: A. D. 1795 (.June— Sep- 
 tember). 
 
 COUNCIL OF TEN, The. See Venice: 
 A. D. 1033-1319. 
 
 COUNCIL OF THE ANCIENTS, The. 
 See France: A. D. 1795 (June — September). 
 
 COUNCIL, THE PRIVY. See PiiiVi 
 Council. 
 
 COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, General 
 or Ecumenical. — There are seven councils ad- 
 mitted by '.,oth the Greek and Latin cliurclics as 
 a'cumenical (or ecumenical) — that is general, or 
 universal. The Roman Catholics recognize thir- 
 teen more, making twenty in all — as follows: 
 1. The synod of apostles in Jerusalem. 3. The 
 first Council of Nice, A. T). 325 (see Nic.«a, 
 The First Council). 3. The first Council of 
 Constantinople, A. D. 381. 4. The first Coun- 
 cil of Ephesus, A. D. 431. 5. The Council of 
 Clialcedon, A. D. 451. 0. The second Council 
 of ConstJintinople, A. D. 553. 7. The third 
 Council of Constantinople, A. D. 081. 8. The 
 second Council of Nice, A. D. 787. 9. The 
 fourth Council of Constantinople, A. 1). 809. 
 10 The first Lateran Council, A. D. 1123. 11. 
 !ne second Lateran Council, A. 1). 1139. 12. 
 The third Lateran Council, A. D. 1179. 13. 
 The fourth Lateran Council. A. P. 1215. 14. 
 The first cecumeiiical synod of Lyon, A. D. 1245. 
 15. The second oecumenical svnod of Lyon, 
 A. D. 1274. 10. The Synod ofVienne in Gaul, 
 A. D. 1311. 17. The Council of Constance, 
 A. D. 1414 (.see Papacy: A. D. 1414-1418). 
 18. The Council of Basel, A. D. 1431 (see 
 Papacy: A. D. 1431-1448). 19. The Council of 
 Trent, A. D. 1545 (.see Papacy: A. D. 1537- 
 1503). 20. The Council of the Vatican, A. I). 
 1869 (see Papacy: A. I). 1869-1870). 
 
 COUNT AND DUKE, Roman.— Origin of 
 the titles. — ''The defence of the Roman empire 
 was at length committed [under Constantine and 
 his successors] to eiglit masters-general of the 
 
 621 
 
COUNT AND DUKE. 
 
 COURTRAI. 
 
 cavalry and infiinfry, I'mlcrlhcir orders tliirty- 
 flvc military coniinaiKlcrs wcri- Mtatioucd in the 
 provinces — tlirce in Hrilnin, six in Gnul, one i'l 
 Hpnin, one in Italy, live on tlie Upper and fotir 
 on the Lower Danube, in Asia eiglit, three in 
 Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of Counts 
 and Dultes, by wliidi tliey -verc properly dis- 
 tinguislied, liave obtained in ni(Hlern languages 
 BO v(!ry different u sense that the tiso of tliem 
 may occa.sion some surjirise. Hut it should be 
 recollected that the second of tliose appellations 
 is only a corni]»tion of the Latin word whidi 
 was indiscriminately applied to any military 
 chief. All tliesc provincial generals were there- 
 fore dukes; but no more llian leu among them 
 were dignified with tlie rank of counts or com- 
 panions, a title of honour, or rather of favour, 
 which had been recently invented in the court of 
 Constantine. A gold belt was the ensign which 
 distinguislicd the office of tlie c(nint8 and dukca." 
 — E. Gibbon, Di'dine and Full of the Jiirmiin Em- 
 pire, eh. 17. — "The Duke and tlie Count of 
 modem Europe — wliat are they but the Generals 
 and f 'ompanions (Duces and Comitcs) of a Roman 
 province? Why or wlien they dianged places, 
 the Duke climbing up into such uiKjuestioned 
 
 F re-eminence over his former superior tlic Count, 
 know not, nor yet by what procosn it was dis- 
 covered that the latter was the precise equiva- 
 lent of the Scandinavian Jarl."— T. Hotlgkin, 
 Italy ti 11(1 Her InViidern, bk. t, eh. iJ. 
 
 COUNT OF THE DOMESTICS.— In the 
 organization of the Imperial Household, during 
 the later period of the Roman empire, the 
 olliccrs called Counts of the Domestics "com- 
 manded tlie various divisions of the household 
 troops, known liy the names of Domestic! and 
 Protectores, and thus together replaced tlie 
 Pnetorian Prefect of the earlier days of the 
 Empire. . . . Theoretically, their duties would 
 not greatly differ from those of a Colonel in the 
 Guards." — T. llodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, 
 bk. I, eh. 3. 
 
 COUNT OF THE SACRED LARGES- 
 SES. — In the later Roman empire, "the Count 
 who had charge of the Sacred (i. e. Imperial) 
 Bounty, should have been by his title simply 
 the Grand Almoner of the Empire. ... In 
 practice, however, the minister who took charge 
 of the Imperial Largesses had to find ways and 
 means for every other form of Imperial expendi- 
 ture. . . . The Count of the Sacred Largesses 
 was therefore in fact the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer of the Empire." — T. Hodgkin, Italy 
 and Her Inradem, bk. l,ch. 3. 
 
 COUNT OF THE SAXON SHORE. See 
 Saxon Suohe. 
 
 COUNT PALATINE. See Palatine, 
 Counts. 
 
 COUNTER-REFORMATION, The. See 
 Papacy: A. D. 1534-1540; 1.537-1563; 1555-1603. 
 
 COUNTR¥-PARTY, The. See England: 
 A. D. 1672-1673^ 
 
 COUP D' ETAT OF LOl 3 NAPO- 
 LEON, The. See France: A. D. 1851; and 
 1851-1852. 
 
 COUREURS DE BOIS.-'Out of the 
 beaver trade [in the 17th century] rose a huge 
 evil, baneful to the growth and the morals of 
 Canada. All that was most active and vigorous 
 in the colony took to the woods, and escaped 
 from tbe control of intendants, councils and 
 priests, to the savage freedom of the wilderness. 
 
 Net only were the possible profits great, but, in 
 the pursuit of tliem, there was a fascinating 
 element of adventure and danger. The busn 
 rangers, or courcurs de bois, were to the king an 
 object of horror. They defeated his plans for 
 tlie increase of the poiiulation, and shocked his 
 native instinct of discipline and order. Edict 
 after edict was directed against them; and moru 
 tlian once the colony presented the extraordinary 
 spectacle of the greater part of its young men 
 turned into forest outlaws. . . . We hear of 
 seigniories abandoned ; farms turning again into 
 forests; wives and children left in destitution. 
 The exodus of the courcurs de bois would take 
 at times the character of an organized move- 
 ment. The famous Du Lliut is said to have 
 made a general combination of tlic young men 
 of Canada to follow him into the woods. Their 
 plan was to be absent four years, in order that 
 the edicts against tliem might have time to 
 relent. The intendant Duchesneau reported that 
 800 men out of a ])opulation of less than 10,000 
 souls had vanished from sight in the immensity 
 of a boundless wilderness. Whereupon the king 
 ordered that any person going into the woods 
 without a license should be whipped and branded 
 for the first offence, and sent for life to tlie gal- 
 leys for the second. . . . Under such leaders as 
 DuLhut, the coureurs de bois built forts of 
 palisades at various points throughout the West 
 and Northwest. They had a post of this sort 
 at Detroit some time before its pennanent settle- 
 ment, as well as otliers on Lake Superior and in 
 the Valley of the Mississippi. They occupied 
 them as long as it suited their purposes, and 
 tlien abandoned tliein to the next comer. Mich- 
 illimackinac was, however, their chief i.sort. ' 
 — F. Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada, 
 eh. 17. 
 
 COURLAND, Christian conquest of. See 
 Livonia: 12Tn-13Tn Centuuies. 
 
 COURT BARON. See Manokb. 
 
 COURT CUSTOMARY. See Manors. 
 
 COURT-LEHT. See Manors, and Sac and 
 See. 
 
 COURT OF CHANCERY. SccChancel- 
 
 LOIl. 
 
 COURT OF COMMON PLEAS. See 
 
 Curia Regis. 
 
 COURT OF HIGH COMMISSION. See 
 England: A. D. 1.5.59; and A. D. 1686. 
 
 COURT OF KING'S BENCH. See Curia 
 Regis. 
 
 COURT, SUPREME, of the United States. 
 See Supreme Cot:HT. 
 
 COURTRAI: A. D. 1382.— Pillaged and 
 burned by the French. See Flanders: A. D. 
 1382. 
 
 A. D. 1646. — Siege and capture by the 
 French. See Netherlands: A. D. 1045-1646. 
 
 A. D. 1648. — Taken by the Spaniards. See 
 Netherlands (Spanish Provinces): A. D. 
 1647-1648. 
 
 A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. See 
 Netherlands (The Sp.ujish Provinces) : A. D. 
 1667. 
 
 A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. See Nether- 
 lands (Holland) : A. D. 1668. 
 
 A. D. 1670.— Restored to Spain. See Nime- 
 GUEN, The Peace of. 
 
 COURTRAI, The Battle of.— The battle of 
 Courtrai (July 11, A. D. 1302), in which the 
 
 622 
 
COURXnAI. 
 
 CREMONA. 
 
 barons and kniglits of France wpri' fearfully 
 Blaiiglitcrcd by the sturdy biirgliers of Flanders, 
 was sometimes called the Day of the Spurs, on 
 account of the great number of gilt spurs wliieh 
 was titken from the bodies of the dead and hung 
 up by the victors in Courtrai cathedral. — G. W. 
 Kitchen, IIM. of Fra'.e. hk. 3, eh. 10, tect. 2.— 
 Bee Fi,.VNUKUs: A. I). 12U0-1304. 
 
 COURTS OF LOVE. See Piiovence : A.D. 
 llT(»-t207. 
 
 COUTHON. 2r.<i the French Revolutionary 
 Committee o. Public Safety. See Fuance: 
 A. I). 1703 (.luiTE— OcToiiEii), to 1704 (.July). 
 
 COUTRAS, Battle of (1587). See Fkance: 
 A. I). 1584-1. WO. 
 
 COVADONGA, Cave of. See Spain: A. D. 
 71it-T37. 
 
 COVENANT, The Halfway. See Boston: 
 A. D. 1057-1OOO. 
 
 COVENANT, "'he Solemn League and. 
 See En<i[,and: •' J. 1043 (July— Septembeii). 
 
 COVENANT its.— The name given to the 
 signers and supporters of the Scottish National 
 Covenant (see SrjTLAUD: A. D. 1357, 1581 and 
 1638) and after^-.ards to all who adhered to the 
 Kirk of GcoUand. The war of Jlontrose witli the 
 Covenanters will be found narrated under Scot- 
 land: A. D. 1644-1645. For the story of the per- 
 secution which they suffered under the restored 
 Stuarts, see Scotland: A. D. 1680-1666; 1660- 
 1679; 1670; and 1681-1089. 
 
 COVENANTS, The Scottish. See Scot- 
 land: A. I). 1557-1581; and 1638. 
 
 COWBOYS.— During the War of the Ameri- 
 can lie volution, "there was a venal and bloody 
 get which hung on the skirts of the British array, 
 well known as Cow-boys. They were plunderers 
 and ruffians by profession, and canic to have 
 their name from their cattle-stealing. Some of 
 the most cruel and disgraceful murders and bar- 
 barities of the war were perpetrated by them. 
 Whenever they were caught they were hung up 
 at once." — C. W. Elliott, The New Eiig. Ilist., v. 
 2, p. 372. — See, also. United States op A.m.: 
 A. D. 1780 (August — September). 
 
 COWPENS, Battle of the (1781). See 
 United States of Am. : A. D. 1780-1781. 
 
 CRACOW : A. D. 1702.— Taken ty Charles 
 Xn. of Sweden. See Scandi.n'avian States 
 (Sweden): A. D. 1701-1707. 
 
 A. D. 1793-1794. — Occupied by the Russians. 
 — Rising of the citizens. — Surrender and ces- 
 sion to Austria. See Poland: A. D. 1703- 
 1796. 
 
 A. D. 1815. — Creation of the Republic. See 
 Vienna, The Congress of. 
 
 A. D. 1831-1846. — Occupation by the Aus- 
 trians, Russians and Prussians. — Extinction 
 of the Republic. — Annexation to Austria. Sec 
 Austria: A. D. 1815-1846. 
 
 CRADLE OF LIBERTY. See Fankuil 
 Halt,. 
 
 CRAFT-GUILDS. See Guilds, Mkdleval. 
 
 CRAGIE TRACT, The. See New York: 
 A. D. 1786-1799. 
 
 CRAL.— KRALE.— "The princes of Servia 
 (Ducange, Famil, Dalmaticas, &,c., c. 2-4, 0) 
 were styled ' despots ' in Greek, and Cral in their 
 native idiom (Ducange, Gloss. Gra;c., p. 751). 
 That title, the equivalent of king, appears to be 
 of Sclavonic origin, from whence it has been 
 borrowed by the Hungarians, the modern Greeks, 
 
 and even by the Turks (Leunelavius. Pandect. 
 Tare, p. 422), wlio reserve the name of Padishah 
 for the Emperor." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall 
 of the Jliiiniin Empire, ch. 03, note. — See, also, 
 Balkan and Danuuian States: A. D. 1341- 
 13.56 (Skuvi.\). 
 
 CRANNOGES. See Lake Dwellings. 
 
 CRANNON (KRANNON), Battle of (B. C. 
 322). Sec (Jukeck: It. C. 323-322. 
 
 CRAONNE, Battle of. See France: A. D. 
 
 1814 (.lANrAUY— MAItlll). 
 
 CRASSUS AND THE FIRST TRIUM- 
 VIRATE. See Home; B. C. 78-6H, to 57-52. 
 CRATER, Battle of the Petersburg. See 
 
 Unitkh States ok Am.: \. J). 1864 (.July: 
 
 VlK(lLMA). 
 
 CRATERUS, AND THE WARS OF 
 THE DIADOCHI. See Mackdoma: B. C. 
 323-31(1. 
 
 CRANGALI IDiE, The. See Hiehoduli. 
 
 CRAYFORD, Battle of (A. D. 457).— The 
 second battle fought between the Britons and the 
 invading Jutes, under Hengest, for the possession 
 of soutlieastern Britain. See England: A. D. 
 440-473. 
 
 CRECY, Battle of (1346). See F. ance: 
 A. D. 1337-1360. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER SCANDAL. — On 
 the meeting of the Congress of tlie United States 
 in December, 1872, attention was called by the 
 Speaker to charges made in the preceding can- 
 vass "that the Vice-President, the Vice-Presi- 
 dent elect, the Secretary of the Treasury, several 
 Senators, the Speaker of the House, and a large 
 number of Representatives had been bribed, 
 durinjj the years 1807 and 1868, by presents of 
 stock in a corporation known as the Cre<lit Mobi- 
 lier [organized to contract for building the Union 
 Pacitic Railroad] to vote and act for the benefit 
 of the Union Pacific Railroad Company. On his 
 motion, an investigating committee was ap- 
 pointed, L. P. Poland, of Vermont, being chair- 
 man. The Poland Committee reported February 
 18th, 1873, recommending the expulsion of Oakes 
 Ames, of Massachusetts, for ' selling to members 
 of Congress shares of the stock of the Credit 
 Jlobilier below their real value, with intent 
 thereby to influence the votes of such members,' 
 and of James Brooks, of New York, for receiving 
 such stock. The House modified the proposed 
 expulsion into an ' absolute condemnation ' of 
 the conduct of both members." — A. Johnston, 
 Hist, of Am. Polities, pp. 219-220.— /&;>(. of Select 
 Com. (42rf Cong. , 'M seas. , JI. R. rept. no. 77). 
 
 Also in : J. B. Crawford, Th« Credit Mobilier 
 of Am. 
 
 CREEKS,— Creek Wars. See American 
 Aborigines: Mcskiiooean Family ; also United 
 States op Am. : A. D. 1813-1814 (August — 
 April), and Florida: A. D. 1816-1818. 
 
 CREES, The. See American Aborigines: 
 ALGONquiAN Family. 
 
 CREFELD, Battle of. See Germany: 
 A. D. 17.58. 
 
 CREMA, Siege of (1159-1160). See Italy: 
 A. D. 1154-1162. 
 
 CREMONA: The Roman Colony.— Siege 
 by the Gauls. See Rome; B. C. 295-101. 
 
 A. D. 69.— Destruction by the Flavians. See 
 Rome: A. D. 69. 
 
 A. D. 1702.— Defeat of the French. See 
 Italy (Savoy and Piedmont): A. D. 1701- 
 1718. ... 
 
 623 
 
CREOLE. 
 
 CRETE. 
 
 CREOLE.—" In Europe it Is very common to 
 attach to the trrni (.'rcole the Idea of ft particiilnr 
 coiiiplexion. ThiHisu niiHtakc. The designation 
 (/'reole [in HpaniHli Aniericiin rr/^ions] [jroperly 
 l)c'lon)(s to all the natives of Aniericu horn of 
 parents who have emigniteil from the Old World, 
 DC tlio.se parents Europeans or Africans. There 
 are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles. 
 . . . The term Cn'olc is a corruption of the 
 Spanisli word 'criollo,' which is aerived from 
 'criar,' to create or to foster. The Spaniards 
 apply the term 'criollo' not merely to the human 
 race, but also to animals propagated in the colo- 
 nies, but of pure European blood : thus they have 
 Creole horses, bullocks, poultry, &c. " — J. J. 
 VonTschudi, Tnmlnin Peru, eh. ft, and fool-note. 
 — "The term Creole is commonly applied in 
 books to the native of a Spanish colony descended 
 fn)m European ancestors, while often tlie popidar 
 acceptation conveys the idea of an origin partly 
 African. In fact, its meaning varies in different 
 times and regions, and in Louisiana alone lias, 
 and lias liad, its broad and its close, its earlier 
 and its latiT, significance. For instJince, it did 
 not here llrst belong to the descendants of 
 Spanish, bat of French settlers. But such a 
 meaning implied a certain excellence of origin, 
 and so came early to include any native of 
 Frencli or Spanish descent by either parent, 
 whose pure non-mixture with the slave race 
 entitled liim to social rank. Much later the 
 term was adopted by, not conceded to, tlie 
 natives of European- African, or Creole-African 
 blood, and is still so used among themselves. At 
 length the spirit of commerce availed it.self of 
 the money value of so honored a title, and 
 broadenecf it? meaning to take in any creature or 
 thing of variety or mamifacture peculiar to 
 Louisiana, that might iiecome an object of sale, 
 as Creole ponies, chickens, cows, shoes, eggs, 
 wagons, baskets, cabbages, etc. . . . There are 
 no Englisli, Scotch, Irish, Western, or Yankee 
 Creoles, tliese all Iwing included under the dis- 
 tinctive term 'Americans.'. . . There seems to 
 bo no more serviceable definition of the Creoles 
 of Louisiana or of New Orleans than to say tliey 
 ars ihe French-speaking, native, ruling class." 
 — G. E. Waring, Jr., and G. W Cable, Jlist. and 
 Present Condition of New Orleans (Tenth Census 
 of the r. X, r. 19, p. 218). 
 
 CREONES, The. See Britain, Celtic 
 Tkibks. 
 
 CRESCENT, The Order of the.— A Turk- 
 ish Order instituted in 1709 by the reforming 
 sulUtn, Sclim III. Lonl Nelson, after the vic- 
 tory of Aboukir, was the first to receive this 
 decoration. 
 
 CRESPY IN VALOIS, Treaty of (1544). 
 See Fhance; A. 1). mi'i-\m. 
 
 CRETAN LABYRINTH. See Labyrinths. 
 
 CRETE.— "The institutions of the Cretan 
 state show in many points so great a simila.^ty 
 to those of Sparta, that it is not surprising if it 
 seemed to the ancients as though either Crete 
 were a copy of Sparta, or Sparta of Crete. 
 Meanwhile this similarity may be explained, 
 apart from intentional imitation, by the commu- 
 nity of nationality, which, under like conditions, 
 must produce like institutions. For in Crete, as 
 in Laconia, Dorians were the ruling people, who 
 bad subdued the old inhabitants of the island 
 and placed them in a position of subordination. 
 ... It is, however, beyond doubt that settle- 
 
 ments were made In Crete by the Phoenicians, 
 and that a large portion of the Island was sub- 
 ject to them. In the historical period, it is true, 
 we no longer lind tliem here; wo find, on tho 
 contrary, only a number of Greek states, all 
 moreover Dorian. Each of these consisted of a 
 city with its surrounding district. In whieli no 
 doubt al.so smaller cities In their turn were found 
 standing In a relaticm of subordination to tho 
 principal city. For that each city of the ' ninety- 
 citied'or 'hundred-citied' isle, as Homer calls It, 
 formed also an independent state, will probably 
 not be supposed. As independent states our 
 autlioritles give us reason to recognize about 
 seventeen. The most important of these were in 
 earlier times Cnossus, Qortyn ht Oydonia." — 
 G. SchOmann, Antiq. ofOreeee: Tiu Stale, pt. 8, 
 f/i. 3. — See Asia Minor: The Gueii:k Colonies. 
 
 B. C. 68-66.— The Roman Conquest. —The 
 Romans came Into collision with the Cretans 
 during their conflict with the Cillcian pirates. 
 The Cretans, degenerate and half piratical them- 
 selves, had formed an alliance with the profes- 
 sional buccaneers, and defeoted, oft Cydonia, a 
 liomiin fleet that had been sent against the latter, 
 B. C. 71. They soon repented of the provoca- 
 tion they had ollered and sent envoys to Rome to 
 buy peace by heavy bribes; but neither the 
 penitence nor the bribes prevailed. Three years 
 passed, however, before the proconsul, Qulntus 
 Jletellus, appeared In Crete (B. C. 08) to exact 
 satisfaction, and two years more were spent in 
 overcoming the stubborn resistance of the island- 
 ers. Tlie taking of Cydonia cost Metellus a 
 bloo<ly battle and a prolonged siege. Cnossus 
 and other towns held out with equal courage. 
 In the end, however, Crete was added to tho 
 conquered dominions of Rome. At the last of 
 the struggle there occurred a conflict of jurisdic- 
 tion between Metellus and Pompey, and their 
 respective forces fought witli one another on tho 
 Cretan soil. — T. Mommsen, Hist, of Home, bk. 5, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 A. D. 823.— Conquest by the Saracens. — 
 "The reign of Al Ilakem, the Ommiade Caliph 
 of Spain, was disturbed by continual troubles; 
 and some theological disputes having created a 
 violent insurrection in the suburb.^ 'if Cordova, 
 about 15,000 Spanish Arabs were • ompcllod to 
 emigrate in the year 815. The greater part of 
 these desperadoes established themselves at 
 Alexandria, where they soon took an active part 
 in the civil wars of Egypt. The rebellion of 
 Thomas [an olHcer who disputed the Byzantine 
 throne with Michael II.], and the absence of tho 
 naval forces of the Byzantine Empire from the 
 Archipelago, left the island of Crete unpro- 
 tected. The Andalusian Arabs or Alexandria 
 availed themselves of this circumstance to 
 invade the island, and estobllsh a settlement on 
 It, in the year 823. Michael was unable to take 
 any measures for expelling the invaders, and an 
 event soon happened in Egypt which added 
 
 freatly to the strength of this Saracen colony, 
 he victories of the lieutenants of tho Caliph 
 Almomum compelled the remainder of the 
 Andalusian Arabs to quit Alexandria; so that 
 Abou Ilafs, called by the Greeks Apochaps, 
 joined his countrymen in Crete with forty ships, 
 determined to make the new settlement their 
 permanent home. It is said by tho Byzantine 
 writers that they commenced their conquest of 
 the island by destroying their fleet, and con- 
 
 624 
 
CRETE. 
 
 CROWN OF INDIA. 
 
 itructing a Btrone fortified cnmp, suirmindofl by 
 an immi'nsn ditcli, from which it received tlie 
 name of Cliandult, now corrupted by tlie western 
 nations into Candiii. . . . Tlio Samcens retninerl 
 posaession of Crete for 135 years. " — O. PIrdny, 
 IlUt. of the nyzantine Empire, from 716 to lO.'iT, 
 bk. 1, eh. 3. — During tlio stay of tliese piratieal 
 Andaliisian Aralis at Alexandria, "they cut 
 in pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the 
 churches and mosiiiies, sold above 0,000 Christian 
 captives, and maintained their station in the cap- 
 ital of Egypt till they were oppressed by the 
 forces ana piosence of Almamon himself." — E. 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the lioimin Empire, 
 ch. 53. 
 
 Also in: S. A. Dunham, Hist. ?/ Spain and 
 Portii//nl, hi: 3, ch. 1. 
 
 A. D. 061-063. — Recovery from the Sara- 
 cens, — "In the subordinate station of great 
 domestic, or general of the East, he [Nicephorus 
 Phocas, afterwards emperor, on the Uyzantine 
 throne], reduced the island of Crete, and extir- 
 pated the nest of pirates who had so long dciicd, 
 with impunity, the majesty of the Empire. . . . 
 Seven months were consumed in the siege of 
 Candia; tlie despair of tlie native Cretans was 
 stimulated by the frequent aid of their brethren 
 of Africa and Spain ; and, after the massy wall 
 and double ditch had been stormed by the 
 Greeks, a hopeless conflict was still maintained 
 in the streets and houses of the city. The whole 
 island was subdued in the capital, and a sub- 
 missive people accepted, without resistance, the 
 baptism of the conqueror." — E. Gibbon, JJecline 
 and Fall of the Itomaii Empire, ch. 53. 
 
 A. D. 1204-1205. — Acqu'-ed by the Vene- 
 tians. See Byzantine EMriuE : A. D. 1204-1205. 
 
 A. D. 1645-1669.— The long siege of Can- 
 dia. — Surrender to the Turks. See Turks: 
 A. D. 1645-1689. 
 
 A. D. ^715.— Complete Expulsion of the 
 Venetians by the Turks. See Turks: A. D. 
 1714-171«. 
 
 A. D. 1866-1868.— Unsuccessful revolt.— 
 Struggle for independence. — Turkish conces- 
 sion of the Organic Regulation. Sec Greece: 
 
 A. D. 1862-1881. 
 
 » 
 
 CRETE, Party of the.— Cretois. See 
 France: A. D. 1795 (April). 
 
 CRIMEA, OR CRIM TARTARY : Early 
 history. See Taurica; also Bosporus, City 
 AND Kingdom. 
 
 7th Century. — Conquest and occupation by 
 the Khazars. Sec Khazars. . 
 
 I2th-I3th Centuries. — Genoese commercial 
 colonies. See Genoa: A. D. 1261-1299. 
 
 I3th-I4th Centuries. — The khanate to Krim. 
 See MoNOOLs: A. D. 1288-1391. 
 
 A. D. 1475. — Conquest by the Otloman 
 Turks. See Turks (The Ottomans): A. D. 
 1451-1481. 
 
 A. D. 1571.— Expedition of the Khan to 
 Moscow. — The city stormed and sacked. See 
 Russia: A. D. 1569-1571. 
 
 A, D. 1735-1738. — Russian invasions and 
 fruitless conquests. See Russia: A. D. 1725- 
 1739. 
 
 A. D. 1774. — The khanate declared inde- 
 pendent of the Porte. See Turks: A. D. 1768- 
 1774. 
 
 A. D. i;f76-i784. — "^he process of acouisition 
 by Russia.— Final ;cognition of Russian 
 
 sovereignty by the Sultan. See Turks: A. D. 
 1776-1702. 
 
 A. D. 1853-1855.— War of Russia with Tur- 
 key and her allies.— Siege of Sebastopol. Bee 
 
 Uussia: a. D. 1853-18.54, to IH,')4-18.56. 
 
 CRISIS OF 1837, The. See United Statm 
 ov Am.: a. 1). 1835-1837. 
 
 CRISIS OF 185/. See Tariff Legislation 
 (Unitki) Htatks): A. D. 1846-1H61. 
 
 CRISSA.— Crissasan or Sacred War. Sea 
 Dklpiii. 
 
 CRITTENDEN COMPROMISE, The. 
 See United States OF Am. : A. D. 1800 (Deck.\i- 
 
 BBR). 
 
 CROATANS, The. See America: A. D. 
 1587-1590. 
 
 CROATIA : 7th Century.— Sclavonic oc- 
 cupation and settlement. See Balkan and 
 Danurian States, 7tii Century (Servia, 
 Cro.vtia, Bosnia, etc.) 
 
 A. D. 1 102.— Subjection and annexation to 
 Hungary, SeeHuNOARY: A. D. 972-1114. 
 
 A. D. 1576.— Transferred to the Duke of 
 Styria. — Military colonization. See IIunoart : 
 A. D. 1567-1004. 
 
 CROI A, Turkish massacre at. See Greece: 
 A. 1). 1454-1479. 
 
 CROMLECHS. — Rude stone monuments 
 found in many parts o' the British Islands, 
 France, and clsewhero usually formed by three 
 or more huge, rou,";ii, upright stones, with a 
 still larger stone lying natly upon them. In 
 Prance these are called Dolmens. They were 
 formerly thought to be " Druids altars," to which 
 ruition they owe the name Cromlechs ; but it is 
 now very generally concluded by arcbaiologists 
 that they were constructed for burial chambers, 
 and that originally, in most cases, thev were 
 covered with mounds of earth, forming the well 
 known barrows, or grave mounds, or tumuli. — 
 L. Jewett, Orate Mounds. 
 
 Also in : T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and 
 the Saxon. — Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, 
 ch. 5. — See, also, Amorites. 
 
 CROMPTON'S MULE, The invention of. 
 See Cotton Manufactures. 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver.— Campaigns and 
 Protectorate. See England: A. 1). lOii to 
 16.5S-1660; and Ireland: A. D. 1649-1650. 
 
 CROMWELL, Thomas, and the suppres- 
 sion of the Monasteries. See England: A. D. 
 1535-1539. 
 
 CROMWr^LLIAN SETTLEMENT OF 
 IRELAND, '-'ee Ireland: A. D. 1053. 
 
 CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES. See Eng- 
 land: A. D. 1643 (M.\y). 
 
 CROSS, The "True."— Its capture by the 
 Persians and recovery by Heraclius. See 
 Uo.mb: a. D. 565-028; and Jerusalem: A. D. 
 615. 
 
 CROSS KEYS, Battle of. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1802 (May — June: Vir- 
 ginia). 
 
 CROTON.— KROTON. See Sybaris. 
 
 CROTONA, Battle of (A. D. 983). See 
 Italy (Southern): A. D. 800-1010. 
 
 CROWN, The iron. See Lombardt, Tms 
 Iron Crown op. 
 
 CROWN OF INDIA, The Order of the.— 
 An order, for women, instituted by Queen Vic- 
 toria in 1878. 
 
 625 
 
CROWN POINT. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1094. 
 
 CROWN POINT.: A. D. 1727.— Fort built 
 by the French. ^Sl■l• Canada (Nkw Fhance); 
 A. 1>. ITOO-lilir). 
 
 A. D. 1755.— EiiKliih Expedition against. 
 Sec Canada (New Fiianck): A. 1). 1755 (Hei'- 
 
 TEMDkll). 
 
 A. D. 1759. — Abandoned to the English by 
 the French. 8<'C'C!anai)A(Nk\v FiiA.NtK); A. 1). 
 1750(.Iiii,v— Atoi;»T). 
 
 A. D. 1775. — Surprise and capture by the 
 Americans. S'ic U.mted ,St.\tk» of Am. : A. D. 
 
 1775 (May). 
 
 « 
 
 CROWS, OR UPSAROKAS, The. See 
 A.MF,uirAN AnoKiiiiNEs: MioiiAN Family. 
 CRUITHNIGH.-CRUITHNIANS.— The 
 
 Iri.'th imme of the I'iots iiu(l Seots of ancient Ire- 
 land hikI .Scolhiiid. Bee Scotla.ni): The Puts 
 
 AND Hl'OTS. 
 
 CRUSADES : Causes and introductory 
 events. — " Like all the great movements of man- 
 kind, the Crusades must be traced to the coinci- 
 dence of many causes which inlluenced men of 
 various nations and discordant feelings, at the 
 same period of time, to pursue one common end 
 with their whole heart. lU'ligious zeal, tlie 
 fashion of pilgrimages, the spirit of social de- 
 velopment, the energies that lend to colonisation 
 or con(|uest, and commercial relations, only lately 
 extended so widely nstoinlluencu public opinion, 
 all suddenly received a deep wound. Every 
 class of society felt injured and insulted, and 
 unity of action was created as if bv a divine im- 
 pulse. The movement was facilitated bv the 
 circumstance that Europe began to adopt habits 
 of order just at the time when Asia was thrown 
 into a state of anarchy by the invasions of the 
 Seljouk Turks. Groat numbers of pilgrims had 
 always pas.;"d through the Byzantine empire to 
 visit "the holy places in Palestine. We still pos- 
 sess an itinerary of the road from Bordeau.v to 
 Jerusalem, by tlie way of Constantinople, written 
 in the fourth century for the use of pilgrins 
 Though the disturlieil and impoverished st^ite of 
 Europe, after the fall of the Western Empire, 
 diminislied the number of pilgrims, still, even in 
 times of the greatest anarchy, many passed an- 
 nually through the Eastern Empire to Palestine. 
 The improvement which dawned on the western 
 nations during the eleventh century, and the 
 augmented commerce of the Italians, gave addi- 
 tional importance to the pilgrimage to the East. 
 About the year 10C4, during the reign of Con- 
 stantino X. , an army or caravan of seven thou- 
 sand pilgrims passed tlirougli Constantinople, led 
 by the Archbishop of Mentz and four bisliops. 
 They made their way through Asia Minor, wliich 
 was then under the Byzantme government; but 
 in the neiglibourhood of Jerusalem they v/ere at- 
 tacked .by the Bedouins, and only save:! from 
 destruction by the Saracen emir of liti jila, wlio 
 liastened to their assistance. These pilgrims arc 
 reported to liave lost 3,000 of their number, 
 witliout being able to visit cither the Jordan or 
 the Dead Sea. The invasions of the Seljouks 
 [see TuiiKS (Tiie Seljuks): A. D. 1073-1092] 
 mereuscd the disorders in Palestine. ... In the 
 year 1076 the Seljouk Turks took possession of 
 Jerusalem, and immediately commenced harass- 
 ing the pilgrims with unheard-of exactions. The 
 Saracens had in general viewed the pilgrims with 
 favour, as men engaged in fulflUing a pious 
 duty, or pursuing lawful gain with praiseworthy 
 
 industry, and thev had levied only a ronsonnbl© 
 toll on till! pilgrims, and a nioderate duty on 
 their merchandise . while in consideration of 
 these imposts, thev had established guarils to 
 ])rotect them on the roads by which they ap- 
 proached the holy places. Tli<! Turks, on the 
 contrary, acting Tike mere nonmd.t, uncertain of 
 retaining possession of the city, thought only of 
 gratifying their avarice. They plundered the 
 rich pilgrims and insidted the poor. The relig- 
 ious feelings, of the Christians were irritated, 
 and their commerce ruined; a cry for vengeance 
 aro.se throughout all Europe, and men's minds 
 were fully prepared for an attempt to conquer 
 Palestine, when Peter the Hermit l)egan to 
 preach that it was a sacred <luty to deliver the 
 tomb of Christ from the hands of the InBdels. " 
 — O. Fiiday, Hint of the /li/zttntiiie iiiid Greek 
 Kmpiim, l/k. 3, rh. 2, met. 1. 
 
 A. D. 1094.— The Council of Clermont.— 
 Pope Urban 11., one of two rival pontifTs then 
 contending for iv ^ni.ion by the Cliurch, en- 
 tered with great eag^/ncss into the movement 
 stirred by Peter the Hermit, and gave it a 
 powerful impidse through his support, while 
 obtaiumg for himself, at the same time, a de- 
 cisive advantage over his coinoetitor, l)y the 
 popularity of the agitation. A great Council 
 was convened at Piacen/.ii, A. I). 1004, and a 
 second at Clermont, in the autumn of ilie same 
 year, to deliberate tipon the action to be taken. 
 The city of Clermont coidd not contain the vast 
 multitude of bishops, clergy and laity which 
 assembled, and an army of many thousands was 
 tented in the surrounding country. To that ex- 
 cited congregation, at a meeting in the great 
 B(iuarc of Clermont, Pope Urban addressed a 
 speech wliich is one of the notable utterances of 
 history. "lie began by detailing the miseries 
 endured by their brethren in the Holy Land; 
 how the jilains of Palestine were desolated by 
 the outrageous heathen, who with the sword 
 and the firebrand carried wailing into the dwel- 
 lings and liaines into the possessions of the 
 faithful: how Cliristian wives and daughters 
 were defiled by pagan lust ; how the altars of 
 the true God were desecrated, and the relics of 
 the saints trodden under foot. ' You,' continued 
 the elo(juent pontiff (and Urban II. was one of 
 the most eloquent men of the day), 'you, who 
 hear me, and who have received the true faith, 
 and been endowed by Go<l with i)ower, and 
 strength, and greatness of soul, — whose ances- 
 tors have been the prop of Christendom, and 
 whose kings have put a barrier against the prog- 
 ress of the infidel. — I call upon you to wipe off 
 these impurities from the face of the earth, and 
 lift your oppressed fellow-Christians from the 
 depths into which they have been trampled.' 
 . . . The warmth of the pontiff communicated 
 itself to the crowd, and the enthusiasm of the 
 people broke out several times ere ho concluded 
 his address. lie went on to portray, not only 
 the spiritual but the temporal advantages that 
 would accrue to those who took up arms in the 
 service of the cross. Palestine was, he said, a 
 land flowing with milk and honey, and precious 
 in the sight of God, as the scene of the grand 
 events which liad saved mankind. That land, 
 he promised, should be divided among them. 
 Moreover, they should have full pardon for all 
 their offences, either against God or man. ' Go, 
 then,' he added, ' in expiation of your sins; and 
 
 826 
 
CRU8ADKS. 1004. 
 
 Prter 
 the Hermit. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1000-1009. 
 
 go nmurcd, thiit nftcr thlH world nIiiiII linvc 
 
 iti the world whicli is to coiik'. ' The ciiljiu'siiism 
 WHS no longer to l)i> ri'stniiiicil, and loud slioiils 
 Interrupted the speaker; the Jieople e.xeluiniinjf 
 as if with one voiee. 'Dieii le veiiltl Dleu le 
 veulti'. . . Tlio news of tids couneil spread to 
 tlie remotest ])arts of Europe in an ineredil)ly 
 sliort space of time. Lonj; before tlie tleetesl 
 liorseman eould liave broufflit 'lie inlelligenee, it 
 was Ivuowu by tlie people in distant provinces; a 
 fact which was considered as notlunji; less than 
 supernatural. Hut the subject was in every- 
 body's mouth, and the mind.s of men were pre- 
 pared for the residt. The enthusiastic mendy 
 as.serted what they wished, and llio event tallied 
 with tlieir i)redic"tion." — (,'. Mackav, Miiiiain af 
 Eitmonlinani Popular Dclunintu : The Cnmuhs, 
 (p. 2). 
 
 Also in; II. II. Mihnan, Hint, of IjiiUi Chris- 
 tianitji. hk. 7, eh. 6. 
 
 A. D. lOpA-iOQS.— Peter the Hermit and his 
 appeal. — "About twenty years after the con- 
 quest of Jerusalem by the Turks, the holy sepul- 
 chre was visited by an hermit of the name of Peter, 
 n native of Amiens, in the province of Picardy 
 in Franco. His resentment and symjiathy were 
 ctcited by his own injuries, and tlie oppression 
 of tlie Christian name; lu' mingled his tears with 
 those of tlie patriiircli, and earnestly iii(|uire<l, if 
 no hopes of relief could be entertained from the 
 Greek emperors of the East. The patriarch ex- 
 posed the vices and weakness of the successors 
 of Constantinc. 'I will rou.tc,' exclaimed the 
 hermit, 'the martial nations of Europe in your 
 cause;' and Europe was obedient to tlie call of 
 the hermit. Tlie astonished itatriarcli dismissed 
 him with epistles of credit and complaint, and 
 no sooner did he land at Bari, than I'eter lias- 
 tened to kiss the feet of the Itonian ponlilT. His 
 stature was small, his appearance coiitemptilile; 
 but his eye was keen and lively, and he pos- 
 sessed that vehemence of siieech which seldom 
 fails to impart the persuasion of tlie soul. He 
 was born of a gentleman's family (for we must 
 now adopt a modem idiom), and his military 
 service was under the neighbourii.g counts of 
 Boulogne, the heroes of the first crusade. In- 
 vigorated by the approbation of the pontiff, this 
 zealous missionary traversed, with speed and 
 success, the provinces of Italy and France. His 
 diet was abstemious, his prayers long and fer- 
 vent, and the alms which he received with one 
 hand, he distributed with the other; his head 
 was bare, his feet naked, his meagre body was 
 wrapt in a coarse garment; he bore and dis- 
 played a weighty crucili.'c ; and tlio ass on which 
 he rode was sanctified in the public eye by tlie 
 service of the man of God. He preached to in- 
 numerable crowds in the chiirches, the streets, 
 and the highways. . . . When he painted the 
 sufferings of the natives and ])ilgrims of Pales- 
 tine, every heart was melted to compassion; 
 every breast glowed with indignation, when he 
 challenged the warriors of the ago to defend 
 their brethren and rescue their Saviour: his 
 ignorance of art and language was compensated 
 by figlis and tears, and ejaculations; and Peter 
 supplied the deficiency of reason by loud and 
 frequent appeals to Christ and his Mother, to 
 the saints and angels of paradise, with whom he 
 had personally conversed. Tlie most perfect 
 orator of Athens might have envied the success 
 
 of his cUxpicnce; the rustic rntliuslast inspired 
 the passions wliich he felt, and Christendom ex- 
 pected with impatience the counsels and decrees 
 of the Kupreiiie pontiff." — K. Gibbon, Dirline and 
 Full of the Itoman Kiii/iire, ch. 58. 
 
 Al,Hf) IN; .1. C. Uoberlson, llUt. oftht Chrittiari 
 Church. U: (I, ch. 4 (r. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1096-1099.— The First Great Move- 
 ment. — Tlic lirsl army if Crusaders to s<a out 
 on the long luar.li to .lerusalem was a mob of 
 men, women and children wiiicli had not 
 patience to wait for the organized movement of 
 the military leaders. They gathered in vast 
 numliers on Hie banks of "the Jloselle and the 
 Meuse, in the spring of 1006, witli Peter the 
 Hermit for tlieir cliosc'ii chief. There were nine 
 knights, only, in the swarm, and but few who 
 had horses to ride, or elllcieiit arms to bear, or 
 provisions to Iced upon. Knowing nothing, 
 and therefore fearing notliiiig, tliey niarcheil 
 away, through France, Germany, Hungary and 
 beyond begging food where they could and 
 sulisisi.iig by pillage when it needed. A knight 
 called Walter the Penniless led the van, and 
 Peter followed, witli his second division, by a 
 somewhat different route. Walter escaped seri- 
 ous trouliie until he reached the country of tlie 
 suvagc Ui Igarians. Peter's senseless mob pro- 
 vok ! ihe just wrath of the Hungarians by 
 storming the small city of Semlin and slaying 
 4,000 of its inhabitants. Tlie route of both was 
 lined with tlie bones of tliou.sa:.i<ls who perished 
 of hunger, of exposure, of disease, and by tlie 
 sworils of Hungarians and Bulgarians. A third 
 and a fourth ]iost of like kind followed in their 
 wake, led by a monk, Gol.schalk, a priest named 
 Volkmar, and a Count Eniicoii. Tliese ternir- 
 ized even more all tlie countries tliroiigh wliich 
 they liassed, — especially where Jews were to 
 be hunted and killed, — and were destroyed in 
 Hungary to almost tliC last man. Peter and 
 Walter reached Constantinople with 100,000 fol- 
 lowers, it is said, even yet, after all who had 
 fallen by the way. Still refusing to wait for 
 the better appointed expeditions that were iu 
 progress, and still appalling ea.stern Christen- 
 dom liy tlieir lawless barbarities, they passed 
 into Asia Jlinor, and their miserable career soon 
 came to an end. Attacking tlic Turks in the 
 city of Nicaia, — which had become the capital 
 of the Seljouk sultan of Itoum, — they were 
 beaten, routed, scattered, slaughtered, until 
 barely 8,000 of the great host escaped. "Of 
 the first Crusaders, " says Oiblion, "300,000 had 
 already perished before a single city was rescued 
 from the infidels, — before their graver and more 
 noble bretliren had completed the preparations 
 of their enterprise." Meantime tlie knights and 
 princes of the crusade had gathered their armies 
 i.ud were now (in the summer of 1006) beginning 
 to move eastward, by different routes. Kot one 
 of t.ic greater sovereigns of Europe had enlisted 
 ?'! the undertaking. The chiefs of one arnia- 
 nient were Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of the 
 Lower Lorraine, or Brabant; liis brothers, 
 Eustace, couLt of Boulogne, and Baldwin; his 
 cousin, Baldwin de Bourg, with Baldwin, count 
 of Ilainaut, Dudon de Contz, and other knights 
 celebrated in tlio "Jerusalem Delivered' of 
 Tiisso. This expedition followed nearly the 
 route of Peter the Hermit, through Hungarj' 
 and Bulgaria, giving hostages for its orderly 
 conduct and winning the good-will of those coun- 
 
 627 
 
CRU8ADE8, 1000-lOW. 
 
 Jrrutalem 
 IHlivtrtd. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1101-1108. 
 
 tries, even n.vlili-ncd iw tlicy were liy the fori'- 
 ffiiiiif( nioliN. Aniitlicr larKcr follriwIiiK fri>iii 
 FraiK'(> wiiH It'll by lliiuli, coiiiit of V'cniiiiiuloiH, 
 lirDtlur <>r the kliij{ <>f T'nincc; HoIhtI, duki- of 
 Niirnmiidy, cldcul wm of Williiun llic CoiKHicror; 
 tttfplicn. (ouiit of HIoIh, till- ('oni|iit'r(ir'H Hon In- 
 liiw, iiiid Koliirl, count of KlandcrH. TIii'm.' took 
 the road into Italy, and to Marl, wheiici', after 
 hlirndiiiK the winter, wjdtinK for favorable 
 weather, tliey were tranH|«irted by Hblps to 
 Oreeee, and piirsueil tlieir inareli to Constanti 
 iiople. Tliey were followed by a contlnKent 
 from Moiitliern Italy, under Bolieniond, the Nor- 
 iiinii prince of Tarentuni, son of Itobert OiiiHcard, 
 and uIh knightly coiiHin, Tancre<l. A f.iurth 
 army, gathered In Hoiithern France uy count 
 Kuymond of 'rouloiiHc and HIhIioi) Adliemer, the 
 appointed le^jate and representative of the l>ope, 
 cho§e Htill another route, through Lombardy, 
 Dalmatia and Macedoniji, into Thrace. ()n 
 pnKttiiiK throiif(li the territorieH of the Hyzantinc 
 emperor (Alexius I.), all the crusaders experl- 
 tnccd liix distrust, his dtiplieity, and his cau- 
 tious ill will — which, tmder the circumstances 
 were initural enough. Alexius mana^'cd so well 
 that lie extorted from each of the princes an 
 acknowledfrment of his rlf;hts of sovcreij^nty 
 over the region of their expected coiupiests, with 
 un oath of fealty and honuiKe, and he pushed 
 them across \.\\v. Hosphorus so adroitly that no 
 two had the opportuidty to mute their forces 
 under tlu' walls of Constantinople. Their llrst 
 undertaking in Asia [May and June, A. I). 1U07] 
 was tlic sicf^e of Niciea, and they beleaguered it 
 with an army which (Jibbon believes to have 
 been never excee<led within the compass of a 
 single camp. Here, again, they were mastered 
 by the cunning diplomacy of the Greek emperor. 
 When the sultan of Uoum yielded his capital, 
 he was ])ersuttded to stirrcnder it to Alexius, and 
 the imperial banner protected it from the rage of 
 the discomdted tru.saders. Hut they revenged 
 themselves on the Turk at Dorylieum, where he 
 attacked them during tlieir subseciuent m irch, 
 and where he siifTercd a defeat which ended all 
 tigliting in Asia Minor. Raldwin, brother of 
 Godfrey, now improved Iiis opportunities by 
 stealing awny from the army, with a few liun- 
 <lred knights and men, to make coiuiuests on his 
 own account; with such success that he won the 
 city of Edessa, with a sweep of country around it, 
 and founded a principality which subsisted for 
 half a century. The rest fared on, meeting no 
 opposition from infldcl swonls, but sickening and 
 dying by thousands, from heat and from want 
 of water and food, until they came to Antioch. 
 There, the Turkish emir in command, with a 
 stout garrison of horse and foot, had prepared 
 for a stubborn defence, and he held the besiegers 
 at bay for seven months, while they sturved in 
 their ill-supplied camps. The city was deliv- 
 ered to them by a Ixtnor, at length, but prince 
 Bohemond, the c Ay Tsorman, secured the bene- 
 fit of the treason to himself, and forced his com- 
 patriots to concede to l.dm the sovereignty of 
 Antioch. The sufferings of the crusaders did 
 not end willi the taking of the city. They 
 brought famine and pestilence upon themselves 
 anew by their greedy and sensual indulgence, 
 and they were soon under siege in their own 
 turn, by a great army which the Turks had 
 brought against them. Death and desertion 
 were in rivalry to thin their wasted ranks. The 
 
 survivors were in gl(M)m and despair, when an 
 opportune miracle occurped to excite them 
 afresh. A lance, which visions an<l apparitions 
 certitled to be tlie very spear that pierced the 
 Kedeemer's side, was foimd buried in a church 
 at Antioch. Under the Htimuius of this amaz- 
 ing <li.scovery they sallied from the town and 
 dispersed the great army of the Turks in utter 
 rout. Htill the ipiarrels of tlie leaders went on, 
 and ten months more were consumed before the 
 remains of tlie Latin army advaiu'ed to .lerusa- 
 lem. It was June, A. I). lOOU, when they saw 
 the Holy City and a.ssalle(l its fornddable walls. 
 Their number wa.i now reduced to 40,000, but 
 tlieir devotion and their ardor rose tr '""nzy, and 
 after a siege of little more than a month they 
 forced an entnmce by storm. Then they spared 
 neither age nor sex until they had killed all who 
 ilenied tlie Savior of mankind — the I'rince of 
 I'eace. — E. Gibbon, DeeUn'-, and Fall of the 
 Human Kmpire, eh. 58. 
 
 Also in: J. F. Miclmud, Hint, of the Crusades, 
 hk. 1. — W. lk's<int and E. H. I'almer, Jeniiuikm, 
 rh. 0.— (!. Mills, llht. of the Vnimiku, eh. 3-0. 
 — See, also, jKUt'HAl.KM: A. I). lOOlt. 
 
 A. D. I09ahii44. — The Latin conquests in 
 the east. — The Kingdom of Jerusalem. See 
 Jkih:sai,km: a. D. 1(H)U-I14.1, 
 
 A. D. II0I-I102.— The after-wave of the 
 first movement. — "The tales of victory brought 
 home by the pilgrinu excited the most extrava- 
 gant expectations in the minds of their auditors, 
 and nothing was deemed ca])able of resisting 
 European valour. The pope called uiionall who 
 had taken the cross to perform their vow, the 
 emperor Henry IV. had the crusade preached, 
 in order to gain favour with the clergy and laitv. 
 Many iirinces now resolved to visit in person the 
 new empire founded In the East. Three great 
 armicj assembled: tlio first In Italy under the 
 archlishop of Milan, and the two counts of 
 Hlam rate; the second in France under Hugh the 
 Great "ind Stephen of IJlois [who had deserted 
 their CO nrades of the first expedition at Antioch, 
 and] wlu.T shame and remorse urged to perform 
 their vow, William, duke of Guienne and count 
 of Poitou, who mortgaged his territory to 
 AVilliam Rufus of England to procure funds, 
 the count of Nevers, the duke of Burgundy, the 
 bishops oi Laon and Soissons; the third in Ger- 
 many, under the bishop of Saltzburg, the aged 
 duke Welf of Bavaria, (,'onrad the master of the 
 horse to tlie emperor, and many other knights 
 and nobles. Ida also, the margravine of Austria, 
 declared her resolution to share tlie toils and 
 dangers of the way, and pay her vows at the 
 tomb of Christ. Vast numbers of women of all 
 ranks accompanied all these armies, — nay, in 
 that of the duke of Guicmie, who was inferior to 
 none in valour, but united to it the qualities of a 
 troubadour and glee-man, there appeared whole 
 troops of young women. The Italian pilgrims 
 were the first to arrive at Constantinople. Tliey 
 set out early in the spring, and took Iheir way 
 through Carinthia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. 
 Though the excesses committed by them were 
 great, the emperor gave them a kind reception, 
 and tlic most prudent and friendly advice re- 
 specting their future progress. AVliile they 
 abode at Constantinople, Conrad and the count 
 of Blois, and the duke of Burgundy, arrived, 
 and at Whitsuntide they, all passed over, and 
 encamped at Nicomedia. With ignorant fatu 
 
 628 
 
CRU8A.DE8, UOl-llO'J. 
 
 St. tirrnnrd'i 
 Pnachtny. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1 147-1 140. 
 
 Uy, nml ngniiixt nil cxiirricnccd lulviri-, llic new 
 t'rusiulcrs rcBolvcd to ilirrct llicir iniircli Id Hiik- 
 (liid iiikI to overthrow Hit! I'lillpliiilc. The first 
 iMMly which lulvmicccl wii« iiit lo pieces liy Hie 
 Turks on the liaiil<s of the Miilys, iiiid only ii few 
 thousiiiulg, out of more thtiii one hunilreil thou- 
 snnd, lire fiiil.l to hiive niiide their esciipe by des- 
 penile tlighl. The second and third iiniii's were 
 met successively hy the victorious .M<isleiiiH, 
 before they had iidviinced so far, and wen' even 
 mor(! completely i.nnilillated. The latter body 
 contained, according to the chroniclers of tlio 
 time, t.lO.OOO pilgriins, of whom scanelv one 
 thoustinil were saved from slavery or death. 
 The men fell under the swords of the Turks; the 
 women and girls, in great numbers, llnishetl out 
 their days in the liarems of the East. Out of 
 the wreck of the three vast nrmaments a Hieiider 
 column of 10,000 men was got together after 
 some weeks at Antio.h and led to Jerusalem 
 (A. I). 1102). Most of these pcrl.shed in subse- 
 quent battles, and very few ever saw Europe 
 ngnin. "Huchwasthe fruitless tormiiiution of 
 this second great movement of the West, in 
 which perhaps a tliird of a inilliou ot pilgrin.s 
 left their homes, never to revisit them. — T. 
 Keightley, T/ie CnimderK, eh. 3. 
 
 Ai.so IN: J. F. iMichaud, Hid. of the Cruamles, 
 bk. 4. 
 
 A. D. 1104-1111.— Conquest of maritimr 
 cities of Syria and Palestine.- "destruction of 
 the Library of Tripoli.— " Tlie pi Dcrity ami the 
 safety of Jerusalem ap|)eared dotuiy connected 
 with the conquest of the maritime cities of Syria 
 and Palestine; it beinj' by them alone that 
 It could receive succour, or establish prompt 
 and easy communications witli the West. The 
 maritime nathms of Europe were interested in 
 seconding, in this instance, the enterprises of the 
 king of Jerusalem. . . . From the period of the 
 tirst crusades, the Pisaus and the Genoese had 
 cor.iitantly sent vessels to the seas of the East ; 
 ■■.ad their fleets had aided the Christians in several 
 expeditions against the Mussuls ans. A Genoese 
 fleet had just arrived in the heot. of Syria wlien 
 Baldwin undertook the siege of PtolemaVs [Acre]. 
 The Genoese were Invited to assist in this con- 
 quest ; but as religion was not the principle to 
 bring tluiin into action, they required, in return 
 for their assistance and their labour, that they 
 should have a third of the booty; they likewise 
 stipulated to have a separate church for them- 
 selves, and a national factory and tribunal in the 
 conquered city. PtolemaVs was besieged by land 
 and sea, and af* jr a bloody resistance of twenty 
 days, the inhabitants and the garrison proposed 
 to surrender, and implored the clemency of the 
 concpierors. The city opened its gates to the 
 Christians, and the inhabitants prepared to de- 
 part, taking with them whatever they deemed 
 most valuable ; but the Genoese, at the sight of 
 such rich booty, paid no respect to the capitula- 
 tion, and massacred without pity a disarmed and 
 defenceless people. ... In consequence of this 
 victory, several ploces which the Egyptians still 
 held on the coasts of Syria fell into the hands of 
 the Christians. " Among those wos the city of 
 Tripoli. " Raymond, Count de St. Gilles and of 
 Thoulouse, one of the companions of Godfrey, 
 after having wandered for a long time about 
 Asia, had died before this place, of which he had 
 oomraenced the siege. In memory of his exploits 
 In the first crusade, 'lie rich territory of Tripoli 
 
 was created a county, and became the Inheritance 
 of ills family. Tlifs territory was celebrated for 
 its productions. . . . A library established in this 
 city, and celelimted through all the East, con 
 tained Ihe monuments of the ancient llleratiire of 
 the Persians, the Arabians, llie Kgyplians, and 
 Wiv Greeks. A hundred copyists were llieie con- 
 stantly employed in transcribing manuscripts. 
 . . . After the taking of the city, a priest at- 
 laclie<l to Count lleriiard de St. Gilles, entered 
 Ihe room in which were collected avast nuniberof 
 copies of Ihe Koran, and as liedeclar<'il tlci^ library 
 of Tripoli contained only the Impious liooks of 
 .Mahomet, it was given up to the tlames. . . . 
 llihiics, situated on the smiling and fertile shores 
 of Pli(M'iiicia, Sarepta, where St. Jerome saw still 
 in his day the tower of Isaiah; and llerytus, 
 famous in the early days of the chureli for its 
 school of elo(|Uence, shared the fate of Tripoli, 
 and becami! baronies bestowed upon Christian 
 kniglils. After these con(|uests, tlii^ Pisans, tho 
 Genoesi', and several warriors wlio had followed 
 lialdwin in his expeditions, returne<l into Europe; 
 and the king cf .Jerusalem, abaiuloned by theso 
 u.seful allies, was obliged to employ the forces 
 wliieli remaineil in repulsing the inva.sions of the 
 Saracens." — J. F. Micliaud, Hitt. of the Vrusadet, 
 r. 1, U: 5. 
 
 A, D. 1 147-1 149.— The Second Great Move- 
 ment. — 1. iring tlie reign of Fulk, tlie fourth 
 king of Jerusalem, the Lat'n power in Palestine 
 and its neigliboring territories began to be seri- 
 ously shaken by n vigorous '1 urklsh prince 
 named Zenglil, on whom tho sultan Mahmoud 
 had conferre<l the government of all the country 
 west of the Tigris. It was the first time since 
 the coming of the Christians of the West that 
 the whole strength of Islam in that region had 
 been so nearly gatheretl into one strong hand, to 
 be used against tliem, and they felt the effect 
 speedily, being themselves weakened by many 
 quarrels. In 1143 King Fulk died, leaving tho 
 crown to a young son, Haldwin III., — a boy of 
 thirteen, whose mother governed in his name. 
 Tiie next year Zenghi captured the important 
 city of Edessa, and consternation was produced 
 by his successes. Europe was then .:ppealed to 
 for help against the advancing Turk, and the 
 call froni Jerusalem was taken up by St Ber- 
 nard of Clairvaux, 'he irresistible enthusiast, 
 whose influence accomplished, in his lime, what- 
 ever he willed to have done. Just half a century 
 after Peter the Hermit, St Bernard preaclied a 
 Second Crusa<le, and with almost equal effect, 
 notwithstanding the better knowledge now pos- 
 sessed of all tile hardships and perils of the 
 expedition. Tliis time, royalty took the lead. 
 King Conrad of Germany commanded n great 
 army from that country, and anotlicr host fol- 
 lowed King Louis VII. from France. "Both 
 armies marched down the Danube, to Constanti- 
 nople, in the summer of 1147. At the same 
 moment King Roger [of Naples], with his fleet, 
 attacked, not tho Turks, but the Greek seaport 
 towns of the Slorea. Manuel [the Byzantine 
 emperor] thereupon, convinced that the large 
 armies were designed for the destruction of his 
 empire in the first place, with the greatest exer- 
 tions, got togetiier troops from all his jirovinces, 
 and entered into a half-alliance with the Turks of 
 Asia Minor. The mischief and ill-feeling was 
 increased by the lawless conduct of the Girman 
 hordes; the Greek troops attacked them uioro 
 
 629 
 
CRUSADES, 1147-1149. 
 
 Kichard 
 againit HaUidin. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1188-1103. 
 
 than once- whereupon numerous voices were 
 raised in Louis's liL-iidquiirtcrs to dcmnnd open 
 war BKidnsl tlic fiiitldcss Qrc-cks. The liings 
 were fuliy ai^recd not to permit this, but on 
 arrivinj^ in (."onstantinople tiiey completely fell 
 oui, for, wliile houis made no secret of his warm 
 fricn>lsliip for Roger, Conrad ijromised the 
 Emperor of Constantinople to attacli the Nor- 
 mans lis soon as the Crusade should be ended. 
 This was a bad beginning for u united campaign 
 in the East, and moreover, at every step east- 
 ward, new difliculties arose. The German army, 
 broken up into s>'veral detachments, and led 
 without ability or prudence, wius attacked in 
 Asia Jlinor by the Emir of Iconiuin, and cut to 
 pieces, all but a few hundred men. The F-ench, 
 though better appointed, also suffered severe 
 losses in that coui. ry, but contrived nevertheless, 
 to reach Antioch wltli a very considerable force, 
 and from thence niiglit have carried the project 
 which tlie second Ualdwiu had conceived in vain, 
 namely, the defence of the northeastern frontier, 
 upon wliich, especially since Zenki [Zenghi] had 
 made his appearance, the life or death of the 
 Christian states depended. But in vain did 
 Prince Raymond of Antioch try to prevail upon 
 King Louis to take this view, and to attack with- 
 out delay the most formidable of all their adver- 
 saries, Noureddin [son of Zenghi, now dead]. 
 Louis would not hear or do anything till he had 
 seen Jerusalem and prayed at the Holy Sepul- 
 chre. ... In Jerusalem he [King Louis] was 
 welcomed by Queen Melisonde (now regent, 
 during her son's minority, after Fulco's death), 
 with praise and gratitude, because he had not 
 taken part in the distant wars of the Prince of 
 Antiocli, but had reserved his forces for the 
 defence of the holy city of Jerusalem. It was 
 now resolved to lead the army against Damascus, 
 the only Turkish town whose Emir hod always 
 refused to submit to either Zenki or Noureddin. 
 Nevertheless Noureddin instantly collected all 
 his av.iilable forces, to succour the besieged 
 town." But he was spared furtiier exertion by 
 the jealous disagreement of the Christians, who 
 began to take thought as to what should be done 
 with Damascus when they took it. The Svrian 
 barons concluded that they would prefer to leave 
 the city in Turkish hands, uud by treacherous 
 manccuvres they forced king Louis to raise the 
 siege. "The German king, long since tired of 
 hio powerless position, returned home in the 
 autumn of 1148, and Louis, after much pressing, 
 stayed a few months longer, and reached Europe 
 in the following spring. The whole expedition 
 . . . had been wrecked, without honour and 
 without result, by the most wretched pe;rsonal 
 passions, and the most narrow and selfish policy." 
 — H. Von Sybel, Iliat. and Literature of i/ie Cru- 
 lades, ch. 3. — "So ended in utter shame and 
 ignominy the Second Crusade. The event 
 seemed to give the lie to the glowing promises 
 and prophecies of St. Bernard. So vast had 
 been the drain of population to feed this holy 
 war that, in the phrase of an eye-witness, tlie 
 cities and castles were empty, and scarcely one 
 man was left to seven women; and v. '\v it was 
 known that the lathers, the liusbands, the sons, 
 or the brothers of these miserable women would 
 see their earthly homes no more. The cry of 
 anguish charged Bernard with the crime of 
 sending them forth on an errand in which they 
 bad done absolutely nothing and had reaped only 
 
 wretchedness and disgrace. For a time Bernard 
 hi Tiself was struck dumb : but he soon remem- 
 bered that he had spoken with the uuthority of 
 God and his vicegerent, and that I lie guilt or 
 failure must lie at the door of the pilijrims." — G. 
 W. Cox, T/ie CnimdeH, eh. 5. 
 
 A. D. 1 187.— The loss of Jerusalem. See 
 Jeuusai,e.m: A. I). 1149-U87. 
 
 A. D. 1188-1193.— The Third Great Move- 
 ment. — When the news readied Europe that 
 Saladin, the redoubtable new cliampian of Islam 
 had expelled the Christians and the Cross from 
 Jerusalem, polluting once more the j^reclncts of 
 the Holy Sepulchre, the cflect proiluccd was 
 something not easily understood at the present 
 day. If we may believe historians of the time, 
 the pope (Urban III.) died of grief; "Christians 
 forgot all the ills of their own country to weep 
 over Jerusalem. . . . Luxury was banished from 
 cities; injuries were forgotten and alms were 
 given abundantly. Cliristians slept ujion ashes, 
 clothed themselves in haircloth, and expiated 
 their disorderly lives by fasting and mortifica- 
 tion. The clergy set the example ; the morals of 
 the cloister were reformed, and cardinals, con- 
 demning themselves to poverty, promised to re- 
 ])air to the Holy Land, supported on charity by 
 the way. These pious reformations did not last 
 long ; but men's minds were not the less prepared 
 for a new crusade liy them, and all Europe was 
 soon roused by the voice of Gregory VIII., who 
 exhorted the faithful to assume the cross and 
 take up arms." — J. F. iMichaud, Jlist. of the 
 Crusader, bk. 7. — 'The emperor Frederic Barba- 
 rossa and the kings of France and England 
 assumed the cross; and the tanly magnitude of 
 their armaments was anticipated by the moritime 
 states of the Mediterranean and the ocean. The 
 skilful and provident Italians first embarked in 
 the ships of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. They 
 were speedily followed by the most CRger pil- 
 grims of France, Normandy and the Wci^tem 
 Isles. The powerful succour of Flanders, Frise, 
 and Denmark filled near a hundred vessels; and 
 the northern warriors were distinguished in the 
 field by a lofty stature and a ponderous battle- 
 axe. 'Their increasing multitudes could no longer 
 be confined within the walls of Tyre [which the 
 Latins still held], or remain obedient to the voice 
 of Conrad [JIarquis of ]Montferrat, who had 
 taken command of the place and repelled the 
 attacks of Saladin]. '^•ley pitied the misfortunes 
 and revered the dignl ' of Lusignan [the nominal 
 king of Jerusp'^m, lately captive in Saladin's 
 hands], wl'"> .as ...eased from prison, perhaps 
 to divide t j army of the Franks. He proposed 
 the recovery of Ptolemais, or Acre, thirty miles 
 to the south of Tyre ; and the ])lace was first in- 
 vested [July, 1189] by 2,000 horse and 30,000 
 foot under his nominal command. I shall not 
 expatiate on the story of this memorable siege, 
 which lasted near two years, and consumed, in a 
 narrow space, the forces of Europe and Asia. 
 ... At the sound of the holy trumpet the 
 Moslems of Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and the Ori- 
 ental provinces assembled under the servant of 
 the prophet: his camp was pitched and removed 
 within a few miles of Acre ; and he laboured, 
 night and day, for the relief of his brethren and 
 the annoyance of the Franks. ... In the spring 
 of the second year, the royal fleets of France and 
 England cast anchor in the bay of Acre, and the 
 siege was more vigorously prosecuted by the 
 
 680 
 
CRUSADES, 1188-1192. 
 
 Peacf irUli 
 the Infidel. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1201-1203. 
 
 youthful emulation of the two kings, Philip 
 Augustus and KIchnrd Plnntngenet. After every 
 resource hud been tried, and every hope was ex- 
 hausted, tlie defenders of A :re submitted to their 
 fate. . . . By the conquest of Acre the Latin 
 powers acquired a strong town and a convenient 
 harbour ; hut the advantage was most dearly pur- 
 chased. Tlie minister and liistorian of Saladui 
 computes, from tlie report of tlio enemy, that 
 their numbers, at di/Terent periods, amounted to I 
 600,000 or 600,000; that more than 100,000 Chris- | 
 tians were slain ; tliat a far greater nund)er was 
 lost by disease ov sliipwreck." On the reduc- 
 tion of Acre, king Pliilip Augustus relurned to 
 France, leaving only 500 kniglits and 10,000 men 
 behind him. Meantime, tlie old emperor, Fred- 
 crick Barbarossa, coming by the landward roule, 
 througn the country of tlie Greeks and Asia 
 Minor, witli ii well-tr ined army of 20,000 kniglits 
 and 50,000 men on fo t, had perished by the way, 
 drowned in n little Cilician torrent, and only 
 5,000 of his troops had reached the camp at Acre. 
 Old as ho was, (he was seventy when he took 
 the cross) Barbarossa miglit have changed the 
 event of the Crusade if lie had reached the scene 
 of conllict; for he had brains with his valor and 
 character with his ferocity, wliicli liicbard Ca'ur 
 de Lion had not. Tlio latter remained another 
 year in the Holy Land: recovered Ciesarea and 
 JafFa; threatened Saladin in Jerusalem seriously, 
 but to no avail; and stirred up more and fiercer 
 quarrels among the Christians tlian had been 
 customary, even on the soil which was sacred to 
 them. In tlie end, a treaty was arranged which 
 displeased tlie more devout on botli sides. "It 
 was stipulated that Jerusalem and the holy sepul- 
 chre should be open, without tribute or vexa- 
 tion, to tlie pilgrimage of the Latin Christians; 
 that, after the demolition of Ascalon, they sliould 
 inclusively possess the sea-coast from Jaffa to 
 Tyre; that the count of Tripoli and the prince of 
 Aiitioch should be comprised in the truce ; and that, 
 during three years and tliree montlis, all hostilities 
 should cease. . . . Rlcliurd embarked for Europe, 
 to seek along captivity and a premature grave; 
 and the space of a few months concluded the life 
 and glories of Saladin." — E. Gibbon, Decline and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire, eh. 59. — "A halo of 
 false glory surrounds the Third Crusade from the 
 associations which connect it with the lion-hearted 
 king of England. The exploits of Richard I. have 
 stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of chroniclers, 
 have furnished themes for jubilant cu Jgies, and 
 have shed over his life that glamour which cheats 
 even sober-minded men when they read thi story 
 of his prototype Achilleus in the tale of Troy . . . . 
 When we turn from tlie picture to the reali y, we 
 shall see in this Third Crusade an enterpiise in 
 which the fiery zeal which does somethin.t to- 
 wards redeeming the savage brutalities of God- 
 frey aud the first crusaders is displaced by base 
 and sordid greed, by intrigues utterly of the ei rth 
 earthy, bv wanton crimes from which we mijlit 
 well suppose that the sun would hide away its 
 face ; and" in the leaders of this enterprise we shall 
 see men in whom morally there is scarcely a single 
 quality to relieve the monotonous blackness of 
 their infamy; in whom, strategically, a very" 
 little generalship comes to the aid of a blind 
 brute force." — Gf. W. Cox, The Crusades, eh. 7. 
 
 Also in: Mrs. W. Busk, Mediaeval Popes, 
 Emperors, Kifts and Onuaders, bk. 2, eh. 12, a7id 
 bk. Z,ch. 1-2. .-. . , , : . 
 
 A D. 1196-1197.— The Fourth Expedition. 
 
 — A crusading expedition of German barons aud 
 their followers, which wi-r.l to the Holy Land, 
 by way of Italy, in 1100, is generally counted as 
 the Fourth Crusade, though '-'mie writers look 
 upon it as a movement supplementiiry to tlio 
 Third Cru.sade. The Germans, who numbered 
 some 40,000, do not seem t( liiwe been welcomed 
 by the Christians of Pii';s:ine, Tlie latter jire- 
 erred to maintain the state of peace then pre- 
 vailing; but the new crusaueis forced hostilities 
 at once. Saladin was dead ; his brother Saphadin 
 accepted the challenge to warwitli prompt vigor 
 and struck tlie first liard blow, taking Jalfa, with 
 great slaughter, and demolishing its fortifica- 
 tions. But .Sai)lia(lin was presently defeated in 
 a battle fought between Tyre and Sldon, and 
 Jaffa was recovered, together witli other towns 
 and most of the coast. But, a little later, the 
 Germans suffered, in their turn, a most demoral- 
 izing reverse at the castle of Tlioron, whiih they 
 besieged, and weve further disturbed, in the 
 midst of their depression, by news of tlie death 
 of their emperor, Henry VI. A great part of 
 them, thereupon, returned home. Those who re- 
 remained, or many of them, occui)icd Jaffa, wliere 
 they were attacked, a few montlis later, 'ind cut 
 to pieces. — G. \V. Cox, The Crusades, eh. 6. 
 
 A. D. 1201-1203.— The Fifth Movement. — 
 Treachery of the Venetians. — Conquest of 
 Constantinople. — "Every traveller returning 
 from Syria brouglit a prayer for immediate help 
 from tiie survivors of the Third Crusade. It 
 was necessary to act at once if any portion even 
 of the wreck of the kingdom of Jerusalem were 
 to be saved. Innocent the Third, aud some, at 
 least, of the statesmen of the WdSt were fully 
 alive to the progress which Islam had mudo 
 since the departure of the Western kings. In 
 1197, however, after five yearsof weary waiting, 
 the time seemed opportune for striking a new 
 blow for Christendom. Saladin, the great Sultan, 
 had died in 1193, and his two sons were already 
 quarreling about the partition of his empire. 
 The contending divisions of the Arab MosIeAs 
 were at this moment each bidding for the sup- 
 port of the Christians of Syria. The other great 
 race of Mahometans which had threatened 
 Europe, the Seljukian Turks, had made a halt 
 in their progress through Asia Minor. . . . 
 Other special circumstances wliich rendered the 
 moment favourable for a new crusade, com- 
 bined with the profound conviction of the states- 
 men of the West of the danger to Christendom 
 from the progress of Islam, urged Western 
 Europe to tiike part in the new enterprise. The 
 reigning Pope, Inncent III., was the great 
 moving spirit of the Fourth Crusade." The 
 popular preacher of the Crusade was found in an 
 Ignorant priest named FulH, of Neuilly, whose 
 success in kindling puulic enthusiasm was 
 almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit. Vast 
 numbers took the cross, with Theobald, count 
 of Champagne, Louis, count of Blois and Char- 
 tres, Simon de Montfort, Walter of Erienne, 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders, Hugh of St. Pol, 
 Geoffrey de Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne 
 and future historian of the Crusade, and many 
 other prominent knights and princes among the 
 leaders. The young count of Champagne was 
 the chosen chief ; but he sickened and died and 
 his place was taken by Boniface, marquis of 
 Montferrat. It was the decisiou of the leaders 
 
 631 
 
CRUSADES, 1201-1203. 
 
 Taking of 
 CotutantinopU. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1212. 
 
 thnt the expedition should be directed i}\ the first 
 instance ngiiinst tlie Moslem power in Egypt, and 
 tliat it sliould he conveyed to tlie attack of 
 Egypt by sea. Venice, alone, seemed to hcnhlc 
 to furnish sliips, sailors and supplies for so gn'ut 
 a movement, and a contract with Venice for the 
 servire was concluded in the spring of 1201. 
 But Venice was mercenarv, unscrupulous and 
 treuc'ierous, caring for nothiiig hut commercial 
 gains. Before the crusaders could gather at her 
 port for embarkation, slie had lietrayed them to 
 the Moslems. By a secret treaty with the sultan 
 of Egypt, the fact of which is coming more and 
 more conclusively to light, she had undertaken 
 to frustrate the Crusade, and to receive import- 
 ant commercial privileges at Alexandria as com- 
 pensation for her treachery. AVhen, therefore, 
 in tlie early summer of 1202, the army of the 
 Crusade was collected at Venice to take ship, it 
 encountered difBculties, discouragements and ill- 
 treatments which thickened daily. The number 
 assembled was not equal to expectation. Some 
 had gone by sea from Flanders ; some by other 
 routes. But Venice had provided transport f jr 
 the whole, and inflexibly demanded pay for '»he 
 whole. The money in hand was not equnl to 
 this claim. Thv; suninicr was lost in disputes 
 and attempted compromises. Many of the cru- 
 saders withdrew in disgust and went home. At 
 length, in defiance of the censures of the pope 
 and of the bitter opposition of many leaders and 
 followers of the expedition, there was a bargain 
 struck, by the terms of which the crusaders were 
 to assist the Venetians in taking and plundering 
 the Christian city of Zara, a dreaded commerciiil 
 rival on the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic, be- 
 longing to the king of Hungary, himself one of 
 the promoters of the very crusade which was 
 now to be turned against him. The infamous 
 compact was carried out. Zara was taken, and in 
 the end it was totally destroyed by th*! Venetians. 
 In the meantime, the doomed city was occupied 
 by the crusading army through the winter, while 
 a still more perfidious plot was being formed. 
 Old Dandolo, the blind doge of Venice, was the 
 master spirit of it. He was helped by th<! in- 
 fluence of Philip, one of the two rivals then 
 fighting for the imperial crown In Germany and 
 Italy. Philip had married a daughter of Isaac 
 II. (Angelos), made emperor at Constantinople 
 on the fall of the i j'nasty of Comnenus, and that 
 feeble prince had lately been dethroned by his 
 brother. The son and heir of Isaac, named 
 Alexius, had escaped from Constantinople and 
 had made his way to Philip imploring help. 
 Either Pliilip conceived the idea, or it was sug- 
 gested to him, that the armament of tlie Crusade 
 might be employed to place the young Alexius 
 on the throne of his father. To the v enetians 
 the scheme was more than accepiable. It would 
 frustrate the Crusade, wliicli they had pledged 
 themselves to the sultan of Egypt to accomplisli ; 
 it would satisfy their ill-will towards the By- 
 zantines, and, more important than all else, it 
 would give them an opportunity to secure im- 
 measurable advantages over their rivals in the 
 great trade which Constantinople lieKl at com- 
 mand. The nianiuis of Jlontferrat, commander 
 of the Crusa<ic, hail some grievances of his own 
 and some ambitions of his own, wli'ch made him 
 favorable to the new project, and he was easily 
 won to it. The three influences thus combined — 
 those of Philip, of Daudolo, and of Moutferrat — 
 
 overcame all opposition. Some who opposed 
 were bribed, some were intimidated, some were 
 deluded by promises, some deserted the r.'\nk8. 
 Pope Innocent remonstnited, appealed and threat- 
 ened in vain. The pilgrim liost, " changed from 
 a crusading army into a filibustering expedition," 
 set sail from Zara in the spring of the year 1203, 
 ond was landed, the following June, iiot on the 
 shores of Egypt or Syria, but under the walls 
 of Constintinople. Its conquest, pillage and 
 brutally destructive treatment of the great city 
 are described in another place. — E. Pears, The 
 Fall of Constantinople, eh. 8-13. 
 
 Also in: G. Finlay, J/int. of the Byzantine and 
 Greek Empires, 71«-14r)3. bk. 3, eh. 3.— E. Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall of the lioman Empire, eh. 59. — 
 See, also, Byzantpne E.\tpinE: A. D. 1203-1204. 
 
 A. D. 1201-1283.— Against the heathen Scla- 
 Tonians on the Baltic. Sec Livonia: 12Tii-13Tn 
 Centuiues; and Pkussia: 13tii Centuuy. 
 
 A. D. 1209-1242.— Against the Albigenses. 
 See Albioenses. 
 
 A. D. 1212.— The Children's Crusade.— "The 
 religious wars fostered and promoted vice ; and 
 the failure of army after army was looked on as 
 a clear manifestation of God's wrath against the 
 sins of the camp. This feeling was roused to its 
 highest pitch when, in the year 1212, certaio 
 priests — Nicolas was the name of one of these 
 mischievous madmen — went about France and 
 Germany calling on the children to perform 
 what the fathers, through their wickedness, had 
 been unable to effect, promising that the sea 
 should be dry to enable them to march across ; 
 that the Saracens would be miraculously stricken 
 with a panic at the sight of them; that God 
 would, through the hands of children only, 
 whose lives were yet pure, work the recovery of 
 the Cross and the Sepulchre. Thousands — it is 
 said fifty thousand — children of both sexes re- 
 sponded to the call. They listened 10 the im- 
 passioned preaching of the monks, believed their 
 lying miracles, their visions, their portents, their 
 references to the Scriptures, and, in spite of all 
 that their parents could do, rushed to take the 
 Cross, boys and girls together, and streamed 
 along the roads which led to Marseilles and 
 Genoa, singing hymns, waving brandies, reply- 
 ing to those who asked whither they were going, 
 ' We go to Jerusalem to deliver the Holy Sepul- 
 chre,' and shouting their rallying cry, 'Lord 
 Jesus, give us back thy Holy Cross. ' They ad- 
 mitted whoever came, provided he took the 
 Cross; the infection spread, and the children 
 could not be restrained from joining them in the 
 towns and villages along their route. Their 
 miserable parents put them in prison; they es- 
 caped; they forbade them to go; the children 
 went in spite of prohibition. They had no 
 money, no provisions, no leaders ; but the charity 
 of the towns they passed through supported 
 them. At their rear streamed the usual tail of 
 cnmp followers. . . . There were two main bodies. 
 One of these directed its way through Germany, 
 across ll'e Alps, to Genoa. On the road they 
 were robbed of all the gifts whicli hud been pre- 
 sented them; they were exposed to heat and 
 want, an 1 very many either died on the march 
 or wandered away from the road and so became 
 lost to sight; when they reached Italy they dis- 
 persed obout the country, seeking food, were 
 stripped by the villagers, and In some cases were 
 reduced to slavery. Only seven thousand out of 
 
 682 
 
CRUSADES, 131 >. 
 
 Traaedu of 
 the Children. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1216-1229. 
 
 their Li imbcr arrived (it Ocnon. Ilcrp they stayed 
 for some (hiys. They looked down upon the 
 Med.:errftnean, hoping that Its bright waves 
 woukl divide to let them pass. But tliey did 
 not; tiiero was no miracle wrought in th'Ar 
 favour; a few of noble birtli were received simong 
 the Genoese families, and have given rise to dis- 
 tinguislied houses of Genoa ; among them is the 
 house of Vivaldi. The rest, disappointed aud 
 disheartened, made their way back again, and 
 got liome at length, the girls with the loss of 
 their virtue, tlie boys witli tlic loss of tlieir be- 
 lief, all barefooted and in rags, lauglied at by 
 the to.wns they went through, and wondering 
 why they had ever gone at all. This was the 
 end of the German army. That of the French was 
 not so fortunate, for none of them ever got back 
 again at all. When they arrived at Marseilles, 
 thinned probably by the same causes as those 
 which had dispersed the Germans, they found, 
 like tlioir brethren, that tlie sea did not open a 
 path for them, as had been promised. Perhaps 
 some were disheartened and went home again. 
 B\it fortune appeared to favour them. Tliere 
 were two worthy merchants at Jlarseilles, named 
 Hugh Perrens, and "Villiam Porcus, Iron Ilugli 
 aud Pig William, who traded with the East, and 
 had in port seven ships, in whicli they proposed 
 to convey the children to Palestine. With a 
 noble generosity they offered to take them for 
 nothing, all for love of religion, and out of the 
 pure kindness of tlieir hearts. Of course this 
 offer was accepted with joj', and the seven ves- 
 sels laden with tlie happy little Crusaders, sing- 
 ing their hymns and flying their banners, sailed 
 out from Marseilles, bound for the East, accom- 
 
 fanied by William tlio Good and Hugh the Pious, 
 t was not known to the children, of course, that 
 the chief trade of these merchants was the lucra- 
 tive business of kidnapping Christian cliildren 
 for the Alexandrian market. It was so, however, 
 and these respectable tradesmen had never be- 
 fore made so splendid a coup. Unfortunately, 
 off tlio Island of St. Peter, they encountered bad 
 weather, and two ships went down with all on 
 board. What must have been the feelings of 
 the pliilanthropists. Pig William and Iron Hugh, 
 at this misfortune? They got, however, five 
 ships safely to Alexandria, and sold all their 
 cargo, the Sultan of Cairo buying forty of the 
 boys, whom he brought up carefully and apart, 
 intending them, doubtless, for his best soldiers.. 
 A dozen refusing to change their faith were 
 martyred. None of the rest ever came back. 
 Nobody in Europe seems to have taken much 
 notice of this extraonlinary episode." — AV. Be- 
 sant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, ch. 18. 
 
 Also in: J. H. Michaud, Hint, rrfthe Crunculcs, 
 app. 110. 28. — G. Z. Gray, The Children's Cru- 
 sade, 
 
 A. D. i2i2. — Against the Moors in Spain. 
 See Spain: A. D. 1146-1232. 
 
 A. D. 1216-1229. — The Sixth Movement. — 
 Frederic II. in Jerusalem. — For six years after 
 the betrayal of the vows of the crusaders of 1202- 
 1204 — who sacked Constantinople instead of 
 rescuing Jerusalem — the Christians of Palestine 
 were protected by a truce with Saphadin, the 
 brother of Saladin, who had succeeded the latter 
 in power. Hostilities were then rashly provoked 
 by the always foolish Latins, and they soon 
 found themselves reduced to sore straits, calling 
 upon Europe for fresh help. Pope Innocent III. 
 41 
 
 did not scruple to second their appeal. A new 
 crusade was preached with great earnestness, and 
 a general Council of the Church — the Fourth of 
 Lateran — was c(mvened for the stimulation of 
 it. "The Fifth Crusade [or the Sixth, as more 
 commonly numbered], tlie result of tliis resolu- 
 tion, was divided in tlic sequel into tliree mari- 
 time expeditions: tlie tlrst [A. D. 1216] consist- 
 ing principally of Hungarians under their king, 
 Andrew; the second [A. D. 12181 composed of 
 Germans, Italians, French and Kngiisli nobles- 
 and their followers; and the third [A. D. 1228] 
 led by the Emperor Frederic 11. in person. . . . 
 Though the King of Hungary was attended by 
 the flower of a nation which, before its con- 
 version to Cliristianity, had been the scourge 
 and terror of Western Europe, the arms of that 
 monarch, even aided by the junction of numer- 
 ous German crusaders under the dukes of Aus- 
 tria and Bavaria, performed nothing worti:y of 
 notice : and after a single campaign in Palestine, 
 in which the Jlussuhnan territories were ineffect- 
 ually ravaged, tho tickle Andrew deserted the 
 cause and returne.l with his forces to Europe. 
 His defection did not prevent the duke of Aus- 
 tria, with the German crusaders, from remaining, 
 in concert with the King of Jerusalem, his barons, 
 and the knights of tho three religious orders, 
 for tlie defence of Palestine; and, in the follow- 
 ing year, tlie constancy of these faithful cham- 
 pions of tlie Cross was rewarded by the arrival 
 of numerous reinforcements from Germany. . . . 
 It was resolved to change the scene of warfare 
 from the narrow limits of the Syrian shore to 
 the coast of Egypt, . . . and the situation of 
 Damietta, at tlie mouth of the Nile, jiointed out 
 tliat city as the first object of attack." After a. 
 siege of seventeen months, during which both, 
 the besieged and the besiegers sulTered horribly, 
 from famine and from pestilence, Damietta was- 
 taken (A. D. 1219). Nine-tenths of its popula- 
 tion of 80,000 had perished. " Both during tlie 
 siege and after the capture of Damietta, tlie in- 
 vasion of Egypt had tilled the infidels with con- 
 sternation ; and the alarm which was betrayed ia 
 tlieir counsels proved that tlic crusaders, in 
 clioosing that count-y for tlie theatre of opera- 
 tions, had assailed the Mussulman power m its- 
 most vital and vulnerable point. Of the two 
 sons of Saphadin, Coradiniu and Camel, who 
 were now uneasily seated on the thrones of Da- 
 mascus and Cairo, the former, in despair of pre- 
 serving .Jerusalem, had already demolished ita 
 fortifications; and the brothers agreed in re- 
 peatedly offering the cession of tlie lioly city and 
 of all Palestine to the Christians, ujiou Lhe single 
 condition of their evacuating Egypt. Every 
 object whicli had been ineffectually proposed in 
 repeated Crusades, since the fatal battle of 
 Tiberias, might now liave been gloriously ob- 
 tained by the acceptance of these terms, and the 
 King of Jerusalem, the .t'rench and English, 
 leaders, and the Teutonic knights, all eagerly 
 desired to embrace the offer of the Sultana. But 
 the obstinate ambition and cupidity of the sur- 
 viving papal legate. Cardinal Pelagius, of tho 
 Italian cliief tains, and of the kniglits of the other 
 two religious orders, by holding out the rich 
 prospect of the conquest and plunder of Egypt, 
 overruled every wise and temperate argument in 
 the Christian councils, and jiroduced a rejection 
 of all compromise witli the infidels. After a 
 winter of luxurious inaction, the legate led the 
 
 633 
 
CRTT8ADE8, 1216-1229. 
 
 St, Louu In 
 Eui/pt. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1248-1254. 
 
 crugndini^ host from Dnmictta townnl Cairo 
 (A. I). 1220)." The expedition wiia lis disiis- 
 troiiH in it8 result as it was imbecile in its leader- 
 sliip. Tlie whole army, caught l)y the rising of 
 the Nile, was placed in so helpless a situation that 
 it was glad to purc^hase escape Ijy the surnmder of 
 Daniielta and the evacuation of Egypt. The 
 retreat of tlie greater part of these crusaders did 
 not end until they had reached home. Pojie 
 Honorius III. (who had succeeded Innocent III. 
 in 1210) strove to shift respousiliility for the 
 failure from liis wretched legate to the Emperor 
 Frederic II.. who had thus far evaded tlie ful- 
 filment of his crusading promises and vows, 
 being occupied in struggles with the papacy. 
 At length, in 1328, JVederic embarked for 
 Palestine witli a small force, pursued l)y the 
 maledictions of the |)ope, who denouncecl him 
 for daring to assume the Cross while under tlie 
 ban of the church, as much as he had denounced 
 him before for neglecting it. But the free- 
 thinking 1 lolieustauiTen cared little, apparently, 
 and went his way, shunned scrupulously by all 
 pious souls, inchuling the knights of Palestine, 
 <?xcept those of the Teutonic order. Witli the 
 help of the latter lie occupied and rcfortified 
 Jafia and succeijded in concluding a treaty with 
 the Sultan whicli restored Jerusalem to the 
 Christians, reserving certain riglits to the Ma- 
 hometans; giving up likewise Bethlehem, Naz- 
 areth and some other places to the Christians, 
 and securing |ieace for ten years. Frederic 
 liad married, a few years before, for his second 
 empress, lolantc, daughter and heiress of the 
 titular k'jg of Jerusalem, Jolm de Brienne. 
 AVith t',0 hand of this princess, he received from 
 her f .dier a solemn transfer of all his riglits to 
 that shadowy throne. lie now claimed those 
 rights, and, entering Jerusalem, witli the Teu- 
 tonic knights (A. 1). 1329), lie crowned himself 
 its king. The patriarch, the Templars and the 
 Hospitallers refused to take part in the ceremony ; 
 the popo denounced Frederic's advantageous 
 trratj^ as soon as lie liad news of it, and all that 
 it gained for the Christians of Palestine was 
 thrown away by tliem as speedily as possible. — 
 Major Procter, Ilist. of the CrustKlen, ch. 5, sect. 
 3. — "No Crusader, since Godfrey dc Bouillon, 
 had effected so much as Frederick tlie Second. 
 What would he not have obtained, had the 
 Pope, the Patriarcii and the Orders given him 
 their ■ hearty cooperation ? " — T. L. Kington, 
 Uht. of Frederick II., ch. 8. 
 
 A. b. 1 238- 1 280. — Against the Bogomiles, 
 See Balk.\n and Danuiiian States: 9th-16tu 
 Centuuies (Bosnia, etc.) 
 
 A. D. i;!42. — The Invasion of Palestine by 
 the Carismians. See Jehusalem: A. D. 1343. 
 
 A. D. 1248-1254.— The Seventh Movement. 
 — Expedition ofSaint Louis to E^pt. — The 
 Seventh Crusade was undertaken, with little aid 
 from other countries, by the devout and wonder- 
 fully Christian-like young king of France, Louis 
 IX., afterwards canonized, and known ia history 
 as St. Louis. " He carried it out witli a picked 
 army, furnished by tlie feudal chivalry and by 
 the religious and military orders dedicated to 
 the service of the Holy Land. Tlie Isle of 
 Cyprus was the trystiug-'place appointed for all 
 the forces of the expedition. Louis arrived 
 there on the 12th of September, 1248, and reck- 
 oned upon remaining there only a few days ; for 
 it was Egypt that he was in a hurry to reach. 
 
 The Christian world was at that time of opinion 
 thiit, to deliver the Holy Land, it was necessary 
 first of all to strike a blow at Islamism in Egypt, 
 wlierein its cliief strength resided. But scarcely 
 had tlie crusaders formed a junction in Cyprus, 
 when the vices of the expetiition and the weak- 
 nesses of its chief liegan to be manifest. Louis, 
 unshakable in his religious zeal, was wanting in 
 clear ideas and fixed resolves as to the carrying 
 out of his design. . . . He did not succeed in 
 winning a majority in the council of chiefs over 
 to his opinion as to the necessity for a speedy 
 departure for Egypt ; it was decided to pass the 
 winter in Cyprus. ... At last a start was made 
 from Cyprus in May, 1249, and, in spite of vio- 
 lent gales of wind which dispersed a large num- 
 ber of vessels, they arrived on the 4th of June 
 liefore Damietta. . . . Having become mas- 
 ters of Damietta, St. Louis and the crusaders 
 committed tlie same fault there as in the Isle of 
 Cyprus: they halted there for an indefinite time. 
 They were expecting fresh crusaders; and they 
 spent the time of expectation in (luarieling over 
 the partition of tlie booty taken in the city. 
 Tliey made away with it, they wasted it blindly. 
 . . . Louis saw and deplored these irregulari- 
 ties, without being in a condition to stop them. 
 At length, on the 20th of November, 1249, after 
 more than five months' inactivity at Damietta, 
 the crusaders put themselves once more in 
 motion, with the determination of marching 
 upon Babylon, that outskirt of Cairo, now called 
 Old Cairo, which tlie greater part of them, in 
 tlieir ignorance, mistook for the real Babylon, 
 and where they flattered themselves they would 
 find immense riclies, and avenge the olden suffer- 
 ings of the Hebrew captives. The Mussulmans 
 liad found time to recover from their first fright, 
 and to organize, at all points, a vigorous resist- 
 ance. On the 8tli of February, 1250, a battle 
 took place twenty leagues from Damietta, at 
 Mansourali ('the city of victory'), on tlie right 
 bank of the Nile. . . . The battle-fleld was left 
 that day to thi) crusaders; but they were not 
 allowed to occupy it as conquerors, for, three 
 days afterwanis, on the 11th of February, 1250, 
 the camp of St. Louis was assailed by clouds 
 of Saracens, horse and f'lot, Mamelukes and 
 Bedouins. All surprise liad vanished, tlie Mus- 
 sulmans measured at a glance the numbers of 
 the Christians, and attacked them in full assur- 
 ance of success, whatever lieroism tliey might 
 display ; and the crusaders tliemselves indulged 
 in no more self-illusion, and tliought only of 
 defending tliemselves. Lack of provisions and 
 sickness soon rendered defence almost as impos- 
 sible as attack; every day saw the Cliristian 
 camp more and more encumbered witli the 
 famir stricken, tlie lying, and the dead; and 
 the cessity for retreating became evident." 
 An attempt to negotiate with the enemy failed, 
 because they insisted on tlie surrender of tlio 
 king as liostage, — whicli none would concede. 
 "On the 5th of April, 1250, the crusaders 
 decided upon retreating. This was the most 
 deplorable scene of a deplorable drama ; and at 
 the same time it was, for tlie king, an occasion 
 for displaying, in their mo^t sublime and 
 attractive traits, ail the virtues of the Christian. 
 Whilst sickness and famine were devastating the 
 camp, Louis made himself visitor, pliysician 
 and comforter; and his presence and his words 
 exercised upon the worst cases a searching influ- 
 
 634 
 
CUU8ADE8, 1248-1254. 
 
 St. LohU 
 at I'unU. 
 
 CRUSADES, 1270-1271. 
 
 ence. . . . Wlion tho 5tli of April, the di y thicd 
 for the retrent, had come, Loiiia liitiiK'lf was 
 ill and much enfeeblod. IIo was urgwl to go 
 cboani one of the vessels which were to descend 
 the Nile, carrying the wounded and tho most 
 suffering; but he refused absolutely, saying, 'I 
 don't aeparato from my people in the hour of 
 danger.' IIo remained on land, and wlien he 
 had to move forward he fainted away. When 
 Ue came to himself, he was amongst the last to 
 leave the camp. ... At four lcag\ies distance 
 from the canip it had just left, the rear-guard of 
 tho crusaders, harassed by clouds of Saracens, 
 was obliged to halt. Louis could no longer 
 keep on his horse. ' He was put up at a house,' 
 says .loinvillc, 'and laid, almost dead, upon tho 
 lap of a tradeswoman from Paris; and it was 
 believed that he would not last till evening.'" 
 The king, in this condition, with tho whole 
 wreck of his army, — only 10,000 in number 
 remaining to him, — were taken prisoners. Their 
 release from captivity was purchased a month 
 later by the surrender of Damietta and a ran- 
 som-payment of 500,000 livres. They made 
 their way to St. Jean d' Acre, in Palestine, 
 whence many of them returned home. But 
 King Louis, with some of his knights and men- 
 at-arms — how many is not known — stayed yet 
 in the Holy Land for four years, striving and 
 hoping against hope to accomplish something 
 for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and expending 
 "in small works of piety, sympathy, protection, 
 and caro for tho future of tho Christian popula- 
 tion in Asia, his time, his strength, his pecun- 
 iary resources, and tho ardor of a soul which 
 could not remain idly abandoned to sorrowing 
 over great desires unsatisfied." The good and 
 pious but ill-guided king returned to France 
 in the summer of 1254, and was received with 
 great joy. — P. P. Guizot, Popular Hist, of France, 
 ch, 17. 
 
 Also in : Sire Do Joinville, ^femoirs of Saint 
 Louis, pt. 2. — J. F. Miclmud, Hist, of the Cru- 
 sades, bks. 13-14. 
 
 A. D. lasa.— The movement of "the Pas- 
 tors."— On the arrival in Fnuice of the news of 
 tho disastrous failure of Saint Louis's expedition 
 to Egypt, there occurred an outbreak of fanati- 
 cism as insensate as tliat of the children's crusade 
 of forty years before. It was said to have 
 originated with a Hungarian named Jacob, who 
 began to proclaim that Christ rejected the great 
 ones of the earth from His service, and that the 
 deliverance of tho Holy City must bo accom- 
 plished by the poor and luunble. "Shepherds 
 left their flocks, labourers laid down the plough, 
 to follow his footsteps. . . . The name of Pastors 
 was given to these village crusaders. ... At 
 length, assembled to the nimiber of more than 
 100,000, these redoubtable pilgrims left Paris and 
 divided themselves into sevend troops, to repair 
 to the coast, whence they were to embark for tlie 
 East. The city of Orleans, which happened to 
 be in their passage, became the theatre of fright- 
 ful disorders. Tho progress of their enormities 
 at length created serious alarm in the govern- 
 ment and the magistracy; orders were sent to 
 the provinces to pursue and disperse these turbu- 
 lent and seditious bands. Tho most numerous 
 assemblage of the Pastors was fixed to take place 
 at Bourges, where the 'master of Hungary' 
 [Jacob] was to perform miracles and communi- 
 cate the will of Heaven. Their arrival in that 
 
 city was the signal for murder, fire and plllnge. 
 The irritated people took up arms and marched 
 against these disturbers of the public peace; 
 I hey overtook them between Mortemer and 
 Villeneuvc-sur-le-Cher, where, in spite of their 
 numbers, they were routeil, and received the 
 punishment due to their brigandages. Jacob had 
 Ills head cut off by tho blow of an axe ; many of 
 his companions and disciples met with ileath on 
 the Held of battle, or were consigned to punish- 
 ment; tho remainder took to flight. "—J. P. 
 Jlicliaud, Ifisl. of the Criimtdts, bk. 14. 
 
 A. D. 1256-1259. — Against Eccelino di 
 Romano. SeeVKUoN.v: A. I). 12:«l-l'25i). 
 
 A. D. 1270-1271.— The last undertakings. — 
 Saint Louis at Tunis. — Prince Edward in 
 Palestine. — "For seven years after his return to 
 Fmncc, from 12.54 to 1201, Louis seemed to think 
 no more about them [the crusades], and there Is 
 nothing to show that he spoke of them even to 
 his most intimate conhdants; but, in spite of his 
 apparent calmness, he was living, so far as they 
 were concerned, in a continual ferment of 
 imaginatio-^ and internal fever, even flattering 
 himself that some favorable circumstance would 
 call him back to his interrupted work. ... In 
 1261, Louis held, at Paris, a Parliament, at which, 
 without any talk of a new crusade, measures 
 were taken which revealed an idea of it. . . . In 
 1203 tho crusade was openly preached. ... All 
 objections, all warnings, all anxieties came to 
 notliing in tho face of Louis's fixed idea and 
 pious passion. He started from Paris on the 16th 
 of March, 1270, a sick man almost already, but 
 with soul content, and probably the only ono 
 without misgiving in the midst of all his com- 
 rades. It was once more at Aigues-Mortes that 
 he went to embark. All was as j'ct dark and 
 undecided as to the plan of tho expedition. . . . 
 Steps wore taken at hap-hazard with full trust 
 in Providence and utter forgetfulness that Provi- 
 dence does not absolve men from foresight. . . . 
 It was only in Sardinia, after four days' halt at 
 Cagliari, that Louis announced to tho chiefs of 
 tlic crusade, assembled aboard liis ship, tho 
 'Mountjoy,' that ho was making for Tunis, and 
 that their Christian work would commence there. 
 The king of Tunis (as he was then called), Mo- 
 hammed Mostanser, had for some time been talk- 
 ing of his desire to become a Christian, if ho 
 could be efficiently protected against the seditions 
 of his subjects. Louis welcomed with transport 
 the prospect of Mussulman conversions. . . . 
 But on the 17th of July, when tho fleet arrived 
 before Tunis, the admiral, Florent de Varennes, 
 probably without the king's orders, and with 
 that want of reflection which was conspicuous at 
 each step of the enterprise, immediately took 
 possession of tlie harbor and of some Tunisian 
 vessels as prize, and sent word to the king ' that 
 he had only to support him and that tlie dis- 
 embarkation of the troops might be effected with 
 perfect safety.' Thus war was commenced at 
 the very first moment against tho JIussulman 
 prince whom tliere had been promise of seeing 
 before long a Christian. At the end of a fort- 
 night, after some fight between the Tunisians 
 and the crusaders, so much political and military 
 blindness produced its natural consequences. 
 The re-enforcements promised to Louis by his 
 brother Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, had 
 not arrived; provisions were falling short; and 
 tho heats of an African summer were working 
 
 635 
 
CRUSADES, 1270-1271. 
 
 Thellnd. 
 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 havoc amongst tliu army witli such rapidity tliiit 
 befori! Ion)? there wiis no time to l)iiry tlie (iead; 
 but tlicy were cost pi'llinell into tlie diteli wliieli 
 surrounded tlie cunip, and tliu uir was tainted 
 thereby. On the 3d of August Louis wiis 
 attaclied by the epidemic fever." On the 25tli 
 of August he died. I lis son and successor, 
 Philip til., lield liis ground l)efore Tunis until 
 November, when lie gladly accepted a payment 
 of money from the Tunisian prince for with- 
 drawing his army. Disaster followed him. A 
 storm destroyed part of his lleet, with 4.000 or 
 5,000 men, and sunk all the treiisure lie had 
 received from the iMoslenis. On the journey 
 home through Italy his wife met witli an acci- 
 dent which ended her life and that of her prema- 
 turely born child. The young king arrived at 
 Paris, May, 1271, bringing the remains of five of 
 his family for burial at St Denis: his wife, liis 
 ion, his father, his brother, and his brother-in- 
 law, — all victims of the fatal crusade. While 
 France was thus burying the last of her crusad- 
 ers. Prince Edwanl (afterwards King Edward I.) 
 of England, landed in Syria at the head of a few 
 hundred knights and men at arms. Joined by 
 the Templars and Hospitallers, he had an army 
 of 0,000 or 7,000 men. with which he took Naza- 
 reth and made there a blomly sacrifice to the 
 memory of the gi'utle Nazarene. lie did nothing 
 more. Being wounded by an assassin, he ar- 
 ranged a truce with the Sultan of Egypt and 
 returned home. His expedition was the last 
 from Europe which strove with the Moslems for 
 the Holy Land. The Christians of Palestine, 
 who still held Acre and Tyre, Sidon and a few 
 other coast cities, were soon afterwards over 
 whelmed, and the dominion of the Crescent in 
 Syria was undisputed any more by force of arms, 
 though many voices cried vainly against it. The 
 spirit of the Crusades had "expired. — F. P. 
 Quizot, Popular Hist, of France, eh. 17. 
 
 Also in : J. F. Micbuud, IIM. of the Cnmules, 
 bk. 15. 
 
 A. D. 1291. — The end of the Christian King- 
 dom of Jerusalem. See Jerusalem: A. D. 
 1291. 
 
 A. D. 1299. — The last campaign of the 
 Templars. — "After the fall of Acre [A. D. 
 1291] the headquarters of the Templars were 
 established at Limisso in the island of Cyprus, 
 and urgent letters were sent to Europe for 
 succour." In 1395, James de Molay, the head of 
 the English province, became Grand JIaster, and 
 soon alter his arrival in Palestine he entered into 
 an alliance with Ghazan Khan, the Slongol ruler 
 of Persia, who had married a Christian princess 
 of Armenia and was not unfriendly to the 
 Christians, as against tlic ]\Iamelukes of Egypt, 
 with whom he was at war. The Mongol Khan 
 invited the Templars to join him in an expedition 
 against the Sultan of Egypt, and they did so in 
 the spring of 1299, at Antioch. "An army of 
 30,000 men was placed by the Mogul empcor 
 under the command of the Grand Master, and 
 the combined forces moved up the valley of the 
 Orontes towards Damascus. In a great battle 
 fought at Hems, the troops of the sultans of 
 Damascus and Egypt were entirely defeated and 
 pursued with great slaughter until nightfall. 
 Aleppo, Hems, Damascus, and all the principal 
 cities, surrendered to the victorious arras of the 
 Moguls, and the Templars once again entered 
 Jerusalem in triumph, visited the Iloly Sepulchre 
 
 and celebrated Easter on Mount Zion." The 
 khan sant ambassadors to Europe, offering the 
 possession of Palestine to the Christian powers 
 if they would give him their alliance and sup- 
 port, but none responded to the call. Ghazan 
 Khan fell ill and withdrew from Syria; the 
 Templars retreated to Cyprus once more and 
 their military career, as the champions of the 
 Cross, was at an end. — C. G. Addison, The 
 Knights Templarii, eh. 6. 
 
 Also in; II. II. Ilowarth, Hist, of the Mongols, 
 pt. 3, eh. 8. 
 
 Effects and consequences of the Crusades 
 in Europe. — "The principle of the crusades 
 was a savage fanaticism ; and the most import- 
 ant effects were analogous to the cause. Each 
 pilgrim was ambitious to return with bis sacred 
 spoils, the relics of Greece and Palestine, and 
 each relic was preceded and followed by a train 
 of miracles and visions. The belief of the 
 Catholics was corrupted by new legends, their 
 practice by new suiierstitions ; and the establish- 
 ment of the in((uisition, the mendicant orders 
 •A monks and friars, the last abuse of indulgences, 
 and the final progress of idolatry, flowed from 
 the baleful fountain of the holy war. The 
 active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of 
 their reason and religion ; and if the ninth and 
 tenth centuries were the times of darkness, the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth were the age of 
 absurdity and fable. . . . Some philosophers 
 have applauded the propitious influence of these 
 holy wars, which appear to me to have checked 
 rather than forwarded the maturity of Europe." 
 — E. Gibbon, Decline and Pall of the Roman 
 Emjrire, eh. 61. — "The crusades may be con- 
 sidered as material pilgrimages on in enormous 
 scale, and their influence up' n general morality 
 seems to liav. been altogether pernicious. Those 
 who served under the cross would not indeed 
 have lived very virtuously at home; but the 
 confidence in their own merits which the prin- 
 ciple of such expeditions inspired must have 
 aggravated the ferocity and dissoluteness of 
 their ancient habits. Several historians attest 
 the depravation of momls which existed, both 
 among the crusaders and in the states formed 
 out of their conquests." — H. Hallam, The Middle 
 Ages, eh. 9. pt. 1. — " It was not possible for the 
 crusaders to travel through so many countries, 
 and to behold their various customs and insti- 
 tutions, without acquiring information and im- 
 provement. Their views enlarged; their pre- 
 judices wore off; new ideas crowded into their 
 minds; and they must have been sensible, on 
 many occasions, of the rusticity of their own 
 manners when compared with those of a more 
 polished people. . . . Accordingly, we discover, 
 soon after the commencement of the crusades, 
 greater splendour in the courts of princes, greater 
 pomp in public ceremonies, a more refined taste 
 in pleasure and amusements, together with a 
 more romantic spirit of enterprise spreading 
 gradually over Europe ; and to these wild expe- 
 ditions, the effect of superstition and folly, we 
 owe the first gleams of light which tended to 
 dispel barbarism and ignorance. But the bene- 
 ficial consequences of the crusades took place 
 slowly ; their influence upon the state of property, 
 and, consequently, of power, in the different 
 kingdoms of Europe, was more immediate as 
 well as discernible." — W. Robertson, View of the 
 Progress of Soc, in Europe, sect. 1. — "The cra- 
 
 636 
 
CRUSADES. 
 
 Kffeett and 
 CoHieqUi-nces. 
 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 Radcs «rfi not, in my mind, eitlior tlip populiir 
 delusions tlmt our cliciip literiitun! liiis dotcrmiticd 
 them to be, nor pi;pnl coiispinieieH ugiiinst kings 
 unci peoples, us they appeiir to tli(! Frotestiint 
 contn)vcrsiiilist ; nor tlie ssivftgo outlireiiks of 
 expiring lmrl)arism, thirsting for bloixl nnd 
 plunder, nor volciudc explosions of religious 
 intolerance. I l)eliev(! them to have been, in 
 their deep sources, and in the minds of their best 
 champions, and in the main tendency of their 
 results, capable of ample justification. They 
 were the first great effort of mediieval life to go 
 beyond the pursint of selfish and isolatt^d 
 nnd>itions; they were the trial-feat of the young 
 world, essaying to use, to the glory of Uod 
 and the benefit of man, the arms of Jts new 
 knighthood. . . . That in the end they were a 
 benefit to the world no one who reads can doubt; 
 and that in their course they brought out a love 
 for all that is heroic in human nature, the love 
 of freedom, the honour of prowess, sympathy 
 with sorrow, perseverance to the last and 
 patient cnduniuee without hope, t!ie chronicles 
 of the age abundantly prove; proving, more- 
 over, that it was by the experience of those 
 times that the forms of those virtues were 
 realized and presented to posti^rity. " — W. Stubbs, 
 Seventeen Lects. on, the Study of Mcdundl nnd 
 Modern Hist., led. 8. — "Though begun imder 
 the name and influence of religious belief, the 
 crusades deprived religious ideas, I shall not 
 say of their legitimate share of influence, but of 
 their exclusive and despotic poH.se.ssion of the 
 human mind. This result, though undoubtedly 
 unforeseen, arose from various causes. The first 
 was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of 
 the scene winch displayed itself to the crusaders; 
 what generally happens to travellers liappened 
 to them. It is mere common-jjlaee to saj', that 
 travelling gives freedom to the mind; that the 
 habit of observing different nations, different 
 manners and different opinions, enlarges the 
 ideas, and disengages tlie judgment from old 
 prejudices. The same thing happened to those 
 nations of travellers who have been called the 
 crusaders; their minds were opened and raised 
 l)y having seen a multitude of different things, 
 by having become acquainted with other 
 manners than ♦heir own. They found tliem- 
 selves also placed in connexion with two states 
 of civilization, not only different from their own, 
 but .nore advanced — the Greek state of society 
 on the one hand, and the Mussulraun on the 
 other. ... It is curious to observe in the 
 chronicles the impression made by the crusaders 
 on the Mussulmans, who regarded them at first 
 as the most brutal, fcocious, and stupid bar- 
 barians they liad ev' seen. The crusaders, on 
 their part, were struck with the riches and 
 elegance of manners which they observed among 
 the Mussulmans. These first impressions were 
 succeeded by frequent relations between the 
 Mussulmans and Christians. These became more 
 extensive and important than is commonly 
 believed. . . . There is another circumstance 
 whicli is worthy of notice. Down to the time of 
 the crusades, the court of Rome, the centre of 
 the Church, had been very little in communi- 
 cation with the lait> , unless through the medium 
 of ecclesiastics ; either legates sent by the court 
 of Rome, or the whole body of the bishops and 
 clergy. There were always some laymen in 
 direct relation with Rome ; but upon the whole, 
 
 it was by mrnnfi of churf'hmpn tlmt Rome had 
 any communication with the people of difTcn'nt 
 countries. Durinij,' the crusades, on the contrary, 
 Itome became a halting-place for a great portion 
 of the crusaders, either in going or returning. 
 A multitude of laymen were spectators of it;, 
 poHcT an<l its manners, and were able to discover 
 the share which personal interest had in religious 
 disputes. There is no doubt that this newly- 
 acipiired knowledge inspired many minds with 
 a boldness hitherto unknown. When we con- 
 sider the state of the general mind at the termin- 
 ation of the crusiulcs, especially in regard to 
 ecclesiastical matters, we cannot fail to be struck 
 with a singular fact: religious notions underwent 
 no change, and were not replaced by contrary or 
 even diflercnt opinions. Thought, notwithstand- 
 ing, had become more free; religious creeds 
 were not the only subject on which the human 
 mind exercised its faculties ; without abandoning 
 them, it began occasionally to wander from them, 
 and to take other directions. . . . The social 
 state of society had undergone an analogous 
 change. . . . Without entering into the details 
 . . . wo may collect into a few general facts 
 the influence of the crusades on the social state 
 of Europe. They greatly diminished the 
 number of petty fiefs, petty domains, and petty 
 |)roprietors; they concentrated property ^nd 
 power in a smaller number of hands. It is from 
 the time of the crusades that we may observe the 
 forniati<m and growth of great fiefs — the exist- 
 ence of feudal power on a large scale. . . . This 
 was one of the most important results of the 
 crusades. Even in those cases where small 
 proprietors preserved their fiefs, they did not 
 live upon them in such an insulated state as 
 formcrlj'. The possessors of great fiefs became 
 so many centres around which the smaller ones 
 were gathered, and near which obey came to 
 live. During the crusades, small proprietors 
 found it necessary to place themselves in the 
 train of some rich and powerful chief, from whom 
 they received assistance and support. They 
 lived with him, shared his fortune, and passed 
 through the same adventures that he did. When 
 the crusaders returned home, this social spirit, 
 this habit of living in intercourse with superiors 
 continued to subsist, and had its influence on the 
 manners of the age. . . . The exten.sion of the 
 great flefs, and the creation of a number of 
 central points in society, in place of the general 
 dispersion which previously existed, were the 
 two principal effects of the crusades, considered 
 with respect to their influence upon feudali.sm. 
 As to the inhabitants of the towns, a result of 
 the same nature may easily be perceived. The 
 crusades created great civic communities. Petty 
 commerce and petty industry were not sufficient 
 to give rise to communities such as the great 
 cities of Italy and Flanders. It was ci,mmerce 
 on a great scale — maritime commerce, and, 
 especially, the commerce of the East and West, 
 which gave them birth; now it was the crusades 
 which gave to the maritime commerce the 
 greatest impulse it had yet received. On the 
 whole, when we survey the state of society at 
 the end of the crusades, we find that the move- 
 ment tending to dissolution and dispersion, the 
 •jiovement of universal localization (if I may be 
 allowed such an expression), liad ceased, and had 
 been succeeded by a movement in the contrary- 
 direction, a movement of centralization. All 
 
 637 
 
CRUSADES. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 thlnff* tended to miitunl apprnximntion ; Rnmll 
 tliliiKH were ahuortx'd In ifrvnt ont'H, or jfiithcrcd 
 round tlicni. Hucli vvuh tlio dircrlion then 
 tiikfu by till! profcrcHH of sodi'ty." — K. Oiii/.r)t, 
 y/iW. i<f <'irilk(itioi>. Irrt. H (r. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1383.— The Bishop of Norwich's 
 Crusade in Flanders. Sec I'i.andkuh: A. IV 
 i;tH:t. 
 
 A. D. 1430-1431.— Crusade asrainst the Hus- 
 sites. Hoc Uoiikmia: A, I). 14111-14:14. 
 
 A. D. 1442-1444.— Christian Europe against 
 the Turks. Si'o Ti'iiKt* (Tiik Ottdmanh): 
 A. I). 14oa-ll.".l. 
 
 A. D. 1467-1471.— Crusade Instigated by 
 the Pope asrainst George Podiebrad, king of 
 Bohemia. Sec Hoiie.mia; A. I). 14.58-1471. 
 ♦ — - 
 
 CRYPTEIA, The. Hw KiivrrKiA. 
 
 CTESIPHON.— 'Tho Parthian nionarclm, 
 like the Mogul sovereigns of Ilindostan, delighted 
 In the pastoral life of their Hcythinn ancestors, 
 and the imperial eanip was fro(iuently pitched in 
 the plain of Ctesiphoii, on the eastern banks of 
 the Tigris, at the distance of only three miles 
 from Heleucia. The innumerable attendants on 
 luxury and despotism resorted to the cotirt, and 
 the little village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled 
 into n great city. Under tho reign or Marcus, 
 the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon 
 and Selcucia. They were received as friends by 
 tho Greek colony ; they attacked as enemies the 
 scat of the Parthian kings; yet both cities ex- 
 perienced the same treatment. The sack and 
 conflagration of Seleucia, with tho massacre of 
 300,000 of the inhabitants, tarnished tlie glory of 
 the Roman triumph, Seleucia, already exhausted 
 by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk 
 under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about 
 tliirty-three years, liad sulllciently recovered its 
 strength to maintain an obstinate siego against 
 the emperor Severus. The city was, however, 
 taken by assault; the king, who defended it in 
 person, escaped with precipitation; 100,000 cap- 
 tives and a rich booty rewarded the fatigues of 
 the Roman soldiers. Notwithstaniiiug these mif • 
 fortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and 'o 
 Seleucia as oue of the great capitals of tlio Kas'.." 
 — E. Gibbon, Decline aiui Fall of the lioman Um- 
 pire, ch. 8. — In 637 A. D. Ctesiphon passed into 
 the possession of the Saracens. See MAUOMiiTAN 
 Conquest and Empire: A. D. 633-651. 
 
 Also i;i: G. Rawlinson, Sixth Oreat Oriental 
 Monarch//, ch. 6. — Sec, also, Medain. 
 
 CUAi'OS, The. See Amehican ABORiarNEs: 
 Pampas TiunKS. 
 
 CUBA : A. D. 1493-1493.— Discovery by 
 Columbus. See Ameuica: A. U. 14'i2; and 
 1493-1496. 
 
 A. D. 151 1. —Spanish conquest and occupa- 
 tion of the island. — "Of the islands, Cuba was 
 the second discovered; but 'ri attempt had beeu 
 made to plant a colony ther,' during Uie lifetime 
 of Columbus; who, indeed, after skirting tho 
 whole extent of its southern coast, died in the 
 conviction tliat it was part of the continent. At 
 length, in 1511, Diego, tiie son and successor of 
 the ' admiral,' who still maintained tlio seat of 
 government in Ilispaniola, finding the mines much 
 exhausted there, proposed to occupy tho neigh- 
 bouring island of Cuba, or Pernandina, as it is 
 called, in compliment to the Spanish mon: ■ ' 
 He prepared a small force for the conquest, w 
 he placed under tUe command of Don Dit^, 
 
 Vclttgqunz. . . . Velasquez, or rather his lieuten- 
 ant Narvaez, who t<K)k tho o(llc<! on himself of 
 scouring tlio country, in( t with no seriouH oppo- 
 r.ition from the Inliubitanls, who were of the same 
 family wi'ii t\w elTeminate natives of Ilispaniola. " 
 After '.lie coniiucst, Velas(|uez was appointi'd 
 governor, and established his scat of government 
 at St. Jago, on the soulliiast corner of the island. 
 — W. II. Prescott, C'omjitett of Mexico, bk. 3, 
 ch. 1. 
 
 Also in: Sir A. Helps, Siianith ConqueH in 
 America, bk. 7. 
 
 A. D. 1514-1851.— Slow development of the 
 island. — Capture of Havana by the English. 
 — Discontent with Spanish rule. — Conspira- 
 cies of revolution.— " Vela.s(jrcz founded nuiny 
 of the towns of tlin island, tin lirst of which was 
 Baracoa, then Bayamo, and in 1514 Trinidad, 
 Santo Espiritu, Puerto Priiicipe; next, in 1515, 
 Santiago do (-'uba, as also, in the same year, tlio 
 town of Halmiia. . . , This peri(Mi (1511-1607)18 
 particularly interesting 10 the general reader 
 from the fact that in it tlie exploi,.tions of Her- 
 nandez do Cadoba and Grijalva to Darien, Yuca- 
 tan, etc., wcit! inaugurated, — events which had 
 so much to do with the spread of Spanish rule 
 and discovery, paving the way as they did for 
 tlio exploration of Mexico under Hernando 
 Cortes, wlio, in the early history of Cuba, fig- 
 ures largely as tho lieutenant of the Governor 
 Velasquez. ... In 1534, Diego Velasquez died, 
 — his death haflened, it is said, by the troubles 
 brought upon him by his disputes with his 
 insubordinate lieutenant, Cortea. ... In the 
 history of tho improvement of the island, his 
 government will bear favorable comparison with 
 m iny of tho later governments ; and while tliat 
 great evil, slavery, was introduced into tho 
 inland in his time, so also was tiie sugarcane. 
 ... Up to 1588, there seems to bo nothing 
 specially striking in the general history of the 
 island, if we except tho constant attacks with 
 lire and sword of the ' fllibusteros, ' or pirates of 
 all nations, from which most all the sea-coast 
 towns suffered more or less; but in that year 
 there arrived at Santiago dc Cuba a man 
 destined to play an importuut part in the 
 history and discovery of the new world, and 
 named as Provincial Governor of Florida as 
 well .IS of Cuba, — I allude to Hernando 
 do Soto, who brought with him 10 large 
 vessels, prepared and fitted out expressly for the 
 conquest of tho new Spanish territory of Florida. 
 A^tor much care and preparation, this expe- 
 dition started out from the city of Ilabana, 
 tho 13th of May [see Florida: A. D. 1528-1513]. 
 ... In this period, also, was promulgated that 
 order, secured, it is believed, by the noble efforts 
 of Padro Las Casas, prohibiting the enslaving of 
 the aborigines ; while, also, such had become its 
 importance as a town, all vessels directed to and 
 from Mexico were ordered to stop at Havana. 
 In tho period of years that elapsed from 1607 to 
 1762, the island seems to have been in a perfect 
 state of lethargy, except tho usual changes of 
 its many Governors, and the raids made upon It 
 by pirates, or by more legalized enemies in the 
 form of French and English men-of-war. In 
 this latter year, however, occurred an event of 
 much import, from tho fact that after it, or 
 upon its occurrence, the Government of Spain 
 was led to see tho great importance of Cuba, and 
 particularly Havana, as the 'Key to the New 
 
 638 
 
CUBA. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 World,' — thin event wiis the tnklnjf of TTnvnnn 
 by llio EnKHsh. On tlio Otii of June, 1702, tliorc 
 nrrived olT tlio port of Iliivunii lui Knglisli 
 H(|Uitilr(>n of :I2 HliipH nnd frlKutos, willi Homo 'HW 
 tniiisporU, bringing witii tlicin ii force of nciirly 
 2(),0()U men of all arms, iindcr coniinand of tlic 
 Duku of Albomarle. Tbis forniidabU! arma- 
 ment, tliu larKOtt I'luit America bad ever seen, 
 laid Hiego to tlic clly of Havana, wbose v^flson 
 consisted at that tine of oidy abo\it 2,70>) rcgn- 
 Inrs and the volunteers tbat tool< up arms imme- 
 diately for the defense of tlie place. . . . Tlie 
 garrison, however, made a very gallant and \nn- 
 longed defense, nctwithstanding the sniallness 
 of their numbers, and finally, surrendering, 
 were permitted to inarch out with the honors of 
 war, the Knglish thus coming into possession of 
 the most important defences on the coast, and, 
 Bubseiiuentiy, tnklna; possession of llie town of 
 Matan/.as. Kemain.ng in possession of this por- 
 tion of the Island of Cuba for many months 
 (until July 6, ITflIt), the English, by Importing 
 negro labor to cultivi.te the largo tracts of wihl 
 land, nnd by shipoing largo quantities of 
 European merchandize, gave a start to the trade 
 and trafllc of tho island tliat ]nighed it far on its 
 way to tho state of prosperity it has now 
 reached; but by the trtaty of peace, at Paris, in 
 February, 1768 [see Soven Years War], was 
 restored to Spain the portion of tho island 
 wrested from her by the Er-'lsh. ... In this 
 period (1763-1801) the isir.n. iiado rapid ad- 
 vances in improvement and civilization, many of 
 the Captains-General of this period doing much 
 to improve the towns and the people, beatitify- 
 ing tho streets, erecting b\iildingg, etc. In 170!!, 
 a large emigration toolv place from Florida, and in 
 179.') the French emigrants from Santo Djiidngo 
 cameon to tlic island in large numbers. . . From 
 1801. rapid increase in the prosperit; of tl.<! 
 island has taken place. ... At varicus times 
 insurrections, some of them ((uite serio'is in their 
 nature, have shown what tho natura. desire of 
 tho native population is for greater privileges 
 and freedom. . . In 1823, there wi s a society 
 of 'soles,' as it >vas called, formed f jr tho pur- 
 pose of freeing the island, having at its head 
 young D. Francisco Lemus, and lnving for its 
 pretext that the island was about to be sold to 
 England. In 1829, there was ('iscovrred tho 
 conspiracy of tho Black Ivigle, a^ it was called 
 (Aguila Negra), an attempt on ■ho part of the 
 population to obtain their freed jm, seme of tho 
 Mexican settlors in the island being prominent 
 in it. Tlie insurrection, or a' tempt tt one, by 
 the blacks in 1844, was rema' kable for its wide- 
 spread ramiflcAtions among the slaves of tho 
 island, as we'd as its thorcjgh organization, — 
 the intention being to mui dor all the whites on 
 the island. Other mino.' insurrections there 
 were, but it remained for Kixrciso Lopez, with .^ 
 force of some 300 mc. to i.-^ake tlio most im 
 portant attempt [1851], in wbieli he lost his life, 
 to free the island."— S. Hazard, Cuba with Pen 
 and Pencil, pp. 547-550. 
 
 Also in: M. M. Ballon, Hint, of Cuba, eh. 1-8. 
 —Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), Hist, of Eng., 
 1713-1783, ch. 38 {v. 4).— J. Entick, Hist, of the 
 Late War, v. 5, pp. 863-386.— D. Tumbull, Cuba, 
 ck. 22-24. 
 
 A. D. 1843-1860. — Acquisition coveted by 
 the slave-power in the United States. — At- 
 tempted purchase.— Filibustering schemes. — 
 
 The Oitend Manifesto.- "When the Spanish 
 colonies ill America brcaiii' inde|M'ndeiit, they 
 abolished slavery. AppnlKihsive that tlie re- 
 publics of Mexico anil ''''. inbia woiilil lio 
 anxious to wrest (,'ulia ii.ii* 7'orto liico from 
 Spain, secure their independence, and intnxiuce 
 into those islanils the idea, if tliey did not estab- 
 lish the fact, of freed<mi, the slave-masters [of the 
 I'nitcd States] at once souglit to guard against 
 what lliey deemed so calamitous an event. . . . 
 Hut after the annexaticm of Texa.s. there was a 
 change of feeling and purpose, and (,'uba, from 
 being an object of dn'ad, became an object of 
 vehement desire. The propagandists, strengtli- 
 encd and emboldened by that signal triumph, 
 now turned their eyes towanis this beautiful 
 ' isle of the sen,' as the theatre of new exploits; 
 and they iletermlned to secure the ' gem of the 
 Antilles ' for the coronet of their great and grow- 
 ing power. During Mr. I'o'k's administration 
 an attempt was niacle to purdiase it, and tho sum 
 of $1(10,000, (MX) was olTered therffor. Hut the 
 offer was promptly declined. AVIiat, however, 
 could not be bought it was determined to steal, 
 and filibustering movements and expeditions be- 
 came tlu^ order of the day. For no sooner was 
 President Taylor inaugurated than he found 
 movements on foot in that direction; and, in 
 August, 1840, he issued a proclamation, atllrm- 
 ing his belief that an 'armed expedition' was 
 being Htled out 'against Cuba or some of tho 
 provinces of Mexico,' and calling upon idl good 
 citizens ' to discountenance and prevent ony such 
 enterpris(;. ' In 1851 an expedition, c<msisting of 
 some 500 men, sailed from Now Orleans under 
 Jjoppz, a Cuban adventurer. But though it 
 effected a landing, it was easily defeated, and Its 
 leader and a few of his followers were executed. 
 Soim afterward, a secret association, styling 
 itself the Order of the Lone Star, was formed in 
 several of the Southern cities, having a similar 
 object in view ; but it attracted little notice and 
 arcomplislied nothing. ... In August, 1854, 
 Pre3ident Pierce instructed Mr. Miircy, l^is Seore- 
 tary of State, to direct Buchanan, Mason and 
 Soul6, ndnisters respectively at fb.e courts of 
 London, Paris and Madrid, to convene in some 
 European city and confer with eacli other in re- 
 gard to the matter of gaining Cuba to the United 
 States. They met accordingly, in October, at 
 Ostend. The results of their (feliberntions wore 
 published in a manifesto, in which the reasons 
 are set forth for the ncquisiticn ; and the declara- 
 tion was made that flic Union could never enjoy 
 repose and security 'as long as Cuba is not em- 
 braced within its boundaries.' But the gmat 
 source of anxiety, the controlling motive, was 
 the apprclicnsion that, unless so annexed, she 
 would 'be Africanized and become a second San 
 Domingo,' thus 'seriously to endanger' the 
 Union. This pape,- attracted great attention and 
 caused much a.stonishment. It was at first re- 
 ceived with incredulity, as if there had been some 
 inistttko or imposition practised. . . . But there 
 was no mistake. ... It was the deliberate utter- 
 ance of the conference, and it received tho in- 
 dorsement of Mr. Pierce and his administration. 
 The Democratic national conventions of 1850 and 
 of 1860 were quite as explicit as were the authors 
 of the Ostend manifesto ' in favor of the acquisi- 
 tion of Cuba.'"— H. Wilson, Hist, of the Rise 
 and Fall of tlie Slave Power in America, v. 2, 
 ch. 47. 
 
 639 
 
CUBA. 
 
 CUMBEIILAND OAP. 
 
 Aimtn: II. Von nnNt, Cmut. and Pol. IIM. 
 of the U. S., r. 4, f/i. 2. nnd r. (5. r/i. 1.— (J, T. 
 Ourtlii, Liff (if Jamft Hiiehnunn, r. 'i, eh, tl, — 
 M. M. Hnliftu, //(■»<. nfCulHt.fh. a— J. J. liwlic', 
 The Htory of the h\lihuiiter; eh. 8. 
 
 CUBIT, The.— "Tlu UiikHi of tlip Egyptian 
 
 fiHtt is . . . Nliriwii to Im' ('i|Uitl to l.Olil LukUhIi 
 foot, or 12. lU iticlu'H (().;i()HII iiD'trc) mid the dibit 
 to 1H.24 KiikHhIi iiiclu'H, or ().4IKI iiictro. TIiIh 
 cubit wiiM idcnticiil witb tlic I'bii'niciiui or Olym- 
 pic cubit, iiftcrwimlH uiloptol In (Inrco. . . . 
 The wcoikI of tlic two Ktfyptliin culiltH wiis tlic 
 royiil cubit, or cubit of McmplilM, of m'vni jialiiiH 
 or twcnty-clj^lit (HxitH. . . . Tim mean Iciigtli of 
 tlic KKvptiiin royal cubit \» . . . aHccrtulncd to 
 Ik- 20.tl7 KniillMh Inches, or 523 mm. . . . There 
 Is much conllict of opinion as to the actual length 
 of the s<'veral ciibltH In us<' by the tiews at dif- 
 ferent peri(«lH; but the fact that Moses always 
 montlons the KKyp'ian nieaaures ... as well as 
 tie Egyptian weights . . . proves that the He- 
 brews origlnallv Hirought their weights and 
 measures from Kgypt. ... In his dissertation 
 on cubits. Sir Isaiu Newton states grounds for 
 his opinion that the sacred cubit of the Jews was 
 equal to 24.7 of our Inches, and that the royal 
 cubit of jMeniiihls was e(iiiivalent to tlvc-si.xths 
 of this sacred Jewish cubit, or 20.0 Inches." — 
 H. W. ('hisholm, On tite Science of Weighing and 
 Mcamiiiif/, eh. 2. 
 
 CUCUTA, The Convention of. See Colom- 
 iiiAN Htatks: a. 1). 1819-1880. 
 
 CUFA. Hce nusHOHAH and Kuka. 
 
 CUICIDH The. Hee Tuatii, Tire. 
 
 CULDEEb, The.— It used to be set forth by 
 n'llglous historians that the Culdees were an an- 
 cient religious fraternity In Scotland, probably 
 founded by Columba, the saintly Irish missionary 
 of the si.xth century, and having Its principal 
 seat in lon.i; that they "were the lights of 
 Scotland in a dark and superstitious age"; that 
 they struggled for several centuries against the 
 errors and the oppressive jiretenslons of Kome, 
 and that "the strength and vigor of the Refor- 
 mation in Scotland, where the Papal power re- 
 ceived its first and most decisive check, may be 
 traced not indirectly to the faith, the doctrines, 
 and the sjilrit of the ancient Culdees." It was 
 claimed for the Presbyterian Church that its 
 form of church government prevailed among the 
 Culdees, while the supporters of Eplscojiacy 
 found evidences to the contrary. Hut all these 
 views, with all the controversies fomented by 
 them, have been dissipated by modern historical 
 investigation. The facts gathered by Dean 
 Reeves and publi-shed in 1864, in his work on the 
 "Culdeesof the British Islands," supported by 
 the more recent studies of Mr. W. F. Skene, are 
 now generally accepted. Says Mr. Skene, (Celtic 
 .Scotland, bk. 2, ~h. 6) : " It is not till after the ex- 
 pulsion of tilt Joluniban monks from the king- 
 dom of the Picts, in the beginning of the eighth 
 cerlury, that the name of Culdee appears. To 
 Adamnan, ^to Eddi and to Bcde it was totally 
 unknown. ' They knew of no body of clergy 
 who bore this name, and in the whole range of 
 ecclesiastical history there is nothing more utterly 
 destitute of authority than the application of this 
 name to the Columban monks of the sixth and 
 seventh centuries, or more utterly baseless than 
 the fabric which has been raise(l upon that as- 
 sumption." Mr. Skene's conclusion is that the 
 
 Culdees sprang from an ascetic onlcr called 
 Delcolii' or ()o*l worshlpperH; that in Irish tho 
 name Ix'came Celle l)e, thence corrupted Into 
 ('uldee; that they were hermits, who became in 
 time associated In communities, and wen! finally 
 brought under the canonical rule of the Roman 
 church, aloni; with the secM.lar clergy, 
 
 CULEUS, The. See Amimioua. 
 
 CULHUACAN. See Mexico, Ancient: 
 
 TlIK Tol.TKC KmI'IHK. 
 
 CULLODEN, Battle of (1746). See Scot- 
 I.AM); A. I), 174.'V-174tl, 
 
 CULM, OR KULM, Battle of. See Obii- 
 many; a. 1). IHIH (Ai(nisT). 
 
 CULTURKAMPF, The. See Geiimahy: 
 A. I). lH7!t-lHH7. 
 
 CUMiE.— CUMiEAN SIBYL. — " Earlier 
 
 than TM l\. V though we <h> not know 
 
 the precise era of its coniniencement, tliere existed 
 one solitary Orecian establishment In (be Tyrrhe- 
 nian Sea, — the Campanian Cumii", near Capu 
 MIscnum; which the more common opinion of 
 chronologists suppo.sed to have been founded in 
 lO.TOB. C. and which has even been carried back 
 by some authors to 1 180 B. C . . . Wo may at 
 least feel certain that it is the most ancient' 
 (irecian establishnent In any i)art of It.ily. . . . 
 The (.'ampiinian Cunue — known almosi, ( ntlrely 
 by this its Latin di'slgnatlon — received its name 
 and a portion of its Inhabitants from the ./Eolic 
 KymO In Asia Minor. . . . (Juimc, sl'.uated on 
 the neck of the peninsula which terminates in 
 Cape MIsenum, occupied a lofty and rocky hill 
 overhanging the sea and dlllicult of accesii on tho 
 land side. . . . In the hollow rock under the very 
 walls of the town was situated the cavern of tho 
 prophetic Sibyl, — a parallel and repro<lucfion of 
 the Gergilhian Sibyl, near KymC In iEolis: in the 
 immediate neighborhood, too, sIockI the wild 
 woods and dark lake of Avernus, consecrarcd to 
 the subterranean gods, and offering an estab- 
 lishment of priests, with ceremonies evoking 
 the dead, for purposes of prophecy or for solving 
 doubts and mysteries. It was here that Grecian 
 imagination localized the Cimmerians and tho 
 fable of Odysseus; and the Cumteans derived 
 gains from the numerous visitors to this holy 
 spot, perhaps hardly less than those of the in- 
 habitants of Krissu from the vicinity of Delphi. 
 Of the relations of these Cumicans with the IIol- 
 lenic world generally, we unfortunately know 
 nothing ; but they seem to have been in intimate 
 connection with Rome during the time of tho 
 kings, and especially during that of the last king 
 Tarquin, — forming the intermediate link between 
 the Greek and Latin world, whereby the feelings 
 of the Teukrians and Gergitheans near the MoXxc 
 Kym6 and the legendary stories of Trojan as 
 well as Grecian heroes, — ./Eneas and Odysseus — 
 passed Into the antiquarian imagination of Rome 
 and Latium. The writers of the Augustan ago 
 know CunicD only in its decline, and wondered at 
 the vast extent of its ancient walls, yet remain- 
 ing in their time. But during the two centuries 
 prior to 500 B. C. these walls inclosed a full and 
 thriving population, in the plenitude of pros- 
 perity. —O. Grote, Hist: of O recce, pt. 2, eh. 
 22. — See, also, Siuvi.s. 
 
 CUMANS, OR ROMANS, The. See IIun- 
 oauv: A. D. 1114-1301. 
 
 CUMBERLAND GAP, The capture of. 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1863 (Au- 
 gust — SEPTEMJiEK: Tennessee). 
 
 640 
 
CUMBRIA. 
 
 OXJNEIPORM WRITINO. 
 
 CUMBRIA: The Britith king;dora.— " Tlio 
 
 nritons (if ('iimlii'iik ix'CMipy a tiilcnihly |jiri;i' 
 ■pikcc on tlii'iniip, hiitavcrvHiniill oik^ in lilHlory ; 
 — their niumU Imvu cntlrt'ly pcriMlird ; — mul 
 nntliiiif( tuitlii'titit; n'MiJiiim ('(inccriiiii;; tlicin, 
 cxicpt a very few paNsni?cs, wliolly coiiNlstinn 
 of incidental noticeit relatliiu; to tlieir siihjertioii 
 anil tlieir misfortunes. Koinance wmilil fiirnl.Hli 
 miU'li niort'; for it was in('uniliriatliat Uliyilere, 
 or Hoderic tlicmnKnilirent. Is therein representecl 
 to have reijfiied, ami Merlin to have proplie.si"(l. 
 Artliur lie'l hia eourt In merry Carlisle; and 
 Pcrcdur, the I'rinee of Sunshine, whrisn name 
 we find amongst the princes of Stnithclyde, Is 
 one of tiu- Krcat hero(;s of the ' Mahinogirin,' or 
 tales of youth, lon;^ preserved by tradition 
 amuDgst tho(,'ynirl. These fantastic personages, 
 however, are of ImporUince In one pouit of view, 
 because they show, what we might otherwise 
 forget — tliat from the Kibble in Lancashire, or 
 thereabouts, up to the Clyde, there existed u 
 dense population composed of Britons, who i)re- 
 Hervc('. their natio ml language and customs, 
 agreeing In nil respects with the Welsh of tlie 
 present day. So that even In the tei. li century, 
 the ancient Britons still Inhabited tlie greater 
 part of the western coast ot the island, however 
 much they had been compi lied to yield to the 
 political supremacy of the Saxon Invaders. The 
 ' Itegnu'n (Jumbrense ' comprehended many dis- 
 tricts, probably governed by petty princes or 
 Rcguli, in subordination to a chief monarch or 
 Pendragon. Heged appears to have been some- 
 where in the vicinity of Annandale. Strathclyde 
 Is of course tiie district or vale of Clydesdale. 
 In this district, or state, was sitiuitcd Alcluyd, 
 or Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, where the 
 British kings usually resided; and the whole 
 Cumbrian kingdom was not infre(|uenlly called 
 Strathclyde, from the ruling or principal .state; 
 just as tlie United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland is often designated in common language 
 as 'England,' because England is the portion 
 where the monarch and legislature are found. 
 Many dependencies of the Cumbrian kingdom 
 extended into modem Yorkshire, and Leeds was 
 the frontier town between the Britons and the 
 Angles. . . . The kings of Cumbria became the 
 vassals, or 'men,' of the Anglo-Haxim kings. 
 Eugenius had thus submitted to Athelstane. Of 
 the nature of tl\e obligation I shall speak here- 
 after. The Anglo-Sa.xon kings appear to have 
 been anxious to extend and conlirm their su- 
 premacy; Edmund proceeded against Donald, or 
 Dumhnail, the Scottish King of Cumbria (A. D. 
 945), witli the most inveterate and implacable 
 Iiostility. . . . Edmund, having thus obtained 
 possession of Cumbria, graiite(i the country to 
 Malcolm, King of the Scots, upon condition, as 
 the chronicles say, of being liis co-operator, both 
 by sea and by land. . . . From this period the 
 right of the Scottish kings or princes to the 
 kingdom of Cumbria, as vassals of the English 
 crown, seems to liavc been fully admitted : and 
 the rights of the Scottish kings to the ' Earldom 
 of Cumberland ' — for such it was afterwards 
 termed — were founded upon Edmund's grant. 
 The Britons of Strathclyde, and Ucged, and 
 Cumbria, gradually melted away into the sur- 
 rounding population; and, losing their language, 
 ceased to be discernible as a separate race, 'i et 
 it is most probable that this process was not 
 wholly completed until a comparatively recent 
 
 perlfvi." — F. Palgrnve, ITitlon/ of the Anglo- 
 HiTDin, eh. II. — Cumbria and Cambria (Wales), 
 the two states long maintained by the Britoim, 
 agairiHl the Angh's and Saxon.s. iMire, in reality, 
 the sjinie iiaine. Cumbria being the more correct 
 form of It. The earliest development of the so- 
 called WcImIi poetrv seems to have been In Cum- 
 bria rather tlnin inVVnIes. Tallesen and Aneiirin 
 were Cumbrian bards, anci Arthur, if anv his- 
 torical personage Ntaiids behind his I ^ly 
 shadow, was probably a Cunibriau hero. — .f. 
 Itliys, Viitic JIn'liiiii. 
 
 Also i.>; W. F. Skene, Tht Fimr Aneieiit 
 H'Ki/cn of H'ulm. — See, also, KvMUV, Au'LYDB, 
 and SciVn.ANi); KH'ii-llril Ci;nt(uikh. 
 
 CUNARD LINE, The foundin«rof the. See 
 Stkam N'.vvioation: On' riiK Ockan. 
 
 CUNAXA, Battle of (B. C. 401). See Pen- 
 sia: H. C. -toi-liM), 
 
 CUNEIFORM WRITING.— Theclmracters 
 employed for the written languages of ancient 
 Babylonia and Ass^-ria, have been called cunei- 
 form, from the I,atin cuneiis, a wedge, lieeause 
 the marks composing them are wedge-shaped, 
 All knowledge of lUose cliaract<'rs and of the 
 languages expressed in them had Iicen lost for 
 many centuries, anil its recent recovery is one of 
 the most marvelous achievements of our age. 
 " Travellers had discovered in.scriptions engraved 
 in cuneiform, or, astliey were al.so termed, arrow- 
 headed charaeters, on the ruined monuments of 
 Persepolis and other ancient sites in I'ersia. Some 
 of these monuments were known to have been 
 erected by tlie Achicmenian princes — Darius, the 
 son of Hyslaspes, and his successors — and it was 
 therefore inferred that the inscrlptiims al.so had 
 been carved by order of the same kings. The 
 inscriptions wi^e in three different systems of 
 cuneiform writing; and since the three kinds of 
 inscription were always placed side by side, it 
 was ('vidcnt that they represented different ver- 
 sions of the same text. ... It was clear that the 
 three versions of the Achicmenian inscriptions 
 were addressed to the tliree chief populations of 
 the Persian Enii)ire, and ili it the one which in- 
 variably came first was composed in ancient Per- 
 sian, the language of the sovereign himself. Now 
 this Persian version happened to offer the de- 
 cipherer lessdilliculties tlian the twoothers which 
 accompanied it. The number of distinct charac- 
 ters employed in writing it did not exceed forty, 
 while the words were divided from one another 
 by a slanting wedge. Some of the words con- 
 tained so many characters that it was plain that 
 these latter must denote letters and not syllables, 
 and that conseiiuently tho Persian cuneiform 
 system must have consisted of an alphabet, and 
 not of a syllabary. It was further plain that the 
 inscriptions h.til to be read from left to right, 
 since the ends of all the lines were exactly under- 
 neath one another on the left side, whereas they 
 terminated irregularly on the right. . . . Tlie 
 clue to the decipherment of tlie inscriptions was 
 tiret discovered by the successful gues-s of a Ger- 
 man scholar, Orotefend. Grotefeud noticed that 
 the inscriptions generally began willi three or 
 four words, one of which varied, while the others 
 remained unchanged. The variable word had 
 three forms, though the same form always ap- 
 peared on the same monument. Grotefend, 
 therefore, conjectured that this word represented 
 the name of a king, the words which followed 
 it being royal titles. Working on this conject- 
 
 641 
 
 /^ 
 
CUNEIFORM WHITINO. 
 
 CURIA. 
 
 (irc, hi' Identlflrd thit thrro nrnnei with D«rliiii, 
 Xerxes and Artaxcrxrii, iiiid one of the HiipiMmcil 
 titles Willi II 7aiii\ word for "kiiix," which Kiive 
 him a ('onslilrralili' piirt of tlie cunelfurm iil|iliii- 
 bet. lie was followed in the work Uy liiinioiif, 
 IjAHwn aricl .Sir llinry KtiwiiiiHoii, until, tliially, 
 AlHyriaii iiiHoriptioiis were read with " altuimt us 
 miieh I'lTtnliity as a piiueof the Olil TeNtuiiieiit." 
 — A. II. Hiiyce, /Vi'iA Lii/hl from lltt nneient 
 moniinientii, f/i. I. 
 
 CUNiBERTUS, King of the Lomb*rdi, 
 A. 1). (llM-70<(. 
 
 CUNIMARE, The. Heo AMKniciU4 Auoiiiu- 
 nir.H: OfcK oil Coco Oiidi'P. 
 
 CURDS, OR KURDS, The. 8ce CAuntciii, 
 
 CURFEW-BELL, The.—" E.xeept from Its 
 lafliieiu'c iiiioii the im»f;'»»tl'>n, It would lie 
 honlly worth while to notice the legend of the 
 (•urfewlx'll, so coiiimonly supposed to have been 
 Imposed by Willium [the (/'oixiiicror] upon the 
 English, HSU token <u degradation nnd shivery; 
 but tho 'Hquilludi lontano, die puju 11 giorno 
 piangcr rhu si muorc,' was n iinlviirsal ciistoin of 
 policcthroughoiitthu whole of mediaeval Europe, 
 not unconr.eclt'd with devotional feeling." — Sir 
 F. I'ttlgruve, llitt. of Niirmiindji ami Kmj.. r. !), 
 p. iSiT. — " In the year IKXIlj after King Henry's 
 death [Henry 1. of France' In u Synod held ut 
 Caen by Ihe'Duki^'s uuthorlty [Duke William of 
 Normandy, who beciimo In 100(1 the (.'oniiueror 
 and King of Kiiglandl, and uttended bylSishops, 
 Abbots, and Harons, It was ordered tliat u bell 
 Hhouid bu rung every evening, ut hearing of 
 which prayer should bo olTered, and ull people 
 Bhould get within tlieir houses and shut their 
 doors. Tlds «xUl mixture or piety and police 
 seems to be the origin of the fanious and mis- 
 represented Curfew. Whatever was its object, 
 it was at least not ordained as any special hard- 
 ship on William's English subjects." — E. A. Free- 
 man, //»■«<. of tlie Norman (Jonqueat of Eiig., ch. 13, 
 MCt. 8 (f. 8). 
 
 CURIA, Ancient Roman. Sec Comiti.v 
 
 CCKIATA. 
 
 CURIA, Municipal, of the later Roman cn- 
 pire. — Decuriones. — "It is only necessaiy in 
 this work to describe the geneml type of the 
 municipal organization which existed in the prov- 
 inces of the lioman Empire after the time of 
 Constantine. . . . The proprietors of land 'u the 
 Roman provinces genemlly dwelt in town t and 
 cities, lis a protection against brigands am', miui- 
 stealcrs. Every town had an agricultural dis- 
 trict which formed its territory, and the landed 
 proprietors constituted the municipality. Tne 
 whole local authority was vested in an oligarch- 
 ical senate colled tho Curia, consisting probably 
 of one hundred of the wealthiest lauded proprie- 
 tors lu the city or township. This body elected 
 the municipal authorities and officers, ami filled 
 up vacancies in its own body. It was therefore 
 independent of the proprietors from among 
 whom it was taken, and whose interests it ought 
 to have represented. The Curia — not the body 
 of landed proprietors — formed therefore the 
 Roman municipality. The Curia was used by 
 the imperial government as an instrument of 
 fiscal extortion."— Q. Finlay, Greece under the 
 Uomans, ch. 2, sect. 1. — "When the progress of 
 fiscal tyranny had almost sapped the vigor of 
 society, the decuriones [members of the munici- 
 pal curioe, called, also, curiales] . . . being held 
 Joiutly rctiponBible for the taxation, became the 
 
 veriest slaves of th<> rmplre. Ttrspontible Jointly 
 f<ir the taxcH, tin y \m rr. I>y the same token, re- 
 NponKllile for their I'lilliii^'iic^ mid theirHucceiiaors; 
 their estates were iiiiide tlie wciiritles of the Im- 
 iicrlal dues; and if any estate was abandoned by 
 Its proprietor, they were conipellcd to (M'cupy ft 
 and meet the Imposts exigible from It. Yet they 
 could not reliiiiiuish their olllces; they could not 
 leave the city except by Kteallh ; they could not 
 enter the army, or tin- pricHthiMid, or any olllce 
 which might relieve them from municipal func- 
 tioiiH. . . . Even the cliil<in'i> of the (Juriul were 
 iidscribed to his functions, and rouhl engugo In 
 no course of life liiconHlstent willi the onerous 
 and Intoh'rable duty. In short, this dignity was 
 so much aliliorred that the lowest plebeian 
 shunned adinlHsion to It, the membeiH of It made 
 tlieiiiselves lioiiilincn, married slave-wotnen, or 
 jcjined the barliaric hordes in order to escape it; 
 and malefactors, .lews and heretics were somo- 
 
 tiines condemned to it, as an approjirlate penalty 
 
 for their otrenses." — I*. Oim 
 
 Aiiriiiit (Iniil. hk. 3, c//. 8. 
 
 I api)roi 
 wlu, lli 
 
 'int. ofr^anee: 
 
 .\i.Ho I.N: T. H(Klgkiii, Itnlji (imlher Intadert, 
 Ilk. II, (7(. 0. — V. (}ui/,ot, llint. of Cmlitntion, e. 2 
 (r. 1, Fniinr), Icrt. 3.— .Sec, also HoMK: A. D. 
 illlH-^HTK. 
 
 CURIA, Papal.— College of Cardinals.— 
 Consistory. — "The C'ourt of Rome, commonly 
 called the lioman (,'uria, consisted of u number 
 of illgnified ecclesiastics who iissist^-d tho Pope 
 in the executive administration. The FontllT's 
 more intimate advisers, or, us wo should say, his 
 privy council, were the College of C'ardinulH [see 
 P.vp.vcv: A. 1). lO.lU], consisting of a certain 
 number of cardinal bi.sliops, cardinal priests, and 
 cardinal deacons. The cardinal deacons, at first 
 seven and afterwards fourteen in number, wero 
 originally ecclesiastics appointed as overseers and 
 guardians of the sick and poor in the dllTercnt 
 districts of Rome. Equal to them In rank were 
 the fifty cardinal priests, as the chief priests of 
 the principal liomuu churches were called ; who, 
 witli the cardinal deacons, formed, in very early 
 times, the presbytery, or senate of the liishop 
 of Home. . . . According to some authorities, 
 cardinal bishops were instituted in tlie 0th cen- 
 tury ; according to otliers not till the llth, when 
 seven bishops of the dioceses nearest to Romo 
 — Ostiu, Porto, Velitriie, Tusculum, Pncncste, 
 Tibur, and the Sabincs — wcw. adopted by tho 
 Pope partly us his assistaiils in the service of the 
 Liiteran, and partly in the general administration 
 of the Church. In process of time, the appoint- 
 ment of such cardinal bishops was extended not 
 oidy to the rest of Italy but ulso to foreign 
 ciiuncries. Though the youngest of the cardinals 
 in point of time, cardinal bishops wero the high- 
 est in rank, and enjoyed tho pre-eminence in tlie 
 (\)llege. 'i'lieir titles were derived from their 
 dioceses. . . . But they were ulso called by 
 their own names. The number of the cardinals 
 was indefinite and varying. The Council of 
 Basle endeavoured to restrict it to 24. But this 
 was not carried out, and Pope Sixtus V. at 
 length fixed the number at 70. Tho Council 
 called the Consistory, which advised with the 
 Pope both in temiwral and ecclesiastical matters, 
 was ordinarily private, and confined to the car- 
 dinals alone ; though on extraordinary occasions, 
 and for solemn purposes of state, as in the 
 audiences of foreign ambassadors, &c., other 
 prelates, and even distinguished laymen, might 
 
 642 
 
cunrA. 
 
 CYHOncrPflKLM. 
 
 unprar In It."— T. II. Tyor, FTM of MiMkrn 
 
 KiiroiM', «i. 1, /). IW. 
 
 CURIA REGIS OP THB NORMAN 
 
 KINGS.-" Tlu- Ciirlii llcRiH (imil.r tlir Nor- 
 iiijtri KliiK* •>' llnKliiiiil), llic HiipiciiK' trilxinul 
 iif JiKlicjitiirt', of which the KxchciiiKr wiih the 
 hniUK'iiil iK'imrtrnciil or wHsimi, wiix . . . thi> 
 I'oiirt iif the kinff Hllthijt to aihiihihtcr JiiMticr 
 whh the itdvlccof hU <'()iitiH('ll<)rN: thrmc (.'tniii' 
 M-llorg lx'hi)(, III thu whIcMt itcccptatioii, the 
 whole iHidy uf tciinntii-in-i'lilcr, but in tin* iiiori> 
 liiiiltcd iisiiKo, the Kro't otIlccrH nf thu household 
 and HiK'clally appointed judjfi'H. The Kreat 
 j;atlierinKH of the national council may l)u re- 
 yarded as full gcwiions of thi' Curia Heuls, or the 
 Curia \it'nU an a perpetual coiinniltee of tlie 
 national council." — W. Htulilw, I'oiiiit. Hint, nf 
 Hmj., cli. 11, HfCt. 127.— "Not lonj? after the 
 Kinntliiju; of Sla^na ('harta, the Curia I{<'kIh wn>, 
 pcrinaiiently divided into three coinuillteeN o. 
 uuurtii, each taking a certain portion of llie husi. 
 neM: (1) Fiscal matters wen- conllned to llic 
 ExcliC(|iier; ('i) civil disputes, where neither Hie 
 lUnjr's interest nor anv matter savouriiiK of a 
 criminal nalurn were (nvolved, were decided in 
 tliu ('(Miimon Pleas; and (!)) the court of Kind's 
 liencli lelained all 11> vemalninK liusiiu'ss and 
 Hoon ac(|uired the cxciuHlve denomination of tlie 
 nnrient Curia Uej,'ls, Hut the Haine stalf of 
 Judf^es was still retained for all three courts. 
 Willi the chief ju.slieiar at their head. Towards 
 the end of Henry III.'s reign, the three courts 
 received each a distinct statT, anil on tlie abolition 
 by Edward I. of the olllce of chief 1usti<'iar, tlio 
 only remaining bond of union beiiiK severed, 
 they became completely sejianited. Some trace 
 of their ancient unity of orKaiil/.alion always 
 Hurvived, however, in tlie court of Kxclieiiuer 
 Chamber; until at lcii);tli after six centuries of 
 independent existence they were a^aiii united by 
 tlie Judi' ituru Act, 1873. Together wilii the 
 Court of ( ■littiiccry and the Probate, I)lvor('e and 
 Admintlly courts, (hey now form divisions of 
 u con.solidated High Court of Justice, itself a 
 branch of the Supreme (,'ourt of Judicature." — 
 T. P. Taswcli-Laugmead, Eny. Count. Hint., p. 
 154.— "The Aula Regia, or Curia Hegis . . . 
 ha.s been described in various and at lirst siglit 
 coutmdictorv terms. Thus it lias been called 
 tlio higliest Law Court, the Ministry of the King, 
 u Legislative Assembly, &c. The apparent iu- 
 conslsteney of these (lescriptions vanislies <«i 
 closer inspection, mid throw.s great light on ine- 
 (liieval history. For the Curia Regis possessed 
 every attribute which has been ascribed to it." — 
 A. V. Dicey, rZ/f Privy Vouneil, jit. 1. 
 
 Also in : R. Queist, Hist, of tite Eng. Count. , 
 eh. 19. 
 
 CURIALES. See Cimiia, Municipal. 
 
 CURIOSOLITiE, The. See Venkti ok 
 Westeiin GAfl.. 
 
 CURTIS, George W., and Civil-Service 
 Reform. See Civil Seiivice Rekoiim i.n the 
 United States. 
 
 CURULE iEDILES. See Rome: n. C. 
 404-493. 
 
 CURULE CHAIR. — In ancient Rome, 
 "certain high olflcos of state conferred upon 
 the hohler the right of using, upon public 
 occasions, an ivory ciinir of iieculiar form. Tliis 
 chair was termed Sella C'urulis. . . . This was 
 somewhat in the form of a modern camp-stool. " — 
 W. Ramsay, ManualofRmnanAntiq., ch. 2an<i4. 
 
 CURZOLA, Battle of (tao8). flco Genoa: 
 A, I). 1 '.'(1 1-121)1). 
 CUSCO : The Capital of the Incas of Peru. 
 
 See I'l :i(i:: A. 1), I.Vlll-l.MN. 
 
 CUSH.— CUSHITES.- '(lemMls, like the 
 Hebrews of lalir dale. Includes under Hie name 
 of Ciish the natliiiiH dwelling to the Snuth, the 
 -Nubiiiiih. Kthiipphins and tribesof South Arabia." 
 — .M. Diincker, Hint. <f .liili,/,iil!/, M: 2, <■//. 1.— 
 See, also, Hamitkm. and Aiiaiu.v. 
 
 CUSHING, Lieutenant William B.— De- 
 struction of the ram Albemarle. See Tnitei) 
 Statkhok Am. : A. I). IHdl (0( hmikii: Noiitii 
 Cauom.na). 
 
 CUSTER'S LAST BATTLE. Heo United 
 SrvTKh iiK Am.: .\. 1). 1h;(1. 
 
 CUSTOMS DUTIES. See Taiiikk. 
 
 CUSTOMS UNION, The German (Zoll- 
 verein). See Tauikk ; .\. 1). |n:i;i. 
 
 CUSTOZZA, Battles of (1848 and 1866). 
 SeelTAl.v: A. D. |M|.S-1HII); and |H(IMM(1(I. 
 
 CUTLER, Manasseh, and the Ordinance of 
 
 1787. See NoKTIIWUHT TKIlUITUltY OK THE 
 r. S. : A. I). 17H7. 
 CUYRIRI.The. See A.mkuican Aiiouioinem: 
 
 (iVJCK OH ('(MO (illoir 
 
 CYCLADES, The.-SPOKADES, The.- 
 
 " Among tlie Ionic porlioii of Hellas an- to be 
 reckoned (besides Alliens) KulHca, and the nu 
 inenais gnmp of Islands included between the 
 southernmiist Kubiean pniiiiontory, thu caxterii 
 coast of Peloponnesus, anil the northwestern 
 coa.st of KrOle. Of these islands some are to be 
 considered as eiiillyiiig pniloiigatioiis, in a south 
 easterly direction" of the mountain-system of 
 .\lliea; olliers of that of Kiiliiea: wliile a certain 
 launlier <d' them lie apart from eillier system, and 
 seem refenible to a volcahic ori^'iii. To tlie lirst 
 class belong Keos, Kythnus, Sirlplius. Pliolegau- 
 driis, Sikinus, Oya 119, Syra, Pan>s, and Aniipa- 
 ros; to the second class Andnis, TOnos, Alykonos, 
 I)(''los, Naxos, Amorgos; to the thini class Kimo- 
 Ills, Mil'los, Tliera. These islands pa.s.sed amongst 
 the luicienls by the geiienil name of the Cyclades 
 and the Sporades; the former denominalioii being 
 coniinonly understood to compii.se tliose wliiili 
 imuiedialely siirnmnded the sacred i.sland of 
 DOlos, — the latter being given to those whidi lay 
 more scattered and apart. Hut the names are 
 not appl' . witli uniformity or steadiness even in 
 uiiciei' (in. s: at present, tliu whole group are 
 V y kno n by the title of (H'ciiuh'S. — G. 
 linite. If int. <; ' (iiiici; pi. 2, e/i, 12" 
 
 CYDONIA, Battles and siege of (B. C. 71- 
 68). See C ETK; 11. C. (W-liO. 
 
 CYLON, Conspiracy of. See Athens: B. C. 
 
 fll2-r.9.-,, 
 CYMBELINE, Kingdom of. See Culciieb- 
 
 TEII, OllKlIN OK. 
 
 CYMRY, The. See Kv-Mitv, The. 
 CYNOSARGES AT ATHENS, The. Sec 
 Gymnasia, Giikkk. 
 CYNOSCEPHALiE, Battle of (B. C. 364). 
 
 — The battle in which IVIopiilas, the Theban 
 patriot, friend and colleague of Epaminondas, 
 was slain. It was fimglil 15. C. 304, in Tiiessaly, 
 near I'liarsalus, on the lieiglits called Cynoscep- 
 Iiala;, or the Dog's Heads, and delivered the 
 Thcssalian cities fnim tlic encroachments of the 
 tyrant of Phcra;.- C. Thirlwall, Hint, of Greece, 
 ch. 40. 
 (B. C. 197). See Greece: B. C. 214-146. 
 
 (i4a 
 
 / 
 
 J 
 
CTNOSSEMA. 
 
 0YPRU8. 
 
 CYNOSSEMA, Naval battle of.— Two sue- 
 ccssivo niival bitttlcs foiiglit, one iu -Inly mid the 
 Bccond ill OctolKT, IJ. C. 411, liclwceu ilic Adie- 
 niiiDs 1111(1 the I'uloponiicsiiiii nllk's, in the Ilellt'S- 
 pout, uro jointly ciillcd tlic Battle of Cynosseiiia. 
 The name was taken from the headland called 
 Cynossemn, or the " Dog's Tomh," "ennobled by 
 the legend and the chapel of the Trojan queen 
 Ileciilm." The Atlienians had thi^ advantage in 
 both encounters, csjieeially in the latter one. 
 when they were joined by Aleibiades, with re- 
 enforceiiients, just in time to decide the doubtful 
 fortunes of the day. — E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, 
 hk. 4, eh. 5. 
 
 Ai-so in: G. Orotc, Hixt. nf Greece, pt. 2, 
 ch. 03. —Sec Ohf.kck; B. C. 411-407. 
 
 CYNURIANS, The. See Kynuiii.\ks. 
 
 CYPRUS: Origin of the name. — "The 
 Greek name of the island was derived from the 
 abundance in which it produced the beautiful 
 plant (' Cojdier ' ) which furni.shes the ' al-henna,' 
 coveted throughout the Kast for the yellow dye 
 which it communicates to the nails. It was rich 
 io mines of copjier, which has obtained for it the 
 name by which it is known in the modern lan- 
 guagesof the West." — .1. Kenrick, P/ia'niciii, ch. 4. 
 
 Early History. — "Tlic lirst authentic record 
 witli regard to (!yprus is an inscription on an 
 Egyptian tombstone of the ITtli century IJ. C, 
 from which it appears that the island was 
 comiuered by Thotlimes III. of Egypt, in whose 
 reign tlio e.xodiis of the Children of Israel is 
 supposed to have taken jilace. Tliis was no doubt 
 anterior to the establishinent of any Greek colo- 
 nies, and ])robal)ly, also, before the PlKrnicians 
 had settled in the island. ... As appears from 
 various inscriptions and other records, Cyprus 
 became subject successivelv to Egypt, as just 
 mentioned, to Assyria, to fcgypt again in 508 
 B. C, when it was conquered by Amasis, and in 
 'j25 B. C. to Persia. Jleanwhile the power of 
 the Grec!-s had been increasing. . The civili- 
 zation of the West was about to ssert itself at 
 Marathon and Siilaniis; and Cyprus, being mid- 
 wiiy betw(!en East and West, could not fail to lie 
 involved iu tir coming conflict. On the occa.sion 
 of the Ionic revolt [see Pkhsia: B. C. 521-490] 
 the Greek element in Cyprus sliowed its strength : 
 ttud in 502 IJ. C. the whole island, with tlie single 
 exception of the Pha'nieian town of Amathus, 
 took part with the lonians in renouncing the 
 authority of the Persian king." But in the war 
 wliicli followed, the Persians, aided by the Plue- 
 nicians of the mainland, iccoii((Uei'ed Cyprus, 
 and the Cyprian Greeks were long disheartened. 
 Tliey recovered tlieir courage, however, about 
 410 B. C. when Evagoras, ft Greek of the royal 
 liou.se of Teuccr. made him.self master of Sidaniis, 
 and finally establislied a general sovereignty over 
 the island — even e.vtending his power to tlie 
 mainland and subjugating Tyre. "Tiie reign 
 of Evagoras is periiaps the most brilliant period 
 In tlie history of Cyprus. Before his deatli, 
 wliicli took place in 374 B. C, he had raised the 
 island from the position of a mere dependency of 
 one or oilier of the great Eav.tcrn monarchies, had 
 gained for it a nlacc among the leading states of 
 Greece, and had solved the (piestion as to which 
 division of the raicient world the Cyprian people 
 should be assigned. Consc(piently when, some 
 forty years later, the power of Persia was sliat 
 teied by Ale.Miuder the Great at the battle of 
 Issus, the kings of the island hastened to oScr 
 
 him their submisaion as the leader of the Greek 
 race, and sent 120 slii|)s to a.s. 'st him in the siege 
 of Tyre." After Alexander death, Cyprus 
 was disputtd between Antigon..s and Ptolemv. 
 (See MACFiDONi.v: B. C. 310-;i01.) The kino; of 
 Egypt secured llie jirize, and the island reniained 
 under the Greek-Egyptian crown, until it passed, 
 V, itli the rest of the heritage of the Ptoleinys to 
 the Romans. " When the [Homan] empire was 
 iiivided, on the death of Constantine the Great, 
 C^ypriis, like Malta, passed into tlic hands of the 
 Byzantine Emperors. Like Malta, also, it was 
 exposed to frequent attacks from the Araiis: but, 
 although they several times occupied the island 
 and once held it for no less than 100 years, they 
 were always expelled again by the Byzantine 
 Emperors, and never established themselves there 
 as firmly as they did in Malta. Tlie crusades 
 first brought Cyprus into contact with the western 
 nations of modern Europe." — C. P. Lucas, Iliat. 
 Gc(>;i. of liriliKh Colonies, sect. 1, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in: U. II. Lai'g, Ci/prtia, ch. 1-8. — F. 
 Von Loher, C'l/priis, ch. 13 niul 30.— L. P. Dl 
 Cesnola, Vjiprns ; its itiiciciit cities, if-c. 
 
 B. C. 58.— Annexed to the Roman Do- 
 minions. — "The annexation of Cyprus was 
 decreed in 090 [B. C. 58] by the iieople [of 
 Home], that is, by the leailers of the democracy, 
 the support given to piracy by tlie Cypriots 
 being alleged as the olliciiil reason why that 
 course should now be adopted. Jlareus Cato, 
 intrusted by his opponents with the execution of 
 tills measure, came to tlie island witliout an 
 army ; but he had no need of one. The king [a 
 brotlier of the king of Egypt] took poison; the 
 inliabitants submitted witliout offering resist- 
 ance to tlieir inevitable fate, and were placed 
 under the governor of Cilicia. " — T. Monimsen, 
 JIi.st. of litmc, bk. 5, ch. 4. 
 
 A. "D. 117. — Jewish insuriection. — "This 
 rich and ph'usant territory [tlic island of Cyprus] 
 had afforded a refuge to the lews of the contin- 
 ent tlirough three generations of disturbance and 
 alarm, anil the Hebrew race was now [A. D. 117] 
 probably not inferior tliere in number to the 
 native Svrians or Greeks. On the first outburst 
 of a .lewish revolt [againstthe Roman domination, 
 in the last year of tiie reign of Trajan] tlie wliole 
 island fell into tlie hands of the insurgents, and 
 became an arsenal and rallying point for the 
 insurrection, wliicli soon spread over Egypt, 
 (/'yreiu! and Mesopotamia. The leader of the 
 revolt iu Cyprus bore the name of Artemion, 
 but we know no particulars of the war iu this 
 (luarter, except that 340,000 of the native popii- 
 lati(ra is said to Iiave fallen victims to the exter- 
 minating fury of the insurgents. When the 
 rebellion was at last extinguished in blood, the 
 Jews were forbidden tlicnceforth to set foot on 
 the island; and even if driven thither by stress 
 of weather, the penalty of deatli was mercilessly 
 enforced. . . . The .lewish population of Cyre- 
 iiaica outnumbered the natives. . . . The hostility 
 of the .Jews in tliesc parts was less directed 
 against the cntral government and the Roman 
 residents than the native race. ... Of thtse 
 220,000 arc said to have perished." — C. Merivulc, 
 Ilist. of the Romans, ch. 05. 
 
 A. D. 1 191. —Conquest by Richard Coeur de 
 Lion. — Founding of the Latin . Kingdom. — 
 Duri;ig the civil strife and confusion of tlie las*, 
 years of the Comuenian dynasty of emperors at 
 Constantinople, one of the members of the family. 
 
 644 
 
CYPRUS. 
 
 CYRENAICA. 
 
 Isaac Comnenos, secured the Bovcreigntv of 
 Cyprus nnd assumed the title of emperor. With 
 the alliance of tl e king of Sicily, he defeated the 
 Byzantine forces scut against him, and was 
 planted securely, to all appearance, on his newly 
 bidlt throne at the time of the Tliird Crusade. 
 Circumstances at that time (A. D. 1101) gave him 
 a fatal opportunity to provoke the Engli.sh cru- 
 saders. First, lie seized the property and im- 
 prisoned the crews of three Knglish sliips tliat 
 were wrecked on the Cyprian coast. Not satisfied 
 with that violence, he refused slielter from the 
 storm to a vessel which bore Berengaria of Na- 
 varre, the intended wife of King Hichanl. "The 
 kicj of England immediately sailed to Cyprus ; 
 and when Isaac refused to deliver up the ship- 
 wrecked crusaders, and to restore their property, 
 Richard landed his army and commenced a series 
 of operations, which ended in his conquering the 
 whole island, in which he abolished the adminis- 
 trative institutions of the Eastern Empire, en- 
 slaving the Greek race, introducing the feudal 
 system, by which he riveted the chains of a 
 foreign domination, and tlie; -ave it as a present 
 to Guy of Lusignan, the titi-l king of Jerusalem, 
 who became the founiicr c d ''nasty of Frank 
 kings in Cyprus." — O. Pinlay, llut. of the Jlj/znn- 
 tine and Oreek Empires, from 716 to 1453, bk. 8, 
 ell. 3, sect, 1. — Before giving Cyprus to Guy of 
 Lusignan, Richard had sold -ho island to the 
 Templars, and Guy had to pay the knights 
 heavily for the extinguishment of their rights. 
 Richard, therefore, was mther a negotiator than 
 a giver in the transaction. — W. Stubbs, Seventeen 
 Leets. on the Study of Mcdiaval and Modern His- 
 tory, leet. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1 192-1489. — The kingdom under the 
 house of Lusignan. — "The house of Lusignan 
 inaiiitaineil itself in Cyprus for nearly three cen- 
 turies, during which, although fallen somewhat 
 from the blessedness which had been broken up 
 by Isaac Comnenus, the island seems to have re- 
 tained so much fertility and prosperity as to 
 make its later history very dark by contrast. 
 . . . Guy, we arc told, received Cyprus for life 
 only, and did homage for the island to Richard. 
 As lie already bore the title of king, the question 
 whether he should hold Cyprus as a kingdom 
 does not seem to have arisen. ... On his death, 
 in April, 1194, Richard putting in no claim for 
 the reversion, his brother, Amalric of Lusignan, 
 constable of Palestine, entered on the possession 
 as his heir. . . . Amalric succeeded to the crown 
 of Jerusalem; the crown of Jerusalem, «'hich, 
 after the year 1269, became permanently united 
 with that of Cyprus, was an independent crown, 
 and the king oi' Jerusalem an anointed king : the 
 union of the crowns therefore seems to have pre- 
 cluded any question as to tlie tenure by which 
 the kingdom of Cyprus should be held. . . . 
 The homage then due to Richard, or to the crown 
 of England, ceased at the death of Guy." — W. 
 Stubbs, Seventeen Leets. on the Study of Mediaml 
 and Modern Hist., lect. 8. — See, also, .Tehusaleji: 
 A. D. 1291. 
 
 A. D. 1291-1310. — The Knights Hospitallers 
 of St. John. See Hospitalleus op St. John : 
 A. D. 1118-1310. 
 
 A. D. 1489-1570.— A Veoetian dependency. 
 — The last reigning king of Cyprus was James 
 II., a bastard orother of Queen Charlotte, whom 
 he drove from the Cyprint throne in 1464. This 
 king married a Venetian lady, Caterina Comaro, 
 
 in 1471 and was declared to be " the son-in-law 
 of the Republic." The un.scrupulous republic is 
 said to have poi.soned its sonin-law in order to 
 secure the succes-sion. He died in 1473, and a 
 i,on, uorn afti;r his death, lived but two years. 
 Cyprus was then ruled by the Vem^tians for 
 fifteen years in the name of Caterina, who finally 
 renounced her rights wholly iu favor of the re- 
 public. After 1480, until "its conquest by the 
 Turks, Cyprus was a Venetian dependency, in 
 form as well as in fact, but tributary to the 
 Sultan of Egypt. — W. Stubbs, Seventeen Leets. on 
 the Study (f Medicpval and Modern Hist., leH. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1570-1571.— Conquest by the Turks. 
 SeeTuuKs: A. I). 1.166-1.')71. 
 
 A. D. 1821. — Turkish massacre of Chris- 
 tians. SeeGuEECE: A. D. 1821-1839. 
 
 A. D. 1878. — Control surrendered.by Turkey 
 to England. See Tukks: A. D. 1878, The 
 theatieb ok San Stefano and Beiilin. 
 
 CYREANS, The. See Peksia: B. C. 401^ 
 400. 
 CYRENAICA. - CYRENE.— KYRENE. 
 
 — A city, growing into a kingdom, which was 
 founded at an early day by the Greeks, on that 
 projecting part of "the coast of Libya, or northern 
 Africa, winch lies opposite to Greece. The first 
 settlers were said to liavg been from the little 
 island of Tliera, whose people were bold and 
 enterprising. The site they chose "was of an 
 unusual nature, especially for islanders, and lay 
 several miles away from the sea, the shores of 
 which were devoid of natunil bays for anchor- 
 age. But, with this exception, every advantage 
 was at hand : instead of tlio narrow stony soil 
 of their native land, they found the most fertile 
 corn-flelds, a broad table-land with a healthy at- 
 mosphere and watered by fresh springs; a well- 
 wooded coast-land, uni'.aually well adapted for 
 all the natural products which the Hellenes 
 deemed essential ; while in the background spread 
 mysteriously the desert, a world passing the com 
 prehension of the H'jllenes, out of which the Libyan 
 tribes came to the shore with horses and camels, 
 ^ Itli black slav'js, with apes, parrots and other 
 w 'uderful animals, with dates and rare fruits. 
 . . . An abundant spring of water above the 
 shore was the natural point at which the brown 
 men of the deserts and the mariners assembled. 
 Here ref'ular meetings became customary. The 
 bazaar became a permanent market, and the 
 mai'kct a city which arose on a grand scale, 
 broad and lofty, on two rocky heights, which 
 jut out towards the sea from tlie plateau of the 
 desert. This city was called Cyrene. . . . Largo 
 numbers of population immigrated from Crete, 
 the islands and Pelopoi:ncsus. A large amount 
 of new land was parcelled out, the Libyans were 
 driven back, the landin; place became the port 
 of Apollonia, and the tir.itory occupied by the 
 city itself was largely extended. Cyrene be- 
 came, like Massalia, the starting point of a group 
 of settlements, the centre of a oiuall Greece: 
 Barca and Hespcrides [afterwards called Bere- 
 nice] were her daughters. Gradually a nation 
 grew up, whidi extended itself and its agricul- 
 ture, and contrived to cover a large division of 
 African land with Hellenic culture. This v.as 
 the new era which commenced for Cyrene v.ith 
 the reign of the third king, the Battus who, on 
 account of the marvellously rapid rise of his 
 kingdom, was celebrated as "^the fortunate ' in all 
 
 645 
 
CYIIENAICA. 
 
 DACIA. 
 
 Hellas. The Battiodn; [the family or dynasty of 
 Battus] were soon regarded as a great power. " — 
 E. (;iirtiii8, Hist. ofOrreee, bk. 2, ch. 8. — Cyrciinicu 
 became subject to Egypt un(ier the Ptolcmys, 
 and was then usually culled Pcntnpolis, from the 
 five cities of Cyrene, ApoUonia, ArsinoO (lor- 
 merly Teuchira), Berenice (formerly Ilesperis, or 
 Hesperides) and PtolcmaTs (the port of Barca). 
 Later it became a province of tlie Roman Em- 
 pire, and linally, passing under Mahometan rule, 
 sank to its present state, as a district, called 
 Barca, of the kingdom of Tripoli. — Cyreno was 
 csnecially famous for the pnxluction of a plant 
 called silphium — supposed to be nssafcetida — 
 on whicli the ancients seem to liave set an extra- 
 ordinary value. This was one of tlie principal 
 sources of the wealtli of Cyrene. — E. H. Bun- 
 bury, Hist, of Ancient Oeog., ch. 8, sect. 1, and 
 eh. 12, «a(. 2. 
 
 B. C. 525. — Tributary to Persia. Sec Egypt : 
 B. C. 525-382. 
 
 B. C. 322. — Absorbed in the Kingdom of 
 Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus. See Eoyi't : B. C. 
 323-30. 
 
 B. C. 97. — Transferred to the Romans by 
 will. — "In tlie middle of this reign [of Ptolemy, 
 called Lathyrus, king of Egypt] died Ptolemy 
 Apion, king of Cvrene. He was the half-brother 
 of Lathyrus and Alexander, and having been 
 made king of Cyrene by liis father EuergetesH., 
 he had there reigned quietly for twenty years. 
 Being between Egypt and Carthage, then called 
 the lioman province of Africa, and having no 
 army which he could lead against the Koman 
 legions, he had placed himself under the guar- 
 dianship of Borne ; he had bought a truce during 
 his lifetime, by making the Roman people his 
 heirs in his will, so that on his death they were 
 to have his kingdom. Cyrene had been part of 
 Egypt for above two hundred years, and was 
 usually governed by a younger son or brother of 
 the king. But on tibe death of Ptolemy Apion, 
 
 the Roman scnat*", who had latterly been grasp- 
 ing at everything witliin their reacli, claimed his 
 kingdom as tlieir inheritance, and in the flatter- 
 ing language of their decree by which the coun- 
 try was enslaved, they declared Cyrene free." — 
 8. Sharpe. J/iiit. of Kuypt, eh. 11. 
 
 A. D. 117. — Jewish insurrection. See Cv- 
 nius: A. D. 117. 
 
 A. D. 016. — Destroyed by Chosroes. See 
 Eoyi'T: a. I). 616-028. 
 
 7th Century. — Mahometan conquest. See 
 Mahometan Conquest : A. D. 647-709. 
 
 CVRUS, The empire of. Sec Persia: B. C. 
 549-521. 
 
 CYRUS THE YOUNGER, The expedi- 
 tion of. See Peusia: B. C. 401-400. 
 
 CYZICUS : B. C. 411-410, Battles at. See 
 Gueece: B. C. 411-407. 
 
 B. C. 74.— Siege by Mithridateg. — Cyzicus, 
 which had then become one of the largest and 
 wealthiest cities of Asia Minor, was besieged for 
 an entire year (B. C. 74-73) by Jlithridates in tho 
 third Alilhridatic war. The Roman Consul 
 LucuUus came to the relief of the city and suc- 
 ceeded in gaining a position which blockaded the 
 bosiegers and cut off their supplies. In the end, 
 Mitliridates retreated with a small remnant only, 
 of his great armament, and never recovered from 
 the disaster. — G. Iiong, Decline of the lloman 
 Republic, v. 3, ch. 1. 
 
 A. D. 267.— Capture by the Goths. See 
 Goths: A. 1). 258-267. 
 
 CZAR, OR TZAR. See Russia: A. D. 
 1547. 
 
 CZARTORISKYS, The, and the fall of 
 Poland. See Poland: A. D. 1763-1773. 
 
 CZASLAU, OR CHOTUSITZ, Battle of 
 (A. D. 1742). See Austkia: A. D. 1742 (Janu- 
 auy — May). 
 
 CZEKHS, The, See Bohemia : Its peofle. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACHTELFIELD, The. See Saxons: 
 
 A. D. 772-804. 
 
 DACIA, The Dacians. — Ancient Dacia em- 
 braced the district north of the Danube between 
 the Theiss and the Dneister. " The Dacians [at 
 the time of Augustus, in the last half century 
 
 B. C] occupied the whole of what now forms 
 the southern part of Hungary, the Banat and 
 Transylvania. . . . The more prominent part 
 which they henceforth assumed in Roman history 
 ■was probably owing principally to the immediate 
 proximity in which they now found themselves 
 to the Roman frontier. The question of the re- 
 lation in which the Dacians stood to the Qetie, 
 •whom we find in possession of these same coun- 
 tries at an earlier period, was one on which there 
 existed considerable difference of opinion among 
 ancient writers: but tlie prevailing conchision 
 was that they were only different names applied 
 to the same people. Even Strabo, who describes 
 them as distinct, though cognate tribes, states 
 that they spoke the same language. According 
 to his distinction the Qeta> occupied ♦'^ /re 
 easterly regions, adjoining the Euxine, . Die 
 Dacians the western, bordering on the Ger- 
 mans. " — E. H. Bunbury, Uitt. of Amnent Oeog., 
 eh. 20, sect. 1. 
 
 A. D. 102-106.— Trajan's conquest. — At tho 
 
 beginning of the second century, when Trajan 
 conquered the Dacians and added their country 
 to the Roman Empire, "they may be considered 
 as occupying tho broad block of land bounded 
 by the Theiss, the Carpathians, the lower 
 Danube or Ist'er, and the Pruth." In his first 
 campaign, A. D. 102, Trajan penetrated the 
 country to the heart of modern Transylvania, 
 and forced the Dacians to give him battle at a 
 place called Tapoe, the site of which is not 
 known. He routed them with much slaughter, 
 as they had been roated at tho same place, TapoB, 
 sixteen years before, in one of the ineffectual 
 campaigns directed by Domitian. They sub- 
 mitted, and Trajan established strong Roman 
 posts in the country ; but he had scarcely reached 
 Rome and celebrated his triumph there, before 
 the Dacians were again in arms. In tho spring 
 of the year 104, Trajan repaired to the lower 
 Danube in person, once more, and entered the 
 Dacian country with an overwhelming force. 
 This time the subjugation was complete, and the 
 Romans established their occupation of tlie coun- 
 try by the founding of colonies and the building 
 of roads. Dacia was now made a Roman prov- 
 ince, nad "the language of the Empire became, 
 
 646 
 
DACIA. 
 
 DALRIADA. 
 
 and to this day substantially remains, the na- 
 tional tongue of the inlmbitnntB. ... Of the 
 Dnc'an province, the last acquired and the first 
 to be surrendered of the Koman possessions, if 
 we CACcpt some transient occupations, soon to be 
 commumorated, in the East, not many traces 
 nowtxist; but even these may sufflro to mark 
 the moulding power of Ronin:; civilization. . . 
 The accents of the Komar tongue still echo in 
 the valleys of Hungary and Wallachia; the de- 
 scendants of the Dacians at the present day 
 ronudiate the appellation of Wallaclis, or stran- 
 gers, and 8ti'! claim the uame of Komuni. — C. 
 Merivale, Ilitt. of tlie Jicinaiis, ch. 63. 
 
 A. D. 270.— Given up to the Goths. Sec 
 GoTlis: A. D. 268-370. 
 
 4th Century.— Conquest by the Huns. See 
 GoTli8(Vi8iooTHs): A. D. 376, and IIuns: A. D. 
 433^53. 
 
 6th Century.— Occupied by the Avars. See 
 
 AVAUS. 
 
 Modem history. See Balkan and Danubian 
 
 States. 
 
 * 
 
 DACOITS. See Dakoits. 
 
 DACOTAS. See A.MEUICAN ABORiorNEs; 
 Siouan P.\ y, and Pawnee (Caddoan) 
 Family. 
 
 DiEGSAS i AN, Battle of.— Fought, A. D. 
 603, Ixitween the Northumbrians and the Scots 
 of Dalriada, the army of tlio latter being almost 
 wholly destroyed. 
 
 DAGOBERT I., King of the Franks (Neus- 
 tria), A. D. 63(M}38; (Austrasia), 633-633; 
 
 (Burgundy), 638-638 Dagobert II., King of 
 
 the Franks (Austrasia), A. D. 673-678. 
 
 Dagobert III,, King^of the Franks (Neustria 
 DAHIS, The. See Balkan and Danubian 
 
 and Burgundy), 
 
 King ( 
 , A. D. 
 
 711-715. 
 
 States, 14Tii-19Tn CENTuniEs (Seuvia). 
 
 DAHLGREN, Admiral John A.— Siege of 
 Charleston. See United States ov Am. : A. D. 
 1863 (July, and August— Decembeh: S. Cauo- 
 lina). 
 
 DAHLGREN, Ulric— Raid to Richmond. 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1864 (Feb- 
 ruauy— Mahcii: Virginia). 
 
 DAKOITS.— DAKOITEE.—Tlie Dakoits of 
 India, who were suppressed soon after the 
 Thugs, were "robbers by profession, and even 
 by birth." Dakoitee "was established upon a 
 broad basis of hereditary caste, and was for the 
 most part an organic state of society. ' I have 
 alwajjs followed the trade of my ancestors, 
 Dakoitee,' said Lukha, a noted Dakoit, who 
 subsequently became approver. ' JI.v ancestors 
 held this profession before me,' said another, 
 ' and we train boys in the same manner. In my 
 caste if tliere were any honest persons, i. e. , not 
 robbers, they would be turned out.' " The hunt- 
 ing down of the Dakoits was begun in 1838, 
 under the direction of Colonel Sleeinan, who had 
 already hunted down the Thugs. — J. W. Kaye, 
 The Administration of the East India Co. , pt. 3, 
 c!i. 3. 
 
 DAKOTA, North and South : A. D. 1803.— 
 Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. See 
 Louisiana: A. D. 1798-1803. 
 
 A. D. 1834-1838. — Partly joined, in succes- 
 sion, to Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa 
 Territories. See Wisconsin: A. D. 1805-1848. 
 
 A. D. 1889.— Admission to the Union. See 
 United States op Am. : A. D. 1889-1890. 
 
 647 
 
 DAKOTAS. Sec American Anoninmns; 
 SiorAN Family and Pawnee (Caddoan) Family. 
 
 DALAI LAMA. See Lamas. 
 
 DALCASSIANS. — The people of North 
 Munster liguie jjrominently under that name in 
 ear'y Ir:;h history. — T. Moore, Jlist. of Inland, 
 r. 3. 
 
 DALHOUSIE, Lord, The India adminis- 
 tration of. See India: A. D. 1845-1849; .'848- 
 1856; and 1853. 
 
 DALMATIA.— "The narrow strip of land on 
 the eastern side of the Iladriatic on which the 
 name of Dalmatia has settle<l down has a history 
 which is strikingly analogous to its scenery. . . . 
 As the cultivation and civilization of the land 
 lies in patches, as harbours and cities alternate 
 with barren hills, so Dalmatia has played a part 
 in history only by fits and starts, "fhis fitful 
 kind of history goes on from the days of Qrcek 
 colonics and Illyrian piracy to the last war 
 between Italy and Austria. But of continuous 
 history, steadily influencing the course of the 
 world s progress, Dalmatia has none to show. " — 
 E. A. F' I'einan, Subject and Neighbour Land* of 
 Venice, ^ p. 85-87. 
 
 Also in: T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Qttar- 
 nero and htria, eh. 1-3. — See, also, Illyricum 
 OF the Ro.MANS; Salgna ; and Balkan and 
 Danubian States. 
 
 6th-7th Centuries : Slavonic occupation. See 
 Slavonic Peoples: 6tii and 7tii Centuries; 
 also, Balkan and Danubian States: 7tii Cen- 
 tury. 
 
 A. D. 944. — Beginning of Venetian Con- 
 quest. S-'e Venice: A. 1). 810-901. 
 
 A. D. 1 102. — Conquest by the king of Hun- 
 gary. See Hungary: A. D. 973-1114. 
 
 14th Century. — Conquest from the Venetians 
 by Louis the Great of Hunga. Sec Hun- 
 gary: A. D. 1301-1443. 
 
 i6th Century. — The Uscocks. See Uscockb. 
 
 A. D. 1694-1696. — Conquests by the Vene- 
 tians. See Turks: A. D. 1684-1606. 
 
 A. D. 1699. — Cession in great part to Venice 
 by the Turks. See Hungary: 1683-1699. 
 
 A. D. 1797. — Acquisition by Austria. See 
 France: A. D. 1797 (May— October). 
 
 A. D. 1805. —Ceded by Austria to the king- 
 dom of Italy. See Germany: A. D. 1805-1806. 
 
 A. D. 1809. — Incorporated in the Illyrian 
 Provinces of Napoleon. See Germany: A. D. 
 1809 (July — September). 
 
 A. D. 1814. — Restored to Austria. — Austria 
 recovered possession of Dalmatia under the ar- 
 rangements of the Congress of Vienna. 
 
 DALRIADA.—" A district forming tlie north- 
 east corner of Ireland and comprising the north 
 half of the county of Antrim, was called Dal- 
 riada. It appears to have been one of the earliest 
 settlements of the Scots among the Picts of Ulster 
 and to have derived its name from its supposed 
 founder Cairbre, surnamed Kighfhada or Hiada. 
 It lay exactly opposite the peninsula of Kintyre 
 [Scotland] from whence it was separated by a 
 part of the Irish channel of no greater breadth 
 than about fourteen miles ; and from this Irish 
 district the colony of Scots, which was already 
 Christian [fifth century] passed over and settled 
 in Kintyre and in the island of Isla " — establish- 
 ing a Scotch Dalriada. — W. P. Skene, Celtic 
 Scotland, bk. 1, ch. 3. — For some account of the 
 Scotch Dalriada, see SccTi,AND: 7th Century. 
 
DAMASCUS. 
 
 DANTZIC. 
 
 DAMASCUS, Kingdom of.— The kingdom 
 of I)anui8ciis, or " Aram of Damascus" as it was 
 entillc'il, was formed soon after tliat Syrian region 
 threw olT tlie yoke of dependence wliicli David 
 and Solomon liad imposed upon it. " Hezon, 
 the outhiw, was its founder. Huder, or Hadad, 
 and Himmon, were tliccliief divinities of tlie race, 
 and from tliem the line of its kings derived tlieir 
 names, — Hadnd, Ben-hadad, Hwlad-ezer, Tab- 
 rimnion. — Dean Stanley, LecU. on the Ilist. of 
 the JewUh Church, led. 33. — " Though frequently 
 captured and plundered in succeedmg centuries 
 by Kgypt and Assyria, neither of those nations 
 ■was able to hold it long in sul)jcction because of 
 the other. It was probably a temporary repulse 
 of the Assyrians, under Sfialmaneser II., by the 
 Damascene general Naaman to which reference 
 is made in 2 Kings v. 1 : ' by him the Lord had 
 given deliverance unto Syria.' . . . After the 
 great conquerors of Egypt and Asia, each in liis 
 day, had captured and plundered Damascus, it 
 was taken without resistance by Pannenio for 
 Alexander the Great [B. C. 3381 In it Pompey 
 spent the proudest year of his life, 64 B. C, dis- 
 tril)uting at his pleasure the thrones of the East 
 to the vassals of Borne. Cleopatra liad received 
 tlie city lis a love-gift from Mark Antony, and 
 Tiberius had bestowed it upon Herod the Great, 
 before Aret is of Petra, the father of the princess 
 whom IIerip<l Antipas(livorced for Herodias' sake, 
 and the rule." whose olHcers watched the city to 
 prevent the esuape of Paul, made it, we know 
 not how, a part of his dominions." — W. B, 
 Wright, Ancient Cities, ch. 7. 
 
 A. '3, 634. — Conquest by the Arabs. See 
 MAMj.MbiAN Conquest: A. D. 638-639. 
 
 A. D. 661. — Becomes the seat of the Cali- 
 phat'i. See Maho.metan Conquest: A. D. 661. 
 
 A. D. 763.— The Caliphate transferred to 
 Bag<lad. See Mahometan Conquest: A. D. 
 763. 
 
 A. D. 1 148-1217.— Capital of the Atabeg 
 and t:he Ayoubite sultans. Sec Saladin, The 
 Empike ok. 
 
 A. D. 1401. — Sack and massacre by Timour. 
 See TiMouii. 
 
 A. D. 1832.— Capture by Mehemed Ali. 
 See Turks: A. D. 1831-1840. 
 
 DAMASUS II., Pope, A. D. 1048, July to 
 August. 
 
 DAMIETTA: A. D. 1219-1220.— Siege, 
 capture and surrender, by the Crusaders. Sec 
 Ckubades: a. 1). 1216-1229. 
 
 A. D. I249-I250.— Capture and loss by Saint 
 Louis. See Cuusades: A. D. 1248-1254. 
 
 A. D. 1252.— Destruction by the Mamelukes. 
 — "Two years after the deliverance of the king 
 [Saint Louis], and whilst he was still in Pales- 
 tine, the Mamelukes, fearing a fresh invasion of 
 the Fronks, in order to prevent their enemies 
 from taking Damietta and fortifying themselves 
 in that city, entirely destroyed it. Some years 
 after, as their fears were not yet removed, and 
 the second crusade of Louis IX. spread fresh 
 alarms throughout the East, the Egyptians 
 caused immense heaps of stone to be cast into 
 the mouth of the Nile, in order that the Christian 
 fleets might not be able to sail up the river. 
 Since that period a new Damietta has been built 
 at a small distance from the site of the former 
 city." — J. F. Michaud, Hist, of the Ci-usade*, 6A.14. 
 
 DAMNONIA. See Britain : 6th Centubt. 
 
 DAMNONII, OR DAMNII, The. ^ee 
 
 Dumnonii. 
 
 DAMOISEL. — DAMOISELLE. — DON- 
 ZELLO. — "In medinsval Latin 'domicella' is 
 used for the immarried daugliter of a prince or 
 noble, and 'domicelliis,' contracted from 'dom- 
 nicellus,' the diminutive of 'dominus,' for the 
 s.in. These words are the forerunners of the old 
 French 'dftmoisel ' in the masculine, and 'damoi- 
 sclle ' in tlie feminine gender. Froissart calls 
 Hichard, prince of Wales, son of Edward : ' le 
 jeune damoisil Richart.' In Romance the word 
 is indifferently 'dainoiscl' and 'danzel,' in Ital- 
 ian ' donzello. All of these are evidently titles 
 imder the same notion as that of child and 
 ' enfant,' of whicli the idea belongs to the knights 
 of an earlier period." — R. T. Hanipson, Oriyine* 
 Patriciip, p. 328. 
 
 DANAID.£, The. See Anaos.- Ahgous. 
 
 DANCING PLAGUE. See Plaque, A. D. 
 1374. 
 
 DANDRIDGE, Engagement at. Sec United 
 States op Am. : A. D. 1803-1864 (Decembeu— 
 ApittL : Tennessee — Mississippi). 
 
 DANEGELD, The.— "A ta.\ of two shillings 
 on the hide of hiLii, originally levied as tribute to 
 the Danes under Ethelred, but continued [even 
 under the Plantagenets], like the income tax, as 
 a convenient ordinary resource." — W. Stubbs, 
 The Early Plantagenets, p. 53. — See England: 
 A. D. 979-1016. 
 
 DANELAGH, OR DANELAGA, OR 
 DANELAU.— The district in England held l-y 
 the Danes after their treaty with Alfred the 
 Great, extending south to tlie Thames, the Lea 
 and the Ouse ; north to the Tynt; ; west of the 
 mountain district of Yorkshire, Westmoreland 
 and Cumberland. "Over all this region the 
 traces of their colonization abound in the vil- 
 lages whose names end in by, the Scandinavian 
 equivalent of the English tun or ham." — W. 
 Stubbs, Const. Hist. qfEng., ch. 7, sect. 77.— See, 
 also, England: A. D. 855-880. 
 
 DANES AS VIKINGS. See, also, Kor- 
 MAN8. — Northmen. 
 
 In England. See England: A. D. 855-880, 
 979-1016, and 1016-1042; also Normans: A. D. 
 787-880. 
 
 In Ireland. Sec Ireland: Oth-IOth Cen- 
 turies. 
 
 • 
 
 DANITES, The. See Mormonism: A. D. 
 1830-1846. 
 
 DANTE AND THE FACTIONS OF 
 FLORENCE. See Florence: A. D. 1295- 
 1300; und 1301-1313. 
 
 DANTON AND THE FRENCH REVO- 
 LUTION. See France : A. D. 1791 (October), 
 to 1793-1794 (November— .luNE). 
 
 DANTZIC : In the Hanseatic League. See 
 Hansa Towns. 
 
 A. D. 1577. — Submission to the king of Po- 
 land. See Poland: A. D. 1574-1590. 
 
 A. D. 1793. — Acquisition by Prussia. See 
 Poland: A. D. 1793-1790. 
 
 A. D. 1806-1807.— Siege and capture by the 
 French. See Germany : A. D. 1807 (Pebruakt 
 -June). 
 
 A. D. 1807.— Declared a free state. See 
 Germany : A. D. 1807 (June— July). 
 
 A. D. 1813. — Siege and capture by the Al- 
 lies. See Germajjy: A. D. 18113 (October — 
 December). 
 
 648- 
 
ETAKA. 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 DARA,— One of tlio capitals of the Parthian 
 kings, the site of which has not ''?en identifled. 
 
 DARA, Battle of (A. D. 529). See Pehsia : 
 A. I). 2a(M!27. 
 
 DARDANIANS OF THE TROAD. See 
 Tkoja; and Asia Minou: Tiik Urekk Colonies; 
 also, Amoiiiteb. 
 
 DARIEN, The Isthmus of. See Panama. 
 
 The Scottish colony. See Scotland: A. D. 
 
 loy.'i-iniM). 
 
 DARINI, The. See Ikbland, Tribes of 
 
 EAULY O.LTIC INUAHITANTS. 
 
 DARIUS, King of Persia, B. C. .'531-486 
 
 Darius II., B. C. 42.5-405 Darius III. 
 
 (Codomannus), B. C. 336-331. 
 
 DARK AGES, The.— Tlie historical period, 
 so-called, is nearly identical with that more com- 
 monly named the Middle Ages; but its duration 
 may be properly considered as less by a century 
 or two. Prom tlie 5th to the 13th century is a 
 definition of the pcrio<l which most historians 
 would probably accept. See Middlk Ages. 
 
 DARORIGUM.— Modem Vannes. See 
 Vexeti op Westekn Gaul. 
 
 DAR-Ul.-ISLAM AND DAR-UL-HARB. 
 — "The Koran divides the world into two 
 portions, the House of Islam, Dar-ul-Islam, and 
 the House of War, Dar-ul-hurb. It has generally 
 been represented by Western writers on the in- 
 stitutes of >Iahometanism and on the habits of 
 JIaliometan nations, tluit the Dar-ul-harb, the 
 House of War, comprises all lands of the mis- 
 believers. . . . There is even a widely-spread 
 idea among superticial talkers and writers that 
 the lioly iiostility, the .Jehad [or Dhihad] of 
 M\issulman8 against non-Mussulmans is not 
 limited to warfare between nation and nation; 
 but that ' it is a part of tlie religion of every 
 Maliometan to kill as many Christians as pos- 
 sible, and that by counting up a certain num- 
 ber killed, tliey think themselves secure of 
 heaven.' But careful historical investigators, 
 and statesmen long practically conversant with 
 Mahometan populations have exposed the fallacy 
 of such charges against those who hold the 
 creed of Islam. ... A country which is under 
 Cliristian rulers, but in which Mahometans are 
 allowed free profession of their faith, and peace- 
 able exercise of their ritual, is not a portion of 
 the House of War, of the Dar-ul-harb ; and there 
 Is no religious duty of warfare, no Jehad, on the 
 part of true Mussulmans against such a state. 
 This has been of late years formally determined 
 by the chief authorities in Mahometan law with 
 respect to British India."— Sir E. S. Creasy, 
 JIut. of the Ottoman Turks, eh. 6. 
 
 DASTAGERD.— Tlie favorite residence of 
 the last great Persian king and conqueror, Chos- 
 roes (A. D. 590-028), was fixed at Dastagerd, 
 or Artemita, sixty miles north of Ctesiphon, 
 and east of tlie Tigris. His palaces and pleasure 
 grounds were of extraordinary magnificence. — 
 E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Uoman Em- 
 pire, eh. 46. 
 
 DASYUS. See India : The aboriginal in- 
 habitants. 
 
 DAUPHINS OF FRANCE.— DAU- 
 PHINE.— In 1349, Philip VI., or Philip de 
 \'alois, of France, acquired by purchase from 
 Humbert II., count of Vienno, tlie sovereignty 
 of the province of Dauphine. This principality 
 became from that time the appanage of the 
 eldest sons of the kings of France and gave them 
 
 ''' 649 
 
 their pcewHar tinmfi or title of the DniiphioK 
 The title in question had been borne by th? 
 counts of Vieune (in Dauphine), "on account 
 of the dolphin which they carried upon their 
 helmets and on their armorial bearings." — E. 
 De Bonnechose, Jliiit. of France, bk. 2, eh. 'i, foot- 
 note. 
 
 Also in: E. Smedley, llUt. of France, pt. I, 
 eh. 9.— See, also, Buikuwdy: A. D. 1137-1378. 
 
 DAVENPORT, John, and the founding of 
 New Haven Colony. See Connecticut: A.I). 
 1038, and 1039. 
 
 DAVID, King of Israel and Judah. See 
 Jews: The Kingdoms of Iskaei. ind Judaii, 
 
 and jEnuRALEM: Conquest, &c David I.,. 
 
 King of Scotland, A. D. 1124-1153 David 
 
 II., 1329-1370. 
 
 DAVIS, Jefferson.— Election to the Presi- 
 dency of the rebellious " Confederate States." 
 See United States ok Am. : A. D. 1861 (Fkb- 
 
 iiuahy) Flight and capture. See United 
 
 States op Am. : A. I). 1865 (Ariui .May). 
 
 DAVOUT, Marshal, Campaigns of. Sec 
 Germany: A. D. 1806 (Octobkk); 1806-1807; 
 1807 (February — June); also Russia: A. D. 
 1812; and Germany: A. D. 1813-1813; 18!a 
 (Auoust), (October — December). 
 
 DAY OF BARRICADES, The. See 
 France: A. D. 1.5H4-1.589. 
 
 DAY OF DUPES, The. See France: A. D. 
 1030-10.'}3. 
 
 DAY OF THE SECTIONS, The. Sec 
 France: A. I). 1795 (October — December). 
 
 DAYAKS, OR DYAKS, The. See Ma- 
 layan Kace. 
 
 DEAK, Francis, and the recovery of Hun- 
 garian nationality. See Austria : A. D. 1800- 
 1867. 
 
 DEAN FOREST.— The "Royal Forest of 
 Dean," situated in the southwestern angle of the 
 county of Gloucester, Eftgland, between the 
 Severn and tlie Wye, is still so extensive that it 
 covers some 23,000 acres, though much reduced 
 from its original dimensions. Its oaks and its 
 iron mines have played important parts in British 
 history. The latter were worked by the Romans 
 and still give employment to a large number of 
 miners. The former were thought to be so es- 
 sential to the naval power of England that the 
 destruction of the Forest is said to have been one- 
 of the special duties prescribed to the Spanish 
 Armada. — J. C. Brown, Forests of Eng. 
 
 DEANE, Silas, and the American transact 
 tions with Beaumarchais in France. See 
 United States op Am. : A. I). 1776-1778. 
 
 DEARBORN, General Henry, and the War 
 of 1812. See United States op Am. : A. D. 
 1812 (June — October), (Septe.mber — Novem- 
 ber); A. D. 1813 (October — November). 
 
 DEBRECZIN, Battle of (1849). See Aus- 
 tria: A. D. 1848-1849. 
 
 DEBT, Laws concerning: Ancient Greek.. 
 — At Athens, in the time of Solon (Otii century, 
 B. C.) the Tlictes — "the cultivating tenants, 
 metayers and small proprietors of the country 
 . . . are exhibited as weighed down by debts 
 and dependence, and driven in large numbers 
 out of a state of freedom into slavery — the 
 whole mass of them (we are told) being in debt 
 to the rich, who were proprietors of the greater 
 part of the soil. They Iiad either borrowed 
 money for their own necessities, or they tilled 
 the lauds of the rich as dependent tenants, pi>y- 
 
DEBT. 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 Ing a Btlpuliitod portion of the produce, and in 
 thJH capiicity they were largely in arrear. All 
 the calnniitouH ellectH were liere seen of the old 
 harsh law of debtor and creditor — once prevalent 
 in Greece, Italy, Asia, and a large portion of the 
 world — combined with the recognition of slavery 
 as a legitimate status, and of the right of one man 
 to sell himself as wi^ll as that of another man to 
 buy him. Every debtor unable to fulfil his con- 
 tract WHS liable to bo adjudged as the slave of his 
 creditor, until he could find meanseitherof paying 
 it or working it out; and not only ho himself, 
 but his minor sons and unmarried daughters and 
 sisters al.so, whom the law gave him the power 
 of selling. T!ie poor man tluis borrowed upon 
 the security of his body (to translate literally the 
 Greek phrase) and upon that of the persons in 
 his family. So severely had these opiiressive con- 
 tracts been enforced, that many debtors had 
 been reduced from freedom to slavery in Attica 
 itself, — manj- others bad been sold for expor- 
 tation, — and some had oidy hitherto preserved 
 their own freedom by selling their children. 
 ... To their relief Solon's first measure, the 
 memorable Seisachtheia, shaking off of burthens, 
 was directed. The relief which it afforded was 
 complete and immediate. It cancelled at once 
 all those contracts in which the debtor had 
 borrowed on the security either of his person or 
 of his land : it forbade all future loans or con- 
 tracts in wlrfcli the person of the debtor was 
 pled ijed as security: it deprived the creditor in 
 luturo of all power to imprison, or enslave, or 
 extort work from, his debtor, and C(raflned him 
 to an effective judgment at law authorizing the 
 seizure of the property of the latter. It swept off 
 all the numerous mortgage pillars from the landed 
 properties in Attica, leaving the land free from 
 all past claims. It liberated and restored to their 
 full rights all debtors actually in slavery under 
 previous legal adjudication ; and :t even provided 
 the means (we do not know how) of re-purchas- 
 ing in foreign lands, and bringing back to a 
 renewed life of liberty in Attica, many insolvents 
 who had been sold for exportation. And while 
 Solon forbad every Athenian to pledge or sell 
 his own person into slavery, he took a step 
 farther in the same direction by forbidding him 
 to pledge or sell his son, his daughter, or an 
 unmarried sister under his tutelage — excepting 
 only the case ir. which either of the latter might be 
 detected in uncbastity. . . . One thing is never to 
 be forgotten in regard to this measure, combined 
 with the concurrent amendments introduced by 
 Solon in the law — it settled finally the question 
 to wliich it referred. Never again do we hear 
 of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing 
 Athenian tranqviility. The general sentiment 
 which grew up at Athens, under the Solonian 
 money-law and under the democratical govern- 
 ment, was one of high respect for the sanctity of 
 contracts. . . . There can be little doubt that 
 under the Solonian law, which enabled the 
 creditor to seize the property of his debtor, but 
 gave him no power over the person, the system 
 of money-lending assumed a more beneficial 
 character." — G. Groto, Hist, of Oreece, pt. 3, e/i. 
 11 (v. 8). 
 
 Ancient Roman.— "The hold of the creditor 
 was on the person of the debtor. The obliga- 
 tion of a debt was a tying up or binding, or bond- 
 age, of the person: the payment was a solu- 
 tion, a loosing or release of the person from that 
 
 bondage. The property of the debtor was not a 
 pledge for the debt. It could be made bo by 
 speciitl agreement, though in the earliest law 
 only by transferring it at once to the ownership 
 of the creditor. Without such special agree- 
 ment, the creditor whose debtor failed to pay 
 could not touch his property. Even when the 
 debtor had been prosecuted and condemned to 
 pay, if he still failed, the creditor could not 
 touch his property. lie could seize his person — 
 I speak now of the early law, in the first cen- 
 turies of the republic — and after holding him 
 in rigorous confinement for sixty days, with 
 opportunities, however, either to pay himself or 
 get somebody to pav for him, if p.iyment still 
 fulled, he could sell him as a slave, or ]>ut 
 him to death; if there were several creditors, 
 they could cut his bmiy into pieces and divhio 
 it among them. This extreme severity was 
 afterward softened; but tlie principle ninaincd 
 long unchanged, that the hold of the creditor 
 was on the person of the debtor. If the debto"- 
 obstinately and to the last refused to sunen- 
 dcr his property, the creditor could not touch 
 it." — J. Iladley, Intvod. to Jioinan Imw, lect. 10. 
 — "During the first half of the Samnitc war 
 [B. C. 326-304], but in what year is uncertain, 
 there was passed that famous law which pro- 
 hibited personal slavery for debt. No creditor 
 might for the future attach the person of his 
 debtor, but he might only seize his property; 
 and all those whose personal freedom was 
 pledged for their debts (nexi), were released 
 from their liability, if they could swear that they 
 had property enough to meet their creditors 
 demands. It docs not appear that this great 
 aitenition in the law was the work of any tribune, 
 or that it arose out of any general or deliberate 
 desire to soften the severity of the ancient prac- 
 tice. It was occasioned, we are told, by one 
 scandalous instance of abuse of power on the 
 part of a creditor. . . . But although personal 
 slavery for debt was thus done away with, yet 
 the consequences of insolvency were much more 
 serious at Home than they are in modern Europe. 
 He- vhose property had once been made over to 
 his creditors by the praetor's sentence, became, 
 ipso facto, infamous; he lost his tribe, and with 
 it all his political riglits ; and the forfeiture was 
 irrevocable, even though he might afterwards 
 pay his debts to the full ; nor was it oven in the 
 power of the censors to replace him on the roll of 
 citizens. So sacred a thing did credit appear in 
 the eyes of the Romans." — T. Arnold, Ilkt. of 
 liome, ch. 33 {v. 2). 
 
 In England. — "Debt has been regarded as a 
 crime by primitive society in every part of the 
 world. In Palestine, as in Rome, the creditor 
 had power over tlie person of the debtor, and mis- 
 fortune was commonly treated with a severity 
 which was not always awarded to crime [Levit. 
 XXV., 39-41, and 3 Kings iv., 1]. In this 
 country [England] the same system was grad- 
 ually introduced in Plantagenet times. The 
 creditor, who had been previously entitled to 
 seize the goods, or even the land of the debtor, 
 was at last authorised to siize his person. In 
 one sense, indeed, the English law was, in this 
 respect, more irrational than the cruel code of 
 the Jews, or the awful punishment [death and 
 dismemberment or slavery — Gibbon, ch. 441 
 which the law of the Twelve Tables reserved 
 for debtors. lu Palestine the creditor was, at 
 
 650 
 
DEBT. 
 
 DEBT. 
 
 least, entitled Ui the service of the debtor or of 
 Ills cliiUlrcn, und the hIuvu liiul tlie prospect of 
 nil Insolvent Debtor's Relief Act in tlie 8iil)- 
 biUiciil yt'iir. Even tlie law of tlie Twelve 
 Tallies allowed the creditors to sell tlie debtor 
 Into slavery, instead of r sorting to the horrible 
 alternative of partitioniiij; his Ixnly. But in 
 England the creditors had no such choice. They 
 had notliing to do but to throw the debtor Into 
 prison; and by his iiniirisonment deprive them- 
 selves of the only chance of his earning money 
 to pay their deb's. \ law of this kind was 
 intolerable to a commercial people. The debtor 
 laugulslicd lu gaol, the creditor failed to obtain 
 payment of Ills debt. Wlien trmle increased in 
 Tudor times, the wits of legislators were exer- 
 cised In devising some expedient for satisfying 
 tlie creditor without imprisoning the debtor. 
 The Chancellor was authorised to appoint com- 
 niissloncrs empowered to divide the debtor's 
 property among the creditors. By an Act of 
 Anne the debtor who complied with the law was 
 released from further liability, and was prac- 
 tically enabled to commence life anew. In 1820, 
 a debtor was allowed to procure his own banlc- 
 ruptcy; while in 1831, commissioners were ap- 
 pointed to carry out the armngements which 
 had been previously conducted under tlie Court 
 of Chancery. The law of bankruptcy wliich 
 was thus gradually developed by the legislation 
 of three centuries only applied to persons in 
 trade. No one who was not a trader could 
 become a bankrupt ; the onllnary debtor became 
 as a matter of course an insolvent, and passed 
 under the insolvent laws. The statutes, more- 
 over, omitted to give any very plain definition 
 of a trader. The distinction between trader and 
 non-trader which had been gradually drawn by 
 the Courts was not based on any very clear prin- 
 ciple. A person who made bricks on his own 
 estate of his own clay was not a trader ; but a 
 person who bought tlie clay and then made 
 the bricks was a trader. Farmers, again, were 
 exempt from the bankruptcy law ; but farmers 
 who purchased cattle for sale at a profit were 
 liable to it. The possibility, moreover, of a 
 trader being made a bankrupt depended on the 
 size of his business. A petitioning creditor in 
 bankruptcy was required to be a person to whom 
 at least £100 was due; if two persons petitioned, 
 tlieir debts were required to amount to £150; if 
 more tlian two persons petitioned, to £200. A 
 small shopkeeper, therefore, wlio could not hope 
 to obtain credit for £200, £150, or £100, could 
 not become a bankrupt ; he was forced to become 
 an insolvent. The treatment of the insolvent 
 was wholly different from that of tlie bankrupt. 
 The bankruptcy law was founded on the prin- 
 ciple tiiat the goods and not the person of the 
 debtor should be liable for the debt; the insol- 
 vency law enabled the person of the debtor to be 
 seized, but provided no maclilnery for obtaining 
 his goods. ... Up to 1838 the first step in insol- 
 vency was the arrest of tlio debtor. Any person 
 who made a deposition on oath tliat some other 
 person was in debt to him, could obtain bis 
 arrest on what was known as 'mesne process.' 
 The oath might possibly be untrue; the debt 
 might not be due; tiie warrant issued on the 
 sworn deposition as a matter of course. But, in 
 addition to the imprisonment on mesne process, 
 the insolvent could be imprisoned for a furtlier 
 period on what was known as 'final process.' 
 
 Imprisonment on mesne process was the course 
 whieli llie creditor t(M)k to prevent thellightof 
 the debtor; imprisonment on final process was 
 the punishment which the Court awarded to the 
 crime of debt. Siicli a system woiikl Iiave lieen 
 bad enough If the debtors' prisons had been well 
 managed. The actual eondl.lon of these prisons 
 almost exceeds belief. Dickens, indeed, has 
 made tlie story of a debtor's iiiipris(mment In 
 the Marshalsea familiar to a worlii of readers. 
 . . . The Act of 1813 had done something to mltl- 
 
 gate the misery which the law occasioned. The 
 ourt which was constituted by It released 
 50,000 debtors in 13 years. But large numbers 
 of pi^rsons were still detained in pri.son for debt. 
 In 1827 nearly 6,000 persons were committed In 
 Ijondon alone for delit. The Common Law Com- 
 missioners, reporting In 1830, declared that the 
 loud and (,"iieral omplaints of the law of insol- 
 vency were well founded; and Cottenlmm, in 
 1838, Introduced a bill to abollsli imprisonment 
 for debt, in ad cases. Tlie Lonls were not pre- 
 pared for so complete a remedy ; they declined 
 to abolish Imprisonment on final process, or to 
 exempt from imprisonment on mesne process, 
 persons who owed more than £20, and who were 
 about to leave the country. Cottenhaiii, disap- 
 pointed at tliese amendments, decided on strength- 
 ening his own liands by instituting a fresh 
 in(|uiry. He appointed a commission in 1831), 
 wlilch reported in 1840, and which recommendeil 
 the abolition of imprisonment on final process, 
 and the union of bankruptcy and insolvency. 
 In 1841, in 1842, In 1843, and in 1844 Cottenlmm 
 intr(xluced bills to carry out this report. The 
 bills of 1841, 1843, and 1843 were lost. Tlie bill 
 of 1844 was not much more successful. Brough- 
 am declared that debtors who refused to dis- 
 close their property, who refused to answer 
 questions about it, wlio refused to give it up, or 
 who fraudulentlv made away with It, as well as 
 debtors who had been guilty of gross extrava- 
 gance, deserved Imprisonment. He introduced 
 an alternative bill giving tlio Court discretionary 
 power to Imprison them. The Lords, bewildered 
 by the contrary counsels of two such great law- 
 yers as Cottenham and Brougham, decided on 
 referring botii bills to one Select Committee. 
 The Committee preferred Brougham's bill, 
 amended it, and returned it to the House. This 
 bill became ultimately law. It enabled both 
 private debtors and traders whose debts 
 amounted to less tlian the sums named in tlie 
 Bankruptcy Acts to become bankrupts; and it 
 abolished imprisonment In all coses where the 
 debt did not exceed £20."— S. Wolpole, Hist, of 
 Eng.from 1815, ch. 17 (». 4). 
 
 In the United States. — "In New York, by 
 the act of April 30, 1831, c. 300, and which went 
 into operation on Marcli 1st, 1833, arrest and 
 imprisonment on civil process at law, and on exe- 
 cution In equity founded upon contract, were 
 abolished. The provision under the act was not 
 to apply to any person who should have been a 
 non-resident of the state for a month preceding 
 (and even this exception was abolished by the 
 act of April 25tli, 1840); nor to proceedings as 
 for a contempt to enforce civil remedies; nor to 
 actions for fines and penalties; nor to suits 
 founded in torts . . . nor on promises to marry ; 
 or for moneys collected by any public officer; or 
 for misconduct or neglect in office, or in any pro- 
 fessional employment. The plaintiff, however, 
 
 661 
 
DEBT. 
 
 DECLARATION OF PARIS. 
 
 In any »ijlt, or upon any Ju<lgmcnt or docrpc, 
 mny apply U) a ju 'i;e for a warnuit to arrcHt tlio 
 dcf(tn(lant, upon attldavit Htntinf^ a debt or de- 
 mand due, to more than l)5U; and that the de- 
 fendant Is alK)Ut to remove property out of the 
 iuriiwliction of the court, with intent to defraud 
 his creditors; or tliat ho has property or riglits 
 in action which lie fraudulently conceals; or 
 
 public or corporate stock, money, or evidences of 
 " Ich he unj 
 
 the plalntllT ; or tliat lie has assigned, or is about 
 
 debt, which lie unjustly refuses to apply to the 
 payment of the Judgment or decree in favor of 
 
 to assign or dispose of his property, with intent 
 to def niud Ills creditors ; or has fraudulently con- 
 tracted the debt, or Incurred the obligation re- 
 Bpecting which the suit Is brought If the judge 
 Buall be satisfied, on due examination, of the 
 truth of the charg(!, hi: Is to commit the ilebtor to 
 Jail, unless he complies with certain prescribed 
 conditions or some one of tliem, and which are 
 calculated for the security of the plaintiff's claim. 
 Nor is any execution against the body to be Is- 
 sued on justices' judgments, except in cases 
 essentially the same with those above sttkted. 
 ... By the New York act of 1848, c. 150, the 
 defendant Is liable for Imprisonment as in actions 
 for wrong, if he be sue<l and judgment pass 
 against him In actions on contracts for moneys 
 received by him (and it applies to all male per- 
 sons) in a nduciary character. The legislature of 
 Massacliusetts, In 1834 and 1842, essentially abol- 
 ished arrest and imprisonment for debt, unless on 
 proof that the debtor was about to abscond. As 
 early as 1790, the constitution of Pennsylvania 
 established, as a fundamental principle, that 
 debtors should not be continued in prison after 
 surrender of tlieir estates in the mode to be pre- 
 scribed by law, unless in cases of a strong pre- 
 sumption of fraud. In February, 1819, the leg- 
 islature of that state exempted women from 
 arrest and imprisonment for debt ; and this pro- 
 vision as to women was afterwards applied In 
 New York to all civil actions founded upon con- 
 tract. . . . Females were first exempted from 
 imprisonment for debt in Louisiana and Missis- 
 sippi ; and imprisonment for debt, in all cases free 
 from fraud, is now abolished in each of those 
 states. The commissioners in Pennsylvania, In 
 their report on the Civil Code, in January, 1885, 
 recommended that there be no arrest of the bo<ly 
 of the d' lor on mesne process, without an am- 
 davit of ilie debt, and that the defendant was a 
 non-resident, or about to depart without leaving 
 sufficient property, except in cases of force, 
 fraud, or deceit, verified by affidavit. This sug- 
 gestion was carried into effect bv the act of the 
 legislature of Pennsylvania of July 12th, 1842, en- 
 titled ' An Act to abolish imprisonment for debt, 
 and to punish fraudulent debtors.' In New 
 Hampshire, imprisonment on mesne process and 
 execution for debt existed under certJiin qualifi- 
 cations, until December 23, 1840, when it was 
 abolished by statute, in cases of contract and 
 debts accruing after the first of March, 1841. In 
 Vermont, imprisonment for debt, on contracts 
 made after first January, 1889, is abolished, as to 
 resident citizens, unless there be evidence that 
 they are about to abscond with their property ; 
 so, also, the exception in Mississippi applies to 
 cases of torts, frauds, and meditated conceal- 
 ment, or fraudulent disposition of property." 
 — J. Kent, Commentaries on American Law; 
 td. by 0, W, Holmes, Jr., v. H (foot-note).— •'In 
 
 many states the Constitution provides (A) that 
 there shall be no Imprisonment for debt: Ind. 
 C. 1, 22; Minn. C. 1, 12; Kan. C. B. Rts. 18; 
 Md. C. 8, 88; N.C. C. 1, 10; Mo. C. 2, 18; Tex. 
 C. 1, 18; Ore. C. 1, 19; Nov. C. 1, 14; 8. C. C. 
 1, 20; Oa. C. 1, 1, 21; Ala. C. 1,21; Miss. C. 1, 
 11; Fla. C. Decl'n Rts. 15. (B) That there shall 
 be no Imprisonment for debt (1) In any civil action 
 on mesne or final process, in seven states: O. C. 
 1, 15; lo. C. 1, 10; Neb. C. 1, 20; Tenn. C. 1, 18^ 
 Ark. C. 2, 10; Cal. C. 1, 15; Ore. C. 1, 15; Ariz. 
 
 B. Rts. 18. (2) In any action or Judgment 
 founded upon contract, in three states: N.J. C. 
 1, 17; Mich. C. 0, 83; Wis. C. 1, 18. (C) In six, 
 that there shall be no person imprisoned for debt- 
 in any civil action when he has delivered up 
 his property for the l)enefit of his creditors in the- 
 manner pret ribed by law: Vt. C. 2, 88; R. I. 
 
 C. 1, 11; Pa. C. 1, 16; 111. C. 2, 12; Ky. C. 13, 
 19; Col. C. 2, 13. , . . But the above principle* 
 are subject to the following exceptions in the 
 several states respectively: (1) a debtor maybe 
 imprisoned in criminal actions ; Tenn. So (2) for 
 the non-payment of fines or penalties imposed by 
 law: Mo. So (3) generally, in civil or criminal 
 actions, for fraud :Vt., R. 1, N. J., Pa., O., Ind., 
 111., Mich., lo., Minn., Kan.. Neb., N. C, Ky., 
 Ark., Cal., Ore., Nev., Col., 8. C, Fla., Ariz. 
 And so, in two, the legislature has power to pro- 
 vide for the punishment of fraud and for reach- 
 ing property of the debtor concealed from hi* 
 creditors: Ga. C. 1, 2, 8; La. C. 223. So (4) ab- 
 sconding debtors may be imprisoned : Ore. Or 
 debtors (5) in cases of libel or slander: Nev. (8) 
 In civil cases of tort generally: Cal., Col. (7> 
 In cases of malicious m.schief: Cel. (8) Or of 
 breach of trust: Mich., Ariz. (0) Or of moneys- 
 collected by public officers, or in any professional 
 employment: Mich., Ariz." — F. J. Stimson, .4m. 
 Statute Law : Digest of Const' s and Civil Pxtblie 
 Statutes of all the States and Territories relating 
 to Persons and Property, in force Jan. 1, 1886, 
 art. 8. 
 
 « 
 
 DECADI OF THE FRENCH REPUB- 
 LICAN CALENDAR. See Fkance: A. D. 
 1703 (OcToiiEii). The new republican calendar. 
 
 DECAMISADOS, The. See Spain: A. D. 
 1814-1827. 
 
 DECATUR, Commodore Stephen.— Burn- 
 ing of the "Philadelphia." See Barbaht 
 
 States: A. D. 1803-1805 In the War of 
 
 x8i2. See United States op Am. : A. D. 1818- 
 1813; 1814. 
 
 DECCAN, The. See India: The Name; 
 and Immiqbation and conquests of thb- 
 
 DECELIAN WAR, The. See Greece: 
 B. C. 413. 
 
 DECEMVIRS, The. See Rome: B. C. 451- 
 449. 
 
 DECIUS: Roman Emperor. A. D. 249-251. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 (American). See United States op Am. : A. D. 
 1776 (January— June), and (July) ; also, Inde- 
 pendence Hall. 
 
 DECLARATION OF PARIS, The.— "At 
 the Congress of Paris in 1856, subsequently to 
 the conclusion of the treaty, which ended the 
 Crimean war [see Russia: A. D. 1854-1856], a 
 declaration of principles was signed on April 
 16th, by the plenipotentiaries of all the powers 
 represented there, which contained four articles; 
 
 652 
 
DECLARATION OF PARIS. 
 
 DEIRA. 
 
 'First, PrlvntotTins Ib and rpmninfi nboliitlipd. 
 Scroml, The lU'utraT (lag covers enemies' groxls, 
 with the exception of contrubunil of wiir. Third, 
 N(!Utnil g(X)dH, except of contralxiiid of war, are 
 not liable tn capture under an enemy's Mag. 
 Fourth, Blockades, to he hiniling, must he 
 effective — tliat is to say, maintained hy a force 
 really sufficient t^) prevent access to tlie coast of 
 tlie enemy.' The mlhercnco of other nowers was 
 requestedf to these principles," nnd all Joined In 
 signing It except the United Ste'es, Spain, and 
 Mexico. The objection on the pait of the United 
 States was stated in a circular letter hy Mr. 
 Marcy, then Secretary of Staic, who " maintained 
 tliat the right to resort to privateers Is as incon- 
 testable as any other right appertaining to bel- 
 ligerents; and reasone(l that the effect of the 
 declaration would be to Increase the maritime 
 preijonderance of Great lirltnln and France, with- 
 out even Iwnefiting the general cause of civiliza- 
 tion; while. If public ships retjilned the right of 
 capturing privaK! property, the United States, 
 which had at that time a large mercantile marine 
 and a comnaratively small navy, would be de- 
 prived of all means of retaliation. . . . The Presi- 
 dent proposes, therefore [wrote Mr. Marcy] to 
 add to the first proposition contained in the decla- 
 ration of the Congress of Paris the following 
 words: 'and that the private property of tlie 
 subjects and citizens of a belligerent on the high 
 seas shall be exempted from seizure by public 
 armed vessels of the other belligerent, except It 
 be contraband.'. . . Among the minor states of 
 Europe there was complete unanimity and a 
 general readiness to accept our amendment to 
 the rules"; but England opposed, and the of- 
 fered amendment was subsequently withdrawn. 
 "Events . . . have shown that . . . our refusal 
 to accept the Declaration of Paris hi.s brought 
 the world nearer to the principles which we pro- 
 posed, which became known as the ' Marcy 
 amendment for the abolition of war against pri- 
 vate property on the seas.''' — E. Schuyler, 
 Amencan Diplomacy, ch. 7. 
 
 Also in : F. Wharton, IHgMt of the Interna- 
 tional law of the U. 8., eh. 17, sect. 342 (». 8).— 
 H. Adams, Historical Essays, ch. 6. — See, also, 
 
 Pll I V AT EK Rfi. 
 
 DECLARATION OF RIGHTS. See Eng 
 LAND: A. D. 1689 (Januauv— Februatiy). 
 
 DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF 
 MAN, French Revolutionary. See France: 
 A. I). 1780 (AiiotisT — OcTonKH). 
 
 DECLARATORY ACT, The. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1766. 
 
 DECRETA, Roman imperial. See Corpus 
 Juris Civilis. 
 
 DECRETALS, The False. See Papacy: 
 A. D. 829-847. 
 
 DECUMiE. See Vfxtioal. 
 
 DECUMATES LAND. See Aori Dkcu- 
 MATES, also Alemanni ; and Scevi. 
 
 DECURIONES. Sec Curia, Municipal, op 
 THE later Roman Empire. 
 
 DEDITITIUS.— COLONUS.— SERVUS. 
 —"The poor Provincial [of the provinces of the 
 Roman empire at the time of the breaking up In 
 the fifth century] who could not fly to the Goths 
 because his whole property was in land, hunted 
 to despair by the tax-gatherer, would transfer 
 that land to some wealthy neighbour, appar- 
 ently on condition of receiving a small life 
 annuity out of it. He was then called the Dediti- 
 
 tlus (or Surrenderer) of the new owner, towards 
 whom he sttKul in a position of a Certain degree 
 of dependence. Not yet, how.ver, were his sor- 
 rows or those of his family at an end, for the 
 t4ix-gathcrer still regarded hint as responsible for 
 his land. ... On his death his sons, wlio had 
 utterly lost their paternal Inheritance, and sfill 
 found themselves confronted with the claim for 
 taxes, were obviously without reso\irce. The 
 next stage of the pnJcess acconllngly was that 
 they abdicated the position of free citizens and 
 implored the great man to accept theui as ColonI, 
 a class of labourers, half-free, half-enslaved, 
 who may perhaps with sutllclent accuracy be 
 comiiared to the serfs ' adscrlpti glebie ' of the 
 middle ages. . . . Before long they became 
 mere slaves (Servi) without a shadow of right or 
 claim against their new lonls." — T. Ho<Igkin, 
 Italy and her Invaders, bk. 1, ch. 10.— With the 
 "Increase of great estates and simultaneous in- 
 crease In the number of slaves (so many Goths 
 were made slaves by Claudius [A. D. 268-270], 
 to give one Instance, that there was no', a district 
 wlUiout them), the small proprietors co\d(l no 
 longer maintain the fruitless struggle, and, as a 
 class, wholly disappeared. Some, no doubt, be- 
 came soldiers; others crowded into the already 
 overflowing towns; while others voluntarily re- 
 signed their freedom, attached themselves to the 
 land of some rich proprietor, and became his 
 villeins, or colonl. But this was not the chief 
 means by which this class was formed and in- 
 creased. . . . After a successful war these serfs 
 were given ... to landed proprietors without 
 payment ; and in this way not only was the class 
 of free peasants diminished or altogether de- 
 stroyed — a ha;3pier result — the slave system was 
 directly attacked. The colonl themselves were 
 not slaves. The codes directly dlstiiii,'ulsh them 
 from slaves, and In several imperial constitutions 
 they are called 'iugenui.' They could contract 
 a legal marriaf;e and could hold property. . . . 
 On the other hind, the coloni were like slaves in 
 that they were liable to personal punishment. 
 ... A colonun was indissolubly attached to the 
 land, and could not get quit of the tie, even by 
 enlisting as a soldier. The proprietor could sell 
 him wiUi the estate, but had no power whatever 
 of selling him without it; and if he sold the 
 estate, he was compelled to sell the coloni along 
 with it. . . . The position of these villeins was 
 a very miserable one. . . . These coloni in Gaul, 
 combined together, were joined by the free 
 peasants still left [A. D. 287], whose lot was not 
 less wretched than their own, and forming into 
 numerous bands, spread themselves over the 
 country to pillage and destroy. They were 
 called Uagauela!, from a Celtic word meaning a 
 mob or riotous assembly; and under this name 
 recur often In the course of the next century 
 both in Gaul and Spain."— W. T. Arnold, T/ie 
 Soman System of Provincial Administration, 
 eh. 4. 
 
 DEEMSTERS. See Manx Kingdom, The. 
 
 DEFENDERS. See Ireland: A. I). 1784. 
 
 DEFENESTRATION AT PRAGUE, 
 The. See Bohemia: A. D. 1611-1618. 
 
 DEFTERDARS. See Sublime Porte. 
 
 DEICOLiE, The. See Culdees. 
 
 DEIRA, The kingdom of.— One of the king- 
 doms of the Angles, covering'what is now called 
 the East Riding of Yorkshire, with some terri- 
 tory beyond it. Sometimes it was united with 
 
 653 
 
DBIRA. 
 
 DELAWARE, 1688-1640. 
 
 thn klnf^dom of B<'nilcla, north of It, to form the 
 greater kingdom of Nortliuin1)riit. Hvu Eno- 
 land: a. I) r)47-«.I!l. 
 
 DEKARCHIES. 8to Hpaiita: H. C. 404- 
 4o:i. 
 
 DEKELEIA.-DEKIiLEIANWAR. H(<. 
 Ghkkck; H. C. 4i;J. 
 
 DELATION. - DELATORS. — I'lidir Hid 
 empire, tlieru was H'Min lircd iit Home an Infii- 
 mouH claxM of nu-n v. ho lM)ro u certain reitcmbliinee 
 — witli sifrnitlcani. cimtrastH liltewlse — to the 
 aynopliantii of Atliens. Tliev were l<nown an 
 dclatora, and 'Jieir occnpation v/m dehition. 
 "Tlie delator ivas properly one who gave notice 
 to the fiscal olllcen* of moneys that had Iwcome 
 due to the treasury of ihi^ state, or more strictly 
 to the emperor's tlsciiH. " Hut the title was ex- 
 tended to Informers generally, who dragged their 
 fellow-citizens before the trilnmalfl for alleged 
 vlolutl'ins of law. Augustus miule delatiim a 
 profe'islon by attAching rewards to the Informa- 
 tion given against transgressors of his marriage 
 laws. Under the successor of Augustus, the 
 sullen and suspicious Tiberius, delation received 
 its greatest encouragement and di^velopment. 
 'Aca)rdlng to the spirit of Roman criminal pro- 
 ce<lure, the Informer and the pleader were one 
 and the same person. There was no publk; ac- 
 cuser, . . . but the spy who discovered the 
 delinquency was himself the man to demand of 
 the scnatt', the prwtor or the judge, an oppor- 
 tunity of proving it by his own eloquence and 
 Ingenuity. The otiium of prosecution was thus 
 removed from tlio government to the private 
 delator." — C. Merlvole, Jliit. of t/u Romans, ch. 
 44.— See, also, Rome: A. D. 14-87. 
 
 DELAWARE BAY: A. D. 1609.— Dis- 
 covered by Henry Hudson. >See A.hkrica: 
 A. I). 1009. 
 
 The error perpetuated in its name. — "Al- 
 most every writer on American history that I 
 have met with appears to have taken pains to 
 perpetuate the stereotyped error that ' Lord Dela- 
 warr touched at this bay In his passage to Vir- 
 ginia in 1610.' . . . Lord Dclaworr himself, in 
 his letter of the 7Ui of July, 1610, giving an 
 account of his voyage to Virginia, not only 
 makes no mention of that bay, or of his ap- 
 proaching it, but expressly speaks of his first 
 reaching the American coast on the ' 6th of June, 
 at what time we made land to the southward of 
 our harbor, the Chosiopiock Bay.' The first 
 European who is really known to have entered 
 the bay, after Hudson, was Capt. Samuel Argall 
 [July 1610]. . . . The name of Lord Delawarr, 
 however, seems to have been given to the bay 
 soon afterwanls by the Virginians. " — J. R. Broti- 
 head, Ilitt. of the State of N. Y., v. 1 , apj). , note D. 
 
 DELAWARE: A. D. 1620-1631.— The 
 Dutch occupancy and first settlement. — The 
 first attempt at settlement on the Delaware was 
 made by the Dutch, who claimed tlie country in 
 right of Hudson's discovery and Mey's explora- 
 tion of the Bay, notwithstanding the broad Eng- 
 lish claim, which covered the whole of it as part 
 of an indefinite Virginia. In 1629, pursuant to 
 the patroon ordlaance of the Dutch West India 
 Company, which opened New Netherland terri- 
 tory to private purchasers, "Samuel Godyn and 
 Samuel Blommaert, both directors of the Amster- 
 dam Chamber, bargained with the natives for 
 the soil from Cape Henlopen to the mouth of 
 
 DoIaw;irc river ; in July, 1680, this purchnsr of 
 an eslate more than thirty miles long was ratitled 
 at Fort Amsterdam by MInidt [then Governor of 
 New Netherland] and his council. It Is tliu 
 oldest deed for land In Delaware, and comnriHes 
 the water-line of the two southern counties <if 
 that slate. ... A ('ompany was s<K)n forn\ed to 
 colimize the tract acquired by Oodyn and Hloni- 
 maert. The first settlement in Delaware, older 
 than any In Pennsylvania, was undertaken Ity 
 a (!onii)any, of which GcMlyn, Van Rensselaer, 
 Blommaert, the historian De Laet, and a new 
 partner, Davh' Petersen de Vries, were n«'ml)erH. 
 By joint enterprise, In December, 16!M), a ship of 
 18 guns, commanded by Meter Ileyes, and laden 
 with emigrants, store of seeds, cattle and agricul- 
 tural implements, embarked from the Texel, 
 Sartly to cover the southern shore of Delawara 
 ay with fields of wheat and tobacco, and partly 
 for a whale fishery on the coast. . . . Early In 
 the spring of 1031, the . . . vessel reached its 
 destination, and just within Cape Henlopen, <m 
 Lewes Creek, planted a colony of more than 
 thirty soids. The superintendence of the settle- 
 ment was intrusted to Gillis Ilosset. A little fort 
 was built and well beset with palisades: the arms 
 of Holland were affixed to a pillar; the country 
 receivi'd the name Swaanendael; the water that 
 of Godyn's Bay. The voyage of Heyes was the 
 cradling of astute. That Delaware exists as a 
 separate commonwealth is due to this colony. 
 Accoriling to English rule, occupancy was neces- 
 sary to ccmiplete a title to the wlldenicss; and the 
 Dutch now occupied Delaware. On the 5th of 
 May, Heyes ond Hosset, in behalf of Godyn and 
 Blommaert, made a further purchase from Indian 
 chiefs of the opposite coast of Cape May, for 
 twelve miles on the bay, on the sea, and in tlie 
 interior; and, in June, this sale of a tract twelve 
 miles square was formally attested at Manhat- 
 tan. Animated by the rciuuge of Godyn, tho 
 patroons of 8waanei;iiael fitted out a second ex- 
 pedition under the command of De Vries. But, 
 iwfore he set sail, news was received of the de- 
 struction of the fort, and the murder of its people. 
 Hassct, the commandant, had caused the death 
 of an Indian chief; and the revenge of the sav- 
 ages was not appeased till not one of the emi- 
 grants remained alive. De Vries, on his orrival, 
 found only the ruins of the house and its pali- 
 sades, half consumed by fire, and hero and there 
 the bones of the colonists." — Q. Bancroft, UUt. 
 of the IT. S., pt. 2, ch. 13 (». 1). 
 
 Ahso IN: J. R. Brodhead, Hist, of the State at 
 N. Y., r,. 1, ch. 7. 
 
 A. D. 1632. — Embraced in the Maryland 
 erant to Lord Baltimore. Sec Makyland: 
 A. D. 1633. 
 
 A. D. 163^. — Embraced in the Palatine grant 
 of New Albion. See New Aluion. 
 
 A. D. 1638-1640. — The planting of the 
 Swedish colony. — "William Usselmx, a dis- 
 tinguished merchant in Stockholm, was the first 
 to propose to the Swedish government a schemo 
 for planting a colony in America. He was a 
 native of Antwerp, and had resided in Spain, 
 Portugal and the Azores, at a time wlien the 
 spirit of foreign adventure pervaded every cloas 
 of society. ... In the year 1624 he proposed 
 to the Swedish monorch, Qustavus Adolphus, 
 a plan for the organization of a trading com- 
 pany, to extend its operations to Asia, Africa, 
 America and Terra Magellanica. . . . Whether 
 
 654 
 
DELAWARE, l«88-lft40. 
 
 DELAWARE, l(M(V-lMfl. 
 
 Ussclliix Imd pvor l)Opn in Amrrini i<i tmrrrtnln. 
 bill III' IiikI, fxioii uftcr tlip or^'iiiii/.ittioii nf the 
 Diitrli SVi'st Iiiillii (,'ompiiny, si.im' connrctioii 
 witli it, unit by tliix iiiiil oilier iiu'iinN wiih uIiIc 
 to Kivu iiiiipitt infiinimtion In relation to tlie 
 country lK)r(ierin(; on tlu^ Deliiwiire, IIm soil, 
 clinmtc, 1111(1 |ir<Kliu'lions. . . . His plnii unit 
 contract weri) IninHliited into the SwedlNli inn- 
 gunge l>y Scliniiler, tlic royal interpreter, and 
 pulilislied to tlie nation, witli an uddretiH 8tron>{ly 
 appealing iKitli to their piety and tlieir love of 
 gain. Tlie kinjf reconiniended it to tlie States, 
 and nn edict dated at Htoel<liolni, .Inly M, Witt, 
 waB iKHiied by royal authority, in wlileh people 
 of all ranks were invited to encouniue tlie pro- 
 ject and 8upiM)rt the Company. IJooks were 
 opened for subscription to tlii! stock . . . and 
 (iiistavus pledged the royal treasure for its sup- 
 port to tliu amount of 400,(H)0 dollars. . . . Tlie 
 work was ripe for e.\eciitii)n, wlicn tlie (icrinan 
 war ftho Thirty Years War], and afterwards the 
 king 8 deatli, prevented it, and rendered tlu^ fair 
 prospect fruitless. . . . Tlie next iittempt on the 
 part of the Swedes to plant a colony in America 
 was more successful. But there has lieen much 
 difference among liistorians in relation to the 
 
 fiuriod when that settlement was made. ... It 
 sowing to the preservation, among the Diitcli 
 rcconls at Albany, of an oHicial protest Issued 
 by Kieft, the Governor at New Amsterdam, tliat 
 wo do certainly know the SwedeS were here in 
 the spring of 1038. Peter Minuit, who conduct. d 
 to our sliorc the first Hwedisli colony, liad been 
 Commercial Agent, and Director General of the 
 Dutch West Indio Company, and Governor of 
 the New Netherlands. ... At this time Christina, 
 tlie infant daughter of Qustiivus Adolphus, had 
 ascended the throne of Sweden. . . . Under the 
 direction of O.xenstiern, the celebrated chancellor 
 of Sweden, whoso wisdom and virtue liave shed 
 a glory on the oge in which lie lived, the patent 
 which had been granted in the reign of Oiistavus 
 to the company formed under the influence of 
 Usselinx was renewed, and its privileges extended 
 to the citizens of Germany. Minuit, being now 
 out of employment, and probably deeming him- 
 self injured by the conduct of the Dutch Com- 
 pany [which had displaced him from the gov- 
 ernorship of tlie New Netherlands, tlirougli the 
 influence of the patroons, and appointed Wouter 
 Van Twiller, a clerk, to succeed him], had 
 determined to offer his services to tlie crown 
 of Sweden. . . . Minuit laid before tlie clian- 
 cellor a plon of procedure, urged a settlement 
 on the Delaware, and offered to conduct the 
 enterprise. Oxenstiern represented the case to 
 the queen . . . and Minuit was commissioned to 
 command and direct the expedition." — B. Ferris, 
 Hist, of the Original Settlements vn the Delaware, 
 pt. 1, ch. 2-3. — " Witl. two ships laden with pro- 
 visions and other supplies requisite for the settle- 
 ment of emigrants in a new country, and with 
 fifty colonists, Minuit sailed from Sweden late in 
 1637, and entered Delaware Bay in April, ^838. 
 He found the country as he had left it, without 
 white inhabitants. Jlinqua Kill, now Wilming- 
 ton, was selected as the place for the tirst settle- 
 ment, where he bought a few acres of land of 
 the natives, landed his colonists and stores, 
 erected a fort, and began a small plantation. He 
 had conducted his enterprise with some secrecy, 
 that he might avoid collision with the Dutch ; 
 but the watchful eyes of their agents soon dis- 
 
 covered him, and reported his presenon to the 
 direriorat New AniHtenlaiii. Kieft I siicceNsor to 
 Van Twiller] had just arrived, and it became 
 one of his first duties to notify a man who had 
 preceded lilni in ofllce that be was a trespasser 
 and warn liini off. Miiiiiil, knowing that Kieft 
 was powerless to enforic his protest, being with- 
 out troops or money, paid no attention to his 
 missive, and kciit on with his work. ... Ho 
 erected a fort of coiiHiderable strength, named 
 I i^ristina, for flu- Swedish (|ueeii, and garrisoned 
 it with 'J4 soldiers. Understanding the character 
 of the Indians, lie conciliated their sachems by 
 liberal presents and secured llw' trade. In a few 
 montlis he was eiuihleil to loud Ills ships witli 
 peltries and despatch them to ids patrons. . . . 
 Tlie colony had to all appearance a promising 
 future. . . . Within two years, however, their 
 prospects were clouded. Tlie Company had 
 failed to send out another ship with sujipiles and 
 nierchaiidise for the Indian traiU'. i'rovisiona 
 failed, trade fell otT, and sickness began to pre- 
 vail. . . . They resolved to remove to Manhattan, 
 where they could at least have "enough to eat.' 
 On the eve of ' breaking up ' to carry their res- 
 olution into effect, succor came from an un- 
 expected (piarter. Tlie fame of New Sweden, 
 as the colony was called, of its fertile lands 
 and profitable trade, had reached other nations 
 of Kurope. Tn Holland itself a company was 
 formed to esti' blisli a settlement under tlie pat- 
 ronage of the Swedish Company." This Dutch 
 company "freighted o sliip witii colonists and 
 supplies, wliich fortunately arrived when the 
 Swedisli colony was about to be broken up and 
 the country abandoned. The spirits of the 
 Swedes were revived. . . . Their projected re- 
 moval was indefinitely deferred and they con- 
 tinued their work with fresii vigor. The Dutch 
 colonists were located in a Kettlcmeul by tiieni- 
 selves, only a few miles from Fort Christina. 
 Tliey were loyal to the Swedes. ... In the 
 autumn of the same year, 1640, I'eter Hollacnd- 
 arc, who liad been iijipointed deputy governor 
 of the colony, and Moens Kling, arrived from 
 Sweden witli three ships laden with provisions 
 and merchandise for the straitened colonists. 
 They also brought out a considerable company 
 of new emigrants. New Sweden was now well 
 established and prosperous. More lands were 
 bought, and new settlements were made. Peter 
 Minuit died tlie following year." — G. W. Schuy- 
 ler, Colonial New York, v. 1, introd., sect. 2. 
 
 Also in: I. Acrelius, Hist, of New Sweden 
 (Penn. Hist. Soe. Mem., v. 11) ch. 1. — Docs, rela- 
 tive to Col. Hist. ofN. Y V. 12.— O. B. Keen, 
 New Sweden {Narrative a k/ Critical Hist, of Am., 
 V. 4, ch. 9). — J. F. Jameson, Willem Usselinx 
 (Papers of the Am. Hist. Assn., v. 3, tio. 8). 
 
 A. D. 1640-1643.— Intrusions of the English 
 from New Haven. See New Jeksey: A. D. 
 1640-1655. 
 
 A. D. 1640-1656.— The stmegle between the 
 Swedes and the Dutch and tne final victory of 
 the latter. — "The [Swedish] colony grow to 
 such importance that John Printz, a lieutenant- 
 colonel of cavalry, was sent out in 1642 as gov- 
 ernor, with orders for developing industry and 
 trade. He took pains to command the mouth of 
 the river, although the Dutch had established 
 Fort Nassau on its eastern bank, and the Swedish 
 settlements wore on the western bank exclusively. 
 Collisions arose between the Dutch and the 
 
 656 
 
DELAWARE, l(MO-lflfl«. 
 
 DELAWARE, IflM-lTM. 
 
 0Mta| nnil whi'ii tlio rirnii-r put up thn nmii 
 OfuMBtati-H Oi'iiiTiil on tliciompli'tliin of n nur- 
 ohaM of Iniidit from lint IikIIuiim, I'riiitz In ii 
 
 SaMion oriU'ri'd tlii'ni to tut torn down. Tliu 
 wihIpd K'dnrd in Ntrfn^tli while tlic Dutch Itmt 
 Kround In tlni vicinity. In UMH tlitt Dutch 
 uttt'Miptcd to hulld a triidlriK poNt on thcHchuyl- 
 kill, when they were repulw'd hy force by the 
 HweiU'H. IndlvldiiiilH HeckhiK to erect Iioumch 
 were treated In the Hunie wuy. The Sweden In 
 turn Het up It Htockiide on the diNpuled ground. 
 Dlri'ctor Hluyvewmt found It neccHSiiry in 1(151 
 to go to confer with I'rint/, with u view to hold- 
 ing the country ugidnMt the iif^greHMlve KngllHli. 
 The Indliiu.s were called Into council una con- 
 tinned the Dutch titli', allowing the 8w(Mleg 
 little more than the Kite of Fort Christina. Fort 
 Cusimir wan erected lower down the river, to 
 protect Dutch IntereatH. The two rulers agreed 
 to be frienclH and allicH, and bo continued for 
 three yearB. Tlit' dlHtrcHH if the Swedinh colony 
 led to appoaU for aid from the honiu country 
 whitlier Uovemor I'rint/. had returned. In 1054 
 help wiiH given, and a new governor, Jolui 
 Claude Uygingh, marked IiIh coming liy tlic cap- 
 ture of Fort Caaimir, pretending that tlie Dutch 
 AVest India Company authorized tlio act. Tho 
 only revenge tlie Dutch could take wa» the 
 seizure of a HwedlHh vessel wlilch by mistako 
 ran into Manhattan Day. But tliu next year 
 orders came from Holland exposing the fraud of 
 Uyslngh, and directing the expulsion of the 
 Swedes from the South Ulver. A fleet was 
 organized and Director Stuyvesant recovered 
 Fort Caslmir without flrlng a gun. After some 
 parley Fort Christina was also surrendered. 
 Sucli Swedes as would not take the oath of alle- 
 giance to tho Dutch authorities were sent to the 
 home country. Only twenty persons accepted 
 the oath, and of three c'ergymen two were ex- 
 pelled, and the third cscajied like treatment by 
 the sudden outbreak of Indian troubles. In 
 1656 the States General and Sweden made these 
 transactions matter of international discussion. 
 The Swedes presented a protest against the action 
 of the Dutch, and it was talked over, but the 
 mattt'r was Unally dropped. In the same year 
 tho West India Company sold its Interests on the 
 South HiviT to the city of ' insterdam, and the 
 colony of New Amstel was erected, so that the 
 authority of New Nethorland was extinguished." 
 — E. II. Roberta, Neto Y(n-k, v. 1, ch. 7. 
 
 Also in : E. Armstrong, Introd. to the Record 
 of Upliind (Iliit. Soc. of J'enn. Memoirs, v. 7). — 
 H. Fcrr; .V.'oi. ^f wV 0, iyl.^l ^knunnentt on the 
 Delawai;, /it. 1, ch. 6-7. — S. Hazard, Annals of 
 Penn., pp. 63-328.— JJ«p<. of the Ainsterdam 
 Chamber of the ^Y. I. Co. {Dors, relative to Col. 
 Hist. <fy. r.,v.\, pp. ,■587-640). 
 
 A. D, 1664, — Conquest by the English, and 
 annexation to New York.— "Five days after 
 the capitulation of New Amsterdam [surrendered 
 by the Dutch to the English, Aug. 29, 1664— 
 see New York: A. D. 1664] Nlcolls, with Cart- 
 wright and Maverick . . . commissioned their 
 colleague. Sir Robert Carr, to go," with three 
 ships and on adequate militory force, "and re- 
 duce the Delaware settlements. Carr was in- 
 structed to promise the Dutch the possession of 
 all their property and all their present privileges, 
 ' only that they change their masters. ' To the 
 Swedes he was to 'remonstrate their happy 
 return under a monarchical government, and his 
 
 majesty's giHxl inclination to that nation.' To 
 Lonl licltii ire H olllccni in Maryland, he was to 
 declare that their proprietor's tiretended right 
 to the Delaware being 'a doubtful case,' poHHCH- 
 Hlon would be kept for the king 'till his majesty 
 is Informed and satiHtled otherwise.'. . .Tho 
 Swedes were Himn niaile friends," but the Dutch 
 attempted [()elolM'r| some rcHlstance, and yielded 
 iiiiiv after a couple of broailHldeH from the ships 
 iiiul killed three and wounded ten of their garrl- 
 Hon. "Carr now landed . . . and chilmeil the 
 pillage for hliiiHelf as 'won l)y the sword.' 
 Assiuning an autliority independent of Nlcolls, 
 he claimed to tie the ' sole ami chief conunander 
 and (lispoNer' of all alTalrs 011 the Delaware." 
 Ills acts of mpaclty and violeiu'e, when reported 
 to his fellow ciinunlssloners, at Now York, were 
 condemned and repudiated, am! Nlcolls, tho 
 prcHlding conunisHloP'T, went to tho Delaware In 
 jierson to displace him. "Carr was severely rn- 
 iiuked, and obliged to give up much of his ill- 
 gotten spoil. Nevertheless, lie could not be per- 
 suaded to leave the place for some time. The 
 name of New Amstel was now changed to New 
 (.'ikstie, and an Infantry garrison established 
 tiiere. . . . Captain Jolin Carr was appointed 
 commander of the Delaware, in sulxirdination to 
 tlie government of New York, to whldi it was 
 annexed 'as an appendage'; and tiius iilTairs re- 
 mained for sevenil years." — .1. R. Urixlhead, 
 Jlint. of the StUte ofN. Y., v. 2, ch. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1673.— The Dutch reconquest. Seo 
 New YoKK A. D. U173. 
 
 A. D. 1674.— Final recovery by the Engliih. 
 See Nktiikulaniw (Holland): A. I). 1074. 
 
 A. D. 1674-1760.-10 dispute between the 
 Duke of York and the Proprietary of Maryland. 
 — Grant by the Duke to William Penn. Bee 
 Pennsylvania: A. D. 1682; 1085; and 176O-1707. 
 
 A. D. 1691-1702.- The practical independ- 
 ence of Penn's " lower counties " acquired. 
 — " In April, 1691, with tho reluctant consent of 
 William Penn, the 'territories,' or 'lower coun- 
 ties,' now known as tho State of Delaware, bo- 
 came for two years a government by themselves 
 under Markham. . . . Tho disturbance by Keith 
 [see Pennsylvania: A. D. 169'J-10!)6] creating 
 questions as to the administration of justice, 
 confirmed tho disposition of the English govcrn- 
 mc"*, t'> subject Pennsylvania to a royal com- 
 missior; and in April 1093, Benjamin Fletcher, 
 appointed governor by Wlliiom and Mi>r', once 
 more united Delaware to Penns^-lvnn'i But 
 Penn, restored to his authority . . IGbl, could 
 not resist the Jealousies which tended so Btrongly 
 to divide the Delaware territories from Pennsyl- 
 vania proper. "In 1708, Pennsylvania convened 
 its legislature apart, and tlie two colonies were 
 never again united. The lower counties became 
 almost an independent republic; for, as they 
 were not included In the charter, the authority 
 of the proprietary over them was by suflcrunce 
 only, and the executive power intrusted to the 
 governor of Pennsylvania was too feeble to re- 
 strain the power of tlieir people. The legisla- 
 ture, tho tribunals, the subordinate executive 
 offlcers of Delaware knew little of external con- 
 trol."— G. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. S. (author's 
 last revision), pt. 3, ch. 3 (v. 2). — The question of 
 J urisdiction over Delaware was inyolved through- 
 out in tho boundary dispute between tho pro- 
 prietaries of Pennsylvania and Maryland. See 
 Pennbtlvasia: A. D. 1685; and 1760-1767. 
 
 656 
 
DELAWARE, 17*)-nM. 
 
 DEL08. 
 
 A. D. 1760-17M.— The queition of taxation 
 bj Parliament.— The Stamp Act and its re- 
 peal.— The Declaratory Act.— The Pint Con- 
 tinental Congreif. Her I'nitkii St.vtkmiik Am. : 
 A. I). I7«()-Ii7r.; I7flil-17(M; 17«.">; mid I7mi. 
 
 A. D. 1766-1771.— Opening event* of the 
 Revolution. Hit Unitkd Htatkmdi' Am. ; A.I). 
 178»l-17«7 t<»1774; ami lk)«TON: A. I). 1768 to 
 177!«. 
 
 A. D. 1775.— The beg^innins of the war of 
 the American Revolution,— Lexingfton.— Con- 
 cord.— Action taken on the newi.- Ticon- 
 deroga.- The *i^Ke of Boston. — Bunker Hill. 
 — The Second Continental Congreai. Sec 
 United ^TATKn OK Am. : A. I). 1775. 
 
 A. D. I? 5.— Purthcr introduction of slaves 
 prohibited. Seo Hlavbhy, Nkoho: A. D. 1776- 
 1808. 
 
 A. D. 1776-1783.— The War of Independ- 
 ence. —Peace with Great Britain. Hcu L'.nitki) 
 Statkh ok Am. : A. 1). 177tl to 17M;t. 
 
 A. D. 1777-1779.— Withholding ratification 
 :he Articles of Confederation. See 
 
 from the 
 
 United States ok Am 
 
 A. 1). 17MI-178«. 
 
 A. D. 1787.— The adoption and ratification 
 of the Federal Constitution. Sic United 
 States ok Am. : A. 1). 17H7. mid 1787-1789. 
 
 A. D. 1861 (Aprils— Refusal of troops on the 
 call of President Lincoln. Scu United St.vieh 
 OK Am. : A. I). 1801 (Armi,). 
 
 DELAWARE RIVER, Washington's pas- 
 sage of the. Sco United States ok A.m. ; A. I). 
 1776-1777. 
 
 DELA WARES, The. See Ameiucan Ado- 
 nidiNKs; Dei.awakks. 
 
 DELPT: Assassination of the Prince of 
 Orange (1584). See Nethkklandh: A. D. 1581- 
 1584. 
 
 DELHI: nth Century.- Capture by Mab- 
 moud of Gazna. See Tuuks: A. U. U9U-118. 
 
 A. D. 1193-1290.— The capital of the Mame- 
 luke or Slave dynasty. See India: A. U. 977- 
 1290. 
 
 A. D. 1399.— Sack and massacre by Timour. 
 See TiMot'K. 
 
 A. D. 1526-1605.— The founding of the Mo- 
 g^l Empire by Babar and Akbar. See India: 
 
 A. D. lS99-l«05. 
 
 A. D. 1739.— Sack and massacre by Nadir 
 Shah. See India: A. I). 1002-1748. 
 
 A. D. 1760-1761.— Taken and plundered by 
 the Mahrattas.- Then by the Afghans.- Col- 
 lapse of the Mogul Empire. See India: A. U. 
 1747-1701 
 
 A. D. i;57.— The Sepoy Mutiny.— Massacre 
 of Europeans.— Explosion of the magazine. — 
 English siege and capture of the city.* See 
 India: A. D. 1857 (May— August) und (June- 
 September). 
 
 » 
 
 DELI AN CONFEDERACY. Sec Greece: 
 
 B. C. 4VS-477; and Athens: IJ. C. 406-454, and 
 .after. 
 
 DELIAN FESTIVAL. See Delos. 
 
 DELIUM, Battle of (B. C. 434).— A serious 
 defeat suffered by the Athenians in the Pelopon- 
 nesian War, B. C. 424, at t" 9 hands of the Tlie- 
 bans and other Boeotians. It was consequent 
 upon the seizure by the Athenians of the Boeo- 
 tl.nn temple of Delium — a temple of Apollo — on 
 the sea-coast, about tlve miles from Tanagra, 
 which they fortified and intended to hold. After 
 
 thp defeat of thn army which was rrttimlnjf from 
 IIiIm exploit, the KnrrlHon left at. l>eliiiiii wiih Im>- 
 Nie)(f<l anil iiiiMtrv ciiptiiri'd. AnmnK the Iwip- 
 liteN who fouKht at Delliim wiih the philimopher 
 ScH'rntrs. Tlio coniinandcr IlippiKTaleH was 
 Hialn.— Thiirydldes, J/iflnri/. hk: i.fi-t. 89 100. 
 
 Al,»() in : (J. (}role,//M<. (//" Hreece, /it. 2, cA. 53. 
 — S<.e (}kee<E: II. C. 424-l'21. 
 
 DELOS.— DeliiK, the Niiinllefit ImIhikI of the 
 Kroiip railed the CyelaileM, hut the mii.it Import- 
 ant III the eyei of the lonimi OrcekH, lieiiix their 
 Hiicred iHle, the fiililed lilrlliplace iif A|)ollo and 
 liiiiK the (liief Meat and eenler of IiIh worship. 
 "'I he lIoTiierle Hymn lo .Vpollo jireHents to us 
 tile iHlmid of DOIiiM IIS the ceiitre of a Kreat perl- 
 (Nlieal festival in honour of Apollo, eelehnited by 
 all the cities, Insiilar iin<l eoiitinen'itl, of the 
 lonle name. What the date of this Iiymn Is, we 
 have no means of deterininin^: ThueydldCs 
 quotes it, without hesitation, as thi^ priHluctlon 
 of Homer, and, doubtless, it was In his tinio 
 iiiilverHally accepted as such, — though modern 
 critics concur in n'^arilin); both tliat and tho 
 other hymns us much later than the Iliad ami 
 Odyssey. It cannot probably be later than UiH) 
 B. v. Tho description of the Ionic visitors pre- 
 sented to us III this hymn Is splendid and Impos- 
 ing; the number of their ships, the display of 
 their llnorv, the beauty of their \ 'nnen, tho 
 athletic exhibitions as well as tlii^ matches of 
 soiiK and dance, — all these are represented aa 
 making an iiielTaceablo impression on the spec- 
 tator: 'the assembled lonlans look as If tliey 
 were beyond the reach of old ago or death.' 
 Hiieh was the maji^nltlceucc of which Df'los was 
 tho perimlical theatre, and which called forth tho 
 voices and poetical genius not inerel v of Itinerant 
 liarils, but also of tho Delian maidens in tho 
 tempio of Apollo, during tho century preceding 
 500 U. C. At that time it was the great centriH 
 festival of tho lonlans In Asia and Europe." — 
 a. Grote, Jliii. of Greece, pt. 3, eh. 12.— During 
 tho war with Persia, Dulos was made the com- 
 mon treasury of the Greeks ; but Athens subse- 
 (luently took tho custody and management of 
 the treasury to herself and reduced Delos to a 
 de|)endency. Tho Island was long th^" seat of an 
 oxtens''.e commerce, and Uelian broh/.e was of 
 note in the arts. 
 
 B. C. 490.— Spared by the Persians. See 
 e: H. C. 
 
 177-' 
 Gueece: H. C. 478-477; and Athens: B. C. 466- 
 
 Ghkece; U. C. 490. 
 B. C. 477.— The Delian Confederacy. See 
 
 454, and after. 
 
 B. C. 461-454 (?).— Removal of the Confed- 
 erate treasury to Athens. See Athens: B. C. 
 400-454. 
 
 B. C. 435-422.— Purifications.— " In the midst 
 -' the losses and turmoil of tlie [Pelopoiinesian] 
 war it had been determined [at Athens] to offer 
 a solemn testimony of homage to Apollo on Delos, 
 [B. C. 425] — a homage doubtless connected with 
 tho complete cessation of tho pestilence, which 
 hiul lasted as long as the fifth year of the war. 
 The solemnity consisted in the renewed consecra- 
 tion of the entire island to the divine Giver of 
 grace ; all the coffins containing human remains 
 being removed from Delos, and Ilhenea appointed 
 to be henceforth the sole burial-place. This 
 solemnity supplemented the act formerly per- 
 formed by the orders of Pisistratus, and it was 
 doubtless in the present instance also intended, 
 by means of a brilliant renewal of the Dclibn 
 
 657 
 
/f^ 
 
 DELOS. 
 
 DEMIURGI. 
 
 celebration, to strengthen the power of Athens 
 In the island sen, to give a fest've centre to the 
 Ionic world. . . . llut the mn n purpose was 
 clearly one of morality and religion. It was in- 
 temled to calm and edify the minds of the citi- 
 zens." — E. Curtiiis, Hut. of Oreece, bk. 4, eh. 2. 
 —Three years Inter (B. C. 422) the Athenians 
 found some reason for another purification of 
 Delos which was more radical, consisting in tlie 
 expulsion of all the inhabitants from the island. 
 Tlie unfortunate Delians found an asylum at 
 Adramyttium in Asia, until they were restored 
 to tlieir homes ne.xt year, througli the influence of 
 the Delphic orucle. — Thucydides, Jlistory, b/c. 5, 
 »ect. 1. 
 
 B. C. 88.— Pontic Massacre.— Early in the 
 first war of Mitliridati>s with the Komans (B. C. 
 88), Delos, which had been made a free port and 
 had become the emporium of it«uiitn commerce 
 in the east, was seized by u Pontic fleet, and 
 pillaEcd, 20,000 Italians being massacred on tlie 
 island. The treasures of Delos were sent to 
 Athens and the island restored to the Athenian 
 control.— W. Ihne, J/ist. of Home, bk. 7, ch. 17. 
 
 B. C. 69. — Ravaged by Pirates. — " Almost 
 under the eyes of the fleet of Lucullus, the pirate 
 Athenodorus surprised in OS.') [B. C. 69] the island 
 of Delos, destroyed its far-famed shrines and 
 temples, and carried off the whole population 
 into slavery. " — T. Mommsen, Hist, of Home, bk. 
 5, rh. 2. 
 
 Slave Trade under the Romans. — " Th-ace 
 and Sarmatia were the Guinea Coast ol tlio 
 Romans. Tlie entrepot of this trade was Delos, 
 which had been made a free port by Rome after 
 the conquest of Macedonia. Strabo tells us that 
 in one day 10,000 slaves were sold there in open 
 market. Such were the vile uses to whicli was 
 put the Sacred Island, once the treasury of 
 Greece."— H. G. Liddell, Hist, of Rome, bk. 5, 
 
 ch. 48. 
 
 ■•■ 
 
 DELPHI.— KRISSA (CRISSA). - 
 KIRRHA(CIRRHA).— "In those early times 
 when the Homeric Hymn to Apollo was composed 
 the town of Krissa [in Phocis, near Delphi] ap- 
 pears to have been great and powerful, possea« - 
 ing all the broad plain between Parnassus, Kir- 
 phis, and the gulf, to which latter it gave 1*^3 name, 
 — and possessing also, what was a property not 
 less valuable, the adjoining sanctuary of Pytlio 
 itself, which the Hymn identities witli Krissa, 
 not indicating Delphi as a separate place. The 
 Krissieans, doubtless, derived great profits from 
 the number of visitors who came to visit Delphi, 
 both by land and by sea, and Kirrlia was origin- 
 ally only the name for their seaport. Gradually, 
 however, the port appears to liave grown in im- 
 portance at tlie expense of the town ; . . . w hile 
 at the game time the sanctuary of Pytho wjtli its 
 administrators expanded into the town of Delphi, 
 and came to claim an independent existence of 
 Its own. ... In addition to tlie above facts, al- 
 ready sufficient in themselves as seeds of quarrel, 
 we are told that tlie Kirrha;ans abused their posi- 
 tion as masters of the avenue to the temple by 
 sea, and levied exorbitant tolls on the visitors 
 who landed there. . . . Besides sucli offence 
 against the general Grecian public, they had also 
 incurred the enmity of their Phocian neiglibours 
 by outrages upon women, Phocian as well as 
 Argeian, who were returning from the temple. 
 Thus stood the case, apparently, about 595 B. C. , 
 
 when the Amphiktyonlc meeting interfered . , . 
 to punisli tlie Kirrhieans. After a war of ten 
 years, tlie first Sacred War in Greece, this object 
 was completely aecomplislied, by a joint force 
 of Thessniians under Eurylochus, Sikyonians 
 under Kloisthcncs, and Athenians under Alk- 
 nueon ; the Athenian Solon bein^ the person who 
 originated and enforced, in the Amphiktyonic 
 council, the proposition of interference. Kirrha 
 . . . was destroyed, or left to subsist merely as 
 a landing place : and the whole adjoining plain 
 was consecrated to the Delphian god, whose do- 
 mains thus touched the sea. . . . The fate of 
 Kirrha in this wnr is ascertained : that of Krissa 
 is not 80 cleai , nor do we know whether it was 
 destroyed, or left subsisting in a position of in- 
 feriority with reganl to Delphi. From this 
 time forward, the Delphian community appears 
 08 substantive and autonomous, exercising in 
 their own riglit the management of the temple ; 
 tliough we sliall find, on more than one occasion, 
 tliat the Pliocians contest tills right. . . . The 
 spoils of Kirrha were employed by the victorious- 
 allies in founding the Pytliian Games. The oc- 
 tennial festival hitlierto celebrated at Delphi in 
 honour of the god, including no other competi- 
 tion except in tlie harp and tlie prean, was ex- 
 panded into comprehensive games on the model 
 of tlie Olympic, witli matches not only of music, 
 but also of gymnastics and chariots, — celebrated, 
 not at Delphi itself, bi- > on the maritime plain 
 near the ruined Kirrha, — and under tlie direct 
 superintendence of tlie Amphiktvons tliemseives. 
 . . . They were celebrated in the latter h.^lf of 
 summer, or first half of every third Olympic 
 year. . . . Nothing was conferred but wreaths 
 of laurel." — G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. 3, ch. 
 28.— See, also, Athens: B. C. 610-586; Pytho; 
 Okaclks op the Greeks; and Amphiktyonic 
 Council. 
 
 B. C. 357-338.— Seizure by the Phocians. — 
 The Sacred Wars.— Deliverance by Philip of 
 Macedon. — War with Amphissa. See Gubecb : 
 B. C. 357-330. 
 
 B. C. 379. — Discomfiture of the Gauls. See 
 Gauls: B. C. 280-279. 
 
 DELPHIC ORACLE, The. See Oracled 
 
 OF TIIK G keeks. 
 
 DELPHIC SIBYL, The. See Sibyls. 
 
 DEMES.— DEMI. See Pifyla; also, Ath- 
 ens: B. C. 510-507. 
 
 DEMETES, The.— One of the tribes of an- 
 cient AVales. See Britain, Celtic Tkibeb. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, the Impostor. See Russia: 
 
 A. D. 1533-1682 Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
 
 and the wars of the Diadochi. See Mace- 
 donia: B. C. 315-310,310-301; also Greece: 
 
 B. C. 307-197; and Rhodes: B. C. 305-304. 
 DEMIURGI. — COSMOS. — TAGOS OR 
 
 TAGUS. — Of the less common titles applied 
 among tlie ancient Greeks to their supreme 
 magistrates, are "Cosmos, or Cosmios and 
 Tagos (signifying Arranger and Commander), 
 the form('r of which we find in Crete, tlie latter 
 in the Thcssalian cities. V/ith the former we 
 may compare the title of Cosmopolis, which waa 
 in use among the Epizephyrian Locrians. A 
 more frequent title is tliat of Demiurgi, a name 
 which seems to imply a constitution no longer 
 oligarchical, but which bestowed certain rights 
 on the Demos. In the time of the Pelopon- 
 ncsian war magistrates of this kind existtd la 
 
 658 
 
DEMiunai. 
 
 DETROIT. 
 
 Elis (inrt in tlio Arcadian Mantintrn. . . . Tlie 
 title is declared by OnimmiirinMS to linve been 
 commonly used among the Dorians. ... A 
 similar title is tliat of Demuclius, wliicli tlie 
 supreme magistrates of Tliespiic in Bcrotia seem 
 to have borne. . . . The Artyni at Epidaurus 
 and Argos wo have already mentioned." — 0. 
 flchOmann, Antiq. of Oreeci; Tlte titate, pt. 2, 
 ch. 5. 
 
 DEMOCRATIC. OR DEMOCRATIC 
 REPUBLICAN PARTY OFTHE UNITED 
 STATES. Hee Unitkd Status OK Am. : A. D. 
 1789-1792; 1825-1828; 1845-1840. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, the general, at Sphac- 
 teria and at Syracuse. BeoGiiEECE: B. C. 425, 
 and Sykacuse: B. C. 415-413; and Athens: 
 
 B. C. 415-413 Demosthenes the orator, 
 
 The Phillipics, and the Death of. 8ee Orbece : 
 B. C. 357-336, 351-348, and 323-322; aud Ath- 
 ens: B. C. 359-338, and 330-322. 
 
 DfiMOTIC WRITING. See Hiero- 
 
 OLYPHtCS. 
 
 DEMUCHUS. See DKMtUROi. 
 
 DENAIN Battle of (1712). See Nether- 
 lands: A. D. 1710-1712. 
 
 DENARIUS, The. See As. 
 
 DENDERMONDE.— Surrender to the 
 Spaniards (1584). Sec Netherlands: A. I). 
 1584-1585. 
 
 DENIS, King of Portugal, A. D. 1279-1323. 
 
 DENMARK. See Scandinavian States. 
 
 DENNEWITZ,OR JOTERBOGK, Battle 
 of. See Germany: A. D. 1813 (September — 
 
 OCTOUER). 
 
 DENNIKCN, Peace of (1531). See Swit- 
 zerland: A. I). 1531-1048. 
 
 DENVER, The founding of. See Colorado: 
 A. D. 1806-1870. 
 
 DEORHAM, Battle of.— 1 ought A. D. 577, 
 near Bath, England, between the invading West 
 Saxons and the Britons. The victory of the 
 former gave tlicm possession of the lower valley 
 of the Severn and practically completed the 
 Saxon conquest of England.— J. U. Green, Tlie 
 Makiiir/ of Knf/Uiml, pp. 125-131. 
 
 DERBEND, Pass of. See .Juroipach. 
 
 DERBY-DISRAELI MINISTRIES, The. 
 See England: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; and 
 1808- 1870. 
 
 DERRY. See Londonderry. 
 
 DE RUSSY, Fort, Capture of. See United 
 States op Am.: A. I). 1804 (March — May: 
 Louisiana). 
 
 DESERET, The proposed state of. See 
 Utah: A. D. 1849-1850. 
 
 DESMONDS, The. See Geraldinks. 
 
 DESMOULINS, Camille, and the French 
 Revolution. See France: A. D. 1789 (July); 
 1790; 1792 (August), to 1793-1794 (November- 
 June). 
 
 DESPOT OF EPIRUS.— "The title of 
 despot, by which they [tlie medireval princes 
 of Epirue] are generally distinguisiied, was a 
 Byzantine honorary distinction, never borne by 
 the earlier members of tlie family until it had 
 been conferred on them by the Greek Emperor." 
 — G. Finiay, Hist, of Greece from Us conquest hy 
 the Crumders, dt. 6, sect. 1.— See Epirus: A. D. 
 1204-13.50. 
 
 DESPOTS, Greek. See Tyrants ItU- 
 
 ian. See Italy : A. D. 1250-1520. 
 
 DESSAU, Battle of (1626). See Gbrmant: 
 A. D. 1624-1626. 
 
 DESTRIERS.- PALFREYS.-" A cava. 
 
 liore or manaturms was accompanied by one 
 ' Uestriero ' or strong war-horse, and one or two, 
 sometimes three, mounted sijuires who led the 
 animal fully caparisoned ; or carried llie helmot, 
 lance and shield of their master: tlieso ' Destrieri' 
 ('rich and great horses ' as Villani calls them), 
 were so named because they were led on the 
 riglit hand witliout any rider, and all readv for 
 mounting: the squire's horses were of an inferior 
 kind called ' Ronzini,' and on the ' Palafreni ' or 
 palfrejs tlie kniglit rode when not in battle." 
 — II. 15. Napier, Florentine History, v. 1, p. 
 033. 
 
 DESTROYING ANGELS, OR DAN- 
 ITES. See Mormonism: A. D. 1830-1840. 
 
 DETROIT : First occupied by the Coureurs 
 de Bois. See Coureurs de Bois. 
 
 A. D. 1686-1701.— The first French forts.— 
 Cadillac's founding of the city. — At the 
 beginning of the war called "Queen Anne'a 
 War" (1702) "Detroit liad already been cstab- 
 lislied. In June, 1701, la Mothe Cadillac, with 
 a Jesuit father and 100 men, was icnt to con- 
 struct a fort and occupy tlie country ; hence he 
 Is spoUen of as tlic founder of the city. In 1080, 
 a fort [called Fort St. Joseph] had been con- 
 structed to the south of the present city, where 
 Fort Gratiot now stands, but it soon fell into 
 decay and was abandoned. It was not the site 
 selected by Cadillac." — W. Kingsford, Hist, of 
 Cantula, v. 2, p. 408. — "Fort St. Joseph was 
 abandoned in the year 1688. The establishment 
 of Cadillac was destined to a better fate and soon 
 rose to distinguisiied importance among the 
 westerr. outposts of Canada." — P. Parkman, The 
 CoMpirttcy of Pontine, v. 1, p. 213. 
 
 A. D. 1701-1755.- Importance to the French. 
 See Canada: A. I). 1700-1735. 
 
 A. D. 17 12. — Siege by the Foxes and Mas- 
 sacre of that tribe. See Canada: A. 1). 1711- 
 1713. 
 
 A. n. 1760.— The French settlement when 
 surrendered to the English. — "The French in- 
 habitants here are settled on both siues of the 
 river for about eight miles. When I took pos- 
 session of the country soon after the surren- 
 der of Canada [see Canada: A. D. 1700], they 
 were about 2,500 in number, there being near 
 500 that bore arms (to whom I administered 
 oatlis of allegiance) and near 300 dwelling houses. 
 Our fort hero is built of stockadoes, is about 25- 
 feet high, and 1,2)0 yards In circumference. . . . 
 The inhabitants raise wheat and other grain In 
 abundance, and have plenty of cattle, but they 
 enrich themselves chiefly by their trade with the 
 Indians, which is here very large and lucrative." 
 — Major R. Rogers, Concise Acet. '>*' /'. Am., p. 
 168. 
 
 A. D. 1763. — Pontiac's Siege. SeePoNTiAc's 
 War. 
 
 A. D. 1775-1783.— Held by the British 
 throughout the War of Independence. Sec 
 United States of Am.: A. D. 1778-1779, 
 Clark's conquest. 
 
 A. D. 1805. — Made the seat of government 
 of the Territory of Michigan. See Indiana : 
 A. D. 1800-1818. 
 
 A. D. 1812. — The surrender of General Hull. 
 See United States of Am. ; A. D. 1812 (June — 
 October). 
 
 A. D 1813.— American recovery. Sc^ 
 United States or Am. : A. D. 1812-1818. 
 
 659 
 
DETTINGEN. 
 
 DIET. 
 
 DETTINGEN, Battle of (1743). See Aus- 
 tria: A. D. 1743. 
 
 DEUSDEDIT, Pope, A. D. "15-618. 
 
 DEUTSCH . Origin of the name. Sec 
 Geii.many: Tub national n/. me. 
 
 DEUTSCHBROD, Bat.le of (1432). Sec 
 Bohemia: A. D. 1419-1434. 
 
 DEVA. — One of tlie Ro'nan garrison towns in 
 Britain, on tlie site of wl'icli is modern Cliester, 
 taliing its name from tlic eastra or fortifled 
 station of tlie legions. It was tlie station of 
 the 20tli legion.— T. Mommsen, Uist. of Rome, 
 bk. 8, eh. 5. 
 
 DEVE-BOYUN, Battle of (1878). See 
 Tduks: a. D. 1877-1878. 
 
 DEVIL'S CAUSEWAY, The.— The popu- 
 lar name of an old Roman road in England which 
 runs from Silchestcr to London. 
 
 DEVIL'S HOLE, The ambuscade and 
 massacre K.t. — On the 13tli of September, 1763, 
 during the progress of Pontiac's War, a train of 
 wagons and packhorses, traversing the Niagara 
 portage between Lcwiston and Fort Schlosser, 
 guarded by an escort of 24 soldiers, was ambus- 
 caded by a party of Seneca warriors at the place 
 called the Devil's Hole, three miles below the 
 Niagara cataract. Seventy of the whites were 
 slain, and only three escaped. — P. Parkman, Tlie 
 ConnjnrtKi/ of Pontiae, ch. 21 (». 2). 
 
 DEVON COMMISSION, The. See Ire- 
 land: A. D. 1843-1848. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE, in the British age. See 
 
 Du.MNONII. 
 
 DE WITT, John, the administration and 
 the murder of. Sec Netherlands: A. D. 16S1- 
 1660, to 1672-1674. 
 
 DHIHAD. See Dar-ul-Islam. 
 
 DIACRII, The. See Athins: B. C. 594. 
 
 DIADOCHI, The.— The i' 'diate successors 
 of Alexander the Great, win ivided his empire, 
 are sometimes so-called. "Tlie word diadoch! 
 means 'successors,' and is used to include An- 
 tigonus, Ptolemy, Selcucus, Lysimachus, etc. — 
 the actual companions of Alexander." — J. P. 
 Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, ch. 5. — 
 See Macedonia: B. C. 323-316. 
 
 DIAMOND, Battle of the (1795). See Ire- 
 land: A. D. 1795-1796. 
 
 DIAMOND DISCOVERY IN SOUTH 
 AF R I C A ( 1 867). See QRiquAS. 
 
 DIAMOND NECKLACE, The affair of 
 the. See France: A. D. 1784-1785. 
 
 DIASPORA, The.— A name applied to the 
 Jews scattered throughout the Roman world. 
 
 DIAZ, Porfirto, The Mexican presidency 
 «f. See Mexico: A. D. 1867-1888. 
 
 DICASTERIA.— The great popular court, 
 or jury, in ancient Athens, called the Helioea, or 
 HeliastO! consisting at one time of six thousand 
 chosen citizens, was divided into ten sections, 
 called Dicasteria. Their places of meeting also 
 bore the same name.— Q. F. SchOmann, Antiq. 
 of Greece: Tlie State, pt. 3, ch. 3.— See Athens: 
 B. C. 44^431. 
 
 DICKINSON, John, in the American Revo- 
 lution. See United States of Am. : A. D. 1767- 
 1768; 1774(Septembeii); 1776 (July). 
 
 DICTATOR, Roman. See Consuls, Roman. 
 
 DIDIAN LAW, The. See Orcuian, Fan- 
 HiAN, DiDiAN Laws. 
 
 DIDIER, OR DESIDERIUS, King of the 
 Lombards, A. D. 759-774. 
 
 DIDYMiEUM, The oracle of. Sec Oracles 
 OK THE (}hi;i;kh. 
 
 DIEDENHOFEN, Battle of (1639). See 
 German v: A. I). 1634-1039. 
 
 DIEPPE.— Bombardment and destruction 
 by an English fleet. See France: A. D. 
 1694. 
 
 DIES ATRI.— Tliedayson which the Romans 
 thought it unlucky to undertake business of 
 importance — for example, the day after the 
 Calends, Nonci and Ides of each month — were 
 called Dies Atri. — W. Ramsay, Manual ofJioman 
 Antiq., ch. 11. 
 
 DIES FASTI.— Dies Nefasti.— Dies Festi. 
 See Fasti, and Ludi. 
 
 DIET. — " An assembly, council, . . . Parlia- 
 ment. . . . The peculiar senf ^ of the word un- 
 doubtedly arose from a popular etymology th .t 
 connected it with the Lat. 'dies,' a day, esp. a 
 set day, a day appointed for public business; 
 whence, by extension, a meeting for business, an 
 assembly." — W. W. Skeat, Etymoloijicul diet. 
 
 The Germanic. — "The annual general coun- 
 cils and special councils of Charles the Great did 
 not long survive him, and neither his descend- 
 ants nor their successors revived them. Tliey 
 were compelled, to be sure, both by custom and 
 by policy to advise with the chief men of the 
 kmgdom liefore taking any important step or 
 doing auythiug that depended for success on 
 their consent and cooperation, but they varied 
 the number of their counsellors and the time, 
 place, and manner of consulting them to suit 
 their own convenience. Great formal assemblies 
 of counsellors summoned from all parts of the 
 realm were termed Imperial Diets (Reichstage) ; 
 small, or local, or informal assemblies of a simi- 
 lar kind were known as Court Diets (Hoftage). 
 Princes and other royal vassals, margraves, pals- 
 graves. Graves, barons, and even royal Dienst- 
 mannen were indiscriminately summoned, but 
 the Diets were in no sense representative bodies 
 until tlie Great Interregnum [see Germany : A. D. 
 1250-1272] when certain citie„ acquired such 
 influence in public affairs that they were invited 
 to send delegates. The first Diet in which they 
 participated was held at Worms in February, 
 1255, by King AVilliam of Holland. Most of the 
 cities of the Rhenish League were there repre- 
 sented, and they constituted an important factor 
 of the assembly. The affairs of the church 
 shared attention with temporal affairs in the 
 Dieti until the Popes succeeded in making good 
 their claims to supremacy in spiritual mutters. 
 Thereafter they were altogether left to synods 
 and church councils. . . . Imperial Diets and 
 Court Diets continued to be held at irregular 
 intervals, whenever and wherever it pleased the 
 king to convene them, but Imperial Diets were 
 usually held in Imperial cities. These were not 
 such heterogenous assemblies as formerly, for 
 few royal vassals, except princes, and no royal 
 Dienstmannen whatever were now invited to 
 attend. Graves and barons, and prelates who 
 were not princes, continued to be summoned, 
 but the number and influence of the Graves and 
 barons in the Diets steadily waned. Imperial 
 cities were for many years only occasionally 
 asked to participate, that is to say, only when 
 the king had especial need of their good ofBces, 
 but in the latter half of the 14th century they 
 began to be regularly summoned. Imperial 
 Diets were so frequently held during the Hussite 
 
 660 
 
DIET. 
 
 DINAN. 
 
 War and thereafter, that it became pretty well 
 settled what persons and wliat cities sliould take 
 part in them, and only ti.'uBu persons and those 
 cities that were entitled to take part in tlicni 
 were regarded as Estates of the realm. In the 
 15th century they developed into three chambers 
 or colleges, viz., the College of Electors [see 
 Qebmany: a. D. 1125-1153], the College of 
 Princes, Graves, and Barons, usually called the 
 Council of Princes of the Empire (RcichsfUrs- 
 tenrath), and the College of Imperial Cities. 
 Tlie Archbishop of Mentz presided in the Col- 
 lege of Electors, and the Archbishop of Salzburg 
 and the Duke of Austria presided alternately in 
 the Council of Princes of the Empire. Tlic office 
 of presiding in the College of Imperial Cities 
 devolved \ipon the Imperial city in which the 
 Diet sat. The king and members of both the 
 upper Colleges sometimes sent deputies to repre- 
 sent them, instead of attending in person. In 
 1474 tlie cities adopted a metliod of voting which 
 resulted in a division of their College into two 
 Benches, called the Rhenish Bench and the 
 tiwabian Bench, because the Rhenish cities were 
 conspicuous members of the one, and the Swabian 
 cities conspicuous members of the other. In the 
 Council or Princes, at least, no regard was had 
 to the number of votes cast, but only to the 
 power and influence of the voters, whence a 
 measure might pass the Diet by less than a 
 majority of the votes present. Having passed, 
 it was proclaimed as the law of the realm, upon 
 receiving the king's assent, but was only effective 
 law in so far as the members of the Diet, present 
 or absent, assented to it. . . . Not a single 
 Imperial Diet was summoned between 1613 and 
 1640. The king held a few Court Diets dur- 
 ing that long interval, consisting either of the 
 Electors alone, or of the Electors and such other 
 Princes of the Empire as he chose to summon. 
 The conditions of membership, and the manner 
 of voting in the College of Electors and the Col- 
 lege of Imperial Cities remained unchanged. 
 . . . The cities long strove in vain to have 
 their votes recognized as of equal weight witli 
 the others, but the two upper Colleges insisted 
 on regarding them as summoned for consultation 
 only, until the Peace of Westphalia settled the 
 matter by declaring that ' a decisive vote (votum 
 decisivum) shall belong to the Free Imperial 
 Cities not less than to the rest of the Estates of 
 the Empire.' Generally, but not always, the 
 sense of each College was expressed by the 
 majority of votes cast. Tlie Peace of West- 
 phalia provided that 'in religious matters and 
 all other business, when the Estates cannot be 
 considered one body (corpus), as •. Iso when the 
 Catholic Estates and. those of tlie Aui^sburg Con- 
 fession go into two parts (in duas partes eun- 
 tibus), a mere amicable agreement shall settle 
 the differences without regard to majority of 
 votes.' When the 'going into parts, (itio in 
 partes) took place each College deliberated in 
 two bodies, the Corpus Catliolicorum and the 
 Corpus Evangelicorum. The king no longer 
 attended the Imperial Diets in person, but sent 
 commissioners instead, and it was now the com- 
 mon practice of members of both the upper Col- 
 leges to send deputies to represent them." — S. E. 
 Turne-, Sketch ^ the Oermanic Constitution, eh. 
 4, 5, anrf 6. — "The establishment of a perma- 
 nent diet, attended, not by the electors in person, 
 but by their representatives, is one of the most 
 
 striking peculiarities of Leopold's reign" (Leopold 
 I., 1657-1705). This came about ratlipr aceiilent- 
 ally thau witli intention, as a consequence of the 
 unusual prolongation of the session of a general 
 diet which Rudolph convoked at Hatisbon, soon 
 after his accession to the throne. '"So many 
 new and important objects . . . occurred in tlie 
 course of tlio deliberations that the diet was 
 unusually prolonged, and at last rendered per- 
 petual, as it exists at present, and distinguishes 
 tlie Germanic constitution as the only one of its 
 kind — not only for a certain lengtli of time, as 
 was formerly, and as diets are generally held in 
 other countries, where there are national states ; 
 but the diet of tlie Germanic empire was estab- 
 lished by this event for ever. The diet acquired 
 by tills circumstance an entirely different form. 
 So long as it was only of short duration, it was 
 always expected that tlie emperor, as well as 
 the electors, princes, counts and prelates, if not 
 all, yet the greatest part of them, sliould attend 
 in jierson. ... It is true, it had long been cus- 
 tomary at the diets of Germany, for the states 
 to deliver the' votes occasionally by means of 
 ])k'iiipotentiarics ; but it was then considered only 
 as an exception, wliereas it was now established 
 as a general rule, that all the states should send 
 their plenipotentiaries, and never appear them- 
 selves. . . . The whole diet, therefore, imper- 
 ceptibly acquired tlie form of a congress, con- 
 sisting solely of ministers, similar in a great 
 degree to a congress where several powers send 
 their envoys to treat of peace. In otlier respects, 
 it may be compared to a congress held in the 
 name of several states in perpetual alliance 
 with each other, as in Switzerland, the United 
 Provinces, and as somewhat of a similar nature 
 exists at present in North America; but with 
 this difference, — that in Germany the cjisembly 
 is held under the authority of one common 
 supreme head, and that the members do not 
 appear merely as deputies, or representatives 
 invested with full power by their principals, 
 which is only the case with the imperial cities ; 
 but so that every member of the two superior 
 colleges of the empire is himself an actual sover- 
 eign of a state, who permits his minister to 
 deliver his vote in his name and only accord- 
 ing to his prescription.'" — S. A. Dunham, Ilist. 
 of tlie Oermanic Empire, hk. 3, ch. 3 {v. Z)-— {quot- 
 ing Putter's Historical Development of tlie Oer- 
 manic Const.) — Of the later Diet, of the Germanic 
 Confederation, something may lie learned under 
 Germany: A. D. 1814-1820, end 1848 (March- 
 September). 
 
 DIFFIDATION, The Right of. See Land- 
 
 FRIEDE. 
 
 DIGITI. See Foot, The Roman. 
 
 DIJON, Battle at. See Bubgundians: A. D. 
 500. 
 
 DIJON, Origin of.— Dijon, tlie old capital of 
 the Dukes of Burgundy, was originally a strong 
 camp-city — an " urbs quadrata" — of the Ro- 
 mans, known as the Castrum Divionense. Its 
 walls were 80 feet high, 15 feet thick, and 
 strengthened with 33 towers. — T. Hodgkin, 
 Italy and Her Invaders, hk. 4, eh. 9. 
 
 DILEMITES, The. See Mahometan Con- 
 quest: A. D. 815-945. 
 
 DIMETIA. See Britain : 6th Centoby. 
 
 DINAN, Battle A (iS97). See Francb: 
 A. D. 1593-1598. 
 
 661 
 
DIN ANT. 
 
 DIRECTORY. 
 
 DINANT, Destruction of.— In the 15th cen- 
 tury, down to the yeur 1466, Dinant wns a popu- 
 lous and thriving town. It wiih inchidcd in the 
 little state of the prince-hishop of Liege, and 
 •was involved in tlie war of tlie Dulic of Bur- 
 gundy witli Liege, -wliicli ruined hoth Liege and 
 Dinant. " It was inluil)ited bv a race of in- 
 dustrious artisans, preeminent for tlieir sliill in 
 the manufacture of copper. Tlie excellence of 
 their workmanship is attested by existing speci- 
 mens — organ-screens, baptismal fonts, and other 
 ecclesiastical decorations. But the fame of 
 Dinant had been chiefly spread by its produc- 
 tion of more common and useful articles, es- 
 pecially of kitchen utensils, — ' pots and pans 
 and similar wares,' — which, under the name 
 of 'Dinanderie,' were known to housewives 
 throughout Europe." In the course of the war 
 a party of rude young men from Dinant gave 
 deep, unforgivable provocation to the Duke of 
 Burgundy by caricaturing and questioning tlie 
 paternity of his son, the count of Charolais, 
 afterwards Duke Charles the Bold. To avenge 
 this insult nothing less than the destruction of 
 the whole city would satisfy the implacable and 
 ferocious Burgundians. It was taken by the 
 count of Charolais in August, 1466. His first 
 proceeding was to sack the town, in the most 
 thorough and deliberate manner. Then 800 of 
 the more oliuoxious citizens were tied together 
 in pairs and drowned in the Meuse, while others 
 were hanged. This accomplislied, the surviving 
 women, children and priests were expelled from 
 the town and sent empty-handed to Liege, while 
 the men were condemned to slavery, witli the 
 privilege of ransoming tliemselves at a heavy 
 price, if they found anywhere the means. 
 Finally, the torch was applied, Dinant was 
 burned, ond contractors were subsequently em- 
 ployed by the Duke for several months, tc de- 
 molish the ruins and remove the very materials 
 of which the city had been built. — J. F. Kirk, 
 Hut. of Charles the Bold, bk. 1, ch. 8-9. 
 
 Also in : E. de Monstrelet (Johnes), Chronicles, 
 bk. 3, e?i. 138-189.— Philip de Commines, iMem- 
 oirs, bk. 2, ch. 1. 
 
 DINWIDDIE COURT HOUSE, Action at. 
 See United States of Am. : A. D. 1865 (Mahch 
 — April: Viuoinia). 
 
 DIOBOLY, The.— Pericles "was the pro- 
 poser of the law [at Athens] which instituted the 
 ' Dioboly,' or free gift of two obols to each poor 
 citizen, to enable him to pay the entrance-money 
 at the theatre during the Dionysia." — C. W. C. 
 Oman, Hist, of Greece, p. 271. — See Athens: 
 B. C. 435-481. 
 
 DIOCESES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 — "The civil government of the empire wns dis- 
 tributed [under Constantine and his successors] 
 into thirteen great dioceses, each of which equalled 
 the just measure of a powerful kingdom. The 
 first of these dioceses was subject to the juris- 
 diction of the Count of the East. The place 
 of Augustal Prasfect of Egypt was no longer 
 filled by a Roman knight, but the name was 
 retained. . . . Tlie eleven remaining dioceses — 
 of Asiana, Pontica, and Thrace ; of Macedonia, 
 Dacia and Pannonia, or Western Illyricum; of 
 Italy and Africa; of Gaul, Spain, and Britain 
 — were governed by twelve vicars or vice- 
 proefects. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
 Jioman Empire, ch. 17. — See Pii^aiTOBiAN Pb.*:- 
 
 FECTB. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, Roman Emperor. See 
 
 Rome: A. I). 284-305 Abdication.— "The 
 
 ceremony of Ids abdication was performed in a 
 spacious plain about'threc miles from Nicomedia 
 [May 1, A. D. 305]. The Emperor ascended a 
 lofty throne, and, in a speech lull of reason and 
 dignity, declared his intention, both to the people 
 and to the soldiers who were assembled on this 
 extraordinary orjasion. As soon as he had 
 divested hinis'.'if of the purple, he withdrew 
 from the gazing multitude, ami, traversing the 
 city in a covered chariot, proceeded without 
 delay to the favourite retirement [Salona] which 
 he had chosen in his native country of Dalma- 
 tia." — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall oft/ie Rinnan. 
 Empire, eh., IS. — See, also, Salona. 
 
 DIOKLES, Laws of. — A cotle of laws framed 
 at Srracuse, immediately after the Athenian 
 siege, by a commission of ten citizens tlie chief 
 of wliom was one Diokl6s. These laws were 
 extinguished in a few ye.irs by the Dyonisian 
 U'ranny, but revived after a lapse of sixty years. 
 The code is "also said to have been copied in 
 various other Sicilian cities, and to have re- 
 mained in force until the absorption of all Sicily 
 under the dominion of the Romans." — G. Grote, 
 Hist, of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 81. 
 
 DldNYSIA AT ATHENS.— "The four 
 principal Attik Dionysiak festivals were (1) the 
 Dionysia Mikra, the Lesser or Rural Dionysia ; 
 (2) the Dionysia Lenaia ; (8) the Anthesteria ; and 
 (4) tlie Dionysia Megala, the Greater or City 
 Dionysia. The Rural Dionysia, celebrated yearly 
 in the month Posideon (Dec— Jan.) throughout 
 the various townships of Attike, was presided 
 over by the demarch or mayor. The celebration 
 occasioned a kind of rustic carnival, distinguished 
 like almost all Bakchik festivals, by gross intem- 
 perance and licentiousness, and during which 
 slaves enjoyed a temporary freedom, with licence 
 to insult their superiors and beliave in a boister- 
 ous and disorderly manner. It is brought vividly 
 before us in the 'Acharnes' of Aristophanes. 
 . . . The Anthesteria, or Feast of Flowers, cele- 
 brated yearly in the month Anthesterion (Feb. — 
 March), . . . lasted for three days, the first of 
 which was called Pithoigia, or Tap -barrel -day, 
 on which they opened the casks and tried the 
 wine of the previous year. . . . The Dionysia 
 Megala, the Greater or City Dionysia, celebrated 
 yearly in the month Elapbebolion (March — April) 
 was presided over by the Archon Epocymos, so- 
 calltd because the year was registered in his 
 name, and who was first of the nine. The order 
 of the solemnities was as follows: — I. The great 
 public procession. ... II. The chorus of Youths. 
 III. The Komos, or band of Dionysiak revellers, 
 whose ritual is best illustrated in Milton's exqui- 
 site poem. IV. The representation of Comedy 
 and 'Tragedy ; for at Athcnai the stage was re- 
 ligion and the theatre a temple. At tlie time of 
 this great festival the capital was filled with 
 rustics from the country townships, and strangers 
 from all parts of Hellas and the outer world." 
 — R. Brown, Tlie Great Di nak Myth, ch. 6. 
 
 DIONYSIAN TYP Y AT SYRA- 
 
 CUSE, The. See Sv : B. C. 397-396, 
 
 and 344. 
 
 DIPLAX, The. See i xm. 
 
 DIPYLUM,The. SeeCEUAMicusop Athen& 
 
 DIRECTORY, The French. See Fbancb: 
 A. D. 1795 (June— Septembeb) ; (Octobeb — 
 December); 1797 (Septembeb), 
 
 662 
 
DISINHERITED BARONS. 
 
 D0NEL80N. 
 
 DISINHERITED BARONS, The. See 
 Scotland : A. I). i;f!!3-1333. 
 
 DISRAELI-DERBY AND BEACONS- 
 FIELD MINISTRIES. Stc England: A. D. 
 1851-1852; 1858-1851); 1808-1870; and 187:}-1880. 
 
 DISRUPTION OF THE CHURCH OF 
 SCOTLAND. See !»oti,and: A. D. 1843. 
 
 DISSENTERS, OR NONCONFORM- 
 ISTS, English : First bodies organized.— 
 Persecutions under Charles II. ana Anne. — 
 Removal of Disabilities. See Eniiland: A. D. 
 1559-1506; 1602-1005; 1073-1073; 1711-1714; 
 1827-1828. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SURPLUS, 
 The. Sec United States of Am. : A. D. 188^ 
 1837. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, The. See 
 WA8iiiN(iroN(CiTY): A. D. 1791. 
 
 DIVAN, The. Sec Summme Poute. 
 
 DIVODURUM.— The Gallic name of the 
 city afterwards called Mcdiomatrici — now Metz. 
 
 DIVONA. — Modern Cahors. Sec Cadurci. 
 
 DIWANI. Sec India: A. D. 1757-1772. 
 
 DIX, General John A.: Message to New 
 Orleans. Sec United States op Am. : A. D. 
 1860-1801 (December— Fedruauy). 
 
 DIEM, OR JEM, Prince, The Story of. 
 See Turks: A. 1). 1481-1520. 
 
 DOAB, The English acquisition of the. See 
 India: A. D. 1798-1805. 
 
 DOBRIN, Knights of the Order of the 
 Brethren of. SeePiiussLA: 13Tn Century. 
 
 DOBRUDJA, The.— The peninsula formed 
 between the Danube, near its mouth, and the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 DOBUNI, The.— A tribe of ancient Britons 
 who held a region between the two Avons. See 
 Britain, Celtic Tribes. 
 
 DOCETISM.— " We note another phase of 
 gnosticism in the doctrine so directly and warmly 
 combated in the epistles of John; wc refer to 
 docetism — that is, the theory which refused to 
 recognize the reality of the human body of 
 Christ." — E. Reuss, Hist, of Chriatian Theology 
 in the Apostolic Age, p. 323. 
 
 DODONA. See Hellas. 
 
 DOGE. Sec Venice: A. D. 097-810. 
 
 DOGGER BANKS, Naval Battle of the 
 (1781). bee Netherlands (Holland): A. D. 
 1740-1787. 
 
 DOKIMASIA.— " All magistrates [in ancient 
 Athens] whether elected by cheirotonia or by- 
 lot, were compelled, before entering upon their 
 office, to subject themselves to a Dokimasia, or 
 scrutiny into their fitness for the post." — G. F. 
 Schumann, Antiq. of Greece : The State, pt. 3, ch. 3. 
 
 DOLICHOCEPHALIC MEN.— A term 
 used in ethnology, signifying "long-headed," 
 as distinguishing one class of skulls among the 
 remains of primitive men, from another class 
 called brachycephalic, or "broad-headed." 
 
 DOLLINGER, Doctor, and the dogma of 
 Papal Infallibility. See Papacy: A. D. 1869- 
 1870. 
 
 DOLMENS. See Cromlechs. 
 
 DOMESDAY, OR DOOMSDAY BOOK. 
 See England: A. D. 1085-1086. 
 
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, The. See 
 Hayti: a. D. 1804-1880. 
 
 DOMINICANS. See Mendicant Orders; 
 also, Inquisition: A. D. 1203-1525. 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA.— DOMINION 
 DAY, See Canada: A. D. 1867. 
 
 DOMINUS. See Imperator, Final Sioni- 
 
 FICATION OF THE Uo.MAN TiTLE. 
 
 DOMITIAN, Roman EmpeiC, A. D, 81-06. 
 
 DOMITZ, Battle of (1635). See Germany: 
 A. D. 16;M-1639. 
 
 DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA. See John 
 (Don) of Austria. 
 
 DON PACIFICO AFFAIR, The. See 
 Enoland: a. D. 1840-1850; and Greece: A. I). 
 1840-1850. 
 
 DONALD BANE, King of Scotland, A. D. 
 109:!-1098 (expelled during part of the period 
 by Duncan II.) 
 
 DON ATI, The. See Florence: A. 1). 1295- 
 1300, and 1301-1313. 
 
 DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. See 
 Papacy: A. I). 774(?). 
 
 DONATION OF THE COUNTESS MA- 
 TILDA. See Papacy: A. D. 1077-1102. 
 
 DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAR- 
 LEMAGNE. See Papacy: A. D. 755-774. 
 
 DONATISTS, The.— "The Donatist contro- 
 versy was not one of doctrine, but of ecclesias- 
 tical discipline; the contested election for the 
 archbishopric of Carthage. Two competitors, 
 Cecilius and Donatus, had been concurrently 
 elected while the church was yet in a depressed 
 state, and Africa subject to the tynmt Maxen- 
 tius [A. D. 300-312]. Scarcely had Constantino 
 subdued that province, when the two rivals 
 referred their dispute to him. Constantine, who 
 still publicly professed paganism, but had shown 
 himself very favourable to the Christians, insti- 
 tuted a careful examination of their respective 
 claims, which lasted from the year 312 to 815, 
 and finally decided in favour of Cecilius. Four 
 hundred African bishops protested against this 
 decision; from that time they were designated 
 by the name of Donatists. ... In compliance 
 with an order of the emperor, solicited by Ceci- 
 lius, the property of the Donatists was seized 
 and transferred to the antagonist body of the 
 clergy. They revenged themselves by pronounc- 
 ing sentence of excommunication against all tho 
 rest of the Christian world. . . . Persecution on 
 one side and fanaticism on the other were per- 
 petuated through three centuries, up to the period 
 of the extinction of Christianity in Africa. The 
 wandering preachers of the Donatist faction 
 had no other means of living than the alms of 
 their flocks. ... As might be expected, they 
 outdid each other in extravagance, and soon gave 
 in to the most frantic ravings : thousands of peas- 
 ants, drunk with the effect of these cxortations, 
 forsook their ploughs and fled to the deserts of 
 Getulia. Their bishops, assuming the title of cap- 
 tains of the saints, put themselves at their head, 
 and they rushed onward, carrying death and deso- 
 lation into the adjacent provinces; they were 
 distinguished by the name of Circumcelliones : 
 Africa was devastated by their ravages." — J. C. 
 L. de Sismondi, Fall of the liotnan Empire, ch. 4. 
 
 Also in: P. Schaff, Jlist. of the Christian 
 Church, V. 2, ch. 0. 
 
 DONAUWORTH : A. D. 1632.— Taken by 
 Gustavus Adolphus. Sec Germany: A. D. 
 1631-1633. 
 
 A. D. 1704. — Taken by Marlborough. See 
 Germany: A. D. 1704. 
 
 DONELSON, Fort, Capture of. See United 
 States of Am. : A. D. 1862 (January— Pebbu- 
 aby: Kentucky— Tennessee). 
 
 663 
 
DONOAN CHARTER. 
 
 DORIANS AND I0NIAN8. 
 
 DONGAN CHARTER, The. Sec New 
 
 YouK(('iTY); A. I). 1086. 
 
 DONUM. Sec Taij,a(ik. 
 
 DONUS I., Pope, A. D. 670-678 Donus 
 
 II., Pope, A. I). l(74-«7r). 
 
 DONZELLO. Hcc Damoihkl. 
 
 DOOMS OF INE, The.—" These laws were 
 rciiublished by King Alfreifaa 'The Dooms of 
 Ine ' wlio fine] cnme to the tlirone in A. D. 688. 
 In tlieir first eliiuse tliey clnim to have been 
 recorded by King Inc witli the counsel and teach- 
 ing of his fatlier Cenrcd and of Hedde, his bishop 
 (wlio was Bishop of Windicster from A. D. 676 
 to 705) and of Korcenweld, his bishop (who 
 obtained the see of London in 675); and so, if 
 genuine, tliey seem to represent what was settled 
 customary law in Wessex during the last half of 
 the seventh century." — F. Seebolim, ErtglUh 
 Villnne Vinniminity, cli. 4. 
 
 DOOMSDAY, OR DOMESDAY BOOK. 
 SeeENCii-ANu: A. I). 1085-1086. 
 
 DOORANEES, OR DURANEES, The. 
 Bee India: A. I). 1747-1761. 
 
 DORDRECHT, OR DORT, Synod of. See 
 DouT; also, Netiieulands: A. D. 1603-1619. 
 
 DORIA, Andrew, The deliverance of Genoa 
 by. See Itai-V: A. D. 1527-1529. 
 
 DORIANS AND lONIANS, The.— "Out 
 of the great Pelaaginn population [see Pelasgi- 
 ANs], which covered Anterior Asia Minor and 
 the whole European peninsular land, a younger 
 people had issued forth separately, which we 
 find from the first divided into two races. These 
 main races we may call, according to the two 
 dialects of the Greek language, the Dorian and 
 tlic Ionian, altliough these names are not gener- 
 ally used until a later period to designate the 
 division of the Hellenic nation. No division of 
 so thorough a bearing could have taken place 
 unless accompanied by an early local separation. 
 We assume that the two races parted company 
 while yet in Asia Minor. One of them settles in 
 the mountain-cantons of Northern Hellas, the 
 other along the Asiatic coast. In the latter the 
 historic movement begins. With the aid of the 
 art of navigation, learnt from the Phccnicians the 
 Asiatic Greeks at an early period spread over the 
 sea; domesticating themselves in lower Egypt, 
 in countries colonized by the Phccnicians, in tlie 
 whole Archipelago, from Crete to Thrace ; and 
 from their original as well as from their subse- 
 quent scats send out numerous settlements to the 
 coast of European Greece, first from the East 
 side, next, after conquering the;r timidity, also 
 taking in the country, beyond Cape Malea from 
 the West. At first they land as pirates and 
 enemies, then proceed to permanent settlements 
 in gulfs and straits of the sea, and by the mouths 
 of rivers, where they unite with the Pelasgian 
 population. The different periods of this colo- 
 nization may be judged of by the forms of 
 divine worship, and by the names under which 
 the maritime tribes were called by the natives. 
 Their nidest appearance is as Carians ; as Leleges 
 their influence is more beneficent and perma- 
 nent." — Dr. E. Curtius, 7/i'«<. 0/ Greece, bk. 1, ch. 
 2. — In the view of Dr. Curtius, the later migra- 
 tion of Ionian tribes from Southern Greece to 
 the coasts of Asia Minor, — which is an undoubted 
 historic fact, — was really a return "into the 
 home of their ancestors — "tlie ancient home 
 of tlie great Ionic race." Whether that be the 
 true view or not, the movement in question was 
 
 connected, apparently, with important move- 
 ments among tlie Dorian Greeks in Greece itself. 
 These latter, according to all accounts, and the 
 agreement of all historians, were long settled in 
 Tliessaly, at the foot of Olympus (see Gheeck : 
 The Migrations). It was there that their moral 
 and political developmentrbegan ; there that tliey 
 learned to look at Olympus as tlie home of the 
 go<ls, which all Greeks afterwards learned to do 
 from them. "The service rendered by the 
 Dorian tribe," says Dr. Curtius, "lay in having 
 carried the germs of national culture out of 
 Tliessaly, where the invasion of ruder peoples 
 disturbed and hindered their farther growth, into 
 the land towards the south, where these germs 
 received an unexpectedly new and grand de- 
 velopment. ... A race claiming descent from 
 Heracles united itself in this Thessaliaii coast-dis- 
 trict with the Dorians and established a royal 
 dominion among them. Ever afterwards Herac- 
 lido! and Dorians remained together, but with- 
 out ever forgetting the original distinction be- 
 tween them. In their seats by Olympus the 
 foundations were laid of the peculiarity of the 
 Dorians in political order and social customs ; at 
 the foot oi Olympus was their real home." — 
 The same, bk. 1, ch. 4. — From the neighborhood 
 of Olympus the Dorians moved soutliwards and 
 found another home in "the fertile mountain- 
 recess between Parnassus and ffita, . . . the 
 most ancient Doris known to us by name." 
 Their final movement was into Peloponnesus, 
 which was " the most Important and the most 
 fertile in consequences of all the migrations of 
 Grecian races, and which continued, even to the 
 latest periods to exert its influence upon the Greek 
 character. " Thencef orwards the Dorians were the 
 dominant race in Peloponnesus, and to their chief 
 state, Lacedwmonia, or Sparta, was generally con- 
 ceded the headship of the Hellenic family. This 
 Doric occupation of Peloponnesus, the period of 
 which is supposed to have been about 1100 B. C, 
 no doubt caused the Ionic migration from that part 
 of Greece and colonization of Asia Minor. — C. O. 
 MUller, But. and Antiquities of the Doric race, 
 bk. 1, ch. 8. — The subsequent division o' the 
 Hellenic world between loiiians and Dorians is 
 thus defined by Schomann: "To the lonians 
 belong the inhabitants of Attica, the most im- 
 portant part of the population of Euboca, and 
 the islands of the .£gean included under the 
 common name of Cyclades, as well as the colo- 
 nists both on the Lydian and Carian coasts of 
 Asia Minor and in the two larger islands of Chios 
 and Sanios which lie opposite. To the Dorians 
 within the Peloponnese belong the Spartans, as 
 well as the dominant populations of Argos, 
 Sicyon, Philus, Corinth, Troezene and Epidau- 
 rus, together with the island of .^^ina ; outside 
 the Peloponnese, but nearest to it, were the 
 Megarid, and the small Dorian Tetranolis [also 
 called Pentapolis and Tripolis] near Mount Par- 
 nassus; at a greater distance were tlie majority 
 of the scattered islands and a latge portion 
 of the Carian coasts of Asia Minor and the 
 neighbouring islands, of which Cos and Rhodes 
 were the most important. Finally, the ruling 
 portion of the Cretan population was of Dor- 
 ian/descent." — G. F. SchOmann, Antiquities of 
 Ortece: The State, pt. 1, ch. 1.— See, also, 
 Gkeece: The Miorationb; Asia Minor: The 
 Greek Colonies; HERACLiDiS; Sparta; and 
 
 664 
 
DORIS AND DRYOPia. 
 
 DRESDEN. 
 
 DORIS AND DRYOPIS.— " The little terri 
 tory [in imciont QrecciO called Doris and Dryo- 
 pis occupied the fiouthern declivity of Mount 
 (Eta, dividing Phokig on the north and northwest 
 from the ./Etnlians, J^niiines and Malians. That 
 which was called Doris in the historical times, 
 and which reached in the times of Herodotus 
 nearly ns far eastward as the Xaliac gulf, is said 
 to liavc formed a part of what had been once 
 called Dryopis ; a territory which had comprised 
 the summit of (Eta as far as the Sperchius, 
 northward, and which had been inhabited by an 
 old Hellenic tribe called Dryopes. The Dorians 
 acquired their settlement in Dryopis by gift from 
 HCniklCs, who, along with the Malians (so ran 
 the legend), had expelled the Dryopes and com- 
 
 Fielle(i them to flntl for themselves new scats at 
 lermionC, and AsinO, in the Argolic peninsula of 
 Peloponnesus, — at Styraand Karystus in Euba>a, 
 — and in the island of Kythnus; it is only in 
 these five last-mentioned places tliat history 
 recognizes them. The territory of Doris was 
 distributed into four little townships, — -Pindus, 
 or Akyphas, BcEon, Kytinion and Erineon. . . . 
 In itself this tetrapolis is so Insignificant that we 
 shall rarely find occasion to mention it ; but it 
 acquired a factitious consequence by being 
 regarded as the metropolis of the great Dorian 
 cities in Peloponnesus, and receiving on that 
 ground special protection from Sparta." — O. 
 Grote, Hiit. of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 3. 
 
 Also in; C. O. Mllller, Hist. andAntiq. oftlie 
 Doric Race, bk. 1, ch. 2. — See also, DoniANS and 
 
 lONIANS. 
 
 DORMANS, Battle of (1575). See France: 
 A. D. ir)7;i-ir)76. 
 
 DORN ACH, Battle of (1499). See Switzek- 
 land: a. D. 1306-1499. 
 
 DORR REBELLION, The. See Rhode 
 Island-. A. D. 1841-1843. 
 
 DORT, OR DORDRECHT, The Synod of. 
 — " In the low-countries the supreme govern- 
 ment, the states general, interfered [in the Cal- 
 vlnistlc controversy], and in the year 1618 
 convoked the first and only synod bearing some- 
 thing of the character of a general council that 
 • has been convened by protestants. It assembled 
 at Dort, and continued its sittings from Novem- 
 ber till May following. Its business was to decide 
 the questions at issue between the Calvinists and 
 Armmians; the latter party were also termed 
 remonstrants. James [I.] was requested to send 
 over representatives for the English Church, and 
 chose four divines : — Carlton bishop of Llandalf , 
 Hall dean of Worcester, afterwards bishop suc- 
 cessively of Exeter and Norwich, Davenant 
 afterwards bishop of Salisbury, and Dr. 8. Ward 
 of Cambridge. They were men of learning and 
 moderation. . . . The history of this famous 
 synod is told in various ways. Its decisions were 
 in favour of the doctrines termed Calvinistic, and 
 the remonstrants were expelled from Holland. 
 . . . The majority were even charged by the 
 other party with having bound themselves by an 
 oath before they entered upon business, to con- 
 demn the remonstrants. "—J. B. Marsden, Hist, 
 of Early Piirilang, p. 829.— See Netherlands: 
 A. D. 1603-1619. 
 
 DORYLAEUM, Battle of (1097). See Cru- 
 sades: A. D. 1096-1099. 
 
 DOUAI : A. D. 1667.— Taken by the French. 
 See Netherlands (The Spanish Provinceb): 
 A. D. mi. 
 
 43 665 
 
 A. D. 1668.— Ceded to France. See Nether- 
 lands (Holland): A. 1). 16(1H. 
 
 A. D. 1710. — Siege and capture by Marlbor- 
 ough. See Netueklands: A. D. 1710-1712. 
 
 DOUAI, The Catholic Seminary at. Sco 
 Enoland; A. I), 1.172-1«();(. 
 
 DOUBLOON. — DOBLON. See Spanish 
 Coins. 
 
 DOUGHFACES. — The "Missouri Compro- 
 mise," of 1820, in the United States, "was a 
 Northern measure, carried by Northern votes. 
 With some the threats of di-sunion were a suf- 
 ficient influence ; some, whom in the debate Ran- 
 dolph [.Tohn liandolph, of Virginia] called 
 doughfaces, did not need even that. . . . There 
 has been always a singular servility in the char- 
 acter of a portion of the American people. In 
 that class the slaveholder has always found his- 
 Northern servitor. liundolph first gave it a 
 name to live by in the term doughface." — W. C. 
 Bryant and S. II. Gay, IbpularJUist. oftlie IT. S., 
 V. 4, ;)/). 270 ami 294. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Stephen A., and the doctrine 
 of Squatter Sovereignty. See United States 
 
 OF A.M. : A. D. 1854 Defeat in Presidential 
 
 election. See United States op A.m. : A. D. 
 1860 (ArniL — November). 
 
 DOURO, Battle of the (1580). See Por- 
 tugal: A. D. 1579-1580 Wellington's pas- 
 sage of the. See Spain : A. D. 1809 (Februart 
 —July). 
 
 DOVER, Roman Origin of. See Dubris. 
 
 DOVER, Tenn., Battle at. See United 
 States OF Am. : A. D. 1863 (February — April: 
 Tennessee). 
 
 DOVER, Treaty of. See England: A. D. 
 1668-1670. 
 
 DOWLAH, Surajah, and the English in 
 India. See India: A. D. 1755-1757, and 1757. 
 
 DRA 3HMA. See Talent. 
 
 DRACONIAN LAWS. See Athens: B. C. 
 624. 
 
 DRAFT RIOTS, The. See New York 
 (City): A. D. 1863. 
 
 DRAGON.— PENURAGON.— A title some- 
 times given in Welsh poetry to a kin^ or great 
 military leader. Supposed to be derived from 
 the figure f a dragon on their flags, which they 
 borrowed imm the Romans. See Cumbria. 
 
 DRAGONNADES, The. See Prance: 
 A. D. 1681-1698. 
 
 DRAKE'S PIRACIES, and his famous 
 voyage. See Amekica: A. D. 1572-1580. 
 
 DkANGIANS, The. See Sarangians. 
 
 DRAPIER'S LETTERS, The. See Ire- 
 land: A. D. 1722-1724. 
 
 DRAVIDIAN RACES. See Turanian 
 Races; also, India: The aboriginal inhabit- 
 ants. 
 
 DRED SCOTT CASE, The. See United. 
 States op A.m. : A. D. 1857. 
 
 DREPANA, Naval battle at, B. C. 249. 
 See Punic War, The First. 
 
 DRESDEN: A. D. 1756.- Capture and oc- 
 cupation by Frederick the Great. See Ger- 
 many: A. D. 1756, 
 
 A. D. 1759-1760. — Capture by the A strians. 
 —Bombardment by Frederick. See Germany: 
 A. D. 1759 (July— November), and 1760. 
 
 A. D. 1813.— Occupied by the Prussians and 
 Russians. — Taken by the French. — Invested 
 by the Allies.— Great battle before the city^ 
 
DRESDEN. 
 
 DUBHIS. 
 
 and victory for Napoleon. — French reverses. — 
 St Cyr'a surrender. Hto Okkmany: A. I). 1H12- 
 l«i:i; IMlIi (Ai'uii.— May); (Auouhi); (Seitkm- 
 
 BEIl — OCTOIlKIl); lllltl (OCTOIIEII — DKCKMIIKK). 
 
 DRESDEN, Treaty of. ScoAubthia: A. D. 
 1744-17-1.'). 
 DREUX, Battle of (1563). 8co France: 
 
 A. I), \m\-\rm. 
 
 DROGHEDA, OR TREDAH, Cromwell's 
 massacre at. See Iiiki,am>: A. I>. t(i4U-H!oU. 
 
 DROITWICH, Origin of. S™ Haling. 
 
 DROMONES.— A iianie givtri to the light 
 gnllcys of Die liyzaiitiiiu I'liipirc. — K. Oibbon, 
 I>efUi)e iinil Full of the Homaii Empire, ch. 53, 
 
 DRUIDS.— The pricsthocKl of a religion which 
 ■existed nmong the Celts of Quul and Britain he- 
 fore they were Christianized. " Greelt and Ro- 
 man writers give us very little information on 
 tlds subject and the early Welsh records and 
 poetry none at all. Modern Welsh writers have, 
 however, made up for this want in their genidno 
 literature by inventing an elaborate Druidical 
 system of religion and philosophy which, they 
 pretend, survived the introduction of Christianity 
 and was secretly upheld by the Welsh bards in 
 the Middle Ages. Thi.s Neo-Druidic imposture 
 has found numerous adherents." — AV. K. Suili- 
 •van. Article, " Celtic Literature," Kncijr. Brit. — 
 " Pliny, alluding to the Druids' predilection for 
 groves of oak, tttlds the words: ' lit inde appellati 
 quoquc interpretationc Gneca possint Druidai 
 videri.' . . . Had he possessed knowledge enough 
 •of the Qaulisli language, he would have seen that 
 it supplied an explanation which rendered it 
 needless to have recourse to Greek, namely in the 
 native word * dru,' which we have in ' Druneme- 
 ton,' or tlie sacred Oak-grove, given by Strabo 
 as the name of the place of assembly 01 the Qa- 
 hitians. In fact, one has, if I am not mistaken, 
 been skeptic with regard to tills etymology, not 
 80 much on phonological grounJs as from lulling 
 •exactly to see how the oak could have given its 
 name to such a famous organization asthcdruidic 
 •one must be admitted to have been. But the 
 parallels just indicated, as showing the import- 
 ance of the sacred tree in the worship of Zeus 
 and the gods representing him among nations 
 ■other than the Greek one, help to throw some 
 light on this point. According to the etymology 
 here oUuded to, the Druids would be the priests 
 of the god associated or identified with the oak ; 
 that is, as we are told, the god who seemed to 
 those who were familiar with the pagan theology 
 -of the Greeks, to stand in the same position in 
 •Gaulish theology that Zeus did in the former. 
 This harmonizes thorouglily with all tliat is 
 known about the Druids." — J. Rhys, Ilibbert 
 Lects., 1886, on Celtic Heathendom, lect. 3, pt. 2. — 
 " Our traditions of the Scottish a 1 Irish Druids 
 «re evidently derived from a time wlien Chris- 
 tianity had long been established. These insular 
 Druids are represented as being little better than 
 -conjurors, and their dignity is as mucli dimin- 
 ished as the power of tlic king is exaggerated. 
 ^ . . He is a Pharaoh or Belshazzar with a troop 
 of wizards at his command; but his Druids are 
 sorcerers and rain-doctors. . . . The Druids of 
 .Strabo's description walked in scarlet and gold 
 brocade and wore golden collars and bracelets; 
 but their doctrines may have been much the 
 same as those of the soothsayers by the Severn, 
 ■the Irish medicine-men or those rustic wizards by 
 
 the Loire. . . . After the conversion of Ireland 
 was accomplished the Druids disappear from 
 history. Tlieir mystical powers were tmnsferred 
 without much alteration to tlie abbots and bishops 
 who ruled the 'families of the sahits.'" — C. 
 Elton, Origins of Kntjlish Hint. , eh. 10. 
 
 Also in: Julius Cu;.sar, Udllie War, bk. 0, eh. 
 13-18.— Strabo, «<■<«/.. bk. 4, ch. 4, »eet. 4-6.— For 
 an account of the final destruction of the Druids, 
 in their last retreat, on the island of Mona, or 
 Anglesey, see Bkitain: A. D. 61. 
 
 DRUMCLOG, The Covenanters at. See 
 Scotland: A. 1). 1670 (May- .June). 
 
 DRURY'S BLUFF, Battle of. See United 
 States of Am.: A. D. 1864 (May: Viuoinia) 
 The AiiMY of the James. 
 
 DRUSUS, Germanic campaigns of. See 
 Oeumany: H. C. 12-0. 
 
 DRYOPIANS, The.— One of the aboriginal 
 nations of ancient Greece, whose territory was in 
 the valley of the Spercheiis ond extended as far as 
 Parnassus and Thermonylie ; but who were after- 
 wards widely dispersed in many colonies. It is, 
 says C. O. Mtlller, "historically certain that a 
 great part of tlie Dryopians were consecrated os a 
 subject people to the Pythian Apollo (an usage 
 of ancient times, of wliich there are many 
 instances) and that for a long time they served 
 as such." — Hist, and Antiq. of the Doric Jiace, bk. 
 1, ch. 3. — See, also, Donis; and IIiekodum. 
 
 DUBARRY, Countess, Ascendancy of. Sec 
 Phance: A. D. 1723-1774. 
 
 DUBH GALLS. See Ireland: Otii-IOth 
 Centuiuks. 
 
 DUBIENKA, Battle of (1792). SeePoLAND: 
 A. D. 1791-1703. 
 
 DUBITZ A : Taken by the Austrians (1787). 
 SeeTuHKS: A. D. 1776-1703. 
 
 DUBLIN : The Danish Kingdom. Sec 
 Ireland: Oth-IOtii Centuries; also Normans. 
 — Noutumen: 8th-0tii Centuries. 
 
 A. D. 1014.— The battle of Clontarf and the 
 great defeat of the Danes. See Ireland: 
 A. D. 1014. 
 
 A. D. 1 170.— Taken by the Norman-English. 
 See Ireland: A. D. 1160-117,'). 
 
 A. D. 1646-1640.— Sieges in the Civil War. 
 See Ireland: A. D. 1646-1649. 
 
 A. D. 1750. — The importance of the city. 
 — "In the middle of the 18th century it was In 
 dimensions and population the second city in the 
 empire, containing, according to the most trust- 
 worthy accounts, between 100,000 and 130,000 
 inhabitants. Like most things in Ireland, it 
 presented vivid contrasts, ana strangers were 
 equally struck with the crowds of beggars, the 
 inferiority of the inns, tlie squalid wretchedness 
 of tlio streets of the old town, and with the 
 noble proportions of the new quarter, and the 
 brilliant and hospitable society that inhabited it. 
 The Liffey was spanned by four bridges, and 
 another on a grander scale was undertaken in 
 1753. St. Stephen's Green was considered the 
 largest square in Europe. The quoys of Dublin 
 were widely celebrated."— W. E. H. Lecky, Hist. 
 of Eng., 18</t Century, ch. 7 {v. 3). 
 
 DUBRIS, OR DUBR.^.— The Roman port 
 on tlie eost coast of Britain which is now known 
 as Dover. In Roman times, as now, it was 
 the principal landing-place on the British side 
 of the channel.— T. Wright, Celt, lioman and 
 Saxon, ch. 5. 
 
 666 
 
DUOAT. 
 
 DURHAM. 
 
 DUCAT, Spanish. 8co SpANitn Coras. 
 
 DUCES. Sec Count and Dukk. 
 
 DUDLEY, Thomas, and the colony of Mas- 
 sachusetts Bay. Hoc Mahhaciichktth: A. I). 
 ltl'Jl)-l(i:to. 1111(1 iiftiT. 
 
 DUFFERIN, Lord.— The Indian Adminis- 
 tration of. Sec India: A. I). Imhd-IHnh. 
 
 DU GUESCLIN'S CAMPAIGNS. Sec 
 Fuance: A. 1). 11)00- 13H(). 
 
 DUKE, The Roman.— Origin of the title. 
 
 Set' ('OI'NT and DlKK. 
 
 DUKE'S LAWS, The. Sec Nkw Yohk: 
 A. I). 1003. 
 DULGIBINI AND CHASAURI, The.— 
 
 "Tlii'se pooplo [tribes of thu iiiiciciit Ofrmaiis] 
 rtrnt rositled near the head of the Lippe, mul '' (,'u 
 removed to tlic settlementH of tlie C^lmmnvi iind 
 the Angrevarii, who had expelled the Bructeri." 
 — Tacitus, Oermany, eh. 84, Ojford trans., note. — 
 Sec, also, Saxons. 
 
 DUMBARTON, Origin of. Sec Ai.clyde. 
 
 DUMBARTON CASTLE, Capture of 
 (1571). — Dumbarton Castle, held by the party of 
 Mary Queen of Scots, in the civil war which fol- 
 lowed her deposition and detention in England, 
 was captured in 1571, for tlic regent Lennox, by 
 an extraordinary act of daring on the part of one 
 Cunt. Crawford.— P. F. Tytler, Iliat. of Hcoiland, 
 u. 3, c/i. 10. 
 
 DUMNONIA, OR DAMNONIA, The 
 kingdom of. See England: A. D. 477-527. 
 
 DUMNONII, The.— "It is ... a remark- 
 able circumsUmcc that the Dumnonii, whom we 
 find in the time of Ptolemy occupying the whole 
 of the southwestern extremity of Britain, includ- 
 ing both Devonshire and Cornwall, and who must 
 therefore have been one of the most powerful na- 
 tions in the island, are never once mentioned in 
 the history of the conquest of the country by the 
 Horn . lis ; nor is their name found in any writer 
 before Ptolemy. . . . The conjecture of Mr. 
 Beale Poste . . . that they were left in nominal 
 independence under a native liing . . . appears 
 tome highly probable." — E. H. Bunbury, JIM. 
 of Ancient Ueog., ch. 23, note B. — There appears 
 to have been a northern branch of the Dumnonii 
 or Damnonii, which held an extensive territory 
 on the Clyde and the Forth. See Britain, Cel- 
 tic Tribes. 
 
 DUMOURIEZ, Campaigns and treason of. 
 See France: A. D. 1793 (Skitember— Decem- 
 ber); 1702-1798; and 1708 (February— April). 
 
 DUNBAR, A. D. 1296.— Battle. See Scot- 
 land: A. D. 1200-1305. 
 
 A. D. X339. — Siege. — The fortress of Dunbar, 
 besieged by the English under the Eurl of Salis- 
 bury in 1330, was successfully defended in the 
 absence of the governor, tlie Earl of March, by 
 ills wife, known afterwards in Scotch history and 
 tradition us "Black Agnes of Dunbar." 
 
 A. D. 1650.— Battle. See Scotland: A. D. 
 1650 (September). 
 
 ♦ 
 
 DUNCAN I., King of Scotland, A. D. 1033- 
 1030 Duncan II., A. D. 1094-1005. 
 
 DUNDALK, Battle of (1318). See Ireland: 
 A. D. 1314-1318. 
 
 DUNDEE (CLAVERHOUSE) AND THE 
 COVENANTERS. See Scotland: A. D. 1670 
 (May— June); 1681-1680; and 1689 (July). 
 
 DUNDEE : A. D. 1645.— Pillaged by Mont- 
 rose. See Scotland: A.L). 1644-1645. 
 
 A. D. 1651.— Storm and massacre by Monk. 
 
 See Scotland: A. I). 1051 (August — Septbu- 
 
 BER). 
 
 ♦ ■ 
 
 DUNES, Battle of the (1658). Sec Enq- 
 LAND: A. I). 105.5-16.58. 
 
 DUNKELD, Battle f. See Scotland: 
 A. I). 1680 (Auouht). 
 
 DUNKIRK: A. D. 1631. — Unsuccessful 
 siege by the Dutch. See Netiibhlands: A. D. 
 1031-1633. 
 
 A. D. 1646. — Siege and capture by the 
 French.— Importance of the port. — Its harbor- 
 age of pirates. See Netherlands: A. 1). 1645- 
 1040. 
 
 A. D. 165a.— Recovered by the Spaniards, 
 .See France: A. I). 10,52. 
 
 A. D. 1658.— Acquired by Cromwell for Eng- 
 land. See England: A. D. 105.V1658; and 
 France: A. D. 105,5-16.58. 
 
 A. D. 1663.— Sold by Charles II. to France. 
 See England; A. D. 1603. 
 
 A. D. 1713.— Fortifications and harbor de- 
 stroyed. Sic Utrecht; A. D. 1712-1713. 
 
 A. D. 1748.— Demolition of fortifications 
 again stipulated. See Aix-la-Cuafelle : The 
 
 t'ONOREBH. 
 
 A. D. 1763.— The demolition of fortiuca- 
 tions pledged once more. See Seven Years 
 War: The treaties. 
 
 A. D. 1793.— Unsuccessful siege by the 
 English. Sec France: A. D. 1703 (July- 
 December); Progress ok the War. 
 
 DUNMORE, Lord, and the end of royal 
 government in Virginia. See Viroima: A. D. 
 1775 (June); and 1775-1776. 
 
 DUNMORE'S WAR. Sec Ohio (Valley): 
 A. D. 1774. 
 
 DUNNICHEN, Battle of (A. D. 685). See 
 Scotland: 7tii Century. 
 
 DUPLEIX AND THE FRENCH IN 
 INDIA. See India: A. D. 1743-1752. 
 
 DUPONT, Admiral Samuel F. — Naval 
 attack on Charleston. Sec United States ok 
 Am.: a. D. 1868 (April: South Carolina). 
 
 DUPPEL, Siege and capture of (1864). See 
 Germany: A. D. 1861-1866. 
 
 DUPPELN, Battle of (1848). See Scandi- 
 navian States (Denmark) : A. D. 1848-1862. 
 
 DUPPLIN MOOR, Battle of (1333). See 
 Scotland: A. D. 1832-1333. 
 
 DUQUESNE, Fort. See Pittsbuugu. 
 
 DURA, Treaty of.— The humiliating treaty 
 of peace concluded with 'he Persians, A. D. 
 363, after the defeat and death of the Roman 
 emperor Julian, by his successor Jovian. — Q 
 Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy 
 ch. 10. 
 
 DURANEES, OR DOORANEES, Tht 
 See India: A. D. 1747-1761. 
 
 DURAZZO, Neapolitan dynasty of. See 
 Italy (Southern): A. D. 1343-1389; 1380-1414, 
 and Italy: A. D. 1412-1447. 
 
 DURBAR, OR DARBAR.— An audience 
 room in the palace of an East Indian prince. 
 Hence applied to a formal audience or levee 
 given by the governor-general of India, or by 
 one of the native princes. — Century Dictionary 
 
 DURHAM, OR NEVILLE'S CROSS, 
 Battle of (A. D. 1346). See Scotland: A. D. 
 1833-1370. 
 
 667 
 
DURODRIViB. 
 
 EARTHQUAKE. 
 
 DUROBRIViC.— A numo givrn to two 
 Roman tuwim in liritiiin, out' of which hiiH been 
 Idcntillcd witlt nuMii'rn i{o<'h(Htcr, thu other with 
 tho town of Ciislor, neiir I'i'tcrhoroiigli. 
 
 DUROBRIVIAN WARE. 8vu Cahtoii 
 Wahk. 
 
 DUROCOBRIViE.— An important mnrkot- 
 t^iwn in Itonmn Ilrituin, HU|)poH<'(l to hitvu Iwcn 
 Hitimtrd lit or ni'iir mcHlcru I)nnHtiil)lc. — T. 
 Wri^flit, ('fit, HoiiKin ami Siitdii, eh. 5. 
 
 DUROTRIGES.— One of tlio tribes of an- 
 cient liritiiin wIiohc liomo wiih in thu modern 
 county of Dorw't. 8co Bkitain, C'ki.ticTiiibkb. 
 
 DUROVERNUM.— ARomiuitowninUritiiln. 
 Identitlud willi the nuxlcrn Ciinterlmry. I)ur- 
 overnuni was destroyed t)y tlie Jutes in 455. 
 See Knoi.and! a. 1). JIO-IW. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. Sec 
 East I.ndia Comi'Any, Tmio Dutch. 
 
 DUTCH GAP CANAL. See Unitkd 
 Stateh OF Am. : A. 1). lHtt4(AuoUBT: Viu(iinia). 
 
 DUTCH REPUBLIC, The conttitution 
 and declared independence of the. Sec 
 
 NKTnKni.ANDH: A. I). 1577-1581, and 1584- 
 15M5. 
 
 DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY.Seo 
 Nkw Yohk: a, I). 1«21-1(I4«; ami Uiiazii,: A. I). 
 151()-lfl«l. 
 
 DOTLINGEN, or TUTTLINGEN, Bat- 
 tle of (1643). See (Ikrmany: A. I). 1048-1044. 
 
 DYAKS, or DAYAKS, The. See Ma- 
 layan Hack. 
 
 DYRRHACHIUM: The founding of. See 
 
 KollKYHA. 
 
 Provoking cause of the Peloponnesian War. 
 SeeGiiKKtK: U. C. 435-1H2. 
 
 B. C. 48.— CKsar'a reverse. See Rohb: 
 B. C. 48. 
 
 A. D. io8i-io8a.— Siege bv Robert Guiscard. 
 SeeBY/.ANTiNK E.MIMIIK: A. I). lO'U-lOH.-), 
 
 A. D. 1304. — Acquired by the Despot of 
 Epirus. See Eimkls: A. D. 1204-1350. 
 
 DYRRHACHIUM, Peace of. ScoGheece: 
 B. C. 214-140. 
 DYVED. SeeBiuTAiN: 6tu Centuhy. 
 
 £. 
 
 EADMUND, EADWINE, ETC. See Ed- 
 mund, ETC. 
 
 EALDORMAN. — " Tlie chieftains of the 
 first settlers in our own island boro no higher 
 title than Kaldomian or Hcretoga. . . . The 
 nnmo of Ealdorman is one of a largo class; 
 among a primitive people ago implies command 
 anil command implies age; hence in a somewhat 
 later stage of language the elders arc simply the 
 rulers and the eldest are the highest in rank, 
 without any thought of the number of years 
 which they may really have lived. It is not per- 
 fectly clear in what the authority or dignity of 
 the King exceeded that of the Ealdorman. . . . 
 Even the smallest Kingdom was probably formed 
 by the union of the districts of several Ealdor- 
 nien." — E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, eh. 3, 
 »eet. 1. — "The organisation of the shire was of 
 much the same character as that of the hundred 
 [each shire containing, however, a number of 
 hundreds], but it was ruled by an ealdorman as 
 well as by a gercfa, and in some other respects 
 bore evidence of its previous existence as an in- 
 dependent unity. Its gemot was not only the 
 scir-gemot but the folc-gemot also, the assembly 
 of the people; its cnluonnau commanded not 
 merely the military force of the hundreds, but 
 the lords of the franchises and the church vassals 
 with their men. Its gerefa or sheriff collected 
 the fiscal as well as the local imposts. Its eal- 
 dorman was one of the king's witan. The eal- 
 dorman, the princeps of Tacittis, and princeps, 
 or satrapa, or subregulus of Bede, the dux of 
 the Latin chroniclers and the comes of the Nor- 
 mans, was originally elected in the general as- 
 sembly of the nation. . . . The hereditary prin- 
 ciple appears however in the early days of the 
 kingdom as well as in those of Edward the Con- 
 fessor; in the case of an under-kingdom being 
 annexed to a greater the old royal dynasty 
 seems to have continued to hand down its dele- 
 gated authority from father to son. The under- 
 kings of Hwiccia thus continued to act as eal- 
 dormen under Slercia for a century; and the 
 ealdormanship of the Gyrwas or fen-countrymen 
 seems likewise to have been hereditary. The 
 
 I title of ealdorman is thus much older than the 
 existing division of shires, nor was it ever the 
 rule for every shire to have an ealdorman to it- 
 self as it had its sheriff. . . . But each shire 
 WHS imder an ealdorman, who sat with the 
 sheriff and bishop in the folkmoot, received a 
 third part of the profits of the jurisdiction, and 
 commanded the military force of the whole di- 
 vision. From the latter character ho derived the 
 name of heretoga, leader of the host (' here '), or 
 dux, which is occasionally given him in char- 
 ters." — W. Stubbs, Oonst. Iliat. of Eng., eh. 6, 
 sects. 48-49. 
 
 EARL. —"The title of earl had begun to 
 supplant that of ealdorman in the reign of Ethel- 
 red; and the Danish jar!, from whom its tise in 
 this sense was borrowed, seems to liave been 
 more certainly connected by the tie of comitatus 
 with his king than the Anglo-Saxon ealdorman 
 need be supposed to have been. " — W. Stubbs, 
 Const. Hist, of Eng., eh. 0, seet. 66. — See, also, 
 EouL and Ealdouman. 
 
 EARLDOMS, English : Canute's creation. 
 See England: A. D. 1016-1042. 
 
 The Norman change. Sec Palatike, Tub 
 Enolisii Counties. 
 
 EARLY, General Tubal, Campaigns in the 
 Shenandoah. See United States op Am. : 
 A. D. 1864 (May— June: Viiiginia); (July: 
 ViBOf NiA — Maryland) ; (August — October : 
 Virginia); and 1865 (February — March: Vir- 
 ginia). 
 
 EARTHQUAKE: B. C. 464.— Sparta. See 
 ]\Ie88enian Wau, The Third. 
 
 A. D. 115. — At Antioch. See Antioch: A. D. 
 115. 
 
 A. D. 365. — In the Roman world.— "In the 
 second year of the reign of Vaientinian and 
 Valens [A. D. 365], on the morning of the 2l8t 
 day of July, the greater part of the Roman 
 world was shaken by n violent and destructive 
 earthquake. Tlie impression was communicated 
 to the waters ; the shores of the Mediterranean 
 were left dry by the sudden retreat of the sea. 
 . . . But the tide soon returned with the weight 
 
 668 
 
EARTHQUAICK. 
 
 EBIOJnflM. 
 
 of an Immrniio and InrdiHlblo drliipo, whlrh 
 wan Hcvert'ly felt on tlio roiiHtH of Hlclly, of Dal- 
 mntln. of Oroc™ and of Kgypt. . . . Tlui city 
 of Ali'xandrlii anniiiilly commciiioratod tlio fatal 
 day on which no.lMH) pcrnonH liad hmt their IIvch 
 in the Inuiidiilion." — K. (}llil>on, Ikeline and 
 Full of the lloniiin Kmpire. r/i. 'in. 
 
 A. D. 536.— In the reign of Justinian. Hcc 
 Antkh'Ii: a. I). 53(1; also, Hkuytiih. 
 
 A. D. 1693.— In Jamaica. Hee .Jamaica: A. D. 
 1093. 
 
 A. D. 1755.— At Lisbon. Hce Lisbon: A. D. 
 I7r.r.. 
 
 A. D. i8i3.— In Venezuela. Sec ('olomdian 
 Statkb: a. I). 181 0-1810. 
 
 EAST AFRICA ASSOCIATIONS, British 
 and German. Hcc Akiuca: A. I). 1H84-1HM0. 
 
 EAST ANGLIA.— Tho kingdom formed in 
 Britain by that body of the Angles which set 
 lied In tho eastern district now embraced In tli(! 
 coimties of Norfolk and SulTolk (North-folk and 
 Houthfolk). 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, The Dutch: 
 A. D. 1603. — Its formation and first enter- 
 prises. See NKTirEiii.ANDs: A. I). 1094-1(130. 
 
 A. D. 1653.— Settlement at Cape of Good 
 Hope. .SeoHouTil Akiuca: A. P. 1486-18()((. 
 
 A. D. 1790.— Its dissolution. 8eo Fkancf,: 
 
 A. I). 1790 (SKPTE.MnKK— OCTOIIEU). 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, The English: 
 A. D. 1600-1703. — Its rise and early under- 
 takings. HcelNDrA: A, I). lfi(IO-17()3, 
 
 A. D. 1773. — Constitution of the Company 
 changed by the Acts of Lord North. See In- 
 dia: A. D. 1770-1773. 
 
 A. D. 1813-1833.— Deprived of its monopoly 
 of trade. — Reconstitution of government. See 
 India: A. I). 183;l-18:ia 
 
 A. D. 1858.— The end of its rule. See In- 
 dia: A. D. 1858. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, The French. 
 
 See India: A. I). 1005-174H. 
 
 EAST INDIES, Portuguese in the. Sec 
 India: A. D. 1 498-1 r,80. 
 
 EASTERN CHURCH, The. See Cimis- 
 tianity: a. D. 330-1054. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE, The. Sec Rome: 
 717-800 ; and Byzantine Empiue. 
 
 EASTERN QUESTION, The. — "For a 
 number of generations in Europe there has been 
 one question that, carelessly or maliciously 
 touched upon, lias never failed to stimulate strife 
 and discord among the 'nations. Tills is ' the 
 Eastern Question, ' the problem Iiow to settle the 
 disputes, political and religious, in the east of 
 Europe." — H. Murdock, 7 he Reconstruction of 
 Europe, p. 17. — The first occasion in European 
 politics on which the problems of the Ottoman 
 empire received the name of the Eastern Ques- 
 tion seems to have been that connected with the 
 revolt of Mehemet All in 1831 (see Turks: A. D. 
 1831-1840). M. Guizot, in his " Memoirs," when 
 referring to that complication, employs the term, 
 and remarks: "I say the Eastern (Question, for 
 this was in fact the name given by all the world 
 to tho quarrel between the Sultan Mahmoud, 
 and his subject the Pacha of EiE;ypt, Mehemet 
 Ali. Why was this sounding title applied to 
 a local contest ? Egypt is not the whole Otto- 
 man empire. The Ottoman empire is not the 
 
 entire Kast. Tho reliellion, even the dlsmembrr- 
 nicnt of a pnivincc, cnnnot coniprlHe the fate 
 of a doveri'lgnly. The great Ktates of Wesleni 
 Kiiropo have alternately lost or aenulred, either 
 by internal diHseiiHinn or war, considerable terri- 
 toricK; yet under tlu^ aspect o thes*! cireiim- 
 Mtaiires no one has H|)(iki'ii of the Western 
 iiuesllcm. Why then has a term never used in 
 the territorial crises of Christian Europe, been 
 considered and admitted to be perfectly natural 
 and legitimate when the Ottoman empire Is In 
 argument? It Is that there Is at present In the 
 Ottoman empire no local or partial question. If 
 a shock is felt in a enriier of the edifice, If a 
 single stone Is detached, the enti'o building 
 appears to be, and Is In fact, n'ady tr fall. . . . 
 'I he Egyptian <|iieslirm was in 1839 the question 
 of the Ottoman empire Itself. And the (luestion 
 of the Ottoman empire Is In reality the Eastern 
 (lUestion, not only of the European but of tho 
 Asiatic East; for Asia Is now the theatre of the 
 leading ambitions and rivalries of the great 
 powers of Europe; and the Ottoman empire Is 
 the highway, the gate, and the key of Asia." — 
 F. P. Oiiizot, ^femoirH to Illuitrnti the Ilintory of 
 ^fl| Own Time, p. 4, p. 322. — The several occa- 
 sions since 1840 on which the Piastern Questi(m 
 has troubled Europe may be found narrated 
 under the following captions: Ui'shia: A. I). 
 18:(3-18.54, to 18r)4-185(J; TiiUKs: A. D. 1861- 
 1H77, 1877-1878, and 1878; also Balkan and 
 Uanuiiian 8t.\te8. — Anumg English writers, 
 the term "tlie Eastern Question" has acquired a 
 larger meaning, whicli takes in <iiiestioiis con- 
 necled with tlio advance of Itussia upim the 
 Afghan and Persian frontiers. — Duke of Argyll, 
 The KiiHtcrn yHc^^i'on.— See Afghanistan : A. D. 
 1809-1881. 
 
 EATON, Dorman B., and Civil-Service 
 Reform. Sec CiviL-SEnvicE Uekou.m in the 
 United Ht.\tes. 
 
 EBBSDORF, OR LUNEBURG HEATH, 
 Battle of. — X great and disastrous battle of the 
 (Jcrmans with tho Danes, or Northmen, fought 
 Feb. 3, 880. Tho Germans were terribly beaten, 
 and nearly all who survived the fight were swept 
 away into captivity and slavery. The slain re- 
 ceived "martyrs 'honours; and their commemora- 
 tion was celebrated in the Sachseu-Iand churelies 
 till comparatively recent times. An unexampled 
 sorrow was created throughout Saxony by this cn- 
 lamlty, whieli, for a time, exhausted the country ; 
 — Scandinavia and Jutland and the Baltic isles 
 resounded with exultation." — Sir F. Palgrave, 
 Hint, of Kontuttidii and England, hk. 1, ch. 4. 
 
 EBBSFLEET.— The supposed first landing- 
 place in Britain of the Jutes, under Hengest, 
 A. D. 449 or 450, when English history, as Eng- 
 lish, begins. It was also the landing-place, A. D. 
 597, of Augustine and his fellow missionaries 
 when they entered the island to undertake the 
 conversion of Its new Inhabitjints to Christianity. 
 Ebbsflcet is in the Isle of Tlianet, at the mouth 
 of tlie Thames. See England: 449-473, and 
 597-685. 
 
 EBERSBURG, Battle of. See Germany: 
 A. I). IHOO (.Ianuary— June). 
 
 EBIONISM.— Tho heresy (so branded) of a 
 sect of Jewish Christians, which spread some- 
 what extensively in the second, third and fcmrth 
 centuries. " The characteristic marks of Ebion- 
 ism in all its forms are: degradation of Chris- 
 tianity to thp level of Judaism ; the principle of 
 
 669 
 
EniONISM. 
 
 ECUADOa 
 
 tlic unlvrrHiil iiiiil |M'r|M'timl viillclity nf tlin 
 Moiuiic liiw; mill cniiiity to tlic iipoNtli- I'aul." 
 Tlio rmniu of tliu KhioiiltcH chiik! froiii ii Ilclin'w 
 woni HlKiilfviriK " i)<M)r."— 1», HclmIT, Hint, of the 
 C/irinliiin ( liiirrh, urmnil jm-HimI, fli. 4, feet. (W. 
 EBLANI, The. Hen Ikki.anu, Tkiiikh ok 
 
 EAItl.V ('Kl.'lK' INIIAIIITANTH. 
 
 EBORACUM, OR EBURACUM. — Tlio 
 
 liiilllitry ciipiUil of Kdinitii liritiiin, and iiftcr- 
 wiinlN (if till! AiikIIiiii kiiiK<l(iniH of Drim iiiiil 
 N<irtliuinliria. In Old KiikHhIi its iiaiiio liccuiiio 
 E(irf(irwl(k, wlicncc, by fiirlliur cornipti<in, rc- 
 gtiltod the imxlcrn KnEmli name York. The city 
 was one of couHidcnihU' HplcniUir in Itonian tiiiicH, 
 contahiing the imperial palaco with many tcinplcH 
 and otiicr InipoHlug buildlngH. tJco Lnulanu: 
 A. I). ir.T-fl:):!. 
 
 EBURONES, Destruction of the.— The 
 Ebiironcg weri- a strong Oennanic trllio, wlio 
 occupied in CivHar's time Min country Iwtween 
 Li6ffe and Cologne, anil lioBo ancestors were 
 said to iiavo formcil part of tlio great migrant 
 horde of tlio (Mmhrl and Teutones. Under a 
 young chief, Ambiorix, they had taken the lend 
 ID the formidable revolt which occurred among 
 the Ik'lgle tribes, IJ. C. 54-53. C'lesar, when hu 
 hod suppressed the revolt, determined to bring 
 destruction on tlie Kburones, and lio executed 
 his purpose in a singular manner. lie circulated 
 a proclamation through all the neighboring parts 
 of Oaul and Qermnny, declaring the Eburones 
 to be •raltors to Homo and outlaws, and offering 
 them and their ginxls lis common prey to any 
 who would full on them. This drew tho sur- 
 rounding barbarians like vultures to a feast, and 
 the wretched Eburones were mnm hunted out of 
 existence. Their name disappeared from tho 
 annalsof Oaul. — C. Merivale, llitt. oftheRomam, 
 eh. 10. 
 
 Also in: Ctesar, Oallie War», bk. 5, ch. 85-58; 
 bk. 0, ch. 1-84. — G. Long, Decline of the Jluinan 
 Ilemhlic, f>. 4, ch. 13-14. — See, also, Beix>/B. 
 
 ECBATANA.— "The Southern Ecbatana or 
 Agbatana, — which the diodes and Persians them- 
 selves knew as Hagmat&n, — was situated, as 
 we learn from Polybius and Diodorus, on a plain 
 at tho foot of Mount Orontes, a llttlo to the cast 
 of the Zagros range. Tho notices of these 
 authors . . . and others, render it as nearly cer- 
 tain as possible that the site was that of the 
 mixlern town of Ilumiulan. . . . The Median 
 capitp' has never yet attracted a sclcntiflc ex- 
 pedition. . . . Tho chief city of northern Media, 
 which bore in later times the names of Qaza, 
 Gazaca, or Canzac^, is thought to have been also 
 called Ecbatana, and to have been occasionally 
 mistaken by tho Greeks for tho southern or real 
 capital." — Q. Kawlinson, Five Qreat Monarchies: 
 Media, ch. 1. 
 
 ECCELINO, OR EZZELINO DI RO- 
 MANO, The tyranny of, and the crusade 
 against. See Veuona: A. D. 1236-1258. 
 
 ECCLESIA.— The general legislative assem- 
 bly of citizens in ancient Athens and Sparto. — 
 G. F. SchOmann, Antiq. of Greece: Tlie State, pt. 3. 
 
 Also in: G. Grote, IIi»t. of Greece, ch. 31. — See 
 Athens: B. C. 445-429. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL,The. 
 See Papacy: A. D. 1850. 
 
 ECENI, OR ICENI, The. See Britain: 
 A. D. 61. 
 
 ECGBERHT, King of Wessex, A. D. 800- 
 886. 
 
 ECKMOHL, Battle of. See GBnMANT: 
 
 A. 1). IMimi.lANUAUY— .IlNK). 
 
 ECNOMUS, Naval battle of (B. C. 256). 
 Hee I'i'Nic VVaii, Tiik FiiisT. 
 
 ECORCHEURS, Les.— In the later periixl 
 of the Hundred Veam War, ttft<!r the death of 
 the Maid of Orleans, when the English wero 
 Ixilng driven from France and the authority of 
 the king waHnotyctestabli.slied, lawless violence 
 prevailed widely. "Adventurers spread tliem- 
 si'lves over thi' pmvinees under a name, 'the 
 Hkinnerx,' Ia% Ecorcheurs, which sutllclently lio- 
 tokens the savage nature of their outrages. If wo 
 trace it to oven its mildest derivation, stripping 
 shirts, not skins."— E. Smedloy, Iliit. of trance, 
 pi. 1, eh. 14. 
 
 ECTHESISOFHERACLIUS. See Mono- 
 
 TIIBI.ITK (."ONTUdVKKHY. 
 
 ECU, The order of the. See Bouiidon, Tiik 
 iiousK of. 
 ECUADOR: Aboriginal inhabitants. Seo 
 
 A.MKItlCAN AllOHlaiNKS: Andehians. 
 
 The aborig nal kingdom of Quito and its 
 conquest by the Peruvians and the Spaniards. 
 — "(Jf the old Qiiitu nation which inhabited the 
 highlands to tho north and south of tho present 
 capital, nothing is known to tradition but tlio 
 name of its last king, (Qiiitu, after whom hlssub- 
 lecta were probably called. His domains were 
 invaded ana conquered by the nation of the Caras, 
 or C.'arans, who had como by sea in balsas (rafts) 
 from parts unknown. These Caras, or Cantns, 
 oHtjiblished the dynasty of the Scyris at Quit", 
 and extended their conquests to the north and 
 south, until checked by the warlike nation of the 
 Puruhas, who inhabited the present district of 
 Riobamba. ... In the reign of Ilualcopo Duclii- 
 cela, the 18th Scyri, the Peruvian Incas com- 
 menced to extend their conquests to the north, 
 . . . About the middle of tlio 15th century the 
 Inca Tupac Yupanqul, father of Huaynucapac, 
 invaded the dominions of the Scyris, and after 
 many bloody battles and sieges, conqiiered the 
 kingdom of Puruha and returned in triumph to 
 Cuzco. Hualcopo survived his loss but a few 
 years. He is said to have died of grief, and was 
 succeeded by his son Cacha, the 15th and last of 
 the Scyris. Cacha Duchiccia at once set out to 
 recover his paternal dominions. Although of 
 feeble health, he seems to have been a man of 
 (, at energy and intrepidity. He fell upon the 
 garrison which the Inca had left at Mocha, put it 
 to the Bword, and rcoccupied the kingdom of 
 Puruha, where he was received with open arms. 
 He even carried his banners further south, until 
 checked by the Caiiares, tho inhabitants of what 
 is now tho district of Cuenco, who had volun- 
 torlly submitted to the Inca, and now detained 
 the Scyri until Huaynacapac, tho greatest of tho 
 Inca dynasty, came to their rescue.' On tho 
 plain of TiocaJ.18, and again on the plain of 
 Hatuntaqui, grei.\t battles were fought, in both 
 of which the Scyri was beaten, and in the last of 
 which he fell. " On the very field of battle the 
 faithful Caranquis proclaimed Pacha, the daugh- 
 ter of the fallen king, as their Scyri. Huayna- 
 capac now regulated his conduct by policy. Ho 
 ordered the dead king to be buried with all the 
 honors due to royalty, and made offers of mar- 
 riage to young Pacha, by whom he was not re- 
 fused. . . . The issue of the marriage was Ata- 
 huallpa, the last of the native mlers of Peru. 
 ... As prudent and highly politic as the con- 
 
 670 
 
ECUADOR 
 
 EDDAS. 
 
 (liirt of nunynnrupnr Ih goncmllr r<p >l<d to 
 Imvo lH>i'n, Ml) imi'riiilciit unci iinpolltto WM the 
 iliviHion of tilt- t'liiiiirc whicli he niailo nn 1>ii< 
 ilciith Im'iI, lM'(|iii'iitliin)( IiIh pjitiTiiiil iloiiiinloim to 
 IiIm llrHt lM)rii Jitid uriiloiihUMlly lri;ititiiiiti! son, 
 iliiiuu'ltr, iiikI to Atiiliiiiill|iii the kiii)(iloin of 
 Quito. II(! iiiiKlit liikvu forcHi'i'ii the rvll coiim.'' 
 <)ut'iic('H of HtK'li » purtitlon. Ili.H (lentil tiNik 
 pliico al«mt tli« yeiir 1525. For (Ivu or m-vi'ii 
 yciirit tim hrothurg lived In pciu'c, " Then <|ii<krrelH 
 urime, leiidinK to dvll war, rexultinK in tli<! de- 
 feiitand deutli of lluuiwur. .Vtiiliuiillpa had JuHt 
 IxM-oine niiiMter of the weiikeiied iind Nliitken em- 
 pire of the InciiH, when the inviidliiK HpiinliirdM, 
 under l'i/,iirro, ft II on the d(Hinied litnd iind nindu 
 itM rielieo their own. The (MUKiiieHt of the Hpiin- 
 iunU did not Include the kingdom of Quito iit 
 first, hut was extended to the latter In 151)3 by 
 Bcbastian <lu Kenalea/ar, whom Pi/arro had put 
 In command of thu Port of Han MIkucI. Excited 
 by sto.ies of the riches of (J\dto, and invited by 
 amliasHiidors from the ('aflari.'S, thu old enendi'S 
 of the Quito tribes, Henulcazur, " without orders 
 or permTsslon from Fi/arro . . . left San Miguel, 
 at the head of about 150 men. His second In 
 commatxl vas the monster Juan do Ampudla." 
 The fate of Quito was again dccUIiMl on the ;>laln 
 of Tidcajas, where Itummugui, a i;hief who h.'ul 
 sei/.cd thu vac4tnt throne, made a desperate but 
 vain resistance, lie gained time, however, to 
 remove whatever treasures there may have been 
 at Quito l)cyon<l the reach of Its rapacious con- 
 querors, and " where he bill tlicm Is a secret to 
 Uie present day. . . . Traditions of the great 
 treasures hidden in the moimtains by Rumlflagui 
 are eagerly repeated and believed at Quito. . . . 
 Having removed the gold and killed the Virgins 
 of the Sun, and thus pTaced two objects so eagerly 
 coveted by the Invaders beyond their reach, 
 Kundftagui set lire to the town, and evacuatc(l 
 It with all his troops and followers. It would 
 l>e diftlcult to describe the rage, mortlflcatloa and 
 despair of the Bpanlanis, on 'finding smoking 
 ruins Instead of the treasures which they hod ex- 
 pected. . . . Thousands of innocent Indians were 
 sacrificed to their disappointed cupidity. . . . 
 Every nook and corner of the province was 
 searched ; but only In the sepulchres some little 
 gold was found. ... Of the ancient buildings of 
 Quito no stone was left upon the other, and deep 
 excavations were made under them to search for 
 hidden treasures. Hence there is no vestige left 
 at Quito of its former civilization ; not a ruin, not 
 a wall, not a stone to which the traditions of the 
 past might cling. ... On the 28th of August, 
 1534, tlie Spanish village of Quito [San Francisco 
 de Quito] was founded."— F. Ilassaurek, Four 
 Yean among Smnuh Aineriama, ch. 16. 
 
 Also in: W. H. Prescott, Hint, of Cong, of 
 Peru, bk. 3, eh. i (i\ 1). and ch. 9 (p. 2). 
 
 In the empire of the Incas. See Peru; Tire 
 EMPIRE OP THE Incas. 
 
 A. D. 1542.— The Audiencia of Quito estab- 
 lished, ^-e AuuiKNci.\s. 
 
 A. D. 1821-1854. — Emancipation of slaves. 
 See Colombian St.vtes: A. X). 1821-1854 
 
 A. D. 1822-1888.— Confederated with New 
 Granada and Venezuela in the Colombian 
 Republic— Dissolution of the Confederacy.— 
 The rule of Flores.— In 1822 " the Province of 
 Quito was incorporated into the Colombian Re- 
 public [see Colombian States: A. D. 1819- 
 1830], It was now divided into three depart. 
 
 ments on the Frrneh system: and the southern- 
 miiHtof llies<! received Its name from the Kouutor 
 (Kcuador) which paHses through it. Shortly 
 after V'eiu'/ucla had declared ilHelf indi pend- 
 ent iif the C'oliindiian Uepublic [IN2(I — K4'e, a* 
 alHive], the old ))roviiie(* of Quito did the winu-, 
 and phx'ed its fortuneM In the handn of oni^ of 
 Itolivar's lieutenantx, named Flores. The name 
 of Keuador was now extended to all three depart- 
 ments. Flori'S exercised the chief authority for 
 15 years. The constitution Ihnited the Pn'sl- 
 deney to four: but Flores made an arrangement 
 with one of his lieutenants called Uoca Fuertc, 
 by whieli they Hucce<'ded each other, the out- 
 
 going President beeomiuK governor of Ouayu- 
 (|uil. In 18-1<I Flores found himself strong 
 enough to Improve upon this system. He called 
 
 a convention, which reformed the constitution in 
 a reactionary sense, and named him dlitalor for 
 ten years. In 1845 the lilieral reaction had set 
 '.'. oil over (.'olcmbia; an<l it sckmi becanx' too 
 strong for Flores. Kven his own supporters 
 iH'gnn to fall him, anil he agreed to (|uit the 
 (•oiintry mi iM^ing paid an indemnity of l|ttJ(t,<H)0." 
 During the next 15 years Kcuador was troubletl 
 by the plots and attempts of Flores to regain his 
 lost power. In 1800, with Peruvian help, he 
 succeeded in pkcing one of his party, Dr. 
 Moreno, in the presidency, and he, himself, l)e- 
 caine governor )f Uuayanuil. In August, 1875, 
 Moreno was a." otssinated. — G. .1. Payne, IIM. 
 of Kiiri>)>enii ( doniet, pp. 251-253. — After the 
 a89a88iu..Ll(m o. President Jloreno "the clergy 
 I'ucceeded In seating Dr. Antoi.io Uarrero in 
 Mic pr';sidcntial chair by a peaceful and over- 
 whelming election. . . . Against his govern- 
 ment the lil)eral party made a revolution, and, 
 SeptemlHT 8, 18TU, succeeded in driving 1dm 
 from power, seating In his place Qcneral Vgnacio 
 de Veintemilla, who was one o' Harrero's otlicers, 
 bound to him by many ties. ... He called an 
 obedient convention at Ambato, in 1878, which 
 named him President ad interim, and framed a 
 constitution, thu republicanism of which it Is dif- 
 ficult to find. Under this he was elected Presi- 
 dent for four years, terminating 30th August, 
 1882, without right of re-election except after 
 on interval of four , irs." — O. E. Church, Hept. 
 on Ecutulor (Henate Ex. Doe. 69, U. R 4^th Cong, , 
 2d Seaa., v. 3). — President Veintemilla seized 
 power as a Dictator, by a pronunclamento, April 
 2, 1882 ; but civil war ensued and he was over- 
 thrown in 1883, Senor Jose M. P. C'aamailo 
 was then chosen I'rovisional President, and in 
 February, 1884, lie was elected President . by the 
 Legislative bo<iy. He was succeeded in 1888 
 by Don Antonio Flores. — Statesman's Year-book, 
 1889. 
 
 • 
 
 ECUMENICAL, OR (ECUMENICAL 
 COUNCIL. — A general or unlversid council of 
 the Christian Churcti. See Councils of tub 
 Church. 
 
 EDDAS, The.— " The chief depositories of 
 the Norse mytliology are the Elder or Saenuind's 
 Edda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre's Edda 
 (prose). In Icelandic Edda means ' great-grand- 
 mother,' and some think tins appellation refers 
 to the ancient origin of the myths it contains. 
 Otliers connect It with the Indian 'Veda' and 
 the Norse ' vide,' (Swedish 'vela,' to know)." — 
 R. B. Anderson, Norse Mytlwlogy, eh. 7. — "The 
 word Edda la never found at all in any of the 
 
 671 
 
EDDAS. 
 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 dialects of tlie Old Northern tongue, nor indeed 
 in any otlicr tongue linown to us. The first 
 time it is met with is in tlie Lay of Itigh, where 
 it is used as a title for grc'at-gran<hnotlier, and 
 from tliis jioem the word is cited (witli other 
 terms from tl:e same souree) in the collection at 
 the end of Scaldscaparmal. How or why Snorri's 
 book on the Poetic Art came to be called Edda 
 ■we have no actual te8tini()ny. . . . Snorri's work, 
 especially the second part of it, Scaldscaparmal, 
 handed down in copies and abridgments through 
 the Middle Ages, was looked on as setting the 
 standard and ideal of poetry. It seems to have 
 kept up indeed the very remembrance of court- 
 poetry, the memory of which, but for it, would 
 otherwise have perished. But though the mcdi- 
 Oival poets do not copy Edda (i. e., Snorri's rules) 
 they constantly allude to it, and we have an un- 
 broken series of phrases from 1340 to 1(540 in which 
 Edda is used as a synonym for the technical 
 laws of the court- metre (a use, it may be observed, 
 entirely contrary to that of our own days). " — G. 
 Vigfusson and P. Y. Powell, Corpus Poeticum 
 Boretile, v. 1, iiitrod., sect. 4. 
 
 EDESSA (Macedonia). — Edcssa, or ^gie, 
 the ancient INIacedonian capital, "a place of 
 primitive antiquity, according to a Phrygian 
 legend the site of the gardens of JNIidas, at the 
 northern extremity of Mount Bermius, where 
 the Lydias comes forth from the raountainj, . . . 
 jEgoc was the natural capital of the land. With 
 its foundation the history of Macedonia had its 
 beginning ; MgsB is the germ out of which the 
 Macedonian empire grew." — E. Curtius, Hist, of 
 Ch'eece, bk. 7, ch. 1. — See, also, Macedonia. 
 
 EDESSA (Mesopotamia). SecOsRUCBNE. 
 
 The Church. See C'uuistianity : A. D. 33- 
 100, and 100-31'3. 
 
 The Theological School. See Nkstokianb. 
 
 A. D. 260.— Battle of. See Pbrsia: A. D. 
 228-627. 
 
 A. D. 1097-1 14/!.— The Frank principality.— 
 On the m- of tlie armies of the First Crusade, 
 as tlK.j approached Syria, Baldwin, the able, self- 
 ish and self-willed brother of Godfrey of Bouil- 
 lon, left the main body of the crusaders, with a 
 band of foMowers, and moved ofif eastwards, 
 seeking the prizes of a very worldly ambition, 
 and leaving his devouter comrades to rescue the 
 holy sepulchre without his aid. Good fortune 
 rewardt is enterprise and he secured possession 
 of the i portant city of Edessa. It was governed 
 by a Gri.uk prince, who owed allegiance to the 
 Byzantine emperor, but who paid tribute to the 
 Turks. "It had surrendered to Pouzan, one of the 
 generals of Slalck-shah, in the year 1087, but dur- 
 ing the contests of the Turks and Saracens in 
 the north of Syria it had recovered its independ- 
 ence. Baldwin now sullied the honour of the 
 Franks, by exciting the peojile to murder their 
 governor Theodore, and rebel against the Byzan- 
 tine authority [other historians say that he was 
 * guilty of no inr.re than a passive permission of 
 these acts] ; he then took possession of the place 
 in his own name and founded the Frank prin- 
 cipality of Edcssa, which lasted about 47 years." 
 — G. Finlay, Ilist. of Byzantine and Oreek Em- 
 pires, A. D. 710-1453, bk. 3, ch. 3, sect. 1.— Sec, 
 also, CUU8ADE8 : A. D. 1096-1099, and 1147-1149 ; 
 also, Jekubalem: A. D. 1099-1144. 
 
 EDGAR, King of Scotland, A. D. 1098-1107. 
 . . . .Edgar, King of Wesseac, A. D. 058-975. 
 
 EDGECOTE, Battle of. Sec Banboiiy, 
 Batti.k ok. 
 
 EDGEHILL OR KEYNTON, Battle of. 
 See England: A. D. 1642 (Octoueu — Decem- 
 
 BEH). 
 
 EDHEL See Adel. 
 
 EDHILING, OR iEDHILING, The. See 
 Etheling. 
 
 EDICT OF NANTES, and its revocation. 
 See Fiiance: A. D. 1598-1.')09. and 1681-1698. 
 
 EDICT OF RESTITUTION, The. See 
 Gkkmany: a. D. 1637-1629. 
 
 EDICTS, Roman imperial. Sec Coupua 
 
 JUUIS C1VILI8. 
 
 EDINBURGH : Origin of the city. See 
 England: A. 1). 547-633. 
 
 nth Century. — Made the capital of Scot- 
 land. See Scotland: A. D. 1066-1093. 
 
 A. D. 1544.— Destroyed by the English. 
 Sec Scotland: A. D. 1544-1548. 
 
 A. D. 1559-1560.— Seized by the Lords of 
 the Congregation. — The Treaty of July, 1560. 
 See Scotland: A. D. 1558-1500. 
 
 A. D. 1572-1573.— In the civil war. See 
 Scotland: A. D. 1570-1573. 
 
 A. D. 1637. — Laud's Liturgy and the 
 tumult at St, Giles'. See Scotland: A. D. 
 1637. 
 
 A. D. 1638.— The signing of the National 
 Covenant. See Scotland: A. 1). 1638. 
 
 A. D. 1650. — Surrender to Cromwell.— 
 Siege and reduction of the Castle. Sec 
 Scotland: A. D. 1650 (SEPTKMnn); and 1651 
 (August). 
 
 A. D. 1688. — Rioting and revolution. Sec 
 Scotland: A. D. 1688-1690. 
 
 A. D. 1707.— The city at the time of the 
 union. — "Edinburgh, though still but a small 
 town, excited the admiration of travellers who 
 were acquainted with the greatest cities of 
 England and the Continent ; nor was their admi- 
 ration entirely due to the singular beauty of its 
 situation. The quaint architecture of the older 
 houses — which sometimes rose to the height of 
 nine, ten or eleven stories — indeed, carried back 
 the mind to very barbarous times; for it was 
 ascribed to the desire of the population to live 
 as near as possible to the protection of the 
 castle. The fllth of the streets in the early 
 years of the ICtli century was indescribable. 
 . . . The new quarter, which now strikes every 
 stranger by its spacious symmetry, was not 
 begun till the latter half of the 18th century, but 
 as early as 1723 an English traveller described 
 the High Street as ' the stateliest street in the 
 world. ' . . . Under the influence of the Kirk the 
 public manners of the town were marked by 
 much decorum and even austerity, but the 
 populace were unusually susceptible of fierce 
 political entliusiasm, and when excited they 
 were extremely formidable. ... A city guard, 
 composed chiefly of fierce Highlanders, armed 
 and disciplined like regular soldiers, and placed 
 under the control of the magistrates, was es- 
 tablished in 1696; and it was not finally abol- 
 ished till the present century. Edinburgh, at 
 the beginning of the 18th century, was more 
 than twice as large as any other Scotch town. 
 Its population at the time of the union slightly 
 exceeded 30,000, while that of Glasgow was not 
 quite 15,000, that of Dundee not quite 10,000, 
 and that of Perth about 7,000. "—W. E. H. Lecky, 
 Uist. of Eng. in tlie Vith Century, ch. 5 (v. 2). 
 
 672 
 
EDINBURGH. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 A. D. 1736.— The Porteous Riot.— "The cir- 
 cumstances of the Porteous Uiot are faniiliiir 
 wherever the EngUsli tongue is spoken, because 
 tlicy were made tlie dramatic opening of one of 
 ilia finest stories l)y tliat admirable genius who, 
 like Shakespeare in his plays, lias conveyed to 
 plain men more of the spirit and action of the 
 past in noble Action, than they would find in 
 most pro'csst;? chronicles of fact. The early 
 scenes o' the ' Heart of Midlothian ' are an accu- 
 rate account of the transaction which gave so 
 much trouble to Queen Caroline and the min- 
 ister [Walpole]. A smuggler who had excited 
 tlic popular imagination by his daring and his 
 chivalry was sentenced to be hanged ; after his 
 execution the mob pressed forward to cut down 
 his body: Porteous, the captai-. of the City 
 Guard, ordered hiS'mcn to fire, and several per- 
 sons were shot dead: he was tried for murder, 
 convicted, and sentenced, but at the last moment 
 a reprieve arrived from London, to the intense 
 indignation of a crowd athirst for vengeance: 
 four days later, under m. iterious ringleaders 
 who could never afterwards be discovered, fierce 
 throngs suddenly gathered together at nightfall 
 to the beat of drum, broke into the prison, 
 dragged out the unliappy Porteous, and sternly 
 hanged him on a dyer's pole close by the com- 
 mon place of public execution." — J. Morley, 
 Wal}X)le, ch. 0. 
 
 Also in: J. McCarthy, Hist, of the Four 
 Oeorges, ch. 24 (b. 2). 
 
 A. D. 1745.— The Young Pretender in the 
 «itT. See Scotland: A. D. 1745-1746. 
 
 A. D. 1779. — No-Popery riots. See England : 
 A. D. 1778-1780. 
 
 » 
 
 EDINGTON, OR ETHANDUN, Battle of 
 <A. D. 878). See Englamd: A. D. 855-880. 
 
 EDMUND, KinpofWessex.A. D. 040-947. 
 . . . .Edmund Ironside, King of Wessex, A. D. 
 
 1016. 
 EDOMITES, OR IDUMEANS, The.— 
 
 "From a very early period the Edomites were 
 the chief of the nations of Arabia Petnea. 
 Amongst the branches sprung, according to 
 Arab tradition, from the pnmitive Amalikii they 
 correspond to the Arcam, and the poster ty of 
 Esau, after settling amongst them as we have 
 seen, became the dominant family from which 
 the chiefs were chosen. The original habitation 
 of the Edomites was Mount Seir, wliencc they 
 spread over all the country called by the Greeks 
 Qehalene, that is the prolongation of the moun- 
 tains joining on the north the land of Mo 
 into the Valley of Arabah, and the surrounding 
 heights. . . . Saul successfully fought the 
 Edomifs; under David, Joab and Abishai, his 
 generals, completely defeated them, and David 
 placed garrisons in their towns. In their porta 
 of Elath and Eziongeber were built the fieefs 
 sent to India by Iliram and Solomon. . . . After 
 the schism of the ten tribes, the Edomites re- 
 mained dependent on the King of Judah. " — F. 
 Lenormant, Manual of Ancient IIi»t. of the East, 
 hk. 7, ch. 4.— See, also, Nabatiieans; Jkws; The 
 Eakly Hebukw IIistouv ; and Amalbkites. 
 
 EDRED, King of Wessex, A. D. 947-055. 
 
 EDRISITES, The.— After the revolt of 
 Moorish or Mahometan Spain from the caliphate 
 of Bagdad, the African provinces of tlie Mos- 
 lems assumed independence, and several dynas- 
 ties Iwcame seated — among them t-hat of tlie 
 Edrisites, which founded the city and kingdom 
 of Fez, and which reigned from A. D. 829 to 
 907. — E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall oftlieltoman 
 Emp., ch. 52.— See, also, MAnosfETAK Conquest: 
 A. D. 715-750. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient. 
 Egypt. — "In the education of youth [the 
 Egyptians] were particularly strict; and 'they 
 knew,' says Plato, 'that children ought to be 
 early accustomed to such gestures, looks, and 
 motions as are decent and proper; and not to be 
 Buffered either to hear or learn any verses and 
 songs other than those which arc calculated to 
 insiiire them with virtue ; and they consequently 
 took, care that every dance and ode introduced at 
 their feasts or sacrifices should be subject to cer- 
 tain regulations.'"— Sir J. G. Wilkinson, The 
 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 
 D. 1, p. 321. — "The children were educated ac- 
 cording to their station and their future position 
 in life. They were kept in strict subjection by 
 their parents, and respect to old age was par- 
 ticularly inculcated ; the children o? the priests 
 were educated very tlioroughly in writing of all 
 kinds, hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic, and 
 In the sciences of astronomy, mathematics, etc. 
 The Jewish deliverer Moses was educated after 
 the manner of the priests, and the 'wisdom of 
 the Egyptians' became a proverbial expression 
 among the outside nations, as indicating the 
 utmost limit of liumau knowledge." — E. A. W. 
 Budge, The Dwellers on the Nile, ch. 10.— "On 
 the education of the Egyptians, Diodorus makes 
 the following remarks:- 'The children of the 
 
 priests are taught two different kinds of writing, 
 — what is called the sacred, and the more general ; 
 and they pay great attention to geometry and 
 arithmetic. For tlie river, changing the appear- 
 ance of the L.,untry very materially every year, 
 is the cause of many and various discussions 
 among neighbouring proprietors about the ex- 
 tent of their property ; and it would be difficult 
 for any person to decide upon their claims with- 
 out geometrical reasoning, founded on actual ob- 
 servation. Of arithmetic they have also frequent 
 need, both in their domestic economy, and in the 
 application of geometrical theorems, besides its 
 utility in the cultivation of astronomical studies; 
 for the orders and motions of tlie stars •^ro ob- 
 served at least as industriously by the Egyptians 
 as by any people whatever; and they keep record 
 of the motions of each for an incredible number 
 of years, the study of this science liaving been, 
 from the remotest times, an object of national 
 ambition with them. . . . But the generality of 
 the common people learn only from their parents 
 or relations tliat which is required for the exer- 
 cise of their peculiar professions, ... a fevr 
 only being taught anything of literature, and 
 those principally the better class of artificers.' 
 Hence it appears they were not confined to any 
 particular rules in the mode of educating their 
 cli ildren, and it depended upon a parent to choose 
 
 673 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the degree of instruction he deemed most suit- 
 able to their motlo of life and occupations, as 
 among otlicrcivilise*! nations." — Sir .J. O. Wilkin- 
 8un, f'/ie Manners and Cuttom* of the Kgyptiant, 
 «. 1, pp. 175-176.— '"Tliere isnotliing lilie being 
 ascribe,' tlie wise sny; 'tlio scribe gets all that is 
 uponearth.'. . . The scribe is simply a man who 
 knows how to read and write, to draw up 
 administrative formulas, and to calculate inter- 
 est. The Instruction which he has received is a 
 necessary complement of his position If lie be- 
 longs to a good family, whilst if he be poor it 
 enables him to obtain a lucrative situation in the 
 administration or at the house of a wealthy per- 
 sonage. There is, therefore, no sacrifice which 
 the smaller folk deem too great, if it enables 
 them to give their sons the ac((uirements which 
 may raise them above the common people, or at 
 least Insure a less miserable fate. It one of 
 them, in Ills infancy, displays any intelligence, 
 they send him, when about six or eight years 
 old, to the district school, where an old peda- 
 gogue teaches Iilm the rudiments of reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic. Towards ten or twelve 
 years old, they withdraw him from the care of 
 this lirst teacher and apprentice him to a scribe 
 in some olHce, who undertakes to make him 
 a 'learned scribe.' The child accompanies his 
 master to his office or work-yard, and there passes 
 entire mouths in copying letters, circulars, legal 
 documents, or accounts, which he does not at 
 first understand, but which he faithfully remem- 
 bers. Tiiere ore books for his use fifll of copies 
 taken from well-known authors, which he studies 
 perpetually. If he requires a brief, precise re- 
 port, this Is how Ennana worded one of his : — 
 ' I reached Elephantlao and accomplished my 
 mission. I reviewed the infantry and the chariot 
 soldiers from the temples, as well as the servants 
 and subordinates who are in the hou.ses of Phar- 
 aoh's . . . offlclals. As my journey Is for the 
 Eurpose of making a report in the presence of 
 is Majesty, . . . the course of my business is as 
 rapid as that of the Nile ; you need not, there- 
 fore, feel anxious about me.' There is not a 
 superfluous word. If, on the other hand, a pe- 
 tition in a poetical stylo be required, see how 
 PentoVrIt asked for a holiday. ' My heart has 
 left me, it is travelling and does not know how 
 to return, it sees Memphis and hastens there. 
 Would that I were in Its place. I remain here, 
 busy following my heart, which endeavours to 
 draw me towanls Memphis. I have no work in 
 hand, my heart is tormented. May It please the 
 god Ptah to lead me to Memphis, and do thou 
 grant that I moy be seen walking there. I am 
 at leisure, my heart is watching, my heart Is no 
 longer in my bosom, languor has seized my 
 limbs; my eye '- dim, my ear hardened, my 
 voice feeble,', i:- ' failure of all my strength. 
 I pray thee remcuy all this. ' The pupil copies 
 and recopies, the master inserts forgotten words, 
 corrects the faults of spelling, and draws on the 
 margin the signs or groups unskilfully traced. 
 When the book is duly fluisbed and the appren- 
 tice can write all the formulas from memory, 
 portions of phrases are detached from them, 
 which he must join together, so as to combine 
 new formulas; the master then entrusts him 
 with the composition of a few letters, gradually 
 increasing the number and adding to the ditn- 
 culties. As soon as he has fairly mastered the 
 oniiuary daily routine his education is ended, 
 
 and an unimportant post is sought for. lie ob- 
 tains it antl then marries, becoming the liead of 
 a family, sometimes before he is twenty years 
 old ; lie has no f urtlier ambition, but is content 
 to vegetate quietly in the obscure circle where 
 fate has thrown him." — Q. Maspero, Life in, 
 Ancient Eyypt and Assyria, eh. 1. — "In the 
 schools, where the poor scribe's child sat on the 
 same bench beside the offspring of the rich, to bo 
 trained in discipline and wise learning, the mas- 
 ters knew how by timely wonls to goad on the 
 lagging diligence of the ambitious scliolars, by 
 holuing out to them the future reward which 
 awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. 
 Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem was 
 stirred to u flame In the youthful breast, and 
 emulation was stimulated among the boys. The 
 clever son of the poor man, too, might hope by 
 his knowledge to climb the ladiicr of the higher 
 o." ' jes, for neither his birth nor position raised 
 any barrier. If only the youth's mental power 
 justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense, 
 the restmiuts of caste did not exist, and neither 
 descent nor family hampered the rising career of 
 the clever. Many a monument consecrated to 
 the memory of some nobleman gone to his long 
 home, who during life had held high rank at the 
 court of Pharaoli, Is decorated with the simple 
 but laudatory inscription, 'His ancestors were 
 unknown people.' It is a satisfaction to avow 
 that the training and instruction of the young 
 interested the Egyptians in tlie highest degree. 
 For they fully recognised in this tlie sole means 
 of cultivating their national life, and of fulfilling 
 the high civilizing mission which Providence 
 seemed to have placed in their hands. But 
 above all things they regarded justice, and virtue 
 had the highest price in their eyes. " — H. Brugsch- 
 Bey, Ui»t. of Egypt under the Pharaohs, v. 1, p. 
 23. 
 
 Babylonia and Assyria. — "The primitive 
 Chaldeans were pre-eminently a literary people, 
 and it is by their literary relics, by the scattered 
 contents of their libraries, that we can know and 
 judge them. As befitted tlie inventors of a sys- 
 tem of writing, like the Chinese they set the 
 highest value on education, even though exam- 
 inations may have been unknown among them. 
 Education, however, was widely diffused. . . . 
 Assur-bani-pal's library was open to the use and 
 enjoyment of all his subjects, undthe syllabaries, 
 grammars, lexicons, and reading-books that it 
 contained, show the extent to whicli not only 
 their own language was studied by the Assyrians, 
 but the dead language of ancient Accad as well. 
 It became as fasfiionable to compose in this ex- 
 tinct tongue as it is now-a-days to display one's 
 proficiency in Latin prose, and ' dog-Accadlan ' 
 was perpetrated with as little remorse as ' dog- 
 Latin ' at the present time. One of the Babylon- 
 ion cylinders found by General di Cesnola in the 
 temple-treasure of Kurium, which probably be- 
 longs to the period of Nebuchadnezzar's dynasty, 
 has a legend which endeavours to imitate the 
 Inscriptions of the early Accadian princes; but 
 the very first word, by an unhappy error, be- 
 trays tlie insufficient knowledge of the old lan- 
 guage possessed by Its composer. Besides a 
 knowledge of Accadian, the educated Assyrian 
 was required to hove also a knowledge of Ara- 
 maic, which had now become tlie ' lingua franca ' 
 of trade and diplomacy ; and we find the Rab- 
 shakeh (Rab-saUd), or prime minister, who was 
 
 m 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 sent against HcKckiah by Sennacherib, iicquainted 
 with llebrew as well. The grammiticnl and 
 lexical works in the library of Nineveh arc es- 
 pecially interesting, as being the earliestattempts 
 of the kind of which we know, and it is curious 
 to find the Haniiltonian method of learning 
 languages forestalled by the scribes of Assur- 
 br.nipal. In this case, as in all others, the first 
 enquiries into the nature of speech, and the first 
 grammars and dictionaries, were duo to the ne- 
 cessity of comparing two languages together ; it 
 was the Accadian whicli forced the Semitic As- 
 syrian or Babylonian to stiuiy his own tongue. 
 And already in these first efforts tlie main princi- 
 ples of Semitic grammar are laid down clearly 
 and definitely." — A. II. Sayco, Bibyloniaii Litera- 
 ture, pp. 71-73. — "The Babylonians were the 
 Chinese of the ancient world. They were es- 
 sentially a reading and writing people. . . . The 
 books were for the most part written upon clay 
 with a wooden reed or metal stylus, for clay was 
 cheap and plentiful, and easily impressed ivith 
 the wedge-shaped lines of whicli the characters 
 were composed. But besides clay, papyrus and 
 possibly also parcliment were employed as writ- 
 ing materials. . . . The use of clav for writing 
 purposes extended, along with Babylonian cul- 
 ture, to the neighbouring populations of the 
 East. ... It is astonishing how much matter 
 can be compressed into the compass of a single 
 tablet. The cuneiform system of writing allowed 
 the use of many abbreviations — thanks to its 
 ' ideographic ' nature — and the characters were 
 frequently of a very minute size. Indeed, so 
 minute is the writing on many of the Assyrian 
 (as distinguished from the Babylonian) tablets 
 that it is clear not only that the Assyrian scribes 
 and readers must have been decidedly short- 
 sighted, but also that they must have made use of 
 magnifying glasses. We need not be surprised, 
 therefore, to learn that Sir A. H. Layard dis- 
 covered a crystal lens, which had been turned 
 on a lathe, upon the site of the great library of 
 Nineveh. ... To learn the cuneiform syllabary 
 was a task of much time and labour. Tlie stu- 
 dent was accordingly provided with various 
 means of assistance. Tlio characters of the syl- 
 latiary were classified and named; they were 
 further arranged according to a certain order, 
 which partly depended on the number of wedges 
 or lines of which each was composed. Moreover, 
 what we may term dictionaries were compiled. 
 ... To learn the signs, however, with their mul- 
 titudinous phonetic values and ideographic sig- 
 nifications, was not the whole of the labour which 
 the Babylonian boy had to accomplish. The 
 cuneiform system of writing, along with tlio cul- 
 ture which had produced it, had been the inven- 
 tion of the non-Semitic Accado-Sumerian race, 
 from whom it had been borrowed by the Semites. 
 In Semitic hands the syllabary underwent further 
 modifications and additions, but it bore upon it 
 to the lost the stamp of its alien origin. On this 
 account alone, therefore, the Babylonian student 
 who wished to acquire a knowledge of reading 
 and writing was obliged to learn the extinct lan- 
 guage of the older population of the country. 
 There was, however, another reason which even 
 more imperatively obliged him to study the 
 earlier tongue. A large proportion of the an- 
 cient literature, more especially that which re- 
 lated to religious subjects, was written in Accado- 
 Sumerian. Evec the law-cases of earllgr times, 
 
 which formed precedents for the law of a later 
 age, wore in the same langnace. In fact, Accado- 
 Sumeriun stood in much the same relation to the 
 Semitic Babylonians tliat Latin has stood to tlio 
 modern inliabitants of Europe. . . . Besides 
 Icaniing the syllabary, therefore, the Babylonian 
 boy liacl to learn the extinct language of Accad 
 antl Sumer. . . . The study of foreign tongues 
 naturally brought with it an inquisitiveness about 
 tlic languages of other people, as well as a pas- 
 sion for etymology. . . . But there were other 
 things besides languages which the young stu- 
 dent in the schools of Babylonia and Assyria was 
 called upon to learn. Geography, history, the 
 names and nature of plants, birds, animals, and 
 stones, as well as the_ elements of law and re- 
 ligion, were all objects of instruction. The Brit- 
 ish Museum possesses what may be culled the 
 historical exercise of some Babylonian lad in 
 the age of Nebucl'adne/.zar or Cyrus, consist- 
 ing of a list of the kings belonging to one of 
 the early dynasties, which he hail been required 
 to learn by heart. ... A considerable propor- 
 tion of the inhabitants of Babylonia could read 
 and write. The contract tablets are written in 
 a variety of running hands, some of which are 
 as !)ad as the worst that passes through the mod- 
 ern post. Every legal document required the 
 signatures of a number of witnesses, and most 
 of these were able to write their own names. 
 ... In Assyria, however, education was by no 
 means so widely spread. Apart from the upper 
 and professional classes, including the men of 
 business, it was confined to a special body of 
 men — the public scribes. . . . There was none 
 of that jealous exclusion of women in ancient 
 Babylonia which characterizes tlie East of to- 
 day, and it is jirobable that boys and girls pur- 
 sued their studies at the same schools. The edu- 
 cation of a child must have begun early. " — A. 
 H. Sayce, Social Life among tlie Bahyloniaiis, 
 eh. 3. 
 
 China. — "It is not, perhaps, generally known 
 that Peking contains an ancient university ; for, 
 though certain buildings connected with it have 
 been frequently described, the institution Itself 
 has been but little noticed. Itgives, indeed, so few 
 signs of life that it is not surprising it should bo 
 overlooked. . . . If a local situation be deemed an 
 essential element of identity, this old university 
 must yield the palm of age to many in Europe, 
 for in its present site it dates, at most, only from 
 the Yuen, or Mongol, dynasty, in the beginning 
 of the fourteenth century. But as an imperial 
 institution, having a fixed organization and def- 
 inite objects, it carries its history, or at least its 
 pedigree, buck to a period far anterior to the 
 founding of the Great Wall. Among the Regu- 
 lations of the House of Chow, which flourished a 
 thousand years before the Christian em, wo meet 
 witli it already in full-blown vigor, and under the 
 identical name which it now bears, that of Kwots- 
 zekien, or 'School for the Sons of the Empire.' 
 It was in its glory before the light of science 
 dawned on Greece, and when Pythagoras and 
 Plato were pumping their secrets from the priests 
 of Heliopolis. And it still exists, but it is only 
 an embodiment of 'life in der.th:' its halls arc 
 tombs, and its officers living mummies. In the 
 latli Book of the Cliowle (see Kites do Tclieou, tra- 
 duction par fidouard Blot), we find the functions 
 cf the heads of the Kwotszekien laid down with a 
 good deal cl minuteness. The presidents were to 
 
 675 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 admonish tho Emperor of that which 18 good and 
 just, iimi to instruct tlio Sons of tlie State in the 
 'three constant virtues' and tlic 'three practical 
 duties ' — in other words, to give a course of lec- 
 tures on moral philosophy. The vice-presidents 
 were to reprove the Emperor for his faults (i. e., 
 to jjcrform the duty of oflicial censors) and to dis- 
 cipline 'he Sous of the State in the sciences and 
 arts — viz., in arithmetic, writing, music, arch- 
 <'ry, lu)rsemunship and ritual ceremcuios. . . . 
 The old curriculum is religiously adhered to, but 
 greater latitude is given, as we shall have occa- 
 sion to observe, to tlie term ' Sons of the State. ' In 
 the days of Cliow, this meant the heir-apparent, 
 princes of the blood, and children of the nobility. 
 Under the Tafsing dynasty it signifies men of 
 defective scholarship througliout the provinces, 
 who purchase literari' degrees, and more specific- 
 ally certain indigent students of Peking, wlio 
 are aided by the imperial bounty. Tlie Kwotszc- 
 kicn is located in the northeastern angle of the 
 Tartar city, with a temple of Confucius attached, 
 which is one of the finest in tlie Empire. The 
 main edifice (that of the temple) consists of a sin- 
 gle story of imposing height, with a porcelain roof 
 of tent-like curvature. ... It contains no seats, 
 as all comers are expected to stand or kneel in 
 presence of the Great Teacher. Neither does it 
 boast anything in the way of artistic decpration, 
 nor exhibit any trace of that nentness and taste 
 which wo look for in a sacred place. Perhaps its 
 vast area is designedly left to dust and emptiness, 
 in order that nothing may intervene to disturb 
 the mind in the contemplation of a great name 
 which receives the homage of a nation. ... In 
 an adjacent block or square stands a pavilion 
 known as the 'Imperial Lecture-room,' because 
 it is incumbent on each occupant of the Dragon 
 throne to go there at least once in his life-time to 
 hear a discourse on the nature and responsibilities 
 of liis office. ... A canal spanned by marble 
 bridges encircles the pavilion, and arches of glit- 
 tering porcelain, in excellent repair, adorn the 
 grounds. But neither these nor the pavilion it- 
 self constitutes the chief attraction of the place. 
 Under a long corridor which encloses the entirs 
 space may be seen as many as one hundred and 
 eighty-two columns of massive granite, each in- 
 scribed with a portion of the canonical books. 
 These are the 'Stone Classics' — the entire 'Thir- 
 teen,' which formed the staple of a Cliinese edu- 
 cation, being here enshrined in a material supposed 
 to be imperishable. Among all the Universities 
 in the world, the Kwotszekien is unique in the 
 possession of such a library. This is not, indeed, 
 the only stone library extant — another of equal 
 extent being found at Singanf u, the ancient capi- 
 tal of the Tangs. But, that too, was the property 
 of the Kwotszekien ten centuries ago, when 8in- 
 gan was the seat of empire. The ' School for 
 the Sons of the Empire ' must needs follow the 
 migrations of tlie court ; and that library, costly 
 as It was, being too heavy for transportation, it 
 was thought best to supply its place by the new 
 edition which we have been describing. ... In 
 front of the temple stands a forest of columns of 
 scarcely inferior interest. They are three hundred 
 and twenty in number, and contain the univers- 
 ity roll of "honor, a complete list of all who since 
 the founding of the institution have attained to 
 the dignity of the doctorate. Allow to each an 
 average of two hundred names, and we have an 
 urmy of doctors sixty thousand strong 1 (By the 
 
 doctorate I mean the third or highest degree.) All 
 these received their investiture at the Kwotsze- 
 kien, and, throwing themselves at the feet of its 
 president, enrolled themselves among the ' Sons 
 of the Empire.' Tiiey were not, however — at 
 least the most of them were not — in any proper 
 sense alumni of the Kwotszekien, having pursued 
 their studies in private, and won their lionors by 
 public competition in the halls of the Civil-serv- 
 ice Examining Board. . . . There is an immense 
 urea occupied by lecture-rooms, examination-halls 
 and lodging-apartments. But the visitor is liable 
 to imagine that i,!iese, too, are consecrated to a 
 monumental use — so rarely is a student or a pro- 
 fessor to be seen among them. Ordinarily they 
 are as desolate as the halls of Baalbec or Pal- 
 myra. In fact, tliis great school for the 'Sons 
 of the Empire ' has long ceased to be a seat of 
 instruction, and degenerated into a mere append- 
 age of the civil-service competitive examinations 
 on which it hangs as a dead weight, corrupting 
 and debasing instead of advancing the standard 
 of national education." — W. A. P. JIartin, The 
 Chinese, ilieir Education, Philosophy and Letters, 
 pp. 85-00. 
 
 Persia. — "All the best authorities are agreed 
 that great pains were taken by the Persians — 
 or, at any rate, by those of the leading clans — in 
 the education of their sons. During the first 
 five years of his life the boy remained wholly 
 with the women, and was scarcely, if at all, seen 
 by his father. After that time his training com- 
 menced. He was expected to rise before dawn, 
 and to appear at a certain spot, where he was 
 exercised with other boys of his age in running, 
 slinging stones, shooting with tlie bow, and 
 throwing the javelin. At seven he was taught 
 to ride, and soon afterward he was allowed to 
 begin to hunt. The riding included, not only 
 the ordinary management of the horse, but the 
 power of jumping on and off his back when he 
 was at speed, and of shooting with the bow and 
 throwing the javelin with unerring aim, while 
 the horse was still at full gallop. The hunting 
 was conducted by state-oliicers, who aimed at 
 forming by its means in the youths committed to 
 their charge all the qualities needed in war. 
 The boys were made to bear extremes of heat 
 and cold, to perform long marches, to cross rivers 
 without wetting their weapons, to sleep in the 
 open air at night, to be content with a single 
 meal in two days, and to support themselves 
 occasionally on the wild products of the country, 
 acorns, wild pears and the fruit of the terebinth- 
 tree. On days when there was no hunting they 
 passed their mornings in athletic exercises, and 
 contests with the bow or the javelin, after which 
 they dined simply on the plain food mentioned 
 above as that of the men in the early times, and 
 then employed themselves during the afternoon 
 in occupations regarded as not illiberal — for in- 
 stance, in the pursuits of agriculture, planting, 
 digging for roots, and the like, or in the con- 
 struction of arms and hunting implements, such 
 as nets and springes. Hardy and temperate 
 habits being secured by this training, the point 
 of morals on which their preceptors mainly in- 
 sisted was the rigid observance of truth. Of in- 
 tellectual education they had but little. _ It seems 
 to have been no part of the regular training of a 
 Persian youtli that he should learn to read. He 
 was given religious notions and a certain amount 
 of moral knowledge by means of legendary 
 
 676 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 poems, in which tlie deeds of gods and hcriH'S 
 were set liefore liini by liis teachers, who recited 
 or Sling them in Ids presence, and afterwards re- 
 quired him to repent wliat he lind heard, or, at 
 any 'rate, to give some account of it. This educa- 
 tion continJied for fifteen years, ('onunencing 
 when the boy was five, and terminating wlieu lie 
 readied the age of twenty. Tlie effect of tliis 
 training was to render tlie Persian an excellent 
 soldier and a most accomplished horseman. . . . 
 At fifteen years of age the Persian was con- 
 sidered to have attained to manluxxl, and was 
 enrolled in the ranks of the army, continuing 
 liable to military service from that time till he 
 reached the age of fifty. Those of the highest 
 mnk became the body-guard of the king, and 
 these formed the garrison of the capital. . . . 
 Others, though liable to military service, did not 
 adopt arms as their profession, but attached 
 themselves to the Court and looked to civil em- 
 ployment, as satraps, secretaries, attendants, 
 ushers, judges, inspectors, messengers. . . . For 
 trade and commerce the Persians were wont to 
 express extreme contempt." — Q. Rawlinson, The 
 Mve Oreat Monarchien of the Ancient Eastern 
 World, V. 3, pp. 238-242. — After the death of 
 Cyrus, according to Xenophon, the Persians de- 
 generated, in the education of their youth and 
 otlierwlse. " To educate the youth at the gates 
 of the palace is still the custom," he says; "but 
 the attainment and practice of liorsemanship are 
 extinct, because they do not go where they can 
 gain applause by exhibiting skill in that exercise. 
 Whereas, too, in former times, the boys, hearing 
 causes justly decided there, were considered by 
 that means to learn justice, that custom is alto- 
 gether altered ; for they now sec those gain their 
 causes who offer the highest bribes. Formerly, 
 also, Ijoys were taught the virtues of the various 
 proauctions of the earth, in order that they might 
 use the serviceable, and avoid the noxious ; but 
 now they seem to be taught those particulars 
 that they may do as much harm as possible ; at 
 least there are nowhere so many killed or injured 
 by poison as in that country." — Xenophon, Gyro- 
 padia and Hellenics ; trans, by J. S. Watson and 
 H. Dale, pp. 284-285. 
 
 Judxa. — "According to the statement of Jo- 
 sephud, Moses had already prescribed ' that boys 
 should learn the most important laws, because 
 that is the best knowledge and the cause of pros- 
 perity.' ' He commanded to instruct children in 
 the elements of knowledge (reading and writ- 
 ing), to teach them to walk according to the 
 laws, and to know the deeds of their forefathers. 
 The latter, that they might imitate them; the 
 former, that growing up with the laws they 
 might not transgress them, nor have the excuse 
 of ignorance.' Josephus repeatedly commends 
 the zeal with which the instruction of the young 
 was carried on. ' We take most pains of all with 
 the instruction of cliildren, and esteem the ob- 
 servance of the laws and the piety corresponding 
 with them the most important ailair of our whole 
 life. ' ' If any one should question one pf us con- 
 cerning the laws, he would more easily repeat 
 all than his own name. Since wo learn them 
 from our first consciousness, we have them, as it 
 were, engraven on our souls ; and a transgression 
 is rare, but the averting of imnishment impossi- 
 ble. ' In like manner does Philo express himself : 
 ' Since the Jews esteem their laws as divine reve- 
 lations, and are instructed iu the knowledge of 
 
 them from their earliest youth, they bear the 
 image of the law in their souls. ' ... In view of, 
 all this testimony it cannot be doubted, that in 
 the circles of genuine Judaism boys were from 
 their tenderest childhood made acquainted with 
 the demands of the law. That this education in 
 the law was, in the first place, the duty and 
 task of parents is self-evident. But it appears, 
 that even in the age of Christ, care was also 
 taken for tlie instruction of youth by the erec- 
 tion of schools on the part of the community. . . . 
 Tlie later tradition that Joshua ben Gnmla (Jesus 
 the son of Gamaliel) enacted that teachers of boys 
 . . . should bo api)<)inted in evfry jirovince and 
 in every town, and tliat children of the age of six 
 or seven should be brought to them, is by no 
 means incredible. The only Jesus the son of 
 Gamaliel known to history is the high priest of 
 that name, about 03-05 after Christ. ... It must 
 therefore be he who is intended iu the above no- 
 tice. As his measures presuppose a somewhat 
 longer existence of boys' schools, we may with- 
 out hesitation transfer them to the age of Christ, 
 even though not ns a general and established in- 
 stitution. The subject of instruction, as already 
 appears from the above passages of Josephus 
 and Philo, was as gcod as exclusively tl;c law. 
 For only its inculcation in the youthful mind, 
 and not the means of general education, was 
 the aim of all this zeal for the instruction of 
 youth. And indeed the earliest instruction was 
 in the reading and inculcation of the text of 
 scripture. . . . Habitual practice went hand in 
 hand with theoretical instruction. For though 
 children were not actually bound to fulfil the 
 law, they were yet accustomed to it from their 
 youth up." — E. SchUrcr, History of the Jewish 
 People in the time of Jesus Christ, v. 8, pp. 47-50. 
 — In the fourth century B. C. the Council of Sev- 
 enty Elders "instituted regularly appointed 
 readings from the Law ; on every sabbath and on 
 every week day a portion from the Pentateuch 
 was to be read to the assembled congregation. 
 Twice a week, when the country people came 
 up from the villages to market in the neighbour- 
 ing towns, or to appeal at the courts of justice, 
 some verses of the Pentateuch, however few, 
 were read publicly. At first only the learned 
 were allowed to reod, but at last it was looked 
 upon as so great an honour to belong to the 
 readers, that every one attempted or desired to 
 do so. Unfortunately the characters in which 
 the Torah was written were hardly readable. 
 Until that date the text of the Torah had been 
 written in the ancient style with Phieniciaii 
 or old Babylonian characters, which could only 
 be deciphered by practised scribes. . . . From 
 the constant reading of the Law, there arose 
 among the Juda;ans an intellectual activity and 
 vigour, which at last gave a special character 
 to the whole nation. The Torah became their 
 spiritual and intellectual property, and their own 
 inner sanctuary. At this time there sprang up 
 other important institutions, namely, schools, 
 where the young men could stimulate their ar- 
 dour and increase their knowledge of the Law 
 and its teachings. The intellectual leaders of 
 the people continually enjoined on the rising 
 generation, 'Bring up a great many disciples.' 
 And what they enjoined so strenuously they 
 themselves must have assisted to accomplish. 
 One of these religious schools (Beth-Waad) was 
 probably established iu Jerusalem. The teach- 
 
 677 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Meat of 
 Plato and AriilotU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 era were cnllcil scribes (soplieriin) or wise men; 
 the disciples, pupils of tlic wise (Tnlniude (.'liii- 
 chiimim). The wise men or scribes hud ii two- 
 fold work; on tlic one hiiiid tlicy bud to cx])litin 
 the Tornh, and on the other, to" make the laws 
 applicuble to eacli individual anu to the commu- 
 nity at large. This supplementary interpreta- 
 tion was called 'explanation' (Midrash); it was 
 not altogether arbitrary, but rested upon certain 
 rules laid down for the proper interpretation of 
 tlic law. The supreme council and the bouses of 
 learning worked together, and one completed the 
 other. A hardly perceptible, but most import- 
 ant movement >yas the result; for the descend- 
 ants of the Juda'ans of that age were endowed 
 with a characteristic, which they might other- 
 wise have claimed as inborn, the talent for re- 
 search and the intellectual penetration, needed 
 for turning and returning words and data, in 
 onlcr to discover some new and hidden mean- 
 ing." — H. Qraetz, Hist, of the Jew«, v. 1, ch. 20. 
 — Schools of the Prophets. — " In his [Samuel's] 
 time we first hear of what in modern phraseology 
 are called the Schools of the Prophets. What- 
 ever be the precis"' meaning of the peculiar word, 
 which now came first into use as the designation 
 of these companies, it is evident that their im- 
 mediate ml'i»i'-,n consisted in uttering religious 
 hymns or songs, accompanied by musical instru- 
 ments — psaltery, tabret, pipe and harp, and cym- 
 bals. In them, as in the few solitary Instancf;<i 
 of their predecessors, the characteristic elemenL 
 was that the silent seer of visions found an articu- 
 late voice, gushing forth in a rhythmical flow, 
 which at once riveted the attention of the hearer. 
 These, or such as these, were the gifts which 
 under Samuel were now organized, if one may 
 say so, into a system." — Dean Stanley, Lecta. on 
 the Hist, of the Jewish Church, led. 18. 
 
 Greece. — A description of the Athenian educa- 
 tion of the young is given by Plato in one of his 
 dialogues: "Education," he says, "and admoni- 
 tion commence in the first years of childhood, 
 and last to the very end of life. Mother and 
 nurse and father and tutor are quarrelling about 
 the improvement of the child as soon as ever he 
 is able to understand them : he cannot say or do 
 anything without their e^tting forth to him that 
 this is just and that is unjus^; this is honourable, 
 that is dishonourable ; this is holy, that is unholy ; 
 do this and abstain from that. And if be obeys, 
 well and good; if not, he is straightened by 
 threats and blows, like a piece of warped wood. 
 At a later stage they send him to teachers, and 
 enjoin them to see to his manners even more than 
 to his reading and music; and the teachers do as 
 they arc desired. And when the boy has learned 
 his letters and is beginning to uiulerstand what is 
 written, as before he understoi only what was 
 spoken, they put into his bands the works of great 
 poets, which he reads at school ; in these are con- 
 tained many admonitions, and many tales, ond 
 praises, and encomia of ancient famous men, 
 which he is required to learn by heart, in order 
 that he may imitate or emulate them and desire 
 to become like them. Then, again, the teachers 
 of the lyre take similar care that their young dis- 
 ciple is temperate and gets into no mischief; and 
 when they have taught him the use of the lyre, 
 they introduce him to the poems of other excel- 
 lent poets, who are the lyric poets; and these 
 they set to music, and make their harmonies and 
 rhythms quite familiar to the children, in order 
 
 that they may leorn to be more gentle, and har- 
 monious, an<f rhythmical, and so more fitted for 
 speech and action ; for the life of men in every 
 part has need of harmony and rhythm. Then 
 they send them to the master of gymnastic, in order 
 that their bodies may better minister to the vir- 
 tuous mind, and that the weakness of their bodies 
 may not force them to play the coward in war or 
 on any other occasion. This is what is done by 
 those who have the means, and those who have 
 the means are the rich; their children begin edu- 
 cation soonest and leave off latest. When they 
 have done with masters, the state again compels 
 them to learn the laws, and live after the pattern 
 which they furnish, and not after their own fan- 
 cies; and just as in learning to write, the writing- 
 master first draws lines with a style for the use 
 of the young beginner, and gives him the tablet 
 and makes him follow the lines, so the city draws 
 the laws, which were the invention of good law- 
 givers who were of old times ; these are given to 
 the young man, in order to guide him in liis con- 
 duct whether as ruler or ruled ; and he who trans- 
 gresses them is to be corrected, or, in other words, 
 called to account, which is ii term used not only 
 in your country, but also in many others. Now 
 when there is all this care about virtue private 
 and public, why, Socrates, do you still wonder and 
 doubt whether virtue can be taught?" — Plato, 
 Protagoras (Dialogues; trans, by Joicett, v. 1). — 
 The ideas of Aristotle on the subject are in the 
 following ; " There can be no doubt that children 
 should be taught those useful things which are 
 really necessary, but not all things; for occupa- 
 tions arc divided into liberal and illiberal ; and to 
 young children should be imparted only such 
 kinds of knowledge as will be useful to them 
 without vulgarizing them. And any occupation, 
 art, or science, which makes the body or soul or 
 mind of the freeman less fit for the practice or 
 exercise of virtue, 's vulgar; wherefore we call 
 those arts vulgar which tend to deform the body, 
 and likewise all paid employments, for they ab- 
 sorb and degrade the mind. There are also some 
 liberal arts quite proper for a freeman to acquire, 
 but only in a certain degree, and if he attend 
 to them too closely, in order to obtain perfection 
 in them, the same evil effects will follow. The 
 object also which a man sets before him makes a 
 gR'Ot difference; if he does or learns anything 
 for his own sake or for the sake of his frieuds, or 
 with a view to excellence, the action will not ap- 
 pear illiberal ; but if done for the sake of others, 
 the very same action will lie thought menial and 
 servile. The received subjects of instruction, as 
 I have already remarked, are partly of a liberal 
 and partly of an illiberal character. The custom- 
 ary branches of education are in number four; 
 they are — (1) reading and writing, (2) gymnastic 
 exercises, (3) music, to which is sometimes added 
 (4) drawing. Of these, reading and writing and 
 drawing are regarded as useful for the purposes 
 of life in a variety of ways, and gymnastic exer- 
 cises are thought to infuse courage. Concerning 
 music a doubt may be raised — in our own day 
 most men cultivate it for the sake of pleasure, 
 but originally it was included in education, be- 
 cause nature herself, as has been often said, re- 
 quires that we should be able, not only to work 
 well, but to use leisure well ; for, as I must re- 
 peat once and agi>in, the first principle of all 
 action is leisure. Both are required, but leisure 
 is better than occupation ; and therefore the ques- 
 
 678 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Oreek 
 Schootll/e. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Hon mugt be asked In gocnl carnc8t, what ought 
 we to do wlien at leisure ? Clearly we ought 
 not to be amusing ourselves, for then amusement 
 would be the end of life. But if this is in- 
 conceivable, and yet amid serious occupations 
 amuseitient is needed more than at other times 
 (for he who is hard at work has need of rcla.\- 
 ation, and amusement gives relaxation, whereas 
 occupation is always accompanied witli exertion 
 and effort), at suitable timed wc should intrwluce 
 amusements, and they should be our medicines, 
 for tlie emotion which they create in the soul is a 
 relaxation, and from the pleasure we obtain rest. 
 ... It is clear then that there are branches of 
 learning and education whicli we must study 
 with a view to the enjoyment of leisure, and 
 these are to be valued for their own sake ; whereas 
 those kinds of knowledge which are useful in 
 business are to be deemed necessary, and exist 
 for the sake of other things. And therefore our 
 fathers admitted music into education, not on the 
 ground eitlier of its necessity or utility, for it 
 is not necessary, nor indeed useful in the same 
 manner as reading and writing, which are useful 
 in money-making, in tlic management of a hou.se- 
 hold, in the acquisition of knowledge and in 
 political life, nor like drawing, useful for a more 
 correct judgment of the works of artists, nor 
 again like gymnastic, which gives health and 
 strength; for neither of these is to be gained 
 from music. There remains, then, the use of 
 music for intellectual enjoyment in leisure; 
 which appears to have been the reason of its in- 
 troduction, this being one of the ways in which it 
 is thought that a freeman should pass his leisure. 
 . . . We arc now in a position to say that the 
 ancients witness to us; for their opinion may be 
 gathered from the fact tl.at music is one of the 
 received and traditional branches of education. 
 Further, it is clear that children should be in- 
 structed in some useful things, — for example, in 
 reading and writing, — not only for their useful- 
 ness, but also because many other sorts of knowl- 
 edge are acquired through them. With a like 
 view they may be taught drawing, not to pre- 
 vent their making mistakes in their own pur- 
 chases, or in order that they may not be imposed 
 upon in the buying or selling of articles, but 
 rather because it makes them j udges of the beauty 
 of the human form. To be always seeking aft >• 
 the useful does not become free and exalted souls. 
 . . . We reject the professional instruments and 
 also the professional mode of education in music — 
 and by professional we mean that which is adopted 
 in contests, for in this tlie performer practises the 
 art, not for the sake of his own "norovement, but 
 in order to give pleasure, and that of a vulgar 
 sort, to his hearers. For this reason the execu- 
 tion of such music is not the part of a freeman 
 but of a paid performer, and the result is that the 
 performers are vulgarized, for the end at which 
 they aim is bad." — Aristotle, Politics (Jowett's 
 Translation), bk. 8.— "The most striking differ- 
 ence between early Greek education and ours was 
 undoubtedly this : that the physical development 
 of boys was attended to in a special place and by 
 a special master. It was not thouglit sufficient 
 for them to play the chance games of childhood ; 
 they underwent careful bodily training under a 
 very fixed system, which was determined by the 
 athletic contests of after life. . . .When we com- 
 pare what the Greeks afforded to their boys, we 
 find it divided into two contrasted kinds of exer- 
 
 ci.so : hunting, which was practised by the Spar- 
 tans very keenly, and no doubt also by the 
 Eleans and Arcadians, as may be seen from 
 Xenophor' "Tract on (Hare) Hunting'; and 
 gymnastics, which in the ca.sc of boys were car- 
 ried on in the so-called paliehi ra, a sort of open- 
 air gymnasium (in our sense) U<pt by private in- 
 dividuals as a si)erulation, and lo which the l")y8 
 were sent, as they were to their ordinary school- 
 master. We find tliat the Spartiiiis, who had 
 ample scope for hunting with dogs in the glens 
 ami coverts of Mount Taygetus, rather despised 
 mere exercises of dexterity in the pala'stra, just 
 as our sportsmen would think very little of spend- 
 ing hours in a gymnasium. But those Greeks who 
 lived in towns "like Athens, and in the midst of a 
 thickly populated and well-cultivated country, 
 could not possibly obtain hunting, and therefore 
 found the most elllcient substitute. Still we find 
 them very far behind the English in their knowl- 
 edge or taste for out-of-door games. . . . The 
 Greeks had no playgrounds beyond the paliestra 
 or gynuiasiimi ; they had no playgrounds in our 
 sense, and thougli a few proverbs speak ul swim- 
 ndng as a universal accomplishment which boys 
 learned, the silence of Gresk literature on the 
 subject makes one very suspicious as to the gen- 
 erality of such training. ... In one point, cer- 
 tainly, the Greeks agreed more with the motlcrn 
 English than with any other civilised nation. 
 They regarded sport as a really serious thing. 
 . . ''^he names applied to the exercising-places 
 inaicate their principal uses. Palxstro means a 
 wrestling place ; gymnasium originally a place for 
 naked exercise, but the word early lost this con- 
 notation and came to mean mere physical train- 
 ing. ... In order to leave home and reach the 
 paliestra safely as well as to return, Greek boys 
 were put under the charge of a pedagogue, in no 
 way to be identified (as it now is) with u schoolmas- 
 ter. . . . I think wc may be justiflcd in asserting 
 that the study of the epic poets, especially of the 
 Iliad and Odyssey, was the earliest intellectual 
 exercise of schoolboys, and, in the case of fairly 
 educated parents, even anticipated the learning of 
 letters. For the latter is never spoken of as part 
 of a mother's or of home education. Reading was 
 not so universal or so necessary as it now is. . . . 
 We may assume that books of Homer were read 
 or recited to growing boys, and that they were 
 encouraged or required to learn them off by heart. 
 This is quite certain to all who estimate justly 
 the enormous influence ascribed to Homer, and 
 the principles assumed by the Greeks to have 
 underlain his work. He was universally con- 
 sidered to be a moral teacher, whose characters 
 were drawn with a moral intent, and for the pur- 
 pose of example or avoidance. . . . Accordingly 
 the Iliad and Odyssey were supposed to contain 
 all that was usei'ul, not only for godliness, but 
 for life. All the arts and sciences were to be de- 
 rived (by interpretation) from these sacred texts. 
 ... In early days, and in jioor towns, tlie place 
 of teaching was not well appointed, nay, even in 
 many places, teaching in the open air prevailed. 
 . . . This was . . . like the old hedge schools of 
 Ireland, and no doubt of Scotland too. They 
 also took advantage, especially in hot weather, of 
 colonnades, or shady corners among public build- 
 ings, as at Winchester the summer term was called 
 cloister-time, from a similar practice, even in that 
 wealthy foundation, of instructing in the cloisters. 
 On the other hand, properly appointed schools in 
 
 679 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Oreek 
 School-room. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 rcspcctJiWc towns were furnished with some tnstfl, 
 ami ncponiInK to trnilitional notions. . . . We 
 niiiy 1)0 Hur(! tlmt there were no tables or desks, 
 such furniture bcin(; unusual in Greek houses; 
 it was the universal custom, while rending or 
 writing, to hold the book or roll on the knee 
 — to u« an inconvenient thing to do, but still 
 common in the East. Tliere are some interesting 
 8<'ntences, given for e.xercise in Oreek and Latin, 
 in the little known ' Intcrprctamenta ' of Dosi- 
 thcus, now edited and e.xpinined by German 
 scholars. The entry of tlie boy is th\is described, 
 in parallel Greek and Latin : ' First I salute the 
 master, who returns my sahite: Good morning, 
 master; good morning, school fellows. Give me 
 my place, my seat, my stool. Sit closer. Move 
 up that way. This is my place, I took it first.' 
 This mixture of politeness and wrangling is amus- 
 ing, and no doubt to be foimd in all ages. It 
 seems that tlie seats were movable. . . . The 
 usual subdivision of education was into three 
 parts; letters, . . . including reading, writing, 
 counting, and learning of tlic poets ; music in the 
 stricter sense, including singing and playing on 
 the lyre; and lastly gymnastic, which included 
 duncmg. ... It is said that at Sparta tlie edu- 
 cation in reading and writing was not tliought 
 necessary, and there liave been long discussions 
 among tlie learned whether the ordinary Spar- 
 tan in classical days was able to read. We find 
 that Aristotle adds a fourth subject to the three 
 above named — drawing, wliich lie tliinks requi- 
 site, like music, to enable the educated man to 
 judge riglitly of works of art. But there is no 
 evidence of a wide diffusion of drawing or paint- 
 ing among the Greeks, as among us. . . . Later 
 on, under the learned influences of Alexandria, 
 and the paid professoriate of Roman days, sub- 
 jects multiplied with tlie decline of mental 
 vigour and spontaneity of the age, and children 
 began to be postered, as tliey now are, with a 
 quantity of subjects, all thought necessary to a 
 proper educr.t;on, and accordingly all imperfectly 
 acquired. This was called the encyclical edu- 
 cation, which is preserved in our Encyclopsedia 
 of knowledge. It included, (1) grammar,(3) rheto- 
 ric, (3) dialectic, (4) arithmetic, (5) music, (6) ge- 
 ometry, (7) astronomy, and these were divided 
 into the earlier Trivium, and the later Quadri- 
 vium."— J. P. Mahaffy, Old Oreek Ediicatton, ch. 
 3-5. — "Reading was taught with the greatest 
 pains, the utmost care was taken with the in- 
 tonation of the voice, and the articulation of the 
 throat. We have lost the power of distinguish- 
 ing between accent and quantity. The Greeks 
 did not acquire it without long and anxious train- 
 ing of the ear and the vocal organs. This was 
 the duty of the phonascus. Homer was the com- 
 mon study of all Greeks. The Iliad and Odys- 
 see were at once the Bible, the Shakespeare, the 
 Robinson Crusoe, and the Arabian] Nights of the 
 Hellenic race. Long passages and indeed whole 
 books were learnt by heart. The Greek, as a 
 nile, learnt no language but his own. Next to 
 reading and repetition came writing, which was 
 carefully taught. Composition naturally fol- 
 lowed, and the burden of correcting exorcises, 
 wliicli still weighs down the backs of schoolmas- 
 ters, dates from these early times. Closely con- 
 nected with reading and writing is the art of 
 reckoning, and the science of numbers leads us 
 easily to music. Plato considered arithmetic as 
 the best spur to a sleepy and uuinstructed spirit; 
 
 wo see from the Platonic dialogues how mathe- 
 matical problems employed the mind and thoughts 
 of young Athenians. Many of the more difficult 
 aritlimetical operations were solved by geomet- 
 rical methods, but the Greeks carried the art 
 of teaching numbers to considorabio refinement. 
 Tliey used the abacus, and had an elaborate 
 metliod of finger reckoning, which was service- 
 able up to 10,000. Drawing was the crowning 
 accomplishment to this vestibule of training. By 
 the time the fourteenth year was completed, the 
 Greek boy would have begun to devote himself 
 seriously to the practice of athletics. " — O. Brown- 
 ing, All Introihietinn to the IIi»tory of Ediieational 
 Theories, ch. 1. — "It has sometimes been imagined 
 that in Greece separate edifices were not erected 
 as with us expressly for school -houses, but that 
 both tlie didnskalos and the philosopher taught 
 their pupils in fields, gardens or shady groves. 
 But this was not the common practice, though 
 many schoolmasters appear to have had no other 
 place wherein to assemble their pupils than the 
 portico of a temple or some sheltered corner in 
 the street, where in spite of the din of business 
 and the tlirong of passengers the worship of learn- 
 ing was publiclv performed. . . . But these were 
 the schools of the humbler classes. For the chil- 
 dren of the noble and the opulent spacious 
 structures were raised, and furnished with tables, 
 desks, — for that peculiar species of grammateion 
 whicli resembled the plate cupboard, can have 
 been nothing but a desk, — forms, and whatsoever 
 else their studies required. Mention is made of a 
 school at Chios wliicli contained one hundred and 
 twenty boys, all of whom save one were killed by 
 the falling in of the roof. . . . The apparatus of 
 an ancient school was somewhat complicated: 
 there wore mathematical instruments, globes, 
 maps, and charts of the heavens, together with 
 boards whereon to trace geometrical figures, tab- 
 lots, large and small, of box-wood, fir, or ivory, 
 triangular in fonn, some folding witli two, and 
 others with many leaves ; books too and paper, 
 skins of parchniont, wax for covering the tablets, 
 which, if we may believe Aristophanes, people 
 sometimes ate when they were hungry. To the 
 above were added rulers, reed-pens, pen-cases, 
 pen-knives, pencils, and last, though not least, tho 
 rod which kept thorn to the steady use of all these 
 tilings. At Athens these schools were not pro- 
 vided by the ~*ate. They were private specu- 
 lations, and each master was regulated in his 
 charges by the reputation he had acquired and 
 the fortunes of his pupils. Some appear to have 
 been extremely moderate in their demands. . . . 
 The earliest task to be performed at school was to 
 gain a knowledge of the Greek characters, large 
 and small, to spell next, next to read. ... In 
 teaching tlie art of writing their practice nearly 
 resembled our own. . . . These things were neces- 
 sarily the first step in the first class of studies, 
 which were denominated music, and compre- 
 hended everything connected witli the develope- 
 mcnt of the mind; and they were carried to a 
 certain extent before the second division called 
 gymnastics was commenced. They reversed tho 
 plan commonly adopted among ourselves, for 
 with them poetry preceded prose, a practice which, 
 cooperating with their susceptible temperament, 
 impressed upon the national mind that imagina- 
 tive character for which it was preeminently dis- 
 tinguished. And the poets in whose works they 
 were first initiated were of all the most poetical^ 
 
 680 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Spartan 
 Training. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the nuthors of lyrlcnl nnd dithyromblc pieces, 
 Bclcctions from whose verses they cotiimitted to 
 memory, thus actiuiring eiirly a rich tore of 
 sentences and imagery ready to Imj aiianced in 
 nrgiimcntor illustration, to funiish familiar allu- 
 sions or to bo woven into the texture of their 
 style. . . . Among the other branches of knowl- 
 eiigo most necessary to \m studied, and to which 
 they applied themselves nearly from the outset, 
 wtt» arithmetic, without some inkling of which, a 
 man, in I'lato's opinion, could scarcely be a citi- 
 zen at nil. . . . The importance attached to this 
 branch of education, nowhere more apparent tlian 
 in the dialogues of Plato, furnislies one proof tliat 
 tlie Athenians were preeminently men of business, 
 who ;in all their admiration for the good ami 
 beautiful never lost sight of those things which 
 promote the comfort of life, and enable a man 
 effectually to perform his ordinary duties. With 
 tlie same views were geometry and astronomy 
 pursued. . . . Thoiimportanco of music, in the 
 education of tlio Greeks, is generally understood. 
 It wos employed to eiTect several purposes. First, 
 to sooth oud mollify the llerccness of the national 
 character, and iirepare tlie way for the lessrms of 
 the poets, whicli, delivered amid tlio sounding of 
 melodious strings, when the soul was rapt and 
 elevated by harmony, by the excitement of num- 
 bers, by the magic of the sweetest associations, 
 took a firm hold upon the mind, and generally 
 retained it during life. Secondly, it enabled the 
 citizx'ns gracefully to perform their part in the 
 amusements of social life, every person being in 
 his turn called upon at entertainments to sing or 
 play upon the lyre. Thirdly, it was necessary to 
 enable them to join in the sacred choruses, ren- 
 dered frequent by the piety of the state, and for 
 the due performance in old ago of many offices of 
 religion, the sacerdotal character belonging more 
 or less to all the citizens of Athens. Fourthly, 
 as much of the learning of a Greek was r.iartiol 
 and designed to fit him for defending his country, 
 ho required some knowledge of music that on 
 the Held of battle his voice might liarmoniously 
 mingle with those of his coimtrymen, in cliaunt- 
 ing those stirring, impetuous, and terrible melo- 
 dies, called poeans, which preceded the first shock 
 of flght. For some, or all of these reasons, the 
 science of music began to be cultivated among 
 the Hellenes at a perio<l almost beyond the reach 
 even of tradition." — J. A. St. John, T/ie Hellenes, 
 bk. 2, ch. 4. — " In tliinking of Greek education as 
 furnishing a possible model for us moderns, there 
 is one point which it is important to bear in mind : 
 Greek education was intended only for the few, 
 for the wealthy and well-born. Upon all others, 
 upon slaves, barbarians, the working and trading 
 classes, and generally upon all persons spending 
 their lives in pursuit of wcaltli or any private ends 
 whatsoever, it would have seemed to be thrown 
 away. Even well-born women were generally 
 excluded from most of its benefits. The subjects 
 of education were the sons of full citizens, them- 
 selves preparing to bo full citizens, and to e.xor- 
 ciso all the functions of such. Tlie duties of such 
 persons were completely summed up under two 
 heads, duties to tlie family and duties to the 
 State, or, as the Greeks said, (economic and polit- 
 ical duties. The free citizen not only acknowl- 
 edged no other duties besides these, but he looked 
 down upon persons who sought occupation in 
 any other sphere. (Economy and Politics, how- 
 ever, were very comprehensive terms. The for- 
 
 mer included the tlirec n'hitions of husband Xx> 
 wife, father to children, and iiia.ster to slaves and 
 property ; the latter, three public functions, legis- 
 lative, administrative, and judiciary. All ikcu- 
 patioiiM not included under these six heads the 
 free citizen left to slaves or resident foreigners. 
 .Money-making, in the modern sense, he despised, 
 and, if lie devoted himself to art or philosophy, 
 ho did so only for the benefit of the State. "— T. 
 Davidson, AntMle, hk. 1, eh. 4. — Spartan Train- 
 ing. — "From his birth every Spartan l)elonged 
 to tlie state, which decided . . . whether ho was 
 likelv to prove a useful memlier of the com- 
 munity, and extinguished, the life of the sickly 
 or deformed infant. To the ago of seven how- 
 ever the care of the child was delegated to it* 
 natural guardians, yet not so as to be left wholly 
 to their discretion, but subject to certain estab- 
 lished rules of treatment, whicli guarded against 
 every mischievous indulgence of parental tender- 
 ness. At the end of seven years began a long 
 course of public discipline, which grew constantly 
 more and more severe as the boy approached 
 toward manhood. The education of tlic young 
 was in some degree the business of all the elder 
 citizens; for there was none who did not con- 
 tribute to it, if not by his active interference, at 
 least by his presence and inspection. But it was 
 placed under the especial superintendence of an 
 officer selected from the men of most approved 
 wortli ; and he again chose a number of youtlis, 
 just past the ago of twenty, and who most emi- 
 nently united courage with discretion, to exercise 
 a more immediate command over the classes, inta 
 which the boys were diviiled. The leader of each 
 ela.ss directed the sports and tasks of his young 
 troop, and punished their offences with military 
 rigour, but was himself responsible to his elders 
 for the mode in which he discharged his ofiice. 
 The Spartan education was simple in its objects ; 
 it was not the result of any general view of human 
 nature, or of any attempt to unfold its various 
 capacities: it aimed at training men who were to 
 live in tlio midst of difficulty and danger, and who 
 could only be safe themselves while they held 
 rule over others. The citizen was to bo always 
 ready for the defence of himself and his country, 
 at home ond abroad, and ho was therefore to bo 
 equally fitted to command and to obey. His body, 
 his mind, and his character were formed for this 
 purpose, and for no otiier: and hence the Spartan 
 system, making directly for its main end, and re- 
 jecting all that was foreign to it, attained, within 
 its own sphere, to a perfection wliich it is im- 
 possible not to admire. The young Spartaa 
 was perhaps unable either to read or write : ho 
 scarcely possessed the elements of any of the 
 arts or sciences by which society is enriched or 
 adorned: but he could run, leap, wrestle, hurl 
 the disk, or the javelin, and wield every other 
 weapon, with a vigour and agility, and grace 
 which were no where surpassed. These however 
 were accomplishments to be learnt in every 
 Greek pala;stra: he might find many rivals in all 
 that he could do ; but few could approach him in 
 the firmness with whicli ho was taught to sulfer. 
 Prom the tender age at whicli he left his mother's 
 lap for the public schools, his life was one con- , 
 tinned trial of patience. Coarse and scanty fare, 
 and this occasionally withheld, a light dress, 
 without any change in the depth of winter, a bed 
 of reeds, which lie himself gathered from tho 
 Eurotos, blows exchanged with his comrades, 
 
 44 
 
 681 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 tyrrtich'tvl liUat. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ittrippfi Inflirlcil by IiIh ftovcrnors, iiioro by wiiy 
 of cxcrriHi' I ban of piiiiiHhmcnt, inured him to 
 every form of iHiin unit liiinlgliip. . . . TIk; Muhcm 
 were upproprliitely liononrcil nt Spiirtn witli a 
 Hiuritln- on tlic eve of ii Imttlp, anil the union of 
 tlic Nprar ami tlit; lyre wuh a favourite tiieme witli 
 tlie l/icotiian piM-tH, anil tliime wlio Han^ of Hpjir- 
 tan ( UNloniH. Tliou>;li l)r)Mi In the ilJHi'lplliK^ of 
 tile camp, llie younj? Spartan, like the hiToof tlie 
 lllwl, wag not a HtninKer to muKic anil poetry, lie 
 was tauKlit to RinK. anil to play on the llute and 
 the lyre: 1)ut the Ntrains with which his memorv 
 was Htoreil, and to wiileli hU voire was fornietl, 
 were eitiier Harrcd liyinng, or 1)reathi'il a martial 
 Hpirit; and it was iM'cause they cherislied Hiuii 
 wntimentH that the Ilomerle lays, If not intro- 
 duced l)y Lyeurj?us, were early welcomed at 
 Hparta. ... As these musical exercises were de- 
 signed to cultivate, not so mud an intellectual, 
 as a moral taste; bo it was ; >) nbly less for the 
 sake of sharpening their ingenuity, than uf pro- 
 moting presence of mind, and promptness of 
 decision, that the boys were led into the labit of 
 answering all <|iic8tions proposed to tlicm, with 
 a ready, pointed, sententious brevity, wliieh was 
 a ]>roverl)iai characteristic of Spartan conversa- 
 tion, liut the lessons which were most studi- 
 ously inculcated, more indeed by example than 
 by precept, were those of mcxlesty, obedience, 
 and reverence for age and rank ; for these were the 
 qualities on which, above all others, the stability 
 of the commonwealth reposed. The gait and 
 look of the Spartan youths, as they passed along 
 the streets, observed Xenophon, breathwl modesty 
 and reserve. In the presence of their elders they 
 were bashful as virgins, and silent as statues, 
 save when a question was put to them. ... In 
 trutli, the respect for tlie laws, which rendered 
 the Spartan averse to innovation at home, was 
 little more than anotlier form of that awe with 
 which his early habits inspired him for the magis- 
 trates and tiie aged. With this feeling was in- 
 timately connected that quick and deep sense of 
 slianie, whicli shrank from dishonour as the most 
 dreadful of evils, and enabled him to meet death 
 so calmly, when he saw in it the will of Ins 
 country. —C. Thirl wall. Hut. of Greece, v. 1, ch. 8. 
 — Free-School Ideas in Greece. — ' ' It is a preva- 
 lent opinion tliat common schools, as we now 
 have them, were an American invention. No leg- 
 islation, it is asserted, taxing all in order that all 
 may be taught can be traced back further than to 
 theeorly lawsof Massachusetts. Those who deny 
 this assertion are content with showing something 
 of tlie sort in Scotland and Germany a generation 
 or two before the landing of the Plymouth pil- 
 grims. The truth is, however, that, ns mucli of 
 our sociiil wit is now credited to the ancient 
 Greeks, something of our educational wisdom 
 ought to Ix'. Two centuries ago John Locke, as 
 an able political writer, was invited to draw up 
 a code of fundamental laws for the new colony 
 of Carolina, and in like manner, more than 3,300 
 years ago, Ciiarondas, a master of a similar type 
 in Magna Gnuciu, was called to a similar task. 
 This was to frame a series of statutes for the gov- 
 ernment of a Greek colony founded about 446 
 , B. C, in the foot of Italy. This colony was 
 Thurii, and conspicuous among the enactments 
 of Charoudas was the following: ' Charondas 
 made a law unlike those of lawgivers before 
 him, for he enacted that the sons of the citi- 
 zeos should all learn letters (or writing) , . . 
 
 the city making payment to the teachers. IIo 
 thought tliat \\h' piM)r, not able to pay wages 
 tliems<dve8, would otherwise fall of the best train- 
 ing. IIo counted writing the most important 
 study, and with reason. Tiirough writing, most 
 things in life, and thorn; tlie most useful, are ac- 
 complished — as ballots, epistles, laws, covenants. 
 Who can sutllclently |)raise tliu learning of let- 
 ters t . . . Writing alone preserves the most bril- 
 liant utterances of wise men and tiie oracles of 
 giMis, nay nhilosophy and all culture. All these 
 things it alone hands down to all future genera- 
 tions. Wherefore nature should be viewed as 
 the source of life, but the source of living well 
 we should consider the culture derived from writ- 
 ing. Inasmuch, then, as illiterates are deprived 
 of a great giHxl, (Miarondas came to their liel|), 
 ludging them worthy of public care and outlay. 
 Former legislators had caused the sick to bo at- 
 tended by physicians at the public expense, tliink- 
 ing their boiflcs worthy of cure. lie did more, 
 for lio cured souls atlllctcd with ignorance. Tlio 
 doctors of the body we pray that we may never 
 need, while we would fain abide for ever with 
 tho.se wlio minister to the mind diseased. ' — This 
 extract is from the ' Bibliotheca Historica ' of 
 DiiMiorusSiculus(Uook x. J5 13), who was nourish- 
 ing at tiie birth of Clirist and was the most 
 painstaking chronicler of the Augustiui age. 
 The legislation is worth notice for more than 
 one reason. It rebukes tho self-conceit of those 
 wlio hold that the education of all at the charge 
 of all is an idea born in our own time or coun- 
 try. It has also been strangely unnoticed by 
 historians who ought to have kept it before the 
 people."— 7Vi« Nation, March 24, 1892, pp. 230- 
 231.— Socrates and the Philosophical Schools. 
 — "Before the rise of pliliosopliy, tho teacher of 
 tho people had been the riinnsode, or public 
 reciter; after thot event ho gradually gives place 
 to the sophist (. . . one who makes wise), or, as 
 he later with more modesty calls himself, tho 
 philosopher (. . . lover of wisdom). Tho history 
 of Greece for centuries is, on its inner side, a 
 history of the struggle between what tho rhap- 
 sixle represents and what the philosopher repre- 
 sents, between popular tradition and common 
 sense on the one hand, and individual opinion 
 and philosophy on the other. The transition 
 from the first to tlic second of these mentol con ■ 
 ditions was accomplished for the world, once f o ■ 
 all, by thcGreeks. — T. Davidson, Aristotle, ftfc 1, 
 ch. 5. — "There is no instance on record of a 
 philosopher wlioso importance as a thinker is ao 
 closely bound up witli the personality of the ir.an 
 as it was in the case of Socrates. . . .His tear hing 
 was not of a kind to be directly imparted and 
 faithfully handed down, but could only be left to 
 propagate itself freely by stirring up others to a 
 similiar self-culture. . . . Tho youth and early 
 manhoml of Socrates fall in the most brilliant 
 period of Grecian liistory. Born during tlie last 
 years of tlie Persian war, he was a near con- 
 temporary of all those great men who adorned 
 the age of Pericles. As a citizen of Atliens he 
 could enjoy the opportunities afforded by a city, 
 wliicli united every means of culture by its un- 
 rivalled fertility of thought. Poverty and low 
 birtii were but slender obstacles in tho Atliens of 
 Pericles. . . . Socrates, no doubt, began life by 
 learning his father's trade, . . . which he prob- 
 ably never practised, and certainly soon gave up. 
 U^a considered it to be his special calling to labour 
 
 682 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The tItUotophlcal 
 OehooU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 for tliv moral nnd Intcllvcttml improvement of 
 liliiiwlf mill ollicrs — 11 L'onvlrtion which lie fi'lt 
 80 Htron^iy tliut it iip|>vurc(l to him iti tliu lixlit 
 of II illvlnL' ri-velatioii. Slorcovcr lie wii.s coii- 
 tiriiirii ill it tiy u DL'lpliic oriicli', wliicii, of 
 coiirsi',, iiiiiHl not l)v reguniod as tiiu ciulsu of, 
 but nttliiT uH III! iiciilitioniil Hupport to his re- 
 forming zt'iil. ... To bo indcpfiiilciit, Ik tried, 
 lllti' till! ()(m1h, to ri»i' HUpi-rior to Ids wiiMl.s; iiiul 
 by I'lirc'fiiiiy pnictlitiMK tu'lf-dt'iiiiil and almti'iiii- 
 oilHiit'SM, 111! was really able to boast that his life 
 WHS more pleasant and more free from troubles 
 thiiii that of the rest of mankind. Tims he was 
 able to devote his wliole [lowers to the serviee of 
 otiiers, witliout asking or tukinj; reward; ami 
 thus ho became ho en;?rossed by his labours for 
 his native city, tliat he rarely passed Its bound- 
 aries or even went outside its Kates. He did not, 
 however, feel himself called upon to take part in 
 the allalrs of the state. . . . An one eonvineed 
 us he was, tiiat care for one's o culture mu.>>t 
 precede care for public busiui ^s, nnd tliat a 
 thorough knowledge of self, together with a 
 deep anil many-sided experience, wasu necessary 
 condition of public activity, must have thought 
 that, to educate Individuals by intluence, was 
 the more pressing need, and have held that he 
 was doing his country a better service by edu- 
 cating able statesmen for it, than by actually 
 discharging a statesman's duties. Accordingly, 
 Socrates never aimed nt being anytliing but a 
 private citizen. . . . Just as little was he desir- 
 ous of being a public teaclier like the Sophists. 
 He not only took no pay, but he gave no me- 
 thodical course. He did not profess to tcacli, 
 but to learn In common with others, not to force 
 his convictions upon them, but to examine theirs ; 
 not to pass tlio truth that came to hand llko a 
 c«la fresh from the mint, but to stir up a desire 
 for truth and virtue, to point out the way to It, 
 to overthrow what was spurious, and to seek out 
 real knowledge. Never weary of talking, ho 
 was on the look out for every opportunity of 
 giving an instructive and moral turn to the con- 
 versation. Day by day ho was about in tho 
 market and public promenades, in sciiools and 
 worksliops, ever ready to converse with friends 
 or strangers, with citizens and foreigners, but 
 always prepared to lead them to higher subjects; 
 and whilst thus in his higher calling serving Ood, 
 ho was persuaded that he was also serving his 
 country in a way tiiat no one else could do. 
 Deeply as he deplored the decline of discipline 
 and education in his native city, ho felt that ho 
 could depend but little on the Sophists, tho 
 moral teachers of his day. The attractive pow- 
 ers of his discourse won for him a circle of 
 admirers, for tho most port consisting of young 
 men of family, drawn to him hy the most varied 
 motives, standing to him in various relations, and 
 coming to him, some for a longer, others for a 
 shorter time. For his own part, ho made it his 
 business not only to educate these friends, but 
 to advise tliem in everything, even in worldly 
 matters. But out of this changing, and in part 
 loosely connected, society, a nucleus was gnuiu- 
 ally formed of decided admirers, — a Socratic 
 school, which we must consider united far less 
 by a common set of doctrines, than by a common 
 love for the person of Socrates." — E. Zeller, 
 Socrates and the Socratic Schools, ch. 3. — "No- 
 where, except in Alliens, do we hear of a philo- 
 sophic body with endowments, legal succession, 
 
 and tho otlier rights of a rorporntion. This idea, 
 which has never since died out of the world, 
 was due to Plato, who beoiieathed Ills garden 
 and aiipolntmi'iil.'t in the place called after the 
 hero llekadi'iniis, to his followers. Hut he was 
 obligrd to do it in the only form possible at 
 Atlieiis. He made it a religious foiindiitioii, on 
 the basis of a tl.xed worship to the Mii.scs. , . . 
 The lieaii or I'nsident of I'lato's 'Assoiiiition of 
 the Muses,' was tile treasurer and manager of the 
 eoninioii fund, who invited guests to their feasts, 
 to which lai li iiienibcr coiitriliiiliil his sliare. 
 . . . 'i'lic niembers liiid, moreover, a rlgiil to 
 atti'iid lertiires and use the lilirary or scientilio 
 appointnieiits, such as maps, which liclonged to 
 the scliiMil. It was this endowiiicnt on a religious 
 basis wliicli saved the Income and position of 
 I'lato's school for centuries. . . . Tills then Is 
 the (Irst Academy, so often imitatid in ho many 
 lands, and of which our colleges are the direct 
 descendants, . . . The school of I'lato, then gov- 
 erned by Xenocrates, being the bei|iiest of an 
 Athenian citi/en who understoiMl the law, seems 
 never to have been assailed. The schools of 
 Kpicurus and Zeiio were perliaps not yet recog- 
 nised. Hut that of Tlieophrastus, perhaps tlio 
 mo.st crowded, certainly tlie most (iistii ctly pliilo- 
 Macedonian, . . . this was tlio school whlcli was 
 exiled, and which owed its reliabilitation not 
 only to the legal decision of the courts, but .still 
 more to the large views of King Demetrius, who 
 would not tolerate the persecution of opinion. 
 But it was the otiier Demetrius, the philosopher, 
 the pupil of Aristotle, the friend of Tlieophrastus, 
 to whom the school owed most, nnd to whom 
 the world owes most in tlie matter of museums 
 and academies, next after I'lato. For this was 
 the man who took care, d>;r'".'^ Ms Protectorate 
 of Athens in the interest of Casander, to estab- 
 lish a garden and ' peripatos' for the Peripatetic 
 school, now under Tlieophrastus. ... It Is R'- 
 markable that the Stoic school — It too the school 
 of aliens — did not establish a local foundation 
 or succession, but taught in public places, sucli 
 as tho Painted Portico. In tills the Cynical tone 
 of tlio Porch comes out. Hence the succession 
 depended upon the genius of the leader. " — J. P. 
 Mahaff}', (Jreck Life and Thomjht, ch. 7. — An 
 account of the Academy, tho Lyceum, etc., will 
 be found under the caption Ovmnasia. — Univer- 
 sity of Athens. — " Some scholars . . . may doubt 
 If there was anything at Atliens which could 
 answer to tho College Life of mixlern times. In- 
 deed It must bo owned that formal history Is 
 nearlv silent on the subject, tliat ancient writers 
 take little notice of it, and sucli evidences as wo 
 luivo are drawn almost entirely from a scries of 
 inscriptions on the marble tablets, which were 
 covered \nW\ the ruins and tho dust of ages, till 
 one after another came to light in recent days, 
 to add fresh pages to tlie story of the past. 
 Happily they are botli numerous and lengthy, 
 and may be already pieced together in an order 
 which extends for centuries. Tliey are known 
 to Epigrapliic students as the records which deal 
 with tho so-called Ephebi; with tlie youths, tliat 
 is, just passing into nianliood, for whom a spe- 
 cial discipline was iirovided by the State, to 
 fit them for the responsibilities of active life. 
 It was a National system with a many-sided 
 training ; the teachers were members of the Civil 
 Service; the registers were public documents, 
 and, as such, belonged to the Archives of the 
 
 683 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Tk* Vnlv*ntly 
 of Alhent. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 8talc Tin; carlltr IniirriplldDH of tliu kt\v» ilutc 
 fn)in till) imtUkI of Miu'cdonlan iiHccmloncy, but 
 In iniii'li I'lirlk-r times tlicn; liiul been forniH of 
 public ilriil iircHcrilK-d for tliv Kplicbi. . . . We 
 mill from it ilin'ri'i-. wliirli, if geniiinr, ilnti-* oven 
 fn)m till' (iiiyH of IVrlrlcs, that the yoiitijf men 
 of (;oH were iiiloweil by h|>i ciiil favour to HJiure 
 the lilmloline of the Atheiiiiin Kpliel)i. Hooli 
 afterwiirim otIierN were itilmitteil on nil hIiIch. 
 Till! iklieiiM who hull giiineil h compelenro iiH nier- 
 chuntH or iw Imiikem, foiinil tlieir hohh welcomeil 
 in the riinlcN of tlie olilcHt familieH of Athens; 
 itronKiTM tliieked thither from iliHtiint countrieH, 
 not only 'roll! the IhIch of (Sreece, luiil from the 
 coiiHlH oi tlie .'Kki'iiii, hut, lis Hellenic culture 
 mode itH way tlirouKh the far Kiwt, Htuilents even 
 of the Hemltle. race were jjlaii to enrol their names 
 upon the ('olletfe registerB, when- wc may still 
 see them with tiie marks of their several nation- 
 iilitles iiinxed. The youiijj men were no longer, 
 like soldiers upon actual service, beginning 
 already the real work of life, and on tliat account, 
 perhaps, the term was shortened from the two 
 years to one; but the old associations lasted 
 on for ages, even in realistic Atliens, which in 
 early politics at least had made so clean a sweep. 
 The outward forms were still preserved, the 
 soldier's drill was still enforced, and though 
 many another feature hwl been added, the whole 
 institution bore upon its face the look rather of 
 a Military College than of a training school for a 
 scholar or a statesman. The C'ollcge year began 
 somewhat later than the opening of tliu civil 
 year, and it was usual for all the students to 
 matriculate togetlier; that is, to enter formally 
 their names upon the registers, ■which were 
 copied afterwards upon the marble tablets, of 
 which largo fragments have survived. ... 'To 
 jiut the gown on,' or, as wo should say, 'to be a 
 gownsman,' was the phrase which stood for 
 being a member of the College ; and the gown, 
 too, was of blail . as commonly among ourselves. 
 Hut I'hilostratus tells us, by the way, thot a 
 change was made from black to white at tho 
 prompting of Ilorodes Atticus, the munificent 
 and learned subieot of the Antonines, wlio woa 
 for many yeors the presiding genius of tho Uni- 
 versity of Athens. The fragment of an inscrip- 
 tion lately found curiously contlrms and supple- 
 ments tho writer's statement. . . . The members 
 of the College aro spoken of as ' friends ' and 
 ' messmates ' ; and it is probable that some form 
 of conventual life prevailed omong'thcm, with- 
 out which the drill and supervision, which are 
 constantly implied in the inscriptions, could 
 scarcely have been enforced by the oflicials. But 
 we know nothing of any public buildings for 
 their use save the gymnasia, which in all Greek 
 towns were the centres of educational routine, 
 and of whicli there were several well known at 
 Athens. . . . The College did not try to monopo- 
 lise tho education of its students. It had, 
 indeed, its own tutors or instructors, but they 
 were kept for humbler drill; it did not even for 
 a long time keep an organist or choirmaster of 
 its own ; it sent its students out for teaching in 
 philosophy and rhetoric and grammar, or, in a 
 word, for all the larger and more liberal studies. 
 Nor did it favour any special set of tenets to tlie 
 exclusion of the rest. It encouraged impartially 
 all the schools of higher thought. . . . The Head 
 of the College held the title of Cosmetes, or of 
 rector. . . . The Rector, appointed only for a 
 
 year by popular election, was no merolv honorary 
 head, out t<M>k an important part in the real 
 work of cdiicntion. He was sometimes clothed 
 with priestly function' . . . The system of edu- 
 catiini thus deHcrib d was under the control of 
 the governmi'iit throughout. ... It may sur- 
 prise us that our information comes almost en- 
 tin'ly irom the Inscriptions, and that ancient 
 writers are ail nearly silent on tlie subject. . . . 
 Hut there was little to attract the literary circles 
 in arrangements so mi'i'iianical and formal; there 
 was tix) much of outward pageantry, and too 
 little of real character evolved." — W. \V. Capes, 
 Unitertity Life in Aneient At/teim, ch. 1. — J. II. 
 Newman, llitturir.d Sketehfi, ch. 4. — Tho reign 
 of the Emperor Justiniaa " may be Hignalised us 
 the fatal epoch at which several of the noblest 
 institutions of antiquity were aboli.shed. lie 
 shut the schools of Atliens (A. I). Ti'JU), in which 
 an uninterrupted successiim of philosophers, sup- 
 ported by a public stipend, had taught the (h)C- 
 trines of I'lato, Aristotle, Zeiio, and Epicurus, 
 ever since the time of the Antonines. They 
 wen-, it is true, Htill attached to iiaganisni, and 
 even to tlie arts of magic." — J. C. L. dcSismoudi, 
 Fall of the Iti>ma)i Kinjnrt, t. 1, eh. 10. — See 
 Athens: A. I). 520. 
 
 Alexandria. — "Ptolemy, upon whom, on 
 Alexander's death, devolved the kingdom of 
 Egypt, supi)liea us with tlie first great instance 
 of what may be called the establislimcnt of Let- 
 ters. He and Eumencs may be considered tho 
 first founders of public libraries. . . . A library, 
 however, was only one of two great conceptions 
 brought into execution by the first Ptolemy ; 
 and as the first was the embalming of dead 
 genius, so the second was the endowment of 
 living. . . . Ptolemy, . . . prompted, or at least, 
 encouraged, by the celebrated Demetrius of Plia- 
 lerus, put into execution a plan for the formal 
 endowment of literature and science, Tlic fact 
 indeed of tho possession of an immense librory 
 seemed sulllcient to render Alexandria a Univer- 
 sity ; for what could bo a greater attraction to 
 tlie students of all lands, than the opportunity 
 allortled them of intellectual converse, not only 
 with the living, but witli the dead, with all who 
 had anywhere at any time thrown light upon 
 any subject of inquiry? But Ptolemy deter- 
 mined that his teachers of knowledge should be 
 as stationary and as permanent as his books ; so, 
 resolving to make Alexandria the scat of a ' Stu- 
 dium Qenorale,' he founded a College for its 
 domicile, and endowed that College with ample 
 revenues. Here, I consider, he did more than 
 has been commonly done, till modern times. It 
 requires considerable knowledge of medieval 
 Universities to be entitled to give an opinion ; as 
 regards Germany, for instance, or Poland, or 
 Spain ; but, as far as I have a right to speak, 
 such an endowment has been rare down to the 
 sixteenth century, as well as before Ptolemy. 
 ... To return to tho Alexandrian College. It 
 was called the Sluseum, — a name since appro- 
 priated to another institution connected with the 
 seats of science. . . . There was a quarter of the 
 city so distinct from the rest in Alexandria, 
 that it is sometimes spoken of as a suburb. It 
 was pleasantly situated on the water's edge, and 
 had been set aside for ornamental buildings, and 
 W08 traversed by groves of trees. Here stood 
 the royal palace, here the theatre and amphi- 
 theatre; here the gymnasia and stadium; here 
 
 684 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 MrhnoU of 
 Alejandrla, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the fftmouH ScriiiMMim. Ami here It wuh, dime 
 upon tlio I'ort, tliiit I'tolcniy placi'd lilit Ijil)rnrv 
 mill C<illrK<^ Ah mlKlit Ih< HiippoKcil, tlit! liuil(I- 
 Inn WHS worthy of IIh piirpimc; ii iiolilu portico 
 Htrotclicd ftloiiK its front, for cxitcIim! or conver- 
 iiation, nnd opi'iicil upon tlic public rooiim de- 
 voted tn diHpiitittloiiH and IcctiircH. A certain 
 niimbf.'r of rrofcHsoni were liKl^cd wltliln tli(! 
 pn-clnctfi, and n handftonie liall, or refectory, waH 
 proviiled for tbo common meal. The I'refect of 
 thu boUHo was a pricgt, whoNe apiiointment lay 
 with tb(^ government. Over the Library n dlff- 
 nlfled person nresldod. ... As to the Profes- 
 HorH, so libertil wiui their maintenance, that n 
 plilloHonher of tht! very a^u of the first founda- 
 tion called th'- place a ' bread basket,' or a ' bird 
 coop'; yet, in gpltu of accidental exceptions, so 
 enreful on the whole was their selection, that 
 even BIX hundred years afterwnnls, Ammianus 
 describes the Museum under the title of ' the last- 
 Ihk abode of distinguished men.' Fhllostratus, 
 too, about a century before, calls it ' a, tablj 
 gathering together celebrated men.'. . . As 
 time went on new Colleges were added lo the 
 original Museum; of which one was a foutida- 
 tlon of tbo Emperor Claudius, and called after 
 hig name. ... A diversity of teaclK^rs secured 
 an abundance of students. ' Hither,' says Cave, 
 'as to a public emporium of polite literature, 
 congregated, from every ]iart of the world, 
 youthful students, and attended the lectures in 
 Grammar, Uhctoric, P<x!try, Philosophy, Astron- 
 omy, Music, Medicine, and other arts and sci- 
 ences'; and hence proceeded, as it would ap- 
 pear, the great Christinn writers and doctors, 
 Clement, . . . Orlj.'en, Anatolius, and Athana- 
 slus. Ht. Gregory Thaumaturgus, In the third 
 century, may be added; he camo across Asia 
 Minor and Syria from Pontus, an to a place, says, 
 his namesake of Nyssa, ' to which young men' 
 from all parts gathered together, who were ap- 
 plying thcmBclves to nhilosophy.' As to the 
 subjects taught in tlio Museum, Cave has already 
 enumerated the principal ; but he hns not done 
 ju.stico to the peculiar character of the Alexan- 
 drian school. Prom the time that Fclcnce got 
 out of the hands of the pure Greeks, into those 
 of a power which had a tulent for administra- 
 tion, it became less theoretical, and bore more 
 distinctly upon definite and tangible objects. 
 . . . Egyptian AntiquiUcs were investigated, at 
 least by the disciples of the Egyptain Manetho, 
 fragment of whose history ore considered to re- 
 main; while Carthaginian and Etruscan liatl a 
 place in the studies of the Claudian College. 
 The Museum was celebrated, moreover, for its 
 grammarians; the work of Hephirstion 'deMe- 
 tris' still affords matter of though I to a living 
 Professor of Oxford; and Aristarchus, like the 
 Athenian Priscian, has almost become the nick- 
 name for a critic. Yet, eminent as is the Alex 
 andrian school in these deportments of science, 
 its fame rests still more securely upon its pro- 
 ficiency in medicine and mathematics. Among 
 its physicians is tho celebrated Qolen, who -was 
 attracted thither from Pergamus; and we are 
 told by a writer of the fourth century, that In 
 his time the very fact of a physician having 
 studied at Alexandria, was an evidence of his 
 science which superseded further testimonial. 
 As to Mathemotics, it is sufficient to say, that, 
 of four greot ancient names, on whom the mod- 
 cm science Is founded, three came from Alexan- 
 
 dria. ArchimedcH lnde«'d was n Syracusan ; but 
 the Museum may boast of A|H)lloniuii of Perga, 
 DiophantUM, a native Alexandrian, and Euclid, 
 whose country Is unknown. To thetm Illustri- 
 ous names, nuiy be added, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 
 to whom astronomy hiis obligations ho consider- 
 able; Pappus; Theon; and Ptolemy, said to b« 
 of PeluHluni, whose O'lelimted Hysteni, call' 
 after him the Ptolemaic, reigned in the scbooU 
 ti'l the time of Copernicus, atid whoso Qeog- 
 laphy, dealln ; with facts, not theories, Is m 
 ri'pute still. Hu<'h was the celebrated ' Htudlum ' 
 or University of Al'xandria; for a while in tho 
 course of the third and fourth centuries. It waa 
 subject to reverses, principally from war. Tho 
 whole of the DrueJiion, the ((uarter of the city in 
 which It was situated, was given to the (lames; 
 and, when llilarhm came to Alexandria, tho 
 holy hennit, wliose : lie of life did not sufTcr him 
 to iiMlge in cities, took up his liMlgment with a 
 few 8ollt4trieH among the ruins of Its edifices. 
 The schools, however, and the library continued; 
 the library waa reserved for the Caliph Omar's 
 famous judgment; as ti. ihe schools, even as late 
 as the twelfth century, the Jew, I.enjamiu of 
 Tiidela, gives us a surprising report of what he 
 found In Alexandria." — J. it. Newman, Jliiitor- 
 tail Skftchen : nine and l^rogreim of Unirerntien, ch. 
 8. — "In the three centuries which Intervened be- 
 tween Alexander and Augustus, Athens was 
 prePndnently the training scIkk)! f<>r philosophy, 
 Ilhodcs, on tho other hand, as the only Greek 
 state of political importance in which a ca-.eer of 
 grand ond dignified activity was open for tho 
 orator, distinguished Itself In the study of elo- 
 quence, while Alexandria rested its f.imo chiefly 
 on tho excellence of its Instruction In Philology 
 and Medicine. At a subsequent period the last 
 mentioned University obtained even greater celeb- 
 rity as having given birth to a school of philoso- 
 phers who endeavored to combine into a species 
 of theosophic doctrine the mental science of 
 Europe with the more spiritual minded iintl pro- 
 foundly human religions of tlie East. In the 
 third century Alexandria became consplc lous as 
 the headquarters of the Eclectics and NeoPloto- 
 nists."— E. Kirkpatrick, nut'l Development of 
 Superior Iiitt ruction Uiarnard't Am. Journal of 
 Education, v. 24, ;)/). 466-467). 
 
 Rome. — "If we casta final glance at tho ques- 
 tion of education, we shall fin(i but little tt. say 
 of it, as far as regards the period licfore C;i( cro. 
 In the republican limes the state did not trouble 
 itself about the training of vouth : o few prohibit- 
 ory regulations were laid down, ond the rest left 
 to private Individuals. Thus no public instruc- 
 tion was ^iven; public schools tliere were, but 
 only as private undertakings for the sake of tho 
 children of the rich. All depended on the father ; 
 his personal character and the care taken by the 
 mother in education decided the development of 
 tho child's disposition. Books there were none ; 
 and therefore they could not be put Into the hands 
 of children. A few rugged hymns, such as those 
 of the Salii and Arval brothers, with the songs 
 in Ecscennine verse, sung on festivals and at ban- 
 q>iet«, formed tlie poetical literoture. A child 
 would hear, besides, the dirges, or memorial 
 verses, composed by women In honourof the dead, 
 ond sometimes, too, the public panogvrics pro- 
 nounced on their departed relatives, a distinction 
 accorded to women also from the time of Camll- 
 lus. Whatever was taught a boy by father or 
 
 685 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ancient 
 Roman teaching. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 mother, or acquired extemnlly to the house, was 
 cttlculntod to make the Uoinan ' virtus ' appear 
 in his eyes tlie lii)7liest aim of his ambition; tlie 
 term including self-mastery, an unbending lirm- 
 ness of will, with patience, and an iron tenacity 
 of purpose in carrying through whatever was 
 onee acknowledged to be right. The Greek pa- 
 1( tra and its naked combatants always seemed 
 strange and offensive to Homan eyes. In the 
 republican times the exercises of the gymnasium 
 were but little in fashion; though riihug, swim- 
 ming, and other warlikf> exercises were indus- 
 triously practised, as preparations for the cam- 
 paign. The slave pa-dagogus, assigned to young 
 people to take charge of them, had a higher posi- 
 tion witli the Komans than the Greeks; and was 
 not allowed to let his pupils out of his sight till 
 their twentieth year. The Latin Odyssey of Li vius 
 Andronieus was the scliool-book first in use ; and 
 this and Enniiis were the only two works to create 
 and foster a literary taste before the destruction 
 of Carthage. The freedman Sp. Carvilius was 
 the first to open a school for higlier education. 
 After this the Greek language and literature came 
 Into the circle of studies, and in consequence of 
 tho wars in Sicily, Macedon, and Asia, families 
 of distinction kept slaves who knew Greek. 
 Teachers quickly multiplied, and were either 
 liberti, or their descendants. No free-bom Roman 
 would consent to bo a paid teacher, for that 
 was held to be a degradation. The Greek lan- 
 guage remained throughout the classical one for 
 Romans: they even made their children begin 
 with Homer. As. by the seventh century of the 
 republic, J<;nnius, I'la'utus, Pacuvius, and Terence, 
 had already become old poets, dictations were 
 given to scho.ars from their writings. The inter- 
 pretation of Virgil began under Augustus, and 
 by this time the younger Romans were resorting 
 to Athens, Rhodes, ApoUonia, and Mitylene, in 
 order to make progress in Greek rhetoric and 
 philosophy. As Roman notions were based en- 
 tirely on the practical and the useful, music was 
 neglected as a part of education ; while, as a con- 
 trast, boys were compelled to learn the laws of 
 tho twelve tables by heart. Cicero, who had 
 gone through this discipline with other boys of 
 his time, complains of the practice having begun 
 to bo set aside ; and Scipio .^mUianus deplored, 
 as an evil omen of degeneru 'he sending of 
 boys and girls to the academies . . actors, where 
 they learnt dancing and singing, in company with 
 young women of pleasure. Ic one of these schools 
 were to be found as many as five hundred young 
 persons, all being instructed in postures and 
 motions of the most abandoned kind. . . . On the 
 other hand, the gymnastic exercises, which had 
 once served the young men as a training for war, 
 fell into disuse, having naturally become object- 
 less and burdensome, now that, under Augustus, 
 no more Roman citizens cliose to enlist in the 
 legions. Still slavery was, and continued to be, 
 the foremost cause of the depravation of youth, 
 and of an evil education. ... It was no longer 
 the mothers who educated their own children: 
 they had neither inclination nor capacity for such 
 duty, for mothers of the stamp of Cornelia had 
 disappeared. Immediately on its birth, the child 
 was intrusted to a Greek female slave, with some 
 male slave, often of the worst description, to help 
 her. . . . The young Roman was not educated 
 in the constant companionship of youths of his 
 own age, under equal discipline : surrounded by 
 
 his father's slaves and parasites, and always 
 accompanied by a slave when he went out, 
 he hardly received imy other impressions tlian 
 such as were calculated to foster conceit, in- 
 dolence, amd pride in him." — .1. J. I. DOllinger, 
 The Gentile and the Jew, v. 2, pp. 279-281.— 
 Higher Education under the Empire. — "De- 
 sides schools of high eminence in Mytilene, Ephe- 
 sus, Smyrna, Sidon, etc., we read that Apollouia 
 enjoyed so high a reiiutation for elocpience and 
 ])olitical science as to be entrusted with the educa- 
 tion of the heir-apparent of the Roman Empire. 
 Antioch was noted for a Aluseum modelled after 
 that of the Egyptian metropolis, and Tarsus 
 boasted of Gynmasia and a University which 
 Strabo does not hesitate to describe as more than 
 rivaling those of Athens and Alexandria. There 
 can be little doubt that the philosophers, rheto- 
 ricians, and grammarians who swarmed in the 
 l)riucelv retinues of the great Roman aristocracy, 
 and whose schools abounded in all tiie most 
 wealthy and populous cities of the empire east 
 and west, were prepared for their several call- 
 ings in some one or other of these institutions. 
 Strabo tells us . . . that Rome was overrun 
 with Alexandrian and Syrian grammarians, and 
 Juvenal describes one of tlie Quirites of tho 
 ancient stamp as emigrating in slieer disgust 
 from a city which from these causes had become 
 thoroughly and utterly Greek. . . . That exter- 
 nal inducements were held out amply sufflcient 
 to prevail upon poor and ambitious men to 
 qualify themselves at some cost for vocations of 
 this description is evident from tlie wealth to 
 which, as we are told, many of them rose from 
 extreme indigence and obscurity. Suetonius, in 
 the still extant fragment of his essay 'de Claris 
 rhetoribus,' after alluding to the immense num- 
 ber of professors and doctors met with in Rome, 
 'draws attention to the frequency with which in- 
 dividuals who had dist^inguished themselves as 
 teachers of rhetoric had been elevated into the 
 senate, and advanced to tlie higliest dignities of 
 the state. That the profession of a philologist 
 was occasionally at least well remunurated is 
 evident from the facts recorded by the same 
 author in his work 'de Claris grammaticis,' sect. 
 3. He there mentions that there were at one 
 time upwards of twenty well attended schools 
 devoted to this subject at Rome, and that one 
 fortunate individual, Q. liemmius Palacmon, de- 
 rived four hundred thousand sesterces, or con- 
 siderably above three thousand a year, from 
 instruction in philology alone. Julius Caesar 
 conferred tlie citizensliip, together with large 
 bounties in money, and immunity from public 
 burtliens, on distinguished rhetoricians and phi- 
 lologists, in order to encourage their presence at 
 Rome. . . . That individuals who thus enjoyed 
 an income not greatly below the revenues of an 
 English Bishopric were not, as the name might 
 lead us to imagine, employed in teaching the 
 accidents of grammar, but possessed considerable 
 pretensions to that higher and more tho. ghtful 
 character of the scholar which it has been re- 
 served for modern Europe to exhibit in perfec- 
 tion, is not only in itself highly probable, but 
 supported by the distinctest and most unim- 
 peachable evidence. Seneca tells us that history 
 was amongf' the subjects professed by gram- 
 marians, anc oero regards the most thorough 
 and refined perception of all that pertains to the 
 spirit and individuality of the author as an in- 
 
 686 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Early 
 Middle Ayeit. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 dispensable requisite in those who undcrtnko to 
 give instruction in tliis subject. . . . The griun- 
 mntici appear to linve occupied a position very 
 closely analogous to that of the ttacliers of colle- 
 giate schools in England, and the gymnasial pro- 
 fessors in Germany." — E. Kirkpatrick, lliat'l De- 
 velopment of Superior Instruction {JJdrnard's Am. 
 Journal of Education, v. 24, pp. 408-470. 
 
 Mediaeval. 
 
 The Chaos of Barbaric Conquest. — "The 
 utter confusion subsequent \ipon the downfall 
 of the Roman Empire and the irruption of the 
 Germanic races was causing, by tlie mere brute 
 force of circumstance, a gradual extinction of 
 scholarship too powerful to be arrested. The 
 teaching of grammar for ecclesiastical purposes 
 was insufllcient to check the inHuenc:e of many 
 causes leading to this overthrow of learning. 
 It was impossible to conmtunicate more than 
 a mere tincture of knowledge to students sepa- 
 rated from the classical tradition, for whom the 
 anteccdcnr history of Home was a dead letter. 
 The meaning of Latin words derived from tlie 
 Greek was lost. . . . Theological notions, gro- 
 tesque and childish beyond description, found 
 their way into etymology and grammar. Tlie 
 three persons of the Trinity were discovered in 
 the verb, and mystic numbers in tlio parts of 
 speech. Thus analytical studies like that of lan- 
 guage came to be regarded as an open lield for 
 the exercise of the mythologising fancy ; and ety- 
 mology was reduced to a system of ingenious 
 punning. . . . Virgil, the only classic who re- 
 tained distinct and living personality, passed 
 from poet to philosopher, from philosopher to 
 Sibyl, from Sibyl to magician, by successive 
 stages of transmutation, as the trutii about him 
 grew more dim and the faculty to apprehend 
 him weakened. Forming the stai)le of education 
 in the schools of the grammarians, and meta- 
 morphosed by the vulgar consciousness into a 
 wizard, he waited on the extreme verge of the 
 da-k ages to take Dante by the hand, and lead 
 him, as the ivpe of human reason, through the 
 realms ot Hell and Purgatory." — J. A. Symonds, 
 lie ismneein Italy: the l{er>iv(dof Learning, ch.'i. 
 
 ft \\: Ath-Sth Centuries. — "If institutions 
 cou do all, if laws supplied and the means fur- 
 nisliLu to society could do everything, the in- 
 tellectual state of Gaulish civil society at this 
 epoch [4th-5tli centuries] would have been far 
 superior to that of the religious soeietjr. The 
 first, in fact, alone possessed all the institutions 
 proper to second the development of mind, the 
 progress and empire of ideas. Itomau Gaul was 
 covered with large schools. The principal were 
 those of Treves, Bordeaux, Autuu, Toulouse, 
 Poitiers, Lyons, Narbonne, Aries, Marseilles, 
 Vienne, Besan^on, &c. Some were very ancient ; 
 those of Marseilles and of Autun, for example, 
 dated from the first century. They were taught 
 philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence, literature, 
 grammar, astrology, all the sciences of the age. 
 In the greater part of these schools, indeed, they 
 at first taught only rlietoric and grammar; but 
 towards the fourth century, professoia of phi- 
 losophy and law were everywhere introduced. 
 Not only were these schools numerous, and pro- 
 vided with many chairs, but tlie emperors con- 
 tinually took the professors of now measures 
 into favor. Theii interests are, from Constan- 
 tine to Theodosius the younger, the subject of 
 
 fri'ciucnt imperial constitutions, which sometimes 
 extended, sometinies conHnr".'(l their privileges. 
 . . . After tlie Empire was divi<Ie{l among many 
 ina.stcrs, each of them concerned himself rather 
 more about the prosperity of his states and the 
 public establishments which were in them, 
 i'lieiice arose a momentary amelioration, of which 
 the schools felt the effects, particularly those of 
 Gaul, un<ler the administration of Constantius 
 Clorus, of Julian, and of Gnitian. By the side 
 of the schools were, in gviicral, placed other 
 analogous establishments. Thus, at Treves there 
 was a gnmd library of the imperial iiaiace, con- 
 cerning which no special information lias reached 
 us, but of which we may judge by the details 
 which have reached us concerning that of Con- 
 stantinople. This last had a lilirarian and seven 
 scribes constantly occupied — four for Greek, and 
 three for Latin. Tliey copied both ancient and 
 new works. It is probable that the same institu- 
 tion existed at Treves, and in the great towns of 
 Gaul. (;ivil society, then, was provided with 
 means of instruction and intellectual develop- 
 ment. It was not the same with religious so- 
 ciety. It had at this epoch no institution especi- 
 ally devoted to teaching; it did not receivi from 
 the state any aid to tliij particular aim. Cliris- 
 tiaus, as well as others, could frequent the public 
 schools; but most of the professors were still 
 pajjans. ... It was for a long time in the in- 
 ferior classes, among the people, that Chris- 
 tianity was propagated, especially in the Gauls, 
 and it was tlie suiierior classes which followed 
 the great schools. Jlorcover, it was hardly until 
 the comnienccment of the fourth century that 
 the Christians appeared tiiere, and tlicn but few 
 in number. No other source of study was open 
 to them. The establishments which, a little 
 afterwards, became, in tlie Christian church, the 
 refuge and sanctuary of ii.struetion, the monas- 
 teries, were hardly commenced in the Gauls. It 
 was only after the year 360 that the two first 
 were founded by St. !Martin — one at Liguge, 
 near Poitiers, the other at Marmoutiers, near 
 Tours; and they were devoted rather to religious 
 contemplation than to teaching. Any great 
 school, any special institution devoted to the 
 service and to the progress of intellect, was at 
 that time, therefore, wanting to the Cliristians. 
 . . . All things in the fifth century, attest the 
 decay of the civil schools. The contemporaneous 
 writers, Sidonius ApoUinaris and Mamertius 
 Claudianus, for example, deplore it in every page, 
 saying that the young men no longer studied, 
 that iirofessors were without pupils, that science 
 languished and was being lost. ... It was es- 
 pecially the young men of the superior classes 
 who freijueuted the schools; but these classes 
 . . . were in rapid dissolution. The schools fell 
 with them ; the institutions still existed, but they 
 were void — the soul had quitted the body. The 
 intellectual aspect of Christian society was very 
 different. . . . Institutions began to rise, and to 
 be regulated among the Christians of Gaul. The 
 foundation of the greater portion of the large 
 monasteries of the southern provinces belongs to 
 the first half of the fifth century. . . . The 
 monasteries of the south of Gaul were philosoph- 
 ical schools ot Christianity; it was there that 
 intellectual men meditated, discussed, taught ; it 
 was from thence that new ideas, daring thoughts, 
 heresies, were sent forth. . . . Towards the end 
 of the sixth century, everything is changed: 
 
 687 
 
EDDCATION. 
 
 Irish Schooln of the 
 8th and loth Centuriet. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 there nre no longer civil schools; ecclesiastical 
 schools alone sulisist. Those great municipal 
 scli(x>l8 of TrtSves, of Poitiers, of \'^ienne, of Bor- 
 deaux, lie, have disappeared; in their place 
 have arisen schools called cathednil or episcopal 
 schools, because each cjjiscopal sec had its own. 
 The cathedral school was not always alone ; we 
 find in certain dioceses other schools, of an un- 
 certain nature and origin, wrecks, perhaps, of 
 some ancient civil school, which, in becoming 
 metamorpliosed, had perpetuated itself. . . .The 
 most tlourishing of tlie episcopal schools from 
 the sixtli to the middle of the eighth century 
 were those of: 1. Poitiers. There were many 
 schools in the monasteries of the diocese at Poi- 
 tiers itself, at Ligugc, at Ansion, &c. 8. Paris. 
 8. Leilans. 4. Bourges. 5. Clermont. There 
 was another school in the town where they 
 taught the Theodosian code; a remarkable cir- 
 cumstance, wliich I do not lind elsewhere. 6. 
 Vienue. 7. Chitlons-sur-Saone. 8. Aries. 9. Gap. 
 The ^lost flourishing of the monastic schools of 
 the same epoch were those of : 1. Luxeuil, in 
 Franche-Comte. 2. Fontenelle, or Saint Van- 
 drille, in Normandy; in which were about HOO 
 students. 3. Sithiu, in Normandy. 4. Siiuit 
 Medard, at Soissons. 5. Lerens. It were easy 
 to extend this list ; but the prosperity of monastic 
 schools was subject to great vicissitudes; they 
 flo'irished under a distinguished abbot, and de- 
 clined \mder his successor. Even in nunneries, 
 study was not neglected; that which Saint 
 Cesaire founded at Aries contained, at the com- 
 mencement of the sixth century, two hundred 
 uuuo, for the most part occupied in copying 
 hooks, sometimes religious books, sometimes, 
 probauly, even the works of the ancients. The 
 metamorphosis of civil schools into ecclesiastical 
 schools was complete. Let us see what was 
 tauglit in them. We shall often find in them 
 the names of sciences formerly professed in the 
 civil schools, rhetoric, lop ■:, grammar, geome- 
 try, astrology, i&c. ; but these were evidently no 
 longer taught except in their relations to the- 
 ology. This is the foundation of the instruction : 
 all was turned into commentary of the Scrip- 
 tures, historical, philosophical, allegorical, moral, 
 commentary. They desired only to form priests ; 
 all studies, whatsoever their nature, were directed 
 towards this result. Sometimes they went even 
 further: they rejected the profane sciences them- 
 selves, wlmtever might be the use made of them. " 
 — P. Guizot, Jliatory of Civilization to the French 
 Revolution, n. 3, lect. 4 and 16. 
 
 Ireland.— Scotland.— Schools of lona. — Pop- 
 ular accounts represent St. Patrick as "found- 
 ing at least a liundred monasteries, and even 
 tliose who consider that the greater number of 
 the Irish colleges were raised by his followers 
 after his death, admit the fact of his having es- 
 tablished an episcopal monastery and school at 
 Armagh, where he and his clergy carried out the 
 same rule of life that he had seen followed in the 
 churches of Gaul. . . . The school, which formed 
 a portion of the Catliednd establishment, soon 
 rose in importance. Gildas tauglit here for some 
 years before joining St. Cadoe at Llancarvan; 
 and in process of time the number of students, 
 both native and foreign, so increased that the 
 university, as we may justly call it, was divided 
 into three parts, one of which was devoted en- 
 tirely to students of the Anglo-Saxon race. Grants 
 for uie support of the schools were made by the 
 
 Irish kings in the eighth century ; and all through 
 the troublous times of the ninth and tenth centu- 
 ries, when Ireland was overrun by the Danes, 
 and so many of her simctuaries were given to the 
 flames, the succession of divinity professors at 
 Armagh n^nained unbroken, and has been care- 
 fully traced by Usher. We need not stop to de- 
 termine how many other establishments similar 
 to those of Armagh were really founded in the 
 lifetime of St. Patrick. In any case the rapid 
 extension of the monastic institute in Ireland, 
 and the extraordinary ardour with which the 
 Irish coenobites applied themselves to the culti- 
 vation of letters remain undisputed facts. ' Within 
 a century after the death of St. Patrick,' says 
 Bishop Nicholson, 'the Irish seminaries had so 
 increased that most parts of Europe sent their 
 children to be educated here, and drew thence 
 their bishops and teachers. ' The whole country 
 for miles round Leighlin was denominated the 
 ' land of saints and scholars. ' By the ninth cen- 
 tury Armagh could boast of 7,000 students, and 
 the schools of Casliel, Dindaleathglass, and Lis- 
 more vied with it in renown. This extraordinary 
 multiplication of monastic seminaries and schol- 
 ars may be explained partly by the constant immi- 
 gration of British refugees who brought with 
 them the learning and religious observances of 
 their native cloisters, and partly by that sacred 
 and irresistible impulse which animates a newly 
 converted people to heroic acta of sacrifice. In 
 Ireland the infant church was not, as elsewhere, 
 watered witli the blood of martyrs. . . . The 
 bards, who were to be found in great numbers 
 amon^ the early converts of St. Patrick, had also 
 a considerable share in directing the energies of 
 their countrymen to intellectual labour. They 
 formed the learned class, and on their conversion 
 to Christianity were readily disposed to devote 
 themselves to the culture of sacred letters. . . . 
 It would be impossible, within the limits of a 
 single chapter, to notice even the names of all 
 the Irish seats of learning, or of their most cele- 
 brated teachers, every one of whom has his own 
 legend in whicli sacred and poetic beauties are to 
 be found blended together. One of the earliest 
 monastic schools was that erected by Enda, prince 
 of Orgiel, in that western island called from the 
 wild flowers which even still cover its rocky soil, 
 Aran-of-the-Flowers, a name it afterwards ex- 
 changed for that of Ara-na-naomh, or Aran-of- 
 the-Saints. ... A little later St. Finian founded 
 his great school of Clonard, whence, says Usher, 
 issued forth a stream of saints and doctors, like 
 the Greek warriors from the wooden horse. . . . 
 This desolate wilderness was soon peopled by his 
 disciples, who are said to have numbered 3,000, of 
 wliom the twelve most eminent are often termed 
 the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. . . . Among 
 tliem none were more famous than St. Columba, 
 St. Kieran, and St. Brendan. The first of these 
 is known to every English reader as the founder 
 of lona, una !«..>. "n, the carpenter's son, as he is 
 called, is scarcely less renowned among his own 
 countrymen. ... It was in the year 563 that St. 
 Columba, after founding the monasteries of Doire- 
 Calgaich and Dair-magh in his native land, and 
 incurring the enmity of one of the Irish kings, 
 determined on crossing over into Scotland in 
 order to preach the faith to the Northern Picts. 
 Accompanied by twelve companions, he passed 
 the Channel in a rude wicker boat covered with 
 skins, and landed at Port-ua Currachan, on a spot 
 
 688 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Charletnaffne'a 
 School of the Palace. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 now marked by a heap of huge conical Htoncs. 
 Conall, king of the Albanian Scots, granted liim 
 the island of I, Hi, or Ai, hitherto occupied by 
 the Druids, and there he erected tlie monastery 
 which, in time, became the motlier of three liun- 
 drcd religious houses. . . . lona, or I-Colum-kil, 
 as it was called by the Irisli, came to be looked on 
 as the chief seat of learning, not only in Britain, 
 but in the whole AVcstern world. ' Tliither, as 
 from a nest,' says Odonellus, playing on the 
 Latin name of the founder, 'thjse sacred doves 
 took their flight to every quarter. ' They studied 
 the classics, the mechanical arts, law, history, 
 and pliysic. They improved tlie arts of hus- 
 bandry and horticulture, supplied tlic rude peo- 
 ple whom they had undertaken to civilise with 
 plouglisliares and other utensils of labour, and 
 tanglit them the use of tlie forge, in the mysteries 
 of wliich every Irish monk wud instructed from 
 his boyhood. They transferred to their new 
 liomes all the learning of Armagh or Clonard. 
 ... In every college of Irisli origin, by whom- 
 soever they were founded or on whatever soil 
 they flourislied, we thus see study blended witli 
 tlie duties of the missionary and the ctcnobite. 
 Tliey were religiius houses, no doubt, in which 
 tlie celebration of the Church office was often kept 
 up without intermission by day and niglit ; but 
 they were also seminaries of learning, wherein 
 sacred and profaao studies were cultivated with 
 equal success. Not only tlicir own monasteries but 
 those of every European country were enriched 
 witli their manuscripts, and the researches of 
 modern bibliopolists arc continually disinterring 
 from German or Italian libraries a Horace, or an 
 Ovid, or a Sat.'ed Codex whoso Irish gloss betrays 
 the hand which traced its delicate letters. " — A. T. 
 Drone, Christian Schools and Scholars, ch. 3. 
 
 Charlemagne. — "If there ever was a man 
 who by his mere natural endowments soared 
 above othtr men, it was Cliarleraagne. His life, 
 like his stature, was colossal. Time never seemed 
 wanting to him for anytliing that he willed to 
 accomplish, and during his ten years campaign 
 against the Saxons and Lombards, he contrived 
 to get leisure enough to study grammar, and 
 render himself tolcably proficient as a Latin 
 writer in prose and verse. He found his tutors 
 in the cities tliat he conquered. When he be- 
 came master of Pisa, lie gained tlie services of 
 Peter of Pisa, whom he set over llie Palatine 
 school, which had existed even under the Me- 
 rovingian kings, though as yet it was far from 
 en^oymg the fame to which it was afterwards 
 raised by the teaching of Alcuin. He possessed 
 the art of ti rning enemies into friends, and thus 
 drew to his court the famous historian, Paul 
 ^^'^arnefrid, deacon of the Chijrch of Home, who 
 had previously acted as secretary to Didier, king 
 of the Lombards. . . . Another Italian scholar, 
 St. Paulinus, of Aquileja, was coaxed into the 
 service of t)ie Frankisli sovereign after his con- 
 quest of Friuli; I will not say that he was 
 bought, but he was "Ttainly paid for by a large 
 grant of confiscated territory made over by di- 
 ploma to ' the Venerable Paulinus, master of the 
 art of grammar.' But none of tliese learned per- 
 sonages were destined to take so large a part iu 
 that revival of learning which made the glory of 
 Charlemagne's reign, as our own countryman 
 Alcuin. It was in 781, on occasion of the king's 
 second visit to Italy, that the meetinj_'- tcok place 
 at Parma, the result of which was to fix the 
 
 English scholar at the Prankish court. Having 
 ol)tained the consent of his own bishop and sover- 
 eign to this arrangement, Alcuin came over to 
 France in 782, bringing with him several of the 
 best scholars of York, among whom were Wizo, 
 Fredegis, and Sigulf. Charlemagne received 
 him witli joy, and assigned him three abbeys 
 for the maintenance of himself and his disciples, 
 those namely, of Ferrifires, St. Lupws of Troyes, 
 and St. Josse in Pontliieu. From this time Al- 
 cuin held the first place in the literary society 
 tliat surrounded the Fronkish sovereign, and 
 filled an ofliee the duties of which were as vast 
 as they were various. Three great works at once 
 claimed his attention, the correction of the litur- 
 gical books, the direction of the court academy, 
 and tlie establishment of other pub'ic sclioois 
 throughout the empire. . . . But it wis as head 
 of the Palatine school that Alcuin's inlluencc 
 was cliieliy to be felt in tlie restoration of letters. 
 Charlemagne presented himself as Ills first pupil, 
 together with the three princes, Pepin, Charles, 
 and Louis, his sister Gisla and hiii daughter 
 Richtrude, his councillors Adalard aod Angil- 
 bert, and Eginhard his secretary. Such illus- 
 trious scholars soon found p.enty to imitaie their 
 example, and Alcuin saw liimself called on to 
 lecture daily to a goodly crowd of bishops, 
 nobles, and courtiei-s. The king wished to trans- 
 form liis court into a new Athens preferable to 
 tliat of aiicien; Greece, in so far as the doctrine 
 of Clirist is to ii preferred to that of Plato. All 
 the liberal arts ,,'ere to be taught there, but in 
 such a way as tliat each should bear reference to 
 religion, for this was regarded as tlie final end of 
 of all learning. Grammar was studied in order 
 better to understand tlie Holy Scriptures and to 
 transcribe tliem more correctly ; music, to which 
 much attention was given, was chiefly confined 
 to the ecclesiastical chant ; and it was principally 
 to explain the Fathers and refute errors contrary 
 to the faith that rhetoric and dialectics were 
 studied. 'In short,' says Crevier, 'the thought 
 both of the king and of the scholar who laboured 
 with him was to refer all things to religion, 
 nothing being considered as truly useful which 
 did not bear some relation to tliat end.' At first 
 Alcuin allowed the study of the classic poets, 
 and in his boyhood, as wo know, he had been a 
 greater reader of Virgil than of the Scriptures. 
 . . . Tlie authors whose study Chp lemagne and 
 Alcuin desired to promote, were not so much 
 Virgil and Cicero, as St. Jerome and St. Augus- 
 tine ; and Charlemagne, in his excessive admira- 
 tion of tliose Fathers, gave utterance to the wish 
 that he liad a dozen such men at his court. Tho 
 ' City of God ' was read at tlie royal tabic, and 
 the questions addressed by the court students to 
 their master turned ratlier on the obscurities of 
 Holy Writ than the difficulties of prosody. In 
 one thing, however, they betrayed a classic taste, 
 and that was in their selection of names. The 
 Uoyal Academicians all rejoiced in some literary 
 soubriquet ; Alcuin was Flaccus ; Angilbert, Ho- 
 mer; but Charlemagne himself adopted the more 
 scriptural appellation of David. "The eagerness 
 witli which this extraordinary .nan applied hini- 
 ■•eU to acquire learning for himself, and to ex- 
 tend it throughout his dominions, is truly admir- 
 able, when we remember the enormous labours 
 in which he was constantly engaged." — A. T. 
 Drixne, Chriitian Sc!woLi and Scholars, ch. 5. — See, 
 also, School of tue Palace, CnAKLEMAonE's. 
 
 689 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Schools of 
 King Alfred. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 England : King Alfred.— King Alfred " gatli- 
 ercil round him ut Ins own rourt the sons of his 
 nol)ility to receive, in conjunction witli his own 
 diildren, ti hetter education than their piirents 
 woidd be aide or willing to give them in their 
 own households. To this assemblage of pupils 
 Asser has attached the name ot school, and a 
 violent controversy once distractCL" the literary 
 world concerning the sense in which the word 
 was to be understood, and whether it was not 
 the iM-'ginning or origin of a learned institution 
 Ktill existing. In speaking of this subject, Asser 
 has taken occasion to enumerate and describe the 
 childreh who were born to Alfred from his wife 
 Elswitha daughter of Ethelred the ' Big,' alder- 
 man of the Gaini. and a noble of great wealth 
 and influence in Jlercia. 'The sons and daugh- 
 ters, ' says Asser, ' which he had by his wife above 
 mentione 1, were Etheltlcd the eldest, after whom 
 Clime Edward, then Ethelgiva, thenEthelswitha, 
 and Ethehverd, besides those who died in their 
 infancy, one of whom was Edmund. Ethelfled, 
 when she arrived at a marriageable age, was 
 tuiited to Ethelred, earl of Mercia; Ethelgiva was 
 dedicated to God, and submitted to the rules of 
 a monastic life; Ethehverd, the youngest, by the 
 Divine counsels and admirable prudence of the 
 king, was consigned to the schools of learning, 
 where, with the children of almost all the no- 
 bility of the country, and many also who were 
 not noble, he prospered under the diligent care 
 of his teachers. Books in both languages, namely, 
 in Latin and Saxon, were read in the school. 
 They also learned to write; so that, before they 
 were of an age to practise manly arts, namely 
 hunting and such other pursuits as beflt hoble- 
 ineii, they became studious and clever in the lib- 
 erul arts. Edward and Ethelswitha wjre bred 
 up in the king's court, and received great atten- 
 tion from their servants and nurses; nay, they 
 continue to this day, with the love of all about 
 them, and shew affability, and even gentleness, 
 towarda all, both foreigners and natives, and art 
 in complete subjection to their father ; nor, among 
 their other studies which appertain to this life 
 and are fit for noble youths, are they suffered to 
 l)ass their time idly and unprofltably, without 
 learning the liberal arts; for they have carefully 
 learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially 
 the Saxon Poems, and are continually In the 
 habit of making use of books.' The schools of 
 learning, to which Asser alludes in this passage, 
 as formed for the use of the king's children and 
 the sons of his nobles, are again mentioned else- 
 where by the same author, as ' the school which 
 he had studiously collected together, consisting 
 of many of the nobility of his own nation : ' and 
 in a third passage, Asser speaks of the ' sons of 
 the nobility w-ho were bred up in the royal house- 
 hold.' It 13 clear, then, from these expressions, 
 that the king's exertions tospread learning among 
 his nobles and to educate his own children, were 
 of a most active and personal nature, unconnected 
 with any institutions of a more public character : 
 the school was kept in his own liousehold, and 
 not in a public sea"^ of learning. We may per- 
 haps adduce fhesc expressions of Asser as militat- 
 ing against the notion, that an University or 
 Public Semina.-y of Learning existed in the days 
 of Alfred. Though it is most probable that the 
 several monasteries, and other societies of monks 
 and churchmen, would employ a portion of their 
 idle time in tuachiL'g youth, and prosecuting their 
 
 own studies ; yet there is no proof that an author- 
 ized scat of learning, such as the Universities of 
 Oxford or Cambridge, existed in England, until 
 many hundred years after the time of Alfred." — 
 J. A. Giles, JAfe and Times of Alfred the Great, 
 ch. 'il. 
 
 Saracenic and Moorish learning. — "Even as 
 early as the tenth century, persons having a taste 
 for learning and for elegant amenities found their 
 way into Spain from all adjoining countries; a 
 practice in subsequent years still more indulged 
 in, when it became illustrated by the brilliant suc- 
 cess of Gilbert, who . . . passed from the Infidel 
 University of Cordova to the papacy of Rome. 
 The khalifs of the West carrie(i out the precepts 
 of Ali, the fourth successor of Mohammed, in the 
 patronage of literature. They established libra- 
 ries in all their chief towns ; it is said that not 
 fewer than seventy were in existence. To every 
 mosque was attached a public school, in which 
 the children of the poor were taught to read and 
 write, and iu.structed in the precepts of the Koran. 
 For those in easier circiimstanccs there were acad- 
 emies, usually arranged in twenty-live or thirty 
 apartments, each calculated for accommodating 
 four students ; the academy being presided over 
 by a recior. In Cordova, Granada, and other 
 great cities, there were universities frequently 
 under the superintendence of Jews ; the Moham- 
 medan maxim being that the real learning of a 
 man is of more public importance than any par- 
 ticular religious opinions he may entertain. In 
 this they followed the example of the Asiatic 
 khalif, ifaroun Alraschid, who actually conferred 
 the superintendence of his scliools on John Masue, 
 a Nestorian Christian. The Alohammedan liber- 
 ality was in striking contrast with the intolerance 
 of Europe. ... In the universities some of the 
 professors of polite literature gave lectures on 
 Arabic classical works; others taught rhetoric 
 or composition, or mathematics, or astronomy. 
 From these institutions many of the practices ob- 
 served in our colleges were derived. They held 
 Commencements, at which poems were read and 
 orations delivered in presence of the public. 
 They had also, in addition to these schools of gen-, 
 eral learning, professional ones, particularly for 
 medicine. With a pride perhaps not altogether 
 inexcusable, the Arabians boasted of their lan- 
 guage as being the most perfect spoken by man. 
 ... It is not then surprising that, in the Arabian 
 schools, great attention was paid to the study of 
 language, and that so many celebrated grammar- 
 ians were produced. By these scholars, diction- 
 aries, similar to those now in use, were composed ; 
 their copiousness is indicated by the circumstance 
 that one of them consisted of sixty volumes, the 
 definition of each word being illustrated or sus- 
 tained by quotations from Arab authors of ac- 
 knowledged repute. They had also lexicons of 
 Greek, Latin, Hebrew ; and cyclopedias such as 
 the Historical Dictionary or Sciences of Mo- 
 hammed Ibn Abdallah, of Granada." — .1. W. 
 Draper, Hut. of the Intellectual Developi lent of 
 Europe, v. 3, ch. ii. — "The Saracenic king.' formed 
 libraries of unparalleled size and number. That 
 of Hakem amounted to 600,000 volumes, of which 
 44 were employed in the mere catalogue. Up- 
 wards of 70 public libraries were establLshed in 
 his dominions. 100,000 volumes v, ere numbered 
 in the library of Cairo, and were freely lent to 
 the studious citizen. 'The taste of the sovereign 
 communicated itself to the subject, and a private 
 
 690 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 fichoolmen and 
 Scholastici$ni. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 doctor (loclnrcd tlmt hla books were suftloient to 
 loml 4(X) cnmcls. Nor were the Saracens less at- 
 tentive to the foundation of scliools and colleges. 
 Eighty of twC latter institutions adorned Conlova 
 in tlin reign of Hakem; in the tifteenth century 
 iifty w>..- scattered over the city and plain of 
 Granada. "SOO.OOO dinars (abo\it .£100,000 ster- 
 ling) were expended on the foundation of a single 
 college at Baghdad. It was endowed with an 
 annual revenue of 15,000 dinars, and was attended 
 by 0,000 students. Tlie princes of the house of 
 Onieya honoured the Spanish academies by their 
 presence and studies, and competed, not without 
 success, for the prizes of learning. Numerous 
 schools for the purpose of elementary instruction 
 were founded by a long series of monarchs. . . . 
 in tliis manncL .le Arabians, within two centuries, 
 constructed ■ ' apparatus for mental imiirovc- 
 nient which i..Jierto had not been equalled save 
 in Alexandria, and to which the Church, after 
 ruling the intellect of J^urope for more than five 
 hundred years, could offer no parallel." — The In- 
 tellertiial Uetiml of the Middle Ayes ()VesUninster 
 lieriew, JdiiiKui/, 1876). 
 
 Scholasticism. — Schoolmen. — In the later 
 times of tlie Roman empire, "the loss of the dig- 
 nity of political freedom, the want of the cheer- 
 fulness of advancing prosperity, ami thesubstitit- 
 tion of the less philosophical structure of the Latin 
 language for the delicate intellectual meclianism 
 of the Greek, fixed and augmented the prevalent 
 feebleness and barrenness of intellect. Jlen for- 
 got, or feared, to consult nature, to seek for new 
 truths, to do what the great dlscovcrere of other 
 times nad done; they were content to consult 
 libraries, to study and defend old opinions, to 
 talk of what great geniuses had .said. Tliey 
 so\ight their philosophy in accredited treatises, 
 and dared not question such doctrines as they 
 t».ere found. . . . In the mean time the Christian 
 religion had become the leading subject of men's 
 thoughts; and divines had put forward its claims 
 to be, not merely the guide of men's lives, and 
 the means of reconciling them to their heavenly 
 Master, but also to be a Philosophy in the widest 
 sense in whicli the term had been used ; — a con- 
 sistent speculative view of man's condition and 
 nature, and of the world in which he is placed. 
 ... It was held, without any regulating prin- 
 ciple, tliat the philosophy whicli had been be- 
 queathed to the world by the great geniuses of 
 heathen antiquity, and the philosophy which was 
 deduced from, and implied by, the Revelations 
 made by God to man, must bo identical; and, 
 therefore, that Theology is the only true philoso- 
 phy. . . . This view was confirmed by the 
 opmion which prevailed, concerning the nature 
 of philosophical truth; a view supported by the 
 theory of Plato, the practice of Aristotle, and the 
 general prope^isities of the human mind ; I mean 
 the opinion that all science may be obtained by 
 the use of reasoning alone;— that by analyzing 
 and combining the notions wliicli common lan- 
 guage brings before us, we may learn all that we 
 can know. Thus Logic came to inclu 'e the 
 whole of Science; and accordingly this i».oelard 
 expressly maintained. . . . Thus a Universal 
 Science was established, with the authority of a 
 Religious Creed. Its universality rested on er- 
 roneous views of tlie relation of words and truth ; 
 its pretensions as a science were admitted by the 
 servile temper of men's intellects; and its re- 
 ligious authori;y was assigned it, by making all 
 
 truth part of religion. And as Religion claimed 
 assent witliin herown jurisdiction un<ler the most 
 solenui and imperative sanctions. Philosophy 
 sliaii'd in her imperial iiower, and dis.sent from 
 their doctrines was no longer blameless or allow- 
 able. Error became wicked, dissent becamo 
 heresy; to reject the received liuman doctrines, 
 was nearly the same as to doubt the Divine 
 declarations. The Scholastic Philosophy claimed 
 the as-sent of all believers. The external form, 
 the details, an<l the text of this Pliilosophy, were 
 taken, in a great measure, from Aristotle ; though, 
 in the spirit, llie geia^al notions, and the style 
 of interpretation, Plato and the Platonists liad 
 no inconsiderable share. ... It does not belong 
 to our purpose to consider cither the theological 
 or the metaphysical doctrines which form so large 
 a portion of the treatises of the schoolmen. Per- 
 haps it may hereafter appear, that some light is 
 thrown on some of the (|ueNtions which have oc- 
 cupied metaphysicians in all ages, by that exam- 
 ination of the liistoryof the Progressive Sciences 
 in which we are now engaged; but till we are 
 able to analyze the leading controvei'sies of this 
 kind, it would be of little service to speak of 
 tlicm in detail. It may be noticed, however, that 
 many of the most prominent of them refer to the 
 great qviestion, ' What is the relation between 
 actual tilings and general terms T Perhaps in 
 modern times, the actual things would be niorj 
 commonly taken as the point to start from ; and 
 men would begin by considering how classes and 
 universals are obtained from individuals. But 
 the .sclioolmen, founding their speculations on 
 the received modes of considering such subjects, 
 to which both Aristotle and Plato had con- 
 tributed, travelled in the opposite direction, and 
 endeavored to discover liov.' individuals were de- 
 duced from genr.'ra and species ; — what wiw ' the 
 Principle of Individuation.' This was variously 
 stated by dilTerent reasoners. Thus Bonaventura 
 solves the difliculty by the aid of the Aristotelian 
 distinction of Matter and Form. Tlie individual 
 derives from the Form the property of being 
 something, and from the Matter the ])roperty of 
 being tliat particular tiling. Duns Scotus, the 
 great adversary of Thomas A((uinas in tlieology, 
 placed the principle of Individuation in ' a cer- 
 tain determining positive entity, ' which his school 
 called Hfpcceity or 'thisness.' 'Thus an in- 
 dividual man is Peter, because his humanity is 
 combined with Petrcity. ' Tlic force of abstract 
 terms is a curious question, and some remarkable 
 experiments in their use had been made by the 
 Latin Aristotelians before this time. In the same 
 way in which we talk of the quantity and quality 
 of a thing, they spoke of its 'quiddity.' AVe 
 may consider the reign of mere disputation as 
 fully established at tlie time of which we arc now 
 speaking [tlie Middle Ages] ; and the only kind of 
 philosophy lieneeforth studied was one m which 
 no sound physical science had or could have a 
 place." — W. Wliewell, Hist, of the Iiuluctite 
 Sciences, hk. 4, eh. 4 (f. 1). — "Scholasticism was 
 pliilosophy in the .service of established and ac- 
 cepted theological (l<K;trines. . . . More p;ir- 
 ticularly. Scholasticism was the reproduction of 
 ancient philosophy under the control of ecclesi- 
 astical doctrine. . . . The name of Scholastics 
 (doctores scholastici) which was given to the 
 teachers of the septem lit)erales artes [seven liberal 
 arts] (grammiir, dialectic, rhetoric, in tlie Tri- 
 vium; arithmetic, geometry, music and astron- 
 
 691 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 RUtnf 
 Vniwnilit*. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 omy, In the Oiindrivium), or nt leant some of 
 them, in the Clolster-Hehools founded l)y Cliiirle- 
 mngnc, as also to teachers of theology, was after- 
 wards given to all who occupied tlieniselves with 
 the Bcienc(!s, and especially with philosophy. 
 . . . Johannes Sc'otus, or Erigena[nintli century] 
 is the earliest noteworthy ;.ihilosoplier of tlie 
 Scliolastic ix'Hod. Ho was of Scottish nation- 
 ality, but was i)robably born and brought up in 
 Ireland. At the call of Charles the Baltl ho emi- 
 grated to France." — F. Ueberweg, Hint, of Phi- 
 liimphu, V. 1, pp. 35.'>-484. — "Scholasticism, nt the 
 Inst, from the prodigious mental activity which 
 it kept up, became a t^icit universal insurrection 
 against authority : it was the swelling of tlie 
 ocean before the storm. ... It was n sign of n 
 grent nwakening of the human mind when theo- 
 loginns tliought it both their duty and tlieir 
 privilege to philosophize. There was n vnst 
 wnste of intellectual labor, but still it was intel- 
 lectual labor, and, as we shall see, it was not in the 
 end tinf ruitf ul. " — C. J. Stille, Stiidien in Mediiv- 
 tal Jlittor!/, ch. 13. — "Scholasticism hnd its hour 
 of glory, its erudite d( ctors, its elotjuent pro- 
 fessors, chief among whom was Abelnrd (1079- 
 1142). ... A.t n time when printing did not ex- 
 ist, when manuscript copies were rare, a teaclier 
 who combined knowledge with the gift of speech 
 wns n phenomenon of incomparable interest, and 
 students Hocked from nil parts of Europe to take 
 advantage of his lectures. Abelard is the most 
 brilliant representative of the scholastic peda- 
 gogy, with an original and personal tendency 
 towards the emancipation of the mind. 'It, is 
 ridiculous,' he said, 'to preach to others what 
 we cnn neither make them understand nor under- 
 stand ourselves.' With more boldness than Saint 
 Anselm, he applied dialectics to theology, and 
 attempted to reason out the grounds of his faith. 
 The seven liberal arts constituted what may be 
 called the secondary instruction of the Jliddle 
 Age, such as was given in the claustral or con- 
 ventual schools, and later, in the universities. 
 The liberal nrts wore distributed into two courses 
 of study, known as the ' trivium ' and the ' quad- 
 rivium.' The 'trivium' comprised grammar 
 (Latin grammar, of course), dialectics, or logic, 
 and rhetoric ; and the ' quadrivium,' music, anth- 
 metic, geometry, nnd astronomy. It is important 
 to note the fact that this programme contains 
 only abstract and formal studies, — no real nnd 
 concrete studies. The sciences which tcacli us 
 to know man and the world, such as history, 
 ethics, the physical and natural sciences, were 
 omitted and unknown, save perhaps in a few con- 
 vents of the Benedictines. Nothing which can 
 truly educate man, and develop his faculties as a 
 whole, enlists the attention of the Sliddle Age. 
 From a couree of study tlius limited there might 
 •come skillful roasoners and men formidable 'n 
 argument, but never fully developed men. The 
 methods employed in the ecclesiastical schools of 
 the Middle Ago were in accord with tlie spirit of 
 the times, when men were not concerned about 
 liberty and intellectual freedom ; nnd when they 
 thought more about the teaching or dogmas than 
 about the tmining of the Intelligence. The 
 teachers recited or read their lectures, and the 
 pupils learned by heart. The discipline was 
 harsh. Corrupt human nature was distrusted. In 
 1863, pupils were forbidden the use of benches 
 and chairs, on the pretext that such high sents 
 were an encouragement to pride. For securing 
 
 obedience, corporal chastisements were used and 
 abused. The rod is in fasldou in the fifteenth as 
 it was in the fourteenth century. 'Tliere is no 
 other dilfcrcnce,' says an historian, 'except that 
 the rods in the fifteenth century are twice as long 
 as those in the fourteenth.' " — O. Compayre, The 
 Hint. <if l\(liiflo!iy ; traim. by W. II. Payne, ch. 4. 
 
 Universities, Their Rise. — Abelard. — "Up to 
 the eiul of the eleventh century the instruction 
 was, speaking generally, and allowing for transi- 
 tory periods of revival, and for a few excep- 
 tional schools, a shrunken survival of the old 
 ' trivium et quadrivium.' The lessons, when not 
 di(^tated .ind lea'-nt by heart from notes, were got 
 lip from bald epitomes. Alltliat was taught, more- 
 over, wau tauglitsolely with a view to ' pious uses.' 
 Criticism did not exist; the free spirit of specu- 
 lation could not, of course, exist. ... As we 
 approach the jieriod which saw the birth of those 
 institutions known as Studia Publica or Qener- 
 alia, and ere long to bo known as ' universities," 
 we have to extend our vision and recognize tlio 
 circumstances of the time, and those changes in 
 the social condition of Europe which made great 
 central schools possible — schools to bo frequented 
 not merely by the young ecclesiastic, but by lay- 
 men. Among other cau.ses wliich led to the dif- 
 fusion of a demand for education among the laity, 
 wns, I think, the institution or reorganization of 
 municipalities. It was about the end of the 
 eleventh century that the civic Communes (Com- 
 munia) began to seek and obtain, from royal and 
 other authorities, charters of incorporation con- 
 stituting their internal government and confer- 
 ring certain freedoms and privileges as against 
 tlie encroachment of lay and ecclesiastical feudal 
 barons. . . . About the same time, nnd sonie- 
 wlint prior to this, trade guilds had been formed 
 in many cities for mutual protection, the advanco- 
 ment of commerce, and the internal regulation of 
 the various crafts. There immediately followed 
 a desire for schools in the more importiuit com- 
 mercial towns. In Italy such schools arose in 
 Bologna, Milan, Brescia, and Florence; and in 
 Germany they arose in Lttbeck, Ham'mrg, Bres- 
 lau, Nordhausen, Stettin, Leipsic, and NUrn- 
 berg. The distinctive characteristic of tliese 
 city schools was, that thoy do not seem to have 
 been under the direct control of the Church, 
 or to have been always taught by priests; fur- 
 ther, that the native tongue (German or Italian, 
 as tlie case might be) was taught. Reading, 
 writing, and a little arithmetic seem to have 
 formed the staple of the instruction. The cus- 
 tom of dictating, writing down, and then learn- 
 ing by heart what was written — universal in 
 tlie schools of the preceding centuries — was, 
 of course, still followed in these burgh schools. 
 This custom was almost inevitable. . . . The in- 
 crensed communicntion with Africa nnd the Enst 
 through the Crusades had introtluced men to a 
 standard of learning among the Arabs, unknown 
 in i'urope. Outside the school, the order of chiv- 
 alry had introduced a now and higher ethical 
 spirit than had been known in the previous cen- 
 turies. Civic communities and trade guilds were 
 forming themselves and seeking cliarters of in- 
 
 rporation. Above all, the Crusades, by stimu- 
 ing the ardour nnd exciting the intellects of 
 men, hnd unsettled old convention by bringing 
 men of nil ranks within the sacred circle of a com- 
 mon enthusiasm, and into contact with foreign 
 civilizations. The desire for a higher education. 
 
 692 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The injluetice 
 of Aoelard. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 and tho impulse to moro profound Investigation, 
 tlmt clinmclcrizeii tlio beginning iimi course of 
 tlic tweiftli century, wus tlius only ii part of u 
 widespread movement, political and moral. . . . 
 While tlio Romano-Hellenic schools had long dis- 
 appeared, tliero still existed, in many towns, 
 episcopal schools of a high class, many of whieli 
 might bo regarded as continuations of the old 
 Imperial provincial inatitutions. ... In Bologna 
 and Paris, Rheims and Naples, it was so. The 
 arts curriculum jirofe.ssed in these centres was, for 
 the time and state of knowledge, good. Tliese 
 schools, indeed, had never quite lost the fresh 
 impulse given by Charlemagne and his successors. 
 . . . Accordlngtomy view of educational history, 
 tho great ' studia publica ' or ' generalia ' arose out 
 of them. The v were themselves, in a narrow sense, 
 already 'studia publica.' . . . Looking, first, to 
 the germ out of which tho universities grew, I 
 think we must say that the universities may be 
 regarded as a natural development of the cathe- 
 dral and monastery schools; but if wo seek for an 
 external motive force urging men to undertake 
 the more profound and independent study of the 
 liberal arts, we can find it only in the Saracenic 
 schools of Bagdad, Babylon, Alexandria, and 
 Cordova. ... To fix precisely the date of the 
 rise of the first specialized schools or universities 
 is impossible, for tlie simple reason tliat they 
 were not founded. . . . The simplest account of 
 the new university origins is the most correct. 
 It would appear that certain active-minded men 
 of marked eminence liegan to give instruction in 
 medical subjects ot Salerno, and in law at Bo- 
 logna, in a spirit and manner not previously 
 attempted, to youths who had left tlie monastery 
 and cathedral schools, and who desired to equip 
 tliemselves for professional life. Pupils flocked 
 to tliem ; and the more able of these students, 
 finding that tliere was a public demand for this 
 kiglicr specialized instruction, remained at head- 
 quarters, and themselves became teachers or 
 doctors. The Church did not found universities 
 any moro tlian it founded the order of chivalry. 
 They were founded by a concurrence (not wholly 
 fortuitous) of able men who had something they 
 wished to teach, and of youtlis who desired to 
 learn. None the less were the acquiescence and 
 protection of Cliurch and State necessary in those 
 days for tlio fostering of these infant seminaries. 
 ... Of tho three great schools whicli we have 
 named, there is sufflcient ground for believing 
 that the first to reach such a development as to 
 entitle it to the name of a studium generalo or 
 university was tho ' Schola Salernitana,' although 
 it never was a imiversity, technically specking." 
 — 8. 8. Laurie, liise and Early Constitution of Uni- 
 versities, lect. 6-7. — "Ideas, till this time scat- 
 tered, or watched over in the various ecclesiastical 
 schools, began to converge to a common centre. 
 The great name of University was recognised in 
 the capital of Prance, at the moment that the 
 French tongue had become almost universiii. 
 The conquests of the Normans, and the first cru- 
 sade, had spread its powerfully philosopliic idiom 
 in every direction, to England, to Sicily, and to 
 Jerusalem. This circums'.mco alone invested 
 France, central Prance, Paris, with an immense at- 
 tractive power. By degrees, Parisian Frencii be- 
 came a proverb. Feudalism liad found its political 
 centre in the royai city ; and this city was about to 
 become the capital of human thought. The be- 
 ginner of this revolutiou was not a priest, but a 
 
 handsome young n\an of brilliant talents, ami- 
 able and of noble family. None wrote love 
 verses, like his, in the vulgar tongue; he sang 
 them, too. Besides, his erudition was extraordl- 
 narv for that day. lie ahme, of his time, knew 
 both Greek imd llebnjw. May be, he had studied 
 ut tho .Jewish scliools (the.'o were many in tho 
 South), or under the rabbins of Troyes, Vitry, 
 or of Orleans. There were then in Paris twi) 
 leading schools- the old Episcopal school of tlio 
 parvis Notre Dame, and that of St. OeneviiVe, 
 on the hill, where shone William of Champeaux. 
 Abelard joined his pupils, submitted to him his 
 doubts, puzzled him, laughed at him, and closed 
 his mouth. IIo would have served Anselm of 
 Luon the same, had not tho professor, being a 
 bishop, expelled him from his diocese. In this 
 fashion this knight-errant of logic went on, un- 
 horsing tho most celebrated champions. He him- 
 self declared that he had only renounced tilt and 
 tourney through his passion for intellectual com- 
 bats. Henceforward, victorious and witliout a 
 rival, ho taught at Paris and Melun, the residence 
 of Louis-io-Qros, and the lords flocked to hear 
 him; anxious to encourage ono of themselves, 
 who had discomfited tlio priests on their own 
 grouiKl, and had silenced the ablest clerks. Abel- 
 ard's wonderful success is easily explained. All 
 the lore and learning wliich had been smothered 
 under the heavy, dogmatical forms of clerical 
 instruction, and hidden in the rude Latin of tho 
 middle age, suddenly appeared arrayed in tho 
 simple elegance of antiquity, so that men seemed 
 for the first time to hear and recognise a human 
 voice. The daring youth simplified and explained 
 everything ; pniseiiting philosophy in a familiar 
 form, and bringing it home to men's bosoms. 
 ^ He liardly suffered the oi)scuro or supernatu- 
 ral to rest on the hardest mysteries of faith. It 
 seemed as if till then the Church had lisped and 
 stammered ; wliile Abelard spoke. All was made 
 smooth and easy. He treated religion courte- 
 ously and handled her gently, but she melted 
 away in his hands. Nothing embarrassed the 
 fluent speaker: ho reduced religion to philoso- 
 phy, and morality to humanity. 'Crime,' lie 
 said, 'consists not in the act, but in the inten- 
 tion.' It followed, that there was no such thing 
 as sins of habit or of ignorance — 'They wlio 
 crucified Jesus, not knowing him to have been 
 the Saviour, were guilty of no sin.' What is 
 original sin? — 'Less a sin, than a punishment.' 
 But then, wherefore the redemption and tho pas- 
 .sion, if there was no sin ? — ' It was an act of pure 
 love. God desired to substitute the law of love 
 for that of fear. ' " — .1. Jlichelet, History of France, 
 v. 1, bk. 4, ch. 4. — " It is difficult, by a mere peru- 
 sal of Abelard's works, to understand the effect 
 he produced upon his liearers by the force of his 
 argumentation, whether studied or improvised, 
 and by the ardor and animation of liis eloquence, 
 and the grace and attractiveness of his person. 
 But tlie testimony of his contemporaries is unani- 
 mous; even liis adversaries tliemselves render 
 justice to his liigh oratorical qualities. No one 
 ever reasoned with moro subtlety, or handled the 
 dialectic tool with more address; and assuredly, 
 something of these qualities is to bo found in the 
 writings lie 1. is l"ft us. But the intense life, the 
 enthusiastic ardo. whicli enlivened liis discourses, 
 tlio beauty of his face, and the cliarra of his 
 voice cannot be imparted by cold manuscripts. 
 Iloloiso, whose name is inseparably linked with 
 
 693 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 lAitin fAinfjHtifif uml 
 Learning. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 that of licr tinfortunnto husband, and whom 
 ChnrlcH lie ItCmiiHiit dtx's not hesitate to {'iill ' th{! 
 first of women ' ; who, In any case, wiis a superior 
 person of her time; Heloise, who loved Al)elard 
 with 'an immmlerate love,' and who, under the 
 veil of a ' religieuse ' and throughout the practice 
 of devotional duties, remaincu faitliful to him 
 imtil death: Heloise said to him in her famo\is 
 letter of llUfl: ' Thou hast two thinj^s especially 
 ■which coidd instantly win tliee the liearts of all 
 women : the charm thou knowest how to impart 
 to thy voice in speaking and singing.' E.xternal 
 gifts combined with intellectual (juaiitics to make 
 of Aheljird an incomparable seducer of minds 
 and liearts. Add to tlds an astonishing memory, 
 a knowledge as profound as was compatible with 
 the resources of his time, and a vast erudition 
 which caused Ids contemporaries to consider him 
 a nuister of universal knowledge. . . . How can 
 one be astonished tliat with sucli qualities Abel- 
 ard gained an extraordinary ascendency over his 
 age; that, having become tlie intellectual ruler 
 and, as it were, the dictator of the thought of the 
 twelfth centurj', he should have succeeded in 
 attracting to his cliair and in retaining around it 
 thousands of young men ; the first germ of those 
 assemblages of students who were to constitute 
 the universities several years later ? ... It is 
 not alone by the outward success of his scholastic 
 apostolate that Abelanl merits consideration as 
 tlie precursor of the modern spirit and the pro- 
 moter of the foundation of tlie universities; it is 
 also by his doctrine, or at least by his method. 
 ... No one claims that Abelarcf was the tlrst 
 ■who, in the Middle /. gcs, had introiluced dialect- 
 ics into theology, reason into authority. In the 
 ninth century, Scotus Erigena had already said : 
 'Authority is derived from reason.' Scholasti- ^ 
 cism, which is nothing but logic enlightening 
 theology, an effort of reason to demonstrate 
 dogma, had begun before Abclard ; but it was he 
 who gave movement and life to the method by 
 lending it his power and his renown." — Q. Com- 
 payre, Abelard, pi. 1, eh. 2-3. 
 
 Latin Language. — "Qreek was an unknown 
 tongue : only a very few of tlie Latin classics re- 
 ceived a perfunctory attention: Bocthius was 
 preferred to Cicero, and the Moral Sentences 
 ascribed to Cato to either. Rules couched in 
 barbarous Latin verse were committed to mem- 
 orj'. Aristotle was known only in incorrect 
 Latin translations, which many of the taught, 
 and some of the teachers probably, supposed to 
 be the originals. Matters were not mended 
 when the student, having passed tlirougl. the 
 preliminary course of arts, advanced to the SDudy 
 of the sciences. Theology meant an acquaint- 
 ance with the ' Sentences ' of Peter Lombard, or, 
 in other cases, with the 'Summa' of Thomas 
 Aquinas; in medicine, Galen was an authority 
 from which there was no appeal. On every side 
 the student was fenced round by traditions and 
 prejudices, through which it was impossible to 
 break. In truth, he had no means of knowing 
 that there was a wider and fairer world beyond. 
 Till tlie elassicid revival came, every decade 
 made the yoke of prescription heavier, and each 
 generation of students, therefore, a feebler copy 
 of the last." — C. Beard, Martin Luther and the 
 Iteformation, ch. 3. — "What at first had been 
 everywhere a Greek became in Western Europe 
 a Latin religion. The discipline of Rome main- 
 tained the body of doctrine which the thought of 
 
 Greece had defined. A new I^atin vcrtjlnn, super- 
 seding alike the venerable Qreek translation of 
 the Old Testament and the original words of 
 Evangelists and Apostles, became the received 
 text of Holy Scripture. Tlie Latin Fathers ac- 
 (|uired an autliority scarcely less binding. The 
 ritual, lessons, and hymns of the Church were 
 Latin. Ecclesiastics transacted the Imsincss of 
 civil depart ment8re(|Uiring education. Libraries 
 were armories of the Church : grammar was part 
 of her drill. The humblest scholar was enlisted 
 in her .service: she recruited her ranks by found- 
 ing Latin schools. ' Education in tlio rudiments 
 of Latin,' says Hallani, 'was imparted to a 
 greater number of individuals tlian at present ; ' 
 and, as they had more use for it tlian at present, 
 it was longer retained. If a boy of i.umble birtli 
 had a taste' for letters, or if a boy of high birth 
 had a distaste for arms, the first step was to learn 
 Latin. Ills foot was then on tlie ladder. He 
 might ri.sc by tlie good ofHces of his family to a 
 bishopric, or to tlie papacy itself by merit and 
 tlie grace of God. Latin enabled a Greek from 
 Tarsus (Theodore) to liecome the founder of 
 learning in the Englisli church ; and a Vorksliire- 
 man (Alciiin) to organize tlic schools of Charle- 
 magne. Without Ijatin, our Englisli Winfrid 
 (St. Boniface) could not have been apostle of 
 Germany and reformer of the Frankisli Church ; 
 or the German Albert, master at Paris of Thomas 
 Aquinas; or Nicholas Breaksiicare, Pope of 
 Rome. With it, Western Christendom was one 
 vast field of labor: calls for self-sacriflcc, or 
 offers of promotion, might come from north or 
 south, from east or west. Thus in tlie Jliddle 
 Ages Latin was made the groundwork of educa- 
 tion; not for the beauty of its classical litera- 
 ture, nor because the study of a dead language 
 was the '>est mental gymnastic, or the only 
 means of acquiring a masterly free<lom in tlie 
 use of living tongues, but because it was the 
 language of educated men throughout West- 
 ern Europe, employed for public business, litera- 
 ture, pliilosophy, and science; above all, in 
 Go I's providence, essential to tlie unity, and 
 therefore enforced by tlie authority of, the West- 
 em Church." — C. 8. Parker, Essay on tJie His- 
 tory of Classical Education (quoted in Dr. Jlen^y 
 Barnard's " Letters, Essays and Tlioughts on 
 Studies and Conduct," p. 467). 
 
 France. — "The countries of western Europe, 
 leavened, all of them, by the one spirit of the 
 feudal and catholie Middle Age, formed in some 
 sense one community, and were more associated 
 than they have been since the feudal ,md catiiolic 
 unity of the Middle Age has disappearod and 
 given place to the divided and various life of 
 modern Europe. In the medireval community 
 France held the first place. It is now well known 
 that to place in the i5tli century the revival of 
 intellectual life and the re-establishment of civ- 
 ilisation, and to treat the period between the 
 5th century, when ancient civilisation was ruined 
 by the barbarians, and the 15th, when the life 
 and intellect of this civilisation reappeared and 
 transformed the world, aa one ciiaos, is a mistake. 
 The chaos ends about the 10th century ; in the 
 11th there truly comes the first re-establishment 
 of civilisation, the first revival of intellectual life ; 
 the principal centre of this revival is France, its 
 chief monuments of literature are in the French 
 language, its chief monuments of art are the 
 French cathedrals. This revival fills the 12th and 
 
 694 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Vnlvrrilly 
 of l\xri; 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 13th centuries with its activity nnd witli its worlis ; 
 all this tlnio France lias the lead ; In the 14th cen- 
 tury the lead passes to Italy; but now comes 
 the coiuniencenient of a wholly new period, the 
 period of the Henaissance properly so culled, tho 
 beginning of modern European life, the (easing 
 of tlie life of the feudal and catholic Middle Age. 
 Tlie anterior and less glorious I'enaissiuice, the 
 Iienais.sancc witliin the limits of the Middle Age 
 itself, a revival wlilch came to a stop and could 
 not successfully devclono itself, but wideh has 
 yet left i)rofound traces in our spirit and our liter- 
 ature, — this revival belongs chietly to France. 
 France, then, may well serve as a typical country 
 %vherein to trace tho mediieval growth of intel- 
 lect and learning; above all she may so stand for 
 ns, whose connection with her In the Middle Age, 
 owing to our Norman kings and the currency of 
 her language among our cultivated class, was so 
 peculiarly close; so close that the literary and 
 Intellectual development of tho two co\uitries at 
 that time interndngles, and no important event 
 can happen in that of the one without straight- 
 way allecting and interesting that of the other. 
 . . . With the hostility of the long Fr2H.t>. Wars 
 of Edward tho Tlnrd comes the estraugement, 
 never afterwards diminishing but always increas- 
 ing." — M. Arnold, Schoolt and Uideenitiea on the 
 Continent, eh. 1. — University of Paris. — "Tho 
 name of Abelard recalls tho European celebrity 
 and immense intellectual ferment of this school 
 [of Paris] in the 12tli century. But it was in tlie 
 first year of the following century, the 13th, that 
 it received a charter from Philip Augustus, and 
 thenceforth the iiumo of University of Paris takes 
 the place of tliat of School of Paris. F'orty-nino 
 years later was founded University College, ().\- 
 lord, tlie oldest college of tho oldest English Uni- 
 versity. Four nations composed the University 
 of Paris, — the nation of Franco, tho nation oi 
 Picardy, the ni\tion of Normandy, and (signal 
 mark of the clcso intercourse wliich then existed 
 between Franco and us! ) the nation of England. 
 The four nations united formed tho faculty of 
 arts. The faculty of theology was created in 
 1257, that of law in 1271, that of medicine in 1274. 
 Tlieology, law, and medicine liad each their Dean ; 
 arts Iiad four Procurators, one for each of the 
 four nations composing this faculty. Arts elected 
 the rector of the University, and had possession 
 of the University chest and archives. Th'! pro- 
 eminence of the Faculty of Arts indicates, ai.' in- 
 deed docs the very development of the Univer- 
 sity, an idea, gradually strengthening itself, of a 
 lay instruction to be no longer absorbed in the- 
 ology, but separable from it. Tho growth of a 
 lay and modern spirit in society, the prepon- 
 derance of tho crown over the papacy, of the 
 civil over tho ecclesiastical power, is the great 
 feature of French history in tlio 14th century, 
 and to this century belongs tho liiglicst develop- 
 ment of the University. . . . The importance of 
 the University in the 13th and 14th centuries was 
 extraordinary. Jlen's minds were possessed with 
 a wonderful zeal for knowledge, or what was 
 then thought knowledge, and the University of 
 Paris was tlic great fount from wliicli this knowl- 
 edge issued. Tlie University and those depend- 
 ing on it made at this time, it is said, actually a 
 third of the population of Paris ; when tho Uni- 
 versity went on a solemn occasion in procession 
 to Saint Denis, the head of tlie procession, it is 
 said, had reached St. Denis before the end of it 
 
 had left its starting pla^'c in Paris. It had im- 
 munities from taxation, it had Jurisdiction of its 
 own, and its ini'inbcrs claime^l 'o lie e.veiiipt from 
 that of the jirovost of Paris; the kings of Franco 
 strongly favoured the Univei-sily, and leaned 
 to its Hide when the municipal and academical 
 authorities wer<^ in conllict; if at any time the 
 University thought itself serioi dy aggrieved, it 
 had recourse to a measure win 'h threw I'aris 
 into dismay, — 't shut up its siliools and sus- 
 pended its lectures. ■ In a liody of this kind tho 
 dlscii)line could not be strict, and the colleges 
 were created to supply centres of di.sciplini' which 
 the University in itself, — an apparatus merely of 
 teachei's and lecturerooms, — did not provide. 
 The 14th century is the time when, one after 
 another, with wonderful rapidity, the French col- 
 leges appeared. Navarre, Montaigu, Ilarcourt, 
 names so famlliiir in tlie school annals of France, 
 date from the (list ipiarter of the 14th century. 
 The College of Navarre was founded by tho 
 (|ueeii of Philip the Fair, in 1304; tho College of 
 Montaigu, where Erasmus, Rabelais, and Igna- 
 tius Ijoyola were in their time students, was 
 founded in 1314 by two members of the family 
 of Montaigu, one of tliem Arciibishop of Houen. 
 The majority of these colleges were founded by 
 magnates of the church, and designed to main- 
 tain a certain number of bursars, or scholars, 
 during tlieir university course. . . . Along with 
 the University of Paris there existed in Franco, 
 in tlio 14th century, the Universities of Orleans, 
 Angers, Toulouse, and .Montpelller. Orleans was 
 tho great French school for the study of the civil 
 law. . . . The civil law was studiously kept 
 away from the University of Paris, for fear it 
 sliould drive out other studies, and especially the 
 study of theology ; so late as the year 1079 thero 
 was no chair of Itoman or even of Frencli law 
 in the University of Paris. Tlie strongtii of this 
 University was concentrated on theology and 
 arts, and its celebrity arose from the multitude of 
 students whicli in tlicse branches of instruction 
 it attracted." — M. Arnold, SchimU and UnUxr- 
 sities on the Continent, eh. 1. — The Sorbonne. — 
 The University of Paris acquired the name of 
 "the Sorbonne" "from Robert of Sorbon, aulic 
 cliaplain of St. Louis, who established one of the 
 63 colleges of the University. . . . The name of 
 Sorbonne was first applied to tlie theological 
 fac'ilty only ; but at length the whole University 
 received this designation." — J. Alzog, Manual of 
 Univerml Church lliatory, v. 9, p. 2i, footnote. 
 — The Nations. — "The precise date of the or- 
 ganization at Paris of the four Nations which 
 maintui.ied themselves there until the latest days 
 of tlie university escapes the most minute re- 
 search. Neitlier for the Nations nor for tho Fac- 
 ulties was tliere any sudden blossoming, but 
 rather a slow evolution, an insensible preparation 
 for a definite condition. Already at tho close of 
 the twelfth century there is mention in contem- 
 porary documents of the various provinces of 
 the s<)iool of Paris. Tlie Nations are mentioned 
 inti lis of Gregory IX. (1231) and of Inno- 
 cent M.j). In 1245, they already elect their 
 atteno,. 'lo beadles. In 1349, the existence 
 of the lo, Nations — France, Picardy, Nor- 
 mandy, and England — is proved by their quar- 
 rels over the election of a rector. . . . Until the 
 definitive constitution of tho Faculties, that is, 
 until 1270 or 1280, tlio four Nations included 
 the totality of students and masters. After tho 
 
 695 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Htudy of 
 Homan I jaw. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 formntion lA thr FiuMiltlts, tlio four Nations 
 comprised only llio iiirnilHtrH of tlie Fiicuity of 
 Arts iiiul tliose stuilvnls of otiu'r Fiu'iiltivs wlio 
 \\w\ not yvt ()l)tiiiii('il tli(> griuic of Uaclielor of 
 Arts. Tlio tliri'o superior Fiieiilties, Theology, 
 Medicine, mid liUw, Imd notliing in common 
 thcnceforwiird witli tlie Nations. ... At Uo- 
 logna, us at I'arls, tliu Nations wcro constituted 
 In tli(^ eiirly years of tlio tlilrtecnth century, 
 but under a slightly different form. There 
 the studeiiLs were grouped in two distinct associa- 
 tions, the Ultramonlanes and tliu Citramontanus, 
 the foreigners and tlic Italians, who formed two 
 universities, the Transalpine and tlio Cisalpine, 
 each with ita chiefs, who were not styled procu- 
 rators but counsellors ; the first was composed of 
 eighteen Nations ond the second of seventeen. 
 At I'lidua twenty-two Nations were enumerated. 
 Montpellicr hiul onlv three in 1339, — the Cat«- 
 laus, the Uurgundlans, the l'roven(,'als; each 
 Bub-divided, however, into numerous groups. 
 Orleans had ten: France, Germany, Lorraine, 
 Burgundy, Champagne, Plcardy, Normandy, 
 Toiiraine, Quyanne, and Scotland ; Poitiers had 
 four: France, Aquitaine, Touraine, and Uerry; 
 Prague had four also, in imitation of I'arls; 
 Lerula had twelve, in Imitation of Uologna, etc. 
 But whetlicr more or less numerous, and what- 
 ever their special organization, the Nations in all 
 the universities bore witness to that need of asso- 
 ciation which la one of the characteristics of the 
 Middle Ages. . . One of the consequences of 
 their organization was to prevent the blending 
 and fusion of races, and to maintain the distinc- 
 tion of provinces and nationalities among the 
 pupils of the same university." — 0. Compayre, 
 Ahdanl, pt. 2, rh. 3. 
 
 Italy: Revived Study of Roman Law. — "It 
 is known that Justinian established in Home a 
 school of law, sinular to those of Constantinople 
 and Berytus. When liome ceased to be subject 
 to Byzantine rule, this law-school seems to have 
 been transferred to Ravenna, wlierc it continued 
 to keep alive the knowledge of the Justinian sys- 
 tem. That system continued to be known and 
 used, from century to century, in a tradition 
 never wholly iatcrruptcd, especially in the free 
 cities of Northern Italy. It seems even to have 
 
 Eenetrated beyond Italy into Southern Prance, 
 ut it was destined to have, at the beginning of 
 the twelfth century, a very extraordinary revival. 
 This revival was i)art of a general movement of 
 the European mind which makes its appearance 
 at that epoch. The darkness which settled down 
 on the world, at the time of the barbarian inva- 
 sions, had its midnight In the ninth and tenth 
 centuries. In the eleventh, signs of progress and 
 improvement begin to show themselves, becom- 
 ing more distinct towards its close, when the 
 period of the Crusades was opening upon Europe. 
 Just at this time we find a famous school of law 
 established in Bologna, and frequented by multi- 
 tudes of pupils, not only from all parts of Italy, 
 but from Germany, France, and other countries. 
 The basis of all its instruction was the Corpus 
 Juris Civilis [see Coiirus Junis Civilis]. Its 
 teachers, who constitute a series of distinguished 
 jurists extending over a century and a half, de- 
 voted themselves to the work of expounding the 
 text and elucidating the principles of the Corpus 
 Juris, and especially the Digest. From the form 
 in which they recorded and handed down the re- 
 sults of their studies, they have obtained the 
 
 name of glossators. On their copies of the Cor- 
 pus Juris they wcro accustomed to write glosses, 
 1. e., brief marginal explanations and remarks. 
 Thest- glos.ses came at length to be an Imnuaiso 
 literature. . . . Here, then. In this school of tho 
 glossators, ut Bologna, in the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries, the awakened mind of Europu 
 was brought to recognize the value of the Corpus 
 Juris, the almost inexhaustible treasure of jur- 
 istic principles, nrecepts, conceptions, reasonings, 
 stored up in it.' — Jus. lladley, Intnxl. to Hoimiii 
 L:ve, led. 2. — University of Bologna. — " In tho 
 twelfth century the law seli<M)lof the University 
 of Bologna eclipsed all others in Europe. Tho 
 two great branches of legal study in tho middle 
 ai.>e8, tlie Roman law and the canon law, began 
 in the teaching of Iriierius and Gratian at liologna 
 in the tirst half of the twelftli centurj. At the 
 beginning of this century the name ot university 
 tlrst replaces that of school; and it is said that 
 tlie groat university degree, that of doctor, was 
 tlrst instituted at Bologna, and that the ceremony 
 for conferring it wiis ilevised there. From Bo- 
 logna tho degree and its ceremonial travelled to 
 Paris. A bull of Pope Ilonorius, in 1220, says 
 that the study of ' bonio litcne ' had at that time 
 made the city of Bologna famous throughout tho 
 world. Twelve thousand students from all parts 
 of Europe are said to have been congregated there 
 at once. The dilTercnt nations liad their colleges, 
 and of colleges ut Bologna there were fourteen. 
 These were founded and endowed by the liberal- 
 ity of private persons; tho university professors, 
 the source of attraction to this multitude of stu- 
 dents, were puiil by the municipality, who found 
 their reward in tlio fume, business, and import- 
 ance brought to their town by the university. 
 The municipalities of the great cities of northern 
 and central Italy were not slow in following tho 
 example of Bologna; in tho thirteenth century 
 Padua, Mmlena, Piacenza, Purmu, Ferrara, had 
 each its university. Frederick II. founded that 
 of Naples in 1224; in tlie fourteenth century were 
 added those of Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, and Turin. 
 Colleges of examiners, or, as wo should say, 
 boards, were created by Papal bull to examine 
 in tlicologv, and by imperial decree to examine 
 in law and medicine. It was in these studies of 
 law and medicine tluit the Italian universities 
 were chiefly distinguished." — M. Arnold, Schools 
 and Universities on the Continent, ch. 0. — "The 
 Bologna school of jurisprudence was several 
 times threatened with total extinction. In the 
 repeated difflculties with the city the students 
 would march out of the town, bound bv a solemn 
 oath not to return ; and if a compromise was to 
 be effected, a papal dispensation from that oath 
 must first be obtained. Generally on such oc- 
 casions, the privileges of the university were ro- 
 afflrmed and often enlarged. In other cases, a 
 quarrel between tho pope and the city, and the 
 ban placed over the latter, obliged the students 
 to leave ; and then the city often planned and 
 furthered tho removal of the university. King 
 Frederic II., in 1220, during the war against 
 Bologna, dissolved the school of jurisprudence, 
 which seems to have been not at all affected 
 thereby, and he formally recalled that ordinance 
 in the following year. Originally tho only school 
 in Bologna was the school of jurisprudence, and 
 in connection witli it alone a university could be 
 formed. . . . Subsequently eminent teachers of 
 medicine and tlie liberal arts appeared, and their 
 
 696 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 tftdlmvl rtnttan 
 Univrrtititt. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 puptls, too, nought to form n unlvcniily and to 
 cliooMi tlivir own roctor. Ah liitu n.t 1205 tliiH iti- 
 noviition w«H (llnputcd by the jurists iiiul Inter- 
 dicted by the elty, so that tlicy had to connect 
 thomsclves with the university of Jurisprudence. 
 Hut a fuw years later wo tind them already In 
 possession again of a few sectors, and In IHltl 
 their right was formally recognl/.ed In a com- 
 ])romlgu between the university of Jurisprudence 
 and the city. The students called themsflves 
 ' philosophi et mcdici ' or ' physici ' ; also l)y the 
 common name of ' artistic.' Finally a school of 
 theology, founded by pope Innocent VI., was 
 added in the second half of the 14th century; it 
 was placed under the bishop, and organized In 
 imitation of the 8cIi(k>I at I'arls, so that It was a 
 ' universitns magistrorum,' not ' scholarium.' 
 As, however, by this arrangement the students 
 of theology ir. the theological university had 
 no civil privileges of tlieir own, they were con- 
 sidered individually as belonging to the 'artistie. ' 
 From this time liologna had four iiniversilieH, 
 two of Jurisprudence, the one of medicine and 
 
 fihllosophy, and the theological, the first two 
 laving no connection with the others, forming a 
 unit, and therefore fre(piently designated as one 
 university." — F. C. 8a\'eny, The Unirentilien of 
 the .\[i(Uile A<je» (Hdriiiird'a A}ii. Journal of Edii- 
 cation, V. 22, pp. 278-270).— Other Universities. 
 — "Tlic oklest and most fre(|uente(l university 
 in Italy, that of Hologna, is represented as hav- 
 ing flourished in tlie twelfth century. Its pros- 
 perity in early times depended greatly on the 
 personal conduct of the principal profcs.sor8, who, 
 when tlicy were not satisfied with their entertain- 
 ment, were in tlie habit of seceding with their 
 pupils to other cities. Thus high schools were 
 opened from time to time in Modena, I{cggio, and 
 clsowhere by teachers who broke the oaths that 
 bound them to reslile in Hologna, ond fixed their 
 centro of education in a rival town. To make 
 such temporary changes was not dilllcult in an 
 ago when what wc have to call an university, 
 consisted of masters and scholars, witho\it col- 
 lege buildings, without libraries, without endow- 
 ments, and without scientific ajmaratus. The 
 tcchnlcol name for such institutions seems to 
 have been 'studium scholarium,' Italianised into 
 ' studio ' or ' studio pubblico.' Among the more 
 permanent results of thjso secessions may bo 
 mentioned the cstabllsliment of the high school at 
 Viconza by trauslation from Bologna in 1204, 
 and the opening of a school at Arczzo under 
 bimilar circumstances In 131.'); the great Univer- 
 sity of Padua first saw the light in consequence 
 of political discords forcing the professors to quit 
 Bologna for .a season. The first half of the thir- 
 teenth century witnessed the foundation of these 
 ' studi ' in considerable numbers. Tluit of Ver- 
 celll was opened in 1228, the municipality pro- 
 viding two certiflcd copyists for the convenience 
 of students who might wish to purchase text- 
 books. In 1224 tlio Emperor Frederick II., to 
 whom the south of Italy owed a precocious em- 
 inence in literature, established the University of 
 Naples by an Imperial diploma. With a view 
 to rendering it the chief seat of learning in his 
 dominions, he forbade the subjects of the Regno 
 to frequent other schools, and suppressed the 
 University of Bologna by letters general. There- 
 upon Bologna Joined the Lombard League, de- 
 fied tlie Emperor, and refused to close the schools, 
 which numbered at that period about ten thou- 
 
 ^^ 697 
 
 ■and students of various nationalities. In 1227 
 Frederick revoked Ills edict, and Mologna n>- 
 niaincti thcnceforwanl unmolested. I'olltlcal an(( 
 internal vIclsNitudcH, alTectlng all the Italian uni- 
 versities at this period, interrupted lh(! proB 
 pcrity of that of Naples. In th(! middle of thu 
 thirteenth century Salenio proved a dangerous 
 rival. . . . An important group of 'studi pub- 
 blicl ' owed their origin to Papal or Imperial char- 
 ters in the first hall of the fourteenth century. 
 Thii' of Perugia was founded in l:l()7 by a liull 
 of Clement V. That of Homo dated from IHOII, 
 In which year Honiface VIII. gave it a constl 
 tution by a special edict; but the tnuislation of 
 tlu' I'apal Bee to Avignon caused it to fall into 
 iircmaturc decadence. Tho University of Pisa 
 had already existed for some years, when It re- 
 ceived a charter in 184!l from Clement VI. That 
 of Florence whs first founded In IMl. . . . Tho 
 subjects taught in tho high schools were Canon 
 and (,'ivll Law, Medicine, and TlK'ology. Tlieso 
 faculties, important for the iirofussional educa- 
 tion of the public, formed the staple of tho 
 a('a<lemical curriciiluin. Cliairs of Khetorlc, Phi- 
 losophy, and Astronomy were added according Uf 
 occasion, the last sometimes including the study 
 of Judicial astrology. If wo en(iuiro how the 
 humanists or professors of classic literature were 
 related to tho universities, wc find that, at first 
 at any rate, they always occupied as<'con(l rank. 
 The permanent teaching remained In tho hands 
 of jurists, wlio enjoyed life engagements at a 
 high rate of pay, while the Latinistsand Orecians 
 could only aspire to the temporary occupation of 
 the Chair of Hhetorlc, with salaries considerably 
 lower than tiioso of lawyers or physicians." — J. 
 A. Symonds, Henainmincc in Italy : the Jlevival of 
 lyfai inij, ch. 8. — "Few of tho Italian universi- 
 ties iw themselves in their full vigour till tho 
 thirteenth and fourteentli centuries, when tho in- 
 crease of wealth rendered a more systematic caro 
 for education possible. At first there were gen- 
 erally three sorts of professorships — ono for civil 
 law, another for canonical law, the third for medi- 
 cine; in course of time professorships of rhetoric, 
 of philosophy, and of astronomy were added, tho 
 lastcommonh', though not always, identical with 
 astrology. The salaries varied greatly in dilTcr- 
 cnt cases. Sometimes a capital sum was paid 
 down. Witli tho spread of culture competition 
 became so active that tho difTerent universities 
 tried to entice away distinguished tcacliers from 
 ono another, under wliicli circumstances Hologna 
 is said to have sometimes devoted the half of its 
 public income (20,000 ducats) to tho university. 
 Tlie api)ointmcnt3 were as a rule made only for 
 a certain time, sometimes for only half a year, so 
 that the teachers were forced to lead a wander- 
 ing life, like actors. Appointments for life were, 
 however, not unknown. ... Of the chairs which 
 have been mentioned, that of rhetoric was es- 
 pecially sought by the humanist; yet it depended 
 only on his familiarity with tho matterof ancient 
 learning wliether or no ho could aspire to those 
 of law, medicine, pliilosophy, or astronomy. The 
 inward conditions of the science of the day were 
 as variable as tho outward conditions of tlie 
 teacher. Certain jurists and pliyslcians received 
 by far tho largest salaries of all, tlie former 
 chiefly as consulting lawyers for tlie suits and 
 claims of the sUite which employed them. . . . 
 Personal intercourse between tlie teachers and 
 the taught, public disputations, the constant use 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Mulhrvnl nrrman 
 Unlvertilif. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 of Liilln iinil iiftrii of OrL'i'k, the frr(|iu'iit rhnnKcit 
 of li'ctiii'i'rs 1111(1 the M^itrclly of ImkiUh, k<^v<! tliii 
 itiiilii'H of llijit tliMu u colour wlilcli wi> citiinot 
 ri'pri'Hi'iil to ourm'lvi'H without t'lTort. Tlicri! wcri) 
 Liitlii Ht'liiHils ill every town of tliu leiiNt Import- 
 luice, not by iiiiy iiieitiiH merely lis prepuriilorv to 
 IiIkIkt ecliieiition, but keeitiiKe, next to reiidtni;. 
 writliifi;, anil iiritlimelli', the knowledge of Lutlii 
 wan II nriessity; mill lifter liiitin eaiiie lo^le. It 
 U to Ih' noleil piirtieiiliuly that these hcIiooIh tlid 
 not )le|ien<I on I lie C'hiireii, 1ml on the miinieipal- 
 ity;Homuof them, too, were merely priviite en- 
 terprises. Tills Hchool system, direeteil liy u few 
 tlislinKnisheil humiinists, not only attained H re- 
 markahle perfection of orKaidsiition, hut became 
 an iiiHtnimeiitof hixlier education in tlie miHlern 
 (M!iiseof the plirnst'." — J. Uurckhiirdt, 'J7ie Civiti- 
 iiitian of the I'lriml of the liiiKiiiisnncc in Italy, 
 ». 1, /)/. «, (•/(. 5. 
 
 Germany.— Prag^ue and its OiTsprinjr. — •• Tlia 
 earliest university in Uermany was that of 
 J'raxue. It was in 184M, under the Kmperor 
 Charles IV., when the taste for letters had re- 
 vived so slirnally in Kurope, when England niav 
 be said to hiive possessed her two old universi- 
 ties iilready for three centuries, Paris her 8or- 
 boime already for four, that tliis university was 
 erected as the llrstof Uennim Universities. Tlie 
 idea originated in the mind of the Emneror, who 
 was educated In Paris, at the universitv of tliiit 
 town, and was eagerly taken up by the towns- 
 peojile of that ancient and wealthy city, for tliey 
 foresaw that allliienee would shower upon them 
 If they could induce a numerous crowd of stu- 
 dents to lloek together within their walls. But 
 the Pope and tlie Einijcror took nu active part 
 
 in favouring and autiiori/ing tlic institution, 
 they wilhngTv grunted to it wide privileges, und 
 made it entirely independent of Church und 
 State. The teaching of the professors, and the 
 studies of the students, were submitt4?d to no 
 control whatever. After the miKlel of the Uni- 
 versity of Paris, they divided themselves Into 
 different faculties, ami made four such divisions 
 — one for divinity, another for medical science, 
 a tliird for law, und a fourth for philosophy. 
 The last order comprised those who tuught and 
 learned the line arts und the sciences, which two 
 departments were separate ut Sorbonne.* All the 
 German universities have preserved this outwurd 
 constitution, and in this, us in many other cir- 
 cumstances, the precedent of Prague has liud a 
 prevuiling intluenee on her younger sister insti- 
 tutions. The same thing nioy be said jjarticu- 
 larly of the disciplinary tone of the university. 
 In other countries, universities sprang from rigid 
 clerical and monastic institutions, or bore a more 
 or less ecclesiastical character which imposed 
 upon thera certain more retired liabits, and a 
 severer kind of discipline. Prague took from 
 the beginning a course widely different. The 
 students, who were partly Germans, partly of 
 Slavonian blood, enjoyed a boundless liberty. 
 They lodged in the houses of the townsjjeople, 
 and by their riclies, their mental superiority, 
 ond their number (they are recorded to have 
 been as many us twenty thousand in tlie year 
 1400), became the undisputed masters of the city. 
 The professors and the inhabitants of Prague, 
 far from checking them, rather protected the 
 prerogatives of the student";, for they found out 
 thut ^I their prosperity depended on them. . . . 
 Not two generations had passed since the erec- 
 
 tliiii of nn institution thus conNlltuteil, iM'fom 
 lliiHS and .li'i'iime of i'ragtU! iH'gan to teach the 
 iH'ceHsity of ail entire ri'tLrmalion of the Churcli. 
 Tlie plienonieiion is chiiruclcrlKtic of the bold 
 spirit of ln(|uiry that must liiive grown up ut the 
 new University. However, the iiolltlciil coiimc. 
 iiiiences tliut atliiided the ))roniulgaliiiii of siiili 
 iloctrines led iilnioHt In llie di.Hsolutlon of tlm 
 University itself. Por, the German part of the 
 students broke up, in <'oniH'i|Uenre of repnitid 
 und serious (|UurrelH that hud taken place with 
 the lioheniian iinil Slavonic party, und went lo 
 I.eip/.lg, where Hlraightwiiy a new and purely 
 Geriimn Univeinllv wiis erected. While Prague 
 became the seal of a protracted and sanguinary 
 war, a great niimlH'r of Universities rtm; into 
 exlHtcnce around it. and attracted the crowds 
 that hud formerly Hoiked to the lioheniian cupi- 
 t4tl. It upiieureii us if Germany, tliough it liiid 
 received the impuiHe from abroad, would leave 
 all other countriis iK'hiiid itself in tlie erection 
 and promotion of these learned institutions, for 
 nil the districts of the land vied witli eucli other 
 in creating tinivei'silies. Thus arose tliose of 
 Uostoek, Ingolstiidt, Vienna, Ileldellicrg, Co- 
 logne, Krfurt, Tuhingen, Greifswulde, Trives, 
 JMuyence and Billes — schools which have partly 
 dlsuppeured again during the political utornis of 
 subsequent ages. The beginning of the six- 
 teenth century udded to them one at Frunkfort 
 on the Oder, and another, the most illustrious of 
 all, Wittenlierg. Everyone who is ncquainted 
 with the history and origin of tlie Heformation, 
 knows what an important part the latter of these 
 universities took in the weighty transactions of 
 those times. . . . AVittenberg remained by no 
 means the only cliami)ion of Protestantism. At 
 Marburg, Jeuu, KOnigsberg, and Helmstadt, 
 universities of a iirofessedly Protestant character 
 were erected. 1 liese schools became the cnidio 
 and nurseries of the Heformation." — 7'he Univer- 
 sities of Oermany {D'ibtin University Mnyazine, v. 
 4(5, p:\ 83-S5). — "The German universities of the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were founded 
 in the following order; Prague, 1348; Vienna, 
 1388; Erfurt, 131)2; Leipsic, 1409; Hostock, 141U; 
 Greifswuld, 1450; Freiburg, 1457; IngolsUult, 
 1472; Tubingen, 1477; and Mayence, 1477. Thus, 
 it will be seen that they were established in 
 quick succession — nn unmistakable proof of the 
 growing scientitlc interest of tlie age." — F. V. 
 N. Painter, Ilist. of Education, ch. 3, sect, 5 (k). 
 Netherlands. — " Tradition reports that a school 
 had . . . been founded at Utrecht, by some zeal- 
 ous missionary, in the time of Charles Martel, at 
 which his son Pepin received his education. 
 However this may have been, the renown of the 
 Utreclit School of St. Martin is of very ancient 
 date. . . . During the invasion by the Nonnans, 
 this scliool at Utrecht whs suppressed, but was 
 reGstnblislied in 017, and regained its former re- 
 nown. The Emperor, Henry tlie Fowler, placed 
 here his three sons, Otto, Henry and Bruno, to 
 be educated, of whom tlie lust become afterward 
 archbishop of Cologne and archduke of Lottring- 
 en, and was noted for his extraordinary learn- 
 ing and friendship for the poet Prudentius. At 
 the beginning of the 13tli century, Utrecht pos- 
 sessed no less than five flourishing schools, sev- 
 eral of which had each a 'rector' in addition to 
 tlie priests who had the general control. At 
 about tlie same time, several convents became 
 distinguished as educational institutions, especi- 
 
 698 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Vnlvtrrtlln. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ftlly thono of Esmnnd, NymwcRrn. Mlddli'lmrif, 
 In /t'lilaiiil. ami Ailiiwort, iicnr ()r(liiiri>;i'ri In 
 
 llollllllll, HH in liclKilllll, ill Itllllltillll to tiK'HrlllllllH 
 
 timt WITH nttiu'licd to tlio cittlicilriilM, cDnvcntH, 
 and cliaptiTH. tlicri! wcriM'Ntaltlinlii'd In tliiToiirsc 
 iif tliu IWL'Iflli century, l«y tlii' mure wcallliy 
 conuiiuuitlcH, piililic wIiooIh CHpiclally iliHlKncd 
 for tliu inHtruction of tlie citl/rnH and laity. 
 It Ih alHo wortliy of noticu tliat tlio autliorlly to 
 open Hucli Hcliooln wax nlwnyH derived from llie 
 coiintH — by whom It was eonferred, KometiineH 
 upon tliH I'lties 08 an OHpi'clu'. j -'"<<. .^re, and 
 aometlmoH u|H)n merely private perMonii uh ii 
 marl( of particidur favor. The Jurisdiction of 
 the feudal lords was the same lien: as In Bel- 
 gium; but while in the latter country, with tlic 
 exception perliaps of the elementary schools in 
 wmio of the cities, the rl^htof supervision ('Very- 
 where devolved upon the chapters, instruction 
 In these public schools of Holland was wholly 
 withdrawn from the clerj^y, and they were made 
 essentially secular In their character. The privi- 
 lege uf thus establishing hc1i(h)Is was conferred 
 upon some of the cities at the following dates: 
 Dort, bv Count Floris V., A. I). TJIM); the Hague, 
 i;V>a — "l.evden, 11)24— and I^)tterdam In VKH, 
 by Wllllaiii III.; Delft and Amsterdam, in l:m, 
 bV William IV. ; l.eyden again, IK.IT — llaarlein, 
 llV/ — Allimar, i;)U8 — lloorn, la.W .md lilOO — 
 th( Hague, IHOU — Schiedam and Ondewater, 
 l;)l)4 — and Kolterdam, in U03, bv Albert of 
 liavaria. These scIkhjIs, adils Stallaert, on the 
 authority of Duihlingh, were generally stvled 
 'Scliool en Schryl'ambacht,' '8ch(M)le en Kos- 
 teru,' (school and writing olflces, scIkkjIs and 
 clerks' liouses,) and the ' Bchoolmljsters' (sch(X)l- 
 masters) were looked upon us professional men or 
 craftsmen — as was the case also In Uelgluin, 
 where they formed distinct giiiMs and frater- 
 nities. These public schools of Holland were 
 divided into ' large ' and ' small ' schools, (groote 
 en bijschoolen,) Latin being taught in the first 
 division. The institution at Zwolle, attained spe- 
 cial notoriety in *he fourteenth century, under 
 the direction of the celebrated .lohan C'ele. Ac- 
 cording to Thomas i\ Kempis and Ten Uus.sche, 
 its pu|)ils numbered about a thousand, gathered 
 from Holland, Belgium, and the principal pro- 
 vinces of Germany." — PiMic liiittruetiim in Hul- 
 land (llnrnard'K Am. Jminitilof Kdiiention, v. 14). 
 England. — Early Oxford.— "The University 
 of O.xford did not spring into being in any par- 
 ticular year, or at the bidding of any particular 
 founder: it was not established by any formal 
 charter of incorporation. Taking its rise in a 
 small and obscure association of teachers and 
 learners, it developed spontaneously into a large 
 and importunt body, long before its existence 
 was recognised by prince or by prelate. There 
 were certainly schools at Oxford in tlie reign of 
 Henry I., but tlie previous history of the place 
 does not throw much light on their origin, or 
 explain the causes of tlieir popularity. The 
 town seems to have jjrown up under the shadow 
 of u nunnery, which is said to have lieen founded 
 by St. Frideswyde as far back as the eighth 
 century. Its authentic annals, however, begin 
 with tlie year 913, when it was occupied and 
 annexed by Edward the Elder, King of the West 
 Saxons. . . . Oxford was considereil a place of 
 great strategical importance in the eleventh cen- 
 tury. Its ])08ition on tlie borders of Mercia and 
 "Wessex rendered it also purticulurly conveuieat 
 
 for parley* lirtween Englishmen and Dnnrt. and 
 
 for great national aHsemlilleH. . . . Itetalning for 
 a while its rank as oiu' of tlie chli'f centres of 
 political life in the south of England, and us 
 a HUltaldi^ meeting place for parliaments and 
 synisls, Oxford became thenceforward more and 
 more distinctively known as a seat of learning 
 and a iiuhmtv of clerks. Thi' scIhnOs whh'h ex- 
 isted at Oxford iH'fore tin' reign of King .lolin, 
 are so rnddom and so brietly noticed in contem- 
 porary records, that it woulil Ih' dlllieult to show 
 iiow they develop< I into a great unlveiHity, If It 
 were not for Hie analogy of kindred liiHtltutionH 
 in otiier countrle.^. Tliere can be little doubt, 
 however, tiiat the idea of a iiidversity, the sys- 
 tems of degrees and faculties, and the nomen- 
 clature of till' chief academical ollleers, were 
 alike lmporte<l Into England from alinmil. . . . 
 Ill the I'lirliesl and broacU'st sense of the term, a 
 university had no necessary coiinevioii with 
 sihools or literature, bcliig merely a comniuiiity 
 of Individuals bound togi'ther by some more or 
 less acknowledged tie. Uegardcd collectively in 
 tills light, the Inhabitants of any nartlciilar town 
 might Ih' said to constitute a university, and in 
 point of fact the Comnionalty of the townsmen 
 of Oxford was sometimes descrllK'd as a uiilver- 
 sity In formal documents of the niiddli' ages. 
 The term was, however, specially applied to 
 the whole liocly of iiersous freciuenling the 
 schools of a large stiidlum. Ultimately it came 
 to be employed in a technical sense as synony- 
 mous with studlum, todenote the institution Itself. 
 This last use of the term seems to lie of English 
 origin, for the University of Oxfonl is mentioned 
 as such in writs and ordinances of the years 1238, 
 1240, and 12.W, whereas the greater seat of learn- 
 ing on the banks of the Seine was, until the year 
 12(t;j, styled 'the University of the Masters,' or 
 'Hie Un'iverslty of the Scli<ilars,' of Paris. The 
 .sy.stem of academical degrees dates from the 
 second half of tlu^ twelftli century." — II. C. M. 
 Lyte. A Ilinturn uf the Unieeniti/ of Oxford, eh. 1. 
 — " In the early Oxford ... of the twelfth and 
 most of the thirteenth centuries, colleges with 
 tlieir statutes were unknown. 'The University 
 was the only corporation of the learned, and she 
 struggled into existence after hard tights with 
 the town, the .lews, tiie Friars, the Pajial courts. 
 The history of tlie University l)egins with the 
 thirt,enth century. She may be sai<l to have 
 come into being as soon as slie possessed common 
 funds and rents, as sewn as tines were assigned, 
 or iK'ncfttctions contributed to the maintenance of 
 scholars. Now the first recorded fine is the pay- 
 ment of fifty-two shillings by the townsmen of 
 Oxford as jjart of thecomijensationforthe hang- 
 ing of certain clerks. In the year 1214 the 
 Papal Legate, in a letter to his 'beloved sons in 
 Christ, the burg 'sses of Oxford,' bade them ex- 
 cuse the 'scholars studying in Oxford' half the 
 rent of their halls, or hospltia, for the space of 
 ten years. The burghers were also to do pen- 
 ance, and to fea.sttlie jioorer students once a-year; 
 but the important point is, that they had to pay 
 that large yearly fine ' projiter Buspendium deri- 
 corum' — all for the hangin;' of tlie clerks. 
 Twenty-six years after this (Ijcision of the Le- 
 gate, Robert Orosstestc, the great Bishop of 
 Lincoln, organized tlie payment "■'•' distribution 
 of the fine, and founded the fir he cliesls, 
 
 the cliest of St. Frideswyde. '. ■ ' ?st8 were 
 a kind of Mout de Picte, and i^ id them 
 
 699 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Oxford in 
 the Middle Aget. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ■was nt first the favourite form of benefaction. 
 Money was left in tlii.s or that chest, from which 
 students and n'.asters would borrow, (m the se- 
 curity of pledj^es, which were generally books, 
 '.;ups, dagf^ers, and so forth. Now, in this alfair 
 of 121 1 we have a strange pas.'jiigo of liistory, 
 which hai)pily illustrates the growtli of the Uni- 
 versity. Th(! beginning of the whole nitair was 
 the quarrel with the town, winch in 1209, liad 
 hanged two clerks, 'in contempt of clerical lib- 
 erty.' The .iiatter was taken up by the Legate 
 — \n those bad years of King John, the Pope's 
 viceroy in England — and out of the liumiliation 
 of the town the University gained money, privi- 
 leges, and halls at low rental. These were pre- 
 cisely the things that the University wanteii. 
 About these matters there was a constant strife, 
 in which tlie Kings as a rule, took part witli the 
 University. . . . Thus gradually the Universitv 
 got the command of the police, obtained i)nvi- 
 leges whicli enslaved the city, and became mas- 
 ters where they had once been despised, starve- 
 ling scholars. . . . The result, in tlie long run, 
 was that the University received from Edward 
 III. 'a most large charier, contaii'lng many lib- 
 erties, some that they had before, and other.s 
 that he had taken away from the town.' Thus 
 Edward granted to the University ' the custody 
 of tlie assize of breitd, wine, and ale,' the super- 
 vising of measures ano weights, the f ie power 
 of clearing the strcetf of the town ar i suburbs. 
 Moreover, the Mayor and the chi . Burghers 
 werccondcmned yearly to a. sort o. - .blicpenance 
 and humiliation on St. Scholastica's Day. Thus, 
 by the middle of the fourteenth century, the strife 
 of Town and Gown had ended in the complete 
 victory of tliL latter." — A Lang, Oxford, ch. 2. — 
 "To mark off the Middle Age from the Mortem 
 Period of the University is certainly very diftl- 
 cult. Indeed the earlier times do not form a 
 homogeneous whole, but appear perpetually 
 shifting and preparing for a new state. The 
 main transition however was undoubtedly about 
 llie middle of the fourteenth century; and the 
 Keformation, a remarkable crisis, did but con- 
 firm what had been in progress for more than ^ 
 century and a half: so that tlie Middle Age of 
 the University contained the thirteenth century, 
 and barely the former half of the fourteenth. 
 . . . There is no question, that during this 
 Middle Age the English Universities were dis- 
 tinguished far more than ever afterwards by 
 energy and variety of intellect. Later times 
 cannot produce a concentration of men eminent 
 in all the learning and science of the ago, such 
 as Oxford and Cambridge then poured forth, 
 mightily influencing the intellectual develope- 
 meut of all Western Christendom. Thur names 
 indeed may warn us against an undiscriminating 
 disparagement of the Monasteries, as ' hotbeds of 
 ignorance and stupidity' ; when to many of those 
 worthies were monks of the Benedictine, Fran- 
 ciscan, Dominican, Carmelite, or reformed Au- 
 gustinian order. But in consequence of ciiis sur- 
 jiassing celebrity, Oxford became the focus of a 
 prodigious congregation of students, to which 
 iiotliing afterwanis bore comparison. The same 
 was i)robably true of Cambridge in relative pro- 
 ■nortion. ... A tolerably well uuthenticated 
 . count, attacked of late by und..e scjpticism, 
 fixes [tlie number of] those of Oxford at thirty 
 thousand, in the luiddle of the thirteenth century. 
 The want indeed of contemporary evidcuce 
 
 must make us cautious of yielding absolute be- 
 lief to this: in fact we have no document on this 
 matter even as old as the Ueformation. . . . Not 
 only did the Church and the new orders of Monks 
 draw great numbers thillier, but the Universities 
 themselves were vast High Schools, comprising 
 boys and even children. It is not extravagant, 
 if Cambridge was not y(^t in great repute, to 
 imagine fifteen thousand students of all ages at 
 Oxford, and as many more attendants. Nor was 
 it at all difficult to accommodate them in the 
 lowii, when Oxford contained three hundred 
 Halls and Inns: and as several students dwelt in 
 one room, and were not careful for luxury, each 
 building en an average might easily hold one 
 hundred persons. The style of Architecture was 
 of the simplest and cheapest kind, and might 
 have been easily run up on a sudden demand: 
 and a rich flat country, with abundant water 
 carriage, needed ii;)t ^o want provisions. That 
 the numbers were vast, is implirri iiy the highly 
 respectable evidence whicli ^> have, that as 
 many as three thousand niigr d from Oxford 
 on the riots of 1209; although i ue Chronicler ex- 
 pressly states that not all joined in the secession. 
 Ill the reign of Henry III. the reduced numbers 
 are reckoned at fifteen thousand. After the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, tbej' were still 
 as many as from three to four thousand; and 
 after the Ueformation they mount again to five 
 thousand. On the whole therefore the computa- 
 tion of thirty thousand, as the maximuiii, may 
 seem, if not positively true, yet the nearest 
 approximation which we can expect. 0/ Cam- 
 bridge we know no more tlian that the numbers 
 were much lower than at Oxford. . . . Wliilc in 
 the general, there was a substantial identity be- 
 tween the scholastic leaning of Oxford and of 
 Paris, yet Oxford was niore eager in following 
 positive science : — and this, although such studies 
 were disparaged by the Church, and therefore by 
 the public. Indeed originally the Church had 
 been on the opposite side; but the speculative 
 tendency of the times liad carried her over, so 
 that speculation and theology went hand in hand. 
 In the middle of the thirteentli century we may 
 name Robert Grosseteste and John Basingstock, 
 as cultivating physical science, and (more re- 
 markable still) the Franciscan Roger Bacon: a 
 man ivhom the vulgar held to be equal to Mer- 
 lin and Michael Scott m a magician, and whom 
 posterity ranks by the noblest spirits of the fif- 
 teenth and sixteenth centuries, in all branches of 
 positive science, — except theolopy . A biography 
 of Roger Bacoa should surely be ' -ittenl Unfor- 
 tunately, we k-ow nothing as to the influence of 
 these men on their times, nor can we even learn 
 whether the University itself was at all interested 
 in their studies. . . . Wo have ... a strange 
 testimony to the interest which in the beginning 
 of tho fourteenth century the mass of the stu- 
 dents took in the speculation of their elde.s; for 
 the street rows were carried on under the banners 
 of Nominalists and Realists. . . . The coarse 
 and ferocious manners iirevalent in the Univer- 
 sities of tho JUddIc Ages arc every where in 
 singular contrast to thair intellectual pretensions: 
 but the Universities of the Continent were peace- 
 ful, decorous, dignif.^J, — compared with those 
 of England. The storms which were elsewhere 
 occasional, were at Oxford the permanent atnios- 
 
 Sliere. For nearly two centuries our 'Poster 
 lother ' of Oxford lived in a din of uuiiterrupled 
 
 700 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Cambridge in 
 the Middle Ayei. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 furio\i8 wiirfiirc; nation against nation, stliool 
 against school, faculty agi.inst faculty. Halls, and 
 finally Colleges, came forward as combatants ; and 
 the University, as a whole, against tlie Town; or 
 against, the Bishop of Lincoln ; or against the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Nor was Cambridge 
 much less pugnacious." — V. A. lluber, Tlic Kitij- 
 IMi Uiiicersilies, v. 1, rli. 3. — Cambridge. — 
 " Various facts and circuniHtanccs . . . lend 
 probahility to the belief that, long before the 
 time when we have certain 'evidence of th(i exist- 
 ence of Cambridge as a univer.sity, the work of 
 instruction was there going on. The Cambori- 
 tum of the Roman period, the Grantebrycgr of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Orentebrige of 
 Domesday, must always have been a place of 
 sonic importance. It was tlie meeting-place of 
 two great Konian roads, — Akeinan ■'street, running 
 east and west, and the Via Devana, traversing 
 the north and the south. . . . Coiitined at first to 
 the rising ground on the left bank of the river, 
 it numbered at the time of the Norman Conquest 
 as many as four hundred houses, of which twenty- 
 seven were jnilled down to make way for the 
 castle erected by William the Conciueror. . . . 
 Under the castle walls, with the view, it would 
 seem, of making some atonement for many a 
 deed of violence and wror.g, the Nornnin slierilT, 
 Picot by name, founded the Church of St. Giles, 
 and instituted in connection witli it a small body 
 of secular canons. . . . Tiie year 1113 was 
 marked by the occurrence of an event of consid- 
 erable importance in connection with the subse- 
 ijuent hibtory of the university. The canons of 
 St. C iles, attended by a lo"gi; concourse of the 
 clcrg ' and laity, crossed the river, and took up 
 their iibodc in a nev and spacious priory at Barn- 
 well. . . . Tlie prioy at Barnwell, whi^.lialway- 
 ranked among the wealthiest of the Cambridge 
 foundations, seems from tlie first to have been 
 closely associated with the university ; and the 
 earliest university c.\liibitions were those founded 
 by William de Kilkenny, bishop of Ely from 
 1254 to 1257, for two students of divinity, who 
 were to receive annually ihe sum ot two marks 
 from the priory. In the year 1133 was foimdcd 
 the nunnery of St. Rhadegund, whioh, in the 
 reign of Henry VII., was ei.nverted into Jesus 
 College; and in 1135 a hospital of Augustinian 
 canons, dedicated to St. .lohn the Evangelist, 
 was founded by Henry Frost, a burgess of the 
 town. ... It ^^ as ... a very important foun- 
 dation, inasmuch as it not only becanie by con- 
 version in the si.vtee.tli century the College of 
 St. John the Evangelist, but was also . . . tlie 
 foundation of which Peterhou.se, the earliest 
 Cambridge college, may be said to liave been in 
 a certain sense the offshoot. ... In the year 
 1299 there broke out at Paris a feud of more 
 than ordinary gravity between the students and 
 the citizens. Large numbers of the former mi- 
 grated to the English sliores; and Cand)ridge, 
 from its proximity to tlie eastern coast, and as 
 the centre where Prince Louis, but a few years 
 before, had raised the royal standard, seems to 
 have attracted the great majority. . . . The 
 university of Cambridge, like tliat of Oxford, 
 was modelled mainly on the university of Paris 
 Its constitution was conscqii"ntly oligarchic 
 rather than d^'inocratic, the government being 
 entirely in the hands of the teacliing body, while 
 the bachelors and undcrgruluates had no share 
 in the passing of new laws and regulations," — J 
 
 B. JIullinger, .^1 IIMorjinf the Unirerritynf Cam- 
 hi-iihjc, (•/(. 1-2. — "The earliest existing college 
 at Cambridge is St. Peter's, generally called 
 Peterhouse, liistoricallv founded A. I). 1257, in 
 the rel/'n of Henry IIL The Universities are 
 known merely by their situation; as Oxford, 
 Cambridge, Durham, St. Andrews'; but each 
 ciillcge has a na.ne, according to the taste of its 
 founder or first members, 'riicse names may bo 
 divided into two clas.ses, those named from the 
 founder, as Pembroke, Clare, Oonville and Caius 
 (this had two founders, the restorer bein;^ Dr. 
 Kaye, who Latinized his name into Caiu.s, always 
 pronounced Keys), King's (from King Henry 
 VI.), — (Jueens' (from the queens both of Henry 
 yi. and Edward IV.), Sidney Sussex, and Down- 
 ing; — and those namti. for beatified persons and 
 objects of w'Tsliip, — St. Peter's, St. John's, St. 
 Catharine's, St. .'^lary Magdalene, Corpus Christi, 
 ICniinanuel, Jesus Christ's, Trinity and Trinity 
 Hall. The apparent impiety of these names, 
 wliieli in one case of an ancient name now change.l, 
 was absolutely revolting, entirely passes off witli 
 a few days' use. St. Catliarine's soon becomes 
 Cats, and St. Jlary Magdalene is always called 
 .Maudlin. You readily admit the superiority of 
 Trinity over Corpus ale; go to see a friend who 
 lives on Christ's iiicce ; and iiear with regret, that 
 in the boat races Emmanuel has been bumped by 
 Jesus; an epithet being probably prefixed to tin 
 last name. t"l'"sc names of course were given in 
 monkish ■.iiics, — Trinity by Henry VIII., but 
 all the colleges except one were founded before 
 the reign of James I. . . . The seventeen col- 
 leges . . . are distinct corporations. Their foun- 
 dations, resources, buildings, governing authori- 
 ties an<l students, are entirely separate from each 
 other. Nor has any one college the least control 
 in any other. The plan, however, is much the 
 same in all. The presiding autliority is iu most 
 cases called the Master, or speaking more gener- 
 ally, the Head ; while the net proceeds of oil the 
 college funds — for the vast wealth supposed to 
 belong to the University really is in the hands of 
 tlie separate colleges — are distributed among 
 certain of tlie graduates, called Fellows, who 
 wi'h the Head constitute the corporation. These 
 corporations give board nnd lodging on various 
 tenns to such tiudents as choose to enter the col- 
 lege and comply with its rules, in order to re- 
 ceive its assistance in obtaining the honors of the 
 University ; and caeli college offers its own pe- 
 culiar iiulucements to students. . . . The whole 
 body of the colleges, taken together, constitutes 
 the University. ^W those who after residing 
 se 'cn years ot some college, have taken the de- 
 gree ot JIaster of Arts, or a higher one, and keep 
 their name on tlie college lists by a small poy- 
 ment, vote at the University elections for mem- 
 bers )f Parliament and all other officers, and 
 manage its aitairs. . . . The colleges, at certain 
 intervals, present such students as comply with 
 their conditions to University authorities fo- .na- 
 triculation, for certain examinations, and for the 
 reception of degrees ; and until one receives the 
 degree of JIaster of Arts, he must remain a mem- 
 ber of some college, not necessaiily one and the 
 same, to hold I'liy University privileges. After 
 tliisstajve, lie may, under certain conditions, break 
 up all his college connections, and yet remain ii 
 the University. " — W. Everett, On the dun., led , 
 Spain and Portugal. — "Salamanca was for. I- 
 e^d in the 13th century, and received Its s'...'i..es 
 
 701 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ideas of Rabelais. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 In the year 1422, out of which was devulop"'! the 
 followiug constitution. Thu rector, witli eiglit 
 'consiliurii,' all students, who could appoint tlieir 
 8Ucct'S.s<)r», administered tiic university. The 
 (locators render the oalli of obedience to the rector. 
 The ' domscholaster ' is the proper judge of tlic 
 seh(H)l ; but he swears obedience to the rector. 
 A baclielor of law must have studied six years, 
 and after live years more he could become licen- 
 tiate. Ip filling a paid teachership, the doctor was 
 chosi'n next in age of those holding the diploma, 
 unless a great majority of the scholars objected, 
 in which cas<' the rector and council decided. This 
 liberal constitution for the scholars is in harmony 
 with the code of Alphonzo X., soon after 1250, 
 in which the liberty of instruction was made a 
 geneml principle of law. This constitution con- 
 tinued in Salamanca into the 17th century, for 
 Ketes speaks of ;i disputation which the rector 
 held at that time under his presidency. Alcala 
 university was established by cardinal Xiraenes, 
 In 1510, for the promotion of the study of the- 
 ology and philosophy, for which reason it con- 
 tained a faculty of canon, but not of civil law. 
 The center of the university was the college of St. 
 TIdefons, consisting of thirty-three prebendaries, 
 who could be teachers or scholars, since for ad- 
 mission were required only poverty, the age of 
 twenty, and the comf.etiou of the course of the 
 preparatory colleges. These thirty-three mem- 
 bers elected annually a rector and three council- 
 ors, who controlled the entire university. Sala- 
 ried teachers were elected, not by the rector and 
 council alone, but by all the students. It had 
 wide reputation. AVhen visited by Francis I., 
 while a prisoner of Spain, lie was welcomed by 
 11,000 students. Tlie Coimbra university, in 
 Portugal, leceived statutes in 1309, from king 
 Dionysuis, with a constitution similar to those 
 just mentioned." — F. C. Savigny, The Unireni- 
 ties of the Middle Affes {IJarnard a Am. Journul of 
 Education, v. 22, ;). 334). 
 
 Renaissance. 
 
 "Modem education begins (vith the Renais- 
 sance. The educational methods that we the* 
 begin to discern will doubtless not be developed 
 and perfected till a later period ; the new doc- 
 trines will pass into practice only gradually, and 
 with th" general progress of the times. But from 
 the sixteenth century education is in possession 
 of its essential principles. . . . The men of the 
 sixteenth century having renewed with classical 
 anti(iuity an intercourse that had been too long 
 interrupted, it was natural that they should pro- 
 pose to the young the study of the Greeks and 
 the Romans. What is called secondary instruc- 
 tion really dates from the sixteenth century. 
 The crude works of the Sliddle Ago are suc- 
 ceeded by the elegant compositions of Athens 
 and Rome, henceforth niacle accessible to all 
 through the art of printing ; and, with the read- 
 ing of the ancient authors,there reappear through 
 the fruitful effect of imitation, their qualities of 
 correctness in thought, of literary taste, and of 
 elegance in form. In France, as in Italy, the 
 national tongues, moulded, and, as it were, con- 
 secrated by writers of genius, become the instru- 
 ments of an intellectual propaganda. Artistic 
 taste, revived by the rich products of a race of 
 incomparable artists, gives an extension to the 
 horizon of life, and creates a new class of emo- 
 tions. Finally, the Protestant Itefonu develops 
 
 individual thouglit and free iiuiuirj-, an<l ot the 
 same time, by its success, it impo8<;8 still greater 
 elTorts on the Catholic Church. This is not say- 
 ing that everything is faultless in the educational 
 efforts of the sixteenth century. First, as Is 
 natural for innovators, the thought of the teach- 
 ers of thill period is marked by enthusiasm ratlier 
 than by precision. They are more zealous in 
 pointing out the end to be attained, than exact 
 in determining the means to be employed. Be- 
 sides, some of them are content to emancipate 
 the mind, but forget to give it proper direction. 
 Finally, others make a wrong use of the ancients; 
 thev arc too much preoccupied with the form 
 ami the puriiy of language ; they fall into Cice- 
 roinania, and it is not their fault if a new super- 
 stition, that of rhetoric, does not succeed the old 
 superstition, thct of the Syllogism." — Q. Corn- 
 pay re. The Hint, of Ped(i(jori!i,ch. 5 (ncct. 92-93). 
 
 Rabelais' Gargrantua. — Rabelais' description of 
 the imaginary education of Gargantua gives us 
 the educational ideas of a man of genius in the 
 16th century: "Gargantua, "ho writes, "awaked, 
 then, about four o'clock in the morning. Whilst 
 they were rubbing him, there was read unto him 
 some chapter of the Iloly Scripture aloud and 
 clearly, with a pronunciation fit for the matter, 
 and hereunto was appointed a young page born 
 in Basclie, named Anagnostes. According to the 
 purpose and argument of tliat lesson, he often- 
 times gave himself to revere, adore, pray, and 
 send up his supplications to that goo<l God whoso 
 word did show His majesty and marvellous judg- 
 ments. Then his master fcpoated what had been 
 read, expounding un.o him the ?nost obscure and 
 dilHcult points. They then considered the face 
 of the sky, if it was such as they had observed it 
 th" night before, and into what signs the sun 
 was entering, as also the moon for that day. 
 This done, he was appareled, combed, curled, 
 trimmed and perfumed, during which time they 
 repeated to him the lessons of the day before. 
 He himself said them by heart, and upon them 
 grounded practical cases concerning the estate of 
 man, which he would prosecute sometimes two 
 or three hours, but ordinarily they ceased as soon 
 as ho was fully clothed. 'Then for tlirs , good 
 hours there was reading. This done, they went 
 forth, still conferring of the substance of the 
 reading, and disported themselves at ball, tennis, 
 or the 'pile trigone,' gallantly exercising their 
 bodies, as before they had done their minds. All 
 their play was but in liberty, for they left off 
 when they pleased, and that was commonly when 
 they did sweiit, or were otherwise wearv. Then 
 were they very well dried and rubbeJ, shifted 
 their shirts, and walking soberly, went to see if 
 dinnei was ready. Whilst they stayed for that, 
 they did clearly and eloquently recite some sen- 
 tences that *hey had retained of the lecture. In 
 the mean time blaster Appetite came, and then 
 very orderly sat they down at table. At the be- 
 ginning of the meal there was read some pliMisant 
 liistory of ancient prowess, until h had taken his 
 wino. Then, if they thought good, they con- 
 tinued reading, or began to discourse merrily to- 
 gether; speaking tirst of the virtue, propriety, 
 elUcacy, and nature of all that was served in at 
 that table; of bread, of wine, of water, of salt, 
 of flesh, flsli, fruits, herbs, roots, and of their 
 dressing. By means whereof. In learned in a 
 little time all the passages that on these subjects 
 are to he found in Pliny, Atheua'us, Dloscorides, 
 
 702 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Kennissnnre in 
 Ciennany. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Julius, Pollux, Galen, Porphyrins, Oppimi, Poly- 
 bius, Heliwlorus, Aristotle, (Kliiiii, mid others. 
 "Whilst they talked of these things, many times, 
 to be the more certain, they caused the very 
 hooks to be brought to the table, and so well and 
 perfectly did he in his memory retain the things 
 above sidd, that in that time there was not a 
 physician that knew half so mueh as he did. 
 Afterwards tlicy conferred of the lessons rend in 
 the morning, and ending their repast with some 
 conserve of quince, h(! wai'.ed his hands and 
 eyes with fair fresli water, and gave thanks imto 
 God in some fine canticle, made in pniise of the 
 divine bounty and niuuificcnco. This done, they 
 brought in cards, not to play, but to learn a 
 thousand pretty tricks ami new inventions, which 
 were all grounded upon arithmetic. By this 
 means he fell in love with that numerical science, 
 and every day after dinner and supper he pas.se(l 
 liis time in it as pleasantly as he was wont to do 
 at cards and dice. . . . After this they recreated 
 themselves with singing musically, "in four or 
 five parts, or upon a set theme, as it best pleased 
 them. In matter of musical instruments, he 
 learned to play the lute, the spinet, the harp, the 
 German tlute, the flute with nine holes, the violin, 
 and the sackbut. This hour thus spent, he be- 
 t(K)k himself to his piincipal study for three 
 hours together, or more, as well to repeat his 
 matutinal lectures as to proceed in the book 
 wherein he was, ns also to write handsome.;', to 
 draw ond form the antique and Honian letters. 
 This being done, they went out of their house, 
 and with them a young gentleman of Touraine, 
 named Gymnast, who taught the art of riding. 
 Changing then his clothes, he moimted on any 
 kind of horse, which he made to bound in the 
 air, to i'lmp the J itch, to leap tlie palisade, and 
 to turn short in a ring botli to the right and left 
 hand. . . . The time being thus bestowed, and 
 himself rubbed, cleansed, and refreshed with 
 other clotlies, they returned fair and softly ; and 
 Iiassing through certain mc dows, or otlier grassy 
 ])laces, behtld the trees and piants, comparing 
 the'-i witli what is written of them in the books 
 of the ancients, such as Theophrsistus, Dioscori- 
 des, Marinus. Pliny, Nicander, Maccr, and Galen, 
 and carried home to the house great hand fids of 
 them, whereof a young page called iUuzotomos 
 had charge — together witli hoes, picks, spuds, 
 pruning-knives, and other instruments requisite 
 for herborising. Being come to tlieir lodging, 
 whilst oupper was making ready, they repealed 
 certain passages of tliat which had been rend, 
 and then sat down at table. . . . During that 
 repast was continued the lesson read at dinner as 
 long as they thought gowl : tlie rest was spent in 
 go(S discourse, learned and profltiible. After 
 that they had giv -n thanks, they set aernselves 
 to sing musically, and play upon liarmonious in- 
 struments, or nt those pretty sports made with 
 cards, dice or cups, — tlius made merry till it was 
 time to go to bed ; and sometimes they would go 
 iiake visits unto learned men, or to such as had 
 been travellers in strange countries. At full 
 nigl •■ they went into the most open place of the 
 house to see the face of the sky, and there beheld 
 the comets, if nny were, ns likewise the figures, 
 situations, aspects, oppositions, and conjunctions 
 of the stars. Then with his mmt^T did he briefly 
 recapitulate, aft<;r the manner of the Pythagor- 
 eans, tliat which he liad read, seen, learned, done, 
 and understood in the whole course of that day. 
 
 Then they prayed unto God the Creator, falling 
 down before llim, and stn^ngthening their faith 
 towards Him, and glorifying Ilim for His l)ound- 
 less bounty; and, giving thanks unto Him for the 
 time that was past, they recommended them- 
 selves to His divine clemency for the future. 
 AV'hich being done, they entered upon their re- 
 jiose. " — W. Besant, Headings in Uabelain, pp. 
 
 Germany. — "The schools of France and Italy 
 owed litth^ to the great mmlern movement of the 
 Itenaissance. In both these countries that move- 
 ment operated, in l)oth it produced mighty re- 
 sults; but of the ollicial establishments for in- 
 struction it did not get hold. In Italy the 
 media' val routine in those establishments at first 
 opposed a passive resistance to it; presently 
 came ihe Catholic reaction, and sedulously shut 
 it out from them. In France the Uenaisrance 
 did not become a power in the State, and the 
 routine of the schools suflleed to exclude the 
 new inrtuence till it took for itself other chan- 
 nels than the schools. But in Germany the 
 Benaissaneo became a power in the State ; allied 
 with the Heforniation, where the Reformation 
 triumphed in German countries the Renaissance 
 triumphed witli it, and entered with it, into the 
 public sclicK)l3. Melancthon and Erasmus were 
 not merely enemies and snbverters of the domin- 
 ion of the Church of Rome, they were eminent 
 humanists; and with the great but single excep- 
 tion of Lutlicr, the chief German reformers were 
 all of them diatinguished friends of the new 
 classical learning, as well as of Protestantism. 
 The Romish party was in Gennan countries the 
 ignorant party also, the party untouched by the 
 humanities and by culture. Perhaps one reason 
 why in England our schools have not had the 
 life and growth of the schools of Germany and 
 Holland is to be found in the separation, with 
 us, of the po^ver of the Reformation and the 
 power of the Renaissance. With us, too, the 
 keformation triumphed and got possession of 
 our schools; but our leading refonners were not 
 at the same time, like those of Germany, the na- 
 tion's leading spiiits in intellect and culture. In 
 Germany the best spirits of the nation were then 
 the reformers; in England our best spirits, — 
 Shakspeare, Bacon, Spenser, — were men of the 
 Renaissance, not men of the Reformation, and 
 our reformers were men of the second order. 
 The Reformation, tlierefore, otetting hold of the 
 schools in England was a very t'ilTerent force, a 
 force far inferior in light, resources, and pros- 
 pects, to the Reformation getting hold of the 
 schools in Germany. But in Germany, n'?ver- 
 theless, as Protestant orthodoxy grew petrified 
 like Catholic orthodoxy, and as, in consequence, 
 Protestantism flagged and lost the powerful im- 
 ])iilse with wh'ch it started, the school flagged 
 also, and in the middle of the last century the 
 classical teaching of Germany, in spite of a few 
 honourable names like Gesner's, Erncsti's, and 
 Heyne'3, seems to liave lost all the spirit and 
 power of the lOtli century humanists, to hav;: 
 been sinkins, into a mere church appendage, and 
 fast becoming torpid. A theological student, 
 making his livelihood by teaching till he io\\\i\ 
 get appointed to a parish, was the usual .school- 
 master. 'The schools will never be better,' said 
 their gveat renovator, Friedrich August Wolf, the 
 well-kn wn critic of Homer, ' so long at the 8ch(X)l- 
 masti- . are theologians by profession. A theoiog- 
 
 703 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Reformation 
 niul Kducaiion. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Iriil course in n university, witli its sninttoring of 
 <;Ias8i('S, is about ns good a prcjia ration for a classi- 
 <«l master as a course of feiulal law would be.' 
 Wolf's coming to llalle in ITHH, invited l)y Von 
 Zedlitz, the minister for ])ul)lie worship tinder 
 Frcderieli the Great, a sovereign whose civil ])ri)- 
 jects and labours were not less acti vu and remark- 
 able than his military, marlis an era from which 
 the classical schools of (iermany, reviving the dor- 
 mant sparli planted in them by the Hennissance, 
 awoke to a w.w life." — ,M. Arnold, Schools and 
 UniTcrsities on the Continent, rh. 14. — It is sur- 
 pri.sing to learn "how much was left untaught. 
 In the sixteenth century, in the schools. Geog- 
 raphy and history were entirely omitted in every 
 scheme of instruction, mathematics played but a 
 subordinate part, while not a thouglit was be- 
 stowed either upon natural phiUxsophy or natural 
 history Every moment and every effort were 
 given to the classical languages, chielly to the 
 Latin. But we should be overhasty, should we 
 conclude, witliout further inquiry, tliat these 
 branches, tliu .. .'glected in the .scliools, were tliere- 
 fore every where luitaught. Perhaps they were 
 reserved for the university alone, and there, too, 
 for the professors of the pliilosophical faculty, 
 as is the case even at the present day witli natu- 
 ral philo.sophy and natural history; nay, logic, 
 which was a regular scliool study in tlie six- 
 tcenth century, is, in our day, widely cultivated 
 at the university. We must, therefore, in order 
 to form a, just judgment upon the range of sub- 
 jects taught in the sixtecntli century, as well as 
 upon the methods of instruction, lirst cast a 
 glance at the state of the universities of that 
 period, especially in the philosophical faculties. 
 A prominent source of information on this point 
 is to be found in the statutes of the University 
 of Wittenberg, revised by Melancthon, in the 
 year 1545. The tlieological faculty appears, by 
 these statutes, to have consisted of four profes- 
 sors, who read lectures on tlie Old and New 
 Testaments, — chietiy on the Psalms, Genesis, 
 Isaiali, the Gospel of John, end the Epistle to 
 the Romans. They also taught dogmatics, com-, 
 menting upon the Nicene jreed and Augustine's 
 book, ' De spiritu et litera.' The Wittenberg 
 lecture schedide for the year 1561, is to tlie same 
 efifcct; only we have here, besides exegesis and 
 dogmatics, catechetics likewise. According to 
 the statutes, the philosophical faculty was com- 
 posed of ten professors. The lirst was to read 
 upon logic and rhetoric ; the second, upon phys- 
 ics, and the second book of Pliny's natural his- 
 tory ; the third, upon arithmetic and the ' Sphere ' 
 of John de Sacro Busto ; the fourth, upon Euclid, 
 the 'TheoriiB Planetarum' of Burbach, and 
 Ptolemy's 'Almagest'; the fiftn and sixth, upon 
 the Latin poets and Cicero • tlie seventh, who was 
 the ' Pedagogus,' explained to the younger class, 
 Latin Grnii..nar, Linacer 'de emendata structuia 
 L'ltini sermonis,' Terence, and .some of Plautus; 
 the eiglith, who was the 'Physicus,' explained 
 Aristotle's ' Physics and Diostujrides ' ; the nintii 
 gave instruction in Hebrew; and tlie tenth re- 
 viewed thi; Greek Graniinar, read lectures on 
 Greek Classics at intervals, also on one of St. 
 Paul's Epistles, and, at tlie same time, on ethics. 
 . . . Thus the philoso])liical faculty ajipears to 
 have been the most fully .^presented at Wit- 
 tenberg, as it included ten professors, while 
 the theological had but four, the* medical but 
 three. . . We have a . . . criterion by which 
 
 to judge of the limited nature of the studies of 
 that peri(xl, as compared with the wide field 
 which they cover at the present day, in the then 
 almost total lack of academical apparatus and 
 (Miuipinents. The only exception was to be 
 found in tlie case of libraries; but, liow meager 
 and insudlcient all collections of books must have 
 been at that time, when books were few in num- 
 ber and very costly, will ajipear from the fiiiKl, 
 for example, which was assigned to the Witten- 
 berg library; it yielded annually but one hun- 
 dred gulden, (about $03,) witli which, ' for tlio 
 profit of the university and chiefly of the poorer 
 students therein, the library may be adorned and 
 enriched with books in all the faculties and in 
 every art, as well in the Hebrew and Greek 
 tongues.' Of other apparatus, such as collec- 
 tions in natural history, anatomical museums, 
 botanical gardens, and the like, we find no men- 
 tion ; and the less, inasmuch as there was no 
 need of them in elucidation of sucli lectures as 
 the professors ordinarily gave. When Paul 
 Eber, the theologian, read lectures upon anat- 
 omy, he made no use of dis.sectiou. " — K. von 
 Haiimer, UniverHtief in the Sixteenth Century 
 (Barnard's Am. Journal of Education, v. 5, pp. 
 535-540).— Luther and the Schools.— " Luther 
 . . . felt that, to streugt.ieu the Reformation, it 
 was requisite to work on the young, to improve 
 the schools, and to propagi'te throughout Chris- 
 tendom the knowledge necessary for a profound 
 study of the holy Scriptures. 'Tiiis, accordingly, 
 was one of the objects of his life. lie saw it in 
 particular at the period which we have reached, 
 and wrote to the councillors of all the cities o.' 
 Germany, calling upon them to found Christian 
 schools. 'Dear sirs,' said he, 'we annually ex- 
 pend so much money on arquebuses, roads, and 
 dikes; why should we not spend a little to give 
 one or two schoolmasters to our poor childrent 
 God stands at the door, and knocks ; blessed are 
 we if we open to him. Now the word of God 
 abounds. O my dear Germans, buy, buy, while 
 the market is open before your houses. . . . 
 Busy yourselves with the children,' continues 
 Luther, .stilladdressingthemagistrates; 'fomiany 
 parents are lilte ostriches; they are hardened to- 
 wards their little ones, and satisfied with having 
 laid tlie egg, they care nothing for it afterwards. 
 The prosperity of a city does not consist merely in 
 heaping up great treasures, in building strong 
 walls, in erecting splendid mansions, in possess- 
 ing glittering arms. If madmen fall upon it, its 
 ruin will only be the greater. '.;'lie true wealth 
 of a city, its safety, and its strength, is to have 
 many learned, serious, worthy, well-educated 
 citizens. And whom must we blame because 
 there are so few at present, except you magis- 
 trates, who have allowed our youth to grow up 
 like trees in a forest? ' Luther jjiirticiilarly in- 
 sisted on tlie necessity of studying literature and 
 languages: ' What use is there, it may be asked, 
 in learning Latin, Greek, and Hebrew? We can 
 read the Bible very well in German. Without 
 languages,' replies hu, 'we could not have re- 
 ceived the gospel. . . . Languages are the scab- 
 bard that c^iiitains the sword of the Spirit ; tliey 
 are the casket that guards the jewels ; they arc 
 the vessel that holds the wine; and as the gospel 
 says, they are the baskets in whieli the loaves 
 and fishes arc kept to feed the multitude. If we 
 neglect the languages, we shall not only eventu- 
 ally lose the gospel, but be unable to speak or 
 
 704 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 trethren of 
 the Common Lot. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 write In Latin or in Qorniiui. No sooner did luou 
 cease to cultivate tlicni tlinn Cliristendoni de- 
 clined, even until it foil under the power of the 
 pope. IJut now that languaKe.s are again honored, 
 they shed such light that all the world is aston- 
 ished, and every one is forced to acknowledge that 
 our gospel is almost us pure as that of the apos- 
 tles themselves. In former times the holy fathers 
 were fre((uently mistaken, bei';iu.se they were 
 ignorant of languages. ... If the languages 
 had not made me positive us to the meaning of 
 the word, I might have been a pious monk, and 
 quietly preached the truth in llie obscurity of tlie 
 cloister; but I should have left the pope, the 
 sophists, and their antichristian empire still un- 
 shaken." — J. II. Merle d'Aubigne, JfiKt. of the 
 lieforiiuitioii of the 10</t Century, hk. 10, ch. 0(i'. !!). 
 — Lutlier, in his appeal to tlie municipal magis- 
 trates of Germany, calls for the organization of 
 common schools to be supported at public cost. 
 "Finally, he give° his thought to the means of re- 
 cruiting the teaching service. ' Since the greatest 
 ■evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we must 
 not wait till they come forward of themselves ; we 
 must take the trouble to educate them and pre- 
 pare them.' To this end Luther keeps the best 
 of the pup"" boys and girls, for a longer time 
 in school; g ves them special instructors, and 
 •opens libraries for their use. In liis thouglit he 
 never distinguislies women teacliers from men 
 ieachers; he wants schools for girls as well as 
 for boys. Only, not to biirden parents and 
 <liven children from their daily lubor, he re- 
 quires but little time for seliool duties. . . . 
 ' My opinion is [he says] tliat we must send the 
 ■boys to school one or two hours a dav , and have 
 tliem learn a trade at home for the rest of the 
 time. It is desirable that th'jse two occupations 
 march side by side.'. . . JjUther gives the lirst 
 jilace to the teaching of religion : ' Is it not reason- 
 able that every Christian sho\dd know the Gospel 
 at the age of nine or ten?' Then come the lan- 
 guages, not, as might be hoped, the mother 
 tongue, but the learned languages, Latin, Greek, 
 and Hebrew. Luiher had not yet been sufliciently 
 Tid of the old spirit to comprehend that the 
 language of the people ought to bo the basis of 
 universal instruction. He loft to Comenius tlie 
 glory of making the linal separation of the 
 primary school from the Latin school. . . . 
 Physical exercises are not forgotten in Luther's 
 pedagogical regulations. But I'e attaches an 
 especial importance to singing. ' Unless a school- 
 master know how to sing, I think him of no ac- 
 count.' ' Music,' he says again, ' is a half disci- 
 pline which makes men more indulgent and 
 niore mild. ' At tlie same time that he extends 
 the programme of studies, Luther introduces u 
 new spirit into methods. He wishes more lib- 
 erty and more joy in the school. ' Solomon,' he 
 says, ' is u truly royal schoolmaster. He does 
 not, like the monks, forbid the young tc go into 
 the world and be happy. Even as Anselm said : 
 " A young man turned aside Trom the world is 
 like a young tree made to grow in a vase. " The 
 monks have imprisoned young men like birds in 
 their cage, it is dangerous to isolate the young. ' 
 ... Do not let ourselves imagine, however, that 
 Luther at once exercised a decisive influence on 
 the current educatioiuof his day, A few schools 
 were founded, called writing schools; but the 
 Thirty Years' War, and other events, interruiited 
 the niovemeut of which Luther has the honor of 
 
 i.aving been the originator. ... In the first half 
 of the seventeenth century, Paticii, a German, 
 and Comenius, u Slave, were, with very diller- 
 ent degrees of merit, the heirs of the educational 
 thought of Luther. With something of the 
 eharlatan and the demagogue, Uatich devoted 
 his life to propagating a novel art of teaching, 
 wliich he called didactics, and to wliich he at- 
 tributed marvels. He pretended, by his method 
 of languages, to teach Hebrew, Greek, and 
 Latin, in six montlis. But nevertheless, out of 
 many strange perfonnai'.ces and lofty promises, 
 there i.ssue some thoughts of practical value. 
 The tirst merit ol Uatich was to give the mother 
 tongue, the German language, the precedence 
 over the ancient languages." — G. Compavre, 
 Ttu: Hint. ofl'c(Uifjoffi/.'ch. « (sect. 130-134). 
 
 Netherlands. — " When learning began to re- 
 vive after the long sleep of the Middle Ages, 
 Italy experienced the first impulse. Next camo 
 Germany and t he conti{;uous provinces of the Low 
 Countries. The force of the movement in these 
 regions is .shown by an event of groat import- 
 ance, not always noticed by historians. In 1400, 
 tliere was established at Deventer, in the north- 
 eastern iirovince of the Netherlands, an associa- 
 tion or brotherliood, usually called Brethren of 
 the Life in Common [s('e Bii'vninuN op the 
 C0M.M0N Lot]. In their strict lives, partial com- 
 munity of goods, iiulustry in manual labor, fer- 
 vent devotion, and tendency to mj'stieism, they 
 bore some resemblance to the modern Jloravians. 
 But they wore strikingly distinguished from the 
 members of tliis sect by their earnest cultivation of 
 knowledge, which was encouraged among them- 
 selves and promoted among others by schools, 
 both for primary and advanced education. In 
 1430, the Brethren had established forty-flve 
 branches, and by 1400 more than thrice that 
 number. They wore scattered through different 
 parts of Germany and the Low Countries, each 
 with its school subordinate to tlie head college 
 at Deventer. It was in these schools, in the 
 middle of the fifteenth century, that a few Ger- 
 mans and Netherlanders were, as Hallam says, 
 roused to acquire that extensive knowledge of 
 the ancient languages which Italy as yet exclu- 
 sively possessed. Their names should never be 
 omitted in any remombra jce of the revival of 
 letters ; for great was their influence upon sub- 
 sequent times. Chief among these men were 
 Wessels, of Groningon, 'one of those who con- 
 tributed most steadily to tlie purification of re- 
 ligion ' ; Ilegius of Deventer, under whom Eras- 
 mus obtained his early education, and who 
 probably was the first man to print Greek north 
 of the Alps; Dringeberg, who founded a good 
 school in Alsace; and Longius. who presided 
 over one at JIunster. Thanks to tlic influence of 
 tlicse pioneers in learning, education had made 
 great progress among the Netherlanders by the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. . . . We have 
 the testimony of the Italian Guicciardini to the 
 fact tliat before tlie outbrealc of tlie war with 
 Spain oven tlie peasants in Holland could road 
 and write well. As the war went on, the people 
 showed their determination tliat in this matter 
 there should be no retrogression. In the first 
 Synod of Dort, held in 1574, tlie clergy expressed 
 their opinion upon the subject by passing a reso- 
 lution or ordinance which, among otllor things, 
 directed ' the servants of the Church' to obtain 
 from the magistrates in every locality a pcnnis- 
 
 705 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Univertity 
 of Leytlen, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 sion for the Appointment of schoolmnsterg, und 
 (in (irdcr for tlicir eompenwitlon iis in tlic past. 
 B«'f()rt' many yciirs Imd eliipscd tlie civil uiitliori- 
 tics l)('j;iiii to establish a general Bchool sy:item 
 for the country In 1582, the Estati's of Friea- 
 Iiind decreed tiiiit the iidialiitants of towns and 
 villaKes snonld, within tlio Bpaeo of six weeits, 
 provide good and able Uefornied scliooiniastors, 
 und those wlio neglected so to do would be com- 
 pelled to accept the instructors appointed for 
 tliem. This seems to have been the beginnln" of 
 the supervision of education by tin; State, a 
 system which soon spread over tlio whole repub- 
 lic. In these schools, however, alth ii;li they 
 were fostered by tlio State, the teachei ^ seem, in 
 the main, to have been paid by their pupils. 
 But ns years went on, a change came al)out in 
 this [tart of the system. It jirobably was aided 
 by the noteworthy letter which Jolin of Nassau, 
 the oldest brother of William the Silent, the 
 noble veteian who lived luitil 1000, wrote to his 
 son Lewis William, Stadtholder of Friesland. 
 In this letter, wliich is wortliy of a place on tlie 
 walls of every sclioolhouse in America, the gal- 
 lant young Btadt-holdcr is instructed to ui ge on 
 the States-General 'that they, according to the 
 example of the pope and Jesuits, shouUl cstablisli 
 free schools, where children of (luality as well as 
 of poor families, for a very small sum, could bo 
 well and christianly educated and brouglil up. 
 This would be the greatest and most useful 
 work, anil the liigliest service that you could 
 ever accomplisli for God and Christianity, and 
 especially for the Netherlands themselves. . . . 
 In sui.ima, one may jeer at this as popisli tricli- 
 ery, and undervalue it as ono will: there still 
 remains in tlic work an inexpressible benefit. 
 Soldiers and patriots thus educated, with a true 
 knowledge of God and a Cl'ristian conscience, 
 item, churches and schoo s, good libraries, books, 
 und printing-presses, arc better tlian all armies, 
 arsenals, armories, munitions, alliances, and trea- 
 ties that can be hai! ■ r imagimd in the world.' 
 Such were the worda ii v/Iiich the Patriarch of 
 the Nass-tus urged upon liis countrymen a com- 
 mon-school system. In liiOO, when the Pilgrim 
 Fathers took up their residence in Leyden, tlie 
 school hail become the common property of the 
 people, and was paid for among other municipal 
 expenses. It was a land of schools supported 
 by the St8.to — a land, dc cording to Motl.'y, 
 ' where every child went to school, where almost 
 every individual inhabitant could write and read, 
 where even the middle classes were proficient in 
 mathematics and the claasics, and could speak 
 two or more modern languages. ' Does any reader 
 now ask whence the settlers of Plymouth, who 
 came directly from Holland, and the other set- 
 tlers of New England whose Puritan brethren 
 were to be found in thousands throughout the 
 Dutch Hcpublic, derived their ideas of schools 
 first directid, and then impported by the State." 
 — Leyden University. — To commemorate the de- 
 liverance of Leyden from the Spanish siege in 
 1574 (see Netherlands; A. D. 1573-1574), "and 
 as a reward fur the heroism of the citizens, the 
 Prince of Orange, with the consent of the Es- 
 tates of the provinrj, founded tlie University of 
 Leyden. Still, the figment of allegiance^ re- 
 mained; the people were only fighting for their 
 constitutional rights, and so were doing tlieirduty 
 to the sovereign. Hence the charter of the uni- 
 versity ran in the name of Philip, who was 
 
 credited with its foundation, as a reward to his 
 subjects for their reliellion against his evil eoiin- 
 sellors and servants, 'especially in consideration 
 of the dilTereiiees of religion, and the great bur- 
 dens and hardships Iiorno by the citizens of our 
 city of Leyden during the war with sucli faith- 
 fulness.' Motley calls this 'ponderous irony,' 
 but tlie Hollanders were able lawyers and in- 
 tended to build on n legal basis. This event 
 marks an epocli in the intellectual history of 
 Holland and of the world. . . . The new univer- 
 sity was opened in 1575, and from the outset, 
 took the highest rank. "■ aking, a few years 
 ago, of its famous senaie chamlier, Niebulir 
 called it 'the nio.st memorable room of Europe 
 in the history of learning.' The first curator 
 was John Van der Does, who had been military 
 commandant of the city during the siege, lie 
 was of u distinguished family, but was still 
 more distinguislied for his learning, his poetical 
 genius, and his valor. Endowed with ample 
 funds, tlio university largely owed its marked 
 pre-eminence to the intelligent foresiglit und wise 
 munificence of its curators. Tliey sought out 
 and obtained tlio most distinguislied scholars of 
 all nations, and to this end spared neither iiuius 
 nor expense. Diplomatic negotiation and even 
 princely mediation were often culled in for the 
 ucquisition of a professor. Hence it was said 
 tliat it surpassed all the universities of Europe 
 in the number of its scliolars of renown. These 
 scholars wer.! treated witli princely honors. . . . 
 Tlio 'mech.nicais'of Holland, as Elizabeth called 
 them, may not have paid the aeeustomed wor- 
 sliip to rank, but to genius and learning they 
 were always willing to do homage. Space would 
 fail for even a brief account of the great men, 
 foreign and native, who illuminated Leyden with 
 tlieir presence. . . . But it was not alone in 
 scholursiiip and in scientific researcli that the 
 University of Leyden gave an impetus to modem 
 thought. Theological disputes were developed 
 there at times, little tempests wliicli threatened 
 destruction to the institution, but they were of 
 short duration. Tlie right of conscience was 
 always r"spected, and in tlie main the right of 
 full and public discussion. . . . When it was 
 settled that dissenters could not be educated in 
 the English universities, th^y fiocked to Leyden 
 in great numbers, making tliat city, next to 
 Edinburgli, their cliief resort. Eleven years 
 after the opening of tlie University of Leyden, 
 tlie Estates of democratic Friesland, amid the 
 din of war, founded the University of Franekcr, 
 an institution wliicli was to become famous us 
 the hiine of Arminius. . . . Both of these uni- 
 VI isities were iierpetuuliy endowed with the 
 proceeds of the ecclesiastical property wliicli liad 
 been confiscated during tlie progress of the war." 
 — D. Campbell, The Puritan in IloUaml, Eng- 
 land, and AmeriM, eh. 3, 20, and 3. 
 
 England. — "In contemplating the events of 
 the fifteenth anil sixteenth centuries, in their in- 
 fluence on Englisli civilisation, we are reminded 
 once more of tlie futility of certain modern 
 aspirations. No amount of University Commis- 
 sions, nor of well-meant reforms, will change 
 the nature of Englislimeu. It is impossible, by 
 distributions of University prizes i>nd professor- 
 ships, to attract into tlie career of letters that 
 proportion of industry and ingenuity -^hich, in 
 Germany for example, is devoted to the scho- 
 lastic life Politics, trade, law, snort, religion. 
 
 706 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 rnhlanil 
 St. I'aul'H School. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 will claim their own in Knglnnd, just (is they ili(i 
 lit the Uevivnl of Letters, The illustrious cen- 
 tury wliich Italy cnii)l()ye(l in unburyinj?, appro- 
 priating, and enjoying' the treasures of Greek 
 literature and art, our fathers gave, in Kngland, 
 U> dynastic and constitutional sciuabhles, and to 
 religious broils. The Henaissanee in England, 
 and chiefly in O.xford, was like a hitter ami 
 changeful spring. Th"re was an liour of genial 
 warmth, there breathed a wind from the south, 
 in the lifetime of Chaucer; then came frosts and 
 storms; again the brief sunshine of court favour 
 shone on iiteratviro for a wliile, wlien Henry 
 VIII, encouraged study, and Wolsey and Fox- 
 founded Cliri-st (;hureli and Corpus Chrisli Col- 
 lege, once more the had days of religious strife 
 returned, and the promise of learning was de- 
 stroyed. Thus the chief result of the awakening 
 tliought of the fourteenth century in England 
 was not ft lively delight in literature, but the ap- 
 pearance of the Lollards. The intensely ])rac- 
 tical genius of our race turned, not to letters, 
 but to (luestiona about tlie soul and its future, 
 about i)roperty and its distribution. The Lol- 
 lards were put down in O.xford; 'the tares were 
 weeded out' by the House of Lancaster, and in 
 the process the germs of free tliought, of origin- 
 ality, and of a rational education, were de- 
 stroyed. 'Wyclevism did domineer among us,' 
 Bays Wood ; and, in fact, the intellect of the Uni- 
 versity was absorbed, like the intellect of France 
 during tlie lieut of tlie Jansenist controversy, in 
 defending or assailing '267 damned conclusions,' 
 drawn from the books of Wyclife. Tlic Uinver- 
 sity ' lost many of her children thrjugh the pro- 
 fession of Wyclevism.'" — A. Lang, Oxford, ch. 3. 
 — Colet and St. Paul's School.— Dr. John Colet, 
 appointed Dean of St. Paul's in 1505, "resolved, 
 whilst living and in health, to devote his patri- 
 monj' to tlie foundation of a school in St. Paul's 
 Churchyard, wherein 153 children, without any 
 restriction as to nation or country, who could 
 already read and write, and were of 'good parts 
 and capacities,' should receive a sound Cliristian 
 education. The 'Latin adulterate, which igno- 
 rant blind fools brought into this world,' poison- 
 ing thereby ' the oid Latin speecli, and the very 
 Roman tongue used in the time of Tully and 
 Sallust, aiul Virgil and Terence, and learned by 
 St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and St. Augustine,' — 
 all that 'abusion which the later blind world 
 brought in, and which niiiy rather be called 
 Blotteraturu than Literature, ' — should be ' utter- 
 ly abanished and excluded ' oat of this school. 
 The children should be taught good litemture, 
 both Latin and Greek, ' such authors that have 
 with wisdom joined pure chaste eloiiuence' — 
 'specially Christian authors who wrote their 
 wisdom in clean and chaste Latin, whether in 
 prose or verse ; for,' said Colet, ' my intent is by 
 this school specially to increase knowledge, and 
 worshipping of God and Our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 and good Christian life and manners in the chil- 
 dren.'. . . Tiie building consisted of one large 
 room, divided into an upper and lower school by 
 a curtain, which could be drawn at pleasure, 
 and the charge of the two schools devolved upon 
 a high-master and a sub-master respectively. 
 The forms were arranged so as each to seat si,\- 
 teen boys, and were provided each with a raised 
 desk, at which the head-boy sat as president. 
 The building also embraced an entrance-porch 
 and a little chapel for divine service. Dwelling- 
 
 houses were erected, adjoining the school, for 
 the residence of tlie two masters; and for their 
 support, Colet obtained, in the spring of 1510, a 
 royal license to transfer to the Wardens and 
 Guild of .Mercers in London, real jiroperty to the 
 value (if t,'.")3 per annum (('(|uivalerit to at least 
 £530 of jiresent money). Of tli';* the head-master 
 was to receive as his .salary £35 (say t'350) and 
 tli(! under-master t'lH (say £180) per annum. 
 Three or four years after, Colet niaih; provision 
 for a chaplain to conduet divine service in the 
 chapel, and to instruct the children in the Cate- 
 chism, the Articles of the faith, and XXw. Teu 
 (,'ommandmeiits, — in Luglish; and ultimately, 
 before his death, he appears to have iiicreaseil 
 the amount of the whole endowment to £1'J3 
 (say £1,'JOO) per annum. So that it may lie con- 
 sidered, roughly, that the wholi^ endownieiit, in- 
 eluding the buildings, cannot have rejiresented 
 ft less sum than £30,000 or £40,000 of present 
 money. And if Colet thus sacriticed so much 
 of his private fortune to secure a liberal (and it 
 must be conceded Ills was a liberal) provision for 
 tlie remuneration of the masters wlioslio\dd edu- 
 cate his 153 boys, he must surely have had deeply 
 at heart the welfare of the "boys themselves. 
 And, in truth, it was so. Colet was like a 
 father to his sclioolboys. ... It was not to 
 be expected that he should find the school- 
 books of the old grammarians in any way adapt- 
 ed to his i)urpo.se. So at once ho set his learned 
 friends to work to provide him with new ones. 
 The lirst thing wanted was a Latin Grammar 
 for beginners, i.inaere undertook to provide 
 this want, and wrote with great pains and 
 labour, a work in six books, whicli afterwards 
 came into general use. But when Colet saw 
 it, at the risk of displeasing his friend, he put 
 it altogether aside. It was too long and too 
 learned for his 'little beginners.' So ho con- 
 densed within the eompa.ss of ft few pages two 
 little treatises, an 'Accidence' and a 'Syntax,' 
 in the preface to the first of which occur the 
 gentle words quoted above. These little books, 
 after receiving additions from the hands of Eras- 
 mus, Lilly, and others, flnally became generally 
 adopted and known as Lilly s Gramma'-. This 
 rejection of his Grammar seems to have h:on a 
 sore point witli Liiiacre, but Erasmus told Colet 
 not to be too much concerned about it. . . . 
 Erasmus, in the same letter in which he spoke of 
 Linacre's rejected Grammar . . . put on paper 
 Ills notions of what a sehoolmaster ought to be, 
 ond the best method of teaching boys, which ho 
 fancied Colet might not altogether approve, as 
 he was wont somewhat more to despise rheto- 
 ric than Erasmus did. He stated his opinion 
 that — ' In order that tlie te.ieher might be thor- 
 oi'.ghly up to his work, he shouU' not merely bo 
 a master of one particular branch of study. He 
 should himself have travelled through the whole 
 circle of knowledge. In philosophy lie should 
 have studied Plato and Aristotle, Theophrastus 
 and Plotinus; in Theology the Sacred Scriptures, 
 and after them Origeu, Chrysostom, ami Basil 
 among the Greek fathers, and Amtirose and Je- 
 rome among the Latin fathers; amon.g the poets, 
 Ilomei and Ovid; in geography, which is very 
 important in the study of history, Pomponius 
 Mela, Ptolemy, Pliny, Strabo. He should know 
 what ancient names of rivers, mountains, coun- 
 tries, cities, answer to the modern ones ; and the 
 same of trees, animals, instruments, clothes, and 
 
 707 
 
BDUCATFON. 
 
 The Jetult TeacKert. 
 
 EDUCATrON. 
 
 Kcms, Willi rcffiird to wliicli It Is incrt'dlldp liow 
 rgnoriiiil I'vcn ('iliicittcil nun iiir. lie Hhould take 
 jiDto of little factH iiboiil ajfrieultiiri', arcliite(!t- 
 ure. luilitary and niliiiary arts. iiicntiDiicd by 
 <II(Ti;r('iil autliors. lie should lie ul)lo to Iriiec 
 the orijfifi of words, their ffradiial eorruptioii in 
 the laM^iiaKes of ('onstantiiiople, Italy, Spain, 
 and Franee. Nothing Hliould l)e beneath his ob- 
 Hervation whieh eiin illustrate history or the 
 ineaninfj of tlie poets. But you will say what 
 u loud you are puttini? on the back of the 
 poor teacher! Ittsso; but I burden Ine one to 
 relieve the many. I want the teaeher to have 
 traversed the wliole range of knowledge, that it 
 may spare eaeh of his sejiolars doing it. A dili- 
 gent and thoroughly competent master might 
 give boys a fair i)rolleiency in both Latin and 
 Greek, in a shorter time and with less labour 
 than the common run of pedagogues take to 
 teach their babble.' On receipt of this . . . C'olet 
 wroto to Erasmus: . . . ' " What I I shall not ap- 
 prove!" So you say! What is tlierc of Eras- 
 imis's that I do not approve?'" — V. Seebohni, 
 T/w. Oj[f(»'il Hc/oniicru, cli. 0. — Ascham and 
 "The Scholemaster." — Roger Ascham, thi^ 
 friend of Lady Jane Grey and the tutor of CJueen 
 Elizabeth, was born in 151.'), and died in IHOS. 
 " It was partly with the view to the instruction 
 of his own children, that he commenced the 
 ' Scholo-mastcr,' the work by which he is most and 
 best known, to which ho did not live to set the 
 last hand. He communicated the design and 
 import of the book in a letter to Sturmius, in 
 which he states, that not being able to leave his 
 sons a largo fortune, ho was resolved to provide 
 them with a preceptor, not one to bo hired for a 
 groat sum of money, but marked out at homo 
 with a homely pen. In the same letter he gives 
 Ills reasons for employing the English language, 
 the capabilities of which ho clearly perceived 
 4ind candidly acknowledged, a high virtue for a 
 man of that age, who perhaps could have writ- 
 ten Latin to his own satisfartion much more 
 easily than his native tongue. But though the 
 benelit of his own offspring might be his ulti- 
 mate object, the immediate occasion of the work 
 was a conversation at Cecil's, at which Sir Uicli- 
 .ard Sackville expressed great indignation at the 
 severities practiced at Eton and other great 
 schools, so that boys actually ran ivwa," for fear 
 of merciless flagellation. This led to the general 
 subject of school discipline, and the defects in 
 the then established modes of tuition. Ascham 
 ■coinciding with the sentiments of the company, 
 .and proceeding to explain his own views of im- 
 provement, Sackville requested 'dm to commit 
 his opinions to paper and the 'Schole-master' 
 was the result. It was not published till IGTO. 
 . . . We . . . quote a few pass.iges, which 
 throw light upon the author's good sense and good 
 nature. To nil violent coercion, and extreme 
 punishment, he was decidedly opposed : — ' I do 
 agree,' says he, 'wHhall good school-masters in 
 all these points, to liavo children brought to good 
 pcrfcctness in learning, to all lionesty in man- 
 ners; to have all faults rightly amended, and 
 every vice severely corrected, but for the order 
 and way that leadeth rightly to these points, we 
 somewhat dilfcr. ' ' Love is better than fear, 
 gentleness than beating, to bring up a child 
 rightly in learning.' 'I do assure you there is 
 no sucli whetstone to sharpen a good wit, and 
 encourage a will to learning, as is praise. ' . . . 
 
 'The scholar is <'ommonly boat for the nniking, 
 when the master were more worthy to be beat 
 for the n\ending, or rather marring, of the same; 
 the mn.slcr many times being a.s ignorant as the 
 child what to say iiroiicrly and litly to the nnit- 
 ler.'. . . 'This will I say, that even the wi.sest 
 of your great beaters do as oft punLsh nature as 
 they do correct faults. Yea many times the bet- 
 ter nature is the sorer punished. For if one by 
 quickness of wit take his l('s.soii readily, another 
 by hardness of wit taketh it not so speedily; the 
 first is always commenile<l, the other is com- 
 monly pimishcd, wiicn a wise schoolmaster 
 shouhl rather discreetly consider the right dispo- 
 sition of both their natures, and not so nuich 
 weigh what either of tliem is able to do, as what 
 cither of them is likely to do hereafter. For this 
 I know, not only by reading of books in my 
 study, but also by experience of life abroad in 
 tho world, that those which be connucmly the 
 wisest, the best learned, and best men also, when 
 they bo old, were never commonly tho ([uickest 
 of wit wlien they were young. Quick wits 
 commonly be apt to take, unaiit to keep. Some 
 are more quick to laiter speedily than bo able 
 to pierc(! far, even like imto oversharp tools, 
 whoso edges be very soon turned. ' " — H. Cole- 
 ridge, liiofiritphid Boreitlh, pji. 328-330. 
 
 Jesuit Teaching and Schools.— " The educa- 
 tion of youth is set forth in the Formula of Ap- 
 I)roval granted by Paul III. in l'>W," to the phins 
 of Ignatius Loyola for the foundation of the So- 
 ciety of Jesu.s, "as tho fir.st duty embraced by 
 the new Institute. . . . Although the new re- 
 ligious were not at once able to begin the es- 
 tablishment of colleges, yot the plan of those 
 afterwards founded, was gradually ripening in 
 tho sagacious mind of St. Ignatius, wlio looked 
 to these institutions us calculated to oppose the 
 surest bulwarks against the progress of heresy. 
 The first regular college of tho Society was 
 that established at Gandia in l.')46, through the 
 zeal of St. Francis Borgia, third General of the 
 Society; and tho regulations by which it was 
 governed, and which were embodied in the con- 
 stitutions, were oxtendcil to all the Jesuit col- 
 leges afterwards founded. Tho studies were to 
 include theology, both positive and scholastic, ns 
 well as grammar, poetry, rhetoric, and philoso- 
 phy. The course of philosophy was to last three 
 years, that of theology four; and tho Professors 
 of Philosophy .vr're enjoined to treat their sub- 
 ject in such a way as to dispose the mind for the 
 study of theology, instead of setting up faith 
 and reason in ojiposition to one another. The 
 theology of St. Thomas, and the philosoi.hy of 
 Aristotle, wero to be followed, except on those 
 points where tne teaching of the latter was op- 
 posed to tho Catholic faith." — A. T. Driuie, 0km- 
 tian ScIwoIh (iml Sc/wlnis, p. 708. — " As early as the 
 middleof the sixteenth century . . . [tho Society 
 of Jesus] had several colleges in France, particu- 
 larly those of Billom, Mauriac, Itodez, Tournon, 
 •md Pamiers. In 1561 it secured a footing in 
 Paris, notwithstanding tlie resista.'ce of the Par- 
 liament, of tl university, and of tlie bishops 
 themselves. A 4uindred years later it counted 
 nearly fourteen thousand jjupils in the province 
 of Paris alone. The college of Clermont, in 1051, 
 enrolled more than two thousand young men. 
 Tho mi.ldle and higher ch'sses assured to the col- 
 leges of the society au ever- increasing member- 
 ship. At the end of tho seventeenth century. 
 
 708 
 
KDUCATION. 
 
 Schnoln in mnttprn 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Ilic Jesuits rould Inscribe on tlie roll of lionor of 
 I heir rlass<'S ii liiiiiilred illiiKtrious imtiies, amoii){ 
 others those of ('oii(h')aiul Liixeniboiir);, Flechier 
 lUiil IJossuet, LamoiKiion ami Si'gwier, l)eseartes, 
 Coriieille. iiiiil MolifTc. In 1710 t'ley controlled 
 «lx hundred and twelve collegcf and a lar^e 
 number of universities. They were the real 
 masters of education, and they niaintaiiie<l this 
 educational supremacy till tin; end of tln^ elgli- 
 tei'uth century. Voltaire wild of thesis teachers: 
 ' The Fatherg tauplit me nothlnji,' hut Latin and 
 nonsense.' But from the seventeenth century, 
 opinions are divided, and the encondums of 
 Bacon and Di'seartes must he ollset by the Heverc 
 judgment of Leibnitz. ' In the matter of educa- 
 tion,' says this great phllosoi)hcr, 'the Jesuits 
 have remained lielow mediocrity.' Directly to 
 the contrary, Ba<'on liad written": ' As to what- 
 ever relates to the instnietion of the young, we 
 must consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there 
 can be nothing that Is better done.' . . . A per- 
 manent and chnractorlstlc feature of the educa- 
 tional policy of the Jesuits Is, that, during the 
 whole course of their history, tlu:_, liavc; delib- 
 erately neglected and disdained primary instruc- 
 tion. The enrtli is covered with their Latin col- 
 leges; and wherever they have been able, they 
 have put their luind.s on the Institutions for uni- 
 versity education ; l)ut in no instance liave they 
 foimded a primary school. Even in their estab- 
 1! ihmcnt for secondary instruction, they entrust 
 .he lower classes to teachers who do not belong 
 to their order, and reserve to tliemselvcs the 
 direction of the higher classes." — G. Compayre, 
 lli»t. of Peilaiioiiji, pp. 141-143.— See, also, Jesu- 
 its: A. D. 1540-l,'),')e.— "The Jesuits owed their 
 success partly to the very narrow task which they 
 set tliemielves, little beyond the teaching of 
 Latin style, and portly to the careful training 
 which tliey gave tlicir students, a training whicli 
 often degenerated into mere mechanical exercise. 
 But the mainspring of their inliuence -.^us tiie 
 manner in wliicli they worked the dangerous 
 force of emulation. Those pupils wlio were most 
 distinguislied at the end of each mortli received 
 the rank of prretor, censor, and decurion. The 
 class was divided into two iiarts, called Romans 
 and Carthaginians, Greeks and Trojans. The 
 students sat oppo.site each mi Wn master in 
 the middle, tlic walls were huiij. Alth swords, 
 spears and shields winch the contending parties 
 carried off in triumph as the prize of victory, 
 'riicse pupils' contests wasted a great deal of 
 time The Jesuits established public school fes- 
 tivals, at which tlie pupils might be exhibited, 
 and the parents flattered. They made their own 
 .school books, in which the requirements of good 
 teaching were not so important as th. religious 
 objects of the order. They preferred extracts 
 to ^^hole authors; if they could not prune the 
 classics to their fancy they would not read them 
 at all. What judgment are we to pass on the 
 Jesuit teaching as a whole V It deserves praise 
 on two accounts. First, it maintained the (.'ignity 
 of literf ture in an age whicli was too liable to be 
 influem od by considei'ations of practical utility. 
 It maintained the study of Greek in France at a 
 higher level than the University, and resisted the 
 assaults of ignorant parents on the fortress; of 
 Hellenism. Secondly, it seriously set itself to 
 understand the nature and character of the indi- 
 vidual pupil, and to suit the manner of education 
 to the mind that was to receive it. Whatever 
 
 may have 1 n the motives of Jesuits in gaining 
 
 the iilTections, and securing the devotion of the 
 chlldn'ii under their charge; whether their de- 
 sire was to develop thi' individuality which they 
 probed, or to destroy it in its germ, and plant u 
 new nature in its place; it must lie admitted that 
 the loving care which they spent upon their 
 charge was a new departure in education, and 
 has become a Jiart of every reasonable sy.sleiu 
 since tlwir time. Here our praise must end. 
 . . . They aniiisi .i the mind instead of strength- 
 ening it. They occupied in frlvolilics such as 
 Latin verses thI years wiiich they feared might 
 otherwise! be g.v<'ii to reasoning and the ae(iui- 
 sltlon of solid knowledge. . . . ('elelirated as 
 the Jesuit schools have been, thev have owed 
 much moTv to ihe fashion which (llled them with 
 promising scholars, than to their own excellence 
 In dealing with their material. . . . They have 
 never stood the test of modern criticism. They 
 have no place in a rational system of modem 
 education." — <). Browning, Iiitroit. to the Hist. 
 of Ktlui'ntiDiKil Thmricn, eh. 8. 
 
 Modern : European Countries. 
 
 Austria. — " The annual approprle.tlona passed 
 l)y Parliament allow t' e minister of public in- 
 struction §8,1)07,774 for all kinds of public edu- 
 cational institutions, elementary and secondary 
 schools, universities, technical and art schools, 
 mui.eums, and philanthropic institutions. Gen- 
 erality, this principle is adhered ^obv the state, to 
 subsidize the highest institutions of learning most 
 liberally, to share the cost of maintaining second- 
 ary schools with church and communiiy, and to 
 leave the burden of maintidning elementary 
 schools almost entirely tj tlie local or communal 
 authorities. ... In tl.e Austrian pulilic schools 
 no distinctions are made with the pupils os re- 
 gards their religious confessions. The schools 
 are open to all, and are therefore common schools 
 in the sense in which that term is employt^d with 
 us. In Prussia it is the policy of the Govern- 
 ment to seporate the pupils of different religious 
 c(mfessions in . . . elementary, but not to sepa- 
 rate them in secondary schools. In Austria and 
 Hungary, special teachers of religion for the 
 elementary and secondary schools are employed; 
 in Prussi;. this is done only in secondary schools, 
 while religion is taught by the secular teachers 
 in elementary schools. This is a very vital dif- 
 ference, and shows how much nearer the Austrian 
 schools have come to our ideal of a common 
 school." — U. 8. Comm'r of Education, Jieport, 
 1889-00, ;;;;. 405-460. 
 
 Belgium. — "The treaty of Paris, of March 30, 
 1814, lixed the bouiularic of the Netherlands, 
 and united Holland and Belgium. In these new 
 circumstances, the system of public instruction 
 became the subject of much difllculty betwejn 
 the Calvinlsts of the northern provinces and the 
 Catholics of the southern. The government 
 therefore undertook itself to manage the organi- 
 zation of the system of instruction in its three 
 grades. . . . ^\filliam I. desired U> free the Bel- 
 gians from French intluencc, and with this object 
 adopted the injudieious measure of attempting 
 to force t! . Dutch language upon them. He also 
 endeavored to familiarize tliem with Protestant 
 ideas, and to thi i end determined to get the care 
 of religious instruction exclusively into the hands 
 of the state. But the clergy were energetic in 
 asserting their rights ; the boldness of the Belgian 
 
 709 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Knglnnd. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ilt'imllcH to the Htttti'H'Ocncnil InrrciiHcil daily; 
 iiikI tliu |)riij('('t for ii HyHtciii of piiMic itriil pri- 
 viitit liistnictiiiii whii'li wiiH liiiil iN'fori' tilt' Hccdiid 
 (lianibcToii the iHtli Noveiiilicr, IMiO, wuh very 
 unfiivoritbly ivci'ivi'd I>y tlu; CiitlKillis. The 
 j{i)V(rnnu'nl vrry hoiiorubly coiifcoHcd ItMiTrorhy 
 rcpt'iiliiiK the ohnoxiouH (ifdiniincc.iof IH2n. Itul 
 It wi'.H too late, and tlie HclKiaii prDvliicf!* wen? 
 loHt to llolliiiid. On the I'Jth Octoliir, IH:|(), llic 
 provisory Hovrriimnit ripcalcd all laws rcstrift- 
 !ni{ the frt'cdoiii of liiHtriKtloii, anil tlic present 
 KyHtem, In whirli lllierty of InHtrnction and K<>^'' 
 ernnientjd aid and supervision are recd;;ni7.ed, 
 loniinenced." — I'uhlic Jiinlnirlion in Jiilf/iiim 
 {lilt run rd'H Aiu. Journal of KdiicutiDn, r. 8, pji. 
 5«2-rjH:t). 
 
 Denmark. — "Denmark Ims long been noted tor 
 the exeellence of her schools. . . . The perfection 
 aiul extension of the system of popular instruction 
 date from the beKlnnin^; of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, when HIshop Thestrup, of Aalberg, caused 
 parish schools to be establlslied In (.'opei'hagen 
 anil when King Frederick IV. (10mi-173()) had 
 2 10 school houses b\dlt. . . . Christian VI. (ITIiO- 
 1710), . . . ordained in 1739 the establishment of 
 common or parish schools In every town and In 
 every larger village. The branches of instruction 
 were to be religion, reading, writing, and nrlth- 
 nietlc. No one was to be allowed to teach unless 
 he hiul shown himself i|ualltled to the satisfaction 
 of the clergynnm of the parish. . . . JIany dltll- 
 cultics, however (especially the objections of 
 the landed proprietors, who jiad their own schools 
 on their estates), hindered the free development 
 of the common school system, and it was not 
 \uilll 1814 that II new and more favorable era was 
 Inaugurated by the law of July 21) of that year. 
 According to this law the general control of the 
 schools Is in the hands of a minister of public in- 
 struction and subordinate superintendents for the 
 several departments of the kingdom." — Ediica- 
 tiun in Denmark (If. S. Bureau of Education, 
 Circulars of Information, 1877, 7iO. 2), pp. 40-41. 
 — ".With a population In 1800 of 2,18.'i,1.57, the 
 pupils enrollecl In city and rural schools in Den- 
 mark numbered 231, U40, or about 10 per cent, of 
 the population receiving the foundation of an 
 educatioa. In 1881 the iUiterntes to 100 recruits 
 numbered 0.80; in Sweden at that date the per 
 cent, was 0.39." — U. 8. Comin'r of Education, 
 Iltport, 1889-90, p. 523. 
 
 England: Oxford and Cambridee. — "Oxford 
 and v'ttmbridge, as establishments for education, 
 consist of two parts — of the University proper, 
 and of tuT Colleges. The former, original and 
 essential, is founded, controlled, and privileged by 
 public authority, for the advantage of the nation. 
 The latter, accessory and contingent, are created, 
 regulated, and endowed by private munificence, 
 for the Interest of certain favored individuals. 
 Time was, when the Colleges did not exist, and 
 the University was there ; and were the Colleges 
 again abolished, the University woidd remain 
 entire. The former, founded solely for educa- 
 tion, exists only as it accomplishes the end of its 
 institution; the latter, founded principally for 
 aliment and habitation, would still exist, were 
 all education abandoned within their walls. The 
 University, as a national establishment, is neces- 
 sarily open to the lieges in general ; the Colleges, 
 as private institutions, might universally do, a? 
 some have actually done — close their gates upon 
 al., except their foundation membeis. The Uni- 
 
 versitieH and ("olleges are thuH neither Identical, 
 nor vicarious of eacli other. If the Unlversily 
 ciases to perform its functions. It ceases to exist; 
 and the privileges accorded by the nation to the 
 system of public I'dueation legally orgiu>l/eil in 
 the Inlversitv, can not, without the consent of 
 tlie nation — far Iihs without the coiisent of the 
 acailendcal legislatiire — be lawfully transferred 
 to the system of private? ediuatlon iireeiirioUNly 
 organized In the Colleges, and over wlileh neither 
 the (State nor the I'niversity havi! any control. 
 They have, however, been unlawfully usurped. 
 Through the suspension of the University, and 
 the usurpation of its functions and privileges by 
 the Colleglal bodies, there has arisen the second 
 of two svsteins, diametrically opposite to each 
 other. — The one, in wliicli the Lnlverslty was 
 paramount, is ancient and statutory ; the other, in 
 which the Colleges have th(! ascendant, Is recent 
 and Illegal. — In the former, all was subservient 
 to publli^ utility, and the interests of science; in 
 the latter, all Is sacrificed to private monopoly, 
 and to the <onveiilerue of the teacher. ... In 
 the orlgliml constitution of Oxford, as In that of 
 all the older Uidversltles of the Uarlslan model, 
 the business of instruction was not cimflded to a 
 spechil body of privileged professors. The Uni- 
 versity was governed, the L niversity wasrfaught, 
 by the graduates at large. I'rofessor, Master, 
 Doctor, were orlgimdly synonymous. Every 
 graduate had aneijual right of teaching publicly 
 in the University the subjects competent to his 
 faculty, and to the rank ot his degree ; nay, every 
 graduate inc\irred the obligation of teaching 
 inibllcly, for a certain period, the subjects of his 
 factdty, for such was the condition involved In 
 the grant of the degree Itself." — Sir AVm. Ham- 
 ilton, JHscumticnn on Philoitophy and Literature, 
 etc.: Kiluration, ch. 4. 
 
 England : The " Great Public Schools."— 
 What is a I'Ubllc school in England? "The 
 qtustkm is one of considerable dilllculty. To 
 some extent, however, the answer has been fur- 
 nished by the Royal Commission appointed in 
 1801 to imiulre Into the nature and application of 
 the endowments and revenues, and into the ad- 
 ministration and management of certain specified 
 colleges and schools commonly known as the 
 Public Schools Commission. >ilnc are named In 
 the Queen's letter of appointment, viz., Eton, 
 AVinchester, AVestminster, the Charterhouse, St. 
 Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Uugby, and 
 Shrewsbury. The reasons probably which sug- 
 gested this selection were, that the nine named 
 foundations had in the course of centuries emerged 
 from the nia.ss of endowed grammar-schools, and 
 had made for themselves a position which justi- 
 fied their being placed in a distinct category, and 
 classed as ' puolle schools.' It will be seen as we 
 proceed that all these nine have certain features 
 in common, distinguishing them from the ordi- 
 nary griunmar-schools v "uch exist in almost every 
 country town In En eland. JIany of these latter 
 are now waking up to the requirements of the 
 new time and following the example of their 
 morr "Uustrious sisters. The most notable exam- 
 |)lc8 of this icvival are such schools as those a'„ 
 Sherborne, QIggleswIck, and Tunbrldge Wells, 
 which, while remodelling themselves on the lines 
 lal(l down by the Public Schools Commissioners, 
 are to some extent providing a training more 
 adapted to the means and requirements of our 
 middle classes in the nineteenth century than can 
 
 710 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 IV 
 
 orrai Kngliik 
 blic ScIumI: 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 he found at nny of tin- iiiiir iniblic hcIidoIs. Hut 
 twenty yt-arH ii)(<i the inovniii'iit wlilcli Iiiih Hirirc 
 mini)' Hucli iiHtiiniHiiiiiK pro^rrHH wiim witrct'ly frit 
 ill i)iih't country pliiccK like thcMc, itnd tlii> old 
 cndowrncnlM wcri' iillowt'd to run to wiiHtc in ii 
 fiislilon whirh is now Hciirci'ly cri'dlhlc. 'I'lic 
 Hiiini' lni|)ul)M! widcli Iiiih put new lifu into tint 
 ondowc(l ^■'■""■■■■'■''IW'IiooIh tliroiiKliout KiiKlimd 
 Iiiih worltcil even more renuirkalily in another 
 direction. Tlu! V^lctorian ane liidH fair to rival 
 the Klixaliethun in tliu niinilier and importance of 
 till' new hcIiooIh which it Iiiih fouiiiled and will 
 hand on to the eomiuK generation. Marlborough, 
 ■Ilaileylmry, rppinKliani, Uossall. Clifton, Chel- 
 tenham, liadley, Malvern, and Wellington Col- 
 lege, aru nine M'IiooIh whicli have taken their 
 place in tliu llrnt rank. ... In ordei', then, to 
 get clear Ideas on the general ((uestioii, we mUHt 
 keep these three classes of schools In mind — the 
 nine old foundations recognized in the tlrst in- 
 stance by the Hoyal Commission of IMftl; the old 
 foundations wlii<'h have reiiialned local grammar 
 schools until within tlie liiNl few years, but are 
 now enlarging tlieir bounds, conforming more or 
 les.s to the public-school system, and becoming 
 national inHtitutioim; and, histly, the miHlern 
 founilati(ms w'.iich started from tint first as public 
 schools, professing to adapt themselves to the 
 new circumstances and rei)uirementH of modern 
 English life. Tlie public schools of Knglanil fall 
 under one or other of these categorii's. . . . Wet 
 may now turn to the historie side of the (pics- 
 tion, dealing first, oh is due to their importance, 
 with the nine schools of our first category. The 
 oldest, and in some respects most famous of 
 these, is Winchester School, or, as it was named 
 by its founder William of Wykeham, the (.'ollego 
 of St. Mary of Winchester, founded in 1382. Its 
 constitution still retains nuicli of the impress left 
 on it by the great liishop of the greatest I'lan- 
 tagcnet King, live centuries ago. Toward the 
 end of the fourteenth century Oxford was already 
 the center of English education, but from the 
 want of grummar-schools boys went \\p by hun- 
 dreds untaught in the simiilest rudiments of 
 learning, aiul wlien there lived in private hostels 
 or lodging-houses, in a vast throng, under no 
 discipline, and exposed to many hiirdships and 
 temptations. In view of this state of things, Wil- 
 liam of Wykeham founded his grammar-scliool 
 at Winchester and his college at Oxford, binding 
 the two together, so that the school miglit send 
 up properly trained scliolars to the university, 
 where they would be received at New College, 
 in a suitable academical home, which sliotdd in 
 its turn furnish governors and masters for the 
 scliool. . . . Next in date comes the royal foun- 
 dation of Eton, or ' The Collegit of the Hlessed 
 Mary of Eton, near Windsor." It was founded 
 by Henry VI., A. D. 1446, upon the model of 
 Winchester, with a collegiate establishment of a 
 provost, ten fellows (reduced to seven in the reign 
 of Edward IV.), seventy scliolars, and ten chap- 
 lains (now reduced to two, who are called ' con- 
 ducts '), and a head and lower master, ten lay 
 clerks, and twelve choristers. Tlie provost and 
 fellows are the governing body, who appoint the 
 head master. . . . Around this center the great 
 school, numbering now a thousand boys, lias 
 gathered, the college, however, still retaining its 
 own separate organization atid traditions. Be- 
 sides the splendid buildings and playing-fields at 
 Eton, the college holds real property of the yearly 
 
 value of upward of catMHM), and forty livlngn 
 ranging from tItKf to i;i,i.'<M)of yeaily value. .. . 
 The whool next In date stands out in Hharp con- 
 trast to Winchest4'r and Eton. It Is St. I'ltul's 
 S<'liool, founded by Dean Colet. . . . Shrews- 
 bury ScliiHil, which follows next In order of 
 Neniority, claims a royal foundation, but is in 
 reality iliit true child of the town's folk. The 
 dissolution of the inonasterieH ilestroyed also tliii 
 Nemlnarli's attached to manv of them, to the great 
 liilurv of popular education. This wiiH sped- 
 ally the case in Shropshire, so in I.Wl Uiv ballilTs, 
 burgi'sscH, and inhabitants of Slirewsbiiry and 
 the tielgliborhood petitioned Edward VI. for a 
 grant of some portion of the estates of the dis- 
 solved collegiate churches for the purpime of 
 founding a free school. The King consented, 
 and granted to the petitioners the approprii''e<l 
 titlies of several livings and a charter, but diitd 
 before the sclioid was organi/.ctd. It was in abey- 
 ance during Mary's reign, but opened in the 
 fourth year of Elizabeth, ITittS, by Thonias Aston. 
 . . .We have now reached the great croup of 
 Klizabclhan schools, to which iiideed Shrews- 
 bury may also be Hiiid to belong, as it was nut 
 opened until tint (Eileen had been three years on 
 tli(t throne. Tint two metropolitan schools of 
 Westminster and Merchant Taylors' were in fact 
 founded in lHHi), two years befont the opening of 
 Shrewsbury. Westminster as a royal foundation 
 must take precedence, it is a grammar-school 
 attached by the Queen to the collegiate churith 
 of St. I'eter, commonly called Westminster Ab- 
 bey, and founded for the fR'C education of forty 
 scholars in I<atin, Oreek, and Hebrew. The 
 Queen, witli characteristic tiiriftiness, provided 
 no endowment for her hcIio(j1, leaving the cost of 
 maintenance as a (tliarge on the gitneral revenjes 
 of the dean and chapter, which in<leed were, then 
 as now, fully competent to sustain the burden. 
 . . . iMerchant Taylors', the other metropolitan 
 scliool founded in 1500, owes its origin to Sir 
 Tliomas White, a member of the Court of Assist- 
 ants of the company, and founder of St. John's 
 College, Oxford. It was probably ids iiromise to 
 connect the s(tliool with his college which in- 
 duced the Company to undertake tlie task. . . . 
 Sir Thomas While redeemed his promise by en- 
 dowing the .school with thirty-seven fellowships 
 at St. John's College. . . . Kugby, or the free 
 school of Lawrence SherilT, follows next in order, 
 having been founded in \!M1 by Lawrence Sheriir, 
 grocer, and citizen of London. His ' intent' (as 
 the document expres.sing his wishes is called) de- 
 clares that his lands in Uugby and Hrownsover, 
 and his ' tliird of a jiasture-ground in Oray's Inn 
 Fields, called Conduit Close,' shall be applied to 
 maintain a free grammar school for the children 
 of Hugby and Hrownsover, and the iilaccs adjoin- 
 ing, and four poor almsmen of the same parishes. 
 These estates, after providing u fair schoolliouso 
 and residences for the master and al.nsmen, at 
 first produced a rental of only £24 13s. 4d. In 
 due time, however. Conduit Close became a part 
 of central Jjoiidon, and Uugby School the owner 
 of eight acres of houses in and about the present 
 Lamb's Conduit Street. The income of the whole 
 trust property amounts now to about £0,000, of 
 which £235 is expended on the maintenance of 
 the twelve almsmen. . . . Hurrow School was 
 rounded in 1571, four years later than Uugby, by 
 John Lyon, a yeoiiian of the jiarish. He was 
 owner of certain sinall estates iu and about Ilur- 
 
 711 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Fagging in English 
 Schooh. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 row nnd Barnct, nnd of others at Paddington and 
 Kilburn. All these lie devoted to public pur- 
 poses, but unfortunuttly gave the former for the 
 perpetual education of the children and youth of 
 tlie parish, and the latter for the maintenance and 
 repair of the highways from Harrow and Edge- 
 ware to London. The present yearly revenue 
 of the school estates is barely over £1,000, while 
 that of the highway trust is nearly £4,000. But, 
 though the poorest in endowments, Harrow, from 
 its nearness to London, and consequent attrac- 
 tions for the classes who spend a largo portion of 
 their year in the metropolis either in attendance 
 in Parliament, or for pleasure, has become the 
 rival of Eton as a fashionable school. . . . Last 
 on the list of the nine schools comes the Charter- 
 house (tho Whitefriai-s of Thackeray's novels). 
 It may bo fairly classed witli the Elizabethan 
 schools, though actually founded in 1609, after 
 the accession of James I. In that year a substan- 
 tial yeoman, Thomas Sutton by name, purchased 
 from Lord Sullolk the lately dissolved Charter- 
 liouse, by Smithtield, and obtained letters patent 
 empowering him to found a hospital and school 
 on the old site." — T. Hughes, 17ie Public Schmih 
 of England (N. Am. Rev. , April, 1870). — Fagging. 
 — " In rougher days it was found, that in large 
 schools the stronger and larger boys reduced tho 
 smaller and weaker to the condition of Helots. 
 Here the authorities stepped in, and despairing of 
 eradicating tlie evil, took the power which mere 
 strength had won, and conferred it upon the 
 seniors of the school — the members, that is, of 
 the highest form or forms. As in those days, 
 promotion was pretty much a matter of rotation, 
 every one who remained his full time at the 
 school, was pretty sure to reach in time the domin- 
 ant class, and the humblest lag looked forward 
 to the day when he would ioin the ranks of the 
 ruling aristocracy. Meantime lie was no longer 
 at the beck of any stronger or ruder classfellow. 
 His ' master ' was in theory, and often in practice, 
 his best protector: he imposed upon him very 
 likely what may be called menial offices — made 
 him carry home his 'Musa;' — field for him at 
 cricket — brush his coat; If we are to believe 
 school myths and traditions, black his shoes, and 
 even take the chill oil his sheets. The boy, how- 
 ever, caw tho son of a Howard or a Percy simi- 
 larly employed by his side, and in cheerfuUv 
 submitting to an ancient custom, he was but fol- 
 lowing out the tendencies of the age and class 
 to which he belonged. . . . The mere abolition of 
 the right of fagging, vague and undefined as 
 were the duties attaclicd to it, would have been 
 a loss rather than a gain to the oppressed as a 
 class. It would merely have substituted for the 
 existing law, imperfect and anomalous as that 
 law might be, the licence of brute force and the 
 dominion of boyish truculence. . . . Such was, 
 more or less, the state ot things when he to 
 whom English education owes so incalculable a 
 debt, was placed at the head of Uugby School. 
 ... It was hoped that he who braved the anger 
 of his order by his pamphlet on Church Reform 
 — at whose bold and uncompromising language 
 bishops stood aghast and courtly nobles remon- 
 strated in vain — would make short work of 
 ancient saws and medieval traditions — that a 
 revolution in school life was at hand. And they 
 were not mistaken. . . . What he did was to 
 seize on the really valuable part of the existing 
 system — to inspire it with that ne^v life, and 
 
 those loflior purposes, without which mere in- 
 stitution.s, grwit or small, must, sooner or later, 
 wither away and perish. His: first step was tc 
 effect an important change in the actual niaclun- 
 ery of the school — one which, in itself, amounted 
 to a revolution. The highest form in tho school 
 was no longer open to all whom a routine pro- 
 motion might raise in course of time u its level. 
 Industry and talent as tested by careful eximina- 
 tions (in the additional labour of which he him- 
 self bore the heaviest burden), were the only 
 qualifications rcfognised. The new-modelled 
 ' sixth form ' were told, that the privileges and 
 powers which tlieir predecessors Iiad enjoyed for 
 ages were not to be wrested from them ; but that 
 they were to be lield for the common good, as 
 the badges and instruments of duties and respon- 
 sibilities, such as any one with less confidence in 
 those whom he addressed would have hesitated 
 to impose. They were told plainly that with- 
 out their co-operation then; was no hope of 
 ke< .lin^ in check the evils inherent in a society 
 of boys. Tyranny, falsehood, drin'fing, party- 
 spirit, coarseness, selfishness — the evil spirits 
 that infest schools — these they heard Sunday 
 after Sunday put in their true light by a majes- 
 tic voice and a manly presence, with words, ac- 
 cents, and manner which would live in their mem- 
 ory for years; but they were warned that, to 
 exorcise such spirits, something more was needed 
 than the watclif ulness of masters and the energy 
 of their chief. Tliey themselves must use their 
 large powers, entrusted to them in recc ignition of 
 the principle, or rather of the fact, that in a large 
 society of boys some must of necessity hold sway, 
 to keep down, in themselves and those about 
 them, principles and practices which are ever 
 ready, like hideous weeds, to choke the growth 
 of all that is fair and noble iu such institutions. 
 Dr. Arnold persevered in spite of opposition, 
 obloquy, and misrepresentation. . . . But ho 
 firmly established his system, and his successors, 
 men differing in training and temperament from 
 himself and from each other, have agreed In cor- 
 dially sustaining it. His pupils and theirs, men 
 in very different walks of life, filling honourable 
 posts at tho universities and public schools, or 
 ruling the millions of India, or working among 
 the blind and toiling multitudes of our great 
 towns, feel daily how much of their usefulness 
 and power they owe to the sense of high trust 
 and high duty which they imbibed at school." — 
 Our Public SeJiools — Their Discipline ami In- 
 tlruction (Vraaer's Magazine, v. 1, pp. 407-409). 
 
 England: A. D. 1699-1870.— The rise of 
 Elementary Schools. — "The recognition by the 
 English State of i*a paramount duty in aiding tho 
 work of nationul education is scarcely more than 
 a generation old. Tho recognition of the further 
 and far more extensive work of supplementing 
 by State aid, or by State agency, all deficiencies 
 in tlie supply of schools, dates only thirteen years 
 back [to 1870] ; while the equally pressing duty 
 of enforcing, by a universal law, tho use of the 
 opportunities of education thus supplied, is a 
 matter almost of yesterday. The State has only 
 slowly stepped into its proper place ; more slowly 
 in the case of England than in the case of any 
 other of the leading European nations. ... In 
 1699 the Society for the Propagation of Chris- 
 tian Knowledge was founded, and by it various 
 schools were established throughout the country. 
 In 1782 Robert Kaikcs established his first Sun- 
 
 712 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 EnglM "^lemenlary 
 K'.ucation. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 day school, and in a few yenrs the Union, of 
 wliich lie was the foumlor, had under its control 
 schools scattered all over the rouiilrv. IJiit the 
 most extensive efforts made foi popular educa- 
 tion were those of Andrew Bell and Joseph Lan- 
 caster towards the close of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. . . . They misconceived iind mi.sj>idged 
 the extent of the work that had to be accom- 
 plished. They became slaves to their ay.stem — 
 that which was called the Jlonitorial system . . . 
 and tiy elevating it to undue importance they 
 did miich to discredit the very worli in which 
 they were engaged. . . . Amongst the Noncon- 
 formist followers of Lancaster there aro.se the 
 British and Foreign School Society; wliile by 
 those of Bell there was established, on the siile 
 representing the Church, the National Society. 
 The former became the recognised agcjcy of the 
 Dissenters, the latter of the Church ; and through 
 one or other of these channels State aid, when it 
 first began to flow, was obliged to take its course. 
 ... In 1803 the first Sir Hobert Peel jiassed a 
 Bill which restricted children's labour in factories, 
 and require i that reading, writing, and nrith- 
 metic should be taught to them during a jiart of 
 each day. This was the beginning of tlie factory 
 legislation. ... In 1807 Mr. Whitebread intro- 
 duced a Bill for the establishment of parochial 
 schools throi'gh the agency of local vestries, who 
 were empowered to draw on the rates for tlie 
 purpose. The House of Commons accepted the 
 Bill, but it was thrown out in the House of 
 Lords. . . . Tl'e movement for a State recogni- 
 tion of education was pressed more vigorously 
 when the fears and troubles of European war were 
 clearing away. It was in 1810 that Brougliam 
 obtained his Select Conunittco for Inquiring 
 into the Education of the Poor in the Metropolis. 
 . . . l!i 1820 Brougham introduced, ou the basis 
 of his previous inquiries, ar Education Bill. . . . 
 By this Bill the issue between the contending 
 parties) in the State, which was henceforward 
 destined to be the chief stumbliug-block in the 
 way of a State education, was placed on a clear 
 and well-defined basis. . . . The Church was 
 alarmed at anything which seemed to trench upon 
 what she natundly thought to be her appointi.'d 
 task. The Dissenters dreaded what might atld 
 to the impregnability of the Church's strong- 
 holds. . . . When the beginning was actually 
 made it came ... as an ahnost unnoticed pro- 
 posal of the Executive. In 1832 the sura of 
 £20,000 for public education was placed in the 
 estimates ; it was passed by the Committee of Sup- 
 ply ; and the first step was taken on that course 
 from which the State has never since drawn back. 
 No legislation was necessary. . . . Tlie next 
 great step was taken in 1830, when the annual 
 vote was increased from £20,000 to £30,000, and 
 when a special department was created to super- 
 vise the work. Hitherto grants had been ad- 
 ministered by the Treasury to meet a certain 
 amount of local exertion, and in general reliance 
 upon vague assurances as to niaintenai.ce of the 
 schools by local promoters. . . . The conditions 
 which were soon found to be necessary as secu- 
 rities, either for continuance or for efficiency, 
 were not yet insisted upon. To do this it was 
 necessary to have a Department specially devoted 
 to tills work ; and the means adopted for creating 
 such a Department was one which had the ad- 
 vantage of requiring no Act of Parliament. By 
 an Order in Couucil a Spcniul Committee of the 
 46 
 
 I'rivy Council was established, and, in connec- 
 tion with this Committee, a special staff of ofll- 
 cers was engaged. The same year saw the ap- 
 pointment of the first inspectors of schools. It 
 was thus that the Education Department was 
 constituted. The plan which the advisers of the 
 Qovrrnment in this new attempt had most at 
 heart was that of a Normal Training College for 
 teachers. . . . But it was surrounded with so 
 much matter for dispute, gathered during a 
 generation of contention, that the proposal all but 
 wrecked the Government of I^ord Melbourne. 
 Tlie C;iiurch objected to the scheme. ... In the 
 year 1844, after five years of the new adminstra- 
 tion, it was possible to form some estimate, not 
 only of the solid work accomplisheil, but of the 
 prospects of the immediate future. . . . Between 
 1839 and 1844, under the action of the Committee 
 of Council, £170,000 of Imperial funds had been 
 distributed to meet £430,000 from li;c.".l resources. 
 In all, therefore, about one million had been 
 spv-'nt in little more than ten years. AVhat solid 
 good had this accomplished '1 . . . According to 
 a careful and elaborate report in the year 1845, 
 only ,xbout one in six, even of the cliildrcn at 
 school, was found able to read the Scriptures 
 with anv ease. Even for these the power of 
 reading often left them when they tried a secular 
 book. Of reading with intelligence there was 
 hardly any ; and about one-half of the children 
 who came to school left, it was calculated, un- 
 able to read. Only about one child in four had 
 mastered, even in the most mechanical way, the 
 art of writing. As regards arithmetic, not two> 
 per cent, of the children had advanced as far as the- 
 rule of three. . . . The teaching of the schools 
 was in the hands of men who had scarcely any 
 training, and who had often turned to tlio work 
 because all other work had turned away from 
 them. Under them it was conducted upon that 
 monitorial system which was the inheritance 
 from Dr. Bell, the rival of Lancaster. The pupils 
 were set to teach one another. . . . The inquiries- 
 of the Committee of Council thus gave the death- 
 blow, in public estimation, to the once higlily- 
 vaunted monitorial system. But how was it to- 
 be replaced V The model of a better state of 
 things was found in the Dutch schools. There 
 a selected number of the older pupils, who in- 
 tended to enter upon the profession of teachers, 
 weie apprenticed, when they had reached the 
 age of thirteen, to the teacher. . . . After their 
 apprenticeship they passed to a Training College 
 . . . Accordingly, a new and important start was- 
 made by the Department on the 25th of August 
 1846, . . . In 1851 twenty-five Training Colleges 
 had been established; and these liad a sure sup- 
 ply of qualified recruits in the 0,000 pupil teach- 
 ers who were by that time being trained to the 
 work. . . . The ten years between 1842 and 1853 
 saw the Parliamentary grant raised from £40 000' 
 to £160,000 a year, with the certainty of a still 
 further increase as the augmentation grants to- 
 teachers and the stipends to pupil teachers grew 
 in number. Nearly 3,800 scliools had been built 
 with Parliamentary aid, providing accommoda- 
 tion for no less tlian 540,000 children. The State 
 had contributed towards this more than £400,000; 
 and a total expenditure had been incurred in pio- 
 vidingschoolsof more than £1,000,000. . . . But 
 the system was as yet only tentati ve ; and a mass of 
 thorny religious questions had to be faced before» 
 a really uatioual system could be established. 
 
 713 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Englith Education Acl 
 of I87U. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 . . . All parties became convinced that the lirst 
 step was to inquire into the merits and defects of 
 the existing system, and on the basis of sound 
 information to plan some method of advance. 
 Under this impression it was that the Commis- 
 sion on Public Education, of which the Duke of 
 Newcastle was chairman, was appointed in 1858. " 
 The result of the (Jomniission of 1858 was a re- 
 vision of the educational Code which the Com- 
 mittee of the I'rivy Council had formulated. 
 The New Code proved unsatLsfactory in its work- 
 ing, and every year showed more plainly the ne- 
 cessity of a fully organized system of national 
 education. ' ' Out of the discussions there arose 
 two societies, which fairly expressed two different 
 views. . . . The first of these was the Education 
 League, started at Uirmingham in 1869. ... Its 
 boKis, sliortly stated, was that of a compulsory 
 syiw'm of school provisioi' by local authorities 
 through means of local rates; the schools so pro- 
 vided to be at once free and imsectarian. . . . 
 In this i)rogramme the point which raised most 
 opposition was the unsectarian teacliing. It was 
 chieUy to counteract this part of the League's 
 objects that there was formed the Education 
 Union, which urged a universal system based 
 upon the o) ! lines. . . . By common consent the 
 time for a settlement was now come. Some 
 guarantee must be taken that the whole edifice 
 should nit crumble to pieces; that for local agen- 
 cies there shoidd be substituted local authorities ; 
 and that the State should be s\ipplied with some 
 machinery whereby the gaps in the work might 
 be supplied. It was in this ])osition of opinion 
 that Ml'. Forster, as Vice-President, introduced 
 his Education Bill in 1870. . . . The measure 
 passed the House of Lords without any material 
 alteration ; and finally became Law on the 0th of 
 August 1870." — H. Craik, T/ie State in its Rela- 
 tion to Education. — The schools to which the 
 provisions of the Act of 1870 extends, and the 
 regulations under which such schools are to be 
 conducted, are defined in the Act as follows: 
 "Every elementary school which is conducted 
 in accordance with the following regulations 
 shall be a public elementary school within the 
 meaning of this Act; and every public element- 
 ary school shall be conducted in accordance with 
 the following rcgulati' as (a copy of which regu- 
 lations shall b-, conspicuously put up in every 
 such school); namely (1.) It shall not be re- 
 quired, as a condition of any child being admitted 
 into or continuing in the school, that he shall at- 
 tend or abstain from attending any Sunday 
 school, or any place of religious worship, or that 
 he shall attend any religious observance or any 
 instruction in religious subjects in the school or 
 elsewhere, from which observance or instruction 
 he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he 
 shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the 
 school on any day exclusively set apart for re- 
 ligious observance by the religious body to which 
 his parent belongs: (3.) The time or times dur- 
 ing which any religioufi observance is prac- 
 tised or instruction in religious subjects is giveii 
 at any meeting of the school shall be either at 
 the beginning or at the end or at the beginning 
 and tlie end of such meeting, and shall be in- 
 serted in a time-table to be approved by the 
 Education Department, and to be kept perma- 
 nently and conspicuously allixed in every school- 
 room ; and any scholar may be witlidrawn by his 
 parent from such observance or instruction with- 
 
 out forfeiting any of the other benctlta of the 
 school: (3.) The school shall be open at all 
 times to the inspection of any of II't Majesty's 
 inspectors, so, however, that it sl'.all be no ])art 
 of the duties of such inspector to inquire into 
 any instruction in religious subjects given at 
 such school, or to examine any scholar therein 
 in religious knowledge or in any religious sub 
 ject or book: (4.) The school shall be con- 
 ducted in accordance with the conditions re(iuirc(l 
 to be fulfllled by an elementary school in order 
 to obtain an aniunil parliamentary grant." — J. 
 II. Higg, Natiomil Education, app. A. — "The 
 new Act retained existing inspected schools, . . . 
 it also did away with all denominational classifi- 
 cations of schools and with denominational in- 
 spection, treating all inspected schools as equally 
 belonging to a national system of schools and 
 under national inspection, the distinctions as to 
 inspectors and their provintes being henceforth 
 purely geographical. But the new Act no longer 
 required that public elementary schools estab- 
 lished by voluntary agency_ and under voluntary 
 management should have in them any religious 
 character or element whatever, whether as be- 
 longing to a Christian Church or denomination, 
 or as connected with a Christian pliilanthropiu 
 society, or as providing for the reading of the 
 Scriptures in the school. It was left open to any 
 party or any person to cstablisli purely volrn- 
 tary schools if they thought fit. But, further- 
 more, the Act made provision for an entirely 
 new class of schools, to be establislied and (in 
 part) supported out of local rates, to be governed 
 by locally -elected School Boards, and to have 
 just such and so much religious instruction given 
 m them as the goverr.ing boards might think 
 proper, at times preceding or following the pre- 
 scribed secular school hours, and under the jjro- 
 tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, as in 
 the case of voluntary schools, with this restric- 
 tion only, that in these schools no catechism or 
 denominational religious formulary of any sort 
 was to be taught. The mode of electing mem- 
 bers to the School Be irds was to be by what is 
 called the cumulative vote — that is, each elector 
 was to hove as many votes as there were candi- 
 dates, and these votes he could give all to one, 
 or else distribute among the candidates as ho 
 liked; and all ratepayers were to be electors. 
 . . . The new law . . . made a clear separation, 
 in one respect, between voluntary and Board 
 schools. Both were to stand equally in relation 
 to the National Education Department, under 
 the Privy Council ; but the voluntary schools 
 were to have nothing to do with local rates or 
 rate aid, nok Local Boards to have any control 
 over voluntary schools." — J. II. Rigg, National 
 Education, ch. 10. — "To sum up . . . in few 
 words what may be set down as the chief char- 
 acteristics of our English system of Elementary 
 Education, I should say (1) flret, that whilst about 
 30 per cent, of our school accommodation is 
 under tlie control of school boards, the cost of 
 maintenance being borne in jiart by local rates as 
 well as by the Parliamentary grant, fully 70 per 
 cent, is still in the hands of voluntary school- 
 managers, whose subscriptions take the place of 
 the rates levied by school boards. (2) In case a 
 deficiency in school accommodation is reported 
 in any school district, the Education Department 
 have the power to require that due provision 
 shall be mode for the same within a limited time ; 
 
 7i4 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Free Schoola in 
 England. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 the 'screw ' to bo applied to wilful ilefaulters iri 
 a voluntary school district being tlie tlireut of a 
 board, and in a school board district the super- 
 cession of the existing board by a new board, 
 noniiuated by the Department, and reniunei..te{i 
 out of the local rates. (3) Attendance is enforced 
 everywhere by l)ye-law8, worlced either by the 
 schiiol lioard or by the School Attendance Com- 
 mittee: and although 'hese local authorities are 
 often very rennss in discharging their duties, and 
 the magistrates not seldom culpably lenient in 
 dealing with cases brought before them, there 
 are plenty of districts in which regularity of 
 school attendance has been improved fully 10 
 per cent, in the past two or tl ree years. . . . (-1) 
 The present provision for teachers, and the means 
 in existence for keeping up the supply, are emi- 
 nently satisfactory. Besides a large but some- 
 what diminishing body of apprenticed jiupil 
 teachers, there is a very considerable and rapidly 
 increasing number of duly qualified assistants, 
 and at their liead a large array of certiticated 
 teachers, whoso ranks are being replenished, 
 chieliy from the Training Colleges, at the rate of 
 about 2,000 a year. (5) The whole of the work 
 done is examined and judged every year by in- 
 spectors and inspectoro' assistants organised in 
 districts each superintended by a senior inspector 
 — the total co?t of this inspection for the present 
 year being estimated at about Jil.TO.OOO." — Kev. 
 H. Roe, The Eng. Syntem of Elementary Eliica- 
 Hon l^lnteniiatiomil Health Exhibition, London, 
 1884: Conference on Education, sect. A). — "The 
 result of the work of the Education Department 
 is causing a social revolution in England. If the 
 character of the teaching is too mechanical, if 
 the chief aim of the teacher is to earn as much 
 money as possible for Ids managers, it must be 
 remembered that tins cannot bo done without at 
 least giving the pupil the ability to read and 
 write. Of course the schools are not nearly so 
 good as the f riencis of true education wish. JIuch 
 remains to be done. . . . Free education will 
 shortly be an accomplished fact; the partial ab- 
 sorption of tlie voluntary schools by the School 
 Boards will necessarily follow, and further facili- 
 tate the abolition of what have been the cause of 
 so much evil — result examinations, ai:d 'grant 
 payments.' 'Write "Grant factory" on three- 
 fourths of our schools,' said au educator to me. 
 . . . The schools are known as (1) Voluntary 
 Schools, which have been built, and are partly 
 supported by voluntary subscriptions. These 
 are under denominational control. (3) Board 
 Schools: viz., schools built and supported by 
 money raised by local taxation, and controlled by 
 elected Schoo'. Boards. Out of 4,088,000 pupils 
 in the elementary schools, 3,1.54,000 are in the 
 schools known as Voluntary, provided by, and 
 under the control of the Church of England ; 
 1,780,000 are in Board Schools; 330,000 attend 
 schools under the British School Society, or 
 other undenominational control; 348,000 are in 
 Roman Catholic schools; and 174,000 belong 
 to Wesleyau schools. The schools here spoken 
 of correspond more nearly tliau any other in 
 England to the Public School of the United 
 States and Australia ; but are in many respects 
 very different, chietiy from the fact that they 
 are provided expressly for the poor, and in 
 many cases are attended by no other class." 
 
 — W. C. 3i " ■ " 
 
 <A. 8. 
 
 3rasby, Teaching in Three Continents, 
 
 England : A. D. 1891. — Attainment of Free 
 Education. — In 1801, a bill pas.sed Parliament 
 wliich aims at making the elementary schools of 
 the country free from the payment of fees. Tho 
 bill as explained in the House of Commons, 
 "proposed to give a grant of 10s. per head to 
 cat^h scholar in average attendance between live 
 and fourteen years of age, and as regarded such 
 children schools would either become wholly 
 free, or W(mld continue to charge a fee reduced 
 by the amount of the grant, according as the fee 
 at i)resent charged did or did not exceed 10s. 
 When a school had become free it would remain 
 free, or when a fee was charged, tlio fee woid.l 
 remain unaltered unless a change waj re(iuired 
 for tlie educational benelit of the locality ; and 
 under this arrangement he believed that two- 
 thirds of the elementary schools in England ind 
 \Vales would become free. There would be no 
 standard limitations, but the grant W'uld be re- 
 stricted to schools where the compulsory power 
 came in, and us to the younger cldldren, it was 
 proposed tliat in no case should the fee charged 
 exceed 3d." In a speech made at Birnnngham on 
 the free educati(m bill, Mr. Chamberlain dis- 
 cussed tho oppi jition to it made by those wlio 
 wished to destroy the denominational schools, 
 luid who .bjected to their participation in thu 
 proposed extension of public support. "To de- 
 stroy denonnnatignal schoola, " he said, "was now 
 an impossibility, and nothing was more astonish- 
 ing than the progress they had made since tho 
 Eilucation Act of 1870. He liad thought, ho 
 said, they would die out with the estjiblishment 
 of Boanl schools, but he had been mistaken, for 
 in the last twenty-three years they had doubled 
 their accommodation, and more than doubled 
 their subscription list. At the present time they 
 supi)lied ucco.-".mo<lation for two-thirds of tho 
 children of England and Wales That being tho 
 case, to destroy voluntary schools — t sujjply 
 their places with Board schools, as tue Daily 
 News cheerfully suggested — would he to in- 
 volve a capital expenditure of £50,000,000, and 
 £5,000,000 extra yearly in rates. But whethei 
 voluntary or denominational schools were good 
 or had, their continued existence had nothing to 
 do with tho question o'' free education, and 
 ought to bo kept quitj distinct from it. To 
 make schools free was not to give one oenny 
 extra to any denominational eudowmenl. At 
 the present time the fee was a tax, and if tho 
 parents did not i)ay fees they were brought be- 
 fore the magistrates, and if they still did not pay 
 they might be sent to gaol. The only thing tho 
 Government proposed to do was not to alter the 
 tax but to alter the incidence. The same amount 
 would be collected; it would bo paid by tho 
 same people, but it would be collected from 
 the whole nation out of the general taxation." 
 Tho bill was passed by the Commons Jidy 8, 
 and by the Lords on the 34th of the same month. 
 The free education proposals of the Government 
 are sfud to have been generally accepted through- 
 out the country by both Board and Voluntary 
 scliools. — Annual Itegister, 1801, pp. 128 and 97, 
 and j)t. 2, /) 51. 
 
 France: A. D. 1565-1802.— The Jesuits.— 
 Port Roy£ 1.— The Revolution. — Napoleon. — 
 "The Jesuits invaded the province long ruled 
 by the University alone. By that adroit man- 
 agement of men for which tliey have alwaj . 
 been eminent, and by tho more liberal spirit of 
 
 715 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Fnmee, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 tbeir mcthiKlH, tlicy ouUlid in popularity Ihfir 
 aupuriitinuiitcd riviil. Their timt bcIiooI at PuHh 
 was establlslifd in 156.'), and in 1768, two years 
 before tlieir dissolution, tliey had eighty-six col- 
 loj'cs in France. They were followed by the 
 Port Royalists, the Benedictines, the Oratorians. 
 The Port IJoyal schools [sec Pout Royal], from 
 which perhaps u powerful nitluence upon educa- 
 tion might have been looked for, restricted this 
 influence by limiting very closely the number of 
 tbeir pupils. Meanwhile the main funds and 
 endowments fo.' public education in France were 
 in the University's bands, and its administration 
 of these was as inelTective as its teaching. . . . 
 The Univeisity bad originally, as sources of 
 revenue, the Post OfBce and tlie Jlessagerles, or 
 Oflice of Public Conveyance; it hud long since 
 been obliged to abandon the Post Office to 
 Government, when in 1719 it gave up to the 
 same authority the privilege of the M'^ssageries, 
 receiving in return from the State a yearly 
 revenue of 150,000 livres. For this payment, 
 moreover, it undertook the obligation of making 
 the instruction in all its principal colleges gra- 
 tuito s. Paid or gratuitous, however, its in- 
 struction was quite inadequate to the wants of 
 the time, and when the Jesuits were expelled 
 from France in 1764, their establishments closed, 
 and their services os teachers lost, the void that 
 was left was strikingly apparent, and public 
 attention began to lie drawrf to it. It is well 
 known bow liousseau among writers, and Tur- 
 got among statesmen, busied themselves with 
 schemes of education; but the interest in the 
 subject must have reached the whole body of the 
 community, for the instructions of all three 
 orders of the States General in 1780 are unani- 
 mous in demanding the reform of education, and 
 its establishment on a proper footing. Then 
 came the Revolution, and the work of reform 
 soon went swimmingly enough, so far as the 
 abolition of the old schools was concerned. In 
 1791 the colleges were all placed under the con- 
 trol of the administrative authorities ; in 1793 
 the jurisdiction of the University was abolished; 
 in 1793 the property of tlie colleges was ordered 
 to be sold, the proceeds to be taken by the State ; 
 in September of the same year the suppression 
 of all the great public schools and of all the Uni- 
 versity faculties was pronounced. For the work 
 of reconstruction Condorcet's memorable plan 
 had in 1792 been submitted to the Committee of 
 Public Instruction appointed by the Legislative 
 Assembly. This plan proposed a secondary school 
 for every 4,000 inhabitants; for each depart- 
 ment, a departmental institute, or higher school ; 
 nine lycees, schools carrying their studies yet 
 higher than the departmental institute, for the 
 whole of France; and to crown the edifice, a 
 National Society of Sciences and Arts, corre- 
 sponding in the main with the present institute 
 of France. The whole expense of national in- 
 struction was to be borne by the Stite, and this 
 expense was estimated at 39,000,0 " of francs. 
 But 1793 and 1793 were years of lurious agita- 
 tion, when it was easier to destroy than to baild. 
 Condorcet perished with the Girondists, and the 
 reconstruction of public education difl not begin 
 till after the fall of Robespierre. The decrees 
 of the Convention for establishing the Normal 
 School, the Polytechnic, the School of Mines, 
 and the ecoles centrales, and then Daunou's law 
 in 1795, bore, however, many traces of Condor- 
 
 cet's design. Daunou's law established primary 
 schools, central schools, special schools, and at 
 the liead of all the Institute of France, this last 
 a nu niorable and enduring creation, with which 
 the .)ld French Academy became incorporated. 
 By Daunou's law, also, freedom was given to 
 private persons to open schools. The new legis- 
 lation bad many defects. . . . The country, too 
 was not ytt settled enough for its education to 
 organise itself successfully. The Normal School 
 speedily broke down; the central schools were 
 established slowly and with dilliculty; in the 
 course of the four years of the Directory there 
 were nominally instituted ninety-one of tliese 
 schools, but they never really worked. More 
 was accomplished by private schools, to whicli 
 full freedom was given by tlie new legislation, 
 at the same time that an ample and o|)en field 
 lay before them. They could not, however, suf- 
 fice for the work, and education was one of the 
 matters for which Napoleon, when he became 
 Consul, had to provide. Fourcroy's law, in 1803, 
 took as the basis of its school-system secondary 
 schools, whetlier established iiy the communes 
 or by private individuals; the Government un- 
 dertook to aid these schools by grants for build- 
 ings, for scholarships, and for gratuities to the 
 masters; it prescribed Latin, French, geography, 
 history, ancl mathematics as the instruction to be 
 given in them. They were placed under the 
 superintendence of the prefects. To continue 
 and complete the secondary schools were insti- 
 tuted the lyceums; here the instruction was to 
 be Greek and Latin, rhetoric, logic, literature, 
 moral philosophy, and the elements of the math- 
 ematical and physical sciences. The pupils 
 were to lie of four kinds: boursiers naf' naux, 
 scliclars nominated to scholarships by the State ; 
 pupils from tlie secondary schools, admitted as 
 free scliolars by competition; paying boarders, 
 and paying day-scl.olars." — M. Arnold, ikhool» 
 and UitivcrHtien on, the Continent, cIi. 1. 
 
 France : A. D. 1833-1889. — The present Sys- 
 tem of Public lastruction, — "The question of 
 the education of _'outli is one of those in which 
 the struggle between the Catholic Church and 
 the civil power has been, and still is, hottest. It 
 is also one of those in which France, which for a 
 long time had remained far in tlie rear, has made 
 most efforts, and achieved most progress in these 
 latter years. . . . Napoleon I. conceived educa- 
 tion as a means of disciplining minds and wills 
 and moulding them into conformity witli the po- 
 litical system which he had put in force ; accord- 
 ingly he gave the University the monopoly of 
 public education. Apart from the offlcial system 
 of teaching, no competition was allowed except 
 that specially authorised, regulated, r.nd con- 
 trolled by the State itself. Religious instruction 
 found a place in the oflicial programmes, and 
 membei's of the clergy were even called on to 
 supply it, but this instruction itself, and these 
 priests themselves, were under the authority of 
 the State. Hence two results : on the one hand 
 the speedy impoverishment of University educa- 
 tion, ... on the other hand, the incessant agita- 
 tion of all those who were prevented by the 
 special organisation given to the University from 
 expounding tlieir ideas or the faith that was ia 
 them from the professorial chair. This agita- 
 tion was begun and carried on by the Catholic 
 Church itself, as soon as it felt more at liberty to 
 let Its ambitions be discerned. On this point the 
 
 716 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Frmeh 
 School Synlem. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Church met with the support of a pood luimhor 
 of Liberals, nnd it is in a prcat monsure to its in- 
 itiiitive thiit lire due tlio three importiint laws of 
 183!i 1850, nnd 1875, wliicli have respectively 
 given to France freedom of primary e<lucation, 
 of secondary education, and finally that of higher 
 education; which have given, that is to say, the 
 right to every one, un.ier certain conditions of 
 capacity and character, to open ririvate schools 
 in competition with *he three orders of public 
 schools. But the Church did not stop there. 
 Hardly had it insured liberty to its educational 
 institutions — a liberty by wldch all citizens 
 might profit alilte, but of which its own strong 
 organisation and powerful resources enabled it 
 more easily to ;iikc advantage — hardly was this 
 result obtained than the Church tried to lay 
 hands on the University itself, nnd to make its 
 doctrines p,>™r".o'int there. . . . Tlieuce arose 
 a movement liostib to the enterprises of the 
 Church, wliich lias /und expression since 1880 
 in a series of law, lich excluded her little by 
 little from the pcjiions eho had won, nnd only 
 left to her, as to all Jther citizens, the liberty to 
 teach apart from and concurrently witli, the 
 State. The righi. to confer degrees has been 
 given bacl' to the Statu alone; the privilege of 
 till '!cttci'of obedience ' has been nbolished; re- 
 ligious teaching has been excluded from the 
 primary schools; and after having 'laicized,' as 
 the French phrase is, the curriculum, the effort 
 was persistently made to ' laicize ' the staff. . . . 
 From the University point of view, the territory 
 of France is divided into seventeen ncndemies, 
 the chief towns of which are Paris, Douui, Caen, 
 Rennes, Poitiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Mont- 
 pellier, Aix, Grenoble, Chnmbery, Lyons, Besan- 
 con, Nancy, Dijon, Clermont, and Algiers. 
 Each academy has a rector at its head, who, 
 under the authority of the Minister of Public 
 Instruction, is charged with the material admin- 
 istration of higher and secondary education, and 
 with the methods of primary instruction in his 
 district. The administration of this last belongs 
 to the prefect of each department, assisted by an 
 academy-inspector. In each of these three suc- 
 cessive stages — department, academy, and central 
 administration — is placed a council, possessing 
 administrative and disciplinary powers. The 
 Departmental Council of Public Instruction, 
 which comprises six oflicials . . . forms a disci- 
 plinary council for primary education, either 
 public or free (i. e. , State or private). This coun- 
 cil sees to the application of programmes, lays 
 down rules, and appoints one or more delegates 
 in each canton to superintend primary schools. 
 Tlie Academic Council . . . performs similar 
 functions with regard to secondary and higher 
 education. The Higher Council of Public In- 
 struction sits at Pans. It comprises forty-four 
 elected representatives of the three educational 
 orders, nine University officials, and four ' free ' 
 schoolmasters appointed by the Jlinister, and is 
 the disciplinary court of appeal for the two pre- 
 ceding councils. . . . Such is the framework, 
 administrative as well as judicial, in which edu- 
 cation, whether public or free, lives and moves. 
 . . . Since 1882 Primary Education has been 
 compulsory for all children of both sexes, from 
 the age of six to the end of the thirteenth year, 
 unless before reaching the latter age they have 
 been able to pass an examination, and to gain the 
 certificate of primary studies. To satisfy the 
 
 law, the child's name must he entered at a pub- 
 lic or private school; he may, however, continue 
 to receive instruction iit home, but in this case, 
 after he has reached the age of eight, he must be 
 examined c'very rear before; a State board. . . . 
 At the age of thlrt<'en the child is set free from 
 further teaching, whatever may lie the results of 
 the education he has received. ... In imblic 
 schools the course of instruction does not include, 
 as wo liavo said, religious teaching ; hut one day 
 in the week the scliool must take a holiday, to 
 allow parents to provide such teaching for their 
 children, if they wish to do so. The school 
 building cannot be used for that purpose. In 
 private schools religious instruction may be 
 given, but this is optional. The programme of 
 primary education includes: moral and civic in- 
 struction; reading, writing, French, geography 
 and history (particularly those of France); gen- 
 eral notions of law and science ; the elements of 
 drawing, modelling, and music; and gj'ninastics. 
 No person of either sex can become a teacher, 
 either public or private, unless he possesst^s the 
 ' certificate of capacity for primary instruction ' 
 given by a State board. For the future — put- 
 ting aside certain temporary arrangements — no 
 member of a religious community will be eligible 
 for the post of master in a public school. . . . 
 As a general rule, every commune is comiielled 
 to maintain a public school, and, if it has more 
 than 500 inhabitants, a second school for girls 
 .inly. . . . The sum total of the State's expenses 
 for primary education in 1887 is as high as eighty- 
 five million francs (,£3,400,000), and that without 
 mentioning grants for school buildings, whereas 
 in 1877 the sum total was only twelve millions 
 (£480,000). . . . From 1877 to 1880, the number 
 of public schools rose from 61,000 to 00,500; 
 that of the pupils from 4,200,000 to 4,500,000, 
 with 08,600 masters and mistres.ses; that of train- 
 ing schools for male teachers from 79 to 89, of 
 training schools for female teachers from 18 to 
 77, with 5,400 pupils (3,500 of them women), and 
 1,200 masters. As to the results a single fact 
 will suffice. In these ten years, before the gen- 
 erations newly called to military service have 
 been able to profit fully by the new state of 
 things, the proportion of illiterate recruits (which 
 is annually made out directly after the lots are 
 drawn) has already fallen from 15 to 11 per cent." 
 — A. Lebon and P. Pelet, Prance as it is, ch. 5. — 
 " In 1873, after the dreadful disaster of the war, 
 Monsieur Thiers, President of the Gouvemement 
 de la Defense Nationale, and Monsieur Jules 
 Simon, Minister of Public Instruction, felt that 
 what was most important for tlie nation was a 
 new system of public instruction, and they set 
 themselves the task of determining the basis on 
 which this new system was to be established. In 
 September, 1883, Slonsieur Jules Simon issued a 
 memorable circular calling the attention of all 
 the most distinguished leaders of thought to 
 some proposed plans. He did not long remain in 
 power, but in his retirement he wrote a book en- 
 titled: ' Refornic de I'Enseignement Secondaire.' 
 Monsieur Breal, who was commissioned to visit 
 the schools of Germany, soon after publisiied 
 another book which aroused new enthusiasm in 
 France. . . . From that day a complete educa- 
 tional reform was decided on. In 1872 wq had 
 at the Ministere de I'lnstruction Publique three 
 distinguished men: Monsieur Dumont for the 
 Enseignement Superieur, one from whom we 
 
 nr 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Irifh 
 National SchooU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 hoped much nnd wlioae onrly denth we luwl to 
 mourn in 1H84 ; Monsieur Zi''V()rt for tlie Enseignc- 
 nient Sceondairc, wlio nlsodicd ore tlie good seed 
 wliicli lie Imd sown had Hpning up nnd borne 
 fruit (1HH7); imd Monsieur Huisson to wlioso wis- 
 dom, zeiil, nnd energy we owe most of tlie work 
 of tiie Enseignement I'rimnire. At tlieir side, 
 of maturer years than tliey, stood Monsieur Gre- 
 ard, |{<'Ctour de I'Academie de Paris. . . . All 
 the (■ducutionists of t!io first French Revolution 
 had insisted on the solidarity of the three orders 
 of education; maintaining thr: li was not pos- 
 sible to separate one from another, nnd that tlierc 
 ought to be a close correspondence between tlicm. 
 This principle lies at the root of the whole sys- 
 tem of French national instruction. Having es- 
 trvblished this principle, the four leaders called 
 upon all classes ,)f teachers to work with them, 
 and professors wlio liad devoted their life to the 
 promotion of superior instruction brought their 
 experience nnd their powers of organization to 
 bear upon schools for all classes, from the richest 
 to the poorest. . . . But to reform and to recon- 
 struct a system of instruction is not asm»!l task. 
 It is not easy to change at once the old methods, 
 to give "x new spirit to the masters, to i jach those 
 who think that what had been sufflcient for them 
 need not be alteied and is sufflcient forever. 
 However, we must say that as soon as the French 
 teachers heard of the great changes which were 
 about to take place, they were all anxious to rise 
 to the demands made on them, and were eager 
 for advice and help. Lectures on pedagogy and 
 psychology were given to them by the highest 
 professors of philosophy, and these lessons were 
 so much appreciated that the attention of the 
 University of France was called to the necessity 
 for creating at the Sorbonne a special course of 
 lectures on pedagogy. Eleven hundred masters 
 nnd mistresses attended them the first year that 
 they were inaugurated ; from that time till now 
 their number has always been increasing. Now 
 we have at the Sorbonne n Chaire Magistralo and 
 Conferences for the training of masters and pro- 
 fessors; and the faculties at Livons, Bordeaux, 
 Nancy, nnd Montpellier have followed the ex- 
 ample given at the Sorbonne, Paris. ... In 
 1878, the Museo Pedagogique was founded; in 
 1882, began the publication of the Revue P&ia- 
 gogique and the Revue Internationale de I'En- 
 seignement. Four large volumes of the Diction- 
 nalre de Pedagogic, each containing about 3,000 
 closely printed pages, have also come out under 
 the editorship of Monsieur Buisson, all the work 
 of zealous teachers and educationists. In 1879 
 normal schools were opened. Then in 1880 pri- 
 mary schools, and in 1882 we may say that the 
 Ecoles Matcrnelles and the Ecolcs Enfantines 
 were created, so different are they from the infant 
 schools or the Salles d'Asile; in 1883 a new ex- 
 amination was established for the Profcssorat and 
 the Direction des Ecoles Normales, as well as for 
 the inspectors of primary Instruction; and in 
 July, 1889, the law about public and private 
 teaching was promulgated, perhaps one of the 
 most important that has ever been passed by the 
 Republic." — Mme. Th. Armagnnc, The JElduca- 
 tional lienaissaiice of France {Education, Sept., 
 1890). 
 France : A. D. 1890-1891.— Statistics.— The 
 
 whole number of pupils registered in the pri- 
 mary, elementary and superior schools, public and 
 private, of France and Algiers (excluding the I of National Education 
 
 718 
 
 "ecoles matcrnelles ") for the school-year 1890- 
 91, was 5,593,883; of which 4,:!84,905 were in 
 public schoo.H (it. 700,801, •'laVriue," nnd 024,304 
 "congreganiste ), and 1,208,978 in private 
 schools (151,413 "latques,"and 1,057,500 "con- 
 greganiste"). Of 36,484 communes, 85,503 pos- 
 sessed n public school, and 875 were joined for 
 school purposes with another commune. The 
 male teachers employed in the elementary and 
 superior public schools numbered 28,057; fenmlo 
 teachers, 24,273; total 52,930.— Ministilrc de I'ln- 
 struction publique, Renivie des Mats de situation 
 dp I' enseignement primair^ j»>ur i'annee seolaire 
 1890-1891. 
 
 Ireland. — "The present system of National 
 Education in Irclancl was founded in 1831. In this 
 year grants of public money for the education of 
 the poor were entru.sted to the lord-lieutenant in 
 order that they might be applied to the ed.ica- 
 tion of the people. Thin education was to bo 
 given to children of every religious belief, and 
 to be superintended by commissioners ai)pointed 
 for the purpose. The great principh; on which 
 the system was founded was that of ' united 
 secular nnd separate religious instruction. ' No 
 child should be required to attend any religious 
 instruction which should be contrary to the 
 wishes of his or her parents or guardians. 
 Times were to be set apart during which chil- 
 dren were to have such religious instruction as 
 their parents might think proper. It wns to 1)0 
 the duty of the Commissioners to see that theso 
 principles were carried out and not infringed on 
 in nny way. They had also power to give or 
 refuse money to those who applied for aid to 
 build schools. Schools are 'vested' and 'non- 
 vested.' Vested schools arc those built by the 
 Board of National Education ; non-vested schools 
 are the ordinary schools, and are managed by 
 those who built them. If a committee of per- 
 sons build a school, it is looked on by the Board 
 as the 'patron.' If a landowner or private per- 
 son builds a school, he is regarded as the patron 
 if he has no committee. The patron, whether 
 landlord or committee, liaa power to appoint or 
 dismiss a manager, who corresponds with the 
 Board. The manager is also responsible for the 
 due or thorough observance of tli ■ laws and 
 rules. Teachers are paid by him ah. r he certi- 
 fies that the laws have been kept, and gives the 
 attendance for each quarter. When an indi- 
 vidual is patron, he may appoint himself mana- 
 ger, and thus fill both ofBc's. . . . The teac'icrs 
 are paid by salaries nnd by results fees. The 
 Boards of Guardians have power to contribute 
 to these results fees. Some unions do so nnd are 
 called 'contributory.' School managers in Ire- 
 land are nearly nlwnys clerics of sonie denomina- 
 tion. There nre sometimes, but very rarely, lay 
 managers, . . . From the census returns of 1881 
 it appears that but fifty-nine per cent, of the 
 people of Ireland ore able to read and write. 
 Tlie greater number of national schools through- 
 out Ireland are what are called 'unmixed,' that 
 is, attended by ciiildren of one denomination 
 only. The rest of the schools are called ' mixed, ' 
 that is, attended by children of different forms 
 of religion. The percentage of schools that show 
 a ' mixed ' attendance tends to become smaller 
 each year. . . . There are also twenty- nine 
 'model' schools in different parts of Ireland. 
 These Bchool8_aro managed directly by the Board 
 . . According to the 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Pnutia. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 n'port of the CoiiinilssioncrH of National Eilucu- 
 tioii for 1890, the ' pcrci'iitagc^ of avcra);(' atti'iic' 
 Hiicit to tlio avcraKO iiiiiiiIht of childrpii on the 
 rolls of tlio 8(!lKH)ls was Imt nO.O,' and the per 
 rx'ntaKC of school attcndanci! to the csliniatcd 
 population of hcIiooI agci in Ireland woiild he 
 IcHS than r>0. Dilfcrent reasons niiftlil be given 
 for tills small pereentagi^ of attendant •. The 
 chief reasons are, first, ntten<!ancc at school not 
 being compulsory, and next, education not being 
 free. . . . The pence paid for school fees in Ire- 
 land may seem, to many people, a small matter. 
 Hut in a cotintry like Ireland, where little money 
 circulates, and a numbei of the (Hople are very 
 poor, school pence arc often not easily found every 
 week. In 1890, i:l01,.V)0 48. and 8(1. was paid 
 in . i;ho(il fees, l)einir an average of 4s. md. ])er 
 unit of average attendance." — the IHkIi l\<mint\ 
 III/ II (liiiirdinn of tlw Pmir, eJi. 8. 
 
 Norway. — "In 1730 the Hchools throughout 
 the country were reguhited by a royal ordinance, 
 but this paid so little regard to the economical 
 and physical condition of Xorway that it had to be 
 altered and niodilied as early as 1741. Comiiul- 
 8ory instruction, however, had thus been adopted, 
 securing to every child in the country instruction 
 in the C'liristian doctrine and in reading, and this 
 coercion was retained in all later laws. . . . 
 Many portions of the coimtry are intersected by 
 higli mountains and deep lionls, so that a small 
 population is Hcattered over a surface of several 
 miles. In such localities the law has established 
 'ambulatory schools,' whose teachers travel 
 from one farm to another, living with the differ- 
 ent peasants. Although this kind of instruction 
 has often been most incomplete nd the teachers 
 very mediocre, still educational coercion has 
 everywhere been in force, and Christian instruc- 
 tion everywhere provided for the children. 
 These 'ambulatory schools' formerly existed in 
 large numben, but with the increase of wealth 
 and population, and the growing interest taken 
 in e<lucation, their number has gradually dimin- 
 ished, and that of fixed circle-schools augmented 
 in the sume proportion. ' — U. Qade, liep ' on the 
 Eilucntioiial System of Xorway ( IT. S. Bureau of 
 Miuaition, Circulars of Information, July, 1871). 
 — " School attendance is compulsory for at least 
 12 we'^ks each year for all children in the coun- 
 try districts from 8 years of age to confirmation, 
 and from 7 years to confirmation in the towns. 
 Acconiing to the law of 1889, which in a meas- 
 ure only emphasizes preceding laws, each school 
 is to have the necessary furnishings and all 
 indispensable school material. The Norwegians 
 are so intent upon giving instruction to all chil- 
 dren that in case of poverty of the parents the 
 authorities furnish text-books and the necessary 
 clothing, so that school privileges may be ac- 
 corded to all of school age."— U. 8. Comm'i' of 
 Education, Report, 1889-90, p. 013. 
 
 Prussia: A. D. 1809. — Education and the 
 liberation movement. — " The most important era 
 in the liistory of public instruction in Prussia, as 
 well as in other parts of Germany, opens with the 
 efforts put forth by the king and people, to rescue 
 the kingdom from the yoke of Napoleon in 1809. 
 In that year the array was remodeled and every 
 citizen converted into a soldier; landed property- 
 was declared free of feudal service ; restrictions 
 on freedom of trade were abolished, and the whole 
 state was reorganized. Great reliance was placed 
 on infusing a German & rlt into the people by 
 
 7 
 
 giving them freer access to improved Institutions 
 of education fn^m the common school to the uni- 
 versity. Under the councils of llanlenberg, 
 Ilumb'ildt, Htein, Altenstein, these riforms aial 
 improvements were projected, carried on, and 
 perfected in less than a single generation. The 
 movement in tichalf of popular schools com- 
 mence<l by inviting ('. A. ZcIUt, of Wirtemberg, 
 to Prussia. Z(!ller was ,. young theologian, who 
 had studied under Pestalo/zi in Hwitzerlaial, and 
 was thoroughly imbued with the method and 
 spirit of his master. On his return he had con- 
 vened the school feac^hers of Wirtemberg in barns, 
 for want of better accommiMlations being allowed 
 him, and inspired them with a zeal for Pesta- 
 lo/./.i's methods, and for i better education of the 
 whole people. On removing to Pru.ssia he first 
 took charge of the seminary at Koenigsberg, soon 
 after founded the seminary at Karalene, and went 
 about into different pi-oviaces meeting .vith 
 teachers, holding conferences, visiting schools, 
 and inspiring school olllcers with the right spirit. 
 The next step taken was to send a numl)er of 
 young men, mostly theologians, to Pestalozzi's 
 institution at IlTerten, to acquire his method, and 
 on their return to place them in new, or reorgan- 
 izeil teachers' seminaries. To these new agiuits 
 in school improvement were joined a large body 
 of zealous teachers, and patriotic and enlightened 
 citizens, who, in ways and methods of their own, 
 labored incessantly to confirm the Pru.ssian state, 
 by forming new organs for ;,,., internal life, and 
 new means of protection f . .im foreign foes. "They 
 l)roved themselves truly educators of the people. 
 Although the government thus not only encour- 
 aged, but directly aided in the introduction of 
 the methods of Pestalozzi into the public schools 
 of Prussia, still the school board in the different 
 provinces sustained and encouraged those who 
 approved and taught on different systems. . . . 
 Music, which was one of Pestalozzi's grei.t m- 
 struments of culture, was made the vehicle of 
 patriotic songs, and through them the heart of 
 all Germany was moved to bitter hatred of the 
 conqueror who had desolated her fields and 
 homes, and humbled the pride of her monarchy. 
 All these efforts for the improvement of element- 
 ary education, accompanied by expensive modi- 
 fications in the establishments of secondary and 
 superior education, were made when the treasu.'-y 
 was impovLrished, and taxes the most exorbitant 
 in amount were levied on every province and 
 commune of the kingdom." — II. Barnard, Na- 
 tioiml Education in Europe, pp. 83-84. — For this 
 notable educational work begun in Prussia in 
 1809, and which gave a new character to the na- 
 tion, "the Providentia- man appeared in Hum- 
 boldt, as great a master of the science and art of 
 education as Scharnhori'. was a master of the 
 organisation of war. Not only was he himself, 
 OS a scholar and an investigator, on a level with 
 the very first of his age, not only had he lived 
 with precisely those masters of literature, Schil- 
 ler and Goethe, who were most deliberate in their 
 self-culture, and have therefore left behind most 
 instruction on the higher parts of education, but 
 he had been specially intimate with F. A. Wolf. 
 It is not generally known in England that Wolf 
 was not merely the greatest philologer but also 
 tlie greatest teacher and educationist of his time. 
 . . . Formed by such teachers, and supported by 
 a more intense belief in ctilture than almost any 
 man of his time, Humboldt began bis work in 
 
 19 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Uumbolttt'ii 
 uxtrk 111 I'nutta. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 April, 1800, III primiiry I'ductitlou Fich'.o Imtl 
 iilrcfttly poiiitc'il •() I'c'Htiifn/.zl iiH tlie Iw'st Kuidc, 
 ()ii(! of timt rcforiniTH iliariplcH, C. A. Zcllrr, 
 >viiHHiimiii(ino<l to Kniilf^BlxT^ to foiiiiil n norniiil 
 M'hiH)!, wliiU; tlic reformer hiiiiHi'If. in liiii w(M>l(ly 
 educat.'iiniil journiil, flii-iTPil fiilli'a l'ru8.sia liy lii-s 
 piini'gyric, imd wroto I'litliiiHiiiRtirally to Nicolo- 
 viiiH pronouiK.'ing liirn ntul liit> friends tlio xiilt 
 imd lenven of tlie eiirtli tlmt w()\dd soon leiivcn 
 tlie whole miws. It is relat<'d tlmt in the many 
 ditllcultiea which Zeller uot unnnturnlly had to 
 contend with, the Kind's genuine benevolence, 
 interest in practical improvement, and stn>ng 
 family feeling, were of decisive use. . . . The 
 reform of the Gymnasia was also highly success- 
 ful. Hllvern here was among the most active of 
 those who worked uniler Humboldt's direction. 
 In deference to the auth ity of Wolf the classics 
 preserved their traditional position of lionour, 
 and ])articului importance was attached to Greek. 
 . . . But it was on the highest department of 
 education that Humlxildt left his murk mo.st 
 visibly. He founded the University of Berlin; 
 he gave to Europe a new seat of learning, which 
 has ever since stood on an equality with the very 
 greatest of those of which Europe boasted before. 
 We are not. indeed to suppose that the Idea of 
 such a University sprang up for the first time 
 at this moment, or in the bnun of Humboldt. 
 Among all the loiises which befell Prussia by the 
 Peace of Tilsit none was felt more bitterly tlian 
 the loss of the University of Hulle, where Wolf 
 himself liad made his fame. Immediately after 
 tiio blow fell, two of the Professors of Holle 
 made their way to Memel and laid before the 
 King a proposal to establish a HIgli School at 
 Berlin. This was on August 22nd, 1807. . . . 
 On September 4tli came an Order of Cabinet, in 
 which It was declared to be one of the most im- 
 
 fortjint objects to compensate the loss of Halle, 
 t was added that neitlier of the two Universities 
 which remained to Prussia, those of Kftnigsberg 
 and Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, could be made to 
 supply the place of Halle, KOnigsberg being too 
 remote from the seat of Government and Frank- 
 furt not sufflciently provided with means. At 
 Berlin a University could best, and at least ex 
 pense, be established. Accordingly all funds 
 which Imd hitherto gone to Halle were to go for 
 the future to Berlin, and assurances were to be 
 given to the expelled Professors which might 
 prevent their talents being lost to the country. 
 A University ia not founded in a day, and accoid- 
 Ingly while Stein held office the design did not 
 pass beyond the stage of discussion. . . . Hum- 
 boldt scut in his Report on May 13, 1809, and on 
 August 16th followed the Order of Cabinet as- 
 signing to the new University, along with the 
 Academies of Science and Art, an annual dota- 
 tion of 150,000 thalers, and the Palace of Prince 
 Henry as Its residence. During the rest of his 
 term of office Humboldt was occupied in negotia- 
 tions with eminent men of science oil over Ger- 
 many, whose services he hoped to procure. He 
 was certainly not unsuccessful. He secured 
 Flchte for Philosophy ; Schleiermacher, De Wette, 
 and Marheiaeke for Theology; Savigny and 
 Schmalz for Jurisprudence; Priediilnder, Kohl- 
 rausch, Hufoland, and Reil for Medicine ; Wolf, 
 Buttmann, BiJekh, Helndorf, and Spalding for 
 the Study of Antiquity ; Niebuhr and RUhs for 
 History ; Trallcs for Mathematics (Gauss refused 
 the Invitation). The University was opened at 
 
 Michaelmas of 1810, and as tiio first result of It 
 the first volume of Ni'-biihr's lioman History, 
 opening so vast a field of historical speculation, 
 was pulili.shcd In 1811. . . . Altogether in tlmt 
 periiMi of Uennan history the relations of litera 
 ture, or rather culture In general, to politics are 
 remarkable and exceptional. There had been a 
 niostextraordinary intellectual movement, n great 
 outpouring of genius, and yet this had taken 
 plate not, as according to some current tlKuirics 
 It ought to iiave done, in the bosom of political 
 iilierty, l)ut in a country where liberty was un- 
 known. And as it was uot the cITect, so the ne\/ 
 literature did not seem disposed to become the 
 cause, of liljcrty. Not only was It careless of in- 
 ternal liberty, but it was actually indilTerent to 
 national Independence. The golden ago of Oer- 
 iiian literature Is the very period when Germany 
 was cimquered by France. . . . So far literature 
 and culture seemed u doubtful lieneflt, and might 
 almost bo compared to some pernicious drug, 
 which sliould have the power to make men for- 
 get their country and llieir duties. Not un- 
 reasonably did Priedrif:h Perthes console himself 
 for the disasters o' Geniiany by reflecting that 
 at least they had broug.'il to tui end 'the paper 
 time,' the fool's paradise of a life inai'o up of 
 nothing more substantial than literat'irc. In 
 Humboldt's reform wo have the compensation for 
 all Lhis. Here while on the .mo hand we see the 
 grand spectacle of a nation in the last extremity 
 refusing to part with the treasures of its higher 
 life, on the other hand tlmt higher life is no longer 
 unnaturally divorced from political life. It is 
 prized as one of the bulwarks of the State, as a 
 kind of spiritual weapon by wlilch the enemy may 
 be resisted. And in the new and public-spirited 
 generation of tiiinkcrs, of wliich Flchte and 
 Schleiermacher were the principal representa- 
 tives, culture returns to politics the honour that 
 has been done to it. . . . In Humboldt and his 
 great achievements of 1809, 1810, meet and are 
 reconciled the two views of life whicli found 
 their most extreme representatives in Goethe and 
 Stein." — J. II. Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, 
 pt. 0, ch. 3 (v. 2). 
 
 Prussia: A. D. 1874.— The Educational Ad- 
 ministration. — ' ' There is no organic scliool-law In 
 Prussia, . . . though sketches and projects of 
 such a law have more than once been prepared. 
 But at present tlie public control of the higher 
 schools is exercised througlj administrative orders 
 and instructions, like the minutes of our Com- 
 mittee of Council on Education. But the admin- 
 istrative authority has m Prussia a very dilTerent 
 basis for its operations from th'it which it has in 
 England, and a much firmer one. It lias for its 
 basis these articles of the AUgemelne Landrecht, 
 or common law of Prussia, whicli was drawn up 
 in writing in Frederick the Great's reign, and 
 promulgated in 1794, in the reign of bis suc- 
 cessor: — 'Schools and universities are State in- 
 stitutions, having for their object the instruction 
 of youth in useful and scientific knowledge. 
 Such establishments are to be Instituted only 
 with the State's previous knowledge and consent. 
 All public schools and public establishments of 
 education are under the State's supervision, and 
 must at all times submit themselves to its exam- 
 inations and inspections. Whenever tlie ap- 
 pointment of teachers is not by virtue of the 
 foundation or of a special privilege vested In 
 certain persons or corporations, it belongs to the 
 
 720 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Thr PnuuUm 
 ftcHool Sytlem. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 fltatc. ■'?vpn whrrn tlin Imi.iodlnto HupcrvlRloii 
 of such Hcliools mill tlio itppiiiiitmcnt of tlicir 
 tctu'luTH Ih coinniitU'i) to rortiiin private pcrsonH 
 orcorporiitioiis. new tcncliersrnnnotbcappniiitcd, 
 mill important cliangcs in tlio conHtitutloii iinil 
 toitcliiiii; of tliB Hcliool ruiinot bo adoplpil witli- 
 out the previous liiiowlcilf^o or consi'iit of tlie 
 provliu.iiil .Hcliool iiiillioritics. Tlie tcaclicrs in 
 till,' gyniniLsiuniH and otlii-r liif^ltcr sclioolg liavo 
 tlie chiiriii'tcr of Slate functionaries.'. . . It 
 \v.)uld lie a ndstake to supiiose that the State in 
 Prussia hIiowb a graspinR and eenlralising spirit 
 in dealing with education; on the contrary, it 
 makes the administration of It as local as it possibly 
 can ; but it takes care tliat education sliall not be 
 left to the chapter of accidents. . . . Prussia is 
 now divided into eight provinces, and these eight 
 provinces arc again divided into twji.ty-si.x gov- 
 ernmental districts, or Hi'glerungen. There Is 
 a Provincial School Hoard (Provinzial-Sehulcol- 
 k'gium) in the chief town of each of the eight 
 provinces, and a Oovcrnniental District Hoard in 
 that of each of the twenty -six Hegierungen. In 
 general, the State's relations with the liiglier 
 <'lass of secondary schools are exercised through 
 the Provincial Board ; its relations with the lower 
 class of them, and with the primary schools, 
 through tlie District Board. In Herlin, the re- 
 lations with these also are managed by the Pro- 
 vincial Board. A Provinzial-Schulcollegium has 
 for its president the High President of the pro- 
 vince; for Its director the vice-president of that 
 governmental district which hapjiens to have for 
 its centre the provincial capita'. The Board has 
 two or three other members, of whom, in general, 
 one is a Catholic and one is a Protestant; ami 
 one is always a man practically conversant with 
 school matters. The District Board lias in the 
 provincial capitals the same president and director 
 as the Provincial Board ; in the other centres of 
 Rcgierungen It has for its president the Presi- 
 dent of the Kegierung, and three or four mem- 
 bers selected on the same principle as the mem- 
 bers of the Provincial Board. The provincial 
 State autliority, therefore, is, in general, for 
 gymnasiums, the larger progymnasiums, and 
 Kealschulen of the first rank, the Provincial 
 School Board; for the smaller progymnasiums, 
 liealschulen of the second rank, the higher 
 Burgher Schools, and the primary schools of all 
 kinds, the Governmental District Board. Both 
 boards are in continual communication with tho 
 Educational Minister at Berlin. . . . Besides the 
 central and provincial administration there is a 
 local or municipal administration for schools that 
 arc not Crown patronage schools. ... In most 
 towns the local authority forschoolsof municipal 
 patronage is the town magistracy, assisted by a 
 Stadtschulrath; sometimes tlie local authority is 
 a Curatoriumor Schulcommission." — M. Arnold, 
 Higher Schools and Univenitics in Germany, ch. 
 3. — " The secondary school dllTers from the ele- 
 mentary schools by a course of instruction going 
 beyond the immediate demands of every-day 
 life ; from the special school, by the more gen- 
 eral character of the courses of instruction ; from 
 the university, by its preparatory character. It 
 has the special aim to give that sound basis of 
 scientific and literary education which enables a 
 man to participate in solving the higher prob- 
 lems of life in church, state, and society. In 
 accordance with their historical development, 
 two directions can be clearly traced, viz., the 
 
 gymnasium and the real-school: the former com- 
 
 prising gymnasl'i and pro-gymnasia; and the lat- 
 ter real-sehoolsof the first class, realseliools of the 
 W'cond class, and higher burgher-schiHils." — IUhI. 
 of Seeomlnry In»trurtii>n in (lernumy (U. S. Hit- 
 reau of Eduaition. CircuUirf of Informntinn, 1N74, 
 110. 3), i>. 41. — "The name gymnasium came in'.o 
 use as early as the sixteenth century. Tin 
 miiiistfrlal (lecreeof the lUtliof November, 1813, 
 ordered that all learned school institutions, such 
 as lyceums, pedagogiums, coUegiu.iiis, Latin 
 scliiMils, etc., should lii'ar the name- gymnasium. 
 A gymnasium is and lias long been a classical 
 school." — U. S. Comm'r of Education, lieixtrt, 
 18S0-U0, ;). 318. 
 
 Ai.si) in: V. Cousin, Report on the »tate of 
 jiii/>lii\iiiiitriii'ti'iii ill I'nimn. 
 
 Prussia : A. D. 1885-1889.— The Elementary 
 School-System. — " '1 lu^ New Yorker, anxious 
 for a high degree of perfection in the elementary 
 schools of his State, must be struck forcibly by 
 the f(,llcwing merits of the Elementary School 
 System c '. Prussia. . . . 1. Compulsory education 
 laws, necessitating a full and regular attendance 
 of the children of school age. 2. OIHclal courses 
 of study fixing the work to be accomplished In 
 each of the different grades of schools. Uni- 
 formity is thus secured in the work done in all 
 schools of the same class. 3. Definite i|uallfiea- 
 tlons and expirience in teaching for eligibility 
 to the olBce of school commissioner. 4. Provi- 
 sions elevating teaching to the dignity of a pro- 
 fession and making the tenure of oince secure. 
 5. Trained teachers in rural as well as city 
 districts and a school year of at least forty 
 weeks. 0. General supervision of instruction for 
 children of school age In private schools and 
 families, including the qualifications of instruct- 
 ors. . . . Every Prussian child between the ages 
 of 6 and 14 must, except in cases of severe ill- 
 ness or other extraordinary cause, be present at 
 every session of the school he attends. The lists 
 of the children of school age, in charge of the 
 local police (in rural districts the Burgermeister), 
 are kept so carefully that it is impossible to es- 
 cape the provisions of the compulsorj education 
 laws, as much so as it is to evade the military 
 service Dispensations amounting to more than 
 four weeks in the school year are never given to 
 children under 13 years of age, and to them only 
 when sickness In the family or other unusual 
 cause make it advisable. ... In order to under- 
 stand the qualifications required of school com- 
 missioners (Kreisschulinspektoren) in Prussia, let 
 us review brlefiy the requirements of male 
 teachers. 1. Eleiiientary schools. It may be 
 stated at the outset that almost all the male ele- 
 mentary school teachers are normal school gradu- 
 ates. 'To insure similarity in triiinlng and a 
 thorough knowledge of character, few foreigners 
 and few beside normal school (ScliuUehrer-Seml- 
 nar) graduates are admitted to the male teaching 
 force. From to 14 the wonld-be teacher has at- 
 tended, let us suppose, an elementary school. He 
 must then absolve the three years' course laid 
 down for the preparatory schools. ... He is now 
 ready for the normal school. At the close of a 
 three years' course at the normal school be is ad- 
 mitted to the first teachers' examination. If suc- 
 cessful, he must next practice as candidate or 
 assistant teacher not less than two years and not 
 more than five years before his admission to the 
 final test. ... If a teacher fails to pass the ex- 
 
 V21 
 
KUUCATION. 
 
 Prwuinn 
 Hekool UtatUUct. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Kminntlon within flvo yunm, Im in dropped. 3. 
 Middle m'IkkiIh. For tciu'litTR of lower elHRM>8 
 the Hiiiiie n'cmlrotneiilH with Ihe addition of 
 nl)il!ty to teiu'li ii foreiKii tongue, or iiiitiiriil 
 hiHtory in ItH hrondest Heiiite, mid tli(! iittuiiiiiient 
 of the murk ' kimhI ' in till Hulijeets lit the tiniil 
 exainiiiiitiun. . . . For higher eliuweH, ii Hpeeliil 
 cxatnlniition provided for middle scliooi teiieheni. 
 , . . There In really no jtriuiiition between ele- 
 mentary mid nilddli! schools. The iiitter merely 
 ({o on somewhat further with elementiiry school 
 Work, inlrodiiiiiiK rreneli, fiiitiii mid English. 
 !). IIIkIi Kchiiols (liealschiilcii, lieiilgvinnaslen, 
 Pro^fymnasieu and Oyrnimtiien). All high school 
 teachers, except those engaged in tceliiiical d-' 
 partnient^s, must first almolve the nine years' 
 gvmnaMlal course, whi(!h commences at the^losc 
 o( the third school year. Next comes the uni- 
 versity course of three or four years. The can- 
 didate h now ready for t!ie Htiito examination. 
 The Huhjects for this State examination . . . are 
 divided into four classes: 1. The ancient lan- 
 guages and Cierman; 2. Matheniaticsand natural 
 sciences; i). History and geography ; 4. Keligion 
 and llclirew. At the close of one year's practice 
 to test teaching capacity he receives a second 
 certificate ami Is thereupon engaged provision- 
 nlly. . . . The school coiiiniissioners . . . are 
 cither former regular high school teachers, gen- 
 eral doctors of iihiiosophy or more rarely theo- 
 logians, or former normal school teachers. All 
 must have had practical experience in teaching. 
 . . . The work to be accompilslied in each Prus- 
 sian elementary school is definitely laid down by 
 law. Each school is not a law unto itself as to 
 what shall be done and when and how this is 
 to be done. I have learned by practical ex- 
 perience tliat the work in ungraded schools com- 
 pares most favorably witli that of graded 
 schools." — J. U. Parsons, Jr., Prussian tiklwola 
 through American eyes, ch. 1, sect. 5-10. — Prus- 
 sian elementary schools are now free. " In this 
 respect Prussia has passed through three stiiges. 
 Under the first elementary schools were entirely 
 self-supporting; under the second they received 
 State aid, but were still largely self-supporting; 
 under the third. Laws of 1888 and 1889, element- 
 ory schools were made free and the State pays 
 a larger proportion of the cost of maintenance. 
 Districts must pay for repairs, new buildings 
 and cost of heating. If unwilling to provide 
 proper accommodations for the children of school 
 age, they can be forced by the government to do 
 so. Poor districts may receive special govern- 
 ment aid to meet such expenses. . . . The direct 
 aim of the laws of June 14, 1888, and March 31, 
 1889, was to lighten the burden of local taxation 
 for sc:hool8 for children of school age. These 
 laws have had a beneficial effect in increasing 
 slightly the wages of teachers. Teachers' sala- 
 ries are still quite small in Prussia, particularly 
 In the case of females. Allowances are generally 
 made for house-rent and fuel. Teachers in rural 
 districts are provided with a house and garden. 
 Their salaries are often not much more than half 
 those paid city teachers of the same grade, and 
 yet, as regards professional training and char- 
 acter of work, they are fully equal to city 
 teachers. . . . The average annual salary re- 
 ceived by teachers in Prussia ia 1886 was $287.50. 
 Tlie average for the same ye-v in New York was 
 $409.37. The Prussian teacher, however, re- 
 ceived fuel and dwelling free, in addition to hi.j 
 
 regular salary. ... In 1R85 the population of 
 Prussia wiiH 28,;i|H,470, ami the total cost of 
 public education per caput was 1^1.7717. Drs. 
 Hchncidcraiid Petcrsllie of llcrllii, In ' PriMissischu 
 Ktatislik 101,'pulillslii'd in 1HH9, reckon the total 
 cost for IM88, excluding army and navy schools, 
 at 1|1.5(), li>3,H.17. ... Ill PriiKsia. (!lemcntAry in- 
 struction Is the first c(msidcralion. The resolu- 
 tion adopted by the nationiil asHt^mbly (I.andtag) 
 December 23, 1870, Is a good illustration of this. 
 It was at the very crisis of tlie I'Vanco-Oerman 
 war, yet the Landtag called on the government 
 to increase the mimhcrof normal schools and the 
 capacity of those already existing, and 'thus to 
 put an end to tlie practice of filllnfj up teacliers' 
 vacancies by iippoiiiting inupialiflcd individ- 
 uals.'" — J. U. Parsons, Jr., Pntssinn Schoolt 
 Ihrouffh American eyes, ch. 1, sect. 15-17. — 
 "Througliout Prussia tlicre is now one scliool- 
 room and one teacher to 440 inhabitants and 78.8 
 children actually attending school. This shows 
 that there are far too few teachers. Hut the gov- 
 ernment and the cities have n'ci'iitly devoted con- 
 siderable sums to the establishment of new places 
 for ti'iichers, so that, in the) ear 1881, there were 
 10,000 more teachers working in the public 
 8eh(Kils than in 1873. The salaries of the teachers 
 were also rai.sed. The average payment in the 
 country is 054 marks, in the cities 1,430 marks. 
 ... The expen.-ie of maintaining tlie Prussiau 
 national schools amounts aiiiiuully to about 103,- 
 000,000 of marks, 43,000,000 of which are paid 
 by the ciities. One hundred and ten colleges for 
 the training of teachers are now engaged in 
 the education of male and female instructors, 
 with an attendance of 0,893 pupils; that is, there 
 is one pupil to every 2,758 inliabitauts. In the 
 case of tile female teacliers only, a considerable 
 degree of assistance is rendered by private insti- 
 tutions. . . . The intermediary schools estab- 
 lished i 1 1872, and recently converted into the 
 higher citizen schools, form a transition from 
 the natic -lal schools to the higlier schools. These 
 teach reli,_ion, German, Frencli, English, history 
 and geogi, phy, arithmetic and mathematics, 
 natural history and physics, writing, drawing, 
 singing, and gymnastics. Tiio course embroccs 
 six years without Latin, with the privilege of 
 one year's service in the army instead of three. 
 Complemenairy to the national school is the 
 flnisliiug school. There are a large number in 
 Prussia, namely, 1,261 with 08,766 pupils; 617 
 •with 10,395 in the country, and 644 with 58,371 
 in the cities. Of tliese 644,343 are obligatory by 
 local statutes, 303 are optional. Since the law 
 of 1878 special care has been devoted to the com- 
 pulsory education of orphaned children. . . . 
 The prepanitory instruction of female teachers 
 leaves much to be desired. " — P. Kirchner, Coii- 
 temporary Educational Tlwught in Prussia (Edu- 
 cational Rev., May, 1891). — " About 25 per cent, 
 of all the teachers in public middle schools are 
 women, hence . . . women hold ])ositions in 
 these schools more frequently than in tlit lower, 
 the purely elementary, schools of the kingdom. 
 The greatest ratio of women teachers in Prussia is 
 found in private middle schools, where 3,433 of 
 3.136 (ornearly 80 percent.) are women. ... In 
 all the public schools of Prussia (elementary, mid- 
 dle, and secondary) only 10,600 women teachers 
 were employed [1887], or lij- per cent, of all the 
 teachers in the kingdom. . . . Before the public 
 schools of the kingdom bad the care and close 
 
 722 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 ItnilllMh SrhooU 
 anil I'niitrraittes. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 wipervlsion on iln |mrt of llio MnU' wlilcli tlii'y 
 linvi' n<iw, iimny niori^ prlviiti^ scliooltt were In 
 exlHlt'iictt tliiiii lit pri'W'iit. During tlio IunI '.Ti 
 years tlic nriviitc scIiooIh Imvc not iticrcamMl in 
 numbers, l)Ut pi'r(rplil)ly decreased." — U. H. 
 Comm'r of Educulion, Uemrt, lHHU-00, pp. 887- 
 280. 
 
 Russia. — "After serfdom Inid lieen aliolislu^d, 
 llie Kmperor Alexancier II. saw tliat tlie indis- 
 nensalde eonsecpiem e of tlds great reform must 
 lie a tlioroiigli reorga.ily.ation of pulili(" Instruc- 
 tion. In IMtll II connnlltee was appointed to 
 draw up tlie plan of a law. In IWia .M. Taneef 
 Hulimitted to till' Kmperor a '(ieiieral plan for 
 the (irKani;/:ation of popular education,' wliieli 
 contained some verv excellent |)oints. The re- 
 sult was the General Hegulations of 1H04, which 
 are still in force. . . . The ditliciillicH which a 
 complete rcori?ani/.atiou of popular education 
 meets In Hussia are enoimous. They aro prin- 
 cipally caused liy the manner in wliicli the in- 
 habitants live, scatleivd over a large extent of 
 country, and by their extreme poverty. . . . 
 The density of population is so small that there 
 are only 1!).0 inliabitants to one sipiare kilometer 
 ('il Hipiarc kiioineters to 1 squuri! mile), iubtcnd 
 of OU as in France. Under these circumstances 
 only the children from the center hamlet anil 
 those living nearest to it could atttnd school 
 regularly, especially during the winter-months. 
 The rcmaimler of the inhabitan. would pay 
 their dues without having any 1 'elit, whicli 
 would necessarily foster discontent. As Prince 
 Qagariu says, 'It has, therefore, not been pos- 
 sible to make education in Hussia compulsory, . 
 ns in Germany, nor even to enforce the establish - 
 ment of a school in each community.' It is 
 doubtless impossible at present to introduce into 
 Uussia the eibuational systems of the western 
 countries." — E. do Lavelaye, ProffriM of Kiliint- 
 Hon in RiiHuia (U. K Bureau nf Kdumtion, Cir- 
 culitr.1 of Iiiformniion, 1875, no. 3), pp. ;H-33. 
 
 Scotland. — "The existing system of education 
 in Scotland is an outcome of causes deeply in- 
 volved in the political and religious history of the 
 country. . . . This system was preceded by a 
 complicated variety of educational agencies, of 
 which the chief were parish schools, fo'.Mu'ed upon 
 a statute of 1040, which was revived ;. li made 
 operative in 1008. Parish and burgh schools, 
 supported by local funds and by tuition fees, 
 made up the'public pr(> vision fo • education. In 
 addition tliere were schools partly maintained by 
 parliamentary grents, mission and sessional 
 schools maintain"'.! by the Established Church and 
 the Free Church, and other parochial and private 
 schools. Parish and burgh schools carried in- 
 struction to the level of the universities, which 
 were easily accessible to all clas.sc9. The date of 
 the passage of the ' Scotch Education Act ' (1872) 
 was opportune for the organization of these vari- 
 ous agencies into a system maintained by the 
 combined actiim of the Government and local 
 authorities. In framing the Scotch act care was 
 taken, as in framing the English act two years 
 before, to guard the rights of the Government 
 with respect to funds appropriated from the 
 public treasury. At the same time equal care 
 was shown for the preservation of the Scotch 
 ideal. Tliis was a broad and comprehensive 
 ideal, embracing the different grades of scho- 
 lastic work. . . . This ideal ditferentiates the 
 Bcotch act from the English act passed two 
 
 years befori'. The latter related to elementary 
 schools exclusively; the former has a wider 
 NCMpe, providing the foiindatiniis of a :ivstem of 
 gradeil Ncbools correlated to the universities 
 which lie beyond its province. With respect Ut 
 tlie interests of the Government, the two nets .ire 
 substantially the same. . . . For the geniTal 
 direction of the system a Scotch educational de- 
 partment was created, composed, like the Elig- 
 lisli department, of lords of the y.r'wy rouncil, 
 and having the same president. . . . The act 
 ordered every parent to seeiire the Instruction of 
 bis children betweeeii tlu^ ages of .'i and 13, or 
 until a lertitU'itte of exemption should be se- 
 (!ured. Parents failing in t his oliligation are sub- 
 ject to prosecution and penalty by line or imprison- 
 ment. The compulsory provision extends to 
 blind children. I'arocliial or burghal authori- 
 ties were autliorized to pay the tuition fees of 
 those children whose jiarents eoiilil not meet tho 
 expenditure, a piovision rendered unnecessary 
 by the recent remission of all fees. The Scotch 
 act, by a sweeping >lause, made compulsory at- 
 tendance uuiversiil ; the English act left the mat- 
 ter of compulsion to local iimiuigerM. A stibse- 
 qilent lilt (1878) llxeil the standiird of exemption 
 in Scotland at the lifth [grade, or year of study], 
 which pupils should pa.ss at 11 years of age. 
 In 1883, the upper limit of compulsory attend- 
 ance in Sc tianil was raised to 14 years. . . . 
 The universities of Seotland have been more in- 
 timately related to the lifeoi the common peoplo 
 than those of any other country. In this re- 
 spect, even more if possible than in their consti- 
 tution, they present a marked contrast to the 
 English universities. To their denioeiatic spirit 
 may be traced many of the characteristics wliicli 
 dilferentiale the S(«tch people iind policies from 
 those of England. To their widespread inllii- 
 ence, to tho ambitions which they awakened, 
 and the opportunities which they brought within 
 the reach of the whole body of Scottisli youth is 
 due, in largo measure, the independent and hon- 
 orable |)art that Scotland has played in the history 
 of the United Kingdom. This popular character 
 of the universities has been fostered by the curric- 
 ulum of the common schools, by the easy passage 
 from the schools tothehiglier institutions; by the 
 inexpensive mode of student life in the university 
 towns, and by the great number of scholarship 
 funds available for the poor. These conditions, 
 however, have not been without their disadvan- 
 tages. Of these, the chief are tho low entrance 
 standards and the consetpient forcing of iirejiara- 
 tory instruction upon the university professors. 
 ... As a result of long-continued clTorts a 
 Scotch universities act was passed in 1889. This 
 act provided for the reorganization of the four 
 universities; for the elevation of their standards; 
 the enrichment of their curricula, and the in- 
 crease of their resources. . . . The Scotch uni- 
 versities have taken part in the popular move- 
 ments of the last decade. They maintain local 
 examinations for svcimdary schools and students. 
 St. Andrews has ))een particularly active in pro- 
 moting the higlur education of women, having 
 instittltcd the special degree of L. L. A. (lady 
 literate in arts). Edinburgh also grants a certifi- 
 cate in arts to women. Aberdeen has recently 
 appointed a lecturer on education, following 
 thus the precedent set by Edinburgh and St. 
 Andrews. The four universities are united in a 
 scheme of university exteusita." — U. S. Com- 
 
 723 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 SwedUh 
 and Swim SchooU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 missioncr of Kducation, Report, 1889-90, v. \,pp. 
 188-207. 
 
 Sweden. — "Sweden liiis two nnciont niul fo- 
 nious univt'reitics — Upsain niid Lund. That of 
 Lund is in tlio south piirt of tlio l<ingdoin, und 
 wlit'u founded was on Danisli territory. The in- 
 come from its estiites is iiljout 170,000 rix-clollars 
 (|HO,itir)) per annum. It also receives yearly aid 
 from tlie slate. In 1807 it had 75 profen .ors and 
 tutors, and 400 students. Upsala is the larger 
 university, located at the old town of that name 
 — the ancient capital of Sweden — an hour and a 
 half hj rail north of Glockholm. It has 100 pro- 
 fessors and tutors, and 1,449 students, an increase 
 of 131 over the year 1809. . . . This university 
 had its heginning as an institution of leurnin,'^ as 
 far back as 1350. In 1438 it had one academic 
 professorship, and >a8 dedicated as an univer- 
 sity in 1477. Its principal endowment was by 
 Gustavus Adolphus in 1024, when he donated to 
 it all of the estate in lands that he possessed, 
 amounting in all to 800 farms. " — C. C. Andrews, 
 Jicpt. (in t/ie Educational tSystem of Sireden {IT. «V. 
 liureau of Education, Circulars of Information, 
 July, 1871). 
 
 Switzerland. — "The influence of the Refor- 
 mation, and, in tlie following age, of the Jesuit 
 reaction, gave to Switzerland, as to Germany, its 
 original and fundamental means and agencies of 
 national education, and impressed also upon the 
 population a habit of dutiful regard for schools 
 and learning. It was not, however, till forty 
 years ago tliat the modem education of Swit- 
 zerland was organized. 'The great develop- 
 ment of pt'blic education in Switzerland,' to 
 quote Mr. Kay, 'dates from 1832, after the over- 
 throw of the old oligarchical forms of cantonal 
 government and the establishment of the present 
 democratic forms.' Zurich, Lausanne, and Ge- 
 neva take the lead in Switzerland as centres of 
 educational influence. The canton in which the 
 work of educational reform began was Zurich. 
 . . . The instrument of the reform, rather the 
 revolution, was Seherr, a trained school-teacher 
 from WUrtemberg, a teacher, in particular, of 
 deaf mutes to speak articulately. This man in- 
 itiated in Zurich the new scheme and work of 
 education, and founded the first Training Col- 
 le,(;e. He was looked upon by the oligarchs, 
 partly feudalists, and partly manufacturers, as 
 a dangerous revolutionist, and was exiled from 
 Zurich. But now a monument to his memory 
 adorns the city. The work which he begun 
 could not be suppressed or arrested. Zurich has 
 ever since taken the lead in education among the 
 cantons of Switzerland. Derived originally from 
 Germany, the system Is substantially identical 
 with that of Germany. . . . The principles and 
 methods arc substantially olike throughout. 
 There arc, tirst, the communal schools — these of 
 course in largest number — one to every village, 
 even for every small hamlet, provided and mam- 
 tained, wholly or chiefly, by the commune; there 
 arc burgher schools in towns, including element- 
 ary, real, and superior schools, supported by 
 the towns ; there arc cantonal schools — gymna- 
 sia and iudustriul or technical schools — sup- 
 ported by the State, that is, by the canton. There 
 18 often a Cantonal University. There is of 
 course a Cantonal Training School or College, 
 and there are institutes of various kinds. The 
 Cantonal Universities, however, are on a .small 
 and economical scale ; as yet there is no Federal 
 
 University. School life in Switzerland is very 
 long, from six to fourteen o.' fifteen, and for all 
 who are to follow a profession, from fifteen to 
 twenty-two." — J. IL Rigg, National Education, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 Modern : Asiatic Countries. 
 
 China. " Every step 'n the process of teach- 
 ing is fixed by unalterable usaj-'e. So much is 
 tills the case, that in describing one school I de- 
 scribe all, and in tracing the steps of one studenf 
 I point out the course of all; for in China there 
 are no new methods or short roads. In other 
 countries, u teacher, even in the primary course, 
 finds room for tact and originality. In tiioso 
 who dislike study, a love of it is to be inspired by 
 making ' knowledge pleasant to the taste ' ; and 
 the dull apprehension is to be awakened by 
 striking and apt illustrations. ... In China 
 there is nothing of this. The land of uniformity, 
 all processes in arts and letters are as much fixed 
 by universal custom as is the cut of their gar- 
 ments or the mode of wearing their hair. The 
 pupils all tread the path trodden by their an- 
 cestors of a thousand years ago, nor lias it 
 grown smoother by the attrition of so many feet. 
 The undergraduate course may be divided into 
 three stages, in each of which there are two lead- 
 ing studies: In the first the occupations of the 
 student are committing to memory (not reading) 
 the canonical books and writing an infinitude of 
 diversely formeii characters, as u manual exer- 
 cise. In the second, they are the translation of 
 his text books (i. e., reading), and lessons in com- 
 position. In tlie third, they are belles lettres and 
 the composition of essays. Nothing could be 
 more dreary than the labors of the first stage. 
 . . . Eventhestimulusof companionship in study 
 is usually denied, the advantages resulting from 
 the formation of classes being us little appreciated 
 as those of other labor saving macliinery. Eacii 
 pupil reads and writes alone, the penalty for fad- 
 ure being so many blows with the ferule or kneel- 
 ing for so many minutes on the rough brick pave- 
 ment which serves for a floor. At this period 
 fear is the strongest motive addressed to the mind 
 of the scholar. . . . This arctic winter of mo- 
 notonous toil once passed, a more auspicious sea- 
 son dawns on the youthful understanding. The 
 key of the cabala which he has been so long and 
 so blindly acquiring is put into Ills hands. He is 
 initiated in the translation an<'. expositiop of those 
 sacred books which he liad previo ' ly stored 
 away in his memory. . . . The light ,owever is 
 let in but sparingly, as it wer'' I'n igh chinks 
 and rifts in the long dar! passage. A simple 
 character here and there 'j, explained, and then, 
 it may be after the lapse of a year or two, the 
 Cjacher proceeds to the explication of entire sen- 
 tences. Now for the first time the mind of the 
 student begins to take in the thoughts of those 
 he has been taught to regard as the oracles of 
 wisdom. . . . The value of this exercise can 
 hardly be overestimated. When judiciously cm- 
 ployed it does for the Chinese what translation 
 into and out of the dead languages of the west 
 docs for us. It calls into play memory, judg- 
 ment, taste, and gives him a command of his own 
 vernacular which, it is safe to assert, he would 
 never acquire in any other way. . . . The first 
 step in composition is tlie yoking together of 
 double characters. The second is the reduplica- 
 tion of these binary compounds and the construc- 
 
 724 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 in China. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 tion of parallels — nn idea which runs bo com- 
 pletely through the whole of Chinese literature 
 that the niindof the student requires to bo im- 
 bued with it at the very outset. Tills is the way 
 he begii.s: The teacher writes, ' vind blows,' the 
 pupil adds, 'rainfalls'; the teacher writes, 'rivers 
 are long,' the pupil adds, 'seas are deep,' or 
 ' mountains are high, ' &c. Prom the slmplo sub- 
 ject and predicate, which in their rude grammar 
 they describe as ' dead ' and ' living ' characters, 
 the teacher conducts his pupil to more complex 
 forms, iu which qualifying words and phrases 
 are introduced. lie gives us a model some such 
 phra.so as ' The Emperor's grace is vast as heaven 
 and earth, ' and the lad matches it by ' The Sov- 
 ereign's favor is profound as lake ancl sea. ' These 
 couplets often contain two propositions in each 
 member, accompanied by all the usual modifying 
 terms; and so exact is 'he symmetry reciuired 
 by the rules of the art tli \t not only must noun, 
 verb, adjective, and particle respond to each 
 other with scrupulous exactness, but the very 
 tones of the characters are adjusted to each 
 other with the precision of music. Begun with 
 the tirst strokes of his untaught pencil, the stu- 
 dent, whatever Ills proficiency, never gets beyond 
 the construction of parallels. Wlicn ho becomes 
 a member of the institute or a minister of the 
 imperial cabinet, at classic festivals and social 
 entertainments, the composition of impromptu 
 couplets, formed on the old model, constitutes a 
 favorite pastime. Reflecting a poetic image from 
 every syllable, or concealing the keen point of a 
 cutting epigram, they afford a line vehicle for 
 sallies of wit ; and poetical contests such as that 
 of Meliba^us and Mennlcas are in Chino matters 
 of daily occurrence. If a present is to be given, 
 on the occasion of a marriage, a birth-day, or any 
 other remarkable occasion, nothing is deemed so 
 elegant or acceptable as a pair of scrolls inscribed 
 with a complimentary distich. When the novice 
 is Bufflciently exercised in the ' parallels ' for the 
 idea of symmetry to have become an instinct, ho 
 is permitted to advance to other species of com- 
 position which afford freer scope for his facul- 
 ties. Such are the 'shotiah,' in which u bingle 
 thought is expanded in simple language, the 
 ' lun, the formal discussion of a subject more or 
 less extended, and epistles addressed to imaginary 
 persons and adapted to all conceivable circum- 
 stances. In these last, the forms of the 'com- 
 plete letter writer ' are copied with too much 
 servility ; but in the other two, substance ^leing 
 deemed of more consequence than form, the new 
 fledged thought is permitted to essay its powers 
 and to expatiate with but little restraint. In the 
 third stage, composition is the leading object, 
 reading being wholly subsidiary. It takes ftr 
 the most part the artificial form of verse, and of 
 a kind of prose called ' wen-chang,' which is, i.' 
 possible, still more artificial. The reading re- 
 quired embraces mainly rhetorical models and 
 sundry anthologies. History is studied, but only 
 that of China, and that only in compcnds; not 
 for its lesson? of wisdom, but for the sake of the 
 allusions with which it enables a writer to em- 
 bellish classic essays. The same may be said of 
 other studies ; knowledge and mental discipline 
 are at a discount and style at a ))remium. The 
 goal of the long course, the flower and fruit of 
 the whole system, is the ' wen-chang ' ; for this 
 alone can insure success in the public examina- 
 tions for the civil service, in which students be- 
 
 gin to ad< enturc soon after entering on the third 
 stage of their preparatory course. . . . We hear 
 it asserted that ' education is universal in China; 
 even ctxilies are taught to read and write.' In 
 one sense this is true, but not as we understand 
 the terms ■ reading and writing. ' In the alpha- 
 betical vernaculars of the west, the ability to 
 rc'id and write implies the ability to express one's 
 th ght.s by the pen and to grasp the thoughts 
 of ( 'lers when so expressed. In (-'hinese, and 
 espo 'lally in the classical or book language, it 
 imi)l (!s nothing of the sort. A shopkeeijer may 
 be uliie to write the numbers and keep accounts 
 without being able to write anvthmg elste; and 
 a lad who has attended school for sevenvl years 
 will pronounce the characters of an ordinary 
 book with faultless precision, yet not compre- 
 hend the meaning of a single sentence. Of those 
 who can read understandingly (and nothing else 
 ought to be colled reading), the proportion is 
 greater in towns than in rural districts. I'<ut 
 striking an average, it does not, according to iny 
 observation, exceed one in twenty for the male 
 sex and one in ten thousand for the female. " The 
 literary examinations, "coming down from the 
 past, witli the accretions of many centuries, . . . 
 have expanded into a system whose machinery 
 is as complex as its proportions are enoniuus. 
 Its ramifications extend to every district of the 
 empire ; and it commands the services of district 
 magistrates, prefects, and other civil function- 
 aries up to governors and viceroys. These are 
 all auxiliary to the regular offlcers of the literary 
 corporation. In each district there are two resi- 
 dent examiners, with the title of professor, whose 
 duty it is to keep a register of all competing 
 students and to exercise them from tine to time 
 in order to stimulate their efforts and keep them 
 in preparation for the higher examinations in 
 which degrees are conferreil. In each province 
 there is one chancellor or superintendent of in- 
 struction, who holds ofllce for three years, and is 
 required to visit every district and hold the cus- 
 tomary examinations within that time, conferring 
 the first degree on a certain percentage of the 
 candidates. There are, moreover, two special ex- 
 aminers for each province, generally members of 
 the Ilanlin, deputed from the oipitul to conduct 
 the great triennial examination and confer the 
 second degree. The regular degrees are three: 
 1st. 'Siu-tsai' or ' Budding talent. ' 2d. ' Ku- 
 jin' or 'Deserving of promotion.' 3d. 'Tsin- 
 shi 'or 'Fit for office.' "To which may be added, 
 as a fourth degree, the Ilanlin, or member of the 
 'Forest of Pencils.' . . . The first degree only is 
 conferred by the provincial chancellor, and the 
 happy recipients, fifteen or twenty in each de- 
 partment, or 1 per cent, of the candidates, are 
 decorated with the insignia of rank and admitted 
 to the ground floor of the nine storied pagoda. 
 The trial for the second degree .s held in the capi- 
 tal of each province, by special commissioners, 
 once in three years. It consists of three sessions 
 of three days eacli, making nine days of almost 
 continuous exertion — a strain to the mental and 
 p*'VDical powers, to which the infirm and aged 
 frequently succumb. In addition to composition 
 in prose and verse, the candidate is required to 
 show his acquaintance with history, (the history 
 of China,) philosophy, criticism, and various 
 branches of archicology. Again 1 per cent, is 
 decorated ; but it is not until the more fortunate 
 among them succeed iu passing the metropolitan 
 
 m 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 College of 
 William and Mary. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 triennial timt the meed of civil office is certainly 
 hcstowcd. They are not, however, assign "d to 
 their respective offices until they ImvL gone 
 through two special examinations within the 
 palace and in the presence! of the emperor. On this 
 occasion the highest on the list is honored with 
 the title of 'dniang yiien' or 'laureate,' a dis- 
 tinction Ko great that in the last reign it was not 
 thought unlicfltting the daughter of a 'chvang 
 yuen ' to he raised to the position of consort of 
 the Son of Heaven. A score of the best are ad- 
 mitted to memtiership in the Academy, two or 
 three score are attached to it as pupils or proba- 
 tioners, and the rest drafted off to official posts 
 in the capital or in the provinces, the humblest 
 of which is supposed to compensate the occupant 
 for a life of penury and toil." — Rev. W. A. P. 
 Martin, liept. on the System of Public Instruction 
 in China (If. S. liureau of Edtication, Circulars 
 of Information, 1877, no. 1). 
 
 Also in : W. A. P. Martin, The Chinese: their 
 Eihiniliiin, <fr. 
 
 Japan. — From the fourth to the eighth cen- 
 turies of tlie Christian era, "after the conquest of 
 Corea by the .Iai)anese emperor Jigo Kogo, came 
 letters, writing, books, literature, religion, etliics, 
 politics, medicine, arts, science, agriculture, man»i- 
 factures, and the varied appliances of civiliza- 
 tion; and with these entered thousands of 
 immigrants from Corea and China. Under the 
 intellectual influence of Buddliism — the power- 
 ful and aggressive faith tliat had already led 
 captive the half of Asia — of the Confucian ethics 
 and philosophy, and Chinese literature, the hori- 
 zon of tlie Japanese mind was immensely broad- 
 ened. ... In the time of tlie European 'dark 
 ages' the Japanese were enjoying what, in com- 
 parison, was a high state of civilization. . . . 
 Under the old regime of the Sho-guns, all foreign 
 ideas and influences were systematically excluded, 
 and the isolation of Japan from tlie rest of the 
 world was made the supreme policy of th? govern- 
 ment. Profound peace lasted from the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century to 1868. During 
 this time, schools and colleges, literature and 
 learning, flourished. It was the period of sclio- 
 lastic, not of creative, intellectual activity. The 
 basis of education was Chinese. What we con- 
 sider the means of education, reading and writing, 
 were to tliem the ends. Of claasifled science 
 there was little or n ne. Mathematics was con- 
 sidered as fit only for merchants and shop-keep- 
 ers. No foreign languages were studied, and 
 tlieir acquisition was forbidden. . . . There was 
 no department of education, though universities 
 were established at Kioto and Yedo, large schools 
 in the daimio's capitals, and innumerable private 
 schools all over the country. Nine-tenths of the 
 people could read and write. Books were very 
 numerous and cheap. Circulating li ararics existed 
 in every city and town. Literary clubs and 
 associations for mutual improvement were com- 
 mon even in country villages. Nevertheless, in 
 comparison with the ideal systems and practice 
 of the progressive men of New Japan, the old 
 style was as different from the present as the 
 training of an English youth in mediaeval times is 
 from that of a London or Oxford student of the 
 present day. Although an attempt to meet some 
 of the educational necessities arising from the 
 altered conditions of the national life were made 
 under the Sho-gun's regime, yet the first attempt 
 at systematic work in the large cities was made 
 
 under the Mikado's government, and the idea of 
 a new national plan of education is the'rs only. 
 In 1871 the Aloin Bu Sho, or department of edu- 
 caticm, was formed, of wliich the high counselor 
 Oki, a man of indomitable vigor and persjsvcr- 
 ance, was made head. . . . According to the 
 scheme of national education promulgated in 
 1872, the empire is divided into eight Dai Gaku 
 Ku, (Daigakku,) or great educational divisions. 
 In each of these there is to be a university, nor- 
 mal 8clio(/1. schools of foreign languages, high 
 schools, and primary schools. The total number 
 of schools will number, it is expected, over. '55,000. 
 Only in the higlicr schools is a foreign language 
 to l.e tauglit. In the lower sciiools the Japanese 
 learning and elemciiuiry science translated or 
 adopted from European or American text-books 
 are to be taught, llie general system of instruc- 
 tion, methods, d'scipline, school-aids, furniture, 
 architecture, are to be largely adopted from 
 foreign models, and are now to a great extent in 
 vogue tlirougliout the countrj-." — VV. E. Griffls, 
 Education in Japan ( U. 8. Bureau if Education, 
 Circulars of Information, 1875, no. 3). 
 
 Modern : America. 
 
 A. D. 1610-1819.— Virginia. — College of 
 William and Mary. — "In 1(11!) — one year before 
 tlie Pilgrim Fatlicrs came to the land named New 
 England by Captain John Smith — Sir Edwin 
 Sandys, president of the Virginia Company in 
 old England, moved tie grant of ten thousand 
 acres of land for the estublishraent of a univer- 
 sity at Henrico. The proposed grant, whicli was 
 duly made, included one tliousand acres for an 
 Indian college ; the remainder was to be ' the 
 foundation of a seminary of learning for tlio 
 English.' The very same year the bishops of 
 England, at the suggestion of the King, raised 
 the sum of fifteen hundred pounds for the en- 
 couragement of Indian Education. . . . Tenants 
 were sent over to occupy the university lands, 
 and Mr. George Thorpe, a gentleman of His 
 Majesty's Privy Chamber, came over to be the 
 superintendent of the university itself. This first 
 beginning of philanthropy toward the Indians 
 and of educational foundations for the Indians in 
 America was suspended by reason of the Indian 
 massacre, in the spring of 1623, when Mr. Tliorpe 
 and three hundred and forty settlers, including 
 tenants of the university, were cut off by an in- 
 surrection of savages. It was only two years 
 after this terrible catastrophe that the idea of a 
 university in Virginia was revived. Experience 
 with treacherous Indians suggested that the insti- 
 tution should be erected upon a secluded shel- 
 tered site — an island in the Susiiuthanna River. 
 . . . Tlie plan was broken off by tlie death of its 
 chief advocate and promoter, Mr. Edward Palmer. 
 But the idea of a university for Virginia was not 
 lost. ... In 1660, tlie colonial Assembly of 
 Virginia took into their own hands tlie project of 
 founding educational institutions within their 
 border?. The motive of the Virginians was pre- 
 cisely the same as that of the great and general 
 Court of Massachusetts, when it established 
 Harvard College, and grammar schools to fit 
 youth ' for ye university.' The Virginians voted 
 ' that for the advance of learning, education of 
 youth, supply of the ministry, and promotion of 
 piety, there be land taken upon purchases for a 
 college and free schoole, and that there be, with 
 as much speede as may be convenient, houseing 
 
 726 
 
EDUCATTON. 
 
 Sotton Latin •School. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 erected t' ?reon for cntertninment of students and 
 schollers. ' It was also voted in 1B60 that the vari- 
 ous coff'Tnissioners of county courts talie subscrip- 
 tions on court days for tlie benefit of the college, 
 and that the commissioners send orders througli- 
 out their respective^ counties to the vestrymen oi 
 all the parishes for the purpose of raising mo.iey 
 from such inhabitjiiits as ' have not already sub- 
 scribed. ' It appears from tlie record of this legis- 
 lation in Ilening's Statutes of Virginia that 
 already in 1660, 'His Majestio'sQovemour, Council 
 of State, and Burgesses of the present grand 
 Assembly have severally 8Ul)scribed severalT con- 
 ridemble sumes of money and quantityes of to- 
 bacco,' to be paid upon demand after a place had 
 been provided and built upon for educational 
 purposes. A petition was also recommended to 
 Sir William Berekley, then governo' of Virginia, 
 that the King be petitioned for letters patent 
 authorizing collections from ' well disposed peo- 
 ple in England for the erecting of colledges and 
 schoolcs in this countrye.' This action of the 
 Virginians in 1680 ought to be taken as much 
 better evidence of an early regard for education 
 in that colony than the well-known saying of 
 Governor Berkeley would seem to indicate. In 
 reply to an inquiry by the lords commissioners 
 of trades and plantations respecting the progress 
 of learning in the colony of Virgmia, Berkeley 
 said, ' I thank God there are no free schools nor 
 printing, and I hope we shall not have these hun- 
 dred years. ' Tliis answer by a crusty old governor 
 has been quoted perhaps too often as an index of 
 the real sentiments of colonial Virginia toward 
 the cause of education. Not only is the tone of 
 popular legislation entirely opposed to the cur- 
 rent view, but Berkeley's own acts should modify 
 our judgment of his words. He actually sub- 
 scribed, with other gentlemen of the colony, for 
 'a Coliedge'of students of the liberal arts and 
 sciences. ' Undoubtedly Sir William did not be- 
 lieve in popular education as it is now under- 
 stood. If he had done so, he would have been 
 much in advance of his time. . . . Some writers 
 would have us believe that the college was 
 actually planted as early as 1661, but this is 
 highly improbable. Early educational enact- 
 ments in Virginia were like many of those early 
 towns — on paper only. And j^et the Virginians 
 really meant to have both towns and a college. 
 In 1688-'89, twenty -five hundred pounds were 
 subscribed by a few wealthy gentlemen in the 
 colony and by their mereliant friends in England 
 toward the endowment of the higlier education. 
 In 1691 the colonial Assembly sent the Rev. James 
 Blair, the commissary or representative of the 
 Bishop of London, back to England to secure a 
 charter for the proposed college. Virginia's 
 agent went straight to Queen JIary and explained 
 the educational ambition of her colony in America. 
 The Queen favored the idea of a college, and 
 William wisely concurred. Tlie royal pair agreed 
 to allow two thousand pounds out of tlie quit- 
 rents of Virginia toward building the college. 
 . . . The English Government concluded to give 
 not only £3,000 in money, but also 20,000 acres 
 of land, witli a tax of one penny on every pound 
 of tobacco exported from Maryland and Virginia, 
 together with all fees and jirolits arising from 
 the oflice of surveyor-general, which were to be 
 controlled by the president and faculty of the 
 college. They were authorized to appoint special 
 surveyors for the counties whenever the governor 
 
 and his council thought it necessary. These 
 privileges, granted by charter in 161(3, were of 
 great signitieance in the economic liistory of 
 Virginia. They brought the entire land system 
 of the colony into the hands of a collegiate land 
 ollicc. Even iifter the Kevolution, oiK^-sixth of 
 the fees to all iiublic surveyors continued to bo 
 paid into the college treasury down to the year 
 1810, when this custom was abolished." — if. B. 
 Adams, T/ie College of Willidtn and yfary (Uircu- 
 Inrn of Jnf'irmdtion of Vie Iliirenii of Education, 
 18H7, no. 1). 
 
 A. D. 1635. — Massachusetts. — Boston Latin 
 School.— "The Public Latin School of Boston 
 enjoys the distinction of being the oldest exist- 
 ing school within the bounds of the United States. 
 It was founded in the spring of 1635, thus ante- 
 dating Harvard College, and has been in continu- 
 ous existence ever since, with the interruption 
 of a few months, during the siege of Boston, 
 1775-1776." The two hundred and fiftieth .\n- 
 nivcrsary of the founding of the school was cele- 
 brated April 28, 1885, on which occasion the 
 Rev. Phillips Brooks, D, D., delivered an address 
 from which the following passages are taken: 
 "The colony under Winthrnp arrived in the Ara- 
 bella and founded Boston in 1630. On the 4th 
 of September, 1633, the QrifHn brought .lolin 
 Cotton from the Lincolnshire Boston, full of 
 pious spirit and wise plans for the new colony 
 •,vith whicli he had cast in his lot. It has been 
 suggested that possibly we owe to John Cotton 
 the first suggestion of the first town-school. . . . 
 However this may be, here is the town record of 
 the 13th of the second month, 1635. It is for- 
 ever memorable, for it is the first chapter of our 
 Book of Genesis, the very cradle of all our race: 
 'At a general meeting upon publique notice . . . 
 it was then generally agreed upon that our 
 brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to 
 become scholemaster, for the teaching and nour- 
 tcring of children among us. ' It was two hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago today [April 23, 1885] 
 just nineteen years after the day when William 
 Shakespeare died, just seventy-one years after 
 the day when he was born. How simple that 
 sliort record is, and how unconscious that sliort 
 view is of the future which is wrapped up in it! 
 Fiftj'-nine thousand children who crowd the Bos- 
 ton public scliools to-day — and who can count 
 what thousands yet unborn ? — are to be heard 
 crying out for life in the drj", quaint words of 
 that old vote. By it the first educational insti- 
 tution, which was to have continuous existence 
 in America, and in it the public school system of 
 the land, came into being. Philemon Pormort, 
 the first teacher of the Latin School, is hardly 
 more than a mere shadow of a name. It is not 
 even clear that ho ever actually taught the school 
 at all. A few yeara later, with Mr. Wheel- 
 wright, after tlie Hutchinson excitement, he di'j- 
 appears into the northern woods, and is one of 
 the founders of Exeter, in Ne>v Hampshire. 
 There are rumors that he came back to Boston 
 and died here, but it is all very uncertain. . . . 
 The name ' free scliool ' in those days seems to 
 have been used to characterize an institution 
 which should not be restricted to any class of 
 children, and wliicli should not be dependent on 
 the fluctuating attendance of scholars for its sup- 
 port. It looked forward to ultimate endowment, 
 like the schools of England. The town set apart 
 the rent of Ueer Island, and some of the other 
 
 727 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Harvard ColUge. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 islands in tlio Imrbor, for its lielp. All tho great 
 cit'-.ens, OovonK r Wintlirop, Governor Vftne, 
 Mr. Bellin);liiuii, and the rest, made generous 
 oontributionH to it. But it called, also, for sup- 
 port from tliosM' who sent their children to it, and 
 who were atile to pay sometliing; and it was only 
 of the Indian children that it was distinctly pro- 
 vide:! that they shoukl be ' tauglit gratia. ' It 
 was older than any of the schools which, in a 
 few j'ears, ({rew up thick around it. The same 
 
 f)ower whicl! made it spring out of the soil was 
 D all the rich ground on which these colonists, 
 unlike any otlier colonists wliich the world has 
 ever seen, had set their feet. Roxbury had its 
 school under the Apostle Eliot in 1645. Cam- 
 bridge was already provided before 1643. Charles- 
 town did not wait later than 1036. Salem and 
 Ipswicii were, both of them, read> in 1637. Ply- 
 mouth did not begin its system of put)lic instruc- 
 tion till 1663. It was in 1647 that the General 
 Court enacted that resolve which is tho great 
 charter of free education in our Commonwealth 
 in whose preamble and ordinance stand tlie im- 
 mortal words: ' That learning may not be buried 
 in the grave of our fathers, in church and Com- 
 monwcaltli, the Lord assisting our endeavors, it 
 is therefore ordered that every township in this 
 jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased tliem 
 to the number of fifty householders, shall then 
 fortliwith appoint oae within their town to teach 
 all such children as shall resort to him to write 
 and read.' There can bo no doubt, then, of our 
 priority. But mere priority is no great thing. 
 Tile real interest of tlic beginning of the school 
 is the large idea and scale on which it started. 
 It taught tlie children, little Indians and all, to 
 read and w'ite. But tliere seems every reason 
 to suppo! J that it taught also the Latin tongue, 
 and all t'lat then was deemed the higher knowl- 
 edge. It was the town's only school till 1682." 
 — The Oldest School in America, pp. 5-24. 
 
 A. D. 1636. — Massachusetts.— Harvard Col- 
 lege. — " The first settlers in New England, recog- 
 nizing the importance of a liighcr education than 
 could !)(• given in the common schools, began at 
 once the founding of a university. Tlie avowed 
 object of this university was the training of 
 young men for the ministry. Nothing could 
 show clearer the spirit of these early colonists. 
 Tiioiigh loss than four thousand in number, and 
 scattered along the shores of Massachusetts Bay 
 in si.xtcen liamlets, they were, nevertlieless, able 
 to engage in such an enterprise before adequate 
 provision had been made for food, raiment, shel- 
 ter, a civil government, or divine worship ; at a 
 time when soil and climate had disappointed 
 them, and their affairs were in a most critical 
 condition ; for, not only were they called to face 
 famine, disease, and deatli, but the mother coun- 
 try and the surrounding savage tribes were 
 threatening them witli war. ... It was near the 
 close of 1636, a little more than six years after 
 the landing of tlie Puritans, when tliis first step 
 was taken by the General Court of the Massa- 
 chusetts Colony. At this assembly, presided 
 over by Sir Henry Vane, governor of the colony, 
 the General Court agreed to give £400 (a munifi- 
 cent sum for the time) towards the founding of 
 u school or college, but left the question of its 
 location and building to be determined by tlie 
 Court that was to sit in September of the follow- 
 ing year. Tliis, it is said, was the first assembly 
 'in wliich the people by their representatives 
 
 ever gave their own money to found a place of 
 education.' At tho next Court it was decided to 
 locate the college at Newtown, or ' the New 
 Towne,' and twelve of tho principal magistrates 
 and ministers were chosen to carry out this de- 
 sign. A few months later, they changed the 
 name of the town to Cambridge, not only to tell 
 their posterity whence they came, but also, as 
 Quincy aptly says, to indicate ' the higli destiny 
 to wliich they intended the institution should 
 aspire.' Another year, however, passed before 
 the College was organized. Tlie impulse given 
 to It then was due to aid whicli came from so un- 
 expected a quarter that it must have seemed to 
 the devout men of New England as a clear indi- 
 cation of the divine favor. Tlie Rev. John Har- 
 vard, a Non-conformist minister, was graduated, 
 in 1635, from tlie Puritan college of Emmanuel, 
 at Cambridge, England, and came, two years 
 later, to America and settled in Charlestown, 
 where he immediately took a prominent part in 
 town affairs. His contemporaries gave him the 
 title of reverend, and he is said to liave olHciated 
 occasionally in Cliarlestown as ' minister of God's 
 word.' One has recently said of him that ho 
 was 'beloved and honored, a well-trained and 
 acnomplished scholar of the type then esteemed,' 
 and that in the brief period of Ids life in America 
 — scarcely more than a year — ho cemented more 
 closely friendshiiJS that had been begun in earlier 
 years. Tlie project of a college was then on- 
 grossing the thought of these early friends ond 
 doubtless he also became greatly interested in it. 
 Tlius it happened that, when his health failed, 
 through his own love of learning and tlirough 
 sympathy with the project of his daily asso- 
 ciates, he determined to bequeath one-half of his 
 estate, probably about £800, besides his excellent 
 library of three hundred and twenty volumes, 
 towards the endowment of the college. This be- 
 quest rendered possible the immediate organiza- 
 tion of tlio college, which went into operation 
 'on tlio footing of the ancient institutions of 
 Europe,' and, out of gratitude to Harvard, tlie 
 General Court voted that the new institution 
 should bear his name." — G. G. Bush, Harvard, 
 pp. 12-15. 
 
 Also in: J. Quincy, Uist. of Harvard Uni- 
 venity. — S. A. Eliot, Sketch oj the History of 
 Harvard College. 
 
 A. D. 1642-1732. — New Eneland and New 
 York. — Early Common Schools. — "New Eng- 
 land early adopted, and has, with a single ex- 
 cention, constantly maintained the principle that 
 tho public should provide for tlie instruction of 
 ail the youth. That which elsewhere, as will be 
 found, was left to local provision, as in New 
 York; or to charity, as in Pennsylvania; or -to 
 parental interest, as in Virginia, was in most 
 parts of N . England early secured by law. . . . 
 The act oi 1643 in Massachusetts, whose pro- 
 visions were adopted in most of the adjacent 
 colonies, was admirable as a first legislative school 
 law. It was watchful of the neglect of parents, 
 and looked well after the ignorant and the in- 
 digent. But it ncitlier made schooling free, nor 
 imposed a penalty for its neglect. . . . Scliools 
 were largely maintained by rates, were f'ee only 
 to the necessitous, and in not a few of tho less 
 populous districts closed altogetlier or never 
 opened. This led, five years later, to more strin- 
 
 gent l-^gislation. ... As suggesting the general 
 scope Lud tenor of the law, tJie following extract 
 
 728 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Pftimtylvania. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Ig mndc ... ' It is therefore ordered by tliis 
 Court and authority tliereof thnt every townsLip 
 within tlii.s jcriwliction, iifter the Lord liatli in- 
 creased them to tlie number of fifty houseliolih'rs, 
 sliall tlien fortliwitli appoint one witliin tlieir 
 town to teiieli all such children as shall resort to 
 him, to writ(! and read; whose wages shall hi; 
 paid, either by the parents or masters of such 
 children, or by the inhabitants in general, by 
 way of supply, as the mi.jor part of those who 
 order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; 
 provided that those who send their children be 
 not oppressed by paying much more than they 
 can have 1 hem taught for in the adjoining towns. 
 And it is further ordered that where any town 
 shall increase to the number of one hundred 
 families or house-holders, they shall set up a 
 grammar-school, the master thereof being able to 
 instruct youtlis so far as they may be fitted for 
 the university ; and if any town neglect the per- 
 formance hereof, above one year, then every such 
 town shall pay five pounds per annum to the ne.xt 
 such school, till they shall perform this order. ' 
 . . . Three years after the law just cited Con- 
 necticut passed a very similar one. ... In 
 Rhode Island there was no attempt at a school 
 system prior to the efforts of John Howland about 
 1790. There were schools in both Providence 
 and Newport; but the colony was small (with a 
 population of less than ten thousand in 1700), 
 broken into feeble settlements, and offering little 
 opportunity for organization. ... It is claimed 
 that, at the surrender of the Dutch in New York 
 (1064), so general was the educational spirit, 
 almost every town in the colony had its regular 
 school and more or less permanent teachers. 
 After the occupation of the province by the Eng- 
 lish, little attention was given to education. . . . 
 Thirteen years after the surrender, a Latin school 
 was opened in the city; but the first serious at- 
 tempt to provide regular schooling was in the 
 work of the ' Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel ' (1704) in the founding of Trinity School. 
 The society kept up an efllcient organization, for 
 many years, and at the opening of the Revolu- 
 tion had established and chiefly supported more 
 than twenty schools in the colony. About 1733, 
 also, there was established in >few York city a 
 school after the plan of the Boston Latin School, 
 free as that was free, and which became, accord- 
 ing to eminent authority, the germ of the later 
 King's (now Columbia) College."— R. G. Boone, 
 Bklucation in the United States, cli. 3. 
 
 A. D. 1683-1770.— Pennsylvania.— Origin of 
 the University of Pennsylvania.— "Education 
 had not been over-looked in the policy of Penn. 
 In his Frame of Government we read: 'The 
 governor and provincial council shall erect and 
 order all public scliools, and encourage and re- 
 ward tlie authors of useful sciences and ]a\idable 
 inventions, in the said province. . . . And . . . 
 a committee of manners, education apd arts, that 
 all wicked and scandalous living may be pre- 
 vented, and that youth may be successively 
 trained up in virtue and useful knowledge and 
 arts.' The first movement to establish an educa- 
 tional institution of a higli grade was in the 
 action of the Executive Council which proposed, 
 November 17, 1683, 'That Care be Taken about 
 the Learning and Instruction of Youth, to wit : 
 A School of Arts and Sciences.' It was not un- 
 til 1689, however, that the 'Public Grammar 
 School ' was set up in Philadelphia. This insti- 
 
 47 
 
 tution, founded upon the English idea of a 'free 
 scliool,' was formally chartered in 1697 as tlio 
 ' William Penn Charter School,' It was intended 
 as th(^ liead of a system of sclools for all, rather 
 than a single school for a select few, an idea 
 which tlio founders of the Charitable School, 
 fifty years later, had also in mind — an idea 
 which was never carried out in the history of 
 either institution. The failure of Penn's scheme 
 of government, and the turmoil during the early 
 part of the eighteenth century arising from the 
 confiicts between different political parties, for a 
 time influenced very decidedly educational zeal 
 in the province. The gov,.nment, which at the 
 outset had taken such high ground on the sub- 
 ject, ceased to exert itself in bclialf of educa- 
 tion, and the several religious denominations and 
 the people themselves in neighborhood organiza- 
 tions took up the burden and planted schools as 
 best they could throughout the growing colony. 
 . . . Feeling the importance for some provision 
 to supplement the education then given in the 
 established schools, Benjamin Franlklin as early 
 as 1743 drew up a proposal for establishing an 
 academy. . . . IIo secured the assistance of a 
 number of friends, many of them members of 
 the famous Junto, and then published his pam- 
 phlet entitled ' Proposals Relating to the Educa- 
 tion of Youth in Pennsylvania.' . . . On all sides 
 the paper met with great favor and generous 
 support. The result was the organization of a 
 board of trustees, consisting of 24 of those who 
 had subscribed to the scheme of the Academy, 
 with Franklin as president. This body immedi- 
 ately set about to realize the object of the 
 pamphlet, and nourished by subscriptions, lot- 
 teries, and gifts the Academy was placed in a 
 flourishing condition. . . . The Academy com- 
 prised three schools, the Latin, the English, and 
 the mathematical, over each of which wiis placed a 
 master, one of whom was the rector of the insti- 
 tution. . . . The English School was neglected. 
 The other schools were favored, especially the 
 Latin School. In the eyes of Franklin and many 
 of the supporters of the Academy, the EnglLsh 
 School was the one of chief importance. What 
 we would call a 'star^'ing out' process was be- 
 gun by wliich the English School was kept in a 
 weak condition, most of the funds going to the 
 Latin School. . . . The success of the Academy 
 was so gratifying to all interested in it that it 
 was determined to apply for a charter. This 
 was granted to the trustees by Thomas and 
 Richard Penn, the proprietors, on July 13, 1753. 
 Desirous at the same time of enlarging the course 
 of instruction, the trustees elected Mr. William 
 Smith teacher of logic, rhetoric, natural and 
 moral philosophy. Air. Smith accepted the posi- 
 tion and entered upon his duties at the Academy 
 in May, 1754. The history of the institution 
 from this date, whether known as the Academy 
 or the College, to 1779 is the history of the life 
 of William Smith."— J. L. Stewart, Hist. Sketch 
 of the Universitji of Pennsylvania (U. S. Bureau 
 of Education, Circular of Information, 1803, no. 
 2; Benj. Franklin and the ITniv.; ch. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1701-1717.— Connecticut. — Yale Col- 
 lege. — "For sixty years the only school for 
 higlier education in New England had been Ilar- 
 vanl College, at Cambridge. The people, and 
 especially the clergy, of Connecticut naturally 
 desired the benefit of a similar establishment 
 nearer home. The three ministers of New Haven, 
 
 729 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Yale and Columbia. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Milfonl, iintl Uninford first moved In tlio cnter- 
 prittc. Ti'M niiiiisU'rs, iiiui: of tliem bciii;.; f^rndu- 
 atfs of Iliirvanl College, iiu't nt Hratiford U""!] 
 and made a coiitributiori from their libraries of 
 about forty volumes in folio ' for the founding 
 of a codege. ' Other douatious presently came 
 in. An Act of Incorporation was grantedf by the 
 General Court. It created a body of trustees, 
 not to be more than eleven in number nor fewer 
 than seven, all to be elerji^ynieu and at least forty 
 years of age. The Court endowed the College 
 with an annual grant, subject to be discontinued 
 at i)lea8ure, of one hundred and twenty pounds 
 in ' ('ountry pay,' — equivalent to si.xty pounds 
 sterling. The College might liold property ' not 
 exceeding the value of five hundred pounds per 
 annum'; its students were exempted from the 
 payment of ta.\es and from military service; and 
 the Governor and his Council gave a formal ap- 
 proval of its application to the citizens for pecu- 
 niary aid. . . . The first President was Abraham 
 Pierson, minister of Killingworth, at wldch place 
 he continued to reside, thougli the designated 
 scat of the College was at Saybrook. Eight stu- 
 dents were adnnttcd, and arranged in classes. 
 At each of tlie first two annual commencements 
 one person, at the third three persons, received 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts. President Pier- 
 son was succeeded, at his death, by Mr. Andrew, 
 minister at Jlilford, to which place the elder pu- 
 pils were accordingly transferred, while the rest 
 went to Saybrooli, where two tutors had been 
 provided to assist their studies. . . . For nearly 
 twenty years the College of Connecticut . . . 
 continued to be an unsatisfactory experiment. 
 Wlnle the rector taught some youth at Milford, 
 and two tutors had other pujjils at Saybrook, 
 and the few scores of books which had been 
 olitidned for a library were divided between 
 tlie two places, there was small prospect of the 
 results for which institutions of learning arc 
 treated. Notwithstanding the general agree- 
 ment that whatever facilities for the higher edu- 
 cation could be commanded should be brought 
 together and combined, the choice of the place 
 was embarrassed by various considerations. . . . 
 Saybrook, AVethersfleld, Hartford, and New Ha- 
 ven competed with each other for the preference, 
 offering such contributions as they were able 
 towards the erection of a college building. The 
 offer from New Haven, larger than that of any 
 other town, was seven hundred pounds sterling. 
 The plan of fixing the College there, promoted 
 by the great influence of Governor Baltonstall, 
 was adopted by the trustees; and with money 
 obtained by private gifts, and two hundred and 
 fifty pounds accruing from a sale of land given 
 by the General Assembly, a building was begun 
 [1717], which finally cost a thousand pounds 
 sterling. . . . The Assembly gave tlie College a 
 hundred pounds. Jeremiah Dumnier sent from 
 England a substantial present of books. Gov- 
 ernor Saltonstall contributeil fifty pounds ster- 
 ling, and the same sum was presented by Jahleel 
 Brenton, of Newport, in Rhode Island. But the 
 chief patronage came from Eliliu Yale, — a 
 native of New Haven, but long resident in the 
 East Indies, where he had been Governor of Fort 
 St. George. He was now a citizen of London, 
 and Governor of the East India Company. His 
 contributions, continued through seven" years, 
 amounted to some four hundred pounds sterling; 
 and he was understood to have made arrange- 
 
 ments for a further bounty of five hundred 
 pounds, which, however, through unfortunate 
 accidents, never came to its destination. The 
 province made a grant of forty pounds annually 
 for seven years." — J. G. Palfrey, Jlist. of New 
 J'Jiif/Uiiid, hk. 4, ch. 11, andbk. ."5, ch. 4 (p. 4). 
 
 A. D. 1746-1787.— New York.— King's Col- 
 lege, now Columbia College. — "The establish- 
 ment of a college in the city of New York was 
 many years in agitation before the design was 
 carriedinto effect. At length, under an act of 
 Assembly passed in December, 1746, and other 
 similar acts which followed, moneys were raised 
 by public lottery 'for the encouragement of 
 learning and towards the founding a college' 
 within the colony. These moneys were, in No- 
 vember, 17.51, vested in trustees. . . . The trus- 
 tees, in November, 1753, inviteil Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson, of Connecticut, to be President of the 
 intended college. Dr. Johnson consequently re- 
 moved to New York in the month of April fol- 
 lowing^, and in July, 1754, commenced the in- 
 struction of a class of students in u room of the 
 si ''ool-house belonging to Trinity Church ; but he 
 would not absolutely accept the presidency until 
 after the passing of the charter. • This took place 
 on the 31st of October in the same year, 1754; 
 from wliieh period the existence of tlie college 
 is properly to be dated. The Governors of the 
 college, named in the charter, are the Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, and the first Lord Commissioner 
 for Trade anil Plantations, both empowered to act 
 by proxies; the Lieutenant-governor of the prov- 
 ince, and several other public oftlccrs; together 
 with the rector of Trinity Church, the senior min- 
 ister of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, 
 the ministers of the German Lutheran Church, of 
 the French Church, of the Presbyterian Congre- 
 gation, ond the President of the college, all ex 
 officio, and twenty-four of the principal gentle- 
 men of the city. The college was to be known 
 by the name of King's ColTcgc. Previously to 
 the passing of the charter, a parcel of ground to 
 the westward of Broadway, bounded by Barclay, 
 Church, and Murray streets and the Hudson 
 River, had been destined by the vestry of Trinity 
 Church as a site for the college edifice; and, ac- 
 cordingly, after the charter was granted, a grant 
 of the land was made on the 13th of May, 1755. 
 . . . The part of the land thus granted by "Trinity 
 Church, not occupied for college purposes, was 
 leased, and became a very valuable endowment 
 to the college. The sources whence the funds 
 of the institution were derived, besides the pro- 
 ceeds of the lotteries above mentioned, were the 
 voluntary contributions of private individuals in 
 this country, and sums obtained by agents who 
 were subsequently sent to England and France. 
 In May, 1760, the college buildings begar. to be 
 occupied. In 1763 a grammar school was estab- 
 lished. In March, 1763, Dr. Johnson resigned the 
 presidency, and the Rev. Dr. My les Cooper, of Ox- 
 ford, who had previously been appointed Profes- 
 sor of Moral Philosophy and assistant to the 
 President, was elected in his place. ... In con- 
 sequence of the dispute between this and the par- 
 ent country. Dr. Cooperrcturned to England, and 
 the Rev. Benjamin Moore was appointed praeses 
 l)ro tempore during the absence of Dr. Cooper, 
 who, however, did not return. On the breaking 
 out of the Revolutionary War 'he bu.siiiess of 
 the college was almost entirely broken up, and it 
 was not until after the return of peace that its 
 
 730 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Nattnnal Ijand-grantt 
 
 fflV SchtMltl. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 affaire were again rpguliirly attrndod to. In 
 May, 1784, the college, upon its own application, 
 was erected into a viniversity; its corporaic title 
 was changed from King's College to Columbia 
 College, and it was |)lace(l under the control of 
 a board termed Hegenis of the University. . . . 
 The college continued under that government 
 until April, 1787, when the Legislature of the 
 State restored it to its original position under the 
 present name of Columbia College. ... At the 
 same time a new body was created, called by the 
 same name, 'The Regents of the University,' 
 under which all the seminaries of learning men- 
 tioned in the act creating it were placed by the 
 legislature. This body still exists under its 
 original name." — Cobdiihia Colleije Ilandbouk, pp. 
 5-9. 
 
 A. D. 1776-1880. — New England and New 
 ■york. — State School Systems. — "It was not 
 until over thirty years after the close of the war 
 of 1776 that a regular system of schools at the 
 public expense was established. New Kngland 
 lioasted with pride of being the first in educa- 
 tion, as she had been in war. Her example was 
 oloselj' followed by the other States. In New 
 York, in 1805, many gentlemen of prominence 
 associated for the purpose ut establishing a free 
 school in New York City for the education of 
 the children of persons in indigent circumstances, 
 and who di<l not belong to, or were not provided 
 for by, any religious society. These public- 
 spirited gentlemen i)resented a memorial to the 
 Legislature, setting fortli the benefits that would 
 resiilt to society from educating such children, 
 and that it would enable tliem more elTectually 
 to accomplish the objects of their institution if 
 the schools were incorporated. The bill of in- 
 corporation was passed April 9, 1805. This was 
 the nucleus from which the present system of 
 public schools started into existence. Later on, 
 in the year 1808, we find from annual printed 
 reports tliat two free schools were opened and 
 were in working order. ... It was the inten- 
 tion of the founders of these schools — among 
 whom tlie names of De Witt Clinton, Ferdinand 
 de Peyster, John Murray, and Leonard Bleecker 
 stand prominent as officers — to avoid the teacli- 
 ings of any religious society; but there were 
 among the people many who thought that .suffl 
 dent care was noi being bestowed upon relig- 
 ious instruction : to plea.se these malcontents the 
 literary studies of the pupils were suspended 
 one afternoon in every week, and an association 
 of fifty ladies of 'distinguished consideration in 
 society ' met on this day and examined the chil- 
 dren in their respective catechisms. ... To read, 
 write, and know arithmetic in its first branches 
 correctly, was the extent of the educational ad- 
 vantages which tlie founders of the free-school 
 system deemed necessary for the accomplish- 
 ment of their purposes. "—A. H. Rhine, The Early 
 Free Scltoola of Am. (Popular Science Montldy, 
 March, 1880). 
 
 A. D. 1785-1880.— The United States.— 
 Land-erants for Schools.— " The question of 
 the cntlowracnt of educational institutions by the 
 Government in aid of the cause of education seems 
 to liave met no serious opposition in the Congress 
 of the Confederation, ind no member raised his 
 voice against this vitjd and essential provision 
 relating to it in the ordinance of May 20, 1785, 
 ' for ascertaming the mode of disposing of lands 
 In the Western Territory.' This provided : 'There 
 
 shall be reserved the lot No. Ifl of pvory town- 
 ship for the maintenance of public schools within 
 said township.' This was an endowment of (140 
 acres of land (on(! section of land, one mile sipiare) 
 in a township 6 miles B(iiiare, for the support 
 and maintenance of pu1)lic schools ' within said 
 township.' The manner of establishnuni of 
 public schools thereunder, or by whom, was not 
 mentioned. It was a reservation by the Ignited 
 States, and advanced and established a principle 
 which finally dedlcatpd one thirty-sixth part of 
 all public lands of the United States, with cer- 
 tain exceptions as to mineral, &c., to the cause 
 of education liy public schools. . . . In th<' Con- 
 tinental Congress, July IM, 1787, according to 
 onler, the ordinance for the government of the 
 'Territory of the United States northwest of the 
 river Ohio ' came on, was read a third time, and 
 pas.sed [seeNonTiiwESTTKUiiiTonY: A. I). 1787J. 
 It c(mtaine(l tl'c following: 'Art. 3. Religion, 
 morality, and nnowledgc' being necessary to goml 
 government and the happiness of mankind, 
 schools and the means of education shall forever 
 be encouraged.' Tlie provision of the ordinance 
 of May 20, I7H5, relating to the reservation of the 
 sixteenth section in every townsliip of public 
 land, was the inception of the present rule of 
 reservation of certain sections of land for school 
 purposes. The endowment was the subject of 
 much legislation in the years following. The 
 •luestioii was raised that there was no rea.son why 
 the United States should not organize, control, 
 and manage these public schools so endowed. 
 The reservations of lands were made by sur- 
 veyors and duly returned. This jiollcy at once 
 met with enthusiastic approval from the i)ublic, 
 a:id was tacitly inc()ri)orateil into the American 
 system as one of its fundamental organic ideas. 
 Whether the jiiiblic schools thus endowed by the 
 United States were to bo under national or State 
 control remained a question, and the lands were 
 held in reservation merely until after the admis- 
 sion of the State of Ohio in 1802. ... To each 
 organized Territory, after 1803, was and now is 
 reserved the sixteenth section (until after the 
 Oregon Territory act reserved the thirty-sixth as 
 well) for school purposes, which reservation is 
 carried irto grant and confirmation by the terms 
 of the act of admission of the Territory or State 
 into the Union ; the State then becoming a trus- 
 tee for school purposes. These grants of land 
 were made; from the public domain, and to States 
 only which were known as public-land States. 
 Twelve States, from March 3, 1803, known as 
 public-land States, leceived the allowance of the ' 
 sixteenth section to August 14, 1848. . . . Con- 1 
 gress, June 13, 1813, and May 26, 18'24, by the 
 acts ordering the survey of certain towns and 
 villages in Missouri, reserved for the support of 
 schools in the towns and villages named, pro- 
 vided that the whole amount reserved should not 
 exceed one-twentieth part of the whole lands in- 
 cluded in tlie general survey of such town or 
 village. These lots were reserved and sold for 
 the benefit of the scliools. Saint Louis received 
 a large fund from this source. ... In the act 
 for the organization of the Territory of Oregon, 
 August 14, 1848, Senator Stephen A. Douglas 
 inserted an additional grant for school purposes 
 of the thirty-sixtli section in each township, with 
 indemnity for all public-land States thereafter to 
 be admitted, making the reservation for school 
 purposes the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections, 
 
 731 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 state School FuniU. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 or l,2fiO iipn's In oncli township of hIx miles 
 iM}tiiin' n'Horvcd In public-land States iind Terri- 
 tories, and ronflrmed by grant in terms in tho 
 net of admission of such State or Territory into 
 the Union. From March 18, 1H53, to June 80, 
 18t«t, s<'ven HIates have l)cen admitted into tho 
 Union liuvlnf^ a grant of the sixteenth and thirty- 
 sixth sections, and the same area has been re- 
 served in eight Territories." — T. Donaldson, Tfie 
 J'flilir DoiiKiiii, cli. 13. 
 
 A. D. 1789.— The United States.— " The 
 Coi)stituti(m of the United States nuikes no pro- 
 vision for tlie education of the people; and in tho 
 Convention that framed it, I believe the subject 
 was not even mentioned. A motion to insert a 
 cla\ise providing for tho establishment of a na- 
 tional university was voted down. I believe it 
 is also the fact, that tlie Constitutions of oidy 
 three of the thirteen original Htates made tho 
 obligation to maintain a system of Freo Schools 
 a part of their fundamental law." — It. Mann, 
 I,frt'ii unci Aiuiiiiil llip'tn tin Kiliiciition, Itet. 5. 
 
 A. D. I793' — Massachusetts, — Williams 
 Cotleee. — "Williams College, at Wllllamstown, 
 BerlisTiire County, Mass., was cliartered in 1703. 
 The town and tlie college were named in h<mor 
 of Col. K))hraim AVilllams, who had command 
 of the forts in the Iloosac Valley, and was killed 
 in a battle with the French and Indians, Sep- 
 tember 8, 17r)5. Uy his will he established a 
 freo school in tho township which was to bear 
 his name. The most advanced students of tills 
 free school became the ilrst collece class, num- 
 bering 4, and received the regular degree of 
 bachelor of arts in the autumn of 1705. Tho 
 small amount left by the will of Colonel Wil- 
 liams was carefully managed for 80 years by the 
 execiitors, and tliey then obtained permission 
 from the State legislature to carry out tho bo- 
 novolent purposes of tho tesUitor. Tho fund for 
 building was increased by individual subscrip- 
 tions, and by the avails of a lottery, whicli the 
 general court granted for that jiurpose. The 
 building which is now known as West College 
 was then erected for the use of the free school 
 and was lluished in 1700. . . . Tho 'ree school 
 was opened in 1701, with Rev. Ebenezer Fitch, 
 a graduate of Yale College, as preceptor, and 
 5Ir. John Lester as assistant. . . . The success 
 of the school was so great that the next year the 
 trustees asked tho legislature to incorporate tho 
 school into a college. This was done, and a 
 grant of $4,000 was made from tho State treasury 
 for the purchase of books and philosophical aj)- 
 paratus. Tho college was put under the care of 
 12 trustees, who elected Preceptor Fitch the first 
 president of the college. "— E. B. Parsons ( U. S. 
 Bureau of Edvcation, Circular of Information, 
 1891, 710. 6.' Ilitt. of Jligher Education in Mass., 
 ch. 0). 
 
 A. D. 179S-1867.— The United States.— 
 State School Funds. — "Connecticut took the 
 lead in the creation of a permanent fund for 
 tho support of schools. The district known as 
 tho Western Reserve, In Northern Chm, had 
 been secured to her in th'j adjustment of her 
 claims to lands confirmed to her by tho charter 
 of King Charles II. Tbo Legislature of the 
 State, in 1705, passed an f.ct directing tho sale of 
 all the land embraced in the Reserve, and setting 
 apart tho avails as a yerpetual fund for tho 
 maintenance of common schools. The amount 
 realized was about $1,120,000. . . . New Yoii 
 
 was the next State to rstablish a common srhnol 
 fund for the aid and maintenance of schools in 
 the several scIkkiI districts of the State. Tho 
 other Northern Slates except New Hampshire, 
 Vermont, I'eimsvivania, ami one or two others, 
 hn-.o establish'''! «!;;illar funds. ... In all the 
 .lew States the 500,000 acres, given by act of 
 Congres", on their adndssion into tho Union, for 
 '.'lie support of schools, have been sacredly set 
 apart for that purpose, and generally otlier lands 
 iK'longing to the States have been added to tho 
 fund. . . . Prior to the war the Slave States had 
 made attempts to establish plans for popular 
 education, but with results of an unsatisfactory 
 character. In Virginia a school system was In 
 force for the education of the children of indi- 
 gent white jiersons. In North Carolina a largo 
 school fund, exceeding two millions of dollars, 
 had been set apart for tlio maintenance of schools. 
 In all of these Stales common schools had been 
 Introduced, but tliey did not llourish as In the 
 North and West. . . . There was not the saiuo 
 po|)ulation of small and independent fanners, 
 whose families could be united into a school dis- 
 trict. . . . A more serious obstacle was the slave 
 Iiopulation, coniititutlng one-third of the whole, 
 and in some of the Stjites more than half, whom 
 it was thought dangerous to educate." — V. M. 
 Rice, Sficcinl Jlfjxirt on the Present State of Edu- 
 cation, 1807, pp. 10-23. 
 
 A. D. 1804-1837. — Michigan. — The Uni- 
 versity. — "In 1804, wlien MicTiigan was organ- 
 ized as a Territorv, Congress granted a township 
 of land for a seminary of learning, and tho unf- 
 versltv to be established in 1817 was to be in 
 accordance with this grant. Tlio Territorial 
 government conimitted the interests of higher 
 education to tlie care of the Oovernor and the 
 Judges, and it '., suppose 'd that through the ex- 
 ertions of lion. A. U. Wooilward, then presiding 
 Judge of tlie Supreme Court of the Territory of 
 Michigan, that the act establishing o university 
 was framed. A portion of tills most curiousdocu- 
 nient of the early history of Michigan will be 
 given. It is entitled 'An act to establish the 
 Catholeplstemiad or University Jlichiganla. ' ' Be 
 it enacted by tlie Governor and Judges of the 
 Territory of Allchigan, That there shall bo in the 
 said Territory a catliolei)i8temiad or university 
 denominated tho Catholeplstemiad or University 
 Michigania. The Catholeplstemiad or University 
 of Michigania sliall be composed of thirteen 
 didaxum or professorships; first, a didaxia or 
 professorsliip catholepistemla, or universal sci- 
 ence, tho dictator or professor of which shall 
 be president of the institution ; second, a didaxia 
 or professorship of anthropoglassica, or literature 
 emb.-icing all of tho epistomum or sciences rela- 
 tive to language; third, a didaxia or professor- 
 ship of mathomatica or mathematics; fourth, a 
 didaxia or professorship of physiognostica or 
 natural history, etc' The act thus continues 
 through tho whole range of the ' thirteen di- 
 daxum'; the remaining nine are as follows: 
 Natural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, med- 
 ical sciences, economical sciences, ethical sci- 
 ences, military sciences, historical sciences, and 
 intellectual. The university was to bo under 
 the control of the professors and president, who 
 wore to be appointed by the Governor, while the 
 institution was to be the center and controlling 
 "ower of the educational system of the State, 
 was to bo supported by taxation by an in- 
 
 732 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 k'leh Igan . — \fiuunchuiitll§. 
 —Canada, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 cirnnc fif the nmniint of tnxrs nlrondy lev' f|, liy 
 Ifl piT runt. AIho power wiw jrivt -i to riiiHc 
 mniicy for the mipport of the iiiiivcrHlty liy 
 mvaiis of lottcrlcH. This renmrkiibk' ilociiinrtit 
 wikH not without it8 intlui'nco hi Hhiipin^ thti 
 public Hcli(M)l policy of Mi('liif;;iin, hut it wiis 
 many yt'iirs iM'forc tlu! Htatu »pi)roximat('(l it.s 
 It'arnrcf provisions. Iinpnirti('»l>l(^ as this cdii- 
 (iiUional plan appears for a lutndful of peonlr- in 
 thu w(mh1» of Mlchifran, it served as a foiuida ion 
 upon whicli to huild. The olllcers and Jireside-.t 
 were duly appointed, and the work or the now 
 university began at once. At llrst tlie university 
 app<'anMl as a seluwil hoard, to estal)li.sh and 
 maintain primary schools which they held under 
 tiieir charge. I'lien foUoweil a course of study 
 for cliiHsical acndendes, and flnnlly, in October, 
 1817, an net was passed establishing a college in 
 the city of Detroit called 'The First College of 
 Miehigania.' . . . The people contributed liber- 
 ally to these early scliools, the sum of three 
 thousand flollars lieing subscribed at the begin- 
 ning. . . . An act was passed on the 30th of 
 April, 1821, l)y the Governor and Judges estab- 
 lishing a university in Detroit to take the place 
 of thu catholeplstemiad and to be callecl the 
 'University of Michigan.' In its charter nearly 
 all the powers of the former institution wero 
 substantially conllrme<l, except the provision for 
 tjixes an<l lotteries. . . . The second corporation, 
 known as the ' University of AMchigan,' carried 
 on the work of education alrei. ■ begun from 
 18'31 to the third organization, ir. 18!)7. The 
 education was very limited, consisting in one 
 classical academy at Detroit, and part of the 
 time a Lancastcnan school. The boards of edu- 
 cation kept up and transmitted the imiversity 
 Idea to such an extent that It may be said truly 
 and legally that there was on'! University of 
 Michigan, which passed through three successive 
 stages of development marked by the dates 1817, 
 1831, and 1837," at which time it was removed to 
 Ann Arbor.— F. W. Blnckmar, Federal and 
 State Aid to Higher Edveation {If. S. Bureau of 
 miuMtion, Circular of Information, 1890, no. 1), 
 pp. 230-!i41. 
 
 Also in : E. M. Farrand, Hist, of the Uniter- 
 gity of Michigan.— K. Ten Brook, American State 
 Unirermlien. 
 
 A. D. 1818-1821. — Massachusetts.— Amherst 
 College. — "Amherst College originated in a 
 strong desire on the part of the people of Jlassa- 
 chusetts to have a college near the central part 
 of the State, where the students shoidd le free 
 from the temptations of a large city, where the 
 expenses of an education should not be beyond 
 the means of those who had but little money, and 
 where the moral p.nd religious influences should 
 be of a decidedly Christian character. ... The 
 ministers of Franklin County, at a meeting held 
 in Sholburnc May 18, 1815, expressed it as their 
 opinion that a literary institution of high order 
 ought to be established in Hampshire County, 
 and that the town of Amherst appeared to them 
 to be the most eligible place for it. Their early 
 efforts for a literary institution in Hampshire 
 County resulted in tlietirst place in the establish- 
 ment of an academy in Amherst, which was in- 
 corporated in the year 1816. ... In the year 
 1818 a constitution was adopted by the trustees 
 of Amherst Academy, for the raismg and man- 
 agement of a fund of at least $.50,000, for the 
 classical education of indigent young men of 
 
 iiiety and talents for the Christian minlstrv. . . . 
 I'his charity fund may he said to lie the basis of 
 Amherst College, for thougli it was rais»'d by tlio 
 trustees of Andierst Academy it was really in- 
 tended to be the foimdation of a college, and has 
 always been a part of the permanent funds of 
 Amherst College, kept sacrcclly from .11 other 
 funds for the specitle object foi "valtli it was 
 given. . . . This was for nniny yi rs the only 
 permanent fund of Amherst College, a' id without 
 this it would have seemed impossible at one time 
 to preserve the very existence of the college. 80 
 Amherst College grewoutof Andierst Academy, 
 and was built permanently on the charity fund 
 raised by the t.ustees of that academy. . . . Al- 
 though the harity fund of l|l.')(),IKIO had been re- 
 ceived in 1J18, It was not till 1820 that the re- 
 cipient felt justirted in going forward to erect 
 l)uildlngs for acollege In .Vndierst. Klforts weru 
 made for the removal of Williams College from 
 WlllianiKtown to Hampshire Countv, and to have 
 the charity f\uid used in connection with that 
 college ; and, if that were done, it was not certain 
 that Amherst could be regarded as tlie best loca- 
 tion for the college. Hut the legislature of .Ma.ssa- 
 chuselts decided tliat Williams College cotild not 
 be removed from Williamstown, and nothing re- 
 mained but for the friends of 'he new instltiUion 
 to go on with their plans for locating it at .Viu- 
 herst. . . . This llrst college editlce was ready 
 for occupation and dedicated on the 18th of Hep- 
 teniber, 1821. In the mmith of May, 1821, Hcv. 
 Zephaniah Swift Moore, I). I)., was tuiaruinously 
 elected by the trustees of Amherst Academy 
 president of the new institution." — T. R Field 
 [IT. S. Jill reiiil of Education, Circular of Informa- 
 tion, 1801, no. 0; Ilist. of Higher Education, in, 
 M<m.), ch. :i. 
 
 A. D. 1837.— Massachusetts.— Horace Mann 
 and the State System. — " When .Masmichu.setts, 
 in 1837, created a Board of Education, then wero 
 first united into a somewhat related whole the 
 more or less excellent but varied and independ- 
 ent organizations, and a beginning made for a 
 State system. It was this massing of forces, and 
 the hearty co-operation ho initiated, in whicli tlio 
 work of Horace Mann showed its matchless 
 greatness. ' Ilarely,' it has been said, 'have 
 great ability, unselli.sh devotion, and l)rillinnt 
 success, been so united in the course of a single 
 life.' A successful lawyer, a member of the 
 State Legiolature, and with but limited experi- 
 ence as a teacher, he has left his impress upon 
 the educational sentiments of, not only New 
 England, but the United States." — U. G. Boone, 
 Education in the U. S. , ;;. 103. 
 
 A. D. 1 840-1886.— The United States.— Pro- 
 portion of College Students. — " It is estimated 
 that in 1840 the proportion of college students to 
 the entire population in tlio United Stales was 1 
 to 1,540; in 1800, 1 to 3,013; in 1870, 1 to 3,546; 
 in 1880, 1 to 1,840; and in 1886, 1 to about 1,400. 
 Estimating all our combined efforts in favor of 
 higher education, we fall far short of some of the 
 countries of the Old World."— F. W. Blackmar, 
 Federal and State Aid to Iligher Education in the 
 IT. S. (U. 8. Bureau of Education, Circulars of 
 Information, 1890, no. 1), p. 30. 
 
 A. D. 1844-1876.— Canada.— Ontario School 
 System. — "From the earliest Kettiement of On- 
 tario, schools were established as tlie wants of 
 the inhabitants required. The Legislature soon 
 recognized the needs of the country, and made 
 
 733 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Lnndi/mnli fur 
 Imitulriitt Uoltrymt. 
 
 KDUOATION. 
 
 KniiitH of land iinil mnncy In itiil >if clcnicntiiry, 
 M^i'iindiiry, iiiiil NupiTinrrduciitioM. HtiilutcH went 
 uuHM'il from tinii' to IIimi- for the purpoHcof open- 
 HiK Ncliools to lut'i't the ilciniinil!! of^ tlic pcopltv 
 Tlu! spiifMcly Hcltlcd condition of tlif Province 
 dt'liiyed for I'l wldiw tlic orKuni/.ittion of llic ny»- 
 tt'ni. It wuH not until IHM tl it tlie clcnu^ntiiry 
 rcIidoIh were put on it roniprclii'tiHlvc! biiHis. In 
 that your till' Krv. KKfrton Hycrson, lA,. !)., wiis 
 appointed Chief .Superintendent of KitiK'iilion, 
 and lli(( report wliicli he prewnted to tliC! House 
 of Assembly Hketcheil in an able manner the main 
 features of the Hvstem of whieh he wan the dis- 
 tin>;uished founder, and of whieh he continued 
 for thirty-three yearn to Im^ the elHcient adndnis- 
 trator. In 1H70 theoMlceof chief Huperintendeiit 
 was abolished, and the Hchools of the Province 
 placed under the control of a iiKMuberof the (Jov- 
 ernmeiit with the title of Minister of Kdiicutlon. 
 . . . The system of education in Ontario may be 
 said to coniil)ine the best features of tlie systei.is 
 of several countries. To tlie Old World it Is in- 
 debted for a liir^'e measure of its Htability, uni- 
 fonnlty and centralization; to the older setlleil 
 parts of the N(nv World for lis popidar nature, 
 fta lle.xibility and itsdemo(!ralie principles which 
 have given, wherever desiralih', local control and 
 Individual responsiljillty. Fmiii the Statu of New 
 York we lmv(^ borrowed tlie machinery of our 
 school ; from AIasv.,ichusetts the principle of lo(^al 
 taxation; from Ireland our first series of text 
 books; from Scotland the cooperation of parents 
 with the teacher, in upholding his authority; 
 from Germany the sy>ttem of Normal Schools and 
 the Kindergarten iiid from the United States 
 generally the iiondeuoininatlonal character of 
 elementary, secondary, and university education. 
 Ontario may claim to have some features of her 
 system that are lari;ely liei own. Among tliein 
 may be mentioned: a division of state and muni- 
 cipal authority on a judicious basis; clear lines 
 separating tlie function of the University from 
 thai of the High Schools, and the function of the 
 High Schools from that of the Public or element- 
 ary schools; a uniform course of study; all High 
 and Public Schools in the hands of professionally 
 trained teachers ; no person eligible to the posi- 
 tion of Inspector who does not hold the highest 
 grade of a teacher's certificate, and who has not 
 Eld years of experience as a teacher; inspectors 
 removal '.0 if inelBcient, but not subject to re- 
 moval by popular vot<3; the examinations of 
 teachers under Provincial instead of local control ; 
 the acceptance of a common matriculation ex- 
 amination for admission to the Universities and 
 to the learned professions; a uniform series of 
 text books for the whole Province; the almost en- 
 tire obsence of party politics in the manner in 
 ■which school boards, inspectors and teachers dis- 
 charge thinr dutip : the system national instead 
 of sectarian, but fording under constitutional 
 
 guarantees and limitations protection to lioman 
 atholic and Protestant Separate Schools and de- 
 nominational Universities." — J. Millar, Educa- 
 tional System of the Province of Oniano. 
 
 A. D. 1862.— The United States.— Land- 
 grant for industrial Colleges. — " Next to the 
 Ordinance of 1787, the Congressional grant of 
 1862 Id the most important educational enactment 
 in America. ... By this gift forty-eight col- 
 leges and universities have received aid, at least 
 to the extent of the Congressional grant; thirty- 
 three of these, at least, have been called into ex- 
 
 istence by means of this act. In thirteen Htateii 
 the proceeds <if the land scrip were devoted to 
 institutions already In exlHteiice. The amount 
 recelverl from the sales of land scrip from twenty- 
 four of thes<! HtJitcH aggregates the sum of (Hi),- 
 9i)0,4r>(l, with land remaining unsold estimiiU'd 
 at nearly two millions of dollars. Thes<- sumo 
 InBtitiitions have recelveil State endowmentn 
 amounting to over eight ndllion dollani. Tlio 
 origin of this gift must he sought In Kk'hI com- 
 munities. In this country all Ideas of national 
 education have arisen from t host; States that havo 
 felt the nec.l of hx'al Institutions for the eduiui- 
 tlon of youth. In certain sections of the Unhm, 
 particularly l!ie North and West, where agri- 
 culture was one of the chief industries, it was 
 felt that the old ela.ssiciil schools were not broad 
 enough to cover all the wants of education repre- 
 sented by growing Industries. There was con- 
 sequently a revulsion from these schools toward 
 the industrial and practicid side; of education. 
 Evidences of tliis movement are seen in the at- 
 tempts In dilTerent States to found agricultural, 
 technical, and industrial sch(H)ls. ThcKc iileaa 
 found their way into(.'ongre.ss, and a bill was in- 
 troduced In 1838, which provided for the endow- 
 ment of colleges for the teaching of agriculture 
 and the mechanical arts. The bill was introdvK'cd 
 by Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Vermont; it was 
 po-ssed by a small majority, and was vetoed by 
 President liuchiinan. In 1802 tlu; bill was again 
 presented with slight changes, pa.sscd and signed, 
 and l)ecame a law July 3, 1802. ... It stipu- 
 lated to grunt to each State thirty thousand acres 
 of land for each Senator and lleprcsentative iu 
 Congress to which the States were respectively 
 entiued by the census of 18fl0, for the purpose 
 of endowing ' at least one college where the leml- 
 ing object shall be, without excluding other scl- 
 entitlc and classical studies, and including mili- 
 tary tactics, to teach such branches of learning 
 as are related to agriculture and the mechanic 
 arts, in such manner as the Legislatures of the 
 States may respectively prescribe, in order to 
 promote the liberal and practical education of 
 the industrial classes In the several pursuits and 
 professions of life.' . . . From this proposition 
 all sorts of schools sprang up, according to the 
 local conception of the law and local demands. 
 It was thought by some that boys were to Iw 
 taught agriculture by working on a farm, and 
 purely agricultural schools were founded with 
 the mechanical arts attached. In other States 
 classical schools of the stereotyped order were 
 established, with more or less science ; and, again, 
 the endowment in others was devoted to scien- 
 tific deportments. The instruction of the farm 
 and the teaching of pure agriculture have not 
 succeeded In general, while the sclumls that have 
 mode prominent those studies relating to agri- 
 culture and the mechanic arts, upon tne whole, 
 have succeeded best. ... In several Instances 
 the managers of the land scrip have understcod 
 that by this provision the State could not locate 
 the land within the borders of another State, but 
 its ossignees could thus locate lands, not more 
 than one million acres in any one State. i3v con- 
 sidering this question, the New York land scrip 
 was bought by Ezra Cornell, and located by him 
 for the college in valuable lands in the State of 
 Wisconsin, and thus the fund war augmented. 
 However, the majority of the Stfites sold their 
 land at a sacrifice, frequently for less than half 
 
 734 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 t'urnell L'nivtrtity. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ItH viilnc. Thrro wiw n hill In tlio Innil iiiiirki>t 
 during tlii' Civil Wiir. iiiiil this ciiumc, toffclluT 
 will) tlic liu'k (if iitti'iiticiii ill iimiiy KliitcN, HiiiTi 
 flci'd tln> liitt of till! Fi'dcrnl OovcniiiuMit. Tlw 
 Biili-H nulled nil the wny fri)iii llfly <<'IiI.h to hcvcii 
 cJollitrM (XT iicrc, iih the uviTiit^c pricK for ciicli 
 Btiitc."--F. W. Hliukiimr, Fnlnul mnl SlntrAitl 
 til Ilii/lier Kiliinitiiiu (('. 1^. Ilinriin nf Kduentian, 
 I'irciihirii iif liifiiniiiilinn, IHIMI, im. 1), /)//. 47-41). 
 A. D. i863-i886.-New York.-Cornell Uni- 
 versity.— " On the Mccoiid of .Iiily. IHflJ, . . . 
 [I'i'CKidciit Liiicolnl Mi^ricd llic iicf of con^^rt'SH. 
 (loniitiii); |)ulili'- liiiids for tlii! CHtitblisluiU'iit of 
 collt'ffcH of ji);ri('ultiiri' and iMcc^hanitMirts. Tills 
 net liiid lict'ii liitrcxluri'd Into coii^trcsH by the 
 lloii. .luHtIn S. Morrill. . . . Tiii! .Morrill net 
 provided for a doiiiUioii of piililk^ liiiid to the 
 Beveriil Htiites, eiieli Ktiite to ree<'lve tliirty thou- 
 wind iieres for eiirli seniitor mid representative it 
 Bent to eoTi^ress. IStiites not eorilalninK witiiin 
 their own borders public land Rubleet to Hale at 
 private entry received land scrip instead. Hut 
 this land scrip the recipient states were not al- 
 lowed to locate within tlie limits of any other 
 statu or of any tcriitory of the United Htates. 
 The act laconically directed 'said scrip t<>ln'sold 
 bv said states. ' Tlitj proceeds of the sale, w liether 
 of land or scrip, in each state were to form a per- 
 petual fund. ... In the execution of this trust 
 the State of New York was hampered by great 
 and almost insuperable obstacles. For Its dis- 
 tributive sliure It received land scrip to the 
 amount of nine hundred and ninety tliousand 
 acres. The niunificcncu of the endowment awak- 
 ened the cupidity of a multitude of clamorous 
 and strangly unexpected claimants. ... If the 
 princely aoniain granted to the State of New 
 York by congR'ss was not divided and frittered 
 away, we owe it in great measure to the fore- 
 sight, the energy, and the splendid courage of a 
 few generous spirits in the legislature of whom 
 none commanded greater respect or exercised 
 more Influence tlnio Senator Andrew Dickson 
 White, the gentleman who afterwards became 
 first president of Coniell University. . . . But 
 the all-compelling force which prevented the 
 dispersion and dissipation of the bounty of con- 
 gress was the generous heart of K/.ra Cornell. 
 While rival institutions clamored for n division 
 of die 'spoils,' and political tricksters played 
 their base and desperate game, tills man thought 
 only of the highest good of tlie State of New 
 York, which he loved with the ardor of a patriot 
 and was yet to serve with the heroism of a martyr. 
 . . . When the legislature of the State of New 
 York was called upon to make some disposition 
 of the congressional grant, Ezra Cornell sat in 
 the senate. . . . Of his minor legislative achieve- 
 ments I shall not speak. One act, however, has 
 made his name as immortal as the state it glorified. 
 By a gift of half a million dollars (a vast sum in 
 1805, the last year of the war I) he rescued for the 
 higher education of New York the undivided 
 grant of congress ; and with the united endow- 
 ments he induced the legislature to establish, not 
 moicly a college of applied science but a great 
 modern university — ' an institution,' according to 
 his own admirable definition, ' where any person 
 can find instruction in any study. ' It was a high 
 and daring aspiration to crown the educational 
 system of our imperial state with an organ of 
 universal knowledge, a nursery of every science 
 and of all scholarship, an instrument of liberal 
 
 1 
 
 culture and of practical utility to all claMw's of 
 our people, Tills WHS, however, tlie end; and 
 to Ke<'iii'e it V./.m Cornell added to Ids original 
 gift new donations of land, of buildings, ami of 
 money. . . . Hut one danger threatened this latest 
 birth of time. Tlie act (d coiigresH doniiting land 
 scrip reipiired tlie states to sell it. The markets 
 were immediately glut led. Prices fell. New 
 York was selling at an average price of llfty 
 cents an acre. Hit priiirely doiiiain would bring 
 at this rate less than half a million diillars! \V 
 the Hplendiii diinatinn to issiiit in such disiistei l 
 If it could be held till the war was over, till im- 
 migration opened up the Northwest, it would Iw 
 worth live times live hundred thousand dollars! 
 So at least thought one far seeing man in tlio 
 Slate of New York. And tliis man of foresight 
 had the heart to conceive, the wisdom to device, 
 and tli(^ courage to execute — hi' alone in all the 
 states — a plan for saving to bis state the future 
 value of tiie lands donated by congress, K/.ra 
 Cornell made that wonderful and dramatic con- 
 tract with tlu' Slate of New Y'orkl lie bound 
 liimself to purchase at the rate of si.\ty ci'iits per 
 acre the entire riglit of the cnmniotiweaitli to the 
 scrip, still unsold', and with the scrip, tlius pur- 
 chased bv him as an individual lie agreed to 
 select anil locate the lands it represented, to pay 
 the taxes, to guard against trespassis and defend 
 from fires, to the end tliat within twenty years 
 wlieu values had appreciated lie inigiit "sell the 
 land and turn into the treasury of the State of 
 New Y'ork for the suiiport of Cornell University 
 the entire net proceeils of the enterprise. Within 
 a few years K/.ra Cornell had located over half 
 a million acres of superior pitie land in tliu 
 Northwestern states, principally in Wisconsin. 
 Under bonds to tlie State of New Y'ork to do the 
 state's work he had spent about iJOOO.OOO of his 
 own cash to carry out the trust committed to him 
 by the state, when, alas. In the crisis of 1874, 
 fortune and credit sank exhausted and death 
 came to free the martyr-iiatrlot from his bonds. 
 The seven years that followed were the dark- 
 est in our history. . . . Kzra Cornell was our 
 founder; Henry W. Sage followed him as wise 
 masterbuilder. The edillees, < hairs and libraries 
 which bear the name of ' Sage ' witness to [his] 
 later gifts: but though these now aggregate the 
 princely sum of $1,250,000, [his] management of 
 the university lands has been [his] greatest 
 achievement. Prom tliesi! lands, with which the 
 generosity and foresight of Ezra Cornell endowed 
 the university, there have been netted under [Mr. 
 Sage's] administration, not far short of $4,000,- 
 000, with over 100,000 acres still to s<,'ll. Ezra 
 Cornell's contract with the state was for twenty 
 years. It exiiired August 4, 1880, wlien a ten 
 years' extension was griuited by the state. The 
 trust will be closed in laiXi," — .1. Q. Schurmau, 
 Addresn (it litniK/iirdlion to tlie I'remlency of Cor- 
 nell Uiiiversiti/.'yor. 11, 1893. 
 
 A. D. 1866-1869.— The United States.— 
 Bureau of Education. — "Educators, political 
 economists, and stiitesmen felt the need of some 
 central agency by which the general educational 
 statistics of tile country coiilu be collected, pre- 
 served, condensed, and properly arranged for 
 tlistribution. This need found expression finally 
 In the action taken at a convention of the super- 
 intendence department of the National Educa- 
 tional Association, held at Washington February, 
 1866, when it was resolved to petition Congress 
 
 35 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 L'ntvrriili). 
 
 KI)U('ATION. 
 
 In favor of a NntlonnI niiri'iiii of Kdiirat'.on. 
 . . . The mcinorinl wnti prciw'iiti'il in tin- lloiim' 
 of I{('|ircMcriliillv«'n liv Ociicritl (ItirtU'ld, Ki'lirimry 
 14, IHtMt, Willi a liill' for tin cHtiililiiiliiiiciit of it 
 Niilioiiiil lliiri'iiii on I'HM'iitiiilly tlic IhimIs tlir 
 M'liixil Hii|M'riiit('iiilt'iitj* liiiil iirii|Mm'(l. Ii<itli bill 
 iiikI iiK'iiiiiriiil Were rcfrrn'il to ii I'oniiiiltti't' of 
 •even iiu'IiiIhth. . . . 'riic bill wiih ri'|Mirti'(l Imck 
 fruni the ('(inirnittct-, uitli iiti lunriiiliiicnt in the 
 lintiin' of It Hiilmlltiitc, prdviiliiiK fi>r tin- crcutiiiii 
 of It ili'iiitrtiiK'iit of I'liiiciition iiiHtcitil of tiic 
 Imrcitii oriKiniilly projioiu'ii. Tliimitltori'd, it wiih 
 poHwil liy It viitt' of nearly two to iiiu!. In tlio 
 Ht'iialc it w'ltH ri'fiTrt'd to the ('oniinitlt'c on tlie 
 ■liliiii'lary . . . who the foliiiwiiiK wintrr re- 
 ported it without aniendment and with a reeoin- 
 mendation tiiiit It pavH, which it did on tliu liitof 
 March, IHfIT, receivinK on the next day tlio ap- 
 proval of tlK! President. Hy the act of July 'iH, 
 18flH, wlilch toolt elfect June 30, IHfll), the De- 
 partment of Kducation witH alioliMii'd, and an 
 Otilee of Kdueittiiiii in tlie Department of the 
 Interior wuh eNtaiiliHiied, witli tlie Kiime oliJeetH 
 and dutlcH. . . . Tliu act of Marcli 2, 1807, . . . 
 cstnbilHhed an ai<ency ' for the piirpogu of eol- 
 Icetinx Htich HtatiHtiea and factH as Hhall bIiow tliu 
 condilit.n and pro^ressof ediieatiim in the iieverai 
 StiiteH and Terr tories, iind of dilTiisinK sueh 
 Information rcHpeetinu; tlie organization and 
 manaifcinent of Heliool systeniH and methiHlM of 
 tcachniff as shall aid the people of the United 
 States in tlio establishment and miiintenuuce of 
 cfllcient school systems and otherwise promote 
 the cause of education.' It will be perceived 
 that the chief duty of the ofllce under tlic law is 
 to act as an educational cxchauKe. Exercising 
 and seeking to exercise no control wnatcver over 
 its thousands of correspondents, the olllco occu- 
 pies a position as the recipient of voluntary 
 informati(m which is unique." — C. Warren, An- 
 tiren to In</iiirie» about the ['. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, eh. 2-3. 
 
 A. D. 1867.— New York.— Public Schools 
 made entirely free. — Tlic public schools of tlie 
 State of New York were not entirely free until 
 1867. In his report to the Legislature made in 
 February of that year, the State Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction, Hon. Victor M. Hice, said : 
 "The greatest defect In our scluxil system Is, as 
 I have urged in previous reports, the continuance 
 of the rate bill system. Our common schools can 
 never reach their highest degree of usefulness 
 until they sliall have been made entirely free 
 ... To meet this public demand, to confer UDon 
 the children of the State the blessings of free 
 education, a bill has already been introduced into 
 your honorable body. . . . The main features of 
 the bill are the provisions to raise, by State tax, 
 a sum about equal to that raised in the districts 
 by rate bills, ond to abolish the rate bill system ; 
 to facilitate the erection and repair of scliool 
 houses." The bill referred to was passed at the 
 same session of the Legislature, and in his next 
 succeeding report. Superintendent Hiee gave the 
 following account of the law and its immediate 
 effects: "While the genenil structure of the 
 school law was not disturbed, a material inodifl- 
 cation was made by tlie Act (chap. 406, Laws 
 of 1867), which took effect on the first day of 
 October of the same year, ond which, among 
 other things, provided for the abolishment of rote- 
 bills, and for increased local and .State taxation 
 for school purposes. This was primarily u change 
 
 In the manner of miiiint; the requUitn funds; not 
 an aliMiliite increase of the aggregiile aiiuiunt 10 
 be nilHcd. It involved niid eneoiiraKcil siirh in- 
 creaMC, so far as the inlmbilanls in the Keveral 
 HcliiMil diHtr!rts Nhoiiid authori/.c it, by HuliHlltut- 
 ing taxatiiiii exrIiiHlvely on property, for a mixi'd 
 aHM'HNiiiciil which, in part, wa.s a lux on attend- 
 aiK'i'. 'I'liiiM relieved of an old impcdimcnl, and 
 supplied with additional power and larger ni- 
 Hources, the cause of public instruction, during 
 tlie last flHcal year, has wrought results uii<'(|uaie<i 
 in all tlie past. . . . The etfeia of this amend- 
 ment has not l)een confined to tlie llnaiiclal policy 
 thereby iiiaiigurated. It is dlHliiicliy traceitblu 
 in lengtlieiied terms of school, in it larger and 
 more uniform atleiidaiice, and in more liberal ex- 
 penditures for Hclioiil buildings and appliances," 
 — Hupt. of Pub. Instruction of the State of N. Y., 
 yl;i;i«(i/ liti>ort, 1861), /»/'• ^>-^. 
 
 A. D. 1867.— Marylind.— lohnt Hopkins 
 University.—" Hy tlie will of .IoIiii.h Hopkins, a 
 inercliant of Hall imore, the sum of |7, (KX), (KM) was 
 dt.'Voted to tlie endowment of it university [char- 
 tered in 1807] and a hospiuil, l|i;l,r)UO,UUU being 
 ajipropriati'd to each. . . . To tlie bequest no 
 biinlensome conditions were attitciied. . . . Just 
 what tills new university was to lie proved a 
 very serious i|iiestion to tlie trustees. The con- 
 ditions of Mr. Hopkins's bequest left the deter- 
 mination of this matter open. ... A careful in- 
 vestigation led the trustees to believe that there 
 was a growing demand for opportunities to study 
 beyond tlie ordinary courses of it college or a 
 scientific school, particularly in tliose lirauclies 
 of l'.'aming not included in the schools of law, 
 medicine and theology. Strong evidence of this 
 demand was affordeif by the iucreasing attend- 
 ance of American students upon tlio lectures of 
 the Qernian universities, as well as by the num- 
 ber of students who were enrolling themselves at 
 Harvard and Yale for the post-graduate coursi'S. 
 It was therefore determiued that the Johns Hop- 
 kins should be primarily a university, witli ad- 
 vanced courses of lectures and fully equipped 
 laboratories; that the courses should be volun- 
 tary, and the teaching not limited to class in- 
 struction. The foundation is both old and now. 
 In so far as each feature is borrowed from some 
 older university, where it has been fairly tried 
 and tested, it is old, but at the same time* this 
 ])articular combination of separate features hua 
 here been made for the first time. ... In the 
 ordinary college course, If a young man hap- 
 pens to be deficient In mathematics, for example, 
 lie is eitlier forced to lose any advantage he may 
 possess in Oreek or Latin, or else is obliged to 
 take a position in mathcni: tics for which he is 
 unprepared. In the college department of the 
 Johns Hopkins, this disadvantage does not exist; 
 the classifying is specific for each study. The 
 student iris also the privilege of pushing forward 
 in any one study as rapidly as lie can with ad- 
 vantage ; or, on the other luiLd, in case of illness 
 or of unavoidable interruption, of prolonging 
 the time devoted to the course, so that no part of 
 it shall be omitted. As the studies are elective, 
 It is possible to follow the usual college course if 
 one desires. Seven different courses of study 
 are indicated, any of which leads to the Bacca- 
 laureate degree, thus enabling the student to 
 direct and specialize his work. 'The some standard 
 of matriculation and the same severity of exam- 
 inations are maiutuiued in all these courses. A 
 
 736 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 IVatodi 
 
 Mumfii 
 
 Ail 
 
 ltd. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 atildont liM tlin prIvllrKO nf oxtonillnff liU Htiiily 
 beyouil tliu n'^iiliir ('Ijihn work, nixl lie will lie 
 crLilltvd with all hucIi priva.o mid DiiuUld iitudy, 
 if hU (.'xainlncni nru MitlHllcd ot liU thnrdiiKlincMH 
 anil iicriiriu'y."— H. H. llvrrivk, •T/ix .Miim Hoii- 
 kiiu UninrnUii (SfHhner'ii Mmil/ili/. !>"'. 1M7U). 
 
 A. D. 1867-1891.— The United' SUtei.— The 
 Peabody Education Fund.— "Tliu It'ttor iiii- 
 noiiiii'liitr and cri'iitliiK tlio I'catiiHJy I'lidnwiiK^iit 
 wiiH dalcii Ki'liriiury 7, 1M(I7. In that IcttiT, iiftiT 
 ri'fi'rrlMH Id tlio raviiKi'M of llio linu war, tlin 
 foiiudcr of tliu TriiNt Miid: 'I fcid iiioHt dci-ply 
 tlint It Ih tliu duty and |>rivilc>Kr of lliu iiioru 
 fnvoiin'ii and wraltliy pcirtlons of our nnllon to 
 axxlHt thoHu wild are Ichh fortunatu. ' llu tlirn 
 addu(i: 'I g\\u onu nilllion of dollari) for tliu 
 «ncouraguni('nt and promotion of intclli'ctiial, 
 nionil, and indimtrlul vdiioatlon anion i( tliu young 
 of tliu niort! dcHtllutu portions of tlii! Houtliurn 
 and HoulliwcHturn StatuH of tliu Union.' On tliu 
 <lay following, tun of tliu Trustcun Huluctud by 
 lilm liuld a pruliininary inoutliiK in Wasliington. 
 Tliuir llrst liiislnuiut niuctliiK ^vax liuld in thu city 
 «f Nuw York, tliu lUtli of March followin)?, at 
 which a Kcnural jilan was adoptuci and an i.K'-nt 
 appointed. Mr. I'caliody ruturnud to his natlvu 
 country aKiiin in 18(S9, anil on thu 1st ilav of 
 July, at u Hpuclni mcutlng of thu Trustees held at 
 Newport, added a second million to the cash 
 capital of thu fund. . . . According to thu (hi- 
 nor's directions, the principal must remain intact 
 for thirty years. The TrusK'es are not author- 
 ized to expend any part of it, nor yet to add to 
 it any part of thu accruing interest. The man- 
 ner of using thu interest, us well as the linal dis- 
 tribution of the principal, was left entirely to 
 thu discretion of a sulf-purpetuatlng body of 
 Trustees. Those first appointed liiul, however, 
 thu rare advantage of futi consultation witli tliu 
 founder of tlie Trust whilu liu still lived, and 
 their plans received his cordial and emphatic ap- 
 proljation. . . The pressing need of the pres- 
 ent seemed to be in the department of iirimary 
 education for the masses, and so they determined 
 to make appropriations only for thu assistance of 
 public free schools. Thu money is not given as 
 A charity to thu piKir. It would be entirely in- 
 adequate to furnish any ellectual relief If dis- 
 tributed equall.'' nmong all those wlio need It, 
 and would, moreover, if thus widely dissipated, 
 
 I)ro<luce no permanent results. But the cstab- 
 isbment of good public schools provides for the 
 education of all cliildren, whether rich or poor, 
 and initiates a system which no .State has ever 
 abandoned after a fair trial. So It seemed to the 
 donor as well as to his Trustees, that the greatest 
 good of tlio greatest number would be mo»e 
 effectually and more certainly attained by this 
 mode of distribution than by any other. No 
 effort is made to distribute according to popu- 
 lation. It was Jlr. Peabody's wish that tliose 
 States which had suffered most from the 
 ravages of war should be assisted first. " — Am. 
 Educational Vyeloixcdiu, 1875, piK 22-t-22.5.— The 
 report made by the treasurer of the Fund in 
 
 1890, allowed a principal sum invested to tl>o 
 amount of |2, 075, 175, 23, yielding an income that 
 year of |97,818. In the annual report of tlie 
 U. 8. Commissioner of Education made Feb. 1, 
 
 1891, he says: "It would appear to the student 
 of education in the Southern States that tiie 
 practical wisdom in the administration of the 
 Peabody Fund and the fruitful results that have 
 
 followed It could not bo mirpAMod In the hUtnrj 
 
 of cndowmenls. " — l'r<ifffiliitij» nf Ihi' Trntlrti of 
 tl- IS;iIhhIii FMuniHon h'linil, IMH7-1H02. 
 
 A. D. i484-i89i. -California.— Lcland Stan- 
 ford Junior Univeriity. — "Thu founding at 
 I'alo Alio of 'a uiilvcrHlty for lioth sexi'S, with 
 the ('oUegcH, iu;Iiih)Ih, wniinarluH of li'iirning, mu- 
 chanical iimtltutes. miiHi'uiiiH, galleries of art, 
 and all other things necussiiry and appropriate to 
 a iiniverslty of high degree.' was drterniined 
 upon by the lion. Leliiiid Stanford and .lano 
 Lathrop Htaiiford In IHHt. In .March of the year 
 following thu Legislature of Callfoniia pikSNcd an 
 Art providing Utr the iidmlniHtratlun of trust 
 funds in connection with Institutions of learning. 
 November l-i, 1885. thu (Jraiit of K)ndowinent 
 was publicly made, in acrordiinci' with this \ct, 
 and on thu sami- day tin- Hoard of TruKli'cs ncid 
 its llrst nii'eting in San Francl.Hco The work of 
 constnictloii was at oiicu iM'giiti, and the corner- 
 stonu laid .May 11, 1887. The I'nlvcrslty was 
 formally opened to students October 1. 1891. 
 Tliu Idea of thu university, In the words of Its 
 founders, 'came directly and largely from our 
 son and only child, Leiund, and In the belief 
 that had he been spared to advise oh to the dis- 
 position of our estate, ho would have desired tlio 
 di^volion of a large portion there to this piir- 
 pos*'. we will that for all time d conie thu Insti- 
 tution hereby founded sliall bear his name, and 
 sliall be known as The Leland Stanford Junior 
 University.' Thu object of the University, as 
 stated in its Charter, is 'to (piallfy stuilents Tor 
 personal success and direct usefulness in life'; 
 and its purposes, ' to promote the public wel- 
 fare by exercising an Inliuenc'o in iM^half of 
 humanity and civilization, teaelilng thu blessings 
 of liberty regulated by law, and inculcating lovo 
 and reverence for the great principles of govern- 
 ment as derived from the inaliciialilu rights of 
 man to llfu, lilicrty. and the pursuit of happi- 
 ness.' Tiie Univei'sity is located on tlie Palo 
 Alto cstatu in tlio Santa Clara valley, tliirtv- 
 threc miles southeast of San Francisco, on tho 
 Coast Division of tliu Southern Pacitic liidlway. 
 The estate consists of over ei^lit thousand acres, 
 partly lowland and partly rising into tho foot- 
 hills of the Santa Cruz range. On thu grounds la 
 the residence of tho Founders, and an extensive 
 and beautiful arboretum containing a very great 
 variety of "hrubs and tret s. The property con- 
 veyed *- uii University, in addition to tho P do 
 Alto f !.ito, V insists of tho Vina estate, in Teba- 
 , ... •-^ounty, o. fifty-five thousiuul acres, of wliicli 
 about four tlic 'sand acres are planted in vines, 
 and the Grldley estate, in Butto County, of 
 twenty-two tiiousand acres, devoted mainly to 
 tho raising of wheat. . . . 'The founders ot tlio 
 Leland Stanford Junior University say: 'As a 
 further assurance that tho endowment will bo 
 ample to establish and maintidn a university of 
 the highest grade, we have, by bust will and tes- 
 tament, devised to you and your successors 
 additional property. We have done this as a 
 security against the uncertainty of lite and in the 
 hope that during our lives tho full endowmeut 
 may go to you.' Tiie aggregate of the domain 
 thus dedicated to the founding of the University, 
 is over eighty-five thousand acres, or more than 
 one hundred and thirty -three square miles, among 
 the 'lest improved and most valuable lands in 
 tho State." — Leland Stanford Junior University, 
 Circulars of Infornuition, nvs, 6 aiul 1-2. 
 
 737 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 United State* 
 Cenmu StatiMtict. 
 
 jiDUCATION. 
 
 A. L. 1887-1889.— Massachusetts.— Clark 
 University. — "(-'lurli University wiis founded 
 fat Worcester] by ... a nuuve of Worcester 
 County, Miissaeliusetts. It Wiis 'not tlie outcome 
 of ft freak of impulse, or of a smiden wave of gen- 
 erosity, or of tlie uutural desire to perpetuate in a 
 worlliy way one's ancistiiil iianie. To compre- 
 hend tlie genesis of tlu; enlel-prisc we must go 
 bacli along the traelt of Mr. Cliirk's personal his- 
 tory 20 years at least. For us long ago as that, 
 the idea came home with Utrvu to his mind that 
 all civilized communities are in the hands of ex- 
 perts. . . Looking around at the facilities ob- 
 tainabh; in this country for the prosecution of 
 original research, he was struck with the meager- 
 ness and the inadeiiuacy. Colleges and profes- 
 sional schools we have in abundance, but there 
 appeared to be no one grand inclusive institution, 
 unsaddled by an academic department, where 
 students might pursue as far as possible their in- 
 vestigation of any and every branch of science. 
 . . . jMr. Clark went abroad and spent eight 
 years visiting the institutions of learning in 
 almost every country of Europe. He studied 
 into their history and observed their present 
 working.' ... It is his strong and expressed de- 
 sire that the highest possible academic standards 
 be here forever maintained; that special oppor- 
 timities and inducements be offered to research ; 
 that to this end the instructors be not overbur- 
 dened with teacliing or examinations. . . . } 
 charter was granted early in 1887. Land and 
 other property that had been before secured by 
 the founder was transferred to the board, and 
 the erection of a central building was begun. In 
 the spring of 1888 Q. Stanley Hall, then a pro- 
 fessor at the Johns Hopkins University, was in- 
 vited to the presidency. . . . The plans of the 
 uni''.'r»ity had so far progressed that work was 
 begun :n October, 1889, In mathematics, physics, 
 chemistry, biology, and psychology." — O. G. 
 Bush Ilist. of Higlier Education in Mass. ( IT. S. 
 P'rcutP of Education, Circular of Information, 
 P'.'^U no. 6), ch. 18 
 
 A. D. i88j)-i892. — Illinois.— Chicago Univer- 
 sity. — "At Its Annual Meeting in May, 1880, the 
 Board of the .\mcrican Baptist Education So- 
 ciety resolveO to take inunediate steps toward 
 the founding of a well-equipped college in the 
 city of Chicago. At the same tiniR John D. 
 Rockefeller made a subscription of |000,000 and 
 this sum was increased during the succeeding year 
 by about $600,000 more in subscriptions repre- 
 senting more than two thousand persons. Three 
 months after the completion of this subscription, 
 Mr. Rockefeller made an additional proffer of 
 11,000,000. The site of the University consists 
 of three blocks of ground — about two thousand 
 feet long and three hundred and sixty-two feet 
 wide, lying between the two South Parks of 
 Chicago, and fronting on the Midway Plaisunee, 
 which is itself a park connecting the other two. 
 One-half of this site is a gift of Marshall Field 
 of Chicago, and tlie other half has been pur- 
 chased ut a cost of §133,500. At the first meet- 
 ing of the Board after it had become an incorpo- 
 rated botiy. Professor William R. Harper, of 
 Yale University, was unanimously elected Presi- 
 dent of the University. ... It has been decided 
 that the University will begin the work of in- 
 struction on the first day of October, 1892. . . . 
 The work of the University shall be arranged 
 under three general divisions, viz.. The Univer- 
 
 sity Proper, The Univcrsity-Extcnsiot Work, 
 The University Publication Work." — University 
 of Chicago, Official liulletin no. 1, Jan., 1801. 
 
 A. D. 1890.— Jkiited States.— C<. ^us Sta- 
 tistics, — The following statistics of eil nation in 
 the United States are from the returns gathered 
 for the Eleventh Census, 1800. In these statis- 
 tics the states and territories are classed in five 
 great geogniphical divisions, defined as follows: 
 North Atlantic Division, embracing the New 
 England States, New York, New Jersey, and 
 Pennsylvania; South Atlantic Division, embrac- 
 ing the States of the eastern coast, from Dela- 
 ware to Florida, together with the District of 
 Columbia; North Central Division, embracing 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
 Minnesota, lowo, Missouri, Nortli and South 
 Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas; South Central 
 Division, embracing Kentucky, Tennessee, Ala- 
 bama, Alississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, 
 and Oklahoma; Western DivLsion, unbracing all 
 the remaining States and Territories. The total 
 taxation for public schools in the United States, 
 as reported by this census, was $103,164,706; of 
 which $37,010,786 was raised in the North At- 
 lantic Division, $5,678,474 in the South Atlantic 
 Division, $47,033,143 in the North Central Divi- 
 sion, $5,608,563 in the South Central Division, 
 and $0,134,833 in the Western Division. From 
 funds and rents there were raised for school pur- 
 poses a total of $25,694,449 in the United States 
 at large, of whicli $8,273,147 was raised in the 
 North Atlantic Division, $2,307,05Hn the South 
 Atlantic Division, $8,433,593 in the North Cen- 
 tral Division, $3,730,158 in the South Central 
 Division, and $3, 961, .500 in theWestern Division. 
 The total of all " ordinary " receipts for school 
 support in the United States was $139,619,440, of 
 which $49,201,316 were in the North Atlantic 
 Division, $8,685,233 in the South Atlantic Divi- 
 sion, $61,108,263 in the North Centnd Division, 
 $10,294,621 in the South Central Division, and 
 $10,330,117 in the Western Division. The total 
 "ordinary expenditures" were $138,786,393 in 
 the whole United States; being $47,625,548 in 
 the North Atlantic Division. $8,630,711 in the 
 South Atlantic Division, $63,815,531 in the North 
 Central Division, $0,800,050 in the South Central 
 Division, ond §0,854,544 in the Western Division. 
 For teachers' wages there was a total expendi- 
 ture of $88,705,003, $38,067,821 being in the 
 North Atlantic Division, $6,400,063 in the South 
 Atlantic Division, $30,886,831 in the North Cen- 
 tral Division, §8,300,509 in the South Central 
 Division, and §6,101, '768 in theWestern Division. 
 The total expenditure for Libraries and Appara- 
 tus was §1,667,787, three- fourtlis of which was 
 in the North Atlantic and North Central Divi- 
 sions. The expenditure reported for construction 
 and care of buildings, was §34,324,793, of whicli 
 §10,687,114 was in the Nortli Atlantic Division, 
 §884,277 was in the South Atlpntic Division, 
 $0,869,489 in the North Central Division, $770,- 
 257 in the South Central Division, and §3,013,65* 
 in the Western Division. Reported estimates of 
 the value of buildings -.nd other school property 
 are incomplete, but §27,892,831 are given for 
 Massachusetts, §41,636,735 for New York, $35,- 
 435,413 for Pennsylvania, $33,631,549 for Ohio, 
 $36,814,480 for Illinois, and these are the States 
 that stand highest in the column. The apparent 
 enrollment in Public Schools for the census year, 
 reported to July, 1891, was us follows: North 
 
 738 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 John Antoa Comeniiu. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Atlantic Division, 3,124,417; Soutli Atlantic 
 Divisioc, l,7r)H,2S.'i; Xcirtli CVntriil Division, 
 5,083,182; South Central Division, '.',;!:! I, (i!)4; 
 Western Divi.sion, r)2l),2«0; Total fur llie Inilcd 
 States, 12,760,864, being 20.aU per cent, of the 
 population, against IM 84 per cent, in 1880. The 
 reported enrollment in Private Schools at the 
 same time was: North Atlantic Division, 10«,17!i; 
 South Atlantic Division, 165,253; Norlli Central 
 Division, 187,827; South Central Division, 
 200,202; Western Division, 54,740; Total for the 
 United States, 804,204. The reported enroll- 
 ment in Parocliial Schools was: North Atlantic 
 Division, 311,684; South Atlantic Division, 
 80,860; North Central Division, 398,585; South 
 Central Division, 41,115; Western Division, 
 17,349; Total for the United States, 799,602. Of 
 this total, 026,496 were enrolled in Catholic and 
 151,651 in Lutheran Parochial Seliools; leaving 
 only 21,455 in the schools of all other dtnomina- 
 tioas. Total enrollment reported in all schools 
 14,373,670. The colored public school enroll- 
 ment in the Southern States was 1,288,229 in 
 1890, against 797,286 in 1880,— an increase of 
 more than 61 per cent. The enrollment of whites 
 was 3,358,527, against 2,301,804,— an increase of 
 nearly 46 per cent. The appro 'inate number 
 of Public School-houses in the United States, for 
 the census year 1890 is given at 219,092, being 
 42,940 in the North Atlantic Divi-ion, 32,142 in 
 the South Atlantic Division, 07,166 in the North 
 Central Division, 38,962 in the South Central 
 Division, 8,773 in the Western Division. The 
 largest number reported is 14,214 in Pennsyl- 
 vania, Of 6,408 school-houses in Virginia 4,568 
 are for white, and 1,840 for colored children; in 
 North Carolina, 8,073 white and 1,820 colored. 
 
 The above statistics are taken in part from the 
 Compendium of the Eleventh Census, published 
 in 1804, and partly from tables courteously fur- 
 nished from the Census Bureau in advance of 
 their publication. 
 
 Modern : Reforms and Movements. 
 A. 'D. 1638-1671. — Comenius. — "To know 
 Comenius [born in Moravia, 1592] and the part 
 he played in the seventeenth century, to appre- 
 ciate this grand educational character, it would 
 be necessary to begin by relating his life ; his mis- 
 fortunes; his journeys to England [1638], where 
 Parliament invoked his aid; to Sweden [1642], 
 ■where the Chancellor Oxenstiern employed him 
 to write manuals of instruction ; especially his re- 
 lentless industry, his courage through exile, and 
 the long persecutions he suffered as a member of 
 the sect of dissenters, the Jloravian Brethren; 
 and the schools he founded at Fulneek, in Bo- 
 hemia, at Lissa and at Patak, in Poland." — G. 
 Compayre, T/ielliat. oj' Pedagogy, ch. {sect. 137). 
 — "Comenius's inspinng motive, like that of all 
 leading educationalists, was social regenemtion. 
 He believed that this could be accomplished 
 through the school. He lived under the hallucin- 
 ation that by a proper arrangement of the sub- 
 ject-matter of instruction, and by a sound method, 
 a certain community of thought and intertsta 
 would be established among tlio young, which 
 T"ould result in social harmony and political 
 8ettit:nent. He believed that men could be manu- 
 factured. . . . The educational spirit of the Re- 
 formers, the conviction that all — even the hum- 
 blest — must be taught to know God, and Jesus 
 Christ whom he has sent, was inherited by Come- 
 
 nius in its completeness. In this way, and in 
 tills way only, could the ills of Europe be reme- 
 died, and the progress of humanity assured. 
 While, tlierofore, he sums up the edurational aim 
 under the threefold heads of Knowledge, Virtue, 
 and I'iety or Godlines.s, he in truth has mainly 
 in view the last two. Kno\vle(lj;e is of value only 
 in so far as it forms the only sound basis, in the 
 eyes of a Protestant theologian, of virtue and 
 godliness. We have to train for a liereafter. . . . 
 By knowledge Comenius meant knowledge of 
 nature and of man's relation to nature. It is this 
 important characteristic of Comenius's eiliua- 
 tional system that reveals the direct intluenre of 
 Bacon and his school. . . . It is in the department 
 of Metho<l, however, that we recognise the chief 
 contribution of Comenius to education. The 
 mere attempt to systematise was a great advance. 
 In seeking, however, for foundations on which to 
 erect a coherent system, he had to content him- 
 self with tirst principles which were vague and 
 imscientiflc. ... In the department of knowl- 
 edge, that is to say, knowledge of the outer 
 world, Comenius rested his method on the scho- 
 lastic maxim, ' Nihil est in intellectu quod non 
 p HIS fuerit in sensii.' This maxim he enriched 
 with the Baconian induction, coniiirchended by 
 him only in a general way. . . . From the sim- 
 ple to the complex, from the particular to the 
 general, the concn^te before the abstract, and 
 all, step by step, and even by insensible degrees, 
 — these were among his leading principles of 
 method. But the most important of all his prin- 
 ciples was derived from the scholastic maxim 
 quoted above. As all is from sense, let the 
 thing to be known bo itself presented to the 
 senses, and let every sense be engaged in tlie 
 perut'ption of it. When it is impo.ssible, from 
 the natore of the case, to present the object 
 itself, place a vivid picture of it before the 
 pup:!. The mere enumeration of tliese few prin- 
 ciples, even if we drop out of view all his other 
 contributions to method and school-management, 
 will satisfy any man familiar with all the more 
 recent treatises on Education, that Comenius, 
 even after giving his precursors tlieir due, is 
 to be regarded as the true founder of mod- 
 ern Method, and that he anticipates Pestalozzi 
 and all of the same school. . . . Finally, Come- 
 nius's views as to the innor organisation of a 
 school were original, and have proved themselves 
 in all essential respects correct. The same may 
 be said of his scheme for the organisation of a 
 State-system — a scheme which is substantially, 
 mutatis mutandis, at this moment embodied in 
 the highly-developed system of Germany. Whea 
 we consider, tlien, that Comenius lirst "formally 
 and fully developed educational method, that he 
 introduced important reforms into the teaching 
 of languages, that he introduced into scIuhjIs the 
 study of Nature, that he advocated witli intelli- 
 gence, and not on purely pentimental grounds, a. 
 milder discipline, we are justified in assigning 
 to him a high, if not the highott, place among 
 modern educational writers." — S. S. Laurie, Jolin 
 A)nos Comenius, pp. 217-226. 
 
 A. D. 1681-1878.— The Christian Brothers. 
 — "Any description of popular education in 
 Europe would be incomplete, which should not 
 give prominence to the Institute of the Christian 
 Brothers — or the Brothers of the Christian Doc- 
 trine — including in that term the earliest pro- 
 fessional school for the training of teachers in 
 
 739 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Chriatian 
 Brothert. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Europe; one of the most remarkable body of 
 tciK^liers devoted exclusively and without pay to 
 the education of the children of the poor that the 
 world has ever seen. . . . The Institute was 
 established as a professional school in 1081, and 
 to Abbe John Baptist dc la Salle, be'.ongs the 
 high honor not only of founding it, but of so in- 
 fusing into its early organization his own pro- 
 found conviction of the Christ-like character of 
 its mission among the poor, that it has retained 
 for nearly two centuries the form and spirit of 
 its origin. This devoted Christian teacher was 
 born at Rheims on the 30th of April, 1651. . . . 
 lie was early distinguished for his scholarly at- 
 tainments and maturity of character ; and at the 
 age of seventeen, before he had completed his 
 full course of theological study, he was ap- 
 pointed Canon in the Cathedral church of Rheims. 
 From the first, he became interested in the edu- 
 cation of the young, and especially of the poor, 
 as the most direct way of leading them to a 
 Christian life; — and with this view before he 
 •was twenty-one years old, he assumed the direc- 
 tion of two charities, devoted to female educa- 
 tion. From watching the operation of these 
 schools, conducted by teachers without profes- 
 sional training, without plan end without mutual 
 sympathy and aid, he conce'.ved the design of 
 bringing the teachers of this class of schools 
 from the neighboring parishes into a community 
 for tlieir moral and professional improvement. 
 For this purpose, he invited them first to meet, 
 and then to lodge at his house, and afterwards, 
 about the year 1681, lie purchased a house for 
 their special accommodation. Here, out of school 
 hours and during their holydays, they spent their 
 time in the practice of religious duties, and in 
 mutual conferences on the work in which they 
 were engaged. About this period, a large number 
 of free schools for the poor were established in 
 the neighboring towns; and applications were 
 constantly made to the Abbe for teachers formed 
 under his training, care, and influence. To 
 meet this demand, and makd himself more di- 
 rectly useful in the field of Chiisiian education, 
 he resigned his benefice, that he might give his 
 whole attention to the work. To close the dis- 
 tance between himself, having a high social posi- 
 tion and competence from his father's estate, and 
 the poor schoolmasters to whom he was con- 
 stantly preaching an unreserved consecration of 
 themselves to their vocation — he not only re- 
 signed his canonry, with its social and pecuniary 
 advantages, but distributed his patrimony, in a 
 period of scarcity, in relieving the necessities of 
 the poor, and in providing for the education of 
 their children. He thus placed himself on a 
 footing of equality — as to occupation, manner 
 of life, and entire dependence on the charity of 
 others — with the schoolmasters of the poor. 
 The annals of education or religion show but 
 few such examples of practical self-denial, and 
 entire consecration to a sense of duty. . . . Hav- 
 ing completed his act of resignation and self- 
 imposed poverty, he assembled his teachers, an- 
 nounced to them what he had done, and sung 
 with them a Te Deura. After a retreat — a 
 period set apart to prayer and fasting — contin- 
 ued for seventeen days, they devoted themselv"' 
 to the consideration of the best course to gi 
 unit/, efficiency, and permanence to their plans of 
 Christian education for the poor. They assun.ed 
 the name of ' The Brothers of the Christian Doc- 
 
 740 
 
 trine,' as expresssive of their vocation — which 
 by usage came to be abbreviated into ' Christian 
 Brothers. ' They took on themselves vows of pov- 
 erty, celibacy, and obedience for three years. They 
 prescribed to themselves the most frugal fare, to , 
 be provided in turns by each other. Thev adopted 
 at that time some rules of behavior, which have 
 since been incorporated into tlie fundamental 
 rules of tlie order. ... In 1702 the first step 
 was taken to establish an Institute at Rome, un- 
 der the mission of one of the brothers, Gabriel 
 Drolin, who after years of poverty, was made 
 conductor of one of the charitable schools 
 founded by Pope Clement XI. This school be- 
 came afterwards the foundation of the house 
 which the brothers have had in Rome since the 
 pontiflcote of Benedict XIII., who conferred on 
 the institute the constitution of a religious order. 
 In 1703, under the pecuniary aid of M. Chateau 
 Blanc, and the countenance of the archbishop, 
 M. de Qontery, a school was opened at Avignon. 
 ... In 1789, the National Assembly prohibited 
 vows to be made in communities; and in 1700, 
 suppressed all religious societies; and in 1791, 
 the institute was dispersed. At that date there 
 were one hundred and twenty houses, and over 
 one thousand brothers, actively engaged in the 
 duties of the school room, 'fhe continuity of 
 the society was secured by the houses established 
 in Italy, to which many of the brothers fled. 
 ... In 1801, on the conclusion of a Concordat 
 between the Pope and the government, the so- 
 ciety was revived in France by the opening of a 
 school at Lyons; and in 1815, they resumed 
 their habit, and opened a novitiate, the mem- 
 bers of which were exempt from military ser- 
 vice. At the organization of the university in 
 1808, the institute was legally reorganized, and 
 from that time has increased in numbers and 
 usefulness. ... In 1843, there were 390 houses 
 (of which 326 were in France), with 3,030 broth- 
 ers, and 585 novices. There were 642 schools 
 with 163,700 cliildren, besides evening schools 
 with 7,800 adults in attendance, and tliree re- 
 formatory schools with 2,000 convicts under in- 
 instruction." — Henry Barnard, National Educa- 
 tion in Europe, pp. 435-441. — "In 1878 their 
 numbers had increased to 11,640; they had 1,249 
 establishments, and the number of their scholars 
 was 890,607."— Mrs. R. F. Wilson, The Chn»- 
 tian Brothers, their Origin and Work, ch. 31. 
 
 A. D. 1762. — Rousseau, — "Rousseau, who 
 had educated himself, and very badly at that, 
 was impressed with the dangers of tlie education 
 of his day. A mother having asked his advice, 
 betook up the pen to write it; and, little by little, 
 his counsels grew into a book, a large work, a 
 pedagogic romance [' Emile ']. This romance, 
 when it appeared in 1762, created a great noise 
 and a great scandal. The Archbishop of Paris, 
 Christophe de Beaumont, saw in it a dangerous, 
 mischievous work, and gave himself the trouble 
 of writing a long encyclical letter in order to 
 point out the book to the reprobation of the faith- 
 ful. This document of twenty -seven chapters is 
 a formal refutation of the theories advanced in 
 'Emile.' ... In those days, such a condemna- 
 tion was a serious matter; its consequences to an 
 utlior might be terrible. Rousseau had barely 
 time to flee. His arrest was decreed by the par- 
 liament of Paris, and his book was burned by 
 the executioner. ... As a fugitive, Rousseau 
 did not find a safe retreat even in his own coun- 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Routteau 
 and Pettatotzi. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 try. He was obliged to lenvo CJeneva, where liis 
 book was also condemned, and Berne, where he 
 had soright refuge, but whence lie was driven by 
 intolerai-nc. lie owed it to thr, protection of Lord 
 Keith, fw'.vrnor of Ncufchf.tcl, a principality be- 
 longing, to tlie King of Pr\i.ssia, that he lived for 
 some tiino in peace in the little town of Motiers 
 in the Val de Travcrs. . . . The renown of tlie 
 book, condemned by so hfgh an authority, was 
 Immense. Scandal, by attracting public atten- 
 tion to it, did it good service. What was most 
 serious and most suggestive tn it was not, per- 
 haps seized upon ; but the ' craze ' of wliich it 
 wa.s the object had, notwithstanding, good re- 
 sults. Slotliers were won over, and resolved to 
 nurse their own infants ; great lords be'^an to learn 
 handicrafts, like Rousseau's imaginary pupil; 
 physical exercises came into fashion ; the spirit 
 of innovation w»s forcing itself a way. . . . 
 Three men above all the rest are noted ior hav- 
 ing popularized the pedagogic nictliod of Rous- 
 seau, and for having been inspired 11 their labors 
 by '6mile.' These were Basedow, Pestalozzi, 
 and Froebel. Basedow, a German theologian, had 
 devoted himself entirdy to dogmatic controversy, 
 until the reading of ' Emile ' had the effect of en- 
 larging his men' horizon, and of revealing to 
 him his true voc 11. . . . Pestalozzi of Zurich, 
 one of the foreniu.^l educators of modern times, 
 ali.0 found liij whole life transformed by the 
 reading of 'Emile,' which awoke in him the 
 genius of a reformer. . . . The most distinguished 
 among his disciples and continuators is Froebel, 
 the founder of those primary schools . . . known 
 by the name of ' kindergartens,' and the author 
 of highly esteemed pedagogic works. These 
 various attempts, these new and ingenious pro- 
 cesses which, step by step, have made their 
 way among us, and are beginning to make their 
 workings felt, even in institutions most stoutly 
 opposed to progress, are all traceable to Rous- 
 seau's 'femile.'. . . It is true that 'Emile' 
 contains pages that have outlived their day, 
 many odd precepts, many false ideas, many dis- 
 putable and destructive theories; but at the same 
 time we find in it so many sagacious observations, 
 such upright counsels, suitable even to modern 
 times, so lofty an ideal, that, in spite of every- 
 thing, we cannot read and study it without 
 profit. . . . There is absolutely nothing practica- 
 ble in his [Rousseau's] system. It consists in iso- 
 lating a child from the rest of the world ; in creat- 
 ing expressly for him a tutor, who is a phoenix 
 among his kind; in depriving him of father, 
 mother, brothers, and sisters, his companions In 
 study; in surrounding him witli a perpetual 
 charlatanism, under the pretext of following na- 
 ture ; and in showing him only through the veil 
 of a factitious atmosphere the society in which 
 he is to live. And, nevertheless, at each step it 
 is sound reason by which we are met; by an as- 
 tonishing paradox, this whimsicality is full of 
 good sense ; this dream overflows with realities ; 
 this improbable and chimerical romance contains 
 the substance and the marrow of a rational and 
 truly modern treatise on pedagogy. Sometimes 
 we must read between the lines, add what ex- 
 perience has taught us since that day, transpose 
 into an atmosphere of open democracy those 
 pages, written under the old order of things, but 
 even then quivering with the new world which 
 
 they were bringing to light, and for which they 
 prepared tho way. Reading ' Emile ' in the 
 
 light of modern prejudices, we can see in it more 
 than the autlior wittingly put into it; but not 
 more than logic and tlie instinct of genius set 
 down there. To unfold the powers of cliildren 
 indue proportion totlieirage; not to transcend 
 tlieir ability; to arouse in tliem the sense of the 
 observer aiid of tlie ))i()necr; to make them dis- 
 coverers rather than imitators: to teach them ac- 
 countability to themselves and not slavish de- 
 pendence upon the words of others ; to a<ldress 
 ourselves more to the will tlian to cu.stom, to the 
 reason rather than to tho memory; to substitute 
 for verbal recitations lessons alumt things; to 
 lead to theory by way of art ; to assign to physi- 
 cal movements and exercises a prominent place, 
 from the earliest hours of life up to perfect ma- 
 turity ; such are the principles scattered broad- 
 cast in this book, and forming a happy coun- 
 terpoise to the oddities of which Rousseau was 
 perhaps most proud." — J. Steeg, Introduction to 
 Rotisseau's 'Emile.' 
 
 A. D. 1798-1827.— Pestalozzi.— In Switzer- 
 land, up to tlie end of the eighteenth century, the 
 state of priumry instruction was very bad. "The 
 teachers w- i' gathered up at hazard; their pay 
 was wretched ; in general they had no lo<lgings 
 of their own, and they were obliged to hire tliem- 
 selves out for domestic service among the well- 
 off inhabitants of the villages, in order to find 
 food and lodging among them. A mean spirit 
 of caste still dominated instruction, and the poor 
 remained sunk in ignorance. It was in the very 
 midst of this wretched and unpropitious state of 
 affairs that there appeared, towards the end of 
 the eighteenth century, the most celebrated of 
 modern educators. . . . Born at Zurich in 1746, 
 Pestalozzi died at Brugg in Argovia in 1837. 
 This unfortunate great man always felt the effects 
 of the sentimental and unpracticr' education 
 given him by his mother, who was lett 3, widow 
 with three children in 1751. He early .'ormed 
 the habit of feeling and of being touched with 
 emotion, rather than of reasoning and of reflect- 
 ing The laughing-stock of his companions, who 
 made sport of his awkwardness, the little scholar 
 of Zurich accustomed himself to live alone and 
 to become a dreamer. Later, towards 1760, the 
 student of the academy distinguished himself by 
 his political enthusiasm and his revolutionary 
 daring. At that early period ho had conceived 
 a profound feeling for the miseries and the needs 
 of the people, and he already proposed as the 
 purpose of his life the healing of the diseases of 
 society. At the same time there was developed in 
 him an irresistible taste for a simple, frugal, and 
 almost ascetic life. To restrain his desires had 
 become tho essential rule of his conduct, and, to 
 put it in practice, he forced himself to sleep on a 
 plank, and to subsist on bread and vegetables." — 
 G. Compayre, The Hist, of Pedagogy, ch. 18. — "In 
 spite . . . of Pestalozzi's patent disqualifications 
 in many respects for the task he undertook ; in spite 
 of his ignorance of even common subjects (for he 
 spoke, read, wrote, and cyphered badly, and knew 
 next to nothing of classics or science) ; in spite 
 of his want of worldly wisdom, of any compre- 
 hensive and exact knowledge of men and of 
 things ; in spite of his being merely an elementary 
 teacher, — through the force of his all-jonquering 
 love, the nobility of his heart, tho resistless 
 energy of his enthusiasm, his firm grasp of few 
 first principles, his eloquent exi)osition of them 
 in worus, his resolute mau'f jstation of them in 
 
 741 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Peataloati. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 deeds, — lie stands forth among cducationnl re- 
 forMKTHus tlie iniin wlio.se influenee on educiition 
 ia wider, deeper, more penetrating, timn tliat of 
 all tlie rest — tlie |)ropliet and tlie sovereign of 
 the(' iiiiiin in wliicli lie lived and laboured. . . . 
 It w:i.s lute in life — lie wii.s (ifty-two years of age 
 — Ijcforc Pestalozzi bceame a practical school- 
 master. He had even begun to despair of ever 
 finding the career in wliieli he might attempt to 
 realize tlie thee es over wliicli his loving heart 
 and teeming biuin had been brooding from liis 
 earl'"Mt youtli. ... At flfty-two years of age, 
 tliei we find Pestalozzi utterly unac(\uainle(l 
 with the science and tlie art of education, and very 
 scantily furnished even with elementary knowl- 
 edge, undertal^ing at StJinz, in the canton of 
 UuttTwalden, the charge of eighty children, 
 whom the events of war had rendered homeless 
 and destitute. . . . The house in which the 
 eighty children were assembled to be boarded, 
 lo<lged, and taught, was an old tumble-down 
 Ursulino convent, scarcely habitable, ond desti- 
 tute of all the conveniences of life. The only 
 apartment suitable for a schoolroom was alioiit 
 twenty-four feet square, furnished with a few 
 desks and forms ; and into this were crowded the 
 wretched children, noisy, dirty, diseased, and 
 ignorant, witli the manners and habits of bar- 
 barians. Pestaloi'.zi's only helper in the manage- 
 ment of the institution was an old woman, who 
 cooked the footl and swept the rooms ; so that he 
 was, as he tells us hjmself, not only the teaclier, 
 but the paymaster, man-servant, and almost the 
 housemaid of the children. . . . ' My wishes [he 
 writes] were now accomplished I felt convinced 
 that my heart would change the condition of my 
 children as speedily as the spriagtide sun reani- 
 mates the earth frozen by the winter. Nor,' he 
 adds, ' was I mistaken. Before tlie springtide 
 sun melted away the snow from our mountains, 
 you could no longer recognise the same children.' 
 . . . 'I was obliged,' he says, 'unceasingly to be 
 everything to mjf children. I was alone with 
 them from morning to night. It was from my 
 hand they received whatever could bo of service 
 both to their bodies and minds. All succour, all 
 consolation, all instruction came to tliem immedi- 
 ately from myself. Their hands were in my 
 hand; my eyes were fixed on tlieirs, my tears 
 mingled with theirs, my smiles encountered 
 theirs, my soup was their soup, my drink was 
 their drink. I had around me neither family, 
 1 .lends, nor servants ; I had only them. I was 
 with them when they were in health, by their 
 side when they were ill. I slept in their midst. 
 I was tlie last to go to bed, the first to rise in the 
 morning. When we were in bed I used to pray 
 with them and talk to them till they went to 
 sleep. They wished me to do so. ' . . . 'I knew,' 
 he says, ' no system, no method, no art but that 
 which rested on the simple consequences of tlie 
 firm belief of the children in my love towards 
 them. I wished to know no other.'. . . Gradually 
 . . . Pestalozzi advanced to the main principles of 
 his system of moral education. . . . He says: — 
 ' Nature develops all the human faculties by 
 practice, and their growth depends on their exer- 
 cise. ' ' The circle of knowledge commences close 
 around a man, and thence extends concentrically.' 
 ' Force not the faculties of children into the 
 remote paths of knowledge, until they have gained 
 strength by exercise on tlungs that are near them. ' 
 ' There is m Nature an order and march of de- 
 
 velopment. If you disturb or interfere with it, 
 you mar the jicaee and harmony of the mind. 
 And this you do, if, before you liave formed tlie 
 mind by the progressive knowledge of the reali- 
 ties of life, you fling it into the labyrinth of 
 words, and make them the basis of develoiiiiient.' 
 'Tlie artificial march of tlie ordinary schmil, an- 
 ticipating the order of Nature, which proceeds 
 without an.\iety and without haste, inverts this 
 order by iiiacing words first, and thus secures a 
 deceitful appearance of success at the expense of 
 natural and safe develoiiment. ' In these few 
 sentences we recognise all that is most charac- 
 teristic in the educational principles of Pesta- 
 lozzi. ... To set the intellectual machinery in 
 motion — to make it work, and keep it working ; 
 that was the sole object at wliit'h he aimed ; of 
 all the rest he took little account. ... He re- 
 lied upon a principle which must be insisted on 
 as cardinal and essential in education. He secured 
 the thorough interest of his pupils in the lesson, 
 and mainly through their own direct share in it. 
 . . . Observation, . . . according to Pestalozzi 
 (and Bacon had said the same thing before him), 
 is the absolute basis of all knowledge, and is 
 therefore the prime agent in elementary educa- 
 tion. It is around this theory, as a centre of 
 gravity, that Pestalozzi's system revolves." — J. 
 Paj'iie, Lect's on the Hist, of Education, leet. 9. 
 — " During the short period, not more than a 
 year, which Pestalozzi spent among the chil- 
 dren at Stanz, he settled the main features of 
 the Pestalozzian system. Sickness broke out 
 among the children, and the wear and tear was 
 too great even for Pestalozzi. He would probably 
 have sunk under his efforts if the French, pressed 
 by the Austrians, had not entered Stanz, in 
 January, 1799, and taken part of the Ursuline 
 Convent for a military hospital. Pestalozzi was, 
 therefore, obliged to break up the school, and he 
 himself went to a medicinal spring on the Gumi- 
 gel in the Canton Bern. ... Ho came down 
 from the Gurnigel, and began to teach in the 
 primary schools (i. e., schools for children from 
 four to eight years old) of Burgdorf, the second 
 town in the Canton. Here the director was jeal- 
 ous of him, and he met with much opposition. 
 ... In less than a year Pestalozzi left this school 
 in bad health, and joined KrQsi in opening a new 
 school in Burgdorf Castle, for which he after- 
 ward (1803) obtained Government aid. Here he 
 was assisted in carrying out his system by Krllsi, 
 Tobler, and BIuss. He now embodied the re- 
 sults of his experience in a work which has ob- 
 tained great celebrity — ' How Gertrude Teaches 
 he" Children ' [also published in England under 
 the title of 'Leonard and Gertrude ]. In 1803 
 Pestalozzi, for once in his life a successful and 
 popular man, was elected a member of a deputa- 
 tion sent by the Swiss people to Paris. On the 
 restoration of the Cantons in 1804, the Castle of 
 Burgdorf was again occupied by one of the chief 
 magistrates, and Pestalozzi and his establishment 
 were moved to the Monastery of Buchsee. Here 
 the teachers gave the principal direction to an- 
 other, the since celebrated Fellenburg, ' not with- 
 out my consent,' says Pestalozzi, 'but to my 
 profound mortification.' He therefore soon ac- 
 cepted an invitation from the inhabitants of 
 Yverdun to open an institution there, and within 
 a twelvemonth he was followed by his old assist- 
 ants, who had found government by Fellenburg 
 less to their taste than no-government by Pesta- 
 
 742 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Th« Higher Educa- 
 tion of Women. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Inzzi. The Yverdun Institute lind soon a world- 
 wide repiitntion. Pcstiilozzlan tciichcrs went 
 from it to Mndrid, to NiipleH, to St. I'etersburg. 
 Kings and ])liilosopliers joined in doing it lionor. 
 But, 08 I'estalozzi liiinsidf lius tcstille(i, tlieso 
 pniiscs were but iis a laurel-wreatli encircling a 
 skull. The life of the Pestalozzian institutions 
 had l)een the love wliich tlie old man had infused 
 into all the members, teachers as well as cliil- 
 dren; but this life was wanting at Yverdun. 
 Tlie establishment was much too largo to bo car- 
 rictl on successfully without more method and 
 discipline than Pestalozzi, remarkable, as ho 
 himself says, for liis ' imrivnlled incapacity to 
 govern,' was master of. Tlie assistants began 
 each to take his own line, and even tho outward 
 show of unity was soon at an end. . . . Thus 
 tho sun went down in clouds, an<l tho old man, 
 when he died at the ago of eighty, in 1837, liad 
 seen tho apparent failure of all Ins toils. lie had 
 not, however, failed in reality. It lias been said 
 of him that his true fortuiu' was to educate ideas, 
 not children, and when twenty years later the 
 centenary of his birth was celebrated by school- 
 masters, not only in his native country, but 
 throughout Oermany, it was found that Pesta- 
 lozzian ideas had been sown, and were bearing 
 fruit, over the jrrcater part of central Europe." 
 — F{. II. Quick, Ensay» on Educational Ueformen, 
 ch. 8. 
 
 A. D. 1804-1891. — Co-education and the 
 Higher Education of Women in the United 
 States. — " When to a few daring minds the con- 
 viction came that education was a right of per- 
 sonality rather than of sex, and when there was 
 added to this growing sentiment tho pressing de- 
 mand for educated women as teachers and as 
 leaders in philanthropy, the simplest means of 
 equipping women with the needful preparation 
 was found in the existing schools and colleges. 
 ... In nearly every State west of the Allcgha- 
 nies, ' Universities had been founded by the 
 voluntary tax of the whole jiopulation. Con- 
 nected with all the more powerful religious de- 
 nominations were schools and colleges which 
 called upon theiradherents for gifts and students. 
 These democratic institutions had tlie vigor of 
 youth, and were ambitious and struggling. 
 'Why,' asked the practical men of affairs who 
 controlled them, 'should not our daughters go 
 on with our sons from the public scliools to the 
 university which we are sacrificing to equip and 
 maintain? ' It is not strange that with this and 
 much more practical reasoning of a similar kind, 
 co-education was established in some colleges at 
 their beginning, in others after debate, and by a 
 radical change in policy. When once the chiv- 
 alrous desire was aroused to give girls as good 
 an education as their brothers, Western men car- 
 ried out the principle unflinchingly. From tho 
 kindergarten to the preparation for the doctorate 
 of philosophy, educational opportunities are now 
 practically alike for men and women. The total 
 number of colleges of arts and sciences empow- 
 ered by law to give degrees, reporting to Wash- 
 ington in 1888, was three hundred and eighty- 
 nine. Of these, twoliundrcd and thirty-seven, or 
 nearly two-thirds, were co-educational. Among 
 them are nearly all the State universities, and 
 nearly all the colleges under the patronage of 
 the rt-otestant sects. Hitherto I have spoken as 
 if co-education were a Western movement; and 
 In the West it certainly has had greater currency 
 
 than elsewhere. Rut it originated, at least no 
 far as concerns superior secondary ; .'aining, in 
 Ma8.sachusotts, Hra<lford Academy, chartered in 
 1804, is the oldest incorporated institution in tlut 
 country to which boys and girls were from tho 
 first atlmitted ; but it closed its deiiartment for 
 Itoys in 181t(t, tliree years a'ter ihe foundation of 
 coeducational Oberlin, and in tho very year 
 when Mount Ilolyoke wisopened by Mary Lyon, 
 in the large hope of (h)ing for young women what 
 Harvard had been founded 10 do for young men 
 just two hundred years before. Ipswicli and 
 Abbot Academies in Massachu.setts had already 
 been chartered to educate girls idono. It has 
 been the dominant sentiment in the Ka.st that 
 boys and girls should be educated separately. 
 The older, more generously endowed, more con- 
 servativt! seats of learning, inheriting the com- 
 jdicat ions of the dormitory systinn, have remained 
 closed to women. ... In the short pericMl of the 
 twenty years after the war the four women's 
 colleges which are the richest in endowments and 
 students of any in the world were founded and 
 set in motion. These colleges — Vassar, opened 
 in 1805, Wellesley and Smith in 1875, and Bryn 
 Mawrin 1885 — have received in gifts of every 
 kind about $8,000,000, and are educating nearly 
 two thousand students. For the whole country 
 the Commissioner of Education reports two hun- 
 dred and seven institutions for the superior in- 
 struction of women, with more than twenty-livo 
 thousand students. But these resources proved 
 inadequate. There came an increasing demand, 
 especially from teachers, for education of all 
 sorts. ... In an attempt to meet a demand of 
 this sort the Harvard Annex began twelve years 
 ago [in 1870] to provide a few women with in- 
 struction from members of the Harvard faculty. 
 . . . Barnard College in New York is an annex 
 of Columbia only in a sense, for not all her in- 
 struction is given by Columbia's teaching force, 
 though Columbia will confer degrees upon her 
 graduates. The new woman's college at Cleve- 
 land sustains temporarily the same relations to 
 Adelbert College, though to a still greater extent 
 she provides independent instruction." — A. F. 
 Palmer, Review of the Higher Education of 
 Women, {Woman and the Jlir/her Edtication, pp. 
 105-127).— " The Cleveland College for Women, 
 Cleveland, Ohio, was first opened for instruction 
 in 1888 as a department of Western Iteserve Uni- 
 versity. At the same time the trustees of the 
 university decided to receive no more women 
 into Adelbert College. That the success of the 
 now school might be assured, the faculty of 
 Adelbert College generously offered their services 
 for a term of years as instructors. During the 
 first year twenty-three young women were ad- 
 mitted, but two of wliom were in the n^gular 
 courses. During 1889-90 the number of students 
 increased to thirty-eight. ... In 1887 Evelyn 
 College, an institution for women, was opened 
 at Princeton, N. J. Its location at this place 
 gives tho institution very great advantages, inas- 
 much as tho use of the libraries and museums of 
 the College of New Jersey, popularly known as 
 Princeton College, are granted to the students." 
 — U. 8. Comm'r of Education, Rejiort, 1889-90, 
 V. 2, p. 744.— "The latest report of the United 
 States Commissioner of Education contains over 
 two hundred institutions for tho superior educa- 
 tion of women. Tiio list includes colleges and 
 seminaries entitled to confer degrees, and a few 
 
 743 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 TVoehel and the 
 Kindergarttn. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Bcminnries, whoso work Is of equal merit, whicli 
 do not jiive dcgreos. Of these more than two 
 luindred iastitutions for tlie education of women 
 exclusively, only 47 arc situated within fwestern 
 states]. ... Of these 47, but 30 are chartered 
 witli authority to confer degrees. . . . The ex- 
 tent tt) whicli the higher education of wojnen is 
 in the West idcntiSed with co-education, can be 
 seen by comparing tlie two statements above 
 given. Of the total 213 higher institutions re- 
 ceiving women, and of the total 195 such institu- 
 tions which confer the regular degrees in arts, 
 science, and letters, upon their graduates, 165 are 
 co-educational. . . . Among colleges character- 
 ized from birth by a liberal ana progressive 
 spirit niay be mentioned 'The Cincinnati Wes- 
 leyan Woman's College.' This institution was 
 f bartered in 1843, and claims to l)e ' the first lib- 
 eral collegiate institution in the world for the 
 exclusive education of women.' . . . The West 
 is committed to co-education, excepting only the 
 Homan Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal sects, — which are not yet, as 
 sects, committed to the collegiate education of 
 women at all, — and the Presbyterian sect, wliose 
 support, in the West, of 14 co-educational col- 
 leges against 4 for the separate education of 
 young men, almost commits it to the co-educa- 
 tional idea. ... In 1853, Antiocli College was 
 opened at Yellow Springs, O. It was tlie first 
 endeavor in tlie West to found a college under 
 Christian h\it non-sectarian auspices. Its presi- 
 dent, Horace Mann, wrote of it: 'Antioch is 
 now the only flrst-class college in all the West 
 that is reolfy an unsectarian institution.' . . . 
 Antioch was from the first avowedly co-cduca- 
 tionul." — M. W. Sewall, Education of Women 
 in the Weatern States (\Vo»uin's Work in Am., 
 pp. 01-70). — "Most people would probably be 
 ready to say that except for the newly founded 
 Woman's College in Baltimore and Tu'.ane Uni- 
 versity [State university of Louisiana], the col- 
 legiate education of women does not exist in the 
 South. But as matter of fact, there are no less 
 than one hundred and fifty institutions in the 
 South which are authorized by the Legislatures 
 of their respective States to confer tlic regular 
 college degrees upon women. Of these, forty- 
 one are co-educational, eighty-eight are for women 
 alone, and twenty-one are for colored persons of 
 Hotli sexes. The bureau of education makes no 
 attempt to go behind the verdict of the State 
 Legislatures, but on looking over the catalogues 
 of all these institutions it is, as miglit have been 
 expected, easy to see that the great majority of 
 them are not in any degree colleges, in the or- 
 dinary sense of the word. Not a single one of 
 the so-called female colleges presents a real col- 
 lege course, and many of the co-educational col- 
 leges are colleges only in name." — C. L. Franklin, 
 Education of Wome.i. in tlie Southern States 
 (Woman's Work in Am., pp. 93-94). 
 
 A. D. 1816-1892.— Froebel and the Kinder- 
 garten. — "Froebel (Friedrich Wilhelra August) 
 was born April 31, 1783, at Oberweissbach, in 
 tlie principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. 
 His mother died when he was so young that he 
 never even remembered her ; and lie was left to 
 the care of an ignorant maid-of-all-work, who 
 simply provided for his bodily wants. . . . Not 
 until he was ten years of age did he receive the 
 slightest regular instruction. He was then sent to 
 school, to an uncle who lived in the neighbor- 
 
 hood. ... He pronounced the boy to be Idle 
 (which, from his point of view, was quite true) 
 and lazy (wliicli certainly was not true) — a boy, 
 in short, that you could do nothing with. . . . 
 It was necessary for liim to oarn his bread, and 
 we next find him a sort of apprentice to a woodd- 
 man in the gn-at Thuringian forest. Here, as he 
 afterward tells us, he lived some years in cordial 
 intercourse with nature and matliQmatics, learn- 
 ing even tlien, though unconsciously, from the 
 teaching he received, how to teach others. . . . 
 In 1801 he went to the University of Jena, where 
 he attended lectures on natural history, physics, 
 and mathematics ; but, as ho tells us, gained lit- 
 tle from them. . . . This . . . was put an end 
 to by the failure of means to stay at the Univer- 
 sity. For the next few years ho tried variou" 
 occupations. . . . While engaged in an orchi- 
 tcct's offlce at Frankfort, he formed an acquaint- 
 ance with the Rector of the Model School, a man 
 named Qruner. Qriiner saw the capabilities of 
 Froebel, and detected alsa his entire want of in- 
 terest in the work that he was doing ; and one 
 day suddenly said to him :' ' Give up your archi- 
 tect's business ; you will do nothing at it. Be a 
 teacher. We want one now in the school ; you 
 shall have the place. ' This was the turning point 
 in Froebel's life. He accepted the engagement, 
 began work at once, and tells us that the first 
 time he found himself in the midst of a class of 
 30 or 40 boys, he felt that he was in the element 
 that he had missed so long — 'the flsli was in the 
 water.' He was inexpressibly happy. ... In a 
 calmer mood he severely questioned liimseK as 
 to the means by which he was to satisfy the de- 
 mands of his new position. About this time ho 
 met with some of Pestalozzi's writings, which 
 so deeply impressed him that ho determined to 
 go to Yverduu and study Pestiilozzi on the spot. 
 He accomplished his purpose, ond lived and 
 worked for two yeors with Pestalozzi. His ex- 
 perience at Yverdun impressed him with the 
 conviction that the science of education had still 
 to draw out from Pestalozzi's system those fun- 
 damental principles which Pestalozzi himself did 
 not comp--' hend. 'And therefore,' says Schmidt, 
 ' this genial disciple of Pestalozzi supplemented 
 his system by advancing from the point which 
 Pestalozzi had reached through pressure from 
 without, to the innermost conception of man, 
 and arriving at tlie thought of the true develop- 
 ment and culture of mankind. ' . . . His educa- 
 tional career commenced November IStli, 1816, 
 in Qreisheim, a little village near Stadt-Ilm, in 
 Thuringia ; but in 1817, when his Pestalozzian 
 friend, Middendorf, joined him . . . the school 
 was transferred to the beautiful village of Keil- 
 hau, near Kudolstadt, which may be considered 
 08 his chief starting-place. . . . Langenthal, an- 
 other Pestalozzian, associated himself with them, 
 and they commenced building a house. The 
 number of pupils rose to twelve in 1818. Then 
 the daughter of war-counselor Hoffmon of Ber- 
 lin, from enthusiasm for Froebel's educational 
 ideas, became his wife. She had a considerable 
 dowry, which, together with the accession of 
 Prcebei's elder brother, increased the funds and 
 welfare of the school. In 1831 he was invited 
 by the composer, Schnyder von Wartensee, to 
 erect a similar garden on his estate, near the lake 
 of Sempach, in the canton Luzern. It was done. 
 Froebel changed his residence the next year, from 
 Eeilhau to Switzerland. In 1834 the government 
 
 744 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 The Kindergarten. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 of Bern invited liim to arrango a training course 
 for tt'iicliers In Burgdorf. In ISJi") lie l)ccame 
 principiil of tlio orphiin asylum in Hurgdorf, but 
 in 1886 ho and his wife wished to return to Oct- 
 many. There he was active in Berlin, Kcilhau, 
 Blankenburg, Dresden, LielwnBtcin in Thiiringia, 
 Hamburg, (1840,) and Maricnthal, near Liebcn- 
 stein, wliero ho lived until his decease in 1852, 
 among tlie yoimg ladies, whom ho trained as 
 nurses for the kindergarten, and the little chil- 
 dren who attended his school. " — II. Barnard, erf. 
 IMpera on FroebeVii Kindergarten; Memoir. — "The 
 child thinks only through symbols. In other 
 words, it explains all it sees not by tlie recorded 
 experience of others, as does an adult, but by 
 marshaling and comparing its own concept or 
 symbol of what it has itself seen. Its sole ac- 
 tivity is play. ' The school l)eKlns with teach- 
 ing tlie conventionalities of intelligonce. Frocbel 
 would have the younger children receive a sym- 
 bolic education in plays, games, and occupations 
 which symbolize the primitive arts of man.' For 
 this purpose, the child is led tlirougji a series of 
 primitive occupations in plaiting, weaving, and 
 modeling, through games and dances, whlcli bring 
 into play all the social relations, and through 
 songs and the simple use of number, form and 
 language. The 'gifts' all play their manifold 
 purpose, inspiring the child, awakening its in- 
 terest, leading tlie individual along tlic juvtli the 
 race has trod, and teacliing social self-control. 
 The system has its palpable dangers. The bet- 
 ter and more intricate the tool, the more skill 
 needed in its safe use. . . . The kindergarten 
 re(niircs trained hands. With trivial teachers 
 its methods may easily degenerate into mere 
 amusement, and tliwart all tendency to attention, 
 application, or industry. Valuable as it is in its 
 lilnts for the care and development of children, 
 its gay round needs to be ballasted witli the pur- 
 pose and theory uppermost in Froebel's mind 
 when he opened his first school in a German 
 peasant village, down whose main street a brook 
 tumbled, and tlirough whoso lanes the halberdier 
 still walked by night and sang the hours. It is 
 idle to suppose that Froobel founded a perfect 
 system, or to insist on all tlie details of the pro- 
 fessional kindcrgartner's creed. Hero as else- 
 where, and aforetime, it has taken only forty 
 years from the founder's death for faith to de- 
 generate into religion and sect. But tlie central 
 purpose he had in view must be steadily main- 
 tained. He souglit his ends through play, and 
 not through work. It is as dangerous for this 
 method to harden into an approach to the pri- 
 mary school OS it is for it to soften into a riot of 
 misrule, and lax observance of order. . . . Swit- 
 zerland, then the only republic in Europe, was 
 tho first country to adopt Froebel's method, 
 though in some Swiss towns the kindergarten is 
 still supported by private associations. France, 
 another republic, has more children beginning 
 school under an adaptation of Froebel than all 
 the rest of the world put togctiier. It was Froo- 
 bol's own opinion that ' the spirit of American 
 nationality was the only one in the world with 
 wliich his method was in complete harmony, and 
 to which its legitimate institutions would present 
 no baniers.' Tho figures given below of tho 
 growtli of tho kindergarten in this country are 
 tho best possible proof of the trutli of Froebel's 
 prescient assertion. ... In 1870 tliere were in 
 this country only five kindergarten schools, and 
 
 48 ^^ 
 
 in 1873 the National Education Association at Its 
 Boston meeting appointed a rommittoo which 
 reported a year later recommending tlie system. 
 Between 1870 and 1878, experimental klnder- 
 gart(!ns were established in Boston, Cleveland, and 
 St. Louis, public attention was enlisted by the 
 ellortB of Jliss Elizabeth Palmer Peabmly, tho 
 most Important worker in tlio early history of 
 the kindergarten in this country, ana the system 
 began a rapid growtli. Taking private and pub- 
 lic kindergartens togetlier, the advance of the 
 system has displayed this most rapi<i progress: 
 
 187.^ 1R80 18SS J801-? 
 
 SclKHils 0,5 233 418 1,001 
 
 Teachers 210 534 903 2,243 
 
 Pupils 2,800 8,871 18,780 50,42a 
 
 Dow'n to 1880, these figures, outside of St. Louis, 
 relate almost altogether to private schools. By 
 1885 tho publii kindergartens were not over a 
 fifth in number nf tho schools, and held not over 
 a fourth of tho pui)lls. In the figures last given 
 in tills taliie there are 724 private kindergartens 
 witli 1,517 teachers and 29,S07 pupils, and 377 
 public kindergartens with 725 teaclicrs and 21,06ft 
 pupils, so that the latter have now 27 per cent, of 
 tlio schools, 33 per cent, of tho teachers, and 43 
 per cent, of the pupils. . . . Yet great os is this 
 advance, the kindergarten as yet plays but an 
 infinitesimal part in our educational system as a 
 whole. ... Of tho sixteen American cities with 
 a population of over 200,000 in 1800, only four- 
 Philadelphia, Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis 
 
 — have incorporated the kindergarten on any 
 largo scale in tlieir public-school systems. Four 
 more — New York, Chicago, Brooklyn, and Buf- 
 falo — have kindergarten associations organized 
 to introduce tho new method as a part of free 
 public education. "—T. Williams, The Kinder- 
 garten Movement (The Centuri/, Jan., 1808). 
 
 A. D. 1865-1883.— The Higher Education of 
 Women in England. — Tlie movement in Eng- 
 land to secure a higher education for women 
 dates from 1865, "In that year a Royal Com- 
 mission was appointed to inquire into and report 
 on tlie endowed grommar schools of England 
 and Wales, and on what is called ' secondary ' 
 education generally. Several ladies who were 
 already alive to the deficiencies in the education 
 of their own sex, memorialized this Commission 
 to extend tlie scope of its inquiry to girls' 
 schools, and the Commission taking what wa» 
 then thought quite a bold step, consented 
 to do so. . . . One of the points brought out 
 was the absence of any institutions doing for 
 women what the universities did for men, and 
 the consec^uent difticulty in which women stood 
 of obtaiumg tlio highest kind of education 
 
 — a difllculty which told on girls' schools by 
 making it hard for them to procure thoroughly 
 competent mistresses. Tills led in the course of 
 the next year or two — tho report of the Com- 
 mission having been published in 1808 — to the 
 establishment of a college for women, which wa» 
 first placed at Hitcliin, a town on tho Great 
 Northern Railway, between London and Cam- 
 bridge, and in a little while, when money had 
 been collected sufilcient for the erection of build- 
 ings, this college was finally settled at Girton, a 
 spot about two miles from Cambridge, whence 
 it takes the name of Girton College. Its pur- 
 pose was to provide for women the same teach- 
 ing in the same subjects as men receive in Cam- 
 bridge University, and the teachers were nearly 
 
 45 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Kducnilon of Women 
 In Kngltind. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 all of tlicm profcgnors or tutors there, incii in 
 miiiu' ciiHcs of liJKli cinliK'MW. Mciiiiwlillt', in 
 CaiiibriilKc Itst'lf, ii syHtein of day chiHHi'.s fur 
 wonii'n, tauKlit l)y Univi-rHity teachers, had Ix-en 
 freatwl, at tlrHt an an experiment for one year 
 only. When wveral years had patwM'd, when the 
 niiinlKT Httendini; had InereaHed. and it wa8 
 found tlial women came to lodj^o in Camhridjto 
 in order to protlt by tlicso lectures, a house wa.s 
 hired in which to receive them, and ultimately a 
 <!ompany was formed and a huildinf; erected u 
 little way out of Cambridge, under the name of 
 Newnliam Hall, to which tlio lectures, now 
 mainly designed for tliesc students coming from 
 ft distance, were attaclied. Thus, at about the 
 same time, though from somcwliat different ori- 
 gins, Oirton and Nownham came into being an<l 
 begun their course of friendly rivalry. Hoth 
 have greatly developed since tlien. Tlieir build- 
 ings liavo b(!en repeatedly enlarged. Tiieir num- 
 Ix'rs have risen steadily. ... In Oirton tlie 
 cliarge for lodging, board and instruction isJtlOO 
 per annum, in Newnliam a little less. The life 
 in botli is very similar, a lady bei!ig placed at 
 the head as resident principal, while the alTairs 
 are managed bv a conuidttce including botli men 
 and women. 'I'iio lec:tures are delivered partly 
 by Cainl)ridge men, professors in tlie University, 
 or tutors or lecturers in some of the colleges, 
 partly by ladies, who, having once been students 
 tlicmselves, have como bacli as teacliera. Tlicse 
 lectures cover all tlic subjects re<iuired in the 
 degree examinations of the University ; an<l al- 
 though students are not obliged to enter them- 
 selves for lho.se examinations, they are encour- 
 aged to do so, and do mostly set the examinations 
 before them as their goal. Originally the Uni- 
 versity took no olllciftl notice of the women stu- 
 <lents, and their being examined by the regular 
 degree examiners of the University was a matter 
 of pure favor on the part of those gentlemen. 
 ... At last, however, somo examiners came 
 Into olllce (for the examiners are changed every 
 two years) who disapproved of this informal ex- 
 amination of the women candidates, and accord- 
 ingly a proposal was made to the University tliat 
 it shouhl formally authorize and impose on the 
 exam crs the function heretofore discharged by 
 thei.i ui their individual capacity. This pro- 
 posal, after some discussion and opposition, was 
 carried, so that imw women may enter both for 
 the honor cxan nuttions and the pass examina- 
 tions for the University degree as a matter of 
 right. Their names do not appear in the oltlcial 
 lists oraong those of the men, but separately; 
 they are, however, tested by the same question 
 papers and judged by the same standard. . . . 
 Some Oxford graduates and their Triends, stimu- 
 lated by the success of Oirton and Newnliam, 
 have founded two similar institutions in Oxford, 
 one of which. Episcopalian and indeed High 
 Church in its proclivities, is called Lady Mar- 
 garet Hall, while the other, in compliment to 
 the late Mrs. Somerville, has been given the 
 title of Somerville Hall. These establishments 
 are conducted on much the same Hues as the two 
 Cambridge colleges. ... In the large towns 
 where new colleges have been lately fouuded or 
 courses of lectures established, such as Manches- 
 ter, Liverpool, and Leeds, steps are usually 
 taken to provide lectures for women. . . . What 
 is called among you the question of co-education 
 has come up very little in England. All the 
 
 Icrlures given inside the walls of the four Eng- 
 lish collegi'H I liave mentioned arc, of couriu-, 
 given to women only, the colleges being jUNt as 
 exclusively places for wonii i as Trinity and St. 
 John's are places for men. ... At this moment 
 tlie principal of one of the two halls of wlildi 
 Newnliam consists is a daughter of the Prime 
 Minister [Miss Helen Oladstonej, while her pre- 
 dece8.>M)r was a niece of the Marquis of Halisbury. 
 Tlie principal of Oirton is a niece of the late 
 Lord Lawrence, tln! famous Ooveruor-Ocneral of 
 India. Of the students a fair proportion belong 
 to the wealthy clas.seM, while a somewhat larger 
 proportion mean to take teacliing as their profes- 
 sion. " — I'liM/nnn of Fiiiitde KUuaition in Kiir/. (Ntt- 
 tioii, July f), 18s;l). — See, also, above, Scotland. 
 A. D. 1865-1886.— Industrial Education in 
 the United State.—" In 18(ir),J(.lin Hoyntoiiof 
 TempU'ttm, Mas.s., gave |1()0,00<) for the endow- 
 ment and perpetual support of a Free Institute 
 for tlie youth of Worcester County, Mass. lie 
 thus explained his objects: 'The aim of tills 
 school shall ever be the instruction of youth in 
 those brandies of education not usually tauglit 
 in tlie public sc1i(k)Is, which are essi^ntial and 
 best adapted to train the young for practical 
 life'; especially sm^h as were intending to lie 
 mechanics, or manufacturers, or farmers. In 
 furtlierance of this object, ten months later, in 
 18(i0, Idiabod Washburn of Worcester gave |25,- 
 000, and later (^'50,000 more to erect, equip, and 
 endow a macliine-shop which should accom- 
 modate twenty appa'ntices and a suitable number 
 of skilled workmen to instruct them and to carry 
 on the shop as a commercial establishment. The 
 apprentices were to be taught 'iie use of tools in 
 working woixl and nielals, and to be otherwise 
 instructed, much us was customary fifty years 
 ago for boys learning a trade. The Worcester 
 Free Institute was opened for students in No- 
 vember, 1808, as a technical sciiool of about col- 
 lege grade ; and the use of the shops and sliop 
 instruction was limited to those students in the 
 course of mechanical engineering. Thus did tlio 
 Worcester School under the leadership of Prest. 
 C. O. Tliompson incorporate tool-instruction and 
 shop-practice into the training of mechanical 
 engineers. ... In the same year, 1868, Victor 
 Delia- Vos introduced into the Imperial Technical 
 (engineering) School at Moscow the Russian 
 method of class-instruction in the use of tools. 
 . . . The great value of the work of Delia- Vos 
 lay in the discoverjf of the true method of tool- 
 instruction, for without his discovery the later 
 steps would have been imnossiblc. In 1870, 
 under the direction of Pro', liobiuson and Prest. 
 J. M. Gregory of the University of Illinois, 1 
 wood-working shop was odded to the appliances 
 for the course in architecture, and an iron-work- 
 ing shop to the course in mechanical engineering 
 in that institution. In 1871, the Stevens Insti- 
 tute of Hobokcn, N. J., munificently endowed 
 by Edwin A. Stevens, as a school of mechanical 
 engineering, fitted up a series of shops for the 
 use of its students. The next step forward was 
 taken by Washington University m St. Louis in 
 providing for all its engineering students sys- 
 tematic instruction in both wood and metals. la 
 1872, a lorge shop in the Polytechnic School was 
 equipped with work-benches, two lathes, a forge, 
 a gear-cutter and full sets of carpenters', ma- 
 chinists', and forging tools. . . . Thus far had 
 we progressed when the Philadelphia Exposition 
 
 746 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Industrlat Kducatton. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 of 1876 vion oppno<l. Nnno of uh know niiytliln^; 
 of the Moscow gcliool, or of Hit! oiiii in Ilolivniiii 
 in which the UuhhIiiii method hud heen adoptetl 
 In 1874. ... In his report of 1H70, Piest. J. D. 
 Kiinklo, of the Mitss. Institute of Technology, 
 giivc a full exposition of the theory and prnctictrof 
 tool Instruction of Delia- Vos as exhibited ut the 
 Philadelphia Exposition, and he recoinnieiided 
 that without delav the course in nieehanlcal 
 engineering at the Institute he eoinpleled by the 
 addition of a series of Instruction Hln-ps. Tlio 
 suggestion was acte<l on, anil in the spring of 
 1877 a class of inechnnlcal engineering students 
 was given Instruction In cliipping and tiling. 
 . . . The St. Louis Manual Training Hcliool was 
 established .June 6, 1870. It embodied hopes 
 hrag cherished and plans long formed. For the 
 tlrst llmo In America the age of adnils.sion to 
 school-shops was reduced to fourteen years as a 
 minimum, and a very genend three-years' course 
 of study was organized. The ordinance by which 
 the school was established 8i)eclUed Its objects 
 in very general terms: — ' Its objects shall be In- 
 Htruction in mathematics, drawing, and the Eng- 
 lish branches of a hlgh-schonl course, and In- 
 struction and practice in the use of tools. The 
 tool-Instruction, as at prewnt contemplated, shall 
 include carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-mak- 
 ing. Iron clipping niul tiling, forge-work, brazing 
 and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and 
 such other instruction of a similar character, as 
 it may bo deemed advisable to add to the fore- 
 going from time to time. The students will 
 divide their working hours, as nearly as possible, 
 equally between mental and manual exercises.' 
 . . . The Ualtimoro Manual Training School, a 
 public school, on the same footing as the high 
 school, was opened In 1883. The Cliicago Alanual 
 Training School, established as an incorpjrated 
 school by the Commercial Club of that city, was 
 opened m January, 1884. . . . Manual training 
 was Int roduced into the high school of Eau Claire, 
 Wisconsin, in 1884. The 'Scott Manual Train- 
 ing School ' was organized as a part of the high 
 school of Toledo in 1884. . . . Manual training 
 was introduced into the College (high school) of 
 the City of New York in 1884. The Philadelphia 
 Manual Training School, a public high school, 
 was opened in September, 1885. The Omaha 
 high school introduced manual trolning in 1885. 
 . . . Dr. Adier's ^'>'orklngnlan'8 Schoof for poor 
 children has for several years taught manual 
 training to the very lowest grades. . . . The 
 Cleveland Manual Training School was incorpo- 
 rated in 1885, and opened In connection with the 
 city high school, In 1886. New Haven, which had 
 for 3omc time encouraged the use of tools by the 
 pupils of several of its grammar schools, in Sep- 
 tember, 1888, opened a regular shop and fur- 
 nished systematic instruction in tool-work. The 
 school board of Chicago added manual training 
 to the course of the ' West Side High School ' 
 in September, 1880."— C. 51. Woodward, The 
 Manual Training School, eh. 1. — "Concerning 
 the manual-training school there are two widely 
 different views. The one insists that it shall 
 teach no trade, but the rudiments of all of them; 
 the other that the j)articular industries may 
 properly be held to maintain schools to recruit 
 their own ranks. The first wotild teach the use 
 of the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the 
 square, the chisel, and the file; claiming that 
 ' the graduate from such a course at the end of 
 
 three years Is within from one to three months of 
 knowing <piite as thoroughly as an apprentice 
 who had served seven years any one of the 
 twenty trades to which he may cniM)se to turn.' 
 Of this class are, Ijcsiiles most of those alreaily 
 named, the llaish Manual Training Hchiml of 
 Denver; thatof Tidane University, New Orleans; 
 the Felix Adh'r's Worklngman's School, of New 
 York City; and the S(thool of Manual Technol- 
 ogy, Vanderbllt University, Nashville. Among 
 schools of the seconil class are some interesting 
 Institutions. 'I'hey Incluih^ the numerous general 
 and special trade-schools for boys, instructiim in 
 the manifold phases of domestic economy for 
 girls, and the yet small but rapidly growing class 
 of industries open alike to both. 8ev.mg Is 
 taught in public or private schmils in Baltimore, 
 IJostcm, Cincinnati, Chicago, New York, Phila- 
 delphia, Providence, St. Louis, and about a dozen 
 other cities, besides in a number of special in- 
 stitutions. Cooking-schools are no longer a 
 novelty in half as many of tlie larger cities, since 
 their introduction into New York city in 1876. 
 Printing may be learned in the Kansas Agricul- 
 tural College; Cooper Union, New York; (Urard 
 College, Pliiladelphia, and elsewhere. Tel(!g- 
 raphy, stenography, wood-engraving, various 
 kinds of smithing, and carpentry, have, espctcially 
 the last two, numerous representatives. The 
 New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction 
 of children in the work of the household, is an in- 
 teresting modltlcatlon of the Kindergarten along 
 the industrial line. For young ladies, the Eliza- 
 beth Aull Seminary, Lexinjjton, Missouri, is a 
 school of home-work, in which '.ire practically 
 taught the mysteries of the kitchen and laundry,' 
 and upon whose graduates is conferred the degree 
 of ' Mistress of Home- Work. ' The Lasell Semin- 
 ary at Auburndale, Ma.ssachusetts, also has 
 recently (1885) undertaken a similar but more 
 comprehensive experinient, including lessons and 
 lectures in anatomy and physiology, with hypieno 
 and sanitation, the principles of common law by 
 an eminent attorney, instructiim and practice in 
 the arts of domestic life, the principles of dress, 
 artistic house-furnishing, healthy homes, and 
 cooking. Of training-schools for nurses there 
 are thirty-one. ... Of schools of a different 
 character still, there have been or are the Carriage 
 Builder's Apprenticeship School, New York; 
 those of Hoe & Co., printing-press manufac- 
 turers; and Tiffany & Co., jewelers; and the 
 Tailors' ' Trades School ' recently established and 
 flourishing in Baltimore, besides the Penn.sy 1 vania 
 Railroad novitiate system, at Altoona ; in which 
 particular trades or guilds or corporations have 
 sought to provide themselves with a distinct and 
 specially trained class Of artisans. The latest 
 and In some respects the most interesting experi- 
 ment of the kind Is that of the ' Baltimore and 
 Ohio Railroad service ' at Mt. Clare, Baltimore. 
 It was inaugurated in 1885, apprentices being 
 selected from ajipllcauts by competitive examina- 
 tion." — R. G. Boone, Education in. t/ie United 
 States, ch. 13. 
 
 A. D. 1873-1889. — University Extension in 
 England. — "The University Extension Move- 
 ment, which has now been before the country 
 eighteen years, has revealed the existence of a 
 real need lor larger opportunities of higher edu- 
 cation amongst the middle and working classes. 
 From the time of its inauguration in 1873 by the 
 University of Cambridge, owing mainly to the 
 
 m 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Vnivenily RtlenMon. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 rnthniilnRtiR ndvocnry and bUUI in practirnl iif- 
 fuirH of Mr. JiinicH Htimrt (iit tliut tiniu Fellow 
 luiil I,c<'turt'r of Trinity Coiligf), down to the 
 prcHcnliliiy, when Hit.' principle liiwlifi'niiccTnIrd 
 tiy iill the rnlvfrHiticM In Grcitt Hritiiin iind l)y 
 iMiMU' In c'oiintrli'M Ix'yond Mie hciih, the movement 
 1ms Hliown nmrvellous vltii.'iiy luid ijowci of lui- 
 juHtment lo cliiinKin); eonditioim. From a Hnmll 
 lieKinniiiK in three lownn in the IMidliuulH, It hiiH 
 grown until tlie eentrex in connection with the 
 various liraiiches are to Ik! numlwred liy iiundreds 
 and tlie Htudeiits liy lens of thousands. Thesuc- 
 cesHattalned by Cainhridjfe in tlie llrst three years 
 led, In lH7(i, to tlie formation of the London 
 Boelety for tlie Extension of University Teaeh- 
 \nn, for the I'xpresi purpose (,f carrying on simi- 
 lar work wltliiu the metropolitan area, lu 1H78 
 the Unlvrsity of Oxford undertook to make 
 Binillar arran),'enients for Lectures, but after a 
 year or two, they were for the time abandoned. 
 Bubsetiuently in 1,885 the Oxford work was re- 
 vived and ha8 since been carried on w'th vigour 
 and success. The University of Durliam is in- 
 Boclated with (Jambridge In this work In the iiortli- 
 castof England, while courses of Lectures on the 
 Extension plan luivc been given for several years 
 in connection with Victoria University In centres 
 around Manchester. Two or three years ago the 
 four Scottish Universities united In fonning a 
 like scheme for Scotland, while at the close of 
 1880 a Society for the Extension of Unlveisitv 
 Teaching was formed in the north of Ireland. 
 Finully the movement has spread to Greater Brit- 
 ain and the United States, and there arc signs 
 that work on similar lines is about to be estab- 
 lished in various countries on the continent of 
 Europe." — K. D. Roberts, Eighteen years of Uni- 
 versity Ekteusion, ch. 1. — "One of the chief char- 
 acteristics of the system Is the method of teach- 
 ing adopted in connection with it. A working 
 man at one of the centres in the north of England 
 ■who had attended the lectures for several terms, 
 described tlie metliod as follows In a paper read 
 by him at a meeting : — ' Any town or village 
 which is i)repared to provide an audience, and 
 pay the necessary fees, can secure a course of 
 twelve lectures on any subject taught in the Uni- 
 versity, liy a lecturer who has been educated at 
 the University, and who is specially fitted for 
 lecturing work. A syllabus of the course Is 
 printed and put into the hands of students. This 
 syllabus is a great help to persons not accustomed 
 to note-taking. Questions are given on each 
 lecture, and written answers can be sent in by 
 any one, irrespective of age or sex. All the lec- 
 tures, except the first, are preceded by a class, 
 wliich lasts about an hour. In tills class the stu- 
 dents and the lecturer talk over the previous lec- 
 ture. The written answers are returned with 
 such corrections as the lecturer deems necessary. 
 At the end of the courje an examination is held 
 and certificates are awarded to the successful can- 
 didates. These lectures are called University Ex- 
 tension Lectures. ' Another definition which has 
 been given is this: — 'Advanced systematic teach- 
 ing for the people, without distinction of rank, 
 sex, or age, given by means of lectures, classes, 
 and written papers during a connected course, 
 conducted by men " who believe in their work, 
 and intend to do it," teachers who connect the 
 country with the University by manner, method, 
 and information.'" — R. D. Roberts, Tlie Univer- 
 tity Exteimon Scheme, pp. 6-7. 
 
 A. D. 1887-1893.— University Extension in 
 the United States. — " 'I'lic first conscious at- 
 tempts to introduce English University Extension 
 methods into this country were made in 1887, by 
 individuals connected with the .lolins Hopkins 
 University. Tlie subje(^t was first publicly pre- 
 sented to the Anierlcan Library Association at 
 their inei'tiiig upon one of the Thousand Islands 
 In September, 1887. The idea was lieartlly ap- 
 proved," aiui the first result of tlie suggestion 
 was a course of lectures on ccoiKmiic (piestiong 
 given In one of the lecture-rooms of the UiilTalo 
 Library the following winter liy Dr. Edward VV. 
 Itemis. The next winter " Dr. Heniis repeated 
 his course on 'Economic Questions of the Day' 
 In Canton, Ohio. . . . The Cantim experiment 
 was followed in February, 1889, by another 
 course-, conducted by Dr. IJemis, In connection 
 with the I'ulilic Library at St. Louis. . . .About 
 the time when these various experiments were 
 being tried in St. Louis, Canton, and RulTalo, in- 
 dividual mwnbers of Johns llojikins University 
 were attempting to introduce Lniverslty Exten- 
 sion methods in connection with local lectures In 
 the city of Baltimore. . . , The Idea of Univer- 
 sity Extension in connection with Chautauqua 
 was conceived by Dr. J. II. Vincent during a visit 
 to England, in 1880, when he saw the English 
 lecture system in practical operation and his own 
 methods of encouraginjf home reading In grow- 
 ing favor with university men. The tlrst defin- 
 ite Anierlcan plan, showing at once the aims, 
 methods, cost, and history, of University Exten- 
 sion lectures, was drawn up at Chautauqua by 
 the writer of this article in the early summer of 
 1888. . . . Contemporary with the development 
 of Chautauqua College and University Extension 
 was the plan of Mr. Seth T. Stewart, of Brooklyn, 
 New York, for ' University and School Exten- 
 sion.' . . . Several public meetings were held In 
 New York in 1880-00 for tlio promotion of Uni- 
 versity and School Extension. . . . One of the 
 most gratifying recent experiments in University 
 Extension in America lias been lu the city of 
 Philadelphia under the auspices of the American 
 Society for the Extension of University Teach- 
 ing. At various local centres Mr. Richard G. 
 Moulton, one of the most experienced lecturers 
 from Cambridge, England, lectured for ten weeks 
 in the winter and spring of 1801 to large and en- 
 thusiastic audiences. AH the essential features 
 of English University Extension were method- 
 ically and persistently carried out. . . . The 
 American field for University Extension is too 
 vast for the missionary labors of ony one society 
 or organization. . . . The most significant sign 
 of the times with regard to University Extension 
 in America is the recent appropriation of the sum 
 of $10,000 for this very object by the New York 
 legislature. The money is to be expended under 
 the direction of the Regents of the University of 
 the State of New York. . . . The intention of 
 the New York act is simply to provide the neces- 
 sary means for organizing a State system of 
 University Extension . . . and to render such 
 general assistance and co-operation as localities 
 may require." — H. B. Adams, University Exten- 
 sion in America (Forum, July, 1891). — On the 
 opening, in 1893, of the Chicago University, 
 munificently endowed by Mr. John D. Rocke- 
 feller, of Cleveland, University Extension was 
 made one of the three grand divisions of its 
 organization. 
 
 748 
 
EDWARD. 
 
 EOYIT. 
 
 EDWARD, King of PortunI, A. I) 1 J.'W- 
 
 14:(H Edward, called the Confeitor, Kinor 
 
 of EtiKlancL A. I). lO^tli-KMl.t Edward, 
 
 called tlie Elder, King; of Wetiex, A I) IIOI- 
 
 U25 Edward, called the Martyr, King of 
 
 Westex, A. I>. UTn Edward I., King of 
 
 England, A. I). 1274-l!«t7 Edward II., 
 
 King of England, A. I). I:i07-ll)a7 Edward 
 
 III., King of England, A. I). I!)i7-i:t77 
 
 Edward TV., King of England (first king of 
 
 the House of York), A. I). ll(U-UH!t 
 
 Edward V., titular King of England, A. I). 
 14H!I (from April I), wlicii liTs fiillicr, Kdwiird IV., 
 (lied, until .Mine 'i'i, wlii'H ho Ih l)('li('V('<l to Imvo 
 liccii niiinlcrcd in thn Tower by roninmnd of his 
 
 uncle, llic UNurpcr, Uichurd III.) Edward 
 
 VI., King of England, A. I). LW-l.TO). 
 
 EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1755.— Built by 
 the New England troops. iJcc Canada : A. I). 
 1755 (.Ski'temueii). 
 
 A. D. 1777.— Abandoned to the British. 
 Sec Tnitku Statkhok Am. : A. I). 1777 (July — 
 
 (tlTollKIt). 
 
 EDWIG, Kingof Wessex, A. D. O.VV-O.U 
 EDWIN.KingofNorthumbria,A. I).017-«3a 
 EGESTA. Sic SviiAdHK: H. ('. 41.')-418j 
 mid Skii.v: H. C. •KMMO.'i. 
 EGFRITH, King of Northumbria, A. D. 
 
 «70-(IH.'). 
 
 EGINA.-EGINETANS. ,s<.. .Koin v. 
 
 EGMONT, Count, and the struggle in the 
 Netherlands. Sec Nktiikhi.andh: A. I). 1.1(1^- 
 l.')(ltl. and I.VKl-l.VlM. 
 
 EGNATIAN WAY, The.-A Ronnn roiid 
 couHtructcd froiu .\|)iilloiiiii on the A<lriiitic to 
 tile Hliori's of tli(^ llclicttpont; llnully curried to 
 Hy/.iuilluin. 
 
 EGRA : A. D. 1647.— Siege and capture by 
 the Swedes. See Ueumany: A. U. 10-l(J-I(J4a. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Its Names. — "E;;ypt is designated in the old 
 InscriptionH, as well as in the hooks of the Inter 
 (.'liristiun E>?yntians, by n word wldcli sinnilli's 
 'the black land,' and which is read in the lilgyp- 
 tian language Kern, or Kami.* The ancients had 
 early remarked that the cultivable land of 
 Egypt was distinguished by its dark and almost 
 black colour. . . . The neighbouring region of 
 the Arabian desert bore the name of Tesher, or 
 the red land. . . . The Egyptians designated 
 themselves simply as ' the people of the black 
 land,' and . . . the inscriptions, so far as we 
 know, have handed down to us no other appel- 
 lation. ... A real enigma is propo.sed to us in 
 the derivation and meaning of the curious proper 
 name, by which the foreign peoples of Asia, 
 each in its own dialect, were accustomed to 
 designate Egypt. The Hebrews gave the land 
 the name ofjyiizraim; the Assyrians Muzur; the 
 Persians, Mudmyn. \Vc may feel a.ssured that 
 at the basis of all these designations there lies an 
 original form which consisted of the three letters 
 M-z-r, all explanations of which have been as 
 yet unsuccessful. Although I intend here- 
 after to consider more particularly the deriva- 
 tion of tills puzzling name, which is still pre- 
 starved at the present day in the Arabic appellation 
 Jlisr, I will here premise the icmark that this 
 name was originally applied only to a certain 
 definite part of Egypt, in the east of the Delta, 
 which, according to the monuments, was covered 
 and defended by many 'zor,' or fortresses, and 
 was hence called in Egyptian Mazor (that is, 
 fortified)."— II. Brugsch-Bev, Ilist. of Egypt un- 
 der the Pliaraohs, ch. 2. — "fcrugsch explains the 
 name Egypt by ' lia-ka-ptah,' I. e. ' the precinct 
 of Ptah. As Ptah was more especially the god 
 of Memphis, tills name would have come from 
 Memphis." — M. Duncker, Ilist. of Antiquity, bk. 
 1, ch. 1, note. — "The last use of Kem died out 
 In the form Chemi in Coptic, the descendant of 
 the classical language, which ceased to be spoken 
 a century ago. It survives among us m the 
 terms 'chemistry' and 'olchemy,' sciences 
 thought to be of Egyptian origin. "—U. 8. Poole, 
 Cities of Egypt, int. 
 
 Its Historical Antiquity.— The lists of Egyp- 
 tian kings which have been found "agree m 
 
 presenting the name of Mena [or Mencs] as that 
 of the first Pharaoh of Egypt, and as such ho is 
 unhesitatingly accepted, iillliougli no contein- 
 poniry monumental record of the fact has yet 
 been discovered. According to Manetlio, the 
 age of Menu dates b.ick to a period of .^,004 years 
 before the Christian era, a di'.te which is nearly 
 ecjunl to 7,()()0 years from the present day. 
 Brugsch favours a sommvhat less interval, 
 namely, 44.'i5 B. (,'. ; others place it as low as 
 2700 B. C, whilst Birch and Chabas a''opt a 
 medium date, namely 4000 B. ('., which is 
 equivalent to 6000 years backward from the 
 existing time. These extreme variations are 
 chiefly referable to the dilllculty of ascertaining 
 the precise length of each individual reign, and 
 especially to the occasional contemporaneous 
 reign of two or more kings, and sometimes the 
 existence of two or more dynasties in dillerent 
 parts of the empire. . . . Lieblein gives full 
 credit to the chronology of Manetlio [a priest of 
 Heliopolis, who wrote about 260 B. C], as re- 
 corded by tlic historian Africanus, as likewise 
 did the distinguislied Marictte, and differs very 
 Utile from the standard adopted by Birch, llo 
 assigns to Mena, as the pioneer of the first 
 monarchy, a date in round numbers of 81)00. 
 years." — E. "Wilson, The Et/i/pt of the Pfi»t, eh. 1. 
 — "As to the era . . . when the first Pharaoh 
 mounted the throne, the German Egyptologers 
 have attempted to tlx it at the (' Ilowlng <'pocli8: 
 Boeckh, B. C. .5703; Unger, ,)013; Brugsch, 
 4455; Lauth, 4157; Lepsius, 3893; Bunsen, 3633. 
 The difference between the two extreme points 
 of the series is amazingly great, for its number 
 of years amounts to no less than 2079. . . . The 
 calculations in question are based on the extracts 
 already often mentioned from a work by the 
 Egyptian priest Manetho on the history of 
 Egypt. That learned mon had then at his com- 
 mand the annals of his country's history, which 
 were preserved in tlie temples, and from them, 
 the best and most accurate sources, he derived 
 the materials for his work, composed in the 
 Greek language, on the history of the ancient 
 Egyptian Dynasties. His book, which is now 
 lost, contained a general review of the kings of 
 the land, divided into Thirty Dynasties, arranged 
 
 ■ Kamit in tbe editlnu of 1801. 
 
 Ud 
 
EGYPT 
 
 7k« Aneiml Pntft*, 
 
 EOYPT. 
 
 In tho nrdrr nf thoir naini-H, with fhr IrnstliH of 
 tlii-ir ri-i){iiH. 1)11(1 tli(' total iluratloii of ciirli 
 ilyiuiHty. 'IIioiikIi tliU inviiluuliU! 'vork wim 
 little known iinci rcrtalnly but llttli; rcKunlcil liy 
 till' liUtorliiim of till' olil chtMMlcal a^c, large ex- 
 tniclH were niBile from It by Monii' of the eecle- 
 HJiutlcal wrIliTH. In prcMcsMof time the copvlHtM, 
 eltlier by error or dcHJunedly, eorrnpti'U the 
 nanu'M anil tho niimberM, ami thuH we only 
 pofwM'HH at the preM-nt tliiy the riiiim InntRnd of 
 theeonipli't(^ builillnK. The truth of theorlKlniil, 
 unil the autlientlelty of ItH HourceH were tIrHt 
 proved by tlie deeiiiherinK of thu Egyptian 
 writings. And thux the Manethonian IIhI Nerved, 
 and Nlill Hervi'H, as a guide for aHHignIng to the 
 royal numeH read on tlie monumentH their pliuu'H 
 In tho DyuaHth'H." — H. HrugHch-Hey, Hint, of 
 fi/ypt uiiilfi- Ihti I'/iiinto/in, rh. 4. — Bee, al»o, 
 Manktiki, [,iwt ok. 
 
 Origin of the ancient people. — "The Egyp- 
 tiauH, together with Home other nations, form, as 
 It would m'em, a third branch of that [tho Cau- 
 caHlan] rare, namely, the family (•alle(r ("UHlille, 
 which Im distiriguiHlicd by Hpecial characterH from 
 the Pelaxgian and tho Semilic fiimilioH. What- 
 ever rel-itlonH may bu found always to exist 
 between these great races of mankind, thus much 
 may bo regarded us certjiln, that tho ciiidio .f 
 the Egyptian people must be sought in the in- 
 terior of l\\v Asiatic quarter of tho world. In 
 the earliest ages of liumnnity, far lieyond ull his- 
 torical reini'inbrance, tho Egy|)tians, for reasons 
 unknown lo ti.s, left tho soil uf their primeval 
 home, tiM)k tticir way towards tho setting sun, 
 and finally crossed that bridge uf nations, tho 
 Isthmus of Hiiez, to llnd a new fatherland on the 
 favoured banks of tho holy Nile. Comparative 
 phih)logy, in its turn, gives powerful support to 
 this hypothesis. The Egyptiin language . . . 
 shows in no way any trace of it derivation and 
 descent from the African famil cs of 8i)eech. 
 On tho contrary, the primitive roots and tho 
 essential elements of tho Egyptian grammar 
 
 foint to such an intimate connection with the 
 ndo-Qernianic and Semitic languages that it is 
 almost inipossible to mistake the close relations 
 which formerly prevailed between tho Egyptians 
 and the races called Indo-Oermanif and Semitic." 
 — II. Hrugsch-Uey, Jfint. of Egypt under the 
 P/uinit/in, ell. 1. — "It has been maintained by 
 some tliat tlie immigration was from the south, 
 the Egyptians having been a colony from Ethi- 
 opia which gradually descended the Nile and 
 established itsi If in tho middle and lower portions 
 of the vallev; id this theory can plead in its 
 favour, both a positive statement of Diodorus, 
 and tlie fact, which is quite certoin, of an ethnic 
 connection t)i'tween the Egyptians and some of 
 the tribes wlio now occupy Abyssinia (the ancient 
 Ethiopia). But modern research has shown 
 quite unmistakably that the movement of the 
 Egyptians was in the opposite direction. . . . 
 We must look, then, rather to Syria or Arabia 
 than to Etiiiopia as the cradle of the Egyptian 
 nation. At the same time we must admit that 
 they were not mere Syrians or Arabs, but had, 
 from the remotest time whereto we can go back, 
 distinct characteristics, whereby they have o 
 good claim to be considered as a separate race." 
 — Q. Kawlinson, JIM. of Ancient Egypt, ch. 3. — 
 " So far as our knowledge reaches, the northern 
 edge of Africa, like the valley of the Nile as far 
 as the marshes at the foot of the Abyssinian 
 
 hills, was inhabited by nation* who In rotoiir, 
 language, and cimtoms were sharply ilistln- 
 guished from the iii'gro. These imtions belniig 
 to the whites: llieir langiiageH were most clost'ly 
 allied to the Semitic. From this, and from their 
 physical peculiarities, the coiicIiihImii has been 
 drawn that these nations at Hiiine time migrated 
 from Asia to ihe soil of Africa. They formed a 
 vast family, whose dialects still continue In the 
 language of the HitImts. Assisted by the 
 favouralile conditions of their land, the trilM) 
 which Ki'tllcd on the Lo'.ver Nile quickly left 
 their kiimmcii far liehind. Indeed the latter 
 hardly rose above a pastoral life. The descend- 
 lints of these old inliiil)itaiits of the valley of tho 
 Nile, in spite of the immci'oiis layers which tho 
 course of centuries has subs<'<|uently laid upon 
 the soil of the land, slill form the larger part of 
 tho population of Egypt, and the ancient lan- 
 guage Is preserved In the diulecl of the Copts." 
 — M. Diinckcr, llinl. <f Aiitiijiiily, hk. 1, ch. 1. 
 
 The Old Empire and the Middle Empire. — 
 The following are the Kgyptiiin Dynasties, from 
 the lirst Pharaoh. Mciia, to the epoch of the 
 
 I lyksos, or Shepherd kings, with 'he dates and 
 iieriisls assigned to each by nnigsch: Tho First 
 I)yna8ty; of Thinis: B. ('. 44(M)-4100. — Tho 
 
 Second; of Thinis: 4l8a-4()()0, — The Third; of 
 Memphis: 3»68-a70fl. —The Fourth; of Mem- 
 phis: ;n!l!l-3fl0(). — The Fifth, of Elephantine: 
 MflO-aaaa. —The sixth; of Memphis: 3300-8()«6. 
 — Tho Seventh to the Eleventh (a confused and 
 obscure period): .1088-2500. — The Twelfth; of 
 Thebes: 2466-22B6.--n. Brugsch-Bey, Ilint. of 
 Egypt under the I'haraoht, npp. A. — "The direct 
 descendants of Meiies [or Mcnal form the First 
 Dynasty, which, according to nianetho, reigned 
 258 yeaifl. No monninent contemporary with 
 thesa princes has come down to us. . . . Tho 
 Second Dynasty, to which Manetho essigns nlno 
 kings, lasted 302 years. It was also originally 
 from This [or Thiiii.s], and probably related to 
 the First. . . . "When this family had becomo 
 extinct, a Dynasty, originally from Memphis, 
 seized the throne, forming tlio Third, and to it a 
 duration of 214 years is attributed. . . . With 
 the Fourth Dynasty, Memphite like the Third, 
 and which reigned 284 years, history becomes 
 clearer and monuments more numerous. This 
 was tho age of the three Great Pyramids, built 
 by the three kings, Kliufu (the Cheops of Herod- 
 otus), Shafra (Chcfren), and Slenkara (Mycerl- 
 nus). . . . The Fifth Dynasty came originally 
 from Elephantine, at the southern extremity of 
 Upper Egypt, and there possibly tho kings gen- 
 erally resided, though at tho same time Memphis 
 was not deprived of its importance. . . . On 
 the dcatli of the last king of the Fifth Dynasty, 
 a new family, of Meinphitic origin according to 
 Manetho, came to the throne. . . . Primitive art 
 attained its highest point under the Sixth Dy- 
 nasty. . . . But, from the time of the civil 
 commotions in which Neit-aker [the Nitocris of 
 Herodotus] perished, Egyptian ci\'ilization under- 
 went a sudden and iinaccountablri eclipse. From 
 the end of the Sixth Dynasty te the commence- 
 ment of the Eleventl', Manetho reckons 430 years, 
 and for this whole period the inouuments arc ab- 
 solutely silent. Egypt seems then to have disap- 
 fieared from the rank of nations; and when this 
 ong slumber ended, civilization commenced a 
 new career, entirely independent of the past. 
 . . . Thus ends that period of nineteen centuries, 
 
 750 
 
EcaiT. 
 
 ?*«• titi^phrrti KinQt. 
 
 E<»YPT. 
 
 whirli modem Hcliolnm know m the Old Empire 
 . . . Tlii'lii'H (lid iKit rxihl ill the dayN iif llii' 
 uloiy of the Old Kmpirr. Tile lioly city of 
 AllK'll N<'<-iim to liiivr liccri foiiiidrd during till! 
 IM'riod of nniircliy mid olwciirity, NiircccdliiK, hh 
 w« Imvii Hitid, to'tlii' Hlxtli Dyiiiisty. Hcru wiw 
 l\w lilrtlipliici' of tliiit rt'iii'wi'd clv'lli/.ittloii, tlnit 
 nt'w moiiiircliy, wi! iirc acciiNtoiiu'd to mil tlio 
 Middle Kiiiplrc, tilt! middin nnf in fiu't of iincii-nt 
 Knypt — It middle iijfi' imtcrlor to the ciirlicMt 
 »K''» "f I'll otIiiT lilnlory. From TlirlicH ciiiiu) 
 the hIx kliiKH of the Klcvnitli DyiiiiHty. . . . We 
 iiKitiii (|Uiite tlie exeelleiit remiirkH of Si, Miirlette: 
 ' When, with the Klevenlli DyiiiiHty, we see 
 K^ypt' iiwiike from her Umit Hliiiiilier, nil old 
 triidltloiiH iippeitr to he forKottiMi; tlii! iiroper 
 namcH iiHcd In iiiieieiit fiimillcH, the titliii of fiiiie- 
 tloimrieM, the Ktyle of wrlliii«, imd even the 
 religion — iill wem new. 'I'liiti, Klepluiiitine, iind 
 MeiiiphiM, lire ii'! I.).i,""> the fiivoiiriti! riipitiilM. 
 Thelies for the tlint ti.">o hcooincH the Hciit of 
 Boven'i)(n power. KgyPt, mon^over, hiiH lost ii 
 conHldenilili! portion of her territory, iiiid the 
 iiiithority of her le;;llliniite klnjfH hiirdly exti'iidH 
 lieyond the limited diHtriet of the Tlu^liiiid. The 
 Study of the moiiiimenlH conflrnm thcHv ^''tH^riii 
 vIcwb; tliey iiro rude, prindlivo, BometinieM 
 conrso; iind when wi! look iit them wo miiy well 
 believe timt Knyjit, under the ICloveiith Dyniistv, 
 ngiiin ><'i.4Hed through ii period of infiiney, iiH tifie 
 hud iilri'iidy done under the Tliird DyniiHty.' A 
 dynasty probably related to, and ori>{inally from 
 til J Hume place iw these llrst Theban prineeH huc- 
 cecded tlu^m. . . . This Twelfth Dynasty relj;ned 
 for 213 years, and its epoch was one of pros- 
 perity, of iieace at home and kIoHous achle.'e- 
 m(!iits nbroiid. . . . Although the history of the 
 Twelfth Dynasty is clear and well known, illus- 
 trated by numerous monuments, there Is, never- 
 theless, no i)orlod ia the annals of Egypt more 
 obscure thun the one closing with the Thirteenth 
 Dynasty, it is one long series of revolutions, 
 troubles, and internal dissensions, closed by a 
 terrible catastrophe, the greatest and most last- 
 ing recorded in Egyptian history, which a second 
 time Interrupted the march of civilization on the 
 banks of the Nile, and for a while struck Egypt 
 from the list of nations."— F. Lenormant and E. 
 Chevttllior, Manual of Ancient Ilitt. of the East, 
 bk. 8, ch. 1-2. 
 
 Also in: C. C. J. Bunscn, Egypt't Place in 
 Uninerml IIi»t., v. 2. — See, also, Memphis, and 
 TiiKiiEs, EoYrr. 
 
 The Hyksot<, or Shepherd-Kines.— Accord- 
 ing to the Muiieihouian account whicli the Jewish 
 historian Josephus has preserved to us by tran- 
 scribing it, the Egyptian Netherlands were at a 
 certain time overspread by a wild and rough 
 people, which came from the countries of the 
 east, overcame the native kings who dwelt there, 
 and took possession of the whole country, -with- 
 out tinding any great opposition on the part of 
 the Egyptians. They were colled Hyksos, which 
 Joiiephus interpreted as meaning Shepherd-kings, 
 "llyk," he explained, meant King, in the holy 
 language, and "sos," in the dialect of the people, 
 signified Shepherd. But Dr. Brugsch identifies 
 "sos" with the name "Shasu " which the old 
 Egyptians gave to the Bedouins, whose name 
 became e(iuivalcnt to Shepherds. Hence Dr. 
 Brugsch inclines to the ancient opinion transmitted 
 by Josephus, that the llyksos were Arabs or Bed- 
 ouins — the Shasu of the Egyptian records, who 
 
 liuiig on the northeaNtrrn frontier of Egypt from 
 the mintt ani'li'iir tliiies aed were always preiuiing 
 Into the roiintry, at every opportunity. Hut 
 many objretions agaiiiNt this view are ralMHl and 
 IheililTen'iit theories iidviinced to arcouiil for tlio 
 llyksoM aril (|uite niimeroim. ('1111011 Itiiwllnsim 
 says: "The Kgyiitlaim of the time of lleriMlotiui 
 Hcrm to have cotmidered that they were I'hlUs- 
 tiiies. MiHlernH have reganled them im Canaan- 
 lli'H, Syrians, lllttites. It is an nvoiiiiinre rather 
 than a solution of the illMlrulty to say that they 
 were 'a I'ollei'tlon of all the noiiiad liordcH of 
 Arabia and Syria' [I/cnorniant], since (here must 
 have bii'ii a lUrectliig hiiiid. . . . On the whole, 
 Iherefore. wo lean to tin- belief that tho so-ealled 
 llyksos or Shepherds were llittltes." — O. Itiiw- 
 llnsoii, Hinl. (if Aiirifiil Ki/i/iil. rh. 10. — "It is 
 m,diilalne(l on good authority that the llyksos, 
 or Shepherd- Kings, hud Hcciired possession of tho 
 eastern frontier of Lower Egypt liiimediiilely 
 after the elose of the Twelfth hyniisly; that at 
 this time the Thirteenth and the Fourteenth Dy 
 niisth'.s 
 
 l'l>l'<'r 
 
 legitimate, the oMier the illegltimiite line; but 
 
 h Dy- 
 
 niisth'S ruled (•ontemiioraneously, the former In 
 I'pjier, the latter in Lower Egypt; one was the 
 
 authors are not in accord as to their right of 
 [irlority. It is supposi'd that, while Egypt 
 claimed the Thirteeiilh Dynasty us her own, 
 the llyksos usurped the mastery over thi' Four- 
 teenth Dynasty, and governed through the agency 
 of its kings, treating them meanwhile as vas- 
 sal chiefs. These local kings had cities from 
 which they were unable to esea|H', and were de- 
 prived of an army of defence. Such was tho 
 state of tho country for IHl years, when tho 
 Fourteentli Dynasty died out", and when tho 
 Fifteenth Dynasty, constituted of six siiccessivo 
 llyksos kings, took tho reins of (^ovemment into 
 their own hands. Liebleln, whose views wo aro 
 now endeavouring to express, a.ssigns as the date 
 of tho invasion of the llyksos 3108 years B. C. 
 ... It is not improbable that the well-known 
 journey of Abraham to Egypt was made during 
 the early period of the reign of tho Shepherd- 
 Kings; whilst tho visit of Joseph occurred near 
 the close of their power." — E. Wilson, The '.i/ypt 
 of the Past, eh. 5. — " ' Tho Shejiberds possessed 
 thcmselvcsof Egypt by violence,' wrliesMarlette- 
 Bey, 'but tho civilization which they Immedi- 
 ately adopted on their conquest was rather 
 Egyptian than Asiatic, and tho discoveries of 
 Avaris (San) prove that they did not even banish 
 from their temples tho go<lH of tho oncient Egyp- 
 tian 1 ntlieon.' In fact the first shepberd-klng, 
 Solatis himself, employed an Egyptian artist to 
 inscribe . . . his title on tho statue of a former 
 legitimate Pharaoh. 'They did not disturb tho 
 civilization more than tho Persians or tho Greeks, 
 but "imply accepted the higher one they had 
 conquered.' So our rever;d scholar Dr. Birch 
 has summed up the matter; and Prof. Maspero 
 bus very happily described 't thus: 'The popu- 
 lar hatred loaded them with 'gnominious epithets, 
 and treated them as accursed, plngue-stricken, 
 leprous. Yet they allowed themselves very 
 quickly to be domesticated. . . . Once admitted 
 to tho school of Egypt, the barbarians progressed 
 quickly in the civilized life. The Pharaonic 
 court reapijcarcd around those shepherd-kings, 
 with all its pomp and all its following of func- 
 tionaries great and small. The royiii stylo and 
 title of Cheoiis and tho Ameneinhas were fitted 
 to tho outlandish names of Jaunes and Apapi. 
 
 751 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 The New Empire. EGYPT, B. C. 1700-1400. 
 
 The Egyptian religion, without being offlcinlly 
 adopted, was toluruted, and tlic religion of tho 
 Canuanites underwent gome nuxiifleat ion to avoid 
 liurtiug beyond measure tlie 8unpeptil)il ty of tlio 
 worsliipper.s of Osiris.' " — 11. O. ToniliinH. Studies 
 on the J'iiiii'K <;/' Ahnt/iitiii, ch. 8. — In a late Italian 
 work ("Oil liykHds ") by Ut. C. A. de C'ara, " liy 
 puts together all that la nscertained in regard to 
 them [the Ilykaos], criticises the theories that 
 have been jiropounded on tlieir behalf, and sug- 
 gests a theory of his own. Nothing tliat has 
 been published on the siibject seems to have es- 
 caped his notice. . . . Ills own view is that the 
 Hyksos rcprestinted a confederacy of various 
 Asiatic tribes, under the ieaderslnp of the north- 
 ern Syrians. That their ruling class came from 
 this part of tlie world seems to me clear from tho 
 name of their supreme god Butekh, who occupied 
 among them the position of the Semitic Baal." — 
 A. II. Sayce, The Ilykum (Academy, Sept. 20, 1890). 
 — " Historical research concerning the history of 
 the Hyksos may be summed up as follows: — I. A 
 certain mimtier of non-Egyptian kings of foreign 
 origin," belonging to the nation of the Menti, ruled 
 for a long time in the eastern portion of the Delta. 
 II. These chose as their capitals the cities of 
 Zoan and Avaris, and provided them with strong 
 fortitieations. III. They arloiited not only the 
 manners and customs of the Egyptians, but also 
 their ofHcial language and writin,;, and tlie order 
 of their court was arranged on Egyptian models. 
 IV. They were patrons of art, and Egyptian 
 artists erected, after the ancient models, monu- 
 ments in honour of these usurpers, in whoso 
 statues they were obliged to reproduce the Hyk- 
 sos physiognomy, the peculiar arrangement of the 
 beard and head-dress, as well as otlier variations 
 of their costume. V. They honored Sutekh, 
 the son of Nut, as the supreme god of their newly 
 acquired coimtry, with the surname Nub, "the 
 golden.' He was the origin of all that is evil 
 and perverse in the visible and invisible world, 
 the opponent of good and the enemy of light. 
 In tho cities of Zoan and Avaris, splendid temples 
 were constructed in honour of this god, and other 
 monuments raised, especially Sphinxes, carved 
 out of stone from Syene. VI. In all probability 
 one of them was the founder of a new era, which 
 most likely began witli the first year of his reign. 
 Down to the time of the second Ramses, four 
 hundred years had elapsed of this iec!<oning 
 whicli was acknowledged even by tV.r: Egyptians. 
 VII. The Egyptians were indebtcii to thieir con- 
 tact with thenj for much useful knowledge. In 
 particular their artistic vievs were expanded and 
 new forms .uid shapes, notably that of the winged 
 sphinx, were introduced, the Semitic origin of 
 which is obvious at a glance. . . . The inscrip- 
 tions on the monuments designate that foreign 
 people who once ruled in Egypt by the name of 
 Men or Menti. On the walls of the temple of 
 Kdffl it is stated that ' the inhabitants of the land 
 of Asher are called Menti. "... In the different 
 languages, . . . and in the diflferent periods of 
 history, the following names are synonymous: 
 Syria, Rutennu of the East, Asher, and Menti." — 
 ' ' Since, on the basis of the most recent and best in- 
 vestigations in the province of ancient Egyptian 
 chronology, we reckon the year 1350 B. C. as a 
 mean computation for the reign of Ramses, tlie 
 reign of the Hyksos king. Nub, and probably its 
 beginning, falls in the year 1750 B. C. , that is, 400 
 years before Ramses 11. Although we are com- 
 
 pletely in the dark as to the place King Nul) oc- 
 cupied in the succession of the kindred princes of 
 Ills house, yet the number mentioned is important, 
 as an approximate eijoch for the stay of the foreign 
 kings in Egj'pt. According to the statement hi 
 the Bible, the H' jrews from the immigration of 
 Jacob into Egypt until the Exodus reiraiuL J 430 
 years in that land. Since the Exodus from Egypt 
 took place in the time of Meneptah II., the son 
 of Ramses II. — the Pharaoh ( ,f the oppression — 
 the year B. C. 1300 maybe an approximate date. 
 If we add to this 430 years, as expressing tho 
 total duration of the sojourn of the Hebrews in 
 Egypt, we arrive at the year 1730 B. C. as tho 
 ai)proximate date for the immigration of Jacob 
 into Egypt, and for the time of the otHcial career 
 of Joseph at the court of Pharaoh. In other 
 words, the time of Josepli (1730 B. C.) must have 
 fallen in the pericxl of the Hyksos domination, 
 about tlie reign of the above-mentioned prince 
 Nub (1750 B. C)."— H. Brugsch-Bey, Eijypt under 
 the Pharaohs [edition of 1891, hy }f. Divdrick), pp. 
 106-109, and 130. — See Jews: The Cuildren of 
 IsiiAEii IN Egypt. 
 
 Also in: F. C. H. Wendel, Hist, of Eijypt, 
 ch. 4. 
 
 About B. C. 1700-1400. — The New Empire. 
 — The Eighteenth Dynasty. — "The dominion 
 of the Hyksos by necessity gave rise to profound 
 internal divisions, alike in the different princely 
 families and in the native populi" 1 ;on itself. Fac- 
 tions became rampant in various districts, and 
 reached the highest point in the hostile feeling of 
 the inhabitants of Patoris or the South country 
 against the people of Patomit or North country, 
 who were much mixed with foreign blood. . . . 
 From *his condition of divided power and of 
 mutual jealousy the foreign rulers obtained their 
 advantage and their chief strength, until King 
 Aahmes made himself supreme. — II. Brugsch- 
 Bey, Egypt vnder the Pharaohs {edition of 1891, by 
 M. Brdiinck). — "The duration of the reign of this 
 first Pharaoh of the New Empire was twenty-five 
 years. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep 
 I. and the, latter by his sou Thothmes I. "The 
 reign of 'Thothmes I. . . . derives its chief dis- 
 tinct'on from the fact that, at this period of their 
 history, tlie Egyptians for the first time carried 
 tlieir arms deep into Asia, overrunning Syria, 
 and even invading Mesopotamia, or the tract 
 between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Hitherto 
 the furthest point reached in this direction had 
 lieen Sharulien in Southern Palestine. . . . Syria 
 was hitherto almost an undiscovered region to 
 tlie powerful people which nurturing its strength 
 in the Nile valley, had remained content with its 
 own natural limits and scarcely grasped at any 
 conquests. A time was now come when this 
 comparative quietude and absence of ambition 
 were about to cease. Provoked by the attack 
 made upon her from the side of Asia, and smart- 
 ing from the wounds inflicted upon her pride 
 and prosperity by the Hyksos during the period 
 of tlieir rule, Egypt now set herself to retaliate, 
 and for thr'ie centuries continued at intervals to 
 potlr her armies into the Eastern concinent, and 
 to carry firo and sword over the extensive and 
 populous regions which lay between tho Medi- 
 terranean and the Zagros mountain range. There 
 is some uncertainty as to the extent of her con- 
 quests; but no reasonable doubt can be enter- 
 tained that for d space of three hundred years 
 Egypt was the most powerful and the most 
 
 752 
 
EGYPT, 13, C. 1700-1400. 
 
 Tlie Tell Aiiiarna 
 Tablet: 
 
 EGYIT, D. C. 1500-1400. 
 
 aggressive state tliat tlie world contained, and 
 held a dominion that 1ms as much right to be 
 called un ' Empire ' us the Assyrian, tlic Habylo- 
 nian or the Persian. While Babylonia, ruled by 
 Arab conquerors, declined in strength, ami As- 
 syria proper wiw merely struggling into inde- 
 pendence, Egypt put forth her arm and grasped 
 the fairest regions of the earth's surface." The 
 imn'.ediate successor of Thothmcs I. was his son, 
 Thothmes II., who reigned in association with a 
 sister of masculine character, queen Ilatusu. 
 The strong-minded queen, moreover, jjrolonged 
 her reign after the death of this elder brother, 
 until a younger brother, Thothmes III. displaced 
 her. Tiie Third Thothmes was the greatest of 
 Egyptian conquerors and kings. lie carried his 
 arms beyond the Euphrates, winning a memo- 
 rable victory at Megiddo over the confederated 
 kings of the Syrian and Mesopotamian countries, 
 lie left to his son (Amenhotep II.) "a dominion 
 extending about 1,100 miles from north to .soutli, 
 and (in places) 450 miles from west to east." lie 
 was a great builder, likewise, and "has left the 
 impress of his presence in Egypt more widely 
 than almost any other of her kmgs, while at the 
 same time he ha? supplied to the great capitals 
 of the modern world their most striking Egyp- 
 tian raonaments. " The larger of the obelisks now 
 standing in Rome and Constantinople, as well as 
 those at London and New York were all of them 
 produced in the reign of this magnilicent Plia- 
 raoh. The two obelisks last named stood origin- 
 ally, and for fourteen centuries at the front of 
 the great temple of the sun, in Heliopolis. They 
 were reivioved b7 the Roman Emperor, Augus- 
 tus, B. C. 5!3, to Alexandria, where they took in 
 time the nome of Cleopatra's Needles, — although 
 Cleopatra harl no part iu their long history. 
 After nineteen centuries more f rest, these 
 strangely coveted monuments were again dis- 
 turbed, and transported into lands which their 
 builder knew not of. The later kings of the 
 Eighteenth Dynasty seem to have, none of them, 
 
 fiossessed tlie energy and character of Thothmes 
 II. The line ended about 1400 B. C. with IIo- 
 remheb, who left no heirs. — G. Rawlinson, Hist, 
 of Ancient Egypt, eh. 20. 
 
 Also in: H. Brugsch-Bey, Eff!/pt under the 
 Phanwhs, ch. 18. — U. II. Qorringe, Egyptian 
 Obelisks. 
 
 About B. C. isoo«i4oo.— The Tell el-Amarna 
 Tablets.— Correspondence of the Egyptian 
 kings with Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Asia 
 Minor, Syria and Palestine. — " Tlie discovery 
 made in 1887 by a peasant woman of Middle 
 Egypt may be described as the most important 
 of all contributions to the early political history 
 of Western Asia. We have become possessed of a 
 ■correspondence, dating from the flfteenth century 
 B. C, which was carried on during the reigns of 
 three Egyptian kings, with the rulers of Babvlon, 
 Assyria, Armenia, Asia Slinor, Syria, and Pales- 
 tine, duriug a period of great activity, when 
 revolutions which affected the whole history of 
 the east shore lauds of the Mediterranean were 
 in progress; and we And in these tablets a con- 
 temporary picture of the civilisation of the age. 
 . . . The Tell Amarna tablets represent a litera- 
 ture equal in bulk to about half the Pentateuch, 
 and concerned almost exclusively with political 
 aflfairs. They are clay tablets, varying from two 
 inches to a foot in length, with a few as large as 
 eighteen inchjjs, covered with cuneiform writing 
 
 generjilly on both sides, and often on the edges 
 as well. The peasantry unearthed nearly the 
 complete collection, including some 320 pieces in 
 all; and explorers afterwards digging on the 
 site have added only a few additionm fragments. 
 The greater number were bought for the Berlin 
 Mu.seum, while eighty-two were accjuired for 
 England, and the rest remain cither in the Boulak 
 JIuseum at Cairo, or, in a few instances, in the 
 Imniis of private collectors. . . . Tell Amarna 
 (apparently 'tlie mound of the tumuli') is an im- 
 portant ruined .site on the east bank of the Nile, 
 about a hundred and lifty miles in a straight line 
 south of Cairo. Its Egyptian name is said to have 
 been Khu cn-aten, 'Glory of the Sun-disk.'" — 
 The Tell Antarnd Tablets (Edinburgh licv., July, 
 1893).— " The collection of Cuneiform Tablets re- 
 cently found [1887] at Tell el-Amarna iu Upper 
 Egypt, consistcil of about three hundred and 
 twenty documents, or portions of documents. 
 The Britisli Museum possesses eighty-two . 
 the Berlin Museum has one hundred and sixty, 
 a large number being fragments; the Gizeh Mu- 
 seum has sixty ; and a few are in the hands of 
 private persons. ... In color the Tabiets vary 
 from a light to a dark dust tint, and from a llesh- 
 color to dark brick-red. The nature of the clay 
 of which they uio made sometimes indicates the 
 countries from which they come. The size of 
 the Tablets in tlie British Jluseum varies from 
 8 J inches x4J in. to 2^ in. \\\\ in. ; the longest 
 text contoins 08 lines, the shortest 10. . . . The 
 greater number are rectangular, and a few are 
 oval ; and they differ in shape from any other 
 cuneiform documents known to us. . . . The 
 writing . . . resembles to a certain extent the 
 Neo-Babylonian, i. e., the simplification of the 
 writing of the first Babylonian Empire used com- 
 monly in Babylonia and Assyria for about seven 
 centurie.4 B. C. It possesses, however, character- 
 istics different from those of any other style of 
 cuneiform writing of any period now known to 
 exist ; and nearly every tablet contains forms of 
 characters which have hitherto been thought pe- 
 culiar to the Ninevite or Assyrian style of writing. 
 But, compared with tlie neat, careful hand cm- 
 ployed in the official documents drawn up for the 
 kings of Assyria, it is somewhat coarse and care- 
 less, and suggests tlie work of unskilled scribes. 
 One and the same hand, however, appears in tab- 
 lets which come from the same person ond tlic same 
 place. On some of the largo tablets the writing is 
 bold and free ; on some of the small ones the char- 
 acters are confused and cramped, and are groups 
 of strokes rather than wedges. Tlie spelling 
 ... is often careless, and in some instances syl- 
 lables have been omitted. At present it is not 
 possible to say whether the irrcgula ■ spel'''ag is 
 duo to the ignorance of the scribe or i,o aialectic 
 peculiarities. . . . The Semitic dialect in which 
 these letters are written is Assyrian, and is, in 
 some important details, closely related to the 
 Hebrew of the Old Testament. . . . The docu- 
 ments were most probably written between the 
 years B. C. 1500 to 1450. . . . They give an in- 
 sight into the nature of the political relations 
 wliicli existed between the kings of Western Asia 
 and tlie kings of Egypt, and prove that an impor- 
 tant trade existed between the two countries 
 from very early times. ... A large number of 
 the present tablets are addressed to ' the Kingof 
 Egypt,' either Amenophis III. or Amenophis TV. 
 Nearly all of them consist of reports of disastt.s 
 
 753 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 1300-1400. 
 
 The Tell Amama 
 Tablets. 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 1500-1400. 
 
 to the Egyptian power and of successful intrigues 
 against it, coupled by urgent entreaties for lielp, 
 pointing to a condition ol distraction and wcaii- 
 ncss in Egypt. . . . Tlic most grapldc (leitills of 
 tlie disorganized condition, and of tlie lival fac- 
 tions, of tlio Egyptian dependencies lyir.g on tlie 
 coastline of Phoenicia and Northern i'alestine, 
 are to be gathered from a perusal jf the dis- 
 patches of tli(! governors of the eitie.', of Byblos, 
 Beyrut and Tyre." — T/ie Tell il-Ai uirna Tahleta 
 in the liriti»h ^fuseum, iiitrod. — " fn the present 
 eXixUi of cuneiform research I believe it to be im- 
 possible to give a translation of the Tell el- 
 Aniarna texts which would entirely satisfy the 
 expert or general reader. No two scholars would 
 agree as to any interpretation which might be 
 placed upon certJiin rare grammatical forms and 
 unknown words in the Babylonian text, and any 
 literal translation ii; a inoclern language would 
 not be understood by the general reader on ac- 
 count of the involved style and endless repetition 
 of phrases common to a Semitic idiom and dialect. 
 About the general meaning of the contents of the 
 greater number of the letters there can be no 
 doubt whatever, and it is therefore possible to 
 make a summary of the contents of each letter, 
 which should, as a rule, satisfy the general reader, 
 and at the same time form a guide to the beginner 
 in cuneiform. Summaries of the contents of the 
 Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum 
 have been published in 'The Tell el-Amarna Tab- 
 lets in the British Museum, with autotype fac- 
 similes, ' printed by orderof the Trustees, London, 
 1893, and it is hoped that the transliteration, 
 given in the followmg pages may form a useful 
 supplement to that work. . . . No. 1. A Letter 
 from. Egypt — Amenophis III. to Kallimma (?) 
 Sin, K;ng of Karaduniyash, referring to his pro- 
 
 Sosed Marriage with Sukharti,'the daurtiter of 
 [allimn.a-Sin, and containing the draft i com- 
 mercial vreaty, and an allusion to disap- 
 Ecarance ot certain chariots and horses. No. 2. 
 etters from Babylonia — Burraburiynsh, King 
 of Karaduriyash, to Amenophis IV., referring 
 to the f riend.ihip which hart existed between their 
 respective fathers, and the help which had been 
 rendered to tho King of Egypt by Burraburiyash 
 himself; tho rixeipt of two manahs of gold is 
 acknowledged i\nd a petition is made for more. 
 No. 3. Burraburiyash, King of Karaduniyash 
 to Amenophis IV., complaining that the Egyp- 
 tian messenge.'S had vLsited his country thrice 
 without bringi.ag gifts, and that they withheld 
 some of the gold which had been sent to him 
 from Egypt ; Burraburiyash announces the des- 
 patch of a gift of lapis-lazuli for the Egyp- 
 tian princess who was his son's wife. . . . No. 80. 
 Letter from Abl-milki, governor of Tyre, to the 
 King of Egypt, reporting that he believes Zim- 
 rida will not be able to stir up disaffection in the 
 city of Sidon, although .'le has caused much hos- 
 tility against Tyre. Ho asks for help to protect 
 th3 city, and for water to drink and wood to burn, 
 and he sends with his messenger Ili-milki five 
 talents of copper and other gifts for the King of 
 Egypt. He reports that til's King of D.inuna is 
 dead and that his brother reigns in his stead; one 
 half of the city of Ugarit has been destroyed by 
 Are; the soldiers of the Khaf.ti have departed; 
 Itagamapairi, governor of Ked>38h, and Aziiu are 
 fighting against Namyawiza. If the King of 
 Egypt will but send a few troops, a!l will be 
 well with Tyre, , . . No. 48. Letter from the gov- 
 
 ernor of a town in Syria to tlio King of Egypt, 
 reporting that the rebels ha\i' asserted their In- 
 dependence; that Biridashwi has stirred up re- 
 bellion in the city of Inu-Amma; that its people 
 have captured chariots in the city of Aslitnrti: 
 that the kings of the cities of Buzruna and Kha- 
 lunni have made a league with Biridashwi to 
 slay Namyawiza (who, having taken refuge in 
 Damascus and being attacked by Arzawiya, de- 
 clared himself to bo a vas.sal of Egypt); that 
 Arzawiya went to the city of Gizza and after- 
 wards captured the city of Shaddu ; that Itak- 
 kama ravaged the country of Gizza; and that 
 Arzawiya and Biridashwi have wasted the coun- 
 try of Abitu. No. 44. Continuation (?) of a letter 
 to the King of Egypt, reporting that, owing to 
 the hostilities of Abd-Ashirta, Klutya, an official, 
 was unable to send ships to tlie cojntry of 
 Amurri, as he had promised. The ships from 
 Arvad which the writer has in his charge, lack 
 their full complement of men for war service, 
 and he urges the king to make use of tlie ships 
 and crews which he has had with him in Egypt. 
 The writer of the letter also urges the King of 
 Egypt to appoint an Egyptian ollicial over the 
 naval affairs of Sidon, Beyrut and Arvad, and to 
 seize Abd-Ashirta and put him under restraint 
 to prevent him obstructing the manning of tlie 
 ships of war. . . . No. 58. Letter from the gov- 
 ernor of a district in Palestine (?) to the governors 
 of neighbouring states in tlie land of Canaan, in- 
 forming them that he is about to send his mes- 
 senger Akiya on a mission to the King of Egypt, 
 and to place himself and every tiling that he has 
 at his disposal. Akiya will go to Egypt by the 
 way of Canaan, and the writer of this letter sug- 
 gests that any gifts they may have to send to 
 Egypt should be carried by him, for Akiya is a 
 thoroughly trustworthy man." — C. Bezold, Ori- 
 ental diplomacy : Being che tramliterated text of 
 the Cuneiform Despatches, preface. — Under the 
 title of "The Story of a 'Tell,'" Mr. W. M> 
 Flinders Petrie, the successful excavator and ex- 
 plorer of Egyptian antiquities, gave a le' ',ure in 
 London, in June, 1893, in which he described 
 the work and the results of an excavation then 
 in progress under his direction on the supposed 
 site of Lachish, at a point where the maritime 
 plain of Philistia rises to the mountains of Juda;a, 
 on the route from Egypt into Asia. The 
 chairman who introduced Mr. Petrie defined the 
 word ' ' Tell " as follows : "A Tell is a mound 
 of earth showiig by the presence of broken pot- 
 tery or worked stone that it is the site of a 
 ruined city or village. In England when a house 
 falls down or is pulled down the materials are 
 usually worth the expense of removing for use 
 in some new building. But in Egypt common 
 liouses have for thousands of years been built of 
 sun-dried bricks, in Palestine of rough rubble 
 walling, which, on falling, produces many chips, 
 with thick flat roofs of plaster. It is thus often 
 less trouble to get new than to use old material ; 
 the sites of towns grow in height, and depres- 
 sions are filled up." The mound excavated by 
 Air. Petrie is known as Tell el Ilcsy. After he 
 left the work it was carried on by Mr. Bliss, and 
 Mr. Petrie in his lecture says- "The last news is 
 that Mr. Bliss has found the long looked for 
 prize, a cuneiform tablet. . . . From the charac- 
 ter of the writing, which is the same as on the 
 tablets written in Palestine in 1400 B. C, to the 
 Egyptian king at Tel el Amarna, we have a close 
 
 754 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 1520-1400. 
 
 Pharaohs who 
 
 oppressed Israel. 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 1800-670. 
 
 agreement regarding the chronology of tlic town. 
 Further, it mcntiona Zimridu us ii governor, and 
 this same man appears as g^wrnor of Lacliisli 
 on tlie tablets found at Tel el Amarnn. Wo 
 have thus at last picked up the other end of the 
 broken chain of correspondence between Pales- 
 tine and Egypt, of which one part was so unex- 
 pectedly found in Egypt a few years ago on the 
 tablets at Tel el Amnrna ; and we may hope now 
 to recover the Palestinian part of this intercourse 
 and so establish the pre-Israelite history of the 
 land."— W. M. F. Petrie, The Story of a •' Tell" 
 (The City and the Land, lect. 6). — See, also, 
 Palestine. 
 
 Also in: C. R. Conder, The Tell Amama 
 Tablets, translated. 
 
 About B. C. 1400-1200.— The first of the 
 Ramesides. — The Pharaohs of the Oppres- 
 sion and the Exodus. — " Under the Nineteenth 
 Dynasty, which ncquircd the throne after the 
 death of Har-em-IIebi [or Ilor-cm-hcb] the for- 
 tune of Egypt maintained to some extent its 
 ascendancy; but, though the reigns of some war- 
 lilvo lungs throw a briglit light on this epoch, the 
 shade of approaching trouble already darkens 
 the horizon." Hamses I. and his son, or son-in- 
 law, Seti I. , were involved in troublesome wars 
 with the rising power of the Hittites, in Syria, 
 and witli the Sliasu of the Arabian desert. Seti 
 was also at war with the Libyans, who then 
 made their first appearance in Egyptian liistory. 
 His son liamses II., the Sosostris of the Greeks, 
 who reigned for sixty-scVen years, in the fotu'- 
 teenth century B. C, has always been the most 
 famous of the Egyptian kings, and, by modern 
 discovery, has been made the moat interesting of 
 them to the Christian world. He was a busy 
 and boastful warrior, who accomplished no im- 
 portant conquests; but "among the Pharaohs 
 he is the builder ' par excellence. ' It is almost 
 impossible to find in Egypt a ruin or an ancient 
 mound, without reading his name.". . . It was 
 to these works, probably, that the Israelites 
 then in Egypt were forced to contribute their 
 labor; for the Pharaoh of the oppression is 
 Identified, by most scholars of the present day, 
 with tins building and boasting Sesostris. — F. 
 Lenormant and E. Chevallier, Mamial of the 
 Ancient Hist, of tlie East, bk. 3, ch. 3.— "The 
 extreme length of the reign of Ramses was, as 
 in other histories, the cause of subsequent weak- 
 ness and disaster. His successor was an aged 
 son, Jlenptah, who had to meet the diflliculties 
 which were easily overcome by the youth of 
 his energetic father. Tlie Libyans and their 
 maritime allies broke the long tranquillity of 
 Egypt by a fomiidable invasion aL d temporary 
 conquest of the north-west. Tlie power of the 
 monarchy was thus shaken, and the old king 
 was not tlie leader to restore it. His obscure 
 reign was followed by others even obscurer, and 
 the Nineteentli Dynasty ended in complete an- 
 archy, which reached its height when a Syrian 
 chief, in what manner we know not, gained the 
 rule of the whole country. It is to the reign of 
 Menptah that Egyptian tradition assigned the 
 Exodus, and modern research has come to a 
 general agreement that this is its true place iu 
 Egyptian history. . . . Unfortunately we do not 
 know th ; duration of the oppression of the Israel- 
 ites, nor the condition of Lower Egypt during 
 the Eighteenth Dynasty, which, according to 
 the hypothesis here adopted, corresponds to a 
 
 great part of the Hebrew sojourn. It is, bow- 
 ever, clear from the Bible that the oppression 
 did not begin till after the period of Joseph's 
 contemporaries, an<l had loatcd eighty years be- 
 fore tlie Exodus. It seems almost certain that 
 this was the actual beginning of the oppresaion, 
 for it is very improbable that two se|)arato 
 Pharaohs arc inteniied by the ' new king which 
 knew not Joseph ' and the builder of Uanieses, 
 or, in other words, Ramses II., and the time 
 from the acceaaion of Rumaes II. to the end of 
 Menptah's reign can have little exceeded the 
 eighty years of Scripture between the birth of 
 Mosea and the Exodua. ... If the adjuatment 
 of Hebrew ond Egyptian history for the oppres- 
 sion, as stated above, be acccpteti, Ramses II. 
 was probably the first, and certainly tlie great 
 oppressor. His character suits this theory ; he 
 was an undoubted autocrat who . . . covered 
 Egypt and Lower Nubia with vast structures that 
 could only have been produced by slave-labor on 
 the largest scale." — R. S. Poole, Ancient Egypt 
 (Contcmih lien.. Mar., 1879). 
 
 Also in: H. Brugsch-Bcy, Egypt Under the 
 Pharaohs, ch. 14. —H. G. Tomkins, Life and 
 I'imcs of Joseph. — See, also: Jews: The Chil- 
 dren OK ISUAEL in EoYPT. 
 
 About B. C. 1300.— Exodus of the Israelites. 
 
 See Jews: The Route ok the Exoduh. 
 
 About B. C. 1200-670.— The decline of the 
 empire of the Pharaohs. — From the aii:\rchy in 
 winch the Nineteenth Dynasty came to its end, 
 order woa presently restored by the seating in 
 power of a new family, which claimed to be of 
 the Rameside stock. The second of its kings, 
 who called himaelf Ranisea III. and who is 
 believed to be tlie Rhampainitus of the Greeks, 
 appears to have been one of the ablest of the 
 monarclis of his line. The security and prosper- 
 ity of Egypt were recovereci under liia reign and 
 he left it in a state which does not acem to have 
 promised tlie rapid decay which ensued. " It Is 
 ditlicult to underetand and account for the 
 suddenness and completeness of the collapse. 
 . . . The hieratic chiefs, the high priests of the 
 god Amnion at Thebes, gradually increased in 
 power, usurped one after another the preroga- 
 tives of the Pharaohs, by degrees reduced their 
 authority to a shadow, and ended with an open 
 assumption not only of the functions, but of the 
 very insignia of royalty. A space of nearly two 
 centuries elapsed, however, before this change 
 was complete. Ten princes of the name of 
 Ramses, and one called Meri-Tum, all of them 
 connected by blood with the great Rameside 
 house, bore the royal title and occupied the 
 royal palace, in the apace between B. C. 1280 
 and B. C. 1100. Egyptian history during this 
 period is almost wholly a blank. No military 
 expeditions are conducted — no great buildings 
 are reared — art almost disappears — literature 
 holds her tongue. " Then came the dynasty of 
 the priest-kings, founded by Her-IIor. which 
 lield the throne for more tlian a century and was 
 contemporary in its latter years witli David and 
 Solomon. The Twenty-Second Dynasty which 
 succeeded had its capital at Bubastis and is con- 
 cluded by Dr. Brugscli to have been a line of 
 Assyrian kings, representing an invasion and 
 conquest of Egyjit by NImrod, the great king of 
 A;syria. Other Egyptologists disagree with Dr. 
 Brugscli in this, and Prof. Rawlinson, the his- 
 torian of Assyria, flnd^ ob'ections to the hypothe- 
 
 755 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 12^-670. Oreefc. at NaucratU. EGYPT, B. C. 670-525. 
 
 sis from his own point of view. Tbe prominent 
 nionarc'li of tliis dynasty was tlie Slicslionk of 
 Biblical history, who she'.tered Jeroboam, in- 
 vaded Palestine and plundered Jerusiiiem. 
 Before this dynasty came to an end it had lost 
 the sovereignty of Elgypt at large, and its Pha- 
 raohs contended with various rivals and invaders. 
 Among the hitter, power grew in the hands of a 
 nice of Ethiopians, wlio hud risen to importiince 
 at Napata, on the Upper Nile, and wlio extended 
 their power, at last, over the whole of Egypt. 
 The Ethiopian domination was maintainecf for 
 two-thirds of a century, until the great wave of 
 Assyrian conquest broke upon Egypt in 673 
 B. C. and swept over it, driving tlie Ethiopians 
 back to Napata and JleroG. — G. Kawlinson, Hist, 
 of Ancient Kgi/pt, eh. 25. 
 
 Ai-BO IN: il. Brugsch-Bey, Effffpt under the 
 Pharaohs, ch. 15-18.— E. Wilson, Egypt of the 
 Past, ch. 8. — See, also, Ethioi-ia. 
 
 B. C. 670-525. — Assyrian conquest and re- 
 stored independence. — The Twenty-sixth Dy- 
 nasty. — The Greeks at Naucratis. — Although 
 Syria and Palestine had then been sulTering for 
 more than a century from the conquering arms 
 of the Assyrians, it was not until 670 B. C, ac- 
 cording to Prof. Rawlinson, that Esarhaddou 
 passed the boundaries of Egypt and made him- 
 self master of that country. His father Senna- 
 cherib, had attempted tlie invasion thirty years 
 before, at the time of his siege of Jerusalem, and 
 had recoiled before some mysterious calamity 
 ■which impelled him to a sudden retreat. The 
 son avenged his father's failure. The Ethiopian 
 masters of Egypt were expelled ond the Assyrian 
 took their place. He " broke up the country into 
 twenty governments, appointing in each town a 
 ruler who bore the title of king, but placing all 
 the others to a certain extent under the authority 
 of the prince who reigned at Memphis. This 
 •was Neco, the father of Psammetichus (Psama- 
 tik I.) — a native Egyptian of whom we have 
 some mention both in Herodotus and in the frag- 
 ments of Manetho. The remaining rulers were 
 likewise, for the most part, native Egyptians." 
 These arrangements were soon broken up by the 
 expelled Ethiopian king, Tirhakah, who rallied 
 his forces and swept the Assyrian kinglets out of 
 the country ; but Asshur-bani-pal, son and suc- 
 cessor of Esarhaddon, made his appearance with 
 an army in 668 or 667 B. C. and Tirhakah fled 
 before him. Again and again this occurred, and 
 for twenty years Egypt was torn between t)ie 
 Assyrians and the Ethiopians, in their struggle 
 for the possession of her. At length, out of the 
 chaos produced by these conflicts tliere emerged 
 a native ruler — the Psammetichus mentioned 
 above — who subjugated his fellow princes and 
 established a new Egyptian monarchy, which 
 defended itself with success against Assyria and 
 Ethiopia, alike. The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, of 
 Sais, founded by Psammetichus, is suspected to 
 have been of Libyan descent. It ruled Egypt 
 until tlie Persian conquest, and brought a greot 
 new influence to bear on the country and people, 
 by the introduction of Greek soldiers and traders. 
 It was under this dynasty that the Greek city of 
 Naucratis was founded, on the Canobic brancli of 
 the Nile. — G. Rawlinson, The Five Oreat Mon- 
 archies; Assyria, ch. 9. — The site of Naucratis, 
 near the Canobic branch of the Nile, was de- 
 termined by excavations which Mr. W. M. 
 Flinders Petrie began m 1884, and from which 
 
 much has been learned of the history of the city 
 ond of early relations between the Egyptians and 
 tlie Greeks. It is concluded that the settlement 
 of Naucratis dates from about 660 B. (;.— 
 not long after the beginning of the reign of 
 Psanimitichus — and that its Greek founders be- 
 came the allies of that monarch and his succes- 
 sors against tlieir enemies. "All are agreed that 
 before the reign of Psani'.iiitichusand the found- 
 ing of Naucratis, Egypt was a sealed book to 
 the Greeks. It is likely that the Phoenicians, 
 who were from time to time the subjects of the 
 Pharaohs, were admitted, where all is like the 
 Greeks were excluded. We have indi jd positive 
 evidence that the Egyptians did not wish strange 
 countries to learn their art, for in a treaty be- 
 tween them and the Hittites it is stipulated that 
 neitlier country shall harbour fugitive artists 
 from the otlior. But however the fact may be 
 accounted for, it is an undoubted fact that long 
 before Psammitichus threw Egypt open to the 
 foreigner, the Phoenicians had studied in tlio 
 school of Egyptian art, and learned to copy all 
 sorts of handiwork procured from the valley of 
 the Nile. . . . According to Herodotus and Dio- 
 dorus, the favour shown to tlie Greeks by the 
 King was the cause of a great revolt of the native 
 Egyptian troops, who left the frontier-fortresses, 
 and marched south beyond Elephantine, where 
 they settled, resisting all the entreaties of Psam- 
 mitichus, who naturally deplored the loss of the 
 mainstay of his dominions, and developed into 
 the race of the Sebridae. Wiedemann, however, 
 rejects the whole story as unhistorical, and cer- 
 tainly, if we clo.sely consider it, it contains great 
 inherent improbabilities. . . . Psammitichus died 
 in B. C. 610, and was succeeded by his son 
 Necho, who was his equal in enterprise and 
 vigour. This King paid great attention to the 
 fleet of Egypt, and Greek shipwrights were 
 set to work on both the Mediterranean and Red 
 Seas to build triremes for the State navy. A 
 fleet of his ships, we are told, succeeded in sail- 
 ing round Africa, a very great feat for the age. 
 The King even attempted the task, of which the 
 completion was reserved for the Persian Darius, 
 the Ptolemie-s, and Trajan, of making a canal 
 from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Herod- 
 otus says that, after sacrificing the lives of 
 120,000 men to the labour and heat of the task, 
 he gave it up, in consequence of the warning of 
 an oracle that he was toiling only for the barbu 
 rians. . . . Nccho, like his father, must needs 
 try the edge of his new weapon, the Ionian mer- 
 cenaries, on Asia. At first he was successful. 
 Josiah, King of Judah, came out against him, 
 but was slain, and his army dispersed. Greek 
 valour carried Necho as far as the Euphrates. 
 . . . But Nebuchadnezzar, son of the King of 
 Babylon, marched against the invaders, and de- 
 feated them in a great battle near Carchemish. 
 His father's death recalled him to Babylon, and 
 Egypt was for the moment saved from counter- 
 invasion by the stubborn resistance offered to the 
 Babylonian arms by Jehoiakim, K' of Judah, 
 a resistance fatal to the Jewish i ir Jerusa- 
 
 lem was captured after a long s d most of 
 
 the inhabitants carried into capti Of Psam- 
 
 mitichus II., who succeeded Net, ue should 
 know but little were it not for the archaeological 
 record. Herodotus only says that he attacked 
 Ethiopia, and died after a reign of six years. 
 But of the expedition thus summarily recorded 
 
 766 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 670-585. F*rtlan Conquett. EGYPT, B. C. 825-332. 
 
 wc Imvo a lasting and memorable result in the 
 well-known iuscriptlons written by Hhodinns 
 and other Greek mercenaries on the legs of the 
 colossi at Abu Simbel in Nubia, which record 
 how certain of them came thither in the reign of 
 Psammiticlms, pushing up the river in boats as 
 far as it was navigable, that is, perhaps, up to the 
 second cataract. . . . Apries, the Ilophra of the 
 Bible, was the next king. The early part of his 
 reign was marked by successful warfare against 
 the Phoenicians and the peoples of Syria; but, 
 like his predecessor, ho was unable to maintain 
 a footing in Asia in the face of the powerful and 
 warlike Nebuchadnezzar. The hostility which 
 prevailed between Egypt and Babylon at tliis 
 time caused King Apries to open a refuge for 
 those Jews who fled from the persecution of 
 Nebuchadnezzar. He assigned to their leaders, 
 among whom were the daughters of the King 
 of Judali, a palace of his own at Daphnae, 
 'Pharaoh's house at Tahpanhcs,' as it is called 
 by Jeremiah. That prophet was among tlie 
 fugitives, and uttered in the palace a notable 
 prophecy (.\liii. 0) tliat King Nebuchadnezzar 
 should come and spread his conquering tent over 
 the pavement before it. Formerly it was sup- 
 posed that this prophecy remained unfulfilled, 
 but this opinion has to bo abandoned. Recently- 
 discovered Egyptian and Babylonian inscriptions 
 prove that Nebuchadnezzar conquereil Egypt as 
 far as Syene. . . . The fall of Apries was 
 brought about by his ingratitude to tlie Greeks, 
 and his contempt for the lives of his own sub- 
 jects. He had formed the project of bringing 
 under his sway the Greek cities of the Cyrenaica. 
 . . . Apries cfespatched against Cyrene a large 
 force ; but the Cyreneans bravely defended them- 
 selves, and as the Egyptians on this occasion 
 marched without their Greek allies, they were 
 entirely defeated, and most of them perislied by 
 the sword, or in the deserts which separate Cy- 
 rene from Egypt. The defeated troops, and 
 their countrymen who remained behind in gar- 
 rison in Egypt, imputed the disaster to treachery 
 on the part of Apries. . . . They revolted, and 
 chose as their leader Amasis, a man of experience 
 and daring. But Apries, though deserted by his 
 subjects, hoped still to maintain his throne by 
 Greek aid. At the head of 30,000 lonians and 
 Carians he marched against Amasis. At Mo- 
 memphis a battle took place between the rival 
 kings and between the rival nations; but the 
 numbers of the Egyptians prevailed over the 
 arms and discipline of the mercenaries, and 
 Apries was defeated and captured by his rival, 
 who, however, allowed 1dm for some years to 
 retain the name of joint-king. It is tlie best 
 possible proof of the solidity of Greek influence 
 in Egypt at this time that Amasis, tliough set on 
 the throne by the native army after a victory 
 over the Greek mercenaries, yet did not expel 
 these latter from Egypt, but, on the contrary, 
 raised them to higher favour than before. . . . 
 In the delightful dawn of connected European 
 history we see Amasis uS a wise and wealtliy 
 prince, ruling in Egypt at the time when Poly- 
 crates was tyrant of Bamos ; and when Croesus 
 of Lydia, the richest king of his time, was be- 
 ginning to be alarmed by the rapid expansion of 
 the Persian power under Cyrus. ... In the 
 days of Psammitichus III. , the son of Amasis, 
 the storm which had overshadowed Asia broke 
 upon Egypt. One of the leaders of the Greek 
 
 mercenaries in Egypt named Phancs. a native of 
 Halieamassus, maile Ids way to Uie Persian 
 Court, and persuaded Cambysi'S, who, according 
 to the story, had received from Ainnsis one of 
 those affronts which have so often produced wars 
 between despots, to invade Egypt in full force. " — 
 P. Gardner, A'cu) C/uipttrn in Greek Ilintorij, ch. 7. 
 
 Also in: W. M. P. Petrie, I^'aukmtig. — See, 
 also, Naukuatis. 
 
 B. C. Sa«-332. — Persian conquest and sov- 
 ereignty.— Tlie kings of the Twenty-Si.xtli or 
 Saite Dynasty maintained tlie independence of 
 Egypt for nearly a century and a half, and even 
 revived its military glories briefly, by Necho'a 
 eplienieral conquests m Syria and his overthrow 
 of Josiah king of Judah. In the meantime, As- 
 syria and IJabyffinia had fallen and tlie Persian 
 power raised up by Cyrus had taken their place. 
 In his own time, Cyrus did not finish a plan of 
 conqiiest which included Egypt ; his son Cam- 
 byses took up the task. "It appears that four 
 years were consumed by the Persian monarch in 
 his preparations for his Egyptian expedition. It 
 was not until B. C. 525 that he entered Egypt at 
 the head of his troops and fought the great "battle 
 which decided the fate of the country. The 
 struggle was long and bloody [see PunsiA : B. C. 
 549-521]. Psammenitus, who had succeeded his 
 father Amasis, had tlie services, not only of his 
 Egyptian subjects, but of a large body of mer- 
 cenaries besides, Greeks aud Carians. ... In 
 spite of tlieir courage and fanaticism, the Egyp- 
 tian army was completely defeated. . . . The 
 conquest of Egypt was followed bv the submis- 
 sion of the neighbouring tribes. . . . Even the 
 Greeks of the more remote Barca and Cyrene 
 sent gifts to the conqueror and consented to be- 
 come his tributaries." But Cambyses wasted 
 50,000 men in a disastrous expedition through 
 the Libyan desert to Ammou, aud he retreated 
 from Ethiopia with loss and shame. An at- 
 tempted rising of the Egyptians, before he had 
 quitted their country, was cruslied with merci- 
 less severity. The deities, the temples and the 
 priests of Egypt were treated with insult and 
 contempt and the spirit of the people seems to 
 have been entirely broken. "Egypt became 
 now for a full generation the obsequious slave of 
 Persia, and gave no more trouble to her subju- 
 gator than the weakest, or the most contented, 
 of the provinces." — Geo. Rawlinsou, The Five 
 Oreat Monarchies : Persia, eh. 7. — "The Persian 
 kings, from Cambyses to Darius II. Notlius, are 
 enrolled as the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty of Man- 
 etlio. The ensuing revolts [see Athens: B. C. 
 460-449] are recogtized in the Twenty-Eighth 
 (Saite) Dynasty, consisting only of Amyrtoius, 
 who restored the independence of Egypt (B. C. 
 414-408), and the Twenty-Ninth (Menae8ian)and 
 Thirtieth (Sebeniiyte) Dynasties (about B. C. 408- 
 353), of whose intricate history we need only 
 here say that they ruled with great prosperity 
 and have left beautiful monuments of art. The 
 last king of independent Egypt was Nectanebo 
 II., who succumbed to the invasion of Artaxer- 
 xes Ochus, and fled to Ethiopia (B. C. 353). 
 Tlie last three kings of Persia, Ochus, Arses, 
 and Darius Codomannus, form the Thirty-Fii'sl: 
 Dynasty of JIanetho, ending with the submis- 
 sion of Egypt to Alexander the Great (B. C. 
 332)."— P. Smith, Ancient Hist, of tlie East (Stu- 
 dents'), ch. 8. 
 
 Also in : 8. Sharpe, Hist, of Egypt, ch. 5. 
 
 757 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 888. 
 
 Kingdom of the 
 liolemie: 
 
 EGYPT, B. C. 323-80. 
 
 B. C. 333.— Alexander's conquest. — "In tho 
 
 Biiiniiicr of 8!t2 [uftcr tliR Hic^c iind dcRtruction 
 of Tyrt" — Hcc Tyuk: H. C'. 333, and Macedonia, 
 &c. : B. C. 3!)4-3iJO] Alexander set forward on 
 his ninrch toward Kjfyjtt, accompanied by tlio 
 fleet, widcli lie liad placed under tlio orders of 
 Ileplia'Htion." But, lieiiig detained on tlie way 
 geveral niontlis l)y tlic siege of Qaza, it was not 
 liefore l)eccMil)er tliat lie entered Egypt. "He 
 might Biifely reckon not merely on an easy con- 
 quest, but on an ardent reception, from a people 
 who l)urnt to shake off the Persian tyranny. 
 . . . Mazacea [the Persian commander] inmself, 
 as soon as he lieanl of the battle of Issus, became 
 aware that all resistance to Ale.xander would bo 
 useless, and met lijin with 1. voluntary submis- 
 sion. At Pelusium he found the fleet, and, hav- 
 ing left a garrison in the fortress, ordered it to 
 proceed up the Nile as far as JMemphis, while he 
 marched across the desert. Here he conciliated 
 tlie Egyptians by the honours which ho paid 
 to all their gods, especially to Apis, who had 
 been so cruelly insulted by the Persian invaders. 
 ... Ho then embarked, and'dropt down tlie 
 western or Canobic arm of the river to Cano- 
 bus, to survey the extremity of the Delta on 
 tliat side, nnd having sailed round tho lake 
 Mareotis, landed on the narrow belt of low ground 
 which parts it from the sea, and is sheltered 
 from tho violence of the northern gales ... by 
 a long ridge of rock, then separated from the 
 main land by a channel, nearly a mile (seven 
 Blades) broad and forming tho isle of Pharos. On 
 this site stood tho village of Racotis, where the 
 ancient kings of Egypt had stationed a permanent 
 guard to protect this entrance of their dominions 
 from adventurers. . . . Alexander's keen eye 
 was immediately struck by the advantages of 
 this position for a city, which should become a 
 great emporium of commerce, and a link between 
 the East and the West. . . . He immediotely 
 gave orders for the beginning of the work, him- 
 self traced the outline, which was suggested by 
 the natural features of the ground itself, and 
 marked the site of some of the principal build- 
 ings, squares, palaces and temples" (see Alex- 
 andria: B. C. 332). Alexander remained in 
 Egypt until the spring of 331, arranging tho 
 occupation and administration of the country. 
 "The system which he established served in some 
 points as a model for the policy of Rome under 
 the Emperors. " Before quitting the country he 
 made a toilsome marcli along the coast, west- 
 ward, and thence, far into the desert, to visit tho 
 famous oracle of Ammon. — C. Thirlwall, Hut. 
 of Greece, ch. 50. 
 
 B. C. 323-30.— The kingdom of the 
 Ptolemies. — In the division of the empire of 
 Alexan<ler the Great between his generals, when 
 he died, Ptolemy Lagus — reputed to be a 
 natural son of Alexander's father Philip — chose 
 Egypt (see Macedonia: B. C. 323-316), with a 
 modesty which proved to be wise. In all the 
 provinces of the Macedonian conquest, it was 
 the country most easily to be held as an inde- 
 pendent state, by reason of the sea and desert 
 •which separated it from the rest of the world. 
 It resulted from the prudence of Ptolemy that 
 he founded a kingdom which lasted longer and 
 enjoyed more security and prosperity than any- 
 other among the monarchies of the Diadochi. 
 He was king of Egypt, in fact, for seventeen 
 years before, in SOT, B. C, he ventured to 
 
 aH8tim<' the name (see Macedonia: B. C. 310- 
 301), .Meantime, he had added to his dominion 
 the little Greek state of Cvrene, on the African 
 coast with Phrenicia, .ludiea, Crele-Syria, and 
 tho island of Cyprus. Tlieso latter became dis- 
 puted territory, fought over for two centuries, 
 between tlie Ptoleiiiies and the Selcucids, some- 
 times dominated by the one and sometimes by 
 the other (see Sbleucid^: B. C. 281-224, and 
 224-187). At its greatest extent, tho dominion 
 of tho Ptolemies, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 son of I'tolemy Lagus, included largo parts of 
 Asia Jlinor and many of the Greek islands. 
 Egypt and Cyreue they held, with little disturb- 
 ance, until Rome absorbed them. Notwith- 
 standing the vices which the family of Ptolemy 
 developed, luid which were as rank of their kind 
 us history can show, Egypt under their rule 
 appears to have been one of the most prosperous 
 countries of tlie time. In Alexandria, they more 
 tiian realized the dream of its Macedonian pro- 
 jector. They made it not only the wealthiest 
 city of tlieir day, but the greatest seat of learn- 
 ing, — tl-o successor of Athens as tho capital of 
 Greek civilization in the ancient world. — S. 
 Sharpc, Hist, of E'jypt, ch. 7-12.— The first 
 Ptolemy abdicated in favor of his son, Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, in 284 B. C, and died in the 
 second year following. See Macedonia: B. C 
 297-380.—" Although the political constitution 
 of Egypt was not greatiy altered when the land 
 fell into Greek hands, yet in other respects great 
 changes took place. 'The mere fact that Egypt 
 took its place among a family of Hellenistic 
 nations, instead of claiming as of old a proud 
 isolation, must have had a great effect on the 
 trade, the manufactures, and the customs of the 
 country. To begin with trade. Under the 
 native kings Egypt had scarcely any external 
 trade, and trade could scarcely spring up during 
 the wars with Persia. But under the Ptolemies, 
 intercourse between Egypt and Sicily, Syria or 
 Greece, would naturally and necessarily advance 
 rapidly. Egypt produced manufactured goods 
 which were everywhere in demand ; fine linen, 
 ivory, porcelain, notably that papyrus which 
 Egypt alone produced, and which was necessary 
 to the growing trade in manuscripts. Artificial 
 barriers being once removed, enterprising traders 
 of Corinth and Tarentum, Ephesus and Rhodes, 
 would naturally seek these goods in Egypt, 
 bringing in return whatever of most attroctive 
 their own countries had to offer. It seems 
 probable that the subjects of the Ptolemies 
 seldom or never had the couroge to soil direct 
 down the Red Sea to India. In Roman times 
 this voyage became not unusual, but at an 
 earlier time the Indian trade was principally In 
 the hands of the Arabs of Yemen nnd of the 
 Persian Gulf. Nevertheless the commerce of 
 Egypt under the Ptolemies spread eastwards aa 
 well as westwards. The important towns of 
 ArsinotJ and Berenice arose on tho Red Sea as 
 emporia of the Arabian trade. And as alwiys 
 happens when Egypt is in vigorous hands, the 
 limits of Egj'ptian rule and commerce were 
 pushed further and further up the Nile. The 
 influx into Alexandria and Memphis of a crowd 
 of Greek architects, artists, and artizans, could 
 not fail to produce movement in that stream of 
 art which had in Egypt long remained all but 
 stagnant. ... If we may trust the somewhat 
 over-coloured and flighty panegyrics which have 
 
 758 
 
EGYPT, B. C. 828-80. 
 
 Under the Komatu. EQYPT, A. D. 12.10-1817. 
 
 onmfi down to us, the mntorifil progress of Egypt 
 under Ptolemy Pliilndclpliiis wiis most wondor- 
 ful. Wu reud, though wp cimnot for a moment 
 trust the figures of Appian, that in his reign 
 Egypt jiossessed iin nrmy of 200,000 foot soldiers 
 and 40,(K)0 horsemen, !iOO elephants and 2,000 
 chariots of war. Tlu; fleet at the same period is 
 said to liave ineludcd 1,.500 hirge ve.ssels, some 
 of them with twenty or thirty lianks of oars. 
 Allowing for exaggenition, we must sui)poso 
 that Egypt was tlien more powerful than it had 
 been since the days of Kameses. " — P. Gardner, 
 New Chapters in Greek IliKtory, ch. 7. — See, also, 
 Alexandiua: B. C. 282-246"; and Education, 
 Anciknt: Alkxanduia. 
 
 B. C. 80-48.— Strife among the Ptolemies.— 
 Roman pretensions, — Tlio tlironc of Egypt 
 being disputed, H. C. 80, between Cleopatra Here- 
 nice, who had seized it, and her step-son, Ptolemy 
 Alexander, tlien in Rome, the latter l)rit)ed the 
 Romans to support his claims l)y malting a will in 
 which he named the Roman Republic as his heir. 
 The Senate, thereat, sent him to Alexandria with 
 orders that Berenice sliould marry him and that 
 they should reign jointly, as liing and queen. 
 The order wos obeyed. Tlie foully mated pair 
 were wedded, and, nineteen days afterwards, the 
 young king procured the deatli of his queen. 
 The crime provoked an insurrection in wliich 
 Ptolemy Alexander waa slain by his own guard. 
 Tlds ended tlie legitimate lino of the Ptolemies ; 
 but an illegitimate i)rince, usually called Auletes, 
 or "the piper," was put on the throne, and he 
 succeeded in holding it for twenty-four years. 
 Tlie claim of the Romans, under the will of 
 Ptolemy Alexander, seems to have been kept in 
 abeyance by the bribes wliich Auletes employed 
 with liberatitv among the senatorial leaders. In 
 58 B. C. a rising at Alexandria drove Auletes 
 from llie throne; in 54 B. C. he bought the sup- 
 port of Gabinius, Roman pro-consul in Syria, 
 who reinstated him. lie died in 51 B. C. leav- 
 ing by will his kingdom to his elder daughter, 
 Cleopatra, and his elder son, Ptolemy, who, ac- 
 cording to the abominable custom of the Ptolemies, 
 were to marry one another and reign together. 
 The Roman people, by the terms of the will were 
 made its executors. When, therefore, Ciesar, 
 coming to Alexandria, three years afterwards, 
 found the will of Auletes set at nought, Ptolemy 
 occupying the throne, alone, and Cleopatra 
 struggling against him, he had some ground for 
 a pretension of right to interfere. — 8. Sharpc, 
 Hist. ^ Egypt, eh. 11. 
 
 B. C. 48-47. — Civil war between Cleopatra 
 and Ptolemy.— Intervention of Cxsar. — The 
 rising against him. — The Romans besieged in 
 Alexandria. — Their ruthless victory. Seo 
 ALEXANDiiiA: B. C. 48-47. 
 
 B. C. 30. — Organized as a Roman province. 
 — After the battle of Actium and the death of 
 Cleopatra, Egypt was reduced by Octavius to the 
 rank of a Roman province ond the dynasty of the 
 Ptolemies extinguished. But Octavius "had no 
 intention of giving to the senate the rich domain 
 which he tore from its native rulers. lie would 
 not sow in a foreign soil the seeds of independ- 
 ence which he was intent upon crushing nearer 
 home. ... In due time he persuaded the senate 
 and people to establish it as a principle, that 
 Egypt should never be placed under the adminis- 
 tration of any man of superior rank to the eques- 
 tLioD, and that no senator should be allowed even 
 
 to vi.sit it, without express perniis.sion from the 
 supreme authority." — ('. Merivale, Hist, of the 
 Uomitns, eh. 20. 
 
 A. D. 100-500. — Roman and Christian. See 
 Ai.kxandiua: B. V. 4H-.17 to A. I). 4i;Ml.'); 
 luid CiimsTiANlTV: A. I). :ti»-l(M), and 1(M)-312. 
 
 A. D. 296.— Revolt crushed by Diocletian. 
 See Al.KXANnniA: A. D. 2ml. 
 
 A. D. 6i6-6a8. — Conquest by Chosroes, the 
 Persian. — The career of eoncpiest pursued by 
 ChosriH's, the last Persian eoncpieror, extended 
 even to Egypt, and beyond it. "Egypt itself, 
 the only provinee whirli had been exempt sinco 
 the time of Oioeleliaii from foreign and d.)mestic 
 war, was again subdued l)y tlie successors of 
 Cyrus. Pelusium, the key of that impervious 
 eoimtry, was surprise<l by the cavalry of the 
 Persians; they passed with impunity the innum- 
 erable channels of the Deltiv, and explored the 
 long valley of the Nile from the pyramids of 
 Jlemphis to the confines of ^^ithiopia. Alexandria 
 might have been ndievcd by a naval force, but 
 the archbishop and the pnrfeet embarked for 
 Cyprus; and Chosroes entered the second city of 
 the empire, which still preserved a wealthy rem- 
 nant of industry and commerce. His western 
 tropliy was erected, not on the walls of Carthage, 
 but in the neighbourhood of Tripoli : tlie Greek 
 colonies of Cyrene were finally extirpated." By 
 the peace concluded in 628, after the death of 
 Chosroes, all of his conquests were restored to 
 the empire and the cities of Syria and Egypt 
 evocuated by their Persian garrisons. — E. Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall of the {Ionian Empire, ch. 46. — 
 See Pehbia : A. D. 228-027. 
 
 A. D. 640-646. — Moslem conquest. Sec Ma- 
 hometan Conquest: A. 1). 040-646. 
 
 A. D. 967-1171. — Under the Fatimite Ca- 
 liphs. See Mahometan Conquest: A. I). 008- 
 1171. 
 
 A. D. I. '68- 1 250.— Under the Atabeg and 
 Ayoubite sultans. See Sai-adin, The em;-ikk 
 
 OK. 
 
 A. D. 1218-1220.— Invasion by the Fifth 
 Crusade. See Crusades: A. I). 1216-1220. 
 
 A. D. 1249- 1 250.— Th. crusading invasion 
 by Saint Louis of France. See Crusades: 
 A. D. 1248-12.54. 
 
 A. D. i2So-i';i7. — The Mameluke Sultans. — 
 The MameluUi . were a militfiry bcxiy created by 
 Saladin. "The word means slave (literally ' the 
 possessed '), and . . . they were brought in youth 
 from nortliern countries to serve in the South. 
 Saladin himself was a Kurd, and long before his 
 accession to power, Turkish and Kurdish mer- 
 cenaries were employed by the Caliphs of Bagdad 
 and Coiro, as the Pope employs Swiss. . . . Sub- 
 sequently, however, Circassia became the coun- 
 try which most largely furnished this class of 
 troops. Their apprenticeship was a long and 
 laborious one ; they were taught, first of all, to read 
 the Koran and to write ; then followed lanccexer- 
 cise, during which time nobody was allowed to 
 speak to them. At first they either resided in 
 the castle, or were exercised living under tents; 
 but after the time of Sultan Barkouk they were 
 allowed to live in the town [Cairo], and the quar- 
 ter now occupied by the Jews was at that time 
 devoted to the Circassian Mamelukes. After 
 this period they neglected their religious ond 
 warlike exercises, and became degenerate and 
 corrupt. . . . The dynasty of Saladin . . . was 
 of no duration, and ended in 648 A. H., or 1250 
 
 759 
 
EGYPT, 1250-1517. 
 
 Thr Mamelukri. 
 
 EGYPT, 1803-1811. 
 
 of tlio riiristinn crii. Tlicn bcgdn tlio so-cnllpd 
 Biilirilc Sultiins, In coiifMMiiicticc of t\w Miimc- 
 Inkrsdf tlic Hultaii Ncfijm-rd-din Imviiif; lodircil 
 in Hrxlidi, llio Island in llic Nile (liiilir-cn-MI). 
 Tlif intrl;;ucr of llif period was Slicgcrcd-dur, 
 tliL' widow of tli(^ nioniircli, wlio married one of 
 tlieMuinelulies, M(M'z-e(iilin-ail)el{cl-Turroniany, 
 wlio'lH'caine llie tirnt of tlicHC Haliritc HtdtanH, 
 nnd was Idmself murd'Ted in tlie Castle of Cairo 
 tliroiigli this woman. . . . Tlieirsubseeiuent his- 
 tory, iintil the conquest of Kgypt by Sultan 
 Bel'ini in l.ll?, presi'nis nothing but a scries of 
 aets of lust, murder and rapine. Ho rapidly did 
 they e.\pel each other from power, that the 
 average reign of each did not exceed five or si.x 
 years. . . . The 'lieeting purple' of the decline 
 and fall of the Uomaii Empire is the spectacle 
 which these Mameluke Dynasties constantly i)re- 
 Bcnt. " — A. A. Paton, 7/i«<. nf the. Kfjupliaii lier'Au- 
 tion, V. 1, eh. 3-5. 
 
 A. D. 1516-1517. — Overthrow of the Mame- 
 luke Sultans.— Ottoman conquest by Sultan 
 Selim. Kee TiiuKs: A. 1). 1481-1,V.J0. 
 
 A. D. 1798-1799.— The French conquest and 
 occupation by Bonaparte. See Fkanck: A. 1). 
 
 1798 (May— AuoiisT), nnd 1708-17U9 (August— 
 August). 
 
 A, D. 1798-1799. — Bonaparte's organization 
 of government. — His victory at Aboulcir. — His 
 return to France. See Fhanck: A. I). 1798- 
 
 1799 (August — August), nnd 1799 (Novemukk). 
 A. D. 1800. — Discontent and discourage- 
 ment of the French. — The repudiated Treaty 
 of El Arish. — Turkish defeat at Heliopolis. — 
 Revolt crushed at Cairo. — Assassination of 
 Klfcber. See Fiiance: A. D. 1800 (.Januaiiy— 
 June). 
 
 A. D. 1801-1802.— Expulsion of the French 
 by the English. — Restoration of the province 
 to Turkey. Sec Fhanck: A. D. 1801-1803. 
 
 A. D. 1803-1811.— The rise of Mohammad 
 'Aly (or Mehemet Ali) to power. — His treach- 
 erous destruction of the Mamelukes. — "It 
 ■was during the French occupation that Moham- 
 mad 'Aly [or Mehemet Ali] came on the scene. 
 He was born in 1708 at the Albanian port of 
 Kaballa, and by the patronage of the governor 
 was sent to Egypt in 1801 with the contingent of 
 troops furnished by Kaballa to the Ottoman 
 army then operating with the English against 
 the French, lie rapidly rose to the command of 
 the Amaut or Albanian section of the Turltish 
 army, and soon found himself an important 
 factor in the confused political position which 
 followed the departure of the British army. 
 The Memluk Beys had not been restored to their 
 former posts as provincial governors, and were 
 consequently ripe for revolt against the Porte ; 
 but their party was weakened by the rivalry of 
 its two leaders, El-Elfy and El-Bardisy, .vho 
 divided their followers into two liostile camps. 
 On the other hand, the Turkish Pasha appointed 
 by the Porte had not yet gained a firm grip of 
 the country, nnd was perpetually apprehensive 
 of a recall to Constantinople. Alohammad 'Aly 
 at the head of his Albanians was an importJint 
 ally for either side to secure, and he fully ap- 
 preciated his position. He played off one party 
 against the other, the Pasha against the Beys, so 
 successfully, that he not only weakened both 
 sides, but made the people of Cairo, who were 
 disgusted with the anarchy of Memluk and Turk 
 alike, his Arm friends; and at last suffered him- 
 
 self, with becoming hesitation, to 1)0 pcrstinded 
 by the entreaty of the pippuliicc to become |180,')] 
 their ruler, and thus stepped to the supreme 
 l)owpr in the curious guise of the people's friend. 
 A fearful time followed Mohammad 'Aly's elec- 
 tion— for such it was — to the governorship of 
 Egynt. TlieTurkish Pasha, Khurshid, held the 
 cita<lel, and Mohammad 'Alv, energetically aided 
 by the peo]>le of Cairo, ]nU\ siege to it. From 
 the minaret of the mosi|U(! of Sidtan Hasan, and 
 from the heights of Mukiitlam, the besiegers 
 poured their tire into the cita<lel, anil Khurshid 
 replii (I with an indiscriminate cannonade upon 
 the city. The tiring went on for weeks (pausing 
 on Fridays), till a messenger arrived from Con- 
 stantinople bringing the contlrmatiou of tho 
 popidar vote, in the form of a tirman, apiioint- 
 mg Mohammad 'Aly governor of Egypt. Khur- 
 shid shortly afterwards retired, and tlie soldiery 
 amused theiiLselves in the approved Turkish and 
 (even worse) Aloanian fashion by making havoc 
 of the houses of the citizens. Mohammad 'Aly 
 now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt, 
 but beyond the walls of Cairo his authority was 
 everywhere disputed by the Beys. . . . An at- 
 tempt was made to ensnare certain of the Beys, 
 who were encamped north of the metropolis. 
 On the 17th of AugiKst, 180.5, the dam of tho 
 cunal of Cairo was to be cut, and some chiefs of 
 Mohammad 'Aly's party wrote infornung them 
 that he wouhl go forth early on that morning 
 with most of his trwjps to witness the ceremony, 
 inviting them to enter and seize the city, and, to 
 deceive them, stipidating for n certain sum of 
 money as a reward. Tlie dam, however, was 
 cut early in the preceding idght, without any 
 ceremony. On the following morning these 
 Beys, with their Mcinluks, a very numerous 
 body, broke open the gate of tho suburb El- 
 Ilosey-niych, nud gained admittance into tho 
 city. . . . They marched along the principal 
 street for some distance, with kettle-drums be- 
 hind each company, and were received with ap- 
 parent joy by tho citizens. At tho mosque called 
 tho Asurafiyeh they separated, one party pro- 
 ceeding to the Azhar and the liouses of certjiin 
 shoykhs, and the other party continuing along 
 tho main street, and through the gate called 
 Bab-Zuweyleh, where they turned up towards 
 the citadel. Here they were fired on bv some 
 soldiers from the houses; and with this signal a 
 terrible massacre commenced. Falling back 
 towards their companions, they found the by- 
 streets closed; and in that part of the main 
 thoroughfare called Beyn-el-Kasreyn, they were 
 suddenly placed between two fires. Thus shut 
 up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the 
 collegiate mosque of tho Barkukiyeh, while the 
 remainder fought their way through their 
 enemies, and escaped over the city wall with 
 the loss of their liorses. Two Memluks had in 
 the meantime succeeded, by great exertions, in 
 giving the alarm to their comrades in the quar- 
 ter of the Azhar, who escaped by the eastern, 
 gate called Bab-el-Ghureyyib. A horrible fate 
 awaited those who had shut themselves up in 
 the Barktikiych. Having begged for quarter 
 and surrendered, they were immediately stripped 
 nearly naked, and about fifty were slaughtered 
 on the spot; and about the same number were 
 dragged away. . . . The wretched captives were 
 then chained and left in the court of the Pasha's 
 house ; and on the following morning the heads 
 
 760 
 
EGYPT, 1803-1811. 
 
 Utkrmel AU, 
 ami n/ttr. 
 
 EGYPT, 1840-1860. 
 
 of tliclr coiiinKlcs, wlio hud jhtIkIioiI Die day 
 Ix'fori', wcri! Hkinncd mid HtulTi'd with Htniw hi' 
 foro tlit'ir t-ycH. One Hey iind two othvr nit'ii 
 jmld their riuisoiii, and wire released : tlie rest, 
 witlioiit exception, were tortured, and put to 
 (leutli in tlie course of tlic ensulnjt nijilit. . . . 
 Tlie Heys were dishearteiieii liy tids revolting 
 Imtcliery, and most of tlieni retired to llie upper 
 country. Urjred l)y Knjiiand, or more prolmliiy 
 liy tlie promise of a lirilie from Ei-Klfy, tlu' 
 I'orte liegan a leisurely interference in favour of 
 tlie Meiiiluks; but the failure of Ei-Elfy's 
 treasur)', and a Imndsoinc bribe from Mohammad 
 'Aly, soon changed the Sultan's views, and the 
 Turkish (leet muled away. . . . An attempt of 
 the English Government to restore the Memluks 
 by the action of a force of ,'5,000 men under 
 General Eraser ended in disaster and humiliation, 
 and tlie citizens of Cairo hod tlie Kiitisfnction of 
 ficeinj? the heads of Englishmen exposed on 
 stakes in tho Ezl)ckiyeh. Mohammad 'Aly now 
 adopted a more conciliatory policy towards the 
 Memluks, gr.intcd them land, and encouraged 
 them to return to Cairo. Tlie clemency was 
 only a.S8umcd in order to prepare the way for 
 the act of consummate treachery which llnally 
 ni)roote<l the Meinluk power. . . . Early in the 
 year 1811, tho preparations for an cxi)edilion 
 against tlie Wohhabis in Arabia being comiiiete, 
 all the Memluk Beys then in ('airo were invited 
 to tho ceremony of investing Mohammad 'Aly's 
 favouritL' son, Tusun, with a pelis.sc and tlie 
 command of the army. As on the former occa- 
 sion, the unfortunate Memluks fell into the 
 snare. On the 1st of March, Sliahin Hey and 
 the other chiefs (one only excepted) rcpaireii with 
 their retinues to the citadel, and were courteously 
 received by the Pasha. Having taken coffee, 
 they formed in procession, and, preceded and 
 followed by the Pasha's troops, slowly descended 
 Ihe steep ; .! narrow road leading to the great 
 gate of the liuidel ; but as soon as the Memluks 
 arrived at the gate it was suddenly closed before 
 them. The last of tliose who made their exit 
 before tho gate was shut were Albanians under 
 Salih Kiish. To those troops their chief now 
 made known the Piisha's orders to massacre all 
 the Memluks within the citadel ; therefore hav- 
 ing returned by another way, they gained the 
 summit of the walls and houses, that hem in the 
 roail in which the Memluks were, and some 
 stationed themselves upon the eminences of tho 
 rock through wliich that road is partly cut. 
 Thus securely placed, they commenced a heavy 
 flre on tlieir defenceless victims, and immediately 
 tho troops who closed the procession, and who 
 had tho advantage of higher ground, followed 
 their example. . . . 470 Memluks entered the 
 citadel, and of these very few, if any, eseared. 
 One of these is said to have been a Bey. Ac-ord- 
 ing to some, lie leaped his horse from tli'j ram- 
 parts, and alighted uninjured, though tl.e horse 
 was killed by the fall. Others say tliat he was 
 prevented from joining his comrade.'',, and dis- 
 covered the treachery while waiting without tho 
 gate. He fled and made his way to 5yria. This 
 massacre was the signal for an Indiscriminate 
 slaughter of tho Memluks throiighout Egypt, 
 orders to this effect being tnui'.mitted to every 
 governor; and in Cairo itself, (he houses of the 
 Beys were given over to the soldiery, who 
 slaughtered all their adherents, treatoci their 
 women in the most shameless maimer, and sacked 
 
 *» 761 
 
 their dwellings. . . . The last of his rivals Ix-ing- 
 now destroyed, Mohammad '.\ly was free to 
 organise the adininistnition of the country, and 
 to engage in expeiiitions abroad." — 8. "ijiine- 
 Poole, Kr/z/pt, cli. 8. 
 
 Also in : A. A. Paton. Ili»t. of the Kf/i/iitimt 
 lirrdtiitiiiii, r. 2. 
 
 A. D. 1807.— Occupation of Alexandria by 
 the Ertg^lish. — Disastrous failtii of their ex- 
 pediti'jn. Sec Tikks; A. 1). Isi ■ IHOT. 
 
 A. 1). 1831-1840.— Rebellion of Mehemet All. 
 — Successes ag;ainst the Turks. — Intervention 
 of the Western Powers.— Egypt made an he- 
 redit«ry Pashalik. See TiiUKs: A. 1). 1831- 
 1840. 
 
 A. D. 1840-1869.— Mehemet Ali and his suc- 
 C'ssars.— The khedives.— The openine of the 
 ^ue . Canal.— " By the treaty of 1840 lietweer. 
 the I orte and the European Powers, . . . l)i» 
 title <(i Egypt having been . . . alllrmed . . . 
 .Mehemet All devoted himself during the <iext 
 seven years to the social and material inii/rove- 
 ment of the country, with an aggregate ()f re- 
 sults which has lixed his jilace in history as the 
 'Peter the Great' of Egypt. Indee.l, except 
 some additions and further reforms irade during 
 the reign of his reputed grandson, Ijinail Pasha, 
 the whole administrative system uj) till less 
 tlia.: ten years ago, was, in tlic main, his work; 
 and notwillistaiiiling many adnitted defects, it 
 was at his death incomparably the most civilised 
 and etlicieut of then existing Mussulman Govern- 
 ments. In 1848, this great satrap, then verging 
 on bis eightieth year, was .ittaeked by a mental 
 mahidr, induced, as it wr.s said, bv a potion ad- 
 ministered in mistaken kindness by one of his 
 own daughters, and tlx- government was taken 
 over by his adopted s<m, Ibraiiim Pasha, the 
 hero of Koniali an, I Nezib. lie lingered till 
 August 1840, but Ibrahim had already pre- 
 deceased him; ar.d Abbas, a son of the latter, 
 succeeded to the viceregal throne. Though born 
 and bred in Egypt, Abbas was a Turk of the 
 worst type — 'gnorant, cowardly, sensual, fanatic, 
 and opposed to reforms of every sort. Thus 
 his feeble reign of less than six years was, in 
 almost everything, a period of retrogression. On 
 a night i.i .July, 1854, he was strangled in his sleep 
 bj' a C'juple of his own slaves, — acting, it was 
 vario'.isly said, on a secret order from Constanti- 
 nople, or at the behest of one of his wives. To 
 Al'Uas succeeded Said, the third son of Mehemet 
 t>.l\, an amiable and liberal-minded i)rince who 
 retrieved mucli of the mischief done by his pre- 
 decessor, but lacked the vigorous intelligence 
 and force of character required to carry on the 
 great work begun by his father. His reign will 
 be chiefly memorable for the concession and com- 
 mencement of the Suez Canol, tho colossal work 
 which, while benefiting the trade of the world, 
 has cost so much to Egypt. Said died in Janu- 
 ary 1863, and was succeeded by his nephew 
 Ismail Pasha, the second son of Ibrahim. As 
 most of the leading incidents of this Prince's 
 reign, as also the chief features of his character, 
 arc still fresh in the public memory, I need 
 merely recall a few of the more salient of both. 
 Amongst tlic former, history will give the first 
 place to his creation of tho huge public debt 
 which forms tlie main element of a problem that 
 still confronts Europe. But, for this the same 
 impartial judge will at least equally blame the 
 financial pandcrers who ministered to his ex- 
 
EGYPT, 1840-1869. 
 
 Conqvnl of Ihe 
 Soudan. 
 
 EGYPT, 1870-1888. 
 
 tnivii(fiiiu<', with cxorliitiint protlt tothcmm'lvrfi, 
 but lit ruiiiiiiiH ('(Hit to Kfrvpt. On tlii! other 
 IihikI, itiH liiit hlHtorical jiiHt1(!(' toHiiy that IhiiiuII 
 )ll<l iiiiich for the iiiiitcriiil pro^roHMof the couiitry. 
 Ill' adiU'd iiiori' than 1,(MH) to thu 'iW) mih'H of 
 niilwuy in cxiHtciui' at th(! dciith of Said. He 
 ({really hn|iroved the lrri>,'atl()n, and »o increased 
 the culllvahle area of thu countiy; niultiplied 
 the primary KchoolH, and enroiiraged native in- 
 duMtricH. For so much, at least, history will 
 j,'ivc him credit. As meinorahle. tlioiif^li less 
 meritorious, were tlie mMK'if'l''<'''t fetes with 
 whh'li, in IHOU, lie opened the Huez Canal, the 
 f^reat worl( which Kn^dand had ho long opposed, 
 hut through which — as if hy the irony of his- 
 tory — the tlrst ship that passed flew the Knglisli 
 (lag, and to the present truffle of which we eon- 
 triliule more tlian eighty per cent In personal 
 character, Ismail was of exceptional intelligence, 
 but cruel, crafty, and untrustworthy both in 
 politics anil in his private relations. ... It may 
 lie mentioned tliat Ismail Pasha was the first of 
 tliese Otioman Viceroys who horo. the title of 
 ' Khedive,' which is a I'erso-Arabic designation 
 oignifying ranii a shade less than regal. This he 
 obtained in 1867 by heavy biilies to the Sultan 
 and his eiiief ministers, as he had the year before 
 by Hbiiilar means ousted his brother and uncle 
 from the succession, and secured it for his own 
 eldest son, — in virtue of which the latter now 
 [1890] nominally reigns." — .]. C. M'Coau, £ff!/pt 
 (Natiiiniil lAfe <iitd Tnouijht, leet. 18). — The same, 
 Kmijit iiiiilir hiiKiH, rli. 1-4. 
 
 A. D. 1870-1883.— Conquest of the Soudan. 
 — Measures for the suppression of the slave- 
 trade. — The government of General Gordon. 
 — Advent of the Mahdi and beginning of his 
 revolt. — In 1870, Ismail Pasha "made an appeal 
 for Kuropean assistanee to strengthen him in com- 
 pletuig the conquest of Central Africa. [Sir 
 Saniuell Baker was acconlingly placed in com- 
 mand of 1,200 men, stippliecl with c.innon and 
 steam-boats, and received the title of Governour- 
 Qenernl of the provinces which ho was com- 
 mis.s!oned to sulxiuc. Having elected to make 
 Gondokoro the seat of his government, he changed 
 its name to Isniailin. lie was not long in bringing 
 the Bari to submission, and then, advancing 
 southwards, he came to the districts of Uullle and 
 Faliko, a healthy region endowed by nature with 
 fertile valleys and irrigated by litnpid streams, 
 but for years past converted into a sort of hell 
 upon earth by the slave-huuters who had made it 
 their headtpiarters. From these pests Baker de- 
 livered the locality, and having by his tjict and 
 energy overcome the distrust of the native rulers, 
 he established over their territory a certain num- 
 ber of small military settlements. . . . Baker re- 
 turned to Europe flattering him,self witli the 
 delusion that he had put an end to the scourge 
 of slave dealing. • It was true that variovis slave- 
 dealers' dens on the Upper Nile had been 
 destroyed, a number of outlaws had been shot, 
 and a few thoustrnd miserable slaves had been 
 set at liberty ; but beyond that nothing had 
 been accomplished ; no sooner had the liberator 
 turned his back than the odious trafflc recom- 
 menced with more vigour than before through 
 the region south of Gondokoro. This, however, 
 was only one of the slave-hunting districts, and 
 by no means the worst. . . . Under European 
 compulsion . . . the Khedive Ismail undertook 
 to promote measures to put a stop to the scandal. 
 
 762 
 
 He entered into various convention 1 with Eng- 
 land on the subject ; and in order to lorivlnce the 
 PowerH of the sincerity of his iiilentli)ns, lie c(m- 
 sented to put the ci|uatiirial provinces under 
 the aihninlHtration of an Kuropean )lllcer, who 
 should be coiiunissloncd to carry on he work of 
 repression, coniiueHt and organisation that had 
 been comnienccil by Baker. Ilisclioici' fell upon 
 a man of exceptional ability, 1 brilliant offlcer 
 trained at W(«)lwi('h, who had alreiidy gained 
 high renown in Cliina, not only for military 
 talent, but for his adroitness and skill In ne- 
 gotiation and di|)l(>inacy. This was Colonel Gor- 
 don, familiarly known as 'Chinese Gordon,' who 
 was now to add fresh lustre to his name in 
 Kgypt as Gordon Pasha. Gonhm was appointed 
 Governour-General of tiie Soudaii in Ui74. With 
 him were a.ssociatid ChailliVLong, an Anu'ricau 
 ollleer, who was cliief of liisstalT; th^' German, 
 Dr. Einin Ellendi, medical ollleer to Ihe expedi- 
 tion; Meutcnant»Cliipi)en(lall and AValson; Ocssl 
 and Kemp, engineers. . . . Tlienceforward thu 
 territories, of which so little had hitherto been 
 known, became tlie continual scene of military 
 movements and scientific excurshms. . . . Thu 
 Soudan was so far conciuered as to be held by 
 about a dozen military outposts stationed id(mg 
 the Nile from Lake No to Lakes Albert and loni- 
 him. ... In 1870 Gordon went back to Cairo. 
 Nevertlieles.s, although ho was wearied with thu 
 continual stri'gglo of the past two years, worn 
 down by the leessimt labours of intcrmil organi- 
 sation and geographical investigations, disheart- 
 ened, too, by tlio jealousies, rivalries, and in- 
 trigues of all around him, and by the ill feeling 
 of the very people whom the Khedive's Govern- 
 ment had sent to support him, he consented to 
 return again to his po.st; this time with the titlu 
 of Governour-General of the Soudan, Darfur, and 
 the Equatorial Provinces. At tlie beginning of 
 1877 he t(X)k possession of tho Oovernnient palaco 
 at Khartoum. . . . Egyptian authority, allied 
 with Euro|)eun civilisation, appeared now at 
 length to b(! taking some hold on the various 
 districts, and the Cairo Government might begin 
 to look forward to a time when it could reckon 
 on some reward for its labours and sacrifices. 
 The area of the new Egyptian Scndan had now 
 become immense. Geographically, its centre in- 
 cluded the entire valley of the Nile proi)cr, from 
 Berber to the great hilies ; on tho cas., were such 
 portions of the valleys of the Blue Nile and At- 
 ))ara as lay outside Abyssinia ; and on the west 
 were the districts watered b\' the Babr-el-Ghazal, 
 and the Bahr-cl-Arab, rii^ht away to the confines 
 of Wadai. . . . Uufo; tunately in 1870 Ismail 
 Pasha was deposed, and, to the grievous loss of 
 the Soudan, Gori'.ou was recalled. As the im- 
 mediate consequence, the country fell back into 
 the hands of 'lurkish pashas; apathy, disorder, 
 carelessness, and ill feeling rcajipeared at Khar- 
 toum, and tlie Arab slave-dealers, who had for a 
 period been kept under by Baker, Gessi, and 
 Gordon, came once more to tlic front. ... It 
 was I{aouf Pasha who, in 1879, succeeded Gordon 
 as Governour-General. lie had three Europeans 
 as his subordinates — Emiu Bey, wlio before Gor- 
 don left, had been placed in churf,c of the province 
 of the equator; Lupton Bey, an Englishman, who 
 had followed Oessi as Qovernour on the Bahr-el- 
 Ghazal; iind Slatin Bey, an Austrian, in com- 
 mand of JJarfur. Ilaouf had barely been two 
 years at Khartoum when the Mahdi appeared on 
 
BOYPT, 1870-1888. 
 
 Tht Uahdt 
 
 EGYPT, 187(J-1883. 
 
 tlio urcnp. Proniptr<loltlior by porsoniil nmWtUm 
 orl)V religious liiitrcd, tlii' lilciiof pliiyliiK tlic piirt 
 of ' Mithill ' hud Ix'i-ii lU'tcil upon liv iimny iiii Ami) 
 fnnutic liM'u Maiii)i|. Hucli iiii Mvu, at lui curly 
 age, hail taki'ii poMwssloii of a certain Hoiui.iiicsc 
 of low birth, a imtlvc of Dongola, by name Mo- 
 hninmcd Ahmed. Hcforu openly lutpirhiK to the 
 rAle of Iho regenerator of iHlani he had tilled 
 Heveral subordinate cngagenK'ntti, notably one 
 under Dr. Pencv, the French Hurgeon-gcneral In 
 the Houdan, wlio died in IHfll. Sliortiy after- 
 wards lie received adndttuncu into tlie powerful 
 order of the Glieluni ilervlslieH, and then com- 
 menced his HchcmeH for stirring up a revolution in 
 defence of his creed. His proceedings did not 
 fail to attract the attention of Uessi I'asha, who 
 had him arrested at Hliekka and imprisoned for 
 live months. Under the government of I{aouf 
 he t(X)k up his al>ode upon the small island of 
 Abba, on liie Nile above Khartoum, where he 
 gained a considerable notoriety by the austerity 
 of his life and by the fervr)ur of his devotions, tlius 
 
 grudually gainnig a high ri^putation for sanctity. 
 Not(mly olTcrinjfs but followers streamed in from 
 every (pnirtcr. lie became fich as well as power- 
 
 ful. . . . Waiting till Ma v 18H1, he tliena.s.sume(l 
 Unit a propitious time hud arrived for the reuilsa- 
 tlou of Ills plans, and accordingly hud himself 
 publicly ])rocluimed as ' Mahdi, inviting every 
 fakir and every religious leader of Islam to ccmie 
 and join him at Abba. . . . Convinced that it was 
 impolitic to tolerate any longer the revolutionary 
 intrigues of siieli an adventurer at the very gates 
 of Khartoum, Huouf Pasha resolved to rid the 
 country of Jloliuinmed and to send him to Cairo 
 for triul, An expedition was accordingly des- 
 patched to the island of Abba, but unfortunately 
 the means employed were inadequate to the tusk. 
 Only a sMiail body of black sohliers were sent to 
 arrest the agitator in his (juartcrs, and they, in- 
 spire^i no doubt by a vague und superstitious dreud 
 of a man who represented himself as the mes- 
 senger of Allah, wavered and actwl with inde- 
 cision. Before their oftlcers could rally them to 
 energy, the )Iahdi, with a fierce train of follow- 
 ers, knife in hand, rushed upon them, and killing 
 many, ))Ut the rest to flight ; then, seeing that a 
 renewed assault was likely to be made, he with- 
 drew the insurgent band into a retreat of safety 
 amongst the mountains of Soutiiern Kordofaii. 
 Henceforth revolt was openly declared. Such 
 was the condition of things in August 1881. 
 Chase was given, but every effort to secure the 
 person of the pretended prophet was baffled. A 
 further attempt was made to arrest him by the 
 Mudir of Fiishoda with tJM men, only to be at- 
 tended witli a still more melancholy result. After 
 tt desperate struggle the iludir lay stretched upon 
 the ground, his soldiers murdered all around him. 
 One single ofllcer, with a few struggling cavalry, 
 escaped the massacre, and returned to report the 
 fatal nev/s. The reverse caused an absolute panic 
 in Khartoum, an intense excitement spreading 
 throughout the Soudan. . . . Meantime the 
 Malidi's prestige was ever on tlie increase, and 
 he soon felt sufllciently strong to assume the offen- 
 sive. Ills troops overran Kordofan and Sennar, 
 advancing on the one hand to the town of Sennar, 
 wiiicli they set on fire, and on the other to El- 
 Obeid, which they placed in a state of siege. In 
 tlic following July a fresh and more powerful ex- 
 pedition, this time numbering 6,000 men, under 
 ',he command of Yusauf Pasha, left Fashoda and 
 
 made towanls the Malidi's headiiuartera. Tt mot 
 with no better fate than the expeditions that had 
 
 ScmelM'fore. . . . And thenit was tliat the KngliNli 
 'overnment, dlHcerning danger for Kgypt In this 
 insurrection of Islam, set to work to act for the 
 Khedive. It told olT 1 1,000 men, and placed them 
 under the communil of Hicks I'asha, ai .)tllccr in 
 the Kgyptian service who hud mude the Aliyssln- 
 iun campaign. At the end of l)ecenit«'r 18H'i this 
 expcditmn embarked at Suez for Suakln, crossed 
 the desert, reached the Nili^ at Herber. and after 
 much endurance on the way, arrived at Khar- 
 toum. Iiefori' this, Kl-()beid had fallen into tlio 
 Malidi's power, and there he had taken up his 
 lieu(l(|imrters. Some trilling udvantages were 
 gained by Hicks, but having entered Koi<lofun 
 with till' design of retaking Kl-Obciil, he was, 
 on the.'ith of November I88;t, hemmed In umongst 
 the Kasgil pussi'S, und ufter three diiys' heroic 
 (Iglitiiig, his urniy of iiboiit 10,000 men was 
 overpowered by a force live' or six times their 
 superior in numbers, und completely extermin- 
 ated. Hicks I'uslia himself, his Kiiropeaii staff, 
 and many Kgypthm olllcers of high rank, were 
 among the dead, and forty-two guns fell into tlio 
 hands of the enemy. Again, not a man was 
 left to curry the fatal tidings to Kliartoiini. 
 Uel)ellion conlinued to spread. After being 
 agitated for months, the population of tlio 
 Eastern Soudan al.so niuile a rising. Osmun 
 Dignu, the foremost of the Mulidi's lieutenunts, 
 occupied the roud between Suukin and Herber, 
 and siirrouniled ,Sinkut und Tokar; then, having 
 destroyed, one after another, two Egyptian 
 columns that had been despatched for the relief 
 of tlieso towns, he llnully cut oil tlio communi- 
 cation between Kiiartoum and tlio Hed Sea. 
 The tide of insurrection by this timo had risen 
 so high that it threatened not only 'o over- 
 throw the Khedive's authority in tho Soudan, 
 but to become the source or serious |K'ril to 
 Egypt itself." — A. J. Wauters, Stanley's Emin 
 Patliii Ejr-))editinn, ch. 1-2. 
 
 Also in: Maj. U. F. Wingatc, MaMii»m and 
 the Egyptian SuiUm, bk. 1-4.— Col. Sir. W. P. 
 Butler, Charles Oeovi/e Gordon, ch. 5-6. — A. E. 
 Hake, IVie titury of Chinese Gordon, eh. 10-1 ,'>. 
 
 A. D. 1875-1882.— Bankruptcy of the state. 
 — English and French control of finances. — 
 Native hostility to the foreigners. — Rebel- 
 lion, led by Arabi. — English bombardment of 
 Alexandria. — "The facilities given by foreign 
 money-lenders encouraged extravagance and os- 
 tentation on tho part of the sovereign and tho 
 ruling classes, while mismanagement and cor- 
 rupt practices were common among oiflcials, so 
 tliat the public debt rose in 1875 to ninety-one 
 millions, and in January, 1881, to ninety-eight 
 millions. . . . The European capitalists obtained 
 for their money nominally six to nine per cent. , 
 but really not less tlian eight to ten percent., as 
 the bonds were issued at low rates. . . . Theinter- 
 eston tliese borrowed miilionswaspunctuallypaid 
 up to the end of 1875, when the Khedive found 
 that ho could not satisfy his creditors, and tlio 
 British government interfered in his favour. Mr. 
 Cave was sent to examine into Egyptian finances, 
 and ho reported that loans at twelve and thirteen 
 per cent, were being agreed to and renewed at 
 twenty-five per cent., and that sorncmeasure of 
 consolidation was necessary. The two western 
 Powers now took the matter in hand, but they 
 thereby recognized the whole of those usurious 
 
 763 
 
EOVPT, 187(V-188a. 
 
 Arnhi't Ktvoll. 
 
 KOYIT, l875-18Ha. 
 
 demandii. Tlie ilebt, although under their onn- 
 tnil, itnil llicn'forc iMTun*il, wiui nut rciliiml liy 
 thr iiiiioiinl iilrcitily pnld i iirciiiiuiim tn rlHk. 
 Hot witH tlir ntti> III iiitcrcHl diiiiiniNlii'd to luiniC' 
 tbiott iiioro tu'iirly upproiu'hiiiK Hi*^ rittc pityidilc 
 on KnKliHh i'oiihdIh, which was thn'(^ per (-cnt. 
 A trnninal uiidrr thi! Jurihdii'tioii of united 
 Eiiropctwi ittid tmtivc JudgcH wiih uIho ('Htnl)liiilu-d 
 In K^ypt to di<ci<l(! complikintH of forciKiicrH 
 •K»inHt nittivrR, nnd viiT vrrwi. In May, IH70, 
 thlH tril)unal ifiivv ludKinciit tliat tlic income of 
 till' Klicdive iHmall, from IdH private landed 
 nniperty, eoidd \m: iippropriatcd to pay tlie ercil- 
 ItorH <if tliu Htate, and an execution wan ])ut into 
 the Viceregal palace, Kr Kamleli, near Alex- 
 andria. Tlie Khedivi^ pninounecd tlie Judgment 
 Invalid, and the triliiinal ccam'd to act. Two 
 conunisHioners vvero now again Mcnt to report on 
 Kgyntian (InanceH — M. .loubert, tlie director of 
 the I'arin Hank, for France, and Mr. Ooschen, a 
 former udnlKler, for Kneland. Th-ne gentlemen 
 propoHcd to liuiid over the control the flnanccH 
 to two Kiiropeans, depriving tlii^ Htate of all 
 Independence and governing power. The Khe- 
 dive, in order to rcHlHt thcHu demandH, convoked 
 Hort of I'arllamcnt in order to maki; an appeal 
 to the people. From this I'arllament was after- 
 wari's developed the Assembly of Notables, and 
 the National iiarty, now so often spoken of. In 
 1HT7 a Kuropean commission of control over 
 Kgyptiaii llnance was named. . . . Nubar Pasha 
 was made I'rime minister in 1H7H; tli«! control of 
 the tlnances was entrusted to Mr. Wilson, an 
 Knglishnian; nnd lat4;r, the French controller, M. 
 do liligniisres, entered the (,'ablnet. Better order 
 was ihus restored to the finances, liothschiid's 
 new loan of eight and a half millions was issued 
 at seventy-three, and therefore brought in from 
 six to eight per cent. nett. . . . But to be able 
 to pay the en ditors their full interest, economy 
 had t'> be iutruduce<l into the national expendi- 
 ture. To do this, clumsy arrangements were 
 made, and the injustice shown in carrying them 
 out embittered many classes of the population, 
 nnd laid tin; foimdations of a fanatical hatred of 
 race against race. ... In consc(iuence of all 
 this, the majority of the notables, many ulemas, 
 oflicers, and higher oflicials among the Egyptians, 
 formed themselves into a National party, with 
 the object of resisting the oppressive govern- 
 ment of the foreigner. They were joined by the 
 great mass of the discharged soldiers aiul sub- 
 ordimite ollicia''*, not to mention many others. 
 At the end of tebruary, 1870, a revolt broke out 
 in Cairo. Nubar, hated by the Nation xl party, 
 ■was dismissed by the Khedive Ismail, wlio in- 
 stalled his son Tewtik as Prime minister. In 
 conseciuence of this, the coupons duo in April 
 were not paid till the beginning of Jlay, and the 
 western Powers demanded the reinstatement of 
 Nubar. Tliat Tewtik on this occasion retired 
 nnd sided with the foreigners is the chief cause 
 of his present [1882] unpopularity in Egypt. 
 Ismail, however, now dismis.scd Wdson and l)e 
 Blignieres, and a Cabinet was formed, consisting 
 chiefly of native Egyptians, with Slierif Pasha 
 as Prime minister. Slicrif now raised for tlie 
 lii-st tiini- the cry of which wo have since heard 
 so much, and which was inscribed by Arabi on 
 his banner^, 'Egypt for the Egyptians.' Tho 
 western Powers retorted by a menacing naval 
 demonstration, and demanded of the Sultan the 
 deposition of the Khedive. In June, 1879, this 
 
 demand wim Agreed to. Iimnil went into exile, 
 and his place was tilled by Mahomed Tewllk. 
 . . . The new Klie<live, with apathetic weak- 
 nesfi, yiehled the n'constructlon of his mlnlHtry 
 and theorgani/ationof Ids lliiaiices to the weslern 
 Powers. Mr. Baring and M. de Blignii^reH, aw 
 commisHionerM of tlie control, aided tiy olllcials 
 named by Holhschild to watch over his iirivato 
 interests, now ruled the land. They ilevotttd 
 forty live millions (about sixteen shillings per 
 head on th(> entire population) to the payment of 
 interest. The people were embiltereif by tho 
 distrust shown towards them, and the further 
 reduction of the army from fifty to fifteen 
 thousand men threw a hirge number out of 
 employment. . . . Many acts of military insub- 
 ordination iH'curred, nnd at last, on the 8th of 
 NovenilMT, 1881, the gn'iit military revolt broke 
 out in ('airo. . . . Alinied Arabi, colonel of tho 
 4th regiment, now llrst canii! into juiliHc notice, 
 Heveral regiments, lieaded by their olllcers, 
 ojienly rebelled against the orders of tlio 
 Khedive, who was compelled to reci.ll llio 
 nationalist, .Sherif Pasha, and to refer the further 
 demands of the rebels for the increase of tho 
 army, and for a constitutio: to the Hultan. 
 Sherif Pasha, however, did noi, long enjoy tho 
 contldenci^ of the National Egy|)tian party, at 
 wlios<' head Arabi now stood, winning every day 
 more reputation nnd inlluence. The army, in 
 wliich li(! permitted great laxity of discipline, 
 was entirely devoted to him. ... A pretended 
 plot of Circassian olllcers against his life he dex- 
 terously used to increase his popularity. . . . 
 Twenty-six oflicers were condemned to death by 
 court-martial, but the Khedive, at the instance 
 of tlie western Powers, conunuted tho sentence, 
 and they were banished to Constanlinople. This 
 leniency was stigmatizeil by the National party 
 as treachery to tlie country, and tin; (,'liamber of 
 Notables retorted by naming Arabi commander- 
 in-cliief of tho army and Prime minister witliout 
 asking tlie Cimsent of the Khedive. Tlio ('liam- 
 bcr 8(xm afterwards came into conflict wifli tho 
 foreign comptrollers. . . . This ended i'l Do 
 Bligni^res resigning his post, nnd in the J!ay of 
 tho present year (1882) the consuls ov the 
 European Powers declared that a fleet of EngHL't 
 and French ironclads would appear before Alex- 
 andria, to demand tlio disbanding of the army 
 and the j •nishment of its lendei's. The thrent 
 wns realizev., nnd, in spite of protests from tho 
 Sultan, a fleet of English and French irom^lada 
 entered tho harbour of Alexandria. Tlie Khe- 
 dive, at tho advice of his ministers and the 
 chiefs of tho National party, appealed to tho 
 Sultan. . . . The popular hatred of foreigners 
 now became more and more apparent, antl be- 
 gan to assume threatening dimensions. . . . On 
 tlie 30th of May, Arabi announced that a des- 
 patch from the Sultan had reached him, prom- 
 ising the deposition of Tewtik in favour <)f his 
 uncle Ilalim Pasha. ... On tho 3rd of June, 
 Dervish Pa.slia, a man of energy notwithstanding 
 his years, had sailed from Constantinople. . . . 
 His object was to pacify Egypt and to reconcile 
 Tewflk and Arabi Pasha. . . . Since the ptibll- 
 cation of the despatch purporting to proclaim 
 Ilalim Pasha as KUedive, Arabi had done noth- 
 ing towards dethroning the actual ruler. But 
 on the 2nd of June he began to strengthen the 
 fortifications of Alexandria with earthworks. 
 . . . Tho British admiral protested, and tho 
 
 764 
 
EOYIT, 1875-1882. 
 
 ttintibiiittmrnt n/ 
 Alejandria. 
 
 KfJYPT, I883-I88it. 
 
 Siilliin, on till! rcmonHtriiiici'M of ItritiHli iliplo 
 iiiiicy, fiirliiul till' ('iiiilliiiiiitliiii of till' works. 
 . . . KcrioiiH iliMliirliiiiu'i'M look plurc In Ali'X 
 iinilria on till) lltli. 'I'lic ihiIIvk niblili' liivi.ili'il 
 till' Kiiropi'iin iiuiirtcr, pliiiiiliTi'd tin- Hlioim, tiinl 
 h1(!W miiny forol^niTH. . . . 'riioiiKli IIiimIIhIui'Ii' 
 iiiH'i'.'* wcri! not rciirwi'il, ii ({I'lirral riiilKnilioii of 
 fori'ljfiH'rti wiiH till' n'tiuU. ... On llir "J'Jnil u 
 roininiiution, coiiHUtinf; of niiu' iiiitivrH iiiiil ninr 
 Kuropvana , , . Iii'gun to try tlio riiiKli'uili'rM of 
 tlio riot. . . . Hut cvi'ntM wito liiirryluK on 
 towiinU wiir. Till! workH iit Ali'Xiinimii wrn' 
 n'roinincnccd, luiil tlii! fortilli'iitiimx iiriiii'il with 
 lii'iivy ifMax. Till! KngliHli iiiliiiiriil rrcrivi'il iii- 
 furniittion that tin; I'litninro to tliu Imrlioiir wouhl 
 III! Iilorki'il by Hiiiikun Htori-NliipH, anil tliix, ho 
 ilccliiri'il, woiilii 1)1! iin art of oprn war. A foin- 
 plrli' sL'liinif for the ilrstriiclion of tin- Sui'Z 
 canal wiih iiIho iliHrovi'ri'il. . . . Thu KiiKliiih, on 
 thfir Hitli', now liof^un to niukr, hoHtili! ilriiioiistra- 
 tioim; unil Anilii, wliili! rcpiiiliatinK wiuliko 
 iliti'ntioiiH, ili'dart'ii liinisi'lf rraily for rcHislaiia!. 
 . . . On till! ^7lli the Kn);liHh vicc-iHiiiHul ailviHi'il 
 his ft'lloW't.'oiiiitrynu>n to loavti Aluxaniiria, uml 
 on till! Ilrd of .Inly, iKiorillii)? to tin: 'Timi'S,' tlio 
 arniii>?i'nii!iitH for var wrri; coiiipli'ti'. . , . Finally, 
 iiH a rcconuaiiiNaiicL' on tho Utii hIiowi'iI that tliu 
 fortH WLTU Htill lii'ing Htri!nKthi!ni!d, hi; [tliu 
 KnKli.ih adiiiiral| informed the ftoveriior of Alex- 
 andria, /ultiiar I'aHlia, that unlL'-sx the forts liad 
 been previously evaluated and surrendered to 
 tiie Kn^lish, he iuteniliil to loinnience tiie boni- 
 liardnient at four the next morning. ... As the 
 French government were unable to take part in 
 any active ineasure.i (a grant for that purpose 
 having been refused by the National Assembly), 
 tho greater part of their licet, under Admiral 
 Conrad, left Alexandria for Port Said. The 
 ironcliuls of other nations, more tlian fifty in 
 number, anchored outside the harl«)ur of Alex- 
 andria. . . . On the evening of the lOlli of .luly 
 . . . and at daybreak on the nth, the . . . iron- 
 clads tix)k up the positions assigned to them. 
 There was a gentle breeze from the east, and the 
 weather was dear. At 0.30 a. ni. all the ships 
 were cleared for action. At seven the admiral 
 signalled to tho Alexandra to Are a shell into Fort 
 Ada. . . . Tho first siiot tired from tho Alex- 
 audni was immediately replied to liy the Egyp- 
 tians ; whereupon the ships of tho whole fleet and 
 the Egyptian forts and batteries opened lire, and 
 the engagement became general. ... At 8.1i0 
 Fort Marsa-ellvanat was blown up by shells 
 from the Invincible and Monarcli, and by nine 
 o'clock tho Temeraire, Monarcli, and Penelope had 
 gilenced most of the guns in Fort Meks, although 
 four iletied every effort from their protected sit- 
 uation. By 11.45 Forts Marabout and Adjomi 
 had ceased firing, and a landing party of seamen 
 and marines was dosputclied, under cover of tlie 
 Uittern's guns, to spike and blow up the guns in 
 tlie forts. At 1.30 a shell from tlie Superb burst 
 in the chief powder magazine of Fort Ada and 
 blow it up. By four o'clock all tho guns of Fort 
 Pharos, and lialf an hour later those of Fort Meks, 
 were disabled, and at 5.30 tlie admiral ordered 
 tlie firing to cease. Tlie ships were reiieutedly 
 struck and sustained some damage. . . . Tlie Eng- 
 lish casualties were five killed and twenty-eight 
 wounded, a comparatively small loss. The Egyp- 
 tian loss is not known. ... At 1 p. m. on the 12th 
 of July, the white flag was hoisted by the Egyp- 
 tians. Admiral tsoymour demanded, as a prelimi 
 
 imry nieasurc. the Hurrriiiirr of the fort* com- 
 iiiiiiiiling the I'litranri' to the harlMiiir, and the dc- 
 goliatliiliHon this po<" were fruitlcHHly protraiU'it 
 fur some liourM. As night apiiroai lied llie city wiih 
 Ki'i'ii to be on tiri' in many places, and the tranies 
 were Npreading in all dlret'tloiiM. Thi! Kngliiili 
 now iH'rame aware that the whlU'Mag had nieri'ly 
 iH-en used as means to gain lime for a liasty 
 I'vaciialliiii of Alexandria by Ariilil and his army. 
 Hailors and niarines were now laiideil, and slilpH 
 of other nations sent drtaehnients on Klmre to 
 tiroteet llieir countrymen. Hut it wastiHilatu; 
 Hedouiiis, convicts, and ill iliselplined Hohlieni 
 had plundered and burnt tile Kiiropean quarter, 
 killed many foreigners, and a Keiiter's telegram 
 of the 14tli Hiiid, 'Alexandria Is completely de- 
 stroyed.'"— II. Vogt, T/w h'l/yiilian Han/ 1882, 
 
 pp. a-3a. 
 
 Ai.Hi) IN. ,r. C. McCoau, Kiji/i'l umkr Imutil, 
 eh. 8-10. — ('. Uoyle, The Kt/j/iitiu u (Mmikiij/iui, 
 r. 1, •,.. 1-20.— AViffiiv* and I'lmhiu. — V. F. 
 Ooixlrich, Ilfpt. oil. Jliitinh MUitni-y and Natnl 
 Oi>eratii>ii> in K'/i/iil, \Wi, pt. I. 
 
 A. D. 1883-1883.— The masMcre and de- 
 struction in Alexandria. -DecUr::d rebellion of 
 Arabi.— Its suppression by the English. — 
 Banishment of Arabi.— Engrlish occupation. 
 — The city of Alexandria had become " such u 
 Beetle of pillage, massacre, and wanton destruc- 
 tiim as to make tlie vorld sliudder. It was the 
 old tale of horrors. 1 louses were plundered and 
 burned; the Europe .11 (iiiarter, including the 
 stately buildings sur ounding the Great Siiuare 
 of Meheiiiel All, was Harked and left a heap of 
 smoldering ruins; and more than two IhoUNanil 
 Europeans, for the most part Levantines, were 
 massacred with all the cruelty of oriental fanati- 
 cism. This was on tlie afternoon of tho 12th. 
 It was the second masNacro that had occurred 
 under tho very eyes of the British fleet. Tho 
 admiral's fidlure to prevent it has , een called 
 unfortunate by some and criminal by others. It 
 seems to have been wholly witliout excuse. . . . 
 The blue-jackets were landed on the 13th, and 
 cleared the way before them witli a Galling gun. 
 The next day, more ships having arrived, a 
 surtieiont forco was landed to take iiossession of 
 the entire city. Tho khi i vo was escorted back 
 to Uas-elTin from liamieli, and given a strong 
 guard. Summary justice was dealt out to all 
 hostile Arabs who had been captured in tho 
 city. In sliort, English intervention was fol- 
 lowed by Eiiglisli occupation. Tlie bombardment 
 of Alexandria liad defined clearly the respect- 
 ive positions of Arabi and the khodive toward 
 Egypt and tho Egyptian people. . . . Tli«' 
 kliedive was not only weak in the eyes of his 
 people, but he was regarded as tlie tool of Eng- 
 land. . . . From the moment tho first shot was 
 tired upon Alexandria .Vrabi was tlio real ruler 
 of tho lieopie. . . . The conference at Con- 
 stantinople was stirred by tho news of tho Ixim- 
 bardment of Alexandria. It presented a note 
 to tlio Porte, July 15, requesting the dispatch 
 of Turkish troops to restore tlio status quo in 
 Egypt. But the sultan had no idea of taking 
 the part of tlie Cliri.stian in wliat all Islam re- 
 garded as a conte.' t between tho Moslem and tho 
 unbeliever. . . . In Egypt, tlie khedivo had been 
 prevailed upon, after sonic demur, to proclaim 
 Arabi a rebel and discharge him from his cabinet. 
 Arabi had issued a counter- iirociamation, on tlie 
 some day, doclaring Towtik a traitor to his peoplu 
 
 65 
 
EGYPT, 1882-1883. 
 
 ne English 
 Campaiyn. 
 
 EGYPT, 1883-1883. 
 
 nnil his religion. Having received the new8 of 
 the liliediveH prfxjiimalion, Lord Diifferin, the 
 Britisli umbassiulor iit ConBtnntinople, iinnouneed 
 to tlie conference tliiit KngliUKl was about to 
 Bend an expedition to Kfiypt to suppres-s tlie 
 rel)elIion and to restore tlie aiitliority of tlie 
 kiredive. Tliereupon the sultan declared that 
 lie had decided to send a Turkish expedition. 
 Lord Dulferiii feigned to accept the sultan's co- 
 operation, but demanded that the Porte, as a 
 lircliminary .step, should declare Arabi a rebel. 
 Again the sultan was confronted with the dan- 
 ger of incurring the wrath of the Moslem world. 
 He could not dec^lare Arabi a rebel. ... In 
 his desp(Tatioii lie sent a force of 3,000 men 
 to !Su(ia bay with orders to hold themselves in 
 readiness to enter Egypt at a moment's notice. 
 ... In the meantime, however, the English 
 expedition had arrived in Egypt and was pro- 
 cee<ling to crush the rebellion, regardless of the 
 diidoniatic delays and bickerings at Constanti- 
 nople, ... It was not until the 15tli of August 
 that Sir Garnet \Vt)lseley arrived with his force 
 in Egypt. Tlie English at that time held only 
 two points, Alexandria and Suez, while the en- 
 tire Egyptian interior, as well as Port Said 
 and Ismailia, were held 'ly Arabi, whose force, 
 it was estimated, now OMOunted to about 70,000 
 men, of whom :\\, least 50,000 were regulars. 
 Th(' objective point of General AVolseley's ex- 
 pedition to crush Arabi was, of course, the city 
 of Oairo. Th-^rc were two ways of approaching 
 that city, one from Alexantlria, through the 
 Delta, and the other from the Suez canal. There 
 were many objections to the former route. . . . 
 The Suez canal was supposed to be neutral 
 water. . . . But England felt n.j obligation to 
 recognize any neutrality, . . acting upon the 
 principle, which is doubtless sound, that ' the 
 neutrality of any cana! joining the waters of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans will be maintained, 
 if at all, by the nation which can place and keep 
 tlie strongest ships at each extremity.' In other 
 ■words. General Wolseley decided to enter Cairo 
 by way of the Suez canal and Ismailia. But he 
 kept his plan a profound secret. Admiral Sey- 
 mour alone knew his purpose. ... On the 19th, 
 the transports moved eastward from Alexandria, 
 as if to attack Abukir; but under the cover of 
 darkiiess the.t niiilit, they were escorted on to 
 Port Said, whei 'ley learned that the entire 
 canal, owing t the preconcerted action of 
 Admiral Scymou:, was in the hands of the 
 British. On tlie Slst, the troops met Sir Henry 
 McPherson's Indian contingent at Ismailia. Two 
 days were now consumed in rest and prepara- 
 tion. Tlio Egyptians cut off the water supply, 
 ■which came from the Delta by the Sweet Water 
 canal, by damming the canal. A sortie to secure 
 possession of the dam ■was therefore deemed 
 necessary, and was successfully made on the 
 84th. Further advances were made, and on the 
 26th, Kassassin, a stati-jn of some importance on 
 the caual and railway, was occupied. Here the 
 British force was obliged to delay for two weeks, 
 while organizing a hospital and a transport ser- 
 vice. This gave Arabi opportunitv to concen- 
 trate his forces at Zagazig and 'Tel-el-Kcbir. 
 But he knew it was for his interest to strike at 
 once before the British transports could come up 
 with the advance. He therefore made two 
 attempts, one on August 28, and the other on 
 September 9, to regain the position lost at Kas- 
 
 sassin. But he failed in both, though inflicting 
 .some loss upon his opponents. On the 12tli of 
 September ))reparations were made by General 
 Wolseley for a decisive battle. He had become 
 convinced from daily reconuoissiuice and from 
 the view obtaineil in the engagement of Septem- 
 ber 9, that the fortifications at Telel-Kebir were 
 both extensive and formidable. ... It was 
 therefore deciiled to make the approach under 
 cover of darkness. . . . At 1.30 on the morning 
 of the llith General Wolseley gave the onler for 
 the advance, his force consisting of about 11,000 
 infantry, 2,000 cavalrymen, and sixty fleld-guns. 
 They had only the stars to guide them, but so 
 aceiirately was the movement conducted that the 
 leading brigades of each division reacliiMl the 
 enemy's outposts within two minutes of each 
 other. ' The enemy (says General Wolseley^ 
 were completely surpri.sed, and it was not until 
 one or two of their advanced sentries flrcfl their 
 rifles that they realized our close proximity to 
 their ■ivorks. ' . . . The intrenclinients were not 
 carried without a severe struggle. The Egyp- 
 tians fought with a desperate courage and 
 hundreds of them were bayoneted at their posts. 
 . . . But what could the rank mid tile accom- 
 plish when 'each ollicer knew that he would run, 
 but hoped his neighbor would stay.' At the 
 first shot Arabi and his second in command took 
 horse and galloped to Belbeis, where they caught 
 a train for Cairo. Slost of the other olricers, as 
 the reports of killed and woimded show, did 
 the same. The Egyptians (ired their tirst shot 
 at 4.55 A. M., and at 0.45 the English had pos- 
 session of Arabi's headquarters and the canal 
 bridge. The British loss was 57 killed, 880 
 wounded, and 22 missing. The Egyptian army 
 left about 2,000 dead in the fortitications. . . . 
 A proof of the completeness of the success was 
 the entire dissipation of Arabi's army. Groups 
 of soldiers, it is true, were scattered to different 
 parts of Egypt ; but the army organization was 
 completely broken up with the battle of Tel-el- 
 Kebir. . . . ' Major-Qeneral Lowe was ordered 
 to push on with all possible speed to Cairo. 
 . , . General Lowe [reached] the gi'eat barracks 
 of Abbassieh, just outside of C.;i"o, at 4.45 P. M., 
 on the 14tli instant. The cavalry marched sixty- 
 five miles in these two days. ... A message 
 was sent to Arabi Pasha through the prefect of 
 the city, calling upon him to surrender forth- 
 with, which he did uncondii-'onally.' . . . Before 
 leaving England. Wolseley had predicted that he 
 would enter Cairo on tlie 16th of September; 
 but with still a day to sp,are the feat was accom- 
 plished, and Arabi's rebellion was completely 
 crushed. England now stood alone. Victory 
 had been won without the aid of Prance or the 
 intervention of Turkey. In Constantinople ne- 
 gotiations regarding iTurkish expeditions were 
 still pending when Lord Dufferin received the 
 news of Wolseley's success, and announced to 
 the Porte that there was now no need of a 
 'Turkish force in Egypt, as the war was ended. 
 France at once prepared to resume her share in 
 the control ; but Eugland, having borne the sole 
 burden of tl'.e war, did not propose now to share 
 the influence her success had given her. And It 
 was for the interest of Egypt that she should 
 not. . . . England's first duty, after quiet was 
 assured, was to send away all the British troops 
 except a force of obout 11,000 men, which it 
 was deemed advisable to retain in Egypt until 
 
 766 
 
EGYPT, 1883-1883. 
 
 Oeneral Gordon at 
 Khario\tm. 
 
 EGYPT, 1884-1885. 
 
 the klicdivc'g mithnrity was placed on n safe 
 footing tlirougliout tlio land. . . . Wliat sliould 
 be done with Arahi was tlie (jucation of para- 
 mount interest, wlicn once tlic khedive's aiitlior- 
 Ity was rc-estJiblished and recognized. Tcwflk 
 and his ministers, if left to tliemselves, wouhl 
 «n(iii08tional)ly liavo taken his life. . . . But 
 England was determined that Arnbi should have 
 a fair trial. . . It was decided that the rebel 
 leaders should appear before a military tribunal, 
 and they were given English counsel to plead 
 their cause. . . . The trial was a farce. Every- 
 thing was ' cut and dried ' beforehand. It -./as 
 arranged that Arabi was to plead guilty to re- 
 bellion, that be was forthwith to bo condemned 
 to death by the cpurt, and tliat the khedivo 
 was inuncfiiately to commute the sentence to 
 perpetual exile. In fact, the necessary jiapers 
 ■were drawn up and signed before the court 
 met for Arabi's trial on December 3. . . . On 
 the 26th of December Arabi and his six com- 
 panions . . . upon whom the same sentence had 
 been passed, left Cairo for the Islaud of Ceylon, 
 there to spend their life of perpetual exile. . . 
 Lord Dullerin . . . had been sent from Con- 
 Btantinoplc to Cairo, early in November, with 
 the special mission of bringing order out of 
 governmental chaos. In two months he had 
 prepared a scheme of legislative reorganization. 
 This was, however, somewhat altered ; so that it 
 ■was not until May, 1883, that the plan in its 
 improved form was occepted by the decree of the 
 khedive. The new constitution provided for 
 three clas-ses of assemblies: the 'Legislative 
 Council,' the ' General Assembly,' ond the ' Pro- 
 vincial Councils,' of which there were to be 
 fourteen, one for each province. . . . Every 
 Egyptian man, over twenty years of age, was to 
 ■vote (by ballot) for an ' elector-delegate ' from 
 the village in the neighborhowl of which he 
 lived, and the 'electors-delegate' from all the 
 villages in a province were to form the constitu- 
 ency that should elect the provincial council. 
 . . . The scheme for reorganization was carried 
 forward to the extent of electing the 'electors- 
 delegate' in September; but by that time Egypt 
 was again in a state of such disquietude that tlis 
 British advisers of the khedive considered it un- 
 wise to put the new institutions into operation. 
 In place of legislative council and general assem- 
 bly, the khedive appointed a council of state, 
 consisting of eleven Egvptians, two Annenians, 
 and ten Europeans. 'The reforms were set aside 
 for the time being in view of impending troubles 
 and dangers in the Sudan."— J. E. Bowen, T/ie 
 Conflict of Edst and West in, Egypt, eh. 5-6. 
 
 Also in : Col. J. F. Maurice, Military Hist, of 
 the Campaign of 1883 in Egypt. — C. Royle, The 
 Egyptian Campaigns, v. 1, ch. 22-44. 
 
 A. D. 1884-1885. — General Gordon's Mission 
 to Khartoum. — The town beleaguered by the 
 Mahdists. — English rescue expedition. — The 
 energy that was too late. — "The abandonment 
 of tlie Soudan being decided upon, the British 
 Government confided to General Gordon the task 
 of extricating the Egyptian garrisons scattered 
 throughout the country. . . . Gordon's original 
 instructions were dated the 18th January, 1884. 
 He was to proceed at once to Egypt, to report on 
 the military situation in the Soudan, and on the 
 measures which it might be advisable to take for 
 the security of the Egyptian garrisons and for 
 the safety of the European population in Khar- 
 
 toum. . , . Hewas to be accompanied by Colonel 
 Stewart. . . . Gordon's final instructions were 
 given him by the Egyptian Government in a 
 firman appointing him Governor-General. . . . 
 Gordon arrived at Khartoum on the 18tli Febru- 
 ary. . . . While Gordon was scndini; almost 
 daily expressions of his view as to the o:dy way 
 of carrying out the policy of eventual evacuation, 
 it was also becoming clear to him that he would 
 very soon be cu» oft' from the rest of Egypt. His 
 first remark on this subject was to express 'the 
 conviction that I shall be caught in Khartoum ' ; 
 and he wrote, — ' Even if I was mean enough to 
 escape I have no power to do so. ' The accuracy 
 of this forecast was speedily demonstratecl. 
 Within a few days communications with Khar- 
 toum were interrupted, and although subse- 
 (piently restored for a time, the rising of the 
 riparian tribes, rendered the receipt and despatch 
 of messages exceedingly uncertain. . . . Long 
 before the summer of 1884, it was evident that 
 the position of Gordon at Khartoum had become 
 so critical, that if he were to be rescued at all, it 
 could only be by the despatch of a British force. 
 . . . Early in May, war preparations were com- 
 menced in England, and on the 10th of the month 
 the military authorities in Cairo received instruc- 
 tions to prepare for the despatch in October of an 
 expedition for the relief of the Soudanese capital. 
 12,000 camels wore ordered to be purchased and 
 held in readiness for a forward march in the 
 autumn. On the 16th May a half-battalion of 
 English troops was moved up the Nile to Wady 
 Haifa. A few weeks later some other positions 
 on the Nile were occupied by portions of the 
 Army of Occupation. Naval officers were also 
 sent up the river to examine and report upon the 
 cataracts and other impediments to navigation. 
 Still it was not till the 5th August that Mr. Glad- 
 stone rose in the House of Commons tc move a 
 vote of credit of £300,000 to enable the Govern- 
 ment to undertake operations for the relief of 
 Gordon. ... It was agreed that there were but 
 two routes by which Khartoum could be ap- 
 proached by an expedition. One by way of the 
 Nile, and the other via Souakim and Berber. . . . 
 The Nile route having been decided on, prepara- 
 tions on a large srOe were begun. ... It was 
 at first arranged that not more than 5,000 men 
 should form the Expedition, but later on the 
 number was raised to 7,000. . . . The instruc- 
 tions given to Lord Wolseley stated that the 
 primary object of the Expedition was to bring 
 away Gordon and Stewart from Khartoum ; and 
 when that purpose should be effected, no further 
 offensive operations of any kind were to be under- 
 taken." — C. Koyle, The Egyptian Campaigns, 
 1883-1885, V. 2, ch. 12-18.— "First, it was said 
 that our troops would be before the gates of 
 Kliartoum on January 14th; next it was the mid- 
 dle of February ; and then the time stretched out 
 to the middle of March. . . . Lord Wolseley 
 offered a hundred pounds to the regiment cover- 
 ing the distance from Sarras to Debbeh most ex- 
 peditiously and with least damage to boats. . . . 
 He also dispatched Sir Herbert Stewart on the 
 immortal march to Gakdul. Stewart's force, 
 composed principally of the Mounted Infantry 
 and Camel Corps, and led by a troop of the 19tli 
 Hussars, acting as scouts — numbering about 
 1,100 in all — set out from Korti on December 
 80th. its destination was about 100 miles from 
 headqu irters, and about 80 from the Nile at 
 
 767 
 
EGYPT, 1884-1885. 
 
 ELBA. 
 
 Slicndy. The onterpriso, dinicultanddcspcrateas 
 it wiis', WHS iicliieved witli pcTf(!ct 8ucct'S.s. . . . 
 On lli(^ 17th Januury Sir llerbfrt Stowiirf enKiiged 
 tlu! ciieniy on thi^ roiul to Mctcnineh, iind after de- 
 feating some 10,000 Arabs — eollected from Ber- 
 l)cr, Metenmeli, and Omdurman — pushed for- 
 ward to the Abii Klea Wells. His tactics were 
 much tlie same as those of General Graliani at 
 Eltelt, and those of the Mahdi's men — of attacli- 
 ing wljcn thirst and fatigue liad well-nigli pros- 
 trated the force — were at all points similar to 
 those adopted against Hicks. Our losses were 05 
 uon-coniMUssioned oilicers and men killed and 85 
 wounded, with 9 olHeers killed — among them 
 Colonel Uurnaby — and 9 wounded. Stewart at 
 once pushed on "for Metemneh and the Nile. He 
 left the Wells ou the 18th Jan. to occupy Metem- 
 ueh, if possible, but, failing that, to make for the 
 Kile and entrench liimsclf . After a night's march, 
 some five miles south of Metemneh, the column 
 found itself in presence of an enemy said to have 
 been about 18,000 strong. Stewart halted and 
 formed a zareba under a deadly Are. He himself 
 was mortally hurt in the groin, and Sir. Cameron, 
 of the Standard, and Mr. Herbert, of the Morning 
 Post, were killed. The zareba completed, the 
 column advanced in square, and the Arabs, profit- 
 ing by Abu Klea, moved forward in echelon, 
 apparently with the purpose of charging. At 
 thirty yards or so they were brought to bay, so 
 terrific was the lire from the square, ond so splen- 
 didly served was Norton's artillery. For two 
 hours the battle raged ; and then the Arabs, ' mown 
 
 down \n heaps, ' gave way. Meantime Sir Charles 
 Wilson had made (> dash for the Nile, where he 
 foimd steamers and reinforcements from Gordon, 
 and the laconic messige, ' All right at Khartoum. 
 Can hold out for yeirs.'. . . In the joy at the 
 good news, none had .itoppcd to consiuer the true 
 meaning of the message, ' All right. Can hokl 
 out for j'ears,' for noni was aware that nearly 
 two months before Gordon had said lie had just 
 provisions enough for 40 days, and that what lie 
 really meant was that hi had come to his last 
 biscuit. The message — \'hich was written for 
 the enemy — was dated I)e;. 29, luid Sir Charles 
 Wilson would reach Khartoum on Jan. 28, just a 
 month after its despatch. . . . The public, care- 
 fully kept in ignonmce . . . and hopeful be- 
 yond their wont, were simply stupefied to hear, 
 on Feb. 5, that Khartoum was in the hands of 
 the Alahdi and Gordon captured or dead. " — A. E. 
 Hake, I'/te Stmy of Chinene Gordon, v. 2, eh. 
 10. 
 
 Also in; H. M. Stanley, I/i. Darkest Africa, 
 ch. 1.— Col. H. E. Colvile, llu't. of the tiumlan 
 Campaign. — Col. C. W. Wilson, From Korti to 
 Khartoum.— Col Sir W. F. Butler, The Cam- 
 jMtiyn of the Cataracts. — W. M. Pimblett, The 
 Story of *M Soudan War. — Gen. C. G. Gordon, 
 Journals at Khartoum. — II. W. Gordon, Events 
 in the Life of Charles George Gord'»i , ch. 14-20. 
 
 A. D. 1893. — The reigning khv°dive. — Mo- 
 hamed Tewtik died in January, 1898 and was 
 succeeded by his son Abbas, born in 1874. — 
 Statesman's Year-book, 1893. 
 
 EGYPTIAN EDUCATION. See Educa- 
 tion, Anxient. 
 
 EGYPTIAN TALENT. See Talent. 
 
 EIDGENOSSEN.— The German word Eid- 
 genossen, signifying "confederates," is often 
 used in a special sense, historically, as applied to 
 the members of the Swiss Confederation, — see 
 Switzerland: The Three Forest Cantons. 
 The name of tlie Huguenots is believed by some 
 writers to be a corruption of the same term. 
 
 EIGHT SAINTS OF WAR, The. See 
 Florence: A. D. 1375-1378. 
 
 EIKON BASILIKE, The. See England: 
 A. D. 1649 (February). 
 
 EION, Siege and capture of (B. C. 470). 
 See Athens: B. C. 470-400. 
 
 EIRE. See Ireland: The Name. 
 
 EKKLESIA. See Ecclesia. 
 
 EKOWE, Defence of (1879). See South 
 Africa: A. D. 1877-1879. 
 
 ELAGABALUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 
 218-233. 
 
 EL AM. — " Genesis calls a tribe dwelling on 
 the Lower Tigris, between the river and the 
 mountains of Iran, the Elamites, the oldest son 
 of Shem. Among the Greeks the land of the 
 Elamites was known as Kissia [Cissia], and after- 
 wards as Susiana, from the name of the capital. 
 It was also called Ely inuis." — M. Dimcker, Hist, 
 of Antiquity, hk. 3, ch. 1.— About 2300 B. C. 
 Ciialdea, or Babylonia, was overwhelmed by an 
 Elamite invasion — an invasion recorded by king 
 .\sshurbanipal, and which is stated to have laid 
 waste the land of Accad and desecrated its tem- 
 ples. " Nor was this a passing inroad or raid of 
 booty-seeking mountaineers. It was a real con- 
 quest. Khudur-Nankhimdi and his successors 
 remained in Southeru Chaldea. . . . This is the 
 first time wc meet authentic monumental records 
 
 of a country which was destined througli the next 
 sixteen centuries to be in continual contact, mostly 
 hostile, witli both Babylonia and her ucrtlicrn 
 rival, Assyria, until its final annihilation ly the 
 latter [B. C. 049, under Asshurbanipal, the Sar- 
 dauapulusof the Greeks, who reduced the w.'iole 
 country to a wilderness]. Its capital was Shusian 
 (afterwards pronounced by foreigners Susa), ai'd 
 its own original name Shushinak. Its people wei 'j 
 of Turanian stock, its language was nearly akin tc 
 that of Shumir and Accad. . . . Elam, the name 
 under which the country is best known, botli 
 from the Bible and later monuments, is a Tura- 
 nian word, which means, like 'Accad,' 'High- 
 lands.' . . . One of Khudur-Nankhundi's next 
 successors, Khudur-Lagamar, was not content 
 with the addition of Chaldea to his kingdom of 
 Elam. He had the ambition of a born conqueror, 
 and the generalship of one. The Chap. xiv. of 
 Genesis — which calls him Chedorlaomer — is the 
 only document we have descriptive of this king's 
 warlike career, and a very striking picture it 
 gives of it. . . . Khudur-Lagamar. . . lived, ac- 
 cording to the most probable calculations, about 
 2200 B. C."— Z. A. Ilagozin, Story of Chaldea, 
 ch. 4. — It is among the discoveries of recent 
 times, derived from the records in clay tmcarthed 
 in Babylonia, that Cyrus the Great was originally 
 king of Elam, and acquired Persia, as lie ac- 
 quired his later dominions, by conquest. — See 
 Persia, B. C. 549-531. — See, also, Babylonia. 
 
 EL ARISH, Treaty of. See France: A. D. 
 1800 (January — June). 
 
 ELBA: A. D. 1735.— Ceded to Spain by 
 Austria. See Franck: A. I). 1733-1735. 
 
 A. D. 1802. — Annexation Co France. Sec 
 France : A. D. 1802 (August— September). 
 
 A. D. 1814.— Napoleon in exile. See France : 
 A. D. 1814(MARcn— April), and (April— June). 
 
 768 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 NoTKB TO Ethnoquai'iiical Map, Placed at tiik Beoinntno of this Volcmb. 
 
 TO THE eye of modern sclinlnrship "Inn- 
 guiige " forms the basis of every ethnic dis- 
 tinction. Pliysical and exterior features 
 lilfc tlie stature, the color of tlie skin, tlie diversity 
 of habits and customs, tlie distinctions which 
 once formed in ereat part the l)asis of etlmic 
 research have all m our own day been relegated 
 to a subordinate place. 
 
 The "language" test is of course subject to 
 very serious limitations. The intermingling of 
 diff'-rent peoples, more general to be sure in our 
 own day than in jjast ages, lias nevertheless been 
 sutHciently ^reat in every age to make the trac- 
 ing of linguistic forms a task of great dilHculty. 
 In special eases where both the civilization and 
 language of one people have become lost in that 
 of another the test must of course fail utterly. 
 
 With all these restrictions however the adop- 
 tion of the linguistic methotl by modern criticism 
 has been practically universal. Its defence, if it 
 requires any, is ai)parent. It is the only method 
 of ethnic study the deductions of which, where 
 successful at all, approach anything like certainty. 
 The points wherein linguistic criticism has failed 
 have been freely admitted ; on the other hand the 
 facts which it has established arc unassailable by 
 aiiv other school of criticism. 
 
 Taking language then as the only tangible 
 working basis the subject resolves itself from the 
 start into a two-fold division : the debatable and 
 the certaii'. It is the purpose to indicate in the 
 course of these notes, what is merely conjecture 
 and what may be safely accepted as fact. 
 
 The ethnology of Europe, studied on this basis, 
 has for its central feature the Indo-Oennanic 
 (Tiulo-Europeun) or Aryan nice. The distinction 
 between the races clearly Aryan an<l those doubt- 
 ful or non-Aryan forms the primary division of 
 the subject. As the map is intended to deal only 
 with the Europe of the present, a historical dis- 
 tinction must be made at the outset between the 
 doubtful or non-Aryan peoples who preceded the 
 Aryans a'ld the non-Aryan peoples who have ap- 
 peared in Europe in comparatively recent times. 
 
 The simple formula, jvi-Ari/an, Aryan, non- 
 Aryan, affords the key to the historical develop- 
 ment of European ethnology. 
 
 PRE-ARYAN PEOPLES. 
 
 Of the presumably pre-Aryan peoples of western 
 Europe the Iberians occupy easily the first place. 
 
 The seat of this people at the dawn of history 
 was in Spain and southern France ; their ethnol- 
 ogy belongs entirely to the realm of conjecture. 
 They arc of much darker complexion than the 
 Aryans and their racial characteristic is conserva- 
 tism even to stubbornness, which places them in 
 marked contrast to their immediate Aryan neigh- 
 bors, the volatile Celts. Among the speculations 
 concerning the origin of the Iberians a plausible 
 one is that of Dr. Bwlichon, who assigns to them 
 an African origin making them, indeed, cognate 
 with the moderu Berbers (see R. H. Patterson's 
 
 " Ethnology of Europe "in "Lectures on History 
 and Art'). This generalization is made to 
 include also the liretons of the north west. It is 
 clear however that the population of iiKMlern 
 Brittany is purely Celtic: made up largelv from 
 the immigrations from the British Isles during 
 the liftli century. 
 
 To the stubbornness with which the Iberians 
 resisted every foreign aggression and refused 
 intermingling with surrounding races is due the 
 survival to the present day of their descendants, 
 the liatqncs. 
 
 The mountain ranges of northern Spain, the 
 Cantabrians and Eastern Pyrenees have formed 
 the very donjon-keep of this people in every 
 age. Ilere the Vantnbri successfully resisted 
 the Roman arms for mere tliiv.i a century after 
 the subjugation of the remainder of Spain, the 
 final conquest not occurring until the last years of 
 Augustus. While the Iherian race as a whole 
 has become lost in the greater mass of Celtic and 
 Latin intruders, it has remained almost pure in 
 this quarter. The present seat of the liasffiies is 
 in the Spanish provinces of Viseaya, Alava, 
 Guipuzcoa, and Navarre and in the French 
 department of Basses Pyrenees. The Inrninns 
 of Ireland, now lost in the Celtic population, and 
 the Lii/urians along the shores of the Genoese 
 gulf, later absorbed by the Romans, both belong 
 likewise to this pre-Aryan class.' (Mixlern re- 
 search concerning tliese pre-Aryan peoples has 
 in large part taken its inspiration from the 
 " Untersuchungen " of Humboldt, whose view 
 concerning the connefction between the Basques 
 and Iberians is substantially the one stated.) 
 
 Another early non-Aryan race now extinct 
 were the Etrmains of Itjily. Their origin was 
 manifestly diiferent from that of the pre-Aryan 
 peoples just mentioned. By many they have 
 been regarded as a branch of the great Ural- 
 Alt4iic family. This again is conjecture. 
 
 ARYAN PEOPLES. 
 
 In beginning the survey of the Aryan peoples 
 it is necessary to mention the principal divisions 
 of the race. As generally enumerated there are 
 seven of these, viz., the iiinakrit (Hindoo), Zfnd 
 (Persian), Greek, Latin, Celtic, Germanic and 
 Slaric. To ihese may be added two others not 
 definitely classilled, the Albanian and the Lit/i- 
 iianian. These bear the closest affinity respect- 
 ively to the Latin and the Slavic. 
 
 Speculation concerning the origin of the Arvans 
 need not concern us. It belongs as yet entirely 
 to the arena of controversy. The vital question 
 which divides the opposing schools is coiicrn- 
 ing their European or Asiatic origin. Of the 
 numerous writers on this subject the two who 
 perhaps afford the reader of English the best 
 view of the opposing opinions are, on the Asiatic 
 side. Dr. Max MUller (Lectures on the Science of 
 Language); on the other, Prof. A. H. Sayce (In- 
 troduction to the Science of I,anguage). 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Of the divisions of tlie Arjiiii nice above enu- 
 incmted tlm llrst two do not ap|)t'ur in KuropL'nu 
 ctlinolojfy. Of the otliiT l)ruiicli(-», tin; Ijttin, 
 Oermnuie iiiid Kliiric form liy greiit oddstlie bidk 
 uf till* Kiiropcaii )iopiilatioii. 
 
 THE LATIN BRANCH. 
 
 Tlic hi<in comitrics arc France, .Si)ain, Portu- 
 gal, Italy and lie Icrrilory north of the Dainibe, 
 between the Dniester and the Tlii'iss. In the 
 strictest ellinic sense however tUt" term Latin can 
 l)e applieil only to Italv and then only to the 
 <!entral part. As Italy lirst appears in Idstory it 
 is inhabited l)v a number of (lilferent races: tlie 
 Iii;ii/i/i(iiiii and (hiintriuiiinA iXw soiitli who were 
 thrown in direct contact witli tin' (3reek settlers; 
 the I'lti/iriiiiiH, Sdhiiuti, Liitiiin, i'o/wiViM and 0»- 
 cans in the centre; the h'trimcdiiii ou tlie west 
 sliore north of the Tiber; while in the north we 
 lind the Gnuh in the valley of tlio Po, with tlie 
 JAguriiins and Vinetiani respectively on the 
 west and east coasts. Of this motley collection 
 the central group bore a close alfluity to the 
 Latin, yet all alike receiveil the Latin .stamp with 
 the growinj; power of Uome. 
 
 The etlmic comple-xiea of Italy thus formed 
 was hi'.rdly moditied b; the great Germanic in- 
 vasions which followcii V. ith the fall of the West- 
 liomun Km|)ire. 
 
 Tlda observation applies with more or less 
 trutli to all the Latin countries, the Germanic 
 conipierors becoming everywliere merged and 
 llni'lly lo.st in the greater mass of tlie conquered. 
 Only in Loinbardy wliere a more enduring Ger- 
 manic kingdom existed for over two centuries 
 (508-774), lias the Germanic made any impression, 
 and tiiis indeed a sliglit one, on tlic distinctly 
 Latin character of tlie Italian peninsula. 
 
 Ill Spain an interval between tiie Iberian jieriod 
 and the Roman conquest appears to have existed, 
 during which the population is best described as 
 Uelt-Iberian. Upon this population the Latin 
 stain]) was placed by the long and toilsome, but 
 for that reason more tliorougli, Roman conquest. 
 Tlie ethnic chameter of Spain thus formed lias 
 passed witliout material cliange through the 
 ordeal both of Germanic and Saracenic conquest. 
 The Qothic kingdom of Spain (418-714) and the 
 ISuevic kingdom of nortliern Portugal (400-584) 
 Lave left behind them scarcely a trace. The 
 eiTectsof the great Mohammedan invasion cannot 
 be dismissed so liglitly. 
 
 Conquered entirely by the Arabs and Jloors in 
 714, the entire country was not freed from the in- 
 vader for nearly eight centuries. In tlie south 
 (Granada) where the Moors clung longest their 
 intluence has been greatest. Here their im- 
 press on the pure Aryan stock has nevi been 
 effaced. 
 
 The opening plirase of Caesar's Gallic war, 
 " all Gaul is divided into three parts," states a 
 fact as truly etiinic iis it is geographical or his- 
 torical. In the south (Aquitania) we find the 
 Celtic blending with the Iberian ; in the north- 
 east the Cimbrian Dclgae, the last comers of the 
 Celtic family, are strongly marked by the char- 
 acteristics of tlie Germans; while in tlie vast 
 central territory the people " calling themselves 
 Galli " are of pure Celtic race. This brief state-, 
 nient of Cae.sar, allowing for the subsequent in- 
 flux of the German, is no mean description of the 
 ethnic divisions of France as they exist at the 
 present day, and is an evidence of the remarkable 
 
 continuity of ethnological as opposed to mere 
 politic^ai (conditions. 
 
 The four and a half centuries of Roman rule 
 ])Iaccd the Latin .stamp on the (!alli(! nation, a 
 l>repanition for the most deterinined siege of 
 Germanic race intluence which any Latin nation 
 was fated to undergo. 
 
 In Italy and Spain the exotic kingdoms wore 
 quickly overthrown; the Fninkinh kingdom in 
 nortliern Gaul was in strictness never overtlirowu 
 at all. 
 
 In addition we soon have in the extreme north 
 a second Germanic element in tlie Hcandinaviau 
 Kiinitnn. Over all these oiit.side elements, how- 
 ever, the Latin intluence eventually triumphed. 
 AVIiile the Franks have imposed their name upon 
 tile natives, the latter have imposed tlieir language 
 and civilization on tlie invaders. 
 
 The result of this clashing of influences is seen, 
 however, in the present linguistic divi.sion of the 
 old Gallic lands. The Wiw running east and west 
 through the centre of Franci; marks tlie division 
 between the JtYenrh and the J'roreii(((l dialects, 
 the laiiijiied'oil and the laiif/iied'oe. It is south of 
 this line '.ii the country of the IcnfjueiVoc that the 
 Latin or Romance influence reigns most ubsoluto 
 in the native speecli. 
 
 In the northeast, on the other hand, in the Wal- 
 loon provinces of IkOgium, we have, as witli the 
 Ik'lgae of classic timi'S, the near approach of the 
 Gallic to the Germanic stems. 
 
 Our sirvey of the Latin peoples must close 
 with a short notice of its outlying members in 
 tlie Ralkan and Danubian lands. The Albanians 
 (Skipetan) and the liounmns ( V lacks or Wallaclis) 
 represent as nearly as ethnology can determine 
 tlie ancient populations respectively of Illyricum 
 and Tlirace. The ethnology of the Albanians is 
 entirely uncertain. Their present location, con- 
 siderably to tiie soutl' of their supposed pristine 
 seat in Illyricum, indicates some southern migra- 
 tion of the race. Tliis migration occurred at an 
 entirely unknown time, though it is generally 
 believed to have been contemporary with the 
 great southward movement of the Slavic races 
 in the seventli century. 
 
 The Albanian migrations of the time penetrated 
 Attica, Aetolia and the entire Peloponnesus; 
 with the Slavs and Vlaelis they formed indeed a 
 great part of the ])opulution of Greece during 
 the Middle Ages. While the Slavic stems have 
 since been merged in the native Greek population, 
 and the Vlae/is have almost entirely disappeared 
 from these southern lands, the Albanians in 
 Greece have shown a greater tenacity. Their 
 part in later Greek history has been a prominent 
 one and they form to-day a great part of the popu- 
 lation of Attica and Argolis. 
 
 Tlie liounmns or Vliichs, the supposed native 
 population of Thrace, arc more closely identified 
 tliau the Albanians with the otiier Latin peoples. 
 They occupy at present the vast country north 
 of the Danube, their boundary extending on the 
 east to the Dniester, on the west almost to the 
 Tlieiss. 
 
 Historically these people form a perplexing 
 yet interesting study. The tlieory once general 
 that they represented a continuous Latin civiliza- 
 tion north of the Danube, connecting the classic 
 Dacia by an unbroken cliain to the i)resent, has 
 now been generally abandoned. (See Roesler's 
 "Uomilnische Studien" or Frcemau's "Hist. 
 Geog. of Europe," p. 435.) , 
 
 U 
 
APPEXDIX A. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 The present gcnjrrnphicnl locution of the Vliich 
 
 ?ieople8 is prol)iil)ly the result of a inij^rution 
 rom tlio 'I linieian IiukIh south of the Uuuube, 
 whicli occurred for uiii'X|)liunt'(i ciiuscs iii tli(! 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Tlie kernel of 
 the race at the present day is the separate state 
 of Koumania; in the Kast and West they ccnie 
 under the respective rules of Uussia aii(l Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 In mediaeval times the part played by them 
 south of the JJalkans was an important one, and 
 to this day they still linger in considerable num- 
 bers on either side of the range of Pindus. (For 
 a short dissertation on tlie Vlach peoples, see 
 Finlay, "Hist, of Greece," vol. 3, pp. 234-330.) 
 
 THE GERIVIANIC BRANCH. 
 
 The Oernuinie nations of modern Europe are 
 Enyland, Germany, lloUaiul, Deiiinnrk, Noritny 
 and Sweden. The Germanic races also form the 
 major part of the population of Switzerland, 
 the Cis-Leithan division of tlie Austrian Empire, 
 and appear in isolated settlements througliout 
 Hungary and liussia. 
 
 Of the earlier Germanic iiatioiia v.lio overthrew 
 the Roman Empire of the West scarcely a trace 
 remains. 
 
 The population of the liritish Isles at the dawn 
 of history furnishes a close parallel to tliat of 
 Oaul. The pre-Aryan loernians (the possible 
 Iberians of the British Isles) had been forced 
 back into the recesses of Scotland and Ireland ; 
 next to them came the Celts, like those of Gaul, 
 in two divisions, the Ouidels or Oiids and the 
 Britonn. 
 
 In Britain, contrary to the usual rule, the Roman 
 domination did not give tlio perpetual Latiu 
 stamp to the island; it is in fact the only country 
 save the Paiinonian and Rliaetian lands south of 
 the upper Danube, once a Roman po.ssession, 
 where tlie Germanic element has since gained a 
 complete mastery. The inviision of the Germanic 
 races, the Anf/les, Snj-ons and Jiitai, from the 
 sixth to the eighth centuries, were practically 
 wars of extermination. Tlie Celtic race is to-day 
 represented on the British Isles only in Wales 
 and tlie western portions of Scotland and Ireland. 
 The invasions of tlie Danes, and later the Xorman 
 conquest, bringing with them only slight infu- 
 sions of kindred Germanic nations, have produced 
 in England no marked niodittcation of tlie Saxon 
 stock. 
 
 The German Empire, with the smaller adjoin- 
 ing realms, Holland and Switzerland and the 
 Austrian provinces of Austria, Styria, C'arinthia, 
 Salzburg and Tyrol, contain tlie great mass of the 
 Germanic peoples of the continent. 
 
 During the confusion following tlie overthrow 
 of the West-Roman Empire the Germanic jieoples 
 were grouped much further westward than they 
 are at present ; the eastward reaction involving 
 the dispossession of the Slavic peoples on the Elbe 
 and Oder, has been going on ever since the days 
 of Charlemagne. Germany like France possesses a 
 linguistic division, Low German (Nieder-De.utsclie) 
 being generally spoken in the lands north of the 
 cross line, Ilir/li German (Iloch-Dcittuche) from 
 whicli the written language is derived, to the 
 south of it. Holland uses the Flcmixh, a form of 
 the Nieder-Dcutschc ; Belgium is about equally 
 divided between the Flemish aiu\ llu' Walloon. 
 
 Switzerland, tliough predominantly German, is 
 encroached upon by the French in the western 
 
 cantons, wliile in the soiitlieast is used the 
 Italian and a form allied to the same, the 
 Romance speech of the Hhaelian (Tyrolese) Alps. 
 This form also prevails in Friiili and some 
 mountainous p ..(s of northern Italy, 
 
 The present population of the Qcrrniin Empire 
 is almost exclusively Germanic, the exceptions 
 being tlie Slavic I'oles of I'osen, I'omerellen, 
 southeastern Pru.ssia and eastern Silesia, the 
 remnant of the Wends of Lusatia and thi French 
 element in the recently aeciuired Imperial lands 
 of Alsace and Lorraine. Beyond the Empire we 
 find a German |)opulation in the Austrian terri- 
 tories already noted, in tlie border lands of Bo- 
 hemia, and in isolated settlem.'iits further east. 
 The great settlement in the SiebeiibUrgen was 
 made by German emigrants in the eleventh cen- 
 turv and similar settlements dot the map both 
 of llungaryand Russia. On tlie Volga indeed 
 exists the greatest of tliem all. 
 
 Denmark, Norway and Sweden are iieojiled 
 by the Scandinarian branch of the Germanic 
 race. Only in the extreme north <lo we lind 
 another and non-Aryan race, the iMpps. On the 
 other liaud a remnant of the Swedes stilt retain 
 a precarious hold on the coast line of their former 
 possession, tlic Russian Finland. 
 
 THE SLAVIC BRANCH. 
 
 The Slavs, though the last of the Aryan na- 
 tions to appear in history, form numerically by 
 far the "-eatest branch of the Indo-European 
 family. . ..eir present number in Eurojjc is com- 
 liuted at nearly one hundred million souls. 
 
 At the time of the great migrations they 
 extended over nearly all modern Germany ; their 
 slow dispossession by the Germanic jieojiles, 
 beginning in the eighth century, has already 
 been noticed. In the course of this dispossession 
 the mo4t westerly Slavic group, the Polabie, 
 between the Elbe and the Oder, were merged in 
 the German, and, barring the remnant of Wends in 
 Lusatia (the Sorabi or Nortlierii Serbs), have dis- 
 appeared entirely from ethnic geography. 
 
 The great Slavic nation of tlie present day is 
 Russia, but the great number of Slavic peoples 
 who are not Russian and the considerable Rus- 
 sian population which is not Slavic renders im- 
 possible the study of this race on strictly national 
 Mnes. 
 
 The Slavic peoples are separated, jiartly by 
 geographical conditions, into three great divisions : 
 the Eastern, the Western and the Snithern. The 
 greatest of these divisions, the Eastern, lies 
 entirely within the boundaries of the Ru.ssian 
 Empire. The sub-divisions of the Eastern 
 group are as follows: The Great liussia ns occu- 
 pying the vast inland territorj' and numbering 
 alone between forty and tifty niillioiis, the Little 
 Jliissians inliabiting the entire soutli of Russia 
 from Poland to the Caspian, and tlie W/iite 
 Jiiissiiins, the least numerous of this division, in 
 Smolensk, Wilna, and Minsk, the west provinces 
 bordering on the Lithuanians and Poles. 
 
 The West Slaric group, omitting names of 
 peoples now extinct, are the Poles, Slovaks, Czechs 
 and the remnants of the Lusatian Wends. Tlie 
 I'oks, excepting those already mentioned as 
 within the German empire, and tlu! Austriaii J'oles 
 of Cnicow, are all uikU r the domination of Rus- 
 sia. Under tlu! sovereignty of Austria an; the 
 Slovaks, Moravians and Czechs of Boheniia, the 
 latter the must westerly as well us historically the 
 
 m 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 oldcRt of (lin surviving Slavic peoples, Imvlng 
 nppciiri'd in their present seats in the lust yeiirs 
 of the fifth century. 
 
 In connection with this West Slavic group we 
 should also refer to the lAthuiiniant whose his- 
 tory, despite the racial difTerence, is so closely 
 allied with that of Poland. Their present loca- 
 tion in tlie UusKian provinces of Kowno, Kurland 
 and Livland has been i)ractically the same since 
 tlie dawn of history. 
 
 Tlie Siiith Slarie peoples were isolate<l from 
 their norlhern kinsmen by th" great Finno-Tatar 
 invasions. 
 
 The invasion of Europe by the Avars in the 
 sixth century clove like a wedge the two great 
 divisions of the .Slavic nice, the southernmost being 
 forced upon the confines of the Eastlloman Em- 
 pire. Tliough less imposing as conquests than 
 the Oermanic invasions of the Western Empire, 
 the racial importance of these Slovic movements 
 is far greater since they constitute. In connection 
 witli the hXmui-Tatar invasions which caused 
 them, the most important and clearly defined 
 series of ethnic changes which Europe has ex- 
 perienced during the Ciiristian Era. During the 
 sixth and seventh centuries these Slavic emi- 
 grants spread over almost the entire Balkan 
 peninsula, including Epirus and the Pelopon- 
 nesus. In Greece they afterwards disappeared us 
 H separate people, but in tlic region between the 
 Danube, the Save and tlic Balkans thev imme<li- 
 ntcly developed separate states (Servia in 041, 
 Bulgaria in 078). As they exist nt present they 
 may be clussed in three divisions. The liul- 
 garians, so called from the tHiino-Tatar people 
 whom they absorbed while accepting their name, 
 occupy the district included in the separate 
 state of Bulgaria and Eastern Itouinelia, with a 
 considerable territory to the south of it in Mace- 
 donia and Thrace. It was this lust named ter- 
 ritory or one very nearly corresponding to it 
 that was actually ';eded to Bulgaria by the 
 peace of San Stcfano though she tmfortunately 
 lost it by the subseij'.'.ent compromise eflected 
 at the Congress of Berlin. Tlic srcond divi- 
 sion includes the Servians, Montencgmiit, Bos- 
 nians and Vroatians, the last two under Austrian 
 control; the third and smallest are the Slov- 
 enes of Curniola, likewise under Austrian sover- 
 eignty. (Schufarik's " Slawisciie Alterthllmcr " 
 is the greatest single authority on the early 
 history and also comparative ethnology of the 
 Slavs.) 
 
 The territory occupied by the Greek speaking 
 people is clearly shown on the accompanying 
 map. As in all history, it is tlie coast lands 
 where they seem to have formed the strongest 
 hold. In free Greece Itself and in the Turkish 
 territories immediately adjoining, the Oreek pop- 
 ulation overwhelmingly preponderates. 
 
 Nevertheless there is still a considerable Al- 
 banian element in Attica ond Argolis, a Vlach 
 element In Epirus while the 7\t)-k himself still 
 ling' ^ in certain quarters of Thessaly. All these 
 arc icninunts left over from the successive migra- 
 tions of the Jliddle Ages. The SUim, who also 
 figured most prominently in these migrations, 
 have disappeared in Greece as a distinct race. 
 The question as to the degree of Slavic admixture 
 among the modern Greeks is however another 
 fruitful source of ethnic controversy. The gen- 
 eral features of the question are most compactly 
 stated in Finlay, vol. 4, pp. 1-37. 
 
 NON-ARYAN PEOPLES. 
 
 The Non-Aryan peoples on the soil of modern 
 Europe, excepting the ^pir* and also pr.ibably ex- 
 cepting those already placed ir; tlu unsolved 
 class of pre-Aryan, all belong to the Muuo-Tatar 
 or Ural- Altaic U\n\i\y , and all, poss'.bly excepting 
 tlie Finns, date their arrival in Europe fnmi com- 
 paratively recent and historic times. The four 
 principal divisions of this race, Uie Ugrir, Finnic, 
 Turkic and Mongolie, all have their European 
 representatives. 
 
 Of tlie first the only representatives are the 
 Hungarians (.Vagi/ars). The rift between the 
 North and South Slavic peoples oiiened by the 
 Jluns in the liftli century, reo])ened and enlarged 
 by the Avars In tlic s'x'tli, was finally occupied 
 by their kinsmen the Magyars in the ninth. The 
 receding of this wa' e of Asiatic Invasion left the 
 Magyars in utter isolation among their Aryan 
 neighbors. It follows us a natural consequence 
 that they have been the only one of the Ural- 
 Altaic peoples lo accept the religion I'.nd civiliza- 
 tion of tlie Wc'st. Since the conversirm of their 
 king St. Steiihen In the year 1000, tlieirgeogruphl- 
 cal position has not altered. lioughly speaking, 
 it comprkes the western half of Hungary, with 
 an outlying branch in tlie Carpathians. 
 
 More closely allied to the Magyars than to their 
 more immediate neighbors of the same race are 
 the Mnnie stems of the extreme north. Stretch- 
 ing originally over nearly the whole northern 
 lir.lf of Scandinavia and Russia they have been 
 A_radually displaced, in tlio one case by their 
 Germanic, in the other by their Slavic neighbors. 
 Their present representatives are the E/ists and 
 Tschudes of Elistland, the Finns and Karclians 
 of Finland, the Tscheremissians of the upper 
 Volga, the Siryenians In the basin of the Petcliora 
 and the Lajips in northern Scandinavia and along 
 the shores of the Arctic ocean. 
 
 East of the Lapjys, also bordering the Arctic 
 ocean, lie the Sarnojedcs, a people forming a dis- 
 tinct branch of the Ural-Altaic family though 
 most closely allied to the Finnic peoples. 
 
 The great division of the Ural-Altaic family 
 known Indifferently as Tatar {Tartar) or Turk, 
 has, like the Aryan Slavs, through the accidents 
 of historical geography rather than race diverg- 
 ence been separated into two great divisions : the 
 northern or Russian division commonly com- 
 prised under the sped*'" name of Tartar; and 
 the southern, the 2wk. 
 
 These are the latest additions to the Euroiiean 
 family of races. The Mongol- Tartar invasion of 
 Russia occurred as late as the thirteenth century, 
 while the Turks did not gain tlieir first foothold 
 in Europe through the gates of Gallipoll until 
 1353. The bulk of the Turks of the present day 
 are congregated in Asia-Minor. 
 
 Barring the Armenians, the Oeorgians of the 
 northeast, the Greeks of the seacoast and the 
 scattered Circassians, the whole jienlnsula is sub- 
 stantially Turkisii. 
 
 In Europe proper the Turks as a distinct people 
 never cut a great figure. Even In the grandest 
 days of Osmanli conquest they were always 
 outnumbered by the conquered nations whose 
 land they occupied, and with the decline of their 
 power this numerical inferiority has become 
 more and more marked. At the present day 
 there are very few portions of the Balkan penin- 
 sula where the Turkish population actually pre- 
 
 IV 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 dominatCB; their general dlstrllmtlon is clenrly 
 shown on the niiip. 
 
 The Tartim or liuimidii 7'inkn represent the 
 sIftingH of the Asiatic inviisiona of tlie tliirtet h 
 century. 
 
 Tlieir numlier Ims been steadily liwindlinji; 
 until tliey now count scarcely three nijllions, a 
 mere handful in the mass of their former Hliivic 
 subjects. 
 
 Tlie survivors are scattered in irregular and 
 Isolated groups over the south and east. Promi- 
 nent among them are the t'rim T<ut<ua, the kin- 
 dred NogiUit of the west shores of the Caspian, 
 tho Kirg/iin of tlie nortli shore and L'ral valley, 
 and the IhiDlikira between th(^ upper Ural and 
 the Volga, with an isolated branch of Tartars 
 in the vuUcy of the Aruxes south of tho Cau- 
 casus. 
 
 The great Asiatic irruption of the thirteenth 
 century has been commonly known as tlie Jlougol 
 Invasion. Such it was in leadership, though the 
 residuum whicli it has left behind in Euroi)ean 
 Russia proves that the rank and ttle were mostly 
 Tartars. One Mongol people however, the Kal- 
 mueks, did make their way into Europe and still 
 exist in the steppes between the lower Don and 
 the lower Volga. 
 
 The ethnology of tho Caucasian iieoples is 
 the most difficult part of the entire subject. On 
 the steppes of the Black and Caspian seas up to 
 the very linntof the Caucasus we have two races 
 between whom the ethnic distinction is clearly 
 defined, the JIongol-Tartar and the Slav. J^ntcr- 
 ing the Caucasus however we find a vast number 
 of races differing alike from these und from each 
 other. 
 
 To enumerate all the different divisions of these 
 races, whoso ethnology is so very uncertain, would 
 
 he u,»eless. Omiiped in three general divisions 
 however they are as follows: the soralled Cir- 
 fiiHKiaiiii who formerly occupied the whole wr'stern 
 Caucasus with the adjoining lllack sea coast but 
 who, since the Uu.ssian coiKpiest of 1H(W, have 
 for the most part emigrated to dilTerent quarters 
 of th(! Turkish Empire; llie LfiujIiianH, under 
 which general name are inelu<!ed tlie motley 
 crowd of peoples inliabiting tlic eastern ( 'aucasus ; 
 and the (li(iri/iiin», the supposed descendants of 
 the ancient y/yc/V/HO of the Caucasus, who inhabit 
 the soutliern slope, ineluding all t he Tillis province 
 and the Trape/untine 'aiids on the southeast 
 coast of the Hlack sea. 
 
 The Tartam arc liardlv found in the Caucasus 
 though tliey reappear fiiimediiitily soutli of it 
 in tlie lower basin of the Kura and the Araxes. 
 Here al.so appear the various /w «('<(« stems of tho 
 Asiatic Aryans, tho Anneniant, tho Pertiani and 
 the Kiirdn. 
 
 U. II. Latham's works on "European J^thno- 
 logy " are the best general authority in Eng- 
 lish. Of more recent German guides, mai) and 
 otherwise, the following an^ noteworthy lias- 
 tain's " Ethnologisches Hilderbuch," "Das I5e- 
 stilndige in den Jlenscheiirassen," " Allgemciiio 
 QrundzUge der Ethnologie," Kiepert's "Ethno- 
 graphische Uebersichtskarte des Eiiropilischeu 
 Orients," Menke's "Europa nach seiiieu Ethno- 
 logischen Verhllltnissen in der Mitte des 19. 
 Jahrhundert," Hittich's "Ethnograpliie des euro- 
 pilischen Kusslaud," Sax's " Etlinographischo 
 Karte der europilischen Turkei," IJerghaus's 
 " Ethnographische Karte vom Osterreichiseheu 
 Kaiserstaat, " Wendt's " Bilder Atlas der Lilnder 
 undV<')lkerkunde,"Andree'3 "Allgemeiuer Hand- 
 atlas (Ethnographischen Karten), " Gerland's ' 'At- 
 las der Ethnographic. "—A. C. Reiley. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 NoTKii TO Foim Mapo op tiik Dai.kan PKNtNfiri.A. (TwELiPTn TO THR FiFTKimTn Crntort.) 
 
 ri^IIEUE oxlstd to'dny <ipon thn mnp of Kuropc 
 1_ IK) Hcrtion \vlios(( historlcnl gcojiiriiphy lins ii 
 greater present Interest timn the I)iinul)liin, 
 BalkHii hikI Leviiiitiiu! states. It is these atid the 
 Austrn-IIiingarian lands immediatelv adjoining 
 which liave formed one of tlie jjrcat fuleniins for 
 those national nioveinents which constitute the 
 prime feature of the hiatorieal geograpliy of tlio 
 present age. 
 
 Uiion tiie pres<!nt map of Kuropo in tliis (piarter 
 we cliscover a number of separate and di ninutlve 
 national entities, the Iloumaiiian, Iht' iriiin, .Sit- 
 viaii and .}f<intenff/rin, tlic Greek and AUxinin ii , 
 all struggling desperately to establish them- 
 selves on the debris of the crumbling Turkisli 
 Empire. 
 
 Wliat the issue will be of these numerous and 
 mutually conflicting struggles for separate na- 
 tional e-xistenco It is out of our province to fore- 
 cast. 
 
 It is only intended in thi.s map series to throw 
 all possible liglit on tlieir true character from tlie 
 lessons and analogies of tlie past. At first siglit 
 the period treated in tlie four Levantine maps 
 (from tlio last of the twelfth to the middle of tlie 
 fifteenth century) must appear the most intri- 
 cate and tlio most obscure in tlio entire Iiistory 
 of this region. The most intricate it certainly is, 
 and possilily tlio most oliscure, though tlio ob- 
 scurity arises largely from neglect. Its impor- 
 tance, however, arises from tlie fact tliat it is tlie 
 only past period of Levantine history which pre- 
 sents a clear analogy to the jiresent, not alone in its 
 purely tninsitionary character, but also from the 
 several national movements wliicli during this 
 time wore diligently at work. 
 
 During the Itoman and the earlier Byzantine 
 perio<ls, wliicli from tlieir continuity may be 
 taken as one, any special tendency was of course 
 stifled under the preponderant fulo of a single 
 great empire. 
 
 Tlie same was equally true at a later time, 
 when all of these regions passed under tlie rule 
 of the Turk. These four maps treat of that 
 most interesting period intervening between tlio 
 crumbling of the Byzantine power and the Turk- 
 isli conciuest. Tliat in our own day tlie crumb- 
 ling in turn of the Turkish power has repeated, 
 in Its general fea;ures, the same liistorical situa- 
 tion, is the point upon which tlic interest must 
 inevitaldy centre. 
 
 What the outcome will be in modern times 
 forms tlie most interesting of political studies. 
 Whether the native nices of the Daiuilio, the 
 Balkans and the southern peninsula are to work 
 out their full national development, either feder- 
 ately or independently, or whether they are des- 
 tined to pass again, as is threatened, under the 
 domination of another and greater empire, is ono 
 of the most important of tlie questions which 
 agitates the mind of the modern European states- 
 man. Tliat the latter outcome is now the less 
 likely is due to the great unfolding of separate 
 
 national spirit which marks so strongly the age 
 ill wliich we live. The reason wliv the previous 
 age treated in this map series ended in nothing 
 lietter tlian foreign and iMohammedan con(|uest 
 m'ay perhaiis be sought in tlu,' imperfect develop- 
 ment of this same national spirit. 
 
 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 Tlio first map (Asia Minor and the Balkans near 
 the close of the twelfth century) is intended to 
 show till! geographical situation as it exist<;d 
 immediately prior to tlii! dismemberment of the 
 Byzantine Empire. TIk^ Hyzantiiie PImniro of 
 .Ills period is in itself an important study. It 
 must bo regarded more as the ofTsprIng than the 
 direct continuation of the great East-lioman 
 Empire of Arcadlus and Justinian; for with the 
 centuries which had intervened the great changes 
 in polity, internal geography, external neighbors 
 and lastly the continual geographical contraction, 
 present us witli an entirely new series of rela- 
 tions. It is this geograpliieal contraction which 
 concerns us most vitally, for witli it tlio frontiers 
 of the empire conforpi more and more closely 
 to tho ethnic limits of tlie Oreik nation. 
 
 Tlie later Byzantine Empire was, therefore, 
 easentially a Greek Empire, and as such it ap- 
 pcials most vividly to the national consciousness 
 of tho Greek of our own time. The restoration 
 of this empire, with tho little kingdom of free 
 Greece as tho nucleus, is the vision wliicli in- 
 spires tlie more aggrcssivi^ and venturesome 
 school of modern Greek politicians. 
 
 In tlio twelfth century the bulk of Asia Minor 
 had been wrested from tlio Byzantine Empire 
 by tlie Turku, but it was tho Crusaders, not 
 the Turks, who overthrew the first empire. In 
 ono view tliis fact is fortunate, otherwise tlicro 
 would have been no transition period whoso 
 study would bo productive of such fruitful re- 
 sults. 
 
 Owing to the artful policy of tlio Comnenian 
 emperors, the Byzantine Empire actually prof- 
 iled liy tlie early crusades and was enabled 
 through them to recover a considera' Ic part of 
 Asia Alinor from tlie Turk*. Tliis apparent 
 success, liowever, was only the prelude to final 
 disaster. 
 
 Isolated from western Christendom by the 
 schism, tho Greeks were an object of suspicion 
 and liatred to tlic Latin Crusaders and it only 
 required a sliglit abatement of the original 
 crusading spirit for tlieir warlike ardor to be 
 diverted from Jerusalem to '^'onstantinoplo. 
 Cyprus was torn away from the Greek Empire 
 and created a separate kingdom under Latin 
 rule, in 1191. Finally, the so-called Fourth 
 Crusade, controlled liy Venetian intrigue, ended 
 in tho complete dismemberment of the Bvzantine 
 Empire (1204). 
 
 Tliis nefarious enterprise forms a dark spot in 
 history: it also usliors in the greatest period of 
 geographical intricacy in Levantine annals. The 
 
 VI 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 API'KNDIX B. 
 
 f(i'(iKrii|iliy wliicli iniiiicillatcly rcHtilti'il fniiii it 
 H iiiitilircctly hIkiwii in IIiIm l,<'viuiliii« iiiiip MiTii'H, 
 hii' cull Im' Mi'cn on tin* K<'>i<!riil iiiii|i of K\iro|i<i iil. 
 tliu oncniiiK of IIk? thirteenth century. Hrlelly 
 ltatc<l, it n'prcNcnted tlie eHtiil)iiHlinienl of it frii^- 
 mcutiiry luiil liiHj ilnteil I^iitin Knijiiro in tiie 
 phico of the former (irecit Kinpiru of ConHtnnti- 
 nopl(>. Known IM tlie i,utin KpipinMif Konmniii, 
 this new creiitloii inciuded tlie, Kinpln^ of (!on- 
 
 gtnntinopio proper anil itH feiuliil liepeniiencieH, 
 till! kin||;ilotn of TheMHiilonicii, the ducliy of 
 Vtliens, and tlin principality of Aclnila. 
 
 Vhreo orpluui (Ireik Hiates survived tlie fall of 
 the parent power: in Kurope, the dcHpotat of 
 KpiriiH, and In Asia, tliu einpires of N'icwa and 
 Trehlzond. 
 
 TIk^ Latin Htntcsuf the East ure scarcely worthy 
 the lilstorian'H notice. 'I'liey have no place what- 
 ever in till! natural developinent, either political 
 or Kcograpliicai, of the Levantino HtatcM. They 
 were not only forced by foreij^n lanci upon an 
 unwilling; population, but were -^11111 » fcudal- 
 isniH, establiHlied arnon^ a, people to whom tlie 
 feudal idea was unintelliglblo and barbarous. 
 Like their prototypes, tiio C'rusudinj; states of 
 Syria, they resembleil artittcial encroachments 
 upon the sea, standing foi a time, but with the 
 ordinary course of nature the ocean reclaims Its 
 own. 
 
 Even the weak little (livtk states were strong 
 In comparison mhI immediately began to recover 
 ground at their expense. The kingdimi of Tlies- 
 salonica was overthrown by the despot of Epiriis 
 in 1222; the Latin Empire of Constantinople it- 
 self fell before the Greek Emperor of Niciea In 
 12HI ; while the lust of the barons of the princi- 
 pality of Acliala submitted to the IJy/.antine 
 despots of the Moreii In 1430. 
 
 The duchy of Athens alone of uU these Litiii 
 states survived long enough to full at last before 
 the Turkinh conquest. The Levantine posses- 
 sions won by Venice at this and later times were 
 destined, partly from their insular or maritime 
 location, and partly from the greater vitullty 
 of trade relations, to enjoy u somewhat longer 
 life. 
 
 To t}ie NicKun emperors of the house of Pa- 
 leoiogus belongs the achievement of having re- 
 stored the Byzantine Empire In the eventot 1201. 
 The expression Restored IJyzantine Emjiire has 
 been employed, since it bus the sanction of usage, 
 though a complete restoration never occurred. 
 The geography of the l{estored Empire as shown 
 on the second map (1265 A. I).) fails to include 
 the greater part of what wi; may term the cradle 
 of the Greek race . The only subsequent exten- 
 sion was over the balance of the Jlorea. In 
 every other qtiarter the frontiers of the Uestored 
 Empire soon began to recede until It included 
 only the city of Constjintlnople and an ever de- 
 creasing portion of Thrace. With the commence- 
 ment of the fourteenth century the Tiirkn, hav- 
 ing thrown olt the Mongol-Tartar dominion, 
 begun under the hou.se of Usmanlls their tiiml 
 career of coiuiuest. This, of course, was the be- 
 ginning of tlie end. Their first foothold In 
 Europe was gulncd In ia53, but over a century 
 was destined to elapse before the completion of 
 tlieir sovereignty In all the lands south of the 
 J)unube. There remains, therefore, a considera- 
 ble period during which whatever separate na- 
 tional tendencies existed had full opportunity to 
 work. 
 
 «» . Vii 
 
 THE PIRBT AND SKCOND BULQARIAN 
 KINQDOM8. 
 
 It was this iign which saw not only the lilgli- 
 est point in the national greatness of llulgaria 
 and SiTvIa, but also witnessed the evolution of 
 the \Vullaeliian principalities in the lands north 
 of till! Danube. 
 
 The separate stntcH of nulgnria and Servia, 
 iKirn in the seventli century of the great south- 
 ward migralion of the Slnrie peoples, had in after 
 times risen or falii'ii aecordlng to the strength or 
 weakness of the liyzuntine Empire, liiiignrip, 
 liiid hitlierto shown tlte greatest power. At sev- 
 eral dillerent perliKis, notjibly under Himeon (i-H'A- 
 U27), and again under Hamuel (U7U-IUU), It de- 
 veloped a strength which fairly overawed Iho 
 Empire Itself. These Sturic stales hud, however, 
 iK-en subjected by the Hyziiiitlne Empirii In the 
 first liulf of the eleventh century, and, though 
 Bervla enjoyed iinotlier |)eriod of Independenco 
 (1040-114M), it was not until ilie llnul crumbling 
 of the Hy/.antine Empire, the preincnitionof tho 
 event of 1204, that tlieir expansion recommences. 
 
 The Wallachian, or Second Uulgarian kingdom, 
 which came into existence in 1IH7 in the lands 
 between the lialkuim and the Danube, has been 
 the subject of an ethnic discussion which need 
 not deluin us. Thut it was not purely Sin 'ic ig 
 wellestablislied, for tlie great and singular revival 
 of the VUiflt or lloiimnn peoples iiiid tlieir inovo- 
 ment from the lands south of llaemiis to their 
 present seats north of the DiuiiiIk', which Is one 
 of the great features of this age, had already 
 begun. (The country between the Danube and 
 the Halkans, the seat of the Second MulgariuQ 
 kingdom, uppeurs as Aspro or White-Wallachia 
 In some Hy/antine writings. Ho also north of the 
 Danube the later Jloldavia and Great v, alluchla 
 are known res])ectively as ^I.iv..^ [Uiack] and 
 Ilungarowallachia. Still the fact of a continuous 
 liouman civilizution north of the Danube Is not 
 established. The theory of a great northward 
 m )vement of the \'l(ie/i peoples is tlie one now 
 
 f;cueially accepted and isably uiivocated in Hoes- 
 er's " Uomilnisehe Studieii.") 
 
 At tile present day this movement has been so 
 long completed that scurcely the trace of a Vltteh 
 population remains in tlic lands south of the 
 Danube. These emigrants uppear, as It wore, in 
 passing, to have shared with the native Bulgari- 
 ans In the creation of tills Second Bulgarian 
 kingdom. This realm achieved a momentary 
 greatness under its rulers of the liouse of Asuii. 
 The dismemberment of tlie Byzantine Empire in 
 1204 enabled them to make great encroachments 
 to the south, and it .seemed for 11 time that to the 
 Bulgarian, not tiie Greek, would full the task of 
 overthrowing the Latin Empire of lioumania 
 (see general ii'.ap of Europe at the opening of the 
 thirteentli century). With tho reCstublisbment, 
 however, of the Greek Empire of Constantinople, 
 in 1261, the Bulgarian kingdom began to lose 
 much of Its importance, and its power wius finally 
 broken in 1285 by the Mongols. 
 
 SERVIA. 
 
 In the following century it was the turn of 
 Servia to enjoy u period of prei'minent greatness. 
 The latter kingdom hail recovered its uidepend- 
 ence under the house of Nemanja in 1183. 
 
 Under the great giant coniiueror Stephen 
 Dushan (1321-13,')5) it enjoyed u period of greater 
 power than has ever before or since fallen to the 
 
AIM'ENDIX H 
 
 APPENDIX n 
 
 lot (if n KinKli' Hitlkiui Ktiili'. Thi' lU-ntnrfd By- 
 zniilinc Knipiri' hiiil HUMtiiini'd im iicniiniii'iit Iiihh 
 from iUi: iii'ri(Hl of li\ilK»riuii Kri'iitiicHH: it wiih 
 by tlit> MiitldcM HiTviiin ((iniiiicKt. Unit It wim (!<'- 
 privi'il forever of iieitrlv nil ItN Kiir('|ieitii poHM'H- 
 slunM (iH-e Halkiiii map ill) A lly/.iintlne reliction 
 niittlit liiive collie under other condltloim, liiit 
 already iiiio'lier iiiid ^renter eiiciny wih ut her 
 KittcH. ' DiihIiiiu died In t;!,').'); and ulreiidy, in 
 l;t.W, two yearn Iiefore, thi' Turk at (iailipoli had 
 made IiIh entrance into Kiirope. From this time 
 every ChrlHtlan Hlati' of the KaHt HU'W Hicadlly 
 weaker until liidfraria, Herviii, thedreek Knipire, 
 ftnd llnallv even Hungary, had puuiicd under the 
 TurkUlt dominlor 
 
 THE VLACHS. 
 
 Pnsainii; on from thcHe Slavic pvoplcx, nnother 
 nutional innnlfeHtatlon of the );reateHt importance 
 l)eloii){lnK to thiit perio<l, one which, unlike the 
 Greek and Slavic, may iii> wild In one NciiHe to 
 llttve orl^'lnated in the perloti, wim that of the 
 Vliii'lm. TIiIh /.iilin population, which ethnolo- 
 ffjsts liave attempted to Identify with the ancient 
 Thnieidim, was, previouH to the twelftli century, 
 acuttered in irrei;ular groupH throuj^iout the en- 
 tire lialkan |)eiiiiisula. During the twelfth cen- 
 tury their great northward migration began. A 
 single result of this movement lias already hecii 
 nutlc( d in the rise of the Second ISiilgarlau king- 
 dom. South of the Danube, however, their inllu- 
 ciicu was transitory. It was north of the river 
 that the evoliitionof the two principalities, Great 
 Wallacliiii (liouinania) and Muldavia, und the 
 growth of a \'li(rh population in tlie Transyl- 
 vanian lands of Kastern lluugary, has yielded the 
 etlinic and in great part the political "gcograpliy 
 of the present day. 
 
 The process of this (^volution may be under- 
 stood from a com|)arallve study of the four 
 Balkan maps. Upon the first imip the Vuimiiii- 
 aim, a Finno-Tiitur peojile, who lu the twelfth 
 century liiwl displaced a kindred race, the J'<itzi:i- 
 ak» or Petaeheiugs, occupy the whole country 
 between t!ic Danube and the Transylvanian Alps. 
 These were in turn swept forever from llie map 
 of Europe b^' the Jlongols (1224). With the re- 
 ceding of this exterminating wave of Asiatic con- 
 quest the great wilderness was thrown open to 
 now (k'ttlers. The settlements of the Vliicha 
 north of the Danube and east of the Aliitu became 
 the priucipality of Great Wallachiu, the nucleus 
 of the nuxlern Uoumania. West of tlie Aluta 
 the district of Little Wallachiu was Inaorporated 
 for a long period, as the bauat of Severin, in the 
 Hungarian kingdom. 
 
 Finally, the i)rlncij)ulity of Moldavia came into 
 existence in 1341, m land previously won by 
 the Hungarians from the Mongols, between the 
 Dniester and the Carpathians. Both the princi- 
 [)allties of Great Wallachiu and Moldavia were in 
 the fourteenth century dependencies of Hungary. 
 The grasp of Hungary was loosened, however, 
 towards the close of the century and after, a 
 perioil of shifting dependence, now on lluugary, 
 now on Turkey, and for a time, in the case of 
 Moldavia, on I'oland, we come to the period of 
 permanent Turkish supremacy. 
 
 With the presence and influence of the Vlachs 
 south of the Balkans, during this period, we are 
 less interested, since their subsequent disappear- 
 ance lias removed the subject from any direct 
 connection with modern politics. The only quar- 
 
 ter where they still linger and where this In- 
 lluence h'd to the founding of an Indept'iident 
 Htiile, was In the country cast of the range of I'In- 
 duH, theOniit Widlachiaof the lly/iuitines. Ilcru 
 the prliK ipiility of Wallaclilan Thessaly appeared 
 as an oIThIkhiI of the Greek despotat of Eplrus in 
 12:1)) (see map II). 
 
 Thirl state r"'alned Its indepeniient existenco 
 until VM)H, when itwiiHdlvided between the Cata- 
 lan dukes of Athens and the Byzautiuo Empire, 
 
 ALBANIANS. 
 
 The SkiiKUim ( Allxiniii im) during this periml 
 a|)pear to liavi! lieen tlie slowest to grasp out for 
 11 separate national existence. The southern sec- 
 tion of Albania formed, after the fall of Constan- 
 tinople, a part of the d.'spotat of Eplriis, and 
 whatever Independence existed In the norlhern 
 section was lost in the revival, first of the By/an- 
 tine, then. In tlie ensuing century, of the Servian 
 power. Ii was not until 1444 tliatiicerlHlii George 
 Castriot. known to the Turks us Iskanderi iieg, 
 or Scanderbeg, created 11 Christian princiiiality 
 in till! mountain fa.stnesses of Albania. 
 
 This little realm stretched along the Adriatic 
 from Biitrinto almost to Antivari, embracing, fur- 
 ther inland, Kroja and the basin of the Drill (see 
 map IV). 
 
 It was not until after Scundcrbeg's death that 
 (Ottoman control was contlrned over this spirited 
 Albanian population. 
 
 THE TURKISH CONQUEST. 
 
 The reign of Molia iiiiied II. (14.J1-1481) wit- 
 nessed the final conquest of the entire country 
 south of the Danube and the Save. The extent 
 of the Turkish Empire at bis accession is siiowu 
 on map IV. The acquisitions of territory during 
 Ills reign included in Asia Minor the old Greek 
 Empire of Trebizond (1401) and the Turkish dy- 
 nasty of Kaniman; in Europe, Constantinople, 
 whose fall brought the Byzantine Empire to a 
 close in 14r)3, the duchy of Atliens (1456), the 
 despotats of Patras and Misithra (14(iO). Servhi 
 (1458), Bosnia (1403), Albania (1408), Epirus and 
 Acarnauia, the continental dominion of the Counts 
 of Cephalonia (1470), and Herzegovina (1481). In 
 the mountainous district immediately soutii of 
 Herzegovina, the principality of Alontenegro, 
 situated in lauds which had formed the soiithern 
 part of the flrst Servian kingdom, alone pre- 
 served its independence, even at the height of 
 the Turkish domination. 
 
 Tlio dironicle of Turkisli history tliereafter re- 
 cords only conquest after comiuest. The islands 
 of the iligean were many of them won during 
 Mohammed's own reign, the acquisition of tlie re- 
 mainder ensued shortly after. Venice was liunted 
 step by step out of all her Levantine possessions 
 save the I<mian Islands; the superiority over the 
 Crim Tartiu-s, Wallachia, Sloldavia and Jedlsan 
 followed, tinully, the defeat at Mohacs (1520), and 
 the subsequent internal anarchy left nearly aP 
 Hungary at the mercy of the Ottoman con- ^ 
 queror. 
 
 The geographical homogeneity thus restored 
 by the Turkisli con(iuest was not again disturbed 
 until the present century. The repetition of al- 
 mo.st the same conditions in our own time, though 
 with the process reversed, has been referred to in 
 the sketch of Balkan geography of tlie present 
 day. The extreme importance of the period just 
 described, for the purposes of minute bistoncal 
 
 VIU 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 annlniry, will Iw uppitront at nnco whorovor com- 
 piiriwHi Ih iitlcinpUMl. 
 
 Till' tliirtt'cnlli, fourU'i'iitli, luxl llftccntli ecu- 
 turii's wiT(! of courMc pcriiHU of fur uri'iitcr ^i-o- 
 gniplilciil liitrlLiicy. hut tlui purpow! lias Imtm 
 rutluT to iiii.'lciili: tlir iiuturi'of tliLs liitrlciicy tlmii 
 to (Ii'mtHh' it ill (Icliill. TIk! prliiclpiil fciiturc, 
 nnmi'ly, tin- iiiitloiial inovemciitH, wlicrc'vcr lliry 
 Imvi! iimiilfcstiMl tlicmsi'lvi's, Imvi! Iiccii morr 
 ciircfullv dwelt ut)oii. Tlio olijcct has bccii.Hlm- 
 ply to Hlic'w tliut till! four Hcpiiriilc imtloiml move- 
 meiitH. tlu! Greek, tlio Slaric, tlio lioitman, iiiiil 
 till) Al/Mtiiiaii, wlilcli limy !)(• MiiUl to Imvn cri'iitcd 
 tlio prvHoiit Loviiiitiiu! problem, were all present, 
 mill In tho cuso of the two lust iiiuy even be sukl 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 to Imve liitd tlieir luceptlou, lu the period Ju«» 
 triiversed. 
 
 Ill the present century the unfoliliiiK of nil- 
 tlon.il spirit hiis lieen so much ((reiiter and fur- 
 reiirlilnjt thiit ii dllTerent oulcoine iiiiiy be looked 
 for. It is HullUlent for the present thiit the in- 
 cipient existence of these sikiilo niovcnients liita 
 been shown to Imve existeil In ii previous uk'\ 
 
 Tlie best ((eiicriil text luithorlty in Kii)fllsh for 
 the Kcogrivpliy )f Ibis period is (leorKi^ Kliiliiy'n 
 " History of (Jreece," vols. III. and IV. ; a nioro 
 exhaustive jtuido in (Jeriimn is llopf's " (}u- 
 Hcliichle (Jriecheniuncls. " For the purely jfeo- 
 Krapbical worlis see the ge.:eral bibilogruphy of 
 historical geography. —A. C. llcllcy. 
 
 IX 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 
 Notes to thk Map op the Balkan PENrasuLA. (Piiesent Century.) 
 
 rriHE prcsont century has been a remarkable 
 I one for tlie settlement of great polltii;al and 
 geographical questions. These tpiestions re- 
 solve themselves into two great classes, which 
 Indicate the political forces of the present ago, 
 — the first, represented in the growth of demo- 
 cratic thought, and the second arising from the 
 awakening of national spirit. The first of these 
 concerns Instorical geography only incidentally, 
 but the second Imp already done mrch to recon- 
 struct the political geography of our time. 
 
 RECENT NATIONAL IhlOVEMENTS. 
 
 Within a little over thirty years it has changed 
 the map of central Europe from a medley of 
 small states into a vuiited Italy and a united 
 Germany ; it has also led to a reconstruction of 
 the Austro-llungarian Empire, In Italy, Ger- 
 many and Austria-Hungary, the national ques- 
 tions may, however, be regarded as settled; and 
 if, in the case of Austria-Hungary, owing to 
 exactly reverse conditions, the settlement has 
 been a tentative one, it has at least removed the 
 question from the more immediate concern of the 
 present. In a diiTerent quarter of Europe, how- 
 ever, the rise of me national movements has led 
 to a question, infinitely more complicated than the 
 others, and which, so ."ar from being settled, is 
 becoming ever more pressing year by year. 
 This reference is to the great Balkan problem. 
 
 That this question has been delayed in its 
 solution for over four centuries, is due, no doubt, 
 to tlie conquests of the Turk, and it is still com- 
 plicated by his presence. In the notes to the 
 four previous Balkan maps (1191— 1451), attention 
 was especially directed to the national move- 
 ments, so far as they had opportunity to develop 
 themselves during this period. These move- 
 ments, feeble in their character, were all smoth- 
 ered by the Turkish conquest. With tlip ''ecline 
 of this power in the present century th' Tces 
 once more have opportunity for reappearanv.^. In 
 this regard the history of the Balkans during the 
 nineteenth century is simply the history of the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries read back- 
 wards. 
 
 The Turkish Empire had suflered terrible re- 
 verses during the eighteenth century. Hungary 
 (1099), the Crim Tartars (1774), Bukovina (1777), 
 Jedisan (1792), Bessarabia and Eastern Moldavia 
 (1813) were a'.' successively wrested from the 
 Ottomans, while Egypt on one side and Moldavia 
 and Wallachia on another recovered practical 
 autonomy, the one under the restored rule of the 
 Mamelukes (1766), the other under native hospo- 
 dars. 
 
 the SERVIAN AND GREEK REVOLTS. 
 
 All of these losses, though greatly weakening 
 the Ottoman power, did not destroy its geographi- 
 cal integrity. It was with the Servian revolt of 
 1804 that the series of events pointing to the 
 actual disruption of the Turkish Empire may be 
 
 said to have begun. The first period of dissolu- 
 tion was measured by the reign of Mahmoud II. 
 (1808-1839), at once the greatest and the most un- 
 fortunate of all the later Turkish sultans. Servia, 
 first under Kara Gcorg, then under Miloscli 
 Obrenovitch, the founder of the present dynasty, 
 maintained a struggle which led to the recogni- 
 tion of Servian local autonomy in 1817. The 
 second step in the process of dissolution was the 
 tragic Greek revolution (1831-1828). The Sultan, 
 after a terrible war of extermination, had practi- 
 cally reduced Greece to subjection, when all hia 
 work was undone by the interventioj of the 
 groat powers. 
 
 The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the com- 
 bined squadrons of England, France and Russia at 
 Navarin, October 20, 1827, and in the campaign of 
 the ensuing year the Moscovite arms for the first 
 time in history penetrated south of the Balkans. 
 The treaty of Adrianople, between Russia and 
 Turkey (September 14, 1829), gave to the Czar the 
 protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia. By 
 the treaty of London earlier in this year Greece 
 was macfe autonomous under the suzerainty of 
 the Sultan, and the protocol of March 23, 1829, 
 drew her northern frontier in a line between the 
 gulfs of Arta and Volo. The titular sovereignty 
 of the Sultan over Greece was onnulled later in 
 the year at the peace of Adrianople, though the 
 northern boundary of the Hellenic kingdom was 
 tlien curtailed to a line drawn from the mouth of 
 the Achelous to the gulf of Lamia. With the 
 accession of the Bavarian king Otho, in 1833, 
 after the failure of the republic the northern 
 boundary was again adjusted, returning to about 
 the limits laid down in the Slarch protocol of 
 1829. Greece then remained for over fifty years 
 bounded on the north by Mount Othrys, the Pin- 
 dus range and the gulf of Arta. In 1883, on the 
 accession of the Danish king George I. , the Ionian 
 Isles, which had been under English administra- 
 tion since the Napoleonic wars, were ceded to the 
 Greek kingdom, and in Jlay, 1881, almost the last 
 change in European geography to the present 
 day was accomplished in the cession, by the Sul- 
 tan, of Thcssaly and a small part of Epirus. 
 
 The agitation in 1886 for a further extension of 
 Greek tevritory was unsuccessful. 
 
 THE TREATY OF UNKIAR SKELESSI. 
 
 A series of still greater reverses brought the 
 reign of the Sultan Mahmoud to a close. 1 he 
 chief of these were the defeats sustained at the 
 hands of his rebellious vassal Mehemet Ali, 
 pacha of Egypt, a man who takes rank even be- 
 fore the Sultan himself as the greatest figure in 
 the Mohammedan world during the present cen- 
 tury. The immediate issue of this struggle was 
 the practical independence of Egypt, where the 
 descendants of Mehemet still rule, their title hav- 
 ing been changed in 18' " from viceroy to that of 
 kliedive. An event inc._ :ntal to the strife be- 
 tween Mehemet Ali nnd the 3ultan is of far 
 
 X 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 f renter importance in tlio liiatorjr of European 
 iirkcy. Mulimoiul in liis distress loolicd for aid 
 to the great powers, and tlie tinnl issue of tlie 
 rival interests struggling at Constantinople was 
 the memorable treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July, 
 18i53) by which the Sultan resigned himself com- 
 pletely to the interests of liis former implacable 
 foe, the Czar of Russia. In outward appearance 
 this treaty was an offensive and defensive alli- 
 ance; in practical results it gave the Moscovite, 
 in exchange for armed assistance, when needed, 
 the practical control of the Dardanelles. It is no 
 extravagance of statement to say that this treaty 
 forms absolutely the liigh watermark of Russian 
 predominance in the alfairs of the Lc^vant. Dur- 
 ing the subsequent sixty years, this influence, 
 taken as a whole, strange paradox as it may 
 seem, has rather receded than advanced. The 
 utter prostration of the Turkish Empire on the 
 death of Mahmoud (1830) compelled Russia to 
 recede from the conditions of Unkiar Skelessi 
 while a concert of the European jjowers imder- 
 took tlie task of rehabilitating the ])rostrate 
 power; the Crimean war (1854-1855) struck a 
 more damaging blow at the Russian power, and 
 the events of 1878, though they again shattered 
 the Turkish Empire, did not, as will be shown, 
 lead to corresponding return of the Czar's 
 ascendency. 
 
 THE CRIMEAN WAR AND TREATY OP PARIS. 
 
 The Crimean War was brought on by the at- 
 tempt of the Czar to dictate concerning the in- 
 ternal affairs of the Ottoman Empire — a policy 
 whicli culminated in tlio occupation of Jloldavia 
 and Wallachia (1853). All Europe became ar- 
 rayed against Russia on this question.r- Prussia 
 and Austria in tacit opposition, while England, 
 France, and afterwards Piedmont, urifted into 
 war with the northern power. 
 
 I5y the treaty of Paris (1850), which terminated 
 the sanguinary struggle, the Danube, closed since 
 the peace of Adrianople (1820), was reopened; 
 the southern part of nes.sanibia was taken from 
 Russia and added to the principality of Moldavia ; 
 the treaty powers renounced all right to interfere 
 in the internal affairs of the Porte ; and, lastly, 
 the Black Sea, V.ich twenty years before, by the 
 treaty of Un'.^ar Skelessi, had become a private 
 Russian po id, was swept of the Russian fleets 
 and converted into a neutral sea. The latter 
 condition however was abrogated by the powers 
 (March 13, 1871). 
 
 Despite the defeat of Russia, the settlement 
 effected at the congress of Paris was but tenta- 
 tive. The most that the allied powers could pos- 
 sibly have hoped for, was so far to cripple Russia 
 as to render her no longer a menace to the Otto- 
 man Empire. They succeeded only in so far as 
 to defer the recurrence of a Turkish crisis for 
 another twenty years. 
 
 The chief event of importance during this in- 
 terval was the birth of the united l{oumania. In 
 1857 tlie representative councils of both Moldavia 
 and Wallachia voted for their union under this 
 name. This personal union was accomplished 
 bv the choice of a common ruler, John Cuza 
 (1850), whose election was confirmed by a new 
 conference at Paris in 1801. A single ministry 
 and single assembly were formed ac Bucharest in 
 1P83. Prince Karl of Ilolienzollcrn-Sigmaringen 
 was elected hospodar in 1866, and finally crowned 
 as king in 1881. 
 
 THE REVIVED EASTERN QUESTION OF 
 
 1875-78. 
 
 The Eastern ciuestion was reopened with all 
 its perplexities in the Herzegoviniannnd Bosnian 
 revolt of August, 1875. These provinces, almost 
 iMit olt from the Turkish Empire bv Montenegro 
 and Servia, occupied a position which rendered 
 their subjugation almost a hopeless task. 
 
 Preparations were already under way for a 
 settlement by joint action of the powers, when a 
 wave of fanatical fury sweeping over the (Jtto- 
 man Empire ren<lered all these t fforts abortive. 
 Another Christian insurrection in Bulgaria was 
 supiires.scd in a series of wholesale and atrocious 
 massacres. Servia and Montenegro in a ferment 
 declared war on Turkey (.luly 2, 1870). The 
 Turkish arms, however, were easily victorious, 
 and Russia only saved the Servian capital bv com- 
 Iielling an arniistice (October 30). A conference 
 of the representatives of the powers was then 
 held at Constantinople in a final effort to arrange 
 for a reorganization of the Empire, which should 
 im^lude the granting of autonomy to Bosnia, 
 Herzegovina and Bulgaria. These conditions, 
 thougli subsequently embodied in a general ulti- 
 matum, the London protocol of March 31, 1877, 
 were rejected by the Porte, and Russia, wlio haa 
 determined to proceed alone in the event of this 
 rejection, injinediately declared war (April 24). 
 Into this war, owing to the horror excited in 
 England by tlic Bulgarian massacres, and the 
 altered policy of France, the Turk was compelled 
 to go without allies, and thus unassisted his de- 
 feat was assured. Then followed the sanguinary 
 campaigns in Bulgaria, the memories of whicn 
 arc still recent and unobscured. Plevna, the 
 central point of the Turkish lesistance, fell on 
 December 10th; Adrianople was occupied by the 
 Russians on January 20th, 1878; and on January 
 31st, an armistice was granted. 
 
 Great Britain now seemed roused to a sense of 
 the danger to herself in tlio Russian approach to 
 Constantinople, and public opinion at last per- 
 mitted Lord Beaconsficld to send a fleet to the 
 Bosporus. 
 
 By the Russo-Turkish peace of San Stephano 
 (March 3, 187H) Turkey recognized the complete 
 independence of Servia, Roumania and Monte- 
 negro, while Bulgaria became what Servia and 
 Roumania had just cea.sed to be, an autonomous 
 lirincipality under nominal Turkish sovereignty. 
 Russia received the Dobrutcha in Europe, which 
 was to be given liy tlie Czar to Roumania in ex- 
 change for the portion of Bessarabia lost in 1856. 
 Servia and Montenegro received accessions of 
 territory, the latter securing Antivari on the 
 coast, but the greatest geographical change was 
 the frontier assigned to the new Bulgaria, which 
 was to include all the territory bounded by an 
 irregular line lieginning at Jlldia on the Black 
 Sea and running north of Adrianople, and, in 
 addition, a vast realm in Jlacedonia, bounded 
 on the west only by Albania, approaching Salon- 
 ica, and touching the uEgeon on either side of 
 the Chalcidico. 
 
 It was evident that the terms of tins treaty in- 
 volved the interests of other powers, especially 
 of Great Britain. An ultimate settlement which 
 involved as parties only the conciueror and con- 
 quered was therefore impossible. A general 
 congress of the Powers was seen to be the only 
 solvent of the difflculty ; but before such a con- 
 gress was possible it was necessary for Great 
 
 XI 
 
Al'PENDlX C. 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 Rritnin nnd Russia to find at least a tangible 
 basis of negotiation for tlie adjustment of tlieir 
 dilliTcnces. 
 
 By tlie secret agreement of May 30tli, Russia 
 agreed to abandon the disp\ifed points — cliief 
 among tliese the creation of a Bulgarian seaboard 
 on the ^gean — and the eon>;res8 of Berlin then 
 assenililcd (June 13 — July 13, 1878). 
 
 ARRANGEMENTS OF THE TREATY OF BERLIN. 
 
 Great Britain was represented at the congress 
 by tlie Marquis of Salisbury and the premier, 
 the Karl of Beaconstleld. The treaty of Berlin 
 modilied the conditions of Han Stephano by re- 
 ducing the Ilussiau acquisitions in Asia Minor 
 and also by curtailing the cessions of territory to 
 Servia ancf Montenegro. A recommendation was 
 also made to the Porte to cede Thessaly and a 
 part of Epirus to Greece, i transfer which was 
 accomplished in 1881. A more important pro- 
 vision was the transfer of the administrative con- 
 trol of tlie provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 to Austria. This cession was the oiitcome of the 
 secret agreement between Russia and Austria at 
 Reichstadt, in July of the previous year, by 
 which the former had secured from her rival a 
 free hand in tlie Turkish war. These districts 
 were at once occupied by Austria, despite tlie 
 resistance of the Mohammedan pop.ulatlon, and 
 the sanjak of Novibazar, the military occupa- 
 tion of which was agreed to by the Porte, was 
 also entered by Austrian troops in September of 
 the following year. England secured as her 
 share of the spoil the control of the island of Cy- 
 prus. 
 
 The j^.uutcst work accomplished at Berlin, 
 however, was the complete readjustment of the 
 boundaries of the new Bulgarian principality. 
 
 This result was aohieved tlirough the agency 
 of Great Britain. Tlie great Bulgarian domain, 
 which by the treaty of San Stephano would have 
 conformed almost to the limits of the Bulgarian 
 Empire of the tenth century, 'vas, vith the e.\- 
 ception of a small western strip iiicludiug the 
 capital, Sotla, puslied entirely uortli of the Bal- 
 kans. This new principality was to enjoy local 
 autonomy ; and immediately south of the Balkans 
 was formed a new province, Eastern Roumelia, 
 also with local autonomy, although under the 
 military authority of the Sultan. 
 
 The result of the Berlin Congress was the ap- 
 parent triumpli of the BeaconsHeld policy. It is 
 doubtful, however, if the idea of this triumph 
 has been fully sustained by the course of subse- 
 quent events. The idea of Beaconstleld appears 
 to have been that the new Bulgaria could not be- 
 come other than a virtual dependency of Russia, 
 and that iu curtailing its boundaries he was 
 checking by so much the growth of Russian in- 
 fluence. If he could have foreseen, however, 
 the unexpected spirit with which the Bulgarians 
 have defended their autonomy, not from Turkish 
 but from Russian aggression, it is doubtful if he 
 woultl have lent himself with such vigor lo that 
 portion of his policy which had for its result the 
 weakening of this "bufTer" state. The deter- 
 mination to resist Russian aggression in the Bal- 
 kans continues to form the purpose of English 
 politicians of nearly all schools; but the idea that 
 this policy is best served by maintaining the in- 
 tegrity of the Ottoman Empire in Europe has 
 been steadily losing adherents since Beaconsfleld's 
 day. The one event of importance in Balkan his- 
 
 tory since 1878 has served well to Illustrate this 
 fact. 
 
 LATER CHANGES. 
 
 In September, 1885, the revolt of Eastern Uou- 
 molia partially undid the work of the Berlin 
 treaty. After the usual negotiations between the 
 Powers, Miu question at issue was settled by a 
 conference of ambassadors at Constantinople in 
 November, by which Eastern Roumelia was 
 placed under tlie rule of the Bulgarian prince as 
 vassal of the Sultan. This result was achieved 
 through the agency of England, and against the 
 opposition of Russia and other continental powers. 
 England and Russia had in fact exchanged poli- 
 cies since 1878, now that the real temper of the 
 Bulgarian people was more generally under- 
 stood. 
 
 The governments of Greece and Servia, alarmed 
 at the predominance thus given to Bulgaria 
 among the libarated states, sought similar com- 
 pensation, but were both foiled. 
 
 Servia, which sought this direct from Bulgaria, 
 was worsted in a short war (Nov. — Dec. 1885), and 
 Greece was cliecked in her aspiration for further 
 territorial aggrandizement at the expense of Tur- 
 key by the combined blockade of the Powers in 
 til- spring of 1886. 
 
 Since then, no geographical change has taken 
 place in the old lands of European Turkey. 
 Prince Alexander of Bulgaria was forced to abdi- 
 cate by Russian intrigue iu September 1886; but 
 under his successor, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe- 
 Coburg (crowned in 1887), and his able minister 
 Stambouloff, Bulgaria has successfully preserved 
 its autonomy. 
 
 THE PRESENT-DAY PROBLEM. 
 
 A general statement of the Balkan problem ;is 
 it exists to-day may be briefly given. The nou- 
 Turkish populations of European Turkey, for 
 the most part Christian, are divided ethnically 
 into four groups: the Itoumam or Vliichs, the 
 Qreeks, the Albaniuiis and the Slavs. The pro- 
 cess of liberation, as it has proceeded during the 
 present century, has given among these people 
 the following separate states. The Vlachs are 
 represented in the present kingdom of Roumania 
 ruled by a Hohenzollern prince ; tlie Greeks are 
 represented in the little kingdom of Greece ruled 
 by a prince of the house of Denmark; while 
 the Slaea are represented by three autonomous 
 realms: Bulgaria under Ferdinand of Suxe-Co- 
 burg, Servia under the native' dynasty of Obreno- 
 vitch, and the little princijiality of ilontenegro, 
 the only one of all which had never yielded to 
 Turkish supremacy, under the Pctrovic house, 
 which is likewise native. 
 
 The Albanians alone of the four races, owing 
 in part, pchaps, to their more or less general ac- 
 ceptance of Mohammedanism, have not as yet 
 made a determined effort for separate national 
 existence. 
 
 To these peoplf- under any normal process 
 of development, oelongs I'.e inheritance of the 
 Turkish Empire in Euroiie. The time has long 
 passed when any such procuss can be effectu- 
 ally hindered on the Turkish side. It will bo 
 hindered, if at all, either by the aggredsive and 
 rival ambitions of their two great neighbors, 
 Austria and Russia, or by the mutual jealousies 
 and opposing claims of the peoples themselves. 
 
 The unfortunate part which these jealousies 
 are likely to play in the history of the future 
 
 XU 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 was dimly foreshadowed in the events of 1885. 
 It is indeed these rival aspirations, rather than the 
 eollapse of the Turkish power, which .vre most 
 likely to afford Russia and even Austria 'he op- 
 portunity for territorial extension over the l^dkan 
 1 mds. A confederation, or even u tacit uiider- 
 Btandiug between the Balkan states, would do 
 much to provide ajjainst this danger; but the 
 idea of a confederation, though often suggested 
 and even planned, belongs at present only to the 
 realm of jiossibilities. On tlie one hand Servia, 
 menaced by the proximity of Austria, leans ui)on 
 liussian support; on the other, Bulgaria, under 
 exactly reverse conditions, yields to the influence 
 of Austria. It will be seen at once that these 
 arc unfavorable conditions on which to build up 
 any federative action. If at the next crisis, how- 
 ever, the liberated states are fated to act inde- 
 pendently, it will be seen at once thai, Greece and 
 Bulgaria possess the better chance. Not only 
 arc they the most remote from any of the great 
 powers, but they alone pu.::sess i geography 
 which is entirely open on the Turkisli side. 
 
 Moreover, what is of still greater conseiiuence, 
 it is they wlio, from an ethnic standpoint, have 
 the most legitimate interest in the still unliberated 
 popidation of European Turkey. The unliberated 
 Girck population predominates in southern Mace- 
 donia, the Chalciiliau 7-"iiinsula and along almost 
 the entire seaboard, ooth of Thrace and Asia 
 Jlinor; on the other hand tlic ethnographical 
 limits of the Jiulijunuii people conform almost 
 exactly to the boundaries of Bulgaria as provided 
 for at San Stephano. The creation of a political 
 Bulgaria to correspond to the ethnic Bulgaria was 
 indeed thp purpose of the Russian government 
 in 1878, though with the repetition of the same 
 conditions it would hardly be its jjurpose again. 
 
 Barring, therefore, the AUmniatis of the west, 
 who as yet hi've asserted no clearly defined na- 
 tional claim, the Grcekaixnd tlie Ih Ir/ariaiuaTc the 
 logical heirs to what remains of European Turkey. 
 
 These observations are not intended as a fore- 
 cast; they merely indicate wliat would bo an in- 
 evitable outcome, were the questiim permitted a 
 natural settlement. 
 
 Concerning the Turku themselves a popular 
 fallacy has ever been to consider their destiny as 
 a whole. But here again an important division 
 of the subject intrudes itself. 
 
 In Asia Minor, where the Turkish population 
 overwhelmingly preponderates, tlie question of 
 theirdestiny, barring the ever threatened Russian 
 iiiterference, ought not to arouse great concern 
 in the present. Bui in European Turkey the 
 utter lack of tliis predominance seems to deprive 
 file Ottoman of his onlv legitimate title. The 
 Turl:ii(h population in Thrace and the Balkans 
 nevei did in fact constitute a majority; am' with 
 its comnuial decline, measured indeed by tie de- 
 cline of ;he Ottoman Empire itself, the greitest 
 of all obsl,'cii's to an eciuitablt and final settle- 
 ment has bL"n removed. (See the ethnic ma'.) of 
 Europe at tin jjiesent day.) 
 
 The historic-l geography of the Balkars dur- 
 ing the present entury is not so intricate that it 
 may not be undt. -stood even from the current 
 literature of the su'iject. The b.'st purely geo- 
 graphical authority is E, llertslet's "Jlap o.' 
 Europe by Treaty." ».>f text works A. C. Fyffc's 
 "History of Jloilern E, 'rope," and J. II. Rose's 
 "A Century of Contineniil History " afford ex- 
 cellent general vievi- ?. The facts concerning the 
 settlement of the ii- ' northcn boundary of free 
 Greece are given in 1 mlay's " iTistory of "Greece," 
 Vol. VII. Of excelleiit'works 'lealing more or 
 less directly with present Baikal, politics there 
 is hardly an end. It is necessary to mention but 
 a few : E. de Laveleye's "The Balkan Peninsula, " 
 E. A. Freeman's "The Ottoman Power in 
 Europe," the Duke of Argyll's "The Eastern 
 Question," and James Baker's "Turkey." See 
 also the general bibliography of historical jecj- 
 raphy. — A. C. Reiley. 
 
 Xlll 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 N0TK8 TO THE DEVEIaJPMKNT MaP OP ChUIBTIANITY. 
 
 THE subject matter contained in this mop is 
 of a cimracter so distinct from tliat of the 
 otlicr maps of this series tlint the reader 
 must expect a coi responding modification in the 
 method of treatment. 
 
 The use of historical maps is confined, for the 
 most part, to the statement of purely political 
 conditions. 
 
 This is in fact almost the only field which ad- 
 mits of exact portrayal, within the limits of his- 
 torical Icnowledge, by this method. Any other 
 phase of human life, whether religious or social, 
 which concerns tlic belief or the thought of the 
 people rather than the exact extent of their race 
 or tlieir government, must remain, so far as the 
 limitations of cartography is concerned, compar- 
 atively intangible. 
 
 Again, it should be noted that, even in tlie 
 map treatment of a subject as comparatively ex- 
 act as political geography, it Is one condition of 
 exactness that this treatment should bo specific 
 in its relation to a date, or at least to a limited 
 period. 
 
 The map which treats a subject in its historical 
 development has the undoubted merit of greater 
 comprehensiveness; but this advantage cannot 
 be gained without a certain loss of relation and 
 proportion. Between the "development" map 
 and the "date" map there is this difference: In 
 the one, the whole subject passes before the eye 
 in a sort of moving panorama, the salient points 
 evident, but with their relation to external facts 
 often obscured : in tlic other, the subject stands 
 still at one particular point and permits itself to 
 be pliotographed. A progressive series of such 
 photographs, each forming a perfect picture by 
 Itself, yet each showing the clear relation with 
 what precedes and follows, affords the metliod 
 which all must regard as the most logical and 
 the most exact. But from the very intangible 
 nature of the subject treated in this map, the 
 date method, with its demand for exactness, be- 
 comes impracticable. These observations are 
 necessary in explaining the limitations of cartog- 
 raphy in dealing with a subject of this nature. 
 The notes that follow are intended as a simple 
 elucidation of tlie plan of treatment. 
 
 The central feature in the early development 
 of Christianity is soon stated. The new faith 
 spread by churches from city to city until it be- 
 came the religion of the Roman Empire ; after- 
 wards this spread was continued from people to 
 people until it became tlie religion of Europe. 
 The statement of the general fact in this crude 
 and untempered form might i~ an ordinary case 
 provoke criticism, and its Invariable historic 
 truth with reference to the second period be 
 open to some question ; but witliin the limits of 
 map presentation it is substantially accurate. It 
 forms, indeed, the key upon wh!.;U the entire 
 map is constructed. 
 
 THE ANTE'NICENE CHURCHES. 
 
 During the first three centuries of the Christian 
 era, up to the Conslantinian or Nicene period, 
 there is no country, state or province which can 
 be safely described as Cliristian ; yet as early as 
 the second century there is hardly a portion of 
 the Empire which docs not number some Chris- 
 tians in its population. The subject of the his- 
 torical geography of the Christian cliurch during 
 the ante-Niceno period is confined, tlierefore, to 
 the locating of these Christian bodies wherever 
 they are to be found. On this portion of the 
 subject the map makes its own statement. It is 
 possible merely to elucidate this statement, with 
 the suggestion, in addition, of a few points which 
 the map does not and cannot contain. 
 
 Concerning the ante-Nicene churches there is 
 only one division attempted. This division, into 
 the " Apostolic " and " post- Apostolic," concerns 
 merely the period of their foundation. Concern- 
 ing the churches founded in the Apostolic period 
 (SS-IOO), our knowledge io practically limited to 
 the facts culled from tne Acts, the Epistles and 
 the Apocalypse. Tlie churches of the post- Apos- 
 tolic period afford a mucli wider field for re- 
 search, although the materials for study bearing 
 upon them are almost as inadequate. According 
 to the estimate of the late Prof. R. D. Hitchcock, 
 there were in the Roman Empire at the close of 
 the persecutions about 1,800 churclies, 1,000 in 
 the East and 800 in the West. Of this total, the 
 cities in which churclies have been definitely 
 located number only 525. They are distributed 
 as follows: Europe 188, Asia 214, Africa 123 (see 
 v. I, p. 443). Through the labors of Prof. Henry 
 AV. liulbert, the locations of these 535 cities, so 
 far as established, have been cast in available 
 cartograpliic form. 
 
 It is much to be regretted that, despite the sanc- 
 tion of the author, it has been found impossible, 
 owing to the limitations of space, to locate all of 
 these cities in the present map. The attempt 
 has been limited therefore to the placing of only 
 the more prominent cities, or those whose loca- 
 tion is subject to the least dispute. 
 
 The Apostolic and post- Apostolic churches, as 
 they appear upon the map, are distinguished by 
 underlines in separate colors. A special feature 
 has been the insertion of double underlines to 
 mark the greater centres of diffusion, so far as 
 their special activity in this respect can be safely 
 assumed. In this class ./e have as centres in 
 Apostolic times Jerusalem, Antioch, Epiitsus, 
 Philippi, Thessaloniea and Oorinth ; in post- 
 Apostolic times, when the widening of the field 
 necessitates special and limited notices, we may 
 name Alexaiidna, Edessa, Rome and CartM^e. 
 
 Tlie city of Rome contains a Christian co:n- 
 munity in Apostolic times, but its activity as a 
 great diffusion centre, prior to early post-Apos- 
 tolic times, is a point of considerable historical 
 
 XIV 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 controversy. In this respect it occupies a pecu- 
 liar position, wliicli is suggested by the special 
 underlines in the map. 
 
 CONVERriON OP THB EMPIRE. 
 
 The above metliod of treatment carries us in 
 safety up to tlie accession in tlie West of the 
 first Christian Emperor(311). Tlie attempt, how- 
 ever. ♦• ,,,.."'"! the same method beyond tliat 
 P'- lod would involve us at once in insurmount- 
 able ditllcultics. 
 
 Tlie exact time of the advent of the Christian- 
 Roman world it is indeed impossible to define 
 with precision. The Empire after tlic time of 
 Constiintine was predominantly Christian, yet 
 paganism still lingered in formidable tliough 
 declining strength. A map of religious designed 
 to explam this pc-' )d, even witli unlimited his- 
 torical material, c aid hardly be executed by any 
 system, for tlic i. ult could be little better than 
 a chaos, the fragments of the old religion every- 
 where disappearing or blending witli tlie new. 
 The further treatment of the growtli of Ciiris- 
 tianity by cities or churches is now impossible ; 
 for tlie rapid increase of tlie latter has carried tlio 
 subject into details and intricacies where it can- 
 not be followed : on the other hand, to describe 
 the Roman world in the fourth century as a 
 Christian world would be taking an unwarranted 
 liberty with the plain facts of history. 
 
 The last feeble remnants of paganism were in 
 fact burned away in tlie fierce heat of tlie bar- 
 baric invasions of the fifth century. After that 
 time we can safely designate the former limits of 
 the Roman Empire as the Christian world. From 
 this point we can resume tbj subject of church 
 expansion by the "second method" indicated at 
 the head of this article. But concerning the 
 transition period of tlie fourth and fifth centuries, 
 from tlie time Christianity is predominant in tiie 
 Roma'i world until it becomes the sole religion 
 of the Roman world, both methods fail us and 
 the map can tell us practically nothing. 
 
 BARBARIANS OF THE INVASION. 
 
 Another source of intricacy occurring at this 
 point should not escape notice. It was in the 
 fourth century that Christianity began its spread 
 among the barbarian Teutonic nations nortli of 
 the Danube. The Goths, located on the Danube, 
 between the Theiss and the Euxine, were con- 
 verted to Christianity, in the form known as 
 Arianism, by the missionary bishop UlpliilaE, and 
 the faitli extended in the succeeding century to 
 many other confederations of the Germanic race. 
 This fact represented, for a time, the Christiani- 
 zation, whole or partial, of some peoples beyond 
 the borders of the Empire. With the migrations 
 of the fifth and sixth centuries, however, these 
 converts, without exception, carried their new 
 faith with them uto the Empire, and tlieir de- 
 serted homes, left open to new and pagan set- 
 tlers, simply became the field for the renewed 
 missionary effort of a later age. It is a liistorical 
 fact, from a cartographic standpoint a fortunate 
 one, that, with all the geo^rapliic oscillation? if 
 this period between Cliristianity and paganism, 
 the Christian world finally emerged with iti boun- 
 daries conforming, with only a few exceptions, 
 to the former frontiers of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Whether or not this is a historical accident it 
 nevertheless gives technical accuracy from the 
 geographic standpoint to the statement that 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 Christianity first made the conquest of the 
 Roman world ; from thence it went out to com- 
 plete the conquest of Europe. 
 
 CONVERSION OP EUROPE. 
 
 With the view, as afforded on the map, of the 
 extent of Christianity at the commencement of 
 the sevcntli century, we have entered definitely 
 upon the "second method." Indeed, in Ireland, 
 Wales and Scotland, where the Celtic cliurch 
 lias already put forth its missionary effort, the 
 method has, in point of date, been anticipated ; 
 but this fact need cause no confusion in treat- 
 ment. Henceforth the spread of Christianity is ' 
 noted as it made its way from "people to peo- 
 ple." At tliis point, however, occurs the great- 
 est intongibility of the subject. The dates given 
 under each country represent, as stated in the 
 key to tlie map, "tlie approximate periods of 
 conversion. " It is not to be inferred, however, 
 that Christianity was completely unknown in any 
 of these countries prior to tlie periods given, or 
 tliat the work of conversion was in each case en- 
 tirely completed witliiu tlie time specified. But 
 it is an absolute necessity to give some definite- 
 ness to tliese " periods of conversion"; to assign 
 Willi all distinctness possible tlie time when each 
 laiiil passed from tlic list of pagan to the list of 
 Christian nations. Tlie dates marking the limits 
 to tliese periods are perliaps chosen by an arbitrary 
 metliod. Tlie basis of their selection, however, has 
 been almost invariably some salient point, first in 
 the introduction anil finally in tlie general accept- 
 ance of the Christian faith. In order that the 
 reader may possess the easy means of indepen- 
 dent opinion or critical judgment, the explanation 
 is appended of the dates thus used, concerning 
 wliieh a question miglit legitimately arise. 
 
 Goths. — Converted to Arian, Gnristianity by 
 UlpMlas, 341-381. — These dates cover the period 
 of the ministry of Ulphilns, whose efforts resulted 
 in the conversion of tlie great body of the Danu- 
 bian Gotlis. He received his ordination and en- 
 tered upon his work in 341, and died at Con- 
 stantinople in 381. (SeeC. A. A. Scott's "Ulflliis.") 
 
 Suevi, Burgundians and Lombard.*). — These 
 people, like the Goths, passed from paganism 
 tlirough the medium of Arian Christianity to final 
 Orthodoxy. Concerning tlie first process, it is 
 possible to establish notliing, save that these 
 Teutonic peoples appeared in the Empire in the 
 fiftli eentur}' as professors of the Arian faith. 
 Tlie exact time of tlio acceptance of tliis faith is 
 of less conse(iuence. The second transition from 
 Arianism to (Jrthodoxv occurred at a different 
 time in eaeli case. The Suevi embraced the 
 Catholic faith in 550; the Visigoths, through theii 
 Catholic king Reccarcd, were brought within the 
 church at tlie tliird council of Toledo (589). 
 Further north tlie Burgundiaus embraced Catholi- 
 cism through their king Sigisinond in 017, and, 
 finally, the Lombards, the last of the Arians, 
 accepted Orthodoxy in tlie beginning of the 
 seventh century. The Vandals, another Arian 
 German nation of this period, figured in Africa in . 
 the fourth century. 
 
 Tliey were destroyed, however, by the arras of 
 Belisarius in 534, and their cnrly disappearance 
 renders unnecessary their representation on tlie 
 present map. 
 
 Franks. — Ohristiaiiity introduced in 498. — 
 This is the date of the historic conversion of 
 Clovis and his warriors on the battlefield of 
 
 XV 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 Tolblac. The Franks were tlio first of the Ger- 
 manic peoples to puss, ns a nation, to orthodoxy 
 (lireot from paganism, and tlieir conversion, as 
 we liave seen, was soon followed by tlie progress 
 from Arianism to Orthodoxy of the other Ger- 
 manic nations within the borders of the Empire. 
 
 Ireland. — Christianuy intmliieed hy Patrick, 
 440-493. — St. Patrick entered upon his mission- 
 ary work in Ireland in 440; he died on the scene 
 of his lalKirs in 403. This period witnessed the 
 conversion of the bulk of tlie Irish nation. 
 
 Picts, — Christianity introduetd from Ireland 
 by (hlumba, 563-507. — These dates cover the 
 ' period of St. C'olinnba's ministry. Tlic work of 
 St. Ninian, the "apostle of the Lowlands" in 
 the previous century, left very few enduring re- 
 sults. The period from 503, the date of the 
 founding of the famous Celtic monastery of 
 lona, to the death of Columba in 597, witnessed, 
 however, the conversion of the great mass of the 
 Pictish nation. 
 
 Strathdyde. — Christianity introduced by Ken- 
 tigern, 550-003. — These dates, like the two pre- 
 ceding, cover the i)eriod of tlie ministry of a 
 single .nan, Kentigern, the "apostle i)f Stratli- 
 clyde." The date marking the commcncemoiit 
 of^Kentigern's labois is approximate. He died 
 in 003. 
 
 England. — The Celtic church had been up- 
 rooteclin England by the Anglo-Saxon invasions 
 of the fifth and sixth centuries. While its mis- 
 sionary efforts were now being expended on Scot- 
 land, Strathclydc, and Cornwall, its pristine scat 
 had thus fallen away to complete paganism. 
 The Christianization of England was the work 
 of the seventh century, and in this work the Celtic 
 church, though expending great effort, was an- 
 ticipated and ultimately outstripped by the 
 chiirch of Rome. 
 
 Kent. — Christianity introduced by Augustine, 
 597-004. — These dates cover the ministry of St. 
 Augustine, the apostle of Kent. Tliis was the 
 first foothold gained by the Roman church on 
 the soil of Britain. 
 
 Northumbria.— 627-051.— Edwin (Eadwine), 
 king of Nortliumbria, received baptism from 
 the Kentish inissionarv Paulinus on Easter Eve, 
 627. 
 
 Tlie process of conversion was continued by 
 the Celtic missionary, Aidin, who died in 651. 
 The Christianity of Nortliumbria had begun 
 before the latter date, however, to influence the 
 surrounding states. 
 
 East An^lia.— 630-647.— East Angliahad one 
 Christian kmg prior to this period ; but it was 
 only with the accession of Sigebert (630) that 
 great progress was made in the conversion of the 
 people. The reign of kin^ Anna witnesses the 
 practical completion of this work. In 047 the 
 cffortt of this sovereign led to the baptism of 
 Cenwaleh, king of the West Saxons. 
 
 Wessex.— 634-048. — The conversion of the 
 West Saxons was begun by the missionary Biri- 
 nus in 634. The year 648 witnessed the restora- 
 tion of the Christian king Cenwaleh. 
 
 Mercia. — 054-070. — Jlereia was one of the last 
 of the great English kingdoms to accept the faith. 
 Their king, Penda, was indeed the most formid- 
 able foe the church encountered in the British 
 Isles. The conversion of Penda's son Pcada ad- 
 mitted the gospel to the Middle Angles, who 
 accepted Christianity in 053. The East Saxons 
 embraced the faith at about the same time. Fi- 
 
 nally in 054 the defeat and death of Penda at the 
 hand of Oswy, the Christian king of Northiim- 
 bria, opened "the doors of Mercia as well. The 
 conversion of the realm was practically accom- 
 plif lied during the next few years. 
 
 Su98ex.—681.— The leaders of the South Sax- 
 ons received baptism at the hands of the apos- 
 tle Wilfred in 681. Sussex was the last retn^at 
 of paganism on the English mainland, and five 
 years later the conversion of the inliabitante of 
 the Isle of Wight completed the spread of Chris- 
 tianity over every portion of the Britisli Isles. 
 
 Frisians. — Christianity introduced bi/ Willi- 
 hrord, 690-739.— The .vork of St. Willibrord 
 among the Frisians vis one of many manifes- 
 tations of the missicna'.y activity of the Cel- 
 tic church. Willibroi.l introduced Christianity 
 among these people during the years of his min- 
 istry, but to judge by the sub.sequent martyrdom 
 of Boniface in Priesland (755) the work of con- 
 version was not fully completed in all quarters 
 until a later time. 
 
 Mission Field of Boniface.— 722-755.— The 
 object of the map is not merely to locate the 
 mission field of the great " apo.stleof Germany," 
 but also to give the location and date of the vari- 
 ous bishoprics which owed their foundation to 
 his missionary efforts. 
 
 Saxons.— 787-805.— Of all the nations con- 
 verted to Christianity up to this time the Saxons 
 were the first conquest of the sword. The two 
 most powerful Saxon chiefs were baptized in 
 787; but it was not until their complete defeat 
 and subjugation by Charlemagne in 805 that the 
 work of conversion showed a degree of complete- 
 ness. AVith the Christianization of the Saxons 
 the cordon of the church was completed around 
 the Germanic nations. 
 
 Moravia. — Christianity introduced by Cyrillus 
 and Methodius, 863-000.— St. Cyrillus, the "a])os- 
 tle of the Slavs," entered upon his mission in 
 Moravia in 803. The political Moravia of the 
 ninth centrry, under Rastislav and Sviatopluk, 
 exceeded greatly the limits of the modern ])rov- 
 ince; but the missionary labor of the brothers 
 Cyrillus and Methodius seems to have produced 
 its principrd results in the modern Moravian ter- 
 ritory, as indicated on the map. Methodius, the 
 survivor of the brothers, died about 900. In the 
 tenth century Moravia figures as Christian. 
 
 Czechs.— 880-1039.— The door to Bohemia 
 was first opened from Moravia in tlie time of 
 Sviatopluk. The reactions in favor of pagan- 
 ism were, however, unusually prolonged and 
 violent. Severus, Archbishop of Prague, finally 
 succeeded in enforcing the various rules of the 
 Christian cultus (1039). 
 
 Poles.— 966-1034.— The Polish duke Mieczy- 
 slav was baptized in 966. Mieezyslav II. died 
 in 1034. These dates cover the active missionary 
 time when, indeed, the efforts of the clergy were 
 backed by the strong arm of the sovereign. 
 Poland did not, however, become completely 
 Christian u; il a somewhat later period. 
 
 Bulgaria. —863-900. — The Bulgarian prince 
 Bogoris was baptized in 803. Again, as in so 
 many other cases, the faith v.-as compelled to pass 
 to the people through the medium of the sover- 
 eign. The ' >ud date is arbitrary, although 
 Bulgaria ap]!' . is definitely as a Christian coun- 
 try at the commencement of the tenth century. 
 
 Magyars. — 950-1050. — Missionaries were ad- 
 mitted mto the territory of the magyars in 950. 
 
 XVI 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 The coronntion of Kt. Stcphi'ii, the " npostolic 
 klnjf," (KKM)) iniirkfd the real triiiiiipli of Cliris- 
 tiiiiiity ill llunjtiiry. A nuinbcr of piigiin ri'iic- 
 tioiis occurred, however, in tlie eleventh century, 
 so that it is impossible to iilace the conversion 
 of the Magyars nt uii earlier date than the last 
 one assigned. 
 
 Russians.— 088-1015.— The Russian grand- 
 duke Vladimir was baptized on the occasion of 
 his marriage to the princess Anne, sister of the 
 Byzantine Emperor, in 1)88. liefon; his death in 
 lOlT) Cliri.stianity had through his elTorts become 
 the accepted religion of his people. 
 
 Danes. — C'oiuvrtnl /i)/ Aimgar andhinnurreiuiors, 
 827-1035. — The Danes had been visited by mis- 
 sionaries ]irior to the ninth century, but their 
 work had left no permanent result. The arrival 
 of Ausgar, the "apostle of the North" (837), 
 marks the real beginning of tlic period of con- 
 version. This period in Denmark was an un- 
 usually long one. It was not fully complete 
 until the nign of Canute the Great (1010-103,")). 
 
 Swedes (Gothia). — Chrutinnitji iiitvoduced by 
 Aimi/iir mill /lis successors, 829-1000. — Ausgar 
 nuulc his iirst visit to Sweden in 820, two years 
 after his arrival in Denmark. The period of 
 conversion, as in Denmark, was a long one; but 
 by the year 1000 the southern section, Gothia or 
 Qotliland, had become Christian. The conversion 
 of the northern Swedes ■was not completed for 
 another century. 
 
 Norwegians. — 935-1030.— The jieriod of cou- 
 vcrsion in Norway began willi the reign of the 
 Christian king Ilakon the Good. The faith made 
 slow progres.s, however, until the reign of Olaf 
 Trygveson, wlio ascended the tlirone near tlie end 
 of the tenth century. The work of conversion 
 was completed in tlio reign of Olaf the Saint 
 (101-1-1030). 
 
 Pomeranians. — Christianity introducalhy Otho 
 of Jldiiihay, 112-1-1128.— The attempt of the Poles 
 to convert the Pomeranians by the sword i)rior to 
 these dates had proven unavailing, and mission- 
 aries had been driven from the country. Witliin 
 the short sjiacc of four years, howcvej, Otho of 
 Bamberg succeeded in bringing the great mass of 
 the people within tlie pale of the church. 
 
 Abotrites.— 1125-1103.— The conversion of 
 these people was clearly the work of the sword. 
 It was accomplished within the time specified by 
 Albert the Hear, first margrave of Brandenburg, 
 and Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. The last 
 heathen king became the first Christian duke of 
 Jlecklenburg in 1 162. Further south the kindred 
 Wend nations between the Elbe and tlie Oder had 
 been the oliiect of German effort, both mission- 
 ary and military, for over two centuries, but had 
 generally come within the church before this 
 time. 
 
 Lives and Prussians. — Christianity introduced 
 by the Sieord Brothers, 1203-1286, a »rfJi( the Teu- 
 tonic Knights, 1330-1289. — These conversions, the 
 work of the transplanted military or<lers of Pal- 
 estine, were direct conquests of the sword, and 
 as such possess a defiuitenesswliich is so unfortu- 
 nately lacking in so many other cases. 
 
 So much for the character and the purpose of 
 the dates which appear on this map. In the em- 
 ployment of the colors, tlie periods covered are 
 longer, and as a cons(:qucnce the general results 
 are somewhat more d jfinite. Tlie use of a color 
 system directly over a date system is intended to 
 afford an immediate though general view. From 
 
 this to the special aspects presented by the date 
 features is a simple step in the development of 
 the subject. 
 
 Another feature of the map which may not 
 es<'ape notice is the different systems used, re- 
 spectively, in the lioman and Mediieval periinl 
 for tlie spelling of urban names, A develop- 
 ment map covering a long period of history can- 
 not be entirely free from anachronisms of this 
 nature; but a method has nevertheless been fol- 
 lowed in tlie spelling of these place names: — to 
 give in each case the spelling current at the 
 period of conversion. Tlie fact that tlie labors 
 of the Christian missionaries were contined mostly 
 to the Roman world in the Roman period, and 
 did not extend to non-Roman lands until the 
 Middle Ages, enables us to limit our spelling of 
 civic names to a double system. Tlic cities of 
 the Roman and of the Jledia'val piriinl are 
 shown on the map and in tlie key in two different 
 styles of type. Only in the cases of cities like 
 Rome, Con.stanliiKiple and Aiitioch, where the 
 current form has the absolute sanction of usage 
 even for classic limes, has there been any devia- 
 ti(m from the strict line of this metliod. 
 
 In conclusion, the general features of the sub- 
 ject present themsches as follows: Had the ad- 
 vance of Christianity, like Moliiuiimedanism, 
 been by conquest, had tlie bounds of the Chris- 
 tian faith been thus rendered ever conterminous 
 with the limits of a jieople or an empire, then, 
 indeed, the subject of churcli expansion would 
 possess a tangibility and coherency concerning 
 wliich exact statcinint would be possible. The 
 historical geography of the Cliristian church 
 would then partake of some of the iirecision of 
 I)olitical division. Hut tlie non-political element 
 in tlie Cliri.stian cultus deprives us, in the study 
 of the subject, of tliis invaluable aid. At a later 
 time, when the conquests of the soul were 
 backed by the strong arm of power, and when 
 the new faith, as often happened, passed to the 
 people from the sovereign, a measure of this ex- 
 actness is perhaps po.ssible. 
 
 We have witnessed an indication of these ten- 
 dencies in many casi's, us we approaclied the 
 termination of the iieriod covered by this ma]). 
 But tlie fact remains that the fundanieutal char- 
 acter of the Cliri.stian faith precludes, in the 
 main, the possibility of its growth being meas- 
 ured by the rules which govern ordinary politi- 
 cal expansion. 
 
 This being then a subject on which dcflnite- 
 ness is well nigh impossible, it has been treated 
 by a method correspondingly elastic. A work- 
 ing basis for the study of the subject is, how- 
 ever, afforded by tliis system. Tliis basis se- 
 cured, the student may then systematically 
 pursue his theme. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 T}ie historical geography of the Christian 
 church, if studied only within narrow limits, 
 can be culled from the pages of general church 
 history. All of these accounts, however, are 
 brief — those in the smaller histories extremely so. 
 If studied thus, the reader will derive the most 
 help from Neauder's "History of the Christian 
 Religion and Church," vol. I. pp. 68-86, vol. II, 
 pp. 1-84, 93-129; Sclmff's "History of the Chris- 
 tian Church," vol. I, pp. 22-1-408, vol. II, pp. 
 13-84, vol. Ill, pp. 10-71, vol. IV, pp. 17-142, 
 and Moeller's "History of the Christian Church." 
 
 XVll 
 
APPENDIX I). 
 
 These works mny be supplemented by a vast' 
 number of Ijooks trciitini? of special phases of 
 church history, though the number in English 
 dealing specillcaljy with geographical expansion 
 is very small. 
 
 The most recent, dealing with tlio ante Niceno 
 
 gcrio<l, is Hamsey's "Church in the Itoman 
 Impire before A. I). 170," to wliich tlie same 
 autlior's "Historical Geography of Asia Minor" 
 forms a most indispcnsibk- prelude. 
 
 KiUeriiig tliu mediajval period, the best gen- 
 eral guides are the little books of O. F. Mac- 
 lear, entitled respectively the conversion of tlie 
 Celts, Knglish, Continental Teutons, Northmen 
 and Slavs. These works may be supplemented 
 by Thomas Smith's "Modiiuval Missions,", and 
 for special subjects by G. T. Stokes' "Ireland 
 and the Celtic Church," W. P. Skene's "Celtic 
 Scotland" (vol. II), and 8. Baring Gould's "The 
 Churcli in Germany." 
 
 The texts of the "Councils as contained in Ilar- 
 dum, Labbe, and Mansi are indispensible orig- 
 inal aids in the study of cluirch geography. 
 
 Of German Works, J. E. T. Wiitsch's "Atlas 
 Bacer, 'and the same author's "Church Geogra- 
 phy and Statistics," translated by John Leitch, 
 have long remained the standard guides for a 
 study of the historical geography of the church. 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 The Atlas Bacer, containing five large plates ig 
 the only pure atlas guide to the subject. The 
 " Church Geogniphy and Statistics," being an ec- 
 clesiastical work, dwells with great fuhie-ssim the 
 Internal facts of church geography, but the out- 
 ward expansion, barring tlie early growtli of the 
 church, IS not so concisely treated. For tlie bis- 
 tory of mediicval missions the reader will be better 
 served elsewhere. To the reader using German 
 C. G. niumliardt's "Die Missionsgeschichtc der 
 Kirche ('hristi" (3 vols., 1828-1837), and a later 
 work, "Ilandbuch der Missionsgescliiclite und 
 Mission.sgeograpliie" (3 vols., 1863), may bo 
 noted. •' 
 
 For modern missions there is a very full litera- 
 ture. Comprehensive works on this subject are 
 Grundemann's "Allgemeino Missions Atlas" 
 JJurkliardt and Grundemann's "Les Missions 
 JJiVangehques " (4 vols.), and in English the " En- 
 cyclopicdia of Missions." Several articles in the 
 "EncyclopiBdiaof Missions" should not escape 
 notice. Among tlicni are " Mediicvnl Missions," 
 and the "Historical Geography of Missions," the 
 latter by Dr Henry W. Hulbert. The writer is 
 glad at this point to return his tlianks to Dr. 
 Hulbert for the valued aid extended in the loca- 
 A °^°',.''^? Church of the ante-Nicene period.— 
 A. C. Reilej, 
 
 XVIU 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 ThK FoLLOWINO NoTKB and COIHIKCTIONB to MaTTKII KeLATINO to AmEHICAN AllOKIOINKS 
 (pp. 76-108) HAVE BEEN KINDLY MADE DT MAJOH J. W. PoWELL AND 
 Mn. .1. OWKN DOKSEY, OP THE QuilEAU ov Ethnolooy. 
 
 Adal.— This tribp, formerly classed us a dls- 
 Unct fiiiiiily — fill) Adniziiii — is now regiirded by 
 tlic Biircuu of Etlmology as but a part ot the 
 Caddoan or Pawnee. 
 
 Apache Group. — ludiaii.s of ilifTercnt families 
 ore here mentioned together: (A) the C'o- 
 manches, etc., of the Shoshonean Family; (H) 
 the Ai)acliC8 (including tlie C'hirieagiiia, or Chiri 
 caliua, Coyoteros, etc., but excluding the Tejiias 
 who are llifloan) of the Athapascan Family, the 
 Navajos of the same family ; and (C) the Yuman 
 Fomily, including tlie Cusninos, who are U' ' 
 Apache (Atliapascan stock). 
 
 Athapascan Family. — Not an exact synonym 
 of "Chippewyans, Tinneh and Sarcees." Tlie 
 whole family is sometimes known as Tinneh, 
 though that api)cllatioii is more frequently lim- 
 ited to part of tlie Northern group, the Chippe- 
 wyans. The Sarcees arc an olfshoot of the 
 Beaver tribe, which latter form part of one of 
 the subdivisions of the Northern group of the 
 Athaiiascan Family. The Sarcees are now with 
 the IJlackfeet. 
 
 Atsinas (Caddoes). — The Atsinas are not a 
 Caddoan people, but they are Algoncpiian, as are 
 the Bluekfeet (Sik-sik-a). The Atsinas are the 
 "Fall Iniliiins," " Minnetarees of the Plains," or 
 "Qros Ventres of the Plains," as distinguished 
 from the Ilidatsa, who are sometimes called the 
 "Minnetarees of thu Ilissouri," "Gros Ventres 
 of the Missouri." 
 
 Blackfeet or SiVsikas. — The Sarcee are a 
 Tinneli or Athapascan tribe, but tliey are not the 
 Tinneh (see above). The "Atsina" are not a 
 Caddo tribe (see above). 
 
 Cherokees. — These people are now included 
 in the Iroquoian Family. Sec Powell, in Semnth 
 Annual liept.. Bureau, of Ethnolofjn, p. 79. 
 
 Flatheads (Salishan Family).— The "Chera- 
 kis," though included among the Flatheads by 
 Force, are of the Iroquoian Family. The "Chi- 
 cachas" or Cliickasaws, aio not Salishan, but 
 Muskliogean. See Powell, tkeenth Ait mud Rept., 
 Bureau nf Ethnology, p. 03. The Totiris of Force, 
 are the Tutelos, a tribe of the Siouan Family. See 
 Powell, Seiviith Annual liept. , Bureau of Ethnol- 
 ogy, p. 116. The Cathlamalis, Killmucks (i. e., 
 Tillamooks), Clatsops, Chinooks and Cliilts are of 
 the Cliinookau Family. Sec Powell, Seventh 
 Annual liept.. Bureau of Ethnolnqy, pp. 0.5, 60. 
 
 Gros Ventres (Minnetaree ; Hidatsa).— There 
 are two di.stinct tribes which are often con- 
 founded, both being known as the Gros Ventres 
 or Minnetarees. 1. The Atsina or Fall Indians, 
 an Algonquiau tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the 
 Plains," or the "Minnetarees of the Plains." 3. 
 The Hidatsa, a Siouan tribe, the "Gros Ventres 
 of the Missouri," or the "Minnetarees of the 
 Missouri." The former, the Atsina, liave been 
 wrongly styled " Caddoes" on p. 81. 
 
 Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Gros Ventres. — 
 
 Often conftiuiidcd with the Atsina, who belong 
 to the Algompiian Family, the Illdatsii being a 
 tribe of the Siouan Family. The Hidatsa have 
 been called Gros Ventr s, "Big Paunches," but 
 this niekname could have no reference to any 
 personal i)eculiarities of the Hidatsa. It seems 
 to have originated in a (luarrel between some 
 Indians over the big paunch ot a bullalo, result- 
 ing in I iie scparaticm of the people into the present 
 tribes of HidaLsiis and Absarokas or Crows, the 
 latter ot whom now cull the Ilidatsa, "Kl-kha- 
 tsa," from ki-klia, a paunch. 
 
 Hupas. — They belong to the Athapascan 
 Family : the reference to the Jlodocs is mislead- 
 ing. 
 
 Iroquois Tribes of the South.— "Tlie Meher- 
 rins or Tuteioes." — The.se were not identical, 
 the Tutelos being a Siouan tribe, the Meherrius 
 being now identilied witli the Susquehannocks. 
 
 Kenai or Blood Indians. — The Kenai are an 
 Athnpascan jieople inhabiting the shores of 
 Cook's Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula, Southern 
 Alaska; while the Blood Indians are a division 
 of the Blackfeet (Siksika), an Algonquiuu tribe, 
 in Montana. 
 
 Kusan Family. — The villages of this family 
 were on Coos Uiver and Bay, and on both sides 
 of Coquillo Kiver, near tlie mouth. See Powell, 
 Seventh Annual liept.. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 89. 
 
 Also in: J. Owen Dorsey, The Qentile Sys- 
 tem of the Siletz Tribes, in Jour. Amer. Fulk-Lore, 
 July— Sept., 1890,;). 231. 
 
 Minnetarees. See above, Atsina ond Hi- 
 datsa. 
 
 Modocs (Klamaths) and their California and 
 Oregon neighbors. — The Klamaths and Modocs 
 are ot the I.utiiamiau Family; the Sliastusof the 
 Sastean ; the Pit Hiver Indians ot tlie Palaihni- 
 han; the Eurocs of the Weitspekan ; the Cahrocs 
 of the Quoratean; the Iloopahs, Tolewas, and 
 the lower Rogue liiver Indians of the Athapas- 
 can; tli(! upper i{ogue liiver Indians of the Ta- 
 kilman. 
 
 Muskhogean Family. — The Biloxl tribe Is 
 not Muskhogean but Siouan. See Dorsey (James 
 Owen), " The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana," re- 
 printed from V. 42, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 
 Madison meeting, 1893. 
 
 Natchitoches. — A tribe of the Caddoan Family. 
 — Dorsey (J. Owen), MS. in the Bureau of Eth- 
 nology, 188'..' 
 
 Also in ; 1 Seventh Anmcal liept. , Bureau 
 
 of Ethnology, j, 
 
 Pueblos. — "Tli:. /.uni was Cibola it is need- 
 less to attempt to prove any further." — A. P. 
 Bandelier, Journal of Am. Eth. and Arch., v. 3, 
 p. 19, 1893. 
 
 Rogue River Indians. — This includes tribes 
 of various families: the upper Rogue River In- 
 
 XIX 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 (linns bring the Tftkolma, who are nulji^nrd to n 
 Hni'ciiil raiiiilv, the Tnkilnmn; nml the lower 
 UoKiie UivcT IndiiinH, whoiiri' Athu|mHi'nn trilM'H. 
 8<'e DorHi'V (J. Owen), "The. Urntile Syttem of 
 the Silftz Trilien," iii.hiur. AiiifV. thlk-lA>rf, July 
 —Sipt., WW, pp. 22H, 2:!2-2:W. 
 
 Santeet. — Two (liviNioiigof the Hlounn Fiiniily 
 are known hy thin nnnic: 1. The I mii-ya-ti or 
 DwcllerB on Knlfu Lake, MinneHOta, iaentlcal 
 with the Mdewakantonwan Dakota. These fig- 
 ured in the Minnesota outbreak of 1808. The 
 Rurvivora are in Knox Cftunty, Nel>ra8ka, on 
 what was once the Santeo reservation, ond near 
 Flandreau, 8oiitli Dakota. 2. The Hantces of 
 South Carolina were part of tlic Catawba con- 
 federacy. The Bauteo river is named after 
 them. 
 
 Sarcee. — These aro not all of the TInneh, nor 
 are tliey really Blackfect, though living with 
 them. The Sarcecg are an ofTshoot of the Beaver 
 Indians, a tribe of one of the divisions of the 
 Northern group of the Atliapascan Family. 
 
 Siouan Family.— All the tribes of tids family 
 do nut speak the Bioux language, as is wrongly 
 8lnte<l on p. 1U3. Those wlio speak the " Sioux " 
 language aro the Dakota proper, nicknamed 
 Sioux, and tlio Assinilwin. There are, or iiave 
 been, nine otlier groups of Indians in this fandly : 
 to the Cegiha or Dlicgiha group iMjiong the Oma- 
 has, Ponkas, Oaages, Kansas or Kaws, and Kwa- 
 pas or Quapars; to the Tcliiwcre group belong 
 the lowas, Otos, and Missouris; tlie Winnebago 
 or Ilociiangara constitute anotlier group; the 
 fifth group consists of tlio survivors of the Man- 
 dan nation ; to tlic sixtli group belong the Hidatsa 
 and the Absarokas or Crows ; tlie Tuteloa, Ke- 
 yuiiwees, Aconeechls, etc.constituted the seventh 
 group; the tribes of tlie Catawba confederacy, 
 the eighth ; the Biloxis, the ninth ; and certain 
 Virginia tril)cs tlie tenth group. The Winne- 
 bagos call rnselves Ilochungnra, orFirstSpeech 
 (not " Trout Nation"), they are not called lloroje 
 
 ("'flsh-eatcra") by the Omuhas, but Ilu-tnn-ga, 
 nig Voices, a mlKlranslation of Ilociiangara. 
 The Dakotas pniper sometimes speak of tliem- 
 Kclvcs as the "O-cheli shako-win," or the 
 Seven Couneil-flres. Their Algi)n(|uian focsealled 
 them Nadowe-ssiwak, the Snake-like ones, from 
 nadowe, a snake; this was corrupted hy the 
 Canadian French to Nodoue8Hl(mx, of which the 
 la. t syllable 1." Sioux. TIio seven primary divi- 
 sions of the Dakota aro as follow: Mdewakan- 
 tonwan, VVakhpekiite, Sisitonwan or Sisscton, 
 Wakhpetonwan or Warpcton, Ihanktonwan or 
 Yankton, Ihanktonwunna or Yanktnnnai, and 
 Titoiiwaii or Teton. 
 
 The Sheyennes or Cheyennes, mentioned in 
 connection with the Sioux by Gallatin and Carver, 
 are an Algoi",iuian people. Gallatin styles the 
 " Mandanes" a Mlnnetarco tribe; but as has lust 
 been stated, the survivors of the Mandan nation, 
 a people that formerly inliabitcd many villages 
 (uc(^ording to Dr. W'nshington Matthews and 
 others) belong to a distinct group of the Siouan 
 Family, and the Hidatsa (inciudhu'' tlio Amakhami 
 or "Annahawas" of Gallatin) an. I the Absaroka, 
 Upsaroka or Crows constitute the sixth group of 
 that family. The "Quappas or Arkansas of 
 Gallatin are tlie Kwapas or Qiiapaws of recent 
 times. The Osages call themselves, not " Wau- 
 sasho," but Wa-sha-she. 
 
 Takilman Family. — "The Takilma formerly 
 dwelt in villages along upper Hogue Hiver, 
 Oregon, all the latter, with one exception, being 
 on the south side, from Illinois Hiver on the 
 soutliwcst, to Deep Itock, which was nearer the 
 head of the stream. They arc now included 
 among the 'Hogue River Indians,' and tliev 
 reside on tlio Silctz Keservatioii, Tillamoofe 
 County, Oregon, where Dorscy found them in 
 1884." — Powell, Seventh Annual liept.. Bureau of 
 Ethnology, p. 121. — They call themselves, Ta-kel- 
 raa. — Dorsey. — Dorsey had their chief make a 
 map showing the locations of all their viUagcB. 
 
 XX 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 BIBLIOGEAPITY. 
 
 The Betteu LiTEBATunE of Histouy in thi: Enolihh Laxuuaue on Subjects 
 
 Named Below. 
 
 In the /ollnwinti Cln—ififd Lint, the date nf thx flrtt anpeanincv nf rnrli oim nmimi) lln- iMer teitrkn U given In 
 jHirpii(/i<'»r», if iiHirrtalned. The perioil covered oy thi' 
 
 ii atated III bracket$, 
 
 wi'ficii iiieniMira. iiiiii other wurLi limited in time. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 (DISCOVERY.— EXPLORATION.- SETTLEMENT. AUCILEOLOOY.- ETHNOLOGY.) 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 BANCROFT, GEOROE. Hlntory of the United States of 
 Am., pt. 1. tAiithor'8 last revision.) New York; 
 D. Appleton & Co. lt»«-6. v. 
 
 BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE. Hlhtory of the I'oclflc 
 mates of N. Am.: Central Am., v. WJ; Mexico, v. 
 1-i!. San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Co. imi-ii. 
 
 BANVARD, Kev. JOSEPH. Novelties of the now world. 
 Boston: Oould & Lincoln. 1851. 
 
 BELKNAP, JEREMY. Ami-ricnn l)loKrapliy,v.l. (1794-8.) 
 New York: Ilorper & Bros. 3 v. 
 
 BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. Notes of Americana. 
 CBuUetlns, v. S, pp. aitt-aOO.) 
 
 BROWNELL, HENRY. North and South America Illus- 
 tratuil, from Its first tllsoovery. Hartford: Hurl- 
 but, Kellogg A Co. IHOO. 8v. 
 
 BRYANT, WM. CULLEN, oiid SIDNEY H. OaY. Popu- 
 larhlstoryof theU. S.,v. 1. New York; Scrlbner, 
 Armstrong & Co. 1870-<». 4 v. 
 
 BUMP, C. W. nibliographles of America. Baltimore. 
 189S. (.lohiiH Hopkins University studies In histori- 
 cal and political science, 10th series, nos. lU-U, 
 app.) 
 
 CARVER, ELVIRA, and MARA L. PRATT. Our father- 
 land. [Juvenile.] Boston: Educational Pub. Co. 
 IWK). V. 1-. 
 
 FI8KE, JOHN. The discovery of America: with some 
 account of ancient Am. and the Spanish conquest. 
 Boston; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 18ie, a v. 
 
 GORDON, THOMAS F. History of Am., v. I-S; con- 
 taining the history of the Spanish discoveries 
 jirior to l.'WU. Philadelphia. 1 ?ai. a v. 
 
 HAKLUYT, RICHARD, c«'.'. Divers vovages touching 
 the discovery of /, merica and the Islands adja- 
 cent (l.Vt!); with notes by John W. Jones. Lon- 
 don: Httkluyt Soc. 1850. 
 
 HAKRI8SE, HENRY. The discovery of N. Am.: a criti- 
 cal, documentary, and historic Investigation. 
 London; H. Stevens & Son. 181W. 
 
 HIGGINSON, THOS. WENTWORTH. A book of Ameri- 
 can explorers. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1877. 
 Larger history of the U. 8. of Am., ch. 1-5. New 
 York: Harper & Bros. 188(1. 
 
 HOLMES, .\BIEL. The annals of Am.. 1493-1820 (180,'S); 
 ad ed. Cambridge; Hilliard & Brown. 1829. 2 v. 
 
 HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER voN. Cosmos (1845-58), 
 trans, by E. C. Ott<), pt. S, sect. (v. S). London; 
 
 H. Bohn. 1847-58. 6 v. 
 
 Bros. 1850-. 5 v. 
 
 New Y^ork; Harper & 
 
 KERR, ROBERT, ed. fieneral history and collection of 
 voyages and travels (18ll-18i4). v. 1-0. Edln- 
 hurgh; W. Blackwood. 18 v. 
 KINGSLEY, CHAULKS. The flrat discovery of Am. 
 (I>x;t'8 delivered In Am. In lKr4. Uiiidon; Long- 
 mans, Oreen & Co. 18715. Pldludelphia; Porter 
 & Coates. 1H75.) 
 LODGE, H.C. Gravler's DC)Couvert«del".\.m6rlque. CN. 
 
 Am. Kev., 119: 100. 1874.) 
 .MACOREOOR. JOHN. Progress In America. Ix)ndon: 
 
 Whittaker & Co. 1847. 2 v. 
 MACKENZIE, ROBERT. America; a hUtory. Ixindon: 
 
 Nelson & Sons. 1882. 
 MAVOR, WM. Historical account of the most celebrated 
 
 voyages, v. 1 and 17. Ijoiidon: 1790-7. 20 v. 
 PALFREY, .1 UN O. History of New England, v. 1, ch. 
 
 2. li ,n: Little, Brown & Co. 1858-90. 
 PAY^NE, EDWARD JOHN. History of the new world 
 called America. (Jxfurd: Clarendon I'ress. 1892-. 
 v. 1-. NewYork: MacmllloniS: Co. 1892-. v. 1-. 
 PINKERTON, JOHN, cd. General collection of the best 
 and most Inttirestlng voyages and travels, v. 14. 
 Liomlon; Longman. 1808-14. 17 v. 
 ROBERTSON, W1LLIA5I. History of America (1777-98). 
 (Works, V. f>-H. Oxford: Tuiboys & Wheeler. 
 182.V) 
 SCAIFE, WALTER B. .America, its geogranhionl his- 
 tory, 1492-1892. (Johns Hopkins University studies 
 In historical and political science, extra v. i;i.) 
 Baltimore. I8U2. 
 SNOWDEN, RICH.VRD. History of North and South 
 Am., from Its discovery to the death of Gen. 
 Washington. (1800.) Philadelphia; B. Warner. 
 8 v. 
 STEVENS, HI.'NRY. Historical and geographical notes 
 on the earliest discoveries In Am., 14.W-1530. I.011- 
 don; Henry Stevens. 1809. New Haven: Ameri- 
 can Journal of Science. 1809. 
 WILLSON, MARCIUS. American history. New York: 
 
 Mark H. Newman &. Co. 1847. 
 WINSOR, JUSTIN. Ilarrisse's Discovery of N. Am. 
 (Nation, 55; 244, 2(M.i 
 ed. Narrative and critical history of Am. Boston: 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1880. 8 v. 
 Y^ATES, JOHN V. N., and MOULTON, JOS. W. History 
 of the state of New York, v. 1, pt. 1. New York: 
 A. T. Goodrich. lt$M-fl. 2 v. 
 
 PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. 
 
 ANDERSON, RASMUS B. America not discovered by 
 
 Columbus. Chicago; S. C. Griggs & Co. 1874. 
 BEAMISH, NORTH LUDLOW. The discovery of Am. bv 
 
 the Northmen In the 10th century. London: T. & 
 
 W. Boone. 1841. 
 BOWEN, Rev. BENJ. F. America discovered by the 
 
 Welsh In 1170, A. D. Philadelphia: J. B. Uppln- 
 
 COttiCo. 1876. 
 
 DALL, W, H. Alleged early Chinese voyages to Am. 
 (Science, 8; 402. 1880.) 
 
 DAVIS, ASAHEL. Discovery of Am. by the Northmen. 
 Rochester; D. Hoyt. 1839. 
 
 DE COSTA, Rev. BENJ. FRANKLIN, ed. The pre- 
 Ctolumbian discovery of Am. by the Northmen, 
 Illustrated by translations from the Icelandic 
 sagas. Albany: Joel Munsell. 1868. 
 
 XXI 
 
APPKNDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX P. 
 
 PIMAK, J. I,. De fVmla'it rm.Coliim»il«n (1l««i»«ry of 
 
 Am. (N. Am. Kcv ,«lini: '4IA. miU.) 
 lUHCOVKUY ItF AMKItICA IIY TIIK NDKTIIMKN. 
 
 rAllunll)' .Miinllilv. M: 'JKU. 1HH4 ) 
 im noiH, il H. Iilil thi< N.irm. (lli«Mv,.r Am.r (Maff. of 
 
 Am. lllHlc.iy, SJT: IKlll. IHW, ) 
 EI.I.IOTT, CIIAItl.KS W. Till" Sfw KnKlnnd liWory, <'h. 
 
 I. .Ni'W Yrirk; I'liaii. HcrlliniT. 1W7. a v. 
 KVKUr.TT. Kr>\VAUI). Dlwov.TV ..f Am. l>y tli« Ni.rtli- 
 
 miMi. (N. Am. I<«v., 'Ifl: nil. IHHH.) 
 FISKK, JOHN. How AmiTli'ik cvimo lo b« illacovxred. 
 
 (llai'|»'r'H MaK.,M: III. INMI.) 
 HICKHNHON. TltoMAH W. Tlii- vlxit of the Vlklnsa. 
 
 (lliii|MT» Mii«.. (W: M5. INW,) 
 HOUHFIIUD, KUKN NOIITON. Tlii. prol.Iom <if tli.< 
 
 Noiiliiiic-ii. ('iiiiil>rlilK<': J. WIIhoii \ Hon. IHM). 
 LKdENDHiirni.K AM. ((Dnililll Mft({., '.il: Wi. IHT:).) 
 LELASK. <IIAIU.F.S (lODKUKY. Tin- nntc-Nnrmi iIIm- 
 
 covcnTHiir Am. (ContlMi-ntnl Monlhly, I: HMI.htll. 
 
 m» I 
 FumkiiK: IT llu' ill»<'iivi'ry <>f Am. Iiy Clilm'iKi Uml- 
 
 (IIiIhI lirli'HiM In Hill Mil ciMitiiry. uimlin: Trllli- 
 
 ncr. IHT.1. Now York: .1. \V. Hmilnn. IKW. 
 M*cLKAN, .1. r. Pn'Coliiiiililiui illiMMvery of Am. 
 
 (AiiiL-i'lt-un Autl(|iiarlun, 14. IHtu ) 
 MAJOH, HICIIAKI) HFNHY. Tlii- llfn of prlncn Ilnnry 
 
 of rorliitral. Hiiniiiiiii'il llii' imvlgntor, ami ItH ni- 
 
 HiillN. I/iniloii: A. AhIii'I',^ I'o. INIIH. 
 On tliti voviiKi'M of the Vi'iu'llan lirothnra Zono. 
 
 (MiiHii. Illsi. Soi'. I'nuwdlMKH, IHT:) T.V) 
 7V«iM. (irifi t'tl. VnyaK''** of tlin Vt'm*tlaii hrotlion*. 
 
 NIcoIA anil Antonio /cno, to tlio iiortlii*rii hpoh, In 
 
 till' I'ltli I'rntiiry. I.,iiii(lon: llakliiyt S<h'. IKT:). 
 ONDEUDONK, .1. I.. Pn-Colimililan clIwovorli'H of Am. 
 
 (Natliiiial giinrt. Iti'v., :i.<l: 1. (.HTII.) 
 I'lLON, M. U. VIsilHof EiimiK'ans to Am In tlm iOtli ami 
 
 nth L'i'ntiirli'H. (Piitli'r'H Am. Monthly, 5: lK).i. 
 
 IK75.) 
 RANKIN(i,.I<)IIN. lIlHtorleal rcwarclirHontliiu-oniiiWHt 
 
 of IVni, Moxhro, t'tc, In thii l.1tli rrntiiry, by tin* 
 
 ModkoIh. London: Longman. ]K.'r. 
 
 REFVEH, ARTIHm MIDDt.ETON Thnflmllnnof WIno 
 land tliii Kooil. l.omlon: lli-nry Frowili-. IMWi 
 
 KOI'FX, A. K. Fjii'ly i-xploratlimii of Am., n-al and Ini 
 AKlnary. (KnKliHh Illntorlcal Ki>v.. »: ;X. 1(447) 
 
 HllonT. JOHN T. ClaliiM to thn dlHoovcry of Am. 
 (dalazy, «): mill. IMT.t.) 
 
 HI.dVFTEIl, Kd'. EnMITNI) F. TIip dlwoviTV of .Mil. hy 
 thn Nortlimtin, IIKV 101.%; n dlHOoiinMnicllv('ii*d Imi- 
 forv lh(i Now HampHhhii HlHtorlral Hinli'ty, Apr. 
 M. IHNN. 
 ril. VoyoKi'ti of tliii NorlhmiMi to Am.; InolndlnK 
 ••xtrai'ln from thr li'i'lanilli! lUtKaH In nn Fiik. 
 Iraiinlatlon hy N. I.. Il<>aiiili<li. opinion of I'rof. 
 Until, i-ti'. Hiwton: I'rlnri' Soc. mr". 
 
 SMITH, JOHHl'A TOI'I.MIN. Tim dlm-ovpry of Am. hy 
 tliii Northiiii'ii In tlio loth ri'iittiry: coniprlHlntf 
 traiiKlalloiiK <>f all tlin mont liii|>ortniii orlKliial 
 narrativi'H ilWHI). ltd i-d. l/mdoii: Win. H. Orr 
 
 * Co. mw. 
 
 HOIJTHEY. ItOIlEHT. Mndm? nH0.11. Umdon: I^ong- 
 iimiiM. Ikmton: HoiiKhton, .MllHln & Co. 
 
 HTEPHENH, THOH. Mmlm'; an i-wtay on the diacov- 
 ery of Am. hy Miid(H> np Owen (Iwyni'ild In the 
 IDth cimtury. Iximlon: IxinKiiiunii, (Ini-ii & Co. 
 
 iwn. 
 
 8TOIIM, (IJSTAV. Ht idli'H on thn Vinpland voynRHi. 
 
 CoiH'iiliaKi'ii: Thii'li'. IHNU. 
 VININd, EDWAIin r. An InKlorloiw ColiimhiiH; or, I'vl- 
 
 di-n'o that llwiil Shan ami a party of Miiddhliit 
 
 iiionkH from Art^haiiiHlan dlHirovrri'd Anifrlcii In 
 
 tliK .Ith t'l'iitiiry. Ni'W York: I>. Appli'loii .t Co. 
 
 I(«0. 
 VOYAflE8 TO VINLAND. THE; from tho aasa of Erlo 
 
 thori-d. IloHtim: I). C. Heath & Co, (Uld Mouth 
 
 iHalli'tH. KtMiiiral Ki-rli'it, No. .41.) 
 
 WATHON, I'AITI, II. nililloxraphy of tim pr«(^oliimhlnn 
 ' ■ Mbr ' ■ ■■ — 
 
 IHMl.) 
 
 lilxcovi'rIi'H of Am. ( Library Journal, II: tl7. 
 
 WINHOR, JUSTIN. Amerli;a prt'flKiin'd; an nddnws at 
 llurvaiil, Oct. iil, IHW, CambrldKU. 1HU3. 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 APAM8, CHARLFi* KENDALL. Christopher Columhiis, 
 hlH life anil work. (" Makers of Ameriea."; 
 New York: Dexld. Menil .t Co. mrj. 
 Some recent dlKOoverleHOoneernlnK ColumbuK. (Mag, 
 of Am. History, ar: HI". IHUa.J 
 
 ADAM9, HEUnERT R., and HENRY WOf>I). CohmibUH 
 and hlx discovery of America. (Johns Hopkins 
 University stu<lleH in historical and political 
 nclcnce, 10th series, Noa. 10-11.) Ualtliiiore, Oct.— 
 Nov., IH«i!. 
 
 BLIND, K. Tlio forcninncrs of Cohimbiis. (New Rev., 
 7: ;M0. LlvliiK Age, UW: :Vr<r. IHW.) 
 
 CASTELAR, EMILIO. Christopher Columbus. (Century, 
 aa: 1S3-1)S1. IW)-'.) 
 
 COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER. Journal, MOaJ); and 
 doc"s relatlni; to the voyoKes of John (and Sebas- 
 tian! Cal«>t and (laspar Corto Real; trans, by C. 
 R. ^larkham. Iy.>n(lou: HakluylSoc. lHt):i. 
 The letter on Hie discovery of America; a facsimile 
 of tho pictorial e<l.,witha new and literal trans. 
 I'rlnte<I by the Ixmox Library. New York. mri. 
 Lett<'r to flabriel Sanchez, UWJ. Hnston: 1). C. Heath 
 & Co. (Old Soutli leatlets, general series. No. :«.) 
 Select letters, witli other original doeuitients; trans, 
 and ed. I)y R. It. Major. London: Hakluyt Soc. 
 1W7. 
 Writings descriptive of the discovery and occupation 
 of the new world; e<l. i)y Paul Leicester Ford. 
 New York: C. L. Webster & Co. lSfl2 
 
 COLUMBUS, FERDINAND. Tlie discovery of America; 
 from the life of Columbus. Boston: D. C. Heath 
 & Co. (Old Soutli leatlets, general series, No, 29.) 
 
 ELTON. CHARLES. The career of Columbus. New 
 York: Cassell Publishing Co. 180S. 
 
 GOODRICH, AARON. History of the character and 
 achievements of tiie so-called Christopher Colum- 
 bus, New York; D. Appleton & Co. IW4. 
 
 HKLl'S, .Sir ARTHUR, fDoMI P. Thomas. Llfeof Colnm- 
 hiis. 1/iiiilon: Uell A: |)alily. IHAO. 
 
 IRVIN(j1, WAHHIN'ITON. Life anil voyages of Chrlsto- 
 iiher Coluiiitu.silNaHi; to which are added those of 
 his companions (18.11). New York: II. P. Putnam. 
 .Sv. 
 
 LOIiaUFJi, ROSELLY' db. Life of Christopher Colum- 
 bus, from Spanish and Italian documents; coiiip. 
 from tho Fr. by J. J, Barry, Boston: P. Dona- 
 hoe. IHTO. 
 
 MACKIE, CIIAS. PAITL 'I'he last voyages of the Ad- 
 miral of tile Ocean Sea, as related by himself and 
 his companions. Chicago: A. C. McClurg .*t Co. 
 
 MACKINTOSH, J. The discovery of America by Colum- 
 bus and the origin of tho N. Am. Iiidlans. Ti>- 
 ronto. ISW. 
 
 .MARKHA5I, CLEMENTS R. Life of Christopher Co- 
 lumbus. Uimlon: (leo. Plilllp & Son. IRUa. 
 
 MAUKY', M. An examination of the elalnjsof Columbus. 
 (Ilarjier's Mag., «: -iiX^M. 1871.) 
 
 OBER, FREDERICK A. In the wake of Columbus; ad- 
 ventures of thespet:ial commissioner sent by the 
 World's Coiumbian Exposition to the West Indies. 
 Boston: I). I.»throp Co. 181W. 
 
 SEELY'E, ELIZABETH EUOLESTON. The story of Co- 
 lumbus; witli lntro<l. by Edward Egglestoii. New 
 York; I). Appleton & (;o. 181)3. 
 
 SPALDING, J. L. Columbus. (Catholic World, 6fi: 1. 
 1808.) 
 
 TARDUCCI. FRANCESCO. The life of CJhristopher Co- > 
 lumbus; trans, from the It. by H. F. Brownson. 
 Detroit: II. F. Brownson. 1800. 2 v. 
 
 ^VINSOR, JUSTIN. Christopher Columbus, and how he 
 received and impurt^'d the spirit of discovery. 
 Boston: Hougliton, Minilii & Co. IHUl. 
 Columbiana. (Nation, M: ai>7. 1801.) 
 
 POST-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. 
 
 ARBER, EDWARD, eil. The llrst three Englisli books on 
 America (yi511)-^15,">5 A. I).; being cliielly trans., 
 compilations, &c., by Richard Eden, from the 
 writings of Hetro Martire, Sebastian MUnster, 
 Sebastian CalMt, Bimiingliam. ISR^. 
 
 ASHER, G. M.. erf. Henry Hudson the navigator: origi- 
 nal documents in whicli his career Is recorded. 
 London: Ilakliiyi. Soc. 1860. 
 
 RIDDLE. RICHARD. Jlemoir of Sebastian Cabot. Phila^ 
 
 delphla: Corey & Leo. 1831. 
 BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. Amcrlco in the lOlh cen- 
 tury (biljliogl note in Bulletins, v. 8. pp. 188-141). 
 Early English explorations in America (bibllog'l note 
 
 in Bulletins, v. 8, pp. S41-344). 
 Early explorations in America (bibliog'l note In Bulle- 
 tins, V. 3, pp. 103-106). 
 
 XXll 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX F 
 
 BREVOORT, J ('. ViTrn»nniithi'im»lK«torIfmm rt-pnrt | 
 •if till- Am. (li>iiKra|ilil<'ul Hot-, cif N. V. for llfr:i| ' 
 
 Voyngi-HdlKiS 1(1111 1; Initw. 
 
 Mrw Yiirk IHT4. 
 CHAMPl.AIN.HAMrKI. nit. 
 
 Iiy Chiw. 1'. oilM. Ii'illwltli iiiniiolr l>y Iv K, Klaf- 
 
 liT. ItciHldii: I'rliii'i' HmUMy. imth Hs). ;t v. 
 Da VUIKH. I). I'. Kxtmi'iH fniin iln- vnt.itri'H; tr. tram n 
 
 iMili'li Ilia. In Ihi' liillnili'liililn l.ilimry, liy lir. II 
 
 TriKiHi. (Cull Kiif ilii- N. V. Ill«t. HiH\, 1*1 wrli-H, 
 
 V. I. Ni'w Yiirk. IK4I.) 
 VoyaitcH friiiii llollniul In Am., I(VW IIVI-I; Ir. liy II. ('. 
 
 Miii'iiliv. (('iiII'h iir the N. Y. lllat. H4k.-., M wrivii, 
 
 r. Jt Ni'w Viirk. 1HR7. ( 
 FI8KE, JOHN. Tlir roiimmv nf IlicSpnnliili ami Fri-nuli 
 
 fX|iliin-rH. (Iliii'in in MuK.,IVt: 4.18. imtt,., 
 FOItcr,, M. K. Kdiiii' oIisitviiIIiiiih im tlm Ii'IIith of 
 
 AiiM-rl^i> Vt>H|iiii*rl (thill;, ('iiii-lnii.ill; liiibt, 
 
 Cliirki! * Cci. IHW. 
 HAKLUYT, RICIIAIlli. f.(. Tlic prlnolpnl niivlKUlioim, 
 
 vov(iK*'H. (riinii|iifHuiul illiHNiVfrlfHof Ihi* KtiKllHh 
 
 nntlnii iLVtUi: iil. hy h'.. liolilHinlil. v. 1',' 1.1. Kdlii- 
 
 Imi'Kli: K. & II. (IoIiIhiiiIiI. Iknu mi. 
 HKKIINSON, TIIOMAH W. Tlic iild KiirIIhIi nciiiiii'ii. 
 
 (lliir|MTn Mii|{.,IW: aiT. IHKl ) 
 The H|mnl«li iIIwuvitith. (IlurpiT'H Man., Ill: 7-11. 
 
 HUDSON, IIKNRV. Wvith voyniji'H anJ nortlHTii illii- 
 
 oot'tTifH. ( l^iirt'liOH hin pHifrlmcri, V. H, ('nll'M of 
 
 tlm N. Y, IllHl. Hoc, V. 1. .Sew York. IHll.) 
 JUET, RODEUT. Kjttmct frimilhi- loiirnulof IlicvnyaKO 
 
 of tli« llnlfMooii, IIiMiry IhidMoii, iiinKliT, IIKW. 
 
 (C'ollH of thi! N. V. lllKt. Hoc, M wrleM, v. 1. 
 
 New York. IWl.) 
 KOHL, .1. (I. lIlHtory of Iho illdcovery of MoIiik: with 
 
 uii 111)11. on tht* voynKt'Hof tho C'niHitH. (roH'Hof 
 
 lliit Miiiiii' Hint. t4oc, tM M'rlcH, %' 1. rortlnml: 
 
 IWHI,) 
 LESTER, ('. EDWARDS, ni.'l A. K( )STEH, IJfo anil voy- 
 
 aK**H of Aiiierlcim \'..'hpuoluH. Ni^w York: HaktT 
 
 & SlmIIiiut. 1N4(I. 
 
 NtCHOLt>«, .1. E. R<-markahl<- lir-. ailvi'iiliir< nn<l dla- 
 
 rovi'rlfn of KpImhIIuii CuImiI. I.0111I011: H^iinimon 
 
 l/iM', H<in ,it Mamlon. IhoU. 
 I'ARKMAN, KKANCIS I'lon.i'ra of Kraiiw In III.- Ni'W 
 
 World. ll<Mlon: l.llllf. Ilrouii.v Co. IH«.\ 
 I'AYNE. KliWAI<|i,l.\MKH. VoyaK''" oftlii- KII/alH-llian 
 
 acniix'ii to ,\iiii'rli-ii: I'l orl»(liial luirrullvi-H from 
 
 till- I'olli'i'llon of lliikliiyl. London: I'Iioh. do la 
 
 Uno *('■!. IWW, 
 RKAt>,.l(illN MKItKIHTII. ./>'. lllxlorlinl lininlry i-on- 
 
 I'l'inliiKlli'iiry ilndwin. Alliany: .1. Miiiwll. IWKI. 
 HANTAUKM. roii'oiiiif. lli'iK-airlu-n ri'B|HTllii)f AinerU'im 
 
 Vt'HiMK-liiHniMl IiIh ' oviih'cH (IH.|'j); irniiH. liy K. V. 
 
 Clilfdi'. lloKlon: C.(V I.illlcV. .Ilia. Ilronn. IKVI. 
 STANLEY ('K AI.DKIil.KY. I.in;l. The Ural voyiik-o 
 
 round tho world, liy >liik{i'llnn: truiia. from tlit« 
 
 aiT'ta of I'iKafi-lla and oiliir ronti-niiairary 
 
 writi'ra; wlili doi'mni'iila, iioira, I'tf. Ijiiidon: 
 
 Hakliiyt Km-. IH7I. 
 TARPUCCI, FItANCESCd. ,|i,lin and Hi'lmallnn C.itiot, 
 
 hloK. notli'M, Willi iliHMimi'nlH; (rana. from i)ii< It. 
 
 liy lli'nry K. Hrovvnaoii. Hi'trolt: II. 1'. llrowii- 
 
 son. imn. 
 TOWLE. (lEOKOK M. Maici'llan. Iloaton: l^ee & Bhitp- 
 
 ard. IHNU. 
 VERItA/ANO, .lOlIN nr.. Tin- niatlonof. iCoiraof the 
 
 N Y', Iliat. Hoc, V. 1. Nrw York. IMIl.i 
 Tlio aanit': a new Iranalatlon, liy >l. H- CofHwell, 
 
 (Coiraof til" N. Y. Illat. Hia'., '.'(I wrli-a, v. 1. Xt'vr 
 
 York. IMI.i 
 Voyui^f, lfW4. (I )ld Hoiuli li>all*'ta, j,'t*in*ral acrli'a, No. 
 
 17.1 Itoaton: I>. C. lli'alli ,S: Co. 
 VESrUCCI, AMEIIIOO. Airount of lila (list voyntfc; 
 
 Iftti'rto Iter HialiMlnl. (did Hoiilli IrallHa, k<'"- 
 
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 The firat four voytiKi'a; rcprinti'd In faraliullo and 
 
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 VOVAOESOF THE C.\II(>TS, THE. I'roiii Hakliiyf* 
 
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 SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION. 
 
 ANDAGOY'A, I'AKCUAL inc. Narratlvo of tlii' prowwd- 
 
 InKaof I'l'drarlaa Duvlla |IM4 l.MI| ; liana, and i-d. 
 
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 BANDEIJEH, ADtH.l'' F. A. Ulacovcry of New Mexico 
 
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 BENZONI. UIUOLAMO. lllatory of tlio new world, 
 
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 BLACKMAR. FRANK W. Kpanlali Inatitiiliona of tbo 
 
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 Unlvfralty atudk'H in liiat. and i)ol. aeienct'. Extra 
 
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 CORTEZ, IIEUNANDO. Despatches odiIresaiHl to the 
 
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 a true and full account of the diacovcry and con- 
 
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 Philmlclphia: Jas. Challen 4 Son. 1859. 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIZATION. 
 
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 XXIV 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 ABBOTT, CHAfl. C. Primitive Industry, or Illustrations 
 of the handiwork, in stents l.oni' and clay, of tlio 
 native races of the northern Atltnitie seaboard of 
 Am. Salem: a. A. Dates. 18«1. 
 Tracesof an Am. autoctbon. (American Naturalist, 
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 AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN AND ORIENTAL JOUR- 
 NAL. Chicago. 1K78-. 
 
 AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY. Proceediugg. 
 Beaton. 
 
 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCH.T.OLOOY. Baltimore. 
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 ANTIIROPOLOOICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINOTOI'. 
 Proceedings (1870-). (Smithsonian miscellaneous 
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 ATWATER, CALEB. Description of the antiquities dis- 
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 BACON, A. T. Ruins of the Colorado valley. (Lippin- 
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 BAILEY, Hev. JACOB. Observations and conjectures on 
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 BALDWIN, JOHN O. Ancient America. New York: 
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 mm. 
 
 BANDELIER, ADOLF F. A hlstor-cal Introduction to 
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 Mexico. Report on the ruins of the Pueblo of 
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 Report of an archaeological tour In Mexico, la 1881. 
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 BARBER. EDWIN A. Ancient pueblos, Rio San Juan. 
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 Pueblo pottery. (Am. Naturalist, l."i; 4.V}. 1881.) 
 Hock inscriptions of the "ancient pueblos." (Am. 
 Naturalist, 10: 716. 1(!76.) 
 
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 XXV 
 
 ^f 
 
API'KNDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
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APPENDIX F. 
 
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 xxvu 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
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 Tho K'ntllu system of the Siletz tribes. 
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 EJil-'-S, M. Indians of Puftet Sound. (American Anti- 
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 XXVUl 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
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 XXIX 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 APPENDIX P. 
 
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 XXX 
 
APPENDIX P. 
 
 APPENDIX P. 
 
 19TH CENTURY: EARLY AND GENERAL, 
 
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 XXXI 
 
APPENDIX P. 
 
 APPENDIX P. 
 
 LOWE, rflARLKS. Prlncn HInmarck; an lilittorlcal btog. 
 
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 AUSTRIA: nii'est que c'est PAuatrle ? (Edinburgh Rev., 
 
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 XXXII